: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_S-Class_(W222\",\n \"Modern Family Modern Familyis an American televisionsitcomcreated byChristopher LloydandSteven Levitan. It aired onABCfrom September 23, 2009 to April 8, 2020 for 11 seasons and 250 episodes.The series follows the lives of three diverse family set-ups living in suburbanLos Angeles, who are interrelated through their patriarch, Jay Pritchett. Lloyd and Levitan conceived the series while sharing stories of their own \\\"modern families.\\\"Modern Familyemploys anensemble castand is presented in a mockumentary style, with the characters frequentlyspeaking directly to the camerain confessional interview segments. Modern Familywas highly acclaimed by critics throughout its first few seasons. Its critical reception became more mixed as it progressed. The final season received positive reviews, and thefinale episodehad 7.37 million first-run viewers.The retrospective documentary that aired before the final episode had 6.72 million first-run viewers. The series won a total of 22 Emmy Awards, including fiveEmmy Awards for Outstanding Comedy Series, fourEmmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series(twice each forEric StonestreetandTy Burrell), and twoEmmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series(both forJulie Bowen). It also won theGolden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedyin 2011. Thebroadcast syndicationrights to the series were sold toNBCUniversal'sUSA Network, the stations ofFox Television Stations, and various other local stations in other markets for a fall 2013 premiere. The success of the series led to it being the 10th-highest revenue-generating show for 2012, earning $2.13 million an episode. Premise Modern Familyrevolves around three different types of families (nuclear,blended, andsame-sex) living in suburban Los Angeles, who are interrelated through wealthy businessman Jay Pritchett and his two adult children, Claire and Mitchell. Jay remarried a much younger woman, Gloria Delgado (née Ramirez), a passionateColombian immigrantwith whom he has a young son, Fulgencio “Joe” Joseph (born in themiddle of the fourth season), and a stepson from Gloria's previous marriage,Manuel \\\"Manny\\\" Delgado. Jay and Gloria's respective former spouses, DeDe and Javier, both also make occasional appearances in the show. Claire was a homemaker, though returned to the business world in the fifth season, eventually becoming the chief executive of her father's business, Pritchett's Closets and Blinds. She is married to Phil Dunphy, a realtor and a self-professed \\\"cool dad\\\", who is also an amateur magician and real-estate lecturer at community college. They have three children: Haley, a stereotypically ditzy teenaged girl;Alex, an intelligent and nerdy middle child;and Luke, the offbeat only son.Haley's on-and-off boyfriend, Dylan, is a permanent fixture on the show, with the two eventually marrying and having two children, Poppy and George. Mitchell is a lawyer who is in a same-sex relationship withCameron Tucker, a former music teacher who occasionally works as a substitute. The two have adopted a baby daughter, Lily, ofVietnamese origin, and are later on legally married. At the end of the show, they adopt another child, Rexford. As the show's name suggests, it depicts a modern-day extended family; many episodes are comically based on situations that many families encounter in real life. Cast and characters Main characters Family tree The characters in green have regular roles on the show. Dotted lines indicate a parental relationship through adoption or marriage, and dashed lines indicate a divorce between characters. † indicates a deceased character. The series has also had many recurring characters.Fred Willardguest starred as Phil's father Frank; he was nominated forOutstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesat the62nd Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost toNeil Patrick Harris's performance onGlee.Willard also received a posthumous nomination in the same category at the72nd Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2020.Shelley Longtoo guest starred occasionally as DeDe Pritchett, Jay's ex-wife and Claire and Mitchell's biological mother. Nathan Laneappeared as Cameron and Mitchell's flamboyant friend Pepper Saltzman; he was nominated three times for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series.Adam DeVineappeared as Andy Bailey, Jay and Gloria's \\\"manny\\\" (malenanny), Phil's assistant and Haley's ex-boyfriend.Elizabeth Banksappeared as Mitch and Cam's fun-loving friend Sal; she was nominated forOutstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Seriesat the67th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2015.Nathan Fillionalso makes an appearance as Rainer Shine, a weather forecaster, and later Haley's boyfriend. Development and production Initial development As creators Christopher Lloyd and Steven Levitan retold stories about their families, they realized that the stories could be the basis for a show. They started working on the idea of a family being observed in a mockumentary-style show.They later decided that it could be a show about three families and their experiences.It was originally calledMy American Family,and the camera crew was originally supposed to have been run by a fictitious Dutch filmmaker named Geert Floortje, who had lived as a teenaged exchange student with the Pritchetts and had developed a crush on Claire (while Mitchell had developed a crush on him). The producers later felt that this component was unnecessary, and it was scrapped. Lloyd preferred to look at the show as \\\"a family show done documentary-style\\\". Lloyd and Levitan pitched the series toCBS,NBC, and ABC (they did not pitch it toFoxbecause of issues they had with the network over a previous comedy series,Back to You, that Lloyd and Levitan also created and produced). CBS, which was not ready to make a big commitment to the single-camera style of filming, rejected the series. NBC, already broadcastingThe OfficeandParks and Recreationat the time, decided against taking on a third mockumentary-style show. ABC accepted the pitch. Thepilotepisode tested positively withfocus groups, resulting in the network ordering 13 episodes and adding it to the2009–10 fall lineupdays ahead of ABC's official schedule announcement.The series was given a full-season pickup in October 2009. Filming Principal photographytook place in Los Angeles.Many of the exteriors used are on the city'sWestside. The Dunphys' house is in theCheviot Hillsneighborhood. As of 2014,Palisades Charter High Schoolis used for the exteriors of Luke and Manny's school. Lloyd and Levitan, whose credits both includeFrasier,Wings, andJust Shoot Me!, are executive producers of the series, serving asshowrunnerandhead writerunder their Lloyd-Levitan Productions label in affiliation with20th Century Fox Television.The other original producers on the writing team were Paul Corrigan,Sameer Gardezi,Joe Lawson,Dan O'Shannon, Brad Walsh, Caroline Williams, Bill Wrubel, Danny Zuker, and Jeff Morton. Starting with the second season, Levitan and Lloyd ran the show, not as a team, but separately, with each showrunner supervising half the episodes. \\\"Chris and I are both strong, opinionated people, and we very, very quickly realized it doesn't make sense to sit here and debate each other and waste time,\\\" Levitan toldThe Hollywood Reporterin 2012. \\\"We often come at it from different points of view, so we said, 'Let's just switch off who has final say.'\\\" Litigation In the first season, the adult cast was paid a range of roughly $30,000 to $90,000 per episode.As a result of the show's success, the cast attempted to renegotiate their contracts in the summer of 2012 to obtain higher per-episode fees, but talks broke down to the point that the fourth season's firsttable readhad to be postponed. Five of the cast members (Ty Burrell,Julie Bowen,Jesse Tyler Ferguson,Eric StonestreetandSofía Vergara) retained theQuinn Emanuellaw firm and sued 20th Century Fox Television inLos Angeles County Superior Courton July 24, 2012.While not part of the lawsuit,Ed O'Neilljoined his fellow castmates in seeking raises for each to about $200,000 per episode; O'Neill had already been earning more money per episode than the other five. The lawsuit invoked the \\\"seven-year rule\\\" in California Labor Code Section 2855 (theDe Havilland Law) and requested adeclarationthat their contracts were void because they were in violation of that rule. By October 25, 2012, the conflict had been in final talks for a settlement, with plaintiffs planning thereafter to file a dismissal (which they ultimately did on November 19, 2012).The five adult cast members' salaries were increased from $55,000–$65,000 per episode to $150,000–$175,000, with increases every season, plus a percentage of residual profits.O'Neill had already been earning $200,000 an episode, so his salary was lowered to parity with his co-stars, but with a larger percentage of the back-end profits.By that August, four of the five child stars negotiated increases from $15,000–$25,000 to $70,000 per episode,with an additional $10,000 per season raise. Episodes Themes InThe New York Times,Bruce Feilercalled attention to how the show depicts the increasing way communications technology shapes the way people perceive others, even family members. \\\" is surely the first family comedy that incorporates its ownhashtagof simultaneous self-analysis directly into the storyline,\\\" he writes. \\\"Mark Zuckerbergmay be a greater influence onModern FamilythanNorman Lear.\\\" The show's writers and actors agree. \\\"We used to talk about how cellphones killed the sitcom because no one ever goes to anyone's house anymore\\\" for routine information,Abraham Higginbothamtold Feiler. \\\"We embrace technology so it's part of the story.\\\" Ty Burrell draws onFran Lebowitz's observation that there is no institution other than media.\\\"I had this little flash of Phil—and me—that we are parsing our personality together externally from how people perceive us.\\\" James Parker ofThe Atlanticcommented, \\\"How does one 'parent'? Who does what, which 'role'? Is Dad sufficiently dad-like and Mom enough of a mom?\\\" In a 2014 article inSlate, the site's podcast executive producer, Andy Bowers, a resident of Los Angeles' Westside, where the show films most of its exteriors, praised the series for its realistic depiction of life in that part of the city. Release Broadcast Modern Familywas picked up for syndication byUSA Networkfor $1.5 million per episode, along with being offered in local syndication at the same time, withFox Television Stationsthe lead station group picking up the series.It is also shown onSky ComedyandE4in theUnited Kingdom,e.tvinSouth Africa, Fox inSweden,yes ComedyinIsraelandStar WorldinIndia. The series aired onCitytvinCanadafor its first ten seasons.The network additionally obtained the syndicated strip-rights to the show when they became available. Subsequently, it moved toGlobalfor its eleventh and final season.Modern Familybegan airing onTBSsince 2023 and was picked up byNickelodeonfor itsNick at Niteblock, starting on September 10, 2024. Home media As of 2017,Modern Familyhad earned $72,226,621 from its domestic home media releases.The series was made available for streaming onHuluandPeacockin its entirety on February 3, 2021.Internationally, it was released onDisney+. Reception Ratings Since its premiere, the series has remained popular. In its first season, the show became the sixth-highest rated scripted show in America and the third-highest rated new show.Aided by winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series, the show's second season became the highest rated show on Wednesday on premiere weekand also rose 34% from the previous season among adults between the ages of 18 and 49.The show frequently ranked as television's top scripted series in adults 18–49 as well. The success of the show has been positively compared toThe Cosby Show.During the2010–2011season,Modern Familywas the highest rated scripted show in the 18–49 demographic, and the third-highest rated overall sitcom behind CBS'sThe Big Bang TheoryandTwo and a Half Men.The season also ranked first amongDVRviewers. The third-season premiere became ABC's top-rated season premiere in six years.The series' success in ratings has also led it to being credited for reviving sitcoms. In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook likesfound thatModern Family's \\\"audience pattern is the prototypical example of a city show — most popular in liberal, urban clusters in Boston, San Francisco, and Santa Barbara, California, and least popular in the more rural parts of Kentucky, Mississippi, and Arkansas\\\". Modern Familygained renewed popularity after becoming available onstreaming platforms. According to market research company Parrot Analytics, which examines consumer engagement across streaming, downloads, and social media,Modern Familyhas experienced a notable increase in interest since its debut onHuluandPeacockin 2021.For the week ending August 15, 2021,Whip Media, which tracks global TV viewership habits for nearly 1 million global users of itsTV Timeapp daily, calculated that the series placed third on its \\\"Binge Report\\\" chart, a ranking that highlights shows streamed in sessions of four or more episodes by viewers in a single day.In 2024, Parrot analytics reported thatModern Familywas among the 40 most in-demand TV shows worldwide between January 1 and August 8. While most of the top 10 shows appealed primarily to younger demographics (ages 15-31), the series attracted Millennial and Gen X viewers (32-42+).Nielsen Media Research, which records streaming viewership on U.S. television screens, estimated that the show was watched for 687 million minutes from August 12 to August 18, 2024.In October 2024, streaming analytics firm FlixPatrol, which monitors daily updated VOD charts across the globe, reported thatModern Familywas among the most viewed series on its platform, ranking second worldwide behindGrey's Anatomy. Critical response Season 1 The first season was met with critical acclaim. It scored 100%, based on 28 reviews, on review aggregator websiteRotten Tomatoes, with anaverage ratingof 8.55/10 and the critical consensus: \\\"Thanks to sharp writing and an eccentric but exceedingly likeable cast of characters,Modern Familysignals the triumphant return of the family comedy.\\\"The first season also scored 86/100, based on 27 reviews, on review aggregator websiteMetacritic, indicating \\\"universal acclaim\\\". Entertainment Weeklygave it an A−, calling it \\\"immediately recognizable as the best new sitcom of the fall.\\\"InTime's review, the show was named \\\"the funniest new family comedy of the year.\\\"It has also been compared to the 1970s seriesSoapbecause of the multiple-family aspect. Some have made comparisons toThe OfficeandParks and Recreationbecause of their mockumentary formats.BuddyTVnamed the show the second best show in 2009, saying, \\\"Every actor is fantastic, every family is interesting, and unlike many shows, there isn't a weak link.\\\"Robert Canning ofIGNgave the season an 8.9 calling it \\\"Great\\\" and saying \\\"Simply put,Modern Familywas one of the best new comedies of the season.\\\" He also praised the ensemble cast and the characters, calling them lovable.According to Metacritic, the first season was the best reviewed new broadcast television series. Modern Familydrew criticism from theLGBTcommunity for its portrayal of Cameron and Mitchell as not being physically affectionate with each other. The criticism spawned a Facebook campaign to demand that Mitchell and Cameron be allowed to kiss. In response to the controversy, producers released a statement that a season two episode would address Mitchell's discomfort withpublic displays of affection. Executive producer Levitan has said that it was unfortunate that the issue had arisen, since the show's writers had always planned on such a scene \\\"as part of the natural development of the show.\\\"The episode \\\"The Kiss\\\" eventually aired with the kiss scene in the background, which drew praise from multiple critics. Season 2 The show's second season received mostly positive reviews from critics. Season two has a rating of 88% onRotten Tomatoesbased on 16 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 8.11/10 and the consensus: \\\"Modern Family's sophomore season sings with ingenious sitcom structure and an ensemble in perfect comedic harmony – even if the tunes are a little familiar\\\".Robert Bianco ofUSA Todaygave the second season four out of four stars, saying \\\"Not sinceFrasierhas a sitcom offered such an ideal blend of heart and smarts, or proven itself so effortlessly adept at so many comic variations, from subtle wordplay to big-laugh slapstick to everything in between.\\\"In a later review Bianco stated \\\"as good as it was in its first year, is even better in its second\\\", positively comparing the characters to the characters fromThe Mary Tyler Moore Show,The Cosby Show, andFriends.During the second season,Adweeknamed the show one of the 100 Most Influential TV Shows (98th chronologically).Despite this, some critics were less favorable toward the season and described it as asophomore slump.Eric Stonestreet's acting was widely praised throughout the first season,but criticized during season two for being too contrived and \\\"over-the-top\\\";Alan Sepinwallcalled Cameron Tucker a \\\"whiny, overly-sensitive diva\\\".On the other hand, the praise for Ty Burrell's performance (as Phil Dunphy) continued. Season 3 The third season was met with critical acclaim. OnRotten Tomatoes, season three has a rating of 92% based on 13 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 8.33/10 and the consensus: \\\"Modern Familysettles into a well-oiled groove, consistently delivering inspired farce and making it look effortless.\\\"Slant Magazinereviewer Peter Swanson wrote that while the first episode was \\\"the type of wacky-location stunt that's usually reserved for the fifth or sixth season of a dying sitcom,\\\" the following episodes \\\"have been better... but they're still uneven\\\".He also criticized the writers for relying too much on \\\"stunt episodes and celebrity cameos, like David Cross\\\".He ultimately gave the season 3 out of 4 stars.James Parker ofThe Atlanticsaid, at the beginning of the third season that \\\"Modern Familyis very, very funny, almost ruthlessly so. It's a bit of a master class in pace and brevity. The writing isVorsprung durch Technik: hectically compressed but dramatically elegant, prodigal in its zingers and snorters but austere in its construction.\\\" He found it an exception to his dislike for sitcoms that do not use alaugh track.During the third season,New York TimescolumnistFrank Bruniargued that gay criticism of Cameron and Mitchell actually showed the progress gays have made toward social acceptance. \\\"A decade ago,\\\" he wrote, \\\" would have balked—and balked loudly—at how frequently Cameron in particular tips into limp-wristed, high-voiced caricature.\\\" But now, \\\"most gay people trust that the television audience knows we're a diverse tribe, not easily pigeonholed.Modern Familyendows us with a sort of comic banality. It's an odd kind of progress. But it's progress nonetheless.\\\" Season 4 The fourth season ofModern Familyreceived positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the season an approval rating of 67% based on 11 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.75/10 and the consensus: \\\"Modern Familystill has charm to burn and boasts a uniformly excellent cast, but the series' subversive edge has dulled\\\".Halfway through the season, Rachel Stein ofTelevision Without Pitywrote, \\\"much as I liked the pairings and some of the dialogue, is just another contrived episode of Modern Family we can cite when we talk later about how a different show should have won the 2013 Emmy for Best Comedy.\\\"Dalene Rovenstein ofPaste Magazinegave the season a positive review, but said a better season was possible. Season 5 The fifth season ofModern Familyalso received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, season five has a rating of 90% based on 10 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.57/10 and the consensus: \\\"Modern Familyreturns to its conventional roots with grace in a fifth season that delights in providing reliable laughs and rekindles the show's trademark warmth\\\".Reviewing the season's first eight episodes, Matthew Wolfson ofSlant Magazinewrote that the show \\\"appear to have finally arrived at the depressing and predictable low point toward which it been trending for the past two years.\\\" He also went on to say that the show had \\\"turned into a shrill pastiche of stereotypical characterizations and superficial banter lacking both feeling and wit\\\", assigning it a rating of 1.5/4 stars.Different writers forThe A.V. Clubrated, in total, a majority of the former-half episodes with a \\\"B−\\\" grade or less. One writer for the magazine, Joshua Alston, gave \\\"ClosetCon '13\\\" a \\\"C+\\\" and remarked that \\\"Modern Familybecomes a high-wire act when it separates its characters into three storylines with no overlap between them.\\\"The second half was more warmly received, with three episodes rated an \\\"A−\\\" or higher. Season 6 The show's sixth season received highly positive reviews from TV critics, with some claiming that it was an improvement over the last few seasons.This season has a rating of 100% onRotten Tomatoesbased on 7 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.67/10.Joshua Alston and Gwen IhnatThe A.V. Clubhave awarded the majority of episodes a \\\"B\\\" grade or higher – with particular praise for \\\"The Day We Almost Died\\\" and \\\"Closet? You'll Love It!\\\" – marking an improvement over the repeated \\\"C\\\" grade given throughout the previous season's former half.\\\"Connection Lost\\\" received high critical acclaim, with many praising the episode's writing, originality and \\\"success in transcending what could have been a gimicky episode\\\".In her review for \\\"Closet? You'll Love It!\\\" Gwen Ihnat ofThe A.V. Clubstated that the episode represents \\\"all the reasons why we still watch Modern Family\\\" and awarded the episode an A−.On the same site, David Kallison reviewed \\\"Grill, Interrupted\\\", saying: \\\"This season proves that sitcoms can survive on solid characters and solid jokes.\\\" Season 7 The seventh season received positive reviews from critics with many critics calling it similar to the fourth and fifth seasons. On Rotten Tomatoes, this season is rated 67% with 6 reviews and an average rating of 6.5/10.Kyle Fowle fromThe A.V. Clubhad a very mixed reaction to the season, only giving one episode an A− or higher.Fowle felt the season was frustrating, believing the season would be defined \\\"by its lack of character progress and overstuffed episodes.\\\" Later seasons The series was renewed for a 9th and 10th season on May 10, 2017.Season 9 premiered on September 27, 2017, while season 10 premiered on September 26, 2018. Seasons 8 and 9 received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics, with main criticisms directed at the lack of character development, overstuffing of episodes, and too many filler episodes per season. While the show continued to be praised for its charm, witty writing, and the cast's performances, criticism grew in these seasons, particularly from reviewers such as those atThe A.V. Club. In January 2018, Steve Levitan and Christopher Lloyd announced that season 10 would most likely be the final season, during theTelevision Critics Association's winter press tour.However, in August 2018, reports indicated that ABC was in discussions to renew the series for a potential eleventh season. Season 10 received positive reviews from critics, citing the season as a significant improvement over the last two. The series was praised for its tackling of Haley's pregnancy, the humor of Mitch and Cam looking after Cal, and its dealing with change in a positive way. Episodes \\\"Torn Between Two Lovers\\\", \\\"Good Grief\\\", and \\\"A Year Of Birthdays\\\" were particularly praised. The series was renewed for an eleventh season on January 7, 2019, which was confirmed as the final season on February 5. The last season premiered on September 25, 2019, and aired its last episode on April 8, 2020. Season 11 similarly received positive reviews. The season was praised for its themes of change and ending, and the improved humor upon the last seasons, with particular attention to episodes \\\"The Prescott\\\", \\\"Legacy\\\", \\\"Spuds\\\" and \\\"Finale\\\". Accolades Modern Familyhas won 22Primetime Emmy Awardsand 6Writers Guild of America Awards. The show also later received aGLSENRespect Awardfor its portrayal of \\\"positive images and storylines that reflect a diverse America, including the depiction of a family headed by a gay couple.\\\" In 2010,Modern Familywas nominated for five Television Critics Association Awards.To reinforce the idea of an ensemble cast, the cast all submitted themselves in the Supporting Actor and Actress categories instead of Lead Actor and Actress for the62nd Primetime Emmy Awards.The series has also been put on multiple critics' lists. In 2010, the series was listed 2nd onTime's Top Ten Best Shows of 2009,2nd onBuddyTV's Top Ten Best Shows of 2009,Jason Hughes Best TV of 2009,Modern Familywas awarded aPeabody Awardin 2009.In 2012, the show won theGolden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedyand was nominated for aBritish Academy Television Award. Every season of the show was also named one of the top 10 TV seasons of the year (from 2009 to 2012) by theAmerican Film Institute. During the2012 US presidential election, both First LadyMichelle Obama, in an interview withKal Pennat the2012 Democratic National Convention,andAnn Romney, in an interview withThe Insider,citedModern Familyas their favorite TV show. In June 2013, theWriters Guild of AmericarankedModern Familynumber 34 on a list of the 101 most well-written television series ever made.In December 2013,TV Guideranked it number 43 on its list of the 60 Best Series of all time. Emmy Awards received by cast The following is a list ofEmmynominations received by the cast of the series. Wins are highlighted inboldface. Criticism Michelle Haimoff of theChristian Science Monitorcriticized the show during its third season for only casting the women as stay-at-home moms while the husbands have highly successful careers: \\\"There is a difference between quirky, flawed characters and ones who are incapable of professional success. And when the latter is reliably female, it makes for sexist television. It also makes for unrealistic television.\\\"Late Night with Jimmy Fallonwriter Ali Waller asked her Twitter followers in 2013 \\\"IfModern Familyis so 'modern' then why don't any of the women have jobs?\\\"Other authors reinforced this criticism, claiming that stay-at-home mothers are no longer the norm in modern society.Claire later went to work in season five. According to aCNETstaffer commenting on a first-season episode: \\\"The wife and daughter are unable to learn how to use the remote and must be taught by the father, while the son is 'good with electronics,' even though he is thought of as the stupidest member of the family.\\\"Arianna Reiche fromGawkercommented on the episode \\\"Game Changer\\\" in which Gloria hides her skill at chess so her husband will not be upset at losing: \\\"This moment is at best a sappy quip about compromise in an often heavy-handed series, and at worst, it's a moment in a show with 9.3 million viewers, on a network owned by Disney, which explicitly validates girls and women subduing their intellect.\\\" Impact Adaptations Potential spinoff In June 2020, ABC Entertainment president Karey Burke discussed a spin-off ofModern Familycentered around Mitch and Cam, inspired by an idea from series co-creator and executive producer, Steven Levitan.In June 2022, star Jesse Tyler Ferguson confirmed that the script for the show's spinoff is completed. \\\"The script's out there and it's very good,\\\" he told. \\\"So you know, who knows? If someone wants to produce it, maybe.\\\"In September 2024, Eric Stonestreet stated that the spin-off \\\" potential anymore\\\" and that the time to produce it has passed, despite believing that the series would have been a \\\"slam dunk\\\". In early 2013, a spin-off series centered aroundRob Riggle's character Gil Thorpe was revealed to be in early stages of development. References External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Jesse_Tyler_Ferguson (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_S-Class_(W222","Modern Family Modern Familyis an American televisionsitcomcreated byChristopher LloydandSteven Levitan. It aired onABCfrom September 23, 2009 to April 8, 2020 for 11 seasons and 250 episodes.The series follows the lives of three diverse family set-ups living in suburbanLos Angeles, who are interrelated through their patriarch, Jay Pritchett. Lloyd and Levitan conceived the series while sharing stories of their own \"modern families.\"Modern Familyemploys anensemble castand is presented in a mockumentary style, with the characters frequentlyspeaking directly to the camerain confessional interview segments. Modern Familywas highly acclaimed by critics throughout its first few seasons. Its critical reception became more mixed as it progressed. The final season received positive reviews, and thefinale episodehad 7.37 million first-run viewers.The retrospective documentary that aired before the final episode had 6.72 million first-run viewers. The series won a total of 22 Emmy Awards, including fiveEmmy Awards for","fiveEmmy Awards for Outstanding Comedy Series, fourEmmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series(twice each forEric StonestreetandTy Burrell), and twoEmmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series(both forJulie Bowen). It also won theGolden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedyin 2011. Thebroadcast syndicationrights to the series were sold toNBCUniversal'sUSA Network, the stations ofFox Television Stations, and various other local stations in other markets for a fall 2013 premiere. The success of the series led to it being the 10th-highest revenue-generating show for 2012, earning $2.13 million an episode. Premise Modern Familyrevolves around three different types of families (nuclear,blended, andsame-sex) living in suburban Los Angeles, who are interrelated through wealthy businessman Jay Pritchett and his two adult children, Claire and Mitchell. Jay remarried a much younger woman, Gloria Delgado (née Ramirez), a passionateColombian immigrantwith","immigrantwith whom he has a young son, Fulgencio “Joe” Joseph (born in themiddle of the fourth season), and a stepson from Gloria's previous marriage,Manuel \"Manny\" Delgado. Jay and Gloria's respective former spouses, DeDe and Javier, both also make occasional appearances in the show. Claire was a homemaker, though returned to the business world in the fifth season, eventually becoming the chief executive of her father's business, Pritchett's Closets and Blinds. She is married to Phil Dunphy, a realtor and a self-professed \"cool dad\", who is also an amateur magician and real-estate lecturer at community college. They have three children: Haley, a stereotypically ditzy teenaged girl;Alex, an intelligent and nerdy middle child;and Luke, the offbeat only son.Haley's on-and-off boyfriend, Dylan, is a permanent fixture on the show, with the two eventually marrying and having two children, Poppy and George. Mitchell is a lawyer who is in a same-sex relationship withCameron Tucker, a former music teacher who","music teacher who occasionally works as a substitute. The two have adopted a baby daughter, Lily, ofVietnamese origin, and are later on legally married. At the end of the show, they adopt another child, Rexford. As the show's name suggests, it depicts a modern-day extended family; many episodes are comically based on situations that many families encounter in real life. Cast and characters Main characters Family tree The characters in green have regular roles on the show. Dotted lines indicate a parental relationship through adoption or marriage, and dashed lines indicate a divorce between characters. † indicates a deceased character. The series has also had many recurring characters.Fred Willardguest starred as Phil's father Frank; he was nominated forOutstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesat the62nd Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost toNeil Patrick Harris's performance onGlee.Willard also received a posthumous nomination in the same category at the72nd Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2020.Shelley","in 2020.Shelley Longtoo guest starred occasionally as DeDe Pritchett, Jay's ex-wife and Claire and Mitchell's biological mother. Nathan Laneappeared as Cameron and Mitchell's flamboyant friend Pepper Saltzman; he was nominated three times for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series.Adam DeVineappeared as Andy Bailey, Jay and Gloria's \"manny\" (malenanny), Phil's assistant and Haley's ex-boyfriend.Elizabeth Banksappeared as Mitch and Cam's fun-loving friend Sal; she was nominated forOutstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Seriesat the67th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2015.Nathan Fillionalso makes an appearance as Rainer Shine, a weather forecaster, and later Haley's boyfriend. Development and production Initial development As creators Christopher Lloyd and Steven Levitan retold stories about their families, they realized that the stories could be the basis for a show. They started working on the idea of a family being observed in a mockumentary-style show.They later","show.They later decided that it could be a show about three families and their experiences.It was originally calledMy American Family,and the camera crew was originally supposed to have been run by a fictitious Dutch filmmaker named Geert Floortje, who had lived as a teenaged exchange student with the Pritchetts and had developed a crush on Claire (while Mitchell had developed a crush on him). The producers later felt that this component was unnecessary, and it was scrapped. Lloyd preferred to look at the show as \"a family show done documentary-style\". Lloyd and Levitan pitched the series toCBS,NBC, and ABC (they did not pitch it toFoxbecause of issues they had with the network over a previous comedy series,Back to You, that Lloyd and Levitan also created and produced). CBS, which was not ready to make a big commitment to the single-camera style of filming, rejected the series. NBC, already broadcastingThe OfficeandParks and Recreationat the time, decided against taking on a third mockumentary-style show.","show. ABC accepted the pitch. Thepilotepisode tested positively withfocus groups, resulting in the network ordering 13 episodes and adding it to the2009–10 fall lineupdays ahead of ABC's official schedule announcement.The series was given a full-season pickup in October 2009. Filming Principal photographytook place in Los Angeles.Many of the exteriors used are on the city'sWestside. The Dunphys' house is in theCheviot Hillsneighborhood. As of 2014,Palisades Charter High Schoolis used for the exteriors of Luke and Manny's school. Lloyd and Levitan, whose credits both includeFrasier,Wings, andJust Shoot Me!, are executive producers of the series, serving asshowrunnerandhead writerunder their Lloyd-Levitan Productions label in affiliation with20th Century Fox Television.The other original producers on the writing team were Paul Corrigan,Sameer Gardezi,Joe Lawson,Dan O'Shannon, Brad Walsh, Caroline Williams, Bill Wrubel, Danny Zuker, and Jeff Morton. Starting with the second season, Levitan and Lloyd ran the","and Lloyd ran the show, not as a team, but separately, with each showrunner supervising half the episodes. \"Chris and I are both strong, opinionated people, and we very, very quickly realized it doesn't make sense to sit here and debate each other and waste time,\" Levitan toldThe Hollywood Reporterin 2012. \"We often come at it from different points of view, so we said, 'Let's just switch off who has final say.'\" Litigation In the first season, the adult cast was paid a range of roughly $30,000 to $90,000 per episode.As a result of the show's success, the cast attempted to renegotiate their contracts in the summer of 2012 to obtain higher per-episode fees, but talks broke down to the point that the fourth season's firsttable readhad to be postponed. Five of the cast members (Ty Burrell,Julie Bowen,Jesse Tyler Ferguson,Eric StonestreetandSofía Vergara) retained theQuinn Emanuellaw firm and sued 20th Century Fox Television inLos Angeles County Superior Courton July 24, 2012.While not part of the lawsuit,Ed","of the lawsuit,Ed O'Neilljoined his fellow castmates in seeking raises for each to about $200,000 per episode; O'Neill had already been earning more money per episode than the other five. The lawsuit invoked the \"seven-year rule\" in California Labor Code Section 2855 (theDe Havilland Law) and requested adeclarationthat their contracts were void because they were in violation of that rule. By October 25, 2012, the conflict had been in final talks for a settlement, with plaintiffs planning thereafter to file a dismissal (which they ultimately did on November 19, 2012).The five adult cast members' salaries were increased from $55,000–$65,000 per episode to $150,000–$175,000, with increases every season, plus a percentage of residual profits.O'Neill had already been earning $200,000 an episode, so his salary was lowered to parity with his co-stars, but with a larger percentage of the back-end profits.By that August, four of the five child stars negotiated increases from $15,000–$25,000 to $70,000 per","to $70,000 per episode,with an additional $10,000 per season raise. Episodes Themes InThe New York Times,Bruce Feilercalled attention to how the show depicts the increasing way communications technology shapes the way people perceive others, even family members. \" is surely the first family comedy that incorporates its ownhashtagof simultaneous self-analysis directly into the storyline,\" he writes. \"Mark Zuckerbergmay be a greater influence onModern FamilythanNorman Lear.\" The show's writers and actors agree. \"We used to talk about how cellphones killed the sitcom because no one ever goes to anyone's house anymore\" for routine information,Abraham Higginbothamtold Feiler. \"We embrace technology so it's part of the story.\" Ty Burrell draws onFran Lebowitz's observation that there is no institution other than media.\"I had this little flash of Phil—and me—that we are parsing our personality together externally from how people perceive us.\" James Parker ofThe Atlanticcommented, \"How does one 'parent'? Who does","'parent'? Who does what, which 'role'? Is Dad sufficiently dad-like and Mom enough of a mom?\" In a 2014 article inSlate, the site's podcast executive producer, Andy Bowers, a resident of Los Angeles' Westside, where the show films most of its exteriors, praised the series for its realistic depiction of life in that part of the city. Release Broadcast Modern Familywas picked up for syndication byUSA Networkfor $1.5 million per episode, along with being offered in local syndication at the same time, withFox Television Stationsthe lead station group picking up the series.It is also shown onSky ComedyandE4in theUnited Kingdom,e.tvinSouth Africa, Fox inSweden,yes ComedyinIsraelandStar WorldinIndia. The series aired onCitytvinCanadafor its first ten seasons.The network additionally obtained the syndicated strip-rights to the show when they became available. Subsequently, it moved toGlobalfor its eleventh and final season.Modern Familybegan airing onTBSsince 2023 and was picked up byNickelodeonfor itsNick at","itsNick at Niteblock, starting on September 10, 2024. Home media As of 2017,Modern Familyhad earned $72,226,621 from its domestic home media releases.The series was made available for streaming onHuluandPeacockin its entirety on February 3, 2021.Internationally, it was released onDisney+. Reception Ratings Since its premiere, the series has remained popular. In its first season, the show became the sixth-highest rated scripted show in America and the third-highest rated new show.Aided by winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series, the show's second season became the highest rated show on Wednesday on premiere weekand also rose 34% from the previous season among adults between the ages of 18 and 49.The show frequently ranked as television's top scripted series in adults 18–49 as well. The success of the show has been positively compared toThe Cosby Show.During the2010–2011season,Modern Familywas the highest rated scripted show in the 18–49 demographic, and the third-highest rated overall","rated overall sitcom behind CBS'sThe Big Bang TheoryandTwo and a Half Men.The season also ranked first amongDVRviewers. The third-season premiere became ABC's top-rated season premiere in six years.The series' success in ratings has also led it to being credited for reviving sitcoms. In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook likesfound thatModern Family's \"audience pattern is the prototypical example of a city show — most popular in liberal, urban clusters in Boston, San Francisco, and Santa Barbara, California, and least popular in the more rural parts of Kentucky, Mississippi, and Arkansas\". Modern Familygained renewed popularity after becoming available onstreaming platforms. According to market research company Parrot Analytics, which examines consumer engagement across streaming, downloads, and social media,Modern Familyhas experienced a notable increase in interest since its debut onHuluandPeacockin 2021.For the week ending August 15, 2021,Whip Media, which tracks global TV","tracks global TV viewership habits for nearly 1 million global users of itsTV Timeapp daily, calculated that the series placed third on its \"Binge Report\" chart, a ranking that highlights shows streamed in sessions of four or more episodes by viewers in a single day.In 2024, Parrot analytics reported thatModern Familywas among the 40 most in-demand TV shows worldwide between January 1 and August 8. While most of the top 10 shows appealed primarily to younger demographics (ages 15-31), the series attracted Millennial and Gen X viewers (32-42+).Nielsen Media Research, which records streaming viewership on U.S. television screens, estimated that the show was watched for 687 million minutes from August 12 to August 18, 2024.In October 2024, streaming analytics firm FlixPatrol, which monitors daily updated VOD charts across the globe, reported thatModern Familywas among the most viewed series on its platform, ranking second worldwide behindGrey's Anatomy. Critical response Season 1 The first season was met with","season was met with critical acclaim. It scored 100%, based on 28 reviews, on review aggregator websiteRotten Tomatoes, with anaverage ratingof 8.55/10 and the critical consensus: \"Thanks to sharp writing and an eccentric but exceedingly likeable cast of characters,Modern Familysignals the triumphant return of the family comedy.\"The first season also scored 86/100, based on 27 reviews, on review aggregator websiteMetacritic, indicating \"universal acclaim\". Entertainment Weeklygave it an A−, calling it \"immediately recognizable as the best new sitcom of the fall.\"InTime's review, the show was named \"the funniest new family comedy of the year.\"It has also been compared to the 1970s seriesSoapbecause of the multiple-family aspect. Some have made comparisons toThe OfficeandParks and Recreationbecause of their mockumentary formats.BuddyTVnamed the show the second best show in 2009, saying, \"Every actor is fantastic, every family is interesting, and unlike many shows, there isn't a weak link.\"Robert Canning","Canning ofIGNgave the season an 8.9 calling it \"Great\" and saying \"Simply put,Modern Familywas one of the best new comedies of the season.\" He also praised the ensemble cast and the characters, calling them lovable.According to Metacritic, the first season was the best reviewed new broadcast television series. Modern Familydrew criticism from theLGBTcommunity for its portrayal of Cameron and Mitchell as not being physically affectionate with each other. The criticism spawned a Facebook campaign to demand that Mitchell and Cameron be allowed to kiss. In response to the controversy, producers released a statement that a season two episode would address Mitchell's discomfort withpublic displays of affection. Executive producer Levitan has said that it was unfortunate that the issue had arisen, since the show's writers had always planned on such a scene \"as part of the natural development of the show.\"The episode \"The Kiss\" eventually aired with the kiss scene in the background, which drew praise from multiple","from multiple critics. Season 2 The show's second season received mostly positive reviews from critics. Season two has a rating of 88% onRotten Tomatoesbased on 16 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 8.11/10 and the consensus: \"Modern Family's sophomore season sings with ingenious sitcom structure and an ensemble in perfect comedic harmony – even if the tunes are a little familiar\".Robert Bianco ofUSA Todaygave the second season four out of four stars, saying \"Not sinceFrasierhas a sitcom offered such an ideal blend of heart and smarts, or proven itself so effortlessly adept at so many comic variations, from subtle wordplay to big-laugh slapstick to everything in between.\"In a later review Bianco stated \"as good as it was in its first year, is even better in its second\", positively comparing the characters to the characters fromThe Mary Tyler Moore Show,The Cosby Show, andFriends.During the second season,Adweeknamed the show one of the 100 Most Influential TV Shows (98th chronologically).Despite this, some","this, some critics were less favorable toward the season and described it as asophomore slump.Eric Stonestreet's acting was widely praised throughout the first season,but criticized during season two for being too contrived and \"over-the-top\";Alan Sepinwallcalled Cameron Tucker a \"whiny, overly-sensitive diva\".On the other hand, the praise for Ty Burrell's performance (as Phil Dunphy) continued. Season 3 The third season was met with critical acclaim. OnRotten Tomatoes, season three has a rating of 92% based on 13 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 8.33/10 and the consensus: \"Modern Familysettles into a well-oiled groove, consistently delivering inspired farce and making it look effortless.\"Slant Magazinereviewer Peter Swanson wrote that while the first episode was \"the type of wacky-location stunt that's usually reserved for the fifth or sixth season of a dying sitcom,\" the following episodes \"have been better... but they're still uneven\".He also criticized the writers for relying too much on \"stunt episodes","on \"stunt episodes and celebrity cameos, like David Cross\".He ultimately gave the season 3 out of 4 stars.James Parker ofThe Atlanticsaid, at the beginning of the third season that \"Modern Familyis very, very funny, almost ruthlessly so. It's a bit of a master class in pace and brevity. The writing isVorsprung durch Technik: hectically compressed but dramatically elegant, prodigal in its zingers and snorters but austere in its construction.\" He found it an exception to his dislike for sitcoms that do not use alaugh track.During the third season,New York TimescolumnistFrank Bruniargued that gay criticism of Cameron and Mitchell actually showed the progress gays have made toward social acceptance. \"A decade ago,\" he wrote, \" would have balked—and balked loudly—at how frequently Cameron in particular tips into limp-wristed, high-voiced caricature.\" But now, \"most gay people trust that the television audience knows we're a diverse tribe, not easily pigeonholed.Modern Familyendows us with a sort of comic","a sort of comic banality. It's an odd kind of progress. But it's progress nonetheless.\" Season 4 The fourth season ofModern Familyreceived positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the season an approval rating of 67% based on 11 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.75/10 and the consensus: \"Modern Familystill has charm to burn and boasts a uniformly excellent cast, but the series' subversive edge has dulled\".Halfway through the season, Rachel Stein ofTelevision Without Pitywrote, \"much as I liked the pairings and some of the dialogue, is just another contrived episode of Modern Family we can cite when we talk later about how a different show should have won the 2013 Emmy for Best Comedy.\"Dalene Rovenstein ofPaste Magazinegave the season a positive review, but said a better season was possible. Season 5 The fifth season ofModern Familyalso received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, season five has a rating of 90% based on 10 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.57/10 and the consensus: \"Modern","consensus: \"Modern Familyreturns to its conventional roots with grace in a fifth season that delights in providing reliable laughs and rekindles the show's trademark warmth\".Reviewing the season's first eight episodes, Matthew Wolfson ofSlant Magazinewrote that the show \"appear to have finally arrived at the depressing and predictable low point toward which it been trending for the past two years.\" He also went on to say that the show had \"turned into a shrill pastiche of stereotypical characterizations and superficial banter lacking both feeling and wit\", assigning it a rating of 1.5/4 stars.Different writers forThe A.V. Clubrated, in total, a majority of the former-half episodes with a \"B−\" grade or less. One writer for the magazine, Joshua Alston, gave \"ClosetCon '13\" a \"C+\" and remarked that \"Modern Familybecomes a high-wire act when it separates its characters into three storylines with no overlap between them.\"The second half was more warmly received, with three episodes rated an \"A−\" or higher.","an \"A−\" or higher. Season 6 The show's sixth season received highly positive reviews from TV critics, with some claiming that it was an improvement over the last few seasons.This season has a rating of 100% onRotten Tomatoesbased on 7 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.67/10.Joshua Alston and Gwen IhnatThe A.V. Clubhave awarded the majority of episodes a \"B\" grade or higher – with particular praise for \"The Day We Almost Died\" and \"Closet? You'll Love It!\" – marking an improvement over the repeated \"C\" grade given throughout the previous season's former half.\"Connection Lost\" received high critical acclaim, with many praising the episode's writing, originality and \"success in transcending what could have been a gimicky episode\".In her review for \"Closet? You'll Love It!\" Gwen Ihnat ofThe A.V. Clubstated that the episode represents \"all the reasons why we still watch Modern Family\" and awarded the episode an A−.On the same site, David Kallison reviewed \"Grill, Interrupted\", saying: \"This season proves that","season proves that sitcoms can survive on solid characters and solid jokes.\" Season 7 The seventh season received positive reviews from critics with many critics calling it similar to the fourth and fifth seasons. On Rotten Tomatoes, this season is rated 67% with 6 reviews and an average rating of 6.5/10.Kyle Fowle fromThe A.V. Clubhad a very mixed reaction to the season, only giving one episode an A− or higher.Fowle felt the season was frustrating, believing the season would be defined \"by its lack of character progress and overstuffed episodes.\" Later seasons The series was renewed for a 9th and 10th season on May 10, 2017.Season 9 premiered on September 27, 2017, while season 10 premiered on September 26, 2018. Seasons 8 and 9 received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics, with main criticisms directed at the lack of character development, overstuffing of episodes, and too many filler episodes per season. While the show continued to be praised for its charm, witty writing, and the cast's performances,","performances, criticism grew in these seasons, particularly from reviewers such as those atThe A.V. Club. In January 2018, Steve Levitan and Christopher Lloyd announced that season 10 would most likely be the final season, during theTelevision Critics Association's winter press tour.However, in August 2018, reports indicated that ABC was in discussions to renew the series for a potential eleventh season. Season 10 received positive reviews from critics, citing the season as a significant improvement over the last two. The series was praised for its tackling of Haley's pregnancy, the humor of Mitch and Cam looking after Cal, and its dealing with change in a positive way. Episodes \"Torn Between Two Lovers\", \"Good Grief\", and \"A Year Of Birthdays\" were particularly praised. The series was renewed for an eleventh season on January 7, 2019, which was confirmed as the final season on February 5. The last season premiered on September 25, 2019, and aired its last episode on April 8, 2020. Season 11 similarly","Season 11 similarly received positive reviews. The season was praised for its themes of change and ending, and the improved humor upon the last seasons, with particular attention to episodes \"The Prescott\", \"Legacy\", \"Spuds\" and \"Finale\". Accolades Modern Familyhas won 22Primetime Emmy Awardsand 6Writers Guild of America Awards. The show also later received aGLSENRespect Awardfor its portrayal of \"positive images and storylines that reflect a diverse America, including the depiction of a family headed by a gay couple.\" In 2010,Modern Familywas nominated for five Television Critics Association Awards.To reinforce the idea of an ensemble cast, the cast all submitted themselves in the Supporting Actor and Actress categories instead of Lead Actor and Actress for the62nd Primetime Emmy Awards.The series has also been put on multiple critics' lists. In 2010, the series was listed 2nd onTime's Top Ten Best Shows of 2009,2nd onBuddyTV's Top Ten Best Shows of 2009,Jason Hughes Best TV of 2009,Modern Familywas awarded","Familywas awarded aPeabody Awardin 2009.In 2012, the show won theGolden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedyand was nominated for aBritish Academy Television Award. Every season of the show was also named one of the top 10 TV seasons of the year (from 2009 to 2012) by theAmerican Film Institute. During the2012 US presidential election, both First LadyMichelle Obama, in an interview withKal Pennat the2012 Democratic National Convention,andAnn Romney, in an interview withThe Insider,citedModern Familyas their favorite TV show. In June 2013, theWriters Guild of AmericarankedModern Familynumber 34 on a list of the 101 most well-written television series ever made.In December 2013,TV Guideranked it number 43 on its list of the 60 Best Series of all time. Emmy Awards received by cast The following is a list ofEmmynominations received by the cast of the series. Wins are highlighted inboldface. Criticism Michelle Haimoff of theChristian Science Monitorcriticized the show during its third season","its third season for only casting the women as stay-at-home moms while the husbands have highly successful careers: \"There is a difference between quirky, flawed characters and ones who are incapable of professional success. And when the latter is reliably female, it makes for sexist television. It also makes for unrealistic television.\"Late Night with Jimmy Fallonwriter Ali Waller asked her Twitter followers in 2013 \"IfModern Familyis so 'modern' then why don't any of the women have jobs?\"Other authors reinforced this criticism, claiming that stay-at-home mothers are no longer the norm in modern society.Claire later went to work in season five. According to aCNETstaffer commenting on a first-season episode: \"The wife and daughter are unable to learn how to use the remote and must be taught by the father, while the son is 'good with electronics,' even though he is thought of as the stupidest member of the family.\"Arianna Reiche fromGawkercommented on the episode \"Game Changer\" in which Gloria hides her skill","hides her skill at chess so her husband will not be upset at losing: \"This moment is at best a sappy quip about compromise in an often heavy-handed series, and at worst, it's a moment in a show with 9.3 million viewers, on a network owned by Disney, which explicitly validates girls and women subduing their intellect.\" Impact Adaptations Potential spinoff In June 2020, ABC Entertainment president Karey Burke discussed a spin-off ofModern Familycentered around Mitch and Cam, inspired by an idea from series co-creator and executive producer, Steven Levitan.In June 2022, star Jesse Tyler Ferguson confirmed that the script for the show's spinoff is completed. \"The script's out there and it's very good,\" he told. \"So you know, who knows? If someone wants to produce it, maybe.\"In September 2024, Eric Stonestreet stated that the spin-off \" potential anymore\" and that the time to produce it has passed, despite believing that the series would have been a \"slam dunk\". In early 2013, a spin-off series centered aroundRob","centered aroundRob Riggle's character Gil Thorpe was revealed to be in early stages of development. References External links","Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Jesse_Tyler_Ferguson (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_S-Class_(W222\",\n \"Modern Family Modern Familyis an American televisionsitcomcreated byChristopher LloydandSteven Levitan. It aired onABCfrom September 23, 2009 to April 8, 2020 for 11 seasons and 250 episodes.The series follows the lives of three diverse family set-ups living in suburbanLos Angeles, who are interrelated through their patriarch, Jay Pritchett. Lloyd and Levitan conceived the series while sharing stories of their own \\\"modern families.\\\"Modern Familyemploys anensemble castand is presented in a mockumentary style, with the characters frequentlyspeaking directly to the camerain confessional interview segments. Modern Familywas highly acclaimed by critics throughout its first few seasons. Its critical reception became more mixed as it progressed. The final season received positive reviews, and thefinale episodehad 7.37 million first-run viewers.The retrospective documentary that aired before the final episode had 6.72 million first-run viewers. The series won a total of 22 Emmy Awards, including fiveEmmy Awards for\",\n \"fiveEmmy Awards for Outstanding Comedy Series, fourEmmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series(twice each forEric StonestreetandTy Burrell), and twoEmmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series(both forJulie Bowen). It also won theGolden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedyin 2011. Thebroadcast syndicationrights to the series were sold toNBCUniversal'sUSA Network, the stations ofFox Television Stations, and various other local stations in other markets for a fall 2013 premiere. The success of the series led to it being the 10th-highest revenue-generating show for 2012, earning $2.13 million an episode. Premise Modern Familyrevolves around three different types of families (nuclear,blended, andsame-sex) living in suburban Los Angeles, who are interrelated through wealthy businessman Jay Pritchett and his two adult children, Claire and Mitchell. Jay remarried a much younger woman, Gloria Delgado (née Ramirez), a passionateColombian immigrantwith\",\n \"immigrantwith whom he has a young son, Fulgencio “Joe” Joseph (born in themiddle of the fourth season), and a stepson from Gloria's previous marriage,Manuel \\\"Manny\\\" Delgado. Jay and Gloria's respective former spouses, DeDe and Javier, both also make occasional appearances in the show. Claire was a homemaker, though returned to the business world in the fifth season, eventually becoming the chief executive of her father's business, Pritchett's Closets and Blinds. She is married to Phil Dunphy, a realtor and a self-professed \\\"cool dad\\\", who is also an amateur magician and real-estate lecturer at community college. They have three children: Haley, a stereotypically ditzy teenaged girl;Alex, an intelligent and nerdy middle child;and Luke, the offbeat only son.Haley's on-and-off boyfriend, Dylan, is a permanent fixture on the show, with the two eventually marrying and having two children, Poppy and George. Mitchell is a lawyer who is in a same-sex relationship withCameron Tucker, a former music teacher who\",\n \"music teacher who occasionally works as a substitute. The two have adopted a baby daughter, Lily, ofVietnamese origin, and are later on legally married. At the end of the show, they adopt another child, Rexford. As the show's name suggests, it depicts a modern-day extended family; many episodes are comically based on situations that many families encounter in real life. Cast and characters Main characters Family tree The characters in green have regular roles on the show. Dotted lines indicate a parental relationship through adoption or marriage, and dashed lines indicate a divorce between characters. † indicates a deceased character. The series has also had many recurring characters.Fred Willardguest starred as Phil's father Frank; he was nominated forOutstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesat the62nd Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost toNeil Patrick Harris's performance onGlee.Willard also received a posthumous nomination in the same category at the72nd Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2020.Shelley\",\n \"in 2020.Shelley Longtoo guest starred occasionally as DeDe Pritchett, Jay's ex-wife and Claire and Mitchell's biological mother. Nathan Laneappeared as Cameron and Mitchell's flamboyant friend Pepper Saltzman; he was nominated three times for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series.Adam DeVineappeared as Andy Bailey, Jay and Gloria's \\\"manny\\\" (malenanny), Phil's assistant and Haley's ex-boyfriend.Elizabeth Banksappeared as Mitch and Cam's fun-loving friend Sal; she was nominated forOutstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Seriesat the67th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2015.Nathan Fillionalso makes an appearance as Rainer Shine, a weather forecaster, and later Haley's boyfriend. Development and production Initial development As creators Christopher Lloyd and Steven Levitan retold stories about their families, they realized that the stories could be the basis for a show. They started working on the idea of a family being observed in a mockumentary-style show.They later\",\n \"show.They later decided that it could be a show about three families and their experiences.It was originally calledMy American Family,and the camera crew was originally supposed to have been run by a fictitious Dutch filmmaker named Geert Floortje, who had lived as a teenaged exchange student with the Pritchetts and had developed a crush on Claire (while Mitchell had developed a crush on him). The producers later felt that this component was unnecessary, and it was scrapped. Lloyd preferred to look at the show as \\\"a family show done documentary-style\\\". Lloyd and Levitan pitched the series toCBS,NBC, and ABC (they did not pitch it toFoxbecause of issues they had with the network over a previous comedy series,Back to You, that Lloyd and Levitan also created and produced). CBS, which was not ready to make a big commitment to the single-camera style of filming, rejected the series. NBC, already broadcastingThe OfficeandParks and Recreationat the time, decided against taking on a third mockumentary-style show.\",\n \"show. ABC accepted the pitch. Thepilotepisode tested positively withfocus groups, resulting in the network ordering 13 episodes and adding it to the2009–10 fall lineupdays ahead of ABC's official schedule announcement.The series was given a full-season pickup in October 2009. Filming Principal photographytook place in Los Angeles.Many of the exteriors used are on the city'sWestside. The Dunphys' house is in theCheviot Hillsneighborhood. As of 2014,Palisades Charter High Schoolis used for the exteriors of Luke and Manny's school. Lloyd and Levitan, whose credits both includeFrasier,Wings, andJust Shoot Me!, are executive producers of the series, serving asshowrunnerandhead writerunder their Lloyd-Levitan Productions label in affiliation with20th Century Fox Television.The other original producers on the writing team were Paul Corrigan,Sameer Gardezi,Joe Lawson,Dan O'Shannon, Brad Walsh, Caroline Williams, Bill Wrubel, Danny Zuker, and Jeff Morton. Starting with the second season, Levitan and Lloyd ran the\",\n \"and Lloyd ran the show, not as a team, but separately, with each showrunner supervising half the episodes. \\\"Chris and I are both strong, opinionated people, and we very, very quickly realized it doesn't make sense to sit here and debate each other and waste time,\\\" Levitan toldThe Hollywood Reporterin 2012. \\\"We often come at it from different points of view, so we said, 'Let's just switch off who has final say.'\\\" Litigation In the first season, the adult cast was paid a range of roughly $30,000 to $90,000 per episode.As a result of the show's success, the cast attempted to renegotiate their contracts in the summer of 2012 to obtain higher per-episode fees, but talks broke down to the point that the fourth season's firsttable readhad to be postponed. Five of the cast members (Ty Burrell,Julie Bowen,Jesse Tyler Ferguson,Eric StonestreetandSofía Vergara) retained theQuinn Emanuellaw firm and sued 20th Century Fox Television inLos Angeles County Superior Courton July 24, 2012.While not part of the lawsuit,Ed\",\n \"of the lawsuit,Ed O'Neilljoined his fellow castmates in seeking raises for each to about $200,000 per episode; O'Neill had already been earning more money per episode than the other five. The lawsuit invoked the \\\"seven-year rule\\\" in California Labor Code Section 2855 (theDe Havilland Law) and requested adeclarationthat their contracts were void because they were in violation of that rule. By October 25, 2012, the conflict had been in final talks for a settlement, with plaintiffs planning thereafter to file a dismissal (which they ultimately did on November 19, 2012).The five adult cast members' salaries were increased from $55,000–$65,000 per episode to $150,000–$175,000, with increases every season, plus a percentage of residual profits.O'Neill had already been earning $200,000 an episode, so his salary was lowered to parity with his co-stars, but with a larger percentage of the back-end profits.By that August, four of the five child stars negotiated increases from $15,000–$25,000 to $70,000 per\",\n \"to $70,000 per episode,with an additional $10,000 per season raise. Episodes Themes InThe New York Times,Bruce Feilercalled attention to how the show depicts the increasing way communications technology shapes the way people perceive others, even family members. \\\" is surely the first family comedy that incorporates its ownhashtagof simultaneous self-analysis directly into the storyline,\\\" he writes. \\\"Mark Zuckerbergmay be a greater influence onModern FamilythanNorman Lear.\\\" The show's writers and actors agree. \\\"We used to talk about how cellphones killed the sitcom because no one ever goes to anyone's house anymore\\\" for routine information,Abraham Higginbothamtold Feiler. \\\"We embrace technology so it's part of the story.\\\" Ty Burrell draws onFran Lebowitz's observation that there is no institution other than media.\\\"I had this little flash of Phil—and me—that we are parsing our personality together externally from how people perceive us.\\\" James Parker ofThe Atlanticcommented, \\\"How does one 'parent'? Who does\",\n \"'parent'? Who does what, which 'role'? Is Dad sufficiently dad-like and Mom enough of a mom?\\\" In a 2014 article inSlate, the site's podcast executive producer, Andy Bowers, a resident of Los Angeles' Westside, where the show films most of its exteriors, praised the series for its realistic depiction of life in that part of the city. Release Broadcast Modern Familywas picked up for syndication byUSA Networkfor $1.5 million per episode, along with being offered in local syndication at the same time, withFox Television Stationsthe lead station group picking up the series.It is also shown onSky ComedyandE4in theUnited Kingdom,e.tvinSouth Africa, Fox inSweden,yes ComedyinIsraelandStar WorldinIndia. The series aired onCitytvinCanadafor its first ten seasons.The network additionally obtained the syndicated strip-rights to the show when they became available. Subsequently, it moved toGlobalfor its eleventh and final season.Modern Familybegan airing onTBSsince 2023 and was picked up byNickelodeonfor itsNick at\",\n \"itsNick at Niteblock, starting on September 10, 2024. Home media As of 2017,Modern Familyhad earned $72,226,621 from its domestic home media releases.The series was made available for streaming onHuluandPeacockin its entirety on February 3, 2021.Internationally, it was released onDisney+. Reception Ratings Since its premiere, the series has remained popular. In its first season, the show became the sixth-highest rated scripted show in America and the third-highest rated new show.Aided by winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series, the show's second season became the highest rated show on Wednesday on premiere weekand also rose 34% from the previous season among adults between the ages of 18 and 49.The show frequently ranked as television's top scripted series in adults 18–49 as well. The success of the show has been positively compared toThe Cosby Show.During the2010–2011season,Modern Familywas the highest rated scripted show in the 18–49 demographic, and the third-highest rated overall\",\n \"rated overall sitcom behind CBS'sThe Big Bang TheoryandTwo and a Half Men.The season also ranked first amongDVRviewers. The third-season premiere became ABC's top-rated season premiere in six years.The series' success in ratings has also led it to being credited for reviving sitcoms. In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook likesfound thatModern Family's \\\"audience pattern is the prototypical example of a city show — most popular in liberal, urban clusters in Boston, San Francisco, and Santa Barbara, California, and least popular in the more rural parts of Kentucky, Mississippi, and Arkansas\\\". Modern Familygained renewed popularity after becoming available onstreaming platforms. According to market research company Parrot Analytics, which examines consumer engagement across streaming, downloads, and social media,Modern Familyhas experienced a notable increase in interest since its debut onHuluandPeacockin 2021.For the week ending August 15, 2021,Whip Media, which tracks global TV\",\n \"tracks global TV viewership habits for nearly 1 million global users of itsTV Timeapp daily, calculated that the series placed third on its \\\"Binge Report\\\" chart, a ranking that highlights shows streamed in sessions of four or more episodes by viewers in a single day.In 2024, Parrot analytics reported thatModern Familywas among the 40 most in-demand TV shows worldwide between January 1 and August 8. While most of the top 10 shows appealed primarily to younger demographics (ages 15-31), the series attracted Millennial and Gen X viewers (32-42+).Nielsen Media Research, which records streaming viewership on U.S. television screens, estimated that the show was watched for 687 million minutes from August 12 to August 18, 2024.In October 2024, streaming analytics firm FlixPatrol, which monitors daily updated VOD charts across the globe, reported thatModern Familywas among the most viewed series on its platform, ranking second worldwide behindGrey's Anatomy. Critical response Season 1 The first season was met with\",\n \"season was met with critical acclaim. It scored 100%, based on 28 reviews, on review aggregator websiteRotten Tomatoes, with anaverage ratingof 8.55/10 and the critical consensus: \\\"Thanks to sharp writing and an eccentric but exceedingly likeable cast of characters,Modern Familysignals the triumphant return of the family comedy.\\\"The first season also scored 86/100, based on 27 reviews, on review aggregator websiteMetacritic, indicating \\\"universal acclaim\\\". Entertainment Weeklygave it an A−, calling it \\\"immediately recognizable as the best new sitcom of the fall.\\\"InTime's review, the show was named \\\"the funniest new family comedy of the year.\\\"It has also been compared to the 1970s seriesSoapbecause of the multiple-family aspect. Some have made comparisons toThe OfficeandParks and Recreationbecause of their mockumentary formats.BuddyTVnamed the show the second best show in 2009, saying, \\\"Every actor is fantastic, every family is interesting, and unlike many shows, there isn't a weak link.\\\"Robert Canning\",\n \"Canning ofIGNgave the season an 8.9 calling it \\\"Great\\\" and saying \\\"Simply put,Modern Familywas one of the best new comedies of the season.\\\" He also praised the ensemble cast and the characters, calling them lovable.According to Metacritic, the first season was the best reviewed new broadcast television series. Modern Familydrew criticism from theLGBTcommunity for its portrayal of Cameron and Mitchell as not being physically affectionate with each other. The criticism spawned a Facebook campaign to demand that Mitchell and Cameron be allowed to kiss. In response to the controversy, producers released a statement that a season two episode would address Mitchell's discomfort withpublic displays of affection. Executive producer Levitan has said that it was unfortunate that the issue had arisen, since the show's writers had always planned on such a scene \\\"as part of the natural development of the show.\\\"The episode \\\"The Kiss\\\" eventually aired with the kiss scene in the background, which drew praise from multiple\",\n \"from multiple critics. Season 2 The show's second season received mostly positive reviews from critics. Season two has a rating of 88% onRotten Tomatoesbased on 16 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 8.11/10 and the consensus: \\\"Modern Family's sophomore season sings with ingenious sitcom structure and an ensemble in perfect comedic harmony – even if the tunes are a little familiar\\\".Robert Bianco ofUSA Todaygave the second season four out of four stars, saying \\\"Not sinceFrasierhas a sitcom offered such an ideal blend of heart and smarts, or proven itself so effortlessly adept at so many comic variations, from subtle wordplay to big-laugh slapstick to everything in between.\\\"In a later review Bianco stated \\\"as good as it was in its first year, is even better in its second\\\", positively comparing the characters to the characters fromThe Mary Tyler Moore Show,The Cosby Show, andFriends.During the second season,Adweeknamed the show one of the 100 Most Influential TV Shows (98th chronologically).Despite this, some\",\n \"this, some critics were less favorable toward the season and described it as asophomore slump.Eric Stonestreet's acting was widely praised throughout the first season,but criticized during season two for being too contrived and \\\"over-the-top\\\";Alan Sepinwallcalled Cameron Tucker a \\\"whiny, overly-sensitive diva\\\".On the other hand, the praise for Ty Burrell's performance (as Phil Dunphy) continued. Season 3 The third season was met with critical acclaim. OnRotten Tomatoes, season three has a rating of 92% based on 13 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 8.33/10 and the consensus: \\\"Modern Familysettles into a well-oiled groove, consistently delivering inspired farce and making it look effortless.\\\"Slant Magazinereviewer Peter Swanson wrote that while the first episode was \\\"the type of wacky-location stunt that's usually reserved for the fifth or sixth season of a dying sitcom,\\\" the following episodes \\\"have been better... but they're still uneven\\\".He also criticized the writers for relying too much on \\\"stunt episodes\",\n \"on \\\"stunt episodes and celebrity cameos, like David Cross\\\".He ultimately gave the season 3 out of 4 stars.James Parker ofThe Atlanticsaid, at the beginning of the third season that \\\"Modern Familyis very, very funny, almost ruthlessly so. It's a bit of a master class in pace and brevity. The writing isVorsprung durch Technik: hectically compressed but dramatically elegant, prodigal in its zingers and snorters but austere in its construction.\\\" He found it an exception to his dislike for sitcoms that do not use alaugh track.During the third season,New York TimescolumnistFrank Bruniargued that gay criticism of Cameron and Mitchell actually showed the progress gays have made toward social acceptance. \\\"A decade ago,\\\" he wrote, \\\" would have balked—and balked loudly—at how frequently Cameron in particular tips into limp-wristed, high-voiced caricature.\\\" But now, \\\"most gay people trust that the television audience knows we're a diverse tribe, not easily pigeonholed.Modern Familyendows us with a sort of comic\",\n \"a sort of comic banality. It's an odd kind of progress. But it's progress nonetheless.\\\" Season 4 The fourth season ofModern Familyreceived positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the season an approval rating of 67% based on 11 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.75/10 and the consensus: \\\"Modern Familystill has charm to burn and boasts a uniformly excellent cast, but the series' subversive edge has dulled\\\".Halfway through the season, Rachel Stein ofTelevision Without Pitywrote, \\\"much as I liked the pairings and some of the dialogue, is just another contrived episode of Modern Family we can cite when we talk later about how a different show should have won the 2013 Emmy for Best Comedy.\\\"Dalene Rovenstein ofPaste Magazinegave the season a positive review, but said a better season was possible. Season 5 The fifth season ofModern Familyalso received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, season five has a rating of 90% based on 10 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.57/10 and the consensus: \\\"Modern\",\n \"consensus: \\\"Modern Familyreturns to its conventional roots with grace in a fifth season that delights in providing reliable laughs and rekindles the show's trademark warmth\\\".Reviewing the season's first eight episodes, Matthew Wolfson ofSlant Magazinewrote that the show \\\"appear to have finally arrived at the depressing and predictable low point toward which it been trending for the past two years.\\\" He also went on to say that the show had \\\"turned into a shrill pastiche of stereotypical characterizations and superficial banter lacking both feeling and wit\\\", assigning it a rating of 1.5/4 stars.Different writers forThe A.V. Clubrated, in total, a majority of the former-half episodes with a \\\"B−\\\" grade or less. One writer for the magazine, Joshua Alston, gave \\\"ClosetCon '13\\\" a \\\"C+\\\" and remarked that \\\"Modern Familybecomes a high-wire act when it separates its characters into three storylines with no overlap between them.\\\"The second half was more warmly received, with three episodes rated an \\\"A−\\\" or higher.\",\n \"an \\\"A−\\\" or higher. Season 6 The show's sixth season received highly positive reviews from TV critics, with some claiming that it was an improvement over the last few seasons.This season has a rating of 100% onRotten Tomatoesbased on 7 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.67/10.Joshua Alston and Gwen IhnatThe A.V. Clubhave awarded the majority of episodes a \\\"B\\\" grade or higher – with particular praise for \\\"The Day We Almost Died\\\" and \\\"Closet? You'll Love It!\\\" – marking an improvement over the repeated \\\"C\\\" grade given throughout the previous season's former half.\\\"Connection Lost\\\" received high critical acclaim, with many praising the episode's writing, originality and \\\"success in transcending what could have been a gimicky episode\\\".In her review for \\\"Closet? You'll Love It!\\\" Gwen Ihnat ofThe A.V. Clubstated that the episode represents \\\"all the reasons why we still watch Modern Family\\\" and awarded the episode an A−.On the same site, David Kallison reviewed \\\"Grill, Interrupted\\\", saying: \\\"This season proves that\",\n \"season proves that sitcoms can survive on solid characters and solid jokes.\\\" Season 7 The seventh season received positive reviews from critics with many critics calling it similar to the fourth and fifth seasons. On Rotten Tomatoes, this season is rated 67% with 6 reviews and an average rating of 6.5/10.Kyle Fowle fromThe A.V. Clubhad a very mixed reaction to the season, only giving one episode an A− or higher.Fowle felt the season was frustrating, believing the season would be defined \\\"by its lack of character progress and overstuffed episodes.\\\" Later seasons The series was renewed for a 9th and 10th season on May 10, 2017.Season 9 premiered on September 27, 2017, while season 10 premiered on September 26, 2018. Seasons 8 and 9 received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics, with main criticisms directed at the lack of character development, overstuffing of episodes, and too many filler episodes per season. While the show continued to be praised for its charm, witty writing, and the cast's performances,\",\n \"performances, criticism grew in these seasons, particularly from reviewers such as those atThe A.V. Club. In January 2018, Steve Levitan and Christopher Lloyd announced that season 10 would most likely be the final season, during theTelevision Critics Association's winter press tour.However, in August 2018, reports indicated that ABC was in discussions to renew the series for a potential eleventh season. Season 10 received positive reviews from critics, citing the season as a significant improvement over the last two. The series was praised for its tackling of Haley's pregnancy, the humor of Mitch and Cam looking after Cal, and its dealing with change in a positive way. Episodes \\\"Torn Between Two Lovers\\\", \\\"Good Grief\\\", and \\\"A Year Of Birthdays\\\" were particularly praised. The series was renewed for an eleventh season on January 7, 2019, which was confirmed as the final season on February 5. The last season premiered on September 25, 2019, and aired its last episode on April 8, 2020. Season 11 similarly\",\n \"Season 11 similarly received positive reviews. The season was praised for its themes of change and ending, and the improved humor upon the last seasons, with particular attention to episodes \\\"The Prescott\\\", \\\"Legacy\\\", \\\"Spuds\\\" and \\\"Finale\\\". Accolades Modern Familyhas won 22Primetime Emmy Awardsand 6Writers Guild of America Awards. The show also later received aGLSENRespect Awardfor its portrayal of \\\"positive images and storylines that reflect a diverse America, including the depiction of a family headed by a gay couple.\\\" In 2010,Modern Familywas nominated for five Television Critics Association Awards.To reinforce the idea of an ensemble cast, the cast all submitted themselves in the Supporting Actor and Actress categories instead of Lead Actor and Actress for the62nd Primetime Emmy Awards.The series has also been put on multiple critics' lists. In 2010, the series was listed 2nd onTime's Top Ten Best Shows of 2009,2nd onBuddyTV's Top Ten Best Shows of 2009,Jason Hughes Best TV of 2009,Modern Familywas awarded\",\n \"Familywas awarded aPeabody Awardin 2009.In 2012, the show won theGolden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedyand was nominated for aBritish Academy Television Award. Every season of the show was also named one of the top 10 TV seasons of the year (from 2009 to 2012) by theAmerican Film Institute. During the2012 US presidential election, both First LadyMichelle Obama, in an interview withKal Pennat the2012 Democratic National Convention,andAnn Romney, in an interview withThe Insider,citedModern Familyas their favorite TV show. In June 2013, theWriters Guild of AmericarankedModern Familynumber 34 on a list of the 101 most well-written television series ever made.In December 2013,TV Guideranked it number 43 on its list of the 60 Best Series of all time. Emmy Awards received by cast The following is a list ofEmmynominations received by the cast of the series. Wins are highlighted inboldface. Criticism Michelle Haimoff of theChristian Science Monitorcriticized the show during its third season\",\n \"its third season for only casting the women as stay-at-home moms while the husbands have highly successful careers: \\\"There is a difference between quirky, flawed characters and ones who are incapable of professional success. And when the latter is reliably female, it makes for sexist television. It also makes for unrealistic television.\\\"Late Night with Jimmy Fallonwriter Ali Waller asked her Twitter followers in 2013 \\\"IfModern Familyis so 'modern' then why don't any of the women have jobs?\\\"Other authors reinforced this criticism, claiming that stay-at-home mothers are no longer the norm in modern society.Claire later went to work in season five. According to aCNETstaffer commenting on a first-season episode: \\\"The wife and daughter are unable to learn how to use the remote and must be taught by the father, while the son is 'good with electronics,' even though he is thought of as the stupidest member of the family.\\\"Arianna Reiche fromGawkercommented on the episode \\\"Game Changer\\\" in which Gloria hides her skill\",\n \"hides her skill at chess so her husband will not be upset at losing: \\\"This moment is at best a sappy quip about compromise in an often heavy-handed series, and at worst, it's a moment in a show with 9.3 million viewers, on a network owned by Disney, which explicitly validates girls and women subduing their intellect.\\\" Impact Adaptations Potential spinoff In June 2020, ABC Entertainment president Karey Burke discussed a spin-off ofModern Familycentered around Mitch and Cam, inspired by an idea from series co-creator and executive producer, Steven Levitan.In June 2022, star Jesse Tyler Ferguson confirmed that the script for the show's spinoff is completed. \\\"The script's out there and it's very good,\\\" he told. \\\"So you know, who knows? If someone wants to produce it, maybe.\\\"In September 2024, Eric Stonestreet stated that the spin-off \\\" potential anymore\\\" and that the time to produce it has passed, despite believing that the series would have been a \\\"slam dunk\\\". In early 2013, a spin-off series centered aroundRob\",\n \"centered aroundRob Riggle's character Gil Thorpe was revealed to be in early stages of development. References External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Jesse_Tyler_Ferguson (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":343,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What is the name of the vocalist from the first band to make it in the top 200 under the record label that produced the third studio album for Dismal Euphony?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Jens Kidman"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dismal_Euphony"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Little_Devils"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Blast"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meshuggah"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dismal_Euphony', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Little_Devils', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Blast', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meshuggah']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dismal_Euphony","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Little_Devils","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Blast","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meshuggah"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dismal_Euphony\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Little_Devils\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Blast\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meshuggah\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Dismal Euphony Dismal Euphonywas a metal band from Norway that mixed styles includinggothic metal, melodic metal,black metalandclassical music. History The history of Dismal Euphony began in 1992 in Stavanger, Norway by bassist Ole K. Helgesen and drummer Kristoffer Vold Austrheim under the name The Headless Children, a cover band ofSlayerandKreator. A year later singer Erik Borgen and guitarist Kenneth Bergsagel joined the group. They changed the name to Carnal Tomb, then Borgen left the band and Helgesen became the singer/bassist with the female voice of Linn Achre Tveit (Keltziva). Elin Overskott joined the band as a keyboard player. This was the first line-up of Dismal Euphony, officially formed in 1995. In the same year, the group composed the demoSpellbound. After this publication, they were signed byNapalm Records. Here they produced other albums likeSoria Moria slott,Autumn Leaves: The Rebellion of Tidesand theLady AblazeEP (which already features Anja Natasha as female singer). Later, Dismal Euphony joinedNuclear Blastand releasedAll Little Devils, with the new female singer Anja Natasha. Their last album isPython Zero. After this release the band split up. Band members Last known line-up Former members Discography","All Little Devils All Little Devilsis the third studio album by the Norwegiangothic metalbandDismal Euphony. It was released in 1999, and was the band's first album withNuclear Blast. Track listing Production Notes This 1990s metal album–related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.","Nuclear Blast Nuclear Blast Recordsis a Germanrecord labelwithsubsidiariesin Germany, the United States and Brazil. It was founded in 1987 by Markus Staiger inDonzdorf. Originally releasinghardcore punkrecords, the label moved on to releasing albums bythrash metal,melodic death metal,grindcore,industrial metal,power metalandblack metalbands, as well astribute albums. It also distributes and promotes post-hardcore/metalcore labelsSharpTone Records; another post-hardcore/metalcore label,Arising Empire, was in Nuclear Blast portfolio until its acquirement by Kontor New Media in 2020. In October 2018, French independent labelBelieve Digitalacquired a majority stake in Nuclear Blast. History Nuclear Blast was formed in 1987 after founder Markus Staiger traveled throughout the United States for four weeks and saw a gig of his favorite bandBL'AST!. The label's first release was a vinyl compilation calledSenseless Death(NB 001) featuring US hardcore bands like Attitude, Sacred Denial, Impulse Manslaughter and others. Swedish bandMeshuggahbecame the first band in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack theBillboard200, landing at number 165 with their 2002 album,Nothing. Meshuggah also became the first Nuclear Blast band to be reviewed inRolling Stonemagazine. In 2004, Finnish symphonic metal bandNightwishreleasedOnceon Nuclear Blast, which rocketed to the top of the charts in multiple countries, including Finland, Germany, Norway, Greece, Sweden, Austria, and more. It became the first release in the company's history to reach number 1 on the German charts.Slayerreleased the albumRepentlessin 2015 which went to number 4 on theBillboard 200making it the highest charting Nuclear Blast release in the United States. During the 2000s and 2010s, Nuclear Blast signed many veteranthrash metalbands includingSlayer,Exodus,Testament,Anthrax,Kreator,Overkill,Sepultura,Destruction,Tankard,Death Angel,andHeathen. In 2021, Nuclear Blast founder Markus Staiger launched a new record company calledAtomic FireGmbH. In June 2022, Nuclear Blast unveiled a new logo. The logo caused some controversy when the canned water companyLiquid Deathjokingly noted its similarities with their logo (which also features a melting skull), inadvertedly leading to its designer, Justin Moll, receiving hate mail.Liquid Death quickly apologized for the joke, saying that it was not targeted at Moll but at Nuclear Blast, whose personnel had reportedly raised concerns over the new logo's similarities with Liquid Death's before it was implemented. On 23 August 2022, the video gameSaints Rowwas released, which features an in-game radio station that includes Nuclear Blast artists. Blood Blast Distribution Blood Blast Distribution is a subsidiary of Nuclear Blast that focuses solely on the distribution of extreme music. The company was founded in 2020 by Bryce Lucien, Jerome Riera, Denis Ladegaillerie and Myriam Silberstein. See also References External links","Meshuggah Meshuggah(/məˈʃʊɡə/)is a Swedishextreme metalband formed inUmeåin 1987. Since 2004, the band's lineup consists of founding members Jens Kidman (lead vocals) andFredrik Thordendal(lead guitar), alongside rhythm guitaristMårten Hagström, drummerTomas Haakeand bassistDick Lövgren. Since its formation, the band has released nine studio albums, sixEPsand eight music videos. Their latest studio album,Immutable, was released in April 2022 viaAtomic Fire Records. Meshuggah has become known for their innovative musical style and their complex,polymeteredsong structures andpolyrhythms. They rose to fame as a significant act in extremeunderground music, became an influence for modern metal bands, and gained acult following. The band was labelled as one of the ten most importanthard rockandheavy metalbands byRolling Stoneand as the most important band in metal byAlternative Press. In the late 2000s, the band was an inspiration for thedjentsubgenre. In 2006 and 2009, Meshuggah was nominated for two SwedishGrammis Awardsfor their albumsCatch ThirtythreeandobZen, respectively. In 2018, the band was nominated for aGrammy Awardfor their song \"Clockworks\" under the \"Best Metal Performance\" category.The band has performed in various international festivals, includingOzzfestandDownload, and embarked on theobZenworld tourfrom 2008 to 2010, and also the \"Ophidian Trek\". History Formation andContradictions Collapse(1987–1994) In 1985, guitaristFredrik Thordendalformed a band inUmeå,a university town in northern Sweden with a population of 105,000.The band, originally named Metallien, recorded a number ofdemo tapes, after which it disbanded. Thordendal, however, continued playing under a different name with new band members. Meshuggah was formed in 1987by lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist Jens Kidman,and took the name Meshuggah from theYiddishword for \"crazy\"(ultimately derived from theHebrewwordמְשׁוּגָע). Kidman found the word in an American street slang dictionary.The band recorded several demos before Kidman left, which prompted the remaining members to disband. Kidman then formed a new band, Calipash, with guitarist Thordendal, bassist Peter Nordin and drummer Niklas Lundgren.Kidman, who also played guitar,and Thordendal decided to restore the name Meshuggah for the new band. In 1989, Meshuggah released the self-titled, three-songEPMeshuggah,which is commonly known asPsykisk Testbild(a title that could be translated as \"Psychological Test-Picture\").This 12\" (30 cm) vinyl EP had only 1,000 copies released, sold by local record store Garageland.The EP's back cover features the band members with cheese doodles on their faces. After replacing drummer Niklas Lundgren withTomas Haakein 1990, Meshuggah signed a contract with German heavy metalrecord labelNuclear Blastand recorded its debut full-length album,Contradictions Collapse.The LP, originally entitled(All this because of) Greed,was released in 1991.The album received positive reviews, but was not a commercial success.Soon after, Kidman decided to concentrate on vocals,and guitaristMårten Hagström,who had already played in a band with Haake when they were in sixth grade, was recruited.The new lineup recorded the EPNoneat Tonteknik Recordings in Umeå in 1994 for release later that year.A Japanese version was also released, including lyrics printed in Japanese. During this period, Thordendal, who was working as a carpenter, severed the tip of his left middle finger, while Haake injured his hand in a router accident.As a result, the band was unable to perform for several months. Thordendal's fingertip was later reattached, and he went on to make a full recovery.TheSelfcagedEP was recorded in April and May 1994, but its release was delayed to later in 1995 due to the accidents. Destroy Erase Improve(1995–1997) In January 1995, Meshuggah undertook a short European tour organized by its record label Nuclear Blast. Afterwards, the band returned to the studio in February of that year to record the albumDestroy Erase Improveat Soundfront Studios inUppsala, with Daniel Bergstrand as a producer.Shortly thereafter, the band went on a European tour supportingMachine Headfor two months.During the tour, Nordin became ill and experiencedbalance disorderwith hisinner ear. Due to the resulting chronic dizziness and vertigo, Nordin was forced to leave the tour and travel to Sweden. Machine Head's bassistAdam Duceoffered to cover his absence; however, Meshuggah decided to continue as a four-piece. Sometimes Thordendal played bass, while other times the band performed with two guitars. In this lineup, Hagström would use apitch shifterto play his guitar at anoctavelower than usual. Destroy Erase Improvewas released in May 1995, with positive response from critics for the \"heady tempos and abstract approach\".Kidman described the album cover: \"The title fits the pictures we cut out and stole from reference books in the library.\" In mid-1995, Meshuggah had a short tour with Swedish bandClawfingerin Scandinavia and Germany. Nordin had to leave the band because of his sickness and was replaced by bassist Gustaf Hielm during the tour.In late 1995, Meshuggah went on a month-long tour withHypocrisy. During 1996 and 1997, Thordendal worked on his solo albumSol Niger Within, which was released in March 1997 in Scandinavia and in April in Japan. He also hostedMats/Morgan Band's debut. In 1997, Meshuggah recorded an unreleased demo, toured occasionally, and played a few concerts in its hometown. In May, Meshuggah moved to Stockholm to be closer to its management and the record industry in general. The EPThe True Human Designwas recorded and released in late 1997. It contained one new song entitled \"Sane\", and one live and two alternate versions ofDestroy Erase Improve's opening track \"Future Breed Machine\".Thordendal's solo albumSol Niger Withinwas simultaneously released in the United States, and Meshuggah started to plan its next album at the end of the year. ChaosphereandNothing(1998–2002) Hielm officially joined the band in January 1998 after more than two years as a session member. Nuclear Blast re-releasedContradictions Collapsewith the addition of songs from theNoneEP. In May 1998, the title of the next album,Chaosphere, was reported and recording was done throughout May and June. Immediately after recording the album, Meshuggah went on a short US tour, and the album was released later in November 1998. Chaosphere's sound is an almost complete departure from the thrash metal style of the band's previous releases. Shortly after the release, Meshuggah toured Scandinavia withEntombed. In early 1999, Meshuggah joinedSlayeron their U.S. tour.After the new album and the live performances, Meshuggah was beginning to be recognized by mainstream music, guitar, drum and metal magazines.In mid-1999, Meshuggah performed in several Swedish concerts. The band started to write some new material but reported in mid-2000 that \"songwriting isn't that dramatic, but we're getting there slowly\".While fans were waiting for the next album, a collection of demos (from thePsykisk TestbildEP), remixes and unreleased songs from theChaospheresessions were released as theRare Traxalbum.Hielm left the band in July 2001 for unclear reasons.Meshuggah joinedToolon a lengthy tour, playing for more than 100,000 people total. In March 2002, Meshuggah recorded three-track demos with programmed drums in their home studio, which were based on Haake's sampleDrumkit from Hell. The upcoming album was recorded in five to six weeks in Mayand was produced by the band at Dug-Out Studios in Uppsala and at its home studio in Stockholm.The last-minute decision to join 2002'sOzzfesttour forced the band to mix the album in two days and master it in one.Meshuggah immediately went on another US tour after finishing the recording. The albumNothingwas released in August 2002,selling 6,525 copies during its first week in the US and reaching No. 165 on theBillboard200.With this album, Meshuggah became the first band in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack theBillboard200 and also became the first band signed to Nuclear Blast to be reviewed inRolling Stonemagazine.Meshuggah's previous two releases, 1998'sChaosphereand 1995'sDestroy Erase Improve, had sold 38,773 and 30,712 copies to that date, respectively.The CD booklet ofNothinghas no liner notes, lyrics, or credits, only a hint of one word:ingenting, which is Swedish fornothing. All of this information is available on the CD-ROM.At the end of 2002, the band went on another US tour with Tooland a headlining tour of its own. IandCatch Thirtythree(2003–2006) In 2003, Hagström hinted at the direction of the band's next album by saying, \"There's only one thing I really feel that is important. We've never measured our success in terms of sales, because we're quite an extreme band. It's more that people understand where we're coming from. I get more out of a fan coming up and saying that we've totally changed their way of looking on metal music, than having like 200 kids buy it. I mean, it would be nice for the money, but that's not why we're in it. So what I'd like to see is that we keep progressing. Keeping the core of what Meshuggah has always been, but exploring the bar, so to speak.Destroy Erase Improvewas like exploring the dynamics of the band,Chaospherewas exploring the aggressiveness, the all-out side, andNothingis more of a sinister, dark, pretty slow album, actually. So honestly, now I don't know where we're going. It might be a mix of all of them.\" In February 2004, bassistDick Lövgrenjoined Meshuggah.The band then recorded and released theIEP, which contains a single, 21-minute track, released onFractured Transmitter Records.Meshuggah spent about six months in total on recording the EP.Catch Thirtythree, the only Meshuggah album on whichprogrammed drumshave been used, was released the following year in May 2005.Seven thousand copies ofCatch Thirtythreewere sold the first week, and it debuted at No. 170 on theBillboard200 chart in June 2005.The video for the track \"Shed\" was released in June, and the previous albumNothingsold approximately 80,000 copies in the United States to that date, according toNielsen SoundScan.Catch Thirtythreeearned the band aSwedish Grammynomination.In October 2005, German bandRammsteinreleased a single of their song \"Benzin\" with a remixed version by Meshuggah. In December 2005, 10 years after signing its first record deal with the publishing companyWarner/Chappell Music Scandinavia, Meshuggah extended its cooperation with the company.In November 2005, Haake said in an interview that the band was not content with the productions ofChaosphereandNothing, because, being on tour, they had little time to devote to them. A remixed and remastered version ofNothingwith rerecorded guitars was released in a custom-shaped slipcase featuring a three-dimensional hologram card on 31 October 2006, via Nuclear Blast Records. The release also includes a bonus DVD featuring the band's appearance at the Download 2005 festival and the official music videos of \"Rational Gaze\", \"Shed\" and \"New Millennium Cyanide Christ\". obZenandKoloss(2007–2013) Meshuggah returned to the studio in March 2007 to recordobZen, with recording concluding in October 2007, and the album being released in March 2008.The band spent almost a year on the album, its longest recording session yet. A significant portion of the year was spent learning to perform the songs they wrote; the recording itself took six months.obZenreached No. 59 on theBillboard200 chart, selling 11,400 U.S. copies in its first week of release and 50,000 copies after six months.WithobZen, Meshuggah received more media attention and attracted new fans.The release was followed bya world tour, which started in the U.S. and proceeded to Europe, Asia and Australia. In May 2008, Meshuggah published a music video for the song \"Bleed\", which was produced byIan McFarlandand was written, directed and edited by Mike Pecci and Ian McFarland. Killswitch Productions said: \"It's extremely cool to work with a band who is willing to allow the music and imagery to speak for itself and who does not insist on themselves being the prominent focus of the video.\" In January 2009,obZenwas nominated for the SwedishGrammisaward in the \"Best Hard Rock\" category.In February 2009, Haake announced that the band was planning a concert DVD and a studio album.In April, Meshuggah was forced to cancel its Scandinavian shows in early 2009, due to Haake'sherniated discin his lower back, which was causing problems with his right foot when playing.Haake later underwent a surgery and recovered for European summer festivals. The concert DVD entitledAlivewas released on 5 February 2010 in Europe and 9 February in North America.Thordendal started to work on a second solo album in June 2010 with theBelgiandrummerDirk Verbeuren. The seventh studio album,Koloss, was released on 23 March 2012 in Germany, on 26 March in the rest of Europe, and 27 March in North America.Kolossreached No. 17 on the Billboard Top 200, and sold 18,342 copies in its first week.In Sweden, it reached No. 12. Pitch BlackandThe Violent Sleep of Reason(2013–2018) On 5 February 2013, Meshuggah released a free two-track EP entitledPitch BlackwithScion A/V.The EP features a previously unreleased track, \"Pitch Black\", that was recorded byFredrik Thordendalin 2003 at Fear and Loathing, in Stockholm Sweden.The second track is a live recording of \"Dancers to a Discordant System\" fromobZen. The track was recorded at Distortion Fest in Eindhoven, Netherlands, on 9 December 2012. On 12 May 2016, Meshuggah released a teaser video on their YouTube page and confirmed that their next studio album was to be released in late 2016. On 28 July 2016, the title was revealed to beThe Violent Sleep of Reason, and was given a 7 October release date.The Violent Sleep of Reasonwas shortlisted byIMPALA(The Independent Music Companies Association) for the Album of the Year Award 2016, which rewards on a yearly basis the best album released on an independent European label. On 2 June 2017, Meshuggah announced that Thordendal would take a leave from touring with the band; he would be temporarily replaced byPer NilssonfromScar Symmetry.In 2018, Meshuggah received aGrammy nominationfor their song \"Clockworks\" under the \"Best Metal Performance\" category. Immutable(2019–present) In a November 2019 interview, Hagström hinted that the band had begun working on a new album.Recording started in March 2021.Later that month the band stated that Fredrik Thordendal had ended his hiatus and would be participating fully in the recording of the new album.On 28 January 2022, Meshuggah released a new song titled \"The Abysmal Eye\" taken from the band's ninth albumImmutable, which was later released on 1 April 2022 via Atomic Fire. Musical style Meshuggah's experimentation, stylistic variation and changes during its career cross several musical subgenres. Heavy metal subgenresexperimental metaloravant-garde metalare umbrella terms that enable description of the career of the band in general.Extreme metalcrosses boththrash metalanddeath metal(ortechnical death metal), which are at root of the sound of Meshuggah's music, which has also been described asgroove metal.The band has also been labelled as math metal andprogressive metal.Meshuggah also incorporates elements ofexperimental jazz.In its review ofNothing,AllMusicdescribes Meshuggah as \"masterminds of cosmic calculus metal—call it Einstein metal if you want\".Meshuggah's early output was also consideredalternative metal.Meshuggah creates a recognizable sonic imprintand distinct style. Trademarks and characteristics that define Meshuggah's sound and songwriting includepolyrhythms,polymeteredriff cycles, rhythmicsyncopation, rapidkeyandtempochanges and neo-jazzchromatics.Hagström notes that \"it doesn't really matter if something is hard to play or not. The thing is, what does it do to your mind when you listen to it? Where does it take you?\"A trademark of Thordendal isjazz fusion-like soloing and improvisation. He is also known for the usage of a \"breath controller\" device. Haake is known for hiscross-rhythmdrumming with \"jazzlike cadence\".The vocal style of Jens Kidman varies betweenhardcore-style shoutsand \"robotic\"death metal vocals. In polymeters typically used by Meshuggah, the guitars might play in odd meters such as 5/16 or 17/16, while drums play in 4/4.One particular example of Haake's use of polymeter is 4/4 against 23/16 bimeter, in which he keeps thehi-hatorchina cymbalin 4/4 time but uses thesnareanddouble bass drumsin 23/16 time.On \"Rational Gaze\" (fromNothing), Haake plays simple 4/4 time, hitting the snare on each third beat, for 16 bars. At the same time, the guitars and bass are playing the same quarter notes, albeit in a different time signature; eventually both sides meet up again at the 64th beat.Hagström notes about the polymeters, \"We've never really been into the odd time signatures we get accused of using. Everything we do is based around a 4/4 core. It's just that we arrange parts differently around that center to make it seem like something else is going on.\" Contradictions Collapse,Destroy Erase ImproveandChaosphere The early work of Meshuggah, influenced mainly byMetallica, is \"simpler and more straightforward than their more recent material, but some of their more progressive elements are present in the form of time-changes and polyrhythmics, and Fredrik Thordendal's lead playing stands out\".According toAllMusic, theirdebut albumis a relatively immature, but original, release.Double bass drumsand \"angular\" riffing also defined the early work of Meshuggah. With the groundbreakingDestroy Erase Improve, Meshuggah showedfusionof death metal, thrash metal, progressive metal.AllMusic describes the style as \"weaving hardcore-style shouts amongst deceptively (and deviously) simplestaccatoguitar riffs and insanely precise drumming—often with all three components acting in different time signatures\".Thordendal adds the melodic element with his typical lead guitarand uses his \"breath controller\" device most famously on the opening track \"Future Breed Machine\". Chaosphereincorporates typically fast,still tempo changing death metal. AllMusic compares the genre also withgrindcorefathersNapalm Death.Rockdetector states: \"Whilst fans reveled in the maze like meanderings, critics struggled to dissect and analyze, hailing Haake's unconventional use of dual 4/4 and 23/16 rhythm, Kidman's mechanical staccato bark and Thordendal's liberal usage of avant-garde jazz\". Nothing,IandCatch Thirtythree OnNothing, Meshuggah abandons the fast tempos ofChaosphereand concentrates on slow,tuned downtemposandgrooves.The album was intended to be recorded using custom-made Nevborneight-string guitars, but the prototypes were faulty so Thordendal and Hagström used down tunedIbanezseven-string guitarsinstead. This technique caused the instruments to slip out of tune during the sessions, which created additional problems.When Ibanez provided Meshuggah with special eight-string guitars with two extra-low strings that worked properly after the initial release, the band re-recorded the guitar parts forNothingand re-released it in 2006.Hagström notes that this allowed the band to go lower sonically and to attain bass sounds on guitars. TheIEP contains a single, 21-minute songof complex arrangements and was a hint of the forthcoming album, 2005'sCatch Thirtythree.The EP, which has never been played live by the band, was written and recorded during jamming sessions of Haake and Thordendal.OnCatch Thirtythree, Meshuggah again used eight-string guitars,but utilized programmed drums for the first time also for the release,with the exception of two songs from 2001's compilationRare Trax.The album was self-produced by the band and was recorded at the studio that Meshuggah shares with Clawfinger. Hagström notes, \"The eight-strings really have given us a whole new musical vocabulary to work with. Part of it is the restrictions they impose: you really can't play power chords with them; the sound just turns to mush. Instead, we concentrated on coming up with really unusual single-note parts, new tunings and chord voicings. We wanted to get as far away from any kind of conventions and traditions as we could on the album, so the guitars worked out beautifully.\" Catch Thirtythreeis one 47-minute song divided into 13 sections.It is more mid-tempo guitar riff based, and a more straightforward and experimental full-length album thanChaosphereorNothing.Nick Terry ofDecibel Magazinedescribes the album as a four-movementsymphony.Some songs still use Meshuggah's \"familiar template combining harsh vocals and nightmarish melodies over coarse, mechanically advancing, oddball tempos\", while others explore ambient sounds and quieter dynamics.The first part ofCatch Thirtythreecenters around two simple riffs.In the song \"In Death - Is Death\", the band uses a combination of noise and silence, which is in contrast with the atypical melodies on \"Dehumanization\". On \"Mind's Mirrors\", Meshuggah used electronics, programming and \"robotic voices\". \"Shed\" incorporates tribal percussion and whispered vocals. obZenandKoloss With 2008'sobZen, Meshuggah moved away from the experimentation of 2002'sNothingand 2005'sCatch Thirtythreeto return to the musical style of its previous albums, such asContradictions Collapse,Destroy Erase ImproveandChaosphere,while still maintaining its focus on musical and technical innovation. The album loses some of the quick, mathematical rhythmic changes of past releases and the melodic orchestration ofCatch Thirty-Threeand uses \"angular\" riffs,mid-tempo and common 4/4 beats.The album is a culmination of the band's previous work.Meshuggah decided to self-produce because it sought to retain artistic control over the recording and mixing process. ForobZen, Haake returned to the drum kit most notably with his performance on the song \"Bleed\".In an interview for Gravemusic.com, Haake stated, \" was a big effort for me to learn, I had to find a totally new approach to playing the double bass drums to be able to do that stuff. I had never really done anything like that before like the fast bursts that go all the way through the song basically. So I actually spent as much time practicing that track alone as I did with all of the other tracks combined. It's kind of a big feat to change your approach like that and I'm glad we were able to nail it for the album. For a while though we didn't even know if it was going to make it to the album.\"Hagström also stated, \"obZenis one of the most highly technical offerings the band has ever put to tape\".Revolver Magazineconfirms this statement: \"At first listen,obZenseems less challenging to the listener than some of the band's other records, and most of the songs flow smoothly from one syncopated passage to the next. However, careful examination reveals that the material is some of the group's most complicated\". A common quality inKolossidentified by multiple critics and outlets is the album's relatively straightforward, more groove-oriented sound, summed up byMetal Sucksas the band having \"streamlined their compositions to a great extent.\"The broad style of the record has been described as \"primal\" and featuring \"less jazzy virtuosity\" than the band's previous output.Pitchforknoted that the record's rawer production style advanced this \"tribal\" sound further.The album invokes a greater sound of menace and \"darkness\" according to Metal Injection; additionally, Jens Kidman's vocals were described as \"exponentially more anguished\" than previous works.Metal Injectionfurther compared the sound of the album's closing track \"The Last Vigil\" to works by the instrumental bandGodspeed You! Black Emperor.The record's guitar riffs have been noted as deviating somewhat from Meshuggah's earlier catalog, withSPINidentifying \"an almost bluesy swing\" in the playing style.SPINfurther elaborated on the guitar leads, comparing the solos in \"The Demon's Name is Surveillance\" and \"Marrow\" to the (non-metal) works of experimental composerPhilip Glassand jazz-guitaristAllan Holdsworthrespectively. The Violent Sleep of Reason For their eighth album, the band recorded live in studio, a production style they hadn't pursued in reportedly \"20, 25 years\".On rejecting the computerized format of recording of their previous albums, Haake said \"ObzenandKolossare great albums, but, to me, they are a little too perfect. It didn't really capture what we sounded like honestly. But where we recorded live, you get to hear the push and pull, one person might be a little ahead and the other might be a little behind. If you kill that, you can kill the energy.\"It is the first album to have no writing credit from Thordendal; the majority of the album was written by Haake and Lövgren. Method and lyrical themes Meshuggah's music is written by Thordendal, Hagström and Haake with assistance from Kidman and Lövgren. During songwriting, a member programs the drums, and records the guitar and bass via computer. He presents his idea to the other members as a finished work. Meshuggah typically adheres to the original idea and rarely changes the song afterwards.Hagström explains that each member has an idea of what the others are doing conceptually, and nobody thinks exclusively in terms of a particular instrument. Kidman does not play guitar in the band anymore, but he is involved in writing riffs.Except for when Hagström needs a soloist, he and Thordendal rarely record together. Both play guitar and bass while composing. Haake says about his songwriting, \"Sometimes I'll sample guitar parts, cut them up, pitch-shift and tweak them until I've built the riffs I want, just for demoing purposes. But most of the time I'll just present the drums, and explain my ideas for the rest of the song, sing some riffs.\"The band usesCubaseto record the tracks, and the guitars are routed through softwareamplifier modeling, because it allows them to change the amp settings even after the song was fully recorded. Approximately once a year, Haake writes most of the band's lyrics, with the exception of finished tracks. His lyrical inspirations are derived from books and films. Aside from their albumCatch Thirtythree, Meshuggah does not usually recordconcept albums, although the band prefers strong conceptual underpinnings in the background.Oftenesotericand conceptual,Meshuggah's lyrics explore themes such asexistentialism.AllMusic describesDestroy Erase Improve's lyrical focus as \"the integration of machines with organisms as humanity's next logical evolutionary step\".PopMatters' review ofNothingsingles out the lyrics from \"Rational Gaze\": \"Our light-induced image of truth—filtered blank of its substance / As our eyes won't adhere to intuitive lines / Everything examined. Separated, one thing at a time / The harder we stare the more complete the disintegration.\"Haake explains thatCatch Thirtythree's cover, title and lyrics deal with \"the paradoxes/negations/contradictions of life and death (as we see it in our finest moments of unrestrained metaphoric interpretation)\".The main theme ofobZenis \"human evil\", according to Haake. The title is a play on the words \"obscene\" and \"Zen\"; in addition, \"ob\" means \"anti\" in Latin. Therefore, the title suggests that the human species has found harmony and balance in warfare and bloodshed.Revolver Magazinefinds the lyrics of the title track fromobZenrepresentative of the entire album: \"Salvation found in vomit and blood/Where depravation, lies, corruption/War and pain is god.\" However, Haake claims, \"We don't dwell on hate and bad feelings as people. But with these songs, I think we really wanted to paint a picture lyrically that might be seen as a cautionary tale. We're going, 'Heads up. Here's what some of the parts of being human are about, and this is what we can be at our worst.' So it's more about being aware of negative feelings than actually living them all the time.\" Analysis Meshuggah has become known for its innovative musical style that evolves between each release and pushesheavy metalinto new territory, and for its technical prowess.Hagström commented: \"We try never to repeat ourselves.\"RockDetectorstated aboutDestroy Erase Improve: \"he band...stripped Metal down to the bare essentials before completely rebuilding it in a totally abstract form\".The official Meshuggah biography comments onChaosphereby noting that \"Some fans felt that Meshuggah had left their dynamic and progressive elements behind; while others thought they were only progressing naturally and focusing on their original sound.\"The band's website also describesNothingas displaying \"a very mature and convincing Meshuggah, now focusing on groove and sound...Meshuggah once again divided their fans into the 'ecstatic' and the 'slightly disappointed'\".The polyrhythms can make the music soundcacophonous, like band members are playing different songs simultaneously.Listeners perceiving a polyrhythm often either extract a composite pattern that is fitted to a metric framework, or focus on one rhythmic stream while treating others as \"noise\". Legacy Rolling Stonelabeled Meshuggah as \"one of the ten most important hard and heavy bands\",andAlternative Pressdescribed them as the \"most important band in metal\".Meshuggah has been described as virtuoso or genius-bordering musicians,\"recognized by mainstream music magazines, especially those dedicated to particular instruments\".In 2007, Meshuggah earned an in-depth analysis by the academic journalMusic Theory Spectrum.Meshuggah has found little mainstream success but is a significant act in extremeunderground music, an influence for modern metal bandsand has acult following.Meshuggah inspired the \"djent\" subgenre in progressive metal,that describes an \"elastic, syncopated guitar riff\" with its name.They were described as being \"the first djent band completely by accident\";in a 2018 interview, Hagström jokingly apologised for the band's role in creating the term, calling it a \"drunk misunderstanding\". Members Current Former Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Loudwire Music Awards Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards Revolver Music Awards Decibel Magazine IMPALA Grammy Awards Notes References External links Videos"],"string":"[\n \"Dismal Euphony Dismal Euphonywas a metal band from Norway that mixed styles includinggothic metal, melodic metal,black metalandclassical music. History The history of Dismal Euphony began in 1992 in Stavanger, Norway by bassist Ole K. Helgesen and drummer Kristoffer Vold Austrheim under the name The Headless Children, a cover band ofSlayerandKreator. A year later singer Erik Borgen and guitarist Kenneth Bergsagel joined the group. They changed the name to Carnal Tomb, then Borgen left the band and Helgesen became the singer/bassist with the female voice of Linn Achre Tveit (Keltziva). Elin Overskott joined the band as a keyboard player. This was the first line-up of Dismal Euphony, officially formed in 1995. In the same year, the group composed the demoSpellbound. After this publication, they were signed byNapalm Records. Here they produced other albums likeSoria Moria slott,Autumn Leaves: The Rebellion of Tidesand theLady AblazeEP (which already features Anja Natasha as female singer). Later, Dismal Euphony joinedNuclear Blastand releasedAll Little Devils, with the new female singer Anja Natasha. Their last album isPython Zero. After this release the band split up. Band members Last known line-up Former members Discography\",\n \"All Little Devils All Little Devilsis the third studio album by the Norwegiangothic metalbandDismal Euphony. It was released in 1999, and was the band's first album withNuclear Blast. Track listing Production Notes This 1990s metal album–related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.\",\n \"Nuclear Blast Nuclear Blast Recordsis a Germanrecord labelwithsubsidiariesin Germany, the United States and Brazil. It was founded in 1987 by Markus Staiger inDonzdorf. Originally releasinghardcore punkrecords, the label moved on to releasing albums bythrash metal,melodic death metal,grindcore,industrial metal,power metalandblack metalbands, as well astribute albums. It also distributes and promotes post-hardcore/metalcore labelsSharpTone Records; another post-hardcore/metalcore label,Arising Empire, was in Nuclear Blast portfolio until its acquirement by Kontor New Media in 2020. In October 2018, French independent labelBelieve Digitalacquired a majority stake in Nuclear Blast. History Nuclear Blast was formed in 1987 after founder Markus Staiger traveled throughout the United States for four weeks and saw a gig of his favorite bandBL'AST!. The label's first release was a vinyl compilation calledSenseless Death(NB 001) featuring US hardcore bands like Attitude, Sacred Denial, Impulse Manslaughter and others. Swedish bandMeshuggahbecame the first band in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack theBillboard200, landing at number 165 with their 2002 album,Nothing. Meshuggah also became the first Nuclear Blast band to be reviewed inRolling Stonemagazine. In 2004, Finnish symphonic metal bandNightwishreleasedOnceon Nuclear Blast, which rocketed to the top of the charts in multiple countries, including Finland, Germany, Norway, Greece, Sweden, Austria, and more. It became the first release in the company's history to reach number 1 on the German charts.Slayerreleased the albumRepentlessin 2015 which went to number 4 on theBillboard 200making it the highest charting Nuclear Blast release in the United States. During the 2000s and 2010s, Nuclear Blast signed many veteranthrash metalbands includingSlayer,Exodus,Testament,Anthrax,Kreator,Overkill,Sepultura,Destruction,Tankard,Death Angel,andHeathen. In 2021, Nuclear Blast founder Markus Staiger launched a new record company calledAtomic FireGmbH. In June 2022, Nuclear Blast unveiled a new logo. The logo caused some controversy when the canned water companyLiquid Deathjokingly noted its similarities with their logo (which also features a melting skull), inadvertedly leading to its designer, Justin Moll, receiving hate mail.Liquid Death quickly apologized for the joke, saying that it was not targeted at Moll but at Nuclear Blast, whose personnel had reportedly raised concerns over the new logo's similarities with Liquid Death's before it was implemented. On 23 August 2022, the video gameSaints Rowwas released, which features an in-game radio station that includes Nuclear Blast artists. Blood Blast Distribution Blood Blast Distribution is a subsidiary of Nuclear Blast that focuses solely on the distribution of extreme music. The company was founded in 2020 by Bryce Lucien, Jerome Riera, Denis Ladegaillerie and Myriam Silberstein. See also References External links\",\n \"Meshuggah Meshuggah(/məˈʃʊɡə/)is a Swedishextreme metalband formed inUmeåin 1987. Since 2004, the band's lineup consists of founding members Jens Kidman (lead vocals) andFredrik Thordendal(lead guitar), alongside rhythm guitaristMårten Hagström, drummerTomas Haakeand bassistDick Lövgren. Since its formation, the band has released nine studio albums, sixEPsand eight music videos. Their latest studio album,Immutable, was released in April 2022 viaAtomic Fire Records. Meshuggah has become known for their innovative musical style and their complex,polymeteredsong structures andpolyrhythms. They rose to fame as a significant act in extremeunderground music, became an influence for modern metal bands, and gained acult following. The band was labelled as one of the ten most importanthard rockandheavy metalbands byRolling Stoneand as the most important band in metal byAlternative Press. In the late 2000s, the band was an inspiration for thedjentsubgenre. In 2006 and 2009, Meshuggah was nominated for two SwedishGrammis Awardsfor their albumsCatch ThirtythreeandobZen, respectively. In 2018, the band was nominated for aGrammy Awardfor their song \\\"Clockworks\\\" under the \\\"Best Metal Performance\\\" category.The band has performed in various international festivals, includingOzzfestandDownload, and embarked on theobZenworld tourfrom 2008 to 2010, and also the \\\"Ophidian Trek\\\". History Formation andContradictions Collapse(1987–1994) In 1985, guitaristFredrik Thordendalformed a band inUmeå,a university town in northern Sweden with a population of 105,000.The band, originally named Metallien, recorded a number ofdemo tapes, after which it disbanded. Thordendal, however, continued playing under a different name with new band members. Meshuggah was formed in 1987by lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist Jens Kidman,and took the name Meshuggah from theYiddishword for \\\"crazy\\\"(ultimately derived from theHebrewwordמְשׁוּגָע). Kidman found the word in an American street slang dictionary.The band recorded several demos before Kidman left, which prompted the remaining members to disband. Kidman then formed a new band, Calipash, with guitarist Thordendal, bassist Peter Nordin and drummer Niklas Lundgren.Kidman, who also played guitar,and Thordendal decided to restore the name Meshuggah for the new band. In 1989, Meshuggah released the self-titled, three-songEPMeshuggah,which is commonly known asPsykisk Testbild(a title that could be translated as \\\"Psychological Test-Picture\\\").This 12\\\" (30 cm) vinyl EP had only 1,000 copies released, sold by local record store Garageland.The EP's back cover features the band members with cheese doodles on their faces. After replacing drummer Niklas Lundgren withTomas Haakein 1990, Meshuggah signed a contract with German heavy metalrecord labelNuclear Blastand recorded its debut full-length album,Contradictions Collapse.The LP, originally entitled(All this because of) Greed,was released in 1991.The album received positive reviews, but was not a commercial success.Soon after, Kidman decided to concentrate on vocals,and guitaristMårten Hagström,who had already played in a band with Haake when they were in sixth grade, was recruited.The new lineup recorded the EPNoneat Tonteknik Recordings in Umeå in 1994 for release later that year.A Japanese version was also released, including lyrics printed in Japanese. During this period, Thordendal, who was working as a carpenter, severed the tip of his left middle finger, while Haake injured his hand in a router accident.As a result, the band was unable to perform for several months. Thordendal's fingertip was later reattached, and he went on to make a full recovery.TheSelfcagedEP was recorded in April and May 1994, but its release was delayed to later in 1995 due to the accidents. Destroy Erase Improve(1995–1997) In January 1995, Meshuggah undertook a short European tour organized by its record label Nuclear Blast. Afterwards, the band returned to the studio in February of that year to record the albumDestroy Erase Improveat Soundfront Studios inUppsala, with Daniel Bergstrand as a producer.Shortly thereafter, the band went on a European tour supportingMachine Headfor two months.During the tour, Nordin became ill and experiencedbalance disorderwith hisinner ear. Due to the resulting chronic dizziness and vertigo, Nordin was forced to leave the tour and travel to Sweden. Machine Head's bassistAdam Duceoffered to cover his absence; however, Meshuggah decided to continue as a four-piece. Sometimes Thordendal played bass, while other times the band performed with two guitars. In this lineup, Hagström would use apitch shifterto play his guitar at anoctavelower than usual. Destroy Erase Improvewas released in May 1995, with positive response from critics for the \\\"heady tempos and abstract approach\\\".Kidman described the album cover: \\\"The title fits the pictures we cut out and stole from reference books in the library.\\\" In mid-1995, Meshuggah had a short tour with Swedish bandClawfingerin Scandinavia and Germany. Nordin had to leave the band because of his sickness and was replaced by bassist Gustaf Hielm during the tour.In late 1995, Meshuggah went on a month-long tour withHypocrisy. During 1996 and 1997, Thordendal worked on his solo albumSol Niger Within, which was released in March 1997 in Scandinavia and in April in Japan. He also hostedMats/Morgan Band's debut. In 1997, Meshuggah recorded an unreleased demo, toured occasionally, and played a few concerts in its hometown. In May, Meshuggah moved to Stockholm to be closer to its management and the record industry in general. The EPThe True Human Designwas recorded and released in late 1997. It contained one new song entitled \\\"Sane\\\", and one live and two alternate versions ofDestroy Erase Improve's opening track \\\"Future Breed Machine\\\".Thordendal's solo albumSol Niger Withinwas simultaneously released in the United States, and Meshuggah started to plan its next album at the end of the year. ChaosphereandNothing(1998–2002) Hielm officially joined the band in January 1998 after more than two years as a session member. Nuclear Blast re-releasedContradictions Collapsewith the addition of songs from theNoneEP. In May 1998, the title of the next album,Chaosphere, was reported and recording was done throughout May and June. Immediately after recording the album, Meshuggah went on a short US tour, and the album was released later in November 1998. Chaosphere's sound is an almost complete departure from the thrash metal style of the band's previous releases. Shortly after the release, Meshuggah toured Scandinavia withEntombed. In early 1999, Meshuggah joinedSlayeron their U.S. tour.After the new album and the live performances, Meshuggah was beginning to be recognized by mainstream music, guitar, drum and metal magazines.In mid-1999, Meshuggah performed in several Swedish concerts. The band started to write some new material but reported in mid-2000 that \\\"songwriting isn't that dramatic, but we're getting there slowly\\\".While fans were waiting for the next album, a collection of demos (from thePsykisk TestbildEP), remixes and unreleased songs from theChaospheresessions were released as theRare Traxalbum.Hielm left the band in July 2001 for unclear reasons.Meshuggah joinedToolon a lengthy tour, playing for more than 100,000 people total. In March 2002, Meshuggah recorded three-track demos with programmed drums in their home studio, which were based on Haake's sampleDrumkit from Hell. The upcoming album was recorded in five to six weeks in Mayand was produced by the band at Dug-Out Studios in Uppsala and at its home studio in Stockholm.The last-minute decision to join 2002'sOzzfesttour forced the band to mix the album in two days and master it in one.Meshuggah immediately went on another US tour after finishing the recording. The albumNothingwas released in August 2002,selling 6,525 copies during its first week in the US and reaching No. 165 on theBillboard200.With this album, Meshuggah became the first band in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack theBillboard200 and also became the first band signed to Nuclear Blast to be reviewed inRolling Stonemagazine.Meshuggah's previous two releases, 1998'sChaosphereand 1995'sDestroy Erase Improve, had sold 38,773 and 30,712 copies to that date, respectively.The CD booklet ofNothinghas no liner notes, lyrics, or credits, only a hint of one word:ingenting, which is Swedish fornothing. All of this information is available on the CD-ROM.At the end of 2002, the band went on another US tour with Tooland a headlining tour of its own. IandCatch Thirtythree(2003–2006) In 2003, Hagström hinted at the direction of the band's next album by saying, \\\"There's only one thing I really feel that is important. We've never measured our success in terms of sales, because we're quite an extreme band. It's more that people understand where we're coming from. I get more out of a fan coming up and saying that we've totally changed their way of looking on metal music, than having like 200 kids buy it. I mean, it would be nice for the money, but that's not why we're in it. So what I'd like to see is that we keep progressing. Keeping the core of what Meshuggah has always been, but exploring the bar, so to speak.Destroy Erase Improvewas like exploring the dynamics of the band,Chaospherewas exploring the aggressiveness, the all-out side, andNothingis more of a sinister, dark, pretty slow album, actually. So honestly, now I don't know where we're going. It might be a mix of all of them.\\\" In February 2004, bassistDick Lövgrenjoined Meshuggah.The band then recorded and released theIEP, which contains a single, 21-minute track, released onFractured Transmitter Records.Meshuggah spent about six months in total on recording the EP.Catch Thirtythree, the only Meshuggah album on whichprogrammed drumshave been used, was released the following year in May 2005.Seven thousand copies ofCatch Thirtythreewere sold the first week, and it debuted at No. 170 on theBillboard200 chart in June 2005.The video for the track \\\"Shed\\\" was released in June, and the previous albumNothingsold approximately 80,000 copies in the United States to that date, according toNielsen SoundScan.Catch Thirtythreeearned the band aSwedish Grammynomination.In October 2005, German bandRammsteinreleased a single of their song \\\"Benzin\\\" with a remixed version by Meshuggah. In December 2005, 10 years after signing its first record deal with the publishing companyWarner/Chappell Music Scandinavia, Meshuggah extended its cooperation with the company.In November 2005, Haake said in an interview that the band was not content with the productions ofChaosphereandNothing, because, being on tour, they had little time to devote to them. A remixed and remastered version ofNothingwith rerecorded guitars was released in a custom-shaped slipcase featuring a three-dimensional hologram card on 31 October 2006, via Nuclear Blast Records. The release also includes a bonus DVD featuring the band's appearance at the Download 2005 festival and the official music videos of \\\"Rational Gaze\\\", \\\"Shed\\\" and \\\"New Millennium Cyanide Christ\\\". obZenandKoloss(2007–2013) Meshuggah returned to the studio in March 2007 to recordobZen, with recording concluding in October 2007, and the album being released in March 2008.The band spent almost a year on the album, its longest recording session yet. A significant portion of the year was spent learning to perform the songs they wrote; the recording itself took six months.obZenreached No. 59 on theBillboard200 chart, selling 11,400 U.S. copies in its first week of release and 50,000 copies after six months.WithobZen, Meshuggah received more media attention and attracted new fans.The release was followed bya world tour, which started in the U.S. and proceeded to Europe, Asia and Australia. In May 2008, Meshuggah published a music video for the song \\\"Bleed\\\", which was produced byIan McFarlandand was written, directed and edited by Mike Pecci and Ian McFarland. Killswitch Productions said: \\\"It's extremely cool to work with a band who is willing to allow the music and imagery to speak for itself and who does not insist on themselves being the prominent focus of the video.\\\" In January 2009,obZenwas nominated for the SwedishGrammisaward in the \\\"Best Hard Rock\\\" category.In February 2009, Haake announced that the band was planning a concert DVD and a studio album.In April, Meshuggah was forced to cancel its Scandinavian shows in early 2009, due to Haake'sherniated discin his lower back, which was causing problems with his right foot when playing.Haake later underwent a surgery and recovered for European summer festivals. The concert DVD entitledAlivewas released on 5 February 2010 in Europe and 9 February in North America.Thordendal started to work on a second solo album in June 2010 with theBelgiandrummerDirk Verbeuren. The seventh studio album,Koloss, was released on 23 March 2012 in Germany, on 26 March in the rest of Europe, and 27 March in North America.Kolossreached No. 17 on the Billboard Top 200, and sold 18,342 copies in its first week.In Sweden, it reached No. 12. Pitch BlackandThe Violent Sleep of Reason(2013–2018) On 5 February 2013, Meshuggah released a free two-track EP entitledPitch BlackwithScion A/V.The EP features a previously unreleased track, \\\"Pitch Black\\\", that was recorded byFredrik Thordendalin 2003 at Fear and Loathing, in Stockholm Sweden.The second track is a live recording of \\\"Dancers to a Discordant System\\\" fromobZen. The track was recorded at Distortion Fest in Eindhoven, Netherlands, on 9 December 2012. On 12 May 2016, Meshuggah released a teaser video on their YouTube page and confirmed that their next studio album was to be released in late 2016. On 28 July 2016, the title was revealed to beThe Violent Sleep of Reason, and was given a 7 October release date.The Violent Sleep of Reasonwas shortlisted byIMPALA(The Independent Music Companies Association) for the Album of the Year Award 2016, which rewards on a yearly basis the best album released on an independent European label. On 2 June 2017, Meshuggah announced that Thordendal would take a leave from touring with the band; he would be temporarily replaced byPer NilssonfromScar Symmetry.In 2018, Meshuggah received aGrammy nominationfor their song \\\"Clockworks\\\" under the \\\"Best Metal Performance\\\" category. Immutable(2019–present) In a November 2019 interview, Hagström hinted that the band had begun working on a new album.Recording started in March 2021.Later that month the band stated that Fredrik Thordendal had ended his hiatus and would be participating fully in the recording of the new album.On 28 January 2022, Meshuggah released a new song titled \\\"The Abysmal Eye\\\" taken from the band's ninth albumImmutable, which was later released on 1 April 2022 via Atomic Fire. Musical style Meshuggah's experimentation, stylistic variation and changes during its career cross several musical subgenres. Heavy metal subgenresexperimental metaloravant-garde metalare umbrella terms that enable description of the career of the band in general.Extreme metalcrosses boththrash metalanddeath metal(ortechnical death metal), which are at root of the sound of Meshuggah's music, which has also been described asgroove metal.The band has also been labelled as math metal andprogressive metal.Meshuggah also incorporates elements ofexperimental jazz.In its review ofNothing,AllMusicdescribes Meshuggah as \\\"masterminds of cosmic calculus metal—call it Einstein metal if you want\\\".Meshuggah's early output was also consideredalternative metal.Meshuggah creates a recognizable sonic imprintand distinct style. Trademarks and characteristics that define Meshuggah's sound and songwriting includepolyrhythms,polymeteredriff cycles, rhythmicsyncopation, rapidkeyandtempochanges and neo-jazzchromatics.Hagström notes that \\\"it doesn't really matter if something is hard to play or not. The thing is, what does it do to your mind when you listen to it? Where does it take you?\\\"A trademark of Thordendal isjazz fusion-like soloing and improvisation. He is also known for the usage of a \\\"breath controller\\\" device. Haake is known for hiscross-rhythmdrumming with \\\"jazzlike cadence\\\".The vocal style of Jens Kidman varies betweenhardcore-style shoutsand \\\"robotic\\\"death metal vocals. In polymeters typically used by Meshuggah, the guitars might play in odd meters such as 5/16 or 17/16, while drums play in 4/4.One particular example of Haake's use of polymeter is 4/4 against 23/16 bimeter, in which he keeps thehi-hatorchina cymbalin 4/4 time but uses thesnareanddouble bass drumsin 23/16 time.On \\\"Rational Gaze\\\" (fromNothing), Haake plays simple 4/4 time, hitting the snare on each third beat, for 16 bars. At the same time, the guitars and bass are playing the same quarter notes, albeit in a different time signature; eventually both sides meet up again at the 64th beat.Hagström notes about the polymeters, \\\"We've never really been into the odd time signatures we get accused of using. Everything we do is based around a 4/4 core. It's just that we arrange parts differently around that center to make it seem like something else is going on.\\\" Contradictions Collapse,Destroy Erase ImproveandChaosphere The early work of Meshuggah, influenced mainly byMetallica, is \\\"simpler and more straightforward than their more recent material, but some of their more progressive elements are present in the form of time-changes and polyrhythmics, and Fredrik Thordendal's lead playing stands out\\\".According toAllMusic, theirdebut albumis a relatively immature, but original, release.Double bass drumsand \\\"angular\\\" riffing also defined the early work of Meshuggah. With the groundbreakingDestroy Erase Improve, Meshuggah showedfusionof death metal, thrash metal, progressive metal.AllMusic describes the style as \\\"weaving hardcore-style shouts amongst deceptively (and deviously) simplestaccatoguitar riffs and insanely precise drumming—often with all three components acting in different time signatures\\\".Thordendal adds the melodic element with his typical lead guitarand uses his \\\"breath controller\\\" device most famously on the opening track \\\"Future Breed Machine\\\". Chaosphereincorporates typically fast,still tempo changing death metal. AllMusic compares the genre also withgrindcorefathersNapalm Death.Rockdetector states: \\\"Whilst fans reveled in the maze like meanderings, critics struggled to dissect and analyze, hailing Haake's unconventional use of dual 4/4 and 23/16 rhythm, Kidman's mechanical staccato bark and Thordendal's liberal usage of avant-garde jazz\\\". Nothing,IandCatch Thirtythree OnNothing, Meshuggah abandons the fast tempos ofChaosphereand concentrates on slow,tuned downtemposandgrooves.The album was intended to be recorded using custom-made Nevborneight-string guitars, but the prototypes were faulty so Thordendal and Hagström used down tunedIbanezseven-string guitarsinstead. This technique caused the instruments to slip out of tune during the sessions, which created additional problems.When Ibanez provided Meshuggah with special eight-string guitars with two extra-low strings that worked properly after the initial release, the band re-recorded the guitar parts forNothingand re-released it in 2006.Hagström notes that this allowed the band to go lower sonically and to attain bass sounds on guitars. TheIEP contains a single, 21-minute songof complex arrangements and was a hint of the forthcoming album, 2005'sCatch Thirtythree.The EP, which has never been played live by the band, was written and recorded during jamming sessions of Haake and Thordendal.OnCatch Thirtythree, Meshuggah again used eight-string guitars,but utilized programmed drums for the first time also for the release,with the exception of two songs from 2001's compilationRare Trax.The album was self-produced by the band and was recorded at the studio that Meshuggah shares with Clawfinger. Hagström notes, \\\"The eight-strings really have given us a whole new musical vocabulary to work with. Part of it is the restrictions they impose: you really can't play power chords with them; the sound just turns to mush. Instead, we concentrated on coming up with really unusual single-note parts, new tunings and chord voicings. We wanted to get as far away from any kind of conventions and traditions as we could on the album, so the guitars worked out beautifully.\\\" Catch Thirtythreeis one 47-minute song divided into 13 sections.It is more mid-tempo guitar riff based, and a more straightforward and experimental full-length album thanChaosphereorNothing.Nick Terry ofDecibel Magazinedescribes the album as a four-movementsymphony.Some songs still use Meshuggah's \\\"familiar template combining harsh vocals and nightmarish melodies over coarse, mechanically advancing, oddball tempos\\\", while others explore ambient sounds and quieter dynamics.The first part ofCatch Thirtythreecenters around two simple riffs.In the song \\\"In Death - Is Death\\\", the band uses a combination of noise and silence, which is in contrast with the atypical melodies on \\\"Dehumanization\\\". On \\\"Mind's Mirrors\\\", Meshuggah used electronics, programming and \\\"robotic voices\\\". \\\"Shed\\\" incorporates tribal percussion and whispered vocals. obZenandKoloss With 2008'sobZen, Meshuggah moved away from the experimentation of 2002'sNothingand 2005'sCatch Thirtythreeto return to the musical style of its previous albums, such asContradictions Collapse,Destroy Erase ImproveandChaosphere,while still maintaining its focus on musical and technical innovation. The album loses some of the quick, mathematical rhythmic changes of past releases and the melodic orchestration ofCatch Thirty-Threeand uses \\\"angular\\\" riffs,mid-tempo and common 4/4 beats.The album is a culmination of the band's previous work.Meshuggah decided to self-produce because it sought to retain artistic control over the recording and mixing process. ForobZen, Haake returned to the drum kit most notably with his performance on the song \\\"Bleed\\\".In an interview for Gravemusic.com, Haake stated, \\\" was a big effort for me to learn, I had to find a totally new approach to playing the double bass drums to be able to do that stuff. I had never really done anything like that before like the fast bursts that go all the way through the song basically. So I actually spent as much time practicing that track alone as I did with all of the other tracks combined. It's kind of a big feat to change your approach like that and I'm glad we were able to nail it for the album. For a while though we didn't even know if it was going to make it to the album.\\\"Hagström also stated, \\\"obZenis one of the most highly technical offerings the band has ever put to tape\\\".Revolver Magazineconfirms this statement: \\\"At first listen,obZenseems less challenging to the listener than some of the band's other records, and most of the songs flow smoothly from one syncopated passage to the next. However, careful examination reveals that the material is some of the group's most complicated\\\". A common quality inKolossidentified by multiple critics and outlets is the album's relatively straightforward, more groove-oriented sound, summed up byMetal Sucksas the band having \\\"streamlined their compositions to a great extent.\\\"The broad style of the record has been described as \\\"primal\\\" and featuring \\\"less jazzy virtuosity\\\" than the band's previous output.Pitchforknoted that the record's rawer production style advanced this \\\"tribal\\\" sound further.The album invokes a greater sound of menace and \\\"darkness\\\" according to Metal Injection; additionally, Jens Kidman's vocals were described as \\\"exponentially more anguished\\\" than previous works.Metal Injectionfurther compared the sound of the album's closing track \\\"The Last Vigil\\\" to works by the instrumental bandGodspeed You! Black Emperor.The record's guitar riffs have been noted as deviating somewhat from Meshuggah's earlier catalog, withSPINidentifying \\\"an almost bluesy swing\\\" in the playing style.SPINfurther elaborated on the guitar leads, comparing the solos in \\\"The Demon's Name is Surveillance\\\" and \\\"Marrow\\\" to the (non-metal) works of experimental composerPhilip Glassand jazz-guitaristAllan Holdsworthrespectively. The Violent Sleep of Reason For their eighth album, the band recorded live in studio, a production style they hadn't pursued in reportedly \\\"20, 25 years\\\".On rejecting the computerized format of recording of their previous albums, Haake said \\\"ObzenandKolossare great albums, but, to me, they are a little too perfect. It didn't really capture what we sounded like honestly. But where we recorded live, you get to hear the push and pull, one person might be a little ahead and the other might be a little behind. If you kill that, you can kill the energy.\\\"It is the first album to have no writing credit from Thordendal; the majority of the album was written by Haake and Lövgren. Method and lyrical themes Meshuggah's music is written by Thordendal, Hagström and Haake with assistance from Kidman and Lövgren. During songwriting, a member programs the drums, and records the guitar and bass via computer. He presents his idea to the other members as a finished work. Meshuggah typically adheres to the original idea and rarely changes the song afterwards.Hagström explains that each member has an idea of what the others are doing conceptually, and nobody thinks exclusively in terms of a particular instrument. Kidman does not play guitar in the band anymore, but he is involved in writing riffs.Except for when Hagström needs a soloist, he and Thordendal rarely record together. Both play guitar and bass while composing. Haake says about his songwriting, \\\"Sometimes I'll sample guitar parts, cut them up, pitch-shift and tweak them until I've built the riffs I want, just for demoing purposes. But most of the time I'll just present the drums, and explain my ideas for the rest of the song, sing some riffs.\\\"The band usesCubaseto record the tracks, and the guitars are routed through softwareamplifier modeling, because it allows them to change the amp settings even after the song was fully recorded. Approximately once a year, Haake writes most of the band's lyrics, with the exception of finished tracks. His lyrical inspirations are derived from books and films. Aside from their albumCatch Thirtythree, Meshuggah does not usually recordconcept albums, although the band prefers strong conceptual underpinnings in the background.Oftenesotericand conceptual,Meshuggah's lyrics explore themes such asexistentialism.AllMusic describesDestroy Erase Improve's lyrical focus as \\\"the integration of machines with organisms as humanity's next logical evolutionary step\\\".PopMatters' review ofNothingsingles out the lyrics from \\\"Rational Gaze\\\": \\\"Our light-induced image of truth—filtered blank of its substance / As our eyes won't adhere to intuitive lines / Everything examined. Separated, one thing at a time / The harder we stare the more complete the disintegration.\\\"Haake explains thatCatch Thirtythree's cover, title and lyrics deal with \\\"the paradoxes/negations/contradictions of life and death (as we see it in our finest moments of unrestrained metaphoric interpretation)\\\".The main theme ofobZenis \\\"human evil\\\", according to Haake. The title is a play on the words \\\"obscene\\\" and \\\"Zen\\\"; in addition, \\\"ob\\\" means \\\"anti\\\" in Latin. Therefore, the title suggests that the human species has found harmony and balance in warfare and bloodshed.Revolver Magazinefinds the lyrics of the title track fromobZenrepresentative of the entire album: \\\"Salvation found in vomit and blood/Where depravation, lies, corruption/War and pain is god.\\\" However, Haake claims, \\\"We don't dwell on hate and bad feelings as people. But with these songs, I think we really wanted to paint a picture lyrically that might be seen as a cautionary tale. We're going, 'Heads up. Here's what some of the parts of being human are about, and this is what we can be at our worst.' So it's more about being aware of negative feelings than actually living them all the time.\\\" Analysis Meshuggah has become known for its innovative musical style that evolves between each release and pushesheavy metalinto new territory, and for its technical prowess.Hagström commented: \\\"We try never to repeat ourselves.\\\"RockDetectorstated aboutDestroy Erase Improve: \\\"he band...stripped Metal down to the bare essentials before completely rebuilding it in a totally abstract form\\\".The official Meshuggah biography comments onChaosphereby noting that \\\"Some fans felt that Meshuggah had left their dynamic and progressive elements behind; while others thought they were only progressing naturally and focusing on their original sound.\\\"The band's website also describesNothingas displaying \\\"a very mature and convincing Meshuggah, now focusing on groove and sound...Meshuggah once again divided their fans into the 'ecstatic' and the 'slightly disappointed'\\\".The polyrhythms can make the music soundcacophonous, like band members are playing different songs simultaneously.Listeners perceiving a polyrhythm often either extract a composite pattern that is fitted to a metric framework, or focus on one rhythmic stream while treating others as \\\"noise\\\". Legacy Rolling Stonelabeled Meshuggah as \\\"one of the ten most important hard and heavy bands\\\",andAlternative Pressdescribed them as the \\\"most important band in metal\\\".Meshuggah has been described as virtuoso or genius-bordering musicians,\\\"recognized by mainstream music magazines, especially those dedicated to particular instruments\\\".In 2007, Meshuggah earned an in-depth analysis by the academic journalMusic Theory Spectrum.Meshuggah has found little mainstream success but is a significant act in extremeunderground music, an influence for modern metal bandsand has acult following.Meshuggah inspired the \\\"djent\\\" subgenre in progressive metal,that describes an \\\"elastic, syncopated guitar riff\\\" with its name.They were described as being \\\"the first djent band completely by accident\\\";in a 2018 interview, Hagström jokingly apologised for the band's role in creating the term, calling it a \\\"drunk misunderstanding\\\". Members Current Former Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Loudwire Music Awards Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards Revolver Music Awards Decibel Magazine IMPALA Grammy Awards Notes References External links Videos\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Dismal Euphony Dismal Euphonywas a metal band from Norway that mixed styles includinggothic metal, melodic metal,black metalandclassical music. History The history of Dismal Euphony began in 1992 in Stavanger, Norway by bassist Ole K. Helgesen and drummer Kristoffer Vold Austrheim under the name The Headless Children, a cover band ofSlayerandKreator. A year later singer Erik Borgen and guitarist Kenneth Bergsagel joined the group. They changed the name to Carnal Tomb, then Borgen left the band and Helgesen became the singer/bassist with the female voice of Linn Achre Tveit (Keltziva). Elin Overskott joined the band as a keyboard player. This was the first line-up of Dismal Euphony, officially formed in 1995. In the same year, the group composed the demoSpellbound. After this publication, they were signed byNapalm Records. Here they produced other albums likeSoria Moria slott,Autumn Leaves: The Rebellion of Tidesand theLady AblazeEP (which already features Anja Natasha as female singer). Later, Dismal Euphony","Dismal Euphony joinedNuclear Blastand releasedAll Little Devils, with the new female singer Anja Natasha. Their last album isPython Zero. After this release the band split up. Band members Last known line-up Former members Discography","All Little Devils All Little Devilsis the third studio album by the Norwegiangothic metalbandDismal Euphony. It was released in 1999, and was the band's first album withNuclear Blast. Track listing Production Notes This 1990s metal album–related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.","Nuclear Blast Nuclear Blast Recordsis a Germanrecord labelwithsubsidiariesin Germany, the United States and Brazil. It was founded in 1987 by Markus Staiger inDonzdorf. Originally releasinghardcore punkrecords, the label moved on to releasing albums bythrash metal,melodic death metal,grindcore,industrial metal,power metalandblack metalbands, as well astribute albums. It also distributes and promotes post-hardcore/metalcore labelsSharpTone Records; another post-hardcore/metalcore label,Arising Empire, was in Nuclear Blast portfolio until its acquirement by Kontor New Media in 2020. In October 2018, French independent labelBelieve Digitalacquired a majority stake in Nuclear Blast. History Nuclear Blast was formed in 1987 after founder Markus Staiger traveled throughout the United States for four weeks and saw a gig of his favorite bandBL'AST!. The label's first release was a vinyl compilation calledSenseless Death(NB 001) featuring US hardcore bands like Attitude, Sacred Denial, Impulse Manslaughter and others.","and others. Swedish bandMeshuggahbecame the first band in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack theBillboard200, landing at number 165 with their 2002 album,Nothing. Meshuggah also became the first Nuclear Blast band to be reviewed inRolling Stonemagazine. In 2004, Finnish symphonic metal bandNightwishreleasedOnceon Nuclear Blast, which rocketed to the top of the charts in multiple countries, including Finland, Germany, Norway, Greece, Sweden, Austria, and more. It became the first release in the company's history to reach number 1 on the German charts.Slayerreleased the albumRepentlessin 2015 which went to number 4 on theBillboard 200making it the highest charting Nuclear Blast release in the United States. During the 2000s and 2010s, Nuclear Blast signed many veteranthrash metalbands includingSlayer,Exodus,Testament,Anthrax,Kreator,Overkill,Sepultura,Destruction,Tankard,Death Angel,andHeathen. In 2021, Nuclear Blast founder Markus Staiger launched a new record company calledAtomic FireGmbH. In June","FireGmbH. In June 2022, Nuclear Blast unveiled a new logo. The logo caused some controversy when the canned water companyLiquid Deathjokingly noted its similarities with their logo (which also features a melting skull), inadvertedly leading to its designer, Justin Moll, receiving hate mail.Liquid Death quickly apologized for the joke, saying that it was not targeted at Moll but at Nuclear Blast, whose personnel had reportedly raised concerns over the new logo's similarities with Liquid Death's before it was implemented. On 23 August 2022, the video gameSaints Rowwas released, which features an in-game radio station that includes Nuclear Blast artists. Blood Blast Distribution Blood Blast Distribution is a subsidiary of Nuclear Blast that focuses solely on the distribution of extreme music. The company was founded in 2020 by Bryce Lucien, Jerome Riera, Denis Ladegaillerie and Myriam Silberstein. See also References External links","Meshuggah Meshuggah(/məˈʃʊɡə/)is a Swedishextreme metalband formed inUmeåin 1987. Since 2004, the band's lineup consists of founding members Jens Kidman (lead vocals) andFredrik Thordendal(lead guitar), alongside rhythm guitaristMårten Hagström, drummerTomas Haakeand bassistDick Lövgren. Since its formation, the band has released nine studio albums, sixEPsand eight music videos. Their latest studio album,Immutable, was released in April 2022 viaAtomic Fire Records. Meshuggah has become known for their innovative musical style and their complex,polymeteredsong structures andpolyrhythms. They rose to fame as a significant act in extremeunderground music, became an influence for modern metal bands, and gained acult following. The band was labelled as one of the ten most importanthard rockandheavy metalbands byRolling Stoneand as the most important band in metal byAlternative Press. In the late 2000s, the band was an inspiration for thedjentsubgenre. In 2006 and 2009, Meshuggah was nominated for two","nominated for two SwedishGrammis Awardsfor their albumsCatch ThirtythreeandobZen, respectively. In 2018, the band was nominated for aGrammy Awardfor their song \"Clockworks\" under the \"Best Metal Performance\" category.The band has performed in various international festivals, includingOzzfestandDownload, and embarked on theobZenworld tourfrom 2008 to 2010, and also the \"Ophidian Trek\". History Formation andContradictions Collapse(1987–1994) In 1985, guitaristFredrik Thordendalformed a band inUmeå,a university town in northern Sweden with a population of 105,000.The band, originally named Metallien, recorded a number ofdemo tapes, after which it disbanded. Thordendal, however, continued playing under a different name with new band members. Meshuggah was formed in 1987by lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist Jens Kidman,and took the name Meshuggah from theYiddishword for \"crazy\"(ultimately derived from theHebrewwordמְשׁוּגָע). Kidman found the word in an American street slang dictionary.The band recorded several","recorded several demos before Kidman left, which prompted the remaining members to disband. Kidman then formed a new band, Calipash, with guitarist Thordendal, bassist Peter Nordin and drummer Niklas Lundgren.Kidman, who also played guitar,and Thordendal decided to restore the name Meshuggah for the new band. In 1989, Meshuggah released the self-titled, three-songEPMeshuggah,which is commonly known asPsykisk Testbild(a title that could be translated as \"Psychological Test-Picture\").This 12\" (30 cm) vinyl EP had only 1,000 copies released, sold by local record store Garageland.The EP's back cover features the band members with cheese doodles on their faces. After replacing drummer Niklas Lundgren withTomas Haakein 1990, Meshuggah signed a contract with German heavy metalrecord labelNuclear Blastand recorded its debut full-length album,Contradictions Collapse.The LP, originally entitled(All this because of) Greed,was released in 1991.The album received positive reviews, but was not a commercial success.Soon","success.Soon after, Kidman decided to concentrate on vocals,and guitaristMårten Hagström,who had already played in a band with Haake when they were in sixth grade, was recruited.The new lineup recorded the EPNoneat Tonteknik Recordings in Umeå in 1994 for release later that year.A Japanese version was also released, including lyrics printed in Japanese. During this period, Thordendal, who was working as a carpenter, severed the tip of his left middle finger, while Haake injured his hand in a router accident.As a result, the band was unable to perform for several months. Thordendal's fingertip was later reattached, and he went on to make a full recovery.TheSelfcagedEP was recorded in April and May 1994, but its release was delayed to later in 1995 due to the accidents. Destroy Erase Improve(1995–1997) In January 1995, Meshuggah undertook a short European tour organized by its record label Nuclear Blast. Afterwards, the band returned to the studio in February of that year to record the albumDestroy Erase","albumDestroy Erase Improveat Soundfront Studios inUppsala, with Daniel Bergstrand as a producer.Shortly thereafter, the band went on a European tour supportingMachine Headfor two months.During the tour, Nordin became ill and experiencedbalance disorderwith hisinner ear. Due to the resulting chronic dizziness and vertigo, Nordin was forced to leave the tour and travel to Sweden. Machine Head's bassistAdam Duceoffered to cover his absence; however, Meshuggah decided to continue as a four-piece. Sometimes Thordendal played bass, while other times the band performed with two guitars. In this lineup, Hagström would use apitch shifterto play his guitar at anoctavelower than usual. Destroy Erase Improvewas released in May 1995, with positive response from critics for the \"heady tempos and abstract approach\".Kidman described the album cover: \"The title fits the pictures we cut out and stole from reference books in the library.\" In mid-1995, Meshuggah had a short tour with Swedish bandClawfingerin Scandinavia and","Scandinavia and Germany. Nordin had to leave the band because of his sickness and was replaced by bassist Gustaf Hielm during the tour.In late 1995, Meshuggah went on a month-long tour withHypocrisy. During 1996 and 1997, Thordendal worked on his solo albumSol Niger Within, which was released in March 1997 in Scandinavia and in April in Japan. He also hostedMats/Morgan Band's debut. In 1997, Meshuggah recorded an unreleased demo, toured occasionally, and played a few concerts in its hometown. In May, Meshuggah moved to Stockholm to be closer to its management and the record industry in general. The EPThe True Human Designwas recorded and released in late 1997. It contained one new song entitled \"Sane\", and one live and two alternate versions ofDestroy Erase Improve's opening track \"Future Breed Machine\".Thordendal's solo albumSol Niger Withinwas simultaneously released in the United States, and Meshuggah started to plan its next album at the end of the year. ChaosphereandNothing(1998–2002) Hielm officially","Hielm officially joined the band in January 1998 after more than two years as a session member. Nuclear Blast re-releasedContradictions Collapsewith the addition of songs from theNoneEP. In May 1998, the title of the next album,Chaosphere, was reported and recording was done throughout May and June. Immediately after recording the album, Meshuggah went on a short US tour, and the album was released later in November 1998. Chaosphere's sound is an almost complete departure from the thrash metal style of the band's previous releases. Shortly after the release, Meshuggah toured Scandinavia withEntombed. In early 1999, Meshuggah joinedSlayeron their U.S. tour.After the new album and the live performances, Meshuggah was beginning to be recognized by mainstream music, guitar, drum and metal magazines.In mid-1999, Meshuggah performed in several Swedish concerts. The band started to write some new material but reported in mid-2000 that \"songwriting isn't that dramatic, but we're getting there slowly\".While fans were","fans were waiting for the next album, a collection of demos (from thePsykisk TestbildEP), remixes and unreleased songs from theChaospheresessions were released as theRare Traxalbum.Hielm left the band in July 2001 for unclear reasons.Meshuggah joinedToolon a lengthy tour, playing for more than 100,000 people total. In March 2002, Meshuggah recorded three-track demos with programmed drums in their home studio, which were based on Haake's sampleDrumkit from Hell. The upcoming album was recorded in five to six weeks in Mayand was produced by the band at Dug-Out Studios in Uppsala and at its home studio in Stockholm.The last-minute decision to join 2002'sOzzfesttour forced the band to mix the album in two days and master it in one.Meshuggah immediately went on another US tour after finishing the recording. The albumNothingwas released in August 2002,selling 6,525 copies during its first week in the US and reaching No. 165 on theBillboard200.With this album, Meshuggah became the first band in the history of","in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack theBillboard200 and also became the first band signed to Nuclear Blast to be reviewed inRolling Stonemagazine.Meshuggah's previous two releases, 1998'sChaosphereand 1995'sDestroy Erase Improve, had sold 38,773 and 30,712 copies to that date, respectively.The CD booklet ofNothinghas no liner notes, lyrics, or credits, only a hint of one word:ingenting, which is Swedish fornothing. All of this information is available on the CD-ROM.At the end of 2002, the band went on another US tour with Tooland a headlining tour of its own. IandCatch Thirtythree(2003–2006) In 2003, Hagström hinted at the direction of the band's next album by saying, \"There's only one thing I really feel that is important. We've never measured our success in terms of sales, because we're quite an extreme band. It's more that people understand where we're coming from. I get more out of a fan coming up and saying that we've totally changed their way of looking on metal music, than having like 200","having like 200 kids buy it. I mean, it would be nice for the money, but that's not why we're in it. So what I'd like to see is that we keep progressing. Keeping the core of what Meshuggah has always been, but exploring the bar, so to speak.Destroy Erase Improvewas like exploring the dynamics of the band,Chaospherewas exploring the aggressiveness, the all-out side, andNothingis more of a sinister, dark, pretty slow album, actually. So honestly, now I don't know where we're going. It might be a mix of all of them.\" In February 2004, bassistDick Lövgrenjoined Meshuggah.The band then recorded and released theIEP, which contains a single, 21-minute track, released onFractured Transmitter Records.Meshuggah spent about six months in total on recording the EP.Catch Thirtythree, the only Meshuggah album on whichprogrammed drumshave been used, was released the following year in May 2005.Seven thousand copies ofCatch Thirtythreewere sold the first week, and it debuted at No. 170 on theBillboard200 chart in June","chart in June 2005.The video for the track \"Shed\" was released in June, and the previous albumNothingsold approximately 80,000 copies in the United States to that date, according toNielsen SoundScan.Catch Thirtythreeearned the band aSwedish Grammynomination.In October 2005, German bandRammsteinreleased a single of their song \"Benzin\" with a remixed version by Meshuggah. In December 2005, 10 years after signing its first record deal with the publishing companyWarner/Chappell Music Scandinavia, Meshuggah extended its cooperation with the company.In November 2005, Haake said in an interview that the band was not content with the productions ofChaosphereandNothing, because, being on tour, they had little time to devote to them. A remixed and remastered version ofNothingwith rerecorded guitars was released in a custom-shaped slipcase featuring a three-dimensional hologram card on 31 October 2006, via Nuclear Blast Records. The release also includes a bonus DVD featuring the band's appearance at the Download 2005","the Download 2005 festival and the official music videos of \"Rational Gaze\", \"Shed\" and \"New Millennium Cyanide Christ\". obZenandKoloss(2007–2013) Meshuggah returned to the studio in March 2007 to recordobZen, with recording concluding in October 2007, and the album being released in March 2008.The band spent almost a year on the album, its longest recording session yet. A significant portion of the year was spent learning to perform the songs they wrote; the recording itself took six months.obZenreached No. 59 on theBillboard200 chart, selling 11,400 U.S. copies in its first week of release and 50,000 copies after six months.WithobZen, Meshuggah received more media attention and attracted new fans.The release was followed bya world tour, which started in the U.S. and proceeded to Europe, Asia and Australia. In May 2008, Meshuggah published a music video for the song \"Bleed\", which was produced byIan McFarlandand was written, directed and edited by Mike Pecci and Ian McFarland. Killswitch Productions said:","Productions said: \"It's extremely cool to work with a band who is willing to allow the music and imagery to speak for itself and who does not insist on themselves being the prominent focus of the video.\" In January 2009,obZenwas nominated for the SwedishGrammisaward in the \"Best Hard Rock\" category.In February 2009, Haake announced that the band was planning a concert DVD and a studio album.In April, Meshuggah was forced to cancel its Scandinavian shows in early 2009, due to Haake'sherniated discin his lower back, which was causing problems with his right foot when playing.Haake later underwent a surgery and recovered for European summer festivals. The concert DVD entitledAlivewas released on 5 February 2010 in Europe and 9 February in North America.Thordendal started to work on a second solo album in June 2010 with theBelgiandrummerDirk Verbeuren. The seventh studio album,Koloss, was released on 23 March 2012 in Germany, on 26 March in the rest of Europe, and 27 March in North America.Kolossreached No. 17","No. 17 on the Billboard Top 200, and sold 18,342 copies in its first week.In Sweden, it reached No. 12. Pitch BlackandThe Violent Sleep of Reason(2013–2018) On 5 February 2013, Meshuggah released a free two-track EP entitledPitch BlackwithScion A/V.The EP features a previously unreleased track, \"Pitch Black\", that was recorded byFredrik Thordendalin 2003 at Fear and Loathing, in Stockholm Sweden.The second track is a live recording of \"Dancers to a Discordant System\" fromobZen. The track was recorded at Distortion Fest in Eindhoven, Netherlands, on 9 December 2012. On 12 May 2016, Meshuggah released a teaser video on their YouTube page and confirmed that their next studio album was to be released in late 2016. On 28 July 2016, the title was revealed to beThe Violent Sleep of Reason, and was given a 7 October release date.The Violent Sleep of Reasonwas shortlisted byIMPALA(The Independent Music Companies Association) for the Album of the Year Award 2016, which rewards on a yearly basis the best album released","best album released on an independent European label. On 2 June 2017, Meshuggah announced that Thordendal would take a leave from touring with the band; he would be temporarily replaced byPer NilssonfromScar Symmetry.In 2018, Meshuggah received aGrammy nominationfor their song \"Clockworks\" under the \"Best Metal Performance\" category. Immutable(2019–present) In a November 2019 interview, Hagström hinted that the band had begun working on a new album.Recording started in March 2021.Later that month the band stated that Fredrik Thordendal had ended his hiatus and would be participating fully in the recording of the new album.On 28 January 2022, Meshuggah released a new song titled \"The Abysmal Eye\" taken from the band's ninth albumImmutable, which was later released on 1 April 2022 via Atomic Fire. Musical style Meshuggah's experimentation, stylistic variation and changes during its career cross several musical subgenres. Heavy metal subgenresexperimental metaloravant-garde metalare umbrella terms that enable","terms that enable description of the career of the band in general.Extreme metalcrosses boththrash metalanddeath metal(ortechnical death metal), which are at root of the sound of Meshuggah's music, which has also been described asgroove metal.The band has also been labelled as math metal andprogressive metal.Meshuggah also incorporates elements ofexperimental jazz.In its review ofNothing,AllMusicdescribes Meshuggah as \"masterminds of cosmic calculus metal—call it Einstein metal if you want\".Meshuggah's early output was also consideredalternative metal.Meshuggah creates a recognizable sonic imprintand distinct style. Trademarks and characteristics that define Meshuggah's sound and songwriting includepolyrhythms,polymeteredriff cycles, rhythmicsyncopation, rapidkeyandtempochanges and neo-jazzchromatics.Hagström notes that \"it doesn't really matter if something is hard to play or not. The thing is, what does it do to your mind when you listen to it? Where does it take you?\"A trademark of Thordendal isjazz","Thordendal isjazz fusion-like soloing and improvisation. He is also known for the usage of a \"breath controller\" device. Haake is known for hiscross-rhythmdrumming with \"jazzlike cadence\".The vocal style of Jens Kidman varies betweenhardcore-style shoutsand \"robotic\"death metal vocals. In polymeters typically used by Meshuggah, the guitars might play in odd meters such as 5/16 or 17/16, while drums play in 4/4.One particular example of Haake's use of polymeter is 4/4 against 23/16 bimeter, in which he keeps thehi-hatorchina cymbalin 4/4 time but uses thesnareanddouble bass drumsin 23/16 time.On \"Rational Gaze\" (fromNothing), Haake plays simple 4/4 time, hitting the snare on each third beat, for 16 bars. At the same time, the guitars and bass are playing the same quarter notes, albeit in a different time signature; eventually both sides meet up again at the 64th beat.Hagström notes about the polymeters, \"We've never really been into the odd time signatures we get accused of using. Everything we do is based","we do is based around a 4/4 core. It's just that we arrange parts differently around that center to make it seem like something else is going on.\" Contradictions Collapse,Destroy Erase ImproveandChaosphere The early work of Meshuggah, influenced mainly byMetallica, is \"simpler and more straightforward than their more recent material, but some of their more progressive elements are present in the form of time-changes and polyrhythmics, and Fredrik Thordendal's lead playing stands out\".According toAllMusic, theirdebut albumis a relatively immature, but original, release.Double bass drumsand \"angular\" riffing also defined the early work of Meshuggah. With the groundbreakingDestroy Erase Improve, Meshuggah showedfusionof death metal, thrash metal, progressive metal.AllMusic describes the style as \"weaving hardcore-style shouts amongst deceptively (and deviously) simplestaccatoguitar riffs and insanely precise drumming—often with all three components acting in different time signatures\".Thordendal adds the","adds the melodic element with his typical lead guitarand uses his \"breath controller\" device most famously on the opening track \"Future Breed Machine\". Chaosphereincorporates typically fast,still tempo changing death metal. AllMusic compares the genre also withgrindcorefathersNapalm Death.Rockdetector states: \"Whilst fans reveled in the maze like meanderings, critics struggled to dissect and analyze, hailing Haake's unconventional use of dual 4/4 and 23/16 rhythm, Kidman's mechanical staccato bark and Thordendal's liberal usage of avant-garde jazz\". Nothing,IandCatch Thirtythree OnNothing, Meshuggah abandons the fast tempos ofChaosphereand concentrates on slow,tuned downtemposandgrooves.The album was intended to be recorded using custom-made Nevborneight-string guitars, but the prototypes were faulty so Thordendal and Hagström used down tunedIbanezseven-string guitarsinstead. This technique caused the instruments to slip out of tune during the sessions, which created additional problems.When Ibanez provided","Ibanez provided Meshuggah with special eight-string guitars with two extra-low strings that worked properly after the initial release, the band re-recorded the guitar parts forNothingand re-released it in 2006.Hagström notes that this allowed the band to go lower sonically and to attain bass sounds on guitars. TheIEP contains a single, 21-minute songof complex arrangements and was a hint of the forthcoming album, 2005'sCatch Thirtythree.The EP, which has never been played live by the band, was written and recorded during jamming sessions of Haake and Thordendal.OnCatch Thirtythree, Meshuggah again used eight-string guitars,but utilized programmed drums for the first time also for the release,with the exception of two songs from 2001's compilationRare Trax.The album was self-produced by the band and was recorded at the studio that Meshuggah shares with Clawfinger. Hagström notes, \"The eight-strings really have given us a whole new musical vocabulary to work with. Part of it is the restrictions they impose:","they impose: you really can't play power chords with them; the sound just turns to mush. Instead, we concentrated on coming up with really unusual single-note parts, new tunings and chord voicings. We wanted to get as far away from any kind of conventions and traditions as we could on the album, so the guitars worked out beautifully.\" Catch Thirtythreeis one 47-minute song divided into 13 sections.It is more mid-tempo guitar riff based, and a more straightforward and experimental full-length album thanChaosphereorNothing.Nick Terry ofDecibel Magazinedescribes the album as a four-movementsymphony.Some songs still use Meshuggah's \"familiar template combining harsh vocals and nightmarish melodies over coarse, mechanically advancing, oddball tempos\", while others explore ambient sounds and quieter dynamics.The first part ofCatch Thirtythreecenters around two simple riffs.In the song \"In Death - Is Death\", the band uses a combination of noise and silence, which is in contrast with the atypical melodies on","melodies on \"Dehumanization\". On \"Mind's Mirrors\", Meshuggah used electronics, programming and \"robotic voices\". \"Shed\" incorporates tribal percussion and whispered vocals. obZenandKoloss With 2008'sobZen, Meshuggah moved away from the experimentation of 2002'sNothingand 2005'sCatch Thirtythreeto return to the musical style of its previous albums, such asContradictions Collapse,Destroy Erase ImproveandChaosphere,while still maintaining its focus on musical and technical innovation. The album loses some of the quick, mathematical rhythmic changes of past releases and the melodic orchestration ofCatch Thirty-Threeand uses \"angular\" riffs,mid-tempo and common 4/4 beats.The album is a culmination of the band's previous work.Meshuggah decided to self-produce because it sought to retain artistic control over the recording and mixing process. ForobZen, Haake returned to the drum kit most notably with his performance on the song \"Bleed\".In an interview for Gravemusic.com, Haake stated, \" was a big effort for me to","effort for me to learn, I had to find a totally new approach to playing the double bass drums to be able to do that stuff. I had never really done anything like that before like the fast bursts that go all the way through the song basically. So I actually spent as much time practicing that track alone as I did with all of the other tracks combined. It's kind of a big feat to change your approach like that and I'm glad we were able to nail it for the album. For a while though we didn't even know if it was going to make it to the album.\"Hagström also stated, \"obZenis one of the most highly technical offerings the band has ever put to tape\".Revolver Magazineconfirms this statement: \"At first listen,obZenseems less challenging to the listener than some of the band's other records, and most of the songs flow smoothly from one syncopated passage to the next. However, careful examination reveals that the material is some of the group's most complicated\". A common quality inKolossidentified by multiple critics and","critics and outlets is the album's relatively straightforward, more groove-oriented sound, summed up byMetal Sucksas the band having \"streamlined their compositions to a great extent.\"The broad style of the record has been described as \"primal\" and featuring \"less jazzy virtuosity\" than the band's previous output.Pitchforknoted that the record's rawer production style advanced this \"tribal\" sound further.The album invokes a greater sound of menace and \"darkness\" according to Metal Injection; additionally, Jens Kidman's vocals were described as \"exponentially more anguished\" than previous works.Metal Injectionfurther compared the sound of the album's closing track \"The Last Vigil\" to works by the instrumental bandGodspeed You! Black Emperor.The record's guitar riffs have been noted as deviating somewhat from Meshuggah's earlier catalog, withSPINidentifying \"an almost bluesy swing\" in the playing style.SPINfurther elaborated on the guitar leads, comparing the solos in \"The Demon's Name is Surveillance\" and","Surveillance\" and \"Marrow\" to the (non-metal) works of experimental composerPhilip Glassand jazz-guitaristAllan Holdsworthrespectively. The Violent Sleep of Reason For their eighth album, the band recorded live in studio, a production style they hadn't pursued in reportedly \"20, 25 years\".On rejecting the computerized format of recording of their previous albums, Haake said \"ObzenandKolossare great albums, but, to me, they are a little too perfect. It didn't really capture what we sounded like honestly. But where we recorded live, you get to hear the push and pull, one person might be a little ahead and the other might be a little behind. If you kill that, you can kill the energy.\"It is the first album to have no writing credit from Thordendal; the majority of the album was written by Haake and Lövgren. Method and lyrical themes Meshuggah's music is written by Thordendal, Hagström and Haake with assistance from Kidman and Lövgren. During songwriting, a member programs the drums, and records the guitar and","the guitar and bass via computer. He presents his idea to the other members as a finished work. Meshuggah typically adheres to the original idea and rarely changes the song afterwards.Hagström explains that each member has an idea of what the others are doing conceptually, and nobody thinks exclusively in terms of a particular instrument. Kidman does not play guitar in the band anymore, but he is involved in writing riffs.Except for when Hagström needs a soloist, he and Thordendal rarely record together. Both play guitar and bass while composing. Haake says about his songwriting, \"Sometimes I'll sample guitar parts, cut them up, pitch-shift and tweak them until I've built the riffs I want, just for demoing purposes. But most of the time I'll just present the drums, and explain my ideas for the rest of the song, sing some riffs.\"The band usesCubaseto record the tracks, and the guitars are routed through softwareamplifier modeling, because it allows them to change the amp settings even after the song was fully","the song was fully recorded. Approximately once a year, Haake writes most of the band's lyrics, with the exception of finished tracks. His lyrical inspirations are derived from books and films. Aside from their albumCatch Thirtythree, Meshuggah does not usually recordconcept albums, although the band prefers strong conceptual underpinnings in the background.Oftenesotericand conceptual,Meshuggah's lyrics explore themes such asexistentialism.AllMusic describesDestroy Erase Improve's lyrical focus as \"the integration of machines with organisms as humanity's next logical evolutionary step\".PopMatters' review ofNothingsingles out the lyrics from \"Rational Gaze\": \"Our light-induced image of truth—filtered blank of its substance / As our eyes won't adhere to intuitive lines / Everything examined. Separated, one thing at a time / The harder we stare the more complete the disintegration.\"Haake explains thatCatch Thirtythree's cover, title and lyrics deal with \"the paradoxes/negations/contradictions of life and death","of life and death (as we see it in our finest moments of unrestrained metaphoric interpretation)\".The main theme ofobZenis \"human evil\", according to Haake. The title is a play on the words \"obscene\" and \"Zen\"; in addition, \"ob\" means \"anti\" in Latin. Therefore, the title suggests that the human species has found harmony and balance in warfare and bloodshed.Revolver Magazinefinds the lyrics of the title track fromobZenrepresentative of the entire album: \"Salvation found in vomit and blood/Where depravation, lies, corruption/War and pain is god.\" However, Haake claims, \"We don't dwell on hate and bad feelings as people. But with these songs, I think we really wanted to paint a picture lyrically that might be seen as a cautionary tale. We're going, 'Heads up. Here's what some of the parts of being human are about, and this is what we can be at our worst.' So it's more about being aware of negative feelings than actually living them all the time.\" Analysis Meshuggah has become known for its innovative musical","innovative musical style that evolves between each release and pushesheavy metalinto new territory, and for its technical prowess.Hagström commented: \"We try never to repeat ourselves.\"RockDetectorstated aboutDestroy Erase Improve: \"he band...stripped Metal down to the bare essentials before completely rebuilding it in a totally abstract form\".The official Meshuggah biography comments onChaosphereby noting that \"Some fans felt that Meshuggah had left their dynamic and progressive elements behind; while others thought they were only progressing naturally and focusing on their original sound.\"The band's website also describesNothingas displaying \"a very mature and convincing Meshuggah, now focusing on groove and sound...Meshuggah once again divided their fans into the 'ecstatic' and the 'slightly disappointed'\".The polyrhythms can make the music soundcacophonous, like band members are playing different songs simultaneously.Listeners perceiving a polyrhythm often either extract a composite pattern that is","pattern that is fitted to a metric framework, or focus on one rhythmic stream while treating others as \"noise\". Legacy Rolling Stonelabeled Meshuggah as \"one of the ten most important hard and heavy bands\",andAlternative Pressdescribed them as the \"most important band in metal\".Meshuggah has been described as virtuoso or genius-bordering musicians,\"recognized by mainstream music magazines, especially those dedicated to particular instruments\".In 2007, Meshuggah earned an in-depth analysis by the academic journalMusic Theory Spectrum.Meshuggah has found little mainstream success but is a significant act in extremeunderground music, an influence for modern metal bandsand has acult following.Meshuggah inspired the \"djent\" subgenre in progressive metal,that describes an \"elastic, syncopated guitar riff\" with its name.They were described as being \"the first djent band completely by accident\";in a 2018 interview, Hagström jokingly apologised for the band's role in creating the term, calling it a \"drunk","calling it a \"drunk misunderstanding\". Members Current Former Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Loudwire Music Awards Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards Revolver Music Awards Decibel Magazine IMPALA Grammy Awards Notes References External links Videos"],"string":"[\n \"Dismal Euphony Dismal Euphonywas a metal band from Norway that mixed styles includinggothic metal, melodic metal,black metalandclassical music. History The history of Dismal Euphony began in 1992 in Stavanger, Norway by bassist Ole K. Helgesen and drummer Kristoffer Vold Austrheim under the name The Headless Children, a cover band ofSlayerandKreator. A year later singer Erik Borgen and guitarist Kenneth Bergsagel joined the group. They changed the name to Carnal Tomb, then Borgen left the band and Helgesen became the singer/bassist with the female voice of Linn Achre Tveit (Keltziva). Elin Overskott joined the band as a keyboard player. This was the first line-up of Dismal Euphony, officially formed in 1995. In the same year, the group composed the demoSpellbound. After this publication, they were signed byNapalm Records. Here they produced other albums likeSoria Moria slott,Autumn Leaves: The Rebellion of Tidesand theLady AblazeEP (which already features Anja Natasha as female singer). Later, Dismal Euphony\",\n \"Dismal Euphony joinedNuclear Blastand releasedAll Little Devils, with the new female singer Anja Natasha. Their last album isPython Zero. After this release the band split up. Band members Last known line-up Former members Discography\",\n \"All Little Devils All Little Devilsis the third studio album by the Norwegiangothic metalbandDismal Euphony. It was released in 1999, and was the band's first album withNuclear Blast. Track listing Production Notes This 1990s metal album–related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.\",\n \"Nuclear Blast Nuclear Blast Recordsis a Germanrecord labelwithsubsidiariesin Germany, the United States and Brazil. It was founded in 1987 by Markus Staiger inDonzdorf. Originally releasinghardcore punkrecords, the label moved on to releasing albums bythrash metal,melodic death metal,grindcore,industrial metal,power metalandblack metalbands, as well astribute albums. It also distributes and promotes post-hardcore/metalcore labelsSharpTone Records; another post-hardcore/metalcore label,Arising Empire, was in Nuclear Blast portfolio until its acquirement by Kontor New Media in 2020. In October 2018, French independent labelBelieve Digitalacquired a majority stake in Nuclear Blast. History Nuclear Blast was formed in 1987 after founder Markus Staiger traveled throughout the United States for four weeks and saw a gig of his favorite bandBL'AST!. The label's first release was a vinyl compilation calledSenseless Death(NB 001) featuring US hardcore bands like Attitude, Sacred Denial, Impulse Manslaughter and others.\",\n \"and others. Swedish bandMeshuggahbecame the first band in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack theBillboard200, landing at number 165 with their 2002 album,Nothing. Meshuggah also became the first Nuclear Blast band to be reviewed inRolling Stonemagazine. In 2004, Finnish symphonic metal bandNightwishreleasedOnceon Nuclear Blast, which rocketed to the top of the charts in multiple countries, including Finland, Germany, Norway, Greece, Sweden, Austria, and more. It became the first release in the company's history to reach number 1 on the German charts.Slayerreleased the albumRepentlessin 2015 which went to number 4 on theBillboard 200making it the highest charting Nuclear Blast release in the United States. During the 2000s and 2010s, Nuclear Blast signed many veteranthrash metalbands includingSlayer,Exodus,Testament,Anthrax,Kreator,Overkill,Sepultura,Destruction,Tankard,Death Angel,andHeathen. In 2021, Nuclear Blast founder Markus Staiger launched a new record company calledAtomic FireGmbH. In June\",\n \"FireGmbH. In June 2022, Nuclear Blast unveiled a new logo. The logo caused some controversy when the canned water companyLiquid Deathjokingly noted its similarities with their logo (which also features a melting skull), inadvertedly leading to its designer, Justin Moll, receiving hate mail.Liquid Death quickly apologized for the joke, saying that it was not targeted at Moll but at Nuclear Blast, whose personnel had reportedly raised concerns over the new logo's similarities with Liquid Death's before it was implemented. On 23 August 2022, the video gameSaints Rowwas released, which features an in-game radio station that includes Nuclear Blast artists. Blood Blast Distribution Blood Blast Distribution is a subsidiary of Nuclear Blast that focuses solely on the distribution of extreme music. The company was founded in 2020 by Bryce Lucien, Jerome Riera, Denis Ladegaillerie and Myriam Silberstein. See also References External links\",\n \"Meshuggah Meshuggah(/məˈʃʊɡə/)is a Swedishextreme metalband formed inUmeåin 1987. Since 2004, the band's lineup consists of founding members Jens Kidman (lead vocals) andFredrik Thordendal(lead guitar), alongside rhythm guitaristMårten Hagström, drummerTomas Haakeand bassistDick Lövgren. Since its formation, the band has released nine studio albums, sixEPsand eight music videos. Their latest studio album,Immutable, was released in April 2022 viaAtomic Fire Records. Meshuggah has become known for their innovative musical style and their complex,polymeteredsong structures andpolyrhythms. They rose to fame as a significant act in extremeunderground music, became an influence for modern metal bands, and gained acult following. The band was labelled as one of the ten most importanthard rockandheavy metalbands byRolling Stoneand as the most important band in metal byAlternative Press. In the late 2000s, the band was an inspiration for thedjentsubgenre. In 2006 and 2009, Meshuggah was nominated for two\",\n \"nominated for two SwedishGrammis Awardsfor their albumsCatch ThirtythreeandobZen, respectively. In 2018, the band was nominated for aGrammy Awardfor their song \\\"Clockworks\\\" under the \\\"Best Metal Performance\\\" category.The band has performed in various international festivals, includingOzzfestandDownload, and embarked on theobZenworld tourfrom 2008 to 2010, and also the \\\"Ophidian Trek\\\". History Formation andContradictions Collapse(1987–1994) In 1985, guitaristFredrik Thordendalformed a band inUmeå,a university town in northern Sweden with a population of 105,000.The band, originally named Metallien, recorded a number ofdemo tapes, after which it disbanded. Thordendal, however, continued playing under a different name with new band members. Meshuggah was formed in 1987by lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist Jens Kidman,and took the name Meshuggah from theYiddishword for \\\"crazy\\\"(ultimately derived from theHebrewwordמְשׁוּגָע). Kidman found the word in an American street slang dictionary.The band recorded several\",\n \"recorded several demos before Kidman left, which prompted the remaining members to disband. Kidman then formed a new band, Calipash, with guitarist Thordendal, bassist Peter Nordin and drummer Niklas Lundgren.Kidman, who also played guitar,and Thordendal decided to restore the name Meshuggah for the new band. In 1989, Meshuggah released the self-titled, three-songEPMeshuggah,which is commonly known asPsykisk Testbild(a title that could be translated as \\\"Psychological Test-Picture\\\").This 12\\\" (30 cm) vinyl EP had only 1,000 copies released, sold by local record store Garageland.The EP's back cover features the band members with cheese doodles on their faces. After replacing drummer Niklas Lundgren withTomas Haakein 1990, Meshuggah signed a contract with German heavy metalrecord labelNuclear Blastand recorded its debut full-length album,Contradictions Collapse.The LP, originally entitled(All this because of) Greed,was released in 1991.The album received positive reviews, but was not a commercial success.Soon\",\n \"success.Soon after, Kidman decided to concentrate on vocals,and guitaristMårten Hagström,who had already played in a band with Haake when they were in sixth grade, was recruited.The new lineup recorded the EPNoneat Tonteknik Recordings in Umeå in 1994 for release later that year.A Japanese version was also released, including lyrics printed in Japanese. During this period, Thordendal, who was working as a carpenter, severed the tip of his left middle finger, while Haake injured his hand in a router accident.As a result, the band was unable to perform for several months. Thordendal's fingertip was later reattached, and he went on to make a full recovery.TheSelfcagedEP was recorded in April and May 1994, but its release was delayed to later in 1995 due to the accidents. Destroy Erase Improve(1995–1997) In January 1995, Meshuggah undertook a short European tour organized by its record label Nuclear Blast. Afterwards, the band returned to the studio in February of that year to record the albumDestroy Erase\",\n \"albumDestroy Erase Improveat Soundfront Studios inUppsala, with Daniel Bergstrand as a producer.Shortly thereafter, the band went on a European tour supportingMachine Headfor two months.During the tour, Nordin became ill and experiencedbalance disorderwith hisinner ear. Due to the resulting chronic dizziness and vertigo, Nordin was forced to leave the tour and travel to Sweden. Machine Head's bassistAdam Duceoffered to cover his absence; however, Meshuggah decided to continue as a four-piece. Sometimes Thordendal played bass, while other times the band performed with two guitars. In this lineup, Hagström would use apitch shifterto play his guitar at anoctavelower than usual. Destroy Erase Improvewas released in May 1995, with positive response from critics for the \\\"heady tempos and abstract approach\\\".Kidman described the album cover: \\\"The title fits the pictures we cut out and stole from reference books in the library.\\\" In mid-1995, Meshuggah had a short tour with Swedish bandClawfingerin Scandinavia and\",\n \"Scandinavia and Germany. Nordin had to leave the band because of his sickness and was replaced by bassist Gustaf Hielm during the tour.In late 1995, Meshuggah went on a month-long tour withHypocrisy. During 1996 and 1997, Thordendal worked on his solo albumSol Niger Within, which was released in March 1997 in Scandinavia and in April in Japan. He also hostedMats/Morgan Band's debut. In 1997, Meshuggah recorded an unreleased demo, toured occasionally, and played a few concerts in its hometown. In May, Meshuggah moved to Stockholm to be closer to its management and the record industry in general. The EPThe True Human Designwas recorded and released in late 1997. It contained one new song entitled \\\"Sane\\\", and one live and two alternate versions ofDestroy Erase Improve's opening track \\\"Future Breed Machine\\\".Thordendal's solo albumSol Niger Withinwas simultaneously released in the United States, and Meshuggah started to plan its next album at the end of the year. ChaosphereandNothing(1998–2002) Hielm officially\",\n \"Hielm officially joined the band in January 1998 after more than two years as a session member. Nuclear Blast re-releasedContradictions Collapsewith the addition of songs from theNoneEP. In May 1998, the title of the next album,Chaosphere, was reported and recording was done throughout May and June. Immediately after recording the album, Meshuggah went on a short US tour, and the album was released later in November 1998. Chaosphere's sound is an almost complete departure from the thrash metal style of the band's previous releases. Shortly after the release, Meshuggah toured Scandinavia withEntombed. In early 1999, Meshuggah joinedSlayeron their U.S. tour.After the new album and the live performances, Meshuggah was beginning to be recognized by mainstream music, guitar, drum and metal magazines.In mid-1999, Meshuggah performed in several Swedish concerts. The band started to write some new material but reported in mid-2000 that \\\"songwriting isn't that dramatic, but we're getting there slowly\\\".While fans were\",\n \"fans were waiting for the next album, a collection of demos (from thePsykisk TestbildEP), remixes and unreleased songs from theChaospheresessions were released as theRare Traxalbum.Hielm left the band in July 2001 for unclear reasons.Meshuggah joinedToolon a lengthy tour, playing for more than 100,000 people total. In March 2002, Meshuggah recorded three-track demos with programmed drums in their home studio, which were based on Haake's sampleDrumkit from Hell. The upcoming album was recorded in five to six weeks in Mayand was produced by the band at Dug-Out Studios in Uppsala and at its home studio in Stockholm.The last-minute decision to join 2002'sOzzfesttour forced the band to mix the album in two days and master it in one.Meshuggah immediately went on another US tour after finishing the recording. The albumNothingwas released in August 2002,selling 6,525 copies during its first week in the US and reaching No. 165 on theBillboard200.With this album, Meshuggah became the first band in the history of\",\n \"in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack theBillboard200 and also became the first band signed to Nuclear Blast to be reviewed inRolling Stonemagazine.Meshuggah's previous two releases, 1998'sChaosphereand 1995'sDestroy Erase Improve, had sold 38,773 and 30,712 copies to that date, respectively.The CD booklet ofNothinghas no liner notes, lyrics, or credits, only a hint of one word:ingenting, which is Swedish fornothing. All of this information is available on the CD-ROM.At the end of 2002, the band went on another US tour with Tooland a headlining tour of its own. IandCatch Thirtythree(2003–2006) In 2003, Hagström hinted at the direction of the band's next album by saying, \\\"There's only one thing I really feel that is important. We've never measured our success in terms of sales, because we're quite an extreme band. It's more that people understand where we're coming from. I get more out of a fan coming up and saying that we've totally changed their way of looking on metal music, than having like 200\",\n \"having like 200 kids buy it. I mean, it would be nice for the money, but that's not why we're in it. So what I'd like to see is that we keep progressing. Keeping the core of what Meshuggah has always been, but exploring the bar, so to speak.Destroy Erase Improvewas like exploring the dynamics of the band,Chaospherewas exploring the aggressiveness, the all-out side, andNothingis more of a sinister, dark, pretty slow album, actually. So honestly, now I don't know where we're going. It might be a mix of all of them.\\\" In February 2004, bassistDick Lövgrenjoined Meshuggah.The band then recorded and released theIEP, which contains a single, 21-minute track, released onFractured Transmitter Records.Meshuggah spent about six months in total on recording the EP.Catch Thirtythree, the only Meshuggah album on whichprogrammed drumshave been used, was released the following year in May 2005.Seven thousand copies ofCatch Thirtythreewere sold the first week, and it debuted at No. 170 on theBillboard200 chart in June\",\n \"chart in June 2005.The video for the track \\\"Shed\\\" was released in June, and the previous albumNothingsold approximately 80,000 copies in the United States to that date, according toNielsen SoundScan.Catch Thirtythreeearned the band aSwedish Grammynomination.In October 2005, German bandRammsteinreleased a single of their song \\\"Benzin\\\" with a remixed version by Meshuggah. In December 2005, 10 years after signing its first record deal with the publishing companyWarner/Chappell Music Scandinavia, Meshuggah extended its cooperation with the company.In November 2005, Haake said in an interview that the band was not content with the productions ofChaosphereandNothing, because, being on tour, they had little time to devote to them. A remixed and remastered version ofNothingwith rerecorded guitars was released in a custom-shaped slipcase featuring a three-dimensional hologram card on 31 October 2006, via Nuclear Blast Records. The release also includes a bonus DVD featuring the band's appearance at the Download 2005\",\n \"the Download 2005 festival and the official music videos of \\\"Rational Gaze\\\", \\\"Shed\\\" and \\\"New Millennium Cyanide Christ\\\". obZenandKoloss(2007–2013) Meshuggah returned to the studio in March 2007 to recordobZen, with recording concluding in October 2007, and the album being released in March 2008.The band spent almost a year on the album, its longest recording session yet. A significant portion of the year was spent learning to perform the songs they wrote; the recording itself took six months.obZenreached No. 59 on theBillboard200 chart, selling 11,400 U.S. copies in its first week of release and 50,000 copies after six months.WithobZen, Meshuggah received more media attention and attracted new fans.The release was followed bya world tour, which started in the U.S. and proceeded to Europe, Asia and Australia. In May 2008, Meshuggah published a music video for the song \\\"Bleed\\\", which was produced byIan McFarlandand was written, directed and edited by Mike Pecci and Ian McFarland. Killswitch Productions said:\",\n \"Productions said: \\\"It's extremely cool to work with a band who is willing to allow the music and imagery to speak for itself and who does not insist on themselves being the prominent focus of the video.\\\" In January 2009,obZenwas nominated for the SwedishGrammisaward in the \\\"Best Hard Rock\\\" category.In February 2009, Haake announced that the band was planning a concert DVD and a studio album.In April, Meshuggah was forced to cancel its Scandinavian shows in early 2009, due to Haake'sherniated discin his lower back, which was causing problems with his right foot when playing.Haake later underwent a surgery and recovered for European summer festivals. The concert DVD entitledAlivewas released on 5 February 2010 in Europe and 9 February in North America.Thordendal started to work on a second solo album in June 2010 with theBelgiandrummerDirk Verbeuren. The seventh studio album,Koloss, was released on 23 March 2012 in Germany, on 26 March in the rest of Europe, and 27 March in North America.Kolossreached No. 17\",\n \"No. 17 on the Billboard Top 200, and sold 18,342 copies in its first week.In Sweden, it reached No. 12. Pitch BlackandThe Violent Sleep of Reason(2013–2018) On 5 February 2013, Meshuggah released a free two-track EP entitledPitch BlackwithScion A/V.The EP features a previously unreleased track, \\\"Pitch Black\\\", that was recorded byFredrik Thordendalin 2003 at Fear and Loathing, in Stockholm Sweden.The second track is a live recording of \\\"Dancers to a Discordant System\\\" fromobZen. The track was recorded at Distortion Fest in Eindhoven, Netherlands, on 9 December 2012. On 12 May 2016, Meshuggah released a teaser video on their YouTube page and confirmed that their next studio album was to be released in late 2016. On 28 July 2016, the title was revealed to beThe Violent Sleep of Reason, and was given a 7 October release date.The Violent Sleep of Reasonwas shortlisted byIMPALA(The Independent Music Companies Association) for the Album of the Year Award 2016, which rewards on a yearly basis the best album released\",\n \"best album released on an independent European label. On 2 June 2017, Meshuggah announced that Thordendal would take a leave from touring with the band; he would be temporarily replaced byPer NilssonfromScar Symmetry.In 2018, Meshuggah received aGrammy nominationfor their song \\\"Clockworks\\\" under the \\\"Best Metal Performance\\\" category. Immutable(2019–present) In a November 2019 interview, Hagström hinted that the band had begun working on a new album.Recording started in March 2021.Later that month the band stated that Fredrik Thordendal had ended his hiatus and would be participating fully in the recording of the new album.On 28 January 2022, Meshuggah released a new song titled \\\"The Abysmal Eye\\\" taken from the band's ninth albumImmutable, which was later released on 1 April 2022 via Atomic Fire. Musical style Meshuggah's experimentation, stylistic variation and changes during its career cross several musical subgenres. Heavy metal subgenresexperimental metaloravant-garde metalare umbrella terms that enable\",\n \"terms that enable description of the career of the band in general.Extreme metalcrosses boththrash metalanddeath metal(ortechnical death metal), which are at root of the sound of Meshuggah's music, which has also been described asgroove metal.The band has also been labelled as math metal andprogressive metal.Meshuggah also incorporates elements ofexperimental jazz.In its review ofNothing,AllMusicdescribes Meshuggah as \\\"masterminds of cosmic calculus metal—call it Einstein metal if you want\\\".Meshuggah's early output was also consideredalternative metal.Meshuggah creates a recognizable sonic imprintand distinct style. Trademarks and characteristics that define Meshuggah's sound and songwriting includepolyrhythms,polymeteredriff cycles, rhythmicsyncopation, rapidkeyandtempochanges and neo-jazzchromatics.Hagström notes that \\\"it doesn't really matter if something is hard to play or not. The thing is, what does it do to your mind when you listen to it? Where does it take you?\\\"A trademark of Thordendal isjazz\",\n \"Thordendal isjazz fusion-like soloing and improvisation. He is also known for the usage of a \\\"breath controller\\\" device. Haake is known for hiscross-rhythmdrumming with \\\"jazzlike cadence\\\".The vocal style of Jens Kidman varies betweenhardcore-style shoutsand \\\"robotic\\\"death metal vocals. In polymeters typically used by Meshuggah, the guitars might play in odd meters such as 5/16 or 17/16, while drums play in 4/4.One particular example of Haake's use of polymeter is 4/4 against 23/16 bimeter, in which he keeps thehi-hatorchina cymbalin 4/4 time but uses thesnareanddouble bass drumsin 23/16 time.On \\\"Rational Gaze\\\" (fromNothing), Haake plays simple 4/4 time, hitting the snare on each third beat, for 16 bars. At the same time, the guitars and bass are playing the same quarter notes, albeit in a different time signature; eventually both sides meet up again at the 64th beat.Hagström notes about the polymeters, \\\"We've never really been into the odd time signatures we get accused of using. Everything we do is based\",\n \"we do is based around a 4/4 core. It's just that we arrange parts differently around that center to make it seem like something else is going on.\\\" Contradictions Collapse,Destroy Erase ImproveandChaosphere The early work of Meshuggah, influenced mainly byMetallica, is \\\"simpler and more straightforward than their more recent material, but some of their more progressive elements are present in the form of time-changes and polyrhythmics, and Fredrik Thordendal's lead playing stands out\\\".According toAllMusic, theirdebut albumis a relatively immature, but original, release.Double bass drumsand \\\"angular\\\" riffing also defined the early work of Meshuggah. With the groundbreakingDestroy Erase Improve, Meshuggah showedfusionof death metal, thrash metal, progressive metal.AllMusic describes the style as \\\"weaving hardcore-style shouts amongst deceptively (and deviously) simplestaccatoguitar riffs and insanely precise drumming—often with all three components acting in different time signatures\\\".Thordendal adds the\",\n \"adds the melodic element with his typical lead guitarand uses his \\\"breath controller\\\" device most famously on the opening track \\\"Future Breed Machine\\\". Chaosphereincorporates typically fast,still tempo changing death metal. AllMusic compares the genre also withgrindcorefathersNapalm Death.Rockdetector states: \\\"Whilst fans reveled in the maze like meanderings, critics struggled to dissect and analyze, hailing Haake's unconventional use of dual 4/4 and 23/16 rhythm, Kidman's mechanical staccato bark and Thordendal's liberal usage of avant-garde jazz\\\". Nothing,IandCatch Thirtythree OnNothing, Meshuggah abandons the fast tempos ofChaosphereand concentrates on slow,tuned downtemposandgrooves.The album was intended to be recorded using custom-made Nevborneight-string guitars, but the prototypes were faulty so Thordendal and Hagström used down tunedIbanezseven-string guitarsinstead. This technique caused the instruments to slip out of tune during the sessions, which created additional problems.When Ibanez provided\",\n \"Ibanez provided Meshuggah with special eight-string guitars with two extra-low strings that worked properly after the initial release, the band re-recorded the guitar parts forNothingand re-released it in 2006.Hagström notes that this allowed the band to go lower sonically and to attain bass sounds on guitars. TheIEP contains a single, 21-minute songof complex arrangements and was a hint of the forthcoming album, 2005'sCatch Thirtythree.The EP, which has never been played live by the band, was written and recorded during jamming sessions of Haake and Thordendal.OnCatch Thirtythree, Meshuggah again used eight-string guitars,but utilized programmed drums for the first time also for the release,with the exception of two songs from 2001's compilationRare Trax.The album was self-produced by the band and was recorded at the studio that Meshuggah shares with Clawfinger. Hagström notes, \\\"The eight-strings really have given us a whole new musical vocabulary to work with. Part of it is the restrictions they impose:\",\n \"they impose: you really can't play power chords with them; the sound just turns to mush. Instead, we concentrated on coming up with really unusual single-note parts, new tunings and chord voicings. We wanted to get as far away from any kind of conventions and traditions as we could on the album, so the guitars worked out beautifully.\\\" Catch Thirtythreeis one 47-minute song divided into 13 sections.It is more mid-tempo guitar riff based, and a more straightforward and experimental full-length album thanChaosphereorNothing.Nick Terry ofDecibel Magazinedescribes the album as a four-movementsymphony.Some songs still use Meshuggah's \\\"familiar template combining harsh vocals and nightmarish melodies over coarse, mechanically advancing, oddball tempos\\\", while others explore ambient sounds and quieter dynamics.The first part ofCatch Thirtythreecenters around two simple riffs.In the song \\\"In Death - Is Death\\\", the band uses a combination of noise and silence, which is in contrast with the atypical melodies on\",\n \"melodies on \\\"Dehumanization\\\". On \\\"Mind's Mirrors\\\", Meshuggah used electronics, programming and \\\"robotic voices\\\". \\\"Shed\\\" incorporates tribal percussion and whispered vocals. obZenandKoloss With 2008'sobZen, Meshuggah moved away from the experimentation of 2002'sNothingand 2005'sCatch Thirtythreeto return to the musical style of its previous albums, such asContradictions Collapse,Destroy Erase ImproveandChaosphere,while still maintaining its focus on musical and technical innovation. The album loses some of the quick, mathematical rhythmic changes of past releases and the melodic orchestration ofCatch Thirty-Threeand uses \\\"angular\\\" riffs,mid-tempo and common 4/4 beats.The album is a culmination of the band's previous work.Meshuggah decided to self-produce because it sought to retain artistic control over the recording and mixing process. ForobZen, Haake returned to the drum kit most notably with his performance on the song \\\"Bleed\\\".In an interview for Gravemusic.com, Haake stated, \\\" was a big effort for me to\",\n \"effort for me to learn, I had to find a totally new approach to playing the double bass drums to be able to do that stuff. I had never really done anything like that before like the fast bursts that go all the way through the song basically. So I actually spent as much time practicing that track alone as I did with all of the other tracks combined. It's kind of a big feat to change your approach like that and I'm glad we were able to nail it for the album. For a while though we didn't even know if it was going to make it to the album.\\\"Hagström also stated, \\\"obZenis one of the most highly technical offerings the band has ever put to tape\\\".Revolver Magazineconfirms this statement: \\\"At first listen,obZenseems less challenging to the listener than some of the band's other records, and most of the songs flow smoothly from one syncopated passage to the next. However, careful examination reveals that the material is some of the group's most complicated\\\". A common quality inKolossidentified by multiple critics and\",\n \"critics and outlets is the album's relatively straightforward, more groove-oriented sound, summed up byMetal Sucksas the band having \\\"streamlined their compositions to a great extent.\\\"The broad style of the record has been described as \\\"primal\\\" and featuring \\\"less jazzy virtuosity\\\" than the band's previous output.Pitchforknoted that the record's rawer production style advanced this \\\"tribal\\\" sound further.The album invokes a greater sound of menace and \\\"darkness\\\" according to Metal Injection; additionally, Jens Kidman's vocals were described as \\\"exponentially more anguished\\\" than previous works.Metal Injectionfurther compared the sound of the album's closing track \\\"The Last Vigil\\\" to works by the instrumental bandGodspeed You! Black Emperor.The record's guitar riffs have been noted as deviating somewhat from Meshuggah's earlier catalog, withSPINidentifying \\\"an almost bluesy swing\\\" in the playing style.SPINfurther elaborated on the guitar leads, comparing the solos in \\\"The Demon's Name is Surveillance\\\" and\",\n \"Surveillance\\\" and \\\"Marrow\\\" to the (non-metal) works of experimental composerPhilip Glassand jazz-guitaristAllan Holdsworthrespectively. The Violent Sleep of Reason For their eighth album, the band recorded live in studio, a production style they hadn't pursued in reportedly \\\"20, 25 years\\\".On rejecting the computerized format of recording of their previous albums, Haake said \\\"ObzenandKolossare great albums, but, to me, they are a little too perfect. It didn't really capture what we sounded like honestly. But where we recorded live, you get to hear the push and pull, one person might be a little ahead and the other might be a little behind. If you kill that, you can kill the energy.\\\"It is the first album to have no writing credit from Thordendal; the majority of the album was written by Haake and Lövgren. Method and lyrical themes Meshuggah's music is written by Thordendal, Hagström and Haake with assistance from Kidman and Lövgren. During songwriting, a member programs the drums, and records the guitar and\",\n \"the guitar and bass via computer. He presents his idea to the other members as a finished work. Meshuggah typically adheres to the original idea and rarely changes the song afterwards.Hagström explains that each member has an idea of what the others are doing conceptually, and nobody thinks exclusively in terms of a particular instrument. Kidman does not play guitar in the band anymore, but he is involved in writing riffs.Except for when Hagström needs a soloist, he and Thordendal rarely record together. Both play guitar and bass while composing. Haake says about his songwriting, \\\"Sometimes I'll sample guitar parts, cut them up, pitch-shift and tweak them until I've built the riffs I want, just for demoing purposes. But most of the time I'll just present the drums, and explain my ideas for the rest of the song, sing some riffs.\\\"The band usesCubaseto record the tracks, and the guitars are routed through softwareamplifier modeling, because it allows them to change the amp settings even after the song was fully\",\n \"the song was fully recorded. Approximately once a year, Haake writes most of the band's lyrics, with the exception of finished tracks. His lyrical inspirations are derived from books and films. Aside from their albumCatch Thirtythree, Meshuggah does not usually recordconcept albums, although the band prefers strong conceptual underpinnings in the background.Oftenesotericand conceptual,Meshuggah's lyrics explore themes such asexistentialism.AllMusic describesDestroy Erase Improve's lyrical focus as \\\"the integration of machines with organisms as humanity's next logical evolutionary step\\\".PopMatters' review ofNothingsingles out the lyrics from \\\"Rational Gaze\\\": \\\"Our light-induced image of truth—filtered blank of its substance / As our eyes won't adhere to intuitive lines / Everything examined. Separated, one thing at a time / The harder we stare the more complete the disintegration.\\\"Haake explains thatCatch Thirtythree's cover, title and lyrics deal with \\\"the paradoxes/negations/contradictions of life and death\",\n \"of life and death (as we see it in our finest moments of unrestrained metaphoric interpretation)\\\".The main theme ofobZenis \\\"human evil\\\", according to Haake. The title is a play on the words \\\"obscene\\\" and \\\"Zen\\\"; in addition, \\\"ob\\\" means \\\"anti\\\" in Latin. Therefore, the title suggests that the human species has found harmony and balance in warfare and bloodshed.Revolver Magazinefinds the lyrics of the title track fromobZenrepresentative of the entire album: \\\"Salvation found in vomit and blood/Where depravation, lies, corruption/War and pain is god.\\\" However, Haake claims, \\\"We don't dwell on hate and bad feelings as people. But with these songs, I think we really wanted to paint a picture lyrically that might be seen as a cautionary tale. We're going, 'Heads up. Here's what some of the parts of being human are about, and this is what we can be at our worst.' So it's more about being aware of negative feelings than actually living them all the time.\\\" Analysis Meshuggah has become known for its innovative musical\",\n \"innovative musical style that evolves between each release and pushesheavy metalinto new territory, and for its technical prowess.Hagström commented: \\\"We try never to repeat ourselves.\\\"RockDetectorstated aboutDestroy Erase Improve: \\\"he band...stripped Metal down to the bare essentials before completely rebuilding it in a totally abstract form\\\".The official Meshuggah biography comments onChaosphereby noting that \\\"Some fans felt that Meshuggah had left their dynamic and progressive elements behind; while others thought they were only progressing naturally and focusing on their original sound.\\\"The band's website also describesNothingas displaying \\\"a very mature and convincing Meshuggah, now focusing on groove and sound...Meshuggah once again divided their fans into the 'ecstatic' and the 'slightly disappointed'\\\".The polyrhythms can make the music soundcacophonous, like band members are playing different songs simultaneously.Listeners perceiving a polyrhythm often either extract a composite pattern that is\",\n \"pattern that is fitted to a metric framework, or focus on one rhythmic stream while treating others as \\\"noise\\\". Legacy Rolling Stonelabeled Meshuggah as \\\"one of the ten most important hard and heavy bands\\\",andAlternative Pressdescribed them as the \\\"most important band in metal\\\".Meshuggah has been described as virtuoso or genius-bordering musicians,\\\"recognized by mainstream music magazines, especially those dedicated to particular instruments\\\".In 2007, Meshuggah earned an in-depth analysis by the academic journalMusic Theory Spectrum.Meshuggah has found little mainstream success but is a significant act in extremeunderground music, an influence for modern metal bandsand has acult following.Meshuggah inspired the \\\"djent\\\" subgenre in progressive metal,that describes an \\\"elastic, syncopated guitar riff\\\" with its name.They were described as being \\\"the first djent band completely by accident\\\";in a 2018 interview, Hagström jokingly apologised for the band's role in creating the term, calling it a \\\"drunk\",\n \"calling it a \\\"drunk misunderstanding\\\". Members Current Former Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Loudwire Music Awards Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards Revolver Music Awards Decibel Magazine IMPALA Grammy Awards Notes References External links Videos\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":344,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"If somebody was born on the day the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 was signed, how old would they have been while Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley were performing their Michelson-Morley experiment?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"72"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 TheAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814(also known as theConvention of London;Dutch:Verdrag van Londen) was signed by theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandand theSovereign Principality of the United Netherlandsin London on 13 August 1814. The treaty restored most of the territories in theMoluccasandJava that Britain had seizedin theNapoleonic Wars, but confirmed British possession of theCape Colonyon the southern tip of Africa, as well as portions ofDutch Guianain South America. It was signed byRobert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, on behalf of the British and diplomat Hendrik Fagel, on behalf of the Dutch. Terms Possessions The treaty returned the colonial possessions of the Dutch as they were at 1 January 1803, before the outbreak of theNapoleonic Warsin the Americas, Africa, and Asia, with the exception of theCape of Good Hopeand the South American settlements ofDemerara,EssequiboandBerbice, where the Dutch retained trading rights. In addition, the British ceded the island ofBancaoff the island ofSumatrain exchange for the settlement ofCochinin India and its dependencies on thecoast of Malabar. The Dutch also ceded the district ofBernagore, situated close toCalcutta, in exchange for an annual fee. Cooperation The treaty also noted a declaration of 15 June 1814 by the Dutch, that ships for theslave tradewere no longer permitted in British ports. That restriction would be extended to a ban on involvement in the slave trade by Dutch citizens. Britain also agreed to pay £1,000,000 to Sweden to resolvea claimto theCaribbeanisland ofGuadeloupe. The British and the Dutch agreed to spend £2,000,000 each on improving the defences of theLow Countries.More funds, of up to £3,000,000,are mentioned for the \"final and satisfactory settlement of the Low Countries in union with Holland.\" Disputes arising from the treaty were the subject of theAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. See also References Footnotes Bibliography","Michelson–Morley experiment TheMichelson–Morley experimentwas an attempt to measure the motion of theEarthrelative to theluminiferous aether,a supposed medium permeating space that was thought to be the carrier oflight waves. The experiment was performed between April and July 1887 by American physicistsAlbert A. MichelsonandEdward W. Morleyat what is nowCase Western Reserve UniversityinCleveland, Ohio, and published in November of the same year. The experiment compared thespeed of lightin perpendicular directions in an attempt to detect the relative motion of matter, including their laboratory, through the luminiferous aether, or \"aether wind\" as it was sometimes called. The result was negative, in that Michelson and Morley found no significant difference between the speed of light in the direction of movement through the presumed aether, and the speed at right angles. This result is generally considered to be the first strong evidence against someaether theories, as well as initiating a line of research that eventually led tospecial relativity, which rules out motion against an aether.Of this experiment,Albert Einsteinwrote, \"If the Michelson–Morley experiment had not brought us into serious embarrassment, no one would have regarded the relativity theory as a (halfway) redemption.\": 219 Michelson–Morley type experiments have been repeated many times with steadily increasing sensitivity. These include experiments from 1902 to 1905, and a series of experiments in the 1920s. More recently, in 2009,optical resonatorexperiments confirmed the absence of any aether wind at the 10−17level.Together with theIves–StilwellandKennedy–Thorndike experiments, Michelson–Morley type experiments form one of the fundamentaltests of special relativity. Detecting the aether Physics theories of the 19th century assumed that just as surface water waves must have a supporting substance, i.e., a \"medium\", to move across (in this case water), and audiblesoundrequires a medium to transmit its wave motions (such as air or water), so light must also require a medium, the \"luminiferous aether\", to transmit its wave motions. Because light can travel through a vacuum, it was assumed that even a vacuum must be filled with aether. Because thespeed of lightis so great, and because material bodies pass through theaetherwithout obvious friction or drag, it was assumed to have a highly unusual combination of properties. Designing experiments to investigate these properties was a high priority of 19th-century physics.: 411ff Earthorbits around theSunat a speed of around 30 km/s (18.64 mi/s), or 108,000 km/h (67,000 mph). The Earth is in motion, so two main possibilities were considered: (1) The aether is stationary and only partiallydraggedby Earth (proposed byAugustin-Jean Fresnelin 1818), or (2) the aether is completely dragged by Earth and thus shares its motion at Earth's surface (proposed bySir George Stokes, 1st Baronetin 1844).In addition,James Clerk Maxwell(1865) recognized theelectromagneticnature of light and developed what are now calledMaxwell's equations, but these equations were still interpreted as describing the motion of waves through an aether, whose state of motion was unknown. Eventually, Fresnel's idea of an (almost) stationary aether was preferred because it appeared to be confirmed by theFizeau experiment(1851) and theaberration of star light. According to the stationary and the partially dragged aether hypotheses, Earth and the aether are in relative motion, implying that a so-called \"aether wind\" (Fig. 2) should exist. Although it would be theoretically possible for the Earth's motion to match that of the aether at one moment in time, it was not possible for the Earth to remain at rest with respect to the aether at all times, because of the variation in both the direction and the speed of the motion. At any given point on the Earth's surface, the magnitude and direction of the wind would vary with time of day and season. By analyzing the return speed of light in different directions at various different times, it was thought to be possible to measure the motion of the Earth relative to the aether. The expected relative difference in the measured speed of light was quite small, given that the velocity of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun has a magnitude of about one hundredth of one percent of the speed of light.: 417ff During the mid-19th century, measurements of aether wind effects of first order, i.e., effects proportional tov/c(vbeing Earth's velocity,cthe speed of light) were thought to be possible, but no direct measurement of the speed of light was possible with the accuracy required. For instance, theFizeau wheelcould measure the speed of light to perhaps 5% accuracy, which was quite inadequate for measuring directly a first-order 0.01% change in the speed of light. A number of physicists therefore attempted to make measurements of indirect first-order effects not of the speed of light itself, but of variations in the speed of light (seeFirst order aether-drift experiments). TheHoek experiment, for example, was intended to detectinterferometricfringe shiftsdue to speed differences of oppositely propagating light waves through water at rest. The results of such experiments were all negative.This could be explained by usingFresnel's dragging coefficient, according to which the aether and thus light are partially dragged by moving matter. Partial aether-dragging would thwart attempts to measure any first order change in the speed of light. As pointed out by Maxwell (1878), only experimental arrangements capable of measuring second order effects would have any hope of detecting aether drift, i.e., effects proportional tov2/c2.Existing experimental setups, however, were not sensitive enough to measure effects of that size. 1881 and 1887 experiments Michelson experiment (1881) Michelson had a solution to the problem of how to construct a device sufficiently accurate to detect aether flow. In 1877, while teaching at his alma mater, theUnited States Naval Academyin Annapolis, Michelson conducted his first known light speed experiments as a part of a classroom demonstration. In 1881, he left active U.S. Naval service while in Germany concluding his studies. In that year, Michelson used a prototype experimental device to make several more measurements. The device he designed, later known as aMichelson interferometer, sentyellowlight from asodiumflame (for alignment), orwhitelight (for the actual observations), through ahalf-silvered mirrorthat was used to split it into two beams traveling at right angles to one another. After leaving the splitter, the beams traveled out to the ends of long arms where they were reflected back into the middle by small mirrors. They then recombined on the far side of the splitter in an eyepiece, producing a pattern of constructive and destructiveinterferencewhose transverse displacement would depend on the relative time it takes light to transit the longitudinalvs.the transverse arms. If the Earth is traveling through an aether medium, a light beam traveling parallel to the flow of that aether will take longer to reflect back and forth than would a beam traveling perpendicular to the aether, because the increase in elapsed time from traveling against the aether wind is more than the time saved by traveling with the aether wind. Michelson expected that the Earth's motion would produce afringe shiftequal to 0.04 fringes—that is, of the separation between areas of the same intensity. He did not observe the expected shift; the greatest average deviation that he measured (in the northwest direction) was only 0.018 fringes; most of his measurements were much less. His conclusion was that Fresnel's hypothesis of a stationary aether with partial aether dragging would have to be rejected, and thus he confirmed Stokes' hypothesis of complete aether dragging. However,Alfred Potier(and laterHendrik Lorentz) pointed out to Michelson that he had made an error of calculation, and that the expected fringe shift should have been only 0.02 fringes. Michelson's apparatus was subject to experimental errors far too large to say anything conclusive about the aether wind. Definitive measurement of the aether wind would require an experiment with greater accuracy and better controls than the original. Nevertheless, the prototype was successful in demonstrating that the basic method was feasible. Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) In 1885, Michelson began a collaboration withEdward Morley, spending considerable time and money to confirm with higher accuracyFizeau's 1851 experimenton Fresnel's drag coefficient,to improve on Michelson's 1881 experiment,and to establish the wavelength of light as astandard of length.At this time Michelson was professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science, and Morley was professor of chemistry at Western Reserve University (WRU), which shared a campus with the Case School on the eastern edge of Cleveland. Michelson suffered a mental health crisis in September 1885, from which he recovered by October 1885. Morley ascribed this breakdown to the intense work of Michelson during the preparation of the experiments. In 1886, Michelson and Morley successfully confirmed Fresnel's drag coefficient – this result was also considered as a confirmation of the stationary aether concept. This result strengthened their hope of finding the aether wind. Michelson and Morley created an improved version of the Michelson experiment with more than enough accuracy to detect this hypothetical effect. The experiment was performed in several periods of concentrated observations between April and July 1887, in the basement of Adelbert Dormitory of WRU (later renamed Pierce Hall, demolished in 1962). As shown in the diagram to the right, the light was repeatedly reflected back and forth along the arms of the interferometer, increasing the path length to 11 m (36 ft). At this length, the drift would be about 0.4 fringes. To make that easily detectable, the apparatus was assembled in a closed room in the basement of the heavy stone dormitory, eliminating most thermal and vibrational effects. Vibrations were further reduced by building the apparatus on top of a large block of sandstone (Fig. 1), about a foot thick and five feet (1.5 m) square, which was then floated in a circular trough of mercury. They estimated that effects of about 0.01 fringe would be detectable. Michelson and Morley and other early experimentalists using interferometric techniques in an attempt to measure the properties of the luminiferous aether, used (partially) monochromatic light only for initially setting up their equipment, always switching to white light for the actual measurements. The reason is that measurements were recorded visually. Purely monochromatic light would result in a uniform fringe pattern. Lacking modern means ofenvironmental temperature control, experimentalists struggled with continual fringe drift even when the interferometer was set up in a basement. Because the fringes would occasionally disappear due to vibrations caused by passing horse traffic, distant thunderstorms and the like, an observer could easily \"get lost\" when the fringes returned to visibility. The advantages of white light, which produced a distinctive colored fringe pattern, far outweighed the difficulties of aligning the apparatus due to its lowcoherence length. AsDayton Millerwrote, \"White light fringes were chosen for the observations because they consist of a small group of fringes having a central, sharply defined black fringe which forms a permanent zero reference mark for all readings.\"Use of partially monochromatic light (yellow sodium light) during initial alignment enabled the researchers to locate the position of equal path length, more or less easily, before switching to white light. The mercury trough allowed the device to turn with close to zero friction, so that once having given the sandstone block a single push it would slowly rotate through the entire range of possible angles to the \"aether wind\", while measurements were continuously observed by looking through the eyepiece. The hypothesis of aether drift implies that because one of the arms would inevitably turn into the direction of the wind at the same time that another arm was turning perpendicularly to the wind, an effect should be noticeable even over a period of minutes. The expectation was that the effect would be graphable as a sine wave with two peaks and two troughs per rotation of the device. This result could have been expected because during each full rotation, each arm would be parallel to the wind twice (facing into and away from the wind giving identical readings) and perpendicular to the wind twice. Additionally, due to the Earth's rotation, the wind would be expected to show periodic changes in direction and magnitude during the course of asidereal day. Because of the motion of the Earth around the Sun, the measured data were also expected to show annual variations. Most famous \"failed\" experiment After all this thought and preparation, the experiment became what has been called the most famous failed experiment in history.Instead of providing insight into the properties of the aether, Michelson and Morley's article in theAmerican Journal of Sciencereported the measurement to be as small as one-fortieth of the expected displacement (Fig. 7), but \"since the displacement is proportional to the square of the velocity\" they concluded that the measured velocity was \"probably less than one-sixth\" of the expected velocity of the Earth's motion in orbit and \"certainly less than one-fourth\".Although this small \"velocity\" was measured, it was considered far too small to be used as evidence of speed relative to the aether, and it was understood to be within the range of an experimental error that would allow the speed to actually be zero.For instance, Michelson wrote about the \"decidedly negative result\" in a letter toLord Rayleighin August 1887: The Experiments on the relative motion of the earth and ether have been completed and the result decidedly negative. The expected deviation of the interference fringes from the zero should have been 0.40 of a fringe – the maximum displacement was 0.02 and the average much less than 0.01 – and then not in the right place. As displacement is proportional to squares of the relative velocities it follows that if the ether does slip past the relative velocity is less than one sixth of the earth’s velocity. From the standpoint of the then current aether models, the experimental results were conflicting. TheFizeau experimentand its 1886 repetition by Michelson and Morley apparently confirmed the stationary aether with partial aether dragging, and refuted complete aether dragging. On the other hand, the much more precise Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) apparently confirmed complete aether dragging and refuted the stationary aether.In addition, the Michelson–Morleynull resultwas further substantiated by the null results of other second-order experiments of different kind, namely theTrouton–Noble experiment(1903) and theexperiments of Rayleigh and Brace(1902–1904). These problems and their solution led to the development of theLorentz transformationandspecial relativity. After the \"failed\" experiment Michelson and Morley ceased their aether drift measurements and started to use their newly developed technique to establish the wavelength of light as astandard of length. Light path analysis and consequences Observer resting in the aether The beam travel time in the longitudinal direction can be derived as follows:Light is sent from the source and propagates with the speed of lightc{\\textstyle c}in the aether. It passes through the half-silvered mirror at the origin atT=0{\\textstyle T=0}. The reflecting mirror is at that moment at distanceL{\\textstyle L}(the length of the interferometer arm) and is moving with velocityv{\\textstyle v}. The beam hits the mirror at timeT1{\\textstyle T_{1}}and thus travels the distancecT1{\\textstyle cT_{1}}. At this time, the mirror has traveled the distancevT1{\\textstyle vT_{1}}. ThuscT1=L+vT1{\\textstyle cT_{1}=L+vT_{1}}and consequently the travel timeT1=L/(c−v){\\textstyle T_{1}=L/(c-v)}. The same consideration applies to the backward journey, with the sign ofv{\\textstyle v}reversed, resulting incT2=L−vT2{\\textstyle cT_{2}=L-vT_{2}}andT2=L/(c+v){\\textstyle T_{2}=L/(c+v)}. The total travel timeTℓ=T1+T2{\\textstyle T_{\\ell }=T_{1}+T_{2}}is: Michelson obtained this expression correctly in 1881, however, in transverse direction he obtained the incorrect expression because he overlooked the increase in path length in the rest frame of the aether. This was corrected byAlfred Potier(1882) andHendrik Lorentz(1886). The derivation in the transverse direction can be given as follows (analogous to the derivation oftime dilationusing alight clock): The beam is propagating at the speed of lightc{\\textstyle c}and hits the mirror at timeT3{\\textstyle T_{3}}, traveling the distancecT3{\\textstyle cT_{3}}. At the same time, the mirror has traveled the distancevT3{\\textstyle vT_{3}}in thexdirection. So in order to hit the mirror, the travel path of the beam isL{\\textstyle L}in theydirection (assuming equal-length arms) andvT3{\\textstyle vT_{3}}in thexdirection. This inclined travel path follows from the transformation from the interferometer rest frame to the aether rest frame. Therefore, thePythagorean theoremgives the actual beam travel distance ofL2+(vT3)2{\\textstyle {\\sqrt {L^{2}+\\left(vT_{3}\\right)^{2}}}}. ThuscT3=L2+(vT3)2{\\textstyle cT_{3}={\\sqrt {L^{2}+\\left(vT_{3}\\right)^{2}}}}and consequently the travel timeT3=L/c2−v2{\\textstyle T_{3}=L/{\\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}, which is the same for the backward journey. The total travel timeTt=2T3{\\textstyle T_{t}=2T_{3}}is: The time difference betweenTℓ{\\displaystyle T_{\\ell }}andTt{\\displaystyle T_{t}}is given by To find the path difference, simply multiply byc{\\displaystyle c}; Δλ1=2L(11−v2c2−11−v2c2){\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\left({\\frac {1}{1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}-{\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}\\right)} The path difference is denoted byΔλ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\lambda }because the beams are out of phase by a some number of wavelengths (λ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }). To visualise this, consider taking the two beam paths along the longitudinal and transverse plane, and lying them straight (an animation of this is shown at minute 11:00,The Mechanical Universe, episode 41). One path will be longer than the other, this distance isΔλ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\lambda }. Alternatively, consider the rearrangement of the speed of light formulacΔT=Δλ{\\displaystyle c{\\Delta }T=\\Delta \\lambda }. If the relationv2/c2<<1{\\displaystyle {v^{2}}/{c^{2}}<<1}is true (if the velocity of the aether is small relative to the speed of light), then the expression can be simplified using a first order binomial expansion; (1−x)n≈1−nx{\\displaystyle (1-x)^{n}\\approx {1-nx}} So, rewriting the above in terms of powers; Δλ1=2L((1−v2c2)−1−(1−v2c2)−1/2){\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\left(\\left({1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}\\right)^{-1}-\\left(1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\\right)^{-1/2}\\right)} Applying binomial simplification; Δλ1=2L((1+v2c2)−(1+v22c2))=2Lv22c2{\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\left((1+{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}})-(1+{\\frac {v^{2}}{2c^{2}}})\\right)={2L}{\\frac {v^{2}}{2c^{2}}}} Therefore; Δλ1=Lv2c2{\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}={L}{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}} It can be seen from this derivation that aether wind manifests as a path difference. The path difference is zero only when the interferometer is aligned with or perpendicular to the aether wind, and it reaches a maximum when it is at a 45° angle. The path difference can be any fraction of the wavelength, depending on the angle and speed of the aether wind. To prove the existence of the aether, Michelson and Morley sought to find the \"fringe shift\". The idea was simple, the fringes of the interference pattern should shift when rotating it by 90° as the two beams have exchanged roles. To find the fringe shift, subtract the path difference in first orientation by the path difference in the second, then divide by thewavelength,λ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }, of light; Note the difference betweenΔλ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\lambda }, which is some number of wavelengths, andλ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }which is a single wavelength. As can be seen by this relation, fringe shift n is a unitless quantity. SinceL≈ 11 meters and λ ≈ 500nanometers, the expectedfringe shiftwasn≈ 0.44. The negative result led Michelson to the conclusion that there is no measurable aether drift.However, he never accepted this on a personal level, and the negative result haunted him for the rest of his life. Observer comoving with the interferometer If the same situation is described from the view of an observer co-moving with the interferometer, then the effect of aether wind is similar to the effect experienced by a swimmer, who tries to move with velocityc{\\textstyle c}against a river flowing with velocityv{\\textstyle v}. In the longitudinal direction the swimmer first moves upstream, so his velocity is diminished due to the river flow toc−v{\\textstyle c-v}. On his way back moving downstream, his velocity is increased toc+v{\\textstyle c+v}. This gives the beam travel timesT1{\\textstyle T_{1}}andT2{\\textstyle T_{2}}as mentioned above. In the transverse direction, the swimmer has to compensate for the river flow by moving at a certain angle against the flow direction, in order to sustain his exact transverse direction of motion and to reach the other side of the river at the correct location. This diminishes his speed toc2−v2{\\textstyle {\\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}, and gives the beam travel timeT3{\\textstyle T_{3}}as mentioned above. Mirror reflection The classical analysis predicted a relative phase shift between the longitudinal and transverse beams which in Michelson and Morley's apparatus should have been readily measurable. What is not often appreciated (since there was no means of measuring it), is that motion through the hypothetical aether should also have caused the two beams to diverge as they emerged from the interferometer by about 10−8radians. For an apparatus in motion, the classical analysis requires that the beam-splitting mirror be slightly offset from an exact 45° if the longitudinal and transverse beams are to emerge from the apparatus exactly superimposed. In the relativistic analysis, Lorentz-contraction of the beam splitter in the direction of motion causes it to become more perpendicular by precisely the amount necessary to compensate for the angle discrepancy of the two beams. Length contraction and Lorentz transformation A first step to explaining the Michelson and Morley experiment's null result was found in theFitzGerald–Lorentz contraction hypothesis, now simply called length contraction or Lorentz contraction, first proposed byGeorge FitzGerald(1889) in a letter to same journal that published the Michelson-Morley paper, as \"almost the only hypothesis that can reconcile\" the apparent contradictions. It was independently also proposed byHendrik Lorentz(1892).According to this law all objects physically contract byL/γ{\\textstyle L/\\gamma }along the line of motion (originally thought to be relative to the aether),γ=1/1−v2/c2{\\textstyle \\gamma =1/{\\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}being theLorentz factor. This hypothesis was partly motivated byOliver Heaviside's discovery in 1888 that electrostatic fields are contracting in the line of motion. But since there was no reason at that time to assume that binding forces in matter are of electric origin, length contraction of matter in motion with respect to the aether was considered anad hoc hypothesis. If length contraction ofL{\\textstyle L}is inserted into the above formula forTℓ{\\textstyle T_{\\ell }}, then the light propagation time in the longitudinal direction becomes equal to that in the transverse direction: However, length contraction is only a special case of the more general relation, according to which the transverse length is larger than the longitudinal length by the ratioγ{\\textstyle \\gamma }. This can be achieved in many ways. IfL1{\\textstyle L_{1}}is the moving longitudinal length andL2{\\textstyle L_{2}}the moving transverse length,L1′=L2′{\\textstyle L'_{1}=L'_{2}}being the rest lengths, then it is given: φ{\\textstyle \\varphi }can be arbitrarily chosen, so there are infinitely many combinations to explain the Michelson–Morley null result. For instance, ifφ=1{\\textstyle \\varphi =1}the relativistic value of length contraction ofL1{\\textstyle L_{1}}occurs, but ifφ=1/γ{\\textstyle \\varphi =1/\\gamma }then no length contraction but an elongation ofL2{\\textstyle L_{2}}occurs. This hypothesis was later extended byJoseph Larmor(1897), Lorentz (1904) andHenri Poincaré(1905), who developed the completeLorentz transformationincludingtime dilationin order to explain theTrouton–Noble experiment, theExperiments of Rayleigh and Brace, andKaufmann's experiments. It has the form It remained to define the value ofφ{\\textstyle \\varphi }, which was shown by Lorentz (1904) to be unity.In general, Poincaré (1905)demonstrated that onlyφ=1{\\textstyle \\varphi =1}allows this transformation to form agroup, so it is the only choice compatible with theprinciple of relativity,i.e.,making the stationary aether undetectable. Given this, length contraction and time dilation obtain their exact relativistic values. Special relativity Albert Einsteinformulated the theory ofspecial relativityby 1905, deriving the Lorentz transformation and thus length contraction and time dilation from the relativity postulate and the constancy of the speed of light, thus removing thead hoccharacter from the contraction hypothesis. Einstein emphasized thekinematicfoundation of the theory and the modification of the notion of space and time, with the stationary aether no longer playing any role in his theory. He also pointed out the group character of the transformation. Einstein was motivated byMaxwell's theory of electromagnetism(in the form as it was given by Lorentz in 1895) and the lack of evidence for theluminiferous aether. This allows a more elegant and intuitive explanation of the Michelson–Morley null result. In a comoving frame the null result is self-evident, since the apparatus can be considered as at rest in accordance with the relativity principle, thus the beam travel times are the same. In a frame relative to which the apparatus is moving, the same reasoning applies as described above in \"Length contraction and Lorentz transformation\", except the word \"aether\" has to be replaced by \"non-comoving inertial frame\". Einstein wrote in 1916: Although the estimated difference between these two times is exceedingly small, Michelson and Morley performed an experiment involving interference in which this difference should have been clearly detectable. But the experiment gave a negative result — a fact very perplexing to physicists. Lorentz and FitzGerald rescued the theory from this difficulty by assuming that the motion of the body relative to the æther produces a contraction of the body in the direction of motion, the amount of contraction being just sufficient to compensate for the difference in time mentioned above. Comparison with the discussion in Section 11 shows that also from the standpoint of the theory of relativity this solution of the difficulty was the right one. But on the basis of the theory of relativity the method of interpretation is incomparably more satisfactory. According to this theory there is no such thing as a \"specially favoured\" (unique) co-ordinate system to occasion the introduction of the æther-idea, and hence there can be no æther-drift, nor any experiment with which to demonstrate it. Here the contraction of moving bodies follows from the two fundamental principles of the theory, without the introduction of particular hypotheses; and as the prime factor involved in this contraction we find, not the motion in itself, to which we cannot attach any meaning, but the motion with respect to the body of reference chosen in the particular case in point. Thus for a co-ordinate system moving with the earth the mirror system of Michelson and Morley is not shortened, but it is shortened for a co-ordinate system which is at rest relatively to the sun. The extent to which the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment influenced Einstein is disputed. Alluding to some statements of Einstein, many historians argue that it played no significant role in his path to special relativity,while other statements of Einstein probably suggest that he was influenced by it.In any case, the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment helped the notion of the constancy of the speed of light gain widespread and rapid acceptance. It was later shown byHoward Percy Robertson(1949) and others(seeRobertson–Mansouri–Sexl test theory), that it is possible to derive the Lorentz transformation entirely from the combination of three experiments. First, the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that the speed of light is independent of theorientationof the apparatus, establishing the relationship between longitudinal (β) and transverse (δ) lengths. Then in 1932, Roy Kennedy and Edward Thorndike modified the Michelson–Morley experiment by making the path lengths of the split beam unequal, with one arm being very short.TheKennedy–Thorndike experimenttook place for many months as the Earth moved around the sun. Their negative result showed that the speed of light is independent of thevelocityof the apparatus in different inertial frames. In addition it established that besides length changes, corresponding time changes must also occur, i.e., it established the relationship between longitudinal lengths (β) and time changes (α). So both experiments do not provide the individual values of these quantities. This uncertainty corresponds to the undefined factorφ{\\textstyle \\varphi }as described above. It was clear due to theoretical reasons (thegroup characterof the Lorentz transformation as required by the relativity principle) that the individual values of length contraction and time dilation must assume their exact relativistic form. But a direct measurement of one of these quantities was still desirable to confirm the theoretical results. This was achieved by theIves–Stilwell experiment(1938), measuring α in accordance with time dilation. Combining this value for α with the Kennedy–Thorndike null result shows thatβmust assume the value of relativistic length contraction. Combiningβwith the Michelson–Morley null result shows thatδmust be zero. Therefore, the Lorentz transformation withφ=1{\\textstyle \\varphi =1}is an unavoidable consequence of the combination of these three experiments. Special relativity is generally considered the solution to all negative aether drift (orisotropyof the speed of light) measurements, including the Michelson–Morley null result. Many high precision measurements have been conducted as tests of special relativity andmodern searches for Lorentz violationin thephoton,electron,nucleon, orneutrinosector, all of them confirming relativity. Incorrect alternatives As mentioned above, Michelson initially believed that his experiment would confirm Stokes' theory, according to which the aether was fully dragged in the vicinity of the earth (seeAether drag hypothesis). However, complete aether drag contradicts the observedaberration of lightand was contradicted by other experiments as well. In addition, Lorentz showed in 1886 that Stokes's attempt to explain aberration is contradictory. Furthermore, the assumption that the aether is not carried in the vicinity, but onlywithinmatter, was very problematic as shown by theHammar experiment(1935). Hammar directed one leg of his interferometer through a heavy metal pipe plugged with lead. If aether were dragged by mass, it was theorized that the mass of the sealed metal pipe would have been enough to cause a visible effect. Once again, no effect was seen, so aether-drag theories are considered to be disproven. Walther Ritz'semission theory(or ballistic theory) was also consistent with the results of the experiment, not requiring aether. The theory postulates that light has always the same velocity in respect to the source.Howeverde Sitternoted that emitter theory predicted several optical effects that were not seen in observations of binary stars in which the light from the two stars could be measured in aspectrometer. If emission theory were correct, the light from the stars should experience unusual fringe shifting due to the velocity of the stars being added to the speed of the light, but no such effect could be seen. It was later shown byJ. G. Foxthat the original de Sitter experiments were flawed due toextinction,but in 1977 Brecher observed X-rays from binary star systems with similar null results.Furthermore, Filippas and Fox (1964) conducted terrestrialparticle acceleratortests specifically designed to address Fox's earlier \"extinction\" objection, the results being inconsistent with source dependence of the speed of light. Subsequent experiments Although Michelson and Morley went on to different experiments after their first publication in 1887, both remained active in the field. Other versions of the experiment were carried out with increasing sophistication.Morley was not convinced of his own results, and went on to conduct additional experiments withDayton Millerfrom 1902 to 1904. Again, the result was negative within the margins of error. Miller worked on increasingly larger interferometers, culminating in one with a 32-meter (105 ft) (effective) arm length that he tried at various sites, including on top of a mountain at theMount Wilson Observatory. To avoid the possibility of the aether wind being blocked by solid walls, his mountaintop observations used a special shed with thin walls, mainly of canvas. From noisy, irregular data, he consistently extracted a small positive signal that varied with each rotation of the device, with thesidereal day, and on a yearly basis. His measurements in the 1920s amounted to approximately 10 km/s (6.2 mi/s) instead of the nearly 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s) expected from the Earth's orbital motion alone. He remained convinced this was due topartial entrainment or aether dragging, though he did not attempt a detailed explanation. He ignored critiques demonstrating the inconsistency of his results and the refutation by theHammar experiment.Miller's findings were considered important at the time, and were discussed by Michelson,Lorentzand others at a meeting reported in 1928.There was general agreement that more experimentation was needed to check Miller's results. Miller later built a non-magnetic device to eliminatemagnetostriction, while Michelson built one of non-expandingInvarto eliminate any remaining thermal effects. Other experimenters from around the world increased accuracy, eliminated possible side effects, or both. So far, no one has been able to replicate Miller's results, and modern experimental accuracies have ruled them out.Roberts (2006) has pointed out that the primitive data reduction techniques used by Miller and other early experimenters, including Michelson and Morley, were capable ofcreatingapparent periodic signals even when none existed in the actual data. After reanalyzing Miller's original data using modern techniques of quantitative error analysis, Roberts found Miller's apparent signals to be statistically insignificant. Using a special optical arrangement involving a 1/20 wave step in one mirror, Roy J. Kennedy (1926) and K.K. Illingworth (1927) (Fig. 8) converted the task of detecting fringe shifts from the relatively insensitive one of estimating their lateral displacements to the considerably more sensitive task of adjusting the light intensity on both sides of a sharp boundary for equal luminance.If they observed unequal illumination on either side of the step, such as in Fig. 8e, they would add or remove calibrated weights from the interferometer until both sides of the step were once again evenly illuminated, as in Fig. 8d. The number of weights added or removed provided a measure of the fringe shift. Different observers could detect changes as little as 1/1500 to 1/300 of a fringe. Kennedy also carried out an experiment at Mount Wilson, finding only about 1/10 the drift measured by Miller and no seasonal effects. In 1930,Georg Joosconducted an experiment using an automated interferometer with 21-meter-long (69 ft) arms forged from pressed quartz having a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, that took continuous photographic strip recordings of the fringes through dozens of revolutions of the apparatus. Displacements of 1/1000 of a fringe could be measured on the photographic plates. No periodic fringe displacements were found, placing an upper limit to the aether wind of 1.5 km/s (0.93 mi/s). In the table below, the expected values are related to the relative speed between Earth and Sun of 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s). With respect to the speed of the solar system around the galactic center of about 220 km/s (140 mi/s), or the speed of the solar system relative to theCMB rest frameof about 370 km/s (230 mi/s), the null results of those experiments are even more obvious. Recent experiments Optical tests Optical tests of the isotropy of the speed of light became commonplace.New technologies, including the use oflasersandmasers, have significantly improved measurement precision. (In the following table, only Essen (1955), Jaseja (1964), and Shamir/Fox (1969) are experiments of Michelson–Morley type,i.e.,comparing two perpendicular beams. The other optical experiments employed different methods.) Recent optical resonator experiments During the early 21st century, there has been a resurgence in interest in performing precise Michelson–Morley type experiments using lasers, masers, cryogenicoptical resonators, etc. This is in large part due to predictions of quantum gravity that suggest that special relativity may be violated at scales accessible to experimental study. The first of these highly accurate experiments was conducted by Brillet & Hall (1979), in which they analyzed a laser frequency stabilized to a resonance of a rotating opticalFabry–Pérotcavity. They set a limit on the anisotropy of the speed of light resulting from the Earth's motions of Δc/c≈ 10−15, where Δcis the difference between the speed of light in thex- andy-directions. As of 2015, optical and microwave resonator experiments have improved this limit to Δc/c≈ 10−18. In some of them, the devices were rotated or remained stationary, and some were combined with theKennedy–Thorndike experiment. In particular, Earth's direction and velocity (ca. 368 km/s (229 mi/s)) relative to theCMB rest frameare ordinarily used as references in these searches for anisotropies. Other tests of Lorentz invariance Examples of other experiments not based on the Michelson–Morley principle, i.e., non-optical isotropy tests achieving an even higher level of precision, areClock comparison or Hughes–Drever experiments. In Drever's 1961 experiment,7Li nuclei in the ground state, which has total angular momentumJ= 3/2, were split into four equally spaced levels by a magnetic field. Each transition between a pair of adjacent levels should emit a photon of equal frequency, resulting in a single, sharp spectral line. However, since the nuclear wave functions for differentMJhave different orientations in space relative to the magnetic field, any orientation dependence, whether from an aether wind or from a dependence on the large-scale distribution of mass in space (seeMach's principle), would perturb the energy spacings between the four levels, resulting in an anomalous broadening or splitting of the line. No such broadening was observed. Modern repeats of this kind of experiment have provided some of the most accurate confirmations of the principle ofLorentz invariance. See also References Notes Experiments Bibliography (Series \"A\" references) External links"],"string":"[\n \"Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 TheAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814(also known as theConvention of London;Dutch:Verdrag van Londen) was signed by theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandand theSovereign Principality of the United Netherlandsin London on 13 August 1814. The treaty restored most of the territories in theMoluccasandJava that Britain had seizedin theNapoleonic Wars, but confirmed British possession of theCape Colonyon the southern tip of Africa, as well as portions ofDutch Guianain South America. It was signed byRobert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, on behalf of the British and diplomat Hendrik Fagel, on behalf of the Dutch. Terms Possessions The treaty returned the colonial possessions of the Dutch as they were at 1 January 1803, before the outbreak of theNapoleonic Warsin the Americas, Africa, and Asia, with the exception of theCape of Good Hopeand the South American settlements ofDemerara,EssequiboandBerbice, where the Dutch retained trading rights. In addition, the British ceded the island ofBancaoff the island ofSumatrain exchange for the settlement ofCochinin India and its dependencies on thecoast of Malabar. The Dutch also ceded the district ofBernagore, situated close toCalcutta, in exchange for an annual fee. Cooperation The treaty also noted a declaration of 15 June 1814 by the Dutch, that ships for theslave tradewere no longer permitted in British ports. That restriction would be extended to a ban on involvement in the slave trade by Dutch citizens. Britain also agreed to pay £1,000,000 to Sweden to resolvea claimto theCaribbeanisland ofGuadeloupe. The British and the Dutch agreed to spend £2,000,000 each on improving the defences of theLow Countries.More funds, of up to £3,000,000,are mentioned for the \\\"final and satisfactory settlement of the Low Countries in union with Holland.\\\" Disputes arising from the treaty were the subject of theAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. See also References Footnotes Bibliography\",\n \"Michelson–Morley experiment TheMichelson–Morley experimentwas an attempt to measure the motion of theEarthrelative to theluminiferous aether,a supposed medium permeating space that was thought to be the carrier oflight waves. The experiment was performed between April and July 1887 by American physicistsAlbert A. MichelsonandEdward W. Morleyat what is nowCase Western Reserve UniversityinCleveland, Ohio, and published in November of the same year. The experiment compared thespeed of lightin perpendicular directions in an attempt to detect the relative motion of matter, including their laboratory, through the luminiferous aether, or \\\"aether wind\\\" as it was sometimes called. The result was negative, in that Michelson and Morley found no significant difference between the speed of light in the direction of movement through the presumed aether, and the speed at right angles. This result is generally considered to be the first strong evidence against someaether theories, as well as initiating a line of research that eventually led tospecial relativity, which rules out motion against an aether.Of this experiment,Albert Einsteinwrote, \\\"If the Michelson–Morley experiment had not brought us into serious embarrassment, no one would have regarded the relativity theory as a (halfway) redemption.\\\": 219 Michelson–Morley type experiments have been repeated many times with steadily increasing sensitivity. These include experiments from 1902 to 1905, and a series of experiments in the 1920s. More recently, in 2009,optical resonatorexperiments confirmed the absence of any aether wind at the 10−17level.Together with theIves–StilwellandKennedy–Thorndike experiments, Michelson–Morley type experiments form one of the fundamentaltests of special relativity. Detecting the aether Physics theories of the 19th century assumed that just as surface water waves must have a supporting substance, i.e., a \\\"medium\\\", to move across (in this case water), and audiblesoundrequires a medium to transmit its wave motions (such as air or water), so light must also require a medium, the \\\"luminiferous aether\\\", to transmit its wave motions. Because light can travel through a vacuum, it was assumed that even a vacuum must be filled with aether. Because thespeed of lightis so great, and because material bodies pass through theaetherwithout obvious friction or drag, it was assumed to have a highly unusual combination of properties. Designing experiments to investigate these properties was a high priority of 19th-century physics.: 411ff Earthorbits around theSunat a speed of around 30 km/s (18.64 mi/s), or 108,000 km/h (67,000 mph). The Earth is in motion, so two main possibilities were considered: (1) The aether is stationary and only partiallydraggedby Earth (proposed byAugustin-Jean Fresnelin 1818), or (2) the aether is completely dragged by Earth and thus shares its motion at Earth's surface (proposed bySir George Stokes, 1st Baronetin 1844).In addition,James Clerk Maxwell(1865) recognized theelectromagneticnature of light and developed what are now calledMaxwell's equations, but these equations were still interpreted as describing the motion of waves through an aether, whose state of motion was unknown. Eventually, Fresnel's idea of an (almost) stationary aether was preferred because it appeared to be confirmed by theFizeau experiment(1851) and theaberration of star light. According to the stationary and the partially dragged aether hypotheses, Earth and the aether are in relative motion, implying that a so-called \\\"aether wind\\\" (Fig. 2) should exist. Although it would be theoretically possible for the Earth's motion to match that of the aether at one moment in time, it was not possible for the Earth to remain at rest with respect to the aether at all times, because of the variation in both the direction and the speed of the motion. At any given point on the Earth's surface, the magnitude and direction of the wind would vary with time of day and season. By analyzing the return speed of light in different directions at various different times, it was thought to be possible to measure the motion of the Earth relative to the aether. The expected relative difference in the measured speed of light was quite small, given that the velocity of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun has a magnitude of about one hundredth of one percent of the speed of light.: 417ff During the mid-19th century, measurements of aether wind effects of first order, i.e., effects proportional tov/c(vbeing Earth's velocity,cthe speed of light) were thought to be possible, but no direct measurement of the speed of light was possible with the accuracy required. For instance, theFizeau wheelcould measure the speed of light to perhaps 5% accuracy, which was quite inadequate for measuring directly a first-order 0.01% change in the speed of light. A number of physicists therefore attempted to make measurements of indirect first-order effects not of the speed of light itself, but of variations in the speed of light (seeFirst order aether-drift experiments). TheHoek experiment, for example, was intended to detectinterferometricfringe shiftsdue to speed differences of oppositely propagating light waves through water at rest. The results of such experiments were all negative.This could be explained by usingFresnel's dragging coefficient, according to which the aether and thus light are partially dragged by moving matter. Partial aether-dragging would thwart attempts to measure any first order change in the speed of light. As pointed out by Maxwell (1878), only experimental arrangements capable of measuring second order effects would have any hope of detecting aether drift, i.e., effects proportional tov2/c2.Existing experimental setups, however, were not sensitive enough to measure effects of that size. 1881 and 1887 experiments Michelson experiment (1881) Michelson had a solution to the problem of how to construct a device sufficiently accurate to detect aether flow. In 1877, while teaching at his alma mater, theUnited States Naval Academyin Annapolis, Michelson conducted his first known light speed experiments as a part of a classroom demonstration. In 1881, he left active U.S. Naval service while in Germany concluding his studies. In that year, Michelson used a prototype experimental device to make several more measurements. The device he designed, later known as aMichelson interferometer, sentyellowlight from asodiumflame (for alignment), orwhitelight (for the actual observations), through ahalf-silvered mirrorthat was used to split it into two beams traveling at right angles to one another. After leaving the splitter, the beams traveled out to the ends of long arms where they were reflected back into the middle by small mirrors. They then recombined on the far side of the splitter in an eyepiece, producing a pattern of constructive and destructiveinterferencewhose transverse displacement would depend on the relative time it takes light to transit the longitudinalvs.the transverse arms. If the Earth is traveling through an aether medium, a light beam traveling parallel to the flow of that aether will take longer to reflect back and forth than would a beam traveling perpendicular to the aether, because the increase in elapsed time from traveling against the aether wind is more than the time saved by traveling with the aether wind. Michelson expected that the Earth's motion would produce afringe shiftequal to 0.04 fringes—that is, of the separation between areas of the same intensity. He did not observe the expected shift; the greatest average deviation that he measured (in the northwest direction) was only 0.018 fringes; most of his measurements were much less. His conclusion was that Fresnel's hypothesis of a stationary aether with partial aether dragging would have to be rejected, and thus he confirmed Stokes' hypothesis of complete aether dragging. However,Alfred Potier(and laterHendrik Lorentz) pointed out to Michelson that he had made an error of calculation, and that the expected fringe shift should have been only 0.02 fringes. Michelson's apparatus was subject to experimental errors far too large to say anything conclusive about the aether wind. Definitive measurement of the aether wind would require an experiment with greater accuracy and better controls than the original. Nevertheless, the prototype was successful in demonstrating that the basic method was feasible. Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) In 1885, Michelson began a collaboration withEdward Morley, spending considerable time and money to confirm with higher accuracyFizeau's 1851 experimenton Fresnel's drag coefficient,to improve on Michelson's 1881 experiment,and to establish the wavelength of light as astandard of length.At this time Michelson was professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science, and Morley was professor of chemistry at Western Reserve University (WRU), which shared a campus with the Case School on the eastern edge of Cleveland. Michelson suffered a mental health crisis in September 1885, from which he recovered by October 1885. Morley ascribed this breakdown to the intense work of Michelson during the preparation of the experiments. In 1886, Michelson and Morley successfully confirmed Fresnel's drag coefficient – this result was also considered as a confirmation of the stationary aether concept. This result strengthened their hope of finding the aether wind. Michelson and Morley created an improved version of the Michelson experiment with more than enough accuracy to detect this hypothetical effect. The experiment was performed in several periods of concentrated observations between April and July 1887, in the basement of Adelbert Dormitory of WRU (later renamed Pierce Hall, demolished in 1962). As shown in the diagram to the right, the light was repeatedly reflected back and forth along the arms of the interferometer, increasing the path length to 11 m (36 ft). At this length, the drift would be about 0.4 fringes. To make that easily detectable, the apparatus was assembled in a closed room in the basement of the heavy stone dormitory, eliminating most thermal and vibrational effects. Vibrations were further reduced by building the apparatus on top of a large block of sandstone (Fig. 1), about a foot thick and five feet (1.5 m) square, which was then floated in a circular trough of mercury. They estimated that effects of about 0.01 fringe would be detectable. Michelson and Morley and other early experimentalists using interferometric techniques in an attempt to measure the properties of the luminiferous aether, used (partially) monochromatic light only for initially setting up their equipment, always switching to white light for the actual measurements. The reason is that measurements were recorded visually. Purely monochromatic light would result in a uniform fringe pattern. Lacking modern means ofenvironmental temperature control, experimentalists struggled with continual fringe drift even when the interferometer was set up in a basement. Because the fringes would occasionally disappear due to vibrations caused by passing horse traffic, distant thunderstorms and the like, an observer could easily \\\"get lost\\\" when the fringes returned to visibility. The advantages of white light, which produced a distinctive colored fringe pattern, far outweighed the difficulties of aligning the apparatus due to its lowcoherence length. AsDayton Millerwrote, \\\"White light fringes were chosen for the observations because they consist of a small group of fringes having a central, sharply defined black fringe which forms a permanent zero reference mark for all readings.\\\"Use of partially monochromatic light (yellow sodium light) during initial alignment enabled the researchers to locate the position of equal path length, more or less easily, before switching to white light. The mercury trough allowed the device to turn with close to zero friction, so that once having given the sandstone block a single push it would slowly rotate through the entire range of possible angles to the \\\"aether wind\\\", while measurements were continuously observed by looking through the eyepiece. The hypothesis of aether drift implies that because one of the arms would inevitably turn into the direction of the wind at the same time that another arm was turning perpendicularly to the wind, an effect should be noticeable even over a period of minutes. The expectation was that the effect would be graphable as a sine wave with two peaks and two troughs per rotation of the device. This result could have been expected because during each full rotation, each arm would be parallel to the wind twice (facing into and away from the wind giving identical readings) and perpendicular to the wind twice. Additionally, due to the Earth's rotation, the wind would be expected to show periodic changes in direction and magnitude during the course of asidereal day. Because of the motion of the Earth around the Sun, the measured data were also expected to show annual variations. Most famous \\\"failed\\\" experiment After all this thought and preparation, the experiment became what has been called the most famous failed experiment in history.Instead of providing insight into the properties of the aether, Michelson and Morley's article in theAmerican Journal of Sciencereported the measurement to be as small as one-fortieth of the expected displacement (Fig. 7), but \\\"since the displacement is proportional to the square of the velocity\\\" they concluded that the measured velocity was \\\"probably less than one-sixth\\\" of the expected velocity of the Earth's motion in orbit and \\\"certainly less than one-fourth\\\".Although this small \\\"velocity\\\" was measured, it was considered far too small to be used as evidence of speed relative to the aether, and it was understood to be within the range of an experimental error that would allow the speed to actually be zero.For instance, Michelson wrote about the \\\"decidedly negative result\\\" in a letter toLord Rayleighin August 1887: The Experiments on the relative motion of the earth and ether have been completed and the result decidedly negative. The expected deviation of the interference fringes from the zero should have been 0.40 of a fringe – the maximum displacement was 0.02 and the average much less than 0.01 – and then not in the right place. As displacement is proportional to squares of the relative velocities it follows that if the ether does slip past the relative velocity is less than one sixth of the earth’s velocity. From the standpoint of the then current aether models, the experimental results were conflicting. TheFizeau experimentand its 1886 repetition by Michelson and Morley apparently confirmed the stationary aether with partial aether dragging, and refuted complete aether dragging. On the other hand, the much more precise Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) apparently confirmed complete aether dragging and refuted the stationary aether.In addition, the Michelson–Morleynull resultwas further substantiated by the null results of other second-order experiments of different kind, namely theTrouton–Noble experiment(1903) and theexperiments of Rayleigh and Brace(1902–1904). These problems and their solution led to the development of theLorentz transformationandspecial relativity. After the \\\"failed\\\" experiment Michelson and Morley ceased their aether drift measurements and started to use their newly developed technique to establish the wavelength of light as astandard of length. Light path analysis and consequences Observer resting in the aether The beam travel time in the longitudinal direction can be derived as follows:Light is sent from the source and propagates with the speed of lightc{\\\\textstyle c}in the aether. It passes through the half-silvered mirror at the origin atT=0{\\\\textstyle T=0}. The reflecting mirror is at that moment at distanceL{\\\\textstyle L}(the length of the interferometer arm) and is moving with velocityv{\\\\textstyle v}. The beam hits the mirror at timeT1{\\\\textstyle T_{1}}and thus travels the distancecT1{\\\\textstyle cT_{1}}. At this time, the mirror has traveled the distancevT1{\\\\textstyle vT_{1}}. ThuscT1=L+vT1{\\\\textstyle cT_{1}=L+vT_{1}}and consequently the travel timeT1=L/(c−v){\\\\textstyle T_{1}=L/(c-v)}. The same consideration applies to the backward journey, with the sign ofv{\\\\textstyle v}reversed, resulting incT2=L−vT2{\\\\textstyle cT_{2}=L-vT_{2}}andT2=L/(c+v){\\\\textstyle T_{2}=L/(c+v)}. The total travel timeTℓ=T1+T2{\\\\textstyle T_{\\\\ell }=T_{1}+T_{2}}is: Michelson obtained this expression correctly in 1881, however, in transverse direction he obtained the incorrect expression because he overlooked the increase in path length in the rest frame of the aether. This was corrected byAlfred Potier(1882) andHendrik Lorentz(1886). The derivation in the transverse direction can be given as follows (analogous to the derivation oftime dilationusing alight clock): The beam is propagating at the speed of lightc{\\\\textstyle c}and hits the mirror at timeT3{\\\\textstyle T_{3}}, traveling the distancecT3{\\\\textstyle cT_{3}}. At the same time, the mirror has traveled the distancevT3{\\\\textstyle vT_{3}}in thexdirection. So in order to hit the mirror, the travel path of the beam isL{\\\\textstyle L}in theydirection (assuming equal-length arms) andvT3{\\\\textstyle vT_{3}}in thexdirection. This inclined travel path follows from the transformation from the interferometer rest frame to the aether rest frame. Therefore, thePythagorean theoremgives the actual beam travel distance ofL2+(vT3)2{\\\\textstyle {\\\\sqrt {L^{2}+\\\\left(vT_{3}\\\\right)^{2}}}}. ThuscT3=L2+(vT3)2{\\\\textstyle cT_{3}={\\\\sqrt {L^{2}+\\\\left(vT_{3}\\\\right)^{2}}}}and consequently the travel timeT3=L/c2−v2{\\\\textstyle T_{3}=L/{\\\\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}, which is the same for the backward journey. The total travel timeTt=2T3{\\\\textstyle T_{t}=2T_{3}}is: The time difference betweenTℓ{\\\\displaystyle T_{\\\\ell }}andTt{\\\\displaystyle T_{t}}is given by To find the path difference, simply multiply byc{\\\\displaystyle c}; Δλ1=2L(11−v2c2−11−v2c2){\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta {\\\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\\\left({\\\\frac {1}{1-{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}-{\\\\frac {1}{\\\\sqrt {1-{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}\\\\right)} The path difference is denoted byΔλ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta \\\\lambda }because the beams are out of phase by a some number of wavelengths (λ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\lambda }). To visualise this, consider taking the two beam paths along the longitudinal and transverse plane, and lying them straight (an animation of this is shown at minute 11:00,The Mechanical Universe, episode 41). One path will be longer than the other, this distance isΔλ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta \\\\lambda }. Alternatively, consider the rearrangement of the speed of light formulacΔT=Δλ{\\\\displaystyle c{\\\\Delta }T=\\\\Delta \\\\lambda }. If the relationv2/c2<<1{\\\\displaystyle {v^{2}}/{c^{2}}<<1}is true (if the velocity of the aether is small relative to the speed of light), then the expression can be simplified using a first order binomial expansion; (1−x)n≈1−nx{\\\\displaystyle (1-x)^{n}\\\\approx {1-nx}} So, rewriting the above in terms of powers; Δλ1=2L((1−v2c2)−1−(1−v2c2)−1/2){\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta {\\\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\\\left(\\\\left({1-{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}\\\\right)^{-1}-\\\\left(1-{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\\\\right)^{-1/2}\\\\right)} Applying binomial simplification; Δλ1=2L((1+v2c2)−(1+v22c2))=2Lv22c2{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta {\\\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\\\left((1+{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}})-(1+{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{2c^{2}}})\\\\right)={2L}{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{2c^{2}}}} Therefore; Δλ1=Lv2c2{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta {\\\\lambda }_{1}={L}{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}} It can be seen from this derivation that aether wind manifests as a path difference. The path difference is zero only when the interferometer is aligned with or perpendicular to the aether wind, and it reaches a maximum when it is at a 45° angle. The path difference can be any fraction of the wavelength, depending on the angle and speed of the aether wind. To prove the existence of the aether, Michelson and Morley sought to find the \\\"fringe shift\\\". The idea was simple, the fringes of the interference pattern should shift when rotating it by 90° as the two beams have exchanged roles. To find the fringe shift, subtract the path difference in first orientation by the path difference in the second, then divide by thewavelength,λ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\lambda }, of light; Note the difference betweenΔλ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta \\\\lambda }, which is some number of wavelengths, andλ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\lambda }which is a single wavelength. As can be seen by this relation, fringe shift n is a unitless quantity. SinceL≈ 11 meters and λ ≈ 500nanometers, the expectedfringe shiftwasn≈ 0.44. The negative result led Michelson to the conclusion that there is no measurable aether drift.However, he never accepted this on a personal level, and the negative result haunted him for the rest of his life. Observer comoving with the interferometer If the same situation is described from the view of an observer co-moving with the interferometer, then the effect of aether wind is similar to the effect experienced by a swimmer, who tries to move with velocityc{\\\\textstyle c}against a river flowing with velocityv{\\\\textstyle v}. In the longitudinal direction the swimmer first moves upstream, so his velocity is diminished due to the river flow toc−v{\\\\textstyle c-v}. On his way back moving downstream, his velocity is increased toc+v{\\\\textstyle c+v}. This gives the beam travel timesT1{\\\\textstyle T_{1}}andT2{\\\\textstyle T_{2}}as mentioned above. In the transverse direction, the swimmer has to compensate for the river flow by moving at a certain angle against the flow direction, in order to sustain his exact transverse direction of motion and to reach the other side of the river at the correct location. This diminishes his speed toc2−v2{\\\\textstyle {\\\\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}, and gives the beam travel timeT3{\\\\textstyle T_{3}}as mentioned above. Mirror reflection The classical analysis predicted a relative phase shift between the longitudinal and transverse beams which in Michelson and Morley's apparatus should have been readily measurable. What is not often appreciated (since there was no means of measuring it), is that motion through the hypothetical aether should also have caused the two beams to diverge as they emerged from the interferometer by about 10−8radians. For an apparatus in motion, the classical analysis requires that the beam-splitting mirror be slightly offset from an exact 45° if the longitudinal and transverse beams are to emerge from the apparatus exactly superimposed. In the relativistic analysis, Lorentz-contraction of the beam splitter in the direction of motion causes it to become more perpendicular by precisely the amount necessary to compensate for the angle discrepancy of the two beams. Length contraction and Lorentz transformation A first step to explaining the Michelson and Morley experiment's null result was found in theFitzGerald–Lorentz contraction hypothesis, now simply called length contraction or Lorentz contraction, first proposed byGeorge FitzGerald(1889) in a letter to same journal that published the Michelson-Morley paper, as \\\"almost the only hypothesis that can reconcile\\\" the apparent contradictions. It was independently also proposed byHendrik Lorentz(1892).According to this law all objects physically contract byL/γ{\\\\textstyle L/\\\\gamma }along the line of motion (originally thought to be relative to the aether),γ=1/1−v2/c2{\\\\textstyle \\\\gamma =1/{\\\\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}being theLorentz factor. This hypothesis was partly motivated byOliver Heaviside's discovery in 1888 that electrostatic fields are contracting in the line of motion. But since there was no reason at that time to assume that binding forces in matter are of electric origin, length contraction of matter in motion with respect to the aether was considered anad hoc hypothesis. If length contraction ofL{\\\\textstyle L}is inserted into the above formula forTℓ{\\\\textstyle T_{\\\\ell }}, then the light propagation time in the longitudinal direction becomes equal to that in the transverse direction: However, length contraction is only a special case of the more general relation, according to which the transverse length is larger than the longitudinal length by the ratioγ{\\\\textstyle \\\\gamma }. This can be achieved in many ways. IfL1{\\\\textstyle L_{1}}is the moving longitudinal length andL2{\\\\textstyle L_{2}}the moving transverse length,L1′=L2′{\\\\textstyle L'_{1}=L'_{2}}being the rest lengths, then it is given: φ{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi }can be arbitrarily chosen, so there are infinitely many combinations to explain the Michelson–Morley null result. For instance, ifφ=1{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi =1}the relativistic value of length contraction ofL1{\\\\textstyle L_{1}}occurs, but ifφ=1/γ{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi =1/\\\\gamma }then no length contraction but an elongation ofL2{\\\\textstyle L_{2}}occurs. This hypothesis was later extended byJoseph Larmor(1897), Lorentz (1904) andHenri Poincaré(1905), who developed the completeLorentz transformationincludingtime dilationin order to explain theTrouton–Noble experiment, theExperiments of Rayleigh and Brace, andKaufmann's experiments. It has the form It remained to define the value ofφ{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi }, which was shown by Lorentz (1904) to be unity.In general, Poincaré (1905)demonstrated that onlyφ=1{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi =1}allows this transformation to form agroup, so it is the only choice compatible with theprinciple of relativity,i.e.,making the stationary aether undetectable. Given this, length contraction and time dilation obtain their exact relativistic values. Special relativity Albert Einsteinformulated the theory ofspecial relativityby 1905, deriving the Lorentz transformation and thus length contraction and time dilation from the relativity postulate and the constancy of the speed of light, thus removing thead hoccharacter from the contraction hypothesis. Einstein emphasized thekinematicfoundation of the theory and the modification of the notion of space and time, with the stationary aether no longer playing any role in his theory. He also pointed out the group character of the transformation. Einstein was motivated byMaxwell's theory of electromagnetism(in the form as it was given by Lorentz in 1895) and the lack of evidence for theluminiferous aether. This allows a more elegant and intuitive explanation of the Michelson–Morley null result. In a comoving frame the null result is self-evident, since the apparatus can be considered as at rest in accordance with the relativity principle, thus the beam travel times are the same. In a frame relative to which the apparatus is moving, the same reasoning applies as described above in \\\"Length contraction and Lorentz transformation\\\", except the word \\\"aether\\\" has to be replaced by \\\"non-comoving inertial frame\\\". Einstein wrote in 1916: Although the estimated difference between these two times is exceedingly small, Michelson and Morley performed an experiment involving interference in which this difference should have been clearly detectable. But the experiment gave a negative result — a fact very perplexing to physicists. Lorentz and FitzGerald rescued the theory from this difficulty by assuming that the motion of the body relative to the æther produces a contraction of the body in the direction of motion, the amount of contraction being just sufficient to compensate for the difference in time mentioned above. Comparison with the discussion in Section 11 shows that also from the standpoint of the theory of relativity this solution of the difficulty was the right one. But on the basis of the theory of relativity the method of interpretation is incomparably more satisfactory. According to this theory there is no such thing as a \\\"specially favoured\\\" (unique) co-ordinate system to occasion the introduction of the æther-idea, and hence there can be no æther-drift, nor any experiment with which to demonstrate it. Here the contraction of moving bodies follows from the two fundamental principles of the theory, without the introduction of particular hypotheses; and as the prime factor involved in this contraction we find, not the motion in itself, to which we cannot attach any meaning, but the motion with respect to the body of reference chosen in the particular case in point. Thus for a co-ordinate system moving with the earth the mirror system of Michelson and Morley is not shortened, but it is shortened for a co-ordinate system which is at rest relatively to the sun. The extent to which the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment influenced Einstein is disputed. Alluding to some statements of Einstein, many historians argue that it played no significant role in his path to special relativity,while other statements of Einstein probably suggest that he was influenced by it.In any case, the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment helped the notion of the constancy of the speed of light gain widespread and rapid acceptance. It was later shown byHoward Percy Robertson(1949) and others(seeRobertson–Mansouri–Sexl test theory), that it is possible to derive the Lorentz transformation entirely from the combination of three experiments. First, the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that the speed of light is independent of theorientationof the apparatus, establishing the relationship between longitudinal (β) and transverse (δ) lengths. Then in 1932, Roy Kennedy and Edward Thorndike modified the Michelson–Morley experiment by making the path lengths of the split beam unequal, with one arm being very short.TheKennedy–Thorndike experimenttook place for many months as the Earth moved around the sun. Their negative result showed that the speed of light is independent of thevelocityof the apparatus in different inertial frames. In addition it established that besides length changes, corresponding time changes must also occur, i.e., it established the relationship between longitudinal lengths (β) and time changes (α). So both experiments do not provide the individual values of these quantities. This uncertainty corresponds to the undefined factorφ{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi }as described above. It was clear due to theoretical reasons (thegroup characterof the Lorentz transformation as required by the relativity principle) that the individual values of length contraction and time dilation must assume their exact relativistic form. But a direct measurement of one of these quantities was still desirable to confirm the theoretical results. This was achieved by theIves–Stilwell experiment(1938), measuring α in accordance with time dilation. Combining this value for α with the Kennedy–Thorndike null result shows thatβmust assume the value of relativistic length contraction. Combiningβwith the Michelson–Morley null result shows thatδmust be zero. Therefore, the Lorentz transformation withφ=1{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi =1}is an unavoidable consequence of the combination of these three experiments. Special relativity is generally considered the solution to all negative aether drift (orisotropyof the speed of light) measurements, including the Michelson–Morley null result. Many high precision measurements have been conducted as tests of special relativity andmodern searches for Lorentz violationin thephoton,electron,nucleon, orneutrinosector, all of them confirming relativity. Incorrect alternatives As mentioned above, Michelson initially believed that his experiment would confirm Stokes' theory, according to which the aether was fully dragged in the vicinity of the earth (seeAether drag hypothesis). However, complete aether drag contradicts the observedaberration of lightand was contradicted by other experiments as well. In addition, Lorentz showed in 1886 that Stokes's attempt to explain aberration is contradictory. Furthermore, the assumption that the aether is not carried in the vicinity, but onlywithinmatter, was very problematic as shown by theHammar experiment(1935). Hammar directed one leg of his interferometer through a heavy metal pipe plugged with lead. If aether were dragged by mass, it was theorized that the mass of the sealed metal pipe would have been enough to cause a visible effect. Once again, no effect was seen, so aether-drag theories are considered to be disproven. Walther Ritz'semission theory(or ballistic theory) was also consistent with the results of the experiment, not requiring aether. The theory postulates that light has always the same velocity in respect to the source.Howeverde Sitternoted that emitter theory predicted several optical effects that were not seen in observations of binary stars in which the light from the two stars could be measured in aspectrometer. If emission theory were correct, the light from the stars should experience unusual fringe shifting due to the velocity of the stars being added to the speed of the light, but no such effect could be seen. It was later shown byJ. G. Foxthat the original de Sitter experiments were flawed due toextinction,but in 1977 Brecher observed X-rays from binary star systems with similar null results.Furthermore, Filippas and Fox (1964) conducted terrestrialparticle acceleratortests specifically designed to address Fox's earlier \\\"extinction\\\" objection, the results being inconsistent with source dependence of the speed of light. Subsequent experiments Although Michelson and Morley went on to different experiments after their first publication in 1887, both remained active in the field. Other versions of the experiment were carried out with increasing sophistication.Morley was not convinced of his own results, and went on to conduct additional experiments withDayton Millerfrom 1902 to 1904. Again, the result was negative within the margins of error. Miller worked on increasingly larger interferometers, culminating in one with a 32-meter (105 ft) (effective) arm length that he tried at various sites, including on top of a mountain at theMount Wilson Observatory. To avoid the possibility of the aether wind being blocked by solid walls, his mountaintop observations used a special shed with thin walls, mainly of canvas. From noisy, irregular data, he consistently extracted a small positive signal that varied with each rotation of the device, with thesidereal day, and on a yearly basis. His measurements in the 1920s amounted to approximately 10 km/s (6.2 mi/s) instead of the nearly 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s) expected from the Earth's orbital motion alone. He remained convinced this was due topartial entrainment or aether dragging, though he did not attempt a detailed explanation. He ignored critiques demonstrating the inconsistency of his results and the refutation by theHammar experiment.Miller's findings were considered important at the time, and were discussed by Michelson,Lorentzand others at a meeting reported in 1928.There was general agreement that more experimentation was needed to check Miller's results. Miller later built a non-magnetic device to eliminatemagnetostriction, while Michelson built one of non-expandingInvarto eliminate any remaining thermal effects. Other experimenters from around the world increased accuracy, eliminated possible side effects, or both. So far, no one has been able to replicate Miller's results, and modern experimental accuracies have ruled them out.Roberts (2006) has pointed out that the primitive data reduction techniques used by Miller and other early experimenters, including Michelson and Morley, were capable ofcreatingapparent periodic signals even when none existed in the actual data. After reanalyzing Miller's original data using modern techniques of quantitative error analysis, Roberts found Miller's apparent signals to be statistically insignificant. Using a special optical arrangement involving a 1/20 wave step in one mirror, Roy J. Kennedy (1926) and K.K. Illingworth (1927) (Fig. 8) converted the task of detecting fringe shifts from the relatively insensitive one of estimating their lateral displacements to the considerably more sensitive task of adjusting the light intensity on both sides of a sharp boundary for equal luminance.If they observed unequal illumination on either side of the step, such as in Fig. 8e, they would add or remove calibrated weights from the interferometer until both sides of the step were once again evenly illuminated, as in Fig. 8d. The number of weights added or removed provided a measure of the fringe shift. Different observers could detect changes as little as 1/1500 to 1/300 of a fringe. Kennedy also carried out an experiment at Mount Wilson, finding only about 1/10 the drift measured by Miller and no seasonal effects. In 1930,Georg Joosconducted an experiment using an automated interferometer with 21-meter-long (69 ft) arms forged from pressed quartz having a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, that took continuous photographic strip recordings of the fringes through dozens of revolutions of the apparatus. Displacements of 1/1000 of a fringe could be measured on the photographic plates. No periodic fringe displacements were found, placing an upper limit to the aether wind of 1.5 km/s (0.93 mi/s). In the table below, the expected values are related to the relative speed between Earth and Sun of 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s). With respect to the speed of the solar system around the galactic center of about 220 km/s (140 mi/s), or the speed of the solar system relative to theCMB rest frameof about 370 km/s (230 mi/s), the null results of those experiments are even more obvious. Recent experiments Optical tests Optical tests of the isotropy of the speed of light became commonplace.New technologies, including the use oflasersandmasers, have significantly improved measurement precision. (In the following table, only Essen (1955), Jaseja (1964), and Shamir/Fox (1969) are experiments of Michelson–Morley type,i.e.,comparing two perpendicular beams. The other optical experiments employed different methods.) Recent optical resonator experiments During the early 21st century, there has been a resurgence in interest in performing precise Michelson–Morley type experiments using lasers, masers, cryogenicoptical resonators, etc. This is in large part due to predictions of quantum gravity that suggest that special relativity may be violated at scales accessible to experimental study. The first of these highly accurate experiments was conducted by Brillet & Hall (1979), in which they analyzed a laser frequency stabilized to a resonance of a rotating opticalFabry–Pérotcavity. They set a limit on the anisotropy of the speed of light resulting from the Earth's motions of Δc/c≈ 10−15, where Δcis the difference between the speed of light in thex- andy-directions. As of 2015, optical and microwave resonator experiments have improved this limit to Δc/c≈ 10−18. In some of them, the devices were rotated or remained stationary, and some were combined with theKennedy–Thorndike experiment. In particular, Earth's direction and velocity (ca. 368 km/s (229 mi/s)) relative to theCMB rest frameare ordinarily used as references in these searches for anisotropies. Other tests of Lorentz invariance Examples of other experiments not based on the Michelson–Morley principle, i.e., non-optical isotropy tests achieving an even higher level of precision, areClock comparison or Hughes–Drever experiments. In Drever's 1961 experiment,7Li nuclei in the ground state, which has total angular momentumJ= 3/2, were split into four equally spaced levels by a magnetic field. Each transition between a pair of adjacent levels should emit a photon of equal frequency, resulting in a single, sharp spectral line. However, since the nuclear wave functions for differentMJhave different orientations in space relative to the magnetic field, any orientation dependence, whether from an aether wind or from a dependence on the large-scale distribution of mass in space (seeMach's principle), would perturb the energy spacings between the four levels, resulting in an anomalous broadening or splitting of the line. No such broadening was observed. Modern repeats of this kind of experiment have provided some of the most accurate confirmations of the principle ofLorentz invariance. See also References Notes Experiments Bibliography (Series \\\"A\\\" references) External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 TheAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814(also known as theConvention of London;Dutch:Verdrag van Londen) was signed by theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandand theSovereign Principality of the United Netherlandsin London on 13 August 1814. The treaty restored most of the territories in theMoluccasandJava that Britain had seizedin theNapoleonic Wars, but confirmed British possession of theCape Colonyon the southern tip of Africa, as well as portions ofDutch Guianain South America. It was signed byRobert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, on behalf of the British and diplomat Hendrik Fagel, on behalf of the Dutch. Terms Possessions The treaty returned the colonial possessions of the Dutch as they were at 1 January 1803, before the outbreak of theNapoleonic Warsin the Americas, Africa, and Asia, with the exception of theCape of Good Hopeand the South American settlements ofDemerara,EssequiboandBerbice, where the Dutch retained trading rights. In addition, the British ceded the island","ceded the island ofBancaoff the island ofSumatrain exchange for the settlement ofCochinin India and its dependencies on thecoast of Malabar. The Dutch also ceded the district ofBernagore, situated close toCalcutta, in exchange for an annual fee. Cooperation The treaty also noted a declaration of 15 June 1814 by the Dutch, that ships for theslave tradewere no longer permitted in British ports. That restriction would be extended to a ban on involvement in the slave trade by Dutch citizens. Britain also agreed to pay £1,000,000 to Sweden to resolvea claimto theCaribbeanisland ofGuadeloupe. The British and the Dutch agreed to spend £2,000,000 each on improving the defences of theLow Countries.More funds, of up to £3,000,000,are mentioned for the \"final and satisfactory settlement of the Low Countries in union with Holland.\" Disputes arising from the treaty were the subject of theAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. See also References Footnotes Bibliography","Michelson–Morley experiment TheMichelson–Morley experimentwas an attempt to measure the motion of theEarthrelative to theluminiferous aether,a supposed medium permeating space that was thought to be the carrier oflight waves. The experiment was performed between April and July 1887 by American physicistsAlbert A. MichelsonandEdward W. Morleyat what is nowCase Western Reserve UniversityinCleveland, Ohio, and published in November of the same year. The experiment compared thespeed of lightin perpendicular directions in an attempt to detect the relative motion of matter, including their laboratory, through the luminiferous aether, or \"aether wind\" as it was sometimes called. The result was negative, in that Michelson and Morley found no significant difference between the speed of light in the direction of movement through the presumed aether, and the speed at right angles. This result is generally considered to be the first strong evidence against someaether theories, as well as initiating a line of research","a line of research that eventually led tospecial relativity, which rules out motion against an aether.Of this experiment,Albert Einsteinwrote, \"If the Michelson–Morley experiment had not brought us into serious embarrassment, no one would have regarded the relativity theory as a (halfway) redemption.\": 219 Michelson–Morley type experiments have been repeated many times with steadily increasing sensitivity. These include experiments from 1902 to 1905, and a series of experiments in the 1920s. More recently, in 2009,optical resonatorexperiments confirmed the absence of any aether wind at the 10−17level.Together with theIves–StilwellandKennedy–Thorndike experiments, Michelson–Morley type experiments form one of the fundamentaltests of special relativity. Detecting the aether Physics theories of the 19th century assumed that just as surface water waves must have a supporting substance, i.e., a \"medium\", to move across (in this case water), and audiblesoundrequires a medium to transmit its wave motions (such as","motions (such as air or water), so light must also require a medium, the \"luminiferous aether\", to transmit its wave motions. Because light can travel through a vacuum, it was assumed that even a vacuum must be filled with aether. Because thespeed of lightis so great, and because material bodies pass through theaetherwithout obvious friction or drag, it was assumed to have a highly unusual combination of properties. Designing experiments to investigate these properties was a high priority of 19th-century physics.: 411ff Earthorbits around theSunat a speed of around 30 km/s (18.64 mi/s), or 108,000 km/h (67,000 mph). The Earth is in motion, so two main possibilities were considered: (1) The aether is stationary and only partiallydraggedby Earth (proposed byAugustin-Jean Fresnelin 1818), or (2) the aether is completely dragged by Earth and thus shares its motion at Earth's surface (proposed bySir George Stokes, 1st Baronetin 1844).In addition,James Clerk Maxwell(1865) recognized theelectromagneticnature of","of light and developed what are now calledMaxwell's equations, but these equations were still interpreted as describing the motion of waves through an aether, whose state of motion was unknown. Eventually, Fresnel's idea of an (almost) stationary aether was preferred because it appeared to be confirmed by theFizeau experiment(1851) and theaberration of star light. According to the stationary and the partially dragged aether hypotheses, Earth and the aether are in relative motion, implying that a so-called \"aether wind\" (Fig. 2) should exist. Although it would be theoretically possible for the Earth's motion to match that of the aether at one moment in time, it was not possible for the Earth to remain at rest with respect to the aether at all times, because of the variation in both the direction and the speed of the motion. At any given point on the Earth's surface, the magnitude and direction of the wind would vary with time of day and season. By analyzing the return speed of light in different directions at","directions at various different times, it was thought to be possible to measure the motion of the Earth relative to the aether. The expected relative difference in the measured speed of light was quite small, given that the velocity of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun has a magnitude of about one hundredth of one percent of the speed of light.: 417ff During the mid-19th century, measurements of aether wind effects of first order, i.e., effects proportional tov/c(vbeing Earth's velocity,cthe speed of light) were thought to be possible, but no direct measurement of the speed of light was possible with the accuracy required. For instance, theFizeau wheelcould measure the speed of light to perhaps 5% accuracy, which was quite inadequate for measuring directly a first-order 0.01% change in the speed of light. A number of physicists therefore attempted to make measurements of indirect first-order effects not of the speed of light itself, but of variations in the speed of light (seeFirst order aether-drift","order aether-drift experiments). TheHoek experiment, for example, was intended to detectinterferometricfringe shiftsdue to speed differences of oppositely propagating light waves through water at rest. The results of such experiments were all negative.This could be explained by usingFresnel's dragging coefficient, according to which the aether and thus light are partially dragged by moving matter. Partial aether-dragging would thwart attempts to measure any first order change in the speed of light. As pointed out by Maxwell (1878), only experimental arrangements capable of measuring second order effects would have any hope of detecting aether drift, i.e., effects proportional tov2/c2.Existing experimental setups, however, were not sensitive enough to measure effects of that size. 1881 and 1887 experiments Michelson experiment (1881) Michelson had a solution to the problem of how to construct a device sufficiently accurate to detect aether flow. In 1877, while teaching at his alma mater, theUnited States","theUnited States Naval Academyin Annapolis, Michelson conducted his first known light speed experiments as a part of a classroom demonstration. In 1881, he left active U.S. Naval service while in Germany concluding his studies. In that year, Michelson used a prototype experimental device to make several more measurements. The device he designed, later known as aMichelson interferometer, sentyellowlight from asodiumflame (for alignment), orwhitelight (for the actual observations), through ahalf-silvered mirrorthat was used to split it into two beams traveling at right angles to one another. After leaving the splitter, the beams traveled out to the ends of long arms where they were reflected back into the middle by small mirrors. They then recombined on the far side of the splitter in an eyepiece, producing a pattern of constructive and destructiveinterferencewhose transverse displacement would depend on the relative time it takes light to transit the longitudinalvs.the transverse arms. If the Earth is","If the Earth is traveling through an aether medium, a light beam traveling parallel to the flow of that aether will take longer to reflect back and forth than would a beam traveling perpendicular to the aether, because the increase in elapsed time from traveling against the aether wind is more than the time saved by traveling with the aether wind. Michelson expected that the Earth's motion would produce afringe shiftequal to 0.04 fringes—that is, of the separation between areas of the same intensity. He did not observe the expected shift; the greatest average deviation that he measured (in the northwest direction) was only 0.018 fringes; most of his measurements were much less. His conclusion was that Fresnel's hypothesis of a stationary aether with partial aether dragging would have to be rejected, and thus he confirmed Stokes' hypothesis of complete aether dragging. However,Alfred Potier(and laterHendrik Lorentz) pointed out to Michelson that he had made an error of calculation, and that the expected","that the expected fringe shift should have been only 0.02 fringes. Michelson's apparatus was subject to experimental errors far too large to say anything conclusive about the aether wind. Definitive measurement of the aether wind would require an experiment with greater accuracy and better controls than the original. Nevertheless, the prototype was successful in demonstrating that the basic method was feasible. Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) In 1885, Michelson began a collaboration withEdward Morley, spending considerable time and money to confirm with higher accuracyFizeau's 1851 experimenton Fresnel's drag coefficient,to improve on Michelson's 1881 experiment,and to establish the wavelength of light as astandard of length.At this time Michelson was professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science, and Morley was professor of chemistry at Western Reserve University (WRU), which shared a campus with the Case School on the eastern edge of Cleveland. Michelson suffered a mental health crisis in","health crisis in September 1885, from which he recovered by October 1885. Morley ascribed this breakdown to the intense work of Michelson during the preparation of the experiments. In 1886, Michelson and Morley successfully confirmed Fresnel's drag coefficient – this result was also considered as a confirmation of the stationary aether concept. This result strengthened their hope of finding the aether wind. Michelson and Morley created an improved version of the Michelson experiment with more than enough accuracy to detect this hypothetical effect. The experiment was performed in several periods of concentrated observations between April and July 1887, in the basement of Adelbert Dormitory of WRU (later renamed Pierce Hall, demolished in 1962). As shown in the diagram to the right, the light was repeatedly reflected back and forth along the arms of the interferometer, increasing the path length to 11 m (36 ft). At this length, the drift would be about 0.4 fringes. To make that easily detectable, the","detectable, the apparatus was assembled in a closed room in the basement of the heavy stone dormitory, eliminating most thermal and vibrational effects. Vibrations were further reduced by building the apparatus on top of a large block of sandstone (Fig. 1), about a foot thick and five feet (1.5 m) square, which was then floated in a circular trough of mercury. They estimated that effects of about 0.01 fringe would be detectable. Michelson and Morley and other early experimentalists using interferometric techniques in an attempt to measure the properties of the luminiferous aether, used (partially) monochromatic light only for initially setting up their equipment, always switching to white light for the actual measurements. The reason is that measurements were recorded visually. Purely monochromatic light would result in a uniform fringe pattern. Lacking modern means ofenvironmental temperature control, experimentalists struggled with continual fringe drift even when the interferometer was set up in a","was set up in a basement. Because the fringes would occasionally disappear due to vibrations caused by passing horse traffic, distant thunderstorms and the like, an observer could easily \"get lost\" when the fringes returned to visibility. The advantages of white light, which produced a distinctive colored fringe pattern, far outweighed the difficulties of aligning the apparatus due to its lowcoherence length. AsDayton Millerwrote, \"White light fringes were chosen for the observations because they consist of a small group of fringes having a central, sharply defined black fringe which forms a permanent zero reference mark for all readings.\"Use of partially monochromatic light (yellow sodium light) during initial alignment enabled the researchers to locate the position of equal path length, more or less easily, before switching to white light. The mercury trough allowed the device to turn with close to zero friction, so that once having given the sandstone block a single push it would slowly rotate through the","rotate through the entire range of possible angles to the \"aether wind\", while measurements were continuously observed by looking through the eyepiece. The hypothesis of aether drift implies that because one of the arms would inevitably turn into the direction of the wind at the same time that another arm was turning perpendicularly to the wind, an effect should be noticeable even over a period of minutes. The expectation was that the effect would be graphable as a sine wave with two peaks and two troughs per rotation of the device. This result could have been expected because during each full rotation, each arm would be parallel to the wind twice (facing into and away from the wind giving identical readings) and perpendicular to the wind twice. Additionally, due to the Earth's rotation, the wind would be expected to show periodic changes in direction and magnitude during the course of asidereal day. Because of the motion of the Earth around the Sun, the measured data were also expected to show annual","to show annual variations. Most famous \"failed\" experiment After all this thought and preparation, the experiment became what has been called the most famous failed experiment in history.Instead of providing insight into the properties of the aether, Michelson and Morley's article in theAmerican Journal of Sciencereported the measurement to be as small as one-fortieth of the expected displacement (Fig. 7), but \"since the displacement is proportional to the square of the velocity\" they concluded that the measured velocity was \"probably less than one-sixth\" of the expected velocity of the Earth's motion in orbit and \"certainly less than one-fourth\".Although this small \"velocity\" was measured, it was considered far too small to be used as evidence of speed relative to the aether, and it was understood to be within the range of an experimental error that would allow the speed to actually be zero.For instance, Michelson wrote about the \"decidedly negative result\" in a letter toLord Rayleighin August 1887: The","August 1887: The Experiments on the relative motion of the earth and ether have been completed and the result decidedly negative. The expected deviation of the interference fringes from the zero should have been 0.40 of a fringe – the maximum displacement was 0.02 and the average much less than 0.01 – and then not in the right place. As displacement is proportional to squares of the relative velocities it follows that if the ether does slip past the relative velocity is less than one sixth of the earth’s velocity. From the standpoint of the then current aether models, the experimental results were conflicting. TheFizeau experimentand its 1886 repetition by Michelson and Morley apparently confirmed the stationary aether with partial aether dragging, and refuted complete aether dragging. On the other hand, the much more precise Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) apparently confirmed complete aether dragging and refuted the stationary aether.In addition, the Michelson–Morleynull resultwas further substantiated","substantiated by the null results of other second-order experiments of different kind, namely theTrouton–Noble experiment(1903) and theexperiments of Rayleigh and Brace(1902–1904). These problems and their solution led to the development of theLorentz transformationandspecial relativity. After the \"failed\" experiment Michelson and Morley ceased their aether drift measurements and started to use their newly developed technique to establish the wavelength of light as astandard of length. Light path analysis and consequences Observer resting in the aether The beam travel time in the longitudinal direction can be derived as follows:Light is sent from the source and propagates with the speed of lightc{\\textstyle c}in the aether. It passes through the half-silvered mirror at the origin atT=0{\\textstyle T=0}. The reflecting mirror is at that moment at distanceL{\\textstyle L}(the length of the interferometer arm) and is moving with velocityv{\\textstyle v}. The beam hits the mirror at timeT1{\\textstyle T_{1}}and thus","T_{1}}and thus travels the distancecT1{\\textstyle cT_{1}}. At this time, the mirror has traveled the distancevT1{\\textstyle vT_{1}}. ThuscT1=L+vT1{\\textstyle cT_{1}=L+vT_{1}}and consequently the travel timeT1=L/(c−v){\\textstyle T_{1}=L/(c-v)}. The same consideration applies to the backward journey, with the sign ofv{\\textstyle v}reversed, resulting incT2=L−vT2{\\textstyle cT_{2}=L-vT_{2}}andT2=L/(c+v){\\textstyle T_{2}=L/(c+v)}. The total travel timeTℓ=T1+T2{\\textstyle T_{\\ell }=T_{1}+T_{2}}is: Michelson obtained this expression correctly in 1881, however, in transverse direction he obtained the incorrect expression because he overlooked the increase in path length in the rest frame of the aether. This was corrected byAlfred Potier(1882) andHendrik Lorentz(1886). The derivation in the transverse direction can be given as follows (analogous to the derivation oftime dilationusing alight clock): The beam is propagating at the speed of lightc{\\textstyle c}and hits the mirror at timeT3{\\textstyle T_{3}}, traveling","T_{3}}, traveling the distancecT3{\\textstyle cT_{3}}. At the same time, the mirror has traveled the distancevT3{\\textstyle vT_{3}}in thexdirection. So in order to hit the mirror, the travel path of the beam isL{\\textstyle L}in theydirection (assuming equal-length arms) andvT3{\\textstyle vT_{3}}in thexdirection. This inclined travel path follows from the transformation from the interferometer rest frame to the aether rest frame. Therefore, thePythagorean theoremgives the actual beam travel distance ofL2+(vT3)2{\\textstyle {\\sqrt {L^{2}+\\left(vT_{3}\\right)^{2}}}}. ThuscT3=L2+(vT3)2{\\textstyle cT_{3}={\\sqrt {L^{2}+\\left(vT_{3}\\right)^{2}}}}and consequently the travel timeT3=L/c2−v2{\\textstyle T_{3}=L/{\\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}, which is the same for the backward journey. The total travel timeTt=2T3{\\textstyle T_{t}=2T_{3}}is: The time difference betweenTℓ{\\displaystyle T_{\\ell }}andTt{\\displaystyle T_{t}}is given by To find the path difference, simply multiply byc{\\displaystyle c};","c}; Δλ1=2L(11−v2c2−11−v2c2){\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\left({\\frac {1}{1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}-{\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}\\right)} The path difference is denoted byΔλ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\lambda }because the beams are out of phase by a some number of wavelengths (λ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }). To visualise this, consider taking the two beam paths along the longitudinal and transverse plane, and lying them straight (an animation of this is shown at minute 11:00,The Mechanical Universe, episode 41). One path will be longer than the other, this distance isΔλ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\lambda }. Alternatively, consider the rearrangement of the speed of light formulacΔT=Δλ{\\displaystyle c{\\Delta }T=\\Delta \\lambda }. If the relationv2/c2<<1{\\displaystyle {v^{2}}/{c^{2}}<<1}is true (if the velocity of the aether is small relative to the speed of light), then the expression can be simplified using a first order binomial expansion; (1−x)n≈1−nx{\\displaystyle (1-x)^{n}\\approx {1-nx}} So,","{1-nx}} So, rewriting the above in terms of powers; Δλ1=2L((1−v2c2)−1−(1−v2c2)−1/2){\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\left(\\left({1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}\\right)^{-1}-\\left(1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\\right)^{-1/2}\\right)} Applying binomial simplification; Δλ1=2L((1+v2c2)−(1+v22c2))=2Lv22c2{\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\left((1+{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}})-(1+{\\frac {v^{2}}{2c^{2}}})\\right)={2L}{\\frac {v^{2}}{2c^{2}}}} Therefore; Δλ1=Lv2c2{\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}={L}{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}} It can be seen from this derivation that aether wind manifests as a path difference. The path difference is zero only when the interferometer is aligned with or perpendicular to the aether wind, and it reaches a maximum when it is at a 45° angle. The path difference can be any fraction of the wavelength, depending on the angle and speed of the aether wind. To prove the existence of the aether, Michelson and Morley sought to find the \"fringe shift\". The idea was simple, the fringes of the interference","of the interference pattern should shift when rotating it by 90° as the two beams have exchanged roles. To find the fringe shift, subtract the path difference in first orientation by the path difference in the second, then divide by thewavelength,λ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }, of light; Note the difference betweenΔλ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\lambda }, which is some number of wavelengths, andλ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }which is a single wavelength. As can be seen by this relation, fringe shift n is a unitless quantity. SinceL≈ 11 meters and λ ≈ 500nanometers, the expectedfringe shiftwasn≈ 0.44. The negative result led Michelson to the conclusion that there is no measurable aether drift.However, he never accepted this on a personal level, and the negative result haunted him for the rest of his life. Observer comoving with the interferometer If the same situation is described from the view of an observer co-moving with the interferometer, then the effect of aether wind is similar to the effect experienced by a swimmer,","by a swimmer, who tries to move with velocityc{\\textstyle c}against a river flowing with velocityv{\\textstyle v}. In the longitudinal direction the swimmer first moves upstream, so his velocity is diminished due to the river flow toc−v{\\textstyle c-v}. On his way back moving downstream, his velocity is increased toc+v{\\textstyle c+v}. This gives the beam travel timesT1{\\textstyle T_{1}}andT2{\\textstyle T_{2}}as mentioned above. In the transverse direction, the swimmer has to compensate for the river flow by moving at a certain angle against the flow direction, in order to sustain his exact transverse direction of motion and to reach the other side of the river at the correct location. This diminishes his speed toc2−v2{\\textstyle {\\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}, and gives the beam travel timeT3{\\textstyle T_{3}}as mentioned above. Mirror reflection The classical analysis predicted a relative phase shift between the longitudinal and transverse beams which in Michelson and Morley's apparatus should have been readily","have been readily measurable. What is not often appreciated (since there was no means of measuring it), is that motion through the hypothetical aether should also have caused the two beams to diverge as they emerged from the interferometer by about 10−8radians. For an apparatus in motion, the classical analysis requires that the beam-splitting mirror be slightly offset from an exact 45° if the longitudinal and transverse beams are to emerge from the apparatus exactly superimposed. In the relativistic analysis, Lorentz-contraction of the beam splitter in the direction of motion causes it to become more perpendicular by precisely the amount necessary to compensate for the angle discrepancy of the two beams. Length contraction and Lorentz transformation A first step to explaining the Michelson and Morley experiment's null result was found in theFitzGerald–Lorentz contraction hypothesis, now simply called length contraction or Lorentz contraction, first proposed byGeorge FitzGerald(1889) in a letter to same","in a letter to same journal that published the Michelson-Morley paper, as \"almost the only hypothesis that can reconcile\" the apparent contradictions. It was independently also proposed byHendrik Lorentz(1892).According to this law all objects physically contract byL/γ{\\textstyle L/\\gamma }along the line of motion (originally thought to be relative to the aether),γ=1/1−v2/c2{\\textstyle \\gamma =1/{\\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}being theLorentz factor. This hypothesis was partly motivated byOliver Heaviside's discovery in 1888 that electrostatic fields are contracting in the line of motion. But since there was no reason at that time to assume that binding forces in matter are of electric origin, length contraction of matter in motion with respect to the aether was considered anad hoc hypothesis. If length contraction ofL{\\textstyle L}is inserted into the above formula forTℓ{\\textstyle T_{\\ell }}, then the light propagation time in the longitudinal direction becomes equal to that in the transverse direction: However,","direction: However, length contraction is only a special case of the more general relation, according to which the transverse length is larger than the longitudinal length by the ratioγ{\\textstyle \\gamma }. This can be achieved in many ways. IfL1{\\textstyle L_{1}}is the moving longitudinal length andL2{\\textstyle L_{2}}the moving transverse length,L1′=L2′{\\textstyle L'_{1}=L'_{2}}being the rest lengths, then it is given: φ{\\textstyle \\varphi }can be arbitrarily chosen, so there are infinitely many combinations to explain the Michelson–Morley null result. For instance, ifφ=1{\\textstyle \\varphi =1}the relativistic value of length contraction ofL1{\\textstyle L_{1}}occurs, but ifφ=1/γ{\\textstyle \\varphi =1/\\gamma }then no length contraction but an elongation ofL2{\\textstyle L_{2}}occurs. This hypothesis was later extended byJoseph Larmor(1897), Lorentz (1904) andHenri Poincaré(1905), who developed the completeLorentz transformationincludingtime dilationin order to explain theTrouton–Noble experiment,","experiment, theExperiments of Rayleigh and Brace, andKaufmann's experiments. It has the form It remained to define the value ofφ{\\textstyle \\varphi }, which was shown by Lorentz (1904) to be unity.In general, Poincaré (1905)demonstrated that onlyφ=1{\\textstyle \\varphi =1}allows this transformation to form agroup, so it is the only choice compatible with theprinciple of relativity,i.e.,making the stationary aether undetectable. Given this, length contraction and time dilation obtain their exact relativistic values. Special relativity Albert Einsteinformulated the theory ofspecial relativityby 1905, deriving the Lorentz transformation and thus length contraction and time dilation from the relativity postulate and the constancy of the speed of light, thus removing thead hoccharacter from the contraction hypothesis. Einstein emphasized thekinematicfoundation of the theory and the modification of the notion of space and time, with the stationary aether no longer playing any role in his theory. He also pointed out","He also pointed out the group character of the transformation. Einstein was motivated byMaxwell's theory of electromagnetism(in the form as it was given by Lorentz in 1895) and the lack of evidence for theluminiferous aether. This allows a more elegant and intuitive explanation of the Michelson–Morley null result. In a comoving frame the null result is self-evident, since the apparatus can be considered as at rest in accordance with the relativity principle, thus the beam travel times are the same. In a frame relative to which the apparatus is moving, the same reasoning applies as described above in \"Length contraction and Lorentz transformation\", except the word \"aether\" has to be replaced by \"non-comoving inertial frame\". Einstein wrote in 1916: Although the estimated difference between these two times is exceedingly small, Michelson and Morley performed an experiment involving interference in which this difference should have been clearly detectable. But the experiment gave a negative result — a fact very","— a fact very perplexing to physicists. Lorentz and FitzGerald rescued the theory from this difficulty by assuming that the motion of the body relative to the æther produces a contraction of the body in the direction of motion, the amount of contraction being just sufficient to compensate for the difference in time mentioned above. Comparison with the discussion in Section 11 shows that also from the standpoint of the theory of relativity this solution of the difficulty was the right one. But on the basis of the theory of relativity the method of interpretation is incomparably more satisfactory. According to this theory there is no such thing as a \"specially favoured\" (unique) co-ordinate system to occasion the introduction of the æther-idea, and hence there can be no æther-drift, nor any experiment with which to demonstrate it. Here the contraction of moving bodies follows from the two fundamental principles of the theory, without the introduction of particular hypotheses; and as the prime factor involved","factor involved in this contraction we find, not the motion in itself, to which we cannot attach any meaning, but the motion with respect to the body of reference chosen in the particular case in point. Thus for a co-ordinate system moving with the earth the mirror system of Michelson and Morley is not shortened, but it is shortened for a co-ordinate system which is at rest relatively to the sun. The extent to which the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment influenced Einstein is disputed. Alluding to some statements of Einstein, many historians argue that it played no significant role in his path to special relativity,while other statements of Einstein probably suggest that he was influenced by it.In any case, the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment helped the notion of the constancy of the speed of light gain widespread and rapid acceptance. It was later shown byHoward Percy Robertson(1949) and others(seeRobertson–Mansouri–Sexl test theory), that it is possible to derive the Lorentz","derive the Lorentz transformation entirely from the combination of three experiments. First, the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that the speed of light is independent of theorientationof the apparatus, establishing the relationship between longitudinal (β) and transverse (δ) lengths. Then in 1932, Roy Kennedy and Edward Thorndike modified the Michelson–Morley experiment by making the path lengths of the split beam unequal, with one arm being very short.TheKennedy–Thorndike experimenttook place for many months as the Earth moved around the sun. Their negative result showed that the speed of light is independent of thevelocityof the apparatus in different inertial frames. In addition it established that besides length changes, corresponding time changes must also occur, i.e., it established the relationship between longitudinal lengths (β) and time changes (α). So both experiments do not provide the individual values of these quantities. This uncertainty corresponds to the undefined factorφ{\\textstyle","factorφ{\\textstyle \\varphi }as described above. It was clear due to theoretical reasons (thegroup characterof the Lorentz transformation as required by the relativity principle) that the individual values of length contraction and time dilation must assume their exact relativistic form. But a direct measurement of one of these quantities was still desirable to confirm the theoretical results. This was achieved by theIves–Stilwell experiment(1938), measuring α in accordance with time dilation. Combining this value for α with the Kennedy–Thorndike null result shows thatβmust assume the value of relativistic length contraction. Combiningβwith the Michelson–Morley null result shows thatδmust be zero. Therefore, the Lorentz transformation withφ=1{\\textstyle \\varphi =1}is an unavoidable consequence of the combination of these three experiments. Special relativity is generally considered the solution to all negative aether drift (orisotropyof the speed of light) measurements, including the Michelson–Morley null","null result. Many high precision measurements have been conducted as tests of special relativity andmodern searches for Lorentz violationin thephoton,electron,nucleon, orneutrinosector, all of them confirming relativity. Incorrect alternatives As mentioned above, Michelson initially believed that his experiment would confirm Stokes' theory, according to which the aether was fully dragged in the vicinity of the earth (seeAether drag hypothesis). However, complete aether drag contradicts the observedaberration of lightand was contradicted by other experiments as well. In addition, Lorentz showed in 1886 that Stokes's attempt to explain aberration is contradictory. Furthermore, the assumption that the aether is not carried in the vicinity, but onlywithinmatter, was very problematic as shown by theHammar experiment(1935). Hammar directed one leg of his interferometer through a heavy metal pipe plugged with lead. If aether were dragged by mass, it was theorized that the mass of the sealed metal pipe would have","pipe would have been enough to cause a visible effect. Once again, no effect was seen, so aether-drag theories are considered to be disproven. Walther Ritz'semission theory(or ballistic theory) was also consistent with the results of the experiment, not requiring aether. The theory postulates that light has always the same velocity in respect to the source.Howeverde Sitternoted that emitter theory predicted several optical effects that were not seen in observations of binary stars in which the light from the two stars could be measured in aspectrometer. If emission theory were correct, the light from the stars should experience unusual fringe shifting due to the velocity of the stars being added to the speed of the light, but no such effect could be seen. It was later shown byJ. G. Foxthat the original de Sitter experiments were flawed due toextinction,but in 1977 Brecher observed X-rays from binary star systems with similar null results.Furthermore, Filippas and Fox (1964) conducted terrestrialparticle","terrestrialparticle acceleratortests specifically designed to address Fox's earlier \"extinction\" objection, the results being inconsistent with source dependence of the speed of light. Subsequent experiments Although Michelson and Morley went on to different experiments after their first publication in 1887, both remained active in the field. Other versions of the experiment were carried out with increasing sophistication.Morley was not convinced of his own results, and went on to conduct additional experiments withDayton Millerfrom 1902 to 1904. Again, the result was negative within the margins of error. Miller worked on increasingly larger interferometers, culminating in one with a 32-meter (105 ft) (effective) arm length that he tried at various sites, including on top of a mountain at theMount Wilson Observatory. To avoid the possibility of the aether wind being blocked by solid walls, his mountaintop observations used a special shed with thin walls, mainly of canvas. From noisy, irregular data, he","irregular data, he consistently extracted a small positive signal that varied with each rotation of the device, with thesidereal day, and on a yearly basis. His measurements in the 1920s amounted to approximately 10 km/s (6.2 mi/s) instead of the nearly 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s) expected from the Earth's orbital motion alone. He remained convinced this was due topartial entrainment or aether dragging, though he did not attempt a detailed explanation. He ignored critiques demonstrating the inconsistency of his results and the refutation by theHammar experiment.Miller's findings were considered important at the time, and were discussed by Michelson,Lorentzand others at a meeting reported in 1928.There was general agreement that more experimentation was needed to check Miller's results. Miller later built a non-magnetic device to eliminatemagnetostriction, while Michelson built one of non-expandingInvarto eliminate any remaining thermal effects. Other experimenters from around the world increased accuracy, eliminated","eliminated possible side effects, or both. So far, no one has been able to replicate Miller's results, and modern experimental accuracies have ruled them out.Roberts (2006) has pointed out that the primitive data reduction techniques used by Miller and other early experimenters, including Michelson and Morley, were capable ofcreatingapparent periodic signals even when none existed in the actual data. After reanalyzing Miller's original data using modern techniques of quantitative error analysis, Roberts found Miller's apparent signals to be statistically insignificant. Using a special optical arrangement involving a 1/20 wave step in one mirror, Roy J. Kennedy (1926) and K.K. Illingworth (1927) (Fig. 8) converted the task of detecting fringe shifts from the relatively insensitive one of estimating their lateral displacements to the considerably more sensitive task of adjusting the light intensity on both sides of a sharp boundary for equal luminance.If they observed unequal illumination on either side of the","either side of the step, such as in Fig. 8e, they would add or remove calibrated weights from the interferometer until both sides of the step were once again evenly illuminated, as in Fig. 8d. The number of weights added or removed provided a measure of the fringe shift. Different observers could detect changes as little as 1/1500 to 1/300 of a fringe. Kennedy also carried out an experiment at Mount Wilson, finding only about 1/10 the drift measured by Miller and no seasonal effects. In 1930,Georg Joosconducted an experiment using an automated interferometer with 21-meter-long (69 ft) arms forged from pressed quartz having a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, that took continuous photographic strip recordings of the fringes through dozens of revolutions of the apparatus. Displacements of 1/1000 of a fringe could be measured on the photographic plates. No periodic fringe displacements were found, placing an upper limit to the aether wind of 1.5 km/s (0.93 mi/s). In the table below, the expected values","the expected values are related to the relative speed between Earth and Sun of 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s). With respect to the speed of the solar system around the galactic center of about 220 km/s (140 mi/s), or the speed of the solar system relative to theCMB rest frameof about 370 km/s (230 mi/s), the null results of those experiments are even more obvious. Recent experiments Optical tests Optical tests of the isotropy of the speed of light became commonplace.New technologies, including the use oflasersandmasers, have significantly improved measurement precision. (In the following table, only Essen (1955), Jaseja (1964), and Shamir/Fox (1969) are experiments of Michelson–Morley type,i.e.,comparing two perpendicular beams. The other optical experiments employed different methods.) Recent optical resonator experiments During the early 21st century, there has been a resurgence in interest in performing precise Michelson–Morley type experiments using lasers, masers, cryogenicoptical resonators, etc. This is in large","This is in large part due to predictions of quantum gravity that suggest that special relativity may be violated at scales accessible to experimental study. The first of these highly accurate experiments was conducted by Brillet & Hall (1979), in which they analyzed a laser frequency stabilized to a resonance of a rotating opticalFabry–Pérotcavity. They set a limit on the anisotropy of the speed of light resulting from the Earth's motions of Δc/c≈ 10−15, where Δcis the difference between the speed of light in thex- andy-directions. As of 2015, optical and microwave resonator experiments have improved this limit to Δc/c≈ 10−18. In some of them, the devices were rotated or remained stationary, and some were combined with theKennedy–Thorndike experiment. In particular, Earth's direction and velocity (ca. 368 km/s (229 mi/s)) relative to theCMB rest frameare ordinarily used as references in these searches for anisotropies. Other tests of Lorentz invariance Examples of other experiments not based on the","not based on the Michelson–Morley principle, i.e., non-optical isotropy tests achieving an even higher level of precision, areClock comparison or Hughes–Drever experiments. In Drever's 1961 experiment,7Li nuclei in the ground state, which has total angular momentumJ= 3/2, were split into four equally spaced levels by a magnetic field. Each transition between a pair of adjacent levels should emit a photon of equal frequency, resulting in a single, sharp spectral line. However, since the nuclear wave functions for differentMJhave different orientations in space relative to the magnetic field, any orientation dependence, whether from an aether wind or from a dependence on the large-scale distribution of mass in space (seeMach's principle), would perturb the energy spacings between the four levels, resulting in an anomalous broadening or splitting of the line. No such broadening was observed. Modern repeats of this kind of experiment have provided some of the most accurate confirmations of the principle","of the principle ofLorentz invariance. See also References Notes Experiments Bibliography (Series \"A\" references) External links"],"string":"[\n \"Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 TheAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814(also known as theConvention of London;Dutch:Verdrag van Londen) was signed by theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandand theSovereign Principality of the United Netherlandsin London on 13 August 1814. The treaty restored most of the territories in theMoluccasandJava that Britain had seizedin theNapoleonic Wars, but confirmed British possession of theCape Colonyon the southern tip of Africa, as well as portions ofDutch Guianain South America. It was signed byRobert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, on behalf of the British and diplomat Hendrik Fagel, on behalf of the Dutch. Terms Possessions The treaty returned the colonial possessions of the Dutch as they were at 1 January 1803, before the outbreak of theNapoleonic Warsin the Americas, Africa, and Asia, with the exception of theCape of Good Hopeand the South American settlements ofDemerara,EssequiboandBerbice, where the Dutch retained trading rights. In addition, the British ceded the island\",\n \"ceded the island ofBancaoff the island ofSumatrain exchange for the settlement ofCochinin India and its dependencies on thecoast of Malabar. The Dutch also ceded the district ofBernagore, situated close toCalcutta, in exchange for an annual fee. Cooperation The treaty also noted a declaration of 15 June 1814 by the Dutch, that ships for theslave tradewere no longer permitted in British ports. That restriction would be extended to a ban on involvement in the slave trade by Dutch citizens. Britain also agreed to pay £1,000,000 to Sweden to resolvea claimto theCaribbeanisland ofGuadeloupe. The British and the Dutch agreed to spend £2,000,000 each on improving the defences of theLow Countries.More funds, of up to £3,000,000,are mentioned for the \\\"final and satisfactory settlement of the Low Countries in union with Holland.\\\" Disputes arising from the treaty were the subject of theAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. See also References Footnotes Bibliography\",\n \"Michelson–Morley experiment TheMichelson–Morley experimentwas an attempt to measure the motion of theEarthrelative to theluminiferous aether,a supposed medium permeating space that was thought to be the carrier oflight waves. The experiment was performed between April and July 1887 by American physicistsAlbert A. MichelsonandEdward W. Morleyat what is nowCase Western Reserve UniversityinCleveland, Ohio, and published in November of the same year. The experiment compared thespeed of lightin perpendicular directions in an attempt to detect the relative motion of matter, including their laboratory, through the luminiferous aether, or \\\"aether wind\\\" as it was sometimes called. The result was negative, in that Michelson and Morley found no significant difference between the speed of light in the direction of movement through the presumed aether, and the speed at right angles. This result is generally considered to be the first strong evidence against someaether theories, as well as initiating a line of research\",\n \"a line of research that eventually led tospecial relativity, which rules out motion against an aether.Of this experiment,Albert Einsteinwrote, \\\"If the Michelson–Morley experiment had not brought us into serious embarrassment, no one would have regarded the relativity theory as a (halfway) redemption.\\\": 219 Michelson–Morley type experiments have been repeated many times with steadily increasing sensitivity. These include experiments from 1902 to 1905, and a series of experiments in the 1920s. More recently, in 2009,optical resonatorexperiments confirmed the absence of any aether wind at the 10−17level.Together with theIves–StilwellandKennedy–Thorndike experiments, Michelson–Morley type experiments form one of the fundamentaltests of special relativity. Detecting the aether Physics theories of the 19th century assumed that just as surface water waves must have a supporting substance, i.e., a \\\"medium\\\", to move across (in this case water), and audiblesoundrequires a medium to transmit its wave motions (such as\",\n \"motions (such as air or water), so light must also require a medium, the \\\"luminiferous aether\\\", to transmit its wave motions. Because light can travel through a vacuum, it was assumed that even a vacuum must be filled with aether. Because thespeed of lightis so great, and because material bodies pass through theaetherwithout obvious friction or drag, it was assumed to have a highly unusual combination of properties. Designing experiments to investigate these properties was a high priority of 19th-century physics.: 411ff Earthorbits around theSunat a speed of around 30 km/s (18.64 mi/s), or 108,000 km/h (67,000 mph). The Earth is in motion, so two main possibilities were considered: (1) The aether is stationary and only partiallydraggedby Earth (proposed byAugustin-Jean Fresnelin 1818), or (2) the aether is completely dragged by Earth and thus shares its motion at Earth's surface (proposed bySir George Stokes, 1st Baronetin 1844).In addition,James Clerk Maxwell(1865) recognized theelectromagneticnature of\",\n \"of light and developed what are now calledMaxwell's equations, but these equations were still interpreted as describing the motion of waves through an aether, whose state of motion was unknown. Eventually, Fresnel's idea of an (almost) stationary aether was preferred because it appeared to be confirmed by theFizeau experiment(1851) and theaberration of star light. According to the stationary and the partially dragged aether hypotheses, Earth and the aether are in relative motion, implying that a so-called \\\"aether wind\\\" (Fig. 2) should exist. Although it would be theoretically possible for the Earth's motion to match that of the aether at one moment in time, it was not possible for the Earth to remain at rest with respect to the aether at all times, because of the variation in both the direction and the speed of the motion. At any given point on the Earth's surface, the magnitude and direction of the wind would vary with time of day and season. By analyzing the return speed of light in different directions at\",\n \"directions at various different times, it was thought to be possible to measure the motion of the Earth relative to the aether. The expected relative difference in the measured speed of light was quite small, given that the velocity of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun has a magnitude of about one hundredth of one percent of the speed of light.: 417ff During the mid-19th century, measurements of aether wind effects of first order, i.e., effects proportional tov/c(vbeing Earth's velocity,cthe speed of light) were thought to be possible, but no direct measurement of the speed of light was possible with the accuracy required. For instance, theFizeau wheelcould measure the speed of light to perhaps 5% accuracy, which was quite inadequate for measuring directly a first-order 0.01% change in the speed of light. A number of physicists therefore attempted to make measurements of indirect first-order effects not of the speed of light itself, but of variations in the speed of light (seeFirst order aether-drift\",\n \"order aether-drift experiments). TheHoek experiment, for example, was intended to detectinterferometricfringe shiftsdue to speed differences of oppositely propagating light waves through water at rest. The results of such experiments were all negative.This could be explained by usingFresnel's dragging coefficient, according to which the aether and thus light are partially dragged by moving matter. Partial aether-dragging would thwart attempts to measure any first order change in the speed of light. As pointed out by Maxwell (1878), only experimental arrangements capable of measuring second order effects would have any hope of detecting aether drift, i.e., effects proportional tov2/c2.Existing experimental setups, however, were not sensitive enough to measure effects of that size. 1881 and 1887 experiments Michelson experiment (1881) Michelson had a solution to the problem of how to construct a device sufficiently accurate to detect aether flow. In 1877, while teaching at his alma mater, theUnited States\",\n \"theUnited States Naval Academyin Annapolis, Michelson conducted his first known light speed experiments as a part of a classroom demonstration. In 1881, he left active U.S. Naval service while in Germany concluding his studies. In that year, Michelson used a prototype experimental device to make several more measurements. The device he designed, later known as aMichelson interferometer, sentyellowlight from asodiumflame (for alignment), orwhitelight (for the actual observations), through ahalf-silvered mirrorthat was used to split it into two beams traveling at right angles to one another. After leaving the splitter, the beams traveled out to the ends of long arms where they were reflected back into the middle by small mirrors. They then recombined on the far side of the splitter in an eyepiece, producing a pattern of constructive and destructiveinterferencewhose transverse displacement would depend on the relative time it takes light to transit the longitudinalvs.the transverse arms. If the Earth is\",\n \"If the Earth is traveling through an aether medium, a light beam traveling parallel to the flow of that aether will take longer to reflect back and forth than would a beam traveling perpendicular to the aether, because the increase in elapsed time from traveling against the aether wind is more than the time saved by traveling with the aether wind. Michelson expected that the Earth's motion would produce afringe shiftequal to 0.04 fringes—that is, of the separation between areas of the same intensity. He did not observe the expected shift; the greatest average deviation that he measured (in the northwest direction) was only 0.018 fringes; most of his measurements were much less. His conclusion was that Fresnel's hypothesis of a stationary aether with partial aether dragging would have to be rejected, and thus he confirmed Stokes' hypothesis of complete aether dragging. However,Alfred Potier(and laterHendrik Lorentz) pointed out to Michelson that he had made an error of calculation, and that the expected\",\n \"that the expected fringe shift should have been only 0.02 fringes. Michelson's apparatus was subject to experimental errors far too large to say anything conclusive about the aether wind. Definitive measurement of the aether wind would require an experiment with greater accuracy and better controls than the original. Nevertheless, the prototype was successful in demonstrating that the basic method was feasible. Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) In 1885, Michelson began a collaboration withEdward Morley, spending considerable time and money to confirm with higher accuracyFizeau's 1851 experimenton Fresnel's drag coefficient,to improve on Michelson's 1881 experiment,and to establish the wavelength of light as astandard of length.At this time Michelson was professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science, and Morley was professor of chemistry at Western Reserve University (WRU), which shared a campus with the Case School on the eastern edge of Cleveland. Michelson suffered a mental health crisis in\",\n \"health crisis in September 1885, from which he recovered by October 1885. Morley ascribed this breakdown to the intense work of Michelson during the preparation of the experiments. In 1886, Michelson and Morley successfully confirmed Fresnel's drag coefficient – this result was also considered as a confirmation of the stationary aether concept. This result strengthened their hope of finding the aether wind. Michelson and Morley created an improved version of the Michelson experiment with more than enough accuracy to detect this hypothetical effect. The experiment was performed in several periods of concentrated observations between April and July 1887, in the basement of Adelbert Dormitory of WRU (later renamed Pierce Hall, demolished in 1962). As shown in the diagram to the right, the light was repeatedly reflected back and forth along the arms of the interferometer, increasing the path length to 11 m (36 ft). At this length, the drift would be about 0.4 fringes. To make that easily detectable, the\",\n \"detectable, the apparatus was assembled in a closed room in the basement of the heavy stone dormitory, eliminating most thermal and vibrational effects. Vibrations were further reduced by building the apparatus on top of a large block of sandstone (Fig. 1), about a foot thick and five feet (1.5 m) square, which was then floated in a circular trough of mercury. They estimated that effects of about 0.01 fringe would be detectable. Michelson and Morley and other early experimentalists using interferometric techniques in an attempt to measure the properties of the luminiferous aether, used (partially) monochromatic light only for initially setting up their equipment, always switching to white light for the actual measurements. The reason is that measurements were recorded visually. Purely monochromatic light would result in a uniform fringe pattern. Lacking modern means ofenvironmental temperature control, experimentalists struggled with continual fringe drift even when the interferometer was set up in a\",\n \"was set up in a basement. Because the fringes would occasionally disappear due to vibrations caused by passing horse traffic, distant thunderstorms and the like, an observer could easily \\\"get lost\\\" when the fringes returned to visibility. The advantages of white light, which produced a distinctive colored fringe pattern, far outweighed the difficulties of aligning the apparatus due to its lowcoherence length. AsDayton Millerwrote, \\\"White light fringes were chosen for the observations because they consist of a small group of fringes having a central, sharply defined black fringe which forms a permanent zero reference mark for all readings.\\\"Use of partially monochromatic light (yellow sodium light) during initial alignment enabled the researchers to locate the position of equal path length, more or less easily, before switching to white light. The mercury trough allowed the device to turn with close to zero friction, so that once having given the sandstone block a single push it would slowly rotate through the\",\n \"rotate through the entire range of possible angles to the \\\"aether wind\\\", while measurements were continuously observed by looking through the eyepiece. The hypothesis of aether drift implies that because one of the arms would inevitably turn into the direction of the wind at the same time that another arm was turning perpendicularly to the wind, an effect should be noticeable even over a period of minutes. The expectation was that the effect would be graphable as a sine wave with two peaks and two troughs per rotation of the device. This result could have been expected because during each full rotation, each arm would be parallel to the wind twice (facing into and away from the wind giving identical readings) and perpendicular to the wind twice. Additionally, due to the Earth's rotation, the wind would be expected to show periodic changes in direction and magnitude during the course of asidereal day. Because of the motion of the Earth around the Sun, the measured data were also expected to show annual\",\n \"to show annual variations. Most famous \\\"failed\\\" experiment After all this thought and preparation, the experiment became what has been called the most famous failed experiment in history.Instead of providing insight into the properties of the aether, Michelson and Morley's article in theAmerican Journal of Sciencereported the measurement to be as small as one-fortieth of the expected displacement (Fig. 7), but \\\"since the displacement is proportional to the square of the velocity\\\" they concluded that the measured velocity was \\\"probably less than one-sixth\\\" of the expected velocity of the Earth's motion in orbit and \\\"certainly less than one-fourth\\\".Although this small \\\"velocity\\\" was measured, it was considered far too small to be used as evidence of speed relative to the aether, and it was understood to be within the range of an experimental error that would allow the speed to actually be zero.For instance, Michelson wrote about the \\\"decidedly negative result\\\" in a letter toLord Rayleighin August 1887: The\",\n \"August 1887: The Experiments on the relative motion of the earth and ether have been completed and the result decidedly negative. The expected deviation of the interference fringes from the zero should have been 0.40 of a fringe – the maximum displacement was 0.02 and the average much less than 0.01 – and then not in the right place. As displacement is proportional to squares of the relative velocities it follows that if the ether does slip past the relative velocity is less than one sixth of the earth’s velocity. From the standpoint of the then current aether models, the experimental results were conflicting. TheFizeau experimentand its 1886 repetition by Michelson and Morley apparently confirmed the stationary aether with partial aether dragging, and refuted complete aether dragging. On the other hand, the much more precise Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) apparently confirmed complete aether dragging and refuted the stationary aether.In addition, the Michelson–Morleynull resultwas further substantiated\",\n \"substantiated by the null results of other second-order experiments of different kind, namely theTrouton–Noble experiment(1903) and theexperiments of Rayleigh and Brace(1902–1904). These problems and their solution led to the development of theLorentz transformationandspecial relativity. After the \\\"failed\\\" experiment Michelson and Morley ceased their aether drift measurements and started to use their newly developed technique to establish the wavelength of light as astandard of length. Light path analysis and consequences Observer resting in the aether The beam travel time in the longitudinal direction can be derived as follows:Light is sent from the source and propagates with the speed of lightc{\\\\textstyle c}in the aether. It passes through the half-silvered mirror at the origin atT=0{\\\\textstyle T=0}. The reflecting mirror is at that moment at distanceL{\\\\textstyle L}(the length of the interferometer arm) and is moving with velocityv{\\\\textstyle v}. The beam hits the mirror at timeT1{\\\\textstyle T_{1}}and thus\",\n \"T_{1}}and thus travels the distancecT1{\\\\textstyle cT_{1}}. At this time, the mirror has traveled the distancevT1{\\\\textstyle vT_{1}}. ThuscT1=L+vT1{\\\\textstyle cT_{1}=L+vT_{1}}and consequently the travel timeT1=L/(c−v){\\\\textstyle T_{1}=L/(c-v)}. The same consideration applies to the backward journey, with the sign ofv{\\\\textstyle v}reversed, resulting incT2=L−vT2{\\\\textstyle cT_{2}=L-vT_{2}}andT2=L/(c+v){\\\\textstyle T_{2}=L/(c+v)}. The total travel timeTℓ=T1+T2{\\\\textstyle T_{\\\\ell }=T_{1}+T_{2}}is: Michelson obtained this expression correctly in 1881, however, in transverse direction he obtained the incorrect expression because he overlooked the increase in path length in the rest frame of the aether. This was corrected byAlfred Potier(1882) andHendrik Lorentz(1886). The derivation in the transverse direction can be given as follows (analogous to the derivation oftime dilationusing alight clock): The beam is propagating at the speed of lightc{\\\\textstyle c}and hits the mirror at timeT3{\\\\textstyle T_{3}}, traveling\",\n \"T_{3}}, traveling the distancecT3{\\\\textstyle cT_{3}}. At the same time, the mirror has traveled the distancevT3{\\\\textstyle vT_{3}}in thexdirection. So in order to hit the mirror, the travel path of the beam isL{\\\\textstyle L}in theydirection (assuming equal-length arms) andvT3{\\\\textstyle vT_{3}}in thexdirection. This inclined travel path follows from the transformation from the interferometer rest frame to the aether rest frame. Therefore, thePythagorean theoremgives the actual beam travel distance ofL2+(vT3)2{\\\\textstyle {\\\\sqrt {L^{2}+\\\\left(vT_{3}\\\\right)^{2}}}}. ThuscT3=L2+(vT3)2{\\\\textstyle cT_{3}={\\\\sqrt {L^{2}+\\\\left(vT_{3}\\\\right)^{2}}}}and consequently the travel timeT3=L/c2−v2{\\\\textstyle T_{3}=L/{\\\\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}, which is the same for the backward journey. The total travel timeTt=2T3{\\\\textstyle T_{t}=2T_{3}}is: The time difference betweenTℓ{\\\\displaystyle T_{\\\\ell }}andTt{\\\\displaystyle T_{t}}is given by To find the path difference, simply multiply byc{\\\\displaystyle c};\",\n \"c}; Δλ1=2L(11−v2c2−11−v2c2){\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta {\\\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\\\left({\\\\frac {1}{1-{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}-{\\\\frac {1}{\\\\sqrt {1-{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}\\\\right)} The path difference is denoted byΔλ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta \\\\lambda }because the beams are out of phase by a some number of wavelengths (λ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\lambda }). To visualise this, consider taking the two beam paths along the longitudinal and transverse plane, and lying them straight (an animation of this is shown at minute 11:00,The Mechanical Universe, episode 41). One path will be longer than the other, this distance isΔλ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta \\\\lambda }. Alternatively, consider the rearrangement of the speed of light formulacΔT=Δλ{\\\\displaystyle c{\\\\Delta }T=\\\\Delta \\\\lambda }. If the relationv2/c2<<1{\\\\displaystyle {v^{2}}/{c^{2}}<<1}is true (if the velocity of the aether is small relative to the speed of light), then the expression can be simplified using a first order binomial expansion; (1−x)n≈1−nx{\\\\displaystyle (1-x)^{n}\\\\approx {1-nx}} So,\",\n \"{1-nx}} So, rewriting the above in terms of powers; Δλ1=2L((1−v2c2)−1−(1−v2c2)−1/2){\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta {\\\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\\\left(\\\\left({1-{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}\\\\right)^{-1}-\\\\left(1-{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\\\\right)^{-1/2}\\\\right)} Applying binomial simplification; Δλ1=2L((1+v2c2)−(1+v22c2))=2Lv22c2{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta {\\\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\\\left((1+{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}})-(1+{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{2c^{2}}})\\\\right)={2L}{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{2c^{2}}}} Therefore; Δλ1=Lv2c2{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta {\\\\lambda }_{1}={L}{\\\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}} It can be seen from this derivation that aether wind manifests as a path difference. The path difference is zero only when the interferometer is aligned with or perpendicular to the aether wind, and it reaches a maximum when it is at a 45° angle. The path difference can be any fraction of the wavelength, depending on the angle and speed of the aether wind. To prove the existence of the aether, Michelson and Morley sought to find the \\\"fringe shift\\\". The idea was simple, the fringes of the interference\",\n \"of the interference pattern should shift when rotating it by 90° as the two beams have exchanged roles. To find the fringe shift, subtract the path difference in first orientation by the path difference in the second, then divide by thewavelength,λ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\lambda }, of light; Note the difference betweenΔλ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta \\\\lambda }, which is some number of wavelengths, andλ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\lambda }which is a single wavelength. As can be seen by this relation, fringe shift n is a unitless quantity. SinceL≈ 11 meters and λ ≈ 500nanometers, the expectedfringe shiftwasn≈ 0.44. The negative result led Michelson to the conclusion that there is no measurable aether drift.However, he never accepted this on a personal level, and the negative result haunted him for the rest of his life. Observer comoving with the interferometer If the same situation is described from the view of an observer co-moving with the interferometer, then the effect of aether wind is similar to the effect experienced by a swimmer,\",\n \"by a swimmer, who tries to move with velocityc{\\\\textstyle c}against a river flowing with velocityv{\\\\textstyle v}. In the longitudinal direction the swimmer first moves upstream, so his velocity is diminished due to the river flow toc−v{\\\\textstyle c-v}. On his way back moving downstream, his velocity is increased toc+v{\\\\textstyle c+v}. This gives the beam travel timesT1{\\\\textstyle T_{1}}andT2{\\\\textstyle T_{2}}as mentioned above. In the transverse direction, the swimmer has to compensate for the river flow by moving at a certain angle against the flow direction, in order to sustain his exact transverse direction of motion and to reach the other side of the river at the correct location. This diminishes his speed toc2−v2{\\\\textstyle {\\\\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}, and gives the beam travel timeT3{\\\\textstyle T_{3}}as mentioned above. Mirror reflection The classical analysis predicted a relative phase shift between the longitudinal and transverse beams which in Michelson and Morley's apparatus should have been readily\",\n \"have been readily measurable. What is not often appreciated (since there was no means of measuring it), is that motion through the hypothetical aether should also have caused the two beams to diverge as they emerged from the interferometer by about 10−8radians. For an apparatus in motion, the classical analysis requires that the beam-splitting mirror be slightly offset from an exact 45° if the longitudinal and transverse beams are to emerge from the apparatus exactly superimposed. In the relativistic analysis, Lorentz-contraction of the beam splitter in the direction of motion causes it to become more perpendicular by precisely the amount necessary to compensate for the angle discrepancy of the two beams. Length contraction and Lorentz transformation A first step to explaining the Michelson and Morley experiment's null result was found in theFitzGerald–Lorentz contraction hypothesis, now simply called length contraction or Lorentz contraction, first proposed byGeorge FitzGerald(1889) in a letter to same\",\n \"in a letter to same journal that published the Michelson-Morley paper, as \\\"almost the only hypothesis that can reconcile\\\" the apparent contradictions. It was independently also proposed byHendrik Lorentz(1892).According to this law all objects physically contract byL/γ{\\\\textstyle L/\\\\gamma }along the line of motion (originally thought to be relative to the aether),γ=1/1−v2/c2{\\\\textstyle \\\\gamma =1/{\\\\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}being theLorentz factor. This hypothesis was partly motivated byOliver Heaviside's discovery in 1888 that electrostatic fields are contracting in the line of motion. But since there was no reason at that time to assume that binding forces in matter are of electric origin, length contraction of matter in motion with respect to the aether was considered anad hoc hypothesis. If length contraction ofL{\\\\textstyle L}is inserted into the above formula forTℓ{\\\\textstyle T_{\\\\ell }}, then the light propagation time in the longitudinal direction becomes equal to that in the transverse direction: However,\",\n \"direction: However, length contraction is only a special case of the more general relation, according to which the transverse length is larger than the longitudinal length by the ratioγ{\\\\textstyle \\\\gamma }. This can be achieved in many ways. IfL1{\\\\textstyle L_{1}}is the moving longitudinal length andL2{\\\\textstyle L_{2}}the moving transverse length,L1′=L2′{\\\\textstyle L'_{1}=L'_{2}}being the rest lengths, then it is given: φ{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi }can be arbitrarily chosen, so there are infinitely many combinations to explain the Michelson–Morley null result. For instance, ifφ=1{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi =1}the relativistic value of length contraction ofL1{\\\\textstyle L_{1}}occurs, but ifφ=1/γ{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi =1/\\\\gamma }then no length contraction but an elongation ofL2{\\\\textstyle L_{2}}occurs. This hypothesis was later extended byJoseph Larmor(1897), Lorentz (1904) andHenri Poincaré(1905), who developed the completeLorentz transformationincludingtime dilationin order to explain theTrouton–Noble experiment,\",\n \"experiment, theExperiments of Rayleigh and Brace, andKaufmann's experiments. It has the form It remained to define the value ofφ{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi }, which was shown by Lorentz (1904) to be unity.In general, Poincaré (1905)demonstrated that onlyφ=1{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi =1}allows this transformation to form agroup, so it is the only choice compatible with theprinciple of relativity,i.e.,making the stationary aether undetectable. Given this, length contraction and time dilation obtain their exact relativistic values. Special relativity Albert Einsteinformulated the theory ofspecial relativityby 1905, deriving the Lorentz transformation and thus length contraction and time dilation from the relativity postulate and the constancy of the speed of light, thus removing thead hoccharacter from the contraction hypothesis. Einstein emphasized thekinematicfoundation of the theory and the modification of the notion of space and time, with the stationary aether no longer playing any role in his theory. He also pointed out\",\n \"He also pointed out the group character of the transformation. Einstein was motivated byMaxwell's theory of electromagnetism(in the form as it was given by Lorentz in 1895) and the lack of evidence for theluminiferous aether. This allows a more elegant and intuitive explanation of the Michelson–Morley null result. In a comoving frame the null result is self-evident, since the apparatus can be considered as at rest in accordance with the relativity principle, thus the beam travel times are the same. In a frame relative to which the apparatus is moving, the same reasoning applies as described above in \\\"Length contraction and Lorentz transformation\\\", except the word \\\"aether\\\" has to be replaced by \\\"non-comoving inertial frame\\\". Einstein wrote in 1916: Although the estimated difference between these two times is exceedingly small, Michelson and Morley performed an experiment involving interference in which this difference should have been clearly detectable. But the experiment gave a negative result — a fact very\",\n \"— a fact very perplexing to physicists. Lorentz and FitzGerald rescued the theory from this difficulty by assuming that the motion of the body relative to the æther produces a contraction of the body in the direction of motion, the amount of contraction being just sufficient to compensate for the difference in time mentioned above. Comparison with the discussion in Section 11 shows that also from the standpoint of the theory of relativity this solution of the difficulty was the right one. But on the basis of the theory of relativity the method of interpretation is incomparably more satisfactory. According to this theory there is no such thing as a \\\"specially favoured\\\" (unique) co-ordinate system to occasion the introduction of the æther-idea, and hence there can be no æther-drift, nor any experiment with which to demonstrate it. Here the contraction of moving bodies follows from the two fundamental principles of the theory, without the introduction of particular hypotheses; and as the prime factor involved\",\n \"factor involved in this contraction we find, not the motion in itself, to which we cannot attach any meaning, but the motion with respect to the body of reference chosen in the particular case in point. Thus for a co-ordinate system moving with the earth the mirror system of Michelson and Morley is not shortened, but it is shortened for a co-ordinate system which is at rest relatively to the sun. The extent to which the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment influenced Einstein is disputed. Alluding to some statements of Einstein, many historians argue that it played no significant role in his path to special relativity,while other statements of Einstein probably suggest that he was influenced by it.In any case, the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment helped the notion of the constancy of the speed of light gain widespread and rapid acceptance. It was later shown byHoward Percy Robertson(1949) and others(seeRobertson–Mansouri–Sexl test theory), that it is possible to derive the Lorentz\",\n \"derive the Lorentz transformation entirely from the combination of three experiments. First, the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that the speed of light is independent of theorientationof the apparatus, establishing the relationship between longitudinal (β) and transverse (δ) lengths. Then in 1932, Roy Kennedy and Edward Thorndike modified the Michelson–Morley experiment by making the path lengths of the split beam unequal, with one arm being very short.TheKennedy–Thorndike experimenttook place for many months as the Earth moved around the sun. Their negative result showed that the speed of light is independent of thevelocityof the apparatus in different inertial frames. In addition it established that besides length changes, corresponding time changes must also occur, i.e., it established the relationship between longitudinal lengths (β) and time changes (α). So both experiments do not provide the individual values of these quantities. This uncertainty corresponds to the undefined factorφ{\\\\textstyle\",\n \"factorφ{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi }as described above. It was clear due to theoretical reasons (thegroup characterof the Lorentz transformation as required by the relativity principle) that the individual values of length contraction and time dilation must assume their exact relativistic form. But a direct measurement of one of these quantities was still desirable to confirm the theoretical results. This was achieved by theIves–Stilwell experiment(1938), measuring α in accordance with time dilation. Combining this value for α with the Kennedy–Thorndike null result shows thatβmust assume the value of relativistic length contraction. Combiningβwith the Michelson–Morley null result shows thatδmust be zero. Therefore, the Lorentz transformation withφ=1{\\\\textstyle \\\\varphi =1}is an unavoidable consequence of the combination of these three experiments. Special relativity is generally considered the solution to all negative aether drift (orisotropyof the speed of light) measurements, including the Michelson–Morley null\",\n \"null result. Many high precision measurements have been conducted as tests of special relativity andmodern searches for Lorentz violationin thephoton,electron,nucleon, orneutrinosector, all of them confirming relativity. Incorrect alternatives As mentioned above, Michelson initially believed that his experiment would confirm Stokes' theory, according to which the aether was fully dragged in the vicinity of the earth (seeAether drag hypothesis). However, complete aether drag contradicts the observedaberration of lightand was contradicted by other experiments as well. In addition, Lorentz showed in 1886 that Stokes's attempt to explain aberration is contradictory. Furthermore, the assumption that the aether is not carried in the vicinity, but onlywithinmatter, was very problematic as shown by theHammar experiment(1935). Hammar directed one leg of his interferometer through a heavy metal pipe plugged with lead. If aether were dragged by mass, it was theorized that the mass of the sealed metal pipe would have\",\n \"pipe would have been enough to cause a visible effect. Once again, no effect was seen, so aether-drag theories are considered to be disproven. Walther Ritz'semission theory(or ballistic theory) was also consistent with the results of the experiment, not requiring aether. The theory postulates that light has always the same velocity in respect to the source.Howeverde Sitternoted that emitter theory predicted several optical effects that were not seen in observations of binary stars in which the light from the two stars could be measured in aspectrometer. If emission theory were correct, the light from the stars should experience unusual fringe shifting due to the velocity of the stars being added to the speed of the light, but no such effect could be seen. It was later shown byJ. G. Foxthat the original de Sitter experiments were flawed due toextinction,but in 1977 Brecher observed X-rays from binary star systems with similar null results.Furthermore, Filippas and Fox (1964) conducted terrestrialparticle\",\n \"terrestrialparticle acceleratortests specifically designed to address Fox's earlier \\\"extinction\\\" objection, the results being inconsistent with source dependence of the speed of light. Subsequent experiments Although Michelson and Morley went on to different experiments after their first publication in 1887, both remained active in the field. Other versions of the experiment were carried out with increasing sophistication.Morley was not convinced of his own results, and went on to conduct additional experiments withDayton Millerfrom 1902 to 1904. Again, the result was negative within the margins of error. Miller worked on increasingly larger interferometers, culminating in one with a 32-meter (105 ft) (effective) arm length that he tried at various sites, including on top of a mountain at theMount Wilson Observatory. To avoid the possibility of the aether wind being blocked by solid walls, his mountaintop observations used a special shed with thin walls, mainly of canvas. From noisy, irregular data, he\",\n \"irregular data, he consistently extracted a small positive signal that varied with each rotation of the device, with thesidereal day, and on a yearly basis. His measurements in the 1920s amounted to approximately 10 km/s (6.2 mi/s) instead of the nearly 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s) expected from the Earth's orbital motion alone. He remained convinced this was due topartial entrainment or aether dragging, though he did not attempt a detailed explanation. He ignored critiques demonstrating the inconsistency of his results and the refutation by theHammar experiment.Miller's findings were considered important at the time, and were discussed by Michelson,Lorentzand others at a meeting reported in 1928.There was general agreement that more experimentation was needed to check Miller's results. Miller later built a non-magnetic device to eliminatemagnetostriction, while Michelson built one of non-expandingInvarto eliminate any remaining thermal effects. Other experimenters from around the world increased accuracy, eliminated\",\n \"eliminated possible side effects, or both. So far, no one has been able to replicate Miller's results, and modern experimental accuracies have ruled them out.Roberts (2006) has pointed out that the primitive data reduction techniques used by Miller and other early experimenters, including Michelson and Morley, were capable ofcreatingapparent periodic signals even when none existed in the actual data. After reanalyzing Miller's original data using modern techniques of quantitative error analysis, Roberts found Miller's apparent signals to be statistically insignificant. Using a special optical arrangement involving a 1/20 wave step in one mirror, Roy J. Kennedy (1926) and K.K. Illingworth (1927) (Fig. 8) converted the task of detecting fringe shifts from the relatively insensitive one of estimating their lateral displacements to the considerably more sensitive task of adjusting the light intensity on both sides of a sharp boundary for equal luminance.If they observed unequal illumination on either side of the\",\n \"either side of the step, such as in Fig. 8e, they would add or remove calibrated weights from the interferometer until both sides of the step were once again evenly illuminated, as in Fig. 8d. The number of weights added or removed provided a measure of the fringe shift. Different observers could detect changes as little as 1/1500 to 1/300 of a fringe. Kennedy also carried out an experiment at Mount Wilson, finding only about 1/10 the drift measured by Miller and no seasonal effects. In 1930,Georg Joosconducted an experiment using an automated interferometer with 21-meter-long (69 ft) arms forged from pressed quartz having a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, that took continuous photographic strip recordings of the fringes through dozens of revolutions of the apparatus. Displacements of 1/1000 of a fringe could be measured on the photographic plates. No periodic fringe displacements were found, placing an upper limit to the aether wind of 1.5 km/s (0.93 mi/s). In the table below, the expected values\",\n \"the expected values are related to the relative speed between Earth and Sun of 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s). With respect to the speed of the solar system around the galactic center of about 220 km/s (140 mi/s), or the speed of the solar system relative to theCMB rest frameof about 370 km/s (230 mi/s), the null results of those experiments are even more obvious. Recent experiments Optical tests Optical tests of the isotropy of the speed of light became commonplace.New technologies, including the use oflasersandmasers, have significantly improved measurement precision. (In the following table, only Essen (1955), Jaseja (1964), and Shamir/Fox (1969) are experiments of Michelson–Morley type,i.e.,comparing two perpendicular beams. The other optical experiments employed different methods.) Recent optical resonator experiments During the early 21st century, there has been a resurgence in interest in performing precise Michelson–Morley type experiments using lasers, masers, cryogenicoptical resonators, etc. This is in large\",\n \"This is in large part due to predictions of quantum gravity that suggest that special relativity may be violated at scales accessible to experimental study. The first of these highly accurate experiments was conducted by Brillet & Hall (1979), in which they analyzed a laser frequency stabilized to a resonance of a rotating opticalFabry–Pérotcavity. They set a limit on the anisotropy of the speed of light resulting from the Earth's motions of Δc/c≈ 10−15, where Δcis the difference between the speed of light in thex- andy-directions. As of 2015, optical and microwave resonator experiments have improved this limit to Δc/c≈ 10−18. In some of them, the devices were rotated or remained stationary, and some were combined with theKennedy–Thorndike experiment. In particular, Earth's direction and velocity (ca. 368 km/s (229 mi/s)) relative to theCMB rest frameare ordinarily used as references in these searches for anisotropies. Other tests of Lorentz invariance Examples of other experiments not based on the\",\n \"not based on the Michelson–Morley principle, i.e., non-optical isotropy tests achieving an even higher level of precision, areClock comparison or Hughes–Drever experiments. In Drever's 1961 experiment,7Li nuclei in the ground state, which has total angular momentumJ= 3/2, were split into four equally spaced levels by a magnetic field. Each transition between a pair of adjacent levels should emit a photon of equal frequency, resulting in a single, sharp spectral line. However, since the nuclear wave functions for differentMJhave different orientations in space relative to the magnetic field, any orientation dependence, whether from an aether wind or from a dependence on the large-scale distribution of mass in space (seeMach's principle), would perturb the energy spacings between the four levels, resulting in an anomalous broadening or splitting of the line. No such broadening was observed. Modern repeats of this kind of experiment have provided some of the most accurate confirmations of the principle\",\n \"of the principle ofLorentz invariance. See also References Notes Experiments Bibliography (Series \\\"A\\\" references) External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":345,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How tall does the flower get on the very first orchid David L. Jones (botanist) described and published in his career?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"20–30 millimetres (0.8–1 in)"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist)"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pterostylis_aestiva#Description"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pterostylis_aestiva#Description']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pterostylis_aestiva#Description"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pterostylis_aestiva#Description\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist","Pterostylis aestiva Diplodium aestivum(D.L.Jones) D.L.Jones &M.A.Clem. Pterostylis aestiva, commonly known as thelong-tongued summer greenhood,is a species oforchidendemicto south-easternAustralia. As with similar greenhoods, the flowering plants differ from those which are not flowering. The non-flowering plants have a rosette of leaves flat on the ground but the flowering plants have a single flower with leaves on the flowering spike. Description Pterostylis aestivais a terrestrial,perennial,deciduous,herbwith an undergroundtuberand when not flowering, arosetteof dark bluish-green leaves, each leaf 10–30 millimetres (0.4–1 in) long and 10–15 millimetres (0.4–0.6 in) wide. Flowering plants have a single flower 20–30 millimetres (0.8–1 in) long and 7–9 millimetres (0.3–0.4 in) wide borne on a spike 150–350 millimetres (6–10 in) high with between three and five stem leaves. The flowers are dark bluish-green, white and brown. Thedorsalsepalandpetalsare fused, forming a hood or \"galea\" over thecolumn. The dorsal sepal curves forward with a thread-like tip 8–12 millimetres (0.3–0.5 in) long. Thelateralsepals are held closely against the galea, have an erect, thread-like tip 25–35 millimetres (0.98–1.4 in) long and a protrudingsinusbetween their bases. The labellum is 15–19 millimetres (0.6–0.7 in) long, about 4 millimetres (0.2 in) wide, brown, blunt, and curved and protrudes above the sinus. Flowering occurs from January to April. Taxonomy and naming Pterostylis aestivawas first formally described in 1972 byDavid Jonesfrom a specimen collected nearWulgulmerang. The description was published inMuelleria.Thespecific epithet(aestiva) is aLatinword meaning \"pertaining to summer\". Distribution and habitat The long-tongued summer greenhood grows among grasses in high rainfall forests in north-eastVictoriaandNew South Walesas far north asMount Canobolas. Use in horticulture This greenhood is easily grows in pots although plants must be kept moist during the growing season and dry when dormant. References"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist\",\n \"Pterostylis aestiva Diplodium aestivum(D.L.Jones) D.L.Jones &M.A.Clem. Pterostylis aestiva, commonly known as thelong-tongued summer greenhood,is a species oforchidendemicto south-easternAustralia. As with similar greenhoods, the flowering plants differ from those which are not flowering. The non-flowering plants have a rosette of leaves flat on the ground but the flowering plants have a single flower with leaves on the flowering spike. Description Pterostylis aestivais a terrestrial,perennial,deciduous,herbwith an undergroundtuberand when not flowering, arosetteof dark bluish-green leaves, each leaf 10–30 millimetres (0.4–1 in) long and 10–15 millimetres (0.4–0.6 in) wide. Flowering plants have a single flower 20–30 millimetres (0.8–1 in) long and 7–9 millimetres (0.3–0.4 in) wide borne on a spike 150–350 millimetres (6–10 in) high with between three and five stem leaves. The flowers are dark bluish-green, white and brown. Thedorsalsepalandpetalsare fused, forming a hood or \\\"galea\\\" over thecolumn. The dorsal sepal curves forward with a thread-like tip 8–12 millimetres (0.3–0.5 in) long. Thelateralsepals are held closely against the galea, have an erect, thread-like tip 25–35 millimetres (0.98–1.4 in) long and a protrudingsinusbetween their bases. The labellum is 15–19 millimetres (0.6–0.7 in) long, about 4 millimetres (0.2 in) wide, brown, blunt, and curved and protrudes above the sinus. Flowering occurs from January to April. Taxonomy and naming Pterostylis aestivawas first formally described in 1972 byDavid Jonesfrom a specimen collected nearWulgulmerang. The description was published inMuelleria.Thespecific epithet(aestiva) is aLatinword meaning \\\"pertaining to summer\\\". Distribution and habitat The long-tongued summer greenhood grows among grasses in high rainfall forests in north-eastVictoriaandNew South Walesas far north asMount Canobolas. Use in horticulture This greenhood is easily grows in pots although plants must be kept moist during the growing season and dry when dormant. References\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist","Pterostylis aestiva Diplodium aestivum(D.L.Jones) D.L.Jones &M.A.Clem. Pterostylis aestiva, commonly known as thelong-tongued summer greenhood,is a species oforchidendemicto south-easternAustralia. As with similar greenhoods, the flowering plants differ from those which are not flowering. The non-flowering plants have a rosette of leaves flat on the ground but the flowering plants have a single flower with leaves on the flowering spike. Description Pterostylis aestivais a terrestrial,perennial,deciduous,herbwith an undergroundtuberand when not flowering, arosetteof dark bluish-green leaves, each leaf 10–30 millimetres (0.4–1 in) long and 10–15 millimetres (0.4–0.6 in) wide. Flowering plants have a single flower 20–30 millimetres (0.8–1 in) long and 7–9 millimetres (0.3–0.4 in) wide borne on a spike 150–350 millimetres (6–10 in) high with between three and five stem leaves. The flowers are dark bluish-green, white and brown. Thedorsalsepalandpetalsare fused, forming a hood or \"galea\" over thecolumn. The dorsal","The dorsal sepal curves forward with a thread-like tip 8–12 millimetres (0.3–0.5 in) long. Thelateralsepals are held closely against the galea, have an erect, thread-like tip 25–35 millimetres (0.98–1.4 in) long and a protrudingsinusbetween their bases. The labellum is 15–19 millimetres (0.6–0.7 in) long, about 4 millimetres (0.2 in) wide, brown, blunt, and curved and protrudes above the sinus. Flowering occurs from January to April. Taxonomy and naming Pterostylis aestivawas first formally described in 1972 byDavid Jonesfrom a specimen collected nearWulgulmerang. The description was published inMuelleria.Thespecific epithet(aestiva) is aLatinword meaning \"pertaining to summer\". Distribution and habitat The long-tongued summer greenhood grows among grasses in high rainfall forests in north-eastVictoriaandNew South Walesas far north asMount Canobolas. Use in horticulture This greenhood is easily grows in pots although plants must be kept moist during the growing season and dry when dormant. References"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist\",\n \"Pterostylis aestiva Diplodium aestivum(D.L.Jones) D.L.Jones &M.A.Clem. Pterostylis aestiva, commonly known as thelong-tongued summer greenhood,is a species oforchidendemicto south-easternAustralia. As with similar greenhoods, the flowering plants differ from those which are not flowering. The non-flowering plants have a rosette of leaves flat on the ground but the flowering plants have a single flower with leaves on the flowering spike. Description Pterostylis aestivais a terrestrial,perennial,deciduous,herbwith an undergroundtuberand when not flowering, arosetteof dark bluish-green leaves, each leaf 10–30 millimetres (0.4–1 in) long and 10–15 millimetres (0.4–0.6 in) wide. Flowering plants have a single flower 20–30 millimetres (0.8–1 in) long and 7–9 millimetres (0.3–0.4 in) wide borne on a spike 150–350 millimetres (6–10 in) high with between three and five stem leaves. The flowers are dark bluish-green, white and brown. Thedorsalsepalandpetalsare fused, forming a hood or \\\"galea\\\" over thecolumn. The dorsal\",\n \"The dorsal sepal curves forward with a thread-like tip 8–12 millimetres (0.3–0.5 in) long. Thelateralsepals are held closely against the galea, have an erect, thread-like tip 25–35 millimetres (0.98–1.4 in) long and a protrudingsinusbetween their bases. The labellum is 15–19 millimetres (0.6–0.7 in) long, about 4 millimetres (0.2 in) wide, brown, blunt, and curved and protrudes above the sinus. Flowering occurs from January to April. Taxonomy and naming Pterostylis aestivawas first formally described in 1972 byDavid Jonesfrom a specimen collected nearWulgulmerang. The description was published inMuelleria.Thespecific epithet(aestiva) is aLatinword meaning \\\"pertaining to summer\\\". Distribution and habitat The long-tongued summer greenhood grows among grasses in high rainfall forests in north-eastVictoriaandNew South Walesas far north asMount Canobolas. Use in horticulture This greenhood is easily grows in pots although plants must be kept moist during the growing season and dry when dormant. References\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":346,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What album by the band named 'The Band' was released on the same day as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was opened for signature?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Music from Big Pink"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Band#Discography"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_from_Big_Pink"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Tabular reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Band#Discography', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_from_Big_Pink']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Band#Discography","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_from_Big_Pink"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Band#Discography\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_from_Big_Pink\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Page version status This is an accepted version of this page TheTreaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as theNon-Proliferation TreatyorNPT, is an internationaltreatywhose objective is to prevent the spread ofnuclear weaponsand weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses ofnuclear energy, and to further the goal of achievingnuclear disarmamentand general and complete disarmament.Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by theEighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament, aUnited Nations-sponsored organization based inGeneva, Switzerland. Opened for signature in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970. As required by the text, after twenty-five years, NPT parties met in May 1995 and agreed to extend the treaty indefinitely.More countries are parties to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, a testament to the treaty's significance.As of August 2016, 191 states have become parties to the treaty, thoughNorth Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its withdrawal from the NPT in 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in violation of core obligations.FourUN member stateshave never accepted the NPT, three of which possess or are thought to possess nuclear weapons:India,Israel, andPakistan. In addition,South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined. The treaty definesnuclear-weapon statesas those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1 January 1967; these are the United States (1945),Russia(1949), theUnited Kingdom(1952),France(1960), andChina(1964). Four other states are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons:India,Pakistan, andNorth Koreahave openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons, whileIsraelisdeliberately ambiguousregardingits nuclear weapons status. The NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain: the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals. The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences. Even though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the signing parties decided, by consensus, to unconditionally extend the treaty indefinitely during the Review Conference in New York City on 11 May 1995, in the culmination of U.S. government efforts led by AmbassadorThomas Graham Jr. At the time the NPT was proposed, there were predictions of 25–30 nuclear weapon states within 20 years. Instead, over forty years later, five states are not parties to the NPT, and they include the only four additional states believed to possess nuclear weapons.Several additional measures have been adopted to strengthen the NPT and the broader nuclear nonproliferation regime and make it difficult for states to acquire the capability to produce nuclear weapons, including the export controls of theNuclear Suppliers Groupand the enhanced verification measures of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA)Additional Protocol. Critics argue that the NPT cannot stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons or the motivation to acquire them. They express disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads in their combined stockpile. Several high-ranking officials within the United Nations have said that they can do little to stop states usingnuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons. Treaty structure The NPT consists of a preamble and eleven articles. Although the concept of \"pillars\" is not expressed anywhere in the NPT, the treaty is nevertheless sometimes interpreted as athree-pillarsystem,with an implicit balance among them: These pillars are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. An effective nonproliferation regime whose members comply with their obligations provides an essential foundation for progress on disarmament and makes possible greater cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. With the right to access the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology comes the responsibility of nonproliferation. Progress on disarmament reinforces efforts to strengthen the nonproliferation regime and to enforce compliance with obligations, thereby also facilitating peaceful nuclear cooperation.The \"pillars\" concept has been questioned by some who believe that the NPT is, as its name suggests, principally about nonproliferation, and who worry that \"three pillars\" language misleadingly implies that the three elements have equivalent importance. First pillar: Non-proliferation Under Article I of the NPT, nuclear-weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon. Under Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes. Five states are recognized by the NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968), which also happen to be the fivepermanent members of the United Nations Security Council. These five NWS agree not to transfer \"nuclear weapons or othernuclear explosivedevices\" and \"not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce\" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to \"receive\", \"manufacture\", or \"acquire\" nuclear weapons or to \"seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons\" (Article II). NNWS parties also agree to accept safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or othernuclear explosivedevices (Article III). The five NWS parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear weapons against a non-NWS party except in response to a nuclear attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a Nuclear Weapons State. However, these undertakings have not been incorporated formally into the treaty, and the exact details have varied over time. The U.S. also had nuclear warheads targeted at North Korea, a non-NWS, from 1959 until 1991. The previous United KingdomSecretary of State for Defence,Geoff Hoon, has also explicitly invoked the possibility of the use of the country's nuclear weapons in response to a non-conventional attack by \"rogue states\".In January 2006, PresidentJacques Chiracof France indicated that an incident ofstate-sponsored terrorismon France could trigger a small-scale nuclear retaliation aimed at destroying the \"rogue state's\" power centers. Security provided by extendednuclear deterrenceor anuclear umbrellahave been a factor limiting incentives for some NNWS to acquire nuclear weapons. Second pillar: Disarmament Under Article VI of the NPT, all Parties undertake to pursue good-faith negotiations on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race, to nuclear disarmament, and to general and complete disarmament. Article VI of the NPT represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon states. The NPT's preamble contains language affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthen international trust so as to create someday the conditions for a halt to the production of nuclear weapons, and treaty on general and complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular, nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles from national arsenals. The wording of the NPT's Article VI arguably imposes only a vague obligation on all NPT signatories to move in the general direction of nuclear and total disarmament, saying, \"Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament.\"Under this interpretation, Article VI does not strictly require all signatories to actually conclude a disarmament treaty. Rather, it only requires them \"to negotiate in good faith\". On the other hand, some governments, especially non-nuclear-weapon states belonging to theNon-Aligned Movement, have interpreted Article VI's language as constituting a formal and specific obligation on the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, and argue that these states have failed to meet their obligation.TheInternational Court of Justice(ICJ), in itsadvisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, issued 8 July 1996, unanimously interprets the text of Article VI as implying that There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. The ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament. Critics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in thepost–Cold War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals. Other observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament.No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which has led to the elimination of thousands of weapons and delivery systems—could eventually make the possession of nuclear weapons more attractive by increasing the perceived strategic value of a small arsenal. As one U.S. official and NPT expert warned in 2007, \"logic suggests that as the number of nuclear weapons decreases, the 'marginal utility' of a nuclear weapon as an instrument of military power increases. At the extreme, which it is precisely disarmament's hope to create, the strategic utility of even one or two nuclear weapons would be huge.\" Third pillar: Peaceful use of nuclear energy NPT Article IV acknowledges the right of all Parties to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and to benefit from international cooperation in this area, in conformity with their nonproliferation obligations. Article IV also encourages such cooperation.This so-called third pillar provides for the transfer of nuclear technology and materials to NPT Parties for peaceful purposes in the development of civilian nuclear energy programs in those countries, subject to IAEA safeguards to demonstrate that their nuclear programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons. As the commercially popularlight water reactornuclear power stationuses enriched uranium fuel, it follows that states must be able either to enrich uranium or purchase it on an international market.Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency, has called the spread of enrichment and reprocessing capabilities the \"Achilles' heel\" of the nuclear nonproliferation regime. As of 2007, 13 states have an enrichment capability. During the 1960s and 1970s many states, almost 60, were supplied withresearch reactorsfuelled by weapon gradehighly enriched uranium(HEU) through the United StatesAtoms for Peaceprogram and a similar Soviet Union program.In the 1980s a program to convert HEU research reactors to use low enriched fuel was started in the United States due to proliferation concerns.However 26 states possessed more than 1 kg of civilian HEU in 2015,and as of 2016 the stocks of HEU for civilian research were 60 tonnes, with 74 research reactors still using HEU. Because the availability of fissile material has long been considered the principal obstacle to, and \"pacing element\" for, a country's nuclear weapons development effort, it was declared a major emphasis of U.S. policy in 2004 to prevent the further spread of uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing (a.k.a. \"ENR\") technology.Countries possessing ENR capabilities, it is feared, have what is in effect the option of using this capability to produce fissile material for weapons use on demand, thus giving them what has been termed a \"virtual\" nuclear weapons program.The degree to which NPT members have a \"right\" to ENR technology notwithstanding its potentially grave proliferation implications, therefore, is at the cutting edge of policy and legal debates surrounding the meaning of Article IV and its relation to Articles I, II, and III of the treaty. Countries that have become Parties to the NPT as non-nuclear-weapon States have a strong record of not building nuclear weapons, although some tried and one eventually left the NPT and acquired nuclear weapons. Iraq was found by the IAEA to have violated its safeguards obligations and subject to punitive sanctions by theUN Security Council. North Korea never came into compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement and was cited repeatedly for these violations,and later withdrew from the NPT and tested multiple nuclear devices. Iran was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards obligations in an unusual non-consensus decision because it \"failed in a number of instances over an extended period of time\" to report aspects of its enrichment program.In 1991, Romania reported previously undeclared nuclear activities by the former regime and the IAEA reported this non-compliance to the Security Council for information only. Libya pursued a clandestine nuclear weapons program before abandoning it in December 2003. The IAEA reported Syria's safeguards non-compliance to the UN Security Council, which did not take action. In some regions, the fact that all neighbors are verifiably free of nuclear weapons reduces any pressure individual states might feel to build those weapons themselves, even if neighbors are known to have peaceful nuclear energy programs that might otherwise be suspicious. In this, the treaty works as designed. In 2004,Mohamed ElBaradeisaid that by some estimates thirty-five to forty states could have the knowledge to develop nuclear weapons. Key articles Article I:Each nuclear-weapons state (NWS) undertakes not to transfer, to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices. Article II: Each non-NWS party undertakes not to receive, from any source, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices; not to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices; and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture. Article III: Each non-NWS party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the IAEA for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear material in all of the state's peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. Article IV: 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all the Parties to the Treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty. 2. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world. Article VI: Each party \"undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a Treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control\". Article IX: \"For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967.\" Article X: Establishes the right to withdraw from the Treaty giving 3 months' notice. It also establishes the duration of the Treaty (25 years before 1995 Extension Initiative). History The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that theCold Wardeterrent relationship between just the United States and theSoviet Unionwas fragile. Having more nuclear-weapon states would reduce security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, escalation in tensions, and nuclear conflict. Moreover, since theuse of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasakiin 1945, it has been apparent that the development of nuclear capabilities by States could enable them to divert technology and materials for weapons purposes. Thus, the problem of preventing such diversions became a central issue in discussions on peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Initial efforts, which began in 1946, to create an international system enabling all States to have access to nuclear technology under appropriate safeguards, were terminated in 1949 without the achievement of this objective, due to serious political differences between the major Powers. By then, both the United States and the former Soviet Union had tested nuclear weapons, and were beginning to build their stockpiles. In December 1953, US PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower, in his \"Atoms for Peace\" proposal, presented to the eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly, urged that an international organization be established to disseminate peaceful nuclear technology, while guarding against development of weapons capabilities in additional countries. His proposal resulted in 1957 in the establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which was charged with the dual responsibility for promotion and control of nuclear technology. IAEA technical activities began in 1958. An interim safeguards system for small nuclear reactors, put in place in 1961, was replaced in 1964 by a system covering larger installations and, over the following years, was expanded to include additional nuclear facilities. In recent years, efforts to strengthen the effectiveness and improve the efficiency of the IAEA safeguards system culminated in the approval of the Model Additional Protocol by the IAEA Board of Governors in May 1997. Within the framework of the United Nations, the principle of nuclear non-proliferation was addressed in negotiations as early as 1957. The NPT process was launched byFrank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958. The NPT gained significant momentum in the early 1960s. The structure of a treaty to uphold nuclear non-proliferation as a norm of international behaviour had become clear by the mid-1960s, and by 1968 final agreement had been reached on a Treaty that would prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons, enable cooperation for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament. It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the firstState to sign. Accession became nearly universal after the end of theCold Warand of South Africanapartheid. In 1992, The People's Republic of China and France acceded to the NPT, the last of the five nuclear powers recognized by the treaty to do so. The treaty provided, in article X, for a conference to be convened 25 years after its entry into force to decide whether the treaty should continue in force indefinitely, or be extended for an additional fixed period or periods. Accordingly, at the NPT Review and Extension Conference in May 1995, state parties to the treaty agreed—without a vote—on the treaty's indefinite extension, and decided that review conferences should continue to be held every five years. After Brazil acceded to the NPT in 1998, the only remaining non-nuclear-weapon state which had not signed was Cuba, which joined the NPT (and theTreaty of TlatelolcoNWFZ) in 2002. Several NPT states parties have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs. South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, but has since renounced it and acceded to the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nucleararsenal; after this, the remaining African countries signed the treaty. Theformer Soviet Republicswhere nuclear weapons had been based, namely Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, transferred those weapons to Russia and joined the NPT by 1994 following the signature of theBudapest Memorandum on Security Assurances. Successor states from theBreakup of YugoslaviaandDissolution of Czechoslovakiaalso joined the treaty soon after their independence. Montenegro and East Timor were the last countries to accede to the treaty on their independence in 2006 and 2003; the only other country to accede in the 21st century was Cuba in 2002. The three Micronesian countries inCompact of Free Associationwith the USA joined the NPT in 1995, along with Vanuatu. Major South American countries Argentina, Chile, and Brazil joined in 1995 and 1998. Arabian Peninsula countries included Saudi Arabia and Bahrain in 1988, Qatar and Kuwait in 1989, UAE in 1995, and Oman in 1997. The European states ofMonacoandAndorrajoined in 1995–6. Also acceding in the 1990s were Myanmar in 1992 and Guyana in 1993. United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing At the time the treaty was being negotiated,NATOhad in place secretnuclear weapons sharingagreements whereby the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended \"unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling\", so there is no breach of the NPT.These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including theSoviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time. As of 2005, it is estimated that the United States still provides about 180 tacticalB61 nuclear bombsfor use byBelgium,Germany,Italy, theNetherlandsandTurkeyunder these NATO agreements.Many states, and theNon-Aligned Movement, now argue this violates Articles I and II of the treaty, and are applying diplomatic pressure to terminate these agreements. They point out that the pilots and other staff of the \"non-nuclear\" NATO states practice handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and non-U.S. warplanes have been adapted to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs which must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its \"nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political\". U.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuadingWest Germanynot to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with theWarsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S. hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route.(West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.) Preparations for Russia's weapon deployment in Belarus On 27 February 2022, shortly after the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine,a referendumwas staged in Belarus to remove a constitutional prohibition on basing nuclear weapons on its territory.On 25 June 2022, President of BelarusLukashenkomet Russian PresidentPutinto discuss the deployment of Russian short-range nuclear-capable missiles on the territory of Belarus. The transfer of nuclear warheads would require a further decision, possibly after a number of years, and could be tied to future NATO decisions. In Belarus, Russia plans to deploy nuclear-capableIskander-Mmissile systems.Both conventional and nuclear versions of the missile would be provided under the plans.Additionally, Putin said that he would facilitate the modifications necessary for BelarusianSu-25bombers to carry nuclear missiles. On 14 June 2023, president Lukashenko said that Russia had started moving tactical nuclear weapons into Belarus's territory.The Russian president had said the weapons were moved \"as a deterrence measure\" against threats to Russian statehood, and would not be controlled by Belarus.NATO saw no evidence in a change in Russia's nuclear position,while Ukrainian intelligence said that not a single warhead had yet been transferred. Non-parties Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon programs, and Israel has a long-standingpolicy of deliberate ambiguitywith regards to its nuclear program (seeList of states with nuclear weapons). India India has detonated nuclear devices,firstin 1974 andagainin 1998.It is estimated to have enough fissile material for more than 150 warheadsand was among the few countries to have ano first usepolicy, a pledge not to use nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons, however India's formerNSAShivshankar Menonsignaled a significant shift from \"no first use\" to \"no first use against non-nuclear weapon states\" in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of theNational Defence CollegeinNew Delhion 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India's \"strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence\". India argues that the NPT creates a club of \"nuclear haves\" and a larger group of \"nuclear have-nots\" by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid. India's then External Affairs MinisterPranab Mukherjeesaid during a visit to Tokyo in 2007: \"If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment.\"Although there have been unofficial discussions on creating a South Asian nuclear weapons free zone, including India and Pakistan, this is considered to be highly unlikely for the foreseeable future. In early March 2006, India and the United States finalized an agreement, in the face of criticism in both countries, to restart cooperation on civilian nuclear technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22 nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them underIAEAsafeguards.Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the IAEA, welcomed the deal by calling India \"an important partner in the non-proliferation regime.\" In December 2006,United States Congressapproved theUnited States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act, endorsing a deal that was forged during Prime MinisterManmohan Singh's visit to the United States in July 2005 and cemented during President Bush's visit to India earlier in 2006. The legislation allows for the transfer of civilian nuclear material to India. Despite its status outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, nuclear cooperation with India was permitted on the basis of its clean non-proliferation record, and India's need for energy fueled by its rapid industrialization and a billion-plus population. On 1 August 2008, the IAEA approved the India Safeguards Agreementand on 6 September 2008, India was granted the waiver at the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) meeting held in Vienna, Austria. The consensus was arrived after overcoming misgivings expressed by Austria, Ireland and New Zealand and is an unprecedented step in giving exemption to a country, which has not signed the NPT and theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty(CTBT).While India could commence nuclear trade with other willing countries.The U.S. Congress approved this agreement and President Bush signed it on 8 October 2008. When China announced expanded nuclear cooperation with Pakistan in 2010, proponents ofarms controldenounced both the deals, claiming that they weakened the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT. As of January 2011, Australia, atop three uranium producer and home to world's largest known reserves, had continued its refusal to export uranium to India despite diplomatic pressure from India. In November 2011, Australian Prime MinisterJulia Gillardannounced a desire to allow exports to India,a policy change which was authorized by her party's national conference in December.The following month, Gillard overturned Australia's long-standing ban on exporting uranium to India.She further said, \"We should take a decision in the national interest, a decision about strengthening our strategic partnership with India in this the Asian century,\" and said that any agreement to sell uranium to India would include strict safeguards to ensure it would only be used for civilian purposes, and not end up in nuclear weapons. On 5 September 2014Tony Abbott, Gillard's successor as Australian Prime Minister, sealed a civil nuclear deal to sell uranium to India. \"We signed a nuclear cooperation agreement because Australia trusts India to do the right thing in this area, as it has been doing in other areas,\" Abbott told reporters after he and Indian Prime MinisterNarendra Modisigned a pact to sell uranium for peaceful power generation. Pakistan In May 1998, following India'snuclear testsearlier that month, Pakistan conducted two sets of nuclear tests, theChagai-IandChagai-II. Although there is little confirmed information in public, as of 2015, Pakistan was estimated to have as many as 120 warheads.According to analyses of theCarnegie Endowment for International Peaceand theStimson Center, Pakistan has enough fissile material for 350 warheads. Pakistani officials argue that the NPT is discriminatory. When asked at a briefing in 2015 whether Islamabad would sign the NPT if Washington requested it,Foreign SecretaryAizaz Ahmad Chaudhrywas quoted as responding \"It is a discriminatory treaty. Pakistan has the right to defend itself, so Pakistan will not sign the NPT. Why should we?\"Until 2010, Pakistan had always maintained the position that it would sign the NPT if India did so. In 2010, Pakistan abandoned this historic position and stated that it would join the NPT only as a recognized nuclear-weapon state. The NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Pakistan, with very narrow exceptions, since it does not have full-scope IAEA safeguards (i.e. safeguards on all its nuclear activities). Pakistan has sought to reach an agreement similar to that with India,but these efforts have been rebuffed by the United States and other NSG members, on the grounds that Pakistan's track record as a nuclear proliferator makes it impossible for it to have any sort of nuclear deal in the near future. By 2010, China reportedly signed a civil nuclear agreement with Pakistan, using the justification that the deal was \"peaceful\".The British government criticized this, on the grounds that 'the time is not yet right for a civil nuclear deal with Pakistan'.China did not seek formal approval from thenuclear suppliers group, and claimed instead that its cooperation with Pakistan was \"grandfathered\" when China joined the NSG, a claim that was disputed by other NSG members.Pakistanapplied for membership on 19 May 2016,supported by Turkey and ChinaHowever, many NSG members opposed Pakistan's membership bid due to its track record, including the illicit procurement network of Pakistani scientist A.Q. Khan, which aided the nuclear programs of Iran, Libya and North Korea.Pakistani officials reiterated the request in August 2016. Israel Israel has a long-standingpolicy of deliberate ambiguitywith regards to its nuclear program (seeList of countries with nuclear weapons). Israel has been developing nuclear technology at itsDimonasite in theNegevsince 1958, and some nonproliferation analysts estimate that Israel may have stockpiled between 100 and 200 warheads using reprocessed plutonium. The position on the NPT is explained in terms of \"Israeli exceptionality\", a term coined by ProfessorGerald M. Steinberg, in reference to the perception that the country's small size, overall vulnerability, as well as the history of deep hostility and large-scale attacks by neighboring states, require a deterrent capability. The Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny possession of nuclear weapons, although this is now regarded as an open secret after Israeli junior nuclear technicianMordechai Vanunu—subsequently arrested and sentenced for treason by Israel—published evidence about the program to the BritishSunday Timesin 1986. On 18 September 2009, the General Conference of theInternational Atomic Energy Agencycalled on Israel to open its nuclear facilities to IAEA inspection and adhere to the non-proliferation treaty as part of a resolution on \"Israeli nuclear capabilities\", which passed by a narrow margin of 49–45 with 16 abstentions. The chief Israeli delegate stated that \"Israel will not co-operate in any matter with this resolution.\"However, similar resolutions were defeated in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015.As with Pakistan, the NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Israel. Other states North Korea North Korea acceded to the treaty on 12 December 1985 in order to obtain assistance from the Soviet Union in the construction of fourlight-water reactors, but was ruled be in noncompliance with its IAEA safeguards agreement after a series of inspections in 1992-93 which determined that North Korea had not fully declared its history of reprocessing spent fuel at theYongbyon nuclear facility.North Korea responded by announcing its intent to withdraw from the treaty on 12 March 1993, and PresidentBill Clintonresponded by announcing sanctions and considering military action. The crisis ended with theAgreed Frameworknegotiated by former US PresidentJimmy Carterin which North Korea agreed to an IAEA-monitored freeze of plutonium production facilities and construction of new reactors in exchange for two light-water reactors andheavy fuel oilshipments through the US-ledKorean Peninsula Energy Development Organizationconsortium. North Korea also abandoned its withdrawal from the NPT. During the late 1990s and the early 2000s critics of the agreement, as well as Clinton's successorGeorge W. Bush, expressed skepticism on North Korean compliance to the Agreed Framework. During 2002 negotiations US Assistant Secretary of StateJames A. Kellyaccused North Korea of a secret highly enriched uranium program; North Korean First Vice Foreign MinisterKang Sok-juand Vice Foreign MinisterKim Kye-gwanresponded by denying the allegations but asserting that North Korea had a right to nuclear weapons. The U.S. subsequently halted fuel oil shipments to North Korea in December 2002 and the DPRK government again gave notice of withdrawal from NPT on 10 January 2003.The withdrawal became effective 10 April 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty. In April 2003, North Korea agreed to the multilateralsix-party talksto find a diplomatic solution to the issue hosted byChinaand including the United States,South Korea,Russia, andJapan. North Korea initially demanded resumption of fuel shipments, while the United States demanded the \"complete, verifiable, and irreversible dismantlement\" of the North Korean nuclear program.On 10 February 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks. \"We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self-defence to cope with the Bush administration's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK ,\" a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue.Six-party talks resumed in July 2005. On 19 September 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors. The difficult issue of the supply oflight water reactorsto replace North Korea'sindigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions.On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT.The six-party talks eventually collapsed before a final agreement could be negotiated after theU.S. State DepartmentsanctionedBanco Delta Asiaunder Section 311 of thePatriot Actfor money-laundering involving North Korean accounts. On 2 October 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test \"in the future\", although it did not state when.On Monday, 9 October 2006 at 01:35:28 (UTC) theUnited States Geological Surveydetected a magnitude 4.3seismic event70 km (43 mi) north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test.The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completeda successful underground testof a nuclear fission device. AfterUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1718imposed sanctions on North Korea, the six-party talks resumed. In February 2007 the parties agreed to the Initial Actions for the Implementation for the Joint Statement in which North Korea would dismantle its nuclear weapons programs, including the Yongbyon reactor, in exchange for the return of frozen funds at Banco Delta Asia and foreign energy assistance.However, the agreement failed due to verification problems and North Korea fully withdrew from the six-party talks in 2009 after the other members condemned the2009 North Korean missile tests, expelling all US and IAEA inspectors from the country.The UN responded by adoptingUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1874expanding the sanctions regime. In 2007, reports from Washington suggested that the 2002CIAreports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence.On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations, there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok-ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan's then-President Musharraf revealed that theA.Q. Khanproliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U.S. officials to the effect that evidence obtained in dismantlingLibya's WMD programspoints toward North Korea as the source for Libya'suranium hexafluoride(UF6)—which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment.North Korea formally announced the existence of a uranium enrichment program in September 2009. In 2011, after rising tensions over the North Korean nuclear program, theROKSCheonansinking, and thebombardment of Yeonpyeong, North Korea began to express interest in returning to the six-party talks. Bilateral negotiations between North Korea and the United States after thedeath of Kim Jong-illed to the 29 February 2012 \"Leap Day Agreement\" in which North Korea would agree to allow IAEA inspections and resume the six-party talks. However, these diplomatic gains were quickly undercut by launching theUnha-3rocket, leading the United States to suspend food aid.North Korea conducted further nuclear tests in2013,January 2016,September 2016, and2017, and announced that it was developing miniaturized warheads andintercontinental ballistic missiles. It also claimed that it had successfully detonatedthermonuclear weaponsin the January 2016 and 2017 tests. The North Korean nuclear weapons development led to the2017–2018 North Korea crisiswhich nearly led to war, with both North Korean Supreme LeaderKim Jong-unand US PresidentDonald Trumpthreatening military action. The crisis was averted after a series of meetings between Kim Jong-un, US Secretary of StateMike Pompeo, and South Korean PresidentMoon Jae-infinally culminating with the2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summitbetween Trump and Kim, the first face-to-face meeting between the US and North Korean heads of state.The IAEA has called for North Korea to rejoin it and the NPT since 2013. Iran Iran is a party to the NPT since 1970 but was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement, and the status of its nuclear program remains in dispute. In November 2003IAEADirector GeneralMohamed ElBaradeireported that Iran had repeatedly and over an extended period failed to meet its safeguards obligations under the NPT with respect to: After about two years of EU3-led diplomatic efforts and Iran temporarily suspending its enrichment program,the IAEA Board of Governors, acting under Article XII.C of the IAEA Statute, found in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions that these failures constituted non-compliance with the IAEA safeguards agreement.This was reported to theUN Security Councilin 2006,after which the Security Council passed a resolution demanding that Iran suspend its enrichment.Instead, Iran resumed its enrichment program. The IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran, and is continuing its work on verifying the absence of undeclared activities.In February 2008, the IAEA also reported that it was working to address \"alleged studies\" of weaponization, based on documents provided by certain Member States, which those states claimed originated from Iran. Iran rejected the allegations as \"baseless\" and the documents as \"fabrications\".In June 2009, the IAEA reported that Iran had not \"cooperated with the Agency in connection with the remaining issues ... which need to be clarified to exclude the possibility of military dimensions to Iran's nuclear program.\" The United States concluded that Iran violated its Article III NPT safeguards obligations, and further argued based on circumstantial evidence that Iran's enrichment program was for weapons purposes and therefore violated Iran's Article II nonproliferation obligations.The November 2007 USNational Intelligence Estimate(NIE) later concluded that Iran had halted an active nuclear weapons program in the fall of 2003 and that it had remained halted as of mid-2007. The NIE's \"Key Judgments\", however, also made clear that what Iran had actually stopped in 2003 was only \"nuclear weapon design and weaponization work and covert uranium conversion-related and uranium enrichment-related work\"-namely, those aspects of Iran's nuclear weapons effort that had not by that point already been leaked to the press and become the subject of IAEA investigations. Since Iran's uranium enrichment program at Natanz—and its continuing work on a heavy water reactor at Arak that would be ideal for plutonium production—began secretly years before in conjunction with the very weaponization work the NIE discussed and for the purpose of developing nuclear weapons, many observers find Iran's continued development of fissile material production capabilities distinctly worrying. Particularly because fissile material availability has long been understood to be the principal obstacle to nuclear weapons development and the primary \"pacing element\" for a weapons program, the fact that Iran has reportedly suspended weaponization work may not mean very much.As The Bush Administration's Director of National Intelligence (DNI)Mike McConnellput it in 2008, the aspects of its work that Iran allegedly suspended were thus \"probably the least significant part of the program.\" Iran stated it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it had \"constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency\".Iran also stated that its enrichment program has been part of its civilian nuclear energy program, which is allowed under Article IV of the NPT. The Non-Aligned Movement has welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. Early during his tenure asUnited Nations Secretary General, between 2007 and 2016,Ban Ki-moonwelcomed the continued dialogue between Iran and the IAEA. He urged a peaceful resolution of the issue. In April 2010, during the signing of the U.S.-RussiaNew STARTTreaty, President Obama said that the United States, Russia, and other nations were demanding that Iran face consequences for failing to fulfill its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, saying \"We will not tolerate actions that flout the NPT, risk an arms race in a vital region, and threaten the credibility of the international community and our collective security.\" In 2015, Iran negotiated a nuclear deal with theP5+1, a group of countries that consisted of thefive permanent members of the UN Security Council(China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) plus Germany. On 14 July 2015, the P5+1 and Iran concluded theJoint Comprehensive Plan of Action, lifting sanctions on Iran in exchange for constraints and on Iran's nuclear activities and increased verification by the IAEA. On 8 May 2018, PresidentDonald Trumpwithdrew the United States from the JCPOAand reimposedsanctions on Iran. South Africa South Africa is the only country that developed nuclear weapons by itself and later dismantled them—unlike the formerSovietstatesUkraine,BelarusandKazakhstan, which inherited nuclear weapons from the formerUSSRand also acceded to the NPT as non-nuclear weapon states. During the days ofapartheid, the South African government developed a deep fear of both a black uprising and the threat of communism. This led to the development of a secret nuclear weapons program as an ultimate deterrent. South Africa has a large supply of uranium, which is mined in the country's gold mines. The government built a nuclear research facility atPelindabanearPretoriawhere uranium was enriched to fuel grade for theKoeberg Nuclear Power Stationas well as weapon grade for bomb production. In 1991, after international pressure and when a change of government was imminent, South African Ambassador to the United StatesHarry Schwarzsigned the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 1993, the then presidentFrederik Willem de Klerkopenly admitted that the country had developed a limited nuclear weapon capability. These weapons were subsequently dismantled beforeSouth Africaacceded to the NPT and opened itself up to IAEA inspection. In 1994, the IAEA completed its work and declared that the country had fully dismantled its nuclear weapons program. Libya Libya had signed (in 1968) and ratified (in 1975) the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and was subject to IAEA nuclear safeguards inspections, but undertook a secret nuclear weapons development program in violation of its NPT obligations, using material and technology provided by theA.Q. Khanproliferation network—including actual nuclear weapons designs allegedly originating in China. Libya began secret negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom in March 2003 over potentially eliminating itsWMD programs. In October 2003, Libya was embarrassed by the interdiction of a shipment of Pakistani-designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia, also as part of A. Q. Khan's proliferation ring. In December 2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to eliminate all its WMD programs, and permitted U.S. and British teams (as well as IAEA inspectors) into the country to assist this process and verify its completion. The nuclear weapons designs, gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment, and other equipment—including prototypes for improvedSCUD ballistic missiles—were removed from Libya by the United States. (Libyan chemical weapons stocks and chemical bombs were also destroyed on site with international verification, with Libya joining theChemical Weapons Convention.) Libya's non-compliance with its IAEA safeguards was reported to the U.N. Security Council, but with no action taken, as Libya's return to compliance with safeguards and Article II of the NPT was welcomed. In 2011, the Libyan government ofMuammar al-Gaddafiwas overthrown in theLibyan Civil Warwith the assistance of amilitary interventionbyNATO forcesacting under the auspices ofUN Security Council Resolution 1973. Gaddafi's downfall 8 years after thedisarmament of Libya, in which Gaddafi agreed to eliminate Libya's nuclear weapons program, has been repeatedly cited by North Korea, which views Gaddafi's fate as a \"cautionary tale\" that influences North Korea's decision to maintain and intensifyits nuclear weapons program and arsenaldespite pressure to denuclearize. Syria Syria is a state party to the NPT since 1969 and has a limited civil nuclear program. Before the advent of theSyrian Civil Warit was known to operate only one small Chinese-built research reactor, SRR-1. Despite being a proponent of a Weapons of Mass Destruction Free Zone in the Middle East the country was accused of pursuing a military nuclear program with a reported nuclear facility in a desertDeir ez-Zor Governorate. The reactor's components had likely been designed and manufactured in North Korea, with the reactor's striking similarity in shape and size to the North Korean Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. That information alarmed Israeli military and intelligence to such a degree that the idea of a targeted airstrike was conceived. It resulted inOperation Orchard, that took place on 6 September 2007 and saw as many as eightIsraeli Air Forceaircraft taking part. The Israeli government is said to have bounced the idea of the operation off of the US Bush administration, although the latter declined to participate. The nuclear reactor was destroyed in the attack, which also killed about ten North Korean workers. The attack did not cause an international outcry or any serious Syrian retaliatory moves as both parties tried to keep it secret: Despite a half-century state of war declared by surrounding states, Israel did not want publicity as regards its breach of the ceasefire, while Syria was not willing to acknowledge its clandestine nuclear program. Ukraine Ukraine acceded to the NPT in 1994 as a non-nuclear-weapon state, and committed to remove all nuclear weapons from its territory. In recognition of Ukraine's decision, the UK, the United States and Russia provided security assurances to Ukraine under theBudapest Memorandumof 1994. In 1993, political scientistJohn Mearsheimerargued that the United States should encourage Ukraine to retain anuclear deterrentagainst potential Russian expansion, and to reduce the danger of war.After theRussian invasion of 2014Andreas Umland, an analyst from the Swedish Institute of International Affairs, argued that Ukraine had been unwise to give up its arsenal, as Russia breaking the treaty only had limited consequences, and demonstrated that only a nuclear arsenal guarantees a country's sovereignty in the face of aggression from a nuclear power.However, Mariana Budjeryn of Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center, argued that it was unclear whether Ukraine's nuclear arsenal would have kept it safe from Russian aggression. Establishing operative control and maintaining the missiles would have been challenging for Ukraine, which might have faced sanctions had it refused to give up its arsenal. Leaving the treaty Article X allows a state to leave the treaty if \"extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country\", giving three months' (ninety days') notice. The state is required to give reasons for leaving the NPT in this notice. NATOstates argue that when there is a state of \"general war\" the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATOnuclear weapons sharingpolicy. NATO's argument is based on the phrase \"the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war\" in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding.SeeUnited States–NATO nuclear weapons sharingabove. North Korea has also caused an uproar by its use of this provision of the treaty. Article X.1 only requires a state to give three months' notice in total, and does not provide for other states to question a state's interpretation of \"supreme interests of its country\". In 1993, North Korea gave notice to withdraw from the NPT. However, after 89 days, North Korea reached agreement with the United States to freeze its nuclear program under theAgreed Frameworkand \"suspended\" its withdrawal notice. In October 2002, the United States accused North Korea of violating the Agreed Framework by pursuing a secret uranium enrichment program, and suspended shipments of heavy fuel oil under that agreement. In response, North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors, disabled IAEA equipment, and, on 10 January 2003, announced that it was ending the suspension of its previous NPT withdrawal notification. North Korea said that only one more day's notice was sufficient for withdrawal from the NPT, as it had given 89 days before. The IAEA Board of Governors rejected this interpretation.Most countries held that a new three-months withdrawal notice was required, and some questioned whether North Korea's notification met the \"extraordinary events\" and \"supreme interests\" requirements of the treaty. The Joint Statement of 19 September 2005 at the end of the Fourth Round of theSix-Party Talkscalled for North Korea to \"return\" to the NPT, implicitly acknowledging that it had withdrawn. Recent and coming events The main outcome of the 2000 Conference was the adoption by consensus of a comprehensive Final Document,which included among other things \"practical steps for the systematic and progressive efforts\" to implement the disarmament provisions of the NPT, commonly referred to as theThirteen Steps. On 18 July 2005, US President George W. Bush met Indian Prime MinisterManmohan Singhand declared that he would work to change US law and international rules to permit trade in US civilian nuclear technology with India.At the time, British columnistGeorge Monbiotargued that the U.S.-India nuclear deal, in combination with US attempts to deny Iran (an NPT signatory) civilian nuclear fuel-making technology, might destroy the NPT regime. In the first half of 2010, it was strongly believed that China had signed a civilian nuclear deal with Pakistan claiming that the deal was \"peaceful\". Arms controladvocates criticised the reportedChina-Pakistan dealas they did in case ofU.S.-India dealclaiming that both the deals violate the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT.Some reports asserted that the deal was a strategic move by China to balance US influence inSouth-Asia. According to a report published byU.S. Department of Defensein 2001, China had provided Pakistan withnuclear materialsand has given critical technological assistance in the construction of Pakistan's nuclear weapons development facilities, in violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, of which China even then was a signatory. At the Seventh Review Conference in May 2005,there were stark differences between the United States, which wanted the conference to focus on non-proliferation, especially on its allegations against Iran, and most other countries, who emphasized the lack of seriousnuclear disarmamentby the nuclear powers. Thenon-aligned countriesreiterated their position emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament. The2010 Review Conferencewas held in May 2010 in New York City, and adopted a final document that included a summary by the Review Conference President, AmbassadorLibran Capactulanof the Philippines, and an Action Plan that was adopted by consensus.The 2010 conference was generally considered a success because it reached consensus where the previous Review Conference in 2005 ended in disarray. Many attributed the success of the 2010 conference toU.S. PresidentBarack Obama's commitment to nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament. Some have warned that this success raised unrealistically high expectations that could lead to failure at the next Review Conference in 2015. The \"Global Summit on Nuclear Security\" took place 12–13 April 2010. The summit was proposed byPresident Obama in Pragueand was intended to strengthen the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in conjunction with theProliferation Security Initiativeand theGlobal Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism.Forty seven states and three international organizations took part in the summit,which issued a communiquéand a work plan.For further information see2010 Nuclear Security Summit. In a major policy speech at theBrandenburg GateinBerlinon 19 June 2013, Obama outlined plans to further reduce the number of warheads in theU.S. nuclear arsenal.According toForeign Policy, Obama proposed a \"one-third reduction in strategic nuclear warheads—on top of the cuts already required by theNew STARTtreaty—bringing the number of deployed warheads to about 1,000\".Obama is seeking to \"negotiate these reductions withRussiato continue to move beyondCold Warnuclear postures,\" according to briefing documents provided toForeign Policy.In the same speech, Obama emphasized his administration's efforts to isolate any nuclear weapons capabilities emanating fromIranandNorth Korea. He also called for a renewed bipartisan effort in theUnited States Congressto ratify theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treatyand called on countries to negotiate a new treaty to end the production offissile materialfornuclear weapons. On 24 April 2014, it was announced that the nation of theMarshall Islandshas brought suit in The Hague against the United States, the former Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel seeking to have the disarmament provisions of the NPT enforced. The 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was held at the United Nations in New York from 27 April to 22 May 2015 and presided over by Ambassador Taous Feroukhi of Algeria. The Treaty, particularly article VIII, paragraph 3, envisages a review of the operation of the Treaty every five years, a provision which was reaffirmed by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference and the 2000 NPT Review Conference. At the 2015 NPT Review Conference, States parties examined the implementation of the Treaty's provisions since 2010. Despite intensive consultations, the Conference was not able to reach agreement on the substantive part of the draft Final Document. The Tenth Review Conference convened 1–26 August 2022, after a two-year postponement due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, and concluded without adopting a final document. Contentious negotiations came close to consensus on a text, but ultimately Russia blocked consensus over issues related toits invasion of Ukraine, including references to the safety of theZaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plantin the draft text. On June 23, 2023, The US Department of State issued a statementthat the United States hosted the meeting on June 13–14 in Cairo among the five nuclear weapons states, describing it as \"an ongoing exchange in the context of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).\" Criticism and responses Over the years the NPT has come to be seen by many Third World states as \"a conspiracy of the nuclear 'haves' to keep the nuclear 'have-nots' in their place\".This argument has roots in Article VI of the treaty which \"obligates the nuclear weapons states to liquidate their nuclear stockpiles and pursue complete disarmament. The non-nuclear states see no signs of this happening\".Some argue that the NWS have not fully complied with their disarmament obligations under Article VI of the NPT.Some countries such as India have criticized the NPT, because it \"discriminated against states not possessing nuclear weapons on 1 January 1967,\" while Iran and numerous Arab states have criticized Israel for not signing the NPT.There has been disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads (as of February 2021) among them. As notedabove, the International Court of Justice, in itsadvisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that \"there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control\".Some critics of the nuclear-weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons. The United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that, since the end of the Cold War, it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons, and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons.U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear warheads. By the time accelerated dismantlement efforts ordered by President George W. Bush were completed, the U.S. arsenal was less than a quarter of its size at the end of the Cold War, and smaller than it had been at any point since the Eisenhower administration, well before the drafting of the NPT. The United States has also purchased many thousands of weapons' worth of uranium formerly in Soviet nuclear weapons for conversion into reactor fuel.As a consequence of this latter effort, it has been estimated that the equivalent of one lightbulb in every ten in the United States is powered by nuclear fuel removed from warheads previously targeted at the United States and its allies during the Cold War. The U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation agreed that nonproliferation and disarmament are linked, noting that they can be mutually reinforcing but also that growing proliferation risks create an environment that makes disarmament more difficult.The United Kingdom,Franceand Russialikewise defend their nuclear disarmament records, and the five NPT NWS issued a joint statement in 2008 reaffirming their Article VI disarmament commitments. According to Thomas Reed and Danny Stillman, the \"NPT has one giant loophole\": Article IV gives each non-nuclear weapon state the \"inalienable right\" to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power.A \"number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states usingnuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons\".A 2009 United Nations report said that: The revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons. According to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not authorized to do so under the NPT, have not paid a significant price for their pursuit of weapons capabilities. Also, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals made by NPT signatories, notably the United States. Based on concerns over the slow pace of nuclear disarmament and the continued reliance on nuclear weapons in military and security concepts, doctrines and policies, theTreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weaponswas adopted in July 2017 and was subsequently opened for signature on 20 September 2017. Entering into force on 22 January 2021,it prohibits each state party from the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as assistance to those activities. It reaffirms in its preamble the vital role of the full and effective implementation of the NPT. Ineffective enforcement ofterritorial integrityandrule of lawin the 21st centurycould undermine the credibility of the security assurances that are part of the current global nuclear order. See also References External links","The Band The Bandwas a Canadian-Americanrockband formed inToronto, Ontario, in 1967. It consisted of CanadiansRick Danko(bass, guitar, vocals, fiddle),Garth Hudson(organ, keyboards, accordion, saxophone),Richard Manuel(piano, drums, vocals),Robbie Robertson(guitar, vocals, piano, percussion), and AmericanLevon Helm(drums, vocals, mandolin, guitar, bass). The Band's music combined elements ofAmericana,folk, rock,jazzandcountry, which influenced artists such asGeorge Harrison,Elton John,the Grateful Dead,Eric ClaptonandWilco. Between 1958 and 1963, the group was known as the Hawks, a backing band forrockabillysingerRonnie Hawkins. In the mid-1960s, they gained recognition for being the backing group forBob Dylan, with his1966 concert tourbeing notable as Dylan's first with an electric band. After leaving Dylan and changing their name to The Band, they released several records to critical and popular acclaim, most notably their 1968 debut,Music from Big Pinkand its succeeding album, 1969'sThe Band. According toAllMusic,Music from Big Pink's influence on several generations of musicians has been substantial:Pink FloydmemberRoger Watersdeemed it the \"second-most influential record in the history of rock and roll\",and music journalistAl Aronowitzcalled it \"country soul ... a sound never heard before\".Their most popular songs included \"The Weight\" (1968), \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\" (1969), and \"Up on Cripple Creek\" (1969). The Band performed their farewell concert on November 25, 1976. Footage from the event was released in 1978 as theconcert filmThe Last Waltz, directed byMartin Scorsese. It would be the last performance of the original five members. After five years apart, Danko, Hudson, Helm, and Manuel reunited in 1983 for a reunion tour without Robertson, as he had taken up a new career as a producer and composer for film soundtracks. Manuel died in 1986, but the remaining three members would continue to tour and occasionally release new albums of studio material until 1999, when, upon the death of Danko, the remaining members decided to break up for good. Helm would go on to have a successful solo career, winning multipleGrammy Awardsin the folk and Americana categories until his 2012 death, while Hudson worked as a featured session musician. Robertson died in 2023, leaving Hudson as the only living member of the original lineup. Music critic Bruce Eder described The Band as \"one of the most popular and influential rock groups in the world, their music embraced by critics ... as seriously as the music ofthe Beatlesandthe Rolling Stones.\"The Band was inducted into theCanadian Music Hall of Famein 1989 and theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994.In 2004,Rolling Stoneranked them 50th on its list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\",and ranked \"The Weight\" 41st on its list of the \"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\".In 2008, the group received theGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award.In 2014, they were inducted intoCanada's Walk of Fame. History 1957–1964: The Hawks The future members of The Band first played together as the Hawks, the backing group forToronto-basedrockabillysingerRonnie Hawkins.Levon Helmbegan playing with the group in 1957, then became their fulltime drummer after graduating from high school in 1958. Helm journeyed with Hawkins fromArkansasto Ontario, where they were joined byRobbie Robertson,Rick Danko,Richard Manuel, and finallyGarth Hudson. Latter-day Band memberStan Szelestwas also in the group at that time. Hawkins's act was popular in and around Toronto and nearby Hamilton,and he had an effective way of eliminating his musical competition: when a promising band appeared, Hawkins would hire their best musicians for his own group; Robertson, Danko, and Manuel came under Hawkins's tutelage this way. While most of the Hawks were eager to join Hawkins's group, getting Hudson to join was more difficult. Having earned a college degree, Hudson planned on a career as a music teacher, and was only interested in playing rock music only as a hobby. The Hawks admired his wild, full-bore organ style and asked him repeatedly to join. Hudson finally agreed, under the condition that the Hawks each pay him $10 per week to be their instructor and purchase a new state-of-the-artLowrey organ; all music theory questions were directed to Hudson. There is a view thatjazzis 'evil' because it comes from evil people, but actually the greatest priests on 52nd Street, and on the streets of New York City were the musicians. They were doing the greatest healing work. And they knew how to punch through music which would cure and make people feel good. —Garth Hudson inThe Last Waltz With Hawkins, they recorded a few singles in this period and became well known as the best rock group in the thriving Toronto music scene. Hawkins regularly convened all-night rehearsals following long club shows, with the result that the young musicians quickly developed great technical prowess on their instruments. In late 1963, the group split from Hawkins over personal differences. They had grown tired of playing the same songs so often and wanted to perform original material, and they were also wary of Hawkins's heavy-handed leadership. He would fine the Hawks if they brought their girlfriends to the clubs (fearing it might reduce the numbers of \"available\" girls who came to performances) or if they smokedmarijuana. Robertson later said, \"Eventually, built us up to the point where we outgrew his music and had to leave. He shot himself in the foot, really, by sharpening us into such a crackerjack band that we had to go on out into the world, because we knew what his vision was for himself, and we were all younger and more ambitious musically.\" Upon leaving Hawkins, the group was briefly known as the Levon Helm Sextet, with a sixth member, saxophonist Jerry Penfound, and then as Levon and the Hawks after Penfound's departure. In 1965, they released a single on Ware Records under the name the Canadian Squires, but they returned as Levon and the Hawks for a recording session forAtcolater that year.Also in 1965, Helm and the band met blues singer and harmonica playerSonny Boy Williamson. They wanted to record with him, offering to become his backing band, but Williamson died not long after their meeting. Later in 1965, American musicianBob Dylanhired the group as his backing band for his U.S. tour in 1965 andworld tour in 1966.Following the 1966 tour, the group moved with help from Dylan and his manager,Albert Grossman, toSaugerties, New York, where they made the informal 1967 recordings that becameThe Basement Tapes, the basis for their 1968 debut album,Music from Big Pink. Because they were always referred to simply as \"the band\" to various frontmen and the locals in Woodstock, Helm said the name \"The Band\" worked well when the group came into its own.The group decided on it as their official name began performing as under it in from 1968 onward. Dylan continued to collaborate with The Band over the course of their career, most notably in a joint1974 tour. 1965–1967: With Bob Dylan In late summer 1965, Bob Dylan was looking for a backup band for his first U.S. \"electric\" tour. Levon and the Hawks were recommended by blues singerJohn P. Hammond, who earlier that year had recorded with Helm, Hudson and Robertson on hisVanguardalbumSo Many Roads.Around the same time, one of their friends from Toronto, Mary Martin, was working as secretary to Dylan's manager,Albert Grossman. She told Dylan to visit the group at Le Coq d'Or Tavern, a club onYonge Street, in Toronto—though Robertson recollects it was the Friar's Tavern, just down the street.Her advice to Dylan: \"Yougottasee these guys.\" After hearing The Band play and meeting with Robertson, Dylan invited Helm and Robertson to join his backing band. After two concerts backing Dylan, Helm and Robertson told Dylan of their loyalty to their bandmates and told him that they would continue with him only if he hired all of the Hawks. Dylan accepted and invited Levon and the Hawks to tour with him. The group was receptive to the offer, knowing it could give them the wider exposure they craved. They thought of themselves as a tightly rehearsed rock andrhythm and bluesgroup and knew Dylan mostly from his early acoustic folk and protest music. Furthermore, they had little inkling of how internationally popular Dylan had become. With Dylan, the Hawks played a series of concerts from September 1965 through May 1966, billed as \"Bob Dylan and the Band\". The tours were marked by Dylan's reportedly copious use ofamphetamines. Some, though not all, of the Hawks joined in the excesses.Most of the concerts were met with heckling and disapproval fromfolk musicpurists. Helm was so affected by the negative reception that he left the tour after a little more than one month and sat out the rest of that year's concerts, as well as the world tour in 1966.Helm spent much of this period working on an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico. During and between tours, Dylan and the Hawks attempted several recording sessions, but with less than satisfying results. Sessions in October and November yielded just one usablesingle(\"Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window?\"), and two days of recording in January 1966 for what was intended to be Dylan's next album,Blonde on Blonde, resulted in \"One of Us Must Know (Sooner or Later)\", which was released as a single a few weeks later and was subsequently selected for the album.On \"One of Us Must Know\", Dylan was backed by drummerBobby Gregg, bassist Danko (orBill Lee),guitarist Robbie Robertson, pianistPaul Griffin, andAl Kooper(who was more a guitarist than an organist) playing organ.Frustrated by the slow progress in the New York studio, Dylan accepted the suggestion of producerBob Johnstonand moved the recording sessions to Nashville. In Nashville, Robertson's guitar was prominent on theBlonde on Blonderecordings, especially in the song \"Leopard-Skin Pill-Box Hat\", but the other members of the Hawks did not attend the sessions. During the European leg of their 1966 world tour,Mickey Jonesreplaced Sandy Konikoff on drums. Dylan and the Hawks played at theFree Trade HallinManchesteron May 17, 1966. The gig became legendary when, near the end of Dylan's electric set, an audience member shouted \"Judas!\" After a pause, Dylan replied, \"I don't believe you. You're a liar!\" He then turned to the Hawks and said, \"Play it fucking loud!\" With that, they launched into an acidic version of \"Like a Rolling Stone\". The Manchester performance was widelybootlegged(and mistakenly placed at theRoyal Albert Hall). In a 1971 review forCreem, criticDave Marshwrote, \"My response is that crystallization of everything that is rock'n'roll music, at its finest, was to allow my jaw to drop, my body to move, to leap out of the chair ... It is an experience that one desires simply to share, to play over and over again for those he knows thirst for such pleasure. If I speak in an almost worshipful sense about this music, it is not because I have lost perspective, it is precisely because I have found it, within music, yes, that was made five years ago. But it is there and unignorable.\"When the concert finally saw an official release asThe Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966, The \"Royal Albert Hall\" Concertin 1998, criticRichie Unterbergerdeclared the record \"an important document of rock history.\" On July 29, 1966, while on a break from touring, Dylan was injured in a motorcycle accident that precipitated his retreat into semi-seclusion inWoodstock,New York.For a while, the Hawks returned to the bar and roadhouse touring circuit, sometimes backing other singers, including a brief stint withTiny Tim. Dylan invited the Hawks to join him in Woodstock in February 1967,and Danko, Hudson, and Manuel rented a large pink house, which they named \"Big Pink\", in nearbyWest Saugerties, New York. The next month (initially without Helm) they commenced recording a much-bootlegged and influential series of demos, initially at Dylan's house in Woodstock and later at Big Pink, which were released partially on LP asThe Basement Tapesin 1975 andin full in 2014. A track-by-track review of the bootleg was detailed byJann WennerinRolling Stone, in which the band members were explicitly named and given the collective name \"the Crackers\".While Helm was not involved in the initial recording, he did perform in later sessions and in overdubs recorded in 1975 before the album's release. 1968–1972: Initial success withMusic from Big Pinkself-titled album The sessions with Dylan ended in October 1967, with Helm having rejoined the group by that time, and the Hawks began writing their own songs at Big Pink. When they went into the recording studio, they still did not have a name for themselves. Stories vary as to the manner in which they ultimately adopted the name \"The Band\". InThe Last Waltz, Manuel claimed that they wanted to call themselves either \"theHonkies\" or \"theCrackers\" (which they used when backing Dylan for a January 1968 concert tribute toWoody Guthrie), but these names were vetoed by their record label; Robertson suggests that during their time with Dylan everyone just referred to them as \"the band\" and the name stuck. Initially they disliked the moniker, but eventually they grew to like it, thinking it both humble and presumptuous. In 1969,Rolling Stonereferred to them as \"the band from Big Pink\". Their debut album,Music from Big Pinkwas released in July 1968 and was widely acclaimed. It included three songs written or co-written by Dylan (\"This Wheel's on Fire\", \"Tears of Rage\" and \"I Shall Be Released\") as well as \"The Weight\", which became one of their best-known songs after it was used in the 1969 filmEasy Rider. While a thematic continuity ran through the music, the musical style varied from song to song. In early 1969, after the success ofMusic from Big Pink, The Band went on tour, starting with an appearance atWinterland Ballroom. They performed at theWoodstock Festival(their performance was not included in the famedWoodstockfilm because of legal complications), and later that year they performed with Dylan at the UKIsle of Wight Festival(several songs from which were subsequently included on Dylan'sSelf Portraitalbum). That same year, they left for Los Angeles to record their follow-up,The Band(1969). From their rustic appearance on the cover to the songs and arrangements within, the album stood in contrast to other popular music of the day. Several other artists made similar stylistic moves about the same time, notably Dylan, onJohn Wesley Harding, which was written during theBasement Tapessessions, andthe Byrds, onSweetheart of the Rodeo, which featured twoBasement Tapescovers.The Bandfeatured songs that evoked old-time rural America, from theCivil Warin \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\" to theunionizationof farm workers in \"King Harvest (Has Surely Come)\". These first two records were produced byJohn Simon, who was practically a group member: he aided inarrangementsin addition to playing occasional piano andtuba. Simon reported that he was often asked about the distinctivehorn sectionsfeatured so effectively on the first two albums: people wanted to know how they had achieved such memorable sounds. Simon stated that, besides Hudson (an accomplished saxophonist), the others had only rudimentary horn skills, and achieved their sound simply by creatively using their limited technique. Rolling Stonelavished praise on The Band in this era, giving them more attention than perhaps any other group in the magazine's history;Greil Marcus's articles contributed to The Band's mystique. The Band was also featured on the cover ofTime(January 12, 1970), the first rock group after the Beatles, over two years earlier, to achieve this rare distinction.David Attie's unused photographs for this cover—among the very few studio portraits taken during the Band's prime—have only recently been discovered, and were featured in Daniel Roher'sRobbie RobertsondocumentaryOnce Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, as well as having their own four-page spread inHarvey Kubernikand Ken Kubernik's “The Story of the Band: FromBig PinktoThe Last Waltz” (Sterling Publishing, 2018). A critical and commercial triumph,The Band, along with works by the Byrds andthe Flying Burrito Brothers, established a musical template (dubbedcountry rock) that paved the way to theEagles. BothBig PinkandThe Bandalso influenced their musical contemporaries.Eric ClaptonandGeorge Harrisoncited The Band as a major influence on their musical direction in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Clapton later revealed that he wanted to join the group.While he never did join, he recruited all of the members of The Band as well as other roots rock performers for his 1976 albumNo Reason to Cry. Following their second album, The Band embarked on their first tour as a lead act. The anxiety of fame was clear, as the group's songs turned to darker themes of fear and alienation: the influence on their next work is self-explanatory.Stage Fright(1970) was engineered by musician-engineer-producerTodd Rundgrenand recorded on a theatre stage in Woodstock. As with their previous, self-titled record, Robertson was credited with most of the songwriting. Initial critical reaction was positive, but it was seen as a disappointment from the previous two albums for various reasons. After recordingStage Fright, The Band was among the acts participating in theFestival Express, an all-star rock concert tour of Canada by train that also includedJanis Joplin, theGrateful Deadand future Band memberRichard Bell(at the time he was a member of Joplin's band). In the concert documentary film, released in 2003, Danko can be seen participating in a drunken jam session withJerry Garcia,Bob Weir,John Dawson, and Joplin while singing \"Ain't No More Cane\". At about this time, Robertson began exerting greater control over The Band, a point of contention between him and Helm. Helm charges Robertson withauthoritarianismand greed, while Robertson suggests his increased efforts in guiding the group were largely because Danko, Helm, and Manuel were becoming more unreliable due to their heroin usage.Robertson insists he did his best to coax Manuel into writing more songs, only to see him descend into addiction. Despite mounting problems among the group members, The Band forged ahead with their next album,Cahoots(1971).Cahootsfeatured Dylan's \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\", \"4% Pantomime\" (withVan Morrison), and \"Life Is a Carnival\", the last featuring a horn arrangement byAllen Toussaint. Toussaint's contribution was a critical addition to The Band's next project, and the group would later record two songs written by Toussaint: \"Holy Cow\" onMoondog Matineeand \"You See Me\" onJubilation. In late December 1971, The Band recorded the live albumRock of Ages, which was released in the summer of 1972. OnRock of Ages, they were bolstered by the addition of a horn section, with arrangements written by Toussaint. Dylan appeared on stage onNew Year's Eveand performed four songs with the group, including a version of \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\". 1973–1975: Move to Shangri-La In 1973, The Band released thecovers albumMoondog Matinee. There was no tour in support of the album, which garnered mixed reviews. However, on July 28, 1973, they played at the legendarySummer Jam at Watkins Glen, a massive concert that took place at the Grand Prix Raceway outsideWatkins Glen, New York. The event, which was attended by over 600,000 fans, also featured the Grateful Dead andthe Allman Brothers Band. It was during this event that discussions began about a possible tour with Bob Dylan, who had moved toMalibu, California,along with Robertson. By late 1973, Danko, Helm, Hudson and Manuel had joined them, and the first order of business was backing Dylan on his albumPlanet Waves. The album was released concurrently with their joint 1974 tour, in which they played 40 shows in North America during January and February 1974. Later that year, the tour was documented on the live albumBefore the Flood,. During this time, The Band brought inPlanet WavesproducerRob Frabonito help design a music studio for the group. By 1975, the studio,Shangri-La, was completed. That year, The Band recorded and releasedNorthern Lights – Southern Cross, their first album of all-new material since 1971. All eight songs were written solely by Robertson. Despite comparatively poor record sales, the album is favored by critics and fans. Levon Helm regards this album highly in his book,This Wheel's on Fire: \"It was the best album we had done sinceThe Band.\" The album also produced more experimentation from Hudson, switching to synthesizers, showcased on \"Jupiter Hollow\". 1976–1978:The Last Waltz By the mid-1970s, Robbie Robertson was weary of touring. AfterNorthern Lights – Southern Crossfailed to meet commercial expectations, much of the group's 1976 tour was confined to theaters and smaller arenas in secondary markets (including theSanta Cruz Civic Auditorium, theLong Island Arenaand the Champlain Valley Expo inEssex Junction, Vermont), culminating in an opening slot for the ascendantZZ Topat theNashville Fairgroundsin September.In early September, Richard Manuel suffered a severe neck injury in a boating accident in Texas,prompting Robertson to urge The Band to retire from live performances after staging a massive \"farewell concert\" known asThe Last Waltz. Following an October 30 appearance onSaturday Night Live, the event, includingturkey dinnerfor the audience of 5,000, was held on November 25 (Thanksgiving Day) of 1976 at theWinterland BallroominSan Francisco,California,and featured a horn section with arrangements by Allen Toussaint and an allstar lineup of guests, including Canadian artistsJoni MitchellandNeil Young. Two of the guests were fundamental to The Band's existence and growth: Ronnie Hawkins and Bob Dylan. Other guests they admired (and in most cases had worked with before) includedMuddy Waters,Dr. John, Van Morrison,Ringo Starr, Eric Clapton,Ron Wood,Bobby Charles,Neil Diamond, andPaul Butterfield. The concert was filmed by Robertson's friend, filmmakerMartin Scorsese. In 1977, The Band released their seventh studio albumIslands, which fulfilled their record contract with Capitol so that a plannedLast Waltzfilm and album could be released on theWarner Bros.label.Islandscontained a mix of originals and covers, and was the last with The Band's original lineup. That same year, the group recorded soundstage performances with country singerEmmylou Harris(\"Evangeline\") and gospel-soul groupthe Staple Singers(\"The Weight\"); Scorsese combined these new performances—as well as interviews he had conducted with the group—with the 1976 concert footage. The resultingconcert film–documentarywas released in 1978, along with athree-LP soundtrack. Helm later wrote aboutThe Last Waltzin his autobiography,This Wheel's on Fire, in which he made the case that it had been primarily Robbie Robertson's project and that Robertson had forced The Band's breakup on the rest of the group.Robertson offered a different take in a 1986 interview: \"I made my big statement. I did the movie, I made a three-record album about it—and if this is only my statement, not theirs, I'll accept that. They're saying, 'Well, that was really his trip, not our trip.' Well, fine. I'll take the best music film that's ever been made, and make it my statement. I don't have any problems with that. None at all.\" The original quintet would perform together one last time: on March 1, 1978 after the late set of a Rick Danko solo show atThe Roxy, the group performed \"Stage Fright\", \"The Shape I'm In\", and \"The Weight\" for an encore.Although the members of the group intended to continue working on studio projects, they drifted apart after the release ofIslandsin March 1977. 1983–1989: Reformation and the death of Richard Manuel The Band resumed touring in 1983 without Robertson. Accomplished musician from Woodstock, NY, Jim Weider became lead guitarist. Robertson had found success with a solo career and as aHollywoodmusic producer. As a result of their diminished popularity, they performed in theaters and clubs as headliners and took support slots in larger venues for onetime peers such as the Grateful Dead andCrosby, Stills and Nash. After a performance inWinter Park, Florida, on March 4, 1986, Manuelhanged himself, aged 42, in his motel room.He had suffered for many years from alcoholism and drug addiction and had been clean and sober for several years beginning in 1978 but had begun drinking and using drugs again by 1984.Manuel's position as pianist was filled by old friend Stan Szelest (who died not long after) and then by Richard Bell. Bell had played with Ronnie Hawkins after the departure of the original Hawks, and was best known from his days as a member of Janis Joplin'sFull Tilt Boogie Band. The Band was inducted into theCanadian Music Hall of Fameat the1989 Juno Awards, where Robertson was reunited with original members Danko and Hudson. With Canadian country rock superstarsBlue Rodeoas a back-up band,Music Expresscalled the 1989 Juno appearance a symbolic \"passing of the torch\" from The Band to Blue Rodeo. 1990–1999: Return to final recording and the death of Rick Danko In 1990, Capitol Records began to re-release the records from the 1970s.The remaining three members continued to tour and record albums with a succession of musicians filling Manuel's and Robertson's roles. The Band appeared atBob Dylan's 30th anniversary concertin New York City in October 1992, where they performed their version of Dylan's \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\". In 1993, the group released their eighth studio album,Jericho. Without Robbie Robertson as primary lyricist, much of thesongwritingfor the album came from outside of the group. Also that year, The Band, along with Ronnie Hawkins, Bob Dylan, and other performers, appeared at U.S. PresidentBill Clinton's 1993 \"Blue Jean Bash\" inauguration party. In 1994, The Band performed atWoodstock '94. Later that year Robertson appeared with Danko and Hudson as the Band for the second time since the original group broke up. The occasion was the induction of The Band into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Helm, who had been at odds with Robertson for years over accusations of stolen songwriting credits, did not attend.In February 1996, The Band withthe Cricketsrecorded \"Not Fade Away\", released on thetribute albumNot Fade Away (Remembering Buddy Holly). The Band released two more albums afterJericho:High on the Hog(1996) andJubilation(1998), the latter of which included guest appearances by Eric Clapton andJohn Hiatt. Helm was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1998 and was unable to sing for several years but he eventually regained the use of his voice. In 1998, the group revealed they were working on a follow-up album toJubilationthat has not been released. The final song the group recorded together was their 1999 version of Bob Dylan's \"One Too Many Mornings\", which they contributed to the Dylan tribute albumTangled Up in Blues. On December 10, 1999, Rick Danko died in his sleep at the age of 55. Following his death, The Band broke up for good. The final configuration of the group included Richard Bell (piano), Randy Ciarlante (drums), and Jim Weider (guitar). 2000–present In 2002, Robertson bought all other former members' financial interests in the group (with the exception of Helm's),giving him major control of the presentation of the group's material, including latter-day compilations. Richard Bell died ofmultiple myelomain June 2007. The Band received a Lifetime AchievementGrammy Awardon February 9, 2008,but there was no reunion of former members. In honor of the event, Helm held aMidnight Ramblein Woodstock.He continued to perform and released several albums. On April 17, 2012, it was announced via Helm's official website that he was in the \"final stages of cancer\";he died two days later. In December 2020, it was announced that the third album of The Band,Stage Fright, would get an expanded reissue. The album has alternate versions of some songs. Robbie Robertson died at the age of 80 on August 9, 2023, after battling prostate cancer.With Robertson's death, Garth Hudson is the last living original member of the group. Members' other endeavours In 1977, Rick Danko released hiseponymousdebut solo album, which featured the other four members of The Band on various tracks. In 1984, Danko joined members of theByrds, the Flying Burrito Brothers, and others in the huge touring company that made up \"The Byrds Twenty-Year Celebration\". Several members of the tour performed solo songs to start the show, including Danko, who performed \"Mystery Train\". Danko also released two collaboraive albums withEric AndersenandJonas Fjeld, along with some live and compilation albums in the 1990s and 2000s; many of the latter records were produced by Aaron L. Hurwitz and are on the Breeze Hill/Woodstock Records Label. In the late 1970s and 1980s, Helm released several solo albums and toured with a band called Levon Helm and the RCO Allstars. He also began an acting career with his role asLoretta Lynn's father inCoal Miner's Daughter. Helm received praise for his narration and supporting role oppositeSam Shepardin 1983'sThe Right Stuff. In 1997, a CD by Levon Helm and the Crowmatix,Souvenir, was released.Beginning sometime in the 1990s, Helm regularly performed Midnight Ramble concerts at his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, and toured.In 2007 Helm released a new album, an homage to his southern roots calledDirt Farmer, which was awarded aGrammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Albumon February 9, 2008.Electric Dirtfollowed in 2009 and won the inauguralGrammy Award for Best Americana Album. His 2011 live albumRamble at the Rymanwon in the same category. After he left The Band, Robbie Robertson became amusic producerand wrote film soundtracks (including acting as music supervisor for several of Scorsese's films) before beginning a solo career with hisDaniel Lanois-producedeponymous albumin 1987. Robertson continued mostly scoring films until his death in 2023. Hudson has released two solo CDs,The Sea to the Northin 2001, produced by Aaron (Professor Louie) Hurwitz, andLive at the Wolfin 2005, both featuring his wife, Maud, on vocals. He has also kept busy as an in-demand studio musician. He is featured extensively on recordings of theCalland country-indie star Neko Case. Hudson contributed an original electronic score to anoff-Broadwayproduction ofDragon Slayers, written byStanley Keyesand directed byBrad Maysin 1986 at theUnion Square Theatrein New York, which was restaged with a new cast in Los Angeles in 1990. In 2010, Hudson releasedGarth Hudson Presents: A Canadian Celebration of The Band, featuring Canadian artists covering songs that were recorded by The Band. In 2012,Jim WeiderlaunchedThe Weight Band, performing covers of The Band's music, alongside former members of theLevon HelmBand andRick DankoGroup. The Weight Band performed in a nationally broadcastPBSspecial, Infinity Hall Live,featuring new music. Following the show, the band announced a self-titled album of new music. The Weight Band also hosts Camp Cripple Creek, which celebrates the legacy of the Woodstock Sound. Past guests have includedJackie Greene,Music from Big Pinkproducer John Simon andJohn Sebastian. Manuel had few projects outside The Band; he and the rest of The Band contributed to Eric Clapton's 1976 albumNo Reason to Cry. It included an original composition by Manuel and featured his vocals and drumming on several tracks. Manuel later worked on several film scores with Hudson and Robertson, includingRaging BullandThe Color of Money.Whispering Pines: Live at the Getawaywas released in 2002. Musical style The Band's music fused many elements: although primarily incorporating oldcountry musicand earlyrock and roll, therhythm sectionoften was reminiscent ofStax- orMotown-style rhythm and blues, and Robertson citesCurtis Mayfieldand theStaple Singersas major influences, resulting in asynthesisof manymusical genres. Singers Manuel, Danko, and Helm each brought a distinctive voice to The Band: Helm'sSouthernaccent was prevalent in his raw and powerful vocals, Danko sang tenor with a distinctively choppy enunciation, and Manuel alternated between falsetto and a soulful baritone. The singers regularly blended inharmonies. Though the singing was more or less evenly shared among the three, both Danko and Helm have stated that they saw Manuel as The Band's \"lead\" singer. Every member was a multi-instrumentalist. There was little instrument-switching when they played live, but when recording, the musicians could make up different configurations in service of the songs. Hudson in particular was able to coax a wide range oftimbresfrom hisLowrey organ. Helm's drumming was often praised: critic Jon Carroll declared that Helm was \"the only drummer who can make you cry,\" while prolific session drummerJim Keltneradmits to appropriating several of Helm's techniques.Producer John Simon is often cited as a \"sixth member\" of The Band for producing and playing onMusic from Big Pink, co-producing and playing onThe Band, and playing on other songs up through The Band's 1993 reunion albumJericho. Copyright controversy Robertson is credited as writer or co-writer of the majority of The Band's songs and, as a result, has received most of the songwriting royalties generated from the music. This would become a point of contention, especially for Helm. In his 1993 autobiography,This Wheel's on Fire: Levon Helm and the Story of the Band, Helm disputed the validity of the songwriting credits as listed on the albums and explained that the Band's songs were developed in collaboration with all members. Danko concurred with Helm: \"I think Levon's book hits the nail on the head about where Robbie and Albert Grossman and some of those people went wrong and when The Band stopped being The Band ... I'm truly friends with everybody but, hey—it could happen to Levon, too. When people take themselves too seriously and believe too much in their own bullshit, they usually get in trouble.\"Robertson denied that Helm had written any of the songs attributed to Robertson.The studio albums recorded by Levon Helm as a solo artist—Levon Helm(1978),American Son,Levon Helm(1982),Dirt Farmer, andElectric Dirt—contain only one song crediting him as songwriter (\"Growin' Trade\", co-written withLarry Campbell). Legacy The Band has influenced numerous bands, songwriters and performers, including the Grateful Dead, Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young,Led Zeppelin,Elvis Costello,Elton John,Phish,andPink Floyd.The albumMusic from Big Pink, in particular, is credited with contributing to Clapton's decision to leave thesupergroupCream. In his introduction of The Band during the Bob Dylan 30th Anniversary Concert, Clapton announced that in 1968 he had heard the album, \"and it changed my life.\"The bandNazarethtook their name from a line in \"The Weight\". GuitaristRichard Thompsonhas acknowledged the album's influence onFairport Convention'sLiege and Lief, and journalist John Harris has suggested that The Band's debut also influenced the spirit of the Beatles' back-to-basics albumLet It Beas well as the Rolling Stones' string of roots-infused albums that began withBeggars Banquet.George Harrison said that his song \"All Things Must Pass\" was heavily influenced by The Band and that, while writing the song, he imagined Levon Helm singing it.Meanwhile, the \"The Weight\" has been covered numerous times, and in various musical styles. In a 1969 interview, Robbie Robertson remarked on the group's influence, \"We certainly didn't want everybody to go out and get a banjo and a fiddle player. We were trying to calm things down a bit though. What we're going to do now is go toMuscle Shoals, Alabama, and record four sides, fourpsychedelicsongs. Total freak-me songs. Just to show that we have no hard feelings. Just pretty good rock and roll.\" In the 1990s, a new generation of bands influenced by The Band began to gain popularity, includingCounting Crows,the Wallflowers, andthe Black Crowes. Counting Crows indicated this influence with their tribute to the lateRichard Manuel, \"If I Could Give All My Love (Richard Manuel Is Dead)\", from their albumHard Candy. TheBlack Crowesfrequently cover songs by The Band during live performances, such as \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\", which appears on their DVD/CDFreak 'n' Roll into the Fog.They have also recorded at Helm's studio in Woodstock. The inspiration for the classic rock-influenced bandThe Hold Steadycame while members Craig Finn and Tad Kubler were watchingThe Last Waltz.Rick Danko and Robbie Robertson are name-checked in the lyrics of \"The Swish\" from the Hold Steady's 2004 debut albumAlmost Killed Me.Also that year,southern rock-revivalistsDrive-By Truckersreleased theJason Isbellpenned track \"Danko/Manuel\" on the albumThe Dirty South. The Band also inspired Grace Potter, ofGrace Potter and the Nocturnals, to form the band in 2002. In an interview with the Montreal Gazette, Potter said, \"The Band blew my mind. I thought if this is what Matt meant when he said 'Let's start a rock 'n' roll band,' ... that was the kind of rock 'n' roll band I could believe in.\" A tribute album, entitledEndless Highway: The Music of the Band, released in January 2007, included contributions fromMy Morning Jacket,Death Cab for Cutie,Gomez,Guster,Bruce Hornsby,Jack JohnsonandALO,Lee Ann Womack, the Allman Brothers Band,Blues Traveler,Jakob Dylan,Rosanne Cash, and others. Members ofWilco,Clap Your Hands Say Yeah,the Shins,Dr Dog,Yellowbirds,Ween,Furthur, and other bands stagedThe Complete Last Waltzin 2012 and 2013.Their performances included all 41 songs from the original 1976 concert in sequence, even those edited out of the film. Musical directorSam Cohenof Yellowbirds claims \"the movie is pretty ingrained in me. I've watched it probably 100 times.\" An incarnation of the Band's legacy, The Weight Band, originated inside the barn of Levon Helm in 2012 when Jim Weider and Randy Ciarlante, both former members of The Band, were performing \"Songs of the Band\" withGarth Hudson,Jimmy Vivinoand Byron Isaacs. In July 2017, PBS'sInfinity HallLive program began airing a televised performance by The Weight Band, featuring Band covers and new music by the band. Every year on the Wednesday before and the Friday after Thanksgiving, Dayton, Ohio NPR affiliateWYSOandThe Dayton Art Institutehost a tribute toThe Last Waltz.Frequently selling out, the show features more than 30 local musicians. A similar event takes place annually in Madison, Wisconsin, on the Saturday night after Thanksgiving. The Band are the subjects of the 2019 documentary filmOnce Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, which premiered at the2019 Toronto International Film Festival. The Band is the subject of an extensive historical podcast,The Band: A History, currently covering the entire history of the group. Members Additional musicians Line-ups Disbanded Timeline Discography withBob Dylan See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links","Music from Big Pink Music from Big Pinkis the debutstudio albumby Canadian-Americanrockbandthe Band.Released on July 1, 1968, byCapitol Records, it employs a distinctive blend ofcountry,rock,folk,classical,R&B,blues, andsoul. The album's title refers to a house inWest Saugerties, New Yorkcalled \"Big Pink\", which was shared by bassist/singerRick Danko, pianist/singerRichard Manueland organistGarth Hudsonand in which the album's music was partly composed. The album itself was recorded in studios in New York and Los Angeles in 1968,and followed the band's stint backing ofBob Dylanon his1966 tour(as the Hawks) and time spent together in upstate New York recording material that was officially released in 1975 asThe Basement Tapes, also with Dylan. Thecover artworkis a painting by Dylan. In 2000, the album was rereleased with additional outtakes from the recording sessions, and in 2018, a \"50th Anniversary Super Deluxe\" edition was released with a new stereo mix byBob Clearmountain. Background and Big Pink house The Band's members included Danko, Manuel, Hudson, guitaristRobbie Robertsonand drummer/singerLevon Helm. They began to create their distinctive sound during 1967 when they improvised and recorded withBob Dylana huge number of cover songs and original Dylan materialin the basement of a pink house inWest Saugerties, New York, located at 56 Parnassus Lane (formerly 2188 Stoll Road). The house was built by Ottmar Gramms, who bought the land in 1952. The house was newly built whenRick Dankofound it as a rental. Danko moved in along withGarth HudsonandRichard Manuelin February 1967. The house became known locally as \"Big Pink\" for its pinksiding. The house was subsequently sold by Gramms in 1977, and since 1998, it has been a private residence. Widelybootleggedat the time, initially asGreat White Wonderin July 1969, some of the recordings Dylan and the Band made were officially released in 1975 onThe Basement Tapes, and then in their totality in 2014 onThe Bootleg Series Vol. 11: The Basement Tapes Complete. By the end of 1967, the Band felt it was time to step out of Dylan's shadow and make their own statement. Recording The Band's managerAlbert Grossman(who was also Dylan's manager) approachedCapitol Recordsto secure a record deal for a group still informally described as \"Dylan's backing band\". Alan Livingston at Capitol signed the Band, initially under the name the Crackers. Armed with news of a recording deal for the group, they luredLevon Helmback from the oil rigs where he had been working to Woodstock where he took up his crucial position in the Band, singing and playing drums. Helm's return coincided with a ferment of activity in Big Pink as the embryonic Band not only recorded with Dylan but also began to write their own songs. After meeting with producerJohn Simon, the Band started to record their debut album inManhattanatA&R Studios, at 799 7th Avenue in the early months of 1968. The Band recorded \"Tears of Rage\", \"Chest Fever\", \"We Can Talk\", \"This Wheel's On Fire\" and \"The Weight\" in two sessions. Robertson has said that when Simon asked them how they wanted it to sound, they replied, \"Just like it did in the basement.\" Capitol, pleased with the initial recording session, suggested that the group move toLos Angelesto finish recording their first album atCapitol Studios. They also cut some material atGold Star StudiosonSanta Monica Boulevard. The songs onBig Pinkrecorded in L.A. were \"In A Station\", \"To Kingdom Come\", \"Lonesome Suzie\", \"Long Black Veil\" and \"I Shall Be Released\". Artwork Dylan offered to sing on the album, but ultimately realized it was important for the Band to make their own statement. Instead, Dylan signified his presence by contributing a cover painting.Barney Hoskynshas written that it is significant the painting depicts six musicians. The cover ofMusic from Big Pinkwas intended to establish the group as having a different outlook from thepsychedelic cultureof 1968. PhotographerElliott Landyflew toTorontoto photograph the assembled Danko, Manuel, Robertson, and Hudson families on the Danko chicken farm. A photo was inserted of Diamond and Nell Helm, who lived inArkansas. The photo appeared on the cover with the caption \"Next of Kin\".The overall design of the sleeve is byMilton Glaser(who also did the poster that was packed with the 1967Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits). Reception The initial reception to the album was positive.It received praise for the organic quality of the instrumentation, which had been recorded live withoutoverdubbing.InRolling Stone,Al Kooper's rave review ofBig Pinkended with the words, \"This album was recorded in approximately two weeks. There are people who will work their lives away in vain and not touch it.\"This helped to draw public attention to it (Rolling Stoneeven referred to them as \"the band from Big Pink\"instead of just \"the Band\"). The fact that Bob Dylan wrote one and co-wrote two of the songs on the album also attracted attention.Robert Christgauwas less enthusiastic inThe Village Voice, crediting the music's original evocation of \"country-soul feeling without imitating it\" and the \"human roughness around the edges\",yet stating that he \"always admired that album\" but \"from a distance\". In 1968, \"The Weight\" peaked at No. 63 onBillboard's Hot 100 singles chart in the US. The song was a bigger hit elsewhere, peaking at No. 35 in Canada, and No. 21 in the UK. The album peaked at No. 18 inCanadaand reached No. 30 onBillboard'sPop Albumschart in 1968, and then recharted as a No. 8 hit on the Top Internet Albums chart in 2000. \"The Weight\" gained widespread popularity from the Band's performance of it atWoodstockon August 17, 1969, and due partially to its inclusion in the filmEasy Rider, though it was omitted from the soundtrack because of licensing issues. A cover version by the bandSmithwas included on the soundtrack album instead. The laid-back feel of the album attracted the attention of other major artists. For example,Eric Claptoncites the album'sroots rockstyle as what convinced him to quitCream, and engageDelaney and Bonnieand friends as \"Derek and the Dominos\" on hisdebut solo album.George Harrisonwas also impressed by the album's musicianship and sense of camaraderie, andRoger WatersofPink Floydcalled it the second \"most influential record in the history of rock and roll\", afterthe Beatles'Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, and said that it \"affected Pink Floyd deeply, deeply, deeply\". According toTerry Burrows, the album spawned theAmericanagenre,while music academic Chris Smith said its songs laid the groundwork for roots rock music. Music from Big Pinkwas voted No. 452 in the third edition ofColin Larkin'sAll Time Top 1000 Albums(2000).In 2003, it was ranked 34th onRolling Stone's list ofthe 500 greatest albums of all time,a ranking it maintained on the magazine's 2012 revised list,before dropping to number 100 in a 2020 revised list.OnMetacritic, the expanded 50th anniversary edition of the album has an aggregate score of 99 out of 100, based on seven reviews, a rating that the website defines as indicating \"universal acclaim\". Re-releases The originalLP recordissue included a gatefold cover in 1968, duplicated 40 years later in 2008 as a remastered 180 gm LP. Oncompact disc, it was remastered as agold CDin 1989, as aDVD-audioin 2001 and as a remastered numbered editionSACDin 2009. On August 29, 2000, it was reissued byEMI Recordsas a standard compact disc with ninebonus tracks. In 2012,Mobile Fidelityreleased a remastered, numbered, limited edition, Half-speed Mastering from the originalmaster tapes, 180g LP pressed at RTI. In 2018, a 50th Anniversary Edition was released with an entirely new stereo mix and 5.1 mix byBob Clearmountain, mastered byBob Ludwig. It also included some of the additional tracks from the 2000 re-release, and a new vocal-only mix of \"I Shall Be Released\". Track listing Personnel The Band Additional personnel 2018 remix References Sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Page version status This is an accepted version of this page TheTreaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as theNon-Proliferation TreatyorNPT, is an internationaltreatywhose objective is to prevent the spread ofnuclear weaponsand weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses ofnuclear energy, and to further the goal of achievingnuclear disarmamentand general and complete disarmament.Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by theEighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament, aUnited Nations-sponsored organization based inGeneva, Switzerland. Opened for signature in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970. As required by the text, after twenty-five years, NPT parties met in May 1995 and agreed to extend the treaty indefinitely.More countries are parties to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, a testament to the treaty's significance.As of August 2016, 191 states have become parties to the treaty, thoughNorth Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its withdrawal from the NPT in 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in violation of core obligations.FourUN member stateshave never accepted the NPT, three of which possess or are thought to possess nuclear weapons:India,Israel, andPakistan. In addition,South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined. The treaty definesnuclear-weapon statesas those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1 January 1967; these are the United States (1945),Russia(1949), theUnited Kingdom(1952),France(1960), andChina(1964). Four other states are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons:India,Pakistan, andNorth Koreahave openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons, whileIsraelisdeliberately ambiguousregardingits nuclear weapons status. The NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain: the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals. The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences. Even though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the signing parties decided, by consensus, to unconditionally extend the treaty indefinitely during the Review Conference in New York City on 11 May 1995, in the culmination of U.S. government efforts led by AmbassadorThomas Graham Jr. At the time the NPT was proposed, there were predictions of 25–30 nuclear weapon states within 20 years. Instead, over forty years later, five states are not parties to the NPT, and they include the only four additional states believed to possess nuclear weapons.Several additional measures have been adopted to strengthen the NPT and the broader nuclear nonproliferation regime and make it difficult for states to acquire the capability to produce nuclear weapons, including the export controls of theNuclear Suppliers Groupand the enhanced verification measures of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA)Additional Protocol. Critics argue that the NPT cannot stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons or the motivation to acquire them. They express disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads in their combined stockpile. Several high-ranking officials within the United Nations have said that they can do little to stop states usingnuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons. Treaty structure The NPT consists of a preamble and eleven articles. Although the concept of \\\"pillars\\\" is not expressed anywhere in the NPT, the treaty is nevertheless sometimes interpreted as athree-pillarsystem,with an implicit balance among them: These pillars are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. An effective nonproliferation regime whose members comply with their obligations provides an essential foundation for progress on disarmament and makes possible greater cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. With the right to access the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology comes the responsibility of nonproliferation. Progress on disarmament reinforces efforts to strengthen the nonproliferation regime and to enforce compliance with obligations, thereby also facilitating peaceful nuclear cooperation.The \\\"pillars\\\" concept has been questioned by some who believe that the NPT is, as its name suggests, principally about nonproliferation, and who worry that \\\"three pillars\\\" language misleadingly implies that the three elements have equivalent importance. First pillar: Non-proliferation Under Article I of the NPT, nuclear-weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon. Under Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes. Five states are recognized by the NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968), which also happen to be the fivepermanent members of the United Nations Security Council. These five NWS agree not to transfer \\\"nuclear weapons or othernuclear explosivedevices\\\" and \\\"not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce\\\" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to \\\"receive\\\", \\\"manufacture\\\", or \\\"acquire\\\" nuclear weapons or to \\\"seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons\\\" (Article II). NNWS parties also agree to accept safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or othernuclear explosivedevices (Article III). The five NWS parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear weapons against a non-NWS party except in response to a nuclear attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a Nuclear Weapons State. However, these undertakings have not been incorporated formally into the treaty, and the exact details have varied over time. The U.S. also had nuclear warheads targeted at North Korea, a non-NWS, from 1959 until 1991. The previous United KingdomSecretary of State for Defence,Geoff Hoon, has also explicitly invoked the possibility of the use of the country's nuclear weapons in response to a non-conventional attack by \\\"rogue states\\\".In January 2006, PresidentJacques Chiracof France indicated that an incident ofstate-sponsored terrorismon France could trigger a small-scale nuclear retaliation aimed at destroying the \\\"rogue state's\\\" power centers. Security provided by extendednuclear deterrenceor anuclear umbrellahave been a factor limiting incentives for some NNWS to acquire nuclear weapons. Second pillar: Disarmament Under Article VI of the NPT, all Parties undertake to pursue good-faith negotiations on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race, to nuclear disarmament, and to general and complete disarmament. Article VI of the NPT represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon states. The NPT's preamble contains language affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthen international trust so as to create someday the conditions for a halt to the production of nuclear weapons, and treaty on general and complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular, nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles from national arsenals. The wording of the NPT's Article VI arguably imposes only a vague obligation on all NPT signatories to move in the general direction of nuclear and total disarmament, saying, \\\"Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament.\\\"Under this interpretation, Article VI does not strictly require all signatories to actually conclude a disarmament treaty. Rather, it only requires them \\\"to negotiate in good faith\\\". On the other hand, some governments, especially non-nuclear-weapon states belonging to theNon-Aligned Movement, have interpreted Article VI's language as constituting a formal and specific obligation on the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, and argue that these states have failed to meet their obligation.TheInternational Court of Justice(ICJ), in itsadvisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, issued 8 July 1996, unanimously interprets the text of Article VI as implying that There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. The ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament. Critics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in thepost–Cold War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals. Other observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament.No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which has led to the elimination of thousands of weapons and delivery systems—could eventually make the possession of nuclear weapons more attractive by increasing the perceived strategic value of a small arsenal. As one U.S. official and NPT expert warned in 2007, \\\"logic suggests that as the number of nuclear weapons decreases, the 'marginal utility' of a nuclear weapon as an instrument of military power increases. At the extreme, which it is precisely disarmament's hope to create, the strategic utility of even one or two nuclear weapons would be huge.\\\" Third pillar: Peaceful use of nuclear energy NPT Article IV acknowledges the right of all Parties to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and to benefit from international cooperation in this area, in conformity with their nonproliferation obligations. Article IV also encourages such cooperation.This so-called third pillar provides for the transfer of nuclear technology and materials to NPT Parties for peaceful purposes in the development of civilian nuclear energy programs in those countries, subject to IAEA safeguards to demonstrate that their nuclear programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons. As the commercially popularlight water reactornuclear power stationuses enriched uranium fuel, it follows that states must be able either to enrich uranium or purchase it on an international market.Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency, has called the spread of enrichment and reprocessing capabilities the \\\"Achilles' heel\\\" of the nuclear nonproliferation regime. As of 2007, 13 states have an enrichment capability. During the 1960s and 1970s many states, almost 60, were supplied withresearch reactorsfuelled by weapon gradehighly enriched uranium(HEU) through the United StatesAtoms for Peaceprogram and a similar Soviet Union program.In the 1980s a program to convert HEU research reactors to use low enriched fuel was started in the United States due to proliferation concerns.However 26 states possessed more than 1 kg of civilian HEU in 2015,and as of 2016 the stocks of HEU for civilian research were 60 tonnes, with 74 research reactors still using HEU. Because the availability of fissile material has long been considered the principal obstacle to, and \\\"pacing element\\\" for, a country's nuclear weapons development effort, it was declared a major emphasis of U.S. policy in 2004 to prevent the further spread of uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing (a.k.a. \\\"ENR\\\") technology.Countries possessing ENR capabilities, it is feared, have what is in effect the option of using this capability to produce fissile material for weapons use on demand, thus giving them what has been termed a \\\"virtual\\\" nuclear weapons program.The degree to which NPT members have a \\\"right\\\" to ENR technology notwithstanding its potentially grave proliferation implications, therefore, is at the cutting edge of policy and legal debates surrounding the meaning of Article IV and its relation to Articles I, II, and III of the treaty. Countries that have become Parties to the NPT as non-nuclear-weapon States have a strong record of not building nuclear weapons, although some tried and one eventually left the NPT and acquired nuclear weapons. Iraq was found by the IAEA to have violated its safeguards obligations and subject to punitive sanctions by theUN Security Council. North Korea never came into compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement and was cited repeatedly for these violations,and later withdrew from the NPT and tested multiple nuclear devices. Iran was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards obligations in an unusual non-consensus decision because it \\\"failed in a number of instances over an extended period of time\\\" to report aspects of its enrichment program.In 1991, Romania reported previously undeclared nuclear activities by the former regime and the IAEA reported this non-compliance to the Security Council for information only. Libya pursued a clandestine nuclear weapons program before abandoning it in December 2003. The IAEA reported Syria's safeguards non-compliance to the UN Security Council, which did not take action. In some regions, the fact that all neighbors are verifiably free of nuclear weapons reduces any pressure individual states might feel to build those weapons themselves, even if neighbors are known to have peaceful nuclear energy programs that might otherwise be suspicious. In this, the treaty works as designed. In 2004,Mohamed ElBaradeisaid that by some estimates thirty-five to forty states could have the knowledge to develop nuclear weapons. Key articles Article I:Each nuclear-weapons state (NWS) undertakes not to transfer, to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices. Article II: Each non-NWS party undertakes not to receive, from any source, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices; not to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices; and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture. Article III: Each non-NWS party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the IAEA for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear material in all of the state's peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. Article IV: 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all the Parties to the Treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty. 2. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world. Article VI: Each party \\\"undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a Treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control\\\". Article IX: \\\"For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967.\\\" Article X: Establishes the right to withdraw from the Treaty giving 3 months' notice. It also establishes the duration of the Treaty (25 years before 1995 Extension Initiative). History The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that theCold Wardeterrent relationship between just the United States and theSoviet Unionwas fragile. Having more nuclear-weapon states would reduce security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, escalation in tensions, and nuclear conflict. Moreover, since theuse of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasakiin 1945, it has been apparent that the development of nuclear capabilities by States could enable them to divert technology and materials for weapons purposes. Thus, the problem of preventing such diversions became a central issue in discussions on peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Initial efforts, which began in 1946, to create an international system enabling all States to have access to nuclear technology under appropriate safeguards, were terminated in 1949 without the achievement of this objective, due to serious political differences between the major Powers. By then, both the United States and the former Soviet Union had tested nuclear weapons, and were beginning to build their stockpiles. In December 1953, US PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower, in his \\\"Atoms for Peace\\\" proposal, presented to the eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly, urged that an international organization be established to disseminate peaceful nuclear technology, while guarding against development of weapons capabilities in additional countries. His proposal resulted in 1957 in the establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which was charged with the dual responsibility for promotion and control of nuclear technology. IAEA technical activities began in 1958. An interim safeguards system for small nuclear reactors, put in place in 1961, was replaced in 1964 by a system covering larger installations and, over the following years, was expanded to include additional nuclear facilities. In recent years, efforts to strengthen the effectiveness and improve the efficiency of the IAEA safeguards system culminated in the approval of the Model Additional Protocol by the IAEA Board of Governors in May 1997. Within the framework of the United Nations, the principle of nuclear non-proliferation was addressed in negotiations as early as 1957. The NPT process was launched byFrank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958. The NPT gained significant momentum in the early 1960s. The structure of a treaty to uphold nuclear non-proliferation as a norm of international behaviour had become clear by the mid-1960s, and by 1968 final agreement had been reached on a Treaty that would prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons, enable cooperation for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament. It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the firstState to sign. Accession became nearly universal after the end of theCold Warand of South Africanapartheid. In 1992, The People's Republic of China and France acceded to the NPT, the last of the five nuclear powers recognized by the treaty to do so. The treaty provided, in article X, for a conference to be convened 25 years after its entry into force to decide whether the treaty should continue in force indefinitely, or be extended for an additional fixed period or periods. Accordingly, at the NPT Review and Extension Conference in May 1995, state parties to the treaty agreed—without a vote—on the treaty's indefinite extension, and decided that review conferences should continue to be held every five years. After Brazil acceded to the NPT in 1998, the only remaining non-nuclear-weapon state which had not signed was Cuba, which joined the NPT (and theTreaty of TlatelolcoNWFZ) in 2002. Several NPT states parties have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs. South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, but has since renounced it and acceded to the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nucleararsenal; after this, the remaining African countries signed the treaty. Theformer Soviet Republicswhere nuclear weapons had been based, namely Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, transferred those weapons to Russia and joined the NPT by 1994 following the signature of theBudapest Memorandum on Security Assurances. Successor states from theBreakup of YugoslaviaandDissolution of Czechoslovakiaalso joined the treaty soon after their independence. Montenegro and East Timor were the last countries to accede to the treaty on their independence in 2006 and 2003; the only other country to accede in the 21st century was Cuba in 2002. The three Micronesian countries inCompact of Free Associationwith the USA joined the NPT in 1995, along with Vanuatu. Major South American countries Argentina, Chile, and Brazil joined in 1995 and 1998. Arabian Peninsula countries included Saudi Arabia and Bahrain in 1988, Qatar and Kuwait in 1989, UAE in 1995, and Oman in 1997. The European states ofMonacoandAndorrajoined in 1995–6. Also acceding in the 1990s were Myanmar in 1992 and Guyana in 1993. United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing At the time the treaty was being negotiated,NATOhad in place secretnuclear weapons sharingagreements whereby the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended \\\"unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling\\\", so there is no breach of the NPT.These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including theSoviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time. As of 2005, it is estimated that the United States still provides about 180 tacticalB61 nuclear bombsfor use byBelgium,Germany,Italy, theNetherlandsandTurkeyunder these NATO agreements.Many states, and theNon-Aligned Movement, now argue this violates Articles I and II of the treaty, and are applying diplomatic pressure to terminate these agreements. They point out that the pilots and other staff of the \\\"non-nuclear\\\" NATO states practice handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and non-U.S. warplanes have been adapted to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs which must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its \\\"nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political\\\". U.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuadingWest Germanynot to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with theWarsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S. hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route.(West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.) Preparations for Russia's weapon deployment in Belarus On 27 February 2022, shortly after the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine,a referendumwas staged in Belarus to remove a constitutional prohibition on basing nuclear weapons on its territory.On 25 June 2022, President of BelarusLukashenkomet Russian PresidentPutinto discuss the deployment of Russian short-range nuclear-capable missiles on the territory of Belarus. The transfer of nuclear warheads would require a further decision, possibly after a number of years, and could be tied to future NATO decisions. In Belarus, Russia plans to deploy nuclear-capableIskander-Mmissile systems.Both conventional and nuclear versions of the missile would be provided under the plans.Additionally, Putin said that he would facilitate the modifications necessary for BelarusianSu-25bombers to carry nuclear missiles. On 14 June 2023, president Lukashenko said that Russia had started moving tactical nuclear weapons into Belarus's territory.The Russian president had said the weapons were moved \\\"as a deterrence measure\\\" against threats to Russian statehood, and would not be controlled by Belarus.NATO saw no evidence in a change in Russia's nuclear position,while Ukrainian intelligence said that not a single warhead had yet been transferred. Non-parties Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon programs, and Israel has a long-standingpolicy of deliberate ambiguitywith regards to its nuclear program (seeList of states with nuclear weapons). India India has detonated nuclear devices,firstin 1974 andagainin 1998.It is estimated to have enough fissile material for more than 150 warheadsand was among the few countries to have ano first usepolicy, a pledge not to use nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons, however India's formerNSAShivshankar Menonsignaled a significant shift from \\\"no first use\\\" to \\\"no first use against non-nuclear weapon states\\\" in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of theNational Defence CollegeinNew Delhion 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India's \\\"strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence\\\". India argues that the NPT creates a club of \\\"nuclear haves\\\" and a larger group of \\\"nuclear have-nots\\\" by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid. India's then External Affairs MinisterPranab Mukherjeesaid during a visit to Tokyo in 2007: \\\"If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment.\\\"Although there have been unofficial discussions on creating a South Asian nuclear weapons free zone, including India and Pakistan, this is considered to be highly unlikely for the foreseeable future. In early March 2006, India and the United States finalized an agreement, in the face of criticism in both countries, to restart cooperation on civilian nuclear technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22 nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them underIAEAsafeguards.Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the IAEA, welcomed the deal by calling India \\\"an important partner in the non-proliferation regime.\\\" In December 2006,United States Congressapproved theUnited States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act, endorsing a deal that was forged during Prime MinisterManmohan Singh's visit to the United States in July 2005 and cemented during President Bush's visit to India earlier in 2006. The legislation allows for the transfer of civilian nuclear material to India. Despite its status outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, nuclear cooperation with India was permitted on the basis of its clean non-proliferation record, and India's need for energy fueled by its rapid industrialization and a billion-plus population. On 1 August 2008, the IAEA approved the India Safeguards Agreementand on 6 September 2008, India was granted the waiver at the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) meeting held in Vienna, Austria. The consensus was arrived after overcoming misgivings expressed by Austria, Ireland and New Zealand and is an unprecedented step in giving exemption to a country, which has not signed the NPT and theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty(CTBT).While India could commence nuclear trade with other willing countries.The U.S. Congress approved this agreement and President Bush signed it on 8 October 2008. When China announced expanded nuclear cooperation with Pakistan in 2010, proponents ofarms controldenounced both the deals, claiming that they weakened the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT. As of January 2011, Australia, atop three uranium producer and home to world's largest known reserves, had continued its refusal to export uranium to India despite diplomatic pressure from India. In November 2011, Australian Prime MinisterJulia Gillardannounced a desire to allow exports to India,a policy change which was authorized by her party's national conference in December.The following month, Gillard overturned Australia's long-standing ban on exporting uranium to India.She further said, \\\"We should take a decision in the national interest, a decision about strengthening our strategic partnership with India in this the Asian century,\\\" and said that any agreement to sell uranium to India would include strict safeguards to ensure it would only be used for civilian purposes, and not end up in nuclear weapons. On 5 September 2014Tony Abbott, Gillard's successor as Australian Prime Minister, sealed a civil nuclear deal to sell uranium to India. \\\"We signed a nuclear cooperation agreement because Australia trusts India to do the right thing in this area, as it has been doing in other areas,\\\" Abbott told reporters after he and Indian Prime MinisterNarendra Modisigned a pact to sell uranium for peaceful power generation. Pakistan In May 1998, following India'snuclear testsearlier that month, Pakistan conducted two sets of nuclear tests, theChagai-IandChagai-II. Although there is little confirmed information in public, as of 2015, Pakistan was estimated to have as many as 120 warheads.According to analyses of theCarnegie Endowment for International Peaceand theStimson Center, Pakistan has enough fissile material for 350 warheads. Pakistani officials argue that the NPT is discriminatory. When asked at a briefing in 2015 whether Islamabad would sign the NPT if Washington requested it,Foreign SecretaryAizaz Ahmad Chaudhrywas quoted as responding \\\"It is a discriminatory treaty. Pakistan has the right to defend itself, so Pakistan will not sign the NPT. Why should we?\\\"Until 2010, Pakistan had always maintained the position that it would sign the NPT if India did so. In 2010, Pakistan abandoned this historic position and stated that it would join the NPT only as a recognized nuclear-weapon state. The NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Pakistan, with very narrow exceptions, since it does not have full-scope IAEA safeguards (i.e. safeguards on all its nuclear activities). Pakistan has sought to reach an agreement similar to that with India,but these efforts have been rebuffed by the United States and other NSG members, on the grounds that Pakistan's track record as a nuclear proliferator makes it impossible for it to have any sort of nuclear deal in the near future. By 2010, China reportedly signed a civil nuclear agreement with Pakistan, using the justification that the deal was \\\"peaceful\\\".The British government criticized this, on the grounds that 'the time is not yet right for a civil nuclear deal with Pakistan'.China did not seek formal approval from thenuclear suppliers group, and claimed instead that its cooperation with Pakistan was \\\"grandfathered\\\" when China joined the NSG, a claim that was disputed by other NSG members.Pakistanapplied for membership on 19 May 2016,supported by Turkey and ChinaHowever, many NSG members opposed Pakistan's membership bid due to its track record, including the illicit procurement network of Pakistani scientist A.Q. Khan, which aided the nuclear programs of Iran, Libya and North Korea.Pakistani officials reiterated the request in August 2016. Israel Israel has a long-standingpolicy of deliberate ambiguitywith regards to its nuclear program (seeList of countries with nuclear weapons). Israel has been developing nuclear technology at itsDimonasite in theNegevsince 1958, and some nonproliferation analysts estimate that Israel may have stockpiled between 100 and 200 warheads using reprocessed plutonium. The position on the NPT is explained in terms of \\\"Israeli exceptionality\\\", a term coined by ProfessorGerald M. Steinberg, in reference to the perception that the country's small size, overall vulnerability, as well as the history of deep hostility and large-scale attacks by neighboring states, require a deterrent capability. The Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny possession of nuclear weapons, although this is now regarded as an open secret after Israeli junior nuclear technicianMordechai Vanunu—subsequently arrested and sentenced for treason by Israel—published evidence about the program to the BritishSunday Timesin 1986. On 18 September 2009, the General Conference of theInternational Atomic Energy Agencycalled on Israel to open its nuclear facilities to IAEA inspection and adhere to the non-proliferation treaty as part of a resolution on \\\"Israeli nuclear capabilities\\\", which passed by a narrow margin of 49–45 with 16 abstentions. The chief Israeli delegate stated that \\\"Israel will not co-operate in any matter with this resolution.\\\"However, similar resolutions were defeated in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015.As with Pakistan, the NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Israel. Other states North Korea North Korea acceded to the treaty on 12 December 1985 in order to obtain assistance from the Soviet Union in the construction of fourlight-water reactors, but was ruled be in noncompliance with its IAEA safeguards agreement after a series of inspections in 1992-93 which determined that North Korea had not fully declared its history of reprocessing spent fuel at theYongbyon nuclear facility.North Korea responded by announcing its intent to withdraw from the treaty on 12 March 1993, and PresidentBill Clintonresponded by announcing sanctions and considering military action. The crisis ended with theAgreed Frameworknegotiated by former US PresidentJimmy Carterin which North Korea agreed to an IAEA-monitored freeze of plutonium production facilities and construction of new reactors in exchange for two light-water reactors andheavy fuel oilshipments through the US-ledKorean Peninsula Energy Development Organizationconsortium. North Korea also abandoned its withdrawal from the NPT. During the late 1990s and the early 2000s critics of the agreement, as well as Clinton's successorGeorge W. Bush, expressed skepticism on North Korean compliance to the Agreed Framework. During 2002 negotiations US Assistant Secretary of StateJames A. Kellyaccused North Korea of a secret highly enriched uranium program; North Korean First Vice Foreign MinisterKang Sok-juand Vice Foreign MinisterKim Kye-gwanresponded by denying the allegations but asserting that North Korea had a right to nuclear weapons. The U.S. subsequently halted fuel oil shipments to North Korea in December 2002 and the DPRK government again gave notice of withdrawal from NPT on 10 January 2003.The withdrawal became effective 10 April 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty. In April 2003, North Korea agreed to the multilateralsix-party talksto find a diplomatic solution to the issue hosted byChinaand including the United States,South Korea,Russia, andJapan. North Korea initially demanded resumption of fuel shipments, while the United States demanded the \\\"complete, verifiable, and irreversible dismantlement\\\" of the North Korean nuclear program.On 10 February 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks. \\\"We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self-defence to cope with the Bush administration's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK ,\\\" a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue.Six-party talks resumed in July 2005. On 19 September 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors. The difficult issue of the supply oflight water reactorsto replace North Korea'sindigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions.On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT.The six-party talks eventually collapsed before a final agreement could be negotiated after theU.S. State DepartmentsanctionedBanco Delta Asiaunder Section 311 of thePatriot Actfor money-laundering involving North Korean accounts. On 2 October 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test \\\"in the future\\\", although it did not state when.On Monday, 9 October 2006 at 01:35:28 (UTC) theUnited States Geological Surveydetected a magnitude 4.3seismic event70 km (43 mi) north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test.The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completeda successful underground testof a nuclear fission device. AfterUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1718imposed sanctions on North Korea, the six-party talks resumed. In February 2007 the parties agreed to the Initial Actions for the Implementation for the Joint Statement in which North Korea would dismantle its nuclear weapons programs, including the Yongbyon reactor, in exchange for the return of frozen funds at Banco Delta Asia and foreign energy assistance.However, the agreement failed due to verification problems and North Korea fully withdrew from the six-party talks in 2009 after the other members condemned the2009 North Korean missile tests, expelling all US and IAEA inspectors from the country.The UN responded by adoptingUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1874expanding the sanctions regime. In 2007, reports from Washington suggested that the 2002CIAreports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence.On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations, there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok-ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan's then-President Musharraf revealed that theA.Q. Khanproliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U.S. officials to the effect that evidence obtained in dismantlingLibya's WMD programspoints toward North Korea as the source for Libya'suranium hexafluoride(UF6)—which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment.North Korea formally announced the existence of a uranium enrichment program in September 2009. In 2011, after rising tensions over the North Korean nuclear program, theROKSCheonansinking, and thebombardment of Yeonpyeong, North Korea began to express interest in returning to the six-party talks. Bilateral negotiations between North Korea and the United States after thedeath of Kim Jong-illed to the 29 February 2012 \\\"Leap Day Agreement\\\" in which North Korea would agree to allow IAEA inspections and resume the six-party talks. However, these diplomatic gains were quickly undercut by launching theUnha-3rocket, leading the United States to suspend food aid.North Korea conducted further nuclear tests in2013,January 2016,September 2016, and2017, and announced that it was developing miniaturized warheads andintercontinental ballistic missiles. It also claimed that it had successfully detonatedthermonuclear weaponsin the January 2016 and 2017 tests. The North Korean nuclear weapons development led to the2017–2018 North Korea crisiswhich nearly led to war, with both North Korean Supreme LeaderKim Jong-unand US PresidentDonald Trumpthreatening military action. The crisis was averted after a series of meetings between Kim Jong-un, US Secretary of StateMike Pompeo, and South Korean PresidentMoon Jae-infinally culminating with the2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summitbetween Trump and Kim, the first face-to-face meeting between the US and North Korean heads of state.The IAEA has called for North Korea to rejoin it and the NPT since 2013. Iran Iran is a party to the NPT since 1970 but was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement, and the status of its nuclear program remains in dispute. In November 2003IAEADirector GeneralMohamed ElBaradeireported that Iran had repeatedly and over an extended period failed to meet its safeguards obligations under the NPT with respect to: After about two years of EU3-led diplomatic efforts and Iran temporarily suspending its enrichment program,the IAEA Board of Governors, acting under Article XII.C of the IAEA Statute, found in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions that these failures constituted non-compliance with the IAEA safeguards agreement.This was reported to theUN Security Councilin 2006,after which the Security Council passed a resolution demanding that Iran suspend its enrichment.Instead, Iran resumed its enrichment program. The IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran, and is continuing its work on verifying the absence of undeclared activities.In February 2008, the IAEA also reported that it was working to address \\\"alleged studies\\\" of weaponization, based on documents provided by certain Member States, which those states claimed originated from Iran. Iran rejected the allegations as \\\"baseless\\\" and the documents as \\\"fabrications\\\".In June 2009, the IAEA reported that Iran had not \\\"cooperated with the Agency in connection with the remaining issues ... which need to be clarified to exclude the possibility of military dimensions to Iran's nuclear program.\\\" The United States concluded that Iran violated its Article III NPT safeguards obligations, and further argued based on circumstantial evidence that Iran's enrichment program was for weapons purposes and therefore violated Iran's Article II nonproliferation obligations.The November 2007 USNational Intelligence Estimate(NIE) later concluded that Iran had halted an active nuclear weapons program in the fall of 2003 and that it had remained halted as of mid-2007. The NIE's \\\"Key Judgments\\\", however, also made clear that what Iran had actually stopped in 2003 was only \\\"nuclear weapon design and weaponization work and covert uranium conversion-related and uranium enrichment-related work\\\"-namely, those aspects of Iran's nuclear weapons effort that had not by that point already been leaked to the press and become the subject of IAEA investigations. Since Iran's uranium enrichment program at Natanz—and its continuing work on a heavy water reactor at Arak that would be ideal for plutonium production—began secretly years before in conjunction with the very weaponization work the NIE discussed and for the purpose of developing nuclear weapons, many observers find Iran's continued development of fissile material production capabilities distinctly worrying. Particularly because fissile material availability has long been understood to be the principal obstacle to nuclear weapons development and the primary \\\"pacing element\\\" for a weapons program, the fact that Iran has reportedly suspended weaponization work may not mean very much.As The Bush Administration's Director of National Intelligence (DNI)Mike McConnellput it in 2008, the aspects of its work that Iran allegedly suspended were thus \\\"probably the least significant part of the program.\\\" Iran stated it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it had \\\"constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency\\\".Iran also stated that its enrichment program has been part of its civilian nuclear energy program, which is allowed under Article IV of the NPT. The Non-Aligned Movement has welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. Early during his tenure asUnited Nations Secretary General, between 2007 and 2016,Ban Ki-moonwelcomed the continued dialogue between Iran and the IAEA. He urged a peaceful resolution of the issue. In April 2010, during the signing of the U.S.-RussiaNew STARTTreaty, President Obama said that the United States, Russia, and other nations were demanding that Iran face consequences for failing to fulfill its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, saying \\\"We will not tolerate actions that flout the NPT, risk an arms race in a vital region, and threaten the credibility of the international community and our collective security.\\\" In 2015, Iran negotiated a nuclear deal with theP5+1, a group of countries that consisted of thefive permanent members of the UN Security Council(China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) plus Germany. On 14 July 2015, the P5+1 and Iran concluded theJoint Comprehensive Plan of Action, lifting sanctions on Iran in exchange for constraints and on Iran's nuclear activities and increased verification by the IAEA. On 8 May 2018, PresidentDonald Trumpwithdrew the United States from the JCPOAand reimposedsanctions on Iran. South Africa South Africa is the only country that developed nuclear weapons by itself and later dismantled them—unlike the formerSovietstatesUkraine,BelarusandKazakhstan, which inherited nuclear weapons from the formerUSSRand also acceded to the NPT as non-nuclear weapon states. During the days ofapartheid, the South African government developed a deep fear of both a black uprising and the threat of communism. This led to the development of a secret nuclear weapons program as an ultimate deterrent. South Africa has a large supply of uranium, which is mined in the country's gold mines. The government built a nuclear research facility atPelindabanearPretoriawhere uranium was enriched to fuel grade for theKoeberg Nuclear Power Stationas well as weapon grade for bomb production. In 1991, after international pressure and when a change of government was imminent, South African Ambassador to the United StatesHarry Schwarzsigned the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 1993, the then presidentFrederik Willem de Klerkopenly admitted that the country had developed a limited nuclear weapon capability. These weapons were subsequently dismantled beforeSouth Africaacceded to the NPT and opened itself up to IAEA inspection. In 1994, the IAEA completed its work and declared that the country had fully dismantled its nuclear weapons program. Libya Libya had signed (in 1968) and ratified (in 1975) the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and was subject to IAEA nuclear safeguards inspections, but undertook a secret nuclear weapons development program in violation of its NPT obligations, using material and technology provided by theA.Q. Khanproliferation network—including actual nuclear weapons designs allegedly originating in China. Libya began secret negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom in March 2003 over potentially eliminating itsWMD programs. In October 2003, Libya was embarrassed by the interdiction of a shipment of Pakistani-designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia, also as part of A. Q. Khan's proliferation ring. In December 2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to eliminate all its WMD programs, and permitted U.S. and British teams (as well as IAEA inspectors) into the country to assist this process and verify its completion. The nuclear weapons designs, gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment, and other equipment—including prototypes for improvedSCUD ballistic missiles—were removed from Libya by the United States. (Libyan chemical weapons stocks and chemical bombs were also destroyed on site with international verification, with Libya joining theChemical Weapons Convention.) Libya's non-compliance with its IAEA safeguards was reported to the U.N. Security Council, but with no action taken, as Libya's return to compliance with safeguards and Article II of the NPT was welcomed. In 2011, the Libyan government ofMuammar al-Gaddafiwas overthrown in theLibyan Civil Warwith the assistance of amilitary interventionbyNATO forcesacting under the auspices ofUN Security Council Resolution 1973. Gaddafi's downfall 8 years after thedisarmament of Libya, in which Gaddafi agreed to eliminate Libya's nuclear weapons program, has been repeatedly cited by North Korea, which views Gaddafi's fate as a \\\"cautionary tale\\\" that influences North Korea's decision to maintain and intensifyits nuclear weapons program and arsenaldespite pressure to denuclearize. Syria Syria is a state party to the NPT since 1969 and has a limited civil nuclear program. Before the advent of theSyrian Civil Warit was known to operate only one small Chinese-built research reactor, SRR-1. Despite being a proponent of a Weapons of Mass Destruction Free Zone in the Middle East the country was accused of pursuing a military nuclear program with a reported nuclear facility in a desertDeir ez-Zor Governorate. The reactor's components had likely been designed and manufactured in North Korea, with the reactor's striking similarity in shape and size to the North Korean Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. That information alarmed Israeli military and intelligence to such a degree that the idea of a targeted airstrike was conceived. It resulted inOperation Orchard, that took place on 6 September 2007 and saw as many as eightIsraeli Air Forceaircraft taking part. The Israeli government is said to have bounced the idea of the operation off of the US Bush administration, although the latter declined to participate. The nuclear reactor was destroyed in the attack, which also killed about ten North Korean workers. The attack did not cause an international outcry or any serious Syrian retaliatory moves as both parties tried to keep it secret: Despite a half-century state of war declared by surrounding states, Israel did not want publicity as regards its breach of the ceasefire, while Syria was not willing to acknowledge its clandestine nuclear program. Ukraine Ukraine acceded to the NPT in 1994 as a non-nuclear-weapon state, and committed to remove all nuclear weapons from its territory. In recognition of Ukraine's decision, the UK, the United States and Russia provided security assurances to Ukraine under theBudapest Memorandumof 1994. In 1993, political scientistJohn Mearsheimerargued that the United States should encourage Ukraine to retain anuclear deterrentagainst potential Russian expansion, and to reduce the danger of war.After theRussian invasion of 2014Andreas Umland, an analyst from the Swedish Institute of International Affairs, argued that Ukraine had been unwise to give up its arsenal, as Russia breaking the treaty only had limited consequences, and demonstrated that only a nuclear arsenal guarantees a country's sovereignty in the face of aggression from a nuclear power.However, Mariana Budjeryn of Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center, argued that it was unclear whether Ukraine's nuclear arsenal would have kept it safe from Russian aggression. Establishing operative control and maintaining the missiles would have been challenging for Ukraine, which might have faced sanctions had it refused to give up its arsenal. Leaving the treaty Article X allows a state to leave the treaty if \\\"extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country\\\", giving three months' (ninety days') notice. The state is required to give reasons for leaving the NPT in this notice. NATOstates argue that when there is a state of \\\"general war\\\" the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATOnuclear weapons sharingpolicy. NATO's argument is based on the phrase \\\"the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war\\\" in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding.SeeUnited States–NATO nuclear weapons sharingabove. North Korea has also caused an uproar by its use of this provision of the treaty. Article X.1 only requires a state to give three months' notice in total, and does not provide for other states to question a state's interpretation of \\\"supreme interests of its country\\\". In 1993, North Korea gave notice to withdraw from the NPT. However, after 89 days, North Korea reached agreement with the United States to freeze its nuclear program under theAgreed Frameworkand \\\"suspended\\\" its withdrawal notice. In October 2002, the United States accused North Korea of violating the Agreed Framework by pursuing a secret uranium enrichment program, and suspended shipments of heavy fuel oil under that agreement. In response, North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors, disabled IAEA equipment, and, on 10 January 2003, announced that it was ending the suspension of its previous NPT withdrawal notification. North Korea said that only one more day's notice was sufficient for withdrawal from the NPT, as it had given 89 days before. The IAEA Board of Governors rejected this interpretation.Most countries held that a new three-months withdrawal notice was required, and some questioned whether North Korea's notification met the \\\"extraordinary events\\\" and \\\"supreme interests\\\" requirements of the treaty. The Joint Statement of 19 September 2005 at the end of the Fourth Round of theSix-Party Talkscalled for North Korea to \\\"return\\\" to the NPT, implicitly acknowledging that it had withdrawn. Recent and coming events The main outcome of the 2000 Conference was the adoption by consensus of a comprehensive Final Document,which included among other things \\\"practical steps for the systematic and progressive efforts\\\" to implement the disarmament provisions of the NPT, commonly referred to as theThirteen Steps. On 18 July 2005, US President George W. Bush met Indian Prime MinisterManmohan Singhand declared that he would work to change US law and international rules to permit trade in US civilian nuclear technology with India.At the time, British columnistGeorge Monbiotargued that the U.S.-India nuclear deal, in combination with US attempts to deny Iran (an NPT signatory) civilian nuclear fuel-making technology, might destroy the NPT regime. In the first half of 2010, it was strongly believed that China had signed a civilian nuclear deal with Pakistan claiming that the deal was \\\"peaceful\\\". Arms controladvocates criticised the reportedChina-Pakistan dealas they did in case ofU.S.-India dealclaiming that both the deals violate the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT.Some reports asserted that the deal was a strategic move by China to balance US influence inSouth-Asia. According to a report published byU.S. Department of Defensein 2001, China had provided Pakistan withnuclear materialsand has given critical technological assistance in the construction of Pakistan's nuclear weapons development facilities, in violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, of which China even then was a signatory. At the Seventh Review Conference in May 2005,there were stark differences between the United States, which wanted the conference to focus on non-proliferation, especially on its allegations against Iran, and most other countries, who emphasized the lack of seriousnuclear disarmamentby the nuclear powers. Thenon-aligned countriesreiterated their position emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament. The2010 Review Conferencewas held in May 2010 in New York City, and adopted a final document that included a summary by the Review Conference President, AmbassadorLibran Capactulanof the Philippines, and an Action Plan that was adopted by consensus.The 2010 conference was generally considered a success because it reached consensus where the previous Review Conference in 2005 ended in disarray. Many attributed the success of the 2010 conference toU.S. PresidentBarack Obama's commitment to nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament. Some have warned that this success raised unrealistically high expectations that could lead to failure at the next Review Conference in 2015. The \\\"Global Summit on Nuclear Security\\\" took place 12–13 April 2010. The summit was proposed byPresident Obama in Pragueand was intended to strengthen the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in conjunction with theProliferation Security Initiativeand theGlobal Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism.Forty seven states and three international organizations took part in the summit,which issued a communiquéand a work plan.For further information see2010 Nuclear Security Summit. In a major policy speech at theBrandenburg GateinBerlinon 19 June 2013, Obama outlined plans to further reduce the number of warheads in theU.S. nuclear arsenal.According toForeign Policy, Obama proposed a \\\"one-third reduction in strategic nuclear warheads—on top of the cuts already required by theNew STARTtreaty—bringing the number of deployed warheads to about 1,000\\\".Obama is seeking to \\\"negotiate these reductions withRussiato continue to move beyondCold Warnuclear postures,\\\" according to briefing documents provided toForeign Policy.In the same speech, Obama emphasized his administration's efforts to isolate any nuclear weapons capabilities emanating fromIranandNorth Korea. He also called for a renewed bipartisan effort in theUnited States Congressto ratify theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treatyand called on countries to negotiate a new treaty to end the production offissile materialfornuclear weapons. On 24 April 2014, it was announced that the nation of theMarshall Islandshas brought suit in The Hague against the United States, the former Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel seeking to have the disarmament provisions of the NPT enforced. The 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was held at the United Nations in New York from 27 April to 22 May 2015 and presided over by Ambassador Taous Feroukhi of Algeria. The Treaty, particularly article VIII, paragraph 3, envisages a review of the operation of the Treaty every five years, a provision which was reaffirmed by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference and the 2000 NPT Review Conference. At the 2015 NPT Review Conference, States parties examined the implementation of the Treaty's provisions since 2010. Despite intensive consultations, the Conference was not able to reach agreement on the substantive part of the draft Final Document. The Tenth Review Conference convened 1–26 August 2022, after a two-year postponement due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, and concluded without adopting a final document. Contentious negotiations came close to consensus on a text, but ultimately Russia blocked consensus over issues related toits invasion of Ukraine, including references to the safety of theZaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plantin the draft text. On June 23, 2023, The US Department of State issued a statementthat the United States hosted the meeting on June 13–14 in Cairo among the five nuclear weapons states, describing it as \\\"an ongoing exchange in the context of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).\\\" Criticism and responses Over the years the NPT has come to be seen by many Third World states as \\\"a conspiracy of the nuclear 'haves' to keep the nuclear 'have-nots' in their place\\\".This argument has roots in Article VI of the treaty which \\\"obligates the nuclear weapons states to liquidate their nuclear stockpiles and pursue complete disarmament. The non-nuclear states see no signs of this happening\\\".Some argue that the NWS have not fully complied with their disarmament obligations under Article VI of the NPT.Some countries such as India have criticized the NPT, because it \\\"discriminated against states not possessing nuclear weapons on 1 January 1967,\\\" while Iran and numerous Arab states have criticized Israel for not signing the NPT.There has been disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads (as of February 2021) among them. As notedabove, the International Court of Justice, in itsadvisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that \\\"there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control\\\".Some critics of the nuclear-weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons. The United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that, since the end of the Cold War, it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons, and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons.U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear warheads. By the time accelerated dismantlement efforts ordered by President George W. Bush were completed, the U.S. arsenal was less than a quarter of its size at the end of the Cold War, and smaller than it had been at any point since the Eisenhower administration, well before the drafting of the NPT. The United States has also purchased many thousands of weapons' worth of uranium formerly in Soviet nuclear weapons for conversion into reactor fuel.As a consequence of this latter effort, it has been estimated that the equivalent of one lightbulb in every ten in the United States is powered by nuclear fuel removed from warheads previously targeted at the United States and its allies during the Cold War. The U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation agreed that nonproliferation and disarmament are linked, noting that they can be mutually reinforcing but also that growing proliferation risks create an environment that makes disarmament more difficult.The United Kingdom,Franceand Russialikewise defend their nuclear disarmament records, and the five NPT NWS issued a joint statement in 2008 reaffirming their Article VI disarmament commitments. According to Thomas Reed and Danny Stillman, the \\\"NPT has one giant loophole\\\": Article IV gives each non-nuclear weapon state the \\\"inalienable right\\\" to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power.A \\\"number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states usingnuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons\\\".A 2009 United Nations report said that: The revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons. According to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not authorized to do so under the NPT, have not paid a significant price for their pursuit of weapons capabilities. Also, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals made by NPT signatories, notably the United States. Based on concerns over the slow pace of nuclear disarmament and the continued reliance on nuclear weapons in military and security concepts, doctrines and policies, theTreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weaponswas adopted in July 2017 and was subsequently opened for signature on 20 September 2017. Entering into force on 22 January 2021,it prohibits each state party from the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as assistance to those activities. It reaffirms in its preamble the vital role of the full and effective implementation of the NPT. Ineffective enforcement ofterritorial integrityandrule of lawin the 21st centurycould undermine the credibility of the security assurances that are part of the current global nuclear order. See also References External links\",\n \"The Band The Bandwas a Canadian-Americanrockband formed inToronto, Ontario, in 1967. It consisted of CanadiansRick Danko(bass, guitar, vocals, fiddle),Garth Hudson(organ, keyboards, accordion, saxophone),Richard Manuel(piano, drums, vocals),Robbie Robertson(guitar, vocals, piano, percussion), and AmericanLevon Helm(drums, vocals, mandolin, guitar, bass). The Band's music combined elements ofAmericana,folk, rock,jazzandcountry, which influenced artists such asGeorge Harrison,Elton John,the Grateful Dead,Eric ClaptonandWilco. Between 1958 and 1963, the group was known as the Hawks, a backing band forrockabillysingerRonnie Hawkins. In the mid-1960s, they gained recognition for being the backing group forBob Dylan, with his1966 concert tourbeing notable as Dylan's first with an electric band. After leaving Dylan and changing their name to The Band, they released several records to critical and popular acclaim, most notably their 1968 debut,Music from Big Pinkand its succeeding album, 1969'sThe Band. According toAllMusic,Music from Big Pink's influence on several generations of musicians has been substantial:Pink FloydmemberRoger Watersdeemed it the \\\"second-most influential record in the history of rock and roll\\\",and music journalistAl Aronowitzcalled it \\\"country soul ... a sound never heard before\\\".Their most popular songs included \\\"The Weight\\\" (1968), \\\"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\\\" (1969), and \\\"Up on Cripple Creek\\\" (1969). The Band performed their farewell concert on November 25, 1976. Footage from the event was released in 1978 as theconcert filmThe Last Waltz, directed byMartin Scorsese. It would be the last performance of the original five members. After five years apart, Danko, Hudson, Helm, and Manuel reunited in 1983 for a reunion tour without Robertson, as he had taken up a new career as a producer and composer for film soundtracks. Manuel died in 1986, but the remaining three members would continue to tour and occasionally release new albums of studio material until 1999, when, upon the death of Danko, the remaining members decided to break up for good. Helm would go on to have a successful solo career, winning multipleGrammy Awardsin the folk and Americana categories until his 2012 death, while Hudson worked as a featured session musician. Robertson died in 2023, leaving Hudson as the only living member of the original lineup. Music critic Bruce Eder described The Band as \\\"one of the most popular and influential rock groups in the world, their music embraced by critics ... as seriously as the music ofthe Beatlesandthe Rolling Stones.\\\"The Band was inducted into theCanadian Music Hall of Famein 1989 and theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994.In 2004,Rolling Stoneranked them 50th on its list of the \\\"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\\\",and ranked \\\"The Weight\\\" 41st on its list of the \\\"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\\\".In 2008, the group received theGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award.In 2014, they were inducted intoCanada's Walk of Fame. History 1957–1964: The Hawks The future members of The Band first played together as the Hawks, the backing group forToronto-basedrockabillysingerRonnie Hawkins.Levon Helmbegan playing with the group in 1957, then became their fulltime drummer after graduating from high school in 1958. Helm journeyed with Hawkins fromArkansasto Ontario, where they were joined byRobbie Robertson,Rick Danko,Richard Manuel, and finallyGarth Hudson. Latter-day Band memberStan Szelestwas also in the group at that time. Hawkins's act was popular in and around Toronto and nearby Hamilton,and he had an effective way of eliminating his musical competition: when a promising band appeared, Hawkins would hire their best musicians for his own group; Robertson, Danko, and Manuel came under Hawkins's tutelage this way. While most of the Hawks were eager to join Hawkins's group, getting Hudson to join was more difficult. Having earned a college degree, Hudson planned on a career as a music teacher, and was only interested in playing rock music only as a hobby. The Hawks admired his wild, full-bore organ style and asked him repeatedly to join. Hudson finally agreed, under the condition that the Hawks each pay him $10 per week to be their instructor and purchase a new state-of-the-artLowrey organ; all music theory questions were directed to Hudson. There is a view thatjazzis 'evil' because it comes from evil people, but actually the greatest priests on 52nd Street, and on the streets of New York City were the musicians. They were doing the greatest healing work. And they knew how to punch through music which would cure and make people feel good. —Garth Hudson inThe Last Waltz With Hawkins, they recorded a few singles in this period and became well known as the best rock group in the thriving Toronto music scene. Hawkins regularly convened all-night rehearsals following long club shows, with the result that the young musicians quickly developed great technical prowess on their instruments. In late 1963, the group split from Hawkins over personal differences. They had grown tired of playing the same songs so often and wanted to perform original material, and they were also wary of Hawkins's heavy-handed leadership. He would fine the Hawks if they brought their girlfriends to the clubs (fearing it might reduce the numbers of \\\"available\\\" girls who came to performances) or if they smokedmarijuana. Robertson later said, \\\"Eventually, built us up to the point where we outgrew his music and had to leave. He shot himself in the foot, really, by sharpening us into such a crackerjack band that we had to go on out into the world, because we knew what his vision was for himself, and we were all younger and more ambitious musically.\\\" Upon leaving Hawkins, the group was briefly known as the Levon Helm Sextet, with a sixth member, saxophonist Jerry Penfound, and then as Levon and the Hawks after Penfound's departure. In 1965, they released a single on Ware Records under the name the Canadian Squires, but they returned as Levon and the Hawks for a recording session forAtcolater that year.Also in 1965, Helm and the band met blues singer and harmonica playerSonny Boy Williamson. They wanted to record with him, offering to become his backing band, but Williamson died not long after their meeting. Later in 1965, American musicianBob Dylanhired the group as his backing band for his U.S. tour in 1965 andworld tour in 1966.Following the 1966 tour, the group moved with help from Dylan and his manager,Albert Grossman, toSaugerties, New York, where they made the informal 1967 recordings that becameThe Basement Tapes, the basis for their 1968 debut album,Music from Big Pink. Because they were always referred to simply as \\\"the band\\\" to various frontmen and the locals in Woodstock, Helm said the name \\\"The Band\\\" worked well when the group came into its own.The group decided on it as their official name began performing as under it in from 1968 onward. Dylan continued to collaborate with The Band over the course of their career, most notably in a joint1974 tour. 1965–1967: With Bob Dylan In late summer 1965, Bob Dylan was looking for a backup band for his first U.S. \\\"electric\\\" tour. Levon and the Hawks were recommended by blues singerJohn P. Hammond, who earlier that year had recorded with Helm, Hudson and Robertson on hisVanguardalbumSo Many Roads.Around the same time, one of their friends from Toronto, Mary Martin, was working as secretary to Dylan's manager,Albert Grossman. She told Dylan to visit the group at Le Coq d'Or Tavern, a club onYonge Street, in Toronto—though Robertson recollects it was the Friar's Tavern, just down the street.Her advice to Dylan: \\\"Yougottasee these guys.\\\" After hearing The Band play and meeting with Robertson, Dylan invited Helm and Robertson to join his backing band. After two concerts backing Dylan, Helm and Robertson told Dylan of their loyalty to their bandmates and told him that they would continue with him only if he hired all of the Hawks. Dylan accepted and invited Levon and the Hawks to tour with him. The group was receptive to the offer, knowing it could give them the wider exposure they craved. They thought of themselves as a tightly rehearsed rock andrhythm and bluesgroup and knew Dylan mostly from his early acoustic folk and protest music. Furthermore, they had little inkling of how internationally popular Dylan had become. With Dylan, the Hawks played a series of concerts from September 1965 through May 1966, billed as \\\"Bob Dylan and the Band\\\". The tours were marked by Dylan's reportedly copious use ofamphetamines. Some, though not all, of the Hawks joined in the excesses.Most of the concerts were met with heckling and disapproval fromfolk musicpurists. Helm was so affected by the negative reception that he left the tour after a little more than one month and sat out the rest of that year's concerts, as well as the world tour in 1966.Helm spent much of this period working on an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico. During and between tours, Dylan and the Hawks attempted several recording sessions, but with less than satisfying results. Sessions in October and November yielded just one usablesingle(\\\"Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window?\\\"), and two days of recording in January 1966 for what was intended to be Dylan's next album,Blonde on Blonde, resulted in \\\"One of Us Must Know (Sooner or Later)\\\", which was released as a single a few weeks later and was subsequently selected for the album.On \\\"One of Us Must Know\\\", Dylan was backed by drummerBobby Gregg, bassist Danko (orBill Lee),guitarist Robbie Robertson, pianistPaul Griffin, andAl Kooper(who was more a guitarist than an organist) playing organ.Frustrated by the slow progress in the New York studio, Dylan accepted the suggestion of producerBob Johnstonand moved the recording sessions to Nashville. In Nashville, Robertson's guitar was prominent on theBlonde on Blonderecordings, especially in the song \\\"Leopard-Skin Pill-Box Hat\\\", but the other members of the Hawks did not attend the sessions. During the European leg of their 1966 world tour,Mickey Jonesreplaced Sandy Konikoff on drums. Dylan and the Hawks played at theFree Trade HallinManchesteron May 17, 1966. The gig became legendary when, near the end of Dylan's electric set, an audience member shouted \\\"Judas!\\\" After a pause, Dylan replied, \\\"I don't believe you. You're a liar!\\\" He then turned to the Hawks and said, \\\"Play it fucking loud!\\\" With that, they launched into an acidic version of \\\"Like a Rolling Stone\\\". The Manchester performance was widelybootlegged(and mistakenly placed at theRoyal Albert Hall). In a 1971 review forCreem, criticDave Marshwrote, \\\"My response is that crystallization of everything that is rock'n'roll music, at its finest, was to allow my jaw to drop, my body to move, to leap out of the chair ... It is an experience that one desires simply to share, to play over and over again for those he knows thirst for such pleasure. If I speak in an almost worshipful sense about this music, it is not because I have lost perspective, it is precisely because I have found it, within music, yes, that was made five years ago. But it is there and unignorable.\\\"When the concert finally saw an official release asThe Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966, The \\\"Royal Albert Hall\\\" Concertin 1998, criticRichie Unterbergerdeclared the record \\\"an important document of rock history.\\\" On July 29, 1966, while on a break from touring, Dylan was injured in a motorcycle accident that precipitated his retreat into semi-seclusion inWoodstock,New York.For a while, the Hawks returned to the bar and roadhouse touring circuit, sometimes backing other singers, including a brief stint withTiny Tim. Dylan invited the Hawks to join him in Woodstock in February 1967,and Danko, Hudson, and Manuel rented a large pink house, which they named \\\"Big Pink\\\", in nearbyWest Saugerties, New York. The next month (initially without Helm) they commenced recording a much-bootlegged and influential series of demos, initially at Dylan's house in Woodstock and later at Big Pink, which were released partially on LP asThe Basement Tapesin 1975 andin full in 2014. A track-by-track review of the bootleg was detailed byJann WennerinRolling Stone, in which the band members were explicitly named and given the collective name \\\"the Crackers\\\".While Helm was not involved in the initial recording, he did perform in later sessions and in overdubs recorded in 1975 before the album's release. 1968–1972: Initial success withMusic from Big Pinkself-titled album The sessions with Dylan ended in October 1967, with Helm having rejoined the group by that time, and the Hawks began writing their own songs at Big Pink. When they went into the recording studio, they still did not have a name for themselves. Stories vary as to the manner in which they ultimately adopted the name \\\"The Band\\\". InThe Last Waltz, Manuel claimed that they wanted to call themselves either \\\"theHonkies\\\" or \\\"theCrackers\\\" (which they used when backing Dylan for a January 1968 concert tribute toWoody Guthrie), but these names were vetoed by their record label; Robertson suggests that during their time with Dylan everyone just referred to them as \\\"the band\\\" and the name stuck. Initially they disliked the moniker, but eventually they grew to like it, thinking it both humble and presumptuous. In 1969,Rolling Stonereferred to them as \\\"the band from Big Pink\\\". Their debut album,Music from Big Pinkwas released in July 1968 and was widely acclaimed. It included three songs written or co-written by Dylan (\\\"This Wheel's on Fire\\\", \\\"Tears of Rage\\\" and \\\"I Shall Be Released\\\") as well as \\\"The Weight\\\", which became one of their best-known songs after it was used in the 1969 filmEasy Rider. While a thematic continuity ran through the music, the musical style varied from song to song. In early 1969, after the success ofMusic from Big Pink, The Band went on tour, starting with an appearance atWinterland Ballroom. They performed at theWoodstock Festival(their performance was not included in the famedWoodstockfilm because of legal complications), and later that year they performed with Dylan at the UKIsle of Wight Festival(several songs from which were subsequently included on Dylan'sSelf Portraitalbum). That same year, they left for Los Angeles to record their follow-up,The Band(1969). From their rustic appearance on the cover to the songs and arrangements within, the album stood in contrast to other popular music of the day. Several other artists made similar stylistic moves about the same time, notably Dylan, onJohn Wesley Harding, which was written during theBasement Tapessessions, andthe Byrds, onSweetheart of the Rodeo, which featured twoBasement Tapescovers.The Bandfeatured songs that evoked old-time rural America, from theCivil Warin \\\"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\\\" to theunionizationof farm workers in \\\"King Harvest (Has Surely Come)\\\". These first two records were produced byJohn Simon, who was practically a group member: he aided inarrangementsin addition to playing occasional piano andtuba. Simon reported that he was often asked about the distinctivehorn sectionsfeatured so effectively on the first two albums: people wanted to know how they had achieved such memorable sounds. Simon stated that, besides Hudson (an accomplished saxophonist), the others had only rudimentary horn skills, and achieved their sound simply by creatively using their limited technique. Rolling Stonelavished praise on The Band in this era, giving them more attention than perhaps any other group in the magazine's history;Greil Marcus's articles contributed to The Band's mystique. The Band was also featured on the cover ofTime(January 12, 1970), the first rock group after the Beatles, over two years earlier, to achieve this rare distinction.David Attie's unused photographs for this cover—among the very few studio portraits taken during the Band's prime—have only recently been discovered, and were featured in Daniel Roher'sRobbie RobertsondocumentaryOnce Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, as well as having their own four-page spread inHarvey Kubernikand Ken Kubernik's “The Story of the Band: FromBig PinktoThe Last Waltz” (Sterling Publishing, 2018). A critical and commercial triumph,The Band, along with works by the Byrds andthe Flying Burrito Brothers, established a musical template (dubbedcountry rock) that paved the way to theEagles. BothBig PinkandThe Bandalso influenced their musical contemporaries.Eric ClaptonandGeorge Harrisoncited The Band as a major influence on their musical direction in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Clapton later revealed that he wanted to join the group.While he never did join, he recruited all of the members of The Band as well as other roots rock performers for his 1976 albumNo Reason to Cry. Following their second album, The Band embarked on their first tour as a lead act. The anxiety of fame was clear, as the group's songs turned to darker themes of fear and alienation: the influence on their next work is self-explanatory.Stage Fright(1970) was engineered by musician-engineer-producerTodd Rundgrenand recorded on a theatre stage in Woodstock. As with their previous, self-titled record, Robertson was credited with most of the songwriting. Initial critical reaction was positive, but it was seen as a disappointment from the previous two albums for various reasons. After recordingStage Fright, The Band was among the acts participating in theFestival Express, an all-star rock concert tour of Canada by train that also includedJanis Joplin, theGrateful Deadand future Band memberRichard Bell(at the time he was a member of Joplin's band). In the concert documentary film, released in 2003, Danko can be seen participating in a drunken jam session withJerry Garcia,Bob Weir,John Dawson, and Joplin while singing \\\"Ain't No More Cane\\\". At about this time, Robertson began exerting greater control over The Band, a point of contention between him and Helm. Helm charges Robertson withauthoritarianismand greed, while Robertson suggests his increased efforts in guiding the group were largely because Danko, Helm, and Manuel were becoming more unreliable due to their heroin usage.Robertson insists he did his best to coax Manuel into writing more songs, only to see him descend into addiction. Despite mounting problems among the group members, The Band forged ahead with their next album,Cahoots(1971).Cahootsfeatured Dylan's \\\"When I Paint My Masterpiece\\\", \\\"4% Pantomime\\\" (withVan Morrison), and \\\"Life Is a Carnival\\\", the last featuring a horn arrangement byAllen Toussaint. Toussaint's contribution was a critical addition to The Band's next project, and the group would later record two songs written by Toussaint: \\\"Holy Cow\\\" onMoondog Matineeand \\\"You See Me\\\" onJubilation. In late December 1971, The Band recorded the live albumRock of Ages, which was released in the summer of 1972. OnRock of Ages, they were bolstered by the addition of a horn section, with arrangements written by Toussaint. Dylan appeared on stage onNew Year's Eveand performed four songs with the group, including a version of \\\"When I Paint My Masterpiece\\\". 1973–1975: Move to Shangri-La In 1973, The Band released thecovers albumMoondog Matinee. There was no tour in support of the album, which garnered mixed reviews. However, on July 28, 1973, they played at the legendarySummer Jam at Watkins Glen, a massive concert that took place at the Grand Prix Raceway outsideWatkins Glen, New York. The event, which was attended by over 600,000 fans, also featured the Grateful Dead andthe Allman Brothers Band. It was during this event that discussions began about a possible tour with Bob Dylan, who had moved toMalibu, California,along with Robertson. By late 1973, Danko, Helm, Hudson and Manuel had joined them, and the first order of business was backing Dylan on his albumPlanet Waves. The album was released concurrently with their joint 1974 tour, in which they played 40 shows in North America during January and February 1974. Later that year, the tour was documented on the live albumBefore the Flood,. During this time, The Band brought inPlanet WavesproducerRob Frabonito help design a music studio for the group. By 1975, the studio,Shangri-La, was completed. That year, The Band recorded and releasedNorthern Lights – Southern Cross, their first album of all-new material since 1971. All eight songs were written solely by Robertson. Despite comparatively poor record sales, the album is favored by critics and fans. Levon Helm regards this album highly in his book,This Wheel's on Fire: \\\"It was the best album we had done sinceThe Band.\\\" The album also produced more experimentation from Hudson, switching to synthesizers, showcased on \\\"Jupiter Hollow\\\". 1976–1978:The Last Waltz By the mid-1970s, Robbie Robertson was weary of touring. AfterNorthern Lights – Southern Crossfailed to meet commercial expectations, much of the group's 1976 tour was confined to theaters and smaller arenas in secondary markets (including theSanta Cruz Civic Auditorium, theLong Island Arenaand the Champlain Valley Expo inEssex Junction, Vermont), culminating in an opening slot for the ascendantZZ Topat theNashville Fairgroundsin September.In early September, Richard Manuel suffered a severe neck injury in a boating accident in Texas,prompting Robertson to urge The Band to retire from live performances after staging a massive \\\"farewell concert\\\" known asThe Last Waltz. Following an October 30 appearance onSaturday Night Live, the event, includingturkey dinnerfor the audience of 5,000, was held on November 25 (Thanksgiving Day) of 1976 at theWinterland BallroominSan Francisco,California,and featured a horn section with arrangements by Allen Toussaint and an allstar lineup of guests, including Canadian artistsJoni MitchellandNeil Young. Two of the guests were fundamental to The Band's existence and growth: Ronnie Hawkins and Bob Dylan. Other guests they admired (and in most cases had worked with before) includedMuddy Waters,Dr. John, Van Morrison,Ringo Starr, Eric Clapton,Ron Wood,Bobby Charles,Neil Diamond, andPaul Butterfield. The concert was filmed by Robertson's friend, filmmakerMartin Scorsese. In 1977, The Band released their seventh studio albumIslands, which fulfilled their record contract with Capitol so that a plannedLast Waltzfilm and album could be released on theWarner Bros.label.Islandscontained a mix of originals and covers, and was the last with The Band's original lineup. That same year, the group recorded soundstage performances with country singerEmmylou Harris(\\\"Evangeline\\\") and gospel-soul groupthe Staple Singers(\\\"The Weight\\\"); Scorsese combined these new performances—as well as interviews he had conducted with the group—with the 1976 concert footage. The resultingconcert film–documentarywas released in 1978, along with athree-LP soundtrack. Helm later wrote aboutThe Last Waltzin his autobiography,This Wheel's on Fire, in which he made the case that it had been primarily Robbie Robertson's project and that Robertson had forced The Band's breakup on the rest of the group.Robertson offered a different take in a 1986 interview: \\\"I made my big statement. I did the movie, I made a three-record album about it—and if this is only my statement, not theirs, I'll accept that. They're saying, 'Well, that was really his trip, not our trip.' Well, fine. I'll take the best music film that's ever been made, and make it my statement. I don't have any problems with that. None at all.\\\" The original quintet would perform together one last time: on March 1, 1978 after the late set of a Rick Danko solo show atThe Roxy, the group performed \\\"Stage Fright\\\", \\\"The Shape I'm In\\\", and \\\"The Weight\\\" for an encore.Although the members of the group intended to continue working on studio projects, they drifted apart after the release ofIslandsin March 1977. 1983–1989: Reformation and the death of Richard Manuel The Band resumed touring in 1983 without Robertson. Accomplished musician from Woodstock, NY, Jim Weider became lead guitarist. Robertson had found success with a solo career and as aHollywoodmusic producer. As a result of their diminished popularity, they performed in theaters and clubs as headliners and took support slots in larger venues for onetime peers such as the Grateful Dead andCrosby, Stills and Nash. After a performance inWinter Park, Florida, on March 4, 1986, Manuelhanged himself, aged 42, in his motel room.He had suffered for many years from alcoholism and drug addiction and had been clean and sober for several years beginning in 1978 but had begun drinking and using drugs again by 1984.Manuel's position as pianist was filled by old friend Stan Szelest (who died not long after) and then by Richard Bell. Bell had played with Ronnie Hawkins after the departure of the original Hawks, and was best known from his days as a member of Janis Joplin'sFull Tilt Boogie Band. The Band was inducted into theCanadian Music Hall of Fameat the1989 Juno Awards, where Robertson was reunited with original members Danko and Hudson. With Canadian country rock superstarsBlue Rodeoas a back-up band,Music Expresscalled the 1989 Juno appearance a symbolic \\\"passing of the torch\\\" from The Band to Blue Rodeo. 1990–1999: Return to final recording and the death of Rick Danko In 1990, Capitol Records began to re-release the records from the 1970s.The remaining three members continued to tour and record albums with a succession of musicians filling Manuel's and Robertson's roles. The Band appeared atBob Dylan's 30th anniversary concertin New York City in October 1992, where they performed their version of Dylan's \\\"When I Paint My Masterpiece\\\". In 1993, the group released their eighth studio album,Jericho. Without Robbie Robertson as primary lyricist, much of thesongwritingfor the album came from outside of the group. Also that year, The Band, along with Ronnie Hawkins, Bob Dylan, and other performers, appeared at U.S. PresidentBill Clinton's 1993 \\\"Blue Jean Bash\\\" inauguration party. In 1994, The Band performed atWoodstock '94. Later that year Robertson appeared with Danko and Hudson as the Band for the second time since the original group broke up. The occasion was the induction of The Band into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Helm, who had been at odds with Robertson for years over accusations of stolen songwriting credits, did not attend.In February 1996, The Band withthe Cricketsrecorded \\\"Not Fade Away\\\", released on thetribute albumNot Fade Away (Remembering Buddy Holly). The Band released two more albums afterJericho:High on the Hog(1996) andJubilation(1998), the latter of which included guest appearances by Eric Clapton andJohn Hiatt. Helm was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1998 and was unable to sing for several years but he eventually regained the use of his voice. In 1998, the group revealed they were working on a follow-up album toJubilationthat has not been released. The final song the group recorded together was their 1999 version of Bob Dylan's \\\"One Too Many Mornings\\\", which they contributed to the Dylan tribute albumTangled Up in Blues. On December 10, 1999, Rick Danko died in his sleep at the age of 55. Following his death, The Band broke up for good. The final configuration of the group included Richard Bell (piano), Randy Ciarlante (drums), and Jim Weider (guitar). 2000–present In 2002, Robertson bought all other former members' financial interests in the group (with the exception of Helm's),giving him major control of the presentation of the group's material, including latter-day compilations. Richard Bell died ofmultiple myelomain June 2007. The Band received a Lifetime AchievementGrammy Awardon February 9, 2008,but there was no reunion of former members. In honor of the event, Helm held aMidnight Ramblein Woodstock.He continued to perform and released several albums. On April 17, 2012, it was announced via Helm's official website that he was in the \\\"final stages of cancer\\\";he died two days later. In December 2020, it was announced that the third album of The Band,Stage Fright, would get an expanded reissue. The album has alternate versions of some songs. Robbie Robertson died at the age of 80 on August 9, 2023, after battling prostate cancer.With Robertson's death, Garth Hudson is the last living original member of the group. Members' other endeavours In 1977, Rick Danko released hiseponymousdebut solo album, which featured the other four members of The Band on various tracks. In 1984, Danko joined members of theByrds, the Flying Burrito Brothers, and others in the huge touring company that made up \\\"The Byrds Twenty-Year Celebration\\\". Several members of the tour performed solo songs to start the show, including Danko, who performed \\\"Mystery Train\\\". Danko also released two collaboraive albums withEric AndersenandJonas Fjeld, along with some live and compilation albums in the 1990s and 2000s; many of the latter records were produced by Aaron L. Hurwitz and are on the Breeze Hill/Woodstock Records Label. In the late 1970s and 1980s, Helm released several solo albums and toured with a band called Levon Helm and the RCO Allstars. He also began an acting career with his role asLoretta Lynn's father inCoal Miner's Daughter. Helm received praise for his narration and supporting role oppositeSam Shepardin 1983'sThe Right Stuff. In 1997, a CD by Levon Helm and the Crowmatix,Souvenir, was released.Beginning sometime in the 1990s, Helm regularly performed Midnight Ramble concerts at his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, and toured.In 2007 Helm released a new album, an homage to his southern roots calledDirt Farmer, which was awarded aGrammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Albumon February 9, 2008.Electric Dirtfollowed in 2009 and won the inauguralGrammy Award for Best Americana Album. His 2011 live albumRamble at the Rymanwon in the same category. After he left The Band, Robbie Robertson became amusic producerand wrote film soundtracks (including acting as music supervisor for several of Scorsese's films) before beginning a solo career with hisDaniel Lanois-producedeponymous albumin 1987. Robertson continued mostly scoring films until his death in 2023. Hudson has released two solo CDs,The Sea to the Northin 2001, produced by Aaron (Professor Louie) Hurwitz, andLive at the Wolfin 2005, both featuring his wife, Maud, on vocals. He has also kept busy as an in-demand studio musician. He is featured extensively on recordings of theCalland country-indie star Neko Case. Hudson contributed an original electronic score to anoff-Broadwayproduction ofDragon Slayers, written byStanley Keyesand directed byBrad Maysin 1986 at theUnion Square Theatrein New York, which was restaged with a new cast in Los Angeles in 1990. In 2010, Hudson releasedGarth Hudson Presents: A Canadian Celebration of The Band, featuring Canadian artists covering songs that were recorded by The Band. In 2012,Jim WeiderlaunchedThe Weight Band, performing covers of The Band's music, alongside former members of theLevon HelmBand andRick DankoGroup. The Weight Band performed in a nationally broadcastPBSspecial, Infinity Hall Live,featuring new music. Following the show, the band announced a self-titled album of new music. The Weight Band also hosts Camp Cripple Creek, which celebrates the legacy of the Woodstock Sound. Past guests have includedJackie Greene,Music from Big Pinkproducer John Simon andJohn Sebastian. Manuel had few projects outside The Band; he and the rest of The Band contributed to Eric Clapton's 1976 albumNo Reason to Cry. It included an original composition by Manuel and featured his vocals and drumming on several tracks. Manuel later worked on several film scores with Hudson and Robertson, includingRaging BullandThe Color of Money.Whispering Pines: Live at the Getawaywas released in 2002. Musical style The Band's music fused many elements: although primarily incorporating oldcountry musicand earlyrock and roll, therhythm sectionoften was reminiscent ofStax- orMotown-style rhythm and blues, and Robertson citesCurtis Mayfieldand theStaple Singersas major influences, resulting in asynthesisof manymusical genres. Singers Manuel, Danko, and Helm each brought a distinctive voice to The Band: Helm'sSouthernaccent was prevalent in his raw and powerful vocals, Danko sang tenor with a distinctively choppy enunciation, and Manuel alternated between falsetto and a soulful baritone. The singers regularly blended inharmonies. Though the singing was more or less evenly shared among the three, both Danko and Helm have stated that they saw Manuel as The Band's \\\"lead\\\" singer. Every member was a multi-instrumentalist. There was little instrument-switching when they played live, but when recording, the musicians could make up different configurations in service of the songs. Hudson in particular was able to coax a wide range oftimbresfrom hisLowrey organ. Helm's drumming was often praised: critic Jon Carroll declared that Helm was \\\"the only drummer who can make you cry,\\\" while prolific session drummerJim Keltneradmits to appropriating several of Helm's techniques.Producer John Simon is often cited as a \\\"sixth member\\\" of The Band for producing and playing onMusic from Big Pink, co-producing and playing onThe Band, and playing on other songs up through The Band's 1993 reunion albumJericho. Copyright controversy Robertson is credited as writer or co-writer of the majority of The Band's songs and, as a result, has received most of the songwriting royalties generated from the music. This would become a point of contention, especially for Helm. In his 1993 autobiography,This Wheel's on Fire: Levon Helm and the Story of the Band, Helm disputed the validity of the songwriting credits as listed on the albums and explained that the Band's songs were developed in collaboration with all members. Danko concurred with Helm: \\\"I think Levon's book hits the nail on the head about where Robbie and Albert Grossman and some of those people went wrong and when The Band stopped being The Band ... I'm truly friends with everybody but, hey—it could happen to Levon, too. When people take themselves too seriously and believe too much in their own bullshit, they usually get in trouble.\\\"Robertson denied that Helm had written any of the songs attributed to Robertson.The studio albums recorded by Levon Helm as a solo artist—Levon Helm(1978),American Son,Levon Helm(1982),Dirt Farmer, andElectric Dirt—contain only one song crediting him as songwriter (\\\"Growin' Trade\\\", co-written withLarry Campbell). Legacy The Band has influenced numerous bands, songwriters and performers, including the Grateful Dead, Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young,Led Zeppelin,Elvis Costello,Elton John,Phish,andPink Floyd.The albumMusic from Big Pink, in particular, is credited with contributing to Clapton's decision to leave thesupergroupCream. In his introduction of The Band during the Bob Dylan 30th Anniversary Concert, Clapton announced that in 1968 he had heard the album, \\\"and it changed my life.\\\"The bandNazarethtook their name from a line in \\\"The Weight\\\". GuitaristRichard Thompsonhas acknowledged the album's influence onFairport Convention'sLiege and Lief, and journalist John Harris has suggested that The Band's debut also influenced the spirit of the Beatles' back-to-basics albumLet It Beas well as the Rolling Stones' string of roots-infused albums that began withBeggars Banquet.George Harrison said that his song \\\"All Things Must Pass\\\" was heavily influenced by The Band and that, while writing the song, he imagined Levon Helm singing it.Meanwhile, the \\\"The Weight\\\" has been covered numerous times, and in various musical styles. In a 1969 interview, Robbie Robertson remarked on the group's influence, \\\"We certainly didn't want everybody to go out and get a banjo and a fiddle player. We were trying to calm things down a bit though. What we're going to do now is go toMuscle Shoals, Alabama, and record four sides, fourpsychedelicsongs. Total freak-me songs. Just to show that we have no hard feelings. Just pretty good rock and roll.\\\" In the 1990s, a new generation of bands influenced by The Band began to gain popularity, includingCounting Crows,the Wallflowers, andthe Black Crowes. Counting Crows indicated this influence with their tribute to the lateRichard Manuel, \\\"If I Could Give All My Love (Richard Manuel Is Dead)\\\", from their albumHard Candy. TheBlack Crowesfrequently cover songs by The Band during live performances, such as \\\"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\\\", which appears on their DVD/CDFreak 'n' Roll into the Fog.They have also recorded at Helm's studio in Woodstock. The inspiration for the classic rock-influenced bandThe Hold Steadycame while members Craig Finn and Tad Kubler were watchingThe Last Waltz.Rick Danko and Robbie Robertson are name-checked in the lyrics of \\\"The Swish\\\" from the Hold Steady's 2004 debut albumAlmost Killed Me.Also that year,southern rock-revivalistsDrive-By Truckersreleased theJason Isbellpenned track \\\"Danko/Manuel\\\" on the albumThe Dirty South. The Band also inspired Grace Potter, ofGrace Potter and the Nocturnals, to form the band in 2002. In an interview with the Montreal Gazette, Potter said, \\\"The Band blew my mind. I thought if this is what Matt meant when he said 'Let's start a rock 'n' roll band,' ... that was the kind of rock 'n' roll band I could believe in.\\\" A tribute album, entitledEndless Highway: The Music of the Band, released in January 2007, included contributions fromMy Morning Jacket,Death Cab for Cutie,Gomez,Guster,Bruce Hornsby,Jack JohnsonandALO,Lee Ann Womack, the Allman Brothers Band,Blues Traveler,Jakob Dylan,Rosanne Cash, and others. Members ofWilco,Clap Your Hands Say Yeah,the Shins,Dr Dog,Yellowbirds,Ween,Furthur, and other bands stagedThe Complete Last Waltzin 2012 and 2013.Their performances included all 41 songs from the original 1976 concert in sequence, even those edited out of the film. Musical directorSam Cohenof Yellowbirds claims \\\"the movie is pretty ingrained in me. I've watched it probably 100 times.\\\" An incarnation of the Band's legacy, The Weight Band, originated inside the barn of Levon Helm in 2012 when Jim Weider and Randy Ciarlante, both former members of The Band, were performing \\\"Songs of the Band\\\" withGarth Hudson,Jimmy Vivinoand Byron Isaacs. In July 2017, PBS'sInfinity HallLive program began airing a televised performance by The Weight Band, featuring Band covers and new music by the band. Every year on the Wednesday before and the Friday after Thanksgiving, Dayton, Ohio NPR affiliateWYSOandThe Dayton Art Institutehost a tribute toThe Last Waltz.Frequently selling out, the show features more than 30 local musicians. A similar event takes place annually in Madison, Wisconsin, on the Saturday night after Thanksgiving. The Band are the subjects of the 2019 documentary filmOnce Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, which premiered at the2019 Toronto International Film Festival. The Band is the subject of an extensive historical podcast,The Band: A History, currently covering the entire history of the group. Members Additional musicians Line-ups Disbanded Timeline Discography withBob Dylan See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links\",\n \"Music from Big Pink Music from Big Pinkis the debutstudio albumby Canadian-Americanrockbandthe Band.Released on July 1, 1968, byCapitol Records, it employs a distinctive blend ofcountry,rock,folk,classical,R&B,blues, andsoul. The album's title refers to a house inWest Saugerties, New Yorkcalled \\\"Big Pink\\\", which was shared by bassist/singerRick Danko, pianist/singerRichard Manueland organistGarth Hudsonand in which the album's music was partly composed. The album itself was recorded in studios in New York and Los Angeles in 1968,and followed the band's stint backing ofBob Dylanon his1966 tour(as the Hawks) and time spent together in upstate New York recording material that was officially released in 1975 asThe Basement Tapes, also with Dylan. Thecover artworkis a painting by Dylan. In 2000, the album was rereleased with additional outtakes from the recording sessions, and in 2018, a \\\"50th Anniversary Super Deluxe\\\" edition was released with a new stereo mix byBob Clearmountain. Background and Big Pink house The Band's members included Danko, Manuel, Hudson, guitaristRobbie Robertsonand drummer/singerLevon Helm. They began to create their distinctive sound during 1967 when they improvised and recorded withBob Dylana huge number of cover songs and original Dylan materialin the basement of a pink house inWest Saugerties, New York, located at 56 Parnassus Lane (formerly 2188 Stoll Road). The house was built by Ottmar Gramms, who bought the land in 1952. The house was newly built whenRick Dankofound it as a rental. Danko moved in along withGarth HudsonandRichard Manuelin February 1967. The house became known locally as \\\"Big Pink\\\" for its pinksiding. The house was subsequently sold by Gramms in 1977, and since 1998, it has been a private residence. Widelybootleggedat the time, initially asGreat White Wonderin July 1969, some of the recordings Dylan and the Band made were officially released in 1975 onThe Basement Tapes, and then in their totality in 2014 onThe Bootleg Series Vol. 11: The Basement Tapes Complete. By the end of 1967, the Band felt it was time to step out of Dylan's shadow and make their own statement. Recording The Band's managerAlbert Grossman(who was also Dylan's manager) approachedCapitol Recordsto secure a record deal for a group still informally described as \\\"Dylan's backing band\\\". Alan Livingston at Capitol signed the Band, initially under the name the Crackers. Armed with news of a recording deal for the group, they luredLevon Helmback from the oil rigs where he had been working to Woodstock where he took up his crucial position in the Band, singing and playing drums. Helm's return coincided with a ferment of activity in Big Pink as the embryonic Band not only recorded with Dylan but also began to write their own songs. After meeting with producerJohn Simon, the Band started to record their debut album inManhattanatA&R Studios, at 799 7th Avenue in the early months of 1968. The Band recorded \\\"Tears of Rage\\\", \\\"Chest Fever\\\", \\\"We Can Talk\\\", \\\"This Wheel's On Fire\\\" and \\\"The Weight\\\" in two sessions. Robertson has said that when Simon asked them how they wanted it to sound, they replied, \\\"Just like it did in the basement.\\\" Capitol, pleased with the initial recording session, suggested that the group move toLos Angelesto finish recording their first album atCapitol Studios. They also cut some material atGold Star StudiosonSanta Monica Boulevard. The songs onBig Pinkrecorded in L.A. were \\\"In A Station\\\", \\\"To Kingdom Come\\\", \\\"Lonesome Suzie\\\", \\\"Long Black Veil\\\" and \\\"I Shall Be Released\\\". Artwork Dylan offered to sing on the album, but ultimately realized it was important for the Band to make their own statement. Instead, Dylan signified his presence by contributing a cover painting.Barney Hoskynshas written that it is significant the painting depicts six musicians. The cover ofMusic from Big Pinkwas intended to establish the group as having a different outlook from thepsychedelic cultureof 1968. PhotographerElliott Landyflew toTorontoto photograph the assembled Danko, Manuel, Robertson, and Hudson families on the Danko chicken farm. A photo was inserted of Diamond and Nell Helm, who lived inArkansas. The photo appeared on the cover with the caption \\\"Next of Kin\\\".The overall design of the sleeve is byMilton Glaser(who also did the poster that was packed with the 1967Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits). Reception The initial reception to the album was positive.It received praise for the organic quality of the instrumentation, which had been recorded live withoutoverdubbing.InRolling Stone,Al Kooper's rave review ofBig Pinkended with the words, \\\"This album was recorded in approximately two weeks. There are people who will work their lives away in vain and not touch it.\\\"This helped to draw public attention to it (Rolling Stoneeven referred to them as \\\"the band from Big Pink\\\"instead of just \\\"the Band\\\"). The fact that Bob Dylan wrote one and co-wrote two of the songs on the album also attracted attention.Robert Christgauwas less enthusiastic inThe Village Voice, crediting the music's original evocation of \\\"country-soul feeling without imitating it\\\" and the \\\"human roughness around the edges\\\",yet stating that he \\\"always admired that album\\\" but \\\"from a distance\\\". In 1968, \\\"The Weight\\\" peaked at No. 63 onBillboard's Hot 100 singles chart in the US. The song was a bigger hit elsewhere, peaking at No. 35 in Canada, and No. 21 in the UK. The album peaked at No. 18 inCanadaand reached No. 30 onBillboard'sPop Albumschart in 1968, and then recharted as a No. 8 hit on the Top Internet Albums chart in 2000. \\\"The Weight\\\" gained widespread popularity from the Band's performance of it atWoodstockon August 17, 1969, and due partially to its inclusion in the filmEasy Rider, though it was omitted from the soundtrack because of licensing issues. A cover version by the bandSmithwas included on the soundtrack album instead. The laid-back feel of the album attracted the attention of other major artists. For example,Eric Claptoncites the album'sroots rockstyle as what convinced him to quitCream, and engageDelaney and Bonnieand friends as \\\"Derek and the Dominos\\\" on hisdebut solo album.George Harrisonwas also impressed by the album's musicianship and sense of camaraderie, andRoger WatersofPink Floydcalled it the second \\\"most influential record in the history of rock and roll\\\", afterthe Beatles'Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, and said that it \\\"affected Pink Floyd deeply, deeply, deeply\\\". According toTerry Burrows, the album spawned theAmericanagenre,while music academic Chris Smith said its songs laid the groundwork for roots rock music. Music from Big Pinkwas voted No. 452 in the third edition ofColin Larkin'sAll Time Top 1000 Albums(2000).In 2003, it was ranked 34th onRolling Stone's list ofthe 500 greatest albums of all time,a ranking it maintained on the magazine's 2012 revised list,before dropping to number 100 in a 2020 revised list.OnMetacritic, the expanded 50th anniversary edition of the album has an aggregate score of 99 out of 100, based on seven reviews, a rating that the website defines as indicating \\\"universal acclaim\\\". Re-releases The originalLP recordissue included a gatefold cover in 1968, duplicated 40 years later in 2008 as a remastered 180 gm LP. Oncompact disc, it was remastered as agold CDin 1989, as aDVD-audioin 2001 and as a remastered numbered editionSACDin 2009. On August 29, 2000, it was reissued byEMI Recordsas a standard compact disc with ninebonus tracks. In 2012,Mobile Fidelityreleased a remastered, numbered, limited edition, Half-speed Mastering from the originalmaster tapes, 180g LP pressed at RTI. In 2018, a 50th Anniversary Edition was released with an entirely new stereo mix and 5.1 mix byBob Clearmountain, mastered byBob Ludwig. It also included some of the additional tracks from the 2000 re-release, and a new vocal-only mix of \\\"I Shall Be Released\\\". Track listing Personnel The Band Additional personnel 2018 remix References Sources External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Page version status This is an accepted version of this page TheTreaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as theNon-Proliferation TreatyorNPT, is an internationaltreatywhose objective is to prevent the spread ofnuclear weaponsand weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses ofnuclear energy, and to further the goal of achievingnuclear disarmamentand general and complete disarmament.Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by theEighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament, aUnited Nations-sponsored organization based inGeneva, Switzerland. Opened for signature in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970. As required by the text, after twenty-five years, NPT parties met in May 1995 and agreed to extend the treaty indefinitely.More countries are parties to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, a testament to the treaty's significance.As of August 2016, 191 states have become parties","have become parties to the treaty, thoughNorth Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its withdrawal from the NPT in 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in violation of core obligations.FourUN member stateshave never accepted the NPT, three of which possess or are thought to possess nuclear weapons:India,Israel, andPakistan. In addition,South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined. The treaty definesnuclear-weapon statesas those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1 January 1967; these are the United States (1945),Russia(1949), theUnited Kingdom(1952),France(1960), andChina(1964). Four other states are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons:India,Pakistan, andNorth Koreahave openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons, whileIsraelisdeliberately ambiguousregardingits nuclear weapons status. The NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain: the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and","nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals. The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences. Even though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the signing parties decided, by consensus, to unconditionally extend the treaty indefinitely during the Review Conference in New York City on 11 May 1995, in the culmination of U.S. government efforts led by AmbassadorThomas Graham Jr. At the time the NPT was proposed, there were predictions of 25–30 nuclear weapon states within 20 years. Instead, over forty years later, five states are not parties to the NPT, and they include the only four additional states believed to possess nuclear weapons.Several additional measures have been adopted to strengthen the NPT and the broader nuclear nonproliferation regime and make it difficult for","it difficult for states to acquire the capability to produce nuclear weapons, including the export controls of theNuclear Suppliers Groupand the enhanced verification measures of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA)Additional Protocol. Critics argue that the NPT cannot stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons or the motivation to acquire them. They express disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads in their combined stockpile. Several high-ranking officials within the United Nations have said that they can do little to stop states usingnuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons. Treaty structure The NPT consists of a preamble and eleven articles. Although the concept of \"pillars\" is not expressed anywhere in the NPT, the treaty is nevertheless sometimes interpreted as athree-pillarsystem,with an implicit balance among them: These pillars are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. An effective","An effective nonproliferation regime whose members comply with their obligations provides an essential foundation for progress on disarmament and makes possible greater cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. With the right to access the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology comes the responsibility of nonproliferation. Progress on disarmament reinforces efforts to strengthen the nonproliferation regime and to enforce compliance with obligations, thereby also facilitating peaceful nuclear cooperation.The \"pillars\" concept has been questioned by some who believe that the NPT is, as its name suggests, principally about nonproliferation, and who worry that \"three pillars\" language misleadingly implies that the three elements have equivalent importance. First pillar: Non-proliferation Under Article I of the NPT, nuclear-weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state in the","state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon. Under Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes. Five states are recognized by the NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968), which also happen to be the fivepermanent members of the United Nations Security Council. These five NWS agree not to transfer \"nuclear weapons or othernuclear explosivedevices\" and \"not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce\" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to","I). NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to \"receive\", \"manufacture\", or \"acquire\" nuclear weapons or to \"seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons\" (Article II). NNWS parties also agree to accept safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or othernuclear explosivedevices (Article III). The five NWS parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear weapons against a non-NWS party except in response to a nuclear attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a Nuclear Weapons State. However, these undertakings have not been incorporated formally into the treaty, and the exact details have varied over time. The U.S. also had nuclear warheads targeted at North Korea, a non-NWS, from 1959 until 1991. The previous United KingdomSecretary of State for Defence,Geoff Hoon, has also explicitly invoked the possibility of the use of the country's nuclear weapons in response to a","in response to a non-conventional attack by \"rogue states\".In January 2006, PresidentJacques Chiracof France indicated that an incident ofstate-sponsored terrorismon France could trigger a small-scale nuclear retaliation aimed at destroying the \"rogue state's\" power centers. Security provided by extendednuclear deterrenceor anuclear umbrellahave been a factor limiting incentives for some NNWS to acquire nuclear weapons. Second pillar: Disarmament Under Article VI of the NPT, all Parties undertake to pursue good-faith negotiations on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race, to nuclear disarmament, and to general and complete disarmament. Article VI of the NPT represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon states. The NPT's preamble contains language affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthen international trust so as to create someday the conditions for a halt to the","for a halt to the production of nuclear weapons, and treaty on general and complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular, nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles from national arsenals. The wording of the NPT's Article VI arguably imposes only a vague obligation on all NPT signatories to move in the general direction of nuclear and total disarmament, saying, \"Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament.\"Under this interpretation, Article VI does not strictly require all signatories to actually conclude a disarmament treaty. Rather, it only requires them \"to negotiate in good faith\". On the other hand, some governments, especially non-nuclear-weapon states belonging to theNon-Aligned Movement, have interpreted Article VI's language as constituting a formal and specific obligation on the","obligation on the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, and argue that these states have failed to meet their obligation.TheInternational Court of Justice(ICJ), in itsadvisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, issued 8 July 1996, unanimously interprets the text of Article VI as implying that There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. The ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament. Critics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in thepost–Cold War era, has","War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals. Other observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament.No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which has led to the elimination of thousands of weapons and delivery systems—could eventually make the possession of nuclear weapons more attractive by increasing the perceived strategic value of a small arsenal. As one U.S. official and NPT expert warned in 2007,","warned in 2007, \"logic suggests that as the number of nuclear weapons decreases, the 'marginal utility' of a nuclear weapon as an instrument of military power increases. At the extreme, which it is precisely disarmament's hope to create, the strategic utility of even one or two nuclear weapons would be huge.\" Third pillar: Peaceful use of nuclear energy NPT Article IV acknowledges the right of all Parties to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and to benefit from international cooperation in this area, in conformity with their nonproliferation obligations. Article IV also encourages such cooperation.This so-called third pillar provides for the transfer of nuclear technology and materials to NPT Parties for peaceful purposes in the development of civilian nuclear energy programs in those countries, subject to IAEA safeguards to demonstrate that their nuclear programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons. As the commercially popularlight water reactornuclear power stationuses","power stationuses enriched uranium fuel, it follows that states must be able either to enrich uranium or purchase it on an international market.Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency, has called the spread of enrichment and reprocessing capabilities the \"Achilles' heel\" of the nuclear nonproliferation regime. As of 2007, 13 states have an enrichment capability. During the 1960s and 1970s many states, almost 60, were supplied withresearch reactorsfuelled by weapon gradehighly enriched uranium(HEU) through the United StatesAtoms for Peaceprogram and a similar Soviet Union program.In the 1980s a program to convert HEU research reactors to use low enriched fuel was started in the United States due to proliferation concerns.However 26 states possessed more than 1 kg of civilian HEU in 2015,and as of 2016 the stocks of HEU for civilian research were 60 tonnes, with 74 research reactors still using HEU. Because the availability of fissile material has long been considered","been considered the principal obstacle to, and \"pacing element\" for, a country's nuclear weapons development effort, it was declared a major emphasis of U.S. policy in 2004 to prevent the further spread of uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing (a.k.a. \"ENR\") technology.Countries possessing ENR capabilities, it is feared, have what is in effect the option of using this capability to produce fissile material for weapons use on demand, thus giving them what has been termed a \"virtual\" nuclear weapons program.The degree to which NPT members have a \"right\" to ENR technology notwithstanding its potentially grave proliferation implications, therefore, is at the cutting edge of policy and legal debates surrounding the meaning of Article IV and its relation to Articles I, II, and III of the treaty. Countries that have become Parties to the NPT as non-nuclear-weapon States have a strong record of not building nuclear weapons, although some tried and one eventually left the NPT and acquired nuclear weapons.","nuclear weapons. Iraq was found by the IAEA to have violated its safeguards obligations and subject to punitive sanctions by theUN Security Council. North Korea never came into compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement and was cited repeatedly for these violations,and later withdrew from the NPT and tested multiple nuclear devices. Iran was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards obligations in an unusual non-consensus decision because it \"failed in a number of instances over an extended period of time\" to report aspects of its enrichment program.In 1991, Romania reported previously undeclared nuclear activities by the former regime and the IAEA reported this non-compliance to the Security Council for information only. Libya pursued a clandestine nuclear weapons program before abandoning it in December 2003. The IAEA reported Syria's safeguards non-compliance to the UN Security Council, which did not take action. In some regions, the fact that all neighbors are verifiably free of nuclear weapons","of nuclear weapons reduces any pressure individual states might feel to build those weapons themselves, even if neighbors are known to have peaceful nuclear energy programs that might otherwise be suspicious. In this, the treaty works as designed. In 2004,Mohamed ElBaradeisaid that by some estimates thirty-five to forty states could have the knowledge to develop nuclear weapons. Key articles Article I:Each nuclear-weapons state (NWS) undertakes not to transfer, to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices. Article II: Each non-NWS party undertakes not to receive, from any source, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices; not to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices; and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture. Article III: Each non-NWS party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the IAEA for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear material in","nuclear material in all of the state's peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. Article IV: 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all the Parties to the Treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty. 2. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with due","Treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world. Article VI: Each party \"undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a Treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control\". Article IX: \"For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967.\" Article X: Establishes the right to withdraw from the Treaty giving 3 months' notice. It also establishes the duration of the Treaty (25 years before 1995 Extension Initiative). History The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that theCold Wardeterrent relationship between just the United States and theSoviet Unionwas fragile. Having more nuclear-weapon states would reduce security","reduce security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, escalation in tensions, and nuclear conflict. Moreover, since theuse of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasakiin 1945, it has been apparent that the development of nuclear capabilities by States could enable them to divert technology and materials for weapons purposes. Thus, the problem of preventing such diversions became a central issue in discussions on peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Initial efforts, which began in 1946, to create an international system enabling all States to have access to nuclear technology under appropriate safeguards, were terminated in 1949 without the achievement of this objective, due to serious political differences between the major Powers. By then, both the United States and the former Soviet Union had tested nuclear weapons, and were beginning to build their stockpiles. In December 1953, US PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower, in his \"Atoms for Peace\" proposal, presented to","presented to the eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly, urged that an international organization be established to disseminate peaceful nuclear technology, while guarding against development of weapons capabilities in additional countries. His proposal resulted in 1957 in the establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which was charged with the dual responsibility for promotion and control of nuclear technology. IAEA technical activities began in 1958. An interim safeguards system for small nuclear reactors, put in place in 1961, was replaced in 1964 by a system covering larger installations and, over the following years, was expanded to include additional nuclear facilities. In recent years, efforts to strengthen the effectiveness and improve the efficiency of the IAEA safeguards system culminated in the approval of the Model Additional Protocol by the IAEA Board of Governors in May 1997. Within the framework of the United Nations, the principle of nuclear","of nuclear non-proliferation was addressed in negotiations as early as 1957. The NPT process was launched byFrank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958. The NPT gained significant momentum in the early 1960s. The structure of a treaty to uphold nuclear non-proliferation as a norm of international behaviour had become clear by the mid-1960s, and by 1968 final agreement had been reached on a Treaty that would prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons, enable cooperation for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament. It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the firstState to sign. Accession became nearly universal after the end of theCold Warand of South Africanapartheid. In 1992, The People's Republic of China and France acceded to the NPT, the last of the five nuclear powers recognized by the treaty to do so. The treaty provided, in article X, for a conference to be convened 25 years after its entry into force to decide whether the","decide whether the treaty should continue in force indefinitely, or be extended for an additional fixed period or periods. Accordingly, at the NPT Review and Extension Conference in May 1995, state parties to the treaty agreed—without a vote—on the treaty's indefinite extension, and decided that review conferences should continue to be held every five years. After Brazil acceded to the NPT in 1998, the only remaining non-nuclear-weapon state which had not signed was Cuba, which joined the NPT (and theTreaty of TlatelolcoNWFZ) in 2002. Several NPT states parties have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs. South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, but has since renounced it and acceded to the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nucleararsenal; after this, the remaining African countries signed the treaty. Theformer Soviet Republicswhere nuclear weapons had been based, namely Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, transferred those weapons to Russia and joined the NPT by 1994 following","by 1994 following the signature of theBudapest Memorandum on Security Assurances. Successor states from theBreakup of YugoslaviaandDissolution of Czechoslovakiaalso joined the treaty soon after their independence. Montenegro and East Timor were the last countries to accede to the treaty on their independence in 2006 and 2003; the only other country to accede in the 21st century was Cuba in 2002. The three Micronesian countries inCompact of Free Associationwith the USA joined the NPT in 1995, along with Vanuatu. Major South American countries Argentina, Chile, and Brazil joined in 1995 and 1998. Arabian Peninsula countries included Saudi Arabia and Bahrain in 1988, Qatar and Kuwait in 1989, UAE in 1995, and Oman in 1997. The European states ofMonacoandAndorrajoined in 1995–6. Also acceding in the 1990s were Myanmar in 1992 and Guyana in 1993. United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing At the time the treaty was being negotiated,NATOhad in place secretnuclear weapons sharingagreements whereby the United States","the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended \"unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling\", so there is no breach of the NPT.These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including theSoviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time. As of 2005, it is estimated that the United States still provides about 180 tacticalB61 nuclear bombsfor use byBelgium,Germany,Italy, theNetherlandsandTurkeyunder these NATO agreements.Many states, and theNon-Aligned Movement, now argue this violates Articles I and II of the treaty, and are applying","and are applying diplomatic pressure to terminate these agreements. They point out that the pilots and other staff of the \"non-nuclear\" NATO states practice handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and non-U.S. warplanes have been adapted to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs which must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its \"nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political\". U.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuadingWest Germanynot to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with theWarsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S. hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs,","weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route.(West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.) Preparations for Russia's weapon deployment in Belarus On 27 February 2022, shortly after the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine,a referendumwas staged in Belarus to remove a constitutional prohibition on basing nuclear weapons on its territory.On 25 June 2022, President of BelarusLukashenkomet Russian PresidentPutinto discuss the deployment of Russian short-range nuclear-capable missiles on the territory of Belarus. The transfer of nuclear warheads would require a further decision, possibly after a number of years, and could be tied to future NATO decisions. In Belarus, Russia plans to deploy","plans to deploy nuclear-capableIskander-Mmissile systems.Both conventional and nuclear versions of the missile would be provided under the plans.Additionally, Putin said that he would facilitate the modifications necessary for BelarusianSu-25bombers to carry nuclear missiles. On 14 June 2023, president Lukashenko said that Russia had started moving tactical nuclear weapons into Belarus's territory.The Russian president had said the weapons were moved \"as a deterrence measure\" against threats to Russian statehood, and would not be controlled by Belarus.NATO saw no evidence in a change in Russia's nuclear position,while Ukrainian intelligence said that not a single warhead had yet been transferred. Non-parties Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon programs, and Israel has a long-standingpolicy of deliberate ambiguitywith regards to its nuclear program (seeList of states with nuclear weapons). India","weapons). India India has detonated nuclear devices,firstin 1974 andagainin 1998.It is estimated to have enough fissile material for more than 150 warheadsand was among the few countries to have ano first usepolicy, a pledge not to use nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons, however India's formerNSAShivshankar Menonsignaled a significant shift from \"no first use\" to \"no first use against non-nuclear weapon states\" in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of theNational Defence CollegeinNew Delhion 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India's \"strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence\". India argues that the NPT creates a club of \"nuclear haves\" and a larger group of \"nuclear have-nots\" by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid. India's then External Affairs MinisterPranab Mukherjeesaid","Mukherjeesaid during a visit to Tokyo in 2007: \"If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment.\"Although there have been unofficial discussions on creating a South Asian nuclear weapons free zone, including India and Pakistan, this is considered to be highly unlikely for the foreseeable future. In early March 2006, India and the United States finalized an agreement, in the face of criticism in both countries, to restart cooperation on civilian nuclear technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22 nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them underIAEAsafeguards.Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the IAEA, welcomed the deal by calling India \"an important partner in the non-proliferation regime.\" In December 2006,United States Congressapproved theUnited States-India","States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act, endorsing a deal that was forged during Prime MinisterManmohan Singh's visit to the United States in July 2005 and cemented during President Bush's visit to India earlier in 2006. The legislation allows for the transfer of civilian nuclear material to India. Despite its status outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, nuclear cooperation with India was permitted on the basis of its clean non-proliferation record, and India's need for energy fueled by its rapid industrialization and a billion-plus population. On 1 August 2008, the IAEA approved the India Safeguards Agreementand on 6 September 2008, India was granted the waiver at the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) meeting held in Vienna, Austria. The consensus was arrived after overcoming misgivings expressed by Austria, Ireland and New Zealand and is an unprecedented step in giving exemption to a country, which has not signed the NPT and theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty(CTBT).While India could","India could commence nuclear trade with other willing countries.The U.S. Congress approved this agreement and President Bush signed it on 8 October 2008. When China announced expanded nuclear cooperation with Pakistan in 2010, proponents ofarms controldenounced both the deals, claiming that they weakened the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT. As of January 2011, Australia, atop three uranium producer and home to world's largest known reserves, had continued its refusal to export uranium to India despite diplomatic pressure from India. In November 2011, Australian Prime MinisterJulia Gillardannounced a desire to allow exports to India,a policy change which was authorized by her party's national conference in December.The following month, Gillard overturned Australia's long-standing ban on exporting uranium to India.She further said, \"We should take a decision in the national interest, a decision about strengthening our strategic partnership with India in this","with India in this the Asian century,\" and said that any agreement to sell uranium to India would include strict safeguards to ensure it would only be used for civilian purposes, and not end up in nuclear weapons. On 5 September 2014Tony Abbott, Gillard's successor as Australian Prime Minister, sealed a civil nuclear deal to sell uranium to India. \"We signed a nuclear cooperation agreement because Australia trusts India to do the right thing in this area, as it has been doing in other areas,\" Abbott told reporters after he and Indian Prime MinisterNarendra Modisigned a pact to sell uranium for peaceful power generation. Pakistan In May 1998, following India'snuclear testsearlier that month, Pakistan conducted two sets of nuclear tests, theChagai-IandChagai-II. Although there is little confirmed information in public, as of 2015, Pakistan was estimated to have as many as 120 warheads.According to analyses of theCarnegie Endowment for International Peaceand theStimson Center, Pakistan has enough fissile","has enough fissile material for 350 warheads. Pakistani officials argue that the NPT is discriminatory. When asked at a briefing in 2015 whether Islamabad would sign the NPT if Washington requested it,Foreign SecretaryAizaz Ahmad Chaudhrywas quoted as responding \"It is a discriminatory treaty. Pakistan has the right to defend itself, so Pakistan will not sign the NPT. Why should we?\"Until 2010, Pakistan had always maintained the position that it would sign the NPT if India did so. In 2010, Pakistan abandoned this historic position and stated that it would join the NPT only as a recognized nuclear-weapon state. The NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Pakistan, with very narrow exceptions, since it does not have full-scope IAEA safeguards (i.e. safeguards on all its nuclear activities). Pakistan has sought to reach an agreement similar to that with India,but these efforts have been rebuffed by the United States and other NSG members, on the grounds that Pakistan's track","Pakistan's track record as a nuclear proliferator makes it impossible for it to have any sort of nuclear deal in the near future. By 2010, China reportedly signed a civil nuclear agreement with Pakistan, using the justification that the deal was \"peaceful\".The British government criticized this, on the grounds that 'the time is not yet right for a civil nuclear deal with Pakistan'.China did not seek formal approval from thenuclear suppliers group, and claimed instead that its cooperation with Pakistan was \"grandfathered\" when China joined the NSG, a claim that was disputed by other NSG members.Pakistanapplied for membership on 19 May 2016,supported by Turkey and ChinaHowever, many NSG members opposed Pakistan's membership bid due to its track record, including the illicit procurement network of Pakistani scientist A.Q. Khan, which aided the nuclear programs of Iran, Libya and North Korea.Pakistani officials reiterated the request in August 2016. Israel Israel has a long-standingpolicy of deliberate","of deliberate ambiguitywith regards to its nuclear program (seeList of countries with nuclear weapons). Israel has been developing nuclear technology at itsDimonasite in theNegevsince 1958, and some nonproliferation analysts estimate that Israel may have stockpiled between 100 and 200 warheads using reprocessed plutonium. The position on the NPT is explained in terms of \"Israeli exceptionality\", a term coined by ProfessorGerald M. Steinberg, in reference to the perception that the country's small size, overall vulnerability, as well as the history of deep hostility and large-scale attacks by neighboring states, require a deterrent capability. The Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny possession of nuclear weapons, although this is now regarded as an open secret after Israeli junior nuclear technicianMordechai Vanunu—subsequently arrested and sentenced for treason by Israel—published evidence about the program to the BritishSunday Timesin 1986. On 18 September 2009, the General Conference of","Conference of theInternational Atomic Energy Agencycalled on Israel to open its nuclear facilities to IAEA inspection and adhere to the non-proliferation treaty as part of a resolution on \"Israeli nuclear capabilities\", which passed by a narrow margin of 49–45 with 16 abstentions. The chief Israeli delegate stated that \"Israel will not co-operate in any matter with this resolution.\"However, similar resolutions were defeated in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015.As with Pakistan, the NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Israel. Other states North Korea North Korea acceded to the treaty on 12 December 1985 in order to obtain assistance from the Soviet Union in the construction of fourlight-water reactors, but was ruled be in noncompliance with its IAEA safeguards agreement after a series of inspections in 1992-93 which determined that North Korea had not fully declared its history of reprocessing spent fuel at theYongbyon nuclear facility.North Korea responded by announcing its","by announcing its intent to withdraw from the treaty on 12 March 1993, and PresidentBill Clintonresponded by announcing sanctions and considering military action. The crisis ended with theAgreed Frameworknegotiated by former US PresidentJimmy Carterin which North Korea agreed to an IAEA-monitored freeze of plutonium production facilities and construction of new reactors in exchange for two light-water reactors andheavy fuel oilshipments through the US-ledKorean Peninsula Energy Development Organizationconsortium. North Korea also abandoned its withdrawal from the NPT. During the late 1990s and the early 2000s critics of the agreement, as well as Clinton's successorGeorge W. Bush, expressed skepticism on North Korean compliance to the Agreed Framework. During 2002 negotiations US Assistant Secretary of StateJames A. Kellyaccused North Korea of a secret highly enriched uranium program; North Korean First Vice Foreign MinisterKang Sok-juand Vice Foreign MinisterKim Kye-gwanresponded by denying the allegations","the allegations but asserting that North Korea had a right to nuclear weapons. The U.S. subsequently halted fuel oil shipments to North Korea in December 2002 and the DPRK government again gave notice of withdrawal from NPT on 10 January 2003.The withdrawal became effective 10 April 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty. In April 2003, North Korea agreed to the multilateralsix-party talksto find a diplomatic solution to the issue hosted byChinaand including the United States,South Korea,Russia, andJapan. North Korea initially demanded resumption of fuel shipments, while the United States demanded the \"complete, verifiable, and irreversible dismantlement\" of the North Korean nuclear program.On 10 February 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks. \"We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self-defence to cope with the","to cope with the Bush administration's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK ,\" a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue.Six-party talks resumed in July 2005. On 19 September 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors. The difficult issue of the supply oflight water reactorsto replace North Korea'sindigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions.On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT.The six-party talks eventually collapsed before a final agreement could be negotiated after theU.S. State DepartmentsanctionedBanco Delta Asiaunder Section 311 of thePatriot Actfor money-laundering","money-laundering involving North Korean accounts. On 2 October 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test \"in the future\", although it did not state when.On Monday, 9 October 2006 at 01:35:28 (UTC) theUnited States Geological Surveydetected a magnitude 4.3seismic event70 km (43 mi) north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test.The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completeda successful underground testof a nuclear fission device. AfterUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1718imposed sanctions on North Korea, the six-party talks resumed. In February 2007 the parties agreed to the Initial Actions for the Implementation for the Joint Statement in which North Korea would dismantle its nuclear weapons programs, including the Yongbyon reactor, in exchange for the return of frozen funds at Banco Delta Asia and foreign energy assistance.However, the agreement failed due to verification problems and North","problems and North Korea fully withdrew from the six-party talks in 2009 after the other members condemned the2009 North Korean missile tests, expelling all US and IAEA inspectors from the country.The UN responded by adoptingUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1874expanding the sanctions regime. In 2007, reports from Washington suggested that the 2002CIAreports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence.On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations, there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok-ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan's then-President Musharraf revealed that theA.Q. Khanproliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment.","uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U.S. officials to the effect that evidence obtained in dismantlingLibya's WMD programspoints toward North Korea as the source for Libya'suranium hexafluoride(UF6)—which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment.North Korea formally announced the existence of a uranium enrichment program in September 2009. In 2011, after rising tensions over the North Korean nuclear program, theROKSCheonansinking, and thebombardment of Yeonpyeong, North Korea began to express interest in returning to the six-party talks. Bilateral negotiations between North Korea and the United States after thedeath of Kim Jong-illed to the 29 February 2012 \"Leap Day Agreement\" in which North Korea would agree to allow IAEA inspections and resume the six-party talks. However, these diplomatic gains were quickly undercut by launching theUnha-3rocket, leading the United States to suspend food aid.North Korea","aid.North Korea conducted further nuclear tests in2013,January 2016,September 2016, and2017, and announced that it was developing miniaturized warheads andintercontinental ballistic missiles. It also claimed that it had successfully detonatedthermonuclear weaponsin the January 2016 and 2017 tests. The North Korean nuclear weapons development led to the2017–2018 North Korea crisiswhich nearly led to war, with both North Korean Supreme LeaderKim Jong-unand US PresidentDonald Trumpthreatening military action. The crisis was averted after a series of meetings between Kim Jong-un, US Secretary of StateMike Pompeo, and South Korean PresidentMoon Jae-infinally culminating with the2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summitbetween Trump and Kim, the first face-to-face meeting between the US and North Korean heads of state.The IAEA has called for North Korea to rejoin it and the NPT since 2013. Iran Iran is a party to the NPT since 1970 but was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement, and the","agreement, and the status of its nuclear program remains in dispute. In November 2003IAEADirector GeneralMohamed ElBaradeireported that Iran had repeatedly and over an extended period failed to meet its safeguards obligations under the NPT with respect to: After about two years of EU3-led diplomatic efforts and Iran temporarily suspending its enrichment program,the IAEA Board of Governors, acting under Article XII.C of the IAEA Statute, found in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions that these failures constituted non-compliance with the IAEA safeguards agreement.This was reported to theUN Security Councilin 2006,after which the Security Council passed a resolution demanding that Iran suspend its enrichment.Instead, Iran resumed its enrichment program. The IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran, and is continuing its work on verifying the absence of undeclared activities.In February 2008, the IAEA also reported that it was working to address \"alleged","to address \"alleged studies\" of weaponization, based on documents provided by certain Member States, which those states claimed originated from Iran. Iran rejected the allegations as \"baseless\" and the documents as \"fabrications\".In June 2009, the IAEA reported that Iran had not \"cooperated with the Agency in connection with the remaining issues ... which need to be clarified to exclude the possibility of military dimensions to Iran's nuclear program.\" The United States concluded that Iran violated its Article III NPT safeguards obligations, and further argued based on circumstantial evidence that Iran's enrichment program was for weapons purposes and therefore violated Iran's Article II nonproliferation obligations.The November 2007 USNational Intelligence Estimate(NIE) later concluded that Iran had halted an active nuclear weapons program in the fall of 2003 and that it had remained halted as of mid-2007. The NIE's \"Key Judgments\", however, also made clear that what Iran had actually stopped in 2003 was","stopped in 2003 was only \"nuclear weapon design and weaponization work and covert uranium conversion-related and uranium enrichment-related work\"-namely, those aspects of Iran's nuclear weapons effort that had not by that point already been leaked to the press and become the subject of IAEA investigations. Since Iran's uranium enrichment program at Natanz—and its continuing work on a heavy water reactor at Arak that would be ideal for plutonium production—began secretly years before in conjunction with the very weaponization work the NIE discussed and for the purpose of developing nuclear weapons, many observers find Iran's continued development of fissile material production capabilities distinctly worrying. Particularly because fissile material availability has long been understood to be the principal obstacle to nuclear weapons development and the primary \"pacing element\" for a weapons program, the fact that Iran has reportedly suspended weaponization work may not mean very much.As The Bush","much.As The Bush Administration's Director of National Intelligence (DNI)Mike McConnellput it in 2008, the aspects of its work that Iran allegedly suspended were thus \"probably the least significant part of the program.\" Iran stated it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it had \"constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency\".Iran also stated that its enrichment program has been part of its civilian nuclear energy program, which is allowed under Article IV of the NPT. The Non-Aligned Movement has welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. Early during his tenure asUnited Nations Secretary General, between 2007 and 2016,Ban Ki-moonwelcomed the continued dialogue between Iran and the IAEA. He urged a peaceful resolution of the issue. In April 2010, during the signing of the U.S.-RussiaNew STARTTreaty,","STARTTreaty, President Obama said that the United States, Russia, and other nations were demanding that Iran face consequences for failing to fulfill its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, saying \"We will not tolerate actions that flout the NPT, risk an arms race in a vital region, and threaten the credibility of the international community and our collective security.\" In 2015, Iran negotiated a nuclear deal with theP5+1, a group of countries that consisted of thefive permanent members of the UN Security Council(China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) plus Germany. On 14 July 2015, the P5+1 and Iran concluded theJoint Comprehensive Plan of Action, lifting sanctions on Iran in exchange for constraints and on Iran's nuclear activities and increased verification by the IAEA. On 8 May 2018, PresidentDonald Trumpwithdrew the United States from the JCPOAand reimposedsanctions on Iran. South Africa South Africa is the only country that developed nuclear weapons by","nuclear weapons by itself and later dismantled them—unlike the formerSovietstatesUkraine,BelarusandKazakhstan, which inherited nuclear weapons from the formerUSSRand also acceded to the NPT as non-nuclear weapon states. During the days ofapartheid, the South African government developed a deep fear of both a black uprising and the threat of communism. This led to the development of a secret nuclear weapons program as an ultimate deterrent. South Africa has a large supply of uranium, which is mined in the country's gold mines. The government built a nuclear research facility atPelindabanearPretoriawhere uranium was enriched to fuel grade for theKoeberg Nuclear Power Stationas well as weapon grade for bomb production. In 1991, after international pressure and when a change of government was imminent, South African Ambassador to the United StatesHarry Schwarzsigned the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 1993, the then presidentFrederik Willem de Klerkopenly admitted that the country had developed a limited","developed a limited nuclear weapon capability. These weapons were subsequently dismantled beforeSouth Africaacceded to the NPT and opened itself up to IAEA inspection. In 1994, the IAEA completed its work and declared that the country had fully dismantled its nuclear weapons program. Libya Libya had signed (in 1968) and ratified (in 1975) the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and was subject to IAEA nuclear safeguards inspections, but undertook a secret nuclear weapons development program in violation of its NPT obligations, using material and technology provided by theA.Q. Khanproliferation network—including actual nuclear weapons designs allegedly originating in China. Libya began secret negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom in March 2003 over potentially eliminating itsWMD programs. In October 2003, Libya was embarrassed by the interdiction of a shipment of Pakistani-designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia, also as part of A. Q. Khan's proliferation ring. In December 2003, Libya","2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to eliminate all its WMD programs, and permitted U.S. and British teams (as well as IAEA inspectors) into the country to assist this process and verify its completion. The nuclear weapons designs, gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment, and other equipment—including prototypes for improvedSCUD ballistic missiles—were removed from Libya by the United States. (Libyan chemical weapons stocks and chemical bombs were also destroyed on site with international verification, with Libya joining theChemical Weapons Convention.) Libya's non-compliance with its IAEA safeguards was reported to the U.N. Security Council, but with no action taken, as Libya's return to compliance with safeguards and Article II of the NPT was welcomed. In 2011, the Libyan government ofMuammar al-Gaddafiwas overthrown in theLibyan Civil Warwith the assistance of amilitary interventionbyNATO forcesacting under the auspices ofUN Security Council Resolution 1973. Gaddafi's downfall 8 years after","8 years after thedisarmament of Libya, in which Gaddafi agreed to eliminate Libya's nuclear weapons program, has been repeatedly cited by North Korea, which views Gaddafi's fate as a \"cautionary tale\" that influences North Korea's decision to maintain and intensifyits nuclear weapons program and arsenaldespite pressure to denuclearize. Syria Syria is a state party to the NPT since 1969 and has a limited civil nuclear program. Before the advent of theSyrian Civil Warit was known to operate only one small Chinese-built research reactor, SRR-1. Despite being a proponent of a Weapons of Mass Destruction Free Zone in the Middle East the country was accused of pursuing a military nuclear program with a reported nuclear facility in a desertDeir ez-Zor Governorate. The reactor's components had likely been designed and manufactured in North Korea, with the reactor's striking similarity in shape and size to the North Korean Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. That information alarmed Israeli military and","military and intelligence to such a degree that the idea of a targeted airstrike was conceived. It resulted inOperation Orchard, that took place on 6 September 2007 and saw as many as eightIsraeli Air Forceaircraft taking part. The Israeli government is said to have bounced the idea of the operation off of the US Bush administration, although the latter declined to participate. The nuclear reactor was destroyed in the attack, which also killed about ten North Korean workers. The attack did not cause an international outcry or any serious Syrian retaliatory moves as both parties tried to keep it secret: Despite a half-century state of war declared by surrounding states, Israel did not want publicity as regards its breach of the ceasefire, while Syria was not willing to acknowledge its clandestine nuclear program. Ukraine Ukraine acceded to the NPT in 1994 as a non-nuclear-weapon state, and committed to remove all nuclear weapons from its territory. In recognition of Ukraine's decision, the UK, the United","the UK, the United States and Russia provided security assurances to Ukraine under theBudapest Memorandumof 1994. In 1993, political scientistJohn Mearsheimerargued that the United States should encourage Ukraine to retain anuclear deterrentagainst potential Russian expansion, and to reduce the danger of war.After theRussian invasion of 2014Andreas Umland, an analyst from the Swedish Institute of International Affairs, argued that Ukraine had been unwise to give up its arsenal, as Russia breaking the treaty only had limited consequences, and demonstrated that only a nuclear arsenal guarantees a country's sovereignty in the face of aggression from a nuclear power.However, Mariana Budjeryn of Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center, argued that it was unclear whether Ukraine's nuclear arsenal would have kept it safe from Russian aggression. Establishing operative control and maintaining the missiles would have been challenging for Ukraine, which might have faced sanctions had it refused to give up its arsenal.","up its arsenal. Leaving the treaty Article X allows a state to leave the treaty if \"extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country\", giving three months' (ninety days') notice. The state is required to give reasons for leaving the NPT in this notice. NATOstates argue that when there is a state of \"general war\" the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATOnuclear weapons sharingpolicy. NATO's argument is based on the phrase \"the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war\" in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding.SeeUnited States–NATO nuclear weapons sharingabove. North Korea has also caused an uproar by its use of this provision of the","provision of the treaty. Article X.1 only requires a state to give three months' notice in total, and does not provide for other states to question a state's interpretation of \"supreme interests of its country\". In 1993, North Korea gave notice to withdraw from the NPT. However, after 89 days, North Korea reached agreement with the United States to freeze its nuclear program under theAgreed Frameworkand \"suspended\" its withdrawal notice. In October 2002, the United States accused North Korea of violating the Agreed Framework by pursuing a secret uranium enrichment program, and suspended shipments of heavy fuel oil under that agreement. In response, North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors, disabled IAEA equipment, and, on 10 January 2003, announced that it was ending the suspension of its previous NPT withdrawal notification. North Korea said that only one more day's notice was sufficient for withdrawal from the NPT, as it had given 89 days before. The IAEA Board of Governors rejected this interpretation.Most","interpretation.Most countries held that a new three-months withdrawal notice was required, and some questioned whether North Korea's notification met the \"extraordinary events\" and \"supreme interests\" requirements of the treaty. The Joint Statement of 19 September 2005 at the end of the Fourth Round of theSix-Party Talkscalled for North Korea to \"return\" to the NPT, implicitly acknowledging that it had withdrawn. Recent and coming events The main outcome of the 2000 Conference was the adoption by consensus of a comprehensive Final Document,which included among other things \"practical steps for the systematic and progressive efforts\" to implement the disarmament provisions of the NPT, commonly referred to as theThirteen Steps. On 18 July 2005, US President George W. Bush met Indian Prime MinisterManmohan Singhand declared that he would work to change US law and international rules to permit trade in US civilian nuclear technology with India.At the time, British columnistGeorge Monbiotargued that the","that the U.S.-India nuclear deal, in combination with US attempts to deny Iran (an NPT signatory) civilian nuclear fuel-making technology, might destroy the NPT regime. In the first half of 2010, it was strongly believed that China had signed a civilian nuclear deal with Pakistan claiming that the deal was \"peaceful\". Arms controladvocates criticised the reportedChina-Pakistan dealas they did in case ofU.S.-India dealclaiming that both the deals violate the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT.Some reports asserted that the deal was a strategic move by China to balance US influence inSouth-Asia. According to a report published byU.S. Department of Defensein 2001, China had provided Pakistan withnuclear materialsand has given critical technological assistance in the construction of Pakistan's nuclear weapons development facilities, in violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, of which China even then was a signatory. At the Seventh Review Conference in May","Conference in May 2005,there were stark differences between the United States, which wanted the conference to focus on non-proliferation, especially on its allegations against Iran, and most other countries, who emphasized the lack of seriousnuclear disarmamentby the nuclear powers. Thenon-aligned countriesreiterated their position emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament. The2010 Review Conferencewas held in May 2010 in New York City, and adopted a final document that included a summary by the Review Conference President, AmbassadorLibran Capactulanof the Philippines, and an Action Plan that was adopted by consensus.The 2010 conference was generally considered a success because it reached consensus where the previous Review Conference in 2005 ended in disarray. Many attributed the success of the 2010 conference toU.S. PresidentBarack Obama's commitment to nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament. Some have warned that this success raised unrealistically high expectations that could lead to failure at","lead to failure at the next Review Conference in 2015. The \"Global Summit on Nuclear Security\" took place 12–13 April 2010. The summit was proposed byPresident Obama in Pragueand was intended to strengthen the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in conjunction with theProliferation Security Initiativeand theGlobal Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism.Forty seven states and three international organizations took part in the summit,which issued a communiquéand a work plan.For further information see2010 Nuclear Security Summit. In a major policy speech at theBrandenburg GateinBerlinon 19 June 2013, Obama outlined plans to further reduce the number of warheads in theU.S. nuclear arsenal.According toForeign Policy, Obama proposed a \"one-third reduction in strategic nuclear warheads—on top of the cuts already required by theNew STARTtreaty—bringing the number of deployed warheads to about 1,000\".Obama is seeking to \"negotiate these reductions withRussiato continue to move beyondCold Warnuclear postures,\" according","according to briefing documents provided toForeign Policy.In the same speech, Obama emphasized his administration's efforts to isolate any nuclear weapons capabilities emanating fromIranandNorth Korea. He also called for a renewed bipartisan effort in theUnited States Congressto ratify theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treatyand called on countries to negotiate a new treaty to end the production offissile materialfornuclear weapons. On 24 April 2014, it was announced that the nation of theMarshall Islandshas brought suit in The Hague against the United States, the former Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel seeking to have the disarmament provisions of the NPT enforced. The 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was held at the United Nations in New York from 27 April to 22 May 2015 and presided over by Ambassador Taous Feroukhi of Algeria. The Treaty, particularly article VIII, paragraph 3,","VIII, paragraph 3, envisages a review of the operation of the Treaty every five years, a provision which was reaffirmed by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference and the 2000 NPT Review Conference. At the 2015 NPT Review Conference, States parties examined the implementation of the Treaty's provisions since 2010. Despite intensive consultations, the Conference was not able to reach agreement on the substantive part of the draft Final Document. The Tenth Review Conference convened 1–26 August 2022, after a two-year postponement due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, and concluded without adopting a final document. Contentious negotiations came close to consensus on a text, but ultimately Russia blocked consensus over issues related toits invasion of Ukraine, including references to the safety of theZaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plantin the draft text. On June 23, 2023, The US Department of State issued a statementthat the United States hosted the meeting on June 13–14 in Cairo among the five","among the five nuclear weapons states, describing it as \"an ongoing exchange in the context of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).\" Criticism and responses Over the years the NPT has come to be seen by many Third World states as \"a conspiracy of the nuclear 'haves' to keep the nuclear 'have-nots' in their place\".This argument has roots in Article VI of the treaty which \"obligates the nuclear weapons states to liquidate their nuclear stockpiles and pursue complete disarmament. The non-nuclear states see no signs of this happening\".Some argue that the NWS have not fully complied with their disarmament obligations under Article VI of the NPT.Some countries such as India have criticized the NPT, because it \"discriminated against states not possessing nuclear weapons on 1 January 1967,\" while Iran and numerous Arab states have criticized Israel for not signing the NPT.There has been disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have","states still have 13,400 warheads (as of February 2021) among them. As notedabove, the International Court of Justice, in itsadvisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that \"there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control\".Some critics of the nuclear-weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons. The United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that, since the end of the Cold War, it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons, and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of","whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons.U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear warheads. By the time accelerated dismantlement efforts ordered by President George W. Bush were completed, the U.S. arsenal was less than a quarter of its size at the end of the Cold War, and smaller than it had been at any point since the Eisenhower administration, well before the drafting of the NPT. The United States has also purchased many thousands of weapons' worth of uranium formerly in Soviet nuclear weapons for conversion into reactor fuel.As a consequence of this latter effort, it has been estimated that the equivalent of one lightbulb in every ten in the United States is powered by nuclear fuel removed from warheads previously targeted at the United States and its allies during the Cold War. The U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation agreed that nonproliferation and disarmament are linked, noting that they","noting that they can be mutually reinforcing but also that growing proliferation risks create an environment that makes disarmament more difficult.The United Kingdom,Franceand Russialikewise defend their nuclear disarmament records, and the five NPT NWS issued a joint statement in 2008 reaffirming their Article VI disarmament commitments. According to Thomas Reed and Danny Stillman, the \"NPT has one giant loophole\": Article IV gives each non-nuclear weapon state the \"inalienable right\" to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power.A \"number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states usingnuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons\".A 2009 United Nations report said that: The revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable","are directly usable in nuclear weapons. According to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not authorized to do so under the NPT, have not paid a significant price for their pursuit of weapons capabilities. Also, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals made by NPT signatories, notably the United States. Based on concerns over the slow pace of nuclear disarmament and the continued reliance on nuclear weapons in military and security concepts, doctrines and policies, theTreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weaponswas adopted in July 2017 and was subsequently opened for signature on 20 September 2017. Entering into force on 22 January 2021,it prohibits each state party from the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as assistance to those activities. It reaffirms in its preamble the vital role of the full and effective implementation of the NPT. Ineffective enforcement ofterritorial","ofterritorial integrityandrule of lawin the 21st centurycould undermine the credibility of the security assurances that are part of the current global nuclear order. See also References External links","The Band The Bandwas a Canadian-Americanrockband formed inToronto, Ontario, in 1967. It consisted of CanadiansRick Danko(bass, guitar, vocals, fiddle),Garth Hudson(organ, keyboards, accordion, saxophone),Richard Manuel(piano, drums, vocals),Robbie Robertson(guitar, vocals, piano, percussion), and AmericanLevon Helm(drums, vocals, mandolin, guitar, bass). The Band's music combined elements ofAmericana,folk, rock,jazzandcountry, which influenced artists such asGeorge Harrison,Elton John,the Grateful Dead,Eric ClaptonandWilco. Between 1958 and 1963, the group was known as the Hawks, a backing band forrockabillysingerRonnie Hawkins. In the mid-1960s, they gained recognition for being the backing group forBob Dylan, with his1966 concert tourbeing notable as Dylan's first with an electric band. After leaving Dylan and changing their name to The Band, they released several records to critical and popular acclaim, most notably their 1968 debut,Music from Big Pinkand its succeeding album, 1969'sThe Band. According","Band. According toAllMusic,Music from Big Pink's influence on several generations of musicians has been substantial:Pink FloydmemberRoger Watersdeemed it the \"second-most influential record in the history of rock and roll\",and music journalistAl Aronowitzcalled it \"country soul ... a sound never heard before\".Their most popular songs included \"The Weight\" (1968), \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\" (1969), and \"Up on Cripple Creek\" (1969). The Band performed their farewell concert on November 25, 1976. Footage from the event was released in 1978 as theconcert filmThe Last Waltz, directed byMartin Scorsese. It would be the last performance of the original five members. After five years apart, Danko, Hudson, Helm, and Manuel reunited in 1983 for a reunion tour without Robertson, as he had taken up a new career as a producer and composer for film soundtracks. Manuel died in 1986, but the remaining three members would continue to tour and occasionally release new albums of studio material until 1999, when,","until 1999, when, upon the death of Danko, the remaining members decided to break up for good. Helm would go on to have a successful solo career, winning multipleGrammy Awardsin the folk and Americana categories until his 2012 death, while Hudson worked as a featured session musician. Robertson died in 2023, leaving Hudson as the only living member of the original lineup. Music critic Bruce Eder described The Band as \"one of the most popular and influential rock groups in the world, their music embraced by critics ... as seriously as the music ofthe Beatlesandthe Rolling Stones.\"The Band was inducted into theCanadian Music Hall of Famein 1989 and theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994.In 2004,Rolling Stoneranked them 50th on its list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\",and ranked \"The Weight\" 41st on its list of the \"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\".In 2008, the group received theGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award.In 2014, they were inducted intoCanada's Walk of Fame. History 1957–1964: The Hawks The","The Hawks The future members of The Band first played together as the Hawks, the backing group forToronto-basedrockabillysingerRonnie Hawkins.Levon Helmbegan playing with the group in 1957, then became their fulltime drummer after graduating from high school in 1958. Helm journeyed with Hawkins fromArkansasto Ontario, where they were joined byRobbie Robertson,Rick Danko,Richard Manuel, and finallyGarth Hudson. Latter-day Band memberStan Szelestwas also in the group at that time. Hawkins's act was popular in and around Toronto and nearby Hamilton,and he had an effective way of eliminating his musical competition: when a promising band appeared, Hawkins would hire their best musicians for his own group; Robertson, Danko, and Manuel came under Hawkins's tutelage this way. While most of the Hawks were eager to join Hawkins's group, getting Hudson to join was more difficult. Having earned a college degree, Hudson planned on a career as a music teacher, and was only interested in playing rock music only as a","music only as a hobby. The Hawks admired his wild, full-bore organ style and asked him repeatedly to join. Hudson finally agreed, under the condition that the Hawks each pay him $10 per week to be their instructor and purchase a new state-of-the-artLowrey organ; all music theory questions were directed to Hudson. There is a view thatjazzis 'evil' because it comes from evil people, but actually the greatest priests on 52nd Street, and on the streets of New York City were the musicians. They were doing the greatest healing work. And they knew how to punch through music which would cure and make people feel good. —Garth Hudson inThe Last Waltz With Hawkins, they recorded a few singles in this period and became well known as the best rock group in the thriving Toronto music scene. Hawkins regularly convened all-night rehearsals following long club shows, with the result that the young musicians quickly developed great technical prowess on their instruments. In late 1963, the group split from Hawkins over","from Hawkins over personal differences. They had grown tired of playing the same songs so often and wanted to perform original material, and they were also wary of Hawkins's heavy-handed leadership. He would fine the Hawks if they brought their girlfriends to the clubs (fearing it might reduce the numbers of \"available\" girls who came to performances) or if they smokedmarijuana. Robertson later said, \"Eventually, built us up to the point where we outgrew his music and had to leave. He shot himself in the foot, really, by sharpening us into such a crackerjack band that we had to go on out into the world, because we knew what his vision was for himself, and we were all younger and more ambitious musically.\" Upon leaving Hawkins, the group was briefly known as the Levon Helm Sextet, with a sixth member, saxophonist Jerry Penfound, and then as Levon and the Hawks after Penfound's departure. In 1965, they released a single on Ware Records under the name the Canadian Squires, but they returned as Levon and the","as Levon and the Hawks for a recording session forAtcolater that year.Also in 1965, Helm and the band met blues singer and harmonica playerSonny Boy Williamson. They wanted to record with him, offering to become his backing band, but Williamson died not long after their meeting. Later in 1965, American musicianBob Dylanhired the group as his backing band for his U.S. tour in 1965 andworld tour in 1966.Following the 1966 tour, the group moved with help from Dylan and his manager,Albert Grossman, toSaugerties, New York, where they made the informal 1967 recordings that becameThe Basement Tapes, the basis for their 1968 debut album,Music from Big Pink. Because they were always referred to simply as \"the band\" to various frontmen and the locals in Woodstock, Helm said the name \"The Band\" worked well when the group came into its own.The group decided on it as their official name began performing as under it in from 1968 onward. Dylan continued to collaborate with The Band over the course of their career, most","their career, most notably in a joint1974 tour. 1965–1967: With Bob Dylan In late summer 1965, Bob Dylan was looking for a backup band for his first U.S. \"electric\" tour. Levon and the Hawks were recommended by blues singerJohn P. Hammond, who earlier that year had recorded with Helm, Hudson and Robertson on hisVanguardalbumSo Many Roads.Around the same time, one of their friends from Toronto, Mary Martin, was working as secretary to Dylan's manager,Albert Grossman. She told Dylan to visit the group at Le Coq d'Or Tavern, a club onYonge Street, in Toronto—though Robertson recollects it was the Friar's Tavern, just down the street.Her advice to Dylan: \"Yougottasee these guys.\" After hearing The Band play and meeting with Robertson, Dylan invited Helm and Robertson to join his backing band. After two concerts backing Dylan, Helm and Robertson told Dylan of their loyalty to their bandmates and told him that they would continue with him only if he hired all of the Hawks. Dylan accepted and invited Levon and the","Levon and the Hawks to tour with him. The group was receptive to the offer, knowing it could give them the wider exposure they craved. They thought of themselves as a tightly rehearsed rock andrhythm and bluesgroup and knew Dylan mostly from his early acoustic folk and protest music. Furthermore, they had little inkling of how internationally popular Dylan had become. With Dylan, the Hawks played a series of concerts from September 1965 through May 1966, billed as \"Bob Dylan and the Band\". The tours were marked by Dylan's reportedly copious use ofamphetamines. Some, though not all, of the Hawks joined in the excesses.Most of the concerts were met with heckling and disapproval fromfolk musicpurists. Helm was so affected by the negative reception that he left the tour after a little more than one month and sat out the rest of that year's concerts, as well as the world tour in 1966.Helm spent much of this period working on an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico. During and between tours, Dylan and the Hawks attempted","the Hawks attempted several recording sessions, but with less than satisfying results. Sessions in October and November yielded just one usablesingle(\"Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window?\"), and two days of recording in January 1966 for what was intended to be Dylan's next album,Blonde on Blonde, resulted in \"One of Us Must Know (Sooner or Later)\", which was released as a single a few weeks later and was subsequently selected for the album.On \"One of Us Must Know\", Dylan was backed by drummerBobby Gregg, bassist Danko (orBill Lee),guitarist Robbie Robertson, pianistPaul Griffin, andAl Kooper(who was more a guitarist than an organist) playing organ.Frustrated by the slow progress in the New York studio, Dylan accepted the suggestion of producerBob Johnstonand moved the recording sessions to Nashville. In Nashville, Robertson's guitar was prominent on theBlonde on Blonderecordings, especially in the song \"Leopard-Skin Pill-Box Hat\", but the other members of the Hawks did not attend the sessions. During the","During the European leg of their 1966 world tour,Mickey Jonesreplaced Sandy Konikoff on drums. Dylan and the Hawks played at theFree Trade HallinManchesteron May 17, 1966. The gig became legendary when, near the end of Dylan's electric set, an audience member shouted \"Judas!\" After a pause, Dylan replied, \"I don't believe you. You're a liar!\" He then turned to the Hawks and said, \"Play it fucking loud!\" With that, they launched into an acidic version of \"Like a Rolling Stone\". The Manchester performance was widelybootlegged(and mistakenly placed at theRoyal Albert Hall). In a 1971 review forCreem, criticDave Marshwrote, \"My response is that crystallization of everything that is rock'n'roll music, at its finest, was to allow my jaw to drop, my body to move, to leap out of the chair ... It is an experience that one desires simply to share, to play over and over again for those he knows thirst for such pleasure. If I speak in an almost worshipful sense about this music, it is not because I have lost","because I have lost perspective, it is precisely because I have found it, within music, yes, that was made five years ago. But it is there and unignorable.\"When the concert finally saw an official release asThe Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966, The \"Royal Albert Hall\" Concertin 1998, criticRichie Unterbergerdeclared the record \"an important document of rock history.\" On July 29, 1966, while on a break from touring, Dylan was injured in a motorcycle accident that precipitated his retreat into semi-seclusion inWoodstock,New York.For a while, the Hawks returned to the bar and roadhouse touring circuit, sometimes backing other singers, including a brief stint withTiny Tim. Dylan invited the Hawks to join him in Woodstock in February 1967,and Danko, Hudson, and Manuel rented a large pink house, which they named \"Big Pink\", in nearbyWest Saugerties, New York. The next month (initially without Helm) they commenced recording a much-bootlegged and influential series of demos, initially at Dylan's house in","at Dylan's house in Woodstock and later at Big Pink, which were released partially on LP asThe Basement Tapesin 1975 andin full in 2014. A track-by-track review of the bootleg was detailed byJann WennerinRolling Stone, in which the band members were explicitly named and given the collective name \"the Crackers\".While Helm was not involved in the initial recording, he did perform in later sessions and in overdubs recorded in 1975 before the album's release. 1968–1972: Initial success withMusic from Big Pinkself-titled album The sessions with Dylan ended in October 1967, with Helm having rejoined the group by that time, and the Hawks began writing their own songs at Big Pink. When they went into the recording studio, they still did not have a name for themselves. Stories vary as to the manner in which they ultimately adopted the name \"The Band\". InThe Last Waltz, Manuel claimed that they wanted to call themselves either \"theHonkies\" or \"theCrackers\" (which they used when backing Dylan for a January 1968 concert","1968 concert tribute toWoody Guthrie), but these names were vetoed by their record label; Robertson suggests that during their time with Dylan everyone just referred to them as \"the band\" and the name stuck. Initially they disliked the moniker, but eventually they grew to like it, thinking it both humble and presumptuous. In 1969,Rolling Stonereferred to them as \"the band from Big Pink\". Their debut album,Music from Big Pinkwas released in July 1968 and was widely acclaimed. It included three songs written or co-written by Dylan (\"This Wheel's on Fire\", \"Tears of Rage\" and \"I Shall Be Released\") as well as \"The Weight\", which became one of their best-known songs after it was used in the 1969 filmEasy Rider. While a thematic continuity ran through the music, the musical style varied from song to song. In early 1969, after the success ofMusic from Big Pink, The Band went on tour, starting with an appearance atWinterland Ballroom. They performed at theWoodstock Festival(their performance was not included in the","not included in the famedWoodstockfilm because of legal complications), and later that year they performed with Dylan at the UKIsle of Wight Festival(several songs from which were subsequently included on Dylan'sSelf Portraitalbum). That same year, they left for Los Angeles to record their follow-up,The Band(1969). From their rustic appearance on the cover to the songs and arrangements within, the album stood in contrast to other popular music of the day. Several other artists made similar stylistic moves about the same time, notably Dylan, onJohn Wesley Harding, which was written during theBasement Tapessessions, andthe Byrds, onSweetheart of the Rodeo, which featured twoBasement Tapescovers.The Bandfeatured songs that evoked old-time rural America, from theCivil Warin \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\" to theunionizationof farm workers in \"King Harvest (Has Surely Come)\". These first two records were produced byJohn Simon, who was practically a group member: he aided inarrangementsin addition to playing","addition to playing occasional piano andtuba. Simon reported that he was often asked about the distinctivehorn sectionsfeatured so effectively on the first two albums: people wanted to know how they had achieved such memorable sounds. Simon stated that, besides Hudson (an accomplished saxophonist), the others had only rudimentary horn skills, and achieved their sound simply by creatively using their limited technique. Rolling Stonelavished praise on The Band in this era, giving them more attention than perhaps any other group in the magazine's history;Greil Marcus's articles contributed to The Band's mystique. The Band was also featured on the cover ofTime(January 12, 1970), the first rock group after the Beatles, over two years earlier, to achieve this rare distinction.David Attie's unused photographs for this cover—among the very few studio portraits taken during the Band's prime—have only recently been discovered, and were featured in Daniel Roher'sRobbie RobertsondocumentaryOnce Were Brothers: Robbie","Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, as well as having their own four-page spread inHarvey Kubernikand Ken Kubernik's “The Story of the Band: FromBig PinktoThe Last Waltz” (Sterling Publishing, 2018). A critical and commercial triumph,The Band, along with works by the Byrds andthe Flying Burrito Brothers, established a musical template (dubbedcountry rock) that paved the way to theEagles. BothBig PinkandThe Bandalso influenced their musical contemporaries.Eric ClaptonandGeorge Harrisoncited The Band as a major influence on their musical direction in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Clapton later revealed that he wanted to join the group.While he never did join, he recruited all of the members of The Band as well as other roots rock performers for his 1976 albumNo Reason to Cry. Following their second album, The Band embarked on their first tour as a lead act. The anxiety of fame was clear, as the group's songs turned to darker themes of fear and alienation: the influence on their next work is","their next work is self-explanatory.Stage Fright(1970) was engineered by musician-engineer-producerTodd Rundgrenand recorded on a theatre stage in Woodstock. As with their previous, self-titled record, Robertson was credited with most of the songwriting. Initial critical reaction was positive, but it was seen as a disappointment from the previous two albums for various reasons. After recordingStage Fright, The Band was among the acts participating in theFestival Express, an all-star rock concert tour of Canada by train that also includedJanis Joplin, theGrateful Deadand future Band memberRichard Bell(at the time he was a member of Joplin's band). In the concert documentary film, released in 2003, Danko can be seen participating in a drunken jam session withJerry Garcia,Bob Weir,John Dawson, and Joplin while singing \"Ain't No More Cane\". At about this time, Robertson began exerting greater control over The Band, a point of contention between him and Helm. Helm charges Robertson withauthoritarianismand greed,","greed, while Robertson suggests his increased efforts in guiding the group were largely because Danko, Helm, and Manuel were becoming more unreliable due to their heroin usage.Robertson insists he did his best to coax Manuel into writing more songs, only to see him descend into addiction. Despite mounting problems among the group members, The Band forged ahead with their next album,Cahoots(1971).Cahootsfeatured Dylan's \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\", \"4% Pantomime\" (withVan Morrison), and \"Life Is a Carnival\", the last featuring a horn arrangement byAllen Toussaint. Toussaint's contribution was a critical addition to The Band's next project, and the group would later record two songs written by Toussaint: \"Holy Cow\" onMoondog Matineeand \"You See Me\" onJubilation. In late December 1971, The Band recorded the live albumRock of Ages, which was released in the summer of 1972. OnRock of Ages, they were bolstered by the addition of a horn section, with arrangements written by Toussaint. Dylan appeared on stage","appeared on stage onNew Year's Eveand performed four songs with the group, including a version of \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\". 1973–1975: Move to Shangri-La In 1973, The Band released thecovers albumMoondog Matinee. There was no tour in support of the album, which garnered mixed reviews. However, on July 28, 1973, they played at the legendarySummer Jam at Watkins Glen, a massive concert that took place at the Grand Prix Raceway outsideWatkins Glen, New York. The event, which was attended by over 600,000 fans, also featured the Grateful Dead andthe Allman Brothers Band. It was during this event that discussions began about a possible tour with Bob Dylan, who had moved toMalibu, California,along with Robertson. By late 1973, Danko, Helm, Hudson and Manuel had joined them, and the first order of business was backing Dylan on his albumPlanet Waves. The album was released concurrently with their joint 1974 tour, in which they played 40 shows in North America during January and February 1974. Later that year,","Later that year, the tour was documented on the live albumBefore the Flood,. During this time, The Band brought inPlanet WavesproducerRob Frabonito help design a music studio for the group. By 1975, the studio,Shangri-La, was completed. That year, The Band recorded and releasedNorthern Lights – Southern Cross, their first album of all-new material since 1971. All eight songs were written solely by Robertson. Despite comparatively poor record sales, the album is favored by critics and fans. Levon Helm regards this album highly in his book,This Wheel's on Fire: \"It was the best album we had done sinceThe Band.\" The album also produced more experimentation from Hudson, switching to synthesizers, showcased on \"Jupiter Hollow\". 1976–1978:The Last Waltz By the mid-1970s, Robbie Robertson was weary of touring. AfterNorthern Lights – Southern Crossfailed to meet commercial expectations, much of the group's 1976 tour was confined to theaters and smaller arenas in secondary markets (including theSanta Cruz Civic","theSanta Cruz Civic Auditorium, theLong Island Arenaand the Champlain Valley Expo inEssex Junction, Vermont), culminating in an opening slot for the ascendantZZ Topat theNashville Fairgroundsin September.In early September, Richard Manuel suffered a severe neck injury in a boating accident in Texas,prompting Robertson to urge The Band to retire from live performances after staging a massive \"farewell concert\" known asThe Last Waltz. Following an October 30 appearance onSaturday Night Live, the event, includingturkey dinnerfor the audience of 5,000, was held on November 25 (Thanksgiving Day) of 1976 at theWinterland BallroominSan Francisco,California,and featured a horn section with arrangements by Allen Toussaint and an allstar lineup of guests, including Canadian artistsJoni MitchellandNeil Young. Two of the guests were fundamental to The Band's existence and growth: Ronnie Hawkins and Bob Dylan. Other guests they admired (and in most cases had worked with before) includedMuddy Waters,Dr. John, Van","John, Van Morrison,Ringo Starr, Eric Clapton,Ron Wood,Bobby Charles,Neil Diamond, andPaul Butterfield. The concert was filmed by Robertson's friend, filmmakerMartin Scorsese. In 1977, The Band released their seventh studio albumIslands, which fulfilled their record contract with Capitol so that a plannedLast Waltzfilm and album could be released on theWarner Bros.label.Islandscontained a mix of originals and covers, and was the last with The Band's original lineup. That same year, the group recorded soundstage performances with country singerEmmylou Harris(\"Evangeline\") and gospel-soul groupthe Staple Singers(\"The Weight\"); Scorsese combined these new performances—as well as interviews he had conducted with the group—with the 1976 concert footage. The resultingconcert film–documentarywas released in 1978, along with athree-LP soundtrack. Helm later wrote aboutThe Last Waltzin his autobiography,This Wheel's on Fire, in which he made the case that it had been primarily Robbie Robertson's project and that","project and that Robertson had forced The Band's breakup on the rest of the group.Robertson offered a different take in a 1986 interview: \"I made my big statement. I did the movie, I made a three-record album about it—and if this is only my statement, not theirs, I'll accept that. They're saying, 'Well, that was really his trip, not our trip.' Well, fine. I'll take the best music film that's ever been made, and make it my statement. I don't have any problems with that. None at all.\" The original quintet would perform together one last time: on March 1, 1978 after the late set of a Rick Danko solo show atThe Roxy, the group performed \"Stage Fright\", \"The Shape I'm In\", and \"The Weight\" for an encore.Although the members of the group intended to continue working on studio projects, they drifted apart after the release ofIslandsin March 1977. 1983–1989: Reformation and the death of Richard Manuel The Band resumed touring in 1983 without Robertson. Accomplished musician from Woodstock, NY, Jim Weider became lead","Weider became lead guitarist. Robertson had found success with a solo career and as aHollywoodmusic producer. As a result of their diminished popularity, they performed in theaters and clubs as headliners and took support slots in larger venues for onetime peers such as the Grateful Dead andCrosby, Stills and Nash. After a performance inWinter Park, Florida, on March 4, 1986, Manuelhanged himself, aged 42, in his motel room.He had suffered for many years from alcoholism and drug addiction and had been clean and sober for several years beginning in 1978 but had begun drinking and using drugs again by 1984.Manuel's position as pianist was filled by old friend Stan Szelest (who died not long after) and then by Richard Bell. Bell had played with Ronnie Hawkins after the departure of the original Hawks, and was best known from his days as a member of Janis Joplin'sFull Tilt Boogie Band. The Band was inducted into theCanadian Music Hall of Fameat the1989 Juno Awards, where Robertson was reunited with original","with original members Danko and Hudson. With Canadian country rock superstarsBlue Rodeoas a back-up band,Music Expresscalled the 1989 Juno appearance a symbolic \"passing of the torch\" from The Band to Blue Rodeo. 1990–1999: Return to final recording and the death of Rick Danko In 1990, Capitol Records began to re-release the records from the 1970s.The remaining three members continued to tour and record albums with a succession of musicians filling Manuel's and Robertson's roles. The Band appeared atBob Dylan's 30th anniversary concertin New York City in October 1992, where they performed their version of Dylan's \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\". In 1993, the group released their eighth studio album,Jericho. Without Robbie Robertson as primary lyricist, much of thesongwritingfor the album came from outside of the group. Also that year, The Band, along with Ronnie Hawkins, Bob Dylan, and other performers, appeared at U.S. PresidentBill Clinton's 1993 \"Blue Jean Bash\" inauguration party. In 1994, The Band","In 1994, The Band performed atWoodstock '94. Later that year Robertson appeared with Danko and Hudson as the Band for the second time since the original group broke up. The occasion was the induction of The Band into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Helm, who had been at odds with Robertson for years over accusations of stolen songwriting credits, did not attend.In February 1996, The Band withthe Cricketsrecorded \"Not Fade Away\", released on thetribute albumNot Fade Away (Remembering Buddy Holly). The Band released two more albums afterJericho:High on the Hog(1996) andJubilation(1998), the latter of which included guest appearances by Eric Clapton andJohn Hiatt. Helm was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1998 and was unable to sing for several years but he eventually regained the use of his voice. In 1998, the group revealed they were working on a follow-up album toJubilationthat has not been released. The final song the group recorded together was their 1999 version of Bob Dylan's \"One Too Many Mornings\", which","Mornings\", which they contributed to the Dylan tribute albumTangled Up in Blues. On December 10, 1999, Rick Danko died in his sleep at the age of 55. Following his death, The Band broke up for good. The final configuration of the group included Richard Bell (piano), Randy Ciarlante (drums), and Jim Weider (guitar). 2000–present In 2002, Robertson bought all other former members' financial interests in the group (with the exception of Helm's),giving him major control of the presentation of the group's material, including latter-day compilations. Richard Bell died ofmultiple myelomain June 2007. The Band received a Lifetime AchievementGrammy Awardon February 9, 2008,but there was no reunion of former members. In honor of the event, Helm held aMidnight Ramblein Woodstock.He continued to perform and released several albums. On April 17, 2012, it was announced via Helm's official website that he was in the \"final stages of cancer\";he died two days later. In December 2020, it was announced that the third album of","the third album of The Band,Stage Fright, would get an expanded reissue. The album has alternate versions of some songs. Robbie Robertson died at the age of 80 on August 9, 2023, after battling prostate cancer.With Robertson's death, Garth Hudson is the last living original member of the group. Members' other endeavours In 1977, Rick Danko released hiseponymousdebut solo album, which featured the other four members of The Band on various tracks. In 1984, Danko joined members of theByrds, the Flying Burrito Brothers, and others in the huge touring company that made up \"The Byrds Twenty-Year Celebration\". Several members of the tour performed solo songs to start the show, including Danko, who performed \"Mystery Train\". Danko also released two collaboraive albums withEric AndersenandJonas Fjeld, along with some live and compilation albums in the 1990s and 2000s; many of the latter records were produced by Aaron L. Hurwitz and are on the Breeze Hill/Woodstock Records Label. In the late 1970s and 1980s, Helm","and 1980s, Helm released several solo albums and toured with a band called Levon Helm and the RCO Allstars. He also began an acting career with his role asLoretta Lynn's father inCoal Miner's Daughter. Helm received praise for his narration and supporting role oppositeSam Shepardin 1983'sThe Right Stuff. In 1997, a CD by Levon Helm and the Crowmatix,Souvenir, was released.Beginning sometime in the 1990s, Helm regularly performed Midnight Ramble concerts at his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, and toured.In 2007 Helm released a new album, an homage to his southern roots calledDirt Farmer, which was awarded aGrammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Albumon February 9, 2008.Electric Dirtfollowed in 2009 and won the inauguralGrammy Award for Best Americana Album. His 2011 live albumRamble at the Rymanwon in the same category. After he left The Band, Robbie Robertson became amusic producerand wrote film soundtracks (including acting as music supervisor for several of Scorsese's films) before beginning a solo","beginning a solo career with hisDaniel Lanois-producedeponymous albumin 1987. Robertson continued mostly scoring films until his death in 2023. Hudson has released two solo CDs,The Sea to the Northin 2001, produced by Aaron (Professor Louie) Hurwitz, andLive at the Wolfin 2005, both featuring his wife, Maud, on vocals. He has also kept busy as an in-demand studio musician. He is featured extensively on recordings of theCalland country-indie star Neko Case. Hudson contributed an original electronic score to anoff-Broadwayproduction ofDragon Slayers, written byStanley Keyesand directed byBrad Maysin 1986 at theUnion Square Theatrein New York, which was restaged with a new cast in Los Angeles in 1990. In 2010, Hudson releasedGarth Hudson Presents: A Canadian Celebration of The Band, featuring Canadian artists covering songs that were recorded by The Band. In 2012,Jim WeiderlaunchedThe Weight Band, performing covers of The Band's music, alongside former members of theLevon HelmBand andRick DankoGroup. The Weight","The Weight Band performed in a nationally broadcastPBSspecial, Infinity Hall Live,featuring new music. Following the show, the band announced a self-titled album of new music. The Weight Band also hosts Camp Cripple Creek, which celebrates the legacy of the Woodstock Sound. Past guests have includedJackie Greene,Music from Big Pinkproducer John Simon andJohn Sebastian. Manuel had few projects outside The Band; he and the rest of The Band contributed to Eric Clapton's 1976 albumNo Reason to Cry. It included an original composition by Manuel and featured his vocals and drumming on several tracks. Manuel later worked on several film scores with Hudson and Robertson, includingRaging BullandThe Color of Money.Whispering Pines: Live at the Getawaywas released in 2002. Musical style The Band's music fused many elements: although primarily incorporating oldcountry musicand earlyrock and roll, therhythm sectionoften was reminiscent ofStax- orMotown-style rhythm and blues, and Robertson citesCurtis Mayfieldand","Mayfieldand theStaple Singersas major influences, resulting in asynthesisof manymusical genres. Singers Manuel, Danko, and Helm each brought a distinctive voice to The Band: Helm'sSouthernaccent was prevalent in his raw and powerful vocals, Danko sang tenor with a distinctively choppy enunciation, and Manuel alternated between falsetto and a soulful baritone. The singers regularly blended inharmonies. Though the singing was more or less evenly shared among the three, both Danko and Helm have stated that they saw Manuel as The Band's \"lead\" singer. Every member was a multi-instrumentalist. There was little instrument-switching when they played live, but when recording, the musicians could make up different configurations in service of the songs. Hudson in particular was able to coax a wide range oftimbresfrom hisLowrey organ. Helm's drumming was often praised: critic Jon Carroll declared that Helm was \"the only drummer who can make you cry,\" while prolific session drummerJim Keltneradmits to appropriating","to appropriating several of Helm's techniques.Producer John Simon is often cited as a \"sixth member\" of The Band for producing and playing onMusic from Big Pink, co-producing and playing onThe Band, and playing on other songs up through The Band's 1993 reunion albumJericho. Copyright controversy Robertson is credited as writer or co-writer of the majority of The Band's songs and, as a result, has received most of the songwriting royalties generated from the music. This would become a point of contention, especially for Helm. In his 1993 autobiography,This Wheel's on Fire: Levon Helm and the Story of the Band, Helm disputed the validity of the songwriting credits as listed on the albums and explained that the Band's songs were developed in collaboration with all members. Danko concurred with Helm: \"I think Levon's book hits the nail on the head about where Robbie and Albert Grossman and some of those people went wrong and when The Band stopped being The Band ... I'm truly friends with everybody but, hey—it","but, hey—it could happen to Levon, too. When people take themselves too seriously and believe too much in their own bullshit, they usually get in trouble.\"Robertson denied that Helm had written any of the songs attributed to Robertson.The studio albums recorded by Levon Helm as a solo artist—Levon Helm(1978),American Son,Levon Helm(1982),Dirt Farmer, andElectric Dirt—contain only one song crediting him as songwriter (\"Growin' Trade\", co-written withLarry Campbell). Legacy The Band has influenced numerous bands, songwriters and performers, including the Grateful Dead, Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young,Led Zeppelin,Elvis Costello,Elton John,Phish,andPink Floyd.The albumMusic from Big Pink, in particular, is credited with contributing to Clapton's decision to leave thesupergroupCream. In his introduction of The Band during the Bob Dylan 30th Anniversary Concert, Clapton announced that in 1968 he had heard the album, \"and it changed my life.\"The bandNazarethtook their name from a line","name from a line in \"The Weight\". GuitaristRichard Thompsonhas acknowledged the album's influence onFairport Convention'sLiege and Lief, and journalist John Harris has suggested that The Band's debut also influenced the spirit of the Beatles' back-to-basics albumLet It Beas well as the Rolling Stones' string of roots-infused albums that began withBeggars Banquet.George Harrison said that his song \"All Things Must Pass\" was heavily influenced by The Band and that, while writing the song, he imagined Levon Helm singing it.Meanwhile, the \"The Weight\" has been covered numerous times, and in various musical styles. In a 1969 interview, Robbie Robertson remarked on the group's influence, \"We certainly didn't want everybody to go out and get a banjo and a fiddle player. We were trying to calm things down a bit though. What we're going to do now is go toMuscle Shoals, Alabama, and record four sides, fourpsychedelicsongs. Total freak-me songs. Just to show that we have no hard feelings. Just pretty good rock and","good rock and roll.\" In the 1990s, a new generation of bands influenced by The Band began to gain popularity, includingCounting Crows,the Wallflowers, andthe Black Crowes. Counting Crows indicated this influence with their tribute to the lateRichard Manuel, \"If I Could Give All My Love (Richard Manuel Is Dead)\", from their albumHard Candy. TheBlack Crowesfrequently cover songs by The Band during live performances, such as \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\", which appears on their DVD/CDFreak 'n' Roll into the Fog.They have also recorded at Helm's studio in Woodstock. The inspiration for the classic rock-influenced bandThe Hold Steadycame while members Craig Finn and Tad Kubler were watchingThe Last Waltz.Rick Danko and Robbie Robertson are name-checked in the lyrics of \"The Swish\" from the Hold Steady's 2004 debut albumAlmost Killed Me.Also that year,southern rock-revivalistsDrive-By Truckersreleased theJason Isbellpenned track \"Danko/Manuel\" on the albumThe Dirty South. The Band also inspired Grace","also inspired Grace Potter, ofGrace Potter and the Nocturnals, to form the band in 2002. In an interview with the Montreal Gazette, Potter said, \"The Band blew my mind. I thought if this is what Matt meant when he said 'Let's start a rock 'n' roll band,' ... that was the kind of rock 'n' roll band I could believe in.\" A tribute album, entitledEndless Highway: The Music of the Band, released in January 2007, included contributions fromMy Morning Jacket,Death Cab for Cutie,Gomez,Guster,Bruce Hornsby,Jack JohnsonandALO,Lee Ann Womack, the Allman Brothers Band,Blues Traveler,Jakob Dylan,Rosanne Cash, and others. Members ofWilco,Clap Your Hands Say Yeah,the Shins,Dr Dog,Yellowbirds,Ween,Furthur, and other bands stagedThe Complete Last Waltzin 2012 and 2013.Their performances included all 41 songs from the original 1976 concert in sequence, even those edited out of the film. Musical directorSam Cohenof Yellowbirds claims \"the movie is pretty ingrained in me. I've watched it probably 100 times.\" An incarnation of","An incarnation of the Band's legacy, The Weight Band, originated inside the barn of Levon Helm in 2012 when Jim Weider and Randy Ciarlante, both former members of The Band, were performing \"Songs of the Band\" withGarth Hudson,Jimmy Vivinoand Byron Isaacs. In July 2017, PBS'sInfinity HallLive program began airing a televised performance by The Weight Band, featuring Band covers and new music by the band. Every year on the Wednesday before and the Friday after Thanksgiving, Dayton, Ohio NPR affiliateWYSOandThe Dayton Art Institutehost a tribute toThe Last Waltz.Frequently selling out, the show features more than 30 local musicians. A similar event takes place annually in Madison, Wisconsin, on the Saturday night after Thanksgiving. The Band are the subjects of the 2019 documentary filmOnce Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, which premiered at the2019 Toronto International Film Festival. The Band is the subject of an extensive historical podcast,The Band: A History, currently covering the entire","covering the entire history of the group. Members Additional musicians Line-ups Disbanded Timeline Discography withBob Dylan See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links","Music from Big Pink Music from Big Pinkis the debutstudio albumby Canadian-Americanrockbandthe Band.Released on July 1, 1968, byCapitol Records, it employs a distinctive blend ofcountry,rock,folk,classical,R&B,blues, andsoul. The album's title refers to a house inWest Saugerties, New Yorkcalled \"Big Pink\", which was shared by bassist/singerRick Danko, pianist/singerRichard Manueland organistGarth Hudsonand in which the album's music was partly composed. The album itself was recorded in studios in New York and Los Angeles in 1968,and followed the band's stint backing ofBob Dylanon his1966 tour(as the Hawks) and time spent together in upstate New York recording material that was officially released in 1975 asThe Basement Tapes, also with Dylan. Thecover artworkis a painting by Dylan. In 2000, the album was rereleased with additional outtakes from the recording sessions, and in 2018, a \"50th Anniversary Super Deluxe\" edition was released with a new stereo mix byBob Clearmountain. Background and Big Pink house","and Big Pink house The Band's members included Danko, Manuel, Hudson, guitaristRobbie Robertsonand drummer/singerLevon Helm. They began to create their distinctive sound during 1967 when they improvised and recorded withBob Dylana huge number of cover songs and original Dylan materialin the basement of a pink house inWest Saugerties, New York, located at 56 Parnassus Lane (formerly 2188 Stoll Road). The house was built by Ottmar Gramms, who bought the land in 1952. The house was newly built whenRick Dankofound it as a rental. Danko moved in along withGarth HudsonandRichard Manuelin February 1967. The house became known locally as \"Big Pink\" for its pinksiding. The house was subsequently sold by Gramms in 1977, and since 1998, it has been a private residence. Widelybootleggedat the time, initially asGreat White Wonderin July 1969, some of the recordings Dylan and the Band made were officially released in 1975 onThe Basement Tapes, and then in their totality in 2014 onThe Bootleg Series Vol. 11: The Basement","11: The Basement Tapes Complete. By the end of 1967, the Band felt it was time to step out of Dylan's shadow and make their own statement. Recording The Band's managerAlbert Grossman(who was also Dylan's manager) approachedCapitol Recordsto secure a record deal for a group still informally described as \"Dylan's backing band\". Alan Livingston at Capitol signed the Band, initially under the name the Crackers. Armed with news of a recording deal for the group, they luredLevon Helmback from the oil rigs where he had been working to Woodstock where he took up his crucial position in the Band, singing and playing drums. Helm's return coincided with a ferment of activity in Big Pink as the embryonic Band not only recorded with Dylan but also began to write their own songs. After meeting with producerJohn Simon, the Band started to record their debut album inManhattanatA&R Studios, at 799 7th Avenue in the early months of 1968. The Band recorded \"Tears of Rage\", \"Chest Fever\", \"We Can Talk\", \"This Wheel's On Fire\"","Wheel's On Fire\" and \"The Weight\" in two sessions. Robertson has said that when Simon asked them how they wanted it to sound, they replied, \"Just like it did in the basement.\" Capitol, pleased with the initial recording session, suggested that the group move toLos Angelesto finish recording their first album atCapitol Studios. They also cut some material atGold Star StudiosonSanta Monica Boulevard. The songs onBig Pinkrecorded in L.A. were \"In A Station\", \"To Kingdom Come\", \"Lonesome Suzie\", \"Long Black Veil\" and \"I Shall Be Released\". Artwork Dylan offered to sing on the album, but ultimately realized it was important for the Band to make their own statement. Instead, Dylan signified his presence by contributing a cover painting.Barney Hoskynshas written that it is significant the painting depicts six musicians. The cover ofMusic from Big Pinkwas intended to establish the group as having a different outlook from thepsychedelic cultureof 1968. PhotographerElliott Landyflew toTorontoto photograph the","photograph the assembled Danko, Manuel, Robertson, and Hudson families on the Danko chicken farm. A photo was inserted of Diamond and Nell Helm, who lived inArkansas. The photo appeared on the cover with the caption \"Next of Kin\".The overall design of the sleeve is byMilton Glaser(who also did the poster that was packed with the 1967Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits). Reception The initial reception to the album was positive.It received praise for the organic quality of the instrumentation, which had been recorded live withoutoverdubbing.InRolling Stone,Al Kooper's rave review ofBig Pinkended with the words, \"This album was recorded in approximately two weeks. There are people who will work their lives away in vain and not touch it.\"This helped to draw public attention to it (Rolling Stoneeven referred to them as \"the band from Big Pink\"instead of just \"the Band\"). The fact that Bob Dylan wrote one and co-wrote two of the songs on the album also attracted attention.Robert Christgauwas less enthusiastic inThe Village","inThe Village Voice, crediting the music's original evocation of \"country-soul feeling without imitating it\" and the \"human roughness around the edges\",yet stating that he \"always admired that album\" but \"from a distance\". In 1968, \"The Weight\" peaked at No. 63 onBillboard's Hot 100 singles chart in the US. The song was a bigger hit elsewhere, peaking at No. 35 in Canada, and No. 21 in the UK. The album peaked at No. 18 inCanadaand reached No. 30 onBillboard'sPop Albumschart in 1968, and then recharted as a No. 8 hit on the Top Internet Albums chart in 2000. \"The Weight\" gained widespread popularity from the Band's performance of it atWoodstockon August 17, 1969, and due partially to its inclusion in the filmEasy Rider, though it was omitted from the soundtrack because of licensing issues. A cover version by the bandSmithwas included on the soundtrack album instead. The laid-back feel of the album attracted the attention of other major artists. For example,Eric Claptoncites the album'sroots rockstyle as what","rockstyle as what convinced him to quitCream, and engageDelaney and Bonnieand friends as \"Derek and the Dominos\" on hisdebut solo album.George Harrisonwas also impressed by the album's musicianship and sense of camaraderie, andRoger WatersofPink Floydcalled it the second \"most influential record in the history of rock and roll\", afterthe Beatles'Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, and said that it \"affected Pink Floyd deeply, deeply, deeply\". According toTerry Burrows, the album spawned theAmericanagenre,while music academic Chris Smith said its songs laid the groundwork for roots rock music. Music from Big Pinkwas voted No. 452 in the third edition ofColin Larkin'sAll Time Top 1000 Albums(2000).In 2003, it was ranked 34th onRolling Stone's list ofthe 500 greatest albums of all time,a ranking it maintained on the magazine's 2012 revised list,before dropping to number 100 in a 2020 revised list.OnMetacritic, the expanded 50th anniversary edition of the album has an aggregate score of 99 out of 100, based","out of 100, based on seven reviews, a rating that the website defines as indicating \"universal acclaim\". Re-releases The originalLP recordissue included a gatefold cover in 1968, duplicated 40 years later in 2008 as a remastered 180 gm LP. Oncompact disc, it was remastered as agold CDin 1989, as aDVD-audioin 2001 and as a remastered numbered editionSACDin 2009. On August 29, 2000, it was reissued byEMI Recordsas a standard compact disc with ninebonus tracks. In 2012,Mobile Fidelityreleased a remastered, numbered, limited edition, Half-speed Mastering from the originalmaster tapes, 180g LP pressed at RTI. In 2018, a 50th Anniversary Edition was released with an entirely new stereo mix and 5.1 mix byBob Clearmountain, mastered byBob Ludwig. It also included some of the additional tracks from the 2000 re-release, and a new vocal-only mix of \"I Shall Be Released\". Track listing Personnel The Band Additional personnel 2018 remix References Sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Page version status This is an accepted version of this page TheTreaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as theNon-Proliferation TreatyorNPT, is an internationaltreatywhose objective is to prevent the spread ofnuclear weaponsand weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses ofnuclear energy, and to further the goal of achievingnuclear disarmamentand general and complete disarmament.Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by theEighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament, aUnited Nations-sponsored organization based inGeneva, Switzerland. Opened for signature in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970. As required by the text, after twenty-five years, NPT parties met in May 1995 and agreed to extend the treaty indefinitely.More countries are parties to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, a testament to the treaty's significance.As of August 2016, 191 states have become parties\",\n \"have become parties to the treaty, thoughNorth Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its withdrawal from the NPT in 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in violation of core obligations.FourUN member stateshave never accepted the NPT, three of which possess or are thought to possess nuclear weapons:India,Israel, andPakistan. In addition,South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined. The treaty definesnuclear-weapon statesas those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1 January 1967; these are the United States (1945),Russia(1949), theUnited Kingdom(1952),France(1960), andChina(1964). Four other states are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons:India,Pakistan, andNorth Koreahave openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons, whileIsraelisdeliberately ambiguousregardingits nuclear weapons status. The NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain: the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and\",\n \"nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals. The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences. Even though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the signing parties decided, by consensus, to unconditionally extend the treaty indefinitely during the Review Conference in New York City on 11 May 1995, in the culmination of U.S. government efforts led by AmbassadorThomas Graham Jr. At the time the NPT was proposed, there were predictions of 25–30 nuclear weapon states within 20 years. Instead, over forty years later, five states are not parties to the NPT, and they include the only four additional states believed to possess nuclear weapons.Several additional measures have been adopted to strengthen the NPT and the broader nuclear nonproliferation regime and make it difficult for\",\n \"it difficult for states to acquire the capability to produce nuclear weapons, including the export controls of theNuclear Suppliers Groupand the enhanced verification measures of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA)Additional Protocol. Critics argue that the NPT cannot stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons or the motivation to acquire them. They express disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads in their combined stockpile. Several high-ranking officials within the United Nations have said that they can do little to stop states usingnuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons. Treaty structure The NPT consists of a preamble and eleven articles. Although the concept of \\\"pillars\\\" is not expressed anywhere in the NPT, the treaty is nevertheless sometimes interpreted as athree-pillarsystem,with an implicit balance among them: These pillars are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. An effective\",\n \"An effective nonproliferation regime whose members comply with their obligations provides an essential foundation for progress on disarmament and makes possible greater cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. With the right to access the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology comes the responsibility of nonproliferation. Progress on disarmament reinforces efforts to strengthen the nonproliferation regime and to enforce compliance with obligations, thereby also facilitating peaceful nuclear cooperation.The \\\"pillars\\\" concept has been questioned by some who believe that the NPT is, as its name suggests, principally about nonproliferation, and who worry that \\\"three pillars\\\" language misleadingly implies that the three elements have equivalent importance. First pillar: Non-proliferation Under Article I of the NPT, nuclear-weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state in the\",\n \"state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon. Under Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes. Five states are recognized by the NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968), which also happen to be the fivepermanent members of the United Nations Security Council. These five NWS agree not to transfer \\\"nuclear weapons or othernuclear explosivedevices\\\" and \\\"not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce\\\" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to\",\n \"I). NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to \\\"receive\\\", \\\"manufacture\\\", or \\\"acquire\\\" nuclear weapons or to \\\"seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons\\\" (Article II). NNWS parties also agree to accept safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or othernuclear explosivedevices (Article III). The five NWS parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear weapons against a non-NWS party except in response to a nuclear attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a Nuclear Weapons State. However, these undertakings have not been incorporated formally into the treaty, and the exact details have varied over time. The U.S. also had nuclear warheads targeted at North Korea, a non-NWS, from 1959 until 1991. The previous United KingdomSecretary of State for Defence,Geoff Hoon, has also explicitly invoked the possibility of the use of the country's nuclear weapons in response to a\",\n \"in response to a non-conventional attack by \\\"rogue states\\\".In January 2006, PresidentJacques Chiracof France indicated that an incident ofstate-sponsored terrorismon France could trigger a small-scale nuclear retaliation aimed at destroying the \\\"rogue state's\\\" power centers. Security provided by extendednuclear deterrenceor anuclear umbrellahave been a factor limiting incentives for some NNWS to acquire nuclear weapons. Second pillar: Disarmament Under Article VI of the NPT, all Parties undertake to pursue good-faith negotiations on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race, to nuclear disarmament, and to general and complete disarmament. Article VI of the NPT represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon states. The NPT's preamble contains language affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthen international trust so as to create someday the conditions for a halt to the\",\n \"for a halt to the production of nuclear weapons, and treaty on general and complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular, nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles from national arsenals. The wording of the NPT's Article VI arguably imposes only a vague obligation on all NPT signatories to move in the general direction of nuclear and total disarmament, saying, \\\"Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament.\\\"Under this interpretation, Article VI does not strictly require all signatories to actually conclude a disarmament treaty. Rather, it only requires them \\\"to negotiate in good faith\\\". On the other hand, some governments, especially non-nuclear-weapon states belonging to theNon-Aligned Movement, have interpreted Article VI's language as constituting a formal and specific obligation on the\",\n \"obligation on the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, and argue that these states have failed to meet their obligation.TheInternational Court of Justice(ICJ), in itsadvisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, issued 8 July 1996, unanimously interprets the text of Article VI as implying that There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. The ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament. Critics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in thepost–Cold War era, has\",\n \"War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals. Other observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament.No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which has led to the elimination of thousands of weapons and delivery systems—could eventually make the possession of nuclear weapons more attractive by increasing the perceived strategic value of a small arsenal. As one U.S. official and NPT expert warned in 2007,\",\n \"warned in 2007, \\\"logic suggests that as the number of nuclear weapons decreases, the 'marginal utility' of a nuclear weapon as an instrument of military power increases. At the extreme, which it is precisely disarmament's hope to create, the strategic utility of even one or two nuclear weapons would be huge.\\\" Third pillar: Peaceful use of nuclear energy NPT Article IV acknowledges the right of all Parties to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and to benefit from international cooperation in this area, in conformity with their nonproliferation obligations. Article IV also encourages such cooperation.This so-called third pillar provides for the transfer of nuclear technology and materials to NPT Parties for peaceful purposes in the development of civilian nuclear energy programs in those countries, subject to IAEA safeguards to demonstrate that their nuclear programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons. As the commercially popularlight water reactornuclear power stationuses\",\n \"power stationuses enriched uranium fuel, it follows that states must be able either to enrich uranium or purchase it on an international market.Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency, has called the spread of enrichment and reprocessing capabilities the \\\"Achilles' heel\\\" of the nuclear nonproliferation regime. As of 2007, 13 states have an enrichment capability. During the 1960s and 1970s many states, almost 60, were supplied withresearch reactorsfuelled by weapon gradehighly enriched uranium(HEU) through the United StatesAtoms for Peaceprogram and a similar Soviet Union program.In the 1980s a program to convert HEU research reactors to use low enriched fuel was started in the United States due to proliferation concerns.However 26 states possessed more than 1 kg of civilian HEU in 2015,and as of 2016 the stocks of HEU for civilian research were 60 tonnes, with 74 research reactors still using HEU. Because the availability of fissile material has long been considered\",\n \"been considered the principal obstacle to, and \\\"pacing element\\\" for, a country's nuclear weapons development effort, it was declared a major emphasis of U.S. policy in 2004 to prevent the further spread of uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing (a.k.a. \\\"ENR\\\") technology.Countries possessing ENR capabilities, it is feared, have what is in effect the option of using this capability to produce fissile material for weapons use on demand, thus giving them what has been termed a \\\"virtual\\\" nuclear weapons program.The degree to which NPT members have a \\\"right\\\" to ENR technology notwithstanding its potentially grave proliferation implications, therefore, is at the cutting edge of policy and legal debates surrounding the meaning of Article IV and its relation to Articles I, II, and III of the treaty. Countries that have become Parties to the NPT as non-nuclear-weapon States have a strong record of not building nuclear weapons, although some tried and one eventually left the NPT and acquired nuclear weapons.\",\n \"nuclear weapons. Iraq was found by the IAEA to have violated its safeguards obligations and subject to punitive sanctions by theUN Security Council. North Korea never came into compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement and was cited repeatedly for these violations,and later withdrew from the NPT and tested multiple nuclear devices. Iran was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards obligations in an unusual non-consensus decision because it \\\"failed in a number of instances over an extended period of time\\\" to report aspects of its enrichment program.In 1991, Romania reported previously undeclared nuclear activities by the former regime and the IAEA reported this non-compliance to the Security Council for information only. Libya pursued a clandestine nuclear weapons program before abandoning it in December 2003. The IAEA reported Syria's safeguards non-compliance to the UN Security Council, which did not take action. In some regions, the fact that all neighbors are verifiably free of nuclear weapons\",\n \"of nuclear weapons reduces any pressure individual states might feel to build those weapons themselves, even if neighbors are known to have peaceful nuclear energy programs that might otherwise be suspicious. In this, the treaty works as designed. In 2004,Mohamed ElBaradeisaid that by some estimates thirty-five to forty states could have the knowledge to develop nuclear weapons. Key articles Article I:Each nuclear-weapons state (NWS) undertakes not to transfer, to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices. Article II: Each non-NWS party undertakes not to receive, from any source, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices; not to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices; and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture. Article III: Each non-NWS party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the IAEA for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear material in\",\n \"nuclear material in all of the state's peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. Article IV: 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all the Parties to the Treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty. 2. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with due\",\n \"Treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world. Article VI: Each party \\\"undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a Treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control\\\". Article IX: \\\"For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967.\\\" Article X: Establishes the right to withdraw from the Treaty giving 3 months' notice. It also establishes the duration of the Treaty (25 years before 1995 Extension Initiative). History The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that theCold Wardeterrent relationship between just the United States and theSoviet Unionwas fragile. Having more nuclear-weapon states would reduce security\",\n \"reduce security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, escalation in tensions, and nuclear conflict. Moreover, since theuse of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasakiin 1945, it has been apparent that the development of nuclear capabilities by States could enable them to divert technology and materials for weapons purposes. Thus, the problem of preventing such diversions became a central issue in discussions on peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Initial efforts, which began in 1946, to create an international system enabling all States to have access to nuclear technology under appropriate safeguards, were terminated in 1949 without the achievement of this objective, due to serious political differences between the major Powers. By then, both the United States and the former Soviet Union had tested nuclear weapons, and were beginning to build their stockpiles. In December 1953, US PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower, in his \\\"Atoms for Peace\\\" proposal, presented to\",\n \"presented to the eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly, urged that an international organization be established to disseminate peaceful nuclear technology, while guarding against development of weapons capabilities in additional countries. His proposal resulted in 1957 in the establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which was charged with the dual responsibility for promotion and control of nuclear technology. IAEA technical activities began in 1958. An interim safeguards system for small nuclear reactors, put in place in 1961, was replaced in 1964 by a system covering larger installations and, over the following years, was expanded to include additional nuclear facilities. In recent years, efforts to strengthen the effectiveness and improve the efficiency of the IAEA safeguards system culminated in the approval of the Model Additional Protocol by the IAEA Board of Governors in May 1997. Within the framework of the United Nations, the principle of nuclear\",\n \"of nuclear non-proliferation was addressed in negotiations as early as 1957. The NPT process was launched byFrank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958. The NPT gained significant momentum in the early 1960s. The structure of a treaty to uphold nuclear non-proliferation as a norm of international behaviour had become clear by the mid-1960s, and by 1968 final agreement had been reached on a Treaty that would prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons, enable cooperation for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament. It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the firstState to sign. Accession became nearly universal after the end of theCold Warand of South Africanapartheid. In 1992, The People's Republic of China and France acceded to the NPT, the last of the five nuclear powers recognized by the treaty to do so. The treaty provided, in article X, for a conference to be convened 25 years after its entry into force to decide whether the\",\n \"decide whether the treaty should continue in force indefinitely, or be extended for an additional fixed period or periods. Accordingly, at the NPT Review and Extension Conference in May 1995, state parties to the treaty agreed—without a vote—on the treaty's indefinite extension, and decided that review conferences should continue to be held every five years. After Brazil acceded to the NPT in 1998, the only remaining non-nuclear-weapon state which had not signed was Cuba, which joined the NPT (and theTreaty of TlatelolcoNWFZ) in 2002. Several NPT states parties have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs. South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, but has since renounced it and acceded to the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nucleararsenal; after this, the remaining African countries signed the treaty. Theformer Soviet Republicswhere nuclear weapons had been based, namely Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, transferred those weapons to Russia and joined the NPT by 1994 following\",\n \"by 1994 following the signature of theBudapest Memorandum on Security Assurances. Successor states from theBreakup of YugoslaviaandDissolution of Czechoslovakiaalso joined the treaty soon after their independence. Montenegro and East Timor were the last countries to accede to the treaty on their independence in 2006 and 2003; the only other country to accede in the 21st century was Cuba in 2002. The three Micronesian countries inCompact of Free Associationwith the USA joined the NPT in 1995, along with Vanuatu. Major South American countries Argentina, Chile, and Brazil joined in 1995 and 1998. Arabian Peninsula countries included Saudi Arabia and Bahrain in 1988, Qatar and Kuwait in 1989, UAE in 1995, and Oman in 1997. The European states ofMonacoandAndorrajoined in 1995–6. Also acceding in the 1990s were Myanmar in 1992 and Guyana in 1993. United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing At the time the treaty was being negotiated,NATOhad in place secretnuclear weapons sharingagreements whereby the United States\",\n \"the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended \\\"unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling\\\", so there is no breach of the NPT.These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including theSoviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time. As of 2005, it is estimated that the United States still provides about 180 tacticalB61 nuclear bombsfor use byBelgium,Germany,Italy, theNetherlandsandTurkeyunder these NATO agreements.Many states, and theNon-Aligned Movement, now argue this violates Articles I and II of the treaty, and are applying\",\n \"and are applying diplomatic pressure to terminate these agreements. They point out that the pilots and other staff of the \\\"non-nuclear\\\" NATO states practice handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and non-U.S. warplanes have been adapted to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs which must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its \\\"nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political\\\". U.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuadingWest Germanynot to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with theWarsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S. hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs,\",\n \"weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route.(West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.) Preparations for Russia's weapon deployment in Belarus On 27 February 2022, shortly after the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine,a referendumwas staged in Belarus to remove a constitutional prohibition on basing nuclear weapons on its territory.On 25 June 2022, President of BelarusLukashenkomet Russian PresidentPutinto discuss the deployment of Russian short-range nuclear-capable missiles on the territory of Belarus. The transfer of nuclear warheads would require a further decision, possibly after a number of years, and could be tied to future NATO decisions. In Belarus, Russia plans to deploy\",\n \"plans to deploy nuclear-capableIskander-Mmissile systems.Both conventional and nuclear versions of the missile would be provided under the plans.Additionally, Putin said that he would facilitate the modifications necessary for BelarusianSu-25bombers to carry nuclear missiles. On 14 June 2023, president Lukashenko said that Russia had started moving tactical nuclear weapons into Belarus's territory.The Russian president had said the weapons were moved \\\"as a deterrence measure\\\" against threats to Russian statehood, and would not be controlled by Belarus.NATO saw no evidence in a change in Russia's nuclear position,while Ukrainian intelligence said that not a single warhead had yet been transferred. Non-parties Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon programs, and Israel has a long-standingpolicy of deliberate ambiguitywith regards to its nuclear program (seeList of states with nuclear weapons). India\",\n \"weapons). India India has detonated nuclear devices,firstin 1974 andagainin 1998.It is estimated to have enough fissile material for more than 150 warheadsand was among the few countries to have ano first usepolicy, a pledge not to use nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons, however India's formerNSAShivshankar Menonsignaled a significant shift from \\\"no first use\\\" to \\\"no first use against non-nuclear weapon states\\\" in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of theNational Defence CollegeinNew Delhion 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India's \\\"strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence\\\". India argues that the NPT creates a club of \\\"nuclear haves\\\" and a larger group of \\\"nuclear have-nots\\\" by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid. India's then External Affairs MinisterPranab Mukherjeesaid\",\n \"Mukherjeesaid during a visit to Tokyo in 2007: \\\"If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment.\\\"Although there have been unofficial discussions on creating a South Asian nuclear weapons free zone, including India and Pakistan, this is considered to be highly unlikely for the foreseeable future. In early March 2006, India and the United States finalized an agreement, in the face of criticism in both countries, to restart cooperation on civilian nuclear technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22 nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them underIAEAsafeguards.Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the IAEA, welcomed the deal by calling India \\\"an important partner in the non-proliferation regime.\\\" In December 2006,United States Congressapproved theUnited States-India\",\n \"States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act, endorsing a deal that was forged during Prime MinisterManmohan Singh's visit to the United States in July 2005 and cemented during President Bush's visit to India earlier in 2006. The legislation allows for the transfer of civilian nuclear material to India. Despite its status outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, nuclear cooperation with India was permitted on the basis of its clean non-proliferation record, and India's need for energy fueled by its rapid industrialization and a billion-plus population. On 1 August 2008, the IAEA approved the India Safeguards Agreementand on 6 September 2008, India was granted the waiver at the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) meeting held in Vienna, Austria. The consensus was arrived after overcoming misgivings expressed by Austria, Ireland and New Zealand and is an unprecedented step in giving exemption to a country, which has not signed the NPT and theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty(CTBT).While India could\",\n \"India could commence nuclear trade with other willing countries.The U.S. Congress approved this agreement and President Bush signed it on 8 October 2008. When China announced expanded nuclear cooperation with Pakistan in 2010, proponents ofarms controldenounced both the deals, claiming that they weakened the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT. As of January 2011, Australia, atop three uranium producer and home to world's largest known reserves, had continued its refusal to export uranium to India despite diplomatic pressure from India. In November 2011, Australian Prime MinisterJulia Gillardannounced a desire to allow exports to India,a policy change which was authorized by her party's national conference in December.The following month, Gillard overturned Australia's long-standing ban on exporting uranium to India.She further said, \\\"We should take a decision in the national interest, a decision about strengthening our strategic partnership with India in this\",\n \"with India in this the Asian century,\\\" and said that any agreement to sell uranium to India would include strict safeguards to ensure it would only be used for civilian purposes, and not end up in nuclear weapons. On 5 September 2014Tony Abbott, Gillard's successor as Australian Prime Minister, sealed a civil nuclear deal to sell uranium to India. \\\"We signed a nuclear cooperation agreement because Australia trusts India to do the right thing in this area, as it has been doing in other areas,\\\" Abbott told reporters after he and Indian Prime MinisterNarendra Modisigned a pact to sell uranium for peaceful power generation. Pakistan In May 1998, following India'snuclear testsearlier that month, Pakistan conducted two sets of nuclear tests, theChagai-IandChagai-II. Although there is little confirmed information in public, as of 2015, Pakistan was estimated to have as many as 120 warheads.According to analyses of theCarnegie Endowment for International Peaceand theStimson Center, Pakistan has enough fissile\",\n \"has enough fissile material for 350 warheads. Pakistani officials argue that the NPT is discriminatory. When asked at a briefing in 2015 whether Islamabad would sign the NPT if Washington requested it,Foreign SecretaryAizaz Ahmad Chaudhrywas quoted as responding \\\"It is a discriminatory treaty. Pakistan has the right to defend itself, so Pakistan will not sign the NPT. Why should we?\\\"Until 2010, Pakistan had always maintained the position that it would sign the NPT if India did so. In 2010, Pakistan abandoned this historic position and stated that it would join the NPT only as a recognized nuclear-weapon state. The NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Pakistan, with very narrow exceptions, since it does not have full-scope IAEA safeguards (i.e. safeguards on all its nuclear activities). Pakistan has sought to reach an agreement similar to that with India,but these efforts have been rebuffed by the United States and other NSG members, on the grounds that Pakistan's track\",\n \"Pakistan's track record as a nuclear proliferator makes it impossible for it to have any sort of nuclear deal in the near future. By 2010, China reportedly signed a civil nuclear agreement with Pakistan, using the justification that the deal was \\\"peaceful\\\".The British government criticized this, on the grounds that 'the time is not yet right for a civil nuclear deal with Pakistan'.China did not seek formal approval from thenuclear suppliers group, and claimed instead that its cooperation with Pakistan was \\\"grandfathered\\\" when China joined the NSG, a claim that was disputed by other NSG members.Pakistanapplied for membership on 19 May 2016,supported by Turkey and ChinaHowever, many NSG members opposed Pakistan's membership bid due to its track record, including the illicit procurement network of Pakistani scientist A.Q. Khan, which aided the nuclear programs of Iran, Libya and North Korea.Pakistani officials reiterated the request in August 2016. Israel Israel has a long-standingpolicy of deliberate\",\n \"of deliberate ambiguitywith regards to its nuclear program (seeList of countries with nuclear weapons). Israel has been developing nuclear technology at itsDimonasite in theNegevsince 1958, and some nonproliferation analysts estimate that Israel may have stockpiled between 100 and 200 warheads using reprocessed plutonium. The position on the NPT is explained in terms of \\\"Israeli exceptionality\\\", a term coined by ProfessorGerald M. Steinberg, in reference to the perception that the country's small size, overall vulnerability, as well as the history of deep hostility and large-scale attacks by neighboring states, require a deterrent capability. The Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny possession of nuclear weapons, although this is now regarded as an open secret after Israeli junior nuclear technicianMordechai Vanunu—subsequently arrested and sentenced for treason by Israel—published evidence about the program to the BritishSunday Timesin 1986. On 18 September 2009, the General Conference of\",\n \"Conference of theInternational Atomic Energy Agencycalled on Israel to open its nuclear facilities to IAEA inspection and adhere to the non-proliferation treaty as part of a resolution on \\\"Israeli nuclear capabilities\\\", which passed by a narrow margin of 49–45 with 16 abstentions. The chief Israeli delegate stated that \\\"Israel will not co-operate in any matter with this resolution.\\\"However, similar resolutions were defeated in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015.As with Pakistan, the NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Israel. Other states North Korea North Korea acceded to the treaty on 12 December 1985 in order to obtain assistance from the Soviet Union in the construction of fourlight-water reactors, but was ruled be in noncompliance with its IAEA safeguards agreement after a series of inspections in 1992-93 which determined that North Korea had not fully declared its history of reprocessing spent fuel at theYongbyon nuclear facility.North Korea responded by announcing its\",\n \"by announcing its intent to withdraw from the treaty on 12 March 1993, and PresidentBill Clintonresponded by announcing sanctions and considering military action. The crisis ended with theAgreed Frameworknegotiated by former US PresidentJimmy Carterin which North Korea agreed to an IAEA-monitored freeze of plutonium production facilities and construction of new reactors in exchange for two light-water reactors andheavy fuel oilshipments through the US-ledKorean Peninsula Energy Development Organizationconsortium. North Korea also abandoned its withdrawal from the NPT. During the late 1990s and the early 2000s critics of the agreement, as well as Clinton's successorGeorge W. Bush, expressed skepticism on North Korean compliance to the Agreed Framework. During 2002 negotiations US Assistant Secretary of StateJames A. Kellyaccused North Korea of a secret highly enriched uranium program; North Korean First Vice Foreign MinisterKang Sok-juand Vice Foreign MinisterKim Kye-gwanresponded by denying the allegations\",\n \"the allegations but asserting that North Korea had a right to nuclear weapons. The U.S. subsequently halted fuel oil shipments to North Korea in December 2002 and the DPRK government again gave notice of withdrawal from NPT on 10 January 2003.The withdrawal became effective 10 April 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty. In April 2003, North Korea agreed to the multilateralsix-party talksto find a diplomatic solution to the issue hosted byChinaand including the United States,South Korea,Russia, andJapan. North Korea initially demanded resumption of fuel shipments, while the United States demanded the \\\"complete, verifiable, and irreversible dismantlement\\\" of the North Korean nuclear program.On 10 February 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks. \\\"We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self-defence to cope with the\",\n \"to cope with the Bush administration's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK ,\\\" a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue.Six-party talks resumed in July 2005. On 19 September 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors. The difficult issue of the supply oflight water reactorsto replace North Korea'sindigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions.On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT.The six-party talks eventually collapsed before a final agreement could be negotiated after theU.S. State DepartmentsanctionedBanco Delta Asiaunder Section 311 of thePatriot Actfor money-laundering\",\n \"money-laundering involving North Korean accounts. On 2 October 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test \\\"in the future\\\", although it did not state when.On Monday, 9 October 2006 at 01:35:28 (UTC) theUnited States Geological Surveydetected a magnitude 4.3seismic event70 km (43 mi) north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test.The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completeda successful underground testof a nuclear fission device. AfterUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1718imposed sanctions on North Korea, the six-party talks resumed. In February 2007 the parties agreed to the Initial Actions for the Implementation for the Joint Statement in which North Korea would dismantle its nuclear weapons programs, including the Yongbyon reactor, in exchange for the return of frozen funds at Banco Delta Asia and foreign energy assistance.However, the agreement failed due to verification problems and North\",\n \"problems and North Korea fully withdrew from the six-party talks in 2009 after the other members condemned the2009 North Korean missile tests, expelling all US and IAEA inspectors from the country.The UN responded by adoptingUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1874expanding the sanctions regime. In 2007, reports from Washington suggested that the 2002CIAreports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence.On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations, there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok-ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan's then-President Musharraf revealed that theA.Q. Khanproliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment.\",\n \"uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U.S. officials to the effect that evidence obtained in dismantlingLibya's WMD programspoints toward North Korea as the source for Libya'suranium hexafluoride(UF6)—which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment.North Korea formally announced the existence of a uranium enrichment program in September 2009. In 2011, after rising tensions over the North Korean nuclear program, theROKSCheonansinking, and thebombardment of Yeonpyeong, North Korea began to express interest in returning to the six-party talks. Bilateral negotiations between North Korea and the United States after thedeath of Kim Jong-illed to the 29 February 2012 \\\"Leap Day Agreement\\\" in which North Korea would agree to allow IAEA inspections and resume the six-party talks. However, these diplomatic gains were quickly undercut by launching theUnha-3rocket, leading the United States to suspend food aid.North Korea\",\n \"aid.North Korea conducted further nuclear tests in2013,January 2016,September 2016, and2017, and announced that it was developing miniaturized warheads andintercontinental ballistic missiles. It also claimed that it had successfully detonatedthermonuclear weaponsin the January 2016 and 2017 tests. The North Korean nuclear weapons development led to the2017–2018 North Korea crisiswhich nearly led to war, with both North Korean Supreme LeaderKim Jong-unand US PresidentDonald Trumpthreatening military action. The crisis was averted after a series of meetings between Kim Jong-un, US Secretary of StateMike Pompeo, and South Korean PresidentMoon Jae-infinally culminating with the2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summitbetween Trump and Kim, the first face-to-face meeting between the US and North Korean heads of state.The IAEA has called for North Korea to rejoin it and the NPT since 2013. Iran Iran is a party to the NPT since 1970 but was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement, and the\",\n \"agreement, and the status of its nuclear program remains in dispute. In November 2003IAEADirector GeneralMohamed ElBaradeireported that Iran had repeatedly and over an extended period failed to meet its safeguards obligations under the NPT with respect to: After about two years of EU3-led diplomatic efforts and Iran temporarily suspending its enrichment program,the IAEA Board of Governors, acting under Article XII.C of the IAEA Statute, found in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions that these failures constituted non-compliance with the IAEA safeguards agreement.This was reported to theUN Security Councilin 2006,after which the Security Council passed a resolution demanding that Iran suspend its enrichment.Instead, Iran resumed its enrichment program. The IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran, and is continuing its work on verifying the absence of undeclared activities.In February 2008, the IAEA also reported that it was working to address \\\"alleged\",\n \"to address \\\"alleged studies\\\" of weaponization, based on documents provided by certain Member States, which those states claimed originated from Iran. Iran rejected the allegations as \\\"baseless\\\" and the documents as \\\"fabrications\\\".In June 2009, the IAEA reported that Iran had not \\\"cooperated with the Agency in connection with the remaining issues ... which need to be clarified to exclude the possibility of military dimensions to Iran's nuclear program.\\\" The United States concluded that Iran violated its Article III NPT safeguards obligations, and further argued based on circumstantial evidence that Iran's enrichment program was for weapons purposes and therefore violated Iran's Article II nonproliferation obligations.The November 2007 USNational Intelligence Estimate(NIE) later concluded that Iran had halted an active nuclear weapons program in the fall of 2003 and that it had remained halted as of mid-2007. The NIE's \\\"Key Judgments\\\", however, also made clear that what Iran had actually stopped in 2003 was\",\n \"stopped in 2003 was only \\\"nuclear weapon design and weaponization work and covert uranium conversion-related and uranium enrichment-related work\\\"-namely, those aspects of Iran's nuclear weapons effort that had not by that point already been leaked to the press and become the subject of IAEA investigations. Since Iran's uranium enrichment program at Natanz—and its continuing work on a heavy water reactor at Arak that would be ideal for plutonium production—began secretly years before in conjunction with the very weaponization work the NIE discussed and for the purpose of developing nuclear weapons, many observers find Iran's continued development of fissile material production capabilities distinctly worrying. Particularly because fissile material availability has long been understood to be the principal obstacle to nuclear weapons development and the primary \\\"pacing element\\\" for a weapons program, the fact that Iran has reportedly suspended weaponization work may not mean very much.As The Bush\",\n \"much.As The Bush Administration's Director of National Intelligence (DNI)Mike McConnellput it in 2008, the aspects of its work that Iran allegedly suspended were thus \\\"probably the least significant part of the program.\\\" Iran stated it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it had \\\"constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency\\\".Iran also stated that its enrichment program has been part of its civilian nuclear energy program, which is allowed under Article IV of the NPT. The Non-Aligned Movement has welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. Early during his tenure asUnited Nations Secretary General, between 2007 and 2016,Ban Ki-moonwelcomed the continued dialogue between Iran and the IAEA. He urged a peaceful resolution of the issue. In April 2010, during the signing of the U.S.-RussiaNew STARTTreaty,\",\n \"STARTTreaty, President Obama said that the United States, Russia, and other nations were demanding that Iran face consequences for failing to fulfill its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, saying \\\"We will not tolerate actions that flout the NPT, risk an arms race in a vital region, and threaten the credibility of the international community and our collective security.\\\" In 2015, Iran negotiated a nuclear deal with theP5+1, a group of countries that consisted of thefive permanent members of the UN Security Council(China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) plus Germany. On 14 July 2015, the P5+1 and Iran concluded theJoint Comprehensive Plan of Action, lifting sanctions on Iran in exchange for constraints and on Iran's nuclear activities and increased verification by the IAEA. On 8 May 2018, PresidentDonald Trumpwithdrew the United States from the JCPOAand reimposedsanctions on Iran. South Africa South Africa is the only country that developed nuclear weapons by\",\n \"nuclear weapons by itself and later dismantled them—unlike the formerSovietstatesUkraine,BelarusandKazakhstan, which inherited nuclear weapons from the formerUSSRand also acceded to the NPT as non-nuclear weapon states. During the days ofapartheid, the South African government developed a deep fear of both a black uprising and the threat of communism. This led to the development of a secret nuclear weapons program as an ultimate deterrent. South Africa has a large supply of uranium, which is mined in the country's gold mines. The government built a nuclear research facility atPelindabanearPretoriawhere uranium was enriched to fuel grade for theKoeberg Nuclear Power Stationas well as weapon grade for bomb production. In 1991, after international pressure and when a change of government was imminent, South African Ambassador to the United StatesHarry Schwarzsigned the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 1993, the then presidentFrederik Willem de Klerkopenly admitted that the country had developed a limited\",\n \"developed a limited nuclear weapon capability. These weapons were subsequently dismantled beforeSouth Africaacceded to the NPT and opened itself up to IAEA inspection. In 1994, the IAEA completed its work and declared that the country had fully dismantled its nuclear weapons program. Libya Libya had signed (in 1968) and ratified (in 1975) the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and was subject to IAEA nuclear safeguards inspections, but undertook a secret nuclear weapons development program in violation of its NPT obligations, using material and technology provided by theA.Q. Khanproliferation network—including actual nuclear weapons designs allegedly originating in China. Libya began secret negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom in March 2003 over potentially eliminating itsWMD programs. In October 2003, Libya was embarrassed by the interdiction of a shipment of Pakistani-designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia, also as part of A. Q. Khan's proliferation ring. In December 2003, Libya\",\n \"2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to eliminate all its WMD programs, and permitted U.S. and British teams (as well as IAEA inspectors) into the country to assist this process and verify its completion. The nuclear weapons designs, gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment, and other equipment—including prototypes for improvedSCUD ballistic missiles—were removed from Libya by the United States. (Libyan chemical weapons stocks and chemical bombs were also destroyed on site with international verification, with Libya joining theChemical Weapons Convention.) Libya's non-compliance with its IAEA safeguards was reported to the U.N. Security Council, but with no action taken, as Libya's return to compliance with safeguards and Article II of the NPT was welcomed. In 2011, the Libyan government ofMuammar al-Gaddafiwas overthrown in theLibyan Civil Warwith the assistance of amilitary interventionbyNATO forcesacting under the auspices ofUN Security Council Resolution 1973. Gaddafi's downfall 8 years after\",\n \"8 years after thedisarmament of Libya, in which Gaddafi agreed to eliminate Libya's nuclear weapons program, has been repeatedly cited by North Korea, which views Gaddafi's fate as a \\\"cautionary tale\\\" that influences North Korea's decision to maintain and intensifyits nuclear weapons program and arsenaldespite pressure to denuclearize. Syria Syria is a state party to the NPT since 1969 and has a limited civil nuclear program. Before the advent of theSyrian Civil Warit was known to operate only one small Chinese-built research reactor, SRR-1. Despite being a proponent of a Weapons of Mass Destruction Free Zone in the Middle East the country was accused of pursuing a military nuclear program with a reported nuclear facility in a desertDeir ez-Zor Governorate. The reactor's components had likely been designed and manufactured in North Korea, with the reactor's striking similarity in shape and size to the North Korean Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. That information alarmed Israeli military and\",\n \"military and intelligence to such a degree that the idea of a targeted airstrike was conceived. It resulted inOperation Orchard, that took place on 6 September 2007 and saw as many as eightIsraeli Air Forceaircraft taking part. The Israeli government is said to have bounced the idea of the operation off of the US Bush administration, although the latter declined to participate. The nuclear reactor was destroyed in the attack, which also killed about ten North Korean workers. The attack did not cause an international outcry or any serious Syrian retaliatory moves as both parties tried to keep it secret: Despite a half-century state of war declared by surrounding states, Israel did not want publicity as regards its breach of the ceasefire, while Syria was not willing to acknowledge its clandestine nuclear program. Ukraine Ukraine acceded to the NPT in 1994 as a non-nuclear-weapon state, and committed to remove all nuclear weapons from its territory. In recognition of Ukraine's decision, the UK, the United\",\n \"the UK, the United States and Russia provided security assurances to Ukraine under theBudapest Memorandumof 1994. In 1993, political scientistJohn Mearsheimerargued that the United States should encourage Ukraine to retain anuclear deterrentagainst potential Russian expansion, and to reduce the danger of war.After theRussian invasion of 2014Andreas Umland, an analyst from the Swedish Institute of International Affairs, argued that Ukraine had been unwise to give up its arsenal, as Russia breaking the treaty only had limited consequences, and demonstrated that only a nuclear arsenal guarantees a country's sovereignty in the face of aggression from a nuclear power.However, Mariana Budjeryn of Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center, argued that it was unclear whether Ukraine's nuclear arsenal would have kept it safe from Russian aggression. Establishing operative control and maintaining the missiles would have been challenging for Ukraine, which might have faced sanctions had it refused to give up its arsenal.\",\n \"up its arsenal. Leaving the treaty Article X allows a state to leave the treaty if \\\"extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country\\\", giving three months' (ninety days') notice. The state is required to give reasons for leaving the NPT in this notice. NATOstates argue that when there is a state of \\\"general war\\\" the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATOnuclear weapons sharingpolicy. NATO's argument is based on the phrase \\\"the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war\\\" in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding.SeeUnited States–NATO nuclear weapons sharingabove. North Korea has also caused an uproar by its use of this provision of the\",\n \"provision of the treaty. Article X.1 only requires a state to give three months' notice in total, and does not provide for other states to question a state's interpretation of \\\"supreme interests of its country\\\". In 1993, North Korea gave notice to withdraw from the NPT. However, after 89 days, North Korea reached agreement with the United States to freeze its nuclear program under theAgreed Frameworkand \\\"suspended\\\" its withdrawal notice. In October 2002, the United States accused North Korea of violating the Agreed Framework by pursuing a secret uranium enrichment program, and suspended shipments of heavy fuel oil under that agreement. In response, North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors, disabled IAEA equipment, and, on 10 January 2003, announced that it was ending the suspension of its previous NPT withdrawal notification. North Korea said that only one more day's notice was sufficient for withdrawal from the NPT, as it had given 89 days before. The IAEA Board of Governors rejected this interpretation.Most\",\n \"interpretation.Most countries held that a new three-months withdrawal notice was required, and some questioned whether North Korea's notification met the \\\"extraordinary events\\\" and \\\"supreme interests\\\" requirements of the treaty. The Joint Statement of 19 September 2005 at the end of the Fourth Round of theSix-Party Talkscalled for North Korea to \\\"return\\\" to the NPT, implicitly acknowledging that it had withdrawn. Recent and coming events The main outcome of the 2000 Conference was the adoption by consensus of a comprehensive Final Document,which included among other things \\\"practical steps for the systematic and progressive efforts\\\" to implement the disarmament provisions of the NPT, commonly referred to as theThirteen Steps. On 18 July 2005, US President George W. Bush met Indian Prime MinisterManmohan Singhand declared that he would work to change US law and international rules to permit trade in US civilian nuclear technology with India.At the time, British columnistGeorge Monbiotargued that the\",\n \"that the U.S.-India nuclear deal, in combination with US attempts to deny Iran (an NPT signatory) civilian nuclear fuel-making technology, might destroy the NPT regime. In the first half of 2010, it was strongly believed that China had signed a civilian nuclear deal with Pakistan claiming that the deal was \\\"peaceful\\\". Arms controladvocates criticised the reportedChina-Pakistan dealas they did in case ofU.S.-India dealclaiming that both the deals violate the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT.Some reports asserted that the deal was a strategic move by China to balance US influence inSouth-Asia. According to a report published byU.S. Department of Defensein 2001, China had provided Pakistan withnuclear materialsand has given critical technological assistance in the construction of Pakistan's nuclear weapons development facilities, in violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, of which China even then was a signatory. At the Seventh Review Conference in May\",\n \"Conference in May 2005,there were stark differences between the United States, which wanted the conference to focus on non-proliferation, especially on its allegations against Iran, and most other countries, who emphasized the lack of seriousnuclear disarmamentby the nuclear powers. Thenon-aligned countriesreiterated their position emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament. The2010 Review Conferencewas held in May 2010 in New York City, and adopted a final document that included a summary by the Review Conference President, AmbassadorLibran Capactulanof the Philippines, and an Action Plan that was adopted by consensus.The 2010 conference was generally considered a success because it reached consensus where the previous Review Conference in 2005 ended in disarray. Many attributed the success of the 2010 conference toU.S. PresidentBarack Obama's commitment to nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament. Some have warned that this success raised unrealistically high expectations that could lead to failure at\",\n \"lead to failure at the next Review Conference in 2015. The \\\"Global Summit on Nuclear Security\\\" took place 12–13 April 2010. The summit was proposed byPresident Obama in Pragueand was intended to strengthen the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in conjunction with theProliferation Security Initiativeand theGlobal Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism.Forty seven states and three international organizations took part in the summit,which issued a communiquéand a work plan.For further information see2010 Nuclear Security Summit. In a major policy speech at theBrandenburg GateinBerlinon 19 June 2013, Obama outlined plans to further reduce the number of warheads in theU.S. nuclear arsenal.According toForeign Policy, Obama proposed a \\\"one-third reduction in strategic nuclear warheads—on top of the cuts already required by theNew STARTtreaty—bringing the number of deployed warheads to about 1,000\\\".Obama is seeking to \\\"negotiate these reductions withRussiato continue to move beyondCold Warnuclear postures,\\\" according\",\n \"according to briefing documents provided toForeign Policy.In the same speech, Obama emphasized his administration's efforts to isolate any nuclear weapons capabilities emanating fromIranandNorth Korea. He also called for a renewed bipartisan effort in theUnited States Congressto ratify theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treatyand called on countries to negotiate a new treaty to end the production offissile materialfornuclear weapons. On 24 April 2014, it was announced that the nation of theMarshall Islandshas brought suit in The Hague against the United States, the former Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel seeking to have the disarmament provisions of the NPT enforced. The 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was held at the United Nations in New York from 27 April to 22 May 2015 and presided over by Ambassador Taous Feroukhi of Algeria. The Treaty, particularly article VIII, paragraph 3,\",\n \"VIII, paragraph 3, envisages a review of the operation of the Treaty every five years, a provision which was reaffirmed by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference and the 2000 NPT Review Conference. At the 2015 NPT Review Conference, States parties examined the implementation of the Treaty's provisions since 2010. Despite intensive consultations, the Conference was not able to reach agreement on the substantive part of the draft Final Document. The Tenth Review Conference convened 1–26 August 2022, after a two-year postponement due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, and concluded without adopting a final document. Contentious negotiations came close to consensus on a text, but ultimately Russia blocked consensus over issues related toits invasion of Ukraine, including references to the safety of theZaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plantin the draft text. On June 23, 2023, The US Department of State issued a statementthat the United States hosted the meeting on June 13–14 in Cairo among the five\",\n \"among the five nuclear weapons states, describing it as \\\"an ongoing exchange in the context of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).\\\" Criticism and responses Over the years the NPT has come to be seen by many Third World states as \\\"a conspiracy of the nuclear 'haves' to keep the nuclear 'have-nots' in their place\\\".This argument has roots in Article VI of the treaty which \\\"obligates the nuclear weapons states to liquidate their nuclear stockpiles and pursue complete disarmament. The non-nuclear states see no signs of this happening\\\".Some argue that the NWS have not fully complied with their disarmament obligations under Article VI of the NPT.Some countries such as India have criticized the NPT, because it \\\"discriminated against states not possessing nuclear weapons on 1 January 1967,\\\" while Iran and numerous Arab states have criticized Israel for not signing the NPT.There has been disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have\",\n \"states still have 13,400 warheads (as of February 2021) among them. As notedabove, the International Court of Justice, in itsadvisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that \\\"there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control\\\".Some critics of the nuclear-weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons. The United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that, since the end of the Cold War, it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons, and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of\",\n \"whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons.U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear warheads. By the time accelerated dismantlement efforts ordered by President George W. Bush were completed, the U.S. arsenal was less than a quarter of its size at the end of the Cold War, and smaller than it had been at any point since the Eisenhower administration, well before the drafting of the NPT. The United States has also purchased many thousands of weapons' worth of uranium formerly in Soviet nuclear weapons for conversion into reactor fuel.As a consequence of this latter effort, it has been estimated that the equivalent of one lightbulb in every ten in the United States is powered by nuclear fuel removed from warheads previously targeted at the United States and its allies during the Cold War. The U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation agreed that nonproliferation and disarmament are linked, noting that they\",\n \"noting that they can be mutually reinforcing but also that growing proliferation risks create an environment that makes disarmament more difficult.The United Kingdom,Franceand Russialikewise defend their nuclear disarmament records, and the five NPT NWS issued a joint statement in 2008 reaffirming their Article VI disarmament commitments. According to Thomas Reed and Danny Stillman, the \\\"NPT has one giant loophole\\\": Article IV gives each non-nuclear weapon state the \\\"inalienable right\\\" to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power.A \\\"number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states usingnuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons\\\".A 2009 United Nations report said that: The revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable\",\n \"are directly usable in nuclear weapons. According to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not authorized to do so under the NPT, have not paid a significant price for their pursuit of weapons capabilities. Also, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals made by NPT signatories, notably the United States. Based on concerns over the slow pace of nuclear disarmament and the continued reliance on nuclear weapons in military and security concepts, doctrines and policies, theTreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weaponswas adopted in July 2017 and was subsequently opened for signature on 20 September 2017. Entering into force on 22 January 2021,it prohibits each state party from the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as assistance to those activities. It reaffirms in its preamble the vital role of the full and effective implementation of the NPT. Ineffective enforcement ofterritorial\",\n \"ofterritorial integrityandrule of lawin the 21st centurycould undermine the credibility of the security assurances that are part of the current global nuclear order. See also References External links\",\n \"The Band The Bandwas a Canadian-Americanrockband formed inToronto, Ontario, in 1967. It consisted of CanadiansRick Danko(bass, guitar, vocals, fiddle),Garth Hudson(organ, keyboards, accordion, saxophone),Richard Manuel(piano, drums, vocals),Robbie Robertson(guitar, vocals, piano, percussion), and AmericanLevon Helm(drums, vocals, mandolin, guitar, bass). The Band's music combined elements ofAmericana,folk, rock,jazzandcountry, which influenced artists such asGeorge Harrison,Elton John,the Grateful Dead,Eric ClaptonandWilco. Between 1958 and 1963, the group was known as the Hawks, a backing band forrockabillysingerRonnie Hawkins. In the mid-1960s, they gained recognition for being the backing group forBob Dylan, with his1966 concert tourbeing notable as Dylan's first with an electric band. After leaving Dylan and changing their name to The Band, they released several records to critical and popular acclaim, most notably their 1968 debut,Music from Big Pinkand its succeeding album, 1969'sThe Band. According\",\n \"Band. According toAllMusic,Music from Big Pink's influence on several generations of musicians has been substantial:Pink FloydmemberRoger Watersdeemed it the \\\"second-most influential record in the history of rock and roll\\\",and music journalistAl Aronowitzcalled it \\\"country soul ... a sound never heard before\\\".Their most popular songs included \\\"The Weight\\\" (1968), \\\"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\\\" (1969), and \\\"Up on Cripple Creek\\\" (1969). The Band performed their farewell concert on November 25, 1976. Footage from the event was released in 1978 as theconcert filmThe Last Waltz, directed byMartin Scorsese. It would be the last performance of the original five members. After five years apart, Danko, Hudson, Helm, and Manuel reunited in 1983 for a reunion tour without Robertson, as he had taken up a new career as a producer and composer for film soundtracks. Manuel died in 1986, but the remaining three members would continue to tour and occasionally release new albums of studio material until 1999, when,\",\n \"until 1999, when, upon the death of Danko, the remaining members decided to break up for good. Helm would go on to have a successful solo career, winning multipleGrammy Awardsin the folk and Americana categories until his 2012 death, while Hudson worked as a featured session musician. Robertson died in 2023, leaving Hudson as the only living member of the original lineup. Music critic Bruce Eder described The Band as \\\"one of the most popular and influential rock groups in the world, their music embraced by critics ... as seriously as the music ofthe Beatlesandthe Rolling Stones.\\\"The Band was inducted into theCanadian Music Hall of Famein 1989 and theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994.In 2004,Rolling Stoneranked them 50th on its list of the \\\"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\\\",and ranked \\\"The Weight\\\" 41st on its list of the \\\"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\\\".In 2008, the group received theGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award.In 2014, they were inducted intoCanada's Walk of Fame. History 1957–1964: The Hawks The\",\n \"The Hawks The future members of The Band first played together as the Hawks, the backing group forToronto-basedrockabillysingerRonnie Hawkins.Levon Helmbegan playing with the group in 1957, then became their fulltime drummer after graduating from high school in 1958. Helm journeyed with Hawkins fromArkansasto Ontario, where they were joined byRobbie Robertson,Rick Danko,Richard Manuel, and finallyGarth Hudson. Latter-day Band memberStan Szelestwas also in the group at that time. Hawkins's act was popular in and around Toronto and nearby Hamilton,and he had an effective way of eliminating his musical competition: when a promising band appeared, Hawkins would hire their best musicians for his own group; Robertson, Danko, and Manuel came under Hawkins's tutelage this way. While most of the Hawks were eager to join Hawkins's group, getting Hudson to join was more difficult. Having earned a college degree, Hudson planned on a career as a music teacher, and was only interested in playing rock music only as a\",\n \"music only as a hobby. The Hawks admired his wild, full-bore organ style and asked him repeatedly to join. Hudson finally agreed, under the condition that the Hawks each pay him $10 per week to be their instructor and purchase a new state-of-the-artLowrey organ; all music theory questions were directed to Hudson. There is a view thatjazzis 'evil' because it comes from evil people, but actually the greatest priests on 52nd Street, and on the streets of New York City were the musicians. They were doing the greatest healing work. And they knew how to punch through music which would cure and make people feel good. —Garth Hudson inThe Last Waltz With Hawkins, they recorded a few singles in this period and became well known as the best rock group in the thriving Toronto music scene. Hawkins regularly convened all-night rehearsals following long club shows, with the result that the young musicians quickly developed great technical prowess on their instruments. In late 1963, the group split from Hawkins over\",\n \"from Hawkins over personal differences. They had grown tired of playing the same songs so often and wanted to perform original material, and they were also wary of Hawkins's heavy-handed leadership. He would fine the Hawks if they brought their girlfriends to the clubs (fearing it might reduce the numbers of \\\"available\\\" girls who came to performances) or if they smokedmarijuana. Robertson later said, \\\"Eventually, built us up to the point where we outgrew his music and had to leave. He shot himself in the foot, really, by sharpening us into such a crackerjack band that we had to go on out into the world, because we knew what his vision was for himself, and we were all younger and more ambitious musically.\\\" Upon leaving Hawkins, the group was briefly known as the Levon Helm Sextet, with a sixth member, saxophonist Jerry Penfound, and then as Levon and the Hawks after Penfound's departure. In 1965, they released a single on Ware Records under the name the Canadian Squires, but they returned as Levon and the\",\n \"as Levon and the Hawks for a recording session forAtcolater that year.Also in 1965, Helm and the band met blues singer and harmonica playerSonny Boy Williamson. They wanted to record with him, offering to become his backing band, but Williamson died not long after their meeting. Later in 1965, American musicianBob Dylanhired the group as his backing band for his U.S. tour in 1965 andworld tour in 1966.Following the 1966 tour, the group moved with help from Dylan and his manager,Albert Grossman, toSaugerties, New York, where they made the informal 1967 recordings that becameThe Basement Tapes, the basis for their 1968 debut album,Music from Big Pink. Because they were always referred to simply as \\\"the band\\\" to various frontmen and the locals in Woodstock, Helm said the name \\\"The Band\\\" worked well when the group came into its own.The group decided on it as their official name began performing as under it in from 1968 onward. Dylan continued to collaborate with The Band over the course of their career, most\",\n \"their career, most notably in a joint1974 tour. 1965–1967: With Bob Dylan In late summer 1965, Bob Dylan was looking for a backup band for his first U.S. \\\"electric\\\" tour. Levon and the Hawks were recommended by blues singerJohn P. Hammond, who earlier that year had recorded with Helm, Hudson and Robertson on hisVanguardalbumSo Many Roads.Around the same time, one of their friends from Toronto, Mary Martin, was working as secretary to Dylan's manager,Albert Grossman. She told Dylan to visit the group at Le Coq d'Or Tavern, a club onYonge Street, in Toronto—though Robertson recollects it was the Friar's Tavern, just down the street.Her advice to Dylan: \\\"Yougottasee these guys.\\\" After hearing The Band play and meeting with Robertson, Dylan invited Helm and Robertson to join his backing band. After two concerts backing Dylan, Helm and Robertson told Dylan of their loyalty to their bandmates and told him that they would continue with him only if he hired all of the Hawks. Dylan accepted and invited Levon and the\",\n \"Levon and the Hawks to tour with him. The group was receptive to the offer, knowing it could give them the wider exposure they craved. They thought of themselves as a tightly rehearsed rock andrhythm and bluesgroup and knew Dylan mostly from his early acoustic folk and protest music. Furthermore, they had little inkling of how internationally popular Dylan had become. With Dylan, the Hawks played a series of concerts from September 1965 through May 1966, billed as \\\"Bob Dylan and the Band\\\". The tours were marked by Dylan's reportedly copious use ofamphetamines. Some, though not all, of the Hawks joined in the excesses.Most of the concerts were met with heckling and disapproval fromfolk musicpurists. Helm was so affected by the negative reception that he left the tour after a little more than one month and sat out the rest of that year's concerts, as well as the world tour in 1966.Helm spent much of this period working on an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico. During and between tours, Dylan and the Hawks attempted\",\n \"the Hawks attempted several recording sessions, but with less than satisfying results. Sessions in October and November yielded just one usablesingle(\\\"Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window?\\\"), and two days of recording in January 1966 for what was intended to be Dylan's next album,Blonde on Blonde, resulted in \\\"One of Us Must Know (Sooner or Later)\\\", which was released as a single a few weeks later and was subsequently selected for the album.On \\\"One of Us Must Know\\\", Dylan was backed by drummerBobby Gregg, bassist Danko (orBill Lee),guitarist Robbie Robertson, pianistPaul Griffin, andAl Kooper(who was more a guitarist than an organist) playing organ.Frustrated by the slow progress in the New York studio, Dylan accepted the suggestion of producerBob Johnstonand moved the recording sessions to Nashville. In Nashville, Robertson's guitar was prominent on theBlonde on Blonderecordings, especially in the song \\\"Leopard-Skin Pill-Box Hat\\\", but the other members of the Hawks did not attend the sessions. During the\",\n \"During the European leg of their 1966 world tour,Mickey Jonesreplaced Sandy Konikoff on drums. Dylan and the Hawks played at theFree Trade HallinManchesteron May 17, 1966. The gig became legendary when, near the end of Dylan's electric set, an audience member shouted \\\"Judas!\\\" After a pause, Dylan replied, \\\"I don't believe you. You're a liar!\\\" He then turned to the Hawks and said, \\\"Play it fucking loud!\\\" With that, they launched into an acidic version of \\\"Like a Rolling Stone\\\". The Manchester performance was widelybootlegged(and mistakenly placed at theRoyal Albert Hall). In a 1971 review forCreem, criticDave Marshwrote, \\\"My response is that crystallization of everything that is rock'n'roll music, at its finest, was to allow my jaw to drop, my body to move, to leap out of the chair ... It is an experience that one desires simply to share, to play over and over again for those he knows thirst for such pleasure. If I speak in an almost worshipful sense about this music, it is not because I have lost\",\n \"because I have lost perspective, it is precisely because I have found it, within music, yes, that was made five years ago. But it is there and unignorable.\\\"When the concert finally saw an official release asThe Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966, The \\\"Royal Albert Hall\\\" Concertin 1998, criticRichie Unterbergerdeclared the record \\\"an important document of rock history.\\\" On July 29, 1966, while on a break from touring, Dylan was injured in a motorcycle accident that precipitated his retreat into semi-seclusion inWoodstock,New York.For a while, the Hawks returned to the bar and roadhouse touring circuit, sometimes backing other singers, including a brief stint withTiny Tim. Dylan invited the Hawks to join him in Woodstock in February 1967,and Danko, Hudson, and Manuel rented a large pink house, which they named \\\"Big Pink\\\", in nearbyWest Saugerties, New York. The next month (initially without Helm) they commenced recording a much-bootlegged and influential series of demos, initially at Dylan's house in\",\n \"at Dylan's house in Woodstock and later at Big Pink, which were released partially on LP asThe Basement Tapesin 1975 andin full in 2014. A track-by-track review of the bootleg was detailed byJann WennerinRolling Stone, in which the band members were explicitly named and given the collective name \\\"the Crackers\\\".While Helm was not involved in the initial recording, he did perform in later sessions and in overdubs recorded in 1975 before the album's release. 1968–1972: Initial success withMusic from Big Pinkself-titled album The sessions with Dylan ended in October 1967, with Helm having rejoined the group by that time, and the Hawks began writing their own songs at Big Pink. When they went into the recording studio, they still did not have a name for themselves. Stories vary as to the manner in which they ultimately adopted the name \\\"The Band\\\". InThe Last Waltz, Manuel claimed that they wanted to call themselves either \\\"theHonkies\\\" or \\\"theCrackers\\\" (which they used when backing Dylan for a January 1968 concert\",\n \"1968 concert tribute toWoody Guthrie), but these names were vetoed by their record label; Robertson suggests that during their time with Dylan everyone just referred to them as \\\"the band\\\" and the name stuck. Initially they disliked the moniker, but eventually they grew to like it, thinking it both humble and presumptuous. In 1969,Rolling Stonereferred to them as \\\"the band from Big Pink\\\". Their debut album,Music from Big Pinkwas released in July 1968 and was widely acclaimed. It included three songs written or co-written by Dylan (\\\"This Wheel's on Fire\\\", \\\"Tears of Rage\\\" and \\\"I Shall Be Released\\\") as well as \\\"The Weight\\\", which became one of their best-known songs after it was used in the 1969 filmEasy Rider. While a thematic continuity ran through the music, the musical style varied from song to song. In early 1969, after the success ofMusic from Big Pink, The Band went on tour, starting with an appearance atWinterland Ballroom. They performed at theWoodstock Festival(their performance was not included in the\",\n \"not included in the famedWoodstockfilm because of legal complications), and later that year they performed with Dylan at the UKIsle of Wight Festival(several songs from which were subsequently included on Dylan'sSelf Portraitalbum). That same year, they left for Los Angeles to record their follow-up,The Band(1969). From their rustic appearance on the cover to the songs and arrangements within, the album stood in contrast to other popular music of the day. Several other artists made similar stylistic moves about the same time, notably Dylan, onJohn Wesley Harding, which was written during theBasement Tapessessions, andthe Byrds, onSweetheart of the Rodeo, which featured twoBasement Tapescovers.The Bandfeatured songs that evoked old-time rural America, from theCivil Warin \\\"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\\\" to theunionizationof farm workers in \\\"King Harvest (Has Surely Come)\\\". These first two records were produced byJohn Simon, who was practically a group member: he aided inarrangementsin addition to playing\",\n \"addition to playing occasional piano andtuba. Simon reported that he was often asked about the distinctivehorn sectionsfeatured so effectively on the first two albums: people wanted to know how they had achieved such memorable sounds. Simon stated that, besides Hudson (an accomplished saxophonist), the others had only rudimentary horn skills, and achieved their sound simply by creatively using their limited technique. Rolling Stonelavished praise on The Band in this era, giving them more attention than perhaps any other group in the magazine's history;Greil Marcus's articles contributed to The Band's mystique. The Band was also featured on the cover ofTime(January 12, 1970), the first rock group after the Beatles, over two years earlier, to achieve this rare distinction.David Attie's unused photographs for this cover—among the very few studio portraits taken during the Band's prime—have only recently been discovered, and were featured in Daniel Roher'sRobbie RobertsondocumentaryOnce Were Brothers: Robbie\",\n \"Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, as well as having their own four-page spread inHarvey Kubernikand Ken Kubernik's “The Story of the Band: FromBig PinktoThe Last Waltz” (Sterling Publishing, 2018). A critical and commercial triumph,The Band, along with works by the Byrds andthe Flying Burrito Brothers, established a musical template (dubbedcountry rock) that paved the way to theEagles. BothBig PinkandThe Bandalso influenced their musical contemporaries.Eric ClaptonandGeorge Harrisoncited The Band as a major influence on their musical direction in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Clapton later revealed that he wanted to join the group.While he never did join, he recruited all of the members of The Band as well as other roots rock performers for his 1976 albumNo Reason to Cry. Following their second album, The Band embarked on their first tour as a lead act. The anxiety of fame was clear, as the group's songs turned to darker themes of fear and alienation: the influence on their next work is\",\n \"their next work is self-explanatory.Stage Fright(1970) was engineered by musician-engineer-producerTodd Rundgrenand recorded on a theatre stage in Woodstock. As with their previous, self-titled record, Robertson was credited with most of the songwriting. Initial critical reaction was positive, but it was seen as a disappointment from the previous two albums for various reasons. After recordingStage Fright, The Band was among the acts participating in theFestival Express, an all-star rock concert tour of Canada by train that also includedJanis Joplin, theGrateful Deadand future Band memberRichard Bell(at the time he was a member of Joplin's band). In the concert documentary film, released in 2003, Danko can be seen participating in a drunken jam session withJerry Garcia,Bob Weir,John Dawson, and Joplin while singing \\\"Ain't No More Cane\\\". At about this time, Robertson began exerting greater control over The Band, a point of contention between him and Helm. Helm charges Robertson withauthoritarianismand greed,\",\n \"greed, while Robertson suggests his increased efforts in guiding the group were largely because Danko, Helm, and Manuel were becoming more unreliable due to their heroin usage.Robertson insists he did his best to coax Manuel into writing more songs, only to see him descend into addiction. Despite mounting problems among the group members, The Band forged ahead with their next album,Cahoots(1971).Cahootsfeatured Dylan's \\\"When I Paint My Masterpiece\\\", \\\"4% Pantomime\\\" (withVan Morrison), and \\\"Life Is a Carnival\\\", the last featuring a horn arrangement byAllen Toussaint. Toussaint's contribution was a critical addition to The Band's next project, and the group would later record two songs written by Toussaint: \\\"Holy Cow\\\" onMoondog Matineeand \\\"You See Me\\\" onJubilation. In late December 1971, The Band recorded the live albumRock of Ages, which was released in the summer of 1972. OnRock of Ages, they were bolstered by the addition of a horn section, with arrangements written by Toussaint. Dylan appeared on stage\",\n \"appeared on stage onNew Year's Eveand performed four songs with the group, including a version of \\\"When I Paint My Masterpiece\\\". 1973–1975: Move to Shangri-La In 1973, The Band released thecovers albumMoondog Matinee. There was no tour in support of the album, which garnered mixed reviews. However, on July 28, 1973, they played at the legendarySummer Jam at Watkins Glen, a massive concert that took place at the Grand Prix Raceway outsideWatkins Glen, New York. The event, which was attended by over 600,000 fans, also featured the Grateful Dead andthe Allman Brothers Band. It was during this event that discussions began about a possible tour with Bob Dylan, who had moved toMalibu, California,along with Robertson. By late 1973, Danko, Helm, Hudson and Manuel had joined them, and the first order of business was backing Dylan on his albumPlanet Waves. The album was released concurrently with their joint 1974 tour, in which they played 40 shows in North America during January and February 1974. Later that year,\",\n \"Later that year, the tour was documented on the live albumBefore the Flood,. During this time, The Band brought inPlanet WavesproducerRob Frabonito help design a music studio for the group. By 1975, the studio,Shangri-La, was completed. That year, The Band recorded and releasedNorthern Lights – Southern Cross, their first album of all-new material since 1971. All eight songs were written solely by Robertson. Despite comparatively poor record sales, the album is favored by critics and fans. Levon Helm regards this album highly in his book,This Wheel's on Fire: \\\"It was the best album we had done sinceThe Band.\\\" The album also produced more experimentation from Hudson, switching to synthesizers, showcased on \\\"Jupiter Hollow\\\". 1976–1978:The Last Waltz By the mid-1970s, Robbie Robertson was weary of touring. AfterNorthern Lights – Southern Crossfailed to meet commercial expectations, much of the group's 1976 tour was confined to theaters and smaller arenas in secondary markets (including theSanta Cruz Civic\",\n \"theSanta Cruz Civic Auditorium, theLong Island Arenaand the Champlain Valley Expo inEssex Junction, Vermont), culminating in an opening slot for the ascendantZZ Topat theNashville Fairgroundsin September.In early September, Richard Manuel suffered a severe neck injury in a boating accident in Texas,prompting Robertson to urge The Band to retire from live performances after staging a massive \\\"farewell concert\\\" known asThe Last Waltz. Following an October 30 appearance onSaturday Night Live, the event, includingturkey dinnerfor the audience of 5,000, was held on November 25 (Thanksgiving Day) of 1976 at theWinterland BallroominSan Francisco,California,and featured a horn section with arrangements by Allen Toussaint and an allstar lineup of guests, including Canadian artistsJoni MitchellandNeil Young. Two of the guests were fundamental to The Band's existence and growth: Ronnie Hawkins and Bob Dylan. Other guests they admired (and in most cases had worked with before) includedMuddy Waters,Dr. John, Van\",\n \"John, Van Morrison,Ringo Starr, Eric Clapton,Ron Wood,Bobby Charles,Neil Diamond, andPaul Butterfield. The concert was filmed by Robertson's friend, filmmakerMartin Scorsese. In 1977, The Band released their seventh studio albumIslands, which fulfilled their record contract with Capitol so that a plannedLast Waltzfilm and album could be released on theWarner Bros.label.Islandscontained a mix of originals and covers, and was the last with The Band's original lineup. That same year, the group recorded soundstage performances with country singerEmmylou Harris(\\\"Evangeline\\\") and gospel-soul groupthe Staple Singers(\\\"The Weight\\\"); Scorsese combined these new performances—as well as interviews he had conducted with the group—with the 1976 concert footage. The resultingconcert film–documentarywas released in 1978, along with athree-LP soundtrack. Helm later wrote aboutThe Last Waltzin his autobiography,This Wheel's on Fire, in which he made the case that it had been primarily Robbie Robertson's project and that\",\n \"project and that Robertson had forced The Band's breakup on the rest of the group.Robertson offered a different take in a 1986 interview: \\\"I made my big statement. I did the movie, I made a three-record album about it—and if this is only my statement, not theirs, I'll accept that. They're saying, 'Well, that was really his trip, not our trip.' Well, fine. I'll take the best music film that's ever been made, and make it my statement. I don't have any problems with that. None at all.\\\" The original quintet would perform together one last time: on March 1, 1978 after the late set of a Rick Danko solo show atThe Roxy, the group performed \\\"Stage Fright\\\", \\\"The Shape I'm In\\\", and \\\"The Weight\\\" for an encore.Although the members of the group intended to continue working on studio projects, they drifted apart after the release ofIslandsin March 1977. 1983–1989: Reformation and the death of Richard Manuel The Band resumed touring in 1983 without Robertson. Accomplished musician from Woodstock, NY, Jim Weider became lead\",\n \"Weider became lead guitarist. Robertson had found success with a solo career and as aHollywoodmusic producer. As a result of their diminished popularity, they performed in theaters and clubs as headliners and took support slots in larger venues for onetime peers such as the Grateful Dead andCrosby, Stills and Nash. After a performance inWinter Park, Florida, on March 4, 1986, Manuelhanged himself, aged 42, in his motel room.He had suffered for many years from alcoholism and drug addiction and had been clean and sober for several years beginning in 1978 but had begun drinking and using drugs again by 1984.Manuel's position as pianist was filled by old friend Stan Szelest (who died not long after) and then by Richard Bell. Bell had played with Ronnie Hawkins after the departure of the original Hawks, and was best known from his days as a member of Janis Joplin'sFull Tilt Boogie Band. The Band was inducted into theCanadian Music Hall of Fameat the1989 Juno Awards, where Robertson was reunited with original\",\n \"with original members Danko and Hudson. With Canadian country rock superstarsBlue Rodeoas a back-up band,Music Expresscalled the 1989 Juno appearance a symbolic \\\"passing of the torch\\\" from The Band to Blue Rodeo. 1990–1999: Return to final recording and the death of Rick Danko In 1990, Capitol Records began to re-release the records from the 1970s.The remaining three members continued to tour and record albums with a succession of musicians filling Manuel's and Robertson's roles. The Band appeared atBob Dylan's 30th anniversary concertin New York City in October 1992, where they performed their version of Dylan's \\\"When I Paint My Masterpiece\\\". In 1993, the group released their eighth studio album,Jericho. Without Robbie Robertson as primary lyricist, much of thesongwritingfor the album came from outside of the group. Also that year, The Band, along with Ronnie Hawkins, Bob Dylan, and other performers, appeared at U.S. PresidentBill Clinton's 1993 \\\"Blue Jean Bash\\\" inauguration party. In 1994, The Band\",\n \"In 1994, The Band performed atWoodstock '94. Later that year Robertson appeared with Danko and Hudson as the Band for the second time since the original group broke up. The occasion was the induction of The Band into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Helm, who had been at odds with Robertson for years over accusations of stolen songwriting credits, did not attend.In February 1996, The Band withthe Cricketsrecorded \\\"Not Fade Away\\\", released on thetribute albumNot Fade Away (Remembering Buddy Holly). The Band released two more albums afterJericho:High on the Hog(1996) andJubilation(1998), the latter of which included guest appearances by Eric Clapton andJohn Hiatt. Helm was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1998 and was unable to sing for several years but he eventually regained the use of his voice. In 1998, the group revealed they were working on a follow-up album toJubilationthat has not been released. The final song the group recorded together was their 1999 version of Bob Dylan's \\\"One Too Many Mornings\\\", which\",\n \"Mornings\\\", which they contributed to the Dylan tribute albumTangled Up in Blues. On December 10, 1999, Rick Danko died in his sleep at the age of 55. Following his death, The Band broke up for good. The final configuration of the group included Richard Bell (piano), Randy Ciarlante (drums), and Jim Weider (guitar). 2000–present In 2002, Robertson bought all other former members' financial interests in the group (with the exception of Helm's),giving him major control of the presentation of the group's material, including latter-day compilations. Richard Bell died ofmultiple myelomain June 2007. The Band received a Lifetime AchievementGrammy Awardon February 9, 2008,but there was no reunion of former members. In honor of the event, Helm held aMidnight Ramblein Woodstock.He continued to perform and released several albums. On April 17, 2012, it was announced via Helm's official website that he was in the \\\"final stages of cancer\\\";he died two days later. In December 2020, it was announced that the third album of\",\n \"the third album of The Band,Stage Fright, would get an expanded reissue. The album has alternate versions of some songs. Robbie Robertson died at the age of 80 on August 9, 2023, after battling prostate cancer.With Robertson's death, Garth Hudson is the last living original member of the group. Members' other endeavours In 1977, Rick Danko released hiseponymousdebut solo album, which featured the other four members of The Band on various tracks. In 1984, Danko joined members of theByrds, the Flying Burrito Brothers, and others in the huge touring company that made up \\\"The Byrds Twenty-Year Celebration\\\". Several members of the tour performed solo songs to start the show, including Danko, who performed \\\"Mystery Train\\\". Danko also released two collaboraive albums withEric AndersenandJonas Fjeld, along with some live and compilation albums in the 1990s and 2000s; many of the latter records were produced by Aaron L. Hurwitz and are on the Breeze Hill/Woodstock Records Label. In the late 1970s and 1980s, Helm\",\n \"and 1980s, Helm released several solo albums and toured with a band called Levon Helm and the RCO Allstars. He also began an acting career with his role asLoretta Lynn's father inCoal Miner's Daughter. Helm received praise for his narration and supporting role oppositeSam Shepardin 1983'sThe Right Stuff. In 1997, a CD by Levon Helm and the Crowmatix,Souvenir, was released.Beginning sometime in the 1990s, Helm regularly performed Midnight Ramble concerts at his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, and toured.In 2007 Helm released a new album, an homage to his southern roots calledDirt Farmer, which was awarded aGrammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Albumon February 9, 2008.Electric Dirtfollowed in 2009 and won the inauguralGrammy Award for Best Americana Album. His 2011 live albumRamble at the Rymanwon in the same category. After he left The Band, Robbie Robertson became amusic producerand wrote film soundtracks (including acting as music supervisor for several of Scorsese's films) before beginning a solo\",\n \"beginning a solo career with hisDaniel Lanois-producedeponymous albumin 1987. Robertson continued mostly scoring films until his death in 2023. Hudson has released two solo CDs,The Sea to the Northin 2001, produced by Aaron (Professor Louie) Hurwitz, andLive at the Wolfin 2005, both featuring his wife, Maud, on vocals. He has also kept busy as an in-demand studio musician. He is featured extensively on recordings of theCalland country-indie star Neko Case. Hudson contributed an original electronic score to anoff-Broadwayproduction ofDragon Slayers, written byStanley Keyesand directed byBrad Maysin 1986 at theUnion Square Theatrein New York, which was restaged with a new cast in Los Angeles in 1990. In 2010, Hudson releasedGarth Hudson Presents: A Canadian Celebration of The Band, featuring Canadian artists covering songs that were recorded by The Band. In 2012,Jim WeiderlaunchedThe Weight Band, performing covers of The Band's music, alongside former members of theLevon HelmBand andRick DankoGroup. The Weight\",\n \"The Weight Band performed in a nationally broadcastPBSspecial, Infinity Hall Live,featuring new music. Following the show, the band announced a self-titled album of new music. The Weight Band also hosts Camp Cripple Creek, which celebrates the legacy of the Woodstock Sound. Past guests have includedJackie Greene,Music from Big Pinkproducer John Simon andJohn Sebastian. Manuel had few projects outside The Band; he and the rest of The Band contributed to Eric Clapton's 1976 albumNo Reason to Cry. It included an original composition by Manuel and featured his vocals and drumming on several tracks. Manuel later worked on several film scores with Hudson and Robertson, includingRaging BullandThe Color of Money.Whispering Pines: Live at the Getawaywas released in 2002. Musical style The Band's music fused many elements: although primarily incorporating oldcountry musicand earlyrock and roll, therhythm sectionoften was reminiscent ofStax- orMotown-style rhythm and blues, and Robertson citesCurtis Mayfieldand\",\n \"Mayfieldand theStaple Singersas major influences, resulting in asynthesisof manymusical genres. Singers Manuel, Danko, and Helm each brought a distinctive voice to The Band: Helm'sSouthernaccent was prevalent in his raw and powerful vocals, Danko sang tenor with a distinctively choppy enunciation, and Manuel alternated between falsetto and a soulful baritone. The singers regularly blended inharmonies. Though the singing was more or less evenly shared among the three, both Danko and Helm have stated that they saw Manuel as The Band's \\\"lead\\\" singer. Every member was a multi-instrumentalist. There was little instrument-switching when they played live, but when recording, the musicians could make up different configurations in service of the songs. Hudson in particular was able to coax a wide range oftimbresfrom hisLowrey organ. Helm's drumming was often praised: critic Jon Carroll declared that Helm was \\\"the only drummer who can make you cry,\\\" while prolific session drummerJim Keltneradmits to appropriating\",\n \"to appropriating several of Helm's techniques.Producer John Simon is often cited as a \\\"sixth member\\\" of The Band for producing and playing onMusic from Big Pink, co-producing and playing onThe Band, and playing on other songs up through The Band's 1993 reunion albumJericho. Copyright controversy Robertson is credited as writer or co-writer of the majority of The Band's songs and, as a result, has received most of the songwriting royalties generated from the music. This would become a point of contention, especially for Helm. In his 1993 autobiography,This Wheel's on Fire: Levon Helm and the Story of the Band, Helm disputed the validity of the songwriting credits as listed on the albums and explained that the Band's songs were developed in collaboration with all members. Danko concurred with Helm: \\\"I think Levon's book hits the nail on the head about where Robbie and Albert Grossman and some of those people went wrong and when The Band stopped being The Band ... I'm truly friends with everybody but, hey—it\",\n \"but, hey—it could happen to Levon, too. When people take themselves too seriously and believe too much in their own bullshit, they usually get in trouble.\\\"Robertson denied that Helm had written any of the songs attributed to Robertson.The studio albums recorded by Levon Helm as a solo artist—Levon Helm(1978),American Son,Levon Helm(1982),Dirt Farmer, andElectric Dirt—contain only one song crediting him as songwriter (\\\"Growin' Trade\\\", co-written withLarry Campbell). Legacy The Band has influenced numerous bands, songwriters and performers, including the Grateful Dead, Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young,Led Zeppelin,Elvis Costello,Elton John,Phish,andPink Floyd.The albumMusic from Big Pink, in particular, is credited with contributing to Clapton's decision to leave thesupergroupCream. In his introduction of The Band during the Bob Dylan 30th Anniversary Concert, Clapton announced that in 1968 he had heard the album, \\\"and it changed my life.\\\"The bandNazarethtook their name from a line\",\n \"name from a line in \\\"The Weight\\\". GuitaristRichard Thompsonhas acknowledged the album's influence onFairport Convention'sLiege and Lief, and journalist John Harris has suggested that The Band's debut also influenced the spirit of the Beatles' back-to-basics albumLet It Beas well as the Rolling Stones' string of roots-infused albums that began withBeggars Banquet.George Harrison said that his song \\\"All Things Must Pass\\\" was heavily influenced by The Band and that, while writing the song, he imagined Levon Helm singing it.Meanwhile, the \\\"The Weight\\\" has been covered numerous times, and in various musical styles. In a 1969 interview, Robbie Robertson remarked on the group's influence, \\\"We certainly didn't want everybody to go out and get a banjo and a fiddle player. We were trying to calm things down a bit though. What we're going to do now is go toMuscle Shoals, Alabama, and record four sides, fourpsychedelicsongs. Total freak-me songs. Just to show that we have no hard feelings. Just pretty good rock and\",\n \"good rock and roll.\\\" In the 1990s, a new generation of bands influenced by The Band began to gain popularity, includingCounting Crows,the Wallflowers, andthe Black Crowes. Counting Crows indicated this influence with their tribute to the lateRichard Manuel, \\\"If I Could Give All My Love (Richard Manuel Is Dead)\\\", from their albumHard Candy. TheBlack Crowesfrequently cover songs by The Band during live performances, such as \\\"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\\\", which appears on their DVD/CDFreak 'n' Roll into the Fog.They have also recorded at Helm's studio in Woodstock. The inspiration for the classic rock-influenced bandThe Hold Steadycame while members Craig Finn and Tad Kubler were watchingThe Last Waltz.Rick Danko and Robbie Robertson are name-checked in the lyrics of \\\"The Swish\\\" from the Hold Steady's 2004 debut albumAlmost Killed Me.Also that year,southern rock-revivalistsDrive-By Truckersreleased theJason Isbellpenned track \\\"Danko/Manuel\\\" on the albumThe Dirty South. The Band also inspired Grace\",\n \"also inspired Grace Potter, ofGrace Potter and the Nocturnals, to form the band in 2002. In an interview with the Montreal Gazette, Potter said, \\\"The Band blew my mind. I thought if this is what Matt meant when he said 'Let's start a rock 'n' roll band,' ... that was the kind of rock 'n' roll band I could believe in.\\\" A tribute album, entitledEndless Highway: The Music of the Band, released in January 2007, included contributions fromMy Morning Jacket,Death Cab for Cutie,Gomez,Guster,Bruce Hornsby,Jack JohnsonandALO,Lee Ann Womack, the Allman Brothers Band,Blues Traveler,Jakob Dylan,Rosanne Cash, and others. Members ofWilco,Clap Your Hands Say Yeah,the Shins,Dr Dog,Yellowbirds,Ween,Furthur, and other bands stagedThe Complete Last Waltzin 2012 and 2013.Their performances included all 41 songs from the original 1976 concert in sequence, even those edited out of the film. Musical directorSam Cohenof Yellowbirds claims \\\"the movie is pretty ingrained in me. I've watched it probably 100 times.\\\" An incarnation of\",\n \"An incarnation of the Band's legacy, The Weight Band, originated inside the barn of Levon Helm in 2012 when Jim Weider and Randy Ciarlante, both former members of The Band, were performing \\\"Songs of the Band\\\" withGarth Hudson,Jimmy Vivinoand Byron Isaacs. In July 2017, PBS'sInfinity HallLive program began airing a televised performance by The Weight Band, featuring Band covers and new music by the band. Every year on the Wednesday before and the Friday after Thanksgiving, Dayton, Ohio NPR affiliateWYSOandThe Dayton Art Institutehost a tribute toThe Last Waltz.Frequently selling out, the show features more than 30 local musicians. A similar event takes place annually in Madison, Wisconsin, on the Saturday night after Thanksgiving. The Band are the subjects of the 2019 documentary filmOnce Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, which premiered at the2019 Toronto International Film Festival. The Band is the subject of an extensive historical podcast,The Band: A History, currently covering the entire\",\n \"covering the entire history of the group. Members Additional musicians Line-ups Disbanded Timeline Discography withBob Dylan See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links\",\n \"Music from Big Pink Music from Big Pinkis the debutstudio albumby Canadian-Americanrockbandthe Band.Released on July 1, 1968, byCapitol Records, it employs a distinctive blend ofcountry,rock,folk,classical,R&B,blues, andsoul. The album's title refers to a house inWest Saugerties, New Yorkcalled \\\"Big Pink\\\", which was shared by bassist/singerRick Danko, pianist/singerRichard Manueland organistGarth Hudsonand in which the album's music was partly composed. The album itself was recorded in studios in New York and Los Angeles in 1968,and followed the band's stint backing ofBob Dylanon his1966 tour(as the Hawks) and time spent together in upstate New York recording material that was officially released in 1975 asThe Basement Tapes, also with Dylan. Thecover artworkis a painting by Dylan. In 2000, the album was rereleased with additional outtakes from the recording sessions, and in 2018, a \\\"50th Anniversary Super Deluxe\\\" edition was released with a new stereo mix byBob Clearmountain. Background and Big Pink house\",\n \"and Big Pink house The Band's members included Danko, Manuel, Hudson, guitaristRobbie Robertsonand drummer/singerLevon Helm. They began to create their distinctive sound during 1967 when they improvised and recorded withBob Dylana huge number of cover songs and original Dylan materialin the basement of a pink house inWest Saugerties, New York, located at 56 Parnassus Lane (formerly 2188 Stoll Road). The house was built by Ottmar Gramms, who bought the land in 1952. The house was newly built whenRick Dankofound it as a rental. Danko moved in along withGarth HudsonandRichard Manuelin February 1967. The house became known locally as \\\"Big Pink\\\" for its pinksiding. The house was subsequently sold by Gramms in 1977, and since 1998, it has been a private residence. Widelybootleggedat the time, initially asGreat White Wonderin July 1969, some of the recordings Dylan and the Band made were officially released in 1975 onThe Basement Tapes, and then in their totality in 2014 onThe Bootleg Series Vol. 11: The Basement\",\n \"11: The Basement Tapes Complete. By the end of 1967, the Band felt it was time to step out of Dylan's shadow and make their own statement. Recording The Band's managerAlbert Grossman(who was also Dylan's manager) approachedCapitol Recordsto secure a record deal for a group still informally described as \\\"Dylan's backing band\\\". Alan Livingston at Capitol signed the Band, initially under the name the Crackers. Armed with news of a recording deal for the group, they luredLevon Helmback from the oil rigs where he had been working to Woodstock where he took up his crucial position in the Band, singing and playing drums. Helm's return coincided with a ferment of activity in Big Pink as the embryonic Band not only recorded with Dylan but also began to write their own songs. After meeting with producerJohn Simon, the Band started to record their debut album inManhattanatA&R Studios, at 799 7th Avenue in the early months of 1968. The Band recorded \\\"Tears of Rage\\\", \\\"Chest Fever\\\", \\\"We Can Talk\\\", \\\"This Wheel's On Fire\\\"\",\n \"Wheel's On Fire\\\" and \\\"The Weight\\\" in two sessions. Robertson has said that when Simon asked them how they wanted it to sound, they replied, \\\"Just like it did in the basement.\\\" Capitol, pleased with the initial recording session, suggested that the group move toLos Angelesto finish recording their first album atCapitol Studios. They also cut some material atGold Star StudiosonSanta Monica Boulevard. The songs onBig Pinkrecorded in L.A. were \\\"In A Station\\\", \\\"To Kingdom Come\\\", \\\"Lonesome Suzie\\\", \\\"Long Black Veil\\\" and \\\"I Shall Be Released\\\". Artwork Dylan offered to sing on the album, but ultimately realized it was important for the Band to make their own statement. Instead, Dylan signified his presence by contributing a cover painting.Barney Hoskynshas written that it is significant the painting depicts six musicians. The cover ofMusic from Big Pinkwas intended to establish the group as having a different outlook from thepsychedelic cultureof 1968. PhotographerElliott Landyflew toTorontoto photograph the\",\n \"photograph the assembled Danko, Manuel, Robertson, and Hudson families on the Danko chicken farm. A photo was inserted of Diamond and Nell Helm, who lived inArkansas. The photo appeared on the cover with the caption \\\"Next of Kin\\\".The overall design of the sleeve is byMilton Glaser(who also did the poster that was packed with the 1967Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits). Reception The initial reception to the album was positive.It received praise for the organic quality of the instrumentation, which had been recorded live withoutoverdubbing.InRolling Stone,Al Kooper's rave review ofBig Pinkended with the words, \\\"This album was recorded in approximately two weeks. There are people who will work their lives away in vain and not touch it.\\\"This helped to draw public attention to it (Rolling Stoneeven referred to them as \\\"the band from Big Pink\\\"instead of just \\\"the Band\\\"). The fact that Bob Dylan wrote one and co-wrote two of the songs on the album also attracted attention.Robert Christgauwas less enthusiastic inThe Village\",\n \"inThe Village Voice, crediting the music's original evocation of \\\"country-soul feeling without imitating it\\\" and the \\\"human roughness around the edges\\\",yet stating that he \\\"always admired that album\\\" but \\\"from a distance\\\". In 1968, \\\"The Weight\\\" peaked at No. 63 onBillboard's Hot 100 singles chart in the US. The song was a bigger hit elsewhere, peaking at No. 35 in Canada, and No. 21 in the UK. The album peaked at No. 18 inCanadaand reached No. 30 onBillboard'sPop Albumschart in 1968, and then recharted as a No. 8 hit on the Top Internet Albums chart in 2000. \\\"The Weight\\\" gained widespread popularity from the Band's performance of it atWoodstockon August 17, 1969, and due partially to its inclusion in the filmEasy Rider, though it was omitted from the soundtrack because of licensing issues. A cover version by the bandSmithwas included on the soundtrack album instead. The laid-back feel of the album attracted the attention of other major artists. For example,Eric Claptoncites the album'sroots rockstyle as what\",\n \"rockstyle as what convinced him to quitCream, and engageDelaney and Bonnieand friends as \\\"Derek and the Dominos\\\" on hisdebut solo album.George Harrisonwas also impressed by the album's musicianship and sense of camaraderie, andRoger WatersofPink Floydcalled it the second \\\"most influential record in the history of rock and roll\\\", afterthe Beatles'Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, and said that it \\\"affected Pink Floyd deeply, deeply, deeply\\\". According toTerry Burrows, the album spawned theAmericanagenre,while music academic Chris Smith said its songs laid the groundwork for roots rock music. Music from Big Pinkwas voted No. 452 in the third edition ofColin Larkin'sAll Time Top 1000 Albums(2000).In 2003, it was ranked 34th onRolling Stone's list ofthe 500 greatest albums of all time,a ranking it maintained on the magazine's 2012 revised list,before dropping to number 100 in a 2020 revised list.OnMetacritic, the expanded 50th anniversary edition of the album has an aggregate score of 99 out of 100, based\",\n \"out of 100, based on seven reviews, a rating that the website defines as indicating \\\"universal acclaim\\\". Re-releases The originalLP recordissue included a gatefold cover in 1968, duplicated 40 years later in 2008 as a remastered 180 gm LP. Oncompact disc, it was remastered as agold CDin 1989, as aDVD-audioin 2001 and as a remastered numbered editionSACDin 2009. On August 29, 2000, it was reissued byEMI Recordsas a standard compact disc with ninebonus tracks. In 2012,Mobile Fidelityreleased a remastered, numbered, limited edition, Half-speed Mastering from the originalmaster tapes, 180g LP pressed at RTI. In 2018, a 50th Anniversary Edition was released with an entirely new stereo mix and 5.1 mix byBob Clearmountain, mastered byBob Ludwig. It also included some of the additional tracks from the 2000 re-release, and a new vocal-only mix of \\\"I Shall Be Released\\\". Track listing Personnel The Band Additional personnel 2018 remix References Sources External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":347,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How many letters were in the name of the first single by the artist who played the first concert at Principality Stadium?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"12"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Stadium"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_concerts_at_the_Millennium_Stadium"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manic_Street_Preachers"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Stadium', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_concerts_at_the_Millennium_Stadium', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manic_Street_Preachers']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Stadium","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_concerts_at_the_Millennium_Stadium","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manic_Street_Preachers"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Stadium\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_concerts_at_the_Millennium_Stadium\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manic_Street_Preachers\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Millennium Stadium TheMillennium Stadium(Welsh:Stadiwm y Mileniwm), known since 2016 as thePrincipality Stadium(Welsh:Stadiwm Principality) for sponsorship reasons, is thenational stadiumofWales. Located inCardiff, it is the home of theWales national rugby union teamand has also heldWales national football teamgames. Initially built to host the1999 Rugby World Cupand replacing theNational Stadium, it has gone on to host many other large-scale events, such as theTsunami Relief Cardiffconcert, theSuper Special StageofWales Rally Great Britain, theSpeedway Grand Prix of Great Britainandvarious concerts. It also hostedFA Cup,League CupandFootball League play-offfinals whileWembley Stadiumwas being redeveloped between 2001 and 2006, as well as football matches during the2012 Summer Olympics. The stadium is owned by Millennium Stadium plc, asubsidiary companyof theWelsh Rugby Union(WRU).The architects wereBligh Lobb Sports Architecture. The structural engineers wereWS Atkinsand the building contractor wasLaing. The total construction cost of the stadium was£121 million,of which theMillennium Commissionfunded £46 million. The Millennium Stadium opened in June 1999and its first major event was an internationalrugby unionmatch on 26 June 1999, whenWalesbeatSouth Africain atest matchby 29–19 before a crowd of 29,000.With a totalseating capacityof 73,931, it is the largest stadium in Wales and the fourth largest (and second largest outsideLondon) in theUnited Kingdomby total capacity. In addition, it is the third-largest stadium in theSix Nations Championshipbehind theStade de FranceandTwickenham. It is also the second-largest stadium in the world with a fullyretractable roofand was the second stadium in Europe to have this feature.Listed as acategory four stadiumbyUEFA, the stadium was chosen as the venue for the2017 UEFA Champions League Final, which took place on 3 June 2017.In 2015, the Welsh Rugby Union announced a 10-year sponsorship deal with thePrincipality Building Societythat saw the stadium renamed as the \"Principality Stadium\" from early 2016. History Background Until 1969,Cardiff RFCandWalesboth played their home matches on the same pitch atCardiff Arms Park, but all this changed in the 1969–70 season.As a result of an agreement betweenCardiff Athletic Cluband the WRU, theNational Stadiumproject established that a new stadium for international matches and events was required, with Cardiff RFC moving to a new, purpose-built stadium on the original cricket ground at the site of the former Cardiff Arms Park stadium.By 7 April 1984 the National Stadium was officially opened. However, in 1994, a committee was set up to consider redeveloping the National Stadium, and by 1995 the WRU had been chosen to host the 1999 Rugby World Cup. In 1995, the National Stadium, which was designed in 1962,only had a capacity of 53,000; other nations' stadia, such asTwickenham(England) with a capacity of 75,000, andMurrayfield Stadium(Scotland) with a capacity of 67,000, had overtaken it. France was also about to build theStade de France, which would have a capacity of more than 80,000 for the1998 FIFA World Cup.The original capacity of the National Stadium was 65,000, but this had been reduced to 53,000, due to theTaylor Report. 11,000 of 53,000 capacity was on the EastTerraceand the conversion to anall-seater stadiumwould have reduced the stadium capacity still further to just 47,500. In addition to the problems of capacity, the National Stadium was also very well hidden by the neighbouring buildings to the south in Park Street, Wood Street and to the east in Westgate Street, and also by Cardiff Rugby Ground in the north. It was only fully visible from across theRiver Taffin the west. Access to the ground was also very restricted with the main entrance being a narrow opening in Westgate Street to the east which was shared by both vehicles and spectators alike. The options for the new stadium included adding a third tier to the existing National Stadium, or moving to a new site. This last option was discounted because it would have required a vast car parking facility, and that would have put severe short-term pressures on the local transport infrastructure, creating traffic jams and pollution.The committee eventually chose a new stadium on the same site but with considerable increase in its capacity. It would also involve moving the alignment of the stadium from west–east to north–south. This was the option supported by theMillennium Commission. It would become the fourth redevelopment of the Cardiff Arms Park site.It was also decided that the new stadium should have a sliding roof to accommodate a multi-use venue, with a grass pitch for rugby and football.The only other sliding roofs in Europe at the time were at two Dutch stadia – theAmsterdam Arena, completed in 1996 with a capacity of 50,000;andGelredomeinArnhem, a 30,000-capacity ground built from 1996 to 1998. To remain on the Arms Park site, additional space had to be found to allow safe access and to provide room for the increased capacity and improved facilities. This was achieved by the purchase of adjacent buildings to the south and east and by the construction of a new £6 million River Walk by theRiver Taffon the western side of the stadium. By 1999, the Millennium Stadium had replaced the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park, as the national stadium of Wales for rugby union and association football international matches. Cardiff RFC continued as before to play at Cardiff Arms Park rugby ground, which had replaced the cricket ground in 1969. Construction The stadium was designed by a team led by Rod Sheard at Lobb Sport Architecture,who later merged withHOK Sportto becomePopulous. The building contractor wasLaingand the structural engineers were WS Atkins. Mike Otlet of WS Atkins designed the stadium's retractable roof,which was constructed by Kelsey Roofing Industries.Cimolai S.p.A. from Italy fabricated and erected the 72 steel plane frames for the stands and all the 4,500 components of the roof. Construction involved the demolition of a number of buildings, primarily the existing National Stadium (Cardiff Arms Park),Wales Empire Pool(swimming pool) in Wood Street, Cardiff Empire Telephone Exchange building (owned byBT) in Park Street, the newly builtTerritorial Auxiliary & Volunteer Reservebuilding in Park Street, and theSocial Securityoffices in Westgate Street. The stadium was built by Laing in 1999 on the site of the National Stadium, with the head of construction being Steve Ager.It was built for the1999 Rugby World Cup, for which Wales was the main host,with seven of the 41 matches, including the final, being played at the stadium. The total construction cost of the stadium was £121 million,which was funded by private investment and £46 million of public funds from the Millennium Commission,the sale ofdebenturesto supporters (which offered guaranteed tickets in exchange for an interest-free loan) and loans. The development left the WRU heavily in debt. The Millennium Stadium was named as such in recognition of the Millennium Commission's contribution to the building. The stadium was first used for a major event on 26 June 1999, when Wales played South Africa in a rugby union test match before a crowd of 29,000. Wales won 29–19: the first time they had ever beaten the Springboks. 2016 renaming On 8 September 2015 it was announced that the Millennium Stadium would be renamed Principality Stadium as the result of a 10-year naming rights deal with thePrincipality Building Society.Some fans expressed opposition on social media. On 22 January 2016, the Millennium Stadium was officially renamed as the Principality Stadium.The new name, written bilingually (\"Stadiwm Principality Stadium\") and covering 114 square metres (1,230 sq ft) of the upper stadium, was lit up at a special evening ceremony, to be followed by a festival to encourage grassroots rugby.The change of name also meant a change of logo for the Millennium Stadium. There were three designs shortlisted, and a panel, which included the former Wales international captainRyan Jonesand staff and members of the WRU and Principality Building Society, chose the final design.A spokesperson for the WRU said: \"The new stadium logo takes its inspiration from the venue's iconic architecture; four spires, curved frontage and fully retractable roof.\" Features The all-seater stadium has the capacity for 74,500 supporters and features a retractable roof, only the second stadium of its type in Europe, and the largest football stadium in the world with this feature, by capacity.Additional seating is sometimes added for special events such as a rugby Test against the New ZealandAll Blacks, or for theFA Cup Final. The current record attendance is set at just over 78,000, recorded at theAnthony JoshuavCarlos Takamfight, on 28 October 2017, in which Joshua successfully retained his WBA, IBF and IBO titles. The natural grass turf was made up of a modular system installed byGreenTech ITM.It features built in irrigation and drainage. The pitch itself was laid on top of some 7,412 pallets that could be moved so the stadium could be used for concerts, exhibitions and other events. In May 2014, after much trouble with disease and stability, the surface was removed and replaced with a more resilient interwoven sand basedDessopitch. The four ends of the ground are called the North Stand, the West Stand, the South Stand and the BT Stand (east).The South Stand was previously known as the Hyder Stand,untilHyderwas sold. The stadium has three tiers of seating with the exception of the North Stand, which has two tiers. The lower tier holds 23,154 spectators, the middle tier holding 15,626 and the upper tier holding 35,151 spectators. The stadium was slightly restricted in size due to its proximity to Cardiff Rugby Club's home in the adjacent smaller stadium within Cardiff Arms Park. The WRU were unable to secure enough funding to include the North Stand in the new stadium and theMillennium Commissionwould not allow any of its funds to be used in any way for the construction of a new stadium for Cardiff RFC.The WRU held talks withCardiff RFCto see if it would be possible for the club to either move or secure funding for theCardiff Arms Parkto be re-developed, but these were unsuccessful. The stadium thus had to be completed with a break in its bowl structure in the North Stand, known colloquially as Glanmor's Gap, afterGlanmor Griffiths, then chairman of the WRU and now a former president. Thesuperstructureof the stadium is based around four 90.3-metre (296 ft) masts. The stadium was built from 56,000 tonnes of concrete and steel, and has 124 hospitality suites and 7 hospitality lounges,22 bars, 7 restaurants, 17 first aid points, 12 escalators and 7 lifts.The stadium has 7 gates for access to the site; Gate 1 is from the River Walk via Castle Street (to the north), Gates 2 and 3 are via Westgate Street (to the east), Gate 4 which was renamed Gatland's Gate (Welsh:Gât Gatland) in honour ofWarren Gatlandin November 2019, is for team-coaches, celebrity limousines and other uses via Westgate Street,Gate 5 is via Park Street (to the south) and Gates 6 and 7 are via the Millennium Plaza (also to the south). Any future renovation to the stadium will involve replacing the old North Stand of the former National Stadium with a new one similar to the three existing stands of the new Millennium Stadium. This will make the stadium bowl-shaped and will increase its capacity to around 80,000. It will resolve the existing problems of deteriorating concrete quality on the old structure in the north stand.However the WRU has been more resistant to the proposal in recent years, stating that the concrete has not been deteriorating in recent years meaning the cost of replacing Glanmor's Gap would not justify the limited increase in capacity it would provide. In each of the stadium's bars, so-called \"joy machines\" can pour 12 pints in less than 20 seconds. During a Wales versus France match, 63,000 fans drank 77,184 pints of beer, almost double the 44,000 pints drunk by a similar number of fans at a game atTwickenham.The stadium has a residenthawknamed \"Dad\", who is employed to drive seagulls and pigeons out of the stadium. In 2005 the stadium installed an \"Arena Partition Drape System\" – a 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m × 35 m (30 ft × 115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1 million cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, theMillennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the thenWales Tourist Board.The curtain was supplied by Blackout. In May 2015, the chairman of the WRU,Gareth Davies, announced that the stadium would be fitted with new seats, replacing the original seats from 1999 at a cost of £4 million to £5 million, which would be completed by 2018. In addition a new £3.1 million Desso hybrid pitch will beinstalled. In February 2019, the stadium increased its disabled capacity from 168 to 214 at a cost of around £100,000. As a result, the overall capacity of the stadium was reduced from 74,500 to 73,931. Statue of Sir Tasker Watkins A statue of SirTasker Watkins, the former WRU president between 1993 and 2004, was commissioned to stand outside Gate 3 of the stadium. The bronze statue, 9 feet (2.7 m) tall, was sculpted byLlantwit Majorbased sculptor Roger Andrews. TheWelsh Governmentcontributed £50,000, as didCardiff Council.It was officially unveiled on 15 November 2009 by his daughter, Lady Mair Griffith-Williams. Usage As well as international rugby union and association football, the Millennium Stadium has hosted a variety of sports, including,rugby league(including theChallenge CupFinal on three occasions between 2003 and 2005, the opening ceremony of the2013 Rugby League World CupandWelsh Rugby League internationals),speedway,boxing, theWales Rally Great Britainstage of theWorld Rally Championship,Monster Jamandindoor cricket. The indoor cricket match between The Brits and a Rest of the World team for the Pertemps Power Cricket Cup, which took place on 4 and 5 October 2002. Rugby union The stadium is the home of theWelsh rugby union team, who play all of their home fixtures at the venue. These games include those during theSix Nations, as well as theAutumn Internationalsagainst nations from theSouthern Hemisphere. Apart from the national team, the stadium has also hosted theEuropean Rugby Champions Cupfinals on five occasions. In total, the site, including theNational Stadium, has hosted the final of the European Rugby Champions Cup on seven occasions. The stadium has also been used forCeltic Leaguegames, and the semi-finals of theAnglo-Welsh Cupin2006and2007. Since 2013, the Millennium Stadium has hostedJudgement Day, a double-header between the four WelshUnited Rugby Championshipteams. The 2016 edition had 68,262 spectators, the highest in the history of the league. The stadium hosted the first match in the2005 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealandwhen they drew 25–25 againstArgentinain a warm-up test match. Welsh Varsity rugby matches On 30 March 2011, the stadium hosted theWelsh Varsityrugby match for the first time in the history of the match between the senior teams ofCardiff UniversityandSwansea University. The stadium is used alternating years withLiberty Stadiumin Swansea. The Welsh Varsity event celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2016. Rugby World Cup The Welsh Rugby Union hosted the1999 Rugby World Cupwith the Final being played at the stadium. The stadium also hosted 3 pool matches and 1 quarter-final match (New Zealand 18–20 France) of the2007 Rugby World Cup. On 15 October 2011, the stadium was open toWelsh Rugby Unionfans free of charge, providing that they wear red so that they could watch a live screening of the2011 Rugby World Cupsemi-final betweenWalesandFrancethat was played atEden Park,Auckland, New Zealand. The match was screened on the stadium's existing large screens, on all of their television screens and on a screen that was brought in for the occasion. The same was done for theBronze FinalbetweenWalesandAustraliawhich saw Wales defeated and take fourth place. The stadium hosted six pool matches, including two featuring Wales, and two quarter-final matches during the2015 Rugby World Cup. Rugby league The stadium first hostedrugby leaguefootball during the2000 World Cup: a double header featuringCook IslandsversusLebanonandWalesversusNew Zealandthat attracted a crowd of 17,612. It was again used as Wales' home ground during the2002 New Zealand rugby league tour of Great Britain and Francewhen they again hosted the Kiwis this time attracting 8,746 spectators. The Stadium has hosted threeChallenge CupFinals, which are usually played at Wembley, from 2003 to 2005. In2003theBradford Bullsdefeated theLeeds Rhinos22–20 in front of 71,212 fans.St. HelensdefeatedWigan36–16 in2004in front of 73,734 fans, whileHull F.C.defeated Leeds 25–24 in2005in front of 74,213 fans, the largest rugby league crowd at the stadium. Also, in 2007 the stadium hosted the inauguralMillennium Magicweekend. This was a two-day event in May when an entire round ofSuper Leaguematches were played, three games on the Saturday and three games on the Sunday. The event was deemed a success by the sport's governing body, theRFL, and second Millennium Magic event took place in May 2008, although the 2009 and 2010 events were held at Murrayfield Stadium and were renamed Magic Weekend. In 2011, Magic Weekend moved back to Cardiff with the opening round of Super League being played. On 26 October 2013, the Millennium Stadium hosted the opening ceremony and the first two fixtures of the2013 Rugby League World Cup: a double-header featuring Wales againstItalyandEnglandagainst title favourites and eventual tournament championsAustralia.This double header produced an overall attendance of 45,052, which is an international rugby league record at the stadium. Association football From 2000 to 2009, the stadium was the almost-permanent home of Welsh football. Thenationalteam played the vast majority of home matches at the Millennium Stadium, with a handful offriendly matchesonce or twice a year at theRacecourse Ground, WrexhamorLiberty Stadium, Swansea.The first Welsh football game at the stadium was played against Finland in 2000,and drew a then-record home crowd for Welsh football of over 66,000.This has since been beaten on several occasions. However, since 2010, the majority of home games have been played at the smallerCardiff City Stadium, the home ofCardiff City.Wales have only played at the stadium twice since 2009; in 2011 againstEnglandand in 2018 againstSpain. While the Millennium Stadium was under construction, the originalWembley Stadiumhad hosted the Welsh rugby team during the building of the new ground. The favour was returned from 2001 while the newWembley Stadiumwas being built,with the Millennium hosting: The stadium became notorious for an apparent \"away team hoodoo\"; the first 11 major cup finals were all won by the teams occupying the home dressing room.Stoke City beat Brentford 2–0 in 2002 to end the \"hoodoo\", after Paul Darby carried out afeng shuiblessing. Liverpoolwere the first team to win theFA Cupat the Millennium Stadium in 2001 after beatingArsenal2–1.They were also the first team to win theLeague Cupat the Stadium, defeatingBirmingham Cityin apenalty shoot-outearlier that year.In 2003, Liverpool won theLeague Cupfor the seventh time in their history thanks to a 2–0 win over Manchester United in the final at the stadium. Liverpool also won thelast FA Cup Finalat the Millennium Stadium in 2006, beatingWest Ham United3–1 in a penalty shoot-out that followed a 3–3 draw afterextra timein what was billed as 'the best cup final of the modern era'. The Football League Third Division play-offs in 2003 sawAFC BournemouthbeatLincoln City5–2. In this game, Bournemouth set a new record for the most goals scored by one team in a single match at the stadium. This record has since been matched but not beaten.The last domestic cup match played was whenDoncaster RoversbeatBristol Rovers3–2 after extra time in theFootball League TrophyFinal on 1 April 2007. In 2001, theFootball Association of Wales(FAW) confirmed that they had bid to host the2003 UEFA Champions League Final. The stadium had recently been rated as a five-star stadium byUEFA, making it one of the favorites to host the match,but the final was eventually awarded toOld Trafford, the home ofManchester United. It was suggested that the stadium would have been one of the venues of a proposedUEFA Euro 2016championship hosted jointly by Wales andScotland.However, the bid did not reach the formal UEFA selection stage, having been abandoned by the Welsh and Scottish Football Associations for financial reasons.In April 2014, the FAW did submit a formal bid to host three group matches and either a round of 16 match or a quarter-final atEuro 2020, which UEFA planned to host at 13 venues across Europe.When the host venues were voted on in September 2014, the Millennium Stadium lost out by a single vote behind Glasgow'sHampden Park, a decision that FAW chief executive Jonathan Ford put down to UEFA politics.The stadium, however, would be selected forUEFA Euro 2028. On 30 June 2015, the Millennium Stadium was chosen as the venue for the2017 UEFA Champions League Final.UEFA rules meant it could not be branded as the Principality Stadium during the event, resulting in all titles and logos – as well as those of other non-UEFA sponsors – being covered or removed for the duration.The game was played on 3 June 2017 between Italian clubJuventusand Spanish clubReal Madrid, in a repeat of the1998 final; Real Madrid won the match 4–1. When London was selected as the host city for the2012 Summer Olympics, the Millennium Stadium was named as one of the six venues for thefootball competition.It had the distinction of hosting the opening event of the Games – a 1–0 win for theGreat Britain women's teamagainstNew Zealand– as well as four other group games and a quarter-final in the women's tournament, and three group games, a quarter-final and the bronze medal match in the men's. Boxing There have been five nights of boxing at the stadium.On 8 July 2006 whenMatt SkeltonbeatDanny Williamsfor the Commonwealth heavyweight title.On 7 April 2007,Joe CalzaghebeatPeter Manfredoto retain hisWBOsuper middleweight belt.On 3 November 2007,Calzaghe beat Mikkel Kesslerto retain his WBO super middleweight belt and win theWBAandWBCsuper middleweight titles. On 28 October 2017Anthony Joshuasuccessfully retained his WBA (Super),IBFandIBOheavyweight titles againstmandatory challengerCarlos Takamwith a 10th round stoppage. On 31 March 2018, it hosted the World heavyweight unification fight between Anthony Joshua, holder of theWBAand IBF belts, andJoseph Parker, holder of theWBObelt.Joshua beat Parkeron points. Motorsports In 2001, it staged its first ever motorsport event, hosting theSpeedway Grand Prix of Great Britain, and has done so every year since, attracting a record crowd of 44,150 in 2010.The temporarymotorcycle speedwaytrack is 278 metres (304 yards) in length and with sections of the stadiums lower seating bowl covered, the capacity of the stadium for the Grand Prix is set at 62,500. In September 2005 the stadium was host to the first ever indoor stage of theWorld Rally Championshipduring theWales Rally Great Britain. The lower tier of the stadium was removed to create a figure-of-eight course.In addition to this, the stadium has also hostedSupercrossevents.In October 2007, the stadium first hosted the UK leg of theMonster Jamtrucks Europe tour, and returned in June 2008, again in 2009, 2010, 2016, 2018 and 2019. Film The stadium has been used on numerous occasions as a venue for shooting film and television productions. Scenes from the 2001 Hindi filmKabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...were filmed there. Between 2004 and 2011, the stadium was used several times as a filming location for episodes of theBBCscience fiction televisionseriesDoctor Who.The 2005 episode \"Dalek\" was shot primarily on location at the stadium,using its underground areas to represent a bunker inUtah, US, in the year 2012. The location shooting for the episode took place during October and November 2004. The underground areas of the stadium were used again in August 2005 to film Mission Control scenes for theDoctor WhoChristmas special, \"The Christmas Invasion\",and again the following year to film scenes in the underground corridors of Torchwood in \"The Runaway Bride\" episode, broadcast on Christmas Day 2006.Shots of the Stormcage Facility in whichRiver Songis incarcerated in series 5 and 6 ofDoctor Whoare also in the stadium, filmed between October 2010 and January 2011. The stadium has also been used as a location for the filming of Doctor Who spin-offThe Sarah Jane Adventures. The 2010 story, \"Death of the Doctor\", included corridor scenes for theUNITheadquarters that were filmed underground at the Millennium Stadium. TheWembley Stadiumscene in the film28 Weeks Laterwas actually filmed at the Millennium Stadium. Although the outside is footage of Wembley, the inside is all filmed in Cardiff. The visual effects team on the film edited the footage to make it look more like Wembley. Sébastien Foucanjumped over the gap of the opening of the stadium roof in theparkourdocumentary \"Jump Britain\". Eventing The inauguralExpress Eventing International Cuptook place at the stadium on 30 November 2008. The three-event competition made up ofdressage,cross-countryandshow jumpingall took place over the one day. The event was won byOliver Townend. Concerts The stadium has also been used for a variety of musical events, including theManic Street Preachersconcert held onMillenniumEve,and, on the following day, a recording of theBBC'sSongs of Praise, which attracted an attendance of 60,000.Tina Turnerperformed a sold-out concert at the stadium during her highly successfulTwenty Four Seven Tourin 2000.Welsh rockersStereophonicshave played two sold-out shows at the stadium: In July 2001 as part of their two-day \"A Day at the Races\" festival which would later be released to DVD and in 2003, shortly after the departure of the lateStuart Cable. American rock bandBon Joviplayed the venue during theOne Wild Night Tourin 2001.At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted atsunami relief concertin aid of the victims of the2004 Indian Ocean earthquakeandtsunami, withEric Claptonheadlining the event.The stadium has also been host toMadonnaon two occasions, the first in July 2006 when she opened the UK leg of herConfessions Tour,and most recently in August 2008 when she kicked off herSticky & Sweet Tourat the stadium.Other performers who have played at the stadium includeRobbie Williamsas part of hisWeddings, Barmitzvahs & Stadiums Tour,U2as part of theirVertigo Tour,Red Hot Chili Peppersas part of theirBy the Way tour,The Rolling Stonesas part of theirA Bigger Bang Tour,R.E.M.as part of theirMonstertour and again for theirAround the Suntour. Paul McCartneyalso played at the stadium as part of hisUp and Coming Tour,andThe Policeperformed there as part of theirReunion Tour.In late 2005,Oasisplayed at the stadium during theirDon't Believe the Truth Tourand again on theirDig Out Your Soul Tourin 2009.In 2008, the stadium hostedNeil DiamondandBruce Springsteenwith theE Street Bandas part of theirMagic Tour,On 22 August 2009, U2 again played at the stadium, as part of their European leg of theirU2 360° Tour,playing to a record-breaking concert attendance of 73,354.On 17 May 2023,Beyoncéperformed at the stadium as part of herRenaissance World Tour.Taylor Swiftplayed at the stadium on 18 June 2024 as part ofThe Eras Tour.In 2024, it was announcedOasiswould play at the stadium on the 4th and 5th of July 2025 as part of their UK and Ireland Reunion tour. Conferences The stadium offersconferencing facilitiesvia the foodservice organisationCompass Group.The facilities consist of six individually designed lounges and 124 pitch-facing executive box suites. In addition to business events, the facilities are also available for dinners, banquets, balls, parties and weddings receptions. Temporary hospital On 28 March 2020 it was announced that the stadium was to be converted at a cost of £8 million into a temporary field hospital to accommodate up to 2000 patients of theCOVID-19 pandemic, at the same time as theExcel Centre, London,NEC, Birmingham, and theManchester Central Convention Complex.By the weekend of 11–12 April 2020, it had a capacity of 330 beds. Professional wrestling On 12 April 2022, Americanprofessional wrestlingcompanyWWEannounced that it would hold a major event at Millennium Stadium on 3 September, and opened pre-registration for tickets. The event was announced as being WWE's largest show in the UK sinceSummerSlamat theoriginal Wembley Stadiumin 1992.On 29 April 2022, it was announced that the event would be titledClash at the Castle, in reference to nearbyCardiff Castle.The event attracted over 59,000 ticket pre-sale registrations, a company record. See also Notes References External links","List of concerts at the Millennium Stadium Concerts have been held at theMillennium StadiuminCardiff,Wales, since the stadium's opening in 1999. The musicians who have played at the stadium includeTina Turner,Beyoncé,Spice Girls,The Rolling Stones,Rod Stewart,Paul McCartney,MadonnaandRihanna. The highest concert audience at the stadium was 73,354, who sawU2in 2009.In 2018Ed Sheeranperformed for a record-breaking 4 nights at the Stadium on his÷ Tour.The stadium's total seating capacity for sporting events is 73,434. History The first concert held was onNew Year's Eve1999 when theManic Street Preachersheadlined Manic Millennium, followed two days later by a concert for theBBC'sSongs of Praiseprogramme, withCliff Richardperforming his UK number-one single \"The Millennium Prayer\". This event attracted an attendance of 66,000. During 2003, the stadium established a new in-house promotions and events department to attract major concerts to the stadium, taking over from SJM Concerts. The stadium's General Manager Paul Sergeant at the time said of the change, \"We looked at the current way our business was run, (and) realized that if we do it ourselves and have direct contact with the event owners and promoters...we will be able to offer an improved service\". At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted aTsunami Relief Cardiff, a tsunami relief concert, in aid of victims of the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, withEric Claptonheadlining the event. On 22 August 2009, U2 played at the stadium as part of their European leg of theirU2 360° Tour, playing to a record-breaking concert attendance for a concert at the stadium of 73,354. In 2005 the stadium installed an \"Arena Partition Drape System\" – a 1,100 kg black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m (30 ft) x 35 m (115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1m cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, theMillennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the thenWales Tourist Board.The curtain was supplied by Blackout Ltd. It was feared that music concerts and sporting events would take business away from local shops. However, David Hughes Lewis, chairman of Cardiff Retail Partnership, said in 2005 that \"Despite initial concerns that major events in the Millennium Stadium hit trading in the shops, it now believed such events had a positive impact...When people come to Cardiff for the concerts, they more often than not arrive the night before and they'll spend the morning shopping\". Concerts See also Notes External links Media related toConcerts at the Millennium Stadiumat Wikimedia Commons","Manic Street Preachers Manic Street Preachers, also known simply asthe Manics, are a Welshrockband formed inBlackwood, Caerphilly, in 1986. The band consists ofNicky Wire(bass guitar, lyrics) and cousinsJames Dean Bradfield(lead vocals, lead guitar) andSean Moore(drums, percussion, soundscapes). They form a key part of the 1990s WelshCool Cymrucultural movement. Following the release of their debut single \"Suicide Alley\" in 1988, Manic Street Preachers became a quartet with the addition ofRichey Edwardsas co-lyricist and rhythm guitarist. The band's early albums were in apunkvein, eventually broadening to a greateralternative rocksound.Their early combination of androgynousglamimagery and lyrics about \"culture, alienation, boredom and despair\" gained them a loyal following. Manic Street Preachers' first charting single was \"Motown Junk\" in 1991, followed by their debut album,Generation Terrorists, in February 1992. The band's next two albums wereGold Against the Soulin 1993 andThe Holy Biblein 1994,the latter being the last album with Edwards, who disappeared in February 1995 and was legallypresumed deadin 2008.The band continued as a trio, and achieved commercial success with the albumsEverything Must Go(1996) andThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours(1998). The Manics have headlined festivals includingGlastonbury,T in the Park,V FestivalandReading, winning elevenNME Awards, eightQ Awardsand fourBRIT Awards.They were nominated for theMercury Prizein 1996 and 1999, and have had one nomination for theMTV Europe Music Awards. The band has sold more than ten million albums worldwide.The Manics have two number-one singles in the UK charts: \"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\" (1998) and \"The Masses Against the Classes\" (2000), as well as two number-one albums:This Is My Truth Tell Me YoursandThe Ultra Vivid Lament(2021).From 1991 to 2010, the band recorded 33 consecutive top 40 singles in the UK. History Formation and early years (1986–1991) Manic Street Preachers formed in 1986 atOakdale Comprehensive School,Blackwood,South Wales, which all the band members attended.Bradfield and the slightly older Moore are cousins and shared bunk beds in the Bradfield family home after Moore's parents divorced. During the band's early years, Bradfield, alongside the classically trained Moore, primarily wrote the music while Wire focused on the lyrics. Some of their earliest performances were held at theBlackwood Miners Welfare Institutein the town.The origin of the band's name remains unclear, but the most often-told story relates that Bradfield while busking one day inCardiff, got into an altercation with someone (sometimes said to be a homeless man)who asked him \"What are you, boyo, some kind of manic street preacher?\" Original bassist Flicker (Miles Woodward) left the band in early 1988, reportedly because he believed that the band were moving away from their punk roots.The band continued as a three-piece, with Wire switching from guitar to bass,and in 1988 they released their first single, \"Suicide Alley\". Despite its recording quality, this single provides an early insight into both Bradfield's guitar work and Moore's live drumming.The Manics intended to restore revolution torock and rollat a time when Britain was dominated byshoegazeand acid house.TheNMEgave \"Suicide Alley\" an enthusiastic review, citing a press release by Richey Edwards: \"We are as far away from anything in the '80s as possible.\" After the release of \"Suicide Alley,\" Edwards joined the band on rhythm guitar and contributed to lyrics alongside Wire. Edwards also designed record sleeves and artwork and drove the band to and from gigs. In 1990 the Manic Street Preachers signed a deal with labelDamaged Goods Recordsfor oneEP. The four-trackNew Art Riot E.P.attracted as much media interest for its attacks on fellow musicians as for the actual music.With the help of Hall or Nothing management, the Manics signed toindielabelHeavenly Records. The band recorded their first single for the label, entitled \"Motown Junk\". Their next single, \"You Love Us\", sampledKrzysztof Penderecki's \"Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima\" as well asIggy Pop. The video featured Nicky Wire indragasMarilyn Monroeand contained visual references to the filmBetty Blueand toAleister Crowley. On 15 May 1991, during an interview with then-NMEjournalistSteve Lamacqfollowing a gig at Norwich Arts Centre, Edwards carved the phrase \"4REAL\" into his arm with a razor blade in a bid to prove the sincerity of the band.He was taken to hospital and received seventeen stitches.NMEsubsequently ran a full-page story on the incident, including a phone interview with Richey on his motivations for doing it. A recording of the editorial meeting discussing whether or not they could publish the image was included as a b-side on the band's 1992 charity singleTheme from M.A.S.H. (Suicide Is Painless), featuring Lamacq, the then-editor ofNMEDanny KellyandJames Brown(who went on to editLoadedand the British version ofGQ). As a result of their controversial behaviour, the Manics quickly became favourites of the British music press, which helped them build a dedicated following.Columbia RecordsofSony Music UKsigned the band shortly afterwards and they began work on their debut album. Richey Edwards era:Generation TerroriststoThe Holy Bible(1992–1995) The band's debut album,Generation Terrorists, was released in 1992 on theColumbia Recordsimprint. The record contained six singles and sold 250,000 copies.The liner notes contained a literary quote for each of the album's eighteen songs and the album lasted just over seventy minutes. The album's lyrics are politicised like those ofthe ClashandPublic Enemy,with the album's songs regularly switching from a critical focus on globalcapitalismto more personal tales of despair and the struggles of youth. Other tracks combine personal and political themes; \"Nat West-Barclays-Midlands-Lloyds\" was written as a critique of overseas banking credit policies, but also concernedRichey Edwards' issues involving overdrafts and refused loans.The single \"Motorcycle Emptiness\", meanwhile, criticisesconsumerismas a \"shallow dream\"that makes human life overtly commercialised.\"Little Baby Nothing\", a duet betweenTraci Lordsand Bradfield, was described by Priya Elan of theNMEas a \"perfect snapshot of innocence bodysnatched and twisted\". The band also made a cover version of the song \"Suicide Is Painless\" which peaked at number 7 in the UK charts, spending 3 weeks in the Top 10, and giving the band their first ever Top 10 hit single. The group's second album,Gold Against the Soul, had a more commercial,grungysound. It was released to mixed reviews but performed well, reaching number eight in the UK album chart. The band stated that the choice to work withDave Eringaagain was important for this album.The band have describedGold Against the Soulas their least favourite album and the period surrounding the album as being the most unfocused of their career. The band's vocalist and guitaristJames Dean Bradfieldhas said \"All we wanted to do was go under the corporate wing. We thought we could ignore it but you do get affected.\" By early 1994, Edwards' difficultiesbecame worse and began to affect the other band members as well as himself.He was admitted intoThe Prioryin 1994 to overcome his problems and the band played a few festivals as a three-piece to pay for his treatment.During one such three-piece performance at Reading '94, James played Richey's black Gibson as a mark of respect (although James later commented that he regretted playing Richey's guitar). The group's next album,The Holy Bible, was released in August to critical acclaim, but sold poorly. The album displayed yet another musical and aesthetic change for the band, largely featuring army/navy uniforms. Musically,The Holy Biblemarks a shift from themodern rocksound of their first two albums,Generation TerroristsandGold Against the Soul.In addition to the album'salternative rocksound the album incorporates various elements from other musical genres, such ashard rock,British punk,post-punk,new wave,industrial,art rockandgothic rock. Lyrically the album deals with subjects including prostitution, Americanconsumerism, Britishimperialism,freedom of speech,the Holocaust,serial killers, thedeath penalty, political revolution, childhood,fascismand suicide.According toQ: \"the tone of the album is by turns bleak, angry and resigned\".There was also an element of autobiographic subjects, like in the song \"4st 7lb\" where the lyrics clearly tackle Richey's own experience with anorexia. The song was named after 4stones7pounds, or 63 pounds (29 kg), because it is the weight below which death is saidto be medically unavoidable for an anorexic sufferer. The title \"The Holy Bible\" was chosen by Edwards to reflect an idea, according to Bradfield, that \"everything on there has to be perfection\".Interviewed at the end of 1994, Edwards said: \"The way religions choose to speak their truth to the public has always been to beat them down I think that if a Holy Bible is true, it should be about the way the world is and that's what I think my lyrics are about. doesn't pretend things don't exist\". In support of the album the band appeared onTop of the Pops, performing its first single, \"Faster\", which reached No. 16. The performance was extremely controversial at the time, as the band were all dressed in army regalia. Bradfield wore a \"terrorist-style\"balaclava. At the time, the band was told by theBBCthat they had received the most complaints ever.The album eventually has sold over 600,000 copies worldwide. In April and May 1994 the band first performed songs fromThe Holy Bibleat concerts in Thailand and Portugal and at a benefit concert for theAnti-Nazi LeagueatBrockwell Park, London.In June, they played theGlastonbury Festival.In July and August, without Richey Edwards, they playedT in the Parkin Scotland, the Alte Wartesaal inCologne, theParkpopFestival inThe Hagueand theReading Festival.During September, October and December there was a headline tour of the UK and Ireland and two tours in mainland Europe withSuedeandTherapy?.In December, three nights at theLondon Astoriaended with the band smashing up their equipment and the venue's lighting rig, causing £26,000 worth of damage. The disappearance of Richey Edwards Edwards disappeared on 1 February 1995, on the day when he andJames Dean Bradfieldwere due to fly to the US on a promotional tour.In the two weeks before his disappearance, Edwards withdrew £200 a day from his bank account, which totalled £2,800 by the day of the scheduled flight.He checked out of the Embassy Hotel inBayswater Road, London, at seven in the morning, and then drove to his apartment inCardiff, Wales.In the two weeks that followed he was apparently spotted in theNewportpassport office,and theNewport bus station.On 7 February, a taxi driver from Newport supposedly picked up Edwards from the King's Hotel in Newport, and drove him around the valleys, including Blackwood (Edwards' home as a child). The passenger got off at theSevern View service stationnearAustand paid the £68 fare in cash. On 14 February, Edwards'Vauxhall Cavalierreceived a parking ticket at the Severn View service station and on 17 February, the vehicle was reported as abandoned. Police discovered the battery to be flat, with evidence that the car had been lived in.Due to theservice station's proximity to theSevern Bridge(which has been a renowned suicide location in the past)it was widely believed that he took his own life by jumping from the bridge. Manic Street Preachers was put on hold for six months and disbanding the group was seriously considered, but with the blessing of Edwards' family, the other members continued.Edwards was legally \"presumed dead\" in 2008, to enable his parents to administer his estate.The band continue to set up a microphone for Edwards at every live performance. Everything Must GotoLifeblood(1996–2006) The first album without Edwards,Everything Must Go, was released on 20 May 1996. The band had chosen to work with new producerMike Hedges, mainly for his work onSiouxsie and the Banshees' single \"Swimming Horses\" that Bradfield rated highly.Everything Must Godebuted on theUK Albums Chartat number 2, so far the album has goneTriple Platinumin the UK and is their most successful album to date, spending 103 weeks in the Top 100 with the album still in the Top 5 a year after its release.Containing five songs either written or co-written by Edwards the album was released to overwhelmingly positive reviews. The No. 2 hit single \"A Design for Life\" was the first to be written and released by the band following the disappearance of Richey Edwards the previous year.James Dean Bradfield later recalled that the lyric had been a fusion of two sets of lyrics-\"Design for Life\" and \"Pure Motive\"-sent to him from Wales by bassist Nicky Wire, while he was living inShepherd's Bush. The music was written \"in about ten minutes\" and Bradfield felt a sense of euphoria with the result.The song was credited with having \"rescued the band\" from the despair felt after the disappearance of Edwards, with Wire describing the song as \"a bolt of light from a severely dark place\". The album was shortlisted for the 1996Mercury Prizeaward for best album and won the band twoBrit Awardsfor Best British Band and Best British Album,as well as yielding the hit singles \"Australia\", \"Everything Must Go\" and \"Kevin Carter\". The album has sold over two million copies around the world, and it is still considered one of the finest releases of the decade,a classic album from the 1990sand frequently voted in polls in the category of best albums of all time by many publications.The success of Everything Must Go at the 1997Brit Awardsensured that sales of their earlier albumsGeneration Terrorists,Gold Against the SoulandThe Holy Bibleenjoyed a late surge; the band's debut sold an extra 110,000 copies. In 1997 the band performed a special gig at theManchester Arenafor more than 20,000 people. Bassist Nicky Wire said that was the moment he knew that the band had \"made it\".The recording was released as aVHSvideo on 29 September 1997 and has only been reissued on DVD in Japan. The band's next album,This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours(1998), was the first number 1 of the band in the UK, remaining at the top of the albums chart for 3 weeks,selling 136,000 copies in the first week and spending a total of 74 weeks in the Album Chart.The title is a quotation taken from a speech given byAneurin Bevan, aLabour Partypolitician from Wales.The cover photograph was taken onBlack Rock SandsnearPorthmadog, Wales.Around the world the album also peaked at number 1 in countries like Sweden and Ireland, and it sold over five million copies worldwide. With their fifth album, the group also had a No. 1 single, \"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\". The song's theme is taken from theSpanish Civil War, and the idealism ofWelshvolunteers who joined theleft-wingInternational Brigadesfighting for theSpanish RepublicagainstFrancisco Franco's military rebels. The song takes its name from aRepublicanposter of the time, displaying a photograph of a young child killed by theNationalistsunder a sky of bombers with the stark warning \"If you tolerate this, your children will be next\" written at the bottom.The song is in theGuinness World Recordsas the number one single with the longest title without brackets.The album also included the hit singles \"You Stole the Sun from My Heart\", \"Tsunami\" and \"The Everlasting\". The Manics won Best British Band and Album awards at the BRIT Awards in 1999.This Is My Truth Tell Me Yourswas also shortlisted for the 1999Mercury Prizeand the band received a further nomination in the category of Best UK & Ireland Act in the 1999MTV Europe Music Awards, where the band performed live the singleIf You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next. In theNME Awardsin 1999, the band won every single big prize, Best Band, Best Album, Best Live Act, Best Single and Best Video, as well as the Best Band in the World Today award in theQ Awards1998. After headliningGlastonbury Festival,T in the ParkandV Festival, the band played theLeaving the 20th Centuryconcert at theMillennium Stadiumin Cardiff on 31 December 1999, the first concert to be held there, with 57,000 people attending and the final song being broadcast around the world by satellite as part of2000 Today. The concert is available onVHSandDVD. Subtitled English lyrics, available as an extra, contain errors when compared to the official lyrics in the band's album booklets and in between some of the tracks there are interview clips where the band discusses their history and the songs. In 2000, they released the limited edition single \"The Masses Against the Classes\". Despite receiving little promotion, the single sold 76,000 copies in its first week and reached number one in theUK Singles Charton 16 January 2000, beating \"U Know What's Up\" byDonell Jonesto the top. The catalogue entry for the single was deleted (removed from wholesale supply) on the day of release, but the song nevertheless spent 9 weeks in the UK chart. In 2001, they became the first popular Western rock band to play in Cuba (at theKarl Marx Theatre) and met with PresidentFidel Castro. Their concert and trip to Cuba was documented and then released as a DVD entitledLouder Than War. At this concert, they revealed many tracks from their upcoming sixth album,Know Your Enemy, which was released on 19 March. Theleft-wingpolitical convictions of the Manic Street Preachers are apparent in many of the album's songs, such as \"Baby Elián\" as they comment on the strained relations between the United States and Cuba as seen in theElián Gonzálezaffair, a hot topic around the album's release. The band also pays tribute to singer and civil rights activistPaul Robesonin the song \"Let Robeson Sing\", but the song \"Ocean Spray\", which was a single, was written entirely by James about his mother's battle with cancer. The first singles from the album, \"So Why So Sad\" and \"Found That Soul\", were both released on the same day. The final single \"Let Robeson Sing\" was released later. The Manics also headlinedReading and Leeds Festival. The greatest hits (plus remixes) albumForever Delayedwas released in 2002, containing two new songs, \"Door to the River\" and the single \"There by the Grace of God\". Several songs were edited for length (\"Motorcycle Emptiness,\" \"You Love Us\", \"Australia,\" \"Everything Must Go,\" \"Little Baby Nothing,\" and \"The Everlasting\") so that more tracks could fit onto the CD (though not listed as edits in the liner notes). TheForever DelayedDVD was released in 2002 together with the greatest hits CD and photo book that bear the same name, and features all the promo music videos from the start of the band's career released before the DVD. Along with the promo videos, there is a selection of 14 remix videos, where the visual material is taken from clips of the other promo videos as well as backdrop visuals from the band's live concerts. The album peaked and debuted on theUK Albums Chartat #4. An album ofB-sides, rarities, and cover versions was released in 2003 entitledLipstick Traces (A Secret History of Manic Street Preachers), which contains the last song the band worked on with Edwards. The album received a far more positive reception from fans than theForever Delayedgreatest hits album, which was heavily criticised for favouring the band's more commercially successful singles. The only recurring criticism ofLipstick Traceswas the exclusion of the fan favourite \"Patrick Bateman\", from the \"La Tristesse Durera (Scream to a Sigh)\" single. The band explained that it was excluded mainly because it was almost seven minutes long and simply would not fit on the album. The band's seventh studio album,Lifeblood, was released on 1 November 2004 and reached No. 13 on the UK album chart. Critical response to the album was mixed. The album was more introspective and more focused on the past, Wire talked about the ghosts that haunted this record and stated that the record was a retrospective: \"The main themes are death and solitude and ghosts. Being haunted by history and being haunted by your own past. Sleep is beautiful for me. I hate dreaming because it ruins ten hours of bliss. I had a lot of bad dreams when Richey first disappeared. Not ugly dreams, but nagging things. Until we wrote 'Design for Life', it was six months of misery.Lifeblooddoesn't seek to exorcise Edwards' ghost, though, just admits that there are no answers\".Tony Viscontihelped the band produce three songs on the album, which was followed by a UK arena tour in December 2004. \"Empty Souls\" and \"The Love of Richard Nixon\" were the two singles released from the album, both reaching No. 2 in the UK. A tenth-anniversary edition ofThe Holy Biblewas released on 6 December 2004, which included a digitally remastered version of the original album, a rare U.S. mix (which the band themselves have admitted to preferring to the original UK mix)and a DVD of live performances and extras including a band interview. In April 2005, the band played several shows as the Past-Present-Future tour—announced as their last for at least two years. The band released an EP entitledGod Save the Manicswith only a limited number of copies available and given out to fans as they arrived at the venue. After all the copies were gone, the band made the EP available as a free download on their website.In September, the band contributed the new track \"Leviathan\" to theWar Childcharity albumHelp!: A Day in the Life. In 2006 the band received the prize for the Q Merit Award in theQ Awards2006 and also the 10th-anniversary edition ofEverything Must Gowas released on 6 November. It included the original album, demos, B-sides, remixes, rehearsals and alternate takes of the album's songs, spread out over two CDs. An additional DVD, featuring music videos, live performances, TV appearances, a 45-minute documentary on the making of the album, and two films byPatrick Jones, completed the three-disc set. In the 10th-anniversary edition, the band itself claims that they're still fond of the record, and Wire goes further saying: \"I think it's our best record, I am not afraid to say that.\" Send Away the TigerstoNational Treasures(2007–2012) The band's eighth studio album,Send Away the Tigers, was released on 7 May 2007 onColumbia Records. It entered the official UK album charts at No. 2. Critical response to the album was largely positive, with some critics hailing the album as the band's best in a decade. A free download of a song entitled \"Underdogs\" from the album was made available through the group's website on 19 March 2007.The first official single released from the album was \"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\", featuringCardigansvocalistNina Persson. According to singer Bradfield, the title was the last line of a suicide note left by the friend of someone close to the group.The second single, \"Autumnsong\", and a third, \"Indian Summer\", were released in August. \"Indian Summer\" peaked at number 22, making it the first Manics single not to chart in the Top 20 since 1994's \"She Is Suffering\". The album sleeve features a quotation fromWyndham Lewis: \"When a man is young, he is usually a revolutionary of some kind. So here I am, speaking of my revolution\". A Christmas single, \"The Ghosts of Christmas\", was released as a free download on the band's official website throughout December 2007 and January 2008. In February 2008, the band were presented with the God-Like Geniuses Award at theNME Awardsceremony. The ninth Manics album,Journal for Plague Lovers, was released on 18 May 2009 and features lyrics left behind by Edwards. Wire commented in an interview that \"there was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice.\"The album was released to positive critical reviews and reached No. 3 on the UK Album Chart. However, the cover of the album generated some controversy, with the top four UKsupermarketsstocking the CD in a plain slipcase, as the cover was deemed \"inappropriate\". Several tracks refer to Edwards' time in a couple of hospitals in 1994. Bradfield commented thatJournal for Plague Loverswas an attempt to finally secure the legacy of their former memberRichey Edwardsand the result was that, during the recording process, it was as close to feeling his presence since his disappearance: \"There was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice. That was part of the whole thing of letting enough time lapse. Once we actually got into the studio, it almost felt as if we were a full band; it as close to him being in the room again as possible.\" The band's tenth albumPostcards from a Young Manwas recorded with producerDave Eringaand was mixed in America byChris Lord-Alge.The album cover art uses a black and white photograph of British actorTim Roth.The first single from the album, \"(It's Not War) Just the End of Love\", was released on 13 September.The album was supported by the Manics' most extensive tour of the UK to date,starting in Glasgow on 29 September 2010.British Sea Powerwere the support act for the band on the tour. Two further singles were released from the album—the McCulloch-featuring \"Some Kind of Nothingness\" and the title track \"Postcards from a Young Man\". \"Some Kind of Nothingness\" peaked at No. 44 in the UK making it the first-ever Manics single to not make the Top 40 since they signed to Sony in 1991. National Treasures – The Complete Singleswas released on 31 October 2011, preceded by the release of the single \"This Is the Day\", a cover of the song bythe The.On 17 December 2011, the group performed 'A Night of National Treasures' atO2Arenain London to celebrate the band's 25 years to date, and enter into a period of hiatus where the eleventh album was written. The band performed all 38 singles, with around 20,000 people in attendance, as well as guest performers includingNina Perssonfromthe Cardiganswho sings with the band on the single \"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\" andGruff RhysfromSuper Furry Animalswho sang with the band that night on the trackLet Robeson Sing.In April and May 2012, the band embarked on a European greatest hits tour.The compilation was voted byNMEmagazine as the best re issue of 2011, beatingNirvana's deluxe and super deluxe edition ofNevermindto the top spot. Despite the \"complete singles\" title,National Treasuresdoes not contain every Manic Street Preachers single. Notable omissions are the band's very first single, \"Suicide Alley\" (1989), \"Strip It Down\" from theNew Art RiotEP (1990), for which the band's first promotional video was made,and \"You Love Us (Heavenly Version)\" (1991). For singles originally released as double-A sides, only one song is included: therefore from \"Love's Sweet Exile/Repeat\" (1992) and \"Faster/P.C.P.\" (1994), only the first of each pair are included. A film-interview-documentary about their albumGeneration Terroristswas screened on Saturday 20 October 2012 at Chapter Arts Centre as part of theSŵnFestival, with all profits donated to Young Promoters Network.The film was made available in the 20th-anniversary re-issue ofGeneration Terrorists. Rewind the FilmtoThe Ultra Vivid Lament(2013–present) In May 2013, the band announced an Australasian tour for June and July, that would see them play their first-ever show in New Zealand.This tour coincided with the British and Irish Lions rugby tour to Australia and the Melbourne concert on the eve of the 2nd Test featured Lions' centre Jamie Roberts as a guest guitarist on \"You Love Us\". In May 2013 the Manics released information about their most recent recording sessions, saying that they had enough material for two albums; the first would be almost exclusively without electric guitars.The name of the first album and title track was revealed to beRewind the Filmon 8 July.In a statement, the band announced, \"(If) this record has a relation in the Manics back catalogue, it's probably the sedate coming of age that wasThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours.\"The band also stated viaTwitter, \"MSP were in the great Hansa Studios in January with Alex Silva (who recordedThe Holy Biblewith us). Berlin was inspirational...Seanbeen playing afrench hornin the studio today—sounding wonderful.\"The lead single of the album, \"Show Me the Wonder\", was released on 9 September 2013 to a positive critical reception. The album itself was released on 16 September 2013 and reached No. 4 on the UK Album Chart. The second single of the album \"Anthem for a Lost Cause\" was released on 25 November 2013. The other album,Futurology, the band's twelfth studio album, was released on 7 July 2014 and it received immediate critical acclaim. The lead single from the album, \"Walk Me to the Bridge\", was released as a digital download on the day of the announcement, on 28 April.The album sold about 20,000 copies in its first week and reached No. 2 on theUK Albums Chart. The title track, \"Futurology\", was the second and final single released from the album on 22 September, the video debuted onYouTubeon 10 August. The video was directed by theBritish Academy of Film and Television ArtswinnerKieran Evans, who worked with the band on videos from their previous effortRewind the Film. The band promoted the album with a tour around the UK and Europe from March to May 2014, they also made appearances in festivals likeT in the Parkin Scotland andGlastonbury Festivalin the summer. In December 2014, the band touredThe Holy Bible, playing it in full for the very first time, to coincide with its 20th anniversary reissue.After the tour in the UK, the Manics tookThe Holy Bibletour to North America, in April 2015, they played in Washington DC, Toronto, New York, Boston, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago.They also played in theCardiff Castleon 5 June 2015 with 10,000 fans attending the gig, it was broadcast nationwide by BBC Two Wales.In theNME Awards2015, the album won \"Reissue of the Year\". In November 2015, the Manic Street Preachers announced that they were going to celebrate the 20th anniversary of their 1996 albumEverything Must Go, with their biggest headline show since 1999, in theLiberty Stadium, inSwanseaon 28 May 2016, featuring special guests likeSuper Furry Animals. The album was performed in full, with Nicky Wire teasing \"B-sides, rarities and curios, greatest hits and a few brand-new songs\".Before the final show in Swansea the band played:Liverpool,Echo Arena(13 May),Birmingham,Genting Arena(14 May),London,Royal Albert Hall(16–17 May),Leeds,First Direct Arena(20 May) andGlasgow, theSSE Hydro(21 May).In early 2016 the band announced the European tour ofEverything Must Go, they played across Europe, in Finland, Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany. The band announced in March 2016 that they would be releasing a theme song for the Wales national team ahead of theUEFA Euro 2016tournament in the summer, entitled \"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\", it was released on 20 May, featuring also a video with the band and the Welsh team, the Manics tweeted: \"It's with great pride we can announce the Manics are providing the official Wales Euro 2016 song – 'Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)'\". All profits from the song went to the Princes Gate Trust and Tenovus Cancer Care.On 8 July the band was at theCardiff City Stadiumto give a home welcome to the Wales football national team after they were knocked out of theUEFA Euro 2016by Portugal in the semi-finals, the band played a few songs in the stadium including the official theme song \"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\".On the next night, 9 July, the Manics headlined a night at the Cornwall'sEden Project,and later the band managed to secure a new recording studio nearNewport, Wales. The city's council ensured that only the band can use the studio, there would be an increase on-site parking and a series of soundproofing measures to ensure nearby properties aren't disturbed by noise.To end the summer, the Manics went on to headline another two festivals, Wasa Open Air in Finland in mid-Augustand in late August theVictorious Festivalin Portsmouth.The band also received a nomination in the 25th British Academy Cymru Awards for the best live outside broadcast after their 2015 gig in the Cardiff Castle, celebrating the 20th anniversary ofThe Holy Bible. In February 2017 the band revealed a teaser trailer for a documentary entitledEscape from History, charting the band's journey fromThe Holy Bible, through to the disappearance of lyricist and guitarist Richey Edwards, to the huge success ofEverything Must Go. The documentary aired onSky Artson 15 April.The band also stated that they would release an album later in that year. The band released a special edition of their albumSend Away the Tigerson 12 May. 2017 marks the 10th anniversary of the record and the Manics said that \"this is a very important album\" in their career. The special edition featured a remastered album as well asB-sidesand rarities spread over two discs, plus a DVD which features the band's 2007 Glastonbury performance, rehearsal footage, an album track-by-track, and promo videos. On 17 November 2017, the band announced that their thirteenth album,Resistance Is Futile, would be released on 13 April 2018.After much delay, the band wrote \"The main themes of 'Resistance Is Futile' are memory and loss; forgotten history; confused reality and art as a hiding place and inspiration\", the band say in a statement. \"It's obsessively melodic—in many ways referencing both the naive energy of 'Generation Terrorists' and the orchestral sweep of 'Everything Must Go'. After delay and difficulties getting started, the record has come together really quickly over the last few months through a surge of creativity and some old school hard work.\" It is the first album to be recorded at the \"Door to the River\" studio. In January 2018, Manic Street Preachers signed a publishing contract withWarner/Chappell Music, leaving their longtime homeSony/ATV Music Publishing. On the album, the Manics launched their first single \"International Blue\" as a download on 8 December 2017.The second single \"Distant Colours\" was released, also as a download, on 16 February 2018.About the first single the band said that there was certain naive energy and widescreen melancholia on the song that is reflected through the whole album, comparing it to \"Motorcycle Emptiness\". Furthermore, the album focused on \"(...)things that make your life feel a little bit better. Rather than my internalised misery, I tried to put a sense of optimism into the lyrics by writing about things that we find really inspiring.\" Said Wire, taking inspiration fromDavid Bowieand seen as almost an escape and a wave of optimism, just like the previous album was described. On the other hand, \"Distant Colours\" was written by James Dean Bradfield, rather than Nicky Wire, and inspired by disenchantment and Nye Bevan's old Labour. He said: \"Musically, the verse is downcast and melancholic and the chorus is an explosion of disillusionment and tears.\"The third single \"Dylan & Caitlin\" was released as a download on 9 March 2018.The fourth single \"Liverpool Revisited\" is about a magical day in the city, Nicky added that: \"It was on the Everything Must Go (anniversary) tour and I got up really early at sunrise to walk around Liverpool, polaroid camera in hand on a balmy day. It sounds clichéd I know, but Liverpool in the sun does take on a hypnotic quality, with the Mersey and the stone.\"The band also revealed that they were to supportGuns N' Rosesduring their summer tour.The fifth and final single, \"Hold Me Like a Heaven\", was released as a download on 4 May 2018.Wire said that the song was inspired musically byDavid Bowie's \"Ashes to Ashes\", something that the band wanted to write about, and Nicky thinks that this the closest that the band is going to get, sharing also that lyrics were informed by the work ofPhilip Larkin. The album sold around 24,000 copies in the first week, entering theUK Albums Chartat number 2,despite being number 1 during the week.It was the highest new entry on the chart, and on physical sales the album peaked at number 1, both onCDandvinyl. In October 2018, the band announced a twentieth-anniversary collector's edition re-release ofThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours. It was made available on digital, CD, and vinyl, with the CD edition featuring bonus demos, live rehearsal recordings, remixes, and B-sides. The album was launched on 7 December 2018 and to promote it, the band went on tour in Spring and Summer 2019, performing the album in full alongside other content. In March 2020, the Manics announced a deluxe reissue of theirGold Against the Soulalbum for release on 12 June 2020. Bonus content included previously unreleased demos, B-sides from the era, remixes, and a live recording, while the CD was released alongside a book of unseen photographs from the era with handwritten annotations and lyrics from the band.The next day, the unnamed follow-up album toResistance Is Futile, their fourteenth overall, was confirmed toNMEalongside Bradfield's second solo album. The group's album, including a track called \"Orwellian\", was described as \"expansive\" and is due for release in Summer 2021. On 14 May 2021, the Manics announced the title of their fourteenth studio album:The Ultra Vivid Lament.The first single from the album, \"Orwellian\", was released on the same day.\"The Secret He Had Missed\", the second single from the album, was released on 16 July 2021.The Ultra Vivid Lamentwas released on 10 September 2021 and received generally positive reviews from critics: onMetacritic, the album has aweighted averagescore of 78 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".The album sold 27,000 copies in the first week, granting the band their second UK Number 1 album as they narrowly beatStepsto the number 1 spot. In May and June 2022, Manic Street Preachers opened forThe Killersin some of their UK tour dates. In September 2022, the Manics announced a co-headlining tour of United States and Canada withSuedefor November 2022, which would be the first time the two bands would share the stage since they toured Europe together in 1994. On 24 June 2023, the band played theGlastonbury Festival. Speaking to the Other Stage crowd, Nicky Wire said: \"The first time we played was 1994 and it was the four of us, we had the one and only Richard Edwards with us, oh yes, we had a f**king blast. Everything that could go wrong did go wrong, it was f**king fun you know.\" All four band members were honoured with amuralin their hometown of Blackwood in April 2024, designed by street artist Paul Shepherd. Collaborations and covers The band released a split single in 1992 withthe Fatima Mansions, a rock cover of \"Suicide Is Painless\", which became their first UK Top 10 hit.They have recorded many cover versions of songs by other artists, primarily asB-sidesfor their own singles. Bands and artists to whom the group have paid tribute in this way includethe Clash,Guns N' Roses,Alice Cooper,Happy Mondays,McCarthy,Chuck Berry,FacesandNirvana. The band's first musical appearance since Edwards' departure was recording a cover of \"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\" forThe Help Album, a charity effort in 1995 in support of aid efforts in war-tornBosniaandHerzegovina. The Lightning Seeds' song \"Waiting for Today to Happen\", from their fifth album,Dizzy Heights(1996), was written by Nicky Wire andIan Broudie. That same year, James Dean Bradfield andDave EringaproducedNorthern Uproar's first single, \"Rollercoaster/Rough Boys\". The808 Statesong \"Lopez\" (1997) features lyrics by Wire and vocals by Bradfield.It is featured on their greatest hits album,808:88:98.Kylie Minogue's sixth album,Impossible Princess(1997), features two songs co-written and produced by the Manics: \"Some Kind of Bliss\" (Bradfield, Minogue and Sean Moore) and \"I Don't Need Anyone\" (Bradfield, Jones and Minogue) were produced by Bradfield and Dave Eringa.Bradfield provided backing vocals, bass guitar and production for theMassive Attacksong \"Inertia Creeps\" (1998), which features on their successful third album,Mezzanine.Patrick Jones's album of poetry set to music,Commemoration and Amnesia(1999), features two songs with music written by Bradfield: the title track and \"The Guerilla Tapestry\". Bradfield plays the guitar on both songs. Furthermore, the track \"Hiraeth\" features a section called \"Spoken Word\", in which Nicky Wire talks about Welsh identity. In February 2006, the band contributed a cover version of \"The Instrumental\" to the albumStill Unravished: A Tribute to the June Brides. In February 2008, the Manics coveredRihanna's hit pop song \"Umbrella\". Their version appeared on a CD titledNME Awards 2008given away free with a special souvenir box-set issue ofNMEmagazine, which went on sale 27 February. Additionally, the Manics' version of the song was made available oniTunesfrom 5 March 2008.Despite being chart-eligible (it reached number 47 in the UK),the release was not intended as an official single.Two further versions (the Acoustic and Grand Slam mixes) were later made available on iTunes and now comprise a three-trackUmbrella EP. James Dean Bradfield and Nicky Wire contributed an original song, \"The Girl from Tiger Bay\", toShirley Bassey's 2009 studio album,The Performance. Musical style and influences Manic Street Preachers' music has been variously described asalternative rock,Britpop,hard rockglam rock,pop rock,punk metal,andpunk rock. The band have stated thatthe Clashwere \"probably our biggest influence of all\". When they saw them on television, \"we thought it was fantastic and got really excited. They were the catalyst for us\".In addition, they have cited artists includingGuns N' Roses,Alice in Chains,Red Hot Chili Peppers,PiL,Skids,Gang of Four,Sex Pistols,Magazine,Bruce Springsteen,theNew York Dolls,Girls Against Boys,Anna Meredith,Wire,Julia Holter,Rush,Felt,Simple Minds,ABBA,the Associates, andTalk Talkas influences on their music. Bradfield's guitar hero is guitaristJohn McGeoch: \"He taught me, you can have that rock'n'roll swagger, but still build something into it that's really unsettling, and can cut like a razor blade\". Though the band's first albumGeneration Terroristswas mostly politically charged glam-rock mixed with punk influences, their style shifted towards a darker sound onGold Against the Soul. WhenThe Holy Biblewas released, the Manic Street Preachers had incorporatedpost-punkinto their musical style, starting many songs on the album with either recordings of interviews or quotes, or clean, reverberated guitar sounds before abruptly changing tempo and engaging distortion. AfterEdwards' disappearance in 1995, the bands sound has become less dissonant and more appealing to a broader mainstream audience. Following albums have been described as string driven and slower-paced than their early work. Alluding to the band's early relationship with Britpop, Cam Lindsay of Canadian music publicationExclaim!opined that \"Britpop was rising, the Manics were offering the polar opposite: a bleak, uncompromising work that wanted nothing to do with the party\". Members Current members Former members Current touring musicians Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Best Art Vinyl Awards TheBest Art Vinyl Awardsare yearly awards established in 2005 by Art Vinyl Ltd to celebrate the best album artwork of the past year. NME Awards TheNME Awardsis an annual music award show in the United Kingdom. Q Awards TheQ Awardsare the UK's annual music awards run by the music magazineQ. Žebřík Music Awards References Sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"Millennium Stadium TheMillennium Stadium(Welsh:Stadiwm y Mileniwm), known since 2016 as thePrincipality Stadium(Welsh:Stadiwm Principality) for sponsorship reasons, is thenational stadiumofWales. Located inCardiff, it is the home of theWales national rugby union teamand has also heldWales national football teamgames. Initially built to host the1999 Rugby World Cupand replacing theNational Stadium, it has gone on to host many other large-scale events, such as theTsunami Relief Cardiffconcert, theSuper Special StageofWales Rally Great Britain, theSpeedway Grand Prix of Great Britainandvarious concerts. It also hostedFA Cup,League CupandFootball League play-offfinals whileWembley Stadiumwas being redeveloped between 2001 and 2006, as well as football matches during the2012 Summer Olympics. The stadium is owned by Millennium Stadium plc, asubsidiary companyof theWelsh Rugby Union(WRU).The architects wereBligh Lobb Sports Architecture. The structural engineers wereWS Atkinsand the building contractor wasLaing. The total construction cost of the stadium was£121 million,of which theMillennium Commissionfunded £46 million. The Millennium Stadium opened in June 1999and its first major event was an internationalrugby unionmatch on 26 June 1999, whenWalesbeatSouth Africain atest matchby 29–19 before a crowd of 29,000.With a totalseating capacityof 73,931, it is the largest stadium in Wales and the fourth largest (and second largest outsideLondon) in theUnited Kingdomby total capacity. In addition, it is the third-largest stadium in theSix Nations Championshipbehind theStade de FranceandTwickenham. It is also the second-largest stadium in the world with a fullyretractable roofand was the second stadium in Europe to have this feature.Listed as acategory four stadiumbyUEFA, the stadium was chosen as the venue for the2017 UEFA Champions League Final, which took place on 3 June 2017.In 2015, the Welsh Rugby Union announced a 10-year sponsorship deal with thePrincipality Building Societythat saw the stadium renamed as the \\\"Principality Stadium\\\" from early 2016. History Background Until 1969,Cardiff RFCandWalesboth played their home matches on the same pitch atCardiff Arms Park, but all this changed in the 1969–70 season.As a result of an agreement betweenCardiff Athletic Cluband the WRU, theNational Stadiumproject established that a new stadium for international matches and events was required, with Cardiff RFC moving to a new, purpose-built stadium on the original cricket ground at the site of the former Cardiff Arms Park stadium.By 7 April 1984 the National Stadium was officially opened. However, in 1994, a committee was set up to consider redeveloping the National Stadium, and by 1995 the WRU had been chosen to host the 1999 Rugby World Cup. In 1995, the National Stadium, which was designed in 1962,only had a capacity of 53,000; other nations' stadia, such asTwickenham(England) with a capacity of 75,000, andMurrayfield Stadium(Scotland) with a capacity of 67,000, had overtaken it. France was also about to build theStade de France, which would have a capacity of more than 80,000 for the1998 FIFA World Cup.The original capacity of the National Stadium was 65,000, but this had been reduced to 53,000, due to theTaylor Report. 11,000 of 53,000 capacity was on the EastTerraceand the conversion to anall-seater stadiumwould have reduced the stadium capacity still further to just 47,500. In addition to the problems of capacity, the National Stadium was also very well hidden by the neighbouring buildings to the south in Park Street, Wood Street and to the east in Westgate Street, and also by Cardiff Rugby Ground in the north. It was only fully visible from across theRiver Taffin the west. Access to the ground was also very restricted with the main entrance being a narrow opening in Westgate Street to the east which was shared by both vehicles and spectators alike. The options for the new stadium included adding a third tier to the existing National Stadium, or moving to a new site. This last option was discounted because it would have required a vast car parking facility, and that would have put severe short-term pressures on the local transport infrastructure, creating traffic jams and pollution.The committee eventually chose a new stadium on the same site but with considerable increase in its capacity. It would also involve moving the alignment of the stadium from west–east to north–south. This was the option supported by theMillennium Commission. It would become the fourth redevelopment of the Cardiff Arms Park site.It was also decided that the new stadium should have a sliding roof to accommodate a multi-use venue, with a grass pitch for rugby and football.The only other sliding roofs in Europe at the time were at two Dutch stadia – theAmsterdam Arena, completed in 1996 with a capacity of 50,000;andGelredomeinArnhem, a 30,000-capacity ground built from 1996 to 1998. To remain on the Arms Park site, additional space had to be found to allow safe access and to provide room for the increased capacity and improved facilities. This was achieved by the purchase of adjacent buildings to the south and east and by the construction of a new £6 million River Walk by theRiver Taffon the western side of the stadium. By 1999, the Millennium Stadium had replaced the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park, as the national stadium of Wales for rugby union and association football international matches. Cardiff RFC continued as before to play at Cardiff Arms Park rugby ground, which had replaced the cricket ground in 1969. Construction The stadium was designed by a team led by Rod Sheard at Lobb Sport Architecture,who later merged withHOK Sportto becomePopulous. The building contractor wasLaingand the structural engineers were WS Atkins. Mike Otlet of WS Atkins designed the stadium's retractable roof,which was constructed by Kelsey Roofing Industries.Cimolai S.p.A. from Italy fabricated and erected the 72 steel plane frames for the stands and all the 4,500 components of the roof. Construction involved the demolition of a number of buildings, primarily the existing National Stadium (Cardiff Arms Park),Wales Empire Pool(swimming pool) in Wood Street, Cardiff Empire Telephone Exchange building (owned byBT) in Park Street, the newly builtTerritorial Auxiliary & Volunteer Reservebuilding in Park Street, and theSocial Securityoffices in Westgate Street. The stadium was built by Laing in 1999 on the site of the National Stadium, with the head of construction being Steve Ager.It was built for the1999 Rugby World Cup, for which Wales was the main host,with seven of the 41 matches, including the final, being played at the stadium. The total construction cost of the stadium was £121 million,which was funded by private investment and £46 million of public funds from the Millennium Commission,the sale ofdebenturesto supporters (which offered guaranteed tickets in exchange for an interest-free loan) and loans. The development left the WRU heavily in debt. The Millennium Stadium was named as such in recognition of the Millennium Commission's contribution to the building. The stadium was first used for a major event on 26 June 1999, when Wales played South Africa in a rugby union test match before a crowd of 29,000. Wales won 29–19: the first time they had ever beaten the Springboks. 2016 renaming On 8 September 2015 it was announced that the Millennium Stadium would be renamed Principality Stadium as the result of a 10-year naming rights deal with thePrincipality Building Society.Some fans expressed opposition on social media. On 22 January 2016, the Millennium Stadium was officially renamed as the Principality Stadium.The new name, written bilingually (\\\"Stadiwm Principality Stadium\\\") and covering 114 square metres (1,230 sq ft) of the upper stadium, was lit up at a special evening ceremony, to be followed by a festival to encourage grassroots rugby.The change of name also meant a change of logo for the Millennium Stadium. There were three designs shortlisted, and a panel, which included the former Wales international captainRyan Jonesand staff and members of the WRU and Principality Building Society, chose the final design.A spokesperson for the WRU said: \\\"The new stadium logo takes its inspiration from the venue's iconic architecture; four spires, curved frontage and fully retractable roof.\\\" Features The all-seater stadium has the capacity for 74,500 supporters and features a retractable roof, only the second stadium of its type in Europe, and the largest football stadium in the world with this feature, by capacity.Additional seating is sometimes added for special events such as a rugby Test against the New ZealandAll Blacks, or for theFA Cup Final. The current record attendance is set at just over 78,000, recorded at theAnthony JoshuavCarlos Takamfight, on 28 October 2017, in which Joshua successfully retained his WBA, IBF and IBO titles. The natural grass turf was made up of a modular system installed byGreenTech ITM.It features built in irrigation and drainage. The pitch itself was laid on top of some 7,412 pallets that could be moved so the stadium could be used for concerts, exhibitions and other events. In May 2014, after much trouble with disease and stability, the surface was removed and replaced with a more resilient interwoven sand basedDessopitch. The four ends of the ground are called the North Stand, the West Stand, the South Stand and the BT Stand (east).The South Stand was previously known as the Hyder Stand,untilHyderwas sold. The stadium has three tiers of seating with the exception of the North Stand, which has two tiers. The lower tier holds 23,154 spectators, the middle tier holding 15,626 and the upper tier holding 35,151 spectators. The stadium was slightly restricted in size due to its proximity to Cardiff Rugby Club's home in the adjacent smaller stadium within Cardiff Arms Park. The WRU were unable to secure enough funding to include the North Stand in the new stadium and theMillennium Commissionwould not allow any of its funds to be used in any way for the construction of a new stadium for Cardiff RFC.The WRU held talks withCardiff RFCto see if it would be possible for the club to either move or secure funding for theCardiff Arms Parkto be re-developed, but these were unsuccessful. The stadium thus had to be completed with a break in its bowl structure in the North Stand, known colloquially as Glanmor's Gap, afterGlanmor Griffiths, then chairman of the WRU and now a former president. Thesuperstructureof the stadium is based around four 90.3-metre (296 ft) masts. The stadium was built from 56,000 tonnes of concrete and steel, and has 124 hospitality suites and 7 hospitality lounges,22 bars, 7 restaurants, 17 first aid points, 12 escalators and 7 lifts.The stadium has 7 gates for access to the site; Gate 1 is from the River Walk via Castle Street (to the north), Gates 2 and 3 are via Westgate Street (to the east), Gate 4 which was renamed Gatland's Gate (Welsh:Gât Gatland) in honour ofWarren Gatlandin November 2019, is for team-coaches, celebrity limousines and other uses via Westgate Street,Gate 5 is via Park Street (to the south) and Gates 6 and 7 are via the Millennium Plaza (also to the south). Any future renovation to the stadium will involve replacing the old North Stand of the former National Stadium with a new one similar to the three existing stands of the new Millennium Stadium. This will make the stadium bowl-shaped and will increase its capacity to around 80,000. It will resolve the existing problems of deteriorating concrete quality on the old structure in the north stand.However the WRU has been more resistant to the proposal in recent years, stating that the concrete has not been deteriorating in recent years meaning the cost of replacing Glanmor's Gap would not justify the limited increase in capacity it would provide. In each of the stadium's bars, so-called \\\"joy machines\\\" can pour 12 pints in less than 20 seconds. During a Wales versus France match, 63,000 fans drank 77,184 pints of beer, almost double the 44,000 pints drunk by a similar number of fans at a game atTwickenham.The stadium has a residenthawknamed \\\"Dad\\\", who is employed to drive seagulls and pigeons out of the stadium. In 2005 the stadium installed an \\\"Arena Partition Drape System\\\" – a 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m × 35 m (30 ft × 115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1 million cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, theMillennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the thenWales Tourist Board.The curtain was supplied by Blackout. In May 2015, the chairman of the WRU,Gareth Davies, announced that the stadium would be fitted with new seats, replacing the original seats from 1999 at a cost of £4 million to £5 million, which would be completed by 2018. In addition a new £3.1 million Desso hybrid pitch will beinstalled. In February 2019, the stadium increased its disabled capacity from 168 to 214 at a cost of around £100,000. As a result, the overall capacity of the stadium was reduced from 74,500 to 73,931. Statue of Sir Tasker Watkins A statue of SirTasker Watkins, the former WRU president between 1993 and 2004, was commissioned to stand outside Gate 3 of the stadium. The bronze statue, 9 feet (2.7 m) tall, was sculpted byLlantwit Majorbased sculptor Roger Andrews. TheWelsh Governmentcontributed £50,000, as didCardiff Council.It was officially unveiled on 15 November 2009 by his daughter, Lady Mair Griffith-Williams. Usage As well as international rugby union and association football, the Millennium Stadium has hosted a variety of sports, including,rugby league(including theChallenge CupFinal on three occasions between 2003 and 2005, the opening ceremony of the2013 Rugby League World CupandWelsh Rugby League internationals),speedway,boxing, theWales Rally Great Britainstage of theWorld Rally Championship,Monster Jamandindoor cricket. The indoor cricket match between The Brits and a Rest of the World team for the Pertemps Power Cricket Cup, which took place on 4 and 5 October 2002. Rugby union The stadium is the home of theWelsh rugby union team, who play all of their home fixtures at the venue. These games include those during theSix Nations, as well as theAutumn Internationalsagainst nations from theSouthern Hemisphere. Apart from the national team, the stadium has also hosted theEuropean Rugby Champions Cupfinals on five occasions. In total, the site, including theNational Stadium, has hosted the final of the European Rugby Champions Cup on seven occasions. The stadium has also been used forCeltic Leaguegames, and the semi-finals of theAnglo-Welsh Cupin2006and2007. Since 2013, the Millennium Stadium has hostedJudgement Day, a double-header between the four WelshUnited Rugby Championshipteams. The 2016 edition had 68,262 spectators, the highest in the history of the league. The stadium hosted the first match in the2005 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealandwhen they drew 25–25 againstArgentinain a warm-up test match. Welsh Varsity rugby matches On 30 March 2011, the stadium hosted theWelsh Varsityrugby match for the first time in the history of the match between the senior teams ofCardiff UniversityandSwansea University. The stadium is used alternating years withLiberty Stadiumin Swansea. The Welsh Varsity event celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2016. Rugby World Cup The Welsh Rugby Union hosted the1999 Rugby World Cupwith the Final being played at the stadium. The stadium also hosted 3 pool matches and 1 quarter-final match (New Zealand 18–20 France) of the2007 Rugby World Cup. On 15 October 2011, the stadium was open toWelsh Rugby Unionfans free of charge, providing that they wear red so that they could watch a live screening of the2011 Rugby World Cupsemi-final betweenWalesandFrancethat was played atEden Park,Auckland, New Zealand. The match was screened on the stadium's existing large screens, on all of their television screens and on a screen that was brought in for the occasion. The same was done for theBronze FinalbetweenWalesandAustraliawhich saw Wales defeated and take fourth place. The stadium hosted six pool matches, including two featuring Wales, and two quarter-final matches during the2015 Rugby World Cup. Rugby league The stadium first hostedrugby leaguefootball during the2000 World Cup: a double header featuringCook IslandsversusLebanonandWalesversusNew Zealandthat attracted a crowd of 17,612. It was again used as Wales' home ground during the2002 New Zealand rugby league tour of Great Britain and Francewhen they again hosted the Kiwis this time attracting 8,746 spectators. The Stadium has hosted threeChallenge CupFinals, which are usually played at Wembley, from 2003 to 2005. In2003theBradford Bullsdefeated theLeeds Rhinos22–20 in front of 71,212 fans.St. HelensdefeatedWigan36–16 in2004in front of 73,734 fans, whileHull F.C.defeated Leeds 25–24 in2005in front of 74,213 fans, the largest rugby league crowd at the stadium. Also, in 2007 the stadium hosted the inauguralMillennium Magicweekend. This was a two-day event in May when an entire round ofSuper Leaguematches were played, three games on the Saturday and three games on the Sunday. The event was deemed a success by the sport's governing body, theRFL, and second Millennium Magic event took place in May 2008, although the 2009 and 2010 events were held at Murrayfield Stadium and were renamed Magic Weekend. In 2011, Magic Weekend moved back to Cardiff with the opening round of Super League being played. On 26 October 2013, the Millennium Stadium hosted the opening ceremony and the first two fixtures of the2013 Rugby League World Cup: a double-header featuring Wales againstItalyandEnglandagainst title favourites and eventual tournament championsAustralia.This double header produced an overall attendance of 45,052, which is an international rugby league record at the stadium. Association football From 2000 to 2009, the stadium was the almost-permanent home of Welsh football. Thenationalteam played the vast majority of home matches at the Millennium Stadium, with a handful offriendly matchesonce or twice a year at theRacecourse Ground, WrexhamorLiberty Stadium, Swansea.The first Welsh football game at the stadium was played against Finland in 2000,and drew a then-record home crowd for Welsh football of over 66,000.This has since been beaten on several occasions. However, since 2010, the majority of home games have been played at the smallerCardiff City Stadium, the home ofCardiff City.Wales have only played at the stadium twice since 2009; in 2011 againstEnglandand in 2018 againstSpain. While the Millennium Stadium was under construction, the originalWembley Stadiumhad hosted the Welsh rugby team during the building of the new ground. The favour was returned from 2001 while the newWembley Stadiumwas being built,with the Millennium hosting: The stadium became notorious for an apparent \\\"away team hoodoo\\\"; the first 11 major cup finals were all won by the teams occupying the home dressing room.Stoke City beat Brentford 2–0 in 2002 to end the \\\"hoodoo\\\", after Paul Darby carried out afeng shuiblessing. Liverpoolwere the first team to win theFA Cupat the Millennium Stadium in 2001 after beatingArsenal2–1.They were also the first team to win theLeague Cupat the Stadium, defeatingBirmingham Cityin apenalty shoot-outearlier that year.In 2003, Liverpool won theLeague Cupfor the seventh time in their history thanks to a 2–0 win over Manchester United in the final at the stadium. Liverpool also won thelast FA Cup Finalat the Millennium Stadium in 2006, beatingWest Ham United3–1 in a penalty shoot-out that followed a 3–3 draw afterextra timein what was billed as 'the best cup final of the modern era'. The Football League Third Division play-offs in 2003 sawAFC BournemouthbeatLincoln City5–2. In this game, Bournemouth set a new record for the most goals scored by one team in a single match at the stadium. This record has since been matched but not beaten.The last domestic cup match played was whenDoncaster RoversbeatBristol Rovers3–2 after extra time in theFootball League TrophyFinal on 1 April 2007. In 2001, theFootball Association of Wales(FAW) confirmed that they had bid to host the2003 UEFA Champions League Final. The stadium had recently been rated as a five-star stadium byUEFA, making it one of the favorites to host the match,but the final was eventually awarded toOld Trafford, the home ofManchester United. It was suggested that the stadium would have been one of the venues of a proposedUEFA Euro 2016championship hosted jointly by Wales andScotland.However, the bid did not reach the formal UEFA selection stage, having been abandoned by the Welsh and Scottish Football Associations for financial reasons.In April 2014, the FAW did submit a formal bid to host three group matches and either a round of 16 match or a quarter-final atEuro 2020, which UEFA planned to host at 13 venues across Europe.When the host venues were voted on in September 2014, the Millennium Stadium lost out by a single vote behind Glasgow'sHampden Park, a decision that FAW chief executive Jonathan Ford put down to UEFA politics.The stadium, however, would be selected forUEFA Euro 2028. On 30 June 2015, the Millennium Stadium was chosen as the venue for the2017 UEFA Champions League Final.UEFA rules meant it could not be branded as the Principality Stadium during the event, resulting in all titles and logos – as well as those of other non-UEFA sponsors – being covered or removed for the duration.The game was played on 3 June 2017 between Italian clubJuventusand Spanish clubReal Madrid, in a repeat of the1998 final; Real Madrid won the match 4–1. When London was selected as the host city for the2012 Summer Olympics, the Millennium Stadium was named as one of the six venues for thefootball competition.It had the distinction of hosting the opening event of the Games – a 1–0 win for theGreat Britain women's teamagainstNew Zealand– as well as four other group games and a quarter-final in the women's tournament, and three group games, a quarter-final and the bronze medal match in the men's. Boxing There have been five nights of boxing at the stadium.On 8 July 2006 whenMatt SkeltonbeatDanny Williamsfor the Commonwealth heavyweight title.On 7 April 2007,Joe CalzaghebeatPeter Manfredoto retain hisWBOsuper middleweight belt.On 3 November 2007,Calzaghe beat Mikkel Kesslerto retain his WBO super middleweight belt and win theWBAandWBCsuper middleweight titles. On 28 October 2017Anthony Joshuasuccessfully retained his WBA (Super),IBFandIBOheavyweight titles againstmandatory challengerCarlos Takamwith a 10th round stoppage. On 31 March 2018, it hosted the World heavyweight unification fight between Anthony Joshua, holder of theWBAand IBF belts, andJoseph Parker, holder of theWBObelt.Joshua beat Parkeron points. Motorsports In 2001, it staged its first ever motorsport event, hosting theSpeedway Grand Prix of Great Britain, and has done so every year since, attracting a record crowd of 44,150 in 2010.The temporarymotorcycle speedwaytrack is 278 metres (304 yards) in length and with sections of the stadiums lower seating bowl covered, the capacity of the stadium for the Grand Prix is set at 62,500. In September 2005 the stadium was host to the first ever indoor stage of theWorld Rally Championshipduring theWales Rally Great Britain. The lower tier of the stadium was removed to create a figure-of-eight course.In addition to this, the stadium has also hostedSupercrossevents.In October 2007, the stadium first hosted the UK leg of theMonster Jamtrucks Europe tour, and returned in June 2008, again in 2009, 2010, 2016, 2018 and 2019. Film The stadium has been used on numerous occasions as a venue for shooting film and television productions. Scenes from the 2001 Hindi filmKabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...were filmed there. Between 2004 and 2011, the stadium was used several times as a filming location for episodes of theBBCscience fiction televisionseriesDoctor Who.The 2005 episode \\\"Dalek\\\" was shot primarily on location at the stadium,using its underground areas to represent a bunker inUtah, US, in the year 2012. The location shooting for the episode took place during October and November 2004. The underground areas of the stadium were used again in August 2005 to film Mission Control scenes for theDoctor WhoChristmas special, \\\"The Christmas Invasion\\\",and again the following year to film scenes in the underground corridors of Torchwood in \\\"The Runaway Bride\\\" episode, broadcast on Christmas Day 2006.Shots of the Stormcage Facility in whichRiver Songis incarcerated in series 5 and 6 ofDoctor Whoare also in the stadium, filmed between October 2010 and January 2011. The stadium has also been used as a location for the filming of Doctor Who spin-offThe Sarah Jane Adventures. The 2010 story, \\\"Death of the Doctor\\\", included corridor scenes for theUNITheadquarters that were filmed underground at the Millennium Stadium. TheWembley Stadiumscene in the film28 Weeks Laterwas actually filmed at the Millennium Stadium. Although the outside is footage of Wembley, the inside is all filmed in Cardiff. The visual effects team on the film edited the footage to make it look more like Wembley. Sébastien Foucanjumped over the gap of the opening of the stadium roof in theparkourdocumentary \\\"Jump Britain\\\". Eventing The inauguralExpress Eventing International Cuptook place at the stadium on 30 November 2008. The three-event competition made up ofdressage,cross-countryandshow jumpingall took place over the one day. The event was won byOliver Townend. Concerts The stadium has also been used for a variety of musical events, including theManic Street Preachersconcert held onMillenniumEve,and, on the following day, a recording of theBBC'sSongs of Praise, which attracted an attendance of 60,000.Tina Turnerperformed a sold-out concert at the stadium during her highly successfulTwenty Four Seven Tourin 2000.Welsh rockersStereophonicshave played two sold-out shows at the stadium: In July 2001 as part of their two-day \\\"A Day at the Races\\\" festival which would later be released to DVD and in 2003, shortly after the departure of the lateStuart Cable. American rock bandBon Joviplayed the venue during theOne Wild Night Tourin 2001.At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted atsunami relief concertin aid of the victims of the2004 Indian Ocean earthquakeandtsunami, withEric Claptonheadlining the event.The stadium has also been host toMadonnaon two occasions, the first in July 2006 when she opened the UK leg of herConfessions Tour,and most recently in August 2008 when she kicked off herSticky & Sweet Tourat the stadium.Other performers who have played at the stadium includeRobbie Williamsas part of hisWeddings, Barmitzvahs & Stadiums Tour,U2as part of theirVertigo Tour,Red Hot Chili Peppersas part of theirBy the Way tour,The Rolling Stonesas part of theirA Bigger Bang Tour,R.E.M.as part of theirMonstertour and again for theirAround the Suntour. Paul McCartneyalso played at the stadium as part of hisUp and Coming Tour,andThe Policeperformed there as part of theirReunion Tour.In late 2005,Oasisplayed at the stadium during theirDon't Believe the Truth Tourand again on theirDig Out Your Soul Tourin 2009.In 2008, the stadium hostedNeil DiamondandBruce Springsteenwith theE Street Bandas part of theirMagic Tour,On 22 August 2009, U2 again played at the stadium, as part of their European leg of theirU2 360° Tour,playing to a record-breaking concert attendance of 73,354.On 17 May 2023,Beyoncéperformed at the stadium as part of herRenaissance World Tour.Taylor Swiftplayed at the stadium on 18 June 2024 as part ofThe Eras Tour.In 2024, it was announcedOasiswould play at the stadium on the 4th and 5th of July 2025 as part of their UK and Ireland Reunion tour. Conferences The stadium offersconferencing facilitiesvia the foodservice organisationCompass Group.The facilities consist of six individually designed lounges and 124 pitch-facing executive box suites. In addition to business events, the facilities are also available for dinners, banquets, balls, parties and weddings receptions. Temporary hospital On 28 March 2020 it was announced that the stadium was to be converted at a cost of £8 million into a temporary field hospital to accommodate up to 2000 patients of theCOVID-19 pandemic, at the same time as theExcel Centre, London,NEC, Birmingham, and theManchester Central Convention Complex.By the weekend of 11–12 April 2020, it had a capacity of 330 beds. Professional wrestling On 12 April 2022, Americanprofessional wrestlingcompanyWWEannounced that it would hold a major event at Millennium Stadium on 3 September, and opened pre-registration for tickets. The event was announced as being WWE's largest show in the UK sinceSummerSlamat theoriginal Wembley Stadiumin 1992.On 29 April 2022, it was announced that the event would be titledClash at the Castle, in reference to nearbyCardiff Castle.The event attracted over 59,000 ticket pre-sale registrations, a company record. See also Notes References External links\",\n \"List of concerts at the Millennium Stadium Concerts have been held at theMillennium StadiuminCardiff,Wales, since the stadium's opening in 1999. The musicians who have played at the stadium includeTina Turner,Beyoncé,Spice Girls,The Rolling Stones,Rod Stewart,Paul McCartney,MadonnaandRihanna. The highest concert audience at the stadium was 73,354, who sawU2in 2009.In 2018Ed Sheeranperformed for a record-breaking 4 nights at the Stadium on his÷ Tour.The stadium's total seating capacity for sporting events is 73,434. History The first concert held was onNew Year's Eve1999 when theManic Street Preachersheadlined Manic Millennium, followed two days later by a concert for theBBC'sSongs of Praiseprogramme, withCliff Richardperforming his UK number-one single \\\"The Millennium Prayer\\\". This event attracted an attendance of 66,000. During 2003, the stadium established a new in-house promotions and events department to attract major concerts to the stadium, taking over from SJM Concerts. The stadium's General Manager Paul Sergeant at the time said of the change, \\\"We looked at the current way our business was run, (and) realized that if we do it ourselves and have direct contact with the event owners and promoters...we will be able to offer an improved service\\\". At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted aTsunami Relief Cardiff, a tsunami relief concert, in aid of victims of the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, withEric Claptonheadlining the event. On 22 August 2009, U2 played at the stadium as part of their European leg of theirU2 360° Tour, playing to a record-breaking concert attendance for a concert at the stadium of 73,354. In 2005 the stadium installed an \\\"Arena Partition Drape System\\\" – a 1,100 kg black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m (30 ft) x 35 m (115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1m cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, theMillennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the thenWales Tourist Board.The curtain was supplied by Blackout Ltd. It was feared that music concerts and sporting events would take business away from local shops. However, David Hughes Lewis, chairman of Cardiff Retail Partnership, said in 2005 that \\\"Despite initial concerns that major events in the Millennium Stadium hit trading in the shops, it now believed such events had a positive impact...When people come to Cardiff for the concerts, they more often than not arrive the night before and they'll spend the morning shopping\\\". Concerts See also Notes External links Media related toConcerts at the Millennium Stadiumat Wikimedia Commons\",\n \"Manic Street Preachers Manic Street Preachers, also known simply asthe Manics, are a Welshrockband formed inBlackwood, Caerphilly, in 1986. The band consists ofNicky Wire(bass guitar, lyrics) and cousinsJames Dean Bradfield(lead vocals, lead guitar) andSean Moore(drums, percussion, soundscapes). They form a key part of the 1990s WelshCool Cymrucultural movement. Following the release of their debut single \\\"Suicide Alley\\\" in 1988, Manic Street Preachers became a quartet with the addition ofRichey Edwardsas co-lyricist and rhythm guitarist. The band's early albums were in apunkvein, eventually broadening to a greateralternative rocksound.Their early combination of androgynousglamimagery and lyrics about \\\"culture, alienation, boredom and despair\\\" gained them a loyal following. Manic Street Preachers' first charting single was \\\"Motown Junk\\\" in 1991, followed by their debut album,Generation Terrorists, in February 1992. The band's next two albums wereGold Against the Soulin 1993 andThe Holy Biblein 1994,the latter being the last album with Edwards, who disappeared in February 1995 and was legallypresumed deadin 2008.The band continued as a trio, and achieved commercial success with the albumsEverything Must Go(1996) andThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours(1998). The Manics have headlined festivals includingGlastonbury,T in the Park,V FestivalandReading, winning elevenNME Awards, eightQ Awardsand fourBRIT Awards.They were nominated for theMercury Prizein 1996 and 1999, and have had one nomination for theMTV Europe Music Awards. The band has sold more than ten million albums worldwide.The Manics have two number-one singles in the UK charts: \\\"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\\\" (1998) and \\\"The Masses Against the Classes\\\" (2000), as well as two number-one albums:This Is My Truth Tell Me YoursandThe Ultra Vivid Lament(2021).From 1991 to 2010, the band recorded 33 consecutive top 40 singles in the UK. History Formation and early years (1986–1991) Manic Street Preachers formed in 1986 atOakdale Comprehensive School,Blackwood,South Wales, which all the band members attended.Bradfield and the slightly older Moore are cousins and shared bunk beds in the Bradfield family home after Moore's parents divorced. During the band's early years, Bradfield, alongside the classically trained Moore, primarily wrote the music while Wire focused on the lyrics. Some of their earliest performances were held at theBlackwood Miners Welfare Institutein the town.The origin of the band's name remains unclear, but the most often-told story relates that Bradfield while busking one day inCardiff, got into an altercation with someone (sometimes said to be a homeless man)who asked him \\\"What are you, boyo, some kind of manic street preacher?\\\" Original bassist Flicker (Miles Woodward) left the band in early 1988, reportedly because he believed that the band were moving away from their punk roots.The band continued as a three-piece, with Wire switching from guitar to bass,and in 1988 they released their first single, \\\"Suicide Alley\\\". Despite its recording quality, this single provides an early insight into both Bradfield's guitar work and Moore's live drumming.The Manics intended to restore revolution torock and rollat a time when Britain was dominated byshoegazeand acid house.TheNMEgave \\\"Suicide Alley\\\" an enthusiastic review, citing a press release by Richey Edwards: \\\"We are as far away from anything in the '80s as possible.\\\" After the release of \\\"Suicide Alley,\\\" Edwards joined the band on rhythm guitar and contributed to lyrics alongside Wire. Edwards also designed record sleeves and artwork and drove the band to and from gigs. In 1990 the Manic Street Preachers signed a deal with labelDamaged Goods Recordsfor oneEP. The four-trackNew Art Riot E.P.attracted as much media interest for its attacks on fellow musicians as for the actual music.With the help of Hall or Nothing management, the Manics signed toindielabelHeavenly Records. The band recorded their first single for the label, entitled \\\"Motown Junk\\\". Their next single, \\\"You Love Us\\\", sampledKrzysztof Penderecki's \\\"Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima\\\" as well asIggy Pop. The video featured Nicky Wire indragasMarilyn Monroeand contained visual references to the filmBetty Blueand toAleister Crowley. On 15 May 1991, during an interview with then-NMEjournalistSteve Lamacqfollowing a gig at Norwich Arts Centre, Edwards carved the phrase \\\"4REAL\\\" into his arm with a razor blade in a bid to prove the sincerity of the band.He was taken to hospital and received seventeen stitches.NMEsubsequently ran a full-page story on the incident, including a phone interview with Richey on his motivations for doing it. A recording of the editorial meeting discussing whether or not they could publish the image was included as a b-side on the band's 1992 charity singleTheme from M.A.S.H. (Suicide Is Painless), featuring Lamacq, the then-editor ofNMEDanny KellyandJames Brown(who went on to editLoadedand the British version ofGQ). As a result of their controversial behaviour, the Manics quickly became favourites of the British music press, which helped them build a dedicated following.Columbia RecordsofSony Music UKsigned the band shortly afterwards and they began work on their debut album. Richey Edwards era:Generation TerroriststoThe Holy Bible(1992–1995) The band's debut album,Generation Terrorists, was released in 1992 on theColumbia Recordsimprint. The record contained six singles and sold 250,000 copies.The liner notes contained a literary quote for each of the album's eighteen songs and the album lasted just over seventy minutes. The album's lyrics are politicised like those ofthe ClashandPublic Enemy,with the album's songs regularly switching from a critical focus on globalcapitalismto more personal tales of despair and the struggles of youth. Other tracks combine personal and political themes; \\\"Nat West-Barclays-Midlands-Lloyds\\\" was written as a critique of overseas banking credit policies, but also concernedRichey Edwards' issues involving overdrafts and refused loans.The single \\\"Motorcycle Emptiness\\\", meanwhile, criticisesconsumerismas a \\\"shallow dream\\\"that makes human life overtly commercialised.\\\"Little Baby Nothing\\\", a duet betweenTraci Lordsand Bradfield, was described by Priya Elan of theNMEas a \\\"perfect snapshot of innocence bodysnatched and twisted\\\". The band also made a cover version of the song \\\"Suicide Is Painless\\\" which peaked at number 7 in the UK charts, spending 3 weeks in the Top 10, and giving the band their first ever Top 10 hit single. The group's second album,Gold Against the Soul, had a more commercial,grungysound. It was released to mixed reviews but performed well, reaching number eight in the UK album chart. The band stated that the choice to work withDave Eringaagain was important for this album.The band have describedGold Against the Soulas their least favourite album and the period surrounding the album as being the most unfocused of their career. The band's vocalist and guitaristJames Dean Bradfieldhas said \\\"All we wanted to do was go under the corporate wing. We thought we could ignore it but you do get affected.\\\" By early 1994, Edwards' difficultiesbecame worse and began to affect the other band members as well as himself.He was admitted intoThe Prioryin 1994 to overcome his problems and the band played a few festivals as a three-piece to pay for his treatment.During one such three-piece performance at Reading '94, James played Richey's black Gibson as a mark of respect (although James later commented that he regretted playing Richey's guitar). The group's next album,The Holy Bible, was released in August to critical acclaim, but sold poorly. The album displayed yet another musical and aesthetic change for the band, largely featuring army/navy uniforms. Musically,The Holy Biblemarks a shift from themodern rocksound of their first two albums,Generation TerroristsandGold Against the Soul.In addition to the album'salternative rocksound the album incorporates various elements from other musical genres, such ashard rock,British punk,post-punk,new wave,industrial,art rockandgothic rock. Lyrically the album deals with subjects including prostitution, Americanconsumerism, Britishimperialism,freedom of speech,the Holocaust,serial killers, thedeath penalty, political revolution, childhood,fascismand suicide.According toQ: \\\"the tone of the album is by turns bleak, angry and resigned\\\".There was also an element of autobiographic subjects, like in the song \\\"4st 7lb\\\" where the lyrics clearly tackle Richey's own experience with anorexia. The song was named after 4stones7pounds, or 63 pounds (29 kg), because it is the weight below which death is saidto be medically unavoidable for an anorexic sufferer. The title \\\"The Holy Bible\\\" was chosen by Edwards to reflect an idea, according to Bradfield, that \\\"everything on there has to be perfection\\\".Interviewed at the end of 1994, Edwards said: \\\"The way religions choose to speak their truth to the public has always been to beat them down I think that if a Holy Bible is true, it should be about the way the world is and that's what I think my lyrics are about. doesn't pretend things don't exist\\\". In support of the album the band appeared onTop of the Pops, performing its first single, \\\"Faster\\\", which reached No. 16. The performance was extremely controversial at the time, as the band were all dressed in army regalia. Bradfield wore a \\\"terrorist-style\\\"balaclava. At the time, the band was told by theBBCthat they had received the most complaints ever.The album eventually has sold over 600,000 copies worldwide. In April and May 1994 the band first performed songs fromThe Holy Bibleat concerts in Thailand and Portugal and at a benefit concert for theAnti-Nazi LeagueatBrockwell Park, London.In June, they played theGlastonbury Festival.In July and August, without Richey Edwards, they playedT in the Parkin Scotland, the Alte Wartesaal inCologne, theParkpopFestival inThe Hagueand theReading Festival.During September, October and December there was a headline tour of the UK and Ireland and two tours in mainland Europe withSuedeandTherapy?.In December, three nights at theLondon Astoriaended with the band smashing up their equipment and the venue's lighting rig, causing £26,000 worth of damage. The disappearance of Richey Edwards Edwards disappeared on 1 February 1995, on the day when he andJames Dean Bradfieldwere due to fly to the US on a promotional tour.In the two weeks before his disappearance, Edwards withdrew £200 a day from his bank account, which totalled £2,800 by the day of the scheduled flight.He checked out of the Embassy Hotel inBayswater Road, London, at seven in the morning, and then drove to his apartment inCardiff, Wales.In the two weeks that followed he was apparently spotted in theNewportpassport office,and theNewport bus station.On 7 February, a taxi driver from Newport supposedly picked up Edwards from the King's Hotel in Newport, and drove him around the valleys, including Blackwood (Edwards' home as a child). The passenger got off at theSevern View service stationnearAustand paid the £68 fare in cash. On 14 February, Edwards'Vauxhall Cavalierreceived a parking ticket at the Severn View service station and on 17 February, the vehicle was reported as abandoned. Police discovered the battery to be flat, with evidence that the car had been lived in.Due to theservice station's proximity to theSevern Bridge(which has been a renowned suicide location in the past)it was widely believed that he took his own life by jumping from the bridge. Manic Street Preachers was put on hold for six months and disbanding the group was seriously considered, but with the blessing of Edwards' family, the other members continued.Edwards was legally \\\"presumed dead\\\" in 2008, to enable his parents to administer his estate.The band continue to set up a microphone for Edwards at every live performance. Everything Must GotoLifeblood(1996–2006) The first album without Edwards,Everything Must Go, was released on 20 May 1996. The band had chosen to work with new producerMike Hedges, mainly for his work onSiouxsie and the Banshees' single \\\"Swimming Horses\\\" that Bradfield rated highly.Everything Must Godebuted on theUK Albums Chartat number 2, so far the album has goneTriple Platinumin the UK and is their most successful album to date, spending 103 weeks in the Top 100 with the album still in the Top 5 a year after its release.Containing five songs either written or co-written by Edwards the album was released to overwhelmingly positive reviews. The No. 2 hit single \\\"A Design for Life\\\" was the first to be written and released by the band following the disappearance of Richey Edwards the previous year.James Dean Bradfield later recalled that the lyric had been a fusion of two sets of lyrics-\\\"Design for Life\\\" and \\\"Pure Motive\\\"-sent to him from Wales by bassist Nicky Wire, while he was living inShepherd's Bush. The music was written \\\"in about ten minutes\\\" and Bradfield felt a sense of euphoria with the result.The song was credited with having \\\"rescued the band\\\" from the despair felt after the disappearance of Edwards, with Wire describing the song as \\\"a bolt of light from a severely dark place\\\". The album was shortlisted for the 1996Mercury Prizeaward for best album and won the band twoBrit Awardsfor Best British Band and Best British Album,as well as yielding the hit singles \\\"Australia\\\", \\\"Everything Must Go\\\" and \\\"Kevin Carter\\\". The album has sold over two million copies around the world, and it is still considered one of the finest releases of the decade,a classic album from the 1990sand frequently voted in polls in the category of best albums of all time by many publications.The success of Everything Must Go at the 1997Brit Awardsensured that sales of their earlier albumsGeneration Terrorists,Gold Against the SoulandThe Holy Bibleenjoyed a late surge; the band's debut sold an extra 110,000 copies. In 1997 the band performed a special gig at theManchester Arenafor more than 20,000 people. Bassist Nicky Wire said that was the moment he knew that the band had \\\"made it\\\".The recording was released as aVHSvideo on 29 September 1997 and has only been reissued on DVD in Japan. The band's next album,This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours(1998), was the first number 1 of the band in the UK, remaining at the top of the albums chart for 3 weeks,selling 136,000 copies in the first week and spending a total of 74 weeks in the Album Chart.The title is a quotation taken from a speech given byAneurin Bevan, aLabour Partypolitician from Wales.The cover photograph was taken onBlack Rock SandsnearPorthmadog, Wales.Around the world the album also peaked at number 1 in countries like Sweden and Ireland, and it sold over five million copies worldwide. With their fifth album, the group also had a No. 1 single, \\\"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\\\". The song's theme is taken from theSpanish Civil War, and the idealism ofWelshvolunteers who joined theleft-wingInternational Brigadesfighting for theSpanish RepublicagainstFrancisco Franco's military rebels. The song takes its name from aRepublicanposter of the time, displaying a photograph of a young child killed by theNationalistsunder a sky of bombers with the stark warning \\\"If you tolerate this, your children will be next\\\" written at the bottom.The song is in theGuinness World Recordsas the number one single with the longest title without brackets.The album also included the hit singles \\\"You Stole the Sun from My Heart\\\", \\\"Tsunami\\\" and \\\"The Everlasting\\\". The Manics won Best British Band and Album awards at the BRIT Awards in 1999.This Is My Truth Tell Me Yourswas also shortlisted for the 1999Mercury Prizeand the band received a further nomination in the category of Best UK & Ireland Act in the 1999MTV Europe Music Awards, where the band performed live the singleIf You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next. In theNME Awardsin 1999, the band won every single big prize, Best Band, Best Album, Best Live Act, Best Single and Best Video, as well as the Best Band in the World Today award in theQ Awards1998. After headliningGlastonbury Festival,T in the ParkandV Festival, the band played theLeaving the 20th Centuryconcert at theMillennium Stadiumin Cardiff on 31 December 1999, the first concert to be held there, with 57,000 people attending and the final song being broadcast around the world by satellite as part of2000 Today. The concert is available onVHSandDVD. Subtitled English lyrics, available as an extra, contain errors when compared to the official lyrics in the band's album booklets and in between some of the tracks there are interview clips where the band discusses their history and the songs. In 2000, they released the limited edition single \\\"The Masses Against the Classes\\\". Despite receiving little promotion, the single sold 76,000 copies in its first week and reached number one in theUK Singles Charton 16 January 2000, beating \\\"U Know What's Up\\\" byDonell Jonesto the top. The catalogue entry for the single was deleted (removed from wholesale supply) on the day of release, but the song nevertheless spent 9 weeks in the UK chart. In 2001, they became the first popular Western rock band to play in Cuba (at theKarl Marx Theatre) and met with PresidentFidel Castro. Their concert and trip to Cuba was documented and then released as a DVD entitledLouder Than War. At this concert, they revealed many tracks from their upcoming sixth album,Know Your Enemy, which was released on 19 March. Theleft-wingpolitical convictions of the Manic Street Preachers are apparent in many of the album's songs, such as \\\"Baby Elián\\\" as they comment on the strained relations between the United States and Cuba as seen in theElián Gonzálezaffair, a hot topic around the album's release. The band also pays tribute to singer and civil rights activistPaul Robesonin the song \\\"Let Robeson Sing\\\", but the song \\\"Ocean Spray\\\", which was a single, was written entirely by James about his mother's battle with cancer. The first singles from the album, \\\"So Why So Sad\\\" and \\\"Found That Soul\\\", were both released on the same day. The final single \\\"Let Robeson Sing\\\" was released later. The Manics also headlinedReading and Leeds Festival. The greatest hits (plus remixes) albumForever Delayedwas released in 2002, containing two new songs, \\\"Door to the River\\\" and the single \\\"There by the Grace of God\\\". Several songs were edited for length (\\\"Motorcycle Emptiness,\\\" \\\"You Love Us\\\", \\\"Australia,\\\" \\\"Everything Must Go,\\\" \\\"Little Baby Nothing,\\\" and \\\"The Everlasting\\\") so that more tracks could fit onto the CD (though not listed as edits in the liner notes). TheForever DelayedDVD was released in 2002 together with the greatest hits CD and photo book that bear the same name, and features all the promo music videos from the start of the band's career released before the DVD. Along with the promo videos, there is a selection of 14 remix videos, where the visual material is taken from clips of the other promo videos as well as backdrop visuals from the band's live concerts. The album peaked and debuted on theUK Albums Chartat #4. An album ofB-sides, rarities, and cover versions was released in 2003 entitledLipstick Traces (A Secret History of Manic Street Preachers), which contains the last song the band worked on with Edwards. The album received a far more positive reception from fans than theForever Delayedgreatest hits album, which was heavily criticised for favouring the band's more commercially successful singles. The only recurring criticism ofLipstick Traceswas the exclusion of the fan favourite \\\"Patrick Bateman\\\", from the \\\"La Tristesse Durera (Scream to a Sigh)\\\" single. The band explained that it was excluded mainly because it was almost seven minutes long and simply would not fit on the album. The band's seventh studio album,Lifeblood, was released on 1 November 2004 and reached No. 13 on the UK album chart. Critical response to the album was mixed. The album was more introspective and more focused on the past, Wire talked about the ghosts that haunted this record and stated that the record was a retrospective: \\\"The main themes are death and solitude and ghosts. Being haunted by history and being haunted by your own past. Sleep is beautiful for me. I hate dreaming because it ruins ten hours of bliss. I had a lot of bad dreams when Richey first disappeared. Not ugly dreams, but nagging things. Until we wrote 'Design for Life', it was six months of misery.Lifeblooddoesn't seek to exorcise Edwards' ghost, though, just admits that there are no answers\\\".Tony Viscontihelped the band produce three songs on the album, which was followed by a UK arena tour in December 2004. \\\"Empty Souls\\\" and \\\"The Love of Richard Nixon\\\" were the two singles released from the album, both reaching No. 2 in the UK. A tenth-anniversary edition ofThe Holy Biblewas released on 6 December 2004, which included a digitally remastered version of the original album, a rare U.S. mix (which the band themselves have admitted to preferring to the original UK mix)and a DVD of live performances and extras including a band interview. In April 2005, the band played several shows as the Past-Present-Future tour—announced as their last for at least two years. The band released an EP entitledGod Save the Manicswith only a limited number of copies available and given out to fans as they arrived at the venue. After all the copies were gone, the band made the EP available as a free download on their website.In September, the band contributed the new track \\\"Leviathan\\\" to theWar Childcharity albumHelp!: A Day in the Life. In 2006 the band received the prize for the Q Merit Award in theQ Awards2006 and also the 10th-anniversary edition ofEverything Must Gowas released on 6 November. It included the original album, demos, B-sides, remixes, rehearsals and alternate takes of the album's songs, spread out over two CDs. An additional DVD, featuring music videos, live performances, TV appearances, a 45-minute documentary on the making of the album, and two films byPatrick Jones, completed the three-disc set. In the 10th-anniversary edition, the band itself claims that they're still fond of the record, and Wire goes further saying: \\\"I think it's our best record, I am not afraid to say that.\\\" Send Away the TigerstoNational Treasures(2007–2012) The band's eighth studio album,Send Away the Tigers, was released on 7 May 2007 onColumbia Records. It entered the official UK album charts at No. 2. Critical response to the album was largely positive, with some critics hailing the album as the band's best in a decade. A free download of a song entitled \\\"Underdogs\\\" from the album was made available through the group's website on 19 March 2007.The first official single released from the album was \\\"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\\\", featuringCardigansvocalistNina Persson. According to singer Bradfield, the title was the last line of a suicide note left by the friend of someone close to the group.The second single, \\\"Autumnsong\\\", and a third, \\\"Indian Summer\\\", were released in August. \\\"Indian Summer\\\" peaked at number 22, making it the first Manics single not to chart in the Top 20 since 1994's \\\"She Is Suffering\\\". The album sleeve features a quotation fromWyndham Lewis: \\\"When a man is young, he is usually a revolutionary of some kind. So here I am, speaking of my revolution\\\". A Christmas single, \\\"The Ghosts of Christmas\\\", was released as a free download on the band's official website throughout December 2007 and January 2008. In February 2008, the band were presented with the God-Like Geniuses Award at theNME Awardsceremony. The ninth Manics album,Journal for Plague Lovers, was released on 18 May 2009 and features lyrics left behind by Edwards. Wire commented in an interview that \\\"there was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice.\\\"The album was released to positive critical reviews and reached No. 3 on the UK Album Chart. However, the cover of the album generated some controversy, with the top four UKsupermarketsstocking the CD in a plain slipcase, as the cover was deemed \\\"inappropriate\\\". Several tracks refer to Edwards' time in a couple of hospitals in 1994. Bradfield commented thatJournal for Plague Loverswas an attempt to finally secure the legacy of their former memberRichey Edwardsand the result was that, during the recording process, it was as close to feeling his presence since his disappearance: \\\"There was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice. That was part of the whole thing of letting enough time lapse. Once we actually got into the studio, it almost felt as if we were a full band; it as close to him being in the room again as possible.\\\" The band's tenth albumPostcards from a Young Manwas recorded with producerDave Eringaand was mixed in America byChris Lord-Alge.The album cover art uses a black and white photograph of British actorTim Roth.The first single from the album, \\\"(It's Not War) Just the End of Love\\\", was released on 13 September.The album was supported by the Manics' most extensive tour of the UK to date,starting in Glasgow on 29 September 2010.British Sea Powerwere the support act for the band on the tour. Two further singles were released from the album—the McCulloch-featuring \\\"Some Kind of Nothingness\\\" and the title track \\\"Postcards from a Young Man\\\". \\\"Some Kind of Nothingness\\\" peaked at No. 44 in the UK making it the first-ever Manics single to not make the Top 40 since they signed to Sony in 1991. National Treasures – The Complete Singleswas released on 31 October 2011, preceded by the release of the single \\\"This Is the Day\\\", a cover of the song bythe The.On 17 December 2011, the group performed 'A Night of National Treasures' atO2Arenain London to celebrate the band's 25 years to date, and enter into a period of hiatus where the eleventh album was written. The band performed all 38 singles, with around 20,000 people in attendance, as well as guest performers includingNina Perssonfromthe Cardiganswho sings with the band on the single \\\"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\\\" andGruff RhysfromSuper Furry Animalswho sang with the band that night on the trackLet Robeson Sing.In April and May 2012, the band embarked on a European greatest hits tour.The compilation was voted byNMEmagazine as the best re issue of 2011, beatingNirvana's deluxe and super deluxe edition ofNevermindto the top spot. Despite the \\\"complete singles\\\" title,National Treasuresdoes not contain every Manic Street Preachers single. Notable omissions are the band's very first single, \\\"Suicide Alley\\\" (1989), \\\"Strip It Down\\\" from theNew Art RiotEP (1990), for which the band's first promotional video was made,and \\\"You Love Us (Heavenly Version)\\\" (1991). For singles originally released as double-A sides, only one song is included: therefore from \\\"Love's Sweet Exile/Repeat\\\" (1992) and \\\"Faster/P.C.P.\\\" (1994), only the first of each pair are included. A film-interview-documentary about their albumGeneration Terroristswas screened on Saturday 20 October 2012 at Chapter Arts Centre as part of theSŵnFestival, with all profits donated to Young Promoters Network.The film was made available in the 20th-anniversary re-issue ofGeneration Terrorists. Rewind the FilmtoThe Ultra Vivid Lament(2013–present) In May 2013, the band announced an Australasian tour for June and July, that would see them play their first-ever show in New Zealand.This tour coincided with the British and Irish Lions rugby tour to Australia and the Melbourne concert on the eve of the 2nd Test featured Lions' centre Jamie Roberts as a guest guitarist on \\\"You Love Us\\\". In May 2013 the Manics released information about their most recent recording sessions, saying that they had enough material for two albums; the first would be almost exclusively without electric guitars.The name of the first album and title track was revealed to beRewind the Filmon 8 July.In a statement, the band announced, \\\"(If) this record has a relation in the Manics back catalogue, it's probably the sedate coming of age that wasThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours.\\\"The band also stated viaTwitter, \\\"MSP were in the great Hansa Studios in January with Alex Silva (who recordedThe Holy Biblewith us). Berlin was inspirational...Seanbeen playing afrench hornin the studio today—sounding wonderful.\\\"The lead single of the album, \\\"Show Me the Wonder\\\", was released on 9 September 2013 to a positive critical reception. The album itself was released on 16 September 2013 and reached No. 4 on the UK Album Chart. The second single of the album \\\"Anthem for a Lost Cause\\\" was released on 25 November 2013. The other album,Futurology, the band's twelfth studio album, was released on 7 July 2014 and it received immediate critical acclaim. The lead single from the album, \\\"Walk Me to the Bridge\\\", was released as a digital download on the day of the announcement, on 28 April.The album sold about 20,000 copies in its first week and reached No. 2 on theUK Albums Chart. The title track, \\\"Futurology\\\", was the second and final single released from the album on 22 September, the video debuted onYouTubeon 10 August. The video was directed by theBritish Academy of Film and Television ArtswinnerKieran Evans, who worked with the band on videos from their previous effortRewind the Film. The band promoted the album with a tour around the UK and Europe from March to May 2014, they also made appearances in festivals likeT in the Parkin Scotland andGlastonbury Festivalin the summer. In December 2014, the band touredThe Holy Bible, playing it in full for the very first time, to coincide with its 20th anniversary reissue.After the tour in the UK, the Manics tookThe Holy Bibletour to North America, in April 2015, they played in Washington DC, Toronto, New York, Boston, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago.They also played in theCardiff Castleon 5 June 2015 with 10,000 fans attending the gig, it was broadcast nationwide by BBC Two Wales.In theNME Awards2015, the album won \\\"Reissue of the Year\\\". In November 2015, the Manic Street Preachers announced that they were going to celebrate the 20th anniversary of their 1996 albumEverything Must Go, with their biggest headline show since 1999, in theLiberty Stadium, inSwanseaon 28 May 2016, featuring special guests likeSuper Furry Animals. The album was performed in full, with Nicky Wire teasing \\\"B-sides, rarities and curios, greatest hits and a few brand-new songs\\\".Before the final show in Swansea the band played:Liverpool,Echo Arena(13 May),Birmingham,Genting Arena(14 May),London,Royal Albert Hall(16–17 May),Leeds,First Direct Arena(20 May) andGlasgow, theSSE Hydro(21 May).In early 2016 the band announced the European tour ofEverything Must Go, they played across Europe, in Finland, Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany. The band announced in March 2016 that they would be releasing a theme song for the Wales national team ahead of theUEFA Euro 2016tournament in the summer, entitled \\\"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\\\", it was released on 20 May, featuring also a video with the band and the Welsh team, the Manics tweeted: \\\"It's with great pride we can announce the Manics are providing the official Wales Euro 2016 song – 'Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)'\\\". All profits from the song went to the Princes Gate Trust and Tenovus Cancer Care.On 8 July the band was at theCardiff City Stadiumto give a home welcome to the Wales football national team after they were knocked out of theUEFA Euro 2016by Portugal in the semi-finals, the band played a few songs in the stadium including the official theme song \\\"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\\\".On the next night, 9 July, the Manics headlined a night at the Cornwall'sEden Project,and later the band managed to secure a new recording studio nearNewport, Wales. The city's council ensured that only the band can use the studio, there would be an increase on-site parking and a series of soundproofing measures to ensure nearby properties aren't disturbed by noise.To end the summer, the Manics went on to headline another two festivals, Wasa Open Air in Finland in mid-Augustand in late August theVictorious Festivalin Portsmouth.The band also received a nomination in the 25th British Academy Cymru Awards for the best live outside broadcast after their 2015 gig in the Cardiff Castle, celebrating the 20th anniversary ofThe Holy Bible. In February 2017 the band revealed a teaser trailer for a documentary entitledEscape from History, charting the band's journey fromThe Holy Bible, through to the disappearance of lyricist and guitarist Richey Edwards, to the huge success ofEverything Must Go. The documentary aired onSky Artson 15 April.The band also stated that they would release an album later in that year. The band released a special edition of their albumSend Away the Tigerson 12 May. 2017 marks the 10th anniversary of the record and the Manics said that \\\"this is a very important album\\\" in their career. The special edition featured a remastered album as well asB-sidesand rarities spread over two discs, plus a DVD which features the band's 2007 Glastonbury performance, rehearsal footage, an album track-by-track, and promo videos. On 17 November 2017, the band announced that their thirteenth album,Resistance Is Futile, would be released on 13 April 2018.After much delay, the band wrote \\\"The main themes of 'Resistance Is Futile' are memory and loss; forgotten history; confused reality and art as a hiding place and inspiration\\\", the band say in a statement. \\\"It's obsessively melodic—in many ways referencing both the naive energy of 'Generation Terrorists' and the orchestral sweep of 'Everything Must Go'. After delay and difficulties getting started, the record has come together really quickly over the last few months through a surge of creativity and some old school hard work.\\\" It is the first album to be recorded at the \\\"Door to the River\\\" studio. In January 2018, Manic Street Preachers signed a publishing contract withWarner/Chappell Music, leaving their longtime homeSony/ATV Music Publishing. On the album, the Manics launched their first single \\\"International Blue\\\" as a download on 8 December 2017.The second single \\\"Distant Colours\\\" was released, also as a download, on 16 February 2018.About the first single the band said that there was certain naive energy and widescreen melancholia on the song that is reflected through the whole album, comparing it to \\\"Motorcycle Emptiness\\\". Furthermore, the album focused on \\\"(...)things that make your life feel a little bit better. Rather than my internalised misery, I tried to put a sense of optimism into the lyrics by writing about things that we find really inspiring.\\\" Said Wire, taking inspiration fromDavid Bowieand seen as almost an escape and a wave of optimism, just like the previous album was described. On the other hand, \\\"Distant Colours\\\" was written by James Dean Bradfield, rather than Nicky Wire, and inspired by disenchantment and Nye Bevan's old Labour. He said: \\\"Musically, the verse is downcast and melancholic and the chorus is an explosion of disillusionment and tears.\\\"The third single \\\"Dylan & Caitlin\\\" was released as a download on 9 March 2018.The fourth single \\\"Liverpool Revisited\\\" is about a magical day in the city, Nicky added that: \\\"It was on the Everything Must Go (anniversary) tour and I got up really early at sunrise to walk around Liverpool, polaroid camera in hand on a balmy day. It sounds clichéd I know, but Liverpool in the sun does take on a hypnotic quality, with the Mersey and the stone.\\\"The band also revealed that they were to supportGuns N' Rosesduring their summer tour.The fifth and final single, \\\"Hold Me Like a Heaven\\\", was released as a download on 4 May 2018.Wire said that the song was inspired musically byDavid Bowie's \\\"Ashes to Ashes\\\", something that the band wanted to write about, and Nicky thinks that this the closest that the band is going to get, sharing also that lyrics were informed by the work ofPhilip Larkin. The album sold around 24,000 copies in the first week, entering theUK Albums Chartat number 2,despite being number 1 during the week.It was the highest new entry on the chart, and on physical sales the album peaked at number 1, both onCDandvinyl. In October 2018, the band announced a twentieth-anniversary collector's edition re-release ofThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours. It was made available on digital, CD, and vinyl, with the CD edition featuring bonus demos, live rehearsal recordings, remixes, and B-sides. The album was launched on 7 December 2018 and to promote it, the band went on tour in Spring and Summer 2019, performing the album in full alongside other content. In March 2020, the Manics announced a deluxe reissue of theirGold Against the Soulalbum for release on 12 June 2020. Bonus content included previously unreleased demos, B-sides from the era, remixes, and a live recording, while the CD was released alongside a book of unseen photographs from the era with handwritten annotations and lyrics from the band.The next day, the unnamed follow-up album toResistance Is Futile, their fourteenth overall, was confirmed toNMEalongside Bradfield's second solo album. The group's album, including a track called \\\"Orwellian\\\", was described as \\\"expansive\\\" and is due for release in Summer 2021. On 14 May 2021, the Manics announced the title of their fourteenth studio album:The Ultra Vivid Lament.The first single from the album, \\\"Orwellian\\\", was released on the same day.\\\"The Secret He Had Missed\\\", the second single from the album, was released on 16 July 2021.The Ultra Vivid Lamentwas released on 10 September 2021 and received generally positive reviews from critics: onMetacritic, the album has aweighted averagescore of 78 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating \\\"generally favorable reviews\\\".The album sold 27,000 copies in the first week, granting the band their second UK Number 1 album as they narrowly beatStepsto the number 1 spot. In May and June 2022, Manic Street Preachers opened forThe Killersin some of their UK tour dates. In September 2022, the Manics announced a co-headlining tour of United States and Canada withSuedefor November 2022, which would be the first time the two bands would share the stage since they toured Europe together in 1994. On 24 June 2023, the band played theGlastonbury Festival. Speaking to the Other Stage crowd, Nicky Wire said: \\\"The first time we played was 1994 and it was the four of us, we had the one and only Richard Edwards with us, oh yes, we had a f**king blast. Everything that could go wrong did go wrong, it was f**king fun you know.\\\" All four band members were honoured with amuralin their hometown of Blackwood in April 2024, designed by street artist Paul Shepherd. Collaborations and covers The band released a split single in 1992 withthe Fatima Mansions, a rock cover of \\\"Suicide Is Painless\\\", which became their first UK Top 10 hit.They have recorded many cover versions of songs by other artists, primarily asB-sidesfor their own singles. Bands and artists to whom the group have paid tribute in this way includethe Clash,Guns N' Roses,Alice Cooper,Happy Mondays,McCarthy,Chuck Berry,FacesandNirvana. The band's first musical appearance since Edwards' departure was recording a cover of \\\"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\\\" forThe Help Album, a charity effort in 1995 in support of aid efforts in war-tornBosniaandHerzegovina. The Lightning Seeds' song \\\"Waiting for Today to Happen\\\", from their fifth album,Dizzy Heights(1996), was written by Nicky Wire andIan Broudie. That same year, James Dean Bradfield andDave EringaproducedNorthern Uproar's first single, \\\"Rollercoaster/Rough Boys\\\". The808 Statesong \\\"Lopez\\\" (1997) features lyrics by Wire and vocals by Bradfield.It is featured on their greatest hits album,808:88:98.Kylie Minogue's sixth album,Impossible Princess(1997), features two songs co-written and produced by the Manics: \\\"Some Kind of Bliss\\\" (Bradfield, Minogue and Sean Moore) and \\\"I Don't Need Anyone\\\" (Bradfield, Jones and Minogue) were produced by Bradfield and Dave Eringa.Bradfield provided backing vocals, bass guitar and production for theMassive Attacksong \\\"Inertia Creeps\\\" (1998), which features on their successful third album,Mezzanine.Patrick Jones's album of poetry set to music,Commemoration and Amnesia(1999), features two songs with music written by Bradfield: the title track and \\\"The Guerilla Tapestry\\\". Bradfield plays the guitar on both songs. Furthermore, the track \\\"Hiraeth\\\" features a section called \\\"Spoken Word\\\", in which Nicky Wire talks about Welsh identity. In February 2006, the band contributed a cover version of \\\"The Instrumental\\\" to the albumStill Unravished: A Tribute to the June Brides. In February 2008, the Manics coveredRihanna's hit pop song \\\"Umbrella\\\". Their version appeared on a CD titledNME Awards 2008given away free with a special souvenir box-set issue ofNMEmagazine, which went on sale 27 February. Additionally, the Manics' version of the song was made available oniTunesfrom 5 March 2008.Despite being chart-eligible (it reached number 47 in the UK),the release was not intended as an official single.Two further versions (the Acoustic and Grand Slam mixes) were later made available on iTunes and now comprise a three-trackUmbrella EP. James Dean Bradfield and Nicky Wire contributed an original song, \\\"The Girl from Tiger Bay\\\", toShirley Bassey's 2009 studio album,The Performance. Musical style and influences Manic Street Preachers' music has been variously described asalternative rock,Britpop,hard rockglam rock,pop rock,punk metal,andpunk rock. The band have stated thatthe Clashwere \\\"probably our biggest influence of all\\\". When they saw them on television, \\\"we thought it was fantastic and got really excited. They were the catalyst for us\\\".In addition, they have cited artists includingGuns N' Roses,Alice in Chains,Red Hot Chili Peppers,PiL,Skids,Gang of Four,Sex Pistols,Magazine,Bruce Springsteen,theNew York Dolls,Girls Against Boys,Anna Meredith,Wire,Julia Holter,Rush,Felt,Simple Minds,ABBA,the Associates, andTalk Talkas influences on their music. Bradfield's guitar hero is guitaristJohn McGeoch: \\\"He taught me, you can have that rock'n'roll swagger, but still build something into it that's really unsettling, and can cut like a razor blade\\\". Though the band's first albumGeneration Terroristswas mostly politically charged glam-rock mixed with punk influences, their style shifted towards a darker sound onGold Against the Soul. WhenThe Holy Biblewas released, the Manic Street Preachers had incorporatedpost-punkinto their musical style, starting many songs on the album with either recordings of interviews or quotes, or clean, reverberated guitar sounds before abruptly changing tempo and engaging distortion. AfterEdwards' disappearance in 1995, the bands sound has become less dissonant and more appealing to a broader mainstream audience. Following albums have been described as string driven and slower-paced than their early work. Alluding to the band's early relationship with Britpop, Cam Lindsay of Canadian music publicationExclaim!opined that \\\"Britpop was rising, the Manics were offering the polar opposite: a bleak, uncompromising work that wanted nothing to do with the party\\\". Members Current members Former members Current touring musicians Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Best Art Vinyl Awards TheBest Art Vinyl Awardsare yearly awards established in 2005 by Art Vinyl Ltd to celebrate the best album artwork of the past year. NME Awards TheNME Awardsis an annual music award show in the United Kingdom. Q Awards TheQ Awardsare the UK's annual music awards run by the music magazineQ. Žebřík Music Awards References Sources External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Millennium Stadium TheMillennium Stadium(Welsh:Stadiwm y Mileniwm), known since 2016 as thePrincipality Stadium(Welsh:Stadiwm Principality) for sponsorship reasons, is thenational stadiumofWales. Located inCardiff, it is the home of theWales national rugby union teamand has also heldWales national football teamgames. Initially built to host the1999 Rugby World Cupand replacing theNational Stadium, it has gone on to host many other large-scale events, such as theTsunami Relief Cardiffconcert, theSuper Special StageofWales Rally Great Britain, theSpeedway Grand Prix of Great Britainandvarious concerts. It also hostedFA Cup,League CupandFootball League play-offfinals whileWembley Stadiumwas being redeveloped between 2001 and 2006, as well as football matches during the2012 Summer Olympics. The stadium is owned by Millennium Stadium plc, asubsidiary companyof theWelsh Rugby Union(WRU).The architects wereBligh Lobb Sports Architecture. The structural engineers wereWS Atkinsand the building contractor wasLaing. The","wasLaing. The total construction cost of the stadium was£121 million,of which theMillennium Commissionfunded £46 million. The Millennium Stadium opened in June 1999and its first major event was an internationalrugby unionmatch on 26 June 1999, whenWalesbeatSouth Africain atest matchby 29–19 before a crowd of 29,000.With a totalseating capacityof 73,931, it is the largest stadium in Wales and the fourth largest (and second largest outsideLondon) in theUnited Kingdomby total capacity. In addition, it is the third-largest stadium in theSix Nations Championshipbehind theStade de FranceandTwickenham. It is also the second-largest stadium in the world with a fullyretractable roofand was the second stadium in Europe to have this feature.Listed as acategory four stadiumbyUEFA, the stadium was chosen as the venue for the2017 UEFA Champions League Final, which took place on 3 June 2017.In 2015, the Welsh Rugby Union announced a 10-year sponsorship deal with thePrincipality Building Societythat saw the stadium renamed","the stadium renamed as the \"Principality Stadium\" from early 2016. History Background Until 1969,Cardiff RFCandWalesboth played their home matches on the same pitch atCardiff Arms Park, but all this changed in the 1969–70 season.As a result of an agreement betweenCardiff Athletic Cluband the WRU, theNational Stadiumproject established that a new stadium for international matches and events was required, with Cardiff RFC moving to a new, purpose-built stadium on the original cricket ground at the site of the former Cardiff Arms Park stadium.By 7 April 1984 the National Stadium was officially opened. However, in 1994, a committee was set up to consider redeveloping the National Stadium, and by 1995 the WRU had been chosen to host the 1999 Rugby World Cup. In 1995, the National Stadium, which was designed in 1962,only had a capacity of 53,000; other nations' stadia, such asTwickenham(England) with a capacity of 75,000, andMurrayfield Stadium(Scotland) with a capacity of 67,000, had overtaken it. France was also","it. France was also about to build theStade de France, which would have a capacity of more than 80,000 for the1998 FIFA World Cup.The original capacity of the National Stadium was 65,000, but this had been reduced to 53,000, due to theTaylor Report. 11,000 of 53,000 capacity was on the EastTerraceand the conversion to anall-seater stadiumwould have reduced the stadium capacity still further to just 47,500. In addition to the problems of capacity, the National Stadium was also very well hidden by the neighbouring buildings to the south in Park Street, Wood Street and to the east in Westgate Street, and also by Cardiff Rugby Ground in the north. It was only fully visible from across theRiver Taffin the west. Access to the ground was also very restricted with the main entrance being a narrow opening in Westgate Street to the east which was shared by both vehicles and spectators alike. The options for the new stadium included adding a third tier to the existing National Stadium, or moving to a new site. This","to a new site. This last option was discounted because it would have required a vast car parking facility, and that would have put severe short-term pressures on the local transport infrastructure, creating traffic jams and pollution.The committee eventually chose a new stadium on the same site but with considerable increase in its capacity. It would also involve moving the alignment of the stadium from west–east to north–south. This was the option supported by theMillennium Commission. It would become the fourth redevelopment of the Cardiff Arms Park site.It was also decided that the new stadium should have a sliding roof to accommodate a multi-use venue, with a grass pitch for rugby and football.The only other sliding roofs in Europe at the time were at two Dutch stadia – theAmsterdam Arena, completed in 1996 with a capacity of 50,000;andGelredomeinArnhem, a 30,000-capacity ground built from 1996 to 1998. To remain on the Arms Park site, additional space had to be found to allow safe access and to provide","and to provide room for the increased capacity and improved facilities. This was achieved by the purchase of adjacent buildings to the south and east and by the construction of a new £6 million River Walk by theRiver Taffon the western side of the stadium. By 1999, the Millennium Stadium had replaced the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park, as the national stadium of Wales for rugby union and association football international matches. Cardiff RFC continued as before to play at Cardiff Arms Park rugby ground, which had replaced the cricket ground in 1969. Construction The stadium was designed by a team led by Rod Sheard at Lobb Sport Architecture,who later merged withHOK Sportto becomePopulous. The building contractor wasLaingand the structural engineers were WS Atkins. Mike Otlet of WS Atkins designed the stadium's retractable roof,which was constructed by Kelsey Roofing Industries.Cimolai S.p.A. from Italy fabricated and erected the 72 steel plane frames for the stands and all the 4,500 components of the","components of the roof. Construction involved the demolition of a number of buildings, primarily the existing National Stadium (Cardiff Arms Park),Wales Empire Pool(swimming pool) in Wood Street, Cardiff Empire Telephone Exchange building (owned byBT) in Park Street, the newly builtTerritorial Auxiliary & Volunteer Reservebuilding in Park Street, and theSocial Securityoffices in Westgate Street. The stadium was built by Laing in 1999 on the site of the National Stadium, with the head of construction being Steve Ager.It was built for the1999 Rugby World Cup, for which Wales was the main host,with seven of the 41 matches, including the final, being played at the stadium. The total construction cost of the stadium was £121 million,which was funded by private investment and £46 million of public funds from the Millennium Commission,the sale ofdebenturesto supporters (which offered guaranteed tickets in exchange for an interest-free loan) and loans. The development left the WRU heavily in debt. The Millennium","The Millennium Stadium was named as such in recognition of the Millennium Commission's contribution to the building. The stadium was first used for a major event on 26 June 1999, when Wales played South Africa in a rugby union test match before a crowd of 29,000. Wales won 29–19: the first time they had ever beaten the Springboks. 2016 renaming On 8 September 2015 it was announced that the Millennium Stadium would be renamed Principality Stadium as the result of a 10-year naming rights deal with thePrincipality Building Society.Some fans expressed opposition on social media. On 22 January 2016, the Millennium Stadium was officially renamed as the Principality Stadium.The new name, written bilingually (\"Stadiwm Principality Stadium\") and covering 114 square metres (1,230 sq ft) of the upper stadium, was lit up at a special evening ceremony, to be followed by a festival to encourage grassroots rugby.The change of name also meant a change of logo for the Millennium Stadium. There were three designs shortlisted,","shortlisted, and a panel, which included the former Wales international captainRyan Jonesand staff and members of the WRU and Principality Building Society, chose the final design.A spokesperson for the WRU said: \"The new stadium logo takes its inspiration from the venue's iconic architecture; four spires, curved frontage and fully retractable roof.\" Features The all-seater stadium has the capacity for 74,500 supporters and features a retractable roof, only the second stadium of its type in Europe, and the largest football stadium in the world with this feature, by capacity.Additional seating is sometimes added for special events such as a rugby Test against the New ZealandAll Blacks, or for theFA Cup Final. The current record attendance is set at just over 78,000, recorded at theAnthony JoshuavCarlos Takamfight, on 28 October 2017, in which Joshua successfully retained his WBA, IBF and IBO titles. The natural grass turf was made up of a modular system installed byGreenTech ITM.It features built in","features built in irrigation and drainage. The pitch itself was laid on top of some 7,412 pallets that could be moved so the stadium could be used for concerts, exhibitions and other events. In May 2014, after much trouble with disease and stability, the surface was removed and replaced with a more resilient interwoven sand basedDessopitch. The four ends of the ground are called the North Stand, the West Stand, the South Stand and the BT Stand (east).The South Stand was previously known as the Hyder Stand,untilHyderwas sold. The stadium has three tiers of seating with the exception of the North Stand, which has two tiers. The lower tier holds 23,154 spectators, the middle tier holding 15,626 and the upper tier holding 35,151 spectators. The stadium was slightly restricted in size due to its proximity to Cardiff Rugby Club's home in the adjacent smaller stadium within Cardiff Arms Park. The WRU were unable to secure enough funding to include the North Stand in the new stadium and theMillennium Commissionwould","Commissionwould not allow any of its funds to be used in any way for the construction of a new stadium for Cardiff RFC.The WRU held talks withCardiff RFCto see if it would be possible for the club to either move or secure funding for theCardiff Arms Parkto be re-developed, but these were unsuccessful. The stadium thus had to be completed with a break in its bowl structure in the North Stand, known colloquially as Glanmor's Gap, afterGlanmor Griffiths, then chairman of the WRU and now a former president. Thesuperstructureof the stadium is based around four 90.3-metre (296 ft) masts. The stadium was built from 56,000 tonnes of concrete and steel, and has 124 hospitality suites and 7 hospitality lounges,22 bars, 7 restaurants, 17 first aid points, 12 escalators and 7 lifts.The stadium has 7 gates for access to the site; Gate 1 is from the River Walk via Castle Street (to the north), Gates 2 and 3 are via Westgate Street (to the east), Gate 4 which was renamed Gatland's Gate (Welsh:Gât Gatland) in honour","Gatland) in honour ofWarren Gatlandin November 2019, is for team-coaches, celebrity limousines and other uses via Westgate Street,Gate 5 is via Park Street (to the south) and Gates 6 and 7 are via the Millennium Plaza (also to the south). Any future renovation to the stadium will involve replacing the old North Stand of the former National Stadium with a new one similar to the three existing stands of the new Millennium Stadium. This will make the stadium bowl-shaped and will increase its capacity to around 80,000. It will resolve the existing problems of deteriorating concrete quality on the old structure in the north stand.However the WRU has been more resistant to the proposal in recent years, stating that the concrete has not been deteriorating in recent years meaning the cost of replacing Glanmor's Gap would not justify the limited increase in capacity it would provide. In each of the stadium's bars, so-called \"joy machines\" can pour 12 pints in less than 20 seconds. During a Wales versus France match,","France match, 63,000 fans drank 77,184 pints of beer, almost double the 44,000 pints drunk by a similar number of fans at a game atTwickenham.The stadium has a residenthawknamed \"Dad\", who is employed to drive seagulls and pigeons out of the stadium. In 2005 the stadium installed an \"Arena Partition Drape System\" – a 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m × 35 m (30 ft × 115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1 million cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, theMillennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the thenWales Tourist Board.The curtain was supplied by Blackout. In May 2015, the chairman of the WRU,Gareth Davies, announced that the stadium would be fitted with new seats, replacing the original seats from 1999 at a cost of £4 million","cost of £4 million to £5 million, which would be completed by 2018. In addition a new £3.1 million Desso hybrid pitch will beinstalled. In February 2019, the stadium increased its disabled capacity from 168 to 214 at a cost of around £100,000. As a result, the overall capacity of the stadium was reduced from 74,500 to 73,931. Statue of Sir Tasker Watkins A statue of SirTasker Watkins, the former WRU president between 1993 and 2004, was commissioned to stand outside Gate 3 of the stadium. The bronze statue, 9 feet (2.7 m) tall, was sculpted byLlantwit Majorbased sculptor Roger Andrews. TheWelsh Governmentcontributed £50,000, as didCardiff Council.It was officially unveiled on 15 November 2009 by his daughter, Lady Mair Griffith-Williams. Usage As well as international rugby union and association football, the Millennium Stadium has hosted a variety of sports, including,rugby league(including theChallenge CupFinal on three occasions between 2003 and 2005, the opening ceremony of the2013 Rugby League World","Rugby League World CupandWelsh Rugby League internationals),speedway,boxing, theWales Rally Great Britainstage of theWorld Rally Championship,Monster Jamandindoor cricket. The indoor cricket match between The Brits and a Rest of the World team for the Pertemps Power Cricket Cup, which took place on 4 and 5 October 2002. Rugby union The stadium is the home of theWelsh rugby union team, who play all of their home fixtures at the venue. These games include those during theSix Nations, as well as theAutumn Internationalsagainst nations from theSouthern Hemisphere. Apart from the national team, the stadium has also hosted theEuropean Rugby Champions Cupfinals on five occasions. In total, the site, including theNational Stadium, has hosted the final of the European Rugby Champions Cup on seven occasions. The stadium has also been used forCeltic Leaguegames, and the semi-finals of theAnglo-Welsh Cupin2006and2007. Since 2013, the Millennium Stadium has hostedJudgement Day, a double-header between the four","between the four WelshUnited Rugby Championshipteams. The 2016 edition had 68,262 spectators, the highest in the history of the league. The stadium hosted the first match in the2005 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealandwhen they drew 25–25 againstArgentinain a warm-up test match. Welsh Varsity rugby matches On 30 March 2011, the stadium hosted theWelsh Varsityrugby match for the first time in the history of the match between the senior teams ofCardiff UniversityandSwansea University. The stadium is used alternating years withLiberty Stadiumin Swansea. The Welsh Varsity event celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2016. Rugby World Cup The Welsh Rugby Union hosted the1999 Rugby World Cupwith the Final being played at the stadium. The stadium also hosted 3 pool matches and 1 quarter-final match (New Zealand 18–20 France) of the2007 Rugby World Cup. On 15 October 2011, the stadium was open toWelsh Rugby Unionfans free of charge, providing that they wear red so that they could watch a live screening of the2011","of the2011 Rugby World Cupsemi-final betweenWalesandFrancethat was played atEden Park,Auckland, New Zealand. The match was screened on the stadium's existing large screens, on all of their television screens and on a screen that was brought in for the occasion. The same was done for theBronze FinalbetweenWalesandAustraliawhich saw Wales defeated and take fourth place. The stadium hosted six pool matches, including two featuring Wales, and two quarter-final matches during the2015 Rugby World Cup. Rugby league The stadium first hostedrugby leaguefootball during the2000 World Cup: a double header featuringCook IslandsversusLebanonandWalesversusNew Zealandthat attracted a crowd of 17,612. It was again used as Wales' home ground during the2002 New Zealand rugby league tour of Great Britain and Francewhen they again hosted the Kiwis this time attracting 8,746 spectators. The Stadium has hosted threeChallenge CupFinals, which are usually played at Wembley, from 2003 to 2005. In2003theBradford Bullsdefeated theLeeds","theLeeds Rhinos22–20 in front of 71,212 fans.St. HelensdefeatedWigan36–16 in2004in front of 73,734 fans, whileHull F.C.defeated Leeds 25–24 in2005in front of 74,213 fans, the largest rugby league crowd at the stadium. Also, in 2007 the stadium hosted the inauguralMillennium Magicweekend. This was a two-day event in May when an entire round ofSuper Leaguematches were played, three games on the Saturday and three games on the Sunday. The event was deemed a success by the sport's governing body, theRFL, and second Millennium Magic event took place in May 2008, although the 2009 and 2010 events were held at Murrayfield Stadium and were renamed Magic Weekend. In 2011, Magic Weekend moved back to Cardiff with the opening round of Super League being played. On 26 October 2013, the Millennium Stadium hosted the opening ceremony and the first two fixtures of the2013 Rugby League World Cup: a double-header featuring Wales againstItalyandEnglandagainst title favourites and eventual tournament championsAustralia.This","double header produced an overall attendance of 45,052, which is an international rugby league record at the stadium. Association football From 2000 to 2009, the stadium was the almost-permanent home of Welsh football. Thenationalteam played the vast majority of home matches at the Millennium Stadium, with a handful offriendly matchesonce or twice a year at theRacecourse Ground, WrexhamorLiberty Stadium, Swansea.The first Welsh football game at the stadium was played against Finland in 2000,and drew a then-record home crowd for Welsh football of over 66,000.This has since been beaten on several occasions. However, since 2010, the majority of home games have been played at the smallerCardiff City Stadium, the home ofCardiff City.Wales have only played at the stadium twice since 2009; in 2011 againstEnglandand in 2018 againstSpain. While the Millennium Stadium was under construction, the originalWembley Stadiumhad hosted the Welsh rugby team during the building of the new ground. The favour was returned from","was returned from 2001 while the newWembley Stadiumwas being built,with the Millennium hosting: The stadium became notorious for an apparent \"away team hoodoo\"; the first 11 major cup finals were all won by the teams occupying the home dressing room.Stoke City beat Brentford 2–0 in 2002 to end the \"hoodoo\", after Paul Darby carried out afeng shuiblessing. Liverpoolwere the first team to win theFA Cupat the Millennium Stadium in 2001 after beatingArsenal2–1.They were also the first team to win theLeague Cupat the Stadium, defeatingBirmingham Cityin apenalty shoot-outearlier that year.In 2003, Liverpool won theLeague Cupfor the seventh time in their history thanks to a 2–0 win over Manchester United in the final at the stadium. Liverpool also won thelast FA Cup Finalat the Millennium Stadium in 2006, beatingWest Ham United3–1 in a penalty shoot-out that followed a 3–3 draw afterextra timein what was billed as 'the best cup final of the modern era'. The Football League Third Division play-offs in 2003 sawAFC","in 2003 sawAFC BournemouthbeatLincoln City5–2. In this game, Bournemouth set a new record for the most goals scored by one team in a single match at the stadium. This record has since been matched but not beaten.The last domestic cup match played was whenDoncaster RoversbeatBristol Rovers3–2 after extra time in theFootball League TrophyFinal on 1 April 2007. In 2001, theFootball Association of Wales(FAW) confirmed that they had bid to host the2003 UEFA Champions League Final. The stadium had recently been rated as a five-star stadium byUEFA, making it one of the favorites to host the match,but the final was eventually awarded toOld Trafford, the home ofManchester United. It was suggested that the stadium would have been one of the venues of a proposedUEFA Euro 2016championship hosted jointly by Wales andScotland.However, the bid did not reach the formal UEFA selection stage, having been abandoned by the Welsh and Scottish Football Associations for financial reasons.In April 2014, the FAW did submit a formal","did submit a formal bid to host three group matches and either a round of 16 match or a quarter-final atEuro 2020, which UEFA planned to host at 13 venues across Europe.When the host venues were voted on in September 2014, the Millennium Stadium lost out by a single vote behind Glasgow'sHampden Park, a decision that FAW chief executive Jonathan Ford put down to UEFA politics.The stadium, however, would be selected forUEFA Euro 2028. On 30 June 2015, the Millennium Stadium was chosen as the venue for the2017 UEFA Champions League Final.UEFA rules meant it could not be branded as the Principality Stadium during the event, resulting in all titles and logos – as well as those of other non-UEFA sponsors – being covered or removed for the duration.The game was played on 3 June 2017 between Italian clubJuventusand Spanish clubReal Madrid, in a repeat of the1998 final; Real Madrid won the match 4–1. When London was selected as the host city for the2012 Summer Olympics, the Millennium Stadium was named as one of the","named as one of the six venues for thefootball competition.It had the distinction of hosting the opening event of the Games – a 1–0 win for theGreat Britain women's teamagainstNew Zealand– as well as four other group games and a quarter-final in the women's tournament, and three group games, a quarter-final and the bronze medal match in the men's. Boxing There have been five nights of boxing at the stadium.On 8 July 2006 whenMatt SkeltonbeatDanny Williamsfor the Commonwealth heavyweight title.On 7 April 2007,Joe CalzaghebeatPeter Manfredoto retain hisWBOsuper middleweight belt.On 3 November 2007,Calzaghe beat Mikkel Kesslerto retain his WBO super middleweight belt and win theWBAandWBCsuper middleweight titles. On 28 October 2017Anthony Joshuasuccessfully retained his WBA (Super),IBFandIBOheavyweight titles againstmandatory challengerCarlos Takamwith a 10th round stoppage. On 31 March 2018, it hosted the World heavyweight unification fight between Anthony Joshua, holder of theWBAand IBF belts, andJoseph","belts, andJoseph Parker, holder of theWBObelt.Joshua beat Parkeron points. Motorsports In 2001, it staged its first ever motorsport event, hosting theSpeedway Grand Prix of Great Britain, and has done so every year since, attracting a record crowd of 44,150 in 2010.The temporarymotorcycle speedwaytrack is 278 metres (304 yards) in length and with sections of the stadiums lower seating bowl covered, the capacity of the stadium for the Grand Prix is set at 62,500. In September 2005 the stadium was host to the first ever indoor stage of theWorld Rally Championshipduring theWales Rally Great Britain. The lower tier of the stadium was removed to create a figure-of-eight course.In addition to this, the stadium has also hostedSupercrossevents.In October 2007, the stadium first hosted the UK leg of theMonster Jamtrucks Europe tour, and returned in June 2008, again in 2009, 2010, 2016, 2018 and 2019. Film The stadium has been used on numerous occasions as a venue for shooting film and television productions. Scenes","productions. Scenes from the 2001 Hindi filmKabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...were filmed there. Between 2004 and 2011, the stadium was used several times as a filming location for episodes of theBBCscience fiction televisionseriesDoctor Who.The 2005 episode \"Dalek\" was shot primarily on location at the stadium,using its underground areas to represent a bunker inUtah, US, in the year 2012. The location shooting for the episode took place during October and November 2004. The underground areas of the stadium were used again in August 2005 to film Mission Control scenes for theDoctor WhoChristmas special, \"The Christmas Invasion\",and again the following year to film scenes in the underground corridors of Torchwood in \"The Runaway Bride\" episode, broadcast on Christmas Day 2006.Shots of the Stormcage Facility in whichRiver Songis incarcerated in series 5 and 6 ofDoctor Whoare also in the stadium, filmed between October 2010 and January 2011. The stadium has also been used as a location for the filming of Doctor Who","of Doctor Who spin-offThe Sarah Jane Adventures. The 2010 story, \"Death of the Doctor\", included corridor scenes for theUNITheadquarters that were filmed underground at the Millennium Stadium. TheWembley Stadiumscene in the film28 Weeks Laterwas actually filmed at the Millennium Stadium. Although the outside is footage of Wembley, the inside is all filmed in Cardiff. The visual effects team on the film edited the footage to make it look more like Wembley. Sébastien Foucanjumped over the gap of the opening of the stadium roof in theparkourdocumentary \"Jump Britain\". Eventing The inauguralExpress Eventing International Cuptook place at the stadium on 30 November 2008. The three-event competition made up ofdressage,cross-countryandshow jumpingall took place over the one day. The event was won byOliver Townend. Concerts The stadium has also been used for a variety of musical events, including theManic Street Preachersconcert held onMillenniumEve,and, on the following day, a recording of theBBC'sSongs of Praise,","of Praise, which attracted an attendance of 60,000.Tina Turnerperformed a sold-out concert at the stadium during her highly successfulTwenty Four Seven Tourin 2000.Welsh rockersStereophonicshave played two sold-out shows at the stadium: In July 2001 as part of their two-day \"A Day at the Races\" festival which would later be released to DVD and in 2003, shortly after the departure of the lateStuart Cable. American rock bandBon Joviplayed the venue during theOne Wild Night Tourin 2001.At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted atsunami relief concertin aid of the victims of the2004 Indian Ocean earthquakeandtsunami, withEric Claptonheadlining the event.The stadium has also been host toMadonnaon two occasions, the first in July 2006 when she opened the UK leg of herConfessions Tour,and most recently in August 2008 when she kicked off herSticky & Sweet Tourat the stadium.Other performers who have played at the stadium includeRobbie Williamsas part of hisWeddings, Barmitzvahs & Stadiums Tour,U2as part of","Tour,U2as part of theirVertigo Tour,Red Hot Chili Peppersas part of theirBy the Way tour,The Rolling Stonesas part of theirA Bigger Bang Tour,R.E.M.as part of theirMonstertour and again for theirAround the Suntour. Paul McCartneyalso played at the stadium as part of hisUp and Coming Tour,andThe Policeperformed there as part of theirReunion Tour.In late 2005,Oasisplayed at the stadium during theirDon't Believe the Truth Tourand again on theirDig Out Your Soul Tourin 2009.In 2008, the stadium hostedNeil DiamondandBruce Springsteenwith theE Street Bandas part of theirMagic Tour,On 22 August 2009, U2 again played at the stadium, as part of their European leg of theirU2 360° Tour,playing to a record-breaking concert attendance of 73,354.On 17 May 2023,Beyoncéperformed at the stadium as part of herRenaissance World Tour.Taylor Swiftplayed at the stadium on 18 June 2024 as part ofThe Eras Tour.In 2024, it was announcedOasiswould play at the stadium on the 4th and 5th of July 2025 as part of their UK and Ireland","UK and Ireland Reunion tour. Conferences The stadium offersconferencing facilitiesvia the foodservice organisationCompass Group.The facilities consist of six individually designed lounges and 124 pitch-facing executive box suites. In addition to business events, the facilities are also available for dinners, banquets, balls, parties and weddings receptions. Temporary hospital On 28 March 2020 it was announced that the stadium was to be converted at a cost of £8 million into a temporary field hospital to accommodate up to 2000 patients of theCOVID-19 pandemic, at the same time as theExcel Centre, London,NEC, Birmingham, and theManchester Central Convention Complex.By the weekend of 11–12 April 2020, it had a capacity of 330 beds. Professional wrestling On 12 April 2022, Americanprofessional wrestlingcompanyWWEannounced that it would hold a major event at Millennium Stadium on 3 September, and opened pre-registration for tickets. The event was announced as being WWE's largest show in the UK sinceSummerSlamat","sinceSummerSlamat theoriginal Wembley Stadiumin 1992.On 29 April 2022, it was announced that the event would be titledClash at the Castle, in reference to nearbyCardiff Castle.The event attracted over 59,000 ticket pre-sale registrations, a company record. See also Notes References External links","List of concerts at the Millennium Stadium Concerts have been held at theMillennium StadiuminCardiff,Wales, since the stadium's opening in 1999. The musicians who have played at the stadium includeTina Turner,Beyoncé,Spice Girls,The Rolling Stones,Rod Stewart,Paul McCartney,MadonnaandRihanna. The highest concert audience at the stadium was 73,354, who sawU2in 2009.In 2018Ed Sheeranperformed for a record-breaking 4 nights at the Stadium on his÷ Tour.The stadium's total seating capacity for sporting events is 73,434. History The first concert held was onNew Year's Eve1999 when theManic Street Preachersheadlined Manic Millennium, followed two days later by a concert for theBBC'sSongs of Praiseprogramme, withCliff Richardperforming his UK number-one single \"The Millennium Prayer\". This event attracted an attendance of 66,000. During 2003, the stadium established a new in-house promotions and events department to attract major concerts to the stadium, taking over from SJM Concerts. The stadium's General Manager","General Manager Paul Sergeant at the time said of the change, \"We looked at the current way our business was run, (and) realized that if we do it ourselves and have direct contact with the event owners and promoters...we will be able to offer an improved service\". At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted aTsunami Relief Cardiff, a tsunami relief concert, in aid of victims of the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, withEric Claptonheadlining the event. On 22 August 2009, U2 played at the stadium as part of their European leg of theirU2 360° Tour, playing to a record-breaking concert attendance for a concert at the stadium of 73,354. In 2005 the stadium installed an \"Arena Partition Drape System\" – a 1,100 kg black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m (30 ft) x 35 m (115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1m cost","use. The £1m cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, theMillennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the thenWales Tourist Board.The curtain was supplied by Blackout Ltd. It was feared that music concerts and sporting events would take business away from local shops. However, David Hughes Lewis, chairman of Cardiff Retail Partnership, said in 2005 that \"Despite initial concerns that major events in the Millennium Stadium hit trading in the shops, it now believed such events had a positive impact...When people come to Cardiff for the concerts, they more often than not arrive the night before and they'll spend the morning shopping\". Concerts See also Notes External links Media related toConcerts at the Millennium Stadiumat Wikimedia Commons","Manic Street Preachers Manic Street Preachers, also known simply asthe Manics, are a Welshrockband formed inBlackwood, Caerphilly, in 1986. The band consists ofNicky Wire(bass guitar, lyrics) and cousinsJames Dean Bradfield(lead vocals, lead guitar) andSean Moore(drums, percussion, soundscapes). They form a key part of the 1990s WelshCool Cymrucultural movement. Following the release of their debut single \"Suicide Alley\" in 1988, Manic Street Preachers became a quartet with the addition ofRichey Edwardsas co-lyricist and rhythm guitarist. The band's early albums were in apunkvein, eventually broadening to a greateralternative rocksound.Their early combination of androgynousglamimagery and lyrics about \"culture, alienation, boredom and despair\" gained them a loyal following. Manic Street Preachers' first charting single was \"Motown Junk\" in 1991, followed by their debut album,Generation Terrorists, in February 1992. The band's next two albums wereGold Against the Soulin 1993 andThe Holy Biblein 1994,the latter","1994,the latter being the last album with Edwards, who disappeared in February 1995 and was legallypresumed deadin 2008.The band continued as a trio, and achieved commercial success with the albumsEverything Must Go(1996) andThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours(1998). The Manics have headlined festivals includingGlastonbury,T in the Park,V FestivalandReading, winning elevenNME Awards, eightQ Awardsand fourBRIT Awards.They were nominated for theMercury Prizein 1996 and 1999, and have had one nomination for theMTV Europe Music Awards. The band has sold more than ten million albums worldwide.The Manics have two number-one singles in the UK charts: \"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\" (1998) and \"The Masses Against the Classes\" (2000), as well as two number-one albums:This Is My Truth Tell Me YoursandThe Ultra Vivid Lament(2021).From 1991 to 2010, the band recorded 33 consecutive top 40 singles in the UK. History Formation and early years (1986–1991) Manic Street Preachers formed in 1986 atOakdale","in 1986 atOakdale Comprehensive School,Blackwood,South Wales, which all the band members attended.Bradfield and the slightly older Moore are cousins and shared bunk beds in the Bradfield family home after Moore's parents divorced. During the band's early years, Bradfield, alongside the classically trained Moore, primarily wrote the music while Wire focused on the lyrics. Some of their earliest performances were held at theBlackwood Miners Welfare Institutein the town.The origin of the band's name remains unclear, but the most often-told story relates that Bradfield while busking one day inCardiff, got into an altercation with someone (sometimes said to be a homeless man)who asked him \"What are you, boyo, some kind of manic street preacher?\" Original bassist Flicker (Miles Woodward) left the band in early 1988, reportedly because he believed that the band were moving away from their punk roots.The band continued as a three-piece, with Wire switching from guitar to bass,and in 1988 they released their first","their first single, \"Suicide Alley\". Despite its recording quality, this single provides an early insight into both Bradfield's guitar work and Moore's live drumming.The Manics intended to restore revolution torock and rollat a time when Britain was dominated byshoegazeand acid house.TheNMEgave \"Suicide Alley\" an enthusiastic review, citing a press release by Richey Edwards: \"We are as far away from anything in the '80s as possible.\" After the release of \"Suicide Alley,\" Edwards joined the band on rhythm guitar and contributed to lyrics alongside Wire. Edwards also designed record sleeves and artwork and drove the band to and from gigs. In 1990 the Manic Street Preachers signed a deal with labelDamaged Goods Recordsfor oneEP. The four-trackNew Art Riot E.P.attracted as much media interest for its attacks on fellow musicians as for the actual music.With the help of Hall or Nothing management, the Manics signed toindielabelHeavenly Records. The band recorded their first single for the label, entitled \"Motown","entitled \"Motown Junk\". Their next single, \"You Love Us\", sampledKrzysztof Penderecki's \"Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima\" as well asIggy Pop. The video featured Nicky Wire indragasMarilyn Monroeand contained visual references to the filmBetty Blueand toAleister Crowley. On 15 May 1991, during an interview with then-NMEjournalistSteve Lamacqfollowing a gig at Norwich Arts Centre, Edwards carved the phrase \"4REAL\" into his arm with a razor blade in a bid to prove the sincerity of the band.He was taken to hospital and received seventeen stitches.NMEsubsequently ran a full-page story on the incident, including a phone interview with Richey on his motivations for doing it. A recording of the editorial meeting discussing whether or not they could publish the image was included as a b-side on the band's 1992 charity singleTheme from M.A.S.H. (Suicide Is Painless), featuring Lamacq, the then-editor ofNMEDanny KellyandJames Brown(who went on to editLoadedand the British version ofGQ). As a result of their","a result of their controversial behaviour, the Manics quickly became favourites of the British music press, which helped them build a dedicated following.Columbia RecordsofSony Music UKsigned the band shortly afterwards and they began work on their debut album. Richey Edwards era:Generation TerroriststoThe Holy Bible(1992–1995) The band's debut album,Generation Terrorists, was released in 1992 on theColumbia Recordsimprint. The record contained six singles and sold 250,000 copies.The liner notes contained a literary quote for each of the album's eighteen songs and the album lasted just over seventy minutes. The album's lyrics are politicised like those ofthe ClashandPublic Enemy,with the album's songs regularly switching from a critical focus on globalcapitalismto more personal tales of despair and the struggles of youth. Other tracks combine personal and political themes; \"Nat West-Barclays-Midlands-Lloyds\" was written as a critique of overseas banking credit policies, but also concernedRichey Edwards'","Edwards' issues involving overdrafts and refused loans.The single \"Motorcycle Emptiness\", meanwhile, criticisesconsumerismas a \"shallow dream\"that makes human life overtly commercialised.\"Little Baby Nothing\", a duet betweenTraci Lordsand Bradfield, was described by Priya Elan of theNMEas a \"perfect snapshot of innocence bodysnatched and twisted\". The band also made a cover version of the song \"Suicide Is Painless\" which peaked at number 7 in the UK charts, spending 3 weeks in the Top 10, and giving the band their first ever Top 10 hit single. The group's second album,Gold Against the Soul, had a more commercial,grungysound. It was released to mixed reviews but performed well, reaching number eight in the UK album chart. The band stated that the choice to work withDave Eringaagain was important for this album.The band have describedGold Against the Soulas their least favourite album and the period surrounding the album as being the most unfocused of their career. The band's vocalist and guitaristJames Dean","guitaristJames Dean Bradfieldhas said \"All we wanted to do was go under the corporate wing. We thought we could ignore it but you do get affected.\" By early 1994, Edwards' difficultiesbecame worse and began to affect the other band members as well as himself.He was admitted intoThe Prioryin 1994 to overcome his problems and the band played a few festivals as a three-piece to pay for his treatment.During one such three-piece performance at Reading '94, James played Richey's black Gibson as a mark of respect (although James later commented that he regretted playing Richey's guitar). The group's next album,The Holy Bible, was released in August to critical acclaim, but sold poorly. The album displayed yet another musical and aesthetic change for the band, largely featuring army/navy uniforms. Musically,The Holy Biblemarks a shift from themodern rocksound of their first two albums,Generation TerroristsandGold Against the Soul.In addition to the album'salternative rocksound the album incorporates various elements","various elements from other musical genres, such ashard rock,British punk,post-punk,new wave,industrial,art rockandgothic rock. Lyrically the album deals with subjects including prostitution, Americanconsumerism, Britishimperialism,freedom of speech,the Holocaust,serial killers, thedeath penalty, political revolution, childhood,fascismand suicide.According toQ: \"the tone of the album is by turns bleak, angry and resigned\".There was also an element of autobiographic subjects, like in the song \"4st 7lb\" where the lyrics clearly tackle Richey's own experience with anorexia. The song was named after 4stones7pounds, or 63 pounds (29 kg), because it is the weight below which death is saidto be medically unavoidable for an anorexic sufferer. The title \"The Holy Bible\" was chosen by Edwards to reflect an idea, according to Bradfield, that \"everything on there has to be perfection\".Interviewed at the end of 1994, Edwards said: \"The way religions choose to speak their truth to the public has always been to beat them","been to beat them down I think that if a Holy Bible is true, it should be about the way the world is and that's what I think my lyrics are about. doesn't pretend things don't exist\". In support of the album the band appeared onTop of the Pops, performing its first single, \"Faster\", which reached No. 16. The performance was extremely controversial at the time, as the band were all dressed in army regalia. Bradfield wore a \"terrorist-style\"balaclava. At the time, the band was told by theBBCthat they had received the most complaints ever.The album eventually has sold over 600,000 copies worldwide. In April and May 1994 the band first performed songs fromThe Holy Bibleat concerts in Thailand and Portugal and at a benefit concert for theAnti-Nazi LeagueatBrockwell Park, London.In June, they played theGlastonbury Festival.In July and August, without Richey Edwards, they playedT in the Parkin Scotland, the Alte Wartesaal inCologne, theParkpopFestival inThe Hagueand theReading Festival.During September, October","September, October and December there was a headline tour of the UK and Ireland and two tours in mainland Europe withSuedeandTherapy?.In December, three nights at theLondon Astoriaended with the band smashing up their equipment and the venue's lighting rig, causing £26,000 worth of damage. The disappearance of Richey Edwards Edwards disappeared on 1 February 1995, on the day when he andJames Dean Bradfieldwere due to fly to the US on a promotional tour.In the two weeks before his disappearance, Edwards withdrew £200 a day from his bank account, which totalled £2,800 by the day of the scheduled flight.He checked out of the Embassy Hotel inBayswater Road, London, at seven in the morning, and then drove to his apartment inCardiff, Wales.In the two weeks that followed he was apparently spotted in theNewportpassport office,and theNewport bus station.On 7 February, a taxi driver from Newport supposedly picked up Edwards from the King's Hotel in Newport, and drove him around the valleys, including Blackwood","including Blackwood (Edwards' home as a child). The passenger got off at theSevern View service stationnearAustand paid the £68 fare in cash. On 14 February, Edwards'Vauxhall Cavalierreceived a parking ticket at the Severn View service station and on 17 February, the vehicle was reported as abandoned. Police discovered the battery to be flat, with evidence that the car had been lived in.Due to theservice station's proximity to theSevern Bridge(which has been a renowned suicide location in the past)it was widely believed that he took his own life by jumping from the bridge. Manic Street Preachers was put on hold for six months and disbanding the group was seriously considered, but with the blessing of Edwards' family, the other members continued.Edwards was legally \"presumed dead\" in 2008, to enable his parents to administer his estate.The band continue to set up a microphone for Edwards at every live performance. Everything Must GotoLifeblood(1996–2006) The first album without Edwards,Everything Must Go, was","Must Go, was released on 20 May 1996. The band had chosen to work with new producerMike Hedges, mainly for his work onSiouxsie and the Banshees' single \"Swimming Horses\" that Bradfield rated highly.Everything Must Godebuted on theUK Albums Chartat number 2, so far the album has goneTriple Platinumin the UK and is their most successful album to date, spending 103 weeks in the Top 100 with the album still in the Top 5 a year after its release.Containing five songs either written or co-written by Edwards the album was released to overwhelmingly positive reviews. The No. 2 hit single \"A Design for Life\" was the first to be written and released by the band following the disappearance of Richey Edwards the previous year.James Dean Bradfield later recalled that the lyric had been a fusion of two sets of lyrics-\"Design for Life\" and \"Pure Motive\"-sent to him from Wales by bassist Nicky Wire, while he was living inShepherd's Bush. The music was written \"in about ten minutes\" and Bradfield felt a sense of euphoria","a sense of euphoria with the result.The song was credited with having \"rescued the band\" from the despair felt after the disappearance of Edwards, with Wire describing the song as \"a bolt of light from a severely dark place\". The album was shortlisted for the 1996Mercury Prizeaward for best album and won the band twoBrit Awardsfor Best British Band and Best British Album,as well as yielding the hit singles \"Australia\", \"Everything Must Go\" and \"Kevin Carter\". The album has sold over two million copies around the world, and it is still considered one of the finest releases of the decade,a classic album from the 1990sand frequently voted in polls in the category of best albums of all time by many publications.The success of Everything Must Go at the 1997Brit Awardsensured that sales of their earlier albumsGeneration Terrorists,Gold Against the SoulandThe Holy Bibleenjoyed a late surge; the band's debut sold an extra 110,000 copies. In 1997 the band performed a special gig at theManchester Arenafor more than","Arenafor more than 20,000 people. Bassist Nicky Wire said that was the moment he knew that the band had \"made it\".The recording was released as aVHSvideo on 29 September 1997 and has only been reissued on DVD in Japan. The band's next album,This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours(1998), was the first number 1 of the band in the UK, remaining at the top of the albums chart for 3 weeks,selling 136,000 copies in the first week and spending a total of 74 weeks in the Album Chart.The title is a quotation taken from a speech given byAneurin Bevan, aLabour Partypolitician from Wales.The cover photograph was taken onBlack Rock SandsnearPorthmadog, Wales.Around the world the album also peaked at number 1 in countries like Sweden and Ireland, and it sold over five million copies worldwide. With their fifth album, the group also had a No. 1 single, \"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\". The song's theme is taken from theSpanish Civil War, and the idealism ofWelshvolunteers who joined theleft-wingInternational","Brigadesfighting for theSpanish RepublicagainstFrancisco Franco's military rebels. The song takes its name from aRepublicanposter of the time, displaying a photograph of a young child killed by theNationalistsunder a sky of bombers with the stark warning \"If you tolerate this, your children will be next\" written at the bottom.The song is in theGuinness World Recordsas the number one single with the longest title without brackets.The album also included the hit singles \"You Stole the Sun from My Heart\", \"Tsunami\" and \"The Everlasting\". The Manics won Best British Band and Album awards at the BRIT Awards in 1999.This Is My Truth Tell Me Yourswas also shortlisted for the 1999Mercury Prizeand the band received a further nomination in the category of Best UK & Ireland Act in the 1999MTV Europe Music Awards, where the band performed live the singleIf You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next. In theNME Awardsin 1999, the band won every single big prize, Best Band, Best Album, Best Live Act, Best Single and Best","Single and Best Video, as well as the Best Band in the World Today award in theQ Awards1998. After headliningGlastonbury Festival,T in the ParkandV Festival, the band played theLeaving the 20th Centuryconcert at theMillennium Stadiumin Cardiff on 31 December 1999, the first concert to be held there, with 57,000 people attending and the final song being broadcast around the world by satellite as part of2000 Today. The concert is available onVHSandDVD. Subtitled English lyrics, available as an extra, contain errors when compared to the official lyrics in the band's album booklets and in between some of the tracks there are interview clips where the band discusses their history and the songs. In 2000, they released the limited edition single \"The Masses Against the Classes\". Despite receiving little promotion, the single sold 76,000 copies in its first week and reached number one in theUK Singles Charton 16 January 2000, beating \"U Know What's Up\" byDonell Jonesto the top. The catalogue entry for the single was","for the single was deleted (removed from wholesale supply) on the day of release, but the song nevertheless spent 9 weeks in the UK chart. In 2001, they became the first popular Western rock band to play in Cuba (at theKarl Marx Theatre) and met with PresidentFidel Castro. Their concert and trip to Cuba was documented and then released as a DVD entitledLouder Than War. At this concert, they revealed many tracks from their upcoming sixth album,Know Your Enemy, which was released on 19 March. Theleft-wingpolitical convictions of the Manic Street Preachers are apparent in many of the album's songs, such as \"Baby Elián\" as they comment on the strained relations between the United States and Cuba as seen in theElián Gonzálezaffair, a hot topic around the album's release. The band also pays tribute to singer and civil rights activistPaul Robesonin the song \"Let Robeson Sing\", but the song \"Ocean Spray\", which was a single, was written entirely by James about his mother's battle with cancer. The first singles from","first singles from the album, \"So Why So Sad\" and \"Found That Soul\", were both released on the same day. The final single \"Let Robeson Sing\" was released later. The Manics also headlinedReading and Leeds Festival. The greatest hits (plus remixes) albumForever Delayedwas released in 2002, containing two new songs, \"Door to the River\" and the single \"There by the Grace of God\". Several songs were edited for length (\"Motorcycle Emptiness,\" \"You Love Us\", \"Australia,\" \"Everything Must Go,\" \"Little Baby Nothing,\" and \"The Everlasting\") so that more tracks could fit onto the CD (though not listed as edits in the liner notes). TheForever DelayedDVD was released in 2002 together with the greatest hits CD and photo book that bear the same name, and features all the promo music videos from the start of the band's career released before the DVD. Along with the promo videos, there is a selection of 14 remix videos, where the visual material is taken from clips of the other promo videos as well as backdrop visuals from","visuals from the band's live concerts. The album peaked and debuted on theUK Albums Chartat #4. An album ofB-sides, rarities, and cover versions was released in 2003 entitledLipstick Traces (A Secret History of Manic Street Preachers), which contains the last song the band worked on with Edwards. The album received a far more positive reception from fans than theForever Delayedgreatest hits album, which was heavily criticised for favouring the band's more commercially successful singles. The only recurring criticism ofLipstick Traceswas the exclusion of the fan favourite \"Patrick Bateman\", from the \"La Tristesse Durera (Scream to a Sigh)\" single. The band explained that it was excluded mainly because it was almost seven minutes long and simply would not fit on the album. The band's seventh studio album,Lifeblood, was released on 1 November 2004 and reached No. 13 on the UK album chart. Critical response to the album was mixed. The album was more introspective and more focused on the past, Wire talked about","Wire talked about the ghosts that haunted this record and stated that the record was a retrospective: \"The main themes are death and solitude and ghosts. Being haunted by history and being haunted by your own past. Sleep is beautiful for me. I hate dreaming because it ruins ten hours of bliss. I had a lot of bad dreams when Richey first disappeared. Not ugly dreams, but nagging things. Until we wrote 'Design for Life', it was six months of misery.Lifeblooddoesn't seek to exorcise Edwards' ghost, though, just admits that there are no answers\".Tony Viscontihelped the band produce three songs on the album, which was followed by a UK arena tour in December 2004. \"Empty Souls\" and \"The Love of Richard Nixon\" were the two singles released from the album, both reaching No. 2 in the UK. A tenth-anniversary edition ofThe Holy Biblewas released on 6 December 2004, which included a digitally remastered version of the original album, a rare U.S. mix (which the band themselves have admitted to preferring to the original","to the original UK mix)and a DVD of live performances and extras including a band interview. In April 2005, the band played several shows as the Past-Present-Future tour—announced as their last for at least two years. The band released an EP entitledGod Save the Manicswith only a limited number of copies available and given out to fans as they arrived at the venue. After all the copies were gone, the band made the EP available as a free download on their website.In September, the band contributed the new track \"Leviathan\" to theWar Childcharity albumHelp!: A Day in the Life. In 2006 the band received the prize for the Q Merit Award in theQ Awards2006 and also the 10th-anniversary edition ofEverything Must Gowas released on 6 November. It included the original album, demos, B-sides, remixes, rehearsals and alternate takes of the album's songs, spread out over two CDs. An additional DVD, featuring music videos, live performances, TV appearances, a 45-minute documentary on the making of the album, and two films","and two films byPatrick Jones, completed the three-disc set. In the 10th-anniversary edition, the band itself claims that they're still fond of the record, and Wire goes further saying: \"I think it's our best record, I am not afraid to say that.\" Send Away the TigerstoNational Treasures(2007–2012) The band's eighth studio album,Send Away the Tigers, was released on 7 May 2007 onColumbia Records. It entered the official UK album charts at No. 2. Critical response to the album was largely positive, with some critics hailing the album as the band's best in a decade. A free download of a song entitled \"Underdogs\" from the album was made available through the group's website on 19 March 2007.The first official single released from the album was \"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\", featuringCardigansvocalistNina Persson. According to singer Bradfield, the title was the last line of a suicide note left by the friend of someone close to the group.The second single, \"Autumnsong\", and a third, \"Indian Summer\", were","Summer\", were released in August. \"Indian Summer\" peaked at number 22, making it the first Manics single not to chart in the Top 20 since 1994's \"She Is Suffering\". The album sleeve features a quotation fromWyndham Lewis: \"When a man is young, he is usually a revolutionary of some kind. So here I am, speaking of my revolution\". A Christmas single, \"The Ghosts of Christmas\", was released as a free download on the band's official website throughout December 2007 and January 2008. In February 2008, the band were presented with the God-Like Geniuses Award at theNME Awardsceremony. The ninth Manics album,Journal for Plague Lovers, was released on 18 May 2009 and features lyrics left behind by Edwards. Wire commented in an interview that \"there was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice.\"The album was released to positive critical reviews and reached No. 3 on the UK Album Chart. However, the cover of the album generated some controversy, with the top four UKsupermarketsstocking the CD in a plain","the CD in a plain slipcase, as the cover was deemed \"inappropriate\". Several tracks refer to Edwards' time in a couple of hospitals in 1994. Bradfield commented thatJournal for Plague Loverswas an attempt to finally secure the legacy of their former memberRichey Edwardsand the result was that, during the recording process, it was as close to feeling his presence since his disappearance: \"There was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice. That was part of the whole thing of letting enough time lapse. Once we actually got into the studio, it almost felt as if we were a full band; it as close to him being in the room again as possible.\" The band's tenth albumPostcards from a Young Manwas recorded with producerDave Eringaand was mixed in America byChris Lord-Alge.The album cover art uses a black and white photograph of British actorTim Roth.The first single from the album, \"(It's Not War) Just the End of Love\", was released on 13 September.The album was supported by the Manics' most extensive tour of","extensive tour of the UK to date,starting in Glasgow on 29 September 2010.British Sea Powerwere the support act for the band on the tour. Two further singles were released from the album—the McCulloch-featuring \"Some Kind of Nothingness\" and the title track \"Postcards from a Young Man\". \"Some Kind of Nothingness\" peaked at No. 44 in the UK making it the first-ever Manics single to not make the Top 40 since they signed to Sony in 1991. National Treasures – The Complete Singleswas released on 31 October 2011, preceded by the release of the single \"This Is the Day\", a cover of the song bythe The.On 17 December 2011, the group performed 'A Night of National Treasures' atO2Arenain London to celebrate the band's 25 years to date, and enter into a period of hiatus where the eleventh album was written. The band performed all 38 singles, with around 20,000 people in attendance, as well as guest performers includingNina Perssonfromthe Cardiganswho sings with the band on the single \"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\"","Is Not Enough\" andGruff RhysfromSuper Furry Animalswho sang with the band that night on the trackLet Robeson Sing.In April and May 2012, the band embarked on a European greatest hits tour.The compilation was voted byNMEmagazine as the best re issue of 2011, beatingNirvana's deluxe and super deluxe edition ofNevermindto the top spot. Despite the \"complete singles\" title,National Treasuresdoes not contain every Manic Street Preachers single. Notable omissions are the band's very first single, \"Suicide Alley\" (1989), \"Strip It Down\" from theNew Art RiotEP (1990), for which the band's first promotional video was made,and \"You Love Us (Heavenly Version)\" (1991). For singles originally released as double-A sides, only one song is included: therefore from \"Love's Sweet Exile/Repeat\" (1992) and \"Faster/P.C.P.\" (1994), only the first of each pair are included. A film-interview-documentary about their albumGeneration Terroristswas screened on Saturday 20 October 2012 at Chapter Arts Centre as part of theSŵnFestival,","of theSŵnFestival, with all profits donated to Young Promoters Network.The film was made available in the 20th-anniversary re-issue ofGeneration Terrorists. Rewind the FilmtoThe Ultra Vivid Lament(2013–present) In May 2013, the band announced an Australasian tour for June and July, that would see them play their first-ever show in New Zealand.This tour coincided with the British and Irish Lions rugby tour to Australia and the Melbourne concert on the eve of the 2nd Test featured Lions' centre Jamie Roberts as a guest guitarist on \"You Love Us\". In May 2013 the Manics released information about their most recent recording sessions, saying that they had enough material for two albums; the first would be almost exclusively without electric guitars.The name of the first album and title track was revealed to beRewind the Filmon 8 July.In a statement, the band announced, \"(If) this record has a relation in the Manics back catalogue, it's probably the sedate coming of age that wasThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours.\"The","Tell Me Yours.\"The band also stated viaTwitter, \"MSP were in the great Hansa Studios in January with Alex Silva (who recordedThe Holy Biblewith us). Berlin was inspirational...Seanbeen playing afrench hornin the studio today—sounding wonderful.\"The lead single of the album, \"Show Me the Wonder\", was released on 9 September 2013 to a positive critical reception. The album itself was released on 16 September 2013 and reached No. 4 on the UK Album Chart. The second single of the album \"Anthem for a Lost Cause\" was released on 25 November 2013. The other album,Futurology, the band's twelfth studio album, was released on 7 July 2014 and it received immediate critical acclaim. The lead single from the album, \"Walk Me to the Bridge\", was released as a digital download on the day of the announcement, on 28 April.The album sold about 20,000 copies in its first week and reached No. 2 on theUK Albums Chart. The title track, \"Futurology\", was the second and final single released from the album on 22 September, the video","the video debuted onYouTubeon 10 August. The video was directed by theBritish Academy of Film and Television ArtswinnerKieran Evans, who worked with the band on videos from their previous effortRewind the Film. The band promoted the album with a tour around the UK and Europe from March to May 2014, they also made appearances in festivals likeT in the Parkin Scotland andGlastonbury Festivalin the summer. In December 2014, the band touredThe Holy Bible, playing it in full for the very first time, to coincide with its 20th anniversary reissue.After the tour in the UK, the Manics tookThe Holy Bibletour to North America, in April 2015, they played in Washington DC, Toronto, New York, Boston, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago.They also played in theCardiff Castleon 5 June 2015 with 10,000 fans attending the gig, it was broadcast nationwide by BBC Two Wales.In theNME Awards2015, the album won \"Reissue of the Year\". In November 2015, the Manic Street Preachers announced that they were going to celebrate the","to celebrate the 20th anniversary of their 1996 albumEverything Must Go, with their biggest headline show since 1999, in theLiberty Stadium, inSwanseaon 28 May 2016, featuring special guests likeSuper Furry Animals. The album was performed in full, with Nicky Wire teasing \"B-sides, rarities and curios, greatest hits and a few brand-new songs\".Before the final show in Swansea the band played:Liverpool,Echo Arena(13 May),Birmingham,Genting Arena(14 May),London,Royal Albert Hall(16–17 May),Leeds,First Direct Arena(20 May) andGlasgow, theSSE Hydro(21 May).In early 2016 the band announced the European tour ofEverything Must Go, they played across Europe, in Finland, Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany. The band announced in March 2016 that they would be releasing a theme song for the Wales national team ahead of theUEFA Euro 2016tournament in the summer, entitled \"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\", it was released on 20 May, featuring also a video with the band and the Welsh team, the Manics tweeted: \"It's with","tweeted: \"It's with great pride we can announce the Manics are providing the official Wales Euro 2016 song – 'Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)'\". All profits from the song went to the Princes Gate Trust and Tenovus Cancer Care.On 8 July the band was at theCardiff City Stadiumto give a home welcome to the Wales football national team after they were knocked out of theUEFA Euro 2016by Portugal in the semi-finals, the band played a few songs in the stadium including the official theme song \"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\".On the next night, 9 July, the Manics headlined a night at the Cornwall'sEden Project,and later the band managed to secure a new recording studio nearNewport, Wales. The city's council ensured that only the band can use the studio, there would be an increase on-site parking and a series of soundproofing measures to ensure nearby properties aren't disturbed by noise.To end the summer, the Manics went on to headline another two festivals, Wasa Open Air in Finland in mid-Augustand in late August","in late August theVictorious Festivalin Portsmouth.The band also received a nomination in the 25th British Academy Cymru Awards for the best live outside broadcast after their 2015 gig in the Cardiff Castle, celebrating the 20th anniversary ofThe Holy Bible. In February 2017 the band revealed a teaser trailer for a documentary entitledEscape from History, charting the band's journey fromThe Holy Bible, through to the disappearance of lyricist and guitarist Richey Edwards, to the huge success ofEverything Must Go. The documentary aired onSky Artson 15 April.The band also stated that they would release an album later in that year. The band released a special edition of their albumSend Away the Tigerson 12 May. 2017 marks the 10th anniversary of the record and the Manics said that \"this is a very important album\" in their career. The special edition featured a remastered album as well asB-sidesand rarities spread over two discs, plus a DVD which features the band's 2007 Glastonbury performance, rehearsal","rehearsal footage, an album track-by-track, and promo videos. On 17 November 2017, the band announced that their thirteenth album,Resistance Is Futile, would be released on 13 April 2018.After much delay, the band wrote \"The main themes of 'Resistance Is Futile' are memory and loss; forgotten history; confused reality and art as a hiding place and inspiration\", the band say in a statement. \"It's obsessively melodic—in many ways referencing both the naive energy of 'Generation Terrorists' and the orchestral sweep of 'Everything Must Go'. After delay and difficulties getting started, the record has come together really quickly over the last few months through a surge of creativity and some old school hard work.\" It is the first album to be recorded at the \"Door to the River\" studio. In January 2018, Manic Street Preachers signed a publishing contract withWarner/Chappell Music, leaving their longtime homeSony/ATV Music Publishing. On the album, the Manics launched their first single \"International Blue\" as a","Blue\" as a download on 8 December 2017.The second single \"Distant Colours\" was released, also as a download, on 16 February 2018.About the first single the band said that there was certain naive energy and widescreen melancholia on the song that is reflected through the whole album, comparing it to \"Motorcycle Emptiness\". Furthermore, the album focused on \"(...)things that make your life feel a little bit better. Rather than my internalised misery, I tried to put a sense of optimism into the lyrics by writing about things that we find really inspiring.\" Said Wire, taking inspiration fromDavid Bowieand seen as almost an escape and a wave of optimism, just like the previous album was described. On the other hand, \"Distant Colours\" was written by James Dean Bradfield, rather than Nicky Wire, and inspired by disenchantment and Nye Bevan's old Labour. He said: \"Musically, the verse is downcast and melancholic and the chorus is an explosion of disillusionment and tears.\"The third single \"Dylan & Caitlin\" was","& Caitlin\" was released as a download on 9 March 2018.The fourth single \"Liverpool Revisited\" is about a magical day in the city, Nicky added that: \"It was on the Everything Must Go (anniversary) tour and I got up really early at sunrise to walk around Liverpool, polaroid camera in hand on a balmy day. It sounds clichéd I know, but Liverpool in the sun does take on a hypnotic quality, with the Mersey and the stone.\"The band also revealed that they were to supportGuns N' Rosesduring their summer tour.The fifth and final single, \"Hold Me Like a Heaven\", was released as a download on 4 May 2018.Wire said that the song was inspired musically byDavid Bowie's \"Ashes to Ashes\", something that the band wanted to write about, and Nicky thinks that this the closest that the band is going to get, sharing also that lyrics were informed by the work ofPhilip Larkin. The album sold around 24,000 copies in the first week, entering theUK Albums Chartat number 2,despite being number 1 during the week.It was the highest new","was the highest new entry on the chart, and on physical sales the album peaked at number 1, both onCDandvinyl. In October 2018, the band announced a twentieth-anniversary collector's edition re-release ofThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours. It was made available on digital, CD, and vinyl, with the CD edition featuring bonus demos, live rehearsal recordings, remixes, and B-sides. The album was launched on 7 December 2018 and to promote it, the band went on tour in Spring and Summer 2019, performing the album in full alongside other content. In March 2020, the Manics announced a deluxe reissue of theirGold Against the Soulalbum for release on 12 June 2020. Bonus content included previously unreleased demos, B-sides from the era, remixes, and a live recording, while the CD was released alongside a book of unseen photographs from the era with handwritten annotations and lyrics from the band.The next day, the unnamed follow-up album toResistance Is Futile, their fourteenth overall, was confirmed toNMEalongside","toNMEalongside Bradfield's second solo album. The group's album, including a track called \"Orwellian\", was described as \"expansive\" and is due for release in Summer 2021. On 14 May 2021, the Manics announced the title of their fourteenth studio album:The Ultra Vivid Lament.The first single from the album, \"Orwellian\", was released on the same day.\"The Secret He Had Missed\", the second single from the album, was released on 16 July 2021.The Ultra Vivid Lamentwas released on 10 September 2021 and received generally positive reviews from critics: onMetacritic, the album has aweighted averagescore of 78 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".The album sold 27,000 copies in the first week, granting the band their second UK Number 1 album as they narrowly beatStepsto the number 1 spot. In May and June 2022, Manic Street Preachers opened forThe Killersin some of their UK tour dates. In September 2022, the Manics announced a co-headlining tour of United States and Canada","States and Canada withSuedefor November 2022, which would be the first time the two bands would share the stage since they toured Europe together in 1994. On 24 June 2023, the band played theGlastonbury Festival. Speaking to the Other Stage crowd, Nicky Wire said: \"The first time we played was 1994 and it was the four of us, we had the one and only Richard Edwards with us, oh yes, we had a f**king blast. Everything that could go wrong did go wrong, it was f**king fun you know.\" All four band members were honoured with amuralin their hometown of Blackwood in April 2024, designed by street artist Paul Shepherd. Collaborations and covers The band released a split single in 1992 withthe Fatima Mansions, a rock cover of \"Suicide Is Painless\", which became their first UK Top 10 hit.They have recorded many cover versions of songs by other artists, primarily asB-sidesfor their own singles. Bands and artists to whom the group have paid tribute in this way includethe Clash,Guns N' Roses,Alice Cooper,Happy","Cooper,Happy Mondays,McCarthy,Chuck Berry,FacesandNirvana. The band's first musical appearance since Edwards' departure was recording a cover of \"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\" forThe Help Album, a charity effort in 1995 in support of aid efforts in war-tornBosniaandHerzegovina. The Lightning Seeds' song \"Waiting for Today to Happen\", from their fifth album,Dizzy Heights(1996), was written by Nicky Wire andIan Broudie. That same year, James Dean Bradfield andDave EringaproducedNorthern Uproar's first single, \"Rollercoaster/Rough Boys\". The808 Statesong \"Lopez\" (1997) features lyrics by Wire and vocals by Bradfield.It is featured on their greatest hits album,808:88:98.Kylie Minogue's sixth album,Impossible Princess(1997), features two songs co-written and produced by the Manics: \"Some Kind of Bliss\" (Bradfield, Minogue and Sean Moore) and \"I Don't Need Anyone\" (Bradfield, Jones and Minogue) were produced by Bradfield and Dave Eringa.Bradfield provided backing vocals, bass guitar and production for","and production for theMassive Attacksong \"Inertia Creeps\" (1998), which features on their successful third album,Mezzanine.Patrick Jones's album of poetry set to music,Commemoration and Amnesia(1999), features two songs with music written by Bradfield: the title track and \"The Guerilla Tapestry\". Bradfield plays the guitar on both songs. Furthermore, the track \"Hiraeth\" features a section called \"Spoken Word\", in which Nicky Wire talks about Welsh identity. In February 2006, the band contributed a cover version of \"The Instrumental\" to the albumStill Unravished: A Tribute to the June Brides. In February 2008, the Manics coveredRihanna's hit pop song \"Umbrella\". Their version appeared on a CD titledNME Awards 2008given away free with a special souvenir box-set issue ofNMEmagazine, which went on sale 27 February. Additionally, the Manics' version of the song was made available oniTunesfrom 5 March 2008.Despite being chart-eligible (it reached number 47 in the UK),the release was not intended as an official","as an official single.Two further versions (the Acoustic and Grand Slam mixes) were later made available on iTunes and now comprise a three-trackUmbrella EP. James Dean Bradfield and Nicky Wire contributed an original song, \"The Girl from Tiger Bay\", toShirley Bassey's 2009 studio album,The Performance. Musical style and influences Manic Street Preachers' music has been variously described asalternative rock,Britpop,hard rockglam rock,pop rock,punk metal,andpunk rock. The band have stated thatthe Clashwere \"probably our biggest influence of all\". When they saw them on television, \"we thought it was fantastic and got really excited. They were the catalyst for us\".In addition, they have cited artists includingGuns N' Roses,Alice in Chains,Red Hot Chili Peppers,PiL,Skids,Gang of Four,Sex Pistols,Magazine,Bruce Springsteen,theNew York Dolls,Girls Against Boys,Anna Meredith,Wire,Julia Holter,Rush,Felt,Simple Minds,ABBA,the Associates, andTalk Talkas influences on their music. Bradfield's guitar hero is","guitar hero is guitaristJohn McGeoch: \"He taught me, you can have that rock'n'roll swagger, but still build something into it that's really unsettling, and can cut like a razor blade\". Though the band's first albumGeneration Terroristswas mostly politically charged glam-rock mixed with punk influences, their style shifted towards a darker sound onGold Against the Soul. WhenThe Holy Biblewas released, the Manic Street Preachers had incorporatedpost-punkinto their musical style, starting many songs on the album with either recordings of interviews or quotes, or clean, reverberated guitar sounds before abruptly changing tempo and engaging distortion. AfterEdwards' disappearance in 1995, the bands sound has become less dissonant and more appealing to a broader mainstream audience. Following albums have been described as string driven and slower-paced than their early work. Alluding to the band's early relationship with Britpop, Cam Lindsay of Canadian music publicationExclaim!opined that \"Britpop was rising, the","was rising, the Manics were offering the polar opposite: a bleak, uncompromising work that wanted nothing to do with the party\". Members Current members Former members Current touring musicians Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Best Art Vinyl Awards TheBest Art Vinyl Awardsare yearly awards established in 2005 by Art Vinyl Ltd to celebrate the best album artwork of the past year. NME Awards TheNME Awardsis an annual music award show in the United Kingdom. Q Awards TheQ Awardsare the UK's annual music awards run by the music magazineQ. Žebřík Music Awards References Sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"Millennium Stadium TheMillennium Stadium(Welsh:Stadiwm y Mileniwm), known since 2016 as thePrincipality Stadium(Welsh:Stadiwm Principality) for sponsorship reasons, is thenational stadiumofWales. Located inCardiff, it is the home of theWales national rugby union teamand has also heldWales national football teamgames. Initially built to host the1999 Rugby World Cupand replacing theNational Stadium, it has gone on to host many other large-scale events, such as theTsunami Relief Cardiffconcert, theSuper Special StageofWales Rally Great Britain, theSpeedway Grand Prix of Great Britainandvarious concerts. It also hostedFA Cup,League CupandFootball League play-offfinals whileWembley Stadiumwas being redeveloped between 2001 and 2006, as well as football matches during the2012 Summer Olympics. The stadium is owned by Millennium Stadium plc, asubsidiary companyof theWelsh Rugby Union(WRU).The architects wereBligh Lobb Sports Architecture. The structural engineers wereWS Atkinsand the building contractor wasLaing. The\",\n \"wasLaing. The total construction cost of the stadium was£121 million,of which theMillennium Commissionfunded £46 million. The Millennium Stadium opened in June 1999and its first major event was an internationalrugby unionmatch on 26 June 1999, whenWalesbeatSouth Africain atest matchby 29–19 before a crowd of 29,000.With a totalseating capacityof 73,931, it is the largest stadium in Wales and the fourth largest (and second largest outsideLondon) in theUnited Kingdomby total capacity. In addition, it is the third-largest stadium in theSix Nations Championshipbehind theStade de FranceandTwickenham. It is also the second-largest stadium in the world with a fullyretractable roofand was the second stadium in Europe to have this feature.Listed as acategory four stadiumbyUEFA, the stadium was chosen as the venue for the2017 UEFA Champions League Final, which took place on 3 June 2017.In 2015, the Welsh Rugby Union announced a 10-year sponsorship deal with thePrincipality Building Societythat saw the stadium renamed\",\n \"the stadium renamed as the \\\"Principality Stadium\\\" from early 2016. History Background Until 1969,Cardiff RFCandWalesboth played their home matches on the same pitch atCardiff Arms Park, but all this changed in the 1969–70 season.As a result of an agreement betweenCardiff Athletic Cluband the WRU, theNational Stadiumproject established that a new stadium for international matches and events was required, with Cardiff RFC moving to a new, purpose-built stadium on the original cricket ground at the site of the former Cardiff Arms Park stadium.By 7 April 1984 the National Stadium was officially opened. However, in 1994, a committee was set up to consider redeveloping the National Stadium, and by 1995 the WRU had been chosen to host the 1999 Rugby World Cup. In 1995, the National Stadium, which was designed in 1962,only had a capacity of 53,000; other nations' stadia, such asTwickenham(England) with a capacity of 75,000, andMurrayfield Stadium(Scotland) with a capacity of 67,000, had overtaken it. France was also\",\n \"it. France was also about to build theStade de France, which would have a capacity of more than 80,000 for the1998 FIFA World Cup.The original capacity of the National Stadium was 65,000, but this had been reduced to 53,000, due to theTaylor Report. 11,000 of 53,000 capacity was on the EastTerraceand the conversion to anall-seater stadiumwould have reduced the stadium capacity still further to just 47,500. In addition to the problems of capacity, the National Stadium was also very well hidden by the neighbouring buildings to the south in Park Street, Wood Street and to the east in Westgate Street, and also by Cardiff Rugby Ground in the north. It was only fully visible from across theRiver Taffin the west. Access to the ground was also very restricted with the main entrance being a narrow opening in Westgate Street to the east which was shared by both vehicles and spectators alike. The options for the new stadium included adding a third tier to the existing National Stadium, or moving to a new site. This\",\n \"to a new site. This last option was discounted because it would have required a vast car parking facility, and that would have put severe short-term pressures on the local transport infrastructure, creating traffic jams and pollution.The committee eventually chose a new stadium on the same site but with considerable increase in its capacity. It would also involve moving the alignment of the stadium from west–east to north–south. This was the option supported by theMillennium Commission. It would become the fourth redevelopment of the Cardiff Arms Park site.It was also decided that the new stadium should have a sliding roof to accommodate a multi-use venue, with a grass pitch for rugby and football.The only other sliding roofs in Europe at the time were at two Dutch stadia – theAmsterdam Arena, completed in 1996 with a capacity of 50,000;andGelredomeinArnhem, a 30,000-capacity ground built from 1996 to 1998. To remain on the Arms Park site, additional space had to be found to allow safe access and to provide\",\n \"and to provide room for the increased capacity and improved facilities. This was achieved by the purchase of adjacent buildings to the south and east and by the construction of a new £6 million River Walk by theRiver Taffon the western side of the stadium. By 1999, the Millennium Stadium had replaced the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park, as the national stadium of Wales for rugby union and association football international matches. Cardiff RFC continued as before to play at Cardiff Arms Park rugby ground, which had replaced the cricket ground in 1969. Construction The stadium was designed by a team led by Rod Sheard at Lobb Sport Architecture,who later merged withHOK Sportto becomePopulous. The building contractor wasLaingand the structural engineers were WS Atkins. Mike Otlet of WS Atkins designed the stadium's retractable roof,which was constructed by Kelsey Roofing Industries.Cimolai S.p.A. from Italy fabricated and erected the 72 steel plane frames for the stands and all the 4,500 components of the\",\n \"components of the roof. Construction involved the demolition of a number of buildings, primarily the existing National Stadium (Cardiff Arms Park),Wales Empire Pool(swimming pool) in Wood Street, Cardiff Empire Telephone Exchange building (owned byBT) in Park Street, the newly builtTerritorial Auxiliary & Volunteer Reservebuilding in Park Street, and theSocial Securityoffices in Westgate Street. The stadium was built by Laing in 1999 on the site of the National Stadium, with the head of construction being Steve Ager.It was built for the1999 Rugby World Cup, for which Wales was the main host,with seven of the 41 matches, including the final, being played at the stadium. The total construction cost of the stadium was £121 million,which was funded by private investment and £46 million of public funds from the Millennium Commission,the sale ofdebenturesto supporters (which offered guaranteed tickets in exchange for an interest-free loan) and loans. The development left the WRU heavily in debt. The Millennium\",\n \"The Millennium Stadium was named as such in recognition of the Millennium Commission's contribution to the building. The stadium was first used for a major event on 26 June 1999, when Wales played South Africa in a rugby union test match before a crowd of 29,000. Wales won 29–19: the first time they had ever beaten the Springboks. 2016 renaming On 8 September 2015 it was announced that the Millennium Stadium would be renamed Principality Stadium as the result of a 10-year naming rights deal with thePrincipality Building Society.Some fans expressed opposition on social media. On 22 January 2016, the Millennium Stadium was officially renamed as the Principality Stadium.The new name, written bilingually (\\\"Stadiwm Principality Stadium\\\") and covering 114 square metres (1,230 sq ft) of the upper stadium, was lit up at a special evening ceremony, to be followed by a festival to encourage grassroots rugby.The change of name also meant a change of logo for the Millennium Stadium. There were three designs shortlisted,\",\n \"shortlisted, and a panel, which included the former Wales international captainRyan Jonesand staff and members of the WRU and Principality Building Society, chose the final design.A spokesperson for the WRU said: \\\"The new stadium logo takes its inspiration from the venue's iconic architecture; four spires, curved frontage and fully retractable roof.\\\" Features The all-seater stadium has the capacity for 74,500 supporters and features a retractable roof, only the second stadium of its type in Europe, and the largest football stadium in the world with this feature, by capacity.Additional seating is sometimes added for special events such as a rugby Test against the New ZealandAll Blacks, or for theFA Cup Final. The current record attendance is set at just over 78,000, recorded at theAnthony JoshuavCarlos Takamfight, on 28 October 2017, in which Joshua successfully retained his WBA, IBF and IBO titles. The natural grass turf was made up of a modular system installed byGreenTech ITM.It features built in\",\n \"features built in irrigation and drainage. The pitch itself was laid on top of some 7,412 pallets that could be moved so the stadium could be used for concerts, exhibitions and other events. In May 2014, after much trouble with disease and stability, the surface was removed and replaced with a more resilient interwoven sand basedDessopitch. The four ends of the ground are called the North Stand, the West Stand, the South Stand and the BT Stand (east).The South Stand was previously known as the Hyder Stand,untilHyderwas sold. The stadium has three tiers of seating with the exception of the North Stand, which has two tiers. The lower tier holds 23,154 spectators, the middle tier holding 15,626 and the upper tier holding 35,151 spectators. The stadium was slightly restricted in size due to its proximity to Cardiff Rugby Club's home in the adjacent smaller stadium within Cardiff Arms Park. The WRU were unable to secure enough funding to include the North Stand in the new stadium and theMillennium Commissionwould\",\n \"Commissionwould not allow any of its funds to be used in any way for the construction of a new stadium for Cardiff RFC.The WRU held talks withCardiff RFCto see if it would be possible for the club to either move or secure funding for theCardiff Arms Parkto be re-developed, but these were unsuccessful. The stadium thus had to be completed with a break in its bowl structure in the North Stand, known colloquially as Glanmor's Gap, afterGlanmor Griffiths, then chairman of the WRU and now a former president. Thesuperstructureof the stadium is based around four 90.3-metre (296 ft) masts. The stadium was built from 56,000 tonnes of concrete and steel, and has 124 hospitality suites and 7 hospitality lounges,22 bars, 7 restaurants, 17 first aid points, 12 escalators and 7 lifts.The stadium has 7 gates for access to the site; Gate 1 is from the River Walk via Castle Street (to the north), Gates 2 and 3 are via Westgate Street (to the east), Gate 4 which was renamed Gatland's Gate (Welsh:Gât Gatland) in honour\",\n \"Gatland) in honour ofWarren Gatlandin November 2019, is for team-coaches, celebrity limousines and other uses via Westgate Street,Gate 5 is via Park Street (to the south) and Gates 6 and 7 are via the Millennium Plaza (also to the south). Any future renovation to the stadium will involve replacing the old North Stand of the former National Stadium with a new one similar to the three existing stands of the new Millennium Stadium. This will make the stadium bowl-shaped and will increase its capacity to around 80,000. It will resolve the existing problems of deteriorating concrete quality on the old structure in the north stand.However the WRU has been more resistant to the proposal in recent years, stating that the concrete has not been deteriorating in recent years meaning the cost of replacing Glanmor's Gap would not justify the limited increase in capacity it would provide. In each of the stadium's bars, so-called \\\"joy machines\\\" can pour 12 pints in less than 20 seconds. During a Wales versus France match,\",\n \"France match, 63,000 fans drank 77,184 pints of beer, almost double the 44,000 pints drunk by a similar number of fans at a game atTwickenham.The stadium has a residenthawknamed \\\"Dad\\\", who is employed to drive seagulls and pigeons out of the stadium. In 2005 the stadium installed an \\\"Arena Partition Drape System\\\" – a 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m × 35 m (30 ft × 115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1 million cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, theMillennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the thenWales Tourist Board.The curtain was supplied by Blackout. In May 2015, the chairman of the WRU,Gareth Davies, announced that the stadium would be fitted with new seats, replacing the original seats from 1999 at a cost of £4 million\",\n \"cost of £4 million to £5 million, which would be completed by 2018. In addition a new £3.1 million Desso hybrid pitch will beinstalled. In February 2019, the stadium increased its disabled capacity from 168 to 214 at a cost of around £100,000. As a result, the overall capacity of the stadium was reduced from 74,500 to 73,931. Statue of Sir Tasker Watkins A statue of SirTasker Watkins, the former WRU president between 1993 and 2004, was commissioned to stand outside Gate 3 of the stadium. The bronze statue, 9 feet (2.7 m) tall, was sculpted byLlantwit Majorbased sculptor Roger Andrews. TheWelsh Governmentcontributed £50,000, as didCardiff Council.It was officially unveiled on 15 November 2009 by his daughter, Lady Mair Griffith-Williams. Usage As well as international rugby union and association football, the Millennium Stadium has hosted a variety of sports, including,rugby league(including theChallenge CupFinal on three occasions between 2003 and 2005, the opening ceremony of the2013 Rugby League World\",\n \"Rugby League World CupandWelsh Rugby League internationals),speedway,boxing, theWales Rally Great Britainstage of theWorld Rally Championship,Monster Jamandindoor cricket. The indoor cricket match between The Brits and a Rest of the World team for the Pertemps Power Cricket Cup, which took place on 4 and 5 October 2002. Rugby union The stadium is the home of theWelsh rugby union team, who play all of their home fixtures at the venue. These games include those during theSix Nations, as well as theAutumn Internationalsagainst nations from theSouthern Hemisphere. Apart from the national team, the stadium has also hosted theEuropean Rugby Champions Cupfinals on five occasions. In total, the site, including theNational Stadium, has hosted the final of the European Rugby Champions Cup on seven occasions. The stadium has also been used forCeltic Leaguegames, and the semi-finals of theAnglo-Welsh Cupin2006and2007. Since 2013, the Millennium Stadium has hostedJudgement Day, a double-header between the four\",\n \"between the four WelshUnited Rugby Championshipteams. The 2016 edition had 68,262 spectators, the highest in the history of the league. The stadium hosted the first match in the2005 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealandwhen they drew 25–25 againstArgentinain a warm-up test match. Welsh Varsity rugby matches On 30 March 2011, the stadium hosted theWelsh Varsityrugby match for the first time in the history of the match between the senior teams ofCardiff UniversityandSwansea University. The stadium is used alternating years withLiberty Stadiumin Swansea. The Welsh Varsity event celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2016. Rugby World Cup The Welsh Rugby Union hosted the1999 Rugby World Cupwith the Final being played at the stadium. The stadium also hosted 3 pool matches and 1 quarter-final match (New Zealand 18–20 France) of the2007 Rugby World Cup. On 15 October 2011, the stadium was open toWelsh Rugby Unionfans free of charge, providing that they wear red so that they could watch a live screening of the2011\",\n \"of the2011 Rugby World Cupsemi-final betweenWalesandFrancethat was played atEden Park,Auckland, New Zealand. The match was screened on the stadium's existing large screens, on all of their television screens and on a screen that was brought in for the occasion. The same was done for theBronze FinalbetweenWalesandAustraliawhich saw Wales defeated and take fourth place. The stadium hosted six pool matches, including two featuring Wales, and two quarter-final matches during the2015 Rugby World Cup. Rugby league The stadium first hostedrugby leaguefootball during the2000 World Cup: a double header featuringCook IslandsversusLebanonandWalesversusNew Zealandthat attracted a crowd of 17,612. It was again used as Wales' home ground during the2002 New Zealand rugby league tour of Great Britain and Francewhen they again hosted the Kiwis this time attracting 8,746 spectators. The Stadium has hosted threeChallenge CupFinals, which are usually played at Wembley, from 2003 to 2005. In2003theBradford Bullsdefeated theLeeds\",\n \"theLeeds Rhinos22–20 in front of 71,212 fans.St. HelensdefeatedWigan36–16 in2004in front of 73,734 fans, whileHull F.C.defeated Leeds 25–24 in2005in front of 74,213 fans, the largest rugby league crowd at the stadium. Also, in 2007 the stadium hosted the inauguralMillennium Magicweekend. This was a two-day event in May when an entire round ofSuper Leaguematches were played, three games on the Saturday and three games on the Sunday. The event was deemed a success by the sport's governing body, theRFL, and second Millennium Magic event took place in May 2008, although the 2009 and 2010 events were held at Murrayfield Stadium and were renamed Magic Weekend. In 2011, Magic Weekend moved back to Cardiff with the opening round of Super League being played. On 26 October 2013, the Millennium Stadium hosted the opening ceremony and the first two fixtures of the2013 Rugby League World Cup: a double-header featuring Wales againstItalyandEnglandagainst title favourites and eventual tournament championsAustralia.This\",\n \"double header produced an overall attendance of 45,052, which is an international rugby league record at the stadium. Association football From 2000 to 2009, the stadium was the almost-permanent home of Welsh football. Thenationalteam played the vast majority of home matches at the Millennium Stadium, with a handful offriendly matchesonce or twice a year at theRacecourse Ground, WrexhamorLiberty Stadium, Swansea.The first Welsh football game at the stadium was played against Finland in 2000,and drew a then-record home crowd for Welsh football of over 66,000.This has since been beaten on several occasions. However, since 2010, the majority of home games have been played at the smallerCardiff City Stadium, the home ofCardiff City.Wales have only played at the stadium twice since 2009; in 2011 againstEnglandand in 2018 againstSpain. While the Millennium Stadium was under construction, the originalWembley Stadiumhad hosted the Welsh rugby team during the building of the new ground. The favour was returned from\",\n \"was returned from 2001 while the newWembley Stadiumwas being built,with the Millennium hosting: The stadium became notorious for an apparent \\\"away team hoodoo\\\"; the first 11 major cup finals were all won by the teams occupying the home dressing room.Stoke City beat Brentford 2–0 in 2002 to end the \\\"hoodoo\\\", after Paul Darby carried out afeng shuiblessing. Liverpoolwere the first team to win theFA Cupat the Millennium Stadium in 2001 after beatingArsenal2–1.They were also the first team to win theLeague Cupat the Stadium, defeatingBirmingham Cityin apenalty shoot-outearlier that year.In 2003, Liverpool won theLeague Cupfor the seventh time in their history thanks to a 2–0 win over Manchester United in the final at the stadium. Liverpool also won thelast FA Cup Finalat the Millennium Stadium in 2006, beatingWest Ham United3–1 in a penalty shoot-out that followed a 3–3 draw afterextra timein what was billed as 'the best cup final of the modern era'. The Football League Third Division play-offs in 2003 sawAFC\",\n \"in 2003 sawAFC BournemouthbeatLincoln City5–2. In this game, Bournemouth set a new record for the most goals scored by one team in a single match at the stadium. This record has since been matched but not beaten.The last domestic cup match played was whenDoncaster RoversbeatBristol Rovers3–2 after extra time in theFootball League TrophyFinal on 1 April 2007. In 2001, theFootball Association of Wales(FAW) confirmed that they had bid to host the2003 UEFA Champions League Final. The stadium had recently been rated as a five-star stadium byUEFA, making it one of the favorites to host the match,but the final was eventually awarded toOld Trafford, the home ofManchester United. It was suggested that the stadium would have been one of the venues of a proposedUEFA Euro 2016championship hosted jointly by Wales andScotland.However, the bid did not reach the formal UEFA selection stage, having been abandoned by the Welsh and Scottish Football Associations for financial reasons.In April 2014, the FAW did submit a formal\",\n \"did submit a formal bid to host three group matches and either a round of 16 match or a quarter-final atEuro 2020, which UEFA planned to host at 13 venues across Europe.When the host venues were voted on in September 2014, the Millennium Stadium lost out by a single vote behind Glasgow'sHampden Park, a decision that FAW chief executive Jonathan Ford put down to UEFA politics.The stadium, however, would be selected forUEFA Euro 2028. On 30 June 2015, the Millennium Stadium was chosen as the venue for the2017 UEFA Champions League Final.UEFA rules meant it could not be branded as the Principality Stadium during the event, resulting in all titles and logos – as well as those of other non-UEFA sponsors – being covered or removed for the duration.The game was played on 3 June 2017 between Italian clubJuventusand Spanish clubReal Madrid, in a repeat of the1998 final; Real Madrid won the match 4–1. When London was selected as the host city for the2012 Summer Olympics, the Millennium Stadium was named as one of the\",\n \"named as one of the six venues for thefootball competition.It had the distinction of hosting the opening event of the Games – a 1–0 win for theGreat Britain women's teamagainstNew Zealand– as well as four other group games and a quarter-final in the women's tournament, and three group games, a quarter-final and the bronze medal match in the men's. Boxing There have been five nights of boxing at the stadium.On 8 July 2006 whenMatt SkeltonbeatDanny Williamsfor the Commonwealth heavyweight title.On 7 April 2007,Joe CalzaghebeatPeter Manfredoto retain hisWBOsuper middleweight belt.On 3 November 2007,Calzaghe beat Mikkel Kesslerto retain his WBO super middleweight belt and win theWBAandWBCsuper middleweight titles. On 28 October 2017Anthony Joshuasuccessfully retained his WBA (Super),IBFandIBOheavyweight titles againstmandatory challengerCarlos Takamwith a 10th round stoppage. On 31 March 2018, it hosted the World heavyweight unification fight between Anthony Joshua, holder of theWBAand IBF belts, andJoseph\",\n \"belts, andJoseph Parker, holder of theWBObelt.Joshua beat Parkeron points. Motorsports In 2001, it staged its first ever motorsport event, hosting theSpeedway Grand Prix of Great Britain, and has done so every year since, attracting a record crowd of 44,150 in 2010.The temporarymotorcycle speedwaytrack is 278 metres (304 yards) in length and with sections of the stadiums lower seating bowl covered, the capacity of the stadium for the Grand Prix is set at 62,500. In September 2005 the stadium was host to the first ever indoor stage of theWorld Rally Championshipduring theWales Rally Great Britain. The lower tier of the stadium was removed to create a figure-of-eight course.In addition to this, the stadium has also hostedSupercrossevents.In October 2007, the stadium first hosted the UK leg of theMonster Jamtrucks Europe tour, and returned in June 2008, again in 2009, 2010, 2016, 2018 and 2019. Film The stadium has been used on numerous occasions as a venue for shooting film and television productions. Scenes\",\n \"productions. Scenes from the 2001 Hindi filmKabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...were filmed there. Between 2004 and 2011, the stadium was used several times as a filming location for episodes of theBBCscience fiction televisionseriesDoctor Who.The 2005 episode \\\"Dalek\\\" was shot primarily on location at the stadium,using its underground areas to represent a bunker inUtah, US, in the year 2012. The location shooting for the episode took place during October and November 2004. The underground areas of the stadium were used again in August 2005 to film Mission Control scenes for theDoctor WhoChristmas special, \\\"The Christmas Invasion\\\",and again the following year to film scenes in the underground corridors of Torchwood in \\\"The Runaway Bride\\\" episode, broadcast on Christmas Day 2006.Shots of the Stormcage Facility in whichRiver Songis incarcerated in series 5 and 6 ofDoctor Whoare also in the stadium, filmed between October 2010 and January 2011. The stadium has also been used as a location for the filming of Doctor Who\",\n \"of Doctor Who spin-offThe Sarah Jane Adventures. The 2010 story, \\\"Death of the Doctor\\\", included corridor scenes for theUNITheadquarters that were filmed underground at the Millennium Stadium. TheWembley Stadiumscene in the film28 Weeks Laterwas actually filmed at the Millennium Stadium. Although the outside is footage of Wembley, the inside is all filmed in Cardiff. The visual effects team on the film edited the footage to make it look more like Wembley. Sébastien Foucanjumped over the gap of the opening of the stadium roof in theparkourdocumentary \\\"Jump Britain\\\". Eventing The inauguralExpress Eventing International Cuptook place at the stadium on 30 November 2008. The three-event competition made up ofdressage,cross-countryandshow jumpingall took place over the one day. The event was won byOliver Townend. Concerts The stadium has also been used for a variety of musical events, including theManic Street Preachersconcert held onMillenniumEve,and, on the following day, a recording of theBBC'sSongs of Praise,\",\n \"of Praise, which attracted an attendance of 60,000.Tina Turnerperformed a sold-out concert at the stadium during her highly successfulTwenty Four Seven Tourin 2000.Welsh rockersStereophonicshave played two sold-out shows at the stadium: In July 2001 as part of their two-day \\\"A Day at the Races\\\" festival which would later be released to DVD and in 2003, shortly after the departure of the lateStuart Cable. American rock bandBon Joviplayed the venue during theOne Wild Night Tourin 2001.At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted atsunami relief concertin aid of the victims of the2004 Indian Ocean earthquakeandtsunami, withEric Claptonheadlining the event.The stadium has also been host toMadonnaon two occasions, the first in July 2006 when she opened the UK leg of herConfessions Tour,and most recently in August 2008 when she kicked off herSticky & Sweet Tourat the stadium.Other performers who have played at the stadium includeRobbie Williamsas part of hisWeddings, Barmitzvahs & Stadiums Tour,U2as part of\",\n \"Tour,U2as part of theirVertigo Tour,Red Hot Chili Peppersas part of theirBy the Way tour,The Rolling Stonesas part of theirA Bigger Bang Tour,R.E.M.as part of theirMonstertour and again for theirAround the Suntour. Paul McCartneyalso played at the stadium as part of hisUp and Coming Tour,andThe Policeperformed there as part of theirReunion Tour.In late 2005,Oasisplayed at the stadium during theirDon't Believe the Truth Tourand again on theirDig Out Your Soul Tourin 2009.In 2008, the stadium hostedNeil DiamondandBruce Springsteenwith theE Street Bandas part of theirMagic Tour,On 22 August 2009, U2 again played at the stadium, as part of their European leg of theirU2 360° Tour,playing to a record-breaking concert attendance of 73,354.On 17 May 2023,Beyoncéperformed at the stadium as part of herRenaissance World Tour.Taylor Swiftplayed at the stadium on 18 June 2024 as part ofThe Eras Tour.In 2024, it was announcedOasiswould play at the stadium on the 4th and 5th of July 2025 as part of their UK and Ireland\",\n \"UK and Ireland Reunion tour. Conferences The stadium offersconferencing facilitiesvia the foodservice organisationCompass Group.The facilities consist of six individually designed lounges and 124 pitch-facing executive box suites. In addition to business events, the facilities are also available for dinners, banquets, balls, parties and weddings receptions. Temporary hospital On 28 March 2020 it was announced that the stadium was to be converted at a cost of £8 million into a temporary field hospital to accommodate up to 2000 patients of theCOVID-19 pandemic, at the same time as theExcel Centre, London,NEC, Birmingham, and theManchester Central Convention Complex.By the weekend of 11–12 April 2020, it had a capacity of 330 beds. Professional wrestling On 12 April 2022, Americanprofessional wrestlingcompanyWWEannounced that it would hold a major event at Millennium Stadium on 3 September, and opened pre-registration for tickets. The event was announced as being WWE's largest show in the UK sinceSummerSlamat\",\n \"sinceSummerSlamat theoriginal Wembley Stadiumin 1992.On 29 April 2022, it was announced that the event would be titledClash at the Castle, in reference to nearbyCardiff Castle.The event attracted over 59,000 ticket pre-sale registrations, a company record. See also Notes References External links\",\n \"List of concerts at the Millennium Stadium Concerts have been held at theMillennium StadiuminCardiff,Wales, since the stadium's opening in 1999. The musicians who have played at the stadium includeTina Turner,Beyoncé,Spice Girls,The Rolling Stones,Rod Stewart,Paul McCartney,MadonnaandRihanna. The highest concert audience at the stadium was 73,354, who sawU2in 2009.In 2018Ed Sheeranperformed for a record-breaking 4 nights at the Stadium on his÷ Tour.The stadium's total seating capacity for sporting events is 73,434. History The first concert held was onNew Year's Eve1999 when theManic Street Preachersheadlined Manic Millennium, followed two days later by a concert for theBBC'sSongs of Praiseprogramme, withCliff Richardperforming his UK number-one single \\\"The Millennium Prayer\\\". This event attracted an attendance of 66,000. During 2003, the stadium established a new in-house promotions and events department to attract major concerts to the stadium, taking over from SJM Concerts. The stadium's General Manager\",\n \"General Manager Paul Sergeant at the time said of the change, \\\"We looked at the current way our business was run, (and) realized that if we do it ourselves and have direct contact with the event owners and promoters...we will be able to offer an improved service\\\". At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted aTsunami Relief Cardiff, a tsunami relief concert, in aid of victims of the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, withEric Claptonheadlining the event. On 22 August 2009, U2 played at the stadium as part of their European leg of theirU2 360° Tour, playing to a record-breaking concert attendance for a concert at the stadium of 73,354. In 2005 the stadium installed an \\\"Arena Partition Drape System\\\" – a 1,100 kg black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m (30 ft) x 35 m (115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1m cost\",\n \"use. The £1m cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, theMillennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the thenWales Tourist Board.The curtain was supplied by Blackout Ltd. It was feared that music concerts and sporting events would take business away from local shops. However, David Hughes Lewis, chairman of Cardiff Retail Partnership, said in 2005 that \\\"Despite initial concerns that major events in the Millennium Stadium hit trading in the shops, it now believed such events had a positive impact...When people come to Cardiff for the concerts, they more often than not arrive the night before and they'll spend the morning shopping\\\". Concerts See also Notes External links Media related toConcerts at the Millennium Stadiumat Wikimedia Commons\",\n \"Manic Street Preachers Manic Street Preachers, also known simply asthe Manics, are a Welshrockband formed inBlackwood, Caerphilly, in 1986. The band consists ofNicky Wire(bass guitar, lyrics) and cousinsJames Dean Bradfield(lead vocals, lead guitar) andSean Moore(drums, percussion, soundscapes). They form a key part of the 1990s WelshCool Cymrucultural movement. Following the release of their debut single \\\"Suicide Alley\\\" in 1988, Manic Street Preachers became a quartet with the addition ofRichey Edwardsas co-lyricist and rhythm guitarist. The band's early albums were in apunkvein, eventually broadening to a greateralternative rocksound.Their early combination of androgynousglamimagery and lyrics about \\\"culture, alienation, boredom and despair\\\" gained them a loyal following. Manic Street Preachers' first charting single was \\\"Motown Junk\\\" in 1991, followed by their debut album,Generation Terrorists, in February 1992. The band's next two albums wereGold Against the Soulin 1993 andThe Holy Biblein 1994,the latter\",\n \"1994,the latter being the last album with Edwards, who disappeared in February 1995 and was legallypresumed deadin 2008.The band continued as a trio, and achieved commercial success with the albumsEverything Must Go(1996) andThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours(1998). The Manics have headlined festivals includingGlastonbury,T in the Park,V FestivalandReading, winning elevenNME Awards, eightQ Awardsand fourBRIT Awards.They were nominated for theMercury Prizein 1996 and 1999, and have had one nomination for theMTV Europe Music Awards. The band has sold more than ten million albums worldwide.The Manics have two number-one singles in the UK charts: \\\"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\\\" (1998) and \\\"The Masses Against the Classes\\\" (2000), as well as two number-one albums:This Is My Truth Tell Me YoursandThe Ultra Vivid Lament(2021).From 1991 to 2010, the band recorded 33 consecutive top 40 singles in the UK. History Formation and early years (1986–1991) Manic Street Preachers formed in 1986 atOakdale\",\n \"in 1986 atOakdale Comprehensive School,Blackwood,South Wales, which all the band members attended.Bradfield and the slightly older Moore are cousins and shared bunk beds in the Bradfield family home after Moore's parents divorced. During the band's early years, Bradfield, alongside the classically trained Moore, primarily wrote the music while Wire focused on the lyrics. Some of their earliest performances were held at theBlackwood Miners Welfare Institutein the town.The origin of the band's name remains unclear, but the most often-told story relates that Bradfield while busking one day inCardiff, got into an altercation with someone (sometimes said to be a homeless man)who asked him \\\"What are you, boyo, some kind of manic street preacher?\\\" Original bassist Flicker (Miles Woodward) left the band in early 1988, reportedly because he believed that the band were moving away from their punk roots.The band continued as a three-piece, with Wire switching from guitar to bass,and in 1988 they released their first\",\n \"their first single, \\\"Suicide Alley\\\". Despite its recording quality, this single provides an early insight into both Bradfield's guitar work and Moore's live drumming.The Manics intended to restore revolution torock and rollat a time when Britain was dominated byshoegazeand acid house.TheNMEgave \\\"Suicide Alley\\\" an enthusiastic review, citing a press release by Richey Edwards: \\\"We are as far away from anything in the '80s as possible.\\\" After the release of \\\"Suicide Alley,\\\" Edwards joined the band on rhythm guitar and contributed to lyrics alongside Wire. Edwards also designed record sleeves and artwork and drove the band to and from gigs. In 1990 the Manic Street Preachers signed a deal with labelDamaged Goods Recordsfor oneEP. The four-trackNew Art Riot E.P.attracted as much media interest for its attacks on fellow musicians as for the actual music.With the help of Hall or Nothing management, the Manics signed toindielabelHeavenly Records. The band recorded their first single for the label, entitled \\\"Motown\",\n \"entitled \\\"Motown Junk\\\". Their next single, \\\"You Love Us\\\", sampledKrzysztof Penderecki's \\\"Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima\\\" as well asIggy Pop. The video featured Nicky Wire indragasMarilyn Monroeand contained visual references to the filmBetty Blueand toAleister Crowley. On 15 May 1991, during an interview with then-NMEjournalistSteve Lamacqfollowing a gig at Norwich Arts Centre, Edwards carved the phrase \\\"4REAL\\\" into his arm with a razor blade in a bid to prove the sincerity of the band.He was taken to hospital and received seventeen stitches.NMEsubsequently ran a full-page story on the incident, including a phone interview with Richey on his motivations for doing it. A recording of the editorial meeting discussing whether or not they could publish the image was included as a b-side on the band's 1992 charity singleTheme from M.A.S.H. (Suicide Is Painless), featuring Lamacq, the then-editor ofNMEDanny KellyandJames Brown(who went on to editLoadedand the British version ofGQ). As a result of their\",\n \"a result of their controversial behaviour, the Manics quickly became favourites of the British music press, which helped them build a dedicated following.Columbia RecordsofSony Music UKsigned the band shortly afterwards and they began work on their debut album. Richey Edwards era:Generation TerroriststoThe Holy Bible(1992–1995) The band's debut album,Generation Terrorists, was released in 1992 on theColumbia Recordsimprint. The record contained six singles and sold 250,000 copies.The liner notes contained a literary quote for each of the album's eighteen songs and the album lasted just over seventy minutes. The album's lyrics are politicised like those ofthe ClashandPublic Enemy,with the album's songs regularly switching from a critical focus on globalcapitalismto more personal tales of despair and the struggles of youth. Other tracks combine personal and political themes; \\\"Nat West-Barclays-Midlands-Lloyds\\\" was written as a critique of overseas banking credit policies, but also concernedRichey Edwards'\",\n \"Edwards' issues involving overdrafts and refused loans.The single \\\"Motorcycle Emptiness\\\", meanwhile, criticisesconsumerismas a \\\"shallow dream\\\"that makes human life overtly commercialised.\\\"Little Baby Nothing\\\", a duet betweenTraci Lordsand Bradfield, was described by Priya Elan of theNMEas a \\\"perfect snapshot of innocence bodysnatched and twisted\\\". The band also made a cover version of the song \\\"Suicide Is Painless\\\" which peaked at number 7 in the UK charts, spending 3 weeks in the Top 10, and giving the band their first ever Top 10 hit single. The group's second album,Gold Against the Soul, had a more commercial,grungysound. It was released to mixed reviews but performed well, reaching number eight in the UK album chart. The band stated that the choice to work withDave Eringaagain was important for this album.The band have describedGold Against the Soulas their least favourite album and the period surrounding the album as being the most unfocused of their career. The band's vocalist and guitaristJames Dean\",\n \"guitaristJames Dean Bradfieldhas said \\\"All we wanted to do was go under the corporate wing. We thought we could ignore it but you do get affected.\\\" By early 1994, Edwards' difficultiesbecame worse and began to affect the other band members as well as himself.He was admitted intoThe Prioryin 1994 to overcome his problems and the band played a few festivals as a three-piece to pay for his treatment.During one such three-piece performance at Reading '94, James played Richey's black Gibson as a mark of respect (although James later commented that he regretted playing Richey's guitar). The group's next album,The Holy Bible, was released in August to critical acclaim, but sold poorly. The album displayed yet another musical and aesthetic change for the band, largely featuring army/navy uniforms. Musically,The Holy Biblemarks a shift from themodern rocksound of their first two albums,Generation TerroristsandGold Against the Soul.In addition to the album'salternative rocksound the album incorporates various elements\",\n \"various elements from other musical genres, such ashard rock,British punk,post-punk,new wave,industrial,art rockandgothic rock. Lyrically the album deals with subjects including prostitution, Americanconsumerism, Britishimperialism,freedom of speech,the Holocaust,serial killers, thedeath penalty, political revolution, childhood,fascismand suicide.According toQ: \\\"the tone of the album is by turns bleak, angry and resigned\\\".There was also an element of autobiographic subjects, like in the song \\\"4st 7lb\\\" where the lyrics clearly tackle Richey's own experience with anorexia. The song was named after 4stones7pounds, or 63 pounds (29 kg), because it is the weight below which death is saidto be medically unavoidable for an anorexic sufferer. The title \\\"The Holy Bible\\\" was chosen by Edwards to reflect an idea, according to Bradfield, that \\\"everything on there has to be perfection\\\".Interviewed at the end of 1994, Edwards said: \\\"The way religions choose to speak their truth to the public has always been to beat them\",\n \"been to beat them down I think that if a Holy Bible is true, it should be about the way the world is and that's what I think my lyrics are about. doesn't pretend things don't exist\\\". In support of the album the band appeared onTop of the Pops, performing its first single, \\\"Faster\\\", which reached No. 16. The performance was extremely controversial at the time, as the band were all dressed in army regalia. Bradfield wore a \\\"terrorist-style\\\"balaclava. At the time, the band was told by theBBCthat they had received the most complaints ever.The album eventually has sold over 600,000 copies worldwide. In April and May 1994 the band first performed songs fromThe Holy Bibleat concerts in Thailand and Portugal and at a benefit concert for theAnti-Nazi LeagueatBrockwell Park, London.In June, they played theGlastonbury Festival.In July and August, without Richey Edwards, they playedT in the Parkin Scotland, the Alte Wartesaal inCologne, theParkpopFestival inThe Hagueand theReading Festival.During September, October\",\n \"September, October and December there was a headline tour of the UK and Ireland and two tours in mainland Europe withSuedeandTherapy?.In December, three nights at theLondon Astoriaended with the band smashing up their equipment and the venue's lighting rig, causing £26,000 worth of damage. The disappearance of Richey Edwards Edwards disappeared on 1 February 1995, on the day when he andJames Dean Bradfieldwere due to fly to the US on a promotional tour.In the two weeks before his disappearance, Edwards withdrew £200 a day from his bank account, which totalled £2,800 by the day of the scheduled flight.He checked out of the Embassy Hotel inBayswater Road, London, at seven in the morning, and then drove to his apartment inCardiff, Wales.In the two weeks that followed he was apparently spotted in theNewportpassport office,and theNewport bus station.On 7 February, a taxi driver from Newport supposedly picked up Edwards from the King's Hotel in Newport, and drove him around the valleys, including Blackwood\",\n \"including Blackwood (Edwards' home as a child). The passenger got off at theSevern View service stationnearAustand paid the £68 fare in cash. On 14 February, Edwards'Vauxhall Cavalierreceived a parking ticket at the Severn View service station and on 17 February, the vehicle was reported as abandoned. Police discovered the battery to be flat, with evidence that the car had been lived in.Due to theservice station's proximity to theSevern Bridge(which has been a renowned suicide location in the past)it was widely believed that he took his own life by jumping from the bridge. Manic Street Preachers was put on hold for six months and disbanding the group was seriously considered, but with the blessing of Edwards' family, the other members continued.Edwards was legally \\\"presumed dead\\\" in 2008, to enable his parents to administer his estate.The band continue to set up a microphone for Edwards at every live performance. Everything Must GotoLifeblood(1996–2006) The first album without Edwards,Everything Must Go, was\",\n \"Must Go, was released on 20 May 1996. The band had chosen to work with new producerMike Hedges, mainly for his work onSiouxsie and the Banshees' single \\\"Swimming Horses\\\" that Bradfield rated highly.Everything Must Godebuted on theUK Albums Chartat number 2, so far the album has goneTriple Platinumin the UK and is their most successful album to date, spending 103 weeks in the Top 100 with the album still in the Top 5 a year after its release.Containing five songs either written or co-written by Edwards the album was released to overwhelmingly positive reviews. The No. 2 hit single \\\"A Design for Life\\\" was the first to be written and released by the band following the disappearance of Richey Edwards the previous year.James Dean Bradfield later recalled that the lyric had been a fusion of two sets of lyrics-\\\"Design for Life\\\" and \\\"Pure Motive\\\"-sent to him from Wales by bassist Nicky Wire, while he was living inShepherd's Bush. The music was written \\\"in about ten minutes\\\" and Bradfield felt a sense of euphoria\",\n \"a sense of euphoria with the result.The song was credited with having \\\"rescued the band\\\" from the despair felt after the disappearance of Edwards, with Wire describing the song as \\\"a bolt of light from a severely dark place\\\". The album was shortlisted for the 1996Mercury Prizeaward for best album and won the band twoBrit Awardsfor Best British Band and Best British Album,as well as yielding the hit singles \\\"Australia\\\", \\\"Everything Must Go\\\" and \\\"Kevin Carter\\\". The album has sold over two million copies around the world, and it is still considered one of the finest releases of the decade,a classic album from the 1990sand frequently voted in polls in the category of best albums of all time by many publications.The success of Everything Must Go at the 1997Brit Awardsensured that sales of their earlier albumsGeneration Terrorists,Gold Against the SoulandThe Holy Bibleenjoyed a late surge; the band's debut sold an extra 110,000 copies. In 1997 the band performed a special gig at theManchester Arenafor more than\",\n \"Arenafor more than 20,000 people. Bassist Nicky Wire said that was the moment he knew that the band had \\\"made it\\\".The recording was released as aVHSvideo on 29 September 1997 and has only been reissued on DVD in Japan. The band's next album,This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours(1998), was the first number 1 of the band in the UK, remaining at the top of the albums chart for 3 weeks,selling 136,000 copies in the first week and spending a total of 74 weeks in the Album Chart.The title is a quotation taken from a speech given byAneurin Bevan, aLabour Partypolitician from Wales.The cover photograph was taken onBlack Rock SandsnearPorthmadog, Wales.Around the world the album also peaked at number 1 in countries like Sweden and Ireland, and it sold over five million copies worldwide. With their fifth album, the group also had a No. 1 single, \\\"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\\\". The song's theme is taken from theSpanish Civil War, and the idealism ofWelshvolunteers who joined theleft-wingInternational\",\n \"Brigadesfighting for theSpanish RepublicagainstFrancisco Franco's military rebels. The song takes its name from aRepublicanposter of the time, displaying a photograph of a young child killed by theNationalistsunder a sky of bombers with the stark warning \\\"If you tolerate this, your children will be next\\\" written at the bottom.The song is in theGuinness World Recordsas the number one single with the longest title without brackets.The album also included the hit singles \\\"You Stole the Sun from My Heart\\\", \\\"Tsunami\\\" and \\\"The Everlasting\\\". The Manics won Best British Band and Album awards at the BRIT Awards in 1999.This Is My Truth Tell Me Yourswas also shortlisted for the 1999Mercury Prizeand the band received a further nomination in the category of Best UK & Ireland Act in the 1999MTV Europe Music Awards, where the band performed live the singleIf You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next. In theNME Awardsin 1999, the band won every single big prize, Best Band, Best Album, Best Live Act, Best Single and Best\",\n \"Single and Best Video, as well as the Best Band in the World Today award in theQ Awards1998. After headliningGlastonbury Festival,T in the ParkandV Festival, the band played theLeaving the 20th Centuryconcert at theMillennium Stadiumin Cardiff on 31 December 1999, the first concert to be held there, with 57,000 people attending and the final song being broadcast around the world by satellite as part of2000 Today. The concert is available onVHSandDVD. Subtitled English lyrics, available as an extra, contain errors when compared to the official lyrics in the band's album booklets and in between some of the tracks there are interview clips where the band discusses their history and the songs. In 2000, they released the limited edition single \\\"The Masses Against the Classes\\\". Despite receiving little promotion, the single sold 76,000 copies in its first week and reached number one in theUK Singles Charton 16 January 2000, beating \\\"U Know What's Up\\\" byDonell Jonesto the top. The catalogue entry for the single was\",\n \"for the single was deleted (removed from wholesale supply) on the day of release, but the song nevertheless spent 9 weeks in the UK chart. In 2001, they became the first popular Western rock band to play in Cuba (at theKarl Marx Theatre) and met with PresidentFidel Castro. Their concert and trip to Cuba was documented and then released as a DVD entitledLouder Than War. At this concert, they revealed many tracks from their upcoming sixth album,Know Your Enemy, which was released on 19 March. Theleft-wingpolitical convictions of the Manic Street Preachers are apparent in many of the album's songs, such as \\\"Baby Elián\\\" as they comment on the strained relations between the United States and Cuba as seen in theElián Gonzálezaffair, a hot topic around the album's release. The band also pays tribute to singer and civil rights activistPaul Robesonin the song \\\"Let Robeson Sing\\\", but the song \\\"Ocean Spray\\\", which was a single, was written entirely by James about his mother's battle with cancer. The first singles from\",\n \"first singles from the album, \\\"So Why So Sad\\\" and \\\"Found That Soul\\\", were both released on the same day. The final single \\\"Let Robeson Sing\\\" was released later. The Manics also headlinedReading and Leeds Festival. The greatest hits (plus remixes) albumForever Delayedwas released in 2002, containing two new songs, \\\"Door to the River\\\" and the single \\\"There by the Grace of God\\\". Several songs were edited for length (\\\"Motorcycle Emptiness,\\\" \\\"You Love Us\\\", \\\"Australia,\\\" \\\"Everything Must Go,\\\" \\\"Little Baby Nothing,\\\" and \\\"The Everlasting\\\") so that more tracks could fit onto the CD (though not listed as edits in the liner notes). TheForever DelayedDVD was released in 2002 together with the greatest hits CD and photo book that bear the same name, and features all the promo music videos from the start of the band's career released before the DVD. Along with the promo videos, there is a selection of 14 remix videos, where the visual material is taken from clips of the other promo videos as well as backdrop visuals from\",\n \"visuals from the band's live concerts. The album peaked and debuted on theUK Albums Chartat #4. An album ofB-sides, rarities, and cover versions was released in 2003 entitledLipstick Traces (A Secret History of Manic Street Preachers), which contains the last song the band worked on with Edwards. The album received a far more positive reception from fans than theForever Delayedgreatest hits album, which was heavily criticised for favouring the band's more commercially successful singles. The only recurring criticism ofLipstick Traceswas the exclusion of the fan favourite \\\"Patrick Bateman\\\", from the \\\"La Tristesse Durera (Scream to a Sigh)\\\" single. The band explained that it was excluded mainly because it was almost seven minutes long and simply would not fit on the album. The band's seventh studio album,Lifeblood, was released on 1 November 2004 and reached No. 13 on the UK album chart. Critical response to the album was mixed. The album was more introspective and more focused on the past, Wire talked about\",\n \"Wire talked about the ghosts that haunted this record and stated that the record was a retrospective: \\\"The main themes are death and solitude and ghosts. Being haunted by history and being haunted by your own past. Sleep is beautiful for me. I hate dreaming because it ruins ten hours of bliss. I had a lot of bad dreams when Richey first disappeared. Not ugly dreams, but nagging things. Until we wrote 'Design for Life', it was six months of misery.Lifeblooddoesn't seek to exorcise Edwards' ghost, though, just admits that there are no answers\\\".Tony Viscontihelped the band produce three songs on the album, which was followed by a UK arena tour in December 2004. \\\"Empty Souls\\\" and \\\"The Love of Richard Nixon\\\" were the two singles released from the album, both reaching No. 2 in the UK. A tenth-anniversary edition ofThe Holy Biblewas released on 6 December 2004, which included a digitally remastered version of the original album, a rare U.S. mix (which the band themselves have admitted to preferring to the original\",\n \"to the original UK mix)and a DVD of live performances and extras including a band interview. In April 2005, the band played several shows as the Past-Present-Future tour—announced as their last for at least two years. The band released an EP entitledGod Save the Manicswith only a limited number of copies available and given out to fans as they arrived at the venue. After all the copies were gone, the band made the EP available as a free download on their website.In September, the band contributed the new track \\\"Leviathan\\\" to theWar Childcharity albumHelp!: A Day in the Life. In 2006 the band received the prize for the Q Merit Award in theQ Awards2006 and also the 10th-anniversary edition ofEverything Must Gowas released on 6 November. It included the original album, demos, B-sides, remixes, rehearsals and alternate takes of the album's songs, spread out over two CDs. An additional DVD, featuring music videos, live performances, TV appearances, a 45-minute documentary on the making of the album, and two films\",\n \"and two films byPatrick Jones, completed the three-disc set. In the 10th-anniversary edition, the band itself claims that they're still fond of the record, and Wire goes further saying: \\\"I think it's our best record, I am not afraid to say that.\\\" Send Away the TigerstoNational Treasures(2007–2012) The band's eighth studio album,Send Away the Tigers, was released on 7 May 2007 onColumbia Records. It entered the official UK album charts at No. 2. Critical response to the album was largely positive, with some critics hailing the album as the band's best in a decade. A free download of a song entitled \\\"Underdogs\\\" from the album was made available through the group's website on 19 March 2007.The first official single released from the album was \\\"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\\\", featuringCardigansvocalistNina Persson. According to singer Bradfield, the title was the last line of a suicide note left by the friend of someone close to the group.The second single, \\\"Autumnsong\\\", and a third, \\\"Indian Summer\\\", were\",\n \"Summer\\\", were released in August. \\\"Indian Summer\\\" peaked at number 22, making it the first Manics single not to chart in the Top 20 since 1994's \\\"She Is Suffering\\\". The album sleeve features a quotation fromWyndham Lewis: \\\"When a man is young, he is usually a revolutionary of some kind. So here I am, speaking of my revolution\\\". A Christmas single, \\\"The Ghosts of Christmas\\\", was released as a free download on the band's official website throughout December 2007 and January 2008. In February 2008, the band were presented with the God-Like Geniuses Award at theNME Awardsceremony. The ninth Manics album,Journal for Plague Lovers, was released on 18 May 2009 and features lyrics left behind by Edwards. Wire commented in an interview that \\\"there was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice.\\\"The album was released to positive critical reviews and reached No. 3 on the UK Album Chart. However, the cover of the album generated some controversy, with the top four UKsupermarketsstocking the CD in a plain\",\n \"the CD in a plain slipcase, as the cover was deemed \\\"inappropriate\\\". Several tracks refer to Edwards' time in a couple of hospitals in 1994. Bradfield commented thatJournal for Plague Loverswas an attempt to finally secure the legacy of their former memberRichey Edwardsand the result was that, during the recording process, it was as close to feeling his presence since his disappearance: \\\"There was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice. That was part of the whole thing of letting enough time lapse. Once we actually got into the studio, it almost felt as if we were a full band; it as close to him being in the room again as possible.\\\" The band's tenth albumPostcards from a Young Manwas recorded with producerDave Eringaand was mixed in America byChris Lord-Alge.The album cover art uses a black and white photograph of British actorTim Roth.The first single from the album, \\\"(It's Not War) Just the End of Love\\\", was released on 13 September.The album was supported by the Manics' most extensive tour of\",\n \"extensive tour of the UK to date,starting in Glasgow on 29 September 2010.British Sea Powerwere the support act for the band on the tour. Two further singles were released from the album—the McCulloch-featuring \\\"Some Kind of Nothingness\\\" and the title track \\\"Postcards from a Young Man\\\". \\\"Some Kind of Nothingness\\\" peaked at No. 44 in the UK making it the first-ever Manics single to not make the Top 40 since they signed to Sony in 1991. National Treasures – The Complete Singleswas released on 31 October 2011, preceded by the release of the single \\\"This Is the Day\\\", a cover of the song bythe The.On 17 December 2011, the group performed 'A Night of National Treasures' atO2Arenain London to celebrate the band's 25 years to date, and enter into a period of hiatus where the eleventh album was written. The band performed all 38 singles, with around 20,000 people in attendance, as well as guest performers includingNina Perssonfromthe Cardiganswho sings with the band on the single \\\"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\\\"\",\n \"Is Not Enough\\\" andGruff RhysfromSuper Furry Animalswho sang with the band that night on the trackLet Robeson Sing.In April and May 2012, the band embarked on a European greatest hits tour.The compilation was voted byNMEmagazine as the best re issue of 2011, beatingNirvana's deluxe and super deluxe edition ofNevermindto the top spot. Despite the \\\"complete singles\\\" title,National Treasuresdoes not contain every Manic Street Preachers single. Notable omissions are the band's very first single, \\\"Suicide Alley\\\" (1989), \\\"Strip It Down\\\" from theNew Art RiotEP (1990), for which the band's first promotional video was made,and \\\"You Love Us (Heavenly Version)\\\" (1991). For singles originally released as double-A sides, only one song is included: therefore from \\\"Love's Sweet Exile/Repeat\\\" (1992) and \\\"Faster/P.C.P.\\\" (1994), only the first of each pair are included. A film-interview-documentary about their albumGeneration Terroristswas screened on Saturday 20 October 2012 at Chapter Arts Centre as part of theSŵnFestival,\",\n \"of theSŵnFestival, with all profits donated to Young Promoters Network.The film was made available in the 20th-anniversary re-issue ofGeneration Terrorists. Rewind the FilmtoThe Ultra Vivid Lament(2013–present) In May 2013, the band announced an Australasian tour for June and July, that would see them play their first-ever show in New Zealand.This tour coincided with the British and Irish Lions rugby tour to Australia and the Melbourne concert on the eve of the 2nd Test featured Lions' centre Jamie Roberts as a guest guitarist on \\\"You Love Us\\\". In May 2013 the Manics released information about their most recent recording sessions, saying that they had enough material for two albums; the first would be almost exclusively without electric guitars.The name of the first album and title track was revealed to beRewind the Filmon 8 July.In a statement, the band announced, \\\"(If) this record has a relation in the Manics back catalogue, it's probably the sedate coming of age that wasThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours.\\\"The\",\n \"Tell Me Yours.\\\"The band also stated viaTwitter, \\\"MSP were in the great Hansa Studios in January with Alex Silva (who recordedThe Holy Biblewith us). Berlin was inspirational...Seanbeen playing afrench hornin the studio today—sounding wonderful.\\\"The lead single of the album, \\\"Show Me the Wonder\\\", was released on 9 September 2013 to a positive critical reception. The album itself was released on 16 September 2013 and reached No. 4 on the UK Album Chart. The second single of the album \\\"Anthem for a Lost Cause\\\" was released on 25 November 2013. The other album,Futurology, the band's twelfth studio album, was released on 7 July 2014 and it received immediate critical acclaim. The lead single from the album, \\\"Walk Me to the Bridge\\\", was released as a digital download on the day of the announcement, on 28 April.The album sold about 20,000 copies in its first week and reached No. 2 on theUK Albums Chart. The title track, \\\"Futurology\\\", was the second and final single released from the album on 22 September, the video\",\n \"the video debuted onYouTubeon 10 August. The video was directed by theBritish Academy of Film and Television ArtswinnerKieran Evans, who worked with the band on videos from their previous effortRewind the Film. The band promoted the album with a tour around the UK and Europe from March to May 2014, they also made appearances in festivals likeT in the Parkin Scotland andGlastonbury Festivalin the summer. In December 2014, the band touredThe Holy Bible, playing it in full for the very first time, to coincide with its 20th anniversary reissue.After the tour in the UK, the Manics tookThe Holy Bibletour to North America, in April 2015, they played in Washington DC, Toronto, New York, Boston, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago.They also played in theCardiff Castleon 5 June 2015 with 10,000 fans attending the gig, it was broadcast nationwide by BBC Two Wales.In theNME Awards2015, the album won \\\"Reissue of the Year\\\". In November 2015, the Manic Street Preachers announced that they were going to celebrate the\",\n \"to celebrate the 20th anniversary of their 1996 albumEverything Must Go, with their biggest headline show since 1999, in theLiberty Stadium, inSwanseaon 28 May 2016, featuring special guests likeSuper Furry Animals. The album was performed in full, with Nicky Wire teasing \\\"B-sides, rarities and curios, greatest hits and a few brand-new songs\\\".Before the final show in Swansea the band played:Liverpool,Echo Arena(13 May),Birmingham,Genting Arena(14 May),London,Royal Albert Hall(16–17 May),Leeds,First Direct Arena(20 May) andGlasgow, theSSE Hydro(21 May).In early 2016 the band announced the European tour ofEverything Must Go, they played across Europe, in Finland, Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany. The band announced in March 2016 that they would be releasing a theme song for the Wales national team ahead of theUEFA Euro 2016tournament in the summer, entitled \\\"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\\\", it was released on 20 May, featuring also a video with the band and the Welsh team, the Manics tweeted: \\\"It's with\",\n \"tweeted: \\\"It's with great pride we can announce the Manics are providing the official Wales Euro 2016 song – 'Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)'\\\". All profits from the song went to the Princes Gate Trust and Tenovus Cancer Care.On 8 July the band was at theCardiff City Stadiumto give a home welcome to the Wales football national team after they were knocked out of theUEFA Euro 2016by Portugal in the semi-finals, the band played a few songs in the stadium including the official theme song \\\"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\\\".On the next night, 9 July, the Manics headlined a night at the Cornwall'sEden Project,and later the band managed to secure a new recording studio nearNewport, Wales. The city's council ensured that only the band can use the studio, there would be an increase on-site parking and a series of soundproofing measures to ensure nearby properties aren't disturbed by noise.To end the summer, the Manics went on to headline another two festivals, Wasa Open Air in Finland in mid-Augustand in late August\",\n \"in late August theVictorious Festivalin Portsmouth.The band also received a nomination in the 25th British Academy Cymru Awards for the best live outside broadcast after their 2015 gig in the Cardiff Castle, celebrating the 20th anniversary ofThe Holy Bible. In February 2017 the band revealed a teaser trailer for a documentary entitledEscape from History, charting the band's journey fromThe Holy Bible, through to the disappearance of lyricist and guitarist Richey Edwards, to the huge success ofEverything Must Go. The documentary aired onSky Artson 15 April.The band also stated that they would release an album later in that year. The band released a special edition of their albumSend Away the Tigerson 12 May. 2017 marks the 10th anniversary of the record and the Manics said that \\\"this is a very important album\\\" in their career. The special edition featured a remastered album as well asB-sidesand rarities spread over two discs, plus a DVD which features the band's 2007 Glastonbury performance, rehearsal\",\n \"rehearsal footage, an album track-by-track, and promo videos. On 17 November 2017, the band announced that their thirteenth album,Resistance Is Futile, would be released on 13 April 2018.After much delay, the band wrote \\\"The main themes of 'Resistance Is Futile' are memory and loss; forgotten history; confused reality and art as a hiding place and inspiration\\\", the band say in a statement. \\\"It's obsessively melodic—in many ways referencing both the naive energy of 'Generation Terrorists' and the orchestral sweep of 'Everything Must Go'. After delay and difficulties getting started, the record has come together really quickly over the last few months through a surge of creativity and some old school hard work.\\\" It is the first album to be recorded at the \\\"Door to the River\\\" studio. In January 2018, Manic Street Preachers signed a publishing contract withWarner/Chappell Music, leaving their longtime homeSony/ATV Music Publishing. On the album, the Manics launched their first single \\\"International Blue\\\" as a\",\n \"Blue\\\" as a download on 8 December 2017.The second single \\\"Distant Colours\\\" was released, also as a download, on 16 February 2018.About the first single the band said that there was certain naive energy and widescreen melancholia on the song that is reflected through the whole album, comparing it to \\\"Motorcycle Emptiness\\\". Furthermore, the album focused on \\\"(...)things that make your life feel a little bit better. Rather than my internalised misery, I tried to put a sense of optimism into the lyrics by writing about things that we find really inspiring.\\\" Said Wire, taking inspiration fromDavid Bowieand seen as almost an escape and a wave of optimism, just like the previous album was described. On the other hand, \\\"Distant Colours\\\" was written by James Dean Bradfield, rather than Nicky Wire, and inspired by disenchantment and Nye Bevan's old Labour. He said: \\\"Musically, the verse is downcast and melancholic and the chorus is an explosion of disillusionment and tears.\\\"The third single \\\"Dylan & Caitlin\\\" was\",\n \"& Caitlin\\\" was released as a download on 9 March 2018.The fourth single \\\"Liverpool Revisited\\\" is about a magical day in the city, Nicky added that: \\\"It was on the Everything Must Go (anniversary) tour and I got up really early at sunrise to walk around Liverpool, polaroid camera in hand on a balmy day. It sounds clichéd I know, but Liverpool in the sun does take on a hypnotic quality, with the Mersey and the stone.\\\"The band also revealed that they were to supportGuns N' Rosesduring their summer tour.The fifth and final single, \\\"Hold Me Like a Heaven\\\", was released as a download on 4 May 2018.Wire said that the song was inspired musically byDavid Bowie's \\\"Ashes to Ashes\\\", something that the band wanted to write about, and Nicky thinks that this the closest that the band is going to get, sharing also that lyrics were informed by the work ofPhilip Larkin. The album sold around 24,000 copies in the first week, entering theUK Albums Chartat number 2,despite being number 1 during the week.It was the highest new\",\n \"was the highest new entry on the chart, and on physical sales the album peaked at number 1, both onCDandvinyl. In October 2018, the band announced a twentieth-anniversary collector's edition re-release ofThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours. It was made available on digital, CD, and vinyl, with the CD edition featuring bonus demos, live rehearsal recordings, remixes, and B-sides. The album was launched on 7 December 2018 and to promote it, the band went on tour in Spring and Summer 2019, performing the album in full alongside other content. In March 2020, the Manics announced a deluxe reissue of theirGold Against the Soulalbum for release on 12 June 2020. Bonus content included previously unreleased demos, B-sides from the era, remixes, and a live recording, while the CD was released alongside a book of unseen photographs from the era with handwritten annotations and lyrics from the band.The next day, the unnamed follow-up album toResistance Is Futile, their fourteenth overall, was confirmed toNMEalongside\",\n \"toNMEalongside Bradfield's second solo album. The group's album, including a track called \\\"Orwellian\\\", was described as \\\"expansive\\\" and is due for release in Summer 2021. On 14 May 2021, the Manics announced the title of their fourteenth studio album:The Ultra Vivid Lament.The first single from the album, \\\"Orwellian\\\", was released on the same day.\\\"The Secret He Had Missed\\\", the second single from the album, was released on 16 July 2021.The Ultra Vivid Lamentwas released on 10 September 2021 and received generally positive reviews from critics: onMetacritic, the album has aweighted averagescore of 78 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating \\\"generally favorable reviews\\\".The album sold 27,000 copies in the first week, granting the band their second UK Number 1 album as they narrowly beatStepsto the number 1 spot. In May and June 2022, Manic Street Preachers opened forThe Killersin some of their UK tour dates. In September 2022, the Manics announced a co-headlining tour of United States and Canada\",\n \"States and Canada withSuedefor November 2022, which would be the first time the two bands would share the stage since they toured Europe together in 1994. On 24 June 2023, the band played theGlastonbury Festival. Speaking to the Other Stage crowd, Nicky Wire said: \\\"The first time we played was 1994 and it was the four of us, we had the one and only Richard Edwards with us, oh yes, we had a f**king blast. Everything that could go wrong did go wrong, it was f**king fun you know.\\\" All four band members were honoured with amuralin their hometown of Blackwood in April 2024, designed by street artist Paul Shepherd. Collaborations and covers The band released a split single in 1992 withthe Fatima Mansions, a rock cover of \\\"Suicide Is Painless\\\", which became their first UK Top 10 hit.They have recorded many cover versions of songs by other artists, primarily asB-sidesfor their own singles. Bands and artists to whom the group have paid tribute in this way includethe Clash,Guns N' Roses,Alice Cooper,Happy\",\n \"Cooper,Happy Mondays,McCarthy,Chuck Berry,FacesandNirvana. The band's first musical appearance since Edwards' departure was recording a cover of \\\"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\\\" forThe Help Album, a charity effort in 1995 in support of aid efforts in war-tornBosniaandHerzegovina. The Lightning Seeds' song \\\"Waiting for Today to Happen\\\", from their fifth album,Dizzy Heights(1996), was written by Nicky Wire andIan Broudie. That same year, James Dean Bradfield andDave EringaproducedNorthern Uproar's first single, \\\"Rollercoaster/Rough Boys\\\". The808 Statesong \\\"Lopez\\\" (1997) features lyrics by Wire and vocals by Bradfield.It is featured on their greatest hits album,808:88:98.Kylie Minogue's sixth album,Impossible Princess(1997), features two songs co-written and produced by the Manics: \\\"Some Kind of Bliss\\\" (Bradfield, Minogue and Sean Moore) and \\\"I Don't Need Anyone\\\" (Bradfield, Jones and Minogue) were produced by Bradfield and Dave Eringa.Bradfield provided backing vocals, bass guitar and production for\",\n \"and production for theMassive Attacksong \\\"Inertia Creeps\\\" (1998), which features on their successful third album,Mezzanine.Patrick Jones's album of poetry set to music,Commemoration and Amnesia(1999), features two songs with music written by Bradfield: the title track and \\\"The Guerilla Tapestry\\\". Bradfield plays the guitar on both songs. Furthermore, the track \\\"Hiraeth\\\" features a section called \\\"Spoken Word\\\", in which Nicky Wire talks about Welsh identity. In February 2006, the band contributed a cover version of \\\"The Instrumental\\\" to the albumStill Unravished: A Tribute to the June Brides. In February 2008, the Manics coveredRihanna's hit pop song \\\"Umbrella\\\". Their version appeared on a CD titledNME Awards 2008given away free with a special souvenir box-set issue ofNMEmagazine, which went on sale 27 February. Additionally, the Manics' version of the song was made available oniTunesfrom 5 March 2008.Despite being chart-eligible (it reached number 47 in the UK),the release was not intended as an official\",\n \"as an official single.Two further versions (the Acoustic and Grand Slam mixes) were later made available on iTunes and now comprise a three-trackUmbrella EP. James Dean Bradfield and Nicky Wire contributed an original song, \\\"The Girl from Tiger Bay\\\", toShirley Bassey's 2009 studio album,The Performance. Musical style and influences Manic Street Preachers' music has been variously described asalternative rock,Britpop,hard rockglam rock,pop rock,punk metal,andpunk rock. The band have stated thatthe Clashwere \\\"probably our biggest influence of all\\\". When they saw them on television, \\\"we thought it was fantastic and got really excited. They were the catalyst for us\\\".In addition, they have cited artists includingGuns N' Roses,Alice in Chains,Red Hot Chili Peppers,PiL,Skids,Gang of Four,Sex Pistols,Magazine,Bruce Springsteen,theNew York Dolls,Girls Against Boys,Anna Meredith,Wire,Julia Holter,Rush,Felt,Simple Minds,ABBA,the Associates, andTalk Talkas influences on their music. Bradfield's guitar hero is\",\n \"guitar hero is guitaristJohn McGeoch: \\\"He taught me, you can have that rock'n'roll swagger, but still build something into it that's really unsettling, and can cut like a razor blade\\\". Though the band's first albumGeneration Terroristswas mostly politically charged glam-rock mixed with punk influences, their style shifted towards a darker sound onGold Against the Soul. WhenThe Holy Biblewas released, the Manic Street Preachers had incorporatedpost-punkinto their musical style, starting many songs on the album with either recordings of interviews or quotes, or clean, reverberated guitar sounds before abruptly changing tempo and engaging distortion. AfterEdwards' disappearance in 1995, the bands sound has become less dissonant and more appealing to a broader mainstream audience. Following albums have been described as string driven and slower-paced than their early work. Alluding to the band's early relationship with Britpop, Cam Lindsay of Canadian music publicationExclaim!opined that \\\"Britpop was rising, the\",\n \"was rising, the Manics were offering the polar opposite: a bleak, uncompromising work that wanted nothing to do with the party\\\". Members Current members Former members Current touring musicians Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Best Art Vinyl Awards TheBest Art Vinyl Awardsare yearly awards established in 2005 by Art Vinyl Ltd to celebrate the best album artwork of the past year. NME Awards TheNME Awardsis an annual music award show in the United Kingdom. Q Awards TheQ Awardsare the UK's annual music awards run by the music magazineQ. Žebřík Music Awards References Sources External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":348,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"As of 1st November 2023, Which two South African drivers took part in the Formula One the year in which a micro-nation claimed territory off the coast of Suffolk, England? "},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Dave Charlton and Luki Botha"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_micronations"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Formula_One_season#Teams_and_drivers"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_micronations', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Formula_One_season#Teams_and_drivers']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_micronations","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Formula_One_season#Teams_and_drivers"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_micronations\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Formula_One_season#Teams_and_drivers\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["List of micronations \\ Micronations, sometimes also referred to asmodel countriesandnew country projects, are small,self-proclaimedentities that assert their sovereignty as independent states but which are not acknowledged as such by any of therecognised sovereign states, or by any supranational organization. They should not be confused withmicrostates, which are recognised independent states of a small size, nor should they be confused withunrecognised states, which are of more geopolitical significance because they exercise clear control of actual territory to the exclusion of widely recognized countries. Motivations for the creation of micronations include theoretical experimentation, political protest, artistic expression, personal entertainment and the conduct of criminal activity.: 4 The following is a list of notable micronations. Current Former Proposed See also References Notes Citations","1967 Formula One season The1967 Formula One seasonwas the 21st season ofFIAFormula Onemotor racing. It featured the 18thWorld Championship of Drivers, the 10thInternational Cup for F1 Manufacturers, and six non-championship races open to Formula One cars. The World Championship was contested over eleven races between 2 January and 22 October 1967. Denny Hulmewon the Drivers' Championship in aBrabham-Repco.Brabham was also awarded the International Cup for F1 Manufacturers.As of 2023, this is the only championship won by aNew Zealand driver. Hulme also became the first driver in World Championship history to win the title without having scored apole positionduring the season. Lorenzo Bandinicrashed during theMonaco Grand Prix. Losing an early lead of the race and trying to get back to the front, theFerraridriver clipped the chicane at the harbour front and then hit a hiddenmooring. The car turned over and exploded in flames. It tookmarshalsseveral minutes to extricate Bandini from the burning wreck and three days later, theItaliandied.BritishdriverBob Andersondied during a test atSilverstone. HisBrabhamslid off the track in wet conditions and hit a marshals post, suffering seriouschestandneckinjuries and later dying inhospital. Teams and drivers The followingteamsanddriverscompeted in the 1967FIAWorld Championship. A pink background denotes additionalFormula 2entrants to the German Grand Prix on the very long Nürburgring track. Team and driver changes Mid-season changes Calendar Calendar changes Regulation changes AfterLorenzo Bandini's fatal accident, theFIAbanned circuit organisers from usingstraw balesalong the trackandTVcrews from flying theirhelicopterstoo low, as both had contributed to the fire flaring up. Championship report Rounds 1 to 4 Coming down from his third World Championship in1966,Jack Brabhamstarted this year off as well, with apole positionat theSouth African Grand Prix. TeammateDenny Hulmestarted second and two-time World ChampionJim Clarklined up in third in hisLotus. Hulme took the lead at the start, while Clark fell back to sixth. In a race of attrition, the crowd sawRhodesiandriverJohn Lovetake the lead. When he had to stop for extra fuel, however, it wasPedro Rodríguezwho won in hisCooper. Love finished second, ahead ofJohn Surteesin aHonda. Hulme and Brabham finished several laps down but still in the points, since there were just six classified finishers in total. From 1967 to1969, there was four months between the first and second race of the championship, and most teams would usually run the first race with old designs, or not even participate. This year,Ferrari,McLarenandMatrastarted their year with theMonaco Grand Prix. Lotus had planned to run revolutionary newCosworths, but they were not ready in time.Jack Brabhamscoredpole positionlike in South Africa, but again lost the lead at the start, this time to long-time Ferrari driverLorenzo Bandini. Before long, Hulme took over at the front and increased his lead to 15 seconds. Desperately trying to get closer, Bandini struck the barrier in thechicaneat theharbourfront and mounted thestraw bales. The car landed upside down and exploded in flames. Bandini would succumbed to his injuries three days later. Hulme won the race, one lap ahead ofGraham Hill(Lotus) and two ahead ofChris Amon(Ferrari). Like in the first race, there were just six finishers. When Lotus could finally run the new Cosworth engines in theDutch Grand Prix, their pace was significantly better than before and Hill snatched pole position. A surprisingDan Gurneyin theEaglestarted second, reigning champion Brabham in third. After drivers had to avoid a wanderingmarshalon the grid, the positions at the front remained rather the same, until Gurney made a pit stop. Hill's engine suddenly seized on lap 11, but teammate Clark was charging, getting up to second on lap 15 and taking the lead from Brabham on the next lap. He kept increasing his lead with a second per lap and easily won, ahead of the teammates Brabham and Hulme. Behind them finished the three Ferraris. Qualifying for theBelgian Grand Prixended up with quite the same drivers at the front, except Brabham could only manage seventh. Clark, Gurney and Hill occupied the front row. Clark was the only one of the three with a good start, however. During the first lap,Mike Parkescrashed his Ferrari and was thrown out. He broke alegandwristand would not return to Formula One. At the front of the field, Clark was followed byStewart(BRM) and Amon (Ferrari), before Amon fell back and Gurney took third. Then, Clark had to pit to change aspark plugand Stewart ran into trouble with his gearbox, and Gurney took the lead. After setting a new lap record, theAmericandriver won, over a minute ahead of Stewart and Amon. Four different winners led to a close fight at the top of the Drivers' Championship.Denny Hulme(Brabham) was first with 16 points, ahead ofPedro Rodríguez(Cooper) andChris Amon(Ferrari) with 11. In the battle for the Manufacturers' Cup, Brabham had scored 18 points, ahead of Cooper (14) and Ferrari (11). Rounds 5 to 7 For theFrench Grand Prix, the front row consisted of1962championGraham Hill(Lotus), triple World ChampionJack Brabham(Brabham) and winner of the last race,Dan Gurney(Eagle). But after just 5 laps, it was fourth-startingJim Clarkwho led the field. Before the race reached half distance, however, both Lotuses had retired. TheCosworthengines deemed fast but unreliable. After Gurney retired as well with a fuel leak, which left Brabham and his teammateHulmeto finish first and second.Jackie Stewartfinished third in hisBRM, a lap down on the leader. For the third time this year, there were just six classified finishers. TheBritish Grand Prixwas run atSilverstoneand saw the green-and-yellow Lotuses (Clark ahead of Hill) qualifying in front of the green-and-gold Brabhams (Brabham ahead of Hulme). The Lotus duo gained a big lead over the rest, before Hill took the lead on lap 26. When a screw in hissuspensionfailed, however, he had to pit on lap 55, and his engine seized ten laps later. Clark took a comfortable win, ahead of Hulme andAmon, theFerraridriver having passed Brabham four laps from the end. Duringpracticefor theGerman Grand Prix, Hill crashed and wrote off his Lotus, while escaping uninjured. Clark clinchedpole position, ahead of Hulme andFormula TwodriverJacky Ickx. (Traditionally, the F2 race would be run at the same time as the Grand Prix. F2 drivers would not be eligible to score points for the F1 championship.) At the start, Clark and Hulme led away, withBruce McLarenstealing third. On lap 3, Clark's right-rear wheel was deflating slowly and he had to back off. Dan Gurney inherited the lead after McLaren retired with an oil leak. TheAmericanset a new lap record, despite an extra chicane having been added to the circuit, and increased his lead over Hulme to over 40 seconds. On lap 13, however, his Eagle's drive shaft broke and cut through an oil pipe, handing Hulme a lucky victory, ahead of teammate Brabham and Ferrari driver Amon. In the Drivers' Championship,Denny Hulme(Brabham) was leading with 37 points, ahead ofJack Brabham(Brabham) with 25 points andJim Clark(Lotus) andChris Amon(Ferrari) in a shared third place with 19 points. Brabham was leading the championship for the Manufacturers' Cup with 42 points, ahead ofCoopperwith 21 and Lotus and Ferrari in a shared third place with 19 points. Rounds 8 to 11 TheCanadian Grand Prixwas on the championship calendar for the first time and was supposed to be a one-off in celebration ofCanada's 100 years of independence, but the popularity of the event would result in F1 returning toMosport Parkseven more years and the Canadian GP still being featured on the calendar today.Jim Clark(Lotus)qualifiedonpole position, ahead of teammateGraham Hilland championship leaderDenny Hulme(Brabham). It had been a rainy night, but a clear morning, which led to most of theGoodyearrunners starting onintermediate tyres, while most of theFirestonestarted ondries. During thewarm-up lap, the rain returned and it caused a treacherous first lap, with the Goodyear times at an advantage. Hulme took the lead off of Clark, andBruce McLarengot by the pole-sitter into second place. The track was now drying and around a quarter of the race, the dry-runners regained their advantage. Clark retook second place and began to catch Hulme at over a second a lap. On lap 58, he was there and immediately went by into the lead, but right at that moment, the rain returned. Clark's engine got soaked and cut out, while Hulme desperatly needed cleangogglesso chose topit. This leftJack Brabham, second in the championship, free to win the race, over a minute ahead of teammate Hulme and at least a lap ahead of the race.Dan Gurneyfinished third in theEagle. Qualifying for theItalian Grand Prixwas disrupted by rain, but the result was not surprising: Clark scored his fifth pole position of the year, ahead of Brabham and McLaren. Hulme started in sixth. Themarshalstarting the race used a different procedure to what the drivers were used to, which led to half of the grid essentially doing afalse start, but no penalties were issued. Brabham took the lead before Gurney grabbed it later in the lap, whileHilland Clark followed them. On lap 3, Clark was already back in the lead, but then suffered a slowpuncture. With the pole-sitter in the pits and Gurney's engine having broken, as it had done so many times, it was Hulme who took over the lead. Brabham and Hill formed a close trio with him and the lead swapped hands a couple of times. Clark had a lost a full lap with his pit stop, but managed to unlap himself with two thirds of the race still to go, and quickly set a new lap record. Hulme retired with an overheating engine and Hill took advantage from Clark'sslipstreamto open up the gap to Brabham at two seconds per lap, until on lap 58, his engine exploded. His rivals' retirements, topped with his maniacal pace, brought Clark up to second place, with leader Brabham in his sights andHondadriverJohn Surteesin third place, the1964champion this time being the one to benefit from Clark's tow. On lap 60, Clark grabbed the lead and gained a three-second advantage, until he dramatically ran out of fuel. Surtees took the lead and was side-by-side with Brabham going into the last corner. Brabham dove to the inside but slid wide. Surtees crossed back and took the flag with a margin of just 0.2 seconds. It would be Honda's last win until2006. Clark coasted over the line in third place. The Brabham duo (Hulme and Brabham) were leading the championship but the Lotus duo (Hill and Clark) that occupied the first row for theUnited States Grand Prix. Gurney had started beside them, took second place at the start and even started pressuring the leader. After just 24 laps, however, the home hero retired with a broken suspension, but the Lotuses were showing better pace anyway. Clark took over the lead when Hill suffered issues with hisclutch. This gaveFerraridriverChris Amona chance for second place, but his engine ran out of oil with 12 laps to go. Clark would take a comfortable victory, but two laps from the end, his right-rear suspension broke. By slowing down and managing to keep the car on track, Hill could not catch up in time, and Clark took the chequered flag. One could say it was the summary of the season: the Lotuses were unreliable and finished less than half of the races, but if they did, they were so fast that they lapped the rest of the field. This time, it was Hulme who finished in third, a lap down. Going into the final race, theMexican Grand Prix, Hulme had a lead of five points in the standings, so if Brabham wanted to do anything about it, he needed to win and for his teammate to finish fifth or lower. Clark started again on pole position, with Brabham and Hulme down in fifth and sixth, respectively. Hill shortly took the lead, but Clark grabbed it back and grew his advantage to seven seconds. Hulme was comfortably hanging back six seconds behind Brabham. Hill retired when hisdrive shaftbroke and had damaged his engine, and the race settled down. Clark set a new lap record and lapped everyone but Brabham in second. Hulme finished third, enough to win the title. Denny Hulme(Brabham, 51 points) won his first and only championship, ahead of teammateJack Brabham(46) andJim Clark(Lotus, 41). Hulme is the only champion to date fromNew Zealand, and the first of two drivers to win the title without achieving a pole position in the season. OnlyNiki Laudawould repeat this feat in1984. The Brabham team (63 points) also won the Manufacturers' Cup, ahead of Lotus (44) andCooper(28). Results and standings Grands Prix Scoring system Points were awarded to the top six classified finishers. Formula 2 cars were not eligible for Championship points. The International Cup for F1 Manufacturers only counted the points of the highest-finishing driver for each race. For both the Championship and the Cup, the best five results from rounds 1-6 and the best four results from rounds 7-11 were counted. Numbers without parentheses are championship points; numbers in parentheses are total points scored. Points were awarded in the following system: World Drivers' Championship standings International Cup for F1 Manufacturers standings Non-championship races Other Formula One races held in 1967, which did not count towards the World Championship. Notes and references External links"],"string":"[\n \"List of micronations \\\\ Micronations, sometimes also referred to asmodel countriesandnew country projects, are small,self-proclaimedentities that assert their sovereignty as independent states but which are not acknowledged as such by any of therecognised sovereign states, or by any supranational organization. They should not be confused withmicrostates, which are recognised independent states of a small size, nor should they be confused withunrecognised states, which are of more geopolitical significance because they exercise clear control of actual territory to the exclusion of widely recognized countries. Motivations for the creation of micronations include theoretical experimentation, political protest, artistic expression, personal entertainment and the conduct of criminal activity.: 4 The following is a list of notable micronations. Current Former Proposed See also References Notes Citations\",\n \"1967 Formula One season The1967 Formula One seasonwas the 21st season ofFIAFormula Onemotor racing. It featured the 18thWorld Championship of Drivers, the 10thInternational Cup for F1 Manufacturers, and six non-championship races open to Formula One cars. The World Championship was contested over eleven races between 2 January and 22 October 1967. Denny Hulmewon the Drivers' Championship in aBrabham-Repco.Brabham was also awarded the International Cup for F1 Manufacturers.As of 2023, this is the only championship won by aNew Zealand driver. Hulme also became the first driver in World Championship history to win the title without having scored apole positionduring the season. Lorenzo Bandinicrashed during theMonaco Grand Prix. Losing an early lead of the race and trying to get back to the front, theFerraridriver clipped the chicane at the harbour front and then hit a hiddenmooring. The car turned over and exploded in flames. It tookmarshalsseveral minutes to extricate Bandini from the burning wreck and three days later, theItaliandied.BritishdriverBob Andersondied during a test atSilverstone. HisBrabhamslid off the track in wet conditions and hit a marshals post, suffering seriouschestandneckinjuries and later dying inhospital. Teams and drivers The followingteamsanddriverscompeted in the 1967FIAWorld Championship. A pink background denotes additionalFormula 2entrants to the German Grand Prix on the very long Nürburgring track. Team and driver changes Mid-season changes Calendar Calendar changes Regulation changes AfterLorenzo Bandini's fatal accident, theFIAbanned circuit organisers from usingstraw balesalong the trackandTVcrews from flying theirhelicopterstoo low, as both had contributed to the fire flaring up. Championship report Rounds 1 to 4 Coming down from his third World Championship in1966,Jack Brabhamstarted this year off as well, with apole positionat theSouth African Grand Prix. TeammateDenny Hulmestarted second and two-time World ChampionJim Clarklined up in third in hisLotus. Hulme took the lead at the start, while Clark fell back to sixth. In a race of attrition, the crowd sawRhodesiandriverJohn Lovetake the lead. When he had to stop for extra fuel, however, it wasPedro Rodríguezwho won in hisCooper. Love finished second, ahead ofJohn Surteesin aHonda. Hulme and Brabham finished several laps down but still in the points, since there were just six classified finishers in total. From 1967 to1969, there was four months between the first and second race of the championship, and most teams would usually run the first race with old designs, or not even participate. This year,Ferrari,McLarenandMatrastarted their year with theMonaco Grand Prix. Lotus had planned to run revolutionary newCosworths, but they were not ready in time.Jack Brabhamscoredpole positionlike in South Africa, but again lost the lead at the start, this time to long-time Ferrari driverLorenzo Bandini. Before long, Hulme took over at the front and increased his lead to 15 seconds. Desperately trying to get closer, Bandini struck the barrier in thechicaneat theharbourfront and mounted thestraw bales. The car landed upside down and exploded in flames. Bandini would succumbed to his injuries three days later. Hulme won the race, one lap ahead ofGraham Hill(Lotus) and two ahead ofChris Amon(Ferrari). Like in the first race, there were just six finishers. When Lotus could finally run the new Cosworth engines in theDutch Grand Prix, their pace was significantly better than before and Hill snatched pole position. A surprisingDan Gurneyin theEaglestarted second, reigning champion Brabham in third. After drivers had to avoid a wanderingmarshalon the grid, the positions at the front remained rather the same, until Gurney made a pit stop. Hill's engine suddenly seized on lap 11, but teammate Clark was charging, getting up to second on lap 15 and taking the lead from Brabham on the next lap. He kept increasing his lead with a second per lap and easily won, ahead of the teammates Brabham and Hulme. Behind them finished the three Ferraris. Qualifying for theBelgian Grand Prixended up with quite the same drivers at the front, except Brabham could only manage seventh. Clark, Gurney and Hill occupied the front row. Clark was the only one of the three with a good start, however. During the first lap,Mike Parkescrashed his Ferrari and was thrown out. He broke alegandwristand would not return to Formula One. At the front of the field, Clark was followed byStewart(BRM) and Amon (Ferrari), before Amon fell back and Gurney took third. Then, Clark had to pit to change aspark plugand Stewart ran into trouble with his gearbox, and Gurney took the lead. After setting a new lap record, theAmericandriver won, over a minute ahead of Stewart and Amon. Four different winners led to a close fight at the top of the Drivers' Championship.Denny Hulme(Brabham) was first with 16 points, ahead ofPedro Rodríguez(Cooper) andChris Amon(Ferrari) with 11. In the battle for the Manufacturers' Cup, Brabham had scored 18 points, ahead of Cooper (14) and Ferrari (11). Rounds 5 to 7 For theFrench Grand Prix, the front row consisted of1962championGraham Hill(Lotus), triple World ChampionJack Brabham(Brabham) and winner of the last race,Dan Gurney(Eagle). But after just 5 laps, it was fourth-startingJim Clarkwho led the field. Before the race reached half distance, however, both Lotuses had retired. TheCosworthengines deemed fast but unreliable. After Gurney retired as well with a fuel leak, which left Brabham and his teammateHulmeto finish first and second.Jackie Stewartfinished third in hisBRM, a lap down on the leader. For the third time this year, there were just six classified finishers. TheBritish Grand Prixwas run atSilverstoneand saw the green-and-yellow Lotuses (Clark ahead of Hill) qualifying in front of the green-and-gold Brabhams (Brabham ahead of Hulme). The Lotus duo gained a big lead over the rest, before Hill took the lead on lap 26. When a screw in hissuspensionfailed, however, he had to pit on lap 55, and his engine seized ten laps later. Clark took a comfortable win, ahead of Hulme andAmon, theFerraridriver having passed Brabham four laps from the end. Duringpracticefor theGerman Grand Prix, Hill crashed and wrote off his Lotus, while escaping uninjured. Clark clinchedpole position, ahead of Hulme andFormula TwodriverJacky Ickx. (Traditionally, the F2 race would be run at the same time as the Grand Prix. F2 drivers would not be eligible to score points for the F1 championship.) At the start, Clark and Hulme led away, withBruce McLarenstealing third. On lap 3, Clark's right-rear wheel was deflating slowly and he had to back off. Dan Gurney inherited the lead after McLaren retired with an oil leak. TheAmericanset a new lap record, despite an extra chicane having been added to the circuit, and increased his lead over Hulme to over 40 seconds. On lap 13, however, his Eagle's drive shaft broke and cut through an oil pipe, handing Hulme a lucky victory, ahead of teammate Brabham and Ferrari driver Amon. In the Drivers' Championship,Denny Hulme(Brabham) was leading with 37 points, ahead ofJack Brabham(Brabham) with 25 points andJim Clark(Lotus) andChris Amon(Ferrari) in a shared third place with 19 points. Brabham was leading the championship for the Manufacturers' Cup with 42 points, ahead ofCoopperwith 21 and Lotus and Ferrari in a shared third place with 19 points. Rounds 8 to 11 TheCanadian Grand Prixwas on the championship calendar for the first time and was supposed to be a one-off in celebration ofCanada's 100 years of independence, but the popularity of the event would result in F1 returning toMosport Parkseven more years and the Canadian GP still being featured on the calendar today.Jim Clark(Lotus)qualifiedonpole position, ahead of teammateGraham Hilland championship leaderDenny Hulme(Brabham). It had been a rainy night, but a clear morning, which led to most of theGoodyearrunners starting onintermediate tyres, while most of theFirestonestarted ondries. During thewarm-up lap, the rain returned and it caused a treacherous first lap, with the Goodyear times at an advantage. Hulme took the lead off of Clark, andBruce McLarengot by the pole-sitter into second place. The track was now drying and around a quarter of the race, the dry-runners regained their advantage. Clark retook second place and began to catch Hulme at over a second a lap. On lap 58, he was there and immediately went by into the lead, but right at that moment, the rain returned. Clark's engine got soaked and cut out, while Hulme desperatly needed cleangogglesso chose topit. This leftJack Brabham, second in the championship, free to win the race, over a minute ahead of teammate Hulme and at least a lap ahead of the race.Dan Gurneyfinished third in theEagle. Qualifying for theItalian Grand Prixwas disrupted by rain, but the result was not surprising: Clark scored his fifth pole position of the year, ahead of Brabham and McLaren. Hulme started in sixth. Themarshalstarting the race used a different procedure to what the drivers were used to, which led to half of the grid essentially doing afalse start, but no penalties were issued. Brabham took the lead before Gurney grabbed it later in the lap, whileHilland Clark followed them. On lap 3, Clark was already back in the lead, but then suffered a slowpuncture. With the pole-sitter in the pits and Gurney's engine having broken, as it had done so many times, it was Hulme who took over the lead. Brabham and Hill formed a close trio with him and the lead swapped hands a couple of times. Clark had a lost a full lap with his pit stop, but managed to unlap himself with two thirds of the race still to go, and quickly set a new lap record. Hulme retired with an overheating engine and Hill took advantage from Clark'sslipstreamto open up the gap to Brabham at two seconds per lap, until on lap 58, his engine exploded. His rivals' retirements, topped with his maniacal pace, brought Clark up to second place, with leader Brabham in his sights andHondadriverJohn Surteesin third place, the1964champion this time being the one to benefit from Clark's tow. On lap 60, Clark grabbed the lead and gained a three-second advantage, until he dramatically ran out of fuel. Surtees took the lead and was side-by-side with Brabham going into the last corner. Brabham dove to the inside but slid wide. Surtees crossed back and took the flag with a margin of just 0.2 seconds. It would be Honda's last win until2006. Clark coasted over the line in third place. The Brabham duo (Hulme and Brabham) were leading the championship but the Lotus duo (Hill and Clark) that occupied the first row for theUnited States Grand Prix. Gurney had started beside them, took second place at the start and even started pressuring the leader. After just 24 laps, however, the home hero retired with a broken suspension, but the Lotuses were showing better pace anyway. Clark took over the lead when Hill suffered issues with hisclutch. This gaveFerraridriverChris Amona chance for second place, but his engine ran out of oil with 12 laps to go. Clark would take a comfortable victory, but two laps from the end, his right-rear suspension broke. By slowing down and managing to keep the car on track, Hill could not catch up in time, and Clark took the chequered flag. One could say it was the summary of the season: the Lotuses were unreliable and finished less than half of the races, but if they did, they were so fast that they lapped the rest of the field. This time, it was Hulme who finished in third, a lap down. Going into the final race, theMexican Grand Prix, Hulme had a lead of five points in the standings, so if Brabham wanted to do anything about it, he needed to win and for his teammate to finish fifth or lower. Clark started again on pole position, with Brabham and Hulme down in fifth and sixth, respectively. Hill shortly took the lead, but Clark grabbed it back and grew his advantage to seven seconds. Hulme was comfortably hanging back six seconds behind Brabham. Hill retired when hisdrive shaftbroke and had damaged his engine, and the race settled down. Clark set a new lap record and lapped everyone but Brabham in second. Hulme finished third, enough to win the title. Denny Hulme(Brabham, 51 points) won his first and only championship, ahead of teammateJack Brabham(46) andJim Clark(Lotus, 41). Hulme is the only champion to date fromNew Zealand, and the first of two drivers to win the title without achieving a pole position in the season. OnlyNiki Laudawould repeat this feat in1984. The Brabham team (63 points) also won the Manufacturers' Cup, ahead of Lotus (44) andCooper(28). Results and standings Grands Prix Scoring system Points were awarded to the top six classified finishers. Formula 2 cars were not eligible for Championship points. The International Cup for F1 Manufacturers only counted the points of the highest-finishing driver for each race. For both the Championship and the Cup, the best five results from rounds 1-6 and the best four results from rounds 7-11 were counted. Numbers without parentheses are championship points; numbers in parentheses are total points scored. Points were awarded in the following system: World Drivers' Championship standings International Cup for F1 Manufacturers standings Non-championship races Other Formula One races held in 1967, which did not count towards the World Championship. Notes and references External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["List of micronations \\ Micronations, sometimes also referred to asmodel countriesandnew country projects, are small,self-proclaimedentities that assert their sovereignty as independent states but which are not acknowledged as such by any of therecognised sovereign states, or by any supranational organization. They should not be confused withmicrostates, which are recognised independent states of a small size, nor should they be confused withunrecognised states, which are of more geopolitical significance because they exercise clear control of actual territory to the exclusion of widely recognized countries. Motivations for the creation of micronations include theoretical experimentation, political protest, artistic expression, personal entertainment and the conduct of criminal activity.: 4 The following is a list of notable micronations. Current Former Proposed See also References Notes Citations","1967 Formula One season The1967 Formula One seasonwas the 21st season ofFIAFormula Onemotor racing. It featured the 18thWorld Championship of Drivers, the 10thInternational Cup for F1 Manufacturers, and six non-championship races open to Formula One cars. The World Championship was contested over eleven races between 2 January and 22 October 1967. Denny Hulmewon the Drivers' Championship in aBrabham-Repco.Brabham was also awarded the International Cup for F1 Manufacturers.As of 2023, this is the only championship won by aNew Zealand driver. Hulme also became the first driver in World Championship history to win the title without having scored apole positionduring the season. Lorenzo Bandinicrashed during theMonaco Grand Prix. Losing an early lead of the race and trying to get back to the front, theFerraridriver clipped the chicane at the harbour front and then hit a hiddenmooring. The car turned over and exploded in flames. It tookmarshalsseveral minutes to extricate Bandini from the burning wreck and three","wreck and three days later, theItaliandied.BritishdriverBob Andersondied during a test atSilverstone. HisBrabhamslid off the track in wet conditions and hit a marshals post, suffering seriouschestandneckinjuries and later dying inhospital. Teams and drivers The followingteamsanddriverscompeted in the 1967FIAWorld Championship. A pink background denotes additionalFormula 2entrants to the German Grand Prix on the very long Nürburgring track. Team and driver changes Mid-season changes Calendar Calendar changes Regulation changes AfterLorenzo Bandini's fatal accident, theFIAbanned circuit organisers from usingstraw balesalong the trackandTVcrews from flying theirhelicopterstoo low, as both had contributed to the fire flaring up. Championship report Rounds 1 to 4 Coming down from his third World Championship in1966,Jack Brabhamstarted this year off as well, with apole positionat theSouth African Grand Prix. TeammateDenny Hulmestarted second and two-time World ChampionJim Clarklined up in third in hisLotus. Hulme","in hisLotus. Hulme took the lead at the start, while Clark fell back to sixth. In a race of attrition, the crowd sawRhodesiandriverJohn Lovetake the lead. When he had to stop for extra fuel, however, it wasPedro Rodríguezwho won in hisCooper. Love finished second, ahead ofJohn Surteesin aHonda. Hulme and Brabham finished several laps down but still in the points, since there were just six classified finishers in total. From 1967 to1969, there was four months between the first and second race of the championship, and most teams would usually run the first race with old designs, or not even participate. This year,Ferrari,McLarenandMatrastarted their year with theMonaco Grand Prix. Lotus had planned to run revolutionary newCosworths, but they were not ready in time.Jack Brabhamscoredpole positionlike in South Africa, but again lost the lead at the start, this time to long-time Ferrari driverLorenzo Bandini. Before long, Hulme took over at the front and increased his lead to 15 seconds. Desperately trying to get","trying to get closer, Bandini struck the barrier in thechicaneat theharbourfront and mounted thestraw bales. The car landed upside down and exploded in flames. Bandini would succumbed to his injuries three days later. Hulme won the race, one lap ahead ofGraham Hill(Lotus) and two ahead ofChris Amon(Ferrari). Like in the first race, there were just six finishers. When Lotus could finally run the new Cosworth engines in theDutch Grand Prix, their pace was significantly better than before and Hill snatched pole position. A surprisingDan Gurneyin theEaglestarted second, reigning champion Brabham in third. After drivers had to avoid a wanderingmarshalon the grid, the positions at the front remained rather the same, until Gurney made a pit stop. Hill's engine suddenly seized on lap 11, but teammate Clark was charging, getting up to second on lap 15 and taking the lead from Brabham on the next lap. He kept increasing his lead with a second per lap and easily won, ahead of the teammates Brabham and Hulme. Behind","and Hulme. Behind them finished the three Ferraris. Qualifying for theBelgian Grand Prixended up with quite the same drivers at the front, except Brabham could only manage seventh. Clark, Gurney and Hill occupied the front row. Clark was the only one of the three with a good start, however. During the first lap,Mike Parkescrashed his Ferrari and was thrown out. He broke alegandwristand would not return to Formula One. At the front of the field, Clark was followed byStewart(BRM) and Amon (Ferrari), before Amon fell back and Gurney took third. Then, Clark had to pit to change aspark plugand Stewart ran into trouble with his gearbox, and Gurney took the lead. After setting a new lap record, theAmericandriver won, over a minute ahead of Stewart and Amon. Four different winners led to a close fight at the top of the Drivers' Championship.Denny Hulme(Brabham) was first with 16 points, ahead ofPedro Rodríguez(Cooper) andChris Amon(Ferrari) with 11. In the battle for the Manufacturers' Cup, Brabham had scored 18","had scored 18 points, ahead of Cooper (14) and Ferrari (11). Rounds 5 to 7 For theFrench Grand Prix, the front row consisted of1962championGraham Hill(Lotus), triple World ChampionJack Brabham(Brabham) and winner of the last race,Dan Gurney(Eagle). But after just 5 laps, it was fourth-startingJim Clarkwho led the field. Before the race reached half distance, however, both Lotuses had retired. TheCosworthengines deemed fast but unreliable. After Gurney retired as well with a fuel leak, which left Brabham and his teammateHulmeto finish first and second.Jackie Stewartfinished third in hisBRM, a lap down on the leader. For the third time this year, there were just six classified finishers. TheBritish Grand Prixwas run atSilverstoneand saw the green-and-yellow Lotuses (Clark ahead of Hill) qualifying in front of the green-and-gold Brabhams (Brabham ahead of Hulme). The Lotus duo gained a big lead over the rest, before Hill took the lead on lap 26. When a screw in hissuspensionfailed, however, he had to pit on lap","had to pit on lap 55, and his engine seized ten laps later. Clark took a comfortable win, ahead of Hulme andAmon, theFerraridriver having passed Brabham four laps from the end. Duringpracticefor theGerman Grand Prix, Hill crashed and wrote off his Lotus, while escaping uninjured. Clark clinchedpole position, ahead of Hulme andFormula TwodriverJacky Ickx. (Traditionally, the F2 race would be run at the same time as the Grand Prix. F2 drivers would not be eligible to score points for the F1 championship.) At the start, Clark and Hulme led away, withBruce McLarenstealing third. On lap 3, Clark's right-rear wheel was deflating slowly and he had to back off. Dan Gurney inherited the lead after McLaren retired with an oil leak. TheAmericanset a new lap record, despite an extra chicane having been added to the circuit, and increased his lead over Hulme to over 40 seconds. On lap 13, however, his Eagle's drive shaft broke and cut through an oil pipe, handing Hulme a lucky victory, ahead of teammate Brabham and","Brabham and Ferrari driver Amon. In the Drivers' Championship,Denny Hulme(Brabham) was leading with 37 points, ahead ofJack Brabham(Brabham) with 25 points andJim Clark(Lotus) andChris Amon(Ferrari) in a shared third place with 19 points. Brabham was leading the championship for the Manufacturers' Cup with 42 points, ahead ofCoopperwith 21 and Lotus and Ferrari in a shared third place with 19 points. Rounds 8 to 11 TheCanadian Grand Prixwas on the championship calendar for the first time and was supposed to be a one-off in celebration ofCanada's 100 years of independence, but the popularity of the event would result in F1 returning toMosport Parkseven more years and the Canadian GP still being featured on the calendar today.Jim Clark(Lotus)qualifiedonpole position, ahead of teammateGraham Hilland championship leaderDenny Hulme(Brabham). It had been a rainy night, but a clear morning, which led to most of theGoodyearrunners starting onintermediate tyres, while most of theFirestonestarted ondries. During","ondries. During thewarm-up lap, the rain returned and it caused a treacherous first lap, with the Goodyear times at an advantage. Hulme took the lead off of Clark, andBruce McLarengot by the pole-sitter into second place. The track was now drying and around a quarter of the race, the dry-runners regained their advantage. Clark retook second place and began to catch Hulme at over a second a lap. On lap 58, he was there and immediately went by into the lead, but right at that moment, the rain returned. Clark's engine got soaked and cut out, while Hulme desperatly needed cleangogglesso chose topit. This leftJack Brabham, second in the championship, free to win the race, over a minute ahead of teammate Hulme and at least a lap ahead of the race.Dan Gurneyfinished third in theEagle. Qualifying for theItalian Grand Prixwas disrupted by rain, but the result was not surprising: Clark scored his fifth pole position of the year, ahead of Brabham and McLaren. Hulme started in sixth. Themarshalstarting the race used a","the race used a different procedure to what the drivers were used to, which led to half of the grid essentially doing afalse start, but no penalties were issued. Brabham took the lead before Gurney grabbed it later in the lap, whileHilland Clark followed them. On lap 3, Clark was already back in the lead, but then suffered a slowpuncture. With the pole-sitter in the pits and Gurney's engine having broken, as it had done so many times, it was Hulme who took over the lead. Brabham and Hill formed a close trio with him and the lead swapped hands a couple of times. Clark had a lost a full lap with his pit stop, but managed to unlap himself with two thirds of the race still to go, and quickly set a new lap record. Hulme retired with an overheating engine and Hill took advantage from Clark'sslipstreamto open up the gap to Brabham at two seconds per lap, until on lap 58, his engine exploded. His rivals' retirements, topped with his maniacal pace, brought Clark up to second place, with leader Brabham in his sights","in his sights andHondadriverJohn Surteesin third place, the1964champion this time being the one to benefit from Clark's tow. On lap 60, Clark grabbed the lead and gained a three-second advantage, until he dramatically ran out of fuel. Surtees took the lead and was side-by-side with Brabham going into the last corner. Brabham dove to the inside but slid wide. Surtees crossed back and took the flag with a margin of just 0.2 seconds. It would be Honda's last win until2006. Clark coasted over the line in third place. The Brabham duo (Hulme and Brabham) were leading the championship but the Lotus duo (Hill and Clark) that occupied the first row for theUnited States Grand Prix. Gurney had started beside them, took second place at the start and even started pressuring the leader. After just 24 laps, however, the home hero retired with a broken suspension, but the Lotuses were showing better pace anyway. Clark took over the lead when Hill suffered issues with hisclutch. This gaveFerraridriverChris Amona chance for","Amona chance for second place, but his engine ran out of oil with 12 laps to go. Clark would take a comfortable victory, but two laps from the end, his right-rear suspension broke. By slowing down and managing to keep the car on track, Hill could not catch up in time, and Clark took the chequered flag. One could say it was the summary of the season: the Lotuses were unreliable and finished less than half of the races, but if they did, they were so fast that they lapped the rest of the field. This time, it was Hulme who finished in third, a lap down. Going into the final race, theMexican Grand Prix, Hulme had a lead of five points in the standings, so if Brabham wanted to do anything about it, he needed to win and for his teammate to finish fifth or lower. Clark started again on pole position, with Brabham and Hulme down in fifth and sixth, respectively. Hill shortly took the lead, but Clark grabbed it back and grew his advantage to seven seconds. Hulme was comfortably hanging back six seconds behind Brabham.","behind Brabham. Hill retired when hisdrive shaftbroke and had damaged his engine, and the race settled down. Clark set a new lap record and lapped everyone but Brabham in second. Hulme finished third, enough to win the title. Denny Hulme(Brabham, 51 points) won his first and only championship, ahead of teammateJack Brabham(46) andJim Clark(Lotus, 41). Hulme is the only champion to date fromNew Zealand, and the first of two drivers to win the title without achieving a pole position in the season. OnlyNiki Laudawould repeat this feat in1984. The Brabham team (63 points) also won the Manufacturers' Cup, ahead of Lotus (44) andCooper(28). Results and standings Grands Prix Scoring system Points were awarded to the top six classified finishers. Formula 2 cars were not eligible for Championship points. The International Cup for F1 Manufacturers only counted the points of the highest-finishing driver for each race. For both the Championship and the Cup, the best five results from rounds 1-6 and the best four results","best four results from rounds 7-11 were counted. Numbers without parentheses are championship points; numbers in parentheses are total points scored. Points were awarded in the following system: World Drivers' Championship standings International Cup for F1 Manufacturers standings Non-championship races Other Formula One races held in 1967, which did not count towards the World Championship. Notes and references External links"],"string":"[\n \"List of micronations \\\\ Micronations, sometimes also referred to asmodel countriesandnew country projects, are small,self-proclaimedentities that assert their sovereignty as independent states but which are not acknowledged as such by any of therecognised sovereign states, or by any supranational organization. They should not be confused withmicrostates, which are recognised independent states of a small size, nor should they be confused withunrecognised states, which are of more geopolitical significance because they exercise clear control of actual territory to the exclusion of widely recognized countries. Motivations for the creation of micronations include theoretical experimentation, political protest, artistic expression, personal entertainment and the conduct of criminal activity.: 4 The following is a list of notable micronations. Current Former Proposed See also References Notes Citations\",\n \"1967 Formula One season The1967 Formula One seasonwas the 21st season ofFIAFormula Onemotor racing. It featured the 18thWorld Championship of Drivers, the 10thInternational Cup for F1 Manufacturers, and six non-championship races open to Formula One cars. The World Championship was contested over eleven races between 2 January and 22 October 1967. Denny Hulmewon the Drivers' Championship in aBrabham-Repco.Brabham was also awarded the International Cup for F1 Manufacturers.As of 2023, this is the only championship won by aNew Zealand driver. Hulme also became the first driver in World Championship history to win the title without having scored apole positionduring the season. Lorenzo Bandinicrashed during theMonaco Grand Prix. Losing an early lead of the race and trying to get back to the front, theFerraridriver clipped the chicane at the harbour front and then hit a hiddenmooring. The car turned over and exploded in flames. It tookmarshalsseveral minutes to extricate Bandini from the burning wreck and three\",\n \"wreck and three days later, theItaliandied.BritishdriverBob Andersondied during a test atSilverstone. HisBrabhamslid off the track in wet conditions and hit a marshals post, suffering seriouschestandneckinjuries and later dying inhospital. Teams and drivers The followingteamsanddriverscompeted in the 1967FIAWorld Championship. A pink background denotes additionalFormula 2entrants to the German Grand Prix on the very long Nürburgring track. Team and driver changes Mid-season changes Calendar Calendar changes Regulation changes AfterLorenzo Bandini's fatal accident, theFIAbanned circuit organisers from usingstraw balesalong the trackandTVcrews from flying theirhelicopterstoo low, as both had contributed to the fire flaring up. Championship report Rounds 1 to 4 Coming down from his third World Championship in1966,Jack Brabhamstarted this year off as well, with apole positionat theSouth African Grand Prix. TeammateDenny Hulmestarted second and two-time World ChampionJim Clarklined up in third in hisLotus. Hulme\",\n \"in hisLotus. Hulme took the lead at the start, while Clark fell back to sixth. In a race of attrition, the crowd sawRhodesiandriverJohn Lovetake the lead. When he had to stop for extra fuel, however, it wasPedro Rodríguezwho won in hisCooper. Love finished second, ahead ofJohn Surteesin aHonda. Hulme and Brabham finished several laps down but still in the points, since there were just six classified finishers in total. From 1967 to1969, there was four months between the first and second race of the championship, and most teams would usually run the first race with old designs, or not even participate. This year,Ferrari,McLarenandMatrastarted their year with theMonaco Grand Prix. Lotus had planned to run revolutionary newCosworths, but they were not ready in time.Jack Brabhamscoredpole positionlike in South Africa, but again lost the lead at the start, this time to long-time Ferrari driverLorenzo Bandini. Before long, Hulme took over at the front and increased his lead to 15 seconds. Desperately trying to get\",\n \"trying to get closer, Bandini struck the barrier in thechicaneat theharbourfront and mounted thestraw bales. The car landed upside down and exploded in flames. Bandini would succumbed to his injuries three days later. Hulme won the race, one lap ahead ofGraham Hill(Lotus) and two ahead ofChris Amon(Ferrari). Like in the first race, there were just six finishers. When Lotus could finally run the new Cosworth engines in theDutch Grand Prix, their pace was significantly better than before and Hill snatched pole position. A surprisingDan Gurneyin theEaglestarted second, reigning champion Brabham in third. After drivers had to avoid a wanderingmarshalon the grid, the positions at the front remained rather the same, until Gurney made a pit stop. Hill's engine suddenly seized on lap 11, but teammate Clark was charging, getting up to second on lap 15 and taking the lead from Brabham on the next lap. He kept increasing his lead with a second per lap and easily won, ahead of the teammates Brabham and Hulme. Behind\",\n \"and Hulme. Behind them finished the three Ferraris. Qualifying for theBelgian Grand Prixended up with quite the same drivers at the front, except Brabham could only manage seventh. Clark, Gurney and Hill occupied the front row. Clark was the only one of the three with a good start, however. During the first lap,Mike Parkescrashed his Ferrari and was thrown out. He broke alegandwristand would not return to Formula One. At the front of the field, Clark was followed byStewart(BRM) and Amon (Ferrari), before Amon fell back and Gurney took third. Then, Clark had to pit to change aspark plugand Stewart ran into trouble with his gearbox, and Gurney took the lead. After setting a new lap record, theAmericandriver won, over a minute ahead of Stewart and Amon. Four different winners led to a close fight at the top of the Drivers' Championship.Denny Hulme(Brabham) was first with 16 points, ahead ofPedro Rodríguez(Cooper) andChris Amon(Ferrari) with 11. In the battle for the Manufacturers' Cup, Brabham had scored 18\",\n \"had scored 18 points, ahead of Cooper (14) and Ferrari (11). Rounds 5 to 7 For theFrench Grand Prix, the front row consisted of1962championGraham Hill(Lotus), triple World ChampionJack Brabham(Brabham) and winner of the last race,Dan Gurney(Eagle). But after just 5 laps, it was fourth-startingJim Clarkwho led the field. Before the race reached half distance, however, both Lotuses had retired. TheCosworthengines deemed fast but unreliable. After Gurney retired as well with a fuel leak, which left Brabham and his teammateHulmeto finish first and second.Jackie Stewartfinished third in hisBRM, a lap down on the leader. For the third time this year, there were just six classified finishers. TheBritish Grand Prixwas run atSilverstoneand saw the green-and-yellow Lotuses (Clark ahead of Hill) qualifying in front of the green-and-gold Brabhams (Brabham ahead of Hulme). The Lotus duo gained a big lead over the rest, before Hill took the lead on lap 26. When a screw in hissuspensionfailed, however, he had to pit on lap\",\n \"had to pit on lap 55, and his engine seized ten laps later. Clark took a comfortable win, ahead of Hulme andAmon, theFerraridriver having passed Brabham four laps from the end. Duringpracticefor theGerman Grand Prix, Hill crashed and wrote off his Lotus, while escaping uninjured. Clark clinchedpole position, ahead of Hulme andFormula TwodriverJacky Ickx. (Traditionally, the F2 race would be run at the same time as the Grand Prix. F2 drivers would not be eligible to score points for the F1 championship.) At the start, Clark and Hulme led away, withBruce McLarenstealing third. On lap 3, Clark's right-rear wheel was deflating slowly and he had to back off. Dan Gurney inherited the lead after McLaren retired with an oil leak. TheAmericanset a new lap record, despite an extra chicane having been added to the circuit, and increased his lead over Hulme to over 40 seconds. On lap 13, however, his Eagle's drive shaft broke and cut through an oil pipe, handing Hulme a lucky victory, ahead of teammate Brabham and\",\n \"Brabham and Ferrari driver Amon. In the Drivers' Championship,Denny Hulme(Brabham) was leading with 37 points, ahead ofJack Brabham(Brabham) with 25 points andJim Clark(Lotus) andChris Amon(Ferrari) in a shared third place with 19 points. Brabham was leading the championship for the Manufacturers' Cup with 42 points, ahead ofCoopperwith 21 and Lotus and Ferrari in a shared third place with 19 points. Rounds 8 to 11 TheCanadian Grand Prixwas on the championship calendar for the first time and was supposed to be a one-off in celebration ofCanada's 100 years of independence, but the popularity of the event would result in F1 returning toMosport Parkseven more years and the Canadian GP still being featured on the calendar today.Jim Clark(Lotus)qualifiedonpole position, ahead of teammateGraham Hilland championship leaderDenny Hulme(Brabham). It had been a rainy night, but a clear morning, which led to most of theGoodyearrunners starting onintermediate tyres, while most of theFirestonestarted ondries. During\",\n \"ondries. During thewarm-up lap, the rain returned and it caused a treacherous first lap, with the Goodyear times at an advantage. Hulme took the lead off of Clark, andBruce McLarengot by the pole-sitter into second place. The track was now drying and around a quarter of the race, the dry-runners regained their advantage. Clark retook second place and began to catch Hulme at over a second a lap. On lap 58, he was there and immediately went by into the lead, but right at that moment, the rain returned. Clark's engine got soaked and cut out, while Hulme desperatly needed cleangogglesso chose topit. This leftJack Brabham, second in the championship, free to win the race, over a minute ahead of teammate Hulme and at least a lap ahead of the race.Dan Gurneyfinished third in theEagle. Qualifying for theItalian Grand Prixwas disrupted by rain, but the result was not surprising: Clark scored his fifth pole position of the year, ahead of Brabham and McLaren. Hulme started in sixth. Themarshalstarting the race used a\",\n \"the race used a different procedure to what the drivers were used to, which led to half of the grid essentially doing afalse start, but no penalties were issued. Brabham took the lead before Gurney grabbed it later in the lap, whileHilland Clark followed them. On lap 3, Clark was already back in the lead, but then suffered a slowpuncture. With the pole-sitter in the pits and Gurney's engine having broken, as it had done so many times, it was Hulme who took over the lead. Brabham and Hill formed a close trio with him and the lead swapped hands a couple of times. Clark had a lost a full lap with his pit stop, but managed to unlap himself with two thirds of the race still to go, and quickly set a new lap record. Hulme retired with an overheating engine and Hill took advantage from Clark'sslipstreamto open up the gap to Brabham at two seconds per lap, until on lap 58, his engine exploded. His rivals' retirements, topped with his maniacal pace, brought Clark up to second place, with leader Brabham in his sights\",\n \"in his sights andHondadriverJohn Surteesin third place, the1964champion this time being the one to benefit from Clark's tow. On lap 60, Clark grabbed the lead and gained a three-second advantage, until he dramatically ran out of fuel. Surtees took the lead and was side-by-side with Brabham going into the last corner. Brabham dove to the inside but slid wide. Surtees crossed back and took the flag with a margin of just 0.2 seconds. It would be Honda's last win until2006. Clark coasted over the line in third place. The Brabham duo (Hulme and Brabham) were leading the championship but the Lotus duo (Hill and Clark) that occupied the first row for theUnited States Grand Prix. Gurney had started beside them, took second place at the start and even started pressuring the leader. After just 24 laps, however, the home hero retired with a broken suspension, but the Lotuses were showing better pace anyway. Clark took over the lead when Hill suffered issues with hisclutch. This gaveFerraridriverChris Amona chance for\",\n \"Amona chance for second place, but his engine ran out of oil with 12 laps to go. Clark would take a comfortable victory, but two laps from the end, his right-rear suspension broke. By slowing down and managing to keep the car on track, Hill could not catch up in time, and Clark took the chequered flag. One could say it was the summary of the season: the Lotuses were unreliable and finished less than half of the races, but if they did, they were so fast that they lapped the rest of the field. This time, it was Hulme who finished in third, a lap down. Going into the final race, theMexican Grand Prix, Hulme had a lead of five points in the standings, so if Brabham wanted to do anything about it, he needed to win and for his teammate to finish fifth or lower. Clark started again on pole position, with Brabham and Hulme down in fifth and sixth, respectively. Hill shortly took the lead, but Clark grabbed it back and grew his advantage to seven seconds. Hulme was comfortably hanging back six seconds behind Brabham.\",\n \"behind Brabham. Hill retired when hisdrive shaftbroke and had damaged his engine, and the race settled down. Clark set a new lap record and lapped everyone but Brabham in second. Hulme finished third, enough to win the title. Denny Hulme(Brabham, 51 points) won his first and only championship, ahead of teammateJack Brabham(46) andJim Clark(Lotus, 41). Hulme is the only champion to date fromNew Zealand, and the first of two drivers to win the title without achieving a pole position in the season. OnlyNiki Laudawould repeat this feat in1984. The Brabham team (63 points) also won the Manufacturers' Cup, ahead of Lotus (44) andCooper(28). Results and standings Grands Prix Scoring system Points were awarded to the top six classified finishers. Formula 2 cars were not eligible for Championship points. The International Cup for F1 Manufacturers only counted the points of the highest-finishing driver for each race. For both the Championship and the Cup, the best five results from rounds 1-6 and the best four results\",\n \"best four results from rounds 7-11 were counted. Numbers without parentheses are championship points; numbers in parentheses are total points scored. Points were awarded in the following system: World Drivers' Championship standings International Cup for F1 Manufacturers standings Non-championship races Other Formula One races held in 1967, which did not count towards the World Championship. Notes and references External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":349,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"The Brihadeeswarar Temple was built by an Indian emperor. The emperor’s only sister‘s husband is a king of another Dynasty. Name the Dynasty and state how many known kings ruled within that Dynasty."},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Bana Kingdom. 10 Kings."},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajaraja_I"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundavai_Pir%C4%81ttiy%C4%81r"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bana_Kingdom"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajaraja_I', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundavai_Pir%C4%81ttiy%C4%81r', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bana_Kingdom']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajaraja_I","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundavai_Pir%C4%81ttiy%C4%81r","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bana_Kingdom"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajaraja_I\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundavai_Pir%C4%81ttiy%C4%81r\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bana_Kingdom\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Brihadisvara Temple Brihadishvara Temple, calledRajarajesvaram(lit.'Lord ofRajaraja') by its builder, and known locally asThanjai Periya Kovil(lit.'Thanjavur Big Temple') andPeruvudaiyar Kovil, is aShaiviteHindu templebuilt in aChola architecturalstylelocated on the south bank of theCauveryriver inThanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India.It is one of thelargest Hindu templesand an exemplar ofTamil architecture.It is also calledDakshina Meru(Meruof theSouth).Built byCholaemperorRajaraja Ibetween 1003 and 1010 CE, the temple is a part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Siteknown as the \"Great Living Chola Temples\", along with the Chola-eraGangaikonda Cholapuram templeandAiravatesvara temple, which are about 70 kilometres (43 mi) and 40 kilometres (25 mi) to its northeast respectively. The original monuments of this 11th-century temple were built around a moat. It includedgopura, the main temple, its massive tower, inscriptions, frescoes, and sculptures predominantly related toShaivism, but also ofVaishnavismandShaktism. The temple was damaged in its history and some artwork is now missing. Additional mandapam and monuments were added in the centuries that followed. The temple now stands amidst fortified walls that were added after the16th century. Built using granite, thevimanatower above the shrine is one of the tallest in South India.The temple has a massive colonnadedprakara(corridor) and one of the largest Shivalingasin India.It is also famed for the quality of its sculpture, as well as being the location that commissioned the brassNataraja, Shiva as the lord of dance, in the 11th century. The complex includes shrines forNandi,Parvati,Murugan,Ganesha, Sabhapati,Dakshinamurti,Chandeshvara,Varahi, Thiyagarajar of Thiruvarur,SiddharKaruvoorarand others.The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. Nomenclature Rajaraja Chola, who commissioned the temple, called it Rajarajeshvaram (Rajarājeśvaram), literally \"the temple of the god of Rajaraja\".A later inscription in the Brihannayaki shrine calls the temple's deity Periya Udaiya Nayanar, which appears to be the source of the modern names Brihadisvara and Peruvudaiyar Kovil. Location The Peruvudaiyar Templeis located in the city ofThanjavur, about 350 kilometres (220 mi) southwest ofChennai. The city is connected daily to other major cities by the network of Indian Railways, Tamil Nadu bus services and theNational Highways67,45C,226and226 Extn.The nearest airport with regular services isTiruchirappalli International Airport(IATA: TRZ), about 55 kilometres (34 mi) away. The city and the temple though inland, are at the start of theKaveri Riverdelta, thus with access to theBay of Bengaland through it to theIndian Ocean. Along with the temples, the Tamil people completed the first major irrigation network in the 11th century for agriculture, for movement of goods and to control the water flow through the urban center. History A spectrum ofdravidiantemple styles continued to develop from the fifth to the ninth century over theChalukyaera rule as evidenced inAihole,BadamiandPattadakal, and then with thePallavaera as witnessed atMamallapuramand other monuments. Thereafter, between 850 and 1280,Cholasemerged as the dominant dynasty.The early Chola period saw a greater emphasis on securing their geopolitical boundaries and less emphasis on architecture. In the tenth century, within the Chola empire emerged features such as the multifacetedcolumnswith projecting squarecapitals. This, states George Michell, signaled the start of the new Chola style.This South Indian style is most fully realized both in scale and detail in the Brihadeshwara temple built between 1003 and 1010 by the Chola kingRajaraja I. Additions, renovations and repairs The main temple along with its gopurams is from the early 11th century. The temple also saw additions, renovations, and repairs over the next 1,000 years. The raids and wars, particularly between MuslimSultanswho controlledMaduraiandHindu kingswho controlled Thanjavur caused damage.These were repaired by Hindu dynasties that regained control. In some cases, the rulers attempted to renovate the temple with faded paintings, by ordering new murals on top of the older ones. In other cases, they sponsored the addition of shrines. The significant shrines ofKartikeya(Murugan),Parvati(Amman) andNandiare from the 16th and 17th-century Nayaka era.Similarly theDakshinamurtishrine was built later.It was well maintained byMarathasof Thanjavur. Description Architecture The Peruvudaiyar temple's plan and development utilizes theaxialandsymmetricalgeometryrules.It is classified as Perunkoil (also called Madakkoil), a big temple built on a higher platform of a natural or man-made mounds.The temple complex is a rectangle that is almost two stacked squares, covering 240.79 metres (790.0 ft) east to west, and 121.92 metres (400.0 ft) north to south. In this space are five main sections: the sanctum with the towering superstructure (sri vimana), the Nandi hall in front (Nandi-mandapam) and in between these the main community hall (mukhamandapam), the great gathering hall (mahamandapam) and the pavilion that connects the great hall with the sanctum (Antrala). The temple complex integrates a large pillared and covered veranda (prakara) in its spacious courtyard, with a perimeter of about 450 metres (1,480 ft) for circumambulation. Outside this pillared veranda there are two walls of enclosure, the outer one being defensive and added in 1777 by the French colonial forces with gun-holes with the temple serving as an arsenal. They made the outer wall high, isolating the temple complex area. On its east end is the original main gopuram or gateway that isbarrel vaulted. It is less than half the size of the main temple'svimana. Additional structures were added to the original temple after the 11th century, such as a mandapa in its northeast corner and additional gopurams (gateways) on its perimeters to allow people to enter and leave from multiple locations.Some of the shrines and structures were added during the Pandya, Nayaka, Vijayanagara and Maratha era, before the colonial era started, and these builders respected the original plans and symmetry rules. Inside the original temple courtyard, along with the main sanctum and Nandi-mandapam are two major shrines, one for Kartikeya and for Parvati. The complex has additional smaller shrines. The Peruvudaiyar temple continued the Hindu temple traditions of South India by adopting architectural and decorative elements, but its scale significantly exceeded the temples constructed before the 11th century. The Chola era architects and artisans innovated the expertise to scale up and build, particularly with heavy stone and to accomplish the 63.4 metres (208 ft) high toweringvimana. The temple faces east, and once had a water moat around it. This has been filled up. The fortified wall now runs around this moat. The two walls have ornate gateways called the gopurams. These are made from stone and display entablature. The main gateways are on the east side. The first one is called theKeralantakan tiruvasal, which means the \"sacred gate of the Keralantakan\". The word Keralantakan was the surname of king Rajaraja who built it. About a 100 metres (330 ft) ahead is the inner courtyard gopuram called theRajarajan tiruvasal. This is more decorated than theKeralantakan tiruvasal, such as with itsadhishthanamrelief work narrating scenes from thePuranasand other Hindu texts.The inner eastern gopuram leads to a vast courtyard, in which the shrines are all signed to east–west and north-west cardinal directions. The complex can be entered either on one axis through a five-storygopuramor with a second access directly to the huge main quadrangle through a smaller free-standing gopuram. The gopuram of the main entrance is 30 m high, smaller than the vimana.The main temple-related monuments and the great tower is in the middle of this courtyard.Around the main temple that is dedicated to Shiva, are smaller shrines, most of which are aligned axially. These are dedicated to his consortParvati, his sonsMuruganandGanesha, Nandi,Varahi, Karuvur deva (theguruof Rajaraja Chola), Chandeshvara and Nataraja.The Nandi mandapam has a monolithic seated bull facing the sanctum. In between them are stairs leading to a columned porch and community gathering hall, then an inner mandapa connecting to thepradakshina patha, or circumambulation path. TheNandi(bull) facing the mukh-mandapam weighs about 25 tonnes.It is made of a single stone and is about 2 m in height, 6 m in length and 2.5 m in width. The image of Nandi is a monolithic one and is one of the largest in the country. Preservation & Restoration As a world heritage monument, the temple and the premises comes under theArchaeological Survey of India(ASI) which falls under the Ministry of Culture of the Government of India, to ensure safety, preservation and restoration. The surrounding facilities have been upgraded to create an ambience worthy of the grandeur of this ancient marvel with lighting, signage and facilities for devotees and visitors. The lighting of the monument is designed to enhance the natural color of the stone along with the sculptural forms adorning all corners of the temple. The restoration has been undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India that commissionedSheila Sri PrakashIndianarchitectanddesignerto lead the design. Sanctum and the Sri-vimana The sanctum is at the center of the western square. It is surrounded by massive walls that are divided into levels by sharply cut sculptures andpilastersproviding deep bays and recesses. Each side of the sanctuary has a bay with iconography.The interior of thesanctum sanctorumhosts an image of the primary deity, Shiva, in the form of a huge stonelinga. It is called Karuvarai, a Tamil word that means \"womb chamber\". This space is calledgarbha grihain other parts of India. Only priests are allowed to enter this inner-most chamber. In theTamizhanstyle, the sanctum takes the form of a miniaturevimana. It has the inner wall together with the outer wall creating a path around the sanctum for circumambulation (pradakshina). The entrance is highly decorated. The inside chamber is the sanctum sanctorum, which houses the brihad linga. The mainVimana(Shikhara) is a massive 16 storeys tower of which 13 are tapering squares. It dominates the main quadrangle. It sits above a 30.18 metres (99.0 ft) sided square.The tower is elaboratelyarticulatedwithPilaster, piers (a raised structure), and attachedcolumnswhich are placed rhythmically covering every surface of the vimana. Deities and Natya Sastra dance mudras The temple is dedicated to Shiva in the form of a hugelinga, his abstract aniconic representation. It is 29 feet (8.7 m) high, occupying two storeys of the sanctum.It is one of the largest monolithic linga sculptures in India. The Shaivism temple celebrates all major Hindu traditions by including the primary deities of theVaishnavismandShaktismtradition in the great mandapa of the main temple. The distribution of the deities is generally symmetric, except for the east entrance side which provide for the door and walkway. In addition to the main deities, each side provides fordvarapalas (guardians), and various other sculptures. The vestibule has three stone sculptures that is intricately carved, and mural paintings.The ground floor level sanctum walls have the following sculptures: On the second floor, Shiva'sTripurantakaform in different postures is depicted corresponding to these sculptures. Above these floors, thesri-vimanatowers above in thirteen storeys (talas). Above these storeys is a single square block of granite weight 80 tons, and 7.77 metres (25.5 ft) side. On top of this block, at its corners are Nandi pairs each about 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 in) by 1.68 metres (5 ft 6 in) in dimension. Above the center of this granite block rises thegriva, thesikharaand the finial (stupi) of Tamil Hindu temple architecture. Thisstupiis 3.81 metres (12.5 ft) in height, and was originally covered with gold (no longer). Thesikharaat the top is cupola-shaped and weighs 25 tons.Each storey of this tower is decorated withkutasandsalas. The shrinking squares tower architecture of this temple differs from the tower at the Chola temple at Gangaikondasolisvaram, because this is straight in contrast to the latter which is curvilinear. The temple's sri-vimana magnitude has made it a towering landmark for the city.The upper storey corridor wall of theaditalais carved with 81 of the 108 dancekaranas – postures ofNatya Sastra. This text is the basis of theBharathanatyam, the classical dance of Tamil Nadu. The 27 unrepresentedkaranasare blank blocks of stone, and it is unclear why these were not carved. The 81 postures carved suggest the significance of this classical Indian dance form by early 11th century. The garbhagriha is square and sits on aplinth. This is moulded and 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) thick. It consists ofupapithamandadhishthanam, respectively 140 cm and 360 cm thick. Mandapa The two mandapa, namelymaha-mandapaandmukha-mandapa, are square plan structures axially aligned between the sanctum and theNandi mandapa. Themaha-mandapahas six pillars on each side.This too has artwork. The Vitankar and Rajaraja I bronze are here, but these were added much later. Themaha-mandapais flanked by two giant stone dvarapalas. It is linked to themukha-mandapaby stairs. The entrance of themukha-mandapaalso has dvarapalas. With the mandapa are eight small shrines fordikpalas, or guardian deities of each direction such asAgni,Indra,Varuna,Kuberaand others. These were installed during the rule of Chola king Rajendra I. Inscriptions indicate that this area also had other iconography from major Hindu traditions during the Chola era, but these are now missing. The original eight shrines included those forSurya(the sun god),Saptamatrikas(seven mothers), Ganesha, Murugan,Jyeshtha,Chandra(the moon god), Chandeshvara and Bhairava.Similarly, in the western wall cella was a massive granite Ganesha built during Rajaraja I era, but who is now found in thetiruch-churru-maligai(southern veranda). Of the Shaktism tradition's seven mothers, onlyVarahisurvives in a broken form. Her remnants are now found in a small modern era brick \"Varahi shrine\" in the southern side of the courtyard. The original version of the others along with their original Chola shrines are missing. Murals The temple has an underneath layer of Chola frescoes on the sanctum walls along the circumambulatory pathway. These frescoes which cover floor to ceiling, were discovered in 1931 by S. K. Govindasami of theAnnamalai University.The painters used natural pigments and infused it into the wet limestone layer as it was setting in. The Chola frescoes were largely of Shaivism themes. These were restored in the 2000s.The total Chola fresco area is about 670 square metres (7,200 sq ft), of which about 112 square metres (1,210 sq ft) had been uncovered as of 2010 in a method that preserves both paintings, a technique developed by Archaeological Survey of India.The frescoes narrate Hindu mythology.According to Balasubrahmanyam, most frescoes are related to Shiva, but the 11th century Chola frescoes also show Vishnu, Durga and others, as well as scenes of Chola royalty, courtly and common life. The later constructions, additions and modifications to the temple curtailed the amount of natural light inside the temple. The frescoes were thus photographed in a limited way and interpreted. According to Sriraman, a complete imaging with better photographic equipment suggests that these historic interpretations were incorrect.For example, a fresco that was previously interpreted as Dakshinamurti Shiva is actually a secular scene of a royalgurumeditating under a banyan tree. On the tree are shown peacocks, birds, monkeys, squirrels and owls, plus a cobra. The animals and birds are shown as worried of the cobra, the ones closer to the snake are shown to be more worried.Other parts of the panel similarly show a court listening to a saint. Other show women in different dresses in different dancemudra. Some of the paintings in the sanctum sanctorum and the walls in the passage had been damaged because of the soot that had deposited on them once upon a time. Owing to the continuous exposure to smoke and soot from the lamps and burning of camphor in the sanctum sanctorum over a period of centuries certain parts of the Chola paintings on the circumambulatory passage walls had been badly damaged.TheArchaeological Survey of India, for the first time in the world, used its unique de-stucco process to restore 16 Nayak paintings, which were superimposed on 1000-year-old Chola frescoes.These 400-year-old paintings have been mounted on fibre glass boards, displayed at a separate pavilion. Inscriptions The temple walls have numerous inscriptions in Tamil and Grantha scripts. Many of these begin with customary Sanskrit and Tamil language historical introduction to the king who authorized it, and predominant number of them discuss gifts to the temple or temple personnel, in some cases residents of the city.The temple complex has sixty four inscriptions ofRajaraja Chola I, twenty nine inscriptions ofRajendra Chola I, one each ofVikrama Chola,Kulottunga IandRajamahendra(Rajendra II), three of a probablePandyanking, two ofNayakarulers namely, Achyutappa Nayaka and Mallapa Nayaka. Temple personnel An inscription on the north wall of enclosure, dated 1011 CE, gives a detailed accounts of people employed and supported by the temple. The inscription gives their wages, roles and names. It includes over 600 names including those ofpriests, lamp lighters, washermen,tailors,jewelers,potters,carpenters, sacred parasol bearers, dance gurus,dancing girls,singers, male and femalemusicians, superintendents of performance artists, accountants among others. Their wages was in parcels of land, so their temple employment was likely part-time. The temple employeddevadasiswho were dancers and singers of devotional hymns. Among its numerous inscriptions are frequent gifts that state, \"to provide for worship, for food to assembly ofsannyasis(monks or ascetics) and for repairs\". According to George Michell, the Thanjavur temple was a major charity institution in its history. It provides free meal for pilgrims, devotees and wayfarers on a daily basis. On the days of Hindu festivals, these meals were elaborate and whenbrahminswere particularly invited and fed. Millennium commemoration Built in the year 1010 CE by Chola emperor Rajaraja I in Thanjavur, the temple is popularly known as the Big Temple. It turned 1,000 years old in September 2010. To celebrate the 1000th year of the grand structure, the state government and the town held many cultural events. It was to recall the 275th day of his 25th regal year (1010 CE) when Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) handed over a gold-platedkalasam(copper pot orfinial) for the final consecration to crown thevimana, the 59.82-metre tall tower above the sanctum. Bharathanatyam Yajna To mark the occasion, the state government organised aBharathanatyamYajna, classical dance show under noted dancerPadma Subramaniam. It was jointly organised by the Association of Bharatanatyam Artistes of India (ABHAI) and the Brhan Natyanjali Trust, Thanjavur. To mark the 1000th anniversary of the building, 1,000 dancers from New Delhi,Mumbai,Pune, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Kerala, Singapore, Malaysia and the US danced in concert to the recorded 11 verses of divine musicThiruvisaippa(ninth volume ofThirumurai) composed by Karuvur deva (the guru of Rajaraja). The small town turned into a cultural hub for two days beginning 26 September 2010 as street performers and dancers performed throughout the town. Commemorative stamps and coins On 26 September 2010 (Big Temple's fifth day of millennium celebrations), as a recognition of Big Temple's contribution to the country's cultural, architectural, epigraphical history, a special₹5 postage stamp featuring the 66 metres (216 ft) tall giantRaja Gopuramwas released byIndia Post. TheReserve Bank of Indiacommemorated the event by releasing a₹5 coin with the model of temple embossed on it.A Raja,Cabinet Minister of Communications and Information Technologyreleased the esteemed Brihadeeswarar temple special stamp, the first of which was received byG K Vasan,Cabinet Minister of Shipping. Mumbai Mintissued Rs 1,000 Commemorative Coin with the same picture as on the Rs 5 coin. It was the first 1,000 Rupees coin to be released in the Republic of India coinage. This coin was a Non Circulative Legal Tender (NCLT). On 1 April 1954, the Reserve Bank of India released a₹1,000 currency note featuring a panoramic view of the Brihadeeswar temple marking its cultural heritage and significance. In 1975, the then government led by Prime MinisterIndira Gandhidemonetisedall₹1,000 currency notes in an effort to curtailblack money. These notes are now popular among collectors. In 2010, the then Tamil Nadu chief minister,M Karunanidhirenamed SemmaiRice, a type of high productivity paddy variant, asRaja Rajan-1,000to mark the millennial year of the constructor of the temple, Rajaraja Chola. Reception The temple \"testifies the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting\".The temple finds mention in many of the contemporary works of the period likeMuvar UlaandKalingathuparani. According to Chatterjee, theDravidian architectureattained its supreme form of expression in the temple and it successor, theBrihadeeswarar Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.The temple has been declared as a heritage monument by the Government of India and administered by theArchaeological Survey of Indiaas a protected monument. The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. The temple was declared as aWorld Heritage SitebyUNESCO, along with the Brihadeeswara Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram andAiravatesvara templeatDarasuramthat are referred as theGreat Living Chola Temples.These three temples have similarities, but each has unique design and sculptural elements.All of the three temples were built by the Cholas between the 10th and 12th centuries CE and they have continued to be supported and used by Hindus. The temples are classified as \"Great Living\" as the temples are active in cultural, pilgrimage and worship practises in modern times. Cultural events The Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur is the site of annual dance festivals around February, around theMahashivratri. Major classical Indian dance form artists, as well as regional teams, perform their repertoire at this Brahan Natyanjali festival over 10 days. Car festival TheTemple carwas rolled out on its trial run from opposite toSri Ramartemple on 20 April 2015 witnessed by a large number of people.Nine days later, the maiden procession of the temple car was held. This was the first such procession in this temple held in the past hundred years, according to news reports. Novels Kalki Krishnamurthy, a renowned Tamil novelist, has written a historical novel namedPonniyin Selvan, based on the life ofRajaraja.Balakumaran, another Tamil author has written a novel namedUdaiyarthemed on the life of Rajaraja I and the construction of the temple. Administration The temple is currently administered and managed byBabaji Bhonsle, the head of theThanjavur Maratharoyal family. He serves as the hereditary trustee of the palace Devasthanam which continues to manage 88Cholatemples including the Brihadeeswara temple.Tamilgroups have been unsuccessfully petitioning theTamil Nadugovernment to revoke these rights as he is not ofCholaor Tamil lineage. According to one of the protesters, who also happens to be the coordinator of the Big Temple Rights Retrieval Committee, Babaji Bhonsle is also not the legal heir of the Maratha kings of Thanjavur. Gallery The temple features many sculptures, reliefs and murals: See also Notes References Bibliography External links","Rajaraja I Rajaraja I(Middle Tamil:Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ;Classical Sanskrit:Rājarāja Śōḷa; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014),also known asRajaraja the Great, was aCholaemperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He is known for his conquests ofSouth Indiaand parts ofSri Lanka, and increasing Chola influence across theIndian Ocean. Rajaraja's empire encompassed vast territories, including regions of thePandya country, theChera country, and northernSri Lanka. He also extended his influence over strategic islands such asLakshadweep,Thiladhunmaduluatoll, and parts of theMaldivesin theIndian Ocean. His conquests weren't limited to the south; he also launched successful campaigns against theWestern Gangasand theWestern Chalukyas, extending Chola authority as far as theTungabhadra River. In the east, Rajaraja faced fierce opposition from theTelugu Cholaking Jata Choda Bhima over control ofVengi. This region held significant strategic importance due to its access to resources and trade routes. The conflict between the two rulers intensified as they vied for dominance in the region, resulting in significant battles and shifting allegiances. Rajaraja I also left a significant mark through his architectural and cultural achievements. He commissioned the construction of theRajarajeshwaram Templein the Chola capital ofThanjavur, which is revered as one of the most prominent examples of medieval South Indian architectural style.Additionally, during his reign, important Tamil literary works by poets such as Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were gathered and compiled into a single collection known as the Thirumurai. This earned him the title of 'Thirumurai Kanda Cholar,' meaning The One Who Found Thirumurai.He initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known asvalanadus.Rajaraja died in 1014 CE, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I. Early life Rajaraja was a son of the Chola kingParantaka II(alias Sundara) and queen Vanavan Mahadevi.According to theThiruvalangaducopper-plate inscription, his birth name was Arun Mozhi Varman, literally \"The Word of Sun Clan\".He was born around 947 CE in theAipassimonth, on the day ofSadhayamstar.TheGovernment of Tamil Nadurecognizes his birthdate as 3 November 947.He had an elder brother –Aditha II,and an elder sister –Kundavai. Rajaraja's ascension ended a period of rival claims to the throne, following the death of his great-grandfatherParantaka I. After Parantaka I, his elder sonGandaradityaascended the throne. At the time of Gandaraditya's death, his sonMadhurantakanwas a minor, so the throne passed on to Parantaka I's younger sonArinjaya. Arinjaya died soon and was succeeded by his son Parantaka II, also known as Sundara Chola. It was decided that the throne would pass on to Madhurantakan after Sundara: this decision was most probably that of Sundara himself, although theThiruvalangaduinscription of Rajaraja's sonRajendra Iclaims that it was made by Rajaraja. Aditha died under mysterious circumstances; inscriptions hint at him being assassinated. Sundara died soon after, clearing the way for Madhurantakan to be king under the title Uttama Chola. After the death of Uttama, Rajaraja finally ascended the throne in June–July 985.Known as Arumoḷi Varman until this point, he adopted theregnal nameRajaraja, which means \"King among Kings\". Military conquests When Rajaraja came into power, he inherited a kingdom that was only centered around the Thanjavur-Tiruchirappalli region, which was the heart of traditional Chola territory.However, this kingdom was not very large, and it was still recovering from attacks by the Rashtrakutas in previous years. Rajaraja changed this by transforming the kingdom into a well-organized empire with a powerful army and navy. Under his rule, the northern kingdom of Vengi became closely allied with the Cholas, and their influence expanded along the eastern coast all the way up to Kalinga in the north. In the Thanjavur inscriptions, various regiments are noted. These regiments were organized into units of elephants, cavalry, and infantry. Each of these units operated independently and had the authority to give gifts or construct temples as they saw fit. Against Kandalur Salai Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions commemorate a significant triumph at Kandalur Salai, located in present-day Kerala, around 988 CE. He is acclaimed as \"Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta,\" which translates to 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'. He is hailed as \"Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta,\" meaning 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'Originally, this area was under the control of the Ay chief, who served as a vassal to the Pandya king of Madurai. However, it remains uncertain whether warriors from the Chera or Pandya dynasties were involved in this conflict.The Thiruvalangadu inscription suggests that Rajaraja's general captured Vizhinjam (Viḷinam), which could have been part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. It appears that this engagement involved the Chola navy, or possibly a joint operation involving both the navy and the army. Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas Rajaraja's inscriptions begin to appear inKanyakumari districtin the 990s and inThiruvananthapuram districtin the early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century.The Senur inscription dated to 1005 CE, attributed to Rajaraja, records his military achievements. It mentions the destruction of the Pandya capital, Madurai, as well as the conquest of several regions. These include defeating the formidable rulers of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumals of Makotai).Certain triumphs in the region of Malainadu were possibly achieved by Prince Rajendra Chola I on behalf of his father, Rajaraja Chola. Following his victory over the Pandyas, Rajaraja assumed the title of Pandya Kulashani, which translates to 'Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas.' As a result of his conquest, the territory of the Pandyas became recognized as \"Rajaraja Mandalam\" or \"Rajaraja Pandinadu.\"When recounting Rajaraja's military expedition in Trisanku Kastha (the southern region), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I mentions the capture of a certain royal figure named Amarabhujanga.However, the specific identity of this individual—whether he was a prince of the Pandya dynasty, a general serving the Pandya king, or a prince of the Kongu Chera dynasty—remains a matter of debate and has not been conclusively resolved.According to theKongu Desa Rajakkal,a historical record of the Kongu Nadu region, it is suggested that this general eventually changed his loyalty to Rajaraja. He is said to have participated in the ritual ofkanakabhisheka,where gold is poured over the Chola king, symbolizing an act of royal anointment or coronation. Once Rajaraja had consolidated his authority in the southern regions, he took on the title of Mummudi Chola. This title, which means \"three Crowned,\" symbolized his power over three important Tamil kingdoms: the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras. Conquest of Sri Lanka During the reign of King Mahinda V, the Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura experienced a significant military revolt around the year 982 AD, primarily as a consequence of the monarch's economic policies. The armed forces of the Anuradhapura capital predominantly consisted of Tamil mercenaries recruited from coastal regions. By 882 CE, tensions escalated into a full-fledged uprising led by these mercenaries, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The ensuing turmoil compelled the vulnerable Sinhala ruler to seek refuge in the Rohana principality, thereby plunging the capital city of Anuradhapura into an extended period of civil unrest lasting approximately eleven years, marked by widespread disorder and lawlessness. The disruption of central governance exacerbated the financial strain on the kingdom, particularly in meeting the obligations to the Tamil mercenaries. Consequently, the mercenaries, feeling aggrieved and disillusioned, turned their allegiance towards the Chola empire. This strategic shift left Anuradhapura vulnerable to the incursions of the Chola forces, who exploited the internal strife to mount invasions in the year 993. These events, documented in historical sources, underscore the intricate interplay of economic policies, military dynamics, and regional power struggles during this period in the history of Anuradhapura. In 993 CE, Rajaraja achieved the conquest of Anuradhapura, known as Pihiti rata in local context, situated in Sri Lanka.This territory was subsequently designated as Ila-mandalam in Chola historical records.The military campaign led to the sacking of Anuradhapura by the Chola army, resulting in the acquisition of the northern portion of Sri Lanka by the Chola empire. As part of their administrative efforts, the Cholas established a provincial capital at the strategic military outpost of Polonnaruwa, renaming it Jananathamangalam in honor of Rajaraja's title. Under Chola administration, the official Tali Kumaran oversaw the construction of a significant Shiva temple known as Rajarajeshwara, meaning \"Lord of Rajaraja,\" within the town of Mahatirtha, now recognized as modern-day Mantota. Consequently, Mahatirtha was renamed Rajarajapura in commemoration of the Chola monarch's conquest and establishment of authority in the region. To commemorate their victory, the Chola administrator Tali Kumaran supervised the construction of a notable Shiva temple named Rajarajeshwara, signifying \"Lord of Rajaraja,\" within the precincts of Mahatirtha. Presently acknowledged as modern Mantota, this temple assumed a pivotal role as a representation of Chola hegemony and religious fervor. The transformation of Mahatirtha into Rajarajapura, in homage to the Chola sovereign, further underscores the symbolic and cultural import of the Chola conquest of Anuradhapura and their subsequent governance in the northern expanse of Sri Lanka. The Thiruvalangadu Plates directly compare Raja Raja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama: \"Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka using sharp-edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka.\" In 1017 CE, Rajaraja's successor, Rajendra I, finalized the Chola conquest of Sri Lanka.The Chola reign over Sri Lanka persisted until 1070, when Vijayabahu I successfully vanquished and expelled them from the island. Chalukyan conflict In 998 CE, Rajaraja annexed Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi (present-day Karnataka).During this campaign, Raja Chola subdued the Nolambas, who were previously vassals of the Ganga dynasty.These territories were initially under the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas, who had been defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973 CE. Consequently, the Cholas found themselves in direct conflict with the Chalukyas.An inscription ofIrivabedanga Satyashrayafrom Dharwar describes him as a vassal of the Western Chalukyas and acknowledges the Chola onslaught. An inscription attributed to Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accuses Rajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara, blurring the ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by the Dharmasastras.Historians such as James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn interpret this confrontation as indicative of personal animosity between the rulers of the Chola and Chalukya kingdoms, akin to historical conflicts between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi. By the year 1004 CE, Rajaraja had successfully conquered the Gangavadi province.He established control over the western part of Gangavadi, ruled by the Changalvas, and over Kodagu, governed by the Kongalvas, who were then made vassals of the Chola Empire.Panchavan Maraya, a Chola general, played a significant role in defeating the Changalvas in the battle of Ponnasoge and was duly rewarded with the territory of Arkalgud Yelusuvira-7000 and the esteemed title of Kshatriyasikhamani.Similarly, in recognition of the valor displayed by Manya, a Kongalva leader, the estate of Malambi (Coorg) was granted to them, along with the title of Kshatriyasikhamani. Meanwhile, the Vengi kingdom was under the rule of Jata Choda Bhima, a member of the Eastern Chalukyas Dynasty.However, Rajaraja emerged victorious in battle against Bhima, and Saktivarman was appointed as a viceroy under the Chola Dynasty.Despite a brief period of Bhima's recapture ofKanchiin 1001 CE, Rajaraja swiftly restored Saktivarman to power, even expelling and eliminating an Andhra king named Bhima.Notably, Rajaraja cemented an alliance between the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom by arranging the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to the next viceroy of Vengi, Vimaladitya. This strategic union ensured the future succession of Rajaraja's descendants to the throne of theeastern Chalukya kingdom. Hoysala conflicts There were hostile encounters between the Cholas and theHoysalas, a group who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas.An inscription from the Gopalakrishna temple atNarasipur, dated to 1006, records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killedHoysalagenerals and a minister identified as Naganna.Additionally, a similar inscription inChannapatnadescribes Rajaraja defeating theHoysalas. Kalinga conquest The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi.This conquest marked the northern boundary of the Chola Empire at that time and established their control over the entirety of South and South-East India. Conquest of Kuda-malai-nadu In multiple historical accounts, there are mentions of King Rajaraja's conquest of a place called \"Kuda-malai-nadu\" around the year 1000 CE.In certain inscriptions found in Karnataka, the term \"Kudagu-malai-nadu\" is used instead of \"Kuda-malai-nadu.\" Scholars generally believe that this region corresponds to Coorg (Kudagu). The king's conquest of Malainadu is described in the Vikrama Chola Ula, where it is said that he achieved it in just one day, crossing 18 mountain passes.According to the Kulottunga Chola Ula, King Rajaraja was depicted as beheading 18 people and burning down Udagai.Additionally, the Kalingathupparani references the establishment of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the seizure of Udagai, and the plundering of several elephants from the area.The Tiruppalanam inscription from 999 CE records the king's offering of an idol obtained as spoils from Malainadu. Naval expedition \"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe.\" One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the islands ofMaldives(\"the Ancient Islands of the Sea Numbering 1200\").The naval campaign was a demonstration of the Chola naval power in the Indian Ocean. The Cholas controlled the area aroundBay of BengalwithNagapattinamas the main port. TheChola Navyalso played a major role in the invasion ofSri Lanka.The success of Rajaraja allowed his sonRajendra Cholato lead theChola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupyingKadaram. Personal life Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi.He had at least three daughters and two sons. The older son, Rajendra, was born to Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār.The younger son was named Araiyan Rajarajan, and the identiey of his mother is unknown.He had his first daughterKundavaiwith Lokamadev who eventually marriedChalukyaprince Vimaladithan.Rajaraja had two other daughters.. Rajaraja died in 1014 CE in theTamil monthof Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I. Administration Before the reign of Rajaraja I, portions of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers.Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganization of the empire into units known as valanadus.From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign ofVikrama Cholain 1133 CE, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials.This led to the king exercising closer control over the different parts of the empire.Rajaraja strengthened the local self-governments and installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission toChina.Furthermore, his elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples. Officials Rajendra Chola Iwas appointed as a co-regent towards the end of Rajaraja's reign. He held the position of supreme commander over the northern and northwestern territories. Under Raja Chola's rule, there was a notable expansion of the administrative system, resulting in a greater number of offices and officials documented in Chola records compared to previous eras.Villavan Muvendavelan, one of the top officials of Rajaraja figures in many of his inscriptions.The names of other officials found in the inscriptions are theBanaprince Narasimhavarman, a general SenapathiKrishnan Raman, the Samanta chiefVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys. Religious policy Rajaraja was a follower ofShaivismdenomination ofHinduismbut he also dedicated several temples toVishnu. TheChudamani Vihara, aBuddhistmonastery, was constructed in the 11th century CE inNagapattinam. It was named Chudamani or Chulamani Vihara after King Sri Mara's father. The monastery was built by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman, with the support of Rajaraja I.According to the small Leyden grant, this Vihara was known as Rajaraja-perumpalli during the reign of Kulottunga I.Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara. Rajaraja called himselfShivapada Shekhara(IAST: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, \"the one who places his crown at the feet ofShiva\". Arts and architecture Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts ofThevaramin his court.He sought the help ofNambi Andar Nambi.It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct inThillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.Thebrahmanas(Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.Rajaraja thus became known asTirumurai Kanda Cholanmeaning one who saved theTirumurai. In his workNambiyandar Nambi PuranamaliasTirumurai Kanda Puranam, Nambi identifies his patron asRasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan, that isking Rajaraja, the best of the race ofAbhaya.At that time, Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.Nambi organized the hymns of three saint poets—Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar—as the first seven books. He included Manickavasagar's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, and the hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book. The Tirumandiram of Tirumular was designated as the 10th book, while 40 hymns by 12 other poets constituted the 11th book. Additionally, Nambi added Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi, the sacred anthathi of the labors of the 63 nayanar saints, along with his own hymns as the 12th book.The initial seven books were later recognized as Tevaram.With the addition of Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) as the twelfth book, the entire Saiva canon became known as Tirumurai, the holy scripture. Consequently, Saiva literature now encompasses approximately 600 years of religious, philosophical, and literary development. There are no existing contemporary portraits or statues of Rajaraja. The bronze figure purportedly depicting him at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of recent origin. Brihadisvara Temple During 1010 CE, Rajaraja built the Brihadisvara Temple inThanjavurand dedicated it to LordShiva. The temple, also known asPeriya Kovil,RajaRajeswara TempleandRajarajeswaram, and the capital were centres of both religious and economic activity.The temple, which turned 1000 years old in 2010, is one of the largest temples in India and is an example ofDravidian architectureof theChola period.Along withGangaikonda Cholapuramtemple andAiravatesvara temple, Brihadisvara is part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Siteknown as the \"Great Living Chola Temples\". The temple tower, called thevimanam, stands at a remarkable height of 216 feet (66 meters), making it the tallest in the world. At the very top sits the Kumbam, a bulbous structure, which is carved entirely from a single rock and weighs approximately 80 tons.At the entrance stands a sizable statue of Nandi, the sacred bull, carved from a single rock, measuring about 16 feet in length and 13 feet in height. The entire temple structure is crafted from granite, obtained from sources located approximately 60 kilometers to the west of the temple. This temple is widely renowned as one of the premier tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. Coins Prior to Rajaraja's reign, Chola coins featured the tiger emblem on the obverse, along with the fish and bow emblems representing the Pandya and Chera Dynasties, while the reverse side displayed the name of the King. However, a new type of coin emerged during Rajaraja's rule. These new coins showcased the figure of the standing king on the obverse side, while the reverse side depicted a seated goddess.The coins spread across much of southern India and were copied by Sri Lankan kings. Inscriptions Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone. An inscription inTamilfromMulbagalinKarnatakashows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such aMeikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows: Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses the river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves. Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished. Another inscription from the Gramardhanathesvara temple in the southern area ofArcot, dating back to the seventh year of the king, mentions the fifteenth year of his predecessor, Uttama Choladeva. Uttama Choladeva is described in the inscription as the son of Sembiyan-Madeviyar. In popular culture See also References Bibliography External links","Kundavai Pirāttiyār Kundavai Pirattiyar, commonly known mononymously asKundavai, was aCholaIndian princess who lived in the tenth century inSouth India.She was the daughter ofParantaka IIand Vanavan Mahadevi.She was born inTirukoilurand was the elder sister of Chola emperorRajaraja I. She had title asIlaiyapirātti Kundavai Nachiyar. However, when her husbandVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevanwas crowned king in his hometownBana kingdom, she did not accept the offer to become queen of the kingdom and remained as the princess ofTanjore. Life Kundavai (also transliterated as Kundhavai or Kunthavai) was born in 945 CE. She was the only daughter of the Chola kingParantaka IIand queen Vanavan Mahadevi. She had an elder brother –Aditha Chola II, and a younger brother –Raja Raja Chola I. Kundavai marriedVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, a member of theBana dynasty, a feudatory of theCholasmentioned in theTanjoreinscriptions.He was also the commander of the Chola infantry that fought inSri Lankain the days ofRajaraja l. The territory under his authority was known as 'Vallavaraiyanadu', and occasionally 'Brahmadesam'. Along with her great-auntSembiyan Mahadevi, Kundavai brought up her nephew,Rajendra I, who was the son ofRajaraja IandThiripuvana Madeviyar, princess ofKodumbalur. Rajendra I spent most of his childhood inPazhaiyaraiwith Kundavai and Sembiyan Mahadevi. In popular culture Kundavai is celebrated as mentor toRajaraja I. Her influence continued into the next generation as she helped rearRajendra Chola. Uniquely for her era, where royal women were used to forge alliances, Kundavai's father allowed her to exercise her free will, whereupon the princess resolved to stay in the Chola kingdom all her life. Esteemed throughout the Chola realm for her taste and learning, Kundavai was requested to look after the daughters of other royal clans, tutoring them in art, music, and literature. Life and works Kundavai commissioned many temples forTirthankars,VishnuandSiva. She revered many Jain Monks and Vedantic seers .She features inCholainscriptions. ..vessels and ornaments made of gold, silver and pearl and presented to the temples of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar, Iravikulamanikka-Iswara and Kundavai Jinalaya, built by the princess Parantakan Kundavai Pirattiyar, daughter of Ponmaligaittunjiyadevar(Parantaka Sundara Chola). She is believed to have built many Jain temples but at least two Jain temples have inscriptions that records to have been built by her, one atRajarajeswaramlater known asDarasuramand the other atTirumalai.She built a hospital after her father named Vinnagar athura salai atThanjavurand donated extensive lands for its maintenance.She made lavish donations to theBrihadeeswarar TempleatThanjavurduring the reign of her younger brotherRajaraja Chola Iand her nephewRajendra Chola I. One of the inscriptions reads: Records gift of sheep for lamps to the temple of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar by princess Pirantakan-Kundavai-Pirattiyar. Also mentioned is the senapati, Mummudi-Chola Brahmamarayar who was in charge of the management of the temple Some of the images or idols set up by princess Kundavai include: Here is an excerpt from the 29th year of Rajaraja that lists some of her gifts toBrihadeeswarar Temple: Hail! Prosperity! Until the twenty-ninth year (of the reign) of Ko-Rajakesarivarman alias Sri-Rajarajadeva who..-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva and the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar..gave three thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was a quarter superior in fineness to the (gold standard called) dandavani, and one thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was one (degree) inferior in fineness to the dandavani, – altogether, five thousand karanju of gold. Hail ! Prosperity! Until the third year (of the reign) of Ko-Parakesarivarman, alias the lord Sri-Rajendra-Soradeva,-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva (and) the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar gave-..One sacred girdle (tiruppattigai), (containing) ninety-seven karanju and a half, four manjadi and nine-tenths of gold. Six hundred and sixty-seven large and small diamonds with smooth edges, set (into it), – including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed two karanju and a quarter and six-tenths (of a manjadi). Eighty-three large and small rubies, viz., twenty-two halahalam of superior quality, twenty halahalam, twenty smooth rubies, nine bluish rubies, two sattam and ten unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white specks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed ten karanju and three-quarters, three manjadi and two-tenths. Two hundred and twelve pearls, strung or sewn on, – including round pearls, roundish pearls, polished pearls, small pearls, nimbolam, ambumudu, (pearls) of brilliant water and of red water, such as had been polished while still adhering to the shall, (and pearls with) lines, stains, red dots, white specks and wrinkles, – weighed eighteen karanju and two manjadi. Altogether, (the girdle) weighed one hundred and twenty-nine karanju and seven-tenths (of a manadi), corresponding to a value of four thousand and five hundred kasu..One ring for the foot of the goddess, (containing) seventy-one karanju and a half and two manjadi of gold. Four hundred and fifty-nine diamonds, set (into it), viz., four hundred and fifty diamonds with smooth edges, and nine small square diamonds with smooth edges, including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed (one) karanju and a half, three manjadi and nine-tenths. Thirty-nine large and small rubies, viz., ten halahalam of superior quality, eight halahalam, nine smooth rubies, three bluish rubies and nine unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white speeks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed three karanju and three-quarters, three manjadi and six-tenths. Altogether, (the ring) weighed seventy-seventy-seven karanju, four manjadi and (one) kunri, corresponding to a value of a five hundred kasu. Kundavai spent the last days of her life with her nephewRajendra Iat the palace inPazhaiyarai. ..run-tiru-amudu sëd-arulavaum ăga nellu padin kalam-āga ōrādaikku nellu nūrru irubadin kalamum udaiyār sri-Rājarājadēvarkku mun pirand-arulina sri ālvār sri-Kundavai Pirāttiyār pirand-arulina avitta-tirunālāl tingal oru nāl tiru-vilā elund-arulavu. In popular culture See also References Further reading","Bana kingdom TheBanaorVanawas a dynasty based in South India, who claimed descent from kingMahabali. The dynasty takes its name from Bana, the son of Mahabali. The Banas faced opposition from several neighbouring dynasties and served some major dynasties such as theChalukyasCholasandPandyasas feudatories, sometimes after they were subjugated by them. They also served asSamantasto some dynasties. The Banas had their capital at various places at different times, includingKolarandGudimallam.The Banas were a nativeKannadaruling dynasty. History The earliest mention of the Banas in authentic historical records is in the middle of the fourth century AD, and as the feudatories of theSatavahanaand earlyPallavas. But from the actual literature history (Mysore State Gazetteer 1968), The Mahavalis or Brihadbanas who ruled the present Kolar andChikkaballapurdistricts ofKarnatakaare the descendants of King Banasura or King Bana, son of King Mahabali. King Brihadbana was the grandson of Mahabali. Last known ruling king of this generation was King Sambayya. They were in constant conflicts withNolambasand Western Gangas of the Kolar region. They had Vaidumbas as their allies. They had the present day Avani region (a village in Kolar District) as their capital. The Bana dynasty had a distinctive emblem, featuring a black flag and a bull crest. An inscription discovered in Mulbagal Taluk dating back to the year 339 AD, written in Sanskrit, begins by praising Shiva, whose throne is said to be on the mountain peak called Nandi. This peak is believed to be the present-day Nandidurga, which is considered to personify Nandi, the bull of Shiva. The inscription documents the grant of the village of Mudiyanur (also known as Chudagrama, a Sanskritized form of Mudiyanur) to 25 Brahmins by Vadhuvallabha-Malladeva-Nandivarma, the son of Vijayaditya Deva and grandson of Nandivarma, a notable figure from Mahabali's dynasty. The king, who was in the town of Avanya (Avani), is credited with bringing prosperity to the Bana dynasty and has been compared to Bodhisattva. The Banas seem to have been a strong power almost until the decline at the end of the 9th century. In the battle of Soremati about 874, Banas they, together with the Vaidumbas, are said to have defeated theGangasand theNolambas. Further, their inscriptions of 898, 905 and 909 A.D. mention no overlord. But all the same, the Banas had adversaries on all sides, and their power was continually being undermined since the close of the 9th century. They ultimately appear to have lost their independence by the first half of the 1Oth century at the latest. If theNolambaking Mahendra (c. 870-897) is described as the cunning king who has ended the Mahabali family, theCholakingViranarayana or Parantakaclaims in 921 to have uprooted by force two Bana kings and conferred the title of Banadhiraja on theGangaprince Prithvipathi II, who helped him in this task. In 961, which is the date of the latest Bana inscription in this district, we find one King Sambayya ruling a small district under the Pallava king Iriva or Dilipa. But the Banas did not disappear altogether from the political history, as is evident from the references to them in some later literary works and inscriptions. Stray Bana records have been found outside this district, particularly in the south, as late as the first quarter of the 16th century AD. The history of the Banas, who, during a period of more than a thousand years, moved from district to district, from the Andhra-desha in the north to the Pandya country in the far south where they were governors of Madurai under thePandyakings, is particularly interesting in that it illustrates the long survival of a dynasty by migrations. Boundaries The Bana kingdom was made up of various regions at different points in time and was known by the following names: In Medieval South India TheWestern Ganga dynastyking, Prithivipati II was conferred the title \"lord of the Banas\" byParantaka ICholaafter he defeated the Banas. After the Chola King, Parantaka I deprived the Banas of their Andhrapatha kingdom between 909 and 916 AD, the Banas were subsequently found ruling various parts, such as Nellore, Guntur and Anantapur, as chieftains in medieval Andhra. In Nellore An inscription discovered in Sannamur revealed the existence of a Bana dynasty that ruled the northern part of Nellore district in the 11th century AD. The Bana king at that time was named Aggaparaju (also known as Aggraparaju alias Aggappa), who claimed his descent from Mahabali and asserted lordship over Paravipura and Nandagiri. While nothing is known about his predecessors, it is believed that Aggappa may have ruled as a vassal of the Chalukya prince, Vimaladitya. In Konidena Churrabali I or Churaballiraja I of the Banas was ruling in Konidena in the 12th century AD. Churaballi II alias Churabbiraju II, served as a Mahamandaleshwara and bore a long prasasti and titles similar to that of Aggapparaju. Hence it is suggested that he was a descendant of Aggappa Raju. Churabbiraju's only record from Konidena dated 1151 AD mentions him as \"Mahamandalesvara Berbaha Churraballi Raju\". His epithets mention he belonged to Vashista gotra. He claimed lordship over Paravipura and Nandagiri and ruled in a part ofKammanadu. Other Banas Brihatphala Based on the copper plates of Jayavarman Brihat-Phalayana, it has been suggested that Brihat-Phala means the same as Brihad-Bana, where 'phala' and 'bana' both have the same meaning as 'arrowhead'.The Brihat-phalayanas ruled in regions around Masulipatnam around the 3rd century AD.Additionally, the Saka Mahakshatrapas of Ujjain claimed Brihatphala (Bahaphala) gotra and were linked with the Ikshvakus.A record of theIkshvakusof the Guntur-Krishna region mentions that a queen named Varma Bhatarika, the wife of Maharaja Ehuvula Chantamula, and daughter-in-law of Maharaja Chantamula, is said to have belonged to Bahapala (that is, Brihat-phala or Brihatphalayana) gotra and is said to have been the daughter of a Mahakshatrapa.It may therefore be surmised that Brihatphala was possibly used as a gotra name to indicate descent from Brihad-Bana. Bana kings Some Bana kings mentioned in various historical sources are: In Sangam literature An ancient Tamil poem of theSangam period, describes a scene in front of a Vanar Palace thus: Poets are leaving the palace with plenty of gifts from the King, while the arrested rulers of smaller regions of the kingdom, who have failed to pay tribute to the King and waiting for the King's pardon happen to see the poets leaving with expensive gifts which are actually things seized by the King from them. One of them, seeing the gifts, says that it is his horse that one the poet takes away, while another one points out to his elephant, similarly and so on goes the poem, capturing the might of ancient Vanars. This poem explains the wealth and power of Southern Vanars.Kalki, in hishistoric novelPonniyin Selvan, describes a scene in which the protagonist,Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, who he claims to be of Vanar descent, broods over the fall of his clan, singing this poem. Titles The Bana Chieftains held various titles in different regions and at different times, including Vanar, Vanara, Vanavarayar, Vanakovarayar, Ponparappinan, and some claimed titles such as \"Vaana-Kulothoman,\" \"Ganga-kula-uthaman,\" and \"Kaangeyar,\" among others. See also References"],"string":"[\n \"Brihadisvara Temple Brihadishvara Temple, calledRajarajesvaram(lit.'Lord ofRajaraja') by its builder, and known locally asThanjai Periya Kovil(lit.'Thanjavur Big Temple') andPeruvudaiyar Kovil, is aShaiviteHindu templebuilt in aChola architecturalstylelocated on the south bank of theCauveryriver inThanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India.It is one of thelargest Hindu templesand an exemplar ofTamil architecture.It is also calledDakshina Meru(Meruof theSouth).Built byCholaemperorRajaraja Ibetween 1003 and 1010 CE, the temple is a part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Siteknown as the \\\"Great Living Chola Temples\\\", along with the Chola-eraGangaikonda Cholapuram templeandAiravatesvara temple, which are about 70 kilometres (43 mi) and 40 kilometres (25 mi) to its northeast respectively. The original monuments of this 11th-century temple were built around a moat. It includedgopura, the main temple, its massive tower, inscriptions, frescoes, and sculptures predominantly related toShaivism, but also ofVaishnavismandShaktism. The temple was damaged in its history and some artwork is now missing. Additional mandapam and monuments were added in the centuries that followed. The temple now stands amidst fortified walls that were added after the16th century. Built using granite, thevimanatower above the shrine is one of the tallest in South India.The temple has a massive colonnadedprakara(corridor) and one of the largest Shivalingasin India.It is also famed for the quality of its sculpture, as well as being the location that commissioned the brassNataraja, Shiva as the lord of dance, in the 11th century. The complex includes shrines forNandi,Parvati,Murugan,Ganesha, Sabhapati,Dakshinamurti,Chandeshvara,Varahi, Thiyagarajar of Thiruvarur,SiddharKaruvoorarand others.The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. Nomenclature Rajaraja Chola, who commissioned the temple, called it Rajarajeshvaram (Rajarājeśvaram), literally \\\"the temple of the god of Rajaraja\\\".A later inscription in the Brihannayaki shrine calls the temple's deity Periya Udaiya Nayanar, which appears to be the source of the modern names Brihadisvara and Peruvudaiyar Kovil. Location The Peruvudaiyar Templeis located in the city ofThanjavur, about 350 kilometres (220 mi) southwest ofChennai. The city is connected daily to other major cities by the network of Indian Railways, Tamil Nadu bus services and theNational Highways67,45C,226and226 Extn.The nearest airport with regular services isTiruchirappalli International Airport(IATA: TRZ), about 55 kilometres (34 mi) away. The city and the temple though inland, are at the start of theKaveri Riverdelta, thus with access to theBay of Bengaland through it to theIndian Ocean. Along with the temples, the Tamil people completed the first major irrigation network in the 11th century for agriculture, for movement of goods and to control the water flow through the urban center. History A spectrum ofdravidiantemple styles continued to develop from the fifth to the ninth century over theChalukyaera rule as evidenced inAihole,BadamiandPattadakal, and then with thePallavaera as witnessed atMamallapuramand other monuments. Thereafter, between 850 and 1280,Cholasemerged as the dominant dynasty.The early Chola period saw a greater emphasis on securing their geopolitical boundaries and less emphasis on architecture. In the tenth century, within the Chola empire emerged features such as the multifacetedcolumnswith projecting squarecapitals. This, states George Michell, signaled the start of the new Chola style.This South Indian style is most fully realized both in scale and detail in the Brihadeshwara temple built between 1003 and 1010 by the Chola kingRajaraja I. Additions, renovations and repairs The main temple along with its gopurams is from the early 11th century. The temple also saw additions, renovations, and repairs over the next 1,000 years. The raids and wars, particularly between MuslimSultanswho controlledMaduraiandHindu kingswho controlled Thanjavur caused damage.These were repaired by Hindu dynasties that regained control. In some cases, the rulers attempted to renovate the temple with faded paintings, by ordering new murals on top of the older ones. In other cases, they sponsored the addition of shrines. The significant shrines ofKartikeya(Murugan),Parvati(Amman) andNandiare from the 16th and 17th-century Nayaka era.Similarly theDakshinamurtishrine was built later.It was well maintained byMarathasof Thanjavur. Description Architecture The Peruvudaiyar temple's plan and development utilizes theaxialandsymmetricalgeometryrules.It is classified as Perunkoil (also called Madakkoil), a big temple built on a higher platform of a natural or man-made mounds.The temple complex is a rectangle that is almost two stacked squares, covering 240.79 metres (790.0 ft) east to west, and 121.92 metres (400.0 ft) north to south. In this space are five main sections: the sanctum with the towering superstructure (sri vimana), the Nandi hall in front (Nandi-mandapam) and in between these the main community hall (mukhamandapam), the great gathering hall (mahamandapam) and the pavilion that connects the great hall with the sanctum (Antrala). The temple complex integrates a large pillared and covered veranda (prakara) in its spacious courtyard, with a perimeter of about 450 metres (1,480 ft) for circumambulation. Outside this pillared veranda there are two walls of enclosure, the outer one being defensive and added in 1777 by the French colonial forces with gun-holes with the temple serving as an arsenal. They made the outer wall high, isolating the temple complex area. On its east end is the original main gopuram or gateway that isbarrel vaulted. It is less than half the size of the main temple'svimana. Additional structures were added to the original temple after the 11th century, such as a mandapa in its northeast corner and additional gopurams (gateways) on its perimeters to allow people to enter and leave from multiple locations.Some of the shrines and structures were added during the Pandya, Nayaka, Vijayanagara and Maratha era, before the colonial era started, and these builders respected the original plans and symmetry rules. Inside the original temple courtyard, along with the main sanctum and Nandi-mandapam are two major shrines, one for Kartikeya and for Parvati. The complex has additional smaller shrines. The Peruvudaiyar temple continued the Hindu temple traditions of South India by adopting architectural and decorative elements, but its scale significantly exceeded the temples constructed before the 11th century. The Chola era architects and artisans innovated the expertise to scale up and build, particularly with heavy stone and to accomplish the 63.4 metres (208 ft) high toweringvimana. The temple faces east, and once had a water moat around it. This has been filled up. The fortified wall now runs around this moat. The two walls have ornate gateways called the gopurams. These are made from stone and display entablature. The main gateways are on the east side. The first one is called theKeralantakan tiruvasal, which means the \\\"sacred gate of the Keralantakan\\\". The word Keralantakan was the surname of king Rajaraja who built it. About a 100 metres (330 ft) ahead is the inner courtyard gopuram called theRajarajan tiruvasal. This is more decorated than theKeralantakan tiruvasal, such as with itsadhishthanamrelief work narrating scenes from thePuranasand other Hindu texts.The inner eastern gopuram leads to a vast courtyard, in which the shrines are all signed to east–west and north-west cardinal directions. The complex can be entered either on one axis through a five-storygopuramor with a second access directly to the huge main quadrangle through a smaller free-standing gopuram. The gopuram of the main entrance is 30 m high, smaller than the vimana.The main temple-related monuments and the great tower is in the middle of this courtyard.Around the main temple that is dedicated to Shiva, are smaller shrines, most of which are aligned axially. These are dedicated to his consortParvati, his sonsMuruganandGanesha, Nandi,Varahi, Karuvur deva (theguruof Rajaraja Chola), Chandeshvara and Nataraja.The Nandi mandapam has a monolithic seated bull facing the sanctum. In between them are stairs leading to a columned porch and community gathering hall, then an inner mandapa connecting to thepradakshina patha, or circumambulation path. TheNandi(bull) facing the mukh-mandapam weighs about 25 tonnes.It is made of a single stone and is about 2 m in height, 6 m in length and 2.5 m in width. The image of Nandi is a monolithic one and is one of the largest in the country. Preservation & Restoration As a world heritage monument, the temple and the premises comes under theArchaeological Survey of India(ASI) which falls under the Ministry of Culture of the Government of India, to ensure safety, preservation and restoration. The surrounding facilities have been upgraded to create an ambience worthy of the grandeur of this ancient marvel with lighting, signage and facilities for devotees and visitors. The lighting of the monument is designed to enhance the natural color of the stone along with the sculptural forms adorning all corners of the temple. The restoration has been undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India that commissionedSheila Sri PrakashIndianarchitectanddesignerto lead the design. Sanctum and the Sri-vimana The sanctum is at the center of the western square. It is surrounded by massive walls that are divided into levels by sharply cut sculptures andpilastersproviding deep bays and recesses. Each side of the sanctuary has a bay with iconography.The interior of thesanctum sanctorumhosts an image of the primary deity, Shiva, in the form of a huge stonelinga. It is called Karuvarai, a Tamil word that means \\\"womb chamber\\\". This space is calledgarbha grihain other parts of India. Only priests are allowed to enter this inner-most chamber. In theTamizhanstyle, the sanctum takes the form of a miniaturevimana. It has the inner wall together with the outer wall creating a path around the sanctum for circumambulation (pradakshina). The entrance is highly decorated. The inside chamber is the sanctum sanctorum, which houses the brihad linga. The mainVimana(Shikhara) is a massive 16 storeys tower of which 13 are tapering squares. It dominates the main quadrangle. It sits above a 30.18 metres (99.0 ft) sided square.The tower is elaboratelyarticulatedwithPilaster, piers (a raised structure), and attachedcolumnswhich are placed rhythmically covering every surface of the vimana. Deities and Natya Sastra dance mudras The temple is dedicated to Shiva in the form of a hugelinga, his abstract aniconic representation. It is 29 feet (8.7 m) high, occupying two storeys of the sanctum.It is one of the largest monolithic linga sculptures in India. The Shaivism temple celebrates all major Hindu traditions by including the primary deities of theVaishnavismandShaktismtradition in the great mandapa of the main temple. The distribution of the deities is generally symmetric, except for the east entrance side which provide for the door and walkway. In addition to the main deities, each side provides fordvarapalas (guardians), and various other sculptures. The vestibule has three stone sculptures that is intricately carved, and mural paintings.The ground floor level sanctum walls have the following sculptures: On the second floor, Shiva'sTripurantakaform in different postures is depicted corresponding to these sculptures. Above these floors, thesri-vimanatowers above in thirteen storeys (talas). Above these storeys is a single square block of granite weight 80 tons, and 7.77 metres (25.5 ft) side. On top of this block, at its corners are Nandi pairs each about 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 in) by 1.68 metres (5 ft 6 in) in dimension. Above the center of this granite block rises thegriva, thesikharaand the finial (stupi) of Tamil Hindu temple architecture. Thisstupiis 3.81 metres (12.5 ft) in height, and was originally covered with gold (no longer). Thesikharaat the top is cupola-shaped and weighs 25 tons.Each storey of this tower is decorated withkutasandsalas. The shrinking squares tower architecture of this temple differs from the tower at the Chola temple at Gangaikondasolisvaram, because this is straight in contrast to the latter which is curvilinear. The temple's sri-vimana magnitude has made it a towering landmark for the city.The upper storey corridor wall of theaditalais carved with 81 of the 108 dancekaranas – postures ofNatya Sastra. This text is the basis of theBharathanatyam, the classical dance of Tamil Nadu. The 27 unrepresentedkaranasare blank blocks of stone, and it is unclear why these were not carved. The 81 postures carved suggest the significance of this classical Indian dance form by early 11th century. The garbhagriha is square and sits on aplinth. This is moulded and 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) thick. It consists ofupapithamandadhishthanam, respectively 140 cm and 360 cm thick. Mandapa The two mandapa, namelymaha-mandapaandmukha-mandapa, are square plan structures axially aligned between the sanctum and theNandi mandapa. Themaha-mandapahas six pillars on each side.This too has artwork. The Vitankar and Rajaraja I bronze are here, but these were added much later. Themaha-mandapais flanked by two giant stone dvarapalas. It is linked to themukha-mandapaby stairs. The entrance of themukha-mandapaalso has dvarapalas. With the mandapa are eight small shrines fordikpalas, or guardian deities of each direction such asAgni,Indra,Varuna,Kuberaand others. These were installed during the rule of Chola king Rajendra I. Inscriptions indicate that this area also had other iconography from major Hindu traditions during the Chola era, but these are now missing. The original eight shrines included those forSurya(the sun god),Saptamatrikas(seven mothers), Ganesha, Murugan,Jyeshtha,Chandra(the moon god), Chandeshvara and Bhairava.Similarly, in the western wall cella was a massive granite Ganesha built during Rajaraja I era, but who is now found in thetiruch-churru-maligai(southern veranda). Of the Shaktism tradition's seven mothers, onlyVarahisurvives in a broken form. Her remnants are now found in a small modern era brick \\\"Varahi shrine\\\" in the southern side of the courtyard. The original version of the others along with their original Chola shrines are missing. Murals The temple has an underneath layer of Chola frescoes on the sanctum walls along the circumambulatory pathway. These frescoes which cover floor to ceiling, were discovered in 1931 by S. K. Govindasami of theAnnamalai University.The painters used natural pigments and infused it into the wet limestone layer as it was setting in. The Chola frescoes were largely of Shaivism themes. These were restored in the 2000s.The total Chola fresco area is about 670 square metres (7,200 sq ft), of which about 112 square metres (1,210 sq ft) had been uncovered as of 2010 in a method that preserves both paintings, a technique developed by Archaeological Survey of India.The frescoes narrate Hindu mythology.According to Balasubrahmanyam, most frescoes are related to Shiva, but the 11th century Chola frescoes also show Vishnu, Durga and others, as well as scenes of Chola royalty, courtly and common life. The later constructions, additions and modifications to the temple curtailed the amount of natural light inside the temple. The frescoes were thus photographed in a limited way and interpreted. According to Sriraman, a complete imaging with better photographic equipment suggests that these historic interpretations were incorrect.For example, a fresco that was previously interpreted as Dakshinamurti Shiva is actually a secular scene of a royalgurumeditating under a banyan tree. On the tree are shown peacocks, birds, monkeys, squirrels and owls, plus a cobra. The animals and birds are shown as worried of the cobra, the ones closer to the snake are shown to be more worried.Other parts of the panel similarly show a court listening to a saint. Other show women in different dresses in different dancemudra. Some of the paintings in the sanctum sanctorum and the walls in the passage had been damaged because of the soot that had deposited on them once upon a time. Owing to the continuous exposure to smoke and soot from the lamps and burning of camphor in the sanctum sanctorum over a period of centuries certain parts of the Chola paintings on the circumambulatory passage walls had been badly damaged.TheArchaeological Survey of India, for the first time in the world, used its unique de-stucco process to restore 16 Nayak paintings, which were superimposed on 1000-year-old Chola frescoes.These 400-year-old paintings have been mounted on fibre glass boards, displayed at a separate pavilion. Inscriptions The temple walls have numerous inscriptions in Tamil and Grantha scripts. Many of these begin with customary Sanskrit and Tamil language historical introduction to the king who authorized it, and predominant number of them discuss gifts to the temple or temple personnel, in some cases residents of the city.The temple complex has sixty four inscriptions ofRajaraja Chola I, twenty nine inscriptions ofRajendra Chola I, one each ofVikrama Chola,Kulottunga IandRajamahendra(Rajendra II), three of a probablePandyanking, two ofNayakarulers namely, Achyutappa Nayaka and Mallapa Nayaka. Temple personnel An inscription on the north wall of enclosure, dated 1011 CE, gives a detailed accounts of people employed and supported by the temple. The inscription gives their wages, roles and names. It includes over 600 names including those ofpriests, lamp lighters, washermen,tailors,jewelers,potters,carpenters, sacred parasol bearers, dance gurus,dancing girls,singers, male and femalemusicians, superintendents of performance artists, accountants among others. Their wages was in parcels of land, so their temple employment was likely part-time. The temple employeddevadasiswho were dancers and singers of devotional hymns. Among its numerous inscriptions are frequent gifts that state, \\\"to provide for worship, for food to assembly ofsannyasis(monks or ascetics) and for repairs\\\". According to George Michell, the Thanjavur temple was a major charity institution in its history. It provides free meal for pilgrims, devotees and wayfarers on a daily basis. On the days of Hindu festivals, these meals were elaborate and whenbrahminswere particularly invited and fed. Millennium commemoration Built in the year 1010 CE by Chola emperor Rajaraja I in Thanjavur, the temple is popularly known as the Big Temple. It turned 1,000 years old in September 2010. To celebrate the 1000th year of the grand structure, the state government and the town held many cultural events. It was to recall the 275th day of his 25th regal year (1010 CE) when Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) handed over a gold-platedkalasam(copper pot orfinial) for the final consecration to crown thevimana, the 59.82-metre tall tower above the sanctum. Bharathanatyam Yajna To mark the occasion, the state government organised aBharathanatyamYajna, classical dance show under noted dancerPadma Subramaniam. It was jointly organised by the Association of Bharatanatyam Artistes of India (ABHAI) and the Brhan Natyanjali Trust, Thanjavur. To mark the 1000th anniversary of the building, 1,000 dancers from New Delhi,Mumbai,Pune, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Kerala, Singapore, Malaysia and the US danced in concert to the recorded 11 verses of divine musicThiruvisaippa(ninth volume ofThirumurai) composed by Karuvur deva (the guru of Rajaraja). The small town turned into a cultural hub for two days beginning 26 September 2010 as street performers and dancers performed throughout the town. Commemorative stamps and coins On 26 September 2010 (Big Temple's fifth day of millennium celebrations), as a recognition of Big Temple's contribution to the country's cultural, architectural, epigraphical history, a special₹5 postage stamp featuring the 66 metres (216 ft) tall giantRaja Gopuramwas released byIndia Post. TheReserve Bank of Indiacommemorated the event by releasing a₹5 coin with the model of temple embossed on it.A Raja,Cabinet Minister of Communications and Information Technologyreleased the esteemed Brihadeeswarar temple special stamp, the first of which was received byG K Vasan,Cabinet Minister of Shipping. Mumbai Mintissued Rs 1,000 Commemorative Coin with the same picture as on the Rs 5 coin. It was the first 1,000 Rupees coin to be released in the Republic of India coinage. This coin was a Non Circulative Legal Tender (NCLT). On 1 April 1954, the Reserve Bank of India released a₹1,000 currency note featuring a panoramic view of the Brihadeeswar temple marking its cultural heritage and significance. In 1975, the then government led by Prime MinisterIndira Gandhidemonetisedall₹1,000 currency notes in an effort to curtailblack money. These notes are now popular among collectors. In 2010, the then Tamil Nadu chief minister,M Karunanidhirenamed SemmaiRice, a type of high productivity paddy variant, asRaja Rajan-1,000to mark the millennial year of the constructor of the temple, Rajaraja Chola. Reception The temple \\\"testifies the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting\\\".The temple finds mention in many of the contemporary works of the period likeMuvar UlaandKalingathuparani. According to Chatterjee, theDravidian architectureattained its supreme form of expression in the temple and it successor, theBrihadeeswarar Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.The temple has been declared as a heritage monument by the Government of India and administered by theArchaeological Survey of Indiaas a protected monument. The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. The temple was declared as aWorld Heritage SitebyUNESCO, along with the Brihadeeswara Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram andAiravatesvara templeatDarasuramthat are referred as theGreat Living Chola Temples.These three temples have similarities, but each has unique design and sculptural elements.All of the three temples were built by the Cholas between the 10th and 12th centuries CE and they have continued to be supported and used by Hindus. The temples are classified as \\\"Great Living\\\" as the temples are active in cultural, pilgrimage and worship practises in modern times. Cultural events The Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur is the site of annual dance festivals around February, around theMahashivratri. Major classical Indian dance form artists, as well as regional teams, perform their repertoire at this Brahan Natyanjali festival over 10 days. Car festival TheTemple carwas rolled out on its trial run from opposite toSri Ramartemple on 20 April 2015 witnessed by a large number of people.Nine days later, the maiden procession of the temple car was held. This was the first such procession in this temple held in the past hundred years, according to news reports. Novels Kalki Krishnamurthy, a renowned Tamil novelist, has written a historical novel namedPonniyin Selvan, based on the life ofRajaraja.Balakumaran, another Tamil author has written a novel namedUdaiyarthemed on the life of Rajaraja I and the construction of the temple. Administration The temple is currently administered and managed byBabaji Bhonsle, the head of theThanjavur Maratharoyal family. He serves as the hereditary trustee of the palace Devasthanam which continues to manage 88Cholatemples including the Brihadeeswara temple.Tamilgroups have been unsuccessfully petitioning theTamil Nadugovernment to revoke these rights as he is not ofCholaor Tamil lineage. According to one of the protesters, who also happens to be the coordinator of the Big Temple Rights Retrieval Committee, Babaji Bhonsle is also not the legal heir of the Maratha kings of Thanjavur. Gallery The temple features many sculptures, reliefs and murals: See also Notes References Bibliography External links\",\n \"Rajaraja I Rajaraja I(Middle Tamil:Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ;Classical Sanskrit:Rājarāja Śōḷa; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014),also known asRajaraja the Great, was aCholaemperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He is known for his conquests ofSouth Indiaand parts ofSri Lanka, and increasing Chola influence across theIndian Ocean. Rajaraja's empire encompassed vast territories, including regions of thePandya country, theChera country, and northernSri Lanka. He also extended his influence over strategic islands such asLakshadweep,Thiladhunmaduluatoll, and parts of theMaldivesin theIndian Ocean. His conquests weren't limited to the south; he also launched successful campaigns against theWestern Gangasand theWestern Chalukyas, extending Chola authority as far as theTungabhadra River. In the east, Rajaraja faced fierce opposition from theTelugu Cholaking Jata Choda Bhima over control ofVengi. This region held significant strategic importance due to its access to resources and trade routes. The conflict between the two rulers intensified as they vied for dominance in the region, resulting in significant battles and shifting allegiances. Rajaraja I also left a significant mark through his architectural and cultural achievements. He commissioned the construction of theRajarajeshwaram Templein the Chola capital ofThanjavur, which is revered as one of the most prominent examples of medieval South Indian architectural style.Additionally, during his reign, important Tamil literary works by poets such as Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were gathered and compiled into a single collection known as the Thirumurai. This earned him the title of 'Thirumurai Kanda Cholar,' meaning The One Who Found Thirumurai.He initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known asvalanadus.Rajaraja died in 1014 CE, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I. Early life Rajaraja was a son of the Chola kingParantaka II(alias Sundara) and queen Vanavan Mahadevi.According to theThiruvalangaducopper-plate inscription, his birth name was Arun Mozhi Varman, literally \\\"The Word of Sun Clan\\\".He was born around 947 CE in theAipassimonth, on the day ofSadhayamstar.TheGovernment of Tamil Nadurecognizes his birthdate as 3 November 947.He had an elder brother –Aditha II,and an elder sister –Kundavai. Rajaraja's ascension ended a period of rival claims to the throne, following the death of his great-grandfatherParantaka I. After Parantaka I, his elder sonGandaradityaascended the throne. At the time of Gandaraditya's death, his sonMadhurantakanwas a minor, so the throne passed on to Parantaka I's younger sonArinjaya. Arinjaya died soon and was succeeded by his son Parantaka II, also known as Sundara Chola. It was decided that the throne would pass on to Madhurantakan after Sundara: this decision was most probably that of Sundara himself, although theThiruvalangaduinscription of Rajaraja's sonRajendra Iclaims that it was made by Rajaraja. Aditha died under mysterious circumstances; inscriptions hint at him being assassinated. Sundara died soon after, clearing the way for Madhurantakan to be king under the title Uttama Chola. After the death of Uttama, Rajaraja finally ascended the throne in June–July 985.Known as Arumoḷi Varman until this point, he adopted theregnal nameRajaraja, which means \\\"King among Kings\\\". Military conquests When Rajaraja came into power, he inherited a kingdom that was only centered around the Thanjavur-Tiruchirappalli region, which was the heart of traditional Chola territory.However, this kingdom was not very large, and it was still recovering from attacks by the Rashtrakutas in previous years. Rajaraja changed this by transforming the kingdom into a well-organized empire with a powerful army and navy. Under his rule, the northern kingdom of Vengi became closely allied with the Cholas, and their influence expanded along the eastern coast all the way up to Kalinga in the north. In the Thanjavur inscriptions, various regiments are noted. These regiments were organized into units of elephants, cavalry, and infantry. Each of these units operated independently and had the authority to give gifts or construct temples as they saw fit. Against Kandalur Salai Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions commemorate a significant triumph at Kandalur Salai, located in present-day Kerala, around 988 CE. He is acclaimed as \\\"Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta,\\\" which translates to 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'. He is hailed as \\\"Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta,\\\" meaning 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'Originally, this area was under the control of the Ay chief, who served as a vassal to the Pandya king of Madurai. However, it remains uncertain whether warriors from the Chera or Pandya dynasties were involved in this conflict.The Thiruvalangadu inscription suggests that Rajaraja's general captured Vizhinjam (Viḷinam), which could have been part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. It appears that this engagement involved the Chola navy, or possibly a joint operation involving both the navy and the army. Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas Rajaraja's inscriptions begin to appear inKanyakumari districtin the 990s and inThiruvananthapuram districtin the early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century.The Senur inscription dated to 1005 CE, attributed to Rajaraja, records his military achievements. It mentions the destruction of the Pandya capital, Madurai, as well as the conquest of several regions. These include defeating the formidable rulers of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumals of Makotai).Certain triumphs in the region of Malainadu were possibly achieved by Prince Rajendra Chola I on behalf of his father, Rajaraja Chola. Following his victory over the Pandyas, Rajaraja assumed the title of Pandya Kulashani, which translates to 'Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas.' As a result of his conquest, the territory of the Pandyas became recognized as \\\"Rajaraja Mandalam\\\" or \\\"Rajaraja Pandinadu.\\\"When recounting Rajaraja's military expedition in Trisanku Kastha (the southern region), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I mentions the capture of a certain royal figure named Amarabhujanga.However, the specific identity of this individual—whether he was a prince of the Pandya dynasty, a general serving the Pandya king, or a prince of the Kongu Chera dynasty—remains a matter of debate and has not been conclusively resolved.According to theKongu Desa Rajakkal,a historical record of the Kongu Nadu region, it is suggested that this general eventually changed his loyalty to Rajaraja. He is said to have participated in the ritual ofkanakabhisheka,where gold is poured over the Chola king, symbolizing an act of royal anointment or coronation. Once Rajaraja had consolidated his authority in the southern regions, he took on the title of Mummudi Chola. This title, which means \\\"three Crowned,\\\" symbolized his power over three important Tamil kingdoms: the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras. Conquest of Sri Lanka During the reign of King Mahinda V, the Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura experienced a significant military revolt around the year 982 AD, primarily as a consequence of the monarch's economic policies. The armed forces of the Anuradhapura capital predominantly consisted of Tamil mercenaries recruited from coastal regions. By 882 CE, tensions escalated into a full-fledged uprising led by these mercenaries, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The ensuing turmoil compelled the vulnerable Sinhala ruler to seek refuge in the Rohana principality, thereby plunging the capital city of Anuradhapura into an extended period of civil unrest lasting approximately eleven years, marked by widespread disorder and lawlessness. The disruption of central governance exacerbated the financial strain on the kingdom, particularly in meeting the obligations to the Tamil mercenaries. Consequently, the mercenaries, feeling aggrieved and disillusioned, turned their allegiance towards the Chola empire. This strategic shift left Anuradhapura vulnerable to the incursions of the Chola forces, who exploited the internal strife to mount invasions in the year 993. These events, documented in historical sources, underscore the intricate interplay of economic policies, military dynamics, and regional power struggles during this period in the history of Anuradhapura. In 993 CE, Rajaraja achieved the conquest of Anuradhapura, known as Pihiti rata in local context, situated in Sri Lanka.This territory was subsequently designated as Ila-mandalam in Chola historical records.The military campaign led to the sacking of Anuradhapura by the Chola army, resulting in the acquisition of the northern portion of Sri Lanka by the Chola empire. As part of their administrative efforts, the Cholas established a provincial capital at the strategic military outpost of Polonnaruwa, renaming it Jananathamangalam in honor of Rajaraja's title. Under Chola administration, the official Tali Kumaran oversaw the construction of a significant Shiva temple known as Rajarajeshwara, meaning \\\"Lord of Rajaraja,\\\" within the town of Mahatirtha, now recognized as modern-day Mantota. Consequently, Mahatirtha was renamed Rajarajapura in commemoration of the Chola monarch's conquest and establishment of authority in the region. To commemorate their victory, the Chola administrator Tali Kumaran supervised the construction of a notable Shiva temple named Rajarajeshwara, signifying \\\"Lord of Rajaraja,\\\" within the precincts of Mahatirtha. Presently acknowledged as modern Mantota, this temple assumed a pivotal role as a representation of Chola hegemony and religious fervor. The transformation of Mahatirtha into Rajarajapura, in homage to the Chola sovereign, further underscores the symbolic and cultural import of the Chola conquest of Anuradhapura and their subsequent governance in the northern expanse of Sri Lanka. The Thiruvalangadu Plates directly compare Raja Raja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama: \\\"Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka using sharp-edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka.\\\" In 1017 CE, Rajaraja's successor, Rajendra I, finalized the Chola conquest of Sri Lanka.The Chola reign over Sri Lanka persisted until 1070, when Vijayabahu I successfully vanquished and expelled them from the island. Chalukyan conflict In 998 CE, Rajaraja annexed Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi (present-day Karnataka).During this campaign, Raja Chola subdued the Nolambas, who were previously vassals of the Ganga dynasty.These territories were initially under the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas, who had been defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973 CE. Consequently, the Cholas found themselves in direct conflict with the Chalukyas.An inscription ofIrivabedanga Satyashrayafrom Dharwar describes him as a vassal of the Western Chalukyas and acknowledges the Chola onslaught. An inscription attributed to Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accuses Rajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara, blurring the ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by the Dharmasastras.Historians such as James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn interpret this confrontation as indicative of personal animosity between the rulers of the Chola and Chalukya kingdoms, akin to historical conflicts between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi. By the year 1004 CE, Rajaraja had successfully conquered the Gangavadi province.He established control over the western part of Gangavadi, ruled by the Changalvas, and over Kodagu, governed by the Kongalvas, who were then made vassals of the Chola Empire.Panchavan Maraya, a Chola general, played a significant role in defeating the Changalvas in the battle of Ponnasoge and was duly rewarded with the territory of Arkalgud Yelusuvira-7000 and the esteemed title of Kshatriyasikhamani.Similarly, in recognition of the valor displayed by Manya, a Kongalva leader, the estate of Malambi (Coorg) was granted to them, along with the title of Kshatriyasikhamani. Meanwhile, the Vengi kingdom was under the rule of Jata Choda Bhima, a member of the Eastern Chalukyas Dynasty.However, Rajaraja emerged victorious in battle against Bhima, and Saktivarman was appointed as a viceroy under the Chola Dynasty.Despite a brief period of Bhima's recapture ofKanchiin 1001 CE, Rajaraja swiftly restored Saktivarman to power, even expelling and eliminating an Andhra king named Bhima.Notably, Rajaraja cemented an alliance between the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom by arranging the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to the next viceroy of Vengi, Vimaladitya. This strategic union ensured the future succession of Rajaraja's descendants to the throne of theeastern Chalukya kingdom. Hoysala conflicts There were hostile encounters between the Cholas and theHoysalas, a group who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas.An inscription from the Gopalakrishna temple atNarasipur, dated to 1006, records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killedHoysalagenerals and a minister identified as Naganna.Additionally, a similar inscription inChannapatnadescribes Rajaraja defeating theHoysalas. Kalinga conquest The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi.This conquest marked the northern boundary of the Chola Empire at that time and established their control over the entirety of South and South-East India. Conquest of Kuda-malai-nadu In multiple historical accounts, there are mentions of King Rajaraja's conquest of a place called \\\"Kuda-malai-nadu\\\" around the year 1000 CE.In certain inscriptions found in Karnataka, the term \\\"Kudagu-malai-nadu\\\" is used instead of \\\"Kuda-malai-nadu.\\\" Scholars generally believe that this region corresponds to Coorg (Kudagu). The king's conquest of Malainadu is described in the Vikrama Chola Ula, where it is said that he achieved it in just one day, crossing 18 mountain passes.According to the Kulottunga Chola Ula, King Rajaraja was depicted as beheading 18 people and burning down Udagai.Additionally, the Kalingathupparani references the establishment of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the seizure of Udagai, and the plundering of several elephants from the area.The Tiruppalanam inscription from 999 CE records the king's offering of an idol obtained as spoils from Malainadu. Naval expedition \\\"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe.\\\" One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the islands ofMaldives(\\\"the Ancient Islands of the Sea Numbering 1200\\\").The naval campaign was a demonstration of the Chola naval power in the Indian Ocean. The Cholas controlled the area aroundBay of BengalwithNagapattinamas the main port. TheChola Navyalso played a major role in the invasion ofSri Lanka.The success of Rajaraja allowed his sonRajendra Cholato lead theChola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupyingKadaram. Personal life Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi.He had at least three daughters and two sons. The older son, Rajendra, was born to Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār.The younger son was named Araiyan Rajarajan, and the identiey of his mother is unknown.He had his first daughterKundavaiwith Lokamadev who eventually marriedChalukyaprince Vimaladithan.Rajaraja had two other daughters.. Rajaraja died in 1014 CE in theTamil monthof Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I. Administration Before the reign of Rajaraja I, portions of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers.Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganization of the empire into units known as valanadus.From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign ofVikrama Cholain 1133 CE, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials.This led to the king exercising closer control over the different parts of the empire.Rajaraja strengthened the local self-governments and installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission toChina.Furthermore, his elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples. Officials Rajendra Chola Iwas appointed as a co-regent towards the end of Rajaraja's reign. He held the position of supreme commander over the northern and northwestern territories. Under Raja Chola's rule, there was a notable expansion of the administrative system, resulting in a greater number of offices and officials documented in Chola records compared to previous eras.Villavan Muvendavelan, one of the top officials of Rajaraja figures in many of his inscriptions.The names of other officials found in the inscriptions are theBanaprince Narasimhavarman, a general SenapathiKrishnan Raman, the Samanta chiefVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys. Religious policy Rajaraja was a follower ofShaivismdenomination ofHinduismbut he also dedicated several temples toVishnu. TheChudamani Vihara, aBuddhistmonastery, was constructed in the 11th century CE inNagapattinam. It was named Chudamani or Chulamani Vihara after King Sri Mara's father. The monastery was built by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman, with the support of Rajaraja I.According to the small Leyden grant, this Vihara was known as Rajaraja-perumpalli during the reign of Kulottunga I.Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara. Rajaraja called himselfShivapada Shekhara(IAST: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, \\\"the one who places his crown at the feet ofShiva\\\". Arts and architecture Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts ofThevaramin his court.He sought the help ofNambi Andar Nambi.It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct inThillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.Thebrahmanas(Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.Rajaraja thus became known asTirumurai Kanda Cholanmeaning one who saved theTirumurai. In his workNambiyandar Nambi PuranamaliasTirumurai Kanda Puranam, Nambi identifies his patron asRasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan, that isking Rajaraja, the best of the race ofAbhaya.At that time, Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.Nambi organized the hymns of three saint poets—Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar—as the first seven books. He included Manickavasagar's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, and the hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book. The Tirumandiram of Tirumular was designated as the 10th book, while 40 hymns by 12 other poets constituted the 11th book. Additionally, Nambi added Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi, the sacred anthathi of the labors of the 63 nayanar saints, along with his own hymns as the 12th book.The initial seven books were later recognized as Tevaram.With the addition of Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) as the twelfth book, the entire Saiva canon became known as Tirumurai, the holy scripture. Consequently, Saiva literature now encompasses approximately 600 years of religious, philosophical, and literary development. There are no existing contemporary portraits or statues of Rajaraja. The bronze figure purportedly depicting him at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of recent origin. Brihadisvara Temple During 1010 CE, Rajaraja built the Brihadisvara Temple inThanjavurand dedicated it to LordShiva. The temple, also known asPeriya Kovil,RajaRajeswara TempleandRajarajeswaram, and the capital were centres of both religious and economic activity.The temple, which turned 1000 years old in 2010, is one of the largest temples in India and is an example ofDravidian architectureof theChola period.Along withGangaikonda Cholapuramtemple andAiravatesvara temple, Brihadisvara is part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Siteknown as the \\\"Great Living Chola Temples\\\". The temple tower, called thevimanam, stands at a remarkable height of 216 feet (66 meters), making it the tallest in the world. At the very top sits the Kumbam, a bulbous structure, which is carved entirely from a single rock and weighs approximately 80 tons.At the entrance stands a sizable statue of Nandi, the sacred bull, carved from a single rock, measuring about 16 feet in length and 13 feet in height. The entire temple structure is crafted from granite, obtained from sources located approximately 60 kilometers to the west of the temple. This temple is widely renowned as one of the premier tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. Coins Prior to Rajaraja's reign, Chola coins featured the tiger emblem on the obverse, along with the fish and bow emblems representing the Pandya and Chera Dynasties, while the reverse side displayed the name of the King. However, a new type of coin emerged during Rajaraja's rule. These new coins showcased the figure of the standing king on the obverse side, while the reverse side depicted a seated goddess.The coins spread across much of southern India and were copied by Sri Lankan kings. Inscriptions Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone. An inscription inTamilfromMulbagalinKarnatakashows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such aMeikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows: Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses the river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves. Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished. Another inscription from the Gramardhanathesvara temple in the southern area ofArcot, dating back to the seventh year of the king, mentions the fifteenth year of his predecessor, Uttama Choladeva. Uttama Choladeva is described in the inscription as the son of Sembiyan-Madeviyar. In popular culture See also References Bibliography External links\",\n \"Kundavai Pirāttiyār Kundavai Pirattiyar, commonly known mononymously asKundavai, was aCholaIndian princess who lived in the tenth century inSouth India.She was the daughter ofParantaka IIand Vanavan Mahadevi.She was born inTirukoilurand was the elder sister of Chola emperorRajaraja I. She had title asIlaiyapirātti Kundavai Nachiyar. However, when her husbandVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevanwas crowned king in his hometownBana kingdom, she did not accept the offer to become queen of the kingdom and remained as the princess ofTanjore. Life Kundavai (also transliterated as Kundhavai or Kunthavai) was born in 945 CE. She was the only daughter of the Chola kingParantaka IIand queen Vanavan Mahadevi. She had an elder brother –Aditha Chola II, and a younger brother –Raja Raja Chola I. Kundavai marriedVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, a member of theBana dynasty, a feudatory of theCholasmentioned in theTanjoreinscriptions.He was also the commander of the Chola infantry that fought inSri Lankain the days ofRajaraja l. The territory under his authority was known as 'Vallavaraiyanadu', and occasionally 'Brahmadesam'. Along with her great-auntSembiyan Mahadevi, Kundavai brought up her nephew,Rajendra I, who was the son ofRajaraja IandThiripuvana Madeviyar, princess ofKodumbalur. Rajendra I spent most of his childhood inPazhaiyaraiwith Kundavai and Sembiyan Mahadevi. In popular culture Kundavai is celebrated as mentor toRajaraja I. Her influence continued into the next generation as she helped rearRajendra Chola. Uniquely for her era, where royal women were used to forge alliances, Kundavai's father allowed her to exercise her free will, whereupon the princess resolved to stay in the Chola kingdom all her life. Esteemed throughout the Chola realm for her taste and learning, Kundavai was requested to look after the daughters of other royal clans, tutoring them in art, music, and literature. Life and works Kundavai commissioned many temples forTirthankars,VishnuandSiva. She revered many Jain Monks and Vedantic seers .She features inCholainscriptions. ..vessels and ornaments made of gold, silver and pearl and presented to the temples of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar, Iravikulamanikka-Iswara and Kundavai Jinalaya, built by the princess Parantakan Kundavai Pirattiyar, daughter of Ponmaligaittunjiyadevar(Parantaka Sundara Chola). She is believed to have built many Jain temples but at least two Jain temples have inscriptions that records to have been built by her, one atRajarajeswaramlater known asDarasuramand the other atTirumalai.She built a hospital after her father named Vinnagar athura salai atThanjavurand donated extensive lands for its maintenance.She made lavish donations to theBrihadeeswarar TempleatThanjavurduring the reign of her younger brotherRajaraja Chola Iand her nephewRajendra Chola I. One of the inscriptions reads: Records gift of sheep for lamps to the temple of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar by princess Pirantakan-Kundavai-Pirattiyar. Also mentioned is the senapati, Mummudi-Chola Brahmamarayar who was in charge of the management of the temple Some of the images or idols set up by princess Kundavai include: Here is an excerpt from the 29th year of Rajaraja that lists some of her gifts toBrihadeeswarar Temple: Hail! Prosperity! Until the twenty-ninth year (of the reign) of Ko-Rajakesarivarman alias Sri-Rajarajadeva who..-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva and the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar..gave three thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was a quarter superior in fineness to the (gold standard called) dandavani, and one thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was one (degree) inferior in fineness to the dandavani, – altogether, five thousand karanju of gold. Hail ! Prosperity! Until the third year (of the reign) of Ko-Parakesarivarman, alias the lord Sri-Rajendra-Soradeva,-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva (and) the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar gave-..One sacred girdle (tiruppattigai), (containing) ninety-seven karanju and a half, four manjadi and nine-tenths of gold. Six hundred and sixty-seven large and small diamonds with smooth edges, set (into it), – including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed two karanju and a quarter and six-tenths (of a manjadi). Eighty-three large and small rubies, viz., twenty-two halahalam of superior quality, twenty halahalam, twenty smooth rubies, nine bluish rubies, two sattam and ten unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white specks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed ten karanju and three-quarters, three manjadi and two-tenths. Two hundred and twelve pearls, strung or sewn on, – including round pearls, roundish pearls, polished pearls, small pearls, nimbolam, ambumudu, (pearls) of brilliant water and of red water, such as had been polished while still adhering to the shall, (and pearls with) lines, stains, red dots, white specks and wrinkles, – weighed eighteen karanju and two manjadi. Altogether, (the girdle) weighed one hundred and twenty-nine karanju and seven-tenths (of a manadi), corresponding to a value of four thousand and five hundred kasu..One ring for the foot of the goddess, (containing) seventy-one karanju and a half and two manjadi of gold. Four hundred and fifty-nine diamonds, set (into it), viz., four hundred and fifty diamonds with smooth edges, and nine small square diamonds with smooth edges, including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed (one) karanju and a half, three manjadi and nine-tenths. Thirty-nine large and small rubies, viz., ten halahalam of superior quality, eight halahalam, nine smooth rubies, three bluish rubies and nine unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white speeks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed three karanju and three-quarters, three manjadi and six-tenths. Altogether, (the ring) weighed seventy-seventy-seven karanju, four manjadi and (one) kunri, corresponding to a value of a five hundred kasu. Kundavai spent the last days of her life with her nephewRajendra Iat the palace inPazhaiyarai. ..run-tiru-amudu sëd-arulavaum ăga nellu padin kalam-āga ōrādaikku nellu nūrru irubadin kalamum udaiyār sri-Rājarājadēvarkku mun pirand-arulina sri ālvār sri-Kundavai Pirāttiyār pirand-arulina avitta-tirunālāl tingal oru nāl tiru-vilā elund-arulavu. In popular culture See also References Further reading\",\n \"Bana kingdom TheBanaorVanawas a dynasty based in South India, who claimed descent from kingMahabali. The dynasty takes its name from Bana, the son of Mahabali. The Banas faced opposition from several neighbouring dynasties and served some major dynasties such as theChalukyasCholasandPandyasas feudatories, sometimes after they were subjugated by them. They also served asSamantasto some dynasties. The Banas had their capital at various places at different times, includingKolarandGudimallam.The Banas were a nativeKannadaruling dynasty. History The earliest mention of the Banas in authentic historical records is in the middle of the fourth century AD, and as the feudatories of theSatavahanaand earlyPallavas. But from the actual literature history (Mysore State Gazetteer 1968), The Mahavalis or Brihadbanas who ruled the present Kolar andChikkaballapurdistricts ofKarnatakaare the descendants of King Banasura or King Bana, son of King Mahabali. King Brihadbana was the grandson of Mahabali. Last known ruling king of this generation was King Sambayya. They were in constant conflicts withNolambasand Western Gangas of the Kolar region. They had Vaidumbas as their allies. They had the present day Avani region (a village in Kolar District) as their capital. The Bana dynasty had a distinctive emblem, featuring a black flag and a bull crest. An inscription discovered in Mulbagal Taluk dating back to the year 339 AD, written in Sanskrit, begins by praising Shiva, whose throne is said to be on the mountain peak called Nandi. This peak is believed to be the present-day Nandidurga, which is considered to personify Nandi, the bull of Shiva. The inscription documents the grant of the village of Mudiyanur (also known as Chudagrama, a Sanskritized form of Mudiyanur) to 25 Brahmins by Vadhuvallabha-Malladeva-Nandivarma, the son of Vijayaditya Deva and grandson of Nandivarma, a notable figure from Mahabali's dynasty. The king, who was in the town of Avanya (Avani), is credited with bringing prosperity to the Bana dynasty and has been compared to Bodhisattva. The Banas seem to have been a strong power almost until the decline at the end of the 9th century. In the battle of Soremati about 874, Banas they, together with the Vaidumbas, are said to have defeated theGangasand theNolambas. Further, their inscriptions of 898, 905 and 909 A.D. mention no overlord. But all the same, the Banas had adversaries on all sides, and their power was continually being undermined since the close of the 9th century. They ultimately appear to have lost their independence by the first half of the 1Oth century at the latest. If theNolambaking Mahendra (c. 870-897) is described as the cunning king who has ended the Mahabali family, theCholakingViranarayana or Parantakaclaims in 921 to have uprooted by force two Bana kings and conferred the title of Banadhiraja on theGangaprince Prithvipathi II, who helped him in this task. In 961, which is the date of the latest Bana inscription in this district, we find one King Sambayya ruling a small district under the Pallava king Iriva or Dilipa. But the Banas did not disappear altogether from the political history, as is evident from the references to them in some later literary works and inscriptions. Stray Bana records have been found outside this district, particularly in the south, as late as the first quarter of the 16th century AD. The history of the Banas, who, during a period of more than a thousand years, moved from district to district, from the Andhra-desha in the north to the Pandya country in the far south where they were governors of Madurai under thePandyakings, is particularly interesting in that it illustrates the long survival of a dynasty by migrations. Boundaries The Bana kingdom was made up of various regions at different points in time and was known by the following names: In Medieval South India TheWestern Ganga dynastyking, Prithivipati II was conferred the title \\\"lord of the Banas\\\" byParantaka ICholaafter he defeated the Banas. After the Chola King, Parantaka I deprived the Banas of their Andhrapatha kingdom between 909 and 916 AD, the Banas were subsequently found ruling various parts, such as Nellore, Guntur and Anantapur, as chieftains in medieval Andhra. In Nellore An inscription discovered in Sannamur revealed the existence of a Bana dynasty that ruled the northern part of Nellore district in the 11th century AD. The Bana king at that time was named Aggaparaju (also known as Aggraparaju alias Aggappa), who claimed his descent from Mahabali and asserted lordship over Paravipura and Nandagiri. While nothing is known about his predecessors, it is believed that Aggappa may have ruled as a vassal of the Chalukya prince, Vimaladitya. In Konidena Churrabali I or Churaballiraja I of the Banas was ruling in Konidena in the 12th century AD. Churaballi II alias Churabbiraju II, served as a Mahamandaleshwara and bore a long prasasti and titles similar to that of Aggapparaju. Hence it is suggested that he was a descendant of Aggappa Raju. Churabbiraju's only record from Konidena dated 1151 AD mentions him as \\\"Mahamandalesvara Berbaha Churraballi Raju\\\". His epithets mention he belonged to Vashista gotra. He claimed lordship over Paravipura and Nandagiri and ruled in a part ofKammanadu. Other Banas Brihatphala Based on the copper plates of Jayavarman Brihat-Phalayana, it has been suggested that Brihat-Phala means the same as Brihad-Bana, where 'phala' and 'bana' both have the same meaning as 'arrowhead'.The Brihat-phalayanas ruled in regions around Masulipatnam around the 3rd century AD.Additionally, the Saka Mahakshatrapas of Ujjain claimed Brihatphala (Bahaphala) gotra and were linked with the Ikshvakus.A record of theIkshvakusof the Guntur-Krishna region mentions that a queen named Varma Bhatarika, the wife of Maharaja Ehuvula Chantamula, and daughter-in-law of Maharaja Chantamula, is said to have belonged to Bahapala (that is, Brihat-phala or Brihatphalayana) gotra and is said to have been the daughter of a Mahakshatrapa.It may therefore be surmised that Brihatphala was possibly used as a gotra name to indicate descent from Brihad-Bana. Bana kings Some Bana kings mentioned in various historical sources are: In Sangam literature An ancient Tamil poem of theSangam period, describes a scene in front of a Vanar Palace thus: Poets are leaving the palace with plenty of gifts from the King, while the arrested rulers of smaller regions of the kingdom, who have failed to pay tribute to the King and waiting for the King's pardon happen to see the poets leaving with expensive gifts which are actually things seized by the King from them. One of them, seeing the gifts, says that it is his horse that one the poet takes away, while another one points out to his elephant, similarly and so on goes the poem, capturing the might of ancient Vanars. This poem explains the wealth and power of Southern Vanars.Kalki, in hishistoric novelPonniyin Selvan, describes a scene in which the protagonist,Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, who he claims to be of Vanar descent, broods over the fall of his clan, singing this poem. Titles The Bana Chieftains held various titles in different regions and at different times, including Vanar, Vanara, Vanavarayar, Vanakovarayar, Ponparappinan, and some claimed titles such as \\\"Vaana-Kulothoman,\\\" \\\"Ganga-kula-uthaman,\\\" and \\\"Kaangeyar,\\\" among others. See also References\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Brihadisvara Temple Brihadishvara Temple, calledRajarajesvaram(lit.'Lord ofRajaraja') by its builder, and known locally asThanjai Periya Kovil(lit.'Thanjavur Big Temple') andPeruvudaiyar Kovil, is aShaiviteHindu templebuilt in aChola architecturalstylelocated on the south bank of theCauveryriver inThanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India.It is one of thelargest Hindu templesand an exemplar ofTamil architecture.It is also calledDakshina Meru(Meruof theSouth).Built byCholaemperorRajaraja Ibetween 1003 and 1010 CE, the temple is a part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Siteknown as the \"Great Living Chola Temples\", along with the Chola-eraGangaikonda Cholapuram templeandAiravatesvara temple, which are about 70 kilometres (43 mi) and 40 kilometres (25 mi) to its northeast respectively. The original monuments of this 11th-century temple were built around a moat. It includedgopura, the main temple, its massive tower, inscriptions, frescoes, and sculptures predominantly related toShaivism, but also ofVaishnavismandShaktism. The temple","The temple was damaged in its history and some artwork is now missing. Additional mandapam and monuments were added in the centuries that followed. The temple now stands amidst fortified walls that were added after the16th century. Built using granite, thevimanatower above the shrine is one of the tallest in South India.The temple has a massive colonnadedprakara(corridor) and one of the largest Shivalingasin India.It is also famed for the quality of its sculpture, as well as being the location that commissioned the brassNataraja, Shiva as the lord of dance, in the 11th century. The complex includes shrines forNandi,Parvati,Murugan,Ganesha, Sabhapati,Dakshinamurti,Chandeshvara,Varahi, Thiyagarajar of Thiruvarur,SiddharKaruvoorarand others.The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. Nomenclature Rajaraja Chola, who commissioned the temple, called it Rajarajeshvaram (Rajarājeśvaram), literally \"the temple of the god of Rajaraja\".A later inscription in the Brihannayaki shrine calls","shrine calls the temple's deity Periya Udaiya Nayanar, which appears to be the source of the modern names Brihadisvara and Peruvudaiyar Kovil. Location The Peruvudaiyar Templeis located in the city ofThanjavur, about 350 kilometres (220 mi) southwest ofChennai. The city is connected daily to other major cities by the network of Indian Railways, Tamil Nadu bus services and theNational Highways67,45C,226and226 Extn.The nearest airport with regular services isTiruchirappalli International Airport(IATA: TRZ), about 55 kilometres (34 mi) away. The city and the temple though inland, are at the start of theKaveri Riverdelta, thus with access to theBay of Bengaland through it to theIndian Ocean. Along with the temples, the Tamil people completed the first major irrigation network in the 11th century for agriculture, for movement of goods and to control the water flow through the urban center. History A spectrum ofdravidiantemple styles continued to develop from the fifth to the ninth century over theChalukyaera rule","theChalukyaera rule as evidenced inAihole,BadamiandPattadakal, and then with thePallavaera as witnessed atMamallapuramand other monuments. Thereafter, between 850 and 1280,Cholasemerged as the dominant dynasty.The early Chola period saw a greater emphasis on securing their geopolitical boundaries and less emphasis on architecture. In the tenth century, within the Chola empire emerged features such as the multifacetedcolumnswith projecting squarecapitals. This, states George Michell, signaled the start of the new Chola style.This South Indian style is most fully realized both in scale and detail in the Brihadeshwara temple built between 1003 and 1010 by the Chola kingRajaraja I. Additions, renovations and repairs The main temple along with its gopurams is from the early 11th century. The temple also saw additions, renovations, and repairs over the next 1,000 years. The raids and wars, particularly between MuslimSultanswho controlledMaduraiandHindu kingswho controlled Thanjavur caused damage.These were","damage.These were repaired by Hindu dynasties that regained control. In some cases, the rulers attempted to renovate the temple with faded paintings, by ordering new murals on top of the older ones. In other cases, they sponsored the addition of shrines. The significant shrines ofKartikeya(Murugan),Parvati(Amman) andNandiare from the 16th and 17th-century Nayaka era.Similarly theDakshinamurtishrine was built later.It was well maintained byMarathasof Thanjavur. Description Architecture The Peruvudaiyar temple's plan and development utilizes theaxialandsymmetricalgeometryrules.It is classified as Perunkoil (also called Madakkoil), a big temple built on a higher platform of a natural or man-made mounds.The temple complex is a rectangle that is almost two stacked squares, covering 240.79 metres (790.0 ft) east to west, and 121.92 metres (400.0 ft) north to south. In this space are five main sections: the sanctum with the towering superstructure (sri vimana), the Nandi hall in front (Nandi-mandapam) and in","and in between these the main community hall (mukhamandapam), the great gathering hall (mahamandapam) and the pavilion that connects the great hall with the sanctum (Antrala). The temple complex integrates a large pillared and covered veranda (prakara) in its spacious courtyard, with a perimeter of about 450 metres (1,480 ft) for circumambulation. Outside this pillared veranda there are two walls of enclosure, the outer one being defensive and added in 1777 by the French colonial forces with gun-holes with the temple serving as an arsenal. They made the outer wall high, isolating the temple complex area. On its east end is the original main gopuram or gateway that isbarrel vaulted. It is less than half the size of the main temple'svimana. Additional structures were added to the original temple after the 11th century, such as a mandapa in its northeast corner and additional gopurams (gateways) on its perimeters to allow people to enter and leave from multiple locations.Some of the shrines and structures were","and structures were added during the Pandya, Nayaka, Vijayanagara and Maratha era, before the colonial era started, and these builders respected the original plans and symmetry rules. Inside the original temple courtyard, along with the main sanctum and Nandi-mandapam are two major shrines, one for Kartikeya and for Parvati. The complex has additional smaller shrines. The Peruvudaiyar temple continued the Hindu temple traditions of South India by adopting architectural and decorative elements, but its scale significantly exceeded the temples constructed before the 11th century. The Chola era architects and artisans innovated the expertise to scale up and build, particularly with heavy stone and to accomplish the 63.4 metres (208 ft) high toweringvimana. The temple faces east, and once had a water moat around it. This has been filled up. The fortified wall now runs around this moat. The two walls have ornate gateways called the gopurams. These are made from stone and display entablature. The main gateways are","main gateways are on the east side. The first one is called theKeralantakan tiruvasal, which means the \"sacred gate of the Keralantakan\". The word Keralantakan was the surname of king Rajaraja who built it. About a 100 metres (330 ft) ahead is the inner courtyard gopuram called theRajarajan tiruvasal. This is more decorated than theKeralantakan tiruvasal, such as with itsadhishthanamrelief work narrating scenes from thePuranasand other Hindu texts.The inner eastern gopuram leads to a vast courtyard, in which the shrines are all signed to east–west and north-west cardinal directions. The complex can be entered either on one axis through a five-storygopuramor with a second access directly to the huge main quadrangle through a smaller free-standing gopuram. The gopuram of the main entrance is 30 m high, smaller than the vimana.The main temple-related monuments and the great tower is in the middle of this courtyard.Around the main temple that is dedicated to Shiva, are smaller shrines, most of which are aligned","which are aligned axially. These are dedicated to his consortParvati, his sonsMuruganandGanesha, Nandi,Varahi, Karuvur deva (theguruof Rajaraja Chola), Chandeshvara and Nataraja.The Nandi mandapam has a monolithic seated bull facing the sanctum. In between them are stairs leading to a columned porch and community gathering hall, then an inner mandapa connecting to thepradakshina patha, or circumambulation path. TheNandi(bull) facing the mukh-mandapam weighs about 25 tonnes.It is made of a single stone and is about 2 m in height, 6 m in length and 2.5 m in width. The image of Nandi is a monolithic one and is one of the largest in the country. Preservation & Restoration As a world heritage monument, the temple and the premises comes under theArchaeological Survey of India(ASI) which falls under the Ministry of Culture of the Government of India, to ensure safety, preservation and restoration. The surrounding facilities have been upgraded to create an ambience worthy of the grandeur of this ancient marvel with","ancient marvel with lighting, signage and facilities for devotees and visitors. The lighting of the monument is designed to enhance the natural color of the stone along with the sculptural forms adorning all corners of the temple. The restoration has been undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India that commissionedSheila Sri PrakashIndianarchitectanddesignerto lead the design. Sanctum and the Sri-vimana The sanctum is at the center of the western square. It is surrounded by massive walls that are divided into levels by sharply cut sculptures andpilastersproviding deep bays and recesses. Each side of the sanctuary has a bay with iconography.The interior of thesanctum sanctorumhosts an image of the primary deity, Shiva, in the form of a huge stonelinga. It is called Karuvarai, a Tamil word that means \"womb chamber\". This space is calledgarbha grihain other parts of India. Only priests are allowed to enter this inner-most chamber. In theTamizhanstyle, the sanctum takes the form of a miniaturevimana. It","miniaturevimana. It has the inner wall together with the outer wall creating a path around the sanctum for circumambulation (pradakshina). The entrance is highly decorated. The inside chamber is the sanctum sanctorum, which houses the brihad linga. The mainVimana(Shikhara) is a massive 16 storeys tower of which 13 are tapering squares. It dominates the main quadrangle. It sits above a 30.18 metres (99.0 ft) sided square.The tower is elaboratelyarticulatedwithPilaster, piers (a raised structure), and attachedcolumnswhich are placed rhythmically covering every surface of the vimana. Deities and Natya Sastra dance mudras The temple is dedicated to Shiva in the form of a hugelinga, his abstract aniconic representation. It is 29 feet (8.7 m) high, occupying two storeys of the sanctum.It is one of the largest monolithic linga sculptures in India. The Shaivism temple celebrates all major Hindu traditions by including the primary deities of theVaishnavismandShaktismtradition in the great mandapa of the main temple.","of the main temple. The distribution of the deities is generally symmetric, except for the east entrance side which provide for the door and walkway. In addition to the main deities, each side provides fordvarapalas (guardians), and various other sculptures. The vestibule has three stone sculptures that is intricately carved, and mural paintings.The ground floor level sanctum walls have the following sculptures: On the second floor, Shiva'sTripurantakaform in different postures is depicted corresponding to these sculptures. Above these floors, thesri-vimanatowers above in thirteen storeys (talas). Above these storeys is a single square block of granite weight 80 tons, and 7.77 metres (25.5 ft) side. On top of this block, at its corners are Nandi pairs each about 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 in) by 1.68 metres (5 ft 6 in) in dimension. Above the center of this granite block rises thegriva, thesikharaand the finial (stupi) of Tamil Hindu temple architecture. Thisstupiis 3.81 metres (12.5 ft) in height, and was","in height, and was originally covered with gold (no longer). Thesikharaat the top is cupola-shaped and weighs 25 tons.Each storey of this tower is decorated withkutasandsalas. The shrinking squares tower architecture of this temple differs from the tower at the Chola temple at Gangaikondasolisvaram, because this is straight in contrast to the latter which is curvilinear. The temple's sri-vimana magnitude has made it a towering landmark for the city.The upper storey corridor wall of theaditalais carved with 81 of the 108 dancekaranas – postures ofNatya Sastra. This text is the basis of theBharathanatyam, the classical dance of Tamil Nadu. The 27 unrepresentedkaranasare blank blocks of stone, and it is unclear why these were not carved. The 81 postures carved suggest the significance of this classical Indian dance form by early 11th century. The garbhagriha is square and sits on aplinth. This is moulded and 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) thick. It consists ofupapithamandadhishthanam, respectively 140 cm and 360 cm","140 cm and 360 cm thick. Mandapa The two mandapa, namelymaha-mandapaandmukha-mandapa, are square plan structures axially aligned between the sanctum and theNandi mandapa. Themaha-mandapahas six pillars on each side.This too has artwork. The Vitankar and Rajaraja I bronze are here, but these were added much later. Themaha-mandapais flanked by two giant stone dvarapalas. It is linked to themukha-mandapaby stairs. The entrance of themukha-mandapaalso has dvarapalas. With the mandapa are eight small shrines fordikpalas, or guardian deities of each direction such asAgni,Indra,Varuna,Kuberaand others. These were installed during the rule of Chola king Rajendra I. Inscriptions indicate that this area also had other iconography from major Hindu traditions during the Chola era, but these are now missing. The original eight shrines included those forSurya(the sun god),Saptamatrikas(seven mothers), Ganesha, Murugan,Jyeshtha,Chandra(the moon god), Chandeshvara and Bhairava.Similarly, in the western wall cella was a","wall cella was a massive granite Ganesha built during Rajaraja I era, but who is now found in thetiruch-churru-maligai(southern veranda). Of the Shaktism tradition's seven mothers, onlyVarahisurvives in a broken form. Her remnants are now found in a small modern era brick \"Varahi shrine\" in the southern side of the courtyard. The original version of the others along with their original Chola shrines are missing. Murals The temple has an underneath layer of Chola frescoes on the sanctum walls along the circumambulatory pathway. These frescoes which cover floor to ceiling, were discovered in 1931 by S. K. Govindasami of theAnnamalai University.The painters used natural pigments and infused it into the wet limestone layer as it was setting in. The Chola frescoes were largely of Shaivism themes. These were restored in the 2000s.The total Chola fresco area is about 670 square metres (7,200 sq ft), of which about 112 square metres (1,210 sq ft) had been uncovered as of 2010 in a method that preserves both","that preserves both paintings, a technique developed by Archaeological Survey of India.The frescoes narrate Hindu mythology.According to Balasubrahmanyam, most frescoes are related to Shiva, but the 11th century Chola frescoes also show Vishnu, Durga and others, as well as scenes of Chola royalty, courtly and common life. The later constructions, additions and modifications to the temple curtailed the amount of natural light inside the temple. The frescoes were thus photographed in a limited way and interpreted. According to Sriraman, a complete imaging with better photographic equipment suggests that these historic interpretations were incorrect.For example, a fresco that was previously interpreted as Dakshinamurti Shiva is actually a secular scene of a royalgurumeditating under a banyan tree. On the tree are shown peacocks, birds, monkeys, squirrels and owls, plus a cobra. The animals and birds are shown as worried of the cobra, the ones closer to the snake are shown to be more worried.Other parts of the","parts of the panel similarly show a court listening to a saint. Other show women in different dresses in different dancemudra. Some of the paintings in the sanctum sanctorum and the walls in the passage had been damaged because of the soot that had deposited on them once upon a time. Owing to the continuous exposure to smoke and soot from the lamps and burning of camphor in the sanctum sanctorum over a period of centuries certain parts of the Chola paintings on the circumambulatory passage walls had been badly damaged.TheArchaeological Survey of India, for the first time in the world, used its unique de-stucco process to restore 16 Nayak paintings, which were superimposed on 1000-year-old Chola frescoes.These 400-year-old paintings have been mounted on fibre glass boards, displayed at a separate pavilion. Inscriptions The temple walls have numerous inscriptions in Tamil and Grantha scripts. Many of these begin with customary Sanskrit and Tamil language historical introduction to the king who authorized it,","who authorized it, and predominant number of them discuss gifts to the temple or temple personnel, in some cases residents of the city.The temple complex has sixty four inscriptions ofRajaraja Chola I, twenty nine inscriptions ofRajendra Chola I, one each ofVikrama Chola,Kulottunga IandRajamahendra(Rajendra II), three of a probablePandyanking, two ofNayakarulers namely, Achyutappa Nayaka and Mallapa Nayaka. Temple personnel An inscription on the north wall of enclosure, dated 1011 CE, gives a detailed accounts of people employed and supported by the temple. The inscription gives their wages, roles and names. It includes over 600 names including those ofpriests, lamp lighters, washermen,tailors,jewelers,potters,carpenters, sacred parasol bearers, dance gurus,dancing girls,singers, male and femalemusicians, superintendents of performance artists, accountants among others. Their wages was in parcels of land, so their temple employment was likely part-time. The temple employeddevadasiswho were dancers and","were dancers and singers of devotional hymns. Among its numerous inscriptions are frequent gifts that state, \"to provide for worship, for food to assembly ofsannyasis(monks or ascetics) and for repairs\". According to George Michell, the Thanjavur temple was a major charity institution in its history. It provides free meal for pilgrims, devotees and wayfarers on a daily basis. On the days of Hindu festivals, these meals were elaborate and whenbrahminswere particularly invited and fed. Millennium commemoration Built in the year 1010 CE by Chola emperor Rajaraja I in Thanjavur, the temple is popularly known as the Big Temple. It turned 1,000 years old in September 2010. To celebrate the 1000th year of the grand structure, the state government and the town held many cultural events. It was to recall the 275th day of his 25th regal year (1010 CE) when Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) handed over a gold-platedkalasam(copper pot orfinial) for the final consecration to crown thevimana, the 59.82-metre tall tower above the","tower above the sanctum. Bharathanatyam Yajna To mark the occasion, the state government organised aBharathanatyamYajna, classical dance show under noted dancerPadma Subramaniam. It was jointly organised by the Association of Bharatanatyam Artistes of India (ABHAI) and the Brhan Natyanjali Trust, Thanjavur. To mark the 1000th anniversary of the building, 1,000 dancers from New Delhi,Mumbai,Pune, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Kerala, Singapore, Malaysia and the US danced in concert to the recorded 11 verses of divine musicThiruvisaippa(ninth volume ofThirumurai) composed by Karuvur deva (the guru of Rajaraja). The small town turned into a cultural hub for two days beginning 26 September 2010 as street performers and dancers performed throughout the town. Commemorative stamps and coins On 26 September 2010 (Big Temple's fifth day of millennium celebrations), as a recognition of Big Temple's contribution to the country's cultural, architectural, epigraphical history, a special₹5 postage stamp featuring","stamp featuring the 66 metres (216 ft) tall giantRaja Gopuramwas released byIndia Post. TheReserve Bank of Indiacommemorated the event by releasing a₹5 coin with the model of temple embossed on it.A Raja,Cabinet Minister of Communications and Information Technologyreleased the esteemed Brihadeeswarar temple special stamp, the first of which was received byG K Vasan,Cabinet Minister of Shipping. Mumbai Mintissued Rs 1,000 Commemorative Coin with the same picture as on the Rs 5 coin. It was the first 1,000 Rupees coin to be released in the Republic of India coinage. This coin was a Non Circulative Legal Tender (NCLT). On 1 April 1954, the Reserve Bank of India released a₹1,000 currency note featuring a panoramic view of the Brihadeeswar temple marking its cultural heritage and significance. In 1975, the then government led by Prime MinisterIndira Gandhidemonetisedall₹1,000 currency notes in an effort to curtailblack money. These notes are now popular among collectors. In 2010, the then Tamil Nadu chief","Tamil Nadu chief minister,M Karunanidhirenamed SemmaiRice, a type of high productivity paddy variant, asRaja Rajan-1,000to mark the millennial year of the constructor of the temple, Rajaraja Chola. Reception The temple \"testifies the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting\".The temple finds mention in many of the contemporary works of the period likeMuvar UlaandKalingathuparani. According to Chatterjee, theDravidian architectureattained its supreme form of expression in the temple and it successor, theBrihadeeswarar Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.The temple has been declared as a heritage monument by the Government of India and administered by theArchaeological Survey of Indiaas a protected monument. The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. The temple was declared as aWorld Heritage SitebyUNESCO, along with the Brihadeeswara Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram andAiravatesvara templeatDarasuramthat are referred as theGreat Living","as theGreat Living Chola Temples.These three temples have similarities, but each has unique design and sculptural elements.All of the three temples were built by the Cholas between the 10th and 12th centuries CE and they have continued to be supported and used by Hindus. The temples are classified as \"Great Living\" as the temples are active in cultural, pilgrimage and worship practises in modern times. Cultural events The Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur is the site of annual dance festivals around February, around theMahashivratri. Major classical Indian dance form artists, as well as regional teams, perform their repertoire at this Brahan Natyanjali festival over 10 days. Car festival TheTemple carwas rolled out on its trial run from opposite toSri Ramartemple on 20 April 2015 witnessed by a large number of people.Nine days later, the maiden procession of the temple car was held. This was the first such procession in this temple held in the past hundred years, according to news reports. Novels Kalki","Novels Kalki Krishnamurthy, a renowned Tamil novelist, has written a historical novel namedPonniyin Selvan, based on the life ofRajaraja.Balakumaran, another Tamil author has written a novel namedUdaiyarthemed on the life of Rajaraja I and the construction of the temple. Administration The temple is currently administered and managed byBabaji Bhonsle, the head of theThanjavur Maratharoyal family. He serves as the hereditary trustee of the palace Devasthanam which continues to manage 88Cholatemples including the Brihadeeswara temple.Tamilgroups have been unsuccessfully petitioning theTamil Nadugovernment to revoke these rights as he is not ofCholaor Tamil lineage. According to one of the protesters, who also happens to be the coordinator of the Big Temple Rights Retrieval Committee, Babaji Bhonsle is also not the legal heir of the Maratha kings of Thanjavur. Gallery The temple features many sculptures, reliefs and murals: See also Notes References Bibliography External links","Rajaraja I Rajaraja I(Middle Tamil:Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ;Classical Sanskrit:Rājarāja Śōḷa; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014),also known asRajaraja the Great, was aCholaemperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He is known for his conquests ofSouth Indiaand parts ofSri Lanka, and increasing Chola influence across theIndian Ocean. Rajaraja's empire encompassed vast territories, including regions of thePandya country, theChera country, and northernSri Lanka. He also extended his influence over strategic islands such asLakshadweep,Thiladhunmaduluatoll, and parts of theMaldivesin theIndian Ocean. His conquests weren't limited to the south; he also launched successful campaigns against theWestern Gangasand theWestern Chalukyas, extending Chola authority as far as theTungabhadra River. In the east, Rajaraja faced fierce opposition from theTelugu Cholaking Jata Choda Bhima over control ofVengi. This region held significant strategic importance due to its access to resources and trade routes. The conflict between the","between the two rulers intensified as they vied for dominance in the region, resulting in significant battles and shifting allegiances. Rajaraja I also left a significant mark through his architectural and cultural achievements. He commissioned the construction of theRajarajeshwaram Templein the Chola capital ofThanjavur, which is revered as one of the most prominent examples of medieval South Indian architectural style.Additionally, during his reign, important Tamil literary works by poets such as Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were gathered and compiled into a single collection known as the Thirumurai. This earned him the title of 'Thirumurai Kanda Cholar,' meaning The One Who Found Thirumurai.He initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known asvalanadus.Rajaraja died in 1014 CE, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I. Early life Rajaraja was a son of the Chola kingParantaka II(alias Sundara) and queen Vanavan","and queen Vanavan Mahadevi.According to theThiruvalangaducopper-plate inscription, his birth name was Arun Mozhi Varman, literally \"The Word of Sun Clan\".He was born around 947 CE in theAipassimonth, on the day ofSadhayamstar.TheGovernment of Tamil Nadurecognizes his birthdate as 3 November 947.He had an elder brother –Aditha II,and an elder sister –Kundavai. Rajaraja's ascension ended a period of rival claims to the throne, following the death of his great-grandfatherParantaka I. After Parantaka I, his elder sonGandaradityaascended the throne. At the time of Gandaraditya's death, his sonMadhurantakanwas a minor, so the throne passed on to Parantaka I's younger sonArinjaya. Arinjaya died soon and was succeeded by his son Parantaka II, also known as Sundara Chola. It was decided that the throne would pass on to Madhurantakan after Sundara: this decision was most probably that of Sundara himself, although theThiruvalangaduinscription of Rajaraja's sonRajendra Iclaims that it was made by Rajaraja. Aditha died","Aditha died under mysterious circumstances; inscriptions hint at him being assassinated. Sundara died soon after, clearing the way for Madhurantakan to be king under the title Uttama Chola. After the death of Uttama, Rajaraja finally ascended the throne in June–July 985.Known as Arumoḷi Varman until this point, he adopted theregnal nameRajaraja, which means \"King among Kings\". Military conquests When Rajaraja came into power, he inherited a kingdom that was only centered around the Thanjavur-Tiruchirappalli region, which was the heart of traditional Chola territory.However, this kingdom was not very large, and it was still recovering from attacks by the Rashtrakutas in previous years. Rajaraja changed this by transforming the kingdom into a well-organized empire with a powerful army and navy. Under his rule, the northern kingdom of Vengi became closely allied with the Cholas, and their influence expanded along the eastern coast all the way up to Kalinga in the north. In the Thanjavur inscriptions, various","various regiments are noted. These regiments were organized into units of elephants, cavalry, and infantry. Each of these units operated independently and had the authority to give gifts or construct temples as they saw fit. Against Kandalur Salai Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions commemorate a significant triumph at Kandalur Salai, located in present-day Kerala, around 988 CE. He is acclaimed as \"Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta,\" which translates to 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'. He is hailed as \"Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta,\" meaning 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'Originally, this area was under the control of the Ay chief, who served as a vassal to the Pandya king of Madurai. However, it remains uncertain whether warriors from the Chera or Pandya dynasties were involved in this conflict.The Thiruvalangadu inscription suggests that Rajaraja's general captured Vizhinjam (Viḷinam), which could have been part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. It appears that this engagement involved the Chola navy,","the Chola navy, or possibly a joint operation involving both the navy and the army. Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas Rajaraja's inscriptions begin to appear inKanyakumari districtin the 990s and inThiruvananthapuram districtin the early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century.The Senur inscription dated to 1005 CE, attributed to Rajaraja, records his military achievements. It mentions the destruction of the Pandya capital, Madurai, as well as the conquest of several regions. These include defeating the formidable rulers of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumals of Makotai).Certain triumphs in the region of Malainadu were possibly achieved by Prince Rajendra Chola I on behalf of his father, Rajaraja Chola. Following his victory over the Pandyas, Rajaraja assumed the title of Pandya Kulashani, which translates to 'Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas.' As a result of his conquest, the territory of the Pandyas became","the Pandyas became recognized as \"Rajaraja Mandalam\" or \"Rajaraja Pandinadu.\"When recounting Rajaraja's military expedition in Trisanku Kastha (the southern region), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I mentions the capture of a certain royal figure named Amarabhujanga.However, the specific identity of this individual—whether he was a prince of the Pandya dynasty, a general serving the Pandya king, or a prince of the Kongu Chera dynasty—remains a matter of debate and has not been conclusively resolved.According to theKongu Desa Rajakkal,a historical record of the Kongu Nadu region, it is suggested that this general eventually changed his loyalty to Rajaraja. He is said to have participated in the ritual ofkanakabhisheka,where gold is poured over the Chola king, symbolizing an act of royal anointment or coronation. Once Rajaraja had consolidated his authority in the southern regions, he took on the title of Mummudi Chola. This title, which means \"three Crowned,\" symbolized his power over three important","three important Tamil kingdoms: the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras. Conquest of Sri Lanka During the reign of King Mahinda V, the Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura experienced a significant military revolt around the year 982 AD, primarily as a consequence of the monarch's economic policies. The armed forces of the Anuradhapura capital predominantly consisted of Tamil mercenaries recruited from coastal regions. By 882 CE, tensions escalated into a full-fledged uprising led by these mercenaries, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The ensuing turmoil compelled the vulnerable Sinhala ruler to seek refuge in the Rohana principality, thereby plunging the capital city of Anuradhapura into an extended period of civil unrest lasting approximately eleven years, marked by widespread disorder and lawlessness. The disruption of central governance exacerbated the financial strain on the kingdom, particularly in meeting the obligations to the Tamil mercenaries. Consequently, the mercenaries, feeling aggrieved","feeling aggrieved and disillusioned, turned their allegiance towards the Chola empire. This strategic shift left Anuradhapura vulnerable to the incursions of the Chola forces, who exploited the internal strife to mount invasions in the year 993. These events, documented in historical sources, underscore the intricate interplay of economic policies, military dynamics, and regional power struggles during this period in the history of Anuradhapura. In 993 CE, Rajaraja achieved the conquest of Anuradhapura, known as Pihiti rata in local context, situated in Sri Lanka.This territory was subsequently designated as Ila-mandalam in Chola historical records.The military campaign led to the sacking of Anuradhapura by the Chola army, resulting in the acquisition of the northern portion of Sri Lanka by the Chola empire. As part of their administrative efforts, the Cholas established a provincial capital at the strategic military outpost of Polonnaruwa, renaming it Jananathamangalam in honor of Rajaraja's title. Under","title. Under Chola administration, the official Tali Kumaran oversaw the construction of a significant Shiva temple known as Rajarajeshwara, meaning \"Lord of Rajaraja,\" within the town of Mahatirtha, now recognized as modern-day Mantota. Consequently, Mahatirtha was renamed Rajarajapura in commemoration of the Chola monarch's conquest and establishment of authority in the region. To commemorate their victory, the Chola administrator Tali Kumaran supervised the construction of a notable Shiva temple named Rajarajeshwara, signifying \"Lord of Rajaraja,\" within the precincts of Mahatirtha. Presently acknowledged as modern Mantota, this temple assumed a pivotal role as a representation of Chola hegemony and religious fervor. The transformation of Mahatirtha into Rajarajapura, in homage to the Chola sovereign, further underscores the symbolic and cultural import of the Chola conquest of Anuradhapura and their subsequent governance in the northern expanse of Sri Lanka. The Thiruvalangadu Plates directly compare","directly compare Raja Raja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama: \"Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka using sharp-edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka.\" In 1017 CE, Rajaraja's successor, Rajendra I, finalized the Chola conquest of Sri Lanka.The Chola reign over Sri Lanka persisted until 1070, when Vijayabahu I successfully vanquished and expelled them from the island. Chalukyan conflict In 998 CE, Rajaraja annexed Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi (present-day Karnataka).During this campaign, Raja Chola subdued the Nolambas, who were previously vassals of the Ganga dynasty.These territories were initially under the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas, who had been defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973 CE. Consequently, the Cholas found themselves in direct conflict with the Chalukyas.An inscription","inscription ofIrivabedanga Satyashrayafrom Dharwar describes him as a vassal of the Western Chalukyas and acknowledges the Chola onslaught. An inscription attributed to Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accuses Rajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara, blurring the ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by the Dharmasastras.Historians such as James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn interpret this confrontation as indicative of personal animosity between the rulers of the Chola and Chalukya kingdoms, akin to historical conflicts between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi. By the year 1004 CE, Rajaraja had successfully conquered the Gangavadi province.He established control over the western part of Gangavadi, ruled by the Changalvas, and over Kodagu, governed by the Kongalvas, who were then made vassals of the Chola Empire.Panchavan Maraya, a Chola","Maraya, a Chola general, played a significant role in defeating the Changalvas in the battle of Ponnasoge and was duly rewarded with the territory of Arkalgud Yelusuvira-7000 and the esteemed title of Kshatriyasikhamani.Similarly, in recognition of the valor displayed by Manya, a Kongalva leader, the estate of Malambi (Coorg) was granted to them, along with the title of Kshatriyasikhamani. Meanwhile, the Vengi kingdom was under the rule of Jata Choda Bhima, a member of the Eastern Chalukyas Dynasty.However, Rajaraja emerged victorious in battle against Bhima, and Saktivarman was appointed as a viceroy under the Chola Dynasty.Despite a brief period of Bhima's recapture ofKanchiin 1001 CE, Rajaraja swiftly restored Saktivarman to power, even expelling and eliminating an Andhra king named Bhima.Notably, Rajaraja cemented an alliance between the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom by arranging the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to the next viceroy of Vengi, Vimaladitya. This strategic union","strategic union ensured the future succession of Rajaraja's descendants to the throne of theeastern Chalukya kingdom. Hoysala conflicts There were hostile encounters between the Cholas and theHoysalas, a group who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas.An inscription from the Gopalakrishna temple atNarasipur, dated to 1006, records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killedHoysalagenerals and a minister identified as Naganna.Additionally, a similar inscription inChannapatnadescribes Rajaraja defeating theHoysalas. Kalinga conquest The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi.This conquest marked the northern boundary of the Chola Empire at that time and established their control over the entirety of South and South-East India. Conquest of Kuda-malai-nadu In multiple historical accounts, there are mentions of King Rajaraja's conquest of a place called \"Kuda-malai-nadu\" around the year 1000 CE.In certain inscriptions found in Karnataka, the term \"Kudagu-malai-nadu\" is used instead of","is used instead of \"Kuda-malai-nadu.\" Scholars generally believe that this region corresponds to Coorg (Kudagu). The king's conquest of Malainadu is described in the Vikrama Chola Ula, where it is said that he achieved it in just one day, crossing 18 mountain passes.According to the Kulottunga Chola Ula, King Rajaraja was depicted as beheading 18 people and burning down Udagai.Additionally, the Kalingathupparani references the establishment of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the seizure of Udagai, and the plundering of several elephants from the area.The Tiruppalanam inscription from 999 CE records the king's offering of an idol obtained as spoils from Malainadu. Naval expedition \"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China,","Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe.\" One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the islands ofMaldives(\"the Ancient Islands of the Sea Numbering 1200\").The naval campaign was a demonstration of the Chola naval power in the Indian Ocean. The Cholas controlled the area aroundBay of BengalwithNagapattinamas the main port. TheChola Navyalso played a major role in the invasion ofSri Lanka.The success of Rajaraja allowed his sonRajendra Cholato lead theChola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupyingKadaram. Personal life Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi.He had at least three daughters and two sons. The older son, Rajendra, was born to Thiripuvāna","born to Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār.The younger son was named Araiyan Rajarajan, and the identiey of his mother is unknown.He had his first daughterKundavaiwith Lokamadev who eventually marriedChalukyaprince Vimaladithan.Rajaraja had two other daughters.. Rajaraja died in 1014 CE in theTamil monthof Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I. Administration Before the reign of Rajaraja I, portions of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers.Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganization of the empire into units known as valanadus.From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign ofVikrama Cholain 1133 CE, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials.This led to the king exercising closer control over the different parts of the empire.Rajaraja strengthened the local self-governments and installed a system of audit and control by which the","by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission toChina.Furthermore, his elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples. Officials Rajendra Chola Iwas appointed as a co-regent towards the end of Rajaraja's reign. He held the position of supreme commander over the northern and northwestern territories. Under Raja Chola's rule, there was a notable expansion of the administrative system, resulting in a greater number of offices and officials documented in Chola records compared to previous eras.Villavan Muvendavelan, one of the top officials of Rajaraja figures in many of his inscriptions.The names of other officials found in the inscriptions are theBanaprince Narasimhavarman, a general SenapathiKrishnan Raman, the Samanta chiefVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys.","land surveys. Religious policy Rajaraja was a follower ofShaivismdenomination ofHinduismbut he also dedicated several temples toVishnu. TheChudamani Vihara, aBuddhistmonastery, was constructed in the 11th century CE inNagapattinam. It was named Chudamani or Chulamani Vihara after King Sri Mara's father. The monastery was built by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman, with the support of Rajaraja I.According to the small Leyden grant, this Vihara was known as Rajaraja-perumpalli during the reign of Kulottunga I.Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara. Rajaraja called himselfShivapada Shekhara(IAST: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, \"the one who places his crown at the feet ofShiva\". Arts and architecture Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts ofThevaramin his court.He sought the help ofNambi Andar Nambi.It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of","the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct inThillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.Thebrahmanas(Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.Rajaraja thus became known asTirumurai Kanda Cholanmeaning one who saved theTirumurai. In his workNambiyandar Nambi PuranamaliasTirumurai Kanda Puranam, Nambi identifies his patron asRasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan, that isking Rajaraja, the best of the race ofAbhaya.At that time, Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.Nambi organized the hymns of three saint poets—Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar—as the first seven books. He included Manickavasagar's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, and the hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book. The Tirumandiram of Tirumular was","of Tirumular was designated as the 10th book, while 40 hymns by 12 other poets constituted the 11th book. Additionally, Nambi added Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi, the sacred anthathi of the labors of the 63 nayanar saints, along with his own hymns as the 12th book.The initial seven books were later recognized as Tevaram.With the addition of Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) as the twelfth book, the entire Saiva canon became known as Tirumurai, the holy scripture. Consequently, Saiva literature now encompasses approximately 600 years of religious, philosophical, and literary development. There are no existing contemporary portraits or statues of Rajaraja. The bronze figure purportedly depicting him at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of recent origin. Brihadisvara Temple During 1010 CE, Rajaraja built the Brihadisvara Temple inThanjavurand dedicated it to LordShiva. The temple, also known asPeriya Kovil,RajaRajeswara TempleandRajarajeswaram, and the capital were centres of both religious and economic","and economic activity.The temple, which turned 1000 years old in 2010, is one of the largest temples in India and is an example ofDravidian architectureof theChola period.Along withGangaikonda Cholapuramtemple andAiravatesvara temple, Brihadisvara is part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Siteknown as the \"Great Living Chola Temples\". The temple tower, called thevimanam, stands at a remarkable height of 216 feet (66 meters), making it the tallest in the world. At the very top sits the Kumbam, a bulbous structure, which is carved entirely from a single rock and weighs approximately 80 tons.At the entrance stands a sizable statue of Nandi, the sacred bull, carved from a single rock, measuring about 16 feet in length and 13 feet in height. The entire temple structure is crafted from granite, obtained from sources located approximately 60 kilometers to the west of the temple. This temple is widely renowned as one of the premier tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. Coins Prior to Rajaraja's reign, Chola coins featured the","coins featured the tiger emblem on the obverse, along with the fish and bow emblems representing the Pandya and Chera Dynasties, while the reverse side displayed the name of the King. However, a new type of coin emerged during Rajaraja's rule. These new coins showcased the figure of the standing king on the obverse side, while the reverse side depicted a seated goddess.The coins spread across much of southern India and were copied by Sri Lankan kings. Inscriptions Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone. An inscription inTamilfromMulbagalinKarnatakashows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such aMeikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows: Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property,","exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses the river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves. Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were","The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished. Another inscription from the Gramardhanathesvara temple in the southern area ofArcot, dating back to the seventh year of the king, mentions the fifteenth year of his predecessor, Uttama Choladeva. Uttama Choladeva is described in the inscription as the son of Sembiyan-Madeviyar. In popular culture See also References Bibliography External links","Kundavai Pirāttiyār Kundavai Pirattiyar, commonly known mononymously asKundavai, was aCholaIndian princess who lived in the tenth century inSouth India.She was the daughter ofParantaka IIand Vanavan Mahadevi.She was born inTirukoilurand was the elder sister of Chola emperorRajaraja I. She had title asIlaiyapirātti Kundavai Nachiyar. However, when her husbandVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevanwas crowned king in his hometownBana kingdom, she did not accept the offer to become queen of the kingdom and remained as the princess ofTanjore. Life Kundavai (also transliterated as Kundhavai or Kunthavai) was born in 945 CE. She was the only daughter of the Chola kingParantaka IIand queen Vanavan Mahadevi. She had an elder brother –Aditha Chola II, and a younger brother –Raja Raja Chola I. Kundavai marriedVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, a member of theBana dynasty, a feudatory of theCholasmentioned in theTanjoreinscriptions.He was also the commander of the Chola infantry that fought inSri Lankain the days ofRajaraja l. The","ofRajaraja l. The territory under his authority was known as 'Vallavaraiyanadu', and occasionally 'Brahmadesam'. Along with her great-auntSembiyan Mahadevi, Kundavai brought up her nephew,Rajendra I, who was the son ofRajaraja IandThiripuvana Madeviyar, princess ofKodumbalur. Rajendra I spent most of his childhood inPazhaiyaraiwith Kundavai and Sembiyan Mahadevi. In popular culture Kundavai is celebrated as mentor toRajaraja I. Her influence continued into the next generation as she helped rearRajendra Chola. Uniquely for her era, where royal women were used to forge alliances, Kundavai's father allowed her to exercise her free will, whereupon the princess resolved to stay in the Chola kingdom all her life. Esteemed throughout the Chola realm for her taste and learning, Kundavai was requested to look after the daughters of other royal clans, tutoring them in art, music, and literature. Life and works Kundavai commissioned many temples forTirthankars,VishnuandSiva. She revered many Jain Monks and Vedantic","Monks and Vedantic seers .She features inCholainscriptions. ..vessels and ornaments made of gold, silver and pearl and presented to the temples of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar, Iravikulamanikka-Iswara and Kundavai Jinalaya, built by the princess Parantakan Kundavai Pirattiyar, daughter of Ponmaligaittunjiyadevar(Parantaka Sundara Chola). She is believed to have built many Jain temples but at least two Jain temples have inscriptions that records to have been built by her, one atRajarajeswaramlater known asDarasuramand the other atTirumalai.She built a hospital after her father named Vinnagar athura salai atThanjavurand donated extensive lands for its maintenance.She made lavish donations to theBrihadeeswarar TempleatThanjavurduring the reign of her younger brotherRajaraja Chola Iand her nephewRajendra Chola I. One of the inscriptions reads: Records gift of sheep for lamps to the temple of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar by princess Pirantakan-Kundavai-Pirattiyar. Also mentioned is the senapati, Mummudi-Chola Brahmamarayar","Brahmamarayar who was in charge of the management of the temple Some of the images or idols set up by princess Kundavai include: Here is an excerpt from the 29th year of Rajaraja that lists some of her gifts toBrihadeeswarar Temple: Hail! Prosperity! Until the twenty-ninth year (of the reign) of Ko-Rajakesarivarman alias Sri-Rajarajadeva who..-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva and the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar..gave three thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was a quarter superior in fineness to the (gold standard called) dandavani, and one thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was one (degree) inferior in fineness to the dandavani, – altogether, five thousand karanju of gold. Hail ! Prosperity! Until the third year (of the reign) of Ko-Parakesarivarman, alias the lord Sri-Rajendra-Soradeva,-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva (and) the great queen of","the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar gave-..One sacred girdle (tiruppattigai), (containing) ninety-seven karanju and a half, four manjadi and nine-tenths of gold. Six hundred and sixty-seven large and small diamonds with smooth edges, set (into it), – including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed two karanju and a quarter and six-tenths (of a manjadi). Eighty-three large and small rubies, viz., twenty-two halahalam of superior quality, twenty halahalam, twenty smooth rubies, nine bluish rubies, two sattam and ten unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white specks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed ten karanju and three-quarters, three manjadi and two-tenths. Two hundred and twelve pearls, strung or sewn on, – including round pearls, roundish pearls, polished pearls, small pearls, nimbolam, ambumudu, (pearls) of brilliant water and of red water, such as had been polished while still adhering to the shall,","to the shall, (and pearls with) lines, stains, red dots, white specks and wrinkles, – weighed eighteen karanju and two manjadi. Altogether, (the girdle) weighed one hundred and twenty-nine karanju and seven-tenths (of a manadi), corresponding to a value of four thousand and five hundred kasu..One ring for the foot of the goddess, (containing) seventy-one karanju and a half and two manjadi of gold. Four hundred and fifty-nine diamonds, set (into it), viz., four hundred and fifty diamonds with smooth edges, and nine small square diamonds with smooth edges, including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed (one) karanju and a half, three manjadi and nine-tenths. Thirty-nine large and small rubies, viz., ten halahalam of superior quality, eight halahalam, nine smooth rubies, three bluish rubies and nine unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white speeks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed three karanju and three-quarters,","and three-quarters, three manjadi and six-tenths. Altogether, (the ring) weighed seventy-seventy-seven karanju, four manjadi and (one) kunri, corresponding to a value of a five hundred kasu. Kundavai spent the last days of her life with her nephewRajendra Iat the palace inPazhaiyarai. ..run-tiru-amudu sëd-arulavaum ăga nellu padin kalam-āga ōrādaikku nellu nūrru irubadin kalamum udaiyār sri-Rājarājadēvarkku mun pirand-arulina sri ālvār sri-Kundavai Pirāttiyār pirand-arulina avitta-tirunālāl tingal oru nāl tiru-vilā elund-arulavu. In popular culture See also References Further reading","Bana kingdom TheBanaorVanawas a dynasty based in South India, who claimed descent from kingMahabali. The dynasty takes its name from Bana, the son of Mahabali. The Banas faced opposition from several neighbouring dynasties and served some major dynasties such as theChalukyasCholasandPandyasas feudatories, sometimes after they were subjugated by them. They also served asSamantasto some dynasties. The Banas had their capital at various places at different times, includingKolarandGudimallam.The Banas were a nativeKannadaruling dynasty. History The earliest mention of the Banas in authentic historical records is in the middle of the fourth century AD, and as the feudatories of theSatavahanaand earlyPallavas. But from the actual literature history (Mysore State Gazetteer 1968), The Mahavalis or Brihadbanas who ruled the present Kolar andChikkaballapurdistricts ofKarnatakaare the descendants of King Banasura or King Bana, son of King Mahabali. King Brihadbana was the grandson of Mahabali. Last known ruling king of","ruling king of this generation was King Sambayya. They were in constant conflicts withNolambasand Western Gangas of the Kolar region. They had Vaidumbas as their allies. They had the present day Avani region (a village in Kolar District) as their capital. The Bana dynasty had a distinctive emblem, featuring a black flag and a bull crest. An inscription discovered in Mulbagal Taluk dating back to the year 339 AD, written in Sanskrit, begins by praising Shiva, whose throne is said to be on the mountain peak called Nandi. This peak is believed to be the present-day Nandidurga, which is considered to personify Nandi, the bull of Shiva. The inscription documents the grant of the village of Mudiyanur (also known as Chudagrama, a Sanskritized form of Mudiyanur) to 25 Brahmins by Vadhuvallabha-Malladeva-Nandivarma, the son of Vijayaditya Deva and grandson of Nandivarma, a notable figure from Mahabali's dynasty. The king, who was in the town of Avanya (Avani), is credited with bringing prosperity to the Bana dynasty","to the Bana dynasty and has been compared to Bodhisattva. The Banas seem to have been a strong power almost until the decline at the end of the 9th century. In the battle of Soremati about 874, Banas they, together with the Vaidumbas, are said to have defeated theGangasand theNolambas. Further, their inscriptions of 898, 905 and 909 A.D. mention no overlord. But all the same, the Banas had adversaries on all sides, and their power was continually being undermined since the close of the 9th century. They ultimately appear to have lost their independence by the first half of the 1Oth century at the latest. If theNolambaking Mahendra (c. 870-897) is described as the cunning king who has ended the Mahabali family, theCholakingViranarayana or Parantakaclaims in 921 to have uprooted by force two Bana kings and conferred the title of Banadhiraja on theGangaprince Prithvipathi II, who helped him in this task. In 961, which is the date of the latest Bana inscription in this district, we find one King Sambayya ruling","Sambayya ruling a small district under the Pallava king Iriva or Dilipa. But the Banas did not disappear altogether from the political history, as is evident from the references to them in some later literary works and inscriptions. Stray Bana records have been found outside this district, particularly in the south, as late as the first quarter of the 16th century AD. The history of the Banas, who, during a period of more than a thousand years, moved from district to district, from the Andhra-desha in the north to the Pandya country in the far south where they were governors of Madurai under thePandyakings, is particularly interesting in that it illustrates the long survival of a dynasty by migrations. Boundaries The Bana kingdom was made up of various regions at different points in time and was known by the following names: In Medieval South India TheWestern Ganga dynastyking, Prithivipati II was conferred the title \"lord of the Banas\" byParantaka ICholaafter he defeated the Banas. After the Chola King,","the Chola King, Parantaka I deprived the Banas of their Andhrapatha kingdom between 909 and 916 AD, the Banas were subsequently found ruling various parts, such as Nellore, Guntur and Anantapur, as chieftains in medieval Andhra. In Nellore An inscription discovered in Sannamur revealed the existence of a Bana dynasty that ruled the northern part of Nellore district in the 11th century AD. The Bana king at that time was named Aggaparaju (also known as Aggraparaju alias Aggappa), who claimed his descent from Mahabali and asserted lordship over Paravipura and Nandagiri. While nothing is known about his predecessors, it is believed that Aggappa may have ruled as a vassal of the Chalukya prince, Vimaladitya. In Konidena Churrabali I or Churaballiraja I of the Banas was ruling in Konidena in the 12th century AD. Churaballi II alias Churabbiraju II, served as a Mahamandaleshwara and bore a long prasasti and titles similar to that of Aggapparaju. Hence it is suggested that he was a descendant of Aggappa Raju.","of Aggappa Raju. Churabbiraju's only record from Konidena dated 1151 AD mentions him as \"Mahamandalesvara Berbaha Churraballi Raju\". His epithets mention he belonged to Vashista gotra. He claimed lordship over Paravipura and Nandagiri and ruled in a part ofKammanadu. Other Banas Brihatphala Based on the copper plates of Jayavarman Brihat-Phalayana, it has been suggested that Brihat-Phala means the same as Brihad-Bana, where 'phala' and 'bana' both have the same meaning as 'arrowhead'.The Brihat-phalayanas ruled in regions around Masulipatnam around the 3rd century AD.Additionally, the Saka Mahakshatrapas of Ujjain claimed Brihatphala (Bahaphala) gotra and were linked with the Ikshvakus.A record of theIkshvakusof the Guntur-Krishna region mentions that a queen named Varma Bhatarika, the wife of Maharaja Ehuvula Chantamula, and daughter-in-law of Maharaja Chantamula, is said to have belonged to Bahapala (that is, Brihat-phala or Brihatphalayana) gotra and is said to have been the daughter of a","the daughter of a Mahakshatrapa.It may therefore be surmised that Brihatphala was possibly used as a gotra name to indicate descent from Brihad-Bana. Bana kings Some Bana kings mentioned in various historical sources are: In Sangam literature An ancient Tamil poem of theSangam period, describes a scene in front of a Vanar Palace thus: Poets are leaving the palace with plenty of gifts from the King, while the arrested rulers of smaller regions of the kingdom, who have failed to pay tribute to the King and waiting for the King's pardon happen to see the poets leaving with expensive gifts which are actually things seized by the King from them. One of them, seeing the gifts, says that it is his horse that one the poet takes away, while another one points out to his elephant, similarly and so on goes the poem, capturing the might of ancient Vanars. This poem explains the wealth and power of Southern Vanars.Kalki, in hishistoric novelPonniyin Selvan, describes a scene in which the protagonist,Vallavaraiyan","Vandiyadevan, who he claims to be of Vanar descent, broods over the fall of his clan, singing this poem. Titles The Bana Chieftains held various titles in different regions and at different times, including Vanar, Vanara, Vanavarayar, Vanakovarayar, Ponparappinan, and some claimed titles such as \"Vaana-Kulothoman,\" \"Ganga-kula-uthaman,\" and \"Kaangeyar,\" among others. See also References"],"string":"[\n \"Brihadisvara Temple Brihadishvara Temple, calledRajarajesvaram(lit.'Lord ofRajaraja') by its builder, and known locally asThanjai Periya Kovil(lit.'Thanjavur Big Temple') andPeruvudaiyar Kovil, is aShaiviteHindu templebuilt in aChola architecturalstylelocated on the south bank of theCauveryriver inThanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India.It is one of thelargest Hindu templesand an exemplar ofTamil architecture.It is also calledDakshina Meru(Meruof theSouth).Built byCholaemperorRajaraja Ibetween 1003 and 1010 CE, the temple is a part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Siteknown as the \\\"Great Living Chola Temples\\\", along with the Chola-eraGangaikonda Cholapuram templeandAiravatesvara temple, which are about 70 kilometres (43 mi) and 40 kilometres (25 mi) to its northeast respectively. The original monuments of this 11th-century temple were built around a moat. It includedgopura, the main temple, its massive tower, inscriptions, frescoes, and sculptures predominantly related toShaivism, but also ofVaishnavismandShaktism. The temple\",\n \"The temple was damaged in its history and some artwork is now missing. Additional mandapam and monuments were added in the centuries that followed. The temple now stands amidst fortified walls that were added after the16th century. Built using granite, thevimanatower above the shrine is one of the tallest in South India.The temple has a massive colonnadedprakara(corridor) and one of the largest Shivalingasin India.It is also famed for the quality of its sculpture, as well as being the location that commissioned the brassNataraja, Shiva as the lord of dance, in the 11th century. The complex includes shrines forNandi,Parvati,Murugan,Ganesha, Sabhapati,Dakshinamurti,Chandeshvara,Varahi, Thiyagarajar of Thiruvarur,SiddharKaruvoorarand others.The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. Nomenclature Rajaraja Chola, who commissioned the temple, called it Rajarajeshvaram (Rajarājeśvaram), literally \\\"the temple of the god of Rajaraja\\\".A later inscription in the Brihannayaki shrine calls\",\n \"shrine calls the temple's deity Periya Udaiya Nayanar, which appears to be the source of the modern names Brihadisvara and Peruvudaiyar Kovil. Location The Peruvudaiyar Templeis located in the city ofThanjavur, about 350 kilometres (220 mi) southwest ofChennai. The city is connected daily to other major cities by the network of Indian Railways, Tamil Nadu bus services and theNational Highways67,45C,226and226 Extn.The nearest airport with regular services isTiruchirappalli International Airport(IATA: TRZ), about 55 kilometres (34 mi) away. The city and the temple though inland, are at the start of theKaveri Riverdelta, thus with access to theBay of Bengaland through it to theIndian Ocean. Along with the temples, the Tamil people completed the first major irrigation network in the 11th century for agriculture, for movement of goods and to control the water flow through the urban center. History A spectrum ofdravidiantemple styles continued to develop from the fifth to the ninth century over theChalukyaera rule\",\n \"theChalukyaera rule as evidenced inAihole,BadamiandPattadakal, and then with thePallavaera as witnessed atMamallapuramand other monuments. Thereafter, between 850 and 1280,Cholasemerged as the dominant dynasty.The early Chola period saw a greater emphasis on securing their geopolitical boundaries and less emphasis on architecture. In the tenth century, within the Chola empire emerged features such as the multifacetedcolumnswith projecting squarecapitals. This, states George Michell, signaled the start of the new Chola style.This South Indian style is most fully realized both in scale and detail in the Brihadeshwara temple built between 1003 and 1010 by the Chola kingRajaraja I. Additions, renovations and repairs The main temple along with its gopurams is from the early 11th century. The temple also saw additions, renovations, and repairs over the next 1,000 years. The raids and wars, particularly between MuslimSultanswho controlledMaduraiandHindu kingswho controlled Thanjavur caused damage.These were\",\n \"damage.These were repaired by Hindu dynasties that regained control. In some cases, the rulers attempted to renovate the temple with faded paintings, by ordering new murals on top of the older ones. In other cases, they sponsored the addition of shrines. The significant shrines ofKartikeya(Murugan),Parvati(Amman) andNandiare from the 16th and 17th-century Nayaka era.Similarly theDakshinamurtishrine was built later.It was well maintained byMarathasof Thanjavur. Description Architecture The Peruvudaiyar temple's plan and development utilizes theaxialandsymmetricalgeometryrules.It is classified as Perunkoil (also called Madakkoil), a big temple built on a higher platform of a natural or man-made mounds.The temple complex is a rectangle that is almost two stacked squares, covering 240.79 metres (790.0 ft) east to west, and 121.92 metres (400.0 ft) north to south. In this space are five main sections: the sanctum with the towering superstructure (sri vimana), the Nandi hall in front (Nandi-mandapam) and in\",\n \"and in between these the main community hall (mukhamandapam), the great gathering hall (mahamandapam) and the pavilion that connects the great hall with the sanctum (Antrala). The temple complex integrates a large pillared and covered veranda (prakara) in its spacious courtyard, with a perimeter of about 450 metres (1,480 ft) for circumambulation. Outside this pillared veranda there are two walls of enclosure, the outer one being defensive and added in 1777 by the French colonial forces with gun-holes with the temple serving as an arsenal. They made the outer wall high, isolating the temple complex area. On its east end is the original main gopuram or gateway that isbarrel vaulted. It is less than half the size of the main temple'svimana. Additional structures were added to the original temple after the 11th century, such as a mandapa in its northeast corner and additional gopurams (gateways) on its perimeters to allow people to enter and leave from multiple locations.Some of the shrines and structures were\",\n \"and structures were added during the Pandya, Nayaka, Vijayanagara and Maratha era, before the colonial era started, and these builders respected the original plans and symmetry rules. Inside the original temple courtyard, along with the main sanctum and Nandi-mandapam are two major shrines, one for Kartikeya and for Parvati. The complex has additional smaller shrines. The Peruvudaiyar temple continued the Hindu temple traditions of South India by adopting architectural and decorative elements, but its scale significantly exceeded the temples constructed before the 11th century. The Chola era architects and artisans innovated the expertise to scale up and build, particularly with heavy stone and to accomplish the 63.4 metres (208 ft) high toweringvimana. The temple faces east, and once had a water moat around it. This has been filled up. The fortified wall now runs around this moat. The two walls have ornate gateways called the gopurams. These are made from stone and display entablature. The main gateways are\",\n \"main gateways are on the east side. The first one is called theKeralantakan tiruvasal, which means the \\\"sacred gate of the Keralantakan\\\". The word Keralantakan was the surname of king Rajaraja who built it. About a 100 metres (330 ft) ahead is the inner courtyard gopuram called theRajarajan tiruvasal. This is more decorated than theKeralantakan tiruvasal, such as with itsadhishthanamrelief work narrating scenes from thePuranasand other Hindu texts.The inner eastern gopuram leads to a vast courtyard, in which the shrines are all signed to east–west and north-west cardinal directions. The complex can be entered either on one axis through a five-storygopuramor with a second access directly to the huge main quadrangle through a smaller free-standing gopuram. The gopuram of the main entrance is 30 m high, smaller than the vimana.The main temple-related monuments and the great tower is in the middle of this courtyard.Around the main temple that is dedicated to Shiva, are smaller shrines, most of which are aligned\",\n \"which are aligned axially. These are dedicated to his consortParvati, his sonsMuruganandGanesha, Nandi,Varahi, Karuvur deva (theguruof Rajaraja Chola), Chandeshvara and Nataraja.The Nandi mandapam has a monolithic seated bull facing the sanctum. In between them are stairs leading to a columned porch and community gathering hall, then an inner mandapa connecting to thepradakshina patha, or circumambulation path. TheNandi(bull) facing the mukh-mandapam weighs about 25 tonnes.It is made of a single stone and is about 2 m in height, 6 m in length and 2.5 m in width. The image of Nandi is a monolithic one and is one of the largest in the country. Preservation & Restoration As a world heritage monument, the temple and the premises comes under theArchaeological Survey of India(ASI) which falls under the Ministry of Culture of the Government of India, to ensure safety, preservation and restoration. The surrounding facilities have been upgraded to create an ambience worthy of the grandeur of this ancient marvel with\",\n \"ancient marvel with lighting, signage and facilities for devotees and visitors. The lighting of the monument is designed to enhance the natural color of the stone along with the sculptural forms adorning all corners of the temple. The restoration has been undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India that commissionedSheila Sri PrakashIndianarchitectanddesignerto lead the design. Sanctum and the Sri-vimana The sanctum is at the center of the western square. It is surrounded by massive walls that are divided into levels by sharply cut sculptures andpilastersproviding deep bays and recesses. Each side of the sanctuary has a bay with iconography.The interior of thesanctum sanctorumhosts an image of the primary deity, Shiva, in the form of a huge stonelinga. It is called Karuvarai, a Tamil word that means \\\"womb chamber\\\". This space is calledgarbha grihain other parts of India. Only priests are allowed to enter this inner-most chamber. In theTamizhanstyle, the sanctum takes the form of a miniaturevimana. It\",\n \"miniaturevimana. It has the inner wall together with the outer wall creating a path around the sanctum for circumambulation (pradakshina). The entrance is highly decorated. The inside chamber is the sanctum sanctorum, which houses the brihad linga. The mainVimana(Shikhara) is a massive 16 storeys tower of which 13 are tapering squares. It dominates the main quadrangle. It sits above a 30.18 metres (99.0 ft) sided square.The tower is elaboratelyarticulatedwithPilaster, piers (a raised structure), and attachedcolumnswhich are placed rhythmically covering every surface of the vimana. Deities and Natya Sastra dance mudras The temple is dedicated to Shiva in the form of a hugelinga, his abstract aniconic representation. It is 29 feet (8.7 m) high, occupying two storeys of the sanctum.It is one of the largest monolithic linga sculptures in India. The Shaivism temple celebrates all major Hindu traditions by including the primary deities of theVaishnavismandShaktismtradition in the great mandapa of the main temple.\",\n \"of the main temple. The distribution of the deities is generally symmetric, except for the east entrance side which provide for the door and walkway. In addition to the main deities, each side provides fordvarapalas (guardians), and various other sculptures. The vestibule has three stone sculptures that is intricately carved, and mural paintings.The ground floor level sanctum walls have the following sculptures: On the second floor, Shiva'sTripurantakaform in different postures is depicted corresponding to these sculptures. Above these floors, thesri-vimanatowers above in thirteen storeys (talas). Above these storeys is a single square block of granite weight 80 tons, and 7.77 metres (25.5 ft) side. On top of this block, at its corners are Nandi pairs each about 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 in) by 1.68 metres (5 ft 6 in) in dimension. Above the center of this granite block rises thegriva, thesikharaand the finial (stupi) of Tamil Hindu temple architecture. Thisstupiis 3.81 metres (12.5 ft) in height, and was\",\n \"in height, and was originally covered with gold (no longer). Thesikharaat the top is cupola-shaped and weighs 25 tons.Each storey of this tower is decorated withkutasandsalas. The shrinking squares tower architecture of this temple differs from the tower at the Chola temple at Gangaikondasolisvaram, because this is straight in contrast to the latter which is curvilinear. The temple's sri-vimana magnitude has made it a towering landmark for the city.The upper storey corridor wall of theaditalais carved with 81 of the 108 dancekaranas – postures ofNatya Sastra. This text is the basis of theBharathanatyam, the classical dance of Tamil Nadu. The 27 unrepresentedkaranasare blank blocks of stone, and it is unclear why these were not carved. The 81 postures carved suggest the significance of this classical Indian dance form by early 11th century. The garbhagriha is square and sits on aplinth. This is moulded and 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) thick. It consists ofupapithamandadhishthanam, respectively 140 cm and 360 cm\",\n \"140 cm and 360 cm thick. Mandapa The two mandapa, namelymaha-mandapaandmukha-mandapa, are square plan structures axially aligned between the sanctum and theNandi mandapa. Themaha-mandapahas six pillars on each side.This too has artwork. The Vitankar and Rajaraja I bronze are here, but these were added much later. Themaha-mandapais flanked by two giant stone dvarapalas. It is linked to themukha-mandapaby stairs. The entrance of themukha-mandapaalso has dvarapalas. With the mandapa are eight small shrines fordikpalas, or guardian deities of each direction such asAgni,Indra,Varuna,Kuberaand others. These were installed during the rule of Chola king Rajendra I. Inscriptions indicate that this area also had other iconography from major Hindu traditions during the Chola era, but these are now missing. The original eight shrines included those forSurya(the sun god),Saptamatrikas(seven mothers), Ganesha, Murugan,Jyeshtha,Chandra(the moon god), Chandeshvara and Bhairava.Similarly, in the western wall cella was a\",\n \"wall cella was a massive granite Ganesha built during Rajaraja I era, but who is now found in thetiruch-churru-maligai(southern veranda). Of the Shaktism tradition's seven mothers, onlyVarahisurvives in a broken form. Her remnants are now found in a small modern era brick \\\"Varahi shrine\\\" in the southern side of the courtyard. The original version of the others along with their original Chola shrines are missing. Murals The temple has an underneath layer of Chola frescoes on the sanctum walls along the circumambulatory pathway. These frescoes which cover floor to ceiling, were discovered in 1931 by S. K. Govindasami of theAnnamalai University.The painters used natural pigments and infused it into the wet limestone layer as it was setting in. The Chola frescoes were largely of Shaivism themes. These were restored in the 2000s.The total Chola fresco area is about 670 square metres (7,200 sq ft), of which about 112 square metres (1,210 sq ft) had been uncovered as of 2010 in a method that preserves both\",\n \"that preserves both paintings, a technique developed by Archaeological Survey of India.The frescoes narrate Hindu mythology.According to Balasubrahmanyam, most frescoes are related to Shiva, but the 11th century Chola frescoes also show Vishnu, Durga and others, as well as scenes of Chola royalty, courtly and common life. The later constructions, additions and modifications to the temple curtailed the amount of natural light inside the temple. The frescoes were thus photographed in a limited way and interpreted. According to Sriraman, a complete imaging with better photographic equipment suggests that these historic interpretations were incorrect.For example, a fresco that was previously interpreted as Dakshinamurti Shiva is actually a secular scene of a royalgurumeditating under a banyan tree. On the tree are shown peacocks, birds, monkeys, squirrels and owls, plus a cobra. The animals and birds are shown as worried of the cobra, the ones closer to the snake are shown to be more worried.Other parts of the\",\n \"parts of the panel similarly show a court listening to a saint. Other show women in different dresses in different dancemudra. Some of the paintings in the sanctum sanctorum and the walls in the passage had been damaged because of the soot that had deposited on them once upon a time. Owing to the continuous exposure to smoke and soot from the lamps and burning of camphor in the sanctum sanctorum over a period of centuries certain parts of the Chola paintings on the circumambulatory passage walls had been badly damaged.TheArchaeological Survey of India, for the first time in the world, used its unique de-stucco process to restore 16 Nayak paintings, which were superimposed on 1000-year-old Chola frescoes.These 400-year-old paintings have been mounted on fibre glass boards, displayed at a separate pavilion. Inscriptions The temple walls have numerous inscriptions in Tamil and Grantha scripts. Many of these begin with customary Sanskrit and Tamil language historical introduction to the king who authorized it,\",\n \"who authorized it, and predominant number of them discuss gifts to the temple or temple personnel, in some cases residents of the city.The temple complex has sixty four inscriptions ofRajaraja Chola I, twenty nine inscriptions ofRajendra Chola I, one each ofVikrama Chola,Kulottunga IandRajamahendra(Rajendra II), three of a probablePandyanking, two ofNayakarulers namely, Achyutappa Nayaka and Mallapa Nayaka. Temple personnel An inscription on the north wall of enclosure, dated 1011 CE, gives a detailed accounts of people employed and supported by the temple. The inscription gives their wages, roles and names. It includes over 600 names including those ofpriests, lamp lighters, washermen,tailors,jewelers,potters,carpenters, sacred parasol bearers, dance gurus,dancing girls,singers, male and femalemusicians, superintendents of performance artists, accountants among others. Their wages was in parcels of land, so their temple employment was likely part-time. The temple employeddevadasiswho were dancers and\",\n \"were dancers and singers of devotional hymns. Among its numerous inscriptions are frequent gifts that state, \\\"to provide for worship, for food to assembly ofsannyasis(monks or ascetics) and for repairs\\\". According to George Michell, the Thanjavur temple was a major charity institution in its history. It provides free meal for pilgrims, devotees and wayfarers on a daily basis. On the days of Hindu festivals, these meals were elaborate and whenbrahminswere particularly invited and fed. Millennium commemoration Built in the year 1010 CE by Chola emperor Rajaraja I in Thanjavur, the temple is popularly known as the Big Temple. It turned 1,000 years old in September 2010. To celebrate the 1000th year of the grand structure, the state government and the town held many cultural events. It was to recall the 275th day of his 25th regal year (1010 CE) when Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) handed over a gold-platedkalasam(copper pot orfinial) for the final consecration to crown thevimana, the 59.82-metre tall tower above the\",\n \"tower above the sanctum. Bharathanatyam Yajna To mark the occasion, the state government organised aBharathanatyamYajna, classical dance show under noted dancerPadma Subramaniam. It was jointly organised by the Association of Bharatanatyam Artistes of India (ABHAI) and the Brhan Natyanjali Trust, Thanjavur. To mark the 1000th anniversary of the building, 1,000 dancers from New Delhi,Mumbai,Pune, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Kerala, Singapore, Malaysia and the US danced in concert to the recorded 11 verses of divine musicThiruvisaippa(ninth volume ofThirumurai) composed by Karuvur deva (the guru of Rajaraja). The small town turned into a cultural hub for two days beginning 26 September 2010 as street performers and dancers performed throughout the town. Commemorative stamps and coins On 26 September 2010 (Big Temple's fifth day of millennium celebrations), as a recognition of Big Temple's contribution to the country's cultural, architectural, epigraphical history, a special₹5 postage stamp featuring\",\n \"stamp featuring the 66 metres (216 ft) tall giantRaja Gopuramwas released byIndia Post. TheReserve Bank of Indiacommemorated the event by releasing a₹5 coin with the model of temple embossed on it.A Raja,Cabinet Minister of Communications and Information Technologyreleased the esteemed Brihadeeswarar temple special stamp, the first of which was received byG K Vasan,Cabinet Minister of Shipping. Mumbai Mintissued Rs 1,000 Commemorative Coin with the same picture as on the Rs 5 coin. It was the first 1,000 Rupees coin to be released in the Republic of India coinage. This coin was a Non Circulative Legal Tender (NCLT). On 1 April 1954, the Reserve Bank of India released a₹1,000 currency note featuring a panoramic view of the Brihadeeswar temple marking its cultural heritage and significance. In 1975, the then government led by Prime MinisterIndira Gandhidemonetisedall₹1,000 currency notes in an effort to curtailblack money. These notes are now popular among collectors. In 2010, the then Tamil Nadu chief\",\n \"Tamil Nadu chief minister,M Karunanidhirenamed SemmaiRice, a type of high productivity paddy variant, asRaja Rajan-1,000to mark the millennial year of the constructor of the temple, Rajaraja Chola. Reception The temple \\\"testifies the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting\\\".The temple finds mention in many of the contemporary works of the period likeMuvar UlaandKalingathuparani. According to Chatterjee, theDravidian architectureattained its supreme form of expression in the temple and it successor, theBrihadeeswarar Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.The temple has been declared as a heritage monument by the Government of India and administered by theArchaeological Survey of Indiaas a protected monument. The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. The temple was declared as aWorld Heritage SitebyUNESCO, along with the Brihadeeswara Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram andAiravatesvara templeatDarasuramthat are referred as theGreat Living\",\n \"as theGreat Living Chola Temples.These three temples have similarities, but each has unique design and sculptural elements.All of the three temples were built by the Cholas between the 10th and 12th centuries CE and they have continued to be supported and used by Hindus. The temples are classified as \\\"Great Living\\\" as the temples are active in cultural, pilgrimage and worship practises in modern times. Cultural events The Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur is the site of annual dance festivals around February, around theMahashivratri. Major classical Indian dance form artists, as well as regional teams, perform their repertoire at this Brahan Natyanjali festival over 10 days. Car festival TheTemple carwas rolled out on its trial run from opposite toSri Ramartemple on 20 April 2015 witnessed by a large number of people.Nine days later, the maiden procession of the temple car was held. This was the first such procession in this temple held in the past hundred years, according to news reports. Novels Kalki\",\n \"Novels Kalki Krishnamurthy, a renowned Tamil novelist, has written a historical novel namedPonniyin Selvan, based on the life ofRajaraja.Balakumaran, another Tamil author has written a novel namedUdaiyarthemed on the life of Rajaraja I and the construction of the temple. Administration The temple is currently administered and managed byBabaji Bhonsle, the head of theThanjavur Maratharoyal family. He serves as the hereditary trustee of the palace Devasthanam which continues to manage 88Cholatemples including the Brihadeeswara temple.Tamilgroups have been unsuccessfully petitioning theTamil Nadugovernment to revoke these rights as he is not ofCholaor Tamil lineage. According to one of the protesters, who also happens to be the coordinator of the Big Temple Rights Retrieval Committee, Babaji Bhonsle is also not the legal heir of the Maratha kings of Thanjavur. Gallery The temple features many sculptures, reliefs and murals: See also Notes References Bibliography External links\",\n \"Rajaraja I Rajaraja I(Middle Tamil:Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ;Classical Sanskrit:Rājarāja Śōḷa; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014),also known asRajaraja the Great, was aCholaemperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He is known for his conquests ofSouth Indiaand parts ofSri Lanka, and increasing Chola influence across theIndian Ocean. Rajaraja's empire encompassed vast territories, including regions of thePandya country, theChera country, and northernSri Lanka. He also extended his influence over strategic islands such asLakshadweep,Thiladhunmaduluatoll, and parts of theMaldivesin theIndian Ocean. His conquests weren't limited to the south; he also launched successful campaigns against theWestern Gangasand theWestern Chalukyas, extending Chola authority as far as theTungabhadra River. In the east, Rajaraja faced fierce opposition from theTelugu Cholaking Jata Choda Bhima over control ofVengi. This region held significant strategic importance due to its access to resources and trade routes. The conflict between the\",\n \"between the two rulers intensified as they vied for dominance in the region, resulting in significant battles and shifting allegiances. Rajaraja I also left a significant mark through his architectural and cultural achievements. He commissioned the construction of theRajarajeshwaram Templein the Chola capital ofThanjavur, which is revered as one of the most prominent examples of medieval South Indian architectural style.Additionally, during his reign, important Tamil literary works by poets such as Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were gathered and compiled into a single collection known as the Thirumurai. This earned him the title of 'Thirumurai Kanda Cholar,' meaning The One Who Found Thirumurai.He initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known asvalanadus.Rajaraja died in 1014 CE, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I. Early life Rajaraja was a son of the Chola kingParantaka II(alias Sundara) and queen Vanavan\",\n \"and queen Vanavan Mahadevi.According to theThiruvalangaducopper-plate inscription, his birth name was Arun Mozhi Varman, literally \\\"The Word of Sun Clan\\\".He was born around 947 CE in theAipassimonth, on the day ofSadhayamstar.TheGovernment of Tamil Nadurecognizes his birthdate as 3 November 947.He had an elder brother –Aditha II,and an elder sister –Kundavai. Rajaraja's ascension ended a period of rival claims to the throne, following the death of his great-grandfatherParantaka I. After Parantaka I, his elder sonGandaradityaascended the throne. At the time of Gandaraditya's death, his sonMadhurantakanwas a minor, so the throne passed on to Parantaka I's younger sonArinjaya. Arinjaya died soon and was succeeded by his son Parantaka II, also known as Sundara Chola. It was decided that the throne would pass on to Madhurantakan after Sundara: this decision was most probably that of Sundara himself, although theThiruvalangaduinscription of Rajaraja's sonRajendra Iclaims that it was made by Rajaraja. Aditha died\",\n \"Aditha died under mysterious circumstances; inscriptions hint at him being assassinated. Sundara died soon after, clearing the way for Madhurantakan to be king under the title Uttama Chola. After the death of Uttama, Rajaraja finally ascended the throne in June–July 985.Known as Arumoḷi Varman until this point, he adopted theregnal nameRajaraja, which means \\\"King among Kings\\\". Military conquests When Rajaraja came into power, he inherited a kingdom that was only centered around the Thanjavur-Tiruchirappalli region, which was the heart of traditional Chola territory.However, this kingdom was not very large, and it was still recovering from attacks by the Rashtrakutas in previous years. Rajaraja changed this by transforming the kingdom into a well-organized empire with a powerful army and navy. Under his rule, the northern kingdom of Vengi became closely allied with the Cholas, and their influence expanded along the eastern coast all the way up to Kalinga in the north. In the Thanjavur inscriptions, various\",\n \"various regiments are noted. These regiments were organized into units of elephants, cavalry, and infantry. Each of these units operated independently and had the authority to give gifts or construct temples as they saw fit. Against Kandalur Salai Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions commemorate a significant triumph at Kandalur Salai, located in present-day Kerala, around 988 CE. He is acclaimed as \\\"Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta,\\\" which translates to 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'. He is hailed as \\\"Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta,\\\" meaning 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'Originally, this area was under the control of the Ay chief, who served as a vassal to the Pandya king of Madurai. However, it remains uncertain whether warriors from the Chera or Pandya dynasties were involved in this conflict.The Thiruvalangadu inscription suggests that Rajaraja's general captured Vizhinjam (Viḷinam), which could have been part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. It appears that this engagement involved the Chola navy,\",\n \"the Chola navy, or possibly a joint operation involving both the navy and the army. Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas Rajaraja's inscriptions begin to appear inKanyakumari districtin the 990s and inThiruvananthapuram districtin the early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century.The Senur inscription dated to 1005 CE, attributed to Rajaraja, records his military achievements. It mentions the destruction of the Pandya capital, Madurai, as well as the conquest of several regions. These include defeating the formidable rulers of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumals of Makotai).Certain triumphs in the region of Malainadu were possibly achieved by Prince Rajendra Chola I on behalf of his father, Rajaraja Chola. Following his victory over the Pandyas, Rajaraja assumed the title of Pandya Kulashani, which translates to 'Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas.' As a result of his conquest, the territory of the Pandyas became\",\n \"the Pandyas became recognized as \\\"Rajaraja Mandalam\\\" or \\\"Rajaraja Pandinadu.\\\"When recounting Rajaraja's military expedition in Trisanku Kastha (the southern region), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I mentions the capture of a certain royal figure named Amarabhujanga.However, the specific identity of this individual—whether he was a prince of the Pandya dynasty, a general serving the Pandya king, or a prince of the Kongu Chera dynasty—remains a matter of debate and has not been conclusively resolved.According to theKongu Desa Rajakkal,a historical record of the Kongu Nadu region, it is suggested that this general eventually changed his loyalty to Rajaraja. He is said to have participated in the ritual ofkanakabhisheka,where gold is poured over the Chola king, symbolizing an act of royal anointment or coronation. Once Rajaraja had consolidated his authority in the southern regions, he took on the title of Mummudi Chola. This title, which means \\\"three Crowned,\\\" symbolized his power over three important\",\n \"three important Tamil kingdoms: the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras. Conquest of Sri Lanka During the reign of King Mahinda V, the Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura experienced a significant military revolt around the year 982 AD, primarily as a consequence of the monarch's economic policies. The armed forces of the Anuradhapura capital predominantly consisted of Tamil mercenaries recruited from coastal regions. By 882 CE, tensions escalated into a full-fledged uprising led by these mercenaries, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The ensuing turmoil compelled the vulnerable Sinhala ruler to seek refuge in the Rohana principality, thereby plunging the capital city of Anuradhapura into an extended period of civil unrest lasting approximately eleven years, marked by widespread disorder and lawlessness. The disruption of central governance exacerbated the financial strain on the kingdom, particularly in meeting the obligations to the Tamil mercenaries. Consequently, the mercenaries, feeling aggrieved\",\n \"feeling aggrieved and disillusioned, turned their allegiance towards the Chola empire. This strategic shift left Anuradhapura vulnerable to the incursions of the Chola forces, who exploited the internal strife to mount invasions in the year 993. These events, documented in historical sources, underscore the intricate interplay of economic policies, military dynamics, and regional power struggles during this period in the history of Anuradhapura. In 993 CE, Rajaraja achieved the conquest of Anuradhapura, known as Pihiti rata in local context, situated in Sri Lanka.This territory was subsequently designated as Ila-mandalam in Chola historical records.The military campaign led to the sacking of Anuradhapura by the Chola army, resulting in the acquisition of the northern portion of Sri Lanka by the Chola empire. As part of their administrative efforts, the Cholas established a provincial capital at the strategic military outpost of Polonnaruwa, renaming it Jananathamangalam in honor of Rajaraja's title. Under\",\n \"title. Under Chola administration, the official Tali Kumaran oversaw the construction of a significant Shiva temple known as Rajarajeshwara, meaning \\\"Lord of Rajaraja,\\\" within the town of Mahatirtha, now recognized as modern-day Mantota. Consequently, Mahatirtha was renamed Rajarajapura in commemoration of the Chola monarch's conquest and establishment of authority in the region. To commemorate their victory, the Chola administrator Tali Kumaran supervised the construction of a notable Shiva temple named Rajarajeshwara, signifying \\\"Lord of Rajaraja,\\\" within the precincts of Mahatirtha. Presently acknowledged as modern Mantota, this temple assumed a pivotal role as a representation of Chola hegemony and religious fervor. The transformation of Mahatirtha into Rajarajapura, in homage to the Chola sovereign, further underscores the symbolic and cultural import of the Chola conquest of Anuradhapura and their subsequent governance in the northern expanse of Sri Lanka. The Thiruvalangadu Plates directly compare\",\n \"directly compare Raja Raja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama: \\\"Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka using sharp-edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka.\\\" In 1017 CE, Rajaraja's successor, Rajendra I, finalized the Chola conquest of Sri Lanka.The Chola reign over Sri Lanka persisted until 1070, when Vijayabahu I successfully vanquished and expelled them from the island. Chalukyan conflict In 998 CE, Rajaraja annexed Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi (present-day Karnataka).During this campaign, Raja Chola subdued the Nolambas, who were previously vassals of the Ganga dynasty.These territories were initially under the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas, who had been defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973 CE. Consequently, the Cholas found themselves in direct conflict with the Chalukyas.An inscription\",\n \"inscription ofIrivabedanga Satyashrayafrom Dharwar describes him as a vassal of the Western Chalukyas and acknowledges the Chola onslaught. An inscription attributed to Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accuses Rajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara, blurring the ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by the Dharmasastras.Historians such as James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn interpret this confrontation as indicative of personal animosity between the rulers of the Chola and Chalukya kingdoms, akin to historical conflicts between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi. By the year 1004 CE, Rajaraja had successfully conquered the Gangavadi province.He established control over the western part of Gangavadi, ruled by the Changalvas, and over Kodagu, governed by the Kongalvas, who were then made vassals of the Chola Empire.Panchavan Maraya, a Chola\",\n \"Maraya, a Chola general, played a significant role in defeating the Changalvas in the battle of Ponnasoge and was duly rewarded with the territory of Arkalgud Yelusuvira-7000 and the esteemed title of Kshatriyasikhamani.Similarly, in recognition of the valor displayed by Manya, a Kongalva leader, the estate of Malambi (Coorg) was granted to them, along with the title of Kshatriyasikhamani. Meanwhile, the Vengi kingdom was under the rule of Jata Choda Bhima, a member of the Eastern Chalukyas Dynasty.However, Rajaraja emerged victorious in battle against Bhima, and Saktivarman was appointed as a viceroy under the Chola Dynasty.Despite a brief period of Bhima's recapture ofKanchiin 1001 CE, Rajaraja swiftly restored Saktivarman to power, even expelling and eliminating an Andhra king named Bhima.Notably, Rajaraja cemented an alliance between the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom by arranging the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to the next viceroy of Vengi, Vimaladitya. This strategic union\",\n \"strategic union ensured the future succession of Rajaraja's descendants to the throne of theeastern Chalukya kingdom. Hoysala conflicts There were hostile encounters between the Cholas and theHoysalas, a group who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas.An inscription from the Gopalakrishna temple atNarasipur, dated to 1006, records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killedHoysalagenerals and a minister identified as Naganna.Additionally, a similar inscription inChannapatnadescribes Rajaraja defeating theHoysalas. Kalinga conquest The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi.This conquest marked the northern boundary of the Chola Empire at that time and established their control over the entirety of South and South-East India. Conquest of Kuda-malai-nadu In multiple historical accounts, there are mentions of King Rajaraja's conquest of a place called \\\"Kuda-malai-nadu\\\" around the year 1000 CE.In certain inscriptions found in Karnataka, the term \\\"Kudagu-malai-nadu\\\" is used instead of\",\n \"is used instead of \\\"Kuda-malai-nadu.\\\" Scholars generally believe that this region corresponds to Coorg (Kudagu). The king's conquest of Malainadu is described in the Vikrama Chola Ula, where it is said that he achieved it in just one day, crossing 18 mountain passes.According to the Kulottunga Chola Ula, King Rajaraja was depicted as beheading 18 people and burning down Udagai.Additionally, the Kalingathupparani references the establishment of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the seizure of Udagai, and the plundering of several elephants from the area.The Tiruppalanam inscription from 999 CE records the king's offering of an idol obtained as spoils from Malainadu. Naval expedition \\\"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China,\",\n \"Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe.\\\" One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the islands ofMaldives(\\\"the Ancient Islands of the Sea Numbering 1200\\\").The naval campaign was a demonstration of the Chola naval power in the Indian Ocean. The Cholas controlled the area aroundBay of BengalwithNagapattinamas the main port. TheChola Navyalso played a major role in the invasion ofSri Lanka.The success of Rajaraja allowed his sonRajendra Cholato lead theChola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupyingKadaram. Personal life Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi.He had at least three daughters and two sons. The older son, Rajendra, was born to Thiripuvāna\",\n \"born to Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār.The younger son was named Araiyan Rajarajan, and the identiey of his mother is unknown.He had his first daughterKundavaiwith Lokamadev who eventually marriedChalukyaprince Vimaladithan.Rajaraja had two other daughters.. Rajaraja died in 1014 CE in theTamil monthof Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I. Administration Before the reign of Rajaraja I, portions of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers.Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganization of the empire into units known as valanadus.From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign ofVikrama Cholain 1133 CE, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials.This led to the king exercising closer control over the different parts of the empire.Rajaraja strengthened the local self-governments and installed a system of audit and control by which the\",\n \"by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission toChina.Furthermore, his elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples. Officials Rajendra Chola Iwas appointed as a co-regent towards the end of Rajaraja's reign. He held the position of supreme commander over the northern and northwestern territories. Under Raja Chola's rule, there was a notable expansion of the administrative system, resulting in a greater number of offices and officials documented in Chola records compared to previous eras.Villavan Muvendavelan, one of the top officials of Rajaraja figures in many of his inscriptions.The names of other officials found in the inscriptions are theBanaprince Narasimhavarman, a general SenapathiKrishnan Raman, the Samanta chiefVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys.\",\n \"land surveys. Religious policy Rajaraja was a follower ofShaivismdenomination ofHinduismbut he also dedicated several temples toVishnu. TheChudamani Vihara, aBuddhistmonastery, was constructed in the 11th century CE inNagapattinam. It was named Chudamani or Chulamani Vihara after King Sri Mara's father. The monastery was built by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman, with the support of Rajaraja I.According to the small Leyden grant, this Vihara was known as Rajaraja-perumpalli during the reign of Kulottunga I.Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara. Rajaraja called himselfShivapada Shekhara(IAST: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, \\\"the one who places his crown at the feet ofShiva\\\". Arts and architecture Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts ofThevaramin his court.He sought the help ofNambi Andar Nambi.It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of\",\n \"the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct inThillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.Thebrahmanas(Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.Rajaraja thus became known asTirumurai Kanda Cholanmeaning one who saved theTirumurai. In his workNambiyandar Nambi PuranamaliasTirumurai Kanda Puranam, Nambi identifies his patron asRasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan, that isking Rajaraja, the best of the race ofAbhaya.At that time, Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.Nambi organized the hymns of three saint poets—Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar—as the first seven books. He included Manickavasagar's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, and the hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book. The Tirumandiram of Tirumular was\",\n \"of Tirumular was designated as the 10th book, while 40 hymns by 12 other poets constituted the 11th book. Additionally, Nambi added Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi, the sacred anthathi of the labors of the 63 nayanar saints, along with his own hymns as the 12th book.The initial seven books were later recognized as Tevaram.With the addition of Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) as the twelfth book, the entire Saiva canon became known as Tirumurai, the holy scripture. Consequently, Saiva literature now encompasses approximately 600 years of religious, philosophical, and literary development. There are no existing contemporary portraits or statues of Rajaraja. The bronze figure purportedly depicting him at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of recent origin. Brihadisvara Temple During 1010 CE, Rajaraja built the Brihadisvara Temple inThanjavurand dedicated it to LordShiva. The temple, also known asPeriya Kovil,RajaRajeswara TempleandRajarajeswaram, and the capital were centres of both religious and economic\",\n \"and economic activity.The temple, which turned 1000 years old in 2010, is one of the largest temples in India and is an example ofDravidian architectureof theChola period.Along withGangaikonda Cholapuramtemple andAiravatesvara temple, Brihadisvara is part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Siteknown as the \\\"Great Living Chola Temples\\\". The temple tower, called thevimanam, stands at a remarkable height of 216 feet (66 meters), making it the tallest in the world. At the very top sits the Kumbam, a bulbous structure, which is carved entirely from a single rock and weighs approximately 80 tons.At the entrance stands a sizable statue of Nandi, the sacred bull, carved from a single rock, measuring about 16 feet in length and 13 feet in height. The entire temple structure is crafted from granite, obtained from sources located approximately 60 kilometers to the west of the temple. This temple is widely renowned as one of the premier tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. Coins Prior to Rajaraja's reign, Chola coins featured the\",\n \"coins featured the tiger emblem on the obverse, along with the fish and bow emblems representing the Pandya and Chera Dynasties, while the reverse side displayed the name of the King. However, a new type of coin emerged during Rajaraja's rule. These new coins showcased the figure of the standing king on the obverse side, while the reverse side depicted a seated goddess.The coins spread across much of southern India and were copied by Sri Lankan kings. Inscriptions Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone. An inscription inTamilfromMulbagalinKarnatakashows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such aMeikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows: Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property,\",\n \"exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses the river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves. Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were\",\n \"The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished. Another inscription from the Gramardhanathesvara temple in the southern area ofArcot, dating back to the seventh year of the king, mentions the fifteenth year of his predecessor, Uttama Choladeva. Uttama Choladeva is described in the inscription as the son of Sembiyan-Madeviyar. In popular culture See also References Bibliography External links\",\n \"Kundavai Pirāttiyār Kundavai Pirattiyar, commonly known mononymously asKundavai, was aCholaIndian princess who lived in the tenth century inSouth India.She was the daughter ofParantaka IIand Vanavan Mahadevi.She was born inTirukoilurand was the elder sister of Chola emperorRajaraja I. She had title asIlaiyapirātti Kundavai Nachiyar. However, when her husbandVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevanwas crowned king in his hometownBana kingdom, she did not accept the offer to become queen of the kingdom and remained as the princess ofTanjore. Life Kundavai (also transliterated as Kundhavai or Kunthavai) was born in 945 CE. She was the only daughter of the Chola kingParantaka IIand queen Vanavan Mahadevi. She had an elder brother –Aditha Chola II, and a younger brother –Raja Raja Chola I. Kundavai marriedVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, a member of theBana dynasty, a feudatory of theCholasmentioned in theTanjoreinscriptions.He was also the commander of the Chola infantry that fought inSri Lankain the days ofRajaraja l. The\",\n \"ofRajaraja l. The territory under his authority was known as 'Vallavaraiyanadu', and occasionally 'Brahmadesam'. Along with her great-auntSembiyan Mahadevi, Kundavai brought up her nephew,Rajendra I, who was the son ofRajaraja IandThiripuvana Madeviyar, princess ofKodumbalur. Rajendra I spent most of his childhood inPazhaiyaraiwith Kundavai and Sembiyan Mahadevi. In popular culture Kundavai is celebrated as mentor toRajaraja I. Her influence continued into the next generation as she helped rearRajendra Chola. Uniquely for her era, where royal women were used to forge alliances, Kundavai's father allowed her to exercise her free will, whereupon the princess resolved to stay in the Chola kingdom all her life. Esteemed throughout the Chola realm for her taste and learning, Kundavai was requested to look after the daughters of other royal clans, tutoring them in art, music, and literature. Life and works Kundavai commissioned many temples forTirthankars,VishnuandSiva. She revered many Jain Monks and Vedantic\",\n \"Monks and Vedantic seers .She features inCholainscriptions. ..vessels and ornaments made of gold, silver and pearl and presented to the temples of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar, Iravikulamanikka-Iswara and Kundavai Jinalaya, built by the princess Parantakan Kundavai Pirattiyar, daughter of Ponmaligaittunjiyadevar(Parantaka Sundara Chola). She is believed to have built many Jain temples but at least two Jain temples have inscriptions that records to have been built by her, one atRajarajeswaramlater known asDarasuramand the other atTirumalai.She built a hospital after her father named Vinnagar athura salai atThanjavurand donated extensive lands for its maintenance.She made lavish donations to theBrihadeeswarar TempleatThanjavurduring the reign of her younger brotherRajaraja Chola Iand her nephewRajendra Chola I. One of the inscriptions reads: Records gift of sheep for lamps to the temple of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar by princess Pirantakan-Kundavai-Pirattiyar. Also mentioned is the senapati, Mummudi-Chola Brahmamarayar\",\n \"Brahmamarayar who was in charge of the management of the temple Some of the images or idols set up by princess Kundavai include: Here is an excerpt from the 29th year of Rajaraja that lists some of her gifts toBrihadeeswarar Temple: Hail! Prosperity! Until the twenty-ninth year (of the reign) of Ko-Rajakesarivarman alias Sri-Rajarajadeva who..-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva and the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar..gave three thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was a quarter superior in fineness to the (gold standard called) dandavani, and one thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was one (degree) inferior in fineness to the dandavani, – altogether, five thousand karanju of gold. Hail ! Prosperity! Until the third year (of the reign) of Ko-Parakesarivarman, alias the lord Sri-Rajendra-Soradeva,-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva (and) the great queen of\",\n \"the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar gave-..One sacred girdle (tiruppattigai), (containing) ninety-seven karanju and a half, four manjadi and nine-tenths of gold. Six hundred and sixty-seven large and small diamonds with smooth edges, set (into it), – including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed two karanju and a quarter and six-tenths (of a manjadi). Eighty-three large and small rubies, viz., twenty-two halahalam of superior quality, twenty halahalam, twenty smooth rubies, nine bluish rubies, two sattam and ten unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white specks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed ten karanju and three-quarters, three manjadi and two-tenths. Two hundred and twelve pearls, strung or sewn on, – including round pearls, roundish pearls, polished pearls, small pearls, nimbolam, ambumudu, (pearls) of brilliant water and of red water, such as had been polished while still adhering to the shall,\",\n \"to the shall, (and pearls with) lines, stains, red dots, white specks and wrinkles, – weighed eighteen karanju and two manjadi. Altogether, (the girdle) weighed one hundred and twenty-nine karanju and seven-tenths (of a manadi), corresponding to a value of four thousand and five hundred kasu..One ring for the foot of the goddess, (containing) seventy-one karanju and a half and two manjadi of gold. Four hundred and fifty-nine diamonds, set (into it), viz., four hundred and fifty diamonds with smooth edges, and nine small square diamonds with smooth edges, including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed (one) karanju and a half, three manjadi and nine-tenths. Thirty-nine large and small rubies, viz., ten halahalam of superior quality, eight halahalam, nine smooth rubies, three bluish rubies and nine unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white speeks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed three karanju and three-quarters,\",\n \"and three-quarters, three manjadi and six-tenths. Altogether, (the ring) weighed seventy-seventy-seven karanju, four manjadi and (one) kunri, corresponding to a value of a five hundred kasu. Kundavai spent the last days of her life with her nephewRajendra Iat the palace inPazhaiyarai. ..run-tiru-amudu sëd-arulavaum ăga nellu padin kalam-āga ōrādaikku nellu nūrru irubadin kalamum udaiyār sri-Rājarājadēvarkku mun pirand-arulina sri ālvār sri-Kundavai Pirāttiyār pirand-arulina avitta-tirunālāl tingal oru nāl tiru-vilā elund-arulavu. In popular culture See also References Further reading\",\n \"Bana kingdom TheBanaorVanawas a dynasty based in South India, who claimed descent from kingMahabali. The dynasty takes its name from Bana, the son of Mahabali. The Banas faced opposition from several neighbouring dynasties and served some major dynasties such as theChalukyasCholasandPandyasas feudatories, sometimes after they were subjugated by them. They also served asSamantasto some dynasties. The Banas had their capital at various places at different times, includingKolarandGudimallam.The Banas were a nativeKannadaruling dynasty. History The earliest mention of the Banas in authentic historical records is in the middle of the fourth century AD, and as the feudatories of theSatavahanaand earlyPallavas. But from the actual literature history (Mysore State Gazetteer 1968), The Mahavalis or Brihadbanas who ruled the present Kolar andChikkaballapurdistricts ofKarnatakaare the descendants of King Banasura or King Bana, son of King Mahabali. King Brihadbana was the grandson of Mahabali. Last known ruling king of\",\n \"ruling king of this generation was King Sambayya. They were in constant conflicts withNolambasand Western Gangas of the Kolar region. They had Vaidumbas as their allies. They had the present day Avani region (a village in Kolar District) as their capital. The Bana dynasty had a distinctive emblem, featuring a black flag and a bull crest. An inscription discovered in Mulbagal Taluk dating back to the year 339 AD, written in Sanskrit, begins by praising Shiva, whose throne is said to be on the mountain peak called Nandi. This peak is believed to be the present-day Nandidurga, which is considered to personify Nandi, the bull of Shiva. The inscription documents the grant of the village of Mudiyanur (also known as Chudagrama, a Sanskritized form of Mudiyanur) to 25 Brahmins by Vadhuvallabha-Malladeva-Nandivarma, the son of Vijayaditya Deva and grandson of Nandivarma, a notable figure from Mahabali's dynasty. The king, who was in the town of Avanya (Avani), is credited with bringing prosperity to the Bana dynasty\",\n \"to the Bana dynasty and has been compared to Bodhisattva. The Banas seem to have been a strong power almost until the decline at the end of the 9th century. In the battle of Soremati about 874, Banas they, together with the Vaidumbas, are said to have defeated theGangasand theNolambas. Further, their inscriptions of 898, 905 and 909 A.D. mention no overlord. But all the same, the Banas had adversaries on all sides, and their power was continually being undermined since the close of the 9th century. They ultimately appear to have lost their independence by the first half of the 1Oth century at the latest. If theNolambaking Mahendra (c. 870-897) is described as the cunning king who has ended the Mahabali family, theCholakingViranarayana or Parantakaclaims in 921 to have uprooted by force two Bana kings and conferred the title of Banadhiraja on theGangaprince Prithvipathi II, who helped him in this task. In 961, which is the date of the latest Bana inscription in this district, we find one King Sambayya ruling\",\n \"Sambayya ruling a small district under the Pallava king Iriva or Dilipa. But the Banas did not disappear altogether from the political history, as is evident from the references to them in some later literary works and inscriptions. Stray Bana records have been found outside this district, particularly in the south, as late as the first quarter of the 16th century AD. The history of the Banas, who, during a period of more than a thousand years, moved from district to district, from the Andhra-desha in the north to the Pandya country in the far south where they were governors of Madurai under thePandyakings, is particularly interesting in that it illustrates the long survival of a dynasty by migrations. Boundaries The Bana kingdom was made up of various regions at different points in time and was known by the following names: In Medieval South India TheWestern Ganga dynastyking, Prithivipati II was conferred the title \\\"lord of the Banas\\\" byParantaka ICholaafter he defeated the Banas. After the Chola King,\",\n \"the Chola King, Parantaka I deprived the Banas of their Andhrapatha kingdom between 909 and 916 AD, the Banas were subsequently found ruling various parts, such as Nellore, Guntur and Anantapur, as chieftains in medieval Andhra. In Nellore An inscription discovered in Sannamur revealed the existence of a Bana dynasty that ruled the northern part of Nellore district in the 11th century AD. The Bana king at that time was named Aggaparaju (also known as Aggraparaju alias Aggappa), who claimed his descent from Mahabali and asserted lordship over Paravipura and Nandagiri. While nothing is known about his predecessors, it is believed that Aggappa may have ruled as a vassal of the Chalukya prince, Vimaladitya. In Konidena Churrabali I or Churaballiraja I of the Banas was ruling in Konidena in the 12th century AD. Churaballi II alias Churabbiraju II, served as a Mahamandaleshwara and bore a long prasasti and titles similar to that of Aggapparaju. Hence it is suggested that he was a descendant of Aggappa Raju.\",\n \"of Aggappa Raju. Churabbiraju's only record from Konidena dated 1151 AD mentions him as \\\"Mahamandalesvara Berbaha Churraballi Raju\\\". His epithets mention he belonged to Vashista gotra. He claimed lordship over Paravipura and Nandagiri and ruled in a part ofKammanadu. Other Banas Brihatphala Based on the copper plates of Jayavarman Brihat-Phalayana, it has been suggested that Brihat-Phala means the same as Brihad-Bana, where 'phala' and 'bana' both have the same meaning as 'arrowhead'.The Brihat-phalayanas ruled in regions around Masulipatnam around the 3rd century AD.Additionally, the Saka Mahakshatrapas of Ujjain claimed Brihatphala (Bahaphala) gotra and were linked with the Ikshvakus.A record of theIkshvakusof the Guntur-Krishna region mentions that a queen named Varma Bhatarika, the wife of Maharaja Ehuvula Chantamula, and daughter-in-law of Maharaja Chantamula, is said to have belonged to Bahapala (that is, Brihat-phala or Brihatphalayana) gotra and is said to have been the daughter of a\",\n \"the daughter of a Mahakshatrapa.It may therefore be surmised that Brihatphala was possibly used as a gotra name to indicate descent from Brihad-Bana. Bana kings Some Bana kings mentioned in various historical sources are: In Sangam literature An ancient Tamil poem of theSangam period, describes a scene in front of a Vanar Palace thus: Poets are leaving the palace with plenty of gifts from the King, while the arrested rulers of smaller regions of the kingdom, who have failed to pay tribute to the King and waiting for the King's pardon happen to see the poets leaving with expensive gifts which are actually things seized by the King from them. One of them, seeing the gifts, says that it is his horse that one the poet takes away, while another one points out to his elephant, similarly and so on goes the poem, capturing the might of ancient Vanars. This poem explains the wealth and power of Southern Vanars.Kalki, in hishistoric novelPonniyin Selvan, describes a scene in which the protagonist,Vallavaraiyan\",\n \"Vandiyadevan, who he claims to be of Vanar descent, broods over the fall of his clan, singing this poem. Titles The Bana Chieftains held various titles in different regions and at different times, including Vanar, Vanara, Vanavarayar, Vanakovarayar, Ponparappinan, and some claimed titles such as \\\"Vaana-Kulothoman,\\\" \\\"Ganga-kula-uthaman,\\\" and \\\"Kaangeyar,\\\" among others. See also References\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":350,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Of the 3 largest canary islands, which has the hottest mean temperature in July as of 2024? "},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Tenerife"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenerife"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuerteventura"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Canaria"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenerife', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuerteventura', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Canaria']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenerife","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuerteventura","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Canaria"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenerife\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuerteventura\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Canaria\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Canary Islands TheCanary Islands(/kəˈnɛəri/,Spanish:Canarias,Spanish:), also known informally asthe Canaries, are a Spanish region,autonomous communityandarchipelagoin theAtlantic Ocean. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are 100 kilometres (62 miles) west ofMoroccoand theWestern Sahara. They are the southernmost of theautonomous communities of Spain. The islands have a population of 2.2 million people and are the most populousspecial territory of the European Union. The seven main islands are, from largest to smallest in area,Tenerife,Fuerteventura,Gran Canaria,Lanzarote,La Palma,La Gomera, andEl Hierro. The only other populated island isLa Graciosa, which administratively is dependent on Lanzarote. The archipelago includes many smaller islands and islets, includingAlegranza,Isla de Lobos,Montaña Clara,Roque del Oeste, andRoque del Este. It includes a number of rocks, includingGarachicoandAnaga. In ancient times, the island chain was often referred to as \"the Fortunate Isles\".The Canary Islands are the southernmost region ofSpain, and the largest and most populous archipelago ofMacaronesia.Because of their location, the Canary Islands have historically been considered a link between the four continents ofAfrica,North America,South America, andEurope. In 2023, the Canary Islands had a population of 2,236,013,with a density of 299 inhabitants per km2, making it the seventh most populous autonomous community of Spain. The population is mostly concentrated in the two capital islands: around 43% on the island of Tenerife and 40% on the island of Gran Canaria. The Canary Islands, especially Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote, are a major tourist destination, with over 16 million visitors in 2023.This is due to their beaches,subtropical climate, and important natural attractions, especiallyMaspalomasinGran Canariaand MountTeide, aWorld Heritage SiteinTenerife. Mount Teide is thehighest peak in Spainand the3rd tallest volcano in the world, measured from its base on the ocean floor.The islands have warm summers and winters warm enough for the climate to be technically tropical at sea level.The amount of precipitation and the level of maritime moderation vary depending on location and elevation. The archipelago includes green areas as well as semi-desert. The islands' high mountains are ideal for astronomical observation, because they lie above thetemperature inversionlayer. As a result, the archipelago has two professional astronomical observatories: theTeide Observatoryon Tenerife, andRoque de los Muchachos Observatoryon La Palma. In 1927, theProvince of Canary Islandswas split into two provinces. In 1982, the autonomous community of the Canary Islands was established. The cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canariaare, jointly, the capitals of the islands.Those cities are also, respectively, the capitals of theprovincesofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has been the largest city in the Canaries since 1768, except for a brief period in the 1910s.Between the1833 territorial division of Spainand 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, it was ordered by decree that the capital of the Canary Islands would be shared between two cities, and this arrangement persists to the present day.The third largest city in the Canary Islands isSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, another World Heritage Site on Tenerife. During theAge of Sail, the islands were the main stopover forSpanish galleonsduring theSpanish colonisation of the Americas, which sailed that far south in order to catch the prevailing northeasterlytrade winds. Etymology The nameIslas Canariasis likely derived from the Latin nameCanariae Insulae, meaning \"Islands of the Dogs\", perhaps because monk seals or sea dogs were abundant, a name that was evidently generalized from the ancient name of one of these islands,Canaria– presumably Gran Canaria. According to the historianPliny the Elder, the islandCanariacontained \"vast multitudes of dogs of very large size\".The connection to dogs is retained in their depiction on the islands' coat-of-arms. Other theories speculate that the name comes from theNukkariBerber tribe living in the Moroccan Atlas, named in Roman sources asCanarii, though Pliny again mentions the relation of this term with dogs. The name of the islands is not derived from thecanary bird; rather, the birds are named after the islands. Islands From west to east, the Canary Islands areEl Hierro,La Palma,La Gomera,Tenerife,Gran Canaria,Fuerteventura,Lanzarote, andLa Graciosa. North of Lanzarote are the islets ofMontaña Clara,Alegranza,Roque del EsteandRoque del Oeste, belonging to theChinijo Archipelago. Northeast of Fuerteventura is the islet ofLobos. There are a series of small adjacent rocks in the Canary Islands: theRoques de Anaga,Garachicoand Fasnia in Tenerife, and Salmor and Bonanza in El Hierro. El Hierro El Hierro, the westernmost island, covers 268.71 km2(103.75 sq mi). It is the second smallest of the major islands, and the least populous with 10,798 inhabitants. The whole island was declared a Reserve of the Biosphere in 2000. Its capital isValverde. Also known as Ferro, it was once the westernmost known land in the world. Ancient European geographers such as Ptolemy recognised the island as theprime meridianof longitude. That remained so until the 19th century, when it was displaced by the onepassing through Greenwich. Fuerteventura Fuerteventura, with a surface of 1,660 km2(640 sq mi), is the second largest island of the archipelago. It has been declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCO. It is the oldest of the islands being more eroded. Its highest point is the Peak of the Bramble, at a height of 807 metres (2,648 feet). Its capital isPuerto del Rosario. Gran Canaria Gran Canaria has 846,717 inhabitants. The capital,Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, with 377,203 inhabitants, is the most populous city and shares the status of capital of the Canaries with Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Gran Canaria's surface area is 1,560 km2(600 sq mi). Roque Nublo 1,813 metres (5,948 feet) and Pico de las Nieves (\"Peak of Snow\") 1,949 metres (6,394 feet) are located in the center of the island. On the south of the island are the Maspalomas Dunes (Gran Canaria). La Gomera La Gomera (informally known as 'Isla Colombina') has an area of 369.76 km2(142.77 sq mi) and is the second least populous island with 21,136 inhabitants. It has been declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCO. Geologically it is one of the oldest of the archipelago. The insular capital isSan Sebastian de La Gomera.Garajonay National Parkis located on the island. Lanzarote Lanzarote is the easternmost island and one of the oldest of the archipelago, and it has shown evidence of recent volcanic activity. It has a surface of 845.94 km2(326.62 sq mi), and a population of 149,183 inhabitants, including the adjacent islets of the Chinijo Archipelago. The capital isArrecife, with 56,834 inhabitants. Chinijo Archipelago The Chinijo Archipelago includes the islandsLa Graciosa,Alegranza,Montaña Clara,Roque del EsteandRoque del Oeste. It has a surface of 40.8 km2(15.8 sq mi), and only La Graciosa is populated, with 658 inhabitants. With 29 km2(11 sq mi), La Graciosa is the largest island of the Chinijo Archipelago and the smallest inhabited island of the Canaries. La Palma La Palma, with 81,863 inhabitants covering an area of 708.32 km2(273.48 sq mi), is in its entirety a biosphere reserve. For long it showed no signs of volcanic activity, even though the volcanoTeneguíaentered into eruption last in 1971. On 19 September 2021, the volcanicCumbre Viejaon the islanderupted.It is the second-highest island of the Canaries, with the Roque de los Muchachos at 2,423 metres (7,949 feet) as its highest point.Santa Cruz de La Palma, known to those on the island as simply \"Santa Cruz\", is its capital. Tenerife Tenerife is, with its area of 2,034 km2(785 sq mi), the most extensive island of the Canary Islands. With 904,713 inhabitants, it is the most populated island of the archipelago and Spain. Two of the islands' principal cities are located on it: the capital,Santa Cruz de TenerifeandSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, a World Heritage Site.San Cristóbal de La Laguna, the second city of the island, is home to the oldest university in the Canary Islands, theUniversity of La Laguna.Teide, with its 3,715 metres (12,188 feet) is the highest peak ofSpainand aWorld Heritage Site.Tenerifeis the site of theworst air disasterin the history of aviation, in which 583 people were killed in the collision of twoBoeing 747son 27 March 1977. La Graciosa Graciosa Island or commonly La Graciosa is a volcanic island in the Canary Islands of Spain, located 2 km (1.2 mi) north of the island of Lanzarote across the Strait of El Río. It was formed by the Canary hotspot. The island is part of the Chinijo Archipelago and the Chinijo Archipelago Natural Park (Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo). It is administered by the municipality of Teguise. In 2018, La Graciosa was declared asthe eighth Canary Islandby theSpanish Senate,though it is not recognized as such by the Canarian administration. It is administratively dependent on the island of Lanzarote. It is the smallest and least populated of the main islands, with about 700 people. Data Physical geography Tenerifeis the largest and most populous island of the archipelago.Gran Canaria, with 865,070 inhabitants, is both the Canary Islands' second most populous island, and the third most populous one in Spain after Tenerife (966,354 inhabitants) andMajorca(896,038 inhabitants).The island ofFuerteventurais the second largest in the archipelago and located 100 km (62 mi) from the African coast. The islands form theMacaronesiaecoregionwith theAzores,Cape Verde,Madeira, and theSavage Isles.The Canary Islands is the largest and most populated archipelago of the Macaronesia region.The archipelago has seven large and several smaller islands, all of which are volcanic in origin. According to the position of the islands with respect to the north-easttrade winds, the climate can be mild and wet or very dry. Several native species formlaurisilvaforests. The individual islands in the Canary archipelago tend to have distinctmicroclimates. Those islands such asEl Hierro,La PalmaandLa Gomeralying to the west of the archipelago have a climate which is influenced by the moistCanary Current. They are well vegetated even at low levels and have extensive tracts of sub-tropical laurisilva forest. Travelling east toward the African coast, the influence of the current diminishes, and the islands become increasingly arid.FuerteventuraandLanzarote, the islands which are closest to the African mainland, are effectively desert or semi-desert. Gran Canariais known as a \"continent in miniature\" for its diverse landscapes likeMaspalomasandRoque Nublo. The north ofTenerifelies under the influence of the moist Atlantic winds and is well vegetated. The south of the island around the tourist resorts ofPlaya de las AméricasandLos Cristianosis arid. The island rises to almost 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above sea level. At altitude, in the cool relatively wet climate, forests of the endemic pinePinus canariensisthrive. Many of the plant species in the Canary Islands, like the Canary Island pine and thedragon tree,Dracaena dracoare endemic, as noted bySabin BerthelotandPhilip Barker Webbin their work,L'Histoire Naturelle des Îles Canaries(1835–50). Climate The climate is warmsubtropical/tropicaland generallyarid, moderated by the sea and in summer by thetrade winds.There are a number ofmicroclimatesand the classifications range mainly fromsemi-deserttodesert. The majority of the Canary Islands have ahot desert climate(BWh) and ahot semi-desert climate(BSh) within theKöppensystem, caused partly due to the coolCanary Current.A subtropical humid climate, which is very influenced by the ocean, is in the middle of the islands ofLa Gomera,TenerifeandLa Palma, wherelaurisilvacloud forests grow. Geology The seven major islands, one minor island, and several small islets were originally volcanic islands, formed by theCanary hotspot.The Canary Islands is the only place in Spain wherevolcanic eruptionshave been recorded during theModern Era, with some volcanoes still active (El Hierro, 2011).Volcanic islands such as those in the Canary chain often have steep ocean cliffs caused by catastrophic debris avalanches andlandslides.The island chain's most recent eruption occurred atCumbre Vieja, a volcanic ridge on La Palma,in 2021. TheTeidevolcanoon Tenerife is the highest mountain in Spain, and the third tallest volcano on Earth on a volcanic ocean island.All the islands except La Gomera have been active in the last million years. Four of them, Lanzarote, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro, have historical records of eruptions since European discovery.The islands rise from Jurassicoceanic crustassociated with the opening of the Atlantic. Underwatermagmatismbegan during the Cretaceous, and continued to the present day. The current islands reached the ocean's surface during theMiocene. The islands were once considered as a distinct physiographic section of theAtlas Mountainsprovince, which is part of the larger African Alpine System division, but are now recognized as being related to a magmatic hot spot. In the summer of 2011, a series of low-magnitude earthquakes occurred beneath El Hierro. These had a linear trend of northeast–southwest. In October a submarine eruption occurred about2 km (1+1⁄4mi) south of Restinga. This eruption produced gases and pumice, but no explosive activity was reported. The following table shows the highest mountains in each of the islands: Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Canary Islands are the birdSerinus canaria(canary) and thePhoenix canariensispalm. National parks Four of Spain's thirteen national parks are located in the Canary Islands, more than any other autonomous community. Two of these have been declaredUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesand the other two are part ofBiosphere Reserves. The parks are: Teide National Parkis the oldest and largest national park in the Canary Islands and one of the oldest in Spain. Located in the geographic centre of the island of Tenerife, it is the most visited national park in Spain. In 2010, it became the most visited national park in Europe and second worldwide.The park's highlight is theTeidevolcano. Standing at an altitude of 3,715 metres (12,188 ft),it is the highest elevation in Spain and the third largest volcano on Earth from its base. In 2007, the Teide National Park was declared one of the12 Treasures of Spain. Politics Governance The regional executive body, theParliament of the Canary Islands, is presided over byFernando Clavijo Batlle(Canarian Coalition), the currentPresident of the Canary Islands. The members of the regional legislature, theParliament of the Canary Islands, has 70 elected legislators. Thelast regional electiontook place in May 2023. The islands have 14 seats in theSpanish Senate. Of these, 11 seats are directly elected, 3 for Gran Canaria, 3 for Tenerife, and 1 each for Lanzarote (including La Graciosa), Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro. The other 3 are appointed by the regional legislature. Political geography TheAutonomous Community of the Canary Islandshas twoprovinces(provincias),Las PalmasandSanta Cruz de Tenerife, whose capitals,Las Palmas de Gran CanariaandSanta Cruz de Tenerife, are capitals of the autonomous community. Each of the seven major islands are ruled by an island council named aCabildo Insular. Each island is subdivided into smallermunicipalities(municipios).Las Palmas is divided into 34 municipalities, andSanta Cruz de Tenerife is divided into 54 municipalities. The international boundary of the Canaries is disputed inMorocco-Spain relations. In 2022 the UN declared the Canary Island's territorial waters as being Moroccan coast and Morocco has authorisedgas and oil explorationin what the Canary Islands states to be Canarian territorial waters andWestern Saharawaters.Morocco's official position is that international laws regarding territorial limits do not authorise Spain to claim seabed boundaries based on the territory of the Canaries, since the Canary Islands enjoy a large degree of autonomy. In fact, the islands do not enjoy any special degree of autonomy, as each one of the Spanish regions is considered anautonomous community, with equal status to the European ones. Under theLaw of the Sea, the only islands not granted territorial waters or anexclusive economic zone(EEZ) are those that are not fit for human habitation, or do not have an economic life of their own, which is not the case of the Canary Islands. Canarian nationalism There are some pro-independence political parties, like theNational Congress of the Canaries(CNC) and thePopular Front of the Canary Islands. Their popular support is almost insignificant, with no presence in either the autonomous parliament or thecabildos insulares.In a 2012 study by theCentro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, when asked about national identity, the majority of respondents from the Canary Islands (53.8%) considered themselves Spanish and Canarian in equal measures, followed by 24% who consider themselves more Canarian than Spanish. 6.1% of the respondents considered themselves only Canarian, and 7% considered themselves only Spanish. Defense The defense of the territory is the responsibility of theSpanish Armed Forces. Components of theArmy,Navy,Air Forceand theCivil Guardare based in the territory. History Ancient and pre-Hispanic times Before the arrival of humans, the Canaries were inhabited by prehistoric animals including the giant lizard (Gallotia goliath), theTenerifeandGran Canaria giant rats,and giant tortoises,Geochelone burchardiandGeochelone vulcanica. Although the original settlement of what are now called the Canary Islands is not entirely clear, linguistic, genetic, and archaeological analyses indicate thatindigenouspeoples were living on the Canary Islands at least 2,000 years ago, possibly 3,000, and that they shared a common origin with theBerberson the nearby North African coast.Reaching the islands may have taken place using several small boats, landing on the easternmost islands Lanzarote and Fuerteventura. These groups came to be known collectively as theGuanches, althoughGuancheshad been the name for only the indigenous inhabitants of Tenerife. According to a 2024 study by the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, there is archaeological evidence that the Romans were the first to colonise the islands, during the period from the 1st centuryBCEto the 1st century CE. There was no overlap with the occupation by the people who were inhabiting the islands at the time of the Spanish conquest, who had first arrived sometime between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE. As José Farrujia describes, 'The indigenous Canarians lived mainly in natural caves, usually near the coast, 300 to 500 metres (1,000 to 1,600 ft) above sea level. These caves were sometimes isolated but more commonly formed settlements, with burial caves nearby'.Archaeological work has uncovered a rich culture visible through artefacts ofceramics, human figures, fishing, hunting and farming tools, plant fibre clothing and vessels, as well as cave paintings. At Lomo de los Gatos on Gran Canaria, a site occupied from 1,600 years ago up until the 1960s, round stone houses, complex burial sites, and associated artefacts have been found.Across the islands are thousands ofLibyco-Berberalphabet inscriptions scattered and they have been extensively documented by many linguists. The social structure of indigenous Canarians encompassed \"a system ofmatrilinealdescent in most of the islands, in which inheritance was passed on via the female line. Social status and wealth were hereditary and determined the individual's position in the social pyramid, which consisted of the king, the relatives of the king, the lower nobility, villeins, plebeians, and finally executioners, butchers, embalmers, and prisoners\". Their religion wasanimist, centring on the sun and moon, as well as natural features such as mountains. Exploration The islands may have been visited by thePhoenicians, theGreeks, and theCarthaginians. KingJuba II, CaesarAugustus'sNumidianprotégé, is credited with discovering the islands for the Western world. According toPliny the Elder, Juba found the islands uninhabited, but found \"a small temple of stone\" and \"some traces of buildings\".Juba dispatched a naval contingent to re-open the dye production facility atMogadorin what is now western Morocco in the early first centuryAD.That same naval force was subsequently sent on an exploration of the Canary Islands, using Mogador as their mission base. The names given by Romans to the individual islands wereNinguariaorNivaria(Tenerife),Canaria(Gran Canaria),PluvialiaorInvale(Lanzarote),Ombrion(La Palma),Planasia(Fuerteventura),IunoniaorJunonia(El Hierro) andCapraria(La Gomera). From the 14th century onward, numerous visits were made by sailors fromMajorca,Portugal, andGenoa.Lancelotto Malocellosettled on Lanzarote in 1312. The Majorcans established amissionwith a bishop in the islands that lasted from 1350 to 1400. Castilian conquest In 1402, the Castilian colonisation of the islands began with the expedition of the French explorersJean de BéthencourtandGadifer de la Salle, nobles andvassalsofHenry III of Castile, to Lanzarote. From there, they went on to conquer Fuerteventura (1405) and El Hierro. These invasions were \"brutal cultural and military clashes between the indigenous population and the Castilians\" lasting over a century due to formidable resistance by indigenous Canarians.ProfessorMohamed Adhikarihas defined the conquest of the islands as agenocideof theGuanches. Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands, but still recognised King Henry III as his overlord. It was not a simple military enterprise, given the aboriginal resistance on some islands. Neither was it politically, since the particular interests of the nobility (determined to strengthen their economic and political power through the acquisition of the islands) conflicted with those of the states, particularly Castile, which were in the midst of territorial expansion and in a process of strengthening of the crown against the nobility. Historians distinguish two periods in the conquest of the Canary Islands: Aristocratic conquest(conquista señorial): This refers to the early conquests carried out by the nobility, for their own benefit and without the direct participation of the Crown of Castile, which merely granted rights of conquest in exchange for pacts of vassalage between the noble conqueror and the Crown. One can identify within this period an early phase known as the Betancurian or Norman conquest, carried out byJean de Bethencourt(who was originally from Normandy) andGadifer de la Sallebetween 1402 and 1405, which involved the islands ofLanzarote,El Hierro, andFuerteventura. The subsequent phase is known as the Castilian conquest, carried out by Castilian nobles who acquired, through purchases, assignments and marriages, the previously conquered islands and also incorporated the island ofLa Gomeraaround 1450. Royal conquest(conquista realenga): This defines the conquest between 1478 and 1496, carried out directly by the Crown of Castile, during the reign of theCatholic Monarchs, who armed and partly financed the conquest of those islands which were still unconquered:Gran Canaria,La PalmaandTenerife. This phase of the conquest came to an end in the year 1496, with the dominion of the island of Tenerife, bringing the entire Canarian Archipelago under the control of the Crown of Castile. Béthencourt also established a base on the island of La Gomera, but it would be many years before the island was fully conquered. The natives of La Gomera, and of Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La Palma, resisted the Castilian invaders for almost a century. In 1448, Maciot de Béthencourt sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's PrinceHenry the Navigator, an action that was accepted by neither the natives nor the Castilians. DespitePope Nicholas Vruling that the Canary Islands were under Portuguese control, the crisis swelled to a revolt which lasted until 1459 with the final expulsion of the Portuguese. In 1479, Portugal and Castile signed theTreaty of Alcáçovas, which settled disputes between Castile and Portugal over the control of the Atlantic. This treaty recognized Castilian control of the Canary Islands but also confirmed Portuguese possession of theAzores,Madeira, and theCape Verde islands, and gave the Portuguese rights to any further islands or lands in the Atlantic that might be discovered. The Castilians continued to dominate the islands, but due to the topography and the resistance of the native Guanches, they did not achieve complete control until 1496, when Tenerife and La Palma were finally subdued byAlonso Fernández de Lugo. As a result of this \"the native pre-Hispanic population declined quickly due to war, epidemics, and slavery\".The Canaries were incorporated into theKingdom of Castile. After the conquest and the introduction of slavery After the conquest, the Castilians imposed a new economic model, based on single-crop cultivation: firstsugarcane; then wine, an important item of trade withEngland. Gran Canaria was conquered by theCrown of Castileon 6 March 1480, and Tenerife was conquered in 1496, and each had its own governor. There has been speculation that the abundance ofRoccella tinctoriaon the Canary Islands offered a profit motive forJean de Béthencourtduring his conquest of the islands. Lichen has been used for centuries to make dyes. This includes royal purple colors derived fromR. tinctoria, also known as orseille. The objective of the Spanish Crown to convert the islands into a powerhouse of cultivation required a much larger labour force. This was attained through a brutal practice of enslavement, not only of indigenous Canarians but large numbers of Africans who were forcibly taken from North and Sub-Saharan Africa.Whilst the first slave plantations in the Atlantic region were acrossMadeira,Cape Verde, and the Canary Islands, it was only the Canary Islands which had an indigenous population and were therefore invaded rather than newly occupied. This agriculture industry was largely based on sugarcane and the Castilians converted large swaths of the landscape for sugarcane production, and the processing and manufacturing of sugar, facilitated by enslaved labourers.The cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canariabecame a stopping point for the Spanish traders, as well asconquistadors, and missionaries on their way to theNew World. This trade route brought great wealth to the Castilian social sectors of the islands and soon were attracting merchants and adventurers from all over Europe. As the wealth grew, enslaved African workers were also forced into demeaning domestic roles for the rich Castilians on the islands such as servants in their houses. Research on the skeletons of some of these enslaved workers from the burial site of Finca Clavijo on Gran Canaria have showed that 'all of the adults buried in Finca Clavijo undertook extensive physical activity that involved significant stress on the spine and appendicular skeleton' that result from relentless hard labour, akin to the physical abnormalities found with enslaved peoples from other sugarcane plantations around the world.These findings of the physical strain that the enslaved at Finca Clavijo were subjected to in order to provide wealth for the Spanish elite has inspired a poem by British writerRalph Hoyte, entitledClose to the Bone. As a result of the huge wealth generated, magnificent palaces and churches were built on La Palma during this busy, prosperous period. The Church of El Salvador survives as one of the island's finest examples of the architecture of the 16th century. Civilian architecture survives in forms such asCasas de los Sánchez-OchandoorCasa Quintana. The Canaries' wealth invited attacks bypiratesandprivateers.OttomanTurkishadmiraland privateerKemal Reisventured into the Canaries in 1501, whileMurat Reis the Eldercaptured Lanzarote in 1585. The most severe attack took place in 1599, during theDutch Revolt. ADutchfleet of 74 ships and 12,000 men, commanded byPieter van der Does, attacked the capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (the city had 3,500 of Gran Canaria's 8,545 inhabitants). The Dutch attacked the Castillo de la Luz, which guarded the harbor. The Canarians evacuated civilians from the city, and the Castillo surrendered (but not the city). The Dutch moved inland, but Canarian cavalry drove them back to Tamaraceite, near the city. The Dutch then laid siege to the city, demanding the surrender of all its wealth. They received 12 sheep and 3 calves. Furious, the Dutch sent 4,000 soldiers to attack the Council of the Canaries, who were sheltering in the village of Santa Brígida. Three hundred Canarian soldiers ambushed the Dutch in the village of Monte Lentiscal, killing 150 and forcing the rest to retreat. The Dutch concentrated on Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, attempting to burn it down. The Dutch pillagedMaspalomas, on the southern coast of Gran Canaria,San Sebastiánon La Gomera, andSanta Cruzon La Palma, but eventually gave up the siege of Las Palmas and withdrew. In 1618 theBarbary piratesfrom North Africa attacked Lanzarote and La Gomera taking 1000 captives to be sold asslaves.Another noteworthy attack occurred in 1797, whenSanta Cruz de Tenerifewas attacked by a British fleet underHoratio Nelsonon 25 July. The British were repulsed, losing almost 400 men. It was during this battle that Nelson lost his right arm. 18th to 19th century The sugar-based economy of the islands faced stiff competition from Spain'sCaribbeancolonies. Low sugar prices in the 19th century caused severe recessions on the islands. A new cash crop,cochineal(cochinilla), came into cultivation during this time, reinvigorating the islands' economy. During this time the Canarian-American trade was developed, in which Canarian products such as cochineal, sugarcane and rum were sold in American ports such asVeracruz,Campeche,La GuairaandHavana, among others. By the end of the 18th century, Canary Islanders had already emigrated to Spanish American territories, such asHavana,Veracruz, andSanto Domingo,San Antonio, TexasandSt. Bernard Parish, Louisiana.These economic difficulties spurred mass emigration during the 19th and first half of the 20th century, primarily to the Americas. Between 1840 and 1890 as many as 40,000 Canary Islanders emigrated toVenezuela. Also, thousands of Canarians moved toPuerto Ricowhere the Spanish monarchy felt that Canarians would adapt to island life better than other immigrants from the mainland of Spain. Deeply entrenched traditions, such as the Mascaras Festival in the town ofHatillo, Puerto Rico, are an example of Canarian culture still preserved in Puerto Rico. Similarly, many thousands of Canarians emigrated to the shores ofCuba.During theSpanish–American Warof 1898, the Spanish fortified the islands against a possible American attack, but no such event took place. Romantic period and scientific expeditions Sirera and Renn (2004)distinguish two different types of expeditions, or voyages, during the period 1770–1830, which they term \"the Romantic period\": First are \"expeditions financed by the States, closely related with the official scientific Institutions. characterised by having strict scientific objectives (and inspired by) the spirit of Illustration and progress\". In this type of expedition, Sirera and Renn include the following travellers: The second type of expedition identified by Sirera and Renn is one that took place starting from more or less private initiatives. Among these, the key exponents were the following: Sirera and Renn identify the period 1770–1830 as one in which \"In a panorama dominated until that moment by France and England enters with strength and brio Germany of the Romantic period whose presence in the islands will increase\". Early 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, the British introduced a newcash-crop, thebanana, the export of which was controlled by companies such asFyffes. 30 November 1833 theProvince of Canary Islandshad been created with the capital being declared as Santa Cruz de Tenerife.The rivalry between the cities of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife for the capital of the islands led to the division of thearchipelagointo two provinces on 23 September 1927. During the time of theSecond Spanish Republic,Marxistandanarchistworkers' movements began to develop, led by figures such as Jose Miguel Perez andGuillermo Ascanio. However, outside of a few municipalities, these organisations were a minority and fell easily to Nationalist forces during theSpanish Civil War. Franco regime In 1936,Francisco Francowas appointed General Commandant of the Canaries. He joined the military revolt of 17 July which began theSpanish Civil War. Franco quickly took control of the archipelago, except for a few points of resistance on La Palma and in the town ofVallehermoso, on La Gomera. Though there was never a war in the islands, the post-war suppression of political dissent on the Canaries was most severe. During the Second World War,Winston Churchillprepared plans for the British seizure of the Canary Islands as anaval base, in the event ofGibraltarbeing invaded from the Spanish mainland.The planned operation was known asOperation Pilgrim. Opposition to Franco's regime did not begin to organise until the late 1950s, which experienced an upheaval of parties such as theCommunist Party of Spainand the formation of various nationalist, leftist parties. During theIfni War, the Franco regime set upconcentration campson the islands toextrajudicially imprisonthose in Western Sahara suspected of disloyalty to Spain, many of whom were colonial troops recruited on the spot but were later deemed to be potentialfifth columnistsand deported to the Canary Islands. These camps were characterised by the use of forced labour for infrastructure projects and highly unsanitary conditions resulting in the widespread occurrence oftuberculosis. Self-governance After the death of Franco, there was a pro-independence armed movement based inAlgeria, theMovement for the Independence and Self-determination of the Canaries Archipelago(MAIAC). In 1968, theOrganisation of African Unityrecognized the MAIAC as a legitimateAfrican independence movement, and declared the Canary Islands as an African territory still under foreign rule. After the establishment of a democraticconstitutional monarchyin Spain,autonomywas granted to the Canaries via a law passed in 1982, with a newly established autonomous devolved government and parliament. In 1983, the first autonomous elections were held. TheSpanish Socialist Workers' Party(PSOE) won. Capitals At present, the Canary Islands is the only autonomous community in Spain that has two capitals:Santa Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canaria, since theStatute of Autonomy of the Canary Islandswas created in 1982. The political capital of the archipelago did not exist as such until the nineteenth century. The first cities founded by theEuropeansat the time of the conquest of the Canary Islands in the 15th century were:Telde(inGran Canaria),San Marcial del Rubicón(inLanzarote) andBetancuria(inFuerteventura). These cities boasted the first European institutions present in the archipelago, includingCatholicbishoprics.Although, because the period of splendor of these cities developed before the total conquest of the archipelago and its incorporation into theCrown of Castilenever had a political and real control of the entire Canary archipelago. The function of a Canarian city with full jurisdiction for the entire archipelago only exists after the conquest of the Canary Islands, although originallyde facto, that is, without legal and real meaning and linked to the headquarters of theCanary Islands General Captaincy. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria was the first city that exercised this function. This is because the residence of the Captain General of the Canary Islands was in this city during part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.In May 1661, the Captain General of the Canary Islands,Jerónimo de Benavente y Quiñones, moved the headquarters of the captaincy to the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Lagunaon the island ofTenerife.This was due to the fact that this island since the conquest was the most populated, productive and with the highest economic expectations.La Laguna would be considered thede factocapital of the archipelagountil the official status of the capital of Canary Islands in the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife was confirmed in the 19th century, due in part to the constant controversies and rivalries between the bourgeoisies of San Cristóbal de La Laguna and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria for the economic, political and institutional hegemony of the archipelago. Already in 1723, the Captain General of the Canary IslandsLorenzo Fernandez de Villavicenciohad moved the headquarters of the General Captaincy of the Canary Islands from San Cristóbal de La Laguna to Santa Cruz de Tenerife. This decision continued without pleasing the society of the island of Gran Canaria.It would be after the creation of theProvince of Canary Islandsin November 1833 in which Santa Cruz would become the first fully official capital of the Canary Islands (De jureand not ofde factoas happened previously).Santa Cruz de Tenerife would be the capital of the Canary archipelago until during the Government of GeneralPrimo de Riverain 1927 the Province of Canary Islands was split in two provinces:Las Palmaswith capital in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, andSanta Cruz de Tenerifewith capital in the homonymous city. Finally, with the Statute of Autonomy of the Canary Islands in 1982 and the creation of the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands, the capital of the archipelago between Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife is fixed, which is how it remains today. Demographics The Canary Islands have a population of 2,153,389 inhabitants (2019), making it the eighth most populous of Spain'sautonomous communities.The total area of the archipelago is 7,493 km2(2,893 sq mi),resulting in a population density of 287.4 inhabitants per square kilometre. The population of the islands according to the 2019 data are: The Canary Islands have become home to many European residents, mainly coming from Italy, Germany and the UK. Because of the vast immigration to Venezuela and Cuba during the second half of the 20th century and the later return to the Canary Islands of these people along with their families, there are many residents whose country of origin wasVenezuela(66,593) orCuba(41,807). Since the 1990s, manyillegal migrantshave reached the Canary Islands,MelillaandCeuta, using them as entry points to the EU. Canarian Spanish TheSpanish languagevariety that is typical and conventional in the Canary Islands is usually called theCanarian Spanish,Canarian dialectorCanarian speech, and is used by the approximately two million Spanish speakers who live in the Canary Islands. It is a dialect variety that falls within what has been called the \"Atlantic variety\", similar to those of Spanish-speaking America, and also to those of the south of the Iberian Peninsula, especially western Andalusia. The dialect most similar to the Canarian dialect, given the historical link between both areas, is the Caribbean dialect, spoken in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic), and the coast of theCaribbean Sea(Venezuela, northern Colombia, and Panama). In addition, lexically, the Canarian dialect is widely influenced by thePortuguese language, from which a certain part of its lexicon is derived. Religion TheCatholic Churchhas been the majority religion in the archipelago for more than five centuries, ever since theConquest of the Canary Islands. There are also several other religious communities. Roman Catholic Church The overwhelming majority of native Canarians areRoman Catholic(76.7%)with various smaller foreign-born populations of other Christian beliefs such asProtestants. The appearance of theVirgin of Candelaria(Patron of Canary Islands) was credited with moving the Canary Islands toward Christianity. Two Catholic saints were born in the Canary Islands:Peter of Saint Joseph de BetancurandJosé de Anchieta.Both born on the island of Tenerife, they were respectively missionaries inGuatemalaandBrazil. The Canary Islands are divided into two Catholic dioceses, each governed by a bishop: Other religions Separate from the overwhelming Catholic majority are a minority ofMuslims.Among the followers ofIslam, theIslamic Federation of the Canary Islandsexists to represent the Islamic community in the Canary Islands as well as to provide practical support to members of the Islamic community.For its part, there is also theEvangelical Council of the Canary Islandsin the archipelago. Other religious faiths represented includeJehovah's Witnesses,The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saintsas well asHinduism.Minority religions are also present such as theChurch of the Guanche Peoplewhich is classified as aneo-pagannative religion.Also present areBuddhism,Judaism,Baháʼí,African religion,andChinese religions. Statistics The distribution of beliefs in 2012 according to the CIS Barometer Autonomy was as follows: Population genetics Economy and environment The economy is based primarilyon tourism, which makes up 32% of the GDP. The Canaries receive about 12 million tourists per year. Construction makes up nearly 20% of the GDP and tropical agriculture, primarily bananas and tobacco, are grown for export to Europe and the Americas. Ecologists are concerned that the resources, especially in the morearidislands, are beingoverexploitedbut there are still many agricultural resources liketomatoes,potatoes,onions,cochineal,sugarcane,grapes,vines,dates,oranges,lemons,figs,wheat,barley,maize,apricots,peachesandalmonds. Water resources are also being overexploited, due to the high water usage by tourists.Also, some islands (such as Gran Canaria and Tenerife)overexploit the ground water. This is done in such degree that, according to European and Spanish legal regulations, the current situation is not acceptable. To address the problems, good governance and a change in the water use paradigm have been proposed. These solutions depend largely oncontrolling water useand on demand management. As this is administratively difficult and politically unpalatable, most action is currently directed at increasing the public offer of water through import from outside; a decision which is economically, politically and environmentally questionable. To bring in revenue for environmental protection, innovation, training and water sanitation atourist taxwas considered in 2018, along with a doubling of theecotaxand restrictions on holiday rents in the zones with the greatest pressure of demand. The economy is€25 billion (2001 GDP figures). The islands experienced continuous growth during a 20-year period, up until 2001, at a rate of approximately 5% annually. This growth was fueled mainly by huge amounts offoreign direct investment, mostly to develop tourism real estate (hotels and apartments), and European Funds (near €11 billion in the period from 2000 to 2007), since the Canary Islands are labelled Region Objective 1 (eligible for euro structural funds).Additionally, the EU allows the Canary Islands Government to offer special tax concessions for investors who incorporate under the Zona Especial Canaria (ZEC) regime and create more than five jobs. Spain gave permission in August 2014 forRepsoland its partners to exploreoilandnatural gasprospects off the Canary Islands, involving an investment of €7.5 billion over four years, to commence at the end of 2016. Repsol at the time said the area could ultimately produce 100,000 barrels of oil a day, which would meet 10 percent of Spain's energy needs.However, the analysis of samples obtained did not show the necessary volume nor quality to consider future extraction, and the project was scrapped. Despite currently having very high dependence on fossil fuels, research on the renewable energy potential concluded that a high potential for renewable energy technologies exists on the archipelago. This, in such extent even that a scenario pathway to 100% renewable energy supply by 2050 has been put forward. The Canary Islands have great natural attractions, climate andbeachesmake the islands a major tourist destination, being visited each year by about 12 million people (11,986,059 in 2007, noting 29% ofBritons, 22% of Spanish (from outside the Canaries), and 21% ofGermans). Among the islands, Tenerife has the largest number of tourists received annually, followed by Gran Canaria and Lanzarote.The archipelago's principal tourist attraction is theTeide National Park(in Tenerife) where the highest mountain in Spain and third largestvolcanoin the world (MountTeide), receives over 2.8 million visitors annually. The combination of high mountains, proximity to Europe, and clean air has made theRoque de los Muchachospeak (on La Palma island) a leading location fortelescopeslike theGrantecan. The islands, as an autonomous region of Spain, are in theEuropean Unionand theSchengen Area. They are in theEuropean Union Customs Unionbut outside theVATarea.Instead of VAT there is a local Sales Tax (IGIC) which has a general rate of 7%, an increased tax rate of 13.5%, a reduced tax rate of 3% and a zero tax rate for certain basic need products and services. Consequently, some products are subject to additional VAT if being exported from the islands into mainland Spain or the rest of the EU. Canarian time isWestern European Time(WET), orGMT. In summer, one hour ahead of GMT. Canarian time is one hour behind mainland Spain, and the same time as the UK, Ireland and mainland Portugal all year round. Tourism statistics The number of tourists who visited the Canary Islands in 2018 was 16,150,054. In 2019, there were 15,589,290 arrivals. GDP statistics The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the Canary Islands in 2015 was €40,923 million, €19,222 per capita. The figures by island are as follows: Transport The Canary Islands have eight airports altogether, two of the main ports of Spain, and an extensive network ofautopistas(highways) and other roads. For a road map see multimap.Traffic congestionis sometimes a problem in Tenerife and on Grand Canaria. Largeferryboats and fast ferries link most of the islands. Both types can transport large numbers of passengers, cargo, and vehicles. Fast ferries are made of aluminium and powered by modern and efficient diesel engines, while conventional ferries have a steel hull and are powered by heavy oil. Fast ferries travel in excess of 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph); conventional ferries travel in excess of 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph), but are slower than fast ferries.A typical ferry ride between La Palma and Tenerife may take up to eight hours or more while a fast ferry takes about two and a half hours and between Tenerife and Gran Canaria can be about one hour. The largest airport is theGran Canaria Airport. Tenerife has two airports,Tenerife North AirportandTenerife South Airport.The island of Tenerife gathers the highest passenger movement of all the Canary Islands through its two airports.The two main islands (Tenerife and Gran Canaria) receive the greatest number of passengers.Tenerife 6,204,499 passengers and Gran Canaria 5,011,176 passengers. Theport of Las Palmasis first in freight traffic in the islands,while theport of Santa Cruz de Tenerifeis the first fishing port with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Spanish government publication Statistical Yearbook of State Ports. Similarly, it is the second port in Spain as regards ship traffic, only surpassed by thePort of AlgecirasBay.The port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. The port ofLos Cristianos(Tenerife) has the greatest number of passengers recorded in the Canary Islands, followed by the port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife.The Port of Las Palmas is the third port in the islands in passengers and first in number of vehicles transported. TheSS Americawas beached at the Canary islands on 18 January 1994. However, the ocean liner broke apart after the course of several years and eventually sank beneath the surface. Rail transport TheTenerife Tramopened in 2007 and is currently the only one in the Canary Islands, travelling between the cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Three more railway lines are being planned for the Canary Islands: Airports Ports Health TheServicio Canario de Saludis an autonomous body of administrative nature attached to the Ministry responsible for Health of the Government of the Canary Islands. Wildlife Fauna The bird life includes European and African species, such as theblack-bellied sandgrouse,Canary, Graja, a subspecies ofred-billed choughendemic to La Palma,Gran Canaria blue chaffinch,Tenerife blue chaffinch,Canary Islands chiffchaff,Fuerteventura chat,Tenerife goldcrest,La Palma chaffinch,Canarian Egyptian vulture,Bolle's pigeon,Laurel pigeon,Plain swift, andHoubara bustard. Terrestrial fauna includes theEl Hierro giant lizard,Tachina canariensis,La Gomera giant lizard, and theLa Palma giant lizard. Mammals include theCanarian shrew,Canary big-eared bat, theAlgerian hedgehog, and the more recently introducedmouflon. Extinct fauna The Canary Islands were previously inhabited by a variety of endemic animals, such as extinct giant lizards (Gallotia goliath), giant tortoises (Centrochelys burchardiandC. vulcanica),andTenerifeandGran Canariagiant rats (Canariomys bravoiandC. tamarani),among others. Extinct birds known only fromPleistoceneandHoloceneage bones include theCanary Islands quail(Coturnix gomerae),Dune shearwater(Puffinus holeae),Lava shearwater(P. olsoni),Trias greenfinch(Chloris triasi),Slender-billed greenfinch(C. aurelioi) and theLong-legged bunting(Emberiza alcoveri). Marine life Themarine lifefound in the Canary Islands is also varied, being a combination ofNorth Atlantic,Mediterraneanandendemicspecies. In recent years, the increasing popularity of bothscuba divingandunderwater photographyhave provided biologists with much new information on the marine life of the islands. Fish species found in the islands include many species ofshark,ray,moray eel,bream,jack,grunt,scorpionfish,triggerfish,grouper,goby, andblenny. In addition, there are many invertebrate species, includingsponge,jellyfish,anemone,crab,mollusc,sea urchin,starfish,sea cucumberandcoral. There are a total of five different species ofmarine turtlethat are sighted periodically in the islands, the most common of these being theendangeredloggerhead sea turtle.The other four are thegreen sea turtle,hawksbill sea turtle,leatherback sea turtleandKemp's ridley sea turtle. Currently, there are no signs that any of these species breed in the islands, and so those seen in the water are usuallymigrating. However, it is believed that some of these species may have bred in the islands in the past, and there are records of several sightings of leatherback sea turtle on beaches in Fuerteventura, adding credibility to the theory. Marine mammals include the large varieties ofcetaceansincluding rare and not well-known species (see more details in theMarine life of the Canary Islands).Hooded sealshave also been known to be vagrant in the Canary Islands every now and then. The Canary Islands were also formerly home to a population of the rarestpinnipedin the world, theMediterranean monk seal. Native flora gallery Holidays Some holidays of those celebrated in the Canary Islands are international and national, others are regional holidays and others are of insular character. The official day of the autonomous community isCanary Islands Dayon 30 May. The anniversary of the first session of theParliament of the Canary Islands, based in the city ofSanta Cruz de Tenerife, held on 30 May 1983, is commemorated with this day. The common festive calendar throughout the Canary Islands is as follows: In addition, each of the islands has an island festival, in which it is a holiday only on that specific island. These are the festivities of island patrons saints of each island. Organized chronologically are: The most famous festivals of the Canary Islands is the carnival. It is the most famous and international festival of the archipelago. The carnival is celebrated in all the islands and all its municipalities, perhaps the two busiest are those of the two Canarian capitals; theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife(Tourist Festival of International Interest) and theCarnival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. It is celebrated on the streets between the months of February and March. But the rest of the islands of the archipelago have their carnivals with their own traditions among which stand out: The Festival of the Carneros ofEl Hierro, the Festival of the Diabletes ofTeguiseinLanzarote, Los Indianos deLa Palma, the Carnival ofSan Sebastián de La Gomeraand the Carnival ofPuerto del RosarioinFuerteventura. Science and technology In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14ground stationsin theManned Space Flight Network(MSFN) to support theNASAspace program.Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including theApollo 11Moon landings andSkylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of theESAnetwork. Because of the remote location, a number ofastronomical observatoriesare located in the archipelago, including theTeide Observatoryon Tenerife, theRoque de los Muchachos Observatoryon La Palma, and theTemisas Astronomical Observatoryon Gran Canaria. Tenerife is the home of theInstituto de Astrofísica de Canarias(Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González (Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at theUniversity of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). The latter is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\"), located in various parts of Spain. The Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands) is based in Tenerife. Sports A unique form of wrestling known asCanarian wrestling(lucha canaria) has opponents stand in a special area called a \"terrero\" and try to throw each other to the ground using strength and quick movements. Another sport is the \"game of the sticks\" (palo canario) where opponents fence with long sticks. This may have come about from the shepherds of the islands who would challenge each other using their long walking sticks. Furthermore, there is theshepherd's jump(salto del pastor). This involves using a long stick to vault over an open area. This sport possibly evolved from the shepherd's need to occasionally get over an open area in the hills as they were tending their sheep. The two mainfootballteams in the archipelago are: theCD Tenerife(founded in 1912) andUD Las Palmas(founded in 1949). As of the 2023/2024 season, UD Las Palmas plays in La Liga, the top tier of Spanish football. CD Tenerife however plays in The Segunda Divisón. When in the same division, the clubs contest theCanary Islands derby. There are smaller clubs also playing in the mainlandSpanish football league system, most notablyUD LanzaroteandCD Laguna, although no other Canarian clubs have played in the top flight. The mountainous terrain of the Canary Islands also caters to the growing popularity ofultra runningandultramarathonsas host of annual competitive long-distance events includingCajaMar Tenerife BluetrailonTenerife,TransvulcaniaonLa Palma,TransgrancanariaonGran Canaria, and the HalfMarathon des SablesonFuerteventura. A yearlyIronman Triathlonhas been taking place onLanzarotesince 1992. Notable athletes See also History Geography Culture References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links","Tenerife Tenerife(/ˌtɛnəˈriːf/TEN-ə-REEF;Spanish:ⓘ; formerly spelledTeneriffe) is the largest and most populous island of theCanary Islands.It is home to 42.9% of the total population of thearchipelago.With a land area of 2,034.38 square kilometres (785.48 sq mi) and a population of 948,815 inhabitants as of January 2023,it is also the most populous island ofSpainand ofMacaronesia. Approximately five million tourists visit Tenerife each year; it is the most visited island in the archipelago.It is one of the most important tourist destinations in Spainand the world,hosting one of the world's largestcarnivals, theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The capital of the island,Santa Cruz de Tenerife, is also the seat of the island council (cabildo insular). That city andLas Palmas de Gran Canariaare the co-capitals of theautonomous communityof theCanary Islands. The two cities are both home to governmental institutions, such as the offices of the presidency and the ministries. This has been the arrangement since 1927, when the Crown ordered it. (After the1833 territorial division of Spain, until 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands).Santa Cruz contains the modernAuditorio de Tenerife, the architectural symbol of the Canary Islands. The island is home to theUniversity of La Laguna. Founded in 1792 inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, it is the oldest university in the Canaries. The city of La Laguna is aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. It is the second most populous city on the island, and the third most populous in the archipelago. It was the capital of the Canary Islands before Santa Cruz replaced it in 1833.Tenerife is served by two airports;Tenerife North AirportandTenerife South Airport. Teide National Park, located in the center of the island, is also a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site. It includesMount Teide, which has the highest elevation in Spain, and the highest elevation among all the islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It is also the third-largest volcano in the world, when measured from its base.Another geographical feature of the island, theMacizo de Anaga(massif), has been designated as a UNESCOBiosphere Reservesince 2015.Tenerife also has the largest number ofendemicspecies in Europe. Toponymy The name 'Tenerife' likely comes fromTamazight, but there is no consensus on its correct interpretation. The island'sindigenous people, theGuancheBerbers, referred to the island asAchinetorChenetintheir language(variant spellings are found in the literature). According toPliny the Younger,BerberkingJuba IIsent an expedition to the Canary Islands andMadeira; he named the Canary Islands for the particularly ferocious dogs (canaria) on the island.Juba II and theancient Romanscalled the island of TenerifeNivaria, from theLatinwordnix(nsg.;gsg.nivis,npl.nives), meaning \"snow\", after the snow-covered peak of the Mount Teide volcano.Later maps dating to the 14th and 15th century, drawn by mapmakers such as Bontier and Le Verrier, called the islandIsla del Infierno, (\"Hell Island\"), due to Mount Teide's volcanic eruptions and other volcanic activity. Although the name given to the island by theBenahoaritas(the indigenous peoples of La Palma) was derived from the wordsteni(\"mountain\") andife(\"white\"),after the island was colonized by the Spanish the name was modified by Spanish phonology: the letter \"r\" was added to link the two words, producing the single word Tenerife. However, throughout history, other explanations for the origin of island's name have been proposed. For example, the 17th-century historiansJuan Núñez de la PeñaandTomás Arias Marín de Cubas, among others, suggested that the indigenous peoples might have named the island for the famous Guanche king,Tinerfe, nicknamed \"the Great\", who ruled Tenerife before theCanary Islandswere conquered byCastile. Demonym The formaldemonymused to refer to the people of Tenerife isTinerfeño/a; also used colloquially is the termchicharrero/a.In modern society, the latter term is generally applied only to inhabitants of the capital, Santa Cruz. The termchicharrerowas once aderogatoryterm used by the people ofLa Lagunawhen it was the capital, to refer to the poorer inhabitants and fishermen of Santa Cruz. The fishermen typically caughtmackereland other residents atepotatoes, assumed to be of low quality by the elite of La Laguna.As Santa Cruz grew in commerce and status, it replaced La Laguna as capital of Tenerife in 1833 during the reign ofFernando VII. Then the inhabitants of Santa Cruz used the former insult to identify as residents of the new capital, at La Laguna's expense. History The earliest known human settlement in the islands, dating to around 200BCE, was established byBerbersknown as theGuanches.However, theCave of the Guanchesin the northern municipality ofIcod de los Vinoshas provided the oldest chronologies of the Canary Islands, with dates around the sixth century BCE. In terms of technology, the Guanches can be placed among the peoples of theStone Age, although scholars often reject this classification because of its ambiguity. Guanche culture was more advanced culturally, possibly because of Berber cultural features imported from North Africa, but less technologically advanced due to the scarcity of raw materials, especially minerals that would have allowed for the extraction and working of metals. The main activity was gathering food from nature; though fishing and shellfish collection were supplemented with some agricultural practices. As for religion andcosmology, the Guanches werepolytheistic, with further widespread belief in anastral cult. They also had ananimisticreligiosity that sacralized certain places, mainly rocks and mountains. Although the Guanches worshiped many gods and ancestral spirits, among the most important wereAchamán(the god of the sky and supreme creator),Chaxiraxi(the mother goddess, identified later with theVirgin of Candelaria),Magec(the god of the sun), andGuayota(the demon who is the main cause of evil). Especially significant was the cult of the dead, which practiced themummificationof corpses. In addition, smallanthropomorphicandzoomorphicstone and clay figurines of the kind typically associated with rituals have been found on the island. Scholars believe they were used as idols, the most prominent of which is the so-calledIdol of Guatimac, which is thought to represent a genius or protective spirit. Territorial organisation before the conquest (The Guanches) The title ofmenceywas given to the monarch or king of the Guanches of Tenerife, who governed amenceyatoor kingdom. This role was later referred to as a \"captainship\" by the conquerors.Tinerfe \"the Great\", son of themenceySunta, governed the island from Adeje in the south. However, upon his death, his nine children rebelled and argued bitterly about how to divide the island. Two independentachimenceyatoswere created on the island, and the island was divided into ninemenceyatos. Themenceyeswithin them formed what would be similar to municipalities today.Themenceyatosand theirmenceyes(ordered by the names of descendants of Tinerfe who ruled them) were the following: The achimenceyato ofPunta del Hidalgowas governed by Aguahuco, a \"poor noble\" who was an illegitimate son of Tinerfe and Zebenzui. Spanish conquest Tenerife was the last island of the Canaries to be conquered and the one that took the longest time to submit to the Castilian troops. Although the traditional dates of the conquest of Tenerife are established between 1494 (landing of Alonso Fernández de Lugo) and 1496 (the complete conquest of the island), attempts to annex the island of Tenerife to theCrown of Castiledate back at least to 1464. In 1464,Diego Garcia de Herrera, Lord of the Canary Islands, took symbolic possession of the island in theBarranco del Bufadero(Ravine of the Bufadero),signing a peace treaty with the Guanche chiefs (menceyes) which allowed themenceyAnaga to build a fortified tower on Guanche land, where the Guanches and the Spanish held periodic treaty talks until the Guanches demolished it around 1472. In 1492 the governor of Gran Canaria Francisco Maldonado organized a raid that ended in disaster for the Spaniards when they were defeated by Anaga's warriors. In December 1493, the Catholic monarchs, Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, grantedAlonso Fernández de Lugothe right to conquer Tenerife. Coming fromGran Canariain April 1494, the conqueror landed on the coast of present-day Santa Cruz de Tenerife in May, and disembarked with about 2,000 men on foot and 200 on horseback.After taking the fort, the army prepared to move inland, later capturing the native kings of Tenerife and presenting them toIsabella and Ferdinand. Themenceyesof Tenerife had differing responses to the conquest. They divided into theside of peace(Spanish:bando de paz) and theside of war(Spanish:bando de guerra). The first included themenceyatosof Anaga, Güímar, Abona and Adeje. The second group consisted of the people of Tegueste, Tacoronte, Taoro, Icoden and Daute. Those opposed to the conquest fought the invaders tenaciously, resisting their rule for two years. Castillian forces under theAdelantado(\"military governor\") de Lugo suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Guanches in theFirst Battle of Acentejoon 31 May 1494, but defeated them at theSecond Battle of Acentejoon 25 December 1494. The Guanches were eventually overcome by superior technology and the arms of the invaders, and surrendered to the Crown of Castile in 1496. Spanish rule Many of the natives died from new infectious diseases, such asinfluenzaand probablysmallpox, to which they lacked resistance or acquiredimmunity. The new colonists intermarried with the local native population. For a century after the conquest, many new colonists settled on the island, including immigrants from the diverse territories of the growingSpanish Empire, such asFlanders, Italy, and Germany. As the population grew, it cleared Tenerife's pine forests for fuel and to make fields for agriculture for crops both for local consumption and for export.Sugar canewas introduced in the 1520s as a commodity crop on major plantations; it was a labor-intensive crop in all phases of cultivation and processing. In the following centuries, planters cultivated wine grapes,cochinealfor making dyes, andplantainsfor use and export. Trade with the Americas In the commerce of the Canary Islands with the Americas of the 18th century, Tenerife was the hegemonic island, since it exceeded 50% of the number of ships and 60% of the tonnage. In the islands ofLa PalmaandGran Canaria, the percentage was around 19% for the first and 7% for the second.The volume of traffic between the Indies and the Canary Islands was unknown, but was very important and concentrated almost exclusively in Tenerife. Among the products that are exported werecochineal,rumandsugar cane, which were landed mainly in the ports of the Americas such asLa Guaira,Havana,CampecheandVeracruz. Many sailors from Tenerife joined this transcontinental maritime trade, among which the corsairAmaro Rodríguez Felipe, more commonly known asAmaro Pargo, Juan Pedro Dujardín and Bernardo de Espinosa, both companions of Amaro Pargo, among others. Emigration to the Americas Tenerife, like the other islands, has maintained a close relationship with Latin America, as both were part of the Spanish Empire. From the start of the colonization of theNew World, many Spanish expeditions stopped at the island for supplies on their way to the Americas. They also recruited manytinerfeñosfor their crews, who formed an integral part of the conquest expeditions. Others joined ships in search of better prospects. It is also important to note the exchange in plant and animal species that made those voyages. After a century and a half of relative growth, based on thegrape growingsector, numerous families emigrated, especially toVenezuelaandCuba. TheCrownwanted to encourage population of underdeveloped zones in the Americas to pre-empt the occupation by foreign forces, as had happened with the English inJamaicaand the French in theGuianasand westernHispaniola(which the French renamed as Saint-Domingue). Canary Islanders, including manytinerfeños,left for the New World. The success in cultivation of new crops of the Americas, such ascocoain Venezuela and tobacco in Cuba, contributed to the population exodus from towns such as Buenavista del Norte, Vilaflor, or El Sauzal in the late 17th century. The village ofSan Carlos de Tenerifewas founded in 1684 by Canary Islanders onSanto Domingo. The people from Tenerife were recruited for settlement to build up the town from encroachment by French colonists established in the western side of Hispaniola. Between 1720 and 1730, the Crown moved 176 families, including manytinerfeños,to the Caribbean island ofPuerto Rico. In 1726, about 25 island families migrated to the Americas to collaborate on the foundation ofMontevideo. Four years later, in 1730, another group left that foundedSan Antoniothe following year in what becameTexas. Between 1777 and 1783, more islanders emigrated from Santa Cruz de Tenerife to settle in what becameSt. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, during the period when Spain ruled this former French territory west of the Mississippi River. Some groups went to Western or Spanish Florida. Tenerife saw the arrival of theFirst FleettoBotany Bayin June 1787, which consisted of 11 ships that departed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The Fleet consisted of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and sixconvict shipscarrying between 1,000 and 1,500 convicts, marines, seamen, civil officers and free people (accounts differ on the numbers), and a vast quantity of stores. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz at Tenerife. Here, fresh water, vegetables and meat were brought on board. Commander of the fleet, Capt.Arthur Phillipand the chief officers were entertained by the local governor, while one convict tried unsuccessfully to escape. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents. In June 1799, the Prussian-born naturalistAlexander von Humboldtspent five full days on Tenerife on the first leg of his soon world-famous American journey (1799–1804) and climbed the Pico del Teide. Emigration to the Americas (mainly Cuba and Venezuela) continued during the 19th and early 20th century, due to the lack of economic opportunity and the relative isolation of the Canary Islands. Since the late 20th century, island protectionist economic laws and a strong development in the tourism industry have strengthened the economy and attracted new migrants. Tenerife has received numerous new residents, including the \"return\" of many descendants of some islanders who had departed five centuries before. Military history The most notable conflict was theBritish invasion of Tenerifein 1797.On 25 July 1797, AdmiralHoratio Nelsonlaunched an attack at Santa Cruz de Tenerife, now the capital of the island. After a ferocious fight which resulted in many casualties, GeneralAntonio Gutiérrez de Otero y Santayanaorganized a defense to repel the invaders. Whilst leading a landing party, Nelson was seriously wounded in his right arm by grapeshot or a musket ball, necessitating amputation of most of the arm.Legend tells that he was wounded by the Spanish cannonTiger(Spanish:Tigre) as he was trying to disembark on the Paso Alto coast. On 5 September 1797, the British attempted another attack in the Puerto Santiago region, which was repelled by the inhabitants ofSantiago del Teide. Some threw rocks at the British from the heights of the cliffs ofLos Gigantes. The island was also attacked by British commandersRobert Blake,Walter Raleigh,John HawkinsandWoodes Rogers. Modern history From 1833 to 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, the government ordered that the capital be shared withLas Palmas, as it remains at present.This change in status has encouraged development in Las Palmas. Tourists began visiting Tenerife from Spain, the United Kingdom, and northern Europe in large numbers in the 1890s. They especially were attracted to the destinations of the northern towns ofPuerto de la Cruzand Santa Cruz de Tenerife.Independent shipping business, such as the Yeoward Brothers Shipping Line, helped boost the tourist industry during this time, adding to ships that carried passengers.The naturalistAlexander von Humboldtascended the peak of Mount Teide and remarked on the beauty of the island. Before his rise to power,Francisco Francowas posted to Tenerife in March 1936 by a Republican government wary of his influence and political leanings. However, Franco received information and in Gran Canaria agreed to collaborate in the military coup that would result in theSpanish Civil War; the Canaries fell to the Nationalists in July 1936. In the 1950s, the misery of the post-war years caused thousands of the island's inhabitants to emigrate toCubaand other parts of Latin America. Tenerife was the site of the deadliest accident ever in commercial aviation. TheTenerife airport disasteroccurred on 27 March 1977 when twoBoeing 747s,KLMFlight 4805 andPan AmFlight 1736 collided on the runway atLos Rodeos Airportin heavy fog conditions, causing the deaths of 583 passengers and crew. A few years later,Dan Air Flight 1008crashed into a mountain while on approach to Tenerife North, killing 146 people. The plane was travelling too close to an Iberia Air turboprop plane and was asked to go into a holding pattern. At the beginning of the 21st century, the so-calledRiada de Tenerife of 2002took place on 31 March of that year. It was a phenomenon of cold drop characterized by the repeated fall of torrential rains accompanied by thunder and lightning, affecting themetropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerifeand extending in the NE direction towards theSan Andrésarea.The rains caused 8 dead, 12 missing and dozens of injured.In addition to the human losses, the flood caused considerable material damage, 70,000 people without light as well as the total or partial destruction of at least 400 homes. The losses were calculated at 90 million euros. In November 2005, Tenerife was the Canary Island most affected byTropical Storm Delta. Winds of 140 km/h were recorded on the coast and almost 250 km/h on theTeide, Tenerife's summit. Geography The oldest mountain ranges in Tenerife rose from the Atlantic Ocean by volcanic eruption which gave birth to the island around twelve million years ago.The island as it is today was formed three million years ago by the fusion of three islands made up of the mountain ranges ofAnaga,TenoandValle de San Lorenzo,due to volcanic activity fromTeide. The volcano is visible from most parts of the island today, and the crater is 17 kilometres (11 miles) long at some points. Tenerife is the largest island of the Canary Islands and theMacaronesiaregion. Climate Tenerife is characterized by a generally dry, warm climate. The island has 2 main different climatic areas (as byKöppen climate classification) yet it actually has 5 different climatic areas. Global climate change has had a major impact on the island, with diminishing rainfall and hot, dry winds affecting vegetation and contributing to an increasing propensity to being subject to forest fires. On August 15, 2023, a forest fire determined to be caused by arson necessitated the evacuation of 12,000 residents within a week. The main climates are the hot semi-arid/arid climate (Köppen:BShandBWh) and thesubtropicalMediterranean Climate(Köppen:CsbandCsa) inland or at higher altitudes. The low altitude/coastal areas of the island have average temperatures of 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) in the winter months and 24–26 °C (75–79 °F) in the summer months. There is a high annual total of days of sunshine and low precipitation in the coastal areas. The inland/high altitude areas, such asLa Laguna, receive much more precipitation and are generally cloudier, as well as the temperatures have a considerable difference, with an average of 13–14 °C (55–57 °F) in the winter and 20–21 °C (68–70 °F) in the summer. The moderate climate of Tenerife is controlled to a great extent by thetrade winds, whosehumidityis condensed principally over the north and northeast of the island, creating cloud banks that range between 600 and 1,800 metres (2,000 and 5,900 feet) in height. The cold sea currents of the Canary Islands also have a cooling effect on the coasts and its beaches, while the topography of the landscape plays a role in climatic differences on the island with its many valleys. The moderating effect of the marine air makes extreme heat a rare occurrence and frost an impossibility at sea level. The lowest recorded temperature in central Santa Cruz is 8.1 °C (46.6 °F), the coldest month on record still had a relatively mild average temperature of 15.8 °C (60.4 °F).Summer temperatures are highest in August, with an average high of 29 °C (84 °F) in Santa Cruz, similar to those of places as far north asBarcelonaandMajorca, because of the greater maritime influence. At a higher elevation inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, the climate transitions to aMediterranean climatewith higher precipitation amounts and lower temperatures year round. The climate of Santa Cruz is very typical of the Canaries, albeit only slightly warmer than theclimateof Las Palmas. Major climatic contrasts on the island are evident, especially during the winter months when it is possible to enjoy the warm sunshine on the coast and experience snow within kilometres, 3,000 metres (10,000 feet)above sea levelon ElTeide.There are also major contrasts at low altitude, where the climate ranges fromarid(KöppenBWh) on the southeastern side represented by Santa Cruz de Tenerife toMediterranean(Csa/Csb) on the northwestern side in Buena Vista del Norte and La Orotava. The center of the island is characterized by forests because of the much higher precipitation, mostlyCanary Island pineforests in theTeide National Parkat altitudes from 1,300 to 2,100 metres (4,300 to 6,900 ft).Subtropicalcloud forestscharacterised bylaurisilvaare commonly found in the Anaga National Park and Monte de Agua in the Teno Rural Park, with altitudes from 600 to 1,000 metres (2,000 to 3,300 ft) and annual averages from 15 to 19 °C (59 to 66 °F) and 600 to 1,200 metres (2,000 to 3,900 ft) in the latter. The north and south of Tenerife similarly have different climatic characteristics because of therain shadoweffect. The windward northwestern side of the island receives 73 percent of all precipitation on the island, and the relative humidity of the air is superior and the insolation inferior. The pluviometric maximums are registered on the windward side at an average altitude of between 1,000 and 1,200 metres (3,300 and 3,900 feet), almost exclusively in theLa Orotavamountain range.Although climatic differences in rainfall and sunshine on the island exist, overall annualprecipitationis low and the summer months from May to September are normally completely dry. Rainfall, similar to that ofSouthern California, can also be extremely erratic from one year to another. Water The volcanic ground of Tenerife, which is of aporousand permeable character, is generally the reason why the soil is able to maximise the absorption of water on an island of low rainfall, withcondensationin forested areas and frost deposition on the summit of the island also contributory causes. Given the irregularity of precipitation and geological conditions on the island, dam construction has been avoided, so most of the water (90 percent) comes fromwellsand from water galleries (horizontal tunnels bored into the volcano) of which there are thousands on the island, important systems that serve to extract its hydrological resources.These tunnels are very hazardous, with pockets of volcanic gas orcarbon dioxide, causing rapid death. Pollution and air quality The Canary Islands have low levels of air pollution thanks to the lack of factories and industry and the trade winds which naturally move away contaminated air from the islands. According to official data offered by the Health and Industry Ministry in Spain, Tenerife is one of the cleanest places in the country with an air pollution index below the national average.Despite this, there are still agents which affect pollution levels in the island, the mainpolluting agentsbeing therefinery at Santa Cruz, thethermal powerplants atLas CaletillasandGranadilla, and road traffic, increased by the high level of tourism in the island. In addition on the island of Tenerife like on La Palma light pollution must be also controlled, to help theastrophysical observatorieslocated in the island's summits.Water is generally of a very high quality, and all the beaches of the island of Tenerife have been catalogued by the Ministry of Health and Consumption as waters suitable for bathing. Geology Tenerife is a rugged volcanic island, sculpted by successive eruptions throughout its history. There are four historically recorded volcanic eruptions, none of which has led to casualties. The first occurred in 1704, when the Arafo, Fasnia and Siete Fuentes volcanoes erupted simultaneously. Two years later, in 1706, the greatest eruption occurred at Trevejo. This volcano produced great quantities oflavawhich buried the city and port ofGarachico. The last eruption of the 18th century happened in 1798 at Cañadas de Teide, inChahorra. The most recent eruption-in 1909-formed the Chinyero cinder cone in the municipality ofSantiago del Teide. The island is located between 28° and 29° N and the 16° and 17° W meridian. It is situated north of theTropic of Cancer, occupying a central position between the other Canary Islands ofGran Canaria,La GomeraandLa Palma. The island is about 300 km (186 mi) from the African coast, and approximately 1,000 km (621 mi) from theIberian Peninsula.Tenerife is the largest island of the Canary Islands archipelago, with a surface area of 2,034.38 km2(785 sq mi)and has the longest coastline, amounting to 342 km (213 mi). In addition, the highest point, Mount Teide, with an elevation of 3,715 m (12,188 ft)above sea levelis the highest point in all of Spain,is also the third largest volcano in the world from its base in the bottom of the sea. For this reason, Tenerife is the10th-highest island worldwide. It comprises about 200 small barren islets or large rocks includingRoques de Anaga,Roque de Garachico, andFasniaadding a further 213,835 m2(2,301,701 sq ft) to the total area. Origins and geological formation Tenerife is a volcanic island that has built up from the ocean floor during the last 20 million years. Underwater fissural eruptions producedpillow lava, which are produced by the rapid cooling of the magma when it comes in contact with water, obtaining their peculiar shape. This pillow-lava accumulated, constructing the base of the island underneath the sea. As this accumulation approached the surface of the water, gases erupted from the magma due to the reduction of the surrounding pressure. The volcanic eruptions became more violent and had a more explosive character, and resulted in the forming of peculiar geological fragments. After long-term accumulation of these fragments, the birth of the island occurred at the end of theMiocene epoch. The zones on Tenerife known asMacizo de Teno,Macizo de AnagaandMacizo de Adejewere formed seven million years ago; these formations are called theAncient Basaltic SeriesorSeries I. These zones were actually three separate islands lying in what is now the extreme west, east, and south of Tenerife. A second volcanic cycle called thePost-Miocene FormationsorLatest Series II, III, IVbegan three million years ago. This was a much more intense volcanic cycle, which united the Macizo de Teno, Macizo de Anaga and Macizo de Adeje into one island. This new structure, called thePre-Cañadas Structure(Edificio pre-Cañadas), would be the foundation for what is called theCañadas Structure I. The Cañadas Structure I experienced various collapses and emitted explosive material that produced the area known asBandas del sur(in the present-day south-southeast of Tenerife). Subsequently, upon the ruins of Cañadas Structure I emergedCañadas Structure II, which was 2,500 metres (8,200 ft)above sea leveland emerged with intense explosive activity. About one million years ago, the Dorsal Range (Cordillera Dorsal) emerged by means of fissural volcanic activity occurring amidst the remains of the older Ancient Basaltic Series (Series I). This Dorsal Range emerged as the highest and the longest volcanic structure in the Canary Islands; it was 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) high and 25 kilometres (16 mi) long. About 800,000 years ago, two gravitationallandslidesoccurred, giving rise to the present-day valleys of La Orotava and Güímar.Finally, around 200,000 years ago, the giant Icod landslide occurred followed by eruptions that raised thePico Viejo-Teidein the centre of the island, over theLas Cañadas caldera. Orography and landscape The uneven and steeporographyof the island and its variety of climates has resulted in a diversity of landscapes and geographical and geological formations, from the Teide National Park with its extensivepineforests, juxtaposed against the volcanic landscape at the summit of Teide andMalpaís de Güímar, to the Acantilados de Los Gigantes (Cliffs of the Giants) with its vertical precipices. Semidesert areas exist in the south with drought-resistant plants. Other areas range from those protected and enclosed in mountains such as Montaña Roja and Montaña Pelada, the valleys and forests with subtropical vegetation and climate, to those with deep gorges and precipices such as at Anaga and Teno. Central heights The principal structures in Tenerife, make the central highlands, with the Teide–Pico Viejocomplex and the Las Cañadas areas as most prominent. It comprises a semi-calderaof about 130 km2(50 sq mi) in area, originated by several geological processes explained under theOrigin and formationsection. The area is partially occupied by the Teide-Pico Viejo strato-volcano and completed by the materials emitted in the different eruptions that took place. A known formation calledLos Azulejos, composed by green-tinted rocks were created by hydrothermal processes. South of La Caldera isGuajara Mountain, which has an elevation of 2,718 metres (8,917 feet), rising above Teide National Park. At the bottom, is anendorheic basinflanked with very fine sedimentary material which has been deposited from its volcanic processes, and is known as Llano de Ucanca. The peak ofTeide, at 3,715 metres (12,188 feet)above sea leveland more than 7,500 metres (24,606 feet) above the ocean floor, is the highest point of the island, Spanish territory and in the Atlantic Ocean. The volcano is the third largest on the planet, and its central location,substantial size, looming silhouette in the distance and its snowy landscape in winter give it a unique nature.The original settlers considered Teide a god and Teide was a place of worship. In 1954, the whole area around it was declared anational park, with further expansion later on. In addition, in June 2007 it was recognised byUNESCOas aWorld Heritage site.To the west lies the volcanoPico Viejo(Old Peak). On one side of it, is the volcano Chahorra o Narices del Teide, where the last eruption occurred in the vicinity of Mount Teide in 1798. The Teide is one of the 16Decade Volcanoesidentified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. Tallest mountains on Tenerife: Massifs The Anaga massif (Macizo de Anaga), at the northeastern end of the island, has an irregular and rugged topographical profile where, despite its generally modest elevations, the Cruz de Taborno reaches a height of 1,024 metres (3,360 feet). Due to the age of its material (5.7 million years), its deep erosive processes, and the dense network ofdikespiercing the massif, its surface exposes numerous outcroppings of bothphonoliticandtrachyticorigin. A large number of steep-walled gorges are present, penetrating deeply into the terrain. Vertical cuts dominate the Anagan coast, with infrequent beaches of rocks or black sand between them; the few that exist generally coincide with the mouths of gorges. The Teno massif (Macizo de Teno) is located on the northwestern edge of the island. Like Anaga, it includes an area of outcroppings and deep gorges formed by erosion. However, the materials here are older (about 7.4 million years old). Mount Gala represents its highest elevation at 1,342 metres (4,403 feet). The most unusual landscape of this massif is found on its southern coast, where theAcantilados de Los Gigantes(\"Cliffs of the Giants\") present vertical walls reaching heights of 500 metres (1,600 feet) in some places. The Adeje massif (Macizo de Adeje) is situated on the southern tip of the island. Its main landmark is the Roque del Conde (\"Count's Rock\"), with an elevation of 1,001 metres (3,284 feet). This massif is not as impressive as the others due to its diminished initial structure, since in addition to with the site's greater geologic age it has experienced severe erosion of its material, thereby losing its original appearance and extent. Dorsals The Dorsal mountainridgeorDorsal of Pedro Gilcovers the area from the start at Mount La Esperanza, at a height of about 750 m (2,461 ft), to the center of the island, near theCaldera de Las Cañadas, with Izaña, as its highest point at 2,390 m (7,841 ft) (MSLP). These mountains have been created due to basaltic fissural volcanism through one of the axis that gave birth to the vulcanism of this area. The Abeque Dorsal was formed by a chain of volcanoes that join the Teno with the central insular peak of Teide-Pico Viejo starting from another of the three axis of Tenerife's geological structures. On this dorsal we find the historic volcano of Chinyero whose last eruption happened in 1909. The South Dorsal orDorsal of Adejeis part of the last of the structural axis. The remains of this massive rock show the primordial land, also showing the alignment of small volcanic cones and rocks around this are in Tenerife's South. Valleys and ravines Valleysare another of the island's features. The most important areValle de La OrotavaandValle de Güímar, both formed by the mass sliding of great quantities of material towards the sea, creating a depression of the land. Other valleys tend to be between hills formed by deposits of sediments from nearby slopes, or simply wide ravines which in their evolution have become typical valleys. Tenerife has a large number of ravines, which are a characteristic element of the landscape, caused by erosion fromsurface runoffover a long period. Notable ravines include Ruiz, Fasnia and Güímar,Infierno, and Erques, all of which have been designated protected natural areas by Canarian institutions. Coastline The coasts of Tenerife are typically rugged and steep, particularly on the north of the island. However, the island has 67.14 kilometres (41.72 miles) of beaches, such as the one atEl Médano, surpassed only in this respect by the island ofFuerteventura.There are many black sand pebble beaches on the northern coast, while on the south and south-west coast of the island, the beaches have typically much finer and clearer sand with lighter tones. Volcanic tubes Lava tubesare volcanic caves usually in the form of tunnels formed within lava flows more or less fluid reogenética duration of the activity. Among the many existing volcanic tubes on the island stands out theCueva del Viento, located in the northern town ofIcod de los Vinos, which is the largest volcanic tunnel in theEuropean Unionand one of the largest in the world, for a long time considered the largest in the world. Flora and fauna The island of Tenerife has a remarkableecosystem diversityin spite of its small surface area, which is a consequence of the special environmental conditions on the island, where its distinct orography modifies the general climatic conditions at a local level, producing a significant variety ofmicroclimates. This diversity of microclimates allows some 1400 species of plants to exist on the island, with well over 100 of these endemic to Tenerife.The fauna of Tenerife includes some 400 species of fish, 56 birds, five reptiles, two amphibians, 13 land mammals, thousands of invertebrates, and several species of sea turtles and cetaceans. The vegetation of Tenerife can be divided into six major zones that are directly related to altitude and the direction in which they face. Prehistoric fauna Before the arrival of humans, the Canary Islands were inhabited by certain endemic animals, now mostly extinct. These animals reachedlarger than usual sizes, because of a phenomenon calledisland gigantism. Among these species, the best known in Tenerife were: Protected natural areas Nearly half of the island territory (48.6 percent),is under protection from theRed Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos(Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,a total of 43 are located in Tenerife, the most protected island in the group.The network has criteria which places areas under its observation under eight different categories of protection, all of them are represented in Tenerife. Aside fromParque Nacional del Teide, it counts the Parque Natural de Canarias (Crown Forest), two rural parks (Anaga and Teno), four integral natural reserves, six special natural reserves, a total of fourteen natural monuments, nine protected landscapes and up to six sites of scientific interest. Also located on the islandMacizo de Anagasince 2015 isBiosphere Reserveand is the place that has the largest number of endemic species in Europe. In contrast to the land-based protected areas, Tenerife also boasts significant marine protected natural areas. Among these is the Zona de Especial Conservación Teno-Rasca (Teno-Rasca Special Area of Conservation), a marine protected area established in 2013.This marine protected area off the coast of Tenerife is known for its ecological significance and biodiversity, including resident populations of cetaceans such as bottlenose dolphins and pilot whales.It is also known as the Tenerife-La Gomera Marine Area and became the first European designated Whale Heritage Area in January 2021. Administration Law and order Tenerife island's government resides with theCabildo Insular de Tenerifelocated at the Plaza de España at the island's capital city (Palacio Insular de Tenerife). The political Canary organization does not have a provincial government body but instead each island has its own government at their ownCabildo. Since its creation in March 1913 it has a series of capabilities and duties, stated in the Canary Autonomy Statutes (Spanish:Estatuto de Autonomía de Canarias) and regulated by Law 14/1990, of 26 July 1990, of theRégimen Jurídico de las Administraciones Públicas de Canarias. The Cabildo is composed of the following administrative offices; Presidency, Legislative Body, Government Council, Informative Commissions, Spokesman's office. Government Tenerife is an autonomous territory of Spain. The island has a tiered-government system and a special status within the European Union in which it holds lower tax rates compared to other regions. Santa Cruz is the seat of half of the regional government departments and parliament and it is there that the governor is elected by the Canarian people. Afterwards, they are appointed by Madrid. There are fifteen members of parliament who work together in passing legislation, organising budgets and improving the economy. Municipalities The island, itself part of aSpanish provincenamedSanta Cruz de Tenerife, is divided administratively into 31 municipalities. Only three municipalities are landlocked:Tegueste,El TanqueandVilaflor. Vilaflor is the municipality with the highest altitude in the Canaries (its capital is 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) high). The largest municipality with an area of 207.31 square kilometres (80.04 square miles) is La Orotava, which covers much of the Teide National Park. The smallest town on the island and of the archipelago isPuerto de la Cruz, with an area of just 8.73 square kilometres (3 square miles). It is also common to find internal division, in that some cities make up a metropolitan area within a municipality, notably the cities of Santa Cruz and La Laguna. Below is an alphabetical list of all the municipalities on the island: Counties The counties of Tenerife have no official recognition, but there is a consensus among geographers about them: Flags and heraldry TheFlag of Tenerifewas originally adopted in 1845 by the navy at its base in the Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Later, and at present, this flag represents all the island of Tenerife. It was approved by theCabildo Insular de Tenerifeand the Order of the Government of the Canary Islands on 9 May 1989 and published on 22 May in the government report of the Canary Islands and made official. Thecoat-of-armsof Tenerife was granted by royal decree on 23 March 1510 byFerdinand IIatMadridin the name ofJoan I, Queen of Castile. The coat-of-arms has a field of gold, with an image ofSaint Michael(patron saintof the island) above a mountain depicted in brownish, natural colors. Flames erupt from the mountain, symbolizing El Teide. Below this mountain is depicted the island itself inverton top of blue and silver waves. To the right there is a castle ingules, and to the left, a lionrampantin gules. The shield that the Cabildo Insular, or Island Government, uses is slightly different from that used by the city government of La Laguna, which uses a motto in the arms' border and also includes some palm branches. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Tenerife are the birdblue chaffinch(Fringilla teydea) and theCanary Islands dragon tree(Dracaena draco) tree. Demographics According to INE data as at 1 January 2023, Tenerife has the largest population of the seven Canary Islands and was the most populated island of Spain with 948,815 officially estimated inhabitants,of whom about 22.0 percent (208,906) lived in the capital, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and 40 percent in the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz–La Laguna.Santa Cruz de Tenerife and the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Lagunaare physically one urban area, so that together (and including Tegueste) they have a population of 379,857 inhabitants. Tenerife has two other metropolitan areas recognized by theMinistry of Development; theTenerife South metropolitan areawith 194,774 inhabitants (2019) and theLa Orotava Valley metropolitan areawith 108,721 inhabitants (2019). After the city of Santa Cruz the major towns and municipalities as at the start of 2023 areSan Cristóbal de La Laguna(159,576),Arona(86,497),Granadilla de Abona(55,505),Adeje(50,523),La Orotava(42,667),Los Realejos(37,543), andPuerto de la Cruz(31,396). All other municipalities have fewer than 30,000 inhabitants, the smallest municipality beingVilaflorwith a population of 1,850. The island has high rates of resident population not registered in population censuses, primarily tourists. This has made several sources point out that more than one million inhabitants actually live on the island of Tenerife today.The island is also the most multicultural in the archipelago, with the highest number of registered foreigners (44.9% of registered in Canary Islands), which represent 14% of the total population of the island.Tenerife stands out in the context of the archipelago, by also concentrating the largest presence of non-EU foreign population. Tenerife has three large population areas that are very different and distributed: The Metropolitan Zone, the South Zone and the North Zone. With several protected natural parks — 48.6% of the territory — and an urban swarm around the island, in the last half century the insular coastal platform has become a highly urbanized metropolitan system. The high level of population in a relatively small territory — more than 900,000 inhabitants in just over 2,000 km2(770 sq mi) — and the strong urbanization have turned the island of Tenerife, in the words of architect Federico García Barba; on an \"island-city\" or \"island-ring\". Recently Tenerife has experienced population growth significantly higher than the national average. In 1990, there were 663,306 registered inhabitants, which increased to 709,365 in 2000, an increase of 46,059 or an annual growth of 0.69 percent. However, between 2000 and 2007, the population rose by 155,705 to 865,070, an annual increase of 3.14 percent. These results reflect the general trend in Spain where, since 2000, immigration has reversed the general slowdown in population growth, following the collapse in the birth rate from 1976. However, since 2001 the overall growth rate in Spain has been around 1.7 percent per year, compared with 3.14 percent on Tenerife, one of the largest increases in the country. Economy Tenerife is the economic capital of the Canary Islands.At present, Tenerife is the island with the highest GDP in the Canary Islands.Even though Tenerife's economy is highly specialized in theservice sector, which makes 78% of its total production capacity, the importance of the rest of the economic sectors is key to its production development. In this sense, the primary sector, which only represents 1.98% of the total product, groups activities that are important to the sustainable development of the island's economy. The energy sector which contributes 2.85% has a primary role in the development of renewable energy sources. The industrial sector which shares in 5.80% is a growing activity in the island, vis-a-vis the new possibilities created by technological advances. Finally, the construction sector with 11.29% of the total production has a strategic priority, because it is a sector with relative stability which permits multiple possibilities of development and employment opportunities. Tourism Tourism is the most prominent industry in the Canaries, which are one of the major tourist destinations in the world. Tenerife is the most visited island in the archipelagoand one of the most important tourist destinations in Spain. In 2014, 11,473,600 foreign tourists came to the Canary Islands. Tenerife had 4,171,384 arrivals that year, excluding the numbers for Spanish tourists which make up an additional 30% of total arrivals. According to last year's Canarian Statistics Centre's (ISTAC) Report on Tourism the greatest number of tourists from any one country come from the United Kingdom, with more than 3,980,000 tourists in 2014. In second place comes Germany followed by Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, France, Ireland, Belgium, Italy, Denmark, Finland, Switzerland, Poland, Russia and Austria. Tourism is more prevalent in the south of the island, which is hotter and drier and has many well developed resorts such asPlaya de las AmericasandLos Cristianos. More recently coastal development has spread northwards from Playa de las Americas and now encompasses the former small enclave of La Caleta. According to theMoratoriaact passed by the Canarian Parliament in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, no more hotels will be built on the island unless they are classified as 5 star-quality and comprise different services such as golf courses or convention facilities. This act was passed with the goal of improving the standard of tourism service and promoting environmentally conscious development. The area known asCosta Adejehas many facilities and leisure opportunities such as shopping centres, golf courses, restaurants, water parks (the most well-known beingSiam Park), animal parks, and a theatre suitable for musicals or a convention centre.There are many boats offering whale watching tours from the harbour of Puerto Colon. The deep waters off the coast of Costa Adeje are home to several pods ofpilot whales. In the more lush and green north of the island, the main focus of development for tourism has been in the town ofPuerto de la Cruz. Puerto de la Cruz is home to theSeaWorld-owned zoo,Loro Parque,which has been accused of mistreatment of animals in its captivity, includingorcasand is currently boycotted by major travel agents includingThomas Cook. In the 19th century large numbers of foreign tourists came, especially British, showing interest in the agriculture of the islands. With the world wars, the tourism sector weakened, but the second half of the 20th century brought renewed interest. Initial emphasis was on Puerto de la Cruz, and for all the attractions that the Valle de la Orotava offered. By 1980, tourism was focused in south Tenerife. The emphasis was on cities like Arona or Adeje, shifting to tourist centres like Los Cristianos or Playa de Las Americas, which now house 65% of the hotels on the island. Tenerife receives more than 5 million tourists every year; of the Сanary islands Tenerife is the most popular. Currently, the municipality ofAdejein the south of the island has the highest concentration of 5 star hotels in Europeand also has what is considered the best luxury hotel in Spain according toWorld Travel Awards. Agriculture and fishing Since tourism dominates the Tenerifan economy, the service sector is the largest. Industry and commerce contribute 40% of the non-tourist economy.Agriculture contributes less than 10% of the island's GDP, but its contribution is vital as it also generates indirect benefits by maintaining the rural appearance of the island and supporting Tenerifan cultural values. Agriculture is centred on the northern slopes, and is affected by altitude as well as orientation: in the coastal zone, tomatoes and bananas are cultivated, these high yield products are for export to mainland Spain and the rest of Europe; in the drier intermediate zone, potatoes, tobacco and maize are grown, whilst in the south, onions are important. Bananas are a particularly important crop, as Tenerife grows more bananas than the other Canary Islands, with a current annual production of about 150,000 tons, down from the peak production of 200,000 tons in 1986. More than 90% of the total is destined for the international market, and banana growing occupies about 4200 hectares.After the banana the most important crops are, in order of importance, tomatoes, grapes, potatoes and flowers. Fishing is also a major contributor to the Tenerifan economy, as the Canaries are Spain's second most important fishing grounds. Energy As of 2009, Tenerife had 910 MW of electrical generation capacity, which is mostly powered from petroleum-derived fuels. The island had 37 MW of wind turbines and 79 MW of solar panels. Industry and commerce Commerce in Tenerife plays a significant role in the economy, representing almost 20% of the GDP, with the commercial center Santa Cruz de Tenerife generating most of the earnings. Although there are a diversity of industrial estates that exist on the island, the most important industrial activity is petroleum, representing 10% of the island's GDP, again largely due to the capital Santa Cruz de Tenerife with its refinery. It provides petroleum products not only to the Canaries archipelago but is also an active in the markets of the Iberian Peninsula, Africa and South America. Main sights Monuments Historical sights in the island, especially from the time after the conquest, include theCathedral of San Cristóbal de La Laguna, theChurch of the Conception of La Lagunaand theChurch of the Conceptionin the capital. TheBasílica de Nuestra Senora de la Candelariacan be found on the island (Patron of Canary Islands). Also on the island are the defensive castles located in the village ofSan Andrés, as well as many others throughout the island. TheAuditorio de Tenerife, one of the most modern in Spain, can be found at the entry port to the capital (in the southern part of Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife). Near the Auditorio de Tenerife are El Castillo Negro and El Parque Marítimo. TheTorres de Santa Cruzare two twin skyscrapers 120 metres (390 feet) high (the highest residential buildings in Spain and the tallest skyscrapers in the Canary Islands). Archeological sites The island also has severalarchaeological sitesof Guanche time (prior to the conquest), which generally are cave paintings that are scattered throughout the island, but most are found in the south of the island. Archaeological sites on the island include theCave of the Guanches, where the oldest remains in the archipelago have been found,dating to the 6th century BC,and theCaves of Don Gaspar, where the finding of plant debris in the form of carbonized seeds indicates that the Guanches practiced agriculture on the island.Both deposits are in the town ofIcod de los Vinos. Also noteworthy on the island is theEstación solar de Masca(Masca Solar Station), which was an aboriginal sanctuary for the celebration of rites related to fertility and the request for rainwater. This is located in the municipality ofBuenavista del Norte. Other archaeological sites include that of Los Cambados and that of El Barranco del Rey both inArona.One could also highlight theCueva de Achbinico(first shrine Marian of the Canary Islands, Guanche vintage-Spanish). In addition there are some buildings calledGüímar Pyramids, whose origin is uncertain. There are also traces that reveal thePunicpresence on the island, as in the wake commonly called \"Stone of the Guanches\" in the town ofTaganana. This archaeological site consists of a structure formed by a stone block, large, outdoor, featuring rock carvings on its surface. Among these is the presence of a representation of theCarthaginiangoddessTanit,represented by a bottle-shaped symbol surrounded by cruciform motifs. It is thought that the monument was originally an altar of sacrifice linked to those found in theSemiticfield and then reused forAboriginal ritual of mummification. Culture and arts Literature In the 16th and 17th centuries, Antonio de Viana, a native of La Laguna, composed the epic poemAntigüedades de las Islas Afortunadas(Antiquities of the Fortunate Isles), a work of value to anthropologists, since it sheds light on Canarian life of the time.The Enlightenment reached Tenerife, and literary and artistic figures of this era includeJosé Viera y Clavijo,Tomás de Iriarte y Oropesa, Ángel Guimerá y Jorge, Mercedes Pinto andDomingo Pérez Minik, amongst others. Painting During the course of the 16th century, several painters flourished in La Laguna, as well as in other places on the island, includingGarachico, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Orotava andPuerto de la Cruz. Cristóbal Hernández de Quintana and Gaspar de Quevedo, considered the best Canarian painters of the 17th century, were natives of La Orotava, and their art can be found in churches on Tenerife. The work ofLuis de la Cruz y Ríoscan be found in the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia, in Puerto de la Cruz. Born in 1775, he became court painter toFerdinand VII of Spainand was also a miniaturist, and achieved a favorable position in the royal court. He was known there by the nickname of \"El Canario.\" The landscape painter Valentín Sanz (born 1849) was a native of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and theMuseo Municipal de Bellas Artes de Santa Cruzdisplays many of his works. This museum also contains the works ofJuan Rodríguez Botas(1880–1917), considered the first Canarianimpressionist. Frescoes by theexpressionistMariano de Cossío can be found in the church of Santo Domingo, in La Laguna. The watercolorist Francisco Bonnín Guerín (born 1874) was a native of Santa Cruz, and founded a school to encourage the arts.Óscar Domínguezwas born in La Laguna in 1906 and is famed for his versatility. He belonged to thesurrealistschool, and invented the technique known asdecalcomania. Sculpture The arrival from Seville ofMartín de Andújar Cantos, an architect and sculptor brought new sculpting techniques of the Seville school, which were passed down to his students, includingBlas García Ravelo, a native of Garachico. He had been trained by the master sculptorJuan Martínez Montañés. Other notable sculptors from the 17th and 18th centuries includeSebastián Fernández Méndez,Lázaro González de Ocampo,José Rodríguez de la Oliva, and most importantly,Fernando Estévez, a native of La Orotava and a student of Luján Pérez. Estévez contributed an extensive collection of religious images and woodcarvings, found in numerous churches of Tenerife, such as the Principal Parish ofSaint James the Great(Parroquia Matriz del Apóstol Santiago), inLos Realejos; in the Cathedral of La Laguna; theIglesia de la Concepciónin La Laguna; the basilica ofCandelaria, and various churches in La Orotava. Music An important musician from Tenerife is Teobaldo Power y Lugo Viña, a native of Santa Cruz and a pianist and composer, and author of theCantos Canarios.The Hymn of the Canary Islands takes its melody from theArrorró, or Lullaby, from Power y Lugo Viña'sCantos Canarios. Folkloric music has also flourished on the island, and, as in the rest of the islands, is characterized by the use of theCanarian Timple, the guitar,bandurria,laúd, and various percussion instruments. Local folkloric groups such as Los Sabandeños work to save Tenerife's musical forms in the face of increasing cultural pressure from the mainland. Tenerife is the home to the types of songs called theisa,folía,tajaraste, andmalagueña, which are a cross of ancient Guanche songs and those ofAndalusiaand Latin America. Architecture Tenerife is characterized by an architecture whose best representatives are the local manor houses and also the most humble and common dwellings. This style, while influenced by those of Andalusia and Portugal, nevertheless had a very particular and native character. Of the manor houses, the best examples can be found in La Orotava and in La Laguna, characterized by their balconies and by the existence of interior patios and the widespread use of the wood known aspino tea(\"pitch pine\"). These houses are characterized by simple façades and wooden lattices with little ornamentation.There are sash windows and it is customary for the chairs inside the house to rest back-to-back to the windows. The interior patios function like real gardens that serve to give extra light to the rooms, which are connected via the patio by galleries frequently crowned by wood and stone. Gadgets like stills, water pumps, benches and counters, are elements that frequently form part of these patios. Traditional houses generally have two storeys, with rough walls of variegated colours. Sometimes the continuity of these walls is interrupted by the presence of stone blocks that are used for ornamental purposes. The government buildings and religious structures were built according to the changing styles of each century. The urban nuclei of La Orotava and La Laguna have been declared national historical-artistic monuments. In recent years, various governments have spearheaded the concept of developing architectural projects, sometimes ostentatious ones, designed by renowned architects–for example, the remodeling of thePlaza de Españain Santa Cruz de Tenerife by the Swiss architectsHerzog & de Meuron. Other examples include the Playa de Las Teresitas project by the Frenchman Dominique Perrault; the center known as Magma Arte & Congresos; the Torres de Santa Cruz; and theAuditorio de Tenerife(\"Auditorium of Tenerife\"). The latter, by the SpaniardSantiago Calatrava, lies to the east of the Parque Marítimo (\"Maritime Park\"), in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and is characterized by its sail-like structure, which evokes a boat, and has become a symbol for the city and island,which makes Santa Cruz de Tenerife one of the Spanish cities with the most futuristic buildings. Crafts Distinctive representatives of craftsmanship on the island areTenerife lace(calado canario), which is drawn workembroidery, and the intricatedoiliesknown asrosetas, orrosetteembroidery, particularly fromVilaflor. The lace, often made for table linen, is produced by the intricate and slow embroidering of a stretched piece of cloth, which is rigidly attached to a wooden frame and is finished with illustrations or patterns using threads that are crossed over and wound around thefijadores, or pins stuck in a small support made of cloth.These decorated, small pieces are afterwards joined, to produce distinct designs and pieces of cloth. Another Tenerife-based industry is cabinetwork. The north of the island produced various master craftsman who created distinctive balconies, celosias, doors, and windows, as well as furniture consisting of pieces made in fine wood. Basketmaking using palm-leaves was also an important industry. Other materials are chestnut tree branches stripped of their leaves andbanana treefibre (known locally asla badana). Pottery has a long history harking back to the production of ceramics by the Guanches. The Guanches were unfamiliar with thepotter's wheel, and used hand-worked clay, which gave their pottery a distinctive look. Pottery was used to produce domestic objects such as pots and grills, or ornamental pieces such as bead collars or the objects known aspintaderas, which were pieces of pottery used to decorate other vessels. Traditional celebrations Carnival of Santa Cruz Perhaps the most important festival of Tenerife, popular both on a national and international level, is theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, which has been declared a Festival of International Tourist Interest (Fiesta de Interés Turístico Internacional).The carnival is celebrated in many locations in the north and south of the island, but is largest in scope in the city of Santa Cruz.Contests are celebrated, and the carnival includes bands of street musicians (murgas), groups of minstrels (rondallas de Tenerife), masquerades (comparsas), and various associations (agrupaciones). Once the Queen of the festival is elected, the first part of the carnival ends, and thereafter begins the actual street carnival, in which large numbers of people gather in the centre of Santa Cruz, with the carnival lasting ten days. Pilgrimages (Romerías) The most traditional and widespread religious festivals on the islands are the pilgrimages orromerías.These events, which incorporate Christian and non-Christian elements, are celebrated by various means: with wagons andfloats, plowing teams and livestock, in honor of thepatron saintof a particular place. The processions are accompanied by local dances, local dishes, folkloric activities, local arts and crafts, local sports, and the wearing of traditional dress of Tenerife (trajes de mago). The origins of these events can be attributed to the parties and celebrations held by the richest classes of the island, who would gather to venerate their patron saints, to which they attributed good harvests, fertile lands, plentiful rainfall, the curing of sicknesses and ending of epidemics, etc. They would thus give homage to these saints by consuming and sharing the fruits of their harvest, which included the locally cultivated wines. These have developed into processions to mark festivals dedicated toSaint MarkinTegueste, where the wagons are decorated with the fruits of the earth (seeds, cereals, flowers, etc.); toSaint Isidore the Laborerin Los Realejos; to Saint Isidore the Laborer andMaria Torribia(Saint Mary of the Head) in La Orotava; theRomería Regional de San Benito Abadin La Laguna;Virgin of Candelariain Candelaria;Saint Rochin Garachico;Saint AugustineinArafo; and theRomería del Socorroin Güímar. Holiday of the Virgin of Candelaria TheVirgin of Candelariais the patron of the Canary Islands; a feast is held in her honor two times a year, in February and August. TheRomeria-Offering to the Virgin of Candelaria is celebrated every 15 August in this event is a tradition that representations of all municipalities of the island and also of all the Canary archipelago come to make offerings to their patron. Another significant act of the feast of the Virgin of Candelaria is called \"Walk to Candelaria\" held on the night of 14 to 15 August in which thefaithful make pilgrimage on foot from various parts of the island, even coming from other islands to arrive atVilla Mariana de Candelaria. On 2 February we celebrate the feast of the Candelaria. Also on this day come to town many devotees of the Virgin. During the February festivities, the so-called \"Procesión de Las Candelas\" (Candlelight Procession) stands out, in which the faithful accompany the Virgin in the dark of the night lit only by candles and praying the rosary. Holiday of the Cristo de La Laguna It is celebrated every 14 September in honor of a much venerated image of Christ in the Archipelago, theCristo de La Laguna, is held in the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Every 9 September, the venerated image of Christ is lowered in public from the main altar of its Royal Sanctuary, after which, the faithful kiss the feet of the image. The image is solemnly transferred in procession to the Cathedral of La Laguna on the afternoon of that day, where it remains for several days, until 14 September, which is the main day, when it is transferred back to its Sanctuary. Corpus Christi The religious festival ofCorpus Christiis particularly important, and is traditionally celebrated with floral carpets laid in the streets. Particularly noteworthy are the celebrations in La Orotava where a very large carpet, or tapestry, of different coloured volcanic soils, covers the Plaza del Ayuntamiento (town square). These soils are taken from theParque Nacional del Teide, and after the celebration, are returned, to preserve the National Park. The celebration of Corpus Christi in Orotava has been declared of Important Cultural Interest among the official Traditional Activities of the Island. Easter Among the numerous other celebrations that define Tenerifan culture, Easter remains the most important. This is celebrated across the island, but is particularly notable in the municipalities of La Laguna, La Orotava and Los Realejos, where elaborate processions take place on Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter Sunday, or \"Resurrection Sunday\". Holy Week in the city of San Cristobal de la Laguna is the largest of the Canary Islands. Religion As with the rest of Spain, Tenerife is largelyCatholic.However, the practice of other religions and denominations has increasingly expanded on the island due to tourism and immigration, asIslam,Hinduism,Buddhism,Evangelicalism,JudaismandAfro-American religion.Minority religions are stationed in the island:Chinese Religions,Baháʼíand the neopaganism native form, theChurch of the Guanche People,among others. Christianity and Judaism arrived in the island with the Spanish conquest. An important Catholic festival is the celebration of thefeast dayassociated with theVirgin of Candelaria,patron saintof the Canary Islands, who represents the union of the Guanche and Spanish cultures.The Guanches became devoted to aBlack Madonnathat Christian missionaries fromLanzaroteandFuerteventuraleft on a beach near the present-day Villa Mariana de Candelaria, which gave rise to the legends and stories associated with the Virgin. These legends fueled the cult of the Virgin and thepilgrimages to Candelariathat have existed to this day on the island. Another cult to the Virgin Mary exists in the form ofOur Lady of Los Remedios(la Virgen de Los Remedios), who is patron of the island and Catholic diocese of Tenerife (Diócesis Nivariense). In Tenerife were born twoCatholicsaintswho were of the greatest missionaries in the Americas:Peter of Saint Joseph BetancurandJosé de Anchieta. The first was a missionary inGuatemalaand founder ofOrder of Our Lady of Bethlehem(the first religious order of the Americas), the second was a missionary in Brazil, and was one of the founders ofSão Pauloand ofRio de Janeiro. It also highlights the figure of the mysticMary of Jesus de León y Delgado. This nun died with a reputation for holiness and is highly revered throughout the Canary Islands. Her body is intact in the Convent of Santa Catalina de Siena inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Principal Catholic places of worship on the island include: Other important churches include the Church of the Conception in La Orotava (Iglesia de la Concepción); the churches of San Agustín and Santo Domingo in La Orotava; the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia in Puerto de la Cruz; the church of San Marcos in Icod de los Vinos; the church of Santa Ana in Garachico; and theChurch of the Conception (Iglesia de la Concepción) in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first saint of Tenerifeand Canary IslandswasSaint Peter of Saint Joseph Betancur, born in the town ofVilaflor, Tenerife. His main shrine is theCave of Santo Hermano PedroinGranadilla de Abona, near the coast, where he lived in his youth. This cave is considered one of the most important pilgrimage spots of the Canary Islands. Another notable building on the island is theMasonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, generally considered the finest example of Masonic temple architecture in Spain;it was the Masonic center of the country until the military occupation of the island by theFranco regime. The headquarters of theIslamic Federation of the Canary Islandsis in Tenerife; the organization was founded to unite the Muslim communities of the Canary Islands in a common association.For its part, the headquarters of the Evangelical Council of the Canary Islands is also on the island. Education Formal educationin Tenerife began with thereligious orders. In 1530, theDominican Orderestablished a chair of philosophy at the convent ofLa Concepción de La Laguna. Still, until well into the 18th century Tenerife was largely without institutions of education. Such institutions finally began to develop thanks to the work of the Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País (\"Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Country\"), which established several schools in San Cristóbal de La Laguna. The first of these was an institute of secondary education established in 1846 to fill the gap left by the closure of the Universidad de San Fernando (seeUniversity of La Laguna). An 1850 annex to this building was the Escuela Normal Elemental, the archipelago's first teachers' college or normal school, which became the Escuela Normal Superior de Magisterio from 1866 onward. These were the only institutions of higher education until the dictatorMiguel Primo de Riveracreated several institutions. A turning point came around the time of the rise of theSecond Spanish Republic. From 1929 to 1933 the number of schools nearly doubled. Shortly after this, though, the start of theSpanish Civil Warand the following dictatorship ofFrancisco Francoconstituted a considerable reversal. Education in the hands of religious orders had a certain importance on the island until the 1970 Ley General de Educación (\"General Law of Education\") shifted the balance from religiously based education to public education. Public schools continued their advance during and after the post-FrancoSpanish transition to democracy. Tenerife today has 301 centers of childhood education (preschools), 297 primary schools, 140 secondary schools and 86post-secondaryschools.There are also five universities orpost-graduateschools, theUniversity of La Laguna, theUniversidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia(National University of Distance Learning), theUniversidad Internacional Menéndez Pelayo(Menéndez Pelayo International University), theUniversidad Alfonso X el Sabio(University of Alfonso X the Wise) and theUniversidad de Vic(Escuela Universitaria de Turismo de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, \"University School of Tourism of Santa Cruz de Tenerife\"). The largest of these is the University of La Laguna. TheUniversidad Europea de Canarias(European University of the Canary Islands) is located in La Orotava and is the first private university in the Canary Islands. Science and research While Tenerife is not prominent in the history of scientific and academic research, it is the home of theInstituto de Astrofísica de Canarias(Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-OrgánicaAntonio González(Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at the University of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). This last is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\"), located in various parts of Spain. Puerto de la Cruz has the Instituto de Estudos Hispánicos de Canarias (Institute of Hispanic Studies of the Canaries), attached to Madrid's Instituto de Cultura Hispánica. In La Laguna is the Canarian delegation of theConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas(CSIC, Superior Council of Scientific Investigations), the Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (Canarian Institute of Agrarian Investigation), the Instituto de Estudios Canarios (Canarian Institute of Studies) and theCentro Internacional para la Conservación del Patrimonio(the International Center of the Conservation of Patrimony). Other research facilities in Tenerife are the Instituto Tecnológico de Canarias, the Instituto Vulcanológico de Canarias, the Asociación Industrial de Canarias, the Instituto Tecnológico de Energías Renovables (Technological Institute of Renewable Energy) and the Instituto Oceanográfico de Canarias in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Museums The island boasts a variety of museums of different natures, under dominion of a variety of institutions. Perhaps the most developed are those belonging to theOrganismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros,which include the following: Independent of the Organismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros are: Media Along with many Spanish-language radio and TV stations, Tenerife has two official English-language radio stations.Coast FMbroadcasts a mix of adult contemporary music and is the only local news service to broadcast in English. As the larger of the two stations, Coast FM can be heard across Tenerife and much of the Canary Islands from its transmitters on 106.6, 92.2 and 89.4. Energy FM is a non-stop music station that also broadcasts local news and information on the hour. Transport and communications The island of Tenerife is served byTenerife North Airport(GCXO) andTenerife South Airport(GCTS). Tenerife North Airport, the smaller of the two, is located near the metropolitan area Santa Cruz-La Laguna (423,000 inhabitants). It serves inter-insular flights as well as national and European flights. Tenerife South Airport (south) is the busiest Airport in Tenerife, ranking 7th in Spain. It typically serves the mass of regular and vacation charter flights constantly arriving from most of Europe. The other way to arrive on Tenerife is by ferry, either to Santa Cruz de Tenerife or Los Cristianos, near Playa de Las Américas. A network consisting of two fast, toll-free motorways (TF1 and TF5) encircles nearly the entire island, linking all the main towns and resorts with the metropolitan area. The exception is in the West, from Adeje to Icod de los Vinos, which is traversed by a smaller winding mountain road. However, plans are in progress to complete the motorway, which caused a heavy debate between the environmentalists and the local businessmen. Away from the major motorways, there is a network of secondary and communal roads, varying from wide to steep, winding narrow roads, mainly unlit and often with drops on either side of the main carriageway surface. Public transport on the island is provided by an extensive network of buses and run byTITSA, who operate a fleet of modern, air-conditioned buses.TITSA buses cover most of the island and they are fairly frequent. For more than one journey, customers can purchase a TenMascontactless smart cardfor €2, which can be topped up with up to €100 travel credit. Using the TenMas card provides a discount over cash fares, and, for Tenerife residents, a card allowing unlimited travel for a monthly fee is also available.The card can be purchased and topped up at bus stations and many newsagents. It is also valid on the tram in the capital, Santa Cruz (See Below). A hire car is sometimes a good option for discovering the remote wilderness regions, although TITSA operate reliable bus services in the remotest spots, such as the Teno Massif via Masca (355), and up the Anaga mountains (247). TITSA operate two daily services up Mount Teide – from Puerto de la Cruz (348) and from Los Christianos/Las Americas (342) up to the Teide Parador, Teleferico cable car, Montana Blanca and El Portillo. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz,Sixtand TopCar. The metropolitan Area formed by Santa Cruz and La Laguna is served by theTranvía de Tenerife(Tenerife Tram) which opened in early 2007, after 3 years of intensive works. The fairly lengthy line from Santa Cruz up the hill to La Laguna serves almost 20 stops. A second line within La Laguna was added in 2009. Roads The main means of transportation in Tenerife is by highways. The most important of these are theAutopista del Surand theAutopista del Norte(the North and South Motorways), which run from the metropolitan zone to the south and north, respectively. These two motorways are connected by means of theAutovía de Interconexión Norte-Surin the outskirts of the metropolitan zone. Within the network of roads on the island of Tenerife there are other minor roads that used to include the highway from San Andres and Santa Cruz (Holy Cross in English). Also planned is the construction of a bypass road north of the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Laguna. This aims to provide dual cores toGuamasaandAcorán, by way ofLos Baldíos,Centenero,Llano del Moro,El Sobradillo,El Tablero, andEl Chorrillo, among other neighbourhoods. The route will be approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) long and will cost an estimated 190 million euros (270 million in American dollars). Airports Tenerife is most easily reached by air. There are two airports:Tenerife South Airport, in the south, andTenerife North Airport, near Santa Cruz. Overall, Tenerife has the highest annual passenger count and the greatest number of arrivals in Canary Islands, made more popular by the frequency of cheap flights from many European destinations. Tenerife North Airport and Tenerife South Airport together account for the highest passenger numbers in the Islands with some 14 million passengers annually (AENA report). Of the two airports on the island, Tenerife South is the most popular tourist destination. Ports Besides air transport, Tenerife has two principal maritime ports: thePort of Santa Cruz de Tenerife(Puerto de Santa Cruz), which serves the various capitals of the Canary Islands, especially those in the west; and thePort of Los Cristianos(Puerto de Los Cristianos), which serves the various island capitals of the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first port also has passenger services, which connect with the mainland port ofCádiz(and vice versa). In 2017, a large important port was opened in the south of the island, thePort of Granadilla, and another one is planned in the west, inFonsalía.The Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is the first fishing port in the Canary Islands with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Statistical Yearbook of the State Ports 2006 (the latest of which is changing). Following this report is the largest port number of passengers recorded. Similarly, the second port of Spain moving ship and loaded into cars, only surpassed by thePort of AlgecirasBay.In the port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. Buses (guaguas) Tenerife has an extensive system of buses, which are calledguaguasin the Canary Islands. The bus system is used both within the cities and also connects most of the towns and cities of the island. There are bus stations in all of the major towns, such as theIntercambiador de Transportes de Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Taxis There is a well-regulated taxi service on the island. Tramway Since 2007, theTenerife TramconnectsSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLa Lagunathrough the suburb of Taco. There are 20 stops and it covers a distance of 12.5 km (7.8 mi) in 37 minutes. It calls at some points of interest including Tenerife's two major hospitals, the university complex of Guajara, and a number of museums and theatres. Concerning its power supply, it will support development of further wind farms to provide it with 100 percent clean energy. Railway plans By 2005, plans for a light-rail network linking the capital with the South had been approved by both theTenerife Counciland the Canary Islands Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government stalled on budget issues.The original intent was to establish two railway systems that would serve the northern and southern sides of the island connecting these with the capital.By March 2011, these intentions had been replaced by advanced plans for a single 80 km (50 mi)high-speed railline, the \"South Train\" which would connectSanta Cruz de TenerifewithAdejevia Santa Maria de Añaza,Candelaria, San Isidro,Tenerife South Airport, and a main stopover station atAdejewhich would be designed to service up to 25,000 passengers per day. Trains would run every 15 minutes during rush hours, and would achieve speeds up to 220 km/h (137 mph). The project, which involves 9 tunnels, 12 false tunnels (together 22.1 km) and 33 viaducts (8.3 km) has been budgeted at EUR 1.7 bn. It has met staunch opposition from local environmentalists.An alternate plan for a high-speedTransrapid maglevhas also been put forward. Tourist train Atourist train(Tren Turístico) serves Costa Adeje to Los Cristianos with several stops including in Playa de las Americas. Cableway Sports On the island of Tenerife, a large number of sports are practised, both outdoors and indoors in the various facilities available throughout the island. The sports are numerous – Diving, Rock Climbing, Walking, Cycling, Sailing, Golf, Surfing, Go-Karting, Paragliding– the all year round weather makes it ideal for a wide variety of outdoor sports. There are also many indoor sporting facilities including fully equipped including 'Tenerife Top Training' centre in Adeje on the South of the Island. Its most well-known sports team isfootballclubCD Tenerifebased in Santa Cruz. The club has spent time in the Spanish top flight, but have in recent decades primarily played in the second division of Spanish football. Also worth mentioning is theultramarathonCajaMar Tenerife Bluetrail, the highest race in Spain and second in Europe,with the participation of several countries and great international repercussions. Healthcare The main hospitals on the island are theHospital Universitario de Canariasand theHospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria. Both are third-level hospitals, with specialist facilities that serve all of the Canary Islands.They are both affiliated with the education and research network of theUniversidad de La Laguna. However, they belong to different bodies, since the first one is under the directives of theServicio Canario de la Salud(Canarian Health Service).The Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria it is the largest hospital complex in the Canary Islands. In addition, two large new hospitals have recently been built in the north and south areas of the island, located in the municipalities ofIcod de los VinosandAronarespectively. TheHospital del Norte de Tenerife(Tenerife North Hospital) opened in 2012 and theHospital del Sur de Tenerife(Tenerife South Hospital) opened in 2015.These centers will function, according to their classification, as second level hospitals, with services of hospitalization, advanced diagnosis, ambulances and emergencies, and rehabilitation, etc. There are also a total of 39 centers of primary care and specialized clinics which complete the sanitary infrastructure of Tenerife. Gastronomy Fish Due to the geographic situation of Tenerife, the island enjoys an abundance of fish of various kinds. The species that are consumed the most are theCombtooth blennies(viejas), as well assea bream(sama),red porgy(bocinegro),gold lined bream(salema),grouper(mero), and various and abundant types ofThunnus. TheAtlantic mackerel(caballa),sardine(sardine), andJack mackerels(chicharros) are also consumed frequently.Moray eels(morenas) are also eaten, usually fried. Most seafood is cooked simply, usually boiled, or prepared \"a la espalda\" (cut into two equally shaped pieces along the spine) or \"a la sal\" (baked in salt). These dishes are usually accompanied bymojo(a local sauce) and wrinkly potatoes. Meat The typical festive meat dish of marinated porktacosis a very popular dish prepared for town festivities inventorrillos, bars and private homes.Rabbit insalmorejo, goat, beef, pork and poultry are regularly consumed. Canarian wrinkly potatoes The fish dishes along with the meats are often accompanied bywrinkly potatoes(papas arrugadas). This is a typical Canarian dish which simply refers to the way the cooked potatoes look. They are boiled in their skins, in water with much salt, and the water is allowed to evaporate, leaving a salty crust. Mojos Mojo, a word probably of Portuguese origin, describes a typical Canarian sauce, served as an accompaniment to food. The sauces come in a variety of colours, flavours and textures, and are usually served cold, often in separate dishes, for the diner to choose how much to apply. Green mojo usually includes coriander, parsley, and garlic; whilst red mojo is piquant, and made from a mix of hot and sweet peppers. A wide variety of other ingredients are also used, including; almonds, cheese, saffron and fried bread.Mojos are served with most meat, and some fish, dishes, and are often used on potatoes, or bread is dipped into them. Cheeses Tenerife exports about 3,400 tons of cheese per year, representing about 50 percent of the output of the island, and about 25 percent of the entire Canary Islands. After the conquest of the Canary Islands, one of the first commercial activities to be started was cheese production. The sale of cheese provided the inhabitants with an income and cheese was even used as a form of currency for exchange and sale, becoming a crucial product in agricultural areas of the island. Cheese grew to become one of the most commonly produced and consumed products on the island and is regularly served as part of a starter course or as a snack. Farms at Arico, La Orotava and Teno produced a variety of cheeses, including soft cheeses, cured, smoked and were mostly handmade. Today the main product isgoat cheese, although certain amounts are made from sheep's or cow's milk, and according to theRegistro General Sanitario de Alimentos, the general health registry, around 75 differentcottage cheesesare produced.The cheeses of the Canaries have generally received good international reviews, noted for their sweetness which differentiates them from certain other European cheeses.In particular, Tenerifan cured goats cheese was awarded best cheese in the world final of the 2008World Cheese Awardsheld inDublin, Ireland. Cheeses from Tenerife now have a quality mark promoted by theFundación Tenerife Rural, to standardize their quality in an attempt to publicize the qualities of the cheese and improve its marketing. Gofio Gofiois one of the more traditional elements of cooking on the island, It is made withcereal grainsthat are roasted and then ground. Increasingly used to make a gofio on the island is wheat although there are other types, and they are often made withchickpeas. Relatively common is a mixed-type with wheat. It was served as main food to theguancheseven before the Spanish conquest. In later times of scarcity or famine it was a staple of the popular Canarian diet. Today it is eaten as a main dish (gofio escaldado) or an accompaniment to different dishes, meats, fishes, soups, desserts. Some famous cooks have even made gofio ice cream, receiving good comments from the critics. Confectionery Confectionery in Tenerife is represented and strongly influenced by La Palma, with confections likebienmesabe,leche asada,Príncipe Alberto,frangollo,huevos moles, andquesillo. Wines Viticulturein the archipelago, and especially in Tenerife dates back to the conquest, when the settlers brought a variety of vines to plant. In the 16th and 17th centuries, wine production played an important role in the economy, and many families were dedicated to the culture and business. Of special mention ismalvasía canary, considered the best wine of Tenerife and at the time one of the most desired wines in the world, being shipped across to the major warehouses of Europe and America.Writers such asWilliam ShakespeareandWalter Scottmake reference to the wine in some of their works.Tenerife has 5 main wine growing regions. These includeAbona,Valle de Güímar,Valle de La Orotava,Tacoronte-AcentejoandYcoden-Daute-Isora. This typical gastronomy is served in popular establishments known asguachinches, opening day is the day ofSan Andrés, 30 November, also known as the young wine festivalFestival de Vino Joven. The wine of the new harvest is traditionally served with roasted chestnuts, maturing at the same time, and grilled sardines, thus the season normally lasts from late autumn until early spring. Tenerife in popular culture Cities The city ofBrisbanein Queensland, Australia, has a historical inner suburb namedTeneriffe, named by one of the first European landowners in the area, James Gibbon, because it reminded him ofMount Teide. Other cities in the world whose name has its origins in the island are:Tenerife, Magdalena, a town and municipality in Colombia;San Carlos de Tenerife, a city in the Dominican Republic. Cinema Over the last few years,Tenerife has become a popular filming location, being featured in several Hollywood blockbusters.Some of the most important films made on the island are: Music Likewise, the island has been home to several musical recordings and as a scenic setting for music videos: Video games In literature Literary works featuring Tenerife includeThe CompanionandThe Man from the Sea, both byAgatha Christie;La cueva de las mil momiasbyAlberto Vazquez-Figueroa;Thieves' PicnicbyLeslie Charteris;El Sarcófago de las tres llavesby Pompeyo Reina Moreno;andAtentadoby Mariano Gambín. International relations Tenerife istwinnedwith: See also References External links","Fuerteventura Fuerteventura(Spanish:ⓘ) is one of theCanary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, geographically part ofMacaronesia, and politically part ofSpain. It is located 97 km (60 mi) away from the coast ofNorth Africa. The island was declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCOin 2009. Fuerteventura belongs toProvince of Las Palmas,one of the two provinces that form the autonomous community of the Canary Islands. The island's capital isPuerto del Rosario, where the Insule Council is found, the government of the island. Fuerteventura had 124,152 inhabitants (as of 2023), the fourth largest population of the Canary Islands and the third of the province. At 1,659.74 km2(640.83 sq mi),it is the second largest of the Canary Islands, afterTenerife.From a geological point of view, Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the archipelago. Toponymy The island's name is a compound formed by the Spanish wordsfuerte(either \"strong\" or \"fort\") andventura(\"fortune\"). Traditionally, Fuerteventura's name has been regarded as a reference to the strong winds (fuertes vientosin Spanish) around the island coastline, and the resulting danger to nautical adventurers. However, it might have referred instead (or also) to wealth, luck or destiny. In 1339 the Mallorcan navigatorAngelino Dulcert, in thePlanisferio de Angelino Dulcert, referred to the island as \"Forte Ventura\". Another theory is that the island's name derives from \"Fortunatae Insulae\" (Fortunate Islands), the name by which the Romans knew the Canary Islands. Theindigenousname of the island, before its conquest in the 15th century, was Erbania, divided into two regions (Jandía and Maxorata), from which the name majorero (originally majo or maxo) derives. However, it has been suggested that, at some point, Maxorata (which meant \"the children of the country\") was the aboriginaltoponymof the entire island. History Precolonial history The first settlers of Fuerteventura are believed to have come from North Africa. The wordMahorero(Majorero) orMahois still used today to describe the people of Fuerteventura and is derived from the ancient word 'mahos', a type of goatskin shoe worn by these original inhabitants. They lived in caves and semi-subterranean dwellings, some of which have been excavated, revealing remnants of early tools and pottery. In antiquity, the island was originally known asPlanaria, in reference to the flatness of most of its terrain. Phoeniciansettlers landed in Fuerteventura andLanzarote. Several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions to the islands were organized around 1340, followed by Moors and European slave traders. At the end of the Iberian conquest, the island was divided into twoGuancheskingdoms, one adhering to King Guize and the other to King Ayoze. The territories of these kingdoms were calledMaxorata(in the North) andJandía(in the South) respectively. They were separated by a wall, which traversed the La Pared isthmus. Some remains have been preserved. The ancient name for the island, Erbania, is derived from this wall's name. The conquest The island's conquest began in earnest in 1402, commanded by French knights and crusadersJean de BéthencourtandGadifer de la Salle.They arrived with only 63 sailors out of the original 283, as many had deserted along the way. After arriving and settling inLanzarote, the invaders made some first excursions to the neighboring islands. In 1404, Bethencourt and Gadifer foundedBetancuria, on the West coast, the first settlement on the island. After numerous difficulties, Gadifer took charge of the invasion, while Bethencourt returned to Spain to seek the recognition and support of theCastilian king. In 1405, de Béthencourt completed his conquest of the island, establishing its capital in Betancuria (Puerto Rosario took over the mantle as island capital in 1835). In 1424 PopeMartin V, through theBetancuriaBrief, edicted the establishment of theBishopric of Fuerteventura, which encompassed all theCanary Islandssave for the island ofLanzarote.The origin of this bishopric is directly related to the events that occurred after theGreat Schism(1378–1417), in that the bishop ofSan Marcial del RubicónofLanzarote(at the time, the only diocese in the Canary Islands) did not recognize the papacy of Martin V, and instead adhered toanti-PopeBenedict XIII. TheBishopric of Fuerteventurawas based in theParish of Santa María de Betancuria, bestowing upon the latter the status of Grant Cathedral. After the reabsorbtion of theDiocese of San Marcial del Rubicónby the papacy of Pope Martin V, the Bishopric of Fuerteventura was abolished in 1431, only seven years after it was created. The first censusrecorded a population of some 1,200 inhabitants. The population increased gradually thereafter. In 1476 the territory became theSeñorío Territorial de Fuerteventura, subjected to theCatholic Monarchs.In later years, the island was invaded by the Spanish, French and the English. 2nd conquest of Fuerteventura Over time, the island endured numerous raids. ABerber-led expedition invaded in 1593, sweeping as far inland as the capital. Various castles were built along the coastline, to protect against these type of attacks. The population was moved inland as a second protective measure. Because of the raids, a firstCaptain Generalwas dispatched to Fuerteventura, accompanied by a number ofSergeants Major, to defend the island in the name of the Crown. At that time, Betancuria became the religious capital of the island. Two majorattackstook place in 1740, within a month of each other. Two separate bands of English privateers attempted to loot the town of Tuineje. These attacks were however successfully averted by the local population and the island's militia. This successful repelling of the invaders is celebrated at a re-enactment that takes place in Gran Tarajal every year in October. The island's garrison was officially instated in 1708. Its colonel assumed the title ofGovernor at Arms, a hereditary, lifelong appointment which has remained in the Sánchez-Dumpiérrez family. In time, this family increasingly garnered power over the other islands through alliances with the family of Arias de Saavedra and the Lady of Fuerteventura.During the same year theAssistant Parish ofLa OlivaandPájarawas created, to become operational in 1711. On 17 December 1790, theAssistant Parish ofTuinejewas created, which became a new parish division on 23 June 1792 under the bishop Tavira, with lands including part of the Jandía peninsular, and with a population of 1,670 inhabitants. 1780 saw the start of a barrilla plantation industry. To the present In 1852, a free trade zone was extended byIsabella IIto the Canary Islands. Military island rule, which began in 1708, was finally dissolved in 1859, andPuerto de Cabras(nowPuerto del Rosario) - the only municipal seat on the coast - became the new capital. The Canary Islands obtained self-governance in 1912. In 1927, Fuerteventura andLanzarotebecame part of the province ofGran Canaria. The seat of the island's government (cabildo insular) is located inPuerto del Rosario. A total of 118,574 people lived on the island in 2018. By the 1940s the island had an airport (just west ofPuerto del Rosarioon the road to Tindaya, still visible today). Mass tourism began to arrive in the mid-1960s, facilitated by the construction ofFuerteventura AirportatEl Matorraland the first tourist hotels. The island's proximity (a mere 100 km) to the West African coast and the fact that it is part of theSchengenterritory make it a prime target destination for undocumented immigrants. However, many have perished while attempting the crossing. Flag The flag of Fuerteventura is in proportions 1:2, divided vertically, green to thehoistand white to thefly end, with the coat of arms of the island in the centre. Coat of arms The coat of arms of Fuerteventura was prescribed by a Decree adopted on 15 October 1998 by the Government of the Canary Islands and published on 11 November 1998 in the official gazette of the Canary Islands, No. 142, pp. 13,432–13,433. It was adopted on 24 April 1998 by the Island Council and validated on 18 September 1998 by the Heraldry Commission of the Canary Islands. The heraldic description is \"per paleandper fess. First,gules, a castle or,masonedsable, its gate and windowsazure. Second,argent, lion gules, crowned, armed andlanguedor. Third, silver, three fesseschequygules and or, in four rows, each one charged with a fess or.Borduregules, with eightsaltiresor.Ensignedwith aroyal crown, open.\" According to José Manuel Erbez (Banderas y escudos de Canarias, 2007), the coat of arms is based on the arms of the island's provincial militia. The upper quarters represent Castile (symbolized by a castle) and León (symbolized by a lion). The lower quarter alludes to the Saavedra family; various members of this family were lords of Fuerteventura. Geography Environment The elongated island is 100 km (62 mi) long and 31 km (19 mi) wide. It has an area of 1,660 km2(641 sq mi). Located just 100 km (62 mi) off the coast of North Africa, it is the second biggest of the islands, after Tenerife, and has the longest white sand beaches in the archipelago. The island is a destination for sun, beach and watersports enthusiasts. It lies at the same latitude as Florida and Mexico and temperatures rarely fall below 18 °C (64 °F) or rise above 32 °C (90 °F). It counts 152 separate beaches along its seaboard — 50 km (31 mi) of white sand and 25 km (16 mi) of black volcanic shingle. The highest point in Fuerteventura is Pico de la Zarza (807 m) in the southwestern part of the island. Geographical features includeIstmo de la Paredwhich is 5 km (3 mi) wide and is the narrowest part of Fuerteventura. The island is divided into two parts, the northern portion which isMaxorataand the southwestern part called the Jandía peninsula. Climate Fuerteventura has ahot desert climate(Köppen:BWh).The climate is mild, but mostly windy, throughout the year. The island is hence referred to asthe island of eternal spring. The sea regulates air temperature, diverting hotSaharawinds away from the island. The island's name in English translates as \"strong fortune\" or \"strong wind\", the Spanish word for wind beingviento. During the winter months, temperatures average a high of 22 °C (72 °F) and a low of around 15 °C (59 °F), whereas during the summer a mean high of 28 °C (82 °F) and a low of 20 °C (68 °F) can be expected. Precipitation is about 147 mm (6 in) per year, most of which falls in autumn and winter. December is the month with highest rainfall. A sandstorm known as theCalima(similar to theSiroccowind, which blows to the North of the Sahara, to Europe) may blow from the Sahara Desert to the Northwest, and can cause high temperatures, low visibility and drying air. Temperatures during this phenomenon rise temporarily by approximately 10 degrees Celsius. The wind brings in fine red dust, The fine white sand is not blown in from Sahara, It is made up of dead coral reef and local seabed upheaval. Visibility can drop to between 100 and 200 m (328.08 and 656.17ft) or even lower, and together with very warm temperatures, it can even bring Africanlocuststo the island. Hydrology In the winter months, up to 80% of the rainwater flows unused into the ocean, as there is no vegetation to capture the water (also due to overgrazing by free-ranging goats near the coast). The mountain forests, which were still present in the 19th century, were all chopped down. Instead, there are many desalination plants (running on electricity) which produce the required amount of freshwater on the island. The tourists on the island use about double the amount of water as the native inhabitants of Fuerteventura. Causes are the filling of swimming pools, watering hotel gardens and washing towels. Geology Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the Canary Islands dating back 20 million years to a volcanic eruption from theCanary hotspot.The majority of the island was created about 5 million years ago and since then has been eroded by wind and precipitation. On the seabed off the west coast of the island rests an enormous slab of bedrock 22 km (14 mi) long and 11 km (7 mi) wide, which appears to have slid off the island largely intact at some point in prehistory, similar to the predicted future collapse ofCumbre Vieja, a geological fault on another Canary Island,La Palma. The last volcanic activity in Fuerteventura occurred between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. Beaches Fuerteventura was chosen among 500 European destinations by the Quality Coast International Certification Program of the European Coastal and Marine Union as one of the most attractive tourist destinations for visitors interested in cultural heritage, environment and sustainability. The best beaches to visit are Playa de Cofete, Playas de Jandia, Playas de Corralejo, Playa de Ajuy, and Playas de El Cotillo. Wildlife The island is home to one of the two surviving populations of the threatenedCanarian Egyptian vulture. It is also inhabited by many wild dogs and cats. On the barren, rocky land there areBarbary ground squirrelsandgeckos. Fuerteventura also hosts several migratory and nesting birds. The island has significant populations of thecollared dove, commonswiftsand severalfinchspecies especially in the vicinity of holiday developments. Despite its arid climate, the island is also home to a surprisingly large insect fauna. Butterflies which commonly occur on the island include the clouded yellow (Colias hyale) and the bath white (Pontia daplidice) which feeds onxerophyticcruciferae. The island is also home to the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) and its close African relativeDanaus chrysippus. Around holiday developments such asCaleta de Fuste, water is relatively abundant, anddragonflyspecies including the blue emperor (Anax imperator) and the scarlet darter (Crocothemis erythraea) can be found. The island's sand dunes and shoreline are home to a number ofbeeandwaspspecies including the largeeumenidcaterpillar hunting wasp,Delta dimidiatipenneand the blue banded bee (Amegilla canifrons). Hawkmothsalso occur on the island. One of the more notable species isHyles tithymaliwhich feeds on endemic spurges such asEuphorbia regis-jubae.Acherontia atropos, the deaths-head hawkmoth also occurs on the island presumably feeding on members of theSolanaceae, for example,Datura innoxiaandNicotiana glaucawhich are common weeds in the vicinity of human habitation. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Fuerteventura areChlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae(hubara or houbara) andEuphorbia handiensis(Cardón de Jandía). Demographics Population The island had a population of 124,152 at the start of 2023.Throughout its long history, Fuerteventura has suffered from apopulation declinedue to the economic situation and the climate, which have made it into a desert island. However, the development of tourism during the 1980s has caused the population to grow year on year since then, doubling it in a little less than a decade. In 2005, with 86,642 registered inhabitants,the Fuerteventura population was formed by the following: Comparing this data with the 2001 census shows that the number of permanent residents born on the island has increased by just 3,000. The number who have moved in from abroad has increased by 22,910, making this the biggest contributor to population growth in recent years. Education The island has 116 schools,with a total of 14,337 pupils.Of these, 45 are primary schools, ten are secondary schools, six are forBaccalaureatestudents and four are vocational colleges. Fuerteventura also has a centre linked with theNational University of Distance Education, offering courses in many subjects including economics, business studies, law, history and tourism. Administration Fuerteventura is governed by the Island Department of the Government of Spain, which holds the rank of a Government Subdepartment. The government building is located in the centre of the capital city. This institution is charged with representing the Government of Spain on the island, and managing all the functions that are not under control of the Canarian Government. This includes the following public services: Since 30 June 2007, the island's governor has been Eustaquio Juan Santana Gil.4 Island Council of Fuerteventura (Cabildo) The councils, formed as part of the Councils Act of 1912, administer theCanary Islandsand have two principal functions. On one hand, they perform services for the Autonomous Community, and on the other, they are the local government centre for the island. In the 2003 elections, Mario Cabrera González was elected as president representing theCanarian Coalition, with 31.02% of the votes, followed by theSpanish Socialist Workers' Partywith 27.53%, represented by the Vice President Domingo Fuentes Curbelo. Municipalities Fuerteventura is part of theProvince of Las Palmas. The island is divided into sixmunicipalities, as follows: In turn, these municipalities are organised into two associations: theMancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Norte de Fuerteventuraformed from La Oliva and Puerto del Rosario, and the remaining municipalities make up theMancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Sur de Fuerteventura. All municipalities are ruled by a town council, and are members of the FECAM (Federation of Canarian Municipalities). They are governed by the basic legislation of the local regime and their respective organic rules. About 100 individual settlements are distributed through these municipalities. The largest not being municipal seats areCorralejo(in La Oliva; pop. 10,714 in 2023),Morro Jable(in Pájara; pop. 8,245)Gran Tarajal(in Tuineje; pop. 7,584), andCosta Calma(in Pájara; pop. 5,704), all coastal localities of recent development. A nearby islet,Islote de Lobos, is close to Corralejo and part of the municipality ofLa Oliva. Economy Both Fuerteventura andLanzarotewould have been the main exporters of wheat and cereals to the central islands of the archipelago during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries;TenerifeandGran Canaria.However, this trade was of little benefit to the inhabitants of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (because the landowners of the islands profited from this activity), leading to periods of famine, resulting in some of the population of the islands moving to Tenerife and Gran Canaria to try to improve their lives. Therefore, the island of Tenerife became the main focus of attraction formajorerosandlanzaroteños, hence the feeling of union that has always existed amongst these islands. The economy of Fuerteventura is mainly based on tourism. Primary tourist areas are located around the existing towns ofCorralejoin the north andMorro JableinJandia, plus the purely tourist development ofCaleta de Fuste, south ofPuerto del Rosario. Other main industries are fishing and agriculture (cereals and vegetables). The famousMajorero cheeseis locally made from the milk of the indigenousmajoreragoat. In 2009, Fuerteventura recorded the highest EU regional unemployment rate at a NUTS3 level, at 29.2 percent. Tourism The first tourist hotel was built in 1965 followed by the construction ofFuerteventura Airportat El Matorral, heralding the dawn of a new era for the island. Fuerteventura, with its 3,000 sunshine hours a year, was placed firmly on the world stage as a major European holiday destination.While having fully developed tourist facilities, the island has not experienced the overdevelopment found on some other islands.Nonetheless, it remains a destination for predominantly but not exclusively European tourists. The summerTrade Windsand winter swells of the Atlantic make this a year-round surfers' paradise, with more exposed areas on the north and west shores such asCorralejoand El Cotillo proving most popular. Wind surfing takes places at locations around the island. Sailors, scuba divers and big-game fishermen are all drawn to these clear blue Atlantic waters where whales, dolphins, marlin and turtles are all common sights. With many hills present throughout the Island, hikers are also attracted to this Island. Sandy beaches are found in many locations. Western beaches, such as those around El Cotillo, can experience strong surf. The beaches adjoining the extensive sand dunes east ofCorralejoare popular, as are the more protected extensive sandy shores of the Playa de Sotavento de Jandia on the southeastern coast betweenCosta Calmaand the Morro Jable. Naked sun bathing and swimming are the norm almost on all beaches. Much of the interior, with its large plains, lavascapes and volcanic mountains, consists of protected areas, although there are organised tours and vehicular access across them. Art and culture Traditional holidays Like the rest of the Canaries, Carnival is traditionally one of the biggest festivals celebrated on the island. It is celebrated in different ways in all the towns during February and March. These festivities have a different theme each year. They include activities such as parades and galas to choose the carnival king. Concerts and festivals There are many concerts and festivals held in the auditoriums, such as the Festival of Canarian Music. They are also held in smaller venues across the island, featuring bands such as Estopa, Van Gogh's Ear, and King Afrhica. Festival Internacional de Cometas/InternationalKiteFestival is held on the second week of November each year centering on the Corralejo Beaches. It attracts kitefliers and kite surfers from all over Europe. It is popular because the winds are warm and constant and the beaches become filled with hundreds of colourful kites of all shapes and sizes. Auditoriums Fuerteventura has three auditoriums. These are used for all types of performing art. They are also used for non-artistic purposes, such as conferences, charity galas and political meetings. Central library The Central Library of the Island is located in Antigua's city centre, in the public university. In addition to providing the traditional library services, it has a 180-seat multipurpose room, air conditioning, a wifi zone, and a multimedia room used for seminars, presentations, film festivals etc. Museums and exhibition spaces The island has several museums with different themes and plenty of exhibition spaces, both public and private. These include: Sculpture park In addition to the museums, the capitalPuerto del Rosariohas an open-air sculpture park consisting of around 100 sculptures by different artists scattered across the city. Most of them were created for the International Symposium of Sculpture celebrated annually since 2001. During the festival, artists come from all over the world to erect their sculptures in the open air, in full view of passers by. Main sights Sites of interest includeCorralejoand El Jable to the north which are made up of fine sandduneswhilst the south is filled with long beaches and remote bays. The constant winds blowing onto the beaches provide a paradise forwindsurfing.Surfingis common on the west and north coasts where there are large waves. Windsurfing is common around Corralejo and Playas de Sotavento and wave sailing (windsurfing on the waves) on the coast along the northern half of the island. El Cotillo is a small fishing village in the north-west of the Island famous for a very long beach to the south of the village and few very calm beaches to the north. The northern beaches frequented by snorkeling enthusiasts and sun worshippers alike are referred to as lakes by the locals. AtCofeteon the western side of Jandía a remote and imposing house –Villa Winter– looks out to sea across wide beaches. It was reputedly built by a Mr Winter on land given byGeneralisimo Franco. For a time, the beaches were home to a popular accidental attraction. On 18 January 1994 theUnited States Linesocean linerSSAmerican Star(formerAmerica, USSWest Point,Australis) was beached in Playa de Garcey during a severe storm. Within a year, she broke in two and later lost her stern. By 2007 the rest of the severely deteriorated ship had collapsed onto her port side, gradually keeling over further and almost completely submerged. By 2008–2012, most of the remains finally slipped below the surface. Food The cuisine is fairly basic due to the customs and climate conditions. They share this simplicity with the other Canary islands, and similarly to them, they use a large quantity offish. They also use whatever they can grow in the near-barren land. This includespapas arrugadas, a dish of wrinkled potatoes usually served withmojo, which is a hot pepper sauce or withpuchero canario, a meat stew. Seafood is prepared in many ways traditionally, such as pejines (salted fish),jareas,orsancocho(a type of stew) made from fish, generally thegrouper,corvina or sama, boiled after salting, and served with mojo, potatoes, orgofio(a type of grain). People are also very keen on themusselsandlimpetscollected on the island's coasts. They also use meat such asbeefandporkto make different dishes or simply to for braising, but their main meat isgoat, both from the kids and from the older animals. They eat the goat roasted or stewed. Goats are not only useful for their meat – the Fuerteventurans also use themilkto make the cheesemajorero, which has won many prizes. The majorero is mostly made of goats milk, and occasionally it is up to 15%ewesmilk. It is cured inpimentooil or gofio meal. Majorero andpalmero cheeseare the only two Canarian cheeses withprotected denomination of origin. Transport and communications The main methods of arriving and departing the islands are by flying and by ferry. Airports The airport is the main access point to the island. It is situated in El Matorral, 5 km (3.1 mi) southwest of the capital city Puerto del Rosario. The airport has flight connections to over 80 destinations worldwide, and over 5.6 million passengers passed through it in 2016. In 1994, the new airport terminal was constructed. In December 2009, the new facilities of the arrivals terminal of Fuerteventura Airport were inaugurated, tripling the space available in the old facilities. Up to 4000 passengers per hour can be served concurrently thanks to the new facilities. Notably,Binter Canariasserves the airport as the regional airline connecting passengers acrossCanary Islands. Ports Maritime communications are made from four ports: Puerto del Rosario, Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. Cargo operations are the main activity of the island's main port in Puerto del Rosario, although its facilities allow the docking of tourist cruises including a ferry from Gran Canaria. Passenger traffic is mainly channeled through Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. The port of Corralejo connects the island with Lanzarote. The port of Gran Tarajal connects the island with Gran Canaria and Morro Jable connects the island with Gran Canaria and Tenerife. Roads There are two highways on the island: FV-1 and FV-2. The FV-1, together with the FV-2, is part of the major construction project of the north–south motorway on Fuerteventura. The FV-1 begins in the north, in the town of Corralejo and ends in the island's capital Puerto del Rosario. FV-1 is part dual carriageway and part single carriageway. In the past, the FV-1 also ran through the Corralejo Dune Nature Reserve. In order to direct through traffic out of the nature reserve, the dual carriageway bypass around the nature reserve was opened in 2017 as the first section of the motorway after three years of construction, plus five years of construction delay. The road through nature reserve was renamed FV-104. FV-2 connects Morro Jable and Puerto del Rosario. Between La Lajita and Morro Jable, FV-2 is a dual carriageway highway. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar, Hertz, Sixt and TopCar. Sport Many sports are commonly played in Fuerteventura, both in the open air and in sports centres across the island. Native sports These are the Canarian sports found on the island: Canarian wrestling The wrestling takes place in a ring of sand called theterrero. Inside it, the two contestants try to knock each other over. Fuerteventura has 14 terreros distributed through all the towns except Betancuria. The island also has a school wrestling league organized by the council and a programme to promote this sport in clubs. Twelve wrestling schools participate in this, based in Antigua, Costa Calma, El Matorral, La Lajita, Lajares, Las Playitas, Morro Jable, Puerto del Rosario, Tefía, Tetir, Unión Sur and Villaverde. Juego del Palo Juego del Palois a Canarian martial art which literally translates as \"game of the stick\". It is played by two players both armed with sticks. They aim to defeat each other without making contact with their opponent's body. The origin of this game is unclear. All we know is that it is based on a method of combat used by the precolonial Canarian people. Fuerteventura has the following Palo clubs: Canarian boules This is a similar game to the FrenchPétanquewhich is actually played very little on the island, although there are a few teams and courts. Basically the game consists of scoring points by throwing a ball to get it as near as possible to an object called amingueorboliche. It is played on a rectangular sand or earth pitch which is 18 to 25 m (59.1–82.0 ft) long and 3.5 to 6 m (11.5–19.7 ft) wide. Watersports The sea and climate conditions make the island the perfect place for a huge variety of watersports. Surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing Many types of surfing are popular on the island, includingtraditional surfing,windsurfing(where the board is propelled by a sail) and most recentlykitesurfing. The island has many schools and courses dedicated to teaching these sports. The sports where Fuerteventura has the most impact internationally are windsurfing and kitesurfing, mainly due to the International Windsurfing and Kiteboarding Championship. This has run since 1985 and is held at Playas de Sotavento in Pájara municipality. Many important wind and kitesurfing figures compete in this championship, such as the several-times world windsurfing championBjörn DunkerbeckandGisela Pulido, the very young kiteboarding champion fromTarifa. Many Canarian windsurfers are on the Canarian Waveriders circuit, which has been based inCorralejosince 2005. Diving Diving schools are just as frequent as surfing ones, all around the coast of Fuerteventura. Unlike the other islands of the archipelago, Fuerteventura has a shelf which at some points goes up to 30 km (19 mi), making it an ideal place to practice this sport. Two of the most useful points for diving are the coast offPlaya del Matorralin the South, and the zone betweenLobos Islandand Corralejo in the north. It is here in Corralejo that the International Sea and Submarine Photography Festival takes places, known as Fimarsub Corralejo – Lobos. During the festival there are beginners' lessons, professional dives, lessons in underwater photography, screenings and other events related to the sport. Swimming There are many swimming pools on the island but the most obvious place to swim is in the open sea. There is an annual swim from Lobos Island to Fuerteventura, held every year since 1999. The event attracts amateur swimmers from all over the Canaries and Spain, and also swimming professionals such asDavid MecaandMaarten van der Weijden, the paralympist Jesús Collado Alarcón who won gold medals for 100m backstroke and butterfly in Athens 2004, and Xavi Torres Ramis, the paralympic champion in Barcelona 1992, Sydney and Atlanta. Sailing The island holds competitions involving different types of boat, such as thelateenand theOptimist. An interesting event is the Tour of Fuerteventura by Kayak, which is organised as a series of stages rather than a competition, and is an easy way to explore the island. Fishing The most notable competition here is the Gran Tarajal Fishing Open. Other sports Since 2004 the Marcha Ciclotourista has been held inLa Olivaand the Criterium Ciclista has been held in Corralejo (also part of the La Oliva municipality) since 2005. Participants includeEuskaltel–Euskadi,T-Mobileand a team fromOrbea. These competitions have contributed to local interest in the sport and the first professional local team, theFuerteventura–Canarias, was formed, initially run by Óscar Guerrero, director ofKaiku, although they have not competed for the past few seasons. There are variousmotocrosscircuits on the island, includingLos Alaresin Antigua andIsla de FuerteventurainPuerto del Rosariomunicipality. They hold regular trials, some of which form part of the Canarian Regional Motocross Championship. Throughout the year there are gravel rally races. Two are part of the Canarian Dirt Rally Championship. These are the Antiguan Rally and the La Oliva Rally. The island's mainfootballclubs areCD Union PuertoandCD Cotillo, who play in Group XII of the SpanishTercera División RFEF. The resort Playitas on the south coast is since around 2008 equipped with a 50 m (160 ft) swimming pool and has become a destination fortriathlontraining camps for Europeans. An annual race called Challenge Fuerteventura is held there on the half ironman distance. People See also References External links","Gran Canaria Gran Canaria(UK:/ˌɡrænkəˈnɛəriə,-ˈnɑːr-/,US:/ˌɡrɑːnkəˈnɑːriə,-ˈnɛər-/;Spanish:ⓘ), alsoGrand Canary Island, is the third-largest and second-most-populous island of theCanary Islands,anarchipelagooff the Atlantic coast ofNorthwest Africaand is part of Spain. As of 2023the island had a population of 862,893 that constitutes approximately 40% of the population of the archipelago.Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, the capital of the island, is the biggest city of the Canary Islands and the ninth of Spain. Gran Canaria is located in the Atlantic Ocean in a region known asMacaronesiaabout 150 kilometres (93 mi) off the northwestern coast of Africa and about 1,350 km (840 mi) from Europe.With an area of 1,560 km2(600 sq mi)and an altitude of 1,956 m (6,417 ft) atMorro de la Agujereada, Gran Canaria is the third largest island of the archipelago in both area and altitude. Gran Canaria is also the third most populated island in Spain. History Inantiquity, Gran Canaria was populated by the North AfricanCanarii, who may have arrived as early as 500 BC.In themedieval period, after over a century of European incursions and attempts at conquest, the island was conquered on 29 April 1483, by theCrown of Castile, underQueen Isabella I. The Canarian queenAbencharawas captured and imprisoned by the Spanish during the conquest. The conquest succeeded after a war that lasted five years, and it was an important step towards the expansion of the unified Spain. The capital city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canariawas founded on 24 June 1478, under the name \"Real de Las Palmas\", byJuan Rejón, head of the invadingCastilianarmy. In 1492,Christopher Columbusanchored in thePort of Las Palmas(and spent some time on the island) on his first trip to the Americas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is, jointly withSanta Cruz de Tenerife, the capital of theautonomous communityof the Canary Islands. Much of Iberian migration to the island consisted ofconversosof Jewish origin. On 27 March 1977, a bomb went off in Gran Canaria Airport, the main airport on the island. Flights were diverted to the nearby Tenerife Airport: this led to theTenerife airport disaster. Etymology Plinyclaimed that the island was named for the dogs on the island, of which two were presented as a gift toJuba, King ofMauretania.This opinion is disputed as when the Europeans arrived on the island, no dogs were found.Another source suggested the way the natives ate fish was doglike and this was the reason for its name.A more plausible assumption is that the islands name derives from the people Canario or Canarii living near theAtlas mountain range.Jean de Béthencourtnamed the islandGranCanaria as the people on the island were valorous opponents to hisconquest. Geography Gran Canaria is located in theCanary Islandsarchipelago southeast ofTenerifeand west ofFuerteventura. The island is ofvolcanicorigin, mostly made offissure vents. It has a round shape, with a diameter of approximately 50 km (31 mi) and a surface area of 1,560 km2(600 sq mi). Gran Canaria's maximum elevation is 1,956 metres (6,417 ft) atMorro de la Agujereada, although the nearbyPico de las Nieveshas traditionally been considered the island's tallest peak. The coastline measures 236 km. Geology About 80% of the volume of the island was formed during theMioceneperiod eruptions, between 14 and 9 million years ago.This is called the \"Old Cycle\" and is estimated to have lasted some 200,000 years and have emitted about 1,000 km3(240 cu mi), mostly of fissuralalkali basalt. This cycle continued with the emission oftrachytes,phonolitesandperalkalinerocks.This period was followed by one of erosion, which lasted some 4 million years. A second cycle of volcanic eruptions, known as the \"Roque Nublo cycle\", took place between 4.5 and 3.4 million years ago. This shorter cycle emitted about 100 km3(24 cu mi). Most of the inland peaks were formed by erosion from these materials. This period also started with fissural basalts, but ended with violent eruptions ofpyroclastic flows. Some phonolitic features, like the Risco Blanco, were also formed in its last stages. The third or recent cycle is held to have started some 2.8 million years ago and is considered to be still active. The last eruptions are held to have occurred some 2000 years ago. The changes in volume and, therefore, weight of the island have also caused the island to rise above the previous sea level during erosive periods and to sink during eruptive periods. Some of these \"fossil beaches\" can be seen in the cliff faces of the more eroded northern coast. Climate According to theKöppen climate classification, Gran Canaria is considered to have ahot desert climate (BWh)due to its severe lack of precipitation. Gran Canaria has consistent warm temperatures in spring, summer and autumn, and mild winters. Gran Canaria is noted for its rich variety ofmicroclimates. Generally speaking though, the average daytime high ranges from 20 °C (68 °F) in winter to 26 °C (79 °F) in summer. Some cool nights occur in winter, but lows below 10 °C (50 °F) are unknown near the coast. Inland the climate is still mild but mountainous areas see the occasional frost or snow. Annual rainfall averages 228 mm (9.0 in), most of this falling in the cooler months, with July, August and September normally rainless. Rainfall is unevenly distributed through the island with some areas being much drier than others. Cloud cover and sunshine is often quite variable during the cooler months, and there can be several rather cloudy days at times in winter. Summers are generally quite sunny however, with the south of the island being most favoured. Vegetation Until the conquest, Gran Canaria had extensive forests, but then suffered extensivedeforestationas a result of continuous logging, land divisions and other intensive uses. This reduced the forest cover to just 56,000 hectares (140,000 acres),making the island the most deforested of the Canary Islands.However, in the twentieth century reforestation of the ridge of the island was begun, recovering some of the lost forest mass. Much of the summit of the island is forested mostly due toreforestation. Governance Gran Canaria is in theautonomous communityof theCanary Islands(Islas Canarias). It lies within theProvince of Las Palmas, aSpanish provincewhich consists of the eastern part of the Canary Islands community.Las Palmas de Gran Canariais the provincial capital, one of the two capitals of the Canary Islands along withSanta Cruz de Tenerife. The island of Gran Canaria is governed by theCabildo insular de Gran Canaria.Gran Canaria Island itself is divided into twenty-one smallermunicipalities: The island has a population at the start of 2023 of 862,893 - with 380,863 of those in the capital city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canaria. Gran Canaria is the second most populous island of the Canary Islands, afterTenerife. Transportation Roads Gran Canaria has roads encircling the whole island and extending into the mountain areas. In the late 20th century, its dual carriageway, among the first in the Canary Islands, were opened and run around Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, and were later extended to the north coast and the airport and subsequently to the south coast in response to increased tourist traffic. The only highway of Gran Canaria areGC1. Dual carriageway isGC2, andGC31,GC4andGC5. The western and the north-western parts, with the fewest inhabitants, are linked only with main roads. Buses Public transport around Gran Canaria is provided by an extensive bus network, known in the local dialect asguaguas. TheAutoridad Única del Transporte de Gran Canaria(Gran Canaria Transport Authority, TGC) manages the network and operates a number of bus stations across the island, including San Telmo and Santa Catalina bus stations in Las Palmas, Maspalomas and Galdar.Bus tickets may be purchased with cash, and AUTGC also operates acontactlesselectronic ticketcalled the TransGC Card, which is valid across the whole network. Inter-urban bus services across the island are operated by the Global bus company.Global was created in 2000 after the merger of two bus companies, Utinsa (which operated in the north of the island) and Salcai (the bus operator for the south).Local bus services in Las Palmas are run by the municipal bus company,Guaguas Municipales de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Airport Gran Canaria Airport(IATA: LPA) is the only commercial airport on the island. The large number of aircraft and passengers passing through it each year make it one of the busiest in Spain. Gran Canaria is also responsible for all air traffic control in the Canaries. By destination island, Gran Canaria is the second island that congregates the largest number of passengers in the Canary Islands.Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are:Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz, Sixt and TopCar. Sea ports The most important ports in the island are the Port of Las Palmas(Puerto de la Luz),in the city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canaria;Arguineguín, which exportscementfrom a large factory; andArinaga, located in the main industrial zone of Canaries and one of the major ones of Spain. The main passenger ports are the Port of La Luz, whereTrasmediterráneaoperates a weekly ferry route toCádizon the Spanish mainland,and thePort of Las Nieves, located inAgaeteon the west side of the island, whereFred Olsen Expressoperates acatamaranferry service toSanta Cruz de Tenerife. Train Plans for aTren de Gran Canariarailway network linking the capital with the south have been approved by both theGran Canaria Cabildoand the autonomous Canary Islands' Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government hinges now on budget. The planned 57 km (35 mi) railway line would run between Las Palmas and Meloneras, with the section in the capital running entirely underground as far as the suburb of Jinámar. The line is planned to have 11 stations, including an underground station at Gran Canaria Airport. The scheme was first announced in 2009, with a planned operational date in 2015. A public company calledFerrocarriles de Gran Canariahas been formed by the Cabildo's Gran Canaria Transport Authority. Plans were still being discussed in 2018. Agriculture Gran Canaria agriculture is unique among the Canaries islands in that it was traditionally dominated by plantations, with much of these being grains as well assugarcane, rather than by stock-breeding.Thecaves of Valerón(aproperty of cultural interestin the \"archaeological site\" category) in the municipality ofSanta María de Guíabears testimony of it by being the largest pre-Hispanic collective granary of the Canaries. Tourism This island is called a \"miniature continent\" due to the different climates and variety of landscapes found, with long beaches and dunes of white sand, contrasting with green ravines and picturesque villages.A third of the island is under protection as aBiosphere ReservebyUNESCO. The number of annual visitors was 3.6 million in 2014 (of which 450.000 Spaniards).It is the second island in the archipelago in number of annual tourists, after Tenerife.Most of the tourists visit the southern part of the island. The north tends to be cooler, while the south is warmer and sunny. The east coast of the island is flat, dotted with beaches, while the western coast is rockier and mountainous. The island possesses 32 Natural Protected Spaces,notably the Rural Park of Nublo, The Doramas Jungle, the Azuaje Ravine, Tamadaba, Pino Santo, etc. In the south there is a large bird park,Palmitos Park, as well as many beach resort communities. Resorts are concentrated in the central eastern part of the southern coast in theMaspalomasarea, which includes the towns ofSan Agustín,Playa del InglésandMeloneras. TheMaspalomas Dunesare located between Playa del Inglés (\"The Englishman's Beach\") and the distinctive 19th centuryMaspalomas lighthouse. Playa del Ingles is home to the Yumbo Centre,which was opened in 1982 and has almost 200 shops, including bars, restaurants, cafes, fashion boutiques, electronic outlets and jewellery stores. In Tarajalillo, an Aeroclub exists from where tourist flights can be taken over the island. Still further to the west along the southern shore, in the Municipality of Mogán, are the communities ofPuerto RicoandPuerto de Mogán, a village referred to as \"Little Venice\" on account of its many canals. Other attractions include Cocodrilos Park,Roque Nublo(an 80 m monolith),Cenobio de Valerónwith more than 350 storage cavities,Painted cave of Galdarthe most important archaeological park in Canary Islands, or the botanical gardensJardín Canario(in Tafira Alta) andCactualdea(inLa Aldea de San Nicolás). El Dedo de Dios, or \"God's Finger\", was a rocky spire jutting from the sea inPuerto de las Nieves, and was previously the signature attraction of the Canary Islands until it was destroyed bytropical storm Deltathat crossed the archipelago in November 2005. Other well-known rock formations are El Cura (also known as El Fraile), The Frog (La Rana),Roque Bentayga, the Roque de Gando, and the Peñón Bermejo. Traditionally, the highest peak of the island has been considered to be thePico de las Nieves, at 1,949 metres (6,394 ft); however,Morro de la Agujereadais taller, at 1,956 metres (6,417 ft). The capital city isLas Palmas de Gran Canaria.Las Canterasbeach, a protected area and diving zone, lies in the heart of the city. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is also known for its annualcarnaval. It was the first stop of Christopher Columbus' expedition on his way back from the Americas,a commemoration of which is the Hermitage of San Antonio Abad, where the navigator prayed, and theCasa de Colón. Other attractions in the capital city include theMuseo Canario(the most important archaeology museum in the archipelago), the cathedral and thePlaza del Espíritu Santo. InTerorthe shrine ofVirgen del Pino(\"Virgin of the Pine\"), patron saint of Gran Canaria, can be found. Its feast is celebrated on 8 September. The town ofAgüimes, on the eastern part of the island, has been carefully restored and its town centre, centered on its old church and a peaceful square, now evokes the quiet living of a traditional Canarian town. The district also has some of the best preserved cave dwellings, in the protected area of theGuayadeque ravine, where even the church has been built into the mountainside and visitors can find a number of popular cave restaurants. The district also includes the most renowned scuba diving area on the island: the marine reserve at theplaya de El Cabrónjust outside the town of Arinaga. Other important towns areTelde, known among other things for theirsurfschools in Salinetas, Vecindario (within the municipality of Santa Lucía de Tirajana) andGáldar, that contains an important diving zone. InArucasthere is a Neogothic temple, popularly known as \"Arucas' Cathedral\", as well as a large fertile plain where bananas are grown. InGáldarand its surroundings there is also a banana-growing plain and some remarkable archaeological remains,such as thePainted cave of Galdaror thecenobio de Valerón's communal silos, ancient tombs (among which thenecropolis of Maipés), and the port of Sardina del Norte (one of the island's ports where, as in Las Palmas',Christopher Columbusused to get supplies for his ships). Heading west along the southern coast is the fishing city ofArguineguínin theMunicipality of Mogán. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Gran Canaria are theCanary MastiffandEuphorbia canariensis(Cardón) Beaches Protected natural areas Nearly half of the island territory — 667 km2(258 sq mi) (42.7% of island) — is under protection from the Red Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos (Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,a total of 33 are located in Gran Canaria, the second most protected island in the group.There are seven different categories of protection: Music Science and technology In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14ground stationsin theManned Space Flight Network(MSFN) to support theNASAspace program.Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including theApollo 11Moon landings andSkylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of theESAnetwork. Sports The island is home toCB Gran Canaria– a basketball club playing inLiga ACBat theGran Canaria Arena, with a capacity of 11,000. The island is also home toUD Las Palmas– a football club playing inLa Ligaat theEstadio de Gran Canaria, with a capacity of 32,392.Professional Windsurfers Association(PWA) holds its annual competitions at Pozo - Pozo Izquierdo: This spot, which is situated in the municipal area of Santa Lucía, is internationally famous on account of the ideal windsurfing conditions, the wind being ever present. See also Bibliography Geology of Gran Canaria References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Canary Islands TheCanary Islands(/kəˈnɛəri/,Spanish:Canarias,Spanish:), also known informally asthe Canaries, are a Spanish region,autonomous communityandarchipelagoin theAtlantic Ocean. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are 100 kilometres (62 miles) west ofMoroccoand theWestern Sahara. They are the southernmost of theautonomous communities of Spain. The islands have a population of 2.2 million people and are the most populousspecial territory of the European Union. The seven main islands are, from largest to smallest in area,Tenerife,Fuerteventura,Gran Canaria,Lanzarote,La Palma,La Gomera, andEl Hierro. The only other populated island isLa Graciosa, which administratively is dependent on Lanzarote. The archipelago includes many smaller islands and islets, includingAlegranza,Isla de Lobos,Montaña Clara,Roque del Oeste, andRoque del Este. It includes a number of rocks, includingGarachicoandAnaga. In ancient times, the island chain was often referred to as \\\"the Fortunate Isles\\\".The Canary Islands are the southernmost region ofSpain, and the largest and most populous archipelago ofMacaronesia.Because of their location, the Canary Islands have historically been considered a link between the four continents ofAfrica,North America,South America, andEurope. In 2023, the Canary Islands had a population of 2,236,013,with a density of 299 inhabitants per km2, making it the seventh most populous autonomous community of Spain. The population is mostly concentrated in the two capital islands: around 43% on the island of Tenerife and 40% on the island of Gran Canaria. The Canary Islands, especially Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote, are a major tourist destination, with over 16 million visitors in 2023.This is due to their beaches,subtropical climate, and important natural attractions, especiallyMaspalomasinGran Canariaand MountTeide, aWorld Heritage SiteinTenerife. Mount Teide is thehighest peak in Spainand the3rd tallest volcano in the world, measured from its base on the ocean floor.The islands have warm summers and winters warm enough for the climate to be technically tropical at sea level.The amount of precipitation and the level of maritime moderation vary depending on location and elevation. The archipelago includes green areas as well as semi-desert. The islands' high mountains are ideal for astronomical observation, because they lie above thetemperature inversionlayer. As a result, the archipelago has two professional astronomical observatories: theTeide Observatoryon Tenerife, andRoque de los Muchachos Observatoryon La Palma. In 1927, theProvince of Canary Islandswas split into two provinces. In 1982, the autonomous community of the Canary Islands was established. The cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canariaare, jointly, the capitals of the islands.Those cities are also, respectively, the capitals of theprovincesofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has been the largest city in the Canaries since 1768, except for a brief period in the 1910s.Between the1833 territorial division of Spainand 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, it was ordered by decree that the capital of the Canary Islands would be shared between two cities, and this arrangement persists to the present day.The third largest city in the Canary Islands isSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, another World Heritage Site on Tenerife. During theAge of Sail, the islands were the main stopover forSpanish galleonsduring theSpanish colonisation of the Americas, which sailed that far south in order to catch the prevailing northeasterlytrade winds. Etymology The nameIslas Canariasis likely derived from the Latin nameCanariae Insulae, meaning \\\"Islands of the Dogs\\\", perhaps because monk seals or sea dogs were abundant, a name that was evidently generalized from the ancient name of one of these islands,Canaria– presumably Gran Canaria. According to the historianPliny the Elder, the islandCanariacontained \\\"vast multitudes of dogs of very large size\\\".The connection to dogs is retained in their depiction on the islands' coat-of-arms. Other theories speculate that the name comes from theNukkariBerber tribe living in the Moroccan Atlas, named in Roman sources asCanarii, though Pliny again mentions the relation of this term with dogs. The name of the islands is not derived from thecanary bird; rather, the birds are named after the islands. Islands From west to east, the Canary Islands areEl Hierro,La Palma,La Gomera,Tenerife,Gran Canaria,Fuerteventura,Lanzarote, andLa Graciosa. North of Lanzarote are the islets ofMontaña Clara,Alegranza,Roque del EsteandRoque del Oeste, belonging to theChinijo Archipelago. Northeast of Fuerteventura is the islet ofLobos. There are a series of small adjacent rocks in the Canary Islands: theRoques de Anaga,Garachicoand Fasnia in Tenerife, and Salmor and Bonanza in El Hierro. El Hierro El Hierro, the westernmost island, covers 268.71 km2(103.75 sq mi). It is the second smallest of the major islands, and the least populous with 10,798 inhabitants. The whole island was declared a Reserve of the Biosphere in 2000. Its capital isValverde. Also known as Ferro, it was once the westernmost known land in the world. Ancient European geographers such as Ptolemy recognised the island as theprime meridianof longitude. That remained so until the 19th century, when it was displaced by the onepassing through Greenwich. Fuerteventura Fuerteventura, with a surface of 1,660 km2(640 sq mi), is the second largest island of the archipelago. It has been declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCO. It is the oldest of the islands being more eroded. Its highest point is the Peak of the Bramble, at a height of 807 metres (2,648 feet). Its capital isPuerto del Rosario. Gran Canaria Gran Canaria has 846,717 inhabitants. The capital,Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, with 377,203 inhabitants, is the most populous city and shares the status of capital of the Canaries with Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Gran Canaria's surface area is 1,560 km2(600 sq mi). Roque Nublo 1,813 metres (5,948 feet) and Pico de las Nieves (\\\"Peak of Snow\\\") 1,949 metres (6,394 feet) are located in the center of the island. On the south of the island are the Maspalomas Dunes (Gran Canaria). La Gomera La Gomera (informally known as 'Isla Colombina') has an area of 369.76 km2(142.77 sq mi) and is the second least populous island with 21,136 inhabitants. It has been declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCO. Geologically it is one of the oldest of the archipelago. The insular capital isSan Sebastian de La Gomera.Garajonay National Parkis located on the island. Lanzarote Lanzarote is the easternmost island and one of the oldest of the archipelago, and it has shown evidence of recent volcanic activity. It has a surface of 845.94 km2(326.62 sq mi), and a population of 149,183 inhabitants, including the adjacent islets of the Chinijo Archipelago. The capital isArrecife, with 56,834 inhabitants. Chinijo Archipelago The Chinijo Archipelago includes the islandsLa Graciosa,Alegranza,Montaña Clara,Roque del EsteandRoque del Oeste. It has a surface of 40.8 km2(15.8 sq mi), and only La Graciosa is populated, with 658 inhabitants. With 29 km2(11 sq mi), La Graciosa is the largest island of the Chinijo Archipelago and the smallest inhabited island of the Canaries. La Palma La Palma, with 81,863 inhabitants covering an area of 708.32 km2(273.48 sq mi), is in its entirety a biosphere reserve. For long it showed no signs of volcanic activity, even though the volcanoTeneguíaentered into eruption last in 1971. On 19 September 2021, the volcanicCumbre Viejaon the islanderupted.It is the second-highest island of the Canaries, with the Roque de los Muchachos at 2,423 metres (7,949 feet) as its highest point.Santa Cruz de La Palma, known to those on the island as simply \\\"Santa Cruz\\\", is its capital. Tenerife Tenerife is, with its area of 2,034 km2(785 sq mi), the most extensive island of the Canary Islands. With 904,713 inhabitants, it is the most populated island of the archipelago and Spain. Two of the islands' principal cities are located on it: the capital,Santa Cruz de TenerifeandSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, a World Heritage Site.San Cristóbal de La Laguna, the second city of the island, is home to the oldest university in the Canary Islands, theUniversity of La Laguna.Teide, with its 3,715 metres (12,188 feet) is the highest peak ofSpainand aWorld Heritage Site.Tenerifeis the site of theworst air disasterin the history of aviation, in which 583 people were killed in the collision of twoBoeing 747son 27 March 1977. La Graciosa Graciosa Island or commonly La Graciosa is a volcanic island in the Canary Islands of Spain, located 2 km (1.2 mi) north of the island of Lanzarote across the Strait of El Río. It was formed by the Canary hotspot. The island is part of the Chinijo Archipelago and the Chinijo Archipelago Natural Park (Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo). It is administered by the municipality of Teguise. In 2018, La Graciosa was declared asthe eighth Canary Islandby theSpanish Senate,though it is not recognized as such by the Canarian administration. It is administratively dependent on the island of Lanzarote. It is the smallest and least populated of the main islands, with about 700 people. Data Physical geography Tenerifeis the largest and most populous island of the archipelago.Gran Canaria, with 865,070 inhabitants, is both the Canary Islands' second most populous island, and the third most populous one in Spain after Tenerife (966,354 inhabitants) andMajorca(896,038 inhabitants).The island ofFuerteventurais the second largest in the archipelago and located 100 km (62 mi) from the African coast. The islands form theMacaronesiaecoregionwith theAzores,Cape Verde,Madeira, and theSavage Isles.The Canary Islands is the largest and most populated archipelago of the Macaronesia region.The archipelago has seven large and several smaller islands, all of which are volcanic in origin. According to the position of the islands with respect to the north-easttrade winds, the climate can be mild and wet or very dry. Several native species formlaurisilvaforests. The individual islands in the Canary archipelago tend to have distinctmicroclimates. Those islands such asEl Hierro,La PalmaandLa Gomeralying to the west of the archipelago have a climate which is influenced by the moistCanary Current. They are well vegetated even at low levels and have extensive tracts of sub-tropical laurisilva forest. Travelling east toward the African coast, the influence of the current diminishes, and the islands become increasingly arid.FuerteventuraandLanzarote, the islands which are closest to the African mainland, are effectively desert or semi-desert. Gran Canariais known as a \\\"continent in miniature\\\" for its diverse landscapes likeMaspalomasandRoque Nublo. The north ofTenerifelies under the influence of the moist Atlantic winds and is well vegetated. The south of the island around the tourist resorts ofPlaya de las AméricasandLos Cristianosis arid. The island rises to almost 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above sea level. At altitude, in the cool relatively wet climate, forests of the endemic pinePinus canariensisthrive. Many of the plant species in the Canary Islands, like the Canary Island pine and thedragon tree,Dracaena dracoare endemic, as noted bySabin BerthelotandPhilip Barker Webbin their work,L'Histoire Naturelle des Îles Canaries(1835–50). Climate The climate is warmsubtropical/tropicaland generallyarid, moderated by the sea and in summer by thetrade winds.There are a number ofmicroclimatesand the classifications range mainly fromsemi-deserttodesert. The majority of the Canary Islands have ahot desert climate(BWh) and ahot semi-desert climate(BSh) within theKöppensystem, caused partly due to the coolCanary Current.A subtropical humid climate, which is very influenced by the ocean, is in the middle of the islands ofLa Gomera,TenerifeandLa Palma, wherelaurisilvacloud forests grow. Geology The seven major islands, one minor island, and several small islets were originally volcanic islands, formed by theCanary hotspot.The Canary Islands is the only place in Spain wherevolcanic eruptionshave been recorded during theModern Era, with some volcanoes still active (El Hierro, 2011).Volcanic islands such as those in the Canary chain often have steep ocean cliffs caused by catastrophic debris avalanches andlandslides.The island chain's most recent eruption occurred atCumbre Vieja, a volcanic ridge on La Palma,in 2021. TheTeidevolcanoon Tenerife is the highest mountain in Spain, and the third tallest volcano on Earth on a volcanic ocean island.All the islands except La Gomera have been active in the last million years. Four of them, Lanzarote, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro, have historical records of eruptions since European discovery.The islands rise from Jurassicoceanic crustassociated with the opening of the Atlantic. Underwatermagmatismbegan during the Cretaceous, and continued to the present day. The current islands reached the ocean's surface during theMiocene. The islands were once considered as a distinct physiographic section of theAtlas Mountainsprovince, which is part of the larger African Alpine System division, but are now recognized as being related to a magmatic hot spot. In the summer of 2011, a series of low-magnitude earthquakes occurred beneath El Hierro. These had a linear trend of northeast–southwest. In October a submarine eruption occurred about2 km (1+1⁄4mi) south of Restinga. This eruption produced gases and pumice, but no explosive activity was reported. The following table shows the highest mountains in each of the islands: Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Canary Islands are the birdSerinus canaria(canary) and thePhoenix canariensispalm. National parks Four of Spain's thirteen national parks are located in the Canary Islands, more than any other autonomous community. Two of these have been declaredUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesand the other two are part ofBiosphere Reserves. The parks are: Teide National Parkis the oldest and largest national park in the Canary Islands and one of the oldest in Spain. Located in the geographic centre of the island of Tenerife, it is the most visited national park in Spain. In 2010, it became the most visited national park in Europe and second worldwide.The park's highlight is theTeidevolcano. Standing at an altitude of 3,715 metres (12,188 ft),it is the highest elevation in Spain and the third largest volcano on Earth from its base. In 2007, the Teide National Park was declared one of the12 Treasures of Spain. Politics Governance The regional executive body, theParliament of the Canary Islands, is presided over byFernando Clavijo Batlle(Canarian Coalition), the currentPresident of the Canary Islands. The members of the regional legislature, theParliament of the Canary Islands, has 70 elected legislators. Thelast regional electiontook place in May 2023. The islands have 14 seats in theSpanish Senate. Of these, 11 seats are directly elected, 3 for Gran Canaria, 3 for Tenerife, and 1 each for Lanzarote (including La Graciosa), Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro. The other 3 are appointed by the regional legislature. Political geography TheAutonomous Community of the Canary Islandshas twoprovinces(provincias),Las PalmasandSanta Cruz de Tenerife, whose capitals,Las Palmas de Gran CanariaandSanta Cruz de Tenerife, are capitals of the autonomous community. Each of the seven major islands are ruled by an island council named aCabildo Insular. Each island is subdivided into smallermunicipalities(municipios).Las Palmas is divided into 34 municipalities, andSanta Cruz de Tenerife is divided into 54 municipalities. The international boundary of the Canaries is disputed inMorocco-Spain relations. In 2022 the UN declared the Canary Island's territorial waters as being Moroccan coast and Morocco has authorisedgas and oil explorationin what the Canary Islands states to be Canarian territorial waters andWestern Saharawaters.Morocco's official position is that international laws regarding territorial limits do not authorise Spain to claim seabed boundaries based on the territory of the Canaries, since the Canary Islands enjoy a large degree of autonomy. In fact, the islands do not enjoy any special degree of autonomy, as each one of the Spanish regions is considered anautonomous community, with equal status to the European ones. Under theLaw of the Sea, the only islands not granted territorial waters or anexclusive economic zone(EEZ) are those that are not fit for human habitation, or do not have an economic life of their own, which is not the case of the Canary Islands. Canarian nationalism There are some pro-independence political parties, like theNational Congress of the Canaries(CNC) and thePopular Front of the Canary Islands. Their popular support is almost insignificant, with no presence in either the autonomous parliament or thecabildos insulares.In a 2012 study by theCentro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, when asked about national identity, the majority of respondents from the Canary Islands (53.8%) considered themselves Spanish and Canarian in equal measures, followed by 24% who consider themselves more Canarian than Spanish. 6.1% of the respondents considered themselves only Canarian, and 7% considered themselves only Spanish. Defense The defense of the territory is the responsibility of theSpanish Armed Forces. Components of theArmy,Navy,Air Forceand theCivil Guardare based in the territory. History Ancient and pre-Hispanic times Before the arrival of humans, the Canaries were inhabited by prehistoric animals including the giant lizard (Gallotia goliath), theTenerifeandGran Canaria giant rats,and giant tortoises,Geochelone burchardiandGeochelone vulcanica. Although the original settlement of what are now called the Canary Islands is not entirely clear, linguistic, genetic, and archaeological analyses indicate thatindigenouspeoples were living on the Canary Islands at least 2,000 years ago, possibly 3,000, and that they shared a common origin with theBerberson the nearby North African coast.Reaching the islands may have taken place using several small boats, landing on the easternmost islands Lanzarote and Fuerteventura. These groups came to be known collectively as theGuanches, althoughGuancheshad been the name for only the indigenous inhabitants of Tenerife. According to a 2024 study by the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, there is archaeological evidence that the Romans were the first to colonise the islands, during the period from the 1st centuryBCEto the 1st century CE. There was no overlap with the occupation by the people who were inhabiting the islands at the time of the Spanish conquest, who had first arrived sometime between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE. As José Farrujia describes, 'The indigenous Canarians lived mainly in natural caves, usually near the coast, 300 to 500 metres (1,000 to 1,600 ft) above sea level. These caves were sometimes isolated but more commonly formed settlements, with burial caves nearby'.Archaeological work has uncovered a rich culture visible through artefacts ofceramics, human figures, fishing, hunting and farming tools, plant fibre clothing and vessels, as well as cave paintings. At Lomo de los Gatos on Gran Canaria, a site occupied from 1,600 years ago up until the 1960s, round stone houses, complex burial sites, and associated artefacts have been found.Across the islands are thousands ofLibyco-Berberalphabet inscriptions scattered and they have been extensively documented by many linguists. The social structure of indigenous Canarians encompassed \\\"a system ofmatrilinealdescent in most of the islands, in which inheritance was passed on via the female line. Social status and wealth were hereditary and determined the individual's position in the social pyramid, which consisted of the king, the relatives of the king, the lower nobility, villeins, plebeians, and finally executioners, butchers, embalmers, and prisoners\\\". Their religion wasanimist, centring on the sun and moon, as well as natural features such as mountains. Exploration The islands may have been visited by thePhoenicians, theGreeks, and theCarthaginians. KingJuba II, CaesarAugustus'sNumidianprotégé, is credited with discovering the islands for the Western world. According toPliny the Elder, Juba found the islands uninhabited, but found \\\"a small temple of stone\\\" and \\\"some traces of buildings\\\".Juba dispatched a naval contingent to re-open the dye production facility atMogadorin what is now western Morocco in the early first centuryAD.That same naval force was subsequently sent on an exploration of the Canary Islands, using Mogador as their mission base. The names given by Romans to the individual islands wereNinguariaorNivaria(Tenerife),Canaria(Gran Canaria),PluvialiaorInvale(Lanzarote),Ombrion(La Palma),Planasia(Fuerteventura),IunoniaorJunonia(El Hierro) andCapraria(La Gomera). From the 14th century onward, numerous visits were made by sailors fromMajorca,Portugal, andGenoa.Lancelotto Malocellosettled on Lanzarote in 1312. The Majorcans established amissionwith a bishop in the islands that lasted from 1350 to 1400. Castilian conquest In 1402, the Castilian colonisation of the islands began with the expedition of the French explorersJean de BéthencourtandGadifer de la Salle, nobles andvassalsofHenry III of Castile, to Lanzarote. From there, they went on to conquer Fuerteventura (1405) and El Hierro. These invasions were \\\"brutal cultural and military clashes between the indigenous population and the Castilians\\\" lasting over a century due to formidable resistance by indigenous Canarians.ProfessorMohamed Adhikarihas defined the conquest of the islands as agenocideof theGuanches. Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands, but still recognised King Henry III as his overlord. It was not a simple military enterprise, given the aboriginal resistance on some islands. Neither was it politically, since the particular interests of the nobility (determined to strengthen their economic and political power through the acquisition of the islands) conflicted with those of the states, particularly Castile, which were in the midst of territorial expansion and in a process of strengthening of the crown against the nobility. Historians distinguish two periods in the conquest of the Canary Islands: Aristocratic conquest(conquista señorial): This refers to the early conquests carried out by the nobility, for their own benefit and without the direct participation of the Crown of Castile, which merely granted rights of conquest in exchange for pacts of vassalage between the noble conqueror and the Crown. One can identify within this period an early phase known as the Betancurian or Norman conquest, carried out byJean de Bethencourt(who was originally from Normandy) andGadifer de la Sallebetween 1402 and 1405, which involved the islands ofLanzarote,El Hierro, andFuerteventura. The subsequent phase is known as the Castilian conquest, carried out by Castilian nobles who acquired, through purchases, assignments and marriages, the previously conquered islands and also incorporated the island ofLa Gomeraaround 1450. Royal conquest(conquista realenga): This defines the conquest between 1478 and 1496, carried out directly by the Crown of Castile, during the reign of theCatholic Monarchs, who armed and partly financed the conquest of those islands which were still unconquered:Gran Canaria,La PalmaandTenerife. This phase of the conquest came to an end in the year 1496, with the dominion of the island of Tenerife, bringing the entire Canarian Archipelago under the control of the Crown of Castile. Béthencourt also established a base on the island of La Gomera, but it would be many years before the island was fully conquered. The natives of La Gomera, and of Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La Palma, resisted the Castilian invaders for almost a century. In 1448, Maciot de Béthencourt sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's PrinceHenry the Navigator, an action that was accepted by neither the natives nor the Castilians. DespitePope Nicholas Vruling that the Canary Islands were under Portuguese control, the crisis swelled to a revolt which lasted until 1459 with the final expulsion of the Portuguese. In 1479, Portugal and Castile signed theTreaty of Alcáçovas, which settled disputes between Castile and Portugal over the control of the Atlantic. This treaty recognized Castilian control of the Canary Islands but also confirmed Portuguese possession of theAzores,Madeira, and theCape Verde islands, and gave the Portuguese rights to any further islands or lands in the Atlantic that might be discovered. The Castilians continued to dominate the islands, but due to the topography and the resistance of the native Guanches, they did not achieve complete control until 1496, when Tenerife and La Palma were finally subdued byAlonso Fernández de Lugo. As a result of this \\\"the native pre-Hispanic population declined quickly due to war, epidemics, and slavery\\\".The Canaries were incorporated into theKingdom of Castile. After the conquest and the introduction of slavery After the conquest, the Castilians imposed a new economic model, based on single-crop cultivation: firstsugarcane; then wine, an important item of trade withEngland. Gran Canaria was conquered by theCrown of Castileon 6 March 1480, and Tenerife was conquered in 1496, and each had its own governor. There has been speculation that the abundance ofRoccella tinctoriaon the Canary Islands offered a profit motive forJean de Béthencourtduring his conquest of the islands. Lichen has been used for centuries to make dyes. This includes royal purple colors derived fromR. tinctoria, also known as orseille. The objective of the Spanish Crown to convert the islands into a powerhouse of cultivation required a much larger labour force. This was attained through a brutal practice of enslavement, not only of indigenous Canarians but large numbers of Africans who were forcibly taken from North and Sub-Saharan Africa.Whilst the first slave plantations in the Atlantic region were acrossMadeira,Cape Verde, and the Canary Islands, it was only the Canary Islands which had an indigenous population and were therefore invaded rather than newly occupied. This agriculture industry was largely based on sugarcane and the Castilians converted large swaths of the landscape for sugarcane production, and the processing and manufacturing of sugar, facilitated by enslaved labourers.The cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canariabecame a stopping point for the Spanish traders, as well asconquistadors, and missionaries on their way to theNew World. This trade route brought great wealth to the Castilian social sectors of the islands and soon were attracting merchants and adventurers from all over Europe. As the wealth grew, enslaved African workers were also forced into demeaning domestic roles for the rich Castilians on the islands such as servants in their houses. Research on the skeletons of some of these enslaved workers from the burial site of Finca Clavijo on Gran Canaria have showed that 'all of the adults buried in Finca Clavijo undertook extensive physical activity that involved significant stress on the spine and appendicular skeleton' that result from relentless hard labour, akin to the physical abnormalities found with enslaved peoples from other sugarcane plantations around the world.These findings of the physical strain that the enslaved at Finca Clavijo were subjected to in order to provide wealth for the Spanish elite has inspired a poem by British writerRalph Hoyte, entitledClose to the Bone. As a result of the huge wealth generated, magnificent palaces and churches were built on La Palma during this busy, prosperous period. The Church of El Salvador survives as one of the island's finest examples of the architecture of the 16th century. Civilian architecture survives in forms such asCasas de los Sánchez-OchandoorCasa Quintana. The Canaries' wealth invited attacks bypiratesandprivateers.OttomanTurkishadmiraland privateerKemal Reisventured into the Canaries in 1501, whileMurat Reis the Eldercaptured Lanzarote in 1585. The most severe attack took place in 1599, during theDutch Revolt. ADutchfleet of 74 ships and 12,000 men, commanded byPieter van der Does, attacked the capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (the city had 3,500 of Gran Canaria's 8,545 inhabitants). The Dutch attacked the Castillo de la Luz, which guarded the harbor. The Canarians evacuated civilians from the city, and the Castillo surrendered (but not the city). The Dutch moved inland, but Canarian cavalry drove them back to Tamaraceite, near the city. The Dutch then laid siege to the city, demanding the surrender of all its wealth. They received 12 sheep and 3 calves. Furious, the Dutch sent 4,000 soldiers to attack the Council of the Canaries, who were sheltering in the village of Santa Brígida. Three hundred Canarian soldiers ambushed the Dutch in the village of Monte Lentiscal, killing 150 and forcing the rest to retreat. The Dutch concentrated on Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, attempting to burn it down. The Dutch pillagedMaspalomas, on the southern coast of Gran Canaria,San Sebastiánon La Gomera, andSanta Cruzon La Palma, but eventually gave up the siege of Las Palmas and withdrew. In 1618 theBarbary piratesfrom North Africa attacked Lanzarote and La Gomera taking 1000 captives to be sold asslaves.Another noteworthy attack occurred in 1797, whenSanta Cruz de Tenerifewas attacked by a British fleet underHoratio Nelsonon 25 July. The British were repulsed, losing almost 400 men. It was during this battle that Nelson lost his right arm. 18th to 19th century The sugar-based economy of the islands faced stiff competition from Spain'sCaribbeancolonies. Low sugar prices in the 19th century caused severe recessions on the islands. A new cash crop,cochineal(cochinilla), came into cultivation during this time, reinvigorating the islands' economy. During this time the Canarian-American trade was developed, in which Canarian products such as cochineal, sugarcane and rum were sold in American ports such asVeracruz,Campeche,La GuairaandHavana, among others. By the end of the 18th century, Canary Islanders had already emigrated to Spanish American territories, such asHavana,Veracruz, andSanto Domingo,San Antonio, TexasandSt. Bernard Parish, Louisiana.These economic difficulties spurred mass emigration during the 19th and first half of the 20th century, primarily to the Americas. Between 1840 and 1890 as many as 40,000 Canary Islanders emigrated toVenezuela. Also, thousands of Canarians moved toPuerto Ricowhere the Spanish monarchy felt that Canarians would adapt to island life better than other immigrants from the mainland of Spain. Deeply entrenched traditions, such as the Mascaras Festival in the town ofHatillo, Puerto Rico, are an example of Canarian culture still preserved in Puerto Rico. Similarly, many thousands of Canarians emigrated to the shores ofCuba.During theSpanish–American Warof 1898, the Spanish fortified the islands against a possible American attack, but no such event took place. Romantic period and scientific expeditions Sirera and Renn (2004)distinguish two different types of expeditions, or voyages, during the period 1770–1830, which they term \\\"the Romantic period\\\": First are \\\"expeditions financed by the States, closely related with the official scientific Institutions. characterised by having strict scientific objectives (and inspired by) the spirit of Illustration and progress\\\". In this type of expedition, Sirera and Renn include the following travellers: The second type of expedition identified by Sirera and Renn is one that took place starting from more or less private initiatives. Among these, the key exponents were the following: Sirera and Renn identify the period 1770–1830 as one in which \\\"In a panorama dominated until that moment by France and England enters with strength and brio Germany of the Romantic period whose presence in the islands will increase\\\". Early 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, the British introduced a newcash-crop, thebanana, the export of which was controlled by companies such asFyffes. 30 November 1833 theProvince of Canary Islandshad been created with the capital being declared as Santa Cruz de Tenerife.The rivalry between the cities of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife for the capital of the islands led to the division of thearchipelagointo two provinces on 23 September 1927. During the time of theSecond Spanish Republic,Marxistandanarchistworkers' movements began to develop, led by figures such as Jose Miguel Perez andGuillermo Ascanio. However, outside of a few municipalities, these organisations were a minority and fell easily to Nationalist forces during theSpanish Civil War. Franco regime In 1936,Francisco Francowas appointed General Commandant of the Canaries. He joined the military revolt of 17 July which began theSpanish Civil War. Franco quickly took control of the archipelago, except for a few points of resistance on La Palma and in the town ofVallehermoso, on La Gomera. Though there was never a war in the islands, the post-war suppression of political dissent on the Canaries was most severe. During the Second World War,Winston Churchillprepared plans for the British seizure of the Canary Islands as anaval base, in the event ofGibraltarbeing invaded from the Spanish mainland.The planned operation was known asOperation Pilgrim. Opposition to Franco's regime did not begin to organise until the late 1950s, which experienced an upheaval of parties such as theCommunist Party of Spainand the formation of various nationalist, leftist parties. During theIfni War, the Franco regime set upconcentration campson the islands toextrajudicially imprisonthose in Western Sahara suspected of disloyalty to Spain, many of whom were colonial troops recruited on the spot but were later deemed to be potentialfifth columnistsand deported to the Canary Islands. These camps were characterised by the use of forced labour for infrastructure projects and highly unsanitary conditions resulting in the widespread occurrence oftuberculosis. Self-governance After the death of Franco, there was a pro-independence armed movement based inAlgeria, theMovement for the Independence and Self-determination of the Canaries Archipelago(MAIAC). In 1968, theOrganisation of African Unityrecognized the MAIAC as a legitimateAfrican independence movement, and declared the Canary Islands as an African territory still under foreign rule. After the establishment of a democraticconstitutional monarchyin Spain,autonomywas granted to the Canaries via a law passed in 1982, with a newly established autonomous devolved government and parliament. In 1983, the first autonomous elections were held. TheSpanish Socialist Workers' Party(PSOE) won. Capitals At present, the Canary Islands is the only autonomous community in Spain that has two capitals:Santa Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canaria, since theStatute of Autonomy of the Canary Islandswas created in 1982. The political capital of the archipelago did not exist as such until the nineteenth century. The first cities founded by theEuropeansat the time of the conquest of the Canary Islands in the 15th century were:Telde(inGran Canaria),San Marcial del Rubicón(inLanzarote) andBetancuria(inFuerteventura). These cities boasted the first European institutions present in the archipelago, includingCatholicbishoprics.Although, because the period of splendor of these cities developed before the total conquest of the archipelago and its incorporation into theCrown of Castilenever had a political and real control of the entire Canary archipelago. The function of a Canarian city with full jurisdiction for the entire archipelago only exists after the conquest of the Canary Islands, although originallyde facto, that is, without legal and real meaning and linked to the headquarters of theCanary Islands General Captaincy. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria was the first city that exercised this function. This is because the residence of the Captain General of the Canary Islands was in this city during part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.In May 1661, the Captain General of the Canary Islands,Jerónimo de Benavente y Quiñones, moved the headquarters of the captaincy to the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Lagunaon the island ofTenerife.This was due to the fact that this island since the conquest was the most populated, productive and with the highest economic expectations.La Laguna would be considered thede factocapital of the archipelagountil the official status of the capital of Canary Islands in the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife was confirmed in the 19th century, due in part to the constant controversies and rivalries between the bourgeoisies of San Cristóbal de La Laguna and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria for the economic, political and institutional hegemony of the archipelago. Already in 1723, the Captain General of the Canary IslandsLorenzo Fernandez de Villavicenciohad moved the headquarters of the General Captaincy of the Canary Islands from San Cristóbal de La Laguna to Santa Cruz de Tenerife. This decision continued without pleasing the society of the island of Gran Canaria.It would be after the creation of theProvince of Canary Islandsin November 1833 in which Santa Cruz would become the first fully official capital of the Canary Islands (De jureand not ofde factoas happened previously).Santa Cruz de Tenerife would be the capital of the Canary archipelago until during the Government of GeneralPrimo de Riverain 1927 the Province of Canary Islands was split in two provinces:Las Palmaswith capital in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, andSanta Cruz de Tenerifewith capital in the homonymous city. Finally, with the Statute of Autonomy of the Canary Islands in 1982 and the creation of the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands, the capital of the archipelago between Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife is fixed, which is how it remains today. Demographics The Canary Islands have a population of 2,153,389 inhabitants (2019), making it the eighth most populous of Spain'sautonomous communities.The total area of the archipelago is 7,493 km2(2,893 sq mi),resulting in a population density of 287.4 inhabitants per square kilometre. The population of the islands according to the 2019 data are: The Canary Islands have become home to many European residents, mainly coming from Italy, Germany and the UK. Because of the vast immigration to Venezuela and Cuba during the second half of the 20th century and the later return to the Canary Islands of these people along with their families, there are many residents whose country of origin wasVenezuela(66,593) orCuba(41,807). Since the 1990s, manyillegal migrantshave reached the Canary Islands,MelillaandCeuta, using them as entry points to the EU. Canarian Spanish TheSpanish languagevariety that is typical and conventional in the Canary Islands is usually called theCanarian Spanish,Canarian dialectorCanarian speech, and is used by the approximately two million Spanish speakers who live in the Canary Islands. It is a dialect variety that falls within what has been called the \\\"Atlantic variety\\\", similar to those of Spanish-speaking America, and also to those of the south of the Iberian Peninsula, especially western Andalusia. The dialect most similar to the Canarian dialect, given the historical link between both areas, is the Caribbean dialect, spoken in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic), and the coast of theCaribbean Sea(Venezuela, northern Colombia, and Panama). In addition, lexically, the Canarian dialect is widely influenced by thePortuguese language, from which a certain part of its lexicon is derived. Religion TheCatholic Churchhas been the majority religion in the archipelago for more than five centuries, ever since theConquest of the Canary Islands. There are also several other religious communities. Roman Catholic Church The overwhelming majority of native Canarians areRoman Catholic(76.7%)with various smaller foreign-born populations of other Christian beliefs such asProtestants. The appearance of theVirgin of Candelaria(Patron of Canary Islands) was credited with moving the Canary Islands toward Christianity. Two Catholic saints were born in the Canary Islands:Peter of Saint Joseph de BetancurandJosé de Anchieta.Both born on the island of Tenerife, they were respectively missionaries inGuatemalaandBrazil. The Canary Islands are divided into two Catholic dioceses, each governed by a bishop: Other religions Separate from the overwhelming Catholic majority are a minority ofMuslims.Among the followers ofIslam, theIslamic Federation of the Canary Islandsexists to represent the Islamic community in the Canary Islands as well as to provide practical support to members of the Islamic community.For its part, there is also theEvangelical Council of the Canary Islandsin the archipelago. Other religious faiths represented includeJehovah's Witnesses,The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saintsas well asHinduism.Minority religions are also present such as theChurch of the Guanche Peoplewhich is classified as aneo-pagannative religion.Also present areBuddhism,Judaism,Baháʼí,African religion,andChinese religions. Statistics The distribution of beliefs in 2012 according to the CIS Barometer Autonomy was as follows: Population genetics Economy and environment The economy is based primarilyon tourism, which makes up 32% of the GDP. The Canaries receive about 12 million tourists per year. Construction makes up nearly 20% of the GDP and tropical agriculture, primarily bananas and tobacco, are grown for export to Europe and the Americas. Ecologists are concerned that the resources, especially in the morearidislands, are beingoverexploitedbut there are still many agricultural resources liketomatoes,potatoes,onions,cochineal,sugarcane,grapes,vines,dates,oranges,lemons,figs,wheat,barley,maize,apricots,peachesandalmonds. Water resources are also being overexploited, due to the high water usage by tourists.Also, some islands (such as Gran Canaria and Tenerife)overexploit the ground water. This is done in such degree that, according to European and Spanish legal regulations, the current situation is not acceptable. To address the problems, good governance and a change in the water use paradigm have been proposed. These solutions depend largely oncontrolling water useand on demand management. As this is administratively difficult and politically unpalatable, most action is currently directed at increasing the public offer of water through import from outside; a decision which is economically, politically and environmentally questionable. To bring in revenue for environmental protection, innovation, training and water sanitation atourist taxwas considered in 2018, along with a doubling of theecotaxand restrictions on holiday rents in the zones with the greatest pressure of demand. The economy is€25 billion (2001 GDP figures). The islands experienced continuous growth during a 20-year period, up until 2001, at a rate of approximately 5% annually. This growth was fueled mainly by huge amounts offoreign direct investment, mostly to develop tourism real estate (hotels and apartments), and European Funds (near €11 billion in the period from 2000 to 2007), since the Canary Islands are labelled Region Objective 1 (eligible for euro structural funds).Additionally, the EU allows the Canary Islands Government to offer special tax concessions for investors who incorporate under the Zona Especial Canaria (ZEC) regime and create more than five jobs. Spain gave permission in August 2014 forRepsoland its partners to exploreoilandnatural gasprospects off the Canary Islands, involving an investment of €7.5 billion over four years, to commence at the end of 2016. Repsol at the time said the area could ultimately produce 100,000 barrels of oil a day, which would meet 10 percent of Spain's energy needs.However, the analysis of samples obtained did not show the necessary volume nor quality to consider future extraction, and the project was scrapped. Despite currently having very high dependence on fossil fuels, research on the renewable energy potential concluded that a high potential for renewable energy technologies exists on the archipelago. This, in such extent even that a scenario pathway to 100% renewable energy supply by 2050 has been put forward. The Canary Islands have great natural attractions, climate andbeachesmake the islands a major tourist destination, being visited each year by about 12 million people (11,986,059 in 2007, noting 29% ofBritons, 22% of Spanish (from outside the Canaries), and 21% ofGermans). Among the islands, Tenerife has the largest number of tourists received annually, followed by Gran Canaria and Lanzarote.The archipelago's principal tourist attraction is theTeide National Park(in Tenerife) where the highest mountain in Spain and third largestvolcanoin the world (MountTeide), receives over 2.8 million visitors annually. The combination of high mountains, proximity to Europe, and clean air has made theRoque de los Muchachospeak (on La Palma island) a leading location fortelescopeslike theGrantecan. The islands, as an autonomous region of Spain, are in theEuropean Unionand theSchengen Area. They are in theEuropean Union Customs Unionbut outside theVATarea.Instead of VAT there is a local Sales Tax (IGIC) which has a general rate of 7%, an increased tax rate of 13.5%, a reduced tax rate of 3% and a zero tax rate for certain basic need products and services. Consequently, some products are subject to additional VAT if being exported from the islands into mainland Spain or the rest of the EU. Canarian time isWestern European Time(WET), orGMT. In summer, one hour ahead of GMT. Canarian time is one hour behind mainland Spain, and the same time as the UK, Ireland and mainland Portugal all year round. Tourism statistics The number of tourists who visited the Canary Islands in 2018 was 16,150,054. In 2019, there were 15,589,290 arrivals. GDP statistics The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the Canary Islands in 2015 was €40,923 million, €19,222 per capita. The figures by island are as follows: Transport The Canary Islands have eight airports altogether, two of the main ports of Spain, and an extensive network ofautopistas(highways) and other roads. For a road map see multimap.Traffic congestionis sometimes a problem in Tenerife and on Grand Canaria. Largeferryboats and fast ferries link most of the islands. Both types can transport large numbers of passengers, cargo, and vehicles. Fast ferries are made of aluminium and powered by modern and efficient diesel engines, while conventional ferries have a steel hull and are powered by heavy oil. Fast ferries travel in excess of 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph); conventional ferries travel in excess of 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph), but are slower than fast ferries.A typical ferry ride between La Palma and Tenerife may take up to eight hours or more while a fast ferry takes about two and a half hours and between Tenerife and Gran Canaria can be about one hour. The largest airport is theGran Canaria Airport. Tenerife has two airports,Tenerife North AirportandTenerife South Airport.The island of Tenerife gathers the highest passenger movement of all the Canary Islands through its two airports.The two main islands (Tenerife and Gran Canaria) receive the greatest number of passengers.Tenerife 6,204,499 passengers and Gran Canaria 5,011,176 passengers. Theport of Las Palmasis first in freight traffic in the islands,while theport of Santa Cruz de Tenerifeis the first fishing port with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Spanish government publication Statistical Yearbook of State Ports. Similarly, it is the second port in Spain as regards ship traffic, only surpassed by thePort of AlgecirasBay.The port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. The port ofLos Cristianos(Tenerife) has the greatest number of passengers recorded in the Canary Islands, followed by the port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife.The Port of Las Palmas is the third port in the islands in passengers and first in number of vehicles transported. TheSS Americawas beached at the Canary islands on 18 January 1994. However, the ocean liner broke apart after the course of several years and eventually sank beneath the surface. Rail transport TheTenerife Tramopened in 2007 and is currently the only one in the Canary Islands, travelling between the cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Three more railway lines are being planned for the Canary Islands: Airports Ports Health TheServicio Canario de Saludis an autonomous body of administrative nature attached to the Ministry responsible for Health of the Government of the Canary Islands. Wildlife Fauna The bird life includes European and African species, such as theblack-bellied sandgrouse,Canary, Graja, a subspecies ofred-billed choughendemic to La Palma,Gran Canaria blue chaffinch,Tenerife blue chaffinch,Canary Islands chiffchaff,Fuerteventura chat,Tenerife goldcrest,La Palma chaffinch,Canarian Egyptian vulture,Bolle's pigeon,Laurel pigeon,Plain swift, andHoubara bustard. Terrestrial fauna includes theEl Hierro giant lizard,Tachina canariensis,La Gomera giant lizard, and theLa Palma giant lizard. Mammals include theCanarian shrew,Canary big-eared bat, theAlgerian hedgehog, and the more recently introducedmouflon. Extinct fauna The Canary Islands were previously inhabited by a variety of endemic animals, such as extinct giant lizards (Gallotia goliath), giant tortoises (Centrochelys burchardiandC. vulcanica),andTenerifeandGran Canariagiant rats (Canariomys bravoiandC. tamarani),among others. Extinct birds known only fromPleistoceneandHoloceneage bones include theCanary Islands quail(Coturnix gomerae),Dune shearwater(Puffinus holeae),Lava shearwater(P. olsoni),Trias greenfinch(Chloris triasi),Slender-billed greenfinch(C. aurelioi) and theLong-legged bunting(Emberiza alcoveri). Marine life Themarine lifefound in the Canary Islands is also varied, being a combination ofNorth Atlantic,Mediterraneanandendemicspecies. In recent years, the increasing popularity of bothscuba divingandunderwater photographyhave provided biologists with much new information on the marine life of the islands. Fish species found in the islands include many species ofshark,ray,moray eel,bream,jack,grunt,scorpionfish,triggerfish,grouper,goby, andblenny. In addition, there are many invertebrate species, includingsponge,jellyfish,anemone,crab,mollusc,sea urchin,starfish,sea cucumberandcoral. There are a total of five different species ofmarine turtlethat are sighted periodically in the islands, the most common of these being theendangeredloggerhead sea turtle.The other four are thegreen sea turtle,hawksbill sea turtle,leatherback sea turtleandKemp's ridley sea turtle. Currently, there are no signs that any of these species breed in the islands, and so those seen in the water are usuallymigrating. However, it is believed that some of these species may have bred in the islands in the past, and there are records of several sightings of leatherback sea turtle on beaches in Fuerteventura, adding credibility to the theory. Marine mammals include the large varieties ofcetaceansincluding rare and not well-known species (see more details in theMarine life of the Canary Islands).Hooded sealshave also been known to be vagrant in the Canary Islands every now and then. The Canary Islands were also formerly home to a population of the rarestpinnipedin the world, theMediterranean monk seal. Native flora gallery Holidays Some holidays of those celebrated in the Canary Islands are international and national, others are regional holidays and others are of insular character. The official day of the autonomous community isCanary Islands Dayon 30 May. The anniversary of the first session of theParliament of the Canary Islands, based in the city ofSanta Cruz de Tenerife, held on 30 May 1983, is commemorated with this day. The common festive calendar throughout the Canary Islands is as follows: In addition, each of the islands has an island festival, in which it is a holiday only on that specific island. These are the festivities of island patrons saints of each island. Organized chronologically are: The most famous festivals of the Canary Islands is the carnival. It is the most famous and international festival of the archipelago. The carnival is celebrated in all the islands and all its municipalities, perhaps the two busiest are those of the two Canarian capitals; theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife(Tourist Festival of International Interest) and theCarnival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. It is celebrated on the streets between the months of February and March. But the rest of the islands of the archipelago have their carnivals with their own traditions among which stand out: The Festival of the Carneros ofEl Hierro, the Festival of the Diabletes ofTeguiseinLanzarote, Los Indianos deLa Palma, the Carnival ofSan Sebastián de La Gomeraand the Carnival ofPuerto del RosarioinFuerteventura. Science and technology In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14ground stationsin theManned Space Flight Network(MSFN) to support theNASAspace program.Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including theApollo 11Moon landings andSkylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of theESAnetwork. Because of the remote location, a number ofastronomical observatoriesare located in the archipelago, including theTeide Observatoryon Tenerife, theRoque de los Muchachos Observatoryon La Palma, and theTemisas Astronomical Observatoryon Gran Canaria. Tenerife is the home of theInstituto de Astrofísica de Canarias(Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González (Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at theUniversity of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). The latter is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \\\"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\\\"), located in various parts of Spain. The Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands) is based in Tenerife. Sports A unique form of wrestling known asCanarian wrestling(lucha canaria) has opponents stand in a special area called a \\\"terrero\\\" and try to throw each other to the ground using strength and quick movements. Another sport is the \\\"game of the sticks\\\" (palo canario) where opponents fence with long sticks. This may have come about from the shepherds of the islands who would challenge each other using their long walking sticks. Furthermore, there is theshepherd's jump(salto del pastor). This involves using a long stick to vault over an open area. This sport possibly evolved from the shepherd's need to occasionally get over an open area in the hills as they were tending their sheep. The two mainfootballteams in the archipelago are: theCD Tenerife(founded in 1912) andUD Las Palmas(founded in 1949). As of the 2023/2024 season, UD Las Palmas plays in La Liga, the top tier of Spanish football. CD Tenerife however plays in The Segunda Divisón. When in the same division, the clubs contest theCanary Islands derby. There are smaller clubs also playing in the mainlandSpanish football league system, most notablyUD LanzaroteandCD Laguna, although no other Canarian clubs have played in the top flight. The mountainous terrain of the Canary Islands also caters to the growing popularity ofultra runningandultramarathonsas host of annual competitive long-distance events includingCajaMar Tenerife BluetrailonTenerife,TransvulcaniaonLa Palma,TransgrancanariaonGran Canaria, and the HalfMarathon des SablesonFuerteventura. A yearlyIronman Triathlonhas been taking place onLanzarotesince 1992. Notable athletes See also History Geography Culture References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links\",\n \"Tenerife Tenerife(/ˌtɛnəˈriːf/TEN-ə-REEF;Spanish:ⓘ; formerly spelledTeneriffe) is the largest and most populous island of theCanary Islands.It is home to 42.9% of the total population of thearchipelago.With a land area of 2,034.38 square kilometres (785.48 sq mi) and a population of 948,815 inhabitants as of January 2023,it is also the most populous island ofSpainand ofMacaronesia. Approximately five million tourists visit Tenerife each year; it is the most visited island in the archipelago.It is one of the most important tourist destinations in Spainand the world,hosting one of the world's largestcarnivals, theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The capital of the island,Santa Cruz de Tenerife, is also the seat of the island council (cabildo insular). That city andLas Palmas de Gran Canariaare the co-capitals of theautonomous communityof theCanary Islands. The two cities are both home to governmental institutions, such as the offices of the presidency and the ministries. This has been the arrangement since 1927, when the Crown ordered it. (After the1833 territorial division of Spain, until 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands).Santa Cruz contains the modernAuditorio de Tenerife, the architectural symbol of the Canary Islands. The island is home to theUniversity of La Laguna. Founded in 1792 inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, it is the oldest university in the Canaries. The city of La Laguna is aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. It is the second most populous city on the island, and the third most populous in the archipelago. It was the capital of the Canary Islands before Santa Cruz replaced it in 1833.Tenerife is served by two airports;Tenerife North AirportandTenerife South Airport. Teide National Park, located in the center of the island, is also a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site. It includesMount Teide, which has the highest elevation in Spain, and the highest elevation among all the islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It is also the third-largest volcano in the world, when measured from its base.Another geographical feature of the island, theMacizo de Anaga(massif), has been designated as a UNESCOBiosphere Reservesince 2015.Tenerife also has the largest number ofendemicspecies in Europe. Toponymy The name 'Tenerife' likely comes fromTamazight, but there is no consensus on its correct interpretation. The island'sindigenous people, theGuancheBerbers, referred to the island asAchinetorChenetintheir language(variant spellings are found in the literature). According toPliny the Younger,BerberkingJuba IIsent an expedition to the Canary Islands andMadeira; he named the Canary Islands for the particularly ferocious dogs (canaria) on the island.Juba II and theancient Romanscalled the island of TenerifeNivaria, from theLatinwordnix(nsg.;gsg.nivis,npl.nives), meaning \\\"snow\\\", after the snow-covered peak of the Mount Teide volcano.Later maps dating to the 14th and 15th century, drawn by mapmakers such as Bontier and Le Verrier, called the islandIsla del Infierno, (\\\"Hell Island\\\"), due to Mount Teide's volcanic eruptions and other volcanic activity. Although the name given to the island by theBenahoaritas(the indigenous peoples of La Palma) was derived from the wordsteni(\\\"mountain\\\") andife(\\\"white\\\"),after the island was colonized by the Spanish the name was modified by Spanish phonology: the letter \\\"r\\\" was added to link the two words, producing the single word Tenerife. However, throughout history, other explanations for the origin of island's name have been proposed. For example, the 17th-century historiansJuan Núñez de la PeñaandTomás Arias Marín de Cubas, among others, suggested that the indigenous peoples might have named the island for the famous Guanche king,Tinerfe, nicknamed \\\"the Great\\\", who ruled Tenerife before theCanary Islandswere conquered byCastile. Demonym The formaldemonymused to refer to the people of Tenerife isTinerfeño/a; also used colloquially is the termchicharrero/a.In modern society, the latter term is generally applied only to inhabitants of the capital, Santa Cruz. The termchicharrerowas once aderogatoryterm used by the people ofLa Lagunawhen it was the capital, to refer to the poorer inhabitants and fishermen of Santa Cruz. The fishermen typically caughtmackereland other residents atepotatoes, assumed to be of low quality by the elite of La Laguna.As Santa Cruz grew in commerce and status, it replaced La Laguna as capital of Tenerife in 1833 during the reign ofFernando VII. Then the inhabitants of Santa Cruz used the former insult to identify as residents of the new capital, at La Laguna's expense. History The earliest known human settlement in the islands, dating to around 200BCE, was established byBerbersknown as theGuanches.However, theCave of the Guanchesin the northern municipality ofIcod de los Vinoshas provided the oldest chronologies of the Canary Islands, with dates around the sixth century BCE. In terms of technology, the Guanches can be placed among the peoples of theStone Age, although scholars often reject this classification because of its ambiguity. Guanche culture was more advanced culturally, possibly because of Berber cultural features imported from North Africa, but less technologically advanced due to the scarcity of raw materials, especially minerals that would have allowed for the extraction and working of metals. The main activity was gathering food from nature; though fishing and shellfish collection were supplemented with some agricultural practices. As for religion andcosmology, the Guanches werepolytheistic, with further widespread belief in anastral cult. They also had ananimisticreligiosity that sacralized certain places, mainly rocks and mountains. Although the Guanches worshiped many gods and ancestral spirits, among the most important wereAchamán(the god of the sky and supreme creator),Chaxiraxi(the mother goddess, identified later with theVirgin of Candelaria),Magec(the god of the sun), andGuayota(the demon who is the main cause of evil). Especially significant was the cult of the dead, which practiced themummificationof corpses. In addition, smallanthropomorphicandzoomorphicstone and clay figurines of the kind typically associated with rituals have been found on the island. Scholars believe they were used as idols, the most prominent of which is the so-calledIdol of Guatimac, which is thought to represent a genius or protective spirit. Territorial organisation before the conquest (The Guanches) The title ofmenceywas given to the monarch or king of the Guanches of Tenerife, who governed amenceyatoor kingdom. This role was later referred to as a \\\"captainship\\\" by the conquerors.Tinerfe \\\"the Great\\\", son of themenceySunta, governed the island from Adeje in the south. However, upon his death, his nine children rebelled and argued bitterly about how to divide the island. Two independentachimenceyatoswere created on the island, and the island was divided into ninemenceyatos. Themenceyeswithin them formed what would be similar to municipalities today.Themenceyatosand theirmenceyes(ordered by the names of descendants of Tinerfe who ruled them) were the following: The achimenceyato ofPunta del Hidalgowas governed by Aguahuco, a \\\"poor noble\\\" who was an illegitimate son of Tinerfe and Zebenzui. Spanish conquest Tenerife was the last island of the Canaries to be conquered and the one that took the longest time to submit to the Castilian troops. Although the traditional dates of the conquest of Tenerife are established between 1494 (landing of Alonso Fernández de Lugo) and 1496 (the complete conquest of the island), attempts to annex the island of Tenerife to theCrown of Castiledate back at least to 1464. In 1464,Diego Garcia de Herrera, Lord of the Canary Islands, took symbolic possession of the island in theBarranco del Bufadero(Ravine of the Bufadero),signing a peace treaty with the Guanche chiefs (menceyes) which allowed themenceyAnaga to build a fortified tower on Guanche land, where the Guanches and the Spanish held periodic treaty talks until the Guanches demolished it around 1472. In 1492 the governor of Gran Canaria Francisco Maldonado organized a raid that ended in disaster for the Spaniards when they were defeated by Anaga's warriors. In December 1493, the Catholic monarchs, Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, grantedAlonso Fernández de Lugothe right to conquer Tenerife. Coming fromGran Canariain April 1494, the conqueror landed on the coast of present-day Santa Cruz de Tenerife in May, and disembarked with about 2,000 men on foot and 200 on horseback.After taking the fort, the army prepared to move inland, later capturing the native kings of Tenerife and presenting them toIsabella and Ferdinand. Themenceyesof Tenerife had differing responses to the conquest. They divided into theside of peace(Spanish:bando de paz) and theside of war(Spanish:bando de guerra). The first included themenceyatosof Anaga, Güímar, Abona and Adeje. The second group consisted of the people of Tegueste, Tacoronte, Taoro, Icoden and Daute. Those opposed to the conquest fought the invaders tenaciously, resisting their rule for two years. Castillian forces under theAdelantado(\\\"military governor\\\") de Lugo suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Guanches in theFirst Battle of Acentejoon 31 May 1494, but defeated them at theSecond Battle of Acentejoon 25 December 1494. The Guanches were eventually overcome by superior technology and the arms of the invaders, and surrendered to the Crown of Castile in 1496. Spanish rule Many of the natives died from new infectious diseases, such asinfluenzaand probablysmallpox, to which they lacked resistance or acquiredimmunity. The new colonists intermarried with the local native population. For a century after the conquest, many new colonists settled on the island, including immigrants from the diverse territories of the growingSpanish Empire, such asFlanders, Italy, and Germany. As the population grew, it cleared Tenerife's pine forests for fuel and to make fields for agriculture for crops both for local consumption and for export.Sugar canewas introduced in the 1520s as a commodity crop on major plantations; it was a labor-intensive crop in all phases of cultivation and processing. In the following centuries, planters cultivated wine grapes,cochinealfor making dyes, andplantainsfor use and export. Trade with the Americas In the commerce of the Canary Islands with the Americas of the 18th century, Tenerife was the hegemonic island, since it exceeded 50% of the number of ships and 60% of the tonnage. In the islands ofLa PalmaandGran Canaria, the percentage was around 19% for the first and 7% for the second.The volume of traffic between the Indies and the Canary Islands was unknown, but was very important and concentrated almost exclusively in Tenerife. Among the products that are exported werecochineal,rumandsugar cane, which were landed mainly in the ports of the Americas such asLa Guaira,Havana,CampecheandVeracruz. Many sailors from Tenerife joined this transcontinental maritime trade, among which the corsairAmaro Rodríguez Felipe, more commonly known asAmaro Pargo, Juan Pedro Dujardín and Bernardo de Espinosa, both companions of Amaro Pargo, among others. Emigration to the Americas Tenerife, like the other islands, has maintained a close relationship with Latin America, as both were part of the Spanish Empire. From the start of the colonization of theNew World, many Spanish expeditions stopped at the island for supplies on their way to the Americas. They also recruited manytinerfeñosfor their crews, who formed an integral part of the conquest expeditions. Others joined ships in search of better prospects. It is also important to note the exchange in plant and animal species that made those voyages. After a century and a half of relative growth, based on thegrape growingsector, numerous families emigrated, especially toVenezuelaandCuba. TheCrownwanted to encourage population of underdeveloped zones in the Americas to pre-empt the occupation by foreign forces, as had happened with the English inJamaicaand the French in theGuianasand westernHispaniola(which the French renamed as Saint-Domingue). Canary Islanders, including manytinerfeños,left for the New World. The success in cultivation of new crops of the Americas, such ascocoain Venezuela and tobacco in Cuba, contributed to the population exodus from towns such as Buenavista del Norte, Vilaflor, or El Sauzal in the late 17th century. The village ofSan Carlos de Tenerifewas founded in 1684 by Canary Islanders onSanto Domingo. The people from Tenerife were recruited for settlement to build up the town from encroachment by French colonists established in the western side of Hispaniola. Between 1720 and 1730, the Crown moved 176 families, including manytinerfeños,to the Caribbean island ofPuerto Rico. In 1726, about 25 island families migrated to the Americas to collaborate on the foundation ofMontevideo. Four years later, in 1730, another group left that foundedSan Antoniothe following year in what becameTexas. Between 1777 and 1783, more islanders emigrated from Santa Cruz de Tenerife to settle in what becameSt. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, during the period when Spain ruled this former French territory west of the Mississippi River. Some groups went to Western or Spanish Florida. Tenerife saw the arrival of theFirst FleettoBotany Bayin June 1787, which consisted of 11 ships that departed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The Fleet consisted of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and sixconvict shipscarrying between 1,000 and 1,500 convicts, marines, seamen, civil officers and free people (accounts differ on the numbers), and a vast quantity of stores. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz at Tenerife. Here, fresh water, vegetables and meat were brought on board. Commander of the fleet, Capt.Arthur Phillipand the chief officers were entertained by the local governor, while one convict tried unsuccessfully to escape. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents. In June 1799, the Prussian-born naturalistAlexander von Humboldtspent five full days on Tenerife on the first leg of his soon world-famous American journey (1799–1804) and climbed the Pico del Teide. Emigration to the Americas (mainly Cuba and Venezuela) continued during the 19th and early 20th century, due to the lack of economic opportunity and the relative isolation of the Canary Islands. Since the late 20th century, island protectionist economic laws and a strong development in the tourism industry have strengthened the economy and attracted new migrants. Tenerife has received numerous new residents, including the \\\"return\\\" of many descendants of some islanders who had departed five centuries before. Military history The most notable conflict was theBritish invasion of Tenerifein 1797.On 25 July 1797, AdmiralHoratio Nelsonlaunched an attack at Santa Cruz de Tenerife, now the capital of the island. After a ferocious fight which resulted in many casualties, GeneralAntonio Gutiérrez de Otero y Santayanaorganized a defense to repel the invaders. Whilst leading a landing party, Nelson was seriously wounded in his right arm by grapeshot or a musket ball, necessitating amputation of most of the arm.Legend tells that he was wounded by the Spanish cannonTiger(Spanish:Tigre) as he was trying to disembark on the Paso Alto coast. On 5 September 1797, the British attempted another attack in the Puerto Santiago region, which was repelled by the inhabitants ofSantiago del Teide. Some threw rocks at the British from the heights of the cliffs ofLos Gigantes. The island was also attacked by British commandersRobert Blake,Walter Raleigh,John HawkinsandWoodes Rogers. Modern history From 1833 to 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, the government ordered that the capital be shared withLas Palmas, as it remains at present.This change in status has encouraged development in Las Palmas. Tourists began visiting Tenerife from Spain, the United Kingdom, and northern Europe in large numbers in the 1890s. They especially were attracted to the destinations of the northern towns ofPuerto de la Cruzand Santa Cruz de Tenerife.Independent shipping business, such as the Yeoward Brothers Shipping Line, helped boost the tourist industry during this time, adding to ships that carried passengers.The naturalistAlexander von Humboldtascended the peak of Mount Teide and remarked on the beauty of the island. Before his rise to power,Francisco Francowas posted to Tenerife in March 1936 by a Republican government wary of his influence and political leanings. However, Franco received information and in Gran Canaria agreed to collaborate in the military coup that would result in theSpanish Civil War; the Canaries fell to the Nationalists in July 1936. In the 1950s, the misery of the post-war years caused thousands of the island's inhabitants to emigrate toCubaand other parts of Latin America. Tenerife was the site of the deadliest accident ever in commercial aviation. TheTenerife airport disasteroccurred on 27 March 1977 when twoBoeing 747s,KLMFlight 4805 andPan AmFlight 1736 collided on the runway atLos Rodeos Airportin heavy fog conditions, causing the deaths of 583 passengers and crew. A few years later,Dan Air Flight 1008crashed into a mountain while on approach to Tenerife North, killing 146 people. The plane was travelling too close to an Iberia Air turboprop plane and was asked to go into a holding pattern. At the beginning of the 21st century, the so-calledRiada de Tenerife of 2002took place on 31 March of that year. It was a phenomenon of cold drop characterized by the repeated fall of torrential rains accompanied by thunder and lightning, affecting themetropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerifeand extending in the NE direction towards theSan Andrésarea.The rains caused 8 dead, 12 missing and dozens of injured.In addition to the human losses, the flood caused considerable material damage, 70,000 people without light as well as the total or partial destruction of at least 400 homes. The losses were calculated at 90 million euros. In November 2005, Tenerife was the Canary Island most affected byTropical Storm Delta. Winds of 140 km/h were recorded on the coast and almost 250 km/h on theTeide, Tenerife's summit. Geography The oldest mountain ranges in Tenerife rose from the Atlantic Ocean by volcanic eruption which gave birth to the island around twelve million years ago.The island as it is today was formed three million years ago by the fusion of three islands made up of the mountain ranges ofAnaga,TenoandValle de San Lorenzo,due to volcanic activity fromTeide. The volcano is visible from most parts of the island today, and the crater is 17 kilometres (11 miles) long at some points. Tenerife is the largest island of the Canary Islands and theMacaronesiaregion. Climate Tenerife is characterized by a generally dry, warm climate. The island has 2 main different climatic areas (as byKöppen climate classification) yet it actually has 5 different climatic areas. Global climate change has had a major impact on the island, with diminishing rainfall and hot, dry winds affecting vegetation and contributing to an increasing propensity to being subject to forest fires. On August 15, 2023, a forest fire determined to be caused by arson necessitated the evacuation of 12,000 residents within a week. The main climates are the hot semi-arid/arid climate (Köppen:BShandBWh) and thesubtropicalMediterranean Climate(Köppen:CsbandCsa) inland or at higher altitudes. The low altitude/coastal areas of the island have average temperatures of 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) in the winter months and 24–26 °C (75–79 °F) in the summer months. There is a high annual total of days of sunshine and low precipitation in the coastal areas. The inland/high altitude areas, such asLa Laguna, receive much more precipitation and are generally cloudier, as well as the temperatures have a considerable difference, with an average of 13–14 °C (55–57 °F) in the winter and 20–21 °C (68–70 °F) in the summer. The moderate climate of Tenerife is controlled to a great extent by thetrade winds, whosehumidityis condensed principally over the north and northeast of the island, creating cloud banks that range between 600 and 1,800 metres (2,000 and 5,900 feet) in height. The cold sea currents of the Canary Islands also have a cooling effect on the coasts and its beaches, while the topography of the landscape plays a role in climatic differences on the island with its many valleys. The moderating effect of the marine air makes extreme heat a rare occurrence and frost an impossibility at sea level. The lowest recorded temperature in central Santa Cruz is 8.1 °C (46.6 °F), the coldest month on record still had a relatively mild average temperature of 15.8 °C (60.4 °F).Summer temperatures are highest in August, with an average high of 29 °C (84 °F) in Santa Cruz, similar to those of places as far north asBarcelonaandMajorca, because of the greater maritime influence. At a higher elevation inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, the climate transitions to aMediterranean climatewith higher precipitation amounts and lower temperatures year round. The climate of Santa Cruz is very typical of the Canaries, albeit only slightly warmer than theclimateof Las Palmas. Major climatic contrasts on the island are evident, especially during the winter months when it is possible to enjoy the warm sunshine on the coast and experience snow within kilometres, 3,000 metres (10,000 feet)above sea levelon ElTeide.There are also major contrasts at low altitude, where the climate ranges fromarid(KöppenBWh) on the southeastern side represented by Santa Cruz de Tenerife toMediterranean(Csa/Csb) on the northwestern side in Buena Vista del Norte and La Orotava. The center of the island is characterized by forests because of the much higher precipitation, mostlyCanary Island pineforests in theTeide National Parkat altitudes from 1,300 to 2,100 metres (4,300 to 6,900 ft).Subtropicalcloud forestscharacterised bylaurisilvaare commonly found in the Anaga National Park and Monte de Agua in the Teno Rural Park, with altitudes from 600 to 1,000 metres (2,000 to 3,300 ft) and annual averages from 15 to 19 °C (59 to 66 °F) and 600 to 1,200 metres (2,000 to 3,900 ft) in the latter. The north and south of Tenerife similarly have different climatic characteristics because of therain shadoweffect. The windward northwestern side of the island receives 73 percent of all precipitation on the island, and the relative humidity of the air is superior and the insolation inferior. The pluviometric maximums are registered on the windward side at an average altitude of between 1,000 and 1,200 metres (3,300 and 3,900 feet), almost exclusively in theLa Orotavamountain range.Although climatic differences in rainfall and sunshine on the island exist, overall annualprecipitationis low and the summer months from May to September are normally completely dry. Rainfall, similar to that ofSouthern California, can also be extremely erratic from one year to another. Water The volcanic ground of Tenerife, which is of aporousand permeable character, is generally the reason why the soil is able to maximise the absorption of water on an island of low rainfall, withcondensationin forested areas and frost deposition on the summit of the island also contributory causes. Given the irregularity of precipitation and geological conditions on the island, dam construction has been avoided, so most of the water (90 percent) comes fromwellsand from water galleries (horizontal tunnels bored into the volcano) of which there are thousands on the island, important systems that serve to extract its hydrological resources.These tunnels are very hazardous, with pockets of volcanic gas orcarbon dioxide, causing rapid death. Pollution and air quality The Canary Islands have low levels of air pollution thanks to the lack of factories and industry and the trade winds which naturally move away contaminated air from the islands. According to official data offered by the Health and Industry Ministry in Spain, Tenerife is one of the cleanest places in the country with an air pollution index below the national average.Despite this, there are still agents which affect pollution levels in the island, the mainpolluting agentsbeing therefinery at Santa Cruz, thethermal powerplants atLas CaletillasandGranadilla, and road traffic, increased by the high level of tourism in the island. In addition on the island of Tenerife like on La Palma light pollution must be also controlled, to help theastrophysical observatorieslocated in the island's summits.Water is generally of a very high quality, and all the beaches of the island of Tenerife have been catalogued by the Ministry of Health and Consumption as waters suitable for bathing. Geology Tenerife is a rugged volcanic island, sculpted by successive eruptions throughout its history. There are four historically recorded volcanic eruptions, none of which has led to casualties. The first occurred in 1704, when the Arafo, Fasnia and Siete Fuentes volcanoes erupted simultaneously. Two years later, in 1706, the greatest eruption occurred at Trevejo. This volcano produced great quantities oflavawhich buried the city and port ofGarachico. The last eruption of the 18th century happened in 1798 at Cañadas de Teide, inChahorra. The most recent eruption-in 1909-formed the Chinyero cinder cone in the municipality ofSantiago del Teide. The island is located between 28° and 29° N and the 16° and 17° W meridian. It is situated north of theTropic of Cancer, occupying a central position between the other Canary Islands ofGran Canaria,La GomeraandLa Palma. The island is about 300 km (186 mi) from the African coast, and approximately 1,000 km (621 mi) from theIberian Peninsula.Tenerife is the largest island of the Canary Islands archipelago, with a surface area of 2,034.38 km2(785 sq mi)and has the longest coastline, amounting to 342 km (213 mi). In addition, the highest point, Mount Teide, with an elevation of 3,715 m (12,188 ft)above sea levelis the highest point in all of Spain,is also the third largest volcano in the world from its base in the bottom of the sea. For this reason, Tenerife is the10th-highest island worldwide. It comprises about 200 small barren islets or large rocks includingRoques de Anaga,Roque de Garachico, andFasniaadding a further 213,835 m2(2,301,701 sq ft) to the total area. Origins and geological formation Tenerife is a volcanic island that has built up from the ocean floor during the last 20 million years. Underwater fissural eruptions producedpillow lava, which are produced by the rapid cooling of the magma when it comes in contact with water, obtaining their peculiar shape. This pillow-lava accumulated, constructing the base of the island underneath the sea. As this accumulation approached the surface of the water, gases erupted from the magma due to the reduction of the surrounding pressure. The volcanic eruptions became more violent and had a more explosive character, and resulted in the forming of peculiar geological fragments. After long-term accumulation of these fragments, the birth of the island occurred at the end of theMiocene epoch. The zones on Tenerife known asMacizo de Teno,Macizo de AnagaandMacizo de Adejewere formed seven million years ago; these formations are called theAncient Basaltic SeriesorSeries I. These zones were actually three separate islands lying in what is now the extreme west, east, and south of Tenerife. A second volcanic cycle called thePost-Miocene FormationsorLatest Series II, III, IVbegan three million years ago. This was a much more intense volcanic cycle, which united the Macizo de Teno, Macizo de Anaga and Macizo de Adeje into one island. This new structure, called thePre-Cañadas Structure(Edificio pre-Cañadas), would be the foundation for what is called theCañadas Structure I. The Cañadas Structure I experienced various collapses and emitted explosive material that produced the area known asBandas del sur(in the present-day south-southeast of Tenerife). Subsequently, upon the ruins of Cañadas Structure I emergedCañadas Structure II, which was 2,500 metres (8,200 ft)above sea leveland emerged with intense explosive activity. About one million years ago, the Dorsal Range (Cordillera Dorsal) emerged by means of fissural volcanic activity occurring amidst the remains of the older Ancient Basaltic Series (Series I). This Dorsal Range emerged as the highest and the longest volcanic structure in the Canary Islands; it was 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) high and 25 kilometres (16 mi) long. About 800,000 years ago, two gravitationallandslidesoccurred, giving rise to the present-day valleys of La Orotava and Güímar.Finally, around 200,000 years ago, the giant Icod landslide occurred followed by eruptions that raised thePico Viejo-Teidein the centre of the island, over theLas Cañadas caldera. Orography and landscape The uneven and steeporographyof the island and its variety of climates has resulted in a diversity of landscapes and geographical and geological formations, from the Teide National Park with its extensivepineforests, juxtaposed against the volcanic landscape at the summit of Teide andMalpaís de Güímar, to the Acantilados de Los Gigantes (Cliffs of the Giants) with its vertical precipices. Semidesert areas exist in the south with drought-resistant plants. Other areas range from those protected and enclosed in mountains such as Montaña Roja and Montaña Pelada, the valleys and forests with subtropical vegetation and climate, to those with deep gorges and precipices such as at Anaga and Teno. Central heights The principal structures in Tenerife, make the central highlands, with the Teide–Pico Viejocomplex and the Las Cañadas areas as most prominent. It comprises a semi-calderaof about 130 km2(50 sq mi) in area, originated by several geological processes explained under theOrigin and formationsection. The area is partially occupied by the Teide-Pico Viejo strato-volcano and completed by the materials emitted in the different eruptions that took place. A known formation calledLos Azulejos, composed by green-tinted rocks were created by hydrothermal processes. South of La Caldera isGuajara Mountain, which has an elevation of 2,718 metres (8,917 feet), rising above Teide National Park. At the bottom, is anendorheic basinflanked with very fine sedimentary material which has been deposited from its volcanic processes, and is known as Llano de Ucanca. The peak ofTeide, at 3,715 metres (12,188 feet)above sea leveland more than 7,500 metres (24,606 feet) above the ocean floor, is the highest point of the island, Spanish territory and in the Atlantic Ocean. The volcano is the third largest on the planet, and its central location,substantial size, looming silhouette in the distance and its snowy landscape in winter give it a unique nature.The original settlers considered Teide a god and Teide was a place of worship. In 1954, the whole area around it was declared anational park, with further expansion later on. In addition, in June 2007 it was recognised byUNESCOas aWorld Heritage site.To the west lies the volcanoPico Viejo(Old Peak). On one side of it, is the volcano Chahorra o Narices del Teide, where the last eruption occurred in the vicinity of Mount Teide in 1798. The Teide is one of the 16Decade Volcanoesidentified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. Tallest mountains on Tenerife: Massifs The Anaga massif (Macizo de Anaga), at the northeastern end of the island, has an irregular and rugged topographical profile where, despite its generally modest elevations, the Cruz de Taborno reaches a height of 1,024 metres (3,360 feet). Due to the age of its material (5.7 million years), its deep erosive processes, and the dense network ofdikespiercing the massif, its surface exposes numerous outcroppings of bothphonoliticandtrachyticorigin. A large number of steep-walled gorges are present, penetrating deeply into the terrain. Vertical cuts dominate the Anagan coast, with infrequent beaches of rocks or black sand between them; the few that exist generally coincide with the mouths of gorges. The Teno massif (Macizo de Teno) is located on the northwestern edge of the island. Like Anaga, it includes an area of outcroppings and deep gorges formed by erosion. However, the materials here are older (about 7.4 million years old). Mount Gala represents its highest elevation at 1,342 metres (4,403 feet). The most unusual landscape of this massif is found on its southern coast, where theAcantilados de Los Gigantes(\\\"Cliffs of the Giants\\\") present vertical walls reaching heights of 500 metres (1,600 feet) in some places. The Adeje massif (Macizo de Adeje) is situated on the southern tip of the island. Its main landmark is the Roque del Conde (\\\"Count's Rock\\\"), with an elevation of 1,001 metres (3,284 feet). This massif is not as impressive as the others due to its diminished initial structure, since in addition to with the site's greater geologic age it has experienced severe erosion of its material, thereby losing its original appearance and extent. Dorsals The Dorsal mountainridgeorDorsal of Pedro Gilcovers the area from the start at Mount La Esperanza, at a height of about 750 m (2,461 ft), to the center of the island, near theCaldera de Las Cañadas, with Izaña, as its highest point at 2,390 m (7,841 ft) (MSLP). These mountains have been created due to basaltic fissural volcanism through one of the axis that gave birth to the vulcanism of this area. The Abeque Dorsal was formed by a chain of volcanoes that join the Teno with the central insular peak of Teide-Pico Viejo starting from another of the three axis of Tenerife's geological structures. On this dorsal we find the historic volcano of Chinyero whose last eruption happened in 1909. The South Dorsal orDorsal of Adejeis part of the last of the structural axis. The remains of this massive rock show the primordial land, also showing the alignment of small volcanic cones and rocks around this are in Tenerife's South. Valleys and ravines Valleysare another of the island's features. The most important areValle de La OrotavaandValle de Güímar, both formed by the mass sliding of great quantities of material towards the sea, creating a depression of the land. Other valleys tend to be between hills formed by deposits of sediments from nearby slopes, or simply wide ravines which in their evolution have become typical valleys. Tenerife has a large number of ravines, which are a characteristic element of the landscape, caused by erosion fromsurface runoffover a long period. Notable ravines include Ruiz, Fasnia and Güímar,Infierno, and Erques, all of which have been designated protected natural areas by Canarian institutions. Coastline The coasts of Tenerife are typically rugged and steep, particularly on the north of the island. However, the island has 67.14 kilometres (41.72 miles) of beaches, such as the one atEl Médano, surpassed only in this respect by the island ofFuerteventura.There are many black sand pebble beaches on the northern coast, while on the south and south-west coast of the island, the beaches have typically much finer and clearer sand with lighter tones. Volcanic tubes Lava tubesare volcanic caves usually in the form of tunnels formed within lava flows more or less fluid reogenética duration of the activity. Among the many existing volcanic tubes on the island stands out theCueva del Viento, located in the northern town ofIcod de los Vinos, which is the largest volcanic tunnel in theEuropean Unionand one of the largest in the world, for a long time considered the largest in the world. Flora and fauna The island of Tenerife has a remarkableecosystem diversityin spite of its small surface area, which is a consequence of the special environmental conditions on the island, where its distinct orography modifies the general climatic conditions at a local level, producing a significant variety ofmicroclimates. This diversity of microclimates allows some 1400 species of plants to exist on the island, with well over 100 of these endemic to Tenerife.The fauna of Tenerife includes some 400 species of fish, 56 birds, five reptiles, two amphibians, 13 land mammals, thousands of invertebrates, and several species of sea turtles and cetaceans. The vegetation of Tenerife can be divided into six major zones that are directly related to altitude and the direction in which they face. Prehistoric fauna Before the arrival of humans, the Canary Islands were inhabited by certain endemic animals, now mostly extinct. These animals reachedlarger than usual sizes, because of a phenomenon calledisland gigantism. Among these species, the best known in Tenerife were: Protected natural areas Nearly half of the island territory (48.6 percent),is under protection from theRed Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos(Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,a total of 43 are located in Tenerife, the most protected island in the group.The network has criteria which places areas under its observation under eight different categories of protection, all of them are represented in Tenerife. Aside fromParque Nacional del Teide, it counts the Parque Natural de Canarias (Crown Forest), two rural parks (Anaga and Teno), four integral natural reserves, six special natural reserves, a total of fourteen natural monuments, nine protected landscapes and up to six sites of scientific interest. Also located on the islandMacizo de Anagasince 2015 isBiosphere Reserveand is the place that has the largest number of endemic species in Europe. In contrast to the land-based protected areas, Tenerife also boasts significant marine protected natural areas. Among these is the Zona de Especial Conservación Teno-Rasca (Teno-Rasca Special Area of Conservation), a marine protected area established in 2013.This marine protected area off the coast of Tenerife is known for its ecological significance and biodiversity, including resident populations of cetaceans such as bottlenose dolphins and pilot whales.It is also known as the Tenerife-La Gomera Marine Area and became the first European designated Whale Heritage Area in January 2021. Administration Law and order Tenerife island's government resides with theCabildo Insular de Tenerifelocated at the Plaza de España at the island's capital city (Palacio Insular de Tenerife). The political Canary organization does not have a provincial government body but instead each island has its own government at their ownCabildo. Since its creation in March 1913 it has a series of capabilities and duties, stated in the Canary Autonomy Statutes (Spanish:Estatuto de Autonomía de Canarias) and regulated by Law 14/1990, of 26 July 1990, of theRégimen Jurídico de las Administraciones Públicas de Canarias. The Cabildo is composed of the following administrative offices; Presidency, Legislative Body, Government Council, Informative Commissions, Spokesman's office. Government Tenerife is an autonomous territory of Spain. The island has a tiered-government system and a special status within the European Union in which it holds lower tax rates compared to other regions. Santa Cruz is the seat of half of the regional government departments and parliament and it is there that the governor is elected by the Canarian people. Afterwards, they are appointed by Madrid. There are fifteen members of parliament who work together in passing legislation, organising budgets and improving the economy. Municipalities The island, itself part of aSpanish provincenamedSanta Cruz de Tenerife, is divided administratively into 31 municipalities. Only three municipalities are landlocked:Tegueste,El TanqueandVilaflor. Vilaflor is the municipality with the highest altitude in the Canaries (its capital is 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) high). The largest municipality with an area of 207.31 square kilometres (80.04 square miles) is La Orotava, which covers much of the Teide National Park. The smallest town on the island and of the archipelago isPuerto de la Cruz, with an area of just 8.73 square kilometres (3 square miles). It is also common to find internal division, in that some cities make up a metropolitan area within a municipality, notably the cities of Santa Cruz and La Laguna. Below is an alphabetical list of all the municipalities on the island: Counties The counties of Tenerife have no official recognition, but there is a consensus among geographers about them: Flags and heraldry TheFlag of Tenerifewas originally adopted in 1845 by the navy at its base in the Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Later, and at present, this flag represents all the island of Tenerife. It was approved by theCabildo Insular de Tenerifeand the Order of the Government of the Canary Islands on 9 May 1989 and published on 22 May in the government report of the Canary Islands and made official. Thecoat-of-armsof Tenerife was granted by royal decree on 23 March 1510 byFerdinand IIatMadridin the name ofJoan I, Queen of Castile. The coat-of-arms has a field of gold, with an image ofSaint Michael(patron saintof the island) above a mountain depicted in brownish, natural colors. Flames erupt from the mountain, symbolizing El Teide. Below this mountain is depicted the island itself inverton top of blue and silver waves. To the right there is a castle ingules, and to the left, a lionrampantin gules. The shield that the Cabildo Insular, or Island Government, uses is slightly different from that used by the city government of La Laguna, which uses a motto in the arms' border and also includes some palm branches. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Tenerife are the birdblue chaffinch(Fringilla teydea) and theCanary Islands dragon tree(Dracaena draco) tree. Demographics According to INE data as at 1 January 2023, Tenerife has the largest population of the seven Canary Islands and was the most populated island of Spain with 948,815 officially estimated inhabitants,of whom about 22.0 percent (208,906) lived in the capital, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and 40 percent in the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz–La Laguna.Santa Cruz de Tenerife and the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Lagunaare physically one urban area, so that together (and including Tegueste) they have a population of 379,857 inhabitants. Tenerife has two other metropolitan areas recognized by theMinistry of Development; theTenerife South metropolitan areawith 194,774 inhabitants (2019) and theLa Orotava Valley metropolitan areawith 108,721 inhabitants (2019). After the city of Santa Cruz the major towns and municipalities as at the start of 2023 areSan Cristóbal de La Laguna(159,576),Arona(86,497),Granadilla de Abona(55,505),Adeje(50,523),La Orotava(42,667),Los Realejos(37,543), andPuerto de la Cruz(31,396). All other municipalities have fewer than 30,000 inhabitants, the smallest municipality beingVilaflorwith a population of 1,850. The island has high rates of resident population not registered in population censuses, primarily tourists. This has made several sources point out that more than one million inhabitants actually live on the island of Tenerife today.The island is also the most multicultural in the archipelago, with the highest number of registered foreigners (44.9% of registered in Canary Islands), which represent 14% of the total population of the island.Tenerife stands out in the context of the archipelago, by also concentrating the largest presence of non-EU foreign population. Tenerife has three large population areas that are very different and distributed: The Metropolitan Zone, the South Zone and the North Zone. With several protected natural parks — 48.6% of the territory — and an urban swarm around the island, in the last half century the insular coastal platform has become a highly urbanized metropolitan system. The high level of population in a relatively small territory — more than 900,000 inhabitants in just over 2,000 km2(770 sq mi) — and the strong urbanization have turned the island of Tenerife, in the words of architect Federico García Barba; on an \\\"island-city\\\" or \\\"island-ring\\\". Recently Tenerife has experienced population growth significantly higher than the national average. In 1990, there were 663,306 registered inhabitants, which increased to 709,365 in 2000, an increase of 46,059 or an annual growth of 0.69 percent. However, between 2000 and 2007, the population rose by 155,705 to 865,070, an annual increase of 3.14 percent. These results reflect the general trend in Spain where, since 2000, immigration has reversed the general slowdown in population growth, following the collapse in the birth rate from 1976. However, since 2001 the overall growth rate in Spain has been around 1.7 percent per year, compared with 3.14 percent on Tenerife, one of the largest increases in the country. Economy Tenerife is the economic capital of the Canary Islands.At present, Tenerife is the island with the highest GDP in the Canary Islands.Even though Tenerife's economy is highly specialized in theservice sector, which makes 78% of its total production capacity, the importance of the rest of the economic sectors is key to its production development. In this sense, the primary sector, which only represents 1.98% of the total product, groups activities that are important to the sustainable development of the island's economy. The energy sector which contributes 2.85% has a primary role in the development of renewable energy sources. The industrial sector which shares in 5.80% is a growing activity in the island, vis-a-vis the new possibilities created by technological advances. Finally, the construction sector with 11.29% of the total production has a strategic priority, because it is a sector with relative stability which permits multiple possibilities of development and employment opportunities. Tourism Tourism is the most prominent industry in the Canaries, which are one of the major tourist destinations in the world. Tenerife is the most visited island in the archipelagoand one of the most important tourist destinations in Spain. In 2014, 11,473,600 foreign tourists came to the Canary Islands. Tenerife had 4,171,384 arrivals that year, excluding the numbers for Spanish tourists which make up an additional 30% of total arrivals. According to last year's Canarian Statistics Centre's (ISTAC) Report on Tourism the greatest number of tourists from any one country come from the United Kingdom, with more than 3,980,000 tourists in 2014. In second place comes Germany followed by Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, France, Ireland, Belgium, Italy, Denmark, Finland, Switzerland, Poland, Russia and Austria. Tourism is more prevalent in the south of the island, which is hotter and drier and has many well developed resorts such asPlaya de las AmericasandLos Cristianos. More recently coastal development has spread northwards from Playa de las Americas and now encompasses the former small enclave of La Caleta. According to theMoratoriaact passed by the Canarian Parliament in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, no more hotels will be built on the island unless they are classified as 5 star-quality and comprise different services such as golf courses or convention facilities. This act was passed with the goal of improving the standard of tourism service and promoting environmentally conscious development. The area known asCosta Adejehas many facilities and leisure opportunities such as shopping centres, golf courses, restaurants, water parks (the most well-known beingSiam Park), animal parks, and a theatre suitable for musicals or a convention centre.There are many boats offering whale watching tours from the harbour of Puerto Colon. The deep waters off the coast of Costa Adeje are home to several pods ofpilot whales. In the more lush and green north of the island, the main focus of development for tourism has been in the town ofPuerto de la Cruz. Puerto de la Cruz is home to theSeaWorld-owned zoo,Loro Parque,which has been accused of mistreatment of animals in its captivity, includingorcasand is currently boycotted by major travel agents includingThomas Cook. In the 19th century large numbers of foreign tourists came, especially British, showing interest in the agriculture of the islands. With the world wars, the tourism sector weakened, but the second half of the 20th century brought renewed interest. Initial emphasis was on Puerto de la Cruz, and for all the attractions that the Valle de la Orotava offered. By 1980, tourism was focused in south Tenerife. The emphasis was on cities like Arona or Adeje, shifting to tourist centres like Los Cristianos or Playa de Las Americas, which now house 65% of the hotels on the island. Tenerife receives more than 5 million tourists every year; of the Сanary islands Tenerife is the most popular. Currently, the municipality ofAdejein the south of the island has the highest concentration of 5 star hotels in Europeand also has what is considered the best luxury hotel in Spain according toWorld Travel Awards. Agriculture and fishing Since tourism dominates the Tenerifan economy, the service sector is the largest. Industry and commerce contribute 40% of the non-tourist economy.Agriculture contributes less than 10% of the island's GDP, but its contribution is vital as it also generates indirect benefits by maintaining the rural appearance of the island and supporting Tenerifan cultural values. Agriculture is centred on the northern slopes, and is affected by altitude as well as orientation: in the coastal zone, tomatoes and bananas are cultivated, these high yield products are for export to mainland Spain and the rest of Europe; in the drier intermediate zone, potatoes, tobacco and maize are grown, whilst in the south, onions are important. Bananas are a particularly important crop, as Tenerife grows more bananas than the other Canary Islands, with a current annual production of about 150,000 tons, down from the peak production of 200,000 tons in 1986. More than 90% of the total is destined for the international market, and banana growing occupies about 4200 hectares.After the banana the most important crops are, in order of importance, tomatoes, grapes, potatoes and flowers. Fishing is also a major contributor to the Tenerifan economy, as the Canaries are Spain's second most important fishing grounds. Energy As of 2009, Tenerife had 910 MW of electrical generation capacity, which is mostly powered from petroleum-derived fuels. The island had 37 MW of wind turbines and 79 MW of solar panels. Industry and commerce Commerce in Tenerife plays a significant role in the economy, representing almost 20% of the GDP, with the commercial center Santa Cruz de Tenerife generating most of the earnings. Although there are a diversity of industrial estates that exist on the island, the most important industrial activity is petroleum, representing 10% of the island's GDP, again largely due to the capital Santa Cruz de Tenerife with its refinery. It provides petroleum products not only to the Canaries archipelago but is also an active in the markets of the Iberian Peninsula, Africa and South America. Main sights Monuments Historical sights in the island, especially from the time after the conquest, include theCathedral of San Cristóbal de La Laguna, theChurch of the Conception of La Lagunaand theChurch of the Conceptionin the capital. TheBasílica de Nuestra Senora de la Candelariacan be found on the island (Patron of Canary Islands). Also on the island are the defensive castles located in the village ofSan Andrés, as well as many others throughout the island. TheAuditorio de Tenerife, one of the most modern in Spain, can be found at the entry port to the capital (in the southern part of Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife). Near the Auditorio de Tenerife are El Castillo Negro and El Parque Marítimo. TheTorres de Santa Cruzare two twin skyscrapers 120 metres (390 feet) high (the highest residential buildings in Spain and the tallest skyscrapers in the Canary Islands). Archeological sites The island also has severalarchaeological sitesof Guanche time (prior to the conquest), which generally are cave paintings that are scattered throughout the island, but most are found in the south of the island. Archaeological sites on the island include theCave of the Guanches, where the oldest remains in the archipelago have been found,dating to the 6th century BC,and theCaves of Don Gaspar, where the finding of plant debris in the form of carbonized seeds indicates that the Guanches practiced agriculture on the island.Both deposits are in the town ofIcod de los Vinos. Also noteworthy on the island is theEstación solar de Masca(Masca Solar Station), which was an aboriginal sanctuary for the celebration of rites related to fertility and the request for rainwater. This is located in the municipality ofBuenavista del Norte. Other archaeological sites include that of Los Cambados and that of El Barranco del Rey both inArona.One could also highlight theCueva de Achbinico(first shrine Marian of the Canary Islands, Guanche vintage-Spanish). In addition there are some buildings calledGüímar Pyramids, whose origin is uncertain. There are also traces that reveal thePunicpresence on the island, as in the wake commonly called \\\"Stone of the Guanches\\\" in the town ofTaganana. This archaeological site consists of a structure formed by a stone block, large, outdoor, featuring rock carvings on its surface. Among these is the presence of a representation of theCarthaginiangoddessTanit,represented by a bottle-shaped symbol surrounded by cruciform motifs. It is thought that the monument was originally an altar of sacrifice linked to those found in theSemiticfield and then reused forAboriginal ritual of mummification. Culture and arts Literature In the 16th and 17th centuries, Antonio de Viana, a native of La Laguna, composed the epic poemAntigüedades de las Islas Afortunadas(Antiquities of the Fortunate Isles), a work of value to anthropologists, since it sheds light on Canarian life of the time.The Enlightenment reached Tenerife, and literary and artistic figures of this era includeJosé Viera y Clavijo,Tomás de Iriarte y Oropesa, Ángel Guimerá y Jorge, Mercedes Pinto andDomingo Pérez Minik, amongst others. Painting During the course of the 16th century, several painters flourished in La Laguna, as well as in other places on the island, includingGarachico, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Orotava andPuerto de la Cruz. Cristóbal Hernández de Quintana and Gaspar de Quevedo, considered the best Canarian painters of the 17th century, were natives of La Orotava, and their art can be found in churches on Tenerife. The work ofLuis de la Cruz y Ríoscan be found in the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia, in Puerto de la Cruz. Born in 1775, he became court painter toFerdinand VII of Spainand was also a miniaturist, and achieved a favorable position in the royal court. He was known there by the nickname of \\\"El Canario.\\\" The landscape painter Valentín Sanz (born 1849) was a native of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and theMuseo Municipal de Bellas Artes de Santa Cruzdisplays many of his works. This museum also contains the works ofJuan Rodríguez Botas(1880–1917), considered the first Canarianimpressionist. Frescoes by theexpressionistMariano de Cossío can be found in the church of Santo Domingo, in La Laguna. The watercolorist Francisco Bonnín Guerín (born 1874) was a native of Santa Cruz, and founded a school to encourage the arts.Óscar Domínguezwas born in La Laguna in 1906 and is famed for his versatility. He belonged to thesurrealistschool, and invented the technique known asdecalcomania. Sculpture The arrival from Seville ofMartín de Andújar Cantos, an architect and sculptor brought new sculpting techniques of the Seville school, which were passed down to his students, includingBlas García Ravelo, a native of Garachico. He had been trained by the master sculptorJuan Martínez Montañés. Other notable sculptors from the 17th and 18th centuries includeSebastián Fernández Méndez,Lázaro González de Ocampo,José Rodríguez de la Oliva, and most importantly,Fernando Estévez, a native of La Orotava and a student of Luján Pérez. Estévez contributed an extensive collection of religious images and woodcarvings, found in numerous churches of Tenerife, such as the Principal Parish ofSaint James the Great(Parroquia Matriz del Apóstol Santiago), inLos Realejos; in the Cathedral of La Laguna; theIglesia de la Concepciónin La Laguna; the basilica ofCandelaria, and various churches in La Orotava. Music An important musician from Tenerife is Teobaldo Power y Lugo Viña, a native of Santa Cruz and a pianist and composer, and author of theCantos Canarios.The Hymn of the Canary Islands takes its melody from theArrorró, or Lullaby, from Power y Lugo Viña'sCantos Canarios. Folkloric music has also flourished on the island, and, as in the rest of the islands, is characterized by the use of theCanarian Timple, the guitar,bandurria,laúd, and various percussion instruments. Local folkloric groups such as Los Sabandeños work to save Tenerife's musical forms in the face of increasing cultural pressure from the mainland. Tenerife is the home to the types of songs called theisa,folía,tajaraste, andmalagueña, which are a cross of ancient Guanche songs and those ofAndalusiaand Latin America. Architecture Tenerife is characterized by an architecture whose best representatives are the local manor houses and also the most humble and common dwellings. This style, while influenced by those of Andalusia and Portugal, nevertheless had a very particular and native character. Of the manor houses, the best examples can be found in La Orotava and in La Laguna, characterized by their balconies and by the existence of interior patios and the widespread use of the wood known aspino tea(\\\"pitch pine\\\"). These houses are characterized by simple façades and wooden lattices with little ornamentation.There are sash windows and it is customary for the chairs inside the house to rest back-to-back to the windows. The interior patios function like real gardens that serve to give extra light to the rooms, which are connected via the patio by galleries frequently crowned by wood and stone. Gadgets like stills, water pumps, benches and counters, are elements that frequently form part of these patios. Traditional houses generally have two storeys, with rough walls of variegated colours. Sometimes the continuity of these walls is interrupted by the presence of stone blocks that are used for ornamental purposes. The government buildings and religious structures were built according to the changing styles of each century. The urban nuclei of La Orotava and La Laguna have been declared national historical-artistic monuments. In recent years, various governments have spearheaded the concept of developing architectural projects, sometimes ostentatious ones, designed by renowned architects–for example, the remodeling of thePlaza de Españain Santa Cruz de Tenerife by the Swiss architectsHerzog & de Meuron. Other examples include the Playa de Las Teresitas project by the Frenchman Dominique Perrault; the center known as Magma Arte & Congresos; the Torres de Santa Cruz; and theAuditorio de Tenerife(\\\"Auditorium of Tenerife\\\"). The latter, by the SpaniardSantiago Calatrava, lies to the east of the Parque Marítimo (\\\"Maritime Park\\\"), in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and is characterized by its sail-like structure, which evokes a boat, and has become a symbol for the city and island,which makes Santa Cruz de Tenerife one of the Spanish cities with the most futuristic buildings. Crafts Distinctive representatives of craftsmanship on the island areTenerife lace(calado canario), which is drawn workembroidery, and the intricatedoiliesknown asrosetas, orrosetteembroidery, particularly fromVilaflor. The lace, often made for table linen, is produced by the intricate and slow embroidering of a stretched piece of cloth, which is rigidly attached to a wooden frame and is finished with illustrations or patterns using threads that are crossed over and wound around thefijadores, or pins stuck in a small support made of cloth.These decorated, small pieces are afterwards joined, to produce distinct designs and pieces of cloth. Another Tenerife-based industry is cabinetwork. The north of the island produced various master craftsman who created distinctive balconies, celosias, doors, and windows, as well as furniture consisting of pieces made in fine wood. Basketmaking using palm-leaves was also an important industry. Other materials are chestnut tree branches stripped of their leaves andbanana treefibre (known locally asla badana). Pottery has a long history harking back to the production of ceramics by the Guanches. The Guanches were unfamiliar with thepotter's wheel, and used hand-worked clay, which gave their pottery a distinctive look. Pottery was used to produce domestic objects such as pots and grills, or ornamental pieces such as bead collars or the objects known aspintaderas, which were pieces of pottery used to decorate other vessels. Traditional celebrations Carnival of Santa Cruz Perhaps the most important festival of Tenerife, popular both on a national and international level, is theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, which has been declared a Festival of International Tourist Interest (Fiesta de Interés Turístico Internacional).The carnival is celebrated in many locations in the north and south of the island, but is largest in scope in the city of Santa Cruz.Contests are celebrated, and the carnival includes bands of street musicians (murgas), groups of minstrels (rondallas de Tenerife), masquerades (comparsas), and various associations (agrupaciones). Once the Queen of the festival is elected, the first part of the carnival ends, and thereafter begins the actual street carnival, in which large numbers of people gather in the centre of Santa Cruz, with the carnival lasting ten days. Pilgrimages (Romerías) The most traditional and widespread religious festivals on the islands are the pilgrimages orromerías.These events, which incorporate Christian and non-Christian elements, are celebrated by various means: with wagons andfloats, plowing teams and livestock, in honor of thepatron saintof a particular place. The processions are accompanied by local dances, local dishes, folkloric activities, local arts and crafts, local sports, and the wearing of traditional dress of Tenerife (trajes de mago). The origins of these events can be attributed to the parties and celebrations held by the richest classes of the island, who would gather to venerate their patron saints, to which they attributed good harvests, fertile lands, plentiful rainfall, the curing of sicknesses and ending of epidemics, etc. They would thus give homage to these saints by consuming and sharing the fruits of their harvest, which included the locally cultivated wines. These have developed into processions to mark festivals dedicated toSaint MarkinTegueste, where the wagons are decorated with the fruits of the earth (seeds, cereals, flowers, etc.); toSaint Isidore the Laborerin Los Realejos; to Saint Isidore the Laborer andMaria Torribia(Saint Mary of the Head) in La Orotava; theRomería Regional de San Benito Abadin La Laguna;Virgin of Candelariain Candelaria;Saint Rochin Garachico;Saint AugustineinArafo; and theRomería del Socorroin Güímar. Holiday of the Virgin of Candelaria TheVirgin of Candelariais the patron of the Canary Islands; a feast is held in her honor two times a year, in February and August. TheRomeria-Offering to the Virgin of Candelaria is celebrated every 15 August in this event is a tradition that representations of all municipalities of the island and also of all the Canary archipelago come to make offerings to their patron. Another significant act of the feast of the Virgin of Candelaria is called \\\"Walk to Candelaria\\\" held on the night of 14 to 15 August in which thefaithful make pilgrimage on foot from various parts of the island, even coming from other islands to arrive atVilla Mariana de Candelaria. On 2 February we celebrate the feast of the Candelaria. Also on this day come to town many devotees of the Virgin. During the February festivities, the so-called \\\"Procesión de Las Candelas\\\" (Candlelight Procession) stands out, in which the faithful accompany the Virgin in the dark of the night lit only by candles and praying the rosary. Holiday of the Cristo de La Laguna It is celebrated every 14 September in honor of a much venerated image of Christ in the Archipelago, theCristo de La Laguna, is held in the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Every 9 September, the venerated image of Christ is lowered in public from the main altar of its Royal Sanctuary, after which, the faithful kiss the feet of the image. The image is solemnly transferred in procession to the Cathedral of La Laguna on the afternoon of that day, where it remains for several days, until 14 September, which is the main day, when it is transferred back to its Sanctuary. Corpus Christi The religious festival ofCorpus Christiis particularly important, and is traditionally celebrated with floral carpets laid in the streets. Particularly noteworthy are the celebrations in La Orotava where a very large carpet, or tapestry, of different coloured volcanic soils, covers the Plaza del Ayuntamiento (town square). These soils are taken from theParque Nacional del Teide, and after the celebration, are returned, to preserve the National Park. The celebration of Corpus Christi in Orotava has been declared of Important Cultural Interest among the official Traditional Activities of the Island. Easter Among the numerous other celebrations that define Tenerifan culture, Easter remains the most important. This is celebrated across the island, but is particularly notable in the municipalities of La Laguna, La Orotava and Los Realejos, where elaborate processions take place on Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter Sunday, or \\\"Resurrection Sunday\\\". Holy Week in the city of San Cristobal de la Laguna is the largest of the Canary Islands. Religion As with the rest of Spain, Tenerife is largelyCatholic.However, the practice of other religions and denominations has increasingly expanded on the island due to tourism and immigration, asIslam,Hinduism,Buddhism,Evangelicalism,JudaismandAfro-American religion.Minority religions are stationed in the island:Chinese Religions,Baháʼíand the neopaganism native form, theChurch of the Guanche People,among others. Christianity and Judaism arrived in the island with the Spanish conquest. An important Catholic festival is the celebration of thefeast dayassociated with theVirgin of Candelaria,patron saintof the Canary Islands, who represents the union of the Guanche and Spanish cultures.The Guanches became devoted to aBlack Madonnathat Christian missionaries fromLanzaroteandFuerteventuraleft on a beach near the present-day Villa Mariana de Candelaria, which gave rise to the legends and stories associated with the Virgin. These legends fueled the cult of the Virgin and thepilgrimages to Candelariathat have existed to this day on the island. Another cult to the Virgin Mary exists in the form ofOur Lady of Los Remedios(la Virgen de Los Remedios), who is patron of the island and Catholic diocese of Tenerife (Diócesis Nivariense). In Tenerife were born twoCatholicsaintswho were of the greatest missionaries in the Americas:Peter of Saint Joseph BetancurandJosé de Anchieta. The first was a missionary inGuatemalaand founder ofOrder of Our Lady of Bethlehem(the first religious order of the Americas), the second was a missionary in Brazil, and was one of the founders ofSão Pauloand ofRio de Janeiro. It also highlights the figure of the mysticMary of Jesus de León y Delgado. This nun died with a reputation for holiness and is highly revered throughout the Canary Islands. Her body is intact in the Convent of Santa Catalina de Siena inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Principal Catholic places of worship on the island include: Other important churches include the Church of the Conception in La Orotava (Iglesia de la Concepción); the churches of San Agustín and Santo Domingo in La Orotava; the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia in Puerto de la Cruz; the church of San Marcos in Icod de los Vinos; the church of Santa Ana in Garachico; and theChurch of the Conception (Iglesia de la Concepción) in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first saint of Tenerifeand Canary IslandswasSaint Peter of Saint Joseph Betancur, born in the town ofVilaflor, Tenerife. His main shrine is theCave of Santo Hermano PedroinGranadilla de Abona, near the coast, where he lived in his youth. This cave is considered one of the most important pilgrimage spots of the Canary Islands. Another notable building on the island is theMasonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, generally considered the finest example of Masonic temple architecture in Spain;it was the Masonic center of the country until the military occupation of the island by theFranco regime. The headquarters of theIslamic Federation of the Canary Islandsis in Tenerife; the organization was founded to unite the Muslim communities of the Canary Islands in a common association.For its part, the headquarters of the Evangelical Council of the Canary Islands is also on the island. Education Formal educationin Tenerife began with thereligious orders. In 1530, theDominican Orderestablished a chair of philosophy at the convent ofLa Concepción de La Laguna. Still, until well into the 18th century Tenerife was largely without institutions of education. Such institutions finally began to develop thanks to the work of the Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País (\\\"Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Country\\\"), which established several schools in San Cristóbal de La Laguna. The first of these was an institute of secondary education established in 1846 to fill the gap left by the closure of the Universidad de San Fernando (seeUniversity of La Laguna). An 1850 annex to this building was the Escuela Normal Elemental, the archipelago's first teachers' college or normal school, which became the Escuela Normal Superior de Magisterio from 1866 onward. These were the only institutions of higher education until the dictatorMiguel Primo de Riveracreated several institutions. A turning point came around the time of the rise of theSecond Spanish Republic. From 1929 to 1933 the number of schools nearly doubled. Shortly after this, though, the start of theSpanish Civil Warand the following dictatorship ofFrancisco Francoconstituted a considerable reversal. Education in the hands of religious orders had a certain importance on the island until the 1970 Ley General de Educación (\\\"General Law of Education\\\") shifted the balance from religiously based education to public education. Public schools continued their advance during and after the post-FrancoSpanish transition to democracy. Tenerife today has 301 centers of childhood education (preschools), 297 primary schools, 140 secondary schools and 86post-secondaryschools.There are also five universities orpost-graduateschools, theUniversity of La Laguna, theUniversidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia(National University of Distance Learning), theUniversidad Internacional Menéndez Pelayo(Menéndez Pelayo International University), theUniversidad Alfonso X el Sabio(University of Alfonso X the Wise) and theUniversidad de Vic(Escuela Universitaria de Turismo de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, \\\"University School of Tourism of Santa Cruz de Tenerife\\\"). The largest of these is the University of La Laguna. TheUniversidad Europea de Canarias(European University of the Canary Islands) is located in La Orotava and is the first private university in the Canary Islands. Science and research While Tenerife is not prominent in the history of scientific and academic research, it is the home of theInstituto de Astrofísica de Canarias(Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-OrgánicaAntonio González(Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at the University of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). This last is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \\\"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\\\"), located in various parts of Spain. Puerto de la Cruz has the Instituto de Estudos Hispánicos de Canarias (Institute of Hispanic Studies of the Canaries), attached to Madrid's Instituto de Cultura Hispánica. In La Laguna is the Canarian delegation of theConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas(CSIC, Superior Council of Scientific Investigations), the Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (Canarian Institute of Agrarian Investigation), the Instituto de Estudios Canarios (Canarian Institute of Studies) and theCentro Internacional para la Conservación del Patrimonio(the International Center of the Conservation of Patrimony). Other research facilities in Tenerife are the Instituto Tecnológico de Canarias, the Instituto Vulcanológico de Canarias, the Asociación Industrial de Canarias, the Instituto Tecnológico de Energías Renovables (Technological Institute of Renewable Energy) and the Instituto Oceanográfico de Canarias in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Museums The island boasts a variety of museums of different natures, under dominion of a variety of institutions. Perhaps the most developed are those belonging to theOrganismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros,which include the following: Independent of the Organismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros are: Media Along with many Spanish-language radio and TV stations, Tenerife has two official English-language radio stations.Coast FMbroadcasts a mix of adult contemporary music and is the only local news service to broadcast in English. As the larger of the two stations, Coast FM can be heard across Tenerife and much of the Canary Islands from its transmitters on 106.6, 92.2 and 89.4. Energy FM is a non-stop music station that also broadcasts local news and information on the hour. Transport and communications The island of Tenerife is served byTenerife North Airport(GCXO) andTenerife South Airport(GCTS). Tenerife North Airport, the smaller of the two, is located near the metropolitan area Santa Cruz-La Laguna (423,000 inhabitants). It serves inter-insular flights as well as national and European flights. Tenerife South Airport (south) is the busiest Airport in Tenerife, ranking 7th in Spain. It typically serves the mass of regular and vacation charter flights constantly arriving from most of Europe. The other way to arrive on Tenerife is by ferry, either to Santa Cruz de Tenerife or Los Cristianos, near Playa de Las Américas. A network consisting of two fast, toll-free motorways (TF1 and TF5) encircles nearly the entire island, linking all the main towns and resorts with the metropolitan area. The exception is in the West, from Adeje to Icod de los Vinos, which is traversed by a smaller winding mountain road. However, plans are in progress to complete the motorway, which caused a heavy debate between the environmentalists and the local businessmen. Away from the major motorways, there is a network of secondary and communal roads, varying from wide to steep, winding narrow roads, mainly unlit and often with drops on either side of the main carriageway surface. Public transport on the island is provided by an extensive network of buses and run byTITSA, who operate a fleet of modern, air-conditioned buses.TITSA buses cover most of the island and they are fairly frequent. For more than one journey, customers can purchase a TenMascontactless smart cardfor €2, which can be topped up with up to €100 travel credit. Using the TenMas card provides a discount over cash fares, and, for Tenerife residents, a card allowing unlimited travel for a monthly fee is also available.The card can be purchased and topped up at bus stations and many newsagents. It is also valid on the tram in the capital, Santa Cruz (See Below). A hire car is sometimes a good option for discovering the remote wilderness regions, although TITSA operate reliable bus services in the remotest spots, such as the Teno Massif via Masca (355), and up the Anaga mountains (247). TITSA operate two daily services up Mount Teide – from Puerto de la Cruz (348) and from Los Christianos/Las Americas (342) up to the Teide Parador, Teleferico cable car, Montana Blanca and El Portillo. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz,Sixtand TopCar. The metropolitan Area formed by Santa Cruz and La Laguna is served by theTranvía de Tenerife(Tenerife Tram) which opened in early 2007, after 3 years of intensive works. The fairly lengthy line from Santa Cruz up the hill to La Laguna serves almost 20 stops. A second line within La Laguna was added in 2009. Roads The main means of transportation in Tenerife is by highways. The most important of these are theAutopista del Surand theAutopista del Norte(the North and South Motorways), which run from the metropolitan zone to the south and north, respectively. These two motorways are connected by means of theAutovía de Interconexión Norte-Surin the outskirts of the metropolitan zone. Within the network of roads on the island of Tenerife there are other minor roads that used to include the highway from San Andres and Santa Cruz (Holy Cross in English). Also planned is the construction of a bypass road north of the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Laguna. This aims to provide dual cores toGuamasaandAcorán, by way ofLos Baldíos,Centenero,Llano del Moro,El Sobradillo,El Tablero, andEl Chorrillo, among other neighbourhoods. The route will be approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) long and will cost an estimated 190 million euros (270 million in American dollars). Airports Tenerife is most easily reached by air. There are two airports:Tenerife South Airport, in the south, andTenerife North Airport, near Santa Cruz. Overall, Tenerife has the highest annual passenger count and the greatest number of arrivals in Canary Islands, made more popular by the frequency of cheap flights from many European destinations. Tenerife North Airport and Tenerife South Airport together account for the highest passenger numbers in the Islands with some 14 million passengers annually (AENA report). Of the two airports on the island, Tenerife South is the most popular tourist destination. Ports Besides air transport, Tenerife has two principal maritime ports: thePort of Santa Cruz de Tenerife(Puerto de Santa Cruz), which serves the various capitals of the Canary Islands, especially those in the west; and thePort of Los Cristianos(Puerto de Los Cristianos), which serves the various island capitals of the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first port also has passenger services, which connect with the mainland port ofCádiz(and vice versa). In 2017, a large important port was opened in the south of the island, thePort of Granadilla, and another one is planned in the west, inFonsalía.The Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is the first fishing port in the Canary Islands with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Statistical Yearbook of the State Ports 2006 (the latest of which is changing). Following this report is the largest port number of passengers recorded. Similarly, the second port of Spain moving ship and loaded into cars, only surpassed by thePort of AlgecirasBay.In the port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. Buses (guaguas) Tenerife has an extensive system of buses, which are calledguaguasin the Canary Islands. The bus system is used both within the cities and also connects most of the towns and cities of the island. There are bus stations in all of the major towns, such as theIntercambiador de Transportes de Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Taxis There is a well-regulated taxi service on the island. Tramway Since 2007, theTenerife TramconnectsSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLa Lagunathrough the suburb of Taco. There are 20 stops and it covers a distance of 12.5 km (7.8 mi) in 37 minutes. It calls at some points of interest including Tenerife's two major hospitals, the university complex of Guajara, and a number of museums and theatres. Concerning its power supply, it will support development of further wind farms to provide it with 100 percent clean energy. Railway plans By 2005, plans for a light-rail network linking the capital with the South had been approved by both theTenerife Counciland the Canary Islands Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government stalled on budget issues.The original intent was to establish two railway systems that would serve the northern and southern sides of the island connecting these with the capital.By March 2011, these intentions had been replaced by advanced plans for a single 80 km (50 mi)high-speed railline, the \\\"South Train\\\" which would connectSanta Cruz de TenerifewithAdejevia Santa Maria de Añaza,Candelaria, San Isidro,Tenerife South Airport, and a main stopover station atAdejewhich would be designed to service up to 25,000 passengers per day. Trains would run every 15 minutes during rush hours, and would achieve speeds up to 220 km/h (137 mph). The project, which involves 9 tunnels, 12 false tunnels (together 22.1 km) and 33 viaducts (8.3 km) has been budgeted at EUR 1.7 bn. It has met staunch opposition from local environmentalists.An alternate plan for a high-speedTransrapid maglevhas also been put forward. Tourist train Atourist train(Tren Turístico) serves Costa Adeje to Los Cristianos with several stops including in Playa de las Americas. Cableway Sports On the island of Tenerife, a large number of sports are practised, both outdoors and indoors in the various facilities available throughout the island. The sports are numerous – Diving, Rock Climbing, Walking, Cycling, Sailing, Golf, Surfing, Go-Karting, Paragliding– the all year round weather makes it ideal for a wide variety of outdoor sports. There are also many indoor sporting facilities including fully equipped including 'Tenerife Top Training' centre in Adeje on the South of the Island. Its most well-known sports team isfootballclubCD Tenerifebased in Santa Cruz. The club has spent time in the Spanish top flight, but have in recent decades primarily played in the second division of Spanish football. Also worth mentioning is theultramarathonCajaMar Tenerife Bluetrail, the highest race in Spain and second in Europe,with the participation of several countries and great international repercussions. Healthcare The main hospitals on the island are theHospital Universitario de Canariasand theHospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria. Both are third-level hospitals, with specialist facilities that serve all of the Canary Islands.They are both affiliated with the education and research network of theUniversidad de La Laguna. However, they belong to different bodies, since the first one is under the directives of theServicio Canario de la Salud(Canarian Health Service).The Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria it is the largest hospital complex in the Canary Islands. In addition, two large new hospitals have recently been built in the north and south areas of the island, located in the municipalities ofIcod de los VinosandAronarespectively. TheHospital del Norte de Tenerife(Tenerife North Hospital) opened in 2012 and theHospital del Sur de Tenerife(Tenerife South Hospital) opened in 2015.These centers will function, according to their classification, as second level hospitals, with services of hospitalization, advanced diagnosis, ambulances and emergencies, and rehabilitation, etc. There are also a total of 39 centers of primary care and specialized clinics which complete the sanitary infrastructure of Tenerife. Gastronomy Fish Due to the geographic situation of Tenerife, the island enjoys an abundance of fish of various kinds. The species that are consumed the most are theCombtooth blennies(viejas), as well assea bream(sama),red porgy(bocinegro),gold lined bream(salema),grouper(mero), and various and abundant types ofThunnus. TheAtlantic mackerel(caballa),sardine(sardine), andJack mackerels(chicharros) are also consumed frequently.Moray eels(morenas) are also eaten, usually fried. Most seafood is cooked simply, usually boiled, or prepared \\\"a la espalda\\\" (cut into two equally shaped pieces along the spine) or \\\"a la sal\\\" (baked in salt). These dishes are usually accompanied bymojo(a local sauce) and wrinkly potatoes. Meat The typical festive meat dish of marinated porktacosis a very popular dish prepared for town festivities inventorrillos, bars and private homes.Rabbit insalmorejo, goat, beef, pork and poultry are regularly consumed. Canarian wrinkly potatoes The fish dishes along with the meats are often accompanied bywrinkly potatoes(papas arrugadas). This is a typical Canarian dish which simply refers to the way the cooked potatoes look. They are boiled in their skins, in water with much salt, and the water is allowed to evaporate, leaving a salty crust. Mojos Mojo, a word probably of Portuguese origin, describes a typical Canarian sauce, served as an accompaniment to food. The sauces come in a variety of colours, flavours and textures, and are usually served cold, often in separate dishes, for the diner to choose how much to apply. Green mojo usually includes coriander, parsley, and garlic; whilst red mojo is piquant, and made from a mix of hot and sweet peppers. A wide variety of other ingredients are also used, including; almonds, cheese, saffron and fried bread.Mojos are served with most meat, and some fish, dishes, and are often used on potatoes, or bread is dipped into them. Cheeses Tenerife exports about 3,400 tons of cheese per year, representing about 50 percent of the output of the island, and about 25 percent of the entire Canary Islands. After the conquest of the Canary Islands, one of the first commercial activities to be started was cheese production. The sale of cheese provided the inhabitants with an income and cheese was even used as a form of currency for exchange and sale, becoming a crucial product in agricultural areas of the island. Cheese grew to become one of the most commonly produced and consumed products on the island and is regularly served as part of a starter course or as a snack. Farms at Arico, La Orotava and Teno produced a variety of cheeses, including soft cheeses, cured, smoked and were mostly handmade. Today the main product isgoat cheese, although certain amounts are made from sheep's or cow's milk, and according to theRegistro General Sanitario de Alimentos, the general health registry, around 75 differentcottage cheesesare produced.The cheeses of the Canaries have generally received good international reviews, noted for their sweetness which differentiates them from certain other European cheeses.In particular, Tenerifan cured goats cheese was awarded best cheese in the world final of the 2008World Cheese Awardsheld inDublin, Ireland. Cheeses from Tenerife now have a quality mark promoted by theFundación Tenerife Rural, to standardize their quality in an attempt to publicize the qualities of the cheese and improve its marketing. Gofio Gofiois one of the more traditional elements of cooking on the island, It is made withcereal grainsthat are roasted and then ground. Increasingly used to make a gofio on the island is wheat although there are other types, and they are often made withchickpeas. Relatively common is a mixed-type with wheat. It was served as main food to theguancheseven before the Spanish conquest. In later times of scarcity or famine it was a staple of the popular Canarian diet. Today it is eaten as a main dish (gofio escaldado) or an accompaniment to different dishes, meats, fishes, soups, desserts. Some famous cooks have even made gofio ice cream, receiving good comments from the critics. Confectionery Confectionery in Tenerife is represented and strongly influenced by La Palma, with confections likebienmesabe,leche asada,Príncipe Alberto,frangollo,huevos moles, andquesillo. Wines Viticulturein the archipelago, and especially in Tenerife dates back to the conquest, when the settlers brought a variety of vines to plant. In the 16th and 17th centuries, wine production played an important role in the economy, and many families were dedicated to the culture and business. Of special mention ismalvasía canary, considered the best wine of Tenerife and at the time one of the most desired wines in the world, being shipped across to the major warehouses of Europe and America.Writers such asWilliam ShakespeareandWalter Scottmake reference to the wine in some of their works.Tenerife has 5 main wine growing regions. These includeAbona,Valle de Güímar,Valle de La Orotava,Tacoronte-AcentejoandYcoden-Daute-Isora. This typical gastronomy is served in popular establishments known asguachinches, opening day is the day ofSan Andrés, 30 November, also known as the young wine festivalFestival de Vino Joven. The wine of the new harvest is traditionally served with roasted chestnuts, maturing at the same time, and grilled sardines, thus the season normally lasts from late autumn until early spring. Tenerife in popular culture Cities The city ofBrisbanein Queensland, Australia, has a historical inner suburb namedTeneriffe, named by one of the first European landowners in the area, James Gibbon, because it reminded him ofMount Teide. Other cities in the world whose name has its origins in the island are:Tenerife, Magdalena, a town and municipality in Colombia;San Carlos de Tenerife, a city in the Dominican Republic. Cinema Over the last few years,Tenerife has become a popular filming location, being featured in several Hollywood blockbusters.Some of the most important films made on the island are: Music Likewise, the island has been home to several musical recordings and as a scenic setting for music videos: Video games In literature Literary works featuring Tenerife includeThe CompanionandThe Man from the Sea, both byAgatha Christie;La cueva de las mil momiasbyAlberto Vazquez-Figueroa;Thieves' PicnicbyLeslie Charteris;El Sarcófago de las tres llavesby Pompeyo Reina Moreno;andAtentadoby Mariano Gambín. International relations Tenerife istwinnedwith: See also References External links\",\n \"Fuerteventura Fuerteventura(Spanish:ⓘ) is one of theCanary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, geographically part ofMacaronesia, and politically part ofSpain. It is located 97 km (60 mi) away from the coast ofNorth Africa. The island was declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCOin 2009. Fuerteventura belongs toProvince of Las Palmas,one of the two provinces that form the autonomous community of the Canary Islands. The island's capital isPuerto del Rosario, where the Insule Council is found, the government of the island. Fuerteventura had 124,152 inhabitants (as of 2023), the fourth largest population of the Canary Islands and the third of the province. At 1,659.74 km2(640.83 sq mi),it is the second largest of the Canary Islands, afterTenerife.From a geological point of view, Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the archipelago. Toponymy The island's name is a compound formed by the Spanish wordsfuerte(either \\\"strong\\\" or \\\"fort\\\") andventura(\\\"fortune\\\"). Traditionally, Fuerteventura's name has been regarded as a reference to the strong winds (fuertes vientosin Spanish) around the island coastline, and the resulting danger to nautical adventurers. However, it might have referred instead (or also) to wealth, luck or destiny. In 1339 the Mallorcan navigatorAngelino Dulcert, in thePlanisferio de Angelino Dulcert, referred to the island as \\\"Forte Ventura\\\". Another theory is that the island's name derives from \\\"Fortunatae Insulae\\\" (Fortunate Islands), the name by which the Romans knew the Canary Islands. Theindigenousname of the island, before its conquest in the 15th century, was Erbania, divided into two regions (Jandía and Maxorata), from which the name majorero (originally majo or maxo) derives. However, it has been suggested that, at some point, Maxorata (which meant \\\"the children of the country\\\") was the aboriginaltoponymof the entire island. History Precolonial history The first settlers of Fuerteventura are believed to have come from North Africa. The wordMahorero(Majorero) orMahois still used today to describe the people of Fuerteventura and is derived from the ancient word 'mahos', a type of goatskin shoe worn by these original inhabitants. They lived in caves and semi-subterranean dwellings, some of which have been excavated, revealing remnants of early tools and pottery. In antiquity, the island was originally known asPlanaria, in reference to the flatness of most of its terrain. Phoeniciansettlers landed in Fuerteventura andLanzarote. Several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions to the islands were organized around 1340, followed by Moors and European slave traders. At the end of the Iberian conquest, the island was divided into twoGuancheskingdoms, one adhering to King Guize and the other to King Ayoze. The territories of these kingdoms were calledMaxorata(in the North) andJandía(in the South) respectively. They were separated by a wall, which traversed the La Pared isthmus. Some remains have been preserved. The ancient name for the island, Erbania, is derived from this wall's name. The conquest The island's conquest began in earnest in 1402, commanded by French knights and crusadersJean de BéthencourtandGadifer de la Salle.They arrived with only 63 sailors out of the original 283, as many had deserted along the way. After arriving and settling inLanzarote, the invaders made some first excursions to the neighboring islands. In 1404, Bethencourt and Gadifer foundedBetancuria, on the West coast, the first settlement on the island. After numerous difficulties, Gadifer took charge of the invasion, while Bethencourt returned to Spain to seek the recognition and support of theCastilian king. In 1405, de Béthencourt completed his conquest of the island, establishing its capital in Betancuria (Puerto Rosario took over the mantle as island capital in 1835). In 1424 PopeMartin V, through theBetancuriaBrief, edicted the establishment of theBishopric of Fuerteventura, which encompassed all theCanary Islandssave for the island ofLanzarote.The origin of this bishopric is directly related to the events that occurred after theGreat Schism(1378–1417), in that the bishop ofSan Marcial del RubicónofLanzarote(at the time, the only diocese in the Canary Islands) did not recognize the papacy of Martin V, and instead adhered toanti-PopeBenedict XIII. TheBishopric of Fuerteventurawas based in theParish of Santa María de Betancuria, bestowing upon the latter the status of Grant Cathedral. After the reabsorbtion of theDiocese of San Marcial del Rubicónby the papacy of Pope Martin V, the Bishopric of Fuerteventura was abolished in 1431, only seven years after it was created. The first censusrecorded a population of some 1,200 inhabitants. The population increased gradually thereafter. In 1476 the territory became theSeñorío Territorial de Fuerteventura, subjected to theCatholic Monarchs.In later years, the island was invaded by the Spanish, French and the English. 2nd conquest of Fuerteventura Over time, the island endured numerous raids. ABerber-led expedition invaded in 1593, sweeping as far inland as the capital. Various castles were built along the coastline, to protect against these type of attacks. The population was moved inland as a second protective measure. Because of the raids, a firstCaptain Generalwas dispatched to Fuerteventura, accompanied by a number ofSergeants Major, to defend the island in the name of the Crown. At that time, Betancuria became the religious capital of the island. Two majorattackstook place in 1740, within a month of each other. Two separate bands of English privateers attempted to loot the town of Tuineje. These attacks were however successfully averted by the local population and the island's militia. This successful repelling of the invaders is celebrated at a re-enactment that takes place in Gran Tarajal every year in October. The island's garrison was officially instated in 1708. Its colonel assumed the title ofGovernor at Arms, a hereditary, lifelong appointment which has remained in the Sánchez-Dumpiérrez family. In time, this family increasingly garnered power over the other islands through alliances with the family of Arias de Saavedra and the Lady of Fuerteventura.During the same year theAssistant Parish ofLa OlivaandPájarawas created, to become operational in 1711. On 17 December 1790, theAssistant Parish ofTuinejewas created, which became a new parish division on 23 June 1792 under the bishop Tavira, with lands including part of the Jandía peninsular, and with a population of 1,670 inhabitants. 1780 saw the start of a barrilla plantation industry. To the present In 1852, a free trade zone was extended byIsabella IIto the Canary Islands. Military island rule, which began in 1708, was finally dissolved in 1859, andPuerto de Cabras(nowPuerto del Rosario) - the only municipal seat on the coast - became the new capital. The Canary Islands obtained self-governance in 1912. In 1927, Fuerteventura andLanzarotebecame part of the province ofGran Canaria. The seat of the island's government (cabildo insular) is located inPuerto del Rosario. A total of 118,574 people lived on the island in 2018. By the 1940s the island had an airport (just west ofPuerto del Rosarioon the road to Tindaya, still visible today). Mass tourism began to arrive in the mid-1960s, facilitated by the construction ofFuerteventura AirportatEl Matorraland the first tourist hotels. The island's proximity (a mere 100 km) to the West African coast and the fact that it is part of theSchengenterritory make it a prime target destination for undocumented immigrants. However, many have perished while attempting the crossing. Flag The flag of Fuerteventura is in proportions 1:2, divided vertically, green to thehoistand white to thefly end, with the coat of arms of the island in the centre. Coat of arms The coat of arms of Fuerteventura was prescribed by a Decree adopted on 15 October 1998 by the Government of the Canary Islands and published on 11 November 1998 in the official gazette of the Canary Islands, No. 142, pp. 13,432–13,433. It was adopted on 24 April 1998 by the Island Council and validated on 18 September 1998 by the Heraldry Commission of the Canary Islands. The heraldic description is \\\"per paleandper fess. First,gules, a castle or,masonedsable, its gate and windowsazure. Second,argent, lion gules, crowned, armed andlanguedor. Third, silver, three fesseschequygules and or, in four rows, each one charged with a fess or.Borduregules, with eightsaltiresor.Ensignedwith aroyal crown, open.\\\" According to José Manuel Erbez (Banderas y escudos de Canarias, 2007), the coat of arms is based on the arms of the island's provincial militia. The upper quarters represent Castile (symbolized by a castle) and León (symbolized by a lion). The lower quarter alludes to the Saavedra family; various members of this family were lords of Fuerteventura. Geography Environment The elongated island is 100 km (62 mi) long and 31 km (19 mi) wide. It has an area of 1,660 km2(641 sq mi). Located just 100 km (62 mi) off the coast of North Africa, it is the second biggest of the islands, after Tenerife, and has the longest white sand beaches in the archipelago. The island is a destination for sun, beach and watersports enthusiasts. It lies at the same latitude as Florida and Mexico and temperatures rarely fall below 18 °C (64 °F) or rise above 32 °C (90 °F). It counts 152 separate beaches along its seaboard — 50 km (31 mi) of white sand and 25 km (16 mi) of black volcanic shingle. The highest point in Fuerteventura is Pico de la Zarza (807 m) in the southwestern part of the island. Geographical features includeIstmo de la Paredwhich is 5 km (3 mi) wide and is the narrowest part of Fuerteventura. The island is divided into two parts, the northern portion which isMaxorataand the southwestern part called the Jandía peninsula. Climate Fuerteventura has ahot desert climate(Köppen:BWh).The climate is mild, but mostly windy, throughout the year. The island is hence referred to asthe island of eternal spring. The sea regulates air temperature, diverting hotSaharawinds away from the island. The island's name in English translates as \\\"strong fortune\\\" or \\\"strong wind\\\", the Spanish word for wind beingviento. During the winter months, temperatures average a high of 22 °C (72 °F) and a low of around 15 °C (59 °F), whereas during the summer a mean high of 28 °C (82 °F) and a low of 20 °C (68 °F) can be expected. Precipitation is about 147 mm (6 in) per year, most of which falls in autumn and winter. December is the month with highest rainfall. A sandstorm known as theCalima(similar to theSiroccowind, which blows to the North of the Sahara, to Europe) may blow from the Sahara Desert to the Northwest, and can cause high temperatures, low visibility and drying air. Temperatures during this phenomenon rise temporarily by approximately 10 degrees Celsius. The wind brings in fine red dust, The fine white sand is not blown in from Sahara, It is made up of dead coral reef and local seabed upheaval. Visibility can drop to between 100 and 200 m (328.08 and 656.17ft) or even lower, and together with very warm temperatures, it can even bring Africanlocuststo the island. Hydrology In the winter months, up to 80% of the rainwater flows unused into the ocean, as there is no vegetation to capture the water (also due to overgrazing by free-ranging goats near the coast). The mountain forests, which were still present in the 19th century, were all chopped down. Instead, there are many desalination plants (running on electricity) which produce the required amount of freshwater on the island. The tourists on the island use about double the amount of water as the native inhabitants of Fuerteventura. Causes are the filling of swimming pools, watering hotel gardens and washing towels. Geology Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the Canary Islands dating back 20 million years to a volcanic eruption from theCanary hotspot.The majority of the island was created about 5 million years ago and since then has been eroded by wind and precipitation. On the seabed off the west coast of the island rests an enormous slab of bedrock 22 km (14 mi) long and 11 km (7 mi) wide, which appears to have slid off the island largely intact at some point in prehistory, similar to the predicted future collapse ofCumbre Vieja, a geological fault on another Canary Island,La Palma. The last volcanic activity in Fuerteventura occurred between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. Beaches Fuerteventura was chosen among 500 European destinations by the Quality Coast International Certification Program of the European Coastal and Marine Union as one of the most attractive tourist destinations for visitors interested in cultural heritage, environment and sustainability. The best beaches to visit are Playa de Cofete, Playas de Jandia, Playas de Corralejo, Playa de Ajuy, and Playas de El Cotillo. Wildlife The island is home to one of the two surviving populations of the threatenedCanarian Egyptian vulture. It is also inhabited by many wild dogs and cats. On the barren, rocky land there areBarbary ground squirrelsandgeckos. Fuerteventura also hosts several migratory and nesting birds. The island has significant populations of thecollared dove, commonswiftsand severalfinchspecies especially in the vicinity of holiday developments. Despite its arid climate, the island is also home to a surprisingly large insect fauna. Butterflies which commonly occur on the island include the clouded yellow (Colias hyale) and the bath white (Pontia daplidice) which feeds onxerophyticcruciferae. The island is also home to the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) and its close African relativeDanaus chrysippus. Around holiday developments such asCaleta de Fuste, water is relatively abundant, anddragonflyspecies including the blue emperor (Anax imperator) and the scarlet darter (Crocothemis erythraea) can be found. The island's sand dunes and shoreline are home to a number ofbeeandwaspspecies including the largeeumenidcaterpillar hunting wasp,Delta dimidiatipenneand the blue banded bee (Amegilla canifrons). Hawkmothsalso occur on the island. One of the more notable species isHyles tithymaliwhich feeds on endemic spurges such asEuphorbia regis-jubae.Acherontia atropos, the deaths-head hawkmoth also occurs on the island presumably feeding on members of theSolanaceae, for example,Datura innoxiaandNicotiana glaucawhich are common weeds in the vicinity of human habitation. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Fuerteventura areChlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae(hubara or houbara) andEuphorbia handiensis(Cardón de Jandía). Demographics Population The island had a population of 124,152 at the start of 2023.Throughout its long history, Fuerteventura has suffered from apopulation declinedue to the economic situation and the climate, which have made it into a desert island. However, the development of tourism during the 1980s has caused the population to grow year on year since then, doubling it in a little less than a decade. In 2005, with 86,642 registered inhabitants,the Fuerteventura population was formed by the following: Comparing this data with the 2001 census shows that the number of permanent residents born on the island has increased by just 3,000. The number who have moved in from abroad has increased by 22,910, making this the biggest contributor to population growth in recent years. Education The island has 116 schools,with a total of 14,337 pupils.Of these, 45 are primary schools, ten are secondary schools, six are forBaccalaureatestudents and four are vocational colleges. Fuerteventura also has a centre linked with theNational University of Distance Education, offering courses in many subjects including economics, business studies, law, history and tourism. Administration Fuerteventura is governed by the Island Department of the Government of Spain, which holds the rank of a Government Subdepartment. The government building is located in the centre of the capital city. This institution is charged with representing the Government of Spain on the island, and managing all the functions that are not under control of the Canarian Government. This includes the following public services: Since 30 June 2007, the island's governor has been Eustaquio Juan Santana Gil.4 Island Council of Fuerteventura (Cabildo) The councils, formed as part of the Councils Act of 1912, administer theCanary Islandsand have two principal functions. On one hand, they perform services for the Autonomous Community, and on the other, they are the local government centre for the island. In the 2003 elections, Mario Cabrera González was elected as president representing theCanarian Coalition, with 31.02% of the votes, followed by theSpanish Socialist Workers' Partywith 27.53%, represented by the Vice President Domingo Fuentes Curbelo. Municipalities Fuerteventura is part of theProvince of Las Palmas. The island is divided into sixmunicipalities, as follows: In turn, these municipalities are organised into two associations: theMancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Norte de Fuerteventuraformed from La Oliva and Puerto del Rosario, and the remaining municipalities make up theMancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Sur de Fuerteventura. All municipalities are ruled by a town council, and are members of the FECAM (Federation of Canarian Municipalities). They are governed by the basic legislation of the local regime and their respective organic rules. About 100 individual settlements are distributed through these municipalities. The largest not being municipal seats areCorralejo(in La Oliva; pop. 10,714 in 2023),Morro Jable(in Pájara; pop. 8,245)Gran Tarajal(in Tuineje; pop. 7,584), andCosta Calma(in Pájara; pop. 5,704), all coastal localities of recent development. A nearby islet,Islote de Lobos, is close to Corralejo and part of the municipality ofLa Oliva. Economy Both Fuerteventura andLanzarotewould have been the main exporters of wheat and cereals to the central islands of the archipelago during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries;TenerifeandGran Canaria.However, this trade was of little benefit to the inhabitants of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (because the landowners of the islands profited from this activity), leading to periods of famine, resulting in some of the population of the islands moving to Tenerife and Gran Canaria to try to improve their lives. Therefore, the island of Tenerife became the main focus of attraction formajorerosandlanzaroteños, hence the feeling of union that has always existed amongst these islands. The economy of Fuerteventura is mainly based on tourism. Primary tourist areas are located around the existing towns ofCorralejoin the north andMorro JableinJandia, plus the purely tourist development ofCaleta de Fuste, south ofPuerto del Rosario. Other main industries are fishing and agriculture (cereals and vegetables). The famousMajorero cheeseis locally made from the milk of the indigenousmajoreragoat. In 2009, Fuerteventura recorded the highest EU regional unemployment rate at a NUTS3 level, at 29.2 percent. Tourism The first tourist hotel was built in 1965 followed by the construction ofFuerteventura Airportat El Matorral, heralding the dawn of a new era for the island. Fuerteventura, with its 3,000 sunshine hours a year, was placed firmly on the world stage as a major European holiday destination.While having fully developed tourist facilities, the island has not experienced the overdevelopment found on some other islands.Nonetheless, it remains a destination for predominantly but not exclusively European tourists. The summerTrade Windsand winter swells of the Atlantic make this a year-round surfers' paradise, with more exposed areas on the north and west shores such asCorralejoand El Cotillo proving most popular. Wind surfing takes places at locations around the island. Sailors, scuba divers and big-game fishermen are all drawn to these clear blue Atlantic waters where whales, dolphins, marlin and turtles are all common sights. With many hills present throughout the Island, hikers are also attracted to this Island. Sandy beaches are found in many locations. Western beaches, such as those around El Cotillo, can experience strong surf. The beaches adjoining the extensive sand dunes east ofCorralejoare popular, as are the more protected extensive sandy shores of the Playa de Sotavento de Jandia on the southeastern coast betweenCosta Calmaand the Morro Jable. Naked sun bathing and swimming are the norm almost on all beaches. Much of the interior, with its large plains, lavascapes and volcanic mountains, consists of protected areas, although there are organised tours and vehicular access across them. Art and culture Traditional holidays Like the rest of the Canaries, Carnival is traditionally one of the biggest festivals celebrated on the island. It is celebrated in different ways in all the towns during February and March. These festivities have a different theme each year. They include activities such as parades and galas to choose the carnival king. Concerts and festivals There are many concerts and festivals held in the auditoriums, such as the Festival of Canarian Music. They are also held in smaller venues across the island, featuring bands such as Estopa, Van Gogh's Ear, and King Afrhica. Festival Internacional de Cometas/InternationalKiteFestival is held on the second week of November each year centering on the Corralejo Beaches. It attracts kitefliers and kite surfers from all over Europe. It is popular because the winds are warm and constant and the beaches become filled with hundreds of colourful kites of all shapes and sizes. Auditoriums Fuerteventura has three auditoriums. These are used for all types of performing art. They are also used for non-artistic purposes, such as conferences, charity galas and political meetings. Central library The Central Library of the Island is located in Antigua's city centre, in the public university. In addition to providing the traditional library services, it has a 180-seat multipurpose room, air conditioning, a wifi zone, and a multimedia room used for seminars, presentations, film festivals etc. Museums and exhibition spaces The island has several museums with different themes and plenty of exhibition spaces, both public and private. These include: Sculpture park In addition to the museums, the capitalPuerto del Rosariohas an open-air sculpture park consisting of around 100 sculptures by different artists scattered across the city. Most of them were created for the International Symposium of Sculpture celebrated annually since 2001. During the festival, artists come from all over the world to erect their sculptures in the open air, in full view of passers by. Main sights Sites of interest includeCorralejoand El Jable to the north which are made up of fine sandduneswhilst the south is filled with long beaches and remote bays. The constant winds blowing onto the beaches provide a paradise forwindsurfing.Surfingis common on the west and north coasts where there are large waves. Windsurfing is common around Corralejo and Playas de Sotavento and wave sailing (windsurfing on the waves) on the coast along the northern half of the island. El Cotillo is a small fishing village in the north-west of the Island famous for a very long beach to the south of the village and few very calm beaches to the north. The northern beaches frequented by snorkeling enthusiasts and sun worshippers alike are referred to as lakes by the locals. AtCofeteon the western side of Jandía a remote and imposing house –Villa Winter– looks out to sea across wide beaches. It was reputedly built by a Mr Winter on land given byGeneralisimo Franco. For a time, the beaches were home to a popular accidental attraction. On 18 January 1994 theUnited States Linesocean linerSSAmerican Star(formerAmerica, USSWest Point,Australis) was beached in Playa de Garcey during a severe storm. Within a year, she broke in two and later lost her stern. By 2007 the rest of the severely deteriorated ship had collapsed onto her port side, gradually keeling over further and almost completely submerged. By 2008–2012, most of the remains finally slipped below the surface. Food The cuisine is fairly basic due to the customs and climate conditions. They share this simplicity with the other Canary islands, and similarly to them, they use a large quantity offish. They also use whatever they can grow in the near-barren land. This includespapas arrugadas, a dish of wrinkled potatoes usually served withmojo, which is a hot pepper sauce or withpuchero canario, a meat stew. Seafood is prepared in many ways traditionally, such as pejines (salted fish),jareas,orsancocho(a type of stew) made from fish, generally thegrouper,corvina or sama, boiled after salting, and served with mojo, potatoes, orgofio(a type of grain). People are also very keen on themusselsandlimpetscollected on the island's coasts. They also use meat such asbeefandporkto make different dishes or simply to for braising, but their main meat isgoat, both from the kids and from the older animals. They eat the goat roasted or stewed. Goats are not only useful for their meat – the Fuerteventurans also use themilkto make the cheesemajorero, which has won many prizes. The majorero is mostly made of goats milk, and occasionally it is up to 15%ewesmilk. It is cured inpimentooil or gofio meal. Majorero andpalmero cheeseare the only two Canarian cheeses withprotected denomination of origin. Transport and communications The main methods of arriving and departing the islands are by flying and by ferry. Airports The airport is the main access point to the island. It is situated in El Matorral, 5 km (3.1 mi) southwest of the capital city Puerto del Rosario. The airport has flight connections to over 80 destinations worldwide, and over 5.6 million passengers passed through it in 2016. In 1994, the new airport terminal was constructed. In December 2009, the new facilities of the arrivals terminal of Fuerteventura Airport were inaugurated, tripling the space available in the old facilities. Up to 4000 passengers per hour can be served concurrently thanks to the new facilities. Notably,Binter Canariasserves the airport as the regional airline connecting passengers acrossCanary Islands. Ports Maritime communications are made from four ports: Puerto del Rosario, Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. Cargo operations are the main activity of the island's main port in Puerto del Rosario, although its facilities allow the docking of tourist cruises including a ferry from Gran Canaria. Passenger traffic is mainly channeled through Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. The port of Corralejo connects the island with Lanzarote. The port of Gran Tarajal connects the island with Gran Canaria and Morro Jable connects the island with Gran Canaria and Tenerife. Roads There are two highways on the island: FV-1 and FV-2. The FV-1, together with the FV-2, is part of the major construction project of the north–south motorway on Fuerteventura. The FV-1 begins in the north, in the town of Corralejo and ends in the island's capital Puerto del Rosario. FV-1 is part dual carriageway and part single carriageway. In the past, the FV-1 also ran through the Corralejo Dune Nature Reserve. In order to direct through traffic out of the nature reserve, the dual carriageway bypass around the nature reserve was opened in 2017 as the first section of the motorway after three years of construction, plus five years of construction delay. The road through nature reserve was renamed FV-104. FV-2 connects Morro Jable and Puerto del Rosario. Between La Lajita and Morro Jable, FV-2 is a dual carriageway highway. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar, Hertz, Sixt and TopCar. Sport Many sports are commonly played in Fuerteventura, both in the open air and in sports centres across the island. Native sports These are the Canarian sports found on the island: Canarian wrestling The wrestling takes place in a ring of sand called theterrero. Inside it, the two contestants try to knock each other over. Fuerteventura has 14 terreros distributed through all the towns except Betancuria. The island also has a school wrestling league organized by the council and a programme to promote this sport in clubs. Twelve wrestling schools participate in this, based in Antigua, Costa Calma, El Matorral, La Lajita, Lajares, Las Playitas, Morro Jable, Puerto del Rosario, Tefía, Tetir, Unión Sur and Villaverde. Juego del Palo Juego del Palois a Canarian martial art which literally translates as \\\"game of the stick\\\". It is played by two players both armed with sticks. They aim to defeat each other without making contact with their opponent's body. The origin of this game is unclear. All we know is that it is based on a method of combat used by the precolonial Canarian people. Fuerteventura has the following Palo clubs: Canarian boules This is a similar game to the FrenchPétanquewhich is actually played very little on the island, although there are a few teams and courts. Basically the game consists of scoring points by throwing a ball to get it as near as possible to an object called amingueorboliche. It is played on a rectangular sand or earth pitch which is 18 to 25 m (59.1–82.0 ft) long and 3.5 to 6 m (11.5–19.7 ft) wide. Watersports The sea and climate conditions make the island the perfect place for a huge variety of watersports. Surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing Many types of surfing are popular on the island, includingtraditional surfing,windsurfing(where the board is propelled by a sail) and most recentlykitesurfing. The island has many schools and courses dedicated to teaching these sports. The sports where Fuerteventura has the most impact internationally are windsurfing and kitesurfing, mainly due to the International Windsurfing and Kiteboarding Championship. This has run since 1985 and is held at Playas de Sotavento in Pájara municipality. Many important wind and kitesurfing figures compete in this championship, such as the several-times world windsurfing championBjörn DunkerbeckandGisela Pulido, the very young kiteboarding champion fromTarifa. Many Canarian windsurfers are on the Canarian Waveriders circuit, which has been based inCorralejosince 2005. Diving Diving schools are just as frequent as surfing ones, all around the coast of Fuerteventura. Unlike the other islands of the archipelago, Fuerteventura has a shelf which at some points goes up to 30 km (19 mi), making it an ideal place to practice this sport. Two of the most useful points for diving are the coast offPlaya del Matorralin the South, and the zone betweenLobos Islandand Corralejo in the north. It is here in Corralejo that the International Sea and Submarine Photography Festival takes places, known as Fimarsub Corralejo – Lobos. During the festival there are beginners' lessons, professional dives, lessons in underwater photography, screenings and other events related to the sport. Swimming There are many swimming pools on the island but the most obvious place to swim is in the open sea. There is an annual swim from Lobos Island to Fuerteventura, held every year since 1999. The event attracts amateur swimmers from all over the Canaries and Spain, and also swimming professionals such asDavid MecaandMaarten van der Weijden, the paralympist Jesús Collado Alarcón who won gold medals for 100m backstroke and butterfly in Athens 2004, and Xavi Torres Ramis, the paralympic champion in Barcelona 1992, Sydney and Atlanta. Sailing The island holds competitions involving different types of boat, such as thelateenand theOptimist. An interesting event is the Tour of Fuerteventura by Kayak, which is organised as a series of stages rather than a competition, and is an easy way to explore the island. Fishing The most notable competition here is the Gran Tarajal Fishing Open. Other sports Since 2004 the Marcha Ciclotourista has been held inLa Olivaand the Criterium Ciclista has been held in Corralejo (also part of the La Oliva municipality) since 2005. Participants includeEuskaltel–Euskadi,T-Mobileand a team fromOrbea. These competitions have contributed to local interest in the sport and the first professional local team, theFuerteventura–Canarias, was formed, initially run by Óscar Guerrero, director ofKaiku, although they have not competed for the past few seasons. There are variousmotocrosscircuits on the island, includingLos Alaresin Antigua andIsla de FuerteventurainPuerto del Rosariomunicipality. They hold regular trials, some of which form part of the Canarian Regional Motocross Championship. Throughout the year there are gravel rally races. Two are part of the Canarian Dirt Rally Championship. These are the Antiguan Rally and the La Oliva Rally. The island's mainfootballclubs areCD Union PuertoandCD Cotillo, who play in Group XII of the SpanishTercera División RFEF. The resort Playitas on the south coast is since around 2008 equipped with a 50 m (160 ft) swimming pool and has become a destination fortriathlontraining camps for Europeans. An annual race called Challenge Fuerteventura is held there on the half ironman distance. People See also References External links\",\n \"Gran Canaria Gran Canaria(UK:/ˌɡrænkəˈnɛəriə,-ˈnɑːr-/,US:/ˌɡrɑːnkəˈnɑːriə,-ˈnɛər-/;Spanish:ⓘ), alsoGrand Canary Island, is the third-largest and second-most-populous island of theCanary Islands,anarchipelagooff the Atlantic coast ofNorthwest Africaand is part of Spain. As of 2023the island had a population of 862,893 that constitutes approximately 40% of the population of the archipelago.Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, the capital of the island, is the biggest city of the Canary Islands and the ninth of Spain. Gran Canaria is located in the Atlantic Ocean in a region known asMacaronesiaabout 150 kilometres (93 mi) off the northwestern coast of Africa and about 1,350 km (840 mi) from Europe.With an area of 1,560 km2(600 sq mi)and an altitude of 1,956 m (6,417 ft) atMorro de la Agujereada, Gran Canaria is the third largest island of the archipelago in both area and altitude. Gran Canaria is also the third most populated island in Spain. History Inantiquity, Gran Canaria was populated by the North AfricanCanarii, who may have arrived as early as 500 BC.In themedieval period, after over a century of European incursions and attempts at conquest, the island was conquered on 29 April 1483, by theCrown of Castile, underQueen Isabella I. The Canarian queenAbencharawas captured and imprisoned by the Spanish during the conquest. The conquest succeeded after a war that lasted five years, and it was an important step towards the expansion of the unified Spain. The capital city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canariawas founded on 24 June 1478, under the name \\\"Real de Las Palmas\\\", byJuan Rejón, head of the invadingCastilianarmy. In 1492,Christopher Columbusanchored in thePort of Las Palmas(and spent some time on the island) on his first trip to the Americas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is, jointly withSanta Cruz de Tenerife, the capital of theautonomous communityof the Canary Islands. Much of Iberian migration to the island consisted ofconversosof Jewish origin. On 27 March 1977, a bomb went off in Gran Canaria Airport, the main airport on the island. Flights were diverted to the nearby Tenerife Airport: this led to theTenerife airport disaster. Etymology Plinyclaimed that the island was named for the dogs on the island, of which two were presented as a gift toJuba, King ofMauretania.This opinion is disputed as when the Europeans arrived on the island, no dogs were found.Another source suggested the way the natives ate fish was doglike and this was the reason for its name.A more plausible assumption is that the islands name derives from the people Canario or Canarii living near theAtlas mountain range.Jean de Béthencourtnamed the islandGranCanaria as the people on the island were valorous opponents to hisconquest. Geography Gran Canaria is located in theCanary Islandsarchipelago southeast ofTenerifeand west ofFuerteventura. The island is ofvolcanicorigin, mostly made offissure vents. It has a round shape, with a diameter of approximately 50 km (31 mi) and a surface area of 1,560 km2(600 sq mi). Gran Canaria's maximum elevation is 1,956 metres (6,417 ft) atMorro de la Agujereada, although the nearbyPico de las Nieveshas traditionally been considered the island's tallest peak. The coastline measures 236 km. Geology About 80% of the volume of the island was formed during theMioceneperiod eruptions, between 14 and 9 million years ago.This is called the \\\"Old Cycle\\\" and is estimated to have lasted some 200,000 years and have emitted about 1,000 km3(240 cu mi), mostly of fissuralalkali basalt. This cycle continued with the emission oftrachytes,phonolitesandperalkalinerocks.This period was followed by one of erosion, which lasted some 4 million years. A second cycle of volcanic eruptions, known as the \\\"Roque Nublo cycle\\\", took place between 4.5 and 3.4 million years ago. This shorter cycle emitted about 100 km3(24 cu mi). Most of the inland peaks were formed by erosion from these materials. This period also started with fissural basalts, but ended with violent eruptions ofpyroclastic flows. Some phonolitic features, like the Risco Blanco, were also formed in its last stages. The third or recent cycle is held to have started some 2.8 million years ago and is considered to be still active. The last eruptions are held to have occurred some 2000 years ago. The changes in volume and, therefore, weight of the island have also caused the island to rise above the previous sea level during erosive periods and to sink during eruptive periods. Some of these \\\"fossil beaches\\\" can be seen in the cliff faces of the more eroded northern coast. Climate According to theKöppen climate classification, Gran Canaria is considered to have ahot desert climate (BWh)due to its severe lack of precipitation. Gran Canaria has consistent warm temperatures in spring, summer and autumn, and mild winters. Gran Canaria is noted for its rich variety ofmicroclimates. Generally speaking though, the average daytime high ranges from 20 °C (68 °F) in winter to 26 °C (79 °F) in summer. Some cool nights occur in winter, but lows below 10 °C (50 °F) are unknown near the coast. Inland the climate is still mild but mountainous areas see the occasional frost or snow. Annual rainfall averages 228 mm (9.0 in), most of this falling in the cooler months, with July, August and September normally rainless. Rainfall is unevenly distributed through the island with some areas being much drier than others. Cloud cover and sunshine is often quite variable during the cooler months, and there can be several rather cloudy days at times in winter. Summers are generally quite sunny however, with the south of the island being most favoured. Vegetation Until the conquest, Gran Canaria had extensive forests, but then suffered extensivedeforestationas a result of continuous logging, land divisions and other intensive uses. This reduced the forest cover to just 56,000 hectares (140,000 acres),making the island the most deforested of the Canary Islands.However, in the twentieth century reforestation of the ridge of the island was begun, recovering some of the lost forest mass. Much of the summit of the island is forested mostly due toreforestation. Governance Gran Canaria is in theautonomous communityof theCanary Islands(Islas Canarias). It lies within theProvince of Las Palmas, aSpanish provincewhich consists of the eastern part of the Canary Islands community.Las Palmas de Gran Canariais the provincial capital, one of the two capitals of the Canary Islands along withSanta Cruz de Tenerife. The island of Gran Canaria is governed by theCabildo insular de Gran Canaria.Gran Canaria Island itself is divided into twenty-one smallermunicipalities: The island has a population at the start of 2023 of 862,893 - with 380,863 of those in the capital city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canaria. Gran Canaria is the second most populous island of the Canary Islands, afterTenerife. Transportation Roads Gran Canaria has roads encircling the whole island and extending into the mountain areas. In the late 20th century, its dual carriageway, among the first in the Canary Islands, were opened and run around Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, and were later extended to the north coast and the airport and subsequently to the south coast in response to increased tourist traffic. The only highway of Gran Canaria areGC1. Dual carriageway isGC2, andGC31,GC4andGC5. The western and the north-western parts, with the fewest inhabitants, are linked only with main roads. Buses Public transport around Gran Canaria is provided by an extensive bus network, known in the local dialect asguaguas. TheAutoridad Única del Transporte de Gran Canaria(Gran Canaria Transport Authority, TGC) manages the network and operates a number of bus stations across the island, including San Telmo and Santa Catalina bus stations in Las Palmas, Maspalomas and Galdar.Bus tickets may be purchased with cash, and AUTGC also operates acontactlesselectronic ticketcalled the TransGC Card, which is valid across the whole network. Inter-urban bus services across the island are operated by the Global bus company.Global was created in 2000 after the merger of two bus companies, Utinsa (which operated in the north of the island) and Salcai (the bus operator for the south).Local bus services in Las Palmas are run by the municipal bus company,Guaguas Municipales de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Airport Gran Canaria Airport(IATA: LPA) is the only commercial airport on the island. The large number of aircraft and passengers passing through it each year make it one of the busiest in Spain. Gran Canaria is also responsible for all air traffic control in the Canaries. By destination island, Gran Canaria is the second island that congregates the largest number of passengers in the Canary Islands.Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are:Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz, Sixt and TopCar. Sea ports The most important ports in the island are the Port of Las Palmas(Puerto de la Luz),in the city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canaria;Arguineguín, which exportscementfrom a large factory; andArinaga, located in the main industrial zone of Canaries and one of the major ones of Spain. The main passenger ports are the Port of La Luz, whereTrasmediterráneaoperates a weekly ferry route toCádizon the Spanish mainland,and thePort of Las Nieves, located inAgaeteon the west side of the island, whereFred Olsen Expressoperates acatamaranferry service toSanta Cruz de Tenerife. Train Plans for aTren de Gran Canariarailway network linking the capital with the south have been approved by both theGran Canaria Cabildoand the autonomous Canary Islands' Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government hinges now on budget. The planned 57 km (35 mi) railway line would run between Las Palmas and Meloneras, with the section in the capital running entirely underground as far as the suburb of Jinámar. The line is planned to have 11 stations, including an underground station at Gran Canaria Airport. The scheme was first announced in 2009, with a planned operational date in 2015. A public company calledFerrocarriles de Gran Canariahas been formed by the Cabildo's Gran Canaria Transport Authority. Plans were still being discussed in 2018. Agriculture Gran Canaria agriculture is unique among the Canaries islands in that it was traditionally dominated by plantations, with much of these being grains as well assugarcane, rather than by stock-breeding.Thecaves of Valerón(aproperty of cultural interestin the \\\"archaeological site\\\" category) in the municipality ofSanta María de Guíabears testimony of it by being the largest pre-Hispanic collective granary of the Canaries. Tourism This island is called a \\\"miniature continent\\\" due to the different climates and variety of landscapes found, with long beaches and dunes of white sand, contrasting with green ravines and picturesque villages.A third of the island is under protection as aBiosphere ReservebyUNESCO. The number of annual visitors was 3.6 million in 2014 (of which 450.000 Spaniards).It is the second island in the archipelago in number of annual tourists, after Tenerife.Most of the tourists visit the southern part of the island. The north tends to be cooler, while the south is warmer and sunny. The east coast of the island is flat, dotted with beaches, while the western coast is rockier and mountainous. The island possesses 32 Natural Protected Spaces,notably the Rural Park of Nublo, The Doramas Jungle, the Azuaje Ravine, Tamadaba, Pino Santo, etc. In the south there is a large bird park,Palmitos Park, as well as many beach resort communities. Resorts are concentrated in the central eastern part of the southern coast in theMaspalomasarea, which includes the towns ofSan Agustín,Playa del InglésandMeloneras. TheMaspalomas Dunesare located between Playa del Inglés (\\\"The Englishman's Beach\\\") and the distinctive 19th centuryMaspalomas lighthouse. Playa del Ingles is home to the Yumbo Centre,which was opened in 1982 and has almost 200 shops, including bars, restaurants, cafes, fashion boutiques, electronic outlets and jewellery stores. In Tarajalillo, an Aeroclub exists from where tourist flights can be taken over the island. Still further to the west along the southern shore, in the Municipality of Mogán, are the communities ofPuerto RicoandPuerto de Mogán, a village referred to as \\\"Little Venice\\\" on account of its many canals. Other attractions include Cocodrilos Park,Roque Nublo(an 80 m monolith),Cenobio de Valerónwith more than 350 storage cavities,Painted cave of Galdarthe most important archaeological park in Canary Islands, or the botanical gardensJardín Canario(in Tafira Alta) andCactualdea(inLa Aldea de San Nicolás). El Dedo de Dios, or \\\"God's Finger\\\", was a rocky spire jutting from the sea inPuerto de las Nieves, and was previously the signature attraction of the Canary Islands until it was destroyed bytropical storm Deltathat crossed the archipelago in November 2005. Other well-known rock formations are El Cura (also known as El Fraile), The Frog (La Rana),Roque Bentayga, the Roque de Gando, and the Peñón Bermejo. Traditionally, the highest peak of the island has been considered to be thePico de las Nieves, at 1,949 metres (6,394 ft); however,Morro de la Agujereadais taller, at 1,956 metres (6,417 ft). The capital city isLas Palmas de Gran Canaria.Las Canterasbeach, a protected area and diving zone, lies in the heart of the city. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is also known for its annualcarnaval. It was the first stop of Christopher Columbus' expedition on his way back from the Americas,a commemoration of which is the Hermitage of San Antonio Abad, where the navigator prayed, and theCasa de Colón. Other attractions in the capital city include theMuseo Canario(the most important archaeology museum in the archipelago), the cathedral and thePlaza del Espíritu Santo. InTerorthe shrine ofVirgen del Pino(\\\"Virgin of the Pine\\\"), patron saint of Gran Canaria, can be found. Its feast is celebrated on 8 September. The town ofAgüimes, on the eastern part of the island, has been carefully restored and its town centre, centered on its old church and a peaceful square, now evokes the quiet living of a traditional Canarian town. The district also has some of the best preserved cave dwellings, in the protected area of theGuayadeque ravine, where even the church has been built into the mountainside and visitors can find a number of popular cave restaurants. The district also includes the most renowned scuba diving area on the island: the marine reserve at theplaya de El Cabrónjust outside the town of Arinaga. Other important towns areTelde, known among other things for theirsurfschools in Salinetas, Vecindario (within the municipality of Santa Lucía de Tirajana) andGáldar, that contains an important diving zone. InArucasthere is a Neogothic temple, popularly known as \\\"Arucas' Cathedral\\\", as well as a large fertile plain where bananas are grown. InGáldarand its surroundings there is also a banana-growing plain and some remarkable archaeological remains,such as thePainted cave of Galdaror thecenobio de Valerón's communal silos, ancient tombs (among which thenecropolis of Maipés), and the port of Sardina del Norte (one of the island's ports where, as in Las Palmas',Christopher Columbusused to get supplies for his ships). Heading west along the southern coast is the fishing city ofArguineguínin theMunicipality of Mogán. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Gran Canaria are theCanary MastiffandEuphorbia canariensis(Cardón) Beaches Protected natural areas Nearly half of the island territory — 667 km2(258 sq mi) (42.7% of island) — is under protection from the Red Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos (Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,a total of 33 are located in Gran Canaria, the second most protected island in the group.There are seven different categories of protection: Music Science and technology In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14ground stationsin theManned Space Flight Network(MSFN) to support theNASAspace program.Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including theApollo 11Moon landings andSkylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of theESAnetwork. Sports The island is home toCB Gran Canaria– a basketball club playing inLiga ACBat theGran Canaria Arena, with a capacity of 11,000. The island is also home toUD Las Palmas– a football club playing inLa Ligaat theEstadio de Gran Canaria, with a capacity of 32,392.Professional Windsurfers Association(PWA) holds its annual competitions at Pozo - Pozo Izquierdo: This spot, which is situated in the municipal area of Santa Lucía, is internationally famous on account of the ideal windsurfing conditions, the wind being ever present. See also Bibliography Geology of Gran Canaria References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Canary Islands TheCanary Islands(/kəˈnɛəri/,Spanish:Canarias,Spanish:), also known informally asthe Canaries, are a Spanish region,autonomous communityandarchipelagoin theAtlantic Ocean. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are 100 kilometres (62 miles) west ofMoroccoand theWestern Sahara. They are the southernmost of theautonomous communities of Spain. The islands have a population of 2.2 million people and are the most populousspecial territory of the European Union. The seven main islands are, from largest to smallest in area,Tenerife,Fuerteventura,Gran Canaria,Lanzarote,La Palma,La Gomera, andEl Hierro. The only other populated island isLa Graciosa, which administratively is dependent on Lanzarote. The archipelago includes many smaller islands and islets, includingAlegranza,Isla de Lobos,Montaña Clara,Roque del Oeste, andRoque del Este. It includes a number of rocks, includingGarachicoandAnaga. In ancient times, the island chain was often referred to as \"the Fortunate Isles\".The Canary","Isles\".The Canary Islands are the southernmost region ofSpain, and the largest and most populous archipelago ofMacaronesia.Because of their location, the Canary Islands have historically been considered a link between the four continents ofAfrica,North America,South America, andEurope. In 2023, the Canary Islands had a population of 2,236,013,with a density of 299 inhabitants per km2, making it the seventh most populous autonomous community of Spain. The population is mostly concentrated in the two capital islands: around 43% on the island of Tenerife and 40% on the island of Gran Canaria. The Canary Islands, especially Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote, are a major tourist destination, with over 16 million visitors in 2023.This is due to their beaches,subtropical climate, and important natural attractions, especiallyMaspalomasinGran Canariaand MountTeide, aWorld Heritage SiteinTenerife. Mount Teide is thehighest peak in Spainand the3rd tallest volcano in the world, measured from its base","from its base on the ocean floor.The islands have warm summers and winters warm enough for the climate to be technically tropical at sea level.The amount of precipitation and the level of maritime moderation vary depending on location and elevation. The archipelago includes green areas as well as semi-desert. The islands' high mountains are ideal for astronomical observation, because they lie above thetemperature inversionlayer. As a result, the archipelago has two professional astronomical observatories: theTeide Observatoryon Tenerife, andRoque de los Muchachos Observatoryon La Palma. In 1927, theProvince of Canary Islandswas split into two provinces. In 1982, the autonomous community of the Canary Islands was established. The cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canariaare, jointly, the capitals of the islands.Those cities are also, respectively, the capitals of theprovincesofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has been the largest city in the Canaries since","the Canaries since 1768, except for a brief period in the 1910s.Between the1833 territorial division of Spainand 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, it was ordered by decree that the capital of the Canary Islands would be shared between two cities, and this arrangement persists to the present day.The third largest city in the Canary Islands isSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, another World Heritage Site on Tenerife. During theAge of Sail, the islands were the main stopover forSpanish galleonsduring theSpanish colonisation of the Americas, which sailed that far south in order to catch the prevailing northeasterlytrade winds. Etymology The nameIslas Canariasis likely derived from the Latin nameCanariae Insulae, meaning \"Islands of the Dogs\", perhaps because monk seals or sea dogs were abundant, a name that was evidently generalized from the ancient name of one of these islands,Canaria– presumably Gran Canaria. According to the historianPliny the Elder, the","the Elder, the islandCanariacontained \"vast multitudes of dogs of very large size\".The connection to dogs is retained in their depiction on the islands' coat-of-arms. Other theories speculate that the name comes from theNukkariBerber tribe living in the Moroccan Atlas, named in Roman sources asCanarii, though Pliny again mentions the relation of this term with dogs. The name of the islands is not derived from thecanary bird; rather, the birds are named after the islands. Islands From west to east, the Canary Islands areEl Hierro,La Palma,La Gomera,Tenerife,Gran Canaria,Fuerteventura,Lanzarote, andLa Graciosa. North of Lanzarote are the islets ofMontaña Clara,Alegranza,Roque del EsteandRoque del Oeste, belonging to theChinijo Archipelago. Northeast of Fuerteventura is the islet ofLobos. There are a series of small adjacent rocks in the Canary Islands: theRoques de Anaga,Garachicoand Fasnia in Tenerife, and Salmor and Bonanza in El Hierro. El Hierro El Hierro, the westernmost island, covers 268.71 km2(103.75","268.71 km2(103.75 sq mi). It is the second smallest of the major islands, and the least populous with 10,798 inhabitants. The whole island was declared a Reserve of the Biosphere in 2000. Its capital isValverde. Also known as Ferro, it was once the westernmost known land in the world. Ancient European geographers such as Ptolemy recognised the island as theprime meridianof longitude. That remained so until the 19th century, when it was displaced by the onepassing through Greenwich. Fuerteventura Fuerteventura, with a surface of 1,660 km2(640 sq mi), is the second largest island of the archipelago. It has been declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCO. It is the oldest of the islands being more eroded. Its highest point is the Peak of the Bramble, at a height of 807 metres (2,648 feet). Its capital isPuerto del Rosario. Gran Canaria Gran Canaria has 846,717 inhabitants. The capital,Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, with 377,203 inhabitants, is the most populous city and shares the status of capital of the Canaries with","the Canaries with Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Gran Canaria's surface area is 1,560 km2(600 sq mi). Roque Nublo 1,813 metres (5,948 feet) and Pico de las Nieves (\"Peak of Snow\") 1,949 metres (6,394 feet) are located in the center of the island. On the south of the island are the Maspalomas Dunes (Gran Canaria). La Gomera La Gomera (informally known as 'Isla Colombina') has an area of 369.76 km2(142.77 sq mi) and is the second least populous island with 21,136 inhabitants. It has been declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCO. Geologically it is one of the oldest of the archipelago. The insular capital isSan Sebastian de La Gomera.Garajonay National Parkis located on the island. Lanzarote Lanzarote is the easternmost island and one of the oldest of the archipelago, and it has shown evidence of recent volcanic activity. It has a surface of 845.94 km2(326.62 sq mi), and a population of 149,183 inhabitants, including the adjacent islets of the Chinijo Archipelago. The capital isArrecife, with 56,834 inhabitants. Chinijo","Chinijo Archipelago The Chinijo Archipelago includes the islandsLa Graciosa,Alegranza,Montaña Clara,Roque del EsteandRoque del Oeste. It has a surface of 40.8 km2(15.8 sq mi), and only La Graciosa is populated, with 658 inhabitants. With 29 km2(11 sq mi), La Graciosa is the largest island of the Chinijo Archipelago and the smallest inhabited island of the Canaries. La Palma La Palma, with 81,863 inhabitants covering an area of 708.32 km2(273.48 sq mi), is in its entirety a biosphere reserve. For long it showed no signs of volcanic activity, even though the volcanoTeneguíaentered into eruption last in 1971. On 19 September 2021, the volcanicCumbre Viejaon the islanderupted.It is the second-highest island of the Canaries, with the Roque de los Muchachos at 2,423 metres (7,949 feet) as its highest point.Santa Cruz de La Palma, known to those on the island as simply \"Santa Cruz\", is its capital. Tenerife Tenerife is, with its area of 2,034 km2(785 sq mi), the most extensive island of the Canary Islands. With","Islands. With 904,713 inhabitants, it is the most populated island of the archipelago and Spain. Two of the islands' principal cities are located on it: the capital,Santa Cruz de TenerifeandSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, a World Heritage Site.San Cristóbal de La Laguna, the second city of the island, is home to the oldest university in the Canary Islands, theUniversity of La Laguna.Teide, with its 3,715 metres (12,188 feet) is the highest peak ofSpainand aWorld Heritage Site.Tenerifeis the site of theworst air disasterin the history of aviation, in which 583 people were killed in the collision of twoBoeing 747son 27 March 1977. La Graciosa Graciosa Island or commonly La Graciosa is a volcanic island in the Canary Islands of Spain, located 2 km (1.2 mi) north of the island of Lanzarote across the Strait of El Río. It was formed by the Canary hotspot. The island is part of the Chinijo Archipelago and the Chinijo Archipelago Natural Park (Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo). It is administered by the","administered by the municipality of Teguise. In 2018, La Graciosa was declared asthe eighth Canary Islandby theSpanish Senate,though it is not recognized as such by the Canarian administration. It is administratively dependent on the island of Lanzarote. It is the smallest and least populated of the main islands, with about 700 people. Data Physical geography Tenerifeis the largest and most populous island of the archipelago.Gran Canaria, with 865,070 inhabitants, is both the Canary Islands' second most populous island, and the third most populous one in Spain after Tenerife (966,354 inhabitants) andMajorca(896,038 inhabitants).The island ofFuerteventurais the second largest in the archipelago and located 100 km (62 mi) from the African coast. The islands form theMacaronesiaecoregionwith theAzores,Cape Verde,Madeira, and theSavage Isles.The Canary Islands is the largest and most populated archipelago of the Macaronesia region.The archipelago has seven large and several smaller islands, all of which are","all of which are volcanic in origin. According to the position of the islands with respect to the north-easttrade winds, the climate can be mild and wet or very dry. Several native species formlaurisilvaforests. The individual islands in the Canary archipelago tend to have distinctmicroclimates. Those islands such asEl Hierro,La PalmaandLa Gomeralying to the west of the archipelago have a climate which is influenced by the moistCanary Current. They are well vegetated even at low levels and have extensive tracts of sub-tropical laurisilva forest. Travelling east toward the African coast, the influence of the current diminishes, and the islands become increasingly arid.FuerteventuraandLanzarote, the islands which are closest to the African mainland, are effectively desert or semi-desert. Gran Canariais known as a \"continent in miniature\" for its diverse landscapes likeMaspalomasandRoque Nublo. The north ofTenerifelies under the influence of the moist Atlantic winds and is well vegetated. The south of the","The south of the island around the tourist resorts ofPlaya de las AméricasandLos Cristianosis arid. The island rises to almost 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above sea level. At altitude, in the cool relatively wet climate, forests of the endemic pinePinus canariensisthrive. Many of the plant species in the Canary Islands, like the Canary Island pine and thedragon tree,Dracaena dracoare endemic, as noted bySabin BerthelotandPhilip Barker Webbin their work,L'Histoire Naturelle des Îles Canaries(1835–50). Climate The climate is warmsubtropical/tropicaland generallyarid, moderated by the sea and in summer by thetrade winds.There are a number ofmicroclimatesand the classifications range mainly fromsemi-deserttodesert. The majority of the Canary Islands have ahot desert climate(BWh) and ahot semi-desert climate(BSh) within theKöppensystem, caused partly due to the coolCanary Current.A subtropical humid climate, which is very influenced by the ocean, is in the middle of the islands ofLa Gomera,TenerifeandLa Palma,","Palma, wherelaurisilvacloud forests grow. Geology The seven major islands, one minor island, and several small islets were originally volcanic islands, formed by theCanary hotspot.The Canary Islands is the only place in Spain wherevolcanic eruptionshave been recorded during theModern Era, with some volcanoes still active (El Hierro, 2011).Volcanic islands such as those in the Canary chain often have steep ocean cliffs caused by catastrophic debris avalanches andlandslides.The island chain's most recent eruption occurred atCumbre Vieja, a volcanic ridge on La Palma,in 2021. TheTeidevolcanoon Tenerife is the highest mountain in Spain, and the third tallest volcano on Earth on a volcanic ocean island.All the islands except La Gomera have been active in the last million years. Four of them, Lanzarote, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro, have historical records of eruptions since European discovery.The islands rise from Jurassicoceanic crustassociated with the opening of the Atlantic. Underwatermagmatismbegan","during the Cretaceous, and continued to the present day. The current islands reached the ocean's surface during theMiocene. The islands were once considered as a distinct physiographic section of theAtlas Mountainsprovince, which is part of the larger African Alpine System division, but are now recognized as being related to a magmatic hot spot. In the summer of 2011, a series of low-magnitude earthquakes occurred beneath El Hierro. These had a linear trend of northeast–southwest. In October a submarine eruption occurred about2 km (1+1⁄4mi) south of Restinga. This eruption produced gases and pumice, but no explosive activity was reported. The following table shows the highest mountains in each of the islands: Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Canary Islands are the birdSerinus canaria(canary) and thePhoenix canariensispalm. National parks Four of Spain's thirteen national parks are located in the Canary Islands, more than any other autonomous community. Two of these have been","of these have been declaredUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesand the other two are part ofBiosphere Reserves. The parks are: Teide National Parkis the oldest and largest national park in the Canary Islands and one of the oldest in Spain. Located in the geographic centre of the island of Tenerife, it is the most visited national park in Spain. In 2010, it became the most visited national park in Europe and second worldwide.The park's highlight is theTeidevolcano. Standing at an altitude of 3,715 metres (12,188 ft),it is the highest elevation in Spain and the third largest volcano on Earth from its base. In 2007, the Teide National Park was declared one of the12 Treasures of Spain. Politics Governance The regional executive body, theParliament of the Canary Islands, is presided over byFernando Clavijo Batlle(Canarian Coalition), the currentPresident of the Canary Islands. The members of the regional legislature, theParliament of the Canary Islands, has 70 elected legislators. Thelast regional electiontook place in May","place in May 2023. The islands have 14 seats in theSpanish Senate. Of these, 11 seats are directly elected, 3 for Gran Canaria, 3 for Tenerife, and 1 each for Lanzarote (including La Graciosa), Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro. The other 3 are appointed by the regional legislature. Political geography TheAutonomous Community of the Canary Islandshas twoprovinces(provincias),Las PalmasandSanta Cruz de Tenerife, whose capitals,Las Palmas de Gran CanariaandSanta Cruz de Tenerife, are capitals of the autonomous community. Each of the seven major islands are ruled by an island council named aCabildo Insular. Each island is subdivided into smallermunicipalities(municipios).Las Palmas is divided into 34 municipalities, andSanta Cruz de Tenerife is divided into 54 municipalities. The international boundary of the Canaries is disputed inMorocco-Spain relations. In 2022 the UN declared the Canary Island's territorial waters as being Moroccan coast and Morocco has authorisedgas and oil explorationin","oil explorationin what the Canary Islands states to be Canarian territorial waters andWestern Saharawaters.Morocco's official position is that international laws regarding territorial limits do not authorise Spain to claim seabed boundaries based on the territory of the Canaries, since the Canary Islands enjoy a large degree of autonomy. In fact, the islands do not enjoy any special degree of autonomy, as each one of the Spanish regions is considered anautonomous community, with equal status to the European ones. Under theLaw of the Sea, the only islands not granted territorial waters or anexclusive economic zone(EEZ) are those that are not fit for human habitation, or do not have an economic life of their own, which is not the case of the Canary Islands. Canarian nationalism There are some pro-independence political parties, like theNational Congress of the Canaries(CNC) and thePopular Front of the Canary Islands. Their popular support is almost insignificant, with no presence in either the autonomous","the autonomous parliament or thecabildos insulares.In a 2012 study by theCentro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, when asked about national identity, the majority of respondents from the Canary Islands (53.8%) considered themselves Spanish and Canarian in equal measures, followed by 24% who consider themselves more Canarian than Spanish. 6.1% of the respondents considered themselves only Canarian, and 7% considered themselves only Spanish. Defense The defense of the territory is the responsibility of theSpanish Armed Forces. Components of theArmy,Navy,Air Forceand theCivil Guardare based in the territory. History Ancient and pre-Hispanic times Before the arrival of humans, the Canaries were inhabited by prehistoric animals including the giant lizard (Gallotia goliath), theTenerifeandGran Canaria giant rats,and giant tortoises,Geochelone burchardiandGeochelone vulcanica. Although the original settlement of what are now called the Canary Islands is not entirely clear, linguistic, genetic, and archaeological","and archaeological analyses indicate thatindigenouspeoples were living on the Canary Islands at least 2,000 years ago, possibly 3,000, and that they shared a common origin with theBerberson the nearby North African coast.Reaching the islands may have taken place using several small boats, landing on the easternmost islands Lanzarote and Fuerteventura. These groups came to be known collectively as theGuanches, althoughGuancheshad been the name for only the indigenous inhabitants of Tenerife. According to a 2024 study by the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, there is archaeological evidence that the Romans were the first to colonise the islands, during the period from the 1st centuryBCEto the 1st century CE. There was no overlap with the occupation by the people who were inhabiting the islands at the time of the Spanish conquest, who had first arrived sometime between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE. As José Farrujia describes, 'The indigenous Canarians lived mainly in natural caves, usually near the","usually near the coast, 300 to 500 metres (1,000 to 1,600 ft) above sea level. These caves were sometimes isolated but more commonly formed settlements, with burial caves nearby'.Archaeological work has uncovered a rich culture visible through artefacts ofceramics, human figures, fishing, hunting and farming tools, plant fibre clothing and vessels, as well as cave paintings. At Lomo de los Gatos on Gran Canaria, a site occupied from 1,600 years ago up until the 1960s, round stone houses, complex burial sites, and associated artefacts have been found.Across the islands are thousands ofLibyco-Berberalphabet inscriptions scattered and they have been extensively documented by many linguists. The social structure of indigenous Canarians encompassed \"a system ofmatrilinealdescent in most of the islands, in which inheritance was passed on via the female line. Social status and wealth were hereditary and determined the individual's position in the social pyramid, which consisted of the king, the relatives of the","relatives of the king, the lower nobility, villeins, plebeians, and finally executioners, butchers, embalmers, and prisoners\". Their religion wasanimist, centring on the sun and moon, as well as natural features such as mountains. Exploration The islands may have been visited by thePhoenicians, theGreeks, and theCarthaginians. KingJuba II, CaesarAugustus'sNumidianprotégé, is credited with discovering the islands for the Western world. According toPliny the Elder, Juba found the islands uninhabited, but found \"a small temple of stone\" and \"some traces of buildings\".Juba dispatched a naval contingent to re-open the dye production facility atMogadorin what is now western Morocco in the early first centuryAD.That same naval force was subsequently sent on an exploration of the Canary Islands, using Mogador as their mission base. The names given by Romans to the individual islands wereNinguariaorNivaria(Tenerife),Canaria(Gran Canaria),PluvialiaorInvale(Lanzarote),Ombrion(La","Palma),Planasia(Fuerteventura),IunoniaorJunonia(El Hierro) andCapraria(La Gomera). From the 14th century onward, numerous visits were made by sailors fromMajorca,Portugal, andGenoa.Lancelotto Malocellosettled on Lanzarote in 1312. The Majorcans established amissionwith a bishop in the islands that lasted from 1350 to 1400. Castilian conquest In 1402, the Castilian colonisation of the islands began with the expedition of the French explorersJean de BéthencourtandGadifer de la Salle, nobles andvassalsofHenry III of Castile, to Lanzarote. From there, they went on to conquer Fuerteventura (1405) and El Hierro. These invasions were \"brutal cultural and military clashes between the indigenous population and the Castilians\" lasting over a century due to formidable resistance by indigenous Canarians.ProfessorMohamed Adhikarihas defined the conquest of the islands as agenocideof theGuanches. Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands, but still recognised King Henry III as his overlord. It was not a","It was not a simple military enterprise, given the aboriginal resistance on some islands. Neither was it politically, since the particular interests of the nobility (determined to strengthen their economic and political power through the acquisition of the islands) conflicted with those of the states, particularly Castile, which were in the midst of territorial expansion and in a process of strengthening of the crown against the nobility. Historians distinguish two periods in the conquest of the Canary Islands: Aristocratic conquest(conquista señorial): This refers to the early conquests carried out by the nobility, for their own benefit and without the direct participation of the Crown of Castile, which merely granted rights of conquest in exchange for pacts of vassalage between the noble conqueror and the Crown. One can identify within this period an early phase known as the Betancurian or Norman conquest, carried out byJean de Bethencourt(who was originally from Normandy) andGadifer de la Sallebetween","de la Sallebetween 1402 and 1405, which involved the islands ofLanzarote,El Hierro, andFuerteventura. The subsequent phase is known as the Castilian conquest, carried out by Castilian nobles who acquired, through purchases, assignments and marriages, the previously conquered islands and also incorporated the island ofLa Gomeraaround 1450. Royal conquest(conquista realenga): This defines the conquest between 1478 and 1496, carried out directly by the Crown of Castile, during the reign of theCatholic Monarchs, who armed and partly financed the conquest of those islands which were still unconquered:Gran Canaria,La PalmaandTenerife. This phase of the conquest came to an end in the year 1496, with the dominion of the island of Tenerife, bringing the entire Canarian Archipelago under the control of the Crown of Castile. Béthencourt also established a base on the island of La Gomera, but it would be many years before the island was fully conquered. The natives of La Gomera, and of Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La","Tenerife, and La Palma, resisted the Castilian invaders for almost a century. In 1448, Maciot de Béthencourt sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's PrinceHenry the Navigator, an action that was accepted by neither the natives nor the Castilians. DespitePope Nicholas Vruling that the Canary Islands were under Portuguese control, the crisis swelled to a revolt which lasted until 1459 with the final expulsion of the Portuguese. In 1479, Portugal and Castile signed theTreaty of Alcáçovas, which settled disputes between Castile and Portugal over the control of the Atlantic. This treaty recognized Castilian control of the Canary Islands but also confirmed Portuguese possession of theAzores,Madeira, and theCape Verde islands, and gave the Portuguese rights to any further islands or lands in the Atlantic that might be discovered. The Castilians continued to dominate the islands, but due to the topography and the resistance of the native Guanches, they did not achieve complete control until 1496, when Tenerife","1496, when Tenerife and La Palma were finally subdued byAlonso Fernández de Lugo. As a result of this \"the native pre-Hispanic population declined quickly due to war, epidemics, and slavery\".The Canaries were incorporated into theKingdom of Castile. After the conquest and the introduction of slavery After the conquest, the Castilians imposed a new economic model, based on single-crop cultivation: firstsugarcane; then wine, an important item of trade withEngland. Gran Canaria was conquered by theCrown of Castileon 6 March 1480, and Tenerife was conquered in 1496, and each had its own governor. There has been speculation that the abundance ofRoccella tinctoriaon the Canary Islands offered a profit motive forJean de Béthencourtduring his conquest of the islands. Lichen has been used for centuries to make dyes. This includes royal purple colors derived fromR. tinctoria, also known as orseille. The objective of the Spanish Crown to convert the islands into a powerhouse of cultivation required a much larger labour","much larger labour force. This was attained through a brutal practice of enslavement, not only of indigenous Canarians but large numbers of Africans who were forcibly taken from North and Sub-Saharan Africa.Whilst the first slave plantations in the Atlantic region were acrossMadeira,Cape Verde, and the Canary Islands, it was only the Canary Islands which had an indigenous population and were therefore invaded rather than newly occupied. This agriculture industry was largely based on sugarcane and the Castilians converted large swaths of the landscape for sugarcane production, and the processing and manufacturing of sugar, facilitated by enslaved labourers.The cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canariabecame a stopping point for the Spanish traders, as well asconquistadors, and missionaries on their way to theNew World. This trade route brought great wealth to the Castilian social sectors of the islands and soon were attracting merchants and adventurers from all over Europe. As the wealth","As the wealth grew, enslaved African workers were also forced into demeaning domestic roles for the rich Castilians on the islands such as servants in their houses. Research on the skeletons of some of these enslaved workers from the burial site of Finca Clavijo on Gran Canaria have showed that 'all of the adults buried in Finca Clavijo undertook extensive physical activity that involved significant stress on the spine and appendicular skeleton' that result from relentless hard labour, akin to the physical abnormalities found with enslaved peoples from other sugarcane plantations around the world.These findings of the physical strain that the enslaved at Finca Clavijo were subjected to in order to provide wealth for the Spanish elite has inspired a poem by British writerRalph Hoyte, entitledClose to the Bone. As a result of the huge wealth generated, magnificent palaces and churches were built on La Palma during this busy, prosperous period. The Church of El Salvador survives as one of the island's finest","the island's finest examples of the architecture of the 16th century. Civilian architecture survives in forms such asCasas de los Sánchez-OchandoorCasa Quintana. The Canaries' wealth invited attacks bypiratesandprivateers.OttomanTurkishadmiraland privateerKemal Reisventured into the Canaries in 1501, whileMurat Reis the Eldercaptured Lanzarote in 1585. The most severe attack took place in 1599, during theDutch Revolt. ADutchfleet of 74 ships and 12,000 men, commanded byPieter van der Does, attacked the capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (the city had 3,500 of Gran Canaria's 8,545 inhabitants). The Dutch attacked the Castillo de la Luz, which guarded the harbor. The Canarians evacuated civilians from the city, and the Castillo surrendered (but not the city). The Dutch moved inland, but Canarian cavalry drove them back to Tamaraceite, near the city. The Dutch then laid siege to the city, demanding the surrender of all its wealth. They received 12 sheep and 3 calves. Furious, the Dutch sent 4,000 soldiers to","4,000 soldiers to attack the Council of the Canaries, who were sheltering in the village of Santa Brígida. Three hundred Canarian soldiers ambushed the Dutch in the village of Monte Lentiscal, killing 150 and forcing the rest to retreat. The Dutch concentrated on Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, attempting to burn it down. The Dutch pillagedMaspalomas, on the southern coast of Gran Canaria,San Sebastiánon La Gomera, andSanta Cruzon La Palma, but eventually gave up the siege of Las Palmas and withdrew. In 1618 theBarbary piratesfrom North Africa attacked Lanzarote and La Gomera taking 1000 captives to be sold asslaves.Another noteworthy attack occurred in 1797, whenSanta Cruz de Tenerifewas attacked by a British fleet underHoratio Nelsonon 25 July. The British were repulsed, losing almost 400 men. It was during this battle that Nelson lost his right arm. 18th to 19th century The sugar-based economy of the islands faced stiff competition from Spain'sCaribbeancolonies. Low sugar prices in the 19th century caused","19th century caused severe recessions on the islands. A new cash crop,cochineal(cochinilla), came into cultivation during this time, reinvigorating the islands' economy. During this time the Canarian-American trade was developed, in which Canarian products such as cochineal, sugarcane and rum were sold in American ports such asVeracruz,Campeche,La GuairaandHavana, among others. By the end of the 18th century, Canary Islanders had already emigrated to Spanish American territories, such asHavana,Veracruz, andSanto Domingo,San Antonio, TexasandSt. Bernard Parish, Louisiana.These economic difficulties spurred mass emigration during the 19th and first half of the 20th century, primarily to the Americas. Between 1840 and 1890 as many as 40,000 Canary Islanders emigrated toVenezuela. Also, thousands of Canarians moved toPuerto Ricowhere the Spanish monarchy felt that Canarians would adapt to island life better than other immigrants from the mainland of Spain. Deeply entrenched traditions, such as the Mascaras","as the Mascaras Festival in the town ofHatillo, Puerto Rico, are an example of Canarian culture still preserved in Puerto Rico. Similarly, many thousands of Canarians emigrated to the shores ofCuba.During theSpanish–American Warof 1898, the Spanish fortified the islands against a possible American attack, but no such event took place. Romantic period and scientific expeditions Sirera and Renn (2004)distinguish two different types of expeditions, or voyages, during the period 1770–1830, which they term \"the Romantic period\": First are \"expeditions financed by the States, closely related with the official scientific Institutions. characterised by having strict scientific objectives (and inspired by) the spirit of Illustration and progress\". In this type of expedition, Sirera and Renn include the following travellers: The second type of expedition identified by Sirera and Renn is one that took place starting from more or less private initiatives. Among these, the key exponents were the following: Sirera and","Sirera and Renn identify the period 1770–1830 as one in which \"In a panorama dominated until that moment by France and England enters with strength and brio Germany of the Romantic period whose presence in the islands will increase\". Early 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, the British introduced a newcash-crop, thebanana, the export of which was controlled by companies such asFyffes. 30 November 1833 theProvince of Canary Islandshad been created with the capital being declared as Santa Cruz de Tenerife.The rivalry between the cities of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife for the capital of the islands led to the division of thearchipelagointo two provinces on 23 September 1927. During the time of theSecond Spanish Republic,Marxistandanarchistworkers' movements began to develop, led by figures such as Jose Miguel Perez andGuillermo Ascanio. However, outside of a few municipalities, these organisations were a minority and fell easily to Nationalist forces during theSpanish","during theSpanish Civil War. Franco regime In 1936,Francisco Francowas appointed General Commandant of the Canaries. He joined the military revolt of 17 July which began theSpanish Civil War. Franco quickly took control of the archipelago, except for a few points of resistance on La Palma and in the town ofVallehermoso, on La Gomera. Though there was never a war in the islands, the post-war suppression of political dissent on the Canaries was most severe. During the Second World War,Winston Churchillprepared plans for the British seizure of the Canary Islands as anaval base, in the event ofGibraltarbeing invaded from the Spanish mainland.The planned operation was known asOperation Pilgrim. Opposition to Franco's regime did not begin to organise until the late 1950s, which experienced an upheaval of parties such as theCommunist Party of Spainand the formation of various nationalist, leftist parties. During theIfni War, the Franco regime set upconcentration campson the islands toextrajudicially imprisonthose","imprisonthose in Western Sahara suspected of disloyalty to Spain, many of whom were colonial troops recruited on the spot but were later deemed to be potentialfifth columnistsand deported to the Canary Islands. These camps were characterised by the use of forced labour for infrastructure projects and highly unsanitary conditions resulting in the widespread occurrence oftuberculosis. Self-governance After the death of Franco, there was a pro-independence armed movement based inAlgeria, theMovement for the Independence and Self-determination of the Canaries Archipelago(MAIAC). In 1968, theOrganisation of African Unityrecognized the MAIAC as a legitimateAfrican independence movement, and declared the Canary Islands as an African territory still under foreign rule. After the establishment of a democraticconstitutional monarchyin Spain,autonomywas granted to the Canaries via a law passed in 1982, with a newly established autonomous devolved government and parliament. In 1983, the first autonomous elections were","elections were held. TheSpanish Socialist Workers' Party(PSOE) won. Capitals At present, the Canary Islands is the only autonomous community in Spain that has two capitals:Santa Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canaria, since theStatute of Autonomy of the Canary Islandswas created in 1982. The political capital of the archipelago did not exist as such until the nineteenth century. The first cities founded by theEuropeansat the time of the conquest of the Canary Islands in the 15th century were:Telde(inGran Canaria),San Marcial del Rubicón(inLanzarote) andBetancuria(inFuerteventura). These cities boasted the first European institutions present in the archipelago, includingCatholicbishoprics.Although, because the period of splendor of these cities developed before the total conquest of the archipelago and its incorporation into theCrown of Castilenever had a political and real control of the entire Canary archipelago. The function of a Canarian city with full jurisdiction for the entire archipelago only","archipelago only exists after the conquest of the Canary Islands, although originallyde facto, that is, without legal and real meaning and linked to the headquarters of theCanary Islands General Captaincy. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria was the first city that exercised this function. This is because the residence of the Captain General of the Canary Islands was in this city during part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.In May 1661, the Captain General of the Canary Islands,Jerónimo de Benavente y Quiñones, moved the headquarters of the captaincy to the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Lagunaon the island ofTenerife.This was due to the fact that this island since the conquest was the most populated, productive and with the highest economic expectations.La Laguna would be considered thede factocapital of the archipelagountil the official status of the capital of Canary Islands in the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife was confirmed in the 19th century, due in part to the constant controversies and rivalries","and rivalries between the bourgeoisies of San Cristóbal de La Laguna and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria for the economic, political and institutional hegemony of the archipelago. Already in 1723, the Captain General of the Canary IslandsLorenzo Fernandez de Villavicenciohad moved the headquarters of the General Captaincy of the Canary Islands from San Cristóbal de La Laguna to Santa Cruz de Tenerife. This decision continued without pleasing the society of the island of Gran Canaria.It would be after the creation of theProvince of Canary Islandsin November 1833 in which Santa Cruz would become the first fully official capital of the Canary Islands (De jureand not ofde factoas happened previously).Santa Cruz de Tenerife would be the capital of the Canary archipelago until during the Government of GeneralPrimo de Riverain 1927 the Province of Canary Islands was split in two provinces:Las Palmaswith capital in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, andSanta Cruz de Tenerifewith capital in the homonymous city. Finally, with the","Finally, with the Statute of Autonomy of the Canary Islands in 1982 and the creation of the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands, the capital of the archipelago between Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife is fixed, which is how it remains today. Demographics The Canary Islands have a population of 2,153,389 inhabitants (2019), making it the eighth most populous of Spain'sautonomous communities.The total area of the archipelago is 7,493 km2(2,893 sq mi),resulting in a population density of 287.4 inhabitants per square kilometre. The population of the islands according to the 2019 data are: The Canary Islands have become home to many European residents, mainly coming from Italy, Germany and the UK. Because of the vast immigration to Venezuela and Cuba during the second half of the 20th century and the later return to the Canary Islands of these people along with their families, there are many residents whose country of origin wasVenezuela(66,593) orCuba(41,807). Since the 1990s,","Since the 1990s, manyillegal migrantshave reached the Canary Islands,MelillaandCeuta, using them as entry points to the EU. Canarian Spanish TheSpanish languagevariety that is typical and conventional in the Canary Islands is usually called theCanarian Spanish,Canarian dialectorCanarian speech, and is used by the approximately two million Spanish speakers who live in the Canary Islands. It is a dialect variety that falls within what has been called the \"Atlantic variety\", similar to those of Spanish-speaking America, and also to those of the south of the Iberian Peninsula, especially western Andalusia. The dialect most similar to the Canarian dialect, given the historical link between both areas, is the Caribbean dialect, spoken in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic), and the coast of theCaribbean Sea(Venezuela, northern Colombia, and Panama). In addition, lexically, the Canarian dialect is widely influenced by thePortuguese language, from which a certain part of its lexicon is derived.","lexicon is derived. Religion TheCatholic Churchhas been the majority religion in the archipelago for more than five centuries, ever since theConquest of the Canary Islands. There are also several other religious communities. Roman Catholic Church The overwhelming majority of native Canarians areRoman Catholic(76.7%)with various smaller foreign-born populations of other Christian beliefs such asProtestants. The appearance of theVirgin of Candelaria(Patron of Canary Islands) was credited with moving the Canary Islands toward Christianity. Two Catholic saints were born in the Canary Islands:Peter of Saint Joseph de BetancurandJosé de Anchieta.Both born on the island of Tenerife, they were respectively missionaries inGuatemalaandBrazil. The Canary Islands are divided into two Catholic dioceses, each governed by a bishop: Other religions Separate from the overwhelming Catholic majority are a minority ofMuslims.Among the followers ofIslam, theIslamic Federation of the Canary Islandsexists to represent the Islamic","the Islamic community in the Canary Islands as well as to provide practical support to members of the Islamic community.For its part, there is also theEvangelical Council of the Canary Islandsin the archipelago. Other religious faiths represented includeJehovah's Witnesses,The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saintsas well asHinduism.Minority religions are also present such as theChurch of the Guanche Peoplewhich is classified as aneo-pagannative religion.Also present areBuddhism,Judaism,Baháʼí,African religion,andChinese religions. Statistics The distribution of beliefs in 2012 according to the CIS Barometer Autonomy was as follows: Population genetics Economy and environment The economy is based primarilyon tourism, which makes up 32% of the GDP. The Canaries receive about 12 million tourists per year. Construction makes up nearly 20% of the GDP and tropical agriculture, primarily bananas and tobacco, are grown for export to Europe and the Americas. Ecologists are concerned that the resources,","that the resources, especially in the morearidislands, are beingoverexploitedbut there are still many agricultural resources liketomatoes,potatoes,onions,cochineal,sugarcane,grapes,vines,dates,oranges,lemons,figs,wheat,barley,maize,apricots,peachesandalmonds. Water resources are also being overexploited, due to the high water usage by tourists.Also, some islands (such as Gran Canaria and Tenerife)overexploit the ground water. This is done in such degree that, according to European and Spanish legal regulations, the current situation is not acceptable. To address the problems, good governance and a change in the water use paradigm have been proposed. These solutions depend largely oncontrolling water useand on demand management. As this is administratively difficult and politically unpalatable, most action is currently directed at increasing the public offer of water through import from outside; a decision which is economically, politically and environmentally questionable. To bring in revenue for","in revenue for environmental protection, innovation, training and water sanitation atourist taxwas considered in 2018, along with a doubling of theecotaxand restrictions on holiday rents in the zones with the greatest pressure of demand. The economy is€25 billion (2001 GDP figures). The islands experienced continuous growth during a 20-year period, up until 2001, at a rate of approximately 5% annually. This growth was fueled mainly by huge amounts offoreign direct investment, mostly to develop tourism real estate (hotels and apartments), and European Funds (near €11 billion in the period from 2000 to 2007), since the Canary Islands are labelled Region Objective 1 (eligible for euro structural funds).Additionally, the EU allows the Canary Islands Government to offer special tax concessions for investors who incorporate under the Zona Especial Canaria (ZEC) regime and create more than five jobs. Spain gave permission in August 2014 forRepsoland its partners to exploreoilandnatural gasprospects off the Canary","off the Canary Islands, involving an investment of €7.5 billion over four years, to commence at the end of 2016. Repsol at the time said the area could ultimately produce 100,000 barrels of oil a day, which would meet 10 percent of Spain's energy needs.However, the analysis of samples obtained did not show the necessary volume nor quality to consider future extraction, and the project was scrapped. Despite currently having very high dependence on fossil fuels, research on the renewable energy potential concluded that a high potential for renewable energy technologies exists on the archipelago. This, in such extent even that a scenario pathway to 100% renewable energy supply by 2050 has been put forward. The Canary Islands have great natural attractions, climate andbeachesmake the islands a major tourist destination, being visited each year by about 12 million people (11,986,059 in 2007, noting 29% ofBritons, 22% of Spanish (from outside the Canaries), and 21% ofGermans). Among the islands, Tenerife has the","Tenerife has the largest number of tourists received annually, followed by Gran Canaria and Lanzarote.The archipelago's principal tourist attraction is theTeide National Park(in Tenerife) where the highest mountain in Spain and third largestvolcanoin the world (MountTeide), receives over 2.8 million visitors annually. The combination of high mountains, proximity to Europe, and clean air has made theRoque de los Muchachospeak (on La Palma island) a leading location fortelescopeslike theGrantecan. The islands, as an autonomous region of Spain, are in theEuropean Unionand theSchengen Area. They are in theEuropean Union Customs Unionbut outside theVATarea.Instead of VAT there is a local Sales Tax (IGIC) which has a general rate of 7%, an increased tax rate of 13.5%, a reduced tax rate of 3% and a zero tax rate for certain basic need products and services. Consequently, some products are subject to additional VAT if being exported from the islands into mainland Spain or the rest of the EU. Canarian time isWestern","time isWestern European Time(WET), orGMT. In summer, one hour ahead of GMT. Canarian time is one hour behind mainland Spain, and the same time as the UK, Ireland and mainland Portugal all year round. Tourism statistics The number of tourists who visited the Canary Islands in 2018 was 16,150,054. In 2019, there were 15,589,290 arrivals. GDP statistics The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the Canary Islands in 2015 was €40,923 million, €19,222 per capita. The figures by island are as follows: Transport The Canary Islands have eight airports altogether, two of the main ports of Spain, and an extensive network ofautopistas(highways) and other roads. For a road map see multimap.Traffic congestionis sometimes a problem in Tenerife and on Grand Canaria. Largeferryboats and fast ferries link most of the islands. Both types can transport large numbers of passengers, cargo, and vehicles. Fast ferries are made of aluminium and powered by modern and efficient diesel engines, while conventional ferries have a steel hull","have a steel hull and are powered by heavy oil. Fast ferries travel in excess of 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph); conventional ferries travel in excess of 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph), but are slower than fast ferries.A typical ferry ride between La Palma and Tenerife may take up to eight hours or more while a fast ferry takes about two and a half hours and between Tenerife and Gran Canaria can be about one hour. The largest airport is theGran Canaria Airport. Tenerife has two airports,Tenerife North AirportandTenerife South Airport.The island of Tenerife gathers the highest passenger movement of all the Canary Islands through its two airports.The two main islands (Tenerife and Gran Canaria) receive the greatest number of passengers.Tenerife 6,204,499 passengers and Gran Canaria 5,011,176 passengers. Theport of Las Palmasis first in freight traffic in the islands,while theport of Santa Cruz de Tenerifeis the first fishing port with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Spanish government publication","publication Statistical Yearbook of State Ports. Similarly, it is the second port in Spain as regards ship traffic, only surpassed by thePort of AlgecirasBay.The port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. The port ofLos Cristianos(Tenerife) has the greatest number of passengers recorded in the Canary Islands, followed by the port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife.The Port of Las Palmas is the third port in the islands in passengers and first in number of vehicles transported. TheSS Americawas beached at the Canary islands on 18 January 1994. However, the ocean liner broke apart after the course of several years and eventually sank beneath the surface. Rail transport TheTenerife Tramopened in 2007 and is currently the only one in the Canary Islands, travelling between the cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandSan Cristóbal de La Laguna.","de La Laguna. Three more railway lines are being planned for the Canary Islands: Airports Ports Health TheServicio Canario de Saludis an autonomous body of administrative nature attached to the Ministry responsible for Health of the Government of the Canary Islands. Wildlife Fauna The bird life includes European and African species, such as theblack-bellied sandgrouse,Canary, Graja, a subspecies ofred-billed choughendemic to La Palma,Gran Canaria blue chaffinch,Tenerife blue chaffinch,Canary Islands chiffchaff,Fuerteventura chat,Tenerife goldcrest,La Palma chaffinch,Canarian Egyptian vulture,Bolle's pigeon,Laurel pigeon,Plain swift, andHoubara bustard. Terrestrial fauna includes theEl Hierro giant lizard,Tachina canariensis,La Gomera giant lizard, and theLa Palma giant lizard. Mammals include theCanarian shrew,Canary big-eared bat, theAlgerian hedgehog, and the more recently introducedmouflon. Extinct fauna The Canary Islands were previously inhabited by a variety of endemic animals, such as extinct giant","as extinct giant lizards (Gallotia goliath), giant tortoises (Centrochelys burchardiandC. vulcanica),andTenerifeandGran Canariagiant rats (Canariomys bravoiandC. tamarani),among others. Extinct birds known only fromPleistoceneandHoloceneage bones include theCanary Islands quail(Coturnix gomerae),Dune shearwater(Puffinus holeae),Lava shearwater(P. olsoni),Trias greenfinch(Chloris triasi),Slender-billed greenfinch(C. aurelioi) and theLong-legged bunting(Emberiza alcoveri). Marine life Themarine lifefound in the Canary Islands is also varied, being a combination ofNorth Atlantic,Mediterraneanandendemicspecies. In recent years, the increasing popularity of bothscuba divingandunderwater photographyhave provided biologists with much new information on the marine life of the islands. Fish species found in the islands include many species ofshark,ray,moray eel,bream,jack,grunt,scorpionfish,triggerfish,grouper,goby, andblenny. In addition, there are many invertebrate species,","species, includingsponge,jellyfish,anemone,crab,mollusc,sea urchin,starfish,sea cucumberandcoral. There are a total of five different species ofmarine turtlethat are sighted periodically in the islands, the most common of these being theendangeredloggerhead sea turtle.The other four are thegreen sea turtle,hawksbill sea turtle,leatherback sea turtleandKemp's ridley sea turtle. Currently, there are no signs that any of these species breed in the islands, and so those seen in the water are usuallymigrating. However, it is believed that some of these species may have bred in the islands in the past, and there are records of several sightings of leatherback sea turtle on beaches in Fuerteventura, adding credibility to the theory. Marine mammals include the large varieties ofcetaceansincluding rare and not well-known species (see more details in theMarine life of the Canary Islands).Hooded sealshave also been known to be vagrant in the Canary Islands every now and then. The Canary Islands were also formerly home","also formerly home to a population of the rarestpinnipedin the world, theMediterranean monk seal. Native flora gallery Holidays Some holidays of those celebrated in the Canary Islands are international and national, others are regional holidays and others are of insular character. The official day of the autonomous community isCanary Islands Dayon 30 May. The anniversary of the first session of theParliament of the Canary Islands, based in the city ofSanta Cruz de Tenerife, held on 30 May 1983, is commemorated with this day. The common festive calendar throughout the Canary Islands is as follows: In addition, each of the islands has an island festival, in which it is a holiday only on that specific island. These are the festivities of island patrons saints of each island. Organized chronologically are: The most famous festivals of the Canary Islands is the carnival. It is the most famous and international festival of the archipelago. The carnival is celebrated in all the islands and all its municipalities,","its municipalities, perhaps the two busiest are those of the two Canarian capitals; theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife(Tourist Festival of International Interest) and theCarnival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. It is celebrated on the streets between the months of February and March. But the rest of the islands of the archipelago have their carnivals with their own traditions among which stand out: The Festival of the Carneros ofEl Hierro, the Festival of the Diabletes ofTeguiseinLanzarote, Los Indianos deLa Palma, the Carnival ofSan Sebastián de La Gomeraand the Carnival ofPuerto del RosarioinFuerteventura. Science and technology In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14ground stationsin theManned Space Flight Network(MSFN) to support theNASAspace program.Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including theApollo 11Moon landings andSkylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of","as part of theESAnetwork. Because of the remote location, a number ofastronomical observatoriesare located in the archipelago, including theTeide Observatoryon Tenerife, theRoque de los Muchachos Observatoryon La Palma, and theTemisas Astronomical Observatoryon Gran Canaria. Tenerife is the home of theInstituto de Astrofísica de Canarias(Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González (Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at theUniversity of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades","de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). The latter is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\"), located in various parts of Spain. The Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands) is based in Tenerife. Sports A unique form of wrestling known asCanarian wrestling(lucha canaria) has opponents stand in a special area called a \"terrero\" and try to throw each other to the ground using strength and quick movements. Another sport is the \"game of the sticks\" (palo canario) where opponents fence with long sticks. This may have come about from the shepherds of the islands who would challenge each other using their long walking sticks. Furthermore, there is theshepherd's jump(salto del pastor). This involves using a long stick to vault over an open area. This sport possibly evolved from the shepherd's need to occasionally get over an open area","over an open area in the hills as they were tending their sheep. The two mainfootballteams in the archipelago are: theCD Tenerife(founded in 1912) andUD Las Palmas(founded in 1949). As of the 2023/2024 season, UD Las Palmas plays in La Liga, the top tier of Spanish football. CD Tenerife however plays in The Segunda Divisón. When in the same division, the clubs contest theCanary Islands derby. There are smaller clubs also playing in the mainlandSpanish football league system, most notablyUD LanzaroteandCD Laguna, although no other Canarian clubs have played in the top flight. The mountainous terrain of the Canary Islands also caters to the growing popularity ofultra runningandultramarathonsas host of annual competitive long-distance events includingCajaMar Tenerife BluetrailonTenerife,TransvulcaniaonLa Palma,TransgrancanariaonGran Canaria, and the HalfMarathon des SablesonFuerteventura. A yearlyIronman Triathlonhas been taking place onLanzarotesince 1992. Notable athletes See also History Geography Culture","Geography Culture References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links","Tenerife Tenerife(/ˌtɛnəˈriːf/TEN-ə-REEF;Spanish:ⓘ; formerly spelledTeneriffe) is the largest and most populous island of theCanary Islands.It is home to 42.9% of the total population of thearchipelago.With a land area of 2,034.38 square kilometres (785.48 sq mi) and a population of 948,815 inhabitants as of January 2023,it is also the most populous island ofSpainand ofMacaronesia. Approximately five million tourists visit Tenerife each year; it is the most visited island in the archipelago.It is one of the most important tourist destinations in Spainand the world,hosting one of the world's largestcarnivals, theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The capital of the island,Santa Cruz de Tenerife, is also the seat of the island council (cabildo insular). That city andLas Palmas de Gran Canariaare the co-capitals of theautonomous communityof theCanary Islands. The two cities are both home to governmental institutions, such as the offices of the presidency and the ministries. This has been the arrangement since","arrangement since 1927, when the Crown ordered it. (After the1833 territorial division of Spain, until 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands).Santa Cruz contains the modernAuditorio de Tenerife, the architectural symbol of the Canary Islands. The island is home to theUniversity of La Laguna. Founded in 1792 inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, it is the oldest university in the Canaries. The city of La Laguna is aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. It is the second most populous city on the island, and the third most populous in the archipelago. It was the capital of the Canary Islands before Santa Cruz replaced it in 1833.Tenerife is served by two airports;Tenerife North AirportandTenerife South Airport. Teide National Park, located in the center of the island, is also a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site. It includesMount Teide, which has the highest elevation in Spain, and the highest elevation among all the islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It is also the third-largest volcano in the world, when","in the world, when measured from its base.Another geographical feature of the island, theMacizo de Anaga(massif), has been designated as a UNESCOBiosphere Reservesince 2015.Tenerife also has the largest number ofendemicspecies in Europe. Toponymy The name 'Tenerife' likely comes fromTamazight, but there is no consensus on its correct interpretation. The island'sindigenous people, theGuancheBerbers, referred to the island asAchinetorChenetintheir language(variant spellings are found in the literature). According toPliny the Younger,BerberkingJuba IIsent an expedition to the Canary Islands andMadeira; he named the Canary Islands for the particularly ferocious dogs (canaria) on the island.Juba II and theancient Romanscalled the island of TenerifeNivaria, from theLatinwordnix(nsg.;gsg.nivis,npl.nives), meaning \"snow\", after the snow-covered peak of the Mount Teide volcano.Later maps dating to the 14th and 15th century, drawn by mapmakers such as Bontier and Le Verrier, called the islandIsla del Infierno, (\"Hell","Infierno, (\"Hell Island\"), due to Mount Teide's volcanic eruptions and other volcanic activity. Although the name given to the island by theBenahoaritas(the indigenous peoples of La Palma) was derived from the wordsteni(\"mountain\") andife(\"white\"),after the island was colonized by the Spanish the name was modified by Spanish phonology: the letter \"r\" was added to link the two words, producing the single word Tenerife. However, throughout history, other explanations for the origin of island's name have been proposed. For example, the 17th-century historiansJuan Núñez de la PeñaandTomás Arias Marín de Cubas, among others, suggested that the indigenous peoples might have named the island for the famous Guanche king,Tinerfe, nicknamed \"the Great\", who ruled Tenerife before theCanary Islandswere conquered byCastile. Demonym The formaldemonymused to refer to the people of Tenerife isTinerfeño/a; also used colloquially is the termchicharrero/a.In modern society, the latter term is generally applied only to","applied only to inhabitants of the capital, Santa Cruz. The termchicharrerowas once aderogatoryterm used by the people ofLa Lagunawhen it was the capital, to refer to the poorer inhabitants and fishermen of Santa Cruz. The fishermen typically caughtmackereland other residents atepotatoes, assumed to be of low quality by the elite of La Laguna.As Santa Cruz grew in commerce and status, it replaced La Laguna as capital of Tenerife in 1833 during the reign ofFernando VII. Then the inhabitants of Santa Cruz used the former insult to identify as residents of the new capital, at La Laguna's expense. History The earliest known human settlement in the islands, dating to around 200BCE, was established byBerbersknown as theGuanches.However, theCave of the Guanchesin the northern municipality ofIcod de los Vinoshas provided the oldest chronologies of the Canary Islands, with dates around the sixth century BCE. In terms of technology, the Guanches can be placed among the peoples of theStone Age, although scholars often","scholars often reject this classification because of its ambiguity. Guanche culture was more advanced culturally, possibly because of Berber cultural features imported from North Africa, but less technologically advanced due to the scarcity of raw materials, especially minerals that would have allowed for the extraction and working of metals. The main activity was gathering food from nature; though fishing and shellfish collection were supplemented with some agricultural practices. As for religion andcosmology, the Guanches werepolytheistic, with further widespread belief in anastral cult. They also had ananimisticreligiosity that sacralized certain places, mainly rocks and mountains. Although the Guanches worshiped many gods and ancestral spirits, among the most important wereAchamán(the god of the sky and supreme creator),Chaxiraxi(the mother goddess, identified later with theVirgin of Candelaria),Magec(the god of the sun), andGuayota(the demon who is the main cause of evil). Especially significant was the","significant was the cult of the dead, which practiced themummificationof corpses. In addition, smallanthropomorphicandzoomorphicstone and clay figurines of the kind typically associated with rituals have been found on the island. Scholars believe they were used as idols, the most prominent of which is the so-calledIdol of Guatimac, which is thought to represent a genius or protective spirit. Territorial organisation before the conquest (The Guanches) The title ofmenceywas given to the monarch or king of the Guanches of Tenerife, who governed amenceyatoor kingdom. This role was later referred to as a \"captainship\" by the conquerors.Tinerfe \"the Great\", son of themenceySunta, governed the island from Adeje in the south. However, upon his death, his nine children rebelled and argued bitterly about how to divide the island. Two independentachimenceyatoswere created on the island, and the island was divided into ninemenceyatos. Themenceyeswithin them formed what would be similar to municipalities","to municipalities today.Themenceyatosand theirmenceyes(ordered by the names of descendants of Tinerfe who ruled them) were the following: The achimenceyato ofPunta del Hidalgowas governed by Aguahuco, a \"poor noble\" who was an illegitimate son of Tinerfe and Zebenzui. Spanish conquest Tenerife was the last island of the Canaries to be conquered and the one that took the longest time to submit to the Castilian troops. Although the traditional dates of the conquest of Tenerife are established between 1494 (landing of Alonso Fernández de Lugo) and 1496 (the complete conquest of the island), attempts to annex the island of Tenerife to theCrown of Castiledate back at least to 1464. In 1464,Diego Garcia de Herrera, Lord of the Canary Islands, took symbolic possession of the island in theBarranco del Bufadero(Ravine of the Bufadero),signing a peace treaty with the Guanche chiefs (menceyes) which allowed themenceyAnaga to build a fortified tower on Guanche land, where the Guanches and the Spanish held periodic","held periodic treaty talks until the Guanches demolished it around 1472. In 1492 the governor of Gran Canaria Francisco Maldonado organized a raid that ended in disaster for the Spaniards when they were defeated by Anaga's warriors. In December 1493, the Catholic monarchs, Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, grantedAlonso Fernández de Lugothe right to conquer Tenerife. Coming fromGran Canariain April 1494, the conqueror landed on the coast of present-day Santa Cruz de Tenerife in May, and disembarked with about 2,000 men on foot and 200 on horseback.After taking the fort, the army prepared to move inland, later capturing the native kings of Tenerife and presenting them toIsabella and Ferdinand. Themenceyesof Tenerife had differing responses to the conquest. They divided into theside of peace(Spanish:bando de paz) and theside of war(Spanish:bando de guerra). The first included themenceyatosof Anaga, Güímar, Abona and Adeje. The second group consisted of the people of Tegueste,","people of Tegueste, Tacoronte, Taoro, Icoden and Daute. Those opposed to the conquest fought the invaders tenaciously, resisting their rule for two years. Castillian forces under theAdelantado(\"military governor\") de Lugo suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Guanches in theFirst Battle of Acentejoon 31 May 1494, but defeated them at theSecond Battle of Acentejoon 25 December 1494. The Guanches were eventually overcome by superior technology and the arms of the invaders, and surrendered to the Crown of Castile in 1496. Spanish rule Many of the natives died from new infectious diseases, such asinfluenzaand probablysmallpox, to which they lacked resistance or acquiredimmunity. The new colonists intermarried with the local native population. For a century after the conquest, many new colonists settled on the island, including immigrants from the diverse territories of the growingSpanish Empire, such asFlanders, Italy, and Germany. As the population grew, it cleared Tenerife's pine forests for fuel and","for fuel and to make fields for agriculture for crops both for local consumption and for export.Sugar canewas introduced in the 1520s as a commodity crop on major plantations; it was a labor-intensive crop in all phases of cultivation and processing. In the following centuries, planters cultivated wine grapes,cochinealfor making dyes, andplantainsfor use and export. Trade with the Americas In the commerce of the Canary Islands with the Americas of the 18th century, Tenerife was the hegemonic island, since it exceeded 50% of the number of ships and 60% of the tonnage. In the islands ofLa PalmaandGran Canaria, the percentage was around 19% for the first and 7% for the second.The volume of traffic between the Indies and the Canary Islands was unknown, but was very important and concentrated almost exclusively in Tenerife. Among the products that are exported werecochineal,rumandsugar cane, which were landed mainly in the ports of the Americas such asLa Guaira,Havana,CampecheandVeracruz. Many sailors from","Many sailors from Tenerife joined this transcontinental maritime trade, among which the corsairAmaro Rodríguez Felipe, more commonly known asAmaro Pargo, Juan Pedro Dujardín and Bernardo de Espinosa, both companions of Amaro Pargo, among others. Emigration to the Americas Tenerife, like the other islands, has maintained a close relationship with Latin America, as both were part of the Spanish Empire. From the start of the colonization of theNew World, many Spanish expeditions stopped at the island for supplies on their way to the Americas. They also recruited manytinerfeñosfor their crews, who formed an integral part of the conquest expeditions. Others joined ships in search of better prospects. It is also important to note the exchange in plant and animal species that made those voyages. After a century and a half of relative growth, based on thegrape growingsector, numerous families emigrated, especially toVenezuelaandCuba. TheCrownwanted to encourage population of underdeveloped zones in the Americas to","in the Americas to pre-empt the occupation by foreign forces, as had happened with the English inJamaicaand the French in theGuianasand westernHispaniola(which the French renamed as Saint-Domingue). Canary Islanders, including manytinerfeños,left for the New World. The success in cultivation of new crops of the Americas, such ascocoain Venezuela and tobacco in Cuba, contributed to the population exodus from towns such as Buenavista del Norte, Vilaflor, or El Sauzal in the late 17th century. The village ofSan Carlos de Tenerifewas founded in 1684 by Canary Islanders onSanto Domingo. The people from Tenerife were recruited for settlement to build up the town from encroachment by French colonists established in the western side of Hispaniola. Between 1720 and 1730, the Crown moved 176 families, including manytinerfeños,to the Caribbean island ofPuerto Rico. In 1726, about 25 island families migrated to the Americas to collaborate on the foundation ofMontevideo. Four years later, in 1730, another group left that","group left that foundedSan Antoniothe following year in what becameTexas. Between 1777 and 1783, more islanders emigrated from Santa Cruz de Tenerife to settle in what becameSt. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, during the period when Spain ruled this former French territory west of the Mississippi River. Some groups went to Western or Spanish Florida. Tenerife saw the arrival of theFirst FleettoBotany Bayin June 1787, which consisted of 11 ships that departed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The Fleet consisted of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and sixconvict shipscarrying between 1,000 and 1,500 convicts, marines, seamen, civil officers and free people (accounts differ on the numbers), and a vast quantity of stores. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz at Tenerife. Here, fresh water, vegetables and meat were brought on board. Commander of the fleet, Capt.Arthur Phillipand the chief officers were","chief officers were entertained by the local governor, while one convict tried unsuccessfully to escape. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents. In June 1799, the Prussian-born naturalistAlexander von Humboldtspent five full days on Tenerife on the first leg of his soon world-famous American journey (1799–1804) and climbed the Pico del Teide. Emigration to the Americas (mainly Cuba and Venezuela) continued during the 19th and early 20th century, due to the lack of economic opportunity and the relative isolation of the Canary Islands. Since the late 20th century, island protectionist economic laws and a strong development in the tourism industry have strengthened the economy and attracted new migrants. Tenerife has received numerous new residents, including the \"return\" of many descendants of some islanders who had departed five centuries before. Military history The most notable conflict was theBritish invasion of","invasion of Tenerifein 1797.On 25 July 1797, AdmiralHoratio Nelsonlaunched an attack at Santa Cruz de Tenerife, now the capital of the island. After a ferocious fight which resulted in many casualties, GeneralAntonio Gutiérrez de Otero y Santayanaorganized a defense to repel the invaders. Whilst leading a landing party, Nelson was seriously wounded in his right arm by grapeshot or a musket ball, necessitating amputation of most of the arm.Legend tells that he was wounded by the Spanish cannonTiger(Spanish:Tigre) as he was trying to disembark on the Paso Alto coast. On 5 September 1797, the British attempted another attack in the Puerto Santiago region, which was repelled by the inhabitants ofSantiago del Teide. Some threw rocks at the British from the heights of the cliffs ofLos Gigantes. The island was also attacked by British commandersRobert Blake,Walter Raleigh,John HawkinsandWoodes Rogers. Modern history From 1833 to 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, the","In 1927, the government ordered that the capital be shared withLas Palmas, as it remains at present.This change in status has encouraged development in Las Palmas. Tourists began visiting Tenerife from Spain, the United Kingdom, and northern Europe in large numbers in the 1890s. They especially were attracted to the destinations of the northern towns ofPuerto de la Cruzand Santa Cruz de Tenerife.Independent shipping business, such as the Yeoward Brothers Shipping Line, helped boost the tourist industry during this time, adding to ships that carried passengers.The naturalistAlexander von Humboldtascended the peak of Mount Teide and remarked on the beauty of the island. Before his rise to power,Francisco Francowas posted to Tenerife in March 1936 by a Republican government wary of his influence and political leanings. However, Franco received information and in Gran Canaria agreed to collaborate in the military coup that would result in theSpanish Civil War; the Canaries fell to the Nationalists in July 1936.","in July 1936. In the 1950s, the misery of the post-war years caused thousands of the island's inhabitants to emigrate toCubaand other parts of Latin America. Tenerife was the site of the deadliest accident ever in commercial aviation. TheTenerife airport disasteroccurred on 27 March 1977 when twoBoeing 747s,KLMFlight 4805 andPan AmFlight 1736 collided on the runway atLos Rodeos Airportin heavy fog conditions, causing the deaths of 583 passengers and crew. A few years later,Dan Air Flight 1008crashed into a mountain while on approach to Tenerife North, killing 146 people. The plane was travelling too close to an Iberia Air turboprop plane and was asked to go into a holding pattern. At the beginning of the 21st century, the so-calledRiada de Tenerife of 2002took place on 31 March of that year. It was a phenomenon of cold drop characterized by the repeated fall of torrential rains accompanied by thunder and lightning, affecting themetropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerifeand extending in the NE direction","in the NE direction towards theSan Andrésarea.The rains caused 8 dead, 12 missing and dozens of injured.In addition to the human losses, the flood caused considerable material damage, 70,000 people without light as well as the total or partial destruction of at least 400 homes. The losses were calculated at 90 million euros. In November 2005, Tenerife was the Canary Island most affected byTropical Storm Delta. Winds of 140 km/h were recorded on the coast and almost 250 km/h on theTeide, Tenerife's summit. Geography The oldest mountain ranges in Tenerife rose from the Atlantic Ocean by volcanic eruption which gave birth to the island around twelve million years ago.The island as it is today was formed three million years ago by the fusion of three islands made up of the mountain ranges ofAnaga,TenoandValle de San Lorenzo,due to volcanic activity fromTeide. The volcano is visible from most parts of the island today, and the crater is 17 kilometres (11 miles) long at some points. Tenerife is the largest island","the largest island of the Canary Islands and theMacaronesiaregion. Climate Tenerife is characterized by a generally dry, warm climate. The island has 2 main different climatic areas (as byKöppen climate classification) yet it actually has 5 different climatic areas. Global climate change has had a major impact on the island, with diminishing rainfall and hot, dry winds affecting vegetation and contributing to an increasing propensity to being subject to forest fires. On August 15, 2023, a forest fire determined to be caused by arson necessitated the evacuation of 12,000 residents within a week. The main climates are the hot semi-arid/arid climate (Köppen:BShandBWh) and thesubtropicalMediterranean Climate(Köppen:CsbandCsa) inland or at higher altitudes. The low altitude/coastal areas of the island have average temperatures of 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) in the winter months and 24–26 °C (75–79 °F) in the summer months. There is a high annual total of days of sunshine and low precipitation in the coastal areas. The","coastal areas. The inland/high altitude areas, such asLa Laguna, receive much more precipitation and are generally cloudier, as well as the temperatures have a considerable difference, with an average of 13–14 °C (55–57 °F) in the winter and 20–21 °C (68–70 °F) in the summer. The moderate climate of Tenerife is controlled to a great extent by thetrade winds, whosehumidityis condensed principally over the north and northeast of the island, creating cloud banks that range between 600 and 1,800 metres (2,000 and 5,900 feet) in height. The cold sea currents of the Canary Islands also have a cooling effect on the coasts and its beaches, while the topography of the landscape plays a role in climatic differences on the island with its many valleys. The moderating effect of the marine air makes extreme heat a rare occurrence and frost an impossibility at sea level. The lowest recorded temperature in central Santa Cruz is 8.1 °C (46.6 °F), the coldest month on record still had a relatively mild average temperature of","temperature of 15.8 °C (60.4 °F).Summer temperatures are highest in August, with an average high of 29 °C (84 °F) in Santa Cruz, similar to those of places as far north asBarcelonaandMajorca, because of the greater maritime influence. At a higher elevation inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, the climate transitions to aMediterranean climatewith higher precipitation amounts and lower temperatures year round. The climate of Santa Cruz is very typical of the Canaries, albeit only slightly warmer than theclimateof Las Palmas. Major climatic contrasts on the island are evident, especially during the winter months when it is possible to enjoy the warm sunshine on the coast and experience snow within kilometres, 3,000 metres (10,000 feet)above sea levelon ElTeide.There are also major contrasts at low altitude, where the climate ranges fromarid(KöppenBWh) on the southeastern side represented by Santa Cruz de Tenerife toMediterranean(Csa/Csb) on the northwestern side in Buena Vista del Norte and La Orotava. The center of","The center of the island is characterized by forests because of the much higher precipitation, mostlyCanary Island pineforests in theTeide National Parkat altitudes from 1,300 to 2,100 metres (4,300 to 6,900 ft).Subtropicalcloud forestscharacterised bylaurisilvaare commonly found in the Anaga National Park and Monte de Agua in the Teno Rural Park, with altitudes from 600 to 1,000 metres (2,000 to 3,300 ft) and annual averages from 15 to 19 °C (59 to 66 °F) and 600 to 1,200 metres (2,000 to 3,900 ft) in the latter. The north and south of Tenerife similarly have different climatic characteristics because of therain shadoweffect. The windward northwestern side of the island receives 73 percent of all precipitation on the island, and the relative humidity of the air is superior and the insolation inferior. The pluviometric maximums are registered on the windward side at an average altitude of between 1,000 and 1,200 metres (3,300 and 3,900 feet), almost exclusively in theLa Orotavamountain range.Although","range.Although climatic differences in rainfall and sunshine on the island exist, overall annualprecipitationis low and the summer months from May to September are normally completely dry. Rainfall, similar to that ofSouthern California, can also be extremely erratic from one year to another. Water The volcanic ground of Tenerife, which is of aporousand permeable character, is generally the reason why the soil is able to maximise the absorption of water on an island of low rainfall, withcondensationin forested areas and frost deposition on the summit of the island also contributory causes. Given the irregularity of precipitation and geological conditions on the island, dam construction has been avoided, so most of the water (90 percent) comes fromwellsand from water galleries (horizontal tunnels bored into the volcano) of which there are thousands on the island, important systems that serve to extract its hydrological resources.These tunnels are very hazardous, with pockets of volcanic gas orcarbon dioxide,","orcarbon dioxide, causing rapid death. Pollution and air quality The Canary Islands have low levels of air pollution thanks to the lack of factories and industry and the trade winds which naturally move away contaminated air from the islands. According to official data offered by the Health and Industry Ministry in Spain, Tenerife is one of the cleanest places in the country with an air pollution index below the national average.Despite this, there are still agents which affect pollution levels in the island, the mainpolluting agentsbeing therefinery at Santa Cruz, thethermal powerplants atLas CaletillasandGranadilla, and road traffic, increased by the high level of tourism in the island. In addition on the island of Tenerife like on La Palma light pollution must be also controlled, to help theastrophysical observatorieslocated in the island's summits.Water is generally of a very high quality, and all the beaches of the island of Tenerife have been catalogued by the Ministry of Health and Consumption as","and Consumption as waters suitable for bathing. Geology Tenerife is a rugged volcanic island, sculpted by successive eruptions throughout its history. There are four historically recorded volcanic eruptions, none of which has led to casualties. The first occurred in 1704, when the Arafo, Fasnia and Siete Fuentes volcanoes erupted simultaneously. Two years later, in 1706, the greatest eruption occurred at Trevejo. This volcano produced great quantities oflavawhich buried the city and port ofGarachico. The last eruption of the 18th century happened in 1798 at Cañadas de Teide, inChahorra. The most recent eruption-in 1909-formed the Chinyero cinder cone in the municipality ofSantiago del Teide. The island is located between 28° and 29° N and the 16° and 17° W meridian. It is situated north of theTropic of Cancer, occupying a central position between the other Canary Islands ofGran Canaria,La GomeraandLa Palma. The island is about 300 km (186 mi) from the African coast, and approximately 1,000 km (621 mi) from","km (621 mi) from theIberian Peninsula.Tenerife is the largest island of the Canary Islands archipelago, with a surface area of 2,034.38 km2(785 sq mi)and has the longest coastline, amounting to 342 km (213 mi). In addition, the highest point, Mount Teide, with an elevation of 3,715 m (12,188 ft)above sea levelis the highest point in all of Spain,is also the third largest volcano in the world from its base in the bottom of the sea. For this reason, Tenerife is the10th-highest island worldwide. It comprises about 200 small barren islets or large rocks includingRoques de Anaga,Roque de Garachico, andFasniaadding a further 213,835 m2(2,301,701 sq ft) to the total area. Origins and geological formation Tenerife is a volcanic island that has built up from the ocean floor during the last 20 million years. Underwater fissural eruptions producedpillow lava, which are produced by the rapid cooling of the magma when it comes in contact with water, obtaining their peculiar shape. This pillow-lava accumulated,","accumulated, constructing the base of the island underneath the sea. As this accumulation approached the surface of the water, gases erupted from the magma due to the reduction of the surrounding pressure. The volcanic eruptions became more violent and had a more explosive character, and resulted in the forming of peculiar geological fragments. After long-term accumulation of these fragments, the birth of the island occurred at the end of theMiocene epoch. The zones on Tenerife known asMacizo de Teno,Macizo de AnagaandMacizo de Adejewere formed seven million years ago; these formations are called theAncient Basaltic SeriesorSeries I. These zones were actually three separate islands lying in what is now the extreme west, east, and south of Tenerife. A second volcanic cycle called thePost-Miocene FormationsorLatest Series II, III, IVbegan three million years ago. This was a much more intense volcanic cycle, which united the Macizo de Teno, Macizo de Anaga and Macizo de Adeje into one island. This new","island. This new structure, called thePre-Cañadas Structure(Edificio pre-Cañadas), would be the foundation for what is called theCañadas Structure I. The Cañadas Structure I experienced various collapses and emitted explosive material that produced the area known asBandas del sur(in the present-day south-southeast of Tenerife). Subsequently, upon the ruins of Cañadas Structure I emergedCañadas Structure II, which was 2,500 metres (8,200 ft)above sea leveland emerged with intense explosive activity. About one million years ago, the Dorsal Range (Cordillera Dorsal) emerged by means of fissural volcanic activity occurring amidst the remains of the older Ancient Basaltic Series (Series I). This Dorsal Range emerged as the highest and the longest volcanic structure in the Canary Islands; it was 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) high and 25 kilometres (16 mi) long. About 800,000 years ago, two gravitationallandslidesoccurred, giving rise to the present-day valleys of La Orotava and Güímar.Finally, around 200,000 years ago,","200,000 years ago, the giant Icod landslide occurred followed by eruptions that raised thePico Viejo-Teidein the centre of the island, over theLas Cañadas caldera. Orography and landscape The uneven and steeporographyof the island and its variety of climates has resulted in a diversity of landscapes and geographical and geological formations, from the Teide National Park with its extensivepineforests, juxtaposed against the volcanic landscape at the summit of Teide andMalpaís de Güímar, to the Acantilados de Los Gigantes (Cliffs of the Giants) with its vertical precipices. Semidesert areas exist in the south with drought-resistant plants. Other areas range from those protected and enclosed in mountains such as Montaña Roja and Montaña Pelada, the valleys and forests with subtropical vegetation and climate, to those with deep gorges and precipices such as at Anaga and Teno. Central heights The principal structures in Tenerife, make the central highlands, with the Teide–Pico Viejocomplex and the Las Cañadas","and the Las Cañadas areas as most prominent. It comprises a semi-calderaof about 130 km2(50 sq mi) in area, originated by several geological processes explained under theOrigin and formationsection. The area is partially occupied by the Teide-Pico Viejo strato-volcano and completed by the materials emitted in the different eruptions that took place. A known formation calledLos Azulejos, composed by green-tinted rocks were created by hydrothermal processes. South of La Caldera isGuajara Mountain, which has an elevation of 2,718 metres (8,917 feet), rising above Teide National Park. At the bottom, is anendorheic basinflanked with very fine sedimentary material which has been deposited from its volcanic processes, and is known as Llano de Ucanca. The peak ofTeide, at 3,715 metres (12,188 feet)above sea leveland more than 7,500 metres (24,606 feet) above the ocean floor, is the highest point of the island, Spanish territory and in the Atlantic Ocean. The volcano is the third largest on the planet, and its","the planet, and its central location,substantial size, looming silhouette in the distance and its snowy landscape in winter give it a unique nature.The original settlers considered Teide a god and Teide was a place of worship. In 1954, the whole area around it was declared anational park, with further expansion later on. In addition, in June 2007 it was recognised byUNESCOas aWorld Heritage site.To the west lies the volcanoPico Viejo(Old Peak). On one side of it, is the volcano Chahorra o Narices del Teide, where the last eruption occurred in the vicinity of Mount Teide in 1798. The Teide is one of the 16Decade Volcanoesidentified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. Tallest mountains on Tenerife: Massifs The Anaga massif (Macizo de Anaga), at the northeastern end of the island, has an irregular and rugged topographical","topographical profile where, despite its generally modest elevations, the Cruz de Taborno reaches a height of 1,024 metres (3,360 feet). Due to the age of its material (5.7 million years), its deep erosive processes, and the dense network ofdikespiercing the massif, its surface exposes numerous outcroppings of bothphonoliticandtrachyticorigin. A large number of steep-walled gorges are present, penetrating deeply into the terrain. Vertical cuts dominate the Anagan coast, with infrequent beaches of rocks or black sand between them; the few that exist generally coincide with the mouths of gorges. The Teno massif (Macizo de Teno) is located on the northwestern edge of the island. Like Anaga, it includes an area of outcroppings and deep gorges formed by erosion. However, the materials here are older (about 7.4 million years old). Mount Gala represents its highest elevation at 1,342 metres (4,403 feet). The most unusual landscape of this massif is found on its southern coast, where theAcantilados de Los","de Los Gigantes(\"Cliffs of the Giants\") present vertical walls reaching heights of 500 metres (1,600 feet) in some places. The Adeje massif (Macizo de Adeje) is situated on the southern tip of the island. Its main landmark is the Roque del Conde (\"Count's Rock\"), with an elevation of 1,001 metres (3,284 feet). This massif is not as impressive as the others due to its diminished initial structure, since in addition to with the site's greater geologic age it has experienced severe erosion of its material, thereby losing its original appearance and extent. Dorsals The Dorsal mountainridgeorDorsal of Pedro Gilcovers the area from the start at Mount La Esperanza, at a height of about 750 m (2,461 ft), to the center of the island, near theCaldera de Las Cañadas, with Izaña, as its highest point at 2,390 m (7,841 ft) (MSLP). These mountains have been created due to basaltic fissural volcanism through one of the axis that gave birth to the vulcanism of this area. The Abeque Dorsal was formed by a chain of volcanoes","chain of volcanoes that join the Teno with the central insular peak of Teide-Pico Viejo starting from another of the three axis of Tenerife's geological structures. On this dorsal we find the historic volcano of Chinyero whose last eruption happened in 1909. The South Dorsal orDorsal of Adejeis part of the last of the structural axis. The remains of this massive rock show the primordial land, also showing the alignment of small volcanic cones and rocks around this are in Tenerife's South. Valleys and ravines Valleysare another of the island's features. The most important areValle de La OrotavaandValle de Güímar, both formed by the mass sliding of great quantities of material towards the sea, creating a depression of the land. Other valleys tend to be between hills formed by deposits of sediments from nearby slopes, or simply wide ravines which in their evolution have become typical valleys. Tenerife has a large number of ravines, which are a characteristic element of the landscape, caused by erosion","caused by erosion fromsurface runoffover a long period. Notable ravines include Ruiz, Fasnia and Güímar,Infierno, and Erques, all of which have been designated protected natural areas by Canarian institutions. Coastline The coasts of Tenerife are typically rugged and steep, particularly on the north of the island. However, the island has 67.14 kilometres (41.72 miles) of beaches, such as the one atEl Médano, surpassed only in this respect by the island ofFuerteventura.There are many black sand pebble beaches on the northern coast, while on the south and south-west coast of the island, the beaches have typically much finer and clearer sand with lighter tones. Volcanic tubes Lava tubesare volcanic caves usually in the form of tunnels formed within lava flows more or less fluid reogenética duration of the activity. Among the many existing volcanic tubes on the island stands out theCueva del Viento, located in the northern town ofIcod de los Vinos, which is the largest volcanic tunnel in theEuropean Unionand one","Unionand one of the largest in the world, for a long time considered the largest in the world. Flora and fauna The island of Tenerife has a remarkableecosystem diversityin spite of its small surface area, which is a consequence of the special environmental conditions on the island, where its distinct orography modifies the general climatic conditions at a local level, producing a significant variety ofmicroclimates. This diversity of microclimates allows some 1400 species of plants to exist on the island, with well over 100 of these endemic to Tenerife.The fauna of Tenerife includes some 400 species of fish, 56 birds, five reptiles, two amphibians, 13 land mammals, thousands of invertebrates, and several species of sea turtles and cetaceans. The vegetation of Tenerife can be divided into six major zones that are directly related to altitude and the direction in which they face. Prehistoric fauna Before the arrival of humans, the Canary Islands were inhabited by certain endemic animals, now mostly extinct.","now mostly extinct. These animals reachedlarger than usual sizes, because of a phenomenon calledisland gigantism. Among these species, the best known in Tenerife were: Protected natural areas Nearly half of the island territory (48.6 percent),is under protection from theRed Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos(Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,a total of 43 are located in Tenerife, the most protected island in the group.The network has criteria which places areas under its observation under eight different categories of protection, all of them are represented in Tenerife. Aside fromParque Nacional del Teide, it counts the Parque Natural de Canarias (Crown Forest), two rural parks (Anaga and Teno), four integral natural reserves, six special natural reserves, a total of fourteen natural monuments, nine protected landscapes and up to six sites of scientific interest. Also located on the islandMacizo de","the islandMacizo de Anagasince 2015 isBiosphere Reserveand is the place that has the largest number of endemic species in Europe. In contrast to the land-based protected areas, Tenerife also boasts significant marine protected natural areas. Among these is the Zona de Especial Conservación Teno-Rasca (Teno-Rasca Special Area of Conservation), a marine protected area established in 2013.This marine protected area off the coast of Tenerife is known for its ecological significance and biodiversity, including resident populations of cetaceans such as bottlenose dolphins and pilot whales.It is also known as the Tenerife-La Gomera Marine Area and became the first European designated Whale Heritage Area in January 2021. Administration Law and order Tenerife island's government resides with theCabildo Insular de Tenerifelocated at the Plaza de España at the island's capital city (Palacio Insular de Tenerife). The political Canary organization does not have a provincial government body but instead each island has its","each island has its own government at their ownCabildo. Since its creation in March 1913 it has a series of capabilities and duties, stated in the Canary Autonomy Statutes (Spanish:Estatuto de Autonomía de Canarias) and regulated by Law 14/1990, of 26 July 1990, of theRégimen Jurídico de las Administraciones Públicas de Canarias. The Cabildo is composed of the following administrative offices; Presidency, Legislative Body, Government Council, Informative Commissions, Spokesman's office. Government Tenerife is an autonomous territory of Spain. The island has a tiered-government system and a special status within the European Union in which it holds lower tax rates compared to other regions. Santa Cruz is the seat of half of the regional government departments and parliament and it is there that the governor is elected by the Canarian people. Afterwards, they are appointed by Madrid. There are fifteen members of parliament who work together in passing legislation, organising budgets and improving the economy.","the economy. Municipalities The island, itself part of aSpanish provincenamedSanta Cruz de Tenerife, is divided administratively into 31 municipalities. Only three municipalities are landlocked:Tegueste,El TanqueandVilaflor. Vilaflor is the municipality with the highest altitude in the Canaries (its capital is 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) high). The largest municipality with an area of 207.31 square kilometres (80.04 square miles) is La Orotava, which covers much of the Teide National Park. The smallest town on the island and of the archipelago isPuerto de la Cruz, with an area of just 8.73 square kilometres (3 square miles). It is also common to find internal division, in that some cities make up a metropolitan area within a municipality, notably the cities of Santa Cruz and La Laguna. Below is an alphabetical list of all the municipalities on the island: Counties The counties of Tenerife have no official recognition, but there is a consensus among geographers about them: Flags and heraldry TheFlag of","heraldry TheFlag of Tenerifewas originally adopted in 1845 by the navy at its base in the Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Later, and at present, this flag represents all the island of Tenerife. It was approved by theCabildo Insular de Tenerifeand the Order of the Government of the Canary Islands on 9 May 1989 and published on 22 May in the government report of the Canary Islands and made official. Thecoat-of-armsof Tenerife was granted by royal decree on 23 March 1510 byFerdinand IIatMadridin the name ofJoan I, Queen of Castile. The coat-of-arms has a field of gold, with an image ofSaint Michael(patron saintof the island) above a mountain depicted in brownish, natural colors. Flames erupt from the mountain, symbolizing El Teide. Below this mountain is depicted the island itself inverton top of blue and silver waves. To the right there is a castle ingules, and to the left, a lionrampantin gules. The shield that the Cabildo Insular, or Island Government, uses is slightly different from that used by the city","used by the city government of La Laguna, which uses a motto in the arms' border and also includes some palm branches. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Tenerife are the birdblue chaffinch(Fringilla teydea) and theCanary Islands dragon tree(Dracaena draco) tree. Demographics According to INE data as at 1 January 2023, Tenerife has the largest population of the seven Canary Islands and was the most populated island of Spain with 948,815 officially estimated inhabitants,of whom about 22.0 percent (208,906) lived in the capital, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and 40 percent in the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz–La Laguna.Santa Cruz de Tenerife and the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Lagunaare physically one urban area, so that together (and including Tegueste) they have a population of 379,857 inhabitants. Tenerife has two other metropolitan areas recognized by theMinistry of Development; theTenerife South metropolitan areawith 194,774 inhabitants (2019) and theLa Orotava Valley metropolitan","Valley metropolitan areawith 108,721 inhabitants (2019). After the city of Santa Cruz the major towns and municipalities as at the start of 2023 areSan Cristóbal de La Laguna(159,576),Arona(86,497),Granadilla de Abona(55,505),Adeje(50,523),La Orotava(42,667),Los Realejos(37,543), andPuerto de la Cruz(31,396). All other municipalities have fewer than 30,000 inhabitants, the smallest municipality beingVilaflorwith a population of 1,850. The island has high rates of resident population not registered in population censuses, primarily tourists. This has made several sources point out that more than one million inhabitants actually live on the island of Tenerife today.The island is also the most multicultural in the archipelago, with the highest number of registered foreigners (44.9% of registered in Canary Islands), which represent 14% of the total population of the island.Tenerife stands out in the context of the archipelago, by also concentrating the largest presence of non-EU foreign population. Tenerife has","Tenerife has three large population areas that are very different and distributed: The Metropolitan Zone, the South Zone and the North Zone. With several protected natural parks — 48.6% of the territory — and an urban swarm around the island, in the last half century the insular coastal platform has become a highly urbanized metropolitan system. The high level of population in a relatively small territory — more than 900,000 inhabitants in just over 2,000 km2(770 sq mi) — and the strong urbanization have turned the island of Tenerife, in the words of architect Federico García Barba; on an \"island-city\" or \"island-ring\". Recently Tenerife has experienced population growth significantly higher than the national average. In 1990, there were 663,306 registered inhabitants, which increased to 709,365 in 2000, an increase of 46,059 or an annual growth of 0.69 percent. However, between 2000 and 2007, the population rose by 155,705 to 865,070, an annual increase of 3.14 percent. These results reflect the general","reflect the general trend in Spain where, since 2000, immigration has reversed the general slowdown in population growth, following the collapse in the birth rate from 1976. However, since 2001 the overall growth rate in Spain has been around 1.7 percent per year, compared with 3.14 percent on Tenerife, one of the largest increases in the country. Economy Tenerife is the economic capital of the Canary Islands.At present, Tenerife is the island with the highest GDP in the Canary Islands.Even though Tenerife's economy is highly specialized in theservice sector, which makes 78% of its total production capacity, the importance of the rest of the economic sectors is key to its production development. In this sense, the primary sector, which only represents 1.98% of the total product, groups activities that are important to the sustainable development of the island's economy. The energy sector which contributes 2.85% has a primary role in the development of renewable energy sources. The industrial sector which","sector which shares in 5.80% is a growing activity in the island, vis-a-vis the new possibilities created by technological advances. Finally, the construction sector with 11.29% of the total production has a strategic priority, because it is a sector with relative stability which permits multiple possibilities of development and employment opportunities. Tourism Tourism is the most prominent industry in the Canaries, which are one of the major tourist destinations in the world. Tenerife is the most visited island in the archipelagoand one of the most important tourist destinations in Spain. In 2014, 11,473,600 foreign tourists came to the Canary Islands. Tenerife had 4,171,384 arrivals that year, excluding the numbers for Spanish tourists which make up an additional 30% of total arrivals. According to last year's Canarian Statistics Centre's (ISTAC) Report on Tourism the greatest number of tourists from any one country come from the United Kingdom, with more than 3,980,000 tourists in 2014. In second place","In second place comes Germany followed by Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, France, Ireland, Belgium, Italy, Denmark, Finland, Switzerland, Poland, Russia and Austria. Tourism is more prevalent in the south of the island, which is hotter and drier and has many well developed resorts such asPlaya de las AmericasandLos Cristianos. More recently coastal development has spread northwards from Playa de las Americas and now encompasses the former small enclave of La Caleta. According to theMoratoriaact passed by the Canarian Parliament in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, no more hotels will be built on the island unless they are classified as 5 star-quality and comprise different services such as golf courses or convention facilities. This act was passed with the goal of improving the standard of tourism service and promoting environmentally conscious development. The area known asCosta Adejehas many facilities and leisure opportunities such as shopping centres, golf courses, restaurants, water parks (the most well-known","most well-known beingSiam Park), animal parks, and a theatre suitable for musicals or a convention centre.There are many boats offering whale watching tours from the harbour of Puerto Colon. The deep waters off the coast of Costa Adeje are home to several pods ofpilot whales. In the more lush and green north of the island, the main focus of development for tourism has been in the town ofPuerto de la Cruz. Puerto de la Cruz is home to theSeaWorld-owned zoo,Loro Parque,which has been accused of mistreatment of animals in its captivity, includingorcasand is currently boycotted by major travel agents includingThomas Cook. In the 19th century large numbers of foreign tourists came, especially British, showing interest in the agriculture of the islands. With the world wars, the tourism sector weakened, but the second half of the 20th century brought renewed interest. Initial emphasis was on Puerto de la Cruz, and for all the attractions that the Valle de la Orotava offered. By 1980, tourism was focused in south","focused in south Tenerife. The emphasis was on cities like Arona or Adeje, shifting to tourist centres like Los Cristianos or Playa de Las Americas, which now house 65% of the hotels on the island. Tenerife receives more than 5 million tourists every year; of the Сanary islands Tenerife is the most popular. Currently, the municipality ofAdejein the south of the island has the highest concentration of 5 star hotels in Europeand also has what is considered the best luxury hotel in Spain according toWorld Travel Awards. Agriculture and fishing Since tourism dominates the Tenerifan economy, the service sector is the largest. Industry and commerce contribute 40% of the non-tourist economy.Agriculture contributes less than 10% of the island's GDP, but its contribution is vital as it also generates indirect benefits by maintaining the rural appearance of the island and supporting Tenerifan cultural values. Agriculture is centred on the northern slopes, and is affected by altitude as well as orientation: in the","orientation: in the coastal zone, tomatoes and bananas are cultivated, these high yield products are for export to mainland Spain and the rest of Europe; in the drier intermediate zone, potatoes, tobacco and maize are grown, whilst in the south, onions are important. Bananas are a particularly important crop, as Tenerife grows more bananas than the other Canary Islands, with a current annual production of about 150,000 tons, down from the peak production of 200,000 tons in 1986. More than 90% of the total is destined for the international market, and banana growing occupies about 4200 hectares.After the banana the most important crops are, in order of importance, tomatoes, grapes, potatoes and flowers. Fishing is also a major contributor to the Tenerifan economy, as the Canaries are Spain's second most important fishing grounds. Energy As of 2009, Tenerife had 910 MW of electrical generation capacity, which is mostly powered from petroleum-derived fuels. The island had 37 MW of wind turbines and 79 MW of","and 79 MW of solar panels. Industry and commerce Commerce in Tenerife plays a significant role in the economy, representing almost 20% of the GDP, with the commercial center Santa Cruz de Tenerife generating most of the earnings. Although there are a diversity of industrial estates that exist on the island, the most important industrial activity is petroleum, representing 10% of the island's GDP, again largely due to the capital Santa Cruz de Tenerife with its refinery. It provides petroleum products not only to the Canaries archipelago but is also an active in the markets of the Iberian Peninsula, Africa and South America. Main sights Monuments Historical sights in the island, especially from the time after the conquest, include theCathedral of San Cristóbal de La Laguna, theChurch of the Conception of La Lagunaand theChurch of the Conceptionin the capital. TheBasílica de Nuestra Senora de la Candelariacan be found on the island (Patron of Canary Islands). Also on the island are the defensive castles","defensive castles located in the village ofSan Andrés, as well as many others throughout the island. TheAuditorio de Tenerife, one of the most modern in Spain, can be found at the entry port to the capital (in the southern part of Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife). Near the Auditorio de Tenerife are El Castillo Negro and El Parque Marítimo. TheTorres de Santa Cruzare two twin skyscrapers 120 metres (390 feet) high (the highest residential buildings in Spain and the tallest skyscrapers in the Canary Islands). Archeological sites The island also has severalarchaeological sitesof Guanche time (prior to the conquest), which generally are cave paintings that are scattered throughout the island, but most are found in the south of the island. Archaeological sites on the island include theCave of the Guanches, where the oldest remains in the archipelago have been found,dating to the 6th century BC,and theCaves of Don Gaspar, where the finding of plant debris in the form of carbonized seeds indicates that the Guanches","that the Guanches practiced agriculture on the island.Both deposits are in the town ofIcod de los Vinos. Also noteworthy on the island is theEstación solar de Masca(Masca Solar Station), which was an aboriginal sanctuary for the celebration of rites related to fertility and the request for rainwater. This is located in the municipality ofBuenavista del Norte. Other archaeological sites include that of Los Cambados and that of El Barranco del Rey both inArona.One could also highlight theCueva de Achbinico(first shrine Marian of the Canary Islands, Guanche vintage-Spanish). In addition there are some buildings calledGüímar Pyramids, whose origin is uncertain. There are also traces that reveal thePunicpresence on the island, as in the wake commonly called \"Stone of the Guanches\" in the town ofTaganana. This archaeological site consists of a structure formed by a stone block, large, outdoor, featuring rock carvings on its surface. Among these is the presence of a representation of","a representation of theCarthaginiangoddessTanit,represented by a bottle-shaped symbol surrounded by cruciform motifs. It is thought that the monument was originally an altar of sacrifice linked to those found in theSemiticfield and then reused forAboriginal ritual of mummification. Culture and arts Literature In the 16th and 17th centuries, Antonio de Viana, a native of La Laguna, composed the epic poemAntigüedades de las Islas Afortunadas(Antiquities of the Fortunate Isles), a work of value to anthropologists, since it sheds light on Canarian life of the time.The Enlightenment reached Tenerife, and literary and artistic figures of this era includeJosé Viera y Clavijo,Tomás de Iriarte y Oropesa, Ángel Guimerá y Jorge, Mercedes Pinto andDomingo Pérez Minik, amongst others. Painting During the course of the 16th century, several painters flourished in La Laguna, as well as in other places on the island, includingGarachico, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Orotava andPuerto de la Cruz. Cristóbal Hernández de Quintana","de Quintana and Gaspar de Quevedo, considered the best Canarian painters of the 17th century, were natives of La Orotava, and their art can be found in churches on Tenerife. The work ofLuis de la Cruz y Ríoscan be found in the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia, in Puerto de la Cruz. Born in 1775, he became court painter toFerdinand VII of Spainand was also a miniaturist, and achieved a favorable position in the royal court. He was known there by the nickname of \"El Canario.\" The landscape painter Valentín Sanz (born 1849) was a native of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and theMuseo Municipal de Bellas Artes de Santa Cruzdisplays many of his works. This museum also contains the works ofJuan Rodríguez Botas(1880–1917), considered the first Canarianimpressionist. Frescoes by theexpressionistMariano de Cossío can be found in the church of Santo Domingo, in La Laguna. The watercolorist Francisco Bonnín Guerín (born 1874) was a native of Santa Cruz, and founded a school to encourage the arts.Óscar","the arts.Óscar Domínguezwas born in La Laguna in 1906 and is famed for his versatility. He belonged to thesurrealistschool, and invented the technique known asdecalcomania. Sculpture The arrival from Seville ofMartín de Andújar Cantos, an architect and sculptor brought new sculpting techniques of the Seville school, which were passed down to his students, includingBlas García Ravelo, a native of Garachico. He had been trained by the master sculptorJuan Martínez Montañés. Other notable sculptors from the 17th and 18th centuries includeSebastián Fernández Méndez,Lázaro González de Ocampo,José Rodríguez de la Oliva, and most importantly,Fernando Estévez, a native of La Orotava and a student of Luján Pérez. Estévez contributed an extensive collection of religious images and woodcarvings, found in numerous churches of Tenerife, such as the Principal Parish ofSaint James the Great(Parroquia Matriz del Apóstol Santiago), inLos Realejos; in the Cathedral of La Laguna; theIglesia de la Concepciónin La Laguna; the","La Laguna; the basilica ofCandelaria, and various churches in La Orotava. Music An important musician from Tenerife is Teobaldo Power y Lugo Viña, a native of Santa Cruz and a pianist and composer, and author of theCantos Canarios.The Hymn of the Canary Islands takes its melody from theArrorró, or Lullaby, from Power y Lugo Viña'sCantos Canarios. Folkloric music has also flourished on the island, and, as in the rest of the islands, is characterized by the use of theCanarian Timple, the guitar,bandurria,laúd, and various percussion instruments. Local folkloric groups such as Los Sabandeños work to save Tenerife's musical forms in the face of increasing cultural pressure from the mainland. Tenerife is the home to the types of songs called theisa,folía,tajaraste, andmalagueña, which are a cross of ancient Guanche songs and those ofAndalusiaand Latin America. Architecture Tenerife is characterized by an architecture whose best representatives are the local manor houses and also the most humble and common","humble and common dwellings. This style, while influenced by those of Andalusia and Portugal, nevertheless had a very particular and native character. Of the manor houses, the best examples can be found in La Orotava and in La Laguna, characterized by their balconies and by the existence of interior patios and the widespread use of the wood known aspino tea(\"pitch pine\"). These houses are characterized by simple façades and wooden lattices with little ornamentation.There are sash windows and it is customary for the chairs inside the house to rest back-to-back to the windows. The interior patios function like real gardens that serve to give extra light to the rooms, which are connected via the patio by galleries frequently crowned by wood and stone. Gadgets like stills, water pumps, benches and counters, are elements that frequently form part of these patios. Traditional houses generally have two storeys, with rough walls of variegated colours. Sometimes the continuity of these walls is interrupted by the","interrupted by the presence of stone blocks that are used for ornamental purposes. The government buildings and religious structures were built according to the changing styles of each century. The urban nuclei of La Orotava and La Laguna have been declared national historical-artistic monuments. In recent years, various governments have spearheaded the concept of developing architectural projects, sometimes ostentatious ones, designed by renowned architects–for example, the remodeling of thePlaza de Españain Santa Cruz de Tenerife by the Swiss architectsHerzog & de Meuron. Other examples include the Playa de Las Teresitas project by the Frenchman Dominique Perrault; the center known as Magma Arte & Congresos; the Torres de Santa Cruz; and theAuditorio de Tenerife(\"Auditorium of Tenerife\"). The latter, by the SpaniardSantiago Calatrava, lies to the east of the Parque Marítimo (\"Maritime Park\"), in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and is characterized by its sail-like structure, which evokes a boat, and has become a","and has become a symbol for the city and island,which makes Santa Cruz de Tenerife one of the Spanish cities with the most futuristic buildings. Crafts Distinctive representatives of craftsmanship on the island areTenerife lace(calado canario), which is drawn workembroidery, and the intricatedoiliesknown asrosetas, orrosetteembroidery, particularly fromVilaflor. The lace, often made for table linen, is produced by the intricate and slow embroidering of a stretched piece of cloth, which is rigidly attached to a wooden frame and is finished with illustrations or patterns using threads that are crossed over and wound around thefijadores, or pins stuck in a small support made of cloth.These decorated, small pieces are afterwards joined, to produce distinct designs and pieces of cloth. Another Tenerife-based industry is cabinetwork. The north of the island produced various master craftsman who created distinctive balconies, celosias, doors, and windows, as well as furniture consisting of pieces made in fine wood.","made in fine wood. Basketmaking using palm-leaves was also an important industry. Other materials are chestnut tree branches stripped of their leaves andbanana treefibre (known locally asla badana). Pottery has a long history harking back to the production of ceramics by the Guanches. The Guanches were unfamiliar with thepotter's wheel, and used hand-worked clay, which gave their pottery a distinctive look. Pottery was used to produce domestic objects such as pots and grills, or ornamental pieces such as bead collars or the objects known aspintaderas, which were pieces of pottery used to decorate other vessels. Traditional celebrations Carnival of Santa Cruz Perhaps the most important festival of Tenerife, popular both on a national and international level, is theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, which has been declared a Festival of International Tourist Interest (Fiesta de Interés Turístico Internacional).The carnival is celebrated in many locations in the north and south of the island, but is largest in","but is largest in scope in the city of Santa Cruz.Contests are celebrated, and the carnival includes bands of street musicians (murgas), groups of minstrels (rondallas de Tenerife), masquerades (comparsas), and various associations (agrupaciones). Once the Queen of the festival is elected, the first part of the carnival ends, and thereafter begins the actual street carnival, in which large numbers of people gather in the centre of Santa Cruz, with the carnival lasting ten days. Pilgrimages (Romerías) The most traditional and widespread religious festivals on the islands are the pilgrimages orromerías.These events, which incorporate Christian and non-Christian elements, are celebrated by various means: with wagons andfloats, plowing teams and livestock, in honor of thepatron saintof a particular place. The processions are accompanied by local dances, local dishes, folkloric activities, local arts and crafts, local sports, and the wearing of traditional dress of Tenerife (trajes de mago). The origins of these","origins of these events can be attributed to the parties and celebrations held by the richest classes of the island, who would gather to venerate their patron saints, to which they attributed good harvests, fertile lands, plentiful rainfall, the curing of sicknesses and ending of epidemics, etc. They would thus give homage to these saints by consuming and sharing the fruits of their harvest, which included the locally cultivated wines. These have developed into processions to mark festivals dedicated toSaint MarkinTegueste, where the wagons are decorated with the fruits of the earth (seeds, cereals, flowers, etc.); toSaint Isidore the Laborerin Los Realejos; to Saint Isidore the Laborer andMaria Torribia(Saint Mary of the Head) in La Orotava; theRomería Regional de San Benito Abadin La Laguna;Virgin of Candelariain Candelaria;Saint Rochin Garachico;Saint AugustineinArafo; and theRomería del Socorroin Güímar. Holiday of the Virgin of Candelaria TheVirgin of Candelariais the patron of the Canary Islands; a","Canary Islands; a feast is held in her honor two times a year, in February and August. TheRomeria-Offering to the Virgin of Candelaria is celebrated every 15 August in this event is a tradition that representations of all municipalities of the island and also of all the Canary archipelago come to make offerings to their patron. Another significant act of the feast of the Virgin of Candelaria is called \"Walk to Candelaria\" held on the night of 14 to 15 August in which thefaithful make pilgrimage on foot from various parts of the island, even coming from other islands to arrive atVilla Mariana de Candelaria. On 2 February we celebrate the feast of the Candelaria. Also on this day come to town many devotees of the Virgin. During the February festivities, the so-called \"Procesión de Las Candelas\" (Candlelight Procession) stands out, in which the faithful accompany the Virgin in the dark of the night lit only by candles and praying the rosary. Holiday of the Cristo de La Laguna It is celebrated every 14 September","every 14 September in honor of a much venerated image of Christ in the Archipelago, theCristo de La Laguna, is held in the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Every 9 September, the venerated image of Christ is lowered in public from the main altar of its Royal Sanctuary, after which, the faithful kiss the feet of the image. The image is solemnly transferred in procession to the Cathedral of La Laguna on the afternoon of that day, where it remains for several days, until 14 September, which is the main day, when it is transferred back to its Sanctuary. Corpus Christi The religious festival ofCorpus Christiis particularly important, and is traditionally celebrated with floral carpets laid in the streets. Particularly noteworthy are the celebrations in La Orotava where a very large carpet, or tapestry, of different coloured volcanic soils, covers the Plaza del Ayuntamiento (town square). These soils are taken from theParque Nacional del Teide, and after the celebration, are returned, to preserve the National","the National Park. The celebration of Corpus Christi in Orotava has been declared of Important Cultural Interest among the official Traditional Activities of the Island. Easter Among the numerous other celebrations that define Tenerifan culture, Easter remains the most important. This is celebrated across the island, but is particularly notable in the municipalities of La Laguna, La Orotava and Los Realejos, where elaborate processions take place on Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter Sunday, or \"Resurrection Sunday\". Holy Week in the city of San Cristobal de la Laguna is the largest of the Canary Islands. Religion As with the rest of Spain, Tenerife is largelyCatholic.However, the practice of other religions and denominations has increasingly expanded on the island due to tourism and immigration, asIslam,Hinduism,Buddhism,Evangelicalism,JudaismandAfro-American religion.Minority religions are stationed in the island:Chinese Religions,Baháʼíand the neopaganism native form, theChurch of the Guanche","of the Guanche People,among others. Christianity and Judaism arrived in the island with the Spanish conquest. An important Catholic festival is the celebration of thefeast dayassociated with theVirgin of Candelaria,patron saintof the Canary Islands, who represents the union of the Guanche and Spanish cultures.The Guanches became devoted to aBlack Madonnathat Christian missionaries fromLanzaroteandFuerteventuraleft on a beach near the present-day Villa Mariana de Candelaria, which gave rise to the legends and stories associated with the Virgin. These legends fueled the cult of the Virgin and thepilgrimages to Candelariathat have existed to this day on the island. Another cult to the Virgin Mary exists in the form ofOur Lady of Los Remedios(la Virgen de Los Remedios), who is patron of the island and Catholic diocese of Tenerife (Diócesis Nivariense). In Tenerife were born twoCatholicsaintswho were of the greatest missionaries in the Americas:Peter of Saint Joseph BetancurandJosé de Anchieta. The first was a","The first was a missionary inGuatemalaand founder ofOrder of Our Lady of Bethlehem(the first religious order of the Americas), the second was a missionary in Brazil, and was one of the founders ofSão Pauloand ofRio de Janeiro. It also highlights the figure of the mysticMary of Jesus de León y Delgado. This nun died with a reputation for holiness and is highly revered throughout the Canary Islands. Her body is intact in the Convent of Santa Catalina de Siena inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Principal Catholic places of worship on the island include: Other important churches include the Church of the Conception in La Orotava (Iglesia de la Concepción); the churches of San Agustín and Santo Domingo in La Orotava; the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia in Puerto de la Cruz; the church of San Marcos in Icod de los Vinos; the church of Santa Ana in Garachico; and theChurch of the Conception (Iglesia de la Concepción) in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first saint of Tenerifeand Canary IslandswasSaint Peter of","Peter of Saint Joseph Betancur, born in the town ofVilaflor, Tenerife. His main shrine is theCave of Santo Hermano PedroinGranadilla de Abona, near the coast, where he lived in his youth. This cave is considered one of the most important pilgrimage spots of the Canary Islands. Another notable building on the island is theMasonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, generally considered the finest example of Masonic temple architecture in Spain;it was the Masonic center of the country until the military occupation of the island by theFranco regime. The headquarters of theIslamic Federation of the Canary Islandsis in Tenerife; the organization was founded to unite the Muslim communities of the Canary Islands in a common association.For its part, the headquarters of the Evangelical Council of the Canary Islands is also on the island. Education Formal educationin Tenerife began with thereligious orders. In 1530, theDominican Orderestablished a chair of philosophy at the convent ofLa Concepción de La Laguna. Still,","La Laguna. Still, until well into the 18th century Tenerife was largely without institutions of education. Such institutions finally began to develop thanks to the work of the Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País (\"Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Country\"), which established several schools in San Cristóbal de La Laguna. The first of these was an institute of secondary education established in 1846 to fill the gap left by the closure of the Universidad de San Fernando (seeUniversity of La Laguna). An 1850 annex to this building was the Escuela Normal Elemental, the archipelago's first teachers' college or normal school, which became the Escuela Normal Superior de Magisterio from 1866 onward. These were the only institutions of higher education until the dictatorMiguel Primo de Riveracreated several institutions. A turning point came around the time of the rise of theSecond Spanish Republic. From 1929 to 1933 the number of schools nearly doubled. Shortly after this, though, the start of","the start of theSpanish Civil Warand the following dictatorship ofFrancisco Francoconstituted a considerable reversal. Education in the hands of religious orders had a certain importance on the island until the 1970 Ley General de Educación (\"General Law of Education\") shifted the balance from religiously based education to public education. Public schools continued their advance during and after the post-FrancoSpanish transition to democracy. Tenerife today has 301 centers of childhood education (preschools), 297 primary schools, 140 secondary schools and 86post-secondaryschools.There are also five universities orpost-graduateschools, theUniversity of La Laguna, theUniversidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia(National University of Distance Learning), theUniversidad Internacional Menéndez Pelayo(Menéndez Pelayo International University), theUniversidad Alfonso X el Sabio(University of Alfonso X the Wise) and theUniversidad de Vic(Escuela Universitaria de Turismo de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, \"University","\"University School of Tourism of Santa Cruz de Tenerife\"). The largest of these is the University of La Laguna. TheUniversidad Europea de Canarias(European University of the Canary Islands) is located in La Orotava and is the first private university in the Canary Islands. Science and research While Tenerife is not prominent in the history of scientific and academic research, it is the home of theInstituto de Astrofísica de Canarias(Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-OrgánicaAntonio González(Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at the University of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales","y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). This last is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\"), located in various parts of Spain. Puerto de la Cruz has the Instituto de Estudos Hispánicos de Canarias (Institute of Hispanic Studies of the Canaries), attached to Madrid's Instituto de Cultura Hispánica. In La Laguna is the Canarian delegation of theConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas(CSIC, Superior Council of Scientific Investigations), the Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (Canarian Institute of Agrarian Investigation), the Instituto de Estudios Canarios (Canarian Institute of Studies) and theCentro Internacional para la Conservación del Patrimonio(the International Center of the Conservation of Patrimony). Other research facilities in Tenerife are the Instituto","are the Instituto Tecnológico de Canarias, the Instituto Vulcanológico de Canarias, the Asociación Industrial de Canarias, the Instituto Tecnológico de Energías Renovables (Technological Institute of Renewable Energy) and the Instituto Oceanográfico de Canarias in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Museums The island boasts a variety of museums of different natures, under dominion of a variety of institutions. Perhaps the most developed are those belonging to theOrganismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros,which include the following: Independent of the Organismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros are: Media Along with many Spanish-language radio and TV stations, Tenerife has two official English-language radio stations.Coast FMbroadcasts a mix of adult contemporary music and is the only local news service to broadcast in English. As the larger of the two stations, Coast FM can be heard across Tenerife and much of the Canary Islands from its transmitters on 106.6, 92.2 and 89.4. Energy FM is a non-stop music station that also","station that also broadcasts local news and information on the hour. Transport and communications The island of Tenerife is served byTenerife North Airport(GCXO) andTenerife South Airport(GCTS). Tenerife North Airport, the smaller of the two, is located near the metropolitan area Santa Cruz-La Laguna (423,000 inhabitants). It serves inter-insular flights as well as national and European flights. Tenerife South Airport (south) is the busiest Airport in Tenerife, ranking 7th in Spain. It typically serves the mass of regular and vacation charter flights constantly arriving from most of Europe. The other way to arrive on Tenerife is by ferry, either to Santa Cruz de Tenerife or Los Cristianos, near Playa de Las Américas. A network consisting of two fast, toll-free motorways (TF1 and TF5) encircles nearly the entire island, linking all the main towns and resorts with the metropolitan area. The exception is in the West, from Adeje to Icod de los Vinos, which is traversed by a smaller winding mountain road.","mountain road. However, plans are in progress to complete the motorway, which caused a heavy debate between the environmentalists and the local businessmen. Away from the major motorways, there is a network of secondary and communal roads, varying from wide to steep, winding narrow roads, mainly unlit and often with drops on either side of the main carriageway surface. Public transport on the island is provided by an extensive network of buses and run byTITSA, who operate a fleet of modern, air-conditioned buses.TITSA buses cover most of the island and they are fairly frequent. For more than one journey, customers can purchase a TenMascontactless smart cardfor €2, which can be topped up with up to €100 travel credit. Using the TenMas card provides a discount over cash fares, and, for Tenerife residents, a card allowing unlimited travel for a monthly fee is also available.The card can be purchased and topped up at bus stations and many newsagents. It is also valid on the tram in the capital, Santa Cruz (See","Santa Cruz (See Below). A hire car is sometimes a good option for discovering the remote wilderness regions, although TITSA operate reliable bus services in the remotest spots, such as the Teno Massif via Masca (355), and up the Anaga mountains (247). TITSA operate two daily services up Mount Teide – from Puerto de la Cruz (348) and from Los Christianos/Las Americas (342) up to the Teide Parador, Teleferico cable car, Montana Blanca and El Portillo. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz,Sixtand TopCar. The metropolitan Area formed by Santa Cruz and La Laguna is served by theTranvía de Tenerife(Tenerife Tram) which opened in early 2007, after 3 years of intensive works. The fairly lengthy line from Santa Cruz up the hill to La Laguna serves almost 20 stops. A second line within La Laguna was added in 2009. Roads The main means of transportation in Tenerife is by highways. The most important of these are theAutopista","are theAutopista del Surand theAutopista del Norte(the North and South Motorways), which run from the metropolitan zone to the south and north, respectively. These two motorways are connected by means of theAutovía de Interconexión Norte-Surin the outskirts of the metropolitan zone. Within the network of roads on the island of Tenerife there are other minor roads that used to include the highway from San Andres and Santa Cruz (Holy Cross in English). Also planned is the construction of a bypass road north of the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Laguna. This aims to provide dual cores toGuamasaandAcorán, by way ofLos Baldíos,Centenero,Llano del Moro,El Sobradillo,El Tablero, andEl Chorrillo, among other neighbourhoods. The route will be approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) long and will cost an estimated 190 million euros (270 million in American dollars). Airports Tenerife is most easily reached by air. There are two airports:Tenerife South Airport, in the south, andTenerife North Airport, near","North Airport, near Santa Cruz. Overall, Tenerife has the highest annual passenger count and the greatest number of arrivals in Canary Islands, made more popular by the frequency of cheap flights from many European destinations. Tenerife North Airport and Tenerife South Airport together account for the highest passenger numbers in the Islands with some 14 million passengers annually (AENA report). Of the two airports on the island, Tenerife South is the most popular tourist destination. Ports Besides air transport, Tenerife has two principal maritime ports: thePort of Santa Cruz de Tenerife(Puerto de Santa Cruz), which serves the various capitals of the Canary Islands, especially those in the west; and thePort of Los Cristianos(Puerto de Los Cristianos), which serves the various island capitals of the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first port also has passenger services, which connect with the mainland port ofCádiz(and vice versa). In 2017, a large important port was opened in the south of the","in the south of the island, thePort of Granadilla, and another one is planned in the west, inFonsalía.The Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is the first fishing port in the Canary Islands with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Statistical Yearbook of the State Ports 2006 (the latest of which is changing). Following this report is the largest port number of passengers recorded. Similarly, the second port of Spain moving ship and loaded into cars, only surpassed by thePort of AlgecirasBay.In the port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. Buses (guaguas) Tenerife has an extensive system of buses, which are calledguaguasin the Canary Islands. The bus system is used both within the cities and also connects most of the towns and cities of the island. There are bus stations in all of the major towns, such as","towns, such as theIntercambiador de Transportes de Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Taxis There is a well-regulated taxi service on the island. Tramway Since 2007, theTenerife TramconnectsSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLa Lagunathrough the suburb of Taco. There are 20 stops and it covers a distance of 12.5 km (7.8 mi) in 37 minutes. It calls at some points of interest including Tenerife's two major hospitals, the university complex of Guajara, and a number of museums and theatres. Concerning its power supply, it will support development of further wind farms to provide it with 100 percent clean energy. Railway plans By 2005, plans for a light-rail network linking the capital with the South had been approved by both theTenerife Counciland the Canary Islands Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government stalled on budget issues.The original intent was to establish two railway systems that would serve the northern and southern sides of the island connecting these with the capital.By March 2011, these","March 2011, these intentions had been replaced by advanced plans for a single 80 km (50 mi)high-speed railline, the \"South Train\" which would connectSanta Cruz de TenerifewithAdejevia Santa Maria de Añaza,Candelaria, San Isidro,Tenerife South Airport, and a main stopover station atAdejewhich would be designed to service up to 25,000 passengers per day. Trains would run every 15 minutes during rush hours, and would achieve speeds up to 220 km/h (137 mph). The project, which involves 9 tunnels, 12 false tunnels (together 22.1 km) and 33 viaducts (8.3 km) has been budgeted at EUR 1.7 bn. It has met staunch opposition from local environmentalists.An alternate plan for a high-speedTransrapid maglevhas also been put forward. Tourist train Atourist train(Tren Turístico) serves Costa Adeje to Los Cristianos with several stops including in Playa de las Americas. Cableway Sports On the island of Tenerife, a large number of sports are practised, both outdoors and indoors in the various facilities available throughout","throughout the island. The sports are numerous – Diving, Rock Climbing, Walking, Cycling, Sailing, Golf, Surfing, Go-Karting, Paragliding– the all year round weather makes it ideal for a wide variety of outdoor sports. There are also many indoor sporting facilities including fully equipped including 'Tenerife Top Training' centre in Adeje on the South of the Island. Its most well-known sports team isfootballclubCD Tenerifebased in Santa Cruz. The club has spent time in the Spanish top flight, but have in recent decades primarily played in the second division of Spanish football. Also worth mentioning is theultramarathonCajaMar Tenerife Bluetrail, the highest race in Spain and second in Europe,with the participation of several countries and great international repercussions. Healthcare The main hospitals on the island are theHospital Universitario de Canariasand theHospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria. Both are third-level hospitals, with specialist facilities that serve all of the Canary","all of the Canary Islands.They are both affiliated with the education and research network of theUniversidad de La Laguna. However, they belong to different bodies, since the first one is under the directives of theServicio Canario de la Salud(Canarian Health Service).The Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria it is the largest hospital complex in the Canary Islands. In addition, two large new hospitals have recently been built in the north and south areas of the island, located in the municipalities ofIcod de los VinosandAronarespectively. TheHospital del Norte de Tenerife(Tenerife North Hospital) opened in 2012 and theHospital del Sur de Tenerife(Tenerife South Hospital) opened in 2015.These centers will function, according to their classification, as second level hospitals, with services of hospitalization, advanced diagnosis, ambulances and emergencies, and rehabilitation, etc. There are also a total of 39 centers of primary care and specialized clinics which complete the sanitary","the sanitary infrastructure of Tenerife. Gastronomy Fish Due to the geographic situation of Tenerife, the island enjoys an abundance of fish of various kinds. The species that are consumed the most are theCombtooth blennies(viejas), as well assea bream(sama),red porgy(bocinegro),gold lined bream(salema),grouper(mero), and various and abundant types ofThunnus. TheAtlantic mackerel(caballa),sardine(sardine), andJack mackerels(chicharros) are also consumed frequently.Moray eels(morenas) are also eaten, usually fried. Most seafood is cooked simply, usually boiled, or prepared \"a la espalda\" (cut into two equally shaped pieces along the spine) or \"a la sal\" (baked in salt). These dishes are usually accompanied bymojo(a local sauce) and wrinkly potatoes. Meat The typical festive meat dish of marinated porktacosis a very popular dish prepared for town festivities inventorrillos, bars and private homes.Rabbit insalmorejo, goat, beef, pork and poultry are regularly consumed. Canarian wrinkly potatoes The fish dishes","The fish dishes along with the meats are often accompanied bywrinkly potatoes(papas arrugadas). This is a typical Canarian dish which simply refers to the way the cooked potatoes look. They are boiled in their skins, in water with much salt, and the water is allowed to evaporate, leaving a salty crust. Mojos Mojo, a word probably of Portuguese origin, describes a typical Canarian sauce, served as an accompaniment to food. The sauces come in a variety of colours, flavours and textures, and are usually served cold, often in separate dishes, for the diner to choose how much to apply. Green mojo usually includes coriander, parsley, and garlic; whilst red mojo is piquant, and made from a mix of hot and sweet peppers. A wide variety of other ingredients are also used, including; almonds, cheese, saffron and fried bread.Mojos are served with most meat, and some fish, dishes, and are often used on potatoes, or bread is dipped into them. Cheeses Tenerife exports about 3,400 tons of cheese per year, representing about","representing about 50 percent of the output of the island, and about 25 percent of the entire Canary Islands. After the conquest of the Canary Islands, one of the first commercial activities to be started was cheese production. The sale of cheese provided the inhabitants with an income and cheese was even used as a form of currency for exchange and sale, becoming a crucial product in agricultural areas of the island. Cheese grew to become one of the most commonly produced and consumed products on the island and is regularly served as part of a starter course or as a snack. Farms at Arico, La Orotava and Teno produced a variety of cheeses, including soft cheeses, cured, smoked and were mostly handmade. Today the main product isgoat cheese, although certain amounts are made from sheep's or cow's milk, and according to theRegistro General Sanitario de Alimentos, the general health registry, around 75 differentcottage cheesesare produced.The cheeses of the Canaries have generally received good international","good international reviews, noted for their sweetness which differentiates them from certain other European cheeses.In particular, Tenerifan cured goats cheese was awarded best cheese in the world final of the 2008World Cheese Awardsheld inDublin, Ireland. Cheeses from Tenerife now have a quality mark promoted by theFundación Tenerife Rural, to standardize their quality in an attempt to publicize the qualities of the cheese and improve its marketing. Gofio Gofiois one of the more traditional elements of cooking on the island, It is made withcereal grainsthat are roasted and then ground. Increasingly used to make a gofio on the island is wheat although there are other types, and they are often made withchickpeas. Relatively common is a mixed-type with wheat. It was served as main food to theguancheseven before the Spanish conquest. In later times of scarcity or famine it was a staple of the popular Canarian diet. Today it is eaten as a main dish (gofio escaldado) or an accompaniment to different dishes,","different dishes, meats, fishes, soups, desserts. Some famous cooks have even made gofio ice cream, receiving good comments from the critics. Confectionery Confectionery in Tenerife is represented and strongly influenced by La Palma, with confections likebienmesabe,leche asada,Príncipe Alberto,frangollo,huevos moles, andquesillo. Wines Viticulturein the archipelago, and especially in Tenerife dates back to the conquest, when the settlers brought a variety of vines to plant. In the 16th and 17th centuries, wine production played an important role in the economy, and many families were dedicated to the culture and business. Of special mention ismalvasía canary, considered the best wine of Tenerife and at the time one of the most desired wines in the world, being shipped across to the major warehouses of Europe and America.Writers such asWilliam ShakespeareandWalter Scottmake reference to the wine in some of their works.Tenerife has 5 main wine growing regions. These includeAbona,Valle de Güímar,Valle de La","Güímar,Valle de La Orotava,Tacoronte-AcentejoandYcoden-Daute-Isora. This typical gastronomy is served in popular establishments known asguachinches, opening day is the day ofSan Andrés, 30 November, also known as the young wine festivalFestival de Vino Joven. The wine of the new harvest is traditionally served with roasted chestnuts, maturing at the same time, and grilled sardines, thus the season normally lasts from late autumn until early spring. Tenerife in popular culture Cities The city ofBrisbanein Queensland, Australia, has a historical inner suburb namedTeneriffe, named by one of the first European landowners in the area, James Gibbon, because it reminded him ofMount Teide. Other cities in the world whose name has its origins in the island are:Tenerife, Magdalena, a town and municipality in Colombia;San Carlos de Tenerife, a city in the Dominican Republic. Cinema Over the last few years,Tenerife has become a popular filming location, being featured in several Hollywood blockbusters.Some of the most","of the most important films made on the island are: Music Likewise, the island has been home to several musical recordings and as a scenic setting for music videos: Video games In literature Literary works featuring Tenerife includeThe CompanionandThe Man from the Sea, both byAgatha Christie;La cueva de las mil momiasbyAlberto Vazquez-Figueroa;Thieves' PicnicbyLeslie Charteris;El Sarcófago de las tres llavesby Pompeyo Reina Moreno;andAtentadoby Mariano Gambín. International relations Tenerife istwinnedwith: See also References External links","Fuerteventura Fuerteventura(Spanish:ⓘ) is one of theCanary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, geographically part ofMacaronesia, and politically part ofSpain. It is located 97 km (60 mi) away from the coast ofNorth Africa. The island was declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCOin 2009. Fuerteventura belongs toProvince of Las Palmas,one of the two provinces that form the autonomous community of the Canary Islands. The island's capital isPuerto del Rosario, where the Insule Council is found, the government of the island. Fuerteventura had 124,152 inhabitants (as of 2023), the fourth largest population of the Canary Islands and the third of the province. At 1,659.74 km2(640.83 sq mi),it is the second largest of the Canary Islands, afterTenerife.From a geological point of view, Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the archipelago. Toponymy The island's name is a compound formed by the Spanish wordsfuerte(either \"strong\" or \"fort\") andventura(\"fortune\"). Traditionally, Fuerteventura's name has been regarded as a","been regarded as a reference to the strong winds (fuertes vientosin Spanish) around the island coastline, and the resulting danger to nautical adventurers. However, it might have referred instead (or also) to wealth, luck or destiny. In 1339 the Mallorcan navigatorAngelino Dulcert, in thePlanisferio de Angelino Dulcert, referred to the island as \"Forte Ventura\". Another theory is that the island's name derives from \"Fortunatae Insulae\" (Fortunate Islands), the name by which the Romans knew the Canary Islands. Theindigenousname of the island, before its conquest in the 15th century, was Erbania, divided into two regions (Jandía and Maxorata), from which the name majorero (originally majo or maxo) derives. However, it has been suggested that, at some point, Maxorata (which meant \"the children of the country\") was the aboriginaltoponymof the entire island. History Precolonial history The first settlers of Fuerteventura are believed to have come from North Africa. The wordMahorero(Majorero) orMahois still used","orMahois still used today to describe the people of Fuerteventura and is derived from the ancient word 'mahos', a type of goatskin shoe worn by these original inhabitants. They lived in caves and semi-subterranean dwellings, some of which have been excavated, revealing remnants of early tools and pottery. In antiquity, the island was originally known asPlanaria, in reference to the flatness of most of its terrain. Phoeniciansettlers landed in Fuerteventura andLanzarote. Several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions to the islands were organized around 1340, followed by Moors and European slave traders. At the end of the Iberian conquest, the island was divided into twoGuancheskingdoms, one adhering to King Guize and the other to King Ayoze. The territories of these kingdoms were calledMaxorata(in the North) andJandía(in the South) respectively. They were separated by a wall, which traversed the La Pared isthmus. Some remains have been preserved. The ancient name for the island, Erbania, is derived from this","derived from this wall's name. The conquest The island's conquest began in earnest in 1402, commanded by French knights and crusadersJean de BéthencourtandGadifer de la Salle.They arrived with only 63 sailors out of the original 283, as many had deserted along the way. After arriving and settling inLanzarote, the invaders made some first excursions to the neighboring islands. In 1404, Bethencourt and Gadifer foundedBetancuria, on the West coast, the first settlement on the island. After numerous difficulties, Gadifer took charge of the invasion, while Bethencourt returned to Spain to seek the recognition and support of theCastilian king. In 1405, de Béthencourt completed his conquest of the island, establishing its capital in Betancuria (Puerto Rosario took over the mantle as island capital in 1835). In 1424 PopeMartin V, through theBetancuriaBrief, edicted the establishment of theBishopric of Fuerteventura, which encompassed all theCanary Islandssave for the island ofLanzarote.The origin of this bishopric","of this bishopric is directly related to the events that occurred after theGreat Schism(1378–1417), in that the bishop ofSan Marcial del RubicónofLanzarote(at the time, the only diocese in the Canary Islands) did not recognize the papacy of Martin V, and instead adhered toanti-PopeBenedict XIII. TheBishopric of Fuerteventurawas based in theParish of Santa María de Betancuria, bestowing upon the latter the status of Grant Cathedral. After the reabsorbtion of theDiocese of San Marcial del Rubicónby the papacy of Pope Martin V, the Bishopric of Fuerteventura was abolished in 1431, only seven years after it was created. The first censusrecorded a population of some 1,200 inhabitants. The population increased gradually thereafter. In 1476 the territory became theSeñorío Territorial de Fuerteventura, subjected to theCatholic Monarchs.In later years, the island was invaded by the Spanish, French and the English. 2nd conquest of Fuerteventura Over time, the island endured numerous raids. ABerber-led expedition","expedition invaded in 1593, sweeping as far inland as the capital. Various castles were built along the coastline, to protect against these type of attacks. The population was moved inland as a second protective measure. Because of the raids, a firstCaptain Generalwas dispatched to Fuerteventura, accompanied by a number ofSergeants Major, to defend the island in the name of the Crown. At that time, Betancuria became the religious capital of the island. Two majorattackstook place in 1740, within a month of each other. Two separate bands of English privateers attempted to loot the town of Tuineje. These attacks were however successfully averted by the local population and the island's militia. This successful repelling of the invaders is celebrated at a re-enactment that takes place in Gran Tarajal every year in October. The island's garrison was officially instated in 1708. Its colonel assumed the title ofGovernor at Arms, a hereditary, lifelong appointment which has remained in the Sánchez-Dumpiérrez family.","family. In time, this family increasingly garnered power over the other islands through alliances with the family of Arias de Saavedra and the Lady of Fuerteventura.During the same year theAssistant Parish ofLa OlivaandPájarawas created, to become operational in 1711. On 17 December 1790, theAssistant Parish ofTuinejewas created, which became a new parish division on 23 June 1792 under the bishop Tavira, with lands including part of the Jandía peninsular, and with a population of 1,670 inhabitants. 1780 saw the start of a barrilla plantation industry. To the present In 1852, a free trade zone was extended byIsabella IIto the Canary Islands. Military island rule, which began in 1708, was finally dissolved in 1859, andPuerto de Cabras(nowPuerto del Rosario) - the only municipal seat on the coast - became the new capital. The Canary Islands obtained self-governance in 1912. In 1927, Fuerteventura andLanzarotebecame part of the province ofGran Canaria. The seat of the island's government (cabildo insular) is","insular) is located inPuerto del Rosario. A total of 118,574 people lived on the island in 2018. By the 1940s the island had an airport (just west ofPuerto del Rosarioon the road to Tindaya, still visible today). Mass tourism began to arrive in the mid-1960s, facilitated by the construction ofFuerteventura AirportatEl Matorraland the first tourist hotels. The island's proximity (a mere 100 km) to the West African coast and the fact that it is part of theSchengenterritory make it a prime target destination for undocumented immigrants. However, many have perished while attempting the crossing. Flag The flag of Fuerteventura is in proportions 1:2, divided vertically, green to thehoistand white to thefly end, with the coat of arms of the island in the centre. Coat of arms The coat of arms of Fuerteventura was prescribed by a Decree adopted on 15 October 1998 by the Government of the Canary Islands and published on 11 November 1998 in the official gazette of the Canary Islands, No. 142, pp. 13,432–13,433. It was","It was adopted on 24 April 1998 by the Island Council and validated on 18 September 1998 by the Heraldry Commission of the Canary Islands. The heraldic description is \"per paleandper fess. First,gules, a castle or,masonedsable, its gate and windowsazure. Second,argent, lion gules, crowned, armed andlanguedor. Third, silver, three fesseschequygules and or, in four rows, each one charged with a fess or.Borduregules, with eightsaltiresor.Ensignedwith aroyal crown, open.\" According to José Manuel Erbez (Banderas y escudos de Canarias, 2007), the coat of arms is based on the arms of the island's provincial militia. The upper quarters represent Castile (symbolized by a castle) and León (symbolized by a lion). The lower quarter alludes to the Saavedra family; various members of this family were lords of Fuerteventura. Geography Environment The elongated island is 100 km (62 mi) long and 31 km (19 mi) wide. It has an area of 1,660 km2(641 sq mi). Located just 100 km (62 mi) off the coast of North Africa, it is the","Africa, it is the second biggest of the islands, after Tenerife, and has the longest white sand beaches in the archipelago. The island is a destination for sun, beach and watersports enthusiasts. It lies at the same latitude as Florida and Mexico and temperatures rarely fall below 18 °C (64 °F) or rise above 32 °C (90 °F). It counts 152 separate beaches along its seaboard — 50 km (31 mi) of white sand and 25 km (16 mi) of black volcanic shingle. The highest point in Fuerteventura is Pico de la Zarza (807 m) in the southwestern part of the island. Geographical features includeIstmo de la Paredwhich is 5 km (3 mi) wide and is the narrowest part of Fuerteventura. The island is divided into two parts, the northern portion which isMaxorataand the southwestern part called the Jandía peninsula. Climate Fuerteventura has ahot desert climate(Köppen:BWh).The climate is mild, but mostly windy, throughout the year. The island is hence referred to asthe island of eternal spring. The sea regulates air temperature,","air temperature, diverting hotSaharawinds away from the island. The island's name in English translates as \"strong fortune\" or \"strong wind\", the Spanish word for wind beingviento. During the winter months, temperatures average a high of 22 °C (72 °F) and a low of around 15 °C (59 °F), whereas during the summer a mean high of 28 °C (82 °F) and a low of 20 °C (68 °F) can be expected. Precipitation is about 147 mm (6 in) per year, most of which falls in autumn and winter. December is the month with highest rainfall. A sandstorm known as theCalima(similar to theSiroccowind, which blows to the North of the Sahara, to Europe) may blow from the Sahara Desert to the Northwest, and can cause high temperatures, low visibility and drying air. Temperatures during this phenomenon rise temporarily by approximately 10 degrees Celsius. The wind brings in fine red dust, The fine white sand is not blown in from Sahara, It is made up of dead coral reef and local seabed upheaval. Visibility can drop to between 100 and 200 m","100 and 200 m (328.08 and 656.17ft) or even lower, and together with very warm temperatures, it can even bring Africanlocuststo the island. Hydrology In the winter months, up to 80% of the rainwater flows unused into the ocean, as there is no vegetation to capture the water (also due to overgrazing by free-ranging goats near the coast). The mountain forests, which were still present in the 19th century, were all chopped down. Instead, there are many desalination plants (running on electricity) which produce the required amount of freshwater on the island. The tourists on the island use about double the amount of water as the native inhabitants of Fuerteventura. Causes are the filling of swimming pools, watering hotel gardens and washing towels. Geology Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the Canary Islands dating back 20 million years to a volcanic eruption from theCanary hotspot.The majority of the island was created about 5 million years ago and since then has been eroded by wind and precipitation. On","precipitation. On the seabed off the west coast of the island rests an enormous slab of bedrock 22 km (14 mi) long and 11 km (7 mi) wide, which appears to have slid off the island largely intact at some point in prehistory, similar to the predicted future collapse ofCumbre Vieja, a geological fault on another Canary Island,La Palma. The last volcanic activity in Fuerteventura occurred between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. Beaches Fuerteventura was chosen among 500 European destinations by the Quality Coast International Certification Program of the European Coastal and Marine Union as one of the most attractive tourist destinations for visitors interested in cultural heritage, environment and sustainability. The best beaches to visit are Playa de Cofete, Playas de Jandia, Playas de Corralejo, Playa de Ajuy, and Playas de El Cotillo. Wildlife The island is home to one of the two surviving populations of the threatenedCanarian Egyptian vulture. It is also inhabited by many wild dogs and cats. On the barren, rocky","the barren, rocky land there areBarbary ground squirrelsandgeckos. Fuerteventura also hosts several migratory and nesting birds. The island has significant populations of thecollared dove, commonswiftsand severalfinchspecies especially in the vicinity of holiday developments. Despite its arid climate, the island is also home to a surprisingly large insect fauna. Butterflies which commonly occur on the island include the clouded yellow (Colias hyale) and the bath white (Pontia daplidice) which feeds onxerophyticcruciferae. The island is also home to the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) and its close African relativeDanaus chrysippus. Around holiday developments such asCaleta de Fuste, water is relatively abundant, anddragonflyspecies including the blue emperor (Anax imperator) and the scarlet darter (Crocothemis erythraea) can be found. The island's sand dunes and shoreline are home to a number ofbeeandwaspspecies including the largeeumenidcaterpillar hunting wasp,Delta dimidiatipenneand the blue banded","the blue banded bee (Amegilla canifrons). Hawkmothsalso occur on the island. One of the more notable species isHyles tithymaliwhich feeds on endemic spurges such asEuphorbia regis-jubae.Acherontia atropos, the deaths-head hawkmoth also occurs on the island presumably feeding on members of theSolanaceae, for example,Datura innoxiaandNicotiana glaucawhich are common weeds in the vicinity of human habitation. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Fuerteventura areChlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae(hubara or houbara) andEuphorbia handiensis(Cardón de Jandía). Demographics Population The island had a population of 124,152 at the start of 2023.Throughout its long history, Fuerteventura has suffered from apopulation declinedue to the economic situation and the climate, which have made it into a desert island. However, the development of tourism during the 1980s has caused the population to grow year on year since then, doubling it in a little less than a decade. In 2005, with 86,642","2005, with 86,642 registered inhabitants,the Fuerteventura population was formed by the following: Comparing this data with the 2001 census shows that the number of permanent residents born on the island has increased by just 3,000. The number who have moved in from abroad has increased by 22,910, making this the biggest contributor to population growth in recent years. Education The island has 116 schools,with a total of 14,337 pupils.Of these, 45 are primary schools, ten are secondary schools, six are forBaccalaureatestudents and four are vocational colleges. Fuerteventura also has a centre linked with theNational University of Distance Education, offering courses in many subjects including economics, business studies, law, history and tourism. Administration Fuerteventura is governed by the Island Department of the Government of Spain, which holds the rank of a Government Subdepartment. The government building is located in the centre of the capital city. This institution is charged with representing the","representing the Government of Spain on the island, and managing all the functions that are not under control of the Canarian Government. This includes the following public services: Since 30 June 2007, the island's governor has been Eustaquio Juan Santana Gil.4 Island Council of Fuerteventura (Cabildo) The councils, formed as part of the Councils Act of 1912, administer theCanary Islandsand have two principal functions. On one hand, they perform services for the Autonomous Community, and on the other, they are the local government centre for the island. In the 2003 elections, Mario Cabrera González was elected as president representing theCanarian Coalition, with 31.02% of the votes, followed by theSpanish Socialist Workers' Partywith 27.53%, represented by the Vice President Domingo Fuentes Curbelo. Municipalities Fuerteventura is part of theProvince of Las Palmas. The island is divided into sixmunicipalities, as follows: In turn, these municipalities are organised into two associations: theMancomunidad de","theMancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Norte de Fuerteventuraformed from La Oliva and Puerto del Rosario, and the remaining municipalities make up theMancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Sur de Fuerteventura. All municipalities are ruled by a town council, and are members of the FECAM (Federation of Canarian Municipalities). They are governed by the basic legislation of the local regime and their respective organic rules. About 100 individual settlements are distributed through these municipalities. The largest not being municipal seats areCorralejo(in La Oliva; pop. 10,714 in 2023),Morro Jable(in Pájara; pop. 8,245)Gran Tarajal(in Tuineje; pop. 7,584), andCosta Calma(in Pájara; pop. 5,704), all coastal localities of recent development. A nearby islet,Islote de Lobos, is close to Corralejo and part of the municipality ofLa Oliva. Economy Both Fuerteventura andLanzarotewould have been the main exporters of wheat and cereals to the central islands of the archipelago during the 16th, 17th and 18th","16th, 17th and 18th centuries;TenerifeandGran Canaria.However, this trade was of little benefit to the inhabitants of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (because the landowners of the islands profited from this activity), leading to periods of famine, resulting in some of the population of the islands moving to Tenerife and Gran Canaria to try to improve their lives. Therefore, the island of Tenerife became the main focus of attraction formajorerosandlanzaroteños, hence the feeling of union that has always existed amongst these islands. The economy of Fuerteventura is mainly based on tourism. Primary tourist areas are located around the existing towns ofCorralejoin the north andMorro JableinJandia, plus the purely tourist development ofCaleta de Fuste, south ofPuerto del Rosario. Other main industries are fishing and agriculture (cereals and vegetables). The famousMajorero cheeseis locally made from the milk of the indigenousmajoreragoat. In 2009, Fuerteventura recorded the highest EU regional unemployment rate at","rate at a NUTS3 level, at 29.2 percent. Tourism The first tourist hotel was built in 1965 followed by the construction ofFuerteventura Airportat El Matorral, heralding the dawn of a new era for the island. Fuerteventura, with its 3,000 sunshine hours a year, was placed firmly on the world stage as a major European holiday destination.While having fully developed tourist facilities, the island has not experienced the overdevelopment found on some other islands.Nonetheless, it remains a destination for predominantly but not exclusively European tourists. The summerTrade Windsand winter swells of the Atlantic make this a year-round surfers' paradise, with more exposed areas on the north and west shores such asCorralejoand El Cotillo proving most popular. Wind surfing takes places at locations around the island. Sailors, scuba divers and big-game fishermen are all drawn to these clear blue Atlantic waters where whales, dolphins, marlin and turtles are all common sights. With many hills present throughout the","throughout the Island, hikers are also attracted to this Island. Sandy beaches are found in many locations. Western beaches, such as those around El Cotillo, can experience strong surf. The beaches adjoining the extensive sand dunes east ofCorralejoare popular, as are the more protected extensive sandy shores of the Playa de Sotavento de Jandia on the southeastern coast betweenCosta Calmaand the Morro Jable. Naked sun bathing and swimming are the norm almost on all beaches. Much of the interior, with its large plains, lavascapes and volcanic mountains, consists of protected areas, although there are organised tours and vehicular access across them. Art and culture Traditional holidays Like the rest of the Canaries, Carnival is traditionally one of the biggest festivals celebrated on the island. It is celebrated in different ways in all the towns during February and March. These festivities have a different theme each year. They include activities such as parades and galas to choose the carnival king.","the carnival king. Concerts and festivals There are many concerts and festivals held in the auditoriums, such as the Festival of Canarian Music. They are also held in smaller venues across the island, featuring bands such as Estopa, Van Gogh's Ear, and King Afrhica. Festival Internacional de Cometas/InternationalKiteFestival is held on the second week of November each year centering on the Corralejo Beaches. It attracts kitefliers and kite surfers from all over Europe. It is popular because the winds are warm and constant and the beaches become filled with hundreds of colourful kites of all shapes and sizes. Auditoriums Fuerteventura has three auditoriums. These are used for all types of performing art. They are also used for non-artistic purposes, such as conferences, charity galas and political meetings. Central library The Central Library of the Island is located in Antigua's city centre, in the public university. In addition to providing the traditional library services, it has a 180-seat multipurpose","multipurpose room, air conditioning, a wifi zone, and a multimedia room used for seminars, presentations, film festivals etc. Museums and exhibition spaces The island has several museums with different themes and plenty of exhibition spaces, both public and private. These include: Sculpture park In addition to the museums, the capitalPuerto del Rosariohas an open-air sculpture park consisting of around 100 sculptures by different artists scattered across the city. Most of them were created for the International Symposium of Sculpture celebrated annually since 2001. During the festival, artists come from all over the world to erect their sculptures in the open air, in full view of passers by. Main sights Sites of interest includeCorralejoand El Jable to the north which are made up of fine sandduneswhilst the south is filled with long beaches and remote bays. The constant winds blowing onto the beaches provide a paradise forwindsurfing.Surfingis common on the west and north coasts where there are large waves.","are large waves. Windsurfing is common around Corralejo and Playas de Sotavento and wave sailing (windsurfing on the waves) on the coast along the northern half of the island. El Cotillo is a small fishing village in the north-west of the Island famous for a very long beach to the south of the village and few very calm beaches to the north. The northern beaches frequented by snorkeling enthusiasts and sun worshippers alike are referred to as lakes by the locals. AtCofeteon the western side of Jandía a remote and imposing house –Villa Winter– looks out to sea across wide beaches. It was reputedly built by a Mr Winter on land given byGeneralisimo Franco. For a time, the beaches were home to a popular accidental attraction. On 18 January 1994 theUnited States Linesocean linerSSAmerican Star(formerAmerica, USSWest Point,Australis) was beached in Playa de Garcey during a severe storm. Within a year, she broke in two and later lost her stern. By 2007 the rest of the severely deteriorated ship had collapsed onto","had collapsed onto her port side, gradually keeling over further and almost completely submerged. By 2008–2012, most of the remains finally slipped below the surface. Food The cuisine is fairly basic due to the customs and climate conditions. They share this simplicity with the other Canary islands, and similarly to them, they use a large quantity offish. They also use whatever they can grow in the near-barren land. This includespapas arrugadas, a dish of wrinkled potatoes usually served withmojo, which is a hot pepper sauce or withpuchero canario, a meat stew. Seafood is prepared in many ways traditionally, such as pejines (salted fish),jareas,orsancocho(a type of stew) made from fish, generally thegrouper,corvina or sama, boiled after salting, and served with mojo, potatoes, orgofio(a type of grain). People are also very keen on themusselsandlimpetscollected on the island's coasts. They also use meat such asbeefandporkto make different dishes or simply to for braising, but their main meat isgoat, both from","isgoat, both from the kids and from the older animals. They eat the goat roasted or stewed. Goats are not only useful for their meat – the Fuerteventurans also use themilkto make the cheesemajorero, which has won many prizes. The majorero is mostly made of goats milk, and occasionally it is up to 15%ewesmilk. It is cured inpimentooil or gofio meal. Majorero andpalmero cheeseare the only two Canarian cheeses withprotected denomination of origin. Transport and communications The main methods of arriving and departing the islands are by flying and by ferry. Airports The airport is the main access point to the island. It is situated in El Matorral, 5 km (3.1 mi) southwest of the capital city Puerto del Rosario. The airport has flight connections to over 80 destinations worldwide, and over 5.6 million passengers passed through it in 2016. In 1994, the new airport terminal was constructed. In December 2009, the new facilities of the arrivals terminal of Fuerteventura Airport were inaugurated, tripling the space","tripling the space available in the old facilities. Up to 4000 passengers per hour can be served concurrently thanks to the new facilities. Notably,Binter Canariasserves the airport as the regional airline connecting passengers acrossCanary Islands. Ports Maritime communications are made from four ports: Puerto del Rosario, Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. Cargo operations are the main activity of the island's main port in Puerto del Rosario, although its facilities allow the docking of tourist cruises including a ferry from Gran Canaria. Passenger traffic is mainly channeled through Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. The port of Corralejo connects the island with Lanzarote. The port of Gran Tarajal connects the island with Gran Canaria and Morro Jable connects the island with Gran Canaria and Tenerife. Roads There are two highways on the island: FV-1 and FV-2. The FV-1, together with the FV-2, is part of the major construction project of the north–south motorway on Fuerteventura. The FV-1","The FV-1 begins in the north, in the town of Corralejo and ends in the island's capital Puerto del Rosario. FV-1 is part dual carriageway and part single carriageway. In the past, the FV-1 also ran through the Corralejo Dune Nature Reserve. In order to direct through traffic out of the nature reserve, the dual carriageway bypass around the nature reserve was opened in 2017 as the first section of the motorway after three years of construction, plus five years of construction delay. The road through nature reserve was renamed FV-104. FV-2 connects Morro Jable and Puerto del Rosario. Between La Lajita and Morro Jable, FV-2 is a dual carriageway highway. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar, Hertz, Sixt and TopCar. Sport Many sports are commonly played in Fuerteventura, both in the open air and in sports centres across the island. Native sports These are the Canarian sports found on the island: Canarian wrestling The wrestling takes place in a","takes place in a ring of sand called theterrero. Inside it, the two contestants try to knock each other over. Fuerteventura has 14 terreros distributed through all the towns except Betancuria. The island also has a school wrestling league organized by the council and a programme to promote this sport in clubs. Twelve wrestling schools participate in this, based in Antigua, Costa Calma, El Matorral, La Lajita, Lajares, Las Playitas, Morro Jable, Puerto del Rosario, Tefía, Tetir, Unión Sur and Villaverde. Juego del Palo Juego del Palois a Canarian martial art which literally translates as \"game of the stick\". It is played by two players both armed with sticks. They aim to defeat each other without making contact with their opponent's body. The origin of this game is unclear. All we know is that it is based on a method of combat used by the precolonial Canarian people. Fuerteventura has the following Palo clubs: Canarian boules This is a similar game to the FrenchPétanquewhich is actually played very little on","very little on the island, although there are a few teams and courts. Basically the game consists of scoring points by throwing a ball to get it as near as possible to an object called amingueorboliche. It is played on a rectangular sand or earth pitch which is 18 to 25 m (59.1–82.0 ft) long and 3.5 to 6 m (11.5–19.7 ft) wide. Watersports The sea and climate conditions make the island the perfect place for a huge variety of watersports. Surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing Many types of surfing are popular on the island, includingtraditional surfing,windsurfing(where the board is propelled by a sail) and most recentlykitesurfing. The island has many schools and courses dedicated to teaching these sports. The sports where Fuerteventura has the most impact internationally are windsurfing and kitesurfing, mainly due to the International Windsurfing and Kiteboarding Championship. This has run since 1985 and is held at Playas de Sotavento in Pájara municipality. Many important wind and kitesurfing figures compete","figures compete in this championship, such as the several-times world windsurfing championBjörn DunkerbeckandGisela Pulido, the very young kiteboarding champion fromTarifa. Many Canarian windsurfers are on the Canarian Waveriders circuit, which has been based inCorralejosince 2005. Diving Diving schools are just as frequent as surfing ones, all around the coast of Fuerteventura. Unlike the other islands of the archipelago, Fuerteventura has a shelf which at some points goes up to 30 km (19 mi), making it an ideal place to practice this sport. Two of the most useful points for diving are the coast offPlaya del Matorralin the South, and the zone betweenLobos Islandand Corralejo in the north. It is here in Corralejo that the International Sea and Submarine Photography Festival takes places, known as Fimarsub Corralejo – Lobos. During the festival there are beginners' lessons, professional dives, lessons in underwater photography, screenings and other events related to the sport. Swimming There are many swimming","are many swimming pools on the island but the most obvious place to swim is in the open sea. There is an annual swim from Lobos Island to Fuerteventura, held every year since 1999. The event attracts amateur swimmers from all over the Canaries and Spain, and also swimming professionals such asDavid MecaandMaarten van der Weijden, the paralympist Jesús Collado Alarcón who won gold medals for 100m backstroke and butterfly in Athens 2004, and Xavi Torres Ramis, the paralympic champion in Barcelona 1992, Sydney and Atlanta. Sailing The island holds competitions involving different types of boat, such as thelateenand theOptimist. An interesting event is the Tour of Fuerteventura by Kayak, which is organised as a series of stages rather than a competition, and is an easy way to explore the island. Fishing The most notable competition here is the Gran Tarajal Fishing Open. Other sports Since 2004 the Marcha Ciclotourista has been held inLa Olivaand the Criterium Ciclista has been held in Corralejo (also part of the","(also part of the La Oliva municipality) since 2005. Participants includeEuskaltel–Euskadi,T-Mobileand a team fromOrbea. These competitions have contributed to local interest in the sport and the first professional local team, theFuerteventura–Canarias, was formed, initially run by Óscar Guerrero, director ofKaiku, although they have not competed for the past few seasons. There are variousmotocrosscircuits on the island, includingLos Alaresin Antigua andIsla de FuerteventurainPuerto del Rosariomunicipality. They hold regular trials, some of which form part of the Canarian Regional Motocross Championship. Throughout the year there are gravel rally races. Two are part of the Canarian Dirt Rally Championship. These are the Antiguan Rally and the La Oliva Rally. The island's mainfootballclubs areCD Union PuertoandCD Cotillo, who play in Group XII of the SpanishTercera División RFEF. The resort Playitas on the south coast is since around 2008 equipped with a 50 m (160 ft) swimming pool and has become a","and has become a destination fortriathlontraining camps for Europeans. An annual race called Challenge Fuerteventura is held there on the half ironman distance. People See also References External links","Gran Canaria Gran Canaria(UK:/ˌɡrænkəˈnɛəriə,-ˈnɑːr-/,US:/ˌɡrɑːnkəˈnɑːriə,-ˈnɛər-/;Spanish:ⓘ), alsoGrand Canary Island, is the third-largest and second-most-populous island of theCanary Islands,anarchipelagooff the Atlantic coast ofNorthwest Africaand is part of Spain. As of 2023the island had a population of 862,893 that constitutes approximately 40% of the population of the archipelago.Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, the capital of the island, is the biggest city of the Canary Islands and the ninth of Spain. Gran Canaria is located in the Atlantic Ocean in a region known asMacaronesiaabout 150 kilometres (93 mi) off the northwestern coast of Africa and about 1,350 km (840 mi) from Europe.With an area of 1,560 km2(600 sq mi)and an altitude of 1,956 m (6,417 ft) atMorro de la Agujereada, Gran Canaria is the third largest island of the archipelago in both area and altitude. Gran Canaria is also the third most populated island in Spain. History Inantiquity, Gran Canaria was populated by the North AfricanCanarii,","AfricanCanarii, who may have arrived as early as 500 BC.In themedieval period, after over a century of European incursions and attempts at conquest, the island was conquered on 29 April 1483, by theCrown of Castile, underQueen Isabella I. The Canarian queenAbencharawas captured and imprisoned by the Spanish during the conquest. The conquest succeeded after a war that lasted five years, and it was an important step towards the expansion of the unified Spain. The capital city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canariawas founded on 24 June 1478, under the name \"Real de Las Palmas\", byJuan Rejón, head of the invadingCastilianarmy. In 1492,Christopher Columbusanchored in thePort of Las Palmas(and spent some time on the island) on his first trip to the Americas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is, jointly withSanta Cruz de Tenerife, the capital of theautonomous communityof the Canary Islands. Much of Iberian migration to the island consisted ofconversosof Jewish origin. On 27 March 1977, a bomb went off in Gran Canaria Airport, the","Airport, the main airport on the island. Flights were diverted to the nearby Tenerife Airport: this led to theTenerife airport disaster. Etymology Plinyclaimed that the island was named for the dogs on the island, of which two were presented as a gift toJuba, King ofMauretania.This opinion is disputed as when the Europeans arrived on the island, no dogs were found.Another source suggested the way the natives ate fish was doglike and this was the reason for its name.A more plausible assumption is that the islands name derives from the people Canario or Canarii living near theAtlas mountain range.Jean de Béthencourtnamed the islandGranCanaria as the people on the island were valorous opponents to hisconquest. Geography Gran Canaria is located in theCanary Islandsarchipelago southeast ofTenerifeand west ofFuerteventura. The island is ofvolcanicorigin, mostly made offissure vents. It has a round shape, with a diameter of approximately 50 km (31 mi) and a surface area of 1,560 km2(600 sq mi). Gran Canaria's","mi). Gran Canaria's maximum elevation is 1,956 metres (6,417 ft) atMorro de la Agujereada, although the nearbyPico de las Nieveshas traditionally been considered the island's tallest peak. The coastline measures 236 km. Geology About 80% of the volume of the island was formed during theMioceneperiod eruptions, between 14 and 9 million years ago.This is called the \"Old Cycle\" and is estimated to have lasted some 200,000 years and have emitted about 1,000 km3(240 cu mi), mostly of fissuralalkali basalt. This cycle continued with the emission oftrachytes,phonolitesandperalkalinerocks.This period was followed by one of erosion, which lasted some 4 million years. A second cycle of volcanic eruptions, known as the \"Roque Nublo cycle\", took place between 4.5 and 3.4 million years ago. This shorter cycle emitted about 100 km3(24 cu mi). Most of the inland peaks were formed by erosion from these materials. This period also started with fissural basalts, but ended with violent eruptions ofpyroclastic flows. Some","flows. Some phonolitic features, like the Risco Blanco, were also formed in its last stages. The third or recent cycle is held to have started some 2.8 million years ago and is considered to be still active. The last eruptions are held to have occurred some 2000 years ago. The changes in volume and, therefore, weight of the island have also caused the island to rise above the previous sea level during erosive periods and to sink during eruptive periods. Some of these \"fossil beaches\" can be seen in the cliff faces of the more eroded northern coast. Climate According to theKöppen climate classification, Gran Canaria is considered to have ahot desert climate (BWh)due to its severe lack of precipitation. Gran Canaria has consistent warm temperatures in spring, summer and autumn, and mild winters. Gran Canaria is noted for its rich variety ofmicroclimates. Generally speaking though, the average daytime high ranges from 20 °C (68 °F) in winter to 26 °C (79 °F) in summer. Some cool nights occur in winter, but lows","in winter, but lows below 10 °C (50 °F) are unknown near the coast. Inland the climate is still mild but mountainous areas see the occasional frost or snow. Annual rainfall averages 228 mm (9.0 in), most of this falling in the cooler months, with July, August and September normally rainless. Rainfall is unevenly distributed through the island with some areas being much drier than others. Cloud cover and sunshine is often quite variable during the cooler months, and there can be several rather cloudy days at times in winter. Summers are generally quite sunny however, with the south of the island being most favoured. Vegetation Until the conquest, Gran Canaria had extensive forests, but then suffered extensivedeforestationas a result of continuous logging, land divisions and other intensive uses. This reduced the forest cover to just 56,000 hectares (140,000 acres),making the island the most deforested of the Canary Islands.However, in the twentieth century reforestation of the ridge of the island was begun,","island was begun, recovering some of the lost forest mass. Much of the summit of the island is forested mostly due toreforestation. Governance Gran Canaria is in theautonomous communityof theCanary Islands(Islas Canarias). It lies within theProvince of Las Palmas, aSpanish provincewhich consists of the eastern part of the Canary Islands community.Las Palmas de Gran Canariais the provincial capital, one of the two capitals of the Canary Islands along withSanta Cruz de Tenerife. The island of Gran Canaria is governed by theCabildo insular de Gran Canaria.Gran Canaria Island itself is divided into twenty-one smallermunicipalities: The island has a population at the start of 2023 of 862,893 - with 380,863 of those in the capital city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canaria. Gran Canaria is the second most populous island of the Canary Islands, afterTenerife. Transportation Roads Gran Canaria has roads encircling the whole island and extending into the mountain areas. In the late 20th century, its dual carriageway, among","carriageway, among the first in the Canary Islands, were opened and run around Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, and were later extended to the north coast and the airport and subsequently to the south coast in response to increased tourist traffic. The only highway of Gran Canaria areGC1. Dual carriageway isGC2, andGC31,GC4andGC5. The western and the north-western parts, with the fewest inhabitants, are linked only with main roads. Buses Public transport around Gran Canaria is provided by an extensive bus network, known in the local dialect asguaguas. TheAutoridad Única del Transporte de Gran Canaria(Gran Canaria Transport Authority, TGC) manages the network and operates a number of bus stations across the island, including San Telmo and Santa Catalina bus stations in Las Palmas, Maspalomas and Galdar.Bus tickets may be purchased with cash, and AUTGC also operates acontactlesselectronic ticketcalled the TransGC Card, which is valid across the whole network. Inter-urban bus services across the island are operated","island are operated by the Global bus company.Global was created in 2000 after the merger of two bus companies, Utinsa (which operated in the north of the island) and Salcai (the bus operator for the south).Local bus services in Las Palmas are run by the municipal bus company,Guaguas Municipales de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Airport Gran Canaria Airport(IATA: LPA) is the only commercial airport on the island. The large number of aircraft and passengers passing through it each year make it one of the busiest in Spain. Gran Canaria is also responsible for all air traffic control in the Canaries. By destination island, Gran Canaria is the second island that congregates the largest number of passengers in the Canary Islands.Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are:Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz, Sixt and TopCar. Sea ports The most important ports in the island are the Port of Las Palmas(Puerto de la Luz),in the city ofLas Palmas de Gran","Palmas de Gran Canaria;Arguineguín, which exportscementfrom a large factory; andArinaga, located in the main industrial zone of Canaries and one of the major ones of Spain. The main passenger ports are the Port of La Luz, whereTrasmediterráneaoperates a weekly ferry route toCádizon the Spanish mainland,and thePort of Las Nieves, located inAgaeteon the west side of the island, whereFred Olsen Expressoperates acatamaranferry service toSanta Cruz de Tenerife. Train Plans for aTren de Gran Canariarailway network linking the capital with the south have been approved by both theGran Canaria Cabildoand the autonomous Canary Islands' Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government hinges now on budget. The planned 57 km (35 mi) railway line would run between Las Palmas and Meloneras, with the section in the capital running entirely underground as far as the suburb of Jinámar. The line is planned to have 11 stations, including an underground station at Gran Canaria Airport. The scheme was first","scheme was first announced in 2009, with a planned operational date in 2015. A public company calledFerrocarriles de Gran Canariahas been formed by the Cabildo's Gran Canaria Transport Authority. Plans were still being discussed in 2018. Agriculture Gran Canaria agriculture is unique among the Canaries islands in that it was traditionally dominated by plantations, with much of these being grains as well assugarcane, rather than by stock-breeding.Thecaves of Valerón(aproperty of cultural interestin the \"archaeological site\" category) in the municipality ofSanta María de Guíabears testimony of it by being the largest pre-Hispanic collective granary of the Canaries. Tourism This island is called a \"miniature continent\" due to the different climates and variety of landscapes found, with long beaches and dunes of white sand, contrasting with green ravines and picturesque villages.A third of the island is under protection as aBiosphere ReservebyUNESCO. The number of annual visitors was 3.6 million in 2014 (of","million in 2014 (of which 450.000 Spaniards).It is the second island in the archipelago in number of annual tourists, after Tenerife.Most of the tourists visit the southern part of the island. The north tends to be cooler, while the south is warmer and sunny. The east coast of the island is flat, dotted with beaches, while the western coast is rockier and mountainous. The island possesses 32 Natural Protected Spaces,notably the Rural Park of Nublo, The Doramas Jungle, the Azuaje Ravine, Tamadaba, Pino Santo, etc. In the south there is a large bird park,Palmitos Park, as well as many beach resort communities. Resorts are concentrated in the central eastern part of the southern coast in theMaspalomasarea, which includes the towns ofSan Agustín,Playa del InglésandMeloneras. TheMaspalomas Dunesare located between Playa del Inglés (\"The Englishman's Beach\") and the distinctive 19th centuryMaspalomas lighthouse. Playa del Ingles is home to the Yumbo Centre,which was opened in 1982 and has almost 200 shops,","almost 200 shops, including bars, restaurants, cafes, fashion boutiques, electronic outlets and jewellery stores. In Tarajalillo, an Aeroclub exists from where tourist flights can be taken over the island. Still further to the west along the southern shore, in the Municipality of Mogán, are the communities ofPuerto RicoandPuerto de Mogán, a village referred to as \"Little Venice\" on account of its many canals. Other attractions include Cocodrilos Park,Roque Nublo(an 80 m monolith),Cenobio de Valerónwith more than 350 storage cavities,Painted cave of Galdarthe most important archaeological park in Canary Islands, or the botanical gardensJardín Canario(in Tafira Alta) andCactualdea(inLa Aldea de San Nicolás). El Dedo de Dios, or \"God's Finger\", was a rocky spire jutting from the sea inPuerto de las Nieves, and was previously the signature attraction of the Canary Islands until it was destroyed bytropical storm Deltathat crossed the archipelago in November 2005. Other well-known rock formations are El Cura (also","are El Cura (also known as El Fraile), The Frog (La Rana),Roque Bentayga, the Roque de Gando, and the Peñón Bermejo. Traditionally, the highest peak of the island has been considered to be thePico de las Nieves, at 1,949 metres (6,394 ft); however,Morro de la Agujereadais taller, at 1,956 metres (6,417 ft). The capital city isLas Palmas de Gran Canaria.Las Canterasbeach, a protected area and diving zone, lies in the heart of the city. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is also known for its annualcarnaval. It was the first stop of Christopher Columbus' expedition on his way back from the Americas,a commemoration of which is the Hermitage of San Antonio Abad, where the navigator prayed, and theCasa de Colón. Other attractions in the capital city include theMuseo Canario(the most important archaeology museum in the archipelago), the cathedral and thePlaza del Espíritu Santo. InTerorthe shrine ofVirgen del Pino(\"Virgin of the Pine\"), patron saint of Gran Canaria, can be found. Its feast is celebrated on 8 September.","on 8 September. The town ofAgüimes, on the eastern part of the island, has been carefully restored and its town centre, centered on its old church and a peaceful square, now evokes the quiet living of a traditional Canarian town. The district also has some of the best preserved cave dwellings, in the protected area of theGuayadeque ravine, where even the church has been built into the mountainside and visitors can find a number of popular cave restaurants. The district also includes the most renowned scuba diving area on the island: the marine reserve at theplaya de El Cabrónjust outside the town of Arinaga. Other important towns areTelde, known among other things for theirsurfschools in Salinetas, Vecindario (within the municipality of Santa Lucía de Tirajana) andGáldar, that contains an important diving zone. InArucasthere is a Neogothic temple, popularly known as \"Arucas' Cathedral\", as well as a large fertile plain where bananas are grown. InGáldarand its surroundings there is also a banana-growing plain","plain and some remarkable archaeological remains,such as thePainted cave of Galdaror thecenobio de Valerón's communal silos, ancient tombs (among which thenecropolis of Maipés), and the port of Sardina del Norte (one of the island's ports where, as in Las Palmas',Christopher Columbusused to get supplies for his ships). Heading west along the southern coast is the fishing city ofArguineguínin theMunicipality of Mogán. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Gran Canaria are theCanary MastiffandEuphorbia canariensis(Cardón) Beaches Protected natural areas Nearly half of the island territory — 667 km2(258 sq mi) (42.7% of island) — is under protection from the Red Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos (Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,a total of 33 are located in Gran Canaria, the second most protected island in the group.There are seven different categories of protection: Music","protection: Music Science and technology In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14ground stationsin theManned Space Flight Network(MSFN) to support theNASAspace program.Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including theApollo 11Moon landings andSkylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of theESAnetwork. Sports The island is home toCB Gran Canaria– a basketball club playing inLiga ACBat theGran Canaria Arena, with a capacity of 11,000. The island is also home toUD Las Palmas– a football club playing inLa Ligaat theEstadio de Gran Canaria, with a capacity of 32,392.Professional Windsurfers Association(PWA) holds its annual competitions at Pozo - Pozo Izquierdo: This spot, which is situated in the municipal area of Santa Lucía, is internationally famous on account of the ideal windsurfing conditions, the wind being ever present. See also Bibliography Geology of Gran Canaria References External","References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Canary Islands TheCanary Islands(/kəˈnɛəri/,Spanish:Canarias,Spanish:), also known informally asthe Canaries, are a Spanish region,autonomous communityandarchipelagoin theAtlantic Ocean. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are 100 kilometres (62 miles) west ofMoroccoand theWestern Sahara. They are the southernmost of theautonomous communities of Spain. The islands have a population of 2.2 million people and are the most populousspecial territory of the European Union. The seven main islands are, from largest to smallest in area,Tenerife,Fuerteventura,Gran Canaria,Lanzarote,La Palma,La Gomera, andEl Hierro. The only other populated island isLa Graciosa, which administratively is dependent on Lanzarote. The archipelago includes many smaller islands and islets, includingAlegranza,Isla de Lobos,Montaña Clara,Roque del Oeste, andRoque del Este. It includes a number of rocks, includingGarachicoandAnaga. In ancient times, the island chain was often referred to as \\\"the Fortunate Isles\\\".The Canary\",\n \"Isles\\\".The Canary Islands are the southernmost region ofSpain, and the largest and most populous archipelago ofMacaronesia.Because of their location, the Canary Islands have historically been considered a link between the four continents ofAfrica,North America,South America, andEurope. In 2023, the Canary Islands had a population of 2,236,013,with a density of 299 inhabitants per km2, making it the seventh most populous autonomous community of Spain. The population is mostly concentrated in the two capital islands: around 43% on the island of Tenerife and 40% on the island of Gran Canaria. The Canary Islands, especially Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote, are a major tourist destination, with over 16 million visitors in 2023.This is due to their beaches,subtropical climate, and important natural attractions, especiallyMaspalomasinGran Canariaand MountTeide, aWorld Heritage SiteinTenerife. Mount Teide is thehighest peak in Spainand the3rd tallest volcano in the world, measured from its base\",\n \"from its base on the ocean floor.The islands have warm summers and winters warm enough for the climate to be technically tropical at sea level.The amount of precipitation and the level of maritime moderation vary depending on location and elevation. The archipelago includes green areas as well as semi-desert. The islands' high mountains are ideal for astronomical observation, because they lie above thetemperature inversionlayer. As a result, the archipelago has two professional astronomical observatories: theTeide Observatoryon Tenerife, andRoque de los Muchachos Observatoryon La Palma. In 1927, theProvince of Canary Islandswas split into two provinces. In 1982, the autonomous community of the Canary Islands was established. The cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canariaare, jointly, the capitals of the islands.Those cities are also, respectively, the capitals of theprovincesofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has been the largest city in the Canaries since\",\n \"the Canaries since 1768, except for a brief period in the 1910s.Between the1833 territorial division of Spainand 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, it was ordered by decree that the capital of the Canary Islands would be shared between two cities, and this arrangement persists to the present day.The third largest city in the Canary Islands isSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, another World Heritage Site on Tenerife. During theAge of Sail, the islands were the main stopover forSpanish galleonsduring theSpanish colonisation of the Americas, which sailed that far south in order to catch the prevailing northeasterlytrade winds. Etymology The nameIslas Canariasis likely derived from the Latin nameCanariae Insulae, meaning \\\"Islands of the Dogs\\\", perhaps because monk seals or sea dogs were abundant, a name that was evidently generalized from the ancient name of one of these islands,Canaria– presumably Gran Canaria. According to the historianPliny the Elder, the\",\n \"the Elder, the islandCanariacontained \\\"vast multitudes of dogs of very large size\\\".The connection to dogs is retained in their depiction on the islands' coat-of-arms. Other theories speculate that the name comes from theNukkariBerber tribe living in the Moroccan Atlas, named in Roman sources asCanarii, though Pliny again mentions the relation of this term with dogs. The name of the islands is not derived from thecanary bird; rather, the birds are named after the islands. Islands From west to east, the Canary Islands areEl Hierro,La Palma,La Gomera,Tenerife,Gran Canaria,Fuerteventura,Lanzarote, andLa Graciosa. North of Lanzarote are the islets ofMontaña Clara,Alegranza,Roque del EsteandRoque del Oeste, belonging to theChinijo Archipelago. Northeast of Fuerteventura is the islet ofLobos. There are a series of small adjacent rocks in the Canary Islands: theRoques de Anaga,Garachicoand Fasnia in Tenerife, and Salmor and Bonanza in El Hierro. El Hierro El Hierro, the westernmost island, covers 268.71 km2(103.75\",\n \"268.71 km2(103.75 sq mi). It is the second smallest of the major islands, and the least populous with 10,798 inhabitants. The whole island was declared a Reserve of the Biosphere in 2000. Its capital isValverde. Also known as Ferro, it was once the westernmost known land in the world. Ancient European geographers such as Ptolemy recognised the island as theprime meridianof longitude. That remained so until the 19th century, when it was displaced by the onepassing through Greenwich. Fuerteventura Fuerteventura, with a surface of 1,660 km2(640 sq mi), is the second largest island of the archipelago. It has been declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCO. It is the oldest of the islands being more eroded. Its highest point is the Peak of the Bramble, at a height of 807 metres (2,648 feet). Its capital isPuerto del Rosario. Gran Canaria Gran Canaria has 846,717 inhabitants. The capital,Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, with 377,203 inhabitants, is the most populous city and shares the status of capital of the Canaries with\",\n \"the Canaries with Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Gran Canaria's surface area is 1,560 km2(600 sq mi). Roque Nublo 1,813 metres (5,948 feet) and Pico de las Nieves (\\\"Peak of Snow\\\") 1,949 metres (6,394 feet) are located in the center of the island. On the south of the island are the Maspalomas Dunes (Gran Canaria). La Gomera La Gomera (informally known as 'Isla Colombina') has an area of 369.76 km2(142.77 sq mi) and is the second least populous island with 21,136 inhabitants. It has been declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCO. Geologically it is one of the oldest of the archipelago. The insular capital isSan Sebastian de La Gomera.Garajonay National Parkis located on the island. Lanzarote Lanzarote is the easternmost island and one of the oldest of the archipelago, and it has shown evidence of recent volcanic activity. It has a surface of 845.94 km2(326.62 sq mi), and a population of 149,183 inhabitants, including the adjacent islets of the Chinijo Archipelago. The capital isArrecife, with 56,834 inhabitants. Chinijo\",\n \"Chinijo Archipelago The Chinijo Archipelago includes the islandsLa Graciosa,Alegranza,Montaña Clara,Roque del EsteandRoque del Oeste. It has a surface of 40.8 km2(15.8 sq mi), and only La Graciosa is populated, with 658 inhabitants. With 29 km2(11 sq mi), La Graciosa is the largest island of the Chinijo Archipelago and the smallest inhabited island of the Canaries. La Palma La Palma, with 81,863 inhabitants covering an area of 708.32 km2(273.48 sq mi), is in its entirety a biosphere reserve. For long it showed no signs of volcanic activity, even though the volcanoTeneguíaentered into eruption last in 1971. On 19 September 2021, the volcanicCumbre Viejaon the islanderupted.It is the second-highest island of the Canaries, with the Roque de los Muchachos at 2,423 metres (7,949 feet) as its highest point.Santa Cruz de La Palma, known to those on the island as simply \\\"Santa Cruz\\\", is its capital. Tenerife Tenerife is, with its area of 2,034 km2(785 sq mi), the most extensive island of the Canary Islands. With\",\n \"Islands. With 904,713 inhabitants, it is the most populated island of the archipelago and Spain. Two of the islands' principal cities are located on it: the capital,Santa Cruz de TenerifeandSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, a World Heritage Site.San Cristóbal de La Laguna, the second city of the island, is home to the oldest university in the Canary Islands, theUniversity of La Laguna.Teide, with its 3,715 metres (12,188 feet) is the highest peak ofSpainand aWorld Heritage Site.Tenerifeis the site of theworst air disasterin the history of aviation, in which 583 people were killed in the collision of twoBoeing 747son 27 March 1977. La Graciosa Graciosa Island or commonly La Graciosa is a volcanic island in the Canary Islands of Spain, located 2 km (1.2 mi) north of the island of Lanzarote across the Strait of El Río. It was formed by the Canary hotspot. The island is part of the Chinijo Archipelago and the Chinijo Archipelago Natural Park (Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo). It is administered by the\",\n \"administered by the municipality of Teguise. In 2018, La Graciosa was declared asthe eighth Canary Islandby theSpanish Senate,though it is not recognized as such by the Canarian administration. It is administratively dependent on the island of Lanzarote. It is the smallest and least populated of the main islands, with about 700 people. Data Physical geography Tenerifeis the largest and most populous island of the archipelago.Gran Canaria, with 865,070 inhabitants, is both the Canary Islands' second most populous island, and the third most populous one in Spain after Tenerife (966,354 inhabitants) andMajorca(896,038 inhabitants).The island ofFuerteventurais the second largest in the archipelago and located 100 km (62 mi) from the African coast. The islands form theMacaronesiaecoregionwith theAzores,Cape Verde,Madeira, and theSavage Isles.The Canary Islands is the largest and most populated archipelago of the Macaronesia region.The archipelago has seven large and several smaller islands, all of which are\",\n \"all of which are volcanic in origin. According to the position of the islands with respect to the north-easttrade winds, the climate can be mild and wet or very dry. Several native species formlaurisilvaforests. The individual islands in the Canary archipelago tend to have distinctmicroclimates. Those islands such asEl Hierro,La PalmaandLa Gomeralying to the west of the archipelago have a climate which is influenced by the moistCanary Current. They are well vegetated even at low levels and have extensive tracts of sub-tropical laurisilva forest. Travelling east toward the African coast, the influence of the current diminishes, and the islands become increasingly arid.FuerteventuraandLanzarote, the islands which are closest to the African mainland, are effectively desert or semi-desert. Gran Canariais known as a \\\"continent in miniature\\\" for its diverse landscapes likeMaspalomasandRoque Nublo. The north ofTenerifelies under the influence of the moist Atlantic winds and is well vegetated. The south of the\",\n \"The south of the island around the tourist resorts ofPlaya de las AméricasandLos Cristianosis arid. The island rises to almost 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above sea level. At altitude, in the cool relatively wet climate, forests of the endemic pinePinus canariensisthrive. Many of the plant species in the Canary Islands, like the Canary Island pine and thedragon tree,Dracaena dracoare endemic, as noted bySabin BerthelotandPhilip Barker Webbin their work,L'Histoire Naturelle des Îles Canaries(1835–50). Climate The climate is warmsubtropical/tropicaland generallyarid, moderated by the sea and in summer by thetrade winds.There are a number ofmicroclimatesand the classifications range mainly fromsemi-deserttodesert. The majority of the Canary Islands have ahot desert climate(BWh) and ahot semi-desert climate(BSh) within theKöppensystem, caused partly due to the coolCanary Current.A subtropical humid climate, which is very influenced by the ocean, is in the middle of the islands ofLa Gomera,TenerifeandLa Palma,\",\n \"Palma, wherelaurisilvacloud forests grow. Geology The seven major islands, one minor island, and several small islets were originally volcanic islands, formed by theCanary hotspot.The Canary Islands is the only place in Spain wherevolcanic eruptionshave been recorded during theModern Era, with some volcanoes still active (El Hierro, 2011).Volcanic islands such as those in the Canary chain often have steep ocean cliffs caused by catastrophic debris avalanches andlandslides.The island chain's most recent eruption occurred atCumbre Vieja, a volcanic ridge on La Palma,in 2021. TheTeidevolcanoon Tenerife is the highest mountain in Spain, and the third tallest volcano on Earth on a volcanic ocean island.All the islands except La Gomera have been active in the last million years. Four of them, Lanzarote, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro, have historical records of eruptions since European discovery.The islands rise from Jurassicoceanic crustassociated with the opening of the Atlantic. Underwatermagmatismbegan\",\n \"during the Cretaceous, and continued to the present day. The current islands reached the ocean's surface during theMiocene. The islands were once considered as a distinct physiographic section of theAtlas Mountainsprovince, which is part of the larger African Alpine System division, but are now recognized as being related to a magmatic hot spot. In the summer of 2011, a series of low-magnitude earthquakes occurred beneath El Hierro. These had a linear trend of northeast–southwest. In October a submarine eruption occurred about2 km (1+1⁄4mi) south of Restinga. This eruption produced gases and pumice, but no explosive activity was reported. The following table shows the highest mountains in each of the islands: Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Canary Islands are the birdSerinus canaria(canary) and thePhoenix canariensispalm. National parks Four of Spain's thirteen national parks are located in the Canary Islands, more than any other autonomous community. Two of these have been\",\n \"of these have been declaredUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesand the other two are part ofBiosphere Reserves. The parks are: Teide National Parkis the oldest and largest national park in the Canary Islands and one of the oldest in Spain. Located in the geographic centre of the island of Tenerife, it is the most visited national park in Spain. In 2010, it became the most visited national park in Europe and second worldwide.The park's highlight is theTeidevolcano. Standing at an altitude of 3,715 metres (12,188 ft),it is the highest elevation in Spain and the third largest volcano on Earth from its base. In 2007, the Teide National Park was declared one of the12 Treasures of Spain. Politics Governance The regional executive body, theParliament of the Canary Islands, is presided over byFernando Clavijo Batlle(Canarian Coalition), the currentPresident of the Canary Islands. The members of the regional legislature, theParliament of the Canary Islands, has 70 elected legislators. Thelast regional electiontook place in May\",\n \"place in May 2023. The islands have 14 seats in theSpanish Senate. Of these, 11 seats are directly elected, 3 for Gran Canaria, 3 for Tenerife, and 1 each for Lanzarote (including La Graciosa), Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro. The other 3 are appointed by the regional legislature. Political geography TheAutonomous Community of the Canary Islandshas twoprovinces(provincias),Las PalmasandSanta Cruz de Tenerife, whose capitals,Las Palmas de Gran CanariaandSanta Cruz de Tenerife, are capitals of the autonomous community. Each of the seven major islands are ruled by an island council named aCabildo Insular. Each island is subdivided into smallermunicipalities(municipios).Las Palmas is divided into 34 municipalities, andSanta Cruz de Tenerife is divided into 54 municipalities. The international boundary of the Canaries is disputed inMorocco-Spain relations. In 2022 the UN declared the Canary Island's territorial waters as being Moroccan coast and Morocco has authorisedgas and oil explorationin\",\n \"oil explorationin what the Canary Islands states to be Canarian territorial waters andWestern Saharawaters.Morocco's official position is that international laws regarding territorial limits do not authorise Spain to claim seabed boundaries based on the territory of the Canaries, since the Canary Islands enjoy a large degree of autonomy. In fact, the islands do not enjoy any special degree of autonomy, as each one of the Spanish regions is considered anautonomous community, with equal status to the European ones. Under theLaw of the Sea, the only islands not granted territorial waters or anexclusive economic zone(EEZ) are those that are not fit for human habitation, or do not have an economic life of their own, which is not the case of the Canary Islands. Canarian nationalism There are some pro-independence political parties, like theNational Congress of the Canaries(CNC) and thePopular Front of the Canary Islands. Their popular support is almost insignificant, with no presence in either the autonomous\",\n \"the autonomous parliament or thecabildos insulares.In a 2012 study by theCentro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, when asked about national identity, the majority of respondents from the Canary Islands (53.8%) considered themselves Spanish and Canarian in equal measures, followed by 24% who consider themselves more Canarian than Spanish. 6.1% of the respondents considered themselves only Canarian, and 7% considered themselves only Spanish. Defense The defense of the territory is the responsibility of theSpanish Armed Forces. Components of theArmy,Navy,Air Forceand theCivil Guardare based in the territory. History Ancient and pre-Hispanic times Before the arrival of humans, the Canaries were inhabited by prehistoric animals including the giant lizard (Gallotia goliath), theTenerifeandGran Canaria giant rats,and giant tortoises,Geochelone burchardiandGeochelone vulcanica. Although the original settlement of what are now called the Canary Islands is not entirely clear, linguistic, genetic, and archaeological\",\n \"and archaeological analyses indicate thatindigenouspeoples were living on the Canary Islands at least 2,000 years ago, possibly 3,000, and that they shared a common origin with theBerberson the nearby North African coast.Reaching the islands may have taken place using several small boats, landing on the easternmost islands Lanzarote and Fuerteventura. These groups came to be known collectively as theGuanches, althoughGuancheshad been the name for only the indigenous inhabitants of Tenerife. According to a 2024 study by the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, there is archaeological evidence that the Romans were the first to colonise the islands, during the period from the 1st centuryBCEto the 1st century CE. There was no overlap with the occupation by the people who were inhabiting the islands at the time of the Spanish conquest, who had first arrived sometime between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE. As José Farrujia describes, 'The indigenous Canarians lived mainly in natural caves, usually near the\",\n \"usually near the coast, 300 to 500 metres (1,000 to 1,600 ft) above sea level. These caves were sometimes isolated but more commonly formed settlements, with burial caves nearby'.Archaeological work has uncovered a rich culture visible through artefacts ofceramics, human figures, fishing, hunting and farming tools, plant fibre clothing and vessels, as well as cave paintings. At Lomo de los Gatos on Gran Canaria, a site occupied from 1,600 years ago up until the 1960s, round stone houses, complex burial sites, and associated artefacts have been found.Across the islands are thousands ofLibyco-Berberalphabet inscriptions scattered and they have been extensively documented by many linguists. The social structure of indigenous Canarians encompassed \\\"a system ofmatrilinealdescent in most of the islands, in which inheritance was passed on via the female line. Social status and wealth were hereditary and determined the individual's position in the social pyramid, which consisted of the king, the relatives of the\",\n \"relatives of the king, the lower nobility, villeins, plebeians, and finally executioners, butchers, embalmers, and prisoners\\\". Their religion wasanimist, centring on the sun and moon, as well as natural features such as mountains. Exploration The islands may have been visited by thePhoenicians, theGreeks, and theCarthaginians. KingJuba II, CaesarAugustus'sNumidianprotégé, is credited with discovering the islands for the Western world. According toPliny the Elder, Juba found the islands uninhabited, but found \\\"a small temple of stone\\\" and \\\"some traces of buildings\\\".Juba dispatched a naval contingent to re-open the dye production facility atMogadorin what is now western Morocco in the early first centuryAD.That same naval force was subsequently sent on an exploration of the Canary Islands, using Mogador as their mission base. The names given by Romans to the individual islands wereNinguariaorNivaria(Tenerife),Canaria(Gran Canaria),PluvialiaorInvale(Lanzarote),Ombrion(La\",\n \"Palma),Planasia(Fuerteventura),IunoniaorJunonia(El Hierro) andCapraria(La Gomera). From the 14th century onward, numerous visits were made by sailors fromMajorca,Portugal, andGenoa.Lancelotto Malocellosettled on Lanzarote in 1312. The Majorcans established amissionwith a bishop in the islands that lasted from 1350 to 1400. Castilian conquest In 1402, the Castilian colonisation of the islands began with the expedition of the French explorersJean de BéthencourtandGadifer de la Salle, nobles andvassalsofHenry III of Castile, to Lanzarote. From there, they went on to conquer Fuerteventura (1405) and El Hierro. These invasions were \\\"brutal cultural and military clashes between the indigenous population and the Castilians\\\" lasting over a century due to formidable resistance by indigenous Canarians.ProfessorMohamed Adhikarihas defined the conquest of the islands as agenocideof theGuanches. Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands, but still recognised King Henry III as his overlord. It was not a\",\n \"It was not a simple military enterprise, given the aboriginal resistance on some islands. Neither was it politically, since the particular interests of the nobility (determined to strengthen their economic and political power through the acquisition of the islands) conflicted with those of the states, particularly Castile, which were in the midst of territorial expansion and in a process of strengthening of the crown against the nobility. Historians distinguish two periods in the conquest of the Canary Islands: Aristocratic conquest(conquista señorial): This refers to the early conquests carried out by the nobility, for their own benefit and without the direct participation of the Crown of Castile, which merely granted rights of conquest in exchange for pacts of vassalage between the noble conqueror and the Crown. One can identify within this period an early phase known as the Betancurian or Norman conquest, carried out byJean de Bethencourt(who was originally from Normandy) andGadifer de la Sallebetween\",\n \"de la Sallebetween 1402 and 1405, which involved the islands ofLanzarote,El Hierro, andFuerteventura. The subsequent phase is known as the Castilian conquest, carried out by Castilian nobles who acquired, through purchases, assignments and marriages, the previously conquered islands and also incorporated the island ofLa Gomeraaround 1450. Royal conquest(conquista realenga): This defines the conquest between 1478 and 1496, carried out directly by the Crown of Castile, during the reign of theCatholic Monarchs, who armed and partly financed the conquest of those islands which were still unconquered:Gran Canaria,La PalmaandTenerife. This phase of the conquest came to an end in the year 1496, with the dominion of the island of Tenerife, bringing the entire Canarian Archipelago under the control of the Crown of Castile. Béthencourt also established a base on the island of La Gomera, but it would be many years before the island was fully conquered. The natives of La Gomera, and of Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La\",\n \"Tenerife, and La Palma, resisted the Castilian invaders for almost a century. In 1448, Maciot de Béthencourt sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's PrinceHenry the Navigator, an action that was accepted by neither the natives nor the Castilians. DespitePope Nicholas Vruling that the Canary Islands were under Portuguese control, the crisis swelled to a revolt which lasted until 1459 with the final expulsion of the Portuguese. In 1479, Portugal and Castile signed theTreaty of Alcáçovas, which settled disputes between Castile and Portugal over the control of the Atlantic. This treaty recognized Castilian control of the Canary Islands but also confirmed Portuguese possession of theAzores,Madeira, and theCape Verde islands, and gave the Portuguese rights to any further islands or lands in the Atlantic that might be discovered. The Castilians continued to dominate the islands, but due to the topography and the resistance of the native Guanches, they did not achieve complete control until 1496, when Tenerife\",\n \"1496, when Tenerife and La Palma were finally subdued byAlonso Fernández de Lugo. As a result of this \\\"the native pre-Hispanic population declined quickly due to war, epidemics, and slavery\\\".The Canaries were incorporated into theKingdom of Castile. After the conquest and the introduction of slavery After the conquest, the Castilians imposed a new economic model, based on single-crop cultivation: firstsugarcane; then wine, an important item of trade withEngland. Gran Canaria was conquered by theCrown of Castileon 6 March 1480, and Tenerife was conquered in 1496, and each had its own governor. There has been speculation that the abundance ofRoccella tinctoriaon the Canary Islands offered a profit motive forJean de Béthencourtduring his conquest of the islands. Lichen has been used for centuries to make dyes. This includes royal purple colors derived fromR. tinctoria, also known as orseille. The objective of the Spanish Crown to convert the islands into a powerhouse of cultivation required a much larger labour\",\n \"much larger labour force. This was attained through a brutal practice of enslavement, not only of indigenous Canarians but large numbers of Africans who were forcibly taken from North and Sub-Saharan Africa.Whilst the first slave plantations in the Atlantic region were acrossMadeira,Cape Verde, and the Canary Islands, it was only the Canary Islands which had an indigenous population and were therefore invaded rather than newly occupied. This agriculture industry was largely based on sugarcane and the Castilians converted large swaths of the landscape for sugarcane production, and the processing and manufacturing of sugar, facilitated by enslaved labourers.The cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canariabecame a stopping point for the Spanish traders, as well asconquistadors, and missionaries on their way to theNew World. This trade route brought great wealth to the Castilian social sectors of the islands and soon were attracting merchants and adventurers from all over Europe. As the wealth\",\n \"As the wealth grew, enslaved African workers were also forced into demeaning domestic roles for the rich Castilians on the islands such as servants in their houses. Research on the skeletons of some of these enslaved workers from the burial site of Finca Clavijo on Gran Canaria have showed that 'all of the adults buried in Finca Clavijo undertook extensive physical activity that involved significant stress on the spine and appendicular skeleton' that result from relentless hard labour, akin to the physical abnormalities found with enslaved peoples from other sugarcane plantations around the world.These findings of the physical strain that the enslaved at Finca Clavijo were subjected to in order to provide wealth for the Spanish elite has inspired a poem by British writerRalph Hoyte, entitledClose to the Bone. As a result of the huge wealth generated, magnificent palaces and churches were built on La Palma during this busy, prosperous period. The Church of El Salvador survives as one of the island's finest\",\n \"the island's finest examples of the architecture of the 16th century. Civilian architecture survives in forms such asCasas de los Sánchez-OchandoorCasa Quintana. The Canaries' wealth invited attacks bypiratesandprivateers.OttomanTurkishadmiraland privateerKemal Reisventured into the Canaries in 1501, whileMurat Reis the Eldercaptured Lanzarote in 1585. The most severe attack took place in 1599, during theDutch Revolt. ADutchfleet of 74 ships and 12,000 men, commanded byPieter van der Does, attacked the capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (the city had 3,500 of Gran Canaria's 8,545 inhabitants). The Dutch attacked the Castillo de la Luz, which guarded the harbor. The Canarians evacuated civilians from the city, and the Castillo surrendered (but not the city). The Dutch moved inland, but Canarian cavalry drove them back to Tamaraceite, near the city. The Dutch then laid siege to the city, demanding the surrender of all its wealth. They received 12 sheep and 3 calves. Furious, the Dutch sent 4,000 soldiers to\",\n \"4,000 soldiers to attack the Council of the Canaries, who were sheltering in the village of Santa Brígida. Three hundred Canarian soldiers ambushed the Dutch in the village of Monte Lentiscal, killing 150 and forcing the rest to retreat. The Dutch concentrated on Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, attempting to burn it down. The Dutch pillagedMaspalomas, on the southern coast of Gran Canaria,San Sebastiánon La Gomera, andSanta Cruzon La Palma, but eventually gave up the siege of Las Palmas and withdrew. In 1618 theBarbary piratesfrom North Africa attacked Lanzarote and La Gomera taking 1000 captives to be sold asslaves.Another noteworthy attack occurred in 1797, whenSanta Cruz de Tenerifewas attacked by a British fleet underHoratio Nelsonon 25 July. The British were repulsed, losing almost 400 men. It was during this battle that Nelson lost his right arm. 18th to 19th century The sugar-based economy of the islands faced stiff competition from Spain'sCaribbeancolonies. Low sugar prices in the 19th century caused\",\n \"19th century caused severe recessions on the islands. A new cash crop,cochineal(cochinilla), came into cultivation during this time, reinvigorating the islands' economy. During this time the Canarian-American trade was developed, in which Canarian products such as cochineal, sugarcane and rum were sold in American ports such asVeracruz,Campeche,La GuairaandHavana, among others. By the end of the 18th century, Canary Islanders had already emigrated to Spanish American territories, such asHavana,Veracruz, andSanto Domingo,San Antonio, TexasandSt. Bernard Parish, Louisiana.These economic difficulties spurred mass emigration during the 19th and first half of the 20th century, primarily to the Americas. Between 1840 and 1890 as many as 40,000 Canary Islanders emigrated toVenezuela. Also, thousands of Canarians moved toPuerto Ricowhere the Spanish monarchy felt that Canarians would adapt to island life better than other immigrants from the mainland of Spain. Deeply entrenched traditions, such as the Mascaras\",\n \"as the Mascaras Festival in the town ofHatillo, Puerto Rico, are an example of Canarian culture still preserved in Puerto Rico. Similarly, many thousands of Canarians emigrated to the shores ofCuba.During theSpanish–American Warof 1898, the Spanish fortified the islands against a possible American attack, but no such event took place. Romantic period and scientific expeditions Sirera and Renn (2004)distinguish two different types of expeditions, or voyages, during the period 1770–1830, which they term \\\"the Romantic period\\\": First are \\\"expeditions financed by the States, closely related with the official scientific Institutions. characterised by having strict scientific objectives (and inspired by) the spirit of Illustration and progress\\\". In this type of expedition, Sirera and Renn include the following travellers: The second type of expedition identified by Sirera and Renn is one that took place starting from more or less private initiatives. Among these, the key exponents were the following: Sirera and\",\n \"Sirera and Renn identify the period 1770–1830 as one in which \\\"In a panorama dominated until that moment by France and England enters with strength and brio Germany of the Romantic period whose presence in the islands will increase\\\". Early 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, the British introduced a newcash-crop, thebanana, the export of which was controlled by companies such asFyffes. 30 November 1833 theProvince of Canary Islandshad been created with the capital being declared as Santa Cruz de Tenerife.The rivalry between the cities of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife for the capital of the islands led to the division of thearchipelagointo two provinces on 23 September 1927. During the time of theSecond Spanish Republic,Marxistandanarchistworkers' movements began to develop, led by figures such as Jose Miguel Perez andGuillermo Ascanio. However, outside of a few municipalities, these organisations were a minority and fell easily to Nationalist forces during theSpanish\",\n \"during theSpanish Civil War. Franco regime In 1936,Francisco Francowas appointed General Commandant of the Canaries. He joined the military revolt of 17 July which began theSpanish Civil War. Franco quickly took control of the archipelago, except for a few points of resistance on La Palma and in the town ofVallehermoso, on La Gomera. Though there was never a war in the islands, the post-war suppression of political dissent on the Canaries was most severe. During the Second World War,Winston Churchillprepared plans for the British seizure of the Canary Islands as anaval base, in the event ofGibraltarbeing invaded from the Spanish mainland.The planned operation was known asOperation Pilgrim. Opposition to Franco's regime did not begin to organise until the late 1950s, which experienced an upheaval of parties such as theCommunist Party of Spainand the formation of various nationalist, leftist parties. During theIfni War, the Franco regime set upconcentration campson the islands toextrajudicially imprisonthose\",\n \"imprisonthose in Western Sahara suspected of disloyalty to Spain, many of whom were colonial troops recruited on the spot but were later deemed to be potentialfifth columnistsand deported to the Canary Islands. These camps were characterised by the use of forced labour for infrastructure projects and highly unsanitary conditions resulting in the widespread occurrence oftuberculosis. Self-governance After the death of Franco, there was a pro-independence armed movement based inAlgeria, theMovement for the Independence and Self-determination of the Canaries Archipelago(MAIAC). In 1968, theOrganisation of African Unityrecognized the MAIAC as a legitimateAfrican independence movement, and declared the Canary Islands as an African territory still under foreign rule. After the establishment of a democraticconstitutional monarchyin Spain,autonomywas granted to the Canaries via a law passed in 1982, with a newly established autonomous devolved government and parliament. In 1983, the first autonomous elections were\",\n \"elections were held. TheSpanish Socialist Workers' Party(PSOE) won. Capitals At present, the Canary Islands is the only autonomous community in Spain that has two capitals:Santa Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canaria, since theStatute of Autonomy of the Canary Islandswas created in 1982. The political capital of the archipelago did not exist as such until the nineteenth century. The first cities founded by theEuropeansat the time of the conquest of the Canary Islands in the 15th century were:Telde(inGran Canaria),San Marcial del Rubicón(inLanzarote) andBetancuria(inFuerteventura). These cities boasted the first European institutions present in the archipelago, includingCatholicbishoprics.Although, because the period of splendor of these cities developed before the total conquest of the archipelago and its incorporation into theCrown of Castilenever had a political and real control of the entire Canary archipelago. The function of a Canarian city with full jurisdiction for the entire archipelago only\",\n \"archipelago only exists after the conquest of the Canary Islands, although originallyde facto, that is, without legal and real meaning and linked to the headquarters of theCanary Islands General Captaincy. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria was the first city that exercised this function. This is because the residence of the Captain General of the Canary Islands was in this city during part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.In May 1661, the Captain General of the Canary Islands,Jerónimo de Benavente y Quiñones, moved the headquarters of the captaincy to the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Lagunaon the island ofTenerife.This was due to the fact that this island since the conquest was the most populated, productive and with the highest economic expectations.La Laguna would be considered thede factocapital of the archipelagountil the official status of the capital of Canary Islands in the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife was confirmed in the 19th century, due in part to the constant controversies and rivalries\",\n \"and rivalries between the bourgeoisies of San Cristóbal de La Laguna and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria for the economic, political and institutional hegemony of the archipelago. Already in 1723, the Captain General of the Canary IslandsLorenzo Fernandez de Villavicenciohad moved the headquarters of the General Captaincy of the Canary Islands from San Cristóbal de La Laguna to Santa Cruz de Tenerife. This decision continued without pleasing the society of the island of Gran Canaria.It would be after the creation of theProvince of Canary Islandsin November 1833 in which Santa Cruz would become the first fully official capital of the Canary Islands (De jureand not ofde factoas happened previously).Santa Cruz de Tenerife would be the capital of the Canary archipelago until during the Government of GeneralPrimo de Riverain 1927 the Province of Canary Islands was split in two provinces:Las Palmaswith capital in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, andSanta Cruz de Tenerifewith capital in the homonymous city. Finally, with the\",\n \"Finally, with the Statute of Autonomy of the Canary Islands in 1982 and the creation of the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands, the capital of the archipelago between Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife is fixed, which is how it remains today. Demographics The Canary Islands have a population of 2,153,389 inhabitants (2019), making it the eighth most populous of Spain'sautonomous communities.The total area of the archipelago is 7,493 km2(2,893 sq mi),resulting in a population density of 287.4 inhabitants per square kilometre. The population of the islands according to the 2019 data are: The Canary Islands have become home to many European residents, mainly coming from Italy, Germany and the UK. Because of the vast immigration to Venezuela and Cuba during the second half of the 20th century and the later return to the Canary Islands of these people along with their families, there are many residents whose country of origin wasVenezuela(66,593) orCuba(41,807). Since the 1990s,\",\n \"Since the 1990s, manyillegal migrantshave reached the Canary Islands,MelillaandCeuta, using them as entry points to the EU. Canarian Spanish TheSpanish languagevariety that is typical and conventional in the Canary Islands is usually called theCanarian Spanish,Canarian dialectorCanarian speech, and is used by the approximately two million Spanish speakers who live in the Canary Islands. It is a dialect variety that falls within what has been called the \\\"Atlantic variety\\\", similar to those of Spanish-speaking America, and also to those of the south of the Iberian Peninsula, especially western Andalusia. The dialect most similar to the Canarian dialect, given the historical link between both areas, is the Caribbean dialect, spoken in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic), and the coast of theCaribbean Sea(Venezuela, northern Colombia, and Panama). In addition, lexically, the Canarian dialect is widely influenced by thePortuguese language, from which a certain part of its lexicon is derived.\",\n \"lexicon is derived. Religion TheCatholic Churchhas been the majority religion in the archipelago for more than five centuries, ever since theConquest of the Canary Islands. There are also several other religious communities. Roman Catholic Church The overwhelming majority of native Canarians areRoman Catholic(76.7%)with various smaller foreign-born populations of other Christian beliefs such asProtestants. The appearance of theVirgin of Candelaria(Patron of Canary Islands) was credited with moving the Canary Islands toward Christianity. Two Catholic saints were born in the Canary Islands:Peter of Saint Joseph de BetancurandJosé de Anchieta.Both born on the island of Tenerife, they were respectively missionaries inGuatemalaandBrazil. The Canary Islands are divided into two Catholic dioceses, each governed by a bishop: Other religions Separate from the overwhelming Catholic majority are a minority ofMuslims.Among the followers ofIslam, theIslamic Federation of the Canary Islandsexists to represent the Islamic\",\n \"the Islamic community in the Canary Islands as well as to provide practical support to members of the Islamic community.For its part, there is also theEvangelical Council of the Canary Islandsin the archipelago. Other religious faiths represented includeJehovah's Witnesses,The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saintsas well asHinduism.Minority religions are also present such as theChurch of the Guanche Peoplewhich is classified as aneo-pagannative religion.Also present areBuddhism,Judaism,Baháʼí,African religion,andChinese religions. Statistics The distribution of beliefs in 2012 according to the CIS Barometer Autonomy was as follows: Population genetics Economy and environment The economy is based primarilyon tourism, which makes up 32% of the GDP. The Canaries receive about 12 million tourists per year. Construction makes up nearly 20% of the GDP and tropical agriculture, primarily bananas and tobacco, are grown for export to Europe and the Americas. Ecologists are concerned that the resources,\",\n \"that the resources, especially in the morearidislands, are beingoverexploitedbut there are still many agricultural resources liketomatoes,potatoes,onions,cochineal,sugarcane,grapes,vines,dates,oranges,lemons,figs,wheat,barley,maize,apricots,peachesandalmonds. Water resources are also being overexploited, due to the high water usage by tourists.Also, some islands (such as Gran Canaria and Tenerife)overexploit the ground water. This is done in such degree that, according to European and Spanish legal regulations, the current situation is not acceptable. To address the problems, good governance and a change in the water use paradigm have been proposed. These solutions depend largely oncontrolling water useand on demand management. As this is administratively difficult and politically unpalatable, most action is currently directed at increasing the public offer of water through import from outside; a decision which is economically, politically and environmentally questionable. To bring in revenue for\",\n \"in revenue for environmental protection, innovation, training and water sanitation atourist taxwas considered in 2018, along with a doubling of theecotaxand restrictions on holiday rents in the zones with the greatest pressure of demand. The economy is€25 billion (2001 GDP figures). The islands experienced continuous growth during a 20-year period, up until 2001, at a rate of approximately 5% annually. This growth was fueled mainly by huge amounts offoreign direct investment, mostly to develop tourism real estate (hotels and apartments), and European Funds (near €11 billion in the period from 2000 to 2007), since the Canary Islands are labelled Region Objective 1 (eligible for euro structural funds).Additionally, the EU allows the Canary Islands Government to offer special tax concessions for investors who incorporate under the Zona Especial Canaria (ZEC) regime and create more than five jobs. Spain gave permission in August 2014 forRepsoland its partners to exploreoilandnatural gasprospects off the Canary\",\n \"off the Canary Islands, involving an investment of €7.5 billion over four years, to commence at the end of 2016. Repsol at the time said the area could ultimately produce 100,000 barrels of oil a day, which would meet 10 percent of Spain's energy needs.However, the analysis of samples obtained did not show the necessary volume nor quality to consider future extraction, and the project was scrapped. Despite currently having very high dependence on fossil fuels, research on the renewable energy potential concluded that a high potential for renewable energy technologies exists on the archipelago. This, in such extent even that a scenario pathway to 100% renewable energy supply by 2050 has been put forward. The Canary Islands have great natural attractions, climate andbeachesmake the islands a major tourist destination, being visited each year by about 12 million people (11,986,059 in 2007, noting 29% ofBritons, 22% of Spanish (from outside the Canaries), and 21% ofGermans). Among the islands, Tenerife has the\",\n \"Tenerife has the largest number of tourists received annually, followed by Gran Canaria and Lanzarote.The archipelago's principal tourist attraction is theTeide National Park(in Tenerife) where the highest mountain in Spain and third largestvolcanoin the world (MountTeide), receives over 2.8 million visitors annually. The combination of high mountains, proximity to Europe, and clean air has made theRoque de los Muchachospeak (on La Palma island) a leading location fortelescopeslike theGrantecan. The islands, as an autonomous region of Spain, are in theEuropean Unionand theSchengen Area. They are in theEuropean Union Customs Unionbut outside theVATarea.Instead of VAT there is a local Sales Tax (IGIC) which has a general rate of 7%, an increased tax rate of 13.5%, a reduced tax rate of 3% and a zero tax rate for certain basic need products and services. Consequently, some products are subject to additional VAT if being exported from the islands into mainland Spain or the rest of the EU. Canarian time isWestern\",\n \"time isWestern European Time(WET), orGMT. In summer, one hour ahead of GMT. Canarian time is one hour behind mainland Spain, and the same time as the UK, Ireland and mainland Portugal all year round. Tourism statistics The number of tourists who visited the Canary Islands in 2018 was 16,150,054. In 2019, there were 15,589,290 arrivals. GDP statistics The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the Canary Islands in 2015 was €40,923 million, €19,222 per capita. The figures by island are as follows: Transport The Canary Islands have eight airports altogether, two of the main ports of Spain, and an extensive network ofautopistas(highways) and other roads. For a road map see multimap.Traffic congestionis sometimes a problem in Tenerife and on Grand Canaria. Largeferryboats and fast ferries link most of the islands. Both types can transport large numbers of passengers, cargo, and vehicles. Fast ferries are made of aluminium and powered by modern and efficient diesel engines, while conventional ferries have a steel hull\",\n \"have a steel hull and are powered by heavy oil. Fast ferries travel in excess of 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph); conventional ferries travel in excess of 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph), but are slower than fast ferries.A typical ferry ride between La Palma and Tenerife may take up to eight hours or more while a fast ferry takes about two and a half hours and between Tenerife and Gran Canaria can be about one hour. The largest airport is theGran Canaria Airport. Tenerife has two airports,Tenerife North AirportandTenerife South Airport.The island of Tenerife gathers the highest passenger movement of all the Canary Islands through its two airports.The two main islands (Tenerife and Gran Canaria) receive the greatest number of passengers.Tenerife 6,204,499 passengers and Gran Canaria 5,011,176 passengers. Theport of Las Palmasis first in freight traffic in the islands,while theport of Santa Cruz de Tenerifeis the first fishing port with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Spanish government publication\",\n \"publication Statistical Yearbook of State Ports. Similarly, it is the second port in Spain as regards ship traffic, only surpassed by thePort of AlgecirasBay.The port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. The port ofLos Cristianos(Tenerife) has the greatest number of passengers recorded in the Canary Islands, followed by the port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife.The Port of Las Palmas is the third port in the islands in passengers and first in number of vehicles transported. TheSS Americawas beached at the Canary islands on 18 January 1994. However, the ocean liner broke apart after the course of several years and eventually sank beneath the surface. Rail transport TheTenerife Tramopened in 2007 and is currently the only one in the Canary Islands, travelling between the cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandSan Cristóbal de La Laguna.\",\n \"de La Laguna. Three more railway lines are being planned for the Canary Islands: Airports Ports Health TheServicio Canario de Saludis an autonomous body of administrative nature attached to the Ministry responsible for Health of the Government of the Canary Islands. Wildlife Fauna The bird life includes European and African species, such as theblack-bellied sandgrouse,Canary, Graja, a subspecies ofred-billed choughendemic to La Palma,Gran Canaria blue chaffinch,Tenerife blue chaffinch,Canary Islands chiffchaff,Fuerteventura chat,Tenerife goldcrest,La Palma chaffinch,Canarian Egyptian vulture,Bolle's pigeon,Laurel pigeon,Plain swift, andHoubara bustard. Terrestrial fauna includes theEl Hierro giant lizard,Tachina canariensis,La Gomera giant lizard, and theLa Palma giant lizard. Mammals include theCanarian shrew,Canary big-eared bat, theAlgerian hedgehog, and the more recently introducedmouflon. Extinct fauna The Canary Islands were previously inhabited by a variety of endemic animals, such as extinct giant\",\n \"as extinct giant lizards (Gallotia goliath), giant tortoises (Centrochelys burchardiandC. vulcanica),andTenerifeandGran Canariagiant rats (Canariomys bravoiandC. tamarani),among others. Extinct birds known only fromPleistoceneandHoloceneage bones include theCanary Islands quail(Coturnix gomerae),Dune shearwater(Puffinus holeae),Lava shearwater(P. olsoni),Trias greenfinch(Chloris triasi),Slender-billed greenfinch(C. aurelioi) and theLong-legged bunting(Emberiza alcoveri). Marine life Themarine lifefound in the Canary Islands is also varied, being a combination ofNorth Atlantic,Mediterraneanandendemicspecies. In recent years, the increasing popularity of bothscuba divingandunderwater photographyhave provided biologists with much new information on the marine life of the islands. Fish species found in the islands include many species ofshark,ray,moray eel,bream,jack,grunt,scorpionfish,triggerfish,grouper,goby, andblenny. In addition, there are many invertebrate species,\",\n \"species, includingsponge,jellyfish,anemone,crab,mollusc,sea urchin,starfish,sea cucumberandcoral. There are a total of five different species ofmarine turtlethat are sighted periodically in the islands, the most common of these being theendangeredloggerhead sea turtle.The other four are thegreen sea turtle,hawksbill sea turtle,leatherback sea turtleandKemp's ridley sea turtle. Currently, there are no signs that any of these species breed in the islands, and so those seen in the water are usuallymigrating. However, it is believed that some of these species may have bred in the islands in the past, and there are records of several sightings of leatherback sea turtle on beaches in Fuerteventura, adding credibility to the theory. Marine mammals include the large varieties ofcetaceansincluding rare and not well-known species (see more details in theMarine life of the Canary Islands).Hooded sealshave also been known to be vagrant in the Canary Islands every now and then. The Canary Islands were also formerly home\",\n \"also formerly home to a population of the rarestpinnipedin the world, theMediterranean monk seal. Native flora gallery Holidays Some holidays of those celebrated in the Canary Islands are international and national, others are regional holidays and others are of insular character. The official day of the autonomous community isCanary Islands Dayon 30 May. The anniversary of the first session of theParliament of the Canary Islands, based in the city ofSanta Cruz de Tenerife, held on 30 May 1983, is commemorated with this day. The common festive calendar throughout the Canary Islands is as follows: In addition, each of the islands has an island festival, in which it is a holiday only on that specific island. These are the festivities of island patrons saints of each island. Organized chronologically are: The most famous festivals of the Canary Islands is the carnival. It is the most famous and international festival of the archipelago. The carnival is celebrated in all the islands and all its municipalities,\",\n \"its municipalities, perhaps the two busiest are those of the two Canarian capitals; theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife(Tourist Festival of International Interest) and theCarnival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. It is celebrated on the streets between the months of February and March. But the rest of the islands of the archipelago have their carnivals with their own traditions among which stand out: The Festival of the Carneros ofEl Hierro, the Festival of the Diabletes ofTeguiseinLanzarote, Los Indianos deLa Palma, the Carnival ofSan Sebastián de La Gomeraand the Carnival ofPuerto del RosarioinFuerteventura. Science and technology In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14ground stationsin theManned Space Flight Network(MSFN) to support theNASAspace program.Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including theApollo 11Moon landings andSkylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of\",\n \"as part of theESAnetwork. Because of the remote location, a number ofastronomical observatoriesare located in the archipelago, including theTeide Observatoryon Tenerife, theRoque de los Muchachos Observatoryon La Palma, and theTemisas Astronomical Observatoryon Gran Canaria. Tenerife is the home of theInstituto de Astrofísica de Canarias(Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González (Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at theUniversity of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades\",\n \"de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). The latter is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \\\"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\\\"), located in various parts of Spain. The Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands) is based in Tenerife. Sports A unique form of wrestling known asCanarian wrestling(lucha canaria) has opponents stand in a special area called a \\\"terrero\\\" and try to throw each other to the ground using strength and quick movements. Another sport is the \\\"game of the sticks\\\" (palo canario) where opponents fence with long sticks. This may have come about from the shepherds of the islands who would challenge each other using their long walking sticks. Furthermore, there is theshepherd's jump(salto del pastor). This involves using a long stick to vault over an open area. This sport possibly evolved from the shepherd's need to occasionally get over an open area\",\n \"over an open area in the hills as they were tending their sheep. The two mainfootballteams in the archipelago are: theCD Tenerife(founded in 1912) andUD Las Palmas(founded in 1949). As of the 2023/2024 season, UD Las Palmas plays in La Liga, the top tier of Spanish football. CD Tenerife however plays in The Segunda Divisón. When in the same division, the clubs contest theCanary Islands derby. There are smaller clubs also playing in the mainlandSpanish football league system, most notablyUD LanzaroteandCD Laguna, although no other Canarian clubs have played in the top flight. The mountainous terrain of the Canary Islands also caters to the growing popularity ofultra runningandultramarathonsas host of annual competitive long-distance events includingCajaMar Tenerife BluetrailonTenerife,TransvulcaniaonLa Palma,TransgrancanariaonGran Canaria, and the HalfMarathon des SablesonFuerteventura. A yearlyIronman Triathlonhas been taking place onLanzarotesince 1992. Notable athletes See also History Geography Culture\",\n \"Geography Culture References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links\",\n \"Tenerife Tenerife(/ˌtɛnəˈriːf/TEN-ə-REEF;Spanish:ⓘ; formerly spelledTeneriffe) is the largest and most populous island of theCanary Islands.It is home to 42.9% of the total population of thearchipelago.With a land area of 2,034.38 square kilometres (785.48 sq mi) and a population of 948,815 inhabitants as of January 2023,it is also the most populous island ofSpainand ofMacaronesia. Approximately five million tourists visit Tenerife each year; it is the most visited island in the archipelago.It is one of the most important tourist destinations in Spainand the world,hosting one of the world's largestcarnivals, theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The capital of the island,Santa Cruz de Tenerife, is also the seat of the island council (cabildo insular). That city andLas Palmas de Gran Canariaare the co-capitals of theautonomous communityof theCanary Islands. The two cities are both home to governmental institutions, such as the offices of the presidency and the ministries. This has been the arrangement since\",\n \"arrangement since 1927, when the Crown ordered it. (After the1833 territorial division of Spain, until 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands).Santa Cruz contains the modernAuditorio de Tenerife, the architectural symbol of the Canary Islands. The island is home to theUniversity of La Laguna. Founded in 1792 inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, it is the oldest university in the Canaries. The city of La Laguna is aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. It is the second most populous city on the island, and the third most populous in the archipelago. It was the capital of the Canary Islands before Santa Cruz replaced it in 1833.Tenerife is served by two airports;Tenerife North AirportandTenerife South Airport. Teide National Park, located in the center of the island, is also a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site. It includesMount Teide, which has the highest elevation in Spain, and the highest elevation among all the islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It is also the third-largest volcano in the world, when\",\n \"in the world, when measured from its base.Another geographical feature of the island, theMacizo de Anaga(massif), has been designated as a UNESCOBiosphere Reservesince 2015.Tenerife also has the largest number ofendemicspecies in Europe. Toponymy The name 'Tenerife' likely comes fromTamazight, but there is no consensus on its correct interpretation. The island'sindigenous people, theGuancheBerbers, referred to the island asAchinetorChenetintheir language(variant spellings are found in the literature). According toPliny the Younger,BerberkingJuba IIsent an expedition to the Canary Islands andMadeira; he named the Canary Islands for the particularly ferocious dogs (canaria) on the island.Juba II and theancient Romanscalled the island of TenerifeNivaria, from theLatinwordnix(nsg.;gsg.nivis,npl.nives), meaning \\\"snow\\\", after the snow-covered peak of the Mount Teide volcano.Later maps dating to the 14th and 15th century, drawn by mapmakers such as Bontier and Le Verrier, called the islandIsla del Infierno, (\\\"Hell\",\n \"Infierno, (\\\"Hell Island\\\"), due to Mount Teide's volcanic eruptions and other volcanic activity. Although the name given to the island by theBenahoaritas(the indigenous peoples of La Palma) was derived from the wordsteni(\\\"mountain\\\") andife(\\\"white\\\"),after the island was colonized by the Spanish the name was modified by Spanish phonology: the letter \\\"r\\\" was added to link the two words, producing the single word Tenerife. However, throughout history, other explanations for the origin of island's name have been proposed. For example, the 17th-century historiansJuan Núñez de la PeñaandTomás Arias Marín de Cubas, among others, suggested that the indigenous peoples might have named the island for the famous Guanche king,Tinerfe, nicknamed \\\"the Great\\\", who ruled Tenerife before theCanary Islandswere conquered byCastile. Demonym The formaldemonymused to refer to the people of Tenerife isTinerfeño/a; also used colloquially is the termchicharrero/a.In modern society, the latter term is generally applied only to\",\n \"applied only to inhabitants of the capital, Santa Cruz. The termchicharrerowas once aderogatoryterm used by the people ofLa Lagunawhen it was the capital, to refer to the poorer inhabitants and fishermen of Santa Cruz. The fishermen typically caughtmackereland other residents atepotatoes, assumed to be of low quality by the elite of La Laguna.As Santa Cruz grew in commerce and status, it replaced La Laguna as capital of Tenerife in 1833 during the reign ofFernando VII. Then the inhabitants of Santa Cruz used the former insult to identify as residents of the new capital, at La Laguna's expense. History The earliest known human settlement in the islands, dating to around 200BCE, was established byBerbersknown as theGuanches.However, theCave of the Guanchesin the northern municipality ofIcod de los Vinoshas provided the oldest chronologies of the Canary Islands, with dates around the sixth century BCE. In terms of technology, the Guanches can be placed among the peoples of theStone Age, although scholars often\",\n \"scholars often reject this classification because of its ambiguity. Guanche culture was more advanced culturally, possibly because of Berber cultural features imported from North Africa, but less technologically advanced due to the scarcity of raw materials, especially minerals that would have allowed for the extraction and working of metals. The main activity was gathering food from nature; though fishing and shellfish collection were supplemented with some agricultural practices. As for religion andcosmology, the Guanches werepolytheistic, with further widespread belief in anastral cult. They also had ananimisticreligiosity that sacralized certain places, mainly rocks and mountains. Although the Guanches worshiped many gods and ancestral spirits, among the most important wereAchamán(the god of the sky and supreme creator),Chaxiraxi(the mother goddess, identified later with theVirgin of Candelaria),Magec(the god of the sun), andGuayota(the demon who is the main cause of evil). Especially significant was the\",\n \"significant was the cult of the dead, which practiced themummificationof corpses. In addition, smallanthropomorphicandzoomorphicstone and clay figurines of the kind typically associated with rituals have been found on the island. Scholars believe they were used as idols, the most prominent of which is the so-calledIdol of Guatimac, which is thought to represent a genius or protective spirit. Territorial organisation before the conquest (The Guanches) The title ofmenceywas given to the monarch or king of the Guanches of Tenerife, who governed amenceyatoor kingdom. This role was later referred to as a \\\"captainship\\\" by the conquerors.Tinerfe \\\"the Great\\\", son of themenceySunta, governed the island from Adeje in the south. However, upon his death, his nine children rebelled and argued bitterly about how to divide the island. Two independentachimenceyatoswere created on the island, and the island was divided into ninemenceyatos. Themenceyeswithin them formed what would be similar to municipalities\",\n \"to municipalities today.Themenceyatosand theirmenceyes(ordered by the names of descendants of Tinerfe who ruled them) were the following: The achimenceyato ofPunta del Hidalgowas governed by Aguahuco, a \\\"poor noble\\\" who was an illegitimate son of Tinerfe and Zebenzui. Spanish conquest Tenerife was the last island of the Canaries to be conquered and the one that took the longest time to submit to the Castilian troops. Although the traditional dates of the conquest of Tenerife are established between 1494 (landing of Alonso Fernández de Lugo) and 1496 (the complete conquest of the island), attempts to annex the island of Tenerife to theCrown of Castiledate back at least to 1464. In 1464,Diego Garcia de Herrera, Lord of the Canary Islands, took symbolic possession of the island in theBarranco del Bufadero(Ravine of the Bufadero),signing a peace treaty with the Guanche chiefs (menceyes) which allowed themenceyAnaga to build a fortified tower on Guanche land, where the Guanches and the Spanish held periodic\",\n \"held periodic treaty talks until the Guanches demolished it around 1472. In 1492 the governor of Gran Canaria Francisco Maldonado organized a raid that ended in disaster for the Spaniards when they were defeated by Anaga's warriors. In December 1493, the Catholic monarchs, Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, grantedAlonso Fernández de Lugothe right to conquer Tenerife. Coming fromGran Canariain April 1494, the conqueror landed on the coast of present-day Santa Cruz de Tenerife in May, and disembarked with about 2,000 men on foot and 200 on horseback.After taking the fort, the army prepared to move inland, later capturing the native kings of Tenerife and presenting them toIsabella and Ferdinand. Themenceyesof Tenerife had differing responses to the conquest. They divided into theside of peace(Spanish:bando de paz) and theside of war(Spanish:bando de guerra). The first included themenceyatosof Anaga, Güímar, Abona and Adeje. The second group consisted of the people of Tegueste,\",\n \"people of Tegueste, Tacoronte, Taoro, Icoden and Daute. Those opposed to the conquest fought the invaders tenaciously, resisting their rule for two years. Castillian forces under theAdelantado(\\\"military governor\\\") de Lugo suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Guanches in theFirst Battle of Acentejoon 31 May 1494, but defeated them at theSecond Battle of Acentejoon 25 December 1494. The Guanches were eventually overcome by superior technology and the arms of the invaders, and surrendered to the Crown of Castile in 1496. Spanish rule Many of the natives died from new infectious diseases, such asinfluenzaand probablysmallpox, to which they lacked resistance or acquiredimmunity. The new colonists intermarried with the local native population. For a century after the conquest, many new colonists settled on the island, including immigrants from the diverse territories of the growingSpanish Empire, such asFlanders, Italy, and Germany. As the population grew, it cleared Tenerife's pine forests for fuel and\",\n \"for fuel and to make fields for agriculture for crops both for local consumption and for export.Sugar canewas introduced in the 1520s as a commodity crop on major plantations; it was a labor-intensive crop in all phases of cultivation and processing. In the following centuries, planters cultivated wine grapes,cochinealfor making dyes, andplantainsfor use and export. Trade with the Americas In the commerce of the Canary Islands with the Americas of the 18th century, Tenerife was the hegemonic island, since it exceeded 50% of the number of ships and 60% of the tonnage. In the islands ofLa PalmaandGran Canaria, the percentage was around 19% for the first and 7% for the second.The volume of traffic between the Indies and the Canary Islands was unknown, but was very important and concentrated almost exclusively in Tenerife. Among the products that are exported werecochineal,rumandsugar cane, which were landed mainly in the ports of the Americas such asLa Guaira,Havana,CampecheandVeracruz. Many sailors from\",\n \"Many sailors from Tenerife joined this transcontinental maritime trade, among which the corsairAmaro Rodríguez Felipe, more commonly known asAmaro Pargo, Juan Pedro Dujardín and Bernardo de Espinosa, both companions of Amaro Pargo, among others. Emigration to the Americas Tenerife, like the other islands, has maintained a close relationship with Latin America, as both were part of the Spanish Empire. From the start of the colonization of theNew World, many Spanish expeditions stopped at the island for supplies on their way to the Americas. They also recruited manytinerfeñosfor their crews, who formed an integral part of the conquest expeditions. Others joined ships in search of better prospects. It is also important to note the exchange in plant and animal species that made those voyages. After a century and a half of relative growth, based on thegrape growingsector, numerous families emigrated, especially toVenezuelaandCuba. TheCrownwanted to encourage population of underdeveloped zones in the Americas to\",\n \"in the Americas to pre-empt the occupation by foreign forces, as had happened with the English inJamaicaand the French in theGuianasand westernHispaniola(which the French renamed as Saint-Domingue). Canary Islanders, including manytinerfeños,left for the New World. The success in cultivation of new crops of the Americas, such ascocoain Venezuela and tobacco in Cuba, contributed to the population exodus from towns such as Buenavista del Norte, Vilaflor, or El Sauzal in the late 17th century. The village ofSan Carlos de Tenerifewas founded in 1684 by Canary Islanders onSanto Domingo. The people from Tenerife were recruited for settlement to build up the town from encroachment by French colonists established in the western side of Hispaniola. Between 1720 and 1730, the Crown moved 176 families, including manytinerfeños,to the Caribbean island ofPuerto Rico. In 1726, about 25 island families migrated to the Americas to collaborate on the foundation ofMontevideo. Four years later, in 1730, another group left that\",\n \"group left that foundedSan Antoniothe following year in what becameTexas. Between 1777 and 1783, more islanders emigrated from Santa Cruz de Tenerife to settle in what becameSt. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, during the period when Spain ruled this former French territory west of the Mississippi River. Some groups went to Western or Spanish Florida. Tenerife saw the arrival of theFirst FleettoBotany Bayin June 1787, which consisted of 11 ships that departed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The Fleet consisted of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and sixconvict shipscarrying between 1,000 and 1,500 convicts, marines, seamen, civil officers and free people (accounts differ on the numbers), and a vast quantity of stores. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz at Tenerife. Here, fresh water, vegetables and meat were brought on board. Commander of the fleet, Capt.Arthur Phillipand the chief officers were\",\n \"chief officers were entertained by the local governor, while one convict tried unsuccessfully to escape. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents. In June 1799, the Prussian-born naturalistAlexander von Humboldtspent five full days on Tenerife on the first leg of his soon world-famous American journey (1799–1804) and climbed the Pico del Teide. Emigration to the Americas (mainly Cuba and Venezuela) continued during the 19th and early 20th century, due to the lack of economic opportunity and the relative isolation of the Canary Islands. Since the late 20th century, island protectionist economic laws and a strong development in the tourism industry have strengthened the economy and attracted new migrants. Tenerife has received numerous new residents, including the \\\"return\\\" of many descendants of some islanders who had departed five centuries before. Military history The most notable conflict was theBritish invasion of\",\n \"invasion of Tenerifein 1797.On 25 July 1797, AdmiralHoratio Nelsonlaunched an attack at Santa Cruz de Tenerife, now the capital of the island. After a ferocious fight which resulted in many casualties, GeneralAntonio Gutiérrez de Otero y Santayanaorganized a defense to repel the invaders. Whilst leading a landing party, Nelson was seriously wounded in his right arm by grapeshot or a musket ball, necessitating amputation of most of the arm.Legend tells that he was wounded by the Spanish cannonTiger(Spanish:Tigre) as he was trying to disembark on the Paso Alto coast. On 5 September 1797, the British attempted another attack in the Puerto Santiago region, which was repelled by the inhabitants ofSantiago del Teide. Some threw rocks at the British from the heights of the cliffs ofLos Gigantes. The island was also attacked by British commandersRobert Blake,Walter Raleigh,John HawkinsandWoodes Rogers. Modern history From 1833 to 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, the\",\n \"In 1927, the government ordered that the capital be shared withLas Palmas, as it remains at present.This change in status has encouraged development in Las Palmas. Tourists began visiting Tenerife from Spain, the United Kingdom, and northern Europe in large numbers in the 1890s. They especially were attracted to the destinations of the northern towns ofPuerto de la Cruzand Santa Cruz de Tenerife.Independent shipping business, such as the Yeoward Brothers Shipping Line, helped boost the tourist industry during this time, adding to ships that carried passengers.The naturalistAlexander von Humboldtascended the peak of Mount Teide and remarked on the beauty of the island. Before his rise to power,Francisco Francowas posted to Tenerife in March 1936 by a Republican government wary of his influence and political leanings. However, Franco received information and in Gran Canaria agreed to collaborate in the military coup that would result in theSpanish Civil War; the Canaries fell to the Nationalists in July 1936.\",\n \"in July 1936. In the 1950s, the misery of the post-war years caused thousands of the island's inhabitants to emigrate toCubaand other parts of Latin America. Tenerife was the site of the deadliest accident ever in commercial aviation. TheTenerife airport disasteroccurred on 27 March 1977 when twoBoeing 747s,KLMFlight 4805 andPan AmFlight 1736 collided on the runway atLos Rodeos Airportin heavy fog conditions, causing the deaths of 583 passengers and crew. A few years later,Dan Air Flight 1008crashed into a mountain while on approach to Tenerife North, killing 146 people. The plane was travelling too close to an Iberia Air turboprop plane and was asked to go into a holding pattern. At the beginning of the 21st century, the so-calledRiada de Tenerife of 2002took place on 31 March of that year. It was a phenomenon of cold drop characterized by the repeated fall of torrential rains accompanied by thunder and lightning, affecting themetropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerifeand extending in the NE direction\",\n \"in the NE direction towards theSan Andrésarea.The rains caused 8 dead, 12 missing and dozens of injured.In addition to the human losses, the flood caused considerable material damage, 70,000 people without light as well as the total or partial destruction of at least 400 homes. The losses were calculated at 90 million euros. In November 2005, Tenerife was the Canary Island most affected byTropical Storm Delta. Winds of 140 km/h were recorded on the coast and almost 250 km/h on theTeide, Tenerife's summit. Geography The oldest mountain ranges in Tenerife rose from the Atlantic Ocean by volcanic eruption which gave birth to the island around twelve million years ago.The island as it is today was formed three million years ago by the fusion of three islands made up of the mountain ranges ofAnaga,TenoandValle de San Lorenzo,due to volcanic activity fromTeide. The volcano is visible from most parts of the island today, and the crater is 17 kilometres (11 miles) long at some points. Tenerife is the largest island\",\n \"the largest island of the Canary Islands and theMacaronesiaregion. Climate Tenerife is characterized by a generally dry, warm climate. The island has 2 main different climatic areas (as byKöppen climate classification) yet it actually has 5 different climatic areas. Global climate change has had a major impact on the island, with diminishing rainfall and hot, dry winds affecting vegetation and contributing to an increasing propensity to being subject to forest fires. On August 15, 2023, a forest fire determined to be caused by arson necessitated the evacuation of 12,000 residents within a week. The main climates are the hot semi-arid/arid climate (Köppen:BShandBWh) and thesubtropicalMediterranean Climate(Köppen:CsbandCsa) inland or at higher altitudes. The low altitude/coastal areas of the island have average temperatures of 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) in the winter months and 24–26 °C (75–79 °F) in the summer months. There is a high annual total of days of sunshine and low precipitation in the coastal areas. The\",\n \"coastal areas. The inland/high altitude areas, such asLa Laguna, receive much more precipitation and are generally cloudier, as well as the temperatures have a considerable difference, with an average of 13–14 °C (55–57 °F) in the winter and 20–21 °C (68–70 °F) in the summer. The moderate climate of Tenerife is controlled to a great extent by thetrade winds, whosehumidityis condensed principally over the north and northeast of the island, creating cloud banks that range between 600 and 1,800 metres (2,000 and 5,900 feet) in height. The cold sea currents of the Canary Islands also have a cooling effect on the coasts and its beaches, while the topography of the landscape plays a role in climatic differences on the island with its many valleys. The moderating effect of the marine air makes extreme heat a rare occurrence and frost an impossibility at sea level. The lowest recorded temperature in central Santa Cruz is 8.1 °C (46.6 °F), the coldest month on record still had a relatively mild average temperature of\",\n \"temperature of 15.8 °C (60.4 °F).Summer temperatures are highest in August, with an average high of 29 °C (84 °F) in Santa Cruz, similar to those of places as far north asBarcelonaandMajorca, because of the greater maritime influence. At a higher elevation inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, the climate transitions to aMediterranean climatewith higher precipitation amounts and lower temperatures year round. The climate of Santa Cruz is very typical of the Canaries, albeit only slightly warmer than theclimateof Las Palmas. Major climatic contrasts on the island are evident, especially during the winter months when it is possible to enjoy the warm sunshine on the coast and experience snow within kilometres, 3,000 metres (10,000 feet)above sea levelon ElTeide.There are also major contrasts at low altitude, where the climate ranges fromarid(KöppenBWh) on the southeastern side represented by Santa Cruz de Tenerife toMediterranean(Csa/Csb) on the northwestern side in Buena Vista del Norte and La Orotava. The center of\",\n \"The center of the island is characterized by forests because of the much higher precipitation, mostlyCanary Island pineforests in theTeide National Parkat altitudes from 1,300 to 2,100 metres (4,300 to 6,900 ft).Subtropicalcloud forestscharacterised bylaurisilvaare commonly found in the Anaga National Park and Monte de Agua in the Teno Rural Park, with altitudes from 600 to 1,000 metres (2,000 to 3,300 ft) and annual averages from 15 to 19 °C (59 to 66 °F) and 600 to 1,200 metres (2,000 to 3,900 ft) in the latter. The north and south of Tenerife similarly have different climatic characteristics because of therain shadoweffect. The windward northwestern side of the island receives 73 percent of all precipitation on the island, and the relative humidity of the air is superior and the insolation inferior. The pluviometric maximums are registered on the windward side at an average altitude of between 1,000 and 1,200 metres (3,300 and 3,900 feet), almost exclusively in theLa Orotavamountain range.Although\",\n \"range.Although climatic differences in rainfall and sunshine on the island exist, overall annualprecipitationis low and the summer months from May to September are normally completely dry. Rainfall, similar to that ofSouthern California, can also be extremely erratic from one year to another. Water The volcanic ground of Tenerife, which is of aporousand permeable character, is generally the reason why the soil is able to maximise the absorption of water on an island of low rainfall, withcondensationin forested areas and frost deposition on the summit of the island also contributory causes. Given the irregularity of precipitation and geological conditions on the island, dam construction has been avoided, so most of the water (90 percent) comes fromwellsand from water galleries (horizontal tunnels bored into the volcano) of which there are thousands on the island, important systems that serve to extract its hydrological resources.These tunnels are very hazardous, with pockets of volcanic gas orcarbon dioxide,\",\n \"orcarbon dioxide, causing rapid death. Pollution and air quality The Canary Islands have low levels of air pollution thanks to the lack of factories and industry and the trade winds which naturally move away contaminated air from the islands. According to official data offered by the Health and Industry Ministry in Spain, Tenerife is one of the cleanest places in the country with an air pollution index below the national average.Despite this, there are still agents which affect pollution levels in the island, the mainpolluting agentsbeing therefinery at Santa Cruz, thethermal powerplants atLas CaletillasandGranadilla, and road traffic, increased by the high level of tourism in the island. In addition on the island of Tenerife like on La Palma light pollution must be also controlled, to help theastrophysical observatorieslocated in the island's summits.Water is generally of a very high quality, and all the beaches of the island of Tenerife have been catalogued by the Ministry of Health and Consumption as\",\n \"and Consumption as waters suitable for bathing. Geology Tenerife is a rugged volcanic island, sculpted by successive eruptions throughout its history. There are four historically recorded volcanic eruptions, none of which has led to casualties. The first occurred in 1704, when the Arafo, Fasnia and Siete Fuentes volcanoes erupted simultaneously. Two years later, in 1706, the greatest eruption occurred at Trevejo. This volcano produced great quantities oflavawhich buried the city and port ofGarachico. The last eruption of the 18th century happened in 1798 at Cañadas de Teide, inChahorra. The most recent eruption-in 1909-formed the Chinyero cinder cone in the municipality ofSantiago del Teide. The island is located between 28° and 29° N and the 16° and 17° W meridian. It is situated north of theTropic of Cancer, occupying a central position between the other Canary Islands ofGran Canaria,La GomeraandLa Palma. The island is about 300 km (186 mi) from the African coast, and approximately 1,000 km (621 mi) from\",\n \"km (621 mi) from theIberian Peninsula.Tenerife is the largest island of the Canary Islands archipelago, with a surface area of 2,034.38 km2(785 sq mi)and has the longest coastline, amounting to 342 km (213 mi). In addition, the highest point, Mount Teide, with an elevation of 3,715 m (12,188 ft)above sea levelis the highest point in all of Spain,is also the third largest volcano in the world from its base in the bottom of the sea. For this reason, Tenerife is the10th-highest island worldwide. It comprises about 200 small barren islets or large rocks includingRoques de Anaga,Roque de Garachico, andFasniaadding a further 213,835 m2(2,301,701 sq ft) to the total area. Origins and geological formation Tenerife is a volcanic island that has built up from the ocean floor during the last 20 million years. Underwater fissural eruptions producedpillow lava, which are produced by the rapid cooling of the magma when it comes in contact with water, obtaining their peculiar shape. This pillow-lava accumulated,\",\n \"accumulated, constructing the base of the island underneath the sea. As this accumulation approached the surface of the water, gases erupted from the magma due to the reduction of the surrounding pressure. The volcanic eruptions became more violent and had a more explosive character, and resulted in the forming of peculiar geological fragments. After long-term accumulation of these fragments, the birth of the island occurred at the end of theMiocene epoch. The zones on Tenerife known asMacizo de Teno,Macizo de AnagaandMacizo de Adejewere formed seven million years ago; these formations are called theAncient Basaltic SeriesorSeries I. These zones were actually three separate islands lying in what is now the extreme west, east, and south of Tenerife. A second volcanic cycle called thePost-Miocene FormationsorLatest Series II, III, IVbegan three million years ago. This was a much more intense volcanic cycle, which united the Macizo de Teno, Macizo de Anaga and Macizo de Adeje into one island. This new\",\n \"island. This new structure, called thePre-Cañadas Structure(Edificio pre-Cañadas), would be the foundation for what is called theCañadas Structure I. The Cañadas Structure I experienced various collapses and emitted explosive material that produced the area known asBandas del sur(in the present-day south-southeast of Tenerife). Subsequently, upon the ruins of Cañadas Structure I emergedCañadas Structure II, which was 2,500 metres (8,200 ft)above sea leveland emerged with intense explosive activity. About one million years ago, the Dorsal Range (Cordillera Dorsal) emerged by means of fissural volcanic activity occurring amidst the remains of the older Ancient Basaltic Series (Series I). This Dorsal Range emerged as the highest and the longest volcanic structure in the Canary Islands; it was 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) high and 25 kilometres (16 mi) long. About 800,000 years ago, two gravitationallandslidesoccurred, giving rise to the present-day valleys of La Orotava and Güímar.Finally, around 200,000 years ago,\",\n \"200,000 years ago, the giant Icod landslide occurred followed by eruptions that raised thePico Viejo-Teidein the centre of the island, over theLas Cañadas caldera. Orography and landscape The uneven and steeporographyof the island and its variety of climates has resulted in a diversity of landscapes and geographical and geological formations, from the Teide National Park with its extensivepineforests, juxtaposed against the volcanic landscape at the summit of Teide andMalpaís de Güímar, to the Acantilados de Los Gigantes (Cliffs of the Giants) with its vertical precipices. Semidesert areas exist in the south with drought-resistant plants. Other areas range from those protected and enclosed in mountains such as Montaña Roja and Montaña Pelada, the valleys and forests with subtropical vegetation and climate, to those with deep gorges and precipices such as at Anaga and Teno. Central heights The principal structures in Tenerife, make the central highlands, with the Teide–Pico Viejocomplex and the Las Cañadas\",\n \"and the Las Cañadas areas as most prominent. It comprises a semi-calderaof about 130 km2(50 sq mi) in area, originated by several geological processes explained under theOrigin and formationsection. The area is partially occupied by the Teide-Pico Viejo strato-volcano and completed by the materials emitted in the different eruptions that took place. A known formation calledLos Azulejos, composed by green-tinted rocks were created by hydrothermal processes. South of La Caldera isGuajara Mountain, which has an elevation of 2,718 metres (8,917 feet), rising above Teide National Park. At the bottom, is anendorheic basinflanked with very fine sedimentary material which has been deposited from its volcanic processes, and is known as Llano de Ucanca. The peak ofTeide, at 3,715 metres (12,188 feet)above sea leveland more than 7,500 metres (24,606 feet) above the ocean floor, is the highest point of the island, Spanish territory and in the Atlantic Ocean. The volcano is the third largest on the planet, and its\",\n \"the planet, and its central location,substantial size, looming silhouette in the distance and its snowy landscape in winter give it a unique nature.The original settlers considered Teide a god and Teide was a place of worship. In 1954, the whole area around it was declared anational park, with further expansion later on. In addition, in June 2007 it was recognised byUNESCOas aWorld Heritage site.To the west lies the volcanoPico Viejo(Old Peak). On one side of it, is the volcano Chahorra o Narices del Teide, where the last eruption occurred in the vicinity of Mount Teide in 1798. The Teide is one of the 16Decade Volcanoesidentified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. Tallest mountains on Tenerife: Massifs The Anaga massif (Macizo de Anaga), at the northeastern end of the island, has an irregular and rugged topographical\",\n \"topographical profile where, despite its generally modest elevations, the Cruz de Taborno reaches a height of 1,024 metres (3,360 feet). Due to the age of its material (5.7 million years), its deep erosive processes, and the dense network ofdikespiercing the massif, its surface exposes numerous outcroppings of bothphonoliticandtrachyticorigin. A large number of steep-walled gorges are present, penetrating deeply into the terrain. Vertical cuts dominate the Anagan coast, with infrequent beaches of rocks or black sand between them; the few that exist generally coincide with the mouths of gorges. The Teno massif (Macizo de Teno) is located on the northwestern edge of the island. Like Anaga, it includes an area of outcroppings and deep gorges formed by erosion. However, the materials here are older (about 7.4 million years old). Mount Gala represents its highest elevation at 1,342 metres (4,403 feet). The most unusual landscape of this massif is found on its southern coast, where theAcantilados de Los\",\n \"de Los Gigantes(\\\"Cliffs of the Giants\\\") present vertical walls reaching heights of 500 metres (1,600 feet) in some places. The Adeje massif (Macizo de Adeje) is situated on the southern tip of the island. Its main landmark is the Roque del Conde (\\\"Count's Rock\\\"), with an elevation of 1,001 metres (3,284 feet). This massif is not as impressive as the others due to its diminished initial structure, since in addition to with the site's greater geologic age it has experienced severe erosion of its material, thereby losing its original appearance and extent. Dorsals The Dorsal mountainridgeorDorsal of Pedro Gilcovers the area from the start at Mount La Esperanza, at a height of about 750 m (2,461 ft), to the center of the island, near theCaldera de Las Cañadas, with Izaña, as its highest point at 2,390 m (7,841 ft) (MSLP). These mountains have been created due to basaltic fissural volcanism through one of the axis that gave birth to the vulcanism of this area. The Abeque Dorsal was formed by a chain of volcanoes\",\n \"chain of volcanoes that join the Teno with the central insular peak of Teide-Pico Viejo starting from another of the three axis of Tenerife's geological structures. On this dorsal we find the historic volcano of Chinyero whose last eruption happened in 1909. The South Dorsal orDorsal of Adejeis part of the last of the structural axis. The remains of this massive rock show the primordial land, also showing the alignment of small volcanic cones and rocks around this are in Tenerife's South. Valleys and ravines Valleysare another of the island's features. The most important areValle de La OrotavaandValle de Güímar, both formed by the mass sliding of great quantities of material towards the sea, creating a depression of the land. Other valleys tend to be between hills formed by deposits of sediments from nearby slopes, or simply wide ravines which in their evolution have become typical valleys. Tenerife has a large number of ravines, which are a characteristic element of the landscape, caused by erosion\",\n \"caused by erosion fromsurface runoffover a long period. Notable ravines include Ruiz, Fasnia and Güímar,Infierno, and Erques, all of which have been designated protected natural areas by Canarian institutions. Coastline The coasts of Tenerife are typically rugged and steep, particularly on the north of the island. However, the island has 67.14 kilometres (41.72 miles) of beaches, such as the one atEl Médano, surpassed only in this respect by the island ofFuerteventura.There are many black sand pebble beaches on the northern coast, while on the south and south-west coast of the island, the beaches have typically much finer and clearer sand with lighter tones. Volcanic tubes Lava tubesare volcanic caves usually in the form of tunnels formed within lava flows more or less fluid reogenética duration of the activity. Among the many existing volcanic tubes on the island stands out theCueva del Viento, located in the northern town ofIcod de los Vinos, which is the largest volcanic tunnel in theEuropean Unionand one\",\n \"Unionand one of the largest in the world, for a long time considered the largest in the world. Flora and fauna The island of Tenerife has a remarkableecosystem diversityin spite of its small surface area, which is a consequence of the special environmental conditions on the island, where its distinct orography modifies the general climatic conditions at a local level, producing a significant variety ofmicroclimates. This diversity of microclimates allows some 1400 species of plants to exist on the island, with well over 100 of these endemic to Tenerife.The fauna of Tenerife includes some 400 species of fish, 56 birds, five reptiles, two amphibians, 13 land mammals, thousands of invertebrates, and several species of sea turtles and cetaceans. The vegetation of Tenerife can be divided into six major zones that are directly related to altitude and the direction in which they face. Prehistoric fauna Before the arrival of humans, the Canary Islands were inhabited by certain endemic animals, now mostly extinct.\",\n \"now mostly extinct. These animals reachedlarger than usual sizes, because of a phenomenon calledisland gigantism. Among these species, the best known in Tenerife were: Protected natural areas Nearly half of the island territory (48.6 percent),is under protection from theRed Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos(Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,a total of 43 are located in Tenerife, the most protected island in the group.The network has criteria which places areas under its observation under eight different categories of protection, all of them are represented in Tenerife. Aside fromParque Nacional del Teide, it counts the Parque Natural de Canarias (Crown Forest), two rural parks (Anaga and Teno), four integral natural reserves, six special natural reserves, a total of fourteen natural monuments, nine protected landscapes and up to six sites of scientific interest. Also located on the islandMacizo de\",\n \"the islandMacizo de Anagasince 2015 isBiosphere Reserveand is the place that has the largest number of endemic species in Europe. In contrast to the land-based protected areas, Tenerife also boasts significant marine protected natural areas. Among these is the Zona de Especial Conservación Teno-Rasca (Teno-Rasca Special Area of Conservation), a marine protected area established in 2013.This marine protected area off the coast of Tenerife is known for its ecological significance and biodiversity, including resident populations of cetaceans such as bottlenose dolphins and pilot whales.It is also known as the Tenerife-La Gomera Marine Area and became the first European designated Whale Heritage Area in January 2021. Administration Law and order Tenerife island's government resides with theCabildo Insular de Tenerifelocated at the Plaza de España at the island's capital city (Palacio Insular de Tenerife). The political Canary organization does not have a provincial government body but instead each island has its\",\n \"each island has its own government at their ownCabildo. Since its creation in March 1913 it has a series of capabilities and duties, stated in the Canary Autonomy Statutes (Spanish:Estatuto de Autonomía de Canarias) and regulated by Law 14/1990, of 26 July 1990, of theRégimen Jurídico de las Administraciones Públicas de Canarias. The Cabildo is composed of the following administrative offices; Presidency, Legislative Body, Government Council, Informative Commissions, Spokesman's office. Government Tenerife is an autonomous territory of Spain. The island has a tiered-government system and a special status within the European Union in which it holds lower tax rates compared to other regions. Santa Cruz is the seat of half of the regional government departments and parliament and it is there that the governor is elected by the Canarian people. Afterwards, they are appointed by Madrid. There are fifteen members of parliament who work together in passing legislation, organising budgets and improving the economy.\",\n \"the economy. Municipalities The island, itself part of aSpanish provincenamedSanta Cruz de Tenerife, is divided administratively into 31 municipalities. Only three municipalities are landlocked:Tegueste,El TanqueandVilaflor. Vilaflor is the municipality with the highest altitude in the Canaries (its capital is 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) high). The largest municipality with an area of 207.31 square kilometres (80.04 square miles) is La Orotava, which covers much of the Teide National Park. The smallest town on the island and of the archipelago isPuerto de la Cruz, with an area of just 8.73 square kilometres (3 square miles). It is also common to find internal division, in that some cities make up a metropolitan area within a municipality, notably the cities of Santa Cruz and La Laguna. Below is an alphabetical list of all the municipalities on the island: Counties The counties of Tenerife have no official recognition, but there is a consensus among geographers about them: Flags and heraldry TheFlag of\",\n \"heraldry TheFlag of Tenerifewas originally adopted in 1845 by the navy at its base in the Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Later, and at present, this flag represents all the island of Tenerife. It was approved by theCabildo Insular de Tenerifeand the Order of the Government of the Canary Islands on 9 May 1989 and published on 22 May in the government report of the Canary Islands and made official. Thecoat-of-armsof Tenerife was granted by royal decree on 23 March 1510 byFerdinand IIatMadridin the name ofJoan I, Queen of Castile. The coat-of-arms has a field of gold, with an image ofSaint Michael(patron saintof the island) above a mountain depicted in brownish, natural colors. Flames erupt from the mountain, symbolizing El Teide. Below this mountain is depicted the island itself inverton top of blue and silver waves. To the right there is a castle ingules, and to the left, a lionrampantin gules. The shield that the Cabildo Insular, or Island Government, uses is slightly different from that used by the city\",\n \"used by the city government of La Laguna, which uses a motto in the arms' border and also includes some palm branches. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Tenerife are the birdblue chaffinch(Fringilla teydea) and theCanary Islands dragon tree(Dracaena draco) tree. Demographics According to INE data as at 1 January 2023, Tenerife has the largest population of the seven Canary Islands and was the most populated island of Spain with 948,815 officially estimated inhabitants,of whom about 22.0 percent (208,906) lived in the capital, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and 40 percent in the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz–La Laguna.Santa Cruz de Tenerife and the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Lagunaare physically one urban area, so that together (and including Tegueste) they have a population of 379,857 inhabitants. Tenerife has two other metropolitan areas recognized by theMinistry of Development; theTenerife South metropolitan areawith 194,774 inhabitants (2019) and theLa Orotava Valley metropolitan\",\n \"Valley metropolitan areawith 108,721 inhabitants (2019). After the city of Santa Cruz the major towns and municipalities as at the start of 2023 areSan Cristóbal de La Laguna(159,576),Arona(86,497),Granadilla de Abona(55,505),Adeje(50,523),La Orotava(42,667),Los Realejos(37,543), andPuerto de la Cruz(31,396). All other municipalities have fewer than 30,000 inhabitants, the smallest municipality beingVilaflorwith a population of 1,850. The island has high rates of resident population not registered in population censuses, primarily tourists. This has made several sources point out that more than one million inhabitants actually live on the island of Tenerife today.The island is also the most multicultural in the archipelago, with the highest number of registered foreigners (44.9% of registered in Canary Islands), which represent 14% of the total population of the island.Tenerife stands out in the context of the archipelago, by also concentrating the largest presence of non-EU foreign population. Tenerife has\",\n \"Tenerife has three large population areas that are very different and distributed: The Metropolitan Zone, the South Zone and the North Zone. With several protected natural parks — 48.6% of the territory — and an urban swarm around the island, in the last half century the insular coastal platform has become a highly urbanized metropolitan system. The high level of population in a relatively small territory — more than 900,000 inhabitants in just over 2,000 km2(770 sq mi) — and the strong urbanization have turned the island of Tenerife, in the words of architect Federico García Barba; on an \\\"island-city\\\" or \\\"island-ring\\\". Recently Tenerife has experienced population growth significantly higher than the national average. In 1990, there were 663,306 registered inhabitants, which increased to 709,365 in 2000, an increase of 46,059 or an annual growth of 0.69 percent. However, between 2000 and 2007, the population rose by 155,705 to 865,070, an annual increase of 3.14 percent. These results reflect the general\",\n \"reflect the general trend in Spain where, since 2000, immigration has reversed the general slowdown in population growth, following the collapse in the birth rate from 1976. However, since 2001 the overall growth rate in Spain has been around 1.7 percent per year, compared with 3.14 percent on Tenerife, one of the largest increases in the country. Economy Tenerife is the economic capital of the Canary Islands.At present, Tenerife is the island with the highest GDP in the Canary Islands.Even though Tenerife's economy is highly specialized in theservice sector, which makes 78% of its total production capacity, the importance of the rest of the economic sectors is key to its production development. In this sense, the primary sector, which only represents 1.98% of the total product, groups activities that are important to the sustainable development of the island's economy. The energy sector which contributes 2.85% has a primary role in the development of renewable energy sources. The industrial sector which\",\n \"sector which shares in 5.80% is a growing activity in the island, vis-a-vis the new possibilities created by technological advances. Finally, the construction sector with 11.29% of the total production has a strategic priority, because it is a sector with relative stability which permits multiple possibilities of development and employment opportunities. Tourism Tourism is the most prominent industry in the Canaries, which are one of the major tourist destinations in the world. Tenerife is the most visited island in the archipelagoand one of the most important tourist destinations in Spain. In 2014, 11,473,600 foreign tourists came to the Canary Islands. Tenerife had 4,171,384 arrivals that year, excluding the numbers for Spanish tourists which make up an additional 30% of total arrivals. According to last year's Canarian Statistics Centre's (ISTAC) Report on Tourism the greatest number of tourists from any one country come from the United Kingdom, with more than 3,980,000 tourists in 2014. In second place\",\n \"In second place comes Germany followed by Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, France, Ireland, Belgium, Italy, Denmark, Finland, Switzerland, Poland, Russia and Austria. Tourism is more prevalent in the south of the island, which is hotter and drier and has many well developed resorts such asPlaya de las AmericasandLos Cristianos. More recently coastal development has spread northwards from Playa de las Americas and now encompasses the former small enclave of La Caleta. According to theMoratoriaact passed by the Canarian Parliament in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, no more hotels will be built on the island unless they are classified as 5 star-quality and comprise different services such as golf courses or convention facilities. This act was passed with the goal of improving the standard of tourism service and promoting environmentally conscious development. The area known asCosta Adejehas many facilities and leisure opportunities such as shopping centres, golf courses, restaurants, water parks (the most well-known\",\n \"most well-known beingSiam Park), animal parks, and a theatre suitable for musicals or a convention centre.There are many boats offering whale watching tours from the harbour of Puerto Colon. The deep waters off the coast of Costa Adeje are home to several pods ofpilot whales. In the more lush and green north of the island, the main focus of development for tourism has been in the town ofPuerto de la Cruz. Puerto de la Cruz is home to theSeaWorld-owned zoo,Loro Parque,which has been accused of mistreatment of animals in its captivity, includingorcasand is currently boycotted by major travel agents includingThomas Cook. In the 19th century large numbers of foreign tourists came, especially British, showing interest in the agriculture of the islands. With the world wars, the tourism sector weakened, but the second half of the 20th century brought renewed interest. Initial emphasis was on Puerto de la Cruz, and for all the attractions that the Valle de la Orotava offered. By 1980, tourism was focused in south\",\n \"focused in south Tenerife. The emphasis was on cities like Arona or Adeje, shifting to tourist centres like Los Cristianos or Playa de Las Americas, which now house 65% of the hotels on the island. Tenerife receives more than 5 million tourists every year; of the Сanary islands Tenerife is the most popular. Currently, the municipality ofAdejein the south of the island has the highest concentration of 5 star hotels in Europeand also has what is considered the best luxury hotel in Spain according toWorld Travel Awards. Agriculture and fishing Since tourism dominates the Tenerifan economy, the service sector is the largest. Industry and commerce contribute 40% of the non-tourist economy.Agriculture contributes less than 10% of the island's GDP, but its contribution is vital as it also generates indirect benefits by maintaining the rural appearance of the island and supporting Tenerifan cultural values. Agriculture is centred on the northern slopes, and is affected by altitude as well as orientation: in the\",\n \"orientation: in the coastal zone, tomatoes and bananas are cultivated, these high yield products are for export to mainland Spain and the rest of Europe; in the drier intermediate zone, potatoes, tobacco and maize are grown, whilst in the south, onions are important. Bananas are a particularly important crop, as Tenerife grows more bananas than the other Canary Islands, with a current annual production of about 150,000 tons, down from the peak production of 200,000 tons in 1986. More than 90% of the total is destined for the international market, and banana growing occupies about 4200 hectares.After the banana the most important crops are, in order of importance, tomatoes, grapes, potatoes and flowers. Fishing is also a major contributor to the Tenerifan economy, as the Canaries are Spain's second most important fishing grounds. Energy As of 2009, Tenerife had 910 MW of electrical generation capacity, which is mostly powered from petroleum-derived fuels. The island had 37 MW of wind turbines and 79 MW of\",\n \"and 79 MW of solar panels. Industry and commerce Commerce in Tenerife plays a significant role in the economy, representing almost 20% of the GDP, with the commercial center Santa Cruz de Tenerife generating most of the earnings. Although there are a diversity of industrial estates that exist on the island, the most important industrial activity is petroleum, representing 10% of the island's GDP, again largely due to the capital Santa Cruz de Tenerife with its refinery. It provides petroleum products not only to the Canaries archipelago but is also an active in the markets of the Iberian Peninsula, Africa and South America. Main sights Monuments Historical sights in the island, especially from the time after the conquest, include theCathedral of San Cristóbal de La Laguna, theChurch of the Conception of La Lagunaand theChurch of the Conceptionin the capital. TheBasílica de Nuestra Senora de la Candelariacan be found on the island (Patron of Canary Islands). Also on the island are the defensive castles\",\n \"defensive castles located in the village ofSan Andrés, as well as many others throughout the island. TheAuditorio de Tenerife, one of the most modern in Spain, can be found at the entry port to the capital (in the southern part of Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife). Near the Auditorio de Tenerife are El Castillo Negro and El Parque Marítimo. TheTorres de Santa Cruzare two twin skyscrapers 120 metres (390 feet) high (the highest residential buildings in Spain and the tallest skyscrapers in the Canary Islands). Archeological sites The island also has severalarchaeological sitesof Guanche time (prior to the conquest), which generally are cave paintings that are scattered throughout the island, but most are found in the south of the island. Archaeological sites on the island include theCave of the Guanches, where the oldest remains in the archipelago have been found,dating to the 6th century BC,and theCaves of Don Gaspar, where the finding of plant debris in the form of carbonized seeds indicates that the Guanches\",\n \"that the Guanches practiced agriculture on the island.Both deposits are in the town ofIcod de los Vinos. Also noteworthy on the island is theEstación solar de Masca(Masca Solar Station), which was an aboriginal sanctuary for the celebration of rites related to fertility and the request for rainwater. This is located in the municipality ofBuenavista del Norte. Other archaeological sites include that of Los Cambados and that of El Barranco del Rey both inArona.One could also highlight theCueva de Achbinico(first shrine Marian of the Canary Islands, Guanche vintage-Spanish). In addition there are some buildings calledGüímar Pyramids, whose origin is uncertain. There are also traces that reveal thePunicpresence on the island, as in the wake commonly called \\\"Stone of the Guanches\\\" in the town ofTaganana. This archaeological site consists of a structure formed by a stone block, large, outdoor, featuring rock carvings on its surface. Among these is the presence of a representation of\",\n \"a representation of theCarthaginiangoddessTanit,represented by a bottle-shaped symbol surrounded by cruciform motifs. It is thought that the monument was originally an altar of sacrifice linked to those found in theSemiticfield and then reused forAboriginal ritual of mummification. Culture and arts Literature In the 16th and 17th centuries, Antonio de Viana, a native of La Laguna, composed the epic poemAntigüedades de las Islas Afortunadas(Antiquities of the Fortunate Isles), a work of value to anthropologists, since it sheds light on Canarian life of the time.The Enlightenment reached Tenerife, and literary and artistic figures of this era includeJosé Viera y Clavijo,Tomás de Iriarte y Oropesa, Ángel Guimerá y Jorge, Mercedes Pinto andDomingo Pérez Minik, amongst others. Painting During the course of the 16th century, several painters flourished in La Laguna, as well as in other places on the island, includingGarachico, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Orotava andPuerto de la Cruz. Cristóbal Hernández de Quintana\",\n \"de Quintana and Gaspar de Quevedo, considered the best Canarian painters of the 17th century, were natives of La Orotava, and their art can be found in churches on Tenerife. The work ofLuis de la Cruz y Ríoscan be found in the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia, in Puerto de la Cruz. Born in 1775, he became court painter toFerdinand VII of Spainand was also a miniaturist, and achieved a favorable position in the royal court. He was known there by the nickname of \\\"El Canario.\\\" The landscape painter Valentín Sanz (born 1849) was a native of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and theMuseo Municipal de Bellas Artes de Santa Cruzdisplays many of his works. This museum also contains the works ofJuan Rodríguez Botas(1880–1917), considered the first Canarianimpressionist. Frescoes by theexpressionistMariano de Cossío can be found in the church of Santo Domingo, in La Laguna. The watercolorist Francisco Bonnín Guerín (born 1874) was a native of Santa Cruz, and founded a school to encourage the arts.Óscar\",\n \"the arts.Óscar Domínguezwas born in La Laguna in 1906 and is famed for his versatility. He belonged to thesurrealistschool, and invented the technique known asdecalcomania. Sculpture The arrival from Seville ofMartín de Andújar Cantos, an architect and sculptor brought new sculpting techniques of the Seville school, which were passed down to his students, includingBlas García Ravelo, a native of Garachico. He had been trained by the master sculptorJuan Martínez Montañés. Other notable sculptors from the 17th and 18th centuries includeSebastián Fernández Méndez,Lázaro González de Ocampo,José Rodríguez de la Oliva, and most importantly,Fernando Estévez, a native of La Orotava and a student of Luján Pérez. Estévez contributed an extensive collection of religious images and woodcarvings, found in numerous churches of Tenerife, such as the Principal Parish ofSaint James the Great(Parroquia Matriz del Apóstol Santiago), inLos Realejos; in the Cathedral of La Laguna; theIglesia de la Concepciónin La Laguna; the\",\n \"La Laguna; the basilica ofCandelaria, and various churches in La Orotava. Music An important musician from Tenerife is Teobaldo Power y Lugo Viña, a native of Santa Cruz and a pianist and composer, and author of theCantos Canarios.The Hymn of the Canary Islands takes its melody from theArrorró, or Lullaby, from Power y Lugo Viña'sCantos Canarios. Folkloric music has also flourished on the island, and, as in the rest of the islands, is characterized by the use of theCanarian Timple, the guitar,bandurria,laúd, and various percussion instruments. Local folkloric groups such as Los Sabandeños work to save Tenerife's musical forms in the face of increasing cultural pressure from the mainland. Tenerife is the home to the types of songs called theisa,folía,tajaraste, andmalagueña, which are a cross of ancient Guanche songs and those ofAndalusiaand Latin America. Architecture Tenerife is characterized by an architecture whose best representatives are the local manor houses and also the most humble and common\",\n \"humble and common dwellings. This style, while influenced by those of Andalusia and Portugal, nevertheless had a very particular and native character. Of the manor houses, the best examples can be found in La Orotava and in La Laguna, characterized by their balconies and by the existence of interior patios and the widespread use of the wood known aspino tea(\\\"pitch pine\\\"). These houses are characterized by simple façades and wooden lattices with little ornamentation.There are sash windows and it is customary for the chairs inside the house to rest back-to-back to the windows. The interior patios function like real gardens that serve to give extra light to the rooms, which are connected via the patio by galleries frequently crowned by wood and stone. Gadgets like stills, water pumps, benches and counters, are elements that frequently form part of these patios. Traditional houses generally have two storeys, with rough walls of variegated colours. Sometimes the continuity of these walls is interrupted by the\",\n \"interrupted by the presence of stone blocks that are used for ornamental purposes. The government buildings and religious structures were built according to the changing styles of each century. The urban nuclei of La Orotava and La Laguna have been declared national historical-artistic monuments. In recent years, various governments have spearheaded the concept of developing architectural projects, sometimes ostentatious ones, designed by renowned architects–for example, the remodeling of thePlaza de Españain Santa Cruz de Tenerife by the Swiss architectsHerzog & de Meuron. Other examples include the Playa de Las Teresitas project by the Frenchman Dominique Perrault; the center known as Magma Arte & Congresos; the Torres de Santa Cruz; and theAuditorio de Tenerife(\\\"Auditorium of Tenerife\\\"). The latter, by the SpaniardSantiago Calatrava, lies to the east of the Parque Marítimo (\\\"Maritime Park\\\"), in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and is characterized by its sail-like structure, which evokes a boat, and has become a\",\n \"and has become a symbol for the city and island,which makes Santa Cruz de Tenerife one of the Spanish cities with the most futuristic buildings. Crafts Distinctive representatives of craftsmanship on the island areTenerife lace(calado canario), which is drawn workembroidery, and the intricatedoiliesknown asrosetas, orrosetteembroidery, particularly fromVilaflor. The lace, often made for table linen, is produced by the intricate and slow embroidering of a stretched piece of cloth, which is rigidly attached to a wooden frame and is finished with illustrations or patterns using threads that are crossed over and wound around thefijadores, or pins stuck in a small support made of cloth.These decorated, small pieces are afterwards joined, to produce distinct designs and pieces of cloth. Another Tenerife-based industry is cabinetwork. The north of the island produced various master craftsman who created distinctive balconies, celosias, doors, and windows, as well as furniture consisting of pieces made in fine wood.\",\n \"made in fine wood. Basketmaking using palm-leaves was also an important industry. Other materials are chestnut tree branches stripped of their leaves andbanana treefibre (known locally asla badana). Pottery has a long history harking back to the production of ceramics by the Guanches. The Guanches were unfamiliar with thepotter's wheel, and used hand-worked clay, which gave their pottery a distinctive look. Pottery was used to produce domestic objects such as pots and grills, or ornamental pieces such as bead collars or the objects known aspintaderas, which were pieces of pottery used to decorate other vessels. Traditional celebrations Carnival of Santa Cruz Perhaps the most important festival of Tenerife, popular both on a national and international level, is theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, which has been declared a Festival of International Tourist Interest (Fiesta de Interés Turístico Internacional).The carnival is celebrated in many locations in the north and south of the island, but is largest in\",\n \"but is largest in scope in the city of Santa Cruz.Contests are celebrated, and the carnival includes bands of street musicians (murgas), groups of minstrels (rondallas de Tenerife), masquerades (comparsas), and various associations (agrupaciones). Once the Queen of the festival is elected, the first part of the carnival ends, and thereafter begins the actual street carnival, in which large numbers of people gather in the centre of Santa Cruz, with the carnival lasting ten days. Pilgrimages (Romerías) The most traditional and widespread religious festivals on the islands are the pilgrimages orromerías.These events, which incorporate Christian and non-Christian elements, are celebrated by various means: with wagons andfloats, plowing teams and livestock, in honor of thepatron saintof a particular place. The processions are accompanied by local dances, local dishes, folkloric activities, local arts and crafts, local sports, and the wearing of traditional dress of Tenerife (trajes de mago). The origins of these\",\n \"origins of these events can be attributed to the parties and celebrations held by the richest classes of the island, who would gather to venerate their patron saints, to which they attributed good harvests, fertile lands, plentiful rainfall, the curing of sicknesses and ending of epidemics, etc. They would thus give homage to these saints by consuming and sharing the fruits of their harvest, which included the locally cultivated wines. These have developed into processions to mark festivals dedicated toSaint MarkinTegueste, where the wagons are decorated with the fruits of the earth (seeds, cereals, flowers, etc.); toSaint Isidore the Laborerin Los Realejos; to Saint Isidore the Laborer andMaria Torribia(Saint Mary of the Head) in La Orotava; theRomería Regional de San Benito Abadin La Laguna;Virgin of Candelariain Candelaria;Saint Rochin Garachico;Saint AugustineinArafo; and theRomería del Socorroin Güímar. Holiday of the Virgin of Candelaria TheVirgin of Candelariais the patron of the Canary Islands; a\",\n \"Canary Islands; a feast is held in her honor two times a year, in February and August. TheRomeria-Offering to the Virgin of Candelaria is celebrated every 15 August in this event is a tradition that representations of all municipalities of the island and also of all the Canary archipelago come to make offerings to their patron. Another significant act of the feast of the Virgin of Candelaria is called \\\"Walk to Candelaria\\\" held on the night of 14 to 15 August in which thefaithful make pilgrimage on foot from various parts of the island, even coming from other islands to arrive atVilla Mariana de Candelaria. On 2 February we celebrate the feast of the Candelaria. Also on this day come to town many devotees of the Virgin. During the February festivities, the so-called \\\"Procesión de Las Candelas\\\" (Candlelight Procession) stands out, in which the faithful accompany the Virgin in the dark of the night lit only by candles and praying the rosary. Holiday of the Cristo de La Laguna It is celebrated every 14 September\",\n \"every 14 September in honor of a much venerated image of Christ in the Archipelago, theCristo de La Laguna, is held in the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Every 9 September, the venerated image of Christ is lowered in public from the main altar of its Royal Sanctuary, after which, the faithful kiss the feet of the image. The image is solemnly transferred in procession to the Cathedral of La Laguna on the afternoon of that day, where it remains for several days, until 14 September, which is the main day, when it is transferred back to its Sanctuary. Corpus Christi The religious festival ofCorpus Christiis particularly important, and is traditionally celebrated with floral carpets laid in the streets. Particularly noteworthy are the celebrations in La Orotava where a very large carpet, or tapestry, of different coloured volcanic soils, covers the Plaza del Ayuntamiento (town square). These soils are taken from theParque Nacional del Teide, and after the celebration, are returned, to preserve the National\",\n \"the National Park. The celebration of Corpus Christi in Orotava has been declared of Important Cultural Interest among the official Traditional Activities of the Island. Easter Among the numerous other celebrations that define Tenerifan culture, Easter remains the most important. This is celebrated across the island, but is particularly notable in the municipalities of La Laguna, La Orotava and Los Realejos, where elaborate processions take place on Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter Sunday, or \\\"Resurrection Sunday\\\". Holy Week in the city of San Cristobal de la Laguna is the largest of the Canary Islands. Religion As with the rest of Spain, Tenerife is largelyCatholic.However, the practice of other religions and denominations has increasingly expanded on the island due to tourism and immigration, asIslam,Hinduism,Buddhism,Evangelicalism,JudaismandAfro-American religion.Minority religions are stationed in the island:Chinese Religions,Baháʼíand the neopaganism native form, theChurch of the Guanche\",\n \"of the Guanche People,among others. Christianity and Judaism arrived in the island with the Spanish conquest. An important Catholic festival is the celebration of thefeast dayassociated with theVirgin of Candelaria,patron saintof the Canary Islands, who represents the union of the Guanche and Spanish cultures.The Guanches became devoted to aBlack Madonnathat Christian missionaries fromLanzaroteandFuerteventuraleft on a beach near the present-day Villa Mariana de Candelaria, which gave rise to the legends and stories associated with the Virgin. These legends fueled the cult of the Virgin and thepilgrimages to Candelariathat have existed to this day on the island. Another cult to the Virgin Mary exists in the form ofOur Lady of Los Remedios(la Virgen de Los Remedios), who is patron of the island and Catholic diocese of Tenerife (Diócesis Nivariense). In Tenerife were born twoCatholicsaintswho were of the greatest missionaries in the Americas:Peter of Saint Joseph BetancurandJosé de Anchieta. The first was a\",\n \"The first was a missionary inGuatemalaand founder ofOrder of Our Lady of Bethlehem(the first religious order of the Americas), the second was a missionary in Brazil, and was one of the founders ofSão Pauloand ofRio de Janeiro. It also highlights the figure of the mysticMary of Jesus de León y Delgado. This nun died with a reputation for holiness and is highly revered throughout the Canary Islands. Her body is intact in the Convent of Santa Catalina de Siena inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Principal Catholic places of worship on the island include: Other important churches include the Church of the Conception in La Orotava (Iglesia de la Concepción); the churches of San Agustín and Santo Domingo in La Orotava; the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia in Puerto de la Cruz; the church of San Marcos in Icod de los Vinos; the church of Santa Ana in Garachico; and theChurch of the Conception (Iglesia de la Concepción) in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first saint of Tenerifeand Canary IslandswasSaint Peter of\",\n \"Peter of Saint Joseph Betancur, born in the town ofVilaflor, Tenerife. His main shrine is theCave of Santo Hermano PedroinGranadilla de Abona, near the coast, where he lived in his youth. This cave is considered one of the most important pilgrimage spots of the Canary Islands. Another notable building on the island is theMasonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, generally considered the finest example of Masonic temple architecture in Spain;it was the Masonic center of the country until the military occupation of the island by theFranco regime. The headquarters of theIslamic Federation of the Canary Islandsis in Tenerife; the organization was founded to unite the Muslim communities of the Canary Islands in a common association.For its part, the headquarters of the Evangelical Council of the Canary Islands is also on the island. Education Formal educationin Tenerife began with thereligious orders. In 1530, theDominican Orderestablished a chair of philosophy at the convent ofLa Concepción de La Laguna. Still,\",\n \"La Laguna. Still, until well into the 18th century Tenerife was largely without institutions of education. Such institutions finally began to develop thanks to the work of the Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País (\\\"Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Country\\\"), which established several schools in San Cristóbal de La Laguna. The first of these was an institute of secondary education established in 1846 to fill the gap left by the closure of the Universidad de San Fernando (seeUniversity of La Laguna). An 1850 annex to this building was the Escuela Normal Elemental, the archipelago's first teachers' college or normal school, which became the Escuela Normal Superior de Magisterio from 1866 onward. These were the only institutions of higher education until the dictatorMiguel Primo de Riveracreated several institutions. A turning point came around the time of the rise of theSecond Spanish Republic. From 1929 to 1933 the number of schools nearly doubled. Shortly after this, though, the start of\",\n \"the start of theSpanish Civil Warand the following dictatorship ofFrancisco Francoconstituted a considerable reversal. Education in the hands of religious orders had a certain importance on the island until the 1970 Ley General de Educación (\\\"General Law of Education\\\") shifted the balance from religiously based education to public education. Public schools continued their advance during and after the post-FrancoSpanish transition to democracy. Tenerife today has 301 centers of childhood education (preschools), 297 primary schools, 140 secondary schools and 86post-secondaryschools.There are also five universities orpost-graduateschools, theUniversity of La Laguna, theUniversidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia(National University of Distance Learning), theUniversidad Internacional Menéndez Pelayo(Menéndez Pelayo International University), theUniversidad Alfonso X el Sabio(University of Alfonso X the Wise) and theUniversidad de Vic(Escuela Universitaria de Turismo de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, \\\"University\",\n \"\\\"University School of Tourism of Santa Cruz de Tenerife\\\"). The largest of these is the University of La Laguna. TheUniversidad Europea de Canarias(European University of the Canary Islands) is located in La Orotava and is the first private university in the Canary Islands. Science and research While Tenerife is not prominent in the history of scientific and academic research, it is the home of theInstituto de Astrofísica de Canarias(Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-OrgánicaAntonio González(Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at the University of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales\",\n \"y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). This last is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \\\"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\\\"), located in various parts of Spain. Puerto de la Cruz has the Instituto de Estudos Hispánicos de Canarias (Institute of Hispanic Studies of the Canaries), attached to Madrid's Instituto de Cultura Hispánica. In La Laguna is the Canarian delegation of theConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas(CSIC, Superior Council of Scientific Investigations), the Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (Canarian Institute of Agrarian Investigation), the Instituto de Estudios Canarios (Canarian Institute of Studies) and theCentro Internacional para la Conservación del Patrimonio(the International Center of the Conservation of Patrimony). Other research facilities in Tenerife are the Instituto\",\n \"are the Instituto Tecnológico de Canarias, the Instituto Vulcanológico de Canarias, the Asociación Industrial de Canarias, the Instituto Tecnológico de Energías Renovables (Technological Institute of Renewable Energy) and the Instituto Oceanográfico de Canarias in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Museums The island boasts a variety of museums of different natures, under dominion of a variety of institutions. Perhaps the most developed are those belonging to theOrganismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros,which include the following: Independent of the Organismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros are: Media Along with many Spanish-language radio and TV stations, Tenerife has two official English-language radio stations.Coast FMbroadcasts a mix of adult contemporary music and is the only local news service to broadcast in English. As the larger of the two stations, Coast FM can be heard across Tenerife and much of the Canary Islands from its transmitters on 106.6, 92.2 and 89.4. Energy FM is a non-stop music station that also\",\n \"station that also broadcasts local news and information on the hour. Transport and communications The island of Tenerife is served byTenerife North Airport(GCXO) andTenerife South Airport(GCTS). Tenerife North Airport, the smaller of the two, is located near the metropolitan area Santa Cruz-La Laguna (423,000 inhabitants). It serves inter-insular flights as well as national and European flights. Tenerife South Airport (south) is the busiest Airport in Tenerife, ranking 7th in Spain. It typically serves the mass of regular and vacation charter flights constantly arriving from most of Europe. The other way to arrive on Tenerife is by ferry, either to Santa Cruz de Tenerife or Los Cristianos, near Playa de Las Américas. A network consisting of two fast, toll-free motorways (TF1 and TF5) encircles nearly the entire island, linking all the main towns and resorts with the metropolitan area. The exception is in the West, from Adeje to Icod de los Vinos, which is traversed by a smaller winding mountain road.\",\n \"mountain road. However, plans are in progress to complete the motorway, which caused a heavy debate between the environmentalists and the local businessmen. Away from the major motorways, there is a network of secondary and communal roads, varying from wide to steep, winding narrow roads, mainly unlit and often with drops on either side of the main carriageway surface. Public transport on the island is provided by an extensive network of buses and run byTITSA, who operate a fleet of modern, air-conditioned buses.TITSA buses cover most of the island and they are fairly frequent. For more than one journey, customers can purchase a TenMascontactless smart cardfor €2, which can be topped up with up to €100 travel credit. Using the TenMas card provides a discount over cash fares, and, for Tenerife residents, a card allowing unlimited travel for a monthly fee is also available.The card can be purchased and topped up at bus stations and many newsagents. It is also valid on the tram in the capital, Santa Cruz (See\",\n \"Santa Cruz (See Below). A hire car is sometimes a good option for discovering the remote wilderness regions, although TITSA operate reliable bus services in the remotest spots, such as the Teno Massif via Masca (355), and up the Anaga mountains (247). TITSA operate two daily services up Mount Teide – from Puerto de la Cruz (348) and from Los Christianos/Las Americas (342) up to the Teide Parador, Teleferico cable car, Montana Blanca and El Portillo. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz,Sixtand TopCar. The metropolitan Area formed by Santa Cruz and La Laguna is served by theTranvía de Tenerife(Tenerife Tram) which opened in early 2007, after 3 years of intensive works. The fairly lengthy line from Santa Cruz up the hill to La Laguna serves almost 20 stops. A second line within La Laguna was added in 2009. Roads The main means of transportation in Tenerife is by highways. The most important of these are theAutopista\",\n \"are theAutopista del Surand theAutopista del Norte(the North and South Motorways), which run from the metropolitan zone to the south and north, respectively. These two motorways are connected by means of theAutovía de Interconexión Norte-Surin the outskirts of the metropolitan zone. Within the network of roads on the island of Tenerife there are other minor roads that used to include the highway from San Andres and Santa Cruz (Holy Cross in English). Also planned is the construction of a bypass road north of the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Laguna. This aims to provide dual cores toGuamasaandAcorán, by way ofLos Baldíos,Centenero,Llano del Moro,El Sobradillo,El Tablero, andEl Chorrillo, among other neighbourhoods. The route will be approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) long and will cost an estimated 190 million euros (270 million in American dollars). Airports Tenerife is most easily reached by air. There are two airports:Tenerife South Airport, in the south, andTenerife North Airport, near\",\n \"North Airport, near Santa Cruz. Overall, Tenerife has the highest annual passenger count and the greatest number of arrivals in Canary Islands, made more popular by the frequency of cheap flights from many European destinations. Tenerife North Airport and Tenerife South Airport together account for the highest passenger numbers in the Islands with some 14 million passengers annually (AENA report). Of the two airports on the island, Tenerife South is the most popular tourist destination. Ports Besides air transport, Tenerife has two principal maritime ports: thePort of Santa Cruz de Tenerife(Puerto de Santa Cruz), which serves the various capitals of the Canary Islands, especially those in the west; and thePort of Los Cristianos(Puerto de Los Cristianos), which serves the various island capitals of the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first port also has passenger services, which connect with the mainland port ofCádiz(and vice versa). In 2017, a large important port was opened in the south of the\",\n \"in the south of the island, thePort of Granadilla, and another one is planned in the west, inFonsalía.The Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is the first fishing port in the Canary Islands with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Statistical Yearbook of the State Ports 2006 (the latest of which is changing). Following this report is the largest port number of passengers recorded. Similarly, the second port of Spain moving ship and loaded into cars, only surpassed by thePort of AlgecirasBay.In the port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. Buses (guaguas) Tenerife has an extensive system of buses, which are calledguaguasin the Canary Islands. The bus system is used both within the cities and also connects most of the towns and cities of the island. There are bus stations in all of the major towns, such as\",\n \"towns, such as theIntercambiador de Transportes de Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Taxis There is a well-regulated taxi service on the island. Tramway Since 2007, theTenerife TramconnectsSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLa Lagunathrough the suburb of Taco. There are 20 stops and it covers a distance of 12.5 km (7.8 mi) in 37 minutes. It calls at some points of interest including Tenerife's two major hospitals, the university complex of Guajara, and a number of museums and theatres. Concerning its power supply, it will support development of further wind farms to provide it with 100 percent clean energy. Railway plans By 2005, plans for a light-rail network linking the capital with the South had been approved by both theTenerife Counciland the Canary Islands Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government stalled on budget issues.The original intent was to establish two railway systems that would serve the northern and southern sides of the island connecting these with the capital.By March 2011, these\",\n \"March 2011, these intentions had been replaced by advanced plans for a single 80 km (50 mi)high-speed railline, the \\\"South Train\\\" which would connectSanta Cruz de TenerifewithAdejevia Santa Maria de Añaza,Candelaria, San Isidro,Tenerife South Airport, and a main stopover station atAdejewhich would be designed to service up to 25,000 passengers per day. Trains would run every 15 minutes during rush hours, and would achieve speeds up to 220 km/h (137 mph). The project, which involves 9 tunnels, 12 false tunnels (together 22.1 km) and 33 viaducts (8.3 km) has been budgeted at EUR 1.7 bn. It has met staunch opposition from local environmentalists.An alternate plan for a high-speedTransrapid maglevhas also been put forward. Tourist train Atourist train(Tren Turístico) serves Costa Adeje to Los Cristianos with several stops including in Playa de las Americas. Cableway Sports On the island of Tenerife, a large number of sports are practised, both outdoors and indoors in the various facilities available throughout\",\n \"throughout the island. The sports are numerous – Diving, Rock Climbing, Walking, Cycling, Sailing, Golf, Surfing, Go-Karting, Paragliding– the all year round weather makes it ideal for a wide variety of outdoor sports. There are also many indoor sporting facilities including fully equipped including 'Tenerife Top Training' centre in Adeje on the South of the Island. Its most well-known sports team isfootballclubCD Tenerifebased in Santa Cruz. The club has spent time in the Spanish top flight, but have in recent decades primarily played in the second division of Spanish football. Also worth mentioning is theultramarathonCajaMar Tenerife Bluetrail, the highest race in Spain and second in Europe,with the participation of several countries and great international repercussions. Healthcare The main hospitals on the island are theHospital Universitario de Canariasand theHospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria. Both are third-level hospitals, with specialist facilities that serve all of the Canary\",\n \"all of the Canary Islands.They are both affiliated with the education and research network of theUniversidad de La Laguna. However, they belong to different bodies, since the first one is under the directives of theServicio Canario de la Salud(Canarian Health Service).The Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria it is the largest hospital complex in the Canary Islands. In addition, two large new hospitals have recently been built in the north and south areas of the island, located in the municipalities ofIcod de los VinosandAronarespectively. TheHospital del Norte de Tenerife(Tenerife North Hospital) opened in 2012 and theHospital del Sur de Tenerife(Tenerife South Hospital) opened in 2015.These centers will function, according to their classification, as second level hospitals, with services of hospitalization, advanced diagnosis, ambulances and emergencies, and rehabilitation, etc. There are also a total of 39 centers of primary care and specialized clinics which complete the sanitary\",\n \"the sanitary infrastructure of Tenerife. Gastronomy Fish Due to the geographic situation of Tenerife, the island enjoys an abundance of fish of various kinds. The species that are consumed the most are theCombtooth blennies(viejas), as well assea bream(sama),red porgy(bocinegro),gold lined bream(salema),grouper(mero), and various and abundant types ofThunnus. TheAtlantic mackerel(caballa),sardine(sardine), andJack mackerels(chicharros) are also consumed frequently.Moray eels(morenas) are also eaten, usually fried. Most seafood is cooked simply, usually boiled, or prepared \\\"a la espalda\\\" (cut into two equally shaped pieces along the spine) or \\\"a la sal\\\" (baked in salt). These dishes are usually accompanied bymojo(a local sauce) and wrinkly potatoes. Meat The typical festive meat dish of marinated porktacosis a very popular dish prepared for town festivities inventorrillos, bars and private homes.Rabbit insalmorejo, goat, beef, pork and poultry are regularly consumed. Canarian wrinkly potatoes The fish dishes\",\n \"The fish dishes along with the meats are often accompanied bywrinkly potatoes(papas arrugadas). This is a typical Canarian dish which simply refers to the way the cooked potatoes look. They are boiled in their skins, in water with much salt, and the water is allowed to evaporate, leaving a salty crust. Mojos Mojo, a word probably of Portuguese origin, describes a typical Canarian sauce, served as an accompaniment to food. The sauces come in a variety of colours, flavours and textures, and are usually served cold, often in separate dishes, for the diner to choose how much to apply. Green mojo usually includes coriander, parsley, and garlic; whilst red mojo is piquant, and made from a mix of hot and sweet peppers. A wide variety of other ingredients are also used, including; almonds, cheese, saffron and fried bread.Mojos are served with most meat, and some fish, dishes, and are often used on potatoes, or bread is dipped into them. Cheeses Tenerife exports about 3,400 tons of cheese per year, representing about\",\n \"representing about 50 percent of the output of the island, and about 25 percent of the entire Canary Islands. After the conquest of the Canary Islands, one of the first commercial activities to be started was cheese production. The sale of cheese provided the inhabitants with an income and cheese was even used as a form of currency for exchange and sale, becoming a crucial product in agricultural areas of the island. Cheese grew to become one of the most commonly produced and consumed products on the island and is regularly served as part of a starter course or as a snack. Farms at Arico, La Orotava and Teno produced a variety of cheeses, including soft cheeses, cured, smoked and were mostly handmade. Today the main product isgoat cheese, although certain amounts are made from sheep's or cow's milk, and according to theRegistro General Sanitario de Alimentos, the general health registry, around 75 differentcottage cheesesare produced.The cheeses of the Canaries have generally received good international\",\n \"good international reviews, noted for their sweetness which differentiates them from certain other European cheeses.In particular, Tenerifan cured goats cheese was awarded best cheese in the world final of the 2008World Cheese Awardsheld inDublin, Ireland. Cheeses from Tenerife now have a quality mark promoted by theFundación Tenerife Rural, to standardize their quality in an attempt to publicize the qualities of the cheese and improve its marketing. Gofio Gofiois one of the more traditional elements of cooking on the island, It is made withcereal grainsthat are roasted and then ground. Increasingly used to make a gofio on the island is wheat although there are other types, and they are often made withchickpeas. Relatively common is a mixed-type with wheat. It was served as main food to theguancheseven before the Spanish conquest. In later times of scarcity or famine it was a staple of the popular Canarian diet. Today it is eaten as a main dish (gofio escaldado) or an accompaniment to different dishes,\",\n \"different dishes, meats, fishes, soups, desserts. Some famous cooks have even made gofio ice cream, receiving good comments from the critics. Confectionery Confectionery in Tenerife is represented and strongly influenced by La Palma, with confections likebienmesabe,leche asada,Príncipe Alberto,frangollo,huevos moles, andquesillo. Wines Viticulturein the archipelago, and especially in Tenerife dates back to the conquest, when the settlers brought a variety of vines to plant. In the 16th and 17th centuries, wine production played an important role in the economy, and many families were dedicated to the culture and business. Of special mention ismalvasía canary, considered the best wine of Tenerife and at the time one of the most desired wines in the world, being shipped across to the major warehouses of Europe and America.Writers such asWilliam ShakespeareandWalter Scottmake reference to the wine in some of their works.Tenerife has 5 main wine growing regions. These includeAbona,Valle de Güímar,Valle de La\",\n \"Güímar,Valle de La Orotava,Tacoronte-AcentejoandYcoden-Daute-Isora. This typical gastronomy is served in popular establishments known asguachinches, opening day is the day ofSan Andrés, 30 November, also known as the young wine festivalFestival de Vino Joven. The wine of the new harvest is traditionally served with roasted chestnuts, maturing at the same time, and grilled sardines, thus the season normally lasts from late autumn until early spring. Tenerife in popular culture Cities The city ofBrisbanein Queensland, Australia, has a historical inner suburb namedTeneriffe, named by one of the first European landowners in the area, James Gibbon, because it reminded him ofMount Teide. Other cities in the world whose name has its origins in the island are:Tenerife, Magdalena, a town and municipality in Colombia;San Carlos de Tenerife, a city in the Dominican Republic. Cinema Over the last few years,Tenerife has become a popular filming location, being featured in several Hollywood blockbusters.Some of the most\",\n \"of the most important films made on the island are: Music Likewise, the island has been home to several musical recordings and as a scenic setting for music videos: Video games In literature Literary works featuring Tenerife includeThe CompanionandThe Man from the Sea, both byAgatha Christie;La cueva de las mil momiasbyAlberto Vazquez-Figueroa;Thieves' PicnicbyLeslie Charteris;El Sarcófago de las tres llavesby Pompeyo Reina Moreno;andAtentadoby Mariano Gambín. International relations Tenerife istwinnedwith: See also References External links\",\n \"Fuerteventura Fuerteventura(Spanish:ⓘ) is one of theCanary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, geographically part ofMacaronesia, and politically part ofSpain. It is located 97 km (60 mi) away from the coast ofNorth Africa. The island was declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCOin 2009. Fuerteventura belongs toProvince of Las Palmas,one of the two provinces that form the autonomous community of the Canary Islands. The island's capital isPuerto del Rosario, where the Insule Council is found, the government of the island. Fuerteventura had 124,152 inhabitants (as of 2023), the fourth largest population of the Canary Islands and the third of the province. At 1,659.74 km2(640.83 sq mi),it is the second largest of the Canary Islands, afterTenerife.From a geological point of view, Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the archipelago. Toponymy The island's name is a compound formed by the Spanish wordsfuerte(either \\\"strong\\\" or \\\"fort\\\") andventura(\\\"fortune\\\"). Traditionally, Fuerteventura's name has been regarded as a\",\n \"been regarded as a reference to the strong winds (fuertes vientosin Spanish) around the island coastline, and the resulting danger to nautical adventurers. However, it might have referred instead (or also) to wealth, luck or destiny. In 1339 the Mallorcan navigatorAngelino Dulcert, in thePlanisferio de Angelino Dulcert, referred to the island as \\\"Forte Ventura\\\". Another theory is that the island's name derives from \\\"Fortunatae Insulae\\\" (Fortunate Islands), the name by which the Romans knew the Canary Islands. Theindigenousname of the island, before its conquest in the 15th century, was Erbania, divided into two regions (Jandía and Maxorata), from which the name majorero (originally majo or maxo) derives. However, it has been suggested that, at some point, Maxorata (which meant \\\"the children of the country\\\") was the aboriginaltoponymof the entire island. History Precolonial history The first settlers of Fuerteventura are believed to have come from North Africa. The wordMahorero(Majorero) orMahois still used\",\n \"orMahois still used today to describe the people of Fuerteventura and is derived from the ancient word 'mahos', a type of goatskin shoe worn by these original inhabitants. They lived in caves and semi-subterranean dwellings, some of which have been excavated, revealing remnants of early tools and pottery. In antiquity, the island was originally known asPlanaria, in reference to the flatness of most of its terrain. Phoeniciansettlers landed in Fuerteventura andLanzarote. Several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions to the islands were organized around 1340, followed by Moors and European slave traders. At the end of the Iberian conquest, the island was divided into twoGuancheskingdoms, one adhering to King Guize and the other to King Ayoze. The territories of these kingdoms were calledMaxorata(in the North) andJandía(in the South) respectively. They were separated by a wall, which traversed the La Pared isthmus. Some remains have been preserved. The ancient name for the island, Erbania, is derived from this\",\n \"derived from this wall's name. The conquest The island's conquest began in earnest in 1402, commanded by French knights and crusadersJean de BéthencourtandGadifer de la Salle.They arrived with only 63 sailors out of the original 283, as many had deserted along the way. After arriving and settling inLanzarote, the invaders made some first excursions to the neighboring islands. In 1404, Bethencourt and Gadifer foundedBetancuria, on the West coast, the first settlement on the island. After numerous difficulties, Gadifer took charge of the invasion, while Bethencourt returned to Spain to seek the recognition and support of theCastilian king. In 1405, de Béthencourt completed his conquest of the island, establishing its capital in Betancuria (Puerto Rosario took over the mantle as island capital in 1835). In 1424 PopeMartin V, through theBetancuriaBrief, edicted the establishment of theBishopric of Fuerteventura, which encompassed all theCanary Islandssave for the island ofLanzarote.The origin of this bishopric\",\n \"of this bishopric is directly related to the events that occurred after theGreat Schism(1378–1417), in that the bishop ofSan Marcial del RubicónofLanzarote(at the time, the only diocese in the Canary Islands) did not recognize the papacy of Martin V, and instead adhered toanti-PopeBenedict XIII. TheBishopric of Fuerteventurawas based in theParish of Santa María de Betancuria, bestowing upon the latter the status of Grant Cathedral. After the reabsorbtion of theDiocese of San Marcial del Rubicónby the papacy of Pope Martin V, the Bishopric of Fuerteventura was abolished in 1431, only seven years after it was created. The first censusrecorded a population of some 1,200 inhabitants. The population increased gradually thereafter. In 1476 the territory became theSeñorío Territorial de Fuerteventura, subjected to theCatholic Monarchs.In later years, the island was invaded by the Spanish, French and the English. 2nd conquest of Fuerteventura Over time, the island endured numerous raids. ABerber-led expedition\",\n \"expedition invaded in 1593, sweeping as far inland as the capital. Various castles were built along the coastline, to protect against these type of attacks. The population was moved inland as a second protective measure. Because of the raids, a firstCaptain Generalwas dispatched to Fuerteventura, accompanied by a number ofSergeants Major, to defend the island in the name of the Crown. At that time, Betancuria became the religious capital of the island. Two majorattackstook place in 1740, within a month of each other. Two separate bands of English privateers attempted to loot the town of Tuineje. These attacks were however successfully averted by the local population and the island's militia. This successful repelling of the invaders is celebrated at a re-enactment that takes place in Gran Tarajal every year in October. The island's garrison was officially instated in 1708. Its colonel assumed the title ofGovernor at Arms, a hereditary, lifelong appointment which has remained in the Sánchez-Dumpiérrez family.\",\n \"family. In time, this family increasingly garnered power over the other islands through alliances with the family of Arias de Saavedra and the Lady of Fuerteventura.During the same year theAssistant Parish ofLa OlivaandPájarawas created, to become operational in 1711. On 17 December 1790, theAssistant Parish ofTuinejewas created, which became a new parish division on 23 June 1792 under the bishop Tavira, with lands including part of the Jandía peninsular, and with a population of 1,670 inhabitants. 1780 saw the start of a barrilla plantation industry. To the present In 1852, a free trade zone was extended byIsabella IIto the Canary Islands. Military island rule, which began in 1708, was finally dissolved in 1859, andPuerto de Cabras(nowPuerto del Rosario) - the only municipal seat on the coast - became the new capital. The Canary Islands obtained self-governance in 1912. In 1927, Fuerteventura andLanzarotebecame part of the province ofGran Canaria. The seat of the island's government (cabildo insular) is\",\n \"insular) is located inPuerto del Rosario. A total of 118,574 people lived on the island in 2018. By the 1940s the island had an airport (just west ofPuerto del Rosarioon the road to Tindaya, still visible today). Mass tourism began to arrive in the mid-1960s, facilitated by the construction ofFuerteventura AirportatEl Matorraland the first tourist hotels. The island's proximity (a mere 100 km) to the West African coast and the fact that it is part of theSchengenterritory make it a prime target destination for undocumented immigrants. However, many have perished while attempting the crossing. Flag The flag of Fuerteventura is in proportions 1:2, divided vertically, green to thehoistand white to thefly end, with the coat of arms of the island in the centre. Coat of arms The coat of arms of Fuerteventura was prescribed by a Decree adopted on 15 October 1998 by the Government of the Canary Islands and published on 11 November 1998 in the official gazette of the Canary Islands, No. 142, pp. 13,432–13,433. It was\",\n \"It was adopted on 24 April 1998 by the Island Council and validated on 18 September 1998 by the Heraldry Commission of the Canary Islands. The heraldic description is \\\"per paleandper fess. First,gules, a castle or,masonedsable, its gate and windowsazure. Second,argent, lion gules, crowned, armed andlanguedor. Third, silver, three fesseschequygules and or, in four rows, each one charged with a fess or.Borduregules, with eightsaltiresor.Ensignedwith aroyal crown, open.\\\" According to José Manuel Erbez (Banderas y escudos de Canarias, 2007), the coat of arms is based on the arms of the island's provincial militia. The upper quarters represent Castile (symbolized by a castle) and León (symbolized by a lion). The lower quarter alludes to the Saavedra family; various members of this family were lords of Fuerteventura. Geography Environment The elongated island is 100 km (62 mi) long and 31 km (19 mi) wide. It has an area of 1,660 km2(641 sq mi). Located just 100 km (62 mi) off the coast of North Africa, it is the\",\n \"Africa, it is the second biggest of the islands, after Tenerife, and has the longest white sand beaches in the archipelago. The island is a destination for sun, beach and watersports enthusiasts. It lies at the same latitude as Florida and Mexico and temperatures rarely fall below 18 °C (64 °F) or rise above 32 °C (90 °F). It counts 152 separate beaches along its seaboard — 50 km (31 mi) of white sand and 25 km (16 mi) of black volcanic shingle. The highest point in Fuerteventura is Pico de la Zarza (807 m) in the southwestern part of the island. Geographical features includeIstmo de la Paredwhich is 5 km (3 mi) wide and is the narrowest part of Fuerteventura. The island is divided into two parts, the northern portion which isMaxorataand the southwestern part called the Jandía peninsula. Climate Fuerteventura has ahot desert climate(Köppen:BWh).The climate is mild, but mostly windy, throughout the year. The island is hence referred to asthe island of eternal spring. The sea regulates air temperature,\",\n \"air temperature, diverting hotSaharawinds away from the island. The island's name in English translates as \\\"strong fortune\\\" or \\\"strong wind\\\", the Spanish word for wind beingviento. During the winter months, temperatures average a high of 22 °C (72 °F) and a low of around 15 °C (59 °F), whereas during the summer a mean high of 28 °C (82 °F) and a low of 20 °C (68 °F) can be expected. Precipitation is about 147 mm (6 in) per year, most of which falls in autumn and winter. December is the month with highest rainfall. A sandstorm known as theCalima(similar to theSiroccowind, which blows to the North of the Sahara, to Europe) may blow from the Sahara Desert to the Northwest, and can cause high temperatures, low visibility and drying air. Temperatures during this phenomenon rise temporarily by approximately 10 degrees Celsius. The wind brings in fine red dust, The fine white sand is not blown in from Sahara, It is made up of dead coral reef and local seabed upheaval. Visibility can drop to between 100 and 200 m\",\n \"100 and 200 m (328.08 and 656.17ft) or even lower, and together with very warm temperatures, it can even bring Africanlocuststo the island. Hydrology In the winter months, up to 80% of the rainwater flows unused into the ocean, as there is no vegetation to capture the water (also due to overgrazing by free-ranging goats near the coast). The mountain forests, which were still present in the 19th century, were all chopped down. Instead, there are many desalination plants (running on electricity) which produce the required amount of freshwater on the island. The tourists on the island use about double the amount of water as the native inhabitants of Fuerteventura. Causes are the filling of swimming pools, watering hotel gardens and washing towels. Geology Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the Canary Islands dating back 20 million years to a volcanic eruption from theCanary hotspot.The majority of the island was created about 5 million years ago and since then has been eroded by wind and precipitation. On\",\n \"precipitation. On the seabed off the west coast of the island rests an enormous slab of bedrock 22 km (14 mi) long and 11 km (7 mi) wide, which appears to have slid off the island largely intact at some point in prehistory, similar to the predicted future collapse ofCumbre Vieja, a geological fault on another Canary Island,La Palma. The last volcanic activity in Fuerteventura occurred between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. Beaches Fuerteventura was chosen among 500 European destinations by the Quality Coast International Certification Program of the European Coastal and Marine Union as one of the most attractive tourist destinations for visitors interested in cultural heritage, environment and sustainability. The best beaches to visit are Playa de Cofete, Playas de Jandia, Playas de Corralejo, Playa de Ajuy, and Playas de El Cotillo. Wildlife The island is home to one of the two surviving populations of the threatenedCanarian Egyptian vulture. It is also inhabited by many wild dogs and cats. On the barren, rocky\",\n \"the barren, rocky land there areBarbary ground squirrelsandgeckos. Fuerteventura also hosts several migratory and nesting birds. The island has significant populations of thecollared dove, commonswiftsand severalfinchspecies especially in the vicinity of holiday developments. Despite its arid climate, the island is also home to a surprisingly large insect fauna. Butterflies which commonly occur on the island include the clouded yellow (Colias hyale) and the bath white (Pontia daplidice) which feeds onxerophyticcruciferae. The island is also home to the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) and its close African relativeDanaus chrysippus. Around holiday developments such asCaleta de Fuste, water is relatively abundant, anddragonflyspecies including the blue emperor (Anax imperator) and the scarlet darter (Crocothemis erythraea) can be found. The island's sand dunes and shoreline are home to a number ofbeeandwaspspecies including the largeeumenidcaterpillar hunting wasp,Delta dimidiatipenneand the blue banded\",\n \"the blue banded bee (Amegilla canifrons). Hawkmothsalso occur on the island. One of the more notable species isHyles tithymaliwhich feeds on endemic spurges such asEuphorbia regis-jubae.Acherontia atropos, the deaths-head hawkmoth also occurs on the island presumably feeding on members of theSolanaceae, for example,Datura innoxiaandNicotiana glaucawhich are common weeds in the vicinity of human habitation. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Fuerteventura areChlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae(hubara or houbara) andEuphorbia handiensis(Cardón de Jandía). Demographics Population The island had a population of 124,152 at the start of 2023.Throughout its long history, Fuerteventura has suffered from apopulation declinedue to the economic situation and the climate, which have made it into a desert island. However, the development of tourism during the 1980s has caused the population to grow year on year since then, doubling it in a little less than a decade. In 2005, with 86,642\",\n \"2005, with 86,642 registered inhabitants,the Fuerteventura population was formed by the following: Comparing this data with the 2001 census shows that the number of permanent residents born on the island has increased by just 3,000. The number who have moved in from abroad has increased by 22,910, making this the biggest contributor to population growth in recent years. Education The island has 116 schools,with a total of 14,337 pupils.Of these, 45 are primary schools, ten are secondary schools, six are forBaccalaureatestudents and four are vocational colleges. Fuerteventura also has a centre linked with theNational University of Distance Education, offering courses in many subjects including economics, business studies, law, history and tourism. Administration Fuerteventura is governed by the Island Department of the Government of Spain, which holds the rank of a Government Subdepartment. The government building is located in the centre of the capital city. This institution is charged with representing the\",\n \"representing the Government of Spain on the island, and managing all the functions that are not under control of the Canarian Government. This includes the following public services: Since 30 June 2007, the island's governor has been Eustaquio Juan Santana Gil.4 Island Council of Fuerteventura (Cabildo) The councils, formed as part of the Councils Act of 1912, administer theCanary Islandsand have two principal functions. On one hand, they perform services for the Autonomous Community, and on the other, they are the local government centre for the island. In the 2003 elections, Mario Cabrera González was elected as president representing theCanarian Coalition, with 31.02% of the votes, followed by theSpanish Socialist Workers' Partywith 27.53%, represented by the Vice President Domingo Fuentes Curbelo. Municipalities Fuerteventura is part of theProvince of Las Palmas. The island is divided into sixmunicipalities, as follows: In turn, these municipalities are organised into two associations: theMancomunidad de\",\n \"theMancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Norte de Fuerteventuraformed from La Oliva and Puerto del Rosario, and the remaining municipalities make up theMancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Sur de Fuerteventura. All municipalities are ruled by a town council, and are members of the FECAM (Federation of Canarian Municipalities). They are governed by the basic legislation of the local regime and their respective organic rules. About 100 individual settlements are distributed through these municipalities. The largest not being municipal seats areCorralejo(in La Oliva; pop. 10,714 in 2023),Morro Jable(in Pájara; pop. 8,245)Gran Tarajal(in Tuineje; pop. 7,584), andCosta Calma(in Pájara; pop. 5,704), all coastal localities of recent development. A nearby islet,Islote de Lobos, is close to Corralejo and part of the municipality ofLa Oliva. Economy Both Fuerteventura andLanzarotewould have been the main exporters of wheat and cereals to the central islands of the archipelago during the 16th, 17th and 18th\",\n \"16th, 17th and 18th centuries;TenerifeandGran Canaria.However, this trade was of little benefit to the inhabitants of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (because the landowners of the islands profited from this activity), leading to periods of famine, resulting in some of the population of the islands moving to Tenerife and Gran Canaria to try to improve their lives. Therefore, the island of Tenerife became the main focus of attraction formajorerosandlanzaroteños, hence the feeling of union that has always existed amongst these islands. The economy of Fuerteventura is mainly based on tourism. Primary tourist areas are located around the existing towns ofCorralejoin the north andMorro JableinJandia, plus the purely tourist development ofCaleta de Fuste, south ofPuerto del Rosario. Other main industries are fishing and agriculture (cereals and vegetables). The famousMajorero cheeseis locally made from the milk of the indigenousmajoreragoat. In 2009, Fuerteventura recorded the highest EU regional unemployment rate at\",\n \"rate at a NUTS3 level, at 29.2 percent. Tourism The first tourist hotel was built in 1965 followed by the construction ofFuerteventura Airportat El Matorral, heralding the dawn of a new era for the island. Fuerteventura, with its 3,000 sunshine hours a year, was placed firmly on the world stage as a major European holiday destination.While having fully developed tourist facilities, the island has not experienced the overdevelopment found on some other islands.Nonetheless, it remains a destination for predominantly but not exclusively European tourists. The summerTrade Windsand winter swells of the Atlantic make this a year-round surfers' paradise, with more exposed areas on the north and west shores such asCorralejoand El Cotillo proving most popular. Wind surfing takes places at locations around the island. Sailors, scuba divers and big-game fishermen are all drawn to these clear blue Atlantic waters where whales, dolphins, marlin and turtles are all common sights. With many hills present throughout the\",\n \"throughout the Island, hikers are also attracted to this Island. Sandy beaches are found in many locations. Western beaches, such as those around El Cotillo, can experience strong surf. The beaches adjoining the extensive sand dunes east ofCorralejoare popular, as are the more protected extensive sandy shores of the Playa de Sotavento de Jandia on the southeastern coast betweenCosta Calmaand the Morro Jable. Naked sun bathing and swimming are the norm almost on all beaches. Much of the interior, with its large plains, lavascapes and volcanic mountains, consists of protected areas, although there are organised tours and vehicular access across them. Art and culture Traditional holidays Like the rest of the Canaries, Carnival is traditionally one of the biggest festivals celebrated on the island. It is celebrated in different ways in all the towns during February and March. These festivities have a different theme each year. They include activities such as parades and galas to choose the carnival king.\",\n \"the carnival king. Concerts and festivals There are many concerts and festivals held in the auditoriums, such as the Festival of Canarian Music. They are also held in smaller venues across the island, featuring bands such as Estopa, Van Gogh's Ear, and King Afrhica. Festival Internacional de Cometas/InternationalKiteFestival is held on the second week of November each year centering on the Corralejo Beaches. It attracts kitefliers and kite surfers from all over Europe. It is popular because the winds are warm and constant and the beaches become filled with hundreds of colourful kites of all shapes and sizes. Auditoriums Fuerteventura has three auditoriums. These are used for all types of performing art. They are also used for non-artistic purposes, such as conferences, charity galas and political meetings. Central library The Central Library of the Island is located in Antigua's city centre, in the public university. In addition to providing the traditional library services, it has a 180-seat multipurpose\",\n \"multipurpose room, air conditioning, a wifi zone, and a multimedia room used for seminars, presentations, film festivals etc. Museums and exhibition spaces The island has several museums with different themes and plenty of exhibition spaces, both public and private. These include: Sculpture park In addition to the museums, the capitalPuerto del Rosariohas an open-air sculpture park consisting of around 100 sculptures by different artists scattered across the city. Most of them were created for the International Symposium of Sculpture celebrated annually since 2001. During the festival, artists come from all over the world to erect their sculptures in the open air, in full view of passers by. Main sights Sites of interest includeCorralejoand El Jable to the north which are made up of fine sandduneswhilst the south is filled with long beaches and remote bays. The constant winds blowing onto the beaches provide a paradise forwindsurfing.Surfingis common on the west and north coasts where there are large waves.\",\n \"are large waves. Windsurfing is common around Corralejo and Playas de Sotavento and wave sailing (windsurfing on the waves) on the coast along the northern half of the island. El Cotillo is a small fishing village in the north-west of the Island famous for a very long beach to the south of the village and few very calm beaches to the north. The northern beaches frequented by snorkeling enthusiasts and sun worshippers alike are referred to as lakes by the locals. AtCofeteon the western side of Jandía a remote and imposing house –Villa Winter– looks out to sea across wide beaches. It was reputedly built by a Mr Winter on land given byGeneralisimo Franco. For a time, the beaches were home to a popular accidental attraction. On 18 January 1994 theUnited States Linesocean linerSSAmerican Star(formerAmerica, USSWest Point,Australis) was beached in Playa de Garcey during a severe storm. Within a year, she broke in two and later lost her stern. By 2007 the rest of the severely deteriorated ship had collapsed onto\",\n \"had collapsed onto her port side, gradually keeling over further and almost completely submerged. By 2008–2012, most of the remains finally slipped below the surface. Food The cuisine is fairly basic due to the customs and climate conditions. They share this simplicity with the other Canary islands, and similarly to them, they use a large quantity offish. They also use whatever they can grow in the near-barren land. This includespapas arrugadas, a dish of wrinkled potatoes usually served withmojo, which is a hot pepper sauce or withpuchero canario, a meat stew. Seafood is prepared in many ways traditionally, such as pejines (salted fish),jareas,orsancocho(a type of stew) made from fish, generally thegrouper,corvina or sama, boiled after salting, and served with mojo, potatoes, orgofio(a type of grain). People are also very keen on themusselsandlimpetscollected on the island's coasts. They also use meat such asbeefandporkto make different dishes or simply to for braising, but their main meat isgoat, both from\",\n \"isgoat, both from the kids and from the older animals. They eat the goat roasted or stewed. Goats are not only useful for their meat – the Fuerteventurans also use themilkto make the cheesemajorero, which has won many prizes. The majorero is mostly made of goats milk, and occasionally it is up to 15%ewesmilk. It is cured inpimentooil or gofio meal. Majorero andpalmero cheeseare the only two Canarian cheeses withprotected denomination of origin. Transport and communications The main methods of arriving and departing the islands are by flying and by ferry. Airports The airport is the main access point to the island. It is situated in El Matorral, 5 km (3.1 mi) southwest of the capital city Puerto del Rosario. The airport has flight connections to over 80 destinations worldwide, and over 5.6 million passengers passed through it in 2016. In 1994, the new airport terminal was constructed. In December 2009, the new facilities of the arrivals terminal of Fuerteventura Airport were inaugurated, tripling the space\",\n \"tripling the space available in the old facilities. Up to 4000 passengers per hour can be served concurrently thanks to the new facilities. Notably,Binter Canariasserves the airport as the regional airline connecting passengers acrossCanary Islands. Ports Maritime communications are made from four ports: Puerto del Rosario, Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. Cargo operations are the main activity of the island's main port in Puerto del Rosario, although its facilities allow the docking of tourist cruises including a ferry from Gran Canaria. Passenger traffic is mainly channeled through Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. The port of Corralejo connects the island with Lanzarote. The port of Gran Tarajal connects the island with Gran Canaria and Morro Jable connects the island with Gran Canaria and Tenerife. Roads There are two highways on the island: FV-1 and FV-2. The FV-1, together with the FV-2, is part of the major construction project of the north–south motorway on Fuerteventura. The FV-1\",\n \"The FV-1 begins in the north, in the town of Corralejo and ends in the island's capital Puerto del Rosario. FV-1 is part dual carriageway and part single carriageway. In the past, the FV-1 also ran through the Corralejo Dune Nature Reserve. In order to direct through traffic out of the nature reserve, the dual carriageway bypass around the nature reserve was opened in 2017 as the first section of the motorway after three years of construction, plus five years of construction delay. The road through nature reserve was renamed FV-104. FV-2 connects Morro Jable and Puerto del Rosario. Between La Lajita and Morro Jable, FV-2 is a dual carriageway highway. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar, Hertz, Sixt and TopCar. Sport Many sports are commonly played in Fuerteventura, both in the open air and in sports centres across the island. Native sports These are the Canarian sports found on the island: Canarian wrestling The wrestling takes place in a\",\n \"takes place in a ring of sand called theterrero. Inside it, the two contestants try to knock each other over. Fuerteventura has 14 terreros distributed through all the towns except Betancuria. The island also has a school wrestling league organized by the council and a programme to promote this sport in clubs. Twelve wrestling schools participate in this, based in Antigua, Costa Calma, El Matorral, La Lajita, Lajares, Las Playitas, Morro Jable, Puerto del Rosario, Tefía, Tetir, Unión Sur and Villaverde. Juego del Palo Juego del Palois a Canarian martial art which literally translates as \\\"game of the stick\\\". It is played by two players both armed with sticks. They aim to defeat each other without making contact with their opponent's body. The origin of this game is unclear. All we know is that it is based on a method of combat used by the precolonial Canarian people. Fuerteventura has the following Palo clubs: Canarian boules This is a similar game to the FrenchPétanquewhich is actually played very little on\",\n \"very little on the island, although there are a few teams and courts. Basically the game consists of scoring points by throwing a ball to get it as near as possible to an object called amingueorboliche. It is played on a rectangular sand or earth pitch which is 18 to 25 m (59.1–82.0 ft) long and 3.5 to 6 m (11.5–19.7 ft) wide. Watersports The sea and climate conditions make the island the perfect place for a huge variety of watersports. Surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing Many types of surfing are popular on the island, includingtraditional surfing,windsurfing(where the board is propelled by a sail) and most recentlykitesurfing. The island has many schools and courses dedicated to teaching these sports. The sports where Fuerteventura has the most impact internationally are windsurfing and kitesurfing, mainly due to the International Windsurfing and Kiteboarding Championship. This has run since 1985 and is held at Playas de Sotavento in Pájara municipality. Many important wind and kitesurfing figures compete\",\n \"figures compete in this championship, such as the several-times world windsurfing championBjörn DunkerbeckandGisela Pulido, the very young kiteboarding champion fromTarifa. Many Canarian windsurfers are on the Canarian Waveriders circuit, which has been based inCorralejosince 2005. Diving Diving schools are just as frequent as surfing ones, all around the coast of Fuerteventura. Unlike the other islands of the archipelago, Fuerteventura has a shelf which at some points goes up to 30 km (19 mi), making it an ideal place to practice this sport. Two of the most useful points for diving are the coast offPlaya del Matorralin the South, and the zone betweenLobos Islandand Corralejo in the north. It is here in Corralejo that the International Sea and Submarine Photography Festival takes places, known as Fimarsub Corralejo – Lobos. During the festival there are beginners' lessons, professional dives, lessons in underwater photography, screenings and other events related to the sport. Swimming There are many swimming\",\n \"are many swimming pools on the island but the most obvious place to swim is in the open sea. There is an annual swim from Lobos Island to Fuerteventura, held every year since 1999. The event attracts amateur swimmers from all over the Canaries and Spain, and also swimming professionals such asDavid MecaandMaarten van der Weijden, the paralympist Jesús Collado Alarcón who won gold medals for 100m backstroke and butterfly in Athens 2004, and Xavi Torres Ramis, the paralympic champion in Barcelona 1992, Sydney and Atlanta. Sailing The island holds competitions involving different types of boat, such as thelateenand theOptimist. An interesting event is the Tour of Fuerteventura by Kayak, which is organised as a series of stages rather than a competition, and is an easy way to explore the island. Fishing The most notable competition here is the Gran Tarajal Fishing Open. Other sports Since 2004 the Marcha Ciclotourista has been held inLa Olivaand the Criterium Ciclista has been held in Corralejo (also part of the\",\n \"(also part of the La Oliva municipality) since 2005. Participants includeEuskaltel–Euskadi,T-Mobileand a team fromOrbea. These competitions have contributed to local interest in the sport and the first professional local team, theFuerteventura–Canarias, was formed, initially run by Óscar Guerrero, director ofKaiku, although they have not competed for the past few seasons. There are variousmotocrosscircuits on the island, includingLos Alaresin Antigua andIsla de FuerteventurainPuerto del Rosariomunicipality. They hold regular trials, some of which form part of the Canarian Regional Motocross Championship. Throughout the year there are gravel rally races. Two are part of the Canarian Dirt Rally Championship. These are the Antiguan Rally and the La Oliva Rally. The island's mainfootballclubs areCD Union PuertoandCD Cotillo, who play in Group XII of the SpanishTercera División RFEF. The resort Playitas on the south coast is since around 2008 equipped with a 50 m (160 ft) swimming pool and has become a\",\n \"and has become a destination fortriathlontraining camps for Europeans. An annual race called Challenge Fuerteventura is held there on the half ironman distance. People See also References External links\",\n \"Gran Canaria Gran Canaria(UK:/ˌɡrænkəˈnɛəriə,-ˈnɑːr-/,US:/ˌɡrɑːnkəˈnɑːriə,-ˈnɛər-/;Spanish:ⓘ), alsoGrand Canary Island, is the third-largest and second-most-populous island of theCanary Islands,anarchipelagooff the Atlantic coast ofNorthwest Africaand is part of Spain. As of 2023the island had a population of 862,893 that constitutes approximately 40% of the population of the archipelago.Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, the capital of the island, is the biggest city of the Canary Islands and the ninth of Spain. Gran Canaria is located in the Atlantic Ocean in a region known asMacaronesiaabout 150 kilometres (93 mi) off the northwestern coast of Africa and about 1,350 km (840 mi) from Europe.With an area of 1,560 km2(600 sq mi)and an altitude of 1,956 m (6,417 ft) atMorro de la Agujereada, Gran Canaria is the third largest island of the archipelago in both area and altitude. Gran Canaria is also the third most populated island in Spain. History Inantiquity, Gran Canaria was populated by the North AfricanCanarii,\",\n \"AfricanCanarii, who may have arrived as early as 500 BC.In themedieval period, after over a century of European incursions and attempts at conquest, the island was conquered on 29 April 1483, by theCrown of Castile, underQueen Isabella I. The Canarian queenAbencharawas captured and imprisoned by the Spanish during the conquest. The conquest succeeded after a war that lasted five years, and it was an important step towards the expansion of the unified Spain. The capital city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canariawas founded on 24 June 1478, under the name \\\"Real de Las Palmas\\\", byJuan Rejón, head of the invadingCastilianarmy. In 1492,Christopher Columbusanchored in thePort of Las Palmas(and spent some time on the island) on his first trip to the Americas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is, jointly withSanta Cruz de Tenerife, the capital of theautonomous communityof the Canary Islands. Much of Iberian migration to the island consisted ofconversosof Jewish origin. On 27 March 1977, a bomb went off in Gran Canaria Airport, the\",\n \"Airport, the main airport on the island. Flights were diverted to the nearby Tenerife Airport: this led to theTenerife airport disaster. Etymology Plinyclaimed that the island was named for the dogs on the island, of which two were presented as a gift toJuba, King ofMauretania.This opinion is disputed as when the Europeans arrived on the island, no dogs were found.Another source suggested the way the natives ate fish was doglike and this was the reason for its name.A more plausible assumption is that the islands name derives from the people Canario or Canarii living near theAtlas mountain range.Jean de Béthencourtnamed the islandGranCanaria as the people on the island were valorous opponents to hisconquest. Geography Gran Canaria is located in theCanary Islandsarchipelago southeast ofTenerifeand west ofFuerteventura. The island is ofvolcanicorigin, mostly made offissure vents. It has a round shape, with a diameter of approximately 50 km (31 mi) and a surface area of 1,560 km2(600 sq mi). Gran Canaria's\",\n \"mi). Gran Canaria's maximum elevation is 1,956 metres (6,417 ft) atMorro de la Agujereada, although the nearbyPico de las Nieveshas traditionally been considered the island's tallest peak. The coastline measures 236 km. Geology About 80% of the volume of the island was formed during theMioceneperiod eruptions, between 14 and 9 million years ago.This is called the \\\"Old Cycle\\\" and is estimated to have lasted some 200,000 years and have emitted about 1,000 km3(240 cu mi), mostly of fissuralalkali basalt. This cycle continued with the emission oftrachytes,phonolitesandperalkalinerocks.This period was followed by one of erosion, which lasted some 4 million years. A second cycle of volcanic eruptions, known as the \\\"Roque Nublo cycle\\\", took place between 4.5 and 3.4 million years ago. This shorter cycle emitted about 100 km3(24 cu mi). Most of the inland peaks were formed by erosion from these materials. This period also started with fissural basalts, but ended with violent eruptions ofpyroclastic flows. Some\",\n \"flows. Some phonolitic features, like the Risco Blanco, were also formed in its last stages. The third or recent cycle is held to have started some 2.8 million years ago and is considered to be still active. The last eruptions are held to have occurred some 2000 years ago. The changes in volume and, therefore, weight of the island have also caused the island to rise above the previous sea level during erosive periods and to sink during eruptive periods. Some of these \\\"fossil beaches\\\" can be seen in the cliff faces of the more eroded northern coast. Climate According to theKöppen climate classification, Gran Canaria is considered to have ahot desert climate (BWh)due to its severe lack of precipitation. Gran Canaria has consistent warm temperatures in spring, summer and autumn, and mild winters. Gran Canaria is noted for its rich variety ofmicroclimates. Generally speaking though, the average daytime high ranges from 20 °C (68 °F) in winter to 26 °C (79 °F) in summer. Some cool nights occur in winter, but lows\",\n \"in winter, but lows below 10 °C (50 °F) are unknown near the coast. Inland the climate is still mild but mountainous areas see the occasional frost or snow. Annual rainfall averages 228 mm (9.0 in), most of this falling in the cooler months, with July, August and September normally rainless. Rainfall is unevenly distributed through the island with some areas being much drier than others. Cloud cover and sunshine is often quite variable during the cooler months, and there can be several rather cloudy days at times in winter. Summers are generally quite sunny however, with the south of the island being most favoured. Vegetation Until the conquest, Gran Canaria had extensive forests, but then suffered extensivedeforestationas a result of continuous logging, land divisions and other intensive uses. This reduced the forest cover to just 56,000 hectares (140,000 acres),making the island the most deforested of the Canary Islands.However, in the twentieth century reforestation of the ridge of the island was begun,\",\n \"island was begun, recovering some of the lost forest mass. Much of the summit of the island is forested mostly due toreforestation. Governance Gran Canaria is in theautonomous communityof theCanary Islands(Islas Canarias). It lies within theProvince of Las Palmas, aSpanish provincewhich consists of the eastern part of the Canary Islands community.Las Palmas de Gran Canariais the provincial capital, one of the two capitals of the Canary Islands along withSanta Cruz de Tenerife. The island of Gran Canaria is governed by theCabildo insular de Gran Canaria.Gran Canaria Island itself is divided into twenty-one smallermunicipalities: The island has a population at the start of 2023 of 862,893 - with 380,863 of those in the capital city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canaria. Gran Canaria is the second most populous island of the Canary Islands, afterTenerife. Transportation Roads Gran Canaria has roads encircling the whole island and extending into the mountain areas. In the late 20th century, its dual carriageway, among\",\n \"carriageway, among the first in the Canary Islands, were opened and run around Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, and were later extended to the north coast and the airport and subsequently to the south coast in response to increased tourist traffic. The only highway of Gran Canaria areGC1. Dual carriageway isGC2, andGC31,GC4andGC5. The western and the north-western parts, with the fewest inhabitants, are linked only with main roads. Buses Public transport around Gran Canaria is provided by an extensive bus network, known in the local dialect asguaguas. TheAutoridad Única del Transporte de Gran Canaria(Gran Canaria Transport Authority, TGC) manages the network and operates a number of bus stations across the island, including San Telmo and Santa Catalina bus stations in Las Palmas, Maspalomas and Galdar.Bus tickets may be purchased with cash, and AUTGC also operates acontactlesselectronic ticketcalled the TransGC Card, which is valid across the whole network. Inter-urban bus services across the island are operated\",\n \"island are operated by the Global bus company.Global was created in 2000 after the merger of two bus companies, Utinsa (which operated in the north of the island) and Salcai (the bus operator for the south).Local bus services in Las Palmas are run by the municipal bus company,Guaguas Municipales de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Airport Gran Canaria Airport(IATA: LPA) is the only commercial airport on the island. The large number of aircraft and passengers passing through it each year make it one of the busiest in Spain. Gran Canaria is also responsible for all air traffic control in the Canaries. By destination island, Gran Canaria is the second island that congregates the largest number of passengers in the Canary Islands.Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are:Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz, Sixt and TopCar. Sea ports The most important ports in the island are the Port of Las Palmas(Puerto de la Luz),in the city ofLas Palmas de Gran\",\n \"Palmas de Gran Canaria;Arguineguín, which exportscementfrom a large factory; andArinaga, located in the main industrial zone of Canaries and one of the major ones of Spain. The main passenger ports are the Port of La Luz, whereTrasmediterráneaoperates a weekly ferry route toCádizon the Spanish mainland,and thePort of Las Nieves, located inAgaeteon the west side of the island, whereFred Olsen Expressoperates acatamaranferry service toSanta Cruz de Tenerife. Train Plans for aTren de Gran Canariarailway network linking the capital with the south have been approved by both theGran Canaria Cabildoand the autonomous Canary Islands' Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government hinges now on budget. The planned 57 km (35 mi) railway line would run between Las Palmas and Meloneras, with the section in the capital running entirely underground as far as the suburb of Jinámar. The line is planned to have 11 stations, including an underground station at Gran Canaria Airport. The scheme was first\",\n \"scheme was first announced in 2009, with a planned operational date in 2015. A public company calledFerrocarriles de Gran Canariahas been formed by the Cabildo's Gran Canaria Transport Authority. Plans were still being discussed in 2018. Agriculture Gran Canaria agriculture is unique among the Canaries islands in that it was traditionally dominated by plantations, with much of these being grains as well assugarcane, rather than by stock-breeding.Thecaves of Valerón(aproperty of cultural interestin the \\\"archaeological site\\\" category) in the municipality ofSanta María de Guíabears testimony of it by being the largest pre-Hispanic collective granary of the Canaries. Tourism This island is called a \\\"miniature continent\\\" due to the different climates and variety of landscapes found, with long beaches and dunes of white sand, contrasting with green ravines and picturesque villages.A third of the island is under protection as aBiosphere ReservebyUNESCO. The number of annual visitors was 3.6 million in 2014 (of\",\n \"million in 2014 (of which 450.000 Spaniards).It is the second island in the archipelago in number of annual tourists, after Tenerife.Most of the tourists visit the southern part of the island. The north tends to be cooler, while the south is warmer and sunny. The east coast of the island is flat, dotted with beaches, while the western coast is rockier and mountainous. The island possesses 32 Natural Protected Spaces,notably the Rural Park of Nublo, The Doramas Jungle, the Azuaje Ravine, Tamadaba, Pino Santo, etc. In the south there is a large bird park,Palmitos Park, as well as many beach resort communities. Resorts are concentrated in the central eastern part of the southern coast in theMaspalomasarea, which includes the towns ofSan Agustín,Playa del InglésandMeloneras. TheMaspalomas Dunesare located between Playa del Inglés (\\\"The Englishman's Beach\\\") and the distinctive 19th centuryMaspalomas lighthouse. Playa del Ingles is home to the Yumbo Centre,which was opened in 1982 and has almost 200 shops,\",\n \"almost 200 shops, including bars, restaurants, cafes, fashion boutiques, electronic outlets and jewellery stores. In Tarajalillo, an Aeroclub exists from where tourist flights can be taken over the island. Still further to the west along the southern shore, in the Municipality of Mogán, are the communities ofPuerto RicoandPuerto de Mogán, a village referred to as \\\"Little Venice\\\" on account of its many canals. Other attractions include Cocodrilos Park,Roque Nublo(an 80 m monolith),Cenobio de Valerónwith more than 350 storage cavities,Painted cave of Galdarthe most important archaeological park in Canary Islands, or the botanical gardensJardín Canario(in Tafira Alta) andCactualdea(inLa Aldea de San Nicolás). El Dedo de Dios, or \\\"God's Finger\\\", was a rocky spire jutting from the sea inPuerto de las Nieves, and was previously the signature attraction of the Canary Islands until it was destroyed bytropical storm Deltathat crossed the archipelago in November 2005. Other well-known rock formations are El Cura (also\",\n \"are El Cura (also known as El Fraile), The Frog (La Rana),Roque Bentayga, the Roque de Gando, and the Peñón Bermejo. Traditionally, the highest peak of the island has been considered to be thePico de las Nieves, at 1,949 metres (6,394 ft); however,Morro de la Agujereadais taller, at 1,956 metres (6,417 ft). The capital city isLas Palmas de Gran Canaria.Las Canterasbeach, a protected area and diving zone, lies in the heart of the city. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is also known for its annualcarnaval. It was the first stop of Christopher Columbus' expedition on his way back from the Americas,a commemoration of which is the Hermitage of San Antonio Abad, where the navigator prayed, and theCasa de Colón. Other attractions in the capital city include theMuseo Canario(the most important archaeology museum in the archipelago), the cathedral and thePlaza del Espíritu Santo. InTerorthe shrine ofVirgen del Pino(\\\"Virgin of the Pine\\\"), patron saint of Gran Canaria, can be found. Its feast is celebrated on 8 September.\",\n \"on 8 September. The town ofAgüimes, on the eastern part of the island, has been carefully restored and its town centre, centered on its old church and a peaceful square, now evokes the quiet living of a traditional Canarian town. The district also has some of the best preserved cave dwellings, in the protected area of theGuayadeque ravine, where even the church has been built into the mountainside and visitors can find a number of popular cave restaurants. The district also includes the most renowned scuba diving area on the island: the marine reserve at theplaya de El Cabrónjust outside the town of Arinaga. Other important towns areTelde, known among other things for theirsurfschools in Salinetas, Vecindario (within the municipality of Santa Lucía de Tirajana) andGáldar, that contains an important diving zone. InArucasthere is a Neogothic temple, popularly known as \\\"Arucas' Cathedral\\\", as well as a large fertile plain where bananas are grown. InGáldarand its surroundings there is also a banana-growing plain\",\n \"plain and some remarkable archaeological remains,such as thePainted cave of Galdaror thecenobio de Valerón's communal silos, ancient tombs (among which thenecropolis of Maipés), and the port of Sardina del Norte (one of the island's ports where, as in Las Palmas',Christopher Columbusused to get supplies for his ships). Heading west along the southern coast is the fishing city ofArguineguínin theMunicipality of Mogán. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Gran Canaria are theCanary MastiffandEuphorbia canariensis(Cardón) Beaches Protected natural areas Nearly half of the island territory — 667 km2(258 sq mi) (42.7% of island) — is under protection from the Red Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos (Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,a total of 33 are located in Gran Canaria, the second most protected island in the group.There are seven different categories of protection: Music\",\n \"protection: Music Science and technology In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14ground stationsin theManned Space Flight Network(MSFN) to support theNASAspace program.Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including theApollo 11Moon landings andSkylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of theESAnetwork. Sports The island is home toCB Gran Canaria– a basketball club playing inLiga ACBat theGran Canaria Arena, with a capacity of 11,000. The island is also home toUD Las Palmas– a football club playing inLa Ligaat theEstadio de Gran Canaria, with a capacity of 32,392.Professional Windsurfers Association(PWA) holds its annual competitions at Pozo - Pozo Izquierdo: This spot, which is situated in the municipal area of Santa Lucía, is internationally famous on account of the ideal windsurfing conditions, the wind being ever present. See also Bibliography Geology of Gran Canaria References External\",\n \"References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":351,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"American author Joan Didion's second fiction novel has a film adaptation. The director of this film is the uncle of a famous pop singer This pop singer once famously sang a song with lyrics describing a combustible-containing device. This song received nominations for Best Pop Solo Performance and Record of the Year at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards. This song was inspired by another book. What is the name of the song and the book that inspired it?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Firework by Katy Perry was inspired by \"On the Road\" by Jack Kerouac "},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Didion"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays_(film)"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Perry"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katy_Perry"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Katy_Perry#Awards_and_nominations"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints | Post processing | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Didion', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays_(film)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Perry', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katy_Perry', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Katy_Perry#Awards_and_nominations']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Didion","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays_(film","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Perry","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katy_Perry","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Katy_Perry#Awards_and_nominations"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Didion\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays_(film\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Perry\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katy_Perry\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Katy_Perry#Awards_and_nominations\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Joan Didion Joan Didion(/ˈdɪdiən/; December 5, 1934 – December 23, 2021) was an American writer and journalist. She is considered one of the pioneers ofNew Journalism, along withGay Talese,Hunter S. Thompson, andTom Wolfe. Didion's career began in the 1950s after she won an essay contest sponsored byVoguemagazine.She would go on to publish essays inThe Saturday Evening Post,Life,Esquire,The New York Review of Books, andThe New Yorker. Her writing during the 1960s through the late 1970s engaged audiences in the realities of thecounterculture of the 1960s, the Hollywood lifestyle, and the history and culture ofCalifornia. Didion's political writing in the 1980s and 1990s concentrated on the subtext of political rhetoric andthe United States's foreign policy in Latin America.In 1991, she wrote the earliest mainstream media article to suggest that theCentral Park Fivehad been wrongfully convicted.With her husbandJohn Gregory Dunne, Didion wrote multiple screenplays, includingThe Panic in Needle Park(1971),A Star Is Born(1976), andUp Close & Personal(1996). In 2005, she won theNational Book Award for Nonfictionand was a finalist for both theNational Book Critics Circle Awardand thePulitzer PrizeforThe Year of Magical Thinking, a memoir of the year following the sudden death of her husband. She later adapted the book into a play that premiered on Broadway in 2007. In 2013, she was awarded theNational Humanities Medalby presidentBarack Obama.Didion was profiled in the 2017NetflixdocumentaryThe Center Will Not Hold, directed by her nephewGriffin Dunne. Early life and education Didion was born on December 5, 1934, inSacramento, California,to Eduene (née Jerrett) and Frank Reese Didion.She had one brother, five years her junior, James Jerrett Didion, who became a real estate executive.Didion recalled writing things down as early as age five,although she said she never saw herself as a writer until after her work had been published. She identified as a \"shy, bookish child,\" an avid reader, who pushed herself to overcome social anxiety through acting and public speaking. During her adolescence, she would type outErnest Hemingway's works to learn how his sentence structures worked. Didion's early education was nontraditional. She attended kindergarten and first grade, but, because her father was a finance officer in theArmy Air Corpsand the family constantly relocated, she did not attend school regularly.In 1943 or early 1944, her family returned toSacramento, and her father went to Detroit to negotiate defense contracts forWorld War II. Didion wrote in her 2003 memoirWhere I Was Fromthat moving so often made her feel as if she were a perpetual outsider. Didion received a B.A. in English fromUniversity of California, Berkeley, in 1956.During her senior year, she won first place in the \"Prix de Paris\" essay contest, sponsored byVogue,and was awarded a job as aresearch assistantat the magazine. The topic of her winning essay was the San Francisco architectWilliam Wurster. Career Vogue During her seven years atVogue, from 1956 to 1964, Didion worked her way up from promotional copywriter to associate feature editor.Mademoisellepublished Didion's article \"Berkeley’s Giant: The University of California\" in January 1960.While atVogue, and homesick for California, she wrote her first novel,Run, River(1963), about a Sacramento family as it comes apart.Writer and friendJohn Gregory Dunnehelped her edit the book.John—the younger brother of author, businessman, and television mystery show hostDominick Dunne—was writing forTimemagazine at the time. He and Didion married in 1964. The couple moved to Los Angeles in 1964, intending to stay only temporarily, but California remained their home for the next 20 years. In 1966, they adopted a daughter, whom they named Quintana Roo Dunne.The couple wrote many newsstand-magazine assignments. \"She and Dunne started doing that work with an eye to covering the bills, and then a little more,\" Nathan Heller reported inThe New Yorker. \"Their Postrates allowed them to rent a tumbledown Hollywood mansion, buy a banana-coloredCorvette Stingray, raise a child, and dine well.\" In Los Angeles, they settled inLos Felizfrom 1963 to 1971, and then, after living inMalibufor eight years, she and Dunne moved toBrentwood Park, a quiet, affluent, residential neighborhood. Slouching Towards Bethlehem In 1968, Didion published her first nonfiction book,Slouching Towards Bethlehem, a collection of magazine pieces about her experiences in California.Cited as an example ofNew Journalism, it used novel-like writing to cover the non-fiction realities ofhippiecounterculture.She wrote from a personal perspective, adding her own feelings and memories to situations, inventing details and quotes to make the stories more vivid, and using metaphors to give the reader a better understanding of the disordered subjects of her essays: politicians, artists, or just people living an American life.The New York Timescharacterized the \"grace, sophistication, nuance, irony\" of her writing. 1970s Didion's novelPlay It as It Lays, set in Hollywood, was published in 1970, andA Book of Common Prayerappeared in 1977. In 1979, she publishedThe White Album, another collection of her magazine pieces fromLife,Esquire,The Saturday Evening Post,The New York Times, andThe New York Review of Books.InThe White Album's title essay, Didion documented an episode she experienced in the summer of 1968. After undergoing psychiatric evaluation, she was diagnosed as having had an attack ofvertigoand nausea. After periods of partial blindness in 1972, she was diagnosed withmultiple sclerosis, but remained in remission throughout her life.In her essay entitled \"In Bed,\" Didion explained that she experienced chronicmigraines. Dunne and Didion worked closely for most of their careers. Much of their writing is therefore intertwined. They co-wrote a number of screenplays, including a1972 film adaptationof her novelPlay It as It Laysthat starredAnthony PerkinsandTuesday Weldand the screenplay for the 1976 film ofA Star is Born.They also spent several years adapting the biography of journalistJessica Savitchinto the 1996Robert RedfordandMichelle Pfeifferfilm,Up Close & Personal. 1980s and 1990s Didion's book-length essaySalvador(1983) was written after a two-week trip to El Salvador with her husband. The next year, she published the novelDemocracy, the story of a long, but unrequited love affair between a wealthy heiress and an older man, aCIAofficer, against the background of theCold Warand theVietnam War. Her 1987 nonfiction bookMiamilooked at the different communities in that city.In 1988, the couple moved from California to New York City. In a prescientNew York Review of Bookspiece of 1991, a year after the various trials of theCentral Park Five, Didion dissected serious flaws in the prosecution's case, making her the earliest mainstream writer to view the guilty verdicts as miscarriages of justice.She suggested the defendants were found guilty because of a sociopolitical narrative with racial overtones that clouded the judgment of the court. In 1992, Didion publishedAfter Henry, a collection of twelve geographical essays and a personal memorial for Henry Robbins, who was Didion's friend and editor until his death in 1979.She publishedThe Last Thing He Wanted, a romantic thriller, in 1996. The Year of Magical Thinking In 2003, Didion's daughter Quintana Roo Dunne developedpneumoniathat progressed toseptic shockand she was comatose in an intensive-care unit when Didion's husband suddenly died of a heart attack on December 30.Didion delayed his funeral arrangements for approximately three months until Quintana was well enough to attend. On October 4, 2004, Didion began writingThe Year of Magical Thinking, a narrative of her response to the death of her husband and the severe illness of their daughter. She finished the manuscript 88 days later on New Year's Eve.Written at the age of 70, this was her first nonfiction book that was not a collection of magazine assignments.She said that she found the subsequent book-tour process very therapeutic during her period of mourning.Documenting the grief she experienced after the sudden death of her husband, the book was called a \"masterpiece of two genres: memoir and investigative journalism\" and won several awards. Visiting Los Angeles after her father's funeral, Quintana fell at the airport, hit her head on the pavement and required brain surgery forhematoma.After progressing toward recovery in 2004, Quintana died of acutepancreatitison August 26, 2005, aged 39, during Didion's New York promotion forThe Year of Magical Thinking.Didion wrote about Quintana's death in the 2011 bookBlue Nights. 2000s Didion was living in an apartment on East 71st Street inManhattanin 2005.Everyman's LibrarypublishedWe Tell Ourselves Stories in Order to Live, a 2006 compendium of much of Didion's writing, including the full content of her first seven published nonfiction books (Slouching Towards Bethlehem,The White Album,Salvador,Miami,After Henry,Political Fictions, andWhere I Was From), with an introduction by her contemporary, the criticJohn Leonard. Didion began working with English playwright and directorDavid Hareon a one-woman stage adaptation ofThe Year of Magical Thinkingin 2007. Produced byScott Rudin, the Broadway play featuredVanessa Redgrave. Although Didion was hesitant to write for the theater, she eventually found the genre, which was new to her, exciting. Didion wrote early drafts of the screenplay for an untitledHBObiopic directed byRobert BentononKatharine Graham. Sources say it may trace the paper's reporting on theWatergatescandal. Later works In 2011,KnopfpublishedBlue Nights, a memoir about aging that also focused on Didion's relationship with her late daughter.More generally, the book deals with the anxieties Didion experienced about adopting and raising a child, as well as the aging process. A photograph of Didion shot byJuergen Tellerwas used as part of the 2015 spring-summer campaign of the luxury French fashion brandCéline, while previously the clothing companyGaphad featured her in a 1989 campaign.Didion's nephewGriffin Dunnedirected a 2017Netflixdocumentary about her,Joan Didion: The Center Will Not Hold.In it, Didion discusses her writing and personal life, including the deaths of her husband and daughter, adding context to her booksThe Year of Magical ThinkingandBlue Nights. In 2021, Didion publishedLet Me Tell You What I Mean, a collection of 12 essays she wrote between 1968 and 2000. Death Didion died from complications ofParkinson's diseaseat her home in Manhattan on December 23, 2021, at the age of 87. Writing style and themes Didion viewed the structure of the sentence as essential to her work. In theNew York Timesarticle \"Why I Write\" (1976),Didion remarked, \"To shift the structure of a sentence alters the meaning of that sentence, as definitely and inflexibly as the position of a camera alters the meaning of the object photographed... The arrangement of the words matters, and the arrangement you want can be found in the picture in your mind... The picture tells you how to arrange the words and the arrangement of the words tells you, or tells me, what's going on in the picture.\" Didion was heavily influenced by Ernest Hemingway, whose writing taught her the importance of how sentences work in a text. Her other influences includedGeorge EliotandHenry James, who wrote \"perfect, indirect, complicated sentences\". Didion was also an observer of journalists,believing the difference between the process of fiction and nonfiction is the element of discovery that takes place in nonfiction, which happens not during the writing, but during the research. Rituals were a part of Didion's creative process. At the end of the day, she would take a break from writing to remove herself from the \"pages\",saying that without the distance, she could not make proper edits. She would end her day by cutting out and editing prose, not reviewing the work until the following day. She would sleep in the same room as her work, saying: \"That's one reason I go home to Sacramento to finish things. Somehow the book doesn't leave you when you're right next to it.\" In a notorious 1980 essay, \"Joan Didion: Only Disconnect,\"Barbara Grizzuti Harrisoncalled Didion a \"neurasthenicCher\" whose style was \"a bag of tricks\" and whose \"subject is always herself\".In 2011,New Yorkmagazine reported that the Harrison criticism \"still gets her (Didion's) hackles up, decades later\". CriticHilton Alssuggested that Didion is reread often \"because of the honesty of the voice.\" Personal life For several years in her 20s, Didion was in a relationship withNoel E. Parmentel Jr., a political pundit and figure on the New York literary and cultural scene.According to Didion's husband, John Gregory Dunne, he actually met her through Parmentel, and Didion and Dunne remained friends for six years before embarking on a romantic relationship. As he later recalled, when they shared a celebratory lunch after Dunne finished reading the galleys for her first novel,Run, River, \"while er other was out of town, it happened.\"Didion and Dunne subsequently married in January 1964 and remained together until his death from a heart attack in 2003. Breaking a long-held silence on Didion, whose work he had championed and for which he found publishers, Parmentel was interviewed for a 1996 article inNew Yorkmagazine.He had been angered in the 1970s by what he felt was a thinly veiled portrait of him in Didion's novelA Book of Common Prayer. In 1966, while living in Los Angeles, she and John adopted a daughter, whom they named Quintana Roo Dunne. A Republican in her early years, Didion later drifted toward the Democratic Party, \"without ever quite endorsing core beliefs.\" As late as 2011, she smoked precisely five cigarettes per day. Awards and honors TheJoan Didion: What She MeansExhibition TheHammer MuseumatUniversity of California, Los Angeles, organized the exhibitionJoan Didion: What She Means. Curated byThe New Yorkercontributor and writerHilton Als, the group show was on view from 2022 and is scheduled to travel to thePérez Art Museum Miamiin 2023.Joan Didion: What She Meanspays homage to the writer and thinker through the lens of nearly 50 modern and contemporary international artists such asFélix González-TorrestoBetye Saar,Vija Celmins,Maren Hassinger,Silke Otto-Knapp,John Koch,Ed Ruscha,Pat Steir, among others. Published works Fiction Nonfiction Screenplays and plays References Further reading External links","Play It as It Lays Play It as It Laysis a 1970 novel by American writerJoan Didion.Timemagazine included the novel in its list of the \"100 Best English-Language Novels from 1923 to 2005\".The novel has been credited for helping define modern American Fictionand has been described as an \"instant classic\".It is known for depicting thenihilismand the illusory glamor of life inHollywood,as well as capturing the landscape and culture of 1960sLos Angeles. The book was adapted intoa 1972 filmstarringTuesday Weldas Maria andAnthony Perkinsas BZ. Didion co-wrote the screenplay with her husband,John Gregory Dunne. Plot 31-year-old Maria Wyeth's story begins as she is recovering from an implied mental breakdown in apsychiatric hospitalin the Los Angeles area. Her journey oscillates between dizzying and domestic, as her acting career slows and her personal life collapses. Her story is revealed thoughflashbacksandflash forwards. Maria contrasts her life in Los Angeles with her childhood in Silver Wells,Nevada, a small town so inconsequential that it no longer exists. The daughter of a neurotic mother and a gambling father, who bet on a mine and lost, Maria moves to New York to become an actress. In New York, Maria works temporarily as a model and meets Ivan Costello, a psychopathic blackmailer who has no hesitation exploiting Maria. In New York, Maria receives news of her mother's death in a car wreck, possibly a suicide. Her father dies soon after, leaving useless mineral rights to his business partner and friend Benny Austin. Maria withdraws from acting and modeling, splits up with Ivan, and eventually meets Carter and moves to Hollywood. Later, we find that she and Carter have a four-year-old daughter Kate. Kate is in a treatment facility for an unspecified \"aberrant chemical in her brain\".Maria loves Kate, as indicated by her tender descriptions, her frequent hospital visits, and her determination \"to get her out\". When Maria discovers she is pregnant, she is unsure if her husband, Carter or her lover, Les Goodwin, is the father and she tells Carter the truth. Carter urges Maria to have anabortion, and suggests that if she chooses to have the child, he will take fullcustodyof their daughter. Set in a time before thelegalization of abortion, Maria must find a doctor who will perform an illegal abortion. Maria follows steps to covertly contact and visit the only doctor who does \"clean work\" in Los Angeles. Maria has an illegal abortion, performed withlocal anesthetic, in a house where there are newspapers on the floor. Feeling distress after her abortion, Maria begins to have vivid nightmares about dying infants and rattlesnakes. An inevitable divorce, and the ensuing social chaos bring Maria to indulge in self-destructive behavior. Maria disengages from her social world as she plunges into long days of compulsive driving, wanderingSouthern California's freeways, through motels and casinos, drinking and chancing sexual encounters with actors and ex-lovers. After a series of disasters for Maria, infidelity among her friends adds further chaos to her life. The plot reaches a climax when Maria's friend BZ commitssuicidein her presence, choosing tooverdoseon sleeping pills (Seconal) and Maria does not stop him, despite fully understanding what he is doing. Before overdosing, he offers to share his pills with Maria, implying that he could help her die by suicide as well. Maria chooses not to take the pills, and does not stop BZ as he proceeds to swallow them. His final words are \"hold onto me\", after which they fall asleep on the bed together. Maria awakens to the sound of BZ's wife, Helene screaming as she discovers his dead body next to Maria. Maria ignores the screaming and holds tighter onto BZ's lifeless hand. In not preventing his suicide, Maria is blamed for his death by her friends. Maria isinstitutionalizedfor her inaction in stopping BZ's suicide, under doctors' and friends' assumption that she must have been disconnected from reality at the time the suicide occurred. It is implied that Maria doesn't try to escape her position, but accepts it apathetically. Her institutionalization can be seen as her choice to withdraw from the outside world, rather than a consequence of an actual mental illness or breakdown.From her hospital, Maria turns her visitors away, and plans for a day she might see her daughter again. Background and publication Play It as It Layswas authorJoan Didion's second novel, after her debutRun, Riverwas published in 1963. Didion gained public attention for her non-fiction collectionSlouching Towards Bethlehemin 1968.Published on July 13, 1970, byFarrar, Straus & Giroux,Didion said about the novel, \"I didn't think it was going to make it And suddenly it did make it, in a minor way. And from that time on I had more confidence.\" The book bears some resemblance to Didion's life, as Didion also had a daughter with a psychological disorder and drove the same car as Maria, a yellowCorvette Stingray.Like the protagonist, Didion lived in New York before moving to California.However, Didion asserted that the book was not autobiographical. Themes Life as a game This theme occurs frequently throughout the novel, especially in reference togamblingandcasino games.Having grown up aroundcasinoswith her gambling father, Maria sees life as a game in which every player chooses astrategy, or chooses to stop playing.Describing her upbringing she says, \"My father advised me that life itself was a crap game: it was one of the two lessons I learned as a child. The other was that overturning a rock was apt to reveal a rattlesnake. As lessons go those two seem to hold up, but not to apply.\" The title of the book,Play it as it Laysis a reference to advice from Maria's father on playingcraps: \"it goes as it lays, don't do it the hard way\", an idiom with meaning similar to \"playing with the cards you are dealt\". At the exposition of the novel, Maria describes the recent events of life as such, \"I was holding all theaces, but what was the game?\". Furthermore, social interactions can be seen as a kind of game. Maria tries to be a good \"player\" when she speaks to her doctors: \"There are only certain facts, I say, trying again to be an agreeable player of the game.\" Deathcan be seen as the choice to stop playing the game of life. As he is about to commit suicide, BZ says to Maria, \"you're still playing Some day you'll wake up and you just won't feel like playing\". By choosing to die, BZ decides to stop playing. Meanwhile Maria references her choice to keep living, and continuing to \"play\" the game of life despite its meaninglessness, in the famous quote: \"I know what 'nothing' means, and keep on playing.\" Nihilism Throughout the novel Maria and other characters reveal a belief in the meaninglessness of life. This theme may be ascribed todepressionwhich the characters experience, to the emptiness of working in Hollywood or as an overarching philosophical theme on life. Many scenes in the book can be seen as an encounter with absurdity and nothingness,as Maria has odd encounters with strangers whom she never sees again. Maria's dark view of life is revealed in quotes such as, \"Maria did not particularly believe in rewards, only in punishments, swift and personal.\" The concept ofnothingoccurs in many contexts, such as Maria marking \"nothing applies\" on her hospital documents, and repeating this thought when revisiting memories of her past. When speaking to Benny about their now-destroyed hometown, Maria says, \"there is no Silver Wells\", suggesting that finding meaning in past memories is futile.The line \"Maria said nothing\" occurs repeatedly in several dialogues, suggesting that Maria considers it pointless to explain herself to others. Maria does not try to find greater meaning in suffering, nor does she ask questions about why suffering occurs and if there is a purpose to it. This view is presented in her opening monologue, \"Carter and Helene still ask questions. I used to ask questions, and I got the answer: nothing. The answer is 'nothing.'\" Depiction of Los Angeles Play It As It Laysis considered a classic Los Angeles novel, containing manyliterary motifsassociated with Los Angeles andCalifornia. Driving, Cars and the Freeway Theinterstate freewayplays an important part in both thesettingand the plot of the novel, as the protagonist spends her days driving on the freeway as a form ofescapism, a motif that is popular in Los Angeles novels. Los Angeles, known as \"a city on wheels\",has a unique identity as a city designed for cars, due to its flat terrain and relatively late urbanization. The philosophical themes of the novel have been described as \"freeway existentialism\"as Maria goes on drives without a destination in mind. Maria fulfills the literary trope of a drifter, a common trope in Los Angeles novels, where protagonists are often depicted driving, either as a way to chase their dreams or to escape their problems.Driving a fast car on the open road is often considered a literary symbol of the illusion of freedom, which is easily achieved in Southern California, where there is a well developed, multi-lane freeway. Some of the plot developments occur while driving. For instance Maria informs Carter that she is pregnant when they are driving on the freeway. When driving to the house where her illegal abortion is to occur, Maria and the man in the \"duck pants\" discuss their cars, which brings a sense of normalcy and relief to Maria, \"In the past few minutes he had significantly altered her perception of reality: she saw now that she was not a woman on her way to have an abortion. She was a woman parking a Corvette while a man in white pants talked about buying a Camaro. There was no more to it than that.\" An ongoing theme is that Maria avoids her problems by driving away from them, and as she sinks deeper into a nihilistic depression, she drives further distances, driving between California and Nevada. Disillusionment in Hollywood Didion is often credited for capturing the atmosphere of Hollywood in the 1960s.Play It As it Laysdepicts Hollywood as a \"broken paradise\" as seen from the point of view of a disenchanted actress,in contrast to the more common,utopianview of Hollywood.The novel depicts the scheming, exploitation, and elitism common in thefilm industryat that time. In the same way that movie makers manufacture stories, the characters in the film industry manufacture their own image to attain status and fame. Though themes ofnarcissismandself-destructionamong the wealthy are old themes, seen in novels such asThe Great Gatsby, the focus on the inner workings of movie production at the end ofGolden Era Hollywood, establishPlay It As It Laysas a classic Los Angeles novel. Maria's acting career is on the decline because she walked away from amovie set, damaging her reputation in an industry where reputation is highly important. This leads her to become more detached and apathetic to the social culture around her, and she begins to disregard social conventions and isolate herself from her acquaintances, rejecting invitations to parties and choosing to be alone instead. Many dialogues between Maria and other characters portray the superficiality and strategy associated with the film industry, as characters choose words carefully to achieve an aim or to avoid direct communication. The few dialogues which depict genuine, heartfelt interactions stand out, such as BZ telling Maria, \"hold onto me\" before overdosing. Criticism Reception Considered a classic work of American fiction, the novel has received largely positive reviews from literary critics, but often draws mixed reviews from the public due to its bleak content and unlikableprotagonist.The plot has been described by critics as having \"cinematic nihilism\",and being a \"ruthless dissection of American life in the 1960s.\" It has been positively described as a \"terrifying book.\"In a review of the novel,Joseph Epsteindescribed Joan Didion as a novelist: \"her vision is dark, her views are bleak, but she is richly talented.\"J. Frakes, reviewing the novel in theBook Worldcolumn ofThe Washington Post,described the novel as a \"scathing novel, distilling venom in tiny drops, revealing devastation in a sneer and fear in a handful of atomic dust.\"Library Journaldescribed it as, \"intelligent, well-structured, witty, irresistibly relentless.\" Didion's writing style in this novel has been applauded for breaking from literary tradition and making use of a precise, minimalist style,composed of short chapters, some of which are only a few sentences long, leaving the page mostly blank. The style has been described as \"short, laser-focused chapters that come in hot and burn out just as quickly like a firework.\" In popular culture The novel continues to be a prominent work inpopular culture. The book has been referenced in the Netflix television series,You.In a 2023 survey among writers by the LA Times,Play It As It Layswas voted the third most popular LA book.Literary Hublisted the novel in its list of10 Essential Books That Capture Los Angeles in All Its Sublime, Beautiful Darkness.The independent editorial websiteBook Riot, included the novel in its list,10 of the Best Books About Los Angeles,describing Didion, \"when people think of Los Angeles authors, Joan Didion is almost always the first name that pops into their minds.\"The novel is frequently listed as a popular Los Angeles novel by popular culture websites. Adaptation The book was adapted intoa 1972 filmdirected byFrank Perry, starringTuesday Weldas Maria andAnthony Perkinsas BZ.Didion co-wrote the screenplay with her husband,John Gregory Dunne. Notes References External links","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays_(film","Frank Perry Frank Joseph Perry Jr.(August 21, 1930 – August 29, 1995) was an American stage director and filmmaker. His 1962 independent filmDavid and Lisaearned anAcademy Award nomination for Best DirectorandBest Adapted Screenplay(written by his then-wifeEleanor Perry). The couple collaborated on five more films, includingThe Swimmer,Diary of a Mad Housewife, and theEmmy Award–nominatedA Christmas Memory, based on a short story byTruman Capote. Perry went on to form Corsair Pictures, privately financed byUnited Artists Theatres, which producedMiss FirecrackerandA Shock to the System, then folded.His later films includeMommie Dearestand the documentaryOn the Bridge, about his battle withprostate cancer. Early life Frank Joseph Perry Jr. was born inNew York Cityto stockbroker Frank Joseph Perry Sr. (1905–1969) and Pauline E. Schwab (1908–1965), who worked atAlcoholics Anonymous.As a teenager, Frank Jr. began pursuing his interest in the theater with a job as a parking lot attendant for the Westport Country Playhouse in nearbyWestport, Connecticut. He attended theUniversity of Miami. Frank also studied underLee Strasbergin New York. He produced several plays at Westport Country Playhouse and then turned for a time to producing television documentaries. Career A veteran of the Korean War, he returned to the entertainment industry after being discharged and made his directorial debut in 1962 with the low-budget drama filmDavid and Lisa. Based on the novel byTheodore Isaac Rubin, the screenplay was written by his wife,Eleanor Rosenfeld, who received a nomination for anAcademy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay. A character study of two emotionally disturbed teenagers, the film was successful at the box office and met with much critical acclaim, earning him a nomination for anAcademy Award for Directing. Both Perrys would eventually join the select group of non-actors awarded membership inActors Studio.Perry went on to direct and produce a number of films, many based on literary sources or with strong literary associations, includingThe Swimmer, (1968) based on aJohn Cheeverstory,Last Summer(1969), andTrilogy(1969), written byTruman Capote. Perry is known for his character studies, such asDiary of a Mad Housewife(1970). That film earned aBest Actress Oscarnomination forCarrie Snodgress, andPlay It as It Lays(1972), starringTuesday Weld, brought her aGolden GlobeBest Actress nomination. Both of these films Perry produced and directed, but he is probably best remembered for directing the biographical dramaMommie Dearest, an adaptation of a biography by actressJoan Crawford's adoptive daughter. The film became a cult classic despite mixed reviews from critics; it also won theRazzie Awardfor worst picture, and Frank Perry was nominated for worst director, while actressFaye Dunawayreceived the Razzie for her performance. Some of Perry's film-related material and personal papers are held at the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives, a collection to which scholars and media experts from around the world today have full access. Personal life and death In 1958, Frank married his first wife Eleanor, who was 15 years his senior and had two children, William and Ann, from a previous marriage. Frank and Eleanor collaborated on many screen projects, including screenwriting the Academy Award-nominated 1962David and Lisa(an adaptation of the novella of the same name) which came about due to Eleanor's daughter Ann bringing the novella to her mother's attention.They divorced in 1971 on grounds of incompatibility.In 1979, Eleanor Perry wrote the novelBlue Pages,based on their relationship. She died of cancer two years later, at age 66. In 1977, Perry marriedBarbara Goldsmith, founding editor ofNew Yorkmagazine and book author (Little Gloria...Happy at Last), whom he divorced in 1992. Soon after, he married his Aspen ski instructor, 22-years-younger Virginia Brush Ford, on June 15, 1992. His sister is pastor Mary Christine Perry, the wife of pastor Maurice Keith Hudson and mother of singersKaty Perryand David Hudson. Perry died ofprostate canceron August 29, 1995, eight days after his 65th birthday, atMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Centerin Manhattan.His final film,On the Bridge(1992), is an autobiographical documentary about his illness. His ashes were scattered on the mountains of Aspen, Colorado, where he lived the last three years of his life. Filmography Film Television References Further reading External links","Katy Perry Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson(born October 25, 1984), known professionally asKaty Perry, is an American singer, songwriter, and television personality. Perry is one of thebest-selling music artists of all time, having sold over 143 million units worldwide. She is known for her influence onpop musicand hercampstyle, being dubbed the \"Queen of Camp\" byVogueandRolling Stone.Billboardranked her fourth on its \"Greatest of All Time Pop Songs Artists\" list and twenty-fifth on their \"Greatest Pop Stars of the 21st Century\" list. At 16, Perry released agospelrecord titledKaty Hudson(2001) underRed Hill Records, which was commercially unsuccessful. She moved to Los Angeles at 17 to venture intosecularmusic, and later adopted the stage name \"Katy Perry\" from her mother's maiden name. She recorded an album while signed toColumbia Records, but was dropped before signing toCapitol Records. Perry rose to fame withOne of the Boys(2008), apop rockrecord containing her debut single \"I Kissed a Girl\" and follow-up single \"Hot n Cold\", which reached number one and three on the U.S.BillboardHot 100respectively. Thedisco-influenced pop albumTeenage Dream(2010) spawned five U.S. number one singles—\"California Gurls\", \"Teenage Dream\", \"Firework\", \"E.T.\", and \"Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)\"— the only album by a female singer to do so. The album's reissue titledTeenage Dream: The Complete Confection(2012) produced the U.S. number one single \"Part of Me\". Her empowerment-themed albumPrism(2013) had two U.S. number one singles, \"Roar\" and \"Dark Horse\". Both their respective music videos made her the first artist to have multiple videos reach one billion views onVevoandYouTube. Afterwards, Perry released the albumsWitness(2017) andSmile(2020) and embarked on her Las Vegasconcert residencytitledPlay(2021–2023). She released her seventh studio album, titled143, in 2024. Perry has the second-most U.S.diamond certified singlesfor any female artist (6). She has receivedvarious accolades, including aBillboardSpotlight Award, fourGuinness World Records, fiveBillboardMusic Awards, fiveAmerican Music Awards, aBrit Award, aJuno Award, and theMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Award. Outside of music, she released an autobiographical documentary titledKaty Perry: Part of Mein 2012, voicedSmurfetteinThe Smurfsfilm series, and launched her own shoe line Katy Perry Collections in 2017. Perry served as a judge onAmerican Idolfrom thesixteenth seasonin 2018 to thetwenty-second seasonin 2024.Forbesranked her as theworld's highest-paid female musicianin 2015 and 2018. With an estimated net worth of $350 million, she isone of the world's wealthiest musicians. Life and career 1984–1999: Early life and family Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson was born on October 25, 1984, inSanta Barbara, California, toPentecostalpastors Mary Christine (née Perry) and Maurice Keith Hudson.Both of her parents turned to religion after a \"wild youth\".Perry has English, German, Irish, and Portuguese ancestry.Through her mother, she is a niece of film directorFrank Perry.She has a younger brother named David, who is also a singer,and an older sister, Angela. From ages three to 11, Perry frequently moved across the country as her very strict parents set up churches before settling again in Santa Barbara. Growing up, she attended religious schools and camps, including Paradise Valley Christian School inArizonaand Santa Barbara Christian School in California during herelementary years.The family struggled financially,sometimes usingfood stampsand eating food from the food bank which also fed the congregation at her parents' church. Growing up, Perry and her siblings were not allowed to eat the cerealLucky Charmsas the word \"luck\" reminded their mother ofLucifer, and were also required to calldeviled eggs\"angeled eggs\".Perry primarily listened togospel music,as secular music was generally discouraged in the family's home. She discovered popular music through CDs she sneaked from her friends.Perry later recalled a story about how a friend of hers played \"You Oughta Know\" byAlanis Morissette, which impacted her songwriting and singing. While not strictly identifying as religious, she has stated, \"I pray all the time – for self-control, for humility.\"Wanting to be like her sister Angela, Perry began singing by practicing with her sister's cassette tapes. She performed the tracks in front of her parents, who let her take vocal lessons like Angela was doing at the time. She begantrainingat age nineand was incorporated into her parents' ministry,singing in church from ages nine to 17.At 13, Perry was given her first guitar for her birthday,and publicly performed songs she wrote.She tried to \"be a bit like the typical Californian girl\" while growing up, and started rollerskating, skateboarding, and surfing as a teenager. Her brother David described her as a \"tomboy\" during her adolescence, which Perry talks about on her song \"One of the Boys\".She took dancing lessons and learned how toswing,Lindy Hop, andjitterbug.Perry completed herGeneral Educational Development(GED) requirements early at age 15,during her first year of high school,and leftDos Pueblos High Schoolto pursue a music career. 2000–2006: Career beginnings,Katy Hudson, andFingerprints Perry briefly had vocal lessons with a woman named Agatha Danoffin facilities rented from theMusic Academy of the West.Her singing caught the attention of rock artists Steve Thomas andJennifer KnappfromNashville, Tennessee, who brought her there to improve her writing skills.In Nashville, she started recordingdemosand learned how to write songs and play guitar.Perry signed withRed Hill Recordsand recorded her debut album, acontemporary Christianrecord titledKaty Hudson, which was released on March 6, 2001. She also went on tour that year as part ofPhil Joel's Strangely Normal Tourand embarked on other performances of her own in the United States.Katy Hudsonreceived mixed reviews from critics and was commercially unsuccessful, selling an estimated 200 copies before the label ceased operations in December.Transitioning from gospel music to secular music, Perry started working with producerGlen Ballard,and moved to Los Angeles at age 17.She opted to work with Ballard due to his past work with Alanis Morissette, one of her major inspirations. In 2003, she briefly performed as Katheryn Perry, to avoid confusion with actressKate Hudson, and later adopted the stage name \"Katy Perry\", using her mother's maiden name.In 2010, she recalled that \"Thinking of You\" was one of the first songs she wrote after moving to Los Angeles.Perry would also perform at theHotel Café, performing new music while she was between record labels. In 2004, she signed to Ballard's label, Java Records, which was then affiliated withThe Island Def Jam Music Group. Perry began work on a solo record due for release in March 2005, but the record was shelved after Java was dropped.Ballard then introduced her toTim Devine, anA&Rexecutive atColumbia Records, and she was signed as a solo artist. By November 2006, Perry had finished writing and recording material for her Columbia debut titledFingerprints(with some of the material from this time appearing onOne of the Boys) which was planned for release in 2007.Some of the material fromFingerprintsthat did not make it onOne of the Boyswas given to other artists, such as \"I Do Not Hook Up\" and \"Long Shot\" toKelly Clarksonand \"Rock God\" toSelena Gomez & the Scene. Perry worked with songwriters includingDesmond Child,Greg Wells,Butch Walker,Scott Cutler,Anne Preven,the Matrix,Kara DioGuardi,Max Martin, andDr. Luke.In addition, after Devine suggested that songwriting team the Matrix become a \"real group\", she recorded an album,The Matrix, with them.The Matrixwas planned for release in 2004 but was cancelled due to creative differences. It was released in 2009 after the release ofOne of the Boys.Perry was dropped from Columbia in 2006 asFingerprintsneared completion. After the label dropped her, she worked at an independent A&R company, Taxi Music. Perry had minor success prior to her breakthrough. One of the songs she had recorded for her album with Ballard, \"Simple\", was featured on the soundtrack to the 2005 filmThe Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants.Perry provided backing vocals onMick Jagger's song \"Old Habits Die Hard\",which was included on the soundtrack to the 2004 filmAlfie.In September 2004,Blendernamed her \"The Next Big Thing\".She recorded background vocals onP.O.D.'s single \"Goodbye for Now\", was featured at the end of its music video in 2006, and performed it with them onThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno.That year, Perry also appeared in the music video for \"Learn to Fly\" byCarbon Leaf, and played the love interest of her then-boyfriend,Gym Class Heroeslead singerTravie McCoy, in the band's music video for \"Cupid's Chokehold\". 2007–2009: Breakthrough withOne of the Boys After Columbia dropped Perry,Angelica Cob-Baehler, then a publicity executive at the label, brought Perry's demos toVirgin RecordschairmanJason Flom. Flom was convinced that she could be a breakthrough star and she was signed toCapitol Recordsin April 2007. The label arranged for her to work with Dr. Luke to add an \"undeniable smash\" to her existing material.Perry and Dr. Luke co-wrote the songs \"I Kissed a Girl\" and \"Hot n Cold\" for her second albumOne of the Boys. A campaign was started with the November 2007 release of the video to \"Ur So Gay\", a song aimed at introducing her to the music market.Adigital EP of the same namewas also released that month.Madonnahelped publicize the song by praising it on theJohnJay & Richradio show in April 2008,stating \"Ur So Gay\" was her \"favorite song\" at the time.In March 2008, Perry made a cameo appearance as a club singer in theWildfireepisode \"Life's Too Short\"and appeared as herself during a photo shoot that June onThe Young and the Restlessfor the show's magazineRestless Style. Perry released her first single with Capitol, \"I Kissed a Girl\", on April 28, 2008,as the lead single fromOne of the Boys. The first station to pick up the song wasWRVWin Nashville, who were inundated with enthusiastic calls the first three days they played it.The track reached number one on the USBillboardHot 100.\"I Kissed a Girl\" created controversy among both religious andLGBTgroups. The former criticized its homosexual theme, while the latter accused her of usingbi-curiosityto sell records. In response to speculation that her parents opposed her music and career, Perry toldMTVthat they had no problems with her success.One of the Boys, released on June 17, 2008, garnered mixed critical reviews and reached number nine on the USBillboard200.The album went on to sell 7 million copies worldwide.\"Hot n Cold\" was released the following Septemberand became the album's second successful single, reaching number three on theBillboardHot 100while topping charts in Germany,Canada,the Netherlandsand Austria.Later singles \"Thinking of You\" and \"Waking Up in Vegas\" were released in 2009and reached the top 30 of the Hot 100.The Matrix's self-titled debut album, which Perry had recorded with the band in 2004, was released ontoiTuneson January 27, 2009, as a result of her solo success. After finishing the 2008Warped Tour,Perry hosted the2008 MTV Europe Music Awardsin November 2008, where she won the award forBest New Act.At the2009 Brit Awards, she also won the award forInternational Female Solo Artist.Perry embarked on her first headlining world tour, theHello Katy Tour, from January to November 2009 to supportOne of the Boys.On August 4, 2009, she performed as opening act for one date ofNo Doubt's2009 Summer Tour.Perry also hosted the2009 MTV Europe Music Awardsin November 2009, becoming the first person to host two consecutive ceremonies of the European awards.On July 22, 2009, Perry recorded a live album titledMTV Unplugged, which featuredacousticperformances of five tracks fromOne of the Boysas well as one new song, \"Brick by Brick\", and a cover ofFountains of Wayne's \"Hackensack\".It was released on November 17, 2009.Perry also appeared on two singles with other artists; she was featured on a remix ofColorado-based band3OH!3's song \"Starstrukk\" in September 2009,and on a duet withTimbalandentitled \"If We Ever Meet Again\", from his albumShock Value II, three months later.TheGuinness World Recordsrecognized her in its 2010 edition as the \"Best Start on the U.S. Digital Chart by a Female Artist\", for digital single sales of over two million copies. After Perry and Travie McCoy split up in December 2008,they briefly reconciled before she ended their relationship in 2009.Perry met her future husbandRussell Brandin the summer of 2009 while filming a cameo appearance for his filmGet Him to the Greek. Her scene, in which the two kiss, does not appear in the film.She began dating Brand after meeting him again that September at the2009 MTV Video Music Awards.The couple became engaged on December 31, 2009, while vacationing inRajasthan, India. 2010–2012:Teenage Dreamand marriage After serving as a guest judge onAmerican Idol,Perry released \"California Gurls\" featuringSnoop Doggon May 7, 2010.The song was the lead single from her third studio album,Teenage Dream, and reached number one on theBillboardHot 100 in June.She also served as a guest judge onBritishThe X Factorlater that monthbefore releasing the album's second single, \"Teenage Dream\", in July.\"Teenage Dream\" reached number one on theBillboardHot 100 in September.Released on August 24, 2010,Teenage Dreamdebuted at number one on theBillboard200,and received mixed reviews from music critics.It has since sold 6 million copies worldwide.Teenage Dreamwould go on to win the 2011Juno Award for International Album of the Year.In October, \"Firework\" was released as the album's third single.It became the album's third consecutive number one on theBillboardHot 100 on December 8, 2010. \"E.T.\" featuringKanye Westwas released as the fourth single fromTeenage Dreamon February 16, 2011.It topped theBillboardHot 100 for five non-consecutive weeks, makingTeenage Dreamthe ninth album in history to produce four number one singles on the chart.\"Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)\" followed as the fifth single in June,and Perry became the first female artist to achieve five number-oneBillboardHot 100 songs from one album when the single topped that chart on August 17, and the second artist afterMichael Jacksonwith his albumBad.For this record, she received an honoraryAmerican Music Awardin November 2011and a 2013 Guinness World Record.On September 7, she set a new record by becoming the first artist to spend 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the Hot 100.After \"The One That Got Away\" was released as the album's sixth single in October,Teenage Dreambecame the third album to spawn six top-five songs on theBillboardHot 100 afterRhythm Nation 1814byJanet JacksonandFaithbyGeorge Michael.The song peaked at number three in the USand number two in Canada. On January 5, 2012, Perry was named the sixth best-selling digital artist in the United States, with sales of 37.6 million units according toNielsen SoundScan.That month, she became the first artist to have four songs sell over 5 million digital units when \"E.T.\" reached that mark along with \"Firework\", \"California Gurls\", and \"Hot N Cold\".On February 13, Capitol released the lead single fromTeenage Dream: The Complete Confection, \"Part of Me\", which debuted at number one on theBillboardHot 100 and became Perry's seventh single overall to top the chart.Teenage Dream: The Complete Confectionwas released on March 23,and serves as a reissue ofTeenage Dream.\"Wide Awake\" was released on May 22 as the re-release's second single,peaking at number two on theBillboardHot 100and number one in Canadaand New Zealand. Perry embarked on her second tour, theCalifornia Dreams Tour, in support ofTeenage Dreamfrom February 2011 to January 2012.The tour grossed $59.5 million globallyand won her the award forBest Live Actat the2011 MTV Europe Music Awards.On September 23, 2011, she performed on the opening day of the 2011Rock in Riofestival along withElton JohnandRihanna.In September 2010, Perry was scheduled to appear on the 41st-season premiere ofSesame Street. After her scene was uploaded to YouTube, viewers criticized Perry's exposedcleavage. Four days before the scheduled airing,Sesame Workshopannounced that the segment would not air on television, but would still be available to watch online.Perry subsequently mocked the controversy onSaturday Night Live, where she was a musical guest and wore anElmo-themed shirt showing large amounts of cleavage during one skit. In December 2010, Perry playedMoe Szyslak's girlfriend in the live-action segment from a Christmas episode ofThe Simpsonstitled \"The Fight Before Christmas\".In February 2011, she made a guest appearance on theHow I Met Your Motherepisode \"Oh Honey\", playing a woman known as Honey.The role won her thePeople's Choice Award for Favorite TV Guest Starin January 2012.She made her film debut in the 3D family motion pictureThe SmurfsasSmurfetteon July 29, 2011. The film was a financial success worldwide,while critics gave mostly negative reviews.She hostedSaturday Night Liveon December 10, 2011, withRobynas the episode's musical guest. Perry's work on the episode received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised her performance in the episode'sdigital shortfeaturing her andAndy Samberg.In March 2012, she guest starred as a prison security guard named Rikki on theRaising Hopeepisode \"Single White Female Role Model\".On July 5, 2012, Perry's autobiographical documentaryKaty Perry: Part of Mewas released to theaters throughParamount Pictures.The film received positive reviewsand grossed $32.7 million worldwide at the box office. Perry began to venture into business when she endorsed her first fragrance, Purr, in November 2010. Her second fragrance, Meow!, was released in December 2011. Both perfumes were released throughNordstromdepartment stores.Electronic Artsrecruited her to promote their new expansion pack forThe Sims 3: Showtime,before releasing a separatestuff packfeaturing Perry-inspired furniture, outfits, and hairstyles, titledThe Sims 3: Katy Perry's Sweet Treats, in June 2012.The following month, she became the spokesperson and ambassador forPopchipsand made an investment in the company.Billboarddubbed her as their \"Woman of the Year\" for 2012. She married Russell Brand on October 23, 2010, in a traditionalHinduceremonynear theRanthambhore tiger sanctuaryinRajasthan, India.On December 30, 2011, Brand announced that they were divorcing after 14 months of marriage.Perry later stated that conflicting career schedules and his desire to have children before she was ready led to the end of their marriageand that he never spoke to her again after sending a text message that he was divorcing her,while Brand asserted that he divorced her due to her commercial success and reluctance to engage in activism.She was initially distraught over their divorce and said that she contemplated suicide.Since they married without aprenuptial agreement, he was eligible to claim half of the estimated $44 million she earned during their marriage, but declined.Perry began a relationship with singerJohn Mayerin August 2012, the year her marriage with Brand had ended. 2013–2015:Prismand Super Bowl XLIX halftime show In November 2012, Perry began work on her fourth album,Prism.She toldBillboard, \"I know exactly the record I want to make next. I know the artwork, the coloring and the tone\" and \"I even know what type of tour I'm doing next. I'll be very pleased if the vision I have in my head becomes a reality.\"After initially tellingL'Uomo Voguein June 2012 that she planned to have \"darker elements\" inPrismfollowing the end of her marriage, the singer revealed to MTV during the2013 MTV Video Music Awardsthat she changed the album's direction after periods of self-reflection. Perry commented \"I felt very prismatic\", which inspired the album's name.\"Roar\" was released as the lead single fromPrismon August 10, 2013.It was promoted at the MTV Video Music Awards and reached number one on theBillboardHot 100.\"Unconditionally\" followed as the second single fromPrismon October 16, 2013,and peaked at number 14 in the United States. Prismwas released on October 18, 2013, and has sold 4 million copies as of August 2015.It received favorable reviews from criticsand debuted at number one on theBillboard200 chart.Four days later, Perry performed the songs from the album at theiHeartRadioTheater in Los Angeles.\"Dark Horse\" withJuicy Jwas released as the album's third single in December, and became her ninth U.S. number-one single the following month.In 2014, \"Birthday\" and \"This Is How We Do\" respectively followed as the album's fourth and fifth singles,and reached the top 25 on the Hot 100.Prior to ending her relationship with Mayer in February 2014,she recorded and co-wrote a duet with him titled \"Who You Love\" for his albumParadise Valley. The song was released on August 12, 2013.Perry's third headlining tour, thePrismatic World Tour, began in May 2014and concluded in October 2015.It sold almost 2 million tickets and grossed $204.3 million worldwideand won Perry the award for \"Top Package\" at the 2014BillboardTouring Awards.She also performed at the 2015 Rock in Rio festival on September 27, 2015. On November 23, 2014, theNFLannounced that Perry would perform at theSuper Bowl XLIX halftime showon February 1, 2015.Lenny KravitzandMissy Elliottserved as special guests for the show.Her performance was critically acclaimed,and theGuinness World Recordsannounced two days after the singer's halftime show that it garnered 118.5 million viewers in the United States, becoming the most watched and highest rated show in Super Bowl history. The viewership was higher than the game itself, which was viewed by an audience of 114.4 million. TheInternational Federation of the Phonographic Industry(IFPI) ranked her fifth on the list of Top Global Recording Artists of 2013.On June 26, 2014, she was declared the Top Certified Digital Artist Ever by theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) for certified sales of 72 million digital singles in the United States.In May 2014, a portrait of Perry by painterMark Rydenwas featured in his exhibition \"The Gay 90s\", and shown at theKohn Galleryin Los Angeles. Along with several other artists, she also recorded a cover version of the song \"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)\" on a limited-edition concept album titledThe Gay Nineties Old Tyme Music: Daisy Bellto accompany the exhibition.That month, a portrait of Perry by artistWill Cottonwas included in the United StatesNational Portrait Gallery.On November 23, 2015, Perry starred inH&M's holiday advertising campaign, for which she wrote and recorded a song titled \"Every Day Is a Holiday\".On June 17, 2014, Perry announced that she had founded her own record label under Capitol Records, titled Metamorphosis Music.Ferraswas the first artist to get signed to her label, and Perry served as an executive producer onhis self-titled EP. She also recorded a duet with him on the EP, titled \"Legends Never Die\".The label was later renamedUnsub Records. Outside of her music career, Perry reprised her role as Smurfette inThe Smurfs 2, which was released in theaters on July 31, 2013.Like its predecessor,The Smurfs 2was a financial successbut was panned by critics.In March 2014, she made a guest appearance playing herself in the episode \"Blisteritos Presents Dad Academy Graduation Congraduritos Red Carpet Viewing Party\" of theKroll Show.Killer Queen was released as her third fragrance in August 2013 throughCotyIn January 2014, she became a guest curator of Madonna'sArt for Freedominitiative.In March 2015, she appeared inBrand: A Second Coming, a documentary following her ex-husband Russell Brand's transition from comedy work to activism,and released a concert film titledKaty Perry: The Prismatic World TourthroughEpix, which took place during her tour of the same name.Perry also made a cameo appearance in the music video for Madonna's song \"Bitch I'm Madonna\" in June 2015.The following month, she released another fragrance with Coty, entitled Mad Potion.In September 2015, she appeared in the documentariesKaty Perry: Making of the Pepsi Super Bowl Halftime Show, which followed Perry's preparation for her Super Bowl performance,andJeremy Scott: The People's Designer, which followed the life and career of designerJeremy Scott.Perry released a mobile app titledKaty Perry Popin December 2015 throughGlu Mobilewhere her character helps players become famous musicians.She described it as \"the most fun, colorful world that helps guide your musical dreams\". 2016–2018:WitnessandAmerican Idol Perry started writing songs for her new album in June 2016,and recorded an anthem forNBC Sports's coverage of the2016 Summer Olympicstitled \"Rise\", which was released the following month. Perry chose to release it as a standalone track rather than save it for her album \"because now more than ever, there is a need for our world to unite\". NBC also felt its message spoke \"directly to the spirit of the Olympics and its athletes\" for its inspirational themes.The song reached number one in Australiaand number eleven in the United States. In August 2016, Perry stated that she aspired to create material \"that connects and relates and inspires\"and toldRyan Seacrestthat she was \"not rushing\" her fifth album, adding \"I'm just having a lot of fun, but experimenting and trying different producers, and different collaborators, and different styles\".On February 10, 2017, Perry released the album's lead single \"Chained to the Rhythm\" featuringSkip Marley.It reached number one in Hungaryand number four in the United States.The track was also streamed over three million times onSpotifywithin 24 hours, breaking the music streaming service's record at the time for the highest first-day streaming for a single track by a female artist.The album's second single, \"Bon Appétit\" withMigos, was released that April.Its third single, \"Swish Swish\", featuredNicki Minajand followed the next month.They respectively peaked at numbers 59 and 46 in the United States,and made the top 15 in Canada. The album, titledWitness, was released on June 9, 2017, to mixed reviews,and debuted at number one in the United States.To accompany the album's release, Perry broadcast herself on YouTube for four days with a live-stream titledKaty Perry Live: Witness World Wide, concluding with a live concert on June 12.The live-stream generated over 49 million views from 190 countries.She also embarked onWitness: The Tour, which began in September 2017 and ended in August 2018.On June 15, 2017,Calvin Harrisreleased a song titled \"Feels\" from his albumFunk Wav Bounces Vol. 1, which featured Perry,Big Sean, andPharrell Williams.The song went on to reach number one in the United Kingdom. Perry subsequently recorded a cover of theDear Evan Hansensong \"Waving Through a Window\" for the deluxe edition of thecast recording, which was released on November 2, 2018.The show's creatorsBenj PasekandJustin Paulhad requested Perry to cover the song to promote the musical's national tour and bring awareness to mental health.Later that month, Perry released \"Cozy Little Christmas\".She also recorded the song \"Immortal Flame\" for the gameFinal Fantasy Brave Exvius, and had aplayable charactermodeled after her. Outside of recording music, Perry appeared as herself in the filmZoolander 2, which was released in February 2016.In February 2017, the singer launched a shoe line titled \"Katy Perry Collections\".Her shoes are available on her website, Katy Perry Collections, and at retailers such asDillard'sandWalmart.The following August, she hosted the2017 MTV Video Music Awards.Perry was signed for a $25-million salary to serve as a judge on thesixteenth seasonofAmerican Idol, which premiered in March 2018.Perry began a relationship withOrlando Bloomin early 2016, and the couple got engaged on February 14, 2019. 2019–2020:Smileand motherhood At the61st Annual Grammy Awards, Perry performed \"Here You Come Again\", alongsideDolly PartonandKacey Musgraves, as part of a tribute to Parton.Four days later, she released a song called \"365\", with DJZedd.In April, Perry was included on a remix ofDaddy Yankee's song \"Con Calma\", featuringSnow.She followed this with the singles \"Never Really Over\" on May 31, \"Small Talk\" on August 9, and \"Harleys in Hawaii\" on October 16.\"Never Really Over\" in particular received critical acclaim. In June 2019, Perry appeared in the music video ofTaylor Swift's \"You Need to Calm Down\".In July, a jury in California returned a verdict following a week-long trial that Perry's song \"Dark Horse\" had copiedFlame's 2008 song \"Joyful Noise\" after he filed acopyright lawsuitalleging that it used his track's beat without permission;the verdict was later overturned.After the initial verdict, the jury ordered her to pay him $550,000.The next month, Josh Kloss, Perry's co-star in the \"Teenage Dream\" music video, accused her of sexual misconduct.In anInstagrampost, Kloss alleged that, during a party at a skating rink, Perry pulled on his sweatpants and underwear, exposing his penis to her male friends. He also said her management prevented him from speaking about his time with the singer. Johnny Wujek, the creative director of said party defended Perry, saying that she \"would never do something like that\" and accused Kloss of having an \"ongoing obsession\" with her.After initially refraining from responding to this, believing it would have detracted from theMe Too movement, Perry has also denied Kloss's claims. Following the release of her single \"Never Worn White\" in March 2020, Perry revealed in the accompanying music video that she was expecting her first child with Bloom.\"Daisies\", the lead single from her sixth album, was released on May 15, 2020. Its second single \"Smile\" followed two months later.The album, also titledSmile, was released on August 28, 2020.Two days before its distribution, she gave birth to a daughter named Daisy Dove Bloom.The album received mixed reviews,and debuted at number five in the United States.Perry further promoted the album with four compilation EPs:Camp Katy,Empowered,Scorpio SZN,andCosmic Energy.These EPs were followed by the single \"Not the End of the World\" in December 2020, which had a music video in whichZooey Deschanelimpersonates Perry.Additionally she collaborated with various artists to create two remixes ofSmilealbum tracks.Tiëstoremix of \"Resilient\" featuringAitanawas released in November 2020, while Bruno Martini remix of \"Cry About It Later\" featuringLuísa Sonzawas released in April 2021. 2021–2023: Play residency On January 20, 2021, Perry performed \"Firework\" at theCelebrating Americaconcert during theinauguration of Joe Biden.Four months later, she released a new single, \"Electric\", a collaboration withPokémonas part of its 25th anniversary.That December, Perry followed this with \"When I'm Gone\", a collaboration with Swedish DJAlessothat made her the third person to reach number one on Croatia's ARC 100 list across three different decades followingLady GagaandColdplay. Perry began hosting aconcert residencynamedPlayatResorts World Las Vegason December 29, 2021.The show's inception happened during theCOVID-19 lockdownswith Perry being inspired byHoney, I Shrunk the Kids,Pee-wee's Playhouse, andPee-wee's Big Adventure. She described it as \"larger than life\" and \"the kookiest, most camp show I've ever put together.\"The show has received critical acclaimwith Melinda Sheckells ofBillboardsaying that Play's \"sold-out opening night is part fantasy, part hallucination and thoroughly camp.In addition to a sold out opening night, theSanta Barbara Independentreported that Perry's contract deal for the residency was worth $168 million.It concluded on November 4, 2023,and grossed $46.4 million. In September 2021,Varietypaid tribute to and honored Perry in their \"Power of Women\" issue, where she discussed her career, motherhood, andphilanthropy.As a nominee, she attended theVariety2021 \"Power of Women\" dinner.On her 37th birthday the next month, Perry guest hostedThe Ellen DeGeneres Showand starred in a holiday advertisement forGap Inc.which featured her singing \"All You Need Is Love\" bythe Beatles. A full version of her cover was released on streaming platforms the same day.In January 2022, she and Morgan McLachlan established De Soi, a company which produces and sellsnon-alcoholicapéritifs. Both wanted a beverage that \"would mellow the mind, minus the buzz\" when creating it. Along withThomas Rhett, Perry recorded a country pop duet titled \"Where We Started\" for hisalbum of the same namethat was released on April 1, 2022.The next month, it was announced Perry would create music for the soundtrack to Jeremy Zag's animated musical filmMelodyand voice its title character.She also became the new face forJust Eat's,SkipTheDishes',Lieferando's, andMenulog's advertisements and created a new remix of their jingle.On June 8, 2022, Perry was awarded with the Key toLas Vegas, the same day it was marked as Katy Perry day. Perry collaborated with the tech companyApple Inc.starring in advertisements for theirGarageBandmusic software where users could have \"Remix Sessions\" featuring her song, \"Harleys in Hawaii\". On the collab, she stated in August 2022: \"'Harleys in Hawaii' has lived so many different lives\" as well as that there was \"so much opportunity to remix this song, and I can't wait to hear all the GarageBand evolutions with this Apple collab.\"Perry performed at the May 2023Coronation ConcertofCharles IIIatWindsor Castle.Four months later, she sold her music rights to Litmus Music for an estimated $225 million. 2024:143 During an appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!in February 2024, Perry announced her exit fromAmerican Idolfollowing the conclusion of thetwenty-second season, wanting to \"go out and feel that pulse to my own beat\" and release new music after being \"in the studio for a while\". The season premiered later that month,and concluded the following May.She released \"Woman's World\", the first single from her seventh album, on July 11, 2024.One day before the track's premiere, Perry revealed the album is be titled143and that would be released on September 20 of the same year.She described the album as \"super high energy, it's super summer, it's very high BPM\" and \"just full of so much joy, so much love, so much light\".On September 11, Perry received theMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Awardat the2024 MTV Video Music Awards.She performed during the 2024 Rock in Rio festival on the day of143's release.Eight days later, she will headline the pre-game entertainment at Australia's2024 AFL Grand Final. Artistry Influences Perry cites her sister Angela as the woman who has had the most influence on her.During the early stages of her career, Perry's musical style gravitated towards gospel and she aspired to be as successful asAmy Grant.At age 15, she heard \"Killer Queen\" byQueen, which inspired her to pursue a music career.She cites the band's frontman,Freddie Mercury, as her biggest influence and expressed how the \"combination of his sarcastic approach to writing lyrics and his 'I don't give a fuck' attitude\" inspired her music.She paid homage to the band by naming her third fragrance Killer Queen.Perry describedthe Beach Boysand their albumPet Soundsas having a considerable influence on her music: \"Pet Soundsis one of my favorite records and it influenced pretty much all of my songwriting. All of the melody choices that I make are because ofPet Sounds.\"The singer also holds the Beatles' albumThe Beatlesin high esteem, and described these two albums as \"the only things I listened to for probably two years straight.\" She cites Alanis Morissette and her 1995 albumJagged Little Pillas a significant musical inspiration, stating in 2012: \"Jagged Little Pillwas the most perfect female record ever made. There's a song for anyone on that record; I relate to all those songs. They're still so timeless.\" Additionally, Perry borrows influence fromFlaming RedbyPatty Griffinand10 Cent WingsbyJonatha Brooke.Perry's autobiographical documentaryKaty Perry: Part of Mewas largely influenced byMadonna: Truth or Dare. She admires Madonna's ability to reinvent herself, saying \"I want to evolve like Madonna\". Perry namesBjörkas an influence, particularly admiring her \"willingness to always be taking chances\".Other artists who Perry has cited as influences includeStevie Nicks,ABBA,the Cardigans,Whitney Houston,Cyndi Lauper,Ace of Base,3OH!3,CeCe Peniston,C+C Music Factory,Black Box,Crystal Waters,Mariah Carey,Heart, Joni Mitchell,Paul Simon,Imogen Heap,Rufus Wainwright,Pink,andGwen Stefani.\"Firework\" was inspired by a passage in the bookOn the RoadbyJack Kerouacin which the author compares people who are full of life to fireworks that shoot across the sky and make people watch in awe.Her second concert tour, the California Dreams Tour, was reminiscent ofAlice's Adventures in WonderlandandThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz.She also credits the 1996 filmThe Craftfor inspiring her song \"Dark Horse\",andEckhart Tolle's bookThe Power of Nowfor influencingPrism. Musical style and themes \"When I am in between records, sometimes I doubt myself. I'll be like 'Did I just get lucky, or did I mass-manipulate the world into thinking that seven songs were worth a number-one position?' And then I go back into the studio and I start writing, and the true essential oil of who I am comes bubbling back up and reminds me that it's always been inside of me, that nobody can take this away no matter what comment anyone makes.\" —Perry on her confidence as a songwriter Although Perry's music incorporates elements of pop, rock, anddisco,Katy Hudsoncontains gospel. Her subsequent releases,One of the BoysandTeenage Dream, involve themes of sex and love.One of the Boysis apop rockrecord, whileTeenage Dreamfeatures disco influences.Perry's fourth album,Prism, is significantly influenced by dance and pop music. Lyrically, the album addresses relationships, self-reflection, and everyday life.Her fifth studio effortWitnessis anelectropopalbum that she described as a \"360-degree liberation\" record, with themes including political liberation, sexual liberation, and liberation from negativity.Many of her songs, particularly onTeenage Dream, reflect on love between teenagers;Wmagazine described the album's sexual innuendos as \"irresistible hook-laden melodies\".Self-empowerment is a common theme in Perry's music. Perry has described herself as a \"singer-songwriter masquerading as a pop star\"and maintains that honest songwriting is very important to her. She toldMarie Claire: \"I feel like my secret magic trick that separates me from a lot of my peers is the bravery to be vulnerable and truthful and honest. I think you become more relatable when you're vulnerable.\"Actress and comedianKristen Wiigcommented that \"as easy, breezy, and infectious as Perry's songs can be, beneath the surface lurks a sea of mixed emotions, jumbled motives, and contradictory impulses complicated enough to fill aCarole Kingrecord.\"According toGreg Kotof theChicago Tribune, \"being taken seriously may be Perry's greatest challenge yet.\"In 2013,The New York Timeslabeled her \"the most potent pop star of the day – her hits are relatable with just a hint of experimentation\".Randall Roberts of theLos Angeles Timescriticized her use of idioms and metaphors in her lyrics and for frequent \"clichés\".Throughout her career, Perry has also co-written songs recorded by other artists, includingLesley Roy,Kelly Clarkson,Jessie James Decker,Selena Gomez & the Scene,Britney Spears,Iggy Azalea,Rita Ora,Nicki Minaj, andAriana Grande. Voice Perry possesses acontraltovocal range.Her singing has received both praise and criticism. Betty Clarke ofThe Guardiancommented that her \"powerful voice is hard-edged\"whileRob SheffieldfromRolling Stonedescribed Perry's vocals onTeenage Dreamas \"processedstaccatoblips\".Darren Harvey ofmusicOMHcompared Perry's vocals onOne of the Boysto Alanis Morissette's, both possessing a \"perky voice shifting octaves mid-syllable\".Alex Miller fromNMEfelt that \"Perry's problem is often her voice\" onOne of the Boys, stating that \"somewhere along the line someone convinced her she was like, well, a ballsy rock chick\".Conversely, Bernadette McNulty fromThe Daily Telegraphpraised her \"rock chick voice\" in a review of a concert promotingPrism. Public image On social media, Perry surpassedJustin Bieberas the most followed person onTwitterin November 2013.She won the 2015 Guinness World Record for most Twitter followers,and became the first person to gain 100 million followers on the site in June 2017.Keith Caulfield ofBillboardstated that Perry is \"the rare celebrity who seems to have enormous popularity but genuine ground-level interaction with her adoring KatyCats.\"With over 106 million Twitter followers, she is the second-most followed woman on the site, and the sixth most followed musician across social media with a combined total of over 385 million followers acrossFacebook, Instagram, and Twitter.In June 2017,Timemagazine listed Perry among its \"25 Most Influential People on the Internet\" of the year, writing that her live-stream forWitnesswas \"blazing a trail\" for being \"the closest any major entertainer has come to giving fans the kind of 'real' intimacy that social media purports to provide\". Perry has been described as asex symbol;GQlabeled her a \"full-on male fantasy\",whileEllewrote her body looked \"as though sketched by a teenage boy\".Vicecalled her a\"'serious' popstar/woman/sex symbol\".She was placed at number one on theMaximHot 100 in 2010 as the \"most beautiful woman in the world\", with editor Joe Levy describing her as a \"triple – no quadruple – kind of hot\".Men's Healthreaders voted her the \"sexiest woman of 2013\".In November 2010, Perry toldHarper's Bazaarthat she was proud of and satisfied with her figure. Perry's fashion often incorporates humor, bright colors, and food-related themessuch as her characteristic spinning peppermint swirl dress.Voguedescribed her as \"never exactly one to shy away from the outrageous or the extreme in any realm\", and called her the \"Queen ofCamp\",whileGlamournamed her the \"queen of quirk\".In February 2009, Perry toldSeventeenthat her fashion style was \"a bit of a concoction of different things\" and stated she enjoyed humor in her clothing.She has also described herself as having \"multipersonality disorder\" for fashion.Perry lists Gwen Stefani,Shirley Manson,Chloë Sevigny,Daphne Guinness,Natalie Portman, and the fictional characterLolitaas her style icons.In 2022,Elledubbed her as \"thekitsch-loving pop star renowned for her uniquely experimental style\", whileVoguedescribed her style as \"synonymous with outrageous, eye-catching ensembles that lean towards the theatrical\". During the 2017 launch of her shoe collection, Katy Perry Collections, she said about shoes: \"When I first got to L.A., I cultivated my style on a budget, always shopping at thrift stores or vintage stores. ... Once, I found these flats that looked likeDalmatian dogs. They had ears that moved and a tongue that stuck out. They were such a conversation piece. That's what is so great about fashion. ... It's a form of communication. You don't have to start a smoking habit to start talking to someone. You can just wear cool shoes. It's an icebreaker.\" Legacy Several media outlets such asBillboardandGlamourhave referred to her as the \"Queen of Pop\", while others likeVogue,Rolling Stone, andInStylehave dubbed Perry the \"Queen of Camp\".Andrew Unterberger ofBillboarddescribedTeenage Dream\"one of the defining LPs from a new golden age in mega-pop\"while Christopher Rosa ofGlamournamed her as an influence to thepopsound and style of the 2010s, adding that her singles are \"some of the most recognizable, iconic, and impactful hits in pop history.\"Perry was named \"one of the last decade's most reliable and successful hitmakers\" by theOfficial Charts Companyin 2022. Additionally, Perry was included inGlamour's \"104 Women Who Defined the Decade in Pop Culture\" list of the 2010s. It stated Perry \"did more than just break chart records. She was one of the driving forces behind the sound of pop radio in the 2010s\" for her tracks that were \"glossy, booming, sugary-sweet, and undeniably catchy.\"Varietyincluded Perry in theirVariety500 list of the most influential business leaders, calling her a \"global phenomenon\" and a \"dedicated artist and tireless self-promoter who has leveraged chart-topping hits, sold-out stadium shows, and staggering endorsement deals to become one of the richest and most influential pop stars alive.\"A 2017 journal published byPsychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Artsstudying structural patterns in the melodies ofearwormsongs compiled lists ofcatchiesttracks from 3,000 participants, in which Perry's \"California Gurls\" ranked number six.She has been called a \"gay icon\" by Taylor Henderson ofOut, noting how \"I Kissed a Girl\" helped fans explore their sexuality and how Perry openly embraced theLGBTQ+ community. Perry's music has been described byOutas having a \"lasting legacy\", with American singersFletchersampling \"I Kissed a Girl\" andOlivia RodrigoreferencingTeenage Dreamon \"Brutal\".Additionally, other artists such asHalseyandAriana Grandehave praised Perry's work, with Halsey callingTeenage Dreamthe \"perfect pop album\" and Grande saying \"The One That Got Away\" is \"one of the biggest and most perfectly written pop songs ever from one of the best pop albums of all time.\" Other ventures Philanthropy Perry has supported various charitable organizations and causes throughout her career. She has contributed to organizations aimed at improving the lives and welfare of children in particular. In April 2013, she joinedUNICEFto assist children in Madagascar with education and nutrition.On December 3, 2013, she was officially named aUNICEF Goodwill Ambassador, \"with a special focus on engaging young people in the agency's work to improve the lives of the world's most vulnerable children and adolescents.\"She arranged for a portion of the money generated from tickets to her Prismatic World Tour to go to UNICEF.In September 2010, she helped build and design the Boys Hope/Girls Hope foundation shelter for youth in Baltimore, Maryland along withRaven-Symoné,Shaquille O'Neal, and the cast ofExtreme Makeover: Home Edition.In 2010, Perry andNicki Minajperformed a cover of \"Girls Just Want to Have Fun\" for service members during the 2010VH1Divas Salute the Troops concert. She has also supported children's education and well-being. All profits from sales of the albumThe Gay Nineties Old Tyme Music: Daisy Bell, which includes her rendition of \"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)\", were donated to the charityLittle Kids Rock, which supports musical education in underprivileged elementary schools.In June 2014, she teamed up withStaples Inc.for a project entitled \"Make Roar Happen\" which donated $1 million toDonorsChoose, an organization that supports teachers and funds classroom resources in public schools.In May 2016, she worked with UNICEF to improve child care quality in Vietnam, hoping to \"break the cycle of poverty and drastically improve children's health, education and well-being\".The following month, UNICEF announced that Perry would receive theAudrey HepburnHumanitarian Award \"for her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in support of the world's most vulnerable children\" at their annual Snowflake Ball in November.All Spotify streams of her 2021 cover of \"All You Need Is Love\" will generate $1 in donations for the charityBaby2Baby. Perry has supported organizations aimed at aiding people suffering with diseases including cancer andHIV/AIDS. During the 2008 Warped Tour, she had a cast made of her breasts to raise money for theKeep A Breast Foundation.She hosted and performed at the We Can Survive concert along withBonnie McKee,Kacey Musgraves,Sara Bareilles,Ellie Goulding, and duoTegan and Saraat the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles, California, on October 23, 2013. The concert's profits were donated toYoung Survival Coalition, an organization aiding breast cancer in young women.In June 2009, she designed an item of clothing forH&M's \"Fashion Against AIDS\" campaign, which raises money for HIV/AIDS awareness projects.On February 26, 2017, she served as a co-chair alongside various celebrities such asBeyoncé,Lea Michele,Jim Carrey,Jared Leto, andKevin Spaceyfor the 25th AnnualElton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party, a fundraiser for HIV/AIDS healthcare. The proceeds from Perry's single \"Part of Me\" were donated to the charityMusiCares, which helps musicians in times of need.During her California Dreams Tour, she raised over $175,000 for the Tickets-For-Charity fundraiser. The money was divided between three charities: theChildren's Health Fund(CHF), Generosity Water, andThe Humane Society of the United States. On her 27th birthday, Perry set up a donations page for theSociety for the Prevention of Cruelty to AnimalsAuckland,and set up a similar page benefiting theDavid Lynch Foundationfor her 28th birthday.On March 29, 2014, she helped raise $2.4 million for theMuseum of Contemporary Artin Los Angeles along with other celebrities such asRyan Seacrest,Pharrell Williams,Tim Allen,Lisa Edelstein, andRiley Keough. Perry performed at theOne Love Manchesterbenefit concert for the victims of the 2017Manchester Arena bombing, among various performers including its organizerAriana Grande, which was broadcast live on June 4, 2017, on radio and television stations around the world.In March 2018, Perry announcedWitness: Coming Home, a benefit concert that was held in her hometown of Santa Barbara on May 19, 2018. The concert benefited those recovering from the aftermath of the2017 California wildfiresand2018 Southern California mudflows. Perry partnered with the Santa Barbara Foundation, the 93108 Fund and The 805 UndocuFund, organizations which help in assisting members of the community in the Santa Barbara area through grants and various philanthropic efforts. Activism and political views Perry has publicly advocated forLGBT rightsand admitted that she wrote \"I Kissed a Girl\" about her ownbisexualexperiences with other women. In 2017, she received a Nation Equality Award fromHuman Rights Campaignfor \"using her powerful voice and international platform to speak out for LGBTQ equality\".During her acceptance speech, she discussed having bisexual experiences, her fluid sexuality, and thanked theLGBTQ+ community.In anOutinterview in 2021, she was heralded as a \"gay icon\" with \"I Kissed a Girl\" being called a \"bonafide queer anthem\". Perry continued to thank the LGBTQ+ community in the same interview, saying: \"I came from a very sheltered upbringing where it wasn't okay to be friends with anyone from that community. And now that is my community.\" She also mentioned \"I wouldn't have survived without the community and it's amazing how full circle it's come and how much growth has happened since I started.\"Tomás Mier ofRolling Stoneremarked Perry \"championed queer folks, especiallydrag queens, throughout her career.\" She dedicated the music video to her song \"Firework\" to theIt Gets Better Project.In June 2012, Perry expressed her hopes for LGBT equality, commenting \"hopefully, we will look back at this moment and think like we do now concerning civil rightsissues. We'll just shake our heads in disbelief, saying, 'Thank God we've evolved.' That would be my prayer for the future.\"In December 2012, Perry was awarded the Trevor Hero Award byThe Trevor Projectfor her work and activism on behalf of LGBT youth. Perry identifies as afeminist,and appeared in April 2013 in a video clip for the \"Chime for Change\" campaign that aimed to spread female empowerment.She has also said that America's lack of freehealth caredrove her \"absolutely crazy\".Following theshooting at the Pulse nightclub in Orlandoin June 2016, Perry and nearly 200 other artists and executives in music signed an open letter organized byBillboardaddressed toUnited States Congressdemanding increasedgun controlin the United States. Through Twitter and by performing at rallies, Perry supported PresidentBarack Obamain his run for re-election and praised his support forsame-sex marriageand LGBT equality.She performed at three rallies for Obama, in Los Angeles, Las Vegas, and Wisconsin, singing a rendition of \"Let's Stay Together\" as well as a number of her songs. During her Las Vegas performance she wore a dress made to replicate a voting ballot, with Obama's box filled in.On Twitter, she encouraged her followers to vote for Obama. In August 2013, Perry voiced criticism ofTony Abbott, then-leader of conservativeLiberal Party of Australiaand candidate forPrime Minister of Australia, due to his opposition to gay marriage and told Abbott, \"I love you as a human being but I can't give you my vote.\"; the statement came after Abbott expressed pride at learning of Perry's then-upcoming performance in Australia.In April 2014, she publicly supportedMarianne Williamsonin her campaign forCalifornia's 33rd congressional districtby attending a political press event.She endorsedKamala Harrisin theUnited States Senate election in California, and organized a fundraiser for Harris at her home in Los Angeles in November 2016.Perry also publicly endorsed former Secretary of StateHillary Clintonfor president in2016.She performed alongsideElton Johnat a fundraising concert for Clinton in New York City in March 2016.Perry also spoke and performed at the2016 Democratic National Conventionin support of Clinton.Four years later, she supportedJoe Bidenand Kamala Harris during the2020 United States presidential election, praising the latter as a leader who had \"experience we desperately need right now\" and believed that the former \"choosing her as his running mate is already a testament to his decision making\".In 2022, Perry posted a picture of herself voting for conservative candidateRick Carusoin the2022 Los Angeles mayoral election, for which she was heavily criticized by Democrats. Achievements Throughout her career, Perry has won fiveAmerican Music Awards,fourteenPeople's Choice Awards,fourGuinness World Records,aBrit Award,and aJuno Award.In September 2012,Billboarddubbed her the \"Woman of the Year\".From May 2010 to September 2011, the singer spent a record-breaking 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of theBillboardHot 100.Teenage Dreambecame the first album by a female artist to produce five number-oneBillboardHot 100 singles, and the second album overall after Michael Jackson'sBad.In the United States, she has accumulated nine number-one singles on theBillboardHot 100, her most recent being \"Dark Horse\",and holds the record for having 18 consecutive number-one songs on theBillboardDance Club Songschart. Billboardalso named her the 15th most successful dance club artist of all time.The magazine additionally ranked her fourth on its \"Greatest of All Time Pop Songs Artists\" list and twenty-fifth on the \"Greatest Pop Stars of the 21st Century\" list,includedTeenage DreamandPrismamong its \"Greatest of All TimeBillboard 200Albums by Women\" list,and ranked \"Dark Horse\" at number 100 on its \"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs\"as well as one of its \"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs by Women\" along with \"E.T.\", \"Firework\", and \"California Gurls\".In June 2015, her music video for \"Dark Horse\" became the first video by a female artist to reach 1 billion views on Vevo.The following month, her music video for \"Roar\" reached 1 billion views on Vevo, making her the first artist to have multiple videos with 1 billion views. With 143 million records sold globally, Perry isone of the best-selling music artists of all time.She was declared the Top Global Female Recording Artist of 2013 by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI).According to RIAA, Perry is the ninthtop digital singles artistin the United States, with 121.5 million certified song units in the country including on-demand streamsand also has 19 million certified album units, totaling 129.5 million certified units in the United States.She also became the first artist to have three songs receive Diamond certifications from the RIAA in 2017 with \"Dark Horse\", \"Firework\", and \"Roar\".All three of them and \"E.T.\", \"California Gurls\", and \"Hot n Cold\" have each sold over 5 million digital copies.Six years later, the RIAA certified \"California Gurls\" as her fourthdiamond-certifiedsingle in the U.S., breaking her tie with Lady Gaga as the female artist with the most diamond singles there.Perry's albumsOne of the Boys,Teenage Dream,Prism,Witness, andSmilehave individually surpassed one billion streams onSpotify. In 2011,Forbesranked her third on their \"Top-Earning Women In Music\" list with earnings of $44 millionand fifth on their 2012 list with $45 million.She subsequently ranked seventh on the 2013Forbeslist for \"Top-Earning Women In Music\" with $39 million earned,and fifth on their 2014 list with $40 million.With earnings of $135 million,Forbesalso ranked Perry number one on their 2015 \"Top-Earning Women In Music\" list as well as the \"World's Highest-Paid Musicians\" and declared her the highest earning female celebrity in 2015, placing her at number 3 on theForbesCelebrity 100 list.In 2016, the magazine estimated her net worth was $125 million,and ranked her number six on their list of \"Highest-Paid Women in Music\" with earnings of $41 million.The following year, she was ranked number nine on the list with $33 million.In 2018, she topped its \"Highest-Paid Women in Music\" listing and ranked at number four on the \"Highest-Paid Female Celebrities\" list, with earnings of $83 million.Perry subsequently was placed at number four on the 2019 \"Highest-Paid Women in Music\" listings, with $57.5 million.Later that year, with earnings of $530 million throughout the 2010s, the magazine also ranked her as the ninth-highest-earning musician of the decade.Perry is one of thewealthiest musical artists; during September 2023,Forbessurmised she had a net worth of $340 million.This increased to $350 million the following May, where Perry was included on the magazine's 2024 list of \"America's Richest Self-Made Women\". Discography Filmography Tours and residency Headlining tours Co-headlining tours Residency See also Notes References Citations Sources External links","Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Katy_Perry (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"],"string":"[\n \"Joan Didion Joan Didion(/ˈdɪdiən/; December 5, 1934 – December 23, 2021) was an American writer and journalist. She is considered one of the pioneers ofNew Journalism, along withGay Talese,Hunter S. Thompson, andTom Wolfe. Didion's career began in the 1950s after she won an essay contest sponsored byVoguemagazine.She would go on to publish essays inThe Saturday Evening Post,Life,Esquire,The New York Review of Books, andThe New Yorker. Her writing during the 1960s through the late 1970s engaged audiences in the realities of thecounterculture of the 1960s, the Hollywood lifestyle, and the history and culture ofCalifornia. Didion's political writing in the 1980s and 1990s concentrated on the subtext of political rhetoric andthe United States's foreign policy in Latin America.In 1991, she wrote the earliest mainstream media article to suggest that theCentral Park Fivehad been wrongfully convicted.With her husbandJohn Gregory Dunne, Didion wrote multiple screenplays, includingThe Panic in Needle Park(1971),A Star Is Born(1976), andUp Close & Personal(1996). In 2005, she won theNational Book Award for Nonfictionand was a finalist for both theNational Book Critics Circle Awardand thePulitzer PrizeforThe Year of Magical Thinking, a memoir of the year following the sudden death of her husband. She later adapted the book into a play that premiered on Broadway in 2007. In 2013, she was awarded theNational Humanities Medalby presidentBarack Obama.Didion was profiled in the 2017NetflixdocumentaryThe Center Will Not Hold, directed by her nephewGriffin Dunne. Early life and education Didion was born on December 5, 1934, inSacramento, California,to Eduene (née Jerrett) and Frank Reese Didion.She had one brother, five years her junior, James Jerrett Didion, who became a real estate executive.Didion recalled writing things down as early as age five,although she said she never saw herself as a writer until after her work had been published. She identified as a \\\"shy, bookish child,\\\" an avid reader, who pushed herself to overcome social anxiety through acting and public speaking. During her adolescence, she would type outErnest Hemingway's works to learn how his sentence structures worked. Didion's early education was nontraditional. She attended kindergarten and first grade, but, because her father was a finance officer in theArmy Air Corpsand the family constantly relocated, she did not attend school regularly.In 1943 or early 1944, her family returned toSacramento, and her father went to Detroit to negotiate defense contracts forWorld War II. Didion wrote in her 2003 memoirWhere I Was Fromthat moving so often made her feel as if she were a perpetual outsider. Didion received a B.A. in English fromUniversity of California, Berkeley, in 1956.During her senior year, she won first place in the \\\"Prix de Paris\\\" essay contest, sponsored byVogue,and was awarded a job as aresearch assistantat the magazine. The topic of her winning essay was the San Francisco architectWilliam Wurster. Career Vogue During her seven years atVogue, from 1956 to 1964, Didion worked her way up from promotional copywriter to associate feature editor.Mademoisellepublished Didion's article \\\"Berkeley’s Giant: The University of California\\\" in January 1960.While atVogue, and homesick for California, she wrote her first novel,Run, River(1963), about a Sacramento family as it comes apart.Writer and friendJohn Gregory Dunnehelped her edit the book.John—the younger brother of author, businessman, and television mystery show hostDominick Dunne—was writing forTimemagazine at the time. He and Didion married in 1964. The couple moved to Los Angeles in 1964, intending to stay only temporarily, but California remained their home for the next 20 years. In 1966, they adopted a daughter, whom they named Quintana Roo Dunne.The couple wrote many newsstand-magazine assignments. \\\"She and Dunne started doing that work with an eye to covering the bills, and then a little more,\\\" Nathan Heller reported inThe New Yorker. \\\"Their Postrates allowed them to rent a tumbledown Hollywood mansion, buy a banana-coloredCorvette Stingray, raise a child, and dine well.\\\" In Los Angeles, they settled inLos Felizfrom 1963 to 1971, and then, after living inMalibufor eight years, she and Dunne moved toBrentwood Park, a quiet, affluent, residential neighborhood. Slouching Towards Bethlehem In 1968, Didion published her first nonfiction book,Slouching Towards Bethlehem, a collection of magazine pieces about her experiences in California.Cited as an example ofNew Journalism, it used novel-like writing to cover the non-fiction realities ofhippiecounterculture.She wrote from a personal perspective, adding her own feelings and memories to situations, inventing details and quotes to make the stories more vivid, and using metaphors to give the reader a better understanding of the disordered subjects of her essays: politicians, artists, or just people living an American life.The New York Timescharacterized the \\\"grace, sophistication, nuance, irony\\\" of her writing. 1970s Didion's novelPlay It as It Lays, set in Hollywood, was published in 1970, andA Book of Common Prayerappeared in 1977. In 1979, she publishedThe White Album, another collection of her magazine pieces fromLife,Esquire,The Saturday Evening Post,The New York Times, andThe New York Review of Books.InThe White Album's title essay, Didion documented an episode she experienced in the summer of 1968. After undergoing psychiatric evaluation, she was diagnosed as having had an attack ofvertigoand nausea. After periods of partial blindness in 1972, she was diagnosed withmultiple sclerosis, but remained in remission throughout her life.In her essay entitled \\\"In Bed,\\\" Didion explained that she experienced chronicmigraines. Dunne and Didion worked closely for most of their careers. Much of their writing is therefore intertwined. They co-wrote a number of screenplays, including a1972 film adaptationof her novelPlay It as It Laysthat starredAnthony PerkinsandTuesday Weldand the screenplay for the 1976 film ofA Star is Born.They also spent several years adapting the biography of journalistJessica Savitchinto the 1996Robert RedfordandMichelle Pfeifferfilm,Up Close & Personal. 1980s and 1990s Didion's book-length essaySalvador(1983) was written after a two-week trip to El Salvador with her husband. The next year, she published the novelDemocracy, the story of a long, but unrequited love affair between a wealthy heiress and an older man, aCIAofficer, against the background of theCold Warand theVietnam War. Her 1987 nonfiction bookMiamilooked at the different communities in that city.In 1988, the couple moved from California to New York City. In a prescientNew York Review of Bookspiece of 1991, a year after the various trials of theCentral Park Five, Didion dissected serious flaws in the prosecution's case, making her the earliest mainstream writer to view the guilty verdicts as miscarriages of justice.She suggested the defendants were found guilty because of a sociopolitical narrative with racial overtones that clouded the judgment of the court. In 1992, Didion publishedAfter Henry, a collection of twelve geographical essays and a personal memorial for Henry Robbins, who was Didion's friend and editor until his death in 1979.She publishedThe Last Thing He Wanted, a romantic thriller, in 1996. The Year of Magical Thinking In 2003, Didion's daughter Quintana Roo Dunne developedpneumoniathat progressed toseptic shockand she was comatose in an intensive-care unit when Didion's husband suddenly died of a heart attack on December 30.Didion delayed his funeral arrangements for approximately three months until Quintana was well enough to attend. On October 4, 2004, Didion began writingThe Year of Magical Thinking, a narrative of her response to the death of her husband and the severe illness of their daughter. She finished the manuscript 88 days later on New Year's Eve.Written at the age of 70, this was her first nonfiction book that was not a collection of magazine assignments.She said that she found the subsequent book-tour process very therapeutic during her period of mourning.Documenting the grief she experienced after the sudden death of her husband, the book was called a \\\"masterpiece of two genres: memoir and investigative journalism\\\" and won several awards. Visiting Los Angeles after her father's funeral, Quintana fell at the airport, hit her head on the pavement and required brain surgery forhematoma.After progressing toward recovery in 2004, Quintana died of acutepancreatitison August 26, 2005, aged 39, during Didion's New York promotion forThe Year of Magical Thinking.Didion wrote about Quintana's death in the 2011 bookBlue Nights. 2000s Didion was living in an apartment on East 71st Street inManhattanin 2005.Everyman's LibrarypublishedWe Tell Ourselves Stories in Order to Live, a 2006 compendium of much of Didion's writing, including the full content of her first seven published nonfiction books (Slouching Towards Bethlehem,The White Album,Salvador,Miami,After Henry,Political Fictions, andWhere I Was From), with an introduction by her contemporary, the criticJohn Leonard. Didion began working with English playwright and directorDavid Hareon a one-woman stage adaptation ofThe Year of Magical Thinkingin 2007. Produced byScott Rudin, the Broadway play featuredVanessa Redgrave. Although Didion was hesitant to write for the theater, she eventually found the genre, which was new to her, exciting. Didion wrote early drafts of the screenplay for an untitledHBObiopic directed byRobert BentononKatharine Graham. Sources say it may trace the paper's reporting on theWatergatescandal. Later works In 2011,KnopfpublishedBlue Nights, a memoir about aging that also focused on Didion's relationship with her late daughter.More generally, the book deals with the anxieties Didion experienced about adopting and raising a child, as well as the aging process. A photograph of Didion shot byJuergen Tellerwas used as part of the 2015 spring-summer campaign of the luxury French fashion brandCéline, while previously the clothing companyGaphad featured her in a 1989 campaign.Didion's nephewGriffin Dunnedirected a 2017Netflixdocumentary about her,Joan Didion: The Center Will Not Hold.In it, Didion discusses her writing and personal life, including the deaths of her husband and daughter, adding context to her booksThe Year of Magical ThinkingandBlue Nights. In 2021, Didion publishedLet Me Tell You What I Mean, a collection of 12 essays she wrote between 1968 and 2000. Death Didion died from complications ofParkinson's diseaseat her home in Manhattan on December 23, 2021, at the age of 87. Writing style and themes Didion viewed the structure of the sentence as essential to her work. In theNew York Timesarticle \\\"Why I Write\\\" (1976),Didion remarked, \\\"To shift the structure of a sentence alters the meaning of that sentence, as definitely and inflexibly as the position of a camera alters the meaning of the object photographed... The arrangement of the words matters, and the arrangement you want can be found in the picture in your mind... The picture tells you how to arrange the words and the arrangement of the words tells you, or tells me, what's going on in the picture.\\\" Didion was heavily influenced by Ernest Hemingway, whose writing taught her the importance of how sentences work in a text. Her other influences includedGeorge EliotandHenry James, who wrote \\\"perfect, indirect, complicated sentences\\\". Didion was also an observer of journalists,believing the difference between the process of fiction and nonfiction is the element of discovery that takes place in nonfiction, which happens not during the writing, but during the research. Rituals were a part of Didion's creative process. At the end of the day, she would take a break from writing to remove herself from the \\\"pages\\\",saying that without the distance, she could not make proper edits. She would end her day by cutting out and editing prose, not reviewing the work until the following day. She would sleep in the same room as her work, saying: \\\"That's one reason I go home to Sacramento to finish things. Somehow the book doesn't leave you when you're right next to it.\\\" In a notorious 1980 essay, \\\"Joan Didion: Only Disconnect,\\\"Barbara Grizzuti Harrisoncalled Didion a \\\"neurasthenicCher\\\" whose style was \\\"a bag of tricks\\\" and whose \\\"subject is always herself\\\".In 2011,New Yorkmagazine reported that the Harrison criticism \\\"still gets her (Didion's) hackles up, decades later\\\". CriticHilton Alssuggested that Didion is reread often \\\"because of the honesty of the voice.\\\" Personal life For several years in her 20s, Didion was in a relationship withNoel E. Parmentel Jr., a political pundit and figure on the New York literary and cultural scene.According to Didion's husband, John Gregory Dunne, he actually met her through Parmentel, and Didion and Dunne remained friends for six years before embarking on a romantic relationship. As he later recalled, when they shared a celebratory lunch after Dunne finished reading the galleys for her first novel,Run, River, \\\"while er other was out of town, it happened.\\\"Didion and Dunne subsequently married in January 1964 and remained together until his death from a heart attack in 2003. Breaking a long-held silence on Didion, whose work he had championed and for which he found publishers, Parmentel was interviewed for a 1996 article inNew Yorkmagazine.He had been angered in the 1970s by what he felt was a thinly veiled portrait of him in Didion's novelA Book of Common Prayer. In 1966, while living in Los Angeles, she and John adopted a daughter, whom they named Quintana Roo Dunne. A Republican in her early years, Didion later drifted toward the Democratic Party, \\\"without ever quite endorsing core beliefs.\\\" As late as 2011, she smoked precisely five cigarettes per day. Awards and honors TheJoan Didion: What She MeansExhibition TheHammer MuseumatUniversity of California, Los Angeles, organized the exhibitionJoan Didion: What She Means. Curated byThe New Yorkercontributor and writerHilton Als, the group show was on view from 2022 and is scheduled to travel to thePérez Art Museum Miamiin 2023.Joan Didion: What She Meanspays homage to the writer and thinker through the lens of nearly 50 modern and contemporary international artists such asFélix González-TorrestoBetye Saar,Vija Celmins,Maren Hassinger,Silke Otto-Knapp,John Koch,Ed Ruscha,Pat Steir, among others. Published works Fiction Nonfiction Screenplays and plays References Further reading External links\",\n \"Play It as It Lays Play It as It Laysis a 1970 novel by American writerJoan Didion.Timemagazine included the novel in its list of the \\\"100 Best English-Language Novels from 1923 to 2005\\\".The novel has been credited for helping define modern American Fictionand has been described as an \\\"instant classic\\\".It is known for depicting thenihilismand the illusory glamor of life inHollywood,as well as capturing the landscape and culture of 1960sLos Angeles. The book was adapted intoa 1972 filmstarringTuesday Weldas Maria andAnthony Perkinsas BZ. Didion co-wrote the screenplay with her husband,John Gregory Dunne. Plot 31-year-old Maria Wyeth's story begins as she is recovering from an implied mental breakdown in apsychiatric hospitalin the Los Angeles area. Her journey oscillates between dizzying and domestic, as her acting career slows and her personal life collapses. Her story is revealed thoughflashbacksandflash forwards. Maria contrasts her life in Los Angeles with her childhood in Silver Wells,Nevada, a small town so inconsequential that it no longer exists. The daughter of a neurotic mother and a gambling father, who bet on a mine and lost, Maria moves to New York to become an actress. In New York, Maria works temporarily as a model and meets Ivan Costello, a psychopathic blackmailer who has no hesitation exploiting Maria. In New York, Maria receives news of her mother's death in a car wreck, possibly a suicide. Her father dies soon after, leaving useless mineral rights to his business partner and friend Benny Austin. Maria withdraws from acting and modeling, splits up with Ivan, and eventually meets Carter and moves to Hollywood. Later, we find that she and Carter have a four-year-old daughter Kate. Kate is in a treatment facility for an unspecified \\\"aberrant chemical in her brain\\\".Maria loves Kate, as indicated by her tender descriptions, her frequent hospital visits, and her determination \\\"to get her out\\\". When Maria discovers she is pregnant, she is unsure if her husband, Carter or her lover, Les Goodwin, is the father and she tells Carter the truth. Carter urges Maria to have anabortion, and suggests that if she chooses to have the child, he will take fullcustodyof their daughter. Set in a time before thelegalization of abortion, Maria must find a doctor who will perform an illegal abortion. Maria follows steps to covertly contact and visit the only doctor who does \\\"clean work\\\" in Los Angeles. Maria has an illegal abortion, performed withlocal anesthetic, in a house where there are newspapers on the floor. Feeling distress after her abortion, Maria begins to have vivid nightmares about dying infants and rattlesnakes. An inevitable divorce, and the ensuing social chaos bring Maria to indulge in self-destructive behavior. Maria disengages from her social world as she plunges into long days of compulsive driving, wanderingSouthern California's freeways, through motels and casinos, drinking and chancing sexual encounters with actors and ex-lovers. After a series of disasters for Maria, infidelity among her friends adds further chaos to her life. The plot reaches a climax when Maria's friend BZ commitssuicidein her presence, choosing tooverdoseon sleeping pills (Seconal) and Maria does not stop him, despite fully understanding what he is doing. Before overdosing, he offers to share his pills with Maria, implying that he could help her die by suicide as well. Maria chooses not to take the pills, and does not stop BZ as he proceeds to swallow them. His final words are \\\"hold onto me\\\", after which they fall asleep on the bed together. Maria awakens to the sound of BZ's wife, Helene screaming as she discovers his dead body next to Maria. Maria ignores the screaming and holds tighter onto BZ's lifeless hand. In not preventing his suicide, Maria is blamed for his death by her friends. Maria isinstitutionalizedfor her inaction in stopping BZ's suicide, under doctors' and friends' assumption that she must have been disconnected from reality at the time the suicide occurred. It is implied that Maria doesn't try to escape her position, but accepts it apathetically. Her institutionalization can be seen as her choice to withdraw from the outside world, rather than a consequence of an actual mental illness or breakdown.From her hospital, Maria turns her visitors away, and plans for a day she might see her daughter again. Background and publication Play It as It Layswas authorJoan Didion's second novel, after her debutRun, Riverwas published in 1963. Didion gained public attention for her non-fiction collectionSlouching Towards Bethlehemin 1968.Published on July 13, 1970, byFarrar, Straus & Giroux,Didion said about the novel, \\\"I didn't think it was going to make it And suddenly it did make it, in a minor way. And from that time on I had more confidence.\\\" The book bears some resemblance to Didion's life, as Didion also had a daughter with a psychological disorder and drove the same car as Maria, a yellowCorvette Stingray.Like the protagonist, Didion lived in New York before moving to California.However, Didion asserted that the book was not autobiographical. Themes Life as a game This theme occurs frequently throughout the novel, especially in reference togamblingandcasino games.Having grown up aroundcasinoswith her gambling father, Maria sees life as a game in which every player chooses astrategy, or chooses to stop playing.Describing her upbringing she says, \\\"My father advised me that life itself was a crap game: it was one of the two lessons I learned as a child. The other was that overturning a rock was apt to reveal a rattlesnake. As lessons go those two seem to hold up, but not to apply.\\\" The title of the book,Play it as it Laysis a reference to advice from Maria's father on playingcraps: \\\"it goes as it lays, don't do it the hard way\\\", an idiom with meaning similar to \\\"playing with the cards you are dealt\\\". At the exposition of the novel, Maria describes the recent events of life as such, \\\"I was holding all theaces, but what was the game?\\\". Furthermore, social interactions can be seen as a kind of game. Maria tries to be a good \\\"player\\\" when she speaks to her doctors: \\\"There are only certain facts, I say, trying again to be an agreeable player of the game.\\\" Deathcan be seen as the choice to stop playing the game of life. As he is about to commit suicide, BZ says to Maria, \\\"you're still playing Some day you'll wake up and you just won't feel like playing\\\". By choosing to die, BZ decides to stop playing. Meanwhile Maria references her choice to keep living, and continuing to \\\"play\\\" the game of life despite its meaninglessness, in the famous quote: \\\"I know what 'nothing' means, and keep on playing.\\\" Nihilism Throughout the novel Maria and other characters reveal a belief in the meaninglessness of life. This theme may be ascribed todepressionwhich the characters experience, to the emptiness of working in Hollywood or as an overarching philosophical theme on life. Many scenes in the book can be seen as an encounter with absurdity and nothingness,as Maria has odd encounters with strangers whom she never sees again. Maria's dark view of life is revealed in quotes such as, \\\"Maria did not particularly believe in rewards, only in punishments, swift and personal.\\\" The concept ofnothingoccurs in many contexts, such as Maria marking \\\"nothing applies\\\" on her hospital documents, and repeating this thought when revisiting memories of her past. When speaking to Benny about their now-destroyed hometown, Maria says, \\\"there is no Silver Wells\\\", suggesting that finding meaning in past memories is futile.The line \\\"Maria said nothing\\\" occurs repeatedly in several dialogues, suggesting that Maria considers it pointless to explain herself to others. Maria does not try to find greater meaning in suffering, nor does she ask questions about why suffering occurs and if there is a purpose to it. This view is presented in her opening monologue, \\\"Carter and Helene still ask questions. I used to ask questions, and I got the answer: nothing. The answer is 'nothing.'\\\" Depiction of Los Angeles Play It As It Laysis considered a classic Los Angeles novel, containing manyliterary motifsassociated with Los Angeles andCalifornia. Driving, Cars and the Freeway Theinterstate freewayplays an important part in both thesettingand the plot of the novel, as the protagonist spends her days driving on the freeway as a form ofescapism, a motif that is popular in Los Angeles novels. Los Angeles, known as \\\"a city on wheels\\\",has a unique identity as a city designed for cars, due to its flat terrain and relatively late urbanization. The philosophical themes of the novel have been described as \\\"freeway existentialism\\\"as Maria goes on drives without a destination in mind. Maria fulfills the literary trope of a drifter, a common trope in Los Angeles novels, where protagonists are often depicted driving, either as a way to chase their dreams or to escape their problems.Driving a fast car on the open road is often considered a literary symbol of the illusion of freedom, which is easily achieved in Southern California, where there is a well developed, multi-lane freeway. Some of the plot developments occur while driving. For instance Maria informs Carter that she is pregnant when they are driving on the freeway. When driving to the house where her illegal abortion is to occur, Maria and the man in the \\\"duck pants\\\" discuss their cars, which brings a sense of normalcy and relief to Maria, \\\"In the past few minutes he had significantly altered her perception of reality: she saw now that she was not a woman on her way to have an abortion. She was a woman parking a Corvette while a man in white pants talked about buying a Camaro. There was no more to it than that.\\\" An ongoing theme is that Maria avoids her problems by driving away from them, and as she sinks deeper into a nihilistic depression, she drives further distances, driving between California and Nevada. Disillusionment in Hollywood Didion is often credited for capturing the atmosphere of Hollywood in the 1960s.Play It As it Laysdepicts Hollywood as a \\\"broken paradise\\\" as seen from the point of view of a disenchanted actress,in contrast to the more common,utopianview of Hollywood.The novel depicts the scheming, exploitation, and elitism common in thefilm industryat that time. In the same way that movie makers manufacture stories, the characters in the film industry manufacture their own image to attain status and fame. Though themes ofnarcissismandself-destructionamong the wealthy are old themes, seen in novels such asThe Great Gatsby, the focus on the inner workings of movie production at the end ofGolden Era Hollywood, establishPlay It As It Laysas a classic Los Angeles novel. Maria's acting career is on the decline because she walked away from amovie set, damaging her reputation in an industry where reputation is highly important. This leads her to become more detached and apathetic to the social culture around her, and she begins to disregard social conventions and isolate herself from her acquaintances, rejecting invitations to parties and choosing to be alone instead. Many dialogues between Maria and other characters portray the superficiality and strategy associated with the film industry, as characters choose words carefully to achieve an aim or to avoid direct communication. The few dialogues which depict genuine, heartfelt interactions stand out, such as BZ telling Maria, \\\"hold onto me\\\" before overdosing. Criticism Reception Considered a classic work of American fiction, the novel has received largely positive reviews from literary critics, but often draws mixed reviews from the public due to its bleak content and unlikableprotagonist.The plot has been described by critics as having \\\"cinematic nihilism\\\",and being a \\\"ruthless dissection of American life in the 1960s.\\\" It has been positively described as a \\\"terrifying book.\\\"In a review of the novel,Joseph Epsteindescribed Joan Didion as a novelist: \\\"her vision is dark, her views are bleak, but she is richly talented.\\\"J. Frakes, reviewing the novel in theBook Worldcolumn ofThe Washington Post,described the novel as a \\\"scathing novel, distilling venom in tiny drops, revealing devastation in a sneer and fear in a handful of atomic dust.\\\"Library Journaldescribed it as, \\\"intelligent, well-structured, witty, irresistibly relentless.\\\" Didion's writing style in this novel has been applauded for breaking from literary tradition and making use of a precise, minimalist style,composed of short chapters, some of which are only a few sentences long, leaving the page mostly blank. The style has been described as \\\"short, laser-focused chapters that come in hot and burn out just as quickly like a firework.\\\" In popular culture The novel continues to be a prominent work inpopular culture. The book has been referenced in the Netflix television series,You.In a 2023 survey among writers by the LA Times,Play It As It Layswas voted the third most popular LA book.Literary Hublisted the novel in its list of10 Essential Books That Capture Los Angeles in All Its Sublime, Beautiful Darkness.The independent editorial websiteBook Riot, included the novel in its list,10 of the Best Books About Los Angeles,describing Didion, \\\"when people think of Los Angeles authors, Joan Didion is almost always the first name that pops into their minds.\\\"The novel is frequently listed as a popular Los Angeles novel by popular culture websites. Adaptation The book was adapted intoa 1972 filmdirected byFrank Perry, starringTuesday Weldas Maria andAnthony Perkinsas BZ.Didion co-wrote the screenplay with her husband,John Gregory Dunne. Notes References External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays_(film\",\n \"Frank Perry Frank Joseph Perry Jr.(August 21, 1930 – August 29, 1995) was an American stage director and filmmaker. His 1962 independent filmDavid and Lisaearned anAcademy Award nomination for Best DirectorandBest Adapted Screenplay(written by his then-wifeEleanor Perry). The couple collaborated on five more films, includingThe Swimmer,Diary of a Mad Housewife, and theEmmy Award–nominatedA Christmas Memory, based on a short story byTruman Capote. Perry went on to form Corsair Pictures, privately financed byUnited Artists Theatres, which producedMiss FirecrackerandA Shock to the System, then folded.His later films includeMommie Dearestand the documentaryOn the Bridge, about his battle withprostate cancer. Early life Frank Joseph Perry Jr. was born inNew York Cityto stockbroker Frank Joseph Perry Sr. (1905–1969) and Pauline E. Schwab (1908–1965), who worked atAlcoholics Anonymous.As a teenager, Frank Jr. began pursuing his interest in the theater with a job as a parking lot attendant for the Westport Country Playhouse in nearbyWestport, Connecticut. He attended theUniversity of Miami. Frank also studied underLee Strasbergin New York. He produced several plays at Westport Country Playhouse and then turned for a time to producing television documentaries. Career A veteran of the Korean War, he returned to the entertainment industry after being discharged and made his directorial debut in 1962 with the low-budget drama filmDavid and Lisa. Based on the novel byTheodore Isaac Rubin, the screenplay was written by his wife,Eleanor Rosenfeld, who received a nomination for anAcademy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay. A character study of two emotionally disturbed teenagers, the film was successful at the box office and met with much critical acclaim, earning him a nomination for anAcademy Award for Directing. Both Perrys would eventually join the select group of non-actors awarded membership inActors Studio.Perry went on to direct and produce a number of films, many based on literary sources or with strong literary associations, includingThe Swimmer, (1968) based on aJohn Cheeverstory,Last Summer(1969), andTrilogy(1969), written byTruman Capote. Perry is known for his character studies, such asDiary of a Mad Housewife(1970). That film earned aBest Actress Oscarnomination forCarrie Snodgress, andPlay It as It Lays(1972), starringTuesday Weld, brought her aGolden GlobeBest Actress nomination. Both of these films Perry produced and directed, but he is probably best remembered for directing the biographical dramaMommie Dearest, an adaptation of a biography by actressJoan Crawford's adoptive daughter. The film became a cult classic despite mixed reviews from critics; it also won theRazzie Awardfor worst picture, and Frank Perry was nominated for worst director, while actressFaye Dunawayreceived the Razzie for her performance. Some of Perry's film-related material and personal papers are held at the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives, a collection to which scholars and media experts from around the world today have full access. Personal life and death In 1958, Frank married his first wife Eleanor, who was 15 years his senior and had two children, William and Ann, from a previous marriage. Frank and Eleanor collaborated on many screen projects, including screenwriting the Academy Award-nominated 1962David and Lisa(an adaptation of the novella of the same name) which came about due to Eleanor's daughter Ann bringing the novella to her mother's attention.They divorced in 1971 on grounds of incompatibility.In 1979, Eleanor Perry wrote the novelBlue Pages,based on their relationship. She died of cancer two years later, at age 66. In 1977, Perry marriedBarbara Goldsmith, founding editor ofNew Yorkmagazine and book author (Little Gloria...Happy at Last), whom he divorced in 1992. Soon after, he married his Aspen ski instructor, 22-years-younger Virginia Brush Ford, on June 15, 1992. His sister is pastor Mary Christine Perry, the wife of pastor Maurice Keith Hudson and mother of singersKaty Perryand David Hudson. Perry died ofprostate canceron August 29, 1995, eight days after his 65th birthday, atMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Centerin Manhattan.His final film,On the Bridge(1992), is an autobiographical documentary about his illness. His ashes were scattered on the mountains of Aspen, Colorado, where he lived the last three years of his life. Filmography Film Television References Further reading External links\",\n \"Katy Perry Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson(born October 25, 1984), known professionally asKaty Perry, is an American singer, songwriter, and television personality. Perry is one of thebest-selling music artists of all time, having sold over 143 million units worldwide. She is known for her influence onpop musicand hercampstyle, being dubbed the \\\"Queen of Camp\\\" byVogueandRolling Stone.Billboardranked her fourth on its \\\"Greatest of All Time Pop Songs Artists\\\" list and twenty-fifth on their \\\"Greatest Pop Stars of the 21st Century\\\" list. At 16, Perry released agospelrecord titledKaty Hudson(2001) underRed Hill Records, which was commercially unsuccessful. She moved to Los Angeles at 17 to venture intosecularmusic, and later adopted the stage name \\\"Katy Perry\\\" from her mother's maiden name. She recorded an album while signed toColumbia Records, but was dropped before signing toCapitol Records. Perry rose to fame withOne of the Boys(2008), apop rockrecord containing her debut single \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" and follow-up single \\\"Hot n Cold\\\", which reached number one and three on the U.S.BillboardHot 100respectively. Thedisco-influenced pop albumTeenage Dream(2010) spawned five U.S. number one singles—\\\"California Gurls\\\", \\\"Teenage Dream\\\", \\\"Firework\\\", \\\"E.T.\\\", and \\\"Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)\\\"— the only album by a female singer to do so. The album's reissue titledTeenage Dream: The Complete Confection(2012) produced the U.S. number one single \\\"Part of Me\\\". Her empowerment-themed albumPrism(2013) had two U.S. number one singles, \\\"Roar\\\" and \\\"Dark Horse\\\". Both their respective music videos made her the first artist to have multiple videos reach one billion views onVevoandYouTube. Afterwards, Perry released the albumsWitness(2017) andSmile(2020) and embarked on her Las Vegasconcert residencytitledPlay(2021–2023). She released her seventh studio album, titled143, in 2024. Perry has the second-most U.S.diamond certified singlesfor any female artist (6). She has receivedvarious accolades, including aBillboardSpotlight Award, fourGuinness World Records, fiveBillboardMusic Awards, fiveAmerican Music Awards, aBrit Award, aJuno Award, and theMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Award. Outside of music, she released an autobiographical documentary titledKaty Perry: Part of Mein 2012, voicedSmurfetteinThe Smurfsfilm series, and launched her own shoe line Katy Perry Collections in 2017. Perry served as a judge onAmerican Idolfrom thesixteenth seasonin 2018 to thetwenty-second seasonin 2024.Forbesranked her as theworld's highest-paid female musicianin 2015 and 2018. With an estimated net worth of $350 million, she isone of the world's wealthiest musicians. Life and career 1984–1999: Early life and family Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson was born on October 25, 1984, inSanta Barbara, California, toPentecostalpastors Mary Christine (née Perry) and Maurice Keith Hudson.Both of her parents turned to religion after a \\\"wild youth\\\".Perry has English, German, Irish, and Portuguese ancestry.Through her mother, she is a niece of film directorFrank Perry.She has a younger brother named David, who is also a singer,and an older sister, Angela. From ages three to 11, Perry frequently moved across the country as her very strict parents set up churches before settling again in Santa Barbara. Growing up, she attended religious schools and camps, including Paradise Valley Christian School inArizonaand Santa Barbara Christian School in California during herelementary years.The family struggled financially,sometimes usingfood stampsand eating food from the food bank which also fed the congregation at her parents' church. Growing up, Perry and her siblings were not allowed to eat the cerealLucky Charmsas the word \\\"luck\\\" reminded their mother ofLucifer, and were also required to calldeviled eggs\\\"angeled eggs\\\".Perry primarily listened togospel music,as secular music was generally discouraged in the family's home. She discovered popular music through CDs she sneaked from her friends.Perry later recalled a story about how a friend of hers played \\\"You Oughta Know\\\" byAlanis Morissette, which impacted her songwriting and singing. While not strictly identifying as religious, she has stated, \\\"I pray all the time – for self-control, for humility.\\\"Wanting to be like her sister Angela, Perry began singing by practicing with her sister's cassette tapes. She performed the tracks in front of her parents, who let her take vocal lessons like Angela was doing at the time. She begantrainingat age nineand was incorporated into her parents' ministry,singing in church from ages nine to 17.At 13, Perry was given her first guitar for her birthday,and publicly performed songs she wrote.She tried to \\\"be a bit like the typical Californian girl\\\" while growing up, and started rollerskating, skateboarding, and surfing as a teenager. Her brother David described her as a \\\"tomboy\\\" during her adolescence, which Perry talks about on her song \\\"One of the Boys\\\".She took dancing lessons and learned how toswing,Lindy Hop, andjitterbug.Perry completed herGeneral Educational Development(GED) requirements early at age 15,during her first year of high school,and leftDos Pueblos High Schoolto pursue a music career. 2000–2006: Career beginnings,Katy Hudson, andFingerprints Perry briefly had vocal lessons with a woman named Agatha Danoffin facilities rented from theMusic Academy of the West.Her singing caught the attention of rock artists Steve Thomas andJennifer KnappfromNashville, Tennessee, who brought her there to improve her writing skills.In Nashville, she started recordingdemosand learned how to write songs and play guitar.Perry signed withRed Hill Recordsand recorded her debut album, acontemporary Christianrecord titledKaty Hudson, which was released on March 6, 2001. She also went on tour that year as part ofPhil Joel's Strangely Normal Tourand embarked on other performances of her own in the United States.Katy Hudsonreceived mixed reviews from critics and was commercially unsuccessful, selling an estimated 200 copies before the label ceased operations in December.Transitioning from gospel music to secular music, Perry started working with producerGlen Ballard,and moved to Los Angeles at age 17.She opted to work with Ballard due to his past work with Alanis Morissette, one of her major inspirations. In 2003, she briefly performed as Katheryn Perry, to avoid confusion with actressKate Hudson, and later adopted the stage name \\\"Katy Perry\\\", using her mother's maiden name.In 2010, she recalled that \\\"Thinking of You\\\" was one of the first songs she wrote after moving to Los Angeles.Perry would also perform at theHotel Café, performing new music while she was between record labels. In 2004, she signed to Ballard's label, Java Records, which was then affiliated withThe Island Def Jam Music Group. Perry began work on a solo record due for release in March 2005, but the record was shelved after Java was dropped.Ballard then introduced her toTim Devine, anA&Rexecutive atColumbia Records, and she was signed as a solo artist. By November 2006, Perry had finished writing and recording material for her Columbia debut titledFingerprints(with some of the material from this time appearing onOne of the Boys) which was planned for release in 2007.Some of the material fromFingerprintsthat did not make it onOne of the Boyswas given to other artists, such as \\\"I Do Not Hook Up\\\" and \\\"Long Shot\\\" toKelly Clarksonand \\\"Rock God\\\" toSelena Gomez & the Scene. Perry worked with songwriters includingDesmond Child,Greg Wells,Butch Walker,Scott Cutler,Anne Preven,the Matrix,Kara DioGuardi,Max Martin, andDr. Luke.In addition, after Devine suggested that songwriting team the Matrix become a \\\"real group\\\", she recorded an album,The Matrix, with them.The Matrixwas planned for release in 2004 but was cancelled due to creative differences. It was released in 2009 after the release ofOne of the Boys.Perry was dropped from Columbia in 2006 asFingerprintsneared completion. After the label dropped her, she worked at an independent A&R company, Taxi Music. Perry had minor success prior to her breakthrough. One of the songs she had recorded for her album with Ballard, \\\"Simple\\\", was featured on the soundtrack to the 2005 filmThe Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants.Perry provided backing vocals onMick Jagger's song \\\"Old Habits Die Hard\\\",which was included on the soundtrack to the 2004 filmAlfie.In September 2004,Blendernamed her \\\"The Next Big Thing\\\".She recorded background vocals onP.O.D.'s single \\\"Goodbye for Now\\\", was featured at the end of its music video in 2006, and performed it with them onThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno.That year, Perry also appeared in the music video for \\\"Learn to Fly\\\" byCarbon Leaf, and played the love interest of her then-boyfriend,Gym Class Heroeslead singerTravie McCoy, in the band's music video for \\\"Cupid's Chokehold\\\". 2007–2009: Breakthrough withOne of the Boys After Columbia dropped Perry,Angelica Cob-Baehler, then a publicity executive at the label, brought Perry's demos toVirgin RecordschairmanJason Flom. Flom was convinced that she could be a breakthrough star and she was signed toCapitol Recordsin April 2007. The label arranged for her to work with Dr. Luke to add an \\\"undeniable smash\\\" to her existing material.Perry and Dr. Luke co-wrote the songs \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" and \\\"Hot n Cold\\\" for her second albumOne of the Boys. A campaign was started with the November 2007 release of the video to \\\"Ur So Gay\\\", a song aimed at introducing her to the music market.Adigital EP of the same namewas also released that month.Madonnahelped publicize the song by praising it on theJohnJay & Richradio show in April 2008,stating \\\"Ur So Gay\\\" was her \\\"favorite song\\\" at the time.In March 2008, Perry made a cameo appearance as a club singer in theWildfireepisode \\\"Life's Too Short\\\"and appeared as herself during a photo shoot that June onThe Young and the Restlessfor the show's magazineRestless Style. Perry released her first single with Capitol, \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\", on April 28, 2008,as the lead single fromOne of the Boys. The first station to pick up the song wasWRVWin Nashville, who were inundated with enthusiastic calls the first three days they played it.The track reached number one on the USBillboardHot 100.\\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" created controversy among both religious andLGBTgroups. The former criticized its homosexual theme, while the latter accused her of usingbi-curiosityto sell records. In response to speculation that her parents opposed her music and career, Perry toldMTVthat they had no problems with her success.One of the Boys, released on June 17, 2008, garnered mixed critical reviews and reached number nine on the USBillboard200.The album went on to sell 7 million copies worldwide.\\\"Hot n Cold\\\" was released the following Septemberand became the album's second successful single, reaching number three on theBillboardHot 100while topping charts in Germany,Canada,the Netherlandsand Austria.Later singles \\\"Thinking of You\\\" and \\\"Waking Up in Vegas\\\" were released in 2009and reached the top 30 of the Hot 100.The Matrix's self-titled debut album, which Perry had recorded with the band in 2004, was released ontoiTuneson January 27, 2009, as a result of her solo success. After finishing the 2008Warped Tour,Perry hosted the2008 MTV Europe Music Awardsin November 2008, where she won the award forBest New Act.At the2009 Brit Awards, she also won the award forInternational Female Solo Artist.Perry embarked on her first headlining world tour, theHello Katy Tour, from January to November 2009 to supportOne of the Boys.On August 4, 2009, she performed as opening act for one date ofNo Doubt's2009 Summer Tour.Perry also hosted the2009 MTV Europe Music Awardsin November 2009, becoming the first person to host two consecutive ceremonies of the European awards.On July 22, 2009, Perry recorded a live album titledMTV Unplugged, which featuredacousticperformances of five tracks fromOne of the Boysas well as one new song, \\\"Brick by Brick\\\", and a cover ofFountains of Wayne's \\\"Hackensack\\\".It was released on November 17, 2009.Perry also appeared on two singles with other artists; she was featured on a remix ofColorado-based band3OH!3's song \\\"Starstrukk\\\" in September 2009,and on a duet withTimbalandentitled \\\"If We Ever Meet Again\\\", from his albumShock Value II, three months later.TheGuinness World Recordsrecognized her in its 2010 edition as the \\\"Best Start on the U.S. Digital Chart by a Female Artist\\\", for digital single sales of over two million copies. After Perry and Travie McCoy split up in December 2008,they briefly reconciled before she ended their relationship in 2009.Perry met her future husbandRussell Brandin the summer of 2009 while filming a cameo appearance for his filmGet Him to the Greek. Her scene, in which the two kiss, does not appear in the film.She began dating Brand after meeting him again that September at the2009 MTV Video Music Awards.The couple became engaged on December 31, 2009, while vacationing inRajasthan, India. 2010–2012:Teenage Dreamand marriage After serving as a guest judge onAmerican Idol,Perry released \\\"California Gurls\\\" featuringSnoop Doggon May 7, 2010.The song was the lead single from her third studio album,Teenage Dream, and reached number one on theBillboardHot 100 in June.She also served as a guest judge onBritishThe X Factorlater that monthbefore releasing the album's second single, \\\"Teenage Dream\\\", in July.\\\"Teenage Dream\\\" reached number one on theBillboardHot 100 in September.Released on August 24, 2010,Teenage Dreamdebuted at number one on theBillboard200,and received mixed reviews from music critics.It has since sold 6 million copies worldwide.Teenage Dreamwould go on to win the 2011Juno Award for International Album of the Year.In October, \\\"Firework\\\" was released as the album's third single.It became the album's third consecutive number one on theBillboardHot 100 on December 8, 2010. \\\"E.T.\\\" featuringKanye Westwas released as the fourth single fromTeenage Dreamon February 16, 2011.It topped theBillboardHot 100 for five non-consecutive weeks, makingTeenage Dreamthe ninth album in history to produce four number one singles on the chart.\\\"Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)\\\" followed as the fifth single in June,and Perry became the first female artist to achieve five number-oneBillboardHot 100 songs from one album when the single topped that chart on August 17, and the second artist afterMichael Jacksonwith his albumBad.For this record, she received an honoraryAmerican Music Awardin November 2011and a 2013 Guinness World Record.On September 7, she set a new record by becoming the first artist to spend 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the Hot 100.After \\\"The One That Got Away\\\" was released as the album's sixth single in October,Teenage Dreambecame the third album to spawn six top-five songs on theBillboardHot 100 afterRhythm Nation 1814byJanet JacksonandFaithbyGeorge Michael.The song peaked at number three in the USand number two in Canada. On January 5, 2012, Perry was named the sixth best-selling digital artist in the United States, with sales of 37.6 million units according toNielsen SoundScan.That month, she became the first artist to have four songs sell over 5 million digital units when \\\"E.T.\\\" reached that mark along with \\\"Firework\\\", \\\"California Gurls\\\", and \\\"Hot N Cold\\\".On February 13, Capitol released the lead single fromTeenage Dream: The Complete Confection, \\\"Part of Me\\\", which debuted at number one on theBillboardHot 100 and became Perry's seventh single overall to top the chart.Teenage Dream: The Complete Confectionwas released on March 23,and serves as a reissue ofTeenage Dream.\\\"Wide Awake\\\" was released on May 22 as the re-release's second single,peaking at number two on theBillboardHot 100and number one in Canadaand New Zealand. Perry embarked on her second tour, theCalifornia Dreams Tour, in support ofTeenage Dreamfrom February 2011 to January 2012.The tour grossed $59.5 million globallyand won her the award forBest Live Actat the2011 MTV Europe Music Awards.On September 23, 2011, she performed on the opening day of the 2011Rock in Riofestival along withElton JohnandRihanna.In September 2010, Perry was scheduled to appear on the 41st-season premiere ofSesame Street. After her scene was uploaded to YouTube, viewers criticized Perry's exposedcleavage. Four days before the scheduled airing,Sesame Workshopannounced that the segment would not air on television, but would still be available to watch online.Perry subsequently mocked the controversy onSaturday Night Live, where she was a musical guest and wore anElmo-themed shirt showing large amounts of cleavage during one skit. In December 2010, Perry playedMoe Szyslak's girlfriend in the live-action segment from a Christmas episode ofThe Simpsonstitled \\\"The Fight Before Christmas\\\".In February 2011, she made a guest appearance on theHow I Met Your Motherepisode \\\"Oh Honey\\\", playing a woman known as Honey.The role won her thePeople's Choice Award for Favorite TV Guest Starin January 2012.She made her film debut in the 3D family motion pictureThe SmurfsasSmurfetteon July 29, 2011. The film was a financial success worldwide,while critics gave mostly negative reviews.She hostedSaturday Night Liveon December 10, 2011, withRobynas the episode's musical guest. Perry's work on the episode received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised her performance in the episode'sdigital shortfeaturing her andAndy Samberg.In March 2012, she guest starred as a prison security guard named Rikki on theRaising Hopeepisode \\\"Single White Female Role Model\\\".On July 5, 2012, Perry's autobiographical documentaryKaty Perry: Part of Mewas released to theaters throughParamount Pictures.The film received positive reviewsand grossed $32.7 million worldwide at the box office. Perry began to venture into business when she endorsed her first fragrance, Purr, in November 2010. Her second fragrance, Meow!, was released in December 2011. Both perfumes were released throughNordstromdepartment stores.Electronic Artsrecruited her to promote their new expansion pack forThe Sims 3: Showtime,before releasing a separatestuff packfeaturing Perry-inspired furniture, outfits, and hairstyles, titledThe Sims 3: Katy Perry's Sweet Treats, in June 2012.The following month, she became the spokesperson and ambassador forPopchipsand made an investment in the company.Billboarddubbed her as their \\\"Woman of the Year\\\" for 2012. She married Russell Brand on October 23, 2010, in a traditionalHinduceremonynear theRanthambhore tiger sanctuaryinRajasthan, India.On December 30, 2011, Brand announced that they were divorcing after 14 months of marriage.Perry later stated that conflicting career schedules and his desire to have children before she was ready led to the end of their marriageand that he never spoke to her again after sending a text message that he was divorcing her,while Brand asserted that he divorced her due to her commercial success and reluctance to engage in activism.She was initially distraught over their divorce and said that she contemplated suicide.Since they married without aprenuptial agreement, he was eligible to claim half of the estimated $44 million she earned during their marriage, but declined.Perry began a relationship with singerJohn Mayerin August 2012, the year her marriage with Brand had ended. 2013–2015:Prismand Super Bowl XLIX halftime show In November 2012, Perry began work on her fourth album,Prism.She toldBillboard, \\\"I know exactly the record I want to make next. I know the artwork, the coloring and the tone\\\" and \\\"I even know what type of tour I'm doing next. I'll be very pleased if the vision I have in my head becomes a reality.\\\"After initially tellingL'Uomo Voguein June 2012 that she planned to have \\\"darker elements\\\" inPrismfollowing the end of her marriage, the singer revealed to MTV during the2013 MTV Video Music Awardsthat she changed the album's direction after periods of self-reflection. Perry commented \\\"I felt very prismatic\\\", which inspired the album's name.\\\"Roar\\\" was released as the lead single fromPrismon August 10, 2013.It was promoted at the MTV Video Music Awards and reached number one on theBillboardHot 100.\\\"Unconditionally\\\" followed as the second single fromPrismon October 16, 2013,and peaked at number 14 in the United States. Prismwas released on October 18, 2013, and has sold 4 million copies as of August 2015.It received favorable reviews from criticsand debuted at number one on theBillboard200 chart.Four days later, Perry performed the songs from the album at theiHeartRadioTheater in Los Angeles.\\\"Dark Horse\\\" withJuicy Jwas released as the album's third single in December, and became her ninth U.S. number-one single the following month.In 2014, \\\"Birthday\\\" and \\\"This Is How We Do\\\" respectively followed as the album's fourth and fifth singles,and reached the top 25 on the Hot 100.Prior to ending her relationship with Mayer in February 2014,she recorded and co-wrote a duet with him titled \\\"Who You Love\\\" for his albumParadise Valley. The song was released on August 12, 2013.Perry's third headlining tour, thePrismatic World Tour, began in May 2014and concluded in October 2015.It sold almost 2 million tickets and grossed $204.3 million worldwideand won Perry the award for \\\"Top Package\\\" at the 2014BillboardTouring Awards.She also performed at the 2015 Rock in Rio festival on September 27, 2015. On November 23, 2014, theNFLannounced that Perry would perform at theSuper Bowl XLIX halftime showon February 1, 2015.Lenny KravitzandMissy Elliottserved as special guests for the show.Her performance was critically acclaimed,and theGuinness World Recordsannounced two days after the singer's halftime show that it garnered 118.5 million viewers in the United States, becoming the most watched and highest rated show in Super Bowl history. The viewership was higher than the game itself, which was viewed by an audience of 114.4 million. TheInternational Federation of the Phonographic Industry(IFPI) ranked her fifth on the list of Top Global Recording Artists of 2013.On June 26, 2014, she was declared the Top Certified Digital Artist Ever by theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) for certified sales of 72 million digital singles in the United States.In May 2014, a portrait of Perry by painterMark Rydenwas featured in his exhibition \\\"The Gay 90s\\\", and shown at theKohn Galleryin Los Angeles. Along with several other artists, she also recorded a cover version of the song \\\"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)\\\" on a limited-edition concept album titledThe Gay Nineties Old Tyme Music: Daisy Bellto accompany the exhibition.That month, a portrait of Perry by artistWill Cottonwas included in the United StatesNational Portrait Gallery.On November 23, 2015, Perry starred inH&M's holiday advertising campaign, for which she wrote and recorded a song titled \\\"Every Day Is a Holiday\\\".On June 17, 2014, Perry announced that she had founded her own record label under Capitol Records, titled Metamorphosis Music.Ferraswas the first artist to get signed to her label, and Perry served as an executive producer onhis self-titled EP. She also recorded a duet with him on the EP, titled \\\"Legends Never Die\\\".The label was later renamedUnsub Records. Outside of her music career, Perry reprised her role as Smurfette inThe Smurfs 2, which was released in theaters on July 31, 2013.Like its predecessor,The Smurfs 2was a financial successbut was panned by critics.In March 2014, she made a guest appearance playing herself in the episode \\\"Blisteritos Presents Dad Academy Graduation Congraduritos Red Carpet Viewing Party\\\" of theKroll Show.Killer Queen was released as her third fragrance in August 2013 throughCotyIn January 2014, she became a guest curator of Madonna'sArt for Freedominitiative.In March 2015, she appeared inBrand: A Second Coming, a documentary following her ex-husband Russell Brand's transition from comedy work to activism,and released a concert film titledKaty Perry: The Prismatic World TourthroughEpix, which took place during her tour of the same name.Perry also made a cameo appearance in the music video for Madonna's song \\\"Bitch I'm Madonna\\\" in June 2015.The following month, she released another fragrance with Coty, entitled Mad Potion.In September 2015, she appeared in the documentariesKaty Perry: Making of the Pepsi Super Bowl Halftime Show, which followed Perry's preparation for her Super Bowl performance,andJeremy Scott: The People's Designer, which followed the life and career of designerJeremy Scott.Perry released a mobile app titledKaty Perry Popin December 2015 throughGlu Mobilewhere her character helps players become famous musicians.She described it as \\\"the most fun, colorful world that helps guide your musical dreams\\\". 2016–2018:WitnessandAmerican Idol Perry started writing songs for her new album in June 2016,and recorded an anthem forNBC Sports's coverage of the2016 Summer Olympicstitled \\\"Rise\\\", which was released the following month. Perry chose to release it as a standalone track rather than save it for her album \\\"because now more than ever, there is a need for our world to unite\\\". NBC also felt its message spoke \\\"directly to the spirit of the Olympics and its athletes\\\" for its inspirational themes.The song reached number one in Australiaand number eleven in the United States. In August 2016, Perry stated that she aspired to create material \\\"that connects and relates and inspires\\\"and toldRyan Seacrestthat she was \\\"not rushing\\\" her fifth album, adding \\\"I'm just having a lot of fun, but experimenting and trying different producers, and different collaborators, and different styles\\\".On February 10, 2017, Perry released the album's lead single \\\"Chained to the Rhythm\\\" featuringSkip Marley.It reached number one in Hungaryand number four in the United States.The track was also streamed over three million times onSpotifywithin 24 hours, breaking the music streaming service's record at the time for the highest first-day streaming for a single track by a female artist.The album's second single, \\\"Bon Appétit\\\" withMigos, was released that April.Its third single, \\\"Swish Swish\\\", featuredNicki Minajand followed the next month.They respectively peaked at numbers 59 and 46 in the United States,and made the top 15 in Canada. The album, titledWitness, was released on June 9, 2017, to mixed reviews,and debuted at number one in the United States.To accompany the album's release, Perry broadcast herself on YouTube for four days with a live-stream titledKaty Perry Live: Witness World Wide, concluding with a live concert on June 12.The live-stream generated over 49 million views from 190 countries.She also embarked onWitness: The Tour, which began in September 2017 and ended in August 2018.On June 15, 2017,Calvin Harrisreleased a song titled \\\"Feels\\\" from his albumFunk Wav Bounces Vol. 1, which featured Perry,Big Sean, andPharrell Williams.The song went on to reach number one in the United Kingdom. Perry subsequently recorded a cover of theDear Evan Hansensong \\\"Waving Through a Window\\\" for the deluxe edition of thecast recording, which was released on November 2, 2018.The show's creatorsBenj PasekandJustin Paulhad requested Perry to cover the song to promote the musical's national tour and bring awareness to mental health.Later that month, Perry released \\\"Cozy Little Christmas\\\".She also recorded the song \\\"Immortal Flame\\\" for the gameFinal Fantasy Brave Exvius, and had aplayable charactermodeled after her. Outside of recording music, Perry appeared as herself in the filmZoolander 2, which was released in February 2016.In February 2017, the singer launched a shoe line titled \\\"Katy Perry Collections\\\".Her shoes are available on her website, Katy Perry Collections, and at retailers such asDillard'sandWalmart.The following August, she hosted the2017 MTV Video Music Awards.Perry was signed for a $25-million salary to serve as a judge on thesixteenth seasonofAmerican Idol, which premiered in March 2018.Perry began a relationship withOrlando Bloomin early 2016, and the couple got engaged on February 14, 2019. 2019–2020:Smileand motherhood At the61st Annual Grammy Awards, Perry performed \\\"Here You Come Again\\\", alongsideDolly PartonandKacey Musgraves, as part of a tribute to Parton.Four days later, she released a song called \\\"365\\\", with DJZedd.In April, Perry was included on a remix ofDaddy Yankee's song \\\"Con Calma\\\", featuringSnow.She followed this with the singles \\\"Never Really Over\\\" on May 31, \\\"Small Talk\\\" on August 9, and \\\"Harleys in Hawaii\\\" on October 16.\\\"Never Really Over\\\" in particular received critical acclaim. In June 2019, Perry appeared in the music video ofTaylor Swift's \\\"You Need to Calm Down\\\".In July, a jury in California returned a verdict following a week-long trial that Perry's song \\\"Dark Horse\\\" had copiedFlame's 2008 song \\\"Joyful Noise\\\" after he filed acopyright lawsuitalleging that it used his track's beat without permission;the verdict was later overturned.After the initial verdict, the jury ordered her to pay him $550,000.The next month, Josh Kloss, Perry's co-star in the \\\"Teenage Dream\\\" music video, accused her of sexual misconduct.In anInstagrampost, Kloss alleged that, during a party at a skating rink, Perry pulled on his sweatpants and underwear, exposing his penis to her male friends. He also said her management prevented him from speaking about his time with the singer. Johnny Wujek, the creative director of said party defended Perry, saying that she \\\"would never do something like that\\\" and accused Kloss of having an \\\"ongoing obsession\\\" with her.After initially refraining from responding to this, believing it would have detracted from theMe Too movement, Perry has also denied Kloss's claims. Following the release of her single \\\"Never Worn White\\\" in March 2020, Perry revealed in the accompanying music video that she was expecting her first child with Bloom.\\\"Daisies\\\", the lead single from her sixth album, was released on May 15, 2020. Its second single \\\"Smile\\\" followed two months later.The album, also titledSmile, was released on August 28, 2020.Two days before its distribution, she gave birth to a daughter named Daisy Dove Bloom.The album received mixed reviews,and debuted at number five in the United States.Perry further promoted the album with four compilation EPs:Camp Katy,Empowered,Scorpio SZN,andCosmic Energy.These EPs were followed by the single \\\"Not the End of the World\\\" in December 2020, which had a music video in whichZooey Deschanelimpersonates Perry.Additionally she collaborated with various artists to create two remixes ofSmilealbum tracks.Tiëstoremix of \\\"Resilient\\\" featuringAitanawas released in November 2020, while Bruno Martini remix of \\\"Cry About It Later\\\" featuringLuísa Sonzawas released in April 2021. 2021–2023: Play residency On January 20, 2021, Perry performed \\\"Firework\\\" at theCelebrating Americaconcert during theinauguration of Joe Biden.Four months later, she released a new single, \\\"Electric\\\", a collaboration withPokémonas part of its 25th anniversary.That December, Perry followed this with \\\"When I'm Gone\\\", a collaboration with Swedish DJAlessothat made her the third person to reach number one on Croatia's ARC 100 list across three different decades followingLady GagaandColdplay. Perry began hosting aconcert residencynamedPlayatResorts World Las Vegason December 29, 2021.The show's inception happened during theCOVID-19 lockdownswith Perry being inspired byHoney, I Shrunk the Kids,Pee-wee's Playhouse, andPee-wee's Big Adventure. She described it as \\\"larger than life\\\" and \\\"the kookiest, most camp show I've ever put together.\\\"The show has received critical acclaimwith Melinda Sheckells ofBillboardsaying that Play's \\\"sold-out opening night is part fantasy, part hallucination and thoroughly camp.In addition to a sold out opening night, theSanta Barbara Independentreported that Perry's contract deal for the residency was worth $168 million.It concluded on November 4, 2023,and grossed $46.4 million. In September 2021,Varietypaid tribute to and honored Perry in their \\\"Power of Women\\\" issue, where she discussed her career, motherhood, andphilanthropy.As a nominee, she attended theVariety2021 \\\"Power of Women\\\" dinner.On her 37th birthday the next month, Perry guest hostedThe Ellen DeGeneres Showand starred in a holiday advertisement forGap Inc.which featured her singing \\\"All You Need Is Love\\\" bythe Beatles. A full version of her cover was released on streaming platforms the same day.In January 2022, she and Morgan McLachlan established De Soi, a company which produces and sellsnon-alcoholicapéritifs. Both wanted a beverage that \\\"would mellow the mind, minus the buzz\\\" when creating it. Along withThomas Rhett, Perry recorded a country pop duet titled \\\"Where We Started\\\" for hisalbum of the same namethat was released on April 1, 2022.The next month, it was announced Perry would create music for the soundtrack to Jeremy Zag's animated musical filmMelodyand voice its title character.She also became the new face forJust Eat's,SkipTheDishes',Lieferando's, andMenulog's advertisements and created a new remix of their jingle.On June 8, 2022, Perry was awarded with the Key toLas Vegas, the same day it was marked as Katy Perry day. Perry collaborated with the tech companyApple Inc.starring in advertisements for theirGarageBandmusic software where users could have \\\"Remix Sessions\\\" featuring her song, \\\"Harleys in Hawaii\\\". On the collab, she stated in August 2022: \\\"'Harleys in Hawaii' has lived so many different lives\\\" as well as that there was \\\"so much opportunity to remix this song, and I can't wait to hear all the GarageBand evolutions with this Apple collab.\\\"Perry performed at the May 2023Coronation ConcertofCharles IIIatWindsor Castle.Four months later, she sold her music rights to Litmus Music for an estimated $225 million. 2024:143 During an appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!in February 2024, Perry announced her exit fromAmerican Idolfollowing the conclusion of thetwenty-second season, wanting to \\\"go out and feel that pulse to my own beat\\\" and release new music after being \\\"in the studio for a while\\\". The season premiered later that month,and concluded the following May.She released \\\"Woman's World\\\", the first single from her seventh album, on July 11, 2024.One day before the track's premiere, Perry revealed the album is be titled143and that would be released on September 20 of the same year.She described the album as \\\"super high energy, it's super summer, it's very high BPM\\\" and \\\"just full of so much joy, so much love, so much light\\\".On September 11, Perry received theMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Awardat the2024 MTV Video Music Awards.She performed during the 2024 Rock in Rio festival on the day of143's release.Eight days later, she will headline the pre-game entertainment at Australia's2024 AFL Grand Final. Artistry Influences Perry cites her sister Angela as the woman who has had the most influence on her.During the early stages of her career, Perry's musical style gravitated towards gospel and she aspired to be as successful asAmy Grant.At age 15, she heard \\\"Killer Queen\\\" byQueen, which inspired her to pursue a music career.She cites the band's frontman,Freddie Mercury, as her biggest influence and expressed how the \\\"combination of his sarcastic approach to writing lyrics and his 'I don't give a fuck' attitude\\\" inspired her music.She paid homage to the band by naming her third fragrance Killer Queen.Perry describedthe Beach Boysand their albumPet Soundsas having a considerable influence on her music: \\\"Pet Soundsis one of my favorite records and it influenced pretty much all of my songwriting. All of the melody choices that I make are because ofPet Sounds.\\\"The singer also holds the Beatles' albumThe Beatlesin high esteem, and described these two albums as \\\"the only things I listened to for probably two years straight.\\\" She cites Alanis Morissette and her 1995 albumJagged Little Pillas a significant musical inspiration, stating in 2012: \\\"Jagged Little Pillwas the most perfect female record ever made. There's a song for anyone on that record; I relate to all those songs. They're still so timeless.\\\" Additionally, Perry borrows influence fromFlaming RedbyPatty Griffinand10 Cent WingsbyJonatha Brooke.Perry's autobiographical documentaryKaty Perry: Part of Mewas largely influenced byMadonna: Truth or Dare. She admires Madonna's ability to reinvent herself, saying \\\"I want to evolve like Madonna\\\". Perry namesBjörkas an influence, particularly admiring her \\\"willingness to always be taking chances\\\".Other artists who Perry has cited as influences includeStevie Nicks,ABBA,the Cardigans,Whitney Houston,Cyndi Lauper,Ace of Base,3OH!3,CeCe Peniston,C+C Music Factory,Black Box,Crystal Waters,Mariah Carey,Heart, Joni Mitchell,Paul Simon,Imogen Heap,Rufus Wainwright,Pink,andGwen Stefani.\\\"Firework\\\" was inspired by a passage in the bookOn the RoadbyJack Kerouacin which the author compares people who are full of life to fireworks that shoot across the sky and make people watch in awe.Her second concert tour, the California Dreams Tour, was reminiscent ofAlice's Adventures in WonderlandandThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz.She also credits the 1996 filmThe Craftfor inspiring her song \\\"Dark Horse\\\",andEckhart Tolle's bookThe Power of Nowfor influencingPrism. Musical style and themes \\\"When I am in between records, sometimes I doubt myself. I'll be like 'Did I just get lucky, or did I mass-manipulate the world into thinking that seven songs were worth a number-one position?' And then I go back into the studio and I start writing, and the true essential oil of who I am comes bubbling back up and reminds me that it's always been inside of me, that nobody can take this away no matter what comment anyone makes.\\\" —Perry on her confidence as a songwriter Although Perry's music incorporates elements of pop, rock, anddisco,Katy Hudsoncontains gospel. Her subsequent releases,One of the BoysandTeenage Dream, involve themes of sex and love.One of the Boysis apop rockrecord, whileTeenage Dreamfeatures disco influences.Perry's fourth album,Prism, is significantly influenced by dance and pop music. Lyrically, the album addresses relationships, self-reflection, and everyday life.Her fifth studio effortWitnessis anelectropopalbum that she described as a \\\"360-degree liberation\\\" record, with themes including political liberation, sexual liberation, and liberation from negativity.Many of her songs, particularly onTeenage Dream, reflect on love between teenagers;Wmagazine described the album's sexual innuendos as \\\"irresistible hook-laden melodies\\\".Self-empowerment is a common theme in Perry's music. Perry has described herself as a \\\"singer-songwriter masquerading as a pop star\\\"and maintains that honest songwriting is very important to her. She toldMarie Claire: \\\"I feel like my secret magic trick that separates me from a lot of my peers is the bravery to be vulnerable and truthful and honest. I think you become more relatable when you're vulnerable.\\\"Actress and comedianKristen Wiigcommented that \\\"as easy, breezy, and infectious as Perry's songs can be, beneath the surface lurks a sea of mixed emotions, jumbled motives, and contradictory impulses complicated enough to fill aCarole Kingrecord.\\\"According toGreg Kotof theChicago Tribune, \\\"being taken seriously may be Perry's greatest challenge yet.\\\"In 2013,The New York Timeslabeled her \\\"the most potent pop star of the day – her hits are relatable with just a hint of experimentation\\\".Randall Roberts of theLos Angeles Timescriticized her use of idioms and metaphors in her lyrics and for frequent \\\"clichés\\\".Throughout her career, Perry has also co-written songs recorded by other artists, includingLesley Roy,Kelly Clarkson,Jessie James Decker,Selena Gomez & the Scene,Britney Spears,Iggy Azalea,Rita Ora,Nicki Minaj, andAriana Grande. Voice Perry possesses acontraltovocal range.Her singing has received both praise and criticism. Betty Clarke ofThe Guardiancommented that her \\\"powerful voice is hard-edged\\\"whileRob SheffieldfromRolling Stonedescribed Perry's vocals onTeenage Dreamas \\\"processedstaccatoblips\\\".Darren Harvey ofmusicOMHcompared Perry's vocals onOne of the Boysto Alanis Morissette's, both possessing a \\\"perky voice shifting octaves mid-syllable\\\".Alex Miller fromNMEfelt that \\\"Perry's problem is often her voice\\\" onOne of the Boys, stating that \\\"somewhere along the line someone convinced her she was like, well, a ballsy rock chick\\\".Conversely, Bernadette McNulty fromThe Daily Telegraphpraised her \\\"rock chick voice\\\" in a review of a concert promotingPrism. Public image On social media, Perry surpassedJustin Bieberas the most followed person onTwitterin November 2013.She won the 2015 Guinness World Record for most Twitter followers,and became the first person to gain 100 million followers on the site in June 2017.Keith Caulfield ofBillboardstated that Perry is \\\"the rare celebrity who seems to have enormous popularity but genuine ground-level interaction with her adoring KatyCats.\\\"With over 106 million Twitter followers, she is the second-most followed woman on the site, and the sixth most followed musician across social media with a combined total of over 385 million followers acrossFacebook, Instagram, and Twitter.In June 2017,Timemagazine listed Perry among its \\\"25 Most Influential People on the Internet\\\" of the year, writing that her live-stream forWitnesswas \\\"blazing a trail\\\" for being \\\"the closest any major entertainer has come to giving fans the kind of 'real' intimacy that social media purports to provide\\\". Perry has been described as asex symbol;GQlabeled her a \\\"full-on male fantasy\\\",whileEllewrote her body looked \\\"as though sketched by a teenage boy\\\".Vicecalled her a\\\"'serious' popstar/woman/sex symbol\\\".She was placed at number one on theMaximHot 100 in 2010 as the \\\"most beautiful woman in the world\\\", with editor Joe Levy describing her as a \\\"triple – no quadruple – kind of hot\\\".Men's Healthreaders voted her the \\\"sexiest woman of 2013\\\".In November 2010, Perry toldHarper's Bazaarthat she was proud of and satisfied with her figure. Perry's fashion often incorporates humor, bright colors, and food-related themessuch as her characteristic spinning peppermint swirl dress.Voguedescribed her as \\\"never exactly one to shy away from the outrageous or the extreme in any realm\\\", and called her the \\\"Queen ofCamp\\\",whileGlamournamed her the \\\"queen of quirk\\\".In February 2009, Perry toldSeventeenthat her fashion style was \\\"a bit of a concoction of different things\\\" and stated she enjoyed humor in her clothing.She has also described herself as having \\\"multipersonality disorder\\\" for fashion.Perry lists Gwen Stefani,Shirley Manson,Chloë Sevigny,Daphne Guinness,Natalie Portman, and the fictional characterLolitaas her style icons.In 2022,Elledubbed her as \\\"thekitsch-loving pop star renowned for her uniquely experimental style\\\", whileVoguedescribed her style as \\\"synonymous with outrageous, eye-catching ensembles that lean towards the theatrical\\\". During the 2017 launch of her shoe collection, Katy Perry Collections, she said about shoes: \\\"When I first got to L.A., I cultivated my style on a budget, always shopping at thrift stores or vintage stores. ... Once, I found these flats that looked likeDalmatian dogs. They had ears that moved and a tongue that stuck out. They were such a conversation piece. That's what is so great about fashion. ... It's a form of communication. You don't have to start a smoking habit to start talking to someone. You can just wear cool shoes. It's an icebreaker.\\\" Legacy Several media outlets such asBillboardandGlamourhave referred to her as the \\\"Queen of Pop\\\", while others likeVogue,Rolling Stone, andInStylehave dubbed Perry the \\\"Queen of Camp\\\".Andrew Unterberger ofBillboarddescribedTeenage Dream\\\"one of the defining LPs from a new golden age in mega-pop\\\"while Christopher Rosa ofGlamournamed her as an influence to thepopsound and style of the 2010s, adding that her singles are \\\"some of the most recognizable, iconic, and impactful hits in pop history.\\\"Perry was named \\\"one of the last decade's most reliable and successful hitmakers\\\" by theOfficial Charts Companyin 2022. Additionally, Perry was included inGlamour's \\\"104 Women Who Defined the Decade in Pop Culture\\\" list of the 2010s. It stated Perry \\\"did more than just break chart records. She was one of the driving forces behind the sound of pop radio in the 2010s\\\" for her tracks that were \\\"glossy, booming, sugary-sweet, and undeniably catchy.\\\"Varietyincluded Perry in theirVariety500 list of the most influential business leaders, calling her a \\\"global phenomenon\\\" and a \\\"dedicated artist and tireless self-promoter who has leveraged chart-topping hits, sold-out stadium shows, and staggering endorsement deals to become one of the richest and most influential pop stars alive.\\\"A 2017 journal published byPsychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Artsstudying structural patterns in the melodies ofearwormsongs compiled lists ofcatchiesttracks from 3,000 participants, in which Perry's \\\"California Gurls\\\" ranked number six.She has been called a \\\"gay icon\\\" by Taylor Henderson ofOut, noting how \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" helped fans explore their sexuality and how Perry openly embraced theLGBTQ+ community. Perry's music has been described byOutas having a \\\"lasting legacy\\\", with American singersFletchersampling \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" andOlivia RodrigoreferencingTeenage Dreamon \\\"Brutal\\\".Additionally, other artists such asHalseyandAriana Grandehave praised Perry's work, with Halsey callingTeenage Dreamthe \\\"perfect pop album\\\" and Grande saying \\\"The One That Got Away\\\" is \\\"one of the biggest and most perfectly written pop songs ever from one of the best pop albums of all time.\\\" Other ventures Philanthropy Perry has supported various charitable organizations and causes throughout her career. She has contributed to organizations aimed at improving the lives and welfare of children in particular. In April 2013, she joinedUNICEFto assist children in Madagascar with education and nutrition.On December 3, 2013, she was officially named aUNICEF Goodwill Ambassador, \\\"with a special focus on engaging young people in the agency's work to improve the lives of the world's most vulnerable children and adolescents.\\\"She arranged for a portion of the money generated from tickets to her Prismatic World Tour to go to UNICEF.In September 2010, she helped build and design the Boys Hope/Girls Hope foundation shelter for youth in Baltimore, Maryland along withRaven-Symoné,Shaquille O'Neal, and the cast ofExtreme Makeover: Home Edition.In 2010, Perry andNicki Minajperformed a cover of \\\"Girls Just Want to Have Fun\\\" for service members during the 2010VH1Divas Salute the Troops concert. She has also supported children's education and well-being. All profits from sales of the albumThe Gay Nineties Old Tyme Music: Daisy Bell, which includes her rendition of \\\"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)\\\", were donated to the charityLittle Kids Rock, which supports musical education in underprivileged elementary schools.In June 2014, she teamed up withStaples Inc.for a project entitled \\\"Make Roar Happen\\\" which donated $1 million toDonorsChoose, an organization that supports teachers and funds classroom resources in public schools.In May 2016, she worked with UNICEF to improve child care quality in Vietnam, hoping to \\\"break the cycle of poverty and drastically improve children's health, education and well-being\\\".The following month, UNICEF announced that Perry would receive theAudrey HepburnHumanitarian Award \\\"for her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in support of the world's most vulnerable children\\\" at their annual Snowflake Ball in November.All Spotify streams of her 2021 cover of \\\"All You Need Is Love\\\" will generate $1 in donations for the charityBaby2Baby. Perry has supported organizations aimed at aiding people suffering with diseases including cancer andHIV/AIDS. During the 2008 Warped Tour, she had a cast made of her breasts to raise money for theKeep A Breast Foundation.She hosted and performed at the We Can Survive concert along withBonnie McKee,Kacey Musgraves,Sara Bareilles,Ellie Goulding, and duoTegan and Saraat the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles, California, on October 23, 2013. The concert's profits were donated toYoung Survival Coalition, an organization aiding breast cancer in young women.In June 2009, she designed an item of clothing forH&M's \\\"Fashion Against AIDS\\\" campaign, which raises money for HIV/AIDS awareness projects.On February 26, 2017, she served as a co-chair alongside various celebrities such asBeyoncé,Lea Michele,Jim Carrey,Jared Leto, andKevin Spaceyfor the 25th AnnualElton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party, a fundraiser for HIV/AIDS healthcare. The proceeds from Perry's single \\\"Part of Me\\\" were donated to the charityMusiCares, which helps musicians in times of need.During her California Dreams Tour, she raised over $175,000 for the Tickets-For-Charity fundraiser. The money was divided between three charities: theChildren's Health Fund(CHF), Generosity Water, andThe Humane Society of the United States. On her 27th birthday, Perry set up a donations page for theSociety for the Prevention of Cruelty to AnimalsAuckland,and set up a similar page benefiting theDavid Lynch Foundationfor her 28th birthday.On March 29, 2014, she helped raise $2.4 million for theMuseum of Contemporary Artin Los Angeles along with other celebrities such asRyan Seacrest,Pharrell Williams,Tim Allen,Lisa Edelstein, andRiley Keough. Perry performed at theOne Love Manchesterbenefit concert for the victims of the 2017Manchester Arena bombing, among various performers including its organizerAriana Grande, which was broadcast live on June 4, 2017, on radio and television stations around the world.In March 2018, Perry announcedWitness: Coming Home, a benefit concert that was held in her hometown of Santa Barbara on May 19, 2018. The concert benefited those recovering from the aftermath of the2017 California wildfiresand2018 Southern California mudflows. Perry partnered with the Santa Barbara Foundation, the 93108 Fund and The 805 UndocuFund, organizations which help in assisting members of the community in the Santa Barbara area through grants and various philanthropic efforts. Activism and political views Perry has publicly advocated forLGBT rightsand admitted that she wrote \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" about her ownbisexualexperiences with other women. In 2017, she received a Nation Equality Award fromHuman Rights Campaignfor \\\"using her powerful voice and international platform to speak out for LGBTQ equality\\\".During her acceptance speech, she discussed having bisexual experiences, her fluid sexuality, and thanked theLGBTQ+ community.In anOutinterview in 2021, she was heralded as a \\\"gay icon\\\" with \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" being called a \\\"bonafide queer anthem\\\". Perry continued to thank the LGBTQ+ community in the same interview, saying: \\\"I came from a very sheltered upbringing where it wasn't okay to be friends with anyone from that community. And now that is my community.\\\" She also mentioned \\\"I wouldn't have survived without the community and it's amazing how full circle it's come and how much growth has happened since I started.\\\"Tomás Mier ofRolling Stoneremarked Perry \\\"championed queer folks, especiallydrag queens, throughout her career.\\\" She dedicated the music video to her song \\\"Firework\\\" to theIt Gets Better Project.In June 2012, Perry expressed her hopes for LGBT equality, commenting \\\"hopefully, we will look back at this moment and think like we do now concerning civil rightsissues. We'll just shake our heads in disbelief, saying, 'Thank God we've evolved.' That would be my prayer for the future.\\\"In December 2012, Perry was awarded the Trevor Hero Award byThe Trevor Projectfor her work and activism on behalf of LGBT youth. Perry identifies as afeminist,and appeared in April 2013 in a video clip for the \\\"Chime for Change\\\" campaign that aimed to spread female empowerment.She has also said that America's lack of freehealth caredrove her \\\"absolutely crazy\\\".Following theshooting at the Pulse nightclub in Orlandoin June 2016, Perry and nearly 200 other artists and executives in music signed an open letter organized byBillboardaddressed toUnited States Congressdemanding increasedgun controlin the United States. Through Twitter and by performing at rallies, Perry supported PresidentBarack Obamain his run for re-election and praised his support forsame-sex marriageand LGBT equality.She performed at three rallies for Obama, in Los Angeles, Las Vegas, and Wisconsin, singing a rendition of \\\"Let's Stay Together\\\" as well as a number of her songs. During her Las Vegas performance she wore a dress made to replicate a voting ballot, with Obama's box filled in.On Twitter, she encouraged her followers to vote for Obama. In August 2013, Perry voiced criticism ofTony Abbott, then-leader of conservativeLiberal Party of Australiaand candidate forPrime Minister of Australia, due to his opposition to gay marriage and told Abbott, \\\"I love you as a human being but I can't give you my vote.\\\"; the statement came after Abbott expressed pride at learning of Perry's then-upcoming performance in Australia.In April 2014, she publicly supportedMarianne Williamsonin her campaign forCalifornia's 33rd congressional districtby attending a political press event.She endorsedKamala Harrisin theUnited States Senate election in California, and organized a fundraiser for Harris at her home in Los Angeles in November 2016.Perry also publicly endorsed former Secretary of StateHillary Clintonfor president in2016.She performed alongsideElton Johnat a fundraising concert for Clinton in New York City in March 2016.Perry also spoke and performed at the2016 Democratic National Conventionin support of Clinton.Four years later, she supportedJoe Bidenand Kamala Harris during the2020 United States presidential election, praising the latter as a leader who had \\\"experience we desperately need right now\\\" and believed that the former \\\"choosing her as his running mate is already a testament to his decision making\\\".In 2022, Perry posted a picture of herself voting for conservative candidateRick Carusoin the2022 Los Angeles mayoral election, for which she was heavily criticized by Democrats. Achievements Throughout her career, Perry has won fiveAmerican Music Awards,fourteenPeople's Choice Awards,fourGuinness World Records,aBrit Award,and aJuno Award.In September 2012,Billboarddubbed her the \\\"Woman of the Year\\\".From May 2010 to September 2011, the singer spent a record-breaking 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of theBillboardHot 100.Teenage Dreambecame the first album by a female artist to produce five number-oneBillboardHot 100 singles, and the second album overall after Michael Jackson'sBad.In the United States, she has accumulated nine number-one singles on theBillboardHot 100, her most recent being \\\"Dark Horse\\\",and holds the record for having 18 consecutive number-one songs on theBillboardDance Club Songschart. Billboardalso named her the 15th most successful dance club artist of all time.The magazine additionally ranked her fourth on its \\\"Greatest of All Time Pop Songs Artists\\\" list and twenty-fifth on the \\\"Greatest Pop Stars of the 21st Century\\\" list,includedTeenage DreamandPrismamong its \\\"Greatest of All TimeBillboard 200Albums by Women\\\" list,and ranked \\\"Dark Horse\\\" at number 100 on its \\\"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs\\\"as well as one of its \\\"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs by Women\\\" along with \\\"E.T.\\\", \\\"Firework\\\", and \\\"California Gurls\\\".In June 2015, her music video for \\\"Dark Horse\\\" became the first video by a female artist to reach 1 billion views on Vevo.The following month, her music video for \\\"Roar\\\" reached 1 billion views on Vevo, making her the first artist to have multiple videos with 1 billion views. With 143 million records sold globally, Perry isone of the best-selling music artists of all time.She was declared the Top Global Female Recording Artist of 2013 by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI).According to RIAA, Perry is the ninthtop digital singles artistin the United States, with 121.5 million certified song units in the country including on-demand streamsand also has 19 million certified album units, totaling 129.5 million certified units in the United States.She also became the first artist to have three songs receive Diamond certifications from the RIAA in 2017 with \\\"Dark Horse\\\", \\\"Firework\\\", and \\\"Roar\\\".All three of them and \\\"E.T.\\\", \\\"California Gurls\\\", and \\\"Hot n Cold\\\" have each sold over 5 million digital copies.Six years later, the RIAA certified \\\"California Gurls\\\" as her fourthdiamond-certifiedsingle in the U.S., breaking her tie with Lady Gaga as the female artist with the most diamond singles there.Perry's albumsOne of the Boys,Teenage Dream,Prism,Witness, andSmilehave individually surpassed one billion streams onSpotify. In 2011,Forbesranked her third on their \\\"Top-Earning Women In Music\\\" list with earnings of $44 millionand fifth on their 2012 list with $45 million.She subsequently ranked seventh on the 2013Forbeslist for \\\"Top-Earning Women In Music\\\" with $39 million earned,and fifth on their 2014 list with $40 million.With earnings of $135 million,Forbesalso ranked Perry number one on their 2015 \\\"Top-Earning Women In Music\\\" list as well as the \\\"World's Highest-Paid Musicians\\\" and declared her the highest earning female celebrity in 2015, placing her at number 3 on theForbesCelebrity 100 list.In 2016, the magazine estimated her net worth was $125 million,and ranked her number six on their list of \\\"Highest-Paid Women in Music\\\" with earnings of $41 million.The following year, she was ranked number nine on the list with $33 million.In 2018, she topped its \\\"Highest-Paid Women in Music\\\" listing and ranked at number four on the \\\"Highest-Paid Female Celebrities\\\" list, with earnings of $83 million.Perry subsequently was placed at number four on the 2019 \\\"Highest-Paid Women in Music\\\" listings, with $57.5 million.Later that year, with earnings of $530 million throughout the 2010s, the magazine also ranked her as the ninth-highest-earning musician of the decade.Perry is one of thewealthiest musical artists; during September 2023,Forbessurmised she had a net worth of $340 million.This increased to $350 million the following May, where Perry was included on the magazine's 2024 list of \\\"America's Richest Self-Made Women\\\". Discography Filmography Tours and residency Headlining tours Co-headlining tours Residency See also Notes References Citations Sources External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Katy_Perry (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Joan Didion Joan Didion(/ˈdɪdiən/; December 5, 1934 – December 23, 2021) was an American writer and journalist. She is considered one of the pioneers ofNew Journalism, along withGay Talese,Hunter S. Thompson, andTom Wolfe. Didion's career began in the 1950s after she won an essay contest sponsored byVoguemagazine.She would go on to publish essays inThe Saturday Evening Post,Life,Esquire,The New York Review of Books, andThe New Yorker. Her writing during the 1960s through the late 1970s engaged audiences in the realities of thecounterculture of the 1960s, the Hollywood lifestyle, and the history and culture ofCalifornia. Didion's political writing in the 1980s and 1990s concentrated on the subtext of political rhetoric andthe United States's foreign policy in Latin America.In 1991, she wrote the earliest mainstream media article to suggest that theCentral Park Fivehad been wrongfully convicted.With her husbandJohn Gregory Dunne, Didion wrote multiple screenplays, includingThe Panic in Needle Park(1971),A Star","Park(1971),A Star Is Born(1976), andUp Close & Personal(1996). In 2005, she won theNational Book Award for Nonfictionand was a finalist for both theNational Book Critics Circle Awardand thePulitzer PrizeforThe Year of Magical Thinking, a memoir of the year following the sudden death of her husband. She later adapted the book into a play that premiered on Broadway in 2007. In 2013, she was awarded theNational Humanities Medalby presidentBarack Obama.Didion was profiled in the 2017NetflixdocumentaryThe Center Will Not Hold, directed by her nephewGriffin Dunne. Early life and education Didion was born on December 5, 1934, inSacramento, California,to Eduene (née Jerrett) and Frank Reese Didion.She had one brother, five years her junior, James Jerrett Didion, who became a real estate executive.Didion recalled writing things down as early as age five,although she said she never saw herself as a writer until after her work had been published. She identified as a \"shy, bookish child,\" an avid reader, who pushed","reader, who pushed herself to overcome social anxiety through acting and public speaking. During her adolescence, she would type outErnest Hemingway's works to learn how his sentence structures worked. Didion's early education was nontraditional. She attended kindergarten and first grade, but, because her father was a finance officer in theArmy Air Corpsand the family constantly relocated, she did not attend school regularly.In 1943 or early 1944, her family returned toSacramento, and her father went to Detroit to negotiate defense contracts forWorld War II. Didion wrote in her 2003 memoirWhere I Was Fromthat moving so often made her feel as if she were a perpetual outsider. Didion received a B.A. in English fromUniversity of California, Berkeley, in 1956.During her senior year, she won first place in the \"Prix de Paris\" essay contest, sponsored byVogue,and was awarded a job as aresearch assistantat the magazine. The topic of her winning essay was the San Francisco architectWilliam Wurster. Career Vogue","Career Vogue During her seven years atVogue, from 1956 to 1964, Didion worked her way up from promotional copywriter to associate feature editor.Mademoisellepublished Didion's article \"Berkeley’s Giant: The University of California\" in January 1960.While atVogue, and homesick for California, she wrote her first novel,Run, River(1963), about a Sacramento family as it comes apart.Writer and friendJohn Gregory Dunnehelped her edit the book.John—the younger brother of author, businessman, and television mystery show hostDominick Dunne—was writing forTimemagazine at the time. He and Didion married in 1964. The couple moved to Los Angeles in 1964, intending to stay only temporarily, but California remained their home for the next 20 years. In 1966, they adopted a daughter, whom they named Quintana Roo Dunne.The couple wrote many newsstand-magazine assignments. \"She and Dunne started doing that work with an eye to covering the bills, and then a little more,\" Nathan Heller reported inThe New Yorker. \"Their Postrates","\"Their Postrates allowed them to rent a tumbledown Hollywood mansion, buy a banana-coloredCorvette Stingray, raise a child, and dine well.\" In Los Angeles, they settled inLos Felizfrom 1963 to 1971, and then, after living inMalibufor eight years, she and Dunne moved toBrentwood Park, a quiet, affluent, residential neighborhood. Slouching Towards Bethlehem In 1968, Didion published her first nonfiction book,Slouching Towards Bethlehem, a collection of magazine pieces about her experiences in California.Cited as an example ofNew Journalism, it used novel-like writing to cover the non-fiction realities ofhippiecounterculture.She wrote from a personal perspective, adding her own feelings and memories to situations, inventing details and quotes to make the stories more vivid, and using metaphors to give the reader a better understanding of the disordered subjects of her essays: politicians, artists, or just people living an American life.The New York Timescharacterized the \"grace, sophistication, nuance, irony\"","nuance, irony\" of her writing. 1970s Didion's novelPlay It as It Lays, set in Hollywood, was published in 1970, andA Book of Common Prayerappeared in 1977. In 1979, she publishedThe White Album, another collection of her magazine pieces fromLife,Esquire,The Saturday Evening Post,The New York Times, andThe New York Review of Books.InThe White Album's title essay, Didion documented an episode she experienced in the summer of 1968. After undergoing psychiatric evaluation, she was diagnosed as having had an attack ofvertigoand nausea. After periods of partial blindness in 1972, she was diagnosed withmultiple sclerosis, but remained in remission throughout her life.In her essay entitled \"In Bed,\" Didion explained that she experienced chronicmigraines. Dunne and Didion worked closely for most of their careers. Much of their writing is therefore intertwined. They co-wrote a number of screenplays, including a1972 film adaptationof her novelPlay It as It Laysthat starredAnthony PerkinsandTuesday Weldand the","Weldand the screenplay for the 1976 film ofA Star is Born.They also spent several years adapting the biography of journalistJessica Savitchinto the 1996Robert RedfordandMichelle Pfeifferfilm,Up Close & Personal. 1980s and 1990s Didion's book-length essaySalvador(1983) was written after a two-week trip to El Salvador with her husband. The next year, she published the novelDemocracy, the story of a long, but unrequited love affair between a wealthy heiress and an older man, aCIAofficer, against the background of theCold Warand theVietnam War. Her 1987 nonfiction bookMiamilooked at the different communities in that city.In 1988, the couple moved from California to New York City. In a prescientNew York Review of Bookspiece of 1991, a year after the various trials of theCentral Park Five, Didion dissected serious flaws in the prosecution's case, making her the earliest mainstream writer to view the guilty verdicts as miscarriages of justice.She suggested the defendants were found guilty because of a","guilty because of a sociopolitical narrative with racial overtones that clouded the judgment of the court. In 1992, Didion publishedAfter Henry, a collection of twelve geographical essays and a personal memorial for Henry Robbins, who was Didion's friend and editor until his death in 1979.She publishedThe Last Thing He Wanted, a romantic thriller, in 1996. The Year of Magical Thinking In 2003, Didion's daughter Quintana Roo Dunne developedpneumoniathat progressed toseptic shockand she was comatose in an intensive-care unit when Didion's husband suddenly died of a heart attack on December 30.Didion delayed his funeral arrangements for approximately three months until Quintana was well enough to attend. On October 4, 2004, Didion began writingThe Year of Magical Thinking, a narrative of her response to the death of her husband and the severe illness of their daughter. She finished the manuscript 88 days later on New Year's Eve.Written at the age of 70, this was her first nonfiction book that was not a","book that was not a collection of magazine assignments.She said that she found the subsequent book-tour process very therapeutic during her period of mourning.Documenting the grief she experienced after the sudden death of her husband, the book was called a \"masterpiece of two genres: memoir and investigative journalism\" and won several awards. Visiting Los Angeles after her father's funeral, Quintana fell at the airport, hit her head on the pavement and required brain surgery forhematoma.After progressing toward recovery in 2004, Quintana died of acutepancreatitison August 26, 2005, aged 39, during Didion's New York promotion forThe Year of Magical Thinking.Didion wrote about Quintana's death in the 2011 bookBlue Nights. 2000s Didion was living in an apartment on East 71st Street inManhattanin 2005.Everyman's LibrarypublishedWe Tell Ourselves Stories in Order to Live, a 2006 compendium of much of Didion's writing, including the full content of her first seven published nonfiction books (Slouching Towards","(Slouching Towards Bethlehem,The White Album,Salvador,Miami,After Henry,Political Fictions, andWhere I Was From), with an introduction by her contemporary, the criticJohn Leonard. Didion began working with English playwright and directorDavid Hareon a one-woman stage adaptation ofThe Year of Magical Thinkingin 2007. Produced byScott Rudin, the Broadway play featuredVanessa Redgrave. Although Didion was hesitant to write for the theater, she eventually found the genre, which was new to her, exciting. Didion wrote early drafts of the screenplay for an untitledHBObiopic directed byRobert BentononKatharine Graham. Sources say it may trace the paper's reporting on theWatergatescandal. Later works In 2011,KnopfpublishedBlue Nights, a memoir about aging that also focused on Didion's relationship with her late daughter.More generally, the book deals with the anxieties Didion experienced about adopting and raising a child, as well as the aging process. A photograph of Didion shot byJuergen Tellerwas used as part of","used as part of the 2015 spring-summer campaign of the luxury French fashion brandCéline, while previously the clothing companyGaphad featured her in a 1989 campaign.Didion's nephewGriffin Dunnedirected a 2017Netflixdocumentary about her,Joan Didion: The Center Will Not Hold.In it, Didion discusses her writing and personal life, including the deaths of her husband and daughter, adding context to her booksThe Year of Magical ThinkingandBlue Nights. In 2021, Didion publishedLet Me Tell You What I Mean, a collection of 12 essays she wrote between 1968 and 2000. Death Didion died from complications ofParkinson's diseaseat her home in Manhattan on December 23, 2021, at the age of 87. Writing style and themes Didion viewed the structure of the sentence as essential to her work. In theNew York Timesarticle \"Why I Write\" (1976),Didion remarked, \"To shift the structure of a sentence alters the meaning of that sentence, as definitely and inflexibly as the position of a camera alters the meaning of the object","of the object photographed... The arrangement of the words matters, and the arrangement you want can be found in the picture in your mind... The picture tells you how to arrange the words and the arrangement of the words tells you, or tells me, what's going on in the picture.\" Didion was heavily influenced by Ernest Hemingway, whose writing taught her the importance of how sentences work in a text. Her other influences includedGeorge EliotandHenry James, who wrote \"perfect, indirect, complicated sentences\". Didion was also an observer of journalists,believing the difference between the process of fiction and nonfiction is the element of discovery that takes place in nonfiction, which happens not during the writing, but during the research. Rituals were a part of Didion's creative process. At the end of the day, she would take a break from writing to remove herself from the \"pages\",saying that without the distance, she could not make proper edits. She would end her day by cutting out and editing prose, not","editing prose, not reviewing the work until the following day. She would sleep in the same room as her work, saying: \"That's one reason I go home to Sacramento to finish things. Somehow the book doesn't leave you when you're right next to it.\" In a notorious 1980 essay, \"Joan Didion: Only Disconnect,\"Barbara Grizzuti Harrisoncalled Didion a \"neurasthenicCher\" whose style was \"a bag of tricks\" and whose \"subject is always herself\".In 2011,New Yorkmagazine reported that the Harrison criticism \"still gets her (Didion's) hackles up, decades later\". CriticHilton Alssuggested that Didion is reread often \"because of the honesty of the voice.\" Personal life For several years in her 20s, Didion was in a relationship withNoel E. Parmentel Jr., a political pundit and figure on the New York literary and cultural scene.According to Didion's husband, John Gregory Dunne, he actually met her through Parmentel, and Didion and Dunne remained friends for six years before embarking on a romantic relationship. As he later","As he later recalled, when they shared a celebratory lunch after Dunne finished reading the galleys for her first novel,Run, River, \"while er other was out of town, it happened.\"Didion and Dunne subsequently married in January 1964 and remained together until his death from a heart attack in 2003. Breaking a long-held silence on Didion, whose work he had championed and for which he found publishers, Parmentel was interviewed for a 1996 article inNew Yorkmagazine.He had been angered in the 1970s by what he felt was a thinly veiled portrait of him in Didion's novelA Book of Common Prayer. In 1966, while living in Los Angeles, she and John adopted a daughter, whom they named Quintana Roo Dunne. A Republican in her early years, Didion later drifted toward the Democratic Party, \"without ever quite endorsing core beliefs.\" As late as 2011, she smoked precisely five cigarettes per day. Awards and honors TheJoan Didion: What She MeansExhibition TheHammer MuseumatUniversity of California, Los Angeles, organized the","organized the exhibitionJoan Didion: What She Means. Curated byThe New Yorkercontributor and writerHilton Als, the group show was on view from 2022 and is scheduled to travel to thePérez Art Museum Miamiin 2023.Joan Didion: What She Meanspays homage to the writer and thinker through the lens of nearly 50 modern and contemporary international artists such asFélix González-TorrestoBetye Saar,Vija Celmins,Maren Hassinger,Silke Otto-Knapp,John Koch,Ed Ruscha,Pat Steir, among others. Published works Fiction Nonfiction Screenplays and plays References Further reading External links","Play It as It Lays Play It as It Laysis a 1970 novel by American writerJoan Didion.Timemagazine included the novel in its list of the \"100 Best English-Language Novels from 1923 to 2005\".The novel has been credited for helping define modern American Fictionand has been described as an \"instant classic\".It is known for depicting thenihilismand the illusory glamor of life inHollywood,as well as capturing the landscape and culture of 1960sLos Angeles. The book was adapted intoa 1972 filmstarringTuesday Weldas Maria andAnthony Perkinsas BZ. Didion co-wrote the screenplay with her husband,John Gregory Dunne. Plot 31-year-old Maria Wyeth's story begins as she is recovering from an implied mental breakdown in apsychiatric hospitalin the Los Angeles area. Her journey oscillates between dizzying and domestic, as her acting career slows and her personal life collapses. Her story is revealed thoughflashbacksandflash forwards. Maria contrasts her life in Los Angeles with her childhood in Silver Wells,Nevada, a small town","a small town so inconsequential that it no longer exists. The daughter of a neurotic mother and a gambling father, who bet on a mine and lost, Maria moves to New York to become an actress. In New York, Maria works temporarily as a model and meets Ivan Costello, a psychopathic blackmailer who has no hesitation exploiting Maria. In New York, Maria receives news of her mother's death in a car wreck, possibly a suicide. Her father dies soon after, leaving useless mineral rights to his business partner and friend Benny Austin. Maria withdraws from acting and modeling, splits up with Ivan, and eventually meets Carter and moves to Hollywood. Later, we find that she and Carter have a four-year-old daughter Kate. Kate is in a treatment facility for an unspecified \"aberrant chemical in her brain\".Maria loves Kate, as indicated by her tender descriptions, her frequent hospital visits, and her determination \"to get her out\". When Maria discovers she is pregnant, she is unsure if her husband, Carter or her lover, Les","or her lover, Les Goodwin, is the father and she tells Carter the truth. Carter urges Maria to have anabortion, and suggests that if she chooses to have the child, he will take fullcustodyof their daughter. Set in a time before thelegalization of abortion, Maria must find a doctor who will perform an illegal abortion. Maria follows steps to covertly contact and visit the only doctor who does \"clean work\" in Los Angeles. Maria has an illegal abortion, performed withlocal anesthetic, in a house where there are newspapers on the floor. Feeling distress after her abortion, Maria begins to have vivid nightmares about dying infants and rattlesnakes. An inevitable divorce, and the ensuing social chaos bring Maria to indulge in self-destructive behavior. Maria disengages from her social world as she plunges into long days of compulsive driving, wanderingSouthern California's freeways, through motels and casinos, drinking and chancing sexual encounters with actors and ex-lovers. After a series of disasters for Maria,","for Maria, infidelity among her friends adds further chaos to her life. The plot reaches a climax when Maria's friend BZ commitssuicidein her presence, choosing tooverdoseon sleeping pills (Seconal) and Maria does not stop him, despite fully understanding what he is doing. Before overdosing, he offers to share his pills with Maria, implying that he could help her die by suicide as well. Maria chooses not to take the pills, and does not stop BZ as he proceeds to swallow them. His final words are \"hold onto me\", after which they fall asleep on the bed together. Maria awakens to the sound of BZ's wife, Helene screaming as she discovers his dead body next to Maria. Maria ignores the screaming and holds tighter onto BZ's lifeless hand. In not preventing his suicide, Maria is blamed for his death by her friends. Maria isinstitutionalizedfor her inaction in stopping BZ's suicide, under doctors' and friends' assumption that she must have been disconnected from reality at the time the suicide occurred. It is implied","It is implied that Maria doesn't try to escape her position, but accepts it apathetically. Her institutionalization can be seen as her choice to withdraw from the outside world, rather than a consequence of an actual mental illness or breakdown.From her hospital, Maria turns her visitors away, and plans for a day she might see her daughter again. Background and publication Play It as It Layswas authorJoan Didion's second novel, after her debutRun, Riverwas published in 1963. Didion gained public attention for her non-fiction collectionSlouching Towards Bethlehemin 1968.Published on July 13, 1970, byFarrar, Straus & Giroux,Didion said about the novel, \"I didn't think it was going to make it And suddenly it did make it, in a minor way. And from that time on I had more confidence.\" The book bears some resemblance to Didion's life, as Didion also had a daughter with a psychological disorder and drove the same car as Maria, a yellowCorvette Stingray.Like the protagonist, Didion lived in New York before moving to","before moving to California.However, Didion asserted that the book was not autobiographical. Themes Life as a game This theme occurs frequently throughout the novel, especially in reference togamblingandcasino games.Having grown up aroundcasinoswith her gambling father, Maria sees life as a game in which every player chooses astrategy, or chooses to stop playing.Describing her upbringing she says, \"My father advised me that life itself was a crap game: it was one of the two lessons I learned as a child. The other was that overturning a rock was apt to reveal a rattlesnake. As lessons go those two seem to hold up, but not to apply.\" The title of the book,Play it as it Laysis a reference to advice from Maria's father on playingcraps: \"it goes as it lays, don't do it the hard way\", an idiom with meaning similar to \"playing with the cards you are dealt\". At the exposition of the novel, Maria describes the recent events of life as such, \"I was holding all theaces, but what was the game?\". Furthermore, social","Furthermore, social interactions can be seen as a kind of game. Maria tries to be a good \"player\" when she speaks to her doctors: \"There are only certain facts, I say, trying again to be an agreeable player of the game.\" Deathcan be seen as the choice to stop playing the game of life. As he is about to commit suicide, BZ says to Maria, \"you're still playing Some day you'll wake up and you just won't feel like playing\". By choosing to die, BZ decides to stop playing. Meanwhile Maria references her choice to keep living, and continuing to \"play\" the game of life despite its meaninglessness, in the famous quote: \"I know what 'nothing' means, and keep on playing.\" Nihilism Throughout the novel Maria and other characters reveal a belief in the meaninglessness of life. This theme may be ascribed todepressionwhich the characters experience, to the emptiness of working in Hollywood or as an overarching philosophical theme on life. Many scenes in the book can be seen as an encounter with absurdity and nothingness,as","and nothingness,as Maria has odd encounters with strangers whom she never sees again. Maria's dark view of life is revealed in quotes such as, \"Maria did not particularly believe in rewards, only in punishments, swift and personal.\" The concept ofnothingoccurs in many contexts, such as Maria marking \"nothing applies\" on her hospital documents, and repeating this thought when revisiting memories of her past. When speaking to Benny about their now-destroyed hometown, Maria says, \"there is no Silver Wells\", suggesting that finding meaning in past memories is futile.The line \"Maria said nothing\" occurs repeatedly in several dialogues, suggesting that Maria considers it pointless to explain herself to others. Maria does not try to find greater meaning in suffering, nor does she ask questions about why suffering occurs and if there is a purpose to it. This view is presented in her opening monologue, \"Carter and Helene still ask questions. I used to ask questions, and I got the answer: nothing. The answer is","The answer is 'nothing.'\" Depiction of Los Angeles Play It As It Laysis considered a classic Los Angeles novel, containing manyliterary motifsassociated with Los Angeles andCalifornia. Driving, Cars and the Freeway Theinterstate freewayplays an important part in both thesettingand the plot of the novel, as the protagonist spends her days driving on the freeway as a form ofescapism, a motif that is popular in Los Angeles novels. Los Angeles, known as \"a city on wheels\",has a unique identity as a city designed for cars, due to its flat terrain and relatively late urbanization. The philosophical themes of the novel have been described as \"freeway existentialism\"as Maria goes on drives without a destination in mind. Maria fulfills the literary trope of a drifter, a common trope in Los Angeles novels, where protagonists are often depicted driving, either as a way to chase their dreams or to escape their problems.Driving a fast car on the open road is often considered a literary symbol of the illusion of freedom,","of freedom, which is easily achieved in Southern California, where there is a well developed, multi-lane freeway. Some of the plot developments occur while driving. For instance Maria informs Carter that she is pregnant when they are driving on the freeway. When driving to the house where her illegal abortion is to occur, Maria and the man in the \"duck pants\" discuss their cars, which brings a sense of normalcy and relief to Maria, \"In the past few minutes he had significantly altered her perception of reality: she saw now that she was not a woman on her way to have an abortion. She was a woman parking a Corvette while a man in white pants talked about buying a Camaro. There was no more to it than that.\" An ongoing theme is that Maria avoids her problems by driving away from them, and as she sinks deeper into a nihilistic depression, she drives further distances, driving between California and Nevada. Disillusionment in Hollywood Didion is often credited for capturing the atmosphere of Hollywood in the","of Hollywood in the 1960s.Play It As it Laysdepicts Hollywood as a \"broken paradise\" as seen from the point of view of a disenchanted actress,in contrast to the more common,utopianview of Hollywood.The novel depicts the scheming, exploitation, and elitism common in thefilm industryat that time. In the same way that movie makers manufacture stories, the characters in the film industry manufacture their own image to attain status and fame. Though themes ofnarcissismandself-destructionamong the wealthy are old themes, seen in novels such asThe Great Gatsby, the focus on the inner workings of movie production at the end ofGolden Era Hollywood, establishPlay It As It Laysas a classic Los Angeles novel. Maria's acting career is on the decline because she walked away from amovie set, damaging her reputation in an industry where reputation is highly important. This leads her to become more detached and apathetic to the social culture around her, and she begins to disregard social conventions and isolate herself from","herself from her acquaintances, rejecting invitations to parties and choosing to be alone instead. Many dialogues between Maria and other characters portray the superficiality and strategy associated with the film industry, as characters choose words carefully to achieve an aim or to avoid direct communication. The few dialogues which depict genuine, heartfelt interactions stand out, such as BZ telling Maria, \"hold onto me\" before overdosing. Criticism Reception Considered a classic work of American fiction, the novel has received largely positive reviews from literary critics, but often draws mixed reviews from the public due to its bleak content and unlikableprotagonist.The plot has been described by critics as having \"cinematic nihilism\",and being a \"ruthless dissection of American life in the 1960s.\" It has been positively described as a \"terrifying book.\"In a review of the novel,Joseph Epsteindescribed Joan Didion as a novelist: \"her vision is dark, her views are bleak, but she is richly talented.\"J.","richly talented.\"J. Frakes, reviewing the novel in theBook Worldcolumn ofThe Washington Post,described the novel as a \"scathing novel, distilling venom in tiny drops, revealing devastation in a sneer and fear in a handful of atomic dust.\"Library Journaldescribed it as, \"intelligent, well-structured, witty, irresistibly relentless.\" Didion's writing style in this novel has been applauded for breaking from literary tradition and making use of a precise, minimalist style,composed of short chapters, some of which are only a few sentences long, leaving the page mostly blank. The style has been described as \"short, laser-focused chapters that come in hot and burn out just as quickly like a firework.\" In popular culture The novel continues to be a prominent work inpopular culture. The book has been referenced in the Netflix television series,You.In a 2023 survey among writers by the LA Times,Play It As It Layswas voted the third most popular LA book.Literary Hublisted the novel in its list of10 Essential Books That","Books That Capture Los Angeles in All Its Sublime, Beautiful Darkness.The independent editorial websiteBook Riot, included the novel in its list,10 of the Best Books About Los Angeles,describing Didion, \"when people think of Los Angeles authors, Joan Didion is almost always the first name that pops into their minds.\"The novel is frequently listed as a popular Los Angeles novel by popular culture websites. Adaptation The book was adapted intoa 1972 filmdirected byFrank Perry, starringTuesday Weldas Maria andAnthony Perkinsas BZ.Didion co-wrote the screenplay with her husband,John Gregory Dunne. Notes References External links","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays_(film","Frank Perry Frank Joseph Perry Jr.(August 21, 1930 – August 29, 1995) was an American stage director and filmmaker. His 1962 independent filmDavid and Lisaearned anAcademy Award nomination for Best DirectorandBest Adapted Screenplay(written by his then-wifeEleanor Perry). The couple collaborated on five more films, includingThe Swimmer,Diary of a Mad Housewife, and theEmmy Award–nominatedA Christmas Memory, based on a short story byTruman Capote. Perry went on to form Corsair Pictures, privately financed byUnited Artists Theatres, which producedMiss FirecrackerandA Shock to the System, then folded.His later films includeMommie Dearestand the documentaryOn the Bridge, about his battle withprostate cancer. Early life Frank Joseph Perry Jr. was born inNew York Cityto stockbroker Frank Joseph Perry Sr. (1905–1969) and Pauline E. Schwab (1908–1965), who worked atAlcoholics Anonymous.As a teenager, Frank Jr. began pursuing his interest in the theater with a job as a parking lot attendant for the Westport Country","Westport Country Playhouse in nearbyWestport, Connecticut. He attended theUniversity of Miami. Frank also studied underLee Strasbergin New York. He produced several plays at Westport Country Playhouse and then turned for a time to producing television documentaries. Career A veteran of the Korean War, he returned to the entertainment industry after being discharged and made his directorial debut in 1962 with the low-budget drama filmDavid and Lisa. Based on the novel byTheodore Isaac Rubin, the screenplay was written by his wife,Eleanor Rosenfeld, who received a nomination for anAcademy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay. A character study of two emotionally disturbed teenagers, the film was successful at the box office and met with much critical acclaim, earning him a nomination for anAcademy Award for Directing. Both Perrys would eventually join the select group of non-actors awarded membership inActors Studio.Perry went on to direct and produce a number of films, many based on literary sources or with","sources or with strong literary associations, includingThe Swimmer, (1968) based on aJohn Cheeverstory,Last Summer(1969), andTrilogy(1969), written byTruman Capote. Perry is known for his character studies, such asDiary of a Mad Housewife(1970). That film earned aBest Actress Oscarnomination forCarrie Snodgress, andPlay It as It Lays(1972), starringTuesday Weld, brought her aGolden GlobeBest Actress nomination. Both of these films Perry produced and directed, but he is probably best remembered for directing the biographical dramaMommie Dearest, an adaptation of a biography by actressJoan Crawford's adoptive daughter. The film became a cult classic despite mixed reviews from critics; it also won theRazzie Awardfor worst picture, and Frank Perry was nominated for worst director, while actressFaye Dunawayreceived the Razzie for her performance. Some of Perry's film-related material and personal papers are held at the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives, a collection to which scholars and media experts from","media experts from around the world today have full access. Personal life and death In 1958, Frank married his first wife Eleanor, who was 15 years his senior and had two children, William and Ann, from a previous marriage. Frank and Eleanor collaborated on many screen projects, including screenwriting the Academy Award-nominated 1962David and Lisa(an adaptation of the novella of the same name) which came about due to Eleanor's daughter Ann bringing the novella to her mother's attention.They divorced in 1971 on grounds of incompatibility.In 1979, Eleanor Perry wrote the novelBlue Pages,based on their relationship. She died of cancer two years later, at age 66. In 1977, Perry marriedBarbara Goldsmith, founding editor ofNew Yorkmagazine and book author (Little Gloria...Happy at Last), whom he divorced in 1992. Soon after, he married his Aspen ski instructor, 22-years-younger Virginia Brush Ford, on June 15, 1992. His sister is pastor Mary Christine Perry, the wife of pastor Maurice Keith Hudson and mother of","and mother of singersKaty Perryand David Hudson. Perry died ofprostate canceron August 29, 1995, eight days after his 65th birthday, atMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Centerin Manhattan.His final film,On the Bridge(1992), is an autobiographical documentary about his illness. His ashes were scattered on the mountains of Aspen, Colorado, where he lived the last three years of his life. Filmography Film Television References Further reading External links","Katy Perry Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson(born October 25, 1984), known professionally asKaty Perry, is an American singer, songwriter, and television personality. Perry is one of thebest-selling music artists of all time, having sold over 143 million units worldwide. She is known for her influence onpop musicand hercampstyle, being dubbed the \"Queen of Camp\" byVogueandRolling Stone.Billboardranked her fourth on its \"Greatest of All Time Pop Songs Artists\" list and twenty-fifth on their \"Greatest Pop Stars of the 21st Century\" list. At 16, Perry released agospelrecord titledKaty Hudson(2001) underRed Hill Records, which was commercially unsuccessful. She moved to Los Angeles at 17 to venture intosecularmusic, and later adopted the stage name \"Katy Perry\" from her mother's maiden name. She recorded an album while signed toColumbia Records, but was dropped before signing toCapitol Records. Perry rose to fame withOne of the Boys(2008), apop rockrecord containing her debut single \"I Kissed a Girl\" and follow-up single","follow-up single \"Hot n Cold\", which reached number one and three on the U.S.BillboardHot 100respectively. Thedisco-influenced pop albumTeenage Dream(2010) spawned five U.S. number one singles—\"California Gurls\", \"Teenage Dream\", \"Firework\", \"E.T.\", and \"Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)\"— the only album by a female singer to do so. The album's reissue titledTeenage Dream: The Complete Confection(2012) produced the U.S. number one single \"Part of Me\". Her empowerment-themed albumPrism(2013) had two U.S. number one singles, \"Roar\" and \"Dark Horse\". Both their respective music videos made her the first artist to have multiple videos reach one billion views onVevoandYouTube. Afterwards, Perry released the albumsWitness(2017) andSmile(2020) and embarked on her Las Vegasconcert residencytitledPlay(2021–2023). She released her seventh studio album, titled143, in 2024. Perry has the second-most U.S.diamond certified singlesfor any female artist (6). She has receivedvarious accolades, including aBillboardSpotlight Award,","Award, fourGuinness World Records, fiveBillboardMusic Awards, fiveAmerican Music Awards, aBrit Award, aJuno Award, and theMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Award. Outside of music, she released an autobiographical documentary titledKaty Perry: Part of Mein 2012, voicedSmurfetteinThe Smurfsfilm series, and launched her own shoe line Katy Perry Collections in 2017. Perry served as a judge onAmerican Idolfrom thesixteenth seasonin 2018 to thetwenty-second seasonin 2024.Forbesranked her as theworld's highest-paid female musicianin 2015 and 2018. With an estimated net worth of $350 million, she isone of the world's wealthiest musicians. Life and career 1984–1999: Early life and family Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson was born on October 25, 1984, inSanta Barbara, California, toPentecostalpastors Mary Christine (née Perry) and Maurice Keith Hudson.Both of her parents turned to religion after a \"wild youth\".Perry has English, German, Irish, and Portuguese ancestry.Through her mother, she is a niece of film directorFrank","film directorFrank Perry.She has a younger brother named David, who is also a singer,and an older sister, Angela. From ages three to 11, Perry frequently moved across the country as her very strict parents set up churches before settling again in Santa Barbara. Growing up, she attended religious schools and camps, including Paradise Valley Christian School inArizonaand Santa Barbara Christian School in California during herelementary years.The family struggled financially,sometimes usingfood stampsand eating food from the food bank which also fed the congregation at her parents' church. Growing up, Perry and her siblings were not allowed to eat the cerealLucky Charmsas the word \"luck\" reminded their mother ofLucifer, and were also required to calldeviled eggs\"angeled eggs\".Perry primarily listened togospel music,as secular music was generally discouraged in the family's home. She discovered popular music through CDs she sneaked from her friends.Perry later recalled a story about how a friend of hers played","of hers played \"You Oughta Know\" byAlanis Morissette, which impacted her songwriting and singing. While not strictly identifying as religious, she has stated, \"I pray all the time – for self-control, for humility.\"Wanting to be like her sister Angela, Perry began singing by practicing with her sister's cassette tapes. She performed the tracks in front of her parents, who let her take vocal lessons like Angela was doing at the time. She begantrainingat age nineand was incorporated into her parents' ministry,singing in church from ages nine to 17.At 13, Perry was given her first guitar for her birthday,and publicly performed songs she wrote.She tried to \"be a bit like the typical Californian girl\" while growing up, and started rollerskating, skateboarding, and surfing as a teenager. Her brother David described her as a \"tomboy\" during her adolescence, which Perry talks about on her song \"One of the Boys\".She took dancing lessons and learned how toswing,Lindy Hop, andjitterbug.Perry completed herGeneral","herGeneral Educational Development(GED) requirements early at age 15,during her first year of high school,and leftDos Pueblos High Schoolto pursue a music career. 2000–2006: Career beginnings,Katy Hudson, andFingerprints Perry briefly had vocal lessons with a woman named Agatha Danoffin facilities rented from theMusic Academy of the West.Her singing caught the attention of rock artists Steve Thomas andJennifer KnappfromNashville, Tennessee, who brought her there to improve her writing skills.In Nashville, she started recordingdemosand learned how to write songs and play guitar.Perry signed withRed Hill Recordsand recorded her debut album, acontemporary Christianrecord titledKaty Hudson, which was released on March 6, 2001. She also went on tour that year as part ofPhil Joel's Strangely Normal Tourand embarked on other performances of her own in the United States.Katy Hudsonreceived mixed reviews from critics and was commercially unsuccessful, selling an estimated 200 copies before the label ceased operations","ceased operations in December.Transitioning from gospel music to secular music, Perry started working with producerGlen Ballard,and moved to Los Angeles at age 17.She opted to work with Ballard due to his past work with Alanis Morissette, one of her major inspirations. In 2003, she briefly performed as Katheryn Perry, to avoid confusion with actressKate Hudson, and later adopted the stage name \"Katy Perry\", using her mother's maiden name.In 2010, she recalled that \"Thinking of You\" was one of the first songs she wrote after moving to Los Angeles.Perry would also perform at theHotel Café, performing new music while she was between record labels. In 2004, she signed to Ballard's label, Java Records, which was then affiliated withThe Island Def Jam Music Group. Perry began work on a solo record due for release in March 2005, but the record was shelved after Java was dropped.Ballard then introduced her toTim Devine, anA&Rexecutive atColumbia Records, and she was signed as a solo artist. By November 2006, Perry","2006, Perry had finished writing and recording material for her Columbia debut titledFingerprints(with some of the material from this time appearing onOne of the Boys) which was planned for release in 2007.Some of the material fromFingerprintsthat did not make it onOne of the Boyswas given to other artists, such as \"I Do Not Hook Up\" and \"Long Shot\" toKelly Clarksonand \"Rock God\" toSelena Gomez & the Scene. Perry worked with songwriters includingDesmond Child,Greg Wells,Butch Walker,Scott Cutler,Anne Preven,the Matrix,Kara DioGuardi,Max Martin, andDr. Luke.In addition, after Devine suggested that songwriting team the Matrix become a \"real group\", she recorded an album,The Matrix, with them.The Matrixwas planned for release in 2004 but was cancelled due to creative differences. It was released in 2009 after the release ofOne of the Boys.Perry was dropped from Columbia in 2006 asFingerprintsneared completion. After the label dropped her, she worked at an independent A&R company, Taxi Music. Perry had minor","Perry had minor success prior to her breakthrough. One of the songs she had recorded for her album with Ballard, \"Simple\", was featured on the soundtrack to the 2005 filmThe Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants.Perry provided backing vocals onMick Jagger's song \"Old Habits Die Hard\",which was included on the soundtrack to the 2004 filmAlfie.In September 2004,Blendernamed her \"The Next Big Thing\".She recorded background vocals onP.O.D.'s single \"Goodbye for Now\", was featured at the end of its music video in 2006, and performed it with them onThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno.That year, Perry also appeared in the music video for \"Learn to Fly\" byCarbon Leaf, and played the love interest of her then-boyfriend,Gym Class Heroeslead singerTravie McCoy, in the band's music video for \"Cupid's Chokehold\". 2007–2009: Breakthrough withOne of the Boys After Columbia dropped Perry,Angelica Cob-Baehler, then a publicity executive at the label, brought Perry's demos toVirgin RecordschairmanJason Flom. Flom was convinced that","was convinced that she could be a breakthrough star and she was signed toCapitol Recordsin April 2007. The label arranged for her to work with Dr. Luke to add an \"undeniable smash\" to her existing material.Perry and Dr. Luke co-wrote the songs \"I Kissed a Girl\" and \"Hot n Cold\" for her second albumOne of the Boys. A campaign was started with the November 2007 release of the video to \"Ur So Gay\", a song aimed at introducing her to the music market.Adigital EP of the same namewas also released that month.Madonnahelped publicize the song by praising it on theJohnJay & Richradio show in April 2008,stating \"Ur So Gay\" was her \"favorite song\" at the time.In March 2008, Perry made a cameo appearance as a club singer in theWildfireepisode \"Life's Too Short\"and appeared as herself during a photo shoot that June onThe Young and the Restlessfor the show's magazineRestless Style. Perry released her first single with Capitol, \"I Kissed a Girl\", on April 28, 2008,as the lead single fromOne of the Boys. The first station","The first station to pick up the song wasWRVWin Nashville, who were inundated with enthusiastic calls the first three days they played it.The track reached number one on the USBillboardHot 100.\"I Kissed a Girl\" created controversy among both religious andLGBTgroups. The former criticized its homosexual theme, while the latter accused her of usingbi-curiosityto sell records. In response to speculation that her parents opposed her music and career, Perry toldMTVthat they had no problems with her success.One of the Boys, released on June 17, 2008, garnered mixed critical reviews and reached number nine on the USBillboard200.The album went on to sell 7 million copies worldwide.\"Hot n Cold\" was released the following Septemberand became the album's second successful single, reaching number three on theBillboardHot 100while topping charts in Germany,Canada,the Netherlandsand Austria.Later singles \"Thinking of You\" and \"Waking Up in Vegas\" were released in 2009and reached the top 30 of the Hot 100.The Matrix's","100.The Matrix's self-titled debut album, which Perry had recorded with the band in 2004, was released ontoiTuneson January 27, 2009, as a result of her solo success. After finishing the 2008Warped Tour,Perry hosted the2008 MTV Europe Music Awardsin November 2008, where she won the award forBest New Act.At the2009 Brit Awards, she also won the award forInternational Female Solo Artist.Perry embarked on her first headlining world tour, theHello Katy Tour, from January to November 2009 to supportOne of the Boys.On August 4, 2009, she performed as opening act for one date ofNo Doubt's2009 Summer Tour.Perry also hosted the2009 MTV Europe Music Awardsin November 2009, becoming the first person to host two consecutive ceremonies of the European awards.On July 22, 2009, Perry recorded a live album titledMTV Unplugged, which featuredacousticperformances of five tracks fromOne of the Boysas well as one new song, \"Brick by Brick\", and a cover ofFountains of Wayne's \"Hackensack\".It was released on November 17,","on November 17, 2009.Perry also appeared on two singles with other artists; she was featured on a remix ofColorado-based band3OH!3's song \"Starstrukk\" in September 2009,and on a duet withTimbalandentitled \"If We Ever Meet Again\", from his albumShock Value II, three months later.TheGuinness World Recordsrecognized her in its 2010 edition as the \"Best Start on the U.S. Digital Chart by a Female Artist\", for digital single sales of over two million copies. After Perry and Travie McCoy split up in December 2008,they briefly reconciled before she ended their relationship in 2009.Perry met her future husbandRussell Brandin the summer of 2009 while filming a cameo appearance for his filmGet Him to the Greek. Her scene, in which the two kiss, does not appear in the film.She began dating Brand after meeting him again that September at the2009 MTV Video Music Awards.The couple became engaged on December 31, 2009, while vacationing inRajasthan, India. 2010–2012:Teenage Dreamand marriage After serving as a guest judge","as a guest judge onAmerican Idol,Perry released \"California Gurls\" featuringSnoop Doggon May 7, 2010.The song was the lead single from her third studio album,Teenage Dream, and reached number one on theBillboardHot 100 in June.She also served as a guest judge onBritishThe X Factorlater that monthbefore releasing the album's second single, \"Teenage Dream\", in July.\"Teenage Dream\" reached number one on theBillboardHot 100 in September.Released on August 24, 2010,Teenage Dreamdebuted at number one on theBillboard200,and received mixed reviews from music critics.It has since sold 6 million copies worldwide.Teenage Dreamwould go on to win the 2011Juno Award for International Album of the Year.In October, \"Firework\" was released as the album's third single.It became the album's third consecutive number one on theBillboardHot 100 on December 8, 2010. \"E.T.\" featuringKanye Westwas released as the fourth single fromTeenage Dreamon February 16, 2011.It topped theBillboardHot 100 for five non-consecutive weeks,","weeks, makingTeenage Dreamthe ninth album in history to produce four number one singles on the chart.\"Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)\" followed as the fifth single in June,and Perry became the first female artist to achieve five number-oneBillboardHot 100 songs from one album when the single topped that chart on August 17, and the second artist afterMichael Jacksonwith his albumBad.For this record, she received an honoraryAmerican Music Awardin November 2011and a 2013 Guinness World Record.On September 7, she set a new record by becoming the first artist to spend 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the Hot 100.After \"The One That Got Away\" was released as the album's sixth single in October,Teenage Dreambecame the third album to spawn six top-five songs on theBillboardHot 100 afterRhythm Nation 1814byJanet JacksonandFaithbyGeorge Michael.The song peaked at number three in the USand number two in Canada. On January 5, 2012, Perry was named the sixth best-selling digital artist in the United States, with sales","States, with sales of 37.6 million units according toNielsen SoundScan.That month, she became the first artist to have four songs sell over 5 million digital units when \"E.T.\" reached that mark along with \"Firework\", \"California Gurls\", and \"Hot N Cold\".On February 13, Capitol released the lead single fromTeenage Dream: The Complete Confection, \"Part of Me\", which debuted at number one on theBillboardHot 100 and became Perry's seventh single overall to top the chart.Teenage Dream: The Complete Confectionwas released on March 23,and serves as a reissue ofTeenage Dream.\"Wide Awake\" was released on May 22 as the re-release's second single,peaking at number two on theBillboardHot 100and number one in Canadaand New Zealand. Perry embarked on her second tour, theCalifornia Dreams Tour, in support ofTeenage Dreamfrom February 2011 to January 2012.The tour grossed $59.5 million globallyand won her the award forBest Live Actat the2011 MTV Europe Music Awards.On September 23, 2011, she performed on the opening day of","the opening day of the 2011Rock in Riofestival along withElton JohnandRihanna.In September 2010, Perry was scheduled to appear on the 41st-season premiere ofSesame Street. After her scene was uploaded to YouTube, viewers criticized Perry's exposedcleavage. Four days before the scheduled airing,Sesame Workshopannounced that the segment would not air on television, but would still be available to watch online.Perry subsequently mocked the controversy onSaturday Night Live, where she was a musical guest and wore anElmo-themed shirt showing large amounts of cleavage during one skit. In December 2010, Perry playedMoe Szyslak's girlfriend in the live-action segment from a Christmas episode ofThe Simpsonstitled \"The Fight Before Christmas\".In February 2011, she made a guest appearance on theHow I Met Your Motherepisode \"Oh Honey\", playing a woman known as Honey.The role won her thePeople's Choice Award for Favorite TV Guest Starin January 2012.She made her film debut in the 3D family motion pictureThe","motion pictureThe SmurfsasSmurfetteon July 29, 2011. The film was a financial success worldwide,while critics gave mostly negative reviews.She hostedSaturday Night Liveon December 10, 2011, withRobynas the episode's musical guest. Perry's work on the episode received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised her performance in the episode'sdigital shortfeaturing her andAndy Samberg.In March 2012, she guest starred as a prison security guard named Rikki on theRaising Hopeepisode \"Single White Female Role Model\".On July 5, 2012, Perry's autobiographical documentaryKaty Perry: Part of Mewas released to theaters throughParamount Pictures.The film received positive reviewsand grossed $32.7 million worldwide at the box office. Perry began to venture into business when she endorsed her first fragrance, Purr, in November 2010. Her second fragrance, Meow!, was released in December 2011. Both perfumes were released throughNordstromdepartment stores.Electronic Artsrecruited her to promote their new expansion","their new expansion pack forThe Sims 3: Showtime,before releasing a separatestuff packfeaturing Perry-inspired furniture, outfits, and hairstyles, titledThe Sims 3: Katy Perry's Sweet Treats, in June 2012.The following month, she became the spokesperson and ambassador forPopchipsand made an investment in the company.Billboarddubbed her as their \"Woman of the Year\" for 2012. She married Russell Brand on October 23, 2010, in a traditionalHinduceremonynear theRanthambhore tiger sanctuaryinRajasthan, India.On December 30, 2011, Brand announced that they were divorcing after 14 months of marriage.Perry later stated that conflicting career schedules and his desire to have children before she was ready led to the end of their marriageand that he never spoke to her again after sending a text message that he was divorcing her,while Brand asserted that he divorced her due to her commercial success and reluctance to engage in activism.She was initially distraught over their divorce and said that she contemplated","she contemplated suicide.Since they married without aprenuptial agreement, he was eligible to claim half of the estimated $44 million she earned during their marriage, but declined.Perry began a relationship with singerJohn Mayerin August 2012, the year her marriage with Brand had ended. 2013–2015:Prismand Super Bowl XLIX halftime show In November 2012, Perry began work on her fourth album,Prism.She toldBillboard, \"I know exactly the record I want to make next. I know the artwork, the coloring and the tone\" and \"I even know what type of tour I'm doing next. I'll be very pleased if the vision I have in my head becomes a reality.\"After initially tellingL'Uomo Voguein June 2012 that she planned to have \"darker elements\" inPrismfollowing the end of her marriage, the singer revealed to MTV during the2013 MTV Video Music Awardsthat she changed the album's direction after periods of self-reflection. Perry commented \"I felt very prismatic\", which inspired the album's name.\"Roar\" was released as the lead single","as the lead single fromPrismon August 10, 2013.It was promoted at the MTV Video Music Awards and reached number one on theBillboardHot 100.\"Unconditionally\" followed as the second single fromPrismon October 16, 2013,and peaked at number 14 in the United States. Prismwas released on October 18, 2013, and has sold 4 million copies as of August 2015.It received favorable reviews from criticsand debuted at number one on theBillboard200 chart.Four days later, Perry performed the songs from the album at theiHeartRadioTheater in Los Angeles.\"Dark Horse\" withJuicy Jwas released as the album's third single in December, and became her ninth U.S. number-one single the following month.In 2014, \"Birthday\" and \"This Is How We Do\" respectively followed as the album's fourth and fifth singles,and reached the top 25 on the Hot 100.Prior to ending her relationship with Mayer in February 2014,she recorded and co-wrote a duet with him titled \"Who You Love\" for his albumParadise Valley. The song was released on August 12,","on August 12, 2013.Perry's third headlining tour, thePrismatic World Tour, began in May 2014and concluded in October 2015.It sold almost 2 million tickets and grossed $204.3 million worldwideand won Perry the award for \"Top Package\" at the 2014BillboardTouring Awards.She also performed at the 2015 Rock in Rio festival on September 27, 2015. On November 23, 2014, theNFLannounced that Perry would perform at theSuper Bowl XLIX halftime showon February 1, 2015.Lenny KravitzandMissy Elliottserved as special guests for the show.Her performance was critically acclaimed,and theGuinness World Recordsannounced two days after the singer's halftime show that it garnered 118.5 million viewers in the United States, becoming the most watched and highest rated show in Super Bowl history. The viewership was higher than the game itself, which was viewed by an audience of 114.4 million. TheInternational Federation of the Phonographic Industry(IFPI) ranked her fifth on the list of Top Global Recording Artists of 2013.On June","of 2013.On June 26, 2014, she was declared the Top Certified Digital Artist Ever by theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) for certified sales of 72 million digital singles in the United States.In May 2014, a portrait of Perry by painterMark Rydenwas featured in his exhibition \"The Gay 90s\", and shown at theKohn Galleryin Los Angeles. Along with several other artists, she also recorded a cover version of the song \"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)\" on a limited-edition concept album titledThe Gay Nineties Old Tyme Music: Daisy Bellto accompany the exhibition.That month, a portrait of Perry by artistWill Cottonwas included in the United StatesNational Portrait Gallery.On November 23, 2015, Perry starred inH&M's holiday advertising campaign, for which she wrote and recorded a song titled \"Every Day Is a Holiday\".On June 17, 2014, Perry announced that she had founded her own record label under Capitol Records, titled Metamorphosis Music.Ferraswas the first artist to get signed to her label, and","to her label, and Perry served as an executive producer onhis self-titled EP. She also recorded a duet with him on the EP, titled \"Legends Never Die\".The label was later renamedUnsub Records. Outside of her music career, Perry reprised her role as Smurfette inThe Smurfs 2, which was released in theaters on July 31, 2013.Like its predecessor,The Smurfs 2was a financial successbut was panned by critics.In March 2014, she made a guest appearance playing herself in the episode \"Blisteritos Presents Dad Academy Graduation Congraduritos Red Carpet Viewing Party\" of theKroll Show.Killer Queen was released as her third fragrance in August 2013 throughCotyIn January 2014, she became a guest curator of Madonna'sArt for Freedominitiative.In March 2015, she appeared inBrand: A Second Coming, a documentary following her ex-husband Russell Brand's transition from comedy work to activism,and released a concert film titledKaty Perry: The Prismatic World TourthroughEpix, which took place during her tour of the same","tour of the same name.Perry also made a cameo appearance in the music video for Madonna's song \"Bitch I'm Madonna\" in June 2015.The following month, she released another fragrance with Coty, entitled Mad Potion.In September 2015, she appeared in the documentariesKaty Perry: Making of the Pepsi Super Bowl Halftime Show, which followed Perry's preparation for her Super Bowl performance,andJeremy Scott: The People's Designer, which followed the life and career of designerJeremy Scott.Perry released a mobile app titledKaty Perry Popin December 2015 throughGlu Mobilewhere her character helps players become famous musicians.She described it as \"the most fun, colorful world that helps guide your musical dreams\". 2016–2018:WitnessandAmerican Idol Perry started writing songs for her new album in June 2016,and recorded an anthem forNBC Sports's coverage of the2016 Summer Olympicstitled \"Rise\", which was released the following month. Perry chose to release it as a standalone track rather than save it for her album","it for her album \"because now more than ever, there is a need for our world to unite\". NBC also felt its message spoke \"directly to the spirit of the Olympics and its athletes\" for its inspirational themes.The song reached number one in Australiaand number eleven in the United States. In August 2016, Perry stated that she aspired to create material \"that connects and relates and inspires\"and toldRyan Seacrestthat she was \"not rushing\" her fifth album, adding \"I'm just having a lot of fun, but experimenting and trying different producers, and different collaborators, and different styles\".On February 10, 2017, Perry released the album's lead single \"Chained to the Rhythm\" featuringSkip Marley.It reached number one in Hungaryand number four in the United States.The track was also streamed over three million times onSpotifywithin 24 hours, breaking the music streaming service's record at the time for the highest first-day streaming for a single track by a female artist.The album's second single, \"Bon Appétit\"","\"Bon Appétit\" withMigos, was released that April.Its third single, \"Swish Swish\", featuredNicki Minajand followed the next month.They respectively peaked at numbers 59 and 46 in the United States,and made the top 15 in Canada. The album, titledWitness, was released on June 9, 2017, to mixed reviews,and debuted at number one in the United States.To accompany the album's release, Perry broadcast herself on YouTube for four days with a live-stream titledKaty Perry Live: Witness World Wide, concluding with a live concert on June 12.The live-stream generated over 49 million views from 190 countries.She also embarked onWitness: The Tour, which began in September 2017 and ended in August 2018.On June 15, 2017,Calvin Harrisreleased a song titled \"Feels\" from his albumFunk Wav Bounces Vol. 1, which featured Perry,Big Sean, andPharrell Williams.The song went on to reach number one in the United Kingdom. Perry subsequently recorded a cover of theDear Evan Hansensong \"Waving Through a Window\" for the deluxe edition of","deluxe edition of thecast recording, which was released on November 2, 2018.The show's creatorsBenj PasekandJustin Paulhad requested Perry to cover the song to promote the musical's national tour and bring awareness to mental health.Later that month, Perry released \"Cozy Little Christmas\".She also recorded the song \"Immortal Flame\" for the gameFinal Fantasy Brave Exvius, and had aplayable charactermodeled after her. Outside of recording music, Perry appeared as herself in the filmZoolander 2, which was released in February 2016.In February 2017, the singer launched a shoe line titled \"Katy Perry Collections\".Her shoes are available on her website, Katy Perry Collections, and at retailers such asDillard'sandWalmart.The following August, she hosted the2017 MTV Video Music Awards.Perry was signed for a $25-million salary to serve as a judge on thesixteenth seasonofAmerican Idol, which premiered in March 2018.Perry began a relationship withOrlando Bloomin early 2016, and the couple got engaged on February 14,","on February 14, 2019. 2019–2020:Smileand motherhood At the61st Annual Grammy Awards, Perry performed \"Here You Come Again\", alongsideDolly PartonandKacey Musgraves, as part of a tribute to Parton.Four days later, she released a song called \"365\", with DJZedd.In April, Perry was included on a remix ofDaddy Yankee's song \"Con Calma\", featuringSnow.She followed this with the singles \"Never Really Over\" on May 31, \"Small Talk\" on August 9, and \"Harleys in Hawaii\" on October 16.\"Never Really Over\" in particular received critical acclaim. In June 2019, Perry appeared in the music video ofTaylor Swift's \"You Need to Calm Down\".In July, a jury in California returned a verdict following a week-long trial that Perry's song \"Dark Horse\" had copiedFlame's 2008 song \"Joyful Noise\" after he filed acopyright lawsuitalleging that it used his track's beat without permission;the verdict was later overturned.After the initial verdict, the jury ordered her to pay him $550,000.The next month, Josh Kloss, Perry's co-star in the","co-star in the \"Teenage Dream\" music video, accused her of sexual misconduct.In anInstagrampost, Kloss alleged that, during a party at a skating rink, Perry pulled on his sweatpants and underwear, exposing his penis to her male friends. He also said her management prevented him from speaking about his time with the singer. Johnny Wujek, the creative director of said party defended Perry, saying that she \"would never do something like that\" and accused Kloss of having an \"ongoing obsession\" with her.After initially refraining from responding to this, believing it would have detracted from theMe Too movement, Perry has also denied Kloss's claims. Following the release of her single \"Never Worn White\" in March 2020, Perry revealed in the accompanying music video that she was expecting her first child with Bloom.\"Daisies\", the lead single from her sixth album, was released on May 15, 2020. Its second single \"Smile\" followed two months later.The album, also titledSmile, was released on August 28, 2020.Two days","28, 2020.Two days before its distribution, she gave birth to a daughter named Daisy Dove Bloom.The album received mixed reviews,and debuted at number five in the United States.Perry further promoted the album with four compilation EPs:Camp Katy,Empowered,Scorpio SZN,andCosmic Energy.These EPs were followed by the single \"Not the End of the World\" in December 2020, which had a music video in whichZooey Deschanelimpersonates Perry.Additionally she collaborated with various artists to create two remixes ofSmilealbum tracks.Tiëstoremix of \"Resilient\" featuringAitanawas released in November 2020, while Bruno Martini remix of \"Cry About It Later\" featuringLuísa Sonzawas released in April 2021. 2021–2023: Play residency On January 20, 2021, Perry performed \"Firework\" at theCelebrating Americaconcert during theinauguration of Joe Biden.Four months later, she released a new single, \"Electric\", a collaboration withPokémonas part of its 25th anniversary.That December, Perry followed this with \"When I'm Gone\", a","\"When I'm Gone\", a collaboration with Swedish DJAlessothat made her the third person to reach number one on Croatia's ARC 100 list across three different decades followingLady GagaandColdplay. Perry began hosting aconcert residencynamedPlayatResorts World Las Vegason December 29, 2021.The show's inception happened during theCOVID-19 lockdownswith Perry being inspired byHoney, I Shrunk the Kids,Pee-wee's Playhouse, andPee-wee's Big Adventure. She described it as \"larger than life\" and \"the kookiest, most camp show I've ever put together.\"The show has received critical acclaimwith Melinda Sheckells ofBillboardsaying that Play's \"sold-out opening night is part fantasy, part hallucination and thoroughly camp.In addition to a sold out opening night, theSanta Barbara Independentreported that Perry's contract deal for the residency was worth $168 million.It concluded on November 4, 2023,and grossed $46.4 million. In September 2021,Varietypaid tribute to and honored Perry in their \"Power of Women\" issue, where she","issue, where she discussed her career, motherhood, andphilanthropy.As a nominee, she attended theVariety2021 \"Power of Women\" dinner.On her 37th birthday the next month, Perry guest hostedThe Ellen DeGeneres Showand starred in a holiday advertisement forGap Inc.which featured her singing \"All You Need Is Love\" bythe Beatles. A full version of her cover was released on streaming platforms the same day.In January 2022, she and Morgan McLachlan established De Soi, a company which produces and sellsnon-alcoholicapéritifs. Both wanted a beverage that \"would mellow the mind, minus the buzz\" when creating it. Along withThomas Rhett, Perry recorded a country pop duet titled \"Where We Started\" for hisalbum of the same namethat was released on April 1, 2022.The next month, it was announced Perry would create music for the soundtrack to Jeremy Zag's animated musical filmMelodyand voice its title character.She also became the new face forJust Eat's,SkipTheDishes',Lieferando's, andMenulog's advertisements and created a","and created a new remix of their jingle.On June 8, 2022, Perry was awarded with the Key toLas Vegas, the same day it was marked as Katy Perry day. Perry collaborated with the tech companyApple Inc.starring in advertisements for theirGarageBandmusic software where users could have \"Remix Sessions\" featuring her song, \"Harleys in Hawaii\". On the collab, she stated in August 2022: \"'Harleys in Hawaii' has lived so many different lives\" as well as that there was \"so much opportunity to remix this song, and I can't wait to hear all the GarageBand evolutions with this Apple collab.\"Perry performed at the May 2023Coronation ConcertofCharles IIIatWindsor Castle.Four months later, she sold her music rights to Litmus Music for an estimated $225 million. 2024:143 During an appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!in February 2024, Perry announced her exit fromAmerican Idolfollowing the conclusion of thetwenty-second season, wanting to \"go out and feel that pulse to my own beat\" and release new music after being \"in the studio","\"in the studio for a while\". The season premiered later that month,and concluded the following May.She released \"Woman's World\", the first single from her seventh album, on July 11, 2024.One day before the track's premiere, Perry revealed the album is be titled143and that would be released on September 20 of the same year.She described the album as \"super high energy, it's super summer, it's very high BPM\" and \"just full of so much joy, so much love, so much light\".On September 11, Perry received theMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Awardat the2024 MTV Video Music Awards.She performed during the 2024 Rock in Rio festival on the day of143's release.Eight days later, she will headline the pre-game entertainment at Australia's2024 AFL Grand Final. Artistry Influences Perry cites her sister Angela as the woman who has had the most influence on her.During the early stages of her career, Perry's musical style gravitated towards gospel and she aspired to be as successful asAmy Grant.At age 15, she heard \"Killer Queen\"","\"Killer Queen\" byQueen, which inspired her to pursue a music career.She cites the band's frontman,Freddie Mercury, as her biggest influence and expressed how the \"combination of his sarcastic approach to writing lyrics and his 'I don't give a fuck' attitude\" inspired her music.She paid homage to the band by naming her third fragrance Killer Queen.Perry describedthe Beach Boysand their albumPet Soundsas having a considerable influence on her music: \"Pet Soundsis one of my favorite records and it influenced pretty much all of my songwriting. All of the melody choices that I make are because ofPet Sounds.\"The singer also holds the Beatles' albumThe Beatlesin high esteem, and described these two albums as \"the only things I listened to for probably two years straight.\" She cites Alanis Morissette and her 1995 albumJagged Little Pillas a significant musical inspiration, stating in 2012: \"Jagged Little Pillwas the most perfect female record ever made. There's a song for anyone on that record; I relate to all those","relate to all those songs. They're still so timeless.\" Additionally, Perry borrows influence fromFlaming RedbyPatty Griffinand10 Cent WingsbyJonatha Brooke.Perry's autobiographical documentaryKaty Perry: Part of Mewas largely influenced byMadonna: Truth or Dare. She admires Madonna's ability to reinvent herself, saying \"I want to evolve like Madonna\". Perry namesBjörkas an influence, particularly admiring her \"willingness to always be taking chances\".Other artists who Perry has cited as influences includeStevie Nicks,ABBA,the Cardigans,Whitney Houston,Cyndi Lauper,Ace of Base,3OH!3,CeCe Peniston,C+C Music Factory,Black Box,Crystal Waters,Mariah Carey,Heart, Joni Mitchell,Paul Simon,Imogen Heap,Rufus Wainwright,Pink,andGwen Stefani.\"Firework\" was inspired by a passage in the bookOn the RoadbyJack Kerouacin which the author compares people who are full of life to fireworks that shoot across the sky and make people watch in awe.Her second concert tour, the California Dreams Tour, was reminiscent ofAlice's","ofAlice's Adventures in WonderlandandThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz.She also credits the 1996 filmThe Craftfor inspiring her song \"Dark Horse\",andEckhart Tolle's bookThe Power of Nowfor influencingPrism. Musical style and themes \"When I am in between records, sometimes I doubt myself. I'll be like 'Did I just get lucky, or did I mass-manipulate the world into thinking that seven songs were worth a number-one position?' And then I go back into the studio and I start writing, and the true essential oil of who I am comes bubbling back up and reminds me that it's always been inside of me, that nobody can take this away no matter what comment anyone makes.\" —Perry on her confidence as a songwriter Although Perry's music incorporates elements of pop, rock, anddisco,Katy Hudsoncontains gospel. Her subsequent releases,One of the BoysandTeenage Dream, involve themes of sex and love.One of the Boysis apop rockrecord, whileTeenage Dreamfeatures disco influences.Perry's fourth album,Prism, is significantly influenced by","influenced by dance and pop music. Lyrically, the album addresses relationships, self-reflection, and everyday life.Her fifth studio effortWitnessis anelectropopalbum that she described as a \"360-degree liberation\" record, with themes including political liberation, sexual liberation, and liberation from negativity.Many of her songs, particularly onTeenage Dream, reflect on love between teenagers;Wmagazine described the album's sexual innuendos as \"irresistible hook-laden melodies\".Self-empowerment is a common theme in Perry's music. Perry has described herself as a \"singer-songwriter masquerading as a pop star\"and maintains that honest songwriting is very important to her. She toldMarie Claire: \"I feel like my secret magic trick that separates me from a lot of my peers is the bravery to be vulnerable and truthful and honest. I think you become more relatable when you're vulnerable.\"Actress and comedianKristen Wiigcommented that \"as easy, breezy, and infectious as Perry's songs can be, beneath the surface","beneath the surface lurks a sea of mixed emotions, jumbled motives, and contradictory impulses complicated enough to fill aCarole Kingrecord.\"According toGreg Kotof theChicago Tribune, \"being taken seriously may be Perry's greatest challenge yet.\"In 2013,The New York Timeslabeled her \"the most potent pop star of the day – her hits are relatable with just a hint of experimentation\".Randall Roberts of theLos Angeles Timescriticized her use of idioms and metaphors in her lyrics and for frequent \"clichés\".Throughout her career, Perry has also co-written songs recorded by other artists, includingLesley Roy,Kelly Clarkson,Jessie James Decker,Selena Gomez & the Scene,Britney Spears,Iggy Azalea,Rita Ora,Nicki Minaj, andAriana Grande. Voice Perry possesses acontraltovocal range.Her singing has received both praise and criticism. Betty Clarke ofThe Guardiancommented that her \"powerful voice is hard-edged\"whileRob SheffieldfromRolling Stonedescribed Perry's vocals onTeenage Dreamas \"processedstaccatoblips\".Darren","Harvey ofmusicOMHcompared Perry's vocals onOne of the Boysto Alanis Morissette's, both possessing a \"perky voice shifting octaves mid-syllable\".Alex Miller fromNMEfelt that \"Perry's problem is often her voice\" onOne of the Boys, stating that \"somewhere along the line someone convinced her she was like, well, a ballsy rock chick\".Conversely, Bernadette McNulty fromThe Daily Telegraphpraised her \"rock chick voice\" in a review of a concert promotingPrism. Public image On social media, Perry surpassedJustin Bieberas the most followed person onTwitterin November 2013.She won the 2015 Guinness World Record for most Twitter followers,and became the first person to gain 100 million followers on the site in June 2017.Keith Caulfield ofBillboardstated that Perry is \"the rare celebrity who seems to have enormous popularity but genuine ground-level interaction with her adoring KatyCats.\"With over 106 million Twitter followers, she is the second-most followed woman on the site, and the sixth most followed musician across","musician across social media with a combined total of over 385 million followers acrossFacebook, Instagram, and Twitter.In June 2017,Timemagazine listed Perry among its \"25 Most Influential People on the Internet\" of the year, writing that her live-stream forWitnesswas \"blazing a trail\" for being \"the closest any major entertainer has come to giving fans the kind of 'real' intimacy that social media purports to provide\". Perry has been described as asex symbol;GQlabeled her a \"full-on male fantasy\",whileEllewrote her body looked \"as though sketched by a teenage boy\".Vicecalled her a\"'serious' popstar/woman/sex symbol\".She was placed at number one on theMaximHot 100 in 2010 as the \"most beautiful woman in the world\", with editor Joe Levy describing her as a \"triple – no quadruple – kind of hot\".Men's Healthreaders voted her the \"sexiest woman of 2013\".In November 2010, Perry toldHarper's Bazaarthat she was proud of and satisfied with her figure. Perry's fashion often incorporates humor, bright colors, and","bright colors, and food-related themessuch as her characteristic spinning peppermint swirl dress.Voguedescribed her as \"never exactly one to shy away from the outrageous or the extreme in any realm\", and called her the \"Queen ofCamp\",whileGlamournamed her the \"queen of quirk\".In February 2009, Perry toldSeventeenthat her fashion style was \"a bit of a concoction of different things\" and stated she enjoyed humor in her clothing.She has also described herself as having \"multipersonality disorder\" for fashion.Perry lists Gwen Stefani,Shirley Manson,Chloë Sevigny,Daphne Guinness,Natalie Portman, and the fictional characterLolitaas her style icons.In 2022,Elledubbed her as \"thekitsch-loving pop star renowned for her uniquely experimental style\", whileVoguedescribed her style as \"synonymous with outrageous, eye-catching ensembles that lean towards the theatrical\". During the 2017 launch of her shoe collection, Katy Perry Collections, she said about shoes: \"When I first got to L.A., I cultivated my style on a","my style on a budget, always shopping at thrift stores or vintage stores. ... Once, I found these flats that looked likeDalmatian dogs. They had ears that moved and a tongue that stuck out. They were such a conversation piece. That's what is so great about fashion. ... It's a form of communication. You don't have to start a smoking habit to start talking to someone. You can just wear cool shoes. It's an icebreaker.\" Legacy Several media outlets such asBillboardandGlamourhave referred to her as the \"Queen of Pop\", while others likeVogue,Rolling Stone, andInStylehave dubbed Perry the \"Queen of Camp\".Andrew Unterberger ofBillboarddescribedTeenage Dream\"one of the defining LPs from a new golden age in mega-pop\"while Christopher Rosa ofGlamournamed her as an influence to thepopsound and style of the 2010s, adding that her singles are \"some of the most recognizable, iconic, and impactful hits in pop history.\"Perry was named \"one of the last decade's most reliable and successful hitmakers\" by theOfficial Charts","theOfficial Charts Companyin 2022. Additionally, Perry was included inGlamour's \"104 Women Who Defined the Decade in Pop Culture\" list of the 2010s. It stated Perry \"did more than just break chart records. She was one of the driving forces behind the sound of pop radio in the 2010s\" for her tracks that were \"glossy, booming, sugary-sweet, and undeniably catchy.\"Varietyincluded Perry in theirVariety500 list of the most influential business leaders, calling her a \"global phenomenon\" and a \"dedicated artist and tireless self-promoter who has leveraged chart-topping hits, sold-out stadium shows, and staggering endorsement deals to become one of the richest and most influential pop stars alive.\"A 2017 journal published byPsychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Artsstudying structural patterns in the melodies ofearwormsongs compiled lists ofcatchiesttracks from 3,000 participants, in which Perry's \"California Gurls\" ranked number six.She has been called a \"gay icon\" by Taylor Henderson ofOut, noting how \"I","noting how \"I Kissed a Girl\" helped fans explore their sexuality and how Perry openly embraced theLGBTQ+ community. Perry's music has been described byOutas having a \"lasting legacy\", with American singersFletchersampling \"I Kissed a Girl\" andOlivia RodrigoreferencingTeenage Dreamon \"Brutal\".Additionally, other artists such asHalseyandAriana Grandehave praised Perry's work, with Halsey callingTeenage Dreamthe \"perfect pop album\" and Grande saying \"The One That Got Away\" is \"one of the biggest and most perfectly written pop songs ever from one of the best pop albums of all time.\" Other ventures Philanthropy Perry has supported various charitable organizations and causes throughout her career. She has contributed to organizations aimed at improving the lives and welfare of children in particular. In April 2013, she joinedUNICEFto assist children in Madagascar with education and nutrition.On December 3, 2013, she was officially named aUNICEF Goodwill Ambassador, \"with a special focus on engaging young people in","young people in the agency's work to improve the lives of the world's most vulnerable children and adolescents.\"She arranged for a portion of the money generated from tickets to her Prismatic World Tour to go to UNICEF.In September 2010, she helped build and design the Boys Hope/Girls Hope foundation shelter for youth in Baltimore, Maryland along withRaven-Symoné,Shaquille O'Neal, and the cast ofExtreme Makeover: Home Edition.In 2010, Perry andNicki Minajperformed a cover of \"Girls Just Want to Have Fun\" for service members during the 2010VH1Divas Salute the Troops concert. She has also supported children's education and well-being. All profits from sales of the albumThe Gay Nineties Old Tyme Music: Daisy Bell, which includes her rendition of \"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)\", were donated to the charityLittle Kids Rock, which supports musical education in underprivileged elementary schools.In June 2014, she teamed up withStaples Inc.for a project entitled \"Make Roar Happen\" which donated $1 million","donated $1 million toDonorsChoose, an organization that supports teachers and funds classroom resources in public schools.In May 2016, she worked with UNICEF to improve child care quality in Vietnam, hoping to \"break the cycle of poverty and drastically improve children's health, education and well-being\".The following month, UNICEF announced that Perry would receive theAudrey HepburnHumanitarian Award \"for her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in support of the world's most vulnerable children\" at their annual Snowflake Ball in November.All Spotify streams of her 2021 cover of \"All You Need Is Love\" will generate $1 in donations for the charityBaby2Baby. Perry has supported organizations aimed at aiding people suffering with diseases including cancer andHIV/AIDS. During the 2008 Warped Tour, she had a cast made of her breasts to raise money for theKeep A Breast Foundation.She hosted and performed at the We Can Survive concert along withBonnie McKee,Kacey Musgraves,Sara Bareilles,Ellie Goulding, and","Goulding, and duoTegan and Saraat the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles, California, on October 23, 2013. The concert's profits were donated toYoung Survival Coalition, an organization aiding breast cancer in young women.In June 2009, she designed an item of clothing forH&M's \"Fashion Against AIDS\" campaign, which raises money for HIV/AIDS awareness projects.On February 26, 2017, she served as a co-chair alongside various celebrities such asBeyoncé,Lea Michele,Jim Carrey,Jared Leto, andKevin Spaceyfor the 25th AnnualElton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party, a fundraiser for HIV/AIDS healthcare. The proceeds from Perry's single \"Part of Me\" were donated to the charityMusiCares, which helps musicians in times of need.During her California Dreams Tour, she raised over $175,000 for the Tickets-For-Charity fundraiser. The money was divided between three charities: theChildren's Health Fund(CHF), Generosity Water, andThe Humane Society of the United States. On her 27th birthday, Perry set up a donations page for","donations page for theSociety for the Prevention of Cruelty to AnimalsAuckland,and set up a similar page benefiting theDavid Lynch Foundationfor her 28th birthday.On March 29, 2014, she helped raise $2.4 million for theMuseum of Contemporary Artin Los Angeles along with other celebrities such asRyan Seacrest,Pharrell Williams,Tim Allen,Lisa Edelstein, andRiley Keough. Perry performed at theOne Love Manchesterbenefit concert for the victims of the 2017Manchester Arena bombing, among various performers including its organizerAriana Grande, which was broadcast live on June 4, 2017, on radio and television stations around the world.In March 2018, Perry announcedWitness: Coming Home, a benefit concert that was held in her hometown of Santa Barbara on May 19, 2018. The concert benefited those recovering from the aftermath of the2017 California wildfiresand2018 Southern California mudflows. Perry partnered with the Santa Barbara Foundation, the 93108 Fund and The 805 UndocuFund, organizations which help in","which help in assisting members of the community in the Santa Barbara area through grants and various philanthropic efforts. Activism and political views Perry has publicly advocated forLGBT rightsand admitted that she wrote \"I Kissed a Girl\" about her ownbisexualexperiences with other women. In 2017, she received a Nation Equality Award fromHuman Rights Campaignfor \"using her powerful voice and international platform to speak out for LGBTQ equality\".During her acceptance speech, she discussed having bisexual experiences, her fluid sexuality, and thanked theLGBTQ+ community.In anOutinterview in 2021, she was heralded as a \"gay icon\" with \"I Kissed a Girl\" being called a \"bonafide queer anthem\". Perry continued to thank the LGBTQ+ community in the same interview, saying: \"I came from a very sheltered upbringing where it wasn't okay to be friends with anyone from that community. And now that is my community.\" She also mentioned \"I wouldn't have survived without the community and it's amazing how full circle","how full circle it's come and how much growth has happened since I started.\"Tomás Mier ofRolling Stoneremarked Perry \"championed queer folks, especiallydrag queens, throughout her career.\" She dedicated the music video to her song \"Firework\" to theIt Gets Better Project.In June 2012, Perry expressed her hopes for LGBT equality, commenting \"hopefully, we will look back at this moment and think like we do now concerning civil rightsissues. We'll just shake our heads in disbelief, saying, 'Thank God we've evolved.' That would be my prayer for the future.\"In December 2012, Perry was awarded the Trevor Hero Award byThe Trevor Projectfor her work and activism on behalf of LGBT youth. Perry identifies as afeminist,and appeared in April 2013 in a video clip for the \"Chime for Change\" campaign that aimed to spread female empowerment.She has also said that America's lack of freehealth caredrove her \"absolutely crazy\".Following theshooting at the Pulse nightclub in Orlandoin June 2016, Perry and nearly 200 other","nearly 200 other artists and executives in music signed an open letter organized byBillboardaddressed toUnited States Congressdemanding increasedgun controlin the United States. Through Twitter and by performing at rallies, Perry supported PresidentBarack Obamain his run for re-election and praised his support forsame-sex marriageand LGBT equality.She performed at three rallies for Obama, in Los Angeles, Las Vegas, and Wisconsin, singing a rendition of \"Let's Stay Together\" as well as a number of her songs. During her Las Vegas performance she wore a dress made to replicate a voting ballot, with Obama's box filled in.On Twitter, she encouraged her followers to vote for Obama. In August 2013, Perry voiced criticism ofTony Abbott, then-leader of conservativeLiberal Party of Australiaand candidate forPrime Minister of Australia, due to his opposition to gay marriage and told Abbott, \"I love you as a human being but I can't give you my vote.\"; the statement came after Abbott expressed pride at learning of","at learning of Perry's then-upcoming performance in Australia.In April 2014, she publicly supportedMarianne Williamsonin her campaign forCalifornia's 33rd congressional districtby attending a political press event.She endorsedKamala Harrisin theUnited States Senate election in California, and organized a fundraiser for Harris at her home in Los Angeles in November 2016.Perry also publicly endorsed former Secretary of StateHillary Clintonfor president in2016.She performed alongsideElton Johnat a fundraising concert for Clinton in New York City in March 2016.Perry also spoke and performed at the2016 Democratic National Conventionin support of Clinton.Four years later, she supportedJoe Bidenand Kamala Harris during the2020 United States presidential election, praising the latter as a leader who had \"experience we desperately need right now\" and believed that the former \"choosing her as his running mate is already a testament to his decision making\".In 2022, Perry posted a picture of herself voting for","herself voting for conservative candidateRick Carusoin the2022 Los Angeles mayoral election, for which she was heavily criticized by Democrats. Achievements Throughout her career, Perry has won fiveAmerican Music Awards,fourteenPeople's Choice Awards,fourGuinness World Records,aBrit Award,and aJuno Award.In September 2012,Billboarddubbed her the \"Woman of the Year\".From May 2010 to September 2011, the singer spent a record-breaking 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of theBillboardHot 100.Teenage Dreambecame the first album by a female artist to produce five number-oneBillboardHot 100 singles, and the second album overall after Michael Jackson'sBad.In the United States, she has accumulated nine number-one singles on theBillboardHot 100, her most recent being \"Dark Horse\",and holds the record for having 18 consecutive number-one songs on theBillboardDance Club Songschart. Billboardalso named her the 15th most successful dance club artist of all time.The magazine additionally ranked her fourth on its","her fourth on its \"Greatest of All Time Pop Songs Artists\" list and twenty-fifth on the \"Greatest Pop Stars of the 21st Century\" list,includedTeenage DreamandPrismamong its \"Greatest of All TimeBillboard 200Albums by Women\" list,and ranked \"Dark Horse\" at number 100 on its \"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs\"as well as one of its \"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs by Women\" along with \"E.T.\", \"Firework\", and \"California Gurls\".In June 2015, her music video for \"Dark Horse\" became the first video by a female artist to reach 1 billion views on Vevo.The following month, her music video for \"Roar\" reached 1 billion views on Vevo, making her the first artist to have multiple videos with 1 billion views. With 143 million records sold globally, Perry isone of the best-selling music artists of all time.She was declared the Top Global Female Recording Artist of 2013 by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI).According to RIAA, Perry is the ninthtop digital singles artistin the United States,","the United States, with 121.5 million certified song units in the country including on-demand streamsand also has 19 million certified album units, totaling 129.5 million certified units in the United States.She also became the first artist to have three songs receive Diamond certifications from the RIAA in 2017 with \"Dark Horse\", \"Firework\", and \"Roar\".All three of them and \"E.T.\", \"California Gurls\", and \"Hot n Cold\" have each sold over 5 million digital copies.Six years later, the RIAA certified \"California Gurls\" as her fourthdiamond-certifiedsingle in the U.S., breaking her tie with Lady Gaga as the female artist with the most diamond singles there.Perry's albumsOne of the Boys,Teenage Dream,Prism,Witness, andSmilehave individually surpassed one billion streams onSpotify. In 2011,Forbesranked her third on their \"Top-Earning Women In Music\" list with earnings of $44 millionand fifth on their 2012 list with $45 million.She subsequently ranked seventh on the 2013Forbeslist for \"Top-Earning Women In Music\"","Women In Music\" with $39 million earned,and fifth on their 2014 list with $40 million.With earnings of $135 million,Forbesalso ranked Perry number one on their 2015 \"Top-Earning Women In Music\" list as well as the \"World's Highest-Paid Musicians\" and declared her the highest earning female celebrity in 2015, placing her at number 3 on theForbesCelebrity 100 list.In 2016, the magazine estimated her net worth was $125 million,and ranked her number six on their list of \"Highest-Paid Women in Music\" with earnings of $41 million.The following year, she was ranked number nine on the list with $33 million.In 2018, she topped its \"Highest-Paid Women in Music\" listing and ranked at number four on the \"Highest-Paid Female Celebrities\" list, with earnings of $83 million.Perry subsequently was placed at number four on the 2019 \"Highest-Paid Women in Music\" listings, with $57.5 million.Later that year, with earnings of $530 million throughout the 2010s, the magazine also ranked her as the ninth-highest-earning musician","musician of the decade.Perry is one of thewealthiest musical artists; during September 2023,Forbessurmised she had a net worth of $340 million.This increased to $350 million the following May, where Perry was included on the magazine's 2024 list of \"America's Richest Self-Made Women\". Discography Filmography Tours and residency Headlining tours Co-headlining tours Residency See also Notes References Citations Sources External links","Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Katy_Perry (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"],"string":"[\n \"Joan Didion Joan Didion(/ˈdɪdiən/; December 5, 1934 – December 23, 2021) was an American writer and journalist. She is considered one of the pioneers ofNew Journalism, along withGay Talese,Hunter S. Thompson, andTom Wolfe. Didion's career began in the 1950s after she won an essay contest sponsored byVoguemagazine.She would go on to publish essays inThe Saturday Evening Post,Life,Esquire,The New York Review of Books, andThe New Yorker. Her writing during the 1960s through the late 1970s engaged audiences in the realities of thecounterculture of the 1960s, the Hollywood lifestyle, and the history and culture ofCalifornia. Didion's political writing in the 1980s and 1990s concentrated on the subtext of political rhetoric andthe United States's foreign policy in Latin America.In 1991, she wrote the earliest mainstream media article to suggest that theCentral Park Fivehad been wrongfully convicted.With her husbandJohn Gregory Dunne, Didion wrote multiple screenplays, includingThe Panic in Needle Park(1971),A Star\",\n \"Park(1971),A Star Is Born(1976), andUp Close & Personal(1996). In 2005, she won theNational Book Award for Nonfictionand was a finalist for both theNational Book Critics Circle Awardand thePulitzer PrizeforThe Year of Magical Thinking, a memoir of the year following the sudden death of her husband. She later adapted the book into a play that premiered on Broadway in 2007. In 2013, she was awarded theNational Humanities Medalby presidentBarack Obama.Didion was profiled in the 2017NetflixdocumentaryThe Center Will Not Hold, directed by her nephewGriffin Dunne. Early life and education Didion was born on December 5, 1934, inSacramento, California,to Eduene (née Jerrett) and Frank Reese Didion.She had one brother, five years her junior, James Jerrett Didion, who became a real estate executive.Didion recalled writing things down as early as age five,although she said she never saw herself as a writer until after her work had been published. She identified as a \\\"shy, bookish child,\\\" an avid reader, who pushed\",\n \"reader, who pushed herself to overcome social anxiety through acting and public speaking. During her adolescence, she would type outErnest Hemingway's works to learn how his sentence structures worked. Didion's early education was nontraditional. She attended kindergarten and first grade, but, because her father was a finance officer in theArmy Air Corpsand the family constantly relocated, she did not attend school regularly.In 1943 or early 1944, her family returned toSacramento, and her father went to Detroit to negotiate defense contracts forWorld War II. Didion wrote in her 2003 memoirWhere I Was Fromthat moving so often made her feel as if she were a perpetual outsider. Didion received a B.A. in English fromUniversity of California, Berkeley, in 1956.During her senior year, she won first place in the \\\"Prix de Paris\\\" essay contest, sponsored byVogue,and was awarded a job as aresearch assistantat the magazine. The topic of her winning essay was the San Francisco architectWilliam Wurster. Career Vogue\",\n \"Career Vogue During her seven years atVogue, from 1956 to 1964, Didion worked her way up from promotional copywriter to associate feature editor.Mademoisellepublished Didion's article \\\"Berkeley’s Giant: The University of California\\\" in January 1960.While atVogue, and homesick for California, she wrote her first novel,Run, River(1963), about a Sacramento family as it comes apart.Writer and friendJohn Gregory Dunnehelped her edit the book.John—the younger brother of author, businessman, and television mystery show hostDominick Dunne—was writing forTimemagazine at the time. He and Didion married in 1964. The couple moved to Los Angeles in 1964, intending to stay only temporarily, but California remained their home for the next 20 years. In 1966, they adopted a daughter, whom they named Quintana Roo Dunne.The couple wrote many newsstand-magazine assignments. \\\"She and Dunne started doing that work with an eye to covering the bills, and then a little more,\\\" Nathan Heller reported inThe New Yorker. \\\"Their Postrates\",\n \"\\\"Their Postrates allowed them to rent a tumbledown Hollywood mansion, buy a banana-coloredCorvette Stingray, raise a child, and dine well.\\\" In Los Angeles, they settled inLos Felizfrom 1963 to 1971, and then, after living inMalibufor eight years, she and Dunne moved toBrentwood Park, a quiet, affluent, residential neighborhood. Slouching Towards Bethlehem In 1968, Didion published her first nonfiction book,Slouching Towards Bethlehem, a collection of magazine pieces about her experiences in California.Cited as an example ofNew Journalism, it used novel-like writing to cover the non-fiction realities ofhippiecounterculture.She wrote from a personal perspective, adding her own feelings and memories to situations, inventing details and quotes to make the stories more vivid, and using metaphors to give the reader a better understanding of the disordered subjects of her essays: politicians, artists, or just people living an American life.The New York Timescharacterized the \\\"grace, sophistication, nuance, irony\\\"\",\n \"nuance, irony\\\" of her writing. 1970s Didion's novelPlay It as It Lays, set in Hollywood, was published in 1970, andA Book of Common Prayerappeared in 1977. In 1979, she publishedThe White Album, another collection of her magazine pieces fromLife,Esquire,The Saturday Evening Post,The New York Times, andThe New York Review of Books.InThe White Album's title essay, Didion documented an episode she experienced in the summer of 1968. After undergoing psychiatric evaluation, she was diagnosed as having had an attack ofvertigoand nausea. After periods of partial blindness in 1972, she was diagnosed withmultiple sclerosis, but remained in remission throughout her life.In her essay entitled \\\"In Bed,\\\" Didion explained that she experienced chronicmigraines. Dunne and Didion worked closely for most of their careers. Much of their writing is therefore intertwined. They co-wrote a number of screenplays, including a1972 film adaptationof her novelPlay It as It Laysthat starredAnthony PerkinsandTuesday Weldand the\",\n \"Weldand the screenplay for the 1976 film ofA Star is Born.They also spent several years adapting the biography of journalistJessica Savitchinto the 1996Robert RedfordandMichelle Pfeifferfilm,Up Close & Personal. 1980s and 1990s Didion's book-length essaySalvador(1983) was written after a two-week trip to El Salvador with her husband. The next year, she published the novelDemocracy, the story of a long, but unrequited love affair between a wealthy heiress and an older man, aCIAofficer, against the background of theCold Warand theVietnam War. Her 1987 nonfiction bookMiamilooked at the different communities in that city.In 1988, the couple moved from California to New York City. In a prescientNew York Review of Bookspiece of 1991, a year after the various trials of theCentral Park Five, Didion dissected serious flaws in the prosecution's case, making her the earliest mainstream writer to view the guilty verdicts as miscarriages of justice.She suggested the defendants were found guilty because of a\",\n \"guilty because of a sociopolitical narrative with racial overtones that clouded the judgment of the court. In 1992, Didion publishedAfter Henry, a collection of twelve geographical essays and a personal memorial for Henry Robbins, who was Didion's friend and editor until his death in 1979.She publishedThe Last Thing He Wanted, a romantic thriller, in 1996. The Year of Magical Thinking In 2003, Didion's daughter Quintana Roo Dunne developedpneumoniathat progressed toseptic shockand she was comatose in an intensive-care unit when Didion's husband suddenly died of a heart attack on December 30.Didion delayed his funeral arrangements for approximately three months until Quintana was well enough to attend. On October 4, 2004, Didion began writingThe Year of Magical Thinking, a narrative of her response to the death of her husband and the severe illness of their daughter. She finished the manuscript 88 days later on New Year's Eve.Written at the age of 70, this was her first nonfiction book that was not a\",\n \"book that was not a collection of magazine assignments.She said that she found the subsequent book-tour process very therapeutic during her period of mourning.Documenting the grief she experienced after the sudden death of her husband, the book was called a \\\"masterpiece of two genres: memoir and investigative journalism\\\" and won several awards. Visiting Los Angeles after her father's funeral, Quintana fell at the airport, hit her head on the pavement and required brain surgery forhematoma.After progressing toward recovery in 2004, Quintana died of acutepancreatitison August 26, 2005, aged 39, during Didion's New York promotion forThe Year of Magical Thinking.Didion wrote about Quintana's death in the 2011 bookBlue Nights. 2000s Didion was living in an apartment on East 71st Street inManhattanin 2005.Everyman's LibrarypublishedWe Tell Ourselves Stories in Order to Live, a 2006 compendium of much of Didion's writing, including the full content of her first seven published nonfiction books (Slouching Towards\",\n \"(Slouching Towards Bethlehem,The White Album,Salvador,Miami,After Henry,Political Fictions, andWhere I Was From), with an introduction by her contemporary, the criticJohn Leonard. Didion began working with English playwright and directorDavid Hareon a one-woman stage adaptation ofThe Year of Magical Thinkingin 2007. Produced byScott Rudin, the Broadway play featuredVanessa Redgrave. Although Didion was hesitant to write for the theater, she eventually found the genre, which was new to her, exciting. Didion wrote early drafts of the screenplay for an untitledHBObiopic directed byRobert BentononKatharine Graham. Sources say it may trace the paper's reporting on theWatergatescandal. Later works In 2011,KnopfpublishedBlue Nights, a memoir about aging that also focused on Didion's relationship with her late daughter.More generally, the book deals with the anxieties Didion experienced about adopting and raising a child, as well as the aging process. A photograph of Didion shot byJuergen Tellerwas used as part of\",\n \"used as part of the 2015 spring-summer campaign of the luxury French fashion brandCéline, while previously the clothing companyGaphad featured her in a 1989 campaign.Didion's nephewGriffin Dunnedirected a 2017Netflixdocumentary about her,Joan Didion: The Center Will Not Hold.In it, Didion discusses her writing and personal life, including the deaths of her husband and daughter, adding context to her booksThe Year of Magical ThinkingandBlue Nights. In 2021, Didion publishedLet Me Tell You What I Mean, a collection of 12 essays she wrote between 1968 and 2000. Death Didion died from complications ofParkinson's diseaseat her home in Manhattan on December 23, 2021, at the age of 87. Writing style and themes Didion viewed the structure of the sentence as essential to her work. In theNew York Timesarticle \\\"Why I Write\\\" (1976),Didion remarked, \\\"To shift the structure of a sentence alters the meaning of that sentence, as definitely and inflexibly as the position of a camera alters the meaning of the object\",\n \"of the object photographed... The arrangement of the words matters, and the arrangement you want can be found in the picture in your mind... The picture tells you how to arrange the words and the arrangement of the words tells you, or tells me, what's going on in the picture.\\\" Didion was heavily influenced by Ernest Hemingway, whose writing taught her the importance of how sentences work in a text. Her other influences includedGeorge EliotandHenry James, who wrote \\\"perfect, indirect, complicated sentences\\\". Didion was also an observer of journalists,believing the difference between the process of fiction and nonfiction is the element of discovery that takes place in nonfiction, which happens not during the writing, but during the research. Rituals were a part of Didion's creative process. At the end of the day, she would take a break from writing to remove herself from the \\\"pages\\\",saying that without the distance, she could not make proper edits. She would end her day by cutting out and editing prose, not\",\n \"editing prose, not reviewing the work until the following day. She would sleep in the same room as her work, saying: \\\"That's one reason I go home to Sacramento to finish things. Somehow the book doesn't leave you when you're right next to it.\\\" In a notorious 1980 essay, \\\"Joan Didion: Only Disconnect,\\\"Barbara Grizzuti Harrisoncalled Didion a \\\"neurasthenicCher\\\" whose style was \\\"a bag of tricks\\\" and whose \\\"subject is always herself\\\".In 2011,New Yorkmagazine reported that the Harrison criticism \\\"still gets her (Didion's) hackles up, decades later\\\". CriticHilton Alssuggested that Didion is reread often \\\"because of the honesty of the voice.\\\" Personal life For several years in her 20s, Didion was in a relationship withNoel E. Parmentel Jr., a political pundit and figure on the New York literary and cultural scene.According to Didion's husband, John Gregory Dunne, he actually met her through Parmentel, and Didion and Dunne remained friends for six years before embarking on a romantic relationship. As he later\",\n \"As he later recalled, when they shared a celebratory lunch after Dunne finished reading the galleys for her first novel,Run, River, \\\"while er other was out of town, it happened.\\\"Didion and Dunne subsequently married in January 1964 and remained together until his death from a heart attack in 2003. Breaking a long-held silence on Didion, whose work he had championed and for which he found publishers, Parmentel was interviewed for a 1996 article inNew Yorkmagazine.He had been angered in the 1970s by what he felt was a thinly veiled portrait of him in Didion's novelA Book of Common Prayer. In 1966, while living in Los Angeles, she and John adopted a daughter, whom they named Quintana Roo Dunne. A Republican in her early years, Didion later drifted toward the Democratic Party, \\\"without ever quite endorsing core beliefs.\\\" As late as 2011, she smoked precisely five cigarettes per day. Awards and honors TheJoan Didion: What She MeansExhibition TheHammer MuseumatUniversity of California, Los Angeles, organized the\",\n \"organized the exhibitionJoan Didion: What She Means. Curated byThe New Yorkercontributor and writerHilton Als, the group show was on view from 2022 and is scheduled to travel to thePérez Art Museum Miamiin 2023.Joan Didion: What She Meanspays homage to the writer and thinker through the lens of nearly 50 modern and contemporary international artists such asFélix González-TorrestoBetye Saar,Vija Celmins,Maren Hassinger,Silke Otto-Knapp,John Koch,Ed Ruscha,Pat Steir, among others. Published works Fiction Nonfiction Screenplays and plays References Further reading External links\",\n \"Play It as It Lays Play It as It Laysis a 1970 novel by American writerJoan Didion.Timemagazine included the novel in its list of the \\\"100 Best English-Language Novels from 1923 to 2005\\\".The novel has been credited for helping define modern American Fictionand has been described as an \\\"instant classic\\\".It is known for depicting thenihilismand the illusory glamor of life inHollywood,as well as capturing the landscape and culture of 1960sLos Angeles. The book was adapted intoa 1972 filmstarringTuesday Weldas Maria andAnthony Perkinsas BZ. Didion co-wrote the screenplay with her husband,John Gregory Dunne. Plot 31-year-old Maria Wyeth's story begins as she is recovering from an implied mental breakdown in apsychiatric hospitalin the Los Angeles area. Her journey oscillates between dizzying and domestic, as her acting career slows and her personal life collapses. Her story is revealed thoughflashbacksandflash forwards. Maria contrasts her life in Los Angeles with her childhood in Silver Wells,Nevada, a small town\",\n \"a small town so inconsequential that it no longer exists. The daughter of a neurotic mother and a gambling father, who bet on a mine and lost, Maria moves to New York to become an actress. In New York, Maria works temporarily as a model and meets Ivan Costello, a psychopathic blackmailer who has no hesitation exploiting Maria. In New York, Maria receives news of her mother's death in a car wreck, possibly a suicide. Her father dies soon after, leaving useless mineral rights to his business partner and friend Benny Austin. Maria withdraws from acting and modeling, splits up with Ivan, and eventually meets Carter and moves to Hollywood. Later, we find that she and Carter have a four-year-old daughter Kate. Kate is in a treatment facility for an unspecified \\\"aberrant chemical in her brain\\\".Maria loves Kate, as indicated by her tender descriptions, her frequent hospital visits, and her determination \\\"to get her out\\\". When Maria discovers she is pregnant, she is unsure if her husband, Carter or her lover, Les\",\n \"or her lover, Les Goodwin, is the father and she tells Carter the truth. Carter urges Maria to have anabortion, and suggests that if she chooses to have the child, he will take fullcustodyof their daughter. Set in a time before thelegalization of abortion, Maria must find a doctor who will perform an illegal abortion. Maria follows steps to covertly contact and visit the only doctor who does \\\"clean work\\\" in Los Angeles. Maria has an illegal abortion, performed withlocal anesthetic, in a house where there are newspapers on the floor. Feeling distress after her abortion, Maria begins to have vivid nightmares about dying infants and rattlesnakes. An inevitable divorce, and the ensuing social chaos bring Maria to indulge in self-destructive behavior. Maria disengages from her social world as she plunges into long days of compulsive driving, wanderingSouthern California's freeways, through motels and casinos, drinking and chancing sexual encounters with actors and ex-lovers. After a series of disasters for Maria,\",\n \"for Maria, infidelity among her friends adds further chaos to her life. The plot reaches a climax when Maria's friend BZ commitssuicidein her presence, choosing tooverdoseon sleeping pills (Seconal) and Maria does not stop him, despite fully understanding what he is doing. Before overdosing, he offers to share his pills with Maria, implying that he could help her die by suicide as well. Maria chooses not to take the pills, and does not stop BZ as he proceeds to swallow them. His final words are \\\"hold onto me\\\", after which they fall asleep on the bed together. Maria awakens to the sound of BZ's wife, Helene screaming as she discovers his dead body next to Maria. Maria ignores the screaming and holds tighter onto BZ's lifeless hand. In not preventing his suicide, Maria is blamed for his death by her friends. Maria isinstitutionalizedfor her inaction in stopping BZ's suicide, under doctors' and friends' assumption that she must have been disconnected from reality at the time the suicide occurred. It is implied\",\n \"It is implied that Maria doesn't try to escape her position, but accepts it apathetically. Her institutionalization can be seen as her choice to withdraw from the outside world, rather than a consequence of an actual mental illness or breakdown.From her hospital, Maria turns her visitors away, and plans for a day she might see her daughter again. Background and publication Play It as It Layswas authorJoan Didion's second novel, after her debutRun, Riverwas published in 1963. Didion gained public attention for her non-fiction collectionSlouching Towards Bethlehemin 1968.Published on July 13, 1970, byFarrar, Straus & Giroux,Didion said about the novel, \\\"I didn't think it was going to make it And suddenly it did make it, in a minor way. And from that time on I had more confidence.\\\" The book bears some resemblance to Didion's life, as Didion also had a daughter with a psychological disorder and drove the same car as Maria, a yellowCorvette Stingray.Like the protagonist, Didion lived in New York before moving to\",\n \"before moving to California.However, Didion asserted that the book was not autobiographical. Themes Life as a game This theme occurs frequently throughout the novel, especially in reference togamblingandcasino games.Having grown up aroundcasinoswith her gambling father, Maria sees life as a game in which every player chooses astrategy, or chooses to stop playing.Describing her upbringing she says, \\\"My father advised me that life itself was a crap game: it was one of the two lessons I learned as a child. The other was that overturning a rock was apt to reveal a rattlesnake. As lessons go those two seem to hold up, but not to apply.\\\" The title of the book,Play it as it Laysis a reference to advice from Maria's father on playingcraps: \\\"it goes as it lays, don't do it the hard way\\\", an idiom with meaning similar to \\\"playing with the cards you are dealt\\\". At the exposition of the novel, Maria describes the recent events of life as such, \\\"I was holding all theaces, but what was the game?\\\". Furthermore, social\",\n \"Furthermore, social interactions can be seen as a kind of game. Maria tries to be a good \\\"player\\\" when she speaks to her doctors: \\\"There are only certain facts, I say, trying again to be an agreeable player of the game.\\\" Deathcan be seen as the choice to stop playing the game of life. As he is about to commit suicide, BZ says to Maria, \\\"you're still playing Some day you'll wake up and you just won't feel like playing\\\". By choosing to die, BZ decides to stop playing. Meanwhile Maria references her choice to keep living, and continuing to \\\"play\\\" the game of life despite its meaninglessness, in the famous quote: \\\"I know what 'nothing' means, and keep on playing.\\\" Nihilism Throughout the novel Maria and other characters reveal a belief in the meaninglessness of life. This theme may be ascribed todepressionwhich the characters experience, to the emptiness of working in Hollywood or as an overarching philosophical theme on life. Many scenes in the book can be seen as an encounter with absurdity and nothingness,as\",\n \"and nothingness,as Maria has odd encounters with strangers whom she never sees again. Maria's dark view of life is revealed in quotes such as, \\\"Maria did not particularly believe in rewards, only in punishments, swift and personal.\\\" The concept ofnothingoccurs in many contexts, such as Maria marking \\\"nothing applies\\\" on her hospital documents, and repeating this thought when revisiting memories of her past. When speaking to Benny about their now-destroyed hometown, Maria says, \\\"there is no Silver Wells\\\", suggesting that finding meaning in past memories is futile.The line \\\"Maria said nothing\\\" occurs repeatedly in several dialogues, suggesting that Maria considers it pointless to explain herself to others. Maria does not try to find greater meaning in suffering, nor does she ask questions about why suffering occurs and if there is a purpose to it. This view is presented in her opening monologue, \\\"Carter and Helene still ask questions. I used to ask questions, and I got the answer: nothing. The answer is\",\n \"The answer is 'nothing.'\\\" Depiction of Los Angeles Play It As It Laysis considered a classic Los Angeles novel, containing manyliterary motifsassociated with Los Angeles andCalifornia. Driving, Cars and the Freeway Theinterstate freewayplays an important part in both thesettingand the plot of the novel, as the protagonist spends her days driving on the freeway as a form ofescapism, a motif that is popular in Los Angeles novels. Los Angeles, known as \\\"a city on wheels\\\",has a unique identity as a city designed for cars, due to its flat terrain and relatively late urbanization. The philosophical themes of the novel have been described as \\\"freeway existentialism\\\"as Maria goes on drives without a destination in mind. Maria fulfills the literary trope of a drifter, a common trope in Los Angeles novels, where protagonists are often depicted driving, either as a way to chase their dreams or to escape their problems.Driving a fast car on the open road is often considered a literary symbol of the illusion of freedom,\",\n \"of freedom, which is easily achieved in Southern California, where there is a well developed, multi-lane freeway. Some of the plot developments occur while driving. For instance Maria informs Carter that she is pregnant when they are driving on the freeway. When driving to the house where her illegal abortion is to occur, Maria and the man in the \\\"duck pants\\\" discuss their cars, which brings a sense of normalcy and relief to Maria, \\\"In the past few minutes he had significantly altered her perception of reality: she saw now that she was not a woman on her way to have an abortion. She was a woman parking a Corvette while a man in white pants talked about buying a Camaro. There was no more to it than that.\\\" An ongoing theme is that Maria avoids her problems by driving away from them, and as she sinks deeper into a nihilistic depression, she drives further distances, driving between California and Nevada. Disillusionment in Hollywood Didion is often credited for capturing the atmosphere of Hollywood in the\",\n \"of Hollywood in the 1960s.Play It As it Laysdepicts Hollywood as a \\\"broken paradise\\\" as seen from the point of view of a disenchanted actress,in contrast to the more common,utopianview of Hollywood.The novel depicts the scheming, exploitation, and elitism common in thefilm industryat that time. In the same way that movie makers manufacture stories, the characters in the film industry manufacture their own image to attain status and fame. Though themes ofnarcissismandself-destructionamong the wealthy are old themes, seen in novels such asThe Great Gatsby, the focus on the inner workings of movie production at the end ofGolden Era Hollywood, establishPlay It As It Laysas a classic Los Angeles novel. Maria's acting career is on the decline because she walked away from amovie set, damaging her reputation in an industry where reputation is highly important. This leads her to become more detached and apathetic to the social culture around her, and she begins to disregard social conventions and isolate herself from\",\n \"herself from her acquaintances, rejecting invitations to parties and choosing to be alone instead. Many dialogues between Maria and other characters portray the superficiality and strategy associated with the film industry, as characters choose words carefully to achieve an aim or to avoid direct communication. The few dialogues which depict genuine, heartfelt interactions stand out, such as BZ telling Maria, \\\"hold onto me\\\" before overdosing. Criticism Reception Considered a classic work of American fiction, the novel has received largely positive reviews from literary critics, but often draws mixed reviews from the public due to its bleak content and unlikableprotagonist.The plot has been described by critics as having \\\"cinematic nihilism\\\",and being a \\\"ruthless dissection of American life in the 1960s.\\\" It has been positively described as a \\\"terrifying book.\\\"In a review of the novel,Joseph Epsteindescribed Joan Didion as a novelist: \\\"her vision is dark, her views are bleak, but she is richly talented.\\\"J.\",\n \"richly talented.\\\"J. Frakes, reviewing the novel in theBook Worldcolumn ofThe Washington Post,described the novel as a \\\"scathing novel, distilling venom in tiny drops, revealing devastation in a sneer and fear in a handful of atomic dust.\\\"Library Journaldescribed it as, \\\"intelligent, well-structured, witty, irresistibly relentless.\\\" Didion's writing style in this novel has been applauded for breaking from literary tradition and making use of a precise, minimalist style,composed of short chapters, some of which are only a few sentences long, leaving the page mostly blank. The style has been described as \\\"short, laser-focused chapters that come in hot and burn out just as quickly like a firework.\\\" In popular culture The novel continues to be a prominent work inpopular culture. The book has been referenced in the Netflix television series,You.In a 2023 survey among writers by the LA Times,Play It As It Layswas voted the third most popular LA book.Literary Hublisted the novel in its list of10 Essential Books That\",\n \"Books That Capture Los Angeles in All Its Sublime, Beautiful Darkness.The independent editorial websiteBook Riot, included the novel in its list,10 of the Best Books About Los Angeles,describing Didion, \\\"when people think of Los Angeles authors, Joan Didion is almost always the first name that pops into their minds.\\\"The novel is frequently listed as a popular Los Angeles novel by popular culture websites. Adaptation The book was adapted intoa 1972 filmdirected byFrank Perry, starringTuesday Weldas Maria andAnthony Perkinsas BZ.Didion co-wrote the screenplay with her husband,John Gregory Dunne. Notes References External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays_(film\",\n \"Frank Perry Frank Joseph Perry Jr.(August 21, 1930 – August 29, 1995) was an American stage director and filmmaker. His 1962 independent filmDavid and Lisaearned anAcademy Award nomination for Best DirectorandBest Adapted Screenplay(written by his then-wifeEleanor Perry). The couple collaborated on five more films, includingThe Swimmer,Diary of a Mad Housewife, and theEmmy Award–nominatedA Christmas Memory, based on a short story byTruman Capote. Perry went on to form Corsair Pictures, privately financed byUnited Artists Theatres, which producedMiss FirecrackerandA Shock to the System, then folded.His later films includeMommie Dearestand the documentaryOn the Bridge, about his battle withprostate cancer. Early life Frank Joseph Perry Jr. was born inNew York Cityto stockbroker Frank Joseph Perry Sr. (1905–1969) and Pauline E. Schwab (1908–1965), who worked atAlcoholics Anonymous.As a teenager, Frank Jr. began pursuing his interest in the theater with a job as a parking lot attendant for the Westport Country\",\n \"Westport Country Playhouse in nearbyWestport, Connecticut. He attended theUniversity of Miami. Frank also studied underLee Strasbergin New York. He produced several plays at Westport Country Playhouse and then turned for a time to producing television documentaries. Career A veteran of the Korean War, he returned to the entertainment industry after being discharged and made his directorial debut in 1962 with the low-budget drama filmDavid and Lisa. Based on the novel byTheodore Isaac Rubin, the screenplay was written by his wife,Eleanor Rosenfeld, who received a nomination for anAcademy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay. A character study of two emotionally disturbed teenagers, the film was successful at the box office and met with much critical acclaim, earning him a nomination for anAcademy Award for Directing. Both Perrys would eventually join the select group of non-actors awarded membership inActors Studio.Perry went on to direct and produce a number of films, many based on literary sources or with\",\n \"sources or with strong literary associations, includingThe Swimmer, (1968) based on aJohn Cheeverstory,Last Summer(1969), andTrilogy(1969), written byTruman Capote. Perry is known for his character studies, such asDiary of a Mad Housewife(1970). That film earned aBest Actress Oscarnomination forCarrie Snodgress, andPlay It as It Lays(1972), starringTuesday Weld, brought her aGolden GlobeBest Actress nomination. Both of these films Perry produced and directed, but he is probably best remembered for directing the biographical dramaMommie Dearest, an adaptation of a biography by actressJoan Crawford's adoptive daughter. The film became a cult classic despite mixed reviews from critics; it also won theRazzie Awardfor worst picture, and Frank Perry was nominated for worst director, while actressFaye Dunawayreceived the Razzie for her performance. Some of Perry's film-related material and personal papers are held at the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives, a collection to which scholars and media experts from\",\n \"media experts from around the world today have full access. Personal life and death In 1958, Frank married his first wife Eleanor, who was 15 years his senior and had two children, William and Ann, from a previous marriage. Frank and Eleanor collaborated on many screen projects, including screenwriting the Academy Award-nominated 1962David and Lisa(an adaptation of the novella of the same name) which came about due to Eleanor's daughter Ann bringing the novella to her mother's attention.They divorced in 1971 on grounds of incompatibility.In 1979, Eleanor Perry wrote the novelBlue Pages,based on their relationship. She died of cancer two years later, at age 66. In 1977, Perry marriedBarbara Goldsmith, founding editor ofNew Yorkmagazine and book author (Little Gloria...Happy at Last), whom he divorced in 1992. Soon after, he married his Aspen ski instructor, 22-years-younger Virginia Brush Ford, on June 15, 1992. His sister is pastor Mary Christine Perry, the wife of pastor Maurice Keith Hudson and mother of\",\n \"and mother of singersKaty Perryand David Hudson. Perry died ofprostate canceron August 29, 1995, eight days after his 65th birthday, atMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Centerin Manhattan.His final film,On the Bridge(1992), is an autobiographical documentary about his illness. His ashes were scattered on the mountains of Aspen, Colorado, where he lived the last three years of his life. Filmography Film Television References Further reading External links\",\n \"Katy Perry Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson(born October 25, 1984), known professionally asKaty Perry, is an American singer, songwriter, and television personality. Perry is one of thebest-selling music artists of all time, having sold over 143 million units worldwide. She is known for her influence onpop musicand hercampstyle, being dubbed the \\\"Queen of Camp\\\" byVogueandRolling Stone.Billboardranked her fourth on its \\\"Greatest of All Time Pop Songs Artists\\\" list and twenty-fifth on their \\\"Greatest Pop Stars of the 21st Century\\\" list. At 16, Perry released agospelrecord titledKaty Hudson(2001) underRed Hill Records, which was commercially unsuccessful. She moved to Los Angeles at 17 to venture intosecularmusic, and later adopted the stage name \\\"Katy Perry\\\" from her mother's maiden name. She recorded an album while signed toColumbia Records, but was dropped before signing toCapitol Records. Perry rose to fame withOne of the Boys(2008), apop rockrecord containing her debut single \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" and follow-up single\",\n \"follow-up single \\\"Hot n Cold\\\", which reached number one and three on the U.S.BillboardHot 100respectively. Thedisco-influenced pop albumTeenage Dream(2010) spawned five U.S. number one singles—\\\"California Gurls\\\", \\\"Teenage Dream\\\", \\\"Firework\\\", \\\"E.T.\\\", and \\\"Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)\\\"— the only album by a female singer to do so. The album's reissue titledTeenage Dream: The Complete Confection(2012) produced the U.S. number one single \\\"Part of Me\\\". Her empowerment-themed albumPrism(2013) had two U.S. number one singles, \\\"Roar\\\" and \\\"Dark Horse\\\". Both their respective music videos made her the first artist to have multiple videos reach one billion views onVevoandYouTube. Afterwards, Perry released the albumsWitness(2017) andSmile(2020) and embarked on her Las Vegasconcert residencytitledPlay(2021–2023). She released her seventh studio album, titled143, in 2024. Perry has the second-most U.S.diamond certified singlesfor any female artist (6). She has receivedvarious accolades, including aBillboardSpotlight Award,\",\n \"Award, fourGuinness World Records, fiveBillboardMusic Awards, fiveAmerican Music Awards, aBrit Award, aJuno Award, and theMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Award. Outside of music, she released an autobiographical documentary titledKaty Perry: Part of Mein 2012, voicedSmurfetteinThe Smurfsfilm series, and launched her own shoe line Katy Perry Collections in 2017. Perry served as a judge onAmerican Idolfrom thesixteenth seasonin 2018 to thetwenty-second seasonin 2024.Forbesranked her as theworld's highest-paid female musicianin 2015 and 2018. With an estimated net worth of $350 million, she isone of the world's wealthiest musicians. Life and career 1984–1999: Early life and family Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson was born on October 25, 1984, inSanta Barbara, California, toPentecostalpastors Mary Christine (née Perry) and Maurice Keith Hudson.Both of her parents turned to religion after a \\\"wild youth\\\".Perry has English, German, Irish, and Portuguese ancestry.Through her mother, she is a niece of film directorFrank\",\n \"film directorFrank Perry.She has a younger brother named David, who is also a singer,and an older sister, Angela. From ages three to 11, Perry frequently moved across the country as her very strict parents set up churches before settling again in Santa Barbara. Growing up, she attended religious schools and camps, including Paradise Valley Christian School inArizonaand Santa Barbara Christian School in California during herelementary years.The family struggled financially,sometimes usingfood stampsand eating food from the food bank which also fed the congregation at her parents' church. Growing up, Perry and her siblings were not allowed to eat the cerealLucky Charmsas the word \\\"luck\\\" reminded their mother ofLucifer, and were also required to calldeviled eggs\\\"angeled eggs\\\".Perry primarily listened togospel music,as secular music was generally discouraged in the family's home. She discovered popular music through CDs she sneaked from her friends.Perry later recalled a story about how a friend of hers played\",\n \"of hers played \\\"You Oughta Know\\\" byAlanis Morissette, which impacted her songwriting and singing. While not strictly identifying as religious, she has stated, \\\"I pray all the time – for self-control, for humility.\\\"Wanting to be like her sister Angela, Perry began singing by practicing with her sister's cassette tapes. She performed the tracks in front of her parents, who let her take vocal lessons like Angela was doing at the time. She begantrainingat age nineand was incorporated into her parents' ministry,singing in church from ages nine to 17.At 13, Perry was given her first guitar for her birthday,and publicly performed songs she wrote.She tried to \\\"be a bit like the typical Californian girl\\\" while growing up, and started rollerskating, skateboarding, and surfing as a teenager. Her brother David described her as a \\\"tomboy\\\" during her adolescence, which Perry talks about on her song \\\"One of the Boys\\\".She took dancing lessons and learned how toswing,Lindy Hop, andjitterbug.Perry completed herGeneral\",\n \"herGeneral Educational Development(GED) requirements early at age 15,during her first year of high school,and leftDos Pueblos High Schoolto pursue a music career. 2000–2006: Career beginnings,Katy Hudson, andFingerprints Perry briefly had vocal lessons with a woman named Agatha Danoffin facilities rented from theMusic Academy of the West.Her singing caught the attention of rock artists Steve Thomas andJennifer KnappfromNashville, Tennessee, who brought her there to improve her writing skills.In Nashville, she started recordingdemosand learned how to write songs and play guitar.Perry signed withRed Hill Recordsand recorded her debut album, acontemporary Christianrecord titledKaty Hudson, which was released on March 6, 2001. She also went on tour that year as part ofPhil Joel's Strangely Normal Tourand embarked on other performances of her own in the United States.Katy Hudsonreceived mixed reviews from critics and was commercially unsuccessful, selling an estimated 200 copies before the label ceased operations\",\n \"ceased operations in December.Transitioning from gospel music to secular music, Perry started working with producerGlen Ballard,and moved to Los Angeles at age 17.She opted to work with Ballard due to his past work with Alanis Morissette, one of her major inspirations. In 2003, she briefly performed as Katheryn Perry, to avoid confusion with actressKate Hudson, and later adopted the stage name \\\"Katy Perry\\\", using her mother's maiden name.In 2010, she recalled that \\\"Thinking of You\\\" was one of the first songs she wrote after moving to Los Angeles.Perry would also perform at theHotel Café, performing new music while she was between record labels. In 2004, she signed to Ballard's label, Java Records, which was then affiliated withThe Island Def Jam Music Group. Perry began work on a solo record due for release in March 2005, but the record was shelved after Java was dropped.Ballard then introduced her toTim Devine, anA&Rexecutive atColumbia Records, and she was signed as a solo artist. By November 2006, Perry\",\n \"2006, Perry had finished writing and recording material for her Columbia debut titledFingerprints(with some of the material from this time appearing onOne of the Boys) which was planned for release in 2007.Some of the material fromFingerprintsthat did not make it onOne of the Boyswas given to other artists, such as \\\"I Do Not Hook Up\\\" and \\\"Long Shot\\\" toKelly Clarksonand \\\"Rock God\\\" toSelena Gomez & the Scene. Perry worked with songwriters includingDesmond Child,Greg Wells,Butch Walker,Scott Cutler,Anne Preven,the Matrix,Kara DioGuardi,Max Martin, andDr. Luke.In addition, after Devine suggested that songwriting team the Matrix become a \\\"real group\\\", she recorded an album,The Matrix, with them.The Matrixwas planned for release in 2004 but was cancelled due to creative differences. It was released in 2009 after the release ofOne of the Boys.Perry was dropped from Columbia in 2006 asFingerprintsneared completion. After the label dropped her, she worked at an independent A&R company, Taxi Music. Perry had minor\",\n \"Perry had minor success prior to her breakthrough. One of the songs she had recorded for her album with Ballard, \\\"Simple\\\", was featured on the soundtrack to the 2005 filmThe Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants.Perry provided backing vocals onMick Jagger's song \\\"Old Habits Die Hard\\\",which was included on the soundtrack to the 2004 filmAlfie.In September 2004,Blendernamed her \\\"The Next Big Thing\\\".She recorded background vocals onP.O.D.'s single \\\"Goodbye for Now\\\", was featured at the end of its music video in 2006, and performed it with them onThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno.That year, Perry also appeared in the music video for \\\"Learn to Fly\\\" byCarbon Leaf, and played the love interest of her then-boyfriend,Gym Class Heroeslead singerTravie McCoy, in the band's music video for \\\"Cupid's Chokehold\\\". 2007–2009: Breakthrough withOne of the Boys After Columbia dropped Perry,Angelica Cob-Baehler, then a publicity executive at the label, brought Perry's demos toVirgin RecordschairmanJason Flom. Flom was convinced that\",\n \"was convinced that she could be a breakthrough star and she was signed toCapitol Recordsin April 2007. The label arranged for her to work with Dr. Luke to add an \\\"undeniable smash\\\" to her existing material.Perry and Dr. Luke co-wrote the songs \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" and \\\"Hot n Cold\\\" for her second albumOne of the Boys. A campaign was started with the November 2007 release of the video to \\\"Ur So Gay\\\", a song aimed at introducing her to the music market.Adigital EP of the same namewas also released that month.Madonnahelped publicize the song by praising it on theJohnJay & Richradio show in April 2008,stating \\\"Ur So Gay\\\" was her \\\"favorite song\\\" at the time.In March 2008, Perry made a cameo appearance as a club singer in theWildfireepisode \\\"Life's Too Short\\\"and appeared as herself during a photo shoot that June onThe Young and the Restlessfor the show's magazineRestless Style. Perry released her first single with Capitol, \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\", on April 28, 2008,as the lead single fromOne of the Boys. The first station\",\n \"The first station to pick up the song wasWRVWin Nashville, who were inundated with enthusiastic calls the first three days they played it.The track reached number one on the USBillboardHot 100.\\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" created controversy among both religious andLGBTgroups. The former criticized its homosexual theme, while the latter accused her of usingbi-curiosityto sell records. In response to speculation that her parents opposed her music and career, Perry toldMTVthat they had no problems with her success.One of the Boys, released on June 17, 2008, garnered mixed critical reviews and reached number nine on the USBillboard200.The album went on to sell 7 million copies worldwide.\\\"Hot n Cold\\\" was released the following Septemberand became the album's second successful single, reaching number three on theBillboardHot 100while topping charts in Germany,Canada,the Netherlandsand Austria.Later singles \\\"Thinking of You\\\" and \\\"Waking Up in Vegas\\\" were released in 2009and reached the top 30 of the Hot 100.The Matrix's\",\n \"100.The Matrix's self-titled debut album, which Perry had recorded with the band in 2004, was released ontoiTuneson January 27, 2009, as a result of her solo success. After finishing the 2008Warped Tour,Perry hosted the2008 MTV Europe Music Awardsin November 2008, where she won the award forBest New Act.At the2009 Brit Awards, she also won the award forInternational Female Solo Artist.Perry embarked on her first headlining world tour, theHello Katy Tour, from January to November 2009 to supportOne of the Boys.On August 4, 2009, she performed as opening act for one date ofNo Doubt's2009 Summer Tour.Perry also hosted the2009 MTV Europe Music Awardsin November 2009, becoming the first person to host two consecutive ceremonies of the European awards.On July 22, 2009, Perry recorded a live album titledMTV Unplugged, which featuredacousticperformances of five tracks fromOne of the Boysas well as one new song, \\\"Brick by Brick\\\", and a cover ofFountains of Wayne's \\\"Hackensack\\\".It was released on November 17,\",\n \"on November 17, 2009.Perry also appeared on two singles with other artists; she was featured on a remix ofColorado-based band3OH!3's song \\\"Starstrukk\\\" in September 2009,and on a duet withTimbalandentitled \\\"If We Ever Meet Again\\\", from his albumShock Value II, three months later.TheGuinness World Recordsrecognized her in its 2010 edition as the \\\"Best Start on the U.S. Digital Chart by a Female Artist\\\", for digital single sales of over two million copies. After Perry and Travie McCoy split up in December 2008,they briefly reconciled before she ended their relationship in 2009.Perry met her future husbandRussell Brandin the summer of 2009 while filming a cameo appearance for his filmGet Him to the Greek. Her scene, in which the two kiss, does not appear in the film.She began dating Brand after meeting him again that September at the2009 MTV Video Music Awards.The couple became engaged on December 31, 2009, while vacationing inRajasthan, India. 2010–2012:Teenage Dreamand marriage After serving as a guest judge\",\n \"as a guest judge onAmerican Idol,Perry released \\\"California Gurls\\\" featuringSnoop Doggon May 7, 2010.The song was the lead single from her third studio album,Teenage Dream, and reached number one on theBillboardHot 100 in June.She also served as a guest judge onBritishThe X Factorlater that monthbefore releasing the album's second single, \\\"Teenage Dream\\\", in July.\\\"Teenage Dream\\\" reached number one on theBillboardHot 100 in September.Released on August 24, 2010,Teenage Dreamdebuted at number one on theBillboard200,and received mixed reviews from music critics.It has since sold 6 million copies worldwide.Teenage Dreamwould go on to win the 2011Juno Award for International Album of the Year.In October, \\\"Firework\\\" was released as the album's third single.It became the album's third consecutive number one on theBillboardHot 100 on December 8, 2010. \\\"E.T.\\\" featuringKanye Westwas released as the fourth single fromTeenage Dreamon February 16, 2011.It topped theBillboardHot 100 for five non-consecutive weeks,\",\n \"weeks, makingTeenage Dreamthe ninth album in history to produce four number one singles on the chart.\\\"Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)\\\" followed as the fifth single in June,and Perry became the first female artist to achieve five number-oneBillboardHot 100 songs from one album when the single topped that chart on August 17, and the second artist afterMichael Jacksonwith his albumBad.For this record, she received an honoraryAmerican Music Awardin November 2011and a 2013 Guinness World Record.On September 7, she set a new record by becoming the first artist to spend 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the Hot 100.After \\\"The One That Got Away\\\" was released as the album's sixth single in October,Teenage Dreambecame the third album to spawn six top-five songs on theBillboardHot 100 afterRhythm Nation 1814byJanet JacksonandFaithbyGeorge Michael.The song peaked at number three in the USand number two in Canada. On January 5, 2012, Perry was named the sixth best-selling digital artist in the United States, with sales\",\n \"States, with sales of 37.6 million units according toNielsen SoundScan.That month, she became the first artist to have four songs sell over 5 million digital units when \\\"E.T.\\\" reached that mark along with \\\"Firework\\\", \\\"California Gurls\\\", and \\\"Hot N Cold\\\".On February 13, Capitol released the lead single fromTeenage Dream: The Complete Confection, \\\"Part of Me\\\", which debuted at number one on theBillboardHot 100 and became Perry's seventh single overall to top the chart.Teenage Dream: The Complete Confectionwas released on March 23,and serves as a reissue ofTeenage Dream.\\\"Wide Awake\\\" was released on May 22 as the re-release's second single,peaking at number two on theBillboardHot 100and number one in Canadaand New Zealand. Perry embarked on her second tour, theCalifornia Dreams Tour, in support ofTeenage Dreamfrom February 2011 to January 2012.The tour grossed $59.5 million globallyand won her the award forBest Live Actat the2011 MTV Europe Music Awards.On September 23, 2011, she performed on the opening day of\",\n \"the opening day of the 2011Rock in Riofestival along withElton JohnandRihanna.In September 2010, Perry was scheduled to appear on the 41st-season premiere ofSesame Street. After her scene was uploaded to YouTube, viewers criticized Perry's exposedcleavage. Four days before the scheduled airing,Sesame Workshopannounced that the segment would not air on television, but would still be available to watch online.Perry subsequently mocked the controversy onSaturday Night Live, where she was a musical guest and wore anElmo-themed shirt showing large amounts of cleavage during one skit. In December 2010, Perry playedMoe Szyslak's girlfriend in the live-action segment from a Christmas episode ofThe Simpsonstitled \\\"The Fight Before Christmas\\\".In February 2011, she made a guest appearance on theHow I Met Your Motherepisode \\\"Oh Honey\\\", playing a woman known as Honey.The role won her thePeople's Choice Award for Favorite TV Guest Starin January 2012.She made her film debut in the 3D family motion pictureThe\",\n \"motion pictureThe SmurfsasSmurfetteon July 29, 2011. The film was a financial success worldwide,while critics gave mostly negative reviews.She hostedSaturday Night Liveon December 10, 2011, withRobynas the episode's musical guest. Perry's work on the episode received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised her performance in the episode'sdigital shortfeaturing her andAndy Samberg.In March 2012, she guest starred as a prison security guard named Rikki on theRaising Hopeepisode \\\"Single White Female Role Model\\\".On July 5, 2012, Perry's autobiographical documentaryKaty Perry: Part of Mewas released to theaters throughParamount Pictures.The film received positive reviewsand grossed $32.7 million worldwide at the box office. Perry began to venture into business when she endorsed her first fragrance, Purr, in November 2010. Her second fragrance, Meow!, was released in December 2011. Both perfumes were released throughNordstromdepartment stores.Electronic Artsrecruited her to promote their new expansion\",\n \"their new expansion pack forThe Sims 3: Showtime,before releasing a separatestuff packfeaturing Perry-inspired furniture, outfits, and hairstyles, titledThe Sims 3: Katy Perry's Sweet Treats, in June 2012.The following month, she became the spokesperson and ambassador forPopchipsand made an investment in the company.Billboarddubbed her as their \\\"Woman of the Year\\\" for 2012. She married Russell Brand on October 23, 2010, in a traditionalHinduceremonynear theRanthambhore tiger sanctuaryinRajasthan, India.On December 30, 2011, Brand announced that they were divorcing after 14 months of marriage.Perry later stated that conflicting career schedules and his desire to have children before she was ready led to the end of their marriageand that he never spoke to her again after sending a text message that he was divorcing her,while Brand asserted that he divorced her due to her commercial success and reluctance to engage in activism.She was initially distraught over their divorce and said that she contemplated\",\n \"she contemplated suicide.Since they married without aprenuptial agreement, he was eligible to claim half of the estimated $44 million she earned during their marriage, but declined.Perry began a relationship with singerJohn Mayerin August 2012, the year her marriage with Brand had ended. 2013–2015:Prismand Super Bowl XLIX halftime show In November 2012, Perry began work on her fourth album,Prism.She toldBillboard, \\\"I know exactly the record I want to make next. I know the artwork, the coloring and the tone\\\" and \\\"I even know what type of tour I'm doing next. I'll be very pleased if the vision I have in my head becomes a reality.\\\"After initially tellingL'Uomo Voguein June 2012 that she planned to have \\\"darker elements\\\" inPrismfollowing the end of her marriage, the singer revealed to MTV during the2013 MTV Video Music Awardsthat she changed the album's direction after periods of self-reflection. Perry commented \\\"I felt very prismatic\\\", which inspired the album's name.\\\"Roar\\\" was released as the lead single\",\n \"as the lead single fromPrismon August 10, 2013.It was promoted at the MTV Video Music Awards and reached number one on theBillboardHot 100.\\\"Unconditionally\\\" followed as the second single fromPrismon October 16, 2013,and peaked at number 14 in the United States. Prismwas released on October 18, 2013, and has sold 4 million copies as of August 2015.It received favorable reviews from criticsand debuted at number one on theBillboard200 chart.Four days later, Perry performed the songs from the album at theiHeartRadioTheater in Los Angeles.\\\"Dark Horse\\\" withJuicy Jwas released as the album's third single in December, and became her ninth U.S. number-one single the following month.In 2014, \\\"Birthday\\\" and \\\"This Is How We Do\\\" respectively followed as the album's fourth and fifth singles,and reached the top 25 on the Hot 100.Prior to ending her relationship with Mayer in February 2014,she recorded and co-wrote a duet with him titled \\\"Who You Love\\\" for his albumParadise Valley. The song was released on August 12,\",\n \"on August 12, 2013.Perry's third headlining tour, thePrismatic World Tour, began in May 2014and concluded in October 2015.It sold almost 2 million tickets and grossed $204.3 million worldwideand won Perry the award for \\\"Top Package\\\" at the 2014BillboardTouring Awards.She also performed at the 2015 Rock in Rio festival on September 27, 2015. On November 23, 2014, theNFLannounced that Perry would perform at theSuper Bowl XLIX halftime showon February 1, 2015.Lenny KravitzandMissy Elliottserved as special guests for the show.Her performance was critically acclaimed,and theGuinness World Recordsannounced two days after the singer's halftime show that it garnered 118.5 million viewers in the United States, becoming the most watched and highest rated show in Super Bowl history. The viewership was higher than the game itself, which was viewed by an audience of 114.4 million. TheInternational Federation of the Phonographic Industry(IFPI) ranked her fifth on the list of Top Global Recording Artists of 2013.On June\",\n \"of 2013.On June 26, 2014, she was declared the Top Certified Digital Artist Ever by theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) for certified sales of 72 million digital singles in the United States.In May 2014, a portrait of Perry by painterMark Rydenwas featured in his exhibition \\\"The Gay 90s\\\", and shown at theKohn Galleryin Los Angeles. Along with several other artists, she also recorded a cover version of the song \\\"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)\\\" on a limited-edition concept album titledThe Gay Nineties Old Tyme Music: Daisy Bellto accompany the exhibition.That month, a portrait of Perry by artistWill Cottonwas included in the United StatesNational Portrait Gallery.On November 23, 2015, Perry starred inH&M's holiday advertising campaign, for which she wrote and recorded a song titled \\\"Every Day Is a Holiday\\\".On June 17, 2014, Perry announced that she had founded her own record label under Capitol Records, titled Metamorphosis Music.Ferraswas the first artist to get signed to her label, and\",\n \"to her label, and Perry served as an executive producer onhis self-titled EP. She also recorded a duet with him on the EP, titled \\\"Legends Never Die\\\".The label was later renamedUnsub Records. Outside of her music career, Perry reprised her role as Smurfette inThe Smurfs 2, which was released in theaters on July 31, 2013.Like its predecessor,The Smurfs 2was a financial successbut was panned by critics.In March 2014, she made a guest appearance playing herself in the episode \\\"Blisteritos Presents Dad Academy Graduation Congraduritos Red Carpet Viewing Party\\\" of theKroll Show.Killer Queen was released as her third fragrance in August 2013 throughCotyIn January 2014, she became a guest curator of Madonna'sArt for Freedominitiative.In March 2015, she appeared inBrand: A Second Coming, a documentary following her ex-husband Russell Brand's transition from comedy work to activism,and released a concert film titledKaty Perry: The Prismatic World TourthroughEpix, which took place during her tour of the same\",\n \"tour of the same name.Perry also made a cameo appearance in the music video for Madonna's song \\\"Bitch I'm Madonna\\\" in June 2015.The following month, she released another fragrance with Coty, entitled Mad Potion.In September 2015, she appeared in the documentariesKaty Perry: Making of the Pepsi Super Bowl Halftime Show, which followed Perry's preparation for her Super Bowl performance,andJeremy Scott: The People's Designer, which followed the life and career of designerJeremy Scott.Perry released a mobile app titledKaty Perry Popin December 2015 throughGlu Mobilewhere her character helps players become famous musicians.She described it as \\\"the most fun, colorful world that helps guide your musical dreams\\\". 2016–2018:WitnessandAmerican Idol Perry started writing songs for her new album in June 2016,and recorded an anthem forNBC Sports's coverage of the2016 Summer Olympicstitled \\\"Rise\\\", which was released the following month. Perry chose to release it as a standalone track rather than save it for her album\",\n \"it for her album \\\"because now more than ever, there is a need for our world to unite\\\". NBC also felt its message spoke \\\"directly to the spirit of the Olympics and its athletes\\\" for its inspirational themes.The song reached number one in Australiaand number eleven in the United States. In August 2016, Perry stated that she aspired to create material \\\"that connects and relates and inspires\\\"and toldRyan Seacrestthat she was \\\"not rushing\\\" her fifth album, adding \\\"I'm just having a lot of fun, but experimenting and trying different producers, and different collaborators, and different styles\\\".On February 10, 2017, Perry released the album's lead single \\\"Chained to the Rhythm\\\" featuringSkip Marley.It reached number one in Hungaryand number four in the United States.The track was also streamed over three million times onSpotifywithin 24 hours, breaking the music streaming service's record at the time for the highest first-day streaming for a single track by a female artist.The album's second single, \\\"Bon Appétit\\\"\",\n \"\\\"Bon Appétit\\\" withMigos, was released that April.Its third single, \\\"Swish Swish\\\", featuredNicki Minajand followed the next month.They respectively peaked at numbers 59 and 46 in the United States,and made the top 15 in Canada. The album, titledWitness, was released on June 9, 2017, to mixed reviews,and debuted at number one in the United States.To accompany the album's release, Perry broadcast herself on YouTube for four days with a live-stream titledKaty Perry Live: Witness World Wide, concluding with a live concert on June 12.The live-stream generated over 49 million views from 190 countries.She also embarked onWitness: The Tour, which began in September 2017 and ended in August 2018.On June 15, 2017,Calvin Harrisreleased a song titled \\\"Feels\\\" from his albumFunk Wav Bounces Vol. 1, which featured Perry,Big Sean, andPharrell Williams.The song went on to reach number one in the United Kingdom. Perry subsequently recorded a cover of theDear Evan Hansensong \\\"Waving Through a Window\\\" for the deluxe edition of\",\n \"deluxe edition of thecast recording, which was released on November 2, 2018.The show's creatorsBenj PasekandJustin Paulhad requested Perry to cover the song to promote the musical's national tour and bring awareness to mental health.Later that month, Perry released \\\"Cozy Little Christmas\\\".She also recorded the song \\\"Immortal Flame\\\" for the gameFinal Fantasy Brave Exvius, and had aplayable charactermodeled after her. Outside of recording music, Perry appeared as herself in the filmZoolander 2, which was released in February 2016.In February 2017, the singer launched a shoe line titled \\\"Katy Perry Collections\\\".Her shoes are available on her website, Katy Perry Collections, and at retailers such asDillard'sandWalmart.The following August, she hosted the2017 MTV Video Music Awards.Perry was signed for a $25-million salary to serve as a judge on thesixteenth seasonofAmerican Idol, which premiered in March 2018.Perry began a relationship withOrlando Bloomin early 2016, and the couple got engaged on February 14,\",\n \"on February 14, 2019. 2019–2020:Smileand motherhood At the61st Annual Grammy Awards, Perry performed \\\"Here You Come Again\\\", alongsideDolly PartonandKacey Musgraves, as part of a tribute to Parton.Four days later, she released a song called \\\"365\\\", with DJZedd.In April, Perry was included on a remix ofDaddy Yankee's song \\\"Con Calma\\\", featuringSnow.She followed this with the singles \\\"Never Really Over\\\" on May 31, \\\"Small Talk\\\" on August 9, and \\\"Harleys in Hawaii\\\" on October 16.\\\"Never Really Over\\\" in particular received critical acclaim. In June 2019, Perry appeared in the music video ofTaylor Swift's \\\"You Need to Calm Down\\\".In July, a jury in California returned a verdict following a week-long trial that Perry's song \\\"Dark Horse\\\" had copiedFlame's 2008 song \\\"Joyful Noise\\\" after he filed acopyright lawsuitalleging that it used his track's beat without permission;the verdict was later overturned.After the initial verdict, the jury ordered her to pay him $550,000.The next month, Josh Kloss, Perry's co-star in the\",\n \"co-star in the \\\"Teenage Dream\\\" music video, accused her of sexual misconduct.In anInstagrampost, Kloss alleged that, during a party at a skating rink, Perry pulled on his sweatpants and underwear, exposing his penis to her male friends. He also said her management prevented him from speaking about his time with the singer. Johnny Wujek, the creative director of said party defended Perry, saying that she \\\"would never do something like that\\\" and accused Kloss of having an \\\"ongoing obsession\\\" with her.After initially refraining from responding to this, believing it would have detracted from theMe Too movement, Perry has also denied Kloss's claims. Following the release of her single \\\"Never Worn White\\\" in March 2020, Perry revealed in the accompanying music video that she was expecting her first child with Bloom.\\\"Daisies\\\", the lead single from her sixth album, was released on May 15, 2020. Its second single \\\"Smile\\\" followed two months later.The album, also titledSmile, was released on August 28, 2020.Two days\",\n \"28, 2020.Two days before its distribution, she gave birth to a daughter named Daisy Dove Bloom.The album received mixed reviews,and debuted at number five in the United States.Perry further promoted the album with four compilation EPs:Camp Katy,Empowered,Scorpio SZN,andCosmic Energy.These EPs were followed by the single \\\"Not the End of the World\\\" in December 2020, which had a music video in whichZooey Deschanelimpersonates Perry.Additionally she collaborated with various artists to create two remixes ofSmilealbum tracks.Tiëstoremix of \\\"Resilient\\\" featuringAitanawas released in November 2020, while Bruno Martini remix of \\\"Cry About It Later\\\" featuringLuísa Sonzawas released in April 2021. 2021–2023: Play residency On January 20, 2021, Perry performed \\\"Firework\\\" at theCelebrating Americaconcert during theinauguration of Joe Biden.Four months later, she released a new single, \\\"Electric\\\", a collaboration withPokémonas part of its 25th anniversary.That December, Perry followed this with \\\"When I'm Gone\\\", a\",\n \"\\\"When I'm Gone\\\", a collaboration with Swedish DJAlessothat made her the third person to reach number one on Croatia's ARC 100 list across three different decades followingLady GagaandColdplay. Perry began hosting aconcert residencynamedPlayatResorts World Las Vegason December 29, 2021.The show's inception happened during theCOVID-19 lockdownswith Perry being inspired byHoney, I Shrunk the Kids,Pee-wee's Playhouse, andPee-wee's Big Adventure. She described it as \\\"larger than life\\\" and \\\"the kookiest, most camp show I've ever put together.\\\"The show has received critical acclaimwith Melinda Sheckells ofBillboardsaying that Play's \\\"sold-out opening night is part fantasy, part hallucination and thoroughly camp.In addition to a sold out opening night, theSanta Barbara Independentreported that Perry's contract deal for the residency was worth $168 million.It concluded on November 4, 2023,and grossed $46.4 million. In September 2021,Varietypaid tribute to and honored Perry in their \\\"Power of Women\\\" issue, where she\",\n \"issue, where she discussed her career, motherhood, andphilanthropy.As a nominee, she attended theVariety2021 \\\"Power of Women\\\" dinner.On her 37th birthday the next month, Perry guest hostedThe Ellen DeGeneres Showand starred in a holiday advertisement forGap Inc.which featured her singing \\\"All You Need Is Love\\\" bythe Beatles. A full version of her cover was released on streaming platforms the same day.In January 2022, she and Morgan McLachlan established De Soi, a company which produces and sellsnon-alcoholicapéritifs. Both wanted a beverage that \\\"would mellow the mind, minus the buzz\\\" when creating it. Along withThomas Rhett, Perry recorded a country pop duet titled \\\"Where We Started\\\" for hisalbum of the same namethat was released on April 1, 2022.The next month, it was announced Perry would create music for the soundtrack to Jeremy Zag's animated musical filmMelodyand voice its title character.She also became the new face forJust Eat's,SkipTheDishes',Lieferando's, andMenulog's advertisements and created a\",\n \"and created a new remix of their jingle.On June 8, 2022, Perry was awarded with the Key toLas Vegas, the same day it was marked as Katy Perry day. Perry collaborated with the tech companyApple Inc.starring in advertisements for theirGarageBandmusic software where users could have \\\"Remix Sessions\\\" featuring her song, \\\"Harleys in Hawaii\\\". On the collab, she stated in August 2022: \\\"'Harleys in Hawaii' has lived so many different lives\\\" as well as that there was \\\"so much opportunity to remix this song, and I can't wait to hear all the GarageBand evolutions with this Apple collab.\\\"Perry performed at the May 2023Coronation ConcertofCharles IIIatWindsor Castle.Four months later, she sold her music rights to Litmus Music for an estimated $225 million. 2024:143 During an appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!in February 2024, Perry announced her exit fromAmerican Idolfollowing the conclusion of thetwenty-second season, wanting to \\\"go out and feel that pulse to my own beat\\\" and release new music after being \\\"in the studio\",\n \"\\\"in the studio for a while\\\". The season premiered later that month,and concluded the following May.She released \\\"Woman's World\\\", the first single from her seventh album, on July 11, 2024.One day before the track's premiere, Perry revealed the album is be titled143and that would be released on September 20 of the same year.She described the album as \\\"super high energy, it's super summer, it's very high BPM\\\" and \\\"just full of so much joy, so much love, so much light\\\".On September 11, Perry received theMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Awardat the2024 MTV Video Music Awards.She performed during the 2024 Rock in Rio festival on the day of143's release.Eight days later, she will headline the pre-game entertainment at Australia's2024 AFL Grand Final. Artistry Influences Perry cites her sister Angela as the woman who has had the most influence on her.During the early stages of her career, Perry's musical style gravitated towards gospel and she aspired to be as successful asAmy Grant.At age 15, she heard \\\"Killer Queen\\\"\",\n \"\\\"Killer Queen\\\" byQueen, which inspired her to pursue a music career.She cites the band's frontman,Freddie Mercury, as her biggest influence and expressed how the \\\"combination of his sarcastic approach to writing lyrics and his 'I don't give a fuck' attitude\\\" inspired her music.She paid homage to the band by naming her third fragrance Killer Queen.Perry describedthe Beach Boysand their albumPet Soundsas having a considerable influence on her music: \\\"Pet Soundsis one of my favorite records and it influenced pretty much all of my songwriting. All of the melody choices that I make are because ofPet Sounds.\\\"The singer also holds the Beatles' albumThe Beatlesin high esteem, and described these two albums as \\\"the only things I listened to for probably two years straight.\\\" She cites Alanis Morissette and her 1995 albumJagged Little Pillas a significant musical inspiration, stating in 2012: \\\"Jagged Little Pillwas the most perfect female record ever made. There's a song for anyone on that record; I relate to all those\",\n \"relate to all those songs. They're still so timeless.\\\" Additionally, Perry borrows influence fromFlaming RedbyPatty Griffinand10 Cent WingsbyJonatha Brooke.Perry's autobiographical documentaryKaty Perry: Part of Mewas largely influenced byMadonna: Truth or Dare. She admires Madonna's ability to reinvent herself, saying \\\"I want to evolve like Madonna\\\". Perry namesBjörkas an influence, particularly admiring her \\\"willingness to always be taking chances\\\".Other artists who Perry has cited as influences includeStevie Nicks,ABBA,the Cardigans,Whitney Houston,Cyndi Lauper,Ace of Base,3OH!3,CeCe Peniston,C+C Music Factory,Black Box,Crystal Waters,Mariah Carey,Heart, Joni Mitchell,Paul Simon,Imogen Heap,Rufus Wainwright,Pink,andGwen Stefani.\\\"Firework\\\" was inspired by a passage in the bookOn the RoadbyJack Kerouacin which the author compares people who are full of life to fireworks that shoot across the sky and make people watch in awe.Her second concert tour, the California Dreams Tour, was reminiscent ofAlice's\",\n \"ofAlice's Adventures in WonderlandandThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz.She also credits the 1996 filmThe Craftfor inspiring her song \\\"Dark Horse\\\",andEckhart Tolle's bookThe Power of Nowfor influencingPrism. Musical style and themes \\\"When I am in between records, sometimes I doubt myself. I'll be like 'Did I just get lucky, or did I mass-manipulate the world into thinking that seven songs were worth a number-one position?' And then I go back into the studio and I start writing, and the true essential oil of who I am comes bubbling back up and reminds me that it's always been inside of me, that nobody can take this away no matter what comment anyone makes.\\\" —Perry on her confidence as a songwriter Although Perry's music incorporates elements of pop, rock, anddisco,Katy Hudsoncontains gospel. Her subsequent releases,One of the BoysandTeenage Dream, involve themes of sex and love.One of the Boysis apop rockrecord, whileTeenage Dreamfeatures disco influences.Perry's fourth album,Prism, is significantly influenced by\",\n \"influenced by dance and pop music. Lyrically, the album addresses relationships, self-reflection, and everyday life.Her fifth studio effortWitnessis anelectropopalbum that she described as a \\\"360-degree liberation\\\" record, with themes including political liberation, sexual liberation, and liberation from negativity.Many of her songs, particularly onTeenage Dream, reflect on love between teenagers;Wmagazine described the album's sexual innuendos as \\\"irresistible hook-laden melodies\\\".Self-empowerment is a common theme in Perry's music. Perry has described herself as a \\\"singer-songwriter masquerading as a pop star\\\"and maintains that honest songwriting is very important to her. She toldMarie Claire: \\\"I feel like my secret magic trick that separates me from a lot of my peers is the bravery to be vulnerable and truthful and honest. I think you become more relatable when you're vulnerable.\\\"Actress and comedianKristen Wiigcommented that \\\"as easy, breezy, and infectious as Perry's songs can be, beneath the surface\",\n \"beneath the surface lurks a sea of mixed emotions, jumbled motives, and contradictory impulses complicated enough to fill aCarole Kingrecord.\\\"According toGreg Kotof theChicago Tribune, \\\"being taken seriously may be Perry's greatest challenge yet.\\\"In 2013,The New York Timeslabeled her \\\"the most potent pop star of the day – her hits are relatable with just a hint of experimentation\\\".Randall Roberts of theLos Angeles Timescriticized her use of idioms and metaphors in her lyrics and for frequent \\\"clichés\\\".Throughout her career, Perry has also co-written songs recorded by other artists, includingLesley Roy,Kelly Clarkson,Jessie James Decker,Selena Gomez & the Scene,Britney Spears,Iggy Azalea,Rita Ora,Nicki Minaj, andAriana Grande. Voice Perry possesses acontraltovocal range.Her singing has received both praise and criticism. Betty Clarke ofThe Guardiancommented that her \\\"powerful voice is hard-edged\\\"whileRob SheffieldfromRolling Stonedescribed Perry's vocals onTeenage Dreamas \\\"processedstaccatoblips\\\".Darren\",\n \"Harvey ofmusicOMHcompared Perry's vocals onOne of the Boysto Alanis Morissette's, both possessing a \\\"perky voice shifting octaves mid-syllable\\\".Alex Miller fromNMEfelt that \\\"Perry's problem is often her voice\\\" onOne of the Boys, stating that \\\"somewhere along the line someone convinced her she was like, well, a ballsy rock chick\\\".Conversely, Bernadette McNulty fromThe Daily Telegraphpraised her \\\"rock chick voice\\\" in a review of a concert promotingPrism. Public image On social media, Perry surpassedJustin Bieberas the most followed person onTwitterin November 2013.She won the 2015 Guinness World Record for most Twitter followers,and became the first person to gain 100 million followers on the site in June 2017.Keith Caulfield ofBillboardstated that Perry is \\\"the rare celebrity who seems to have enormous popularity but genuine ground-level interaction with her adoring KatyCats.\\\"With over 106 million Twitter followers, she is the second-most followed woman on the site, and the sixth most followed musician across\",\n \"musician across social media with a combined total of over 385 million followers acrossFacebook, Instagram, and Twitter.In June 2017,Timemagazine listed Perry among its \\\"25 Most Influential People on the Internet\\\" of the year, writing that her live-stream forWitnesswas \\\"blazing a trail\\\" for being \\\"the closest any major entertainer has come to giving fans the kind of 'real' intimacy that social media purports to provide\\\". Perry has been described as asex symbol;GQlabeled her a \\\"full-on male fantasy\\\",whileEllewrote her body looked \\\"as though sketched by a teenage boy\\\".Vicecalled her a\\\"'serious' popstar/woman/sex symbol\\\".She was placed at number one on theMaximHot 100 in 2010 as the \\\"most beautiful woman in the world\\\", with editor Joe Levy describing her as a \\\"triple – no quadruple – kind of hot\\\".Men's Healthreaders voted her the \\\"sexiest woman of 2013\\\".In November 2010, Perry toldHarper's Bazaarthat she was proud of and satisfied with her figure. Perry's fashion often incorporates humor, bright colors, and\",\n \"bright colors, and food-related themessuch as her characteristic spinning peppermint swirl dress.Voguedescribed her as \\\"never exactly one to shy away from the outrageous or the extreme in any realm\\\", and called her the \\\"Queen ofCamp\\\",whileGlamournamed her the \\\"queen of quirk\\\".In February 2009, Perry toldSeventeenthat her fashion style was \\\"a bit of a concoction of different things\\\" and stated she enjoyed humor in her clothing.She has also described herself as having \\\"multipersonality disorder\\\" for fashion.Perry lists Gwen Stefani,Shirley Manson,Chloë Sevigny,Daphne Guinness,Natalie Portman, and the fictional characterLolitaas her style icons.In 2022,Elledubbed her as \\\"thekitsch-loving pop star renowned for her uniquely experimental style\\\", whileVoguedescribed her style as \\\"synonymous with outrageous, eye-catching ensembles that lean towards the theatrical\\\". During the 2017 launch of her shoe collection, Katy Perry Collections, she said about shoes: \\\"When I first got to L.A., I cultivated my style on a\",\n \"my style on a budget, always shopping at thrift stores or vintage stores. ... Once, I found these flats that looked likeDalmatian dogs. They had ears that moved and a tongue that stuck out. They were such a conversation piece. That's what is so great about fashion. ... It's a form of communication. You don't have to start a smoking habit to start talking to someone. You can just wear cool shoes. It's an icebreaker.\\\" Legacy Several media outlets such asBillboardandGlamourhave referred to her as the \\\"Queen of Pop\\\", while others likeVogue,Rolling Stone, andInStylehave dubbed Perry the \\\"Queen of Camp\\\".Andrew Unterberger ofBillboarddescribedTeenage Dream\\\"one of the defining LPs from a new golden age in mega-pop\\\"while Christopher Rosa ofGlamournamed her as an influence to thepopsound and style of the 2010s, adding that her singles are \\\"some of the most recognizable, iconic, and impactful hits in pop history.\\\"Perry was named \\\"one of the last decade's most reliable and successful hitmakers\\\" by theOfficial Charts\",\n \"theOfficial Charts Companyin 2022. Additionally, Perry was included inGlamour's \\\"104 Women Who Defined the Decade in Pop Culture\\\" list of the 2010s. It stated Perry \\\"did more than just break chart records. She was one of the driving forces behind the sound of pop radio in the 2010s\\\" for her tracks that were \\\"glossy, booming, sugary-sweet, and undeniably catchy.\\\"Varietyincluded Perry in theirVariety500 list of the most influential business leaders, calling her a \\\"global phenomenon\\\" and a \\\"dedicated artist and tireless self-promoter who has leveraged chart-topping hits, sold-out stadium shows, and staggering endorsement deals to become one of the richest and most influential pop stars alive.\\\"A 2017 journal published byPsychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Artsstudying structural patterns in the melodies ofearwormsongs compiled lists ofcatchiesttracks from 3,000 participants, in which Perry's \\\"California Gurls\\\" ranked number six.She has been called a \\\"gay icon\\\" by Taylor Henderson ofOut, noting how \\\"I\",\n \"noting how \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" helped fans explore their sexuality and how Perry openly embraced theLGBTQ+ community. Perry's music has been described byOutas having a \\\"lasting legacy\\\", with American singersFletchersampling \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" andOlivia RodrigoreferencingTeenage Dreamon \\\"Brutal\\\".Additionally, other artists such asHalseyandAriana Grandehave praised Perry's work, with Halsey callingTeenage Dreamthe \\\"perfect pop album\\\" and Grande saying \\\"The One That Got Away\\\" is \\\"one of the biggest and most perfectly written pop songs ever from one of the best pop albums of all time.\\\" Other ventures Philanthropy Perry has supported various charitable organizations and causes throughout her career. She has contributed to organizations aimed at improving the lives and welfare of children in particular. In April 2013, she joinedUNICEFto assist children in Madagascar with education and nutrition.On December 3, 2013, she was officially named aUNICEF Goodwill Ambassador, \\\"with a special focus on engaging young people in\",\n \"young people in the agency's work to improve the lives of the world's most vulnerable children and adolescents.\\\"She arranged for a portion of the money generated from tickets to her Prismatic World Tour to go to UNICEF.In September 2010, she helped build and design the Boys Hope/Girls Hope foundation shelter for youth in Baltimore, Maryland along withRaven-Symoné,Shaquille O'Neal, and the cast ofExtreme Makeover: Home Edition.In 2010, Perry andNicki Minajperformed a cover of \\\"Girls Just Want to Have Fun\\\" for service members during the 2010VH1Divas Salute the Troops concert. She has also supported children's education and well-being. All profits from sales of the albumThe Gay Nineties Old Tyme Music: Daisy Bell, which includes her rendition of \\\"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)\\\", were donated to the charityLittle Kids Rock, which supports musical education in underprivileged elementary schools.In June 2014, she teamed up withStaples Inc.for a project entitled \\\"Make Roar Happen\\\" which donated $1 million\",\n \"donated $1 million toDonorsChoose, an organization that supports teachers and funds classroom resources in public schools.In May 2016, she worked with UNICEF to improve child care quality in Vietnam, hoping to \\\"break the cycle of poverty and drastically improve children's health, education and well-being\\\".The following month, UNICEF announced that Perry would receive theAudrey HepburnHumanitarian Award \\\"for her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in support of the world's most vulnerable children\\\" at their annual Snowflake Ball in November.All Spotify streams of her 2021 cover of \\\"All You Need Is Love\\\" will generate $1 in donations for the charityBaby2Baby. Perry has supported organizations aimed at aiding people suffering with diseases including cancer andHIV/AIDS. During the 2008 Warped Tour, she had a cast made of her breasts to raise money for theKeep A Breast Foundation.She hosted and performed at the We Can Survive concert along withBonnie McKee,Kacey Musgraves,Sara Bareilles,Ellie Goulding, and\",\n \"Goulding, and duoTegan and Saraat the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles, California, on October 23, 2013. The concert's profits were donated toYoung Survival Coalition, an organization aiding breast cancer in young women.In June 2009, she designed an item of clothing forH&M's \\\"Fashion Against AIDS\\\" campaign, which raises money for HIV/AIDS awareness projects.On February 26, 2017, she served as a co-chair alongside various celebrities such asBeyoncé,Lea Michele,Jim Carrey,Jared Leto, andKevin Spaceyfor the 25th AnnualElton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party, a fundraiser for HIV/AIDS healthcare. The proceeds from Perry's single \\\"Part of Me\\\" were donated to the charityMusiCares, which helps musicians in times of need.During her California Dreams Tour, she raised over $175,000 for the Tickets-For-Charity fundraiser. The money was divided between three charities: theChildren's Health Fund(CHF), Generosity Water, andThe Humane Society of the United States. On her 27th birthday, Perry set up a donations page for\",\n \"donations page for theSociety for the Prevention of Cruelty to AnimalsAuckland,and set up a similar page benefiting theDavid Lynch Foundationfor her 28th birthday.On March 29, 2014, she helped raise $2.4 million for theMuseum of Contemporary Artin Los Angeles along with other celebrities such asRyan Seacrest,Pharrell Williams,Tim Allen,Lisa Edelstein, andRiley Keough. Perry performed at theOne Love Manchesterbenefit concert for the victims of the 2017Manchester Arena bombing, among various performers including its organizerAriana Grande, which was broadcast live on June 4, 2017, on radio and television stations around the world.In March 2018, Perry announcedWitness: Coming Home, a benefit concert that was held in her hometown of Santa Barbara on May 19, 2018. The concert benefited those recovering from the aftermath of the2017 California wildfiresand2018 Southern California mudflows. Perry partnered with the Santa Barbara Foundation, the 93108 Fund and The 805 UndocuFund, organizations which help in\",\n \"which help in assisting members of the community in the Santa Barbara area through grants and various philanthropic efforts. Activism and political views Perry has publicly advocated forLGBT rightsand admitted that she wrote \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" about her ownbisexualexperiences with other women. In 2017, she received a Nation Equality Award fromHuman Rights Campaignfor \\\"using her powerful voice and international platform to speak out for LGBTQ equality\\\".During her acceptance speech, she discussed having bisexual experiences, her fluid sexuality, and thanked theLGBTQ+ community.In anOutinterview in 2021, she was heralded as a \\\"gay icon\\\" with \\\"I Kissed a Girl\\\" being called a \\\"bonafide queer anthem\\\". Perry continued to thank the LGBTQ+ community in the same interview, saying: \\\"I came from a very sheltered upbringing where it wasn't okay to be friends with anyone from that community. And now that is my community.\\\" She also mentioned \\\"I wouldn't have survived without the community and it's amazing how full circle\",\n \"how full circle it's come and how much growth has happened since I started.\\\"Tomás Mier ofRolling Stoneremarked Perry \\\"championed queer folks, especiallydrag queens, throughout her career.\\\" She dedicated the music video to her song \\\"Firework\\\" to theIt Gets Better Project.In June 2012, Perry expressed her hopes for LGBT equality, commenting \\\"hopefully, we will look back at this moment and think like we do now concerning civil rightsissues. We'll just shake our heads in disbelief, saying, 'Thank God we've evolved.' That would be my prayer for the future.\\\"In December 2012, Perry was awarded the Trevor Hero Award byThe Trevor Projectfor her work and activism on behalf of LGBT youth. Perry identifies as afeminist,and appeared in April 2013 in a video clip for the \\\"Chime for Change\\\" campaign that aimed to spread female empowerment.She has also said that America's lack of freehealth caredrove her \\\"absolutely crazy\\\".Following theshooting at the Pulse nightclub in Orlandoin June 2016, Perry and nearly 200 other\",\n \"nearly 200 other artists and executives in music signed an open letter organized byBillboardaddressed toUnited States Congressdemanding increasedgun controlin the United States. Through Twitter and by performing at rallies, Perry supported PresidentBarack Obamain his run for re-election and praised his support forsame-sex marriageand LGBT equality.She performed at three rallies for Obama, in Los Angeles, Las Vegas, and Wisconsin, singing a rendition of \\\"Let's Stay Together\\\" as well as a number of her songs. During her Las Vegas performance she wore a dress made to replicate a voting ballot, with Obama's box filled in.On Twitter, she encouraged her followers to vote for Obama. In August 2013, Perry voiced criticism ofTony Abbott, then-leader of conservativeLiberal Party of Australiaand candidate forPrime Minister of Australia, due to his opposition to gay marriage and told Abbott, \\\"I love you as a human being but I can't give you my vote.\\\"; the statement came after Abbott expressed pride at learning of\",\n \"at learning of Perry's then-upcoming performance in Australia.In April 2014, she publicly supportedMarianne Williamsonin her campaign forCalifornia's 33rd congressional districtby attending a political press event.She endorsedKamala Harrisin theUnited States Senate election in California, and organized a fundraiser for Harris at her home in Los Angeles in November 2016.Perry also publicly endorsed former Secretary of StateHillary Clintonfor president in2016.She performed alongsideElton Johnat a fundraising concert for Clinton in New York City in March 2016.Perry also spoke and performed at the2016 Democratic National Conventionin support of Clinton.Four years later, she supportedJoe Bidenand Kamala Harris during the2020 United States presidential election, praising the latter as a leader who had \\\"experience we desperately need right now\\\" and believed that the former \\\"choosing her as his running mate is already a testament to his decision making\\\".In 2022, Perry posted a picture of herself voting for\",\n \"herself voting for conservative candidateRick Carusoin the2022 Los Angeles mayoral election, for which she was heavily criticized by Democrats. Achievements Throughout her career, Perry has won fiveAmerican Music Awards,fourteenPeople's Choice Awards,fourGuinness World Records,aBrit Award,and aJuno Award.In September 2012,Billboarddubbed her the \\\"Woman of the Year\\\".From May 2010 to September 2011, the singer spent a record-breaking 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of theBillboardHot 100.Teenage Dreambecame the first album by a female artist to produce five number-oneBillboardHot 100 singles, and the second album overall after Michael Jackson'sBad.In the United States, she has accumulated nine number-one singles on theBillboardHot 100, her most recent being \\\"Dark Horse\\\",and holds the record for having 18 consecutive number-one songs on theBillboardDance Club Songschart. Billboardalso named her the 15th most successful dance club artist of all time.The magazine additionally ranked her fourth on its\",\n \"her fourth on its \\\"Greatest of All Time Pop Songs Artists\\\" list and twenty-fifth on the \\\"Greatest Pop Stars of the 21st Century\\\" list,includedTeenage DreamandPrismamong its \\\"Greatest of All TimeBillboard 200Albums by Women\\\" list,and ranked \\\"Dark Horse\\\" at number 100 on its \\\"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs\\\"as well as one of its \\\"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs by Women\\\" along with \\\"E.T.\\\", \\\"Firework\\\", and \\\"California Gurls\\\".In June 2015, her music video for \\\"Dark Horse\\\" became the first video by a female artist to reach 1 billion views on Vevo.The following month, her music video for \\\"Roar\\\" reached 1 billion views on Vevo, making her the first artist to have multiple videos with 1 billion views. With 143 million records sold globally, Perry isone of the best-selling music artists of all time.She was declared the Top Global Female Recording Artist of 2013 by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI).According to RIAA, Perry is the ninthtop digital singles artistin the United States,\",\n \"the United States, with 121.5 million certified song units in the country including on-demand streamsand also has 19 million certified album units, totaling 129.5 million certified units in the United States.She also became the first artist to have three songs receive Diamond certifications from the RIAA in 2017 with \\\"Dark Horse\\\", \\\"Firework\\\", and \\\"Roar\\\".All three of them and \\\"E.T.\\\", \\\"California Gurls\\\", and \\\"Hot n Cold\\\" have each sold over 5 million digital copies.Six years later, the RIAA certified \\\"California Gurls\\\" as her fourthdiamond-certifiedsingle in the U.S., breaking her tie with Lady Gaga as the female artist with the most diamond singles there.Perry's albumsOne of the Boys,Teenage Dream,Prism,Witness, andSmilehave individually surpassed one billion streams onSpotify. In 2011,Forbesranked her third on their \\\"Top-Earning Women In Music\\\" list with earnings of $44 millionand fifth on their 2012 list with $45 million.She subsequently ranked seventh on the 2013Forbeslist for \\\"Top-Earning Women In Music\\\"\",\n \"Women In Music\\\" with $39 million earned,and fifth on their 2014 list with $40 million.With earnings of $135 million,Forbesalso ranked Perry number one on their 2015 \\\"Top-Earning Women In Music\\\" list as well as the \\\"World's Highest-Paid Musicians\\\" and declared her the highest earning female celebrity in 2015, placing her at number 3 on theForbesCelebrity 100 list.In 2016, the magazine estimated her net worth was $125 million,and ranked her number six on their list of \\\"Highest-Paid Women in Music\\\" with earnings of $41 million.The following year, she was ranked number nine on the list with $33 million.In 2018, she topped its \\\"Highest-Paid Women in Music\\\" listing and ranked at number four on the \\\"Highest-Paid Female Celebrities\\\" list, with earnings of $83 million.Perry subsequently was placed at number four on the 2019 \\\"Highest-Paid Women in Music\\\" listings, with $57.5 million.Later that year, with earnings of $530 million throughout the 2010s, the magazine also ranked her as the ninth-highest-earning musician\",\n \"musician of the decade.Perry is one of thewealthiest musical artists; during September 2023,Forbessurmised she had a net worth of $340 million.This increased to $350 million the following May, where Perry was included on the magazine's 2024 list of \\\"America's Richest Self-Made Women\\\". Discography Filmography Tours and residency Headlining tours Co-headlining tours Residency See also Notes References Citations Sources External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Katy_Perry (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":352,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which of these series was published earliest? Wedding Peach, Tokyo Mew Mew, Sailor Moon"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Sailor Moon"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor_Moon"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_Peach"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Mew_Mew"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor_Moon', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_Peach', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Mew_Mew']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor_Moon","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_Peach","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Mew_Mew"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor_Moon\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_Peach\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Mew_Mew\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Sailor Moon Sailor Moon(Japanese:美少女戦士セーラームーン,Hepburn:Bishōjo Senshi Sērā Mūn, originally translated asPretty Soldier Sailor Moonand later asPretty Guardian Sailor Moon)is a Japanesemangaseries written and illustrated byNaoko Takeuchi. It was originally serialized inKodansha'sshōjomangamagazineNakayoshifrom 1991 to 1997; the 60 individual chapters (later reorganized into 52), along with several side stories, were compiled in 18volumes. The series follows the adventures of a schoolgirl namedUsagi Tsukinoas she transforms into the eponymous character to search for a magical artifact, the \"Legendary Silver Crystal\"(「幻の銀水晶」,Maboroshi no Ginsuishō,lit.\"Phantom Silver Crystal\"). She leads a group of comrades, the Sailor Soldiers, called Sailor Guardians in later editions, as they battle against villains to prevent the theft of the Silver Crystal and the destruction of theSolar System. The manga was adapted intoan anime seriesproduced byToei Animationand broadcast in Japan from 1992 to 1997.Toei also developed three animated feature films, a television special, and three short films based on the anime. A live-action television adaptation,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon, aired from 2003 to 2004, and a second anime series,Sailor Moon Crystal, begansimulcastingin 2014. The manga series was licensed for an English language release byKodansha Comicsin North America, and in Australia and New Zealand by Random House Australia. The entire anime series has been licensed byViz Mediafor an English language release in North America and byMadman Entertainmentin Australia and New Zealand. Since its release,Sailor Moonhas received universal acclaim, with praise for its art, characterization, and humor. The manga has sold over 46 million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling manga series, as well as one of the best-sellingshōjomangaseries of all time.The franchise has also generated$2.5 billionin worldwide merchandise sales. Plot One day inJuban,Tokyo, amiddle-schoolstudent namedUsagi TsukinobefriendsLuna, a talking black cat who gives her a magical brooch enabling her to transform into Sailor Moon: a guardian destined to saveEarthfrom the forces of evil. Luna and Usagi assemble a team of fellow Sailor Guardians to find their princess and the Silver Crystal. They encounter the studious Ami Mizuno, who awakens asSailor Mercury; Rei Hino, a localShintoshrine maidenwho awakens asSailor Mars; Makoto Kino, a tall and strong transfer student who awakens asSailor Jupiter; and Minako Aino, a young aspiringidolwho had awakened asSailor Venusa few months prior, accompanied by her talking feline companionArtemis. Additionally, they befriend Mamoru Chiba, a high school student who assists them on occasion asTuxedo Mask. In the first arc, the group battles theDark Kingdom, those members attempt to find the Silver Crystal and free an imprisoned, evil entity called Queen Metaria. Usagi and her team discover that in their previous lives, they were members of the ancient Moon Kingdom in a period of time called the Silver Millennium. The Dark Kingdom waged war against them, destroying the Moon Kingdom. Its rulerQueen Serenitysent her daughter Princess Serenity,reincarnatedas Usagi, along with her protectors the Sailor Guardians, their feline advisers Luna and Artemis, and the princess's true love Prince Endymion, who in turn was reborn as Mamoru. At the beginning of the second arc, the Sailor Guardians meet Usagi and Mamoru's future daughterChibiusa, who arrives from a 30th-century version of Tokyo known as \"Crystal Tokyo\", which is ruled by Neo Queen Serenity, Usagi of the future and has been attacked by the group of villains known as theBlack Moon Clan. During their journey, Sailor Moon and her friends meetSailor Pluto, Guardian of the Time-Space Door. During the climactic battle of the arc, Sailor Pluto dies trying to save the sailor soldiers and Chibiusa was brainwashed by the enemy and turned into the Black Lady, but was eventually reformed and awakens as a Guardian herself—Sailor Chibi Moon. The third arc introduces car-racer Haruka Tenoh and violinist Michiru Kaioh, who appear asSailor UranusandSailor Neptune, whose duty is to guard the Solar System against external threats. Physics student Setsuna Meioh, Sailor Pluto's reincarnation, joins Uranus and Neptune in their mission to kill a mysterious girl named Hotaru Tomoe, whom they identify as the Guardian of DestructionSailor Saturn. However, when Saturn awakens she joins the final fight against the main antagonists of the arc, theDeath Busters, sacrificing her life in the process. With her newly obtained powers as Super Sailor Moon, Usagi restores the Earth and Hotaru is reincarnated as a baby. The fourth arc explores the Sailor Guardians' dreams and nightmares when the villainous groupDead Moon Circusexploits the Guardians' deepest fears, invades Elysion (which hosts the Earth's Golden Kingdom), and captures itshigh priestHelios, who turned into a Pegasus and tried to ask Guardians for help. This storyline also addresses Mamoru's relevance as protector of the Earth and owner of the Golden Crystal, the sacred stone of the Golden Kingdom. Mamoru and all ten of the reunited Guardians combine their powers, enabling Usagi to transform into Eternal Sailor Moon and defeat Dead Moon's leader,Queen Nehelenia. In the final arc theSailor Starlightsfrom the Planet Kinmoku, their rulerPrincess Kakyuu, and the mysterious little girlChibi-Chibijoin Usagi in her fight againstShadow Galactica, a group of both corrupted and false Sailor Guardians and led bySailor Galaxia, who have been rampaging across the galaxy and killing other Sailor Guardians to steal their Star Seeds, Sailor Crystals—the essence of their lives. After Mamoru and all of the main Solar System Guardians are killed by Shadow Galactica, Usagi travels to the Galaxy Cauldron, the birthplace of all Star Seeds of theMilky Way, in an attempt to revive her loved ones and to confrontChaos, the source of all strife in the galaxy. Production Creation ofSailor Moon Naoko Takeuchi, after working onNami Akimoto's 1991 mangaMiracle Girls, redevelopedSailor Moonfrom her 1991 manga serialCodename: Sailor V, which was first published on August 20, 1991, and featured Sailor Venus as the main protagonist.Takeuchi wanted to create a story with a theme about girls in outer space. While discussing with her editor Fumio Osano, he suggested the addition ofSailor fuku.WhenCodename: Sailor Vwas proposed for adaptation into an anime byToei Animation, Takeuchi redeveloped the concept so Sailor Venus became a member of a team.The resulting manga series became a fusion of the popular magical girl genre and theSuper Sentaiseries, of which Takeuchi was a fan.Recurring motifs includeastronomy,astrology,gemology,Greco-Roman mythology,Japanese elemental themes,: 286teen fashions,and schoolgirl antics. Takeuchi said discussions with Kodansha originally envisaged a single story arc;the storyline was developed in meetings a year before serialization began.: 93After completing the arc, Toei and Kodansha asked Takeuchi to continue the series. She wrote four more story arcs,which were often published simultaneously with the five corresponding seasons of the anime adaptation. The anime ran one or two months behind the manga.: 93As a result, the anime follows the storyline of the manga fairly closely, although there are deviations.Takeuchi later said because Toei's production staff were mostly male, she feels the anime has \"a slightmale perspective.\" Takeuchi later said she planned to kill off the protagonists, but Osano rejected the notion and said, \" is ashōjomanga!\" When the anime adaptation was produced, the protagonists were killed in the final battle with the Dark Kingdom, although they were revived. Takeuchi resented that she was unable to do that in her version.Takeuchi also intended for theSailor Moonanime adaptation to last for one season, but due to the immense popularity, Toei asked Takeuchi to continue the series. At first, she struggled to develop another storyline to extend the series. While discussing with Osano, he suggested the inclusion of Usagi's daughter from the future, Chibiusa. Westernization After theSailor Moonanime was released in North America and dubbed in English, fans and academics alike noted that the dub had westernizedSailor Moonfrom how it had been released in Japan. In the 1995 English version ofSailor Moon, the westernization of the characters is seen in how a majority of the character names are changed from Japanese to English names.Sailor Moon's civilian name, Usagi Tsukino, is turned into Serena.The love interest of Sailor Moon, Mamoru Chiba, is turned into Darien Shields.Other examples of westernization (or at least Americanization) referenced bySailor Moon's audience were things like flipping scenes of traffic to have carsdrive on the right side of the roadalong with the English dub changing any conversations between characters that contained lesser-known (in the United States at the time) Japanese cultural references.According toBandai America, the company in charge of Sailor Moon merchandise in the western hemisphere, the approach to advertisingSailor Moonwas to make the show and super-heroine \"'culturally appropriate' for the American market\". Media Manga Written and illustrated byNaoko Takeuchi,Sailor Moonwas serialized in the monthly manga anthologyNakayoshifrom December 28, 1991, to February 3, 1997.The side-stories were serialized simultaneously inRunRun—another of Kodansha's manga magazines.The 52 individual chapters were published in 18tankōbonvolumes byKodanshafrom July 6, 1992, to April 4, 1997.In 2003, the chapters were re-released in a collection of 12shinzōbanvolumes to coincide with the release of thelive-action series.The manga was retitledPretty Guardian Sailor Moonand included new cover art,and revised dialogue and illustrations. The ten individual short stories were also released in two volumes.In 2013, the chapters were once again re-released in 10kanzenbanvolumes to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary, which includes digitally remastered artwork, new covers and color artwork from itsNakayoshirun.The books have been enlarged from the typical Japanese manga size to A5.The short stories were republished in two volumes, with the order of the stories shuffled.Codename: Sailor Vwas also included in the third edition. TheSailor Moonmanga was initially licensed for an English release by Mixx (laterTokyopop) in North America. The manga was first published as a serial inMixxZinebeginning in 1997, but was later removed from the magazine and made into a separate, low print monthly comic to finish the first, second and third arcs. At the same time, the fourth and fifth arcs were printed in a secondary magazine calledSmile.Pages from the Tokyopop version of the manga ran daily in the Japanimation Station, a service accessible to users ofAmerica Online.The series was later collected into a three-part graphic novel series spanning eighteen volumes, which were published from December 1, 1998, to September 18, 2001.In May 2005, Tokyopop's license to theSailor Moonmanga expired, and its edition went out of print. In 2011,Kodansha Comicsannounced they had acquired the license for theSailor Moonmanga and its lead-in seriesCodename: Sailor Vin English.They published the twelve volumes ofSailor Moonsimultaneously with the two-volume edition ofCodename Sailor Vfrom September 2011 to July 2013.The first of the two related short story volumes was published on September 10, 2013;the second was published on November 26, 2013.AtAnime Expo2017, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-releaseSailor Moonin an \"Eternal Edition\", featuring a new English translation, new cover artwork by Takeuchi, and color pages from the manga's original run, printed on extra-large premium paper.The first Eternal Edition volume was published on September 11, 2018;the tenth and final volume was published on October 20, 2020.On July 1, 2019, Kondasha Comics began releasing the Eternal Editions digitally,following an announcement the day before about the series being released digitally in ten different languages.In November 2020, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-release theSailor Moonmanga again as part of their \"Naoko Takeuchi Collection\".The company described the new edition as a \"more affordable, portable\" version of the Eternal Edition. The first volume was published on April 5, 2022. Sailor Moonhas also been licensed in other English-speaking countries. In the United Kingdom, the volumes are distributed by Turnaround Publisher Services.In Australia, the manga is distributed by Penguin Books Australia. The manga has been licensed in Russia andCISfor distribution by XL Media publishing company. The first volume was released in 2018. Anime series Overview Sailor Moon Toei Animation produced an anime television series based on the 52 manga chapters, also titledPretty Soldier Sailor Moon.Junichi Satodirected the first season,Kunihiko Ikuharatook over second through fourth season, andTakuya Igarashidirected the fifth and final season.The series premiered in Japan onTV Asahion March 7, 1992, and ran for 200 episodes until its conclusion on February 8, 1997. Upon its release, the show quickly rose to be Toei Animation's highest ranked TV series.Most of the international versions, including the English adaptations, are titledSailor Moon. Sailor Moon Crystal On July 6, 2012, Kodansha and Toei Animation announced that it would commence production of a new anime adaptation ofSailor Moon, calledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystal, for a simultaneous worldwide release in 2013 as part of the series's 20th anniversary celebrations,and stated that it would be a closer adaptation of the manga than the first anime.Crystalpremiered on July 5, 2014, and new episodes would air on the first and third Saturdays of each month.New cast were announced, along withKotono Mitsuishireprising her role as Sailor Moon.The first two seasons were released together, covering their corresponding arcs of the manga (Dark KingdomandBlack Moon). A third season based on theInfinityarc on the manga premiered on Japanese television on April 4, 2016, known asDeath Bustersarc in this adaptation.Munehisa Sakaidirected the first and second season, whileChiaki Kondirected the third season. Films and television specials Three animated theatrical feature films based on the originalSailor Moonseries have been released in Japan:Sailor Moon R: The Moviein 1993, followed bySailor Moon S: The Moviein 1994, andSailor Moon SuperS: The Moviein 1995. The films are side-stories that do not correlate with the timeline of the original series. A one-hour television special was aired on TV Asahi in Japan on April 8, 1995.Kunihiko Ikuharadirected the first film, while the latter two were directed by Hiroki Shibata. In 1997, an article inVarietystated thatThe Walt Disney Companywas interested in originally acquiring the rights toSailor Moonas a live action film to be directed byStanley Tong&Geena Davisset to star as Queen Beryl, along withWinona Ryder&Elisabeth Shueplanning to star in the film.After Disney put the project onturnaround,Universal Picturesacquired the film rights. In 2017, it was revealed thatPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystalanime's fourth season would be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, adapting theDreamarc from the manga.On June 30, 2019, it was announced that the title of the films will bePretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie.The first film was originally to be released on September 11, 2020,but was postponed and released on January 8, 2021, and the second film was released on February 11, 2021.Chiaki Konreturned fromCrystal's third season to direct the two films. In 2022, it was announced that a sequel toPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie, covering theStarsarc of the manga would also be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, titledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Cosmos The Movie. The two films are directed by Tomoya Takahashi, and was released on June 9 and 30, 2023. Companion books There have been numerous companion books toSailor Moon. Kodansha released some of these books for each of the five story arcs, collectively called theOriginal Picture Collection. The books contain cover art, promotional material and other work by Takeuchi. Many of the drawings are accompanied by comments on the way she developed her ideas, created each picture and commentary on the anime interpretation of her story.Another picture collection,Volume Infinity, was released as a self-published, limited-edition artbook after the end of the series in 1997. This art book includes drawings by Takeuchi and her friends, her staff, and many of the voice actors who worked on the anime. In 1999, Kodansha published theMaterials Collection; this contained development sketches and notes for nearly every character in the manga, and for some characters that never appeared. Each drawing includes notes by Takeuchi about costume pieces, the mentality of the characters and her feelings about them. It also includes timelines for the story arcs and for the real-life release of products and materials relating to the anime and manga. A short story,Parallel Sailor Moonis also featured, celebrating theyear of the rabbit. Novels Sailor Moonwas also adapted for publication as novels and released in 1998. The first book was written byStuart J. Levy. The following novels were written by Lianne Sentar. Stage musicals In mid-1993, the first musical theater production based onSailor Moonpremiered, starringAnza Ohyamaas Sailor Moon. Thirty such musicals in all have been produced, with one in pre-production. The shows' stories include anime-inspired plotlines and original material. Music from the series has been released on about 20 memorial albums.The popularity of the musicals has been cited as a reason behind the production of the live-action television series,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon. During the original run musicals ran in the winter and summer of each year, with summer musicals staged at theSunshineTheater in theIkebukuroarea of Tokyo. In the winter, musicals toured to other large cities in Japan, includingOsaka,Fukuoka,Nagoya,Shizuoka,Kanazawa,Sendai,Saga,Oita,YamagataandFukushima.The final incarnation of the first run,New Legend of Kaguya Island (Revised Edition)(新・かぐや島伝説 <改訂版>,Shin Kaguyashima Densetsu (Kaiteban)), went on stage in January 2005, following which,Bandaiofficially put the series on a hiatus.On June 2, 2013, Fumio Osano announced on his Twitter page that theSailor Moonmusicals would begin again in September 2013.The 20th anniversary showLa Reconquistaran from September 13 to 23 at Shibuya's AiiA Theater Tokyo, with Satomi Ōkubo as Sailor Moon. Satomi Ōkubo reprised the role in the 2014 productionPetite Étrangèrewhich ran from August 21 to September 7, 2014, again at AiiA Theater Tokyo. Live-action film & series Cancelled Disney film adaptation During the 1990s,Disneywas going to adapt Sailor Moon into a film under theWalt Disney Picturesbanner but it was cancelled immediately. Unrealized American adaptation In 1993, Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, Bandai and Toon Makers, Inc. conceptualized their own version ofSailor Moon, which was half live-action and half Western-style animation.Toon Makers produced a 17-minuteproof of conceptpilot and a two-minute music video, both of which were directed by Rocky Solotoff, who also worked on the pilot's script.Renaissance-Atlantic presented the concept to Toei, but it was turned down as their concept would have cost significantly more than simply exporting and dubbing the anime adaptation.The companies' work is believed by Solotoff to have been handed over to Raymond Iacovacci, one of the producers on the project, who stored the pilot script and animation cels in a storage facility.The logo created for the pilot was kept for the English dub, and Bandai released a \"Moon Cycle\" as part of its merchandise for the show, based on vehicles designed for the pilot. The project was rediscovered in 1998 when the music video was screened at theAnime Expoconvention in Los Angeles,where it was met with laughter by onlookers.A congoer recorded the music video and the audience response, which would later resurface on video sites such asYouTube.The pilot and the music video would go on to be discussed at conventions such as the 2011Gen Conand 2012Anime Expo.It was given the monikers of \"Toon Makers' Sailor Moon\"and \"Saban Moon\" despite having no connection withSaban Entertainmentsave for Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, which worked with the company onPower Rangers.The proof of concept video was widely considered to belost mediaand director Solotoff reported that he was frequently contacted by people searching for the pilot.In 2012 multiple animation cels from the pilot, along with the script, surfaced on the internet after a storage locker, believed to be the one owned by Iacovacci, was sold. In 1998, Frank Ward, along with his company Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, tried to revive the idea of doing a live-action series based on Sailor Moon, this time calledTeam Angel, without the involvement of Toon Makers. A 2-minute reel was produced and sent to Bandai America, but was also rejected. In August 2022, the proof of concept was showcased for the first time onYouTubein a documentary by Ray Mona. Ray Mona obtained both the pilot and its music video, as well and its related materials, from theLibrary of Congress. Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon In 2003,Toei Companyproduced a Japanese live-actionSailor Moontelevision series using the new translated English title ofPretty Guardian Sailor Moon. Its 49 episodes were broadcast onChubu-Nippon Broadcastingfrom October 4, 2003, to September 25, 2004.Pretty Guardian Sailor MoonfeaturedMiyuu Sawaias Usagi Tsukino,Rika Izumi(credited as Chisaki Hama) as Ami Mizuno,Keiko Kitagawaas Rei Hino,Mew Azamaas Makoto Kino,Ayaka Komatsuas Minako Aino,Jouji Shibueas Mamoru Chiba,Keiko Hanreprising her voice role as Luna from the original anime andKappei Yamaguchivoicing Artemis. The series was an alternate retelling of the Dark Kingdom arc, adding a storyline different from that in the manga and first anime series, with original characters and new plot developments.In addition to the main episodes, twodirect-to-videoreleases appeared after the show ended its television broadcast. \"Special Act\" is set four years after the main storyline ends, and shows the wedding of the two main characters. \"Act Zero\" is a prequel showing the origins ofSailor Vand Tuxedo Mask. Video games TheSailor Moonfranchise has spawned several video games across various genres and platforms. Most were made by Bandai and its subsidy Angel; others were produced byBanpresto. The early games wereside-scrolling fighters; later ones were uniquepuzzle games, orversus fighting games.Another Storywas a turn-basedrole-playing video game.The onlySailor Moongame produced outside Japan, 3VR New Media'sThe 3D Adventures of Sailor Moon, went on sale in North America in 1997, They were developed in association withDIC Entertainment, which held the rights to the game and the TV series.A video game calledSailor Moon: La Luna Splende(Sailor Moon: The Moon Shines) was released on March 16, 2011, for theNintendo DS. Tabletop games The Dyskami Publishing Company releasedSailor Moon Crystal Dice Challenge, created byJames Ernestof Cheapass Games and based on theButton Mentabletop game in 2017, andSailor Moon Crystal Truth or Bluffin 2018. Theme park attractions A Sailor Moon attraction,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D, was announced forUniversal Studios Japan.It featured Sailor Moon and the Inner Guardians arriving at the theme park, only to discover and stop the Youma's plan from stealing people's energies. The attraction ran from March 16 through July 24, 2018. The sequel attraction,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D: Moon Palace arc, ran from May 31, 2019, to August 25, 2019. It featured all 10 Sailor Guardians and Super Sailor Moon. In January 2022, a new attraction was announced titledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D ~Moon Palace arc~ Deluxe. The attraction features the same storyline as the last and feature the Sailor Guardians in their princess forms. It ran from March 4, 2022, to August 28, 2022. Ice skating show An ice skating show ofSailor Moonwas announced on June 30, 2019, starringEvgenia Medvedevaas the lead.The name for the ice-skating show was announced asPretty Guardian Sailor Moon: Prism on Ice, as well as the additional casts, withAnzafrom the firstSailor Moonmusicals to play Queen Serenity, and the main voice actresses of theSailor Moon Crystalanime series to voice their individual characters. Takuya Hiramatsu from the musicals was to write the screenplay, Yuka Sato and Benji Schwimmer were to be in charge of choreography, and Akiko Kosaka & Gesshoku Kaigi were to write the music for the show.The show was set to debut in early June 2020, but was first postponed to June 2021, and later to June 2022, due to theCOVID-19 pandemic,and finally cancelled on February 23, 2023, due to an\"unstable world situation\". Idol group An idol pop group namedSG5, short for Sailor Guardians 5, was announced in June 2022. Early plans to form the group began in 2020, with the official lineup and overall concept finalized in 2022. As part of the process, the group had to seek the approval of Naoko Takeuchi by performing in front of her and giving a presentation. Four of the group members, Sayaka, Ruri, Miyuu, andKaede, had previously performed together as part of the idol groupHappiness. The group was officially debuted in July 2022 at Anime Expo and is co-managed by LDH Japan Inc. and Three Six Zero.On March 1, 2023, SG5 released their debut single \"Firetruck\" on streaming platforms alongside a music video with references to the manga. Reception Sailor Moonis one of the most popular manga series of all time and continues to enjoy high readership worldwide. More than one million copies of itstankōbonvolumes had been sold in Japan by the end of 1995.: 95It has been described as iconic.By the series's 20th anniversary in 2012, the manga had sold over 35 million copies in over fifty countries,and the franchise has generated$2.5 billionin worldwidemerchandisesales as of 1996.By 1995, Sailor Moon toys used to bring in more than $250 million per year in Japan.The manga won theKodansha Manga Awardin 1993 forshōjo.The English adaptations of both the manga and the anime series became the first successfulshōjotitle in the United States.The character of Sailor Moon is recognized as one of the most important and popularfemale superheroesof all time. Sailor Moonhas also become popular internationally.Sailor Moonwas broadcast in Spain and France beginning in December 1993; these became the first countries outside Japan to broadcast the series.It was later aired in Russia, South Korea, the Philippines, China, Italy, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia and Hong Kong, before North America picked up the franchise for adaptation. In the Philippines,Sailor Moonwas one ofits carrier network's main draws, helping it to become the third-biggest network in the country.: 10–11In 2001, theSailor Moonmanga was Tokyopop's best selling property, outselling the next-best selling titles by at least a factor of 1.5.InDiamond Comic Distributors's May 1999 \"Graphic Novel and Trade Paperback\" category,Sailor MoonVolume 3 was the best-selling comic book in the United States. Academic Timothy J. Craig attributesSailor Moon's international success to three things. First was the show's magical girl transformation of ordinary characters into superheroes. Second was the ability of marketers to establish the international audience's connection to characters despite their culture being Japanese. The third was that the main superhero was female, something which was still rare in pop culture in countries like the United States during the 1990s. In his 2007 bookManga: The Complete Guide,Jason Thompsongave the manga series three stars out of four. He enjoyed the blending ofshōnenandshōjostyles and said the combat scenes seemed heavily influenced bySaint Seiya, but shorter and less bloody. He also said the manga itself appeared similar toSuper Sentaitelevision shows. Thompson found the series fun and entertaining, but said the repetitive plot lines were a detriment to the title, which the increasing quality of art could not make up for; even so, he called the series \"sweet, effective entertainment.\"Thompson said although the audience forSailor Moonis both male and female, Takeuchi does not use excessivefanservicefor males, which would run the risk of alienating her female audience. Thompson said fight scenes are not physical and \"boil down to their purest form of a clash of wills\", which he says \"makes thematic sense\" for the manga. Comparing the manga and anime, Sylvain Durand said the manga artwork is \"gorgeous\", but its storytelling is more compressed and erratic and the anime has more character development. Durand said \"the sense of tragedy is greater\" in the manga's telling of the \"fall of the Silver Millennium,\" giving more detail about the origins of the Four Kings of Heaven and on Usagi's final battle against Queen Beryl and Metaria. Durand said the anime omits information that makes the story easy to understand, but judges the anime as more \"coherent\" with a better balance of comedy and tragedy, whereas the manga is \"more tragic\" and focused on Usagi and Mamoru's romance. For the week of September 11, 2011, to September 17, 2011, the first volume of the re-releasedSailor Moonmanga was the best-selling manga onThe New York TimesManga Best Sellers list, with the first volume ofCodename: Sailor Vin second place.The first print run of the first volume sold out after four weeks. In English-speaking countries,Sailor Moondeveloped a cult following among anime fans and male university students.Patrick Drazen says theInternetwas a new medium that fans used to communicate and played a role in the popularity ofSailor Moon.: 281Fans could use the Internet to communicate about the series, organize campaigns to returnSailor Moonto U.S. broadcast, to share information about episodes that had not yet aired, or to writefan fiction.Gemma Cox ofNeomagazinesaid part of the series's allure was that fans communicated via the Internet about the differences between the dub and the original version. Cultural impact and legacy With their dynamic heroines and action-oriented plots, many creditSailor Moonfor reinvigorating the magical girl genre. After its success, many similar magical girl series, includingMagic Knight Rayearth,Wedding Peach,Nurse Angel Ririka SOS,Saint Tail,Cyber Team in Akihabara,Corrector YuiandPretty Cure, emerged.: 199Sailor Moonhas been called \"the biggest breakthrough\" in English-dubbed anime until 1995, when it premiered onYTV,: 10–11and \"the pinnacle of little kidshōjoanime\".Cultural anthropologistRachel Thornsaid that soon afterSailor Moon,shōjomanga started appearing in book shops instead of fandom-dominated comic shops.The series are credited as beginning a wider movement of girls taking upshōjomanga.Canadian librarianGilles Poitrasdefines a generation of anime fans as those who were introduced to anime bySailor Moonin the 1990s, saying they were both much younger than other fans and were also mostly female. HistorianFred Pattencredits Takeuchi with popularizing the concept of aSuper Sentai-like team of magical girls,and Paul Gravett credits the series with revitalizing the magical girl genre itself.A reviewer forTHEMAnime Reviewsalso credited the anime series with changing the genre—its heroine must use her powers to fight evil, not simply have fun as previous magical girls had done.The series has also been compared toMighty Morphin Power Rangers,Buffy the Vampire Slayer,: 281andSabrina the Teenage Witch.Sailor Moon also influenced the development ofMiraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir,W.I.T.C.H.,Winx Club,LoliRock,Star vs. the Forces of Evil,Steven Universe, andTotally Spies!. Inwestern culture,Sailor Moonis sometimes associated with thefeministandGirl Powermovements and with empowering its viewers,especially regarding the \"credible, charismatic and independent\" characterizations of the Sailor Guardians.AlthoughSailor Moonis regarded as empowering to women and feminism in concept, through the aggressive nature and strong personalities of the Sailor Guardians,it is a specific type of feminist concept where \"traditional feminine ideals incorporated into characters that act in traditionally male capacities\".While the Sailor Guardians are strong, independent fighters who thwart evil—which is generally a masculine stereotype—they are also ideally feminized in the transformation of the Sailor Guardians from teenage girls into magical girls. The most notable hyper-feminine features of the Sailor Guardians—and most other females in Japanese girls' comics—are the girls' thin bodies, long legs, and, in particular, round, orb-like eyes.Eyes are commonly known as the primal source within characters where emotion is evoked—sensitive characters have larger eyes than insensitive ones.The stereotypical role of women in Japanese culture is to undertake romantic and loving feelings;therefore, the prevalence of hyper-feminine qualities like the openness of the female eye in Japanese girls' comics is clearly exhibited inSailor Moon. Thus,Sailor Moonemphasizes a type of feminist model by combining traditional masculine action with traditional female affection and sexuality through the Sailor Guardians. Merchandise Since the early 2000s,Toei Animationhas collaborated with various different brands to create merchandise outside of children's demographic.On February 20, 2020,ColourPopreleased aSailor Mooninspired makeup collection.Celebrating the 25th anniversary ofSailor Moonin the U.S., streetwear brand KITH released clothing like hoodies and t-shirts withSailor Moongraphics on them.In honor ofSailor Moon's 30th anniversary, brands likeSanrio,Uniqlo, and Maison de FLEUR announced a collaboration in January 2022. References External links","Wedding Peach Wedding Peach(Japanese:愛天使伝説ウェディングピーチ,Hepburn:Ai Tenshi Densetsu Wedingu Pīchi, literally \"Legend of the Angel of Love: Wedding Peach\")is ashōjomangawritten bySukehiro Tomitaand illustrated byNao Yazawathat was originally serialized inShogakukan'sCiaomagazine. InNorth America, it was translated and published byVIZ Mediain its entirety, consisting of six volumes. The manga was later adapted into ananimetelevision seriesdirected byKunihiko Yuyamathat ran for 51 episodes onTV Tokyo, from April 5, 1995 to March 27, 1996 as well as 2omakesAi Tenshi Robot Wedding PeachandAi Tenshi Sentaiand a 4-episodeOVAsequel (Wedding Peach DX) in 1996. In 2004,Wedding Peach Young Lovewas released, a compilation ofWedding Peachstories made specifically for the monthly magazineShogaku Sannensei(\"Elementary School Third-Grader\"). To better fit the magazine's target audience, the \"Young Love\" version of Wedding Peach features younger-looking characters, less complex storylines, and simpler dialogue. Plot Momoko Hanasaki, along with her friends Yuri Tanima and Hinagiku Tamano, are members of the newspaper club where they mostly cover the school's soccer team. They all have a crush on the star player Kazuya Yanagiba. On their way home from school one day, the trio are attacked by adevilby the name of Pluie who is a servant to the high ruler of the devil world, Raindevila. When her friends are hypnotized into attacking Momoko, a beautiful man comes down from the sky named Limone. He is from theangelworld and gives Momoko a compact case. Opening the compact, she is told by thegoddessAphrodite, the ruler of the angel world, that she is one of the legendary Love Angels, Wedding Peach. Momoko transforms into Wedding Peach and manages to snap her friends out of Pluie's control. Over the course of the story, Yuri and Hinagiku and later Scarlet O'Hara also find out that they are also love angels and the three (later four) must protect the humans from the devils and defeat Raindevila. Media Manga The manga was written and illustrated by Nao Yazawa. It was serialized theShogakukan'sCiaomagazine from March 1994 to April 1996. Shogakukan released the manga in six volumes from September 1994 to April 1996.Viz Medialicensed the manga in North America and released the manga from July 10, 2003 to May 26, 2004. The series is now out-of-print. Anime An anime television series premiered onTV Tokyoon April 5, 1995 to March 27, 1996 and ran for 51 episodes. The anime was directed byKunihiko Yuyamaand was co-produced byKSSandOLM, Inc.A four-episodeOVAseries, titledWedding Peach DX (Deluxe)was released from November 1996 to March 1997.ADV Filmslicensed the anime in 2003 and released the anime in tenDVDs. Theme Songs Opening Themes Ending Themes Episodes Wedding Peach Wedding Peach DX Omake Games ASuper Famicomgame was released only in Japan in 1995. In the game, the player plays as one of the three main girls (either Momoko, Yuri or Hinagiku) to compete with the others in a series of mini games. The ultimate goal is to win the right to ask the guy that all three girls are in love with (Yanagiba) to the school dance. The game has a three player option as well, where two other people can play the other two girls. Wedding Peachgames have also been released for theGame Boy(Jama-P Panic!- 1995),PC-98(Wedding Peach- 1996), andPlayStation(Wedding Peach - Doki Doki Oiro-naoshi Fashion Dai-sakusen- 1996). References External links","Tokyo Mew Mew Tokyo Mew Mew(Japanese:東京ミュウミュウ,Hepburn:Tōkyō Myū Myū)is a Japanesemangaseries created and written byReiko Yoshidaand illustrated byMia Ikumi. It was originally serialized inKodansha'sshōjomangamagazineNakayoshifrom September 2000 to February 2003, with its chapters collected in seventankōbonvolumes by Kodansha. It focuses on five girls infused with the DNA of endangered animals which gives them special powers and allows them to transform into \"Mew Mews\". Led by Ichigo Momomiya, the girls protect Earth from aliens who wish to \"reclaim\" it. The series was adapted into a fifty-two episodeanimeseries produced byTV Aichi, We've Inc. & Tokyu Agency and animated byPierrot. The anime aired in Japan from April 6, 2002, to March 29, 2003 onTXNaffiliates. A two-volume sequel to the manga,Tokyo Mew Mew à la Mode, was serialized inNakayoshifrom April 2003 to February 2004. The sequel introduces a new character, Berry Shirayuki, who becomes the temporary leader of the Mew Mews. The series would inspire twovideo games: apuzzleadventure gameforGame Boy Advance, and arole-playing video gamefor thePlayStation. Tokyopoporiginally licensedTokyo Mew Mewfor English-language publication in North America, and would release both the original series andà la Mode.Kodansha Comicswould publish a newly translated version of the manga in September 2011.4Kids Entertainmentlicensed the anime series for North American broadcast under the titleMew Mew Power, and produced aneditedEnglish-languagelocalization. The first twenty-three episodes of the series would air on4Kids TVin the United States, with three additional episodes airing onYTVin Canada. 4Kids was unable to license the remaining 26 episodes of the series or release the series on home video. Tokyo Mew Mewwas well received by English-language readers, with critics praising the manga for being a \"cute and entertaining\" series with \"free-flowing style and character designs\". Several volumes of the manga series appeared in the Top 50 sales lists for graphic novels in their respective months of release. The anime series received high ratings in Japan, whileMew Mew Powerwould become 4Kids' highest-rated show during its American broadcast, and be licensed for regional release in several other countries. In 2020, a second, two-chapter sequel calledTokyo Mew Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas released, featuring the main characters with updated designs; and as well as a spinoff, titledTokyo Mew Mew Olé!, which features a new team of male Mew Mews. In addition, anew anime adaptationof the series,Tokyo Mew Mew New, was announced; the series aired from July to September 2022. A second season premiered in April 2023. Plot InTokyo,Japan, a young girl namedIchigo Momomiyaattends anendangered speciesexhibit with her \"crush\"Masaya Aoyama. After an earthquake, Ichigo and four other girls are bathed in a strange light. A cat appears before Ichigo, then merges with her. The next day, she begins acting like a cat and making cat puns. After meetingRyou ShiroganeandKeiichirou Akasaka, Ichigo learns that she was infused with the DNA of theIriomote cat. Ryou and Keiichirou explain that this allows her to transform into Mew Ichigo, a powerful heroiccat girl. She is ordered to defeat Chimera Animas—alien parasites which infect animals and turn them into monsters. Ryou and Keiichirou instruct Ichigo to find the four other girls from the exhibit—the remaining Mew Mews. The first Mew Mew Ichigo encounters areMinto Aizawa, a spoiled, wealthy girl and ballerina who is infused with the genes of theblue lorikeet;Retasu Midorikawa, a shy but smart girl who endures constant bullying from three girls and absorbs the genes of thefinless porpoise; a hyper and yet young girl namedBu-Ling Huangwho receives the genes of thegolden lion tamarin; andZakuro Fujiwara, a professional actress and model infused with the genes of thegray wolf. The five Mew Mews battle the Chimera Animas and their alien controllersQuiche,PieandTart. Quiche falls in love with Ichigo where he tries to gain her love despite the fact that he is trying to eliminate the other Mew Mews. Pie and Tart later join Quiche in trying to destroy the Mew Mews. As the fighting intensifies, the Mew Mews are tasked with finding \"Mew Aqua\", a material created from pure water that contains immense power for combating the alien attacks and can be sensed by the Mew Mews. During a battle with Quiche at an aquarium, Ichigo is in danger of losing when the mysteriousBlue Knightappears and rescues her. He returns periodically throughout the series, protecting Ichigo from various dangers. It is later revealed that the Blue Knight is in fact Masaya. Shortly after this discovery, Masaya collapses and transforms again. This time, he transforms into Deep Blue, the alien leader who wants to destroy humanity. After explaining to Ichigo that Masaya was a false form for temporary use, Deep Blue attacks the Mew Mews. Pie and Tart try to stop the other mew mews while Ichigo goes after Deep Blue. He and Quiche battle and Deep Blue wins. Masaya's personality briefly reappears and he uses the Mew Aqua inside Deep Blue to save Ichigo and Tokyo, killing himself in the process. Devastated over his loss, Ichigo pours her power into Masaya to save his life, losing her own in the process. Masaya kisses her, changing her back to a human and revives her. Ryou gives Pie the remaining Mew Aqua to save the aliens' world, after which Quiche, Pie, and Tart say their goodbyes and return to their own world. Sequels Tokyo Mew Mew à La Mode Ichigo and Masaya move to England to study endangered species. The remaining Mew Mews continue to eliminate the Chimera Animas left behind by the aliens. They face a new threat in the form of theSaint Rose Crusaders: Humans withsupernatural abilitieswho desire to conquer the world and create a \"utopia\" while taking over the remaining Chimera Animas. Berry Shirayukibecomes the sixth Mew Mew and temporarily takes Ichigo's place as the leader. Berry is the first Mew Mew to be infused with the DNA of twoendangered species, theAndean mountain catand theAmami rabbit. As one of the strongest Mew Mews, Berry is targeted by two of the Crusaders, who attack her at school. Ichigo returns to provide assistance during this battle. For their final attack, two Crusadershypnotizethe citizens of Tokyo and set them against the Mew Mews. Berry and her childhood friendTasuku Megurouse their newfound feelings of love to reverse the hypnosis and cause a change of heart in the Crusaders. Production Mia Ikumispent a year designing theTokyo Mew Mewmangabefore the release of the first volume in February 2001.The story she originally presented to her editors,Tokyo Black Cat Girl, featured a heroine named Hime Azumi. An intergalactic police officer named Masha gave her the ability to transform into a cat-girl and asked her to aid him in defeating alien invaders called the Bugs.After the production team decided to focus on five female superheroes, Ikumi was asked to reconstruct the lead character. She had reservations about the changes, as the character was originally designed for a more dramatic series. AsTokyo Mew Mewbecame a viable project, Kodansha hiredReiko Yoshidato be the series' scenario writer and story supervisor.Yoshida and two other editors determined each volume's plot, created a scenario by addingstage directionsand dialogue, and presented it to Ikumi. Ikumi added her own ideas and changes, creating themanuscript'sfirst draft, which was taken to the publishers for final review and approval. This differs from most manga series, in which the manga writer also creates the scenarios and stories before submitting to their editor for approval. After the first volume's release, a two-dayTokyo Mew Mewfestival was held during theGolden Week holiday—a week-long span in late April and early May during which four public holidays occur—to promote the series. Events included aTokyo Mew Mewart gallery and the release of new merchandise. Ikumi, the series' artist, created a special poster for the event, featuring all twelve characters. She alsocosplayedas characters from the series, asMinto Aizawaon one day andRetasu Midorikawaon the other. Media Manga Written byReiko Yoshidaand illustrated byMia Ikumi,Tokyo Mew Mewwas first serialized inNakayoshimagazine between September 2000 and February 2003. The twenty-nine chapters were then compiled into seventankōbonvolumes byKodansha. The first volume was released on February 1, 2001, with the final volume released April 4, 2003.In April 2003, a sequel calledTokyo Mew Mew à la Modepremiered inNakayoshi. Running until February 2004 and written solely by Mia Ikumi, the sequel was published as two volumes.In December 2019, an additional spinoff calledTokyo Mew Mew Olé!made by Madoka Seizuki began running inNakayoshi. The spinoff focuses on a new team of male Mew Mews.The manga ended in August 2022,and was compiled into seven volumes. A short, 2-chapter manga sequel of the original series made by the original creators titledTokyo Mew Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas published between December 2019 and January 2020.It was Ikumi's final manga before her death in March 2022. Tokyo Mew MewandTokyo Mew Mew à la Modeare licensed for an English-language release in North America byTokyopop. The first volume of the main series was released on June 1, 2004, with volumes released subsequently until the seventh volume was published on December 15, 2005.The two volumes ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Modewere released on June 7 and September 13, 2005, respectively.Unlike the Japanese releases, each Tokyopop chapter is named.The main series is licensed for an English language release in Singapore byChuang Yi.Carlsen Comicshas licensed the series, through its regional divisions, and released the series in German, Danish and Swedish.The series is also licensed for regional language releases in French byPika Édition, in Polish byJaponica Polonica Fantastica, and in Finnish bySangatsu Manga.Tokyo Mew Mewwas one of the first manga series released in Spanish in North America by Public Square Books.Kodansha Comicsreleased an omnibus version of the series, featuring a new translation in September 2011. Anime Pierrot,TV Aichi, Tokyu Agency and We've Inc. adaptedTokyo Mew Mewinto a fifty-two episode anime series, directed by Noriyuki Abe. Broadcast onTXNaffiliates, the series premiered on April 6, 2002, and aired weekly until its conclusion on March 29, 2003.Most of the music for the series was produced by Shin Yoshimura and composed byTakayuki Negishi. Two pieces of theme music were also used for the anime series. \"My Sweet Heart\", performed byRika Komatsu, was the series opening theme. The ending theme \"Koi wa A La Mode\" is performed by the fivevoice actorswho play the Mew Mews. In Japan, the series was released across nineRegion 2DVDvolumes. The ninth volume included a bonus DVD containing extra content.At some point during the TV broadcast, AEON changed its name to We've. Tokyo Mew Mewwas later licensed for an English-language dubbed release by4Kids Entertainment. In its announcement about the series, 4Kids originally noted that the show would be renamed toHollywood Mew Mewand that they would be heavily editing and localizing episodes so that viewers would not recognize its Japanese origins.Subsequent 4Kids press releases about the series referred to the new series asThe Mew Mewsand its original nameTokyo Mew Mew.When the series premiered on4Kids TVon February 19, 2005, it aired under the name asMew Mew Power. Characters and episodes were renamed, scenes were cut and storylines were modified. The music was replaced with a new score provided byBear in the Big Blue HouseandThe Book of Poohcomposer, Julian Harris, and the opening theme was replaced with the song \"Team Up\", performed byBree Sharpand Mollie Weaver.Twenty-six episodes ofMew Mew Poweraired on4Kids TVin the United States because 4Kids was unable to get amerchandisingdeal for the series and the English dub had stopped production.The 4Kids episodes aired onYTVin Canada and on thePop Girlsatellitetelevision channelin the United Kingdom; these included three dubbed episodes not broadcast in the United States. AlthoughMew Mew Powerhas not been released tohome videoin North America, ten of the 4Kids episodes have been released toRegion 4DVD in Australia and New Zealand byMagna Pacificand all twenty-six 4Kids episodes were released toRegion 2DVD in South Africa.Mew Mew Powerwas licensed for regional airing in French by Arès Films, which released nine dubbed 4Kids episodes to DVD in February 2006 as a single volume through Warner Home Vidéo France. The French dub aired onTélétoonas part of their Code F block.The company also licensed the remaining twenty-six episodes of the series that 4Kids had not obtained, releasing them in two DVD box sets through AK Vidéo. A new anime adaptation titledTokyo Mew Mew Newwas announced to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary.It was later revealed that the adaptation will be animated byYumeta CompanyandGraphinica, and directed by Takahiro Natori, with Yuka Yamada handling the series' scripts, Satoshi Ishino designing the characters, andYasuharu Takanashicomposing the music. New cast members were chosen to play the Mew Mews through a public audition held in Q2 2020,and they will also be promoting as anidol groupnamed Smewthie as their characters.The new series premiered on July 6, 2022, on TV Tokyo.Sentai Filmworkshas licensed the series outside of Asia and was streamed onHidive. A second season ofTokyo Mew Mew Newwas announced at the end of the final episode on September 21, 2022. It premiered in April 2023. Video games Two video games based on theTokyo Mew Mewseries were launched in 2002 byTakara. The first,Hamepane Tokyo Mew Mew(はめパネ 東京ミュウミュウ,Hamepane Tōkyō Myū Myū), apuzzleadventure gamefor theGame Boy Advance, was released in Japan on July 11, 2002. The second title,Tōkyō Mew Mew – Enter the New Mew Mew! – Serve Everyone Together(東京ミュウミュウ 登場 新ミュウミュウ！みんないっしょにご奉仕するにゃん,Tōkyō Myū Myū – Tōjō Shin Myū Myū! Minna Issho ni Gohōshi suru Nyan), was released in Japan on December 5, 2002. It is aPlayStationturn-basedrole-playing video game in which the player controls a new Mew Mew, Ringo Akai(赤井 りんご,Akai Ringo), as well as the original five heroines. They must defend Ringo's island from Quiche, the Chimera Animas and a new alien named Gateau du Roi(ガトー·デュ·ロワ,Gatō dyu Rowa).Both Ringo Akai and Gateau were created by the manga's artist, Mia Ikumi, following design specifications from Takara. The game uses voice actors from the anime series, with the two new characters voiced byTaeko KawataandRyōtarō Okiayu, respectively. Ikumi was pleased with how both characters turned out and expressed a desire to use Ringo as a regular character in a future manga series.Ringo later joined the other Mew Mews in thePetite Mew Mewbonus story in the second volume ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Mode. CDs Multiple music and characterCDshave been released for theTokyo Mew Mew seriesbyKing Records. The first, a CD single, contained the full andkaraokeversions of \"Koi wa A La Mode\", performed by the fivevoice actorswho played the Mew Mews, and a second song performed bySaki Nakajima, who voices Ichigo. On July 24, 2002, a five-disclimited editioncollector's box set was released containing character songs for each of the Mew Mews, performed by their respective voice actors and aremixof \"Koi wa A La Mode\".The individual character song discs were released as standalone CDs on September 4, 2002.An additional character CD set, containing remixed versions of two songs from each individual album, followed on December 25, 2002.A second character CD for Ichigo, containing five new tracks performed by Nakajima, was released on February 26, 2003. The first full anime soundtrack,Tokyo Mew Mew Original Soundtrackwas released on September 25, 2002, byNEC. The CD included the series opening and ending themes and twenty-seven pieces of series background music.NEC released a secondsoundtrackon January 22, 2003; it contains the opening and closing themes, along with an additional twenty-nine tracks of background music.On March 26, 2003, two \"best of\" CDs were released for the anime series:Tokyo Mew Mew Super Best Hit – Cafe Mew Mew sideandTokyo Mew Mew Super Best Hit – Tokyo Mew Mew side. Each CD includes ten of the series' \"most popular\" musical pieces. Reception TheTokyo Mew Mewmanga series was well received by English-speaking audiences. In March and April 2003, the first volume sold an estimated 1,597 and 1,746 copies respectively. This put the volume at the low end of the top 50 sales for each month.By 2004, with most of the series released, it became a mild success for licensor Tokyopop.It was ranked 16th on the list of Manga Top 50 for the first quarter of 2004 in theICv2 Retailers Guide to Anime/Manga, based on sales from both mainstream bookstores andcomic bookshops.Sales of the sixth and seventh volumes dropped slightly; however, both were among the top 100 best-selling graphic novels in March and May 2004.The first volume ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Modedebuted 63rd on the list of top 100 best-selling graphic novels of May 2005, with nearly double the sales figures of the last volume of the main series.On the Nielsen Bookscan charts, the volume debuted at rank 39 before quickly climbing to the 14th spot.The second volume ofà la Modesaw similar success, debuting in the 69th slot before advancing to the 12th position, a result of theMew Mew Powershow appearing on4Kids TV. Tokyo Mew Mewwas generally well received by reviewers, who described it as cute and entertaining.ThoughAnimeFringe'sPatrick King notes that it is not a very intellectual series and that it avoids complex plot points, he lauded it as engrossing \"brain candy\" and an \"endearing action-romance\" that has no \"delusions of grandeur\".Critics praised the artwork in bothTokyo Mew Mewand the sequelTokyo Mew Mew à La Mode. Ikumi's \"free flowing\" style and character designs were seen as a perfect fit for the series.Criticism of Ikumi's art focused on images which regularly spilled out of panel borders and speech bubbles with ambiguous speakers.Patrick King ofAnimefringestated: \"one of the most attractive aspects of Tokyo Mew Mew is easily Mia Ikumi's ultra-cute artwork. Big eyes, cat ears, fuzzy tails, and short skirts all come together in a cuteness combo that's hard to resist.\"According to Carlo Santos ofAnime News Network, \"Mia Ikumi's artwork is perfectly suited to the story, and it is not even all that wispy and frilly compared to othershōjomaterial. Like many budding manga artist, Ikumi's greatest strength is in carefully posed character portraits, and her prolific use of tones creates unique effects while also sidestepping the challenge of backgrounds.\" Over allTokyo Mew Mew à La Modehad more mixed reviews. Critics praised it for being a modern manga that typifies themagical girlformula, highlighting both its strengths and weaknesses.Mike Dungan, of Mania Entertainment, considered the original series to be \"quite charming\" and felt thatà la Modewas a good continuation of the series with the \"same fun and excitement\" as its predecessor.Others felt Berry was an overly shallow heroine and that the sequel offered nothing new for readers with the Saint Rose Crusaders' costumes and plans being nothing more than concepts borrowed fromSailor Moon. Janet Crocker, Shannon Fay and Chris Istel ofAnimefringecriticizedà la Modefor having the character Duke, the main villain of the arc, dressed in a white robe similar to those used by the white supremacy group, theKu Klux Klan.Garrity feltà La Modewas a vehicle for referencingTokyo Mew Mewfandom and merchandise and that Berry was a \"transparent wish-fulfillment protagonist\". The anime adaptation has been compared toSailor MoonandYes! PreCure 5due to both having female protagonists, five original team members with signature colors and powers, and similar plot lines, as have many magical girl series.Tokyo Mew Mewreceived high ratings in Japan with extensive merchandizing tie ins and marketing events to promote the series.The announcement of 4Kids licensing the anime series drew negative reactions from English-speaking in the U.S. fans, due to 4Kids' practice of removing cultural elements from their English-dubbed adaptations. Several fans would campaign to have the company to release an uncut version of the anime series.Overall viewer reception toMew Mew Powerwould be mixed,but the show would become the block's highest-rated program at the start of the Fall 2005 season.Despite this, the series was never released to DVD in North America.Mew Mew Powerwould be licensed for broadcast in France, Latin America, Australia, New Zealand, Portugal, Brazil, Albania, Serbia, Croatia, Turkey, Greece, South Africa, Denmark, the Netherlands, Bulgaria and Israel. Notes References Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Sailor Moon Sailor Moon(Japanese:美少女戦士セーラームーン,Hepburn:Bishōjo Senshi Sērā Mūn, originally translated asPretty Soldier Sailor Moonand later asPretty Guardian Sailor Moon)is a Japanesemangaseries written and illustrated byNaoko Takeuchi. It was originally serialized inKodansha'sshōjomangamagazineNakayoshifrom 1991 to 1997; the 60 individual chapters (later reorganized into 52), along with several side stories, were compiled in 18volumes. The series follows the adventures of a schoolgirl namedUsagi Tsukinoas she transforms into the eponymous character to search for a magical artifact, the \\\"Legendary Silver Crystal\\\"(「幻の銀水晶」,Maboroshi no Ginsuishō,lit.\\\"Phantom Silver Crystal\\\"). She leads a group of comrades, the Sailor Soldiers, called Sailor Guardians in later editions, as they battle against villains to prevent the theft of the Silver Crystal and the destruction of theSolar System. The manga was adapted intoan anime seriesproduced byToei Animationand broadcast in Japan from 1992 to 1997.Toei also developed three animated feature films, a television special, and three short films based on the anime. A live-action television adaptation,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon, aired from 2003 to 2004, and a second anime series,Sailor Moon Crystal, begansimulcastingin 2014. The manga series was licensed for an English language release byKodansha Comicsin North America, and in Australia and New Zealand by Random House Australia. The entire anime series has been licensed byViz Mediafor an English language release in North America and byMadman Entertainmentin Australia and New Zealand. Since its release,Sailor Moonhas received universal acclaim, with praise for its art, characterization, and humor. The manga has sold over 46 million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling manga series, as well as one of the best-sellingshōjomangaseries of all time.The franchise has also generated$2.5 billionin worldwide merchandise sales. Plot One day inJuban,Tokyo, amiddle-schoolstudent namedUsagi TsukinobefriendsLuna, a talking black cat who gives her a magical brooch enabling her to transform into Sailor Moon: a guardian destined to saveEarthfrom the forces of evil. Luna and Usagi assemble a team of fellow Sailor Guardians to find their princess and the Silver Crystal. They encounter the studious Ami Mizuno, who awakens asSailor Mercury; Rei Hino, a localShintoshrine maidenwho awakens asSailor Mars; Makoto Kino, a tall and strong transfer student who awakens asSailor Jupiter; and Minako Aino, a young aspiringidolwho had awakened asSailor Venusa few months prior, accompanied by her talking feline companionArtemis. Additionally, they befriend Mamoru Chiba, a high school student who assists them on occasion asTuxedo Mask. In the first arc, the group battles theDark Kingdom, those members attempt to find the Silver Crystal and free an imprisoned, evil entity called Queen Metaria. Usagi and her team discover that in their previous lives, they were members of the ancient Moon Kingdom in a period of time called the Silver Millennium. The Dark Kingdom waged war against them, destroying the Moon Kingdom. Its rulerQueen Serenitysent her daughter Princess Serenity,reincarnatedas Usagi, along with her protectors the Sailor Guardians, their feline advisers Luna and Artemis, and the princess's true love Prince Endymion, who in turn was reborn as Mamoru. At the beginning of the second arc, the Sailor Guardians meet Usagi and Mamoru's future daughterChibiusa, who arrives from a 30th-century version of Tokyo known as \\\"Crystal Tokyo\\\", which is ruled by Neo Queen Serenity, Usagi of the future and has been attacked by the group of villains known as theBlack Moon Clan. During their journey, Sailor Moon and her friends meetSailor Pluto, Guardian of the Time-Space Door. During the climactic battle of the arc, Sailor Pluto dies trying to save the sailor soldiers and Chibiusa was brainwashed by the enemy and turned into the Black Lady, but was eventually reformed and awakens as a Guardian herself—Sailor Chibi Moon. The third arc introduces car-racer Haruka Tenoh and violinist Michiru Kaioh, who appear asSailor UranusandSailor Neptune, whose duty is to guard the Solar System against external threats. Physics student Setsuna Meioh, Sailor Pluto's reincarnation, joins Uranus and Neptune in their mission to kill a mysterious girl named Hotaru Tomoe, whom they identify as the Guardian of DestructionSailor Saturn. However, when Saturn awakens she joins the final fight against the main antagonists of the arc, theDeath Busters, sacrificing her life in the process. With her newly obtained powers as Super Sailor Moon, Usagi restores the Earth and Hotaru is reincarnated as a baby. The fourth arc explores the Sailor Guardians' dreams and nightmares when the villainous groupDead Moon Circusexploits the Guardians' deepest fears, invades Elysion (which hosts the Earth's Golden Kingdom), and captures itshigh priestHelios, who turned into a Pegasus and tried to ask Guardians for help. This storyline also addresses Mamoru's relevance as protector of the Earth and owner of the Golden Crystal, the sacred stone of the Golden Kingdom. Mamoru and all ten of the reunited Guardians combine their powers, enabling Usagi to transform into Eternal Sailor Moon and defeat Dead Moon's leader,Queen Nehelenia. In the final arc theSailor Starlightsfrom the Planet Kinmoku, their rulerPrincess Kakyuu, and the mysterious little girlChibi-Chibijoin Usagi in her fight againstShadow Galactica, a group of both corrupted and false Sailor Guardians and led bySailor Galaxia, who have been rampaging across the galaxy and killing other Sailor Guardians to steal their Star Seeds, Sailor Crystals—the essence of their lives. After Mamoru and all of the main Solar System Guardians are killed by Shadow Galactica, Usagi travels to the Galaxy Cauldron, the birthplace of all Star Seeds of theMilky Way, in an attempt to revive her loved ones and to confrontChaos, the source of all strife in the galaxy. Production Creation ofSailor Moon Naoko Takeuchi, after working onNami Akimoto's 1991 mangaMiracle Girls, redevelopedSailor Moonfrom her 1991 manga serialCodename: Sailor V, which was first published on August 20, 1991, and featured Sailor Venus as the main protagonist.Takeuchi wanted to create a story with a theme about girls in outer space. While discussing with her editor Fumio Osano, he suggested the addition ofSailor fuku.WhenCodename: Sailor Vwas proposed for adaptation into an anime byToei Animation, Takeuchi redeveloped the concept so Sailor Venus became a member of a team.The resulting manga series became a fusion of the popular magical girl genre and theSuper Sentaiseries, of which Takeuchi was a fan.Recurring motifs includeastronomy,astrology,gemology,Greco-Roman mythology,Japanese elemental themes,: 286teen fashions,and schoolgirl antics. Takeuchi said discussions with Kodansha originally envisaged a single story arc;the storyline was developed in meetings a year before serialization began.: 93After completing the arc, Toei and Kodansha asked Takeuchi to continue the series. She wrote four more story arcs,which were often published simultaneously with the five corresponding seasons of the anime adaptation. The anime ran one or two months behind the manga.: 93As a result, the anime follows the storyline of the manga fairly closely, although there are deviations.Takeuchi later said because Toei's production staff were mostly male, she feels the anime has \\\"a slightmale perspective.\\\" Takeuchi later said she planned to kill off the protagonists, but Osano rejected the notion and said, \\\" is ashōjomanga!\\\" When the anime adaptation was produced, the protagonists were killed in the final battle with the Dark Kingdom, although they were revived. Takeuchi resented that she was unable to do that in her version.Takeuchi also intended for theSailor Moonanime adaptation to last for one season, but due to the immense popularity, Toei asked Takeuchi to continue the series. At first, she struggled to develop another storyline to extend the series. While discussing with Osano, he suggested the inclusion of Usagi's daughter from the future, Chibiusa. Westernization After theSailor Moonanime was released in North America and dubbed in English, fans and academics alike noted that the dub had westernizedSailor Moonfrom how it had been released in Japan. In the 1995 English version ofSailor Moon, the westernization of the characters is seen in how a majority of the character names are changed from Japanese to English names.Sailor Moon's civilian name, Usagi Tsukino, is turned into Serena.The love interest of Sailor Moon, Mamoru Chiba, is turned into Darien Shields.Other examples of westernization (or at least Americanization) referenced bySailor Moon's audience were things like flipping scenes of traffic to have carsdrive on the right side of the roadalong with the English dub changing any conversations between characters that contained lesser-known (in the United States at the time) Japanese cultural references.According toBandai America, the company in charge of Sailor Moon merchandise in the western hemisphere, the approach to advertisingSailor Moonwas to make the show and super-heroine \\\"'culturally appropriate' for the American market\\\". Media Manga Written and illustrated byNaoko Takeuchi,Sailor Moonwas serialized in the monthly manga anthologyNakayoshifrom December 28, 1991, to February 3, 1997.The side-stories were serialized simultaneously inRunRun—another of Kodansha's manga magazines.The 52 individual chapters were published in 18tankōbonvolumes byKodanshafrom July 6, 1992, to April 4, 1997.In 2003, the chapters were re-released in a collection of 12shinzōbanvolumes to coincide with the release of thelive-action series.The manga was retitledPretty Guardian Sailor Moonand included new cover art,and revised dialogue and illustrations. The ten individual short stories were also released in two volumes.In 2013, the chapters were once again re-released in 10kanzenbanvolumes to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary, which includes digitally remastered artwork, new covers and color artwork from itsNakayoshirun.The books have been enlarged from the typical Japanese manga size to A5.The short stories were republished in two volumes, with the order of the stories shuffled.Codename: Sailor Vwas also included in the third edition. TheSailor Moonmanga was initially licensed for an English release by Mixx (laterTokyopop) in North America. The manga was first published as a serial inMixxZinebeginning in 1997, but was later removed from the magazine and made into a separate, low print monthly comic to finish the first, second and third arcs. At the same time, the fourth and fifth arcs were printed in a secondary magazine calledSmile.Pages from the Tokyopop version of the manga ran daily in the Japanimation Station, a service accessible to users ofAmerica Online.The series was later collected into a three-part graphic novel series spanning eighteen volumes, which were published from December 1, 1998, to September 18, 2001.In May 2005, Tokyopop's license to theSailor Moonmanga expired, and its edition went out of print. In 2011,Kodansha Comicsannounced they had acquired the license for theSailor Moonmanga and its lead-in seriesCodename: Sailor Vin English.They published the twelve volumes ofSailor Moonsimultaneously with the two-volume edition ofCodename Sailor Vfrom September 2011 to July 2013.The first of the two related short story volumes was published on September 10, 2013;the second was published on November 26, 2013.AtAnime Expo2017, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-releaseSailor Moonin an \\\"Eternal Edition\\\", featuring a new English translation, new cover artwork by Takeuchi, and color pages from the manga's original run, printed on extra-large premium paper.The first Eternal Edition volume was published on September 11, 2018;the tenth and final volume was published on October 20, 2020.On July 1, 2019, Kondasha Comics began releasing the Eternal Editions digitally,following an announcement the day before about the series being released digitally in ten different languages.In November 2020, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-release theSailor Moonmanga again as part of their \\\"Naoko Takeuchi Collection\\\".The company described the new edition as a \\\"more affordable, portable\\\" version of the Eternal Edition. The first volume was published on April 5, 2022. Sailor Moonhas also been licensed in other English-speaking countries. In the United Kingdom, the volumes are distributed by Turnaround Publisher Services.In Australia, the manga is distributed by Penguin Books Australia. The manga has been licensed in Russia andCISfor distribution by XL Media publishing company. The first volume was released in 2018. Anime series Overview Sailor Moon Toei Animation produced an anime television series based on the 52 manga chapters, also titledPretty Soldier Sailor Moon.Junichi Satodirected the first season,Kunihiko Ikuharatook over second through fourth season, andTakuya Igarashidirected the fifth and final season.The series premiered in Japan onTV Asahion March 7, 1992, and ran for 200 episodes until its conclusion on February 8, 1997. Upon its release, the show quickly rose to be Toei Animation's highest ranked TV series.Most of the international versions, including the English adaptations, are titledSailor Moon. Sailor Moon Crystal On July 6, 2012, Kodansha and Toei Animation announced that it would commence production of a new anime adaptation ofSailor Moon, calledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystal, for a simultaneous worldwide release in 2013 as part of the series's 20th anniversary celebrations,and stated that it would be a closer adaptation of the manga than the first anime.Crystalpremiered on July 5, 2014, and new episodes would air on the first and third Saturdays of each month.New cast were announced, along withKotono Mitsuishireprising her role as Sailor Moon.The first two seasons were released together, covering their corresponding arcs of the manga (Dark KingdomandBlack Moon). A third season based on theInfinityarc on the manga premiered on Japanese television on April 4, 2016, known asDeath Bustersarc in this adaptation.Munehisa Sakaidirected the first and second season, whileChiaki Kondirected the third season. Films and television specials Three animated theatrical feature films based on the originalSailor Moonseries have been released in Japan:Sailor Moon R: The Moviein 1993, followed bySailor Moon S: The Moviein 1994, andSailor Moon SuperS: The Moviein 1995. The films are side-stories that do not correlate with the timeline of the original series. A one-hour television special was aired on TV Asahi in Japan on April 8, 1995.Kunihiko Ikuharadirected the first film, while the latter two were directed by Hiroki Shibata. In 1997, an article inVarietystated thatThe Walt Disney Companywas interested in originally acquiring the rights toSailor Moonas a live action film to be directed byStanley Tong&Geena Davisset to star as Queen Beryl, along withWinona Ryder&Elisabeth Shueplanning to star in the film.After Disney put the project onturnaround,Universal Picturesacquired the film rights. In 2017, it was revealed thatPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystalanime's fourth season would be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, adapting theDreamarc from the manga.On June 30, 2019, it was announced that the title of the films will bePretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie.The first film was originally to be released on September 11, 2020,but was postponed and released on January 8, 2021, and the second film was released on February 11, 2021.Chiaki Konreturned fromCrystal's third season to direct the two films. In 2022, it was announced that a sequel toPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie, covering theStarsarc of the manga would also be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, titledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Cosmos The Movie. The two films are directed by Tomoya Takahashi, and was released on June 9 and 30, 2023. Companion books There have been numerous companion books toSailor Moon. Kodansha released some of these books for each of the five story arcs, collectively called theOriginal Picture Collection. The books contain cover art, promotional material and other work by Takeuchi. Many of the drawings are accompanied by comments on the way she developed her ideas, created each picture and commentary on the anime interpretation of her story.Another picture collection,Volume Infinity, was released as a self-published, limited-edition artbook after the end of the series in 1997. This art book includes drawings by Takeuchi and her friends, her staff, and many of the voice actors who worked on the anime. In 1999, Kodansha published theMaterials Collection; this contained development sketches and notes for nearly every character in the manga, and for some characters that never appeared. Each drawing includes notes by Takeuchi about costume pieces, the mentality of the characters and her feelings about them. It also includes timelines for the story arcs and for the real-life release of products and materials relating to the anime and manga. A short story,Parallel Sailor Moonis also featured, celebrating theyear of the rabbit. Novels Sailor Moonwas also adapted for publication as novels and released in 1998. The first book was written byStuart J. Levy. The following novels were written by Lianne Sentar. Stage musicals In mid-1993, the first musical theater production based onSailor Moonpremiered, starringAnza Ohyamaas Sailor Moon. Thirty such musicals in all have been produced, with one in pre-production. The shows' stories include anime-inspired plotlines and original material. Music from the series has been released on about 20 memorial albums.The popularity of the musicals has been cited as a reason behind the production of the live-action television series,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon. During the original run musicals ran in the winter and summer of each year, with summer musicals staged at theSunshineTheater in theIkebukuroarea of Tokyo. In the winter, musicals toured to other large cities in Japan, includingOsaka,Fukuoka,Nagoya,Shizuoka,Kanazawa,Sendai,Saga,Oita,YamagataandFukushima.The final incarnation of the first run,New Legend of Kaguya Island (Revised Edition)(新・かぐや島伝説 <改訂版>,Shin Kaguyashima Densetsu (Kaiteban)), went on stage in January 2005, following which,Bandaiofficially put the series on a hiatus.On June 2, 2013, Fumio Osano announced on his Twitter page that theSailor Moonmusicals would begin again in September 2013.The 20th anniversary showLa Reconquistaran from September 13 to 23 at Shibuya's AiiA Theater Tokyo, with Satomi Ōkubo as Sailor Moon. Satomi Ōkubo reprised the role in the 2014 productionPetite Étrangèrewhich ran from August 21 to September 7, 2014, again at AiiA Theater Tokyo. Live-action film & series Cancelled Disney film adaptation During the 1990s,Disneywas going to adapt Sailor Moon into a film under theWalt Disney Picturesbanner but it was cancelled immediately. Unrealized American adaptation In 1993, Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, Bandai and Toon Makers, Inc. conceptualized their own version ofSailor Moon, which was half live-action and half Western-style animation.Toon Makers produced a 17-minuteproof of conceptpilot and a two-minute music video, both of which were directed by Rocky Solotoff, who also worked on the pilot's script.Renaissance-Atlantic presented the concept to Toei, but it was turned down as their concept would have cost significantly more than simply exporting and dubbing the anime adaptation.The companies' work is believed by Solotoff to have been handed over to Raymond Iacovacci, one of the producers on the project, who stored the pilot script and animation cels in a storage facility.The logo created for the pilot was kept for the English dub, and Bandai released a \\\"Moon Cycle\\\" as part of its merchandise for the show, based on vehicles designed for the pilot. The project was rediscovered in 1998 when the music video was screened at theAnime Expoconvention in Los Angeles,where it was met with laughter by onlookers.A congoer recorded the music video and the audience response, which would later resurface on video sites such asYouTube.The pilot and the music video would go on to be discussed at conventions such as the 2011Gen Conand 2012Anime Expo.It was given the monikers of \\\"Toon Makers' Sailor Moon\\\"and \\\"Saban Moon\\\" despite having no connection withSaban Entertainmentsave for Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, which worked with the company onPower Rangers.The proof of concept video was widely considered to belost mediaand director Solotoff reported that he was frequently contacted by people searching for the pilot.In 2012 multiple animation cels from the pilot, along with the script, surfaced on the internet after a storage locker, believed to be the one owned by Iacovacci, was sold. In 1998, Frank Ward, along with his company Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, tried to revive the idea of doing a live-action series based on Sailor Moon, this time calledTeam Angel, without the involvement of Toon Makers. A 2-minute reel was produced and sent to Bandai America, but was also rejected. In August 2022, the proof of concept was showcased for the first time onYouTubein a documentary by Ray Mona. Ray Mona obtained both the pilot and its music video, as well and its related materials, from theLibrary of Congress. Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon In 2003,Toei Companyproduced a Japanese live-actionSailor Moontelevision series using the new translated English title ofPretty Guardian Sailor Moon. Its 49 episodes were broadcast onChubu-Nippon Broadcastingfrom October 4, 2003, to September 25, 2004.Pretty Guardian Sailor MoonfeaturedMiyuu Sawaias Usagi Tsukino,Rika Izumi(credited as Chisaki Hama) as Ami Mizuno,Keiko Kitagawaas Rei Hino,Mew Azamaas Makoto Kino,Ayaka Komatsuas Minako Aino,Jouji Shibueas Mamoru Chiba,Keiko Hanreprising her voice role as Luna from the original anime andKappei Yamaguchivoicing Artemis. The series was an alternate retelling of the Dark Kingdom arc, adding a storyline different from that in the manga and first anime series, with original characters and new plot developments.In addition to the main episodes, twodirect-to-videoreleases appeared after the show ended its television broadcast. \\\"Special Act\\\" is set four years after the main storyline ends, and shows the wedding of the two main characters. \\\"Act Zero\\\" is a prequel showing the origins ofSailor Vand Tuxedo Mask. Video games TheSailor Moonfranchise has spawned several video games across various genres and platforms. Most were made by Bandai and its subsidy Angel; others were produced byBanpresto. The early games wereside-scrolling fighters; later ones were uniquepuzzle games, orversus fighting games.Another Storywas a turn-basedrole-playing video game.The onlySailor Moongame produced outside Japan, 3VR New Media'sThe 3D Adventures of Sailor Moon, went on sale in North America in 1997, They were developed in association withDIC Entertainment, which held the rights to the game and the TV series.A video game calledSailor Moon: La Luna Splende(Sailor Moon: The Moon Shines) was released on March 16, 2011, for theNintendo DS. Tabletop games The Dyskami Publishing Company releasedSailor Moon Crystal Dice Challenge, created byJames Ernestof Cheapass Games and based on theButton Mentabletop game in 2017, andSailor Moon Crystal Truth or Bluffin 2018. Theme park attractions A Sailor Moon attraction,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D, was announced forUniversal Studios Japan.It featured Sailor Moon and the Inner Guardians arriving at the theme park, only to discover and stop the Youma's plan from stealing people's energies. The attraction ran from March 16 through July 24, 2018. The sequel attraction,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D: Moon Palace arc, ran from May 31, 2019, to August 25, 2019. It featured all 10 Sailor Guardians and Super Sailor Moon. In January 2022, a new attraction was announced titledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D ~Moon Palace arc~ Deluxe. The attraction features the same storyline as the last and feature the Sailor Guardians in their princess forms. It ran from March 4, 2022, to August 28, 2022. Ice skating show An ice skating show ofSailor Moonwas announced on June 30, 2019, starringEvgenia Medvedevaas the lead.The name for the ice-skating show was announced asPretty Guardian Sailor Moon: Prism on Ice, as well as the additional casts, withAnzafrom the firstSailor Moonmusicals to play Queen Serenity, and the main voice actresses of theSailor Moon Crystalanime series to voice their individual characters. Takuya Hiramatsu from the musicals was to write the screenplay, Yuka Sato and Benji Schwimmer were to be in charge of choreography, and Akiko Kosaka & Gesshoku Kaigi were to write the music for the show.The show was set to debut in early June 2020, but was first postponed to June 2021, and later to June 2022, due to theCOVID-19 pandemic,and finally cancelled on February 23, 2023, due to an\\\"unstable world situation\\\". Idol group An idol pop group namedSG5, short for Sailor Guardians 5, was announced in June 2022. Early plans to form the group began in 2020, with the official lineup and overall concept finalized in 2022. As part of the process, the group had to seek the approval of Naoko Takeuchi by performing in front of her and giving a presentation. Four of the group members, Sayaka, Ruri, Miyuu, andKaede, had previously performed together as part of the idol groupHappiness. The group was officially debuted in July 2022 at Anime Expo and is co-managed by LDH Japan Inc. and Three Six Zero.On March 1, 2023, SG5 released their debut single \\\"Firetruck\\\" on streaming platforms alongside a music video with references to the manga. Reception Sailor Moonis one of the most popular manga series of all time and continues to enjoy high readership worldwide. More than one million copies of itstankōbonvolumes had been sold in Japan by the end of 1995.: 95It has been described as iconic.By the series's 20th anniversary in 2012, the manga had sold over 35 million copies in over fifty countries,and the franchise has generated$2.5 billionin worldwidemerchandisesales as of 1996.By 1995, Sailor Moon toys used to bring in more than $250 million per year in Japan.The manga won theKodansha Manga Awardin 1993 forshōjo.The English adaptations of both the manga and the anime series became the first successfulshōjotitle in the United States.The character of Sailor Moon is recognized as one of the most important and popularfemale superheroesof all time. Sailor Moonhas also become popular internationally.Sailor Moonwas broadcast in Spain and France beginning in December 1993; these became the first countries outside Japan to broadcast the series.It was later aired in Russia, South Korea, the Philippines, China, Italy, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia and Hong Kong, before North America picked up the franchise for adaptation. In the Philippines,Sailor Moonwas one ofits carrier network's main draws, helping it to become the third-biggest network in the country.: 10–11In 2001, theSailor Moonmanga was Tokyopop's best selling property, outselling the next-best selling titles by at least a factor of 1.5.InDiamond Comic Distributors's May 1999 \\\"Graphic Novel and Trade Paperback\\\" category,Sailor MoonVolume 3 was the best-selling comic book in the United States. Academic Timothy J. Craig attributesSailor Moon's international success to three things. First was the show's magical girl transformation of ordinary characters into superheroes. Second was the ability of marketers to establish the international audience's connection to characters despite their culture being Japanese. The third was that the main superhero was female, something which was still rare in pop culture in countries like the United States during the 1990s. In his 2007 bookManga: The Complete Guide,Jason Thompsongave the manga series three stars out of four. He enjoyed the blending ofshōnenandshōjostyles and said the combat scenes seemed heavily influenced bySaint Seiya, but shorter and less bloody. He also said the manga itself appeared similar toSuper Sentaitelevision shows. Thompson found the series fun and entertaining, but said the repetitive plot lines were a detriment to the title, which the increasing quality of art could not make up for; even so, he called the series \\\"sweet, effective entertainment.\\\"Thompson said although the audience forSailor Moonis both male and female, Takeuchi does not use excessivefanservicefor males, which would run the risk of alienating her female audience. Thompson said fight scenes are not physical and \\\"boil down to their purest form of a clash of wills\\\", which he says \\\"makes thematic sense\\\" for the manga. Comparing the manga and anime, Sylvain Durand said the manga artwork is \\\"gorgeous\\\", but its storytelling is more compressed and erratic and the anime has more character development. Durand said \\\"the sense of tragedy is greater\\\" in the manga's telling of the \\\"fall of the Silver Millennium,\\\" giving more detail about the origins of the Four Kings of Heaven and on Usagi's final battle against Queen Beryl and Metaria. Durand said the anime omits information that makes the story easy to understand, but judges the anime as more \\\"coherent\\\" with a better balance of comedy and tragedy, whereas the manga is \\\"more tragic\\\" and focused on Usagi and Mamoru's romance. For the week of September 11, 2011, to September 17, 2011, the first volume of the re-releasedSailor Moonmanga was the best-selling manga onThe New York TimesManga Best Sellers list, with the first volume ofCodename: Sailor Vin second place.The first print run of the first volume sold out after four weeks. In English-speaking countries,Sailor Moondeveloped a cult following among anime fans and male university students.Patrick Drazen says theInternetwas a new medium that fans used to communicate and played a role in the popularity ofSailor Moon.: 281Fans could use the Internet to communicate about the series, organize campaigns to returnSailor Moonto U.S. broadcast, to share information about episodes that had not yet aired, or to writefan fiction.Gemma Cox ofNeomagazinesaid part of the series's allure was that fans communicated via the Internet about the differences between the dub and the original version. Cultural impact and legacy With their dynamic heroines and action-oriented plots, many creditSailor Moonfor reinvigorating the magical girl genre. After its success, many similar magical girl series, includingMagic Knight Rayearth,Wedding Peach,Nurse Angel Ririka SOS,Saint Tail,Cyber Team in Akihabara,Corrector YuiandPretty Cure, emerged.: 199Sailor Moonhas been called \\\"the biggest breakthrough\\\" in English-dubbed anime until 1995, when it premiered onYTV,: 10–11and \\\"the pinnacle of little kidshōjoanime\\\".Cultural anthropologistRachel Thornsaid that soon afterSailor Moon,shōjomanga started appearing in book shops instead of fandom-dominated comic shops.The series are credited as beginning a wider movement of girls taking upshōjomanga.Canadian librarianGilles Poitrasdefines a generation of anime fans as those who were introduced to anime bySailor Moonin the 1990s, saying they were both much younger than other fans and were also mostly female. HistorianFred Pattencredits Takeuchi with popularizing the concept of aSuper Sentai-like team of magical girls,and Paul Gravett credits the series with revitalizing the magical girl genre itself.A reviewer forTHEMAnime Reviewsalso credited the anime series with changing the genre—its heroine must use her powers to fight evil, not simply have fun as previous magical girls had done.The series has also been compared toMighty Morphin Power Rangers,Buffy the Vampire Slayer,: 281andSabrina the Teenage Witch.Sailor Moon also influenced the development ofMiraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir,W.I.T.C.H.,Winx Club,LoliRock,Star vs. the Forces of Evil,Steven Universe, andTotally Spies!. Inwestern culture,Sailor Moonis sometimes associated with thefeministandGirl Powermovements and with empowering its viewers,especially regarding the \\\"credible, charismatic and independent\\\" characterizations of the Sailor Guardians.AlthoughSailor Moonis regarded as empowering to women and feminism in concept, through the aggressive nature and strong personalities of the Sailor Guardians,it is a specific type of feminist concept where \\\"traditional feminine ideals incorporated into characters that act in traditionally male capacities\\\".While the Sailor Guardians are strong, independent fighters who thwart evil—which is generally a masculine stereotype—they are also ideally feminized in the transformation of the Sailor Guardians from teenage girls into magical girls. The most notable hyper-feminine features of the Sailor Guardians—and most other females in Japanese girls' comics—are the girls' thin bodies, long legs, and, in particular, round, orb-like eyes.Eyes are commonly known as the primal source within characters where emotion is evoked—sensitive characters have larger eyes than insensitive ones.The stereotypical role of women in Japanese culture is to undertake romantic and loving feelings;therefore, the prevalence of hyper-feminine qualities like the openness of the female eye in Japanese girls' comics is clearly exhibited inSailor Moon. Thus,Sailor Moonemphasizes a type of feminist model by combining traditional masculine action with traditional female affection and sexuality through the Sailor Guardians. Merchandise Since the early 2000s,Toei Animationhas collaborated with various different brands to create merchandise outside of children's demographic.On February 20, 2020,ColourPopreleased aSailor Mooninspired makeup collection.Celebrating the 25th anniversary ofSailor Moonin the U.S., streetwear brand KITH released clothing like hoodies and t-shirts withSailor Moongraphics on them.In honor ofSailor Moon's 30th anniversary, brands likeSanrio,Uniqlo, and Maison de FLEUR announced a collaboration in January 2022. References External links\",\n \"Wedding Peach Wedding Peach(Japanese:愛天使伝説ウェディングピーチ,Hepburn:Ai Tenshi Densetsu Wedingu Pīchi, literally \\\"Legend of the Angel of Love: Wedding Peach\\\")is ashōjomangawritten bySukehiro Tomitaand illustrated byNao Yazawathat was originally serialized inShogakukan'sCiaomagazine. InNorth America, it was translated and published byVIZ Mediain its entirety, consisting of six volumes. The manga was later adapted into ananimetelevision seriesdirected byKunihiko Yuyamathat ran for 51 episodes onTV Tokyo, from April 5, 1995 to March 27, 1996 as well as 2omakesAi Tenshi Robot Wedding PeachandAi Tenshi Sentaiand a 4-episodeOVAsequel (Wedding Peach DX) in 1996. In 2004,Wedding Peach Young Lovewas released, a compilation ofWedding Peachstories made specifically for the monthly magazineShogaku Sannensei(\\\"Elementary School Third-Grader\\\"). To better fit the magazine's target audience, the \\\"Young Love\\\" version of Wedding Peach features younger-looking characters, less complex storylines, and simpler dialogue. Plot Momoko Hanasaki, along with her friends Yuri Tanima and Hinagiku Tamano, are members of the newspaper club where they mostly cover the school's soccer team. They all have a crush on the star player Kazuya Yanagiba. On their way home from school one day, the trio are attacked by adevilby the name of Pluie who is a servant to the high ruler of the devil world, Raindevila. When her friends are hypnotized into attacking Momoko, a beautiful man comes down from the sky named Limone. He is from theangelworld and gives Momoko a compact case. Opening the compact, she is told by thegoddessAphrodite, the ruler of the angel world, that she is one of the legendary Love Angels, Wedding Peach. Momoko transforms into Wedding Peach and manages to snap her friends out of Pluie's control. Over the course of the story, Yuri and Hinagiku and later Scarlet O'Hara also find out that they are also love angels and the three (later four) must protect the humans from the devils and defeat Raindevila. Media Manga The manga was written and illustrated by Nao Yazawa. It was serialized theShogakukan'sCiaomagazine from March 1994 to April 1996. Shogakukan released the manga in six volumes from September 1994 to April 1996.Viz Medialicensed the manga in North America and released the manga from July 10, 2003 to May 26, 2004. The series is now out-of-print. Anime An anime television series premiered onTV Tokyoon April 5, 1995 to March 27, 1996 and ran for 51 episodes. The anime was directed byKunihiko Yuyamaand was co-produced byKSSandOLM, Inc.A four-episodeOVAseries, titledWedding Peach DX (Deluxe)was released from November 1996 to March 1997.ADV Filmslicensed the anime in 2003 and released the anime in tenDVDs. Theme Songs Opening Themes Ending Themes Episodes Wedding Peach Wedding Peach DX Omake Games ASuper Famicomgame was released only in Japan in 1995. In the game, the player plays as one of the three main girls (either Momoko, Yuri or Hinagiku) to compete with the others in a series of mini games. The ultimate goal is to win the right to ask the guy that all three girls are in love with (Yanagiba) to the school dance. The game has a three player option as well, where two other people can play the other two girls. Wedding Peachgames have also been released for theGame Boy(Jama-P Panic!- 1995),PC-98(Wedding Peach- 1996), andPlayStation(Wedding Peach - Doki Doki Oiro-naoshi Fashion Dai-sakusen- 1996). References External links\",\n \"Tokyo Mew Mew Tokyo Mew Mew(Japanese:東京ミュウミュウ,Hepburn:Tōkyō Myū Myū)is a Japanesemangaseries created and written byReiko Yoshidaand illustrated byMia Ikumi. It was originally serialized inKodansha'sshōjomangamagazineNakayoshifrom September 2000 to February 2003, with its chapters collected in seventankōbonvolumes by Kodansha. It focuses on five girls infused with the DNA of endangered animals which gives them special powers and allows them to transform into \\\"Mew Mews\\\". Led by Ichigo Momomiya, the girls protect Earth from aliens who wish to \\\"reclaim\\\" it. The series was adapted into a fifty-two episodeanimeseries produced byTV Aichi, We've Inc. & Tokyu Agency and animated byPierrot. The anime aired in Japan from April 6, 2002, to March 29, 2003 onTXNaffiliates. A two-volume sequel to the manga,Tokyo Mew Mew à la Mode, was serialized inNakayoshifrom April 2003 to February 2004. The sequel introduces a new character, Berry Shirayuki, who becomes the temporary leader of the Mew Mews. The series would inspire twovideo games: apuzzleadventure gameforGame Boy Advance, and arole-playing video gamefor thePlayStation. Tokyopoporiginally licensedTokyo Mew Mewfor English-language publication in North America, and would release both the original series andà la Mode.Kodansha Comicswould publish a newly translated version of the manga in September 2011.4Kids Entertainmentlicensed the anime series for North American broadcast under the titleMew Mew Power, and produced aneditedEnglish-languagelocalization. The first twenty-three episodes of the series would air on4Kids TVin the United States, with three additional episodes airing onYTVin Canada. 4Kids was unable to license the remaining 26 episodes of the series or release the series on home video. Tokyo Mew Mewwas well received by English-language readers, with critics praising the manga for being a \\\"cute and entertaining\\\" series with \\\"free-flowing style and character designs\\\". Several volumes of the manga series appeared in the Top 50 sales lists for graphic novels in their respective months of release. The anime series received high ratings in Japan, whileMew Mew Powerwould become 4Kids' highest-rated show during its American broadcast, and be licensed for regional release in several other countries. In 2020, a second, two-chapter sequel calledTokyo Mew Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas released, featuring the main characters with updated designs; and as well as a spinoff, titledTokyo Mew Mew Olé!, which features a new team of male Mew Mews. In addition, anew anime adaptationof the series,Tokyo Mew Mew New, was announced; the series aired from July to September 2022. A second season premiered in April 2023. Plot InTokyo,Japan, a young girl namedIchigo Momomiyaattends anendangered speciesexhibit with her \\\"crush\\\"Masaya Aoyama. After an earthquake, Ichigo and four other girls are bathed in a strange light. A cat appears before Ichigo, then merges with her. The next day, she begins acting like a cat and making cat puns. After meetingRyou ShiroganeandKeiichirou Akasaka, Ichigo learns that she was infused with the DNA of theIriomote cat. Ryou and Keiichirou explain that this allows her to transform into Mew Ichigo, a powerful heroiccat girl. She is ordered to defeat Chimera Animas—alien parasites which infect animals and turn them into monsters. Ryou and Keiichirou instruct Ichigo to find the four other girls from the exhibit—the remaining Mew Mews. The first Mew Mew Ichigo encounters areMinto Aizawa, a spoiled, wealthy girl and ballerina who is infused with the genes of theblue lorikeet;Retasu Midorikawa, a shy but smart girl who endures constant bullying from three girls and absorbs the genes of thefinless porpoise; a hyper and yet young girl namedBu-Ling Huangwho receives the genes of thegolden lion tamarin; andZakuro Fujiwara, a professional actress and model infused with the genes of thegray wolf. The five Mew Mews battle the Chimera Animas and their alien controllersQuiche,PieandTart. Quiche falls in love with Ichigo where he tries to gain her love despite the fact that he is trying to eliminate the other Mew Mews. Pie and Tart later join Quiche in trying to destroy the Mew Mews. As the fighting intensifies, the Mew Mews are tasked with finding \\\"Mew Aqua\\\", a material created from pure water that contains immense power for combating the alien attacks and can be sensed by the Mew Mews. During a battle with Quiche at an aquarium, Ichigo is in danger of losing when the mysteriousBlue Knightappears and rescues her. He returns periodically throughout the series, protecting Ichigo from various dangers. It is later revealed that the Blue Knight is in fact Masaya. Shortly after this discovery, Masaya collapses and transforms again. This time, he transforms into Deep Blue, the alien leader who wants to destroy humanity. After explaining to Ichigo that Masaya was a false form for temporary use, Deep Blue attacks the Mew Mews. Pie and Tart try to stop the other mew mews while Ichigo goes after Deep Blue. He and Quiche battle and Deep Blue wins. Masaya's personality briefly reappears and he uses the Mew Aqua inside Deep Blue to save Ichigo and Tokyo, killing himself in the process. Devastated over his loss, Ichigo pours her power into Masaya to save his life, losing her own in the process. Masaya kisses her, changing her back to a human and revives her. Ryou gives Pie the remaining Mew Aqua to save the aliens' world, after which Quiche, Pie, and Tart say their goodbyes and return to their own world. Sequels Tokyo Mew Mew à La Mode Ichigo and Masaya move to England to study endangered species. The remaining Mew Mews continue to eliminate the Chimera Animas left behind by the aliens. They face a new threat in the form of theSaint Rose Crusaders: Humans withsupernatural abilitieswho desire to conquer the world and create a \\\"utopia\\\" while taking over the remaining Chimera Animas. Berry Shirayukibecomes the sixth Mew Mew and temporarily takes Ichigo's place as the leader. Berry is the first Mew Mew to be infused with the DNA of twoendangered species, theAndean mountain catand theAmami rabbit. As one of the strongest Mew Mews, Berry is targeted by two of the Crusaders, who attack her at school. Ichigo returns to provide assistance during this battle. For their final attack, two Crusadershypnotizethe citizens of Tokyo and set them against the Mew Mews. Berry and her childhood friendTasuku Megurouse their newfound feelings of love to reverse the hypnosis and cause a change of heart in the Crusaders. Production Mia Ikumispent a year designing theTokyo Mew Mewmangabefore the release of the first volume in February 2001.The story she originally presented to her editors,Tokyo Black Cat Girl, featured a heroine named Hime Azumi. An intergalactic police officer named Masha gave her the ability to transform into a cat-girl and asked her to aid him in defeating alien invaders called the Bugs.After the production team decided to focus on five female superheroes, Ikumi was asked to reconstruct the lead character. She had reservations about the changes, as the character was originally designed for a more dramatic series. AsTokyo Mew Mewbecame a viable project, Kodansha hiredReiko Yoshidato be the series' scenario writer and story supervisor.Yoshida and two other editors determined each volume's plot, created a scenario by addingstage directionsand dialogue, and presented it to Ikumi. Ikumi added her own ideas and changes, creating themanuscript'sfirst draft, which was taken to the publishers for final review and approval. This differs from most manga series, in which the manga writer also creates the scenarios and stories before submitting to their editor for approval. After the first volume's release, a two-dayTokyo Mew Mewfestival was held during theGolden Week holiday—a week-long span in late April and early May during which four public holidays occur—to promote the series. Events included aTokyo Mew Mewart gallery and the release of new merchandise. Ikumi, the series' artist, created a special poster for the event, featuring all twelve characters. She alsocosplayedas characters from the series, asMinto Aizawaon one day andRetasu Midorikawaon the other. Media Manga Written byReiko Yoshidaand illustrated byMia Ikumi,Tokyo Mew Mewwas first serialized inNakayoshimagazine between September 2000 and February 2003. The twenty-nine chapters were then compiled into seventankōbonvolumes byKodansha. The first volume was released on February 1, 2001, with the final volume released April 4, 2003.In April 2003, a sequel calledTokyo Mew Mew à la Modepremiered inNakayoshi. Running until February 2004 and written solely by Mia Ikumi, the sequel was published as two volumes.In December 2019, an additional spinoff calledTokyo Mew Mew Olé!made by Madoka Seizuki began running inNakayoshi. The spinoff focuses on a new team of male Mew Mews.The manga ended in August 2022,and was compiled into seven volumes. A short, 2-chapter manga sequel of the original series made by the original creators titledTokyo Mew Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas published between December 2019 and January 2020.It was Ikumi's final manga before her death in March 2022. Tokyo Mew MewandTokyo Mew Mew à la Modeare licensed for an English-language release in North America byTokyopop. The first volume of the main series was released on June 1, 2004, with volumes released subsequently until the seventh volume was published on December 15, 2005.The two volumes ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Modewere released on June 7 and September 13, 2005, respectively.Unlike the Japanese releases, each Tokyopop chapter is named.The main series is licensed for an English language release in Singapore byChuang Yi.Carlsen Comicshas licensed the series, through its regional divisions, and released the series in German, Danish and Swedish.The series is also licensed for regional language releases in French byPika Édition, in Polish byJaponica Polonica Fantastica, and in Finnish bySangatsu Manga.Tokyo Mew Mewwas one of the first manga series released in Spanish in North America by Public Square Books.Kodansha Comicsreleased an omnibus version of the series, featuring a new translation in September 2011. Anime Pierrot,TV Aichi, Tokyu Agency and We've Inc. adaptedTokyo Mew Mewinto a fifty-two episode anime series, directed by Noriyuki Abe. Broadcast onTXNaffiliates, the series premiered on April 6, 2002, and aired weekly until its conclusion on March 29, 2003.Most of the music for the series was produced by Shin Yoshimura and composed byTakayuki Negishi. Two pieces of theme music were also used for the anime series. \\\"My Sweet Heart\\\", performed byRika Komatsu, was the series opening theme. The ending theme \\\"Koi wa A La Mode\\\" is performed by the fivevoice actorswho play the Mew Mews. In Japan, the series was released across nineRegion 2DVDvolumes. The ninth volume included a bonus DVD containing extra content.At some point during the TV broadcast, AEON changed its name to We've. Tokyo Mew Mewwas later licensed for an English-language dubbed release by4Kids Entertainment. In its announcement about the series, 4Kids originally noted that the show would be renamed toHollywood Mew Mewand that they would be heavily editing and localizing episodes so that viewers would not recognize its Japanese origins.Subsequent 4Kids press releases about the series referred to the new series asThe Mew Mewsand its original nameTokyo Mew Mew.When the series premiered on4Kids TVon February 19, 2005, it aired under the name asMew Mew Power. Characters and episodes were renamed, scenes were cut and storylines were modified. The music was replaced with a new score provided byBear in the Big Blue HouseandThe Book of Poohcomposer, Julian Harris, and the opening theme was replaced with the song \\\"Team Up\\\", performed byBree Sharpand Mollie Weaver.Twenty-six episodes ofMew Mew Poweraired on4Kids TVin the United States because 4Kids was unable to get amerchandisingdeal for the series and the English dub had stopped production.The 4Kids episodes aired onYTVin Canada and on thePop Girlsatellitetelevision channelin the United Kingdom; these included three dubbed episodes not broadcast in the United States. AlthoughMew Mew Powerhas not been released tohome videoin North America, ten of the 4Kids episodes have been released toRegion 4DVD in Australia and New Zealand byMagna Pacificand all twenty-six 4Kids episodes were released toRegion 2DVD in South Africa.Mew Mew Powerwas licensed for regional airing in French by Arès Films, which released nine dubbed 4Kids episodes to DVD in February 2006 as a single volume through Warner Home Vidéo France. The French dub aired onTélétoonas part of their Code F block.The company also licensed the remaining twenty-six episodes of the series that 4Kids had not obtained, releasing them in two DVD box sets through AK Vidéo. A new anime adaptation titledTokyo Mew Mew Newwas announced to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary.It was later revealed that the adaptation will be animated byYumeta CompanyandGraphinica, and directed by Takahiro Natori, with Yuka Yamada handling the series' scripts, Satoshi Ishino designing the characters, andYasuharu Takanashicomposing the music. New cast members were chosen to play the Mew Mews through a public audition held in Q2 2020,and they will also be promoting as anidol groupnamed Smewthie as their characters.The new series premiered on July 6, 2022, on TV Tokyo.Sentai Filmworkshas licensed the series outside of Asia and was streamed onHidive. A second season ofTokyo Mew Mew Newwas announced at the end of the final episode on September 21, 2022. It premiered in April 2023. Video games Two video games based on theTokyo Mew Mewseries were launched in 2002 byTakara. The first,Hamepane Tokyo Mew Mew(はめパネ 東京ミュウミュウ,Hamepane Tōkyō Myū Myū), apuzzleadventure gamefor theGame Boy Advance, was released in Japan on July 11, 2002. The second title,Tōkyō Mew Mew – Enter the New Mew Mew! – Serve Everyone Together(東京ミュウミュウ 登場 新ミュウミュウ！みんないっしょにご奉仕するにゃん,Tōkyō Myū Myū – Tōjō Shin Myū Myū! Minna Issho ni Gohōshi suru Nyan), was released in Japan on December 5, 2002. It is aPlayStationturn-basedrole-playing video game in which the player controls a new Mew Mew, Ringo Akai(赤井 りんご,Akai Ringo), as well as the original five heroines. They must defend Ringo's island from Quiche, the Chimera Animas and a new alien named Gateau du Roi(ガトー·デュ·ロワ,Gatō dyu Rowa).Both Ringo Akai and Gateau were created by the manga's artist, Mia Ikumi, following design specifications from Takara. The game uses voice actors from the anime series, with the two new characters voiced byTaeko KawataandRyōtarō Okiayu, respectively. Ikumi was pleased with how both characters turned out and expressed a desire to use Ringo as a regular character in a future manga series.Ringo later joined the other Mew Mews in thePetite Mew Mewbonus story in the second volume ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Mode. CDs Multiple music and characterCDshave been released for theTokyo Mew Mew seriesbyKing Records. The first, a CD single, contained the full andkaraokeversions of \\\"Koi wa A La Mode\\\", performed by the fivevoice actorswho played the Mew Mews, and a second song performed bySaki Nakajima, who voices Ichigo. On July 24, 2002, a five-disclimited editioncollector's box set was released containing character songs for each of the Mew Mews, performed by their respective voice actors and aremixof \\\"Koi wa A La Mode\\\".The individual character song discs were released as standalone CDs on September 4, 2002.An additional character CD set, containing remixed versions of two songs from each individual album, followed on December 25, 2002.A second character CD for Ichigo, containing five new tracks performed by Nakajima, was released on February 26, 2003. The first full anime soundtrack,Tokyo Mew Mew Original Soundtrackwas released on September 25, 2002, byNEC. The CD included the series opening and ending themes and twenty-seven pieces of series background music.NEC released a secondsoundtrackon January 22, 2003; it contains the opening and closing themes, along with an additional twenty-nine tracks of background music.On March 26, 2003, two \\\"best of\\\" CDs were released for the anime series:Tokyo Mew Mew Super Best Hit – Cafe Mew Mew sideandTokyo Mew Mew Super Best Hit – Tokyo Mew Mew side. Each CD includes ten of the series' \\\"most popular\\\" musical pieces. Reception TheTokyo Mew Mewmanga series was well received by English-speaking audiences. In March and April 2003, the first volume sold an estimated 1,597 and 1,746 copies respectively. This put the volume at the low end of the top 50 sales for each month.By 2004, with most of the series released, it became a mild success for licensor Tokyopop.It was ranked 16th on the list of Manga Top 50 for the first quarter of 2004 in theICv2 Retailers Guide to Anime/Manga, based on sales from both mainstream bookstores andcomic bookshops.Sales of the sixth and seventh volumes dropped slightly; however, both were among the top 100 best-selling graphic novels in March and May 2004.The first volume ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Modedebuted 63rd on the list of top 100 best-selling graphic novels of May 2005, with nearly double the sales figures of the last volume of the main series.On the Nielsen Bookscan charts, the volume debuted at rank 39 before quickly climbing to the 14th spot.The second volume ofà la Modesaw similar success, debuting in the 69th slot before advancing to the 12th position, a result of theMew Mew Powershow appearing on4Kids TV. Tokyo Mew Mewwas generally well received by reviewers, who described it as cute and entertaining.ThoughAnimeFringe'sPatrick King notes that it is not a very intellectual series and that it avoids complex plot points, he lauded it as engrossing \\\"brain candy\\\" and an \\\"endearing action-romance\\\" that has no \\\"delusions of grandeur\\\".Critics praised the artwork in bothTokyo Mew Mewand the sequelTokyo Mew Mew à La Mode. Ikumi's \\\"free flowing\\\" style and character designs were seen as a perfect fit for the series.Criticism of Ikumi's art focused on images which regularly spilled out of panel borders and speech bubbles with ambiguous speakers.Patrick King ofAnimefringestated: \\\"one of the most attractive aspects of Tokyo Mew Mew is easily Mia Ikumi's ultra-cute artwork. Big eyes, cat ears, fuzzy tails, and short skirts all come together in a cuteness combo that's hard to resist.\\\"According to Carlo Santos ofAnime News Network, \\\"Mia Ikumi's artwork is perfectly suited to the story, and it is not even all that wispy and frilly compared to othershōjomaterial. Like many budding manga artist, Ikumi's greatest strength is in carefully posed character portraits, and her prolific use of tones creates unique effects while also sidestepping the challenge of backgrounds.\\\" Over allTokyo Mew Mew à La Modehad more mixed reviews. Critics praised it for being a modern manga that typifies themagical girlformula, highlighting both its strengths and weaknesses.Mike Dungan, of Mania Entertainment, considered the original series to be \\\"quite charming\\\" and felt thatà la Modewas a good continuation of the series with the \\\"same fun and excitement\\\" as its predecessor.Others felt Berry was an overly shallow heroine and that the sequel offered nothing new for readers with the Saint Rose Crusaders' costumes and plans being nothing more than concepts borrowed fromSailor Moon. Janet Crocker, Shannon Fay and Chris Istel ofAnimefringecriticizedà la Modefor having the character Duke, the main villain of the arc, dressed in a white robe similar to those used by the white supremacy group, theKu Klux Klan.Garrity feltà La Modewas a vehicle for referencingTokyo Mew Mewfandom and merchandise and that Berry was a \\\"transparent wish-fulfillment protagonist\\\". The anime adaptation has been compared toSailor MoonandYes! PreCure 5due to both having female protagonists, five original team members with signature colors and powers, and similar plot lines, as have many magical girl series.Tokyo Mew Mewreceived high ratings in Japan with extensive merchandizing tie ins and marketing events to promote the series.The announcement of 4Kids licensing the anime series drew negative reactions from English-speaking in the U.S. fans, due to 4Kids' practice of removing cultural elements from their English-dubbed adaptations. Several fans would campaign to have the company to release an uncut version of the anime series.Overall viewer reception toMew Mew Powerwould be mixed,but the show would become the block's highest-rated program at the start of the Fall 2005 season.Despite this, the series was never released to DVD in North America.Mew Mew Powerwould be licensed for broadcast in France, Latin America, Australia, New Zealand, Portugal, Brazil, Albania, Serbia, Croatia, Turkey, Greece, South Africa, Denmark, the Netherlands, Bulgaria and Israel. Notes References Further reading External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Sailor Moon Sailor Moon(Japanese:美少女戦士セーラームーン,Hepburn:Bishōjo Senshi Sērā Mūn, originally translated asPretty Soldier Sailor Moonand later asPretty Guardian Sailor Moon)is a Japanesemangaseries written and illustrated byNaoko Takeuchi. It was originally serialized inKodansha'sshōjomangamagazineNakayoshifrom 1991 to 1997; the 60 individual chapters (later reorganized into 52), along with several side stories, were compiled in 18volumes. The series follows the adventures of a schoolgirl namedUsagi Tsukinoas she transforms into the eponymous character to search for a magical artifact, the \"Legendary Silver Crystal\"(「幻の銀水晶」,Maboroshi no Ginsuishō,lit.\"Phantom Silver Crystal\"). She leads a group of comrades, the Sailor Soldiers, called Sailor Guardians in later editions, as they battle against villains to prevent the theft of the Silver Crystal and the destruction of theSolar System. The manga was adapted intoan anime seriesproduced byToei Animationand broadcast in Japan from 1992 to 1997.Toei also developed three","developed three animated feature films, a television special, and three short films based on the anime. A live-action television adaptation,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon, aired from 2003 to 2004, and a second anime series,Sailor Moon Crystal, begansimulcastingin 2014. The manga series was licensed for an English language release byKodansha Comicsin North America, and in Australia and New Zealand by Random House Australia. The entire anime series has been licensed byViz Mediafor an English language release in North America and byMadman Entertainmentin Australia and New Zealand. Since its release,Sailor Moonhas received universal acclaim, with praise for its art, characterization, and humor. The manga has sold over 46 million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling manga series, as well as one of the best-sellingshōjomangaseries of all time.The franchise has also generated$2.5 billionin worldwide merchandise sales. Plot One day inJuban,Tokyo, amiddle-schoolstudent namedUsagi TsukinobefriendsLuna, a","a talking black cat who gives her a magical brooch enabling her to transform into Sailor Moon: a guardian destined to saveEarthfrom the forces of evil. Luna and Usagi assemble a team of fellow Sailor Guardians to find their princess and the Silver Crystal. They encounter the studious Ami Mizuno, who awakens asSailor Mercury; Rei Hino, a localShintoshrine maidenwho awakens asSailor Mars; Makoto Kino, a tall and strong transfer student who awakens asSailor Jupiter; and Minako Aino, a young aspiringidolwho had awakened asSailor Venusa few months prior, accompanied by her talking feline companionArtemis. Additionally, they befriend Mamoru Chiba, a high school student who assists them on occasion asTuxedo Mask. In the first arc, the group battles theDark Kingdom, those members attempt to find the Silver Crystal and free an imprisoned, evil entity called Queen Metaria. Usagi and her team discover that in their previous lives, they were members of the ancient Moon Kingdom in a period of time called the Silver","called the Silver Millennium. The Dark Kingdom waged war against them, destroying the Moon Kingdom. Its rulerQueen Serenitysent her daughter Princess Serenity,reincarnatedas Usagi, along with her protectors the Sailor Guardians, their feline advisers Luna and Artemis, and the princess's true love Prince Endymion, who in turn was reborn as Mamoru. At the beginning of the second arc, the Sailor Guardians meet Usagi and Mamoru's future daughterChibiusa, who arrives from a 30th-century version of Tokyo known as \"Crystal Tokyo\", which is ruled by Neo Queen Serenity, Usagi of the future and has been attacked by the group of villains known as theBlack Moon Clan. During their journey, Sailor Moon and her friends meetSailor Pluto, Guardian of the Time-Space Door. During the climactic battle of the arc, Sailor Pluto dies trying to save the sailor soldiers and Chibiusa was brainwashed by the enemy and turned into the Black Lady, but was eventually reformed and awakens as a Guardian herself—Sailor Chibi Moon. The third","Moon. The third arc introduces car-racer Haruka Tenoh and violinist Michiru Kaioh, who appear asSailor UranusandSailor Neptune, whose duty is to guard the Solar System against external threats. Physics student Setsuna Meioh, Sailor Pluto's reincarnation, joins Uranus and Neptune in their mission to kill a mysterious girl named Hotaru Tomoe, whom they identify as the Guardian of DestructionSailor Saturn. However, when Saturn awakens she joins the final fight against the main antagonists of the arc, theDeath Busters, sacrificing her life in the process. With her newly obtained powers as Super Sailor Moon, Usagi restores the Earth and Hotaru is reincarnated as a baby. The fourth arc explores the Sailor Guardians' dreams and nightmares when the villainous groupDead Moon Circusexploits the Guardians' deepest fears, invades Elysion (which hosts the Earth's Golden Kingdom), and captures itshigh priestHelios, who turned into a Pegasus and tried to ask Guardians for help. This storyline also addresses Mamoru's","addresses Mamoru's relevance as protector of the Earth and owner of the Golden Crystal, the sacred stone of the Golden Kingdom. Mamoru and all ten of the reunited Guardians combine their powers, enabling Usagi to transform into Eternal Sailor Moon and defeat Dead Moon's leader,Queen Nehelenia. In the final arc theSailor Starlightsfrom the Planet Kinmoku, their rulerPrincess Kakyuu, and the mysterious little girlChibi-Chibijoin Usagi in her fight againstShadow Galactica, a group of both corrupted and false Sailor Guardians and led bySailor Galaxia, who have been rampaging across the galaxy and killing other Sailor Guardians to steal their Star Seeds, Sailor Crystals—the essence of their lives. After Mamoru and all of the main Solar System Guardians are killed by Shadow Galactica, Usagi travels to the Galaxy Cauldron, the birthplace of all Star Seeds of theMilky Way, in an attempt to revive her loved ones and to confrontChaos, the source of all strife in the galaxy. Production Creation ofSailor Moon Naoko","ofSailor Moon Naoko Takeuchi, after working onNami Akimoto's 1991 mangaMiracle Girls, redevelopedSailor Moonfrom her 1991 manga serialCodename: Sailor V, which was first published on August 20, 1991, and featured Sailor Venus as the main protagonist.Takeuchi wanted to create a story with a theme about girls in outer space. While discussing with her editor Fumio Osano, he suggested the addition ofSailor fuku.WhenCodename: Sailor Vwas proposed for adaptation into an anime byToei Animation, Takeuchi redeveloped the concept so Sailor Venus became a member of a team.The resulting manga series became a fusion of the popular magical girl genre and theSuper Sentaiseries, of which Takeuchi was a fan.Recurring motifs includeastronomy,astrology,gemology,Greco-Roman mythology,Japanese elemental themes,: 286teen fashions,and schoolgirl antics. Takeuchi said discussions with Kodansha originally envisaged a single story arc;the storyline was developed in meetings a year before serialization began.: 93After completing the","completing the arc, Toei and Kodansha asked Takeuchi to continue the series. She wrote four more story arcs,which were often published simultaneously with the five corresponding seasons of the anime adaptation. The anime ran one or two months behind the manga.: 93As a result, the anime follows the storyline of the manga fairly closely, although there are deviations.Takeuchi later said because Toei's production staff were mostly male, she feels the anime has \"a slightmale perspective.\" Takeuchi later said she planned to kill off the protagonists, but Osano rejected the notion and said, \" is ashōjomanga!\" When the anime adaptation was produced, the protagonists were killed in the final battle with the Dark Kingdom, although they were revived. Takeuchi resented that she was unable to do that in her version.Takeuchi also intended for theSailor Moonanime adaptation to last for one season, but due to the immense popularity, Toei asked Takeuchi to continue the series. At first, she struggled to develop another","to develop another storyline to extend the series. While discussing with Osano, he suggested the inclusion of Usagi's daughter from the future, Chibiusa. Westernization After theSailor Moonanime was released in North America and dubbed in English, fans and academics alike noted that the dub had westernizedSailor Moonfrom how it had been released in Japan. In the 1995 English version ofSailor Moon, the westernization of the characters is seen in how a majority of the character names are changed from Japanese to English names.Sailor Moon's civilian name, Usagi Tsukino, is turned into Serena.The love interest of Sailor Moon, Mamoru Chiba, is turned into Darien Shields.Other examples of westernization (or at least Americanization) referenced bySailor Moon's audience were things like flipping scenes of traffic to have carsdrive on the right side of the roadalong with the English dub changing any conversations between characters that contained lesser-known (in the United States at the time) Japanese cultural","Japanese cultural references.According toBandai America, the company in charge of Sailor Moon merchandise in the western hemisphere, the approach to advertisingSailor Moonwas to make the show and super-heroine \"'culturally appropriate' for the American market\". Media Manga Written and illustrated byNaoko Takeuchi,Sailor Moonwas serialized in the monthly manga anthologyNakayoshifrom December 28, 1991, to February 3, 1997.The side-stories were serialized simultaneously inRunRun—another of Kodansha's manga magazines.The 52 individual chapters were published in 18tankōbonvolumes byKodanshafrom July 6, 1992, to April 4, 1997.In 2003, the chapters were re-released in a collection of 12shinzōbanvolumes to coincide with the release of thelive-action series.The manga was retitledPretty Guardian Sailor Moonand included new cover art,and revised dialogue and illustrations. The ten individual short stories were also released in two volumes.In 2013, the chapters were once again re-released in 10kanzenbanvolumes to","to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary, which includes digitally remastered artwork, new covers and color artwork from itsNakayoshirun.The books have been enlarged from the typical Japanese manga size to A5.The short stories were republished in two volumes, with the order of the stories shuffled.Codename: Sailor Vwas also included in the third edition. TheSailor Moonmanga was initially licensed for an English release by Mixx (laterTokyopop) in North America. The manga was first published as a serial inMixxZinebeginning in 1997, but was later removed from the magazine and made into a separate, low print monthly comic to finish the first, second and third arcs. At the same time, the fourth and fifth arcs were printed in a secondary magazine calledSmile.Pages from the Tokyopop version of the manga ran daily in the Japanimation Station, a service accessible to users ofAmerica Online.The series was later collected into a three-part graphic novel series spanning eighteen volumes, which were published from","were published from December 1, 1998, to September 18, 2001.In May 2005, Tokyopop's license to theSailor Moonmanga expired, and its edition went out of print. In 2011,Kodansha Comicsannounced they had acquired the license for theSailor Moonmanga and its lead-in seriesCodename: Sailor Vin English.They published the twelve volumes ofSailor Moonsimultaneously with the two-volume edition ofCodename Sailor Vfrom September 2011 to July 2013.The first of the two related short story volumes was published on September 10, 2013;the second was published on November 26, 2013.AtAnime Expo2017, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-releaseSailor Moonin an \"Eternal Edition\", featuring a new English translation, new cover artwork by Takeuchi, and color pages from the manga's original run, printed on extra-large premium paper.The first Eternal Edition volume was published on September 11, 2018;the tenth and final volume was published on October 20, 2020.On July 1, 2019, Kondasha Comics began releasing the Eternal Editions","Eternal Editions digitally,following an announcement the day before about the series being released digitally in ten different languages.In November 2020, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-release theSailor Moonmanga again as part of their \"Naoko Takeuchi Collection\".The company described the new edition as a \"more affordable, portable\" version of the Eternal Edition. The first volume was published on April 5, 2022. Sailor Moonhas also been licensed in other English-speaking countries. In the United Kingdom, the volumes are distributed by Turnaround Publisher Services.In Australia, the manga is distributed by Penguin Books Australia. The manga has been licensed in Russia andCISfor distribution by XL Media publishing company. The first volume was released in 2018. Anime series Overview Sailor Moon Toei Animation produced an anime television series based on the 52 manga chapters, also titledPretty Soldier Sailor Moon.Junichi Satodirected the first season,Kunihiko Ikuharatook over second through fourth","through fourth season, andTakuya Igarashidirected the fifth and final season.The series premiered in Japan onTV Asahion March 7, 1992, and ran for 200 episodes until its conclusion on February 8, 1997. Upon its release, the show quickly rose to be Toei Animation's highest ranked TV series.Most of the international versions, including the English adaptations, are titledSailor Moon. Sailor Moon Crystal On July 6, 2012, Kodansha and Toei Animation announced that it would commence production of a new anime adaptation ofSailor Moon, calledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystal, for a simultaneous worldwide release in 2013 as part of the series's 20th anniversary celebrations,and stated that it would be a closer adaptation of the manga than the first anime.Crystalpremiered on July 5, 2014, and new episodes would air on the first and third Saturdays of each month.New cast were announced, along withKotono Mitsuishireprising her role as Sailor Moon.The first two seasons were released together, covering their","covering their corresponding arcs of the manga (Dark KingdomandBlack Moon). A third season based on theInfinityarc on the manga premiered on Japanese television on April 4, 2016, known asDeath Bustersarc in this adaptation.Munehisa Sakaidirected the first and second season, whileChiaki Kondirected the third season. Films and television specials Three animated theatrical feature films based on the originalSailor Moonseries have been released in Japan:Sailor Moon R: The Moviein 1993, followed bySailor Moon S: The Moviein 1994, andSailor Moon SuperS: The Moviein 1995. The films are side-stories that do not correlate with the timeline of the original series. A one-hour television special was aired on TV Asahi in Japan on April 8, 1995.Kunihiko Ikuharadirected the first film, while the latter two were directed by Hiroki Shibata. In 1997, an article inVarietystated thatThe Walt Disney Companywas interested in originally acquiring the rights toSailor Moonas a live action film to be directed byStanley Tong&Geena","Tong&Geena Davisset to star as Queen Beryl, along withWinona Ryder&Elisabeth Shueplanning to star in the film.After Disney put the project onturnaround,Universal Picturesacquired the film rights. In 2017, it was revealed thatPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystalanime's fourth season would be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, adapting theDreamarc from the manga.On June 30, 2019, it was announced that the title of the films will bePretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie.The first film was originally to be released on September 11, 2020,but was postponed and released on January 8, 2021, and the second film was released on February 11, 2021.Chiaki Konreturned fromCrystal's third season to direct the two films. In 2022, it was announced that a sequel toPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie, covering theStarsarc of the manga would also be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, titledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Cosmos The Movie. The two films are directed by Tomoya","directed by Tomoya Takahashi, and was released on June 9 and 30, 2023. Companion books There have been numerous companion books toSailor Moon. Kodansha released some of these books for each of the five story arcs, collectively called theOriginal Picture Collection. The books contain cover art, promotional material and other work by Takeuchi. Many of the drawings are accompanied by comments on the way she developed her ideas, created each picture and commentary on the anime interpretation of her story.Another picture collection,Volume Infinity, was released as a self-published, limited-edition artbook after the end of the series in 1997. This art book includes drawings by Takeuchi and her friends, her staff, and many of the voice actors who worked on the anime. In 1999, Kodansha published theMaterials Collection; this contained development sketches and notes for nearly every character in the manga, and for some characters that never appeared. Each drawing includes notes by Takeuchi about costume pieces, the","costume pieces, the mentality of the characters and her feelings about them. It also includes timelines for the story arcs and for the real-life release of products and materials relating to the anime and manga. A short story,Parallel Sailor Moonis also featured, celebrating theyear of the rabbit. Novels Sailor Moonwas also adapted for publication as novels and released in 1998. The first book was written byStuart J. Levy. The following novels were written by Lianne Sentar. Stage musicals In mid-1993, the first musical theater production based onSailor Moonpremiered, starringAnza Ohyamaas Sailor Moon. Thirty such musicals in all have been produced, with one in pre-production. The shows' stories include anime-inspired plotlines and original material. Music from the series has been released on about 20 memorial albums.The popularity of the musicals has been cited as a reason behind the production of the live-action television series,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon. During the original run musicals ran in the","musicals ran in the winter and summer of each year, with summer musicals staged at theSunshineTheater in theIkebukuroarea of Tokyo. In the winter, musicals toured to other large cities in Japan, includingOsaka,Fukuoka,Nagoya,Shizuoka,Kanazawa,Sendai,Saga,Oita,YamagataandFukushima.The final incarnation of the first run,New Legend of Kaguya Island (Revised Edition)(新・かぐや島伝説 <改訂版>,Shin Kaguyashima Densetsu (Kaiteban)), went on stage in January 2005, following which,Bandaiofficially put the series on a hiatus.On June 2, 2013, Fumio Osano announced on his Twitter page that theSailor Moonmusicals would begin again in September 2013.The 20th anniversary showLa Reconquistaran from September 13 to 23 at Shibuya's AiiA Theater Tokyo, with Satomi Ōkubo as Sailor Moon. Satomi Ōkubo reprised the role in the 2014 productionPetite Étrangèrewhich ran from August 21 to September 7, 2014, again at AiiA Theater Tokyo. Live-action film & series Cancelled Disney film adaptation During the 1990s,Disneywas going to adapt Sailor","to adapt Sailor Moon into a film under theWalt Disney Picturesbanner but it was cancelled immediately. Unrealized American adaptation In 1993, Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, Bandai and Toon Makers, Inc. conceptualized their own version ofSailor Moon, which was half live-action and half Western-style animation.Toon Makers produced a 17-minuteproof of conceptpilot and a two-minute music video, both of which were directed by Rocky Solotoff, who also worked on the pilot's script.Renaissance-Atlantic presented the concept to Toei, but it was turned down as their concept would have cost significantly more than simply exporting and dubbing the anime adaptation.The companies' work is believed by Solotoff to have been handed over to Raymond Iacovacci, one of the producers on the project, who stored the pilot script and animation cels in a storage facility.The logo created for the pilot was kept for the English dub, and Bandai released a \"Moon Cycle\" as part of its merchandise for the show, based on vehicles","based on vehicles designed for the pilot. The project was rediscovered in 1998 when the music video was screened at theAnime Expoconvention in Los Angeles,where it was met with laughter by onlookers.A congoer recorded the music video and the audience response, which would later resurface on video sites such asYouTube.The pilot and the music video would go on to be discussed at conventions such as the 2011Gen Conand 2012Anime Expo.It was given the monikers of \"Toon Makers' Sailor Moon\"and \"Saban Moon\" despite having no connection withSaban Entertainmentsave for Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, which worked with the company onPower Rangers.The proof of concept video was widely considered to belost mediaand director Solotoff reported that he was frequently contacted by people searching for the pilot.In 2012 multiple animation cels from the pilot, along with the script, surfaced on the internet after a storage locker, believed to be the one owned by Iacovacci, was sold. In 1998, Frank Ward, along with his","along with his company Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, tried to revive the idea of doing a live-action series based on Sailor Moon, this time calledTeam Angel, without the involvement of Toon Makers. A 2-minute reel was produced and sent to Bandai America, but was also rejected. In August 2022, the proof of concept was showcased for the first time onYouTubein a documentary by Ray Mona. Ray Mona obtained both the pilot and its music video, as well and its related materials, from theLibrary of Congress. Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon In 2003,Toei Companyproduced a Japanese live-actionSailor Moontelevision series using the new translated English title ofPretty Guardian Sailor Moon. Its 49 episodes were broadcast onChubu-Nippon Broadcastingfrom October 4, 2003, to September 25, 2004.Pretty Guardian Sailor MoonfeaturedMiyuu Sawaias Usagi Tsukino,Rika Izumi(credited as Chisaki Hama) as Ami Mizuno,Keiko Kitagawaas Rei Hino,Mew Azamaas Makoto Kino,Ayaka Komatsuas Minako Aino,Jouji Shibueas Mamoru Chiba,Keiko","Mamoru Chiba,Keiko Hanreprising her voice role as Luna from the original anime andKappei Yamaguchivoicing Artemis. The series was an alternate retelling of the Dark Kingdom arc, adding a storyline different from that in the manga and first anime series, with original characters and new plot developments.In addition to the main episodes, twodirect-to-videoreleases appeared after the show ended its television broadcast. \"Special Act\" is set four years after the main storyline ends, and shows the wedding of the two main characters. \"Act Zero\" is a prequel showing the origins ofSailor Vand Tuxedo Mask. Video games TheSailor Moonfranchise has spawned several video games across various genres and platforms. Most were made by Bandai and its subsidy Angel; others were produced byBanpresto. The early games wereside-scrolling fighters; later ones were uniquepuzzle games, orversus fighting games.Another Storywas a turn-basedrole-playing video game.The onlySailor Moongame produced outside Japan, 3VR New Media'sThe 3D","New Media'sThe 3D Adventures of Sailor Moon, went on sale in North America in 1997, They were developed in association withDIC Entertainment, which held the rights to the game and the TV series.A video game calledSailor Moon: La Luna Splende(Sailor Moon: The Moon Shines) was released on March 16, 2011, for theNintendo DS. Tabletop games The Dyskami Publishing Company releasedSailor Moon Crystal Dice Challenge, created byJames Ernestof Cheapass Games and based on theButton Mentabletop game in 2017, andSailor Moon Crystal Truth or Bluffin 2018. Theme park attractions A Sailor Moon attraction,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D, was announced forUniversal Studios Japan.It featured Sailor Moon and the Inner Guardians arriving at the theme park, only to discover and stop the Youma's plan from stealing people's energies. The attraction ran from March 16 through July 24, 2018. The sequel attraction,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D: Moon Palace arc, ran from May 31, 2019, to August 25, 2019. It","August 25, 2019. It featured all 10 Sailor Guardians and Super Sailor Moon. In January 2022, a new attraction was announced titledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D ~Moon Palace arc~ Deluxe. The attraction features the same storyline as the last and feature the Sailor Guardians in their princess forms. It ran from March 4, 2022, to August 28, 2022. Ice skating show An ice skating show ofSailor Moonwas announced on June 30, 2019, starringEvgenia Medvedevaas the lead.The name for the ice-skating show was announced asPretty Guardian Sailor Moon: Prism on Ice, as well as the additional casts, withAnzafrom the firstSailor Moonmusicals to play Queen Serenity, and the main voice actresses of theSailor Moon Crystalanime series to voice their individual characters. Takuya Hiramatsu from the musicals was to write the screenplay, Yuka Sato and Benji Schwimmer were to be in charge of choreography, and Akiko Kosaka & Gesshoku Kaigi were to write the music for the show.The show was set to debut in early June","debut in early June 2020, but was first postponed to June 2021, and later to June 2022, due to theCOVID-19 pandemic,and finally cancelled on February 23, 2023, due to an\"unstable world situation\". Idol group An idol pop group namedSG5, short for Sailor Guardians 5, was announced in June 2022. Early plans to form the group began in 2020, with the official lineup and overall concept finalized in 2022. As part of the process, the group had to seek the approval of Naoko Takeuchi by performing in front of her and giving a presentation. Four of the group members, Sayaka, Ruri, Miyuu, andKaede, had previously performed together as part of the idol groupHappiness. The group was officially debuted in July 2022 at Anime Expo and is co-managed by LDH Japan Inc. and Three Six Zero.On March 1, 2023, SG5 released their debut single \"Firetruck\" on streaming platforms alongside a music video with references to the manga. Reception Sailor Moonis one of the most popular manga series of all time and continues to enjoy high","to enjoy high readership worldwide. More than one million copies of itstankōbonvolumes had been sold in Japan by the end of 1995.: 95It has been described as iconic.By the series's 20th anniversary in 2012, the manga had sold over 35 million copies in over fifty countries,and the franchise has generated$2.5 billionin worldwidemerchandisesales as of 1996.By 1995, Sailor Moon toys used to bring in more than $250 million per year in Japan.The manga won theKodansha Manga Awardin 1993 forshōjo.The English adaptations of both the manga and the anime series became the first successfulshōjotitle in the United States.The character of Sailor Moon is recognized as one of the most important and popularfemale superheroesof all time. Sailor Moonhas also become popular internationally.Sailor Moonwas broadcast in Spain and France beginning in December 1993; these became the first countries outside Japan to broadcast the series.It was later aired in Russia, South Korea, the Philippines, China, Italy, Taiwan, Thailand,","Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia and Hong Kong, before North America picked up the franchise for adaptation. In the Philippines,Sailor Moonwas one ofits carrier network's main draws, helping it to become the third-biggest network in the country.: 10–11In 2001, theSailor Moonmanga was Tokyopop's best selling property, outselling the next-best selling titles by at least a factor of 1.5.InDiamond Comic Distributors's May 1999 \"Graphic Novel and Trade Paperback\" category,Sailor MoonVolume 3 was the best-selling comic book in the United States. Academic Timothy J. Craig attributesSailor Moon's international success to three things. First was the show's magical girl transformation of ordinary characters into superheroes. Second was the ability of marketers to establish the international audience's connection to characters despite their culture being Japanese. The third was that the main superhero was female, something which was still rare in pop culture in countries like the United States during the 1990s. In his 2007","1990s. In his 2007 bookManga: The Complete Guide,Jason Thompsongave the manga series three stars out of four. He enjoyed the blending ofshōnenandshōjostyles and said the combat scenes seemed heavily influenced bySaint Seiya, but shorter and less bloody. He also said the manga itself appeared similar toSuper Sentaitelevision shows. Thompson found the series fun and entertaining, but said the repetitive plot lines were a detriment to the title, which the increasing quality of art could not make up for; even so, he called the series \"sweet, effective entertainment.\"Thompson said although the audience forSailor Moonis both male and female, Takeuchi does not use excessivefanservicefor males, which would run the risk of alienating her female audience. Thompson said fight scenes are not physical and \"boil down to their purest form of a clash of wills\", which he says \"makes thematic sense\" for the manga. Comparing the manga and anime, Sylvain Durand said the manga artwork is \"gorgeous\", but its storytelling is more","is more compressed and erratic and the anime has more character development. Durand said \"the sense of tragedy is greater\" in the manga's telling of the \"fall of the Silver Millennium,\" giving more detail about the origins of the Four Kings of Heaven and on Usagi's final battle against Queen Beryl and Metaria. Durand said the anime omits information that makes the story easy to understand, but judges the anime as more \"coherent\" with a better balance of comedy and tragedy, whereas the manga is \"more tragic\" and focused on Usagi and Mamoru's romance. For the week of September 11, 2011, to September 17, 2011, the first volume of the re-releasedSailor Moonmanga was the best-selling manga onThe New York TimesManga Best Sellers list, with the first volume ofCodename: Sailor Vin second place.The first print run of the first volume sold out after four weeks. In English-speaking countries,Sailor Moondeveloped a cult following among anime fans and male university students.Patrick Drazen says theInternetwas a new","a new medium that fans used to communicate and played a role in the popularity ofSailor Moon.: 281Fans could use the Internet to communicate about the series, organize campaigns to returnSailor Moonto U.S. broadcast, to share information about episodes that had not yet aired, or to writefan fiction.Gemma Cox ofNeomagazinesaid part of the series's allure was that fans communicated via the Internet about the differences between the dub and the original version. Cultural impact and legacy With their dynamic heroines and action-oriented plots, many creditSailor Moonfor reinvigorating the magical girl genre. After its success, many similar magical girl series, includingMagic Knight Rayearth,Wedding Peach,Nurse Angel Ririka SOS,Saint Tail,Cyber Team in Akihabara,Corrector YuiandPretty Cure, emerged.: 199Sailor Moonhas been called \"the biggest breakthrough\" in English-dubbed anime until 1995, when it premiered onYTV,: 10–11and \"the pinnacle of little kidshōjoanime\".Cultural anthropologistRachel Thornsaid that soon","Thornsaid that soon afterSailor Moon,shōjomanga started appearing in book shops instead of fandom-dominated comic shops.The series are credited as beginning a wider movement of girls taking upshōjomanga.Canadian librarianGilles Poitrasdefines a generation of anime fans as those who were introduced to anime bySailor Moonin the 1990s, saying they were both much younger than other fans and were also mostly female. HistorianFred Pattencredits Takeuchi with popularizing the concept of aSuper Sentai-like team of magical girls,and Paul Gravett credits the series with revitalizing the magical girl genre itself.A reviewer forTHEMAnime Reviewsalso credited the anime series with changing the genre—its heroine must use her powers to fight evil, not simply have fun as previous magical girls had done.The series has also been compared toMighty Morphin Power Rangers,Buffy the Vampire Slayer,: 281andSabrina the Teenage Witch.Sailor Moon also influenced the development ofMiraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir,W.I.T.C.H.,Winx","Club,LoliRock,Star vs. the Forces of Evil,Steven Universe, andTotally Spies!. Inwestern culture,Sailor Moonis sometimes associated with thefeministandGirl Powermovements and with empowering its viewers,especially regarding the \"credible, charismatic and independent\" characterizations of the Sailor Guardians.AlthoughSailor Moonis regarded as empowering to women and feminism in concept, through the aggressive nature and strong personalities of the Sailor Guardians,it is a specific type of feminist concept where \"traditional feminine ideals incorporated into characters that act in traditionally male capacities\".While the Sailor Guardians are strong, independent fighters who thwart evil—which is generally a masculine stereotype—they are also ideally feminized in the transformation of the Sailor Guardians from teenage girls into magical girls. The most notable hyper-feminine features of the Sailor Guardians—and most other females in Japanese girls' comics—are the girls' thin bodies, long legs, and, in","long legs, and, in particular, round, orb-like eyes.Eyes are commonly known as the primal source within characters where emotion is evoked—sensitive characters have larger eyes than insensitive ones.The stereotypical role of women in Japanese culture is to undertake romantic and loving feelings;therefore, the prevalence of hyper-feminine qualities like the openness of the female eye in Japanese girls' comics is clearly exhibited inSailor Moon. Thus,Sailor Moonemphasizes a type of feminist model by combining traditional masculine action with traditional female affection and sexuality through the Sailor Guardians. Merchandise Since the early 2000s,Toei Animationhas collaborated with various different brands to create merchandise outside of children's demographic.On February 20, 2020,ColourPopreleased aSailor Mooninspired makeup collection.Celebrating the 25th anniversary ofSailor Moonin the U.S., streetwear brand KITH released clothing like hoodies and t-shirts withSailor Moongraphics on them.In honor ofSailor","honor ofSailor Moon's 30th anniversary, brands likeSanrio,Uniqlo, and Maison de FLEUR announced a collaboration in January 2022. References External links","Wedding Peach Wedding Peach(Japanese:愛天使伝説ウェディングピーチ,Hepburn:Ai Tenshi Densetsu Wedingu Pīchi, literally \"Legend of the Angel of Love: Wedding Peach\")is ashōjomangawritten bySukehiro Tomitaand illustrated byNao Yazawathat was originally serialized inShogakukan'sCiaomagazine. InNorth America, it was translated and published byVIZ Mediain its entirety, consisting of six volumes. The manga was later adapted into ananimetelevision seriesdirected byKunihiko Yuyamathat ran for 51 episodes onTV Tokyo, from April 5, 1995 to March 27, 1996 as well as 2omakesAi Tenshi Robot Wedding PeachandAi Tenshi Sentaiand a 4-episodeOVAsequel (Wedding Peach DX) in 1996. In 2004,Wedding Peach Young Lovewas released, a compilation ofWedding Peachstories made specifically for the monthly magazineShogaku Sannensei(\"Elementary School Third-Grader\"). To better fit the magazine's target audience, the \"Young Love\" version of Wedding Peach features younger-looking characters, less complex storylines, and simpler dialogue. Plot Momoko","Plot Momoko Hanasaki, along with her friends Yuri Tanima and Hinagiku Tamano, are members of the newspaper club where they mostly cover the school's soccer team. They all have a crush on the star player Kazuya Yanagiba. On their way home from school one day, the trio are attacked by adevilby the name of Pluie who is a servant to the high ruler of the devil world, Raindevila. When her friends are hypnotized into attacking Momoko, a beautiful man comes down from the sky named Limone. He is from theangelworld and gives Momoko a compact case. Opening the compact, she is told by thegoddessAphrodite, the ruler of the angel world, that she is one of the legendary Love Angels, Wedding Peach. Momoko transforms into Wedding Peach and manages to snap her friends out of Pluie's control. Over the course of the story, Yuri and Hinagiku and later Scarlet O'Hara also find out that they are also love angels and the three (later four) must protect the humans from the devils and defeat Raindevila. Media Manga The manga was","Manga The manga was written and illustrated by Nao Yazawa. It was serialized theShogakukan'sCiaomagazine from March 1994 to April 1996. Shogakukan released the manga in six volumes from September 1994 to April 1996.Viz Medialicensed the manga in North America and released the manga from July 10, 2003 to May 26, 2004. The series is now out-of-print. Anime An anime television series premiered onTV Tokyoon April 5, 1995 to March 27, 1996 and ran for 51 episodes. The anime was directed byKunihiko Yuyamaand was co-produced byKSSandOLM, Inc.A four-episodeOVAseries, titledWedding Peach DX (Deluxe)was released from November 1996 to March 1997.ADV Filmslicensed the anime in 2003 and released the anime in tenDVDs. Theme Songs Opening Themes Ending Themes Episodes Wedding Peach Wedding Peach DX Omake Games ASuper Famicomgame was released only in Japan in 1995. In the game, the player plays as one of the three main girls (either Momoko, Yuri or Hinagiku) to compete with the others in a series of mini games. The ultimate","games. The ultimate goal is to win the right to ask the guy that all three girls are in love with (Yanagiba) to the school dance. The game has a three player option as well, where two other people can play the other two girls. Wedding Peachgames have also been released for theGame Boy(Jama-P Panic!- 1995),PC-98(Wedding Peach- 1996), andPlayStation(Wedding Peach - Doki Doki Oiro-naoshi Fashion Dai-sakusen- 1996). References External links","Tokyo Mew Mew Tokyo Mew Mew(Japanese:東京ミュウミュウ,Hepburn:Tōkyō Myū Myū)is a Japanesemangaseries created and written byReiko Yoshidaand illustrated byMia Ikumi. It was originally serialized inKodansha'sshōjomangamagazineNakayoshifrom September 2000 to February 2003, with its chapters collected in seventankōbonvolumes by Kodansha. It focuses on five girls infused with the DNA of endangered animals which gives them special powers and allows them to transform into \"Mew Mews\". Led by Ichigo Momomiya, the girls protect Earth from aliens who wish to \"reclaim\" it. The series was adapted into a fifty-two episodeanimeseries produced byTV Aichi, We've Inc. & Tokyu Agency and animated byPierrot. The anime aired in Japan from April 6, 2002, to March 29, 2003 onTXNaffiliates. A two-volume sequel to the manga,Tokyo Mew Mew à la Mode, was serialized inNakayoshifrom April 2003 to February 2004. The sequel introduces a new character, Berry Shirayuki, who becomes the temporary leader of the Mew Mews. The series would inspire","would inspire twovideo games: apuzzleadventure gameforGame Boy Advance, and arole-playing video gamefor thePlayStation. Tokyopoporiginally licensedTokyo Mew Mewfor English-language publication in North America, and would release both the original series andà la Mode.Kodansha Comicswould publish a newly translated version of the manga in September 2011.4Kids Entertainmentlicensed the anime series for North American broadcast under the titleMew Mew Power, and produced aneditedEnglish-languagelocalization. The first twenty-three episodes of the series would air on4Kids TVin the United States, with three additional episodes airing onYTVin Canada. 4Kids was unable to license the remaining 26 episodes of the series or release the series on home video. Tokyo Mew Mewwas well received by English-language readers, with critics praising the manga for being a \"cute and entertaining\" series with \"free-flowing style and character designs\". Several volumes of the manga series appeared in the Top 50 sales lists for graphic","lists for graphic novels in their respective months of release. The anime series received high ratings in Japan, whileMew Mew Powerwould become 4Kids' highest-rated show during its American broadcast, and be licensed for regional release in several other countries. In 2020, a second, two-chapter sequel calledTokyo Mew Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas released, featuring the main characters with updated designs; and as well as a spinoff, titledTokyo Mew Mew Olé!, which features a new team of male Mew Mews. In addition, anew anime adaptationof the series,Tokyo Mew Mew New, was announced; the series aired from July to September 2022. A second season premiered in April 2023. Plot InTokyo,Japan, a young girl namedIchigo Momomiyaattends anendangered speciesexhibit with her \"crush\"Masaya Aoyama. After an earthquake, Ichigo and four other girls are bathed in a strange light. A cat appears before Ichigo, then merges with her. The next day, she begins acting like a cat and making cat puns. After meetingRyou ShiroganeandKeiichirou","Akasaka, Ichigo learns that she was infused with the DNA of theIriomote cat. Ryou and Keiichirou explain that this allows her to transform into Mew Ichigo, a powerful heroiccat girl. She is ordered to defeat Chimera Animas—alien parasites which infect animals and turn them into monsters. Ryou and Keiichirou instruct Ichigo to find the four other girls from the exhibit—the remaining Mew Mews. The first Mew Mew Ichigo encounters areMinto Aizawa, a spoiled, wealthy girl and ballerina who is infused with the genes of theblue lorikeet;Retasu Midorikawa, a shy but smart girl who endures constant bullying from three girls and absorbs the genes of thefinless porpoise; a hyper and yet young girl namedBu-Ling Huangwho receives the genes of thegolden lion tamarin; andZakuro Fujiwara, a professional actress and model infused with the genes of thegray wolf. The five Mew Mews battle the Chimera Animas and their alien controllersQuiche,PieandTart. Quiche falls in love with Ichigo where he tries to gain her love despite the","love despite the fact that he is trying to eliminate the other Mew Mews. Pie and Tart later join Quiche in trying to destroy the Mew Mews. As the fighting intensifies, the Mew Mews are tasked with finding \"Mew Aqua\", a material created from pure water that contains immense power for combating the alien attacks and can be sensed by the Mew Mews. During a battle with Quiche at an aquarium, Ichigo is in danger of losing when the mysteriousBlue Knightappears and rescues her. He returns periodically throughout the series, protecting Ichigo from various dangers. It is later revealed that the Blue Knight is in fact Masaya. Shortly after this discovery, Masaya collapses and transforms again. This time, he transforms into Deep Blue, the alien leader who wants to destroy humanity. After explaining to Ichigo that Masaya was a false form for temporary use, Deep Blue attacks the Mew Mews. Pie and Tart try to stop the other mew mews while Ichigo goes after Deep Blue. He and Quiche battle and Deep Blue wins. Masaya's","Blue wins. Masaya's personality briefly reappears and he uses the Mew Aqua inside Deep Blue to save Ichigo and Tokyo, killing himself in the process. Devastated over his loss, Ichigo pours her power into Masaya to save his life, losing her own in the process. Masaya kisses her, changing her back to a human and revives her. Ryou gives Pie the remaining Mew Aqua to save the aliens' world, after which Quiche, Pie, and Tart say their goodbyes and return to their own world. Sequels Tokyo Mew Mew à La Mode Ichigo and Masaya move to England to study endangered species. The remaining Mew Mews continue to eliminate the Chimera Animas left behind by the aliens. They face a new threat in the form of theSaint Rose Crusaders: Humans withsupernatural abilitieswho desire to conquer the world and create a \"utopia\" while taking over the remaining Chimera Animas. Berry Shirayukibecomes the sixth Mew Mew and temporarily takes Ichigo's place as the leader. Berry is the first Mew Mew to be infused with the DNA of twoendangered","of twoendangered species, theAndean mountain catand theAmami rabbit. As one of the strongest Mew Mews, Berry is targeted by two of the Crusaders, who attack her at school. Ichigo returns to provide assistance during this battle. For their final attack, two Crusadershypnotizethe citizens of Tokyo and set them against the Mew Mews. Berry and her childhood friendTasuku Megurouse their newfound feelings of love to reverse the hypnosis and cause a change of heart in the Crusaders. Production Mia Ikumispent a year designing theTokyo Mew Mewmangabefore the release of the first volume in February 2001.The story she originally presented to her editors,Tokyo Black Cat Girl, featured a heroine named Hime Azumi. An intergalactic police officer named Masha gave her the ability to transform into a cat-girl and asked her to aid him in defeating alien invaders called the Bugs.After the production team decided to focus on five female superheroes, Ikumi was asked to reconstruct the lead character. She had reservations about","reservations about the changes, as the character was originally designed for a more dramatic series. AsTokyo Mew Mewbecame a viable project, Kodansha hiredReiko Yoshidato be the series' scenario writer and story supervisor.Yoshida and two other editors determined each volume's plot, created a scenario by addingstage directionsand dialogue, and presented it to Ikumi. Ikumi added her own ideas and changes, creating themanuscript'sfirst draft, which was taken to the publishers for final review and approval. This differs from most manga series, in which the manga writer also creates the scenarios and stories before submitting to their editor for approval. After the first volume's release, a two-dayTokyo Mew Mewfestival was held during theGolden Week holiday—a week-long span in late April and early May during which four public holidays occur—to promote the series. Events included aTokyo Mew Mewart gallery and the release of new merchandise. Ikumi, the series' artist, created a special poster for the event,","for the event, featuring all twelve characters. She alsocosplayedas characters from the series, asMinto Aizawaon one day andRetasu Midorikawaon the other. Media Manga Written byReiko Yoshidaand illustrated byMia Ikumi,Tokyo Mew Mewwas first serialized inNakayoshimagazine between September 2000 and February 2003. The twenty-nine chapters were then compiled into seventankōbonvolumes byKodansha. The first volume was released on February 1, 2001, with the final volume released April 4, 2003.In April 2003, a sequel calledTokyo Mew Mew à la Modepremiered inNakayoshi. Running until February 2004 and written solely by Mia Ikumi, the sequel was published as two volumes.In December 2019, an additional spinoff calledTokyo Mew Mew Olé!made by Madoka Seizuki began running inNakayoshi. The spinoff focuses on a new team of male Mew Mews.The manga ended in August 2022,and was compiled into seven volumes. A short, 2-chapter manga sequel of the original series made by the original creators titledTokyo Mew Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas","Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas published between December 2019 and January 2020.It was Ikumi's final manga before her death in March 2022. Tokyo Mew MewandTokyo Mew Mew à la Modeare licensed for an English-language release in North America byTokyopop. The first volume of the main series was released on June 1, 2004, with volumes released subsequently until the seventh volume was published on December 15, 2005.The two volumes ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Modewere released on June 7 and September 13, 2005, respectively.Unlike the Japanese releases, each Tokyopop chapter is named.The main series is licensed for an English language release in Singapore byChuang Yi.Carlsen Comicshas licensed the series, through its regional divisions, and released the series in German, Danish and Swedish.The series is also licensed for regional language releases in French byPika Édition, in Polish byJaponica Polonica Fantastica, and in Finnish bySangatsu Manga.Tokyo Mew Mewwas one of the first manga series released in Spanish in North America by","in North America by Public Square Books.Kodansha Comicsreleased an omnibus version of the series, featuring a new translation in September 2011. Anime Pierrot,TV Aichi, Tokyu Agency and We've Inc. adaptedTokyo Mew Mewinto a fifty-two episode anime series, directed by Noriyuki Abe. Broadcast onTXNaffiliates, the series premiered on April 6, 2002, and aired weekly until its conclusion on March 29, 2003.Most of the music for the series was produced by Shin Yoshimura and composed byTakayuki Negishi. Two pieces of theme music were also used for the anime series. \"My Sweet Heart\", performed byRika Komatsu, was the series opening theme. The ending theme \"Koi wa A La Mode\" is performed by the fivevoice actorswho play the Mew Mews. In Japan, the series was released across nineRegion 2DVDvolumes. The ninth volume included a bonus DVD containing extra content.At some point during the TV broadcast, AEON changed its name to We've. Tokyo Mew Mewwas later licensed for an English-language dubbed release by4Kids","release by4Kids Entertainment. In its announcement about the series, 4Kids originally noted that the show would be renamed toHollywood Mew Mewand that they would be heavily editing and localizing episodes so that viewers would not recognize its Japanese origins.Subsequent 4Kids press releases about the series referred to the new series asThe Mew Mewsand its original nameTokyo Mew Mew.When the series premiered on4Kids TVon February 19, 2005, it aired under the name asMew Mew Power. Characters and episodes were renamed, scenes were cut and storylines were modified. The music was replaced with a new score provided byBear in the Big Blue HouseandThe Book of Poohcomposer, Julian Harris, and the opening theme was replaced with the song \"Team Up\", performed byBree Sharpand Mollie Weaver.Twenty-six episodes ofMew Mew Poweraired on4Kids TVin the United States because 4Kids was unable to get amerchandisingdeal for the series and the English dub had stopped production.The 4Kids episodes aired onYTVin Canada and on","Canada and on thePop Girlsatellitetelevision channelin the United Kingdom; these included three dubbed episodes not broadcast in the United States. AlthoughMew Mew Powerhas not been released tohome videoin North America, ten of the 4Kids episodes have been released toRegion 4DVD in Australia and New Zealand byMagna Pacificand all twenty-six 4Kids episodes were released toRegion 2DVD in South Africa.Mew Mew Powerwas licensed for regional airing in French by Arès Films, which released nine dubbed 4Kids episodes to DVD in February 2006 as a single volume through Warner Home Vidéo France. The French dub aired onTélétoonas part of their Code F block.The company also licensed the remaining twenty-six episodes of the series that 4Kids had not obtained, releasing them in two DVD box sets through AK Vidéo. A new anime adaptation titledTokyo Mew Mew Newwas announced to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary.It was later revealed that the adaptation will be animated byYumeta CompanyandGraphinica, and directed by","and directed by Takahiro Natori, with Yuka Yamada handling the series' scripts, Satoshi Ishino designing the characters, andYasuharu Takanashicomposing the music. New cast members were chosen to play the Mew Mews through a public audition held in Q2 2020,and they will also be promoting as anidol groupnamed Smewthie as their characters.The new series premiered on July 6, 2022, on TV Tokyo.Sentai Filmworkshas licensed the series outside of Asia and was streamed onHidive. A second season ofTokyo Mew Mew Newwas announced at the end of the final episode on September 21, 2022. It premiered in April 2023. Video games Two video games based on theTokyo Mew Mewseries were launched in 2002 byTakara. The first,Hamepane Tokyo Mew Mew(はめパネ 東京ミュウミュウ,Hamepane Tōkyō Myū Myū), apuzzleadventure gamefor theGame Boy Advance, was released in Japan on July 11, 2002. The second title,Tōkyō Mew Mew – Enter the New Mew Mew! – Serve Everyone Together(東京ミュウミュウ 登場 新ミュウミュウ！みんないっしょにご奉仕するにゃん,Tōkyō Myū Myū – Tōjō Shin Myū Myū! Minna Issho","Myū! Minna Issho ni Gohōshi suru Nyan), was released in Japan on December 5, 2002. It is aPlayStationturn-basedrole-playing video game in which the player controls a new Mew Mew, Ringo Akai(赤井 りんご,Akai Ringo), as well as the original five heroines. They must defend Ringo's island from Quiche, the Chimera Animas and a new alien named Gateau du Roi(ガトー·デュ·ロワ,Gatō dyu Rowa).Both Ringo Akai and Gateau were created by the manga's artist, Mia Ikumi, following design specifications from Takara. The game uses voice actors from the anime series, with the two new characters voiced byTaeko KawataandRyōtarō Okiayu, respectively. Ikumi was pleased with how both characters turned out and expressed a desire to use Ringo as a regular character in a future manga series.Ringo later joined the other Mew Mews in thePetite Mew Mewbonus story in the second volume ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Mode. CDs Multiple music and characterCDshave been released for theTokyo Mew Mew seriesbyKing Records. The first, a CD single, contained the full","contained the full andkaraokeversions of \"Koi wa A La Mode\", performed by the fivevoice actorswho played the Mew Mews, and a second song performed bySaki Nakajima, who voices Ichigo. On July 24, 2002, a five-disclimited editioncollector's box set was released containing character songs for each of the Mew Mews, performed by their respective voice actors and aremixof \"Koi wa A La Mode\".The individual character song discs were released as standalone CDs on September 4, 2002.An additional character CD set, containing remixed versions of two songs from each individual album, followed on December 25, 2002.A second character CD for Ichigo, containing five new tracks performed by Nakajima, was released on February 26, 2003. The first full anime soundtrack,Tokyo Mew Mew Original Soundtrackwas released on September 25, 2002, byNEC. The CD included the series opening and ending themes and twenty-seven pieces of series background music.NEC released a secondsoundtrackon January 22, 2003; it contains the opening and","the opening and closing themes, along with an additional twenty-nine tracks of background music.On March 26, 2003, two \"best of\" CDs were released for the anime series:Tokyo Mew Mew Super Best Hit – Cafe Mew Mew sideandTokyo Mew Mew Super Best Hit – Tokyo Mew Mew side. Each CD includes ten of the series' \"most popular\" musical pieces. Reception TheTokyo Mew Mewmanga series was well received by English-speaking audiences. In March and April 2003, the first volume sold an estimated 1,597 and 1,746 copies respectively. This put the volume at the low end of the top 50 sales for each month.By 2004, with most of the series released, it became a mild success for licensor Tokyopop.It was ranked 16th on the list of Manga Top 50 for the first quarter of 2004 in theICv2 Retailers Guide to Anime/Manga, based on sales from both mainstream bookstores andcomic bookshops.Sales of the sixth and seventh volumes dropped slightly; however, both were among the top 100 best-selling graphic novels in March and May 2004.The first","May 2004.The first volume ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Modedebuted 63rd on the list of top 100 best-selling graphic novels of May 2005, with nearly double the sales figures of the last volume of the main series.On the Nielsen Bookscan charts, the volume debuted at rank 39 before quickly climbing to the 14th spot.The second volume ofà la Modesaw similar success, debuting in the 69th slot before advancing to the 12th position, a result of theMew Mew Powershow appearing on4Kids TV. Tokyo Mew Mewwas generally well received by reviewers, who described it as cute and entertaining.ThoughAnimeFringe'sPatrick King notes that it is not a very intellectual series and that it avoids complex plot points, he lauded it as engrossing \"brain candy\" and an \"endearing action-romance\" that has no \"delusions of grandeur\".Critics praised the artwork in bothTokyo Mew Mewand the sequelTokyo Mew Mew à La Mode. Ikumi's \"free flowing\" style and character designs were seen as a perfect fit for the series.Criticism of Ikumi's art focused on","art focused on images which regularly spilled out of panel borders and speech bubbles with ambiguous speakers.Patrick King ofAnimefringestated: \"one of the most attractive aspects of Tokyo Mew Mew is easily Mia Ikumi's ultra-cute artwork. Big eyes, cat ears, fuzzy tails, and short skirts all come together in a cuteness combo that's hard to resist.\"According to Carlo Santos ofAnime News Network, \"Mia Ikumi's artwork is perfectly suited to the story, and it is not even all that wispy and frilly compared to othershōjomaterial. Like many budding manga artist, Ikumi's greatest strength is in carefully posed character portraits, and her prolific use of tones creates unique effects while also sidestepping the challenge of backgrounds.\" Over allTokyo Mew Mew à La Modehad more mixed reviews. Critics praised it for being a modern manga that typifies themagical girlformula, highlighting both its strengths and weaknesses.Mike Dungan, of Mania Entertainment, considered the original series to be \"quite charming\" and felt","charming\" and felt thatà la Modewas a good continuation of the series with the \"same fun and excitement\" as its predecessor.Others felt Berry was an overly shallow heroine and that the sequel offered nothing new for readers with the Saint Rose Crusaders' costumes and plans being nothing more than concepts borrowed fromSailor Moon. Janet Crocker, Shannon Fay and Chris Istel ofAnimefringecriticizedà la Modefor having the character Duke, the main villain of the arc, dressed in a white robe similar to those used by the white supremacy group, theKu Klux Klan.Garrity feltà La Modewas a vehicle for referencingTokyo Mew Mewfandom and merchandise and that Berry was a \"transparent wish-fulfillment protagonist\". The anime adaptation has been compared toSailor MoonandYes! PreCure 5due to both having female protagonists, five original team members with signature colors and powers, and similar plot lines, as have many magical girl series.Tokyo Mew Mewreceived high ratings in Japan with extensive merchandizing tie ins and","tie ins and marketing events to promote the series.The announcement of 4Kids licensing the anime series drew negative reactions from English-speaking in the U.S. fans, due to 4Kids' practice of removing cultural elements from their English-dubbed adaptations. Several fans would campaign to have the company to release an uncut version of the anime series.Overall viewer reception toMew Mew Powerwould be mixed,but the show would become the block's highest-rated program at the start of the Fall 2005 season.Despite this, the series was never released to DVD in North America.Mew Mew Powerwould be licensed for broadcast in France, Latin America, Australia, New Zealand, Portugal, Brazil, Albania, Serbia, Croatia, Turkey, Greece, South Africa, Denmark, the Netherlands, Bulgaria and Israel. Notes References Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Sailor Moon Sailor Moon(Japanese:美少女戦士セーラームーン,Hepburn:Bishōjo Senshi Sērā Mūn, originally translated asPretty Soldier Sailor Moonand later asPretty Guardian Sailor Moon)is a Japanesemangaseries written and illustrated byNaoko Takeuchi. It was originally serialized inKodansha'sshōjomangamagazineNakayoshifrom 1991 to 1997; the 60 individual chapters (later reorganized into 52), along with several side stories, were compiled in 18volumes. The series follows the adventures of a schoolgirl namedUsagi Tsukinoas she transforms into the eponymous character to search for a magical artifact, the \\\"Legendary Silver Crystal\\\"(「幻の銀水晶」,Maboroshi no Ginsuishō,lit.\\\"Phantom Silver Crystal\\\"). She leads a group of comrades, the Sailor Soldiers, called Sailor Guardians in later editions, as they battle against villains to prevent the theft of the Silver Crystal and the destruction of theSolar System. The manga was adapted intoan anime seriesproduced byToei Animationand broadcast in Japan from 1992 to 1997.Toei also developed three\",\n \"developed three animated feature films, a television special, and three short films based on the anime. A live-action television adaptation,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon, aired from 2003 to 2004, and a second anime series,Sailor Moon Crystal, begansimulcastingin 2014. The manga series was licensed for an English language release byKodansha Comicsin North America, and in Australia and New Zealand by Random House Australia. The entire anime series has been licensed byViz Mediafor an English language release in North America and byMadman Entertainmentin Australia and New Zealand. Since its release,Sailor Moonhas received universal acclaim, with praise for its art, characterization, and humor. The manga has sold over 46 million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling manga series, as well as one of the best-sellingshōjomangaseries of all time.The franchise has also generated$2.5 billionin worldwide merchandise sales. Plot One day inJuban,Tokyo, amiddle-schoolstudent namedUsagi TsukinobefriendsLuna, a\",\n \"a talking black cat who gives her a magical brooch enabling her to transform into Sailor Moon: a guardian destined to saveEarthfrom the forces of evil. Luna and Usagi assemble a team of fellow Sailor Guardians to find their princess and the Silver Crystal. They encounter the studious Ami Mizuno, who awakens asSailor Mercury; Rei Hino, a localShintoshrine maidenwho awakens asSailor Mars; Makoto Kino, a tall and strong transfer student who awakens asSailor Jupiter; and Minako Aino, a young aspiringidolwho had awakened asSailor Venusa few months prior, accompanied by her talking feline companionArtemis. Additionally, they befriend Mamoru Chiba, a high school student who assists them on occasion asTuxedo Mask. In the first arc, the group battles theDark Kingdom, those members attempt to find the Silver Crystal and free an imprisoned, evil entity called Queen Metaria. Usagi and her team discover that in their previous lives, they were members of the ancient Moon Kingdom in a period of time called the Silver\",\n \"called the Silver Millennium. The Dark Kingdom waged war against them, destroying the Moon Kingdom. Its rulerQueen Serenitysent her daughter Princess Serenity,reincarnatedas Usagi, along with her protectors the Sailor Guardians, their feline advisers Luna and Artemis, and the princess's true love Prince Endymion, who in turn was reborn as Mamoru. At the beginning of the second arc, the Sailor Guardians meet Usagi and Mamoru's future daughterChibiusa, who arrives from a 30th-century version of Tokyo known as \\\"Crystal Tokyo\\\", which is ruled by Neo Queen Serenity, Usagi of the future and has been attacked by the group of villains known as theBlack Moon Clan. During their journey, Sailor Moon and her friends meetSailor Pluto, Guardian of the Time-Space Door. During the climactic battle of the arc, Sailor Pluto dies trying to save the sailor soldiers and Chibiusa was brainwashed by the enemy and turned into the Black Lady, but was eventually reformed and awakens as a Guardian herself—Sailor Chibi Moon. The third\",\n \"Moon. The third arc introduces car-racer Haruka Tenoh and violinist Michiru Kaioh, who appear asSailor UranusandSailor Neptune, whose duty is to guard the Solar System against external threats. Physics student Setsuna Meioh, Sailor Pluto's reincarnation, joins Uranus and Neptune in their mission to kill a mysterious girl named Hotaru Tomoe, whom they identify as the Guardian of DestructionSailor Saturn. However, when Saturn awakens she joins the final fight against the main antagonists of the arc, theDeath Busters, sacrificing her life in the process. With her newly obtained powers as Super Sailor Moon, Usagi restores the Earth and Hotaru is reincarnated as a baby. The fourth arc explores the Sailor Guardians' dreams and nightmares when the villainous groupDead Moon Circusexploits the Guardians' deepest fears, invades Elysion (which hosts the Earth's Golden Kingdom), and captures itshigh priestHelios, who turned into a Pegasus and tried to ask Guardians for help. This storyline also addresses Mamoru's\",\n \"addresses Mamoru's relevance as protector of the Earth and owner of the Golden Crystal, the sacred stone of the Golden Kingdom. Mamoru and all ten of the reunited Guardians combine their powers, enabling Usagi to transform into Eternal Sailor Moon and defeat Dead Moon's leader,Queen Nehelenia. In the final arc theSailor Starlightsfrom the Planet Kinmoku, their rulerPrincess Kakyuu, and the mysterious little girlChibi-Chibijoin Usagi in her fight againstShadow Galactica, a group of both corrupted and false Sailor Guardians and led bySailor Galaxia, who have been rampaging across the galaxy and killing other Sailor Guardians to steal their Star Seeds, Sailor Crystals—the essence of their lives. After Mamoru and all of the main Solar System Guardians are killed by Shadow Galactica, Usagi travels to the Galaxy Cauldron, the birthplace of all Star Seeds of theMilky Way, in an attempt to revive her loved ones and to confrontChaos, the source of all strife in the galaxy. Production Creation ofSailor Moon Naoko\",\n \"ofSailor Moon Naoko Takeuchi, after working onNami Akimoto's 1991 mangaMiracle Girls, redevelopedSailor Moonfrom her 1991 manga serialCodename: Sailor V, which was first published on August 20, 1991, and featured Sailor Venus as the main protagonist.Takeuchi wanted to create a story with a theme about girls in outer space. While discussing with her editor Fumio Osano, he suggested the addition ofSailor fuku.WhenCodename: Sailor Vwas proposed for adaptation into an anime byToei Animation, Takeuchi redeveloped the concept so Sailor Venus became a member of a team.The resulting manga series became a fusion of the popular magical girl genre and theSuper Sentaiseries, of which Takeuchi was a fan.Recurring motifs includeastronomy,astrology,gemology,Greco-Roman mythology,Japanese elemental themes,: 286teen fashions,and schoolgirl antics. Takeuchi said discussions with Kodansha originally envisaged a single story arc;the storyline was developed in meetings a year before serialization began.: 93After completing the\",\n \"completing the arc, Toei and Kodansha asked Takeuchi to continue the series. She wrote four more story arcs,which were often published simultaneously with the five corresponding seasons of the anime adaptation. The anime ran one or two months behind the manga.: 93As a result, the anime follows the storyline of the manga fairly closely, although there are deviations.Takeuchi later said because Toei's production staff were mostly male, she feels the anime has \\\"a slightmale perspective.\\\" Takeuchi later said she planned to kill off the protagonists, but Osano rejected the notion and said, \\\" is ashōjomanga!\\\" When the anime adaptation was produced, the protagonists were killed in the final battle with the Dark Kingdom, although they were revived. Takeuchi resented that she was unable to do that in her version.Takeuchi also intended for theSailor Moonanime adaptation to last for one season, but due to the immense popularity, Toei asked Takeuchi to continue the series. At first, she struggled to develop another\",\n \"to develop another storyline to extend the series. While discussing with Osano, he suggested the inclusion of Usagi's daughter from the future, Chibiusa. Westernization After theSailor Moonanime was released in North America and dubbed in English, fans and academics alike noted that the dub had westernizedSailor Moonfrom how it had been released in Japan. In the 1995 English version ofSailor Moon, the westernization of the characters is seen in how a majority of the character names are changed from Japanese to English names.Sailor Moon's civilian name, Usagi Tsukino, is turned into Serena.The love interest of Sailor Moon, Mamoru Chiba, is turned into Darien Shields.Other examples of westernization (or at least Americanization) referenced bySailor Moon's audience were things like flipping scenes of traffic to have carsdrive on the right side of the roadalong with the English dub changing any conversations between characters that contained lesser-known (in the United States at the time) Japanese cultural\",\n \"Japanese cultural references.According toBandai America, the company in charge of Sailor Moon merchandise in the western hemisphere, the approach to advertisingSailor Moonwas to make the show and super-heroine \\\"'culturally appropriate' for the American market\\\". Media Manga Written and illustrated byNaoko Takeuchi,Sailor Moonwas serialized in the monthly manga anthologyNakayoshifrom December 28, 1991, to February 3, 1997.The side-stories were serialized simultaneously inRunRun—another of Kodansha's manga magazines.The 52 individual chapters were published in 18tankōbonvolumes byKodanshafrom July 6, 1992, to April 4, 1997.In 2003, the chapters were re-released in a collection of 12shinzōbanvolumes to coincide with the release of thelive-action series.The manga was retitledPretty Guardian Sailor Moonand included new cover art,and revised dialogue and illustrations. The ten individual short stories were also released in two volumes.In 2013, the chapters were once again re-released in 10kanzenbanvolumes to\",\n \"to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary, which includes digitally remastered artwork, new covers and color artwork from itsNakayoshirun.The books have been enlarged from the typical Japanese manga size to A5.The short stories were republished in two volumes, with the order of the stories shuffled.Codename: Sailor Vwas also included in the third edition. TheSailor Moonmanga was initially licensed for an English release by Mixx (laterTokyopop) in North America. The manga was first published as a serial inMixxZinebeginning in 1997, but was later removed from the magazine and made into a separate, low print monthly comic to finish the first, second and third arcs. At the same time, the fourth and fifth arcs were printed in a secondary magazine calledSmile.Pages from the Tokyopop version of the manga ran daily in the Japanimation Station, a service accessible to users ofAmerica Online.The series was later collected into a three-part graphic novel series spanning eighteen volumes, which were published from\",\n \"were published from December 1, 1998, to September 18, 2001.In May 2005, Tokyopop's license to theSailor Moonmanga expired, and its edition went out of print. In 2011,Kodansha Comicsannounced they had acquired the license for theSailor Moonmanga and its lead-in seriesCodename: Sailor Vin English.They published the twelve volumes ofSailor Moonsimultaneously with the two-volume edition ofCodename Sailor Vfrom September 2011 to July 2013.The first of the two related short story volumes was published on September 10, 2013;the second was published on November 26, 2013.AtAnime Expo2017, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-releaseSailor Moonin an \\\"Eternal Edition\\\", featuring a new English translation, new cover artwork by Takeuchi, and color pages from the manga's original run, printed on extra-large premium paper.The first Eternal Edition volume was published on September 11, 2018;the tenth and final volume was published on October 20, 2020.On July 1, 2019, Kondasha Comics began releasing the Eternal Editions\",\n \"Eternal Editions digitally,following an announcement the day before about the series being released digitally in ten different languages.In November 2020, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-release theSailor Moonmanga again as part of their \\\"Naoko Takeuchi Collection\\\".The company described the new edition as a \\\"more affordable, portable\\\" version of the Eternal Edition. The first volume was published on April 5, 2022. Sailor Moonhas also been licensed in other English-speaking countries. In the United Kingdom, the volumes are distributed by Turnaround Publisher Services.In Australia, the manga is distributed by Penguin Books Australia. The manga has been licensed in Russia andCISfor distribution by XL Media publishing company. The first volume was released in 2018. Anime series Overview Sailor Moon Toei Animation produced an anime television series based on the 52 manga chapters, also titledPretty Soldier Sailor Moon.Junichi Satodirected the first season,Kunihiko Ikuharatook over second through fourth\",\n \"through fourth season, andTakuya Igarashidirected the fifth and final season.The series premiered in Japan onTV Asahion March 7, 1992, and ran for 200 episodes until its conclusion on February 8, 1997. Upon its release, the show quickly rose to be Toei Animation's highest ranked TV series.Most of the international versions, including the English adaptations, are titledSailor Moon. Sailor Moon Crystal On July 6, 2012, Kodansha and Toei Animation announced that it would commence production of a new anime adaptation ofSailor Moon, calledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystal, for a simultaneous worldwide release in 2013 as part of the series's 20th anniversary celebrations,and stated that it would be a closer adaptation of the manga than the first anime.Crystalpremiered on July 5, 2014, and new episodes would air on the first and third Saturdays of each month.New cast were announced, along withKotono Mitsuishireprising her role as Sailor Moon.The first two seasons were released together, covering their\",\n \"covering their corresponding arcs of the manga (Dark KingdomandBlack Moon). A third season based on theInfinityarc on the manga premiered on Japanese television on April 4, 2016, known asDeath Bustersarc in this adaptation.Munehisa Sakaidirected the first and second season, whileChiaki Kondirected the third season. Films and television specials Three animated theatrical feature films based on the originalSailor Moonseries have been released in Japan:Sailor Moon R: The Moviein 1993, followed bySailor Moon S: The Moviein 1994, andSailor Moon SuperS: The Moviein 1995. The films are side-stories that do not correlate with the timeline of the original series. A one-hour television special was aired on TV Asahi in Japan on April 8, 1995.Kunihiko Ikuharadirected the first film, while the latter two were directed by Hiroki Shibata. In 1997, an article inVarietystated thatThe Walt Disney Companywas interested in originally acquiring the rights toSailor Moonas a live action film to be directed byStanley Tong&Geena\",\n \"Tong&Geena Davisset to star as Queen Beryl, along withWinona Ryder&Elisabeth Shueplanning to star in the film.After Disney put the project onturnaround,Universal Picturesacquired the film rights. In 2017, it was revealed thatPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystalanime's fourth season would be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, adapting theDreamarc from the manga.On June 30, 2019, it was announced that the title of the films will bePretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie.The first film was originally to be released on September 11, 2020,but was postponed and released on January 8, 2021, and the second film was released on February 11, 2021.Chiaki Konreturned fromCrystal's third season to direct the two films. In 2022, it was announced that a sequel toPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie, covering theStarsarc of the manga would also be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, titledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Cosmos The Movie. The two films are directed by Tomoya\",\n \"directed by Tomoya Takahashi, and was released on June 9 and 30, 2023. Companion books There have been numerous companion books toSailor Moon. Kodansha released some of these books for each of the five story arcs, collectively called theOriginal Picture Collection. The books contain cover art, promotional material and other work by Takeuchi. Many of the drawings are accompanied by comments on the way she developed her ideas, created each picture and commentary on the anime interpretation of her story.Another picture collection,Volume Infinity, was released as a self-published, limited-edition artbook after the end of the series in 1997. This art book includes drawings by Takeuchi and her friends, her staff, and many of the voice actors who worked on the anime. In 1999, Kodansha published theMaterials Collection; this contained development sketches and notes for nearly every character in the manga, and for some characters that never appeared. Each drawing includes notes by Takeuchi about costume pieces, the\",\n \"costume pieces, the mentality of the characters and her feelings about them. It also includes timelines for the story arcs and for the real-life release of products and materials relating to the anime and manga. A short story,Parallel Sailor Moonis also featured, celebrating theyear of the rabbit. Novels Sailor Moonwas also adapted for publication as novels and released in 1998. The first book was written byStuart J. Levy. The following novels were written by Lianne Sentar. Stage musicals In mid-1993, the first musical theater production based onSailor Moonpremiered, starringAnza Ohyamaas Sailor Moon. Thirty such musicals in all have been produced, with one in pre-production. The shows' stories include anime-inspired plotlines and original material. Music from the series has been released on about 20 memorial albums.The popularity of the musicals has been cited as a reason behind the production of the live-action television series,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon. During the original run musicals ran in the\",\n \"musicals ran in the winter and summer of each year, with summer musicals staged at theSunshineTheater in theIkebukuroarea of Tokyo. In the winter, musicals toured to other large cities in Japan, includingOsaka,Fukuoka,Nagoya,Shizuoka,Kanazawa,Sendai,Saga,Oita,YamagataandFukushima.The final incarnation of the first run,New Legend of Kaguya Island (Revised Edition)(新・かぐや島伝説 <改訂版>,Shin Kaguyashima Densetsu (Kaiteban)), went on stage in January 2005, following which,Bandaiofficially put the series on a hiatus.On June 2, 2013, Fumio Osano announced on his Twitter page that theSailor Moonmusicals would begin again in September 2013.The 20th anniversary showLa Reconquistaran from September 13 to 23 at Shibuya's AiiA Theater Tokyo, with Satomi Ōkubo as Sailor Moon. Satomi Ōkubo reprised the role in the 2014 productionPetite Étrangèrewhich ran from August 21 to September 7, 2014, again at AiiA Theater Tokyo. Live-action film & series Cancelled Disney film adaptation During the 1990s,Disneywas going to adapt Sailor\",\n \"to adapt Sailor Moon into a film under theWalt Disney Picturesbanner but it was cancelled immediately. Unrealized American adaptation In 1993, Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, Bandai and Toon Makers, Inc. conceptualized their own version ofSailor Moon, which was half live-action and half Western-style animation.Toon Makers produced a 17-minuteproof of conceptpilot and a two-minute music video, both of which were directed by Rocky Solotoff, who also worked on the pilot's script.Renaissance-Atlantic presented the concept to Toei, but it was turned down as their concept would have cost significantly more than simply exporting and dubbing the anime adaptation.The companies' work is believed by Solotoff to have been handed over to Raymond Iacovacci, one of the producers on the project, who stored the pilot script and animation cels in a storage facility.The logo created for the pilot was kept for the English dub, and Bandai released a \\\"Moon Cycle\\\" as part of its merchandise for the show, based on vehicles\",\n \"based on vehicles designed for the pilot. The project was rediscovered in 1998 when the music video was screened at theAnime Expoconvention in Los Angeles,where it was met with laughter by onlookers.A congoer recorded the music video and the audience response, which would later resurface on video sites such asYouTube.The pilot and the music video would go on to be discussed at conventions such as the 2011Gen Conand 2012Anime Expo.It was given the monikers of \\\"Toon Makers' Sailor Moon\\\"and \\\"Saban Moon\\\" despite having no connection withSaban Entertainmentsave for Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, which worked with the company onPower Rangers.The proof of concept video was widely considered to belost mediaand director Solotoff reported that he was frequently contacted by people searching for the pilot.In 2012 multiple animation cels from the pilot, along with the script, surfaced on the internet after a storage locker, believed to be the one owned by Iacovacci, was sold. In 1998, Frank Ward, along with his\",\n \"along with his company Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, tried to revive the idea of doing a live-action series based on Sailor Moon, this time calledTeam Angel, without the involvement of Toon Makers. A 2-minute reel was produced and sent to Bandai America, but was also rejected. In August 2022, the proof of concept was showcased for the first time onYouTubein a documentary by Ray Mona. Ray Mona obtained both the pilot and its music video, as well and its related materials, from theLibrary of Congress. Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon In 2003,Toei Companyproduced a Japanese live-actionSailor Moontelevision series using the new translated English title ofPretty Guardian Sailor Moon. Its 49 episodes were broadcast onChubu-Nippon Broadcastingfrom October 4, 2003, to September 25, 2004.Pretty Guardian Sailor MoonfeaturedMiyuu Sawaias Usagi Tsukino,Rika Izumi(credited as Chisaki Hama) as Ami Mizuno,Keiko Kitagawaas Rei Hino,Mew Azamaas Makoto Kino,Ayaka Komatsuas Minako Aino,Jouji Shibueas Mamoru Chiba,Keiko\",\n \"Mamoru Chiba,Keiko Hanreprising her voice role as Luna from the original anime andKappei Yamaguchivoicing Artemis. The series was an alternate retelling of the Dark Kingdom arc, adding a storyline different from that in the manga and first anime series, with original characters and new plot developments.In addition to the main episodes, twodirect-to-videoreleases appeared after the show ended its television broadcast. \\\"Special Act\\\" is set four years after the main storyline ends, and shows the wedding of the two main characters. \\\"Act Zero\\\" is a prequel showing the origins ofSailor Vand Tuxedo Mask. Video games TheSailor Moonfranchise has spawned several video games across various genres and platforms. Most were made by Bandai and its subsidy Angel; others were produced byBanpresto. The early games wereside-scrolling fighters; later ones were uniquepuzzle games, orversus fighting games.Another Storywas a turn-basedrole-playing video game.The onlySailor Moongame produced outside Japan, 3VR New Media'sThe 3D\",\n \"New Media'sThe 3D Adventures of Sailor Moon, went on sale in North America in 1997, They were developed in association withDIC Entertainment, which held the rights to the game and the TV series.A video game calledSailor Moon: La Luna Splende(Sailor Moon: The Moon Shines) was released on March 16, 2011, for theNintendo DS. Tabletop games The Dyskami Publishing Company releasedSailor Moon Crystal Dice Challenge, created byJames Ernestof Cheapass Games and based on theButton Mentabletop game in 2017, andSailor Moon Crystal Truth or Bluffin 2018. Theme park attractions A Sailor Moon attraction,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D, was announced forUniversal Studios Japan.It featured Sailor Moon and the Inner Guardians arriving at the theme park, only to discover and stop the Youma's plan from stealing people's energies. The attraction ran from March 16 through July 24, 2018. The sequel attraction,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D: Moon Palace arc, ran from May 31, 2019, to August 25, 2019. It\",\n \"August 25, 2019. It featured all 10 Sailor Guardians and Super Sailor Moon. In January 2022, a new attraction was announced titledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D ~Moon Palace arc~ Deluxe. The attraction features the same storyline as the last and feature the Sailor Guardians in their princess forms. It ran from March 4, 2022, to August 28, 2022. Ice skating show An ice skating show ofSailor Moonwas announced on June 30, 2019, starringEvgenia Medvedevaas the lead.The name for the ice-skating show was announced asPretty Guardian Sailor Moon: Prism on Ice, as well as the additional casts, withAnzafrom the firstSailor Moonmusicals to play Queen Serenity, and the main voice actresses of theSailor Moon Crystalanime series to voice their individual characters. Takuya Hiramatsu from the musicals was to write the screenplay, Yuka Sato and Benji Schwimmer were to be in charge of choreography, and Akiko Kosaka & Gesshoku Kaigi were to write the music for the show.The show was set to debut in early June\",\n \"debut in early June 2020, but was first postponed to June 2021, and later to June 2022, due to theCOVID-19 pandemic,and finally cancelled on February 23, 2023, due to an\\\"unstable world situation\\\". Idol group An idol pop group namedSG5, short for Sailor Guardians 5, was announced in June 2022. Early plans to form the group began in 2020, with the official lineup and overall concept finalized in 2022. As part of the process, the group had to seek the approval of Naoko Takeuchi by performing in front of her and giving a presentation. Four of the group members, Sayaka, Ruri, Miyuu, andKaede, had previously performed together as part of the idol groupHappiness. The group was officially debuted in July 2022 at Anime Expo and is co-managed by LDH Japan Inc. and Three Six Zero.On March 1, 2023, SG5 released their debut single \\\"Firetruck\\\" on streaming platforms alongside a music video with references to the manga. Reception Sailor Moonis one of the most popular manga series of all time and continues to enjoy high\",\n \"to enjoy high readership worldwide. More than one million copies of itstankōbonvolumes had been sold in Japan by the end of 1995.: 95It has been described as iconic.By the series's 20th anniversary in 2012, the manga had sold over 35 million copies in over fifty countries,and the franchise has generated$2.5 billionin worldwidemerchandisesales as of 1996.By 1995, Sailor Moon toys used to bring in more than $250 million per year in Japan.The manga won theKodansha Manga Awardin 1993 forshōjo.The English adaptations of both the manga and the anime series became the first successfulshōjotitle in the United States.The character of Sailor Moon is recognized as one of the most important and popularfemale superheroesof all time. Sailor Moonhas also become popular internationally.Sailor Moonwas broadcast in Spain and France beginning in December 1993; these became the first countries outside Japan to broadcast the series.It was later aired in Russia, South Korea, the Philippines, China, Italy, Taiwan, Thailand,\",\n \"Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia and Hong Kong, before North America picked up the franchise for adaptation. In the Philippines,Sailor Moonwas one ofits carrier network's main draws, helping it to become the third-biggest network in the country.: 10–11In 2001, theSailor Moonmanga was Tokyopop's best selling property, outselling the next-best selling titles by at least a factor of 1.5.InDiamond Comic Distributors's May 1999 \\\"Graphic Novel and Trade Paperback\\\" category,Sailor MoonVolume 3 was the best-selling comic book in the United States. Academic Timothy J. Craig attributesSailor Moon's international success to three things. First was the show's magical girl transformation of ordinary characters into superheroes. Second was the ability of marketers to establish the international audience's connection to characters despite their culture being Japanese. The third was that the main superhero was female, something which was still rare in pop culture in countries like the United States during the 1990s. In his 2007\",\n \"1990s. In his 2007 bookManga: The Complete Guide,Jason Thompsongave the manga series three stars out of four. He enjoyed the blending ofshōnenandshōjostyles and said the combat scenes seemed heavily influenced bySaint Seiya, but shorter and less bloody. He also said the manga itself appeared similar toSuper Sentaitelevision shows. Thompson found the series fun and entertaining, but said the repetitive plot lines were a detriment to the title, which the increasing quality of art could not make up for; even so, he called the series \\\"sweet, effective entertainment.\\\"Thompson said although the audience forSailor Moonis both male and female, Takeuchi does not use excessivefanservicefor males, which would run the risk of alienating her female audience. Thompson said fight scenes are not physical and \\\"boil down to their purest form of a clash of wills\\\", which he says \\\"makes thematic sense\\\" for the manga. Comparing the manga and anime, Sylvain Durand said the manga artwork is \\\"gorgeous\\\", but its storytelling is more\",\n \"is more compressed and erratic and the anime has more character development. Durand said \\\"the sense of tragedy is greater\\\" in the manga's telling of the \\\"fall of the Silver Millennium,\\\" giving more detail about the origins of the Four Kings of Heaven and on Usagi's final battle against Queen Beryl and Metaria. Durand said the anime omits information that makes the story easy to understand, but judges the anime as more \\\"coherent\\\" with a better balance of comedy and tragedy, whereas the manga is \\\"more tragic\\\" and focused on Usagi and Mamoru's romance. For the week of September 11, 2011, to September 17, 2011, the first volume of the re-releasedSailor Moonmanga was the best-selling manga onThe New York TimesManga Best Sellers list, with the first volume ofCodename: Sailor Vin second place.The first print run of the first volume sold out after four weeks. In English-speaking countries,Sailor Moondeveloped a cult following among anime fans and male university students.Patrick Drazen says theInternetwas a new\",\n \"a new medium that fans used to communicate and played a role in the popularity ofSailor Moon.: 281Fans could use the Internet to communicate about the series, organize campaigns to returnSailor Moonto U.S. broadcast, to share information about episodes that had not yet aired, or to writefan fiction.Gemma Cox ofNeomagazinesaid part of the series's allure was that fans communicated via the Internet about the differences between the dub and the original version. Cultural impact and legacy With their dynamic heroines and action-oriented plots, many creditSailor Moonfor reinvigorating the magical girl genre. After its success, many similar magical girl series, includingMagic Knight Rayearth,Wedding Peach,Nurse Angel Ririka SOS,Saint Tail,Cyber Team in Akihabara,Corrector YuiandPretty Cure, emerged.: 199Sailor Moonhas been called \\\"the biggest breakthrough\\\" in English-dubbed anime until 1995, when it premiered onYTV,: 10–11and \\\"the pinnacle of little kidshōjoanime\\\".Cultural anthropologistRachel Thornsaid that soon\",\n \"Thornsaid that soon afterSailor Moon,shōjomanga started appearing in book shops instead of fandom-dominated comic shops.The series are credited as beginning a wider movement of girls taking upshōjomanga.Canadian librarianGilles Poitrasdefines a generation of anime fans as those who were introduced to anime bySailor Moonin the 1990s, saying they were both much younger than other fans and were also mostly female. HistorianFred Pattencredits Takeuchi with popularizing the concept of aSuper Sentai-like team of magical girls,and Paul Gravett credits the series with revitalizing the magical girl genre itself.A reviewer forTHEMAnime Reviewsalso credited the anime series with changing the genre—its heroine must use her powers to fight evil, not simply have fun as previous magical girls had done.The series has also been compared toMighty Morphin Power Rangers,Buffy the Vampire Slayer,: 281andSabrina the Teenage Witch.Sailor Moon also influenced the development ofMiraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir,W.I.T.C.H.,Winx\",\n \"Club,LoliRock,Star vs. the Forces of Evil,Steven Universe, andTotally Spies!. Inwestern culture,Sailor Moonis sometimes associated with thefeministandGirl Powermovements and with empowering its viewers,especially regarding the \\\"credible, charismatic and independent\\\" characterizations of the Sailor Guardians.AlthoughSailor Moonis regarded as empowering to women and feminism in concept, through the aggressive nature and strong personalities of the Sailor Guardians,it is a specific type of feminist concept where \\\"traditional feminine ideals incorporated into characters that act in traditionally male capacities\\\".While the Sailor Guardians are strong, independent fighters who thwart evil—which is generally a masculine stereotype—they are also ideally feminized in the transformation of the Sailor Guardians from teenage girls into magical girls. The most notable hyper-feminine features of the Sailor Guardians—and most other females in Japanese girls' comics—are the girls' thin bodies, long legs, and, in\",\n \"long legs, and, in particular, round, orb-like eyes.Eyes are commonly known as the primal source within characters where emotion is evoked—sensitive characters have larger eyes than insensitive ones.The stereotypical role of women in Japanese culture is to undertake romantic and loving feelings;therefore, the prevalence of hyper-feminine qualities like the openness of the female eye in Japanese girls' comics is clearly exhibited inSailor Moon. Thus,Sailor Moonemphasizes a type of feminist model by combining traditional masculine action with traditional female affection and sexuality through the Sailor Guardians. Merchandise Since the early 2000s,Toei Animationhas collaborated with various different brands to create merchandise outside of children's demographic.On February 20, 2020,ColourPopreleased aSailor Mooninspired makeup collection.Celebrating the 25th anniversary ofSailor Moonin the U.S., streetwear brand KITH released clothing like hoodies and t-shirts withSailor Moongraphics on them.In honor ofSailor\",\n \"honor ofSailor Moon's 30th anniversary, brands likeSanrio,Uniqlo, and Maison de FLEUR announced a collaboration in January 2022. References External links\",\n \"Wedding Peach Wedding Peach(Japanese:愛天使伝説ウェディングピーチ,Hepburn:Ai Tenshi Densetsu Wedingu Pīchi, literally \\\"Legend of the Angel of Love: Wedding Peach\\\")is ashōjomangawritten bySukehiro Tomitaand illustrated byNao Yazawathat was originally serialized inShogakukan'sCiaomagazine. InNorth America, it was translated and published byVIZ Mediain its entirety, consisting of six volumes. The manga was later adapted into ananimetelevision seriesdirected byKunihiko Yuyamathat ran for 51 episodes onTV Tokyo, from April 5, 1995 to March 27, 1996 as well as 2omakesAi Tenshi Robot Wedding PeachandAi Tenshi Sentaiand a 4-episodeOVAsequel (Wedding Peach DX) in 1996. In 2004,Wedding Peach Young Lovewas released, a compilation ofWedding Peachstories made specifically for the monthly magazineShogaku Sannensei(\\\"Elementary School Third-Grader\\\"). To better fit the magazine's target audience, the \\\"Young Love\\\" version of Wedding Peach features younger-looking characters, less complex storylines, and simpler dialogue. Plot Momoko\",\n \"Plot Momoko Hanasaki, along with her friends Yuri Tanima and Hinagiku Tamano, are members of the newspaper club where they mostly cover the school's soccer team. They all have a crush on the star player Kazuya Yanagiba. On their way home from school one day, the trio are attacked by adevilby the name of Pluie who is a servant to the high ruler of the devil world, Raindevila. When her friends are hypnotized into attacking Momoko, a beautiful man comes down from the sky named Limone. He is from theangelworld and gives Momoko a compact case. Opening the compact, she is told by thegoddessAphrodite, the ruler of the angel world, that she is one of the legendary Love Angels, Wedding Peach. Momoko transforms into Wedding Peach and manages to snap her friends out of Pluie's control. Over the course of the story, Yuri and Hinagiku and later Scarlet O'Hara also find out that they are also love angels and the three (later four) must protect the humans from the devils and defeat Raindevila. Media Manga The manga was\",\n \"Manga The manga was written and illustrated by Nao Yazawa. It was serialized theShogakukan'sCiaomagazine from March 1994 to April 1996. Shogakukan released the manga in six volumes from September 1994 to April 1996.Viz Medialicensed the manga in North America and released the manga from July 10, 2003 to May 26, 2004. The series is now out-of-print. Anime An anime television series premiered onTV Tokyoon April 5, 1995 to March 27, 1996 and ran for 51 episodes. The anime was directed byKunihiko Yuyamaand was co-produced byKSSandOLM, Inc.A four-episodeOVAseries, titledWedding Peach DX (Deluxe)was released from November 1996 to March 1997.ADV Filmslicensed the anime in 2003 and released the anime in tenDVDs. Theme Songs Opening Themes Ending Themes Episodes Wedding Peach Wedding Peach DX Omake Games ASuper Famicomgame was released only in Japan in 1995. In the game, the player plays as one of the three main girls (either Momoko, Yuri or Hinagiku) to compete with the others in a series of mini games. The ultimate\",\n \"games. The ultimate goal is to win the right to ask the guy that all three girls are in love with (Yanagiba) to the school dance. The game has a three player option as well, where two other people can play the other two girls. Wedding Peachgames have also been released for theGame Boy(Jama-P Panic!- 1995),PC-98(Wedding Peach- 1996), andPlayStation(Wedding Peach - Doki Doki Oiro-naoshi Fashion Dai-sakusen- 1996). References External links\",\n \"Tokyo Mew Mew Tokyo Mew Mew(Japanese:東京ミュウミュウ,Hepburn:Tōkyō Myū Myū)is a Japanesemangaseries created and written byReiko Yoshidaand illustrated byMia Ikumi. It was originally serialized inKodansha'sshōjomangamagazineNakayoshifrom September 2000 to February 2003, with its chapters collected in seventankōbonvolumes by Kodansha. It focuses on five girls infused with the DNA of endangered animals which gives them special powers and allows them to transform into \\\"Mew Mews\\\". Led by Ichigo Momomiya, the girls protect Earth from aliens who wish to \\\"reclaim\\\" it. The series was adapted into a fifty-two episodeanimeseries produced byTV Aichi, We've Inc. & Tokyu Agency and animated byPierrot. The anime aired in Japan from April 6, 2002, to March 29, 2003 onTXNaffiliates. A two-volume sequel to the manga,Tokyo Mew Mew à la Mode, was serialized inNakayoshifrom April 2003 to February 2004. The sequel introduces a new character, Berry Shirayuki, who becomes the temporary leader of the Mew Mews. The series would inspire\",\n \"would inspire twovideo games: apuzzleadventure gameforGame Boy Advance, and arole-playing video gamefor thePlayStation. Tokyopoporiginally licensedTokyo Mew Mewfor English-language publication in North America, and would release both the original series andà la Mode.Kodansha Comicswould publish a newly translated version of the manga in September 2011.4Kids Entertainmentlicensed the anime series for North American broadcast under the titleMew Mew Power, and produced aneditedEnglish-languagelocalization. The first twenty-three episodes of the series would air on4Kids TVin the United States, with three additional episodes airing onYTVin Canada. 4Kids was unable to license the remaining 26 episodes of the series or release the series on home video. Tokyo Mew Mewwas well received by English-language readers, with critics praising the manga for being a \\\"cute and entertaining\\\" series with \\\"free-flowing style and character designs\\\". Several volumes of the manga series appeared in the Top 50 sales lists for graphic\",\n \"lists for graphic novels in their respective months of release. The anime series received high ratings in Japan, whileMew Mew Powerwould become 4Kids' highest-rated show during its American broadcast, and be licensed for regional release in several other countries. In 2020, a second, two-chapter sequel calledTokyo Mew Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas released, featuring the main characters with updated designs; and as well as a spinoff, titledTokyo Mew Mew Olé!, which features a new team of male Mew Mews. In addition, anew anime adaptationof the series,Tokyo Mew Mew New, was announced; the series aired from July to September 2022. A second season premiered in April 2023. Plot InTokyo,Japan, a young girl namedIchigo Momomiyaattends anendangered speciesexhibit with her \\\"crush\\\"Masaya Aoyama. After an earthquake, Ichigo and four other girls are bathed in a strange light. A cat appears before Ichigo, then merges with her. The next day, she begins acting like a cat and making cat puns. After meetingRyou ShiroganeandKeiichirou\",\n \"Akasaka, Ichigo learns that she was infused with the DNA of theIriomote cat. Ryou and Keiichirou explain that this allows her to transform into Mew Ichigo, a powerful heroiccat girl. She is ordered to defeat Chimera Animas—alien parasites which infect animals and turn them into monsters. Ryou and Keiichirou instruct Ichigo to find the four other girls from the exhibit—the remaining Mew Mews. The first Mew Mew Ichigo encounters areMinto Aizawa, a spoiled, wealthy girl and ballerina who is infused with the genes of theblue lorikeet;Retasu Midorikawa, a shy but smart girl who endures constant bullying from three girls and absorbs the genes of thefinless porpoise; a hyper and yet young girl namedBu-Ling Huangwho receives the genes of thegolden lion tamarin; andZakuro Fujiwara, a professional actress and model infused with the genes of thegray wolf. The five Mew Mews battle the Chimera Animas and their alien controllersQuiche,PieandTart. Quiche falls in love with Ichigo where he tries to gain her love despite the\",\n \"love despite the fact that he is trying to eliminate the other Mew Mews. Pie and Tart later join Quiche in trying to destroy the Mew Mews. As the fighting intensifies, the Mew Mews are tasked with finding \\\"Mew Aqua\\\", a material created from pure water that contains immense power for combating the alien attacks and can be sensed by the Mew Mews. During a battle with Quiche at an aquarium, Ichigo is in danger of losing when the mysteriousBlue Knightappears and rescues her. He returns periodically throughout the series, protecting Ichigo from various dangers. It is later revealed that the Blue Knight is in fact Masaya. Shortly after this discovery, Masaya collapses and transforms again. This time, he transforms into Deep Blue, the alien leader who wants to destroy humanity. After explaining to Ichigo that Masaya was a false form for temporary use, Deep Blue attacks the Mew Mews. Pie and Tart try to stop the other mew mews while Ichigo goes after Deep Blue. He and Quiche battle and Deep Blue wins. Masaya's\",\n \"Blue wins. Masaya's personality briefly reappears and he uses the Mew Aqua inside Deep Blue to save Ichigo and Tokyo, killing himself in the process. Devastated over his loss, Ichigo pours her power into Masaya to save his life, losing her own in the process. Masaya kisses her, changing her back to a human and revives her. Ryou gives Pie the remaining Mew Aqua to save the aliens' world, after which Quiche, Pie, and Tart say their goodbyes and return to their own world. Sequels Tokyo Mew Mew à La Mode Ichigo and Masaya move to England to study endangered species. The remaining Mew Mews continue to eliminate the Chimera Animas left behind by the aliens. They face a new threat in the form of theSaint Rose Crusaders: Humans withsupernatural abilitieswho desire to conquer the world and create a \\\"utopia\\\" while taking over the remaining Chimera Animas. Berry Shirayukibecomes the sixth Mew Mew and temporarily takes Ichigo's place as the leader. Berry is the first Mew Mew to be infused with the DNA of twoendangered\",\n \"of twoendangered species, theAndean mountain catand theAmami rabbit. As one of the strongest Mew Mews, Berry is targeted by two of the Crusaders, who attack her at school. Ichigo returns to provide assistance during this battle. For their final attack, two Crusadershypnotizethe citizens of Tokyo and set them against the Mew Mews. Berry and her childhood friendTasuku Megurouse their newfound feelings of love to reverse the hypnosis and cause a change of heart in the Crusaders. Production Mia Ikumispent a year designing theTokyo Mew Mewmangabefore the release of the first volume in February 2001.The story she originally presented to her editors,Tokyo Black Cat Girl, featured a heroine named Hime Azumi. An intergalactic police officer named Masha gave her the ability to transform into a cat-girl and asked her to aid him in defeating alien invaders called the Bugs.After the production team decided to focus on five female superheroes, Ikumi was asked to reconstruct the lead character. She had reservations about\",\n \"reservations about the changes, as the character was originally designed for a more dramatic series. AsTokyo Mew Mewbecame a viable project, Kodansha hiredReiko Yoshidato be the series' scenario writer and story supervisor.Yoshida and two other editors determined each volume's plot, created a scenario by addingstage directionsand dialogue, and presented it to Ikumi. Ikumi added her own ideas and changes, creating themanuscript'sfirst draft, which was taken to the publishers for final review and approval. This differs from most manga series, in which the manga writer also creates the scenarios and stories before submitting to their editor for approval. After the first volume's release, a two-dayTokyo Mew Mewfestival was held during theGolden Week holiday—a week-long span in late April and early May during which four public holidays occur—to promote the series. Events included aTokyo Mew Mewart gallery and the release of new merchandise. Ikumi, the series' artist, created a special poster for the event,\",\n \"for the event, featuring all twelve characters. She alsocosplayedas characters from the series, asMinto Aizawaon one day andRetasu Midorikawaon the other. Media Manga Written byReiko Yoshidaand illustrated byMia Ikumi,Tokyo Mew Mewwas first serialized inNakayoshimagazine between September 2000 and February 2003. The twenty-nine chapters were then compiled into seventankōbonvolumes byKodansha. The first volume was released on February 1, 2001, with the final volume released April 4, 2003.In April 2003, a sequel calledTokyo Mew Mew à la Modepremiered inNakayoshi. Running until February 2004 and written solely by Mia Ikumi, the sequel was published as two volumes.In December 2019, an additional spinoff calledTokyo Mew Mew Olé!made by Madoka Seizuki began running inNakayoshi. The spinoff focuses on a new team of male Mew Mews.The manga ended in August 2022,and was compiled into seven volumes. A short, 2-chapter manga sequel of the original series made by the original creators titledTokyo Mew Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas\",\n \"Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas published between December 2019 and January 2020.It was Ikumi's final manga before her death in March 2022. Tokyo Mew MewandTokyo Mew Mew à la Modeare licensed for an English-language release in North America byTokyopop. The first volume of the main series was released on June 1, 2004, with volumes released subsequently until the seventh volume was published on December 15, 2005.The two volumes ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Modewere released on June 7 and September 13, 2005, respectively.Unlike the Japanese releases, each Tokyopop chapter is named.The main series is licensed for an English language release in Singapore byChuang Yi.Carlsen Comicshas licensed the series, through its regional divisions, and released the series in German, Danish and Swedish.The series is also licensed for regional language releases in French byPika Édition, in Polish byJaponica Polonica Fantastica, and in Finnish bySangatsu Manga.Tokyo Mew Mewwas one of the first manga series released in Spanish in North America by\",\n \"in North America by Public Square Books.Kodansha Comicsreleased an omnibus version of the series, featuring a new translation in September 2011. Anime Pierrot,TV Aichi, Tokyu Agency and We've Inc. adaptedTokyo Mew Mewinto a fifty-two episode anime series, directed by Noriyuki Abe. Broadcast onTXNaffiliates, the series premiered on April 6, 2002, and aired weekly until its conclusion on March 29, 2003.Most of the music for the series was produced by Shin Yoshimura and composed byTakayuki Negishi. Two pieces of theme music were also used for the anime series. \\\"My Sweet Heart\\\", performed byRika Komatsu, was the series opening theme. The ending theme \\\"Koi wa A La Mode\\\" is performed by the fivevoice actorswho play the Mew Mews. In Japan, the series was released across nineRegion 2DVDvolumes. The ninth volume included a bonus DVD containing extra content.At some point during the TV broadcast, AEON changed its name to We've. Tokyo Mew Mewwas later licensed for an English-language dubbed release by4Kids\",\n \"release by4Kids Entertainment. In its announcement about the series, 4Kids originally noted that the show would be renamed toHollywood Mew Mewand that they would be heavily editing and localizing episodes so that viewers would not recognize its Japanese origins.Subsequent 4Kids press releases about the series referred to the new series asThe Mew Mewsand its original nameTokyo Mew Mew.When the series premiered on4Kids TVon February 19, 2005, it aired under the name asMew Mew Power. Characters and episodes were renamed, scenes were cut and storylines were modified. The music was replaced with a new score provided byBear in the Big Blue HouseandThe Book of Poohcomposer, Julian Harris, and the opening theme was replaced with the song \\\"Team Up\\\", performed byBree Sharpand Mollie Weaver.Twenty-six episodes ofMew Mew Poweraired on4Kids TVin the United States because 4Kids was unable to get amerchandisingdeal for the series and the English dub had stopped production.The 4Kids episodes aired onYTVin Canada and on\",\n \"Canada and on thePop Girlsatellitetelevision channelin the United Kingdom; these included three dubbed episodes not broadcast in the United States. AlthoughMew Mew Powerhas not been released tohome videoin North America, ten of the 4Kids episodes have been released toRegion 4DVD in Australia and New Zealand byMagna Pacificand all twenty-six 4Kids episodes were released toRegion 2DVD in South Africa.Mew Mew Powerwas licensed for regional airing in French by Arès Films, which released nine dubbed 4Kids episodes to DVD in February 2006 as a single volume through Warner Home Vidéo France. The French dub aired onTélétoonas part of their Code F block.The company also licensed the remaining twenty-six episodes of the series that 4Kids had not obtained, releasing them in two DVD box sets through AK Vidéo. A new anime adaptation titledTokyo Mew Mew Newwas announced to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary.It was later revealed that the adaptation will be animated byYumeta CompanyandGraphinica, and directed by\",\n \"and directed by Takahiro Natori, with Yuka Yamada handling the series' scripts, Satoshi Ishino designing the characters, andYasuharu Takanashicomposing the music. New cast members were chosen to play the Mew Mews through a public audition held in Q2 2020,and they will also be promoting as anidol groupnamed Smewthie as their characters.The new series premiered on July 6, 2022, on TV Tokyo.Sentai Filmworkshas licensed the series outside of Asia and was streamed onHidive. A second season ofTokyo Mew Mew Newwas announced at the end of the final episode on September 21, 2022. It premiered in April 2023. Video games Two video games based on theTokyo Mew Mewseries were launched in 2002 byTakara. The first,Hamepane Tokyo Mew Mew(はめパネ 東京ミュウミュウ,Hamepane Tōkyō Myū Myū), apuzzleadventure gamefor theGame Boy Advance, was released in Japan on July 11, 2002. The second title,Tōkyō Mew Mew – Enter the New Mew Mew! – Serve Everyone Together(東京ミュウミュウ 登場 新ミュウミュウ！みんないっしょにご奉仕するにゃん,Tōkyō Myū Myū – Tōjō Shin Myū Myū! Minna Issho\",\n \"Myū! Minna Issho ni Gohōshi suru Nyan), was released in Japan on December 5, 2002. It is aPlayStationturn-basedrole-playing video game in which the player controls a new Mew Mew, Ringo Akai(赤井 りんご,Akai Ringo), as well as the original five heroines. They must defend Ringo's island from Quiche, the Chimera Animas and a new alien named Gateau du Roi(ガトー·デュ·ロワ,Gatō dyu Rowa).Both Ringo Akai and Gateau were created by the manga's artist, Mia Ikumi, following design specifications from Takara. The game uses voice actors from the anime series, with the two new characters voiced byTaeko KawataandRyōtarō Okiayu, respectively. Ikumi was pleased with how both characters turned out and expressed a desire to use Ringo as a regular character in a future manga series.Ringo later joined the other Mew Mews in thePetite Mew Mewbonus story in the second volume ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Mode. CDs Multiple music and characterCDshave been released for theTokyo Mew Mew seriesbyKing Records. The first, a CD single, contained the full\",\n \"contained the full andkaraokeversions of \\\"Koi wa A La Mode\\\", performed by the fivevoice actorswho played the Mew Mews, and a second song performed bySaki Nakajima, who voices Ichigo. On July 24, 2002, a five-disclimited editioncollector's box set was released containing character songs for each of the Mew Mews, performed by their respective voice actors and aremixof \\\"Koi wa A La Mode\\\".The individual character song discs were released as standalone CDs on September 4, 2002.An additional character CD set, containing remixed versions of two songs from each individual album, followed on December 25, 2002.A second character CD for Ichigo, containing five new tracks performed by Nakajima, was released on February 26, 2003. The first full anime soundtrack,Tokyo Mew Mew Original Soundtrackwas released on September 25, 2002, byNEC. The CD included the series opening and ending themes and twenty-seven pieces of series background music.NEC released a secondsoundtrackon January 22, 2003; it contains the opening and\",\n \"the opening and closing themes, along with an additional twenty-nine tracks of background music.On March 26, 2003, two \\\"best of\\\" CDs were released for the anime series:Tokyo Mew Mew Super Best Hit – Cafe Mew Mew sideandTokyo Mew Mew Super Best Hit – Tokyo Mew Mew side. Each CD includes ten of the series' \\\"most popular\\\" musical pieces. Reception TheTokyo Mew Mewmanga series was well received by English-speaking audiences. In March and April 2003, the first volume sold an estimated 1,597 and 1,746 copies respectively. This put the volume at the low end of the top 50 sales for each month.By 2004, with most of the series released, it became a mild success for licensor Tokyopop.It was ranked 16th on the list of Manga Top 50 for the first quarter of 2004 in theICv2 Retailers Guide to Anime/Manga, based on sales from both mainstream bookstores andcomic bookshops.Sales of the sixth and seventh volumes dropped slightly; however, both were among the top 100 best-selling graphic novels in March and May 2004.The first\",\n \"May 2004.The first volume ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Modedebuted 63rd on the list of top 100 best-selling graphic novels of May 2005, with nearly double the sales figures of the last volume of the main series.On the Nielsen Bookscan charts, the volume debuted at rank 39 before quickly climbing to the 14th spot.The second volume ofà la Modesaw similar success, debuting in the 69th slot before advancing to the 12th position, a result of theMew Mew Powershow appearing on4Kids TV. Tokyo Mew Mewwas generally well received by reviewers, who described it as cute and entertaining.ThoughAnimeFringe'sPatrick King notes that it is not a very intellectual series and that it avoids complex plot points, he lauded it as engrossing \\\"brain candy\\\" and an \\\"endearing action-romance\\\" that has no \\\"delusions of grandeur\\\".Critics praised the artwork in bothTokyo Mew Mewand the sequelTokyo Mew Mew à La Mode. Ikumi's \\\"free flowing\\\" style and character designs were seen as a perfect fit for the series.Criticism of Ikumi's art focused on\",\n \"art focused on images which regularly spilled out of panel borders and speech bubbles with ambiguous speakers.Patrick King ofAnimefringestated: \\\"one of the most attractive aspects of Tokyo Mew Mew is easily Mia Ikumi's ultra-cute artwork. Big eyes, cat ears, fuzzy tails, and short skirts all come together in a cuteness combo that's hard to resist.\\\"According to Carlo Santos ofAnime News Network, \\\"Mia Ikumi's artwork is perfectly suited to the story, and it is not even all that wispy and frilly compared to othershōjomaterial. Like many budding manga artist, Ikumi's greatest strength is in carefully posed character portraits, and her prolific use of tones creates unique effects while also sidestepping the challenge of backgrounds.\\\" Over allTokyo Mew Mew à La Modehad more mixed reviews. Critics praised it for being a modern manga that typifies themagical girlformula, highlighting both its strengths and weaknesses.Mike Dungan, of Mania Entertainment, considered the original series to be \\\"quite charming\\\" and felt\",\n \"charming\\\" and felt thatà la Modewas a good continuation of the series with the \\\"same fun and excitement\\\" as its predecessor.Others felt Berry was an overly shallow heroine and that the sequel offered nothing new for readers with the Saint Rose Crusaders' costumes and plans being nothing more than concepts borrowed fromSailor Moon. Janet Crocker, Shannon Fay and Chris Istel ofAnimefringecriticizedà la Modefor having the character Duke, the main villain of the arc, dressed in a white robe similar to those used by the white supremacy group, theKu Klux Klan.Garrity feltà La Modewas a vehicle for referencingTokyo Mew Mewfandom and merchandise and that Berry was a \\\"transparent wish-fulfillment protagonist\\\". The anime adaptation has been compared toSailor MoonandYes! PreCure 5due to both having female protagonists, five original team members with signature colors and powers, and similar plot lines, as have many magical girl series.Tokyo Mew Mewreceived high ratings in Japan with extensive merchandizing tie ins and\",\n \"tie ins and marketing events to promote the series.The announcement of 4Kids licensing the anime series drew negative reactions from English-speaking in the U.S. fans, due to 4Kids' practice of removing cultural elements from their English-dubbed adaptations. Several fans would campaign to have the company to release an uncut version of the anime series.Overall viewer reception toMew Mew Powerwould be mixed,but the show would become the block's highest-rated program at the start of the Fall 2005 season.Despite this, the series was never released to DVD in North America.Mew Mew Powerwould be licensed for broadcast in France, Latin America, Australia, New Zealand, Portugal, Brazil, Albania, Serbia, Croatia, Turkey, Greece, South Africa, Denmark, the Netherlands, Bulgaria and Israel. Notes References Further reading External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":353,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How old was Lucy Lawless when season six of Xena: Warrior Princess first aired?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"32"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Xena:_Warrior_Princess_episodes"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Lawless"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Xena:_Warrior_Princess_episodes', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Lawless']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Xena:_Warrior_Princess_episodes","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Lawless"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Xena:_Warrior_Princess_episodes\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Lawless\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["List ofXena: Warrior Princessepisodes Xena: Warrior Princessis an Americantelevision seriesthat was created byRobert Tapertand John Schulian.Xenais ahistorical fantasyset primarily inancient Greece, although it has a flexible time setting and occasionally featuresOriental,EgyptianandMedievalelements. The flexible fantasy framework of the show accommodates a considerable range of theatrical styles, from highmelodramatoslapstickcomedy, from whimsical andmusicalto all-outactionandadventure. While the show is typically set in ancient times, its themes are essentially modern and it investigates the ideas of taking responsibility for past misdeeds, the value of human life, personal liberty and sacrifice, and friendship. The show often addresses ethical dilemmas, such as the morality ofpacifism; however, the storylines rarely seek to provide unequivocal solutions. The character of Xena debuted on March 13, 1995, on the TV seriesHercules: The Legendary Journeys. Three episodes featuring Xena, collectively calledThe Xena Trilogy, initially aired as part of the first season ofHercules: The Legendary Journeys.Xena's own series began on September 4, 1995.The series ran for six seasons and 134 episodes until its final episode aired on June 23, 2001. The series won anEmmy Awardin 2001, and was ranked in #10 in TV Guide's Top 25 Cult TV Shows of All Time. Series overview Episodes Introductory episodes (1995) The program and its namesake character are introduced during the first season ofHercules: The Legendary Journeys. TheHercules: The Legendary Journeysepisodes, \"The Warrior Princess\", \"The Gauntlet\" and \"Unchained Heart\", served aspilot episodesfor the show. Season 1 (1995–96) Season 2 (1996–97) Season 3 (1997–98) Season 4 (1998–99) Season 5 (1999–2000) Season 6 (2000–01) Home media release References External links","Lucy Lawless Lucille Frances LawlessMNZM(néeRyan; born 29 March 1968) is a New Zealand actress. She is best known for her roles asXenain the television seriesXena: Warrior Princess, asD'Anna Bierson the re-imaginedBattlestar Galacticaseries, andLucretiain the television seriesSpartacus: Blood and Sandand associated series. Since 2019, she has starred as Alexa in the television seriesMy Life Is Murder. Lawless had recurring roles as Diane Lewis-Swanson on theNBCsitcomParks and Recreation(2012–2014), and asCountess Palatine Ingrid Von Marburgon theWGN Americasupernatural seriesSalem(2015). She also starred as Ruby on theStarzhorror-comedy seriesAsh vs Evil Dead(2015–2018). Early life and education Lucille Frances \"Lucy\" Ryan was born on 29 March 1968in theAucklandsuburb ofMount Albertto teacher Julie Ryan (née Haynes) and Mount Albert's mayor, bankerFrank Ryan.She is the fifth of six siblings (four brothers and one sister). She has described her family as \"this big, sprawlingIrish Catholicfamily\",and while filming in Ireland for theDiscovery Channelin 2004, toldIreland on Sundaythat her father's family originated inQuilty, County Clare, Ireland. Her first musical was at age 10and she began acting in secondary school. She attendedMarist College, Auckland, and began studies atAuckland Universityin languages.At 18, she went on her \"overseas experience\", travelling through Europe and Australia with her future husband, Garth Lawless.At 21, she won the 1989 Mrs New Zealand competition. Lawless has said she suffered frombulimiaas a child, but was able to overcome the illness. Acting career Lawless's television debut was in the New Zealand sketch-comedy series,Funny Business. Then she studied drama at theWilliam Davis Centre for Actors StudyinVancouver, Canada. In 1994, Lawless appeared inHercules and the Amazon Women, that became the television pilot forHercules: The Legendary Journeys. Inthat episode, she played a man-hating Amazon named Lysia. She went on to play another character, Lyla, in the first-season episode \"As Darkness Falls\". Xena: Warrior Princess Lawless received her best-known role as a heroic warrior woman namedXenain the first season ofHercules. She first appeared in the episode \"The Warrior Princess\" which aired in March 1995. R. J. Stewart dramatised the teleplay from a story thatRobert G. \"Rob\" Tapertcommissioned John Schulian to write. The character became a fan favourite.Vanessa Angelwas originally cast in the role, but she fell ill and was unable to travel to New Zealand for shooting. To differentiate between Xena and the similar Lysia, Lawless's hair, previously an ash blonde, was dyed black. She also wore a much darker costume. Lawless returned as Xena in two more episodes of the first season ofHercules, which portrayed her turn from villainess to a good, heroic character. The character was popular enough that aspin-offseries was created:Xena: Warrior Princessdebuted on 4 September 1995.Xena: Warrior Princess, like its parent programme, was a huge hit and achieved high ratings and cultural significance, lasting six seasons. The series brought Lawless an immense amount of attention and she became an international celebrity. While taping an appearance onThe Tonight Show with Jay Lenoin October 1996, Lawless suffered a fractured pelvis when the horse she was riding lost its footing in the studio car park. She made a complete recovery, but several episodes of the second season ofXenawere rewritten to focus on background characters to minimise the time Lawless was needed on set. Other acting work Lawless first appeared onBroadwayin September 1997 in theGreaserevival, as the \"bad girl\" character Betty Rizzo. She wanted to play the lead role of Sandy and later stated her belief that the producers typecast her to play \"bad girls\" following her success as Xena. She said the Sandy character was very similar to her sheltered childhood, growing up in New Zealand with many protective older brothers. From 2005 to 2009, she had a recurring role in the television seriesBattlestar Galactica. Lawless appeared as D'Anna Biers, a reporter with the Fleet News Service who worked on a critical documentary about the crew of theGalacticaand was later revealed to beHumanoid Cylonmodel Number Three. Lawless has also performed as avoice actorin several animated features: In 2008, Lawless voiced the animated character ofDiana Prince/Wonder Womanin the direct-to-video superhero animated filmJustice League: The New Frontier, adapted from theDC Comicslimited series.In 2014, Lawless voiced the militaristic \"Queen of the Ants\" in the American animated television seriesAdventure Timeon theCartoon Network. In 2007, Lawless was to appear as one of the leads in the ensemble cast of theABCtelevision series,Football Wives, based on the popular British seriesFootballers' Wives. The series did not continue past the pilot episode, but the network extended the options on its contracts with Lawless and the other actors slated to star in the series, includingGabrielle Union,Kiele Sanchez,Ving Rhames, andJames Van Der Beek. Lawless returned to television on 10 November 2008 in a guest-starring role on theCBStelevision seriesCSI: Miami, in a Season 7 episode, \"Cheating Death\", playing a madam with connections to a murder and helpingHoratio \"H\" Cainewith his inquiries. In 2009, Lawless appeared in two episodes of the final season ofThe L Wordas Sergeant Marybeth Duffy.She played a role in theAdam SandlermovieBedtime Storiesreleased December 2008.Also in 2008, Lawless appeared with her formerXenastuntwomanZoë BellinSony(Crackle)'s new web seriesAngel of Death, written byEd Brubaker, which debuted online in early 2009.In 2009, Lawless guest-starred in theHBOseriesFlight of the Conchordsas Paula, assistant to thePrime Minister of New Zealand. Lawless co-starred in theStarzoriginal seriesSpartacus: Blood and Sand.The show was based on the life ofSpartacus, the famous gladiator, and the slave revolt he led, and was produced by long-timeXenaproducersSam Raimiand\"Rob\" Tapert, her own husband. Lawless played the role ofLucretia, the wife ofLentulus Batiatus, who were both the owners of a gladiatorludus, which also saw Lawless doingnude scenesfor the first time. Lawless won the 2011Saturn Awardas Best Supporting Actress for her role as Lucretia inSpartacus: Blood and Sand. Lawless reprised her role as Lucretia inSpartacus: Gods of the Arena, which chronicled life in the Ludus before Spartacus's arrival, and she also returned for the sequelSpartacus: Vengeance. Lawless provided the voice ofGoldmoonforDragonlance: Dragons of Autumn Twilight, a direct-to-DVD animated movie based on thenovelof the same name. From 2012 to 2014, she had a recurring role on the NBC seriesParks and Recreationas Diane, the love interest and eventual wife ofRon Swanson. In 2014, Lawless guest-starred inAgents of S.H.I.E.L.D.asIsabelle Hartleyin theseason two premiere,and reprised the role later in episode 15 of season two, \"One Door Closes\".In 2015, Lawless landed the recurring guest role ofCountess Palatine Ingrid Von MarburginWGN America'sSalem. Countess Marburg is presented as one of the last remaining survivors of the legendary line of ancient German witches. The series ended in 2017.In March 2015, it was announced that she would be portraying the role of Ruby inStarzhorror-comedy seriesAsh vs Evil Dead. The series ended in 2018. In 2019, Lawless began playing Alexa Crowe, a private investigator inMy Life Is Murder. TheAcorn TVseries began in 2019 and reached its third season in 2022. Filmmaking In 2023, Lawless co-wrote and directedNever Look Away, a film based on the life of New Zealand-bornCNNphotojournalist and camerawomanMargaret Moth. The film had its world premiere in the World Cinema Documentary Competition section of the 40thSundance Film FestivalinPark CityandSalt Lake City,Utah, in January 2024,and has gone on to feature at several other film festivals in 2024. Music Lawless, who has a background in musical theatre, played Betty Rizzo on Broadway in a production ofGreasein 1997.She continued to sing during the run ofXena, even contributing dirge music of her own composition; this made it into the episode \"The Path Not Taken\" as the dirge \"Burial\", which she sang for the first time in the episode. Two musically-oriented episodes, \"The Bitter Suite\" and \"Lyre, Lyre, Heart's on Fire\", also showcased not only her singing but also that of some of her castmates. (See alsoList ofXena: Warrior Princessepisodesfor details.) Lawless was encouraged to resume her singing career after being a contestant onCelebrity Duets, which she finished as runner-up toAlfonso Ribeiro.She made her solo debut at theRoxyin Hollywood, a venue of 500 seats, on 13 January 2007, with a sold-out crowd for consecutive concerts. LGBT rights icon Xena's ambiguous romantic relationship with travelling companionGabrielle(Renee O'Connor)led to Lawless becoming a lesbian icon, a role of which she has said she is proud.She has said that during the years she was playing the role, she had been undecided on the nature of the relationship,but in a 2003 interview withLesbian Newsmagazine, she said that after viewing the series finale, she had come to see Xena and Gabrielle's relationship as definitely gay, adding \"they're married, man\".This reputation became cemented after her \"graphic lesbian sex scenes\" inSpartacus: Gods of the Arena.She has appeared atgay prideevents such as theSydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras. For her support ofLGBT rights, including her public support for same-sex marriage,Lawless was given the Star 100–Ally of the Year award at the Australian LGBTI Awards ceremony in 2017. Other activities Lawless is a member of the board of trustees of the StarShip Foundation, the charity arm of theStarship Children's Healthwhich is part of the Auckland District Health Board.It is set up to provide additional equipment, support and help to staff, patients and families.She helps fundraising for the organisation. She recentlysat for the New Zealand television seriesThe Sitting,an arts series where celebrity portraits are produced during an interview session, with the portraits later auctioned for charity. Since 2006, 21 September marks \"Lucy Lawless Feel the Love Day/Week\". The day, organised by the Official Lucy Lawless Fan Club, begins a week of charitable acts and donations by fans in honour and support of Lawless. In May 2009 Lawless became a \"climate ambassador\" for theGreenpeace\"Sign On\" campaign. In February 2012, she and six other Greenpeace activists boarded an oil drilling ship atPort Taranaki, and remained on it for 77 hours to stop it leaving for theArcticwhere it was going to take part inoil exploration.She was subsequently arrested and charged with burglary, which carried an imprisonment term of up to 10 years if convicted.She pleaded guilty on 14 June 2012 to trespass charges regarding the February incident. Lawless said she intended for now to remain involved with Greenpeace.In February 2013, Lawless and the other six activists were each sentenced to pay a fine of NZ$651 and undertake 120 hours ofcommunity service. The judge denied the NZ$545,000 in reparations thatShell Todd Oil Serviceshad sought from the activists. Following the sentencing, Lawless said: \"I consider it a great victory that the court has struck down the reparation demand from Shell, which I think was absolutely ludicrous.\" Personal life In 1988, she became pregnant from her boyfriend Garth Lawless while working with him in the Australianoutback. They married inKalgoorlie, Western Australia, that year, then returned to New Zealand where their daughter was born. They divorced in 1995. On 28 March 1998, Lawless marriedXena'sexecutive producer, Pacific Renaissance Pictures CEORobert TapertatSt. Monica Catholic ChurchinSanta Monica, California.They have two sons. Recognition and awards In the2004 Queen's Birthday Honours, Lawless was appointed aMember of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to entertainment and the community. AstronomerMichael E. Brownnicknamed his newly discovereddwarf planet\"Xena\";its then-provisional designation being2003 UB313. When this object was initially determined to be larger thanPluto, it gained international attention and forced a year-long debate among astronomers as to thedefinition of a planet. (Observations made byNew Horizonssubsequently found Pluto to be marginally larger than the object, which was ultimately namedEris.) The object's nickname \"Xena\" was used in the press.New Scientistmagazine polled the public on their preferred final name for the so-called tenth planet; \"Xena\" ranked number 4.Lawless called Brown in December 2005 to thank him for his \"senseless act of beauty\", and claimed that she \"never dared hope would stick\".Eventually, both it and Pluto were deemed not to be true planets, and were instead classified as dwarf planets. Although \"Xena\" is now officially known as Eris, Brown made an indirect tribute to Lawless by naming Eris's moonDysnomiaafterthe Greek goddess of lawlessness. Awards and nominations Filmography Film Television Video games Stage Discography References External links"],"string":"[\n \"List ofXena: Warrior Princessepisodes Xena: Warrior Princessis an Americantelevision seriesthat was created byRobert Tapertand John Schulian.Xenais ahistorical fantasyset primarily inancient Greece, although it has a flexible time setting and occasionally featuresOriental,EgyptianandMedievalelements. The flexible fantasy framework of the show accommodates a considerable range of theatrical styles, from highmelodramatoslapstickcomedy, from whimsical andmusicalto all-outactionandadventure. While the show is typically set in ancient times, its themes are essentially modern and it investigates the ideas of taking responsibility for past misdeeds, the value of human life, personal liberty and sacrifice, and friendship. The show often addresses ethical dilemmas, such as the morality ofpacifism; however, the storylines rarely seek to provide unequivocal solutions. The character of Xena debuted on March 13, 1995, on the TV seriesHercules: The Legendary Journeys. Three episodes featuring Xena, collectively calledThe Xena Trilogy, initially aired as part of the first season ofHercules: The Legendary Journeys.Xena's own series began on September 4, 1995.The series ran for six seasons and 134 episodes until its final episode aired on June 23, 2001. The series won anEmmy Awardin 2001, and was ranked in #10 in TV Guide's Top 25 Cult TV Shows of All Time. Series overview Episodes Introductory episodes (1995) The program and its namesake character are introduced during the first season ofHercules: The Legendary Journeys. TheHercules: The Legendary Journeysepisodes, \\\"The Warrior Princess\\\", \\\"The Gauntlet\\\" and \\\"Unchained Heart\\\", served aspilot episodesfor the show. Season 1 (1995–96) Season 2 (1996–97) Season 3 (1997–98) Season 4 (1998–99) Season 5 (1999–2000) Season 6 (2000–01) Home media release References External links\",\n \"Lucy Lawless Lucille Frances LawlessMNZM(néeRyan; born 29 March 1968) is a New Zealand actress. She is best known for her roles asXenain the television seriesXena: Warrior Princess, asD'Anna Bierson the re-imaginedBattlestar Galacticaseries, andLucretiain the television seriesSpartacus: Blood and Sandand associated series. Since 2019, she has starred as Alexa in the television seriesMy Life Is Murder. Lawless had recurring roles as Diane Lewis-Swanson on theNBCsitcomParks and Recreation(2012–2014), and asCountess Palatine Ingrid Von Marburgon theWGN Americasupernatural seriesSalem(2015). She also starred as Ruby on theStarzhorror-comedy seriesAsh vs Evil Dead(2015–2018). Early life and education Lucille Frances \\\"Lucy\\\" Ryan was born on 29 March 1968in theAucklandsuburb ofMount Albertto teacher Julie Ryan (née Haynes) and Mount Albert's mayor, bankerFrank Ryan.She is the fifth of six siblings (four brothers and one sister). She has described her family as \\\"this big, sprawlingIrish Catholicfamily\\\",and while filming in Ireland for theDiscovery Channelin 2004, toldIreland on Sundaythat her father's family originated inQuilty, County Clare, Ireland. Her first musical was at age 10and she began acting in secondary school. She attendedMarist College, Auckland, and began studies atAuckland Universityin languages.At 18, she went on her \\\"overseas experience\\\", travelling through Europe and Australia with her future husband, Garth Lawless.At 21, she won the 1989 Mrs New Zealand competition. Lawless has said she suffered frombulimiaas a child, but was able to overcome the illness. Acting career Lawless's television debut was in the New Zealand sketch-comedy series,Funny Business. Then she studied drama at theWilliam Davis Centre for Actors StudyinVancouver, Canada. In 1994, Lawless appeared inHercules and the Amazon Women, that became the television pilot forHercules: The Legendary Journeys. Inthat episode, she played a man-hating Amazon named Lysia. She went on to play another character, Lyla, in the first-season episode \\\"As Darkness Falls\\\". Xena: Warrior Princess Lawless received her best-known role as a heroic warrior woman namedXenain the first season ofHercules. She first appeared in the episode \\\"The Warrior Princess\\\" which aired in March 1995. R. J. Stewart dramatised the teleplay from a story thatRobert G. \\\"Rob\\\" Tapertcommissioned John Schulian to write. The character became a fan favourite.Vanessa Angelwas originally cast in the role, but she fell ill and was unable to travel to New Zealand for shooting. To differentiate between Xena and the similar Lysia, Lawless's hair, previously an ash blonde, was dyed black. She also wore a much darker costume. Lawless returned as Xena in two more episodes of the first season ofHercules, which portrayed her turn from villainess to a good, heroic character. The character was popular enough that aspin-offseries was created:Xena: Warrior Princessdebuted on 4 September 1995.Xena: Warrior Princess, like its parent programme, was a huge hit and achieved high ratings and cultural significance, lasting six seasons. The series brought Lawless an immense amount of attention and she became an international celebrity. While taping an appearance onThe Tonight Show with Jay Lenoin October 1996, Lawless suffered a fractured pelvis when the horse she was riding lost its footing in the studio car park. She made a complete recovery, but several episodes of the second season ofXenawere rewritten to focus on background characters to minimise the time Lawless was needed on set. Other acting work Lawless first appeared onBroadwayin September 1997 in theGreaserevival, as the \\\"bad girl\\\" character Betty Rizzo. She wanted to play the lead role of Sandy and later stated her belief that the producers typecast her to play \\\"bad girls\\\" following her success as Xena. She said the Sandy character was very similar to her sheltered childhood, growing up in New Zealand with many protective older brothers. From 2005 to 2009, she had a recurring role in the television seriesBattlestar Galactica. Lawless appeared as D'Anna Biers, a reporter with the Fleet News Service who worked on a critical documentary about the crew of theGalacticaand was later revealed to beHumanoid Cylonmodel Number Three. Lawless has also performed as avoice actorin several animated features: In 2008, Lawless voiced the animated character ofDiana Prince/Wonder Womanin the direct-to-video superhero animated filmJustice League: The New Frontier, adapted from theDC Comicslimited series.In 2014, Lawless voiced the militaristic \\\"Queen of the Ants\\\" in the American animated television seriesAdventure Timeon theCartoon Network. In 2007, Lawless was to appear as one of the leads in the ensemble cast of theABCtelevision series,Football Wives, based on the popular British seriesFootballers' Wives. The series did not continue past the pilot episode, but the network extended the options on its contracts with Lawless and the other actors slated to star in the series, includingGabrielle Union,Kiele Sanchez,Ving Rhames, andJames Van Der Beek. Lawless returned to television on 10 November 2008 in a guest-starring role on theCBStelevision seriesCSI: Miami, in a Season 7 episode, \\\"Cheating Death\\\", playing a madam with connections to a murder and helpingHoratio \\\"H\\\" Cainewith his inquiries. In 2009, Lawless appeared in two episodes of the final season ofThe L Wordas Sergeant Marybeth Duffy.She played a role in theAdam SandlermovieBedtime Storiesreleased December 2008.Also in 2008, Lawless appeared with her formerXenastuntwomanZoë BellinSony(Crackle)'s new web seriesAngel of Death, written byEd Brubaker, which debuted online in early 2009.In 2009, Lawless guest-starred in theHBOseriesFlight of the Conchordsas Paula, assistant to thePrime Minister of New Zealand. Lawless co-starred in theStarzoriginal seriesSpartacus: Blood and Sand.The show was based on the life ofSpartacus, the famous gladiator, and the slave revolt he led, and was produced by long-timeXenaproducersSam Raimiand\\\"Rob\\\" Tapert, her own husband. Lawless played the role ofLucretia, the wife ofLentulus Batiatus, who were both the owners of a gladiatorludus, which also saw Lawless doingnude scenesfor the first time. Lawless won the 2011Saturn Awardas Best Supporting Actress for her role as Lucretia inSpartacus: Blood and Sand. Lawless reprised her role as Lucretia inSpartacus: Gods of the Arena, which chronicled life in the Ludus before Spartacus's arrival, and she also returned for the sequelSpartacus: Vengeance. Lawless provided the voice ofGoldmoonforDragonlance: Dragons of Autumn Twilight, a direct-to-DVD animated movie based on thenovelof the same name. From 2012 to 2014, she had a recurring role on the NBC seriesParks and Recreationas Diane, the love interest and eventual wife ofRon Swanson. In 2014, Lawless guest-starred inAgents of S.H.I.E.L.D.asIsabelle Hartleyin theseason two premiere,and reprised the role later in episode 15 of season two, \\\"One Door Closes\\\".In 2015, Lawless landed the recurring guest role ofCountess Palatine Ingrid Von MarburginWGN America'sSalem. Countess Marburg is presented as one of the last remaining survivors of the legendary line of ancient German witches. The series ended in 2017.In March 2015, it was announced that she would be portraying the role of Ruby inStarzhorror-comedy seriesAsh vs Evil Dead. The series ended in 2018. In 2019, Lawless began playing Alexa Crowe, a private investigator inMy Life Is Murder. TheAcorn TVseries began in 2019 and reached its third season in 2022. Filmmaking In 2023, Lawless co-wrote and directedNever Look Away, a film based on the life of New Zealand-bornCNNphotojournalist and camerawomanMargaret Moth. The film had its world premiere in the World Cinema Documentary Competition section of the 40thSundance Film FestivalinPark CityandSalt Lake City,Utah, in January 2024,and has gone on to feature at several other film festivals in 2024. Music Lawless, who has a background in musical theatre, played Betty Rizzo on Broadway in a production ofGreasein 1997.She continued to sing during the run ofXena, even contributing dirge music of her own composition; this made it into the episode \\\"The Path Not Taken\\\" as the dirge \\\"Burial\\\", which she sang for the first time in the episode. Two musically-oriented episodes, \\\"The Bitter Suite\\\" and \\\"Lyre, Lyre, Heart's on Fire\\\", also showcased not only her singing but also that of some of her castmates. (See alsoList ofXena: Warrior Princessepisodesfor details.) Lawless was encouraged to resume her singing career after being a contestant onCelebrity Duets, which she finished as runner-up toAlfonso Ribeiro.She made her solo debut at theRoxyin Hollywood, a venue of 500 seats, on 13 January 2007, with a sold-out crowd for consecutive concerts. LGBT rights icon Xena's ambiguous romantic relationship with travelling companionGabrielle(Renee O'Connor)led to Lawless becoming a lesbian icon, a role of which she has said she is proud.She has said that during the years she was playing the role, she had been undecided on the nature of the relationship,but in a 2003 interview withLesbian Newsmagazine, she said that after viewing the series finale, she had come to see Xena and Gabrielle's relationship as definitely gay, adding \\\"they're married, man\\\".This reputation became cemented after her \\\"graphic lesbian sex scenes\\\" inSpartacus: Gods of the Arena.She has appeared atgay prideevents such as theSydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras. For her support ofLGBT rights, including her public support for same-sex marriage,Lawless was given the Star 100–Ally of the Year award at the Australian LGBTI Awards ceremony in 2017. Other activities Lawless is a member of the board of trustees of the StarShip Foundation, the charity arm of theStarship Children's Healthwhich is part of the Auckland District Health Board.It is set up to provide additional equipment, support and help to staff, patients and families.She helps fundraising for the organisation. She recentlysat for the New Zealand television seriesThe Sitting,an arts series where celebrity portraits are produced during an interview session, with the portraits later auctioned for charity. Since 2006, 21 September marks \\\"Lucy Lawless Feel the Love Day/Week\\\". The day, organised by the Official Lucy Lawless Fan Club, begins a week of charitable acts and donations by fans in honour and support of Lawless. In May 2009 Lawless became a \\\"climate ambassador\\\" for theGreenpeace\\\"Sign On\\\" campaign. In February 2012, she and six other Greenpeace activists boarded an oil drilling ship atPort Taranaki, and remained on it for 77 hours to stop it leaving for theArcticwhere it was going to take part inoil exploration.She was subsequently arrested and charged with burglary, which carried an imprisonment term of up to 10 years if convicted.She pleaded guilty on 14 June 2012 to trespass charges regarding the February incident. Lawless said she intended for now to remain involved with Greenpeace.In February 2013, Lawless and the other six activists were each sentenced to pay a fine of NZ$651 and undertake 120 hours ofcommunity service. The judge denied the NZ$545,000 in reparations thatShell Todd Oil Serviceshad sought from the activists. Following the sentencing, Lawless said: \\\"I consider it a great victory that the court has struck down the reparation demand from Shell, which I think was absolutely ludicrous.\\\" Personal life In 1988, she became pregnant from her boyfriend Garth Lawless while working with him in the Australianoutback. They married inKalgoorlie, Western Australia, that year, then returned to New Zealand where their daughter was born. They divorced in 1995. On 28 March 1998, Lawless marriedXena'sexecutive producer, Pacific Renaissance Pictures CEORobert TapertatSt. Monica Catholic ChurchinSanta Monica, California.They have two sons. Recognition and awards In the2004 Queen's Birthday Honours, Lawless was appointed aMember of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to entertainment and the community. AstronomerMichael E. Brownnicknamed his newly discovereddwarf planet\\\"Xena\\\";its then-provisional designation being2003 UB313. When this object was initially determined to be larger thanPluto, it gained international attention and forced a year-long debate among astronomers as to thedefinition of a planet. (Observations made byNew Horizonssubsequently found Pluto to be marginally larger than the object, which was ultimately namedEris.) The object's nickname \\\"Xena\\\" was used in the press.New Scientistmagazine polled the public on their preferred final name for the so-called tenth planet; \\\"Xena\\\" ranked number 4.Lawless called Brown in December 2005 to thank him for his \\\"senseless act of beauty\\\", and claimed that she \\\"never dared hope would stick\\\".Eventually, both it and Pluto were deemed not to be true planets, and were instead classified as dwarf planets. Although \\\"Xena\\\" is now officially known as Eris, Brown made an indirect tribute to Lawless by naming Eris's moonDysnomiaafterthe Greek goddess of lawlessness. Awards and nominations Filmography Film Television Video games Stage Discography References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["List ofXena: Warrior Princessepisodes Xena: Warrior Princessis an Americantelevision seriesthat was created byRobert Tapertand John Schulian.Xenais ahistorical fantasyset primarily inancient Greece, although it has a flexible time setting and occasionally featuresOriental,EgyptianandMedievalelements. The flexible fantasy framework of the show accommodates a considerable range of theatrical styles, from highmelodramatoslapstickcomedy, from whimsical andmusicalto all-outactionandadventure. While the show is typically set in ancient times, its themes are essentially modern and it investigates the ideas of taking responsibility for past misdeeds, the value of human life, personal liberty and sacrifice, and friendship. The show often addresses ethical dilemmas, such as the morality ofpacifism; however, the storylines rarely seek to provide unequivocal solutions. The character of Xena debuted on March 13, 1995, on the TV seriesHercules: The Legendary Journeys. Three episodes featuring Xena, collectively calledThe","calledThe Xena Trilogy, initially aired as part of the first season ofHercules: The Legendary Journeys.Xena's own series began on September 4, 1995.The series ran for six seasons and 134 episodes until its final episode aired on June 23, 2001. The series won anEmmy Awardin 2001, and was ranked in #10 in TV Guide's Top 25 Cult TV Shows of All Time. Series overview Episodes Introductory episodes (1995) The program and its namesake character are introduced during the first season ofHercules: The Legendary Journeys. TheHercules: The Legendary Journeysepisodes, \"The Warrior Princess\", \"The Gauntlet\" and \"Unchained Heart\", served aspilot episodesfor the show. Season 1 (1995–96) Season 2 (1996–97) Season 3 (1997–98) Season 4 (1998–99) Season 5 (1999–2000) Season 6 (2000–01) Home media release References External links","Lucy Lawless Lucille Frances LawlessMNZM(néeRyan; born 29 March 1968) is a New Zealand actress. She is best known for her roles asXenain the television seriesXena: Warrior Princess, asD'Anna Bierson the re-imaginedBattlestar Galacticaseries, andLucretiain the television seriesSpartacus: Blood and Sandand associated series. Since 2019, she has starred as Alexa in the television seriesMy Life Is Murder. Lawless had recurring roles as Diane Lewis-Swanson on theNBCsitcomParks and Recreation(2012–2014), and asCountess Palatine Ingrid Von Marburgon theWGN Americasupernatural seriesSalem(2015). She also starred as Ruby on theStarzhorror-comedy seriesAsh vs Evil Dead(2015–2018). Early life and education Lucille Frances \"Lucy\" Ryan was born on 29 March 1968in theAucklandsuburb ofMount Albertto teacher Julie Ryan (née Haynes) and Mount Albert's mayor, bankerFrank Ryan.She is the fifth of six siblings (four brothers and one sister). She has described her family as \"this big, sprawlingIrish Catholicfamily\",and while","while filming in Ireland for theDiscovery Channelin 2004, toldIreland on Sundaythat her father's family originated inQuilty, County Clare, Ireland. Her first musical was at age 10and she began acting in secondary school. She attendedMarist College, Auckland, and began studies atAuckland Universityin languages.At 18, she went on her \"overseas experience\", travelling through Europe and Australia with her future husband, Garth Lawless.At 21, she won the 1989 Mrs New Zealand competition. Lawless has said she suffered frombulimiaas a child, but was able to overcome the illness. Acting career Lawless's television debut was in the New Zealand sketch-comedy series,Funny Business. Then she studied drama at theWilliam Davis Centre for Actors StudyinVancouver, Canada. In 1994, Lawless appeared inHercules and the Amazon Women, that became the television pilot forHercules: The Legendary Journeys. Inthat episode, she played a man-hating Amazon named Lysia. She went on to play another character, Lyla, in the first-season","in the first-season episode \"As Darkness Falls\". Xena: Warrior Princess Lawless received her best-known role as a heroic warrior woman namedXenain the first season ofHercules. She first appeared in the episode \"The Warrior Princess\" which aired in March 1995. R. J. Stewart dramatised the teleplay from a story thatRobert G. \"Rob\" Tapertcommissioned John Schulian to write. The character became a fan favourite.Vanessa Angelwas originally cast in the role, but she fell ill and was unable to travel to New Zealand for shooting. To differentiate between Xena and the similar Lysia, Lawless's hair, previously an ash blonde, was dyed black. She also wore a much darker costume. Lawless returned as Xena in two more episodes of the first season ofHercules, which portrayed her turn from villainess to a good, heroic character. The character was popular enough that aspin-offseries was created:Xena: Warrior Princessdebuted on 4 September 1995.Xena: Warrior Princess, like its parent programme, was a huge hit and achieved high","and achieved high ratings and cultural significance, lasting six seasons. The series brought Lawless an immense amount of attention and she became an international celebrity. While taping an appearance onThe Tonight Show with Jay Lenoin October 1996, Lawless suffered a fractured pelvis when the horse she was riding lost its footing in the studio car park. She made a complete recovery, but several episodes of the second season ofXenawere rewritten to focus on background characters to minimise the time Lawless was needed on set. Other acting work Lawless first appeared onBroadwayin September 1997 in theGreaserevival, as the \"bad girl\" character Betty Rizzo. She wanted to play the lead role of Sandy and later stated her belief that the producers typecast her to play \"bad girls\" following her success as Xena. She said the Sandy character was very similar to her sheltered childhood, growing up in New Zealand with many protective older brothers. From 2005 to 2009, she had a recurring role in the television","in the television seriesBattlestar Galactica. Lawless appeared as D'Anna Biers, a reporter with the Fleet News Service who worked on a critical documentary about the crew of theGalacticaand was later revealed to beHumanoid Cylonmodel Number Three. Lawless has also performed as avoice actorin several animated features: In 2008, Lawless voiced the animated character ofDiana Prince/Wonder Womanin the direct-to-video superhero animated filmJustice League: The New Frontier, adapted from theDC Comicslimited series.In 2014, Lawless voiced the militaristic \"Queen of the Ants\" in the American animated television seriesAdventure Timeon theCartoon Network. In 2007, Lawless was to appear as one of the leads in the ensemble cast of theABCtelevision series,Football Wives, based on the popular British seriesFootballers' Wives. The series did not continue past the pilot episode, but the network extended the options on its contracts with Lawless and the other actors slated to star in the series, includingGabrielle","includingGabrielle Union,Kiele Sanchez,Ving Rhames, andJames Van Der Beek. Lawless returned to television on 10 November 2008 in a guest-starring role on theCBStelevision seriesCSI: Miami, in a Season 7 episode, \"Cheating Death\", playing a madam with connections to a murder and helpingHoratio \"H\" Cainewith his inquiries. In 2009, Lawless appeared in two episodes of the final season ofThe L Wordas Sergeant Marybeth Duffy.She played a role in theAdam SandlermovieBedtime Storiesreleased December 2008.Also in 2008, Lawless appeared with her formerXenastuntwomanZoë BellinSony(Crackle)'s new web seriesAngel of Death, written byEd Brubaker, which debuted online in early 2009.In 2009, Lawless guest-starred in theHBOseriesFlight of the Conchordsas Paula, assistant to thePrime Minister of New Zealand. Lawless co-starred in theStarzoriginal seriesSpartacus: Blood and Sand.The show was based on the life ofSpartacus, the famous gladiator, and the slave revolt he led, and was produced by long-timeXenaproducersSam","Raimiand\"Rob\" Tapert, her own husband. Lawless played the role ofLucretia, the wife ofLentulus Batiatus, who were both the owners of a gladiatorludus, which also saw Lawless doingnude scenesfor the first time. Lawless won the 2011Saturn Awardas Best Supporting Actress for her role as Lucretia inSpartacus: Blood and Sand. Lawless reprised her role as Lucretia inSpartacus: Gods of the Arena, which chronicled life in the Ludus before Spartacus's arrival, and she also returned for the sequelSpartacus: Vengeance. Lawless provided the voice ofGoldmoonforDragonlance: Dragons of Autumn Twilight, a direct-to-DVD animated movie based on thenovelof the same name. From 2012 to 2014, she had a recurring role on the NBC seriesParks and Recreationas Diane, the love interest and eventual wife ofRon Swanson. In 2014, Lawless guest-starred inAgents of S.H.I.E.L.D.asIsabelle Hartleyin theseason two premiere,and reprised the role later in episode 15 of season two, \"One Door Closes\".In 2015, Lawless landed the recurring guest","the recurring guest role ofCountess Palatine Ingrid Von MarburginWGN America'sSalem. Countess Marburg is presented as one of the last remaining survivors of the legendary line of ancient German witches. The series ended in 2017.In March 2015, it was announced that she would be portraying the role of Ruby inStarzhorror-comedy seriesAsh vs Evil Dead. The series ended in 2018. In 2019, Lawless began playing Alexa Crowe, a private investigator inMy Life Is Murder. TheAcorn TVseries began in 2019 and reached its third season in 2022. Filmmaking In 2023, Lawless co-wrote and directedNever Look Away, a film based on the life of New Zealand-bornCNNphotojournalist and camerawomanMargaret Moth. The film had its world premiere in the World Cinema Documentary Competition section of the 40thSundance Film FestivalinPark CityandSalt Lake City,Utah, in January 2024,and has gone on to feature at several other film festivals in 2024. Music Lawless, who has a background in musical theatre, played Betty Rizzo on Broadway in a","on Broadway in a production ofGreasein 1997.She continued to sing during the run ofXena, even contributing dirge music of her own composition; this made it into the episode \"The Path Not Taken\" as the dirge \"Burial\", which she sang for the first time in the episode. Two musically-oriented episodes, \"The Bitter Suite\" and \"Lyre, Lyre, Heart's on Fire\", also showcased not only her singing but also that of some of her castmates. (See alsoList ofXena: Warrior Princessepisodesfor details.) Lawless was encouraged to resume her singing career after being a contestant onCelebrity Duets, which she finished as runner-up toAlfonso Ribeiro.She made her solo debut at theRoxyin Hollywood, a venue of 500 seats, on 13 January 2007, with a sold-out crowd for consecutive concerts. LGBT rights icon Xena's ambiguous romantic relationship with travelling companionGabrielle(Renee O'Connor)led to Lawless becoming a lesbian icon, a role of which she has said she is proud.She has said that during the years she was playing the role,","playing the role, she had been undecided on the nature of the relationship,but in a 2003 interview withLesbian Newsmagazine, she said that after viewing the series finale, she had come to see Xena and Gabrielle's relationship as definitely gay, adding \"they're married, man\".This reputation became cemented after her \"graphic lesbian sex scenes\" inSpartacus: Gods of the Arena.She has appeared atgay prideevents such as theSydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras. For her support ofLGBT rights, including her public support for same-sex marriage,Lawless was given the Star 100–Ally of the Year award at the Australian LGBTI Awards ceremony in 2017. Other activities Lawless is a member of the board of trustees of the StarShip Foundation, the charity arm of theStarship Children's Healthwhich is part of the Auckland District Health Board.It is set up to provide additional equipment, support and help to staff, patients and families.She helps fundraising for the organisation. She recentlysat for the New Zealand television","Zealand television seriesThe Sitting,an arts series where celebrity portraits are produced during an interview session, with the portraits later auctioned for charity. Since 2006, 21 September marks \"Lucy Lawless Feel the Love Day/Week\". The day, organised by the Official Lucy Lawless Fan Club, begins a week of charitable acts and donations by fans in honour and support of Lawless. In May 2009 Lawless became a \"climate ambassador\" for theGreenpeace\"Sign On\" campaign. In February 2012, she and six other Greenpeace activists boarded an oil drilling ship atPort Taranaki, and remained on it for 77 hours to stop it leaving for theArcticwhere it was going to take part inoil exploration.She was subsequently arrested and charged with burglary, which carried an imprisonment term of up to 10 years if convicted.She pleaded guilty on 14 June 2012 to trespass charges regarding the February incident. Lawless said she intended for now to remain involved with Greenpeace.In February 2013, Lawless and the other six activists","other six activists were each sentenced to pay a fine of NZ$651 and undertake 120 hours ofcommunity service. The judge denied the NZ$545,000 in reparations thatShell Todd Oil Serviceshad sought from the activists. Following the sentencing, Lawless said: \"I consider it a great victory that the court has struck down the reparation demand from Shell, which I think was absolutely ludicrous.\" Personal life In 1988, she became pregnant from her boyfriend Garth Lawless while working with him in the Australianoutback. They married inKalgoorlie, Western Australia, that year, then returned to New Zealand where their daughter was born. They divorced in 1995. On 28 March 1998, Lawless marriedXena'sexecutive producer, Pacific Renaissance Pictures CEORobert TapertatSt. Monica Catholic ChurchinSanta Monica, California.They have two sons. Recognition and awards In the2004 Queen's Birthday Honours, Lawless was appointed aMember of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to entertainment and the community.","and the community. AstronomerMichael E. Brownnicknamed his newly discovereddwarf planet\"Xena\";its then-provisional designation being2003 UB313. When this object was initially determined to be larger thanPluto, it gained international attention and forced a year-long debate among astronomers as to thedefinition of a planet. (Observations made byNew Horizonssubsequently found Pluto to be marginally larger than the object, which was ultimately namedEris.) The object's nickname \"Xena\" was used in the press.New Scientistmagazine polled the public on their preferred final name for the so-called tenth planet; \"Xena\" ranked number 4.Lawless called Brown in December 2005 to thank him for his \"senseless act of beauty\", and claimed that she \"never dared hope would stick\".Eventually, both it and Pluto were deemed not to be true planets, and were instead classified as dwarf planets. Although \"Xena\" is now officially known as Eris, Brown made an indirect tribute to Lawless by naming Eris's moonDysnomiaafterthe Greek","Greek goddess of lawlessness. Awards and nominations Filmography Film Television Video games Stage Discography References External links"],"string":"[\n \"List ofXena: Warrior Princessepisodes Xena: Warrior Princessis an Americantelevision seriesthat was created byRobert Tapertand John Schulian.Xenais ahistorical fantasyset primarily inancient Greece, although it has a flexible time setting and occasionally featuresOriental,EgyptianandMedievalelements. The flexible fantasy framework of the show accommodates a considerable range of theatrical styles, from highmelodramatoslapstickcomedy, from whimsical andmusicalto all-outactionandadventure. While the show is typically set in ancient times, its themes are essentially modern and it investigates the ideas of taking responsibility for past misdeeds, the value of human life, personal liberty and sacrifice, and friendship. The show often addresses ethical dilemmas, such as the morality ofpacifism; however, the storylines rarely seek to provide unequivocal solutions. The character of Xena debuted on March 13, 1995, on the TV seriesHercules: The Legendary Journeys. Three episodes featuring Xena, collectively calledThe\",\n \"calledThe Xena Trilogy, initially aired as part of the first season ofHercules: The Legendary Journeys.Xena's own series began on September 4, 1995.The series ran for six seasons and 134 episodes until its final episode aired on June 23, 2001. The series won anEmmy Awardin 2001, and was ranked in #10 in TV Guide's Top 25 Cult TV Shows of All Time. Series overview Episodes Introductory episodes (1995) The program and its namesake character are introduced during the first season ofHercules: The Legendary Journeys. TheHercules: The Legendary Journeysepisodes, \\\"The Warrior Princess\\\", \\\"The Gauntlet\\\" and \\\"Unchained Heart\\\", served aspilot episodesfor the show. Season 1 (1995–96) Season 2 (1996–97) Season 3 (1997–98) Season 4 (1998–99) Season 5 (1999–2000) Season 6 (2000–01) Home media release References External links\",\n \"Lucy Lawless Lucille Frances LawlessMNZM(néeRyan; born 29 March 1968) is a New Zealand actress. She is best known for her roles asXenain the television seriesXena: Warrior Princess, asD'Anna Bierson the re-imaginedBattlestar Galacticaseries, andLucretiain the television seriesSpartacus: Blood and Sandand associated series. Since 2019, she has starred as Alexa in the television seriesMy Life Is Murder. Lawless had recurring roles as Diane Lewis-Swanson on theNBCsitcomParks and Recreation(2012–2014), and asCountess Palatine Ingrid Von Marburgon theWGN Americasupernatural seriesSalem(2015). She also starred as Ruby on theStarzhorror-comedy seriesAsh vs Evil Dead(2015–2018). Early life and education Lucille Frances \\\"Lucy\\\" Ryan was born on 29 March 1968in theAucklandsuburb ofMount Albertto teacher Julie Ryan (née Haynes) and Mount Albert's mayor, bankerFrank Ryan.She is the fifth of six siblings (four brothers and one sister). She has described her family as \\\"this big, sprawlingIrish Catholicfamily\\\",and while\",\n \"while filming in Ireland for theDiscovery Channelin 2004, toldIreland on Sundaythat her father's family originated inQuilty, County Clare, Ireland. Her first musical was at age 10and she began acting in secondary school. She attendedMarist College, Auckland, and began studies atAuckland Universityin languages.At 18, she went on her \\\"overseas experience\\\", travelling through Europe and Australia with her future husband, Garth Lawless.At 21, she won the 1989 Mrs New Zealand competition. Lawless has said she suffered frombulimiaas a child, but was able to overcome the illness. Acting career Lawless's television debut was in the New Zealand sketch-comedy series,Funny Business. Then she studied drama at theWilliam Davis Centre for Actors StudyinVancouver, Canada. In 1994, Lawless appeared inHercules and the Amazon Women, that became the television pilot forHercules: The Legendary Journeys. Inthat episode, she played a man-hating Amazon named Lysia. She went on to play another character, Lyla, in the first-season\",\n \"in the first-season episode \\\"As Darkness Falls\\\". Xena: Warrior Princess Lawless received her best-known role as a heroic warrior woman namedXenain the first season ofHercules. She first appeared in the episode \\\"The Warrior Princess\\\" which aired in March 1995. R. J. Stewart dramatised the teleplay from a story thatRobert G. \\\"Rob\\\" Tapertcommissioned John Schulian to write. The character became a fan favourite.Vanessa Angelwas originally cast in the role, but she fell ill and was unable to travel to New Zealand for shooting. To differentiate between Xena and the similar Lysia, Lawless's hair, previously an ash blonde, was dyed black. She also wore a much darker costume. Lawless returned as Xena in two more episodes of the first season ofHercules, which portrayed her turn from villainess to a good, heroic character. The character was popular enough that aspin-offseries was created:Xena: Warrior Princessdebuted on 4 September 1995.Xena: Warrior Princess, like its parent programme, was a huge hit and achieved high\",\n \"and achieved high ratings and cultural significance, lasting six seasons. The series brought Lawless an immense amount of attention and she became an international celebrity. While taping an appearance onThe Tonight Show with Jay Lenoin October 1996, Lawless suffered a fractured pelvis when the horse she was riding lost its footing in the studio car park. She made a complete recovery, but several episodes of the second season ofXenawere rewritten to focus on background characters to minimise the time Lawless was needed on set. Other acting work Lawless first appeared onBroadwayin September 1997 in theGreaserevival, as the \\\"bad girl\\\" character Betty Rizzo. She wanted to play the lead role of Sandy and later stated her belief that the producers typecast her to play \\\"bad girls\\\" following her success as Xena. She said the Sandy character was very similar to her sheltered childhood, growing up in New Zealand with many protective older brothers. From 2005 to 2009, she had a recurring role in the television\",\n \"in the television seriesBattlestar Galactica. Lawless appeared as D'Anna Biers, a reporter with the Fleet News Service who worked on a critical documentary about the crew of theGalacticaand was later revealed to beHumanoid Cylonmodel Number Three. Lawless has also performed as avoice actorin several animated features: In 2008, Lawless voiced the animated character ofDiana Prince/Wonder Womanin the direct-to-video superhero animated filmJustice League: The New Frontier, adapted from theDC Comicslimited series.In 2014, Lawless voiced the militaristic \\\"Queen of the Ants\\\" in the American animated television seriesAdventure Timeon theCartoon Network. In 2007, Lawless was to appear as one of the leads in the ensemble cast of theABCtelevision series,Football Wives, based on the popular British seriesFootballers' Wives. The series did not continue past the pilot episode, but the network extended the options on its contracts with Lawless and the other actors slated to star in the series, includingGabrielle\",\n \"includingGabrielle Union,Kiele Sanchez,Ving Rhames, andJames Van Der Beek. Lawless returned to television on 10 November 2008 in a guest-starring role on theCBStelevision seriesCSI: Miami, in a Season 7 episode, \\\"Cheating Death\\\", playing a madam with connections to a murder and helpingHoratio \\\"H\\\" Cainewith his inquiries. In 2009, Lawless appeared in two episodes of the final season ofThe L Wordas Sergeant Marybeth Duffy.She played a role in theAdam SandlermovieBedtime Storiesreleased December 2008.Also in 2008, Lawless appeared with her formerXenastuntwomanZoë BellinSony(Crackle)'s new web seriesAngel of Death, written byEd Brubaker, which debuted online in early 2009.In 2009, Lawless guest-starred in theHBOseriesFlight of the Conchordsas Paula, assistant to thePrime Minister of New Zealand. Lawless co-starred in theStarzoriginal seriesSpartacus: Blood and Sand.The show was based on the life ofSpartacus, the famous gladiator, and the slave revolt he led, and was produced by long-timeXenaproducersSam\",\n \"Raimiand\\\"Rob\\\" Tapert, her own husband. Lawless played the role ofLucretia, the wife ofLentulus Batiatus, who were both the owners of a gladiatorludus, which also saw Lawless doingnude scenesfor the first time. Lawless won the 2011Saturn Awardas Best Supporting Actress for her role as Lucretia inSpartacus: Blood and Sand. Lawless reprised her role as Lucretia inSpartacus: Gods of the Arena, which chronicled life in the Ludus before Spartacus's arrival, and she also returned for the sequelSpartacus: Vengeance. Lawless provided the voice ofGoldmoonforDragonlance: Dragons of Autumn Twilight, a direct-to-DVD animated movie based on thenovelof the same name. From 2012 to 2014, she had a recurring role on the NBC seriesParks and Recreationas Diane, the love interest and eventual wife ofRon Swanson. In 2014, Lawless guest-starred inAgents of S.H.I.E.L.D.asIsabelle Hartleyin theseason two premiere,and reprised the role later in episode 15 of season two, \\\"One Door Closes\\\".In 2015, Lawless landed the recurring guest\",\n \"the recurring guest role ofCountess Palatine Ingrid Von MarburginWGN America'sSalem. Countess Marburg is presented as one of the last remaining survivors of the legendary line of ancient German witches. The series ended in 2017.In March 2015, it was announced that she would be portraying the role of Ruby inStarzhorror-comedy seriesAsh vs Evil Dead. The series ended in 2018. In 2019, Lawless began playing Alexa Crowe, a private investigator inMy Life Is Murder. TheAcorn TVseries began in 2019 and reached its third season in 2022. Filmmaking In 2023, Lawless co-wrote and directedNever Look Away, a film based on the life of New Zealand-bornCNNphotojournalist and camerawomanMargaret Moth. The film had its world premiere in the World Cinema Documentary Competition section of the 40thSundance Film FestivalinPark CityandSalt Lake City,Utah, in January 2024,and has gone on to feature at several other film festivals in 2024. Music Lawless, who has a background in musical theatre, played Betty Rizzo on Broadway in a\",\n \"on Broadway in a production ofGreasein 1997.She continued to sing during the run ofXena, even contributing dirge music of her own composition; this made it into the episode \\\"The Path Not Taken\\\" as the dirge \\\"Burial\\\", which she sang for the first time in the episode. Two musically-oriented episodes, \\\"The Bitter Suite\\\" and \\\"Lyre, Lyre, Heart's on Fire\\\", also showcased not only her singing but also that of some of her castmates. (See alsoList ofXena: Warrior Princessepisodesfor details.) Lawless was encouraged to resume her singing career after being a contestant onCelebrity Duets, which she finished as runner-up toAlfonso Ribeiro.She made her solo debut at theRoxyin Hollywood, a venue of 500 seats, on 13 January 2007, with a sold-out crowd for consecutive concerts. LGBT rights icon Xena's ambiguous romantic relationship with travelling companionGabrielle(Renee O'Connor)led to Lawless becoming a lesbian icon, a role of which she has said she is proud.She has said that during the years she was playing the role,\",\n \"playing the role, she had been undecided on the nature of the relationship,but in a 2003 interview withLesbian Newsmagazine, she said that after viewing the series finale, she had come to see Xena and Gabrielle's relationship as definitely gay, adding \\\"they're married, man\\\".This reputation became cemented after her \\\"graphic lesbian sex scenes\\\" inSpartacus: Gods of the Arena.She has appeared atgay prideevents such as theSydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras. For her support ofLGBT rights, including her public support for same-sex marriage,Lawless was given the Star 100–Ally of the Year award at the Australian LGBTI Awards ceremony in 2017. Other activities Lawless is a member of the board of trustees of the StarShip Foundation, the charity arm of theStarship Children's Healthwhich is part of the Auckland District Health Board.It is set up to provide additional equipment, support and help to staff, patients and families.She helps fundraising for the organisation. She recentlysat for the New Zealand television\",\n \"Zealand television seriesThe Sitting,an arts series where celebrity portraits are produced during an interview session, with the portraits later auctioned for charity. Since 2006, 21 September marks \\\"Lucy Lawless Feel the Love Day/Week\\\". The day, organised by the Official Lucy Lawless Fan Club, begins a week of charitable acts and donations by fans in honour and support of Lawless. In May 2009 Lawless became a \\\"climate ambassador\\\" for theGreenpeace\\\"Sign On\\\" campaign. In February 2012, she and six other Greenpeace activists boarded an oil drilling ship atPort Taranaki, and remained on it for 77 hours to stop it leaving for theArcticwhere it was going to take part inoil exploration.She was subsequently arrested and charged with burglary, which carried an imprisonment term of up to 10 years if convicted.She pleaded guilty on 14 June 2012 to trespass charges regarding the February incident. Lawless said she intended for now to remain involved with Greenpeace.In February 2013, Lawless and the other six activists\",\n \"other six activists were each sentenced to pay a fine of NZ$651 and undertake 120 hours ofcommunity service. The judge denied the NZ$545,000 in reparations thatShell Todd Oil Serviceshad sought from the activists. Following the sentencing, Lawless said: \\\"I consider it a great victory that the court has struck down the reparation demand from Shell, which I think was absolutely ludicrous.\\\" Personal life In 1988, she became pregnant from her boyfriend Garth Lawless while working with him in the Australianoutback. They married inKalgoorlie, Western Australia, that year, then returned to New Zealand where their daughter was born. They divorced in 1995. On 28 March 1998, Lawless marriedXena'sexecutive producer, Pacific Renaissance Pictures CEORobert TapertatSt. Monica Catholic ChurchinSanta Monica, California.They have two sons. Recognition and awards In the2004 Queen's Birthday Honours, Lawless was appointed aMember of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to entertainment and the community.\",\n \"and the community. AstronomerMichael E. Brownnicknamed his newly discovereddwarf planet\\\"Xena\\\";its then-provisional designation being2003 UB313. When this object was initially determined to be larger thanPluto, it gained international attention and forced a year-long debate among astronomers as to thedefinition of a planet. (Observations made byNew Horizonssubsequently found Pluto to be marginally larger than the object, which was ultimately namedEris.) The object's nickname \\\"Xena\\\" was used in the press.New Scientistmagazine polled the public on their preferred final name for the so-called tenth planet; \\\"Xena\\\" ranked number 4.Lawless called Brown in December 2005 to thank him for his \\\"senseless act of beauty\\\", and claimed that she \\\"never dared hope would stick\\\".Eventually, both it and Pluto were deemed not to be true planets, and were instead classified as dwarf planets. Although \\\"Xena\\\" is now officially known as Eris, Brown made an indirect tribute to Lawless by naming Eris's moonDysnomiaafterthe Greek\",\n \"Greek goddess of lawlessness. Awards and nominations Filmography Film Television Video games Stage Discography References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":354,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"I'm trying to show my daughter some of the movies I grew up with. There's one a really want to show her but I can't remember the name of it. I remember that the male lead also played Fred in a live action Scooby Doo movie and the main girl was in this crazy anti-drug commercial in the 90s where she used a pan to destroy a bunch of things in a kitchen and said \"This is your brain on drugs...\". The movie is about a guy who makes a bet with his friend that he can turn an unpopular girl into prom queen. Can you tell me the name of the film?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"*She's All That*"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooby-Doo_(film)"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie_Prinze_Jr."},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Drugs"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachael_Leigh_Cook"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_All_That"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooby-Doo_(film)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie_Prinze_Jr.', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Drugs', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachael_Leigh_Cook', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_All_That']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooby-Doo_(film","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie_Prinze_Jr.","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Drugs","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachael_Leigh_Cook","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_All_That"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooby-Doo_(film\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie_Prinze_Jr.\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Drugs\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachael_Leigh_Cook\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_All_That\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooby-Doo_(film","Freddie Prinze Jr. Freddie James Prinze Jr.(born March 8, 1976)is an American actor. He has starred in films such asI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and itssequel(1998),She's All That(1999),Down to You,Boys and Girls(both 2000),Summer Catch(2001),Scooby-Doo(2002), andScooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed(2004). Alongside recurring roles onBoston Legal(2004) and24(2010), Prinze starred on the self-titledABCsitcomFreddie(2005–2006)—which he co-created and executive produced—and voicedKanan Jarrusin theDisney XDseriesStar Wars Rebels(2014–2018). He is the only child of actor and comedianFreddie Prinze. Early life Freddie James Prinze Jr. was born in Los Angeles on March 8, 1976, the only child of Katherine Elaine Prinze (néeCochran) and actor andstand-up comedianFreddie Prinze. On January 29, 1977, Freddie Prinze died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound, after which Prinze Jr. relocated with his mother toAlbuquerque, New Mexico.Prinze was raised Catholic.His paternal grandmother was from Puerto Ricoand he is fluent in Spanish.Prinze had \"enjoyed acting in school productions\" as a child and participated in Albuquerque Children's Theatre, though he originally planned to become a civil engineer before getting roles onFamily MattersandThe Watcher.Soon after that he sawNeil Patrick Harrisat his high school getting kids excited about getting into acting, and he decided to do that.After graduating fromLa Cueva High Schoolin 1994, Prinze moved to Los Angeles to audition for television roles. Career Television and film Prinze was cast in a guest role on the ABC TV seriesFamily Mattersin 1995. He then appeared in a few programs and made-for-TV movies, before making his motion picture debut inTo Gillian on Her 37th Birthdayin 1996. In subsequent years, Prinze appeared in youth-oriented moviesI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and its sequelI Still Know What You Did Last Summer(1998), made him known to teenage audiences. His first leading role, the romantic comedyShe's All That(1999), grossed $63 million in the United States. Subsequently, he had leading roles inWing Commander(1999),Down to You(2000),Boys and Girls(2000),Head over Heels(2001), andSummer Catch(2001), most of which were disliked by criticsand had moderate box office success. He playedFred Jonesin the 2002live-action film versionof the popular cartoonScooby-Doo, and reprised the role in the 2004 sequel,Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed, both alongside his wifeSarah Michelle Gellarand along withMatthew LillardandLinda Cardellini. He guest starred on the popular NBC showFriendsas a sensitive male nanny named Sandy on the series' 200th episode. He took the role of Sandy afterTom Hankscould not do it due to scheduling.He also appeared asDonny Crane, a character believed to beDenny Crane's son in the ABC legal drama-comedyBoston Legal. Prinze starred in his own televisionsitcom, titledFreddie. The sitcom is said to depict some actual events from his life, and was cancelled after one season in May 2006. He guest starred onGeorge Lopezfor a crossover withFreddie. In 2004, Prinze accepted a special award fromTV Landon behalf of his late father. He thanked his father's former co-starDella Reesefor her continued advice and support. In 2006, he lent his voice to the character of Pi in the animated filmShark Bait. Also in 2007, he lent his voice to the character of Rick inHappily N'Ever Afteralong with his wife Gellar,Wallace Shawn,Andy Dick,George Carlin, andSigourney Weaver. In 2008, he auditioned forJigsawinPunisher: War Zone, but was not given the part at the decision ofLionsgate Studios. He later was the voice of the titular character in the animated movieDelgo.In 2010, Prinze guest starred onPsychas Dennis, a grade school friend ofShawn SpencerandBurton Guster. In March 2019, Prinze was cast asNancy Drew's father, Carson Drew, inThe CWmysterypilotNancy Drew, but was later replaced byScott Wolf.He also voiced the future version of Tim and Jim Possible in theKim PossiblemovieKim Possible: A Sitch in Time. In March 2009, it was announced that Prinze had signed on to star as Bradley, aka Ultimatum, in the ABC showNo Heroics, a U.S. remake of theBritish show of the same name.The show was not picked up, but Prinze was cast as a series regular forthe eighth seasonof the television show24; he playedCole Ortiz, a newCTUoperative. In 2021, Prinze joined therebootofPunky BrewsteronPeacock, playing the title character's ex-husband. Other work He voiced a pilot in aVatta's War: Trading in Dangergraphic audio book. Prinze voiced different characters inBioWarevideo games:LieutenantJames VegainMass Effect 3andThe Iron BullinDragon Age: Inquisition.He returned to the role of James Vega again for the animated feature filmMass Effect: Paragon Lost, dubbed byFUNimation. From 2014 until 2018, he was the voice of Kanan Jarrus, one of the last survivingJedi Knights, on theDisney XDseriesStar Wars Rebels.He reprised the role for the opening scene of the pilot episode of theDisney+seriesThe Bad Batchin May 2021.In March, 2023, he launched a new podcast,That Was Pretty Scary, with cohost Jon Lee Brody. Professional wrestling Work with WWE (2008–2009, 2010–2012) Prinze is aWWEfan and was seen on television in attendance at the March 2008WrestleMania XXIVpay-per-viewand its precedingHall of Fameceremony. He also made acameoon an episode ofThe Dirt Sheet, an online program hosted by wrestlersJohn Morrison and The Miz.He had created an official profile on WWE's \"Universe\" blog community where he would regularly write his thoughts about the current goings-on in the world of the WWE. His relationship with the company was furthered when he was hired as a member of the creative staff to contribute to weekly television and pay-per-view programming for theSmackDownbrand.It was reported on February 22, 2009 that Prinze and WWE had parted ways, but in January 2021, Prinze explained that he had actually chosen to leave the company at that time. On August 17, 2009, Prinze appeared onRawas aspecial guest host, where he was assaulted by thenWWE ChampionRandy Ortonafter refusing to bail Orton out of histag team matchwithJohn Cena, who was due to challenge him in the upcomingSummerSlam.Prinze later returned to the program and got his payback during Orton's match with Cena againstBig ShowandChris Jericho, by setting up alumberjack matchinvolvingMark Henry,Primo,Evan Bourne,Kofi Kingston,MVP, andJamie Noble. Prinze returned to WWE on October 1, 2010 in a role as a producer and director.On the November 1, 2010 episode ofMonday Night Raw, Prinze made an on-screen appearance asVince McMahon's doctor, adream sequencescene that coincided withLinda McMahon's attempt to win a seat in the Senate for the state of Connecticut.Prinze left WWE for a second time due to a comment made byStone Cold Steve Austinto a contestant while taping an episode of the fifth season ofWWE Tough Enough. Podcast (since 2021) In November 2021, Prinze started his own podcastWrestling With Freddiewith cohostJeff Dye. Premier Streaming Network In April 2023, Freddie Prinze Jr. joined the ownership team of Premier Streaming Network, a streaming platform focused on wrestling, sports, and entertainment content. MyFandom Sports App In June 2024, Freddie Prinze Jr. was announced as part of the ownership team behind MyFandom, an iOS app co-founded by brothers Fred and Josh Shernoff. MyFandom allows sports fans to contribute personal media to a collective archive of sporting events, creating a user-generated historical record while enabling individuals to curate their own attendance history. Personal life Prinze dated actressKimberly McCulloughfrom 1996 until 1999. He married actressSarah Michelle Gellaron September 1, 2002, inPuerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico. The couple met several years before, while filmingI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997),started dating in 2000 and were engaged in April 2001. They co-starred inScooby-Doo(2002),Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed(2004),Happily N'Ever After(2006), andStar Wars Rebels(2014–2018). Gellar made a non-speaking cameo in Prinze's filmShe's All That(1999). They have two children together: a daughter born September 2009, and a son born September 2012,and live in Los Angeles. Prinze is an avid practitioner ofBrazilian jiu-jitsuand has reached the rank of purple belt in the sport, having been promoted under Jean Jacques Machado. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Podcasts Awards and nominations See also References External links","This Is Your Brain on Drugs This Is Your Brain on Drugswas a large-scaleUSanti-narcoticscampaign byPartnership for a Drug-Free America(PDFA) launched in 1987, that used three televisedpublic service announcements(PSAs) and a related poster campaign. 1987 version The 30-second version of the first PSA, from 1987, shows a man (played byJohn Roselius) in a kitchen who asks if there is anyone out there who still does not understand the dangers of drug abuse. He holds up an egg and says, \"This is your brain,\" before motioning to afrying panand adding, \"This is drugs.\" He then cracks open the egg, fries the contents, and says, \"This is your brain on drugs.\" Finally, he looks up at the camera and asks, \"Any questions?\" In contrast, the 10-second and 15-second versions simply show a close-up of an egg dropping into a frying pan. This is accompanied by a voice-over saying in the 15-second version: \"Okay, last time. This is drugs. This is your brain on drugs. Any questions?\" The 10-second version omits the first sentence. The PSA, titled \"Frying Pan\" (a.k.a. \"Fried Egg\" and \"Any Questions?\"), was conceived by art directors Scot Fletcher and Rick Bell, copywriter Larre Johnson and creative director Paul Keye atLos Angeles-based agency keye/donna/pearlstein. It was directed byJoe Pytkathrough his ownVenice-based production company Pytka Productions and produced by agency producer Harvey Greenberg, Pytka executive producer Jane McCann and Pytka producer John Turney.Anthony Marinelliscored the shorter versions. 1997 version The second PSA, from 1997,featured 18-year-old actressRachael Leigh Cook, who, as before, holds up an egg and says, \"this is your brain\", before lifting up a frying pan with the words, \"and this isheroin\", after which she places the egg on a kitchen counter—\"this is what happens to your brain after snorting heroin\"—and slams the pan down on it. She lifts the pan back up, saying, \"and this is what your body goes through\", in reference to the remnants of the smashed egg now dripping from the bottom of the pan and down her arm. Cook then says, \"Wait, It's not over yet\", and proceeds to smash everything in the kitchen with the frying pan in a rage, yelling \"this is what your family goes through! And your friends! And your money! And your job! And your self-respect! And your future!\" She ends with \"And your life\". Cook then drops the pan on the counter and says, \"Any questions?\" This PSA, likewise titled \"Frying Pan\", was conceived by art director Doug Hill, copywriter Ken Cills and creative director Graham Turner atNew York-based agency Margeotes/Fertitta & Partners. It was directed by Eden Tyler through New York-based production company Zooma Zooma, produced by agency producer Ed Kleban and Zooma Zooma producer Joseph Mantegna and edited byJay NelsonatSanta Monica-based Avenue Edit. 2016 version The third PSA, from 2016, is a loose remake which shows an egg in a human hand, stating \"This is your brain\", alongside a frying pan that the other hand is pointing to, stating, \"This is drugs.\" The egg is then cracked and fried into the pan, with the narration, \"This is your brain on drugs. Any questions?\" This is followed by scenes of teens, some of whom state, \"Um, yeah, I have questions\", \"Prescription drugs aren't as bad as street drugs, right?\", \"Weed's legal, isn't it?\", \"Drinking is worse than smoking weed. Isn't it?\", \"Why is heroin so addictive?\", \"Molly just makes you feel happy\", \"I have questions\", \"Mom, Dad, did you ever try drugs?\" The narrator returns to say, \"They're going to ask. Be ready.\" 2017 War on Drugs Critique version In 2017, Rachael Leigh Cook used imagery from the This is Your Brain on Drugs commercials in a PSA by theDrug Policy Alliance. The PSA critiqued thewar on drugsand its contribution to mass incarceration,structural racismand poverty. The ad was posted toYouTubeon April 20, 2017 in recognition of4/20. Analysis TV Guidenamed the commercial one of the top one hundred television advertisements of all time,andEntertainment Weeklynamed it the 8th best commercial of all time. Impact Consumerism A poster produced in the early 1990s called \"Famous Brains on Drugs\" parodied the concept by having eggs appear in the frying pan in forms intended to remind the viewer of certain people. For instance, a pan labeled \"Saddam Hussein\" had an egg with acrosshairover it, and a pan labeled \"Milli Vanilli\" contained a box of imitation eggs.There have also been parody T-shirts, such as versions based onThe Simpsons(\"This is your brain on donuts\", showing an X-ray ofHomer Simpson's head) and theYankees–Red Sox rivalry(shirts targeted to both allegiances of the famed rivalry), among others. In media This Is Your Brain on Drugs has been widely parodied in various forms, including aSaturday Night Liveskit which parodied the PSA, adding \"with a side of bacon\" to the commercial's tagline. Television In an episode of the sitcomRoseanne, the title character reenacts the PSA while having a conversation with one of her children about drugs. In Living Colorparodied the PSA withOprah Winfrey, played byKim Wayans. In the eighteenth episode of the fourth season of the sitcomMarried... with Children, \"What Goes Around Comes Around\" (1990), the characterAl Bundytakes an egg, says \"This is your brain,\" then says \"This is your brain on marriage,\" drops it on the ground, and asks, \"Any questions?\" An episode of the teen seriesBeverly Hills, 90210ends with the charactersBrandonandBrenda Walshacting out the PSA with their friends in their favorite diner. After the show, the actual 30-second commercial aired, andJason Priestleydelivered his own anti-drug message on the air. PBS Kidsdid a parody of the famous PSA as well, in a short titled \"This is your brain on books\", in which a gold egg falls on a frying pan with books on it, then falls into a human brain, in which he thinks about composing, computing, and creating, ending it all with \"Any questions?\". The second version was satirized in the series premiere of the animated television sketch showRobot Chicken, \"Junk in the Trunk\" (2005). Rachael Leigh Cook (who provided thevoice acting) goes on a psychopathic rampage, destroying everything she encounters, ending eventually with her smashing herself in the head and falling down a building. In the tenth episode of the second season of the TV seriesBreaking Bad, \"Over\" (2009), the characterJesse Pinkmanreferences the commercial, frying one egg and accompanying it with \"this is your brain\", while adding another egg and accompanying it with \"this is your brain on drugs\". In the sixteenth episode of the ABC sitcomThe Goldbergs, \"Muscles Mirsky\", references the PSA while Beverly is making breakfast. To promote season 2 ofRiverdaleon Netflix,Camila Mendes, who plays Veronica Lodge, re-stages the 1997 version PSA, which featured actor Rachael Leigh Cook. The promotion is shot-for-shot, except that a burger is used in place of an egg, and instead of talking about heroin, she talks about Jingle Jangle. Films In the filmBatman Forever(1995), the character theRiddlerparodies the commercial saying, \"This is your brain on the box. This is my brain on the box. Does anybody else feel like a fried egg?!\" The 1991 film sequelFreddy's Dead: The Final Nightmarespoofed the PSA by havingJohnny Depp(whose acting career began with the originalA Nightmare on Elm Streetmovie) perform the skit. The PSA goes on as normal untilRobert Englund(who playsFreddy Krueger) hits Depp with the frying pan and says, \"Yeah! What areyouon? Looks like a frying pan and some eggs to me.\" Music The cover ofPrimus' 1990 albumFrizzle Fryshowed a sculpture of a brain melting in a frying pan and was meant to be a play on the commercial. Englishvirtual bandGorillazused the PSA in the music video for their 2017 single \"Sleeping Powder\". The teaser for the 2019 \"No Drug Like Me\" music video byCarly Rae Jepsenre-stages the 1997 version PSA, which featured actor Rachael Leigh Cook. The music video forDemi Lovato's 2022 single \"Substance\" features a recreation of the PSA. Books The title of thepopular sciencebookThis Is Your Brain On Music: The Science of a Human Obsession(2006) byDaniel Levitinis a nod to the PSA. Other media A 2011CBS CaresPSA parodied this in talking aboutsunburn, which showed a slice of uncookedbaconthat accompanied a voice saying \"This is your skin\", and a slice of it was then placed in a frying pan, cooking it, stating \"This is your skin in the sun\", and then follows it by a shot of a sun in which the voice says \"Any questions?\", accompanied by the phrase \"Save your bacon. Usesunscreen.\" superimposed over the sun. The Nostalgia Criticplaced the ad at number three on his \"Top 11 Drug PSAs\" list, noting that everyone he knew had a \"witty retort\" to the commercial's signature \"any questions?\" After demonstrating a few comebacks, he then watches Rachael Leigh Cook's version of the PSA, responding to her manic performance with a shocked \"What the hell kind of drugs areyouon?\" In 2012, two PSAs based on the PDFA campaign were released byTea PartyactivistHerman Cain. The violent death of a goldfish and a rabbit were supposed to represent what PresidentObama'sstimulus plandid to theAmerican economy. Rob DenBlyker, one of the creators of the webcomicCyanide & Happiness, parodied the commercial in a 2013 installment where a father, after re-enacting the commercial, admits to his son that he himself is on drugs. \"But I don't see how that's relevant\", he adds. A 2021 commercial forKraft Singlesparodied the PSA as well, which showed melting butter whenAlfonso Ribeirosays \"This is your brain\", then puts a slice of bread when he says \"This is bread\", followed by two slices of Kraft Singles when he says \"These are delicious Kraft Singles\" followed by Ribeiro saying \"Any questions?\" and his daughter responding with \"Yes, do you have to make every meal this boring?\". In the 2005 video gameTony Hawk's American Wasteland, when the player attempts to go beyond the open world map, the game prevents them from doing so, often placing a message such as \"Out of bounds!\" or \"Who loaned you that skateboard?\". One of the messages is \"This is your brain on drugs!\" Criticism TheAmerican Egg Boardtook issue with the PSA, claiming that eggs were being correlated with the unhealthiness of drug use. The board worried that young children might misinterpret the TV message and believe that eggs were harmful. ComedianBill Hicksspoke negatively about the commercial frequently during his stand-up routine, claiming \"I've seen a lot of weird shit on drugs, I've never ever ever ever ever looked at an egg and thought it was a fucking brain.\" See also References External links","Rachael Leigh Cook Rachael Leigh Cook(born October 4, 1979) is an American actress and model. She has starred in the filmsThe Baby-Sitters Club(1995),She's All That(1999), andJosie and the Pussycats(2001), and in the television seriesInto the WestandPerception. She is also the voice behind various characters inRobot ChickenandTifa Lockhartin theFinal Fantasyseries, starting with the English version of the filmFinal Fantasy VII: Advent Children. Since 2016, her television appearances have primarily beenmade-for-TV movieson theHallmark Channel. Early life Rachael Leigh Cook was born on October 4, 1979,inMinneapolis, Minnesota, the daughter of Thomas Howard Cook, asocial workerand formerstand-up comedian, and JoAnn, a cooking instructor andweaver.She is of part English and Italian descent. Cook first appeared in apublic service announcementforfoster careat seven years of age and began working as achildprint modelat the age of 10, including nationwide advertisements forTargetand appearing on the boxes ofMilk-Bonedog biscuits. She attendedClara Barton Open School,Laurel Springs School, andMinneapolis South High School. Career Cook began auditioning for acting work at age 14.She made her screen debut as an actress in the 1995 filmThe Baby-Sitters Club. She also played a role in the adventure filmTom and Huck, released in December 1995. In 1996, her modeling agency sent her to star in a short film,26 Summer Street. In 1997, Cook appeared in a leading role in the filmCountry Justiceas a 15-year-oldrapevictim who is impregnated by her rapist. In 1999, Cook starred in her breakout role in thesleeper hitfilmShe's All That,aromantic comedythat so far is the most financially successful film of her career. In 2000, she starred oppositeElijah Woodin the well-receivedThe Bumblebee Flies Anyway. She took the lead role in 2001'sJosie and the Pussycats, which turned out to be abox office failure, although it has since become acult classic. In 2000, she was thecover girlfor the U.S. March/April issue ofFHM. She also starred in themusic videoforNew Found Glory's 2000 single \"Dressed to Kill\".In 2002, she was ranked No. 26 inStuffmagazine's \"102 Sexiest Women in the World\". In 2003, she starred in the film11:14as Cheri. She also appeared as a main cast member in the 2005 televisionminiseriesInto the Westproduced bySteven Spielberg. In 2006, she appeared in the music video forDaniel Powter's \"Love You Lately\". In 2007, Cook was seen in the big screen adaptation ofNancy Drew. She played the female lead in the independent sports dramaThe Final Season. She has appeared in numerous episodes of theSeth GreencomediesTitan MaximumandRobot Chicken. In 2008, she guest-starred asAbigail Lytarin two third-season episodes of theUSA NetworkseriesPsych. She reprised the role in thefollowing season. In February 2010, Cook signed on to play the female lead role inFox TV's comedy pilotNirvana.She had a role in the Western horror filmVampire, theEnglish-languagefeature debut ofJapanesedirectorIwai Shunji.In 2012, Cook signed on to play the female lead role in theTNTcrime dramaseriesPerceptionoppositeEric McCormack. She starred in the independent filmBroken Kingdom, which was directed by her husbandDaniel Gillies. She also appeared in aFunny or Diesketch withChad Michael Murray. Cook starred in theHallmark Channeloriginal filmSummer Lovein 2016.In the same year, she starred in another Hallmark film,AutumnIn the Vineyard, followed by its sequelSummer in the Vineyardin 2017.2017 also saw Cook develop, star and executive produce the Hallmark Channel filmFrozen in Love, which was broadcast in January 2018 as part of the channel's 'Winterfest' season of programming. Cook provided the voice for Chelsea Cunningham on theKids' WBanimated seriesBatman Beyondand in the animated filmBatman Beyond: Return of the Joker. Cook voicedTifa Lockhartin thevideo gamesKingdom Hearts II,Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VIIandDissidia 012 Final Fantasy, as well as the filmFinal Fantasy VII Advent Children. In 2011, she voiced the character of Jaesa Willsaam in the MMO game,Star Wars: The Old Republic. Cook's latest voice-over role is for the video gameYakuzain which she voices the role of Reina. In 2020 Cook appeared in the fifteenth season ofCriminal Mindsplaying the role of Max in the final episodes of the series. Cook owns her own production company, Ben's Sister Productions (in reference to her younger brother Ben Cook). She produced and starred in the filmLove, Guaranteed, which debuted onNetflixon September 3, 2020. Public service Cook first gained national attention in 1997, when she was featured in an updatedThis Is Your Brain on Drugspublic service announcement(PSA) television advertisement, in which she proceeds to destroy a kitchen with afrying pan. In 2011, she was selected by theObama administrationas a Champion of Change for Arts Education. In June 2012, she began to award a small scholarship to students between ages 14 and 19. The scholarship helps pay for career classes, mentoring programs, and other school fees. In 2017, Rachael Leigh Cook reprised her \"This Is Your Brain on Drugs\" role twenty years later for a PSA by theDrug Policy Alliancecritiquing theWar on Drugsand its contribution to mass incarceration,structural racismand poverty. The ad was posted toYouTubeon April 20, 2017, in recognition of4/20. Personal life Cook married New Zealand-Canadian actorDaniel Gillieson August 8, 2004,“We got engaged after dating for maybe five months and we got married a couple of months after that.”They have two children: a daughter born in September 2013and a son born in April 2015.The couple separated in June 2019 and divorced in 2021. Cook is avegetarian. Filmography Film Television Music videos Video games Awards and nominations References External links","She's All That She's All Thatis a 1999 Americanteenromantic comedy filmdirected byRobert Iscove. It starsFreddie Prinze Jr.,Rachael Leigh Cook,Matthew Lillard, andPaul Walker. After being dumped by his girlfriend, Zack Siler boasts he could make any girl at his high school popular. It is a modern adaptation ofGeorge Bernard Shaw's playPygmalionandGeorge Cukor's 1964 filmMy Fair Lady. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the performances of the lead actors, but were critical of the script. It was one of the most popularteen filmsof the late 1990s and reached No. 1 at the box office in its first week of release. It went on to earn $103 million worldwide.After featuring in the film, the song \"Kiss Me\" reached No. 2 onBillboard'sHot 100and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 weeks. A gender-swapped remake, titledHe's All That, was released on August 27, 2021, byNetflix. Plot Zack Siler is the big man on campus at his Southern California high school. After returning from spring break, he finds out his girlfriend, Taylor, has cheated on him with areality TVstar, Brock. After Zack and Taylor's breakup, he consoles himself by claiming that she is replaceable with any girl in the school. Zack's friend Dean disagrees and bets Zack to turn any random girl from school into thepromqueen in six weeks. He accepts, so Dean chooses Laney Boggs, an awkward and unpopular art student. Zack attempts to befriend Laney, but she pointedly ignores his advances until he asks for her help with art. She reluctantly invites him to a small theater lounge where she will perform. Intending to deter him, Laney volunteers Zack to perform onstage. He manages to improvise a routine with hishacky sack. Laney is impressed but still rejects him when Zack attempts to charm her again. When Zack shows up at her house, Laney reluctantly agrees to go to the beach with him and his friends, and they invite her to apartylater. Laney says she's busy, but Zack persuades her to go. He enlists his sister, Mack, to give her amakeover. At the party, Taylor, who is embarrassed by Brock and jealous of Laney, publicly humiliates her, bringing her to tears. Laney is surprised to be nominated for prom queen, along with Taylor. Zack then goes by her house and asks about her mother, who died when Laney was young, and talks about his father, who is pressuring him to go toDartmouthforcollege. Zack leans in to kiss Laney but pulls back when she jokes that it is just to get her vote for prom king. The next day, Zack defends Laney's brother, Simon, from bullies in the cafeteria. After a falling out with Zack, Dean asks Laney to be his prom date. Taylor is humiliated when Brock dumps her, so she cozies up to Zack. When he turns her down, she tells him that Dean has already asked Laney to the prom. When Zack confronts him, Dean reveals the bet, forcing a public confession from Zack. A furious Laney rushes from the room, refusing to speak to Zack. Unable to reconcile with Laney, Zack takes his sister to the prom. After some persuading from her father, a disheartened Laney agrees to go with Dean. At the dance, Dean boasts of his plan to seduce Laney. Laney's friend Jesse overhears, and he and Mack rush to warn Zack, who has taken the stage with Taylor as Prom King and Queen. Zack rushes after Laney, who has already left with Dean. Laney returns home to find Zack is there. She explains how she avoided Dean's advances with a fog horn. Zack confesses his true feelings, and they share a dance and kiss by the pool. Laney asks Zack about the bet, and he says mysteriously he will honor the terms. On the day of graduation he appears onstage nude except for cap and a soccer ball, getting applause from the crowd and a smile from Laney. Cast Production Casting The film had an ensemble cast of up-and-coming actors, includingKieran Culkin,OscarwinnerAnna Paquin,Jodi Lyn O'Keefe, musicianUsher Raymond,Gabrielle Unionin her film debut,Dulé Hill, andLil' Kim.ProducerRichard N. Gladsteinnoted, \"There were other films that you could've seen them in, but they weren't usually the leads in those films.\"According to directorRobert Iscove,Miramaxco-headHarvey Weinsteinwas very involved in script development and casting, and was able to get great actors in very small parts as a personal favor. Iscove saidJosh Hartnettwas considered for the role of Zack Siler, and many actresses were considered for the role of Laney Boggs, includingMena Suvari,Leelee Sobieski, andJordana Brewster. Kevin Pollaksaid he signed up for the movie in part because he was impressed withFreddie Prinze Jr.’s performance inThe House of Yesa few years earlier and was interested in working with him. Writing R. Lee Fleming Jr. is officially credited as the sole screenwriter for the film. In a 2002 interview,M. Night Shyamalanstated that hepolishedthe screenplay while adaptingStuart Littleand writing aspec scriptforThe Sixth Sense. This was also confirmed in the film's audio commentary by Iscove. In 2013, Shyamalan claimed that, rather than simply polishing Fleming's original script, he actuallyghost-wrotethe film.This was disputed by Fleming.Jack Lechner (who served as Miramax's head of development in the late 1990s) confirmed that technically both Shyamalan and Fleming contributed to the script: Fleming wrote the initial script that Miramax bought, while Shyamalan did an uncredited rewrite (doing more than \"a polish\") that got the film green-lit. Lechner reiterated that content from both writers was included in the final cut of the film.Producer Richard N. Gladstein said that the script \"was pretty much done\" already, but that Shyamalan's changes \"helped enormously with the relationship with Kevin Pollak \".Iscove attributed the performance art piece and the hacky sack sequence to Shyamalan.Fleming attributed the line \"Am I a fucking bet?\" to Shyamalan.Fleming included various pop culture references in his script: Laney Boggs was named after two characters played byWinona Ryder, Kim Boggs fromEdward Scissorhandsand Laney Pierce fromReality Bites;the characters Zack and Taylor were named after two of the three members of the bandHanson.Pollak constantly guessingJeopardy!answers incorrectly is a running joke, which he previously did in the 1997 filmTruth or Consequences, N.M.. The idea was in Fleming's script but Pollak expanded and improvised his answers. Iscove was influenced by the movies ofJohn Hughesand was trying do something different for the '90s generation that would still resonate. He stressed the importance of the story having a heart, how Zack had to be worthy of Laney, and how Laney had to learn to be more open.The story was rewritten to better fit Prinze Jr. and make Zack a more sympathetic character with his own challenges.Iscove was well aware that it was implausible to suggestRachael Leigh Cookwas ugly, but said it was standard practice in Hollywood to cast \"the beautiful girl\" and that it requires the audience to suspend their disbelief: \"You either go along with it or you don't go along with it.\" Comparing Laney's transformation to that ofClark Kent into Superman, Iscove said casting the role was more about finding an actor who had the range to give the necessary performance. Filming Filming took place from August 6, 1998, to September 28, 1998, in various California locations.The high school scenes were shot atTorrance High School, where television seriesBuffy the Vampire SlayerandBeverly Hills, 90210were previously filmed. Iscove was also a choreographer and wanted to expand and embellish the prom scenes, while also showing the Weinsteins how musical numbers could work in films. The dance scene was choreographed byAdam Shankmanat the request of the film's co-producer Jennifer Gibgot, who is Shankman's sister. Shankman was assisted byAnne Fletcher. Shankman was concerned about the scene not tonally meshing with the rest of the film, but Iscove persisted. Test audiences did not understand why the dance scene was happening, soBob Weinsteinasked for a reshoot with Usher to link the scene.Shankman also worked withMatthew Lillardon his solo dance scenes. Costume designer Denise Wingate said, \"We had no budget so we had to be really creative—everything in that prom scene was white, black, and gold, and we got it all fromThe Salvation Armyand just completely reworked it.\" Having majored in psychology, Wingate tried to explore the possible reasons for the characters’ wardrobe. Wingate concluded that Laney wore clothes like armor after the death of her mother, but also wanted to express herself as an artist, resulting in a mix of vintage clothes, overalls, aprons, and various quirky t-shirts. The falafel restaurant hat was created on short notice with items picked up from aMichaelscraft store. Laney's transformation was reflected in the red dress, which demonstrated \"a bold statement of her dressing in a color that was so different than anything we’d seen her in before.\"Leigh Cook recalled \"feeling really self-conscious” in the scene where she first descends the stairs in the dress. There were two versions of the red dress: a stunt double dress reserved for the scene when Laney falls down in a driveway outside a party, and a second smaller dress, which left Cook holding her breath trying to get through the scene quickly. Soundtrack The song \"Kiss Me\" was used as the main theme song. The film's box office success helped \"Kiss Me\" to gain widespread mainstream attention and chart success. It climbed to No. 2 onBillboard'sHot 100list, and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 straight weeks and No. 4 in the UK and New Zealand. The film was released in Italy with the title \"Kiss Me\". Reception Critical response On review aggregatorRotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 41% based on 63 reviews, with an average rating of 5/10. The website's critics consensus states: \"Despite its charming young leads,She's All Thatcan't overcome its predictable, inconsistently funny script.\"OnMetacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". It was the last movie to be reviewed byGene Siskelbefore his death in February 1999. Siskel gave a positive review and wrote, \"Rachael Leigh Cook, as Laney, the plain Jane object of the makeover, is forced to demonstrate the biggest emotional range as a character, and she is equal to the assignment.\"Roger Ebertsuggested: \"To give the movie credit, it's as bored with the underlying plot as we are. Even the prom queen election is only a backdrop for more interesting material, asShe's All Thatexplores differences in class and style, and peppers its screenplay with very funny little moments.\" Ebert says it \"is not a great movie, but it has its moments\", giving it 2.5 out of 4 stars.Stephen HoldenofThe New York Timespraised Cook for her performance, comparing her toWinona Ryder, saying, \"Unlike so many actors playing smart young people, she actually projects some intelligence along with a sly sense of comedy.\" Mick LaSalleof theSan Francisco Chroniclecalls it \"About one idea short of being an excellent teenage romance. As it stands it's a pleasing but routine effort.\" LaSalle criticized the film for running out of plot about halfway, saying the \"story line is stretched to the breaking point. In one instance, director Robert Iscove stops the action for a long dance sequence, set at the prom, that has nothing to do with anything.\" He commented the film is \"intermittently funny\" and praised Matthew Lillard's performance, calling it the best thing in the picture. Geoff Berkshire ofVarietywas critical of the lack of originality, and wrote, \"Suggesting that Miramax needs to putKevin Williamsonon permanent retainer if it's going to remain in the teen-pics field,She's All Thatnotably fails to bring to comedy the insight that the Williamson-pennedScreambrought so memorably to horror\". Berkshire was positive about the two leads, saying \"appealing young actors come off as competent, nothing more, given a context that can't be transcended.\" He described the direction as \"nothing to be ashamed of here, but nothing of any distinction, either\", and noted the soundtrack as a not unexpected plus.Jane Ganahl of theSan Francisco Examinerwrote, \"And once, just once, I'd love to see a teen flick that doesn't send out a message to young girls that to be acceptable, you have to conform. I liked the artist girl much better before.\" William Thomas ofEmpirecriticized the film, saying that despite a few scenes, \"The rest is just breezy propaganda for American high school fascism\", and \"The most worrying thing aboutShe's All Thatis its message. The 'ugly duckling' (specs, dungarees, art-lover) must conform (she gets a makeover and the boys notice her \"bobos\" for the first time) to fit in.\" Box office She's All Thatpremiered on January 19, 1999 at the Mann Festival Theater inWestwood, Los Angeles.The film went into general release on January 29. The film was released in Italy with the title \"Kiss Me\". The film reached No. 1 at the box office in the first week of its release, grossing $16.1 million over theSuper Bowlopening weekend.It earned $63.4 million in the United States and $39.8 million at international box offices, totaling $103.2 million worldwide against a production budget between $7–10 million.Miramax spent a further $18 million on television advertising to promote the film. Accolades The film won eight awards, and was nominated for five others. Remake In September 2020, a gender-swapped remake of the film was announced, titledHe's All That, withMark Watersto direct, original screenwriter R. Lee Fleming Jr. to write, and starringAddison RaeandTanner Buchanan.That October,Myra Molloy,Madison Pettis,Peyton Meyer,Isabella Crovetti, and Annie Jacob were cast. In December 2020,Rachael Leigh Cookjoined the cast to portray Rae's character's mother. It has been confirmed that Cook's character is unrelated to her original character.He's All Thatwas released on August 27, 2021, byNetflix. Notes References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooby-Doo_(film\",\n \"Freddie Prinze Jr. Freddie James Prinze Jr.(born March 8, 1976)is an American actor. He has starred in films such asI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and itssequel(1998),She's All That(1999),Down to You,Boys and Girls(both 2000),Summer Catch(2001),Scooby-Doo(2002), andScooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed(2004). Alongside recurring roles onBoston Legal(2004) and24(2010), Prinze starred on the self-titledABCsitcomFreddie(2005–2006)—which he co-created and executive produced—and voicedKanan Jarrusin theDisney XDseriesStar Wars Rebels(2014–2018). He is the only child of actor and comedianFreddie Prinze. Early life Freddie James Prinze Jr. was born in Los Angeles on March 8, 1976, the only child of Katherine Elaine Prinze (néeCochran) and actor andstand-up comedianFreddie Prinze. On January 29, 1977, Freddie Prinze died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound, after which Prinze Jr. relocated with his mother toAlbuquerque, New Mexico.Prinze was raised Catholic.His paternal grandmother was from Puerto Ricoand he is fluent in Spanish.Prinze had \\\"enjoyed acting in school productions\\\" as a child and participated in Albuquerque Children's Theatre, though he originally planned to become a civil engineer before getting roles onFamily MattersandThe Watcher.Soon after that he sawNeil Patrick Harrisat his high school getting kids excited about getting into acting, and he decided to do that.After graduating fromLa Cueva High Schoolin 1994, Prinze moved to Los Angeles to audition for television roles. Career Television and film Prinze was cast in a guest role on the ABC TV seriesFamily Mattersin 1995. He then appeared in a few programs and made-for-TV movies, before making his motion picture debut inTo Gillian on Her 37th Birthdayin 1996. In subsequent years, Prinze appeared in youth-oriented moviesI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and its sequelI Still Know What You Did Last Summer(1998), made him known to teenage audiences. His first leading role, the romantic comedyShe's All That(1999), grossed $63 million in the United States. Subsequently, he had leading roles inWing Commander(1999),Down to You(2000),Boys and Girls(2000),Head over Heels(2001), andSummer Catch(2001), most of which were disliked by criticsand had moderate box office success. He playedFred Jonesin the 2002live-action film versionof the popular cartoonScooby-Doo, and reprised the role in the 2004 sequel,Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed, both alongside his wifeSarah Michelle Gellarand along withMatthew LillardandLinda Cardellini. He guest starred on the popular NBC showFriendsas a sensitive male nanny named Sandy on the series' 200th episode. He took the role of Sandy afterTom Hankscould not do it due to scheduling.He also appeared asDonny Crane, a character believed to beDenny Crane's son in the ABC legal drama-comedyBoston Legal. Prinze starred in his own televisionsitcom, titledFreddie. The sitcom is said to depict some actual events from his life, and was cancelled after one season in May 2006. He guest starred onGeorge Lopezfor a crossover withFreddie. In 2004, Prinze accepted a special award fromTV Landon behalf of his late father. He thanked his father's former co-starDella Reesefor her continued advice and support. In 2006, he lent his voice to the character of Pi in the animated filmShark Bait. Also in 2007, he lent his voice to the character of Rick inHappily N'Ever Afteralong with his wife Gellar,Wallace Shawn,Andy Dick,George Carlin, andSigourney Weaver. In 2008, he auditioned forJigsawinPunisher: War Zone, but was not given the part at the decision ofLionsgate Studios. He later was the voice of the titular character in the animated movieDelgo.In 2010, Prinze guest starred onPsychas Dennis, a grade school friend ofShawn SpencerandBurton Guster. In March 2019, Prinze was cast asNancy Drew's father, Carson Drew, inThe CWmysterypilotNancy Drew, but was later replaced byScott Wolf.He also voiced the future version of Tim and Jim Possible in theKim PossiblemovieKim Possible: A Sitch in Time. In March 2009, it was announced that Prinze had signed on to star as Bradley, aka Ultimatum, in the ABC showNo Heroics, a U.S. remake of theBritish show of the same name.The show was not picked up, but Prinze was cast as a series regular forthe eighth seasonof the television show24; he playedCole Ortiz, a newCTUoperative. In 2021, Prinze joined therebootofPunky BrewsteronPeacock, playing the title character's ex-husband. Other work He voiced a pilot in aVatta's War: Trading in Dangergraphic audio book. Prinze voiced different characters inBioWarevideo games:LieutenantJames VegainMass Effect 3andThe Iron BullinDragon Age: Inquisition.He returned to the role of James Vega again for the animated feature filmMass Effect: Paragon Lost, dubbed byFUNimation. From 2014 until 2018, he was the voice of Kanan Jarrus, one of the last survivingJedi Knights, on theDisney XDseriesStar Wars Rebels.He reprised the role for the opening scene of the pilot episode of theDisney+seriesThe Bad Batchin May 2021.In March, 2023, he launched a new podcast,That Was Pretty Scary, with cohost Jon Lee Brody. Professional wrestling Work with WWE (2008–2009, 2010–2012) Prinze is aWWEfan and was seen on television in attendance at the March 2008WrestleMania XXIVpay-per-viewand its precedingHall of Fameceremony. He also made acameoon an episode ofThe Dirt Sheet, an online program hosted by wrestlersJohn Morrison and The Miz.He had created an official profile on WWE's \\\"Universe\\\" blog community where he would regularly write his thoughts about the current goings-on in the world of the WWE. His relationship with the company was furthered when he was hired as a member of the creative staff to contribute to weekly television and pay-per-view programming for theSmackDownbrand.It was reported on February 22, 2009 that Prinze and WWE had parted ways, but in January 2021, Prinze explained that he had actually chosen to leave the company at that time. On August 17, 2009, Prinze appeared onRawas aspecial guest host, where he was assaulted by thenWWE ChampionRandy Ortonafter refusing to bail Orton out of histag team matchwithJohn Cena, who was due to challenge him in the upcomingSummerSlam.Prinze later returned to the program and got his payback during Orton's match with Cena againstBig ShowandChris Jericho, by setting up alumberjack matchinvolvingMark Henry,Primo,Evan Bourne,Kofi Kingston,MVP, andJamie Noble. Prinze returned to WWE on October 1, 2010 in a role as a producer and director.On the November 1, 2010 episode ofMonday Night Raw, Prinze made an on-screen appearance asVince McMahon's doctor, adream sequencescene that coincided withLinda McMahon's attempt to win a seat in the Senate for the state of Connecticut.Prinze left WWE for a second time due to a comment made byStone Cold Steve Austinto a contestant while taping an episode of the fifth season ofWWE Tough Enough. Podcast (since 2021) In November 2021, Prinze started his own podcastWrestling With Freddiewith cohostJeff Dye. Premier Streaming Network In April 2023, Freddie Prinze Jr. joined the ownership team of Premier Streaming Network, a streaming platform focused on wrestling, sports, and entertainment content. MyFandom Sports App In June 2024, Freddie Prinze Jr. was announced as part of the ownership team behind MyFandom, an iOS app co-founded by brothers Fred and Josh Shernoff. MyFandom allows sports fans to contribute personal media to a collective archive of sporting events, creating a user-generated historical record while enabling individuals to curate their own attendance history. Personal life Prinze dated actressKimberly McCulloughfrom 1996 until 1999. He married actressSarah Michelle Gellaron September 1, 2002, inPuerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico. The couple met several years before, while filmingI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997),started dating in 2000 and were engaged in April 2001. They co-starred inScooby-Doo(2002),Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed(2004),Happily N'Ever After(2006), andStar Wars Rebels(2014–2018). Gellar made a non-speaking cameo in Prinze's filmShe's All That(1999). They have two children together: a daughter born September 2009, and a son born September 2012,and live in Los Angeles. Prinze is an avid practitioner ofBrazilian jiu-jitsuand has reached the rank of purple belt in the sport, having been promoted under Jean Jacques Machado. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Podcasts Awards and nominations See also References External links\",\n \"This Is Your Brain on Drugs This Is Your Brain on Drugswas a large-scaleUSanti-narcoticscampaign byPartnership for a Drug-Free America(PDFA) launched in 1987, that used three televisedpublic service announcements(PSAs) and a related poster campaign. 1987 version The 30-second version of the first PSA, from 1987, shows a man (played byJohn Roselius) in a kitchen who asks if there is anyone out there who still does not understand the dangers of drug abuse. He holds up an egg and says, \\\"This is your brain,\\\" before motioning to afrying panand adding, \\\"This is drugs.\\\" He then cracks open the egg, fries the contents, and says, \\\"This is your brain on drugs.\\\" Finally, he looks up at the camera and asks, \\\"Any questions?\\\" In contrast, the 10-second and 15-second versions simply show a close-up of an egg dropping into a frying pan. This is accompanied by a voice-over saying in the 15-second version: \\\"Okay, last time. This is drugs. This is your brain on drugs. Any questions?\\\" The 10-second version omits the first sentence. The PSA, titled \\\"Frying Pan\\\" (a.k.a. \\\"Fried Egg\\\" and \\\"Any Questions?\\\"), was conceived by art directors Scot Fletcher and Rick Bell, copywriter Larre Johnson and creative director Paul Keye atLos Angeles-based agency keye/donna/pearlstein. It was directed byJoe Pytkathrough his ownVenice-based production company Pytka Productions and produced by agency producer Harvey Greenberg, Pytka executive producer Jane McCann and Pytka producer John Turney.Anthony Marinelliscored the shorter versions. 1997 version The second PSA, from 1997,featured 18-year-old actressRachael Leigh Cook, who, as before, holds up an egg and says, \\\"this is your brain\\\", before lifting up a frying pan with the words, \\\"and this isheroin\\\", after which she places the egg on a kitchen counter—\\\"this is what happens to your brain after snorting heroin\\\"—and slams the pan down on it. She lifts the pan back up, saying, \\\"and this is what your body goes through\\\", in reference to the remnants of the smashed egg now dripping from the bottom of the pan and down her arm. Cook then says, \\\"Wait, It's not over yet\\\", and proceeds to smash everything in the kitchen with the frying pan in a rage, yelling \\\"this is what your family goes through! And your friends! And your money! And your job! And your self-respect! And your future!\\\" She ends with \\\"And your life\\\". Cook then drops the pan on the counter and says, \\\"Any questions?\\\" This PSA, likewise titled \\\"Frying Pan\\\", was conceived by art director Doug Hill, copywriter Ken Cills and creative director Graham Turner atNew York-based agency Margeotes/Fertitta & Partners. It was directed by Eden Tyler through New York-based production company Zooma Zooma, produced by agency producer Ed Kleban and Zooma Zooma producer Joseph Mantegna and edited byJay NelsonatSanta Monica-based Avenue Edit. 2016 version The third PSA, from 2016, is a loose remake which shows an egg in a human hand, stating \\\"This is your brain\\\", alongside a frying pan that the other hand is pointing to, stating, \\\"This is drugs.\\\" The egg is then cracked and fried into the pan, with the narration, \\\"This is your brain on drugs. Any questions?\\\" This is followed by scenes of teens, some of whom state, \\\"Um, yeah, I have questions\\\", \\\"Prescription drugs aren't as bad as street drugs, right?\\\", \\\"Weed's legal, isn't it?\\\", \\\"Drinking is worse than smoking weed. Isn't it?\\\", \\\"Why is heroin so addictive?\\\", \\\"Molly just makes you feel happy\\\", \\\"I have questions\\\", \\\"Mom, Dad, did you ever try drugs?\\\" The narrator returns to say, \\\"They're going to ask. Be ready.\\\" 2017 War on Drugs Critique version In 2017, Rachael Leigh Cook used imagery from the This is Your Brain on Drugs commercials in a PSA by theDrug Policy Alliance. The PSA critiqued thewar on drugsand its contribution to mass incarceration,structural racismand poverty. The ad was posted toYouTubeon April 20, 2017 in recognition of4/20. Analysis TV Guidenamed the commercial one of the top one hundred television advertisements of all time,andEntertainment Weeklynamed it the 8th best commercial of all time. Impact Consumerism A poster produced in the early 1990s called \\\"Famous Brains on Drugs\\\" parodied the concept by having eggs appear in the frying pan in forms intended to remind the viewer of certain people. For instance, a pan labeled \\\"Saddam Hussein\\\" had an egg with acrosshairover it, and a pan labeled \\\"Milli Vanilli\\\" contained a box of imitation eggs.There have also been parody T-shirts, such as versions based onThe Simpsons(\\\"This is your brain on donuts\\\", showing an X-ray ofHomer Simpson's head) and theYankees–Red Sox rivalry(shirts targeted to both allegiances of the famed rivalry), among others. In media This Is Your Brain on Drugs has been widely parodied in various forms, including aSaturday Night Liveskit which parodied the PSA, adding \\\"with a side of bacon\\\" to the commercial's tagline. Television In an episode of the sitcomRoseanne, the title character reenacts the PSA while having a conversation with one of her children about drugs. In Living Colorparodied the PSA withOprah Winfrey, played byKim Wayans. In the eighteenth episode of the fourth season of the sitcomMarried... with Children, \\\"What Goes Around Comes Around\\\" (1990), the characterAl Bundytakes an egg, says \\\"This is your brain,\\\" then says \\\"This is your brain on marriage,\\\" drops it on the ground, and asks, \\\"Any questions?\\\" An episode of the teen seriesBeverly Hills, 90210ends with the charactersBrandonandBrenda Walshacting out the PSA with their friends in their favorite diner. After the show, the actual 30-second commercial aired, andJason Priestleydelivered his own anti-drug message on the air. PBS Kidsdid a parody of the famous PSA as well, in a short titled \\\"This is your brain on books\\\", in which a gold egg falls on a frying pan with books on it, then falls into a human brain, in which he thinks about composing, computing, and creating, ending it all with \\\"Any questions?\\\". The second version was satirized in the series premiere of the animated television sketch showRobot Chicken, \\\"Junk in the Trunk\\\" (2005). Rachael Leigh Cook (who provided thevoice acting) goes on a psychopathic rampage, destroying everything she encounters, ending eventually with her smashing herself in the head and falling down a building. In the tenth episode of the second season of the TV seriesBreaking Bad, \\\"Over\\\" (2009), the characterJesse Pinkmanreferences the commercial, frying one egg and accompanying it with \\\"this is your brain\\\", while adding another egg and accompanying it with \\\"this is your brain on drugs\\\". In the sixteenth episode of the ABC sitcomThe Goldbergs, \\\"Muscles Mirsky\\\", references the PSA while Beverly is making breakfast. To promote season 2 ofRiverdaleon Netflix,Camila Mendes, who plays Veronica Lodge, re-stages the 1997 version PSA, which featured actor Rachael Leigh Cook. The promotion is shot-for-shot, except that a burger is used in place of an egg, and instead of talking about heroin, she talks about Jingle Jangle. Films In the filmBatman Forever(1995), the character theRiddlerparodies the commercial saying, \\\"This is your brain on the box. This is my brain on the box. Does anybody else feel like a fried egg?!\\\" The 1991 film sequelFreddy's Dead: The Final Nightmarespoofed the PSA by havingJohnny Depp(whose acting career began with the originalA Nightmare on Elm Streetmovie) perform the skit. The PSA goes on as normal untilRobert Englund(who playsFreddy Krueger) hits Depp with the frying pan and says, \\\"Yeah! What areyouon? Looks like a frying pan and some eggs to me.\\\" Music The cover ofPrimus' 1990 albumFrizzle Fryshowed a sculpture of a brain melting in a frying pan and was meant to be a play on the commercial. Englishvirtual bandGorillazused the PSA in the music video for their 2017 single \\\"Sleeping Powder\\\". The teaser for the 2019 \\\"No Drug Like Me\\\" music video byCarly Rae Jepsenre-stages the 1997 version PSA, which featured actor Rachael Leigh Cook. The music video forDemi Lovato's 2022 single \\\"Substance\\\" features a recreation of the PSA. Books The title of thepopular sciencebookThis Is Your Brain On Music: The Science of a Human Obsession(2006) byDaniel Levitinis a nod to the PSA. Other media A 2011CBS CaresPSA parodied this in talking aboutsunburn, which showed a slice of uncookedbaconthat accompanied a voice saying \\\"This is your skin\\\", and a slice of it was then placed in a frying pan, cooking it, stating \\\"This is your skin in the sun\\\", and then follows it by a shot of a sun in which the voice says \\\"Any questions?\\\", accompanied by the phrase \\\"Save your bacon. Usesunscreen.\\\" superimposed over the sun. The Nostalgia Criticplaced the ad at number three on his \\\"Top 11 Drug PSAs\\\" list, noting that everyone he knew had a \\\"witty retort\\\" to the commercial's signature \\\"any questions?\\\" After demonstrating a few comebacks, he then watches Rachael Leigh Cook's version of the PSA, responding to her manic performance with a shocked \\\"What the hell kind of drugs areyouon?\\\" In 2012, two PSAs based on the PDFA campaign were released byTea PartyactivistHerman Cain. The violent death of a goldfish and a rabbit were supposed to represent what PresidentObama'sstimulus plandid to theAmerican economy. Rob DenBlyker, one of the creators of the webcomicCyanide & Happiness, parodied the commercial in a 2013 installment where a father, after re-enacting the commercial, admits to his son that he himself is on drugs. \\\"But I don't see how that's relevant\\\", he adds. A 2021 commercial forKraft Singlesparodied the PSA as well, which showed melting butter whenAlfonso Ribeirosays \\\"This is your brain\\\", then puts a slice of bread when he says \\\"This is bread\\\", followed by two slices of Kraft Singles when he says \\\"These are delicious Kraft Singles\\\" followed by Ribeiro saying \\\"Any questions?\\\" and his daughter responding with \\\"Yes, do you have to make every meal this boring?\\\". In the 2005 video gameTony Hawk's American Wasteland, when the player attempts to go beyond the open world map, the game prevents them from doing so, often placing a message such as \\\"Out of bounds!\\\" or \\\"Who loaned you that skateboard?\\\". One of the messages is \\\"This is your brain on drugs!\\\" Criticism TheAmerican Egg Boardtook issue with the PSA, claiming that eggs were being correlated with the unhealthiness of drug use. The board worried that young children might misinterpret the TV message and believe that eggs were harmful. ComedianBill Hicksspoke negatively about the commercial frequently during his stand-up routine, claiming \\\"I've seen a lot of weird shit on drugs, I've never ever ever ever ever looked at an egg and thought it was a fucking brain.\\\" See also References External links\",\n \"Rachael Leigh Cook Rachael Leigh Cook(born October 4, 1979) is an American actress and model. She has starred in the filmsThe Baby-Sitters Club(1995),She's All That(1999), andJosie and the Pussycats(2001), and in the television seriesInto the WestandPerception. She is also the voice behind various characters inRobot ChickenandTifa Lockhartin theFinal Fantasyseries, starting with the English version of the filmFinal Fantasy VII: Advent Children. Since 2016, her television appearances have primarily beenmade-for-TV movieson theHallmark Channel. Early life Rachael Leigh Cook was born on October 4, 1979,inMinneapolis, Minnesota, the daughter of Thomas Howard Cook, asocial workerand formerstand-up comedian, and JoAnn, a cooking instructor andweaver.She is of part English and Italian descent. Cook first appeared in apublic service announcementforfoster careat seven years of age and began working as achildprint modelat the age of 10, including nationwide advertisements forTargetand appearing on the boxes ofMilk-Bonedog biscuits. She attendedClara Barton Open School,Laurel Springs School, andMinneapolis South High School. Career Cook began auditioning for acting work at age 14.She made her screen debut as an actress in the 1995 filmThe Baby-Sitters Club. She also played a role in the adventure filmTom and Huck, released in December 1995. In 1996, her modeling agency sent her to star in a short film,26 Summer Street. In 1997, Cook appeared in a leading role in the filmCountry Justiceas a 15-year-oldrapevictim who is impregnated by her rapist. In 1999, Cook starred in her breakout role in thesleeper hitfilmShe's All That,aromantic comedythat so far is the most financially successful film of her career. In 2000, she starred oppositeElijah Woodin the well-receivedThe Bumblebee Flies Anyway. She took the lead role in 2001'sJosie and the Pussycats, which turned out to be abox office failure, although it has since become acult classic. In 2000, she was thecover girlfor the U.S. March/April issue ofFHM. She also starred in themusic videoforNew Found Glory's 2000 single \\\"Dressed to Kill\\\".In 2002, she was ranked No. 26 inStuffmagazine's \\\"102 Sexiest Women in the World\\\". In 2003, she starred in the film11:14as Cheri. She also appeared as a main cast member in the 2005 televisionminiseriesInto the Westproduced bySteven Spielberg. In 2006, she appeared in the music video forDaniel Powter's \\\"Love You Lately\\\". In 2007, Cook was seen in the big screen adaptation ofNancy Drew. She played the female lead in the independent sports dramaThe Final Season. She has appeared in numerous episodes of theSeth GreencomediesTitan MaximumandRobot Chicken. In 2008, she guest-starred asAbigail Lytarin two third-season episodes of theUSA NetworkseriesPsych. She reprised the role in thefollowing season. In February 2010, Cook signed on to play the female lead role inFox TV's comedy pilotNirvana.She had a role in the Western horror filmVampire, theEnglish-languagefeature debut ofJapanesedirectorIwai Shunji.In 2012, Cook signed on to play the female lead role in theTNTcrime dramaseriesPerceptionoppositeEric McCormack. She starred in the independent filmBroken Kingdom, which was directed by her husbandDaniel Gillies. She also appeared in aFunny or Diesketch withChad Michael Murray. Cook starred in theHallmark Channeloriginal filmSummer Lovein 2016.In the same year, she starred in another Hallmark film,AutumnIn the Vineyard, followed by its sequelSummer in the Vineyardin 2017.2017 also saw Cook develop, star and executive produce the Hallmark Channel filmFrozen in Love, which was broadcast in January 2018 as part of the channel's 'Winterfest' season of programming. Cook provided the voice for Chelsea Cunningham on theKids' WBanimated seriesBatman Beyondand in the animated filmBatman Beyond: Return of the Joker. Cook voicedTifa Lockhartin thevideo gamesKingdom Hearts II,Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VIIandDissidia 012 Final Fantasy, as well as the filmFinal Fantasy VII Advent Children. In 2011, she voiced the character of Jaesa Willsaam in the MMO game,Star Wars: The Old Republic. Cook's latest voice-over role is for the video gameYakuzain which she voices the role of Reina. In 2020 Cook appeared in the fifteenth season ofCriminal Mindsplaying the role of Max in the final episodes of the series. Cook owns her own production company, Ben's Sister Productions (in reference to her younger brother Ben Cook). She produced and starred in the filmLove, Guaranteed, which debuted onNetflixon September 3, 2020. Public service Cook first gained national attention in 1997, when she was featured in an updatedThis Is Your Brain on Drugspublic service announcement(PSA) television advertisement, in which she proceeds to destroy a kitchen with afrying pan. In 2011, she was selected by theObama administrationas a Champion of Change for Arts Education. In June 2012, she began to award a small scholarship to students between ages 14 and 19. The scholarship helps pay for career classes, mentoring programs, and other school fees. In 2017, Rachael Leigh Cook reprised her \\\"This Is Your Brain on Drugs\\\" role twenty years later for a PSA by theDrug Policy Alliancecritiquing theWar on Drugsand its contribution to mass incarceration,structural racismand poverty. The ad was posted toYouTubeon April 20, 2017, in recognition of4/20. Personal life Cook married New Zealand-Canadian actorDaniel Gillieson August 8, 2004,“We got engaged after dating for maybe five months and we got married a couple of months after that.”They have two children: a daughter born in September 2013and a son born in April 2015.The couple separated in June 2019 and divorced in 2021. Cook is avegetarian. Filmography Film Television Music videos Video games Awards and nominations References External links\",\n \"She's All That She's All Thatis a 1999 Americanteenromantic comedy filmdirected byRobert Iscove. It starsFreddie Prinze Jr.,Rachael Leigh Cook,Matthew Lillard, andPaul Walker. After being dumped by his girlfriend, Zack Siler boasts he could make any girl at his high school popular. It is a modern adaptation ofGeorge Bernard Shaw's playPygmalionandGeorge Cukor's 1964 filmMy Fair Lady. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the performances of the lead actors, but were critical of the script. It was one of the most popularteen filmsof the late 1990s and reached No. 1 at the box office in its first week of release. It went on to earn $103 million worldwide.After featuring in the film, the song \\\"Kiss Me\\\" reached No. 2 onBillboard'sHot 100and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 weeks. A gender-swapped remake, titledHe's All That, was released on August 27, 2021, byNetflix. Plot Zack Siler is the big man on campus at his Southern California high school. After returning from spring break, he finds out his girlfriend, Taylor, has cheated on him with areality TVstar, Brock. After Zack and Taylor's breakup, he consoles himself by claiming that she is replaceable with any girl in the school. Zack's friend Dean disagrees and bets Zack to turn any random girl from school into thepromqueen in six weeks. He accepts, so Dean chooses Laney Boggs, an awkward and unpopular art student. Zack attempts to befriend Laney, but she pointedly ignores his advances until he asks for her help with art. She reluctantly invites him to a small theater lounge where she will perform. Intending to deter him, Laney volunteers Zack to perform onstage. He manages to improvise a routine with hishacky sack. Laney is impressed but still rejects him when Zack attempts to charm her again. When Zack shows up at her house, Laney reluctantly agrees to go to the beach with him and his friends, and they invite her to apartylater. Laney says she's busy, but Zack persuades her to go. He enlists his sister, Mack, to give her amakeover. At the party, Taylor, who is embarrassed by Brock and jealous of Laney, publicly humiliates her, bringing her to tears. Laney is surprised to be nominated for prom queen, along with Taylor. Zack then goes by her house and asks about her mother, who died when Laney was young, and talks about his father, who is pressuring him to go toDartmouthforcollege. Zack leans in to kiss Laney but pulls back when she jokes that it is just to get her vote for prom king. The next day, Zack defends Laney's brother, Simon, from bullies in the cafeteria. After a falling out with Zack, Dean asks Laney to be his prom date. Taylor is humiliated when Brock dumps her, so she cozies up to Zack. When he turns her down, she tells him that Dean has already asked Laney to the prom. When Zack confronts him, Dean reveals the bet, forcing a public confession from Zack. A furious Laney rushes from the room, refusing to speak to Zack. Unable to reconcile with Laney, Zack takes his sister to the prom. After some persuading from her father, a disheartened Laney agrees to go with Dean. At the dance, Dean boasts of his plan to seduce Laney. Laney's friend Jesse overhears, and he and Mack rush to warn Zack, who has taken the stage with Taylor as Prom King and Queen. Zack rushes after Laney, who has already left with Dean. Laney returns home to find Zack is there. She explains how she avoided Dean's advances with a fog horn. Zack confesses his true feelings, and they share a dance and kiss by the pool. Laney asks Zack about the bet, and he says mysteriously he will honor the terms. On the day of graduation he appears onstage nude except for cap and a soccer ball, getting applause from the crowd and a smile from Laney. Cast Production Casting The film had an ensemble cast of up-and-coming actors, includingKieran Culkin,OscarwinnerAnna Paquin,Jodi Lyn O'Keefe, musicianUsher Raymond,Gabrielle Unionin her film debut,Dulé Hill, andLil' Kim.ProducerRichard N. Gladsteinnoted, \\\"There were other films that you could've seen them in, but they weren't usually the leads in those films.\\\"According to directorRobert Iscove,Miramaxco-headHarvey Weinsteinwas very involved in script development and casting, and was able to get great actors in very small parts as a personal favor. Iscove saidJosh Hartnettwas considered for the role of Zack Siler, and many actresses were considered for the role of Laney Boggs, includingMena Suvari,Leelee Sobieski, andJordana Brewster. Kevin Pollaksaid he signed up for the movie in part because he was impressed withFreddie Prinze Jr.’s performance inThe House of Yesa few years earlier and was interested in working with him. Writing R. Lee Fleming Jr. is officially credited as the sole screenwriter for the film. In a 2002 interview,M. Night Shyamalanstated that hepolishedthe screenplay while adaptingStuart Littleand writing aspec scriptforThe Sixth Sense. This was also confirmed in the film's audio commentary by Iscove. In 2013, Shyamalan claimed that, rather than simply polishing Fleming's original script, he actuallyghost-wrotethe film.This was disputed by Fleming.Jack Lechner (who served as Miramax's head of development in the late 1990s) confirmed that technically both Shyamalan and Fleming contributed to the script: Fleming wrote the initial script that Miramax bought, while Shyamalan did an uncredited rewrite (doing more than \\\"a polish\\\") that got the film green-lit. Lechner reiterated that content from both writers was included in the final cut of the film.Producer Richard N. Gladstein said that the script \\\"was pretty much done\\\" already, but that Shyamalan's changes \\\"helped enormously with the relationship with Kevin Pollak \\\".Iscove attributed the performance art piece and the hacky sack sequence to Shyamalan.Fleming attributed the line \\\"Am I a fucking bet?\\\" to Shyamalan.Fleming included various pop culture references in his script: Laney Boggs was named after two characters played byWinona Ryder, Kim Boggs fromEdward Scissorhandsand Laney Pierce fromReality Bites;the characters Zack and Taylor were named after two of the three members of the bandHanson.Pollak constantly guessingJeopardy!answers incorrectly is a running joke, which he previously did in the 1997 filmTruth or Consequences, N.M.. The idea was in Fleming's script but Pollak expanded and improvised his answers. Iscove was influenced by the movies ofJohn Hughesand was trying do something different for the '90s generation that would still resonate. He stressed the importance of the story having a heart, how Zack had to be worthy of Laney, and how Laney had to learn to be more open.The story was rewritten to better fit Prinze Jr. and make Zack a more sympathetic character with his own challenges.Iscove was well aware that it was implausible to suggestRachael Leigh Cookwas ugly, but said it was standard practice in Hollywood to cast \\\"the beautiful girl\\\" and that it requires the audience to suspend their disbelief: \\\"You either go along with it or you don't go along with it.\\\" Comparing Laney's transformation to that ofClark Kent into Superman, Iscove said casting the role was more about finding an actor who had the range to give the necessary performance. Filming Filming took place from August 6, 1998, to September 28, 1998, in various California locations.The high school scenes were shot atTorrance High School, where television seriesBuffy the Vampire SlayerandBeverly Hills, 90210were previously filmed. Iscove was also a choreographer and wanted to expand and embellish the prom scenes, while also showing the Weinsteins how musical numbers could work in films. The dance scene was choreographed byAdam Shankmanat the request of the film's co-producer Jennifer Gibgot, who is Shankman's sister. Shankman was assisted byAnne Fletcher. Shankman was concerned about the scene not tonally meshing with the rest of the film, but Iscove persisted. Test audiences did not understand why the dance scene was happening, soBob Weinsteinasked for a reshoot with Usher to link the scene.Shankman also worked withMatthew Lillardon his solo dance scenes. Costume designer Denise Wingate said, \\\"We had no budget so we had to be really creative—everything in that prom scene was white, black, and gold, and we got it all fromThe Salvation Armyand just completely reworked it.\\\" Having majored in psychology, Wingate tried to explore the possible reasons for the characters’ wardrobe. Wingate concluded that Laney wore clothes like armor after the death of her mother, but also wanted to express herself as an artist, resulting in a mix of vintage clothes, overalls, aprons, and various quirky t-shirts. The falafel restaurant hat was created on short notice with items picked up from aMichaelscraft store. Laney's transformation was reflected in the red dress, which demonstrated \\\"a bold statement of her dressing in a color that was so different than anything we’d seen her in before.\\\"Leigh Cook recalled \\\"feeling really self-conscious” in the scene where she first descends the stairs in the dress. There were two versions of the red dress: a stunt double dress reserved for the scene when Laney falls down in a driveway outside a party, and a second smaller dress, which left Cook holding her breath trying to get through the scene quickly. Soundtrack The song \\\"Kiss Me\\\" was used as the main theme song. The film's box office success helped \\\"Kiss Me\\\" to gain widespread mainstream attention and chart success. It climbed to No. 2 onBillboard'sHot 100list, and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 straight weeks and No. 4 in the UK and New Zealand. The film was released in Italy with the title \\\"Kiss Me\\\". Reception Critical response On review aggregatorRotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 41% based on 63 reviews, with an average rating of 5/10. The website's critics consensus states: \\\"Despite its charming young leads,She's All Thatcan't overcome its predictable, inconsistently funny script.\\\"OnMetacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating \\\"mixed or average reviews\\\". It was the last movie to be reviewed byGene Siskelbefore his death in February 1999. Siskel gave a positive review and wrote, \\\"Rachael Leigh Cook, as Laney, the plain Jane object of the makeover, is forced to demonstrate the biggest emotional range as a character, and she is equal to the assignment.\\\"Roger Ebertsuggested: \\\"To give the movie credit, it's as bored with the underlying plot as we are. Even the prom queen election is only a backdrop for more interesting material, asShe's All Thatexplores differences in class and style, and peppers its screenplay with very funny little moments.\\\" Ebert says it \\\"is not a great movie, but it has its moments\\\", giving it 2.5 out of 4 stars.Stephen HoldenofThe New York Timespraised Cook for her performance, comparing her toWinona Ryder, saying, \\\"Unlike so many actors playing smart young people, she actually projects some intelligence along with a sly sense of comedy.\\\" Mick LaSalleof theSan Francisco Chroniclecalls it \\\"About one idea short of being an excellent teenage romance. As it stands it's a pleasing but routine effort.\\\" LaSalle criticized the film for running out of plot about halfway, saying the \\\"story line is stretched to the breaking point. In one instance, director Robert Iscove stops the action for a long dance sequence, set at the prom, that has nothing to do with anything.\\\" He commented the film is \\\"intermittently funny\\\" and praised Matthew Lillard's performance, calling it the best thing in the picture. Geoff Berkshire ofVarietywas critical of the lack of originality, and wrote, \\\"Suggesting that Miramax needs to putKevin Williamsonon permanent retainer if it's going to remain in the teen-pics field,She's All Thatnotably fails to bring to comedy the insight that the Williamson-pennedScreambrought so memorably to horror\\\". Berkshire was positive about the two leads, saying \\\"appealing young actors come off as competent, nothing more, given a context that can't be transcended.\\\" He described the direction as \\\"nothing to be ashamed of here, but nothing of any distinction, either\\\", and noted the soundtrack as a not unexpected plus.Jane Ganahl of theSan Francisco Examinerwrote, \\\"And once, just once, I'd love to see a teen flick that doesn't send out a message to young girls that to be acceptable, you have to conform. I liked the artist girl much better before.\\\" William Thomas ofEmpirecriticized the film, saying that despite a few scenes, \\\"The rest is just breezy propaganda for American high school fascism\\\", and \\\"The most worrying thing aboutShe's All Thatis its message. The 'ugly duckling' (specs, dungarees, art-lover) must conform (she gets a makeover and the boys notice her \\\"bobos\\\" for the first time) to fit in.\\\" Box office She's All Thatpremiered on January 19, 1999 at the Mann Festival Theater inWestwood, Los Angeles.The film went into general release on January 29. The film was released in Italy with the title \\\"Kiss Me\\\". The film reached No. 1 at the box office in the first week of its release, grossing $16.1 million over theSuper Bowlopening weekend.It earned $63.4 million in the United States and $39.8 million at international box offices, totaling $103.2 million worldwide against a production budget between $7–10 million.Miramax spent a further $18 million on television advertising to promote the film. Accolades The film won eight awards, and was nominated for five others. Remake In September 2020, a gender-swapped remake of the film was announced, titledHe's All That, withMark Watersto direct, original screenwriter R. Lee Fleming Jr. to write, and starringAddison RaeandTanner Buchanan.That October,Myra Molloy,Madison Pettis,Peyton Meyer,Isabella Crovetti, and Annie Jacob were cast. In December 2020,Rachael Leigh Cookjoined the cast to portray Rae's character's mother. It has been confirmed that Cook's character is unrelated to her original character.He's All Thatwas released on August 27, 2021, byNetflix. Notes References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooby-Doo_(film","Freddie Prinze Jr. Freddie James Prinze Jr.(born March 8, 1976)is an American actor. He has starred in films such asI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and itssequel(1998),She's All That(1999),Down to You,Boys and Girls(both 2000),Summer Catch(2001),Scooby-Doo(2002), andScooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed(2004). Alongside recurring roles onBoston Legal(2004) and24(2010), Prinze starred on the self-titledABCsitcomFreddie(2005–2006)—which he co-created and executive produced—and voicedKanan Jarrusin theDisney XDseriesStar Wars Rebels(2014–2018). He is the only child of actor and comedianFreddie Prinze. Early life Freddie James Prinze Jr. was born in Los Angeles on March 8, 1976, the only child of Katherine Elaine Prinze (néeCochran) and actor andstand-up comedianFreddie Prinze. On January 29, 1977, Freddie Prinze died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound, after which Prinze Jr. relocated with his mother toAlbuquerque, New Mexico.Prinze was raised Catholic.His paternal grandmother was from Puerto Ricoand he is","Ricoand he is fluent in Spanish.Prinze had \"enjoyed acting in school productions\" as a child and participated in Albuquerque Children's Theatre, though he originally planned to become a civil engineer before getting roles onFamily MattersandThe Watcher.Soon after that he sawNeil Patrick Harrisat his high school getting kids excited about getting into acting, and he decided to do that.After graduating fromLa Cueva High Schoolin 1994, Prinze moved to Los Angeles to audition for television roles. Career Television and film Prinze was cast in a guest role on the ABC TV seriesFamily Mattersin 1995. He then appeared in a few programs and made-for-TV movies, before making his motion picture debut inTo Gillian on Her 37th Birthdayin 1996. In subsequent years, Prinze appeared in youth-oriented moviesI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and its sequelI Still Know What You Did Last Summer(1998), made him known to teenage audiences. His first leading role, the romantic comedyShe's All That(1999), grossed $63 million in","$63 million in the United States. Subsequently, he had leading roles inWing Commander(1999),Down to You(2000),Boys and Girls(2000),Head over Heels(2001), andSummer Catch(2001), most of which were disliked by criticsand had moderate box office success. He playedFred Jonesin the 2002live-action film versionof the popular cartoonScooby-Doo, and reprised the role in the 2004 sequel,Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed, both alongside his wifeSarah Michelle Gellarand along withMatthew LillardandLinda Cardellini. He guest starred on the popular NBC showFriendsas a sensitive male nanny named Sandy on the series' 200th episode. He took the role of Sandy afterTom Hankscould not do it due to scheduling.He also appeared asDonny Crane, a character believed to beDenny Crane's son in the ABC legal drama-comedyBoston Legal. Prinze starred in his own televisionsitcom, titledFreddie. The sitcom is said to depict some actual events from his life, and was cancelled after one season in May 2006. He guest starred onGeorge Lopezfor a","onGeorge Lopezfor a crossover withFreddie. In 2004, Prinze accepted a special award fromTV Landon behalf of his late father. He thanked his father's former co-starDella Reesefor her continued advice and support. In 2006, he lent his voice to the character of Pi in the animated filmShark Bait. Also in 2007, he lent his voice to the character of Rick inHappily N'Ever Afteralong with his wife Gellar,Wallace Shawn,Andy Dick,George Carlin, andSigourney Weaver. In 2008, he auditioned forJigsawinPunisher: War Zone, but was not given the part at the decision ofLionsgate Studios. He later was the voice of the titular character in the animated movieDelgo.In 2010, Prinze guest starred onPsychas Dennis, a grade school friend ofShawn SpencerandBurton Guster. In March 2019, Prinze was cast asNancy Drew's father, Carson Drew, inThe CWmysterypilotNancy Drew, but was later replaced byScott Wolf.He also voiced the future version of Tim and Jim Possible in theKim PossiblemovieKim Possible: A Sitch in Time. In March 2009, it","In March 2009, it was announced that Prinze had signed on to star as Bradley, aka Ultimatum, in the ABC showNo Heroics, a U.S. remake of theBritish show of the same name.The show was not picked up, but Prinze was cast as a series regular forthe eighth seasonof the television show24; he playedCole Ortiz, a newCTUoperative. In 2021, Prinze joined therebootofPunky BrewsteronPeacock, playing the title character's ex-husband. Other work He voiced a pilot in aVatta's War: Trading in Dangergraphic audio book. Prinze voiced different characters inBioWarevideo games:LieutenantJames VegainMass Effect 3andThe Iron BullinDragon Age: Inquisition.He returned to the role of James Vega again for the animated feature filmMass Effect: Paragon Lost, dubbed byFUNimation. From 2014 until 2018, he was the voice of Kanan Jarrus, one of the last survivingJedi Knights, on theDisney XDseriesStar Wars Rebels.He reprised the role for the opening scene of the pilot episode of theDisney+seriesThe Bad Batchin May 2021.In March, 2023, he","March, 2023, he launched a new podcast,That Was Pretty Scary, with cohost Jon Lee Brody. Professional wrestling Work with WWE (2008–2009, 2010–2012) Prinze is aWWEfan and was seen on television in attendance at the March 2008WrestleMania XXIVpay-per-viewand its precedingHall of Fameceremony. He also made acameoon an episode ofThe Dirt Sheet, an online program hosted by wrestlersJohn Morrison and The Miz.He had created an official profile on WWE's \"Universe\" blog community where he would regularly write his thoughts about the current goings-on in the world of the WWE. His relationship with the company was furthered when he was hired as a member of the creative staff to contribute to weekly television and pay-per-view programming for theSmackDownbrand.It was reported on February 22, 2009 that Prinze and WWE had parted ways, but in January 2021, Prinze explained that he had actually chosen to leave the company at that time. On August 17, 2009, Prinze appeared onRawas aspecial guest host, where he was assaulted","he was assaulted by thenWWE ChampionRandy Ortonafter refusing to bail Orton out of histag team matchwithJohn Cena, who was due to challenge him in the upcomingSummerSlam.Prinze later returned to the program and got his payback during Orton's match with Cena againstBig ShowandChris Jericho, by setting up alumberjack matchinvolvingMark Henry,Primo,Evan Bourne,Kofi Kingston,MVP, andJamie Noble. Prinze returned to WWE on October 1, 2010 in a role as a producer and director.On the November 1, 2010 episode ofMonday Night Raw, Prinze made an on-screen appearance asVince McMahon's doctor, adream sequencescene that coincided withLinda McMahon's attempt to win a seat in the Senate for the state of Connecticut.Prinze left WWE for a second time due to a comment made byStone Cold Steve Austinto a contestant while taping an episode of the fifth season ofWWE Tough Enough. Podcast (since 2021) In November 2021, Prinze started his own podcastWrestling With Freddiewith cohostJeff Dye. Premier Streaming Network In April 2023,","In April 2023, Freddie Prinze Jr. joined the ownership team of Premier Streaming Network, a streaming platform focused on wrestling, sports, and entertainment content. MyFandom Sports App In June 2024, Freddie Prinze Jr. was announced as part of the ownership team behind MyFandom, an iOS app co-founded by brothers Fred and Josh Shernoff. MyFandom allows sports fans to contribute personal media to a collective archive of sporting events, creating a user-generated historical record while enabling individuals to curate their own attendance history. Personal life Prinze dated actressKimberly McCulloughfrom 1996 until 1999. He married actressSarah Michelle Gellaron September 1, 2002, inPuerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico. The couple met several years before, while filmingI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997),started dating in 2000 and were engaged in April 2001. They co-starred inScooby-Doo(2002),Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed(2004),Happily N'Ever After(2006), andStar Wars Rebels(2014–2018). Gellar made a","Gellar made a non-speaking cameo in Prinze's filmShe's All That(1999). They have two children together: a daughter born September 2009, and a son born September 2012,and live in Los Angeles. Prinze is an avid practitioner ofBrazilian jiu-jitsuand has reached the rank of purple belt in the sport, having been promoted under Jean Jacques Machado. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Podcasts Awards and nominations See also References External links","This Is Your Brain on Drugs This Is Your Brain on Drugswas a large-scaleUSanti-narcoticscampaign byPartnership for a Drug-Free America(PDFA) launched in 1987, that used three televisedpublic service announcements(PSAs) and a related poster campaign. 1987 version The 30-second version of the first PSA, from 1987, shows a man (played byJohn Roselius) in a kitchen who asks if there is anyone out there who still does not understand the dangers of drug abuse. He holds up an egg and says, \"This is your brain,\" before motioning to afrying panand adding, \"This is drugs.\" He then cracks open the egg, fries the contents, and says, \"This is your brain on drugs.\" Finally, he looks up at the camera and asks, \"Any questions?\" In contrast, the 10-second and 15-second versions simply show a close-up of an egg dropping into a frying pan. This is accompanied by a voice-over saying in the 15-second version: \"Okay, last time. This is drugs. This is your brain on drugs. Any questions?\" The 10-second version omits the first","omits the first sentence. The PSA, titled \"Frying Pan\" (a.k.a. \"Fried Egg\" and \"Any Questions?\"), was conceived by art directors Scot Fletcher and Rick Bell, copywriter Larre Johnson and creative director Paul Keye atLos Angeles-based agency keye/donna/pearlstein. It was directed byJoe Pytkathrough his ownVenice-based production company Pytka Productions and produced by agency producer Harvey Greenberg, Pytka executive producer Jane McCann and Pytka producer John Turney.Anthony Marinelliscored the shorter versions. 1997 version The second PSA, from 1997,featured 18-year-old actressRachael Leigh Cook, who, as before, holds up an egg and says, \"this is your brain\", before lifting up a frying pan with the words, \"and this isheroin\", after which she places the egg on a kitchen counter—\"this is what happens to your brain after snorting heroin\"—and slams the pan down on it. She lifts the pan back up, saying, \"and this is what your body goes through\", in reference to the remnants of the smashed egg now dripping","egg now dripping from the bottom of the pan and down her arm. Cook then says, \"Wait, It's not over yet\", and proceeds to smash everything in the kitchen with the frying pan in a rage, yelling \"this is what your family goes through! And your friends! And your money! And your job! And your self-respect! And your future!\" She ends with \"And your life\". Cook then drops the pan on the counter and says, \"Any questions?\" This PSA, likewise titled \"Frying Pan\", was conceived by art director Doug Hill, copywriter Ken Cills and creative director Graham Turner atNew York-based agency Margeotes/Fertitta & Partners. It was directed by Eden Tyler through New York-based production company Zooma Zooma, produced by agency producer Ed Kleban and Zooma Zooma producer Joseph Mantegna and edited byJay NelsonatSanta Monica-based Avenue Edit. 2016 version The third PSA, from 2016, is a loose remake which shows an egg in a human hand, stating \"This is your brain\", alongside a frying pan that the other hand is pointing to, stating,","to, stating, \"This is drugs.\" The egg is then cracked and fried into the pan, with the narration, \"This is your brain on drugs. Any questions?\" This is followed by scenes of teens, some of whom state, \"Um, yeah, I have questions\", \"Prescription drugs aren't as bad as street drugs, right?\", \"Weed's legal, isn't it?\", \"Drinking is worse than smoking weed. Isn't it?\", \"Why is heroin so addictive?\", \"Molly just makes you feel happy\", \"I have questions\", \"Mom, Dad, did you ever try drugs?\" The narrator returns to say, \"They're going to ask. Be ready.\" 2017 War on Drugs Critique version In 2017, Rachael Leigh Cook used imagery from the This is Your Brain on Drugs commercials in a PSA by theDrug Policy Alliance. The PSA critiqued thewar on drugsand its contribution to mass incarceration,structural racismand poverty. The ad was posted toYouTubeon April 20, 2017 in recognition of4/20. Analysis TV Guidenamed the commercial one of the top one hundred television advertisements of all time,andEntertainment Weeklynamed it","Weeklynamed it the 8th best commercial of all time. Impact Consumerism A poster produced in the early 1990s called \"Famous Brains on Drugs\" parodied the concept by having eggs appear in the frying pan in forms intended to remind the viewer of certain people. For instance, a pan labeled \"Saddam Hussein\" had an egg with acrosshairover it, and a pan labeled \"Milli Vanilli\" contained a box of imitation eggs.There have also been parody T-shirts, such as versions based onThe Simpsons(\"This is your brain on donuts\", showing an X-ray ofHomer Simpson's head) and theYankees–Red Sox rivalry(shirts targeted to both allegiances of the famed rivalry), among others. In media This Is Your Brain on Drugs has been widely parodied in various forms, including aSaturday Night Liveskit which parodied the PSA, adding \"with a side of bacon\" to the commercial's tagline. Television In an episode of the sitcomRoseanne, the title character reenacts the PSA while having a conversation with one of her children about drugs. In Living","drugs. In Living Colorparodied the PSA withOprah Winfrey, played byKim Wayans. In the eighteenth episode of the fourth season of the sitcomMarried... with Children, \"What Goes Around Comes Around\" (1990), the characterAl Bundytakes an egg, says \"This is your brain,\" then says \"This is your brain on marriage,\" drops it on the ground, and asks, \"Any questions?\" An episode of the teen seriesBeverly Hills, 90210ends with the charactersBrandonandBrenda Walshacting out the PSA with their friends in their favorite diner. After the show, the actual 30-second commercial aired, andJason Priestleydelivered his own anti-drug message on the air. PBS Kidsdid a parody of the famous PSA as well, in a short titled \"This is your brain on books\", in which a gold egg falls on a frying pan with books on it, then falls into a human brain, in which he thinks about composing, computing, and creating, ending it all with \"Any questions?\". The second version was satirized in the series premiere of the animated television sketch","television sketch showRobot Chicken, \"Junk in the Trunk\" (2005). Rachael Leigh Cook (who provided thevoice acting) goes on a psychopathic rampage, destroying everything she encounters, ending eventually with her smashing herself in the head and falling down a building. In the tenth episode of the second season of the TV seriesBreaking Bad, \"Over\" (2009), the characterJesse Pinkmanreferences the commercial, frying one egg and accompanying it with \"this is your brain\", while adding another egg and accompanying it with \"this is your brain on drugs\". In the sixteenth episode of the ABC sitcomThe Goldbergs, \"Muscles Mirsky\", references the PSA while Beverly is making breakfast. To promote season 2 ofRiverdaleon Netflix,Camila Mendes, who plays Veronica Lodge, re-stages the 1997 version PSA, which featured actor Rachael Leigh Cook. The promotion is shot-for-shot, except that a burger is used in place of an egg, and instead of talking about heroin, she talks about Jingle Jangle. Films In the filmBatman","In the filmBatman Forever(1995), the character theRiddlerparodies the commercial saying, \"This is your brain on the box. This is my brain on the box. Does anybody else feel like a fried egg?!\" The 1991 film sequelFreddy's Dead: The Final Nightmarespoofed the PSA by havingJohnny Depp(whose acting career began with the originalA Nightmare on Elm Streetmovie) perform the skit. The PSA goes on as normal untilRobert Englund(who playsFreddy Krueger) hits Depp with the frying pan and says, \"Yeah! What areyouon? Looks like a frying pan and some eggs to me.\" Music The cover ofPrimus' 1990 albumFrizzle Fryshowed a sculpture of a brain melting in a frying pan and was meant to be a play on the commercial. Englishvirtual bandGorillazused the PSA in the music video for their 2017 single \"Sleeping Powder\". The teaser for the 2019 \"No Drug Like Me\" music video byCarly Rae Jepsenre-stages the 1997 version PSA, which featured actor Rachael Leigh Cook. The music video forDemi Lovato's 2022 single \"Substance\" features a","features a recreation of the PSA. Books The title of thepopular sciencebookThis Is Your Brain On Music: The Science of a Human Obsession(2006) byDaniel Levitinis a nod to the PSA. Other media A 2011CBS CaresPSA parodied this in talking aboutsunburn, which showed a slice of uncookedbaconthat accompanied a voice saying \"This is your skin\", and a slice of it was then placed in a frying pan, cooking it, stating \"This is your skin in the sun\", and then follows it by a shot of a sun in which the voice says \"Any questions?\", accompanied by the phrase \"Save your bacon. Usesunscreen.\" superimposed over the sun. The Nostalgia Criticplaced the ad at number three on his \"Top 11 Drug PSAs\" list, noting that everyone he knew had a \"witty retort\" to the commercial's signature \"any questions?\" After demonstrating a few comebacks, he then watches Rachael Leigh Cook's version of the PSA, responding to her manic performance with a shocked \"What the hell kind of drugs areyouon?\" In 2012, two PSAs based on the PDFA campaign were","PDFA campaign were released byTea PartyactivistHerman Cain. The violent death of a goldfish and a rabbit were supposed to represent what PresidentObama'sstimulus plandid to theAmerican economy. Rob DenBlyker, one of the creators of the webcomicCyanide & Happiness, parodied the commercial in a 2013 installment where a father, after re-enacting the commercial, admits to his son that he himself is on drugs. \"But I don't see how that's relevant\", he adds. A 2021 commercial forKraft Singlesparodied the PSA as well, which showed melting butter whenAlfonso Ribeirosays \"This is your brain\", then puts a slice of bread when he says \"This is bread\", followed by two slices of Kraft Singles when he says \"These are delicious Kraft Singles\" followed by Ribeiro saying \"Any questions?\" and his daughter responding with \"Yes, do you have to make every meal this boring?\". In the 2005 video gameTony Hawk's American Wasteland, when the player attempts to go beyond the open world map, the game prevents them from doing so, often","doing so, often placing a message such as \"Out of bounds!\" or \"Who loaned you that skateboard?\". One of the messages is \"This is your brain on drugs!\" Criticism TheAmerican Egg Boardtook issue with the PSA, claiming that eggs were being correlated with the unhealthiness of drug use. The board worried that young children might misinterpret the TV message and believe that eggs were harmful. ComedianBill Hicksspoke negatively about the commercial frequently during his stand-up routine, claiming \"I've seen a lot of weird shit on drugs, I've never ever ever ever ever looked at an egg and thought it was a fucking brain.\" See also References External links","Rachael Leigh Cook Rachael Leigh Cook(born October 4, 1979) is an American actress and model. She has starred in the filmsThe Baby-Sitters Club(1995),She's All That(1999), andJosie and the Pussycats(2001), and in the television seriesInto the WestandPerception. She is also the voice behind various characters inRobot ChickenandTifa Lockhartin theFinal Fantasyseries, starting with the English version of the filmFinal Fantasy VII: Advent Children. Since 2016, her television appearances have primarily beenmade-for-TV movieson theHallmark Channel. Early life Rachael Leigh Cook was born on October 4, 1979,inMinneapolis, Minnesota, the daughter of Thomas Howard Cook, asocial workerand formerstand-up comedian, and JoAnn, a cooking instructor andweaver.She is of part English and Italian descent. Cook first appeared in apublic service announcementforfoster careat seven years of age and began working as achildprint modelat the age of 10, including nationwide advertisements forTargetand appearing on the boxes","on the boxes ofMilk-Bonedog biscuits. She attendedClara Barton Open School,Laurel Springs School, andMinneapolis South High School. Career Cook began auditioning for acting work at age 14.She made her screen debut as an actress in the 1995 filmThe Baby-Sitters Club. She also played a role in the adventure filmTom and Huck, released in December 1995. In 1996, her modeling agency sent her to star in a short film,26 Summer Street. In 1997, Cook appeared in a leading role in the filmCountry Justiceas a 15-year-oldrapevictim who is impregnated by her rapist. In 1999, Cook starred in her breakout role in thesleeper hitfilmShe's All That,aromantic comedythat so far is the most financially successful film of her career. In 2000, she starred oppositeElijah Woodin the well-receivedThe Bumblebee Flies Anyway. She took the lead role in 2001'sJosie and the Pussycats, which turned out to be abox office failure, although it has since become acult classic. In 2000, she was thecover girlfor the U.S. March/April issue ofFHM.","issue ofFHM. She also starred in themusic videoforNew Found Glory's 2000 single \"Dressed to Kill\".In 2002, she was ranked No. 26 inStuffmagazine's \"102 Sexiest Women in the World\". In 2003, she starred in the film11:14as Cheri. She also appeared as a main cast member in the 2005 televisionminiseriesInto the Westproduced bySteven Spielberg. In 2006, she appeared in the music video forDaniel Powter's \"Love You Lately\". In 2007, Cook was seen in the big screen adaptation ofNancy Drew. She played the female lead in the independent sports dramaThe Final Season. She has appeared in numerous episodes of theSeth GreencomediesTitan MaximumandRobot Chicken. In 2008, she guest-starred asAbigail Lytarin two third-season episodes of theUSA NetworkseriesPsych. She reprised the role in thefollowing season. In February 2010, Cook signed on to play the female lead role inFox TV's comedy pilotNirvana.She had a role in the Western horror filmVampire, theEnglish-languagefeature debut ofJapanesedirectorIwai Shunji.In 2012, Cook","2012, Cook signed on to play the female lead role in theTNTcrime dramaseriesPerceptionoppositeEric McCormack. She starred in the independent filmBroken Kingdom, which was directed by her husbandDaniel Gillies. She also appeared in aFunny or Diesketch withChad Michael Murray. Cook starred in theHallmark Channeloriginal filmSummer Lovein 2016.In the same year, she starred in another Hallmark film,AutumnIn the Vineyard, followed by its sequelSummer in the Vineyardin 2017.2017 also saw Cook develop, star and executive produce the Hallmark Channel filmFrozen in Love, which was broadcast in January 2018 as part of the channel's 'Winterfest' season of programming. Cook provided the voice for Chelsea Cunningham on theKids' WBanimated seriesBatman Beyondand in the animated filmBatman Beyond: Return of the Joker. Cook voicedTifa Lockhartin thevideo gamesKingdom Hearts II,Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VIIandDissidia 012 Final Fantasy, as well as the filmFinal Fantasy VII Advent Children. In 2011, she voiced the","she voiced the character of Jaesa Willsaam in the MMO game,Star Wars: The Old Republic. Cook's latest voice-over role is for the video gameYakuzain which she voices the role of Reina. In 2020 Cook appeared in the fifteenth season ofCriminal Mindsplaying the role of Max in the final episodes of the series. Cook owns her own production company, Ben's Sister Productions (in reference to her younger brother Ben Cook). She produced and starred in the filmLove, Guaranteed, which debuted onNetflixon September 3, 2020. Public service Cook first gained national attention in 1997, when she was featured in an updatedThis Is Your Brain on Drugspublic service announcement(PSA) television advertisement, in which she proceeds to destroy a kitchen with afrying pan. In 2011, she was selected by theObama administrationas a Champion of Change for Arts Education. In June 2012, she began to award a small scholarship to students between ages 14 and 19. The scholarship helps pay for career classes, mentoring programs, and other","programs, and other school fees. In 2017, Rachael Leigh Cook reprised her \"This Is Your Brain on Drugs\" role twenty years later for a PSA by theDrug Policy Alliancecritiquing theWar on Drugsand its contribution to mass incarceration,structural racismand poverty. The ad was posted toYouTubeon April 20, 2017, in recognition of4/20. Personal life Cook married New Zealand-Canadian actorDaniel Gillieson August 8, 2004,“We got engaged after dating for maybe five months and we got married a couple of months after that.”They have two children: a daughter born in September 2013and a son born in April 2015.The couple separated in June 2019 and divorced in 2021. Cook is avegetarian. Filmography Film Television Music videos Video games Awards and nominations References External links","She's All That She's All Thatis a 1999 Americanteenromantic comedy filmdirected byRobert Iscove. It starsFreddie Prinze Jr.,Rachael Leigh Cook,Matthew Lillard, andPaul Walker. After being dumped by his girlfriend, Zack Siler boasts he could make any girl at his high school popular. It is a modern adaptation ofGeorge Bernard Shaw's playPygmalionandGeorge Cukor's 1964 filmMy Fair Lady. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the performances of the lead actors, but were critical of the script. It was one of the most popularteen filmsof the late 1990s and reached No. 1 at the box office in its first week of release. It went on to earn $103 million worldwide.After featuring in the film, the song \"Kiss Me\" reached No. 2 onBillboard'sHot 100and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 weeks. A gender-swapped remake, titledHe's All That, was released on August 27, 2021, byNetflix. Plot Zack Siler is the big man on campus at his Southern California high school. After returning from spring break, he finds out his","he finds out his girlfriend, Taylor, has cheated on him with areality TVstar, Brock. After Zack and Taylor's breakup, he consoles himself by claiming that she is replaceable with any girl in the school. Zack's friend Dean disagrees and bets Zack to turn any random girl from school into thepromqueen in six weeks. He accepts, so Dean chooses Laney Boggs, an awkward and unpopular art student. Zack attempts to befriend Laney, but she pointedly ignores his advances until he asks for her help with art. She reluctantly invites him to a small theater lounge where she will perform. Intending to deter him, Laney volunteers Zack to perform onstage. He manages to improvise a routine with hishacky sack. Laney is impressed but still rejects him when Zack attempts to charm her again. When Zack shows up at her house, Laney reluctantly agrees to go to the beach with him and his friends, and they invite her to apartylater. Laney says she's busy, but Zack persuades her to go. He enlists his sister, Mack, to give her amakeover.","give her amakeover. At the party, Taylor, who is embarrassed by Brock and jealous of Laney, publicly humiliates her, bringing her to tears. Laney is surprised to be nominated for prom queen, along with Taylor. Zack then goes by her house and asks about her mother, who died when Laney was young, and talks about his father, who is pressuring him to go toDartmouthforcollege. Zack leans in to kiss Laney but pulls back when she jokes that it is just to get her vote for prom king. The next day, Zack defends Laney's brother, Simon, from bullies in the cafeteria. After a falling out with Zack, Dean asks Laney to be his prom date. Taylor is humiliated when Brock dumps her, so she cozies up to Zack. When he turns her down, she tells him that Dean has already asked Laney to the prom. When Zack confronts him, Dean reveals the bet, forcing a public confession from Zack. A furious Laney rushes from the room, refusing to speak to Zack. Unable to reconcile with Laney, Zack takes his sister to the prom. After some persuading","some persuading from her father, a disheartened Laney agrees to go with Dean. At the dance, Dean boasts of his plan to seduce Laney. Laney's friend Jesse overhears, and he and Mack rush to warn Zack, who has taken the stage with Taylor as Prom King and Queen. Zack rushes after Laney, who has already left with Dean. Laney returns home to find Zack is there. She explains how she avoided Dean's advances with a fog horn. Zack confesses his true feelings, and they share a dance and kiss by the pool. Laney asks Zack about the bet, and he says mysteriously he will honor the terms. On the day of graduation he appears onstage nude except for cap and a soccer ball, getting applause from the crowd and a smile from Laney. Cast Production Casting The film had an ensemble cast of up-and-coming actors, includingKieran Culkin,OscarwinnerAnna Paquin,Jodi Lyn O'Keefe, musicianUsher Raymond,Gabrielle Unionin her film debut,Dulé Hill, andLil' Kim.ProducerRichard N. Gladsteinnoted, \"There were other films that you could've seen","you could've seen them in, but they weren't usually the leads in those films.\"According to directorRobert Iscove,Miramaxco-headHarvey Weinsteinwas very involved in script development and casting, and was able to get great actors in very small parts as a personal favor. Iscove saidJosh Hartnettwas considered for the role of Zack Siler, and many actresses were considered for the role of Laney Boggs, includingMena Suvari,Leelee Sobieski, andJordana Brewster. Kevin Pollaksaid he signed up for the movie in part because he was impressed withFreddie Prinze Jr.’s performance inThe House of Yesa few years earlier and was interested in working with him. Writing R. Lee Fleming Jr. is officially credited as the sole screenwriter for the film. In a 2002 interview,M. Night Shyamalanstated that hepolishedthe screenplay while adaptingStuart Littleand writing aspec scriptforThe Sixth Sense. This was also confirmed in the film's audio commentary by Iscove. In 2013, Shyamalan claimed that, rather than simply polishing","simply polishing Fleming's original script, he actuallyghost-wrotethe film.This was disputed by Fleming.Jack Lechner (who served as Miramax's head of development in the late 1990s) confirmed that technically both Shyamalan and Fleming contributed to the script: Fleming wrote the initial script that Miramax bought, while Shyamalan did an uncredited rewrite (doing more than \"a polish\") that got the film green-lit. Lechner reiterated that content from both writers was included in the final cut of the film.Producer Richard N. Gladstein said that the script \"was pretty much done\" already, but that Shyamalan's changes \"helped enormously with the relationship with Kevin Pollak \".Iscove attributed the performance art piece and the hacky sack sequence to Shyamalan.Fleming attributed the line \"Am I a fucking bet?\" to Shyamalan.Fleming included various pop culture references in his script: Laney Boggs was named after two characters played byWinona Ryder, Kim Boggs fromEdward Scissorhandsand Laney Pierce fromReality","Pierce fromReality Bites;the characters Zack and Taylor were named after two of the three members of the bandHanson.Pollak constantly guessingJeopardy!answers incorrectly is a running joke, which he previously did in the 1997 filmTruth or Consequences, N.M.. The idea was in Fleming's script but Pollak expanded and improvised his answers. Iscove was influenced by the movies ofJohn Hughesand was trying do something different for the '90s generation that would still resonate. He stressed the importance of the story having a heart, how Zack had to be worthy of Laney, and how Laney had to learn to be more open.The story was rewritten to better fit Prinze Jr. and make Zack a more sympathetic character with his own challenges.Iscove was well aware that it was implausible to suggestRachael Leigh Cookwas ugly, but said it was standard practice in Hollywood to cast \"the beautiful girl\" and that it requires the audience to suspend their disbelief: \"You either go along with it or you don't go along with it.\" Comparing","with it.\" Comparing Laney's transformation to that ofClark Kent into Superman, Iscove said casting the role was more about finding an actor who had the range to give the necessary performance. Filming Filming took place from August 6, 1998, to September 28, 1998, in various California locations.The high school scenes were shot atTorrance High School, where television seriesBuffy the Vampire SlayerandBeverly Hills, 90210were previously filmed. Iscove was also a choreographer and wanted to expand and embellish the prom scenes, while also showing the Weinsteins how musical numbers could work in films. The dance scene was choreographed byAdam Shankmanat the request of the film's co-producer Jennifer Gibgot, who is Shankman's sister. Shankman was assisted byAnne Fletcher. Shankman was concerned about the scene not tonally meshing with the rest of the film, but Iscove persisted. Test audiences did not understand why the dance scene was happening, soBob Weinsteinasked for a reshoot with Usher to link the","Usher to link the scene.Shankman also worked withMatthew Lillardon his solo dance scenes. Costume designer Denise Wingate said, \"We had no budget so we had to be really creative—everything in that prom scene was white, black, and gold, and we got it all fromThe Salvation Armyand just completely reworked it.\" Having majored in psychology, Wingate tried to explore the possible reasons for the characters’ wardrobe. Wingate concluded that Laney wore clothes like armor after the death of her mother, but also wanted to express herself as an artist, resulting in a mix of vintage clothes, overalls, aprons, and various quirky t-shirts. The falafel restaurant hat was created on short notice with items picked up from aMichaelscraft store. Laney's transformation was reflected in the red dress, which demonstrated \"a bold statement of her dressing in a color that was so different than anything we’d seen her in before.\"Leigh Cook recalled \"feeling really self-conscious” in the scene where she first descends the stairs in","the stairs in the dress. There were two versions of the red dress: a stunt double dress reserved for the scene when Laney falls down in a driveway outside a party, and a second smaller dress, which left Cook holding her breath trying to get through the scene quickly. Soundtrack The song \"Kiss Me\" was used as the main theme song. The film's box office success helped \"Kiss Me\" to gain widespread mainstream attention and chart success. It climbed to No. 2 onBillboard'sHot 100list, and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 straight weeks and No. 4 in the UK and New Zealand. The film was released in Italy with the title \"Kiss Me\". Reception Critical response On review aggregatorRotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 41% based on 63 reviews, with an average rating of 5/10. The website's critics consensus states: \"Despite its charming young leads,She's All Thatcan't overcome its predictable, inconsistently funny script.\"OnMetacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 32 critics,","on 32 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". It was the last movie to be reviewed byGene Siskelbefore his death in February 1999. Siskel gave a positive review and wrote, \"Rachael Leigh Cook, as Laney, the plain Jane object of the makeover, is forced to demonstrate the biggest emotional range as a character, and she is equal to the assignment.\"Roger Ebertsuggested: \"To give the movie credit, it's as bored with the underlying plot as we are. Even the prom queen election is only a backdrop for more interesting material, asShe's All Thatexplores differences in class and style, and peppers its screenplay with very funny little moments.\" Ebert says it \"is not a great movie, but it has its moments\", giving it 2.5 out of 4 stars.Stephen HoldenofThe New York Timespraised Cook for her performance, comparing her toWinona Ryder, saying, \"Unlike so many actors playing smart young people, she actually projects some intelligence along with a sly sense of comedy.\" Mick LaSalleof theSan Francisco Chroniclecalls it","Chroniclecalls it \"About one idea short of being an excellent teenage romance. As it stands it's a pleasing but routine effort.\" LaSalle criticized the film for running out of plot about halfway, saying the \"story line is stretched to the breaking point. In one instance, director Robert Iscove stops the action for a long dance sequence, set at the prom, that has nothing to do with anything.\" He commented the film is \"intermittently funny\" and praised Matthew Lillard's performance, calling it the best thing in the picture. Geoff Berkshire ofVarietywas critical of the lack of originality, and wrote, \"Suggesting that Miramax needs to putKevin Williamsonon permanent retainer if it's going to remain in the teen-pics field,She's All Thatnotably fails to bring to comedy the insight that the Williamson-pennedScreambrought so memorably to horror\". Berkshire was positive about the two leads, saying \"appealing young actors come off as competent, nothing more, given a context that can't be transcended.\" He described the","He described the direction as \"nothing to be ashamed of here, but nothing of any distinction, either\", and noted the soundtrack as a not unexpected plus.Jane Ganahl of theSan Francisco Examinerwrote, \"And once, just once, I'd love to see a teen flick that doesn't send out a message to young girls that to be acceptable, you have to conform. I liked the artist girl much better before.\" William Thomas ofEmpirecriticized the film, saying that despite a few scenes, \"The rest is just breezy propaganda for American high school fascism\", and \"The most worrying thing aboutShe's All Thatis its message. The 'ugly duckling' (specs, dungarees, art-lover) must conform (she gets a makeover and the boys notice her \"bobos\" for the first time) to fit in.\" Box office She's All Thatpremiered on January 19, 1999 at the Mann Festival Theater inWestwood, Los Angeles.The film went into general release on January 29. The film was released in Italy with the title \"Kiss Me\". The film reached No. 1 at the box office in the first week","in the first week of its release, grossing $16.1 million over theSuper Bowlopening weekend.It earned $63.4 million in the United States and $39.8 million at international box offices, totaling $103.2 million worldwide against a production budget between $7–10 million.Miramax spent a further $18 million on television advertising to promote the film. Accolades The film won eight awards, and was nominated for five others. Remake In September 2020, a gender-swapped remake of the film was announced, titledHe's All That, withMark Watersto direct, original screenwriter R. Lee Fleming Jr. to write, and starringAddison RaeandTanner Buchanan.That October,Myra Molloy,Madison Pettis,Peyton Meyer,Isabella Crovetti, and Annie Jacob were cast. In December 2020,Rachael Leigh Cookjoined the cast to portray Rae's character's mother. It has been confirmed that Cook's character is unrelated to her original character.He's All Thatwas released on August 27, 2021, byNetflix. Notes References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooby-Doo_(film\",\n \"Freddie Prinze Jr. Freddie James Prinze Jr.(born March 8, 1976)is an American actor. He has starred in films such asI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and itssequel(1998),She's All That(1999),Down to You,Boys and Girls(both 2000),Summer Catch(2001),Scooby-Doo(2002), andScooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed(2004). Alongside recurring roles onBoston Legal(2004) and24(2010), Prinze starred on the self-titledABCsitcomFreddie(2005–2006)—which he co-created and executive produced—and voicedKanan Jarrusin theDisney XDseriesStar Wars Rebels(2014–2018). He is the only child of actor and comedianFreddie Prinze. Early life Freddie James Prinze Jr. was born in Los Angeles on March 8, 1976, the only child of Katherine Elaine Prinze (néeCochran) and actor andstand-up comedianFreddie Prinze. On January 29, 1977, Freddie Prinze died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound, after which Prinze Jr. relocated with his mother toAlbuquerque, New Mexico.Prinze was raised Catholic.His paternal grandmother was from Puerto Ricoand he is\",\n \"Ricoand he is fluent in Spanish.Prinze had \\\"enjoyed acting in school productions\\\" as a child and participated in Albuquerque Children's Theatre, though he originally planned to become a civil engineer before getting roles onFamily MattersandThe Watcher.Soon after that he sawNeil Patrick Harrisat his high school getting kids excited about getting into acting, and he decided to do that.After graduating fromLa Cueva High Schoolin 1994, Prinze moved to Los Angeles to audition for television roles. Career Television and film Prinze was cast in a guest role on the ABC TV seriesFamily Mattersin 1995. He then appeared in a few programs and made-for-TV movies, before making his motion picture debut inTo Gillian on Her 37th Birthdayin 1996. In subsequent years, Prinze appeared in youth-oriented moviesI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and its sequelI Still Know What You Did Last Summer(1998), made him known to teenage audiences. His first leading role, the romantic comedyShe's All That(1999), grossed $63 million in\",\n \"$63 million in the United States. Subsequently, he had leading roles inWing Commander(1999),Down to You(2000),Boys and Girls(2000),Head over Heels(2001), andSummer Catch(2001), most of which were disliked by criticsand had moderate box office success. He playedFred Jonesin the 2002live-action film versionof the popular cartoonScooby-Doo, and reprised the role in the 2004 sequel,Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed, both alongside his wifeSarah Michelle Gellarand along withMatthew LillardandLinda Cardellini. He guest starred on the popular NBC showFriendsas a sensitive male nanny named Sandy on the series' 200th episode. He took the role of Sandy afterTom Hankscould not do it due to scheduling.He also appeared asDonny Crane, a character believed to beDenny Crane's son in the ABC legal drama-comedyBoston Legal. Prinze starred in his own televisionsitcom, titledFreddie. The sitcom is said to depict some actual events from his life, and was cancelled after one season in May 2006. He guest starred onGeorge Lopezfor a\",\n \"onGeorge Lopezfor a crossover withFreddie. In 2004, Prinze accepted a special award fromTV Landon behalf of his late father. He thanked his father's former co-starDella Reesefor her continued advice and support. In 2006, he lent his voice to the character of Pi in the animated filmShark Bait. Also in 2007, he lent his voice to the character of Rick inHappily N'Ever Afteralong with his wife Gellar,Wallace Shawn,Andy Dick,George Carlin, andSigourney Weaver. In 2008, he auditioned forJigsawinPunisher: War Zone, but was not given the part at the decision ofLionsgate Studios. He later was the voice of the titular character in the animated movieDelgo.In 2010, Prinze guest starred onPsychas Dennis, a grade school friend ofShawn SpencerandBurton Guster. In March 2019, Prinze was cast asNancy Drew's father, Carson Drew, inThe CWmysterypilotNancy Drew, but was later replaced byScott Wolf.He also voiced the future version of Tim and Jim Possible in theKim PossiblemovieKim Possible: A Sitch in Time. In March 2009, it\",\n \"In March 2009, it was announced that Prinze had signed on to star as Bradley, aka Ultimatum, in the ABC showNo Heroics, a U.S. remake of theBritish show of the same name.The show was not picked up, but Prinze was cast as a series regular forthe eighth seasonof the television show24; he playedCole Ortiz, a newCTUoperative. In 2021, Prinze joined therebootofPunky BrewsteronPeacock, playing the title character's ex-husband. Other work He voiced a pilot in aVatta's War: Trading in Dangergraphic audio book. Prinze voiced different characters inBioWarevideo games:LieutenantJames VegainMass Effect 3andThe Iron BullinDragon Age: Inquisition.He returned to the role of James Vega again for the animated feature filmMass Effect: Paragon Lost, dubbed byFUNimation. From 2014 until 2018, he was the voice of Kanan Jarrus, one of the last survivingJedi Knights, on theDisney XDseriesStar Wars Rebels.He reprised the role for the opening scene of the pilot episode of theDisney+seriesThe Bad Batchin May 2021.In March, 2023, he\",\n \"March, 2023, he launched a new podcast,That Was Pretty Scary, with cohost Jon Lee Brody. Professional wrestling Work with WWE (2008–2009, 2010–2012) Prinze is aWWEfan and was seen on television in attendance at the March 2008WrestleMania XXIVpay-per-viewand its precedingHall of Fameceremony. He also made acameoon an episode ofThe Dirt Sheet, an online program hosted by wrestlersJohn Morrison and The Miz.He had created an official profile on WWE's \\\"Universe\\\" blog community where he would regularly write his thoughts about the current goings-on in the world of the WWE. His relationship with the company was furthered when he was hired as a member of the creative staff to contribute to weekly television and pay-per-view programming for theSmackDownbrand.It was reported on February 22, 2009 that Prinze and WWE had parted ways, but in January 2021, Prinze explained that he had actually chosen to leave the company at that time. On August 17, 2009, Prinze appeared onRawas aspecial guest host, where he was assaulted\",\n \"he was assaulted by thenWWE ChampionRandy Ortonafter refusing to bail Orton out of histag team matchwithJohn Cena, who was due to challenge him in the upcomingSummerSlam.Prinze later returned to the program and got his payback during Orton's match with Cena againstBig ShowandChris Jericho, by setting up alumberjack matchinvolvingMark Henry,Primo,Evan Bourne,Kofi Kingston,MVP, andJamie Noble. Prinze returned to WWE on October 1, 2010 in a role as a producer and director.On the November 1, 2010 episode ofMonday Night Raw, Prinze made an on-screen appearance asVince McMahon's doctor, adream sequencescene that coincided withLinda McMahon's attempt to win a seat in the Senate for the state of Connecticut.Prinze left WWE for a second time due to a comment made byStone Cold Steve Austinto a contestant while taping an episode of the fifth season ofWWE Tough Enough. Podcast (since 2021) In November 2021, Prinze started his own podcastWrestling With Freddiewith cohostJeff Dye. Premier Streaming Network In April 2023,\",\n \"In April 2023, Freddie Prinze Jr. joined the ownership team of Premier Streaming Network, a streaming platform focused on wrestling, sports, and entertainment content. MyFandom Sports App In June 2024, Freddie Prinze Jr. was announced as part of the ownership team behind MyFandom, an iOS app co-founded by brothers Fred and Josh Shernoff. MyFandom allows sports fans to contribute personal media to a collective archive of sporting events, creating a user-generated historical record while enabling individuals to curate their own attendance history. Personal life Prinze dated actressKimberly McCulloughfrom 1996 until 1999. He married actressSarah Michelle Gellaron September 1, 2002, inPuerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico. The couple met several years before, while filmingI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997),started dating in 2000 and were engaged in April 2001. They co-starred inScooby-Doo(2002),Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed(2004),Happily N'Ever After(2006), andStar Wars Rebels(2014–2018). Gellar made a\",\n \"Gellar made a non-speaking cameo in Prinze's filmShe's All That(1999). They have two children together: a daughter born September 2009, and a son born September 2012,and live in Los Angeles. Prinze is an avid practitioner ofBrazilian jiu-jitsuand has reached the rank of purple belt in the sport, having been promoted under Jean Jacques Machado. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Podcasts Awards and nominations See also References External links\",\n \"This Is Your Brain on Drugs This Is Your Brain on Drugswas a large-scaleUSanti-narcoticscampaign byPartnership for a Drug-Free America(PDFA) launched in 1987, that used three televisedpublic service announcements(PSAs) and a related poster campaign. 1987 version The 30-second version of the first PSA, from 1987, shows a man (played byJohn Roselius) in a kitchen who asks if there is anyone out there who still does not understand the dangers of drug abuse. He holds up an egg and says, \\\"This is your brain,\\\" before motioning to afrying panand adding, \\\"This is drugs.\\\" He then cracks open the egg, fries the contents, and says, \\\"This is your brain on drugs.\\\" Finally, he looks up at the camera and asks, \\\"Any questions?\\\" In contrast, the 10-second and 15-second versions simply show a close-up of an egg dropping into a frying pan. This is accompanied by a voice-over saying in the 15-second version: \\\"Okay, last time. This is drugs. This is your brain on drugs. Any questions?\\\" The 10-second version omits the first\",\n \"omits the first sentence. The PSA, titled \\\"Frying Pan\\\" (a.k.a. \\\"Fried Egg\\\" and \\\"Any Questions?\\\"), was conceived by art directors Scot Fletcher and Rick Bell, copywriter Larre Johnson and creative director Paul Keye atLos Angeles-based agency keye/donna/pearlstein. It was directed byJoe Pytkathrough his ownVenice-based production company Pytka Productions and produced by agency producer Harvey Greenberg, Pytka executive producer Jane McCann and Pytka producer John Turney.Anthony Marinelliscored the shorter versions. 1997 version The second PSA, from 1997,featured 18-year-old actressRachael Leigh Cook, who, as before, holds up an egg and says, \\\"this is your brain\\\", before lifting up a frying pan with the words, \\\"and this isheroin\\\", after which she places the egg on a kitchen counter—\\\"this is what happens to your brain after snorting heroin\\\"—and slams the pan down on it. She lifts the pan back up, saying, \\\"and this is what your body goes through\\\", in reference to the remnants of the smashed egg now dripping\",\n \"egg now dripping from the bottom of the pan and down her arm. Cook then says, \\\"Wait, It's not over yet\\\", and proceeds to smash everything in the kitchen with the frying pan in a rage, yelling \\\"this is what your family goes through! And your friends! And your money! And your job! And your self-respect! And your future!\\\" She ends with \\\"And your life\\\". Cook then drops the pan on the counter and says, \\\"Any questions?\\\" This PSA, likewise titled \\\"Frying Pan\\\", was conceived by art director Doug Hill, copywriter Ken Cills and creative director Graham Turner atNew York-based agency Margeotes/Fertitta & Partners. It was directed by Eden Tyler through New York-based production company Zooma Zooma, produced by agency producer Ed Kleban and Zooma Zooma producer Joseph Mantegna and edited byJay NelsonatSanta Monica-based Avenue Edit. 2016 version The third PSA, from 2016, is a loose remake which shows an egg in a human hand, stating \\\"This is your brain\\\", alongside a frying pan that the other hand is pointing to, stating,\",\n \"to, stating, \\\"This is drugs.\\\" The egg is then cracked and fried into the pan, with the narration, \\\"This is your brain on drugs. Any questions?\\\" This is followed by scenes of teens, some of whom state, \\\"Um, yeah, I have questions\\\", \\\"Prescription drugs aren't as bad as street drugs, right?\\\", \\\"Weed's legal, isn't it?\\\", \\\"Drinking is worse than smoking weed. Isn't it?\\\", \\\"Why is heroin so addictive?\\\", \\\"Molly just makes you feel happy\\\", \\\"I have questions\\\", \\\"Mom, Dad, did you ever try drugs?\\\" The narrator returns to say, \\\"They're going to ask. Be ready.\\\" 2017 War on Drugs Critique version In 2017, Rachael Leigh Cook used imagery from the This is Your Brain on Drugs commercials in a PSA by theDrug Policy Alliance. The PSA critiqued thewar on drugsand its contribution to mass incarceration,structural racismand poverty. The ad was posted toYouTubeon April 20, 2017 in recognition of4/20. Analysis TV Guidenamed the commercial one of the top one hundred television advertisements of all time,andEntertainment Weeklynamed it\",\n \"Weeklynamed it the 8th best commercial of all time. Impact Consumerism A poster produced in the early 1990s called \\\"Famous Brains on Drugs\\\" parodied the concept by having eggs appear in the frying pan in forms intended to remind the viewer of certain people. For instance, a pan labeled \\\"Saddam Hussein\\\" had an egg with acrosshairover it, and a pan labeled \\\"Milli Vanilli\\\" contained a box of imitation eggs.There have also been parody T-shirts, such as versions based onThe Simpsons(\\\"This is your brain on donuts\\\", showing an X-ray ofHomer Simpson's head) and theYankees–Red Sox rivalry(shirts targeted to both allegiances of the famed rivalry), among others. In media This Is Your Brain on Drugs has been widely parodied in various forms, including aSaturday Night Liveskit which parodied the PSA, adding \\\"with a side of bacon\\\" to the commercial's tagline. Television In an episode of the sitcomRoseanne, the title character reenacts the PSA while having a conversation with one of her children about drugs. In Living\",\n \"drugs. In Living Colorparodied the PSA withOprah Winfrey, played byKim Wayans. In the eighteenth episode of the fourth season of the sitcomMarried... with Children, \\\"What Goes Around Comes Around\\\" (1990), the characterAl Bundytakes an egg, says \\\"This is your brain,\\\" then says \\\"This is your brain on marriage,\\\" drops it on the ground, and asks, \\\"Any questions?\\\" An episode of the teen seriesBeverly Hills, 90210ends with the charactersBrandonandBrenda Walshacting out the PSA with their friends in their favorite diner. After the show, the actual 30-second commercial aired, andJason Priestleydelivered his own anti-drug message on the air. PBS Kidsdid a parody of the famous PSA as well, in a short titled \\\"This is your brain on books\\\", in which a gold egg falls on a frying pan with books on it, then falls into a human brain, in which he thinks about composing, computing, and creating, ending it all with \\\"Any questions?\\\". The second version was satirized in the series premiere of the animated television sketch\",\n \"television sketch showRobot Chicken, \\\"Junk in the Trunk\\\" (2005). Rachael Leigh Cook (who provided thevoice acting) goes on a psychopathic rampage, destroying everything she encounters, ending eventually with her smashing herself in the head and falling down a building. In the tenth episode of the second season of the TV seriesBreaking Bad, \\\"Over\\\" (2009), the characterJesse Pinkmanreferences the commercial, frying one egg and accompanying it with \\\"this is your brain\\\", while adding another egg and accompanying it with \\\"this is your brain on drugs\\\". In the sixteenth episode of the ABC sitcomThe Goldbergs, \\\"Muscles Mirsky\\\", references the PSA while Beverly is making breakfast. To promote season 2 ofRiverdaleon Netflix,Camila Mendes, who plays Veronica Lodge, re-stages the 1997 version PSA, which featured actor Rachael Leigh Cook. The promotion is shot-for-shot, except that a burger is used in place of an egg, and instead of talking about heroin, she talks about Jingle Jangle. Films In the filmBatman\",\n \"In the filmBatman Forever(1995), the character theRiddlerparodies the commercial saying, \\\"This is your brain on the box. This is my brain on the box. Does anybody else feel like a fried egg?!\\\" The 1991 film sequelFreddy's Dead: The Final Nightmarespoofed the PSA by havingJohnny Depp(whose acting career began with the originalA Nightmare on Elm Streetmovie) perform the skit. The PSA goes on as normal untilRobert Englund(who playsFreddy Krueger) hits Depp with the frying pan and says, \\\"Yeah! What areyouon? Looks like a frying pan and some eggs to me.\\\" Music The cover ofPrimus' 1990 albumFrizzle Fryshowed a sculpture of a brain melting in a frying pan and was meant to be a play on the commercial. Englishvirtual bandGorillazused the PSA in the music video for their 2017 single \\\"Sleeping Powder\\\". The teaser for the 2019 \\\"No Drug Like Me\\\" music video byCarly Rae Jepsenre-stages the 1997 version PSA, which featured actor Rachael Leigh Cook. The music video forDemi Lovato's 2022 single \\\"Substance\\\" features a\",\n \"features a recreation of the PSA. Books The title of thepopular sciencebookThis Is Your Brain On Music: The Science of a Human Obsession(2006) byDaniel Levitinis a nod to the PSA. Other media A 2011CBS CaresPSA parodied this in talking aboutsunburn, which showed a slice of uncookedbaconthat accompanied a voice saying \\\"This is your skin\\\", and a slice of it was then placed in a frying pan, cooking it, stating \\\"This is your skin in the sun\\\", and then follows it by a shot of a sun in which the voice says \\\"Any questions?\\\", accompanied by the phrase \\\"Save your bacon. Usesunscreen.\\\" superimposed over the sun. The Nostalgia Criticplaced the ad at number three on his \\\"Top 11 Drug PSAs\\\" list, noting that everyone he knew had a \\\"witty retort\\\" to the commercial's signature \\\"any questions?\\\" After demonstrating a few comebacks, he then watches Rachael Leigh Cook's version of the PSA, responding to her manic performance with a shocked \\\"What the hell kind of drugs areyouon?\\\" In 2012, two PSAs based on the PDFA campaign were\",\n \"PDFA campaign were released byTea PartyactivistHerman Cain. The violent death of a goldfish and a rabbit were supposed to represent what PresidentObama'sstimulus plandid to theAmerican economy. Rob DenBlyker, one of the creators of the webcomicCyanide & Happiness, parodied the commercial in a 2013 installment where a father, after re-enacting the commercial, admits to his son that he himself is on drugs. \\\"But I don't see how that's relevant\\\", he adds. A 2021 commercial forKraft Singlesparodied the PSA as well, which showed melting butter whenAlfonso Ribeirosays \\\"This is your brain\\\", then puts a slice of bread when he says \\\"This is bread\\\", followed by two slices of Kraft Singles when he says \\\"These are delicious Kraft Singles\\\" followed by Ribeiro saying \\\"Any questions?\\\" and his daughter responding with \\\"Yes, do you have to make every meal this boring?\\\". In the 2005 video gameTony Hawk's American Wasteland, when the player attempts to go beyond the open world map, the game prevents them from doing so, often\",\n \"doing so, often placing a message such as \\\"Out of bounds!\\\" or \\\"Who loaned you that skateboard?\\\". One of the messages is \\\"This is your brain on drugs!\\\" Criticism TheAmerican Egg Boardtook issue with the PSA, claiming that eggs were being correlated with the unhealthiness of drug use. The board worried that young children might misinterpret the TV message and believe that eggs were harmful. ComedianBill Hicksspoke negatively about the commercial frequently during his stand-up routine, claiming \\\"I've seen a lot of weird shit on drugs, I've never ever ever ever ever looked at an egg and thought it was a fucking brain.\\\" See also References External links\",\n \"Rachael Leigh Cook Rachael Leigh Cook(born October 4, 1979) is an American actress and model. She has starred in the filmsThe Baby-Sitters Club(1995),She's All That(1999), andJosie and the Pussycats(2001), and in the television seriesInto the WestandPerception. She is also the voice behind various characters inRobot ChickenandTifa Lockhartin theFinal Fantasyseries, starting with the English version of the filmFinal Fantasy VII: Advent Children. Since 2016, her television appearances have primarily beenmade-for-TV movieson theHallmark Channel. Early life Rachael Leigh Cook was born on October 4, 1979,inMinneapolis, Minnesota, the daughter of Thomas Howard Cook, asocial workerand formerstand-up comedian, and JoAnn, a cooking instructor andweaver.She is of part English and Italian descent. Cook first appeared in apublic service announcementforfoster careat seven years of age and began working as achildprint modelat the age of 10, including nationwide advertisements forTargetand appearing on the boxes\",\n \"on the boxes ofMilk-Bonedog biscuits. She attendedClara Barton Open School,Laurel Springs School, andMinneapolis South High School. Career Cook began auditioning for acting work at age 14.She made her screen debut as an actress in the 1995 filmThe Baby-Sitters Club. She also played a role in the adventure filmTom and Huck, released in December 1995. In 1996, her modeling agency sent her to star in a short film,26 Summer Street. In 1997, Cook appeared in a leading role in the filmCountry Justiceas a 15-year-oldrapevictim who is impregnated by her rapist. In 1999, Cook starred in her breakout role in thesleeper hitfilmShe's All That,aromantic comedythat so far is the most financially successful film of her career. In 2000, she starred oppositeElijah Woodin the well-receivedThe Bumblebee Flies Anyway. She took the lead role in 2001'sJosie and the Pussycats, which turned out to be abox office failure, although it has since become acult classic. In 2000, she was thecover girlfor the U.S. March/April issue ofFHM.\",\n \"issue ofFHM. She also starred in themusic videoforNew Found Glory's 2000 single \\\"Dressed to Kill\\\".In 2002, she was ranked No. 26 inStuffmagazine's \\\"102 Sexiest Women in the World\\\". In 2003, she starred in the film11:14as Cheri. She also appeared as a main cast member in the 2005 televisionminiseriesInto the Westproduced bySteven Spielberg. In 2006, she appeared in the music video forDaniel Powter's \\\"Love You Lately\\\". In 2007, Cook was seen in the big screen adaptation ofNancy Drew. She played the female lead in the independent sports dramaThe Final Season. She has appeared in numerous episodes of theSeth GreencomediesTitan MaximumandRobot Chicken. In 2008, she guest-starred asAbigail Lytarin two third-season episodes of theUSA NetworkseriesPsych. She reprised the role in thefollowing season. In February 2010, Cook signed on to play the female lead role inFox TV's comedy pilotNirvana.She had a role in the Western horror filmVampire, theEnglish-languagefeature debut ofJapanesedirectorIwai Shunji.In 2012, Cook\",\n \"2012, Cook signed on to play the female lead role in theTNTcrime dramaseriesPerceptionoppositeEric McCormack. She starred in the independent filmBroken Kingdom, which was directed by her husbandDaniel Gillies. She also appeared in aFunny or Diesketch withChad Michael Murray. Cook starred in theHallmark Channeloriginal filmSummer Lovein 2016.In the same year, she starred in another Hallmark film,AutumnIn the Vineyard, followed by its sequelSummer in the Vineyardin 2017.2017 also saw Cook develop, star and executive produce the Hallmark Channel filmFrozen in Love, which was broadcast in January 2018 as part of the channel's 'Winterfest' season of programming. Cook provided the voice for Chelsea Cunningham on theKids' WBanimated seriesBatman Beyondand in the animated filmBatman Beyond: Return of the Joker. Cook voicedTifa Lockhartin thevideo gamesKingdom Hearts II,Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VIIandDissidia 012 Final Fantasy, as well as the filmFinal Fantasy VII Advent Children. In 2011, she voiced the\",\n \"she voiced the character of Jaesa Willsaam in the MMO game,Star Wars: The Old Republic. Cook's latest voice-over role is for the video gameYakuzain which she voices the role of Reina. In 2020 Cook appeared in the fifteenth season ofCriminal Mindsplaying the role of Max in the final episodes of the series. Cook owns her own production company, Ben's Sister Productions (in reference to her younger brother Ben Cook). She produced and starred in the filmLove, Guaranteed, which debuted onNetflixon September 3, 2020. Public service Cook first gained national attention in 1997, when she was featured in an updatedThis Is Your Brain on Drugspublic service announcement(PSA) television advertisement, in which she proceeds to destroy a kitchen with afrying pan. In 2011, she was selected by theObama administrationas a Champion of Change for Arts Education. In June 2012, she began to award a small scholarship to students between ages 14 and 19. The scholarship helps pay for career classes, mentoring programs, and other\",\n \"programs, and other school fees. In 2017, Rachael Leigh Cook reprised her \\\"This Is Your Brain on Drugs\\\" role twenty years later for a PSA by theDrug Policy Alliancecritiquing theWar on Drugsand its contribution to mass incarceration,structural racismand poverty. The ad was posted toYouTubeon April 20, 2017, in recognition of4/20. Personal life Cook married New Zealand-Canadian actorDaniel Gillieson August 8, 2004,“We got engaged after dating for maybe five months and we got married a couple of months after that.”They have two children: a daughter born in September 2013and a son born in April 2015.The couple separated in June 2019 and divorced in 2021. Cook is avegetarian. Filmography Film Television Music videos Video games Awards and nominations References External links\",\n \"She's All That She's All Thatis a 1999 Americanteenromantic comedy filmdirected byRobert Iscove. It starsFreddie Prinze Jr.,Rachael Leigh Cook,Matthew Lillard, andPaul Walker. After being dumped by his girlfriend, Zack Siler boasts he could make any girl at his high school popular. It is a modern adaptation ofGeorge Bernard Shaw's playPygmalionandGeorge Cukor's 1964 filmMy Fair Lady. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the performances of the lead actors, but were critical of the script. It was one of the most popularteen filmsof the late 1990s and reached No. 1 at the box office in its first week of release. It went on to earn $103 million worldwide.After featuring in the film, the song \\\"Kiss Me\\\" reached No. 2 onBillboard'sHot 100and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 weeks. A gender-swapped remake, titledHe's All That, was released on August 27, 2021, byNetflix. Plot Zack Siler is the big man on campus at his Southern California high school. After returning from spring break, he finds out his\",\n \"he finds out his girlfriend, Taylor, has cheated on him with areality TVstar, Brock. After Zack and Taylor's breakup, he consoles himself by claiming that she is replaceable with any girl in the school. Zack's friend Dean disagrees and bets Zack to turn any random girl from school into thepromqueen in six weeks. He accepts, so Dean chooses Laney Boggs, an awkward and unpopular art student. Zack attempts to befriend Laney, but she pointedly ignores his advances until he asks for her help with art. She reluctantly invites him to a small theater lounge where she will perform. Intending to deter him, Laney volunteers Zack to perform onstage. He manages to improvise a routine with hishacky sack. Laney is impressed but still rejects him when Zack attempts to charm her again. When Zack shows up at her house, Laney reluctantly agrees to go to the beach with him and his friends, and they invite her to apartylater. Laney says she's busy, but Zack persuades her to go. He enlists his sister, Mack, to give her amakeover.\",\n \"give her amakeover. At the party, Taylor, who is embarrassed by Brock and jealous of Laney, publicly humiliates her, bringing her to tears. Laney is surprised to be nominated for prom queen, along with Taylor. Zack then goes by her house and asks about her mother, who died when Laney was young, and talks about his father, who is pressuring him to go toDartmouthforcollege. Zack leans in to kiss Laney but pulls back when she jokes that it is just to get her vote for prom king. The next day, Zack defends Laney's brother, Simon, from bullies in the cafeteria. After a falling out with Zack, Dean asks Laney to be his prom date. Taylor is humiliated when Brock dumps her, so she cozies up to Zack. When he turns her down, she tells him that Dean has already asked Laney to the prom. When Zack confronts him, Dean reveals the bet, forcing a public confession from Zack. A furious Laney rushes from the room, refusing to speak to Zack. Unable to reconcile with Laney, Zack takes his sister to the prom. After some persuading\",\n \"some persuading from her father, a disheartened Laney agrees to go with Dean. At the dance, Dean boasts of his plan to seduce Laney. Laney's friend Jesse overhears, and he and Mack rush to warn Zack, who has taken the stage with Taylor as Prom King and Queen. Zack rushes after Laney, who has already left with Dean. Laney returns home to find Zack is there. She explains how she avoided Dean's advances with a fog horn. Zack confesses his true feelings, and they share a dance and kiss by the pool. Laney asks Zack about the bet, and he says mysteriously he will honor the terms. On the day of graduation he appears onstage nude except for cap and a soccer ball, getting applause from the crowd and a smile from Laney. Cast Production Casting The film had an ensemble cast of up-and-coming actors, includingKieran Culkin,OscarwinnerAnna Paquin,Jodi Lyn O'Keefe, musicianUsher Raymond,Gabrielle Unionin her film debut,Dulé Hill, andLil' Kim.ProducerRichard N. Gladsteinnoted, \\\"There were other films that you could've seen\",\n \"you could've seen them in, but they weren't usually the leads in those films.\\\"According to directorRobert Iscove,Miramaxco-headHarvey Weinsteinwas very involved in script development and casting, and was able to get great actors in very small parts as a personal favor. Iscove saidJosh Hartnettwas considered for the role of Zack Siler, and many actresses were considered for the role of Laney Boggs, includingMena Suvari,Leelee Sobieski, andJordana Brewster. Kevin Pollaksaid he signed up for the movie in part because he was impressed withFreddie Prinze Jr.’s performance inThe House of Yesa few years earlier and was interested in working with him. Writing R. Lee Fleming Jr. is officially credited as the sole screenwriter for the film. In a 2002 interview,M. Night Shyamalanstated that hepolishedthe screenplay while adaptingStuart Littleand writing aspec scriptforThe Sixth Sense. This was also confirmed in the film's audio commentary by Iscove. In 2013, Shyamalan claimed that, rather than simply polishing\",\n \"simply polishing Fleming's original script, he actuallyghost-wrotethe film.This was disputed by Fleming.Jack Lechner (who served as Miramax's head of development in the late 1990s) confirmed that technically both Shyamalan and Fleming contributed to the script: Fleming wrote the initial script that Miramax bought, while Shyamalan did an uncredited rewrite (doing more than \\\"a polish\\\") that got the film green-lit. Lechner reiterated that content from both writers was included in the final cut of the film.Producer Richard N. Gladstein said that the script \\\"was pretty much done\\\" already, but that Shyamalan's changes \\\"helped enormously with the relationship with Kevin Pollak \\\".Iscove attributed the performance art piece and the hacky sack sequence to Shyamalan.Fleming attributed the line \\\"Am I a fucking bet?\\\" to Shyamalan.Fleming included various pop culture references in his script: Laney Boggs was named after two characters played byWinona Ryder, Kim Boggs fromEdward Scissorhandsand Laney Pierce fromReality\",\n \"Pierce fromReality Bites;the characters Zack and Taylor were named after two of the three members of the bandHanson.Pollak constantly guessingJeopardy!answers incorrectly is a running joke, which he previously did in the 1997 filmTruth or Consequences, N.M.. The idea was in Fleming's script but Pollak expanded and improvised his answers. Iscove was influenced by the movies ofJohn Hughesand was trying do something different for the '90s generation that would still resonate. He stressed the importance of the story having a heart, how Zack had to be worthy of Laney, and how Laney had to learn to be more open.The story was rewritten to better fit Prinze Jr. and make Zack a more sympathetic character with his own challenges.Iscove was well aware that it was implausible to suggestRachael Leigh Cookwas ugly, but said it was standard practice in Hollywood to cast \\\"the beautiful girl\\\" and that it requires the audience to suspend their disbelief: \\\"You either go along with it or you don't go along with it.\\\" Comparing\",\n \"with it.\\\" Comparing Laney's transformation to that ofClark Kent into Superman, Iscove said casting the role was more about finding an actor who had the range to give the necessary performance. Filming Filming took place from August 6, 1998, to September 28, 1998, in various California locations.The high school scenes were shot atTorrance High School, where television seriesBuffy the Vampire SlayerandBeverly Hills, 90210were previously filmed. Iscove was also a choreographer and wanted to expand and embellish the prom scenes, while also showing the Weinsteins how musical numbers could work in films. The dance scene was choreographed byAdam Shankmanat the request of the film's co-producer Jennifer Gibgot, who is Shankman's sister. Shankman was assisted byAnne Fletcher. Shankman was concerned about the scene not tonally meshing with the rest of the film, but Iscove persisted. Test audiences did not understand why the dance scene was happening, soBob Weinsteinasked for a reshoot with Usher to link the\",\n \"Usher to link the scene.Shankman also worked withMatthew Lillardon his solo dance scenes. Costume designer Denise Wingate said, \\\"We had no budget so we had to be really creative—everything in that prom scene was white, black, and gold, and we got it all fromThe Salvation Armyand just completely reworked it.\\\" Having majored in psychology, Wingate tried to explore the possible reasons for the characters’ wardrobe. Wingate concluded that Laney wore clothes like armor after the death of her mother, but also wanted to express herself as an artist, resulting in a mix of vintage clothes, overalls, aprons, and various quirky t-shirts. The falafel restaurant hat was created on short notice with items picked up from aMichaelscraft store. Laney's transformation was reflected in the red dress, which demonstrated \\\"a bold statement of her dressing in a color that was so different than anything we’d seen her in before.\\\"Leigh Cook recalled \\\"feeling really self-conscious” in the scene where she first descends the stairs in\",\n \"the stairs in the dress. There were two versions of the red dress: a stunt double dress reserved for the scene when Laney falls down in a driveway outside a party, and a second smaller dress, which left Cook holding her breath trying to get through the scene quickly. Soundtrack The song \\\"Kiss Me\\\" was used as the main theme song. The film's box office success helped \\\"Kiss Me\\\" to gain widespread mainstream attention and chart success. It climbed to No. 2 onBillboard'sHot 100list, and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 straight weeks and No. 4 in the UK and New Zealand. The film was released in Italy with the title \\\"Kiss Me\\\". Reception Critical response On review aggregatorRotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 41% based on 63 reviews, with an average rating of 5/10. The website's critics consensus states: \\\"Despite its charming young leads,She's All Thatcan't overcome its predictable, inconsistently funny script.\\\"OnMetacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 32 critics,\",\n \"on 32 critics, indicating \\\"mixed or average reviews\\\". It was the last movie to be reviewed byGene Siskelbefore his death in February 1999. Siskel gave a positive review and wrote, \\\"Rachael Leigh Cook, as Laney, the plain Jane object of the makeover, is forced to demonstrate the biggest emotional range as a character, and she is equal to the assignment.\\\"Roger Ebertsuggested: \\\"To give the movie credit, it's as bored with the underlying plot as we are. Even the prom queen election is only a backdrop for more interesting material, asShe's All Thatexplores differences in class and style, and peppers its screenplay with very funny little moments.\\\" Ebert says it \\\"is not a great movie, but it has its moments\\\", giving it 2.5 out of 4 stars.Stephen HoldenofThe New York Timespraised Cook for her performance, comparing her toWinona Ryder, saying, \\\"Unlike so many actors playing smart young people, she actually projects some intelligence along with a sly sense of comedy.\\\" Mick LaSalleof theSan Francisco Chroniclecalls it\",\n \"Chroniclecalls it \\\"About one idea short of being an excellent teenage romance. As it stands it's a pleasing but routine effort.\\\" LaSalle criticized the film for running out of plot about halfway, saying the \\\"story line is stretched to the breaking point. In one instance, director Robert Iscove stops the action for a long dance sequence, set at the prom, that has nothing to do with anything.\\\" He commented the film is \\\"intermittently funny\\\" and praised Matthew Lillard's performance, calling it the best thing in the picture. Geoff Berkshire ofVarietywas critical of the lack of originality, and wrote, \\\"Suggesting that Miramax needs to putKevin Williamsonon permanent retainer if it's going to remain in the teen-pics field,She's All Thatnotably fails to bring to comedy the insight that the Williamson-pennedScreambrought so memorably to horror\\\". Berkshire was positive about the two leads, saying \\\"appealing young actors come off as competent, nothing more, given a context that can't be transcended.\\\" He described the\",\n \"He described the direction as \\\"nothing to be ashamed of here, but nothing of any distinction, either\\\", and noted the soundtrack as a not unexpected plus.Jane Ganahl of theSan Francisco Examinerwrote, \\\"And once, just once, I'd love to see a teen flick that doesn't send out a message to young girls that to be acceptable, you have to conform. I liked the artist girl much better before.\\\" William Thomas ofEmpirecriticized the film, saying that despite a few scenes, \\\"The rest is just breezy propaganda for American high school fascism\\\", and \\\"The most worrying thing aboutShe's All Thatis its message. The 'ugly duckling' (specs, dungarees, art-lover) must conform (she gets a makeover and the boys notice her \\\"bobos\\\" for the first time) to fit in.\\\" Box office She's All Thatpremiered on January 19, 1999 at the Mann Festival Theater inWestwood, Los Angeles.The film went into general release on January 29. The film was released in Italy with the title \\\"Kiss Me\\\". The film reached No. 1 at the box office in the first week\",\n \"in the first week of its release, grossing $16.1 million over theSuper Bowlopening weekend.It earned $63.4 million in the United States and $39.8 million at international box offices, totaling $103.2 million worldwide against a production budget between $7–10 million.Miramax spent a further $18 million on television advertising to promote the film. Accolades The film won eight awards, and was nominated for five others. Remake In September 2020, a gender-swapped remake of the film was announced, titledHe's All That, withMark Watersto direct, original screenwriter R. Lee Fleming Jr. to write, and starringAddison RaeandTanner Buchanan.That October,Myra Molloy,Madison Pettis,Peyton Meyer,Isabella Crovetti, and Annie Jacob were cast. In December 2020,Rachael Leigh Cookjoined the cast to portray Rae's character's mother. It has been confirmed that Cook's character is unrelated to her original character.He's All Thatwas released on August 27, 2021, byNetflix. Notes References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":355,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How many times taller is the 7th highest mountain the world than Novake, Poljčane in Slovenia? Round your answer to one decimal place. "},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"31.5"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novake,_Polj%C4%8Dane"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains_on_Earth"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novake,_Polj%C4%8Dane', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains_on_Earth']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novake,_Polj%C4%8Dane","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains_on_Earth"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novake,_Polj%C4%8Dane\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains_on_Earth\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Novake, Poljčane Novake(pronounced) is avillageon the left bank of theDravinja Riverin theMunicipality of Poljčanein northeasternSlovenia. The area belongs to the traditional region ofStyria. It is now included with the rest of the municipality in theDrava Statistical Region. References External links This article about the Municipality ofPoljčaneinSloveniais astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.","List of highest mountains on Earth There are at least 108mountainson Earth withelevationsof 7,200 m (23,600 ft; 4.5 mi) or greater abovesea level. Of these, 14 are more than 8,000 m (26,000 ft; 5.0 mi).The vast majority of these mountains are located on the edge of theIndian PlateandEurasian PlateinChina,India,Nepal, andPakistan. The dividing line between a mountain with multiple peaks and separate mountains is not always clear (see alsoHighest unclimbed mountain). A popular and intuitive way to distinguish mountains from subsidiary peaks is by their height above the highest saddle connecting it to a higher summit, a measure calledtopographic prominenceor re-ascent (the higher summit is called the \"parent peak\"). A common definition of a mountain is a summit with 300 m (980 ft) prominence. Alternatively, a relative prominence (prominence/height) is used (usually 7–8%) to reflect that in higher mountain ranges everything is on a larger scale. The table below lists the highest 100 summits with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) prominence, approximating a 7% relative prominence. A drawback of a prominence-based list is that it may exclude well-known or spectacular mountains that are connected via a high ridge to a taller summit, such asEiger,NuptseorAnnapurna IV. A few such peaks and mountains with nearly sufficient prominence are included in this list, and given a rank of \"S\". It is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. As an extreme example,Ulugh Muztaghon the northTibetan Plateauis often listed as 7,723 m (25,338 ft) to 7,754 m (25,440 ft), but appears to be only 6,973 m (22,877 ft) to 6,987 m (22,923 ft). Some mountains differ by more than 100 m (330 ft) on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements ofMount Everestrange from 8,840 m (29,003 ft) to 8,849 m (29,032 ft). These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights. Though some parts of the world, especially the most mountainous parts, have never been thoroughly mapped, it is unlikely that any mountains this high have been overlooked, becausesynthetic aperture radarcan andhas beenused to measure elevations of most otherwise inaccessible places. Still, heights or prominences may be revised, so that the order of the list may change and even new mountains could enter the list over time. To be safe, the list has been extended to include all 7,200 m (23,622 ft) peaks. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, butDenali,Mount KilimanjaroandNanga Parbatare possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this considerationMauna Kea(4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is theworld's tallest mountain andvolcano, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from thePacific Oceanfloor.Mount LamlamonGuamis periodically claimed to be among the world's highest mountains because it is adjacent to theMariana Trench; the most extreme claim is that, measured fromChallenger Deep313 kilometres (194 mi) away, Mount Lamlam is 11,530 metres (37,820 ft) tall.Ojos del Saladohas the greatest rise onEarth: 13,420 m (44,029 ft) vertically to the summitfrom the bottom of theAtacama Trench, which is about 560 km (350 mi) away, although most of this rise is not part of the mountain. The highest mountains are also not generally the most voluminous.Mauna Loa(4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 5,200 km2or 2,000 sq mi) and volume (about 42,000 km3or 10,000 cu mi), although, due to the intergrade oflavafromKilauea,HualalaiandMauna Kea, the volume can only be estimated based on surface area and height of the edifice.Mount Kilimanjarois the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (635 km2or 245 sq mi) and volume (4,793 km3or 1,150 cu mi).Mount Loganis the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (311 km2or 120 sq mi). The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because theshape of the Earthis not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several kilometres farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit ofChimborazo,Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit ofPeru's tallest mountain,Huascarán, is another contender.Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 km (1.2 mi) less than that of Everest. Geographical distribution Download coordinates as: Almost all mountains in the list are located in theHimalayaandKarakoramranges to the south and west of the Tibetan plateau. All peaks 7,000 m (23,000 ft) or higher are located inEast,CentralorSouth Asiain a rectangle edged byNoshaq(7,492 m or 24,580 ft) on theAfghanistan–Pakistan borderin the west,Jengish Chokusu(Tuōmù'ěr Fēng, 7,439 m or 24,406 ft) on theKyrgyzstan–Xinjiangborder to the north,Gongga Shan(Minya Konka, 7,556 m or 24,790 ft) inSichuanto the east, andKabru(7,412 m or 24,318 ft) on theSikkim–Nepalborder to the south. As of December 2018, the highest peaks on four of the mountains—Gangkhar Puensum,Labuche Kang III,Karjiang, andTongshanjiabu, all located inBhutanorChina—have not been ascended. The most recent peak to have its first ever ascent isSaser Kangri II East, inIndia, on 24 August 2011. The highest mountainoutside of AsiaisAconcagua(6,961 m or 22,838 ft), the 189th highest in the world. List of world's highest peaks Gallery See also Notes References Sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"Novake, Poljčane Novake(pronounced) is avillageon the left bank of theDravinja Riverin theMunicipality of Poljčanein northeasternSlovenia. The area belongs to the traditional region ofStyria. It is now included with the rest of the municipality in theDrava Statistical Region. References External links This article about the Municipality ofPoljčaneinSloveniais astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.\",\n \"List of highest mountains on Earth There are at least 108mountainson Earth withelevationsof 7,200 m (23,600 ft; 4.5 mi) or greater abovesea level. Of these, 14 are more than 8,000 m (26,000 ft; 5.0 mi).The vast majority of these mountains are located on the edge of theIndian PlateandEurasian PlateinChina,India,Nepal, andPakistan. The dividing line between a mountain with multiple peaks and separate mountains is not always clear (see alsoHighest unclimbed mountain). A popular and intuitive way to distinguish mountains from subsidiary peaks is by their height above the highest saddle connecting it to a higher summit, a measure calledtopographic prominenceor re-ascent (the higher summit is called the \\\"parent peak\\\"). A common definition of a mountain is a summit with 300 m (980 ft) prominence. Alternatively, a relative prominence (prominence/height) is used (usually 7–8%) to reflect that in higher mountain ranges everything is on a larger scale. The table below lists the highest 100 summits with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) prominence, approximating a 7% relative prominence. A drawback of a prominence-based list is that it may exclude well-known or spectacular mountains that are connected via a high ridge to a taller summit, such asEiger,NuptseorAnnapurna IV. A few such peaks and mountains with nearly sufficient prominence are included in this list, and given a rank of \\\"S\\\". It is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. As an extreme example,Ulugh Muztaghon the northTibetan Plateauis often listed as 7,723 m (25,338 ft) to 7,754 m (25,440 ft), but appears to be only 6,973 m (22,877 ft) to 6,987 m (22,923 ft). Some mountains differ by more than 100 m (330 ft) on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements ofMount Everestrange from 8,840 m (29,003 ft) to 8,849 m (29,032 ft). These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights. Though some parts of the world, especially the most mountainous parts, have never been thoroughly mapped, it is unlikely that any mountains this high have been overlooked, becausesynthetic aperture radarcan andhas beenused to measure elevations of most otherwise inaccessible places. Still, heights or prominences may be revised, so that the order of the list may change and even new mountains could enter the list over time. To be safe, the list has been extended to include all 7,200 m (23,622 ft) peaks. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, butDenali,Mount KilimanjaroandNanga Parbatare possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this considerationMauna Kea(4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is theworld's tallest mountain andvolcano, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from thePacific Oceanfloor.Mount LamlamonGuamis periodically claimed to be among the world's highest mountains because it is adjacent to theMariana Trench; the most extreme claim is that, measured fromChallenger Deep313 kilometres (194 mi) away, Mount Lamlam is 11,530 metres (37,820 ft) tall.Ojos del Saladohas the greatest rise onEarth: 13,420 m (44,029 ft) vertically to the summitfrom the bottom of theAtacama Trench, which is about 560 km (350 mi) away, although most of this rise is not part of the mountain. The highest mountains are also not generally the most voluminous.Mauna Loa(4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 5,200 km2or 2,000 sq mi) and volume (about 42,000 km3or 10,000 cu mi), although, due to the intergrade oflavafromKilauea,HualalaiandMauna Kea, the volume can only be estimated based on surface area and height of the edifice.Mount Kilimanjarois the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (635 km2or 245 sq mi) and volume (4,793 km3or 1,150 cu mi).Mount Loganis the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (311 km2or 120 sq mi). The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because theshape of the Earthis not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several kilometres farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit ofChimborazo,Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit ofPeru's tallest mountain,Huascarán, is another contender.Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 km (1.2 mi) less than that of Everest. Geographical distribution Download coordinates as: Almost all mountains in the list are located in theHimalayaandKarakoramranges to the south and west of the Tibetan plateau. All peaks 7,000 m (23,000 ft) or higher are located inEast,CentralorSouth Asiain a rectangle edged byNoshaq(7,492 m or 24,580 ft) on theAfghanistan–Pakistan borderin the west,Jengish Chokusu(Tuōmù'ěr Fēng, 7,439 m or 24,406 ft) on theKyrgyzstan–Xinjiangborder to the north,Gongga Shan(Minya Konka, 7,556 m or 24,790 ft) inSichuanto the east, andKabru(7,412 m or 24,318 ft) on theSikkim–Nepalborder to the south. As of December 2018, the highest peaks on four of the mountains—Gangkhar Puensum,Labuche Kang III,Karjiang, andTongshanjiabu, all located inBhutanorChina—have not been ascended. The most recent peak to have its first ever ascent isSaser Kangri II East, inIndia, on 24 August 2011. The highest mountainoutside of AsiaisAconcagua(6,961 m or 22,838 ft), the 189th highest in the world. List of world's highest peaks Gallery See also Notes References Sources External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Novake, Poljčane Novake(pronounced) is avillageon the left bank of theDravinja Riverin theMunicipality of Poljčanein northeasternSlovenia. The area belongs to the traditional region ofStyria. It is now included with the rest of the municipality in theDrava Statistical Region. References External links This article about the Municipality ofPoljčaneinSloveniais astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.","List of highest mountains on Earth There are at least 108mountainson Earth withelevationsof 7,200 m (23,600 ft; 4.5 mi) or greater abovesea level. Of these, 14 are more than 8,000 m (26,000 ft; 5.0 mi).The vast majority of these mountains are located on the edge of theIndian PlateandEurasian PlateinChina,India,Nepal, andPakistan. The dividing line between a mountain with multiple peaks and separate mountains is not always clear (see alsoHighest unclimbed mountain). A popular and intuitive way to distinguish mountains from subsidiary peaks is by their height above the highest saddle connecting it to a higher summit, a measure calledtopographic prominenceor re-ascent (the higher summit is called the \"parent peak\"). A common definition of a mountain is a summit with 300 m (980 ft) prominence. Alternatively, a relative prominence (prominence/height) is used (usually 7–8%) to reflect that in higher mountain ranges everything is on a larger scale. The table below lists the highest 100 summits with at least 500 m","with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) prominence, approximating a 7% relative prominence. A drawback of a prominence-based list is that it may exclude well-known or spectacular mountains that are connected via a high ridge to a taller summit, such asEiger,NuptseorAnnapurna IV. A few such peaks and mountains with nearly sufficient prominence are included in this list, and given a rank of \"S\". It is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. As an extreme example,Ulugh Muztaghon the northTibetan Plateauis often listed as 7,723 m (25,338 ft) to 7,754 m (25,440 ft), but appears to be only 6,973 m (22,877 ft) to 6,987 m (22,923 ft). Some mountains differ by more than 100 m (330 ft) on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements ofMount Everestrange","Everestrange from 8,840 m (29,003 ft) to 8,849 m (29,032 ft). These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights. Though some parts of the world, especially the most mountainous parts, have never been thoroughly mapped, it is unlikely that any mountains this high have been overlooked, becausesynthetic aperture radarcan andhas beenused to measure elevations of most otherwise inaccessible places. Still, heights or prominences may be revised, so that the order of the list may change and even new mountains could enter the list over time. To be safe, the list has been extended to include all 7,200 m (23,622 ft) peaks. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, butDenali,Mount KilimanjaroandNanga Parbatare possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this considerationMauna Kea(4,207 m (13,802","Kea(4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is theworld's tallest mountain andvolcano, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from thePacific Oceanfloor.Mount LamlamonGuamis periodically claimed to be among the world's highest mountains because it is adjacent to theMariana Trench; the most extreme claim is that, measured fromChallenger Deep313 kilometres (194 mi) away, Mount Lamlam is 11,530 metres (37,820 ft) tall.Ojos del Saladohas the greatest rise onEarth: 13,420 m (44,029 ft) vertically to the summitfrom the bottom of theAtacama Trench, which is about 560 km (350 mi) away, although most of this rise is not part of the mountain. The highest mountains are also not generally the most voluminous.Mauna Loa(4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 5,200 km2or 2,000 sq mi) and volume (about 42,000 km3or 10,000 cu mi), although, due to the intergrade oflavafromKilauea,HualalaiandMauna Kea, the volume can only be estimated based on surface area and height of the edifice.Mount","the edifice.Mount Kilimanjarois the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (635 km2or 245 sq mi) and volume (4,793 km3or 1,150 cu mi).Mount Loganis the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (311 km2or 120 sq mi). The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because theshape of the Earthis not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several kilometres farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit ofChimborazo,Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit ofPeru's tallest mountain,Huascarán, is another contender.Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 km (1.2 mi) less than that of Everest. Geographical distribution Download coordinates as: Almost all mountains in the list are located in theHimalayaandKarakoramranges to the south and west of the Tibetan plateau. All peaks 7,000 m (23,000 ft) or higher are located","higher are located inEast,CentralorSouth Asiain a rectangle edged byNoshaq(7,492 m or 24,580 ft) on theAfghanistan–Pakistan borderin the west,Jengish Chokusu(Tuōmù'ěr Fēng, 7,439 m or 24,406 ft) on theKyrgyzstan–Xinjiangborder to the north,Gongga Shan(Minya Konka, 7,556 m or 24,790 ft) inSichuanto the east, andKabru(7,412 m or 24,318 ft) on theSikkim–Nepalborder to the south. As of December 2018, the highest peaks on four of the mountains—Gangkhar Puensum,Labuche Kang III,Karjiang, andTongshanjiabu, all located inBhutanorChina—have not been ascended. The most recent peak to have its first ever ascent isSaser Kangri II East, inIndia, on 24 August 2011. The highest mountainoutside of AsiaisAconcagua(6,961 m or 22,838 ft), the 189th highest in the world. List of world's highest peaks Gallery See also Notes References Sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"Novake, Poljčane Novake(pronounced) is avillageon the left bank of theDravinja Riverin theMunicipality of Poljčanein northeasternSlovenia. The area belongs to the traditional region ofStyria. It is now included with the rest of the municipality in theDrava Statistical Region. References External links This article about the Municipality ofPoljčaneinSloveniais astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.\",\n \"List of highest mountains on Earth There are at least 108mountainson Earth withelevationsof 7,200 m (23,600 ft; 4.5 mi) or greater abovesea level. Of these, 14 are more than 8,000 m (26,000 ft; 5.0 mi).The vast majority of these mountains are located on the edge of theIndian PlateandEurasian PlateinChina,India,Nepal, andPakistan. The dividing line between a mountain with multiple peaks and separate mountains is not always clear (see alsoHighest unclimbed mountain). A popular and intuitive way to distinguish mountains from subsidiary peaks is by their height above the highest saddle connecting it to a higher summit, a measure calledtopographic prominenceor re-ascent (the higher summit is called the \\\"parent peak\\\"). A common definition of a mountain is a summit with 300 m (980 ft) prominence. Alternatively, a relative prominence (prominence/height) is used (usually 7–8%) to reflect that in higher mountain ranges everything is on a larger scale. The table below lists the highest 100 summits with at least 500 m\",\n \"with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) prominence, approximating a 7% relative prominence. A drawback of a prominence-based list is that it may exclude well-known or spectacular mountains that are connected via a high ridge to a taller summit, such asEiger,NuptseorAnnapurna IV. A few such peaks and mountains with nearly sufficient prominence are included in this list, and given a rank of \\\"S\\\". It is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. As an extreme example,Ulugh Muztaghon the northTibetan Plateauis often listed as 7,723 m (25,338 ft) to 7,754 m (25,440 ft), but appears to be only 6,973 m (22,877 ft) to 6,987 m (22,923 ft). Some mountains differ by more than 100 m (330 ft) on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements ofMount Everestrange\",\n \"Everestrange from 8,840 m (29,003 ft) to 8,849 m (29,032 ft). These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights. Though some parts of the world, especially the most mountainous parts, have never been thoroughly mapped, it is unlikely that any mountains this high have been overlooked, becausesynthetic aperture radarcan andhas beenused to measure elevations of most otherwise inaccessible places. Still, heights or prominences may be revised, so that the order of the list may change and even new mountains could enter the list over time. To be safe, the list has been extended to include all 7,200 m (23,622 ft) peaks. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, butDenali,Mount KilimanjaroandNanga Parbatare possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this considerationMauna Kea(4,207 m (13,802\",\n \"Kea(4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is theworld's tallest mountain andvolcano, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from thePacific Oceanfloor.Mount LamlamonGuamis periodically claimed to be among the world's highest mountains because it is adjacent to theMariana Trench; the most extreme claim is that, measured fromChallenger Deep313 kilometres (194 mi) away, Mount Lamlam is 11,530 metres (37,820 ft) tall.Ojos del Saladohas the greatest rise onEarth: 13,420 m (44,029 ft) vertically to the summitfrom the bottom of theAtacama Trench, which is about 560 km (350 mi) away, although most of this rise is not part of the mountain. The highest mountains are also not generally the most voluminous.Mauna Loa(4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 5,200 km2or 2,000 sq mi) and volume (about 42,000 km3or 10,000 cu mi), although, due to the intergrade oflavafromKilauea,HualalaiandMauna Kea, the volume can only be estimated based on surface area and height of the edifice.Mount\",\n \"the edifice.Mount Kilimanjarois the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (635 km2or 245 sq mi) and volume (4,793 km3or 1,150 cu mi).Mount Loganis the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (311 km2or 120 sq mi). The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because theshape of the Earthis not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several kilometres farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit ofChimborazo,Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit ofPeru's tallest mountain,Huascarán, is another contender.Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 km (1.2 mi) less than that of Everest. Geographical distribution Download coordinates as: Almost all mountains in the list are located in theHimalayaandKarakoramranges to the south and west of the Tibetan plateau. All peaks 7,000 m (23,000 ft) or higher are located\",\n \"higher are located inEast,CentralorSouth Asiain a rectangle edged byNoshaq(7,492 m or 24,580 ft) on theAfghanistan–Pakistan borderin the west,Jengish Chokusu(Tuōmù'ěr Fēng, 7,439 m or 24,406 ft) on theKyrgyzstan–Xinjiangborder to the north,Gongga Shan(Minya Konka, 7,556 m or 24,790 ft) inSichuanto the east, andKabru(7,412 m or 24,318 ft) on theSikkim–Nepalborder to the south. As of December 2018, the highest peaks on four of the mountains—Gangkhar Puensum,Labuche Kang III,Karjiang, andTongshanjiabu, all located inBhutanorChina—have not been ascended. The most recent peak to have its first ever ascent isSaser Kangri II East, inIndia, on 24 August 2011. The highest mountainoutside of AsiaisAconcagua(6,961 m or 22,838 ft), the 189th highest in the world. List of world's highest peaks Gallery See also Notes References Sources External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":356,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Of the four main characters on Seinfeld, which actor is the oldest?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Michael Richards"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinfeld"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Seinfeld"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Alexander"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Louis-Dreyfus"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Richards"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinfeld', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Seinfeld', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Alexander', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Louis-Dreyfus', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Richards']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinfeld","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Seinfeld","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Alexander","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Louis-Dreyfus","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Richards"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinfeld\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Seinfeld\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Alexander\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Louis-Dreyfus\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Richards\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Seinfeld Seinfeld(/ˈsaɪnfɛld/SYNE-feld) is an Americantelevision sitcomcreated byLarry DavidandJerry Seinfeldthat originally aired onNBCfrom July 5, 1989, to May 14, 1998, with a total of nine seasons consisting of180 episodes. Itsensemble caststars Seinfeld as afictionalized version of himselfand focuses on his personal life with three of his friends: best friendGeorge Costanza(Jason Alexander), former girlfriendElaine Benes(Julia Louis-Dreyfus), and neighbor from across the hall,Cosmo Kramer(Michael Richards). Seinfeldis set mostly in and around the titular character's apartment inManhattan'sUpper West SideinNew York City. It has been described as \"a show about nothing\", often focusing on theminutiae of daily life.Interspersed in all episodes of the first seven seasons are moments ofstand-up comedyfrom the fictional Jerry Seinfeld, frequently related to the episode's events. As a rising comedian in the late 1980s, Jerry Seinfeld was presented with an opportunity to create a show with NBC. He asked Larry David, a fellow comedian and friend, to help create a premise for a sitcom.The series was produced by West-Shapiro Productions andCastle Rock Entertainmentand distributed byColumbia Pictures Television.It was largely written by David and Seinfeld and scriptwriters. A favorite among critics, the series led theNielsen ratingsin Seasons 6 and 9 and finished among the top two (along withERof the same network) every year from 1994 to 1998. Only two other shows—I Love LucyandThe Andy Griffith Show—finished their runs at the top of the ratings. Seinfeldis widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential shows of all time. It has been ranked among television's best shows in publications such asEntertainment Weekly,Rolling StoneandTV Guide.Its most renowned episodes include \"The Chinese Restaurant\", \"The Soup Nazi\", \"The Parking Garage\",\"The Marine Biologist\", and \"The Contest\".In 2013, theWriters Guild of Americavoted it the second best-written TV series of all time (second toThe Sopranos).E!named it the \"Number 1 reason the '90s ruled\".Quotes from numerous episodes have become catchphrases in popular culture. Production Conception Seinfeldbegan as a 23-minute pilot titled \"The Seinfeld Chronicles\". Created byJerry SeinfeldandLarry David, developed by NBC executive Rick Ludwin, and produced byCastle Rock Entertainment, it was a mix of Seinfeld's stand-up comedy routines and idiosyncratic, conversational scenes focusing on mundane aspects of everyday life like laundry, the buttoning of the top button on one's shirt, and the effort by men to interpret the intent of women spending the night in Seinfeld's apartment. The pilot was filmed at Stage 8 ofDesilu Cahuengastudios, the same studio whereThe Dick Van Dyke Showwas filmed (seen by the crew as a good omen),and was recorded at Ren-Mar Studios inHollywood.The pilot was first screened to a group of two dozen NBC executives inBurbank, California, in early 1989. It did not yield the explosion of laughter garnered by the pilots for the decade's previous NBC successes likeThe Cosby ShowandThe Golden Girls.Brandon Tartikoffwas not convinced the show would work. A Jewish man from New York himself, Tartikoff characterized it as \"Too New York, too Jewish\" (a sentiment which would also lead to the Cosmo character's later surname change from the more Jewish-sounding Kessler to Kramer).Test audiences were even harsher. NBC's practice at the time was to recruit 400 households by phone to ask them to evaluate pilots it aired on an unused channel on its cable system. An NBC research department memo summarized the pilot's performance among the respondents as \"weak,\" whichWarren Littlefield, then second-in-command in NBC's entertainment division, called \"a dagger to the heart.\"Comments included, \"You can't get too excited about two guys going to the laundromat,\" \"Jerry's loser friend George isn't a forceful character,\" \"Jerry needs a stronger supporting cast,\" and \"Why are they interrupting the stand-up for these stupid stories?\"Seinfeld and David did not see the memo for several years, but after they became aware of it, they hung it in a bathroom on the set. Seinfeld comments, \"We thought, if someone goes in to use this bathroom, this is something they should see. It fits that moment.\" Around the time the show's pilot was filmed, Castle Rock Entertainment, which produced the show, had also produced another pilot for NBC that featuredAnn Jillianin her almost-similarly eponymous TV series. WhenThe Seinfeld Chroniclestested poorly with audiences, Castle Rock focused on Jillian's series, which tested better with audiences and received a full-season order.Ann Jillianlasted only a single season of 13 episodes and was off the air by the end of 1990. First seasons When NBC announced its 1989–90 (primetime) schedule in May 1989,The Seinfeld Chronicleswas not included, but the show's supporters did not give up. The pilot first aired on July 5, 1989, and finished second in its time slot against the CBS police dramaJake and the Fatman,receiving aNielsen ratingof 10.9/19.The ratings did not exhibit the regional skew Tartikoff predicted, much to the encouragement of the show's supporters. Ludwin canceled one of theBob Hopespecials budgeted for that season so the entertainment division had the money to order four more episodes ofThe Seinfeld Chronicles, which formed the rest ofthe show's first season(the series was by then retitled toSeinfeld)—a move without whichChicago TribunecolumnistPhil Rosenthallater said there \"would be noSeinfeld\".Although this was a very low order number for a new series—and the smallest sitcom order in TV history—Castle Rock failed to find any other buyers when it shopped the show to other networks, and accepted the order.Seinfelddid not return to the airwaves until May 30, 1990, and it was another three years before it became a Top 5-rated show. Preston Beckman, in charge of NBC's research department at the time, reminisced, \"The show was different. Nobody had seen anything like it. It wasn't unusual for poor-testing shows to get on the air, but it was very rare that they became hits.\" When the program was first repeated on July 5, 1990, it received a rating of 13.9/26. These ratings were high enough to secure a second season.NBC research showed that the show was popular with young male adults, a demographic sought after by advertisers. This gave NBC an incentive to keep broadcasting the show.One DVD reviewer, Britt Gillette, wrote that \"this initial episode exhibits the flashes of brilliance that madeSeinfelda cultural phenomenon.\" Filming Other than the pilot, the series was filmed atCBS Studio CenterinStudio City, Los Angeles. The first three seasons were filmed on Soundstage 19; it then moved to the larger Stage 9 for the remainder of its production.Despite numerous establishing shots taken in New York City,all scenes of the actors walking in New York were also filmed at CBS Studio Center, on their New York Streetbacklot.Street scenes and park scenes were filmed in the CBS Studio Centre's New York Street and Central Park backlots, respectively. A source of problems for the cast was the small sets, especially that of Jerry's apartment; Alexander noted, \"If you knew you were doing a series for nine years, you would never build that set.\" Adding to the problem was that the scripts contained only minimal physical direction, leaving the actors needing help to come up with actions to perform while speaking. Eventually, they got into a routine of directing each other on how to make their movements look natural. Alexander said this helped them build chemistry with each other. Filming usually went long, as the cast and Larry David were perfectionists. If a joke did not elicit the desired reaction, they rewrote it and performed it again. In at least one case, \"The Marine Biologist,\" this led to David writing an entirely new scene requiring Alexander to memorize a monologue in only a matter of minutes.Laugh tracks were used only for matching shots, not for artificially adding laughter. Various locations used for establishing shots included Tom's Restaurant at 112th Street and Broadway (Monk's Cafe), Midtown West's Roosevelt Hospital (recurring exterior emergency room scene and indoor scenes in 'The Junior Mint' and 'The Bris'), Cornell Medical Centre at 525 East 68th Street, 22-39 37th Street, Queens (The Costanza's house), the Taconic State Parkway exit to the Hopewell Junction, Dutchess County, New York (driving scene in 'The Bubble Boy'), and the Amagansett farmers market, Long Island ('The Hamptons'). The exterior shot used for Jerry's New York apartment building was actually located at 757 S New Hampshire Avenue, Los Angeles. The real-life exterior of Pendant Publishing, Elaine's workplace, is located at 1325 Ave of the Americas, New York. The live stand-up comedy performed by Seinfeld at the beginning of most episodes was truly filmed at The Improv, a comedy club at 358 West 44th Street, Manhattan; though it closed in 1993, another comedy club operates at the site today.TheYankee Stadiumexterior seen in the show has now been demolished. Most office building establishing shots are real businesses and locations. Various real street locations can be gleaned from the car windows during driving scenes. By the final season, each episode of the series cost $3 million to $3.5 million. More than 120 episodes make reference to theSupermanfranchise.Teri Hatcher, who played Lois Lane onLois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, plays Jerry's girlfriend Sidra.Paula Marshall, who played Christina Riley ontheSuperboyTV series, portrays the journalist Sharon, who Jerry says reminds him of Lois Lane.Sherman Howard, who played Lex Luthor onSuperboy, portrays Roy. Superman logos and figurines frequently appear in Jerry's apartment. Seinfeld and Superman later appear in an American Express commercial. The show was written by David and Seinfeld, along with writers who includedLarry Charles,Peter Mehlman,Gregg Kavet,Carol Leifer,David Mandel,Jeff Schaffer,Steve Koren,Jennifer Crittenden,Tom Gammill,Max Pross,Dan O'Keefe,Charlie Rubin,Marjorie Gross,Alec Berg,Elaine Pope, andSpike Feresten. Series overview Plotlines ManySeinfeldepisodes are based on the writers' real-life experiences, with the experiences reinterpreted for the characters' storylines. For example, George's storyline in \"The Revenge\" is based on Larry David's experience atSaturday Night Live.\"The Contest\" is also based on David's experiences. \"The Smelly Car\" storyline is based on Peter Mehlman's lawyer friend, who could not get a bad smell out of his car. \"The Strike\" is based on Dan O'Keefe's dad, who made up his own holiday:Festivus.Other stories take a variety of turns. \"The Chinese Restaurant\" consists of George, Jerry, and Elaine waiting for a table throughout the entire episode.\"The Boyfriend\", revolving aroundKeith Hernandez, extends through two episodes. \"The Betrayal\" is famous for usingreverse chronologyand was inspired by a similar plot device in aHarold Pinterplay,Betrayal.Some stories were inspired by headlines and rumors, as explained in the DVD features \"Notes About Nothing\", \"Inside Look\" and \"Audio Commentary.\" In \"The Maestro,\" Kramer's lawsuit is roughly similar to theMcDonald's coffee case.\"The Outing\" is based primarily on rumors that Larry Charles heard about Jerry Seinfeld's sexuality. Themes The series was often described as \"a show about nothing.\"However, in 2014, Seinfeld stated: \"The pitch for the show, the real pitch, when Larry and I went to NBC in 1988, was we want to show how a comedian gets his material. The show \"about nothing\" was just a joke in an episode many years later, and Larry and I to this day are surprised that it caught on as a way that people describe the show because, to us, it's the opposite of that.\"David similarly commented: \"I like taking the worst qualities that a person has and trying to make something funny out of it. Doesn't everybody do terrible things and have terrible thoughts? Just by trying to be as funny, you're going to deal with a lot of things that are real, so the show's really about something. The whole thing about the show being about nothing is ridiculous.\" Much of the show's humor is based upon repeated use of irony, incongruity, and (oftentimes unfortunate) coincidences. Additionally, guest characters are frequently introduced with little to no context, with a humorous focus on the atypical names of these characters, which often contain alliteration. In keeping with Seinfeld's reputation as a clean comedian,though the show frequently contains dialogue around sexual themes, the show notably avoids using almost all explicit sexual terminology. Notably, in the popular episode \"The Contest,\" whose plot line concerns a contest amongst the main characters to see which one can go the longest without masturbating, the word 'masturbation' is never mentioned.Seinfeldbroke several conventions of mainstream television. David is credited with refusing to follow a predictable sitcom formula that would have a romantic relationship develop between Jerry and Elaine. The show offers no growth or reconciliation to its characters and eschews sentimentality.An episode is typically driven by humor interspersed with the superficial conflicts of characters with peculiar dispositions. Many episodes revolve around the characters' involvement in the lives of others, with typically disastrous results. On the set, the notion that the characters should not develop or improve throughout the series was expressed as the \"no hugging, no learning\" rule.The characters are \"thirty-something singles with vague identities, no roots, and conscious indifference to morals.\"Also unlike most sitcoms, there are no moments ofpathos; the audience is never made to feel sorry for any of the characters. Even Susan's death in \"The Invitations\" elicits no genuine emotions from anybody in the show.Seinfelddoes not shy away from making light of tough topics, from death to illness to disability. The show frequently engages in fourth-wall-breaking humor and self-satire. One such example is thestory arc, where the characters promote a TV sitcom series namedJerry. Theshow within a show,Jerrywas much likeSeinfeldin that it was \"about nothing,\" and Seinfeld played himself. The fictionalJerrywas launched in the Season 4 finale, but unlikeSeinfeld, it wasn't picked up as a series.Jerryis one of many examples ofmetafictionin the show. There are no fewer than 22 fictional movies featured, likeRochelle, Rochelle.Because of these several elements,Seinfeldbecame the first TV series sinceMonty Python's Flying Circusto be widely described aspostmodern. Seinfeld is an avidAbbott and Costellofan and has citedThe Abbott and Costello Showas an influence onSeinfeld: \"Everybody on the show knows I'm a fan. We're always joking about how we do stuff from their show. George and I will often get into a riff that has the rhythm from the old Abbott and Costello shows. And sometimes, I'll hit George in the chest the way Abbott would hit Costello.\" The series includes numerous references to the team. George Costanza's middle name is \"Louis\", after Costello.\"The Old Man\" episode features a cantankerous character named \"Sid Fields\" as a tribute to the landlord on the team's TV show. Kramer's friend is named Mickey Abbott. A copywriter for the J. Peterman catalog is named Eddie Sherman, after the team's longtime agent. In Episode 30, Kramer hears the famous Abbott and Costello line, \"His father was a mudder. His mother was a mudder.\" Catchphrases Many terms were coined, popularized, or re-popularized in the series' run and have become part of popular culture,including \"Yada, yada, yada\",\"No soup for you!\", \"Master of my domain\", and \"Not that there's anything wrong with that.\" The lexicon of Seinfeldian code words and recurring phrases that evolved around particular episodes is referred to asSeinlanguage, which is also the title of Jerry Seinfeld's best-selling book on humor.These terms include \"man hands\", \"shrinkage\", \"regift\", and \"double dip\". Consumer products A recurring feature ofSeinfeldwas its inclusion of specific products, especiallycandy, as plot points. These might be a central feature of a plot (e.g.,Junior Mints,Twix,Chuckles,Jujyfruits, bite-sizeThree Musketeers,Snickers,Chunky,Oh Henry!,Drake'sCoffee Cake andPEZ), or an association of candy with a guest character (e.g.Oh Henry!bars) or simply a conversational aside (e.g.,Chuckles,Clark Bar,Twinkies). A large number of non-candy products were also featured throughout the series. The show's creators claim that they weren't engaging in a product placement strategy for commercial gain. One motivation for the use of real-world products, entirely unrelated to commercial considerations, is the comedy value of funny-sounding phrases and words. \"I knew I wanted Kramer to think of watching the operation like going to see a movie,\" explainedSeinfeldwriter/producer Andy Robin in an interview published inThe Hollywood Reporter. \"At first, I thought maybe a piece of popcorn falls into the patient. I ran that by my brother, and he said, 'No, Junior Mints are just funnier.'\" Many advertisers capitalized on the popularity ofSeinfeld.American Expresscreated awebisodewhere Jerry Seinfeld and an animatedSuperman(voiced byPatrick Warburton, who played the role of Puddy) starred in its commercial. The makers of theToday Spongecreated the \"Spongeworthy\" game on their website, inspired by \"The Sponge.\" An advertisement featured Jason Alexander in aChryslercommercial. In this, Alexander acts much like his character George, and his relationship withLee Iacoccaplays on George's relationship with Steinbrenner. Similarly, Michael Richards was the focus of a series of advertisements forVodafone, which ran inAustralia, where he dressed and acted precisely like Kramer, including the trademark bumbling pratfalls. In addition, the show occasionally incorporated fictional products like aScotchbrand called \"Hennigan's\" (a blend of \"Hennessy\" and \"Brannigans\") and acanned meatproduct called \"Beef-a-reeno\" (a parody of \"Beef-a-roni\"). Music A signature ofSeinfeldis its theme music. Composed byJonathan Wolff, it consists of distinct solosampledelectric bassriffs that open the show and connect the scenes, often accompanied bybeatboxing.The bass music eventually replaced the original piano/synth music by Jep Epstein when it was played again after the first broadcast ofthe pilot episode. The show lacked a traditional title track and the riffs were played over the first moments of dialogue or action. They vary throughout each episode and are played in an improvised funk style, matching the timing of Seinfeld's stand-up comedy delivery or transitions in the editing. An additional musical theme with an ensemble, led by a synthesized mid-range brass instrument, ends each episode. In \"The Note,\" the first episode of Season 3, the bumper music featured ascattingfemale jazz singer who sang a phrase that sounded like the tuneEasy To Beat. Jerry Seinfeld and executive producer Larry David both liked Wolff's additions, and three episodes were produced with this new style of music. However, they had neglected to inform NBC and Castle Rock executives of the change, and when the season premiere aired, the executives were surprised and unimpressed and requested that they return to the original style. The subsequent two episodes were redone, leaving this episode as the only one with additional music elements.In the commentary of \"The Note,\" Louis-Dreyfus facetiously suggests it was removed because the perceived lyric related closely to the low ratings at the time.In the final three seasons, the bits were tweaked slightly with more frantic rhythms; a bass guitar was added in addition to the sampled bass from earlier seasons. Throughout the show, the main theme could be restyled in different ways depending on the episode. For instance, in \"The Betrayal,\" part of which takes place in India, the theme is heard played on asitar. The soundtrack was given a digital release on July 2, 2021. All music is composed by Jonathan Wolff. Cast and characters Main characters Recurring characters Many characters have made multiple appearances, notably Jerry's parents, Morty and Helen Seinfeld, who reside in Florida; George's parents, the overbearing Frank and Estelle Costanza; George's on-again, off-again fiancée Susan Ross; Jerry'sUncle Leo; Elaine's variety of bosses, Mr. Lippman, Mr. Pitt and J. Peterman; Elaine's on-again, off-again boyfriend David Puddy; and Kramer's friend,Newman, a mail carrier who lives in the same building and is Jerry's nemesis. In addition to recurring characters,Seinfeldfeatures numerous celebrities who appear as themselves or as girlfriends, boyfriends, bosses, and other acquaintances. A number of actresses made guest appearances as Seinfeld's love interests in single episodes: Episodes Compared to other family and groupsitcomsof the era,Seinfeldstood out. The principal characters are not related by family or work-associated connections but remain distinctly close friends throughout the series. Many characters were based primarily on Seinfeld's and David's real-life acquaintances. Two prominent recurring characters were fictional depictions of actual well-known people:Jacopo Petermanof theJ. Petermancatalog (based onJohn Peterman)andGeorge Steinbrenner, owner of theNew York Yankees.Many characters were introduced as new writers got involved withSeinfeld. Other characters based on real people include theSoup NaziandJackie Chiles, who was based onJohnnie Cochran. Episodes have separate plot strands, but the characters' stories often intertwine at the end. The narratives reveal the creators' \"consistent efforts to maintain the intimacy\" among the small cast of characters. The show maintains a strong sense ofcontinuity, as characters and plots from past episodes are often referenced or expanded on. Occasionally, story arcs span multiple episodes or entire seasons, such asSeason 4, which revolves around thepilotpitch to NBC by Jerry and George. Another example is Jerry's girlfriend Vanessa, who appears in \"The Stake Out\" and with whom he ends the relationship when things do not work out in \"The Stock Tip\".Larry David, the head writer and executive producer for the first seven seasons, was praised for keeping a close eye on minor details and ensuring the main characters' lives remained consistent and believable.Curb Your Enthusiasm, David's later comedy series, also had an overarching plot for all but the first season. A major difference betweenSeinfeldand the sitcoms that preceded it is that the principal characters never learn from their mistakes. In effect, they are indifferent and even callous toward the outside world and sometimes one another. Amantraof the show's producers was \"No hugging, no learning.\"Entertainment Weekly's TV criticKen Tuckerhas described them as \"a group dynamic rooted in jealousy, rage, insecurity, despair, hopelessness, and a touching lack of faith in one's fellow human beings.\"This leads to very few happy endings, except at somebody else's expense. More often in every episode, situations resolve with characters getting a justly deservedcomeuppance. Seasons 1–3 The show premiered asThe Seinfeld Chronicleson July 5, 1989. After it aired, a pickup by NBC seemed unlikely, and the show was offered toFox, which declined to pick it up.Rick Ludwin, head of late night and special events for NBC, however, diverted money from his budget by canceling aBob Hope television special, and the next four episodes were filmed.These episodes were highly rated as they followed summer re-runs ofCheerson Thursdays at 9:30 p.m., and the series was finally picked up. At one point, NBC considered airing these episodes on Saturdays at 10:30 p.m. but gave the slot to a short-lived sitcom calledFMinstead. The series was renamed simplySeinfeldas a precautionary measure due to the failure of the short-lived 1990ABCseries with a similarly sounding title,The Marshall Chronicles.After airing the remaining four episodes of its first season the summer of 1990, NBC ordered 13 more episodes. David believed that he and Seinfeld had no more stories to tell and advised Seinfeld to turn down the order, but Seinfeld agreed to the additional episodes.Season 2 was bumped off its scheduled premiere of January 16, 1991, due to the outbreak of thePersian Gulf War. It settled into a regular time slot on Wednesdays at 9:30 p.m. and eventually flipped with veteran seriesNight Courtto 9 p.m. TV critics championedSeinfeldin its early seasons, even as it was slow to cultivate a substantial audience. For the first three seasons, Jerry's stand-up comedy act would bookend at the beginning and end of each episode, even functioning as transitions during the show. A few episodes set a benchmark for later seasons. \"The Deal\" establishes Jerry and Elaine's relationship by setting rules about having sex while remaining friends.\"The Parking Garage\" was the first episode shot with no audience for the episode and, after \"The Chinese Restaurant\", to not show Jerry's apartment.\"The Keys\" contains a crossover toCBSshowMurphy Brown, marking the first such cooperation between rival networks.\"The Busboy\" introduces George, Kramer and Elaine as having their own storylines for the first time. Although Castle Rock Entertainment's Glenn Padnick thought Seinfeld was too generous, showcasing his co-stars' comedic talent became a trademark throughout the series. Larry Charles wrote an episode for Season 2, \"The Bet,\" in which Elaine buys a gun from Kramer's friend. This episode was not filmed because the content was deemed unacceptable, and it was replaced by the episode \"The Phone Message\".\"The Stranded,\" which aired during Season 3, was initially intended for Season 2. At the beginning of this episode, Jerry clears up the continuity error over George's real estate job. Seasons 4–5 Season 4 marked the sitcom's entry into theNielsen ratingsTop 30. It contains several of the most popular episodes, such as \"The Bubble Boy\" in which George and the bubble boy argue overTrivial Pursuit,and \"The Junior Mint\" in which Jerry and Kramer accidentally fumble a mint in the operating room.This was the first season to use a story arc of Jerry and George creating their own sitcom,Jerry. Also, at this time, the use of Jerry's stand-up act slowly declined, and the stand-up segment in the middle ofSeinfeldepisodes was cut. Much publicity followed the controversial episode \"The Contest,\" anEmmy Award-winning episode written by David, whose subject matter was considered inappropriate for prime-time network TV. To circumvent this taboo, the word \"masturbation\" was never used in the script, instead substituted for by a variety of oblique references.Midway through that season,Seinfeldwas moved from its original 9:00 p.m. time slot on Wednesdays to 9:30 p.m. on Thursdays, followingCheersagain, which gave the show even more popularity. Ratings also sparked the move, asTim Allen's sitcomHome Improvementon ABC had aired at the same time, andHome Improvementkept beatingSeinfeldin the ratings. NBC moved the series afterTed Dansonannounced the end ofCheersandSeinfeldquickly surpassed the ratings of the 9:00 p.m.Cheersreruns that spring.The show won an Emmy Award forOutstanding Comedy Seriesin 1993, beating out its family-oriented, time-slot competitorHome Improvement, which was only in its second season on rival network ABC. Season 5 was an even bigger ratings hit, consisting of popular episodes, such as \"The Puffy Shirt\" in which Jerry feels embarrassed wearing a \"pirate\" shirt onThe Today Show,\"The Non-Fat Yogurt\" featuringRudy Giuliani, theRepublicanthen-mayor-elect of New York,and \"The Opposite\" in which George, doing the opposite of what his instincts tell him he should do, lands a job with the New York Yankees and Elaine leaves \"Pendant Publishing\" because of a comedy of errors that led to its demise. Another story arc has George returning to live with his parents. Amid the story arc, Kramer creates and promotes hiscoffee table book.The show was again nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series, but lost to theCheersspin-offFrasier, then in its first season.Seinfeldwas nominated for the same award every year for its entire run but, after its win at the45th Primetime Emmy Awardsin 1994, always lost toFrasier, which went on to win a record 39 Emmy Awards in its 11-season run. Seasons 6–7 In Season 6,Andy AckermanreplacedTom Cheronesas director of the show. The series remained well regarded and produced some of its most famous episodes, such as \"The Beard\", in which Jerry is put through a lie detector test to make him admit that he watchedMelrose Place;\"The Switch\", in which Kramer's mom, Babs, reveals that his first name is Cosmo;and \"The Understudy\", in which Elaine meets J. Peterman for the first time.Story arcs used in this season were Elaine working as a personal assistant to her eccentric boss Justin Pitt and George's parents' temporary separation. This was the first season in whichSeinfeldreached No. 1 in the Nielsen Ratings. The use of Jerry's stand-up act declined, and the end stand-up segment no longer appeared because the storylines for all four characters grew denser. In Season 7, a story arc involved George getting engaged to his ex-girlfriend, Susan Ross, after the pilotJerryproved unsuccessful. In it, George spends most of the season regretting and trying to get out of the engagement. Along with the regular half-hour episodes, two notable one-hour episodes were \"The Cadillac,\" in which George plans to date award-winning actressMarisa Tomei,and \"The Bottle Deposit,\" with Elaine and Sue Ellen Mischke participating in a bidding war to buy JFK's golf clubs in an auction. Seasons 8–9 Seinfeld'sfinal two seasons were considered distinct from the earlier seasons. Most noticeably, David left the writing crew (but returned to write \"The Finale\" in 1998), resulting in Seinfeld taking over David's duties asshowrunner, and, under the direction of a new writing staff,Seinfeldbecame a faster-paced show. The show no longer contained extracts of Jerry performing stand-up comedy—Jerry had no time or energy for this with his new responsibilities—and storylines occasionally delved into fantasy and broad humor. For example, in \"The Bizarro Jerry\", Elaine is torn between exact opposites of her friends and Jerry dates a woman who has the now-famous \"man hands\".Some notable episodes from Season 8 include \"The Little Kicks\" showing Elaine's horrible dancing,and \"The Chicken Roaster\" which portrays theKenny Rogers Roasterschicken restaurant which opened during that time.A story arc in this season involves Peterman going toBurmain \"The Foundation\"until he recovered from a nervous breakdown in \"The Money\",followed by Elaine writing Peterman's biography in \"The Van Buren Boys\",which leads to Kramer's parody of Kenny Kramer's Reality Tour seen in \"The Muffin Tops\". The final season included episodes like \"The Merv Griffin Show\" in which Kramer converts his apartment into a talk-show studio and plays the character of talk-show host,\"The Betrayal\" that presents in reverse chronological order what happened to Sue Ellen's wedding in India, and \"The Frogger\" in which George pushes aFroggermachine across the street, mimicking the action of the game itself.The last season included a story arc in which Elaine has an on/off relationship withPuddy. Despite the enormous popularity and willingness of the cast to return for a tenth season, Seinfeld decided to end the show after Season 9, believing he would thereby be able to ensure the show would maintain its quality and go out on top.NBC offered Seinfeld $110 million—a record $5 million an episode for a 22-episode tenth season—but he declined. A major controversy caused in the ninth season was the accidental burning of aPuerto Rican flagby Kramer in \"The Puerto Rican Day.\" This scene caused a furor among Puerto Ricans, and as a result, NBC showed this episode only once. Seinfeld defused the protestors by not letting this episode continue in syndication, as revealed in \"Inside Look\" on DVD.However, the episode would be added to the syndicated rerun package several years later uncut. Series finale After nine years on the air, NBC and Seinfeld announced on December 25, 1997, that the series would end production the following spring in 1998. The announcement made the front page of the major New York newspapers, includingThe New York Times.Seinfeld was featured on the cover ofTimemagazine's first issue of 1998.The series ended with a 75-minute episode (cut to 60 minutes insyndication, in two parts) written by co-creator and ex-executive producer Larry David, which aired on May 14, 1998. Before the finale, a 45-minute retrospective clip show, \"The Chronicle,\" was aired. The retrospective was expanded to an hour after the original airing and aired again on NBC as an hour-long episode, and has since aired in syndication. It was the first episode since the finale of Season 7, \"The Invitations,\" to feature opening and closing stand-up comedy acts by Seinfeld. The finale was filmed before an audience of NBC executives and friends of the show. The press and public were shut out of the taping to keep its plot secret; those who attended the shoot of the final episode were required to sign written \"vows of silence.\"The secrecy only seemed to increase speculation about how the series would end. The episode's producers gave false information to the media, spreading a rumor about Newman ending up in the hospital and Jerry and Elaine sitting in a chapel, presumably to marry. The final episode enjoyed a historic audience,estimated at 76.3 million viewers(58% of all viewers that night) making it the fourth-most watched regular series finale in U.S. TV history, behindM*A*S*H,Cheers, andThe Fugitive.However, the finale received mixed reviews from critics and fans of the show. The finale poked fun at the many rumors that were circulating, seeming to move into multiple supposed plots before settling on its actual storyline—a lengthy trial where the gang is prosecuted for violating a \"Duty to Rescue\" law and sentenced to prison terms. According toForbesmagazine, Seinfeld's earnings from the show in 1998 came to US$267 million, including syndication earnings.He refused NBC's offer of $5 million per episode, or over $100 million total, to continue into a tenth season. The offer NBC made to Seinfeld was over three times higher per episode than anyone on TV had ever been offered before.Seinfeld told the network that he was not married nor had children, and wished to focus on his personal life.As reported in July 2007, he was the second-highest earner in the TV industry, earning at the time $60 million a year.The episode became the first to command over $1 million a minute for advertising—a mark previously attained only by theSuper Bowl. Reception and legacy Elizabeth Magnotta and Alexandra Strohl analyze the success ofSeinfeldwith recourse to theincongruity theoryof humor: \"The Incongruity Theory claims that humor is created out of a violation of an expectation. For humor to result from this unexpected result, the event must have an appropriate emotional climate, comprised of the setting, characters, prior discourse, relationships of the characters, and the topic.\"Specifically, Magnotta and Strohl focus on \"The Marine Biologist,\" where George is embroiled in yet another lie, and on \"The Red Dot,\" where George tries to save a few dollars at Elaine's expense by giving her a marked-downcashmeresweater. In \"TranslatingSeinfeld,\" Jennifer Armstrong notes thatSeinfeldis less famous among non-English speakers as its unique style of humor is \"too cultural and word-based to make for easy translation.\"Carol Iannone sums up the legacy of this American hit in herModern Agearticle \"Seinfeld: The Politically Incorrect Comedy\" when she says, \"It may be the first situation comedy truly to achieve the status of art\".Nod Miller, of theUniversity of East London, has discussed the self-referential qualities of the show: Seinfeld is suffused withpostmodernthemes. To begin with, the boundary between reality and fiction is frequently blurred: this is illustrated in the central device of having Jerry Seinfeld play the character Jerry Seinfeld. In the show's fourth season, several episodes revolved around the narrative of Jerry and George (whose character is co-creator Larry David's alter ego) pitching 'a show about nothing' based on the everyday life of a stand-up comedian to NBC. By all accounts, the fictional NBC executives' reaction mirrored the initial responses of those who eventually commissioned Seinfeld. The fourth season ends with'The Pilot', an episode focusing on the casting, taping, and screening of the show-within-the-show,Jerry. This episode also neatly illustrates the self-referential quality, which is one of Seinfeld's hallmarks. The series finale was so replete with references to earlier shows that it could have been more comprehensible to those not already well-versed in the personae and preoccupations of the Seinfeld universe. William Irwinhas edited an anthology of scholarly essays on philosophy inSeinfeld and Philosophy: A Book about Everything and Nothing. Some entries include \"The Jerry Problem and theSocratic Problem,\" \"George's Failed Quest forHappiness: An Aristotelian Analysis,\" \"Elaine's Moral Character,\" \"Kramer the 'Seducer'\", \"Making Something Out of Nothing: Seinfeld,Sophistryand the Tao,\" \"Seinfeld,Subjectivity, andSartre,\" \"Mr. Peterman, theWicked Witch of the West, and Me,\" and \"Minimally Decent Samaritans and Uncommon Law.\" U.S. television ratings Awards and honors Seinfeldhas received awards and nominations in various categories throughout the mid-1990s. It was awarded theEmmyfor Outstanding Comedy Series in 1993,Golden Globe Awardfor Best TV Series (Comedy) in 1994, andScreen Actors Guild Awardfor Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 1995, 1997 and 1998.Apart from these, the show was also nominated for an Emmy award from 1992 to 1998 for Outstanding Comedy Series, Golden Globe award from 1994 to 1998 for Best TV-Series (Comedy), and Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series from 1995 to 1998. The show even received thePeabody Awardin 1993. TV Guidenamed it thegreatest TV show of all timein 2002,and in 2013, the magazine ranked it as the second-greatest TV show.A 2015The Hollywood Reportersurvey of 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people namedSeinfeldas their #5 favorite show.In 2022,Rolling StonerankedSeinfeldas the sixth-greatest TV show of all time.In 2023,VarietyrankedSeinfeldas the eighth-greatest TV show of all time. Distribution Free streaming serviceChannel 4has been runningSeinfeldin its original 4:3 format since February 2020.On April 29, 2015, it was officially announced, duringHulu'supfrontspresentation inNew York, that all nine seasons ofSeinfeldwouldstreamon the platform starting in June 2015.The deal was for around $130 million to $180 million.On May 20, 2015,Huluannounced that every episode would be available starting June 24, 2015.Hulu's streaming rights for the series expired on June 23, 2021.In January 2017,Amazonacquired the UK rights to all seasons ofSeinfeldfor itsAmazon Prime Videostreaming service. On November 8, 2016, the Australian streaming serviceStanannounced viaTwitterthat later in the week all episodes would be available to stream for the first time in Australia.All episodes were available from November 11, 2016, with the remastered versions of all episodes on the service featuring HD and Widescreen enhancements.The widescreen offered was cropped from the original 4:3 format negatives, thus resulting in better visual quality than the previously available DVD version, however, the top and bottom portions of the frame were cut out to achieve the widescreen aspect ratio. In April 2020, all seasons ofSeinfeldwere also made available on-demand via pay television serviceFoxtel, as well as its internet-based alternativeFoxtel Now. In September 2019,NetflixandSony Picturesannounced that Netflix had acquired the exclusive global streaming rights forSeinfeld, starting on October 1, 2021, superseding the above Hulu and Amazon rights. As of 2023, Netflix's version ofSeinfeldis available in4K resolution.The transition was criticized as the show, initially displayed in 4:3 aspect ratio, had been converted to 16:9, resulting in some gags getting cropped, similarly to howThe Simpsonswas initially rendered onDisney+.Netflix has yet to comment on this situation. VHS and DVD releases The hour-long, two-partclip showepisode \"The Highlights of 100\" became the firstSeinfeldepisode available on home video when it was released onVHSin 1995 by food companyGeneral Mills.Sony Pictures Home Entertainment(formerly Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment) released all nine seasons ofSeinfeldonDVDin Regions 1, 2, and 4 between 2004 and 2007.On November 6, 2007,Seinfeld: The Complete Serieswas released on DVD. The complete series box set includes a 2007 \"roundtable\" reunion of the four main cast members and Larry David; only highlights of this were also included in the Season 9 set. The first complete series box set in Australia (Region 4) was released on October 24, 2007. The second boxset was released on December 2, 2008, and was a Collectible Fridge design packaging. On August 5, 2009,another Limited-Edition boxset was released, similar to the first boxset but does not include the book and the packaging was slightly different. On November 23, 2011,an additional Limited-Edition boxset was released. On November 14, 2018,aFestivus Celebration Editionwas released which contained napkins and cups, playing cards and thumb wrestle gadgets. On August 12, 2020,yet anotherComplete Seriesboxset was released. Syndication According toBarry Meyer, chairman ofWarner Bros. Entertainment(parent company of Castle Rock Entertainment),Seinfeldmade $2.7 billion through June 2010 throughoff-network syndicationand cable syndication.As of February 2017the show had made an estimated $4.06 billion in syndication.Steve Bannon, who invested in the show, later said, \"We calculated what it would get us if it made it to syndication. We were wrong by a factor of five\".In September 2019, it was announced thatViacom(nowParamount Global) had acquired cable syndication rights to the series fromTBS, with it airing onComedy Centralbeginning in October 2021,Nick at Nitefrom May 31, 2022, until November 12, 2022, andTV Landsince February 11, 2023. High-definition versions There are twohigh-definitionversions ofSeinfeld. The first is that of the network TV (non-syndicated) versions in the original aspect ratio of 4:3 that were downscaled for the DVD releases. Clips from this high-definition version in its upscale were seen onNBCduringThe Seinfeld Storyspecial.Syndicated broadcast stations and the cable networksTBSandComedy Central(and alsoFox) began airing the syndicated version ofSeinfeldin HD. Unlike the version used for the DVD, Sony Pictures cropped the top and bottom parts of the frame while restoring previously cropped images on the sides from the35mm filmsource to use the entire 16:9 frame. AfterSeinfeld Another scene On the November 1, 2007, episode ofThe Daily Show with Jon Stewart, Jerry Seinfeld mentioned the possibility of shooting one last scene after the characters leave jail. He mentioned that he was too busy to do it at the time, but did not announce what the scene would entail, as its production is not a certainty.In a commentary from the final seasonDVD, Seinfeld outlines that he and Jason Alexander spoke about this scene being in Monk's Cafe, with George saying \"That was brutal\" about the foursome's stint in prison. On an episode ofSaturday Night Livethat Jerry Seinfeld hosted on October 2, 1999, a sketch was produced that showed what life was like for Jerry behind bars after being transferred to the fictional prison portrayed on theHBOseriesOz.The roughly four-minute sketch shows the opening credits for the HBO series with clips of Jerry mixed in doing various activities around the prison. The sketch continues and mixes in different storylines from bothOzandSeinfeldand has Jerry interacting with various characters from the show in his typical quick-witted, sarcastic way. TheSeinfeld\"curse\" Louis-Dreyfus, Alexander, and Richards have all tried to launch new sitcoms as title-role characters. Almost every show was canceled quickly, usually within the first season. This gave rise to the termSeinfeld curse: the failure of a sitcom starring one of the three, despite the conventional wisdom that each person'sSeinfeldpopularity should almost guarantee a strong, built-in audience for the actor's new show. Shows specifically cited regarding theSeinfeld curseare Julia Louis-Dreyfus'sWatching Ellie, Jason Alexander'sBob PattersonandListen Up, and Michael Richards'The Michael Richards Show. This phenomenon was mentioned throughout the second season ofLarry David's HBO programCurb Your Enthusiasm, which aired in 2001. In real life, David has repeatedly dismissed the idea of a curse, saying, \"It's so completely idiotic. It's very hard to have a successful sitcom.\" The success of Louis-Dreyfus in the 2006–2010CBSsitcomThe New Adventures of Old Christine, which included winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesin 2006, led many to believe that she had broken the curse.In her acceptance speech, Louis-Dreyfus held up her award and exclaimed, \"I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this, baby!\"The show producedenough episodesto air inrerunsinsyndicationfor several years, something the other shows did not achieve.TheSaturday Night Liveepisode hosted by Louis-Dreyfus made references to the curse. Nevertheless, the series' ratings declined soon after, and it was canceled after the fifth season. She went on to win six further Emmys (for Lead Actress in a Comedy Series) for her acclaimed performance as Vice PresidentSelina Meyerin the HBO comedy seriesVeep. Curb Your Enthusiasm Early in March 2009, it was announced that theSeinfeldcast would reunite forseason sevenofCurb Your Enthusiasm.The cast first appeared in the third episode of the season, all playing fictional versions of themselves. The season-long story is that Larry David tries to initiate aSeinfeldreunion show as a ploy to win back his ex-wife, Cheryl. Along with the four main characters, someSeinfeldsupporting actors likeWayne Knight,Estelle HarrisandSteve Hytnerappeared in the ninth episode at a table read for the reunion show. Although much dialogue inCurb Your Enthusiasmis improvised, the plot was scripted, and theSeinfeldspecial that aired within the show was scripted and directed bySeinfeldregularAndy Ackerman, making this the first time sinceSeinfeldwent off the air that the central cast appeared together in a scripted show. Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee Jerry Seinfeld, Jason Alexander, and Wayne Knight, playing their respectiveSeinfeldcharacters, appeared in a spot presented during halftime ofSuper Bowl XLVIIIon February 2, 2014.Foxcame up with the idea of doing such a spot, due in part to the Super Bowl's location being New York City adjacent that year.An uncut version appeared onCrackle.comimmediately afterward, as an episode ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffeetitled \"The Over-Cheer,\" establishing Seinfeld's character on the series as an older version of hisSeinfeldcharacter.Although the spot was used to advertise Seinfeld's web series, it was not considered a commercial, as Sony, which produces the series, did not pay for it.While Seinfeld indicated that the webisode would probably be the last cast reunion, saying, \"I have a feeling you've seen the final coda on that very unique experience,\"since then,Michael RichardsandJulia Louis-Dreyfushave also appeared in episodes. Notes References General references External links","Jerry Seinfeld Jerome Allen Seinfeld(/ˈsaɪnfɛld/SYNE-feld; born April 29, 1954) is an Americanstand-up comedian, actor, writer, and producer. As a stand-up comedian, Seinfeld specializes inobservational comedy. Seinfeld has receivednumerous accoladesincluding aPrimetime Emmy Award, aGolden Globe Awards, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for fourGrammy Awards. In 2004,Comedy Centralnamed him the 12th-greatest stand-up comedian of all time.In 2017,Rolling Stonenamed him the 7th-greatest stand-up comedian of all time. Seinfeld gained stardom playinga semi-fictionalized version of himselfin theNBCsitcomSeinfeld(1989–1998), which he co-created and wrote withLarry David. Seinfeld earned aGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedyin 1995. The show is one of the most acclaimed and popular sitcoms of all time.He has since created and produced the reality seriesThe Marriage Ref(2010–2011), and created and hosted the web seriesComedians in Cars Getting Coffee(2012–2019), the latter of which earned him threeWebby Awards. He also co-produced, co-wrote, and starred in theDreamWorksanimated filmBee Movie(2007) and theNetflixcomedyUnfrosted(2024). He has released four standup specials his first beingStand-Up Confidential(1987) followed byI'm Telling You for the Last Time(1998),Jerry Before Seinfeld(2017) and23 Hours to Kill(2020). Seinfeld has also written three books starting withSeinLanguage(1993), followed by the children's bookHalloween(2002), and the comedic compilation bookIs This Anything?(2020). He is an avid fan ofcoffeeandautomobiles. He practicestranscendental meditation. He is married to author and philanthropistJessica Seinfeld, with whom he has three children. Early life and education Seinfeld was born on April 29, 1954,to a Jewish family inBrooklyn, New York City.His father, Kalmen Seinfeld,a sign painter, was from Hungary and collected jokes that he heard while serving inWorld War II.His mother, Betty (née Hosni)and her parents, Selim and Salha Hosni,wereMizrahi JewsfromAleppo,Syria. Their nationality was stated as Turkish when they immigrated in 1917, as Syria was under theOttoman Empire.Seinfeld has an older sister, Carolyn.Salha's mother Garez Dayan, Seinfeld's great-grandmother, was a member of the Dayan rabbinic family, who claim ancestry back to theMedievalExilarchs, and from the Exilarchs back to the BiblicalKing David.Seinfeld's second cousin isalternative metalmusician and actorEvan Seinfeld.Seinfeld grew up inMassapequa, New York, and attendedMassapequa High SchoolonLong Island.At 16, he spent timevolunteeringinKibbutzSa'arin Israel.He attended theState University of New York at Oswego, and transferred after his second year toQueens College, City University of New York, from which he graduated in 1976 with a degree in communications and theater. Career 1976–1987: Rise to prominence Seinfeld developed an interest instand-up comedyafter brief stints in college productions. He appeared onopen-micnights at Budd Friedman's Improv Club while attendingQueens College.After graduation in 1976, he tried out at an open-mic night at New York City'sCatch a Rising Star, which led to an appearance in aRodney DangerfieldHBOspecial.In 1980, he had a small recurring role on the sitcomBenson, playing Frankie, a mail-delivery boy who had comedy routines that no one wanted to hear. Seinfeld was abruptly fired from the show due to creative differences.Seinfeld said that he was not told he had been fired until he arrived for a read-through session and found that there was no script for him.In January 1981, he performed stand-up onAn Evening at the Improv.In May, Seinfeld made an appearance onThe Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, impressingCarsonand the audience, leading to frequent appearances on that show and others, includingLate Night with David Letterman.On September 5, 1987, his first one-hour specialStand-Up Confidentialaired live onHBO. 1988–1998:Seinfeldand stardom Seinfeld createdThe Seinfeld ChronicleswithLarry Davidin 1988 forNBC. It was renamedSeinfeldto avoid confusion with the short-lived teen sitcomThe Marshall Chronicles. By its third season,Seinfeldhad become the most watched sitcom on American television. The final episode aired in 1998, and the show has been a popularsyndicatedre-run ever since. NBC offered Seinfeld $110 million—a record $5 million an episode for a 22-episode tenth season—but he declined.Along with Seinfeld, the show starredSaturday Night LivealumnaJulia Louis-Dreyfusand established actorsMichael RichardsandJason Alexander. Alexander played George, a caricature ofLarry David. Seinfeld is the only actor to appear in every episode. 1998–2010: Established career After he ended his sitcom, Seinfeld moved back toNew York Cityand returned to stand-up comedy instead of staying inLos Angelesand furthering his acting career. In 1998, he went on tour and recorded a comedy special, titledI'm Telling You for the Last Time. The process of developing and performing new material at clubs around the world was chronicled in a 2002 documentary,Comedian, which also featured fellow comicOrny Adamsand was directed by Christian Charles. Seinfeld has written several books, mostly archives of past routines. In the late 1990s,Apple Computercame up with the advertising slogan \"Think different\" and produced a 60-second commercial to promote the slogan. This commercial showed people who were able to \"think differently,\" such asAlbert Einstein,Mahatma Gandhi,Martin Luther King Jr., and many others. It was later cut short to 30 seconds and altered such that Seinfeld was included at the end, although he had not been in the original cut. This shorter version of the commercial aired only once, during theseries finaleofSeinfeld. In 2004, Seinfeld appeared in two commercialwebisodespromotingAmerican Express, titledThe Adventures of Seinfeld & Superman.In these, Seinfeld appeared with a cartoon rendering ofSuperman, to whom reference was made in numerous episodes ofSeinfeldas Seinfeld's hero, voiced byPatrick Warburton(characterDavid PuddyonSeinfeld). The webisodes were directed byBarry Levinsonand aired briefly on television. Seinfeld and \"Superman\" were also interviewed byMatt Lauerin a specially recorded interview for theTodayshow. On November 18, 2004, Seinfeld appeared at theNational Museum of American Historyto donate the \"puffy shirt\" he wore in theSeinfeldepisodeof the same name. He also gave a speech when presenting the \"puffy shirt,\" saying humorously that \"This is the most embarrassing moment of my life.\"On May 13, 2006, Seinfeld had a cameo appearance onSaturday Night Liveas host Julia Louis-Dreyfus' assassin. Louis-Dreyfus in her opening monologue mentioned the \"Seinfeld curse.\" While talking about how ridiculous the \"curse\" was, astage lightsuddenly fell next to her. The camera moved to acatwalkabove the stage where Seinfeld was standing, holding a large pair of bolt cutters. He angrily muttered, \"Damn it!\" upset that it did not hit her. Louis-Dreyfus continued to say that she is indeed not cursed. On February 25, 2007, Seinfeld appeared at the79th Academy Awardsas the presenter for \"Best Documentary.\" Before announcing the nominations, he did a monologue about the unspoken agreement between movie theater owners and movie patrons.On October 4, 2007, Seinfeld made a guest appearance as himself in the30 Rockepisode \"SeinfeldVision.\"On February 24, 2008, at the80th Academy Awards, Seinfeld appeared as thevoiceof hisBee Movieanimated character Barry, presentingBest Animated Short Film. Before announcing the nominees, he showed a montage of film clips featuring bees, saying that they were some of his early work (as Barry). On June 2, 2008, amidst his spring 2008 tour, Seinfeld performed in his hometown of New York City for a one-night-only show at theHammerstein Ballroomto benefitStand Up for a Cure, a charity aidinglung cancerresearch atMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. In August 2008, theAssociated Pressreported that Jerry Seinfeld would be the pitchman forWindows Vista, as part of a $300-million advertising campaign by Microsoft. The ads, which were intended to create interest for Windows in support of the subsequent \"I'm a PC\" advertisements, began airing in mid-September 2008. They were cut from television after three installments; Microsoft opted to continue with the \"I'm a PC\" advertisementsand run the Seinfeld ads on the Microsoft website as a series of longer advertisements.In March 2009, it was announced that Seinfeld and the entire cast ofSeinfeldwould be appearing for a reunion in Larry David's HBO seriesCurb Your Enthusiasm. The fictional reunion took place in theseventh season'sfinaleand starred most of the original cast, includingJulia Louis-Dreyfus,Jason Alexander,Michael Richards, in a multiple-episode arc.Seinfeld appeared on an episode of theStarzoriginal seriesHead Case. As was the case in many of his previous guest appearances on sitcoms, he played himself. InAustralia, Seinfeld appeared on a series of advertisements for theGreater Building Society, abuilding societybased inNew South Walesand southeasternQueensland.His appearance in these ads was highly publicized and considered a coup for the society, being the third time Seinfeld had appeared in a television commercial.The advertisements were filmed in Cedarhurst,Long Island, with the street designed to emulate Beaumont Street inHamilton, where the Greater's head offices are located.Seinfeld also wrote the scripts for the 15 advertisements that were filmed. The ads largely aired in the Northern New South Wales television market, where the society has most of its branches. Seinfeld was the first guest onJay Leno's talk showThe Jay Leno Show, which premiered on September 14, 2009. Seinfeld was featured onSaturday Night Live'sWeekend Updatesketch to do the \"Really!?!\" segment withSeth Meyers. He executive produced and regularly appeared as a panelist inThe Marriage Ref. On August 30, 2010, Seinfeld made a surprise guest appearance onThe Howard Stern Show, ending the feud the two had in the early 1990s. Seinfeld toured the U.S. in 2011 and made his first stand-up appearance in theUnited Kingdomin 11 years. In July 2011, he was a surprise guest onThe Daily Show, helpingJon Stewartto suppress his urge to tell \"cheap\" \"Michele Bachmann's husband acts gay\" jokes.Seinfeld also launched a personal archives website at JerrySeinfeld.com and appeared in theHBOspecialTalking Funnywith fellow comediansChris Rock,Louis C.K., andRicky Gervaisin the same year. 2011–present: Talk show and expansion In 2012, Seinfeld started a web series titledComedians in Cars Getting Coffee, in which he would pick up a fellow comedian in a different car each episode and take them out for coffee and conversation. The show originally aired on theCracklestreaming service and then was bought byNetflix. The initial series consisted of ten episodes lasting from 7 to 25 minutes each. The show has continued to get high-profile guests such asAlec Baldwin,Mel Brooks,Bill Burr,Dave Chappelle,Louis C.K.,Larry David,Ellen DeGeneres,Tina Fey,David Letterman,Jerry Lewis,Steve Martin,John Mulaney,Eddie Murphy,Carl Reiner,Don Rickles,Chris Rock,Howard Stern, andJon Stewart.The show has also hostedSeinfeldalumsLarry David,Julia Louis-Dreyfus,Jason Alexander, andMichael Richards. Season seven featured its most high-profile guest, then-PresidentBarack Obama.In a farewell tribute video for the Obamas before the President left office, Seinfeld stated, \"That knocking on theOval Officewindow. That probably was the peak of my entire existence.\" In 2014, Seinfeld toldDavid Lettermanhe invitedWoody Allento be on the show but hadn't heard back.That same year he also revealedJoan Riverswas supposed to be a guest on the show before she died due to a botched medical procedure.Seinfeld signed a deal withNetflixin January 2017 that included placingSeinfeldandComedians in Cars Getting Coffeeon their streaming service as well as two new Seinfeld stand-up specials and the development of scripted and non-scripted comedy programming.As part of the deal, all episodes ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffeewere made available on the streaming service, in addition to a new 24-episode season.The series was nominated for fivePrimetime Emmy Awardsand won threeWebby Awards. It's very important to know what you don't like. A big part of innovation is saying, \"You know what I'm really sick of?\" For me, that was talk shows where music plays, somebody walks out to a desk, shakes hands with the host, and sits down. \"How are you?\" \"You look great.\" I'm also sick of people who are really there to sell their show or product. \"What am I really sick of?\" is where innovation begins. –Seinfeld, talking about his process of innovation. In June 2013, Seinfeld appeared on rapperWale's albumThe Gifted, on the song \"Outro About Nothing.\"Seinfeld received coverage for his speech at the 2014Clio Awardsceremony, where he received an honorary award, as media reporters said that he \"mocked\" and \"ripped apart\" the advertising industry; his statement that \"I love advertising because I love lying\" received particular attention.In 2014, Seinfeld hosted the specialDon Rickles: One Night Onlyat theApollo Theatre. The event celebratedDon Ricklesand his career, but also served as a roast among friends. Those who participated in the event includedJon Stewart,David Letterman,Tina Fey,Amy Poehler,Nathan Lane,Regis Philbin,Robert De Niro, andMartin Scorsese.On February 15, 2015, Seinfeld made a guest appearance on theSaturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special, where he hosted the \"Questions from the Audience\" segment, which included cameos fromMichael Douglas,John Goodman,James Franco,Larry David,Ellen Cleghorne,Dakota Johnson,Tim Meadows,Bob Odenkirk, andSarah Palin(who Seinfeld initially mistook forTina Fey).On May 20, 2015, Seinfeld made a guest appearance onDavid Letterman's finalLate Showepisode. Seinfeld joined guests includingAlec Baldwin,Barbara Walters,Steve Martin,Jim Carrey,Chris Rock,Julia Louis-Dreyfus,Peyton Manning,Tina Fey, andBill Murraywho all participated in The Top Ten List segment, \"Things I've Always Wanted to Say to Dave.\" In January 2017, Seinfeld went onThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallonand joinedDave ChappelleandJimmy Fallonin honoring outgoing First LadyMichelle Obama, and played a game ofCatchphrase, which Obama and Fallon won to Seinfeld's dismay.On September 19, 2017, Netflix released the stand-up comedy specialJerry Before Seinfeld. It follows Seinfeld as he returns for a stand-up routine at theNew York Citycomedy club,Comic Strip Live, which started his career.It is intercut with documentary clips and his stand-up special. It was later released as an LP, CD and download album, and was nominated for a 2018Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album.In 2020, it was announced that Netflix would be releasing Seinfeld's first original stand-up special in 22 years,23 Hours to Kill. The special premiered on May 5.In October 2020, Seinfeld joinedSteve Martinin a discussion about comedy atThe New Yorker Festival. They discussed subjects ranging from the creative process,Netflix, andThe Oscars, to their comedy backgrounds, and the future of comedy during theCOVID-19 pandemic. In 2024 he directed, co-wrote, and produced in theNetflixcomedy filmUnfrosted, a satirical spoof about the creation ofPop-Tarts. Seinfeld also starred in the film alongsideMelissa McCarthy,Jim Gaffigan, andHugh Grant. The film earned mixed reviews withThe Hollywood Reporterwriting the film received a \"sharply divided reaction from critics\".The New York Timeslabeled it a \"Critic's Pick\" with Anne Nicholson describing it as a \"full-fledged, fully ridiculous feature comedy targeted to the audience’s sweet-and-salty dopamine receptors\".David Ehrlich ofIndieWirewrote that the \"comedy never heats up\" and \"it’s a movie about so many different things at once that it comes to feel like a movie about nothing\".Seinfeld appeared as a guest onJohn Mulaney Presents: Everybody's in LAwhere he joked that it was \"the weirdesttalk showI've ever been on in my life\".He also embarked on a new tour starting with his first show in Singapore in June 2024followed by a number of stops in Australia and North America.Seinfeld returned toCurb Your Enthusiasmin its final season reuniting withLarry Davidwhere they poked fun at the controversial ending ofSeinfeld. Ben Travers ofIndieWirewrote, \"If theCurbfinale is meant to rewrite theSeinfeldending in any way, it’s during that first scene between Jerry and Larry. They’re playing out the kind of scene they used to write for Jerry and George, and getting that silly, joyful spark between two TV legends — even for a moment — is pure bliss\". Books Seinfeld wrote the bookSeinLanguage, released in 1993. Written as his television show was first rising in popularity, it is primarily an adaptation of his stand-up material. The title comes from an article inEntertainment Weeklylisting the numerous catchphrases for which the show was responsible.In 2002, he wrote thechildren's bookHalloween. The book was illustrated by James Bennett.Seinfeld wrote the forewords toTed L. Nancy'sLetters from a Nutseries of books andEd Broth'sStories from a Moron.Seinfeld also wrote the foreword to thePeanut Butter & Co.Cookbook. In October 2020, Seinfeld released his new bookIs This Anything?. The book chronicles Seinfeld's 45 years working in comedy and contains many of his best bits that span from various decades. Influences Seinfeld has stated, \"On theMount Rushmoreof stand-up comedy, there are four faces, in my opinion:Richard Pryor,George Carlin,Bill Cosby, andDon Rickles.\"Seinfeld has also cited as his influencesJean Shepherd,Mad Magazine,Jonathan Winters,Jerry Lewis,Robert Klein, andAbbott and Costello.He stated, \"Monty Pythonwas a gigantic influence on me. They were just about silly, funny things that meant nothing, and that’s the stuff I love. There’s a wonderful childlike freedom in those kinds of things.\" In theNetflixcomedy special,Jerry Before Seinfeld, he displayed his personal comedy albums collection from when he was a teenager.These albums included: In an interview withEntertainment Weekly, Seinfeld stated his five favorite films areThe Heartbreak Kid(1972),The Graduate(1967),The In-Laws(1979),A Night at the Opera(1935), andGlengarry Glen Ross(1992). Those influenced by Seinfeld includeJohn Mulaney,Ellen DeGeneres,Jim Gaffigan,Judd Apatow,Issa Rae,Nate Bargatze,andMark Normand.OnThe Late Show with Stephen Colbert,Steve Martindescribed Seinfeld as one of his \"retro heroes\" saying \" a guy who came up behind me and is better than I am. I think he's fantastic, I love to listen to him, he almost puts me at peace. I love to listen to him talk\". Personal life Seinfeld is a fan of theNew York Mets, and periodically callsSteve Somers' show onWFAN-AM, asports talk radiostation, as \"Jerry from Queens.\"Seinfeld called four innings of a Mets game onSportsNet New Yorkon June 23, 2010, reuniting with analystKeith Hernandez, who appeared in theSeinfeldtwo-part episode entitled \"The Boyfriend.\"According to Seinfeld, he thinks about baseball \"all day\" and has said \"when I think of retirement, all I would think of is going to a baseball game every day.\" Seinfeld is left-handed and the first joke he ever wrote was about the topic.In a 2014 interview withNBC News, he made statements suggesting that he believed he was on theautism spectrum.However, following criticism for his allegedself-diagnosis, he later clarified that he is not autistic and had been commenting on a play about the condition that he \"related to on some level.\" Relationships and marriage Years beforeSeinfeldwas created, Seinfeld datedCarol Leifer.She was a fellow comedian, and one of the inspirations for theSeinfeldcharacterElaine Benes.On national television with sex therapist and talk show host Dr.Ruth Westheimer, he mentioned that he was engaged in 1984 but called it off. In May 1993, days after his 39th birthday, Seinfeld met 17-year-oldShoshanna Lonsteinin Central Park.After a brief conversation, Lonstein gave Seinfeld her phone number.Lonstein was still a senior in high school and would turn 18 at the end of that month.Seinfeld and Lonstein dated for approximately four years, until 1997.She transferred fromGeorge Washington UniversitytoUCLA, in part to be with him, and cited constant press coverage and missing New York City as reasons for the relationship ending. The age difference led to intense media scrutiny. While Seinfeld was a guest onHoward Stern's talk show, Stern said, \"so, you sit in Central Park and have a candy bar on a string and pull it when the girls come?\" at which point Seinfeld replied, \"she's not 17, definitely not.\"A few months later, in his second Howard Stern interview, Seinfeld insisted, \"I didn't realize she was so young. This is the only girl I ever went out with who was that young. I wasn't dating her. We just went to a restaurant, and that was it.\"Early in their relationship,Spymagazine referred to Lonstein as \"a legal voter\". In an October 1993Playboyinterview, Seinfeld described the reactions to the relationship as ranging \"from horrified to just busting buttons with pride that they know me\", noting that his female acquaintances had overall reacted more negatively than his male ones. He said that his assistant \"was so mad\" she punched him, whereas his mother was \"thrilled\". He concluded, \"if she's 18, if she's intelligent, that's fine\".In March 1994, Seinfeld again defended their age difference in an interview withPeople, stating that \"Shoshanna is a person, not an age.\"Julia Louis-Dreyfus said in a 1998New Yorkinterview that she was in favor of the relationship, as \"it was a happy one for him\", and added that she did not believe there was anything wrong with it. In August 1998, while at a Reebok Sports Club, Seinfeld metJessica Sklar, apublic relationsexecutive forTommy Hilfigerwho had just returned from a three-week honeymoon inItalywith then-husband Eric Nederlander, a theatrical producer and scion of atheater-owning family. Unaware of Sklar's marital status, Seinfeld invited her out. When Sklar eventually told Seinfeld about her relationship situation, she said, \"I told him I didn't think this was the right time for me to be involved with anybody.\" Two months later, Sklar filed for divorce and began dating Seinfeld. The pair married on December 25, 1999.ComedianGeorge Wallacewas the best man at the wedding.After the nuptials, Jerry and Jessica Seinfeld boughtBilly Joel's house inAmagansett,Long Island, for US$32 million after news of the couple's interest in the property became public in 2000.The Seinfelds have a daughter and two sons. Wealth and charity In 1999, Seinfeld auctioned a Breitling Chronomat watch as part of the \"Famous Faces, Watch Auction For Charity\" event in New York City. This watch sold for $11,000.In 2001, Jerry and Jessica Seinfeld created the charitable organizationThe Good+Foundationafter their first child was born. Good+Foundation grants donations of products and services to programs that have demonstrated a capacity to address family poverty in three focus areas: supporting new mothers, investing in early childhood, and engaging fathers. GOOD+ Foundation has donated over $42M worth of items through its partner network across the United States.Seinfeld has also participated inJon Stewart's charity event,Night of Too Many Stars. According toForbesmagazine, Seinfeld's cumulative earnings fromSeinfeldas of 2004 was $267 million, placing him at the top of the celebrity earnings list that year.He turned down $5 million per episode, for 22 episodes, to continue the show for a 10th season.Seinfeld earned $100 million from syndication deals and stand-up performances in 2004, and $60 million in 2006.He also earned $10 million for appearing withBill GatesinMicrosoft's 2008 advertisements forWindows.Between June 2008 and June 2009, Seinfeld earned $85 million, making him the world's highest-paid comedian during those 12 months.In 2013,Forbesdocumented Seinfeld's annual income as $32 million.In mid-2013, Seinfeld disputedForbes'sclaims regarding his income and net worth onThe Howard Stern Show.Seinfeld was ranked byForbesthe highest-paid comedian for 2015, the second-highest-paid in 2016, and the highest-paid again in 2017.Seinfeld's income between June 2016 and June 2017 was $69 million. In 2024,Bloombergdeclared Seinfeld a billionaire, with a net worth standing at more than $1 billion, thanks to various syndication deals his sitcom signed, with $465 million coming from those deals. Automobiles Seinfeld is an automobile enthusiast and collector, and he owns a collection of about 150 cars, including a largePorschecollection.He rented a hangar at theSanta Monica AirportinSanta Monica, California, for an extended period during the 1990s for storage of some of the vehicles in the collection.In 2002, Seinfeld purchased property on theUpper West SideofManhattaninNew York Citywhere he built a $1.4 million two-story garage to store part of his Porsche collection on the East Coast.One tally has Seinfeld owning 43 Porsches.Paul Bannister has written that Seinfeld's collection includesPorsche 911sfrom various years, 10Porsche Boxsterseach painted a different color, and the 1955Porsche 550 Spyder, the same model and pearl-grey color that actorJames Deanhad been driving before he crashed that car and subsequently died. TheDiscovery Channeltelevision showChasing Classic Carsclaimed that Seinfeld owns the first and last produced air-cooled Porsche 911s. The centerpiece is a $700,000Porsche 959, one of only 337 built. He was originally not allowed to drive it, because the car was \"notstreet legal.\" U.S. emissions and crash tests had not been performed for the model because Porsche refused to donate four Porsche 959s for destruction tests. Seinfeld imported the car \"for exhibition purposes,\" on the stipulation that it may never be driven on U.S. roads.The car was made U.S. street legal in 1999 under the \"Show or Display\" federal law.Seinfeld wrote an article for the February 2004 issue ofAutomobile, reviewing thePorsche Carrera GT. In 2008, Seinfeld was involved in a car accident when the brakes on his 1967Fiat 500failed and, to avoid an intersection, he pulled the emergency brake while turning sharply, ultimately causing the car to flip onto its side. No one was hurt. Coffee machines A coffee aficionado, Seinfeld owns multipleespresso machines, including the $17,000 Elektra Belle Epoqueand two machines manufactured by Slayer andBreville.Seinfeld described his single-group Slayer machine, which costs upwards of $8,500, as a \"beautiful machine.\"WhenNPRasked him about the influence ofcoffee culture in the U.S., Seinfeld responded in 2013: I never liked and I didn't understand it and I used to do a lot of stuff in my stand-up set in the '80s and '90s about how I don't 'get' coffee. And then something happened about five years ago. I started touring a lot, and we would have these great big, fun breakfasts in the hotel and just seemed to go really well . , I've just started this espresso thing. In a May 2024GQinterview titled \"10 Things Jerry Seinfeld Can't Live Without\", Seinfeld revealed that aBialettimoka potis one of his must-haves. He described the process of making coffee with a moka pot as complex and time-consuming, but a pleasurable way to \"waste time\". Religion and politics Seinfeld is Jewish and has incorporated elements of hisJewish identityin his work.Although he shared that his mother was born into a large family of Syrian Orthodox Jews, he admitted to being non-religious himself.Seinfeld stated that he took aScientologycourse when he was in his 20s; he said that he found it interesting but that he did not pursue it any further. Seinfeld expressed support forIsraelduring theIsrael–Hamas war, saying \"I will always stand with Israel and the Jewish people.\"Seinfeld and his family previously drew criticism, travelling to the West Bank in 2018 to participate in a terrorism simulation camp.Seinfeld also visited the headquarters ofAbducted and Missing Families Forumwhere he met with representatives of the families and with abductees who returned from Hamas captivity, and listened to their stories.On May 12, 2024, Seinfeld gave acommencement addressand received an honorary degree atDuke University. During his speech, a number of students booed, wavedPalestinian flagsand walked out in protest.In June 2024, Seinfeld was heckled by protesters during a comedy show inSydney, Australia. Seinfeld responded joking, \"You’re really influencing everyone here. We’re all on your side now, because you’ve made your point so well, and in the right venue, you’ve come to the right place for a political conversation\". Seinfeld has made several political contributions, including toGeorge W. Bush's andAl Gore's presidential campaigns in2000, and subsequently to fourDemocratic Partyprimary candidates in 2000 and2004. Seinfeld has expressed his distaste forpolitical correctnessandwokeculture. In 2015, Seinfeld stated that he avoids performing on college campuses because students have become too easily offended by his comedic routines.In a 2024 interview withThe New Yorker, Seinfeld claimed political correctness was destroying comedy, saying, “This is the result of theextreme leftand PC crap, and people worrying so much about offending other people. When you write a script and it goes into four or five different hands, committees, groups — 'Here's our thought about this joke' — well, that's the end of your comedy.”Months later, he walked back those comments on the \"Breaking Bread\" podcast, stating \"I don't think, as I said, 'the extreme left' has done anything to inhibit the art of comedy. I'm taking that back officially.\" Seinfeld said he regrets his previous comments because changing cultural attitudes are \"not business.\" Transcendental Meditation In December 2012, Seinfeld said that he had been practicingTranscendental Meditationfor 40 years. He promoted the use of the technique in the treatment ofpost-traumatic stress disorderwithBob Rothof theDavid Lynch Foundationin December 2012 onGood Morning America,and also appeared at a 2009 David Lynch Foundation benefit for TM, at whichPaul McCartneyandRingo Starrappeared.On November 5, 2015, the David Lynch Foundation organized a benefit concert at New York City'sCarnegie Hallcalled \"Change Begins Within\" to promote transcendental meditation for stress control. \"It's been the greatest companion technique of living that I've ever come across, and I'm thrilled to be part of this movement that seems to have really been reinvigorated by Bob andDavid Lynch,\" Seinfeld said. \"I would do anything that I could to promote it in the world, because I think it's the greatest thing as a life tool, as a work tool and just making things make sense.\" Filmography Film Television Music videos Video games Directing Writing Writing credits forSeinfeld The list below only includes episodes mainly written by Seinfeld, as he (and Larry David in Seasons 1 through 7) rewrote the drafts for each episode. Comedy releases Stand-up specials Stand-up appearances References Awards and nominations Over his career he has receivednumerous accoladesincluding aPrimetime Emmy Award, aGolden Globe Award, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for fourGrammy Awards. Seinfeld has received an HonoraryDoctorate of Humane Lettersfrom Queens College (1994)as well as an HonoraryDoctor of ArtsfromDuke University(2024) Discography Bibliography References External links","Jason Alexander Jay Scott Greenspan(born September 23, 1959),known professionally asJason Alexander, is an American actor and comedian. Over the course of his career he has received anEmmy Awardand aTony Awardas well as nominations for fourGolden Globe Awards. He gained stardom for his role asGeorge Costanzain theNBCsitcomSeinfeld(1989–1998), for which he won aScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Seriesand was nominated for seven consecutivePrimetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Seriesand fourGolden Globe Awards for Best Supporting Actor in Television. Alexander made hisBroadwaydebut originating the role of Joe inStephen Sondheim'sMerrily We Roll Alongin 1981. He remained active on Broadway acting in the musicalsThe Rinkin 1984,Personalsin 1985, and theNeil SimonplayBroadway Boundin 1986. He then starred inJerome Robbins' Broadwayin 1989, for which he won theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He appeared in the Los Angeles production ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers. He was the artistic director of \"Reprise! Broadway's Best in Los Angeles\", where he has directed musicals. His film roles includePretty Woman(1990),Coneheads(1993),North(1994),The Last Supper(1995),Dunston Checks In(1996),Denial(1998),Shallow Hal(2001), andWild Card(2015). He voiced thegargoyleHugo in the Disney filmThe Hunchback of Notre Dame(1996) and the2002 sequelas well as the titular role inDuckman(1994–1997). For his role inDream On(1994) he was nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. He also acted inCurb Your Enthusiasm(2001, 2009), andThe Marvelous Mrs. Maisel(2019). Early life and education Greenspan was born inNewark, New Jerseyto a Jewish family, the son of Ruth Minnie (née Simon), a nurse and health care administrator, and Alexander B. Greenspan, an accounting manager. Greenspan later borrowed his father's first name to create his stage name, Jason Alexander. Alexander grew up inMaplewoodandLivingston, New Jersey, and is a 1977 graduate ofLivingston High School.Interested in magic from an early age, he initially hoped to be a magician, but while attending a magic camp was told that his hands were too small for card magic. He became interested in theater, eventually realizing, \"Wait a minute—the whole thing's an illusion. Nothing up there is real\" and that theater itself was \"a magic trick\". He then decided to pursue a theater career. After high school, he studied theater atBoston University. He wanted to pursue classical acting, but a professor redirected him toward comedy after noticing his physique, remarking, \"I know your heart and soul areHamlet, but you will never play Hamlet.\"Alexander left Boston University without a degree after his third year to take a full-time acting job in New York City. The university awarded him an honorary degree in 1995. Career 1980–1999: Broadway debut andSeinfeld Alexander began his acting career on the New York stage and is an accomplished singer and dancer. Alexander made his film debut in 1981 in the summer campslasher filmThe Burning. OnBroadwayhe appeared inStephen Sondheim'sMerrily We Roll Alongin 1981,Kander&Ebb'sThe Rinkin 1984,Neil Simon'sBroadway Boundin 1986,Accomplicein 1990, andJerome Robbins' Broadwayin 1989, for which he garnered the 1989Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical.Frank RichofThe New York Timeswrote of his performance \"Jason Alexander, the evening's delightful narrator, accomplishes the seemingly impossible: he banishes the memory ofZero Mostelfrom the role ofPseudolusinA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum\". In addition to his roles as an insensitive, money-hungry lawyer inPretty Womanin 1990, Alexander has appeared inJacob's Ladderin 1990,The Last Supperin 1995,Dunston Checks Inin 1996,Love! Valour! Compassion!in 1997, andLove and Action in Chicagoin 1999. Alexander starred in several commercials during the 1980s. Among them were commercials forHershey's Kiss; Delta Goldpotato chips;Miller Litebeer;McDonald'sMcDLThamburger;Pabst Blue Ribbonbeer;Levi's501 jeans;Sony WatchmanTV; andWestern Unionwire transfer.BeforeSeinfeld, Alexander appeared in commercials for John Deere and McDonald's and in the short-livedCBSsitcomEverything's Relative(1987). Alexander is best known as one of the key cast members of the award-winning television sitcomSeinfeld, where he played the bumblingGeorge Costanza(Jerry Seinfeld's character's best friend since childhood). He was nominated for sevenPrimetime Emmy Awardsand fourGolden Globe Awardsfor the role, but did not win any, mainly due to his co-starMichael Richardswinning for his role asCosmo Kramer. He did, however, win the 1995Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series. Concurrently with hisSeinfeldrole, he had a part in the ABC sitcomDinosaursas Al \"Sexual\" Harris (who frequently engaged insexual harassment) as well as other characters from 1991 to 1994. Alexander voiced the lead character in the animated seriesDuckman(1994–1997) and voicedCatbert, the evil director of human resources, in the short-lived animated seriesDilbertfrom 1999 to 2000, based on the then-popular comic strip.In January 1995, he did a commercial forRold Goldpretzels to be broadcast during theSuper Bowl. The commercial depicts him withFrasierdog Eddie jumping out of an airplane with a parachute over the stadium. After the commercial, the audience is brought back to a supposedly live feed of the playing field hearing startled sports commentators as Alexander and the dog land in the field to wild applause. Alexander appeared in the 1995 TV version of theBroadwaymusicalBye Bye Birdie, as Conrad Birdie's agent, Albert Peterson. He guest-starred in episode 8 of the 1996 variety showMuppets Tonight.He voiced thegargoyleHugo inDisney's 1996animated filmThe Hunchback of Notre Dameand its direct-to-video sequel,The Hunchback of Notre Dame II. Alexander voiced the characterAbis Malin the 1994 filmThe Return of Jafarand the 1994-1995TV seriesbased on the 1992 filmAladdin. In 1997, he appeared inCinderella, a remake ofRodgers and Hammerstein's Cinderella,alongsideWhitney Houston,Brandy Norwood, andWhoopi Goldberg. His other Disney voice work includesHouse of Mousein 2001 and the 2012 video gameKingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance.He has dabbled in directing, starting with 1996'sFor Better or Worseand 1999'sJust Looking. In 1999, Alexander presided over theNew York Friars Club Roastevent honoringJerry Stiller, who played his father onSeinfeld; it featured appearances byKevin JamesandPatton Oswalt, both Stiller's costars onThe King of Queens. Alexander appeared in the 1999Star Trek: Voyagerepisode \"Think Tank\" as Kurros, a genius alien trying to getSeven of Nineto serve on his ship. 2000–2009: Solo-lead sitcoms and return to theatre Despite a successful career in film and stage, Alexander did not repeat hisSeinfeld-level of success in television. The year 2001 marked his appearance as inept womanizer Mauricio inShallow Haland his first post-Seinfeldreturn to prime-time television: the heavily promoted but short-livedABCsitcomBob Patterson, which was canceled after five episodes. Alexander partially blames the show's failure on the country's mood after9/11.Alexander made cameo appearances as himself in 2001 in the second season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm, and he appeared in the show's seventh season with his three principalSeinfeldco-stars.He was featured in theFriends2001 episode \"The One Where Rosita Dies\" as Earl, a suicidalsupply manager.Phoebecalls him trying to sell himtoner, learns about his problem, and tries to persuade him not to commit suicide. This is referenced in an episode ofMalcolm in the Middlewhere Alexander appears as Leonard, a neurotic and critical loner. He describes himself as \"free\" and says he makes money \"selling toner over the phone\". Later in the episode, he is repeatedly harassed by a man named George. He appeared in \"One Night at Mercy\", the first episode of the short-lived2002 revival ofThe Twilight Zone, playingDeath. He played the toymakerA.C. Gilbertin the 2002 filmThe Man Who Saved Christmas. He appeared inKentucky Fried Chicken(KFC) commercials in 2002, including one withBarry Bondsof theSan Francisco Giantsand another withTrista RehnofThe Bachelorette. It was rumored that he quit doing these commercials due to KFC suppliers andslaughterhouses' allegedcruelty to animals, but he denied that in an interview withAdweek, saying, \"That'sPETAbullcrap. I loved working for KFC. I was targeted by PETA to broker something between them. I think KFC really stepped up to the plate; unfortunately PETA did not.\" In 2007, Alexander appeared in a commercial for theASPCAthat aired on cable TV stations.In 2018, Alexander portrayedColonel Sandersin commercials forKFC, reprising his role from the 2002 campaign. In 2003, he was cast oppositeMartin Shortin the Los Angeles production ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers.He appeared withKelsey Grammerin the 2004musical adaptationofCharles Dickens'sA Christmas Carol, asJacob Marley. Alexander's second chance as a TV series lead, theCBSsitcomListen Up(2004–05), also fell short of a second season. Alexander was the principal executive producer of the series, based very loosely on the life of the popular sports-media personalityTony Kornheiser. He performed on theFamily Guy: Live in Vegas2005 album. Alexander continued to appear in live stage shows, includingBarbra Streisand's memorable birthday party in 2005 for Stephen Sondheim at the Hollywood Bowl, where he performed selections fromSweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet StreetwithAngela Lansbury.He featured in the 2005Monkepisode \"Mr. Monk and the Other Detective\" as Monk's rival,Marty Eels. In a 2006 appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!, Alexander demonstrated several self-defense techniques. Also that year, he hosted thePBS\"A Capitol Fourth\" celebrations in Washington, D.C., singing, dancing, and playing tuned drums. Alexander was featured as a recurring cast member in the second season ofEverybody Hates Chris. He hosted theComedy Central Roast of William Shatner. He was the artistic director of Reprise Theatre Company in Los Angeles from 2007 until it went defunct in 2013,where he previously directedSunday in the Park with George, and directed its 2007 revival ofDamn Yankees.In 2007, Alexander was a guest star in the third episode of theimprov comedyseriesThank God You're Here. He has been a frequent guest and panelist onBill Maher'sPolitically Incorrectin 1995, 1997 and 2000andReal Timein 2006, 2009 and 2012;Hollywood Squaresin 1999, 2002 and 2004;theLate Late Showin 2003, 2012, 2014 and 2015, withCraig Kilborn,Craig Ferguson, andJames Corden;Late Show with David Lettermanin 1989, 2000, and 2002;The Late Show with Stephen Colbertin 2015;andThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallonin 2015.In 2008, Alexander guest-starred in theseason fourepisode \"Masterpiece\" of theCBSshowCriminal Mindsas Professor Rothschild,a well-educatedserial killerobsessed with theFibonacci sequencewho sends the team into a race against time to save his last victims.He returned in the same season to direct the episode \"Conflicted\", featuring the actorJackson Rathbone. Alexander hosted the LOL Sudbury opening night gala inSudbury, Ontario, Canada in 2008, which was simulcast throughout Canada at 60 Cineplex theaters, a first for any comedy festival. He has lent his voice to several episodes of theTwilight Zone Radio Dramas. In 2008 and again in 2009, Alexander frontedJason Alexander's Comedy Spectacular, a routine exclusive to Australia. The show consists of stand-up and improvisation and incorporates Alexander's musical talent. He is backed up by several well-known Australian comedians. His first time performing a similar show of this nature was in 2006'sJason Alexander's Comedy Christmas. In February/March 2010, Alexander starred in his show,The Donny Clay Experience, at thePlanet Hollywood ResortinLas Vegas,Nevada. Donny Clay, whom he has portrayed in a tour of the United States and Orillia, Ontario, is aself-helpguru in a similar mold to hisBob Pattersoncharacter. In 2009, he playedJosephin theThomas Nelsonaudio Bible productionThe Word of Promise. The project featured a large ensemble of actors, includingJim Caviezel,Lou Gossett Jr.,John Rhys-Davies,Jon Voight,Gary Sinise,Christopher McDonald,Marisa Tomei, andJohn Schneider.In 2009, Alexander had a small role in the filmHachi: A Dog's Taleas a train station manager. 2010–present He starred asCosmoin the 2011 live action filmA Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner!. In 2011, Alexander was the guest star in an episode ofHarry's Law, playing a high school teacher bringing a wrongful dismissal suit.In 2015, he replacedLarry Davidas the lead in David'sBroadwayplayFish in the Dark.He co-starred oppositeSherie Rene Scottin the 2017 world premiere ofJohn Patrick Shanley'sThe Portuguese Kidat theManhattan Theatre Club.In 2018, Alexander played Olix the bartender inThe Orville.The same year, he portrayed Gene Lundy, a drama teacher, on two episodes ofYoung Sheldon. In 2020, 2021 and 2022, he reprised the role of Gene Lundy on one episode. In 2019, Alexander appeared onThe Marvelous Mrs. Maiselas Asher Friedman, a blacklisted Broadway playwright who is an old friend of Midge Maisel's father Abe Weissman.He won theDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Original Song for \"The Bad Guys?\" onBrainwashed By Toons(2020). In 2020, Alexander hosted theSaturday Night Seder, an online Passover Seder that featured many celebrities and benefited theCDC Foundation. From February 2023 he co-presentedReally? No, Really?, a weekly podcast in which he, co-host Peter Tilden, and their guests attempt to find answers \"to life’s most baffling, intriguing, confusing and annoying questions\".In July 2023, he made his Broadway directing debut with Sandy Rustin's comedyThe Cottage. The cast includesEric McCormack,Laura Bell BundyandLilli Cooper.In 2023, on the December 21 primetime CBS specialDick Van Dyke: 98 Years of Magic, Alexander performed two songs in conjunction with dance-performers and closed the show with a spoken tribute to Van Dyke. Personal life Alexander has been married to Daena E. Title, cousin of directorStacy Title, since May 31, 1982.They have two sons, Gabrieland Noah. Alexander performed amentalismand magic act atThe Magic Castlein Hollywood, California, from April 24 to 30, 2006, and he was later named The Academy of Magical Arts Parlor Magician of the Year for this act. He won the academy's Junior Achievement Award in 1989. Charity Alexander was the national spokesman for theSclerodermaFoundation, a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those who are afflicted.In summer 2005, he appeared withLee Iacoccain ads forDaimlerChrysler. Iacocca did the ads as part of a way to raise money forDenise Faustman's research onautoimmunity.Iacocca and Alexander both have loved ones whose lives have been adversely affected by autoimmunity. Alexander competed on televised poker shows and in various tournaments. He appeared twice onBravo'sCelebrity Poker Showdown, winning the final table of the 8th season. Alexander won the $500,000 prize for the charity of his choice, TheUnited Way of America, to help benefit the New Orleans area. Alexander played in the2007 World Series of Pokermain event, but he was eliminated on the second day. He returned in 2009, making it to day 3 of the event and finishing in the top 30% of the field. Alexander has appeared on NBC'sPoker After Darkin the \"Celebrities and Mentors\" episode, finishing in 6th place after being eliminated by professional poker playerGavin Smith. He signed withPokerStars, where he plays under the screen name \"J. Alexander\". In 2021, Alexander competed in a virtual National Poker Tournament, hosted by theChildren's Tumor Foundation, to raise money forNeurofibromatosisresearch. Political views Alexander has been a prominent public supporter of theOneVoiceinitiative, which seeks out opinions from moderateIsraelisandPalestinianswho want to achieve a mutual peace agreement, through what it states is the silent majority of Israelis and Palestinians. This has been criticised by The Electronic Intifada as \"promoting what many Palestinians see as \"a false peace that fails to address the structural injustices driving the conflict\", and as a fake peace group which \"manufactures consent for Israeli apartheid\".OnReal Time with Bill Maher, he said he had visitedIsraelmany times and spoke about progress toward peace he had observed. On December 6, 2012 Alexander emceed his thirdgala event for non-profit groupFriends of the Israel Defense Forces, a charity supporting theIsrael Defense Forces.MusicianStevie Wondercancelled his performance at the event following a recommendation from the UN,and a public petition fromBoycott, Divestment and Sanctions(BDS) requesting that he not attend the event.Alexander who was interviewed at the event by Jewish News Syndicate stated he supported theOneVoice Movement, and acknowledged an occupation of Palestine and called for a two-state solution,which was later criticised by Roz Rothstein, CEO of the pro-Israel education group StandWithUs.When asked about the IDF, Alexander stated that they were humane and noble, stating \"some of the finest, most humane, most admirable, most noble-serving soldiers that I've ever seen\" and that \"there can never be any doubt that I am also an advocate for Israel\".When asked about why he had repeatedly emceed the event, Alexander stated: \"They don’t understand first of all what is, and they see it as just a blanket support for Israeli military, and they don’t understand how I can say that I’m an advocate for both sides,” he said. “And given the fact that there are eyes on this event tonight, I thought it was important to get up and say, 'This is why I can advocate for this group and I can advocate for Israel, and I’m not blind to the fact that we’re in conflict, and I hold everyone equally accountable, and I hold everyone equally to my heart.'\" On November 6, 2015 he again emceed an event at theThe Beverly Hilton Hotelin California, which raised $31 million for the, \"provid educational, cultural and recreational programs and facilities for IDF soldiers.\" Alexander is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.Alexander supportssame-sex marriageand anassault weapons ban.In 2020, he campaigned for theTexas Democratswith formerSeinfeldcolleaguesJulia Louis-Dreyfusand Larry David.He endorsedBarack Obamain2012andJoe Bidenin2020.Alexander has been an outspoken critic of theTrump administrationand he has ridiculedDonald Trumpover his dancing.He has calledRepublican PartysenatorTed Cruza jerk from the \"jerk store\" in reference to a joke fromSeinfeld. Acting credits Film Television Theatre Music videos Video games Director Awards and nominations References External links","Julia Louis-Dreyfus Julia Scarlett Elizabeth Louis-Dreyfus(/ˌluːiˈdraɪfəs/LOO-eeDRY-fəs; born January 13, 1961) is an American actress and comedian. Often described as one of the greatest performers in television history,she is widely known for her roles as various characters onSaturday Night Live(1982–1985),Elaine BenesonSeinfeld(1990–1998),Christine CampbellonThe New Adventures of Old Christine(2006–2010), andSelina MeyeronVeep(2012–2019). Herlist of accoladesmakes her one of the most award-winning actresses in American television history,and she has received morePrimetime Emmy Awardsand moreScreen Actors Guild Awardsthan any other performer. Louis-Dreyfus was born in New York City, the daughter of the French billionaireGérard Louis-Dreyfus, and entered comedy as a performer with thePractical Theatre CompanyinChicago. This led to her being cast in the sketch showSaturday Night Live. Her breakthrough came in 1990 with her debut at the start of a nine-season run onSeinfeld, which became one of the most critically and commercially successful sitcoms. In addition to leading roles onThe New Adventures of Old ChristineandVeep, she has made guest appearances on shows such asArrested Development,Curb Your Enthusiasm, and30 Rock. On film, Louis-Dreyfus has had supporting film roles inHannah and Her Sisters(1986),National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation(1989),Deconstructing Harry(1997), andYou People(2023), and leading film roles inEnough Said(2013),Downhill(2020),You Hurt My Feelings(2023), andTuesday(2023). Her voice acting work includesA Bug's Life(1998),Planes(2013), andOnward(2020). Since 2021 she has playedValentina Allegra de Fontainein theMarvel Cinematic Universe. Louis-Dreyfus has received 11 Primetime Emmy Awards (eight for acting and three for producing) in addition to nine Screen Actors Guild Awards and oneGolden Globe Award. She received a star on theHollywood Walk of Famein 2010 and was inducted into theTelevision Academy Hall of Famein 2014. She was named as one ofTimemagazine's100 most influential people in the worldin 2016.She has also received numerous honors including theMark Twain Prize for American Humorin 2018 and theNational Medal of Artsin 2021. Early life Julia Scarlett Elizabeth Louis-Dreyfuswas born inNew York Cityon January 13, 1961.Her mother, Judith (née LeFever), is an American writer andspecial needs educator.Her father,Gérard Louis-Dreyfus(1932–2016), was a French billionaire who served as chairman of theLouis Dreyfus Company. Her paternal grandfather,Pierre Louis-Dreyfus(1908–2011), was president of theLouis Dreyfus Groupcommodities and shipping conglomerate.He was a member of aJewishfamily fromAlsace,and served as acavalryofficer and member of theFrench ResistanceduringWorld War II.Louis-Dreyfus is the great-great-granddaughter of French businessmanLéopold Louis-Dreyfus(1833–1915), founder of the Louis Dreyfus Group, which members of her family still control.She is the fifth cousin four times removed ofAlfred Dreyfus(1859–1935) of the infamousDreyfus affair.Robert Louis-Dreyfus(1946–2009), her father's second cousin, was the CEO ofAdidasand owner of the soccer teamOlympique de Marseille.Julia's paternal grandmother was the daughter of aBrazilian-Jewishfather (whose family wasDutch,English, andPolish). In 1962, a year after her birth, Louis-Dreyfus' parents divorced. She has said that she first noticed her penchant for comedy after sticking raisins up her nose at the age of three, which first made her mother laugh but then led to an emergency hospital visit.After moving toWashington, D.C., when Louis-Dreyfus was four, her mother married L. Thompson Bowles, dean of theGeorge Washington University Medical School;Louis-Dreyfus gained a half-sister,Lauren Bowles, also an actress. Due to her stepfather's work withProject HOPE, she spent her childhood in several U.S. states and countries such asColombia,Sri Lanka, andTunisia.In 1979, she graduated from the all-girlsHolton-Arms SchoolinBethesda, Maryland.She later said of the school, \"There were things I did in school that, had there been boys in the classroom, I would have been less motivated to do. For instance, I was president of the honor society.\" Louis-Dreyfus attendedNorthwestern UniversityinEvanston, Illinois, where she was a member of theDelta Gammasorority. She studied theatre and performed in theMee-Ow Show, a student-run improv and sketch comedy revue, before dropping out during her junior year to take a job atSaturday Night Live.In 2007, she received an honorary doctor of arts degree from Northwestern University. Career 1982–1989: Early career andSaturday Night Live As part of her comedic training, Louis-Dreyfus appeared inThe Second City, one of the best-known improvisational theatre groups. It was her performance withThe Practical Theatre Companyat their \"Golden 50th Anniversary Jubilee\" that led to her being asked to join the cast ofNBC'sSaturday Night Liveat the age of 21. Louis-Dreyfus subsequently became a cast member onSaturday Night Livefrom 1982 to 1985, the youngest female cast member in the history of the program at that time.It was during her third and final year onSNLthat she met writerLarry Davidduring his only year on the show.David later co-createdSeinfeld.Louis-Dreyfus has commented that her casting onSNLwas a \"Cinderella-getting-to-go-to-the-ball kind of experience\";however, she has also admitted that at times it was often quite tense, stating that she \"didn't know how to navigate the waters of show business in general and specifically doing a live sketch-comedy show\". Recurring characters onSaturday Night Live Following her 1985 departure fromSNL, Louis-Dreyfus appeared in several films, includingHannah and Her Sisters(1986) byWoody Allen,Soul Man(1986), andNational Lampoon's Christmas Vacation(1989), in which she starred alongside fellowSNLalumnusChevy Chase. In 1987, Louis-Dreyfus appeared in the NBC sitcom pilotThe Art of Being Nick, an intended spin-off fromFamily TiesstarringScott Valentine. When the pilot did not make it to series, Louis-Dreyfus was retained by producerGary David Goldbergfor a role on his new sitcomDay by Day, as the sarcastic and materialistic neighbor, Eileen Swift. Premiering in early 1988,Day by Dayaired for two seasons on NBC before being cancelled. 1990–1998:Seinfeldand widespread recognition In the early 1990s, Louis-Dreyfus became famous for the role ofElaine Beneson NBC'sSeinfeld. She played the role for nine seasons, appearing in all but three episodes.One of the episodes that she did not appear in was the pilot episode, \"The Seinfeld Chronicles\", because her character was not initially intended to be a part of the series. It was only after the first episode thatNBCexecutives felt the show was too male-centric and demanded that creatorsLarry DavidandJerry Seinfeldadd a woman to the cast. It was revealed in the commentary on the DVD package that the addition of a female character was the condition for commissioning the show. Louis-Dreyfus won the role over several other actresses who also eventually enjoyed TV success, includingPatricia HeatonandMegan Mullally.On the \"Notes About Nothing\" featurette on theDVDpackage, Seinfeld says that Louis-Dreyfus's ability to eat a peanutM&Mwithout breaking the peanut described her: \"She cracks you up without breaking your nuts.\" Louis-Dreyfus garnered critical acclaim for her performance on the series, and she was a regular winner and nominee at television award shows throughout the 1990s. Her performance earned her twoGolden Globe Awardnominations, winning once in 1994, nineScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, winning one in 1995 and two in both 1997 and 1998, and sevenAmerican Comedy Awards, winning five times in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997 and 1998. In 1996, she won thePrimetime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, an award she was nominated for on seven occasions from 1992 to 1998. After receiving the award, Louis-Dreyfus said the win was a \"shocker\", and that after being in both positions, it was \"much better to win than to lose.\" In 1998, Jerry Seinfeld decided to end the series after nine seasons. Theseries finaleaired on May 14 and was one of the most-watched TV events in history, with over 76 million viewers tuning in.During her time onSeinfeld,she appeared in several films, including the comedy filmsFathers' Day(1997), oppositeRobin WilliamsandBilly Crystal, andWoody Allen'sDeconstructing Harry(1997). 1999–2004: Post-Seinfeld Following a voice role in the highly successfulPixarfilmA Bug's Life(1998), Louis-Dreyfus lent her voice asSnake's girlfriend Gloria inThe Simpsonsepisode \"A Hunka Hunka Burns in Love\". In 2001, she made several special guest appearances onSeinfeldco-creatorLarry David's showCurb Your Enthusiasm, playing herself fictionally trying to break the \"curse\" by planning to star in a show in which she would play an actress affected by aSeinfeld-like curse. After several years away from a regular TV job, Louis-Dreyfus began a new single-camera sitcom,Watching Ellie, which premiered on NBC in February 2002. The series was created by husbandBrad Halland co-starredSteve Carelland Louis-Dreyfus's half-sisterLauren Bowles. The initial premise of the show was to present viewers with a \"slice of life\" from the goings-on and happenings of the life of Ellie Riggs, a Southern California jazz singer. The first season included a 22-minute countdown kept digitally in the lower left-hand corner of the screen, which many critics panned, claiming it was useless and \"did nothing for the show.\"Overall, the show received mixed reviews but debuted strongly with over 16 million viewers tuning in for the series premiere, and maintained an average audience of about 10 million viewers per week. When the series returned for a second season in the spring of 2003, it suffered a decline in viewership, averaging around eight million viewers per week. The show had undergone a drastic stylistic change between the production of seasons one and two. The first season was filmed in the single-camera format, but the second season was presented as a traditional multicamera sitcom filmed in front of a live studio audience.With dwindling viewership and failing to retain the numbers from itsFrasierlead-in, the series was cancelled by NBC in May 2003. Following NBC's cancellation ofWatching Ellie, the media began circulating rumors of a so-called \"Seinfeldcurse\", which claimed that none of the formerSeinfeldactors could ever achieve success again in the television industry. Louis-Dreyfus dismissed the rumor as \"a made-up thing by the media\",whileSeinfeldco-creator Larry David asserted that the curse was \"completely idiotic.\"Louis-Dreyfus was interested in the role ofSusan MayeronDesperate Housewives, the role that ultimately went toTeri Hatcher.Instead, Louis-Dreyfus scored a recurring guest role as Maggie Lizer, the deceitful prosecutor and love interest ofMichael Bluthon the Emmy-winning comedyArrested Development, from 2004 to 2005. 2005–2010:The New Adventures of Old Christine In 2005, Louis-Dreyfus was cast in the title role of a new CBS sitcom,The New Adventures of Old Christine.The series and its concept were created by writer and producer ofWill & Grace, Kari Lizer. The series told the story of Christine Campbell, a single mother who manages to maintain a fantastic relationship with her ex-husband while running a women's gym. The series debuted on CBS in March 2006 to an audience of 15 million and was initially a ratings winner for the network. Louis-Dreyfus received considerable critical acclaim for her performance on the show, with Brian Lowry ofVarietystating that Louis-Dreyfus broke the so-called \"Seinfeldcurse with one of the best conventional half-hours to come along in a while.\"Alessandra Stanley fromThe New York Timesasserted that Louis-Dreyfus's performance on the series proved she is \"one of the funniest women on network television.\"Louis-Dreyfus also earned the 2006Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her performance in the first season. Referring to thecurse, she stated in her acceptance speech, \"I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this, baby!\"Throughout the course of the series, she received five consecutiveEmmy Awardnominations, three consecutiveSatellite Awardnominations, twoScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, and a nomination for aGolden Globe Award. In 2007, she also received two nominations for aPeople's Choice Awarddue to her return to popularity, thanks to the success ofOld Christine. In May 2006, Louis-Dreyfus hosted an episode ofSaturday Night Live, becoming the first female former cast member to return to the show as a host.In the episode, she appeared with herSeinfeldco-starsJason AlexanderandJerry Seinfeldin her opening monologue, parodying the so-called \"Seinfeldcurse\".After a successful reception of her 2006 episode, Louis-Dreyfus again hostedSNLon March 17, 2007, and April 17, 2016. Louis-Dreyfus reprised her role as Gloria in twoSimpsonsepisodes: 2007's \"I Don't Wanna Know Why the Caged Bird Sings\" and 2008's \"Sex, Pies and Idiot Scrapes\". In the fall of 2009, she appeared with the rest of the cast ofSeinfeldin four episodes of the seventh season ofLarry David's sitcomCurb Your Enthusiasm. The reunion shows received much media attention, and the episode received strong ratings for the series. In 2009, Louis-Dreyfus was granted the honorary award for Legacy of Laughter at theTV Land Awards. Previous winners had includedLucille BallandMike Myers. She was presented with the award by friendAmy Poehler. The following year, Louis-Dreyfus received the 2,407th star on theHollywood Walk of Fameon May 4, 2010, for her remarkable contribution to the broadcast television industry as both an actress and a comedian. Originally, the star was set with Louis-Dreyfus's name spelled incorrectly. It was missing both the 'o' and the hyphen in her last name.The star was corrected and the misspelled portion was removed and presented to her.Celebrity guests at the event included past and current colleagues from throughout her career, includingClark Gregg, Larry David,Eric McCormack, and Jason Alexander. Old Christinewas cancelled by CBS on May 18, 2010, after 5 years.Discussions were held with ABC to revive the show but they never came to fruition.In the spring of 2010, Louis-Dreyfus guest-starred several times in the third season of the web seriesWeb Therapy, starringLisa Kudrow. Louis-Dreyfus played the sister of the main character, Fiona Wallice, who gives her therapy online. When the series made the transition to cable television on theShowtimenetwork, Louis-Dreyfus's appearance from the web series was included in the second season, airing in July 2012.In fall 2010, Louis-Dreyfus made a guest appearance on the live episode of30 Rock, playingTina Fey's role ofLiz Lemonin the cutaway shots. Louis-Dreyfus was among severalSaturday Night Livealumni appearing in the episode, includingRachel Dratch,Bill Hader, and regularsTracy Morganand Fey herself. Louis-Dreyfus also starred in a \"Women of SNL\" special on November 1, 2010, on NBC. 2011–2019:Veepand acclaim In May and June 2011, Louis-Dreyfus teamed up with husband Brad Hall for her first short film,Picture Paris. This was the first time the couple had collaborated since their early-2000s NBC comedyWatching Ellie. Hall wrote and directed the film, while Louis-Dreyfus played the lead role of an ordinary woman with an extraordinary obsession with the city of Paris. The film premiered on January 29, 2012, at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival, and has received considerable critical acclaim.It made its television premiere on HBO on December 17, 2012. In early 2011, HBO confirmed that Louis-Dreyfus had been cast in the lead role of U.S. Vice President Selina Meyer in a new satirical comedy series titledVeep. The series was commissioned for a first season of eight episodes. In addition to her starring role, Louis-Dreyfus would also be a producer.In preparation for her role, Louis-Dreyfus spoke withAl Goreand another former vice president,senators, speechwriters, chiefs of staffs of various offices, and schedulers.Louis-Dreyfus commended HBO for allowing the cast and crew to engage in a \"protracted pre-production process\", which included a six-week rehearsal period before filming began. The first season was filmed in the fall of 2011, inBaltimore, and the series premiered on April 22, 2012.The premiere episode was met with high praise from critics, particularly for Louis-Dreyfus' performance.The Hollywood Reporterasserted the character of Selina Meyer was her \"best post-Seinfeld role\" to date and claimed she gives \"an Emmy-worthy effort\",while theLos Angeles Timescontended the series demonstrates she is \"one of the medium's great comediennes.\"Following the success of the first season, Louis-Dreyfus was named by theHuffington Postas one of the funniest people of 2012, asserting that she is the \"most magnetic and naturally funny woman on TV since Mary Tyler Moore.\" For her performance onVeep, Louis-Dreyfus received several accolades, most notably seven nominations for thePrimetime Emmy AwardsforOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesbetween 2012 and 2019, winning the award six times.These Emmy wins forVeep, following previous wins forSeinfeldandThe New Adventures of Old Christine, resulted in her becoming the only woman to win an acting award for three separate comedy series.Her sixth win in 2016 surpassed the record previously held byMary Tyler MooreandCandice Bergenfor the most wins in that category.In 2017, her sixth consecutive win, and eighth acting win, overall made her the performer with the most Emmys for the same role in the same series, surpassingCandice BergenandDon Knotts, and put her in a tie withCloris Leachmanfor the most Emmys ever won by a performer.She was also nominated as one of the producers forVeepin thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Seriescategory for all seven seasons, winning the award in 2015, 2016 and 2017 for the fourth, fifth and sixth seasons respectively.Louis-Dreyfus also received fiveCritics' Choice Television Awardnominations, winning twice in 2013 and 2014, tenScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, winning twice in 2014 and 2017, and fiveTelevision Critics Association Awardnominations, winning once in 2014. Her performance additionally garnered her fiveSatellite Awardnominations and five consecutiveGolden Globe Awardnominations. Louis-Dreyfus lent her voice to the 2013 animated filmPlanes, in the role of Rochelle. To date, the film has grossed well over $200 million at the box office worldwide.She also starred in the filmEnough Said, directed byNicole Holofcener, which was released on September 18, 2013.This marked her debut as a lead actress in a full-length feature film. The film garnered rave reviews from film critics, ranking among the best-reviewed films of 2013. The websiteRotten Tomatoesgives the film a score of 96% based on 152 reviews, many of them praising Louis-Dreyfus's performance.She received several Best Actress nominations including for theGolden Globe Awardsand theCritics' Choice Movie Awards. Another review aggregation website, Metacritic, gave the film a score of 78 out of 100, based on 44 critics, signifying \"generally favorable reviews\". Since December 2014, Louis-Dreyfus has appeared in a series of television commercials forOld Navy.In 2015 she acted in theComedy Centralsketch seriesInside Amy SchumeralongsideTina FeyandPatricia Arquette, playing a version of themselves giving advice on aging toAmy Schumer. Dreyfus said of the experience \"I started to feel unbelievably paranoid that I was making fun of myself and wondering, was this really happening to me? Like, how meta is this moment in my life? I started to have a kind of soul-searching crisis in the middle of the day. And I didn't know well enough to bring it up, so I was just trying to be a good sport even though I was dying a little bit on the inside.\"On April 16, 2016, she returned toSaturday Night Liveserving as host for the third time with musical guestNick Jonas. During the episode's cold open, she reprised her role of Elaine Benes fromSeinfeld. 2020–present: Career expansion In 2020, Louis-Dreyfus headlined the comedy-dramaDownhill, oppositeWill Ferrell. The film premiered at the2020 Sundance Film Festivaland was theatrically released on February 14.Next, she voiced a suburban elf mother inPixar'sOnwardoppositeTom HollandandChris Pratt. The film was released on March 6, 2020. In January 2020, Louis-Dreyfus signed a multi-year deal withApple TV+. Under the deal, she will develop new projects for Apple TV+ as both an executive producer and star.The following year Louis-Dreyfus appeared in theDisney+seriesThe Falcon and the Winter Soldier(2021) asValentina Allegra de Fontaine, which is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, though she was originally intended to debut in the filmBlack Widow(where she appears in the post credit scene).She reprised the role inBlack Panther: Wakanda Forever(2022), and will also appear in the upcoming filmThunderbolts*(2025). In 2022 she was a guest on theNetflixshowMy Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman. In 2023 she reunited withNicole Holofcenerstarring in theA24independent comedy filmYou Hurt My Feelings. Dreyfus produced the film and acted alongsideTobias Menzies,Michaela Watkins,Arian MoayedandJeannie Berlin. The film premiered at theSundance Film Festivalto positive reviews.Peter Bradshawpraised her performance writing, \"Louis-Dreyfus is such a superb comic performer that it is interesting seeing her take on something low-key\".That same year she portrayed a liberal Jewish mother in theNetflixromantic comedyYou People(2023). She also starred in the A24 filmTuesday, directed by Daina Oniunas-Pusić,which premiered at the 2023Telluride Film Festival. In 2023, Louis-Dreyfus became host of the podcastWiser Than Me.On the show, she interviews women older than her on their lived experience and earned wisdom. Guests have includedJane Fonda,Carol Burnett,Isabel AllendeandAmy Tan. The show, produced byLemonada Media, was named Apple's Best Podcast of the Year in 2023.Among her season two guests, Louis-Dreyfus interviewsBillie Jean King,Patti Smith, andJulie Andrews. Reception Louis-Dreyfus is widely regarded as one of the finest comedic actresses of her generation.Jake Coyle of theLubbock Avalanche-Journalsaid \"Few comediennes have both her gift for physical comedy ... vocal precision\".According to the journalistMolly Ball, Louis-Dreyfus has played mostly \"funny, self-centered women who are compelling despite often being ill-behaved\". Louis-Dreyfus said she had turned playing unlikeable people into a career.Ball said: \"She has also left an indelible cultural mark, expanding the possibilities for women in comedy–and maybe in politics and public life as well.\" Personal life Louis-Dreyfus' maternal half-sister,Lauren Bowles, is also an actress. She also has two paternal half-sisters, Phoebeand Emma. Emma died in August 2018. While at Northwestern University, Louis-Dreyfus met her future husband, theSaturday Night LivecomedianBrad Hall.They married in 1987 and have two sons.Their older son, Henry Hall, is a singer-songwriter who has performed onThe Tonight Show.Their younger son,Charlie Hall, is an actor.Her first pregnancy ended in a miscarriage. Louis-Dreyfus said she respects \"women who are not afraid of making themselves look bad or foolish to get a laugh\" and cites her acting idols asLucille Ball,Mary Tyler Moore,Madeline Kahn,Teri Garr,Valerie Harper, andCloris Leachman.The actressTina Feysaid that Louis-Dreyfus inspired her characterLiz Lemonon the NBC comedy series30 Rock. On September 28, 2017, Louis-Dreyfus announced that she had been diagnosed withbreast cancer, which she discovered the day after winning aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her role inVeep.She said: \"One in eight women get breast cancer. Today, I'm the one. The good news is that I have the most glorious group of supportive and caring family and friends, and fantastic insurance through my union. The bad news is that not all women are so lucky, so let's fight all cancers and makeuniversal healthcarea reality.\"On October 18, 2018, she announced on an episode ofJimmy Kimmel Live!that she was cancer-free.Louis-Dreyfus was raised Catholic but moved towards agnosticism; she said she had no \"traditional religious affiliation\". Advocacy and politics Louis-Dreyfus supportedAl Gore's 2000 U.S. presidential bid andBarack Obama's bid for the presidency in both 2008and 2012.She appeared in a video that urged Obama to reject the proposal of theKeystone XL pipeline, arguing that if the pipeline ever were to leak, it would cause massive pollution across the U.S.She has voiced her concern for several environmental issues and has raised millions forHeal the Bay, theNatural Resources Defense Council, and theTrust for Public Land. She also worked for the successful passage of Proposition O, which allocated $500 million for cleaning up the Los Angeleswater supply. In October 2010, before theU.S. Senate election in California, Louis-Dreyfus starred in a humorousBarbara Boxerad regardingenergy policy.During the2016 Democratic National Convention, she supportedHillary Clintonin that year'spresidential election.In her acceptance speech at the 2017Screen Actors Guild Awards, she denounced PresidentDonald Trump'sexecutive order, referred to as the \"Muslim ban\", as \"un-American\" and said, \"My father fled religious persecution inNazi-occupied France.\" Louis-Dreyfusemceedthe final night of the2020 Democratic National Convention, endorsingJoe Biden.She has also published information regarding voting by mailand urged all Americans to vote.Louis-Dreyfus endorsed RepresentativeKaren Bassin the2022 Los Angeles mayoral election, in various social media posts. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Julia Louis-Dreyfus has won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesseven times: once for her role onThe New Adventures of Old Christine(2006) and six consecutive awards for playingSelina MeyeronVeep(2012–17), as well asOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesonce forSeinfeld(1996). As of 2017, she holds the record for the most Primetime Emmy awards as an actor for the same role and is tied with fellow Northwestern University alumCloris Leachmanfor the most acting Primetime Emmy awards (with eight). She has also been nominated for nineGolden Globe Awards, winning one for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film for her role asElaine Beneson Seinfeld (1995). She has also been nominated for twenty-oneScreen Actors Guild Awardsand has won five for individual performance (nine altogether) for her work onSeinfeld(1997–98) andVeep(2014, 2017–18). In 2016, she won the Crossover Talent award at the 4th Annual American Reality Television Awards. In 2018 she was the twentieth recipient of theMark Twain Prize for American Humor. In 2023, the podcast she hosts,Wiser Than Me, won Apple's Best Podcast of the Year. References External links","Michael Richards Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Michael Anthony Richards(born July 24, 1949) is an American actor and former stand-up comedian. He achieved global recognition for starring asCosmo Krameron the NBC television sitcomSeinfeldfrom 1989 to 1998. He began his career as a stand-up comedian, first entering the national spotlight when he was featured onBilly Crystal's first cable TV special, and went on to become a series regular onABC'sFridays. From 1989 to 1998, he played Cosmo Kramer onSeinfeld, three times receiving thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. During the run ofSeinfeld, he made a guest appearance inMad About You, reprising his role as Kramer. Richards also made numerous guest appearances on a variety of television shows, such asCheers. His film credits includeSo I Married an Axe Murderer,Airheads,Young Doctors in Love,Problem Child,Coneheads,UHF, andTrial and Error, one of his few starring roles. In 2000, he starred in his own sitcom,The Michael Richards Show, which was canceled after only two months. Afterwards, Richards returned to stand-up. In 2006, he was filmed going on a racist tirade against hecklers while performing at theLaugh FactoryinCalifornia. After the tape was obtained and released byTMZ,significant backlash and media coverage led to Richards retiring from stand-up in early 2007. In 2009, he appeared as himself in theseventh seasonofCurb Your Enthusiasmalongside his fellowSeinfeldcast members for the first time since the show’sfinale. In 2013, he portrayed Frank in the sitcomKirstie, which was canceled after one season.He most recently played Daddy Hogwood in the 2019 romantic comedyFaith, Hope & Love. Early life Richards was born inCulver City, California, to aCatholicfamily.He is the son of Phyllis (née Nardozzi), amedical recordslibrarian. As a child Richards was told his father was William Richards, anelectrical engineer,who died in a car crash when Michael was two.He later learned his mother's pregnancy was the result of a sexual assault, and she had considered abortion and adoption before deciding to raise him as a single mom. Richards was also raised by a grandmother who suffered fromschizophrenia. Richards graduated fromThousand Oaks High School. In 1968, he appeared as a contestant onThe Dating Game, but was not chosen for the date. He wasdraftedinto theUnited States Armyin 1970. He trained as a medic and was stationed inWest Germanywhere he was a member of a theatrical group called The Training Road Show.He became interested in performing after taking a theatrical class in seventh grade. After being honorably discharged, Richards used the benefits of theG.I. Billto enroll in theCalifornia Institute of the Artsand earned aBachelor of Artsin drama fromthe Evergreen State Collegein 1975.He also had a short-livedimprovact withEd Begley Jr.During this period, he enrolled atLos Angeles Valley Collegeand continued to appear in student productions. Career 1979–1989: Early career Richards got his big TV break in 1979, appearing inBilly Crystal's first cable TV special. In 1980, he began as one of the cast members onABC'sFridaystelevision show, whereLarry Davidwas a fellow cast member and writer. It includeda famous instancein whichAndy Kaufmanrefused to deliver his scripted lines, leading Richards to bring thecue cardson screen to Kaufman, who responded by throwing his drink into Richards' face, causing a small riot (Richards later claimed he was in on the joke).The filmMan on the Moonfeatured a re-enactment of theAndy Kaufman incidentwhere Richards was portrayed by actorNorm Macdonald. In 1981, he appeared in theIt's a Livingepisode \"Desperate Hours\".In 1986, Richards had a minor role in the cult satirical TV miniseriesFresno, playing one of a pair of inept criminal henchmen. That same year he auditioned to playAl Bundyin the TV seriesMarried... with Children, but he was passed over forEd O'Neill.In 1989, Richards had a supporting role in\"Weird Al\" Yankovic's comedy filmUHFas janitor Stanley Spadowski. On television, he appeared inMiami Viceas an unscrupulousbookie; inSt. Elsewhereas a television producer making a documentary about Dr. Mark Craig; inCheersas a character trying to collect on an old bet withSam Malone; and made several guest appearances withJay Lenoas an accident-prone fitness expert. According to an interview with executive producer David Hoberman, ABC first conceived the seriesMonkas a procedural police comedy with anInspector Clouseau-like character suffering fromobsessive-compulsive disorder. Hoberman said ABC wanted Richards to playAdrian Monk, but he turned it down. 1989–2005:Seinfeldand rise to prominence In 1989, Richards was cast asCosmo Kramerin theNBCtelevision seriesSeinfeld, created by fellowFridayscast memberLarry Davidand comedianJerry Seinfeld. Although it got off to a slow start, by the mid-1990s it had become one of the most popularsitcomsin television history. It ended its nine-year run in 1998 at No. 1 in theNielsen ratings. InSeinfeld, Kramer is the neighbor across the hall of the show'seponymous character, and is usually referred to only by his last name. His first name, Cosmo, was revealed in the sixth-season episode \"The Switch\". Richards won more Emmys than any otherSeinfeldcast member, taking home the award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 1993, 1994, and 1997 for his role as Kramer. When referring to speculation that he would launch aspin-offtoSeinfeldabout Kramer, Richards said he was not interested in doing so.During the run ofSeinfeld, Richards made cameo appearances in several TV shows; he played himself in Episode2 of Season1 \"The Flirt Episode\" (1992) of theHBOseriesThe Larry Sanders Show. He also had acameo rolein the comedy thriller filmSo I Married an Axe Murderer, credited as \"insensitive man\". In 1996, Richards made a cameo in Epcot'sEllen's Energy Adventure, where he portrayed a caveman discovering fire. He played radio station employee Doug Beech inAirheads, and co-starred withJeff Danielsas an actor pretending to be a lawyer in 1997'sTrial and Error. He also made guest appearances onMiami Vice,Night CourtandCheers. In 2000, two years after the end ofSeinfeld, Richards began work on a new series for NBC, his first major project sinceSeinfeld's finale.The Michael Richards Show, for which Richards received co-writer and co-executive producercredits, was conceived as a comedy/mystery starring Richards as a bumbling private investigator. When the first pilot failed with test audiences, NBC ordered that the show be retooled into a more conventional, office-based sitcom before its premiere. After a few weeks of poor ratings and negative reviews, it was canceled. Critics said the show was too \"Kramer-esque\" and Richards invoked the so-called \"Seinfeldcurse\" as to why the show failed. Starting in 2004, he and his fellowSeinfeldcast members provided interviews and audio commentaries for theSeinfeldDVDs. Richards stepped down from providing audio commentary after Season5, though he continued to provide interviews. 2006–2012: Laugh Factory incident and aftermath During a performance on November 17, 2006, at theLaugh Factoryin Hollywood, California, Richards launched into a racist rant in response to repeated heckling and interruptions from a small group of Black and Hispanic audience members. Richards was recorded shouting \"He's anigger!\" several times and making references tolynchingand theJim Crow laws.Kyle Doss, a member of the group that Richards addressed, said the group had arrived in the middle of the performance and were \"being a little loud.\" According to Doss: said, \"Look at the stupid Mexicans and blacks being loud up there.\" That's the first thing he said. And then he kept on with his bit. And, then, after a while, I told him, \"My friend doesn't think you're funny.\" And then when I told him that, that's when he flipped me off and said, \"F-you N-word.\" And that's how it all started. The incident remained unknown to the larger public for three days until acellphonevideo filmed by a member of the audience was obtained and released byTMZ. On November 20, after the video made rounds around the news,Jerry Seinfeldinvited Richards via satellite during a broadcast of theLate Show with David Letterman, where Richards was recorded saying: \"I'm not doing too good. I lost my temper on stage; I was at a comedy club trying to do my act and I got heckled and I took it badly and went into a rage. And, uh, said some pretty, uh, nasty things to some Afro-Americans.\"Many studio audience members laughed as Richards began his unscripted explanation and apology, thinking it was abit, leading Seinfeld to reprimand them, saying: \"Stop laughing. It's not funny.\" Richards said he had been trying to defuse the heckling by being even more outrageous, but it had backfired. He later called civil rights leadersAl SharptonandJesse Jacksonto apologize.He also appeared as a guest on Jackson's syndicated radio show.Doss stated that he did not accept Richards's apology, saying: \"If he wanted to apologize, he could have contacted ... one of us out of the group. But, he didn't. He apologized on camera just because the tape got out.\" AGalluppoll conducted in late November found that Richards was then the most unpopularSeinfeldcast member, with just 41 percent viewing him positively; by contrast, otherSeinfeldcast members' favorability ratings were in the 60s and 70s.The same poll also found that 45 percent of non-whites expressed a negative view of Richards due to the incident.The incident was parodied on several TV shows, includingMad TV,Family Guy,South Park,Extras, andMonday Night Raw. In the ninth episode of the seventh season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm, Richards appeared as himself and poked fun at the incident. In 2008, rapperWalereferenced the incident and used recordings of the incident, as well as Richard's apology, in the song \"The Kramer\" onThe Mixtape About Nothingalbum. One year following the incident, Richards voiced character Bud Ditchwater in the animated filmBee Movie, which starred and was produced byJerry Seinfeld. In 2009, Richards and the other mainSeinfeldcast members appeared in the seventh season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm.In 2012, he appeared in the comedy web seriesComedians in Cars Getting Coffee, hosted by Seinfeld, in which he remarked on the 2006 incident.In the episode, Richards explained that the outburst still haunted him, and was a major reason for his retirement from stand-up. 2013–present: Recent years In 2013, Richards was cast to play Frank in the sitcomKirstie, costarringKirstie AlleyandRhea Perlman. It premiered onTV Landon December 4, 2013and was canceled after one season.In 2014, Richards appeared as the president of Crackle in a trailer for Season5 ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffee. Seinfeld said the trailer's storyline would be expanded on in one of the episodes. In 2019, Richards played Daddy Hogwood in the romantic comedyFaith, Hope & LovestarringPeta Murgatroydand Robert Krantz. In June 2024Richards released a memoir entitledEntrances and Exits. Personal life Richards was married to Cathleen Lyons, a familytherapist, for 18 years. They have one daughter, Sophia. They separated in 1992 and divorced the following year. In 2010, Richards married his girlfriend Beth Skipp. They have been together since 2002 and have one son, Antonio. Richards is aFreemason. Richards revealed in his 2024 memoirEntrances and Exitsthat he survived stage 1 prostate cancer in 2018 via a surgical removal of his entire prostate. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Bibliography References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Seinfeld Seinfeld(/ˈsaɪnfɛld/SYNE-feld) is an Americantelevision sitcomcreated byLarry DavidandJerry Seinfeldthat originally aired onNBCfrom July 5, 1989, to May 14, 1998, with a total of nine seasons consisting of180 episodes. Itsensemble caststars Seinfeld as afictionalized version of himselfand focuses on his personal life with three of his friends: best friendGeorge Costanza(Jason Alexander), former girlfriendElaine Benes(Julia Louis-Dreyfus), and neighbor from across the hall,Cosmo Kramer(Michael Richards). Seinfeldis set mostly in and around the titular character's apartment inManhattan'sUpper West SideinNew York City. It has been described as \\\"a show about nothing\\\", often focusing on theminutiae of daily life.Interspersed in all episodes of the first seven seasons are moments ofstand-up comedyfrom the fictional Jerry Seinfeld, frequently related to the episode's events. As a rising comedian in the late 1980s, Jerry Seinfeld was presented with an opportunity to create a show with NBC. He asked Larry David, a fellow comedian and friend, to help create a premise for a sitcom.The series was produced by West-Shapiro Productions andCastle Rock Entertainmentand distributed byColumbia Pictures Television.It was largely written by David and Seinfeld and scriptwriters. A favorite among critics, the series led theNielsen ratingsin Seasons 6 and 9 and finished among the top two (along withERof the same network) every year from 1994 to 1998. Only two other shows—I Love LucyandThe Andy Griffith Show—finished their runs at the top of the ratings. Seinfeldis widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential shows of all time. It has been ranked among television's best shows in publications such asEntertainment Weekly,Rolling StoneandTV Guide.Its most renowned episodes include \\\"The Chinese Restaurant\\\", \\\"The Soup Nazi\\\", \\\"The Parking Garage\\\",\\\"The Marine Biologist\\\", and \\\"The Contest\\\".In 2013, theWriters Guild of Americavoted it the second best-written TV series of all time (second toThe Sopranos).E!named it the \\\"Number 1 reason the '90s ruled\\\".Quotes from numerous episodes have become catchphrases in popular culture. Production Conception Seinfeldbegan as a 23-minute pilot titled \\\"The Seinfeld Chronicles\\\". Created byJerry SeinfeldandLarry David, developed by NBC executive Rick Ludwin, and produced byCastle Rock Entertainment, it was a mix of Seinfeld's stand-up comedy routines and idiosyncratic, conversational scenes focusing on mundane aspects of everyday life like laundry, the buttoning of the top button on one's shirt, and the effort by men to interpret the intent of women spending the night in Seinfeld's apartment. The pilot was filmed at Stage 8 ofDesilu Cahuengastudios, the same studio whereThe Dick Van Dyke Showwas filmed (seen by the crew as a good omen),and was recorded at Ren-Mar Studios inHollywood.The pilot was first screened to a group of two dozen NBC executives inBurbank, California, in early 1989. It did not yield the explosion of laughter garnered by the pilots for the decade's previous NBC successes likeThe Cosby ShowandThe Golden Girls.Brandon Tartikoffwas not convinced the show would work. A Jewish man from New York himself, Tartikoff characterized it as \\\"Too New York, too Jewish\\\" (a sentiment which would also lead to the Cosmo character's later surname change from the more Jewish-sounding Kessler to Kramer).Test audiences were even harsher. NBC's practice at the time was to recruit 400 households by phone to ask them to evaluate pilots it aired on an unused channel on its cable system. An NBC research department memo summarized the pilot's performance among the respondents as \\\"weak,\\\" whichWarren Littlefield, then second-in-command in NBC's entertainment division, called \\\"a dagger to the heart.\\\"Comments included, \\\"You can't get too excited about two guys going to the laundromat,\\\" \\\"Jerry's loser friend George isn't a forceful character,\\\" \\\"Jerry needs a stronger supporting cast,\\\" and \\\"Why are they interrupting the stand-up for these stupid stories?\\\"Seinfeld and David did not see the memo for several years, but after they became aware of it, they hung it in a bathroom on the set. Seinfeld comments, \\\"We thought, if someone goes in to use this bathroom, this is something they should see. It fits that moment.\\\" Around the time the show's pilot was filmed, Castle Rock Entertainment, which produced the show, had also produced another pilot for NBC that featuredAnn Jillianin her almost-similarly eponymous TV series. WhenThe Seinfeld Chroniclestested poorly with audiences, Castle Rock focused on Jillian's series, which tested better with audiences and received a full-season order.Ann Jillianlasted only a single season of 13 episodes and was off the air by the end of 1990. First seasons When NBC announced its 1989–90 (primetime) schedule in May 1989,The Seinfeld Chronicleswas not included, but the show's supporters did not give up. The pilot first aired on July 5, 1989, and finished second in its time slot against the CBS police dramaJake and the Fatman,receiving aNielsen ratingof 10.9/19.The ratings did not exhibit the regional skew Tartikoff predicted, much to the encouragement of the show's supporters. Ludwin canceled one of theBob Hopespecials budgeted for that season so the entertainment division had the money to order four more episodes ofThe Seinfeld Chronicles, which formed the rest ofthe show's first season(the series was by then retitled toSeinfeld)—a move without whichChicago TribunecolumnistPhil Rosenthallater said there \\\"would be noSeinfeld\\\".Although this was a very low order number for a new series—and the smallest sitcom order in TV history—Castle Rock failed to find any other buyers when it shopped the show to other networks, and accepted the order.Seinfelddid not return to the airwaves until May 30, 1990, and it was another three years before it became a Top 5-rated show. Preston Beckman, in charge of NBC's research department at the time, reminisced, \\\"The show was different. Nobody had seen anything like it. It wasn't unusual for poor-testing shows to get on the air, but it was very rare that they became hits.\\\" When the program was first repeated on July 5, 1990, it received a rating of 13.9/26. These ratings were high enough to secure a second season.NBC research showed that the show was popular with young male adults, a demographic sought after by advertisers. This gave NBC an incentive to keep broadcasting the show.One DVD reviewer, Britt Gillette, wrote that \\\"this initial episode exhibits the flashes of brilliance that madeSeinfelda cultural phenomenon.\\\" Filming Other than the pilot, the series was filmed atCBS Studio CenterinStudio City, Los Angeles. The first three seasons were filmed on Soundstage 19; it then moved to the larger Stage 9 for the remainder of its production.Despite numerous establishing shots taken in New York City,all scenes of the actors walking in New York were also filmed at CBS Studio Center, on their New York Streetbacklot.Street scenes and park scenes were filmed in the CBS Studio Centre's New York Street and Central Park backlots, respectively. A source of problems for the cast was the small sets, especially that of Jerry's apartment; Alexander noted, \\\"If you knew you were doing a series for nine years, you would never build that set.\\\" Adding to the problem was that the scripts contained only minimal physical direction, leaving the actors needing help to come up with actions to perform while speaking. Eventually, they got into a routine of directing each other on how to make their movements look natural. Alexander said this helped them build chemistry with each other. Filming usually went long, as the cast and Larry David were perfectionists. If a joke did not elicit the desired reaction, they rewrote it and performed it again. In at least one case, \\\"The Marine Biologist,\\\" this led to David writing an entirely new scene requiring Alexander to memorize a monologue in only a matter of minutes.Laugh tracks were used only for matching shots, not for artificially adding laughter. Various locations used for establishing shots included Tom's Restaurant at 112th Street and Broadway (Monk's Cafe), Midtown West's Roosevelt Hospital (recurring exterior emergency room scene and indoor scenes in 'The Junior Mint' and 'The Bris'), Cornell Medical Centre at 525 East 68th Street, 22-39 37th Street, Queens (The Costanza's house), the Taconic State Parkway exit to the Hopewell Junction, Dutchess County, New York (driving scene in 'The Bubble Boy'), and the Amagansett farmers market, Long Island ('The Hamptons'). The exterior shot used for Jerry's New York apartment building was actually located at 757 S New Hampshire Avenue, Los Angeles. The real-life exterior of Pendant Publishing, Elaine's workplace, is located at 1325 Ave of the Americas, New York. The live stand-up comedy performed by Seinfeld at the beginning of most episodes was truly filmed at The Improv, a comedy club at 358 West 44th Street, Manhattan; though it closed in 1993, another comedy club operates at the site today.TheYankee Stadiumexterior seen in the show has now been demolished. Most office building establishing shots are real businesses and locations. Various real street locations can be gleaned from the car windows during driving scenes. By the final season, each episode of the series cost $3 million to $3.5 million. More than 120 episodes make reference to theSupermanfranchise.Teri Hatcher, who played Lois Lane onLois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, plays Jerry's girlfriend Sidra.Paula Marshall, who played Christina Riley ontheSuperboyTV series, portrays the journalist Sharon, who Jerry says reminds him of Lois Lane.Sherman Howard, who played Lex Luthor onSuperboy, portrays Roy. Superman logos and figurines frequently appear in Jerry's apartment. Seinfeld and Superman later appear in an American Express commercial. The show was written by David and Seinfeld, along with writers who includedLarry Charles,Peter Mehlman,Gregg Kavet,Carol Leifer,David Mandel,Jeff Schaffer,Steve Koren,Jennifer Crittenden,Tom Gammill,Max Pross,Dan O'Keefe,Charlie Rubin,Marjorie Gross,Alec Berg,Elaine Pope, andSpike Feresten. Series overview Plotlines ManySeinfeldepisodes are based on the writers' real-life experiences, with the experiences reinterpreted for the characters' storylines. For example, George's storyline in \\\"The Revenge\\\" is based on Larry David's experience atSaturday Night Live.\\\"The Contest\\\" is also based on David's experiences. \\\"The Smelly Car\\\" storyline is based on Peter Mehlman's lawyer friend, who could not get a bad smell out of his car. \\\"The Strike\\\" is based on Dan O'Keefe's dad, who made up his own holiday:Festivus.Other stories take a variety of turns. \\\"The Chinese Restaurant\\\" consists of George, Jerry, and Elaine waiting for a table throughout the entire episode.\\\"The Boyfriend\\\", revolving aroundKeith Hernandez, extends through two episodes. \\\"The Betrayal\\\" is famous for usingreverse chronologyand was inspired by a similar plot device in aHarold Pinterplay,Betrayal.Some stories were inspired by headlines and rumors, as explained in the DVD features \\\"Notes About Nothing\\\", \\\"Inside Look\\\" and \\\"Audio Commentary.\\\" In \\\"The Maestro,\\\" Kramer's lawsuit is roughly similar to theMcDonald's coffee case.\\\"The Outing\\\" is based primarily on rumors that Larry Charles heard about Jerry Seinfeld's sexuality. Themes The series was often described as \\\"a show about nothing.\\\"However, in 2014, Seinfeld stated: \\\"The pitch for the show, the real pitch, when Larry and I went to NBC in 1988, was we want to show how a comedian gets his material. The show \\\"about nothing\\\" was just a joke in an episode many years later, and Larry and I to this day are surprised that it caught on as a way that people describe the show because, to us, it's the opposite of that.\\\"David similarly commented: \\\"I like taking the worst qualities that a person has and trying to make something funny out of it. Doesn't everybody do terrible things and have terrible thoughts? Just by trying to be as funny, you're going to deal with a lot of things that are real, so the show's really about something. The whole thing about the show being about nothing is ridiculous.\\\" Much of the show's humor is based upon repeated use of irony, incongruity, and (oftentimes unfortunate) coincidences. Additionally, guest characters are frequently introduced with little to no context, with a humorous focus on the atypical names of these characters, which often contain alliteration. In keeping with Seinfeld's reputation as a clean comedian,though the show frequently contains dialogue around sexual themes, the show notably avoids using almost all explicit sexual terminology. Notably, in the popular episode \\\"The Contest,\\\" whose plot line concerns a contest amongst the main characters to see which one can go the longest without masturbating, the word 'masturbation' is never mentioned.Seinfeldbroke several conventions of mainstream television. David is credited with refusing to follow a predictable sitcom formula that would have a romantic relationship develop between Jerry and Elaine. The show offers no growth or reconciliation to its characters and eschews sentimentality.An episode is typically driven by humor interspersed with the superficial conflicts of characters with peculiar dispositions. Many episodes revolve around the characters' involvement in the lives of others, with typically disastrous results. On the set, the notion that the characters should not develop or improve throughout the series was expressed as the \\\"no hugging, no learning\\\" rule.The characters are \\\"thirty-something singles with vague identities, no roots, and conscious indifference to morals.\\\"Also unlike most sitcoms, there are no moments ofpathos; the audience is never made to feel sorry for any of the characters. Even Susan's death in \\\"The Invitations\\\" elicits no genuine emotions from anybody in the show.Seinfelddoes not shy away from making light of tough topics, from death to illness to disability. The show frequently engages in fourth-wall-breaking humor and self-satire. One such example is thestory arc, where the characters promote a TV sitcom series namedJerry. Theshow within a show,Jerrywas much likeSeinfeldin that it was \\\"about nothing,\\\" and Seinfeld played himself. The fictionalJerrywas launched in the Season 4 finale, but unlikeSeinfeld, it wasn't picked up as a series.Jerryis one of many examples ofmetafictionin the show. There are no fewer than 22 fictional movies featured, likeRochelle, Rochelle.Because of these several elements,Seinfeldbecame the first TV series sinceMonty Python's Flying Circusto be widely described aspostmodern. Seinfeld is an avidAbbott and Costellofan and has citedThe Abbott and Costello Showas an influence onSeinfeld: \\\"Everybody on the show knows I'm a fan. We're always joking about how we do stuff from their show. George and I will often get into a riff that has the rhythm from the old Abbott and Costello shows. And sometimes, I'll hit George in the chest the way Abbott would hit Costello.\\\" The series includes numerous references to the team. George Costanza's middle name is \\\"Louis\\\", after Costello.\\\"The Old Man\\\" episode features a cantankerous character named \\\"Sid Fields\\\" as a tribute to the landlord on the team's TV show. Kramer's friend is named Mickey Abbott. A copywriter for the J. Peterman catalog is named Eddie Sherman, after the team's longtime agent. In Episode 30, Kramer hears the famous Abbott and Costello line, \\\"His father was a mudder. His mother was a mudder.\\\" Catchphrases Many terms were coined, popularized, or re-popularized in the series' run and have become part of popular culture,including \\\"Yada, yada, yada\\\",\\\"No soup for you!\\\", \\\"Master of my domain\\\", and \\\"Not that there's anything wrong with that.\\\" The lexicon of Seinfeldian code words and recurring phrases that evolved around particular episodes is referred to asSeinlanguage, which is also the title of Jerry Seinfeld's best-selling book on humor.These terms include \\\"man hands\\\", \\\"shrinkage\\\", \\\"regift\\\", and \\\"double dip\\\". Consumer products A recurring feature ofSeinfeldwas its inclusion of specific products, especiallycandy, as plot points. These might be a central feature of a plot (e.g.,Junior Mints,Twix,Chuckles,Jujyfruits, bite-sizeThree Musketeers,Snickers,Chunky,Oh Henry!,Drake'sCoffee Cake andPEZ), or an association of candy with a guest character (e.g.Oh Henry!bars) or simply a conversational aside (e.g.,Chuckles,Clark Bar,Twinkies). A large number of non-candy products were also featured throughout the series. The show's creators claim that they weren't engaging in a product placement strategy for commercial gain. One motivation for the use of real-world products, entirely unrelated to commercial considerations, is the comedy value of funny-sounding phrases and words. \\\"I knew I wanted Kramer to think of watching the operation like going to see a movie,\\\" explainedSeinfeldwriter/producer Andy Robin in an interview published inThe Hollywood Reporter. \\\"At first, I thought maybe a piece of popcorn falls into the patient. I ran that by my brother, and he said, 'No, Junior Mints are just funnier.'\\\" Many advertisers capitalized on the popularity ofSeinfeld.American Expresscreated awebisodewhere Jerry Seinfeld and an animatedSuperman(voiced byPatrick Warburton, who played the role of Puddy) starred in its commercial. The makers of theToday Spongecreated the \\\"Spongeworthy\\\" game on their website, inspired by \\\"The Sponge.\\\" An advertisement featured Jason Alexander in aChryslercommercial. In this, Alexander acts much like his character George, and his relationship withLee Iacoccaplays on George's relationship with Steinbrenner. Similarly, Michael Richards was the focus of a series of advertisements forVodafone, which ran inAustralia, where he dressed and acted precisely like Kramer, including the trademark bumbling pratfalls. In addition, the show occasionally incorporated fictional products like aScotchbrand called \\\"Hennigan's\\\" (a blend of \\\"Hennessy\\\" and \\\"Brannigans\\\") and acanned meatproduct called \\\"Beef-a-reeno\\\" (a parody of \\\"Beef-a-roni\\\"). Music A signature ofSeinfeldis its theme music. Composed byJonathan Wolff, it consists of distinct solosampledelectric bassriffs that open the show and connect the scenes, often accompanied bybeatboxing.The bass music eventually replaced the original piano/synth music by Jep Epstein when it was played again after the first broadcast ofthe pilot episode. The show lacked a traditional title track and the riffs were played over the first moments of dialogue or action. They vary throughout each episode and are played in an improvised funk style, matching the timing of Seinfeld's stand-up comedy delivery or transitions in the editing. An additional musical theme with an ensemble, led by a synthesized mid-range brass instrument, ends each episode. In \\\"The Note,\\\" the first episode of Season 3, the bumper music featured ascattingfemale jazz singer who sang a phrase that sounded like the tuneEasy To Beat. Jerry Seinfeld and executive producer Larry David both liked Wolff's additions, and three episodes were produced with this new style of music. However, they had neglected to inform NBC and Castle Rock executives of the change, and when the season premiere aired, the executives were surprised and unimpressed and requested that they return to the original style. The subsequent two episodes were redone, leaving this episode as the only one with additional music elements.In the commentary of \\\"The Note,\\\" Louis-Dreyfus facetiously suggests it was removed because the perceived lyric related closely to the low ratings at the time.In the final three seasons, the bits were tweaked slightly with more frantic rhythms; a bass guitar was added in addition to the sampled bass from earlier seasons. Throughout the show, the main theme could be restyled in different ways depending on the episode. For instance, in \\\"The Betrayal,\\\" part of which takes place in India, the theme is heard played on asitar. The soundtrack was given a digital release on July 2, 2021. All music is composed by Jonathan Wolff. Cast and characters Main characters Recurring characters Many characters have made multiple appearances, notably Jerry's parents, Morty and Helen Seinfeld, who reside in Florida; George's parents, the overbearing Frank and Estelle Costanza; George's on-again, off-again fiancée Susan Ross; Jerry'sUncle Leo; Elaine's variety of bosses, Mr. Lippman, Mr. Pitt and J. Peterman; Elaine's on-again, off-again boyfriend David Puddy; and Kramer's friend,Newman, a mail carrier who lives in the same building and is Jerry's nemesis. In addition to recurring characters,Seinfeldfeatures numerous celebrities who appear as themselves or as girlfriends, boyfriends, bosses, and other acquaintances. A number of actresses made guest appearances as Seinfeld's love interests in single episodes: Episodes Compared to other family and groupsitcomsof the era,Seinfeldstood out. The principal characters are not related by family or work-associated connections but remain distinctly close friends throughout the series. Many characters were based primarily on Seinfeld's and David's real-life acquaintances. Two prominent recurring characters were fictional depictions of actual well-known people:Jacopo Petermanof theJ. Petermancatalog (based onJohn Peterman)andGeorge Steinbrenner, owner of theNew York Yankees.Many characters were introduced as new writers got involved withSeinfeld. Other characters based on real people include theSoup NaziandJackie Chiles, who was based onJohnnie Cochran. Episodes have separate plot strands, but the characters' stories often intertwine at the end. The narratives reveal the creators' \\\"consistent efforts to maintain the intimacy\\\" among the small cast of characters. The show maintains a strong sense ofcontinuity, as characters and plots from past episodes are often referenced or expanded on. Occasionally, story arcs span multiple episodes or entire seasons, such asSeason 4, which revolves around thepilotpitch to NBC by Jerry and George. Another example is Jerry's girlfriend Vanessa, who appears in \\\"The Stake Out\\\" and with whom he ends the relationship when things do not work out in \\\"The Stock Tip\\\".Larry David, the head writer and executive producer for the first seven seasons, was praised for keeping a close eye on minor details and ensuring the main characters' lives remained consistent and believable.Curb Your Enthusiasm, David's later comedy series, also had an overarching plot for all but the first season. A major difference betweenSeinfeldand the sitcoms that preceded it is that the principal characters never learn from their mistakes. In effect, they are indifferent and even callous toward the outside world and sometimes one another. Amantraof the show's producers was \\\"No hugging, no learning.\\\"Entertainment Weekly's TV criticKen Tuckerhas described them as \\\"a group dynamic rooted in jealousy, rage, insecurity, despair, hopelessness, and a touching lack of faith in one's fellow human beings.\\\"This leads to very few happy endings, except at somebody else's expense. More often in every episode, situations resolve with characters getting a justly deservedcomeuppance. Seasons 1–3 The show premiered asThe Seinfeld Chronicleson July 5, 1989. After it aired, a pickup by NBC seemed unlikely, and the show was offered toFox, which declined to pick it up.Rick Ludwin, head of late night and special events for NBC, however, diverted money from his budget by canceling aBob Hope television special, and the next four episodes were filmed.These episodes were highly rated as they followed summer re-runs ofCheerson Thursdays at 9:30 p.m., and the series was finally picked up. At one point, NBC considered airing these episodes on Saturdays at 10:30 p.m. but gave the slot to a short-lived sitcom calledFMinstead. The series was renamed simplySeinfeldas a precautionary measure due to the failure of the short-lived 1990ABCseries with a similarly sounding title,The Marshall Chronicles.After airing the remaining four episodes of its first season the summer of 1990, NBC ordered 13 more episodes. David believed that he and Seinfeld had no more stories to tell and advised Seinfeld to turn down the order, but Seinfeld agreed to the additional episodes.Season 2 was bumped off its scheduled premiere of January 16, 1991, due to the outbreak of thePersian Gulf War. It settled into a regular time slot on Wednesdays at 9:30 p.m. and eventually flipped with veteran seriesNight Courtto 9 p.m. TV critics championedSeinfeldin its early seasons, even as it was slow to cultivate a substantial audience. For the first three seasons, Jerry's stand-up comedy act would bookend at the beginning and end of each episode, even functioning as transitions during the show. A few episodes set a benchmark for later seasons. \\\"The Deal\\\" establishes Jerry and Elaine's relationship by setting rules about having sex while remaining friends.\\\"The Parking Garage\\\" was the first episode shot with no audience for the episode and, after \\\"The Chinese Restaurant\\\", to not show Jerry's apartment.\\\"The Keys\\\" contains a crossover toCBSshowMurphy Brown, marking the first such cooperation between rival networks.\\\"The Busboy\\\" introduces George, Kramer and Elaine as having their own storylines for the first time. Although Castle Rock Entertainment's Glenn Padnick thought Seinfeld was too generous, showcasing his co-stars' comedic talent became a trademark throughout the series. Larry Charles wrote an episode for Season 2, \\\"The Bet,\\\" in which Elaine buys a gun from Kramer's friend. This episode was not filmed because the content was deemed unacceptable, and it was replaced by the episode \\\"The Phone Message\\\".\\\"The Stranded,\\\" which aired during Season 3, was initially intended for Season 2. At the beginning of this episode, Jerry clears up the continuity error over George's real estate job. Seasons 4–5 Season 4 marked the sitcom's entry into theNielsen ratingsTop 30. It contains several of the most popular episodes, such as \\\"The Bubble Boy\\\" in which George and the bubble boy argue overTrivial Pursuit,and \\\"The Junior Mint\\\" in which Jerry and Kramer accidentally fumble a mint in the operating room.This was the first season to use a story arc of Jerry and George creating their own sitcom,Jerry. Also, at this time, the use of Jerry's stand-up act slowly declined, and the stand-up segment in the middle ofSeinfeldepisodes was cut. Much publicity followed the controversial episode \\\"The Contest,\\\" anEmmy Award-winning episode written by David, whose subject matter was considered inappropriate for prime-time network TV. To circumvent this taboo, the word \\\"masturbation\\\" was never used in the script, instead substituted for by a variety of oblique references.Midway through that season,Seinfeldwas moved from its original 9:00 p.m. time slot on Wednesdays to 9:30 p.m. on Thursdays, followingCheersagain, which gave the show even more popularity. Ratings also sparked the move, asTim Allen's sitcomHome Improvementon ABC had aired at the same time, andHome Improvementkept beatingSeinfeldin the ratings. NBC moved the series afterTed Dansonannounced the end ofCheersandSeinfeldquickly surpassed the ratings of the 9:00 p.m.Cheersreruns that spring.The show won an Emmy Award forOutstanding Comedy Seriesin 1993, beating out its family-oriented, time-slot competitorHome Improvement, which was only in its second season on rival network ABC. Season 5 was an even bigger ratings hit, consisting of popular episodes, such as \\\"The Puffy Shirt\\\" in which Jerry feels embarrassed wearing a \\\"pirate\\\" shirt onThe Today Show,\\\"The Non-Fat Yogurt\\\" featuringRudy Giuliani, theRepublicanthen-mayor-elect of New York,and \\\"The Opposite\\\" in which George, doing the opposite of what his instincts tell him he should do, lands a job with the New York Yankees and Elaine leaves \\\"Pendant Publishing\\\" because of a comedy of errors that led to its demise. Another story arc has George returning to live with his parents. Amid the story arc, Kramer creates and promotes hiscoffee table book.The show was again nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series, but lost to theCheersspin-offFrasier, then in its first season.Seinfeldwas nominated for the same award every year for its entire run but, after its win at the45th Primetime Emmy Awardsin 1994, always lost toFrasier, which went on to win a record 39 Emmy Awards in its 11-season run. Seasons 6–7 In Season 6,Andy AckermanreplacedTom Cheronesas director of the show. The series remained well regarded and produced some of its most famous episodes, such as \\\"The Beard\\\", in which Jerry is put through a lie detector test to make him admit that he watchedMelrose Place;\\\"The Switch\\\", in which Kramer's mom, Babs, reveals that his first name is Cosmo;and \\\"The Understudy\\\", in which Elaine meets J. Peterman for the first time.Story arcs used in this season were Elaine working as a personal assistant to her eccentric boss Justin Pitt and George's parents' temporary separation. This was the first season in whichSeinfeldreached No. 1 in the Nielsen Ratings. The use of Jerry's stand-up act declined, and the end stand-up segment no longer appeared because the storylines for all four characters grew denser. In Season 7, a story arc involved George getting engaged to his ex-girlfriend, Susan Ross, after the pilotJerryproved unsuccessful. In it, George spends most of the season regretting and trying to get out of the engagement. Along with the regular half-hour episodes, two notable one-hour episodes were \\\"The Cadillac,\\\" in which George plans to date award-winning actressMarisa Tomei,and \\\"The Bottle Deposit,\\\" with Elaine and Sue Ellen Mischke participating in a bidding war to buy JFK's golf clubs in an auction. Seasons 8–9 Seinfeld'sfinal two seasons were considered distinct from the earlier seasons. Most noticeably, David left the writing crew (but returned to write \\\"The Finale\\\" in 1998), resulting in Seinfeld taking over David's duties asshowrunner, and, under the direction of a new writing staff,Seinfeldbecame a faster-paced show. The show no longer contained extracts of Jerry performing stand-up comedy—Jerry had no time or energy for this with his new responsibilities—and storylines occasionally delved into fantasy and broad humor. For example, in \\\"The Bizarro Jerry\\\", Elaine is torn between exact opposites of her friends and Jerry dates a woman who has the now-famous \\\"man hands\\\".Some notable episodes from Season 8 include \\\"The Little Kicks\\\" showing Elaine's horrible dancing,and \\\"The Chicken Roaster\\\" which portrays theKenny Rogers Roasterschicken restaurant which opened during that time.A story arc in this season involves Peterman going toBurmain \\\"The Foundation\\\"until he recovered from a nervous breakdown in \\\"The Money\\\",followed by Elaine writing Peterman's biography in \\\"The Van Buren Boys\\\",which leads to Kramer's parody of Kenny Kramer's Reality Tour seen in \\\"The Muffin Tops\\\". The final season included episodes like \\\"The Merv Griffin Show\\\" in which Kramer converts his apartment into a talk-show studio and plays the character of talk-show host,\\\"The Betrayal\\\" that presents in reverse chronological order what happened to Sue Ellen's wedding in India, and \\\"The Frogger\\\" in which George pushes aFroggermachine across the street, mimicking the action of the game itself.The last season included a story arc in which Elaine has an on/off relationship withPuddy. Despite the enormous popularity and willingness of the cast to return for a tenth season, Seinfeld decided to end the show after Season 9, believing he would thereby be able to ensure the show would maintain its quality and go out on top.NBC offered Seinfeld $110 million—a record $5 million an episode for a 22-episode tenth season—but he declined. A major controversy caused in the ninth season was the accidental burning of aPuerto Rican flagby Kramer in \\\"The Puerto Rican Day.\\\" This scene caused a furor among Puerto Ricans, and as a result, NBC showed this episode only once. Seinfeld defused the protestors by not letting this episode continue in syndication, as revealed in \\\"Inside Look\\\" on DVD.However, the episode would be added to the syndicated rerun package several years later uncut. Series finale After nine years on the air, NBC and Seinfeld announced on December 25, 1997, that the series would end production the following spring in 1998. The announcement made the front page of the major New York newspapers, includingThe New York Times.Seinfeld was featured on the cover ofTimemagazine's first issue of 1998.The series ended with a 75-minute episode (cut to 60 minutes insyndication, in two parts) written by co-creator and ex-executive producer Larry David, which aired on May 14, 1998. Before the finale, a 45-minute retrospective clip show, \\\"The Chronicle,\\\" was aired. The retrospective was expanded to an hour after the original airing and aired again on NBC as an hour-long episode, and has since aired in syndication. It was the first episode since the finale of Season 7, \\\"The Invitations,\\\" to feature opening and closing stand-up comedy acts by Seinfeld. The finale was filmed before an audience of NBC executives and friends of the show. The press and public were shut out of the taping to keep its plot secret; those who attended the shoot of the final episode were required to sign written \\\"vows of silence.\\\"The secrecy only seemed to increase speculation about how the series would end. The episode's producers gave false information to the media, spreading a rumor about Newman ending up in the hospital and Jerry and Elaine sitting in a chapel, presumably to marry. The final episode enjoyed a historic audience,estimated at 76.3 million viewers(58% of all viewers that night) making it the fourth-most watched regular series finale in U.S. TV history, behindM*A*S*H,Cheers, andThe Fugitive.However, the finale received mixed reviews from critics and fans of the show. The finale poked fun at the many rumors that were circulating, seeming to move into multiple supposed plots before settling on its actual storyline—a lengthy trial where the gang is prosecuted for violating a \\\"Duty to Rescue\\\" law and sentenced to prison terms. According toForbesmagazine, Seinfeld's earnings from the show in 1998 came to US$267 million, including syndication earnings.He refused NBC's offer of $5 million per episode, or over $100 million total, to continue into a tenth season. The offer NBC made to Seinfeld was over three times higher per episode than anyone on TV had ever been offered before.Seinfeld told the network that he was not married nor had children, and wished to focus on his personal life.As reported in July 2007, he was the second-highest earner in the TV industry, earning at the time $60 million a year.The episode became the first to command over $1 million a minute for advertising—a mark previously attained only by theSuper Bowl. Reception and legacy Elizabeth Magnotta and Alexandra Strohl analyze the success ofSeinfeldwith recourse to theincongruity theoryof humor: \\\"The Incongruity Theory claims that humor is created out of a violation of an expectation. For humor to result from this unexpected result, the event must have an appropriate emotional climate, comprised of the setting, characters, prior discourse, relationships of the characters, and the topic.\\\"Specifically, Magnotta and Strohl focus on \\\"The Marine Biologist,\\\" where George is embroiled in yet another lie, and on \\\"The Red Dot,\\\" where George tries to save a few dollars at Elaine's expense by giving her a marked-downcashmeresweater. In \\\"TranslatingSeinfeld,\\\" Jennifer Armstrong notes thatSeinfeldis less famous among non-English speakers as its unique style of humor is \\\"too cultural and word-based to make for easy translation.\\\"Carol Iannone sums up the legacy of this American hit in herModern Agearticle \\\"Seinfeld: The Politically Incorrect Comedy\\\" when she says, \\\"It may be the first situation comedy truly to achieve the status of art\\\".Nod Miller, of theUniversity of East London, has discussed the self-referential qualities of the show: Seinfeld is suffused withpostmodernthemes. To begin with, the boundary between reality and fiction is frequently blurred: this is illustrated in the central device of having Jerry Seinfeld play the character Jerry Seinfeld. In the show's fourth season, several episodes revolved around the narrative of Jerry and George (whose character is co-creator Larry David's alter ego) pitching 'a show about nothing' based on the everyday life of a stand-up comedian to NBC. By all accounts, the fictional NBC executives' reaction mirrored the initial responses of those who eventually commissioned Seinfeld. The fourth season ends with'The Pilot', an episode focusing on the casting, taping, and screening of the show-within-the-show,Jerry. This episode also neatly illustrates the self-referential quality, which is one of Seinfeld's hallmarks. The series finale was so replete with references to earlier shows that it could have been more comprehensible to those not already well-versed in the personae and preoccupations of the Seinfeld universe. William Irwinhas edited an anthology of scholarly essays on philosophy inSeinfeld and Philosophy: A Book about Everything and Nothing. Some entries include \\\"The Jerry Problem and theSocratic Problem,\\\" \\\"George's Failed Quest forHappiness: An Aristotelian Analysis,\\\" \\\"Elaine's Moral Character,\\\" \\\"Kramer the 'Seducer'\\\", \\\"Making Something Out of Nothing: Seinfeld,Sophistryand the Tao,\\\" \\\"Seinfeld,Subjectivity, andSartre,\\\" \\\"Mr. Peterman, theWicked Witch of the West, and Me,\\\" and \\\"Minimally Decent Samaritans and Uncommon Law.\\\" U.S. television ratings Awards and honors Seinfeldhas received awards and nominations in various categories throughout the mid-1990s. It was awarded theEmmyfor Outstanding Comedy Series in 1993,Golden Globe Awardfor Best TV Series (Comedy) in 1994, andScreen Actors Guild Awardfor Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 1995, 1997 and 1998.Apart from these, the show was also nominated for an Emmy award from 1992 to 1998 for Outstanding Comedy Series, Golden Globe award from 1994 to 1998 for Best TV-Series (Comedy), and Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series from 1995 to 1998. The show even received thePeabody Awardin 1993. TV Guidenamed it thegreatest TV show of all timein 2002,and in 2013, the magazine ranked it as the second-greatest TV show.A 2015The Hollywood Reportersurvey of 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people namedSeinfeldas their #5 favorite show.In 2022,Rolling StonerankedSeinfeldas the sixth-greatest TV show of all time.In 2023,VarietyrankedSeinfeldas the eighth-greatest TV show of all time. Distribution Free streaming serviceChannel 4has been runningSeinfeldin its original 4:3 format since February 2020.On April 29, 2015, it was officially announced, duringHulu'supfrontspresentation inNew York, that all nine seasons ofSeinfeldwouldstreamon the platform starting in June 2015.The deal was for around $130 million to $180 million.On May 20, 2015,Huluannounced that every episode would be available starting June 24, 2015.Hulu's streaming rights for the series expired on June 23, 2021.In January 2017,Amazonacquired the UK rights to all seasons ofSeinfeldfor itsAmazon Prime Videostreaming service. On November 8, 2016, the Australian streaming serviceStanannounced viaTwitterthat later in the week all episodes would be available to stream for the first time in Australia.All episodes were available from November 11, 2016, with the remastered versions of all episodes on the service featuring HD and Widescreen enhancements.The widescreen offered was cropped from the original 4:3 format negatives, thus resulting in better visual quality than the previously available DVD version, however, the top and bottom portions of the frame were cut out to achieve the widescreen aspect ratio. In April 2020, all seasons ofSeinfeldwere also made available on-demand via pay television serviceFoxtel, as well as its internet-based alternativeFoxtel Now. In September 2019,NetflixandSony Picturesannounced that Netflix had acquired the exclusive global streaming rights forSeinfeld, starting on October 1, 2021, superseding the above Hulu and Amazon rights. As of 2023, Netflix's version ofSeinfeldis available in4K resolution.The transition was criticized as the show, initially displayed in 4:3 aspect ratio, had been converted to 16:9, resulting in some gags getting cropped, similarly to howThe Simpsonswas initially rendered onDisney+.Netflix has yet to comment on this situation. VHS and DVD releases The hour-long, two-partclip showepisode \\\"The Highlights of 100\\\" became the firstSeinfeldepisode available on home video when it was released onVHSin 1995 by food companyGeneral Mills.Sony Pictures Home Entertainment(formerly Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment) released all nine seasons ofSeinfeldonDVDin Regions 1, 2, and 4 between 2004 and 2007.On November 6, 2007,Seinfeld: The Complete Serieswas released on DVD. The complete series box set includes a 2007 \\\"roundtable\\\" reunion of the four main cast members and Larry David; only highlights of this were also included in the Season 9 set. The first complete series box set in Australia (Region 4) was released on October 24, 2007. The second boxset was released on December 2, 2008, and was a Collectible Fridge design packaging. On August 5, 2009,another Limited-Edition boxset was released, similar to the first boxset but does not include the book and the packaging was slightly different. On November 23, 2011,an additional Limited-Edition boxset was released. On November 14, 2018,aFestivus Celebration Editionwas released which contained napkins and cups, playing cards and thumb wrestle gadgets. On August 12, 2020,yet anotherComplete Seriesboxset was released. Syndication According toBarry Meyer, chairman ofWarner Bros. Entertainment(parent company of Castle Rock Entertainment),Seinfeldmade $2.7 billion through June 2010 throughoff-network syndicationand cable syndication.As of February 2017the show had made an estimated $4.06 billion in syndication.Steve Bannon, who invested in the show, later said, \\\"We calculated what it would get us if it made it to syndication. We were wrong by a factor of five\\\".In September 2019, it was announced thatViacom(nowParamount Global) had acquired cable syndication rights to the series fromTBS, with it airing onComedy Centralbeginning in October 2021,Nick at Nitefrom May 31, 2022, until November 12, 2022, andTV Landsince February 11, 2023. High-definition versions There are twohigh-definitionversions ofSeinfeld. The first is that of the network TV (non-syndicated) versions in the original aspect ratio of 4:3 that were downscaled for the DVD releases. Clips from this high-definition version in its upscale were seen onNBCduringThe Seinfeld Storyspecial.Syndicated broadcast stations and the cable networksTBSandComedy Central(and alsoFox) began airing the syndicated version ofSeinfeldin HD. Unlike the version used for the DVD, Sony Pictures cropped the top and bottom parts of the frame while restoring previously cropped images on the sides from the35mm filmsource to use the entire 16:9 frame. AfterSeinfeld Another scene On the November 1, 2007, episode ofThe Daily Show with Jon Stewart, Jerry Seinfeld mentioned the possibility of shooting one last scene after the characters leave jail. He mentioned that he was too busy to do it at the time, but did not announce what the scene would entail, as its production is not a certainty.In a commentary from the final seasonDVD, Seinfeld outlines that he and Jason Alexander spoke about this scene being in Monk's Cafe, with George saying \\\"That was brutal\\\" about the foursome's stint in prison. On an episode ofSaturday Night Livethat Jerry Seinfeld hosted on October 2, 1999, a sketch was produced that showed what life was like for Jerry behind bars after being transferred to the fictional prison portrayed on theHBOseriesOz.The roughly four-minute sketch shows the opening credits for the HBO series with clips of Jerry mixed in doing various activities around the prison. The sketch continues and mixes in different storylines from bothOzandSeinfeldand has Jerry interacting with various characters from the show in his typical quick-witted, sarcastic way. TheSeinfeld\\\"curse\\\" Louis-Dreyfus, Alexander, and Richards have all tried to launch new sitcoms as title-role characters. Almost every show was canceled quickly, usually within the first season. This gave rise to the termSeinfeld curse: the failure of a sitcom starring one of the three, despite the conventional wisdom that each person'sSeinfeldpopularity should almost guarantee a strong, built-in audience for the actor's new show. Shows specifically cited regarding theSeinfeld curseare Julia Louis-Dreyfus'sWatching Ellie, Jason Alexander'sBob PattersonandListen Up, and Michael Richards'The Michael Richards Show. This phenomenon was mentioned throughout the second season ofLarry David's HBO programCurb Your Enthusiasm, which aired in 2001. In real life, David has repeatedly dismissed the idea of a curse, saying, \\\"It's so completely idiotic. It's very hard to have a successful sitcom.\\\" The success of Louis-Dreyfus in the 2006–2010CBSsitcomThe New Adventures of Old Christine, which included winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesin 2006, led many to believe that she had broken the curse.In her acceptance speech, Louis-Dreyfus held up her award and exclaimed, \\\"I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this, baby!\\\"The show producedenough episodesto air inrerunsinsyndicationfor several years, something the other shows did not achieve.TheSaturday Night Liveepisode hosted by Louis-Dreyfus made references to the curse. Nevertheless, the series' ratings declined soon after, and it was canceled after the fifth season. She went on to win six further Emmys (for Lead Actress in a Comedy Series) for her acclaimed performance as Vice PresidentSelina Meyerin the HBO comedy seriesVeep. Curb Your Enthusiasm Early in March 2009, it was announced that theSeinfeldcast would reunite forseason sevenofCurb Your Enthusiasm.The cast first appeared in the third episode of the season, all playing fictional versions of themselves. The season-long story is that Larry David tries to initiate aSeinfeldreunion show as a ploy to win back his ex-wife, Cheryl. Along with the four main characters, someSeinfeldsupporting actors likeWayne Knight,Estelle HarrisandSteve Hytnerappeared in the ninth episode at a table read for the reunion show. Although much dialogue inCurb Your Enthusiasmis improvised, the plot was scripted, and theSeinfeldspecial that aired within the show was scripted and directed bySeinfeldregularAndy Ackerman, making this the first time sinceSeinfeldwent off the air that the central cast appeared together in a scripted show. Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee Jerry Seinfeld, Jason Alexander, and Wayne Knight, playing their respectiveSeinfeldcharacters, appeared in a spot presented during halftime ofSuper Bowl XLVIIIon February 2, 2014.Foxcame up with the idea of doing such a spot, due in part to the Super Bowl's location being New York City adjacent that year.An uncut version appeared onCrackle.comimmediately afterward, as an episode ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffeetitled \\\"The Over-Cheer,\\\" establishing Seinfeld's character on the series as an older version of hisSeinfeldcharacter.Although the spot was used to advertise Seinfeld's web series, it was not considered a commercial, as Sony, which produces the series, did not pay for it.While Seinfeld indicated that the webisode would probably be the last cast reunion, saying, \\\"I have a feeling you've seen the final coda on that very unique experience,\\\"since then,Michael RichardsandJulia Louis-Dreyfushave also appeared in episodes. Notes References General references External links\",\n \"Jerry Seinfeld Jerome Allen Seinfeld(/ˈsaɪnfɛld/SYNE-feld; born April 29, 1954) is an Americanstand-up comedian, actor, writer, and producer. As a stand-up comedian, Seinfeld specializes inobservational comedy. Seinfeld has receivednumerous accoladesincluding aPrimetime Emmy Award, aGolden Globe Awards, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for fourGrammy Awards. In 2004,Comedy Centralnamed him the 12th-greatest stand-up comedian of all time.In 2017,Rolling Stonenamed him the 7th-greatest stand-up comedian of all time. Seinfeld gained stardom playinga semi-fictionalized version of himselfin theNBCsitcomSeinfeld(1989–1998), which he co-created and wrote withLarry David. Seinfeld earned aGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedyin 1995. The show is one of the most acclaimed and popular sitcoms of all time.He has since created and produced the reality seriesThe Marriage Ref(2010–2011), and created and hosted the web seriesComedians in Cars Getting Coffee(2012–2019), the latter of which earned him threeWebby Awards. He also co-produced, co-wrote, and starred in theDreamWorksanimated filmBee Movie(2007) and theNetflixcomedyUnfrosted(2024). He has released four standup specials his first beingStand-Up Confidential(1987) followed byI'm Telling You for the Last Time(1998),Jerry Before Seinfeld(2017) and23 Hours to Kill(2020). Seinfeld has also written three books starting withSeinLanguage(1993), followed by the children's bookHalloween(2002), and the comedic compilation bookIs This Anything?(2020). He is an avid fan ofcoffeeandautomobiles. He practicestranscendental meditation. He is married to author and philanthropistJessica Seinfeld, with whom he has three children. Early life and education Seinfeld was born on April 29, 1954,to a Jewish family inBrooklyn, New York City.His father, Kalmen Seinfeld,a sign painter, was from Hungary and collected jokes that he heard while serving inWorld War II.His mother, Betty (née Hosni)and her parents, Selim and Salha Hosni,wereMizrahi JewsfromAleppo,Syria. Their nationality was stated as Turkish when they immigrated in 1917, as Syria was under theOttoman Empire.Seinfeld has an older sister, Carolyn.Salha's mother Garez Dayan, Seinfeld's great-grandmother, was a member of the Dayan rabbinic family, who claim ancestry back to theMedievalExilarchs, and from the Exilarchs back to the BiblicalKing David.Seinfeld's second cousin isalternative metalmusician and actorEvan Seinfeld.Seinfeld grew up inMassapequa, New York, and attendedMassapequa High SchoolonLong Island.At 16, he spent timevolunteeringinKibbutzSa'arin Israel.He attended theState University of New York at Oswego, and transferred after his second year toQueens College, City University of New York, from which he graduated in 1976 with a degree in communications and theater. Career 1976–1987: Rise to prominence Seinfeld developed an interest instand-up comedyafter brief stints in college productions. He appeared onopen-micnights at Budd Friedman's Improv Club while attendingQueens College.After graduation in 1976, he tried out at an open-mic night at New York City'sCatch a Rising Star, which led to an appearance in aRodney DangerfieldHBOspecial.In 1980, he had a small recurring role on the sitcomBenson, playing Frankie, a mail-delivery boy who had comedy routines that no one wanted to hear. Seinfeld was abruptly fired from the show due to creative differences.Seinfeld said that he was not told he had been fired until he arrived for a read-through session and found that there was no script for him.In January 1981, he performed stand-up onAn Evening at the Improv.In May, Seinfeld made an appearance onThe Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, impressingCarsonand the audience, leading to frequent appearances on that show and others, includingLate Night with David Letterman.On September 5, 1987, his first one-hour specialStand-Up Confidentialaired live onHBO. 1988–1998:Seinfeldand stardom Seinfeld createdThe Seinfeld ChronicleswithLarry Davidin 1988 forNBC. It was renamedSeinfeldto avoid confusion with the short-lived teen sitcomThe Marshall Chronicles. By its third season,Seinfeldhad become the most watched sitcom on American television. The final episode aired in 1998, and the show has been a popularsyndicatedre-run ever since. NBC offered Seinfeld $110 million—a record $5 million an episode for a 22-episode tenth season—but he declined.Along with Seinfeld, the show starredSaturday Night LivealumnaJulia Louis-Dreyfusand established actorsMichael RichardsandJason Alexander. Alexander played George, a caricature ofLarry David. Seinfeld is the only actor to appear in every episode. 1998–2010: Established career After he ended his sitcom, Seinfeld moved back toNew York Cityand returned to stand-up comedy instead of staying inLos Angelesand furthering his acting career. In 1998, he went on tour and recorded a comedy special, titledI'm Telling You for the Last Time. The process of developing and performing new material at clubs around the world was chronicled in a 2002 documentary,Comedian, which also featured fellow comicOrny Adamsand was directed by Christian Charles. Seinfeld has written several books, mostly archives of past routines. In the late 1990s,Apple Computercame up with the advertising slogan \\\"Think different\\\" and produced a 60-second commercial to promote the slogan. This commercial showed people who were able to \\\"think differently,\\\" such asAlbert Einstein,Mahatma Gandhi,Martin Luther King Jr., and many others. It was later cut short to 30 seconds and altered such that Seinfeld was included at the end, although he had not been in the original cut. This shorter version of the commercial aired only once, during theseries finaleofSeinfeld. In 2004, Seinfeld appeared in two commercialwebisodespromotingAmerican Express, titledThe Adventures of Seinfeld & Superman.In these, Seinfeld appeared with a cartoon rendering ofSuperman, to whom reference was made in numerous episodes ofSeinfeldas Seinfeld's hero, voiced byPatrick Warburton(characterDavid PuddyonSeinfeld). The webisodes were directed byBarry Levinsonand aired briefly on television. Seinfeld and \\\"Superman\\\" were also interviewed byMatt Lauerin a specially recorded interview for theTodayshow. On November 18, 2004, Seinfeld appeared at theNational Museum of American Historyto donate the \\\"puffy shirt\\\" he wore in theSeinfeldepisodeof the same name. He also gave a speech when presenting the \\\"puffy shirt,\\\" saying humorously that \\\"This is the most embarrassing moment of my life.\\\"On May 13, 2006, Seinfeld had a cameo appearance onSaturday Night Liveas host Julia Louis-Dreyfus' assassin. Louis-Dreyfus in her opening monologue mentioned the \\\"Seinfeld curse.\\\" While talking about how ridiculous the \\\"curse\\\" was, astage lightsuddenly fell next to her. The camera moved to acatwalkabove the stage where Seinfeld was standing, holding a large pair of bolt cutters. He angrily muttered, \\\"Damn it!\\\" upset that it did not hit her. Louis-Dreyfus continued to say that she is indeed not cursed. On February 25, 2007, Seinfeld appeared at the79th Academy Awardsas the presenter for \\\"Best Documentary.\\\" Before announcing the nominations, he did a monologue about the unspoken agreement between movie theater owners and movie patrons.On October 4, 2007, Seinfeld made a guest appearance as himself in the30 Rockepisode \\\"SeinfeldVision.\\\"On February 24, 2008, at the80th Academy Awards, Seinfeld appeared as thevoiceof hisBee Movieanimated character Barry, presentingBest Animated Short Film. Before announcing the nominees, he showed a montage of film clips featuring bees, saying that they were some of his early work (as Barry). On June 2, 2008, amidst his spring 2008 tour, Seinfeld performed in his hometown of New York City for a one-night-only show at theHammerstein Ballroomto benefitStand Up for a Cure, a charity aidinglung cancerresearch atMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. In August 2008, theAssociated Pressreported that Jerry Seinfeld would be the pitchman forWindows Vista, as part of a $300-million advertising campaign by Microsoft. The ads, which were intended to create interest for Windows in support of the subsequent \\\"I'm a PC\\\" advertisements, began airing in mid-September 2008. They were cut from television after three installments; Microsoft opted to continue with the \\\"I'm a PC\\\" advertisementsand run the Seinfeld ads on the Microsoft website as a series of longer advertisements.In March 2009, it was announced that Seinfeld and the entire cast ofSeinfeldwould be appearing for a reunion in Larry David's HBO seriesCurb Your Enthusiasm. The fictional reunion took place in theseventh season'sfinaleand starred most of the original cast, includingJulia Louis-Dreyfus,Jason Alexander,Michael Richards, in a multiple-episode arc.Seinfeld appeared on an episode of theStarzoriginal seriesHead Case. As was the case in many of his previous guest appearances on sitcoms, he played himself. InAustralia, Seinfeld appeared on a series of advertisements for theGreater Building Society, abuilding societybased inNew South Walesand southeasternQueensland.His appearance in these ads was highly publicized and considered a coup for the society, being the third time Seinfeld had appeared in a television commercial.The advertisements were filmed in Cedarhurst,Long Island, with the street designed to emulate Beaumont Street inHamilton, where the Greater's head offices are located.Seinfeld also wrote the scripts for the 15 advertisements that were filmed. The ads largely aired in the Northern New South Wales television market, where the society has most of its branches. Seinfeld was the first guest onJay Leno's talk showThe Jay Leno Show, which premiered on September 14, 2009. Seinfeld was featured onSaturday Night Live'sWeekend Updatesketch to do the \\\"Really!?!\\\" segment withSeth Meyers. He executive produced and regularly appeared as a panelist inThe Marriage Ref. On August 30, 2010, Seinfeld made a surprise guest appearance onThe Howard Stern Show, ending the feud the two had in the early 1990s. Seinfeld toured the U.S. in 2011 and made his first stand-up appearance in theUnited Kingdomin 11 years. In July 2011, he was a surprise guest onThe Daily Show, helpingJon Stewartto suppress his urge to tell \\\"cheap\\\" \\\"Michele Bachmann's husband acts gay\\\" jokes.Seinfeld also launched a personal archives website at JerrySeinfeld.com and appeared in theHBOspecialTalking Funnywith fellow comediansChris Rock,Louis C.K., andRicky Gervaisin the same year. 2011–present: Talk show and expansion In 2012, Seinfeld started a web series titledComedians in Cars Getting Coffee, in which he would pick up a fellow comedian in a different car each episode and take them out for coffee and conversation. The show originally aired on theCracklestreaming service and then was bought byNetflix. The initial series consisted of ten episodes lasting from 7 to 25 minutes each. The show has continued to get high-profile guests such asAlec Baldwin,Mel Brooks,Bill Burr,Dave Chappelle,Louis C.K.,Larry David,Ellen DeGeneres,Tina Fey,David Letterman,Jerry Lewis,Steve Martin,John Mulaney,Eddie Murphy,Carl Reiner,Don Rickles,Chris Rock,Howard Stern, andJon Stewart.The show has also hostedSeinfeldalumsLarry David,Julia Louis-Dreyfus,Jason Alexander, andMichael Richards. Season seven featured its most high-profile guest, then-PresidentBarack Obama.In a farewell tribute video for the Obamas before the President left office, Seinfeld stated, \\\"That knocking on theOval Officewindow. That probably was the peak of my entire existence.\\\" In 2014, Seinfeld toldDavid Lettermanhe invitedWoody Allento be on the show but hadn't heard back.That same year he also revealedJoan Riverswas supposed to be a guest on the show before she died due to a botched medical procedure.Seinfeld signed a deal withNetflixin January 2017 that included placingSeinfeldandComedians in Cars Getting Coffeeon their streaming service as well as two new Seinfeld stand-up specials and the development of scripted and non-scripted comedy programming.As part of the deal, all episodes ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffeewere made available on the streaming service, in addition to a new 24-episode season.The series was nominated for fivePrimetime Emmy Awardsand won threeWebby Awards. It's very important to know what you don't like. A big part of innovation is saying, \\\"You know what I'm really sick of?\\\" For me, that was talk shows where music plays, somebody walks out to a desk, shakes hands with the host, and sits down. \\\"How are you?\\\" \\\"You look great.\\\" I'm also sick of people who are really there to sell their show or product. \\\"What am I really sick of?\\\" is where innovation begins. –Seinfeld, talking about his process of innovation. In June 2013, Seinfeld appeared on rapperWale's albumThe Gifted, on the song \\\"Outro About Nothing.\\\"Seinfeld received coverage for his speech at the 2014Clio Awardsceremony, where he received an honorary award, as media reporters said that he \\\"mocked\\\" and \\\"ripped apart\\\" the advertising industry; his statement that \\\"I love advertising because I love lying\\\" received particular attention.In 2014, Seinfeld hosted the specialDon Rickles: One Night Onlyat theApollo Theatre. The event celebratedDon Ricklesand his career, but also served as a roast among friends. Those who participated in the event includedJon Stewart,David Letterman,Tina Fey,Amy Poehler,Nathan Lane,Regis Philbin,Robert De Niro, andMartin Scorsese.On February 15, 2015, Seinfeld made a guest appearance on theSaturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special, where he hosted the \\\"Questions from the Audience\\\" segment, which included cameos fromMichael Douglas,John Goodman,James Franco,Larry David,Ellen Cleghorne,Dakota Johnson,Tim Meadows,Bob Odenkirk, andSarah Palin(who Seinfeld initially mistook forTina Fey).On May 20, 2015, Seinfeld made a guest appearance onDavid Letterman's finalLate Showepisode. Seinfeld joined guests includingAlec Baldwin,Barbara Walters,Steve Martin,Jim Carrey,Chris Rock,Julia Louis-Dreyfus,Peyton Manning,Tina Fey, andBill Murraywho all participated in The Top Ten List segment, \\\"Things I've Always Wanted to Say to Dave.\\\" In January 2017, Seinfeld went onThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallonand joinedDave ChappelleandJimmy Fallonin honoring outgoing First LadyMichelle Obama, and played a game ofCatchphrase, which Obama and Fallon won to Seinfeld's dismay.On September 19, 2017, Netflix released the stand-up comedy specialJerry Before Seinfeld. It follows Seinfeld as he returns for a stand-up routine at theNew York Citycomedy club,Comic Strip Live, which started his career.It is intercut with documentary clips and his stand-up special. It was later released as an LP, CD and download album, and was nominated for a 2018Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album.In 2020, it was announced that Netflix would be releasing Seinfeld's first original stand-up special in 22 years,23 Hours to Kill. The special premiered on May 5.In October 2020, Seinfeld joinedSteve Martinin a discussion about comedy atThe New Yorker Festival. They discussed subjects ranging from the creative process,Netflix, andThe Oscars, to their comedy backgrounds, and the future of comedy during theCOVID-19 pandemic. In 2024 he directed, co-wrote, and produced in theNetflixcomedy filmUnfrosted, a satirical spoof about the creation ofPop-Tarts. Seinfeld also starred in the film alongsideMelissa McCarthy,Jim Gaffigan, andHugh Grant. The film earned mixed reviews withThe Hollywood Reporterwriting the film received a \\\"sharply divided reaction from critics\\\".The New York Timeslabeled it a \\\"Critic's Pick\\\" with Anne Nicholson describing it as a \\\"full-fledged, fully ridiculous feature comedy targeted to the audience’s sweet-and-salty dopamine receptors\\\".David Ehrlich ofIndieWirewrote that the \\\"comedy never heats up\\\" and \\\"it’s a movie about so many different things at once that it comes to feel like a movie about nothing\\\".Seinfeld appeared as a guest onJohn Mulaney Presents: Everybody's in LAwhere he joked that it was \\\"the weirdesttalk showI've ever been on in my life\\\".He also embarked on a new tour starting with his first show in Singapore in June 2024followed by a number of stops in Australia and North America.Seinfeld returned toCurb Your Enthusiasmin its final season reuniting withLarry Davidwhere they poked fun at the controversial ending ofSeinfeld. Ben Travers ofIndieWirewrote, \\\"If theCurbfinale is meant to rewrite theSeinfeldending in any way, it’s during that first scene between Jerry and Larry. They’re playing out the kind of scene they used to write for Jerry and George, and getting that silly, joyful spark between two TV legends — even for a moment — is pure bliss\\\". Books Seinfeld wrote the bookSeinLanguage, released in 1993. Written as his television show was first rising in popularity, it is primarily an adaptation of his stand-up material. The title comes from an article inEntertainment Weeklylisting the numerous catchphrases for which the show was responsible.In 2002, he wrote thechildren's bookHalloween. The book was illustrated by James Bennett.Seinfeld wrote the forewords toTed L. Nancy'sLetters from a Nutseries of books andEd Broth'sStories from a Moron.Seinfeld also wrote the foreword to thePeanut Butter & Co.Cookbook. In October 2020, Seinfeld released his new bookIs This Anything?. The book chronicles Seinfeld's 45 years working in comedy and contains many of his best bits that span from various decades. Influences Seinfeld has stated, \\\"On theMount Rushmoreof stand-up comedy, there are four faces, in my opinion:Richard Pryor,George Carlin,Bill Cosby, andDon Rickles.\\\"Seinfeld has also cited as his influencesJean Shepherd,Mad Magazine,Jonathan Winters,Jerry Lewis,Robert Klein, andAbbott and Costello.He stated, \\\"Monty Pythonwas a gigantic influence on me. They were just about silly, funny things that meant nothing, and that’s the stuff I love. There’s a wonderful childlike freedom in those kinds of things.\\\" In theNetflixcomedy special,Jerry Before Seinfeld, he displayed his personal comedy albums collection from when he was a teenager.These albums included: In an interview withEntertainment Weekly, Seinfeld stated his five favorite films areThe Heartbreak Kid(1972),The Graduate(1967),The In-Laws(1979),A Night at the Opera(1935), andGlengarry Glen Ross(1992). Those influenced by Seinfeld includeJohn Mulaney,Ellen DeGeneres,Jim Gaffigan,Judd Apatow,Issa Rae,Nate Bargatze,andMark Normand.OnThe Late Show with Stephen Colbert,Steve Martindescribed Seinfeld as one of his \\\"retro heroes\\\" saying \\\" a guy who came up behind me and is better than I am. I think he's fantastic, I love to listen to him, he almost puts me at peace. I love to listen to him talk\\\". Personal life Seinfeld is a fan of theNew York Mets, and periodically callsSteve Somers' show onWFAN-AM, asports talk radiostation, as \\\"Jerry from Queens.\\\"Seinfeld called four innings of a Mets game onSportsNet New Yorkon June 23, 2010, reuniting with analystKeith Hernandez, who appeared in theSeinfeldtwo-part episode entitled \\\"The Boyfriend.\\\"According to Seinfeld, he thinks about baseball \\\"all day\\\" and has said \\\"when I think of retirement, all I would think of is going to a baseball game every day.\\\" Seinfeld is left-handed and the first joke he ever wrote was about the topic.In a 2014 interview withNBC News, he made statements suggesting that he believed he was on theautism spectrum.However, following criticism for his allegedself-diagnosis, he later clarified that he is not autistic and had been commenting on a play about the condition that he \\\"related to on some level.\\\" Relationships and marriage Years beforeSeinfeldwas created, Seinfeld datedCarol Leifer.She was a fellow comedian, and one of the inspirations for theSeinfeldcharacterElaine Benes.On national television with sex therapist and talk show host Dr.Ruth Westheimer, he mentioned that he was engaged in 1984 but called it off. In May 1993, days after his 39th birthday, Seinfeld met 17-year-oldShoshanna Lonsteinin Central Park.After a brief conversation, Lonstein gave Seinfeld her phone number.Lonstein was still a senior in high school and would turn 18 at the end of that month.Seinfeld and Lonstein dated for approximately four years, until 1997.She transferred fromGeorge Washington UniversitytoUCLA, in part to be with him, and cited constant press coverage and missing New York City as reasons for the relationship ending. The age difference led to intense media scrutiny. While Seinfeld was a guest onHoward Stern's talk show, Stern said, \\\"so, you sit in Central Park and have a candy bar on a string and pull it when the girls come?\\\" at which point Seinfeld replied, \\\"she's not 17, definitely not.\\\"A few months later, in his second Howard Stern interview, Seinfeld insisted, \\\"I didn't realize she was so young. This is the only girl I ever went out with who was that young. I wasn't dating her. We just went to a restaurant, and that was it.\\\"Early in their relationship,Spymagazine referred to Lonstein as \\\"a legal voter\\\". In an October 1993Playboyinterview, Seinfeld described the reactions to the relationship as ranging \\\"from horrified to just busting buttons with pride that they know me\\\", noting that his female acquaintances had overall reacted more negatively than his male ones. He said that his assistant \\\"was so mad\\\" she punched him, whereas his mother was \\\"thrilled\\\". He concluded, \\\"if she's 18, if she's intelligent, that's fine\\\".In March 1994, Seinfeld again defended their age difference in an interview withPeople, stating that \\\"Shoshanna is a person, not an age.\\\"Julia Louis-Dreyfus said in a 1998New Yorkinterview that she was in favor of the relationship, as \\\"it was a happy one for him\\\", and added that she did not believe there was anything wrong with it. In August 1998, while at a Reebok Sports Club, Seinfeld metJessica Sklar, apublic relationsexecutive forTommy Hilfigerwho had just returned from a three-week honeymoon inItalywith then-husband Eric Nederlander, a theatrical producer and scion of atheater-owning family. Unaware of Sklar's marital status, Seinfeld invited her out. When Sklar eventually told Seinfeld about her relationship situation, she said, \\\"I told him I didn't think this was the right time for me to be involved with anybody.\\\" Two months later, Sklar filed for divorce and began dating Seinfeld. The pair married on December 25, 1999.ComedianGeorge Wallacewas the best man at the wedding.After the nuptials, Jerry and Jessica Seinfeld boughtBilly Joel's house inAmagansett,Long Island, for US$32 million after news of the couple's interest in the property became public in 2000.The Seinfelds have a daughter and two sons. Wealth and charity In 1999, Seinfeld auctioned a Breitling Chronomat watch as part of the \\\"Famous Faces, Watch Auction For Charity\\\" event in New York City. This watch sold for $11,000.In 2001, Jerry and Jessica Seinfeld created the charitable organizationThe Good+Foundationafter their first child was born. Good+Foundation grants donations of products and services to programs that have demonstrated a capacity to address family poverty in three focus areas: supporting new mothers, investing in early childhood, and engaging fathers. GOOD+ Foundation has donated over $42M worth of items through its partner network across the United States.Seinfeld has also participated inJon Stewart's charity event,Night of Too Many Stars. According toForbesmagazine, Seinfeld's cumulative earnings fromSeinfeldas of 2004 was $267 million, placing him at the top of the celebrity earnings list that year.He turned down $5 million per episode, for 22 episodes, to continue the show for a 10th season.Seinfeld earned $100 million from syndication deals and stand-up performances in 2004, and $60 million in 2006.He also earned $10 million for appearing withBill GatesinMicrosoft's 2008 advertisements forWindows.Between June 2008 and June 2009, Seinfeld earned $85 million, making him the world's highest-paid comedian during those 12 months.In 2013,Forbesdocumented Seinfeld's annual income as $32 million.In mid-2013, Seinfeld disputedForbes'sclaims regarding his income and net worth onThe Howard Stern Show.Seinfeld was ranked byForbesthe highest-paid comedian for 2015, the second-highest-paid in 2016, and the highest-paid again in 2017.Seinfeld's income between June 2016 and June 2017 was $69 million. In 2024,Bloombergdeclared Seinfeld a billionaire, with a net worth standing at more than $1 billion, thanks to various syndication deals his sitcom signed, with $465 million coming from those deals. Automobiles Seinfeld is an automobile enthusiast and collector, and he owns a collection of about 150 cars, including a largePorschecollection.He rented a hangar at theSanta Monica AirportinSanta Monica, California, for an extended period during the 1990s for storage of some of the vehicles in the collection.In 2002, Seinfeld purchased property on theUpper West SideofManhattaninNew York Citywhere he built a $1.4 million two-story garage to store part of his Porsche collection on the East Coast.One tally has Seinfeld owning 43 Porsches.Paul Bannister has written that Seinfeld's collection includesPorsche 911sfrom various years, 10Porsche Boxsterseach painted a different color, and the 1955Porsche 550 Spyder, the same model and pearl-grey color that actorJames Deanhad been driving before he crashed that car and subsequently died. TheDiscovery Channeltelevision showChasing Classic Carsclaimed that Seinfeld owns the first and last produced air-cooled Porsche 911s. The centerpiece is a $700,000Porsche 959, one of only 337 built. He was originally not allowed to drive it, because the car was \\\"notstreet legal.\\\" U.S. emissions and crash tests had not been performed for the model because Porsche refused to donate four Porsche 959s for destruction tests. Seinfeld imported the car \\\"for exhibition purposes,\\\" on the stipulation that it may never be driven on U.S. roads.The car was made U.S. street legal in 1999 under the \\\"Show or Display\\\" federal law.Seinfeld wrote an article for the February 2004 issue ofAutomobile, reviewing thePorsche Carrera GT. In 2008, Seinfeld was involved in a car accident when the brakes on his 1967Fiat 500failed and, to avoid an intersection, he pulled the emergency brake while turning sharply, ultimately causing the car to flip onto its side. No one was hurt. Coffee machines A coffee aficionado, Seinfeld owns multipleespresso machines, including the $17,000 Elektra Belle Epoqueand two machines manufactured by Slayer andBreville.Seinfeld described his single-group Slayer machine, which costs upwards of $8,500, as a \\\"beautiful machine.\\\"WhenNPRasked him about the influence ofcoffee culture in the U.S., Seinfeld responded in 2013: I never liked and I didn't understand it and I used to do a lot of stuff in my stand-up set in the '80s and '90s about how I don't 'get' coffee. And then something happened about five years ago. I started touring a lot, and we would have these great big, fun breakfasts in the hotel and just seemed to go really well . , I've just started this espresso thing. In a May 2024GQinterview titled \\\"10 Things Jerry Seinfeld Can't Live Without\\\", Seinfeld revealed that aBialettimoka potis one of his must-haves. He described the process of making coffee with a moka pot as complex and time-consuming, but a pleasurable way to \\\"waste time\\\". Religion and politics Seinfeld is Jewish and has incorporated elements of hisJewish identityin his work.Although he shared that his mother was born into a large family of Syrian Orthodox Jews, he admitted to being non-religious himself.Seinfeld stated that he took aScientologycourse when he was in his 20s; he said that he found it interesting but that he did not pursue it any further. Seinfeld expressed support forIsraelduring theIsrael–Hamas war, saying \\\"I will always stand with Israel and the Jewish people.\\\"Seinfeld and his family previously drew criticism, travelling to the West Bank in 2018 to participate in a terrorism simulation camp.Seinfeld also visited the headquarters ofAbducted and Missing Families Forumwhere he met with representatives of the families and with abductees who returned from Hamas captivity, and listened to their stories.On May 12, 2024, Seinfeld gave acommencement addressand received an honorary degree atDuke University. During his speech, a number of students booed, wavedPalestinian flagsand walked out in protest.In June 2024, Seinfeld was heckled by protesters during a comedy show inSydney, Australia. Seinfeld responded joking, \\\"You’re really influencing everyone here. We’re all on your side now, because you’ve made your point so well, and in the right venue, you’ve come to the right place for a political conversation\\\". Seinfeld has made several political contributions, including toGeorge W. Bush's andAl Gore's presidential campaigns in2000, and subsequently to fourDemocratic Partyprimary candidates in 2000 and2004. Seinfeld has expressed his distaste forpolitical correctnessandwokeculture. In 2015, Seinfeld stated that he avoids performing on college campuses because students have become too easily offended by his comedic routines.In a 2024 interview withThe New Yorker, Seinfeld claimed political correctness was destroying comedy, saying, “This is the result of theextreme leftand PC crap, and people worrying so much about offending other people. When you write a script and it goes into four or five different hands, committees, groups — 'Here's our thought about this joke' — well, that's the end of your comedy.”Months later, he walked back those comments on the \\\"Breaking Bread\\\" podcast, stating \\\"I don't think, as I said, 'the extreme left' has done anything to inhibit the art of comedy. I'm taking that back officially.\\\" Seinfeld said he regrets his previous comments because changing cultural attitudes are \\\"not business.\\\" Transcendental Meditation In December 2012, Seinfeld said that he had been practicingTranscendental Meditationfor 40 years. He promoted the use of the technique in the treatment ofpost-traumatic stress disorderwithBob Rothof theDavid Lynch Foundationin December 2012 onGood Morning America,and also appeared at a 2009 David Lynch Foundation benefit for TM, at whichPaul McCartneyandRingo Starrappeared.On November 5, 2015, the David Lynch Foundation organized a benefit concert at New York City'sCarnegie Hallcalled \\\"Change Begins Within\\\" to promote transcendental meditation for stress control. \\\"It's been the greatest companion technique of living that I've ever come across, and I'm thrilled to be part of this movement that seems to have really been reinvigorated by Bob andDavid Lynch,\\\" Seinfeld said. \\\"I would do anything that I could to promote it in the world, because I think it's the greatest thing as a life tool, as a work tool and just making things make sense.\\\" Filmography Film Television Music videos Video games Directing Writing Writing credits forSeinfeld The list below only includes episodes mainly written by Seinfeld, as he (and Larry David in Seasons 1 through 7) rewrote the drafts for each episode. Comedy releases Stand-up specials Stand-up appearances References Awards and nominations Over his career he has receivednumerous accoladesincluding aPrimetime Emmy Award, aGolden Globe Award, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for fourGrammy Awards. Seinfeld has received an HonoraryDoctorate of Humane Lettersfrom Queens College (1994)as well as an HonoraryDoctor of ArtsfromDuke University(2024) Discography Bibliography References External links\",\n \"Jason Alexander Jay Scott Greenspan(born September 23, 1959),known professionally asJason Alexander, is an American actor and comedian. Over the course of his career he has received anEmmy Awardand aTony Awardas well as nominations for fourGolden Globe Awards. He gained stardom for his role asGeorge Costanzain theNBCsitcomSeinfeld(1989–1998), for which he won aScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Seriesand was nominated for seven consecutivePrimetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Seriesand fourGolden Globe Awards for Best Supporting Actor in Television. Alexander made hisBroadwaydebut originating the role of Joe inStephen Sondheim'sMerrily We Roll Alongin 1981. He remained active on Broadway acting in the musicalsThe Rinkin 1984,Personalsin 1985, and theNeil SimonplayBroadway Boundin 1986. He then starred inJerome Robbins' Broadwayin 1989, for which he won theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He appeared in the Los Angeles production ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers. He was the artistic director of \\\"Reprise! Broadway's Best in Los Angeles\\\", where he has directed musicals. His film roles includePretty Woman(1990),Coneheads(1993),North(1994),The Last Supper(1995),Dunston Checks In(1996),Denial(1998),Shallow Hal(2001), andWild Card(2015). He voiced thegargoyleHugo in the Disney filmThe Hunchback of Notre Dame(1996) and the2002 sequelas well as the titular role inDuckman(1994–1997). For his role inDream On(1994) he was nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. He also acted inCurb Your Enthusiasm(2001, 2009), andThe Marvelous Mrs. Maisel(2019). Early life and education Greenspan was born inNewark, New Jerseyto a Jewish family, the son of Ruth Minnie (née Simon), a nurse and health care administrator, and Alexander B. Greenspan, an accounting manager. Greenspan later borrowed his father's first name to create his stage name, Jason Alexander. Alexander grew up inMaplewoodandLivingston, New Jersey, and is a 1977 graduate ofLivingston High School.Interested in magic from an early age, he initially hoped to be a magician, but while attending a magic camp was told that his hands were too small for card magic. He became interested in theater, eventually realizing, \\\"Wait a minute—the whole thing's an illusion. Nothing up there is real\\\" and that theater itself was \\\"a magic trick\\\". He then decided to pursue a theater career. After high school, he studied theater atBoston University. He wanted to pursue classical acting, but a professor redirected him toward comedy after noticing his physique, remarking, \\\"I know your heart and soul areHamlet, but you will never play Hamlet.\\\"Alexander left Boston University without a degree after his third year to take a full-time acting job in New York City. The university awarded him an honorary degree in 1995. Career 1980–1999: Broadway debut andSeinfeld Alexander began his acting career on the New York stage and is an accomplished singer and dancer. Alexander made his film debut in 1981 in the summer campslasher filmThe Burning. OnBroadwayhe appeared inStephen Sondheim'sMerrily We Roll Alongin 1981,Kander&Ebb'sThe Rinkin 1984,Neil Simon'sBroadway Boundin 1986,Accomplicein 1990, andJerome Robbins' Broadwayin 1989, for which he garnered the 1989Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical.Frank RichofThe New York Timeswrote of his performance \\\"Jason Alexander, the evening's delightful narrator, accomplishes the seemingly impossible: he banishes the memory ofZero Mostelfrom the role ofPseudolusinA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum\\\". In addition to his roles as an insensitive, money-hungry lawyer inPretty Womanin 1990, Alexander has appeared inJacob's Ladderin 1990,The Last Supperin 1995,Dunston Checks Inin 1996,Love! Valour! Compassion!in 1997, andLove and Action in Chicagoin 1999. Alexander starred in several commercials during the 1980s. Among them were commercials forHershey's Kiss; Delta Goldpotato chips;Miller Litebeer;McDonald'sMcDLThamburger;Pabst Blue Ribbonbeer;Levi's501 jeans;Sony WatchmanTV; andWestern Unionwire transfer.BeforeSeinfeld, Alexander appeared in commercials for John Deere and McDonald's and in the short-livedCBSsitcomEverything's Relative(1987). Alexander is best known as one of the key cast members of the award-winning television sitcomSeinfeld, where he played the bumblingGeorge Costanza(Jerry Seinfeld's character's best friend since childhood). He was nominated for sevenPrimetime Emmy Awardsand fourGolden Globe Awardsfor the role, but did not win any, mainly due to his co-starMichael Richardswinning for his role asCosmo Kramer. He did, however, win the 1995Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series. Concurrently with hisSeinfeldrole, he had a part in the ABC sitcomDinosaursas Al \\\"Sexual\\\" Harris (who frequently engaged insexual harassment) as well as other characters from 1991 to 1994. Alexander voiced the lead character in the animated seriesDuckman(1994–1997) and voicedCatbert, the evil director of human resources, in the short-lived animated seriesDilbertfrom 1999 to 2000, based on the then-popular comic strip.In January 1995, he did a commercial forRold Goldpretzels to be broadcast during theSuper Bowl. The commercial depicts him withFrasierdog Eddie jumping out of an airplane with a parachute over the stadium. After the commercial, the audience is brought back to a supposedly live feed of the playing field hearing startled sports commentators as Alexander and the dog land in the field to wild applause. Alexander appeared in the 1995 TV version of theBroadwaymusicalBye Bye Birdie, as Conrad Birdie's agent, Albert Peterson. He guest-starred in episode 8 of the 1996 variety showMuppets Tonight.He voiced thegargoyleHugo inDisney's 1996animated filmThe Hunchback of Notre Dameand its direct-to-video sequel,The Hunchback of Notre Dame II. Alexander voiced the characterAbis Malin the 1994 filmThe Return of Jafarand the 1994-1995TV seriesbased on the 1992 filmAladdin. In 1997, he appeared inCinderella, a remake ofRodgers and Hammerstein's Cinderella,alongsideWhitney Houston,Brandy Norwood, andWhoopi Goldberg. His other Disney voice work includesHouse of Mousein 2001 and the 2012 video gameKingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance.He has dabbled in directing, starting with 1996'sFor Better or Worseand 1999'sJust Looking. In 1999, Alexander presided over theNew York Friars Club Roastevent honoringJerry Stiller, who played his father onSeinfeld; it featured appearances byKevin JamesandPatton Oswalt, both Stiller's costars onThe King of Queens. Alexander appeared in the 1999Star Trek: Voyagerepisode \\\"Think Tank\\\" as Kurros, a genius alien trying to getSeven of Nineto serve on his ship. 2000–2009: Solo-lead sitcoms and return to theatre Despite a successful career in film and stage, Alexander did not repeat hisSeinfeld-level of success in television. The year 2001 marked his appearance as inept womanizer Mauricio inShallow Haland his first post-Seinfeldreturn to prime-time television: the heavily promoted but short-livedABCsitcomBob Patterson, which was canceled after five episodes. Alexander partially blames the show's failure on the country's mood after9/11.Alexander made cameo appearances as himself in 2001 in the second season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm, and he appeared in the show's seventh season with his three principalSeinfeldco-stars.He was featured in theFriends2001 episode \\\"The One Where Rosita Dies\\\" as Earl, a suicidalsupply manager.Phoebecalls him trying to sell himtoner, learns about his problem, and tries to persuade him not to commit suicide. This is referenced in an episode ofMalcolm in the Middlewhere Alexander appears as Leonard, a neurotic and critical loner. He describes himself as \\\"free\\\" and says he makes money \\\"selling toner over the phone\\\". Later in the episode, he is repeatedly harassed by a man named George. He appeared in \\\"One Night at Mercy\\\", the first episode of the short-lived2002 revival ofThe Twilight Zone, playingDeath. He played the toymakerA.C. Gilbertin the 2002 filmThe Man Who Saved Christmas. He appeared inKentucky Fried Chicken(KFC) commercials in 2002, including one withBarry Bondsof theSan Francisco Giantsand another withTrista RehnofThe Bachelorette. It was rumored that he quit doing these commercials due to KFC suppliers andslaughterhouses' allegedcruelty to animals, but he denied that in an interview withAdweek, saying, \\\"That'sPETAbullcrap. I loved working for KFC. I was targeted by PETA to broker something between them. I think KFC really stepped up to the plate; unfortunately PETA did not.\\\" In 2007, Alexander appeared in a commercial for theASPCAthat aired on cable TV stations.In 2018, Alexander portrayedColonel Sandersin commercials forKFC, reprising his role from the 2002 campaign. In 2003, he was cast oppositeMartin Shortin the Los Angeles production ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers.He appeared withKelsey Grammerin the 2004musical adaptationofCharles Dickens'sA Christmas Carol, asJacob Marley. Alexander's second chance as a TV series lead, theCBSsitcomListen Up(2004–05), also fell short of a second season. Alexander was the principal executive producer of the series, based very loosely on the life of the popular sports-media personalityTony Kornheiser. He performed on theFamily Guy: Live in Vegas2005 album. Alexander continued to appear in live stage shows, includingBarbra Streisand's memorable birthday party in 2005 for Stephen Sondheim at the Hollywood Bowl, where he performed selections fromSweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet StreetwithAngela Lansbury.He featured in the 2005Monkepisode \\\"Mr. Monk and the Other Detective\\\" as Monk's rival,Marty Eels. In a 2006 appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!, Alexander demonstrated several self-defense techniques. Also that year, he hosted thePBS\\\"A Capitol Fourth\\\" celebrations in Washington, D.C., singing, dancing, and playing tuned drums. Alexander was featured as a recurring cast member in the second season ofEverybody Hates Chris. He hosted theComedy Central Roast of William Shatner. He was the artistic director of Reprise Theatre Company in Los Angeles from 2007 until it went defunct in 2013,where he previously directedSunday in the Park with George, and directed its 2007 revival ofDamn Yankees.In 2007, Alexander was a guest star in the third episode of theimprov comedyseriesThank God You're Here. He has been a frequent guest and panelist onBill Maher'sPolitically Incorrectin 1995, 1997 and 2000andReal Timein 2006, 2009 and 2012;Hollywood Squaresin 1999, 2002 and 2004;theLate Late Showin 2003, 2012, 2014 and 2015, withCraig Kilborn,Craig Ferguson, andJames Corden;Late Show with David Lettermanin 1989, 2000, and 2002;The Late Show with Stephen Colbertin 2015;andThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallonin 2015.In 2008, Alexander guest-starred in theseason fourepisode \\\"Masterpiece\\\" of theCBSshowCriminal Mindsas Professor Rothschild,a well-educatedserial killerobsessed with theFibonacci sequencewho sends the team into a race against time to save his last victims.He returned in the same season to direct the episode \\\"Conflicted\\\", featuring the actorJackson Rathbone. Alexander hosted the LOL Sudbury opening night gala inSudbury, Ontario, Canada in 2008, which was simulcast throughout Canada at 60 Cineplex theaters, a first for any comedy festival. He has lent his voice to several episodes of theTwilight Zone Radio Dramas. In 2008 and again in 2009, Alexander frontedJason Alexander's Comedy Spectacular, a routine exclusive to Australia. The show consists of stand-up and improvisation and incorporates Alexander's musical talent. He is backed up by several well-known Australian comedians. His first time performing a similar show of this nature was in 2006'sJason Alexander's Comedy Christmas. In February/March 2010, Alexander starred in his show,The Donny Clay Experience, at thePlanet Hollywood ResortinLas Vegas,Nevada. Donny Clay, whom he has portrayed in a tour of the United States and Orillia, Ontario, is aself-helpguru in a similar mold to hisBob Pattersoncharacter. In 2009, he playedJosephin theThomas Nelsonaudio Bible productionThe Word of Promise. The project featured a large ensemble of actors, includingJim Caviezel,Lou Gossett Jr.,John Rhys-Davies,Jon Voight,Gary Sinise,Christopher McDonald,Marisa Tomei, andJohn Schneider.In 2009, Alexander had a small role in the filmHachi: A Dog's Taleas a train station manager. 2010–present He starred asCosmoin the 2011 live action filmA Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner!. In 2011, Alexander was the guest star in an episode ofHarry's Law, playing a high school teacher bringing a wrongful dismissal suit.In 2015, he replacedLarry Davidas the lead in David'sBroadwayplayFish in the Dark.He co-starred oppositeSherie Rene Scottin the 2017 world premiere ofJohn Patrick Shanley'sThe Portuguese Kidat theManhattan Theatre Club.In 2018, Alexander played Olix the bartender inThe Orville.The same year, he portrayed Gene Lundy, a drama teacher, on two episodes ofYoung Sheldon. In 2020, 2021 and 2022, he reprised the role of Gene Lundy on one episode. In 2019, Alexander appeared onThe Marvelous Mrs. Maiselas Asher Friedman, a blacklisted Broadway playwright who is an old friend of Midge Maisel's father Abe Weissman.He won theDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Original Song for \\\"The Bad Guys?\\\" onBrainwashed By Toons(2020). In 2020, Alexander hosted theSaturday Night Seder, an online Passover Seder that featured many celebrities and benefited theCDC Foundation. From February 2023 he co-presentedReally? No, Really?, a weekly podcast in which he, co-host Peter Tilden, and their guests attempt to find answers \\\"to life’s most baffling, intriguing, confusing and annoying questions\\\".In July 2023, he made his Broadway directing debut with Sandy Rustin's comedyThe Cottage. The cast includesEric McCormack,Laura Bell BundyandLilli Cooper.In 2023, on the December 21 primetime CBS specialDick Van Dyke: 98 Years of Magic, Alexander performed two songs in conjunction with dance-performers and closed the show with a spoken tribute to Van Dyke. Personal life Alexander has been married to Daena E. Title, cousin of directorStacy Title, since May 31, 1982.They have two sons, Gabrieland Noah. Alexander performed amentalismand magic act atThe Magic Castlein Hollywood, California, from April 24 to 30, 2006, and he was later named The Academy of Magical Arts Parlor Magician of the Year for this act. He won the academy's Junior Achievement Award in 1989. Charity Alexander was the national spokesman for theSclerodermaFoundation, a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those who are afflicted.In summer 2005, he appeared withLee Iacoccain ads forDaimlerChrysler. Iacocca did the ads as part of a way to raise money forDenise Faustman's research onautoimmunity.Iacocca and Alexander both have loved ones whose lives have been adversely affected by autoimmunity. Alexander competed on televised poker shows and in various tournaments. He appeared twice onBravo'sCelebrity Poker Showdown, winning the final table of the 8th season. Alexander won the $500,000 prize for the charity of his choice, TheUnited Way of America, to help benefit the New Orleans area. Alexander played in the2007 World Series of Pokermain event, but he was eliminated on the second day. He returned in 2009, making it to day 3 of the event and finishing in the top 30% of the field. Alexander has appeared on NBC'sPoker After Darkin the \\\"Celebrities and Mentors\\\" episode, finishing in 6th place after being eliminated by professional poker playerGavin Smith. He signed withPokerStars, where he plays under the screen name \\\"J. Alexander\\\". In 2021, Alexander competed in a virtual National Poker Tournament, hosted by theChildren's Tumor Foundation, to raise money forNeurofibromatosisresearch. Political views Alexander has been a prominent public supporter of theOneVoiceinitiative, which seeks out opinions from moderateIsraelisandPalestinianswho want to achieve a mutual peace agreement, through what it states is the silent majority of Israelis and Palestinians. This has been criticised by The Electronic Intifada as \\\"promoting what many Palestinians see as \\\"a false peace that fails to address the structural injustices driving the conflict\\\", and as a fake peace group which \\\"manufactures consent for Israeli apartheid\\\".OnReal Time with Bill Maher, he said he had visitedIsraelmany times and spoke about progress toward peace he had observed. On December 6, 2012 Alexander emceed his thirdgala event for non-profit groupFriends of the Israel Defense Forces, a charity supporting theIsrael Defense Forces.MusicianStevie Wondercancelled his performance at the event following a recommendation from the UN,and a public petition fromBoycott, Divestment and Sanctions(BDS) requesting that he not attend the event.Alexander who was interviewed at the event by Jewish News Syndicate stated he supported theOneVoice Movement, and acknowledged an occupation of Palestine and called for a two-state solution,which was later criticised by Roz Rothstein, CEO of the pro-Israel education group StandWithUs.When asked about the IDF, Alexander stated that they were humane and noble, stating \\\"some of the finest, most humane, most admirable, most noble-serving soldiers that I've ever seen\\\" and that \\\"there can never be any doubt that I am also an advocate for Israel\\\".When asked about why he had repeatedly emceed the event, Alexander stated: \\\"They don’t understand first of all what is, and they see it as just a blanket support for Israeli military, and they don’t understand how I can say that I’m an advocate for both sides,” he said. “And given the fact that there are eyes on this event tonight, I thought it was important to get up and say, 'This is why I can advocate for this group and I can advocate for Israel, and I’m not blind to the fact that we’re in conflict, and I hold everyone equally accountable, and I hold everyone equally to my heart.'\\\" On November 6, 2015 he again emceed an event at theThe Beverly Hilton Hotelin California, which raised $31 million for the, \\\"provid educational, cultural and recreational programs and facilities for IDF soldiers.\\\" Alexander is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.Alexander supportssame-sex marriageand anassault weapons ban.In 2020, he campaigned for theTexas Democratswith formerSeinfeldcolleaguesJulia Louis-Dreyfusand Larry David.He endorsedBarack Obamain2012andJoe Bidenin2020.Alexander has been an outspoken critic of theTrump administrationand he has ridiculedDonald Trumpover his dancing.He has calledRepublican PartysenatorTed Cruza jerk from the \\\"jerk store\\\" in reference to a joke fromSeinfeld. Acting credits Film Television Theatre Music videos Video games Director Awards and nominations References External links\",\n \"Julia Louis-Dreyfus Julia Scarlett Elizabeth Louis-Dreyfus(/ˌluːiˈdraɪfəs/LOO-eeDRY-fəs; born January 13, 1961) is an American actress and comedian. Often described as one of the greatest performers in television history,she is widely known for her roles as various characters onSaturday Night Live(1982–1985),Elaine BenesonSeinfeld(1990–1998),Christine CampbellonThe New Adventures of Old Christine(2006–2010), andSelina MeyeronVeep(2012–2019). Herlist of accoladesmakes her one of the most award-winning actresses in American television history,and she has received morePrimetime Emmy Awardsand moreScreen Actors Guild Awardsthan any other performer. Louis-Dreyfus was born in New York City, the daughter of the French billionaireGérard Louis-Dreyfus, and entered comedy as a performer with thePractical Theatre CompanyinChicago. This led to her being cast in the sketch showSaturday Night Live. Her breakthrough came in 1990 with her debut at the start of a nine-season run onSeinfeld, which became one of the most critically and commercially successful sitcoms. In addition to leading roles onThe New Adventures of Old ChristineandVeep, she has made guest appearances on shows such asArrested Development,Curb Your Enthusiasm, and30 Rock. On film, Louis-Dreyfus has had supporting film roles inHannah and Her Sisters(1986),National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation(1989),Deconstructing Harry(1997), andYou People(2023), and leading film roles inEnough Said(2013),Downhill(2020),You Hurt My Feelings(2023), andTuesday(2023). Her voice acting work includesA Bug's Life(1998),Planes(2013), andOnward(2020). Since 2021 she has playedValentina Allegra de Fontainein theMarvel Cinematic Universe. Louis-Dreyfus has received 11 Primetime Emmy Awards (eight for acting and three for producing) in addition to nine Screen Actors Guild Awards and oneGolden Globe Award. She received a star on theHollywood Walk of Famein 2010 and was inducted into theTelevision Academy Hall of Famein 2014. She was named as one ofTimemagazine's100 most influential people in the worldin 2016.She has also received numerous honors including theMark Twain Prize for American Humorin 2018 and theNational Medal of Artsin 2021. Early life Julia Scarlett Elizabeth Louis-Dreyfuswas born inNew York Cityon January 13, 1961.Her mother, Judith (née LeFever), is an American writer andspecial needs educator.Her father,Gérard Louis-Dreyfus(1932–2016), was a French billionaire who served as chairman of theLouis Dreyfus Company. Her paternal grandfather,Pierre Louis-Dreyfus(1908–2011), was president of theLouis Dreyfus Groupcommodities and shipping conglomerate.He was a member of aJewishfamily fromAlsace,and served as acavalryofficer and member of theFrench ResistanceduringWorld War II.Louis-Dreyfus is the great-great-granddaughter of French businessmanLéopold Louis-Dreyfus(1833–1915), founder of the Louis Dreyfus Group, which members of her family still control.She is the fifth cousin four times removed ofAlfred Dreyfus(1859–1935) of the infamousDreyfus affair.Robert Louis-Dreyfus(1946–2009), her father's second cousin, was the CEO ofAdidasand owner of the soccer teamOlympique de Marseille.Julia's paternal grandmother was the daughter of aBrazilian-Jewishfather (whose family wasDutch,English, andPolish). In 1962, a year after her birth, Louis-Dreyfus' parents divorced. She has said that she first noticed her penchant for comedy after sticking raisins up her nose at the age of three, which first made her mother laugh but then led to an emergency hospital visit.After moving toWashington, D.C., when Louis-Dreyfus was four, her mother married L. Thompson Bowles, dean of theGeorge Washington University Medical School;Louis-Dreyfus gained a half-sister,Lauren Bowles, also an actress. Due to her stepfather's work withProject HOPE, she spent her childhood in several U.S. states and countries such asColombia,Sri Lanka, andTunisia.In 1979, she graduated from the all-girlsHolton-Arms SchoolinBethesda, Maryland.She later said of the school, \\\"There were things I did in school that, had there been boys in the classroom, I would have been less motivated to do. For instance, I was president of the honor society.\\\" Louis-Dreyfus attendedNorthwestern UniversityinEvanston, Illinois, where she was a member of theDelta Gammasorority. She studied theatre and performed in theMee-Ow Show, a student-run improv and sketch comedy revue, before dropping out during her junior year to take a job atSaturday Night Live.In 2007, she received an honorary doctor of arts degree from Northwestern University. Career 1982–1989: Early career andSaturday Night Live As part of her comedic training, Louis-Dreyfus appeared inThe Second City, one of the best-known improvisational theatre groups. It was her performance withThe Practical Theatre Companyat their \\\"Golden 50th Anniversary Jubilee\\\" that led to her being asked to join the cast ofNBC'sSaturday Night Liveat the age of 21. Louis-Dreyfus subsequently became a cast member onSaturday Night Livefrom 1982 to 1985, the youngest female cast member in the history of the program at that time.It was during her third and final year onSNLthat she met writerLarry Davidduring his only year on the show.David later co-createdSeinfeld.Louis-Dreyfus has commented that her casting onSNLwas a \\\"Cinderella-getting-to-go-to-the-ball kind of experience\\\";however, she has also admitted that at times it was often quite tense, stating that she \\\"didn't know how to navigate the waters of show business in general and specifically doing a live sketch-comedy show\\\". Recurring characters onSaturday Night Live Following her 1985 departure fromSNL, Louis-Dreyfus appeared in several films, includingHannah and Her Sisters(1986) byWoody Allen,Soul Man(1986), andNational Lampoon's Christmas Vacation(1989), in which she starred alongside fellowSNLalumnusChevy Chase. In 1987, Louis-Dreyfus appeared in the NBC sitcom pilotThe Art of Being Nick, an intended spin-off fromFamily TiesstarringScott Valentine. When the pilot did not make it to series, Louis-Dreyfus was retained by producerGary David Goldbergfor a role on his new sitcomDay by Day, as the sarcastic and materialistic neighbor, Eileen Swift. Premiering in early 1988,Day by Dayaired for two seasons on NBC before being cancelled. 1990–1998:Seinfeldand widespread recognition In the early 1990s, Louis-Dreyfus became famous for the role ofElaine Beneson NBC'sSeinfeld. She played the role for nine seasons, appearing in all but three episodes.One of the episodes that she did not appear in was the pilot episode, \\\"The Seinfeld Chronicles\\\", because her character was not initially intended to be a part of the series. It was only after the first episode thatNBCexecutives felt the show was too male-centric and demanded that creatorsLarry DavidandJerry Seinfeldadd a woman to the cast. It was revealed in the commentary on the DVD package that the addition of a female character was the condition for commissioning the show. Louis-Dreyfus won the role over several other actresses who also eventually enjoyed TV success, includingPatricia HeatonandMegan Mullally.On the \\\"Notes About Nothing\\\" featurette on theDVDpackage, Seinfeld says that Louis-Dreyfus's ability to eat a peanutM&Mwithout breaking the peanut described her: \\\"She cracks you up without breaking your nuts.\\\" Louis-Dreyfus garnered critical acclaim for her performance on the series, and she was a regular winner and nominee at television award shows throughout the 1990s. Her performance earned her twoGolden Globe Awardnominations, winning once in 1994, nineScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, winning one in 1995 and two in both 1997 and 1998, and sevenAmerican Comedy Awards, winning five times in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997 and 1998. In 1996, she won thePrimetime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, an award she was nominated for on seven occasions from 1992 to 1998. After receiving the award, Louis-Dreyfus said the win was a \\\"shocker\\\", and that after being in both positions, it was \\\"much better to win than to lose.\\\" In 1998, Jerry Seinfeld decided to end the series after nine seasons. Theseries finaleaired on May 14 and was one of the most-watched TV events in history, with over 76 million viewers tuning in.During her time onSeinfeld,she appeared in several films, including the comedy filmsFathers' Day(1997), oppositeRobin WilliamsandBilly Crystal, andWoody Allen'sDeconstructing Harry(1997). 1999–2004: Post-Seinfeld Following a voice role in the highly successfulPixarfilmA Bug's Life(1998), Louis-Dreyfus lent her voice asSnake's girlfriend Gloria inThe Simpsonsepisode \\\"A Hunka Hunka Burns in Love\\\". In 2001, she made several special guest appearances onSeinfeldco-creatorLarry David's showCurb Your Enthusiasm, playing herself fictionally trying to break the \\\"curse\\\" by planning to star in a show in which she would play an actress affected by aSeinfeld-like curse. After several years away from a regular TV job, Louis-Dreyfus began a new single-camera sitcom,Watching Ellie, which premiered on NBC in February 2002. The series was created by husbandBrad Halland co-starredSteve Carelland Louis-Dreyfus's half-sisterLauren Bowles. The initial premise of the show was to present viewers with a \\\"slice of life\\\" from the goings-on and happenings of the life of Ellie Riggs, a Southern California jazz singer. The first season included a 22-minute countdown kept digitally in the lower left-hand corner of the screen, which many critics panned, claiming it was useless and \\\"did nothing for the show.\\\"Overall, the show received mixed reviews but debuted strongly with over 16 million viewers tuning in for the series premiere, and maintained an average audience of about 10 million viewers per week. When the series returned for a second season in the spring of 2003, it suffered a decline in viewership, averaging around eight million viewers per week. The show had undergone a drastic stylistic change between the production of seasons one and two. The first season was filmed in the single-camera format, but the second season was presented as a traditional multicamera sitcom filmed in front of a live studio audience.With dwindling viewership and failing to retain the numbers from itsFrasierlead-in, the series was cancelled by NBC in May 2003. Following NBC's cancellation ofWatching Ellie, the media began circulating rumors of a so-called \\\"Seinfeldcurse\\\", which claimed that none of the formerSeinfeldactors could ever achieve success again in the television industry. Louis-Dreyfus dismissed the rumor as \\\"a made-up thing by the media\\\",whileSeinfeldco-creator Larry David asserted that the curse was \\\"completely idiotic.\\\"Louis-Dreyfus was interested in the role ofSusan MayeronDesperate Housewives, the role that ultimately went toTeri Hatcher.Instead, Louis-Dreyfus scored a recurring guest role as Maggie Lizer, the deceitful prosecutor and love interest ofMichael Bluthon the Emmy-winning comedyArrested Development, from 2004 to 2005. 2005–2010:The New Adventures of Old Christine In 2005, Louis-Dreyfus was cast in the title role of a new CBS sitcom,The New Adventures of Old Christine.The series and its concept were created by writer and producer ofWill & Grace, Kari Lizer. The series told the story of Christine Campbell, a single mother who manages to maintain a fantastic relationship with her ex-husband while running a women's gym. The series debuted on CBS in March 2006 to an audience of 15 million and was initially a ratings winner for the network. Louis-Dreyfus received considerable critical acclaim for her performance on the show, with Brian Lowry ofVarietystating that Louis-Dreyfus broke the so-called \\\"Seinfeldcurse with one of the best conventional half-hours to come along in a while.\\\"Alessandra Stanley fromThe New York Timesasserted that Louis-Dreyfus's performance on the series proved she is \\\"one of the funniest women on network television.\\\"Louis-Dreyfus also earned the 2006Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her performance in the first season. Referring to thecurse, she stated in her acceptance speech, \\\"I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this, baby!\\\"Throughout the course of the series, she received five consecutiveEmmy Awardnominations, three consecutiveSatellite Awardnominations, twoScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, and a nomination for aGolden Globe Award. In 2007, she also received two nominations for aPeople's Choice Awarddue to her return to popularity, thanks to the success ofOld Christine. In May 2006, Louis-Dreyfus hosted an episode ofSaturday Night Live, becoming the first female former cast member to return to the show as a host.In the episode, she appeared with herSeinfeldco-starsJason AlexanderandJerry Seinfeldin her opening monologue, parodying the so-called \\\"Seinfeldcurse\\\".After a successful reception of her 2006 episode, Louis-Dreyfus again hostedSNLon March 17, 2007, and April 17, 2016. Louis-Dreyfus reprised her role as Gloria in twoSimpsonsepisodes: 2007's \\\"I Don't Wanna Know Why the Caged Bird Sings\\\" and 2008's \\\"Sex, Pies and Idiot Scrapes\\\". In the fall of 2009, she appeared with the rest of the cast ofSeinfeldin four episodes of the seventh season ofLarry David's sitcomCurb Your Enthusiasm. The reunion shows received much media attention, and the episode received strong ratings for the series. In 2009, Louis-Dreyfus was granted the honorary award for Legacy of Laughter at theTV Land Awards. Previous winners had includedLucille BallandMike Myers. She was presented with the award by friendAmy Poehler. The following year, Louis-Dreyfus received the 2,407th star on theHollywood Walk of Fameon May 4, 2010, for her remarkable contribution to the broadcast television industry as both an actress and a comedian. Originally, the star was set with Louis-Dreyfus's name spelled incorrectly. It was missing both the 'o' and the hyphen in her last name.The star was corrected and the misspelled portion was removed and presented to her.Celebrity guests at the event included past and current colleagues from throughout her career, includingClark Gregg, Larry David,Eric McCormack, and Jason Alexander. Old Christinewas cancelled by CBS on May 18, 2010, after 5 years.Discussions were held with ABC to revive the show but they never came to fruition.In the spring of 2010, Louis-Dreyfus guest-starred several times in the third season of the web seriesWeb Therapy, starringLisa Kudrow. Louis-Dreyfus played the sister of the main character, Fiona Wallice, who gives her therapy online. When the series made the transition to cable television on theShowtimenetwork, Louis-Dreyfus's appearance from the web series was included in the second season, airing in July 2012.In fall 2010, Louis-Dreyfus made a guest appearance on the live episode of30 Rock, playingTina Fey's role ofLiz Lemonin the cutaway shots. Louis-Dreyfus was among severalSaturday Night Livealumni appearing in the episode, includingRachel Dratch,Bill Hader, and regularsTracy Morganand Fey herself. Louis-Dreyfus also starred in a \\\"Women of SNL\\\" special on November 1, 2010, on NBC. 2011–2019:Veepand acclaim In May and June 2011, Louis-Dreyfus teamed up with husband Brad Hall for her first short film,Picture Paris. This was the first time the couple had collaborated since their early-2000s NBC comedyWatching Ellie. Hall wrote and directed the film, while Louis-Dreyfus played the lead role of an ordinary woman with an extraordinary obsession with the city of Paris. The film premiered on January 29, 2012, at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival, and has received considerable critical acclaim.It made its television premiere on HBO on December 17, 2012. In early 2011, HBO confirmed that Louis-Dreyfus had been cast in the lead role of U.S. Vice President Selina Meyer in a new satirical comedy series titledVeep. The series was commissioned for a first season of eight episodes. In addition to her starring role, Louis-Dreyfus would also be a producer.In preparation for her role, Louis-Dreyfus spoke withAl Goreand another former vice president,senators, speechwriters, chiefs of staffs of various offices, and schedulers.Louis-Dreyfus commended HBO for allowing the cast and crew to engage in a \\\"protracted pre-production process\\\", which included a six-week rehearsal period before filming began. The first season was filmed in the fall of 2011, inBaltimore, and the series premiered on April 22, 2012.The premiere episode was met with high praise from critics, particularly for Louis-Dreyfus' performance.The Hollywood Reporterasserted the character of Selina Meyer was her \\\"best post-Seinfeld role\\\" to date and claimed she gives \\\"an Emmy-worthy effort\\\",while theLos Angeles Timescontended the series demonstrates she is \\\"one of the medium's great comediennes.\\\"Following the success of the first season, Louis-Dreyfus was named by theHuffington Postas one of the funniest people of 2012, asserting that she is the \\\"most magnetic and naturally funny woman on TV since Mary Tyler Moore.\\\" For her performance onVeep, Louis-Dreyfus received several accolades, most notably seven nominations for thePrimetime Emmy AwardsforOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesbetween 2012 and 2019, winning the award six times.These Emmy wins forVeep, following previous wins forSeinfeldandThe New Adventures of Old Christine, resulted in her becoming the only woman to win an acting award for three separate comedy series.Her sixth win in 2016 surpassed the record previously held byMary Tyler MooreandCandice Bergenfor the most wins in that category.In 2017, her sixth consecutive win, and eighth acting win, overall made her the performer with the most Emmys for the same role in the same series, surpassingCandice BergenandDon Knotts, and put her in a tie withCloris Leachmanfor the most Emmys ever won by a performer.She was also nominated as one of the producers forVeepin thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Seriescategory for all seven seasons, winning the award in 2015, 2016 and 2017 for the fourth, fifth and sixth seasons respectively.Louis-Dreyfus also received fiveCritics' Choice Television Awardnominations, winning twice in 2013 and 2014, tenScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, winning twice in 2014 and 2017, and fiveTelevision Critics Association Awardnominations, winning once in 2014. Her performance additionally garnered her fiveSatellite Awardnominations and five consecutiveGolden Globe Awardnominations. Louis-Dreyfus lent her voice to the 2013 animated filmPlanes, in the role of Rochelle. To date, the film has grossed well over $200 million at the box office worldwide.She also starred in the filmEnough Said, directed byNicole Holofcener, which was released on September 18, 2013.This marked her debut as a lead actress in a full-length feature film. The film garnered rave reviews from film critics, ranking among the best-reviewed films of 2013. The websiteRotten Tomatoesgives the film a score of 96% based on 152 reviews, many of them praising Louis-Dreyfus's performance.She received several Best Actress nominations including for theGolden Globe Awardsand theCritics' Choice Movie Awards. Another review aggregation website, Metacritic, gave the film a score of 78 out of 100, based on 44 critics, signifying \\\"generally favorable reviews\\\". Since December 2014, Louis-Dreyfus has appeared in a series of television commercials forOld Navy.In 2015 she acted in theComedy Centralsketch seriesInside Amy SchumeralongsideTina FeyandPatricia Arquette, playing a version of themselves giving advice on aging toAmy Schumer. Dreyfus said of the experience \\\"I started to feel unbelievably paranoid that I was making fun of myself and wondering, was this really happening to me? Like, how meta is this moment in my life? I started to have a kind of soul-searching crisis in the middle of the day. And I didn't know well enough to bring it up, so I was just trying to be a good sport even though I was dying a little bit on the inside.\\\"On April 16, 2016, she returned toSaturday Night Liveserving as host for the third time with musical guestNick Jonas. During the episode's cold open, she reprised her role of Elaine Benes fromSeinfeld. 2020–present: Career expansion In 2020, Louis-Dreyfus headlined the comedy-dramaDownhill, oppositeWill Ferrell. The film premiered at the2020 Sundance Film Festivaland was theatrically released on February 14.Next, she voiced a suburban elf mother inPixar'sOnwardoppositeTom HollandandChris Pratt. The film was released on March 6, 2020. In January 2020, Louis-Dreyfus signed a multi-year deal withApple TV+. Under the deal, she will develop new projects for Apple TV+ as both an executive producer and star.The following year Louis-Dreyfus appeared in theDisney+seriesThe Falcon and the Winter Soldier(2021) asValentina Allegra de Fontaine, which is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, though she was originally intended to debut in the filmBlack Widow(where she appears in the post credit scene).She reprised the role inBlack Panther: Wakanda Forever(2022), and will also appear in the upcoming filmThunderbolts*(2025). In 2022 she was a guest on theNetflixshowMy Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman. In 2023 she reunited withNicole Holofcenerstarring in theA24independent comedy filmYou Hurt My Feelings. Dreyfus produced the film and acted alongsideTobias Menzies,Michaela Watkins,Arian MoayedandJeannie Berlin. The film premiered at theSundance Film Festivalto positive reviews.Peter Bradshawpraised her performance writing, \\\"Louis-Dreyfus is such a superb comic performer that it is interesting seeing her take on something low-key\\\".That same year she portrayed a liberal Jewish mother in theNetflixromantic comedyYou People(2023). She also starred in the A24 filmTuesday, directed by Daina Oniunas-Pusić,which premiered at the 2023Telluride Film Festival. In 2023, Louis-Dreyfus became host of the podcastWiser Than Me.On the show, she interviews women older than her on their lived experience and earned wisdom. Guests have includedJane Fonda,Carol Burnett,Isabel AllendeandAmy Tan. The show, produced byLemonada Media, was named Apple's Best Podcast of the Year in 2023.Among her season two guests, Louis-Dreyfus interviewsBillie Jean King,Patti Smith, andJulie Andrews. Reception Louis-Dreyfus is widely regarded as one of the finest comedic actresses of her generation.Jake Coyle of theLubbock Avalanche-Journalsaid \\\"Few comediennes have both her gift for physical comedy ... vocal precision\\\".According to the journalistMolly Ball, Louis-Dreyfus has played mostly \\\"funny, self-centered women who are compelling despite often being ill-behaved\\\". Louis-Dreyfus said she had turned playing unlikeable people into a career.Ball said: \\\"She has also left an indelible cultural mark, expanding the possibilities for women in comedy–and maybe in politics and public life as well.\\\" Personal life Louis-Dreyfus' maternal half-sister,Lauren Bowles, is also an actress. She also has two paternal half-sisters, Phoebeand Emma. Emma died in August 2018. While at Northwestern University, Louis-Dreyfus met her future husband, theSaturday Night LivecomedianBrad Hall.They married in 1987 and have two sons.Their older son, Henry Hall, is a singer-songwriter who has performed onThe Tonight Show.Their younger son,Charlie Hall, is an actor.Her first pregnancy ended in a miscarriage. Louis-Dreyfus said she respects \\\"women who are not afraid of making themselves look bad or foolish to get a laugh\\\" and cites her acting idols asLucille Ball,Mary Tyler Moore,Madeline Kahn,Teri Garr,Valerie Harper, andCloris Leachman.The actressTina Feysaid that Louis-Dreyfus inspired her characterLiz Lemonon the NBC comedy series30 Rock. On September 28, 2017, Louis-Dreyfus announced that she had been diagnosed withbreast cancer, which she discovered the day after winning aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her role inVeep.She said: \\\"One in eight women get breast cancer. Today, I'm the one. The good news is that I have the most glorious group of supportive and caring family and friends, and fantastic insurance through my union. The bad news is that not all women are so lucky, so let's fight all cancers and makeuniversal healthcarea reality.\\\"On October 18, 2018, she announced on an episode ofJimmy Kimmel Live!that she was cancer-free.Louis-Dreyfus was raised Catholic but moved towards agnosticism; she said she had no \\\"traditional religious affiliation\\\". Advocacy and politics Louis-Dreyfus supportedAl Gore's 2000 U.S. presidential bid andBarack Obama's bid for the presidency in both 2008and 2012.She appeared in a video that urged Obama to reject the proposal of theKeystone XL pipeline, arguing that if the pipeline ever were to leak, it would cause massive pollution across the U.S.She has voiced her concern for several environmental issues and has raised millions forHeal the Bay, theNatural Resources Defense Council, and theTrust for Public Land. She also worked for the successful passage of Proposition O, which allocated $500 million for cleaning up the Los Angeleswater supply. In October 2010, before theU.S. Senate election in California, Louis-Dreyfus starred in a humorousBarbara Boxerad regardingenergy policy.During the2016 Democratic National Convention, she supportedHillary Clintonin that year'spresidential election.In her acceptance speech at the 2017Screen Actors Guild Awards, she denounced PresidentDonald Trump'sexecutive order, referred to as the \\\"Muslim ban\\\", as \\\"un-American\\\" and said, \\\"My father fled religious persecution inNazi-occupied France.\\\" Louis-Dreyfusemceedthe final night of the2020 Democratic National Convention, endorsingJoe Biden.She has also published information regarding voting by mailand urged all Americans to vote.Louis-Dreyfus endorsed RepresentativeKaren Bassin the2022 Los Angeles mayoral election, in various social media posts. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Julia Louis-Dreyfus has won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesseven times: once for her role onThe New Adventures of Old Christine(2006) and six consecutive awards for playingSelina MeyeronVeep(2012–17), as well asOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesonce forSeinfeld(1996). As of 2017, she holds the record for the most Primetime Emmy awards as an actor for the same role and is tied with fellow Northwestern University alumCloris Leachmanfor the most acting Primetime Emmy awards (with eight). She has also been nominated for nineGolden Globe Awards, winning one for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film for her role asElaine Beneson Seinfeld (1995). She has also been nominated for twenty-oneScreen Actors Guild Awardsand has won five for individual performance (nine altogether) for her work onSeinfeld(1997–98) andVeep(2014, 2017–18). In 2016, she won the Crossover Talent award at the 4th Annual American Reality Television Awards. In 2018 she was the twentieth recipient of theMark Twain Prize for American Humor. In 2023, the podcast she hosts,Wiser Than Me, won Apple's Best Podcast of the Year. References External links\",\n \"Michael Richards Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Michael Anthony Richards(born July 24, 1949) is an American actor and former stand-up comedian. He achieved global recognition for starring asCosmo Krameron the NBC television sitcomSeinfeldfrom 1989 to 1998. He began his career as a stand-up comedian, first entering the national spotlight when he was featured onBilly Crystal's first cable TV special, and went on to become a series regular onABC'sFridays. From 1989 to 1998, he played Cosmo Kramer onSeinfeld, three times receiving thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. During the run ofSeinfeld, he made a guest appearance inMad About You, reprising his role as Kramer. Richards also made numerous guest appearances on a variety of television shows, such asCheers. His film credits includeSo I Married an Axe Murderer,Airheads,Young Doctors in Love,Problem Child,Coneheads,UHF, andTrial and Error, one of his few starring roles. In 2000, he starred in his own sitcom,The Michael Richards Show, which was canceled after only two months. Afterwards, Richards returned to stand-up. In 2006, he was filmed going on a racist tirade against hecklers while performing at theLaugh FactoryinCalifornia. After the tape was obtained and released byTMZ,significant backlash and media coverage led to Richards retiring from stand-up in early 2007. In 2009, he appeared as himself in theseventh seasonofCurb Your Enthusiasmalongside his fellowSeinfeldcast members for the first time since the show’sfinale. In 2013, he portrayed Frank in the sitcomKirstie, which was canceled after one season.He most recently played Daddy Hogwood in the 2019 romantic comedyFaith, Hope & Love. Early life Richards was born inCulver City, California, to aCatholicfamily.He is the son of Phyllis (née Nardozzi), amedical recordslibrarian. As a child Richards was told his father was William Richards, anelectrical engineer,who died in a car crash when Michael was two.He later learned his mother's pregnancy was the result of a sexual assault, and she had considered abortion and adoption before deciding to raise him as a single mom. Richards was also raised by a grandmother who suffered fromschizophrenia. Richards graduated fromThousand Oaks High School. In 1968, he appeared as a contestant onThe Dating Game, but was not chosen for the date. He wasdraftedinto theUnited States Armyin 1970. He trained as a medic and was stationed inWest Germanywhere he was a member of a theatrical group called The Training Road Show.He became interested in performing after taking a theatrical class in seventh grade. After being honorably discharged, Richards used the benefits of theG.I. Billto enroll in theCalifornia Institute of the Artsand earned aBachelor of Artsin drama fromthe Evergreen State Collegein 1975.He also had a short-livedimprovact withEd Begley Jr.During this period, he enrolled atLos Angeles Valley Collegeand continued to appear in student productions. Career 1979–1989: Early career Richards got his big TV break in 1979, appearing inBilly Crystal's first cable TV special. In 1980, he began as one of the cast members onABC'sFridaystelevision show, whereLarry Davidwas a fellow cast member and writer. It includeda famous instancein whichAndy Kaufmanrefused to deliver his scripted lines, leading Richards to bring thecue cardson screen to Kaufman, who responded by throwing his drink into Richards' face, causing a small riot (Richards later claimed he was in on the joke).The filmMan on the Moonfeatured a re-enactment of theAndy Kaufman incidentwhere Richards was portrayed by actorNorm Macdonald. In 1981, he appeared in theIt's a Livingepisode \\\"Desperate Hours\\\".In 1986, Richards had a minor role in the cult satirical TV miniseriesFresno, playing one of a pair of inept criminal henchmen. That same year he auditioned to playAl Bundyin the TV seriesMarried... with Children, but he was passed over forEd O'Neill.In 1989, Richards had a supporting role in\\\"Weird Al\\\" Yankovic's comedy filmUHFas janitor Stanley Spadowski. On television, he appeared inMiami Viceas an unscrupulousbookie; inSt. Elsewhereas a television producer making a documentary about Dr. Mark Craig; inCheersas a character trying to collect on an old bet withSam Malone; and made several guest appearances withJay Lenoas an accident-prone fitness expert. According to an interview with executive producer David Hoberman, ABC first conceived the seriesMonkas a procedural police comedy with anInspector Clouseau-like character suffering fromobsessive-compulsive disorder. Hoberman said ABC wanted Richards to playAdrian Monk, but he turned it down. 1989–2005:Seinfeldand rise to prominence In 1989, Richards was cast asCosmo Kramerin theNBCtelevision seriesSeinfeld, created by fellowFridayscast memberLarry Davidand comedianJerry Seinfeld. Although it got off to a slow start, by the mid-1990s it had become one of the most popularsitcomsin television history. It ended its nine-year run in 1998 at No. 1 in theNielsen ratings. InSeinfeld, Kramer is the neighbor across the hall of the show'seponymous character, and is usually referred to only by his last name. His first name, Cosmo, was revealed in the sixth-season episode \\\"The Switch\\\". Richards won more Emmys than any otherSeinfeldcast member, taking home the award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 1993, 1994, and 1997 for his role as Kramer. When referring to speculation that he would launch aspin-offtoSeinfeldabout Kramer, Richards said he was not interested in doing so.During the run ofSeinfeld, Richards made cameo appearances in several TV shows; he played himself in Episode2 of Season1 \\\"The Flirt Episode\\\" (1992) of theHBOseriesThe Larry Sanders Show. He also had acameo rolein the comedy thriller filmSo I Married an Axe Murderer, credited as \\\"insensitive man\\\". In 1996, Richards made a cameo in Epcot'sEllen's Energy Adventure, where he portrayed a caveman discovering fire. He played radio station employee Doug Beech inAirheads, and co-starred withJeff Danielsas an actor pretending to be a lawyer in 1997'sTrial and Error. He also made guest appearances onMiami Vice,Night CourtandCheers. In 2000, two years after the end ofSeinfeld, Richards began work on a new series for NBC, his first major project sinceSeinfeld's finale.The Michael Richards Show, for which Richards received co-writer and co-executive producercredits, was conceived as a comedy/mystery starring Richards as a bumbling private investigator. When the first pilot failed with test audiences, NBC ordered that the show be retooled into a more conventional, office-based sitcom before its premiere. After a few weeks of poor ratings and negative reviews, it was canceled. Critics said the show was too \\\"Kramer-esque\\\" and Richards invoked the so-called \\\"Seinfeldcurse\\\" as to why the show failed. Starting in 2004, he and his fellowSeinfeldcast members provided interviews and audio commentaries for theSeinfeldDVDs. Richards stepped down from providing audio commentary after Season5, though he continued to provide interviews. 2006–2012: Laugh Factory incident and aftermath During a performance on November 17, 2006, at theLaugh Factoryin Hollywood, California, Richards launched into a racist rant in response to repeated heckling and interruptions from a small group of Black and Hispanic audience members. Richards was recorded shouting \\\"He's anigger!\\\" several times and making references tolynchingand theJim Crow laws.Kyle Doss, a member of the group that Richards addressed, said the group had arrived in the middle of the performance and were \\\"being a little loud.\\\" According to Doss: said, \\\"Look at the stupid Mexicans and blacks being loud up there.\\\" That's the first thing he said. And then he kept on with his bit. And, then, after a while, I told him, \\\"My friend doesn't think you're funny.\\\" And then when I told him that, that's when he flipped me off and said, \\\"F-you N-word.\\\" And that's how it all started. The incident remained unknown to the larger public for three days until acellphonevideo filmed by a member of the audience was obtained and released byTMZ. On November 20, after the video made rounds around the news,Jerry Seinfeldinvited Richards via satellite during a broadcast of theLate Show with David Letterman, where Richards was recorded saying: \\\"I'm not doing too good. I lost my temper on stage; I was at a comedy club trying to do my act and I got heckled and I took it badly and went into a rage. And, uh, said some pretty, uh, nasty things to some Afro-Americans.\\\"Many studio audience members laughed as Richards began his unscripted explanation and apology, thinking it was abit, leading Seinfeld to reprimand them, saying: \\\"Stop laughing. It's not funny.\\\" Richards said he had been trying to defuse the heckling by being even more outrageous, but it had backfired. He later called civil rights leadersAl SharptonandJesse Jacksonto apologize.He also appeared as a guest on Jackson's syndicated radio show.Doss stated that he did not accept Richards's apology, saying: \\\"If he wanted to apologize, he could have contacted ... one of us out of the group. But, he didn't. He apologized on camera just because the tape got out.\\\" AGalluppoll conducted in late November found that Richards was then the most unpopularSeinfeldcast member, with just 41 percent viewing him positively; by contrast, otherSeinfeldcast members' favorability ratings were in the 60s and 70s.The same poll also found that 45 percent of non-whites expressed a negative view of Richards due to the incident.The incident was parodied on several TV shows, includingMad TV,Family Guy,South Park,Extras, andMonday Night Raw. In the ninth episode of the seventh season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm, Richards appeared as himself and poked fun at the incident. In 2008, rapperWalereferenced the incident and used recordings of the incident, as well as Richard's apology, in the song \\\"The Kramer\\\" onThe Mixtape About Nothingalbum. One year following the incident, Richards voiced character Bud Ditchwater in the animated filmBee Movie, which starred and was produced byJerry Seinfeld. In 2009, Richards and the other mainSeinfeldcast members appeared in the seventh season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm.In 2012, he appeared in the comedy web seriesComedians in Cars Getting Coffee, hosted by Seinfeld, in which he remarked on the 2006 incident.In the episode, Richards explained that the outburst still haunted him, and was a major reason for his retirement from stand-up. 2013–present: Recent years In 2013, Richards was cast to play Frank in the sitcomKirstie, costarringKirstie AlleyandRhea Perlman. It premiered onTV Landon December 4, 2013and was canceled after one season.In 2014, Richards appeared as the president of Crackle in a trailer for Season5 ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffee. Seinfeld said the trailer's storyline would be expanded on in one of the episodes. In 2019, Richards played Daddy Hogwood in the romantic comedyFaith, Hope & LovestarringPeta Murgatroydand Robert Krantz. In June 2024Richards released a memoir entitledEntrances and Exits. Personal life Richards was married to Cathleen Lyons, a familytherapist, for 18 years. They have one daughter, Sophia. They separated in 1992 and divorced the following year. In 2010, Richards married his girlfriend Beth Skipp. They have been together since 2002 and have one son, Antonio. Richards is aFreemason. Richards revealed in his 2024 memoirEntrances and Exitsthat he survived stage 1 prostate cancer in 2018 via a surgical removal of his entire prostate. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Bibliography References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Seinfeld Seinfeld(/ˈsaɪnfɛld/SYNE-feld) is an Americantelevision sitcomcreated byLarry DavidandJerry Seinfeldthat originally aired onNBCfrom July 5, 1989, to May 14, 1998, with a total of nine seasons consisting of180 episodes. Itsensemble caststars Seinfeld as afictionalized version of himselfand focuses on his personal life with three of his friends: best friendGeorge Costanza(Jason Alexander), former girlfriendElaine Benes(Julia Louis-Dreyfus), and neighbor from across the hall,Cosmo Kramer(Michael Richards). Seinfeldis set mostly in and around the titular character's apartment inManhattan'sUpper West SideinNew York City. It has been described as \"a show about nothing\", often focusing on theminutiae of daily life.Interspersed in all episodes of the first seven seasons are moments ofstand-up comedyfrom the fictional Jerry Seinfeld, frequently related to the episode's events. As a rising comedian in the late 1980s, Jerry Seinfeld was presented with an opportunity to create a show with NBC. He asked Larry","NBC. He asked Larry David, a fellow comedian and friend, to help create a premise for a sitcom.The series was produced by West-Shapiro Productions andCastle Rock Entertainmentand distributed byColumbia Pictures Television.It was largely written by David and Seinfeld and scriptwriters. A favorite among critics, the series led theNielsen ratingsin Seasons 6 and 9 and finished among the top two (along withERof the same network) every year from 1994 to 1998. Only two other shows—I Love LucyandThe Andy Griffith Show—finished their runs at the top of the ratings. Seinfeldis widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential shows of all time. It has been ranked among television's best shows in publications such asEntertainment Weekly,Rolling StoneandTV Guide.Its most renowned episodes include \"The Chinese Restaurant\", \"The Soup Nazi\", \"The Parking Garage\",\"The Marine Biologist\", and \"The Contest\".In 2013, theWriters Guild of Americavoted it the second best-written TV series of all time (second toThe","time (second toThe Sopranos).E!named it the \"Number 1 reason the '90s ruled\".Quotes from numerous episodes have become catchphrases in popular culture. Production Conception Seinfeldbegan as a 23-minute pilot titled \"The Seinfeld Chronicles\". Created byJerry SeinfeldandLarry David, developed by NBC executive Rick Ludwin, and produced byCastle Rock Entertainment, it was a mix of Seinfeld's stand-up comedy routines and idiosyncratic, conversational scenes focusing on mundane aspects of everyday life like laundry, the buttoning of the top button on one's shirt, and the effort by men to interpret the intent of women spending the night in Seinfeld's apartment. The pilot was filmed at Stage 8 ofDesilu Cahuengastudios, the same studio whereThe Dick Van Dyke Showwas filmed (seen by the crew as a good omen),and was recorded at Ren-Mar Studios inHollywood.The pilot was first screened to a group of two dozen NBC executives inBurbank, California, in early 1989. It did not yield the explosion of laughter garnered by the","garnered by the pilots for the decade's previous NBC successes likeThe Cosby ShowandThe Golden Girls.Brandon Tartikoffwas not convinced the show would work. A Jewish man from New York himself, Tartikoff characterized it as \"Too New York, too Jewish\" (a sentiment which would also lead to the Cosmo character's later surname change from the more Jewish-sounding Kessler to Kramer).Test audiences were even harsher. NBC's practice at the time was to recruit 400 households by phone to ask them to evaluate pilots it aired on an unused channel on its cable system. An NBC research department memo summarized the pilot's performance among the respondents as \"weak,\" whichWarren Littlefield, then second-in-command in NBC's entertainment division, called \"a dagger to the heart.\"Comments included, \"You can't get too excited about two guys going to the laundromat,\" \"Jerry's loser friend George isn't a forceful character,\" \"Jerry needs a stronger supporting cast,\" and \"Why are they interrupting the stand-up for these stupid","for these stupid stories?\"Seinfeld and David did not see the memo for several years, but after they became aware of it, they hung it in a bathroom on the set. Seinfeld comments, \"We thought, if someone goes in to use this bathroom, this is something they should see. It fits that moment.\" Around the time the show's pilot was filmed, Castle Rock Entertainment, which produced the show, had also produced another pilot for NBC that featuredAnn Jillianin her almost-similarly eponymous TV series. WhenThe Seinfeld Chroniclestested poorly with audiences, Castle Rock focused on Jillian's series, which tested better with audiences and received a full-season order.Ann Jillianlasted only a single season of 13 episodes and was off the air by the end of 1990. First seasons When NBC announced its 1989–90 (primetime) schedule in May 1989,The Seinfeld Chronicleswas not included, but the show's supporters did not give up. The pilot first aired on July 5, 1989, and finished second in its time slot against the CBS police","the CBS police dramaJake and the Fatman,receiving aNielsen ratingof 10.9/19.The ratings did not exhibit the regional skew Tartikoff predicted, much to the encouragement of the show's supporters. Ludwin canceled one of theBob Hopespecials budgeted for that season so the entertainment division had the money to order four more episodes ofThe Seinfeld Chronicles, which formed the rest ofthe show's first season(the series was by then retitled toSeinfeld)—a move without whichChicago TribunecolumnistPhil Rosenthallater said there \"would be noSeinfeld\".Although this was a very low order number for a new series—and the smallest sitcom order in TV history—Castle Rock failed to find any other buyers when it shopped the show to other networks, and accepted the order.Seinfelddid not return to the airwaves until May 30, 1990, and it was another three years before it became a Top 5-rated show. Preston Beckman, in charge of NBC's research department at the time, reminisced, \"The show was different. Nobody had seen anything","had seen anything like it. It wasn't unusual for poor-testing shows to get on the air, but it was very rare that they became hits.\" When the program was first repeated on July 5, 1990, it received a rating of 13.9/26. These ratings were high enough to secure a second season.NBC research showed that the show was popular with young male adults, a demographic sought after by advertisers. This gave NBC an incentive to keep broadcasting the show.One DVD reviewer, Britt Gillette, wrote that \"this initial episode exhibits the flashes of brilliance that madeSeinfelda cultural phenomenon.\" Filming Other than the pilot, the series was filmed atCBS Studio CenterinStudio City, Los Angeles. The first three seasons were filmed on Soundstage 19; it then moved to the larger Stage 9 for the remainder of its production.Despite numerous establishing shots taken in New York City,all scenes of the actors walking in New York were also filmed at CBS Studio Center, on their New York Streetbacklot.Street scenes and park scenes were","park scenes were filmed in the CBS Studio Centre's New York Street and Central Park backlots, respectively. A source of problems for the cast was the small sets, especially that of Jerry's apartment; Alexander noted, \"If you knew you were doing a series for nine years, you would never build that set.\" Adding to the problem was that the scripts contained only minimal physical direction, leaving the actors needing help to come up with actions to perform while speaking. Eventually, they got into a routine of directing each other on how to make their movements look natural. Alexander said this helped them build chemistry with each other. Filming usually went long, as the cast and Larry David were perfectionists. If a joke did not elicit the desired reaction, they rewrote it and performed it again. In at least one case, \"The Marine Biologist,\" this led to David writing an entirely new scene requiring Alexander to memorize a monologue in only a matter of minutes.Laugh tracks were used only for matching shots, not","matching shots, not for artificially adding laughter. Various locations used for establishing shots included Tom's Restaurant at 112th Street and Broadway (Monk's Cafe), Midtown West's Roosevelt Hospital (recurring exterior emergency room scene and indoor scenes in 'The Junior Mint' and 'The Bris'), Cornell Medical Centre at 525 East 68th Street, 22-39 37th Street, Queens (The Costanza's house), the Taconic State Parkway exit to the Hopewell Junction, Dutchess County, New York (driving scene in 'The Bubble Boy'), and the Amagansett farmers market, Long Island ('The Hamptons'). The exterior shot used for Jerry's New York apartment building was actually located at 757 S New Hampshire Avenue, Los Angeles. The real-life exterior of Pendant Publishing, Elaine's workplace, is located at 1325 Ave of the Americas, New York. The live stand-up comedy performed by Seinfeld at the beginning of most episodes was truly filmed at The Improv, a comedy club at 358 West 44th Street, Manhattan; though it closed in 1993,","it closed in 1993, another comedy club operates at the site today.TheYankee Stadiumexterior seen in the show has now been demolished. Most office building establishing shots are real businesses and locations. Various real street locations can be gleaned from the car windows during driving scenes. By the final season, each episode of the series cost $3 million to $3.5 million. More than 120 episodes make reference to theSupermanfranchise.Teri Hatcher, who played Lois Lane onLois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, plays Jerry's girlfriend Sidra.Paula Marshall, who played Christina Riley ontheSuperboyTV series, portrays the journalist Sharon, who Jerry says reminds him of Lois Lane.Sherman Howard, who played Lex Luthor onSuperboy, portrays Roy. Superman logos and figurines frequently appear in Jerry's apartment. Seinfeld and Superman later appear in an American Express commercial. The show was written by David and Seinfeld, along with writers who includedLarry Charles,Peter Mehlman,Gregg Kavet,Carol","Kavet,Carol Leifer,David Mandel,Jeff Schaffer,Steve Koren,Jennifer Crittenden,Tom Gammill,Max Pross,Dan O'Keefe,Charlie Rubin,Marjorie Gross,Alec Berg,Elaine Pope, andSpike Feresten. Series overview Plotlines ManySeinfeldepisodes are based on the writers' real-life experiences, with the experiences reinterpreted for the characters' storylines. For example, George's storyline in \"The Revenge\" is based on Larry David's experience atSaturday Night Live.\"The Contest\" is also based on David's experiences. \"The Smelly Car\" storyline is based on Peter Mehlman's lawyer friend, who could not get a bad smell out of his car. \"The Strike\" is based on Dan O'Keefe's dad, who made up his own holiday:Festivus.Other stories take a variety of turns. \"The Chinese Restaurant\" consists of George, Jerry, and Elaine waiting for a table throughout the entire episode.\"The Boyfriend\", revolving aroundKeith Hernandez, extends through two episodes. \"The Betrayal\" is famous for usingreverse chronologyand was inspired by a similar plot","by a similar plot device in aHarold Pinterplay,Betrayal.Some stories were inspired by headlines and rumors, as explained in the DVD features \"Notes About Nothing\", \"Inside Look\" and \"Audio Commentary.\" In \"The Maestro,\" Kramer's lawsuit is roughly similar to theMcDonald's coffee case.\"The Outing\" is based primarily on rumors that Larry Charles heard about Jerry Seinfeld's sexuality. Themes The series was often described as \"a show about nothing.\"However, in 2014, Seinfeld stated: \"The pitch for the show, the real pitch, when Larry and I went to NBC in 1988, was we want to show how a comedian gets his material. The show \"about nothing\" was just a joke in an episode many years later, and Larry and I to this day are surprised that it caught on as a way that people describe the show because, to us, it's the opposite of that.\"David similarly commented: \"I like taking the worst qualities that a person has and trying to make something funny out of it. Doesn't everybody do terrible things and have terrible","and have terrible thoughts? Just by trying to be as funny, you're going to deal with a lot of things that are real, so the show's really about something. The whole thing about the show being about nothing is ridiculous.\" Much of the show's humor is based upon repeated use of irony, incongruity, and (oftentimes unfortunate) coincidences. Additionally, guest characters are frequently introduced with little to no context, with a humorous focus on the atypical names of these characters, which often contain alliteration. In keeping with Seinfeld's reputation as a clean comedian,though the show frequently contains dialogue around sexual themes, the show notably avoids using almost all explicit sexual terminology. Notably, in the popular episode \"The Contest,\" whose plot line concerns a contest amongst the main characters to see which one can go the longest without masturbating, the word 'masturbation' is never mentioned.Seinfeldbroke several conventions of mainstream television. David is credited with refusing to","with refusing to follow a predictable sitcom formula that would have a romantic relationship develop between Jerry and Elaine. The show offers no growth or reconciliation to its characters and eschews sentimentality.An episode is typically driven by humor interspersed with the superficial conflicts of characters with peculiar dispositions. Many episodes revolve around the characters' involvement in the lives of others, with typically disastrous results. On the set, the notion that the characters should not develop or improve throughout the series was expressed as the \"no hugging, no learning\" rule.The characters are \"thirty-something singles with vague identities, no roots, and conscious indifference to morals.\"Also unlike most sitcoms, there are no moments ofpathos; the audience is never made to feel sorry for any of the characters. Even Susan's death in \"The Invitations\" elicits no genuine emotions from anybody in the show.Seinfelddoes not shy away from making light of tough topics, from death to illness","death to illness to disability. The show frequently engages in fourth-wall-breaking humor and self-satire. One such example is thestory arc, where the characters promote a TV sitcom series namedJerry. Theshow within a show,Jerrywas much likeSeinfeldin that it was \"about nothing,\" and Seinfeld played himself. The fictionalJerrywas launched in the Season 4 finale, but unlikeSeinfeld, it wasn't picked up as a series.Jerryis one of many examples ofmetafictionin the show. There are no fewer than 22 fictional movies featured, likeRochelle, Rochelle.Because of these several elements,Seinfeldbecame the first TV series sinceMonty Python's Flying Circusto be widely described aspostmodern. Seinfeld is an avidAbbott and Costellofan and has citedThe Abbott and Costello Showas an influence onSeinfeld: \"Everybody on the show knows I'm a fan. We're always joking about how we do stuff from their show. George and I will often get into a riff that has the rhythm from the old Abbott and Costello shows. And sometimes, I'll hit","sometimes, I'll hit George in the chest the way Abbott would hit Costello.\" The series includes numerous references to the team. George Costanza's middle name is \"Louis\", after Costello.\"The Old Man\" episode features a cantankerous character named \"Sid Fields\" as a tribute to the landlord on the team's TV show. Kramer's friend is named Mickey Abbott. A copywriter for the J. Peterman catalog is named Eddie Sherman, after the team's longtime agent. In Episode 30, Kramer hears the famous Abbott and Costello line, \"His father was a mudder. His mother was a mudder.\" Catchphrases Many terms were coined, popularized, or re-popularized in the series' run and have become part of popular culture,including \"Yada, yada, yada\",\"No soup for you!\", \"Master of my domain\", and \"Not that there's anything wrong with that.\" The lexicon of Seinfeldian code words and recurring phrases that evolved around particular episodes is referred to asSeinlanguage, which is also the title of Jerry Seinfeld's best-selling book on humor.These","book on humor.These terms include \"man hands\", \"shrinkage\", \"regift\", and \"double dip\". Consumer products A recurring feature ofSeinfeldwas its inclusion of specific products, especiallycandy, as plot points. These might be a central feature of a plot (e.g.,Junior Mints,Twix,Chuckles,Jujyfruits, bite-sizeThree Musketeers,Snickers,Chunky,Oh Henry!,Drake'sCoffee Cake andPEZ), or an association of candy with a guest character (e.g.Oh Henry!bars) or simply a conversational aside (e.g.,Chuckles,Clark Bar,Twinkies). A large number of non-candy products were also featured throughout the series. The show's creators claim that they weren't engaging in a product placement strategy for commercial gain. One motivation for the use of real-world products, entirely unrelated to commercial considerations, is the comedy value of funny-sounding phrases and words. \"I knew I wanted Kramer to think of watching the operation like going to see a movie,\" explainedSeinfeldwriter/producer Andy Robin in an interview published inThe","published inThe Hollywood Reporter. \"At first, I thought maybe a piece of popcorn falls into the patient. I ran that by my brother, and he said, 'No, Junior Mints are just funnier.'\" Many advertisers capitalized on the popularity ofSeinfeld.American Expresscreated awebisodewhere Jerry Seinfeld and an animatedSuperman(voiced byPatrick Warburton, who played the role of Puddy) starred in its commercial. The makers of theToday Spongecreated the \"Spongeworthy\" game on their website, inspired by \"The Sponge.\" An advertisement featured Jason Alexander in aChryslercommercial. In this, Alexander acts much like his character George, and his relationship withLee Iacoccaplays on George's relationship with Steinbrenner. Similarly, Michael Richards was the focus of a series of advertisements forVodafone, which ran inAustralia, where he dressed and acted precisely like Kramer, including the trademark bumbling pratfalls. In addition, the show occasionally incorporated fictional products like aScotchbrand called \"Hennigan's\"","called \"Hennigan's\" (a blend of \"Hennessy\" and \"Brannigans\") and acanned meatproduct called \"Beef-a-reeno\" (a parody of \"Beef-a-roni\"). Music A signature ofSeinfeldis its theme music. Composed byJonathan Wolff, it consists of distinct solosampledelectric bassriffs that open the show and connect the scenes, often accompanied bybeatboxing.The bass music eventually replaced the original piano/synth music by Jep Epstein when it was played again after the first broadcast ofthe pilot episode. The show lacked a traditional title track and the riffs were played over the first moments of dialogue or action. They vary throughout each episode and are played in an improvised funk style, matching the timing of Seinfeld's stand-up comedy delivery or transitions in the editing. An additional musical theme with an ensemble, led by a synthesized mid-range brass instrument, ends each episode. In \"The Note,\" the first episode of Season 3, the bumper music featured ascattingfemale jazz singer who sang a phrase that sounded like","that sounded like the tuneEasy To Beat. Jerry Seinfeld and executive producer Larry David both liked Wolff's additions, and three episodes were produced with this new style of music. However, they had neglected to inform NBC and Castle Rock executives of the change, and when the season premiere aired, the executives were surprised and unimpressed and requested that they return to the original style. The subsequent two episodes were redone, leaving this episode as the only one with additional music elements.In the commentary of \"The Note,\" Louis-Dreyfus facetiously suggests it was removed because the perceived lyric related closely to the low ratings at the time.In the final three seasons, the bits were tweaked slightly with more frantic rhythms; a bass guitar was added in addition to the sampled bass from earlier seasons. Throughout the show, the main theme could be restyled in different ways depending on the episode. For instance, in \"The Betrayal,\" part of which takes place in India, the theme is heard","the theme is heard played on asitar. The soundtrack was given a digital release on July 2, 2021. All music is composed by Jonathan Wolff. Cast and characters Main characters Recurring characters Many characters have made multiple appearances, notably Jerry's parents, Morty and Helen Seinfeld, who reside in Florida; George's parents, the overbearing Frank and Estelle Costanza; George's on-again, off-again fiancée Susan Ross; Jerry'sUncle Leo; Elaine's variety of bosses, Mr. Lippman, Mr. Pitt and J. Peterman; Elaine's on-again, off-again boyfriend David Puddy; and Kramer's friend,Newman, a mail carrier who lives in the same building and is Jerry's nemesis. In addition to recurring characters,Seinfeldfeatures numerous celebrities who appear as themselves or as girlfriends, boyfriends, bosses, and other acquaintances. A number of actresses made guest appearances as Seinfeld's love interests in single episodes: Episodes Compared to other family and groupsitcomsof the era,Seinfeldstood out. The principal","out. The principal characters are not related by family or work-associated connections but remain distinctly close friends throughout the series. Many characters were based primarily on Seinfeld's and David's real-life acquaintances. Two prominent recurring characters were fictional depictions of actual well-known people:Jacopo Petermanof theJ. Petermancatalog (based onJohn Peterman)andGeorge Steinbrenner, owner of theNew York Yankees.Many characters were introduced as new writers got involved withSeinfeld. Other characters based on real people include theSoup NaziandJackie Chiles, who was based onJohnnie Cochran. Episodes have separate plot strands, but the characters' stories often intertwine at the end. The narratives reveal the creators' \"consistent efforts to maintain the intimacy\" among the small cast of characters. The show maintains a strong sense ofcontinuity, as characters and plots from past episodes are often referenced or expanded on. Occasionally, story arcs span multiple episodes or entire","episodes or entire seasons, such asSeason 4, which revolves around thepilotpitch to NBC by Jerry and George. Another example is Jerry's girlfriend Vanessa, who appears in \"The Stake Out\" and with whom he ends the relationship when things do not work out in \"The Stock Tip\".Larry David, the head writer and executive producer for the first seven seasons, was praised for keeping a close eye on minor details and ensuring the main characters' lives remained consistent and believable.Curb Your Enthusiasm, David's later comedy series, also had an overarching plot for all but the first season. A major difference betweenSeinfeldand the sitcoms that preceded it is that the principal characters never learn from their mistakes. In effect, they are indifferent and even callous toward the outside world and sometimes one another. Amantraof the show's producers was \"No hugging, no learning.\"Entertainment Weekly's TV criticKen Tuckerhas described them as \"a group dynamic rooted in jealousy, rage, insecurity, despair,","despair, hopelessness, and a touching lack of faith in one's fellow human beings.\"This leads to very few happy endings, except at somebody else's expense. More often in every episode, situations resolve with characters getting a justly deservedcomeuppance. Seasons 1–3 The show premiered asThe Seinfeld Chronicleson July 5, 1989. After it aired, a pickup by NBC seemed unlikely, and the show was offered toFox, which declined to pick it up.Rick Ludwin, head of late night and special events for NBC, however, diverted money from his budget by canceling aBob Hope television special, and the next four episodes were filmed.These episodes were highly rated as they followed summer re-runs ofCheerson Thursdays at 9:30 p.m., and the series was finally picked up. At one point, NBC considered airing these episodes on Saturdays at 10:30 p.m. but gave the slot to a short-lived sitcom calledFMinstead. The series was renamed simplySeinfeldas a precautionary measure due to the failure of the short-lived 1990ABCseries with a","with a similarly sounding title,The Marshall Chronicles.After airing the remaining four episodes of its first season the summer of 1990, NBC ordered 13 more episodes. David believed that he and Seinfeld had no more stories to tell and advised Seinfeld to turn down the order, but Seinfeld agreed to the additional episodes.Season 2 was bumped off its scheduled premiere of January 16, 1991, due to the outbreak of thePersian Gulf War. It settled into a regular time slot on Wednesdays at 9:30 p.m. and eventually flipped with veteran seriesNight Courtto 9 p.m. TV critics championedSeinfeldin its early seasons, even as it was slow to cultivate a substantial audience. For the first three seasons, Jerry's stand-up comedy act would bookend at the beginning and end of each episode, even functioning as transitions during the show. A few episodes set a benchmark for later seasons. \"The Deal\" establishes Jerry and Elaine's relationship by setting rules about having sex while remaining friends.\"The Parking Garage\" was the","Garage\" was the first episode shot with no audience for the episode and, after \"The Chinese Restaurant\", to not show Jerry's apartment.\"The Keys\" contains a crossover toCBSshowMurphy Brown, marking the first such cooperation between rival networks.\"The Busboy\" introduces George, Kramer and Elaine as having their own storylines for the first time. Although Castle Rock Entertainment's Glenn Padnick thought Seinfeld was too generous, showcasing his co-stars' comedic talent became a trademark throughout the series. Larry Charles wrote an episode for Season 2, \"The Bet,\" in which Elaine buys a gun from Kramer's friend. This episode was not filmed because the content was deemed unacceptable, and it was replaced by the episode \"The Phone Message\".\"The Stranded,\" which aired during Season 3, was initially intended for Season 2. At the beginning of this episode, Jerry clears up the continuity error over George's real estate job. Seasons 4–5 Season 4 marked the sitcom's entry into theNielsen ratingsTop 30. It contains","30. It contains several of the most popular episodes, such as \"The Bubble Boy\" in which George and the bubble boy argue overTrivial Pursuit,and \"The Junior Mint\" in which Jerry and Kramer accidentally fumble a mint in the operating room.This was the first season to use a story arc of Jerry and George creating their own sitcom,Jerry. Also, at this time, the use of Jerry's stand-up act slowly declined, and the stand-up segment in the middle ofSeinfeldepisodes was cut. Much publicity followed the controversial episode \"The Contest,\" anEmmy Award-winning episode written by David, whose subject matter was considered inappropriate for prime-time network TV. To circumvent this taboo, the word \"masturbation\" was never used in the script, instead substituted for by a variety of oblique references.Midway through that season,Seinfeldwas moved from its original 9:00 p.m. time slot on Wednesdays to 9:30 p.m. on Thursdays, followingCheersagain, which gave the show even more popularity. Ratings also sparked the move, asTim","the move, asTim Allen's sitcomHome Improvementon ABC had aired at the same time, andHome Improvementkept beatingSeinfeldin the ratings. NBC moved the series afterTed Dansonannounced the end ofCheersandSeinfeldquickly surpassed the ratings of the 9:00 p.m.Cheersreruns that spring.The show won an Emmy Award forOutstanding Comedy Seriesin 1993, beating out its family-oriented, time-slot competitorHome Improvement, which was only in its second season on rival network ABC. Season 5 was an even bigger ratings hit, consisting of popular episodes, such as \"The Puffy Shirt\" in which Jerry feels embarrassed wearing a \"pirate\" shirt onThe Today Show,\"The Non-Fat Yogurt\" featuringRudy Giuliani, theRepublicanthen-mayor-elect of New York,and \"The Opposite\" in which George, doing the opposite of what his instincts tell him he should do, lands a job with the New York Yankees and Elaine leaves \"Pendant Publishing\" because of a comedy of errors that led to its demise. Another story arc has George returning to live with his","to live with his parents. Amid the story arc, Kramer creates and promotes hiscoffee table book.The show was again nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series, but lost to theCheersspin-offFrasier, then in its first season.Seinfeldwas nominated for the same award every year for its entire run but, after its win at the45th Primetime Emmy Awardsin 1994, always lost toFrasier, which went on to win a record 39 Emmy Awards in its 11-season run. Seasons 6–7 In Season 6,Andy AckermanreplacedTom Cheronesas director of the show. The series remained well regarded and produced some of its most famous episodes, such as \"The Beard\", in which Jerry is put through a lie detector test to make him admit that he watchedMelrose Place;\"The Switch\", in which Kramer's mom, Babs, reveals that his first name is Cosmo;and \"The Understudy\", in which Elaine meets J. Peterman for the first time.Story arcs used in this season were Elaine working as a personal assistant to her eccentric boss Justin Pitt and George's parents' temporary","parents' temporary separation. This was the first season in whichSeinfeldreached No. 1 in the Nielsen Ratings. The use of Jerry's stand-up act declined, and the end stand-up segment no longer appeared because the storylines for all four characters grew denser. In Season 7, a story arc involved George getting engaged to his ex-girlfriend, Susan Ross, after the pilotJerryproved unsuccessful. In it, George spends most of the season regretting and trying to get out of the engagement. Along with the regular half-hour episodes, two notable one-hour episodes were \"The Cadillac,\" in which George plans to date award-winning actressMarisa Tomei,and \"The Bottle Deposit,\" with Elaine and Sue Ellen Mischke participating in a bidding war to buy JFK's golf clubs in an auction. Seasons 8–9 Seinfeld'sfinal two seasons were considered distinct from the earlier seasons. Most noticeably, David left the writing crew (but returned to write \"The Finale\" in 1998), resulting in Seinfeld taking over David's duties asshowrunner, and,","asshowrunner, and, under the direction of a new writing staff,Seinfeldbecame a faster-paced show. The show no longer contained extracts of Jerry performing stand-up comedy—Jerry had no time or energy for this with his new responsibilities—and storylines occasionally delved into fantasy and broad humor. For example, in \"The Bizarro Jerry\", Elaine is torn between exact opposites of her friends and Jerry dates a woman who has the now-famous \"man hands\".Some notable episodes from Season 8 include \"The Little Kicks\" showing Elaine's horrible dancing,and \"The Chicken Roaster\" which portrays theKenny Rogers Roasterschicken restaurant which opened during that time.A story arc in this season involves Peterman going toBurmain \"The Foundation\"until he recovered from a nervous breakdown in \"The Money\",followed by Elaine writing Peterman's biography in \"The Van Buren Boys\",which leads to Kramer's parody of Kenny Kramer's Reality Tour seen in \"The Muffin Tops\". The final season included episodes like \"The Merv Griffin","\"The Merv Griffin Show\" in which Kramer converts his apartment into a talk-show studio and plays the character of talk-show host,\"The Betrayal\" that presents in reverse chronological order what happened to Sue Ellen's wedding in India, and \"The Frogger\" in which George pushes aFroggermachine across the street, mimicking the action of the game itself.The last season included a story arc in which Elaine has an on/off relationship withPuddy. Despite the enormous popularity and willingness of the cast to return for a tenth season, Seinfeld decided to end the show after Season 9, believing he would thereby be able to ensure the show would maintain its quality and go out on top.NBC offered Seinfeld $110 million—a record $5 million an episode for a 22-episode tenth season—but he declined. A major controversy caused in the ninth season was the accidental burning of aPuerto Rican flagby Kramer in \"The Puerto Rican Day.\" This scene caused a furor among Puerto Ricans, and as a result, NBC showed this episode only once.","episode only once. Seinfeld defused the protestors by not letting this episode continue in syndication, as revealed in \"Inside Look\" on DVD.However, the episode would be added to the syndicated rerun package several years later uncut. Series finale After nine years on the air, NBC and Seinfeld announced on December 25, 1997, that the series would end production the following spring in 1998. The announcement made the front page of the major New York newspapers, includingThe New York Times.Seinfeld was featured on the cover ofTimemagazine's first issue of 1998.The series ended with a 75-minute episode (cut to 60 minutes insyndication, in two parts) written by co-creator and ex-executive producer Larry David, which aired on May 14, 1998. Before the finale, a 45-minute retrospective clip show, \"The Chronicle,\" was aired. The retrospective was expanded to an hour after the original airing and aired again on NBC as an hour-long episode, and has since aired in syndication. It was the first episode since the finale","since the finale of Season 7, \"The Invitations,\" to feature opening and closing stand-up comedy acts by Seinfeld. The finale was filmed before an audience of NBC executives and friends of the show. The press and public were shut out of the taping to keep its plot secret; those who attended the shoot of the final episode were required to sign written \"vows of silence.\"The secrecy only seemed to increase speculation about how the series would end. The episode's producers gave false information to the media, spreading a rumor about Newman ending up in the hospital and Jerry and Elaine sitting in a chapel, presumably to marry. The final episode enjoyed a historic audience,estimated at 76.3 million viewers(58% of all viewers that night) making it the fourth-most watched regular series finale in U.S. TV history, behindM*A*S*H,Cheers, andThe Fugitive.However, the finale received mixed reviews from critics and fans of the show. The finale poked fun at the many rumors that were circulating, seeming to move into","to move into multiple supposed plots before settling on its actual storyline—a lengthy trial where the gang is prosecuted for violating a \"Duty to Rescue\" law and sentenced to prison terms. According toForbesmagazine, Seinfeld's earnings from the show in 1998 came to US$267 million, including syndication earnings.He refused NBC's offer of $5 million per episode, or over $100 million total, to continue into a tenth season. The offer NBC made to Seinfeld was over three times higher per episode than anyone on TV had ever been offered before.Seinfeld told the network that he was not married nor had children, and wished to focus on his personal life.As reported in July 2007, he was the second-highest earner in the TV industry, earning at the time $60 million a year.The episode became the first to command over $1 million a minute for advertising—a mark previously attained only by theSuper Bowl. Reception and legacy Elizabeth Magnotta and Alexandra Strohl analyze the success ofSeinfeldwith recourse to","recourse to theincongruity theoryof humor: \"The Incongruity Theory claims that humor is created out of a violation of an expectation. For humor to result from this unexpected result, the event must have an appropriate emotional climate, comprised of the setting, characters, prior discourse, relationships of the characters, and the topic.\"Specifically, Magnotta and Strohl focus on \"The Marine Biologist,\" where George is embroiled in yet another lie, and on \"The Red Dot,\" where George tries to save a few dollars at Elaine's expense by giving her a marked-downcashmeresweater. In \"TranslatingSeinfeld,\" Jennifer Armstrong notes thatSeinfeldis less famous among non-English speakers as its unique style of humor is \"too cultural and word-based to make for easy translation.\"Carol Iannone sums up the legacy of this American hit in herModern Agearticle \"Seinfeld: The Politically Incorrect Comedy\" when she says, \"It may be the first situation comedy truly to achieve the status of art\".Nod Miller, of theUniversity of","of theUniversity of East London, has discussed the self-referential qualities of the show: Seinfeld is suffused withpostmodernthemes. To begin with, the boundary between reality and fiction is frequently blurred: this is illustrated in the central device of having Jerry Seinfeld play the character Jerry Seinfeld. In the show's fourth season, several episodes revolved around the narrative of Jerry and George (whose character is co-creator Larry David's alter ego) pitching 'a show about nothing' based on the everyday life of a stand-up comedian to NBC. By all accounts, the fictional NBC executives' reaction mirrored the initial responses of those who eventually commissioned Seinfeld. The fourth season ends with'The Pilot', an episode focusing on the casting, taping, and screening of the show-within-the-show,Jerry. This episode also neatly illustrates the self-referential quality, which is one of Seinfeld's hallmarks. The series finale was so replete with references to earlier shows that it could have been more","have been more comprehensible to those not already well-versed in the personae and preoccupations of the Seinfeld universe. William Irwinhas edited an anthology of scholarly essays on philosophy inSeinfeld and Philosophy: A Book about Everything and Nothing. Some entries include \"The Jerry Problem and theSocratic Problem,\" \"George's Failed Quest forHappiness: An Aristotelian Analysis,\" \"Elaine's Moral Character,\" \"Kramer the 'Seducer'\", \"Making Something Out of Nothing: Seinfeld,Sophistryand the Tao,\" \"Seinfeld,Subjectivity, andSartre,\" \"Mr. Peterman, theWicked Witch of the West, and Me,\" and \"Minimally Decent Samaritans and Uncommon Law.\" U.S. television ratings Awards and honors Seinfeldhas received awards and nominations in various categories throughout the mid-1990s. It was awarded theEmmyfor Outstanding Comedy Series in 1993,Golden Globe Awardfor Best TV Series (Comedy) in 1994, andScreen Actors Guild Awardfor Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 1995, 1997 and 1998.Apart from","and 1998.Apart from these, the show was also nominated for an Emmy award from 1992 to 1998 for Outstanding Comedy Series, Golden Globe award from 1994 to 1998 for Best TV-Series (Comedy), and Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series from 1995 to 1998. The show even received thePeabody Awardin 1993. TV Guidenamed it thegreatest TV show of all timein 2002,and in 2013, the magazine ranked it as the second-greatest TV show.A 2015The Hollywood Reportersurvey of 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people namedSeinfeldas their #5 favorite show.In 2022,Rolling StonerankedSeinfeldas the sixth-greatest TV show of all time.In 2023,VarietyrankedSeinfeldas the eighth-greatest TV show of all time. Distribution Free streaming serviceChannel 4has been runningSeinfeldin its original 4:3 format since February 2020.On April 29, 2015, it was officially announced, duringHulu'supfrontspresentation inNew York, that all nine seasons ofSeinfeldwouldstreamon the","the platform starting in June 2015.The deal was for around $130 million to $180 million.On May 20, 2015,Huluannounced that every episode would be available starting June 24, 2015.Hulu's streaming rights for the series expired on June 23, 2021.In January 2017,Amazonacquired the UK rights to all seasons ofSeinfeldfor itsAmazon Prime Videostreaming service. On November 8, 2016, the Australian streaming serviceStanannounced viaTwitterthat later in the week all episodes would be available to stream for the first time in Australia.All episodes were available from November 11, 2016, with the remastered versions of all episodes on the service featuring HD and Widescreen enhancements.The widescreen offered was cropped from the original 4:3 format negatives, thus resulting in better visual quality than the previously available DVD version, however, the top and bottom portions of the frame were cut out to achieve the widescreen aspect ratio. In April 2020, all seasons ofSeinfeldwere also made available on-demand via","on-demand via pay television serviceFoxtel, as well as its internet-based alternativeFoxtel Now. In September 2019,NetflixandSony Picturesannounced that Netflix had acquired the exclusive global streaming rights forSeinfeld, starting on October 1, 2021, superseding the above Hulu and Amazon rights. As of 2023, Netflix's version ofSeinfeldis available in4K resolution.The transition was criticized as the show, initially displayed in 4:3 aspect ratio, had been converted to 16:9, resulting in some gags getting cropped, similarly to howThe Simpsonswas initially rendered onDisney+.Netflix has yet to comment on this situation. VHS and DVD releases The hour-long, two-partclip showepisode \"The Highlights of 100\" became the firstSeinfeldepisode available on home video when it was released onVHSin 1995 by food companyGeneral Mills.Sony Pictures Home Entertainment(formerly Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment) released all nine seasons ofSeinfeldonDVDin Regions 1, 2, and 4 between 2004 and 2007.On November 6,","2007.On November 6, 2007,Seinfeld: The Complete Serieswas released on DVD. The complete series box set includes a 2007 \"roundtable\" reunion of the four main cast members and Larry David; only highlights of this were also included in the Season 9 set. The first complete series box set in Australia (Region 4) was released on October 24, 2007. The second boxset was released on December 2, 2008, and was a Collectible Fridge design packaging. On August 5, 2009,another Limited-Edition boxset was released, similar to the first boxset but does not include the book and the packaging was slightly different. On November 23, 2011,an additional Limited-Edition boxset was released. On November 14, 2018,aFestivus Celebration Editionwas released which contained napkins and cups, playing cards and thumb wrestle gadgets. On August 12, 2020,yet anotherComplete Seriesboxset was released. Syndication According toBarry Meyer, chairman ofWarner Bros. Entertainment(parent company of Castle Rock Entertainment),Seinfeldmade $2.7","$2.7 billion through June 2010 throughoff-network syndicationand cable syndication.As of February 2017the show had made an estimated $4.06 billion in syndication.Steve Bannon, who invested in the show, later said, \"We calculated what it would get us if it made it to syndication. We were wrong by a factor of five\".In September 2019, it was announced thatViacom(nowParamount Global) had acquired cable syndication rights to the series fromTBS, with it airing onComedy Centralbeginning in October 2021,Nick at Nitefrom May 31, 2022, until November 12, 2022, andTV Landsince February 11, 2023. High-definition versions There are twohigh-definitionversions ofSeinfeld. The first is that of the network TV (non-syndicated) versions in the original aspect ratio of 4:3 that were downscaled for the DVD releases. Clips from this high-definition version in its upscale were seen onNBCduringThe Seinfeld Storyspecial.Syndicated broadcast stations and the cable networksTBSandComedy Central(and alsoFox) began airing the syndicated","the syndicated version ofSeinfeldin HD. Unlike the version used for the DVD, Sony Pictures cropped the top and bottom parts of the frame while restoring previously cropped images on the sides from the35mm filmsource to use the entire 16:9 frame. AfterSeinfeld Another scene On the November 1, 2007, episode ofThe Daily Show with Jon Stewart, Jerry Seinfeld mentioned the possibility of shooting one last scene after the characters leave jail. He mentioned that he was too busy to do it at the time, but did not announce what the scene would entail, as its production is not a certainty.In a commentary from the final seasonDVD, Seinfeld outlines that he and Jason Alexander spoke about this scene being in Monk's Cafe, with George saying \"That was brutal\" about the foursome's stint in prison. On an episode ofSaturday Night Livethat Jerry Seinfeld hosted on October 2, 1999, a sketch was produced that showed what life was like for Jerry behind bars after being transferred to the fictional prison portrayed on","prison portrayed on theHBOseriesOz.The roughly four-minute sketch shows the opening credits for the HBO series with clips of Jerry mixed in doing various activities around the prison. The sketch continues and mixes in different storylines from bothOzandSeinfeldand has Jerry interacting with various characters from the show in his typical quick-witted, sarcastic way. TheSeinfeld\"curse\" Louis-Dreyfus, Alexander, and Richards have all tried to launch new sitcoms as title-role characters. Almost every show was canceled quickly, usually within the first season. This gave rise to the termSeinfeld curse: the failure of a sitcom starring one of the three, despite the conventional wisdom that each person'sSeinfeldpopularity should almost guarantee a strong, built-in audience for the actor's new show. Shows specifically cited regarding theSeinfeld curseare Julia Louis-Dreyfus'sWatching Ellie, Jason Alexander'sBob PattersonandListen Up, and Michael Richards'The Michael Richards Show. This phenomenon was mentioned","was mentioned throughout the second season ofLarry David's HBO programCurb Your Enthusiasm, which aired in 2001. In real life, David has repeatedly dismissed the idea of a curse, saying, \"It's so completely idiotic. It's very hard to have a successful sitcom.\" The success of Louis-Dreyfus in the 2006–2010CBSsitcomThe New Adventures of Old Christine, which included winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesin 2006, led many to believe that she had broken the curse.In her acceptance speech, Louis-Dreyfus held up her award and exclaimed, \"I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this, baby!\"The show producedenough episodesto air inrerunsinsyndicationfor several years, something the other shows did not achieve.TheSaturday Night Liveepisode hosted by Louis-Dreyfus made references to the curse. Nevertheless, the series' ratings declined soon after, and it was canceled after the fifth season. She went on to win six further Emmys (for Lead Actress in a Comedy","Actress in a Comedy Series) for her acclaimed performance as Vice PresidentSelina Meyerin the HBO comedy seriesVeep. Curb Your Enthusiasm Early in March 2009, it was announced that theSeinfeldcast would reunite forseason sevenofCurb Your Enthusiasm.The cast first appeared in the third episode of the season, all playing fictional versions of themselves. The season-long story is that Larry David tries to initiate aSeinfeldreunion show as a ploy to win back his ex-wife, Cheryl. Along with the four main characters, someSeinfeldsupporting actors likeWayne Knight,Estelle HarrisandSteve Hytnerappeared in the ninth episode at a table read for the reunion show. Although much dialogue inCurb Your Enthusiasmis improvised, the plot was scripted, and theSeinfeldspecial that aired within the show was scripted and directed bySeinfeldregularAndy Ackerman, making this the first time sinceSeinfeldwent off the air that the central cast appeared together in a scripted show. Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee Jerry Seinfeld, Jason","Seinfeld, Jason Alexander, and Wayne Knight, playing their respectiveSeinfeldcharacters, appeared in a spot presented during halftime ofSuper Bowl XLVIIIon February 2, 2014.Foxcame up with the idea of doing such a spot, due in part to the Super Bowl's location being New York City adjacent that year.An uncut version appeared onCrackle.comimmediately afterward, as an episode ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffeetitled \"The Over-Cheer,\" establishing Seinfeld's character on the series as an older version of hisSeinfeldcharacter.Although the spot was used to advertise Seinfeld's web series, it was not considered a commercial, as Sony, which produces the series, did not pay for it.While Seinfeld indicated that the webisode would probably be the last cast reunion, saying, \"I have a feeling you've seen the final coda on that very unique experience,\"since then,Michael RichardsandJulia Louis-Dreyfushave also appeared in episodes. Notes References General references External links","Jerry Seinfeld Jerome Allen Seinfeld(/ˈsaɪnfɛld/SYNE-feld; born April 29, 1954) is an Americanstand-up comedian, actor, writer, and producer. As a stand-up comedian, Seinfeld specializes inobservational comedy. Seinfeld has receivednumerous accoladesincluding aPrimetime Emmy Award, aGolden Globe Awards, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for fourGrammy Awards. In 2004,Comedy Centralnamed him the 12th-greatest stand-up comedian of all time.In 2017,Rolling Stonenamed him the 7th-greatest stand-up comedian of all time. Seinfeld gained stardom playinga semi-fictionalized version of himselfin theNBCsitcomSeinfeld(1989–1998), which he co-created and wrote withLarry David. Seinfeld earned aGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedyin 1995. The show is one of the most acclaimed and popular sitcoms of all time.He has since created and produced the reality seriesThe Marriage Ref(2010–2011), and created and hosted the web seriesComedians in Cars Getting","in Cars Getting Coffee(2012–2019), the latter of which earned him threeWebby Awards. He also co-produced, co-wrote, and starred in theDreamWorksanimated filmBee Movie(2007) and theNetflixcomedyUnfrosted(2024). He has released four standup specials his first beingStand-Up Confidential(1987) followed byI'm Telling You for the Last Time(1998),Jerry Before Seinfeld(2017) and23 Hours to Kill(2020). Seinfeld has also written three books starting withSeinLanguage(1993), followed by the children's bookHalloween(2002), and the comedic compilation bookIs This Anything?(2020). He is an avid fan ofcoffeeandautomobiles. He practicestranscendental meditation. He is married to author and philanthropistJessica Seinfeld, with whom he has three children. Early life and education Seinfeld was born on April 29, 1954,to a Jewish family inBrooklyn, New York City.His father, Kalmen Seinfeld,a sign painter, was from Hungary and collected jokes that he heard while serving inWorld War II.His mother, Betty (née Hosni)and her parents,","her parents, Selim and Salha Hosni,wereMizrahi JewsfromAleppo,Syria. Their nationality was stated as Turkish when they immigrated in 1917, as Syria was under theOttoman Empire.Seinfeld has an older sister, Carolyn.Salha's mother Garez Dayan, Seinfeld's great-grandmother, was a member of the Dayan rabbinic family, who claim ancestry back to theMedievalExilarchs, and from the Exilarchs back to the BiblicalKing David.Seinfeld's second cousin isalternative metalmusician and actorEvan Seinfeld.Seinfeld grew up inMassapequa, New York, and attendedMassapequa High SchoolonLong Island.At 16, he spent timevolunteeringinKibbutzSa'arin Israel.He attended theState University of New York at Oswego, and transferred after his second year toQueens College, City University of New York, from which he graduated in 1976 with a degree in communications and theater. Career 1976–1987: Rise to prominence Seinfeld developed an interest instand-up comedyafter brief stints in college productions. He appeared onopen-micnights at Budd","at Budd Friedman's Improv Club while attendingQueens College.After graduation in 1976, he tried out at an open-mic night at New York City'sCatch a Rising Star, which led to an appearance in aRodney DangerfieldHBOspecial.In 1980, he had a small recurring role on the sitcomBenson, playing Frankie, a mail-delivery boy who had comedy routines that no one wanted to hear. Seinfeld was abruptly fired from the show due to creative differences.Seinfeld said that he was not told he had been fired until he arrived for a read-through session and found that there was no script for him.In January 1981, he performed stand-up onAn Evening at the Improv.In May, Seinfeld made an appearance onThe Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, impressingCarsonand the audience, leading to frequent appearances on that show and others, includingLate Night with David Letterman.On September 5, 1987, his first one-hour specialStand-Up Confidentialaired live onHBO. 1988–1998:Seinfeldand stardom Seinfeld createdThe Seinfeld ChronicleswithLarry","ChronicleswithLarry Davidin 1988 forNBC. It was renamedSeinfeldto avoid confusion with the short-lived teen sitcomThe Marshall Chronicles. By its third season,Seinfeldhad become the most watched sitcom on American television. The final episode aired in 1998, and the show has been a popularsyndicatedre-run ever since. NBC offered Seinfeld $110 million—a record $5 million an episode for a 22-episode tenth season—but he declined.Along with Seinfeld, the show starredSaturday Night LivealumnaJulia Louis-Dreyfusand established actorsMichael RichardsandJason Alexander. Alexander played George, a caricature ofLarry David. Seinfeld is the only actor to appear in every episode. 1998–2010: Established career After he ended his sitcom, Seinfeld moved back toNew York Cityand returned to stand-up comedy instead of staying inLos Angelesand furthering his acting career. In 1998, he went on tour and recorded a comedy special, titledI'm Telling You for the Last Time. The process of developing and performing new material at","new material at clubs around the world was chronicled in a 2002 documentary,Comedian, which also featured fellow comicOrny Adamsand was directed by Christian Charles. Seinfeld has written several books, mostly archives of past routines. In the late 1990s,Apple Computercame up with the advertising slogan \"Think different\" and produced a 60-second commercial to promote the slogan. This commercial showed people who were able to \"think differently,\" such asAlbert Einstein,Mahatma Gandhi,Martin Luther King Jr., and many others. It was later cut short to 30 seconds and altered such that Seinfeld was included at the end, although he had not been in the original cut. This shorter version of the commercial aired only once, during theseries finaleofSeinfeld. In 2004, Seinfeld appeared in two commercialwebisodespromotingAmerican Express, titledThe Adventures of Seinfeld & Superman.In these, Seinfeld appeared with a cartoon rendering ofSuperman, to whom reference was made in numerous episodes ofSeinfeldas Seinfeld's","Seinfeld's hero, voiced byPatrick Warburton(characterDavid PuddyonSeinfeld). The webisodes were directed byBarry Levinsonand aired briefly on television. Seinfeld and \"Superman\" were also interviewed byMatt Lauerin a specially recorded interview for theTodayshow. On November 18, 2004, Seinfeld appeared at theNational Museum of American Historyto donate the \"puffy shirt\" he wore in theSeinfeldepisodeof the same name. He also gave a speech when presenting the \"puffy shirt,\" saying humorously that \"This is the most embarrassing moment of my life.\"On May 13, 2006, Seinfeld had a cameo appearance onSaturday Night Liveas host Julia Louis-Dreyfus' assassin. Louis-Dreyfus in her opening monologue mentioned the \"Seinfeld curse.\" While talking about how ridiculous the \"curse\" was, astage lightsuddenly fell next to her. The camera moved to acatwalkabove the stage where Seinfeld was standing, holding a large pair of bolt cutters. He angrily muttered, \"Damn it!\" upset that it did not hit her. Louis-Dreyfus continued to","continued to say that she is indeed not cursed. On February 25, 2007, Seinfeld appeared at the79th Academy Awardsas the presenter for \"Best Documentary.\" Before announcing the nominations, he did a monologue about the unspoken agreement between movie theater owners and movie patrons.On October 4, 2007, Seinfeld made a guest appearance as himself in the30 Rockepisode \"SeinfeldVision.\"On February 24, 2008, at the80th Academy Awards, Seinfeld appeared as thevoiceof hisBee Movieanimated character Barry, presentingBest Animated Short Film. Before announcing the nominees, he showed a montage of film clips featuring bees, saying that they were some of his early work (as Barry). On June 2, 2008, amidst his spring 2008 tour, Seinfeld performed in his hometown of New York City for a one-night-only show at theHammerstein Ballroomto benefitStand Up for a Cure, a charity aidinglung cancerresearch atMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. In August 2008, theAssociated Pressreported that Jerry Seinfeld would be the","would be the pitchman forWindows Vista, as part of a $300-million advertising campaign by Microsoft. The ads, which were intended to create interest for Windows in support of the subsequent \"I'm a PC\" advertisements, began airing in mid-September 2008. They were cut from television after three installments; Microsoft opted to continue with the \"I'm a PC\" advertisementsand run the Seinfeld ads on the Microsoft website as a series of longer advertisements.In March 2009, it was announced that Seinfeld and the entire cast ofSeinfeldwould be appearing for a reunion in Larry David's HBO seriesCurb Your Enthusiasm. The fictional reunion took place in theseventh season'sfinaleand starred most of the original cast, includingJulia Louis-Dreyfus,Jason Alexander,Michael Richards, in a multiple-episode arc.Seinfeld appeared on an episode of theStarzoriginal seriesHead Case. As was the case in many of his previous guest appearances on sitcoms, he played himself. InAustralia, Seinfeld appeared on a series of advertisements","of advertisements for theGreater Building Society, abuilding societybased inNew South Walesand southeasternQueensland.His appearance in these ads was highly publicized and considered a coup for the society, being the third time Seinfeld had appeared in a television commercial.The advertisements were filmed in Cedarhurst,Long Island, with the street designed to emulate Beaumont Street inHamilton, where the Greater's head offices are located.Seinfeld also wrote the scripts for the 15 advertisements that were filmed. The ads largely aired in the Northern New South Wales television market, where the society has most of its branches. Seinfeld was the first guest onJay Leno's talk showThe Jay Leno Show, which premiered on September 14, 2009. Seinfeld was featured onSaturday Night Live'sWeekend Updatesketch to do the \"Really!?!\" segment withSeth Meyers. He executive produced and regularly appeared as a panelist inThe Marriage Ref. On August 30, 2010, Seinfeld made a surprise guest appearance onThe Howard Stern","onThe Howard Stern Show, ending the feud the two had in the early 1990s. Seinfeld toured the U.S. in 2011 and made his first stand-up appearance in theUnited Kingdomin 11 years. In July 2011, he was a surprise guest onThe Daily Show, helpingJon Stewartto suppress his urge to tell \"cheap\" \"Michele Bachmann's husband acts gay\" jokes.Seinfeld also launched a personal archives website at JerrySeinfeld.com and appeared in theHBOspecialTalking Funnywith fellow comediansChris Rock,Louis C.K., andRicky Gervaisin the same year. 2011–present: Talk show and expansion In 2012, Seinfeld started a web series titledComedians in Cars Getting Coffee, in which he would pick up a fellow comedian in a different car each episode and take them out for coffee and conversation. The show originally aired on theCracklestreaming service and then was bought byNetflix. The initial series consisted of ten episodes lasting from 7 to 25 minutes each. The show has continued to get high-profile guests such asAlec Baldwin,Mel Brooks,Bill","Brooks,Bill Burr,Dave Chappelle,Louis C.K.,Larry David,Ellen DeGeneres,Tina Fey,David Letterman,Jerry Lewis,Steve Martin,John Mulaney,Eddie Murphy,Carl Reiner,Don Rickles,Chris Rock,Howard Stern, andJon Stewart.The show has also hostedSeinfeldalumsLarry David,Julia Louis-Dreyfus,Jason Alexander, andMichael Richards. Season seven featured its most high-profile guest, then-PresidentBarack Obama.In a farewell tribute video for the Obamas before the President left office, Seinfeld stated, \"That knocking on theOval Officewindow. That probably was the peak of my entire existence.\" In 2014, Seinfeld toldDavid Lettermanhe invitedWoody Allento be on the show but hadn't heard back.That same year he also revealedJoan Riverswas supposed to be a guest on the show before she died due to a botched medical procedure.Seinfeld signed a deal withNetflixin January 2017 that included placingSeinfeldandComedians in Cars Getting Coffeeon their streaming service as well as two new Seinfeld stand-up specials and the development of","the development of scripted and non-scripted comedy programming.As part of the deal, all episodes ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffeewere made available on the streaming service, in addition to a new 24-episode season.The series was nominated for fivePrimetime Emmy Awardsand won threeWebby Awards. It's very important to know what you don't like. A big part of innovation is saying, \"You know what I'm really sick of?\" For me, that was talk shows where music plays, somebody walks out to a desk, shakes hands with the host, and sits down. \"How are you?\" \"You look great.\" I'm also sick of people who are really there to sell their show or product. \"What am I really sick of?\" is where innovation begins. –Seinfeld, talking about his process of innovation. In June 2013, Seinfeld appeared on rapperWale's albumThe Gifted, on the song \"Outro About Nothing.\"Seinfeld received coverage for his speech at the 2014Clio Awardsceremony, where he received an honorary award, as media reporters said that he \"mocked\" and \"ripped","and \"ripped apart\" the advertising industry; his statement that \"I love advertising because I love lying\" received particular attention.In 2014, Seinfeld hosted the specialDon Rickles: One Night Onlyat theApollo Theatre. The event celebratedDon Ricklesand his career, but also served as a roast among friends. Those who participated in the event includedJon Stewart,David Letterman,Tina Fey,Amy Poehler,Nathan Lane,Regis Philbin,Robert De Niro, andMartin Scorsese.On February 15, 2015, Seinfeld made a guest appearance on theSaturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special, where he hosted the \"Questions from the Audience\" segment, which included cameos fromMichael Douglas,John Goodman,James Franco,Larry David,Ellen Cleghorne,Dakota Johnson,Tim Meadows,Bob Odenkirk, andSarah Palin(who Seinfeld initially mistook forTina Fey).On May 20, 2015, Seinfeld made a guest appearance onDavid Letterman's finalLate Showepisode. Seinfeld joined guests includingAlec Baldwin,Barbara Walters,Steve Martin,Jim Carrey,Chris Rock,Julia","Rock,Julia Louis-Dreyfus,Peyton Manning,Tina Fey, andBill Murraywho all participated in The Top Ten List segment, \"Things I've Always Wanted to Say to Dave.\" In January 2017, Seinfeld went onThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallonand joinedDave ChappelleandJimmy Fallonin honoring outgoing First LadyMichelle Obama, and played a game ofCatchphrase, which Obama and Fallon won to Seinfeld's dismay.On September 19, 2017, Netflix released the stand-up comedy specialJerry Before Seinfeld. It follows Seinfeld as he returns for a stand-up routine at theNew York Citycomedy club,Comic Strip Live, which started his career.It is intercut with documentary clips and his stand-up special. It was later released as an LP, CD and download album, and was nominated for a 2018Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album.In 2020, it was announced that Netflix would be releasing Seinfeld's first original stand-up special in 22 years,23 Hours to Kill. The special premiered on May 5.In October 2020, Seinfeld joinedSteve Martinin a discussion","a discussion about comedy atThe New Yorker Festival. They discussed subjects ranging from the creative process,Netflix, andThe Oscars, to their comedy backgrounds, and the future of comedy during theCOVID-19 pandemic. In 2024 he directed, co-wrote, and produced in theNetflixcomedy filmUnfrosted, a satirical spoof about the creation ofPop-Tarts. Seinfeld also starred in the film alongsideMelissa McCarthy,Jim Gaffigan, andHugh Grant. The film earned mixed reviews withThe Hollywood Reporterwriting the film received a \"sharply divided reaction from critics\".The New York Timeslabeled it a \"Critic's Pick\" with Anne Nicholson describing it as a \"full-fledged, fully ridiculous feature comedy targeted to the audience’s sweet-and-salty dopamine receptors\".David Ehrlich ofIndieWirewrote that the \"comedy never heats up\" and \"it’s a movie about so many different things at once that it comes to feel like a movie about nothing\".Seinfeld appeared as a guest onJohn Mulaney Presents: Everybody's in LAwhere he joked that it","he joked that it was \"the weirdesttalk showI've ever been on in my life\".He also embarked on a new tour starting with his first show in Singapore in June 2024followed by a number of stops in Australia and North America.Seinfeld returned toCurb Your Enthusiasmin its final season reuniting withLarry Davidwhere they poked fun at the controversial ending ofSeinfeld. Ben Travers ofIndieWirewrote, \"If theCurbfinale is meant to rewrite theSeinfeldending in any way, it’s during that first scene between Jerry and Larry. They’re playing out the kind of scene they used to write for Jerry and George, and getting that silly, joyful spark between two TV legends — even for a moment — is pure bliss\". Books Seinfeld wrote the bookSeinLanguage, released in 1993. Written as his television show was first rising in popularity, it is primarily an adaptation of his stand-up material. The title comes from an article inEntertainment Weeklylisting the numerous catchphrases for which the show was responsible.In 2002, he wrote","2002, he wrote thechildren's bookHalloween. The book was illustrated by James Bennett.Seinfeld wrote the forewords toTed L. Nancy'sLetters from a Nutseries of books andEd Broth'sStories from a Moron.Seinfeld also wrote the foreword to thePeanut Butter & Co.Cookbook. In October 2020, Seinfeld released his new bookIs This Anything?. The book chronicles Seinfeld's 45 years working in comedy and contains many of his best bits that span from various decades. Influences Seinfeld has stated, \"On theMount Rushmoreof stand-up comedy, there are four faces, in my opinion:Richard Pryor,George Carlin,Bill Cosby, andDon Rickles.\"Seinfeld has also cited as his influencesJean Shepherd,Mad Magazine,Jonathan Winters,Jerry Lewis,Robert Klein, andAbbott and Costello.He stated, \"Monty Pythonwas a gigantic influence on me. They were just about silly, funny things that meant nothing, and that’s the stuff I love. There’s a wonderful childlike freedom in those kinds of things.\" In theNetflixcomedy special,Jerry Before Seinfeld, he","Before Seinfeld, he displayed his personal comedy albums collection from when he was a teenager.These albums included: In an interview withEntertainment Weekly, Seinfeld stated his five favorite films areThe Heartbreak Kid(1972),The Graduate(1967),The In-Laws(1979),A Night at the Opera(1935), andGlengarry Glen Ross(1992). Those influenced by Seinfeld includeJohn Mulaney,Ellen DeGeneres,Jim Gaffigan,Judd Apatow,Issa Rae,Nate Bargatze,andMark Normand.OnThe Late Show with Stephen Colbert,Steve Martindescribed Seinfeld as one of his \"retro heroes\" saying \" a guy who came up behind me and is better than I am. I think he's fantastic, I love to listen to him, he almost puts me at peace. I love to listen to him talk\". Personal life Seinfeld is a fan of theNew York Mets, and periodically callsSteve Somers' show onWFAN-AM, asports talk radiostation, as \"Jerry from Queens.\"Seinfeld called four innings of a Mets game onSportsNet New Yorkon June 23, 2010, reuniting with analystKeith Hernandez, who appeared in","who appeared in theSeinfeldtwo-part episode entitled \"The Boyfriend.\"According to Seinfeld, he thinks about baseball \"all day\" and has said \"when I think of retirement, all I would think of is going to a baseball game every day.\" Seinfeld is left-handed and the first joke he ever wrote was about the topic.In a 2014 interview withNBC News, he made statements suggesting that he believed he was on theautism spectrum.However, following criticism for his allegedself-diagnosis, he later clarified that he is not autistic and had been commenting on a play about the condition that he \"related to on some level.\" Relationships and marriage Years beforeSeinfeldwas created, Seinfeld datedCarol Leifer.She was a fellow comedian, and one of the inspirations for theSeinfeldcharacterElaine Benes.On national television with sex therapist and talk show host Dr.Ruth Westheimer, he mentioned that he was engaged in 1984 but called it off. In May 1993, days after his 39th birthday, Seinfeld met 17-year-oldShoshanna Lonsteinin","Lonsteinin Central Park.After a brief conversation, Lonstein gave Seinfeld her phone number.Lonstein was still a senior in high school and would turn 18 at the end of that month.Seinfeld and Lonstein dated for approximately four years, until 1997.She transferred fromGeorge Washington UniversitytoUCLA, in part to be with him, and cited constant press coverage and missing New York City as reasons for the relationship ending. The age difference led to intense media scrutiny. While Seinfeld was a guest onHoward Stern's talk show, Stern said, \"so, you sit in Central Park and have a candy bar on a string and pull it when the girls come?\" at which point Seinfeld replied, \"she's not 17, definitely not.\"A few months later, in his second Howard Stern interview, Seinfeld insisted, \"I didn't realize she was so young. This is the only girl I ever went out with who was that young. I wasn't dating her. We just went to a restaurant, and that was it.\"Early in their relationship,Spymagazine referred to Lonstein as \"a legal","as \"a legal voter\". In an October 1993Playboyinterview, Seinfeld described the reactions to the relationship as ranging \"from horrified to just busting buttons with pride that they know me\", noting that his female acquaintances had overall reacted more negatively than his male ones. He said that his assistant \"was so mad\" she punched him, whereas his mother was \"thrilled\". He concluded, \"if she's 18, if she's intelligent, that's fine\".In March 1994, Seinfeld again defended their age difference in an interview withPeople, stating that \"Shoshanna is a person, not an age.\"Julia Louis-Dreyfus said in a 1998New Yorkinterview that she was in favor of the relationship, as \"it was a happy one for him\", and added that she did not believe there was anything wrong with it. In August 1998, while at a Reebok Sports Club, Seinfeld metJessica Sklar, apublic relationsexecutive forTommy Hilfigerwho had just returned from a three-week honeymoon inItalywith then-husband Eric Nederlander, a theatrical producer and scion of","and scion of atheater-owning family. Unaware of Sklar's marital status, Seinfeld invited her out. When Sklar eventually told Seinfeld about her relationship situation, she said, \"I told him I didn't think this was the right time for me to be involved with anybody.\" Two months later, Sklar filed for divorce and began dating Seinfeld. The pair married on December 25, 1999.ComedianGeorge Wallacewas the best man at the wedding.After the nuptials, Jerry and Jessica Seinfeld boughtBilly Joel's house inAmagansett,Long Island, for US$32 million after news of the couple's interest in the property became public in 2000.The Seinfelds have a daughter and two sons. Wealth and charity In 1999, Seinfeld auctioned a Breitling Chronomat watch as part of the \"Famous Faces, Watch Auction For Charity\" event in New York City. This watch sold for $11,000.In 2001, Jerry and Jessica Seinfeld created the charitable organizationThe Good+Foundationafter their first child was born. Good+Foundation grants donations of products and","of products and services to programs that have demonstrated a capacity to address family poverty in three focus areas: supporting new mothers, investing in early childhood, and engaging fathers. GOOD+ Foundation has donated over $42M worth of items through its partner network across the United States.Seinfeld has also participated inJon Stewart's charity event,Night of Too Many Stars. According toForbesmagazine, Seinfeld's cumulative earnings fromSeinfeldas of 2004 was $267 million, placing him at the top of the celebrity earnings list that year.He turned down $5 million per episode, for 22 episodes, to continue the show for a 10th season.Seinfeld earned $100 million from syndication deals and stand-up performances in 2004, and $60 million in 2006.He also earned $10 million for appearing withBill GatesinMicrosoft's 2008 advertisements forWindows.Between June 2008 and June 2009, Seinfeld earned $85 million, making him the world's highest-paid comedian during those 12 months.In 2013,Forbesdocumented Seinfeld's","Seinfeld's annual income as $32 million.In mid-2013, Seinfeld disputedForbes'sclaims regarding his income and net worth onThe Howard Stern Show.Seinfeld was ranked byForbesthe highest-paid comedian for 2015, the second-highest-paid in 2016, and the highest-paid again in 2017.Seinfeld's income between June 2016 and June 2017 was $69 million. In 2024,Bloombergdeclared Seinfeld a billionaire, with a net worth standing at more than $1 billion, thanks to various syndication deals his sitcom signed, with $465 million coming from those deals. Automobiles Seinfeld is an automobile enthusiast and collector, and he owns a collection of about 150 cars, including a largePorschecollection.He rented a hangar at theSanta Monica AirportinSanta Monica, California, for an extended period during the 1990s for storage of some of the vehicles in the collection.In 2002, Seinfeld purchased property on theUpper West SideofManhattaninNew York Citywhere he built a $1.4 million two-story garage to store part of his Porsche collection","Porsche collection on the East Coast.One tally has Seinfeld owning 43 Porsches.Paul Bannister has written that Seinfeld's collection includesPorsche 911sfrom various years, 10Porsche Boxsterseach painted a different color, and the 1955Porsche 550 Spyder, the same model and pearl-grey color that actorJames Deanhad been driving before he crashed that car and subsequently died. TheDiscovery Channeltelevision showChasing Classic Carsclaimed that Seinfeld owns the first and last produced air-cooled Porsche 911s. The centerpiece is a $700,000Porsche 959, one of only 337 built. He was originally not allowed to drive it, because the car was \"notstreet legal.\" U.S. emissions and crash tests had not been performed for the model because Porsche refused to donate four Porsche 959s for destruction tests. Seinfeld imported the car \"for exhibition purposes,\" on the stipulation that it may never be driven on U.S. roads.The car was made U.S. street legal in 1999 under the \"Show or Display\" federal law.Seinfeld wrote an","wrote an article for the February 2004 issue ofAutomobile, reviewing thePorsche Carrera GT. In 2008, Seinfeld was involved in a car accident when the brakes on his 1967Fiat 500failed and, to avoid an intersection, he pulled the emergency brake while turning sharply, ultimately causing the car to flip onto its side. No one was hurt. Coffee machines A coffee aficionado, Seinfeld owns multipleespresso machines, including the $17,000 Elektra Belle Epoqueand two machines manufactured by Slayer andBreville.Seinfeld described his single-group Slayer machine, which costs upwards of $8,500, as a \"beautiful machine.\"WhenNPRasked him about the influence ofcoffee culture in the U.S., Seinfeld responded in 2013: I never liked and I didn't understand it and I used to do a lot of stuff in my stand-up set in the '80s and '90s about how I don't 'get' coffee. And then something happened about five years ago. I started touring a lot, and we would have these great big, fun breakfasts in the hotel and just seemed to go really","seemed to go really well . , I've just started this espresso thing. In a May 2024GQinterview titled \"10 Things Jerry Seinfeld Can't Live Without\", Seinfeld revealed that aBialettimoka potis one of his must-haves. He described the process of making coffee with a moka pot as complex and time-consuming, but a pleasurable way to \"waste time\". Religion and politics Seinfeld is Jewish and has incorporated elements of hisJewish identityin his work.Although he shared that his mother was born into a large family of Syrian Orthodox Jews, he admitted to being non-religious himself.Seinfeld stated that he took aScientologycourse when he was in his 20s; he said that he found it interesting but that he did not pursue it any further. Seinfeld expressed support forIsraelduring theIsrael–Hamas war, saying \"I will always stand with Israel and the Jewish people.\"Seinfeld and his family previously drew criticism, travelling to the West Bank in 2018 to participate in a terrorism simulation camp.Seinfeld also visited the","also visited the headquarters ofAbducted and Missing Families Forumwhere he met with representatives of the families and with abductees who returned from Hamas captivity, and listened to their stories.On May 12, 2024, Seinfeld gave acommencement addressand received an honorary degree atDuke University. During his speech, a number of students booed, wavedPalestinian flagsand walked out in protest.In June 2024, Seinfeld was heckled by protesters during a comedy show inSydney, Australia. Seinfeld responded joking, \"You’re really influencing everyone here. We’re all on your side now, because you’ve made your point so well, and in the right venue, you’ve come to the right place for a political conversation\". Seinfeld has made several political contributions, including toGeorge W. Bush's andAl Gore's presidential campaigns in2000, and subsequently to fourDemocratic Partyprimary candidates in 2000 and2004. Seinfeld has expressed his distaste forpolitical correctnessandwokeculture. In 2015, Seinfeld stated that he","stated that he avoids performing on college campuses because students have become too easily offended by his comedic routines.In a 2024 interview withThe New Yorker, Seinfeld claimed political correctness was destroying comedy, saying, “This is the result of theextreme leftand PC crap, and people worrying so much about offending other people. When you write a script and it goes into four or five different hands, committees, groups — 'Here's our thought about this joke' — well, that's the end of your comedy.”Months later, he walked back those comments on the \"Breaking Bread\" podcast, stating \"I don't think, as I said, 'the extreme left' has done anything to inhibit the art of comedy. I'm taking that back officially.\" Seinfeld said he regrets his previous comments because changing cultural attitudes are \"not business.\" Transcendental Meditation In December 2012, Seinfeld said that he had been practicingTranscendental Meditationfor 40 years. He promoted the use of the technique in the treatment","in the treatment ofpost-traumatic stress disorderwithBob Rothof theDavid Lynch Foundationin December 2012 onGood Morning America,and also appeared at a 2009 David Lynch Foundation benefit for TM, at whichPaul McCartneyandRingo Starrappeared.On November 5, 2015, the David Lynch Foundation organized a benefit concert at New York City'sCarnegie Hallcalled \"Change Begins Within\" to promote transcendental meditation for stress control. \"It's been the greatest companion technique of living that I've ever come across, and I'm thrilled to be part of this movement that seems to have really been reinvigorated by Bob andDavid Lynch,\" Seinfeld said. \"I would do anything that I could to promote it in the world, because I think it's the greatest thing as a life tool, as a work tool and just making things make sense.\" Filmography Film Television Music videos Video games Directing Writing Writing credits forSeinfeld The list below only includes episodes mainly written by Seinfeld, as he (and Larry David in Seasons 1","David in Seasons 1 through 7) rewrote the drafts for each episode. Comedy releases Stand-up specials Stand-up appearances References Awards and nominations Over his career he has receivednumerous accoladesincluding aPrimetime Emmy Award, aGolden Globe Award, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for fourGrammy Awards. Seinfeld has received an HonoraryDoctorate of Humane Lettersfrom Queens College (1994)as well as an HonoraryDoctor of ArtsfromDuke University(2024) Discography Bibliography References External links","Jason Alexander Jay Scott Greenspan(born September 23, 1959),known professionally asJason Alexander, is an American actor and comedian. Over the course of his career he has received anEmmy Awardand aTony Awardas well as nominations for fourGolden Globe Awards. He gained stardom for his role asGeorge Costanzain theNBCsitcomSeinfeld(1989–1998), for which he won aScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Seriesand was nominated for seven consecutivePrimetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Seriesand fourGolden Globe Awards for Best Supporting Actor in Television. Alexander made hisBroadwaydebut originating the role of Joe inStephen Sondheim'sMerrily We Roll Alongin 1981. He remained active on Broadway acting in the musicalsThe Rinkin 1984,Personalsin 1985, and theNeil SimonplayBroadway Boundin 1986. He then starred inJerome Robbins' Broadwayin 1989, for which he won theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He appeared in the Los Angeles","in the Los Angeles production ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers. He was the artistic director of \"Reprise! Broadway's Best in Los Angeles\", where he has directed musicals. His film roles includePretty Woman(1990),Coneheads(1993),North(1994),The Last Supper(1995),Dunston Checks In(1996),Denial(1998),Shallow Hal(2001), andWild Card(2015). He voiced thegargoyleHugo in the Disney filmThe Hunchback of Notre Dame(1996) and the2002 sequelas well as the titular role inDuckman(1994–1997). For his role inDream On(1994) he was nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. He also acted inCurb Your Enthusiasm(2001, 2009), andThe Marvelous Mrs. Maisel(2019). Early life and education Greenspan was born inNewark, New Jerseyto a Jewish family, the son of Ruth Minnie (née Simon), a nurse and health care administrator, and Alexander B. Greenspan, an accounting manager. Greenspan later borrowed his father's first name to create his stage name, Jason Alexander. Alexander grew up","Alexander grew up inMaplewoodandLivingston, New Jersey, and is a 1977 graduate ofLivingston High School.Interested in magic from an early age, he initially hoped to be a magician, but while attending a magic camp was told that his hands were too small for card magic. He became interested in theater, eventually realizing, \"Wait a minute—the whole thing's an illusion. Nothing up there is real\" and that theater itself was \"a magic trick\". He then decided to pursue a theater career. After high school, he studied theater atBoston University. He wanted to pursue classical acting, but a professor redirected him toward comedy after noticing his physique, remarking, \"I know your heart and soul areHamlet, but you will never play Hamlet.\"Alexander left Boston University without a degree after his third year to take a full-time acting job in New York City. The university awarded him an honorary degree in 1995. Career 1980–1999: Broadway debut andSeinfeld Alexander began his acting career on the New York stage and is an","stage and is an accomplished singer and dancer. Alexander made his film debut in 1981 in the summer campslasher filmThe Burning. OnBroadwayhe appeared inStephen Sondheim'sMerrily We Roll Alongin 1981,Kander&Ebb'sThe Rinkin 1984,Neil Simon'sBroadway Boundin 1986,Accomplicein 1990, andJerome Robbins' Broadwayin 1989, for which he garnered the 1989Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical.Frank RichofThe New York Timeswrote of his performance \"Jason Alexander, the evening's delightful narrator, accomplishes the seemingly impossible: he banishes the memory ofZero Mostelfrom the role ofPseudolusinA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum\". In addition to his roles as an insensitive, money-hungry lawyer inPretty Womanin 1990, Alexander has appeared inJacob's Ladderin 1990,The Last Supperin 1995,Dunston Checks Inin 1996,Love! Valour! Compassion!in 1997, andLove and Action in Chicagoin 1999. Alexander starred in several commercials during the 1980s. Among them were commercials forHershey's Kiss; Delta Goldpotato","Delta Goldpotato chips;Miller Litebeer;McDonald'sMcDLThamburger;Pabst Blue Ribbonbeer;Levi's501 jeans;Sony WatchmanTV; andWestern Unionwire transfer.BeforeSeinfeld, Alexander appeared in commercials for John Deere and McDonald's and in the short-livedCBSsitcomEverything's Relative(1987). Alexander is best known as one of the key cast members of the award-winning television sitcomSeinfeld, where he played the bumblingGeorge Costanza(Jerry Seinfeld's character's best friend since childhood). He was nominated for sevenPrimetime Emmy Awardsand fourGolden Globe Awardsfor the role, but did not win any, mainly due to his co-starMichael Richardswinning for his role asCosmo Kramer. He did, however, win the 1995Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series. Concurrently with hisSeinfeldrole, he had a part in the ABC sitcomDinosaursas Al \"Sexual\" Harris (who frequently engaged insexual harassment) as well as other characters from 1991 to 1994. Alexander voiced the lead","voiced the lead character in the animated seriesDuckman(1994–1997) and voicedCatbert, the evil director of human resources, in the short-lived animated seriesDilbertfrom 1999 to 2000, based on the then-popular comic strip.In January 1995, he did a commercial forRold Goldpretzels to be broadcast during theSuper Bowl. The commercial depicts him withFrasierdog Eddie jumping out of an airplane with a parachute over the stadium. After the commercial, the audience is brought back to a supposedly live feed of the playing field hearing startled sports commentators as Alexander and the dog land in the field to wild applause. Alexander appeared in the 1995 TV version of theBroadwaymusicalBye Bye Birdie, as Conrad Birdie's agent, Albert Peterson. He guest-starred in episode 8 of the 1996 variety showMuppets Tonight.He voiced thegargoyleHugo inDisney's 1996animated filmThe Hunchback of Notre Dameand its direct-to-video sequel,The Hunchback of Notre Dame II. Alexander voiced the characterAbis Malin the 1994 filmThe","the 1994 filmThe Return of Jafarand the 1994-1995TV seriesbased on the 1992 filmAladdin. In 1997, he appeared inCinderella, a remake ofRodgers and Hammerstein's Cinderella,alongsideWhitney Houston,Brandy Norwood, andWhoopi Goldberg. His other Disney voice work includesHouse of Mousein 2001 and the 2012 video gameKingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance.He has dabbled in directing, starting with 1996'sFor Better or Worseand 1999'sJust Looking. In 1999, Alexander presided over theNew York Friars Club Roastevent honoringJerry Stiller, who played his father onSeinfeld; it featured appearances byKevin JamesandPatton Oswalt, both Stiller's costars onThe King of Queens. Alexander appeared in the 1999Star Trek: Voyagerepisode \"Think Tank\" as Kurros, a genius alien trying to getSeven of Nineto serve on his ship. 2000–2009: Solo-lead sitcoms and return to theatre Despite a successful career in film and stage, Alexander did not repeat hisSeinfeld-level of success in television. The year 2001 marked his appearance as","his appearance as inept womanizer Mauricio inShallow Haland his first post-Seinfeldreturn to prime-time television: the heavily promoted but short-livedABCsitcomBob Patterson, which was canceled after five episodes. Alexander partially blames the show's failure on the country's mood after9/11.Alexander made cameo appearances as himself in 2001 in the second season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm, and he appeared in the show's seventh season with his three principalSeinfeldco-stars.He was featured in theFriends2001 episode \"The One Where Rosita Dies\" as Earl, a suicidalsupply manager.Phoebecalls him trying to sell himtoner, learns about his problem, and tries to persuade him not to commit suicide. This is referenced in an episode ofMalcolm in the Middlewhere Alexander appears as Leonard, a neurotic and critical loner. He describes himself as \"free\" and says he makes money \"selling toner over the phone\". Later in the episode, he is repeatedly harassed by a man named George. He appeared in \"One Night at Mercy\", the","at Mercy\", the first episode of the short-lived2002 revival ofThe Twilight Zone, playingDeath. He played the toymakerA.C. Gilbertin the 2002 filmThe Man Who Saved Christmas. He appeared inKentucky Fried Chicken(KFC) commercials in 2002, including one withBarry Bondsof theSan Francisco Giantsand another withTrista RehnofThe Bachelorette. It was rumored that he quit doing these commercials due to KFC suppliers andslaughterhouses' allegedcruelty to animals, but he denied that in an interview withAdweek, saying, \"That'sPETAbullcrap. I loved working for KFC. I was targeted by PETA to broker something between them. I think KFC really stepped up to the plate; unfortunately PETA did not.\" In 2007, Alexander appeared in a commercial for theASPCAthat aired on cable TV stations.In 2018, Alexander portrayedColonel Sandersin commercials forKFC, reprising his role from the 2002 campaign. In 2003, he was cast oppositeMartin Shortin the Los Angeles production ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers.He appeared withKelsey Grammerin the","Grammerin the 2004musical adaptationofCharles Dickens'sA Christmas Carol, asJacob Marley. Alexander's second chance as a TV series lead, theCBSsitcomListen Up(2004–05), also fell short of a second season. Alexander was the principal executive producer of the series, based very loosely on the life of the popular sports-media personalityTony Kornheiser. He performed on theFamily Guy: Live in Vegas2005 album. Alexander continued to appear in live stage shows, includingBarbra Streisand's memorable birthday party in 2005 for Stephen Sondheim at the Hollywood Bowl, where he performed selections fromSweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet StreetwithAngela Lansbury.He featured in the 2005Monkepisode \"Mr. Monk and the Other Detective\" as Monk's rival,Marty Eels. In a 2006 appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!, Alexander demonstrated several self-defense techniques. Also that year, he hosted thePBS\"A Capitol Fourth\" celebrations in Washington, D.C., singing, dancing, and playing tuned drums. Alexander was featured as a","was featured as a recurring cast member in the second season ofEverybody Hates Chris. He hosted theComedy Central Roast of William Shatner. He was the artistic director of Reprise Theatre Company in Los Angeles from 2007 until it went defunct in 2013,where he previously directedSunday in the Park with George, and directed its 2007 revival ofDamn Yankees.In 2007, Alexander was a guest star in the third episode of theimprov comedyseriesThank God You're Here. He has been a frequent guest and panelist onBill Maher'sPolitically Incorrectin 1995, 1997 and 2000andReal Timein 2006, 2009 and 2012;Hollywood Squaresin 1999, 2002 and 2004;theLate Late Showin 2003, 2012, 2014 and 2015, withCraig Kilborn,Craig Ferguson, andJames Corden;Late Show with David Lettermanin 1989, 2000, and 2002;The Late Show with Stephen Colbertin 2015;andThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallonin 2015.In 2008, Alexander guest-starred in theseason fourepisode \"Masterpiece\" of theCBSshowCriminal Mindsas Professor Rothschild,a well-educatedserial","well-educatedserial killerobsessed with theFibonacci sequencewho sends the team into a race against time to save his last victims.He returned in the same season to direct the episode \"Conflicted\", featuring the actorJackson Rathbone. Alexander hosted the LOL Sudbury opening night gala inSudbury, Ontario, Canada in 2008, which was simulcast throughout Canada at 60 Cineplex theaters, a first for any comedy festival. He has lent his voice to several episodes of theTwilight Zone Radio Dramas. In 2008 and again in 2009, Alexander frontedJason Alexander's Comedy Spectacular, a routine exclusive to Australia. The show consists of stand-up and improvisation and incorporates Alexander's musical talent. He is backed up by several well-known Australian comedians. His first time performing a similar show of this nature was in 2006'sJason Alexander's Comedy Christmas. In February/March 2010, Alexander starred in his show,The Donny Clay Experience, at thePlanet Hollywood ResortinLas Vegas,Nevada. Donny Clay, whom he has","Clay, whom he has portrayed in a tour of the United States and Orillia, Ontario, is aself-helpguru in a similar mold to hisBob Pattersoncharacter. In 2009, he playedJosephin theThomas Nelsonaudio Bible productionThe Word of Promise. The project featured a large ensemble of actors, includingJim Caviezel,Lou Gossett Jr.,John Rhys-Davies,Jon Voight,Gary Sinise,Christopher McDonald,Marisa Tomei, andJohn Schneider.In 2009, Alexander had a small role in the filmHachi: A Dog's Taleas a train station manager. 2010–present He starred asCosmoin the 2011 live action filmA Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner!. In 2011, Alexander was the guest star in an episode ofHarry's Law, playing a high school teacher bringing a wrongful dismissal suit.In 2015, he replacedLarry Davidas the lead in David'sBroadwayplayFish in the Dark.He co-starred oppositeSherie Rene Scottin the 2017 world premiere ofJohn Patrick Shanley'sThe Portuguese Kidat theManhattan Theatre Club.In 2018, Alexander played Olix the bartender inThe Orville.The","inThe Orville.The same year, he portrayed Gene Lundy, a drama teacher, on two episodes ofYoung Sheldon. In 2020, 2021 and 2022, he reprised the role of Gene Lundy on one episode. In 2019, Alexander appeared onThe Marvelous Mrs. Maiselas Asher Friedman, a blacklisted Broadway playwright who is an old friend of Midge Maisel's father Abe Weissman.He won theDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Original Song for \"The Bad Guys?\" onBrainwashed By Toons(2020). In 2020, Alexander hosted theSaturday Night Seder, an online Passover Seder that featured many celebrities and benefited theCDC Foundation. From February 2023 he co-presentedReally? No, Really?, a weekly podcast in which he, co-host Peter Tilden, and their guests attempt to find answers \"to life’s most baffling, intriguing, confusing and annoying questions\".In July 2023, he made his Broadway directing debut with Sandy Rustin's comedyThe Cottage. The cast includesEric McCormack,Laura Bell BundyandLilli Cooper.In 2023, on the December 21 primetime CBS specialDick","CBS specialDick Van Dyke: 98 Years of Magic, Alexander performed two songs in conjunction with dance-performers and closed the show with a spoken tribute to Van Dyke. Personal life Alexander has been married to Daena E. Title, cousin of directorStacy Title, since May 31, 1982.They have two sons, Gabrieland Noah. Alexander performed amentalismand magic act atThe Magic Castlein Hollywood, California, from April 24 to 30, 2006, and he was later named The Academy of Magical Arts Parlor Magician of the Year for this act. He won the academy's Junior Achievement Award in 1989. Charity Alexander was the national spokesman for theSclerodermaFoundation, a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those who are afflicted.In summer 2005, he appeared withLee Iacoccain ads forDaimlerChrysler. Iacocca did the ads as part of a way to raise money forDenise Faustman's research onautoimmunity.Iacocca and Alexander both have loved ones whose lives have been adversely affected by","affected by autoimmunity. Alexander competed on televised poker shows and in various tournaments. He appeared twice onBravo'sCelebrity Poker Showdown, winning the final table of the 8th season. Alexander won the $500,000 prize for the charity of his choice, TheUnited Way of America, to help benefit the New Orleans area. Alexander played in the2007 World Series of Pokermain event, but he was eliminated on the second day. He returned in 2009, making it to day 3 of the event and finishing in the top 30% of the field. Alexander has appeared on NBC'sPoker After Darkin the \"Celebrities and Mentors\" episode, finishing in 6th place after being eliminated by professional poker playerGavin Smith. He signed withPokerStars, where he plays under the screen name \"J. Alexander\". In 2021, Alexander competed in a virtual National Poker Tournament, hosted by theChildren's Tumor Foundation, to raise money forNeurofibromatosisresearch. Political views Alexander has been a prominent public supporter of theOneVoiceinitiative,","which seeks out opinions from moderateIsraelisandPalestinianswho want to achieve a mutual peace agreement, through what it states is the silent majority of Israelis and Palestinians. This has been criticised by The Electronic Intifada as \"promoting what many Palestinians see as \"a false peace that fails to address the structural injustices driving the conflict\", and as a fake peace group which \"manufactures consent for Israeli apartheid\".OnReal Time with Bill Maher, he said he had visitedIsraelmany times and spoke about progress toward peace he had observed. On December 6, 2012 Alexander emceed his thirdgala event for non-profit groupFriends of the Israel Defense Forces, a charity supporting theIsrael Defense Forces.MusicianStevie Wondercancelled his performance at the event following a recommendation from the UN,and a public petition fromBoycott, Divestment and Sanctions(BDS) requesting that he not attend the event.Alexander who was interviewed at the event by Jewish News Syndicate stated he supported","stated he supported theOneVoice Movement, and acknowledged an occupation of Palestine and called for a two-state solution,which was later criticised by Roz Rothstein, CEO of the pro-Israel education group StandWithUs.When asked about the IDF, Alexander stated that they were humane and noble, stating \"some of the finest, most humane, most admirable, most noble-serving soldiers that I've ever seen\" and that \"there can never be any doubt that I am also an advocate for Israel\".When asked about why he had repeatedly emceed the event, Alexander stated: \"They don’t understand first of all what is, and they see it as just a blanket support for Israeli military, and they don’t understand how I can say that I’m an advocate for both sides,” he said. “And given the fact that there are eyes on this event tonight, I thought it was important to get up and say, 'This is why I can advocate for this group and I can advocate for Israel, and I’m not blind to the fact that we’re in conflict, and I hold everyone equally","everyone equally accountable, and I hold everyone equally to my heart.'\" On November 6, 2015 he again emceed an event at theThe Beverly Hilton Hotelin California, which raised $31 million for the, \"provid educational, cultural and recreational programs and facilities for IDF soldiers.\" Alexander is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.Alexander supportssame-sex marriageand anassault weapons ban.In 2020, he campaigned for theTexas Democratswith formerSeinfeldcolleaguesJulia Louis-Dreyfusand Larry David.He endorsedBarack Obamain2012andJoe Bidenin2020.Alexander has been an outspoken critic of theTrump administrationand he has ridiculedDonald Trumpover his dancing.He has calledRepublican PartysenatorTed Cruza jerk from the \"jerk store\" in reference to a joke fromSeinfeld. Acting credits Film Television Theatre Music videos Video games Director Awards and nominations References External links","Julia Louis-Dreyfus Julia Scarlett Elizabeth Louis-Dreyfus(/ˌluːiˈdraɪfəs/LOO-eeDRY-fəs; born January 13, 1961) is an American actress and comedian. Often described as one of the greatest performers in television history,she is widely known for her roles as various characters onSaturday Night Live(1982–1985),Elaine BenesonSeinfeld(1990–1998),Christine CampbellonThe New Adventures of Old Christine(2006–2010), andSelina MeyeronVeep(2012–2019). Herlist of accoladesmakes her one of the most award-winning actresses in American television history,and she has received morePrimetime Emmy Awardsand moreScreen Actors Guild Awardsthan any other performer. Louis-Dreyfus was born in New York City, the daughter of the French billionaireGérard Louis-Dreyfus, and entered comedy as a performer with thePractical Theatre CompanyinChicago. This led to her being cast in the sketch showSaturday Night Live. Her breakthrough came in 1990 with her debut at the start of a nine-season run onSeinfeld, which became one of the most","one of the most critically and commercially successful sitcoms. In addition to leading roles onThe New Adventures of Old ChristineandVeep, she has made guest appearances on shows such asArrested Development,Curb Your Enthusiasm, and30 Rock. On film, Louis-Dreyfus has had supporting film roles inHannah and Her Sisters(1986),National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation(1989),Deconstructing Harry(1997), andYou People(2023), and leading film roles inEnough Said(2013),Downhill(2020),You Hurt My Feelings(2023), andTuesday(2023). Her voice acting work includesA Bug's Life(1998),Planes(2013), andOnward(2020). Since 2021 she has playedValentina Allegra de Fontainein theMarvel Cinematic Universe. Louis-Dreyfus has received 11 Primetime Emmy Awards (eight for acting and three for producing) in addition to nine Screen Actors Guild Awards and oneGolden Globe Award. She received a star on theHollywood Walk of Famein 2010 and was inducted into theTelevision Academy Hall of Famein 2014. She was named as one ofTimemagazine's100","ofTimemagazine's100 most influential people in the worldin 2016.She has also received numerous honors including theMark Twain Prize for American Humorin 2018 and theNational Medal of Artsin 2021. Early life Julia Scarlett Elizabeth Louis-Dreyfuswas born inNew York Cityon January 13, 1961.Her mother, Judith (née LeFever), is an American writer andspecial needs educator.Her father,Gérard Louis-Dreyfus(1932–2016), was a French billionaire who served as chairman of theLouis Dreyfus Company. Her paternal grandfather,Pierre Louis-Dreyfus(1908–2011), was president of theLouis Dreyfus Groupcommodities and shipping conglomerate.He was a member of aJewishfamily fromAlsace,and served as acavalryofficer and member of theFrench ResistanceduringWorld War II.Louis-Dreyfus is the great-great-granddaughter of French businessmanLéopold Louis-Dreyfus(1833–1915), founder of the Louis Dreyfus Group, which members of her family still control.She is the fifth cousin four times removed ofAlfred Dreyfus(1859–1935) of the","of the infamousDreyfus affair.Robert Louis-Dreyfus(1946–2009), her father's second cousin, was the CEO ofAdidasand owner of the soccer teamOlympique de Marseille.Julia's paternal grandmother was the daughter of aBrazilian-Jewishfather (whose family wasDutch,English, andPolish). In 1962, a year after her birth, Louis-Dreyfus' parents divorced. She has said that she first noticed her penchant for comedy after sticking raisins up her nose at the age of three, which first made her mother laugh but then led to an emergency hospital visit.After moving toWashington, D.C., when Louis-Dreyfus was four, her mother married L. Thompson Bowles, dean of theGeorge Washington University Medical School;Louis-Dreyfus gained a half-sister,Lauren Bowles, also an actress. Due to her stepfather's work withProject HOPE, she spent her childhood in several U.S. states and countries such asColombia,Sri Lanka, andTunisia.In 1979, she graduated from the all-girlsHolton-Arms SchoolinBethesda, Maryland.She later said of the school,","said of the school, \"There were things I did in school that, had there been boys in the classroom, I would have been less motivated to do. For instance, I was president of the honor society.\" Louis-Dreyfus attendedNorthwestern UniversityinEvanston, Illinois, where she was a member of theDelta Gammasorority. She studied theatre and performed in theMee-Ow Show, a student-run improv and sketch comedy revue, before dropping out during her junior year to take a job atSaturday Night Live.In 2007, she received an honorary doctor of arts degree from Northwestern University. Career 1982–1989: Early career andSaturday Night Live As part of her comedic training, Louis-Dreyfus appeared inThe Second City, one of the best-known improvisational theatre groups. It was her performance withThe Practical Theatre Companyat their \"Golden 50th Anniversary Jubilee\" that led to her being asked to join the cast ofNBC'sSaturday Night Liveat the age of 21. Louis-Dreyfus subsequently became a cast member onSaturday Night Livefrom 1982","Night Livefrom 1982 to 1985, the youngest female cast member in the history of the program at that time.It was during her third and final year onSNLthat she met writerLarry Davidduring his only year on the show.David later co-createdSeinfeld.Louis-Dreyfus has commented that her casting onSNLwas a \"Cinderella-getting-to-go-to-the-ball kind of experience\";however, she has also admitted that at times it was often quite tense, stating that she \"didn't know how to navigate the waters of show business in general and specifically doing a live sketch-comedy show\". Recurring characters onSaturday Night Live Following her 1985 departure fromSNL, Louis-Dreyfus appeared in several films, includingHannah and Her Sisters(1986) byWoody Allen,Soul Man(1986), andNational Lampoon's Christmas Vacation(1989), in which she starred alongside fellowSNLalumnusChevy Chase. In 1987, Louis-Dreyfus appeared in the NBC sitcom pilotThe Art of Being Nick, an intended spin-off fromFamily TiesstarringScott Valentine. When the pilot did not","the pilot did not make it to series, Louis-Dreyfus was retained by producerGary David Goldbergfor a role on his new sitcomDay by Day, as the sarcastic and materialistic neighbor, Eileen Swift. Premiering in early 1988,Day by Dayaired for two seasons on NBC before being cancelled. 1990–1998:Seinfeldand widespread recognition In the early 1990s, Louis-Dreyfus became famous for the role ofElaine Beneson NBC'sSeinfeld. She played the role for nine seasons, appearing in all but three episodes.One of the episodes that she did not appear in was the pilot episode, \"The Seinfeld Chronicles\", because her character was not initially intended to be a part of the series. It was only after the first episode thatNBCexecutives felt the show was too male-centric and demanded that creatorsLarry DavidandJerry Seinfeldadd a woman to the cast. It was revealed in the commentary on the DVD package that the addition of a female character was the condition for commissioning the show. Louis-Dreyfus won the role over several other","over several other actresses who also eventually enjoyed TV success, includingPatricia HeatonandMegan Mullally.On the \"Notes About Nothing\" featurette on theDVDpackage, Seinfeld says that Louis-Dreyfus's ability to eat a peanutM&Mwithout breaking the peanut described her: \"She cracks you up without breaking your nuts.\" Louis-Dreyfus garnered critical acclaim for her performance on the series, and she was a regular winner and nominee at television award shows throughout the 1990s. Her performance earned her twoGolden Globe Awardnominations, winning once in 1994, nineScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, winning one in 1995 and two in both 1997 and 1998, and sevenAmerican Comedy Awards, winning five times in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997 and 1998. In 1996, she won thePrimetime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, an award she was nominated for on seven occasions from 1992 to 1998. After receiving the award, Louis-Dreyfus said the win was a \"shocker\", and that after being in both positions,","in both positions, it was \"much better to win than to lose.\" In 1998, Jerry Seinfeld decided to end the series after nine seasons. Theseries finaleaired on May 14 and was one of the most-watched TV events in history, with over 76 million viewers tuning in.During her time onSeinfeld,she appeared in several films, including the comedy filmsFathers' Day(1997), oppositeRobin WilliamsandBilly Crystal, andWoody Allen'sDeconstructing Harry(1997). 1999–2004: Post-Seinfeld Following a voice role in the highly successfulPixarfilmA Bug's Life(1998), Louis-Dreyfus lent her voice asSnake's girlfriend Gloria inThe Simpsonsepisode \"A Hunka Hunka Burns in Love\". In 2001, she made several special guest appearances onSeinfeldco-creatorLarry David's showCurb Your Enthusiasm, playing herself fictionally trying to break the \"curse\" by planning to star in a show in which she would play an actress affected by aSeinfeld-like curse. After several years away from a regular TV job, Louis-Dreyfus began a new single-camera","a new single-camera sitcom,Watching Ellie, which premiered on NBC in February 2002. The series was created by husbandBrad Halland co-starredSteve Carelland Louis-Dreyfus's half-sisterLauren Bowles. The initial premise of the show was to present viewers with a \"slice of life\" from the goings-on and happenings of the life of Ellie Riggs, a Southern California jazz singer. The first season included a 22-minute countdown kept digitally in the lower left-hand corner of the screen, which many critics panned, claiming it was useless and \"did nothing for the show.\"Overall, the show received mixed reviews but debuted strongly with over 16 million viewers tuning in for the series premiere, and maintained an average audience of about 10 million viewers per week. When the series returned for a second season in the spring of 2003, it suffered a decline in viewership, averaging around eight million viewers per week. The show had undergone a drastic stylistic change between the production of seasons one and two. The first","and two. The first season was filmed in the single-camera format, but the second season was presented as a traditional multicamera sitcom filmed in front of a live studio audience.With dwindling viewership and failing to retain the numbers from itsFrasierlead-in, the series was cancelled by NBC in May 2003. Following NBC's cancellation ofWatching Ellie, the media began circulating rumors of a so-called \"Seinfeldcurse\", which claimed that none of the formerSeinfeldactors could ever achieve success again in the television industry. Louis-Dreyfus dismissed the rumor as \"a made-up thing by the media\",whileSeinfeldco-creator Larry David asserted that the curse was \"completely idiotic.\"Louis-Dreyfus was interested in the role ofSusan MayeronDesperate Housewives, the role that ultimately went toTeri Hatcher.Instead, Louis-Dreyfus scored a recurring guest role as Maggie Lizer, the deceitful prosecutor and love interest ofMichael Bluthon the Emmy-winning comedyArrested Development, from 2004 to 2005. 2005–2010:The","2005. 2005–2010:The New Adventures of Old Christine In 2005, Louis-Dreyfus was cast in the title role of a new CBS sitcom,The New Adventures of Old Christine.The series and its concept were created by writer and producer ofWill & Grace, Kari Lizer. The series told the story of Christine Campbell, a single mother who manages to maintain a fantastic relationship with her ex-husband while running a women's gym. The series debuted on CBS in March 2006 to an audience of 15 million and was initially a ratings winner for the network. Louis-Dreyfus received considerable critical acclaim for her performance on the show, with Brian Lowry ofVarietystating that Louis-Dreyfus broke the so-called \"Seinfeldcurse with one of the best conventional half-hours to come along in a while.\"Alessandra Stanley fromThe New York Timesasserted that Louis-Dreyfus's performance on the series proved she is \"one of the funniest women on network television.\"Louis-Dreyfus also earned the 2006Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress","Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her performance in the first season. Referring to thecurse, she stated in her acceptance speech, \"I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this, baby!\"Throughout the course of the series, she received five consecutiveEmmy Awardnominations, three consecutiveSatellite Awardnominations, twoScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, and a nomination for aGolden Globe Award. In 2007, she also received two nominations for aPeople's Choice Awarddue to her return to popularity, thanks to the success ofOld Christine. In May 2006, Louis-Dreyfus hosted an episode ofSaturday Night Live, becoming the first female former cast member to return to the show as a host.In the episode, she appeared with herSeinfeldco-starsJason AlexanderandJerry Seinfeldin her opening monologue, parodying the so-called \"Seinfeldcurse\".After a successful reception of her 2006 episode, Louis-Dreyfus again hostedSNLon March 17, 2007, and April 17, 2016. Louis-Dreyfus reprised her role as Gloria in","role as Gloria in twoSimpsonsepisodes: 2007's \"I Don't Wanna Know Why the Caged Bird Sings\" and 2008's \"Sex, Pies and Idiot Scrapes\". In the fall of 2009, she appeared with the rest of the cast ofSeinfeldin four episodes of the seventh season ofLarry David's sitcomCurb Your Enthusiasm. The reunion shows received much media attention, and the episode received strong ratings for the series. In 2009, Louis-Dreyfus was granted the honorary award for Legacy of Laughter at theTV Land Awards. Previous winners had includedLucille BallandMike Myers. She was presented with the award by friendAmy Poehler. The following year, Louis-Dreyfus received the 2,407th star on theHollywood Walk of Fameon May 4, 2010, for her remarkable contribution to the broadcast television industry as both an actress and a comedian. Originally, the star was set with Louis-Dreyfus's name spelled incorrectly. It was missing both the 'o' and the hyphen in her last name.The star was corrected and the misspelled portion was removed and presented","and presented to her.Celebrity guests at the event included past and current colleagues from throughout her career, includingClark Gregg, Larry David,Eric McCormack, and Jason Alexander. Old Christinewas cancelled by CBS on May 18, 2010, after 5 years.Discussions were held with ABC to revive the show but they never came to fruition.In the spring of 2010, Louis-Dreyfus guest-starred several times in the third season of the web seriesWeb Therapy, starringLisa Kudrow. Louis-Dreyfus played the sister of the main character, Fiona Wallice, who gives her therapy online. When the series made the transition to cable television on theShowtimenetwork, Louis-Dreyfus's appearance from the web series was included in the second season, airing in July 2012.In fall 2010, Louis-Dreyfus made a guest appearance on the live episode of30 Rock, playingTina Fey's role ofLiz Lemonin the cutaway shots. Louis-Dreyfus was among severalSaturday Night Livealumni appearing in the episode, includingRachel Dratch,Bill Hader, and","Hader, and regularsTracy Morganand Fey herself. Louis-Dreyfus also starred in a \"Women of SNL\" special on November 1, 2010, on NBC. 2011–2019:Veepand acclaim In May and June 2011, Louis-Dreyfus teamed up with husband Brad Hall for her first short film,Picture Paris. This was the first time the couple had collaborated since their early-2000s NBC comedyWatching Ellie. Hall wrote and directed the film, while Louis-Dreyfus played the lead role of an ordinary woman with an extraordinary obsession with the city of Paris. The film premiered on January 29, 2012, at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival, and has received considerable critical acclaim.It made its television premiere on HBO on December 17, 2012. In early 2011, HBO confirmed that Louis-Dreyfus had been cast in the lead role of U.S. Vice President Selina Meyer in a new satirical comedy series titledVeep. The series was commissioned for a first season of eight episodes. In addition to her starring role, Louis-Dreyfus would also be a producer.In","be a producer.In preparation for her role, Louis-Dreyfus spoke withAl Goreand another former vice president,senators, speechwriters, chiefs of staffs of various offices, and schedulers.Louis-Dreyfus commended HBO for allowing the cast and crew to engage in a \"protracted pre-production process\", which included a six-week rehearsal period before filming began. The first season was filmed in the fall of 2011, inBaltimore, and the series premiered on April 22, 2012.The premiere episode was met with high praise from critics, particularly for Louis-Dreyfus' performance.The Hollywood Reporterasserted the character of Selina Meyer was her \"best post-Seinfeld role\" to date and claimed she gives \"an Emmy-worthy effort\",while theLos Angeles Timescontended the series demonstrates she is \"one of the medium's great comediennes.\"Following the success of the first season, Louis-Dreyfus was named by theHuffington Postas one of the funniest people of 2012, asserting that she is the \"most magnetic and naturally funny woman on","funny woman on TV since Mary Tyler Moore.\" For her performance onVeep, Louis-Dreyfus received several accolades, most notably seven nominations for thePrimetime Emmy AwardsforOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesbetween 2012 and 2019, winning the award six times.These Emmy wins forVeep, following previous wins forSeinfeldandThe New Adventures of Old Christine, resulted in her becoming the only woman to win an acting award for three separate comedy series.Her sixth win in 2016 surpassed the record previously held byMary Tyler MooreandCandice Bergenfor the most wins in that category.In 2017, her sixth consecutive win, and eighth acting win, overall made her the performer with the most Emmys for the same role in the same series, surpassingCandice BergenandDon Knotts, and put her in a tie withCloris Leachmanfor the most Emmys ever won by a performer.She was also nominated as one of the producers forVeepin thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Seriescategory for all seven seasons, winning the award","winning the award in 2015, 2016 and 2017 for the fourth, fifth and sixth seasons respectively.Louis-Dreyfus also received fiveCritics' Choice Television Awardnominations, winning twice in 2013 and 2014, tenScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, winning twice in 2014 and 2017, and fiveTelevision Critics Association Awardnominations, winning once in 2014. Her performance additionally garnered her fiveSatellite Awardnominations and five consecutiveGolden Globe Awardnominations. Louis-Dreyfus lent her voice to the 2013 animated filmPlanes, in the role of Rochelle. To date, the film has grossed well over $200 million at the box office worldwide.She also starred in the filmEnough Said, directed byNicole Holofcener, which was released on September 18, 2013.This marked her debut as a lead actress in a full-length feature film. The film garnered rave reviews from film critics, ranking among the best-reviewed films of 2013. The websiteRotten Tomatoesgives the film a score of 96% based on 152 reviews, many of them","many of them praising Louis-Dreyfus's performance.She received several Best Actress nominations including for theGolden Globe Awardsand theCritics' Choice Movie Awards. Another review aggregation website, Metacritic, gave the film a score of 78 out of 100, based on 44 critics, signifying \"generally favorable reviews\". Since December 2014, Louis-Dreyfus has appeared in a series of television commercials forOld Navy.In 2015 she acted in theComedy Centralsketch seriesInside Amy SchumeralongsideTina FeyandPatricia Arquette, playing a version of themselves giving advice on aging toAmy Schumer. Dreyfus said of the experience \"I started to feel unbelievably paranoid that I was making fun of myself and wondering, was this really happening to me? Like, how meta is this moment in my life? I started to have a kind of soul-searching crisis in the middle of the day. And I didn't know well enough to bring it up, so I was just trying to be a good sport even though I was dying a little bit on the inside.\"On April 16, 2016,","April 16, 2016, she returned toSaturday Night Liveserving as host for the third time with musical guestNick Jonas. During the episode's cold open, she reprised her role of Elaine Benes fromSeinfeld. 2020–present: Career expansion In 2020, Louis-Dreyfus headlined the comedy-dramaDownhill, oppositeWill Ferrell. The film premiered at the2020 Sundance Film Festivaland was theatrically released on February 14.Next, she voiced a suburban elf mother inPixar'sOnwardoppositeTom HollandandChris Pratt. The film was released on March 6, 2020. In January 2020, Louis-Dreyfus signed a multi-year deal withApple TV+. Under the deal, she will develop new projects for Apple TV+ as both an executive producer and star.The following year Louis-Dreyfus appeared in theDisney+seriesThe Falcon and the Winter Soldier(2021) asValentina Allegra de Fontaine, which is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, though she was originally intended to debut in the filmBlack Widow(where she appears in the post credit scene).She reprised the role","reprised the role inBlack Panther: Wakanda Forever(2022), and will also appear in the upcoming filmThunderbolts*(2025). In 2022 she was a guest on theNetflixshowMy Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman. In 2023 she reunited withNicole Holofcenerstarring in theA24independent comedy filmYou Hurt My Feelings. Dreyfus produced the film and acted alongsideTobias Menzies,Michaela Watkins,Arian MoayedandJeannie Berlin. The film premiered at theSundance Film Festivalto positive reviews.Peter Bradshawpraised her performance writing, \"Louis-Dreyfus is such a superb comic performer that it is interesting seeing her take on something low-key\".That same year she portrayed a liberal Jewish mother in theNetflixromantic comedyYou People(2023). She also starred in the A24 filmTuesday, directed by Daina Oniunas-Pusić,which premiered at the 2023Telluride Film Festival. In 2023, Louis-Dreyfus became host of the podcastWiser Than Me.On the show, she interviews women older than her on their lived experience and","experience and earned wisdom. Guests have includedJane Fonda,Carol Burnett,Isabel AllendeandAmy Tan. The show, produced byLemonada Media, was named Apple's Best Podcast of the Year in 2023.Among her season two guests, Louis-Dreyfus interviewsBillie Jean King,Patti Smith, andJulie Andrews. Reception Louis-Dreyfus is widely regarded as one of the finest comedic actresses of her generation.Jake Coyle of theLubbock Avalanche-Journalsaid \"Few comediennes have both her gift for physical comedy ... vocal precision\".According to the journalistMolly Ball, Louis-Dreyfus has played mostly \"funny, self-centered women who are compelling despite often being ill-behaved\". Louis-Dreyfus said she had turned playing unlikeable people into a career.Ball said: \"She has also left an indelible cultural mark, expanding the possibilities for women in comedy–and maybe in politics and public life as well.\" Personal life Louis-Dreyfus' maternal half-sister,Lauren Bowles, is also an actress. She also has two paternal half-sisters,","half-sisters, Phoebeand Emma. Emma died in August 2018. While at Northwestern University, Louis-Dreyfus met her future husband, theSaturday Night LivecomedianBrad Hall.They married in 1987 and have two sons.Their older son, Henry Hall, is a singer-songwriter who has performed onThe Tonight Show.Their younger son,Charlie Hall, is an actor.Her first pregnancy ended in a miscarriage. Louis-Dreyfus said she respects \"women who are not afraid of making themselves look bad or foolish to get a laugh\" and cites her acting idols asLucille Ball,Mary Tyler Moore,Madeline Kahn,Teri Garr,Valerie Harper, andCloris Leachman.The actressTina Feysaid that Louis-Dreyfus inspired her characterLiz Lemonon the NBC comedy series30 Rock. On September 28, 2017, Louis-Dreyfus announced that she had been diagnosed withbreast cancer, which she discovered the day after winning aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her role inVeep.She said: \"One in eight women get breast cancer. Today, I'm the one. The","I'm the one. The good news is that I have the most glorious group of supportive and caring family and friends, and fantastic insurance through my union. The bad news is that not all women are so lucky, so let's fight all cancers and makeuniversal healthcarea reality.\"On October 18, 2018, she announced on an episode ofJimmy Kimmel Live!that she was cancer-free.Louis-Dreyfus was raised Catholic but moved towards agnosticism; she said she had no \"traditional religious affiliation\". Advocacy and politics Louis-Dreyfus supportedAl Gore's 2000 U.S. presidential bid andBarack Obama's bid for the presidency in both 2008and 2012.She appeared in a video that urged Obama to reject the proposal of theKeystone XL pipeline, arguing that if the pipeline ever were to leak, it would cause massive pollution across the U.S.She has voiced her concern for several environmental issues and has raised millions forHeal the Bay, theNatural Resources Defense Council, and theTrust for Public Land. She also worked for the successful","for the successful passage of Proposition O, which allocated $500 million for cleaning up the Los Angeleswater supply. In October 2010, before theU.S. Senate election in California, Louis-Dreyfus starred in a humorousBarbara Boxerad regardingenergy policy.During the2016 Democratic National Convention, she supportedHillary Clintonin that year'spresidential election.In her acceptance speech at the 2017Screen Actors Guild Awards, she denounced PresidentDonald Trump'sexecutive order, referred to as the \"Muslim ban\", as \"un-American\" and said, \"My father fled religious persecution inNazi-occupied France.\" Louis-Dreyfusemceedthe final night of the2020 Democratic National Convention, endorsingJoe Biden.She has also published information regarding voting by mailand urged all Americans to vote.Louis-Dreyfus endorsed RepresentativeKaren Bassin the2022 Los Angeles mayoral election, in various social media posts. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Julia Louis-Dreyfus has won thePrimetime Emmy Award for","Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesseven times: once for her role onThe New Adventures of Old Christine(2006) and six consecutive awards for playingSelina MeyeronVeep(2012–17), as well asOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesonce forSeinfeld(1996). As of 2017, she holds the record for the most Primetime Emmy awards as an actor for the same role and is tied with fellow Northwestern University alumCloris Leachmanfor the most acting Primetime Emmy awards (with eight). She has also been nominated for nineGolden Globe Awards, winning one for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film for her role asElaine Beneson Seinfeld (1995). She has also been nominated for twenty-oneScreen Actors Guild Awardsand has won five for individual performance (nine altogether) for her work onSeinfeld(1997–98) andVeep(2014, 2017–18). In 2016, she won the Crossover Talent award at the 4th Annual American Reality Television Awards. In 2018 she was the twentieth recipient of","recipient of theMark Twain Prize for American Humor. In 2023, the podcast she hosts,Wiser Than Me, won Apple's Best Podcast of the Year. References External links","Michael Richards Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Michael Anthony Richards(born July 24, 1949) is an American actor and former stand-up comedian. He achieved global recognition for starring asCosmo Krameron the NBC television sitcomSeinfeldfrom 1989 to 1998. He began his career as a stand-up comedian, first entering the national spotlight when he was featured onBilly Crystal's first cable TV special, and went on to become a series regular onABC'sFridays. From 1989 to 1998, he played Cosmo Kramer onSeinfeld, three times receiving thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. During the run ofSeinfeld, he made a guest appearance inMad About You, reprising his role as Kramer. Richards also made numerous guest appearances on a variety of television shows, such asCheers. His film credits includeSo I Married an Axe Murderer,Airheads,Young Doctors in Love,Problem Child,Coneheads,UHF, andTrial and Error, one of his few starring roles. In 2000, he starred in","2000, he starred in his own sitcom,The Michael Richards Show, which was canceled after only two months. Afterwards, Richards returned to stand-up. In 2006, he was filmed going on a racist tirade against hecklers while performing at theLaugh FactoryinCalifornia. After the tape was obtained and released byTMZ,significant backlash and media coverage led to Richards retiring from stand-up in early 2007. In 2009, he appeared as himself in theseventh seasonofCurb Your Enthusiasmalongside his fellowSeinfeldcast members for the first time since the show’sfinale. In 2013, he portrayed Frank in the sitcomKirstie, which was canceled after one season.He most recently played Daddy Hogwood in the 2019 romantic comedyFaith, Hope & Love. Early life Richards was born inCulver City, California, to aCatholicfamily.He is the son of Phyllis (née Nardozzi), amedical recordslibrarian. As a child Richards was told his father was William Richards, anelectrical engineer,who died in a car crash when Michael was two.He later learned","later learned his mother's pregnancy was the result of a sexual assault, and she had considered abortion and adoption before deciding to raise him as a single mom. Richards was also raised by a grandmother who suffered fromschizophrenia. Richards graduated fromThousand Oaks High School. In 1968, he appeared as a contestant onThe Dating Game, but was not chosen for the date. He wasdraftedinto theUnited States Armyin 1970. He trained as a medic and was stationed inWest Germanywhere he was a member of a theatrical group called The Training Road Show.He became interested in performing after taking a theatrical class in seventh grade. After being honorably discharged, Richards used the benefits of theG.I. Billto enroll in theCalifornia Institute of the Artsand earned aBachelor of Artsin drama fromthe Evergreen State Collegein 1975.He also had a short-livedimprovact withEd Begley Jr.During this period, he enrolled atLos Angeles Valley Collegeand continued to appear in student productions. Career 1979–1989: Early","1979–1989: Early career Richards got his big TV break in 1979, appearing inBilly Crystal's first cable TV special. In 1980, he began as one of the cast members onABC'sFridaystelevision show, whereLarry Davidwas a fellow cast member and writer. It includeda famous instancein whichAndy Kaufmanrefused to deliver his scripted lines, leading Richards to bring thecue cardson screen to Kaufman, who responded by throwing his drink into Richards' face, causing a small riot (Richards later claimed he was in on the joke).The filmMan on the Moonfeatured a re-enactment of theAndy Kaufman incidentwhere Richards was portrayed by actorNorm Macdonald. In 1981, he appeared in theIt's a Livingepisode \"Desperate Hours\".In 1986, Richards had a minor role in the cult satirical TV miniseriesFresno, playing one of a pair of inept criminal henchmen. That same year he auditioned to playAl Bundyin the TV seriesMarried... with Children, but he was passed over forEd O'Neill.In 1989, Richards had a supporting role in\"Weird Al\" Yankovic's","Al\" Yankovic's comedy filmUHFas janitor Stanley Spadowski. On television, he appeared inMiami Viceas an unscrupulousbookie; inSt. Elsewhereas a television producer making a documentary about Dr. Mark Craig; inCheersas a character trying to collect on an old bet withSam Malone; and made several guest appearances withJay Lenoas an accident-prone fitness expert. According to an interview with executive producer David Hoberman, ABC first conceived the seriesMonkas a procedural police comedy with anInspector Clouseau-like character suffering fromobsessive-compulsive disorder. Hoberman said ABC wanted Richards to playAdrian Monk, but he turned it down. 1989–2005:Seinfeldand rise to prominence In 1989, Richards was cast asCosmo Kramerin theNBCtelevision seriesSeinfeld, created by fellowFridayscast memberLarry Davidand comedianJerry Seinfeld. Although it got off to a slow start, by the mid-1990s it had become one of the most popularsitcomsin television history. It ended its nine-year run in 1998 at No. 1 in","in 1998 at No. 1 in theNielsen ratings. InSeinfeld, Kramer is the neighbor across the hall of the show'seponymous character, and is usually referred to only by his last name. His first name, Cosmo, was revealed in the sixth-season episode \"The Switch\". Richards won more Emmys than any otherSeinfeldcast member, taking home the award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 1993, 1994, and 1997 for his role as Kramer. When referring to speculation that he would launch aspin-offtoSeinfeldabout Kramer, Richards said he was not interested in doing so.During the run ofSeinfeld, Richards made cameo appearances in several TV shows; he played himself in Episode2 of Season1 \"The Flirt Episode\" (1992) of theHBOseriesThe Larry Sanders Show. He also had acameo rolein the comedy thriller filmSo I Married an Axe Murderer, credited as \"insensitive man\". In 1996, Richards made a cameo in Epcot'sEllen's Energy Adventure, where he portrayed a caveman discovering fire. He played radio station employee Doug Beech","employee Doug Beech inAirheads, and co-starred withJeff Danielsas an actor pretending to be a lawyer in 1997'sTrial and Error. He also made guest appearances onMiami Vice,Night CourtandCheers. In 2000, two years after the end ofSeinfeld, Richards began work on a new series for NBC, his first major project sinceSeinfeld's finale.The Michael Richards Show, for which Richards received co-writer and co-executive producercredits, was conceived as a comedy/mystery starring Richards as a bumbling private investigator. When the first pilot failed with test audiences, NBC ordered that the show be retooled into a more conventional, office-based sitcom before its premiere. After a few weeks of poor ratings and negative reviews, it was canceled. Critics said the show was too \"Kramer-esque\" and Richards invoked the so-called \"Seinfeldcurse\" as to why the show failed. Starting in 2004, he and his fellowSeinfeldcast members provided interviews and audio commentaries for theSeinfeldDVDs. Richards stepped down from providing","down from providing audio commentary after Season5, though he continued to provide interviews. 2006–2012: Laugh Factory incident and aftermath During a performance on November 17, 2006, at theLaugh Factoryin Hollywood, California, Richards launched into a racist rant in response to repeated heckling and interruptions from a small group of Black and Hispanic audience members. Richards was recorded shouting \"He's anigger!\" several times and making references tolynchingand theJim Crow laws.Kyle Doss, a member of the group that Richards addressed, said the group had arrived in the middle of the performance and were \"being a little loud.\" According to Doss: said, \"Look at the stupid Mexicans and blacks being loud up there.\" That's the first thing he said. And then he kept on with his bit. And, then, after a while, I told him, \"My friend doesn't think you're funny.\" And then when I told him that, that's when he flipped me off and said, \"F-you N-word.\" And that's how it all started. The incident remained unknown","remained unknown to the larger public for three days until acellphonevideo filmed by a member of the audience was obtained and released byTMZ. On November 20, after the video made rounds around the news,Jerry Seinfeldinvited Richards via satellite during a broadcast of theLate Show with David Letterman, where Richards was recorded saying: \"I'm not doing too good. I lost my temper on stage; I was at a comedy club trying to do my act and I got heckled and I took it badly and went into a rage. And, uh, said some pretty, uh, nasty things to some Afro-Americans.\"Many studio audience members laughed as Richards began his unscripted explanation and apology, thinking it was abit, leading Seinfeld to reprimand them, saying: \"Stop laughing. It's not funny.\" Richards said he had been trying to defuse the heckling by being even more outrageous, but it had backfired. He later called civil rights leadersAl SharptonandJesse Jacksonto apologize.He also appeared as a guest on Jackson's syndicated radio show.Doss stated that","stated that he did not accept Richards's apology, saying: \"If he wanted to apologize, he could have contacted ... one of us out of the group. But, he didn't. He apologized on camera just because the tape got out.\" AGalluppoll conducted in late November found that Richards was then the most unpopularSeinfeldcast member, with just 41 percent viewing him positively; by contrast, otherSeinfeldcast members' favorability ratings were in the 60s and 70s.The same poll also found that 45 percent of non-whites expressed a negative view of Richards due to the incident.The incident was parodied on several TV shows, includingMad TV,Family Guy,South Park,Extras, andMonday Night Raw. In the ninth episode of the seventh season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm, Richards appeared as himself and poked fun at the incident. In 2008, rapperWalereferenced the incident and used recordings of the incident, as well as Richard's apology, in the song \"The Kramer\" onThe Mixtape About Nothingalbum. One year following the incident, Richards voiced","Richards voiced character Bud Ditchwater in the animated filmBee Movie, which starred and was produced byJerry Seinfeld. In 2009, Richards and the other mainSeinfeldcast members appeared in the seventh season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm.In 2012, he appeared in the comedy web seriesComedians in Cars Getting Coffee, hosted by Seinfeld, in which he remarked on the 2006 incident.In the episode, Richards explained that the outburst still haunted him, and was a major reason for his retirement from stand-up. 2013–present: Recent years In 2013, Richards was cast to play Frank in the sitcomKirstie, costarringKirstie AlleyandRhea Perlman. It premiered onTV Landon December 4, 2013and was canceled after one season.In 2014, Richards appeared as the president of Crackle in a trailer for Season5 ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffee. Seinfeld said the trailer's storyline would be expanded on in one of the episodes. In 2019, Richards played Daddy Hogwood in the romantic comedyFaith, Hope & LovestarringPeta Murgatroydand Robert","Robert Krantz. In June 2024Richards released a memoir entitledEntrances and Exits. Personal life Richards was married to Cathleen Lyons, a familytherapist, for 18 years. They have one daughter, Sophia. They separated in 1992 and divorced the following year. In 2010, Richards married his girlfriend Beth Skipp. They have been together since 2002 and have one son, Antonio. Richards is aFreemason. Richards revealed in his 2024 memoirEntrances and Exitsthat he survived stage 1 prostate cancer in 2018 via a surgical removal of his entire prostate. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Bibliography References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Seinfeld Seinfeld(/ˈsaɪnfɛld/SYNE-feld) is an Americantelevision sitcomcreated byLarry DavidandJerry Seinfeldthat originally aired onNBCfrom July 5, 1989, to May 14, 1998, with a total of nine seasons consisting of180 episodes. Itsensemble caststars Seinfeld as afictionalized version of himselfand focuses on his personal life with three of his friends: best friendGeorge Costanza(Jason Alexander), former girlfriendElaine Benes(Julia Louis-Dreyfus), and neighbor from across the hall,Cosmo Kramer(Michael Richards). Seinfeldis set mostly in and around the titular character's apartment inManhattan'sUpper West SideinNew York City. It has been described as \\\"a show about nothing\\\", often focusing on theminutiae of daily life.Interspersed in all episodes of the first seven seasons are moments ofstand-up comedyfrom the fictional Jerry Seinfeld, frequently related to the episode's events. As a rising comedian in the late 1980s, Jerry Seinfeld was presented with an opportunity to create a show with NBC. He asked Larry\",\n \"NBC. He asked Larry David, a fellow comedian and friend, to help create a premise for a sitcom.The series was produced by West-Shapiro Productions andCastle Rock Entertainmentand distributed byColumbia Pictures Television.It was largely written by David and Seinfeld and scriptwriters. A favorite among critics, the series led theNielsen ratingsin Seasons 6 and 9 and finished among the top two (along withERof the same network) every year from 1994 to 1998. Only two other shows—I Love LucyandThe Andy Griffith Show—finished their runs at the top of the ratings. Seinfeldis widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential shows of all time. It has been ranked among television's best shows in publications such asEntertainment Weekly,Rolling StoneandTV Guide.Its most renowned episodes include \\\"The Chinese Restaurant\\\", \\\"The Soup Nazi\\\", \\\"The Parking Garage\\\",\\\"The Marine Biologist\\\", and \\\"The Contest\\\".In 2013, theWriters Guild of Americavoted it the second best-written TV series of all time (second toThe\",\n \"time (second toThe Sopranos).E!named it the \\\"Number 1 reason the '90s ruled\\\".Quotes from numerous episodes have become catchphrases in popular culture. Production Conception Seinfeldbegan as a 23-minute pilot titled \\\"The Seinfeld Chronicles\\\". Created byJerry SeinfeldandLarry David, developed by NBC executive Rick Ludwin, and produced byCastle Rock Entertainment, it was a mix of Seinfeld's stand-up comedy routines and idiosyncratic, conversational scenes focusing on mundane aspects of everyday life like laundry, the buttoning of the top button on one's shirt, and the effort by men to interpret the intent of women spending the night in Seinfeld's apartment. The pilot was filmed at Stage 8 ofDesilu Cahuengastudios, the same studio whereThe Dick Van Dyke Showwas filmed (seen by the crew as a good omen),and was recorded at Ren-Mar Studios inHollywood.The pilot was first screened to a group of two dozen NBC executives inBurbank, California, in early 1989. It did not yield the explosion of laughter garnered by the\",\n \"garnered by the pilots for the decade's previous NBC successes likeThe Cosby ShowandThe Golden Girls.Brandon Tartikoffwas not convinced the show would work. A Jewish man from New York himself, Tartikoff characterized it as \\\"Too New York, too Jewish\\\" (a sentiment which would also lead to the Cosmo character's later surname change from the more Jewish-sounding Kessler to Kramer).Test audiences were even harsher. NBC's practice at the time was to recruit 400 households by phone to ask them to evaluate pilots it aired on an unused channel on its cable system. An NBC research department memo summarized the pilot's performance among the respondents as \\\"weak,\\\" whichWarren Littlefield, then second-in-command in NBC's entertainment division, called \\\"a dagger to the heart.\\\"Comments included, \\\"You can't get too excited about two guys going to the laundromat,\\\" \\\"Jerry's loser friend George isn't a forceful character,\\\" \\\"Jerry needs a stronger supporting cast,\\\" and \\\"Why are they interrupting the stand-up for these stupid\",\n \"for these stupid stories?\\\"Seinfeld and David did not see the memo for several years, but after they became aware of it, they hung it in a bathroom on the set. Seinfeld comments, \\\"We thought, if someone goes in to use this bathroom, this is something they should see. It fits that moment.\\\" Around the time the show's pilot was filmed, Castle Rock Entertainment, which produced the show, had also produced another pilot for NBC that featuredAnn Jillianin her almost-similarly eponymous TV series. WhenThe Seinfeld Chroniclestested poorly with audiences, Castle Rock focused on Jillian's series, which tested better with audiences and received a full-season order.Ann Jillianlasted only a single season of 13 episodes and was off the air by the end of 1990. First seasons When NBC announced its 1989–90 (primetime) schedule in May 1989,The Seinfeld Chronicleswas not included, but the show's supporters did not give up. The pilot first aired on July 5, 1989, and finished second in its time slot against the CBS police\",\n \"the CBS police dramaJake and the Fatman,receiving aNielsen ratingof 10.9/19.The ratings did not exhibit the regional skew Tartikoff predicted, much to the encouragement of the show's supporters. Ludwin canceled one of theBob Hopespecials budgeted for that season so the entertainment division had the money to order four more episodes ofThe Seinfeld Chronicles, which formed the rest ofthe show's first season(the series was by then retitled toSeinfeld)—a move without whichChicago TribunecolumnistPhil Rosenthallater said there \\\"would be noSeinfeld\\\".Although this was a very low order number for a new series—and the smallest sitcom order in TV history—Castle Rock failed to find any other buyers when it shopped the show to other networks, and accepted the order.Seinfelddid not return to the airwaves until May 30, 1990, and it was another three years before it became a Top 5-rated show. Preston Beckman, in charge of NBC's research department at the time, reminisced, \\\"The show was different. Nobody had seen anything\",\n \"had seen anything like it. It wasn't unusual for poor-testing shows to get on the air, but it was very rare that they became hits.\\\" When the program was first repeated on July 5, 1990, it received a rating of 13.9/26. These ratings were high enough to secure a second season.NBC research showed that the show was popular with young male adults, a demographic sought after by advertisers. This gave NBC an incentive to keep broadcasting the show.One DVD reviewer, Britt Gillette, wrote that \\\"this initial episode exhibits the flashes of brilliance that madeSeinfelda cultural phenomenon.\\\" Filming Other than the pilot, the series was filmed atCBS Studio CenterinStudio City, Los Angeles. The first three seasons were filmed on Soundstage 19; it then moved to the larger Stage 9 for the remainder of its production.Despite numerous establishing shots taken in New York City,all scenes of the actors walking in New York were also filmed at CBS Studio Center, on their New York Streetbacklot.Street scenes and park scenes were\",\n \"park scenes were filmed in the CBS Studio Centre's New York Street and Central Park backlots, respectively. A source of problems for the cast was the small sets, especially that of Jerry's apartment; Alexander noted, \\\"If you knew you were doing a series for nine years, you would never build that set.\\\" Adding to the problem was that the scripts contained only minimal physical direction, leaving the actors needing help to come up with actions to perform while speaking. Eventually, they got into a routine of directing each other on how to make their movements look natural. Alexander said this helped them build chemistry with each other. Filming usually went long, as the cast and Larry David were perfectionists. If a joke did not elicit the desired reaction, they rewrote it and performed it again. In at least one case, \\\"The Marine Biologist,\\\" this led to David writing an entirely new scene requiring Alexander to memorize a monologue in only a matter of minutes.Laugh tracks were used only for matching shots, not\",\n \"matching shots, not for artificially adding laughter. Various locations used for establishing shots included Tom's Restaurant at 112th Street and Broadway (Monk's Cafe), Midtown West's Roosevelt Hospital (recurring exterior emergency room scene and indoor scenes in 'The Junior Mint' and 'The Bris'), Cornell Medical Centre at 525 East 68th Street, 22-39 37th Street, Queens (The Costanza's house), the Taconic State Parkway exit to the Hopewell Junction, Dutchess County, New York (driving scene in 'The Bubble Boy'), and the Amagansett farmers market, Long Island ('The Hamptons'). The exterior shot used for Jerry's New York apartment building was actually located at 757 S New Hampshire Avenue, Los Angeles. The real-life exterior of Pendant Publishing, Elaine's workplace, is located at 1325 Ave of the Americas, New York. The live stand-up comedy performed by Seinfeld at the beginning of most episodes was truly filmed at The Improv, a comedy club at 358 West 44th Street, Manhattan; though it closed in 1993,\",\n \"it closed in 1993, another comedy club operates at the site today.TheYankee Stadiumexterior seen in the show has now been demolished. Most office building establishing shots are real businesses and locations. Various real street locations can be gleaned from the car windows during driving scenes. By the final season, each episode of the series cost $3 million to $3.5 million. More than 120 episodes make reference to theSupermanfranchise.Teri Hatcher, who played Lois Lane onLois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, plays Jerry's girlfriend Sidra.Paula Marshall, who played Christina Riley ontheSuperboyTV series, portrays the journalist Sharon, who Jerry says reminds him of Lois Lane.Sherman Howard, who played Lex Luthor onSuperboy, portrays Roy. Superman logos and figurines frequently appear in Jerry's apartment. Seinfeld and Superman later appear in an American Express commercial. The show was written by David and Seinfeld, along with writers who includedLarry Charles,Peter Mehlman,Gregg Kavet,Carol\",\n \"Kavet,Carol Leifer,David Mandel,Jeff Schaffer,Steve Koren,Jennifer Crittenden,Tom Gammill,Max Pross,Dan O'Keefe,Charlie Rubin,Marjorie Gross,Alec Berg,Elaine Pope, andSpike Feresten. Series overview Plotlines ManySeinfeldepisodes are based on the writers' real-life experiences, with the experiences reinterpreted for the characters' storylines. For example, George's storyline in \\\"The Revenge\\\" is based on Larry David's experience atSaturday Night Live.\\\"The Contest\\\" is also based on David's experiences. \\\"The Smelly Car\\\" storyline is based on Peter Mehlman's lawyer friend, who could not get a bad smell out of his car. \\\"The Strike\\\" is based on Dan O'Keefe's dad, who made up his own holiday:Festivus.Other stories take a variety of turns. \\\"The Chinese Restaurant\\\" consists of George, Jerry, and Elaine waiting for a table throughout the entire episode.\\\"The Boyfriend\\\", revolving aroundKeith Hernandez, extends through two episodes. \\\"The Betrayal\\\" is famous for usingreverse chronologyand was inspired by a similar plot\",\n \"by a similar plot device in aHarold Pinterplay,Betrayal.Some stories were inspired by headlines and rumors, as explained in the DVD features \\\"Notes About Nothing\\\", \\\"Inside Look\\\" and \\\"Audio Commentary.\\\" In \\\"The Maestro,\\\" Kramer's lawsuit is roughly similar to theMcDonald's coffee case.\\\"The Outing\\\" is based primarily on rumors that Larry Charles heard about Jerry Seinfeld's sexuality. Themes The series was often described as \\\"a show about nothing.\\\"However, in 2014, Seinfeld stated: \\\"The pitch for the show, the real pitch, when Larry and I went to NBC in 1988, was we want to show how a comedian gets his material. The show \\\"about nothing\\\" was just a joke in an episode many years later, and Larry and I to this day are surprised that it caught on as a way that people describe the show because, to us, it's the opposite of that.\\\"David similarly commented: \\\"I like taking the worst qualities that a person has and trying to make something funny out of it. Doesn't everybody do terrible things and have terrible\",\n \"and have terrible thoughts? Just by trying to be as funny, you're going to deal with a lot of things that are real, so the show's really about something. The whole thing about the show being about nothing is ridiculous.\\\" Much of the show's humor is based upon repeated use of irony, incongruity, and (oftentimes unfortunate) coincidences. Additionally, guest characters are frequently introduced with little to no context, with a humorous focus on the atypical names of these characters, which often contain alliteration. In keeping with Seinfeld's reputation as a clean comedian,though the show frequently contains dialogue around sexual themes, the show notably avoids using almost all explicit sexual terminology. Notably, in the popular episode \\\"The Contest,\\\" whose plot line concerns a contest amongst the main characters to see which one can go the longest without masturbating, the word 'masturbation' is never mentioned.Seinfeldbroke several conventions of mainstream television. David is credited with refusing to\",\n \"with refusing to follow a predictable sitcom formula that would have a romantic relationship develop between Jerry and Elaine. The show offers no growth or reconciliation to its characters and eschews sentimentality.An episode is typically driven by humor interspersed with the superficial conflicts of characters with peculiar dispositions. Many episodes revolve around the characters' involvement in the lives of others, with typically disastrous results. On the set, the notion that the characters should not develop or improve throughout the series was expressed as the \\\"no hugging, no learning\\\" rule.The characters are \\\"thirty-something singles with vague identities, no roots, and conscious indifference to morals.\\\"Also unlike most sitcoms, there are no moments ofpathos; the audience is never made to feel sorry for any of the characters. Even Susan's death in \\\"The Invitations\\\" elicits no genuine emotions from anybody in the show.Seinfelddoes not shy away from making light of tough topics, from death to illness\",\n \"death to illness to disability. The show frequently engages in fourth-wall-breaking humor and self-satire. One such example is thestory arc, where the characters promote a TV sitcom series namedJerry. Theshow within a show,Jerrywas much likeSeinfeldin that it was \\\"about nothing,\\\" and Seinfeld played himself. The fictionalJerrywas launched in the Season 4 finale, but unlikeSeinfeld, it wasn't picked up as a series.Jerryis one of many examples ofmetafictionin the show. There are no fewer than 22 fictional movies featured, likeRochelle, Rochelle.Because of these several elements,Seinfeldbecame the first TV series sinceMonty Python's Flying Circusto be widely described aspostmodern. Seinfeld is an avidAbbott and Costellofan and has citedThe Abbott and Costello Showas an influence onSeinfeld: \\\"Everybody on the show knows I'm a fan. We're always joking about how we do stuff from their show. George and I will often get into a riff that has the rhythm from the old Abbott and Costello shows. And sometimes, I'll hit\",\n \"sometimes, I'll hit George in the chest the way Abbott would hit Costello.\\\" The series includes numerous references to the team. George Costanza's middle name is \\\"Louis\\\", after Costello.\\\"The Old Man\\\" episode features a cantankerous character named \\\"Sid Fields\\\" as a tribute to the landlord on the team's TV show. Kramer's friend is named Mickey Abbott. A copywriter for the J. Peterman catalog is named Eddie Sherman, after the team's longtime agent. In Episode 30, Kramer hears the famous Abbott and Costello line, \\\"His father was a mudder. His mother was a mudder.\\\" Catchphrases Many terms were coined, popularized, or re-popularized in the series' run and have become part of popular culture,including \\\"Yada, yada, yada\\\",\\\"No soup for you!\\\", \\\"Master of my domain\\\", and \\\"Not that there's anything wrong with that.\\\" The lexicon of Seinfeldian code words and recurring phrases that evolved around particular episodes is referred to asSeinlanguage, which is also the title of Jerry Seinfeld's best-selling book on humor.These\",\n \"book on humor.These terms include \\\"man hands\\\", \\\"shrinkage\\\", \\\"regift\\\", and \\\"double dip\\\". Consumer products A recurring feature ofSeinfeldwas its inclusion of specific products, especiallycandy, as plot points. These might be a central feature of a plot (e.g.,Junior Mints,Twix,Chuckles,Jujyfruits, bite-sizeThree Musketeers,Snickers,Chunky,Oh Henry!,Drake'sCoffee Cake andPEZ), or an association of candy with a guest character (e.g.Oh Henry!bars) or simply a conversational aside (e.g.,Chuckles,Clark Bar,Twinkies). A large number of non-candy products were also featured throughout the series. The show's creators claim that they weren't engaging in a product placement strategy for commercial gain. One motivation for the use of real-world products, entirely unrelated to commercial considerations, is the comedy value of funny-sounding phrases and words. \\\"I knew I wanted Kramer to think of watching the operation like going to see a movie,\\\" explainedSeinfeldwriter/producer Andy Robin in an interview published inThe\",\n \"published inThe Hollywood Reporter. \\\"At first, I thought maybe a piece of popcorn falls into the patient. I ran that by my brother, and he said, 'No, Junior Mints are just funnier.'\\\" Many advertisers capitalized on the popularity ofSeinfeld.American Expresscreated awebisodewhere Jerry Seinfeld and an animatedSuperman(voiced byPatrick Warburton, who played the role of Puddy) starred in its commercial. The makers of theToday Spongecreated the \\\"Spongeworthy\\\" game on their website, inspired by \\\"The Sponge.\\\" An advertisement featured Jason Alexander in aChryslercommercial. In this, Alexander acts much like his character George, and his relationship withLee Iacoccaplays on George's relationship with Steinbrenner. Similarly, Michael Richards was the focus of a series of advertisements forVodafone, which ran inAustralia, where he dressed and acted precisely like Kramer, including the trademark bumbling pratfalls. In addition, the show occasionally incorporated fictional products like aScotchbrand called \\\"Hennigan's\\\"\",\n \"called \\\"Hennigan's\\\" (a blend of \\\"Hennessy\\\" and \\\"Brannigans\\\") and acanned meatproduct called \\\"Beef-a-reeno\\\" (a parody of \\\"Beef-a-roni\\\"). Music A signature ofSeinfeldis its theme music. Composed byJonathan Wolff, it consists of distinct solosampledelectric bassriffs that open the show and connect the scenes, often accompanied bybeatboxing.The bass music eventually replaced the original piano/synth music by Jep Epstein when it was played again after the first broadcast ofthe pilot episode. The show lacked a traditional title track and the riffs were played over the first moments of dialogue or action. They vary throughout each episode and are played in an improvised funk style, matching the timing of Seinfeld's stand-up comedy delivery or transitions in the editing. An additional musical theme with an ensemble, led by a synthesized mid-range brass instrument, ends each episode. In \\\"The Note,\\\" the first episode of Season 3, the bumper music featured ascattingfemale jazz singer who sang a phrase that sounded like\",\n \"that sounded like the tuneEasy To Beat. Jerry Seinfeld and executive producer Larry David both liked Wolff's additions, and three episodes were produced with this new style of music. However, they had neglected to inform NBC and Castle Rock executives of the change, and when the season premiere aired, the executives were surprised and unimpressed and requested that they return to the original style. The subsequent two episodes were redone, leaving this episode as the only one with additional music elements.In the commentary of \\\"The Note,\\\" Louis-Dreyfus facetiously suggests it was removed because the perceived lyric related closely to the low ratings at the time.In the final three seasons, the bits were tweaked slightly with more frantic rhythms; a bass guitar was added in addition to the sampled bass from earlier seasons. Throughout the show, the main theme could be restyled in different ways depending on the episode. For instance, in \\\"The Betrayal,\\\" part of which takes place in India, the theme is heard\",\n \"the theme is heard played on asitar. The soundtrack was given a digital release on July 2, 2021. All music is composed by Jonathan Wolff. Cast and characters Main characters Recurring characters Many characters have made multiple appearances, notably Jerry's parents, Morty and Helen Seinfeld, who reside in Florida; George's parents, the overbearing Frank and Estelle Costanza; George's on-again, off-again fiancée Susan Ross; Jerry'sUncle Leo; Elaine's variety of bosses, Mr. Lippman, Mr. Pitt and J. Peterman; Elaine's on-again, off-again boyfriend David Puddy; and Kramer's friend,Newman, a mail carrier who lives in the same building and is Jerry's nemesis. In addition to recurring characters,Seinfeldfeatures numerous celebrities who appear as themselves or as girlfriends, boyfriends, bosses, and other acquaintances. A number of actresses made guest appearances as Seinfeld's love interests in single episodes: Episodes Compared to other family and groupsitcomsof the era,Seinfeldstood out. The principal\",\n \"out. The principal characters are not related by family or work-associated connections but remain distinctly close friends throughout the series. Many characters were based primarily on Seinfeld's and David's real-life acquaintances. Two prominent recurring characters were fictional depictions of actual well-known people:Jacopo Petermanof theJ. Petermancatalog (based onJohn Peterman)andGeorge Steinbrenner, owner of theNew York Yankees.Many characters were introduced as new writers got involved withSeinfeld. Other characters based on real people include theSoup NaziandJackie Chiles, who was based onJohnnie Cochran. Episodes have separate plot strands, but the characters' stories often intertwine at the end. The narratives reveal the creators' \\\"consistent efforts to maintain the intimacy\\\" among the small cast of characters. The show maintains a strong sense ofcontinuity, as characters and plots from past episodes are often referenced or expanded on. Occasionally, story arcs span multiple episodes or entire\",\n \"episodes or entire seasons, such asSeason 4, which revolves around thepilotpitch to NBC by Jerry and George. Another example is Jerry's girlfriend Vanessa, who appears in \\\"The Stake Out\\\" and with whom he ends the relationship when things do not work out in \\\"The Stock Tip\\\".Larry David, the head writer and executive producer for the first seven seasons, was praised for keeping a close eye on minor details and ensuring the main characters' lives remained consistent and believable.Curb Your Enthusiasm, David's later comedy series, also had an overarching plot for all but the first season. A major difference betweenSeinfeldand the sitcoms that preceded it is that the principal characters never learn from their mistakes. In effect, they are indifferent and even callous toward the outside world and sometimes one another. Amantraof the show's producers was \\\"No hugging, no learning.\\\"Entertainment Weekly's TV criticKen Tuckerhas described them as \\\"a group dynamic rooted in jealousy, rage, insecurity, despair,\",\n \"despair, hopelessness, and a touching lack of faith in one's fellow human beings.\\\"This leads to very few happy endings, except at somebody else's expense. More often in every episode, situations resolve with characters getting a justly deservedcomeuppance. Seasons 1–3 The show premiered asThe Seinfeld Chronicleson July 5, 1989. After it aired, a pickup by NBC seemed unlikely, and the show was offered toFox, which declined to pick it up.Rick Ludwin, head of late night and special events for NBC, however, diverted money from his budget by canceling aBob Hope television special, and the next four episodes were filmed.These episodes were highly rated as they followed summer re-runs ofCheerson Thursdays at 9:30 p.m., and the series was finally picked up. At one point, NBC considered airing these episodes on Saturdays at 10:30 p.m. but gave the slot to a short-lived sitcom calledFMinstead. The series was renamed simplySeinfeldas a precautionary measure due to the failure of the short-lived 1990ABCseries with a\",\n \"with a similarly sounding title,The Marshall Chronicles.After airing the remaining four episodes of its first season the summer of 1990, NBC ordered 13 more episodes. David believed that he and Seinfeld had no more stories to tell and advised Seinfeld to turn down the order, but Seinfeld agreed to the additional episodes.Season 2 was bumped off its scheduled premiere of January 16, 1991, due to the outbreak of thePersian Gulf War. It settled into a regular time slot on Wednesdays at 9:30 p.m. and eventually flipped with veteran seriesNight Courtto 9 p.m. TV critics championedSeinfeldin its early seasons, even as it was slow to cultivate a substantial audience. For the first three seasons, Jerry's stand-up comedy act would bookend at the beginning and end of each episode, even functioning as transitions during the show. A few episodes set a benchmark for later seasons. \\\"The Deal\\\" establishes Jerry and Elaine's relationship by setting rules about having sex while remaining friends.\\\"The Parking Garage\\\" was the\",\n \"Garage\\\" was the first episode shot with no audience for the episode and, after \\\"The Chinese Restaurant\\\", to not show Jerry's apartment.\\\"The Keys\\\" contains a crossover toCBSshowMurphy Brown, marking the first such cooperation between rival networks.\\\"The Busboy\\\" introduces George, Kramer and Elaine as having their own storylines for the first time. Although Castle Rock Entertainment's Glenn Padnick thought Seinfeld was too generous, showcasing his co-stars' comedic talent became a trademark throughout the series. Larry Charles wrote an episode for Season 2, \\\"The Bet,\\\" in which Elaine buys a gun from Kramer's friend. This episode was not filmed because the content was deemed unacceptable, and it was replaced by the episode \\\"The Phone Message\\\".\\\"The Stranded,\\\" which aired during Season 3, was initially intended for Season 2. At the beginning of this episode, Jerry clears up the continuity error over George's real estate job. Seasons 4–5 Season 4 marked the sitcom's entry into theNielsen ratingsTop 30. It contains\",\n \"30. It contains several of the most popular episodes, such as \\\"The Bubble Boy\\\" in which George and the bubble boy argue overTrivial Pursuit,and \\\"The Junior Mint\\\" in which Jerry and Kramer accidentally fumble a mint in the operating room.This was the first season to use a story arc of Jerry and George creating their own sitcom,Jerry. Also, at this time, the use of Jerry's stand-up act slowly declined, and the stand-up segment in the middle ofSeinfeldepisodes was cut. Much publicity followed the controversial episode \\\"The Contest,\\\" anEmmy Award-winning episode written by David, whose subject matter was considered inappropriate for prime-time network TV. To circumvent this taboo, the word \\\"masturbation\\\" was never used in the script, instead substituted for by a variety of oblique references.Midway through that season,Seinfeldwas moved from its original 9:00 p.m. time slot on Wednesdays to 9:30 p.m. on Thursdays, followingCheersagain, which gave the show even more popularity. Ratings also sparked the move, asTim\",\n \"the move, asTim Allen's sitcomHome Improvementon ABC had aired at the same time, andHome Improvementkept beatingSeinfeldin the ratings. NBC moved the series afterTed Dansonannounced the end ofCheersandSeinfeldquickly surpassed the ratings of the 9:00 p.m.Cheersreruns that spring.The show won an Emmy Award forOutstanding Comedy Seriesin 1993, beating out its family-oriented, time-slot competitorHome Improvement, which was only in its second season on rival network ABC. Season 5 was an even bigger ratings hit, consisting of popular episodes, such as \\\"The Puffy Shirt\\\" in which Jerry feels embarrassed wearing a \\\"pirate\\\" shirt onThe Today Show,\\\"The Non-Fat Yogurt\\\" featuringRudy Giuliani, theRepublicanthen-mayor-elect of New York,and \\\"The Opposite\\\" in which George, doing the opposite of what his instincts tell him he should do, lands a job with the New York Yankees and Elaine leaves \\\"Pendant Publishing\\\" because of a comedy of errors that led to its demise. Another story arc has George returning to live with his\",\n \"to live with his parents. Amid the story arc, Kramer creates and promotes hiscoffee table book.The show was again nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series, but lost to theCheersspin-offFrasier, then in its first season.Seinfeldwas nominated for the same award every year for its entire run but, after its win at the45th Primetime Emmy Awardsin 1994, always lost toFrasier, which went on to win a record 39 Emmy Awards in its 11-season run. Seasons 6–7 In Season 6,Andy AckermanreplacedTom Cheronesas director of the show. The series remained well regarded and produced some of its most famous episodes, such as \\\"The Beard\\\", in which Jerry is put through a lie detector test to make him admit that he watchedMelrose Place;\\\"The Switch\\\", in which Kramer's mom, Babs, reveals that his first name is Cosmo;and \\\"The Understudy\\\", in which Elaine meets J. Peterman for the first time.Story arcs used in this season were Elaine working as a personal assistant to her eccentric boss Justin Pitt and George's parents' temporary\",\n \"parents' temporary separation. This was the first season in whichSeinfeldreached No. 1 in the Nielsen Ratings. The use of Jerry's stand-up act declined, and the end stand-up segment no longer appeared because the storylines for all four characters grew denser. In Season 7, a story arc involved George getting engaged to his ex-girlfriend, Susan Ross, after the pilotJerryproved unsuccessful. In it, George spends most of the season regretting and trying to get out of the engagement. Along with the regular half-hour episodes, two notable one-hour episodes were \\\"The Cadillac,\\\" in which George plans to date award-winning actressMarisa Tomei,and \\\"The Bottle Deposit,\\\" with Elaine and Sue Ellen Mischke participating in a bidding war to buy JFK's golf clubs in an auction. Seasons 8–9 Seinfeld'sfinal two seasons were considered distinct from the earlier seasons. Most noticeably, David left the writing crew (but returned to write \\\"The Finale\\\" in 1998), resulting in Seinfeld taking over David's duties asshowrunner, and,\",\n \"asshowrunner, and, under the direction of a new writing staff,Seinfeldbecame a faster-paced show. The show no longer contained extracts of Jerry performing stand-up comedy—Jerry had no time or energy for this with his new responsibilities—and storylines occasionally delved into fantasy and broad humor. For example, in \\\"The Bizarro Jerry\\\", Elaine is torn between exact opposites of her friends and Jerry dates a woman who has the now-famous \\\"man hands\\\".Some notable episodes from Season 8 include \\\"The Little Kicks\\\" showing Elaine's horrible dancing,and \\\"The Chicken Roaster\\\" which portrays theKenny Rogers Roasterschicken restaurant which opened during that time.A story arc in this season involves Peterman going toBurmain \\\"The Foundation\\\"until he recovered from a nervous breakdown in \\\"The Money\\\",followed by Elaine writing Peterman's biography in \\\"The Van Buren Boys\\\",which leads to Kramer's parody of Kenny Kramer's Reality Tour seen in \\\"The Muffin Tops\\\". The final season included episodes like \\\"The Merv Griffin\",\n \"\\\"The Merv Griffin Show\\\" in which Kramer converts his apartment into a talk-show studio and plays the character of talk-show host,\\\"The Betrayal\\\" that presents in reverse chronological order what happened to Sue Ellen's wedding in India, and \\\"The Frogger\\\" in which George pushes aFroggermachine across the street, mimicking the action of the game itself.The last season included a story arc in which Elaine has an on/off relationship withPuddy. Despite the enormous popularity and willingness of the cast to return for a tenth season, Seinfeld decided to end the show after Season 9, believing he would thereby be able to ensure the show would maintain its quality and go out on top.NBC offered Seinfeld $110 million—a record $5 million an episode for a 22-episode tenth season—but he declined. A major controversy caused in the ninth season was the accidental burning of aPuerto Rican flagby Kramer in \\\"The Puerto Rican Day.\\\" This scene caused a furor among Puerto Ricans, and as a result, NBC showed this episode only once.\",\n \"episode only once. Seinfeld defused the protestors by not letting this episode continue in syndication, as revealed in \\\"Inside Look\\\" on DVD.However, the episode would be added to the syndicated rerun package several years later uncut. Series finale After nine years on the air, NBC and Seinfeld announced on December 25, 1997, that the series would end production the following spring in 1998. The announcement made the front page of the major New York newspapers, includingThe New York Times.Seinfeld was featured on the cover ofTimemagazine's first issue of 1998.The series ended with a 75-minute episode (cut to 60 minutes insyndication, in two parts) written by co-creator and ex-executive producer Larry David, which aired on May 14, 1998. Before the finale, a 45-minute retrospective clip show, \\\"The Chronicle,\\\" was aired. The retrospective was expanded to an hour after the original airing and aired again on NBC as an hour-long episode, and has since aired in syndication. It was the first episode since the finale\",\n \"since the finale of Season 7, \\\"The Invitations,\\\" to feature opening and closing stand-up comedy acts by Seinfeld. The finale was filmed before an audience of NBC executives and friends of the show. The press and public were shut out of the taping to keep its plot secret; those who attended the shoot of the final episode were required to sign written \\\"vows of silence.\\\"The secrecy only seemed to increase speculation about how the series would end. The episode's producers gave false information to the media, spreading a rumor about Newman ending up in the hospital and Jerry and Elaine sitting in a chapel, presumably to marry. The final episode enjoyed a historic audience,estimated at 76.3 million viewers(58% of all viewers that night) making it the fourth-most watched regular series finale in U.S. TV history, behindM*A*S*H,Cheers, andThe Fugitive.However, the finale received mixed reviews from critics and fans of the show. The finale poked fun at the many rumors that were circulating, seeming to move into\",\n \"to move into multiple supposed plots before settling on its actual storyline—a lengthy trial where the gang is prosecuted for violating a \\\"Duty to Rescue\\\" law and sentenced to prison terms. According toForbesmagazine, Seinfeld's earnings from the show in 1998 came to US$267 million, including syndication earnings.He refused NBC's offer of $5 million per episode, or over $100 million total, to continue into a tenth season. The offer NBC made to Seinfeld was over three times higher per episode than anyone on TV had ever been offered before.Seinfeld told the network that he was not married nor had children, and wished to focus on his personal life.As reported in July 2007, he was the second-highest earner in the TV industry, earning at the time $60 million a year.The episode became the first to command over $1 million a minute for advertising—a mark previously attained only by theSuper Bowl. Reception and legacy Elizabeth Magnotta and Alexandra Strohl analyze the success ofSeinfeldwith recourse to\",\n \"recourse to theincongruity theoryof humor: \\\"The Incongruity Theory claims that humor is created out of a violation of an expectation. For humor to result from this unexpected result, the event must have an appropriate emotional climate, comprised of the setting, characters, prior discourse, relationships of the characters, and the topic.\\\"Specifically, Magnotta and Strohl focus on \\\"The Marine Biologist,\\\" where George is embroiled in yet another lie, and on \\\"The Red Dot,\\\" where George tries to save a few dollars at Elaine's expense by giving her a marked-downcashmeresweater. In \\\"TranslatingSeinfeld,\\\" Jennifer Armstrong notes thatSeinfeldis less famous among non-English speakers as its unique style of humor is \\\"too cultural and word-based to make for easy translation.\\\"Carol Iannone sums up the legacy of this American hit in herModern Agearticle \\\"Seinfeld: The Politically Incorrect Comedy\\\" when she says, \\\"It may be the first situation comedy truly to achieve the status of art\\\".Nod Miller, of theUniversity of\",\n \"of theUniversity of East London, has discussed the self-referential qualities of the show: Seinfeld is suffused withpostmodernthemes. To begin with, the boundary between reality and fiction is frequently blurred: this is illustrated in the central device of having Jerry Seinfeld play the character Jerry Seinfeld. In the show's fourth season, several episodes revolved around the narrative of Jerry and George (whose character is co-creator Larry David's alter ego) pitching 'a show about nothing' based on the everyday life of a stand-up comedian to NBC. By all accounts, the fictional NBC executives' reaction mirrored the initial responses of those who eventually commissioned Seinfeld. The fourth season ends with'The Pilot', an episode focusing on the casting, taping, and screening of the show-within-the-show,Jerry. This episode also neatly illustrates the self-referential quality, which is one of Seinfeld's hallmarks. The series finale was so replete with references to earlier shows that it could have been more\",\n \"have been more comprehensible to those not already well-versed in the personae and preoccupations of the Seinfeld universe. William Irwinhas edited an anthology of scholarly essays on philosophy inSeinfeld and Philosophy: A Book about Everything and Nothing. Some entries include \\\"The Jerry Problem and theSocratic Problem,\\\" \\\"George's Failed Quest forHappiness: An Aristotelian Analysis,\\\" \\\"Elaine's Moral Character,\\\" \\\"Kramer the 'Seducer'\\\", \\\"Making Something Out of Nothing: Seinfeld,Sophistryand the Tao,\\\" \\\"Seinfeld,Subjectivity, andSartre,\\\" \\\"Mr. Peterman, theWicked Witch of the West, and Me,\\\" and \\\"Minimally Decent Samaritans and Uncommon Law.\\\" U.S. television ratings Awards and honors Seinfeldhas received awards and nominations in various categories throughout the mid-1990s. It was awarded theEmmyfor Outstanding Comedy Series in 1993,Golden Globe Awardfor Best TV Series (Comedy) in 1994, andScreen Actors Guild Awardfor Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 1995, 1997 and 1998.Apart from\",\n \"and 1998.Apart from these, the show was also nominated for an Emmy award from 1992 to 1998 for Outstanding Comedy Series, Golden Globe award from 1994 to 1998 for Best TV-Series (Comedy), and Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series from 1995 to 1998. The show even received thePeabody Awardin 1993. TV Guidenamed it thegreatest TV show of all timein 2002,and in 2013, the magazine ranked it as the second-greatest TV show.A 2015The Hollywood Reportersurvey of 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people namedSeinfeldas their #5 favorite show.In 2022,Rolling StonerankedSeinfeldas the sixth-greatest TV show of all time.In 2023,VarietyrankedSeinfeldas the eighth-greatest TV show of all time. Distribution Free streaming serviceChannel 4has been runningSeinfeldin its original 4:3 format since February 2020.On April 29, 2015, it was officially announced, duringHulu'supfrontspresentation inNew York, that all nine seasons ofSeinfeldwouldstreamon the\",\n \"the platform starting in June 2015.The deal was for around $130 million to $180 million.On May 20, 2015,Huluannounced that every episode would be available starting June 24, 2015.Hulu's streaming rights for the series expired on June 23, 2021.In January 2017,Amazonacquired the UK rights to all seasons ofSeinfeldfor itsAmazon Prime Videostreaming service. On November 8, 2016, the Australian streaming serviceStanannounced viaTwitterthat later in the week all episodes would be available to stream for the first time in Australia.All episodes were available from November 11, 2016, with the remastered versions of all episodes on the service featuring HD and Widescreen enhancements.The widescreen offered was cropped from the original 4:3 format negatives, thus resulting in better visual quality than the previously available DVD version, however, the top and bottom portions of the frame were cut out to achieve the widescreen aspect ratio. In April 2020, all seasons ofSeinfeldwere also made available on-demand via\",\n \"on-demand via pay television serviceFoxtel, as well as its internet-based alternativeFoxtel Now. In September 2019,NetflixandSony Picturesannounced that Netflix had acquired the exclusive global streaming rights forSeinfeld, starting on October 1, 2021, superseding the above Hulu and Amazon rights. As of 2023, Netflix's version ofSeinfeldis available in4K resolution.The transition was criticized as the show, initially displayed in 4:3 aspect ratio, had been converted to 16:9, resulting in some gags getting cropped, similarly to howThe Simpsonswas initially rendered onDisney+.Netflix has yet to comment on this situation. VHS and DVD releases The hour-long, two-partclip showepisode \\\"The Highlights of 100\\\" became the firstSeinfeldepisode available on home video when it was released onVHSin 1995 by food companyGeneral Mills.Sony Pictures Home Entertainment(formerly Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment) released all nine seasons ofSeinfeldonDVDin Regions 1, 2, and 4 between 2004 and 2007.On November 6,\",\n \"2007.On November 6, 2007,Seinfeld: The Complete Serieswas released on DVD. The complete series box set includes a 2007 \\\"roundtable\\\" reunion of the four main cast members and Larry David; only highlights of this were also included in the Season 9 set. The first complete series box set in Australia (Region 4) was released on October 24, 2007. The second boxset was released on December 2, 2008, and was a Collectible Fridge design packaging. On August 5, 2009,another Limited-Edition boxset was released, similar to the first boxset but does not include the book and the packaging was slightly different. On November 23, 2011,an additional Limited-Edition boxset was released. On November 14, 2018,aFestivus Celebration Editionwas released which contained napkins and cups, playing cards and thumb wrestle gadgets. On August 12, 2020,yet anotherComplete Seriesboxset was released. Syndication According toBarry Meyer, chairman ofWarner Bros. Entertainment(parent company of Castle Rock Entertainment),Seinfeldmade $2.7\",\n \"$2.7 billion through June 2010 throughoff-network syndicationand cable syndication.As of February 2017the show had made an estimated $4.06 billion in syndication.Steve Bannon, who invested in the show, later said, \\\"We calculated what it would get us if it made it to syndication. We were wrong by a factor of five\\\".In September 2019, it was announced thatViacom(nowParamount Global) had acquired cable syndication rights to the series fromTBS, with it airing onComedy Centralbeginning in October 2021,Nick at Nitefrom May 31, 2022, until November 12, 2022, andTV Landsince February 11, 2023. High-definition versions There are twohigh-definitionversions ofSeinfeld. The first is that of the network TV (non-syndicated) versions in the original aspect ratio of 4:3 that were downscaled for the DVD releases. Clips from this high-definition version in its upscale were seen onNBCduringThe Seinfeld Storyspecial.Syndicated broadcast stations and the cable networksTBSandComedy Central(and alsoFox) began airing the syndicated\",\n \"the syndicated version ofSeinfeldin HD. Unlike the version used for the DVD, Sony Pictures cropped the top and bottom parts of the frame while restoring previously cropped images on the sides from the35mm filmsource to use the entire 16:9 frame. AfterSeinfeld Another scene On the November 1, 2007, episode ofThe Daily Show with Jon Stewart, Jerry Seinfeld mentioned the possibility of shooting one last scene after the characters leave jail. He mentioned that he was too busy to do it at the time, but did not announce what the scene would entail, as its production is not a certainty.In a commentary from the final seasonDVD, Seinfeld outlines that he and Jason Alexander spoke about this scene being in Monk's Cafe, with George saying \\\"That was brutal\\\" about the foursome's stint in prison. On an episode ofSaturday Night Livethat Jerry Seinfeld hosted on October 2, 1999, a sketch was produced that showed what life was like for Jerry behind bars after being transferred to the fictional prison portrayed on\",\n \"prison portrayed on theHBOseriesOz.The roughly four-minute sketch shows the opening credits for the HBO series with clips of Jerry mixed in doing various activities around the prison. The sketch continues and mixes in different storylines from bothOzandSeinfeldand has Jerry interacting with various characters from the show in his typical quick-witted, sarcastic way. TheSeinfeld\\\"curse\\\" Louis-Dreyfus, Alexander, and Richards have all tried to launch new sitcoms as title-role characters. Almost every show was canceled quickly, usually within the first season. This gave rise to the termSeinfeld curse: the failure of a sitcom starring one of the three, despite the conventional wisdom that each person'sSeinfeldpopularity should almost guarantee a strong, built-in audience for the actor's new show. Shows specifically cited regarding theSeinfeld curseare Julia Louis-Dreyfus'sWatching Ellie, Jason Alexander'sBob PattersonandListen Up, and Michael Richards'The Michael Richards Show. This phenomenon was mentioned\",\n \"was mentioned throughout the second season ofLarry David's HBO programCurb Your Enthusiasm, which aired in 2001. In real life, David has repeatedly dismissed the idea of a curse, saying, \\\"It's so completely idiotic. It's very hard to have a successful sitcom.\\\" The success of Louis-Dreyfus in the 2006–2010CBSsitcomThe New Adventures of Old Christine, which included winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesin 2006, led many to believe that she had broken the curse.In her acceptance speech, Louis-Dreyfus held up her award and exclaimed, \\\"I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this, baby!\\\"The show producedenough episodesto air inrerunsinsyndicationfor several years, something the other shows did not achieve.TheSaturday Night Liveepisode hosted by Louis-Dreyfus made references to the curse. Nevertheless, the series' ratings declined soon after, and it was canceled after the fifth season. She went on to win six further Emmys (for Lead Actress in a Comedy\",\n \"Actress in a Comedy Series) for her acclaimed performance as Vice PresidentSelina Meyerin the HBO comedy seriesVeep. Curb Your Enthusiasm Early in March 2009, it was announced that theSeinfeldcast would reunite forseason sevenofCurb Your Enthusiasm.The cast first appeared in the third episode of the season, all playing fictional versions of themselves. The season-long story is that Larry David tries to initiate aSeinfeldreunion show as a ploy to win back his ex-wife, Cheryl. Along with the four main characters, someSeinfeldsupporting actors likeWayne Knight,Estelle HarrisandSteve Hytnerappeared in the ninth episode at a table read for the reunion show. Although much dialogue inCurb Your Enthusiasmis improvised, the plot was scripted, and theSeinfeldspecial that aired within the show was scripted and directed bySeinfeldregularAndy Ackerman, making this the first time sinceSeinfeldwent off the air that the central cast appeared together in a scripted show. Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee Jerry Seinfeld, Jason\",\n \"Seinfeld, Jason Alexander, and Wayne Knight, playing their respectiveSeinfeldcharacters, appeared in a spot presented during halftime ofSuper Bowl XLVIIIon February 2, 2014.Foxcame up with the idea of doing such a spot, due in part to the Super Bowl's location being New York City adjacent that year.An uncut version appeared onCrackle.comimmediately afterward, as an episode ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffeetitled \\\"The Over-Cheer,\\\" establishing Seinfeld's character on the series as an older version of hisSeinfeldcharacter.Although the spot was used to advertise Seinfeld's web series, it was not considered a commercial, as Sony, which produces the series, did not pay for it.While Seinfeld indicated that the webisode would probably be the last cast reunion, saying, \\\"I have a feeling you've seen the final coda on that very unique experience,\\\"since then,Michael RichardsandJulia Louis-Dreyfushave also appeared in episodes. Notes References General references External links\",\n \"Jerry Seinfeld Jerome Allen Seinfeld(/ˈsaɪnfɛld/SYNE-feld; born April 29, 1954) is an Americanstand-up comedian, actor, writer, and producer. As a stand-up comedian, Seinfeld specializes inobservational comedy. Seinfeld has receivednumerous accoladesincluding aPrimetime Emmy Award, aGolden Globe Awards, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for fourGrammy Awards. In 2004,Comedy Centralnamed him the 12th-greatest stand-up comedian of all time.In 2017,Rolling Stonenamed him the 7th-greatest stand-up comedian of all time. Seinfeld gained stardom playinga semi-fictionalized version of himselfin theNBCsitcomSeinfeld(1989–1998), which he co-created and wrote withLarry David. Seinfeld earned aGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedyin 1995. The show is one of the most acclaimed and popular sitcoms of all time.He has since created and produced the reality seriesThe Marriage Ref(2010–2011), and created and hosted the web seriesComedians in Cars Getting\",\n \"in Cars Getting Coffee(2012–2019), the latter of which earned him threeWebby Awards. He also co-produced, co-wrote, and starred in theDreamWorksanimated filmBee Movie(2007) and theNetflixcomedyUnfrosted(2024). He has released four standup specials his first beingStand-Up Confidential(1987) followed byI'm Telling You for the Last Time(1998),Jerry Before Seinfeld(2017) and23 Hours to Kill(2020). Seinfeld has also written three books starting withSeinLanguage(1993), followed by the children's bookHalloween(2002), and the comedic compilation bookIs This Anything?(2020). He is an avid fan ofcoffeeandautomobiles. He practicestranscendental meditation. He is married to author and philanthropistJessica Seinfeld, with whom he has three children. Early life and education Seinfeld was born on April 29, 1954,to a Jewish family inBrooklyn, New York City.His father, Kalmen Seinfeld,a sign painter, was from Hungary and collected jokes that he heard while serving inWorld War II.His mother, Betty (née Hosni)and her parents,\",\n \"her parents, Selim and Salha Hosni,wereMizrahi JewsfromAleppo,Syria. Their nationality was stated as Turkish when they immigrated in 1917, as Syria was under theOttoman Empire.Seinfeld has an older sister, Carolyn.Salha's mother Garez Dayan, Seinfeld's great-grandmother, was a member of the Dayan rabbinic family, who claim ancestry back to theMedievalExilarchs, and from the Exilarchs back to the BiblicalKing David.Seinfeld's second cousin isalternative metalmusician and actorEvan Seinfeld.Seinfeld grew up inMassapequa, New York, and attendedMassapequa High SchoolonLong Island.At 16, he spent timevolunteeringinKibbutzSa'arin Israel.He attended theState University of New York at Oswego, and transferred after his second year toQueens College, City University of New York, from which he graduated in 1976 with a degree in communications and theater. Career 1976–1987: Rise to prominence Seinfeld developed an interest instand-up comedyafter brief stints in college productions. He appeared onopen-micnights at Budd\",\n \"at Budd Friedman's Improv Club while attendingQueens College.After graduation in 1976, he tried out at an open-mic night at New York City'sCatch a Rising Star, which led to an appearance in aRodney DangerfieldHBOspecial.In 1980, he had a small recurring role on the sitcomBenson, playing Frankie, a mail-delivery boy who had comedy routines that no one wanted to hear. Seinfeld was abruptly fired from the show due to creative differences.Seinfeld said that he was not told he had been fired until he arrived for a read-through session and found that there was no script for him.In January 1981, he performed stand-up onAn Evening at the Improv.In May, Seinfeld made an appearance onThe Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, impressingCarsonand the audience, leading to frequent appearances on that show and others, includingLate Night with David Letterman.On September 5, 1987, his first one-hour specialStand-Up Confidentialaired live onHBO. 1988–1998:Seinfeldand stardom Seinfeld createdThe Seinfeld ChronicleswithLarry\",\n \"ChronicleswithLarry Davidin 1988 forNBC. It was renamedSeinfeldto avoid confusion with the short-lived teen sitcomThe Marshall Chronicles. By its third season,Seinfeldhad become the most watched sitcom on American television. The final episode aired in 1998, and the show has been a popularsyndicatedre-run ever since. NBC offered Seinfeld $110 million—a record $5 million an episode for a 22-episode tenth season—but he declined.Along with Seinfeld, the show starredSaturday Night LivealumnaJulia Louis-Dreyfusand established actorsMichael RichardsandJason Alexander. Alexander played George, a caricature ofLarry David. Seinfeld is the only actor to appear in every episode. 1998–2010: Established career After he ended his sitcom, Seinfeld moved back toNew York Cityand returned to stand-up comedy instead of staying inLos Angelesand furthering his acting career. In 1998, he went on tour and recorded a comedy special, titledI'm Telling You for the Last Time. The process of developing and performing new material at\",\n \"new material at clubs around the world was chronicled in a 2002 documentary,Comedian, which also featured fellow comicOrny Adamsand was directed by Christian Charles. Seinfeld has written several books, mostly archives of past routines. In the late 1990s,Apple Computercame up with the advertising slogan \\\"Think different\\\" and produced a 60-second commercial to promote the slogan. This commercial showed people who were able to \\\"think differently,\\\" such asAlbert Einstein,Mahatma Gandhi,Martin Luther King Jr., and many others. It was later cut short to 30 seconds and altered such that Seinfeld was included at the end, although he had not been in the original cut. This shorter version of the commercial aired only once, during theseries finaleofSeinfeld. In 2004, Seinfeld appeared in two commercialwebisodespromotingAmerican Express, titledThe Adventures of Seinfeld & Superman.In these, Seinfeld appeared with a cartoon rendering ofSuperman, to whom reference was made in numerous episodes ofSeinfeldas Seinfeld's\",\n \"Seinfeld's hero, voiced byPatrick Warburton(characterDavid PuddyonSeinfeld). The webisodes were directed byBarry Levinsonand aired briefly on television. Seinfeld and \\\"Superman\\\" were also interviewed byMatt Lauerin a specially recorded interview for theTodayshow. On November 18, 2004, Seinfeld appeared at theNational Museum of American Historyto donate the \\\"puffy shirt\\\" he wore in theSeinfeldepisodeof the same name. He also gave a speech when presenting the \\\"puffy shirt,\\\" saying humorously that \\\"This is the most embarrassing moment of my life.\\\"On May 13, 2006, Seinfeld had a cameo appearance onSaturday Night Liveas host Julia Louis-Dreyfus' assassin. Louis-Dreyfus in her opening monologue mentioned the \\\"Seinfeld curse.\\\" While talking about how ridiculous the \\\"curse\\\" was, astage lightsuddenly fell next to her. The camera moved to acatwalkabove the stage where Seinfeld was standing, holding a large pair of bolt cutters. He angrily muttered, \\\"Damn it!\\\" upset that it did not hit her. Louis-Dreyfus continued to\",\n \"continued to say that she is indeed not cursed. On February 25, 2007, Seinfeld appeared at the79th Academy Awardsas the presenter for \\\"Best Documentary.\\\" Before announcing the nominations, he did a monologue about the unspoken agreement between movie theater owners and movie patrons.On October 4, 2007, Seinfeld made a guest appearance as himself in the30 Rockepisode \\\"SeinfeldVision.\\\"On February 24, 2008, at the80th Academy Awards, Seinfeld appeared as thevoiceof hisBee Movieanimated character Barry, presentingBest Animated Short Film. Before announcing the nominees, he showed a montage of film clips featuring bees, saying that they were some of his early work (as Barry). On June 2, 2008, amidst his spring 2008 tour, Seinfeld performed in his hometown of New York City for a one-night-only show at theHammerstein Ballroomto benefitStand Up for a Cure, a charity aidinglung cancerresearch atMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. In August 2008, theAssociated Pressreported that Jerry Seinfeld would be the\",\n \"would be the pitchman forWindows Vista, as part of a $300-million advertising campaign by Microsoft. The ads, which were intended to create interest for Windows in support of the subsequent \\\"I'm a PC\\\" advertisements, began airing in mid-September 2008. They were cut from television after three installments; Microsoft opted to continue with the \\\"I'm a PC\\\" advertisementsand run the Seinfeld ads on the Microsoft website as a series of longer advertisements.In March 2009, it was announced that Seinfeld and the entire cast ofSeinfeldwould be appearing for a reunion in Larry David's HBO seriesCurb Your Enthusiasm. The fictional reunion took place in theseventh season'sfinaleand starred most of the original cast, includingJulia Louis-Dreyfus,Jason Alexander,Michael Richards, in a multiple-episode arc.Seinfeld appeared on an episode of theStarzoriginal seriesHead Case. As was the case in many of his previous guest appearances on sitcoms, he played himself. InAustralia, Seinfeld appeared on a series of advertisements\",\n \"of advertisements for theGreater Building Society, abuilding societybased inNew South Walesand southeasternQueensland.His appearance in these ads was highly publicized and considered a coup for the society, being the third time Seinfeld had appeared in a television commercial.The advertisements were filmed in Cedarhurst,Long Island, with the street designed to emulate Beaumont Street inHamilton, where the Greater's head offices are located.Seinfeld also wrote the scripts for the 15 advertisements that were filmed. The ads largely aired in the Northern New South Wales television market, where the society has most of its branches. Seinfeld was the first guest onJay Leno's talk showThe Jay Leno Show, which premiered on September 14, 2009. Seinfeld was featured onSaturday Night Live'sWeekend Updatesketch to do the \\\"Really!?!\\\" segment withSeth Meyers. He executive produced and regularly appeared as a panelist inThe Marriage Ref. On August 30, 2010, Seinfeld made a surprise guest appearance onThe Howard Stern\",\n \"onThe Howard Stern Show, ending the feud the two had in the early 1990s. Seinfeld toured the U.S. in 2011 and made his first stand-up appearance in theUnited Kingdomin 11 years. In July 2011, he was a surprise guest onThe Daily Show, helpingJon Stewartto suppress his urge to tell \\\"cheap\\\" \\\"Michele Bachmann's husband acts gay\\\" jokes.Seinfeld also launched a personal archives website at JerrySeinfeld.com and appeared in theHBOspecialTalking Funnywith fellow comediansChris Rock,Louis C.K., andRicky Gervaisin the same year. 2011–present: Talk show and expansion In 2012, Seinfeld started a web series titledComedians in Cars Getting Coffee, in which he would pick up a fellow comedian in a different car each episode and take them out for coffee and conversation. The show originally aired on theCracklestreaming service and then was bought byNetflix. The initial series consisted of ten episodes lasting from 7 to 25 minutes each. The show has continued to get high-profile guests such asAlec Baldwin,Mel Brooks,Bill\",\n \"Brooks,Bill Burr,Dave Chappelle,Louis C.K.,Larry David,Ellen DeGeneres,Tina Fey,David Letterman,Jerry Lewis,Steve Martin,John Mulaney,Eddie Murphy,Carl Reiner,Don Rickles,Chris Rock,Howard Stern, andJon Stewart.The show has also hostedSeinfeldalumsLarry David,Julia Louis-Dreyfus,Jason Alexander, andMichael Richards. Season seven featured its most high-profile guest, then-PresidentBarack Obama.In a farewell tribute video for the Obamas before the President left office, Seinfeld stated, \\\"That knocking on theOval Officewindow. That probably was the peak of my entire existence.\\\" In 2014, Seinfeld toldDavid Lettermanhe invitedWoody Allento be on the show but hadn't heard back.That same year he also revealedJoan Riverswas supposed to be a guest on the show before she died due to a botched medical procedure.Seinfeld signed a deal withNetflixin January 2017 that included placingSeinfeldandComedians in Cars Getting Coffeeon their streaming service as well as two new Seinfeld stand-up specials and the development of\",\n \"the development of scripted and non-scripted comedy programming.As part of the deal, all episodes ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffeewere made available on the streaming service, in addition to a new 24-episode season.The series was nominated for fivePrimetime Emmy Awardsand won threeWebby Awards. It's very important to know what you don't like. A big part of innovation is saying, \\\"You know what I'm really sick of?\\\" For me, that was talk shows where music plays, somebody walks out to a desk, shakes hands with the host, and sits down. \\\"How are you?\\\" \\\"You look great.\\\" I'm also sick of people who are really there to sell their show or product. \\\"What am I really sick of?\\\" is where innovation begins. –Seinfeld, talking about his process of innovation. In June 2013, Seinfeld appeared on rapperWale's albumThe Gifted, on the song \\\"Outro About Nothing.\\\"Seinfeld received coverage for his speech at the 2014Clio Awardsceremony, where he received an honorary award, as media reporters said that he \\\"mocked\\\" and \\\"ripped\",\n \"and \\\"ripped apart\\\" the advertising industry; his statement that \\\"I love advertising because I love lying\\\" received particular attention.In 2014, Seinfeld hosted the specialDon Rickles: One Night Onlyat theApollo Theatre. The event celebratedDon Ricklesand his career, but also served as a roast among friends. Those who participated in the event includedJon Stewart,David Letterman,Tina Fey,Amy Poehler,Nathan Lane,Regis Philbin,Robert De Niro, andMartin Scorsese.On February 15, 2015, Seinfeld made a guest appearance on theSaturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special, where he hosted the \\\"Questions from the Audience\\\" segment, which included cameos fromMichael Douglas,John Goodman,James Franco,Larry David,Ellen Cleghorne,Dakota Johnson,Tim Meadows,Bob Odenkirk, andSarah Palin(who Seinfeld initially mistook forTina Fey).On May 20, 2015, Seinfeld made a guest appearance onDavid Letterman's finalLate Showepisode. Seinfeld joined guests includingAlec Baldwin,Barbara Walters,Steve Martin,Jim Carrey,Chris Rock,Julia\",\n \"Rock,Julia Louis-Dreyfus,Peyton Manning,Tina Fey, andBill Murraywho all participated in The Top Ten List segment, \\\"Things I've Always Wanted to Say to Dave.\\\" In January 2017, Seinfeld went onThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallonand joinedDave ChappelleandJimmy Fallonin honoring outgoing First LadyMichelle Obama, and played a game ofCatchphrase, which Obama and Fallon won to Seinfeld's dismay.On September 19, 2017, Netflix released the stand-up comedy specialJerry Before Seinfeld. It follows Seinfeld as he returns for a stand-up routine at theNew York Citycomedy club,Comic Strip Live, which started his career.It is intercut with documentary clips and his stand-up special. It was later released as an LP, CD and download album, and was nominated for a 2018Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album.In 2020, it was announced that Netflix would be releasing Seinfeld's first original stand-up special in 22 years,23 Hours to Kill. The special premiered on May 5.In October 2020, Seinfeld joinedSteve Martinin a discussion\",\n \"a discussion about comedy atThe New Yorker Festival. They discussed subjects ranging from the creative process,Netflix, andThe Oscars, to their comedy backgrounds, and the future of comedy during theCOVID-19 pandemic. In 2024 he directed, co-wrote, and produced in theNetflixcomedy filmUnfrosted, a satirical spoof about the creation ofPop-Tarts. Seinfeld also starred in the film alongsideMelissa McCarthy,Jim Gaffigan, andHugh Grant. The film earned mixed reviews withThe Hollywood Reporterwriting the film received a \\\"sharply divided reaction from critics\\\".The New York Timeslabeled it a \\\"Critic's Pick\\\" with Anne Nicholson describing it as a \\\"full-fledged, fully ridiculous feature comedy targeted to the audience’s sweet-and-salty dopamine receptors\\\".David Ehrlich ofIndieWirewrote that the \\\"comedy never heats up\\\" and \\\"it’s a movie about so many different things at once that it comes to feel like a movie about nothing\\\".Seinfeld appeared as a guest onJohn Mulaney Presents: Everybody's in LAwhere he joked that it\",\n \"he joked that it was \\\"the weirdesttalk showI've ever been on in my life\\\".He also embarked on a new tour starting with his first show in Singapore in June 2024followed by a number of stops in Australia and North America.Seinfeld returned toCurb Your Enthusiasmin its final season reuniting withLarry Davidwhere they poked fun at the controversial ending ofSeinfeld. Ben Travers ofIndieWirewrote, \\\"If theCurbfinale is meant to rewrite theSeinfeldending in any way, it’s during that first scene between Jerry and Larry. They’re playing out the kind of scene they used to write for Jerry and George, and getting that silly, joyful spark between two TV legends — even for a moment — is pure bliss\\\". Books Seinfeld wrote the bookSeinLanguage, released in 1993. Written as his television show was first rising in popularity, it is primarily an adaptation of his stand-up material. The title comes from an article inEntertainment Weeklylisting the numerous catchphrases for which the show was responsible.In 2002, he wrote\",\n \"2002, he wrote thechildren's bookHalloween. The book was illustrated by James Bennett.Seinfeld wrote the forewords toTed L. Nancy'sLetters from a Nutseries of books andEd Broth'sStories from a Moron.Seinfeld also wrote the foreword to thePeanut Butter & Co.Cookbook. In October 2020, Seinfeld released his new bookIs This Anything?. The book chronicles Seinfeld's 45 years working in comedy and contains many of his best bits that span from various decades. Influences Seinfeld has stated, \\\"On theMount Rushmoreof stand-up comedy, there are four faces, in my opinion:Richard Pryor,George Carlin,Bill Cosby, andDon Rickles.\\\"Seinfeld has also cited as his influencesJean Shepherd,Mad Magazine,Jonathan Winters,Jerry Lewis,Robert Klein, andAbbott and Costello.He stated, \\\"Monty Pythonwas a gigantic influence on me. They were just about silly, funny things that meant nothing, and that’s the stuff I love. There’s a wonderful childlike freedom in those kinds of things.\\\" In theNetflixcomedy special,Jerry Before Seinfeld, he\",\n \"Before Seinfeld, he displayed his personal comedy albums collection from when he was a teenager.These albums included: In an interview withEntertainment Weekly, Seinfeld stated his five favorite films areThe Heartbreak Kid(1972),The Graduate(1967),The In-Laws(1979),A Night at the Opera(1935), andGlengarry Glen Ross(1992). Those influenced by Seinfeld includeJohn Mulaney,Ellen DeGeneres,Jim Gaffigan,Judd Apatow,Issa Rae,Nate Bargatze,andMark Normand.OnThe Late Show with Stephen Colbert,Steve Martindescribed Seinfeld as one of his \\\"retro heroes\\\" saying \\\" a guy who came up behind me and is better than I am. I think he's fantastic, I love to listen to him, he almost puts me at peace. I love to listen to him talk\\\". Personal life Seinfeld is a fan of theNew York Mets, and periodically callsSteve Somers' show onWFAN-AM, asports talk radiostation, as \\\"Jerry from Queens.\\\"Seinfeld called four innings of a Mets game onSportsNet New Yorkon June 23, 2010, reuniting with analystKeith Hernandez, who appeared in\",\n \"who appeared in theSeinfeldtwo-part episode entitled \\\"The Boyfriend.\\\"According to Seinfeld, he thinks about baseball \\\"all day\\\" and has said \\\"when I think of retirement, all I would think of is going to a baseball game every day.\\\" Seinfeld is left-handed and the first joke he ever wrote was about the topic.In a 2014 interview withNBC News, he made statements suggesting that he believed he was on theautism spectrum.However, following criticism for his allegedself-diagnosis, he later clarified that he is not autistic and had been commenting on a play about the condition that he \\\"related to on some level.\\\" Relationships and marriage Years beforeSeinfeldwas created, Seinfeld datedCarol Leifer.She was a fellow comedian, and one of the inspirations for theSeinfeldcharacterElaine Benes.On national television with sex therapist and talk show host Dr.Ruth Westheimer, he mentioned that he was engaged in 1984 but called it off. In May 1993, days after his 39th birthday, Seinfeld met 17-year-oldShoshanna Lonsteinin\",\n \"Lonsteinin Central Park.After a brief conversation, Lonstein gave Seinfeld her phone number.Lonstein was still a senior in high school and would turn 18 at the end of that month.Seinfeld and Lonstein dated for approximately four years, until 1997.She transferred fromGeorge Washington UniversitytoUCLA, in part to be with him, and cited constant press coverage and missing New York City as reasons for the relationship ending. The age difference led to intense media scrutiny. While Seinfeld was a guest onHoward Stern's talk show, Stern said, \\\"so, you sit in Central Park and have a candy bar on a string and pull it when the girls come?\\\" at which point Seinfeld replied, \\\"she's not 17, definitely not.\\\"A few months later, in his second Howard Stern interview, Seinfeld insisted, \\\"I didn't realize she was so young. This is the only girl I ever went out with who was that young. I wasn't dating her. We just went to a restaurant, and that was it.\\\"Early in their relationship,Spymagazine referred to Lonstein as \\\"a legal\",\n \"as \\\"a legal voter\\\". In an October 1993Playboyinterview, Seinfeld described the reactions to the relationship as ranging \\\"from horrified to just busting buttons with pride that they know me\\\", noting that his female acquaintances had overall reacted more negatively than his male ones. He said that his assistant \\\"was so mad\\\" she punched him, whereas his mother was \\\"thrilled\\\". He concluded, \\\"if she's 18, if she's intelligent, that's fine\\\".In March 1994, Seinfeld again defended their age difference in an interview withPeople, stating that \\\"Shoshanna is a person, not an age.\\\"Julia Louis-Dreyfus said in a 1998New Yorkinterview that she was in favor of the relationship, as \\\"it was a happy one for him\\\", and added that she did not believe there was anything wrong with it. In August 1998, while at a Reebok Sports Club, Seinfeld metJessica Sklar, apublic relationsexecutive forTommy Hilfigerwho had just returned from a three-week honeymoon inItalywith then-husband Eric Nederlander, a theatrical producer and scion of\",\n \"and scion of atheater-owning family. Unaware of Sklar's marital status, Seinfeld invited her out. When Sklar eventually told Seinfeld about her relationship situation, she said, \\\"I told him I didn't think this was the right time for me to be involved with anybody.\\\" Two months later, Sklar filed for divorce and began dating Seinfeld. The pair married on December 25, 1999.ComedianGeorge Wallacewas the best man at the wedding.After the nuptials, Jerry and Jessica Seinfeld boughtBilly Joel's house inAmagansett,Long Island, for US$32 million after news of the couple's interest in the property became public in 2000.The Seinfelds have a daughter and two sons. Wealth and charity In 1999, Seinfeld auctioned a Breitling Chronomat watch as part of the \\\"Famous Faces, Watch Auction For Charity\\\" event in New York City. This watch sold for $11,000.In 2001, Jerry and Jessica Seinfeld created the charitable organizationThe Good+Foundationafter their first child was born. Good+Foundation grants donations of products and\",\n \"of products and services to programs that have demonstrated a capacity to address family poverty in three focus areas: supporting new mothers, investing in early childhood, and engaging fathers. GOOD+ Foundation has donated over $42M worth of items through its partner network across the United States.Seinfeld has also participated inJon Stewart's charity event,Night of Too Many Stars. According toForbesmagazine, Seinfeld's cumulative earnings fromSeinfeldas of 2004 was $267 million, placing him at the top of the celebrity earnings list that year.He turned down $5 million per episode, for 22 episodes, to continue the show for a 10th season.Seinfeld earned $100 million from syndication deals and stand-up performances in 2004, and $60 million in 2006.He also earned $10 million for appearing withBill GatesinMicrosoft's 2008 advertisements forWindows.Between June 2008 and June 2009, Seinfeld earned $85 million, making him the world's highest-paid comedian during those 12 months.In 2013,Forbesdocumented Seinfeld's\",\n \"Seinfeld's annual income as $32 million.In mid-2013, Seinfeld disputedForbes'sclaims regarding his income and net worth onThe Howard Stern Show.Seinfeld was ranked byForbesthe highest-paid comedian for 2015, the second-highest-paid in 2016, and the highest-paid again in 2017.Seinfeld's income between June 2016 and June 2017 was $69 million. In 2024,Bloombergdeclared Seinfeld a billionaire, with a net worth standing at more than $1 billion, thanks to various syndication deals his sitcom signed, with $465 million coming from those deals. Automobiles Seinfeld is an automobile enthusiast and collector, and he owns a collection of about 150 cars, including a largePorschecollection.He rented a hangar at theSanta Monica AirportinSanta Monica, California, for an extended period during the 1990s for storage of some of the vehicles in the collection.In 2002, Seinfeld purchased property on theUpper West SideofManhattaninNew York Citywhere he built a $1.4 million two-story garage to store part of his Porsche collection\",\n \"Porsche collection on the East Coast.One tally has Seinfeld owning 43 Porsches.Paul Bannister has written that Seinfeld's collection includesPorsche 911sfrom various years, 10Porsche Boxsterseach painted a different color, and the 1955Porsche 550 Spyder, the same model and pearl-grey color that actorJames Deanhad been driving before he crashed that car and subsequently died. TheDiscovery Channeltelevision showChasing Classic Carsclaimed that Seinfeld owns the first and last produced air-cooled Porsche 911s. The centerpiece is a $700,000Porsche 959, one of only 337 built. He was originally not allowed to drive it, because the car was \\\"notstreet legal.\\\" U.S. emissions and crash tests had not been performed for the model because Porsche refused to donate four Porsche 959s for destruction tests. Seinfeld imported the car \\\"for exhibition purposes,\\\" on the stipulation that it may never be driven on U.S. roads.The car was made U.S. street legal in 1999 under the \\\"Show or Display\\\" federal law.Seinfeld wrote an\",\n \"wrote an article for the February 2004 issue ofAutomobile, reviewing thePorsche Carrera GT. In 2008, Seinfeld was involved in a car accident when the brakes on his 1967Fiat 500failed and, to avoid an intersection, he pulled the emergency brake while turning sharply, ultimately causing the car to flip onto its side. No one was hurt. Coffee machines A coffee aficionado, Seinfeld owns multipleespresso machines, including the $17,000 Elektra Belle Epoqueand two machines manufactured by Slayer andBreville.Seinfeld described his single-group Slayer machine, which costs upwards of $8,500, as a \\\"beautiful machine.\\\"WhenNPRasked him about the influence ofcoffee culture in the U.S., Seinfeld responded in 2013: I never liked and I didn't understand it and I used to do a lot of stuff in my stand-up set in the '80s and '90s about how I don't 'get' coffee. And then something happened about five years ago. I started touring a lot, and we would have these great big, fun breakfasts in the hotel and just seemed to go really\",\n \"seemed to go really well . , I've just started this espresso thing. In a May 2024GQinterview titled \\\"10 Things Jerry Seinfeld Can't Live Without\\\", Seinfeld revealed that aBialettimoka potis one of his must-haves. He described the process of making coffee with a moka pot as complex and time-consuming, but a pleasurable way to \\\"waste time\\\". Religion and politics Seinfeld is Jewish and has incorporated elements of hisJewish identityin his work.Although he shared that his mother was born into a large family of Syrian Orthodox Jews, he admitted to being non-religious himself.Seinfeld stated that he took aScientologycourse when he was in his 20s; he said that he found it interesting but that he did not pursue it any further. Seinfeld expressed support forIsraelduring theIsrael–Hamas war, saying \\\"I will always stand with Israel and the Jewish people.\\\"Seinfeld and his family previously drew criticism, travelling to the West Bank in 2018 to participate in a terrorism simulation camp.Seinfeld also visited the\",\n \"also visited the headquarters ofAbducted and Missing Families Forumwhere he met with representatives of the families and with abductees who returned from Hamas captivity, and listened to their stories.On May 12, 2024, Seinfeld gave acommencement addressand received an honorary degree atDuke University. During his speech, a number of students booed, wavedPalestinian flagsand walked out in protest.In June 2024, Seinfeld was heckled by protesters during a comedy show inSydney, Australia. Seinfeld responded joking, \\\"You’re really influencing everyone here. We’re all on your side now, because you’ve made your point so well, and in the right venue, you’ve come to the right place for a political conversation\\\". Seinfeld has made several political contributions, including toGeorge W. Bush's andAl Gore's presidential campaigns in2000, and subsequently to fourDemocratic Partyprimary candidates in 2000 and2004. Seinfeld has expressed his distaste forpolitical correctnessandwokeculture. In 2015, Seinfeld stated that he\",\n \"stated that he avoids performing on college campuses because students have become too easily offended by his comedic routines.In a 2024 interview withThe New Yorker, Seinfeld claimed political correctness was destroying comedy, saying, “This is the result of theextreme leftand PC crap, and people worrying so much about offending other people. When you write a script and it goes into four or five different hands, committees, groups — 'Here's our thought about this joke' — well, that's the end of your comedy.”Months later, he walked back those comments on the \\\"Breaking Bread\\\" podcast, stating \\\"I don't think, as I said, 'the extreme left' has done anything to inhibit the art of comedy. I'm taking that back officially.\\\" Seinfeld said he regrets his previous comments because changing cultural attitudes are \\\"not business.\\\" Transcendental Meditation In December 2012, Seinfeld said that he had been practicingTranscendental Meditationfor 40 years. He promoted the use of the technique in the treatment\",\n \"in the treatment ofpost-traumatic stress disorderwithBob Rothof theDavid Lynch Foundationin December 2012 onGood Morning America,and also appeared at a 2009 David Lynch Foundation benefit for TM, at whichPaul McCartneyandRingo Starrappeared.On November 5, 2015, the David Lynch Foundation organized a benefit concert at New York City'sCarnegie Hallcalled \\\"Change Begins Within\\\" to promote transcendental meditation for stress control. \\\"It's been the greatest companion technique of living that I've ever come across, and I'm thrilled to be part of this movement that seems to have really been reinvigorated by Bob andDavid Lynch,\\\" Seinfeld said. \\\"I would do anything that I could to promote it in the world, because I think it's the greatest thing as a life tool, as a work tool and just making things make sense.\\\" Filmography Film Television Music videos Video games Directing Writing Writing credits forSeinfeld The list below only includes episodes mainly written by Seinfeld, as he (and Larry David in Seasons 1\",\n \"David in Seasons 1 through 7) rewrote the drafts for each episode. Comedy releases Stand-up specials Stand-up appearances References Awards and nominations Over his career he has receivednumerous accoladesincluding aPrimetime Emmy Award, aGolden Globe Award, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for fourGrammy Awards. Seinfeld has received an HonoraryDoctorate of Humane Lettersfrom Queens College (1994)as well as an HonoraryDoctor of ArtsfromDuke University(2024) Discography Bibliography References External links\",\n \"Jason Alexander Jay Scott Greenspan(born September 23, 1959),known professionally asJason Alexander, is an American actor and comedian. Over the course of his career he has received anEmmy Awardand aTony Awardas well as nominations for fourGolden Globe Awards. He gained stardom for his role asGeorge Costanzain theNBCsitcomSeinfeld(1989–1998), for which he won aScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Seriesand was nominated for seven consecutivePrimetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Seriesand fourGolden Globe Awards for Best Supporting Actor in Television. Alexander made hisBroadwaydebut originating the role of Joe inStephen Sondheim'sMerrily We Roll Alongin 1981. He remained active on Broadway acting in the musicalsThe Rinkin 1984,Personalsin 1985, and theNeil SimonplayBroadway Boundin 1986. He then starred inJerome Robbins' Broadwayin 1989, for which he won theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He appeared in the Los Angeles\",\n \"in the Los Angeles production ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers. He was the artistic director of \\\"Reprise! Broadway's Best in Los Angeles\\\", where he has directed musicals. His film roles includePretty Woman(1990),Coneheads(1993),North(1994),The Last Supper(1995),Dunston Checks In(1996),Denial(1998),Shallow Hal(2001), andWild Card(2015). He voiced thegargoyleHugo in the Disney filmThe Hunchback of Notre Dame(1996) and the2002 sequelas well as the titular role inDuckman(1994–1997). For his role inDream On(1994) he was nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. He also acted inCurb Your Enthusiasm(2001, 2009), andThe Marvelous Mrs. Maisel(2019). Early life and education Greenspan was born inNewark, New Jerseyto a Jewish family, the son of Ruth Minnie (née Simon), a nurse and health care administrator, and Alexander B. Greenspan, an accounting manager. Greenspan later borrowed his father's first name to create his stage name, Jason Alexander. Alexander grew up\",\n \"Alexander grew up inMaplewoodandLivingston, New Jersey, and is a 1977 graduate ofLivingston High School.Interested in magic from an early age, he initially hoped to be a magician, but while attending a magic camp was told that his hands were too small for card magic. He became interested in theater, eventually realizing, \\\"Wait a minute—the whole thing's an illusion. Nothing up there is real\\\" and that theater itself was \\\"a magic trick\\\". He then decided to pursue a theater career. After high school, he studied theater atBoston University. He wanted to pursue classical acting, but a professor redirected him toward comedy after noticing his physique, remarking, \\\"I know your heart and soul areHamlet, but you will never play Hamlet.\\\"Alexander left Boston University without a degree after his third year to take a full-time acting job in New York City. The university awarded him an honorary degree in 1995. Career 1980–1999: Broadway debut andSeinfeld Alexander began his acting career on the New York stage and is an\",\n \"stage and is an accomplished singer and dancer. Alexander made his film debut in 1981 in the summer campslasher filmThe Burning. OnBroadwayhe appeared inStephen Sondheim'sMerrily We Roll Alongin 1981,Kander&Ebb'sThe Rinkin 1984,Neil Simon'sBroadway Boundin 1986,Accomplicein 1990, andJerome Robbins' Broadwayin 1989, for which he garnered the 1989Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical.Frank RichofThe New York Timeswrote of his performance \\\"Jason Alexander, the evening's delightful narrator, accomplishes the seemingly impossible: he banishes the memory ofZero Mostelfrom the role ofPseudolusinA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum\\\". In addition to his roles as an insensitive, money-hungry lawyer inPretty Womanin 1990, Alexander has appeared inJacob's Ladderin 1990,The Last Supperin 1995,Dunston Checks Inin 1996,Love! Valour! Compassion!in 1997, andLove and Action in Chicagoin 1999. Alexander starred in several commercials during the 1980s. Among them were commercials forHershey's Kiss; Delta Goldpotato\",\n \"Delta Goldpotato chips;Miller Litebeer;McDonald'sMcDLThamburger;Pabst Blue Ribbonbeer;Levi's501 jeans;Sony WatchmanTV; andWestern Unionwire transfer.BeforeSeinfeld, Alexander appeared in commercials for John Deere and McDonald's and in the short-livedCBSsitcomEverything's Relative(1987). Alexander is best known as one of the key cast members of the award-winning television sitcomSeinfeld, where he played the bumblingGeorge Costanza(Jerry Seinfeld's character's best friend since childhood). He was nominated for sevenPrimetime Emmy Awardsand fourGolden Globe Awardsfor the role, but did not win any, mainly due to his co-starMichael Richardswinning for his role asCosmo Kramer. He did, however, win the 1995Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series. Concurrently with hisSeinfeldrole, he had a part in the ABC sitcomDinosaursas Al \\\"Sexual\\\" Harris (who frequently engaged insexual harassment) as well as other characters from 1991 to 1994. Alexander voiced the lead\",\n \"voiced the lead character in the animated seriesDuckman(1994–1997) and voicedCatbert, the evil director of human resources, in the short-lived animated seriesDilbertfrom 1999 to 2000, based on the then-popular comic strip.In January 1995, he did a commercial forRold Goldpretzels to be broadcast during theSuper Bowl. The commercial depicts him withFrasierdog Eddie jumping out of an airplane with a parachute over the stadium. After the commercial, the audience is brought back to a supposedly live feed of the playing field hearing startled sports commentators as Alexander and the dog land in the field to wild applause. Alexander appeared in the 1995 TV version of theBroadwaymusicalBye Bye Birdie, as Conrad Birdie's agent, Albert Peterson. He guest-starred in episode 8 of the 1996 variety showMuppets Tonight.He voiced thegargoyleHugo inDisney's 1996animated filmThe Hunchback of Notre Dameand its direct-to-video sequel,The Hunchback of Notre Dame II. Alexander voiced the characterAbis Malin the 1994 filmThe\",\n \"the 1994 filmThe Return of Jafarand the 1994-1995TV seriesbased on the 1992 filmAladdin. In 1997, he appeared inCinderella, a remake ofRodgers and Hammerstein's Cinderella,alongsideWhitney Houston,Brandy Norwood, andWhoopi Goldberg. His other Disney voice work includesHouse of Mousein 2001 and the 2012 video gameKingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance.He has dabbled in directing, starting with 1996'sFor Better or Worseand 1999'sJust Looking. In 1999, Alexander presided over theNew York Friars Club Roastevent honoringJerry Stiller, who played his father onSeinfeld; it featured appearances byKevin JamesandPatton Oswalt, both Stiller's costars onThe King of Queens. Alexander appeared in the 1999Star Trek: Voyagerepisode \\\"Think Tank\\\" as Kurros, a genius alien trying to getSeven of Nineto serve on his ship. 2000–2009: Solo-lead sitcoms and return to theatre Despite a successful career in film and stage, Alexander did not repeat hisSeinfeld-level of success in television. The year 2001 marked his appearance as\",\n \"his appearance as inept womanizer Mauricio inShallow Haland his first post-Seinfeldreturn to prime-time television: the heavily promoted but short-livedABCsitcomBob Patterson, which was canceled after five episodes. Alexander partially blames the show's failure on the country's mood after9/11.Alexander made cameo appearances as himself in 2001 in the second season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm, and he appeared in the show's seventh season with his three principalSeinfeldco-stars.He was featured in theFriends2001 episode \\\"The One Where Rosita Dies\\\" as Earl, a suicidalsupply manager.Phoebecalls him trying to sell himtoner, learns about his problem, and tries to persuade him not to commit suicide. This is referenced in an episode ofMalcolm in the Middlewhere Alexander appears as Leonard, a neurotic and critical loner. He describes himself as \\\"free\\\" and says he makes money \\\"selling toner over the phone\\\". Later in the episode, he is repeatedly harassed by a man named George. He appeared in \\\"One Night at Mercy\\\", the\",\n \"at Mercy\\\", the first episode of the short-lived2002 revival ofThe Twilight Zone, playingDeath. He played the toymakerA.C. Gilbertin the 2002 filmThe Man Who Saved Christmas. He appeared inKentucky Fried Chicken(KFC) commercials in 2002, including one withBarry Bondsof theSan Francisco Giantsand another withTrista RehnofThe Bachelorette. It was rumored that he quit doing these commercials due to KFC suppliers andslaughterhouses' allegedcruelty to animals, but he denied that in an interview withAdweek, saying, \\\"That'sPETAbullcrap. I loved working for KFC. I was targeted by PETA to broker something between them. I think KFC really stepped up to the plate; unfortunately PETA did not.\\\" In 2007, Alexander appeared in a commercial for theASPCAthat aired on cable TV stations.In 2018, Alexander portrayedColonel Sandersin commercials forKFC, reprising his role from the 2002 campaign. In 2003, he was cast oppositeMartin Shortin the Los Angeles production ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers.He appeared withKelsey Grammerin the\",\n \"Grammerin the 2004musical adaptationofCharles Dickens'sA Christmas Carol, asJacob Marley. Alexander's second chance as a TV series lead, theCBSsitcomListen Up(2004–05), also fell short of a second season. Alexander was the principal executive producer of the series, based very loosely on the life of the popular sports-media personalityTony Kornheiser. He performed on theFamily Guy: Live in Vegas2005 album. Alexander continued to appear in live stage shows, includingBarbra Streisand's memorable birthday party in 2005 for Stephen Sondheim at the Hollywood Bowl, where he performed selections fromSweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet StreetwithAngela Lansbury.He featured in the 2005Monkepisode \\\"Mr. Monk and the Other Detective\\\" as Monk's rival,Marty Eels. In a 2006 appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!, Alexander demonstrated several self-defense techniques. Also that year, he hosted thePBS\\\"A Capitol Fourth\\\" celebrations in Washington, D.C., singing, dancing, and playing tuned drums. Alexander was featured as a\",\n \"was featured as a recurring cast member in the second season ofEverybody Hates Chris. He hosted theComedy Central Roast of William Shatner. He was the artistic director of Reprise Theatre Company in Los Angeles from 2007 until it went defunct in 2013,where he previously directedSunday in the Park with George, and directed its 2007 revival ofDamn Yankees.In 2007, Alexander was a guest star in the third episode of theimprov comedyseriesThank God You're Here. He has been a frequent guest and panelist onBill Maher'sPolitically Incorrectin 1995, 1997 and 2000andReal Timein 2006, 2009 and 2012;Hollywood Squaresin 1999, 2002 and 2004;theLate Late Showin 2003, 2012, 2014 and 2015, withCraig Kilborn,Craig Ferguson, andJames Corden;Late Show with David Lettermanin 1989, 2000, and 2002;The Late Show with Stephen Colbertin 2015;andThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallonin 2015.In 2008, Alexander guest-starred in theseason fourepisode \\\"Masterpiece\\\" of theCBSshowCriminal Mindsas Professor Rothschild,a well-educatedserial\",\n \"well-educatedserial killerobsessed with theFibonacci sequencewho sends the team into a race against time to save his last victims.He returned in the same season to direct the episode \\\"Conflicted\\\", featuring the actorJackson Rathbone. Alexander hosted the LOL Sudbury opening night gala inSudbury, Ontario, Canada in 2008, which was simulcast throughout Canada at 60 Cineplex theaters, a first for any comedy festival. He has lent his voice to several episodes of theTwilight Zone Radio Dramas. In 2008 and again in 2009, Alexander frontedJason Alexander's Comedy Spectacular, a routine exclusive to Australia. The show consists of stand-up and improvisation and incorporates Alexander's musical talent. He is backed up by several well-known Australian comedians. His first time performing a similar show of this nature was in 2006'sJason Alexander's Comedy Christmas. In February/March 2010, Alexander starred in his show,The Donny Clay Experience, at thePlanet Hollywood ResortinLas Vegas,Nevada. Donny Clay, whom he has\",\n \"Clay, whom he has portrayed in a tour of the United States and Orillia, Ontario, is aself-helpguru in a similar mold to hisBob Pattersoncharacter. In 2009, he playedJosephin theThomas Nelsonaudio Bible productionThe Word of Promise. The project featured a large ensemble of actors, includingJim Caviezel,Lou Gossett Jr.,John Rhys-Davies,Jon Voight,Gary Sinise,Christopher McDonald,Marisa Tomei, andJohn Schneider.In 2009, Alexander had a small role in the filmHachi: A Dog's Taleas a train station manager. 2010–present He starred asCosmoin the 2011 live action filmA Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner!. In 2011, Alexander was the guest star in an episode ofHarry's Law, playing a high school teacher bringing a wrongful dismissal suit.In 2015, he replacedLarry Davidas the lead in David'sBroadwayplayFish in the Dark.He co-starred oppositeSherie Rene Scottin the 2017 world premiere ofJohn Patrick Shanley'sThe Portuguese Kidat theManhattan Theatre Club.In 2018, Alexander played Olix the bartender inThe Orville.The\",\n \"inThe Orville.The same year, he portrayed Gene Lundy, a drama teacher, on two episodes ofYoung Sheldon. In 2020, 2021 and 2022, he reprised the role of Gene Lundy on one episode. In 2019, Alexander appeared onThe Marvelous Mrs. Maiselas Asher Friedman, a blacklisted Broadway playwright who is an old friend of Midge Maisel's father Abe Weissman.He won theDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Original Song for \\\"The Bad Guys?\\\" onBrainwashed By Toons(2020). In 2020, Alexander hosted theSaturday Night Seder, an online Passover Seder that featured many celebrities and benefited theCDC Foundation. From February 2023 he co-presentedReally? No, Really?, a weekly podcast in which he, co-host Peter Tilden, and their guests attempt to find answers \\\"to life’s most baffling, intriguing, confusing and annoying questions\\\".In July 2023, he made his Broadway directing debut with Sandy Rustin's comedyThe Cottage. The cast includesEric McCormack,Laura Bell BundyandLilli Cooper.In 2023, on the December 21 primetime CBS specialDick\",\n \"CBS specialDick Van Dyke: 98 Years of Magic, Alexander performed two songs in conjunction with dance-performers and closed the show with a spoken tribute to Van Dyke. Personal life Alexander has been married to Daena E. Title, cousin of directorStacy Title, since May 31, 1982.They have two sons, Gabrieland Noah. Alexander performed amentalismand magic act atThe Magic Castlein Hollywood, California, from April 24 to 30, 2006, and he was later named The Academy of Magical Arts Parlor Magician of the Year for this act. He won the academy's Junior Achievement Award in 1989. Charity Alexander was the national spokesman for theSclerodermaFoundation, a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those who are afflicted.In summer 2005, he appeared withLee Iacoccain ads forDaimlerChrysler. Iacocca did the ads as part of a way to raise money forDenise Faustman's research onautoimmunity.Iacocca and Alexander both have loved ones whose lives have been adversely affected by\",\n \"affected by autoimmunity. Alexander competed on televised poker shows and in various tournaments. He appeared twice onBravo'sCelebrity Poker Showdown, winning the final table of the 8th season. Alexander won the $500,000 prize for the charity of his choice, TheUnited Way of America, to help benefit the New Orleans area. Alexander played in the2007 World Series of Pokermain event, but he was eliminated on the second day. He returned in 2009, making it to day 3 of the event and finishing in the top 30% of the field. Alexander has appeared on NBC'sPoker After Darkin the \\\"Celebrities and Mentors\\\" episode, finishing in 6th place after being eliminated by professional poker playerGavin Smith. He signed withPokerStars, where he plays under the screen name \\\"J. Alexander\\\". In 2021, Alexander competed in a virtual National Poker Tournament, hosted by theChildren's Tumor Foundation, to raise money forNeurofibromatosisresearch. Political views Alexander has been a prominent public supporter of theOneVoiceinitiative,\",\n \"which seeks out opinions from moderateIsraelisandPalestinianswho want to achieve a mutual peace agreement, through what it states is the silent majority of Israelis and Palestinians. This has been criticised by The Electronic Intifada as \\\"promoting what many Palestinians see as \\\"a false peace that fails to address the structural injustices driving the conflict\\\", and as a fake peace group which \\\"manufactures consent for Israeli apartheid\\\".OnReal Time with Bill Maher, he said he had visitedIsraelmany times and spoke about progress toward peace he had observed. On December 6, 2012 Alexander emceed his thirdgala event for non-profit groupFriends of the Israel Defense Forces, a charity supporting theIsrael Defense Forces.MusicianStevie Wondercancelled his performance at the event following a recommendation from the UN,and a public petition fromBoycott, Divestment and Sanctions(BDS) requesting that he not attend the event.Alexander who was interviewed at the event by Jewish News Syndicate stated he supported\",\n \"stated he supported theOneVoice Movement, and acknowledged an occupation of Palestine and called for a two-state solution,which was later criticised by Roz Rothstein, CEO of the pro-Israel education group StandWithUs.When asked about the IDF, Alexander stated that they were humane and noble, stating \\\"some of the finest, most humane, most admirable, most noble-serving soldiers that I've ever seen\\\" and that \\\"there can never be any doubt that I am also an advocate for Israel\\\".When asked about why he had repeatedly emceed the event, Alexander stated: \\\"They don’t understand first of all what is, and they see it as just a blanket support for Israeli military, and they don’t understand how I can say that I’m an advocate for both sides,” he said. “And given the fact that there are eyes on this event tonight, I thought it was important to get up and say, 'This is why I can advocate for this group and I can advocate for Israel, and I’m not blind to the fact that we’re in conflict, and I hold everyone equally\",\n \"everyone equally accountable, and I hold everyone equally to my heart.'\\\" On November 6, 2015 he again emceed an event at theThe Beverly Hilton Hotelin California, which raised $31 million for the, \\\"provid educational, cultural and recreational programs and facilities for IDF soldiers.\\\" Alexander is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.Alexander supportssame-sex marriageand anassault weapons ban.In 2020, he campaigned for theTexas Democratswith formerSeinfeldcolleaguesJulia Louis-Dreyfusand Larry David.He endorsedBarack Obamain2012andJoe Bidenin2020.Alexander has been an outspoken critic of theTrump administrationand he has ridiculedDonald Trumpover his dancing.He has calledRepublican PartysenatorTed Cruza jerk from the \\\"jerk store\\\" in reference to a joke fromSeinfeld. Acting credits Film Television Theatre Music videos Video games Director Awards and nominations References External links\",\n \"Julia Louis-Dreyfus Julia Scarlett Elizabeth Louis-Dreyfus(/ˌluːiˈdraɪfəs/LOO-eeDRY-fəs; born January 13, 1961) is an American actress and comedian. Often described as one of the greatest performers in television history,she is widely known for her roles as various characters onSaturday Night Live(1982–1985),Elaine BenesonSeinfeld(1990–1998),Christine CampbellonThe New Adventures of Old Christine(2006–2010), andSelina MeyeronVeep(2012–2019). Herlist of accoladesmakes her one of the most award-winning actresses in American television history,and she has received morePrimetime Emmy Awardsand moreScreen Actors Guild Awardsthan any other performer. Louis-Dreyfus was born in New York City, the daughter of the French billionaireGérard Louis-Dreyfus, and entered comedy as a performer with thePractical Theatre CompanyinChicago. This led to her being cast in the sketch showSaturday Night Live. Her breakthrough came in 1990 with her debut at the start of a nine-season run onSeinfeld, which became one of the most\",\n \"one of the most critically and commercially successful sitcoms. In addition to leading roles onThe New Adventures of Old ChristineandVeep, she has made guest appearances on shows such asArrested Development,Curb Your Enthusiasm, and30 Rock. On film, Louis-Dreyfus has had supporting film roles inHannah and Her Sisters(1986),National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation(1989),Deconstructing Harry(1997), andYou People(2023), and leading film roles inEnough Said(2013),Downhill(2020),You Hurt My Feelings(2023), andTuesday(2023). Her voice acting work includesA Bug's Life(1998),Planes(2013), andOnward(2020). Since 2021 she has playedValentina Allegra de Fontainein theMarvel Cinematic Universe. Louis-Dreyfus has received 11 Primetime Emmy Awards (eight for acting and three for producing) in addition to nine Screen Actors Guild Awards and oneGolden Globe Award. She received a star on theHollywood Walk of Famein 2010 and was inducted into theTelevision Academy Hall of Famein 2014. She was named as one ofTimemagazine's100\",\n \"ofTimemagazine's100 most influential people in the worldin 2016.She has also received numerous honors including theMark Twain Prize for American Humorin 2018 and theNational Medal of Artsin 2021. Early life Julia Scarlett Elizabeth Louis-Dreyfuswas born inNew York Cityon January 13, 1961.Her mother, Judith (née LeFever), is an American writer andspecial needs educator.Her father,Gérard Louis-Dreyfus(1932–2016), was a French billionaire who served as chairman of theLouis Dreyfus Company. Her paternal grandfather,Pierre Louis-Dreyfus(1908–2011), was president of theLouis Dreyfus Groupcommodities and shipping conglomerate.He was a member of aJewishfamily fromAlsace,and served as acavalryofficer and member of theFrench ResistanceduringWorld War II.Louis-Dreyfus is the great-great-granddaughter of French businessmanLéopold Louis-Dreyfus(1833–1915), founder of the Louis Dreyfus Group, which members of her family still control.She is the fifth cousin four times removed ofAlfred Dreyfus(1859–1935) of the\",\n \"of the infamousDreyfus affair.Robert Louis-Dreyfus(1946–2009), her father's second cousin, was the CEO ofAdidasand owner of the soccer teamOlympique de Marseille.Julia's paternal grandmother was the daughter of aBrazilian-Jewishfather (whose family wasDutch,English, andPolish). In 1962, a year after her birth, Louis-Dreyfus' parents divorced. She has said that she first noticed her penchant for comedy after sticking raisins up her nose at the age of three, which first made her mother laugh but then led to an emergency hospital visit.After moving toWashington, D.C., when Louis-Dreyfus was four, her mother married L. Thompson Bowles, dean of theGeorge Washington University Medical School;Louis-Dreyfus gained a half-sister,Lauren Bowles, also an actress. Due to her stepfather's work withProject HOPE, she spent her childhood in several U.S. states and countries such asColombia,Sri Lanka, andTunisia.In 1979, she graduated from the all-girlsHolton-Arms SchoolinBethesda, Maryland.She later said of the school,\",\n \"said of the school, \\\"There were things I did in school that, had there been boys in the classroom, I would have been less motivated to do. For instance, I was president of the honor society.\\\" Louis-Dreyfus attendedNorthwestern UniversityinEvanston, Illinois, where she was a member of theDelta Gammasorority. She studied theatre and performed in theMee-Ow Show, a student-run improv and sketch comedy revue, before dropping out during her junior year to take a job atSaturday Night Live.In 2007, she received an honorary doctor of arts degree from Northwestern University. Career 1982–1989: Early career andSaturday Night Live As part of her comedic training, Louis-Dreyfus appeared inThe Second City, one of the best-known improvisational theatre groups. It was her performance withThe Practical Theatre Companyat their \\\"Golden 50th Anniversary Jubilee\\\" that led to her being asked to join the cast ofNBC'sSaturday Night Liveat the age of 21. Louis-Dreyfus subsequently became a cast member onSaturday Night Livefrom 1982\",\n \"Night Livefrom 1982 to 1985, the youngest female cast member in the history of the program at that time.It was during her third and final year onSNLthat she met writerLarry Davidduring his only year on the show.David later co-createdSeinfeld.Louis-Dreyfus has commented that her casting onSNLwas a \\\"Cinderella-getting-to-go-to-the-ball kind of experience\\\";however, she has also admitted that at times it was often quite tense, stating that she \\\"didn't know how to navigate the waters of show business in general and specifically doing a live sketch-comedy show\\\". Recurring characters onSaturday Night Live Following her 1985 departure fromSNL, Louis-Dreyfus appeared in several films, includingHannah and Her Sisters(1986) byWoody Allen,Soul Man(1986), andNational Lampoon's Christmas Vacation(1989), in which she starred alongside fellowSNLalumnusChevy Chase. In 1987, Louis-Dreyfus appeared in the NBC sitcom pilotThe Art of Being Nick, an intended spin-off fromFamily TiesstarringScott Valentine. When the pilot did not\",\n \"the pilot did not make it to series, Louis-Dreyfus was retained by producerGary David Goldbergfor a role on his new sitcomDay by Day, as the sarcastic and materialistic neighbor, Eileen Swift. Premiering in early 1988,Day by Dayaired for two seasons on NBC before being cancelled. 1990–1998:Seinfeldand widespread recognition In the early 1990s, Louis-Dreyfus became famous for the role ofElaine Beneson NBC'sSeinfeld. She played the role for nine seasons, appearing in all but three episodes.One of the episodes that she did not appear in was the pilot episode, \\\"The Seinfeld Chronicles\\\", because her character was not initially intended to be a part of the series. It was only after the first episode thatNBCexecutives felt the show was too male-centric and demanded that creatorsLarry DavidandJerry Seinfeldadd a woman to the cast. It was revealed in the commentary on the DVD package that the addition of a female character was the condition for commissioning the show. Louis-Dreyfus won the role over several other\",\n \"over several other actresses who also eventually enjoyed TV success, includingPatricia HeatonandMegan Mullally.On the \\\"Notes About Nothing\\\" featurette on theDVDpackage, Seinfeld says that Louis-Dreyfus's ability to eat a peanutM&Mwithout breaking the peanut described her: \\\"She cracks you up without breaking your nuts.\\\" Louis-Dreyfus garnered critical acclaim for her performance on the series, and she was a regular winner and nominee at television award shows throughout the 1990s. Her performance earned her twoGolden Globe Awardnominations, winning once in 1994, nineScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, winning one in 1995 and two in both 1997 and 1998, and sevenAmerican Comedy Awards, winning five times in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997 and 1998. In 1996, she won thePrimetime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, an award she was nominated for on seven occasions from 1992 to 1998. After receiving the award, Louis-Dreyfus said the win was a \\\"shocker\\\", and that after being in both positions,\",\n \"in both positions, it was \\\"much better to win than to lose.\\\" In 1998, Jerry Seinfeld decided to end the series after nine seasons. Theseries finaleaired on May 14 and was one of the most-watched TV events in history, with over 76 million viewers tuning in.During her time onSeinfeld,she appeared in several films, including the comedy filmsFathers' Day(1997), oppositeRobin WilliamsandBilly Crystal, andWoody Allen'sDeconstructing Harry(1997). 1999–2004: Post-Seinfeld Following a voice role in the highly successfulPixarfilmA Bug's Life(1998), Louis-Dreyfus lent her voice asSnake's girlfriend Gloria inThe Simpsonsepisode \\\"A Hunka Hunka Burns in Love\\\". In 2001, she made several special guest appearances onSeinfeldco-creatorLarry David's showCurb Your Enthusiasm, playing herself fictionally trying to break the \\\"curse\\\" by planning to star in a show in which she would play an actress affected by aSeinfeld-like curse. After several years away from a regular TV job, Louis-Dreyfus began a new single-camera\",\n \"a new single-camera sitcom,Watching Ellie, which premiered on NBC in February 2002. The series was created by husbandBrad Halland co-starredSteve Carelland Louis-Dreyfus's half-sisterLauren Bowles. The initial premise of the show was to present viewers with a \\\"slice of life\\\" from the goings-on and happenings of the life of Ellie Riggs, a Southern California jazz singer. The first season included a 22-minute countdown kept digitally in the lower left-hand corner of the screen, which many critics panned, claiming it was useless and \\\"did nothing for the show.\\\"Overall, the show received mixed reviews but debuted strongly with over 16 million viewers tuning in for the series premiere, and maintained an average audience of about 10 million viewers per week. When the series returned for a second season in the spring of 2003, it suffered a decline in viewership, averaging around eight million viewers per week. The show had undergone a drastic stylistic change between the production of seasons one and two. The first\",\n \"and two. The first season was filmed in the single-camera format, but the second season was presented as a traditional multicamera sitcom filmed in front of a live studio audience.With dwindling viewership and failing to retain the numbers from itsFrasierlead-in, the series was cancelled by NBC in May 2003. Following NBC's cancellation ofWatching Ellie, the media began circulating rumors of a so-called \\\"Seinfeldcurse\\\", which claimed that none of the formerSeinfeldactors could ever achieve success again in the television industry. Louis-Dreyfus dismissed the rumor as \\\"a made-up thing by the media\\\",whileSeinfeldco-creator Larry David asserted that the curse was \\\"completely idiotic.\\\"Louis-Dreyfus was interested in the role ofSusan MayeronDesperate Housewives, the role that ultimately went toTeri Hatcher.Instead, Louis-Dreyfus scored a recurring guest role as Maggie Lizer, the deceitful prosecutor and love interest ofMichael Bluthon the Emmy-winning comedyArrested Development, from 2004 to 2005. 2005–2010:The\",\n \"2005. 2005–2010:The New Adventures of Old Christine In 2005, Louis-Dreyfus was cast in the title role of a new CBS sitcom,The New Adventures of Old Christine.The series and its concept were created by writer and producer ofWill & Grace, Kari Lizer. The series told the story of Christine Campbell, a single mother who manages to maintain a fantastic relationship with her ex-husband while running a women's gym. The series debuted on CBS in March 2006 to an audience of 15 million and was initially a ratings winner for the network. Louis-Dreyfus received considerable critical acclaim for her performance on the show, with Brian Lowry ofVarietystating that Louis-Dreyfus broke the so-called \\\"Seinfeldcurse with one of the best conventional half-hours to come along in a while.\\\"Alessandra Stanley fromThe New York Timesasserted that Louis-Dreyfus's performance on the series proved she is \\\"one of the funniest women on network television.\\\"Louis-Dreyfus also earned the 2006Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress\",\n \"Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her performance in the first season. Referring to thecurse, she stated in her acceptance speech, \\\"I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this, baby!\\\"Throughout the course of the series, she received five consecutiveEmmy Awardnominations, three consecutiveSatellite Awardnominations, twoScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, and a nomination for aGolden Globe Award. In 2007, she also received two nominations for aPeople's Choice Awarddue to her return to popularity, thanks to the success ofOld Christine. In May 2006, Louis-Dreyfus hosted an episode ofSaturday Night Live, becoming the first female former cast member to return to the show as a host.In the episode, she appeared with herSeinfeldco-starsJason AlexanderandJerry Seinfeldin her opening monologue, parodying the so-called \\\"Seinfeldcurse\\\".After a successful reception of her 2006 episode, Louis-Dreyfus again hostedSNLon March 17, 2007, and April 17, 2016. Louis-Dreyfus reprised her role as Gloria in\",\n \"role as Gloria in twoSimpsonsepisodes: 2007's \\\"I Don't Wanna Know Why the Caged Bird Sings\\\" and 2008's \\\"Sex, Pies and Idiot Scrapes\\\". In the fall of 2009, she appeared with the rest of the cast ofSeinfeldin four episodes of the seventh season ofLarry David's sitcomCurb Your Enthusiasm. The reunion shows received much media attention, and the episode received strong ratings for the series. In 2009, Louis-Dreyfus was granted the honorary award for Legacy of Laughter at theTV Land Awards. Previous winners had includedLucille BallandMike Myers. She was presented with the award by friendAmy Poehler. The following year, Louis-Dreyfus received the 2,407th star on theHollywood Walk of Fameon May 4, 2010, for her remarkable contribution to the broadcast television industry as both an actress and a comedian. Originally, the star was set with Louis-Dreyfus's name spelled incorrectly. It was missing both the 'o' and the hyphen in her last name.The star was corrected and the misspelled portion was removed and presented\",\n \"and presented to her.Celebrity guests at the event included past and current colleagues from throughout her career, includingClark Gregg, Larry David,Eric McCormack, and Jason Alexander. Old Christinewas cancelled by CBS on May 18, 2010, after 5 years.Discussions were held with ABC to revive the show but they never came to fruition.In the spring of 2010, Louis-Dreyfus guest-starred several times in the third season of the web seriesWeb Therapy, starringLisa Kudrow. Louis-Dreyfus played the sister of the main character, Fiona Wallice, who gives her therapy online. When the series made the transition to cable television on theShowtimenetwork, Louis-Dreyfus's appearance from the web series was included in the second season, airing in July 2012.In fall 2010, Louis-Dreyfus made a guest appearance on the live episode of30 Rock, playingTina Fey's role ofLiz Lemonin the cutaway shots. Louis-Dreyfus was among severalSaturday Night Livealumni appearing in the episode, includingRachel Dratch,Bill Hader, and\",\n \"Hader, and regularsTracy Morganand Fey herself. Louis-Dreyfus also starred in a \\\"Women of SNL\\\" special on November 1, 2010, on NBC. 2011–2019:Veepand acclaim In May and June 2011, Louis-Dreyfus teamed up with husband Brad Hall for her first short film,Picture Paris. This was the first time the couple had collaborated since their early-2000s NBC comedyWatching Ellie. Hall wrote and directed the film, while Louis-Dreyfus played the lead role of an ordinary woman with an extraordinary obsession with the city of Paris. The film premiered on January 29, 2012, at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival, and has received considerable critical acclaim.It made its television premiere on HBO on December 17, 2012. In early 2011, HBO confirmed that Louis-Dreyfus had been cast in the lead role of U.S. Vice President Selina Meyer in a new satirical comedy series titledVeep. The series was commissioned for a first season of eight episodes. In addition to her starring role, Louis-Dreyfus would also be a producer.In\",\n \"be a producer.In preparation for her role, Louis-Dreyfus spoke withAl Goreand another former vice president,senators, speechwriters, chiefs of staffs of various offices, and schedulers.Louis-Dreyfus commended HBO for allowing the cast and crew to engage in a \\\"protracted pre-production process\\\", which included a six-week rehearsal period before filming began. The first season was filmed in the fall of 2011, inBaltimore, and the series premiered on April 22, 2012.The premiere episode was met with high praise from critics, particularly for Louis-Dreyfus' performance.The Hollywood Reporterasserted the character of Selina Meyer was her \\\"best post-Seinfeld role\\\" to date and claimed she gives \\\"an Emmy-worthy effort\\\",while theLos Angeles Timescontended the series demonstrates she is \\\"one of the medium's great comediennes.\\\"Following the success of the first season, Louis-Dreyfus was named by theHuffington Postas one of the funniest people of 2012, asserting that she is the \\\"most magnetic and naturally funny woman on\",\n \"funny woman on TV since Mary Tyler Moore.\\\" For her performance onVeep, Louis-Dreyfus received several accolades, most notably seven nominations for thePrimetime Emmy AwardsforOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesbetween 2012 and 2019, winning the award six times.These Emmy wins forVeep, following previous wins forSeinfeldandThe New Adventures of Old Christine, resulted in her becoming the only woman to win an acting award for three separate comedy series.Her sixth win in 2016 surpassed the record previously held byMary Tyler MooreandCandice Bergenfor the most wins in that category.In 2017, her sixth consecutive win, and eighth acting win, overall made her the performer with the most Emmys for the same role in the same series, surpassingCandice BergenandDon Knotts, and put her in a tie withCloris Leachmanfor the most Emmys ever won by a performer.She was also nominated as one of the producers forVeepin thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Seriescategory for all seven seasons, winning the award\",\n \"winning the award in 2015, 2016 and 2017 for the fourth, fifth and sixth seasons respectively.Louis-Dreyfus also received fiveCritics' Choice Television Awardnominations, winning twice in 2013 and 2014, tenScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, winning twice in 2014 and 2017, and fiveTelevision Critics Association Awardnominations, winning once in 2014. Her performance additionally garnered her fiveSatellite Awardnominations and five consecutiveGolden Globe Awardnominations. Louis-Dreyfus lent her voice to the 2013 animated filmPlanes, in the role of Rochelle. To date, the film has grossed well over $200 million at the box office worldwide.She also starred in the filmEnough Said, directed byNicole Holofcener, which was released on September 18, 2013.This marked her debut as a lead actress in a full-length feature film. The film garnered rave reviews from film critics, ranking among the best-reviewed films of 2013. The websiteRotten Tomatoesgives the film a score of 96% based on 152 reviews, many of them\",\n \"many of them praising Louis-Dreyfus's performance.She received several Best Actress nominations including for theGolden Globe Awardsand theCritics' Choice Movie Awards. Another review aggregation website, Metacritic, gave the film a score of 78 out of 100, based on 44 critics, signifying \\\"generally favorable reviews\\\". Since December 2014, Louis-Dreyfus has appeared in a series of television commercials forOld Navy.In 2015 she acted in theComedy Centralsketch seriesInside Amy SchumeralongsideTina FeyandPatricia Arquette, playing a version of themselves giving advice on aging toAmy Schumer. Dreyfus said of the experience \\\"I started to feel unbelievably paranoid that I was making fun of myself and wondering, was this really happening to me? Like, how meta is this moment in my life? I started to have a kind of soul-searching crisis in the middle of the day. And I didn't know well enough to bring it up, so I was just trying to be a good sport even though I was dying a little bit on the inside.\\\"On April 16, 2016,\",\n \"April 16, 2016, she returned toSaturday Night Liveserving as host for the third time with musical guestNick Jonas. During the episode's cold open, she reprised her role of Elaine Benes fromSeinfeld. 2020–present: Career expansion In 2020, Louis-Dreyfus headlined the comedy-dramaDownhill, oppositeWill Ferrell. The film premiered at the2020 Sundance Film Festivaland was theatrically released on February 14.Next, she voiced a suburban elf mother inPixar'sOnwardoppositeTom HollandandChris Pratt. The film was released on March 6, 2020. In January 2020, Louis-Dreyfus signed a multi-year deal withApple TV+. Under the deal, she will develop new projects for Apple TV+ as both an executive producer and star.The following year Louis-Dreyfus appeared in theDisney+seriesThe Falcon and the Winter Soldier(2021) asValentina Allegra de Fontaine, which is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, though she was originally intended to debut in the filmBlack Widow(where she appears in the post credit scene).She reprised the role\",\n \"reprised the role inBlack Panther: Wakanda Forever(2022), and will also appear in the upcoming filmThunderbolts*(2025). In 2022 she was a guest on theNetflixshowMy Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman. In 2023 she reunited withNicole Holofcenerstarring in theA24independent comedy filmYou Hurt My Feelings. Dreyfus produced the film and acted alongsideTobias Menzies,Michaela Watkins,Arian MoayedandJeannie Berlin. The film premiered at theSundance Film Festivalto positive reviews.Peter Bradshawpraised her performance writing, \\\"Louis-Dreyfus is such a superb comic performer that it is interesting seeing her take on something low-key\\\".That same year she portrayed a liberal Jewish mother in theNetflixromantic comedyYou People(2023). She also starred in the A24 filmTuesday, directed by Daina Oniunas-Pusić,which premiered at the 2023Telluride Film Festival. In 2023, Louis-Dreyfus became host of the podcastWiser Than Me.On the show, she interviews women older than her on their lived experience and\",\n \"experience and earned wisdom. Guests have includedJane Fonda,Carol Burnett,Isabel AllendeandAmy Tan. The show, produced byLemonada Media, was named Apple's Best Podcast of the Year in 2023.Among her season two guests, Louis-Dreyfus interviewsBillie Jean King,Patti Smith, andJulie Andrews. Reception Louis-Dreyfus is widely regarded as one of the finest comedic actresses of her generation.Jake Coyle of theLubbock Avalanche-Journalsaid \\\"Few comediennes have both her gift for physical comedy ... vocal precision\\\".According to the journalistMolly Ball, Louis-Dreyfus has played mostly \\\"funny, self-centered women who are compelling despite often being ill-behaved\\\". Louis-Dreyfus said she had turned playing unlikeable people into a career.Ball said: \\\"She has also left an indelible cultural mark, expanding the possibilities for women in comedy–and maybe in politics and public life as well.\\\" Personal life Louis-Dreyfus' maternal half-sister,Lauren Bowles, is also an actress. She also has two paternal half-sisters,\",\n \"half-sisters, Phoebeand Emma. Emma died in August 2018. While at Northwestern University, Louis-Dreyfus met her future husband, theSaturday Night LivecomedianBrad Hall.They married in 1987 and have two sons.Their older son, Henry Hall, is a singer-songwriter who has performed onThe Tonight Show.Their younger son,Charlie Hall, is an actor.Her first pregnancy ended in a miscarriage. Louis-Dreyfus said she respects \\\"women who are not afraid of making themselves look bad or foolish to get a laugh\\\" and cites her acting idols asLucille Ball,Mary Tyler Moore,Madeline Kahn,Teri Garr,Valerie Harper, andCloris Leachman.The actressTina Feysaid that Louis-Dreyfus inspired her characterLiz Lemonon the NBC comedy series30 Rock. On September 28, 2017, Louis-Dreyfus announced that she had been diagnosed withbreast cancer, which she discovered the day after winning aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her role inVeep.She said: \\\"One in eight women get breast cancer. Today, I'm the one. The\",\n \"I'm the one. The good news is that I have the most glorious group of supportive and caring family and friends, and fantastic insurance through my union. The bad news is that not all women are so lucky, so let's fight all cancers and makeuniversal healthcarea reality.\\\"On October 18, 2018, she announced on an episode ofJimmy Kimmel Live!that she was cancer-free.Louis-Dreyfus was raised Catholic but moved towards agnosticism; she said she had no \\\"traditional religious affiliation\\\". Advocacy and politics Louis-Dreyfus supportedAl Gore's 2000 U.S. presidential bid andBarack Obama's bid for the presidency in both 2008and 2012.She appeared in a video that urged Obama to reject the proposal of theKeystone XL pipeline, arguing that if the pipeline ever were to leak, it would cause massive pollution across the U.S.She has voiced her concern for several environmental issues and has raised millions forHeal the Bay, theNatural Resources Defense Council, and theTrust for Public Land. She also worked for the successful\",\n \"for the successful passage of Proposition O, which allocated $500 million for cleaning up the Los Angeleswater supply. In October 2010, before theU.S. Senate election in California, Louis-Dreyfus starred in a humorousBarbara Boxerad regardingenergy policy.During the2016 Democratic National Convention, she supportedHillary Clintonin that year'spresidential election.In her acceptance speech at the 2017Screen Actors Guild Awards, she denounced PresidentDonald Trump'sexecutive order, referred to as the \\\"Muslim ban\\\", as \\\"un-American\\\" and said, \\\"My father fled religious persecution inNazi-occupied France.\\\" Louis-Dreyfusemceedthe final night of the2020 Democratic National Convention, endorsingJoe Biden.She has also published information regarding voting by mailand urged all Americans to vote.Louis-Dreyfus endorsed RepresentativeKaren Bassin the2022 Los Angeles mayoral election, in various social media posts. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Julia Louis-Dreyfus has won thePrimetime Emmy Award for\",\n \"Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesseven times: once for her role onThe New Adventures of Old Christine(2006) and six consecutive awards for playingSelina MeyeronVeep(2012–17), as well asOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesonce forSeinfeld(1996). As of 2017, she holds the record for the most Primetime Emmy awards as an actor for the same role and is tied with fellow Northwestern University alumCloris Leachmanfor the most acting Primetime Emmy awards (with eight). She has also been nominated for nineGolden Globe Awards, winning one for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film for her role asElaine Beneson Seinfeld (1995). She has also been nominated for twenty-oneScreen Actors Guild Awardsand has won five for individual performance (nine altogether) for her work onSeinfeld(1997–98) andVeep(2014, 2017–18). In 2016, she won the Crossover Talent award at the 4th Annual American Reality Television Awards. In 2018 she was the twentieth recipient of\",\n \"recipient of theMark Twain Prize for American Humor. In 2023, the podcast she hosts,Wiser Than Me, won Apple's Best Podcast of the Year. References External links\",\n \"Michael Richards Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Michael Anthony Richards(born July 24, 1949) is an American actor and former stand-up comedian. He achieved global recognition for starring asCosmo Krameron the NBC television sitcomSeinfeldfrom 1989 to 1998. He began his career as a stand-up comedian, first entering the national spotlight when he was featured onBilly Crystal's first cable TV special, and went on to become a series regular onABC'sFridays. From 1989 to 1998, he played Cosmo Kramer onSeinfeld, three times receiving thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. During the run ofSeinfeld, he made a guest appearance inMad About You, reprising his role as Kramer. Richards also made numerous guest appearances on a variety of television shows, such asCheers. His film credits includeSo I Married an Axe Murderer,Airheads,Young Doctors in Love,Problem Child,Coneheads,UHF, andTrial and Error, one of his few starring roles. In 2000, he starred in\",\n \"2000, he starred in his own sitcom,The Michael Richards Show, which was canceled after only two months. Afterwards, Richards returned to stand-up. In 2006, he was filmed going on a racist tirade against hecklers while performing at theLaugh FactoryinCalifornia. After the tape was obtained and released byTMZ,significant backlash and media coverage led to Richards retiring from stand-up in early 2007. In 2009, he appeared as himself in theseventh seasonofCurb Your Enthusiasmalongside his fellowSeinfeldcast members for the first time since the show’sfinale. In 2013, he portrayed Frank in the sitcomKirstie, which was canceled after one season.He most recently played Daddy Hogwood in the 2019 romantic comedyFaith, Hope & Love. Early life Richards was born inCulver City, California, to aCatholicfamily.He is the son of Phyllis (née Nardozzi), amedical recordslibrarian. As a child Richards was told his father was William Richards, anelectrical engineer,who died in a car crash when Michael was two.He later learned\",\n \"later learned his mother's pregnancy was the result of a sexual assault, and she had considered abortion and adoption before deciding to raise him as a single mom. Richards was also raised by a grandmother who suffered fromschizophrenia. Richards graduated fromThousand Oaks High School. In 1968, he appeared as a contestant onThe Dating Game, but was not chosen for the date. He wasdraftedinto theUnited States Armyin 1970. He trained as a medic and was stationed inWest Germanywhere he was a member of a theatrical group called The Training Road Show.He became interested in performing after taking a theatrical class in seventh grade. After being honorably discharged, Richards used the benefits of theG.I. Billto enroll in theCalifornia Institute of the Artsand earned aBachelor of Artsin drama fromthe Evergreen State Collegein 1975.He also had a short-livedimprovact withEd Begley Jr.During this period, he enrolled atLos Angeles Valley Collegeand continued to appear in student productions. Career 1979–1989: Early\",\n \"1979–1989: Early career Richards got his big TV break in 1979, appearing inBilly Crystal's first cable TV special. In 1980, he began as one of the cast members onABC'sFridaystelevision show, whereLarry Davidwas a fellow cast member and writer. It includeda famous instancein whichAndy Kaufmanrefused to deliver his scripted lines, leading Richards to bring thecue cardson screen to Kaufman, who responded by throwing his drink into Richards' face, causing a small riot (Richards later claimed he was in on the joke).The filmMan on the Moonfeatured a re-enactment of theAndy Kaufman incidentwhere Richards was portrayed by actorNorm Macdonald. In 1981, he appeared in theIt's a Livingepisode \\\"Desperate Hours\\\".In 1986, Richards had a minor role in the cult satirical TV miniseriesFresno, playing one of a pair of inept criminal henchmen. That same year he auditioned to playAl Bundyin the TV seriesMarried... with Children, but he was passed over forEd O'Neill.In 1989, Richards had a supporting role in\\\"Weird Al\\\" Yankovic's\",\n \"Al\\\" Yankovic's comedy filmUHFas janitor Stanley Spadowski. On television, he appeared inMiami Viceas an unscrupulousbookie; inSt. Elsewhereas a television producer making a documentary about Dr. Mark Craig; inCheersas a character trying to collect on an old bet withSam Malone; and made several guest appearances withJay Lenoas an accident-prone fitness expert. According to an interview with executive producer David Hoberman, ABC first conceived the seriesMonkas a procedural police comedy with anInspector Clouseau-like character suffering fromobsessive-compulsive disorder. Hoberman said ABC wanted Richards to playAdrian Monk, but he turned it down. 1989–2005:Seinfeldand rise to prominence In 1989, Richards was cast asCosmo Kramerin theNBCtelevision seriesSeinfeld, created by fellowFridayscast memberLarry Davidand comedianJerry Seinfeld. Although it got off to a slow start, by the mid-1990s it had become one of the most popularsitcomsin television history. It ended its nine-year run in 1998 at No. 1 in\",\n \"in 1998 at No. 1 in theNielsen ratings. InSeinfeld, Kramer is the neighbor across the hall of the show'seponymous character, and is usually referred to only by his last name. His first name, Cosmo, was revealed in the sixth-season episode \\\"The Switch\\\". Richards won more Emmys than any otherSeinfeldcast member, taking home the award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 1993, 1994, and 1997 for his role as Kramer. When referring to speculation that he would launch aspin-offtoSeinfeldabout Kramer, Richards said he was not interested in doing so.During the run ofSeinfeld, Richards made cameo appearances in several TV shows; he played himself in Episode2 of Season1 \\\"The Flirt Episode\\\" (1992) of theHBOseriesThe Larry Sanders Show. He also had acameo rolein the comedy thriller filmSo I Married an Axe Murderer, credited as \\\"insensitive man\\\". In 1996, Richards made a cameo in Epcot'sEllen's Energy Adventure, where he portrayed a caveman discovering fire. He played radio station employee Doug Beech\",\n \"employee Doug Beech inAirheads, and co-starred withJeff Danielsas an actor pretending to be a lawyer in 1997'sTrial and Error. He also made guest appearances onMiami Vice,Night CourtandCheers. In 2000, two years after the end ofSeinfeld, Richards began work on a new series for NBC, his first major project sinceSeinfeld's finale.The Michael Richards Show, for which Richards received co-writer and co-executive producercredits, was conceived as a comedy/mystery starring Richards as a bumbling private investigator. When the first pilot failed with test audiences, NBC ordered that the show be retooled into a more conventional, office-based sitcom before its premiere. After a few weeks of poor ratings and negative reviews, it was canceled. Critics said the show was too \\\"Kramer-esque\\\" and Richards invoked the so-called \\\"Seinfeldcurse\\\" as to why the show failed. Starting in 2004, he and his fellowSeinfeldcast members provided interviews and audio commentaries for theSeinfeldDVDs. Richards stepped down from providing\",\n \"down from providing audio commentary after Season5, though he continued to provide interviews. 2006–2012: Laugh Factory incident and aftermath During a performance on November 17, 2006, at theLaugh Factoryin Hollywood, California, Richards launched into a racist rant in response to repeated heckling and interruptions from a small group of Black and Hispanic audience members. Richards was recorded shouting \\\"He's anigger!\\\" several times and making references tolynchingand theJim Crow laws.Kyle Doss, a member of the group that Richards addressed, said the group had arrived in the middle of the performance and were \\\"being a little loud.\\\" According to Doss: said, \\\"Look at the stupid Mexicans and blacks being loud up there.\\\" That's the first thing he said. And then he kept on with his bit. And, then, after a while, I told him, \\\"My friend doesn't think you're funny.\\\" And then when I told him that, that's when he flipped me off and said, \\\"F-you N-word.\\\" And that's how it all started. The incident remained unknown\",\n \"remained unknown to the larger public for three days until acellphonevideo filmed by a member of the audience was obtained and released byTMZ. On November 20, after the video made rounds around the news,Jerry Seinfeldinvited Richards via satellite during a broadcast of theLate Show with David Letterman, where Richards was recorded saying: \\\"I'm not doing too good. I lost my temper on stage; I was at a comedy club trying to do my act and I got heckled and I took it badly and went into a rage. And, uh, said some pretty, uh, nasty things to some Afro-Americans.\\\"Many studio audience members laughed as Richards began his unscripted explanation and apology, thinking it was abit, leading Seinfeld to reprimand them, saying: \\\"Stop laughing. It's not funny.\\\" Richards said he had been trying to defuse the heckling by being even more outrageous, but it had backfired. He later called civil rights leadersAl SharptonandJesse Jacksonto apologize.He also appeared as a guest on Jackson's syndicated radio show.Doss stated that\",\n \"stated that he did not accept Richards's apology, saying: \\\"If he wanted to apologize, he could have contacted ... one of us out of the group. But, he didn't. He apologized on camera just because the tape got out.\\\" AGalluppoll conducted in late November found that Richards was then the most unpopularSeinfeldcast member, with just 41 percent viewing him positively; by contrast, otherSeinfeldcast members' favorability ratings were in the 60s and 70s.The same poll also found that 45 percent of non-whites expressed a negative view of Richards due to the incident.The incident was parodied on several TV shows, includingMad TV,Family Guy,South Park,Extras, andMonday Night Raw. In the ninth episode of the seventh season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm, Richards appeared as himself and poked fun at the incident. In 2008, rapperWalereferenced the incident and used recordings of the incident, as well as Richard's apology, in the song \\\"The Kramer\\\" onThe Mixtape About Nothingalbum. One year following the incident, Richards voiced\",\n \"Richards voiced character Bud Ditchwater in the animated filmBee Movie, which starred and was produced byJerry Seinfeld. In 2009, Richards and the other mainSeinfeldcast members appeared in the seventh season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm.In 2012, he appeared in the comedy web seriesComedians in Cars Getting Coffee, hosted by Seinfeld, in which he remarked on the 2006 incident.In the episode, Richards explained that the outburst still haunted him, and was a major reason for his retirement from stand-up. 2013–present: Recent years In 2013, Richards was cast to play Frank in the sitcomKirstie, costarringKirstie AlleyandRhea Perlman. It premiered onTV Landon December 4, 2013and was canceled after one season.In 2014, Richards appeared as the president of Crackle in a trailer for Season5 ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffee. Seinfeld said the trailer's storyline would be expanded on in one of the episodes. In 2019, Richards played Daddy Hogwood in the romantic comedyFaith, Hope & LovestarringPeta Murgatroydand Robert\",\n \"Robert Krantz. In June 2024Richards released a memoir entitledEntrances and Exits. Personal life Richards was married to Cathleen Lyons, a familytherapist, for 18 years. They have one daughter, Sophia. They separated in 1992 and divorced the following year. In 2010, Richards married his girlfriend Beth Skipp. They have been together since 2002 and have one son, Antonio. Richards is aFreemason. Richards revealed in his 2024 memoirEntrances and Exitsthat he survived stage 1 prostate cancer in 2018 via a surgical removal of his entire prostate. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Bibliography References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":357,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Who was the head coach of the team that won the Superbowl the year that the show Law & Order: SVU was released?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Mike Shanahan"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_%26_Order:_Special_Victims_Unit"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Super_Bowl_champions"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_Denver_Broncos_season"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_%26_Order:_Special_Victims_Unit', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Super_Bowl_champions', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_Denver_Broncos_season']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_%26_Order:_Special_Victims_Unit","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Super_Bowl_champions","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_Denver_Broncos_season"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_%26_Order:_Special_Victims_Unit\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Super_Bowl_champions\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_Denver_Broncos_season\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Law & Order: Special Victims Unit Law & Order: Special Victims Unit(often shortened toLaw & Order: SVUorSVU) is an Americanpolice proceduralcrime dramatelevision series created byDick WolfforNBC. The first spin-off ofLaw & Order, it starsMariska Hargitayas Detective (ultimately promoted toCaptain)Olivia Benson, now the commanding officer of theSpecial Victims Unitafter originally having been Stabler's partner in a fictionalized version of theNew York City Police Department, andChristopher Melonias DetectiveElliot Stabler(until Meloni left the series in 2011 after 12 seasons).Law & Order: Special Victims Unitfollows the detectives of the Special Victims Unit as they investigate and prosecute sexually based crimes. Some of the episodes are loosely based on real crimes that have received media attention. The series, produced byWolf EntertainmentandUniversal Television, premiered on September 20, 1999. After the premiere of its 21st season in September 2019, the series became thelongest-running primetime live-action series on American television.Since the end of the original run of the mainLaw & Orderseries in 2010,SVUhas been the only live-action primetime series that debuted in the 1990s that has remained in continuous production.The23rd seasonpremiered on September 23, 2021,during which the show aired its milestone 500th episode.As of May 16, 2024,Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas aired 551 original episodes, well surpassing theepisode count of the originalLaw & Orderseries. In terms of all-time episode count for a primetime scripted series,SVUnow ranks fourth behindThe Simpsons(with 768 episodes),Gunsmoke(with 635 episodes), andLassie(with 591 episodes).The 25th season premiered on January 18, 2024,and on March 21, 2024, NBC announced that it renewed the series for its 26th season, which premiered on October 3, 2024. The series has received108 award nominations, winning 33 awards. Hargitay was the first regular cast member on anyLaw & Orderseries to win anEmmy Awardwhen she won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Seriesin 2006. Premise In the criminal justice system, sexually based offenses are considered especially heinous. In New York City, the dedicated detectives who investigate these vicious felonies are members of an elite squad known as the Special Victims Unit. These are their stories. – Opening narration spoken bySteven Zirnkilton Based out of the NYPDNew York City Police Department's 16th precinct in Manhattan,Law & Order: Special Victims Unitdelves into the dark side of the New York underworld as the detectives of a new elite squad, theSpecial Victims Unit(SVU for short), investigate and prosecute various sexually oriented crimes, including rape, child sexual abuse, human trafficking and domestic violence. They also investigate the abuses of children, the disabled and elderly victims of non-sexual crimes who require specialist handling, all while trying to balance the effects of the investigation on their own lives as they try not to let the dark side of these crimes affect them. Its stories also touch on the political and societal issues associated with gender identity, sexual preferences, and equality rights. While the victim is often murdered, this is not always the case, and victims frequently play prominent roles in episodes. The unit also works with the Manhattan District Attorney's office as they prosecute cases and seek justice for SVU's victims and survivors with precision and a passion to win and bring closure to the intense investigations. The series often uses stories that are \"ripped from the headlines\" or based on real crimes. Such episodes take a real crime and fictionalize it by changing some details. Cast and characters Originally, the show focused around the detective pairing ofElliot Stabler(Christopher Meloni) andOlivia Benson(Mariska Hargitay). Stabler is a seasoned veteran of the unit who has seen it all and tries his best to protect his family from the horrors he has seen in his career. Meanwhile, Benson's difficult past as the child of a rape victim is the reason she joined the unit. Backing them up are DetectiveJohn Munch(Richard Belzer) and his first partner,Brian Cassidy(Dean Winters). Munch is a transfer from Baltimore's homicide unit, who brings his acerbic wit, conspiracy theories, and street-honed investigative skills; Cassidy is young and eager to learn from his fellow detectives. These two detective teams received support from DetectivesMonique Jeffries(Michelle Hurd) and Ken Briscoe (Chris Orbach).After thirteen episodes, Cassidy gets transferred to the narcotics division because of his inability to work well on the cases and the fact that they reminded him too much of his childhood abuse. As a result, Jeffries gets partnered up with Munch for the remainder of season one and Briscoe was phased out. In the beginning of season two, Jeffries leaves the unit following an incident with the Morris Commission and Munch gets permanently partnered up with DetectiveOdafin \"Fin\" Tutuola(Ice-T), whose unique yet sometimes vulgar sense of humor and investigative experience make him a formidable match for Munch. Brooklyn SVU DetectiveChester Lake(Adam Beach) would assist on several Manhattan cases during the eighth season and then join during season nine; Lake would then depart at the season's end after being arrested for murdering a crooked cop who had gotten away with rape. These detectives were supervised by veteran CaptainDonald Cragen(Dann Florek), who oversaw the team for seasons 1–15 and was previously the commanding officer of the Manhattan North Homicide precinct on the first 3 seasons ofLaw & Order. Cragen's tough-but-supportive approach to the team's complex cases guides the squad through the challenges they face every day. Also assisting the Special Victims Unit, is FBI Special Agent Dr. George Huang (BD Wong) who helps keep the officers sane in a field that could drive ordinary people mad, whilst also serving as the squad's resident criminal profiler, his insights into the criminal mind have often helped the officers to crack the toughest perps. The team also works withMedical ExaminerDr. Melinda Warner (Tamara Tunie), who has become an integral part of the unit, and her personal skills have contributed to the unit's high success rate in closing cases. The unit did not receive a full-time assistant district attorney until season two, whenAlexandra Cabot(Stephanie March) was assigned to work with the detectives.After Cabot enters the Witness Protection Program after almost being killed in a hit in season five, she was replaced byCasey Novak(Diane Neal), who remained as the ADA until the end of season nine, when she was censured for violating due process while trying to bring a rapist cop (the same one that Lake would end up murdering) to justice.Kim Greylek(Michaela McManus) became the permanent ADA in the season ten premiere, until Cabot made a return midway through that season when Greylek returned to the Justice Department in Washington, D.C. Cabot remained the ADA through the second half of season 10. After Cabot's departure, the ADA void was filled by Sonya Paxton (Christine Lahti) and Jo Marlowe (Sharon Stone) until the conclusion of season 11. Gillian Hardwicke (Melissa Sagemiller) served as the SVU's ADA during season 12, while Novak would return for a guest appearance after completing her suspension near the end of the season. Paxton would also return for one more appearance in the season, during which she is brutally murdered by a rapist/murderer, but manages to leave behind vital evidence to assure his conviction. In season 13, both Cabot and Novak returned as ADAs. From the beginning of season 14, ADARafael Barba(Raúl Esparza) was SVU's prosecutor, until leaving halfway through season 19 following the death of an infant. Chicago Justice'sPeter Stone(Philip Winchester) became SVU's ADA afterChicago Justicewas canceled after only one season. At the end of season 20, Stone decided to leave due to some of the cases being too much for him to handle. From there, former SVU DetectiveDominick Carisi Jr.(Peter Scanavino) takes his place at the start of season 21. In season 13, big changes happen when Stabler retires in the aftermath of the season 12 finale, until he reappeared in season 22, which led him to join NYPD's Organized Crime Control Bureau inLaw & Order: Organized Crime. Huang also departed at the same time after being reassigned to Oklahoma City, but has returned for occasional guest appearances. DetectivesNick Amaro(Danny Pino) andAmanda Rollins(Kelli Giddish) joined the team filling the void left by Stabler. Amaro brought empathy to his cases while dealing with a stressful home life, while Rollins had dogged persistence and instincts help her close cases, but also secrets from her past that could derail her career. During season 15, both Munch and Cragen retired from the NYPD, leaving Benson, after being promoted to Sergeant, to take control of the unit; she would later be promoted to Lieutenant at the start of season 17 and then Captain at the start of season 21. Season 16 was another period of change with the introduction of Carisi at the beginning and the departure of Amaro at the end, with the latter relocating to California to be near his moved children after being wounded in the line of duty and learning that previous instances of misconduct have cost him any chance for advancement in the department. Also introduced in season 16 was Deputy Chief William Dodds (Peter Gallagher), who served as commanding officer for the Special Victims Units in all five boroughs of New York. Dodds' son Mike (Andy Karl) transfers into Special Victims as Sergeant in season 17, becoming Benson's second-in-command until his death at the end of the season; Fin later passes the Sergeant's exam during season 18 and is officially promoted in Mike's place in season 19. Following Carisi's move to the DA's office in season 21, Vice Officer Katriona \"Kat\" Tamin (Jamie Gray Hyder) joined the team after assisting on several cases, eventually getting promoted to detective. Dodds also departed the series at the start of the season due to some issues in the case regarding a mogul raping countless women, allowing new deputy chief Christian Garland (Demore Barnes) to take his place. At the start of season 23, Tamin and Garland both resigned from the NYPD after becoming disillusioned with the legal system's failures and the systemic bias within the department, with Tamin being replaced by Detective Joe Velasco (Octavio Pisano). Chief Tommy McGrath (Terry Serpico) took over Garland's position until he could find a permanent deputy chief for SVU. At the beginning of season 24, Detective Grace Muncy (Molly Burnett) joined SVU after solving a case that involves a teenage Dominican gang, while Rollins resigned from SVU and the NYPD halfway through the season after accepting an offer from Carisi's old colleague to teach atFordham University. SVU also brought in Detectives Terry Bruno (Kevin Kane) and Tonie Churlish (Jasmine Batchelor) from their Brooklyn counterparts. Muncy later departed at the end of the season to work on a DEA task force and Churlish also left during the same time. In season 25, McGrath was replaced as chief after crossing multiple lines in his interference with his daughter's rape case, and IAB Captain Renee Curry (Aime Donna Kelly) joined SVU in hopes of making changes. Shortly afterwards, FBI agent Shannah Sykes (Jordana Spiro) was put on loan to SVU after helping them rescue abducted girl Maddie Flynn.Sykes later left SVU at the season's end after solving the case of her missing sister, which ended up hitting her too close to home, and at the start of season 26, former Homicide detective Kate Silva (Juliana Aidén Martinez) joins the unit. Additionally, Rollins, after consulting on several cases following her departure, returns to the NYPD with a promotion to Sergeant and assignment as CO of the department's Intelligence Unit. Production Development The idea forLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitoriginated with the 1986 \"preppie murder\" case ofRobert Chambers, who strangled and killed a woman he dated, Jennifer Levin, duringwhat he claimed was consensual \"rough sex\"inManhattan'sCentral Park. The crime inspiredDick Wolfto write the story for theseason oneepisode ofLaw & Ordertitled \"Kiss the Girls and Make Them Die\". After writing the episode, Wolf wanted to go deeper into the psychology of crimes to examine the role ofhuman sexuality. The original title of the show wasSex Crimes.Initially, there was concern among the producers that, shouldSex Crimesfail, identifying the new show with theLaw & Orderfranchise could affect the original show. Additionally,Ted Kotcheffwanted to create a new series that was not dependent upon the original series for success. Wolf felt, however, that it was important and commercially desirable to have \"Law & Order\" in the title, and he initially proposed the title of the show beLaw & Order: Sex Crimes.Barry Diller, then head ofStudios USA, was concerned about the title, however, and it was changed toLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitto reflect the actual unit of theNew York City Police Department(NYPD) that handles sexually-based offenses. Executive producerNeal BaerleftLaw & Order: SVUasshowrunnerat the end ofseason twelve, after eleven years (seasons 2–12) on the show, in order to sign a three-year deal withCBS Studios.Baer was replaced by formerLaw & Order: Criminal IntentshowrunnerWarren Leight.In March 2015, it was announced that Warren Leight signed a three-year deal withSony Pictures Television, that will allow him to work onSVUone more season, its seventeenth.It was announced on March 10, 2016, that originalLaw & Orderveteran producer Rick Eid would take Leight's place as showrunner starting in season 18. Creator Dick Wolf commented toThe Hollywood Reporter, \"I'm extremely pleased that Rick had decided to rejoin the family and hope that he will be here for years to come.\"During post-production of season 18, following the announcement thatSVUwas renewed for a nineteenth season, it was revealed that Rick Eid departed the series. He will be taking over another Dick Wolf/NBC series,Chicago P.D. It was announced on May 25, 2017, that originalLaw & OrderandLaw & Order: Criminal IntentshowrunnerMichael S. Chernuchinwould be reprising his role starting on season nineteen. Chernuchin was also co-creator and executive producing showrunner ofChicago Justice, another Wolf-related show that was canceled by NBC at the end of the 2016–17 TV season.On April 22, 2019, it was announced that Leight would return as showrunner for the series' twenty-first season.On May 3, 2022, Leight announced that he would not be returning for the twenty-fourth season. Casting Casting for the lead characters ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitoccurred in the spring of 1999. Dick Wolf, along with officials from NBC and Studios USA were at the final auditions for the two leads atRockefeller Center. The last round had been narrowed down to seven finalists. For the female lead, DetectiveOlivia Benson, actressesSamantha Mathis,Reiko Aylesworth, andMariska Hargitaywere being considered. For the male role, DetectiveElliot Stabler, the finalists wereTim Matheson,John Slattery,Nick Chinlund, andChristopher Meloni. Hargitay and Meloni had auditioned in the final round together and, after the actors left, there was a moment of dead silence, after which Wolf blurted out, \"Oh well. There's no doubt who we should choose—Hargitay and Meloni.\" Wolf believed the duo had the perfect chemistry together from the first time he saw them together, and they ended up being his first choice.Garth Ancier, then head of NBC Entertainment, agreed, and the rest of the panel assembled began voicing their assent. The first actor to be cast for the show wasDann Florek. Florek had originated the character of CaptainDon Cragenin the 1990 pilot forLaw & Order, and played the character for the show's first three seasons until he was fired on the orders of network executives, who wanted to add female characters to the all-male primary cast, but he maintained a friendly relationship with Wolf, and went on to direct three episodes of the original series as well as to occasionally guest star on the show. Shortly after Florek reprised his role forExiled: A Law & Order Movie, he received a call to be onSex Crimes.Initially reluctant, he eventually agreed to star on the show as Cragen on the assurance that he would not be asked to audition for the role. Shortly after the cancellation ofHomicide: Life on the Street,Richard Belzerheard thatBenjamin Bratthad leftLaw & Order. Belzer requested his manager to call Wolf and pitch the idea for Belzer's character fromHomicide, DetectiveJohn Munch, to become the new partner ofJerry Orbach's character, DetectiveLennie Briscoe, since they had previously teamed in threeHomicidecrossovers. Wolf loved the idea, but had already castJesse L. Martinas Briscoe's new partner, DetectiveEd Green. The idea was reconfigured, but to have Munch onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitinstead.Since the character of Munch was inspired byDavid Simon's depiction of Detective Sergeant Jay Landsman and developed forHomicidebyTom FontanaandBarry Levinson, the addition of Munch to the cast required the consent of all three. The appropriate agreements were reached and, while Fontana and Levinson agreed to waive their royalty rights, contracts with Simon required that he be paid royalties for any new show in which Munch is a main character; as a result, Simon receives royalties every time Munch appears in an episode of the show. Dean Winterswas cast as Munch's partner,Brian Cassidy, at the insistence of Belzer. Belzer looked at Winters as a sort of little brother, and told Wolf, \"Well, I'll do this new show of yours,SVU, only if you make Dean Winters my partner.\"Wolf did make Winters Belzer's partner, but he was contractually obligated to his other show at the time, theHBOdramaOz. Since the role onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitwas only initially meant to be a few episodes, Winters was forced to leave when it was time to filmOzagain. Winters returned for the season 13 finale, \"Rhodium Nights\", reprising his role as Cassidy. He also appeared (as Cassidy) on the two-part season 14 premiere \"Lost Reputation\"/\"Above Suspicion\".He subsequently became a recurring character into season 15. The void left by Winters's departure was filled for the remainder of the season byMichelle Hurdas DetectiveMonique Jeffries, a character who Wolf promised that, despite starting out as a minor character with one scene in the pilot, would eventually develop. Hurd left the show at the beginning of season two to join the cast ofLeap Years.Munch's permanent partner came in the form ofrapper-turned-actorIce-T, who had previously worked with Wolf onNew York UndercoverandExiled. Ice-T originally agreed to do only four episodes ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, but he quickly gained affection for the ensemble nature of the cast. He relocated to New York City before his four-episode contract was up and remained with the show as Munch's permanent partner, DetectiveOdafin \"Fin\" Tutuola. Initially, the show focused exclusively on the police work of the detectives in the Special Victims Unit of the 16th precinct, with members of the District Attorney's office occasionally appearing as guest roles crossing over from the originalLaw & Order. From season two onwards, the format was changed to be more faithful to the originalLaw & Orderconcept by including court cases.Stephanie Marchhad little television experience before being cast onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, nor did she watch much TV. Nevertheless, March was cast as Assistant District AttorneyAlexandra Cabotat the beginning of season two but still believed that, due to the grim nature of the series, it would be short-lived. She stayed with the series for three seasons, however, and left when she believed she had reached the natural conclusion of the character's development. She would later reprise the character as a guest appearance in season six and as a regular character on the short-lived Wolf series,Conviction, where she was promised more to do.Diane Nealhad previously guest-starred onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitin season three before being cast as Cabot's replacement,Casey Novak, in season five. Neal remained with the show through the end of season nine,after which she was replaced byMichaela McManus. March returned to the show in the tenth season (after McManus' departure from the cast) whenNeal Baerproposed Cabot receive a character arc to revitalize the second part of the season, which would continue through season eleven. Tamara Tuniewas cast asmedical examinerMelinda Warnerin season two after working with Wolf previously onNew York Undercover,Feds, andLaw & Order. Warner was initially arecurring characterbut became a regular character in season seven, and Tunie was added to the opening credits at that time.When initially cast as Warner, Tunie was appearing as attorney Jessica Griffin on theCBSdaytime soap operaAs the World Turns. From 2000 to 2007 (and again briefly in 2009), she appeared on both series simultaneously. In 2002, she also appeared on theFoxespionage-themed drama series24, in the recurring role of CTU Acting Director Alberta Green.BD Wongwas asked to film four episodes as Dr.George Huang, aFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI)forensic psychiatristandcriminal profileron loan to the Special Victims Unit. After his four episodes, he was asked to stay on with the show. After he starred inBury My Heart at Wounded Kneeand guest-starred as DetectiveChester Lakein the eighth season, Wolf felt thatAdam Beachwould be a good addition to the cast and asked him to be a permanent member beginning with the ninth season. Although Beach felt the role was a \"dream role\", the character proved unpopular with fans who felt that he was designed to gradually write out either Richard Belzer or Ice-T. Feeling there were too many police characters on the show, Beach left the show after only one season.Michaela McManuswas originally felt to be too young for the role of anAssistant District Attorney(ADA) before being cast as ADAKim Greylekin the tenth season. McManus, months removed from a recurring role onOne Tree Hill, remained with the series only half a season, however, before departing for unspecified reasons. Paula Pattonjoined the cast asADA Mikka Von. She replacedStephanie March.However, Patton dropped out after one episode to filmMission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol, and was replaced byMelissa Sagemillerin the recurring role of ADAGillian Hardwicke. Before the end of season twelve, Mariska Hargitay asked for a lighter workload. As a way of writing her out of certain episodes, a plan to have her character promoted to a supervisory role was discussed.At the end of season twelve, Christopher Meloni departed the cast, unable to reach agreement on a new contract. Warren Leight became the new showrunner during this same year and signed on before he knew that Meloni would be leaving the cast.The second major departure to be announced in 2011 was that of BD Wong. On July 17, Wong announced onTwitterthat, \"I actually do not return for season 13, I am jumping toAwake! It's awesome!\" Wong added, \"I don't know if or when I'll be back onSVU! It was amazing to have such a cool job for 11 years and to be a real NY Actor.\" Wong reprised his role as Dr. Huang in season 13's episode \"Father Dearest\". In June 2011, it was announced thatKelli GiddishandDanny Pinowould join the cast as new series regulars.Weeks later, it was announced that Stephanie March and Diane Neal would be reprising their roles as ADA Alexandra Cabot and ADA Casey Novak, respectively.The launch of season 13 was marked with a retooling of the show that Warren Leight referred to as \"SVU 2.0\".Changes that accompanied this included Tamara Tunie's being bumped from the main cast to a guest-starring role and recurring actorJoel de la Fuente's not appearing for the first time since 2002. Of the latter change, Warren Leight said, \"those scenes can be dry\" and hiredGilbert Gottfriedas a more comedic replacement. In season 14,Raúl Esparzajoined the cast in a recurring capacity as ADARafael Barbaand prior to the season 15 premiere, Esparza was promoted to a series regular. Also in season 15, Belzer departed the cast in the fifth episode, \"Wonderland Story\", in which Sgt. Munch retired from the NYPD and took a job in the DA's office as an investigator. Later in the season, Captain Cragen announced his departure from the NYPD, which made newly promoted Sgt. Benson the temporary squad commander. In leaving the cast, Florek ended a 400-episode run as Captain Cragen. In season 16,Peter Scanavinojoined the series, first in a recurring role for episodes 1–3 and then was promoted to the main cast in episode 5, with Kelli Giddish, Danny Pino, Ice-T and Raúl Esparza. On May 20, 2015, it was revealed that Danny Pino would be leaving the cast after the season 16 finale \"Surrendering Noah\". In August 2017, it was announced thatPhilip Winchesterwould recur in season 19 as ADAPeter Stone, his character fromChicago P.D.andChicago Justice, who is the son ofBenjamin Stone, the first ADA on the originalLaw & Orderseries.It was later also announced thatBrooke Shieldswas enlisted to assume a major recurring role (Sheila Porter, maternal grandmother of Noah Porter-Benson, Olivia's adopted son) starting in season 19 of the long-running dramatic series.On February 7, 2018, Raúl Esparza left the series after six seasons.His role was taken over by Winchester. Upon being renewed for its twenty-first season, it was announced that Winchester would be departing the series after the twentieth season. In March 2019, it was announced that the show would come back for season 21, making it thelongest-running primetime U.S. live-action series in the history of television.On March 29, 2019, it was revealed that Winchester would not return for season 21. He tweeted the same day about his departure from the show.On May 16, 2019, the season finale aired and Winchester took to Twitter to thank the cast and crew for the send-off.After recurring for several episodes in season 21 as Vice Officer Katriona Tamin,Jamie Gray Hyderjoined the cast as a regular, starting in episode 8.On October 6, 2020,Demore Barnes, who had recurred throughout season 21 as new Deputy Chief Christian Garland, was upgraded to regular status for season 22.On September 3, 2021, it was announced that Hyder and Barnes would both depart the series following the two-hour season 23 premiere.On October 13, 2021,Octavio Pisano, who had guest starred since the start of the season, was promoted to regular status.On August 24, 2022, it was announced that Kelli Giddish would leave the series during the first half of season 24. On November 10, 2022,Molly Burnett, who initially appeared in a recurring capacity for the first six episodes, was promoted to series regular beginning with the seventh episode.On November 28, 2023, it was announced that Kelli Giddish will come back for the premiere episode of season 25, which will be her second time reappearing after the season 24 finale.On July 22, 2024, it was reported that Kevin Kane, who portrays Terry Bruno, would be promoted to a series regular for the show's twenty-sixth season, after recurring the previous two seasons.On August 7, 2024, it was announced that Juliana Aidén Martinez, who will portray newcomer, Kate Silva, was added as a series regular ahead of the season premiere. Salaries By season twelve, both Mariska Hargitay and Christopher Meloni had become among the highest-paid lead actors on a drama, with each earning nearly $400,000 per episode, a salary thatTV Guidesaid was exceeded only byHouse'sHugh Laurie.During season sixteen, Hargitay was reported to be earning $450,000 per episode, or $10,350,000 per season.In season seventeen, her salary increased to $500,000 per episode. Filming and location Many exterior scenes ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitare filmed on location in New York City, Wolf's hometown, throughout all five ofNew York City's boroughs.Fort Lee, New Jerseyserved as the filming location for DetectiveElliot Stabler's residence inQueens, New York. When searching for a place to film the interiors of the show, the producers found that there were no suitable studio spaces available in New York City. As a result, a space was chosen at NBC's Central Archives building in nearbyNorth Bergen, New Jersey, 53,000 square feet (4,900 m2) of stage area that had been left unused for some time.The Archives building was used for police station and courtroom scenes,with various other locations inHudson Countyused for other scenes, such as a scene shot at the Meadowlands Parkway inSecaucusin 2010. The production left New Jersey for New York in 2010, however, when New Jersey GovernorChris Christiesuspended the tax credits for film and television production for the Fiscal Year 2011 to close budget gaps.The show moved into the studio space atChelsea Piersthat had been occupied by the originalLaw & Orderseries until its cancellation in May 2010. Episodes Release Broadcast Law & Order: SVUairs onNBCin the United States. With the season eleven premiere on September 23, 2009, the series vacated its Tuesday 10 p.m. ET slot as NBC began a nightly prime-time series hosted byJay Leno. The new time slot became Wednesday nights at 9:00 p.m. ET on NBC, withCTVstill airingSVUon Tuesdays at 10:00 in Canada.After the2010 Winter Olympicson March 3, 2010, the time slot again changed to Wednesdays at 10 p.m. ET, where it stayed until the twelfth season.For the 12th season,SVUmoved back to 9:00 p.m. to lead in the newestLaw & Orderspin-off,Law & Order: LA,until it was pulled from the network in January 2011 to be retooled.SVUmoved back to 10:00 p.m. on January 12, 2011, until the end of the 13th season.With season 14,SVUmoved back to 9:00 p.m. after a two-hour season premiere event on September 26, 2012.Beginning with Season 20,SVUwould air on Thursday nights at 10 p.m., after NBC decided to devote their entire Wednesday primetime lineup to theChicago Med,PD, andFiretrilogy. It marked the first time ever thatLaw & Order: SVUwould hold this timeslot on Thursday nights.Starting with season 22,SVUmoved to 9 p.m., with offshootLaw & Order: Organized Crimetaking its old slot. From season 21,Law & Order: Special Victims Unitairs onSky Witnessin the United Kingdom.Beginning from season 23, it moved from CTV toCityTVin Canada, simulcasting with NBC.Law & Order: Special Victims Unitairs onRock Entertainmentin Southeast Asia. Streaming PeacockandHulucurrently have all seasons (1–24) available. The latest 5 episodes can be watched for free on NBC.comand the NBC app.Outside of SVOD and NBC platforms, most episodes (outside of seasons 2–4 in the United States for unknown reasons) can be found onelectronic sell-throughplatforms such asiTunesandAmazon Prime Video.The series is available for streaming onPeacockalong withChicago Fire,Chicago P.D.,Chicago Med,Law & OrderandLaw & Order: Criminal Intent.Seasons 1–22 are available for streaming in Australia on Amazon Prime Video. In Brazil, seasons 11 to 13 are available on Amazon Prime Video, and seasons 1–22 are available on Globoplay, although seasons 15–22 require a subscription expansion or cable access to UniversalTV.In 2024, selected seasons returned toNetflixin certain regions including the UK, Europe, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America. Syndication As of January 2024, the series is rerun on fellowNBCUniversalnetworkUSA, as well as onIon TelevisionandMyNetworkTVstations. The series also briefly ran onSyfyin 2006. In 2008,Foxobtained rights to airLaw & Order: SVUon Fox-owned TV stations, and began doing so in the fall of 2009. Reception Ratings In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook likesfound thatSVU's popularity was \"atypical: generally slightly more popular in rural areas and the South, but largely restricted to the eastern half of the country. It is most popular inAlbany, N.Y.; least in Colorado and Utah\". Awards and honors Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas received many awards and award nominations.Mariska Hargitayhas twice been nominated for aGolden Globe Awardand won once in 2005. The show has been nominated numerous times for theEmmy Award.Mariska Hargitayhas been nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category eight years in a row beginning in 2004 and won the Emmy in 2006.Christopher Meloniwas nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series category in 2006.Robin Williamswas nominated in the Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2008. The series was nominated in the category Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series forJane AlexanderandTracy Pollanin 2000,Martha Plimptonin 2002,Barbara Barriein 2003,Mare WinninghamandMarlee Matlinin 2004,Amanda PlummerandAngela Lansburyin 2005,Marcia Gay HardenandLeslie Caronin 2007,Cynthia Nixonin 2008,Ellen Burstyn,Brenda Blethyn, andCarol Burnettin 2009, andAnn-Margretin 2010. The series won the award for Plummer in 2005, Caron in 2007, Nixon in 2008, Burstyn in 2009, and Ann-Margret in 2010. Critical reception Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas been well received among critics. The show holds an average score of 88% onRotten Tomatoes.In 2014, Joshua Alston ofThe A.V. Clubdescribed it as \"most improved, and that uptick in quality is all the more admirable.Ilana Kaplan ofThe New York Timeswrote that the series, the longest-running drama in primetime history, and Mariska Hargitay as Olivia Benson is a person of repose of real life victims and survivors. Hargitay quoted: \"It became very apparent to me early how much, culturally, we needed this character who relentlessly fights and advocates for women and for survivors, and who does it with compassion,\" she said through tears. \"Somebody who is unequivocally committed to righting wrongs, who believes survivors, who's aware of the healing in it.\"The site ofMetacriticgive a score of 66% on 25 critics review. Russian adaptation In 2007, the Russian production company Studio 2B purchased the rights to create an adaptation ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitfor Russian television. TitledLaw & Order: Division of Field Investigation,the series stars Alisa Bogart and Vica Fiorelia. It follows a unit of investigators in Moscow whose job is to investigate crimes of a sexual nature. The series aired onNTVuntil 2010 and was produced by Pavel Korchagin, Felix Kleiman and Edward Verzbovski and directed by Dmitry Brusnikin. The screenplays were written by Sergei Kuznvetsov, Elena Karavaeshnikova, and Maya Shapovalova. Spin-off On March 31, 2020, it was announced that NBC had ordered an untitled spin-off series to launch in the 2020–21 television season, withChristopher Melonireprising his role asElliot Stabler. Meloni leftSVUin 2011. The series order consists of 13 episodes.On June 2, 2020, it was announced that the series would be calledLaw & Order: Organized Crimeand writer Craig Gore had been fired.When NBC announced its fall schedule on June 16,Organized Crimewas the only new show on the schedule, slotted for Thursdays at 10/9c.However, the series was later delayed to 2021.On October 2, 2020, it was announced thatMatt Olmsteadwould be stepping down as showrunner and a replacement was not announced at the time.On December 9, 2020, it was announced thatIlene Chaikenhas joined as showrunner after her overall deal withUniversal Television.Dylan McDermottwas announced on January 27, 2021, as joining the cast in an unspecified role.On February 2, 2021,Tamara Taylorwas cast in an undisclosed role.On February 4, 2021, it was announced that the series would premiere on April 1, 2021, in a two-hour crossover event. Explanatory notes References Citations General and cited references External links","List of Super Bowl champions TheSuper Bowlis the annualAmerican footballgame that determines the champion of theNational Football League(NFL). The game culminates aseasonthat begins in the previous calendar year, and is the conclusion of theNFL playoffs. The winner receives theVince Lombardi Trophy. The contest is held in an American city, chosen three to four years beforehand,usually at warm-weather sites ordomed stadiums.Since January 1971, the winner of theAmerican Football Conference (AFC) Championship Gamehas faced the winner of theNational Football Conference (NFC) Championship Gamein the culmination of the NFL playoffs. Before the1970 mergerbetween theAmerican Football League(AFL) and theNational Football League(NFL), the two leagues met in four such contests. The first two were marketed as the \"AFL–NFL World Championship Game\", but were also casually referred to as \"the Super Bowl game\" during the television broadcast.Super Bowl IIIin January 1969 was the first such game that carried the \"Super Bowl\" moniker in official marketing; the names \"Super Bowl I\" and \"Super Bowl II\" were retroactively applied to the first two games. A total of 20 franchises, including teams that have relocated to another city or changed their name, have won the Super Bowl.There are fourNFL teamsthat have never appeared in a Super Bowl: theCleveland Browns,Detroit Lions,Jacksonville Jaguars, andHouston Texans, though both the Browns (1950,1954,1955,1964) and Lions (1935,1952,1953,1957) had wonNFL Championship Gamesprior to the creation of the Super Bowl in the1966 season. The1972 Dolphinscapped off the onlyperfect seasoninNFL historywith their victory inSuper Bowl VII. Only two franchises have ever won the Super Bowl while hosting at their home stadiums: theTampa Bay BuccaneersinSuper Bowl LVand theLos Angeles RamsinSuper Bowl LVI. Super Bowl championship games Numbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows: WIndicates a team that made the playoffs as awild cardteam (rather than by winning a division). Upcoming games Consecutive wins Eight franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls, one of which (Pittsburgh) has accomplished it twice: Although no franchise to date has won three Super Bowls in a row, several have had eras of sustained success, nearly accomplishing athree-peat: Consecutive losses Three franchises have lost consecutive Super Bowls: Consecutive appearances TheBuffalo Billshave the most consecutive appearances with four from 1990 to 1993. TheMiami Dolphins(1971–1973) andNew England Patriots(2016–2018) are the only other teams to have at least three consecutive appearances. All three teams with three or more consecutive Super Bowl appearances are in theAFC Eastdivision. Including those three, 11 teams have at least two consecutive appearances. TheDallas Cowboysare the only team with three separate streaks (1970–1971, 1977–1978, and 1992–1993). TheGreen Bay Packers,Pittsburgh Steelers,Denver Broncos,and New England Patriots have each had two separate consecutive appearances. TheKansas City Chiefsare the most recent team to appear in consecutive Super Bowls, playing inSuper Bowl LVIIandSuper Bowl LVIII. The full listing of teams with consecutive appearances is below in order of first occurrence; winning games are inbold: Super Bowl rematches The following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl: Super Bowl records by franchise In the sortable table below, franchises are ordered first by number of wins, followed by the total number of appearances, and finally by the total number of points scored for the franchise throughout all appearances. Included in the table are all of the team names that each franchise has had since the 1966 season, a.k.a. the start of the Super Bowl era. Teams with Super Bowl appearances but no victories Eight teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning. In descending order of number of appearances and then years since their last appearance, they are: Teams with no Super Bowl appearances or long active droughts Four current teams have never reached the Super Bowl (shown inboldbelow). Two of them (Jacksonville and Houston) joined the NFL relatively recently, and there are an additional eight teams whose Super Bowl appearance droughts began prior to 2002 (the year Houston joined the NFL). The other two teams that have never appeared in a Super Bowl (Cleveland and Detroit) both heldNFL league championshipsprior toSuper Bowl Iin the1966 NFL season.Teams are listed below according to the length of their current Super Bowl droughts (as of the end of the 2023 season, after Super Bowl LVIII): See also Explanatory notes References External links","1998 Denver Broncos season The1998 seasonwas theDenver Broncos' 29th in theNational Football League(NFL) and their 39th overall. The Broncos entered the season as thedefending Super Bowl championsand looked to become only the fifth team in league history to win consecutive Super Bowls. Finishing with a record of 12–4 the previous year, the Broncos improved on that mark by two wins and tiedthe Atlanta Falconsfor second best record at 14–2. They won their first thirteen games, the best start since theunbeaten1972 Dolphins. After 16 seasons,John Elwayretired following the Super Bowl. He finished his Broncos career with 51,475 yards passing and 300 touchdowns. UntilPeyton Manningwon inSuper Bowl 50, Elway stood as the only Broncos quarterback to win a Super Bowl. However, Elway even played a large role in that victory as thegeneral managerand president of football operations for the Broncos. Running backTerrell Davisset a team single season rushing mark. His final total was 2,008 yards, making him only the fourth player to rush forover 2,000 yards in single season. A multi-year investigation from 2001 to 2005 revealed that between 1996 and 1998, the team had cheated the salary cap by deferring other money to Elway and Davis outside of the team’s salary. Denver claimed it gave them no competitive advantage. The team was subsequently fined nearly two million dollars and were forced to give up two third-round picks in the2002and2005drafts. In 2007, the 1998 Broncos were ranked as the 12th greatest Super Bowl champions on theNFL Network's documentary seriesAmerica's Game: The Super Bowl Champions. They ranked #14 on the 100 greatest teams of all time presented by the NFL on its 100th anniversary. Offseason NFL draft Staff Front office Head coaches Offensive coaches Special teams coaches Strength and conditioning Roster Running backs(RB) Wide receivers(WR) Tight ends(TE) Defensive linemen(DL) Defensive backs(DB){{{defensive_back}}} Special teams 53 active, 3 inactive, 5 practice squadReserved Rookies in italics Season summary The Broncos won their first 13 games of the season. There was much speculation that they might finish 19–0and the Broncos were featured on the cover ofSports Illustrated. However, they were upset bythe New York Giants(who would end another attempt at a 19–0 seasonnine seasons later) in week 15 by a score of 20–16. They finished the regular season 14–2 after losing tothe Dolphinsin their first encounter with that team since1985. They finished first in theAFC Westand won their divisional playoff game againstthe Miami Dolphins38–3 for their first win over the Dolphins since1968.They then won theAFC Championshipover theBill ParcellscoachedNew York Jets23–10 after coming back from a 10–0 deficit. Many had expected Denver to playthe Minnesota Vikings, the team with the number one record that year at 15–1, in the Super Bowl. However, the Vikings lost theNFC Championship Gametothe Atlanta Falconsin overtime. The Broncos defeated the Falcons 34–19 in Super Bowl XXXIII. Elway was theSuper Bowl MVPand Davis rushed for over 100 yards. It was Elway's last game, and Denver would not reach the Super Bowl again untilthe 2013 season. Preseason Regular season Schedule Standings Playoffs AFC Divisional Game vs. Miami Dolphins atMile High Stadium,Denver, Colorado First quarter Second quarter Third quarter Fourth quarter Dolphins Broncos Turnovers: AFC Championship game vs. New York Jets atMile High Stadium,Denver, Colorado First quarter Second quarter Third quarter Fourth quarter Jets Broncos Turnovers: Despite a subpar performance from quarterbackJohn Elway, the Broncos came from a ten-point deficit to score twenty three unanswered points, thanks in large part to the Jets turning the ball over an astonishing six times. Super Bowl XXXIII: vs. Atlanta Falcons atPro Player Stadium,Miami, Florida The Denver Broncos become the third team in the last 9 years to repeat as Super Bowl champions, along with theSan Francisco 49ersand theDallas Cowboys.John Elwaywas voted Super Bowl MVP. Statistics Team stats The Broncos had 3,808yardspassing, sixth in the league. They had 2,468 yards rushing, second in the league and 26 rushing touchdowns, first in the league. They had 6,276 total yards, third best. They gave up 3,983 passing yards, a low 28 out of 30 in the NFL, but were third in rushing yards given up with 1,287. They gave up 5,270 yards, 12th in the NFL. They scored 501 points, second in the league and gave up 309, eighth fewest in the league. The Broncos’ 14–2 record remains their best regular season record (most wins and equal fewest losses) in franchise history. Player stats For the season Elway threw for 2,806 yards, 22 touchdowns and ten interceptions. Davis rushed for 2,008 yards and 21 touchdowns.Rod Smithhad 86 receptions for 1,222 yards and six touchdowns.Ed McCaffreyhad 64 receptions for 1,053 yards.Shannon Sharpehad 64 receptions for 768 yards.Jason Elamkicked 23 out of 27 field goals and 58 out of 58 extra points including a 63-yard field goal to tie Tom Dempsey with the longest field goal in NFL history at that time. This record has since been eclipsed by another Denver Bronco inMatt Prater, and once again byJustin Tucker. Steve Atwater, Davis, Elway,Tony Jones,Mark Schlereth, McCaffrey,Tom Nalen,Bill Romanowski, and Sharpe made thePro Bowl. Awards and records Milestones References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Law & Order: Special Victims Unit Law & Order: Special Victims Unit(often shortened toLaw & Order: SVUorSVU) is an Americanpolice proceduralcrime dramatelevision series created byDick WolfforNBC. The first spin-off ofLaw & Order, it starsMariska Hargitayas Detective (ultimately promoted toCaptain)Olivia Benson, now the commanding officer of theSpecial Victims Unitafter originally having been Stabler's partner in a fictionalized version of theNew York City Police Department, andChristopher Melonias DetectiveElliot Stabler(until Meloni left the series in 2011 after 12 seasons).Law & Order: Special Victims Unitfollows the detectives of the Special Victims Unit as they investigate and prosecute sexually based crimes. Some of the episodes are loosely based on real crimes that have received media attention. The series, produced byWolf EntertainmentandUniversal Television, premiered on September 20, 1999. After the premiere of its 21st season in September 2019, the series became thelongest-running primetime live-action series on American television.Since the end of the original run of the mainLaw & Orderseries in 2010,SVUhas been the only live-action primetime series that debuted in the 1990s that has remained in continuous production.The23rd seasonpremiered on September 23, 2021,during which the show aired its milestone 500th episode.As of May 16, 2024,Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas aired 551 original episodes, well surpassing theepisode count of the originalLaw & Orderseries. In terms of all-time episode count for a primetime scripted series,SVUnow ranks fourth behindThe Simpsons(with 768 episodes),Gunsmoke(with 635 episodes), andLassie(with 591 episodes).The 25th season premiered on January 18, 2024,and on March 21, 2024, NBC announced that it renewed the series for its 26th season, which premiered on October 3, 2024. The series has received108 award nominations, winning 33 awards. Hargitay was the first regular cast member on anyLaw & Orderseries to win anEmmy Awardwhen she won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Seriesin 2006. Premise In the criminal justice system, sexually based offenses are considered especially heinous. In New York City, the dedicated detectives who investigate these vicious felonies are members of an elite squad known as the Special Victims Unit. These are their stories. – Opening narration spoken bySteven Zirnkilton Based out of the NYPDNew York City Police Department's 16th precinct in Manhattan,Law & Order: Special Victims Unitdelves into the dark side of the New York underworld as the detectives of a new elite squad, theSpecial Victims Unit(SVU for short), investigate and prosecute various sexually oriented crimes, including rape, child sexual abuse, human trafficking and domestic violence. They also investigate the abuses of children, the disabled and elderly victims of non-sexual crimes who require specialist handling, all while trying to balance the effects of the investigation on their own lives as they try not to let the dark side of these crimes affect them. Its stories also touch on the political and societal issues associated with gender identity, sexual preferences, and equality rights. While the victim is often murdered, this is not always the case, and victims frequently play prominent roles in episodes. The unit also works with the Manhattan District Attorney's office as they prosecute cases and seek justice for SVU's victims and survivors with precision and a passion to win and bring closure to the intense investigations. The series often uses stories that are \\\"ripped from the headlines\\\" or based on real crimes. Such episodes take a real crime and fictionalize it by changing some details. Cast and characters Originally, the show focused around the detective pairing ofElliot Stabler(Christopher Meloni) andOlivia Benson(Mariska Hargitay). Stabler is a seasoned veteran of the unit who has seen it all and tries his best to protect his family from the horrors he has seen in his career. Meanwhile, Benson's difficult past as the child of a rape victim is the reason she joined the unit. Backing them up are DetectiveJohn Munch(Richard Belzer) and his first partner,Brian Cassidy(Dean Winters). Munch is a transfer from Baltimore's homicide unit, who brings his acerbic wit, conspiracy theories, and street-honed investigative skills; Cassidy is young and eager to learn from his fellow detectives. These two detective teams received support from DetectivesMonique Jeffries(Michelle Hurd) and Ken Briscoe (Chris Orbach).After thirteen episodes, Cassidy gets transferred to the narcotics division because of his inability to work well on the cases and the fact that they reminded him too much of his childhood abuse. As a result, Jeffries gets partnered up with Munch for the remainder of season one and Briscoe was phased out. In the beginning of season two, Jeffries leaves the unit following an incident with the Morris Commission and Munch gets permanently partnered up with DetectiveOdafin \\\"Fin\\\" Tutuola(Ice-T), whose unique yet sometimes vulgar sense of humor and investigative experience make him a formidable match for Munch. Brooklyn SVU DetectiveChester Lake(Adam Beach) would assist on several Manhattan cases during the eighth season and then join during season nine; Lake would then depart at the season's end after being arrested for murdering a crooked cop who had gotten away with rape. These detectives were supervised by veteran CaptainDonald Cragen(Dann Florek), who oversaw the team for seasons 1–15 and was previously the commanding officer of the Manhattan North Homicide precinct on the first 3 seasons ofLaw & Order. Cragen's tough-but-supportive approach to the team's complex cases guides the squad through the challenges they face every day. Also assisting the Special Victims Unit, is FBI Special Agent Dr. George Huang (BD Wong) who helps keep the officers sane in a field that could drive ordinary people mad, whilst also serving as the squad's resident criminal profiler, his insights into the criminal mind have often helped the officers to crack the toughest perps. The team also works withMedical ExaminerDr. Melinda Warner (Tamara Tunie), who has become an integral part of the unit, and her personal skills have contributed to the unit's high success rate in closing cases. The unit did not receive a full-time assistant district attorney until season two, whenAlexandra Cabot(Stephanie March) was assigned to work with the detectives.After Cabot enters the Witness Protection Program after almost being killed in a hit in season five, she was replaced byCasey Novak(Diane Neal), who remained as the ADA until the end of season nine, when she was censured for violating due process while trying to bring a rapist cop (the same one that Lake would end up murdering) to justice.Kim Greylek(Michaela McManus) became the permanent ADA in the season ten premiere, until Cabot made a return midway through that season when Greylek returned to the Justice Department in Washington, D.C. Cabot remained the ADA through the second half of season 10. After Cabot's departure, the ADA void was filled by Sonya Paxton (Christine Lahti) and Jo Marlowe (Sharon Stone) until the conclusion of season 11. Gillian Hardwicke (Melissa Sagemiller) served as the SVU's ADA during season 12, while Novak would return for a guest appearance after completing her suspension near the end of the season. Paxton would also return for one more appearance in the season, during which she is brutally murdered by a rapist/murderer, but manages to leave behind vital evidence to assure his conviction. In season 13, both Cabot and Novak returned as ADAs. From the beginning of season 14, ADARafael Barba(Raúl Esparza) was SVU's prosecutor, until leaving halfway through season 19 following the death of an infant. Chicago Justice'sPeter Stone(Philip Winchester) became SVU's ADA afterChicago Justicewas canceled after only one season. At the end of season 20, Stone decided to leave due to some of the cases being too much for him to handle. From there, former SVU DetectiveDominick Carisi Jr.(Peter Scanavino) takes his place at the start of season 21. In season 13, big changes happen when Stabler retires in the aftermath of the season 12 finale, until he reappeared in season 22, which led him to join NYPD's Organized Crime Control Bureau inLaw & Order: Organized Crime. Huang also departed at the same time after being reassigned to Oklahoma City, but has returned for occasional guest appearances. DetectivesNick Amaro(Danny Pino) andAmanda Rollins(Kelli Giddish) joined the team filling the void left by Stabler. Amaro brought empathy to his cases while dealing with a stressful home life, while Rollins had dogged persistence and instincts help her close cases, but also secrets from her past that could derail her career. During season 15, both Munch and Cragen retired from the NYPD, leaving Benson, after being promoted to Sergeant, to take control of the unit; she would later be promoted to Lieutenant at the start of season 17 and then Captain at the start of season 21. Season 16 was another period of change with the introduction of Carisi at the beginning and the departure of Amaro at the end, with the latter relocating to California to be near his moved children after being wounded in the line of duty and learning that previous instances of misconduct have cost him any chance for advancement in the department. Also introduced in season 16 was Deputy Chief William Dodds (Peter Gallagher), who served as commanding officer for the Special Victims Units in all five boroughs of New York. Dodds' son Mike (Andy Karl) transfers into Special Victims as Sergeant in season 17, becoming Benson's second-in-command until his death at the end of the season; Fin later passes the Sergeant's exam during season 18 and is officially promoted in Mike's place in season 19. Following Carisi's move to the DA's office in season 21, Vice Officer Katriona \\\"Kat\\\" Tamin (Jamie Gray Hyder) joined the team after assisting on several cases, eventually getting promoted to detective. Dodds also departed the series at the start of the season due to some issues in the case regarding a mogul raping countless women, allowing new deputy chief Christian Garland (Demore Barnes) to take his place. At the start of season 23, Tamin and Garland both resigned from the NYPD after becoming disillusioned with the legal system's failures and the systemic bias within the department, with Tamin being replaced by Detective Joe Velasco (Octavio Pisano). Chief Tommy McGrath (Terry Serpico) took over Garland's position until he could find a permanent deputy chief for SVU. At the beginning of season 24, Detective Grace Muncy (Molly Burnett) joined SVU after solving a case that involves a teenage Dominican gang, while Rollins resigned from SVU and the NYPD halfway through the season after accepting an offer from Carisi's old colleague to teach atFordham University. SVU also brought in Detectives Terry Bruno (Kevin Kane) and Tonie Churlish (Jasmine Batchelor) from their Brooklyn counterparts. Muncy later departed at the end of the season to work on a DEA task force and Churlish also left during the same time. In season 25, McGrath was replaced as chief after crossing multiple lines in his interference with his daughter's rape case, and IAB Captain Renee Curry (Aime Donna Kelly) joined SVU in hopes of making changes. Shortly afterwards, FBI agent Shannah Sykes (Jordana Spiro) was put on loan to SVU after helping them rescue abducted girl Maddie Flynn.Sykes later left SVU at the season's end after solving the case of her missing sister, which ended up hitting her too close to home, and at the start of season 26, former Homicide detective Kate Silva (Juliana Aidén Martinez) joins the unit. Additionally, Rollins, after consulting on several cases following her departure, returns to the NYPD with a promotion to Sergeant and assignment as CO of the department's Intelligence Unit. Production Development The idea forLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitoriginated with the 1986 \\\"preppie murder\\\" case ofRobert Chambers, who strangled and killed a woman he dated, Jennifer Levin, duringwhat he claimed was consensual \\\"rough sex\\\"inManhattan'sCentral Park. The crime inspiredDick Wolfto write the story for theseason oneepisode ofLaw & Ordertitled \\\"Kiss the Girls and Make Them Die\\\". After writing the episode, Wolf wanted to go deeper into the psychology of crimes to examine the role ofhuman sexuality. The original title of the show wasSex Crimes.Initially, there was concern among the producers that, shouldSex Crimesfail, identifying the new show with theLaw & Orderfranchise could affect the original show. Additionally,Ted Kotcheffwanted to create a new series that was not dependent upon the original series for success. Wolf felt, however, that it was important and commercially desirable to have \\\"Law & Order\\\" in the title, and he initially proposed the title of the show beLaw & Order: Sex Crimes.Barry Diller, then head ofStudios USA, was concerned about the title, however, and it was changed toLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitto reflect the actual unit of theNew York City Police Department(NYPD) that handles sexually-based offenses. Executive producerNeal BaerleftLaw & Order: SVUasshowrunnerat the end ofseason twelve, after eleven years (seasons 2–12) on the show, in order to sign a three-year deal withCBS Studios.Baer was replaced by formerLaw & Order: Criminal IntentshowrunnerWarren Leight.In March 2015, it was announced that Warren Leight signed a three-year deal withSony Pictures Television, that will allow him to work onSVUone more season, its seventeenth.It was announced on March 10, 2016, that originalLaw & Orderveteran producer Rick Eid would take Leight's place as showrunner starting in season 18. Creator Dick Wolf commented toThe Hollywood Reporter, \\\"I'm extremely pleased that Rick had decided to rejoin the family and hope that he will be here for years to come.\\\"During post-production of season 18, following the announcement thatSVUwas renewed for a nineteenth season, it was revealed that Rick Eid departed the series. He will be taking over another Dick Wolf/NBC series,Chicago P.D. It was announced on May 25, 2017, that originalLaw & OrderandLaw & Order: Criminal IntentshowrunnerMichael S. Chernuchinwould be reprising his role starting on season nineteen. Chernuchin was also co-creator and executive producing showrunner ofChicago Justice, another Wolf-related show that was canceled by NBC at the end of the 2016–17 TV season.On April 22, 2019, it was announced that Leight would return as showrunner for the series' twenty-first season.On May 3, 2022, Leight announced that he would not be returning for the twenty-fourth season. Casting Casting for the lead characters ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitoccurred in the spring of 1999. Dick Wolf, along with officials from NBC and Studios USA were at the final auditions for the two leads atRockefeller Center. The last round had been narrowed down to seven finalists. For the female lead, DetectiveOlivia Benson, actressesSamantha Mathis,Reiko Aylesworth, andMariska Hargitaywere being considered. For the male role, DetectiveElliot Stabler, the finalists wereTim Matheson,John Slattery,Nick Chinlund, andChristopher Meloni. Hargitay and Meloni had auditioned in the final round together and, after the actors left, there was a moment of dead silence, after which Wolf blurted out, \\\"Oh well. There's no doubt who we should choose—Hargitay and Meloni.\\\" Wolf believed the duo had the perfect chemistry together from the first time he saw them together, and they ended up being his first choice.Garth Ancier, then head of NBC Entertainment, agreed, and the rest of the panel assembled began voicing their assent. The first actor to be cast for the show wasDann Florek. Florek had originated the character of CaptainDon Cragenin the 1990 pilot forLaw & Order, and played the character for the show's first three seasons until he was fired on the orders of network executives, who wanted to add female characters to the all-male primary cast, but he maintained a friendly relationship with Wolf, and went on to direct three episodes of the original series as well as to occasionally guest star on the show. Shortly after Florek reprised his role forExiled: A Law & Order Movie, he received a call to be onSex Crimes.Initially reluctant, he eventually agreed to star on the show as Cragen on the assurance that he would not be asked to audition for the role. Shortly after the cancellation ofHomicide: Life on the Street,Richard Belzerheard thatBenjamin Bratthad leftLaw & Order. Belzer requested his manager to call Wolf and pitch the idea for Belzer's character fromHomicide, DetectiveJohn Munch, to become the new partner ofJerry Orbach's character, DetectiveLennie Briscoe, since they had previously teamed in threeHomicidecrossovers. Wolf loved the idea, but had already castJesse L. Martinas Briscoe's new partner, DetectiveEd Green. The idea was reconfigured, but to have Munch onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitinstead.Since the character of Munch was inspired byDavid Simon's depiction of Detective Sergeant Jay Landsman and developed forHomicidebyTom FontanaandBarry Levinson, the addition of Munch to the cast required the consent of all three. The appropriate agreements were reached and, while Fontana and Levinson agreed to waive their royalty rights, contracts with Simon required that he be paid royalties for any new show in which Munch is a main character; as a result, Simon receives royalties every time Munch appears in an episode of the show. Dean Winterswas cast as Munch's partner,Brian Cassidy, at the insistence of Belzer. Belzer looked at Winters as a sort of little brother, and told Wolf, \\\"Well, I'll do this new show of yours,SVU, only if you make Dean Winters my partner.\\\"Wolf did make Winters Belzer's partner, but he was contractually obligated to his other show at the time, theHBOdramaOz. Since the role onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitwas only initially meant to be a few episodes, Winters was forced to leave when it was time to filmOzagain. Winters returned for the season 13 finale, \\\"Rhodium Nights\\\", reprising his role as Cassidy. He also appeared (as Cassidy) on the two-part season 14 premiere \\\"Lost Reputation\\\"/\\\"Above Suspicion\\\".He subsequently became a recurring character into season 15. The void left by Winters's departure was filled for the remainder of the season byMichelle Hurdas DetectiveMonique Jeffries, a character who Wolf promised that, despite starting out as a minor character with one scene in the pilot, would eventually develop. Hurd left the show at the beginning of season two to join the cast ofLeap Years.Munch's permanent partner came in the form ofrapper-turned-actorIce-T, who had previously worked with Wolf onNew York UndercoverandExiled. Ice-T originally agreed to do only four episodes ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, but he quickly gained affection for the ensemble nature of the cast. He relocated to New York City before his four-episode contract was up and remained with the show as Munch's permanent partner, DetectiveOdafin \\\"Fin\\\" Tutuola. Initially, the show focused exclusively on the police work of the detectives in the Special Victims Unit of the 16th precinct, with members of the District Attorney's office occasionally appearing as guest roles crossing over from the originalLaw & Order. From season two onwards, the format was changed to be more faithful to the originalLaw & Orderconcept by including court cases.Stephanie Marchhad little television experience before being cast onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, nor did she watch much TV. Nevertheless, March was cast as Assistant District AttorneyAlexandra Cabotat the beginning of season two but still believed that, due to the grim nature of the series, it would be short-lived. She stayed with the series for three seasons, however, and left when she believed she had reached the natural conclusion of the character's development. She would later reprise the character as a guest appearance in season six and as a regular character on the short-lived Wolf series,Conviction, where she was promised more to do.Diane Nealhad previously guest-starred onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitin season three before being cast as Cabot's replacement,Casey Novak, in season five. Neal remained with the show through the end of season nine,after which she was replaced byMichaela McManus. March returned to the show in the tenth season (after McManus' departure from the cast) whenNeal Baerproposed Cabot receive a character arc to revitalize the second part of the season, which would continue through season eleven. Tamara Tuniewas cast asmedical examinerMelinda Warnerin season two after working with Wolf previously onNew York Undercover,Feds, andLaw & Order. Warner was initially arecurring characterbut became a regular character in season seven, and Tunie was added to the opening credits at that time.When initially cast as Warner, Tunie was appearing as attorney Jessica Griffin on theCBSdaytime soap operaAs the World Turns. From 2000 to 2007 (and again briefly in 2009), she appeared on both series simultaneously. In 2002, she also appeared on theFoxespionage-themed drama series24, in the recurring role of CTU Acting Director Alberta Green.BD Wongwas asked to film four episodes as Dr.George Huang, aFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI)forensic psychiatristandcriminal profileron loan to the Special Victims Unit. After his four episodes, he was asked to stay on with the show. After he starred inBury My Heart at Wounded Kneeand guest-starred as DetectiveChester Lakein the eighth season, Wolf felt thatAdam Beachwould be a good addition to the cast and asked him to be a permanent member beginning with the ninth season. Although Beach felt the role was a \\\"dream role\\\", the character proved unpopular with fans who felt that he was designed to gradually write out either Richard Belzer or Ice-T. Feeling there were too many police characters on the show, Beach left the show after only one season.Michaela McManuswas originally felt to be too young for the role of anAssistant District Attorney(ADA) before being cast as ADAKim Greylekin the tenth season. McManus, months removed from a recurring role onOne Tree Hill, remained with the series only half a season, however, before departing for unspecified reasons. Paula Pattonjoined the cast asADA Mikka Von. She replacedStephanie March.However, Patton dropped out after one episode to filmMission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol, and was replaced byMelissa Sagemillerin the recurring role of ADAGillian Hardwicke. Before the end of season twelve, Mariska Hargitay asked for a lighter workload. As a way of writing her out of certain episodes, a plan to have her character promoted to a supervisory role was discussed.At the end of season twelve, Christopher Meloni departed the cast, unable to reach agreement on a new contract. Warren Leight became the new showrunner during this same year and signed on before he knew that Meloni would be leaving the cast.The second major departure to be announced in 2011 was that of BD Wong. On July 17, Wong announced onTwitterthat, \\\"I actually do not return for season 13, I am jumping toAwake! It's awesome!\\\" Wong added, \\\"I don't know if or when I'll be back onSVU! It was amazing to have such a cool job for 11 years and to be a real NY Actor.\\\" Wong reprised his role as Dr. Huang in season 13's episode \\\"Father Dearest\\\". In June 2011, it was announced thatKelli GiddishandDanny Pinowould join the cast as new series regulars.Weeks later, it was announced that Stephanie March and Diane Neal would be reprising their roles as ADA Alexandra Cabot and ADA Casey Novak, respectively.The launch of season 13 was marked with a retooling of the show that Warren Leight referred to as \\\"SVU 2.0\\\".Changes that accompanied this included Tamara Tunie's being bumped from the main cast to a guest-starring role and recurring actorJoel de la Fuente's not appearing for the first time since 2002. Of the latter change, Warren Leight said, \\\"those scenes can be dry\\\" and hiredGilbert Gottfriedas a more comedic replacement. In season 14,Raúl Esparzajoined the cast in a recurring capacity as ADARafael Barbaand prior to the season 15 premiere, Esparza was promoted to a series regular. Also in season 15, Belzer departed the cast in the fifth episode, \\\"Wonderland Story\\\", in which Sgt. Munch retired from the NYPD and took a job in the DA's office as an investigator. Later in the season, Captain Cragen announced his departure from the NYPD, which made newly promoted Sgt. Benson the temporary squad commander. In leaving the cast, Florek ended a 400-episode run as Captain Cragen. In season 16,Peter Scanavinojoined the series, first in a recurring role for episodes 1–3 and then was promoted to the main cast in episode 5, with Kelli Giddish, Danny Pino, Ice-T and Raúl Esparza. On May 20, 2015, it was revealed that Danny Pino would be leaving the cast after the season 16 finale \\\"Surrendering Noah\\\". In August 2017, it was announced thatPhilip Winchesterwould recur in season 19 as ADAPeter Stone, his character fromChicago P.D.andChicago Justice, who is the son ofBenjamin Stone, the first ADA on the originalLaw & Orderseries.It was later also announced thatBrooke Shieldswas enlisted to assume a major recurring role (Sheila Porter, maternal grandmother of Noah Porter-Benson, Olivia's adopted son) starting in season 19 of the long-running dramatic series.On February 7, 2018, Raúl Esparza left the series after six seasons.His role was taken over by Winchester. Upon being renewed for its twenty-first season, it was announced that Winchester would be departing the series after the twentieth season. In March 2019, it was announced that the show would come back for season 21, making it thelongest-running primetime U.S. live-action series in the history of television.On March 29, 2019, it was revealed that Winchester would not return for season 21. He tweeted the same day about his departure from the show.On May 16, 2019, the season finale aired and Winchester took to Twitter to thank the cast and crew for the send-off.After recurring for several episodes in season 21 as Vice Officer Katriona Tamin,Jamie Gray Hyderjoined the cast as a regular, starting in episode 8.On October 6, 2020,Demore Barnes, who had recurred throughout season 21 as new Deputy Chief Christian Garland, was upgraded to regular status for season 22.On September 3, 2021, it was announced that Hyder and Barnes would both depart the series following the two-hour season 23 premiere.On October 13, 2021,Octavio Pisano, who had guest starred since the start of the season, was promoted to regular status.On August 24, 2022, it was announced that Kelli Giddish would leave the series during the first half of season 24. On November 10, 2022,Molly Burnett, who initially appeared in a recurring capacity for the first six episodes, was promoted to series regular beginning with the seventh episode.On November 28, 2023, it was announced that Kelli Giddish will come back for the premiere episode of season 25, which will be her second time reappearing after the season 24 finale.On July 22, 2024, it was reported that Kevin Kane, who portrays Terry Bruno, would be promoted to a series regular for the show's twenty-sixth season, after recurring the previous two seasons.On August 7, 2024, it was announced that Juliana Aidén Martinez, who will portray newcomer, Kate Silva, was added as a series regular ahead of the season premiere. Salaries By season twelve, both Mariska Hargitay and Christopher Meloni had become among the highest-paid lead actors on a drama, with each earning nearly $400,000 per episode, a salary thatTV Guidesaid was exceeded only byHouse'sHugh Laurie.During season sixteen, Hargitay was reported to be earning $450,000 per episode, or $10,350,000 per season.In season seventeen, her salary increased to $500,000 per episode. Filming and location Many exterior scenes ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitare filmed on location in New York City, Wolf's hometown, throughout all five ofNew York City's boroughs.Fort Lee, New Jerseyserved as the filming location for DetectiveElliot Stabler's residence inQueens, New York. When searching for a place to film the interiors of the show, the producers found that there were no suitable studio spaces available in New York City. As a result, a space was chosen at NBC's Central Archives building in nearbyNorth Bergen, New Jersey, 53,000 square feet (4,900 m2) of stage area that had been left unused for some time.The Archives building was used for police station and courtroom scenes,with various other locations inHudson Countyused for other scenes, such as a scene shot at the Meadowlands Parkway inSecaucusin 2010. The production left New Jersey for New York in 2010, however, when New Jersey GovernorChris Christiesuspended the tax credits for film and television production for the Fiscal Year 2011 to close budget gaps.The show moved into the studio space atChelsea Piersthat had been occupied by the originalLaw & Orderseries until its cancellation in May 2010. Episodes Release Broadcast Law & Order: SVUairs onNBCin the United States. With the season eleven premiere on September 23, 2009, the series vacated its Tuesday 10 p.m. ET slot as NBC began a nightly prime-time series hosted byJay Leno. The new time slot became Wednesday nights at 9:00 p.m. ET on NBC, withCTVstill airingSVUon Tuesdays at 10:00 in Canada.After the2010 Winter Olympicson March 3, 2010, the time slot again changed to Wednesdays at 10 p.m. ET, where it stayed until the twelfth season.For the 12th season,SVUmoved back to 9:00 p.m. to lead in the newestLaw & Orderspin-off,Law & Order: LA,until it was pulled from the network in January 2011 to be retooled.SVUmoved back to 10:00 p.m. on January 12, 2011, until the end of the 13th season.With season 14,SVUmoved back to 9:00 p.m. after a two-hour season premiere event on September 26, 2012.Beginning with Season 20,SVUwould air on Thursday nights at 10 p.m., after NBC decided to devote their entire Wednesday primetime lineup to theChicago Med,PD, andFiretrilogy. It marked the first time ever thatLaw & Order: SVUwould hold this timeslot on Thursday nights.Starting with season 22,SVUmoved to 9 p.m., with offshootLaw & Order: Organized Crimetaking its old slot. From season 21,Law & Order: Special Victims Unitairs onSky Witnessin the United Kingdom.Beginning from season 23, it moved from CTV toCityTVin Canada, simulcasting with NBC.Law & Order: Special Victims Unitairs onRock Entertainmentin Southeast Asia. Streaming PeacockandHulucurrently have all seasons (1–24) available. The latest 5 episodes can be watched for free on NBC.comand the NBC app.Outside of SVOD and NBC platforms, most episodes (outside of seasons 2–4 in the United States for unknown reasons) can be found onelectronic sell-throughplatforms such asiTunesandAmazon Prime Video.The series is available for streaming onPeacockalong withChicago Fire,Chicago P.D.,Chicago Med,Law & OrderandLaw & Order: Criminal Intent.Seasons 1–22 are available for streaming in Australia on Amazon Prime Video. In Brazil, seasons 11 to 13 are available on Amazon Prime Video, and seasons 1–22 are available on Globoplay, although seasons 15–22 require a subscription expansion or cable access to UniversalTV.In 2024, selected seasons returned toNetflixin certain regions including the UK, Europe, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America. Syndication As of January 2024, the series is rerun on fellowNBCUniversalnetworkUSA, as well as onIon TelevisionandMyNetworkTVstations. The series also briefly ran onSyfyin 2006. In 2008,Foxobtained rights to airLaw & Order: SVUon Fox-owned TV stations, and began doing so in the fall of 2009. Reception Ratings In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook likesfound thatSVU's popularity was \\\"atypical: generally slightly more popular in rural areas and the South, but largely restricted to the eastern half of the country. It is most popular inAlbany, N.Y.; least in Colorado and Utah\\\". Awards and honors Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas received many awards and award nominations.Mariska Hargitayhas twice been nominated for aGolden Globe Awardand won once in 2005. The show has been nominated numerous times for theEmmy Award.Mariska Hargitayhas been nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category eight years in a row beginning in 2004 and won the Emmy in 2006.Christopher Meloniwas nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series category in 2006.Robin Williamswas nominated in the Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2008. The series was nominated in the category Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series forJane AlexanderandTracy Pollanin 2000,Martha Plimptonin 2002,Barbara Barriein 2003,Mare WinninghamandMarlee Matlinin 2004,Amanda PlummerandAngela Lansburyin 2005,Marcia Gay HardenandLeslie Caronin 2007,Cynthia Nixonin 2008,Ellen Burstyn,Brenda Blethyn, andCarol Burnettin 2009, andAnn-Margretin 2010. The series won the award for Plummer in 2005, Caron in 2007, Nixon in 2008, Burstyn in 2009, and Ann-Margret in 2010. Critical reception Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas been well received among critics. The show holds an average score of 88% onRotten Tomatoes.In 2014, Joshua Alston ofThe A.V. Clubdescribed it as \\\"most improved, and that uptick in quality is all the more admirable.Ilana Kaplan ofThe New York Timeswrote that the series, the longest-running drama in primetime history, and Mariska Hargitay as Olivia Benson is a person of repose of real life victims and survivors. Hargitay quoted: \\\"It became very apparent to me early how much, culturally, we needed this character who relentlessly fights and advocates for women and for survivors, and who does it with compassion,\\\" she said through tears. \\\"Somebody who is unequivocally committed to righting wrongs, who believes survivors, who's aware of the healing in it.\\\"The site ofMetacriticgive a score of 66% on 25 critics review. Russian adaptation In 2007, the Russian production company Studio 2B purchased the rights to create an adaptation ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitfor Russian television. TitledLaw & Order: Division of Field Investigation,the series stars Alisa Bogart and Vica Fiorelia. It follows a unit of investigators in Moscow whose job is to investigate crimes of a sexual nature. The series aired onNTVuntil 2010 and was produced by Pavel Korchagin, Felix Kleiman and Edward Verzbovski and directed by Dmitry Brusnikin. The screenplays were written by Sergei Kuznvetsov, Elena Karavaeshnikova, and Maya Shapovalova. Spin-off On March 31, 2020, it was announced that NBC had ordered an untitled spin-off series to launch in the 2020–21 television season, withChristopher Melonireprising his role asElliot Stabler. Meloni leftSVUin 2011. The series order consists of 13 episodes.On June 2, 2020, it was announced that the series would be calledLaw & Order: Organized Crimeand writer Craig Gore had been fired.When NBC announced its fall schedule on June 16,Organized Crimewas the only new show on the schedule, slotted for Thursdays at 10/9c.However, the series was later delayed to 2021.On October 2, 2020, it was announced thatMatt Olmsteadwould be stepping down as showrunner and a replacement was not announced at the time.On December 9, 2020, it was announced thatIlene Chaikenhas joined as showrunner after her overall deal withUniversal Television.Dylan McDermottwas announced on January 27, 2021, as joining the cast in an unspecified role.On February 2, 2021,Tamara Taylorwas cast in an undisclosed role.On February 4, 2021, it was announced that the series would premiere on April 1, 2021, in a two-hour crossover event. Explanatory notes References Citations General and cited references External links\",\n \"List of Super Bowl champions TheSuper Bowlis the annualAmerican footballgame that determines the champion of theNational Football League(NFL). The game culminates aseasonthat begins in the previous calendar year, and is the conclusion of theNFL playoffs. The winner receives theVince Lombardi Trophy. The contest is held in an American city, chosen three to four years beforehand,usually at warm-weather sites ordomed stadiums.Since January 1971, the winner of theAmerican Football Conference (AFC) Championship Gamehas faced the winner of theNational Football Conference (NFC) Championship Gamein the culmination of the NFL playoffs. Before the1970 mergerbetween theAmerican Football League(AFL) and theNational Football League(NFL), the two leagues met in four such contests. The first two were marketed as the \\\"AFL–NFL World Championship Game\\\", but were also casually referred to as \\\"the Super Bowl game\\\" during the television broadcast.Super Bowl IIIin January 1969 was the first such game that carried the \\\"Super Bowl\\\" moniker in official marketing; the names \\\"Super Bowl I\\\" and \\\"Super Bowl II\\\" were retroactively applied to the first two games. A total of 20 franchises, including teams that have relocated to another city or changed their name, have won the Super Bowl.There are fourNFL teamsthat have never appeared in a Super Bowl: theCleveland Browns,Detroit Lions,Jacksonville Jaguars, andHouston Texans, though both the Browns (1950,1954,1955,1964) and Lions (1935,1952,1953,1957) had wonNFL Championship Gamesprior to the creation of the Super Bowl in the1966 season. The1972 Dolphinscapped off the onlyperfect seasoninNFL historywith their victory inSuper Bowl VII. Only two franchises have ever won the Super Bowl while hosting at their home stadiums: theTampa Bay BuccaneersinSuper Bowl LVand theLos Angeles RamsinSuper Bowl LVI. Super Bowl championship games Numbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows: WIndicates a team that made the playoffs as awild cardteam (rather than by winning a division). Upcoming games Consecutive wins Eight franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls, one of which (Pittsburgh) has accomplished it twice: Although no franchise to date has won three Super Bowls in a row, several have had eras of sustained success, nearly accomplishing athree-peat: Consecutive losses Three franchises have lost consecutive Super Bowls: Consecutive appearances TheBuffalo Billshave the most consecutive appearances with four from 1990 to 1993. TheMiami Dolphins(1971–1973) andNew England Patriots(2016–2018) are the only other teams to have at least three consecutive appearances. All three teams with three or more consecutive Super Bowl appearances are in theAFC Eastdivision. Including those three, 11 teams have at least two consecutive appearances. TheDallas Cowboysare the only team with three separate streaks (1970–1971, 1977–1978, and 1992–1993). TheGreen Bay Packers,Pittsburgh Steelers,Denver Broncos,and New England Patriots have each had two separate consecutive appearances. TheKansas City Chiefsare the most recent team to appear in consecutive Super Bowls, playing inSuper Bowl LVIIandSuper Bowl LVIII. The full listing of teams with consecutive appearances is below in order of first occurrence; winning games are inbold: Super Bowl rematches The following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl: Super Bowl records by franchise In the sortable table below, franchises are ordered first by number of wins, followed by the total number of appearances, and finally by the total number of points scored for the franchise throughout all appearances. Included in the table are all of the team names that each franchise has had since the 1966 season, a.k.a. the start of the Super Bowl era. Teams with Super Bowl appearances but no victories Eight teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning. In descending order of number of appearances and then years since their last appearance, they are: Teams with no Super Bowl appearances or long active droughts Four current teams have never reached the Super Bowl (shown inboldbelow). Two of them (Jacksonville and Houston) joined the NFL relatively recently, and there are an additional eight teams whose Super Bowl appearance droughts began prior to 2002 (the year Houston joined the NFL). The other two teams that have never appeared in a Super Bowl (Cleveland and Detroit) both heldNFL league championshipsprior toSuper Bowl Iin the1966 NFL season.Teams are listed below according to the length of their current Super Bowl droughts (as of the end of the 2023 season, after Super Bowl LVIII): See also Explanatory notes References External links\",\n \"1998 Denver Broncos season The1998 seasonwas theDenver Broncos' 29th in theNational Football League(NFL) and their 39th overall. The Broncos entered the season as thedefending Super Bowl championsand looked to become only the fifth team in league history to win consecutive Super Bowls. Finishing with a record of 12–4 the previous year, the Broncos improved on that mark by two wins and tiedthe Atlanta Falconsfor second best record at 14–2. They won their first thirteen games, the best start since theunbeaten1972 Dolphins. After 16 seasons,John Elwayretired following the Super Bowl. He finished his Broncos career with 51,475 yards passing and 300 touchdowns. UntilPeyton Manningwon inSuper Bowl 50, Elway stood as the only Broncos quarterback to win a Super Bowl. However, Elway even played a large role in that victory as thegeneral managerand president of football operations for the Broncos. Running backTerrell Davisset a team single season rushing mark. His final total was 2,008 yards, making him only the fourth player to rush forover 2,000 yards in single season. A multi-year investigation from 2001 to 2005 revealed that between 1996 and 1998, the team had cheated the salary cap by deferring other money to Elway and Davis outside of the team’s salary. Denver claimed it gave them no competitive advantage. The team was subsequently fined nearly two million dollars and were forced to give up two third-round picks in the2002and2005drafts. In 2007, the 1998 Broncos were ranked as the 12th greatest Super Bowl champions on theNFL Network's documentary seriesAmerica's Game: The Super Bowl Champions. They ranked #14 on the 100 greatest teams of all time presented by the NFL on its 100th anniversary. Offseason NFL draft Staff Front office Head coaches Offensive coaches Special teams coaches Strength and conditioning Roster Running backs(RB) Wide receivers(WR) Tight ends(TE) Defensive linemen(DL) Defensive backs(DB){{{defensive_back}}} Special teams 53 active, 3 inactive, 5 practice squadReserved Rookies in italics Season summary The Broncos won their first 13 games of the season. There was much speculation that they might finish 19–0and the Broncos were featured on the cover ofSports Illustrated. However, they were upset bythe New York Giants(who would end another attempt at a 19–0 seasonnine seasons later) in week 15 by a score of 20–16. They finished the regular season 14–2 after losing tothe Dolphinsin their first encounter with that team since1985. They finished first in theAFC Westand won their divisional playoff game againstthe Miami Dolphins38–3 for their first win over the Dolphins since1968.They then won theAFC Championshipover theBill ParcellscoachedNew York Jets23–10 after coming back from a 10–0 deficit. Many had expected Denver to playthe Minnesota Vikings, the team with the number one record that year at 15–1, in the Super Bowl. However, the Vikings lost theNFC Championship Gametothe Atlanta Falconsin overtime. The Broncos defeated the Falcons 34–19 in Super Bowl XXXIII. Elway was theSuper Bowl MVPand Davis rushed for over 100 yards. It was Elway's last game, and Denver would not reach the Super Bowl again untilthe 2013 season. Preseason Regular season Schedule Standings Playoffs AFC Divisional Game vs. Miami Dolphins atMile High Stadium,Denver, Colorado First quarter Second quarter Third quarter Fourth quarter Dolphins Broncos Turnovers: AFC Championship game vs. New York Jets atMile High Stadium,Denver, Colorado First quarter Second quarter Third quarter Fourth quarter Jets Broncos Turnovers: Despite a subpar performance from quarterbackJohn Elway, the Broncos came from a ten-point deficit to score twenty three unanswered points, thanks in large part to the Jets turning the ball over an astonishing six times. Super Bowl XXXIII: vs. Atlanta Falcons atPro Player Stadium,Miami, Florida The Denver Broncos become the third team in the last 9 years to repeat as Super Bowl champions, along with theSan Francisco 49ersand theDallas Cowboys.John Elwaywas voted Super Bowl MVP. Statistics Team stats The Broncos had 3,808yardspassing, sixth in the league. They had 2,468 yards rushing, second in the league and 26 rushing touchdowns, first in the league. They had 6,276 total yards, third best. They gave up 3,983 passing yards, a low 28 out of 30 in the NFL, but were third in rushing yards given up with 1,287. They gave up 5,270 yards, 12th in the NFL. They scored 501 points, second in the league and gave up 309, eighth fewest in the league. The Broncos’ 14–2 record remains their best regular season record (most wins and equal fewest losses) in franchise history. Player stats For the season Elway threw for 2,806 yards, 22 touchdowns and ten interceptions. Davis rushed for 2,008 yards and 21 touchdowns.Rod Smithhad 86 receptions for 1,222 yards and six touchdowns.Ed McCaffreyhad 64 receptions for 1,053 yards.Shannon Sharpehad 64 receptions for 768 yards.Jason Elamkicked 23 out of 27 field goals and 58 out of 58 extra points including a 63-yard field goal to tie Tom Dempsey with the longest field goal in NFL history at that time. This record has since been eclipsed by another Denver Bronco inMatt Prater, and once again byJustin Tucker. Steve Atwater, Davis, Elway,Tony Jones,Mark Schlereth, McCaffrey,Tom Nalen,Bill Romanowski, and Sharpe made thePro Bowl. Awards and records Milestones References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Law & Order: Special Victims Unit Law & Order: Special Victims Unit(often shortened toLaw & Order: SVUorSVU) is an Americanpolice proceduralcrime dramatelevision series created byDick WolfforNBC. The first spin-off ofLaw & Order, it starsMariska Hargitayas Detective (ultimately promoted toCaptain)Olivia Benson, now the commanding officer of theSpecial Victims Unitafter originally having been Stabler's partner in a fictionalized version of theNew York City Police Department, andChristopher Melonias DetectiveElliot Stabler(until Meloni left the series in 2011 after 12 seasons).Law & Order: Special Victims Unitfollows the detectives of the Special Victims Unit as they investigate and prosecute sexually based crimes. Some of the episodes are loosely based on real crimes that have received media attention. The series, produced byWolf EntertainmentandUniversal Television, premiered on September 20, 1999. After the premiere of its 21st season in September 2019, the series became thelongest-running primetime","primetime live-action series on American television.Since the end of the original run of the mainLaw & Orderseries in 2010,SVUhas been the only live-action primetime series that debuted in the 1990s that has remained in continuous production.The23rd seasonpremiered on September 23, 2021,during which the show aired its milestone 500th episode.As of May 16, 2024,Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas aired 551 original episodes, well surpassing theepisode count of the originalLaw & Orderseries. In terms of all-time episode count for a primetime scripted series,SVUnow ranks fourth behindThe Simpsons(with 768 episodes),Gunsmoke(with 635 episodes), andLassie(with 591 episodes).The 25th season premiered on January 18, 2024,and on March 21, 2024, NBC announced that it renewed the series for its 26th season, which premiered on October 3, 2024. The series has received108 award nominations, winning 33 awards. Hargitay was the first regular cast member on anyLaw & Orderseries to win anEmmy Awardwhen she won thePrimetime","won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Seriesin 2006. Premise In the criminal justice system, sexually based offenses are considered especially heinous. In New York City, the dedicated detectives who investigate these vicious felonies are members of an elite squad known as the Special Victims Unit. These are their stories. – Opening narration spoken bySteven Zirnkilton Based out of the NYPDNew York City Police Department's 16th precinct in Manhattan,Law & Order: Special Victims Unitdelves into the dark side of the New York underworld as the detectives of a new elite squad, theSpecial Victims Unit(SVU for short), investigate and prosecute various sexually oriented crimes, including rape, child sexual abuse, human trafficking and domestic violence. They also investigate the abuses of children, the disabled and elderly victims of non-sexual crimes who require specialist handling, all while trying to balance the effects of the investigation on their own lives as they try not to let","they try not to let the dark side of these crimes affect them. Its stories also touch on the political and societal issues associated with gender identity, sexual preferences, and equality rights. While the victim is often murdered, this is not always the case, and victims frequently play prominent roles in episodes. The unit also works with the Manhattan District Attorney's office as they prosecute cases and seek justice for SVU's victims and survivors with precision and a passion to win and bring closure to the intense investigations. The series often uses stories that are \"ripped from the headlines\" or based on real crimes. Such episodes take a real crime and fictionalize it by changing some details. Cast and characters Originally, the show focused around the detective pairing ofElliot Stabler(Christopher Meloni) andOlivia Benson(Mariska Hargitay). Stabler is a seasoned veteran of the unit who has seen it all and tries his best to protect his family from the horrors he has seen in his career. Meanwhile,","career. Meanwhile, Benson's difficult past as the child of a rape victim is the reason she joined the unit. Backing them up are DetectiveJohn Munch(Richard Belzer) and his first partner,Brian Cassidy(Dean Winters). Munch is a transfer from Baltimore's homicide unit, who brings his acerbic wit, conspiracy theories, and street-honed investigative skills; Cassidy is young and eager to learn from his fellow detectives. These two detective teams received support from DetectivesMonique Jeffries(Michelle Hurd) and Ken Briscoe (Chris Orbach).After thirteen episodes, Cassidy gets transferred to the narcotics division because of his inability to work well on the cases and the fact that they reminded him too much of his childhood abuse. As a result, Jeffries gets partnered up with Munch for the remainder of season one and Briscoe was phased out. In the beginning of season two, Jeffries leaves the unit following an incident with the Morris Commission and Munch gets permanently partnered up with DetectiveOdafin \"Fin\"","\"Fin\" Tutuola(Ice-T), whose unique yet sometimes vulgar sense of humor and investigative experience make him a formidable match for Munch. Brooklyn SVU DetectiveChester Lake(Adam Beach) would assist on several Manhattan cases during the eighth season and then join during season nine; Lake would then depart at the season's end after being arrested for murdering a crooked cop who had gotten away with rape. These detectives were supervised by veteran CaptainDonald Cragen(Dann Florek), who oversaw the team for seasons 1–15 and was previously the commanding officer of the Manhattan North Homicide precinct on the first 3 seasons ofLaw & Order. Cragen's tough-but-supportive approach to the team's complex cases guides the squad through the challenges they face every day. Also assisting the Special Victims Unit, is FBI Special Agent Dr. George Huang (BD Wong) who helps keep the officers sane in a field that could drive ordinary people mad, whilst also serving as the squad's resident criminal profiler, his insights","his insights into the criminal mind have often helped the officers to crack the toughest perps. The team also works withMedical ExaminerDr. Melinda Warner (Tamara Tunie), who has become an integral part of the unit, and her personal skills have contributed to the unit's high success rate in closing cases. The unit did not receive a full-time assistant district attorney until season two, whenAlexandra Cabot(Stephanie March) was assigned to work with the detectives.After Cabot enters the Witness Protection Program after almost being killed in a hit in season five, she was replaced byCasey Novak(Diane Neal), who remained as the ADA until the end of season nine, when she was censured for violating due process while trying to bring a rapist cop (the same one that Lake would end up murdering) to justice.Kim Greylek(Michaela McManus) became the permanent ADA in the season ten premiere, until Cabot made a return midway through that season when Greylek returned to the Justice Department in Washington, D.C. Cabot","D.C. Cabot remained the ADA through the second half of season 10. After Cabot's departure, the ADA void was filled by Sonya Paxton (Christine Lahti) and Jo Marlowe (Sharon Stone) until the conclusion of season 11. Gillian Hardwicke (Melissa Sagemiller) served as the SVU's ADA during season 12, while Novak would return for a guest appearance after completing her suspension near the end of the season. Paxton would also return for one more appearance in the season, during which she is brutally murdered by a rapist/murderer, but manages to leave behind vital evidence to assure his conviction. In season 13, both Cabot and Novak returned as ADAs. From the beginning of season 14, ADARafael Barba(Raúl Esparza) was SVU's prosecutor, until leaving halfway through season 19 following the death of an infant. Chicago Justice'sPeter Stone(Philip Winchester) became SVU's ADA afterChicago Justicewas canceled after only one season. At the end of season 20, Stone decided to leave due to some of the cases being too much for","being too much for him to handle. From there, former SVU DetectiveDominick Carisi Jr.(Peter Scanavino) takes his place at the start of season 21. In season 13, big changes happen when Stabler retires in the aftermath of the season 12 finale, until he reappeared in season 22, which led him to join NYPD's Organized Crime Control Bureau inLaw & Order: Organized Crime. Huang also departed at the same time after being reassigned to Oklahoma City, but has returned for occasional guest appearances. DetectivesNick Amaro(Danny Pino) andAmanda Rollins(Kelli Giddish) joined the team filling the void left by Stabler. Amaro brought empathy to his cases while dealing with a stressful home life, while Rollins had dogged persistence and instincts help her close cases, but also secrets from her past that could derail her career. During season 15, both Munch and Cragen retired from the NYPD, leaving Benson, after being promoted to Sergeant, to take control of the unit; she would later be promoted to Lieutenant at the start of","at the start of season 17 and then Captain at the start of season 21. Season 16 was another period of change with the introduction of Carisi at the beginning and the departure of Amaro at the end, with the latter relocating to California to be near his moved children after being wounded in the line of duty and learning that previous instances of misconduct have cost him any chance for advancement in the department. Also introduced in season 16 was Deputy Chief William Dodds (Peter Gallagher), who served as commanding officer for the Special Victims Units in all five boroughs of New York. Dodds' son Mike (Andy Karl) transfers into Special Victims as Sergeant in season 17, becoming Benson's second-in-command until his death at the end of the season; Fin later passes the Sergeant's exam during season 18 and is officially promoted in Mike's place in season 19. Following Carisi's move to the DA's office in season 21, Vice Officer Katriona \"Kat\" Tamin (Jamie Gray Hyder) joined the team after assisting on several","on several cases, eventually getting promoted to detective. Dodds also departed the series at the start of the season due to some issues in the case regarding a mogul raping countless women, allowing new deputy chief Christian Garland (Demore Barnes) to take his place. At the start of season 23, Tamin and Garland both resigned from the NYPD after becoming disillusioned with the legal system's failures and the systemic bias within the department, with Tamin being replaced by Detective Joe Velasco (Octavio Pisano). Chief Tommy McGrath (Terry Serpico) took over Garland's position until he could find a permanent deputy chief for SVU. At the beginning of season 24, Detective Grace Muncy (Molly Burnett) joined SVU after solving a case that involves a teenage Dominican gang, while Rollins resigned from SVU and the NYPD halfway through the season after accepting an offer from Carisi's old colleague to teach atFordham University. SVU also brought in Detectives Terry Bruno (Kevin Kane) and Tonie Churlish (Jasmine","Churlish (Jasmine Batchelor) from their Brooklyn counterparts. Muncy later departed at the end of the season to work on a DEA task force and Churlish also left during the same time. In season 25, McGrath was replaced as chief after crossing multiple lines in his interference with his daughter's rape case, and IAB Captain Renee Curry (Aime Donna Kelly) joined SVU in hopes of making changes. Shortly afterwards, FBI agent Shannah Sykes (Jordana Spiro) was put on loan to SVU after helping them rescue abducted girl Maddie Flynn.Sykes later left SVU at the season's end after solving the case of her missing sister, which ended up hitting her too close to home, and at the start of season 26, former Homicide detective Kate Silva (Juliana Aidén Martinez) joins the unit. Additionally, Rollins, after consulting on several cases following her departure, returns to the NYPD with a promotion to Sergeant and assignment as CO of the department's Intelligence Unit. Production Development The idea forLaw & Order: Special","& Order: Special Victims Unitoriginated with the 1986 \"preppie murder\" case ofRobert Chambers, who strangled and killed a woman he dated, Jennifer Levin, duringwhat he claimed was consensual \"rough sex\"inManhattan'sCentral Park. The crime inspiredDick Wolfto write the story for theseason oneepisode ofLaw & Ordertitled \"Kiss the Girls and Make Them Die\". After writing the episode, Wolf wanted to go deeper into the psychology of crimes to examine the role ofhuman sexuality. The original title of the show wasSex Crimes.Initially, there was concern among the producers that, shouldSex Crimesfail, identifying the new show with theLaw & Orderfranchise could affect the original show. Additionally,Ted Kotcheffwanted to create a new series that was not dependent upon the original series for success. Wolf felt, however, that it was important and commercially desirable to have \"Law & Order\" in the title, and he initially proposed the title of the show beLaw & Order: Sex Crimes.Barry Diller, then head ofStudios USA, was","ofStudios USA, was concerned about the title, however, and it was changed toLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitto reflect the actual unit of theNew York City Police Department(NYPD) that handles sexually-based offenses. Executive producerNeal BaerleftLaw & Order: SVUasshowrunnerat the end ofseason twelve, after eleven years (seasons 2–12) on the show, in order to sign a three-year deal withCBS Studios.Baer was replaced by formerLaw & Order: Criminal IntentshowrunnerWarren Leight.In March 2015, it was announced that Warren Leight signed a three-year deal withSony Pictures Television, that will allow him to work onSVUone more season, its seventeenth.It was announced on March 10, 2016, that originalLaw & Orderveteran producer Rick Eid would take Leight's place as showrunner starting in season 18. Creator Dick Wolf commented toThe Hollywood Reporter, \"I'm extremely pleased that Rick had decided to rejoin the family and hope that he will be here for years to come.\"During post-production of season 18, following the","18, following the announcement thatSVUwas renewed for a nineteenth season, it was revealed that Rick Eid departed the series. He will be taking over another Dick Wolf/NBC series,Chicago P.D. It was announced on May 25, 2017, that originalLaw & OrderandLaw & Order: Criminal IntentshowrunnerMichael S. Chernuchinwould be reprising his role starting on season nineteen. Chernuchin was also co-creator and executive producing showrunner ofChicago Justice, another Wolf-related show that was canceled by NBC at the end of the 2016–17 TV season.On April 22, 2019, it was announced that Leight would return as showrunner for the series' twenty-first season.On May 3, 2022, Leight announced that he would not be returning for the twenty-fourth season. Casting Casting for the lead characters ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitoccurred in the spring of 1999. Dick Wolf, along with officials from NBC and Studios USA were at the final auditions for the two leads atRockefeller Center. The last round had been narrowed down to seven","down to seven finalists. For the female lead, DetectiveOlivia Benson, actressesSamantha Mathis,Reiko Aylesworth, andMariska Hargitaywere being considered. For the male role, DetectiveElliot Stabler, the finalists wereTim Matheson,John Slattery,Nick Chinlund, andChristopher Meloni. Hargitay and Meloni had auditioned in the final round together and, after the actors left, there was a moment of dead silence, after which Wolf blurted out, \"Oh well. There's no doubt who we should choose—Hargitay and Meloni.\" Wolf believed the duo had the perfect chemistry together from the first time he saw them together, and they ended up being his first choice.Garth Ancier, then head of NBC Entertainment, agreed, and the rest of the panel assembled began voicing their assent. The first actor to be cast for the show wasDann Florek. Florek had originated the character of CaptainDon Cragenin the 1990 pilot forLaw & Order, and played the character for the show's first three seasons until he was fired on the orders of network","orders of network executives, who wanted to add female characters to the all-male primary cast, but he maintained a friendly relationship with Wolf, and went on to direct three episodes of the original series as well as to occasionally guest star on the show. Shortly after Florek reprised his role forExiled: A Law & Order Movie, he received a call to be onSex Crimes.Initially reluctant, he eventually agreed to star on the show as Cragen on the assurance that he would not be asked to audition for the role. Shortly after the cancellation ofHomicide: Life on the Street,Richard Belzerheard thatBenjamin Bratthad leftLaw & Order. Belzer requested his manager to call Wolf and pitch the idea for Belzer's character fromHomicide, DetectiveJohn Munch, to become the new partner ofJerry Orbach's character, DetectiveLennie Briscoe, since they had previously teamed in threeHomicidecrossovers. Wolf loved the idea, but had already castJesse L. Martinas Briscoe's new partner, DetectiveEd Green. The idea was reconfigured, but","reconfigured, but to have Munch onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitinstead.Since the character of Munch was inspired byDavid Simon's depiction of Detective Sergeant Jay Landsman and developed forHomicidebyTom FontanaandBarry Levinson, the addition of Munch to the cast required the consent of all three. The appropriate agreements were reached and, while Fontana and Levinson agreed to waive their royalty rights, contracts with Simon required that he be paid royalties for any new show in which Munch is a main character; as a result, Simon receives royalties every time Munch appears in an episode of the show. Dean Winterswas cast as Munch's partner,Brian Cassidy, at the insistence of Belzer. Belzer looked at Winters as a sort of little brother, and told Wolf, \"Well, I'll do this new show of yours,SVU, only if you make Dean Winters my partner.\"Wolf did make Winters Belzer's partner, but he was contractually obligated to his other show at the time, theHBOdramaOz. Since the role onLaw & Order: Special Victims","Special Victims Unitwas only initially meant to be a few episodes, Winters was forced to leave when it was time to filmOzagain. Winters returned for the season 13 finale, \"Rhodium Nights\", reprising his role as Cassidy. He also appeared (as Cassidy) on the two-part season 14 premiere \"Lost Reputation\"/\"Above Suspicion\".He subsequently became a recurring character into season 15. The void left by Winters's departure was filled for the remainder of the season byMichelle Hurdas DetectiveMonique Jeffries, a character who Wolf promised that, despite starting out as a minor character with one scene in the pilot, would eventually develop. Hurd left the show at the beginning of season two to join the cast ofLeap Years.Munch's permanent partner came in the form ofrapper-turned-actorIce-T, who had previously worked with Wolf onNew York UndercoverandExiled. Ice-T originally agreed to do only four episodes ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, but he quickly gained affection for the ensemble nature of the cast. He","of the cast. He relocated to New York City before his four-episode contract was up and remained with the show as Munch's permanent partner, DetectiveOdafin \"Fin\" Tutuola. Initially, the show focused exclusively on the police work of the detectives in the Special Victims Unit of the 16th precinct, with members of the District Attorney's office occasionally appearing as guest roles crossing over from the originalLaw & Order. From season two onwards, the format was changed to be more faithful to the originalLaw & Orderconcept by including court cases.Stephanie Marchhad little television experience before being cast onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, nor did she watch much TV. Nevertheless, March was cast as Assistant District AttorneyAlexandra Cabotat the beginning of season two but still believed that, due to the grim nature of the series, it would be short-lived. She stayed with the series for three seasons, however, and left when she believed she had reached the natural conclusion of the character's","of the character's development. She would later reprise the character as a guest appearance in season six and as a regular character on the short-lived Wolf series,Conviction, where she was promised more to do.Diane Nealhad previously guest-starred onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitin season three before being cast as Cabot's replacement,Casey Novak, in season five. Neal remained with the show through the end of season nine,after which she was replaced byMichaela McManus. March returned to the show in the tenth season (after McManus' departure from the cast) whenNeal Baerproposed Cabot receive a character arc to revitalize the second part of the season, which would continue through season eleven. Tamara Tuniewas cast asmedical examinerMelinda Warnerin season two after working with Wolf previously onNew York Undercover,Feds, andLaw & Order. Warner was initially arecurring characterbut became a regular character in season seven, and Tunie was added to the opening credits at that time.When initially cast as","initially cast as Warner, Tunie was appearing as attorney Jessica Griffin on theCBSdaytime soap operaAs the World Turns. From 2000 to 2007 (and again briefly in 2009), she appeared on both series simultaneously. In 2002, she also appeared on theFoxespionage-themed drama series24, in the recurring role of CTU Acting Director Alberta Green.BD Wongwas asked to film four episodes as Dr.George Huang, aFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI)forensic psychiatristandcriminal profileron loan to the Special Victims Unit. After his four episodes, he was asked to stay on with the show. After he starred inBury My Heart at Wounded Kneeand guest-starred as DetectiveChester Lakein the eighth season, Wolf felt thatAdam Beachwould be a good addition to the cast and asked him to be a permanent member beginning with the ninth season. Although Beach felt the role was a \"dream role\", the character proved unpopular with fans who felt that he was designed to gradually write out either Richard Belzer or Ice-T. Feeling there were too","there were too many police characters on the show, Beach left the show after only one season.Michaela McManuswas originally felt to be too young for the role of anAssistant District Attorney(ADA) before being cast as ADAKim Greylekin the tenth season. McManus, months removed from a recurring role onOne Tree Hill, remained with the series only half a season, however, before departing for unspecified reasons. Paula Pattonjoined the cast asADA Mikka Von. She replacedStephanie March.However, Patton dropped out after one episode to filmMission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol, and was replaced byMelissa Sagemillerin the recurring role of ADAGillian Hardwicke. Before the end of season twelve, Mariska Hargitay asked for a lighter workload. As a way of writing her out of certain episodes, a plan to have her character promoted to a supervisory role was discussed.At the end of season twelve, Christopher Meloni departed the cast, unable to reach agreement on a new contract. Warren Leight became the new showrunner during","showrunner during this same year and signed on before he knew that Meloni would be leaving the cast.The second major departure to be announced in 2011 was that of BD Wong. On July 17, Wong announced onTwitterthat, \"I actually do not return for season 13, I am jumping toAwake! It's awesome!\" Wong added, \"I don't know if or when I'll be back onSVU! It was amazing to have such a cool job for 11 years and to be a real NY Actor.\" Wong reprised his role as Dr. Huang in season 13's episode \"Father Dearest\". In June 2011, it was announced thatKelli GiddishandDanny Pinowould join the cast as new series regulars.Weeks later, it was announced that Stephanie March and Diane Neal would be reprising their roles as ADA Alexandra Cabot and ADA Casey Novak, respectively.The launch of season 13 was marked with a retooling of the show that Warren Leight referred to as \"SVU 2.0\".Changes that accompanied this included Tamara Tunie's being bumped from the main cast to a guest-starring role and recurring actorJoel de la Fuente's","de la Fuente's not appearing for the first time since 2002. Of the latter change, Warren Leight said, \"those scenes can be dry\" and hiredGilbert Gottfriedas a more comedic replacement. In season 14,Raúl Esparzajoined the cast in a recurring capacity as ADARafael Barbaand prior to the season 15 premiere, Esparza was promoted to a series regular. Also in season 15, Belzer departed the cast in the fifth episode, \"Wonderland Story\", in which Sgt. Munch retired from the NYPD and took a job in the DA's office as an investigator. Later in the season, Captain Cragen announced his departure from the NYPD, which made newly promoted Sgt. Benson the temporary squad commander. In leaving the cast, Florek ended a 400-episode run as Captain Cragen. In season 16,Peter Scanavinojoined the series, first in a recurring role for episodes 1–3 and then was promoted to the main cast in episode 5, with Kelli Giddish, Danny Pino, Ice-T and Raúl Esparza. On May 20, 2015, it was revealed that Danny Pino would be leaving the cast","be leaving the cast after the season 16 finale \"Surrendering Noah\". In August 2017, it was announced thatPhilip Winchesterwould recur in season 19 as ADAPeter Stone, his character fromChicago P.D.andChicago Justice, who is the son ofBenjamin Stone, the first ADA on the originalLaw & Orderseries.It was later also announced thatBrooke Shieldswas enlisted to assume a major recurring role (Sheila Porter, maternal grandmother of Noah Porter-Benson, Olivia's adopted son) starting in season 19 of the long-running dramatic series.On February 7, 2018, Raúl Esparza left the series after six seasons.His role was taken over by Winchester. Upon being renewed for its twenty-first season, it was announced that Winchester would be departing the series after the twentieth season. In March 2019, it was announced that the show would come back for season 21, making it thelongest-running primetime U.S. live-action series in the history of television.On March 29, 2019, it was revealed that Winchester would not return for season","return for season 21. He tweeted the same day about his departure from the show.On May 16, 2019, the season finale aired and Winchester took to Twitter to thank the cast and crew for the send-off.After recurring for several episodes in season 21 as Vice Officer Katriona Tamin,Jamie Gray Hyderjoined the cast as a regular, starting in episode 8.On October 6, 2020,Demore Barnes, who had recurred throughout season 21 as new Deputy Chief Christian Garland, was upgraded to regular status for season 22.On September 3, 2021, it was announced that Hyder and Barnes would both depart the series following the two-hour season 23 premiere.On October 13, 2021,Octavio Pisano, who had guest starred since the start of the season, was promoted to regular status.On August 24, 2022, it was announced that Kelli Giddish would leave the series during the first half of season 24. On November 10, 2022,Molly Burnett, who initially appeared in a recurring capacity for the first six episodes, was promoted to series regular beginning","regular beginning with the seventh episode.On November 28, 2023, it was announced that Kelli Giddish will come back for the premiere episode of season 25, which will be her second time reappearing after the season 24 finale.On July 22, 2024, it was reported that Kevin Kane, who portrays Terry Bruno, would be promoted to a series regular for the show's twenty-sixth season, after recurring the previous two seasons.On August 7, 2024, it was announced that Juliana Aidén Martinez, who will portray newcomer, Kate Silva, was added as a series regular ahead of the season premiere. Salaries By season twelve, both Mariska Hargitay and Christopher Meloni had become among the highest-paid lead actors on a drama, with each earning nearly $400,000 per episode, a salary thatTV Guidesaid was exceeded only byHouse'sHugh Laurie.During season sixteen, Hargitay was reported to be earning $450,000 per episode, or $10,350,000 per season.In season seventeen, her salary increased to $500,000 per episode. Filming and location Many","and location Many exterior scenes ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitare filmed on location in New York City, Wolf's hometown, throughout all five ofNew York City's boroughs.Fort Lee, New Jerseyserved as the filming location for DetectiveElliot Stabler's residence inQueens, New York. When searching for a place to film the interiors of the show, the producers found that there were no suitable studio spaces available in New York City. As a result, a space was chosen at NBC's Central Archives building in nearbyNorth Bergen, New Jersey, 53,000 square feet (4,900 m2) of stage area that had been left unused for some time.The Archives building was used for police station and courtroom scenes,with various other locations inHudson Countyused for other scenes, such as a scene shot at the Meadowlands Parkway inSecaucusin 2010. The production left New Jersey for New York in 2010, however, when New Jersey GovernorChris Christiesuspended the tax credits for film and television production for the Fiscal Year 2011 to close","Year 2011 to close budget gaps.The show moved into the studio space atChelsea Piersthat had been occupied by the originalLaw & Orderseries until its cancellation in May 2010. Episodes Release Broadcast Law & Order: SVUairs onNBCin the United States. With the season eleven premiere on September 23, 2009, the series vacated its Tuesday 10 p.m. ET slot as NBC began a nightly prime-time series hosted byJay Leno. The new time slot became Wednesday nights at 9:00 p.m. ET on NBC, withCTVstill airingSVUon Tuesdays at 10:00 in Canada.After the2010 Winter Olympicson March 3, 2010, the time slot again changed to Wednesdays at 10 p.m. ET, where it stayed until the twelfth season.For the 12th season,SVUmoved back to 9:00 p.m. to lead in the newestLaw & Orderspin-off,Law & Order: LA,until it was pulled from the network in January 2011 to be retooled.SVUmoved back to 10:00 p.m. on January 12, 2011, until the end of the 13th season.With season 14,SVUmoved back to 9:00 p.m. after a two-hour season premiere event on September","event on September 26, 2012.Beginning with Season 20,SVUwould air on Thursday nights at 10 p.m., after NBC decided to devote their entire Wednesday primetime lineup to theChicago Med,PD, andFiretrilogy. It marked the first time ever thatLaw & Order: SVUwould hold this timeslot on Thursday nights.Starting with season 22,SVUmoved to 9 p.m., with offshootLaw & Order: Organized Crimetaking its old slot. From season 21,Law & Order: Special Victims Unitairs onSky Witnessin the United Kingdom.Beginning from season 23, it moved from CTV toCityTVin Canada, simulcasting with NBC.Law & Order: Special Victims Unitairs onRock Entertainmentin Southeast Asia. Streaming PeacockandHulucurrently have all seasons (1–24) available. The latest 5 episodes can be watched for free on NBC.comand the NBC app.Outside of SVOD and NBC platforms, most episodes (outside of seasons 2–4 in the United States for unknown reasons) can be found onelectronic sell-throughplatforms such asiTunesandAmazon Prime Video.The series is available for","is available for streaming onPeacockalong withChicago Fire,Chicago P.D.,Chicago Med,Law & OrderandLaw & Order: Criminal Intent.Seasons 1–22 are available for streaming in Australia on Amazon Prime Video. In Brazil, seasons 11 to 13 are available on Amazon Prime Video, and seasons 1–22 are available on Globoplay, although seasons 15–22 require a subscription expansion or cable access to UniversalTV.In 2024, selected seasons returned toNetflixin certain regions including the UK, Europe, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America. Syndication As of January 2024, the series is rerun on fellowNBCUniversalnetworkUSA, as well as onIon TelevisionandMyNetworkTVstations. The series also briefly ran onSyfyin 2006. In 2008,Foxobtained rights to airLaw & Order: SVUon Fox-owned TV stations, and began doing so in the fall of 2009. Reception Ratings In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook likesfound thatSVU's popularity was \"atypical: generally slightly more popular in rural areas and","in rural areas and the South, but largely restricted to the eastern half of the country. It is most popular inAlbany, N.Y.; least in Colorado and Utah\". Awards and honors Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas received many awards and award nominations.Mariska Hargitayhas twice been nominated for aGolden Globe Awardand won once in 2005. The show has been nominated numerous times for theEmmy Award.Mariska Hargitayhas been nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category eight years in a row beginning in 2004 and won the Emmy in 2006.Christopher Meloniwas nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series category in 2006.Robin Williamswas nominated in the Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2008. The series was nominated in the category Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series forJane AlexanderandTracy Pollanin 2000,Martha Plimptonin 2002,Barbara Barriein 2003,Mare WinninghamandMarlee Matlinin 2004,Amanda PlummerandAngela Lansburyin 2005,Marcia Gay HardenandLeslie","Gay HardenandLeslie Caronin 2007,Cynthia Nixonin 2008,Ellen Burstyn,Brenda Blethyn, andCarol Burnettin 2009, andAnn-Margretin 2010. The series won the award for Plummer in 2005, Caron in 2007, Nixon in 2008, Burstyn in 2009, and Ann-Margret in 2010. Critical reception Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas been well received among critics. The show holds an average score of 88% onRotten Tomatoes.In 2014, Joshua Alston ofThe A.V. Clubdescribed it as \"most improved, and that uptick in quality is all the more admirable.Ilana Kaplan ofThe New York Timeswrote that the series, the longest-running drama in primetime history, and Mariska Hargitay as Olivia Benson is a person of repose of real life victims and survivors. Hargitay quoted: \"It became very apparent to me early how much, culturally, we needed this character who relentlessly fights and advocates for women and for survivors, and who does it with compassion,\" she said through tears. \"Somebody who is unequivocally committed to righting wrongs, who believes","who believes survivors, who's aware of the healing in it.\"The site ofMetacriticgive a score of 66% on 25 critics review. Russian adaptation In 2007, the Russian production company Studio 2B purchased the rights to create an adaptation ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitfor Russian television. TitledLaw & Order: Division of Field Investigation,the series stars Alisa Bogart and Vica Fiorelia. It follows a unit of investigators in Moscow whose job is to investigate crimes of a sexual nature. The series aired onNTVuntil 2010 and was produced by Pavel Korchagin, Felix Kleiman and Edward Verzbovski and directed by Dmitry Brusnikin. The screenplays were written by Sergei Kuznvetsov, Elena Karavaeshnikova, and Maya Shapovalova. Spin-off On March 31, 2020, it was announced that NBC had ordered an untitled spin-off series to launch in the 2020–21 television season, withChristopher Melonireprising his role asElliot Stabler. Meloni leftSVUin 2011. The series order consists of 13 episodes.On June 2, 2020, it was","2, 2020, it was announced that the series would be calledLaw & Order: Organized Crimeand writer Craig Gore had been fired.When NBC announced its fall schedule on June 16,Organized Crimewas the only new show on the schedule, slotted for Thursdays at 10/9c.However, the series was later delayed to 2021.On October 2, 2020, it was announced thatMatt Olmsteadwould be stepping down as showrunner and a replacement was not announced at the time.On December 9, 2020, it was announced thatIlene Chaikenhas joined as showrunner after her overall deal withUniversal Television.Dylan McDermottwas announced on January 27, 2021, as joining the cast in an unspecified role.On February 2, 2021,Tamara Taylorwas cast in an undisclosed role.On February 4, 2021, it was announced that the series would premiere on April 1, 2021, in a two-hour crossover event. Explanatory notes References Citations General and cited references External links","List of Super Bowl champions TheSuper Bowlis the annualAmerican footballgame that determines the champion of theNational Football League(NFL). The game culminates aseasonthat begins in the previous calendar year, and is the conclusion of theNFL playoffs. The winner receives theVince Lombardi Trophy. The contest is held in an American city, chosen three to four years beforehand,usually at warm-weather sites ordomed stadiums.Since January 1971, the winner of theAmerican Football Conference (AFC) Championship Gamehas faced the winner of theNational Football Conference (NFC) Championship Gamein the culmination of the NFL playoffs. Before the1970 mergerbetween theAmerican Football League(AFL) and theNational Football League(NFL), the two leagues met in four such contests. The first two were marketed as the \"AFL–NFL World Championship Game\", but were also casually referred to as \"the Super Bowl game\" during the television broadcast.Super Bowl IIIin January 1969 was the first such game that carried the \"Super Bowl\"","the \"Super Bowl\" moniker in official marketing; the names \"Super Bowl I\" and \"Super Bowl II\" were retroactively applied to the first two games. A total of 20 franchises, including teams that have relocated to another city or changed their name, have won the Super Bowl.There are fourNFL teamsthat have never appeared in a Super Bowl: theCleveland Browns,Detroit Lions,Jacksonville Jaguars, andHouston Texans, though both the Browns (1950,1954,1955,1964) and Lions (1935,1952,1953,1957) had wonNFL Championship Gamesprior to the creation of the Super Bowl in the1966 season. The1972 Dolphinscapped off the onlyperfect seasoninNFL historywith their victory inSuper Bowl VII. Only two franchises have ever won the Super Bowl while hosting at their home stadiums: theTampa Bay BuccaneersinSuper Bowl LVand theLos Angeles RamsinSuper Bowl LVI. Super Bowl championship games Numbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows: WIndicates a team that made the","team that made the playoffs as awild cardteam (rather than by winning a division). Upcoming games Consecutive wins Eight franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls, one of which (Pittsburgh) has accomplished it twice: Although no franchise to date has won three Super Bowls in a row, several have had eras of sustained success, nearly accomplishing athree-peat: Consecutive losses Three franchises have lost consecutive Super Bowls: Consecutive appearances TheBuffalo Billshave the most consecutive appearances with four from 1990 to 1993. TheMiami Dolphins(1971–1973) andNew England Patriots(2016–2018) are the only other teams to have at least three consecutive appearances. All three teams with three or more consecutive Super Bowl appearances are in theAFC Eastdivision. Including those three, 11 teams have at least two consecutive appearances. TheDallas Cowboysare the only team with three separate streaks (1970–1971, 1977–1978, and 1992–1993). TheGreen Bay Packers,Pittsburgh Steelers,Denver Broncos,and New","Broncos,and New England Patriots have each had two separate consecutive appearances. TheKansas City Chiefsare the most recent team to appear in consecutive Super Bowls, playing inSuper Bowl LVIIandSuper Bowl LVIII. The full listing of teams with consecutive appearances is below in order of first occurrence; winning games are inbold: Super Bowl rematches The following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl: Super Bowl records by franchise In the sortable table below, franchises are ordered first by number of wins, followed by the total number of appearances, and finally by the total number of points scored for the franchise throughout all appearances. Included in the table are all of the team names that each franchise has had since the 1966 season, a.k.a. the start of the Super Bowl era. Teams with Super Bowl appearances but no victories Eight teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning. In descending order of number of appearances and then years since their last","since their last appearance, they are: Teams with no Super Bowl appearances or long active droughts Four current teams have never reached the Super Bowl (shown inboldbelow). Two of them (Jacksonville and Houston) joined the NFL relatively recently, and there are an additional eight teams whose Super Bowl appearance droughts began prior to 2002 (the year Houston joined the NFL). The other two teams that have never appeared in a Super Bowl (Cleveland and Detroit) both heldNFL league championshipsprior toSuper Bowl Iin the1966 NFL season.Teams are listed below according to the length of their current Super Bowl droughts (as of the end of the 2023 season, after Super Bowl LVIII): See also Explanatory notes References External links","1998 Denver Broncos season The1998 seasonwas theDenver Broncos' 29th in theNational Football League(NFL) and their 39th overall. The Broncos entered the season as thedefending Super Bowl championsand looked to become only the fifth team in league history to win consecutive Super Bowls. Finishing with a record of 12–4 the previous year, the Broncos improved on that mark by two wins and tiedthe Atlanta Falconsfor second best record at 14–2. They won their first thirteen games, the best start since theunbeaten1972 Dolphins. After 16 seasons,John Elwayretired following the Super Bowl. He finished his Broncos career with 51,475 yards passing and 300 touchdowns. UntilPeyton Manningwon inSuper Bowl 50, Elway stood as the only Broncos quarterback to win a Super Bowl. However, Elway even played a large role in that victory as thegeneral managerand president of football operations for the Broncos. Running backTerrell Davisset a team single season rushing mark. His final total was 2,008 yards, making him only the fourth","him only the fourth player to rush forover 2,000 yards in single season. A multi-year investigation from 2001 to 2005 revealed that between 1996 and 1998, the team had cheated the salary cap by deferring other money to Elway and Davis outside of the team’s salary. Denver claimed it gave them no competitive advantage. The team was subsequently fined nearly two million dollars and were forced to give up two third-round picks in the2002and2005drafts. In 2007, the 1998 Broncos were ranked as the 12th greatest Super Bowl champions on theNFL Network's documentary seriesAmerica's Game: The Super Bowl Champions. They ranked #14 on the 100 greatest teams of all time presented by the NFL on its 100th anniversary. Offseason NFL draft Staff Front office Head coaches Offensive coaches Special teams coaches Strength and conditioning Roster Running backs(RB) Wide receivers(WR) Tight ends(TE) Defensive linemen(DL) Defensive backs(DB){{{defensive_back}}} Special teams 53 active, 3 inactive, 5 practice squadReserved Rookies","Rookies in italics Season summary The Broncos won their first 13 games of the season. There was much speculation that they might finish 19–0and the Broncos were featured on the cover ofSports Illustrated. However, they were upset bythe New York Giants(who would end another attempt at a 19–0 seasonnine seasons later) in week 15 by a score of 20–16. They finished the regular season 14–2 after losing tothe Dolphinsin their first encounter with that team since1985. They finished first in theAFC Westand won their divisional playoff game againstthe Miami Dolphins38–3 for their first win over the Dolphins since1968.They then won theAFC Championshipover theBill ParcellscoachedNew York Jets23–10 after coming back from a 10–0 deficit. Many had expected Denver to playthe Minnesota Vikings, the team with the number one record that year at 15–1, in the Super Bowl. However, the Vikings lost theNFC Championship Gametothe Atlanta Falconsin overtime. The Broncos defeated the Falcons 34–19 in Super Bowl XXXIII. Elway was","XXXIII. Elway was theSuper Bowl MVPand Davis rushed for over 100 yards. It was Elway's last game, and Denver would not reach the Super Bowl again untilthe 2013 season. Preseason Regular season Schedule Standings Playoffs AFC Divisional Game vs. Miami Dolphins atMile High Stadium,Denver, Colorado First quarter Second quarter Third quarter Fourth quarter Dolphins Broncos Turnovers: AFC Championship game vs. New York Jets atMile High Stadium,Denver, Colorado First quarter Second quarter Third quarter Fourth quarter Jets Broncos Turnovers: Despite a subpar performance from quarterbackJohn Elway, the Broncos came from a ten-point deficit to score twenty three unanswered points, thanks in large part to the Jets turning the ball over an astonishing six times. Super Bowl XXXIII: vs. Atlanta Falcons atPro Player Stadium,Miami, Florida The Denver Broncos become the third team in the last 9 years to repeat as Super Bowl champions, along with theSan Francisco 49ersand theDallas Cowboys.John Elwaywas voted Super Bowl","voted Super Bowl MVP. Statistics Team stats The Broncos had 3,808yardspassing, sixth in the league. They had 2,468 yards rushing, second in the league and 26 rushing touchdowns, first in the league. They had 6,276 total yards, third best. They gave up 3,983 passing yards, a low 28 out of 30 in the NFL, but were third in rushing yards given up with 1,287. They gave up 5,270 yards, 12th in the NFL. They scored 501 points, second in the league and gave up 309, eighth fewest in the league. The Broncos’ 14–2 record remains their best regular season record (most wins and equal fewest losses) in franchise history. Player stats For the season Elway threw for 2,806 yards, 22 touchdowns and ten interceptions. Davis rushed for 2,008 yards and 21 touchdowns.Rod Smithhad 86 receptions for 1,222 yards and six touchdowns.Ed McCaffreyhad 64 receptions for 1,053 yards.Shannon Sharpehad 64 receptions for 768 yards.Jason Elamkicked 23 out of 27 field goals and 58 out of 58 extra points including a 63-yard field goal to tie Tom","goal to tie Tom Dempsey with the longest field goal in NFL history at that time. This record has since been eclipsed by another Denver Bronco inMatt Prater, and once again byJustin Tucker. Steve Atwater, Davis, Elway,Tony Jones,Mark Schlereth, McCaffrey,Tom Nalen,Bill Romanowski, and Sharpe made thePro Bowl. Awards and records Milestones References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Law & Order: Special Victims Unit Law & Order: Special Victims Unit(often shortened toLaw & Order: SVUorSVU) is an Americanpolice proceduralcrime dramatelevision series created byDick WolfforNBC. The first spin-off ofLaw & Order, it starsMariska Hargitayas Detective (ultimately promoted toCaptain)Olivia Benson, now the commanding officer of theSpecial Victims Unitafter originally having been Stabler's partner in a fictionalized version of theNew York City Police Department, andChristopher Melonias DetectiveElliot Stabler(until Meloni left the series in 2011 after 12 seasons).Law & Order: Special Victims Unitfollows the detectives of the Special Victims Unit as they investigate and prosecute sexually based crimes. Some of the episodes are loosely based on real crimes that have received media attention. The series, produced byWolf EntertainmentandUniversal Television, premiered on September 20, 1999. After the premiere of its 21st season in September 2019, the series became thelongest-running primetime\",\n \"primetime live-action series on American television.Since the end of the original run of the mainLaw & Orderseries in 2010,SVUhas been the only live-action primetime series that debuted in the 1990s that has remained in continuous production.The23rd seasonpremiered on September 23, 2021,during which the show aired its milestone 500th episode.As of May 16, 2024,Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas aired 551 original episodes, well surpassing theepisode count of the originalLaw & Orderseries. In terms of all-time episode count for a primetime scripted series,SVUnow ranks fourth behindThe Simpsons(with 768 episodes),Gunsmoke(with 635 episodes), andLassie(with 591 episodes).The 25th season premiered on January 18, 2024,and on March 21, 2024, NBC announced that it renewed the series for its 26th season, which premiered on October 3, 2024. The series has received108 award nominations, winning 33 awards. Hargitay was the first regular cast member on anyLaw & Orderseries to win anEmmy Awardwhen she won thePrimetime\",\n \"won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Seriesin 2006. Premise In the criminal justice system, sexually based offenses are considered especially heinous. In New York City, the dedicated detectives who investigate these vicious felonies are members of an elite squad known as the Special Victims Unit. These are their stories. – Opening narration spoken bySteven Zirnkilton Based out of the NYPDNew York City Police Department's 16th precinct in Manhattan,Law & Order: Special Victims Unitdelves into the dark side of the New York underworld as the detectives of a new elite squad, theSpecial Victims Unit(SVU for short), investigate and prosecute various sexually oriented crimes, including rape, child sexual abuse, human trafficking and domestic violence. They also investigate the abuses of children, the disabled and elderly victims of non-sexual crimes who require specialist handling, all while trying to balance the effects of the investigation on their own lives as they try not to let\",\n \"they try not to let the dark side of these crimes affect them. Its stories also touch on the political and societal issues associated with gender identity, sexual preferences, and equality rights. While the victim is often murdered, this is not always the case, and victims frequently play prominent roles in episodes. The unit also works with the Manhattan District Attorney's office as they prosecute cases and seek justice for SVU's victims and survivors with precision and a passion to win and bring closure to the intense investigations. The series often uses stories that are \\\"ripped from the headlines\\\" or based on real crimes. Such episodes take a real crime and fictionalize it by changing some details. Cast and characters Originally, the show focused around the detective pairing ofElliot Stabler(Christopher Meloni) andOlivia Benson(Mariska Hargitay). Stabler is a seasoned veteran of the unit who has seen it all and tries his best to protect his family from the horrors he has seen in his career. Meanwhile,\",\n \"career. Meanwhile, Benson's difficult past as the child of a rape victim is the reason she joined the unit. Backing them up are DetectiveJohn Munch(Richard Belzer) and his first partner,Brian Cassidy(Dean Winters). Munch is a transfer from Baltimore's homicide unit, who brings his acerbic wit, conspiracy theories, and street-honed investigative skills; Cassidy is young and eager to learn from his fellow detectives. These two detective teams received support from DetectivesMonique Jeffries(Michelle Hurd) and Ken Briscoe (Chris Orbach).After thirteen episodes, Cassidy gets transferred to the narcotics division because of his inability to work well on the cases and the fact that they reminded him too much of his childhood abuse. As a result, Jeffries gets partnered up with Munch for the remainder of season one and Briscoe was phased out. In the beginning of season two, Jeffries leaves the unit following an incident with the Morris Commission and Munch gets permanently partnered up with DetectiveOdafin \\\"Fin\\\"\",\n \"\\\"Fin\\\" Tutuola(Ice-T), whose unique yet sometimes vulgar sense of humor and investigative experience make him a formidable match for Munch. Brooklyn SVU DetectiveChester Lake(Adam Beach) would assist on several Manhattan cases during the eighth season and then join during season nine; Lake would then depart at the season's end after being arrested for murdering a crooked cop who had gotten away with rape. These detectives were supervised by veteran CaptainDonald Cragen(Dann Florek), who oversaw the team for seasons 1–15 and was previously the commanding officer of the Manhattan North Homicide precinct on the first 3 seasons ofLaw & Order. Cragen's tough-but-supportive approach to the team's complex cases guides the squad through the challenges they face every day. Also assisting the Special Victims Unit, is FBI Special Agent Dr. George Huang (BD Wong) who helps keep the officers sane in a field that could drive ordinary people mad, whilst also serving as the squad's resident criminal profiler, his insights\",\n \"his insights into the criminal mind have often helped the officers to crack the toughest perps. The team also works withMedical ExaminerDr. Melinda Warner (Tamara Tunie), who has become an integral part of the unit, and her personal skills have contributed to the unit's high success rate in closing cases. The unit did not receive a full-time assistant district attorney until season two, whenAlexandra Cabot(Stephanie March) was assigned to work with the detectives.After Cabot enters the Witness Protection Program after almost being killed in a hit in season five, she was replaced byCasey Novak(Diane Neal), who remained as the ADA until the end of season nine, when she was censured for violating due process while trying to bring a rapist cop (the same one that Lake would end up murdering) to justice.Kim Greylek(Michaela McManus) became the permanent ADA in the season ten premiere, until Cabot made a return midway through that season when Greylek returned to the Justice Department in Washington, D.C. Cabot\",\n \"D.C. Cabot remained the ADA through the second half of season 10. After Cabot's departure, the ADA void was filled by Sonya Paxton (Christine Lahti) and Jo Marlowe (Sharon Stone) until the conclusion of season 11. Gillian Hardwicke (Melissa Sagemiller) served as the SVU's ADA during season 12, while Novak would return for a guest appearance after completing her suspension near the end of the season. Paxton would also return for one more appearance in the season, during which she is brutally murdered by a rapist/murderer, but manages to leave behind vital evidence to assure his conviction. In season 13, both Cabot and Novak returned as ADAs. From the beginning of season 14, ADARafael Barba(Raúl Esparza) was SVU's prosecutor, until leaving halfway through season 19 following the death of an infant. Chicago Justice'sPeter Stone(Philip Winchester) became SVU's ADA afterChicago Justicewas canceled after only one season. At the end of season 20, Stone decided to leave due to some of the cases being too much for\",\n \"being too much for him to handle. From there, former SVU DetectiveDominick Carisi Jr.(Peter Scanavino) takes his place at the start of season 21. In season 13, big changes happen when Stabler retires in the aftermath of the season 12 finale, until he reappeared in season 22, which led him to join NYPD's Organized Crime Control Bureau inLaw & Order: Organized Crime. Huang also departed at the same time after being reassigned to Oklahoma City, but has returned for occasional guest appearances. DetectivesNick Amaro(Danny Pino) andAmanda Rollins(Kelli Giddish) joined the team filling the void left by Stabler. Amaro brought empathy to his cases while dealing with a stressful home life, while Rollins had dogged persistence and instincts help her close cases, but also secrets from her past that could derail her career. During season 15, both Munch and Cragen retired from the NYPD, leaving Benson, after being promoted to Sergeant, to take control of the unit; she would later be promoted to Lieutenant at the start of\",\n \"at the start of season 17 and then Captain at the start of season 21. Season 16 was another period of change with the introduction of Carisi at the beginning and the departure of Amaro at the end, with the latter relocating to California to be near his moved children after being wounded in the line of duty and learning that previous instances of misconduct have cost him any chance for advancement in the department. Also introduced in season 16 was Deputy Chief William Dodds (Peter Gallagher), who served as commanding officer for the Special Victims Units in all five boroughs of New York. Dodds' son Mike (Andy Karl) transfers into Special Victims as Sergeant in season 17, becoming Benson's second-in-command until his death at the end of the season; Fin later passes the Sergeant's exam during season 18 and is officially promoted in Mike's place in season 19. Following Carisi's move to the DA's office in season 21, Vice Officer Katriona \\\"Kat\\\" Tamin (Jamie Gray Hyder) joined the team after assisting on several\",\n \"on several cases, eventually getting promoted to detective. Dodds also departed the series at the start of the season due to some issues in the case regarding a mogul raping countless women, allowing new deputy chief Christian Garland (Demore Barnes) to take his place. At the start of season 23, Tamin and Garland both resigned from the NYPD after becoming disillusioned with the legal system's failures and the systemic bias within the department, with Tamin being replaced by Detective Joe Velasco (Octavio Pisano). Chief Tommy McGrath (Terry Serpico) took over Garland's position until he could find a permanent deputy chief for SVU. At the beginning of season 24, Detective Grace Muncy (Molly Burnett) joined SVU after solving a case that involves a teenage Dominican gang, while Rollins resigned from SVU and the NYPD halfway through the season after accepting an offer from Carisi's old colleague to teach atFordham University. SVU also brought in Detectives Terry Bruno (Kevin Kane) and Tonie Churlish (Jasmine\",\n \"Churlish (Jasmine Batchelor) from their Brooklyn counterparts. Muncy later departed at the end of the season to work on a DEA task force and Churlish also left during the same time. In season 25, McGrath was replaced as chief after crossing multiple lines in his interference with his daughter's rape case, and IAB Captain Renee Curry (Aime Donna Kelly) joined SVU in hopes of making changes. Shortly afterwards, FBI agent Shannah Sykes (Jordana Spiro) was put on loan to SVU after helping them rescue abducted girl Maddie Flynn.Sykes later left SVU at the season's end after solving the case of her missing sister, which ended up hitting her too close to home, and at the start of season 26, former Homicide detective Kate Silva (Juliana Aidén Martinez) joins the unit. Additionally, Rollins, after consulting on several cases following her departure, returns to the NYPD with a promotion to Sergeant and assignment as CO of the department's Intelligence Unit. Production Development The idea forLaw & Order: Special\",\n \"& Order: Special Victims Unitoriginated with the 1986 \\\"preppie murder\\\" case ofRobert Chambers, who strangled and killed a woman he dated, Jennifer Levin, duringwhat he claimed was consensual \\\"rough sex\\\"inManhattan'sCentral Park. The crime inspiredDick Wolfto write the story for theseason oneepisode ofLaw & Ordertitled \\\"Kiss the Girls and Make Them Die\\\". After writing the episode, Wolf wanted to go deeper into the psychology of crimes to examine the role ofhuman sexuality. The original title of the show wasSex Crimes.Initially, there was concern among the producers that, shouldSex Crimesfail, identifying the new show with theLaw & Orderfranchise could affect the original show. Additionally,Ted Kotcheffwanted to create a new series that was not dependent upon the original series for success. Wolf felt, however, that it was important and commercially desirable to have \\\"Law & Order\\\" in the title, and he initially proposed the title of the show beLaw & Order: Sex Crimes.Barry Diller, then head ofStudios USA, was\",\n \"ofStudios USA, was concerned about the title, however, and it was changed toLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitto reflect the actual unit of theNew York City Police Department(NYPD) that handles sexually-based offenses. Executive producerNeal BaerleftLaw & Order: SVUasshowrunnerat the end ofseason twelve, after eleven years (seasons 2–12) on the show, in order to sign a three-year deal withCBS Studios.Baer was replaced by formerLaw & Order: Criminal IntentshowrunnerWarren Leight.In March 2015, it was announced that Warren Leight signed a three-year deal withSony Pictures Television, that will allow him to work onSVUone more season, its seventeenth.It was announced on March 10, 2016, that originalLaw & Orderveteran producer Rick Eid would take Leight's place as showrunner starting in season 18. Creator Dick Wolf commented toThe Hollywood Reporter, \\\"I'm extremely pleased that Rick had decided to rejoin the family and hope that he will be here for years to come.\\\"During post-production of season 18, following the\",\n \"18, following the announcement thatSVUwas renewed for a nineteenth season, it was revealed that Rick Eid departed the series. He will be taking over another Dick Wolf/NBC series,Chicago P.D. It was announced on May 25, 2017, that originalLaw & OrderandLaw & Order: Criminal IntentshowrunnerMichael S. Chernuchinwould be reprising his role starting on season nineteen. Chernuchin was also co-creator and executive producing showrunner ofChicago Justice, another Wolf-related show that was canceled by NBC at the end of the 2016–17 TV season.On April 22, 2019, it was announced that Leight would return as showrunner for the series' twenty-first season.On May 3, 2022, Leight announced that he would not be returning for the twenty-fourth season. Casting Casting for the lead characters ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitoccurred in the spring of 1999. Dick Wolf, along with officials from NBC and Studios USA were at the final auditions for the two leads atRockefeller Center. The last round had been narrowed down to seven\",\n \"down to seven finalists. For the female lead, DetectiveOlivia Benson, actressesSamantha Mathis,Reiko Aylesworth, andMariska Hargitaywere being considered. For the male role, DetectiveElliot Stabler, the finalists wereTim Matheson,John Slattery,Nick Chinlund, andChristopher Meloni. Hargitay and Meloni had auditioned in the final round together and, after the actors left, there was a moment of dead silence, after which Wolf blurted out, \\\"Oh well. There's no doubt who we should choose—Hargitay and Meloni.\\\" Wolf believed the duo had the perfect chemistry together from the first time he saw them together, and they ended up being his first choice.Garth Ancier, then head of NBC Entertainment, agreed, and the rest of the panel assembled began voicing their assent. The first actor to be cast for the show wasDann Florek. Florek had originated the character of CaptainDon Cragenin the 1990 pilot forLaw & Order, and played the character for the show's first three seasons until he was fired on the orders of network\",\n \"orders of network executives, who wanted to add female characters to the all-male primary cast, but he maintained a friendly relationship with Wolf, and went on to direct three episodes of the original series as well as to occasionally guest star on the show. Shortly after Florek reprised his role forExiled: A Law & Order Movie, he received a call to be onSex Crimes.Initially reluctant, he eventually agreed to star on the show as Cragen on the assurance that he would not be asked to audition for the role. Shortly after the cancellation ofHomicide: Life on the Street,Richard Belzerheard thatBenjamin Bratthad leftLaw & Order. Belzer requested his manager to call Wolf and pitch the idea for Belzer's character fromHomicide, DetectiveJohn Munch, to become the new partner ofJerry Orbach's character, DetectiveLennie Briscoe, since they had previously teamed in threeHomicidecrossovers. Wolf loved the idea, but had already castJesse L. Martinas Briscoe's new partner, DetectiveEd Green. The idea was reconfigured, but\",\n \"reconfigured, but to have Munch onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitinstead.Since the character of Munch was inspired byDavid Simon's depiction of Detective Sergeant Jay Landsman and developed forHomicidebyTom FontanaandBarry Levinson, the addition of Munch to the cast required the consent of all three. The appropriate agreements were reached and, while Fontana and Levinson agreed to waive their royalty rights, contracts with Simon required that he be paid royalties for any new show in which Munch is a main character; as a result, Simon receives royalties every time Munch appears in an episode of the show. Dean Winterswas cast as Munch's partner,Brian Cassidy, at the insistence of Belzer. Belzer looked at Winters as a sort of little brother, and told Wolf, \\\"Well, I'll do this new show of yours,SVU, only if you make Dean Winters my partner.\\\"Wolf did make Winters Belzer's partner, but he was contractually obligated to his other show at the time, theHBOdramaOz. Since the role onLaw & Order: Special Victims\",\n \"Special Victims Unitwas only initially meant to be a few episodes, Winters was forced to leave when it was time to filmOzagain. Winters returned for the season 13 finale, \\\"Rhodium Nights\\\", reprising his role as Cassidy. He also appeared (as Cassidy) on the two-part season 14 premiere \\\"Lost Reputation\\\"/\\\"Above Suspicion\\\".He subsequently became a recurring character into season 15. The void left by Winters's departure was filled for the remainder of the season byMichelle Hurdas DetectiveMonique Jeffries, a character who Wolf promised that, despite starting out as a minor character with one scene in the pilot, would eventually develop. Hurd left the show at the beginning of season two to join the cast ofLeap Years.Munch's permanent partner came in the form ofrapper-turned-actorIce-T, who had previously worked with Wolf onNew York UndercoverandExiled. Ice-T originally agreed to do only four episodes ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, but he quickly gained affection for the ensemble nature of the cast. He\",\n \"of the cast. He relocated to New York City before his four-episode contract was up and remained with the show as Munch's permanent partner, DetectiveOdafin \\\"Fin\\\" Tutuola. Initially, the show focused exclusively on the police work of the detectives in the Special Victims Unit of the 16th precinct, with members of the District Attorney's office occasionally appearing as guest roles crossing over from the originalLaw & Order. From season two onwards, the format was changed to be more faithful to the originalLaw & Orderconcept by including court cases.Stephanie Marchhad little television experience before being cast onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, nor did she watch much TV. Nevertheless, March was cast as Assistant District AttorneyAlexandra Cabotat the beginning of season two but still believed that, due to the grim nature of the series, it would be short-lived. She stayed with the series for three seasons, however, and left when she believed she had reached the natural conclusion of the character's\",\n \"of the character's development. She would later reprise the character as a guest appearance in season six and as a regular character on the short-lived Wolf series,Conviction, where she was promised more to do.Diane Nealhad previously guest-starred onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitin season three before being cast as Cabot's replacement,Casey Novak, in season five. Neal remained with the show through the end of season nine,after which she was replaced byMichaela McManus. March returned to the show in the tenth season (after McManus' departure from the cast) whenNeal Baerproposed Cabot receive a character arc to revitalize the second part of the season, which would continue through season eleven. Tamara Tuniewas cast asmedical examinerMelinda Warnerin season two after working with Wolf previously onNew York Undercover,Feds, andLaw & Order. Warner was initially arecurring characterbut became a regular character in season seven, and Tunie was added to the opening credits at that time.When initially cast as\",\n \"initially cast as Warner, Tunie was appearing as attorney Jessica Griffin on theCBSdaytime soap operaAs the World Turns. From 2000 to 2007 (and again briefly in 2009), she appeared on both series simultaneously. In 2002, she also appeared on theFoxespionage-themed drama series24, in the recurring role of CTU Acting Director Alberta Green.BD Wongwas asked to film four episodes as Dr.George Huang, aFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI)forensic psychiatristandcriminal profileron loan to the Special Victims Unit. After his four episodes, he was asked to stay on with the show. After he starred inBury My Heart at Wounded Kneeand guest-starred as DetectiveChester Lakein the eighth season, Wolf felt thatAdam Beachwould be a good addition to the cast and asked him to be a permanent member beginning with the ninth season. Although Beach felt the role was a \\\"dream role\\\", the character proved unpopular with fans who felt that he was designed to gradually write out either Richard Belzer or Ice-T. Feeling there were too\",\n \"there were too many police characters on the show, Beach left the show after only one season.Michaela McManuswas originally felt to be too young for the role of anAssistant District Attorney(ADA) before being cast as ADAKim Greylekin the tenth season. McManus, months removed from a recurring role onOne Tree Hill, remained with the series only half a season, however, before departing for unspecified reasons. Paula Pattonjoined the cast asADA Mikka Von. She replacedStephanie March.However, Patton dropped out after one episode to filmMission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol, and was replaced byMelissa Sagemillerin the recurring role of ADAGillian Hardwicke. Before the end of season twelve, Mariska Hargitay asked for a lighter workload. As a way of writing her out of certain episodes, a plan to have her character promoted to a supervisory role was discussed.At the end of season twelve, Christopher Meloni departed the cast, unable to reach agreement on a new contract. Warren Leight became the new showrunner during\",\n \"showrunner during this same year and signed on before he knew that Meloni would be leaving the cast.The second major departure to be announced in 2011 was that of BD Wong. On July 17, Wong announced onTwitterthat, \\\"I actually do not return for season 13, I am jumping toAwake! It's awesome!\\\" Wong added, \\\"I don't know if or when I'll be back onSVU! It was amazing to have such a cool job for 11 years and to be a real NY Actor.\\\" Wong reprised his role as Dr. Huang in season 13's episode \\\"Father Dearest\\\". In June 2011, it was announced thatKelli GiddishandDanny Pinowould join the cast as new series regulars.Weeks later, it was announced that Stephanie March and Diane Neal would be reprising their roles as ADA Alexandra Cabot and ADA Casey Novak, respectively.The launch of season 13 was marked with a retooling of the show that Warren Leight referred to as \\\"SVU 2.0\\\".Changes that accompanied this included Tamara Tunie's being bumped from the main cast to a guest-starring role and recurring actorJoel de la Fuente's\",\n \"de la Fuente's not appearing for the first time since 2002. Of the latter change, Warren Leight said, \\\"those scenes can be dry\\\" and hiredGilbert Gottfriedas a more comedic replacement. In season 14,Raúl Esparzajoined the cast in a recurring capacity as ADARafael Barbaand prior to the season 15 premiere, Esparza was promoted to a series regular. Also in season 15, Belzer departed the cast in the fifth episode, \\\"Wonderland Story\\\", in which Sgt. Munch retired from the NYPD and took a job in the DA's office as an investigator. Later in the season, Captain Cragen announced his departure from the NYPD, which made newly promoted Sgt. Benson the temporary squad commander. In leaving the cast, Florek ended a 400-episode run as Captain Cragen. In season 16,Peter Scanavinojoined the series, first in a recurring role for episodes 1–3 and then was promoted to the main cast in episode 5, with Kelli Giddish, Danny Pino, Ice-T and Raúl Esparza. On May 20, 2015, it was revealed that Danny Pino would be leaving the cast\",\n \"be leaving the cast after the season 16 finale \\\"Surrendering Noah\\\". In August 2017, it was announced thatPhilip Winchesterwould recur in season 19 as ADAPeter Stone, his character fromChicago P.D.andChicago Justice, who is the son ofBenjamin Stone, the first ADA on the originalLaw & Orderseries.It was later also announced thatBrooke Shieldswas enlisted to assume a major recurring role (Sheila Porter, maternal grandmother of Noah Porter-Benson, Olivia's adopted son) starting in season 19 of the long-running dramatic series.On February 7, 2018, Raúl Esparza left the series after six seasons.His role was taken over by Winchester. Upon being renewed for its twenty-first season, it was announced that Winchester would be departing the series after the twentieth season. In March 2019, it was announced that the show would come back for season 21, making it thelongest-running primetime U.S. live-action series in the history of television.On March 29, 2019, it was revealed that Winchester would not return for season\",\n \"return for season 21. He tweeted the same day about his departure from the show.On May 16, 2019, the season finale aired and Winchester took to Twitter to thank the cast and crew for the send-off.After recurring for several episodes in season 21 as Vice Officer Katriona Tamin,Jamie Gray Hyderjoined the cast as a regular, starting in episode 8.On October 6, 2020,Demore Barnes, who had recurred throughout season 21 as new Deputy Chief Christian Garland, was upgraded to regular status for season 22.On September 3, 2021, it was announced that Hyder and Barnes would both depart the series following the two-hour season 23 premiere.On October 13, 2021,Octavio Pisano, who had guest starred since the start of the season, was promoted to regular status.On August 24, 2022, it was announced that Kelli Giddish would leave the series during the first half of season 24. On November 10, 2022,Molly Burnett, who initially appeared in a recurring capacity for the first six episodes, was promoted to series regular beginning\",\n \"regular beginning with the seventh episode.On November 28, 2023, it was announced that Kelli Giddish will come back for the premiere episode of season 25, which will be her second time reappearing after the season 24 finale.On July 22, 2024, it was reported that Kevin Kane, who portrays Terry Bruno, would be promoted to a series regular for the show's twenty-sixth season, after recurring the previous two seasons.On August 7, 2024, it was announced that Juliana Aidén Martinez, who will portray newcomer, Kate Silva, was added as a series regular ahead of the season premiere. Salaries By season twelve, both Mariska Hargitay and Christopher Meloni had become among the highest-paid lead actors on a drama, with each earning nearly $400,000 per episode, a salary thatTV Guidesaid was exceeded only byHouse'sHugh Laurie.During season sixteen, Hargitay was reported to be earning $450,000 per episode, or $10,350,000 per season.In season seventeen, her salary increased to $500,000 per episode. Filming and location Many\",\n \"and location Many exterior scenes ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitare filmed on location in New York City, Wolf's hometown, throughout all five ofNew York City's boroughs.Fort Lee, New Jerseyserved as the filming location for DetectiveElliot Stabler's residence inQueens, New York. When searching for a place to film the interiors of the show, the producers found that there were no suitable studio spaces available in New York City. As a result, a space was chosen at NBC's Central Archives building in nearbyNorth Bergen, New Jersey, 53,000 square feet (4,900 m2) of stage area that had been left unused for some time.The Archives building was used for police station and courtroom scenes,with various other locations inHudson Countyused for other scenes, such as a scene shot at the Meadowlands Parkway inSecaucusin 2010. The production left New Jersey for New York in 2010, however, when New Jersey GovernorChris Christiesuspended the tax credits for film and television production for the Fiscal Year 2011 to close\",\n \"Year 2011 to close budget gaps.The show moved into the studio space atChelsea Piersthat had been occupied by the originalLaw & Orderseries until its cancellation in May 2010. Episodes Release Broadcast Law & Order: SVUairs onNBCin the United States. With the season eleven premiere on September 23, 2009, the series vacated its Tuesday 10 p.m. ET slot as NBC began a nightly prime-time series hosted byJay Leno. The new time slot became Wednesday nights at 9:00 p.m. ET on NBC, withCTVstill airingSVUon Tuesdays at 10:00 in Canada.After the2010 Winter Olympicson March 3, 2010, the time slot again changed to Wednesdays at 10 p.m. ET, where it stayed until the twelfth season.For the 12th season,SVUmoved back to 9:00 p.m. to lead in the newestLaw & Orderspin-off,Law & Order: LA,until it was pulled from the network in January 2011 to be retooled.SVUmoved back to 10:00 p.m. on January 12, 2011, until the end of the 13th season.With season 14,SVUmoved back to 9:00 p.m. after a two-hour season premiere event on September\",\n \"event on September 26, 2012.Beginning with Season 20,SVUwould air on Thursday nights at 10 p.m., after NBC decided to devote their entire Wednesday primetime lineup to theChicago Med,PD, andFiretrilogy. It marked the first time ever thatLaw & Order: SVUwould hold this timeslot on Thursday nights.Starting with season 22,SVUmoved to 9 p.m., with offshootLaw & Order: Organized Crimetaking its old slot. From season 21,Law & Order: Special Victims Unitairs onSky Witnessin the United Kingdom.Beginning from season 23, it moved from CTV toCityTVin Canada, simulcasting with NBC.Law & Order: Special Victims Unitairs onRock Entertainmentin Southeast Asia. Streaming PeacockandHulucurrently have all seasons (1–24) available. The latest 5 episodes can be watched for free on NBC.comand the NBC app.Outside of SVOD and NBC platforms, most episodes (outside of seasons 2–4 in the United States for unknown reasons) can be found onelectronic sell-throughplatforms such asiTunesandAmazon Prime Video.The series is available for\",\n \"is available for streaming onPeacockalong withChicago Fire,Chicago P.D.,Chicago Med,Law & OrderandLaw & Order: Criminal Intent.Seasons 1–22 are available for streaming in Australia on Amazon Prime Video. In Brazil, seasons 11 to 13 are available on Amazon Prime Video, and seasons 1–22 are available on Globoplay, although seasons 15–22 require a subscription expansion or cable access to UniversalTV.In 2024, selected seasons returned toNetflixin certain regions including the UK, Europe, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America. Syndication As of January 2024, the series is rerun on fellowNBCUniversalnetworkUSA, as well as onIon TelevisionandMyNetworkTVstations. The series also briefly ran onSyfyin 2006. In 2008,Foxobtained rights to airLaw & Order: SVUon Fox-owned TV stations, and began doing so in the fall of 2009. Reception Ratings In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook likesfound thatSVU's popularity was \\\"atypical: generally slightly more popular in rural areas and\",\n \"in rural areas and the South, but largely restricted to the eastern half of the country. It is most popular inAlbany, N.Y.; least in Colorado and Utah\\\". Awards and honors Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas received many awards and award nominations.Mariska Hargitayhas twice been nominated for aGolden Globe Awardand won once in 2005. The show has been nominated numerous times for theEmmy Award.Mariska Hargitayhas been nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category eight years in a row beginning in 2004 and won the Emmy in 2006.Christopher Meloniwas nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series category in 2006.Robin Williamswas nominated in the Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2008. The series was nominated in the category Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series forJane AlexanderandTracy Pollanin 2000,Martha Plimptonin 2002,Barbara Barriein 2003,Mare WinninghamandMarlee Matlinin 2004,Amanda PlummerandAngela Lansburyin 2005,Marcia Gay HardenandLeslie\",\n \"Gay HardenandLeslie Caronin 2007,Cynthia Nixonin 2008,Ellen Burstyn,Brenda Blethyn, andCarol Burnettin 2009, andAnn-Margretin 2010. The series won the award for Plummer in 2005, Caron in 2007, Nixon in 2008, Burstyn in 2009, and Ann-Margret in 2010. Critical reception Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas been well received among critics. The show holds an average score of 88% onRotten Tomatoes.In 2014, Joshua Alston ofThe A.V. Clubdescribed it as \\\"most improved, and that uptick in quality is all the more admirable.Ilana Kaplan ofThe New York Timeswrote that the series, the longest-running drama in primetime history, and Mariska Hargitay as Olivia Benson is a person of repose of real life victims and survivors. Hargitay quoted: \\\"It became very apparent to me early how much, culturally, we needed this character who relentlessly fights and advocates for women and for survivors, and who does it with compassion,\\\" she said through tears. \\\"Somebody who is unequivocally committed to righting wrongs, who believes\",\n \"who believes survivors, who's aware of the healing in it.\\\"The site ofMetacriticgive a score of 66% on 25 critics review. Russian adaptation In 2007, the Russian production company Studio 2B purchased the rights to create an adaptation ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitfor Russian television. TitledLaw & Order: Division of Field Investigation,the series stars Alisa Bogart and Vica Fiorelia. It follows a unit of investigators in Moscow whose job is to investigate crimes of a sexual nature. The series aired onNTVuntil 2010 and was produced by Pavel Korchagin, Felix Kleiman and Edward Verzbovski and directed by Dmitry Brusnikin. The screenplays were written by Sergei Kuznvetsov, Elena Karavaeshnikova, and Maya Shapovalova. Spin-off On March 31, 2020, it was announced that NBC had ordered an untitled spin-off series to launch in the 2020–21 television season, withChristopher Melonireprising his role asElliot Stabler. Meloni leftSVUin 2011. The series order consists of 13 episodes.On June 2, 2020, it was\",\n \"2, 2020, it was announced that the series would be calledLaw & Order: Organized Crimeand writer Craig Gore had been fired.When NBC announced its fall schedule on June 16,Organized Crimewas the only new show on the schedule, slotted for Thursdays at 10/9c.However, the series was later delayed to 2021.On October 2, 2020, it was announced thatMatt Olmsteadwould be stepping down as showrunner and a replacement was not announced at the time.On December 9, 2020, it was announced thatIlene Chaikenhas joined as showrunner after her overall deal withUniversal Television.Dylan McDermottwas announced on January 27, 2021, as joining the cast in an unspecified role.On February 2, 2021,Tamara Taylorwas cast in an undisclosed role.On February 4, 2021, it was announced that the series would premiere on April 1, 2021, in a two-hour crossover event. Explanatory notes References Citations General and cited references External links\",\n \"List of Super Bowl champions TheSuper Bowlis the annualAmerican footballgame that determines the champion of theNational Football League(NFL). The game culminates aseasonthat begins in the previous calendar year, and is the conclusion of theNFL playoffs. The winner receives theVince Lombardi Trophy. The contest is held in an American city, chosen three to four years beforehand,usually at warm-weather sites ordomed stadiums.Since January 1971, the winner of theAmerican Football Conference (AFC) Championship Gamehas faced the winner of theNational Football Conference (NFC) Championship Gamein the culmination of the NFL playoffs. Before the1970 mergerbetween theAmerican Football League(AFL) and theNational Football League(NFL), the two leagues met in four such contests. The first two were marketed as the \\\"AFL–NFL World Championship Game\\\", but were also casually referred to as \\\"the Super Bowl game\\\" during the television broadcast.Super Bowl IIIin January 1969 was the first such game that carried the \\\"Super Bowl\\\"\",\n \"the \\\"Super Bowl\\\" moniker in official marketing; the names \\\"Super Bowl I\\\" and \\\"Super Bowl II\\\" were retroactively applied to the first two games. A total of 20 franchises, including teams that have relocated to another city or changed their name, have won the Super Bowl.There are fourNFL teamsthat have never appeared in a Super Bowl: theCleveland Browns,Detroit Lions,Jacksonville Jaguars, andHouston Texans, though both the Browns (1950,1954,1955,1964) and Lions (1935,1952,1953,1957) had wonNFL Championship Gamesprior to the creation of the Super Bowl in the1966 season. The1972 Dolphinscapped off the onlyperfect seasoninNFL historywith their victory inSuper Bowl VII. Only two franchises have ever won the Super Bowl while hosting at their home stadiums: theTampa Bay BuccaneersinSuper Bowl LVand theLos Angeles RamsinSuper Bowl LVI. Super Bowl championship games Numbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows: WIndicates a team that made the\",\n \"team that made the playoffs as awild cardteam (rather than by winning a division). Upcoming games Consecutive wins Eight franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls, one of which (Pittsburgh) has accomplished it twice: Although no franchise to date has won three Super Bowls in a row, several have had eras of sustained success, nearly accomplishing athree-peat: Consecutive losses Three franchises have lost consecutive Super Bowls: Consecutive appearances TheBuffalo Billshave the most consecutive appearances with four from 1990 to 1993. TheMiami Dolphins(1971–1973) andNew England Patriots(2016–2018) are the only other teams to have at least three consecutive appearances. All three teams with three or more consecutive Super Bowl appearances are in theAFC Eastdivision. Including those three, 11 teams have at least two consecutive appearances. TheDallas Cowboysare the only team with three separate streaks (1970–1971, 1977–1978, and 1992–1993). TheGreen Bay Packers,Pittsburgh Steelers,Denver Broncos,and New\",\n \"Broncos,and New England Patriots have each had two separate consecutive appearances. TheKansas City Chiefsare the most recent team to appear in consecutive Super Bowls, playing inSuper Bowl LVIIandSuper Bowl LVIII. The full listing of teams with consecutive appearances is below in order of first occurrence; winning games are inbold: Super Bowl rematches The following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl: Super Bowl records by franchise In the sortable table below, franchises are ordered first by number of wins, followed by the total number of appearances, and finally by the total number of points scored for the franchise throughout all appearances. Included in the table are all of the team names that each franchise has had since the 1966 season, a.k.a. the start of the Super Bowl era. Teams with Super Bowl appearances but no victories Eight teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning. In descending order of number of appearances and then years since their last\",\n \"since their last appearance, they are: Teams with no Super Bowl appearances or long active droughts Four current teams have never reached the Super Bowl (shown inboldbelow). Two of them (Jacksonville and Houston) joined the NFL relatively recently, and there are an additional eight teams whose Super Bowl appearance droughts began prior to 2002 (the year Houston joined the NFL). The other two teams that have never appeared in a Super Bowl (Cleveland and Detroit) both heldNFL league championshipsprior toSuper Bowl Iin the1966 NFL season.Teams are listed below according to the length of their current Super Bowl droughts (as of the end of the 2023 season, after Super Bowl LVIII): See also Explanatory notes References External links\",\n \"1998 Denver Broncos season The1998 seasonwas theDenver Broncos' 29th in theNational Football League(NFL) and their 39th overall. The Broncos entered the season as thedefending Super Bowl championsand looked to become only the fifth team in league history to win consecutive Super Bowls. Finishing with a record of 12–4 the previous year, the Broncos improved on that mark by two wins and tiedthe Atlanta Falconsfor second best record at 14–2. They won their first thirteen games, the best start since theunbeaten1972 Dolphins. After 16 seasons,John Elwayretired following the Super Bowl. He finished his Broncos career with 51,475 yards passing and 300 touchdowns. UntilPeyton Manningwon inSuper Bowl 50, Elway stood as the only Broncos quarterback to win a Super Bowl. However, Elway even played a large role in that victory as thegeneral managerand president of football operations for the Broncos. Running backTerrell Davisset a team single season rushing mark. His final total was 2,008 yards, making him only the fourth\",\n \"him only the fourth player to rush forover 2,000 yards in single season. A multi-year investigation from 2001 to 2005 revealed that between 1996 and 1998, the team had cheated the salary cap by deferring other money to Elway and Davis outside of the team’s salary. Denver claimed it gave them no competitive advantage. The team was subsequently fined nearly two million dollars and were forced to give up two third-round picks in the2002and2005drafts. In 2007, the 1998 Broncos were ranked as the 12th greatest Super Bowl champions on theNFL Network's documentary seriesAmerica's Game: The Super Bowl Champions. They ranked #14 on the 100 greatest teams of all time presented by the NFL on its 100th anniversary. Offseason NFL draft Staff Front office Head coaches Offensive coaches Special teams coaches Strength and conditioning Roster Running backs(RB) Wide receivers(WR) Tight ends(TE) Defensive linemen(DL) Defensive backs(DB){{{defensive_back}}} Special teams 53 active, 3 inactive, 5 practice squadReserved Rookies\",\n \"Rookies in italics Season summary The Broncos won their first 13 games of the season. There was much speculation that they might finish 19–0and the Broncos were featured on the cover ofSports Illustrated. However, they were upset bythe New York Giants(who would end another attempt at a 19–0 seasonnine seasons later) in week 15 by a score of 20–16. They finished the regular season 14–2 after losing tothe Dolphinsin their first encounter with that team since1985. They finished first in theAFC Westand won their divisional playoff game againstthe Miami Dolphins38–3 for their first win over the Dolphins since1968.They then won theAFC Championshipover theBill ParcellscoachedNew York Jets23–10 after coming back from a 10–0 deficit. Many had expected Denver to playthe Minnesota Vikings, the team with the number one record that year at 15–1, in the Super Bowl. However, the Vikings lost theNFC Championship Gametothe Atlanta Falconsin overtime. The Broncos defeated the Falcons 34–19 in Super Bowl XXXIII. Elway was\",\n \"XXXIII. Elway was theSuper Bowl MVPand Davis rushed for over 100 yards. It was Elway's last game, and Denver would not reach the Super Bowl again untilthe 2013 season. Preseason Regular season Schedule Standings Playoffs AFC Divisional Game vs. Miami Dolphins atMile High Stadium,Denver, Colorado First quarter Second quarter Third quarter Fourth quarter Dolphins Broncos Turnovers: AFC Championship game vs. New York Jets atMile High Stadium,Denver, Colorado First quarter Second quarter Third quarter Fourth quarter Jets Broncos Turnovers: Despite a subpar performance from quarterbackJohn Elway, the Broncos came from a ten-point deficit to score twenty three unanswered points, thanks in large part to the Jets turning the ball over an astonishing six times. Super Bowl XXXIII: vs. Atlanta Falcons atPro Player Stadium,Miami, Florida The Denver Broncos become the third team in the last 9 years to repeat as Super Bowl champions, along with theSan Francisco 49ersand theDallas Cowboys.John Elwaywas voted Super Bowl\",\n \"voted Super Bowl MVP. Statistics Team stats The Broncos had 3,808yardspassing, sixth in the league. They had 2,468 yards rushing, second in the league and 26 rushing touchdowns, first in the league. They had 6,276 total yards, third best. They gave up 3,983 passing yards, a low 28 out of 30 in the NFL, but were third in rushing yards given up with 1,287. They gave up 5,270 yards, 12th in the NFL. They scored 501 points, second in the league and gave up 309, eighth fewest in the league. The Broncos’ 14–2 record remains their best regular season record (most wins and equal fewest losses) in franchise history. Player stats For the season Elway threw for 2,806 yards, 22 touchdowns and ten interceptions. Davis rushed for 2,008 yards and 21 touchdowns.Rod Smithhad 86 receptions for 1,222 yards and six touchdowns.Ed McCaffreyhad 64 receptions for 1,053 yards.Shannon Sharpehad 64 receptions for 768 yards.Jason Elamkicked 23 out of 27 field goals and 58 out of 58 extra points including a 63-yard field goal to tie Tom\",\n \"goal to tie Tom Dempsey with the longest field goal in NFL history at that time. This record has since been eclipsed by another Denver Bronco inMatt Prater, and once again byJustin Tucker. Steve Atwater, Davis, Elway,Tony Jones,Mark Schlereth, McCaffrey,Tom Nalen,Bill Romanowski, and Sharpe made thePro Bowl. Awards and records Milestones References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":358,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How many days after the United States release of the record holder for largest sweep at the 2004 Oscars was the death of that movie's cinematographer?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"4149 days"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Academy_Award_records"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings:_The_Return_of_the_King"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lesnie"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Academy_Award_records', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings:_The_Return_of_the_King', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lesnie']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Academy_Award_records","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings:_The_Return_of_the_King","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lesnie"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Academy_Award_records\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings:_The_Return_of_the_King\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lesnie\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["List of Academy Award records Thislist ofAcademy Awardrecordsis current as of the96th Academy Awards, with the ceremony taking place on March 10, 2024. Most awards or nominations Awards for Acting and Directing Debuts These people won Academy Awards for their debut performances in film: These people won Academy Awards for their directing debuts: Big Five Winners Three films have received theBig Five Academy Awards:Best Picture,Director,Actor,Actress, and Screenplay (OriginalorAdapted; all won for Best Adapted Screenplay). Most Consecutive Awards in Each Category Academy Award firsts United States Doraibu mai kā(Japanese) Age-related records Film records Acting records Shortest and Longest Academy Award Winning and Nominated Performances Miscellaneous records Oscar speeches Tied winners There have been six two-way ties Clean sweep The following films with at least two nominations won all of their categories. See also References External links","The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingis a 2003epichigh fantasyadventure filmdirected byPeter Jacksonfrom a screenplay byFran Walsh,Philippa Boyens, and Jackson. It is based on 1955'sThe Return of the King, the third volume of the novelThe Lord of the RingsbyJ. R. R. Tolkien. The sequel to 2002'sThe Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, the film is the third and final instalment inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy. It features an ensemble cast includingElijah Wood,Ian McKellen,Liv Tyler,Viggo Mortensen,Sean Astin,Cate Blanchett,John Rhys-Davies,Bernard Hill,Billy Boyd,Dominic Monaghan,Orlando Bloom,Hugo Weaving,Miranda Otto,David Wenham,Karl Urban,John Noble,Andy Serkis,Ian Holm, andSean Bean. Continuing the plot of the previous film,Frodo,SamandGollummake their final way toward Mount Doom to destroy theOne Ring, unaware of Gollum's true intentions, whileMerry,Pippin,Gandalf,Aragorn,Legolas,Gimliand their allies join forces againstSauronand his legions fromMordor. The Return of the Kingwas financed and distributed by American studioNew Line Cinema, butfilmed and editedentirely in Jackson's native New Zealand,concurrentlywith the other two parts of the trilogy. It premiered on 1 December 2003 at theEmbassy TheatreinWellingtonand was then released on 17 December 2003 in the US and 18 December 2003 in New Zealand. The film was acclaimed by critics and audiences, who considered it a landmark in filmmaking and the fantasy film genre, and a satisfying conclusion to the trilogy, with praise for the visual effects, performances, action sequences, direction, screenplay,musical score, costume design, emotional depth, scope, and story. It grossed over $1.1 billion worldwide, becoming thehighest-grossing film of 2003, thesecond-highest-grossing film of all timeduring its run, and the highest-grossing film ever released by New Line Cinema. Like the previous films in the trilogy,The Return of the Kingis widely recognised as one of thegreatest and most influential films ever made. The filmreceived numerous accolades; at the76th Academy Awards, it won all eleven awards for which it was nominated, includingBest Picture, the first fantasy film to do so and tying with 1959'sBen-Hurand 1997'sTitanicas themovie with the most Academy Award wins. It also became the second film series whose entries have all wonBest Visual Effects, after theoriginalStar Warstrilogy. Plot ThehobbitDéagol discovers theOne Ringin a river while fishing with his cousinSméagol. The Ring immediately ensnares Sméagol's mind, and he kills his cousin for it. Increasingly corrupted physically and mentally, he retreats into theMisty Mountainsand becomes known as Gollum. Centuries later, during theWar of the Ring,GandalfleadsAragorn,Legolas,Gimli, and KingThéodenofRohantoIsengard, where they reunite withMerryandPippin. Gandalf retrieves Saruman'spalantír, and the group returns to Edoras to celebratetheir victory at Helm's Deep.Pippin looks into the palantír, seeingSauronanda burning tree. Gandalf deduces that the enemy plans to attackGondor's capitalMinas Tirith; he rides there to warn Gondor's corrupt stewardDenethor. Pippin, who accompanies him, swears fealty to Denethor, whose now-dead heirBoromirhad saved his life;on Gandalf's instruction, Pippin triggers the lighting ofthe beacons, which call for help from Rohan. Frodo, who carries the Ring, andSamcontinue their journey towardsMordor, unaware that Gollum, now their guide, plans to betray them and take the Ring for himself. The trio witness theWitch-king of Angmar, lord of the nineNazgûl, setting off towards Gondor with his army ofOrcs. Gollum frames Sam for eating food supplies and desiring the Ring; Frodo is deceived and orders Sam to go home. As King Théoden gathers his army,Elrondtells Aragorn thatArwenis dying, having refused to leave Middle-earth. Elrond gives AragornAndúril, reforged from the shards of KingElendil's swordNarsil, and urges him to claim Gondor's throne, to which he is heir. Aragorn travels thePaths of the Deadwith Legolas and Gimli and pledges to release the ghosts there from their curse should they come to Gondor's aid. Gollum tricks Frodo into venturing alone into the giant spiderShelob's lair. Frodo narrowly escapes and confronts Gollum, who falls down a chasm after a scuffle. Shelob discovers, paralyses, and binds Frodo, but is wounded and driven away by a returning Sam. Sam mourns Frodo's apparent death and takes the Ring, but then realizes his mistake when Orcs take Frodo captive. He rescues Frodo within Mordor and the two continue towardsMount Doom. Denethor sends his younger son,Faramir, on a suicide charge. Faramir returns gravely wounded; believing him dead, Denethor falls into madness. Gandalf marshals the defenders, but the enormous Orc army breaks into the city. Denethor attempts to burn himself and Faramir on apyre, but Pippin alerts Gandalf and they rescue Faramir. Denethor, set ablaze, jumps to his death. Théoden arrives and leads his army against the Orcs. Despite initial success in theensuing battle, they are decimated by theOliphaunt-ridingHaradrimand the Witch-king mortally wounds Théoden; however, his nieceÉowynslays the Witch-king with Merry's help before Théoden dies in his niece's arms. Aragorn arrives with his Army of the Dead, who overcome Sauron's forces. Their oath fulfilled, the Dead are released from their curse. Aragorn decides to march on Mordor to distract Sauron from Frodo and Sam; all of Sauron's remaining forces marchto meet Aragorn's diversion, allowing the hobbits to reach Mount Doom. Gollum, having survived his fall, attacks, but Frodo enters the mountain. There, he succumbs to the Ring's power, putting it on his finger. Gollum bites Frodo's finger off and reclaims the Ring, leading to a scuffle before they stumble off the ledge. Frodo clings to the ledge and Sam pulls him up while Gollum falls into the lava with the Ring, destroying it and vanquishing Sauron once and for all. The lands of Mordor collapse into the earth, destroying the Orc army. Frodo and Sam narrowly escape the erupting Mount Doom and are saved by Gandalf with the help ofeagles. The surviving Fellowship is happily reunited in Minas Tirith. Aragorn is crowned King of Gondor and marries Arwen; they and everyone else present bow to the hobbits. The hobbits return home to theShire, where Sam marries Rosie Cotton. Four years later, Frodo, still plagued bytraumaand the pain of his wound inflicted by the Witch-king, departs Middle-earth for theUndying Landswith his uncleBilbo, Gandalf, and the Elves. He leaves Sam theRed Book of Westmarch, which details their adventures. Cast Like the preceding films in the trilogy,The Return of the Kinghas anensemble cast,and some of the cast and their respective characters include: There arecameosfromPeter Jackson,Richard Taylor, Gino Acevedo,Rick PorrasandAndrew Lesnieon the Corsair ship, although all of them but Jackson appear only in the Extended Edition. Jackson also has another unofficial cameo, as Sam's hand stepping into view when he confronts Shelob.Sean Astin's daughter played Sam and Rosie's older daughter Elanor in the last scene of the film; in the same scene,Sarah McLeod's daughter plays their younger son. Jackson's children also cameo as Gondorian extras, whileChristian Riversplayed a Gondorian soldier guarding the Beacon Pippin lights, and is later seen wounded.Royd Tolkiencameos as a Ranger inOsgiliath,while in the Extended EditionHoward Shoreappears as a celebrating soldier at Edoras. Additionally, four of the designers ofThe Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Gameare featured as Rohirrim at the Pelennor.At the end of the film, during the closing credits, each cast member gets a sketched portrait morphed with the real photograph beside their name, which were sketched byAlan Lee, an idea suggested byIan McKellen. Comparison to the source material As with all of Peter Jackson's movie adaptions ofThe Lord of the Rings, many events, timelines, and geographic distances are compressed or simplified. Most major events from the books are included, though some are significantly altered. Some events and details seen in the film are not found in the books. The film version ofThe Return of the Kingcontains major scenes from the middle of Tolkien'sThe Two Towers, such as the attack by Shelob and thepalantírsubplot, as Jackson realigned events of the film to fit the timeline from the book's Appendices, rather than theinterlaced order of the main narrative.However, the plot of the second half ofBook IIIis either completely omitted (chapter \"The Road to Isengard\") or only shown in one scene (chapter \"The Voice of Saruman\").Saruman's murder byGríma(seen only in the Extended Edition) is moved into the Isengard visit because of the cutting of theScouring of the Shire. The basis of Elrond and Arwen's subplot arguing about Arwen's fate is derived from the Appendices, but it is largely extended in the film, as is Arwen and Elrond's relevance to the story. In the film, overwhelming grief over the death of Boromir has driven Denethor to despair, and he has given up any hope of defeating Sauron before Gandalf arrives in Minas Tirith. Thus, the muster of Gondor is absent from the film. In the book, he has already ordered the lighting of the beacons before Gandalf's arrival, while he refuses to light them in the film, and the sequence where Pippin secretly lights them himself was invented for the movie. The film only hints at Denethor's use of thepalantírwhich drives him mad, information revealed in the Pyre scene, which includes Shadowfax and is more violent than the book. Aware of the very long distance between Rath Dínen and the front of the out-thrust battlement, Jackson has Denethor jump off the Citadel in addition to burning himself on the Pyre, one of the earliest changes. The muster of Rohan, and the subplot in which the Rohirrim are aided by the primitiveDrúedainduring their journey to the besieged Gondor are excised from the film. TheRed Arrowbrought by a messenger from Gondor to ask for Rohan's aid is absent. Éowyn's presence on the battlefield is unknown to the reader until she takes off her helmet, but in the film the audience is aware, as it would have been difficult to haveMiranda Ottoplaying a man.When hope seems lost, Gandalf comforts Pippin by telling him of the Undying Lands, based on a descriptive passage in the book's final chapter. The film altered the circumstances of Théoden's death; his death speech, in which he names Éomer the new king in the book, is trimmed and delivered to Éowyn instead of Merry, with an earlier scene in the Extended Edition even implying that Éowyn is next in line for the throne. Théoden's rallying speech (\"To death!\") before the initial charge in the film is spoken by Éomer in the book when he believes that both Théoden and Éowyn have been killed in combat with the Witch King. The Extended Edition presents shortened scenes from the book's chapters in theHouses of Healing: The Warden, the talk ofAthelas, the comical conversation with the herb-master, the womanIorethand her saying about a King's healing hands and the subsequent realising of Aragorn's true identity are left out altogether. The romance that develops between Éowyn and Faramir during their recoveries in the Houses of Healing is largely cut, presumably to keep the focus on Aragorn and Arwen; the subplot is briefly referenced in the Extended Edition, with a scene where the two hold hands. Gollum's fall into the lava of Mount Doom was rewritten for the film, as the writers felt that simply having Gollum slip and fall was anticlimactic. Originally, an even greater deviation was planned: Frodo would heroically push Gollum over the ledge to destroy him and the Ring, but the production team realised that that would make it look as if Frodo was murdering Gollum. Instead, they had Frodo and Gollum struggle for possession of the Ring. In addition to the absent footage from the film are the other major attacks by Sauron on various regions of Middle-earth, referenced only briefly in the main text ofThe Return of the King,and expanded upon in the Appendices; the invasion of Rohan by the Orcs ofMoria, the attacks on Lothlórien and theWoodland RealmofThranduilby the forces ofDol Guldur, and the attack on Dale and theLonely Mountainby a force ofEasterlings, events hinted at in a comment by Legolas in the book. There are several changes in the Battle of the Black Gate: Merry is not present there in the book, Pippin does not kill a troll as he does in the novel (instead, Aragorn fights one), the eagles fight and defeat some of the mounted Nazgûl, and Aragorn kills theMouth of Sauronin the extended edition of the film but not in the book. Although the film runs for another approximately 20 minutes after the climactic Downfall of Barad-dûr, many following events from the book are omitted or altered in the film. Aragorn's coronation takes place in form of a great ceremony in the Citadel of Minas Tirith, opposed to the book, where Aragorn is crowned in his tent on the Pelennor Fields before entering the city. Omitted entirely are the camp at theField of Cormallen, Aragorn's business in Minas Tirith, Aragorn and Arwen's wedding,GaladrielandCelebornbeing present at the ceremonies and their subsequent travelling along with the company, Théoden's funeral at Edoras, the complete journey back to theShirewith stops at Rivendell and Bree, and the Scouring of the Shire, which was seen by the screenwriters as anticlimactic.The film also left out the character epilogues: For example, Samwise Gamgee stayed in the Shire when Gandalf and Frodo went to Valinor, during which time he would make changes and additions to theRed Book of Westmarch, which he inherited from Frodo, just as in the film, in which he would add a section titled \"Herb Lore of The Shire\", which was a section on Pipeweed, the plant Hobbits and other folk of Middle Earth, like Gandalf, would smoke through pipes, as well as various poems. Shortly after his contribution to the Red Book, he served seven consecutive seven year terms as mayor of the Shire, during which he had children with Rosie Cotton who each took the last name of \"Gardner\" after their father's planting of the Mallorn Tree that replaced the Party Tree, which was destroyed during the Scouring. He did, however, go to Valinor after Rosie died, and before he did, he gave the Red Book to Elanor, one of his daughters. The books also expanded on Aragorn's time as king of Gondor andArnorpost-reuniting, and reveals that Arwen accepted a life as a mortal, and died shortly after Aragorn. Merry and Pippin also returned to the Shire, but unlike Sam and Frodo, they didn't eventually journey to Valinor. Merry inherited his father's title as \"Master of Buckland\" and despite the perils he and Pippin endured that almost cost them their lives, Merry still had his adventurous spirit. He also reviewed many gifts from Eomer and his sister, Eowyn, and helped the Hobbits learn more about lands beyond the Shire through scholarly articles. He even returned to Rivendell multiple times. When he and Pippin died, they were buried beside their friends, Aragorn and Arwen in Minas Tirith, where they spent some of their final days after a stint in Rohan. Legolas and Gimli make and keep promises in the books to show the other important places to them: first, Gimli shows Legolas the caverns of Aglarond, which Legolas is stunned by, then they walk in the Fangorn Forest, where they then make their way to Isengard where they bid farewell to the Fellowship, after which, they would each go back to their own lands, with Gimli even founding a Dwarven colony in the Glittering Caves. They would, however, reunite to help with the rebuilding and improving of Minas Tirith. They would be the last of the Fellowship to sail for Valinor, departing after the death of their friend Aragorn, Legolas would build a ship for him and Gimli to sail to Valinor. Lastly, Frodo would serve as Deputy Mayor of The Shire until a wound caused by a stab from the Witch King which flared up every year on the anniversary of said stabbing forced him to resign, after which, he would sail to Valinor to receive healing and peace for the rest of his days. Production The production ofThe Lord of the Ringsseries was the first where three separate entries were written and shot simultaneously (excludingpick up shoots). Peter Jackson foundThe Return of the Kingthe easiest of the films to make, because it contained the climax of the story.The Return of the Kingwas originally the second of two planned films underMiramax Filmsfrom January 1997 to August 1998,and more or less in its finished structure as the first film was to end with the Battle of Helm's Deep inThe Two Towers.Filming took place under multiple units across New Zealand, between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000, with pick up shoots for six weeks in 2003 before the film's release. Design Jackson'sMiddle-earthwas primarily designed by Alan Lee andJohn Howe, who had earlier illustrated editions of Tolkien's books. It was created byWeta Workshop, who handled all the trilogy's weapons, armour, miniatures, prosthetics, and creatures; the Art Department built the sets. Richard Taylor headed Weta, whileGrant MajorandDan Hennahorganised the planning and building. The city of Minas Tirith, glimpsed briefly in both the previous two films, is seen fully in this film, and with it the Gondorian civilisation. The enormous soundstage was built at Dry Creek Quarry, outsideWellington, from theHelm's Deepset. That set's gate became Minas Tirith's second, while the Hornburg exterior became that of the Extended Edition's scene where Gandalf confronts the Witch-king. New structures included the 8m tall Gate, with broken and unbroken versions, with a working opening and closing mechanism, with its engravings inspired by theBaptistry of San Giovanni. There were also four levels of streets with heraldic motifs for every house, as inspired bySiena. The Citadel's exterior was in the Stone Street Studios backlot, usingforced perspective. It contained the witheredWhite Tree, built from polystyrene by Brian Massey and the Greens Department with real branches, influenced by ancient and gnarled Lebaneseolivetrees. The interior was within a three-storey former factory in Wellington, its colours influenced byCharlemagne's Chapel, with a throne for Denethor carved from stone, and polystyrene statues of past kings. The Gondorian armour is designed to represent an evolution from theNúmenóreansof the first film's prologue, with a simplified sea bird motif. 16th-century Italian and German armour served as inspiration,while civilians wear silver and blacks as designed by Ngila Dickson, continuing an ancient/medievalMediterranean Basinlook. Minas Morgul, the Staircase and Tower of Cirith Ungol as well as Shelob's Lair were designed by Howe, with the Morgul road using forced perspective into a bluescreened miniature. Howe's design of Minas Morgul was inspired from the experience of having awisdom toothpulled out: in the same way, the Orcs have put their twisted designs on to a former Gondorian city.Cirith Ungol was based on Tolkien's design, but when Richard Taylor felt it as \"boring\", it was redesigned with more tipping angles.The interior set, like Minas Tirith, was built as a few multiple levels that numerous camera takes would suggest a larger structure. The third film introduces the enormous spider Shelob. Shelob was designed in 1999,with the body based on atunnelweb spiderand the head with numerous growths selected by Peter Jackson's children from one of many sculpts. Jackson himself took great joy in planning the sequence, being anarachnophobehimself.Shelob's Lair was inspired by sandstone and sculpted from the existing Caverns of Isengard set. The Return of the Kingalso brings into focus the Dead Men of Dunharrow and the evil Haradrim from the south of Middle-earth, men who ride themûmakil. The Dead Men have a Celtic influence, as well as lines and symmetry to reflect their morbid state,while their underground city is influenced byPetra.The Haradrim were highly influenced by African culture, until Philippa Boyens expressed concern over the possibility of offensiveness, so the finished characters instead bear influence fromKiribati, in terms of weaving armour from bamboo, and the Aztecs, in use of jewellery. Also built was a single deadmûmak.Other minor cultures include the Corsairs, with an exotic, swarthy look, and the Grey Havens, Elven structures adapted to stone, with influence fromJ. M. W. Turnerpaintings. Principal photography The Return of the Kingwas shot during 2000, though Astin's coverage from Gollum's attempt to separate Frodo and Sam was filmed on 24 November 1999, when floods inQueenstowninterrupted the focus onThe Fellowship of the Ring.Some of the earliest scenes shot for the film were in fact shot last.Hobbiton, home of the Hobbits, was shot in January 2000 with early scenes fromThe Fellowship of the Ring, with the exterior shot at aMatamatafarm, while interior scenes were shot at Stone Street Studios in Wellington,shared with the Grey Havens sequence. Due to the high emotions of filming the scene, the cast were in despair when they were required to shoot it three times, due to a continuity flaw in Astin's costume, and then negatives producing out-of-focus reels.Also shared with the previous films was the Rivendell interior in May. The Battle of the Black Gate was filmed in Aprilat theRangipo Desert, a former minefield.New Zealand soldiers were hired as extras while guides were on the lookout for unexploded mines. Also a cause for concern were Monaghan and Boyd's scale doubles during a charge sequence. In the meantime, Wood, Astin and Serkis filmed atMount Ruapehufor the Mount Doom exteriors. In particular, they spent two hours shooting Sam lifting Frodo on to his back with cross-camera coverage. Scenes shot in June were the Paths of the Dead across various locations, includingPutangirua Pinnacles.In July the crew shot some Shelob scenes, and in August and September time was spent on the scenes in Isengard. Monaghan and Boyd tried numerous takes of their entrance, stressing the word \"weed\" as they smokedpipe-weed. Christopher Lee spent his part of his scene mostly alone, though McKellen and Hill arrived on the first day for a few lines to help. Edoras exteriors were shot in October. The Ride of the Rohirrim, where Théoden leads the charge into the Orc army, was filmed inTwizelwith 150 extras on horseback. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields has more extensive use ofcomputer-generated imagery, in contrast to the more extensive use of live action in theBattle of Helm's Deepin the second film. Also filmed were the attempts by Faramir to recaptureOsgiliath,as were scenes in the city itself.At this point production was very hectic, with Jackson moving around ten units per day, and production finally wrapped on the Minas Tirith sets, as well as second units shooting parts of the siege. Just as the Hobbit actors' first scene was hiding from a Ringwraith under a tree, their last scene was thebluescreenedreaction shot of the inhabitants of Minas Tirith bowing to them. Pick-ups The 2003 pick-ups were filmed in the Wellington studio car park, with many parts of sets and blue-screens used to finish off scenes, which the design team had to work 24 hours to get the right sets ready for a particular day.The shoot continued for two months, and became an emotional time of farewells for the cast and crew. The film has the most extensive list of re-shoots given for the trilogy. Jackson took his time to re-shoot Aragorn's coronation, rushed into a single day under the supervision of second unit directorGeoff Murphyon 21 December 2000. Jackson also re-shot scenes in and around Mount Doom,and Théoden's death, right after Bernard Hill was meant to wrap. There was also the new character of Gothmog. This was a major new design addition for the film, as Jackson felt the Mordor Orcs were \"pathetic\" compared to theUruk-haiof the second film after watching assembly cuts, and thus Weta Workshop created grotesque new \"über Orcs\" as antagonists for the audience to focus on. Rivers redesigned the Witch-king; all his scenes were re-shot, because of confusion from non-readers over whether or not Sauron was on the battlefield. With the positive response to Bloom, Legolas was given a fight with amûmak,and Shore appeared in a cameo during Legolas and Gimli's drinking game at Edoras.The final scenes shot were Aragorn escaping the Skull avalanche, and Frodo finishing his book. The cast also received various props associated with their characters, althoughJohn Rhys-Daviesburned his final Gimli prosthetic.Viggo Mortensenheadbuttedthe stunt team goodbye.Pick-ups ended on 27 June 2003. Scenes shot afterwards included various live-action shots of Riders for the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and a reaction shot of Serkis as Gollum finally realises Frodo intends to destroy the Ring, shot in Jackson's house.For the Extended DVD, in March 2004 Jackson created a few shots of skulls rolling over for the avalanche scene; this was the final piece of footage ever shot for the trilogy, and Jackson noted that it must be the first time a director had shot scenes for a film after it had already won the Oscar. Editing Post-productionbegan in November 2002, with the completion of the 4½ hour assembly cut of the film thatAnnie Collinshad been completing over 2001 and 2002, from 4-hour dailies. For example, Théoden leading the charge went from 150 minutes of takes to a finished 90 seconds.Jackson reunited with longtime collaboratorJamie Selkirkto edit the final film. LikeThe Two Towers, they would have to deal with multiple storylines, and Jackson paid attention to each storyline at a time before deciding where to intercut. Most importantly they spent three weeks working on the last 45 minutes of the film,for appropriate intercutting and leaving out scenes such as the Mouth of Sauron, and the fates of characters like Legolas, Gimli, Éowyn and Faramir.The film inherited scenes originally planned to go into the second film, including the reforging ofNarsil, Gollum's backstory, and Saruman's exit. But the Saruman scene posed a structural problem: killing off the second film's villain when the plot has Sauron as the main villain.Despite pick-ups and dubs, the scene was cut, causing controversy with fans and Saruman actor Christopher Lee, as well as a petition to restore the scene.Lee nonetheless contributed to the DVDs and was at theCopenhagenpremiere, although he said he would never understand the reason for the cut and his relationship with Jackson was chilly.They would, however, later reconcile upon Lee's casting in Jackson'sHobbitfilms. Jackson only had a lock on 5 out of 10 reels, and had to churn out 3 reels in 3 weeks to help finish the film. It was finally completed on 12 November 2003.Jackson never had a chance to view the film in full due to the hectic schedule, and only saw the film from beginning to end on 1 December at the Wellington premiere; according toElijah Wood, his response was \"yup, it's good, pretty good\". Visual effects The Return of the Kingcontains 1,489 visual effect shots, nearly three times the number from the first film and almost twice that of the second. As with the two previous films,Jim Rygielserved as the visual effects supervisor. Visual effects work began withAlan Leeand Mark Lewis compositing various photographs of New Zealand landscape to create the digital arena of thePelennor Fieldsin November 2002. Jackson and Rivers used computers to plan the enormous battle up until February 2003, when the shots were shown to Weta Digital. To their astonishment, 60 planned shots had gone up to 250, and 50,000 characters were now 200,000.Nevertheless, they pressed on, soon delivering 100 shots a week, 20 a day, and as the deadline neared within the last two months, often working until 2 am. For the battle, they recorded 450 motions for theMASSIVEdigital horses (though deaths were animated), and also had to deal with late additions in the film, such as Trolls bursting through Minas Tirith's gates as well as the creatures that pull Grond to the gate,and redoing a shot of twomûmakilÉomer takes down that had originally taken six months in two days. On a similar note of digital creatures, Shelob's head sculpture was scanned by a Canadian company for 10 times more detail than Weta had previously been able to capture. Like the previous films, there are also extensive morphs between digital doubles for the actors. This time, there was Sam falling off Shelob, where the morph takes place as Astin hits the ground. Legolas attacking amûmakrequired numerous transitions to and fro, and Gollum's shots of him having recovered the One Ring and falling into the Crack of Doom were fully animated.For the latter scene, as well as the scene in which Mount Doom erupts and Frodo and Sam escape from the volcano, the help of the companyNext Limit Technologiesand their softwareRealFlowwas required to simulate thelava. The King of the Dead is played by an actor in prosthetics, and his head occasionally morphs to a more skull-like digital version, depending on the character's mood. The Mouth of Sauron also had his mouth enlarged 200% for unsettling effect. The Return of the Kingalso has practical effects. In the Pyre of Denethor sequence, as the Steward of Gondor throws Pippin out of the Tomb,John Noblethrew asize doublenamed Fon onto a prostrateBilly Boyd, who immediately pushed his head into camera to complete the illusion. A few burning torches were also reflected off a plate of glass and into the camera for when Gandalf's horse Shadowfax kicks Denethor onto the pyre. Because of Jackson's requirement for complete representation of his fantasy world, numerous miniatures were built, such as 1:72 scale miniature of Minas Tirith, which rises 7m high and is 6.5m indiameter. 1:14 scale sections of the city were also required, and the Extended Edition scene of the collapsing City of the Dead has 80,000 small skulls, amounting in total to a single cubic meter.The miniatures team concluded in November with the Black Gate, after 1000 days of shooting, and the final digital effects shot done was the Ring's destruction, on 25 November. Sound effects The Sound department spent the early part of the year searching for the right sounds. ATasmanian devilwas used to create Shelob's shriek, which in turn gave inspiration for Weta's animators, while themûmakilsound is the beginning and end of a lion roar. Human screams and a donkey screech were mixed into Sauron's fall and broken glass was used for the collapsing sounds. For missile trading during Minas Tirith's siege, construction workers dropped actual 2 ton stone blocks previously lifted by a construction crane. Mixing began at a new studio on 15 August, although unfinished building work caused some annoyances.The mixers finished on 15 November, after three months of non-stop work. Score The music, as for the rest of the trilogy, was composed by Shore. He watched the assembly cut of the film,and had to write seven minutes of music per day to keep up with the schedule.The score sees the full introduction of the Gondor theme, originally heard during Boromir's speeches at theCouncil of ElrondinThe Fellowship of the Ringand at Osgiliath inThe Two Towers'Extended Edition. Shore also used the Gondor theme with the new ascending coda (which is unique to this film) in his score for the trailer of the film. The score features theLondon Philharmonic Orchestra,London Voices, theLondon Oratory School Scholaand featured vocal soloists. The score is the most expansive of the three: scoring effectively the entire movie length, not including additional music written for the trailer and various alternate versions released to the public. It also uses the biggest forces in the series: sections of the score call for two sets of timpani, eight trumpets(and possibly a similar increase in the size of the horn, trombone and tuba section, as well), 85 singers in the mixed choirwith additional players for all-male and all-female sections, over fifty in the boy choir and many instrumentalist \"bands\" playing Celtic and eastern instruments such as tin whistle or pan flute, on stage or off of it.One piece of music required an instrument invented and crafted especially for the film: a fiddle with four pairs of strings instead of single strings. Actors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen and Liv Tyler also contributed to the film's music. Boyd sings on screen as Faramir charges towards Osgiliath, Mortensen sings on screen as he is crowned King, and in the Extended Edition Tyler sings as Aragorn heals Éowyn.Renée Fleming, Ben Del Maestro,Sissel KyrkjebøandJames Galwaycontribute to the soundtrack as featured soloists. Fleming sings as Arwen has a vision of her son, and when Gollum recovers the One Ring. Del Maestro sings when Gandalf lights his staff to save fleeing Gondorian soldiers from Osgiliath as the Nazgûl attack and as the eagles arrive at the Black Gates. Galway plays the flute and whistle as Frodo and Sam climb Mount Doom and as they return to the shire. Sissel sings \"Asea Aranion\", which was originally meant to score the Houses of Healing scene. The end title song, \"Into the West\", was composed by Shore with lyrics by Fran Walsh.Annie Lennox(formerly ofEurythmics) performed it and also received songwriting credit. The song was partially inspired by the premature death from cancer of a young New Zealand filmmaker namedCameron Duncanwho had befriended Peter Jackson. Release Theatrical After two years of attention and acclaim since the release ofThe Fellowship of the Ring, audience and critical anticipation for the final entry was extremely high. The world premiere was held in Wellington'sEmbassy Theatre, on 1 December 2003, and was attended by the director and many of the stars. It was estimated that over 100,000 people lined the streets, more than a quarter of the city's population. Home media The theatrical edition of the film was released onVHSand DVD on 25 May 2004 byNew Line Home Entertainment.The DVD was a 2-disc set with extras on the second disc. The theatrical DVD sets for the two previous films were released eight months after the films were released, butReturn of the King's set was completed in five because it did not have to market a sequel (the previous films had to wait for footage of their sequels to become available for a ten-minute preview). However, it contained a seven-minute trailer of the entire trilogy. The Return of the Kingfollowed the precedent set by its predecessors by releasing an Extended Edition (251 minutes) on 14 December 2004 in the UK and US, with new editing and added special effects and music, along with four commentaries and six hours of supplementary material.The final ten minutes comprises a listing of the charter members of the official fan club who had paid for three-year charter membership. A collectors' box set was also released, which included the Extended Set plus a sculpture of Minas Tirith and a bonus 50-minute music documentary DVD,Howard Shore: Creating The Lord of the Rings Symphony: A Composer's Journey Through Middle-earth. The DVD has aDTS-ESsoundtrack. The DVD also features two humorousEaster Eggs, one where Dominic Monaghan plays a German interviewer with Elijah Wood via satellite and another whereVince VaughnandBen Stillerattempt to convince Jackson to make a sequel, originally shown at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards. Both can be accessed via a Ring icon on the last page of both Disc 1 and 2's scene indexes. In August 2006, a Limited Edition ofThe Return of the Kingwas released. This Limited Edition contains two discs; the first is atwo-sided DVDcontaining both the Theatrical and Extended editions of the film. The second disc is a bonus disc that contains a new behind-the-scenes documentary. The theatricalBlu-rayrelease was released in the United States on the sixth of April 2010, though only as part of the complete trilogy release disc.The individual Blu-ray disc ofThe Return of the Kingwas released on the fourteenth of September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy.The Extended Edition was released in the United States in June 2011.It has a runtime of 263 minutes. The Return of the Kingwas released inUltra HD Blu-rayon 30 November 2020 in the United Kingdom and on 1 December 2020 in the United States, along with the other films of the trilogy, including both the theatrical and the extended editions of the films. Reception Box office The Return of the Kingearned $377 million in the United States and Canada and $763.7 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.141 billion in its initial release.In the weekend of 20–22 February 2004, the film crossed the $1 billion mark,making it the second film in history to do so, afterTitanicin 1998. Worldwide, it is the27th highest-grossing film of all timewhen not adjusted for inflation,thehighest-grossing film of 2003,thesecond highest-grossing film of the 2000s, the highest-grossing entry inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy, and the highest-grossing film ever to be released byNew Line Cinema.It held the record asTime Warner's highest-grossing film worldwide for eight years until it was surpassed byHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2in 2011.Box Office Mojoestimates that the film had sold over 61 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run. In the US and Canada, it is the 27th highest-grossing film,the highest-grossing 2003 film,and the highest-grossing entry inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy.The film set an opening Wednesday record with $34 million.This record was first surpassed bySpider-Man 2in 2004 and ranks as the seventh largest Wednesday opening.Additionally, it was ranked as the highest December opening day, holding that record for less than a decade before getting dethroned byThe Hobbit: An Unexpected Journeyin 2012.The film opened a day earlier for a midnight showing and accounted for about $8 million. This was nearly twice the first-day total ofThe Fellowship of the Ring— which earned $18.2 million on its opening day in 2001 — as well as a significant increase overThe Two Towers— which earned $26.1 million on its debut in 2002. Part of the grosses came from the Trilogy Tuesday event, in which the Extended Editions of the two previous films were played on 16 December before the first midnight screening. For two years,The Return of the Kingwould hold the record for having the highest midnight screenings gross until 2005 when it was given toStar Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith.The film went on to make an opening weekend of $72.6 million making it the second-highest opening weekend for a New Line Cinema film, behindAustin Powers in Goldmember.In addition, it had the third largest opening weekend of that year, afterThe Matrix ReloadedandX2.With a total gross of $125.1 million, the film had the biggest five-day Wednesday opening of all time, surpassing the previous record held byStar Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.The next year, this record would be beaten byShrek 2.Its Friday-Sunday opening weekend was a record-high for December (first surpassed byI Am Legend).The film also set single-day records for Christmas Day and New Year's Day (both first surpassed byMeet the Fockers). Outside the US and Canada, it is the 17th highest-grossing film,the highest-grossing 2003 filmand the highest-grossing film of the series.On its first day (Wednesday, 17 December 2003), the film earned $23.5 million from 19 countriesand it set an opening-weekend record outside the US and Canada with $125.9 million during the five-day weekend as a whole. The combined total gross increased to $250.1 million, making it the highest worldwide opening weekend at the time, knocking outThe Matrix Revolutions.It set opening-day records in thirteen of them, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Greece, Switzerland, Scandinavia (as well as separately in Sweden, Finland, Norway and Denmark), Mexico, Chile and Puerto Rico.It set opening-weekend records in the United Kingdom ($26.5 million in five days), Germany, Spain, Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland. In Singapore, it surpassedFinding Nemoto become the country's top-grossing film.In New Zealand, where filming took place, the film set opening day, opening weekend, single-day, Friday gross, Saturday gross and Sunday gross records with $1.7 million in four days. The substantial increase in initial box office totals caused optimistic studio executives to forecast thatThe Return of the Kingwould surpassThe Two Towersin total earnings. If this proved to be true, then this would be the first blockbuster trilogy for each successive film to earn more at the box office than its predecessor, when all three films were blockbuster successes.The Return of the Kinghas helpedThe Lord of the Ringsfranchise to become the highest-grossing motion picture trilogy worldwide of all time with over $2.9 billion beating other notable series such as the originalStar Wars Trilogy, and became New Line's highest grossing release. Following subsequent reissues, the film has grossed $381.9 million in the United States and Canada and $769.2 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $1.151billion. These figures do not include income from DVD sales, TV rights, etc. It has been estimatedthat the gross income from non-box office sales and merchandise has been at least equal to the box office for all three films. If this is so, the total gross income for the trilogy would be in the region of $6 billion following an investment of $300 million ($426 million including marketing costs). Critical response On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes,The Return of the Kingholds an approval rating of 94% based on 282 reviews, with an average rating of 8.70/10. The website's critics consensus reads, \"Visually breathtaking and emotionally powerful,The Lord of the Rings - The Return of the Kingis a moving and satisfying conclusion to a great trilogy.\"Metacritic, which uses aweighted average, gives the film a score of 94 out of 100 based on 41 reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film a rare average grade of \"A+\" on an A+ to F scale,the highest grade in the trilogy. Alan Morrison ofEmpiregave the film a perfect score of five stars. In his review, he called the film \"the resounding climax to a landmark in cinema history\" and praised how Peter Jackson had \"kept the momentum of the series rolling on and on through the traditionally 'difficult' middle part and 'weak' finale, delivering a climax to the story that's neater and more affecting than what Tolkien managed on the printed page.\" Morrison also mentioned how fans of the films \"who have walked beside these heroes every step of the way on such a long journey deserve the emotional pay-off as well as the action peaks, and they will be genuinely touched as the final credits roll.\"Elvis MitchellforThe New York Timeslauded the acting, the craft of the technical crew, and Jackson's direction, describingThe Return of the Kingas \"a meticulous and prodigious vision made by a director who was not hamstrung by heavy use of computer special-effects imagery.\"Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesgave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying that it is \"such a crowning achievement, such a visionary use of all the tools of special effects, such a pure spectacle, that it can be enjoyed even by those who have not seen the first two films.\" Talking about the whole trilogy, Ebert said that he admired it \"more as a whole than in its parts\", and thatThe Return of the KingcertifiedThe Lord of the Ringsas \"a work of bold ambition in a time of cinematic timidity\".In his review forThe Times, James Christopher praisedThe Return of the Kingas \"everything a Ring fan could possibly wish for, and much more\", and describedThe Lord of the Ringsas \"the greatest film trilogy ever mounted, with some of the most amazing action sequences committed to celluloid\".Nev Pierce for theBBCgave the film five stars out of five, judging it to be the best chapter of the trilogy, since it combined \"the 'ooh' factor ofFellowshipwith the zippy action ofTowers\". Pierce describedThe Return of the Kingas \"Majestic, moving, and immense\", and \"an astonishing piece of storytelling\".Philip French, reviewing it forThe Observer, lauded the narrative force, the battle scenes, the language, and the visual style of the film, which he related to \"the swirling battle paintings ofAlbrecht Altdorfer\" and \"Claude Lorrain's elegiac paintings of maritime departures inspired by classical poets.\" French wrote about the whole trilogy \"Jackson'sLord of the Ringsis indeed a very fine achievement, moving, involving and, to many people, even inspiring. It redeems the debased cinematic notion of the epic.\" In her review forEntertainment Weekly,Lisa Schwarzbaumgave the film an A grade, and wrote \"The conclusion of Peter Jackson's masterwork is passionate and literate, detailed and expansive, and it's conceived with a risk-taking flair for old-fashioned movie magic at its most precious ... as he has done throughout, the director paces scenes of action, intimacy, and even panoramic, geographical grandeur ... with the control of a superb choreographer.\". Schwarzbaum also said of the whole series \"I can't think of another film trilogy that ends in such glory, or another monumental work of sustained storytelling that surges ahead with so much inventiveness and ardor.\"Richard CorlissofTimenamedThe Return of the Kingthe best film of the yearand described the whole trilogy as \"The film event of the millennium\".Joe Morgenstern, forThe Wall Street Journal, wrote \"Never has a filmmaker aimed higher, or achieved more. The third and last installment of the screen epic based on J.R.R. Tolkien's literary classic redefines -- steeply upward -- the very notion of a major motion picture.\"Peter Bradshaw, who had been less enthusiastic about the first two chapters of the trilogy,gaveThe Return of the Kingfour stars out of five in his review forThe Guardian, commenting \"I started the series an atheist and finished an agnostic\". Bradshaw wrote of the film \"Technically it really is superb\", and commented \"Hours after watching the film, I can close my eyes and see those incredible battle scenes pulsing and throbbing in my skull ... MaybeKurosawa'sbattles will one day be described as proto-Jacksonian\". Some critics had negative opinions of the film. Tom Charity observes inTime Out, \"Some story strands are crudely abbreviated; others fail to develop elements that were already well-established. Given the inordinate running time, it's hard to avoid the feeling that we've already been here, done this.\"Jonathan Romney noted inThe Independent, \"here's something not quite palatable about all these intrepid, largely beautiful Europeans boldly fending off the nameless, numberless hordes from the other side of the world, legions of dark-skinned sans-culottes with tribal drums. ... Aside from this, there's plenty to be offended by on an aesthetic level: the film's self-important solemnity, its hyperbolic over-insistence. ... here are no empty spaces, no gaps for thought, no real stimulus to the viewer's imagination. The film has no idea when to stop, either, with its multiple codas and final dying fall into beatific cosiness.\"And Antonia Quirke in theEvening Standardopined, \"Viggo Mortensen's Aragorn is the good king of the title, and while the actor may look fetching in a crown and cloak, he doesn't have half of the gravitas of Sean Bean's Boromir in the first film. Director Peter Jackson has been all but deified for his work on this particular ring cycle, but there is not much personality behind the camera here, merely rampant enthusiasm.\" The most common criticism ofThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingwas its running time, particularly the epilogue; even rave reviews for the film commented on its length.Joel SiegelofGood Morning Americasaid in his review for the film (which he gave an 'A'): \"If it didn't take forty-five minutes to end, it'd be my best picture of the year. As it is, it's just one of the great achievements in film history.\" In February 2004, a few months following release, the film was voted eighth onEmpire's100 Greatest Movies of All Time, compiled from readers' top ten lists. This forced the magazine to abandon its policy of only allowing films being older than a year to be eligible.In 2007,Total FilmnamedThe Return of the Kingthe third best film of the past decade (Total Film's publication time), behindThe MatrixandFight Club. Accolades The film was nominated for elevenAcademy Awards:Best Picture,Best Director,Best Adapted Screenplay,Best Original Score,Best Original Song,Best Visual Effects,Best Art Direction,Best Costume Design,Best Make-up,Best Sound MixingandBest Film Editing. At the76th Academy Awardsin 2004, the film won all the categories for which it was nominated and it shares the record for highest Academy Award totals along withTitanic(which also starred Bernard Hill) andBen-Hur, and holding the record for the highest clean sweep at the Oscars, surpassing the nine awards earned by bothGigiandThe Last Emperor.It was the first fantasy film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. It also was the last movie for 14 years to win the Academy Award for Best Picture without being chosen as one of the top ten films of the year by theNational Board of Review, until the release ofThe Shape of Waterin 2017. The film won fourGolden Globes(including Best Picture for Drama and Best Director),fiveBAFTAs, twoMTV Movie Awards, twoGrammy Awards, nineSaturn Awards, theNew York Film Critics Circleaward for Best Picture, theNebula Award for Best Script, and theHugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form. See also Notes References External links","Andrew Lesnie Andrew LesnieACSASC(1 January 1956 – 27 April 2015) was an Australiancinematographer. He was best known as the cinematographer forThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy(2001–2003) and its prequelThe Hobbittrilogy(2012–2014), both directed by New Zealand directorPeter Jackson. He received theAcademy Award for Best Cinematographyfor his work onThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ringin 2002. Early life Lesnie was born in Sydney, New South Wales, on 1 January 1956,the son of Shirley (Lithgow) and Allan Lesnie, who worked for the family's company, butcher suppliers Harry Lesnie Pty Ltd. He was educated atSydney Grammar School. Andrew was well liked and popular at school. Lesnie finished 6th form and hisHigher School Certificatein 1974.He started his career in 1978 as an assistant camera operator on the filmPatrick(1978) while he was still in school atAustralian Film, Television and Radio School(AFTRS).sd His first job after graduation in 1979 was as a cameraman on theLogie Award-winning Australian magazine-style afternoon TV showSimon Townsend's Wonder World. Simon Townsend gave Lesnie almost daily opportunities to develop his craft with little restriction over a wide variety of stories and situations, and to experiment with camera and lighting techniques in hundreds of locations and situations. After two years of working on the show, Lesnie moved on to numerous Australian film and television productions, including the mini-seriesBodyline. Later, he worked as a second camera assistant on the filmThe Killing of Angel Street(1981). Lesnie would then go on to develop his craft as he photographed films such asStations(1983),The Delinquents(1989),Temptation of the Monk(1993), andSpider and Rose(1994). Career Lesnie's work began receiving major attention after the release of the anthropomorphic pig storyBabe(1995) and its sequel,Babe: Pig in the City. He was director of photography onPeter Jackson'sLord of the Ringstrilogy, and received anOscarfor his work onThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ringin 2002. Since then, he filmed several other Jackson-directed films, includingKing KongandThe Lovely Bones, and also filmedThe Hobbitfilmsdirected by Jackson. The Lord of the Ringstrilogy (2001–03) Lesnie used motion picture camera companyArri'sArriflex 435,Arriflex 535, andArriCam Studio35mmfilm cameras for the trilogy. He usedCarl ZeissUltra Prime Lenses andKodak's 5279 (tungsten-balanced) film stock to photograph the films. Lesnie planned far ahead into the production withPeter Jacksonwith previsualisation programs to help establish frame sizes and angles, as well as construction of sets.During filming, Lesnie emphasised earthy colours in the makeup and wardrobe of the cast and extras. At the acceptance speech for his Oscar win forFellowship of the Ring, Lesnie dedicated his acceptance to chief lighting technicianBrian Bansgrove, who he described as a major contributor to the quality of the film's cinematography. The Hobbittrilogy (2012–14) For production, Lesnie usedRed Digital Cinema's Epic cameras as well asCarl ZeissUltra Prime Lenses to photograph the film.Jacksonand Lesnie decided to shoot the film in 3D with as many as 15stereoscopiccamera rigs (2 cameras each) with3ality.They also decided to shoot the film in an uncommon frame rate of 48 frames per second versus the industry standard of 24 frames per second. This would make Lesnie the first cinematographer to employ such a method that claims to induce more clarity, reduce motion blur, and make 3D easier to watch. The Water Diviner Lesnie's final film,The Water Diviner, directed by and starringRussell Crowe, was released in Australia in December 2014 and in America in April 2015, one week before his death. Personal life and death Lesnie lived on Sydney's north coast. He was a member of both theAustralian Cinematographers Societyand theAmerican Society of Cinematographers. Lesnie died of a heart attack in his Sydney home on 27 April 2015, after having suffered from a heart condition for half a year. Filmography Film Documentary film Short film Feature film Television TV movies Awards and nominations References External links"],"string":"[\n \"List of Academy Award records Thislist ofAcademy Awardrecordsis current as of the96th Academy Awards, with the ceremony taking place on March 10, 2024. Most awards or nominations Awards for Acting and Directing Debuts These people won Academy Awards for their debut performances in film: These people won Academy Awards for their directing debuts: Big Five Winners Three films have received theBig Five Academy Awards:Best Picture,Director,Actor,Actress, and Screenplay (OriginalorAdapted; all won for Best Adapted Screenplay). Most Consecutive Awards in Each Category Academy Award firsts United States Doraibu mai kā(Japanese) Age-related records Film records Acting records Shortest and Longest Academy Award Winning and Nominated Performances Miscellaneous records Oscar speeches Tied winners There have been six two-way ties Clean sweep The following films with at least two nominations won all of their categories. See also References External links\",\n \"The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingis a 2003epichigh fantasyadventure filmdirected byPeter Jacksonfrom a screenplay byFran Walsh,Philippa Boyens, and Jackson. It is based on 1955'sThe Return of the King, the third volume of the novelThe Lord of the RingsbyJ. R. R. Tolkien. The sequel to 2002'sThe Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, the film is the third and final instalment inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy. It features an ensemble cast includingElijah Wood,Ian McKellen,Liv Tyler,Viggo Mortensen,Sean Astin,Cate Blanchett,John Rhys-Davies,Bernard Hill,Billy Boyd,Dominic Monaghan,Orlando Bloom,Hugo Weaving,Miranda Otto,David Wenham,Karl Urban,John Noble,Andy Serkis,Ian Holm, andSean Bean. Continuing the plot of the previous film,Frodo,SamandGollummake their final way toward Mount Doom to destroy theOne Ring, unaware of Gollum's true intentions, whileMerry,Pippin,Gandalf,Aragorn,Legolas,Gimliand their allies join forces againstSauronand his legions fromMordor. The Return of the Kingwas financed and distributed by American studioNew Line Cinema, butfilmed and editedentirely in Jackson's native New Zealand,concurrentlywith the other two parts of the trilogy. It premiered on 1 December 2003 at theEmbassy TheatreinWellingtonand was then released on 17 December 2003 in the US and 18 December 2003 in New Zealand. The film was acclaimed by critics and audiences, who considered it a landmark in filmmaking and the fantasy film genre, and a satisfying conclusion to the trilogy, with praise for the visual effects, performances, action sequences, direction, screenplay,musical score, costume design, emotional depth, scope, and story. It grossed over $1.1 billion worldwide, becoming thehighest-grossing film of 2003, thesecond-highest-grossing film of all timeduring its run, and the highest-grossing film ever released by New Line Cinema. Like the previous films in the trilogy,The Return of the Kingis widely recognised as one of thegreatest and most influential films ever made. The filmreceived numerous accolades; at the76th Academy Awards, it won all eleven awards for which it was nominated, includingBest Picture, the first fantasy film to do so and tying with 1959'sBen-Hurand 1997'sTitanicas themovie with the most Academy Award wins. It also became the second film series whose entries have all wonBest Visual Effects, after theoriginalStar Warstrilogy. Plot ThehobbitDéagol discovers theOne Ringin a river while fishing with his cousinSméagol. The Ring immediately ensnares Sméagol's mind, and he kills his cousin for it. Increasingly corrupted physically and mentally, he retreats into theMisty Mountainsand becomes known as Gollum. Centuries later, during theWar of the Ring,GandalfleadsAragorn,Legolas,Gimli, and KingThéodenofRohantoIsengard, where they reunite withMerryandPippin. Gandalf retrieves Saruman'spalantír, and the group returns to Edoras to celebratetheir victory at Helm's Deep.Pippin looks into the palantír, seeingSauronanda burning tree. Gandalf deduces that the enemy plans to attackGondor's capitalMinas Tirith; he rides there to warn Gondor's corrupt stewardDenethor. Pippin, who accompanies him, swears fealty to Denethor, whose now-dead heirBoromirhad saved his life;on Gandalf's instruction, Pippin triggers the lighting ofthe beacons, which call for help from Rohan. Frodo, who carries the Ring, andSamcontinue their journey towardsMordor, unaware that Gollum, now their guide, plans to betray them and take the Ring for himself. The trio witness theWitch-king of Angmar, lord of the nineNazgûl, setting off towards Gondor with his army ofOrcs. Gollum frames Sam for eating food supplies and desiring the Ring; Frodo is deceived and orders Sam to go home. As King Théoden gathers his army,Elrondtells Aragorn thatArwenis dying, having refused to leave Middle-earth. Elrond gives AragornAndúril, reforged from the shards of KingElendil's swordNarsil, and urges him to claim Gondor's throne, to which he is heir. Aragorn travels thePaths of the Deadwith Legolas and Gimli and pledges to release the ghosts there from their curse should they come to Gondor's aid. Gollum tricks Frodo into venturing alone into the giant spiderShelob's lair. Frodo narrowly escapes and confronts Gollum, who falls down a chasm after a scuffle. Shelob discovers, paralyses, and binds Frodo, but is wounded and driven away by a returning Sam. Sam mourns Frodo's apparent death and takes the Ring, but then realizes his mistake when Orcs take Frodo captive. He rescues Frodo within Mordor and the two continue towardsMount Doom. Denethor sends his younger son,Faramir, on a suicide charge. Faramir returns gravely wounded; believing him dead, Denethor falls into madness. Gandalf marshals the defenders, but the enormous Orc army breaks into the city. Denethor attempts to burn himself and Faramir on apyre, but Pippin alerts Gandalf and they rescue Faramir. Denethor, set ablaze, jumps to his death. Théoden arrives and leads his army against the Orcs. Despite initial success in theensuing battle, they are decimated by theOliphaunt-ridingHaradrimand the Witch-king mortally wounds Théoden; however, his nieceÉowynslays the Witch-king with Merry's help before Théoden dies in his niece's arms. Aragorn arrives with his Army of the Dead, who overcome Sauron's forces. Their oath fulfilled, the Dead are released from their curse. Aragorn decides to march on Mordor to distract Sauron from Frodo and Sam; all of Sauron's remaining forces marchto meet Aragorn's diversion, allowing the hobbits to reach Mount Doom. Gollum, having survived his fall, attacks, but Frodo enters the mountain. There, he succumbs to the Ring's power, putting it on his finger. Gollum bites Frodo's finger off and reclaims the Ring, leading to a scuffle before they stumble off the ledge. Frodo clings to the ledge and Sam pulls him up while Gollum falls into the lava with the Ring, destroying it and vanquishing Sauron once and for all. The lands of Mordor collapse into the earth, destroying the Orc army. Frodo and Sam narrowly escape the erupting Mount Doom and are saved by Gandalf with the help ofeagles. The surviving Fellowship is happily reunited in Minas Tirith. Aragorn is crowned King of Gondor and marries Arwen; they and everyone else present bow to the hobbits. The hobbits return home to theShire, where Sam marries Rosie Cotton. Four years later, Frodo, still plagued bytraumaand the pain of his wound inflicted by the Witch-king, departs Middle-earth for theUndying Landswith his uncleBilbo, Gandalf, and the Elves. He leaves Sam theRed Book of Westmarch, which details their adventures. Cast Like the preceding films in the trilogy,The Return of the Kinghas anensemble cast,and some of the cast and their respective characters include: There arecameosfromPeter Jackson,Richard Taylor, Gino Acevedo,Rick PorrasandAndrew Lesnieon the Corsair ship, although all of them but Jackson appear only in the Extended Edition. Jackson also has another unofficial cameo, as Sam's hand stepping into view when he confronts Shelob.Sean Astin's daughter played Sam and Rosie's older daughter Elanor in the last scene of the film; in the same scene,Sarah McLeod's daughter plays their younger son. Jackson's children also cameo as Gondorian extras, whileChristian Riversplayed a Gondorian soldier guarding the Beacon Pippin lights, and is later seen wounded.Royd Tolkiencameos as a Ranger inOsgiliath,while in the Extended EditionHoward Shoreappears as a celebrating soldier at Edoras. Additionally, four of the designers ofThe Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Gameare featured as Rohirrim at the Pelennor.At the end of the film, during the closing credits, each cast member gets a sketched portrait morphed with the real photograph beside their name, which were sketched byAlan Lee, an idea suggested byIan McKellen. Comparison to the source material As with all of Peter Jackson's movie adaptions ofThe Lord of the Rings, many events, timelines, and geographic distances are compressed or simplified. Most major events from the books are included, though some are significantly altered. Some events and details seen in the film are not found in the books. The film version ofThe Return of the Kingcontains major scenes from the middle of Tolkien'sThe Two Towers, such as the attack by Shelob and thepalantírsubplot, as Jackson realigned events of the film to fit the timeline from the book's Appendices, rather than theinterlaced order of the main narrative.However, the plot of the second half ofBook IIIis either completely omitted (chapter \\\"The Road to Isengard\\\") or only shown in one scene (chapter \\\"The Voice of Saruman\\\").Saruman's murder byGríma(seen only in the Extended Edition) is moved into the Isengard visit because of the cutting of theScouring of the Shire. The basis of Elrond and Arwen's subplot arguing about Arwen's fate is derived from the Appendices, but it is largely extended in the film, as is Arwen and Elrond's relevance to the story. In the film, overwhelming grief over the death of Boromir has driven Denethor to despair, and he has given up any hope of defeating Sauron before Gandalf arrives in Minas Tirith. Thus, the muster of Gondor is absent from the film. In the book, he has already ordered the lighting of the beacons before Gandalf's arrival, while he refuses to light them in the film, and the sequence where Pippin secretly lights them himself was invented for the movie. The film only hints at Denethor's use of thepalantírwhich drives him mad, information revealed in the Pyre scene, which includes Shadowfax and is more violent than the book. Aware of the very long distance between Rath Dínen and the front of the out-thrust battlement, Jackson has Denethor jump off the Citadel in addition to burning himself on the Pyre, one of the earliest changes. The muster of Rohan, and the subplot in which the Rohirrim are aided by the primitiveDrúedainduring their journey to the besieged Gondor are excised from the film. TheRed Arrowbrought by a messenger from Gondor to ask for Rohan's aid is absent. Éowyn's presence on the battlefield is unknown to the reader until she takes off her helmet, but in the film the audience is aware, as it would have been difficult to haveMiranda Ottoplaying a man.When hope seems lost, Gandalf comforts Pippin by telling him of the Undying Lands, based on a descriptive passage in the book's final chapter. The film altered the circumstances of Théoden's death; his death speech, in which he names Éomer the new king in the book, is trimmed and delivered to Éowyn instead of Merry, with an earlier scene in the Extended Edition even implying that Éowyn is next in line for the throne. Théoden's rallying speech (\\\"To death!\\\") before the initial charge in the film is spoken by Éomer in the book when he believes that both Théoden and Éowyn have been killed in combat with the Witch King. The Extended Edition presents shortened scenes from the book's chapters in theHouses of Healing: The Warden, the talk ofAthelas, the comical conversation with the herb-master, the womanIorethand her saying about a King's healing hands and the subsequent realising of Aragorn's true identity are left out altogether. The romance that develops between Éowyn and Faramir during their recoveries in the Houses of Healing is largely cut, presumably to keep the focus on Aragorn and Arwen; the subplot is briefly referenced in the Extended Edition, with a scene where the two hold hands. Gollum's fall into the lava of Mount Doom was rewritten for the film, as the writers felt that simply having Gollum slip and fall was anticlimactic. Originally, an even greater deviation was planned: Frodo would heroically push Gollum over the ledge to destroy him and the Ring, but the production team realised that that would make it look as if Frodo was murdering Gollum. Instead, they had Frodo and Gollum struggle for possession of the Ring. In addition to the absent footage from the film are the other major attacks by Sauron on various regions of Middle-earth, referenced only briefly in the main text ofThe Return of the King,and expanded upon in the Appendices; the invasion of Rohan by the Orcs ofMoria, the attacks on Lothlórien and theWoodland RealmofThranduilby the forces ofDol Guldur, and the attack on Dale and theLonely Mountainby a force ofEasterlings, events hinted at in a comment by Legolas in the book. There are several changes in the Battle of the Black Gate: Merry is not present there in the book, Pippin does not kill a troll as he does in the novel (instead, Aragorn fights one), the eagles fight and defeat some of the mounted Nazgûl, and Aragorn kills theMouth of Sauronin the extended edition of the film but not in the book. Although the film runs for another approximately 20 minutes after the climactic Downfall of Barad-dûr, many following events from the book are omitted or altered in the film. Aragorn's coronation takes place in form of a great ceremony in the Citadel of Minas Tirith, opposed to the book, where Aragorn is crowned in his tent on the Pelennor Fields before entering the city. Omitted entirely are the camp at theField of Cormallen, Aragorn's business in Minas Tirith, Aragorn and Arwen's wedding,GaladrielandCelebornbeing present at the ceremonies and their subsequent travelling along with the company, Théoden's funeral at Edoras, the complete journey back to theShirewith stops at Rivendell and Bree, and the Scouring of the Shire, which was seen by the screenwriters as anticlimactic.The film also left out the character epilogues: For example, Samwise Gamgee stayed in the Shire when Gandalf and Frodo went to Valinor, during which time he would make changes and additions to theRed Book of Westmarch, which he inherited from Frodo, just as in the film, in which he would add a section titled \\\"Herb Lore of The Shire\\\", which was a section on Pipeweed, the plant Hobbits and other folk of Middle Earth, like Gandalf, would smoke through pipes, as well as various poems. Shortly after his contribution to the Red Book, he served seven consecutive seven year terms as mayor of the Shire, during which he had children with Rosie Cotton who each took the last name of \\\"Gardner\\\" after their father's planting of the Mallorn Tree that replaced the Party Tree, which was destroyed during the Scouring. He did, however, go to Valinor after Rosie died, and before he did, he gave the Red Book to Elanor, one of his daughters. The books also expanded on Aragorn's time as king of Gondor andArnorpost-reuniting, and reveals that Arwen accepted a life as a mortal, and died shortly after Aragorn. Merry and Pippin also returned to the Shire, but unlike Sam and Frodo, they didn't eventually journey to Valinor. Merry inherited his father's title as \\\"Master of Buckland\\\" and despite the perils he and Pippin endured that almost cost them their lives, Merry still had his adventurous spirit. He also reviewed many gifts from Eomer and his sister, Eowyn, and helped the Hobbits learn more about lands beyond the Shire through scholarly articles. He even returned to Rivendell multiple times. When he and Pippin died, they were buried beside their friends, Aragorn and Arwen in Minas Tirith, where they spent some of their final days after a stint in Rohan. Legolas and Gimli make and keep promises in the books to show the other important places to them: first, Gimli shows Legolas the caverns of Aglarond, which Legolas is stunned by, then they walk in the Fangorn Forest, where they then make their way to Isengard where they bid farewell to the Fellowship, after which, they would each go back to their own lands, with Gimli even founding a Dwarven colony in the Glittering Caves. They would, however, reunite to help with the rebuilding and improving of Minas Tirith. They would be the last of the Fellowship to sail for Valinor, departing after the death of their friend Aragorn, Legolas would build a ship for him and Gimli to sail to Valinor. Lastly, Frodo would serve as Deputy Mayor of The Shire until a wound caused by a stab from the Witch King which flared up every year on the anniversary of said stabbing forced him to resign, after which, he would sail to Valinor to receive healing and peace for the rest of his days. Production The production ofThe Lord of the Ringsseries was the first where three separate entries were written and shot simultaneously (excludingpick up shoots). Peter Jackson foundThe Return of the Kingthe easiest of the films to make, because it contained the climax of the story.The Return of the Kingwas originally the second of two planned films underMiramax Filmsfrom January 1997 to August 1998,and more or less in its finished structure as the first film was to end with the Battle of Helm's Deep inThe Two Towers.Filming took place under multiple units across New Zealand, between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000, with pick up shoots for six weeks in 2003 before the film's release. Design Jackson'sMiddle-earthwas primarily designed by Alan Lee andJohn Howe, who had earlier illustrated editions of Tolkien's books. It was created byWeta Workshop, who handled all the trilogy's weapons, armour, miniatures, prosthetics, and creatures; the Art Department built the sets. Richard Taylor headed Weta, whileGrant MajorandDan Hennahorganised the planning and building. The city of Minas Tirith, glimpsed briefly in both the previous two films, is seen fully in this film, and with it the Gondorian civilisation. The enormous soundstage was built at Dry Creek Quarry, outsideWellington, from theHelm's Deepset. That set's gate became Minas Tirith's second, while the Hornburg exterior became that of the Extended Edition's scene where Gandalf confronts the Witch-king. New structures included the 8m tall Gate, with broken and unbroken versions, with a working opening and closing mechanism, with its engravings inspired by theBaptistry of San Giovanni. There were also four levels of streets with heraldic motifs for every house, as inspired bySiena. The Citadel's exterior was in the Stone Street Studios backlot, usingforced perspective. It contained the witheredWhite Tree, built from polystyrene by Brian Massey and the Greens Department with real branches, influenced by ancient and gnarled Lebaneseolivetrees. The interior was within a three-storey former factory in Wellington, its colours influenced byCharlemagne's Chapel, with a throne for Denethor carved from stone, and polystyrene statues of past kings. The Gondorian armour is designed to represent an evolution from theNúmenóreansof the first film's prologue, with a simplified sea bird motif. 16th-century Italian and German armour served as inspiration,while civilians wear silver and blacks as designed by Ngila Dickson, continuing an ancient/medievalMediterranean Basinlook. Minas Morgul, the Staircase and Tower of Cirith Ungol as well as Shelob's Lair were designed by Howe, with the Morgul road using forced perspective into a bluescreened miniature. Howe's design of Minas Morgul was inspired from the experience of having awisdom toothpulled out: in the same way, the Orcs have put their twisted designs on to a former Gondorian city.Cirith Ungol was based on Tolkien's design, but when Richard Taylor felt it as \\\"boring\\\", it was redesigned with more tipping angles.The interior set, like Minas Tirith, was built as a few multiple levels that numerous camera takes would suggest a larger structure. The third film introduces the enormous spider Shelob. Shelob was designed in 1999,with the body based on atunnelweb spiderand the head with numerous growths selected by Peter Jackson's children from one of many sculpts. Jackson himself took great joy in planning the sequence, being anarachnophobehimself.Shelob's Lair was inspired by sandstone and sculpted from the existing Caverns of Isengard set. The Return of the Kingalso brings into focus the Dead Men of Dunharrow and the evil Haradrim from the south of Middle-earth, men who ride themûmakil. The Dead Men have a Celtic influence, as well as lines and symmetry to reflect their morbid state,while their underground city is influenced byPetra.The Haradrim were highly influenced by African culture, until Philippa Boyens expressed concern over the possibility of offensiveness, so the finished characters instead bear influence fromKiribati, in terms of weaving armour from bamboo, and the Aztecs, in use of jewellery. Also built was a single deadmûmak.Other minor cultures include the Corsairs, with an exotic, swarthy look, and the Grey Havens, Elven structures adapted to stone, with influence fromJ. M. W. Turnerpaintings. Principal photography The Return of the Kingwas shot during 2000, though Astin's coverage from Gollum's attempt to separate Frodo and Sam was filmed on 24 November 1999, when floods inQueenstowninterrupted the focus onThe Fellowship of the Ring.Some of the earliest scenes shot for the film were in fact shot last.Hobbiton, home of the Hobbits, was shot in January 2000 with early scenes fromThe Fellowship of the Ring, with the exterior shot at aMatamatafarm, while interior scenes were shot at Stone Street Studios in Wellington,shared with the Grey Havens sequence. Due to the high emotions of filming the scene, the cast were in despair when they were required to shoot it three times, due to a continuity flaw in Astin's costume, and then negatives producing out-of-focus reels.Also shared with the previous films was the Rivendell interior in May. The Battle of the Black Gate was filmed in Aprilat theRangipo Desert, a former minefield.New Zealand soldiers were hired as extras while guides were on the lookout for unexploded mines. Also a cause for concern were Monaghan and Boyd's scale doubles during a charge sequence. In the meantime, Wood, Astin and Serkis filmed atMount Ruapehufor the Mount Doom exteriors. In particular, they spent two hours shooting Sam lifting Frodo on to his back with cross-camera coverage. Scenes shot in June were the Paths of the Dead across various locations, includingPutangirua Pinnacles.In July the crew shot some Shelob scenes, and in August and September time was spent on the scenes in Isengard. Monaghan and Boyd tried numerous takes of their entrance, stressing the word \\\"weed\\\" as they smokedpipe-weed. Christopher Lee spent his part of his scene mostly alone, though McKellen and Hill arrived on the first day for a few lines to help. Edoras exteriors were shot in October. The Ride of the Rohirrim, where Théoden leads the charge into the Orc army, was filmed inTwizelwith 150 extras on horseback. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields has more extensive use ofcomputer-generated imagery, in contrast to the more extensive use of live action in theBattle of Helm's Deepin the second film. Also filmed were the attempts by Faramir to recaptureOsgiliath,as were scenes in the city itself.At this point production was very hectic, with Jackson moving around ten units per day, and production finally wrapped on the Minas Tirith sets, as well as second units shooting parts of the siege. Just as the Hobbit actors' first scene was hiding from a Ringwraith under a tree, their last scene was thebluescreenedreaction shot of the inhabitants of Minas Tirith bowing to them. Pick-ups The 2003 pick-ups were filmed in the Wellington studio car park, with many parts of sets and blue-screens used to finish off scenes, which the design team had to work 24 hours to get the right sets ready for a particular day.The shoot continued for two months, and became an emotional time of farewells for the cast and crew. The film has the most extensive list of re-shoots given for the trilogy. Jackson took his time to re-shoot Aragorn's coronation, rushed into a single day under the supervision of second unit directorGeoff Murphyon 21 December 2000. Jackson also re-shot scenes in and around Mount Doom,and Théoden's death, right after Bernard Hill was meant to wrap. There was also the new character of Gothmog. This was a major new design addition for the film, as Jackson felt the Mordor Orcs were \\\"pathetic\\\" compared to theUruk-haiof the second film after watching assembly cuts, and thus Weta Workshop created grotesque new \\\"über Orcs\\\" as antagonists for the audience to focus on. Rivers redesigned the Witch-king; all his scenes were re-shot, because of confusion from non-readers over whether or not Sauron was on the battlefield. With the positive response to Bloom, Legolas was given a fight with amûmak,and Shore appeared in a cameo during Legolas and Gimli's drinking game at Edoras.The final scenes shot were Aragorn escaping the Skull avalanche, and Frodo finishing his book. The cast also received various props associated with their characters, althoughJohn Rhys-Daviesburned his final Gimli prosthetic.Viggo Mortensenheadbuttedthe stunt team goodbye.Pick-ups ended on 27 June 2003. Scenes shot afterwards included various live-action shots of Riders for the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and a reaction shot of Serkis as Gollum finally realises Frodo intends to destroy the Ring, shot in Jackson's house.For the Extended DVD, in March 2004 Jackson created a few shots of skulls rolling over for the avalanche scene; this was the final piece of footage ever shot for the trilogy, and Jackson noted that it must be the first time a director had shot scenes for a film after it had already won the Oscar. Editing Post-productionbegan in November 2002, with the completion of the 4½ hour assembly cut of the film thatAnnie Collinshad been completing over 2001 and 2002, from 4-hour dailies. For example, Théoden leading the charge went from 150 minutes of takes to a finished 90 seconds.Jackson reunited with longtime collaboratorJamie Selkirkto edit the final film. LikeThe Two Towers, they would have to deal with multiple storylines, and Jackson paid attention to each storyline at a time before deciding where to intercut. Most importantly they spent three weeks working on the last 45 minutes of the film,for appropriate intercutting and leaving out scenes such as the Mouth of Sauron, and the fates of characters like Legolas, Gimli, Éowyn and Faramir.The film inherited scenes originally planned to go into the second film, including the reforging ofNarsil, Gollum's backstory, and Saruman's exit. But the Saruman scene posed a structural problem: killing off the second film's villain when the plot has Sauron as the main villain.Despite pick-ups and dubs, the scene was cut, causing controversy with fans and Saruman actor Christopher Lee, as well as a petition to restore the scene.Lee nonetheless contributed to the DVDs and was at theCopenhagenpremiere, although he said he would never understand the reason for the cut and his relationship with Jackson was chilly.They would, however, later reconcile upon Lee's casting in Jackson'sHobbitfilms. Jackson only had a lock on 5 out of 10 reels, and had to churn out 3 reels in 3 weeks to help finish the film. It was finally completed on 12 November 2003.Jackson never had a chance to view the film in full due to the hectic schedule, and only saw the film from beginning to end on 1 December at the Wellington premiere; according toElijah Wood, his response was \\\"yup, it's good, pretty good\\\". Visual effects The Return of the Kingcontains 1,489 visual effect shots, nearly three times the number from the first film and almost twice that of the second. As with the two previous films,Jim Rygielserved as the visual effects supervisor. Visual effects work began withAlan Leeand Mark Lewis compositing various photographs of New Zealand landscape to create the digital arena of thePelennor Fieldsin November 2002. Jackson and Rivers used computers to plan the enormous battle up until February 2003, when the shots were shown to Weta Digital. To their astonishment, 60 planned shots had gone up to 250, and 50,000 characters were now 200,000.Nevertheless, they pressed on, soon delivering 100 shots a week, 20 a day, and as the deadline neared within the last two months, often working until 2 am. For the battle, they recorded 450 motions for theMASSIVEdigital horses (though deaths were animated), and also had to deal with late additions in the film, such as Trolls bursting through Minas Tirith's gates as well as the creatures that pull Grond to the gate,and redoing a shot of twomûmakilÉomer takes down that had originally taken six months in two days. On a similar note of digital creatures, Shelob's head sculpture was scanned by a Canadian company for 10 times more detail than Weta had previously been able to capture. Like the previous films, there are also extensive morphs between digital doubles for the actors. This time, there was Sam falling off Shelob, where the morph takes place as Astin hits the ground. Legolas attacking amûmakrequired numerous transitions to and fro, and Gollum's shots of him having recovered the One Ring and falling into the Crack of Doom were fully animated.For the latter scene, as well as the scene in which Mount Doom erupts and Frodo and Sam escape from the volcano, the help of the companyNext Limit Technologiesand their softwareRealFlowwas required to simulate thelava. The King of the Dead is played by an actor in prosthetics, and his head occasionally morphs to a more skull-like digital version, depending on the character's mood. The Mouth of Sauron also had his mouth enlarged 200% for unsettling effect. The Return of the Kingalso has practical effects. In the Pyre of Denethor sequence, as the Steward of Gondor throws Pippin out of the Tomb,John Noblethrew asize doublenamed Fon onto a prostrateBilly Boyd, who immediately pushed his head into camera to complete the illusion. A few burning torches were also reflected off a plate of glass and into the camera for when Gandalf's horse Shadowfax kicks Denethor onto the pyre. Because of Jackson's requirement for complete representation of his fantasy world, numerous miniatures were built, such as 1:72 scale miniature of Minas Tirith, which rises 7m high and is 6.5m indiameter. 1:14 scale sections of the city were also required, and the Extended Edition scene of the collapsing City of the Dead has 80,000 small skulls, amounting in total to a single cubic meter.The miniatures team concluded in November with the Black Gate, after 1000 days of shooting, and the final digital effects shot done was the Ring's destruction, on 25 November. Sound effects The Sound department spent the early part of the year searching for the right sounds. ATasmanian devilwas used to create Shelob's shriek, which in turn gave inspiration for Weta's animators, while themûmakilsound is the beginning and end of a lion roar. Human screams and a donkey screech were mixed into Sauron's fall and broken glass was used for the collapsing sounds. For missile trading during Minas Tirith's siege, construction workers dropped actual 2 ton stone blocks previously lifted by a construction crane. Mixing began at a new studio on 15 August, although unfinished building work caused some annoyances.The mixers finished on 15 November, after three months of non-stop work. Score The music, as for the rest of the trilogy, was composed by Shore. He watched the assembly cut of the film,and had to write seven minutes of music per day to keep up with the schedule.The score sees the full introduction of the Gondor theme, originally heard during Boromir's speeches at theCouncil of ElrondinThe Fellowship of the Ringand at Osgiliath inThe Two Towers'Extended Edition. Shore also used the Gondor theme with the new ascending coda (which is unique to this film) in his score for the trailer of the film. The score features theLondon Philharmonic Orchestra,London Voices, theLondon Oratory School Scholaand featured vocal soloists. The score is the most expansive of the three: scoring effectively the entire movie length, not including additional music written for the trailer and various alternate versions released to the public. It also uses the biggest forces in the series: sections of the score call for two sets of timpani, eight trumpets(and possibly a similar increase in the size of the horn, trombone and tuba section, as well), 85 singers in the mixed choirwith additional players for all-male and all-female sections, over fifty in the boy choir and many instrumentalist \\\"bands\\\" playing Celtic and eastern instruments such as tin whistle or pan flute, on stage or off of it.One piece of music required an instrument invented and crafted especially for the film: a fiddle with four pairs of strings instead of single strings. Actors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen and Liv Tyler also contributed to the film's music. Boyd sings on screen as Faramir charges towards Osgiliath, Mortensen sings on screen as he is crowned King, and in the Extended Edition Tyler sings as Aragorn heals Éowyn.Renée Fleming, Ben Del Maestro,Sissel KyrkjebøandJames Galwaycontribute to the soundtrack as featured soloists. Fleming sings as Arwen has a vision of her son, and when Gollum recovers the One Ring. Del Maestro sings when Gandalf lights his staff to save fleeing Gondorian soldiers from Osgiliath as the Nazgûl attack and as the eagles arrive at the Black Gates. Galway plays the flute and whistle as Frodo and Sam climb Mount Doom and as they return to the shire. Sissel sings \\\"Asea Aranion\\\", which was originally meant to score the Houses of Healing scene. The end title song, \\\"Into the West\\\", was composed by Shore with lyrics by Fran Walsh.Annie Lennox(formerly ofEurythmics) performed it and also received songwriting credit. The song was partially inspired by the premature death from cancer of a young New Zealand filmmaker namedCameron Duncanwho had befriended Peter Jackson. Release Theatrical After two years of attention and acclaim since the release ofThe Fellowship of the Ring, audience and critical anticipation for the final entry was extremely high. The world premiere was held in Wellington'sEmbassy Theatre, on 1 December 2003, and was attended by the director and many of the stars. It was estimated that over 100,000 people lined the streets, more than a quarter of the city's population. Home media The theatrical edition of the film was released onVHSand DVD on 25 May 2004 byNew Line Home Entertainment.The DVD was a 2-disc set with extras on the second disc. The theatrical DVD sets for the two previous films were released eight months after the films were released, butReturn of the King's set was completed in five because it did not have to market a sequel (the previous films had to wait for footage of their sequels to become available for a ten-minute preview). However, it contained a seven-minute trailer of the entire trilogy. The Return of the Kingfollowed the precedent set by its predecessors by releasing an Extended Edition (251 minutes) on 14 December 2004 in the UK and US, with new editing and added special effects and music, along with four commentaries and six hours of supplementary material.The final ten minutes comprises a listing of the charter members of the official fan club who had paid for three-year charter membership. A collectors' box set was also released, which included the Extended Set plus a sculpture of Minas Tirith and a bonus 50-minute music documentary DVD,Howard Shore: Creating The Lord of the Rings Symphony: A Composer's Journey Through Middle-earth. The DVD has aDTS-ESsoundtrack. The DVD also features two humorousEaster Eggs, one where Dominic Monaghan plays a German interviewer with Elijah Wood via satellite and another whereVince VaughnandBen Stillerattempt to convince Jackson to make a sequel, originally shown at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards. Both can be accessed via a Ring icon on the last page of both Disc 1 and 2's scene indexes. In August 2006, a Limited Edition ofThe Return of the Kingwas released. This Limited Edition contains two discs; the first is atwo-sided DVDcontaining both the Theatrical and Extended editions of the film. The second disc is a bonus disc that contains a new behind-the-scenes documentary. The theatricalBlu-rayrelease was released in the United States on the sixth of April 2010, though only as part of the complete trilogy release disc.The individual Blu-ray disc ofThe Return of the Kingwas released on the fourteenth of September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy.The Extended Edition was released in the United States in June 2011.It has a runtime of 263 minutes. The Return of the Kingwas released inUltra HD Blu-rayon 30 November 2020 in the United Kingdom and on 1 December 2020 in the United States, along with the other films of the trilogy, including both the theatrical and the extended editions of the films. Reception Box office The Return of the Kingearned $377 million in the United States and Canada and $763.7 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.141 billion in its initial release.In the weekend of 20–22 February 2004, the film crossed the $1 billion mark,making it the second film in history to do so, afterTitanicin 1998. Worldwide, it is the27th highest-grossing film of all timewhen not adjusted for inflation,thehighest-grossing film of 2003,thesecond highest-grossing film of the 2000s, the highest-grossing entry inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy, and the highest-grossing film ever to be released byNew Line Cinema.It held the record asTime Warner's highest-grossing film worldwide for eight years until it was surpassed byHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2in 2011.Box Office Mojoestimates that the film had sold over 61 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run. In the US and Canada, it is the 27th highest-grossing film,the highest-grossing 2003 film,and the highest-grossing entry inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy.The film set an opening Wednesday record with $34 million.This record was first surpassed bySpider-Man 2in 2004 and ranks as the seventh largest Wednesday opening.Additionally, it was ranked as the highest December opening day, holding that record for less than a decade before getting dethroned byThe Hobbit: An Unexpected Journeyin 2012.The film opened a day earlier for a midnight showing and accounted for about $8 million. This was nearly twice the first-day total ofThe Fellowship of the Ring— which earned $18.2 million on its opening day in 2001 — as well as a significant increase overThe Two Towers— which earned $26.1 million on its debut in 2002. Part of the grosses came from the Trilogy Tuesday event, in which the Extended Editions of the two previous films were played on 16 December before the first midnight screening. For two years,The Return of the Kingwould hold the record for having the highest midnight screenings gross until 2005 when it was given toStar Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith.The film went on to make an opening weekend of $72.6 million making it the second-highest opening weekend for a New Line Cinema film, behindAustin Powers in Goldmember.In addition, it had the third largest opening weekend of that year, afterThe Matrix ReloadedandX2.With a total gross of $125.1 million, the film had the biggest five-day Wednesday opening of all time, surpassing the previous record held byStar Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.The next year, this record would be beaten byShrek 2.Its Friday-Sunday opening weekend was a record-high for December (first surpassed byI Am Legend).The film also set single-day records for Christmas Day and New Year's Day (both first surpassed byMeet the Fockers). Outside the US and Canada, it is the 17th highest-grossing film,the highest-grossing 2003 filmand the highest-grossing film of the series.On its first day (Wednesday, 17 December 2003), the film earned $23.5 million from 19 countriesand it set an opening-weekend record outside the US and Canada with $125.9 million during the five-day weekend as a whole. The combined total gross increased to $250.1 million, making it the highest worldwide opening weekend at the time, knocking outThe Matrix Revolutions.It set opening-day records in thirteen of them, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Greece, Switzerland, Scandinavia (as well as separately in Sweden, Finland, Norway and Denmark), Mexico, Chile and Puerto Rico.It set opening-weekend records in the United Kingdom ($26.5 million in five days), Germany, Spain, Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland. In Singapore, it surpassedFinding Nemoto become the country's top-grossing film.In New Zealand, where filming took place, the film set opening day, opening weekend, single-day, Friday gross, Saturday gross and Sunday gross records with $1.7 million in four days. The substantial increase in initial box office totals caused optimistic studio executives to forecast thatThe Return of the Kingwould surpassThe Two Towersin total earnings. If this proved to be true, then this would be the first blockbuster trilogy for each successive film to earn more at the box office than its predecessor, when all three films were blockbuster successes.The Return of the Kinghas helpedThe Lord of the Ringsfranchise to become the highest-grossing motion picture trilogy worldwide of all time with over $2.9 billion beating other notable series such as the originalStar Wars Trilogy, and became New Line's highest grossing release. Following subsequent reissues, the film has grossed $381.9 million in the United States and Canada and $769.2 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $1.151billion. These figures do not include income from DVD sales, TV rights, etc. It has been estimatedthat the gross income from non-box office sales and merchandise has been at least equal to the box office for all three films. If this is so, the total gross income for the trilogy would be in the region of $6 billion following an investment of $300 million ($426 million including marketing costs). Critical response On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes,The Return of the Kingholds an approval rating of 94% based on 282 reviews, with an average rating of 8.70/10. The website's critics consensus reads, \\\"Visually breathtaking and emotionally powerful,The Lord of the Rings - The Return of the Kingis a moving and satisfying conclusion to a great trilogy.\\\"Metacritic, which uses aweighted average, gives the film a score of 94 out of 100 based on 41 reviews, indicating \\\"universal acclaim\\\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film a rare average grade of \\\"A+\\\" on an A+ to F scale,the highest grade in the trilogy. Alan Morrison ofEmpiregave the film a perfect score of five stars. In his review, he called the film \\\"the resounding climax to a landmark in cinema history\\\" and praised how Peter Jackson had \\\"kept the momentum of the series rolling on and on through the traditionally 'difficult' middle part and 'weak' finale, delivering a climax to the story that's neater and more affecting than what Tolkien managed on the printed page.\\\" Morrison also mentioned how fans of the films \\\"who have walked beside these heroes every step of the way on such a long journey deserve the emotional pay-off as well as the action peaks, and they will be genuinely touched as the final credits roll.\\\"Elvis MitchellforThe New York Timeslauded the acting, the craft of the technical crew, and Jackson's direction, describingThe Return of the Kingas \\\"a meticulous and prodigious vision made by a director who was not hamstrung by heavy use of computer special-effects imagery.\\\"Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesgave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying that it is \\\"such a crowning achievement, such a visionary use of all the tools of special effects, such a pure spectacle, that it can be enjoyed even by those who have not seen the first two films.\\\" Talking about the whole trilogy, Ebert said that he admired it \\\"more as a whole than in its parts\\\", and thatThe Return of the KingcertifiedThe Lord of the Ringsas \\\"a work of bold ambition in a time of cinematic timidity\\\".In his review forThe Times, James Christopher praisedThe Return of the Kingas \\\"everything a Ring fan could possibly wish for, and much more\\\", and describedThe Lord of the Ringsas \\\"the greatest film trilogy ever mounted, with some of the most amazing action sequences committed to celluloid\\\".Nev Pierce for theBBCgave the film five stars out of five, judging it to be the best chapter of the trilogy, since it combined \\\"the 'ooh' factor ofFellowshipwith the zippy action ofTowers\\\". Pierce describedThe Return of the Kingas \\\"Majestic, moving, and immense\\\", and \\\"an astonishing piece of storytelling\\\".Philip French, reviewing it forThe Observer, lauded the narrative force, the battle scenes, the language, and the visual style of the film, which he related to \\\"the swirling battle paintings ofAlbrecht Altdorfer\\\" and \\\"Claude Lorrain's elegiac paintings of maritime departures inspired by classical poets.\\\" French wrote about the whole trilogy \\\"Jackson'sLord of the Ringsis indeed a very fine achievement, moving, involving and, to many people, even inspiring. It redeems the debased cinematic notion of the epic.\\\" In her review forEntertainment Weekly,Lisa Schwarzbaumgave the film an A grade, and wrote \\\"The conclusion of Peter Jackson's masterwork is passionate and literate, detailed and expansive, and it's conceived with a risk-taking flair for old-fashioned movie magic at its most precious ... as he has done throughout, the director paces scenes of action, intimacy, and even panoramic, geographical grandeur ... with the control of a superb choreographer.\\\". Schwarzbaum also said of the whole series \\\"I can't think of another film trilogy that ends in such glory, or another monumental work of sustained storytelling that surges ahead with so much inventiveness and ardor.\\\"Richard CorlissofTimenamedThe Return of the Kingthe best film of the yearand described the whole trilogy as \\\"The film event of the millennium\\\".Joe Morgenstern, forThe Wall Street Journal, wrote \\\"Never has a filmmaker aimed higher, or achieved more. The third and last installment of the screen epic based on J.R.R. Tolkien's literary classic redefines -- steeply upward -- the very notion of a major motion picture.\\\"Peter Bradshaw, who had been less enthusiastic about the first two chapters of the trilogy,gaveThe Return of the Kingfour stars out of five in his review forThe Guardian, commenting \\\"I started the series an atheist and finished an agnostic\\\". Bradshaw wrote of the film \\\"Technically it really is superb\\\", and commented \\\"Hours after watching the film, I can close my eyes and see those incredible battle scenes pulsing and throbbing in my skull ... MaybeKurosawa'sbattles will one day be described as proto-Jacksonian\\\". Some critics had negative opinions of the film. Tom Charity observes inTime Out, \\\"Some story strands are crudely abbreviated; others fail to develop elements that were already well-established. Given the inordinate running time, it's hard to avoid the feeling that we've already been here, done this.\\\"Jonathan Romney noted inThe Independent, \\\"here's something not quite palatable about all these intrepid, largely beautiful Europeans boldly fending off the nameless, numberless hordes from the other side of the world, legions of dark-skinned sans-culottes with tribal drums. ... Aside from this, there's plenty to be offended by on an aesthetic level: the film's self-important solemnity, its hyperbolic over-insistence. ... here are no empty spaces, no gaps for thought, no real stimulus to the viewer's imagination. The film has no idea when to stop, either, with its multiple codas and final dying fall into beatific cosiness.\\\"And Antonia Quirke in theEvening Standardopined, \\\"Viggo Mortensen's Aragorn is the good king of the title, and while the actor may look fetching in a crown and cloak, he doesn't have half of the gravitas of Sean Bean's Boromir in the first film. Director Peter Jackson has been all but deified for his work on this particular ring cycle, but there is not much personality behind the camera here, merely rampant enthusiasm.\\\" The most common criticism ofThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingwas its running time, particularly the epilogue; even rave reviews for the film commented on its length.Joel SiegelofGood Morning Americasaid in his review for the film (which he gave an 'A'): \\\"If it didn't take forty-five minutes to end, it'd be my best picture of the year. As it is, it's just one of the great achievements in film history.\\\" In February 2004, a few months following release, the film was voted eighth onEmpire's100 Greatest Movies of All Time, compiled from readers' top ten lists. This forced the magazine to abandon its policy of only allowing films being older than a year to be eligible.In 2007,Total FilmnamedThe Return of the Kingthe third best film of the past decade (Total Film's publication time), behindThe MatrixandFight Club. Accolades The film was nominated for elevenAcademy Awards:Best Picture,Best Director,Best Adapted Screenplay,Best Original Score,Best Original Song,Best Visual Effects,Best Art Direction,Best Costume Design,Best Make-up,Best Sound MixingandBest Film Editing. At the76th Academy Awardsin 2004, the film won all the categories for which it was nominated and it shares the record for highest Academy Award totals along withTitanic(which also starred Bernard Hill) andBen-Hur, and holding the record for the highest clean sweep at the Oscars, surpassing the nine awards earned by bothGigiandThe Last Emperor.It was the first fantasy film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. It also was the last movie for 14 years to win the Academy Award for Best Picture without being chosen as one of the top ten films of the year by theNational Board of Review, until the release ofThe Shape of Waterin 2017. The film won fourGolden Globes(including Best Picture for Drama and Best Director),fiveBAFTAs, twoMTV Movie Awards, twoGrammy Awards, nineSaturn Awards, theNew York Film Critics Circleaward for Best Picture, theNebula Award for Best Script, and theHugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form. See also Notes References External links\",\n \"Andrew Lesnie Andrew LesnieACSASC(1 January 1956 – 27 April 2015) was an Australiancinematographer. He was best known as the cinematographer forThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy(2001–2003) and its prequelThe Hobbittrilogy(2012–2014), both directed by New Zealand directorPeter Jackson. He received theAcademy Award for Best Cinematographyfor his work onThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ringin 2002. Early life Lesnie was born in Sydney, New South Wales, on 1 January 1956,the son of Shirley (Lithgow) and Allan Lesnie, who worked for the family's company, butcher suppliers Harry Lesnie Pty Ltd. He was educated atSydney Grammar School. Andrew was well liked and popular at school. Lesnie finished 6th form and hisHigher School Certificatein 1974.He started his career in 1978 as an assistant camera operator on the filmPatrick(1978) while he was still in school atAustralian Film, Television and Radio School(AFTRS).sd His first job after graduation in 1979 was as a cameraman on theLogie Award-winning Australian magazine-style afternoon TV showSimon Townsend's Wonder World. Simon Townsend gave Lesnie almost daily opportunities to develop his craft with little restriction over a wide variety of stories and situations, and to experiment with camera and lighting techniques in hundreds of locations and situations. After two years of working on the show, Lesnie moved on to numerous Australian film and television productions, including the mini-seriesBodyline. Later, he worked as a second camera assistant on the filmThe Killing of Angel Street(1981). Lesnie would then go on to develop his craft as he photographed films such asStations(1983),The Delinquents(1989),Temptation of the Monk(1993), andSpider and Rose(1994). Career Lesnie's work began receiving major attention after the release of the anthropomorphic pig storyBabe(1995) and its sequel,Babe: Pig in the City. He was director of photography onPeter Jackson'sLord of the Ringstrilogy, and received anOscarfor his work onThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ringin 2002. Since then, he filmed several other Jackson-directed films, includingKing KongandThe Lovely Bones, and also filmedThe Hobbitfilmsdirected by Jackson. The Lord of the Ringstrilogy (2001–03) Lesnie used motion picture camera companyArri'sArriflex 435,Arriflex 535, andArriCam Studio35mmfilm cameras for the trilogy. He usedCarl ZeissUltra Prime Lenses andKodak's 5279 (tungsten-balanced) film stock to photograph the films. Lesnie planned far ahead into the production withPeter Jacksonwith previsualisation programs to help establish frame sizes and angles, as well as construction of sets.During filming, Lesnie emphasised earthy colours in the makeup and wardrobe of the cast and extras. At the acceptance speech for his Oscar win forFellowship of the Ring, Lesnie dedicated his acceptance to chief lighting technicianBrian Bansgrove, who he described as a major contributor to the quality of the film's cinematography. The Hobbittrilogy (2012–14) For production, Lesnie usedRed Digital Cinema's Epic cameras as well asCarl ZeissUltra Prime Lenses to photograph the film.Jacksonand Lesnie decided to shoot the film in 3D with as many as 15stereoscopiccamera rigs (2 cameras each) with3ality.They also decided to shoot the film in an uncommon frame rate of 48 frames per second versus the industry standard of 24 frames per second. This would make Lesnie the first cinematographer to employ such a method that claims to induce more clarity, reduce motion blur, and make 3D easier to watch. The Water Diviner Lesnie's final film,The Water Diviner, directed by and starringRussell Crowe, was released in Australia in December 2014 and in America in April 2015, one week before his death. Personal life and death Lesnie lived on Sydney's north coast. He was a member of both theAustralian Cinematographers Societyand theAmerican Society of Cinematographers. Lesnie died of a heart attack in his Sydney home on 27 April 2015, after having suffered from a heart condition for half a year. Filmography Film Documentary film Short film Feature film Television TV movies Awards and nominations References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["List of Academy Award records Thislist ofAcademy Awardrecordsis current as of the96th Academy Awards, with the ceremony taking place on March 10, 2024. Most awards or nominations Awards for Acting and Directing Debuts These people won Academy Awards for their debut performances in film: These people won Academy Awards for their directing debuts: Big Five Winners Three films have received theBig Five Academy Awards:Best Picture,Director,Actor,Actress, and Screenplay (OriginalorAdapted; all won for Best Adapted Screenplay). Most Consecutive Awards in Each Category Academy Award firsts United States Doraibu mai kā(Japanese) Age-related records Film records Acting records Shortest and Longest Academy Award Winning and Nominated Performances Miscellaneous records Oscar speeches Tied winners There have been six two-way ties Clean sweep The following films with at least two nominations won all of their categories. See also References External links","The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingis a 2003epichigh fantasyadventure filmdirected byPeter Jacksonfrom a screenplay byFran Walsh,Philippa Boyens, and Jackson. It is based on 1955'sThe Return of the King, the third volume of the novelThe Lord of the RingsbyJ. R. R. Tolkien. The sequel to 2002'sThe Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, the film is the third and final instalment inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy. It features an ensemble cast includingElijah Wood,Ian McKellen,Liv Tyler,Viggo Mortensen,Sean Astin,Cate Blanchett,John Rhys-Davies,Bernard Hill,Billy Boyd,Dominic Monaghan,Orlando Bloom,Hugo Weaving,Miranda Otto,David Wenham,Karl Urban,John Noble,Andy Serkis,Ian Holm, andSean Bean. Continuing the plot of the previous film,Frodo,SamandGollummake their final way toward Mount Doom to destroy theOne Ring, unaware of Gollum's true intentions, whileMerry,Pippin,Gandalf,Aragorn,Legolas,Gimliand their allies join forces againstSauronand his legions fromMordor.","legions fromMordor. The Return of the Kingwas financed and distributed by American studioNew Line Cinema, butfilmed and editedentirely in Jackson's native New Zealand,concurrentlywith the other two parts of the trilogy. It premiered on 1 December 2003 at theEmbassy TheatreinWellingtonand was then released on 17 December 2003 in the US and 18 December 2003 in New Zealand. The film was acclaimed by critics and audiences, who considered it a landmark in filmmaking and the fantasy film genre, and a satisfying conclusion to the trilogy, with praise for the visual effects, performances, action sequences, direction, screenplay,musical score, costume design, emotional depth, scope, and story. It grossed over $1.1 billion worldwide, becoming thehighest-grossing film of 2003, thesecond-highest-grossing film of all timeduring its run, and the highest-grossing film ever released by New Line Cinema. Like the previous films in the trilogy,The Return of the Kingis widely recognised as one of thegreatest and most","and most influential films ever made. The filmreceived numerous accolades; at the76th Academy Awards, it won all eleven awards for which it was nominated, includingBest Picture, the first fantasy film to do so and tying with 1959'sBen-Hurand 1997'sTitanicas themovie with the most Academy Award wins. It also became the second film series whose entries have all wonBest Visual Effects, after theoriginalStar Warstrilogy. Plot ThehobbitDéagol discovers theOne Ringin a river while fishing with his cousinSméagol. The Ring immediately ensnares Sméagol's mind, and he kills his cousin for it. Increasingly corrupted physically and mentally, he retreats into theMisty Mountainsand becomes known as Gollum. Centuries later, during theWar of the Ring,GandalfleadsAragorn,Legolas,Gimli, and KingThéodenofRohantoIsengard, where they reunite withMerryandPippin. Gandalf retrieves Saruman'spalantír, and the group returns to Edoras to celebratetheir victory at Helm's Deep.Pippin looks into the palantír, seeingSauronanda burning","burning tree. Gandalf deduces that the enemy plans to attackGondor's capitalMinas Tirith; he rides there to warn Gondor's corrupt stewardDenethor. Pippin, who accompanies him, swears fealty to Denethor, whose now-dead heirBoromirhad saved his life;on Gandalf's instruction, Pippin triggers the lighting ofthe beacons, which call for help from Rohan. Frodo, who carries the Ring, andSamcontinue their journey towardsMordor, unaware that Gollum, now their guide, plans to betray them and take the Ring for himself. The trio witness theWitch-king of Angmar, lord of the nineNazgûl, setting off towards Gondor with his army ofOrcs. Gollum frames Sam for eating food supplies and desiring the Ring; Frodo is deceived and orders Sam to go home. As King Théoden gathers his army,Elrondtells Aragorn thatArwenis dying, having refused to leave Middle-earth. Elrond gives AragornAndúril, reforged from the shards of KingElendil's swordNarsil, and urges him to claim Gondor's throne, to which he is heir. Aragorn travels thePaths of","travels thePaths of the Deadwith Legolas and Gimli and pledges to release the ghosts there from their curse should they come to Gondor's aid. Gollum tricks Frodo into venturing alone into the giant spiderShelob's lair. Frodo narrowly escapes and confronts Gollum, who falls down a chasm after a scuffle. Shelob discovers, paralyses, and binds Frodo, but is wounded and driven away by a returning Sam. Sam mourns Frodo's apparent death and takes the Ring, but then realizes his mistake when Orcs take Frodo captive. He rescues Frodo within Mordor and the two continue towardsMount Doom. Denethor sends his younger son,Faramir, on a suicide charge. Faramir returns gravely wounded; believing him dead, Denethor falls into madness. Gandalf marshals the defenders, but the enormous Orc army breaks into the city. Denethor attempts to burn himself and Faramir on apyre, but Pippin alerts Gandalf and they rescue Faramir. Denethor, set ablaze, jumps to his death. Théoden arrives and leads his army against the Orcs. Despite","the Orcs. Despite initial success in theensuing battle, they are decimated by theOliphaunt-ridingHaradrimand the Witch-king mortally wounds Théoden; however, his nieceÉowynslays the Witch-king with Merry's help before Théoden dies in his niece's arms. Aragorn arrives with his Army of the Dead, who overcome Sauron's forces. Their oath fulfilled, the Dead are released from their curse. Aragorn decides to march on Mordor to distract Sauron from Frodo and Sam; all of Sauron's remaining forces marchto meet Aragorn's diversion, allowing the hobbits to reach Mount Doom. Gollum, having survived his fall, attacks, but Frodo enters the mountain. There, he succumbs to the Ring's power, putting it on his finger. Gollum bites Frodo's finger off and reclaims the Ring, leading to a scuffle before they stumble off the ledge. Frodo clings to the ledge and Sam pulls him up while Gollum falls into the lava with the Ring, destroying it and vanquishing Sauron once and for all. The lands of Mordor collapse into the earth,","into the earth, destroying the Orc army. Frodo and Sam narrowly escape the erupting Mount Doom and are saved by Gandalf with the help ofeagles. The surviving Fellowship is happily reunited in Minas Tirith. Aragorn is crowned King of Gondor and marries Arwen; they and everyone else present bow to the hobbits. The hobbits return home to theShire, where Sam marries Rosie Cotton. Four years later, Frodo, still plagued bytraumaand the pain of his wound inflicted by the Witch-king, departs Middle-earth for theUndying Landswith his uncleBilbo, Gandalf, and the Elves. He leaves Sam theRed Book of Westmarch, which details their adventures. Cast Like the preceding films in the trilogy,The Return of the Kinghas anensemble cast,and some of the cast and their respective characters include: There arecameosfromPeter Jackson,Richard Taylor, Gino Acevedo,Rick PorrasandAndrew Lesnieon the Corsair ship, although all of them but Jackson appear only in the Extended Edition. Jackson also has another unofficial cameo, as Sam's","cameo, as Sam's hand stepping into view when he confronts Shelob.Sean Astin's daughter played Sam and Rosie's older daughter Elanor in the last scene of the film; in the same scene,Sarah McLeod's daughter plays their younger son. Jackson's children also cameo as Gondorian extras, whileChristian Riversplayed a Gondorian soldier guarding the Beacon Pippin lights, and is later seen wounded.Royd Tolkiencameos as a Ranger inOsgiliath,while in the Extended EditionHoward Shoreappears as a celebrating soldier at Edoras. Additionally, four of the designers ofThe Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Gameare featured as Rohirrim at the Pelennor.At the end of the film, during the closing credits, each cast member gets a sketched portrait morphed with the real photograph beside their name, which were sketched byAlan Lee, an idea suggested byIan McKellen. Comparison to the source material As with all of Peter Jackson's movie adaptions ofThe Lord of the Rings, many events, timelines, and geographic distances are compressed or","are compressed or simplified. Most major events from the books are included, though some are significantly altered. Some events and details seen in the film are not found in the books. The film version ofThe Return of the Kingcontains major scenes from the middle of Tolkien'sThe Two Towers, such as the attack by Shelob and thepalantírsubplot, as Jackson realigned events of the film to fit the timeline from the book's Appendices, rather than theinterlaced order of the main narrative.However, the plot of the second half ofBook IIIis either completely omitted (chapter \"The Road to Isengard\") or only shown in one scene (chapter \"The Voice of Saruman\").Saruman's murder byGríma(seen only in the Extended Edition) is moved into the Isengard visit because of the cutting of theScouring of the Shire. The basis of Elrond and Arwen's subplot arguing about Arwen's fate is derived from the Appendices, but it is largely extended in the film, as is Arwen and Elrond's relevance to the story. In the film, overwhelming grief","overwhelming grief over the death of Boromir has driven Denethor to despair, and he has given up any hope of defeating Sauron before Gandalf arrives in Minas Tirith. Thus, the muster of Gondor is absent from the film. In the book, he has already ordered the lighting of the beacons before Gandalf's arrival, while he refuses to light them in the film, and the sequence where Pippin secretly lights them himself was invented for the movie. The film only hints at Denethor's use of thepalantírwhich drives him mad, information revealed in the Pyre scene, which includes Shadowfax and is more violent than the book. Aware of the very long distance between Rath Dínen and the front of the out-thrust battlement, Jackson has Denethor jump off the Citadel in addition to burning himself on the Pyre, one of the earliest changes. The muster of Rohan, and the subplot in which the Rohirrim are aided by the primitiveDrúedainduring their journey to the besieged Gondor are excised from the film. TheRed Arrowbrought by a messenger","by a messenger from Gondor to ask for Rohan's aid is absent. Éowyn's presence on the battlefield is unknown to the reader until she takes off her helmet, but in the film the audience is aware, as it would have been difficult to haveMiranda Ottoplaying a man.When hope seems lost, Gandalf comforts Pippin by telling him of the Undying Lands, based on a descriptive passage in the book's final chapter. The film altered the circumstances of Théoden's death; his death speech, in which he names Éomer the new king in the book, is trimmed and delivered to Éowyn instead of Merry, with an earlier scene in the Extended Edition even implying that Éowyn is next in line for the throne. Théoden's rallying speech (\"To death!\") before the initial charge in the film is spoken by Éomer in the book when he believes that both Théoden and Éowyn have been killed in combat with the Witch King. The Extended Edition presents shortened scenes from the book's chapters in theHouses of Healing: The Warden, the talk ofAthelas, the comical","the comical conversation with the herb-master, the womanIorethand her saying about a King's healing hands and the subsequent realising of Aragorn's true identity are left out altogether. The romance that develops between Éowyn and Faramir during their recoveries in the Houses of Healing is largely cut, presumably to keep the focus on Aragorn and Arwen; the subplot is briefly referenced in the Extended Edition, with a scene where the two hold hands. Gollum's fall into the lava of Mount Doom was rewritten for the film, as the writers felt that simply having Gollum slip and fall was anticlimactic. Originally, an even greater deviation was planned: Frodo would heroically push Gollum over the ledge to destroy him and the Ring, but the production team realised that that would make it look as if Frodo was murdering Gollum. Instead, they had Frodo and Gollum struggle for possession of the Ring. In addition to the absent footage from the film are the other major attacks by Sauron on various regions of Middle-earth,","of Middle-earth, referenced only briefly in the main text ofThe Return of the King,and expanded upon in the Appendices; the invasion of Rohan by the Orcs ofMoria, the attacks on Lothlórien and theWoodland RealmofThranduilby the forces ofDol Guldur, and the attack on Dale and theLonely Mountainby a force ofEasterlings, events hinted at in a comment by Legolas in the book. There are several changes in the Battle of the Black Gate: Merry is not present there in the book, Pippin does not kill a troll as he does in the novel (instead, Aragorn fights one), the eagles fight and defeat some of the mounted Nazgûl, and Aragorn kills theMouth of Sauronin the extended edition of the film but not in the book. Although the film runs for another approximately 20 minutes after the climactic Downfall of Barad-dûr, many following events from the book are omitted or altered in the film. Aragorn's coronation takes place in form of a great ceremony in the Citadel of Minas Tirith, opposed to the book, where Aragorn is crowned in","is crowned in his tent on the Pelennor Fields before entering the city. Omitted entirely are the camp at theField of Cormallen, Aragorn's business in Minas Tirith, Aragorn and Arwen's wedding,GaladrielandCelebornbeing present at the ceremonies and their subsequent travelling along with the company, Théoden's funeral at Edoras, the complete journey back to theShirewith stops at Rivendell and Bree, and the Scouring of the Shire, which was seen by the screenwriters as anticlimactic.The film also left out the character epilogues: For example, Samwise Gamgee stayed in the Shire when Gandalf and Frodo went to Valinor, during which time he would make changes and additions to theRed Book of Westmarch, which he inherited from Frodo, just as in the film, in which he would add a section titled \"Herb Lore of The Shire\", which was a section on Pipeweed, the plant Hobbits and other folk of Middle Earth, like Gandalf, would smoke through pipes, as well as various poems. Shortly after his contribution to the Red Book, he","to the Red Book, he served seven consecutive seven year terms as mayor of the Shire, during which he had children with Rosie Cotton who each took the last name of \"Gardner\" after their father's planting of the Mallorn Tree that replaced the Party Tree, which was destroyed during the Scouring. He did, however, go to Valinor after Rosie died, and before he did, he gave the Red Book to Elanor, one of his daughters. The books also expanded on Aragorn's time as king of Gondor andArnorpost-reuniting, and reveals that Arwen accepted a life as a mortal, and died shortly after Aragorn. Merry and Pippin also returned to the Shire, but unlike Sam and Frodo, they didn't eventually journey to Valinor. Merry inherited his father's title as \"Master of Buckland\" and despite the perils he and Pippin endured that almost cost them their lives, Merry still had his adventurous spirit. He also reviewed many gifts from Eomer and his sister, Eowyn, and helped the Hobbits learn more about lands beyond the Shire through scholarly","through scholarly articles. He even returned to Rivendell multiple times. When he and Pippin died, they were buried beside their friends, Aragorn and Arwen in Minas Tirith, where they spent some of their final days after a stint in Rohan. Legolas and Gimli make and keep promises in the books to show the other important places to them: first, Gimli shows Legolas the caverns of Aglarond, which Legolas is stunned by, then they walk in the Fangorn Forest, where they then make their way to Isengard where they bid farewell to the Fellowship, after which, they would each go back to their own lands, with Gimli even founding a Dwarven colony in the Glittering Caves. They would, however, reunite to help with the rebuilding and improving of Minas Tirith. They would be the last of the Fellowship to sail for Valinor, departing after the death of their friend Aragorn, Legolas would build a ship for him and Gimli to sail to Valinor. Lastly, Frodo would serve as Deputy Mayor of The Shire until a wound caused by a stab from","by a stab from the Witch King which flared up every year on the anniversary of said stabbing forced him to resign, after which, he would sail to Valinor to receive healing and peace for the rest of his days. Production The production ofThe Lord of the Ringsseries was the first where three separate entries were written and shot simultaneously (excludingpick up shoots). Peter Jackson foundThe Return of the Kingthe easiest of the films to make, because it contained the climax of the story.The Return of the Kingwas originally the second of two planned films underMiramax Filmsfrom January 1997 to August 1998,and more or less in its finished structure as the first film was to end with the Battle of Helm's Deep inThe Two Towers.Filming took place under multiple units across New Zealand, between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000, with pick up shoots for six weeks in 2003 before the film's release. Design Jackson'sMiddle-earthwas primarily designed by Alan Lee andJohn Howe, who had earlier illustrated editions of","editions of Tolkien's books. It was created byWeta Workshop, who handled all the trilogy's weapons, armour, miniatures, prosthetics, and creatures; the Art Department built the sets. Richard Taylor headed Weta, whileGrant MajorandDan Hennahorganised the planning and building. The city of Minas Tirith, glimpsed briefly in both the previous two films, is seen fully in this film, and with it the Gondorian civilisation. The enormous soundstage was built at Dry Creek Quarry, outsideWellington, from theHelm's Deepset. That set's gate became Minas Tirith's second, while the Hornburg exterior became that of the Extended Edition's scene where Gandalf confronts the Witch-king. New structures included the 8m tall Gate, with broken and unbroken versions, with a working opening and closing mechanism, with its engravings inspired by theBaptistry of San Giovanni. There were also four levels of streets with heraldic motifs for every house, as inspired bySiena. The Citadel's exterior was in the Stone Street Studios backlot,","Studios backlot, usingforced perspective. It contained the witheredWhite Tree, built from polystyrene by Brian Massey and the Greens Department with real branches, influenced by ancient and gnarled Lebaneseolivetrees. The interior was within a three-storey former factory in Wellington, its colours influenced byCharlemagne's Chapel, with a throne for Denethor carved from stone, and polystyrene statues of past kings. The Gondorian armour is designed to represent an evolution from theNúmenóreansof the first film's prologue, with a simplified sea bird motif. 16th-century Italian and German armour served as inspiration,while civilians wear silver and blacks as designed by Ngila Dickson, continuing an ancient/medievalMediterranean Basinlook. Minas Morgul, the Staircase and Tower of Cirith Ungol as well as Shelob's Lair were designed by Howe, with the Morgul road using forced perspective into a bluescreened miniature. Howe's design of Minas Morgul was inspired from the experience of having awisdom toothpulled out:","toothpulled out: in the same way, the Orcs have put their twisted designs on to a former Gondorian city.Cirith Ungol was based on Tolkien's design, but when Richard Taylor felt it as \"boring\", it was redesigned with more tipping angles.The interior set, like Minas Tirith, was built as a few multiple levels that numerous camera takes would suggest a larger structure. The third film introduces the enormous spider Shelob. Shelob was designed in 1999,with the body based on atunnelweb spiderand the head with numerous growths selected by Peter Jackson's children from one of many sculpts. Jackson himself took great joy in planning the sequence, being anarachnophobehimself.Shelob's Lair was inspired by sandstone and sculpted from the existing Caverns of Isengard set. The Return of the Kingalso brings into focus the Dead Men of Dunharrow and the evil Haradrim from the south of Middle-earth, men who ride themûmakil. The Dead Men have a Celtic influence, as well as lines and symmetry to reflect their morbid state,while","morbid state,while their underground city is influenced byPetra.The Haradrim were highly influenced by African culture, until Philippa Boyens expressed concern over the possibility of offensiveness, so the finished characters instead bear influence fromKiribati, in terms of weaving armour from bamboo, and the Aztecs, in use of jewellery. Also built was a single deadmûmak.Other minor cultures include the Corsairs, with an exotic, swarthy look, and the Grey Havens, Elven structures adapted to stone, with influence fromJ. M. W. Turnerpaintings. Principal photography The Return of the Kingwas shot during 2000, though Astin's coverage from Gollum's attempt to separate Frodo and Sam was filmed on 24 November 1999, when floods inQueenstowninterrupted the focus onThe Fellowship of the Ring.Some of the earliest scenes shot for the film were in fact shot last.Hobbiton, home of the Hobbits, was shot in January 2000 with early scenes fromThe Fellowship of the Ring, with the exterior shot at aMatamatafarm, while interior","while interior scenes were shot at Stone Street Studios in Wellington,shared with the Grey Havens sequence. Due to the high emotions of filming the scene, the cast were in despair when they were required to shoot it three times, due to a continuity flaw in Astin's costume, and then negatives producing out-of-focus reels.Also shared with the previous films was the Rivendell interior in May. The Battle of the Black Gate was filmed in Aprilat theRangipo Desert, a former minefield.New Zealand soldiers were hired as extras while guides were on the lookout for unexploded mines. Also a cause for concern were Monaghan and Boyd's scale doubles during a charge sequence. In the meantime, Wood, Astin and Serkis filmed atMount Ruapehufor the Mount Doom exteriors. In particular, they spent two hours shooting Sam lifting Frodo on to his back with cross-camera coverage. Scenes shot in June were the Paths of the Dead across various locations, includingPutangirua Pinnacles.In July the crew shot some Shelob scenes, and in","scenes, and in August and September time was spent on the scenes in Isengard. Monaghan and Boyd tried numerous takes of their entrance, stressing the word \"weed\" as they smokedpipe-weed. Christopher Lee spent his part of his scene mostly alone, though McKellen and Hill arrived on the first day for a few lines to help. Edoras exteriors were shot in October. The Ride of the Rohirrim, where Théoden leads the charge into the Orc army, was filmed inTwizelwith 150 extras on horseback. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields has more extensive use ofcomputer-generated imagery, in contrast to the more extensive use of live action in theBattle of Helm's Deepin the second film. Also filmed were the attempts by Faramir to recaptureOsgiliath,as were scenes in the city itself.At this point production was very hectic, with Jackson moving around ten units per day, and production finally wrapped on the Minas Tirith sets, as well as second units shooting parts of the siege. Just as the Hobbit actors' first scene was hiding from a","was hiding from a Ringwraith under a tree, their last scene was thebluescreenedreaction shot of the inhabitants of Minas Tirith bowing to them. Pick-ups The 2003 pick-ups were filmed in the Wellington studio car park, with many parts of sets and blue-screens used to finish off scenes, which the design team had to work 24 hours to get the right sets ready for a particular day.The shoot continued for two months, and became an emotional time of farewells for the cast and crew. The film has the most extensive list of re-shoots given for the trilogy. Jackson took his time to re-shoot Aragorn's coronation, rushed into a single day under the supervision of second unit directorGeoff Murphyon 21 December 2000. Jackson also re-shot scenes in and around Mount Doom,and Théoden's death, right after Bernard Hill was meant to wrap. There was also the new character of Gothmog. This was a major new design addition for the film, as Jackson felt the Mordor Orcs were \"pathetic\" compared to theUruk-haiof the second film after","second film after watching assembly cuts, and thus Weta Workshop created grotesque new \"über Orcs\" as antagonists for the audience to focus on. Rivers redesigned the Witch-king; all his scenes were re-shot, because of confusion from non-readers over whether or not Sauron was on the battlefield. With the positive response to Bloom, Legolas was given a fight with amûmak,and Shore appeared in a cameo during Legolas and Gimli's drinking game at Edoras.The final scenes shot were Aragorn escaping the Skull avalanche, and Frodo finishing his book. The cast also received various props associated with their characters, althoughJohn Rhys-Daviesburned his final Gimli prosthetic.Viggo Mortensenheadbuttedthe stunt team goodbye.Pick-ups ended on 27 June 2003. Scenes shot afterwards included various live-action shots of Riders for the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and a reaction shot of Serkis as Gollum finally realises Frodo intends to destroy the Ring, shot in Jackson's house.For the Extended DVD, in March 2004 Jackson","March 2004 Jackson created a few shots of skulls rolling over for the avalanche scene; this was the final piece of footage ever shot for the trilogy, and Jackson noted that it must be the first time a director had shot scenes for a film after it had already won the Oscar. Editing Post-productionbegan in November 2002, with the completion of the 4½ hour assembly cut of the film thatAnnie Collinshad been completing over 2001 and 2002, from 4-hour dailies. For example, Théoden leading the charge went from 150 minutes of takes to a finished 90 seconds.Jackson reunited with longtime collaboratorJamie Selkirkto edit the final film. LikeThe Two Towers, they would have to deal with multiple storylines, and Jackson paid attention to each storyline at a time before deciding where to intercut. Most importantly they spent three weeks working on the last 45 minutes of the film,for appropriate intercutting and leaving out scenes such as the Mouth of Sauron, and the fates of characters like Legolas, Gimli, Éowyn and","Gimli, Éowyn and Faramir.The film inherited scenes originally planned to go into the second film, including the reforging ofNarsil, Gollum's backstory, and Saruman's exit. But the Saruman scene posed a structural problem: killing off the second film's villain when the plot has Sauron as the main villain.Despite pick-ups and dubs, the scene was cut, causing controversy with fans and Saruman actor Christopher Lee, as well as a petition to restore the scene.Lee nonetheless contributed to the DVDs and was at theCopenhagenpremiere, although he said he would never understand the reason for the cut and his relationship with Jackson was chilly.They would, however, later reconcile upon Lee's casting in Jackson'sHobbitfilms. Jackson only had a lock on 5 out of 10 reels, and had to churn out 3 reels in 3 weeks to help finish the film. It was finally completed on 12 November 2003.Jackson never had a chance to view the film in full due to the hectic schedule, and only saw the film from beginning to end on 1 December at","on 1 December at the Wellington premiere; according toElijah Wood, his response was \"yup, it's good, pretty good\". Visual effects The Return of the Kingcontains 1,489 visual effect shots, nearly three times the number from the first film and almost twice that of the second. As with the two previous films,Jim Rygielserved as the visual effects supervisor. Visual effects work began withAlan Leeand Mark Lewis compositing various photographs of New Zealand landscape to create the digital arena of thePelennor Fieldsin November 2002. Jackson and Rivers used computers to plan the enormous battle up until February 2003, when the shots were shown to Weta Digital. To their astonishment, 60 planned shots had gone up to 250, and 50,000 characters were now 200,000.Nevertheless, they pressed on, soon delivering 100 shots a week, 20 a day, and as the deadline neared within the last two months, often working until 2 am. For the battle, they recorded 450 motions for theMASSIVEdigital horses (though deaths were animated), and","were animated), and also had to deal with late additions in the film, such as Trolls bursting through Minas Tirith's gates as well as the creatures that pull Grond to the gate,and redoing a shot of twomûmakilÉomer takes down that had originally taken six months in two days. On a similar note of digital creatures, Shelob's head sculpture was scanned by a Canadian company for 10 times more detail than Weta had previously been able to capture. Like the previous films, there are also extensive morphs between digital doubles for the actors. This time, there was Sam falling off Shelob, where the morph takes place as Astin hits the ground. Legolas attacking amûmakrequired numerous transitions to and fro, and Gollum's shots of him having recovered the One Ring and falling into the Crack of Doom were fully animated.For the latter scene, as well as the scene in which Mount Doom erupts and Frodo and Sam escape from the volcano, the help of the companyNext Limit Technologiesand their softwareRealFlowwas required to","required to simulate thelava. The King of the Dead is played by an actor in prosthetics, and his head occasionally morphs to a more skull-like digital version, depending on the character's mood. The Mouth of Sauron also had his mouth enlarged 200% for unsettling effect. The Return of the Kingalso has practical effects. In the Pyre of Denethor sequence, as the Steward of Gondor throws Pippin out of the Tomb,John Noblethrew asize doublenamed Fon onto a prostrateBilly Boyd, who immediately pushed his head into camera to complete the illusion. A few burning torches were also reflected off a plate of glass and into the camera for when Gandalf's horse Shadowfax kicks Denethor onto the pyre. Because of Jackson's requirement for complete representation of his fantasy world, numerous miniatures were built, such as 1:72 scale miniature of Minas Tirith, which rises 7m high and is 6.5m indiameter. 1:14 scale sections of the city were also required, and the Extended Edition scene of the collapsing City of the Dead has","of the Dead has 80,000 small skulls, amounting in total to a single cubic meter.The miniatures team concluded in November with the Black Gate, after 1000 days of shooting, and the final digital effects shot done was the Ring's destruction, on 25 November. Sound effects The Sound department spent the early part of the year searching for the right sounds. ATasmanian devilwas used to create Shelob's shriek, which in turn gave inspiration for Weta's animators, while themûmakilsound is the beginning and end of a lion roar. Human screams and a donkey screech were mixed into Sauron's fall and broken glass was used for the collapsing sounds. For missile trading during Minas Tirith's siege, construction workers dropped actual 2 ton stone blocks previously lifted by a construction crane. Mixing began at a new studio on 15 August, although unfinished building work caused some annoyances.The mixers finished on 15 November, after three months of non-stop work. Score The music, as for the rest of the trilogy, was composed","was composed by Shore. He watched the assembly cut of the film,and had to write seven minutes of music per day to keep up with the schedule.The score sees the full introduction of the Gondor theme, originally heard during Boromir's speeches at theCouncil of ElrondinThe Fellowship of the Ringand at Osgiliath inThe Two Towers'Extended Edition. Shore also used the Gondor theme with the new ascending coda (which is unique to this film) in his score for the trailer of the film. The score features theLondon Philharmonic Orchestra,London Voices, theLondon Oratory School Scholaand featured vocal soloists. The score is the most expansive of the three: scoring effectively the entire movie length, not including additional music written for the trailer and various alternate versions released to the public. It also uses the biggest forces in the series: sections of the score call for two sets of timpani, eight trumpets(and possibly a similar increase in the size of the horn, trombone and tuba section, as well), 85","as well), 85 singers in the mixed choirwith additional players for all-male and all-female sections, over fifty in the boy choir and many instrumentalist \"bands\" playing Celtic and eastern instruments such as tin whistle or pan flute, on stage or off of it.One piece of music required an instrument invented and crafted especially for the film: a fiddle with four pairs of strings instead of single strings. Actors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen and Liv Tyler also contributed to the film's music. Boyd sings on screen as Faramir charges towards Osgiliath, Mortensen sings on screen as he is crowned King, and in the Extended Edition Tyler sings as Aragorn heals Éowyn.Renée Fleming, Ben Del Maestro,Sissel KyrkjebøandJames Galwaycontribute to the soundtrack as featured soloists. Fleming sings as Arwen has a vision of her son, and when Gollum recovers the One Ring. Del Maestro sings when Gandalf lights his staff to save fleeing Gondorian soldiers from Osgiliath as the Nazgûl attack and as the eagles arrive at the Black","arrive at the Black Gates. Galway plays the flute and whistle as Frodo and Sam climb Mount Doom and as they return to the shire. Sissel sings \"Asea Aranion\", which was originally meant to score the Houses of Healing scene. The end title song, \"Into the West\", was composed by Shore with lyrics by Fran Walsh.Annie Lennox(formerly ofEurythmics) performed it and also received songwriting credit. The song was partially inspired by the premature death from cancer of a young New Zealand filmmaker namedCameron Duncanwho had befriended Peter Jackson. Release Theatrical After two years of attention and acclaim since the release ofThe Fellowship of the Ring, audience and critical anticipation for the final entry was extremely high. The world premiere was held in Wellington'sEmbassy Theatre, on 1 December 2003, and was attended by the director and many of the stars. It was estimated that over 100,000 people lined the streets, more than a quarter of the city's population. Home media The theatrical edition of the film was","of the film was released onVHSand DVD on 25 May 2004 byNew Line Home Entertainment.The DVD was a 2-disc set with extras on the second disc. The theatrical DVD sets for the two previous films were released eight months after the films were released, butReturn of the King's set was completed in five because it did not have to market a sequel (the previous films had to wait for footage of their sequels to become available for a ten-minute preview). However, it contained a seven-minute trailer of the entire trilogy. The Return of the Kingfollowed the precedent set by its predecessors by releasing an Extended Edition (251 minutes) on 14 December 2004 in the UK and US, with new editing and added special effects and music, along with four commentaries and six hours of supplementary material.The final ten minutes comprises a listing of the charter members of the official fan club who had paid for three-year charter membership. A collectors' box set was also released, which included the Extended Set plus a sculpture","plus a sculpture of Minas Tirith and a bonus 50-minute music documentary DVD,Howard Shore: Creating The Lord of the Rings Symphony: A Composer's Journey Through Middle-earth. The DVD has aDTS-ESsoundtrack. The DVD also features two humorousEaster Eggs, one where Dominic Monaghan plays a German interviewer with Elijah Wood via satellite and another whereVince VaughnandBen Stillerattempt to convince Jackson to make a sequel, originally shown at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards. Both can be accessed via a Ring icon on the last page of both Disc 1 and 2's scene indexes. In August 2006, a Limited Edition ofThe Return of the Kingwas released. This Limited Edition contains two discs; the first is atwo-sided DVDcontaining both the Theatrical and Extended editions of the film. The second disc is a bonus disc that contains a new behind-the-scenes documentary. The theatricalBlu-rayrelease was released in the United States on the sixth of April 2010, though only as part of the complete trilogy release disc.The individual","disc.The individual Blu-ray disc ofThe Return of the Kingwas released on the fourteenth of September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy.The Extended Edition was released in the United States in June 2011.It has a runtime of 263 minutes. The Return of the Kingwas released inUltra HD Blu-rayon 30 November 2020 in the United Kingdom and on 1 December 2020 in the United States, along with the other films of the trilogy, including both the theatrical and the extended editions of the films. Reception Box office The Return of the Kingearned $377 million in the United States and Canada and $763.7 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.141 billion in its initial release.In the weekend of 20–22 February 2004, the film crossed the $1 billion mark,making it the second film in history to do so, afterTitanicin 1998. Worldwide, it is the27th highest-grossing film of all timewhen not adjusted for inflation,thehighest-grossing film of","film of 2003,thesecond highest-grossing film of the 2000s, the highest-grossing entry inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy, and the highest-grossing film ever to be released byNew Line Cinema.It held the record asTime Warner's highest-grossing film worldwide for eight years until it was surpassed byHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2in 2011.Box Office Mojoestimates that the film had sold over 61 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run. In the US and Canada, it is the 27th highest-grossing film,the highest-grossing 2003 film,and the highest-grossing entry inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy.The film set an opening Wednesday record with $34 million.This record was first surpassed bySpider-Man 2in 2004 and ranks as the seventh largest Wednesday opening.Additionally, it was ranked as the highest December opening day, holding that record for less than a decade before getting dethroned byThe Hobbit: An Unexpected Journeyin 2012.The film opened a day earlier for a midnight showing and accounted for","and accounted for about $8 million. This was nearly twice the first-day total ofThe Fellowship of the Ring— which earned $18.2 million on its opening day in 2001 — as well as a significant increase overThe Two Towers— which earned $26.1 million on its debut in 2002. Part of the grosses came from the Trilogy Tuesday event, in which the Extended Editions of the two previous films were played on 16 December before the first midnight screening. For two years,The Return of the Kingwould hold the record for having the highest midnight screenings gross until 2005 when it was given toStar Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith.The film went on to make an opening weekend of $72.6 million making it the second-highest opening weekend for a New Line Cinema film, behindAustin Powers in Goldmember.In addition, it had the third largest opening weekend of that year, afterThe Matrix ReloadedandX2.With a total gross of $125.1 million, the film had the biggest five-day Wednesday opening of all time, surpassing the previous","the previous record held byStar Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.The next year, this record would be beaten byShrek 2.Its Friday-Sunday opening weekend was a record-high for December (first surpassed byI Am Legend).The film also set single-day records for Christmas Day and New Year's Day (both first surpassed byMeet the Fockers). Outside the US and Canada, it is the 17th highest-grossing film,the highest-grossing 2003 filmand the highest-grossing film of the series.On its first day (Wednesday, 17 December 2003), the film earned $23.5 million from 19 countriesand it set an opening-weekend record outside the US and Canada with $125.9 million during the five-day weekend as a whole. The combined total gross increased to $250.1 million, making it the highest worldwide opening weekend at the time, knocking outThe Matrix Revolutions.It set opening-day records in thirteen of them, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Greece, Switzerland, Scandinavia (as well as","(as well as separately in Sweden, Finland, Norway and Denmark), Mexico, Chile and Puerto Rico.It set opening-weekend records in the United Kingdom ($26.5 million in five days), Germany, Spain, Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland. In Singapore, it surpassedFinding Nemoto become the country's top-grossing film.In New Zealand, where filming took place, the film set opening day, opening weekend, single-day, Friday gross, Saturday gross and Sunday gross records with $1.7 million in four days. The substantial increase in initial box office totals caused optimistic studio executives to forecast thatThe Return of the Kingwould surpassThe Two Towersin total earnings. If this proved to be true, then this would be the first blockbuster trilogy for each successive film to earn more at the box office than its predecessor, when all three films were blockbuster successes.The Return of the Kinghas helpedThe Lord of the Ringsfranchise to become the highest-grossing motion picture trilogy worldwide of all time with over $2.9","time with over $2.9 billion beating other notable series such as the originalStar Wars Trilogy, and became New Line's highest grossing release. Following subsequent reissues, the film has grossed $381.9 million in the United States and Canada and $769.2 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $1.151billion. These figures do not include income from DVD sales, TV rights, etc. It has been estimatedthat the gross income from non-box office sales and merchandise has been at least equal to the box office for all three films. If this is so, the total gross income for the trilogy would be in the region of $6 billion following an investment of $300 million ($426 million including marketing costs). Critical response On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes,The Return of the Kingholds an approval rating of 94% based on 282 reviews, with an average rating of 8.70/10. The website's critics consensus reads, \"Visually breathtaking and emotionally powerful,The Lord of the Rings - The Return of the","- The Return of the Kingis a moving and satisfying conclusion to a great trilogy.\"Metacritic, which uses aweighted average, gives the film a score of 94 out of 100 based on 41 reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film a rare average grade of \"A+\" on an A+ to F scale,the highest grade in the trilogy. Alan Morrison ofEmpiregave the film a perfect score of five stars. In his review, he called the film \"the resounding climax to a landmark in cinema history\" and praised how Peter Jackson had \"kept the momentum of the series rolling on and on through the traditionally 'difficult' middle part and 'weak' finale, delivering a climax to the story that's neater and more affecting than what Tolkien managed on the printed page.\" Morrison also mentioned how fans of the films \"who have walked beside these heroes every step of the way on such a long journey deserve the emotional pay-off as well as the action peaks, and they will be genuinely touched as the final credits roll.\"Elvis","credits roll.\"Elvis MitchellforThe New York Timeslauded the acting, the craft of the technical crew, and Jackson's direction, describingThe Return of the Kingas \"a meticulous and prodigious vision made by a director who was not hamstrung by heavy use of computer special-effects imagery.\"Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesgave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying that it is \"such a crowning achievement, such a visionary use of all the tools of special effects, such a pure spectacle, that it can be enjoyed even by those who have not seen the first two films.\" Talking about the whole trilogy, Ebert said that he admired it \"more as a whole than in its parts\", and thatThe Return of the KingcertifiedThe Lord of the Ringsas \"a work of bold ambition in a time of cinematic timidity\".In his review forThe Times, James Christopher praisedThe Return of the Kingas \"everything a Ring fan could possibly wish for, and much more\", and describedThe Lord of the Ringsas \"the greatest film trilogy ever mounted, with","ever mounted, with some of the most amazing action sequences committed to celluloid\".Nev Pierce for theBBCgave the film five stars out of five, judging it to be the best chapter of the trilogy, since it combined \"the 'ooh' factor ofFellowshipwith the zippy action ofTowers\". Pierce describedThe Return of the Kingas \"Majestic, moving, and immense\", and \"an astonishing piece of storytelling\".Philip French, reviewing it forThe Observer, lauded the narrative force, the battle scenes, the language, and the visual style of the film, which he related to \"the swirling battle paintings ofAlbrecht Altdorfer\" and \"Claude Lorrain's elegiac paintings of maritime departures inspired by classical poets.\" French wrote about the whole trilogy \"Jackson'sLord of the Ringsis indeed a very fine achievement, moving, involving and, to many people, even inspiring. It redeems the debased cinematic notion of the epic.\" In her review forEntertainment Weekly,Lisa Schwarzbaumgave the film an A grade, and wrote \"The conclusion of Peter","conclusion of Peter Jackson's masterwork is passionate and literate, detailed and expansive, and it's conceived with a risk-taking flair for old-fashioned movie magic at its most precious ... as he has done throughout, the director paces scenes of action, intimacy, and even panoramic, geographical grandeur ... with the control of a superb choreographer.\". Schwarzbaum also said of the whole series \"I can't think of another film trilogy that ends in such glory, or another monumental work of sustained storytelling that surges ahead with so much inventiveness and ardor.\"Richard CorlissofTimenamedThe Return of the Kingthe best film of the yearand described the whole trilogy as \"The film event of the millennium\".Joe Morgenstern, forThe Wall Street Journal, wrote \"Never has a filmmaker aimed higher, or achieved more. The third and last installment of the screen epic based on J.R.R. Tolkien's literary classic redefines -- steeply upward -- the very notion of a major motion picture.\"Peter Bradshaw, who had been less","who had been less enthusiastic about the first two chapters of the trilogy,gaveThe Return of the Kingfour stars out of five in his review forThe Guardian, commenting \"I started the series an atheist and finished an agnostic\". Bradshaw wrote of the film \"Technically it really is superb\", and commented \"Hours after watching the film, I can close my eyes and see those incredible battle scenes pulsing and throbbing in my skull ... MaybeKurosawa'sbattles will one day be described as proto-Jacksonian\". Some critics had negative opinions of the film. Tom Charity observes inTime Out, \"Some story strands are crudely abbreviated; others fail to develop elements that were already well-established. Given the inordinate running time, it's hard to avoid the feeling that we've already been here, done this.\"Jonathan Romney noted inThe Independent, \"here's something not quite palatable about all these intrepid, largely beautiful Europeans boldly fending off the nameless, numberless hordes from the other side of the world,","side of the world, legions of dark-skinned sans-culottes with tribal drums. ... Aside from this, there's plenty to be offended by on an aesthetic level: the film's self-important solemnity, its hyperbolic over-insistence. ... here are no empty spaces, no gaps for thought, no real stimulus to the viewer's imagination. The film has no idea when to stop, either, with its multiple codas and final dying fall into beatific cosiness.\"And Antonia Quirke in theEvening Standardopined, \"Viggo Mortensen's Aragorn is the good king of the title, and while the actor may look fetching in a crown and cloak, he doesn't have half of the gravitas of Sean Bean's Boromir in the first film. Director Peter Jackson has been all but deified for his work on this particular ring cycle, but there is not much personality behind the camera here, merely rampant enthusiasm.\" The most common criticism ofThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingwas its running time, particularly the epilogue; even rave reviews for the film commented on","film commented on its length.Joel SiegelofGood Morning Americasaid in his review for the film (which he gave an 'A'): \"If it didn't take forty-five minutes to end, it'd be my best picture of the year. As it is, it's just one of the great achievements in film history.\" In February 2004, a few months following release, the film was voted eighth onEmpire's100 Greatest Movies of All Time, compiled from readers' top ten lists. This forced the magazine to abandon its policy of only allowing films being older than a year to be eligible.In 2007,Total FilmnamedThe Return of the Kingthe third best film of the past decade (Total Film's publication time), behindThe MatrixandFight Club. Accolades The film was nominated for elevenAcademy Awards:Best Picture,Best Director,Best Adapted Screenplay,Best Original Score,Best Original Song,Best Visual Effects,Best Art Direction,Best Costume Design,Best Make-up,Best Sound MixingandBest Film Editing. At the76th Academy Awardsin 2004, the film won all the categories for which it","for which it was nominated and it shares the record for highest Academy Award totals along withTitanic(which also starred Bernard Hill) andBen-Hur, and holding the record for the highest clean sweep at the Oscars, surpassing the nine awards earned by bothGigiandThe Last Emperor.It was the first fantasy film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. It also was the last movie for 14 years to win the Academy Award for Best Picture without being chosen as one of the top ten films of the year by theNational Board of Review, until the release ofThe Shape of Waterin 2017. The film won fourGolden Globes(including Best Picture for Drama and Best Director),fiveBAFTAs, twoMTV Movie Awards, twoGrammy Awards, nineSaturn Awards, theNew York Film Critics Circleaward for Best Picture, theNebula Award for Best Script, and theHugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form. See also Notes References External links","Andrew Lesnie Andrew LesnieACSASC(1 January 1956 – 27 April 2015) was an Australiancinematographer. He was best known as the cinematographer forThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy(2001–2003) and its prequelThe Hobbittrilogy(2012–2014), both directed by New Zealand directorPeter Jackson. He received theAcademy Award for Best Cinematographyfor his work onThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ringin 2002. Early life Lesnie was born in Sydney, New South Wales, on 1 January 1956,the son of Shirley (Lithgow) and Allan Lesnie, who worked for the family's company, butcher suppliers Harry Lesnie Pty Ltd. He was educated atSydney Grammar School. Andrew was well liked and popular at school. Lesnie finished 6th form and hisHigher School Certificatein 1974.He started his career in 1978 as an assistant camera operator on the filmPatrick(1978) while he was still in school atAustralian Film, Television and Radio School(AFTRS).sd His first job after graduation in 1979 was as a cameraman on theLogie Award-winning Australian","Australian magazine-style afternoon TV showSimon Townsend's Wonder World. Simon Townsend gave Lesnie almost daily opportunities to develop his craft with little restriction over a wide variety of stories and situations, and to experiment with camera and lighting techniques in hundreds of locations and situations. After two years of working on the show, Lesnie moved on to numerous Australian film and television productions, including the mini-seriesBodyline. Later, he worked as a second camera assistant on the filmThe Killing of Angel Street(1981). Lesnie would then go on to develop his craft as he photographed films such asStations(1983),The Delinquents(1989),Temptation of the Monk(1993), andSpider and Rose(1994). Career Lesnie's work began receiving major attention after the release of the anthropomorphic pig storyBabe(1995) and its sequel,Babe: Pig in the City. He was director of photography onPeter Jackson'sLord of the Ringstrilogy, and received anOscarfor his work onThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship","The Fellowship of the Ringin 2002. Since then, he filmed several other Jackson-directed films, includingKing KongandThe Lovely Bones, and also filmedThe Hobbitfilmsdirected by Jackson. The Lord of the Ringstrilogy (2001–03) Lesnie used motion picture camera companyArri'sArriflex 435,Arriflex 535, andArriCam Studio35mmfilm cameras for the trilogy. He usedCarl ZeissUltra Prime Lenses andKodak's 5279 (tungsten-balanced) film stock to photograph the films. Lesnie planned far ahead into the production withPeter Jacksonwith previsualisation programs to help establish frame sizes and angles, as well as construction of sets.During filming, Lesnie emphasised earthy colours in the makeup and wardrobe of the cast and extras. At the acceptance speech for his Oscar win forFellowship of the Ring, Lesnie dedicated his acceptance to chief lighting technicianBrian Bansgrove, who he described as a major contributor to the quality of the film's cinematography. The Hobbittrilogy (2012–14) For production, Lesnie usedRed Digital","usedRed Digital Cinema's Epic cameras as well asCarl ZeissUltra Prime Lenses to photograph the film.Jacksonand Lesnie decided to shoot the film in 3D with as many as 15stereoscopiccamera rigs (2 cameras each) with3ality.They also decided to shoot the film in an uncommon frame rate of 48 frames per second versus the industry standard of 24 frames per second. This would make Lesnie the first cinematographer to employ such a method that claims to induce more clarity, reduce motion blur, and make 3D easier to watch. The Water Diviner Lesnie's final film,The Water Diviner, directed by and starringRussell Crowe, was released in Australia in December 2014 and in America in April 2015, one week before his death. Personal life and death Lesnie lived on Sydney's north coast. He was a member of both theAustralian Cinematographers Societyand theAmerican Society of Cinematographers. Lesnie died of a heart attack in his Sydney home on 27 April 2015, after having suffered from a heart condition for half a year. Filmography","a year. Filmography Film Documentary film Short film Feature film Television TV movies Awards and nominations References External links"],"string":"[\n \"List of Academy Award records Thislist ofAcademy Awardrecordsis current as of the96th Academy Awards, with the ceremony taking place on March 10, 2024. Most awards or nominations Awards for Acting and Directing Debuts These people won Academy Awards for their debut performances in film: These people won Academy Awards for their directing debuts: Big Five Winners Three films have received theBig Five Academy Awards:Best Picture,Director,Actor,Actress, and Screenplay (OriginalorAdapted; all won for Best Adapted Screenplay). Most Consecutive Awards in Each Category Academy Award firsts United States Doraibu mai kā(Japanese) Age-related records Film records Acting records Shortest and Longest Academy Award Winning and Nominated Performances Miscellaneous records Oscar speeches Tied winners There have been six two-way ties Clean sweep The following films with at least two nominations won all of their categories. See also References External links\",\n \"The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingis a 2003epichigh fantasyadventure filmdirected byPeter Jacksonfrom a screenplay byFran Walsh,Philippa Boyens, and Jackson. It is based on 1955'sThe Return of the King, the third volume of the novelThe Lord of the RingsbyJ. R. R. Tolkien. The sequel to 2002'sThe Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, the film is the third and final instalment inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy. It features an ensemble cast includingElijah Wood,Ian McKellen,Liv Tyler,Viggo Mortensen,Sean Astin,Cate Blanchett,John Rhys-Davies,Bernard Hill,Billy Boyd,Dominic Monaghan,Orlando Bloom,Hugo Weaving,Miranda Otto,David Wenham,Karl Urban,John Noble,Andy Serkis,Ian Holm, andSean Bean. Continuing the plot of the previous film,Frodo,SamandGollummake their final way toward Mount Doom to destroy theOne Ring, unaware of Gollum's true intentions, whileMerry,Pippin,Gandalf,Aragorn,Legolas,Gimliand their allies join forces againstSauronand his legions fromMordor.\",\n \"legions fromMordor. The Return of the Kingwas financed and distributed by American studioNew Line Cinema, butfilmed and editedentirely in Jackson's native New Zealand,concurrentlywith the other two parts of the trilogy. It premiered on 1 December 2003 at theEmbassy TheatreinWellingtonand was then released on 17 December 2003 in the US and 18 December 2003 in New Zealand. The film was acclaimed by critics and audiences, who considered it a landmark in filmmaking and the fantasy film genre, and a satisfying conclusion to the trilogy, with praise for the visual effects, performances, action sequences, direction, screenplay,musical score, costume design, emotional depth, scope, and story. It grossed over $1.1 billion worldwide, becoming thehighest-grossing film of 2003, thesecond-highest-grossing film of all timeduring its run, and the highest-grossing film ever released by New Line Cinema. Like the previous films in the trilogy,The Return of the Kingis widely recognised as one of thegreatest and most\",\n \"and most influential films ever made. The filmreceived numerous accolades; at the76th Academy Awards, it won all eleven awards for which it was nominated, includingBest Picture, the first fantasy film to do so and tying with 1959'sBen-Hurand 1997'sTitanicas themovie with the most Academy Award wins. It also became the second film series whose entries have all wonBest Visual Effects, after theoriginalStar Warstrilogy. Plot ThehobbitDéagol discovers theOne Ringin a river while fishing with his cousinSméagol. The Ring immediately ensnares Sméagol's mind, and he kills his cousin for it. Increasingly corrupted physically and mentally, he retreats into theMisty Mountainsand becomes known as Gollum. Centuries later, during theWar of the Ring,GandalfleadsAragorn,Legolas,Gimli, and KingThéodenofRohantoIsengard, where they reunite withMerryandPippin. Gandalf retrieves Saruman'spalantír, and the group returns to Edoras to celebratetheir victory at Helm's Deep.Pippin looks into the palantír, seeingSauronanda burning\",\n \"burning tree. Gandalf deduces that the enemy plans to attackGondor's capitalMinas Tirith; he rides there to warn Gondor's corrupt stewardDenethor. Pippin, who accompanies him, swears fealty to Denethor, whose now-dead heirBoromirhad saved his life;on Gandalf's instruction, Pippin triggers the lighting ofthe beacons, which call for help from Rohan. Frodo, who carries the Ring, andSamcontinue their journey towardsMordor, unaware that Gollum, now their guide, plans to betray them and take the Ring for himself. The trio witness theWitch-king of Angmar, lord of the nineNazgûl, setting off towards Gondor with his army ofOrcs. Gollum frames Sam for eating food supplies and desiring the Ring; Frodo is deceived and orders Sam to go home. As King Théoden gathers his army,Elrondtells Aragorn thatArwenis dying, having refused to leave Middle-earth. Elrond gives AragornAndúril, reforged from the shards of KingElendil's swordNarsil, and urges him to claim Gondor's throne, to which he is heir. Aragorn travels thePaths of\",\n \"travels thePaths of the Deadwith Legolas and Gimli and pledges to release the ghosts there from their curse should they come to Gondor's aid. Gollum tricks Frodo into venturing alone into the giant spiderShelob's lair. Frodo narrowly escapes and confronts Gollum, who falls down a chasm after a scuffle. Shelob discovers, paralyses, and binds Frodo, but is wounded and driven away by a returning Sam. Sam mourns Frodo's apparent death and takes the Ring, but then realizes his mistake when Orcs take Frodo captive. He rescues Frodo within Mordor and the two continue towardsMount Doom. Denethor sends his younger son,Faramir, on a suicide charge. Faramir returns gravely wounded; believing him dead, Denethor falls into madness. Gandalf marshals the defenders, but the enormous Orc army breaks into the city. Denethor attempts to burn himself and Faramir on apyre, but Pippin alerts Gandalf and they rescue Faramir. Denethor, set ablaze, jumps to his death. Théoden arrives and leads his army against the Orcs. Despite\",\n \"the Orcs. Despite initial success in theensuing battle, they are decimated by theOliphaunt-ridingHaradrimand the Witch-king mortally wounds Théoden; however, his nieceÉowynslays the Witch-king with Merry's help before Théoden dies in his niece's arms. Aragorn arrives with his Army of the Dead, who overcome Sauron's forces. Their oath fulfilled, the Dead are released from their curse. Aragorn decides to march on Mordor to distract Sauron from Frodo and Sam; all of Sauron's remaining forces marchto meet Aragorn's diversion, allowing the hobbits to reach Mount Doom. Gollum, having survived his fall, attacks, but Frodo enters the mountain. There, he succumbs to the Ring's power, putting it on his finger. Gollum bites Frodo's finger off and reclaims the Ring, leading to a scuffle before they stumble off the ledge. Frodo clings to the ledge and Sam pulls him up while Gollum falls into the lava with the Ring, destroying it and vanquishing Sauron once and for all. The lands of Mordor collapse into the earth,\",\n \"into the earth, destroying the Orc army. Frodo and Sam narrowly escape the erupting Mount Doom and are saved by Gandalf with the help ofeagles. The surviving Fellowship is happily reunited in Minas Tirith. Aragorn is crowned King of Gondor and marries Arwen; they and everyone else present bow to the hobbits. The hobbits return home to theShire, where Sam marries Rosie Cotton. Four years later, Frodo, still plagued bytraumaand the pain of his wound inflicted by the Witch-king, departs Middle-earth for theUndying Landswith his uncleBilbo, Gandalf, and the Elves. He leaves Sam theRed Book of Westmarch, which details their adventures. Cast Like the preceding films in the trilogy,The Return of the Kinghas anensemble cast,and some of the cast and their respective characters include: There arecameosfromPeter Jackson,Richard Taylor, Gino Acevedo,Rick PorrasandAndrew Lesnieon the Corsair ship, although all of them but Jackson appear only in the Extended Edition. Jackson also has another unofficial cameo, as Sam's\",\n \"cameo, as Sam's hand stepping into view when he confronts Shelob.Sean Astin's daughter played Sam and Rosie's older daughter Elanor in the last scene of the film; in the same scene,Sarah McLeod's daughter plays their younger son. Jackson's children also cameo as Gondorian extras, whileChristian Riversplayed a Gondorian soldier guarding the Beacon Pippin lights, and is later seen wounded.Royd Tolkiencameos as a Ranger inOsgiliath,while in the Extended EditionHoward Shoreappears as a celebrating soldier at Edoras. Additionally, four of the designers ofThe Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Gameare featured as Rohirrim at the Pelennor.At the end of the film, during the closing credits, each cast member gets a sketched portrait morphed with the real photograph beside their name, which were sketched byAlan Lee, an idea suggested byIan McKellen. Comparison to the source material As with all of Peter Jackson's movie adaptions ofThe Lord of the Rings, many events, timelines, and geographic distances are compressed or\",\n \"are compressed or simplified. Most major events from the books are included, though some are significantly altered. Some events and details seen in the film are not found in the books. The film version ofThe Return of the Kingcontains major scenes from the middle of Tolkien'sThe Two Towers, such as the attack by Shelob and thepalantírsubplot, as Jackson realigned events of the film to fit the timeline from the book's Appendices, rather than theinterlaced order of the main narrative.However, the plot of the second half ofBook IIIis either completely omitted (chapter \\\"The Road to Isengard\\\") or only shown in one scene (chapter \\\"The Voice of Saruman\\\").Saruman's murder byGríma(seen only in the Extended Edition) is moved into the Isengard visit because of the cutting of theScouring of the Shire. The basis of Elrond and Arwen's subplot arguing about Arwen's fate is derived from the Appendices, but it is largely extended in the film, as is Arwen and Elrond's relevance to the story. In the film, overwhelming grief\",\n \"overwhelming grief over the death of Boromir has driven Denethor to despair, and he has given up any hope of defeating Sauron before Gandalf arrives in Minas Tirith. Thus, the muster of Gondor is absent from the film. In the book, he has already ordered the lighting of the beacons before Gandalf's arrival, while he refuses to light them in the film, and the sequence where Pippin secretly lights them himself was invented for the movie. The film only hints at Denethor's use of thepalantírwhich drives him mad, information revealed in the Pyre scene, which includes Shadowfax and is more violent than the book. Aware of the very long distance between Rath Dínen and the front of the out-thrust battlement, Jackson has Denethor jump off the Citadel in addition to burning himself on the Pyre, one of the earliest changes. The muster of Rohan, and the subplot in which the Rohirrim are aided by the primitiveDrúedainduring their journey to the besieged Gondor are excised from the film. TheRed Arrowbrought by a messenger\",\n \"by a messenger from Gondor to ask for Rohan's aid is absent. Éowyn's presence on the battlefield is unknown to the reader until she takes off her helmet, but in the film the audience is aware, as it would have been difficult to haveMiranda Ottoplaying a man.When hope seems lost, Gandalf comforts Pippin by telling him of the Undying Lands, based on a descriptive passage in the book's final chapter. The film altered the circumstances of Théoden's death; his death speech, in which he names Éomer the new king in the book, is trimmed and delivered to Éowyn instead of Merry, with an earlier scene in the Extended Edition even implying that Éowyn is next in line for the throne. Théoden's rallying speech (\\\"To death!\\\") before the initial charge in the film is spoken by Éomer in the book when he believes that both Théoden and Éowyn have been killed in combat with the Witch King. The Extended Edition presents shortened scenes from the book's chapters in theHouses of Healing: The Warden, the talk ofAthelas, the comical\",\n \"the comical conversation with the herb-master, the womanIorethand her saying about a King's healing hands and the subsequent realising of Aragorn's true identity are left out altogether. The romance that develops between Éowyn and Faramir during their recoveries in the Houses of Healing is largely cut, presumably to keep the focus on Aragorn and Arwen; the subplot is briefly referenced in the Extended Edition, with a scene where the two hold hands. Gollum's fall into the lava of Mount Doom was rewritten for the film, as the writers felt that simply having Gollum slip and fall was anticlimactic. Originally, an even greater deviation was planned: Frodo would heroically push Gollum over the ledge to destroy him and the Ring, but the production team realised that that would make it look as if Frodo was murdering Gollum. Instead, they had Frodo and Gollum struggle for possession of the Ring. In addition to the absent footage from the film are the other major attacks by Sauron on various regions of Middle-earth,\",\n \"of Middle-earth, referenced only briefly in the main text ofThe Return of the King,and expanded upon in the Appendices; the invasion of Rohan by the Orcs ofMoria, the attacks on Lothlórien and theWoodland RealmofThranduilby the forces ofDol Guldur, and the attack on Dale and theLonely Mountainby a force ofEasterlings, events hinted at in a comment by Legolas in the book. There are several changes in the Battle of the Black Gate: Merry is not present there in the book, Pippin does not kill a troll as he does in the novel (instead, Aragorn fights one), the eagles fight and defeat some of the mounted Nazgûl, and Aragorn kills theMouth of Sauronin the extended edition of the film but not in the book. Although the film runs for another approximately 20 minutes after the climactic Downfall of Barad-dûr, many following events from the book are omitted or altered in the film. Aragorn's coronation takes place in form of a great ceremony in the Citadel of Minas Tirith, opposed to the book, where Aragorn is crowned in\",\n \"is crowned in his tent on the Pelennor Fields before entering the city. Omitted entirely are the camp at theField of Cormallen, Aragorn's business in Minas Tirith, Aragorn and Arwen's wedding,GaladrielandCelebornbeing present at the ceremonies and their subsequent travelling along with the company, Théoden's funeral at Edoras, the complete journey back to theShirewith stops at Rivendell and Bree, and the Scouring of the Shire, which was seen by the screenwriters as anticlimactic.The film also left out the character epilogues: For example, Samwise Gamgee stayed in the Shire when Gandalf and Frodo went to Valinor, during which time he would make changes and additions to theRed Book of Westmarch, which he inherited from Frodo, just as in the film, in which he would add a section titled \\\"Herb Lore of The Shire\\\", which was a section on Pipeweed, the plant Hobbits and other folk of Middle Earth, like Gandalf, would smoke through pipes, as well as various poems. Shortly after his contribution to the Red Book, he\",\n \"to the Red Book, he served seven consecutive seven year terms as mayor of the Shire, during which he had children with Rosie Cotton who each took the last name of \\\"Gardner\\\" after their father's planting of the Mallorn Tree that replaced the Party Tree, which was destroyed during the Scouring. He did, however, go to Valinor after Rosie died, and before he did, he gave the Red Book to Elanor, one of his daughters. The books also expanded on Aragorn's time as king of Gondor andArnorpost-reuniting, and reveals that Arwen accepted a life as a mortal, and died shortly after Aragorn. Merry and Pippin also returned to the Shire, but unlike Sam and Frodo, they didn't eventually journey to Valinor. Merry inherited his father's title as \\\"Master of Buckland\\\" and despite the perils he and Pippin endured that almost cost them their lives, Merry still had his adventurous spirit. He also reviewed many gifts from Eomer and his sister, Eowyn, and helped the Hobbits learn more about lands beyond the Shire through scholarly\",\n \"through scholarly articles. He even returned to Rivendell multiple times. When he and Pippin died, they were buried beside their friends, Aragorn and Arwen in Minas Tirith, where they spent some of their final days after a stint in Rohan. Legolas and Gimli make and keep promises in the books to show the other important places to them: first, Gimli shows Legolas the caverns of Aglarond, which Legolas is stunned by, then they walk in the Fangorn Forest, where they then make their way to Isengard where they bid farewell to the Fellowship, after which, they would each go back to their own lands, with Gimli even founding a Dwarven colony in the Glittering Caves. They would, however, reunite to help with the rebuilding and improving of Minas Tirith. They would be the last of the Fellowship to sail for Valinor, departing after the death of their friend Aragorn, Legolas would build a ship for him and Gimli to sail to Valinor. Lastly, Frodo would serve as Deputy Mayor of The Shire until a wound caused by a stab from\",\n \"by a stab from the Witch King which flared up every year on the anniversary of said stabbing forced him to resign, after which, he would sail to Valinor to receive healing and peace for the rest of his days. Production The production ofThe Lord of the Ringsseries was the first where three separate entries were written and shot simultaneously (excludingpick up shoots). Peter Jackson foundThe Return of the Kingthe easiest of the films to make, because it contained the climax of the story.The Return of the Kingwas originally the second of two planned films underMiramax Filmsfrom January 1997 to August 1998,and more or less in its finished structure as the first film was to end with the Battle of Helm's Deep inThe Two Towers.Filming took place under multiple units across New Zealand, between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000, with pick up shoots for six weeks in 2003 before the film's release. Design Jackson'sMiddle-earthwas primarily designed by Alan Lee andJohn Howe, who had earlier illustrated editions of\",\n \"editions of Tolkien's books. It was created byWeta Workshop, who handled all the trilogy's weapons, armour, miniatures, prosthetics, and creatures; the Art Department built the sets. Richard Taylor headed Weta, whileGrant MajorandDan Hennahorganised the planning and building. The city of Minas Tirith, glimpsed briefly in both the previous two films, is seen fully in this film, and with it the Gondorian civilisation. The enormous soundstage was built at Dry Creek Quarry, outsideWellington, from theHelm's Deepset. That set's gate became Minas Tirith's second, while the Hornburg exterior became that of the Extended Edition's scene where Gandalf confronts the Witch-king. New structures included the 8m tall Gate, with broken and unbroken versions, with a working opening and closing mechanism, with its engravings inspired by theBaptistry of San Giovanni. There were also four levels of streets with heraldic motifs for every house, as inspired bySiena. The Citadel's exterior was in the Stone Street Studios backlot,\",\n \"Studios backlot, usingforced perspective. It contained the witheredWhite Tree, built from polystyrene by Brian Massey and the Greens Department with real branches, influenced by ancient and gnarled Lebaneseolivetrees. The interior was within a three-storey former factory in Wellington, its colours influenced byCharlemagne's Chapel, with a throne for Denethor carved from stone, and polystyrene statues of past kings. The Gondorian armour is designed to represent an evolution from theNúmenóreansof the first film's prologue, with a simplified sea bird motif. 16th-century Italian and German armour served as inspiration,while civilians wear silver and blacks as designed by Ngila Dickson, continuing an ancient/medievalMediterranean Basinlook. Minas Morgul, the Staircase and Tower of Cirith Ungol as well as Shelob's Lair were designed by Howe, with the Morgul road using forced perspective into a bluescreened miniature. Howe's design of Minas Morgul was inspired from the experience of having awisdom toothpulled out:\",\n \"toothpulled out: in the same way, the Orcs have put their twisted designs on to a former Gondorian city.Cirith Ungol was based on Tolkien's design, but when Richard Taylor felt it as \\\"boring\\\", it was redesigned with more tipping angles.The interior set, like Minas Tirith, was built as a few multiple levels that numerous camera takes would suggest a larger structure. The third film introduces the enormous spider Shelob. Shelob was designed in 1999,with the body based on atunnelweb spiderand the head with numerous growths selected by Peter Jackson's children from one of many sculpts. Jackson himself took great joy in planning the sequence, being anarachnophobehimself.Shelob's Lair was inspired by sandstone and sculpted from the existing Caverns of Isengard set. The Return of the Kingalso brings into focus the Dead Men of Dunharrow and the evil Haradrim from the south of Middle-earth, men who ride themûmakil. The Dead Men have a Celtic influence, as well as lines and symmetry to reflect their morbid state,while\",\n \"morbid state,while their underground city is influenced byPetra.The Haradrim were highly influenced by African culture, until Philippa Boyens expressed concern over the possibility of offensiveness, so the finished characters instead bear influence fromKiribati, in terms of weaving armour from bamboo, and the Aztecs, in use of jewellery. Also built was a single deadmûmak.Other minor cultures include the Corsairs, with an exotic, swarthy look, and the Grey Havens, Elven structures adapted to stone, with influence fromJ. M. W. Turnerpaintings. Principal photography The Return of the Kingwas shot during 2000, though Astin's coverage from Gollum's attempt to separate Frodo and Sam was filmed on 24 November 1999, when floods inQueenstowninterrupted the focus onThe Fellowship of the Ring.Some of the earliest scenes shot for the film were in fact shot last.Hobbiton, home of the Hobbits, was shot in January 2000 with early scenes fromThe Fellowship of the Ring, with the exterior shot at aMatamatafarm, while interior\",\n \"while interior scenes were shot at Stone Street Studios in Wellington,shared with the Grey Havens sequence. Due to the high emotions of filming the scene, the cast were in despair when they were required to shoot it three times, due to a continuity flaw in Astin's costume, and then negatives producing out-of-focus reels.Also shared with the previous films was the Rivendell interior in May. The Battle of the Black Gate was filmed in Aprilat theRangipo Desert, a former minefield.New Zealand soldiers were hired as extras while guides were on the lookout for unexploded mines. Also a cause for concern were Monaghan and Boyd's scale doubles during a charge sequence. In the meantime, Wood, Astin and Serkis filmed atMount Ruapehufor the Mount Doom exteriors. In particular, they spent two hours shooting Sam lifting Frodo on to his back with cross-camera coverage. Scenes shot in June were the Paths of the Dead across various locations, includingPutangirua Pinnacles.In July the crew shot some Shelob scenes, and in\",\n \"scenes, and in August and September time was spent on the scenes in Isengard. Monaghan and Boyd tried numerous takes of their entrance, stressing the word \\\"weed\\\" as they smokedpipe-weed. Christopher Lee spent his part of his scene mostly alone, though McKellen and Hill arrived on the first day for a few lines to help. Edoras exteriors were shot in October. The Ride of the Rohirrim, where Théoden leads the charge into the Orc army, was filmed inTwizelwith 150 extras on horseback. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields has more extensive use ofcomputer-generated imagery, in contrast to the more extensive use of live action in theBattle of Helm's Deepin the second film. Also filmed were the attempts by Faramir to recaptureOsgiliath,as were scenes in the city itself.At this point production was very hectic, with Jackson moving around ten units per day, and production finally wrapped on the Minas Tirith sets, as well as second units shooting parts of the siege. Just as the Hobbit actors' first scene was hiding from a\",\n \"was hiding from a Ringwraith under a tree, their last scene was thebluescreenedreaction shot of the inhabitants of Minas Tirith bowing to them. Pick-ups The 2003 pick-ups were filmed in the Wellington studio car park, with many parts of sets and blue-screens used to finish off scenes, which the design team had to work 24 hours to get the right sets ready for a particular day.The shoot continued for two months, and became an emotional time of farewells for the cast and crew. The film has the most extensive list of re-shoots given for the trilogy. Jackson took his time to re-shoot Aragorn's coronation, rushed into a single day under the supervision of second unit directorGeoff Murphyon 21 December 2000. Jackson also re-shot scenes in and around Mount Doom,and Théoden's death, right after Bernard Hill was meant to wrap. There was also the new character of Gothmog. This was a major new design addition for the film, as Jackson felt the Mordor Orcs were \\\"pathetic\\\" compared to theUruk-haiof the second film after\",\n \"second film after watching assembly cuts, and thus Weta Workshop created grotesque new \\\"über Orcs\\\" as antagonists for the audience to focus on. Rivers redesigned the Witch-king; all his scenes were re-shot, because of confusion from non-readers over whether or not Sauron was on the battlefield. With the positive response to Bloom, Legolas was given a fight with amûmak,and Shore appeared in a cameo during Legolas and Gimli's drinking game at Edoras.The final scenes shot were Aragorn escaping the Skull avalanche, and Frodo finishing his book. The cast also received various props associated with their characters, althoughJohn Rhys-Daviesburned his final Gimli prosthetic.Viggo Mortensenheadbuttedthe stunt team goodbye.Pick-ups ended on 27 June 2003. Scenes shot afterwards included various live-action shots of Riders for the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and a reaction shot of Serkis as Gollum finally realises Frodo intends to destroy the Ring, shot in Jackson's house.For the Extended DVD, in March 2004 Jackson\",\n \"March 2004 Jackson created a few shots of skulls rolling over for the avalanche scene; this was the final piece of footage ever shot for the trilogy, and Jackson noted that it must be the first time a director had shot scenes for a film after it had already won the Oscar. Editing Post-productionbegan in November 2002, with the completion of the 4½ hour assembly cut of the film thatAnnie Collinshad been completing over 2001 and 2002, from 4-hour dailies. For example, Théoden leading the charge went from 150 minutes of takes to a finished 90 seconds.Jackson reunited with longtime collaboratorJamie Selkirkto edit the final film. LikeThe Two Towers, they would have to deal with multiple storylines, and Jackson paid attention to each storyline at a time before deciding where to intercut. Most importantly they spent three weeks working on the last 45 minutes of the film,for appropriate intercutting and leaving out scenes such as the Mouth of Sauron, and the fates of characters like Legolas, Gimli, Éowyn and\",\n \"Gimli, Éowyn and Faramir.The film inherited scenes originally planned to go into the second film, including the reforging ofNarsil, Gollum's backstory, and Saruman's exit. But the Saruman scene posed a structural problem: killing off the second film's villain when the plot has Sauron as the main villain.Despite pick-ups and dubs, the scene was cut, causing controversy with fans and Saruman actor Christopher Lee, as well as a petition to restore the scene.Lee nonetheless contributed to the DVDs and was at theCopenhagenpremiere, although he said he would never understand the reason for the cut and his relationship with Jackson was chilly.They would, however, later reconcile upon Lee's casting in Jackson'sHobbitfilms. Jackson only had a lock on 5 out of 10 reels, and had to churn out 3 reels in 3 weeks to help finish the film. It was finally completed on 12 November 2003.Jackson never had a chance to view the film in full due to the hectic schedule, and only saw the film from beginning to end on 1 December at\",\n \"on 1 December at the Wellington premiere; according toElijah Wood, his response was \\\"yup, it's good, pretty good\\\". Visual effects The Return of the Kingcontains 1,489 visual effect shots, nearly three times the number from the first film and almost twice that of the second. As with the two previous films,Jim Rygielserved as the visual effects supervisor. Visual effects work began withAlan Leeand Mark Lewis compositing various photographs of New Zealand landscape to create the digital arena of thePelennor Fieldsin November 2002. Jackson and Rivers used computers to plan the enormous battle up until February 2003, when the shots were shown to Weta Digital. To their astonishment, 60 planned shots had gone up to 250, and 50,000 characters were now 200,000.Nevertheless, they pressed on, soon delivering 100 shots a week, 20 a day, and as the deadline neared within the last two months, often working until 2 am. For the battle, they recorded 450 motions for theMASSIVEdigital horses (though deaths were animated), and\",\n \"were animated), and also had to deal with late additions in the film, such as Trolls bursting through Minas Tirith's gates as well as the creatures that pull Grond to the gate,and redoing a shot of twomûmakilÉomer takes down that had originally taken six months in two days. On a similar note of digital creatures, Shelob's head sculpture was scanned by a Canadian company for 10 times more detail than Weta had previously been able to capture. Like the previous films, there are also extensive morphs between digital doubles for the actors. This time, there was Sam falling off Shelob, where the morph takes place as Astin hits the ground. Legolas attacking amûmakrequired numerous transitions to and fro, and Gollum's shots of him having recovered the One Ring and falling into the Crack of Doom were fully animated.For the latter scene, as well as the scene in which Mount Doom erupts and Frodo and Sam escape from the volcano, the help of the companyNext Limit Technologiesand their softwareRealFlowwas required to\",\n \"required to simulate thelava. The King of the Dead is played by an actor in prosthetics, and his head occasionally morphs to a more skull-like digital version, depending on the character's mood. The Mouth of Sauron also had his mouth enlarged 200% for unsettling effect. The Return of the Kingalso has practical effects. In the Pyre of Denethor sequence, as the Steward of Gondor throws Pippin out of the Tomb,John Noblethrew asize doublenamed Fon onto a prostrateBilly Boyd, who immediately pushed his head into camera to complete the illusion. A few burning torches were also reflected off a plate of glass and into the camera for when Gandalf's horse Shadowfax kicks Denethor onto the pyre. Because of Jackson's requirement for complete representation of his fantasy world, numerous miniatures were built, such as 1:72 scale miniature of Minas Tirith, which rises 7m high and is 6.5m indiameter. 1:14 scale sections of the city were also required, and the Extended Edition scene of the collapsing City of the Dead has\",\n \"of the Dead has 80,000 small skulls, amounting in total to a single cubic meter.The miniatures team concluded in November with the Black Gate, after 1000 days of shooting, and the final digital effects shot done was the Ring's destruction, on 25 November. Sound effects The Sound department spent the early part of the year searching for the right sounds. ATasmanian devilwas used to create Shelob's shriek, which in turn gave inspiration for Weta's animators, while themûmakilsound is the beginning and end of a lion roar. Human screams and a donkey screech were mixed into Sauron's fall and broken glass was used for the collapsing sounds. For missile trading during Minas Tirith's siege, construction workers dropped actual 2 ton stone blocks previously lifted by a construction crane. Mixing began at a new studio on 15 August, although unfinished building work caused some annoyances.The mixers finished on 15 November, after three months of non-stop work. Score The music, as for the rest of the trilogy, was composed\",\n \"was composed by Shore. He watched the assembly cut of the film,and had to write seven minutes of music per day to keep up with the schedule.The score sees the full introduction of the Gondor theme, originally heard during Boromir's speeches at theCouncil of ElrondinThe Fellowship of the Ringand at Osgiliath inThe Two Towers'Extended Edition. Shore also used the Gondor theme with the new ascending coda (which is unique to this film) in his score for the trailer of the film. The score features theLondon Philharmonic Orchestra,London Voices, theLondon Oratory School Scholaand featured vocal soloists. The score is the most expansive of the three: scoring effectively the entire movie length, not including additional music written for the trailer and various alternate versions released to the public. It also uses the biggest forces in the series: sections of the score call for two sets of timpani, eight trumpets(and possibly a similar increase in the size of the horn, trombone and tuba section, as well), 85\",\n \"as well), 85 singers in the mixed choirwith additional players for all-male and all-female sections, over fifty in the boy choir and many instrumentalist \\\"bands\\\" playing Celtic and eastern instruments such as tin whistle or pan flute, on stage or off of it.One piece of music required an instrument invented and crafted especially for the film: a fiddle with four pairs of strings instead of single strings. Actors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen and Liv Tyler also contributed to the film's music. Boyd sings on screen as Faramir charges towards Osgiliath, Mortensen sings on screen as he is crowned King, and in the Extended Edition Tyler sings as Aragorn heals Éowyn.Renée Fleming, Ben Del Maestro,Sissel KyrkjebøandJames Galwaycontribute to the soundtrack as featured soloists. Fleming sings as Arwen has a vision of her son, and when Gollum recovers the One Ring. Del Maestro sings when Gandalf lights his staff to save fleeing Gondorian soldiers from Osgiliath as the Nazgûl attack and as the eagles arrive at the Black\",\n \"arrive at the Black Gates. Galway plays the flute and whistle as Frodo and Sam climb Mount Doom and as they return to the shire. Sissel sings \\\"Asea Aranion\\\", which was originally meant to score the Houses of Healing scene. The end title song, \\\"Into the West\\\", was composed by Shore with lyrics by Fran Walsh.Annie Lennox(formerly ofEurythmics) performed it and also received songwriting credit. The song was partially inspired by the premature death from cancer of a young New Zealand filmmaker namedCameron Duncanwho had befriended Peter Jackson. Release Theatrical After two years of attention and acclaim since the release ofThe Fellowship of the Ring, audience and critical anticipation for the final entry was extremely high. The world premiere was held in Wellington'sEmbassy Theatre, on 1 December 2003, and was attended by the director and many of the stars. It was estimated that over 100,000 people lined the streets, more than a quarter of the city's population. Home media The theatrical edition of the film was\",\n \"of the film was released onVHSand DVD on 25 May 2004 byNew Line Home Entertainment.The DVD was a 2-disc set with extras on the second disc. The theatrical DVD sets for the two previous films were released eight months after the films were released, butReturn of the King's set was completed in five because it did not have to market a sequel (the previous films had to wait for footage of their sequels to become available for a ten-minute preview). However, it contained a seven-minute trailer of the entire trilogy. The Return of the Kingfollowed the precedent set by its predecessors by releasing an Extended Edition (251 minutes) on 14 December 2004 in the UK and US, with new editing and added special effects and music, along with four commentaries and six hours of supplementary material.The final ten minutes comprises a listing of the charter members of the official fan club who had paid for three-year charter membership. A collectors' box set was also released, which included the Extended Set plus a sculpture\",\n \"plus a sculpture of Minas Tirith and a bonus 50-minute music documentary DVD,Howard Shore: Creating The Lord of the Rings Symphony: A Composer's Journey Through Middle-earth. The DVD has aDTS-ESsoundtrack. The DVD also features two humorousEaster Eggs, one where Dominic Monaghan plays a German interviewer with Elijah Wood via satellite and another whereVince VaughnandBen Stillerattempt to convince Jackson to make a sequel, originally shown at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards. Both can be accessed via a Ring icon on the last page of both Disc 1 and 2's scene indexes. In August 2006, a Limited Edition ofThe Return of the Kingwas released. This Limited Edition contains two discs; the first is atwo-sided DVDcontaining both the Theatrical and Extended editions of the film. The second disc is a bonus disc that contains a new behind-the-scenes documentary. The theatricalBlu-rayrelease was released in the United States on the sixth of April 2010, though only as part of the complete trilogy release disc.The individual\",\n \"disc.The individual Blu-ray disc ofThe Return of the Kingwas released on the fourteenth of September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy.The Extended Edition was released in the United States in June 2011.It has a runtime of 263 minutes. The Return of the Kingwas released inUltra HD Blu-rayon 30 November 2020 in the United Kingdom and on 1 December 2020 in the United States, along with the other films of the trilogy, including both the theatrical and the extended editions of the films. Reception Box office The Return of the Kingearned $377 million in the United States and Canada and $763.7 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.141 billion in its initial release.In the weekend of 20–22 February 2004, the film crossed the $1 billion mark,making it the second film in history to do so, afterTitanicin 1998. Worldwide, it is the27th highest-grossing film of all timewhen not adjusted for inflation,thehighest-grossing film of\",\n \"film of 2003,thesecond highest-grossing film of the 2000s, the highest-grossing entry inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy, and the highest-grossing film ever to be released byNew Line Cinema.It held the record asTime Warner's highest-grossing film worldwide for eight years until it was surpassed byHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2in 2011.Box Office Mojoestimates that the film had sold over 61 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run. In the US and Canada, it is the 27th highest-grossing film,the highest-grossing 2003 film,and the highest-grossing entry inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy.The film set an opening Wednesday record with $34 million.This record was first surpassed bySpider-Man 2in 2004 and ranks as the seventh largest Wednesday opening.Additionally, it was ranked as the highest December opening day, holding that record for less than a decade before getting dethroned byThe Hobbit: An Unexpected Journeyin 2012.The film opened a day earlier for a midnight showing and accounted for\",\n \"and accounted for about $8 million. This was nearly twice the first-day total ofThe Fellowship of the Ring— which earned $18.2 million on its opening day in 2001 — as well as a significant increase overThe Two Towers— which earned $26.1 million on its debut in 2002. Part of the grosses came from the Trilogy Tuesday event, in which the Extended Editions of the two previous films were played on 16 December before the first midnight screening. For two years,The Return of the Kingwould hold the record for having the highest midnight screenings gross until 2005 when it was given toStar Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith.The film went on to make an opening weekend of $72.6 million making it the second-highest opening weekend for a New Line Cinema film, behindAustin Powers in Goldmember.In addition, it had the third largest opening weekend of that year, afterThe Matrix ReloadedandX2.With a total gross of $125.1 million, the film had the biggest five-day Wednesday opening of all time, surpassing the previous\",\n \"the previous record held byStar Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.The next year, this record would be beaten byShrek 2.Its Friday-Sunday opening weekend was a record-high for December (first surpassed byI Am Legend).The film also set single-day records for Christmas Day and New Year's Day (both first surpassed byMeet the Fockers). Outside the US and Canada, it is the 17th highest-grossing film,the highest-grossing 2003 filmand the highest-grossing film of the series.On its first day (Wednesday, 17 December 2003), the film earned $23.5 million from 19 countriesand it set an opening-weekend record outside the US and Canada with $125.9 million during the five-day weekend as a whole. The combined total gross increased to $250.1 million, making it the highest worldwide opening weekend at the time, knocking outThe Matrix Revolutions.It set opening-day records in thirteen of them, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Greece, Switzerland, Scandinavia (as well as\",\n \"(as well as separately in Sweden, Finland, Norway and Denmark), Mexico, Chile and Puerto Rico.It set opening-weekend records in the United Kingdom ($26.5 million in five days), Germany, Spain, Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland. In Singapore, it surpassedFinding Nemoto become the country's top-grossing film.In New Zealand, where filming took place, the film set opening day, opening weekend, single-day, Friday gross, Saturday gross and Sunday gross records with $1.7 million in four days. The substantial increase in initial box office totals caused optimistic studio executives to forecast thatThe Return of the Kingwould surpassThe Two Towersin total earnings. If this proved to be true, then this would be the first blockbuster trilogy for each successive film to earn more at the box office than its predecessor, when all three films were blockbuster successes.The Return of the Kinghas helpedThe Lord of the Ringsfranchise to become the highest-grossing motion picture trilogy worldwide of all time with over $2.9\",\n \"time with over $2.9 billion beating other notable series such as the originalStar Wars Trilogy, and became New Line's highest grossing release. Following subsequent reissues, the film has grossed $381.9 million in the United States and Canada and $769.2 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $1.151billion. These figures do not include income from DVD sales, TV rights, etc. It has been estimatedthat the gross income from non-box office sales and merchandise has been at least equal to the box office for all three films. If this is so, the total gross income for the trilogy would be in the region of $6 billion following an investment of $300 million ($426 million including marketing costs). Critical response On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes,The Return of the Kingholds an approval rating of 94% based on 282 reviews, with an average rating of 8.70/10. The website's critics consensus reads, \\\"Visually breathtaking and emotionally powerful,The Lord of the Rings - The Return of the\",\n \"- The Return of the Kingis a moving and satisfying conclusion to a great trilogy.\\\"Metacritic, which uses aweighted average, gives the film a score of 94 out of 100 based on 41 reviews, indicating \\\"universal acclaim\\\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film a rare average grade of \\\"A+\\\" on an A+ to F scale,the highest grade in the trilogy. Alan Morrison ofEmpiregave the film a perfect score of five stars. In his review, he called the film \\\"the resounding climax to a landmark in cinema history\\\" and praised how Peter Jackson had \\\"kept the momentum of the series rolling on and on through the traditionally 'difficult' middle part and 'weak' finale, delivering a climax to the story that's neater and more affecting than what Tolkien managed on the printed page.\\\" Morrison also mentioned how fans of the films \\\"who have walked beside these heroes every step of the way on such a long journey deserve the emotional pay-off as well as the action peaks, and they will be genuinely touched as the final credits roll.\\\"Elvis\",\n \"credits roll.\\\"Elvis MitchellforThe New York Timeslauded the acting, the craft of the technical crew, and Jackson's direction, describingThe Return of the Kingas \\\"a meticulous and prodigious vision made by a director who was not hamstrung by heavy use of computer special-effects imagery.\\\"Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesgave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying that it is \\\"such a crowning achievement, such a visionary use of all the tools of special effects, such a pure spectacle, that it can be enjoyed even by those who have not seen the first two films.\\\" Talking about the whole trilogy, Ebert said that he admired it \\\"more as a whole than in its parts\\\", and thatThe Return of the KingcertifiedThe Lord of the Ringsas \\\"a work of bold ambition in a time of cinematic timidity\\\".In his review forThe Times, James Christopher praisedThe Return of the Kingas \\\"everything a Ring fan could possibly wish for, and much more\\\", and describedThe Lord of the Ringsas \\\"the greatest film trilogy ever mounted, with\",\n \"ever mounted, with some of the most amazing action sequences committed to celluloid\\\".Nev Pierce for theBBCgave the film five stars out of five, judging it to be the best chapter of the trilogy, since it combined \\\"the 'ooh' factor ofFellowshipwith the zippy action ofTowers\\\". Pierce describedThe Return of the Kingas \\\"Majestic, moving, and immense\\\", and \\\"an astonishing piece of storytelling\\\".Philip French, reviewing it forThe Observer, lauded the narrative force, the battle scenes, the language, and the visual style of the film, which he related to \\\"the swirling battle paintings ofAlbrecht Altdorfer\\\" and \\\"Claude Lorrain's elegiac paintings of maritime departures inspired by classical poets.\\\" French wrote about the whole trilogy \\\"Jackson'sLord of the Ringsis indeed a very fine achievement, moving, involving and, to many people, even inspiring. It redeems the debased cinematic notion of the epic.\\\" In her review forEntertainment Weekly,Lisa Schwarzbaumgave the film an A grade, and wrote \\\"The conclusion of Peter\",\n \"conclusion of Peter Jackson's masterwork is passionate and literate, detailed and expansive, and it's conceived with a risk-taking flair for old-fashioned movie magic at its most precious ... as he has done throughout, the director paces scenes of action, intimacy, and even panoramic, geographical grandeur ... with the control of a superb choreographer.\\\". Schwarzbaum also said of the whole series \\\"I can't think of another film trilogy that ends in such glory, or another monumental work of sustained storytelling that surges ahead with so much inventiveness and ardor.\\\"Richard CorlissofTimenamedThe Return of the Kingthe best film of the yearand described the whole trilogy as \\\"The film event of the millennium\\\".Joe Morgenstern, forThe Wall Street Journal, wrote \\\"Never has a filmmaker aimed higher, or achieved more. The third and last installment of the screen epic based on J.R.R. Tolkien's literary classic redefines -- steeply upward -- the very notion of a major motion picture.\\\"Peter Bradshaw, who had been less\",\n \"who had been less enthusiastic about the first two chapters of the trilogy,gaveThe Return of the Kingfour stars out of five in his review forThe Guardian, commenting \\\"I started the series an atheist and finished an agnostic\\\". Bradshaw wrote of the film \\\"Technically it really is superb\\\", and commented \\\"Hours after watching the film, I can close my eyes and see those incredible battle scenes pulsing and throbbing in my skull ... MaybeKurosawa'sbattles will one day be described as proto-Jacksonian\\\". Some critics had negative opinions of the film. Tom Charity observes inTime Out, \\\"Some story strands are crudely abbreviated; others fail to develop elements that were already well-established. Given the inordinate running time, it's hard to avoid the feeling that we've already been here, done this.\\\"Jonathan Romney noted inThe Independent, \\\"here's something not quite palatable about all these intrepid, largely beautiful Europeans boldly fending off the nameless, numberless hordes from the other side of the world,\",\n \"side of the world, legions of dark-skinned sans-culottes with tribal drums. ... Aside from this, there's plenty to be offended by on an aesthetic level: the film's self-important solemnity, its hyperbolic over-insistence. ... here are no empty spaces, no gaps for thought, no real stimulus to the viewer's imagination. The film has no idea when to stop, either, with its multiple codas and final dying fall into beatific cosiness.\\\"And Antonia Quirke in theEvening Standardopined, \\\"Viggo Mortensen's Aragorn is the good king of the title, and while the actor may look fetching in a crown and cloak, he doesn't have half of the gravitas of Sean Bean's Boromir in the first film. Director Peter Jackson has been all but deified for his work on this particular ring cycle, but there is not much personality behind the camera here, merely rampant enthusiasm.\\\" The most common criticism ofThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingwas its running time, particularly the epilogue; even rave reviews for the film commented on\",\n \"film commented on its length.Joel SiegelofGood Morning Americasaid in his review for the film (which he gave an 'A'): \\\"If it didn't take forty-five minutes to end, it'd be my best picture of the year. As it is, it's just one of the great achievements in film history.\\\" In February 2004, a few months following release, the film was voted eighth onEmpire's100 Greatest Movies of All Time, compiled from readers' top ten lists. This forced the magazine to abandon its policy of only allowing films being older than a year to be eligible.In 2007,Total FilmnamedThe Return of the Kingthe third best film of the past decade (Total Film's publication time), behindThe MatrixandFight Club. Accolades The film was nominated for elevenAcademy Awards:Best Picture,Best Director,Best Adapted Screenplay,Best Original Score,Best Original Song,Best Visual Effects,Best Art Direction,Best Costume Design,Best Make-up,Best Sound MixingandBest Film Editing. At the76th Academy Awardsin 2004, the film won all the categories for which it\",\n \"for which it was nominated and it shares the record for highest Academy Award totals along withTitanic(which also starred Bernard Hill) andBen-Hur, and holding the record for the highest clean sweep at the Oscars, surpassing the nine awards earned by bothGigiandThe Last Emperor.It was the first fantasy film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. It also was the last movie for 14 years to win the Academy Award for Best Picture without being chosen as one of the top ten films of the year by theNational Board of Review, until the release ofThe Shape of Waterin 2017. The film won fourGolden Globes(including Best Picture for Drama and Best Director),fiveBAFTAs, twoMTV Movie Awards, twoGrammy Awards, nineSaturn Awards, theNew York Film Critics Circleaward for Best Picture, theNebula Award for Best Script, and theHugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form. See also Notes References External links\",\n \"Andrew Lesnie Andrew LesnieACSASC(1 January 1956 – 27 April 2015) was an Australiancinematographer. He was best known as the cinematographer forThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy(2001–2003) and its prequelThe Hobbittrilogy(2012–2014), both directed by New Zealand directorPeter Jackson. He received theAcademy Award for Best Cinematographyfor his work onThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ringin 2002. Early life Lesnie was born in Sydney, New South Wales, on 1 January 1956,the son of Shirley (Lithgow) and Allan Lesnie, who worked for the family's company, butcher suppliers Harry Lesnie Pty Ltd. He was educated atSydney Grammar School. Andrew was well liked and popular at school. Lesnie finished 6th form and hisHigher School Certificatein 1974.He started his career in 1978 as an assistant camera operator on the filmPatrick(1978) while he was still in school atAustralian Film, Television and Radio School(AFTRS).sd His first job after graduation in 1979 was as a cameraman on theLogie Award-winning Australian\",\n \"Australian magazine-style afternoon TV showSimon Townsend's Wonder World. Simon Townsend gave Lesnie almost daily opportunities to develop his craft with little restriction over a wide variety of stories and situations, and to experiment with camera and lighting techniques in hundreds of locations and situations. After two years of working on the show, Lesnie moved on to numerous Australian film and television productions, including the mini-seriesBodyline. Later, he worked as a second camera assistant on the filmThe Killing of Angel Street(1981). Lesnie would then go on to develop his craft as he photographed films such asStations(1983),The Delinquents(1989),Temptation of the Monk(1993), andSpider and Rose(1994). Career Lesnie's work began receiving major attention after the release of the anthropomorphic pig storyBabe(1995) and its sequel,Babe: Pig in the City. He was director of photography onPeter Jackson'sLord of the Ringstrilogy, and received anOscarfor his work onThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship\",\n \"The Fellowship of the Ringin 2002. Since then, he filmed several other Jackson-directed films, includingKing KongandThe Lovely Bones, and also filmedThe Hobbitfilmsdirected by Jackson. The Lord of the Ringstrilogy (2001–03) Lesnie used motion picture camera companyArri'sArriflex 435,Arriflex 535, andArriCam Studio35mmfilm cameras for the trilogy. He usedCarl ZeissUltra Prime Lenses andKodak's 5279 (tungsten-balanced) film stock to photograph the films. Lesnie planned far ahead into the production withPeter Jacksonwith previsualisation programs to help establish frame sizes and angles, as well as construction of sets.During filming, Lesnie emphasised earthy colours in the makeup and wardrobe of the cast and extras. At the acceptance speech for his Oscar win forFellowship of the Ring, Lesnie dedicated his acceptance to chief lighting technicianBrian Bansgrove, who he described as a major contributor to the quality of the film's cinematography. The Hobbittrilogy (2012–14) For production, Lesnie usedRed Digital\",\n \"usedRed Digital Cinema's Epic cameras as well asCarl ZeissUltra Prime Lenses to photograph the film.Jacksonand Lesnie decided to shoot the film in 3D with as many as 15stereoscopiccamera rigs (2 cameras each) with3ality.They also decided to shoot the film in an uncommon frame rate of 48 frames per second versus the industry standard of 24 frames per second. This would make Lesnie the first cinematographer to employ such a method that claims to induce more clarity, reduce motion blur, and make 3D easier to watch. The Water Diviner Lesnie's final film,The Water Diviner, directed by and starringRussell Crowe, was released in Australia in December 2014 and in America in April 2015, one week before his death. Personal life and death Lesnie lived on Sydney's north coast. He was a member of both theAustralian Cinematographers Societyand theAmerican Society of Cinematographers. Lesnie died of a heart attack in his Sydney home on 27 April 2015, after having suffered from a heart condition for half a year. Filmography\",\n \"a year. Filmography Film Documentary film Short film Feature film Television TV movies Awards and nominations References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":359,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What was the first elected position of the official that was in the office before Steven C. Johnson became the 42nd Kansas State Treasurer?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Wichita School Board member"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_State_Treasurer"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Rogers_(politician)#Career"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_State_Treasurer', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Rogers_(politician)#Career']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_State_Treasurer","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Rogers_(politician)#Career"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_State_Treasurer\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Rogers_(politician)#Career\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Kansas State Treasurer TheState Treasurer of Kansasis the chief custodian of Kansas's cash deposits, monies from bond sales, and other securities and collateral and directs the investments of those assets. The Treasurer provides for the safe and efficient operation of state government through effective banking, investment, and cash management. The treasurer oversees an office that currently handles over $20 billion and an annual operating budget of $3.5 million. Key programs in the office are Bonds Services, Cash Management, Unclaimed Property, the Ag Loan and Housing Loan Deposit Programs and the Kansas 529 Education Savings Program, which has more than 143,000 accounts with total assets of over $2.7 billion. The Treasurer's office is a fee-funded agency. The treasurer also serves as a member of the Kansas Public Employee's Retirement System (KPERS) and the Pooled Money Investment Board. Divisions Office holders Territorial Treasurers State Treasurers References External links","Lynn Rogers (politician) Lynn Wayne Rogers(born September 11, 1958) is an American politician and businessman who served as the 41stKansas State Treasurerfrom 2021 to 2023. He previously served as the 51stlieutenant governor of Kansasfrom 2019 to 2021. ADemocrat, he had previously served on the board ofWichita Public Schoolsfrom 2001 to 2017,and in theKansas Senaterepresenting the25th districtin westWichitafrom 2017 to 2019. Early life and education Rogers was born on September 11, 1958, inFremont, Nebraska.Raised byRepublicanparents, he grew up on a largehogfarm in rural Nebraska. His grandfather was acounty commissioner, and his father served on a local school board. Rogers earned aBachelor of Artsdegree inbusiness administrationfrom theUniversity of Nebraska–Lincolnin 1980. Career After graduating from college, Rogers began working as a marketing specialist forCitibankSavings.After working for Citibank inChicago, he moved with his wife toWichita, Kansasin 1985,where he accepted a marketing position with theFarm Credit Bankof Wichita.In 1993, Rogers became a vice president withCoBankFarm Credit Leasing, where he would remain until his election to theKansas Senatein 2016. School district politics In the 1990s, as a parent of a public school student, Rogers was active in a Wichita-areaParent-teacher organization(PTO), and aided fundraising for theWichita Public Schools, including the district's bond drive in 2000.Rogers' first elected office was as a member of theWichita School Board, where he served from 2001 to 2018. During his tenure on the school board, Rogers switched his affiliation from the Republican Party to theDemocratic Party, citing frustration with Republicans in attempts to gut support for the public schools. Kansas Senate In 2016, he was elected to theKansas Senate's 25th district, replacing outgoing Republican SenatorMichael O'Donnell, who vacated the seat to run forSedgwick County Commissioner. In his time as a senator, Rogers worked to \"reverse theBrownback-Colyertax experiment and invest more in our schools.\"Rogers focused primarily on education, agricultural and banking issues. In the Kansas Senate, senatorLaura Kellysat at the desk next to his, and became his mentor. Lieutenant governor On May 24, 2018, Senator Kelly announced that she had selected Rogers as her running mate in the2018 Kansas gubernatorial election.On November 6, 2018, Kelly and Rogers defeated the Republican gubernatorial ticket ofKris KobachandWink Hartman, as well as the independent ticket ofGreg OrmanandJohn Doll.Rogers became the first lieutenant governor from Wichita since fellow DemocratThomas Dockingserved in the 1980s. In addition to representing Kansas in official visits to other states, Rogers has spent much of his tenure traveling extensively throughout the state, engaging in political outreach, and visiting over half of the state's 105 counties. Kansas Treasurer In December 2020, GovernorLaura Kellyannounced that she had selected Rogers to replaceJake LaTurnerasKansas State Treasurerafter LaTurner was elected to theUnited States House of Representatives. Rogers assumed office on January 2, 2021, withDavid Tolandsucceeding him as Lieutenant Governor.He ran for a full term in2022, losing to Republican State RepresentativeSteven C. Johnson. Personal life Rogers is married to Kris Rogers. They have grown children, including a son who serves as a staff attorney for theOklahoma Supreme Court. They have a daughter who teaches in theKansas Cityarea, and another son \"involved in arts community.\" References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Kansas State Treasurer TheState Treasurer of Kansasis the chief custodian of Kansas's cash deposits, monies from bond sales, and other securities and collateral and directs the investments of those assets. The Treasurer provides for the safe and efficient operation of state government through effective banking, investment, and cash management. The treasurer oversees an office that currently handles over $20 billion and an annual operating budget of $3.5 million. Key programs in the office are Bonds Services, Cash Management, Unclaimed Property, the Ag Loan and Housing Loan Deposit Programs and the Kansas 529 Education Savings Program, which has more than 143,000 accounts with total assets of over $2.7 billion. The Treasurer's office is a fee-funded agency. The treasurer also serves as a member of the Kansas Public Employee's Retirement System (KPERS) and the Pooled Money Investment Board. Divisions Office holders Territorial Treasurers State Treasurers References External links\",\n \"Lynn Rogers (politician) Lynn Wayne Rogers(born September 11, 1958) is an American politician and businessman who served as the 41stKansas State Treasurerfrom 2021 to 2023. He previously served as the 51stlieutenant governor of Kansasfrom 2019 to 2021. ADemocrat, he had previously served on the board ofWichita Public Schoolsfrom 2001 to 2017,and in theKansas Senaterepresenting the25th districtin westWichitafrom 2017 to 2019. Early life and education Rogers was born on September 11, 1958, inFremont, Nebraska.Raised byRepublicanparents, he grew up on a largehogfarm in rural Nebraska. His grandfather was acounty commissioner, and his father served on a local school board. Rogers earned aBachelor of Artsdegree inbusiness administrationfrom theUniversity of Nebraska–Lincolnin 1980. Career After graduating from college, Rogers began working as a marketing specialist forCitibankSavings.After working for Citibank inChicago, he moved with his wife toWichita, Kansasin 1985,where he accepted a marketing position with theFarm Credit Bankof Wichita.In 1993, Rogers became a vice president withCoBankFarm Credit Leasing, where he would remain until his election to theKansas Senatein 2016. School district politics In the 1990s, as a parent of a public school student, Rogers was active in a Wichita-areaParent-teacher organization(PTO), and aided fundraising for theWichita Public Schools, including the district's bond drive in 2000.Rogers' first elected office was as a member of theWichita School Board, where he served from 2001 to 2018. During his tenure on the school board, Rogers switched his affiliation from the Republican Party to theDemocratic Party, citing frustration with Republicans in attempts to gut support for the public schools. Kansas Senate In 2016, he was elected to theKansas Senate's 25th district, replacing outgoing Republican SenatorMichael O'Donnell, who vacated the seat to run forSedgwick County Commissioner. In his time as a senator, Rogers worked to \\\"reverse theBrownback-Colyertax experiment and invest more in our schools.\\\"Rogers focused primarily on education, agricultural and banking issues. In the Kansas Senate, senatorLaura Kellysat at the desk next to his, and became his mentor. Lieutenant governor On May 24, 2018, Senator Kelly announced that she had selected Rogers as her running mate in the2018 Kansas gubernatorial election.On November 6, 2018, Kelly and Rogers defeated the Republican gubernatorial ticket ofKris KobachandWink Hartman, as well as the independent ticket ofGreg OrmanandJohn Doll.Rogers became the first lieutenant governor from Wichita since fellow DemocratThomas Dockingserved in the 1980s. In addition to representing Kansas in official visits to other states, Rogers has spent much of his tenure traveling extensively throughout the state, engaging in political outreach, and visiting over half of the state's 105 counties. Kansas Treasurer In December 2020, GovernorLaura Kellyannounced that she had selected Rogers to replaceJake LaTurnerasKansas State Treasurerafter LaTurner was elected to theUnited States House of Representatives. Rogers assumed office on January 2, 2021, withDavid Tolandsucceeding him as Lieutenant Governor.He ran for a full term in2022, losing to Republican State RepresentativeSteven C. Johnson. Personal life Rogers is married to Kris Rogers. They have grown children, including a son who serves as a staff attorney for theOklahoma Supreme Court. They have a daughter who teaches in theKansas Cityarea, and another son \\\"involved in arts community.\\\" References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Kansas State Treasurer TheState Treasurer of Kansasis the chief custodian of Kansas's cash deposits, monies from bond sales, and other securities and collateral and directs the investments of those assets. The Treasurer provides for the safe and efficient operation of state government through effective banking, investment, and cash management. The treasurer oversees an office that currently handles over $20 billion and an annual operating budget of $3.5 million. Key programs in the office are Bonds Services, Cash Management, Unclaimed Property, the Ag Loan and Housing Loan Deposit Programs and the Kansas 529 Education Savings Program, which has more than 143,000 accounts with total assets of over $2.7 billion. The Treasurer's office is a fee-funded agency. The treasurer also serves as a member of the Kansas Public Employee's Retirement System (KPERS) and the Pooled Money Investment Board. Divisions Office holders Territorial Treasurers State Treasurers References External links","Lynn Rogers (politician) Lynn Wayne Rogers(born September 11, 1958) is an American politician and businessman who served as the 41stKansas State Treasurerfrom 2021 to 2023. He previously served as the 51stlieutenant governor of Kansasfrom 2019 to 2021. ADemocrat, he had previously served on the board ofWichita Public Schoolsfrom 2001 to 2017,and in theKansas Senaterepresenting the25th districtin westWichitafrom 2017 to 2019. Early life and education Rogers was born on September 11, 1958, inFremont, Nebraska.Raised byRepublicanparents, he grew up on a largehogfarm in rural Nebraska. His grandfather was acounty commissioner, and his father served on a local school board. Rogers earned aBachelor of Artsdegree inbusiness administrationfrom theUniversity of Nebraska–Lincolnin 1980. Career After graduating from college, Rogers began working as a marketing specialist forCitibankSavings.After working for Citibank inChicago, he moved with his wife toWichita, Kansasin 1985,where he accepted a marketing position with","position with theFarm Credit Bankof Wichita.In 1993, Rogers became a vice president withCoBankFarm Credit Leasing, where he would remain until his election to theKansas Senatein 2016. School district politics In the 1990s, as a parent of a public school student, Rogers was active in a Wichita-areaParent-teacher organization(PTO), and aided fundraising for theWichita Public Schools, including the district's bond drive in 2000.Rogers' first elected office was as a member of theWichita School Board, where he served from 2001 to 2018. During his tenure on the school board, Rogers switched his affiliation from the Republican Party to theDemocratic Party, citing frustration with Republicans in attempts to gut support for the public schools. Kansas Senate In 2016, he was elected to theKansas Senate's 25th district, replacing outgoing Republican SenatorMichael O'Donnell, who vacated the seat to run forSedgwick County Commissioner. In his time as a senator, Rogers worked to \"reverse theBrownback-Colyertax experiment","experiment and invest more in our schools.\"Rogers focused primarily on education, agricultural and banking issues. In the Kansas Senate, senatorLaura Kellysat at the desk next to his, and became his mentor. Lieutenant governor On May 24, 2018, Senator Kelly announced that she had selected Rogers as her running mate in the2018 Kansas gubernatorial election.On November 6, 2018, Kelly and Rogers defeated the Republican gubernatorial ticket ofKris KobachandWink Hartman, as well as the independent ticket ofGreg OrmanandJohn Doll.Rogers became the first lieutenant governor from Wichita since fellow DemocratThomas Dockingserved in the 1980s. In addition to representing Kansas in official visits to other states, Rogers has spent much of his tenure traveling extensively throughout the state, engaging in political outreach, and visiting over half of the state's 105 counties. Kansas Treasurer In December 2020, GovernorLaura Kellyannounced that she had selected Rogers to replaceJake LaTurnerasKansas State Treasurerafter","Treasurerafter LaTurner was elected to theUnited States House of Representatives. Rogers assumed office on January 2, 2021, withDavid Tolandsucceeding him as Lieutenant Governor.He ran for a full term in2022, losing to Republican State RepresentativeSteven C. Johnson. Personal life Rogers is married to Kris Rogers. They have grown children, including a son who serves as a staff attorney for theOklahoma Supreme Court. They have a daughter who teaches in theKansas Cityarea, and another son \"involved in arts community.\" References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Kansas State Treasurer TheState Treasurer of Kansasis the chief custodian of Kansas's cash deposits, monies from bond sales, and other securities and collateral and directs the investments of those assets. The Treasurer provides for the safe and efficient operation of state government through effective banking, investment, and cash management. The treasurer oversees an office that currently handles over $20 billion and an annual operating budget of $3.5 million. Key programs in the office are Bonds Services, Cash Management, Unclaimed Property, the Ag Loan and Housing Loan Deposit Programs and the Kansas 529 Education Savings Program, which has more than 143,000 accounts with total assets of over $2.7 billion. The Treasurer's office is a fee-funded agency. The treasurer also serves as a member of the Kansas Public Employee's Retirement System (KPERS) and the Pooled Money Investment Board. Divisions Office holders Territorial Treasurers State Treasurers References External links\",\n \"Lynn Rogers (politician) Lynn Wayne Rogers(born September 11, 1958) is an American politician and businessman who served as the 41stKansas State Treasurerfrom 2021 to 2023. He previously served as the 51stlieutenant governor of Kansasfrom 2019 to 2021. ADemocrat, he had previously served on the board ofWichita Public Schoolsfrom 2001 to 2017,and in theKansas Senaterepresenting the25th districtin westWichitafrom 2017 to 2019. Early life and education Rogers was born on September 11, 1958, inFremont, Nebraska.Raised byRepublicanparents, he grew up on a largehogfarm in rural Nebraska. His grandfather was acounty commissioner, and his father served on a local school board. Rogers earned aBachelor of Artsdegree inbusiness administrationfrom theUniversity of Nebraska–Lincolnin 1980. Career After graduating from college, Rogers began working as a marketing specialist forCitibankSavings.After working for Citibank inChicago, he moved with his wife toWichita, Kansasin 1985,where he accepted a marketing position with\",\n \"position with theFarm Credit Bankof Wichita.In 1993, Rogers became a vice president withCoBankFarm Credit Leasing, where he would remain until his election to theKansas Senatein 2016. School district politics In the 1990s, as a parent of a public school student, Rogers was active in a Wichita-areaParent-teacher organization(PTO), and aided fundraising for theWichita Public Schools, including the district's bond drive in 2000.Rogers' first elected office was as a member of theWichita School Board, where he served from 2001 to 2018. During his tenure on the school board, Rogers switched his affiliation from the Republican Party to theDemocratic Party, citing frustration with Republicans in attempts to gut support for the public schools. Kansas Senate In 2016, he was elected to theKansas Senate's 25th district, replacing outgoing Republican SenatorMichael O'Donnell, who vacated the seat to run forSedgwick County Commissioner. In his time as a senator, Rogers worked to \\\"reverse theBrownback-Colyertax experiment\",\n \"experiment and invest more in our schools.\\\"Rogers focused primarily on education, agricultural and banking issues. In the Kansas Senate, senatorLaura Kellysat at the desk next to his, and became his mentor. Lieutenant governor On May 24, 2018, Senator Kelly announced that she had selected Rogers as her running mate in the2018 Kansas gubernatorial election.On November 6, 2018, Kelly and Rogers defeated the Republican gubernatorial ticket ofKris KobachandWink Hartman, as well as the independent ticket ofGreg OrmanandJohn Doll.Rogers became the first lieutenant governor from Wichita since fellow DemocratThomas Dockingserved in the 1980s. In addition to representing Kansas in official visits to other states, Rogers has spent much of his tenure traveling extensively throughout the state, engaging in political outreach, and visiting over half of the state's 105 counties. Kansas Treasurer In December 2020, GovernorLaura Kellyannounced that she had selected Rogers to replaceJake LaTurnerasKansas State Treasurerafter\",\n \"Treasurerafter LaTurner was elected to theUnited States House of Representatives. Rogers assumed office on January 2, 2021, withDavid Tolandsucceeding him as Lieutenant Governor.He ran for a full term in2022, losing to Republican State RepresentativeSteven C. Johnson. Personal life Rogers is married to Kris Rogers. They have grown children, including a son who serves as a staff attorney for theOklahoma Supreme Court. They have a daughter who teaches in theKansas Cityarea, and another son \\\"involved in arts community.\\\" References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":360,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"As of August 3, 2024, what is the sum of the birth years of every tennis player to both represent the country that tennis was first played and complete a Grand Slam."},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"5980"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis)"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanne_Whiley"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Reid_(tennis)"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfie_Hewett"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanne_Whiley', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Reid_(tennis)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfie_Hewett']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanne_Whiley","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Reid_(tennis","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfie_Hewett"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanne_Whiley\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Reid_(tennis\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfie_Hewett\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Tennis Tennisis aracket sportthat is played either individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses atennis racketstrung with a cord to strike a hollow rubberballcovered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent'scourt. The object of the game is to manoeuvre the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player unable to return the ball validly will not gain apoint, while the opposite player will. Playable at all levels of society and at all ages, tennis can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, includingwheelchair users. The original forms of tennis developed inFranceduring the lateMiddle Ages.The modern form of tennis originated inBirmingham, England, in the late 19th century aslawn tennis.It had close connections to various field (lawn) games such ascroquetandbowlsas well as to the older racket sport today calledreal tennis. The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that until 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times,and the adoption of thetiebreakin the 1970s.A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point-challenge system, which allows a player to contest theline callof a point, a system known asHawk-Eye. Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is a popular worldwide spectator sport.The fourGrand Slamtournaments (also referred to as the majors) are especially popular and are considered the highest level of competition for the sport. These tournaments are theAustralian Open, played onhardcourts; theFrench Open, played on redclay courts;Wimbledon, played ongrass courts; and theUS Open, also played on hardcourts.Additionally, tennis was one of the originalOlympic sports, and has been consistently competed in theSummer Olympic Gamessince1988. History Predecessors Historians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in 12th-century northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm of the hand.Louis X of Francewas a keen player ofjeu de paume(\"game of the palm\"), which evolved intoreal tennis, and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris \"around the end of the 13th century\".In due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe.In June 1316 atVincennes, Val-de-Marne, and following a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of eitherpneumoniaorpleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning.Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player known by name.Another of the early enthusiasts of the game was KingCharles V of France, who had a court set up at theLouvre Palace. It was not until the 16th century thatracketscame into use and the game began to be called \"tennis\", from the French termtenez, which can be translated as \"hold!\", \"receive!\" or \"take!\", aninterjectionused as a call from the server to his opponent.It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors, where the ball could be hit off the wall.Henry VIII of Englandwas a big fan of this game, which is now known asreal tennis. An epitaph inSt Michael's Church, Coventry, writtenc.1705, read, in part: Here lyes an old toss'd Tennis Ball:Was racketted, from spring to fall,With so much heat and so much hast,Time's arm for shame grew tyred at last. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England. The invention of the firstlawn mowerin Britain in 1830 is believed to have been a catalyst for the preparation of modern-style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and others. Origins of the modern game Between 1859 and 1865,Harry Gem, a solicitor, and his friendAugurio Pereradeveloped a game that combined elements ofracquetsand the Basque ball gamepelota, which they played on Perera'scroquetlawn inBirmingham, England.In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis club on Avenue Road,Leamington Spa.This is where \"lawn tennis\" was used as the name of an activity by a club for the first time. InTennis: A Cultural History, Heiner Gillmeister reveals that on 8 December 1874, British army officerWalter Clopton Wingfieldwrote to Harry Gem, commenting that he (Wingfield) had been experimenting with his version of lawn tennis \"for a year and a half\".In December 1873, Wingfield designed and patented a game which he calledsphairistikè(Greek:σφαιριστική, meaning \"ball-playing\"), and which was soon known simply as \"sticky\" – for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his friend's estate ofNantclwyd Hall, inLlanelidan, Wales.According toR. D. C.Evans, turfgrassagronomist, \"Sports historians all agree that deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis.\"According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield \"popularized this game enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game – and most importantly you had his rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874.\"The world's oldest annual tennis tournament took place at Leamington Lawn Tennis Club in Birmingham in 1874.This was three years before theAll England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Clubwould hold its first championships at Wimbledon, in 1877. The first Championships culminated in a significant debate on how to standardise the rules. In the United States in 1874,Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned fromBermudawith asphairistikèset. She became fascinated by the game of tennis after watching British army officers play.She laid out a tennis court at theStaten Island Cricket Clubat Camp Washington,Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York. The first American National championship was played there in September 1880. An Englishman named O.E. Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100, by defeating CanadianI. F. Hellmuth.There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York. On 21 May 1881, the oldest nationwide tennis organization in the worldwas formed, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now theUnited States Tennis Association) in order to standardize the rules and organize competitions.The US National Men's Singles Championship, now theUS Open, was first held in 1881 at theNewport Casino,Newport, Rhode Island.The US National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 inPhiladelphia. Tennis also became popular in France, where theFrench Championshipsdate to 1891, although until 1925 they were open only to tennis players who were members of French clubs.Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open and theAustralian Open(dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis.Together, these four events are called the Majors orSlams(a term borrowed frombridgerather thanbaseball). In 1913, the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF), now theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF), was founded and established three official tournaments as the major championships of the day. TheWorld Grass Court Championshipswere awarded to Great Britain. TheWorld Hard Court Championshipswere awarded to France; the term \"hard court\" was used for clay courts at the time. Some tournaments were held in Belgium instead. And theWorld Covered Court Championshipsfor indoor courts were awarded annually; Sweden, France, Great Britain, Denmark, Switzerland and Spain each hosted the tournament.At a meeting held on 16 March 1923 in Paris, the title \"World Championship\" was dropped and a new category of \"Official Championship\" was created for events in Great Britain, France, the US and Australia– today's Grand Slam events.The impact on the four recipient nations to replace the \"world championships\" with \"official championships\" was simple in a general sense: each became a major nation of the federation with enhanced voting power, and each now operated a major event. The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the ILTF have remained largely stable in the ensuing 80 years, the one major change being the addition of thetiebreaksystem designed byJimmy Van Alen.That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the1924 Games, but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts of then ITF presidentPhilippe Chatrier, ITF general secretary David Gray and ITF vice president Pablo Llorens, with support fromInternational Olympic CommitteepresidentJuan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming, and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full-medal sport atSeoulin 1988. TheDavis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.The analogous competition for women's national teams, theFed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF. In 1926, promoterC. C. Pyleestablished the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.The most notable of these early professionals were the AmericanVinnie Richardsand the FrenchwomanSuzanne Lenglen.Playersturned prowould no longer be permitted to compete in the major (amateur) tournaments. In 1968, commercial pressures and rumours of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating theOpen Era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis.With the beginning of the Open Era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its middle-class English-speaking image(although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists). In 1954, Van Alen founded theInternational Tennis Hall of Fame, a nonprofit museum in Newport, Rhode Island.The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Equipment Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only aracketand balls. Rackets The components of a tennis racket include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and strings were ofanimal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power. Meanwhile, technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added durability. Under modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to the following guidelines; The rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches (81 cm) until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches (74 cm). Many companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are three of the most commonly used brands; however, many more companies exist.The same companies sponsor players to use these rackets in the hopes that the company name will become better known by the public. Strings There are multiple types of tennis strings, including natural gut and synthetic stings made from materials such asnylon,kevlar, orpolyester. Natural gut The first type of tennis strings available were natural gut strings, introduced by Babolat. They were the only type used until synthetic strings were introduced in the 1950s. Natural gut strings are still used frequently by players such as Roger Federer. They are made fromcowintestines, and provide increased power, and are easier on the arm than most strings. Synthetic Most synthetic strings are made from monofilament or multifiliament nylon strings. Monofilament strings are cheap to buy, and are used widely by many recreational level players for their all round performance, while multifilament strings are created to mimic natural gut more closely by weaving together fibres, but are generally more expensive than their monofilament counterparts.Polyester strings allow for more spin on the ball than any other string, due to their firm strings, while keeping control of the ball, and this is why many players use them, especially higher player ones.Kevlar tennis strings are highly durable, and are mostly used by players that frequently break strings, because they maintain tension well, but these strings can be stiff on the arm. Hybrid strings Hybrid stringing is when a tennis racket is strung with two different strings for the mains (the vertical strings) and the crosses (the horizontal strings). This is most commonly done with two different strings that are made of different materials, but can also be done with two different types of the same string. A notable example of a player using hybrid strings is Roger Federer, using natural gut strings in his mains and polyester strings in his crosses. Balls Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and stuffed with feathers.Modern tennis balls are made of hollowvulcanized rubberwith afeltcoating. Traditionally white, the predominant colour was gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight,deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as 65.41–68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 in). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 g (1.98 and 2.10 oz).Tennis balls were traditionally manufactured in the United States and Europe. Although the process of producing the balls has remained virtually unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of manufacturing now takes place in theFar East. The relocation is due to cheaperlabour costsand materials in the region.Tournaments that are played under the ITF Rules of Tennis must use balls that are approved by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and be named on the official ITF list of approved tennis balls. Manner of play Court Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78feet(23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (11 m) for doubles matches.Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by either a cord or metal cable of diameter no greater than0.8 cm (1⁄3in).The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.91 m) high in the centre.The net posts are 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side. The modern tennis court owes its design to MajorWalter Clopton Wingfield. In 1873, Wingfield patented a court much the same as the current one for hisstické tennis(sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with thehourglassshape of his court changed to a rectangle. Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces.Grass,clay, andhard courtsof concrete or asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood flooring having been historically used.Artificial turfcourts can also be found. Lines The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the centre of each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or the centre mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines; they are the boundaries for doubles matches. The lines to the inside of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines, and are the boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles alley, playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the centre of a player's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve. The line dividing the service line in two is called the centre line or centre service line. The boxes this centre line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player's position, they have to hit the ball into one of these when serving.A ball is out only if none of it has hit the area inside the lines, or the line, upon its first bounce. All lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (25 and 51 mm) in width, with the exception of the baseline which can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide, although in practice it is often the same width as the others. Play of a single point The players or teams start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated theserver, and the opposing player is thereceiver. The choice to be server or receiver in the first game and the choice of ends is decided by a coin toss before the warm-up starts. Service alternates game by game between the two players or teams. For each point, the server starts behind the baseline, between the centre mark and the sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server willserve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server. For a service to be legal, the ball must travel over the net without touching it into the diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is aletornet service, which is void, and the server retakes that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a \"foot fault\" when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the centre mark before the ball is hit. If the second service, after a fault, is also a fault, the serverdouble faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service. A legal service starts arally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of a player hitting the ball so that it falls in the server's court, before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel over or round the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is considered a legal return as long as it crosses into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point. Scoring Game, set, match Game Agameconsists of a sequence ofpointsplayed with the same player serving. A game is won by the first player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are described as \"love\", \"15\", \"30\", and \"40\", respectively. If at least three points have been scored by each player, making the player's scores equal at 40 apiece, the score is not called out as \"40–40\", but rather as \"deuce\". If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his opponent, the score of the game is \"advantage\" for the player in the lead. During informal games, advantage can also be called \"ad in\" or \"van in\" when the serving player is ahead, and \"ad out\" or \"van out\" when the receiving player is ahead; alternatively, either player may simply call out \"my ad\" or \"your ad\". The score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving player's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., \"15–love\") after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score. Set Asetconsists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game (tying the set 6–6) atiebreakis played. A tiebreak, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A tiebreak game can be won by scoring at least seven points and at least two points more than the opponent. In a tiebreak, two players serve by 'ABBA' system which has been proven to be fair.If a tiebreak is not played, the set is referred to as anadvantage set, where the set continues without limit until one player leads by a two-game margin. A \"love set\" means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a \"jam donut\" in the US.In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, e.g. \"6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5\". Match Amatchconsists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a best of three or fivesetssystem. On the professional circuit, men play best-of-five-set matches at all fourGrand Slamtournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of theOlympic Gamesand best-of-three-set matches at all other tournaments, while women play best-of-three-set matches at all tournaments. The first player to win two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the match.Only in the final sets of matches at the Olympic Games andFed Cupare tiebreaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player has a two-game lead, occasionally leading to someremarkably long matches. In tournament play, the chairumpireannounces the end of the match with the well-known phrase \"Game, set, match\" followed by the winning person's or team's name. Special point terms Game point Agame pointoccurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40–love, the player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play. Break point Abreak pointoccurs if the receiver, not theserver, has a chance to win the game with the next point. Break points are of particular importance becauseservingis generally considered advantageous, with servers being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver who has one (score of 30–40 or advantage), two (score of 15–40) or three (score of love–40) consecutive chances to win the game hasbreak point,double break pointortriple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to haveconvertedtheir break point. If the receiver fails to win their break point it is called afailure to convert.Winning break points, and thus the game, is also referred to asbreaking serve, as the receiver has disrupted, orbrokenthe natural advantage of the server. If in the following game the previous server also wins a break point it is referred to asbreaking back. Except wheretiebreaksapply, at least one break of serve is required to win a set (otherwise a two-game lead would never occur). Rule variations Another, however informal, tennis format is calledCanadian doubles. This involves three players, with one person playing against a doubles team. The single player gets to utilize the alleys normally reserved only for a doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as for a regular game. This format is not sanctioned by any official body. \"Australian doubles\", another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, is played with similar rules to theCanadian doublesstyle, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game, each player taking a turn at playing alone against the other two. As such, each player plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with the singles player always serving. Scoring styles vary, but one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break serve. Wheelchair tenniscan be played by able-bodied players as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility. An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and able-bodied matches. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair player and an able-bodied player (referred to as \"one-up, one-down\"), or for a wheelchair player to play against an able-bodied player. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the wheelchair users only. Match play Continuity A tennis match is intended to be continuous.Because stamina is a relevant factor, arbitrary delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point.This is increased to 90 seconds when the players change ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a 2-minute break is permitted between sets.Other than this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as rain, damaged footwear, damaged racket, or the need to retrieve an errant ball. Should a player be deemed to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire may initially give a warning followed by subsequent penalties of \"point\", \"game\", and default of the match for the player who is consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit. In the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and each player at the same end of the court as when rain halted play, or as close to the same relative compass point if play is resumed on a different court. Ball changes Balls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, inATPandWTAtournaments, they are changed after every nine games with the first change occurring after only seven games, because the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm-up.InITFtournaments likeFed Cup, the balls are changed after every eleven games (rather than nine) with the first change occurring after only nine games (instead of seven). An exception is that a ball change may not take place at the beginning of a tiebreaker, in which case the ball change is delayed until the beginning of the second game of the next set.As a courtesy to the receiver, the server will often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new balls are used as a reminder that they are using new balls. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain), then the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes. On-court coaching A recent rule change is to allow coaching on court on a limited basis during a match.This has been introduced in women's tennis forWTA Tourevents in 2009 and allows the player to request her coach once per set. Stance Stance refers to the way a player prepares themselves in order to best be able to return a shot. Essentially, it enables them to move quickly in order to achieve a particular stroke. There are four main stances in modern tennis: open, semi-open, closed, and neutral. All four stances involve the player crouching in some manner: as well as being a more efficient striking posture, it allows them toisometrically preloadtheir muscles in order to play the stroke more dynamically. What stance is selected is strongly influenced by shot selection. A player may quickly alter their stance depending on the circumstances and the type of shot they intend to play. Any given stance also alters dramatically based upon the actual playing of the shot with dynamic movements and shifts of body weight occurring. Open stance This is the most common stance in tennis. The player's feet are placed parallel to the net. They may be pointing sideways, directly at the net or diagonally towards it. This stance allows for a high degree of torso rotation which can add significant power to the stroke. This process is sometimes likened to the coiling and uncoiling of a spring. i.e. the torso is rotated as a means of preloading the muscular system in preparation for playing the stroke: this is the coiling phase. When the stroke is played the torso rotates to face forwards again, called uncoiling, and adds significant power to the stroke. A disadvantage of this stance is that it does not always allow ‘for proper weight transfer and maintenance of balance’when making powerful strokes. It is commonly used for forehand strokes; double-handed backhands can also be made effectively from it. Semi-open stance This stance is somewhere between open and closed and is a very flexible stance. The feet are aligned diagonally towards the net. It allows for a lot of shoulder rotation and the torso can be coiled, before being uncoiled into the shot in order to increase the power of the shot. It is commonly used in modern tennis especially by ‘top professional players on the forehand’.Two-handed backhands can also be employed from this stance. Closed stance The closed stance is the least commonly used of the three main stances. One foot is placed further towards the net with the other foot further from it; there is a diagonal alignment between the feet. It allows for effective torso rotation in order to increase the power of the shot. It is usually used to play backhand shots and it is rare to see forehand shots played from it. A stroke from this stance may entail the rear foot coming completely off the floor with bodyweight being transferred entirely to the front foot. Neutral stance This is sometimes also referred to as the square stance. One foot is positioned closer to the net and ahead of the other which is behind and in line with it. Both feet are aligned at a 90 degree angle to the net. The neutral stance is often taught early because ‘It allows beginners to learn about shifting weight and rotation of the body.’Forehands and backhands may be made from it. Shots Competent tennis players have eight basic shots in their repertoire: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley, half-volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob. Grip A grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots during a match. The grip affects the angle of the racket face when it hits the ball and influences the pace, spin, and placement of the shot. Players use various grips during play, including the Continental (The \"Handshake Grip\"), Eastern (either semi-eastern or full eastern, usually used for backhands), and Western (semi-western or full western, usually for forehand grips) grips. Most players change grips during a match depending on what shot they are hitting; for example, slice shots and serves call for a Continental grip. Serve A serve (or, more formally, a \"service\") in tennis is a shot to start a point. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it (usually near the apex of its trajectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without touching the net. The serve may be hit under- or overhand although underhand serving remains a rarity.If the ball hits the net on the first serve and bounces over into the correct diagonal box then it is called a \"let\" and the server gets two more additional serves to get it in. There can also be a let if the server serves the ball and the receiver isn't prepared.If the server misses his or her first serve and gets a let on the second serve, then they get one more try to get the serve in the box. Experienced players strive to master the conventional overhand serve to maximize its power and placement. The server may employ different types of serve including flat serve, topspin serve, slice serve, and kick (American twist) serve. A reverse type of spin serve is hit in a manner that spins the ball opposite the natural spin of the server, the spin direction depending upon right- or left-handedness. If the ball is spinning counterclockwise, it will curve right from the hitter's point of view and curve left if spinning clockwise. Some servers are content to use the serve simply to initiate the point; however, advanced players often try to hit a winning shot with their serve. A winning serve that is not touched by the opponent is called an \"ace\". Forehand For a right-handed player, the forehand is a stroke that begins on the right side of the body, continues across the body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body. There are variousgripsfor executing the forehand, and their popularity has fluctuated over the years. The most important ones are thecontinental, theeastern, thesemi-western, and thewestern. For a number of years, the small, frail 1920s playerBill Johnstonwas considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high using awesterngrip. Few top players used thewesterngrip after the 1920s, but in the latter part of the 20th century, as shot-making techniques and equipment changed radically, thewesternforehand made a strong comeback and is now used by many modern players. No matter which grip is used, most forehands are generally executed with one hand holding the racket, but there have been fine players with two-handed forehands. In the 1940s and 50s, the Ecuadorian/American playerPancho Seguraused a two-handed forehand to achieve a devastating effect against larger, more powerful players. Players such asMonica Selesor France'sFabrice SantoroandMarion Bartoliare also notable players known for their two-handed forehands. Backhand For right-handed players, the backhand is a stroke that begins on the left side of their body, continues across their body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the right side of their body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally considered more difficult to master than the forehand. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one hand, using either aneasternor acontinentalgrip. The first notable players to use two hands were the 1930s AustraliansVivian McGrathandJohn Bromwich, but they were lone exceptions. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s asBjörn Borg,Chris Evert,Jimmy Connors, and laterMats WilanderandMarat Safinused it to great effect, and it is now used by a large number of the world's best players, includingNovak Djokovic,Rafael NadalandSerena Williams. Two hands give the player more control, while one hand can generate a slice shot, applying backspin on the ball to produce a low trajectory bounce. Reach is also limited with the two-handed shot. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time,Don Budge, had a powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that imparted topspin onto the ball.Ken Rosewall, another player noted for his one-handed backhand, used a very accurate slice backhand through the 1950s and 1960s. A small number of players, notablyMonica Seles, use two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides. Other shots Avolleyis a shot returned to the opponent in mid-air before the ball bounces, generally performed near the net, and is usually made with a stiff-wristed punching motion to hit the ball into an open area of the opponent's court. Thehalf volleyis made by hitting the ball on the rise just after it has bounced, also generally in the vicinity of the net, and played with the racket close to the ground.Theswinging volleyis hit out of the air as the player approaches the net. It is an offensive shot used to take preparation time away from the opponent, as it returns the ball into the opponent's court much faster than a standard volley. From a poor defensive position on the baseline, thelobcan be used as either an offensive or defensive weapon, hitting the ball high and deep into the opponent's court to either enable the lobber to get into better defensive position or to win the point outright by hitting it over the opponent's head. If the lob is not hit deeply enough into the other court, however, an opponent near the net may then hit anoverhead smash, a hard, serve-like shot, to try to end the point. A difficult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob over the backhand side of a player. When the contact point is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand, most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball or sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand sky-hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful execution of any of these alternatives requires balance and timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play. If their opponent is deep in their court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpecteddrop shot, by softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to \"skid\" upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even backwards towards the net, thus making it even more difficult to return. Tournaments Tournaments are often organized by gender and number of players. Common tournament configurations include men's singles, women's singles, and doubles, where two players play on each side of the net. Tournaments may be organized for specific age groups, with upper age limits for youth and lower age limits for senior players. Example of this include theOrange BowlandLes Petits Asjunior tournaments. There are also tournaments for players with disabilities, such aswheelchair tennisand deaf tennis.In the fourGrand Slamtournaments, the singles draws are limited to 128 players for each gender. Most large tournamentsseedplayers, but players may also be matched by their skill level. According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a rating that is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. For example, theUnited States Tennis Associationadministers the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP), which rates players between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2 point increments. Average club players under this system would rate 3.0–4.5 while world class players would be 7.0 on this scale. Grand Slam tournaments The fourGrand Slamtournaments are considered to be the most prestigious tennis events in the world. They are held annually and comprise, in chronological order, theAustralian Open, theFrench Open,Wimbledon, and theUS Open. Apart from theOlympic Games,Davis Cup,Fed Cup, andHopman Cup, they are the only tournaments regulated by theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF).The ITF's national associations,Tennis Australia(Australian Open), theFédération Française de Tennis(French Open), theLawn Tennis Association(Wimbledon) and theUnited States Tennis Association(US Open) are delegated the responsibility to organize these events. Aside from the historical significance of these events, they also carry larger prize funds than any other tour event and are worth double the number of ranking points to the champion than in the next echelon of tournaments, theATP Masters 1000(men) andPremier events(women).Another distinguishing feature is the number of players in the singles draw. There are 128, more than any other professional tennis tournament. This draw is composed of 32 seeded players, other players ranked in the world's top 100, qualifiers, and players who receive invitations throughwild cards. Grand Slam men's tournaments have best-of-five set matches while the women play best-of-three. Grand Slam tournaments are among the small number of events that last two weeks, the others being theIndian Wells Mastersand theMiami Masters. Currently, the Grand Slam tournaments are the only tour events that havemixed doublescontests. Grand Slam tournaments are held in conjunction with wheelchair tennis tournaments andjunior tenniscompetitions. These tournaments also contain their own idiosyncrasies. For example, players at Wimbledon are required to wear predominantly white.Andre Agassichose to skip Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 citing the event's traditionalism, particularly its \"predominantly white\" dress code.Wimbledon has its own particular methods for disseminating tickets, often leading tennis fans to follow complex procedures to obtain tickets. Men's tournament structure Masters Series TheATP Masters 1000is a group of nine tournaments that form the second-highest echelon in men's tennis. Each event is held annually, and a win at one of these events is worth 1000 ranking points. When theATP, led byHamilton Jordan, began running the men's tour in 1990, the directors designated the top nine tournaments, outside of theGrand Slamevents, as \"Super 9\" events.In 2000 this became the Tennis Masters Series and in 2004 the ATP Masters Series. In November at the end of the tennis year, the world's top eight players compete in theATP Finals, a tournament with a rotating locale. It is currently held in Turin. In August 2007 the ATP announced major changes to the tour that were introduced in 2009. The Masters Series was renamed to the \"ATP Masters 1000\", the addition of the number 1000 referring to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of each tournament. Contrary to earlier plans, the number of tournaments was not reduced from nine to eight and theMonte-Carlo Mastersremains part of the series although, unlike the other events, it does not have a mandatory player commitment. TheHamburg Mastershas been downgraded to a 500-point event. TheMadrid Mastersmoved to May and onto clay courts, and a new tournament inShanghaitook over Madrid's former indoor October slot. As of 2011 six of the nine \"1000\" level tournaments are combined ATP andWTAevents. 500 and 250 series The third and fourth tier of men's tennis tournaments are formed by theATP 500 series, consisting of 11 tournaments, and theATP 250 serieswith 40 tournaments.Like theATP Masters 1000, these events offer various amounts of prize money and the numbers refer to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of a tournament.TheDubai Tennis Championshipsoffer the largest financial incentive to players, with total prize money of US$2,313,975 (2012).These series have various draws of 28, 32, 48 and 56 for singles and 16 and 24 for doubles. It is mandatory for leading players to enter at least four 500 events, including at least one after the US Open. Challenger Tour and Futures tournaments TheChallenger Tourfor men is the lowest level of tournament administered by theATP. It is composed of about 150 events and, as a result, features a more diverse range of countries hosting events.The majority of players use the Challenger Series at the beginning of their career to work their way up the rankings.Andre Agassi, between winning Grand Slam tournaments, plummeted to World No. 141 and used Challenger Series events for match experience and to progress back up the rankings.The Challenger Series offers prize funds of between US$25,000 and US$150,000. Below the Challenger Tour are the Futures tournaments, events on theITF Men's Circuit. These tournaments also contribute towards a player'sATP rankingspoints. Futures Tournaments offer prize funds of between US$10,000 and US$15,000.Approximately 530 Futures Tournaments are played each year. Women's tournament structure In 2021, the WTA rebranded, resembling the men's tournament series, and also providing extra simplicity for fans and consumers. The numbers do not indicate ranking points, or prize money, but is a system to help define different levels of women's tennis. WTA 1000 TheWTA 1000 Tournaments(formerly thePremierMandatory and Premier 5 Tournaments), are a series of seven tournaments that are part of the second-highest tier in women's tennis. 500 and 250 Series The third and fourth tier of women's tennis tournaments are formed from theWTA 500 Series(formerly Premier 700), with fifteen tournaments, and theWTA 250 Series(formerly International), consisting of thirty tournaments. WTA 125 TheWTA 125 Series(formerly 125K Series), is the lowest tier of women's tennis, with fourteen tournaments. Players Professional players Professional tennis players enjoy the same relative perks as most top sports personalities: clothing, equipment and endorsements. Like players of other individual sports such asgolf, they are not salaried, but must play and finish highly in tournaments to obtain prize money. In recent years,professional tennis players have been mocked by tabloids and fans for the involuntary or deliberate noise caused by players'grunting. This controversy has spurred the Grand Slam Committee, the International Tennis Association, and the Women's Tennis Association to teach players techniques to avoid grunting. Singles and doubles professional careers While players are gradually less competitive in singles by their late 20s and early 30s, they can still continue competitively in doubles (as instanced byMartina NavratilovaandJohn McEnroe, who won doubles titles in their 40s). In the Open Era, several female players such asMartina Navratilova,Margaret Court,Martina Hingis,Serena Williams, andVenus Williams(the latter two sisters playing together) have been prolific at both singles and doubles events throughout their careers.John McEnroeis one of the very few professional male players to be top ranked in both singles and doubles at the same time,andYevgeny Kafelnikovis the most recent male player to win multiple Grand Slams in both singles and doubles during the same period of his career. In terms of public attention and earnings (see below), singles champions have far surpassed their doubles counterparts. The Open Era, particularly the men's side, has seen many top-ranked singles players that only sparingly compete in doubles, while having \"doubles specialists\" who are typically being eliminated early in the singles draw but do well in the doubles portion of a tournament. Notable doubles pairings includeThe Woodies(Todd WoodbridgeandMark Woodforde) and theBryan brothers(identical twin brothersRobert Charles \"Bob\" BryanandMichael Carl \"Mike\" Bryan). Woodbridge has disliked the term \"doubles 'specialists'\", saying that he and Woodforde \"set a singles schedule and doubles fitted in around that\", although later in Woodbridge's career he focused exclusively on doubles as his singles ranking fell too low that it was no longer financially viable to recover at that age. Woodbridge noted that while top singles players earn enough that they do not need to nor want to play doubles, he suggested that lower-ranked singles players outside the Top Ten should play doubles to earn more playing time and money. Olympics The Olympics doubles tennis tournament necessitates that both members of a doubles pairing be from the same country, hence several top professional pairs such asJamie MurrayandBruno Soarescannot compete in the Olympics. Top-ranked singles players that are usually rivals on the professional circuit, such asBoris BeckerandMichael Stich, andRoger FedererandStan Wawrinkahave formed a rare doubles partnership for the Olympics. Unlike professional tennis tournaments (see below) where singles players receive much more prize money than doubles players, an Olympic medal for both singles and doubles has similar prestige. The Olympics is more of a priority for doubles champions while singles champions often skip the tournament.While the ATP has voted for Olympic results to count towards player ranking points, WTA players voted against it. For the2000 Olympics,Lisa Raymondwas passed over for Team USA in favour ofSerena Williamsby captainBillie Jean King, even though Raymond was the top-ranked doubles player in the world at the time, and Raymond unsuccessfully challenged the selection. Prize money In professional tennis tournaments such asWimbledon, the singles competition receives the most prize money and coverage, followed by doubles, and then mixed doubles usually receive the lowest monetary awards.For instance in theUS Openas of 2018, the men's and women's singles prize money (US$40,912,000) accounts for 80.9 percent of total player base compensation, while men's and women's doubles (US$6,140,840), men's and women's singles qualifying (US$3,008,000), and mixed doubles (US$505,000) account for 12.1 percent, 5.9 percent, and 1.0 percent, respectively. The singles winner receives US$3,800,000, while the doubles winning pair receives $700,000 and the mixed doubles winning pair receives US$155,000. Grand Slam tournament winners The following players have won at least five singles titles atGrand Slam tournaments(active players inbold): Greatest male players A frequent topic of discussion among tennis fans and commentators is who was the greatest male singles player of all time. By a large margin, anAssociated Presspoll in 1950 namedBill Tildenas the greatest player of the first half of the 20th century.From 1920 to 1930, Tilden won singles titles atWimbledonthree times and theUS Championshipsseven times. In 1938, however,Donald Budgebecame the first person to win all four major singles titles during the same calendar year, theGrand Slam, and won six consecutive major titles in 1937 and 1938. Tilden called Budge \"the finest player 365 days a year that ever lived.\"In his 1979 autobiography,Jack Kramersaid that, based on consistent play, Budge was the greatest player ever.Some observers, however, also felt that Kramer deserved consideration for the title. Kramer was among the few who dominated amateur and professional tennis during the late 1940s and early 1950s.Tony Traberthas said that of the players he saw before the start of theOpen Era, Kramer was the best male champion. By the 1960s, Budge and others had addedPancho GonzalesandLew Hoadto the list of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever.Gonzales said about Hoad, \"When Lew's game was at its peak nobody could touch him. ... I think his game was the best game ever. Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with the most natural tennis physique.\" Before and during the Open Era,Rod Laverremains the only male player in history to have won the calendar year Grand Slam twice in 1962 and 1969and also the calendar year Professional Grand Slam in 1967. Jimmy Connors,Björn Borg, andJohn McEnroehad a fierce rivalry in the late 1970s and early 1980s that propelled \"the men's game to new heights of popularity\".Connors had a long and prolific career and holds theOpen Era men's singles recordsof 109 titles including eight Grand Slams, 1,557 matches played, and 1,274 match wins. Borg was regarded by his contemporaries as among the greatest ever, having a calm court demeanor and unrivalled physical conditioning, winning six French Opens and five straight Wimbledon titles, retiring at age 26 when he was still in his prime. McEnroe attained the No. 1 ranking in bothsinglesanddoubles, finishing his career with 77 singles and 78 doubles titles; this remains thehighest men's combined totalof theOpen Era. TheAgassi–Sampras rivalryshowcased the two best players in the 1990s.Sampras had a precise and powerful serve while Agassi was considered to be one of the best service returners in the history of the game.By the early 2000s,Pete Samprashad won a then-record of 14 Grand Slam titles which was by far the most among his contemporaries. Sampras also held the record for most weeks at No. 1 with 286 until it was broken a decade later by Federer and Djokovic after that.Andre Agassi, was the first player to complete theCareer Grand Slamon all modern three surfaces (hard, grass, and clay courts) as previous winners of Grand Slam tournaments played in an era of grass and clay only (Rod Laver and Ken Rosewall also won majorPro tournamentson the three surfaces). Agassi also is the only player to win all four Grand Slam titles along with theyear-end championshipsand theolympics. Both Sampras and Agassi are regarded to be among the greatest players of all time. By the early twenty-first century, the 'Big Three' ofRoger Federer,Rafael NadalandNovak Djokovichave dominated men's singles tennis for two decades,collectively winning 66majorsingles tournaments; Djokovic with an all-time record 24 titles, Nadal with 22 and Federer with 20. They have been ranked asworld No. 1sin singles for a total 947 weeks (equivalent to 18 years); Djokovic for a record 428 weeks, Federer for 310, and Nadal for 209. Greatest female players As with the men there are frequent discussions about who is the greatest female singles player of all time withSteffi Graf,Martina NavratilovaandSerena Williamsbeing the three players most often nominated. In March 2012 the Tennis Channel published a combined list of the 100 greatest men and women tennis players of all time.It ranked Steffi Graf as the greatest female player (in 3rd place overall), followed byMartina Navratilova(4th place) andMargaret Court(8th place). The rankings were determined by an international panel. Sportswriter John Wertheim ofSports Illustratedstated in an article in July 2010 thatSerena Williamsis the greatest female tennis player ever with the argument that \"Head-to-head, on a neutral surface (i.e. hard courts), everyone at their best, I can't help feeling that she crushes the other legends.\".In a reaction to this article Yahoo sports blog Busted Racket published a list of the top-10 women's tennis players of all time placing Martina Navratilova in first spot.This top-10 list was similar to the one published in June 2008 by the Bleacher Report who also ranked Martina Navratilova as the top female player of all time. Steffi Graf is considered by some to be the greatest female player.Billie Jean Kingsaid in 1999, \"Steffi is definitely the greatest women's tennis player of all time.\"Martina Navratilovahas included Graf on her list of great players.In December 1999, Graf was named the greatest female tennis player of the 20th century by a panel of experts assembled by theAssociated Press.Tennis writer Steve Flink, in his bookThe Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century, named her as the best female player of the 20th century, directly followed by Martina Navratilova. Tennismagazine selected Martina Navratilova as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005.Tennis historian and journalistBud Collinshas called Navratilova \"arguably, the greatest player of all time.\"Billie Jean Kingsaid about Navratilova in 2006, \"She's the greatest singles, doubles and mixed doubles player who's ever lived.\" In 2018, aTennis.companel selected Serena Williams as thegreatest female tennis player in the Open Era.In May 2020, the Tennis Channel ranked Williams as the greatest female tennis player of all time. In November 2018, Tennis.com polled its readers to choose the greatest women's tennis player of all time and Graf came in first.In July 2020, The Guardian polled its readers to determine the greatest female tennis player of the past 50 years, and Graf was the clear favorite, picking up nearly twice as many votes as any other player. Officials In most professional play and some amateur competition, there is an officiating head judge or chairumpire(usually referred to simply as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations. The umpire may be assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball has landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults. There also may be a net judge who determines whether the ball has touched the net during service. The umpire has the right to overrule a line judge or a net judge if the umpire is sure that a clear mistake has been made. In past tournaments, line judges tasked with calling the serve were sometimes assisted byelectronic sensorsthat beeped to indicate an out-of-bounds serve; one such system was called \"Cyclops\".Cyclops has since largely been replaced by theHawk-Eyesystem.In professional tournaments using this system, players are allowed three unsuccessful appeals per set, plus one additional appeal in the tiebreak to challenge closeline callsby means of anelectronic review. TheUS Open,Miami Masters,US Open Series, andWorld Team Tennisstarted using this challenge system in 2006 and theAustralian OpenandWimbledonintroduced the system in 2007.In clay-court matches, such as at theFrench Open, a call may be questioned by reference to the mark left by the ball's impact on the court surface. The referee, who is usually located off the court, is the final authority about tennis rules. When called to the court by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change the umpire's decision on a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the court during play, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision. (This would only happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup matches, not at the World Group level, when a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair.) Junior tennis In tennis, a junior is a player under 18 who is still legally protected by a parent or guardian. Players on the main adult tour who are under 18 must have documents signed by a parent or guardian. These players, however, are still eligible to play in junior tournaments. TheInternational Tennis Federation(ITF) conducts a junior tour that allows juniors to establish a world ranking and anAssociation of Tennis Professionals(ATP) orWomen's Tennis Association(WTA) ranking. Most juniors who enter the international circuit do so by progressing through ITF, Satellite, Future, and Challenger tournaments before entering the main circuit. The latter three circuits also have adults competing in them. Some juniors, however, such as AustralianLleyton Hewittand FrenchmanGaël Monfils, have catapulted directly from the junior tour to the ATP tour by dominating the junior scene or by taking advantage of opportunities given to them to participate in professional tournaments. In 2004, the ITF implemented a new rankings scheme to encourage greater participation in doubles, by combining two rankings (singles and doubles) into one combined tally.Junior tournaments do not offerprize moneyexcept for theGrand Slam tournaments, which are the most prestigious junior events. Juniors may earn income from tennis by participating in the Future, Satellite, or Challenger tours. Tournaments are broken up into different tiers offering different amounts of ranking points, culminating with Grade A. Leading juniors are allowed to participate for their nation in theJunior Fed Cup and Davis Cupcompetitions. To succeed in tennis often means having to begin playing at a young age. To facilitate and nurture a junior's growth in tennis, almost all tennis playing nations have developed a junior development system. Juniors develop their play through a range of tournaments on all surfaces, accommodating all different standards of play. Talented juniors may also receive sponsorships from governing bodies or private institutions. Injuries Muscle strain is one of the most common injuries in tennis.When an isolated large-energy appears during the muscle contraction and at the same time body weight apply huge amount of pressure to the lengthened muscle,muscle straincan occur.Inflammation and bleeding are triggered when muscle strain occurs, which can result in redness, pain and swelling.Overuse is also common in tennis players of all levels.Muscle,cartilage,nerves,bursae,ligamentsandtendonsmay be damaged from overuse. The repetitive use of a particular muscle without time for repair and recovery is the most common cause of injury. In popular culture See also References Further reading External links","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis","Jordanne Whiley Jordanne Joyce WhileyMBE(born 11 June 1992) is a British retired wheelchair tennis player. Aged 14, she became Britain's youngest ever national women's singles champion inwheelchair tennis.She hasosteogenesis imperfectaas does her father,Keith, who was also a Paralympian and won a bronze medal in 1984 in New York.As well as the2015 US Openin wheelchair singles, Whiley has won 9 Grand Slam doubles titles, and she & JapaneseYui Kamijiare the fourth team in women's wheelchair doubles (as well as the most recent players) to complete theCalendar Year Grand Slam.Whiley was appointedMember of the Order of the British Empire(MBE) in the2015 Queens Birthday Honourslist for services to wheelchair tennis. Career Junior In 2006 at the age of 14 Whiley claimed her first senior main draw titles when she won the singles and doubles at the Cardiff Wheelchair Tennis tournament, also winning the girls title.At the end of 2006 Whiley had moved up from 112 to 48 in the rankings and had won junior titles in Poland and the Netherlands.Whiley won two awards at the British Wheelchair Tennis Association awards: Most improved female player and players' player of the year.Whiley created history in 2007 when she defeated Katharine Kruger in Tarbes. She became the first Briton to claim the Cruyff Foundation Wheelchair Juniors Masters title, Whiley also claimed the doubles title with Louise Hunt.Following on from the Masters success Whiley won her second senior title at the North West Challenge.Whiley followed this up by becoming the youngest national British Champion and winning the doubles title as well.Whiley then successfully defended her Cardiff wheelchair tennis tournament titles.In 2008 Whiley successfully defended her Masters titles; defeating Emmy Kaiser in the singles before partnering Hunt to back to back doubles titles.The following week Whiley claimed her first international title the Sion Indoor.Whiley then successfully defended both titles at the North West Challenge.She was named in the team for the 2008 Paralympic Games. Senior In 2012, she reached the finals of Women's wheelchair doubles at Wimbledon.She competed forGreat Britain at the 2012 Summer Paralympicswhere she shared a bronze withLucy Shukerinwomen's doubles.Whiley and Shuker won another bronze medal at the2016 Summer Paralympics, where Whiley was eliminated in the women's singles quarterfinals. Whiley and her partnerYui Kamijiof Japan achieved a calendar Grand Slam by winning the wheelchair doubles at the Australian Open (beating the Dutch pairMarjolein BuisandJiske Griffioen), the French Open, Wimbledon and the US Open (overcoming Griffioen and fellow DutchwomanAniek van Kootin all three finals). They finished the year by adding the Masters crown after defeating Louise Hunt and Katharina Kruger in the final. However, despite the absence of van Koot and Griffioen the pair did not go undefeated throughout the tournament as they lost to Marjolein Buis and Michaela Spaanstra during the round robin group stage. Whiley and Kamiji are four times doubles champions atWimbledon, and Whiley was 11 weeks pregnant when they won their 4th title, in 2017.Whiley did not participate at the Championships in 2018, after giving birth to her son, earlier that year. She planned a comeback in late 2018.In the 2020 season, she won the Australian Open and US Open doubles titles. In June 2021 she andLucy Shukerwere among six tennis players named to represent the UK at the postponed2020 Paralympicsin Tokyo.Shuker and Whiley won the silver medal in thewomen's doubles,with Whiley winning bronze in thewomen's singles. Grand Slam performance timelines Wheelchair singles Wheelchair doubles References External links","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Reid_(tennis","Alfie Hewett Alfie HewettOBE(born 6 December 1997 in Norwich, Norfolk) is a British professionalwheelchair tennisplayer.He is the current world No. 1 in both singles and doubles. He has won a total of 30 Grand Slam titles, with 9 singles and 21 doubles titles. Hewett is a 30-timemajorchampion, having won nine titles in singles and 21 in doubles, the latter all partneringGordon Reid. The pair completed theGrand Slamin 2021, becoming the first to do so in wheelchair men's doubles sinceStéphane Houdetin 2014. Hewett wonParalympicgold inmen's doublesat the2024 Summer Paralympics, and is a three-time silver medalist. He won theWheelchair Tennis Mastersin both singles and doubles in 2017, 2021 and 2023. Hewett was born with a congenital heart defect that required surgery at six months, and suffered fromLegg–Calvé–Perthes disease, a condition that inhibits blood flow from the pelvis to the hip joint. His ability to walk was severely impaired and from the age of six he has been a wheelchair user. Though able to walk, Hewett is not fully mobile in the conventional sense and cannot do able-bodied sports. Tennis career Hewett attendedAcle High Schooland went on to study Sport and Exercise Science atCity College Norwich. In July 2016 Hewett won the2016 Wimbledon Championships – Wheelchair men's doubles, alongsideGordon Reid, coming back from a set down to win against the French pairStéphane HoudetandNicolas Peifer. He won a silver medal in the men's singles event atRio 2016and silver in the doubles event with Reid, who beat him in the singles final. In May 2017 Hewett won his firstGrand Slamin singles at theFrench Open, beatingGustavo FernándezofArgentinain three sets, despite losing the first to love. In July 2017, in a repeat of the final a year earlier, Hewett won the2017 Wimbledon Championships – Wheelchair men's doubles, alongside Reid, winning in three sets against Houdet and Peifer. Hewett won the 2017NEC Wheelchair Tennis Mastersin Loughborough, UK. He ended 2017 ranked No 2 in the world, then a career-high. On 29 January 2018 Hewett became the world number 1. In March 2018 Hewett won his first Super Series singles title at the Cajun Classic in Baton Rouge, USA. On 2 September 2018 he claimed his second Super Series title at the US Open USTA Wheelchair Championships inSt. Louis. Later that month Hewett won the singles title at theUS Openas well as the doubles title with Reid. In September 2019 he successfully defended both his singles and, with Reid, doubles titles at the US Open. In 2020 Hewett won theFrench Opensingles title in three sets againstJoachim Gérardand partnered Reid to win all three available Grand Slam doubles titles at theAustralian Open, US Open and French Open, with the Wimbledon Championships cancelled due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. After winning a silver medal in themen's doubleswith Reid at the2020 Summer Paralympicsand losing the bronze medalsingles matchto Reid, world number 2Hewett spoke about his Paralympic future being \"out of his hands\",due to a review into whether his disability is severe enough to qualify him to play in a wheelchair under the 2019 revision ofInternational Tennis Federationrules.Hewett was allowed to continue his tennis career after an alteration to the new ITF rules in November 2021. Hewett was appointed Officer of theOrder of the British Empire(OBE) in the2023 Birthday Honoursfor services to tennis. Hewett kicked off 2024 by winning a fifth Australian Open doubles title in a row with Reid.In May 2024 Hewett was part of the Great Britain team which won the World Team Cup for a second successive year beating Spain 2-0 in the final of the event held in Turkey. It was the team's fourth win in the competition since 2015. Hewett and Reid won a fifth straightFrench Openin June with a 6-1 6-4 victory over second-seeded Japanese duo Takuya Miki and Tokito Oda in the final. At the2024 Wimbledon Championships, Hewett defeatedMartín de la Puentein the final, 6–2, 6–3, to complete the singlescareer Grand Slam.He and Reid also won doubles title, defeatingTakuya MikiandTokito Odain the final, 6–4, 7–6(7–2). Hewett won the doubles gold medal at the 2024 Summer Paralympics in Paris, France. He lost in Paralympic wheelchair tennis men's singles final. Career statistics Grand Slam performance timelines Wheelchair singles Wheelchair doubles Grand Slam tournament finals Wheelchair singles: 18 (9 titles, 9 runner-ups) Wheelchair doubles: 27 (21 titles, 6 runner-ups) References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Tennis Tennisis aracket sportthat is played either individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses atennis racketstrung with a cord to strike a hollow rubberballcovered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent'scourt. The object of the game is to manoeuvre the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player unable to return the ball validly will not gain apoint, while the opposite player will. Playable at all levels of society and at all ages, tennis can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, includingwheelchair users. The original forms of tennis developed inFranceduring the lateMiddle Ages.The modern form of tennis originated inBirmingham, England, in the late 19th century aslawn tennis.It had close connections to various field (lawn) games such ascroquetandbowlsas well as to the older racket sport today calledreal tennis. The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that until 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times,and the adoption of thetiebreakin the 1970s.A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point-challenge system, which allows a player to contest theline callof a point, a system known asHawk-Eye. Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is a popular worldwide spectator sport.The fourGrand Slamtournaments (also referred to as the majors) are especially popular and are considered the highest level of competition for the sport. These tournaments are theAustralian Open, played onhardcourts; theFrench Open, played on redclay courts;Wimbledon, played ongrass courts; and theUS Open, also played on hardcourts.Additionally, tennis was one of the originalOlympic sports, and has been consistently competed in theSummer Olympic Gamessince1988. History Predecessors Historians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in 12th-century northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm of the hand.Louis X of Francewas a keen player ofjeu de paume(\\\"game of the palm\\\"), which evolved intoreal tennis, and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris \\\"around the end of the 13th century\\\".In due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe.In June 1316 atVincennes, Val-de-Marne, and following a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of eitherpneumoniaorpleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning.Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player known by name.Another of the early enthusiasts of the game was KingCharles V of France, who had a court set up at theLouvre Palace. It was not until the 16th century thatracketscame into use and the game began to be called \\\"tennis\\\", from the French termtenez, which can be translated as \\\"hold!\\\", \\\"receive!\\\" or \\\"take!\\\", aninterjectionused as a call from the server to his opponent.It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors, where the ball could be hit off the wall.Henry VIII of Englandwas a big fan of this game, which is now known asreal tennis. An epitaph inSt Michael's Church, Coventry, writtenc.1705, read, in part: Here lyes an old toss'd Tennis Ball:Was racketted, from spring to fall,With so much heat and so much hast,Time's arm for shame grew tyred at last. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England. The invention of the firstlawn mowerin Britain in 1830 is believed to have been a catalyst for the preparation of modern-style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and others. Origins of the modern game Between 1859 and 1865,Harry Gem, a solicitor, and his friendAugurio Pereradeveloped a game that combined elements ofracquetsand the Basque ball gamepelota, which they played on Perera'scroquetlawn inBirmingham, England.In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis club on Avenue Road,Leamington Spa.This is where \\\"lawn tennis\\\" was used as the name of an activity by a club for the first time. InTennis: A Cultural History, Heiner Gillmeister reveals that on 8 December 1874, British army officerWalter Clopton Wingfieldwrote to Harry Gem, commenting that he (Wingfield) had been experimenting with his version of lawn tennis \\\"for a year and a half\\\".In December 1873, Wingfield designed and patented a game which he calledsphairistikè(Greek:σφαιριστική, meaning \\\"ball-playing\\\"), and which was soon known simply as \\\"sticky\\\" – for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his friend's estate ofNantclwyd Hall, inLlanelidan, Wales.According toR. D. C.Evans, turfgrassagronomist, \\\"Sports historians all agree that deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis.\\\"According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield \\\"popularized this game enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game – and most importantly you had his rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874.\\\"The world's oldest annual tennis tournament took place at Leamington Lawn Tennis Club in Birmingham in 1874.This was three years before theAll England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Clubwould hold its first championships at Wimbledon, in 1877. The first Championships culminated in a significant debate on how to standardise the rules. In the United States in 1874,Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned fromBermudawith asphairistikèset. She became fascinated by the game of tennis after watching British army officers play.She laid out a tennis court at theStaten Island Cricket Clubat Camp Washington,Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York. The first American National championship was played there in September 1880. An Englishman named O.E. Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100, by defeating CanadianI. F. Hellmuth.There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York. On 21 May 1881, the oldest nationwide tennis organization in the worldwas formed, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now theUnited States Tennis Association) in order to standardize the rules and organize competitions.The US National Men's Singles Championship, now theUS Open, was first held in 1881 at theNewport Casino,Newport, Rhode Island.The US National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 inPhiladelphia. Tennis also became popular in France, where theFrench Championshipsdate to 1891, although until 1925 they were open only to tennis players who were members of French clubs.Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open and theAustralian Open(dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis.Together, these four events are called the Majors orSlams(a term borrowed frombridgerather thanbaseball). In 1913, the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF), now theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF), was founded and established three official tournaments as the major championships of the day. TheWorld Grass Court Championshipswere awarded to Great Britain. TheWorld Hard Court Championshipswere awarded to France; the term \\\"hard court\\\" was used for clay courts at the time. Some tournaments were held in Belgium instead. And theWorld Covered Court Championshipsfor indoor courts were awarded annually; Sweden, France, Great Britain, Denmark, Switzerland and Spain each hosted the tournament.At a meeting held on 16 March 1923 in Paris, the title \\\"World Championship\\\" was dropped and a new category of \\\"Official Championship\\\" was created for events in Great Britain, France, the US and Australia– today's Grand Slam events.The impact on the four recipient nations to replace the \\\"world championships\\\" with \\\"official championships\\\" was simple in a general sense: each became a major nation of the federation with enhanced voting power, and each now operated a major event. The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the ILTF have remained largely stable in the ensuing 80 years, the one major change being the addition of thetiebreaksystem designed byJimmy Van Alen.That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the1924 Games, but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts of then ITF presidentPhilippe Chatrier, ITF general secretary David Gray and ITF vice president Pablo Llorens, with support fromInternational Olympic CommitteepresidentJuan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming, and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full-medal sport atSeoulin 1988. TheDavis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.The analogous competition for women's national teams, theFed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF. In 1926, promoterC. C. Pyleestablished the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.The most notable of these early professionals were the AmericanVinnie Richardsand the FrenchwomanSuzanne Lenglen.Playersturned prowould no longer be permitted to compete in the major (amateur) tournaments. In 1968, commercial pressures and rumours of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating theOpen Era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis.With the beginning of the Open Era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its middle-class English-speaking image(although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists). In 1954, Van Alen founded theInternational Tennis Hall of Fame, a nonprofit museum in Newport, Rhode Island.The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Equipment Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only aracketand balls. Rackets The components of a tennis racket include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and strings were ofanimal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power. Meanwhile, technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added durability. Under modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to the following guidelines; The rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches (81 cm) until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches (74 cm). Many companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are three of the most commonly used brands; however, many more companies exist.The same companies sponsor players to use these rackets in the hopes that the company name will become better known by the public. Strings There are multiple types of tennis strings, including natural gut and synthetic stings made from materials such asnylon,kevlar, orpolyester. Natural gut The first type of tennis strings available were natural gut strings, introduced by Babolat. They were the only type used until synthetic strings were introduced in the 1950s. Natural gut strings are still used frequently by players such as Roger Federer. They are made fromcowintestines, and provide increased power, and are easier on the arm than most strings. Synthetic Most synthetic strings are made from monofilament or multifiliament nylon strings. Monofilament strings are cheap to buy, and are used widely by many recreational level players for their all round performance, while multifilament strings are created to mimic natural gut more closely by weaving together fibres, but are generally more expensive than their monofilament counterparts.Polyester strings allow for more spin on the ball than any other string, due to their firm strings, while keeping control of the ball, and this is why many players use them, especially higher player ones.Kevlar tennis strings are highly durable, and are mostly used by players that frequently break strings, because they maintain tension well, but these strings can be stiff on the arm. Hybrid strings Hybrid stringing is when a tennis racket is strung with two different strings for the mains (the vertical strings) and the crosses (the horizontal strings). This is most commonly done with two different strings that are made of different materials, but can also be done with two different types of the same string. A notable example of a player using hybrid strings is Roger Federer, using natural gut strings in his mains and polyester strings in his crosses. Balls Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and stuffed with feathers.Modern tennis balls are made of hollowvulcanized rubberwith afeltcoating. Traditionally white, the predominant colour was gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight,deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as 65.41–68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 in). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 g (1.98 and 2.10 oz).Tennis balls were traditionally manufactured in the United States and Europe. Although the process of producing the balls has remained virtually unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of manufacturing now takes place in theFar East. The relocation is due to cheaperlabour costsand materials in the region.Tournaments that are played under the ITF Rules of Tennis must use balls that are approved by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and be named on the official ITF list of approved tennis balls. Manner of play Court Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78feet(23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (11 m) for doubles matches.Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by either a cord or metal cable of diameter no greater than0.8 cm (1⁄3in).The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.91 m) high in the centre.The net posts are 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side. The modern tennis court owes its design to MajorWalter Clopton Wingfield. In 1873, Wingfield patented a court much the same as the current one for hisstické tennis(sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with thehourglassshape of his court changed to a rectangle. Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces.Grass,clay, andhard courtsof concrete or asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood flooring having been historically used.Artificial turfcourts can also be found. Lines The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the centre of each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or the centre mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines; they are the boundaries for doubles matches. The lines to the inside of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines, and are the boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles alley, playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the centre of a player's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve. The line dividing the service line in two is called the centre line or centre service line. The boxes this centre line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player's position, they have to hit the ball into one of these when serving.A ball is out only if none of it has hit the area inside the lines, or the line, upon its first bounce. All lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (25 and 51 mm) in width, with the exception of the baseline which can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide, although in practice it is often the same width as the others. Play of a single point The players or teams start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated theserver, and the opposing player is thereceiver. The choice to be server or receiver in the first game and the choice of ends is decided by a coin toss before the warm-up starts. Service alternates game by game between the two players or teams. For each point, the server starts behind the baseline, between the centre mark and the sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server willserve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server. For a service to be legal, the ball must travel over the net without touching it into the diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is aletornet service, which is void, and the server retakes that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a \\\"foot fault\\\" when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the centre mark before the ball is hit. If the second service, after a fault, is also a fault, the serverdouble faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service. A legal service starts arally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of a player hitting the ball so that it falls in the server's court, before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel over or round the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is considered a legal return as long as it crosses into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point. Scoring Game, set, match Game Agameconsists of a sequence ofpointsplayed with the same player serving. A game is won by the first player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are described as \\\"love\\\", \\\"15\\\", \\\"30\\\", and \\\"40\\\", respectively. If at least three points have been scored by each player, making the player's scores equal at 40 apiece, the score is not called out as \\\"40–40\\\", but rather as \\\"deuce\\\". If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his opponent, the score of the game is \\\"advantage\\\" for the player in the lead. During informal games, advantage can also be called \\\"ad in\\\" or \\\"van in\\\" when the serving player is ahead, and \\\"ad out\\\" or \\\"van out\\\" when the receiving player is ahead; alternatively, either player may simply call out \\\"my ad\\\" or \\\"your ad\\\". The score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving player's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., \\\"15–love\\\") after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score. Set Asetconsists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game (tying the set 6–6) atiebreakis played. A tiebreak, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A tiebreak game can be won by scoring at least seven points and at least two points more than the opponent. In a tiebreak, two players serve by 'ABBA' system which has been proven to be fair.If a tiebreak is not played, the set is referred to as anadvantage set, where the set continues without limit until one player leads by a two-game margin. A \\\"love set\\\" means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a \\\"jam donut\\\" in the US.In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, e.g. \\\"6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5\\\". Match Amatchconsists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a best of three or fivesetssystem. On the professional circuit, men play best-of-five-set matches at all fourGrand Slamtournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of theOlympic Gamesand best-of-three-set matches at all other tournaments, while women play best-of-three-set matches at all tournaments. The first player to win two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the match.Only in the final sets of matches at the Olympic Games andFed Cupare tiebreaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player has a two-game lead, occasionally leading to someremarkably long matches. In tournament play, the chairumpireannounces the end of the match with the well-known phrase \\\"Game, set, match\\\" followed by the winning person's or team's name. Special point terms Game point Agame pointoccurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40–love, the player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play. Break point Abreak pointoccurs if the receiver, not theserver, has a chance to win the game with the next point. Break points are of particular importance becauseservingis generally considered advantageous, with servers being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver who has one (score of 30–40 or advantage), two (score of 15–40) or three (score of love–40) consecutive chances to win the game hasbreak point,double break pointortriple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to haveconvertedtheir break point. If the receiver fails to win their break point it is called afailure to convert.Winning break points, and thus the game, is also referred to asbreaking serve, as the receiver has disrupted, orbrokenthe natural advantage of the server. If in the following game the previous server also wins a break point it is referred to asbreaking back. Except wheretiebreaksapply, at least one break of serve is required to win a set (otherwise a two-game lead would never occur). Rule variations Another, however informal, tennis format is calledCanadian doubles. This involves three players, with one person playing against a doubles team. The single player gets to utilize the alleys normally reserved only for a doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as for a regular game. This format is not sanctioned by any official body. \\\"Australian doubles\\\", another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, is played with similar rules to theCanadian doublesstyle, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game, each player taking a turn at playing alone against the other two. As such, each player plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with the singles player always serving. Scoring styles vary, but one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break serve. Wheelchair tenniscan be played by able-bodied players as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility. An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and able-bodied matches. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair player and an able-bodied player (referred to as \\\"one-up, one-down\\\"), or for a wheelchair player to play against an able-bodied player. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the wheelchair users only. Match play Continuity A tennis match is intended to be continuous.Because stamina is a relevant factor, arbitrary delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point.This is increased to 90 seconds when the players change ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a 2-minute break is permitted between sets.Other than this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as rain, damaged footwear, damaged racket, or the need to retrieve an errant ball. Should a player be deemed to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire may initially give a warning followed by subsequent penalties of \\\"point\\\", \\\"game\\\", and default of the match for the player who is consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit. In the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and each player at the same end of the court as when rain halted play, or as close to the same relative compass point if play is resumed on a different court. Ball changes Balls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, inATPandWTAtournaments, they are changed after every nine games with the first change occurring after only seven games, because the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm-up.InITFtournaments likeFed Cup, the balls are changed after every eleven games (rather than nine) with the first change occurring after only nine games (instead of seven). An exception is that a ball change may not take place at the beginning of a tiebreaker, in which case the ball change is delayed until the beginning of the second game of the next set.As a courtesy to the receiver, the server will often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new balls are used as a reminder that they are using new balls. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain), then the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes. On-court coaching A recent rule change is to allow coaching on court on a limited basis during a match.This has been introduced in women's tennis forWTA Tourevents in 2009 and allows the player to request her coach once per set. Stance Stance refers to the way a player prepares themselves in order to best be able to return a shot. Essentially, it enables them to move quickly in order to achieve a particular stroke. There are four main stances in modern tennis: open, semi-open, closed, and neutral. All four stances involve the player crouching in some manner: as well as being a more efficient striking posture, it allows them toisometrically preloadtheir muscles in order to play the stroke more dynamically. What stance is selected is strongly influenced by shot selection. A player may quickly alter their stance depending on the circumstances and the type of shot they intend to play. Any given stance also alters dramatically based upon the actual playing of the shot with dynamic movements and shifts of body weight occurring. Open stance This is the most common stance in tennis. The player's feet are placed parallel to the net. They may be pointing sideways, directly at the net or diagonally towards it. This stance allows for a high degree of torso rotation which can add significant power to the stroke. This process is sometimes likened to the coiling and uncoiling of a spring. i.e. the torso is rotated as a means of preloading the muscular system in preparation for playing the stroke: this is the coiling phase. When the stroke is played the torso rotates to face forwards again, called uncoiling, and adds significant power to the stroke. A disadvantage of this stance is that it does not always allow ‘for proper weight transfer and maintenance of balance’when making powerful strokes. It is commonly used for forehand strokes; double-handed backhands can also be made effectively from it. Semi-open stance This stance is somewhere between open and closed and is a very flexible stance. The feet are aligned diagonally towards the net. It allows for a lot of shoulder rotation and the torso can be coiled, before being uncoiled into the shot in order to increase the power of the shot. It is commonly used in modern tennis especially by ‘top professional players on the forehand’.Two-handed backhands can also be employed from this stance. Closed stance The closed stance is the least commonly used of the three main stances. One foot is placed further towards the net with the other foot further from it; there is a diagonal alignment between the feet. It allows for effective torso rotation in order to increase the power of the shot. It is usually used to play backhand shots and it is rare to see forehand shots played from it. A stroke from this stance may entail the rear foot coming completely off the floor with bodyweight being transferred entirely to the front foot. Neutral stance This is sometimes also referred to as the square stance. One foot is positioned closer to the net and ahead of the other which is behind and in line with it. Both feet are aligned at a 90 degree angle to the net. The neutral stance is often taught early because ‘It allows beginners to learn about shifting weight and rotation of the body.’Forehands and backhands may be made from it. Shots Competent tennis players have eight basic shots in their repertoire: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley, half-volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob. Grip A grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots during a match. The grip affects the angle of the racket face when it hits the ball and influences the pace, spin, and placement of the shot. Players use various grips during play, including the Continental (The \\\"Handshake Grip\\\"), Eastern (either semi-eastern or full eastern, usually used for backhands), and Western (semi-western or full western, usually for forehand grips) grips. Most players change grips during a match depending on what shot they are hitting; for example, slice shots and serves call for a Continental grip. Serve A serve (or, more formally, a \\\"service\\\") in tennis is a shot to start a point. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it (usually near the apex of its trajectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without touching the net. The serve may be hit under- or overhand although underhand serving remains a rarity.If the ball hits the net on the first serve and bounces over into the correct diagonal box then it is called a \\\"let\\\" and the server gets two more additional serves to get it in. There can also be a let if the server serves the ball and the receiver isn't prepared.If the server misses his or her first serve and gets a let on the second serve, then they get one more try to get the serve in the box. Experienced players strive to master the conventional overhand serve to maximize its power and placement. The server may employ different types of serve including flat serve, topspin serve, slice serve, and kick (American twist) serve. A reverse type of spin serve is hit in a manner that spins the ball opposite the natural spin of the server, the spin direction depending upon right- or left-handedness. If the ball is spinning counterclockwise, it will curve right from the hitter's point of view and curve left if spinning clockwise. Some servers are content to use the serve simply to initiate the point; however, advanced players often try to hit a winning shot with their serve. A winning serve that is not touched by the opponent is called an \\\"ace\\\". Forehand For a right-handed player, the forehand is a stroke that begins on the right side of the body, continues across the body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body. There are variousgripsfor executing the forehand, and their popularity has fluctuated over the years. The most important ones are thecontinental, theeastern, thesemi-western, and thewestern. For a number of years, the small, frail 1920s playerBill Johnstonwas considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high using awesterngrip. Few top players used thewesterngrip after the 1920s, but in the latter part of the 20th century, as shot-making techniques and equipment changed radically, thewesternforehand made a strong comeback and is now used by many modern players. No matter which grip is used, most forehands are generally executed with one hand holding the racket, but there have been fine players with two-handed forehands. In the 1940s and 50s, the Ecuadorian/American playerPancho Seguraused a two-handed forehand to achieve a devastating effect against larger, more powerful players. Players such asMonica Selesor France'sFabrice SantoroandMarion Bartoliare also notable players known for their two-handed forehands. Backhand For right-handed players, the backhand is a stroke that begins on the left side of their body, continues across their body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the right side of their body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally considered more difficult to master than the forehand. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one hand, using either aneasternor acontinentalgrip. The first notable players to use two hands were the 1930s AustraliansVivian McGrathandJohn Bromwich, but they were lone exceptions. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s asBjörn Borg,Chris Evert,Jimmy Connors, and laterMats WilanderandMarat Safinused it to great effect, and it is now used by a large number of the world's best players, includingNovak Djokovic,Rafael NadalandSerena Williams. Two hands give the player more control, while one hand can generate a slice shot, applying backspin on the ball to produce a low trajectory bounce. Reach is also limited with the two-handed shot. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time,Don Budge, had a powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that imparted topspin onto the ball.Ken Rosewall, another player noted for his one-handed backhand, used a very accurate slice backhand through the 1950s and 1960s. A small number of players, notablyMonica Seles, use two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides. Other shots Avolleyis a shot returned to the opponent in mid-air before the ball bounces, generally performed near the net, and is usually made with a stiff-wristed punching motion to hit the ball into an open area of the opponent's court. Thehalf volleyis made by hitting the ball on the rise just after it has bounced, also generally in the vicinity of the net, and played with the racket close to the ground.Theswinging volleyis hit out of the air as the player approaches the net. It is an offensive shot used to take preparation time away from the opponent, as it returns the ball into the opponent's court much faster than a standard volley. From a poor defensive position on the baseline, thelobcan be used as either an offensive or defensive weapon, hitting the ball high and deep into the opponent's court to either enable the lobber to get into better defensive position or to win the point outright by hitting it over the opponent's head. If the lob is not hit deeply enough into the other court, however, an opponent near the net may then hit anoverhead smash, a hard, serve-like shot, to try to end the point. A difficult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob over the backhand side of a player. When the contact point is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand, most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball or sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand sky-hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful execution of any of these alternatives requires balance and timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play. If their opponent is deep in their court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpecteddrop shot, by softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to \\\"skid\\\" upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even backwards towards the net, thus making it even more difficult to return. Tournaments Tournaments are often organized by gender and number of players. Common tournament configurations include men's singles, women's singles, and doubles, where two players play on each side of the net. Tournaments may be organized for specific age groups, with upper age limits for youth and lower age limits for senior players. Example of this include theOrange BowlandLes Petits Asjunior tournaments. There are also tournaments for players with disabilities, such aswheelchair tennisand deaf tennis.In the fourGrand Slamtournaments, the singles draws are limited to 128 players for each gender. Most large tournamentsseedplayers, but players may also be matched by their skill level. According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a rating that is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. For example, theUnited States Tennis Associationadministers the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP), which rates players between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2 point increments. Average club players under this system would rate 3.0–4.5 while world class players would be 7.0 on this scale. Grand Slam tournaments The fourGrand Slamtournaments are considered to be the most prestigious tennis events in the world. They are held annually and comprise, in chronological order, theAustralian Open, theFrench Open,Wimbledon, and theUS Open. Apart from theOlympic Games,Davis Cup,Fed Cup, andHopman Cup, they are the only tournaments regulated by theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF).The ITF's national associations,Tennis Australia(Australian Open), theFédération Française de Tennis(French Open), theLawn Tennis Association(Wimbledon) and theUnited States Tennis Association(US Open) are delegated the responsibility to organize these events. Aside from the historical significance of these events, they also carry larger prize funds than any other tour event and are worth double the number of ranking points to the champion than in the next echelon of tournaments, theATP Masters 1000(men) andPremier events(women).Another distinguishing feature is the number of players in the singles draw. There are 128, more than any other professional tennis tournament. This draw is composed of 32 seeded players, other players ranked in the world's top 100, qualifiers, and players who receive invitations throughwild cards. Grand Slam men's tournaments have best-of-five set matches while the women play best-of-three. Grand Slam tournaments are among the small number of events that last two weeks, the others being theIndian Wells Mastersand theMiami Masters. Currently, the Grand Slam tournaments are the only tour events that havemixed doublescontests. Grand Slam tournaments are held in conjunction with wheelchair tennis tournaments andjunior tenniscompetitions. These tournaments also contain their own idiosyncrasies. For example, players at Wimbledon are required to wear predominantly white.Andre Agassichose to skip Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 citing the event's traditionalism, particularly its \\\"predominantly white\\\" dress code.Wimbledon has its own particular methods for disseminating tickets, often leading tennis fans to follow complex procedures to obtain tickets. Men's tournament structure Masters Series TheATP Masters 1000is a group of nine tournaments that form the second-highest echelon in men's tennis. Each event is held annually, and a win at one of these events is worth 1000 ranking points. When theATP, led byHamilton Jordan, began running the men's tour in 1990, the directors designated the top nine tournaments, outside of theGrand Slamevents, as \\\"Super 9\\\" events.In 2000 this became the Tennis Masters Series and in 2004 the ATP Masters Series. In November at the end of the tennis year, the world's top eight players compete in theATP Finals, a tournament with a rotating locale. It is currently held in Turin. In August 2007 the ATP announced major changes to the tour that were introduced in 2009. The Masters Series was renamed to the \\\"ATP Masters 1000\\\", the addition of the number 1000 referring to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of each tournament. Contrary to earlier plans, the number of tournaments was not reduced from nine to eight and theMonte-Carlo Mastersremains part of the series although, unlike the other events, it does not have a mandatory player commitment. TheHamburg Mastershas been downgraded to a 500-point event. TheMadrid Mastersmoved to May and onto clay courts, and a new tournament inShanghaitook over Madrid's former indoor October slot. As of 2011 six of the nine \\\"1000\\\" level tournaments are combined ATP andWTAevents. 500 and 250 series The third and fourth tier of men's tennis tournaments are formed by theATP 500 series, consisting of 11 tournaments, and theATP 250 serieswith 40 tournaments.Like theATP Masters 1000, these events offer various amounts of prize money and the numbers refer to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of a tournament.TheDubai Tennis Championshipsoffer the largest financial incentive to players, with total prize money of US$2,313,975 (2012).These series have various draws of 28, 32, 48 and 56 for singles and 16 and 24 for doubles. It is mandatory for leading players to enter at least four 500 events, including at least one after the US Open. Challenger Tour and Futures tournaments TheChallenger Tourfor men is the lowest level of tournament administered by theATP. It is composed of about 150 events and, as a result, features a more diverse range of countries hosting events.The majority of players use the Challenger Series at the beginning of their career to work their way up the rankings.Andre Agassi, between winning Grand Slam tournaments, plummeted to World No. 141 and used Challenger Series events for match experience and to progress back up the rankings.The Challenger Series offers prize funds of between US$25,000 and US$150,000. Below the Challenger Tour are the Futures tournaments, events on theITF Men's Circuit. These tournaments also contribute towards a player'sATP rankingspoints. Futures Tournaments offer prize funds of between US$10,000 and US$15,000.Approximately 530 Futures Tournaments are played each year. Women's tournament structure In 2021, the WTA rebranded, resembling the men's tournament series, and also providing extra simplicity for fans and consumers. The numbers do not indicate ranking points, or prize money, but is a system to help define different levels of women's tennis. WTA 1000 TheWTA 1000 Tournaments(formerly thePremierMandatory and Premier 5 Tournaments), are a series of seven tournaments that are part of the second-highest tier in women's tennis. 500 and 250 Series The third and fourth tier of women's tennis tournaments are formed from theWTA 500 Series(formerly Premier 700), with fifteen tournaments, and theWTA 250 Series(formerly International), consisting of thirty tournaments. WTA 125 TheWTA 125 Series(formerly 125K Series), is the lowest tier of women's tennis, with fourteen tournaments. Players Professional players Professional tennis players enjoy the same relative perks as most top sports personalities: clothing, equipment and endorsements. Like players of other individual sports such asgolf, they are not salaried, but must play and finish highly in tournaments to obtain prize money. In recent years,professional tennis players have been mocked by tabloids and fans for the involuntary or deliberate noise caused by players'grunting. This controversy has spurred the Grand Slam Committee, the International Tennis Association, and the Women's Tennis Association to teach players techniques to avoid grunting. Singles and doubles professional careers While players are gradually less competitive in singles by their late 20s and early 30s, they can still continue competitively in doubles (as instanced byMartina NavratilovaandJohn McEnroe, who won doubles titles in their 40s). In the Open Era, several female players such asMartina Navratilova,Margaret Court,Martina Hingis,Serena Williams, andVenus Williams(the latter two sisters playing together) have been prolific at both singles and doubles events throughout their careers.John McEnroeis one of the very few professional male players to be top ranked in both singles and doubles at the same time,andYevgeny Kafelnikovis the most recent male player to win multiple Grand Slams in both singles and doubles during the same period of his career. In terms of public attention and earnings (see below), singles champions have far surpassed their doubles counterparts. The Open Era, particularly the men's side, has seen many top-ranked singles players that only sparingly compete in doubles, while having \\\"doubles specialists\\\" who are typically being eliminated early in the singles draw but do well in the doubles portion of a tournament. Notable doubles pairings includeThe Woodies(Todd WoodbridgeandMark Woodforde) and theBryan brothers(identical twin brothersRobert Charles \\\"Bob\\\" BryanandMichael Carl \\\"Mike\\\" Bryan). Woodbridge has disliked the term \\\"doubles 'specialists'\\\", saying that he and Woodforde \\\"set a singles schedule and doubles fitted in around that\\\", although later in Woodbridge's career he focused exclusively on doubles as his singles ranking fell too low that it was no longer financially viable to recover at that age. Woodbridge noted that while top singles players earn enough that they do not need to nor want to play doubles, he suggested that lower-ranked singles players outside the Top Ten should play doubles to earn more playing time and money. Olympics The Olympics doubles tennis tournament necessitates that both members of a doubles pairing be from the same country, hence several top professional pairs such asJamie MurrayandBruno Soarescannot compete in the Olympics. Top-ranked singles players that are usually rivals on the professional circuit, such asBoris BeckerandMichael Stich, andRoger FedererandStan Wawrinkahave formed a rare doubles partnership for the Olympics. Unlike professional tennis tournaments (see below) where singles players receive much more prize money than doubles players, an Olympic medal for both singles and doubles has similar prestige. The Olympics is more of a priority for doubles champions while singles champions often skip the tournament.While the ATP has voted for Olympic results to count towards player ranking points, WTA players voted against it. For the2000 Olympics,Lisa Raymondwas passed over for Team USA in favour ofSerena Williamsby captainBillie Jean King, even though Raymond was the top-ranked doubles player in the world at the time, and Raymond unsuccessfully challenged the selection. Prize money In professional tennis tournaments such asWimbledon, the singles competition receives the most prize money and coverage, followed by doubles, and then mixed doubles usually receive the lowest monetary awards.For instance in theUS Openas of 2018, the men's and women's singles prize money (US$40,912,000) accounts for 80.9 percent of total player base compensation, while men's and women's doubles (US$6,140,840), men's and women's singles qualifying (US$3,008,000), and mixed doubles (US$505,000) account for 12.1 percent, 5.9 percent, and 1.0 percent, respectively. The singles winner receives US$3,800,000, while the doubles winning pair receives $700,000 and the mixed doubles winning pair receives US$155,000. Grand Slam tournament winners The following players have won at least five singles titles atGrand Slam tournaments(active players inbold): Greatest male players A frequent topic of discussion among tennis fans and commentators is who was the greatest male singles player of all time. By a large margin, anAssociated Presspoll in 1950 namedBill Tildenas the greatest player of the first half of the 20th century.From 1920 to 1930, Tilden won singles titles atWimbledonthree times and theUS Championshipsseven times. In 1938, however,Donald Budgebecame the first person to win all four major singles titles during the same calendar year, theGrand Slam, and won six consecutive major titles in 1937 and 1938. Tilden called Budge \\\"the finest player 365 days a year that ever lived.\\\"In his 1979 autobiography,Jack Kramersaid that, based on consistent play, Budge was the greatest player ever.Some observers, however, also felt that Kramer deserved consideration for the title. Kramer was among the few who dominated amateur and professional tennis during the late 1940s and early 1950s.Tony Traberthas said that of the players he saw before the start of theOpen Era, Kramer was the best male champion. By the 1960s, Budge and others had addedPancho GonzalesandLew Hoadto the list of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever.Gonzales said about Hoad, \\\"When Lew's game was at its peak nobody could touch him. ... I think his game was the best game ever. Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with the most natural tennis physique.\\\" Before and during the Open Era,Rod Laverremains the only male player in history to have won the calendar year Grand Slam twice in 1962 and 1969and also the calendar year Professional Grand Slam in 1967. Jimmy Connors,Björn Borg, andJohn McEnroehad a fierce rivalry in the late 1970s and early 1980s that propelled \\\"the men's game to new heights of popularity\\\".Connors had a long and prolific career and holds theOpen Era men's singles recordsof 109 titles including eight Grand Slams, 1,557 matches played, and 1,274 match wins. Borg was regarded by his contemporaries as among the greatest ever, having a calm court demeanor and unrivalled physical conditioning, winning six French Opens and five straight Wimbledon titles, retiring at age 26 when he was still in his prime. McEnroe attained the No. 1 ranking in bothsinglesanddoubles, finishing his career with 77 singles and 78 doubles titles; this remains thehighest men's combined totalof theOpen Era. TheAgassi–Sampras rivalryshowcased the two best players in the 1990s.Sampras had a precise and powerful serve while Agassi was considered to be one of the best service returners in the history of the game.By the early 2000s,Pete Samprashad won a then-record of 14 Grand Slam titles which was by far the most among his contemporaries. Sampras also held the record for most weeks at No. 1 with 286 until it was broken a decade later by Federer and Djokovic after that.Andre Agassi, was the first player to complete theCareer Grand Slamon all modern three surfaces (hard, grass, and clay courts) as previous winners of Grand Slam tournaments played in an era of grass and clay only (Rod Laver and Ken Rosewall also won majorPro tournamentson the three surfaces). Agassi also is the only player to win all four Grand Slam titles along with theyear-end championshipsand theolympics. Both Sampras and Agassi are regarded to be among the greatest players of all time. By the early twenty-first century, the 'Big Three' ofRoger Federer,Rafael NadalandNovak Djokovichave dominated men's singles tennis for two decades,collectively winning 66majorsingles tournaments; Djokovic with an all-time record 24 titles, Nadal with 22 and Federer with 20. They have been ranked asworld No. 1sin singles for a total 947 weeks (equivalent to 18 years); Djokovic for a record 428 weeks, Federer for 310, and Nadal for 209. Greatest female players As with the men there are frequent discussions about who is the greatest female singles player of all time withSteffi Graf,Martina NavratilovaandSerena Williamsbeing the three players most often nominated. In March 2012 the Tennis Channel published a combined list of the 100 greatest men and women tennis players of all time.It ranked Steffi Graf as the greatest female player (in 3rd place overall), followed byMartina Navratilova(4th place) andMargaret Court(8th place). The rankings were determined by an international panel. Sportswriter John Wertheim ofSports Illustratedstated in an article in July 2010 thatSerena Williamsis the greatest female tennis player ever with the argument that \\\"Head-to-head, on a neutral surface (i.e. hard courts), everyone at their best, I can't help feeling that she crushes the other legends.\\\".In a reaction to this article Yahoo sports blog Busted Racket published a list of the top-10 women's tennis players of all time placing Martina Navratilova in first spot.This top-10 list was similar to the one published in June 2008 by the Bleacher Report who also ranked Martina Navratilova as the top female player of all time. Steffi Graf is considered by some to be the greatest female player.Billie Jean Kingsaid in 1999, \\\"Steffi is definitely the greatest women's tennis player of all time.\\\"Martina Navratilovahas included Graf on her list of great players.In December 1999, Graf was named the greatest female tennis player of the 20th century by a panel of experts assembled by theAssociated Press.Tennis writer Steve Flink, in his bookThe Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century, named her as the best female player of the 20th century, directly followed by Martina Navratilova. Tennismagazine selected Martina Navratilova as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005.Tennis historian and journalistBud Collinshas called Navratilova \\\"arguably, the greatest player of all time.\\\"Billie Jean Kingsaid about Navratilova in 2006, \\\"She's the greatest singles, doubles and mixed doubles player who's ever lived.\\\" In 2018, aTennis.companel selected Serena Williams as thegreatest female tennis player in the Open Era.In May 2020, the Tennis Channel ranked Williams as the greatest female tennis player of all time. In November 2018, Tennis.com polled its readers to choose the greatest women's tennis player of all time and Graf came in first.In July 2020, The Guardian polled its readers to determine the greatest female tennis player of the past 50 years, and Graf was the clear favorite, picking up nearly twice as many votes as any other player. Officials In most professional play and some amateur competition, there is an officiating head judge or chairumpire(usually referred to simply as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations. The umpire may be assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball has landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults. There also may be a net judge who determines whether the ball has touched the net during service. The umpire has the right to overrule a line judge or a net judge if the umpire is sure that a clear mistake has been made. In past tournaments, line judges tasked with calling the serve were sometimes assisted byelectronic sensorsthat beeped to indicate an out-of-bounds serve; one such system was called \\\"Cyclops\\\".Cyclops has since largely been replaced by theHawk-Eyesystem.In professional tournaments using this system, players are allowed three unsuccessful appeals per set, plus one additional appeal in the tiebreak to challenge closeline callsby means of anelectronic review. TheUS Open,Miami Masters,US Open Series, andWorld Team Tennisstarted using this challenge system in 2006 and theAustralian OpenandWimbledonintroduced the system in 2007.In clay-court matches, such as at theFrench Open, a call may be questioned by reference to the mark left by the ball's impact on the court surface. The referee, who is usually located off the court, is the final authority about tennis rules. When called to the court by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change the umpire's decision on a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the court during play, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision. (This would only happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup matches, not at the World Group level, when a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair.) Junior tennis In tennis, a junior is a player under 18 who is still legally protected by a parent or guardian. Players on the main adult tour who are under 18 must have documents signed by a parent or guardian. These players, however, are still eligible to play in junior tournaments. TheInternational Tennis Federation(ITF) conducts a junior tour that allows juniors to establish a world ranking and anAssociation of Tennis Professionals(ATP) orWomen's Tennis Association(WTA) ranking. Most juniors who enter the international circuit do so by progressing through ITF, Satellite, Future, and Challenger tournaments before entering the main circuit. The latter three circuits also have adults competing in them. Some juniors, however, such as AustralianLleyton Hewittand FrenchmanGaël Monfils, have catapulted directly from the junior tour to the ATP tour by dominating the junior scene or by taking advantage of opportunities given to them to participate in professional tournaments. In 2004, the ITF implemented a new rankings scheme to encourage greater participation in doubles, by combining two rankings (singles and doubles) into one combined tally.Junior tournaments do not offerprize moneyexcept for theGrand Slam tournaments, which are the most prestigious junior events. Juniors may earn income from tennis by participating in the Future, Satellite, or Challenger tours. Tournaments are broken up into different tiers offering different amounts of ranking points, culminating with Grade A. Leading juniors are allowed to participate for their nation in theJunior Fed Cup and Davis Cupcompetitions. To succeed in tennis often means having to begin playing at a young age. To facilitate and nurture a junior's growth in tennis, almost all tennis playing nations have developed a junior development system. Juniors develop their play through a range of tournaments on all surfaces, accommodating all different standards of play. Talented juniors may also receive sponsorships from governing bodies or private institutions. Injuries Muscle strain is one of the most common injuries in tennis.When an isolated large-energy appears during the muscle contraction and at the same time body weight apply huge amount of pressure to the lengthened muscle,muscle straincan occur.Inflammation and bleeding are triggered when muscle strain occurs, which can result in redness, pain and swelling.Overuse is also common in tennis players of all levels.Muscle,cartilage,nerves,bursae,ligamentsandtendonsmay be damaged from overuse. The repetitive use of a particular muscle without time for repair and recovery is the most common cause of injury. In popular culture See also References Further reading External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis\",\n \"Jordanne Whiley Jordanne Joyce WhileyMBE(born 11 June 1992) is a British retired wheelchair tennis player. Aged 14, she became Britain's youngest ever national women's singles champion inwheelchair tennis.She hasosteogenesis imperfectaas does her father,Keith, who was also a Paralympian and won a bronze medal in 1984 in New York.As well as the2015 US Openin wheelchair singles, Whiley has won 9 Grand Slam doubles titles, and she & JapaneseYui Kamijiare the fourth team in women's wheelchair doubles (as well as the most recent players) to complete theCalendar Year Grand Slam.Whiley was appointedMember of the Order of the British Empire(MBE) in the2015 Queens Birthday Honourslist for services to wheelchair tennis. Career Junior In 2006 at the age of 14 Whiley claimed her first senior main draw titles when she won the singles and doubles at the Cardiff Wheelchair Tennis tournament, also winning the girls title.At the end of 2006 Whiley had moved up from 112 to 48 in the rankings and had won junior titles in Poland and the Netherlands.Whiley won two awards at the British Wheelchair Tennis Association awards: Most improved female player and players' player of the year.Whiley created history in 2007 when she defeated Katharine Kruger in Tarbes. She became the first Briton to claim the Cruyff Foundation Wheelchair Juniors Masters title, Whiley also claimed the doubles title with Louise Hunt.Following on from the Masters success Whiley won her second senior title at the North West Challenge.Whiley followed this up by becoming the youngest national British Champion and winning the doubles title as well.Whiley then successfully defended her Cardiff wheelchair tennis tournament titles.In 2008 Whiley successfully defended her Masters titles; defeating Emmy Kaiser in the singles before partnering Hunt to back to back doubles titles.The following week Whiley claimed her first international title the Sion Indoor.Whiley then successfully defended both titles at the North West Challenge.She was named in the team for the 2008 Paralympic Games. Senior In 2012, she reached the finals of Women's wheelchair doubles at Wimbledon.She competed forGreat Britain at the 2012 Summer Paralympicswhere she shared a bronze withLucy Shukerinwomen's doubles.Whiley and Shuker won another bronze medal at the2016 Summer Paralympics, where Whiley was eliminated in the women's singles quarterfinals. Whiley and her partnerYui Kamijiof Japan achieved a calendar Grand Slam by winning the wheelchair doubles at the Australian Open (beating the Dutch pairMarjolein BuisandJiske Griffioen), the French Open, Wimbledon and the US Open (overcoming Griffioen and fellow DutchwomanAniek van Kootin all three finals). They finished the year by adding the Masters crown after defeating Louise Hunt and Katharina Kruger in the final. However, despite the absence of van Koot and Griffioen the pair did not go undefeated throughout the tournament as they lost to Marjolein Buis and Michaela Spaanstra during the round robin group stage. Whiley and Kamiji are four times doubles champions atWimbledon, and Whiley was 11 weeks pregnant when they won their 4th title, in 2017.Whiley did not participate at the Championships in 2018, after giving birth to her son, earlier that year. She planned a comeback in late 2018.In the 2020 season, she won the Australian Open and US Open doubles titles. In June 2021 she andLucy Shukerwere among six tennis players named to represent the UK at the postponed2020 Paralympicsin Tokyo.Shuker and Whiley won the silver medal in thewomen's doubles,with Whiley winning bronze in thewomen's singles. Grand Slam performance timelines Wheelchair singles Wheelchair doubles References External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Reid_(tennis\",\n \"Alfie Hewett Alfie HewettOBE(born 6 December 1997 in Norwich, Norfolk) is a British professionalwheelchair tennisplayer.He is the current world No. 1 in both singles and doubles. He has won a total of 30 Grand Slam titles, with 9 singles and 21 doubles titles. Hewett is a 30-timemajorchampion, having won nine titles in singles and 21 in doubles, the latter all partneringGordon Reid. The pair completed theGrand Slamin 2021, becoming the first to do so in wheelchair men's doubles sinceStéphane Houdetin 2014. Hewett wonParalympicgold inmen's doublesat the2024 Summer Paralympics, and is a three-time silver medalist. He won theWheelchair Tennis Mastersin both singles and doubles in 2017, 2021 and 2023. Hewett was born with a congenital heart defect that required surgery at six months, and suffered fromLegg–Calvé–Perthes disease, a condition that inhibits blood flow from the pelvis to the hip joint. His ability to walk was severely impaired and from the age of six he has been a wheelchair user. Though able to walk, Hewett is not fully mobile in the conventional sense and cannot do able-bodied sports. Tennis career Hewett attendedAcle High Schooland went on to study Sport and Exercise Science atCity College Norwich. In July 2016 Hewett won the2016 Wimbledon Championships – Wheelchair men's doubles, alongsideGordon Reid, coming back from a set down to win against the French pairStéphane HoudetandNicolas Peifer. He won a silver medal in the men's singles event atRio 2016and silver in the doubles event with Reid, who beat him in the singles final. In May 2017 Hewett won his firstGrand Slamin singles at theFrench Open, beatingGustavo FernándezofArgentinain three sets, despite losing the first to love. In July 2017, in a repeat of the final a year earlier, Hewett won the2017 Wimbledon Championships – Wheelchair men's doubles, alongside Reid, winning in three sets against Houdet and Peifer. Hewett won the 2017NEC Wheelchair Tennis Mastersin Loughborough, UK. He ended 2017 ranked No 2 in the world, then a career-high. On 29 January 2018 Hewett became the world number 1. In March 2018 Hewett won his first Super Series singles title at the Cajun Classic in Baton Rouge, USA. On 2 September 2018 he claimed his second Super Series title at the US Open USTA Wheelchair Championships inSt. Louis. Later that month Hewett won the singles title at theUS Openas well as the doubles title with Reid. In September 2019 he successfully defended both his singles and, with Reid, doubles titles at the US Open. In 2020 Hewett won theFrench Opensingles title in three sets againstJoachim Gérardand partnered Reid to win all three available Grand Slam doubles titles at theAustralian Open, US Open and French Open, with the Wimbledon Championships cancelled due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. After winning a silver medal in themen's doubleswith Reid at the2020 Summer Paralympicsand losing the bronze medalsingles matchto Reid, world number 2Hewett spoke about his Paralympic future being \\\"out of his hands\\\",due to a review into whether his disability is severe enough to qualify him to play in a wheelchair under the 2019 revision ofInternational Tennis Federationrules.Hewett was allowed to continue his tennis career after an alteration to the new ITF rules in November 2021. Hewett was appointed Officer of theOrder of the British Empire(OBE) in the2023 Birthday Honoursfor services to tennis. Hewett kicked off 2024 by winning a fifth Australian Open doubles title in a row with Reid.In May 2024 Hewett was part of the Great Britain team which won the World Team Cup for a second successive year beating Spain 2-0 in the final of the event held in Turkey. It was the team's fourth win in the competition since 2015. Hewett and Reid won a fifth straightFrench Openin June with a 6-1 6-4 victory over second-seeded Japanese duo Takuya Miki and Tokito Oda in the final. At the2024 Wimbledon Championships, Hewett defeatedMartín de la Puentein the final, 6–2, 6–3, to complete the singlescareer Grand Slam.He and Reid also won doubles title, defeatingTakuya MikiandTokito Odain the final, 6–4, 7–6(7–2). Hewett won the doubles gold medal at the 2024 Summer Paralympics in Paris, France. He lost in Paralympic wheelchair tennis men's singles final. Career statistics Grand Slam performance timelines Wheelchair singles Wheelchair doubles Grand Slam tournament finals Wheelchair singles: 18 (9 titles, 9 runner-ups) Wheelchair doubles: 27 (21 titles, 6 runner-ups) References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Tennis Tennisis aracket sportthat is played either individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses atennis racketstrung with a cord to strike a hollow rubberballcovered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent'scourt. The object of the game is to manoeuvre the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player unable to return the ball validly will not gain apoint, while the opposite player will. Playable at all levels of society and at all ages, tennis can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, includingwheelchair users. The original forms of tennis developed inFranceduring the lateMiddle Ages.The modern form of tennis originated inBirmingham, England, in the late 19th century aslawn tennis.It had close connections to various field (lawn) games such ascroquetandbowlsas well as to the older racket sport today calledreal tennis. The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the 1890s.","since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that until 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times,and the adoption of thetiebreakin the 1970s.A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point-challenge system, which allows a player to contest theline callof a point, a system known asHawk-Eye. Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is a popular worldwide spectator sport.The fourGrand Slamtournaments (also referred to as the majors) are especially popular and are considered the highest level of competition for the sport. These tournaments are theAustralian Open, played onhardcourts; theFrench Open, played on redclay courts;Wimbledon, played ongrass courts; and theUS Open, also played on hardcourts.Additionally, tennis was one of the originalOlympic sports, and has been consistently competed in theSummer Olympic Gamessince1988. History Predecessors Historians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in","origin lay in 12th-century northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm of the hand.Louis X of Francewas a keen player ofjeu de paume(\"game of the palm\"), which evolved intoreal tennis, and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris \"around the end of the 13th century\".In due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe.In June 1316 atVincennes, Val-de-Marne, and following a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of eitherpneumoniaorpleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning.Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player known by name.Another of the early enthusiasts of the game was KingCharles V of France, who had a court set up at theLouvre Palace. It was not until the 16th century thatracketscame into use and the","into use and the game began to be called \"tennis\", from the French termtenez, which can be translated as \"hold!\", \"receive!\" or \"take!\", aninterjectionused as a call from the server to his opponent.It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors, where the ball could be hit off the wall.Henry VIII of Englandwas a big fan of this game, which is now known asreal tennis. An epitaph inSt Michael's Church, Coventry, writtenc.1705, read, in part: Here lyes an old toss'd Tennis Ball:Was racketted, from spring to fall,With so much heat and so much hast,Time's arm for shame grew tyred at last. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England. The invention of the firstlawn mowerin Britain in 1830 is believed to have been a catalyst for the preparation of modern-style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most","lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and others. Origins of the modern game Between 1859 and 1865,Harry Gem, a solicitor, and his friendAugurio Pereradeveloped a game that combined elements ofracquetsand the Basque ball gamepelota, which they played on Perera'scroquetlawn inBirmingham, England.In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis club on Avenue Road,Leamington Spa.This is where \"lawn tennis\" was used as the name of an activity by a club for the first time. InTennis: A Cultural History, Heiner Gillmeister reveals that on 8 December 1874, British army officerWalter Clopton Wingfieldwrote to Harry Gem, commenting that he (Wingfield) had been experimenting with his version of lawn tennis \"for a year and a half\".In December 1873, Wingfield designed and patented a game which he calledsphairistikè(Greek:σφαιριστική, meaning \"ball-playing\"), and which was soon known simply as \"sticky\" – for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his friend's estate ofNantclwyd","estate ofNantclwyd Hall, inLlanelidan, Wales.According toR. D. C.Evans, turfgrassagronomist, \"Sports historians all agree that deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis.\"According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield \"popularized this game enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game – and most importantly you had his rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874.\"The world's oldest annual tennis tournament took place at Leamington Lawn Tennis Club in Birmingham in 1874.This was three years before theAll England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Clubwould hold its first championships at Wimbledon, in 1877. The first Championships culminated in a significant debate on how to standardise the rules. In the United States in","United States in 1874,Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned fromBermudawith asphairistikèset. She became fascinated by the game of tennis after watching British army officers play.She laid out a tennis court at theStaten Island Cricket Clubat Camp Washington,Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York. The first American National championship was played there in September 1880. An Englishman named O.E. Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100, by defeating CanadianI. F. Hellmuth.There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York. On 21 May 1881, the oldest nationwide tennis organization in the worldwas formed, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now theUnited States Tennis Association) in order to standardize the rules and organize competitions.The US National Men's Singles Championship, now theUS Open, was first held in 1881 at theNewport","1881 at theNewport Casino,Newport, Rhode Island.The US National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 inPhiladelphia. Tennis also became popular in France, where theFrench Championshipsdate to 1891, although until 1925 they were open only to tennis players who were members of French clubs.Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open and theAustralian Open(dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis.Together, these four events are called the Majors orSlams(a term borrowed frombridgerather thanbaseball). In 1913, the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF), now theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF), was founded and established three official tournaments as the major championships of the day. TheWorld Grass Court Championshipswere awarded to Great Britain. TheWorld Hard Court Championshipswere awarded to France; the term \"hard court\" was used for clay courts at the time. Some tournaments were held in Belgium instead. And theWorld Covered Court","Covered Court Championshipsfor indoor courts were awarded annually; Sweden, France, Great Britain, Denmark, Switzerland and Spain each hosted the tournament.At a meeting held on 16 March 1923 in Paris, the title \"World Championship\" was dropped and a new category of \"Official Championship\" was created for events in Great Britain, France, the US and Australia– today's Grand Slam events.The impact on the four recipient nations to replace the \"world championships\" with \"official championships\" was simple in a general sense: each became a major nation of the federation with enhanced voting power, and each now operated a major event. The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the ILTF have remained largely stable in the ensuing 80 years, the one major change being the addition of thetiebreaksystem designed byJimmy Van Alen.That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the1924 Games, but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the","was credited by the efforts of then ITF presidentPhilippe Chatrier, ITF general secretary David Gray and ITF vice president Pablo Llorens, with support fromInternational Olympic CommitteepresidentJuan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming, and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full-medal sport atSeoulin 1988. TheDavis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.The analogous competition for women's national teams, theFed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF. In 1926, promoterC. C. Pyleestablished the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.The most notable of these early professionals were the AmericanVinnie Richardsand the FrenchwomanSuzanne Lenglen.Playersturned prowould no longer be permitted to compete in the major (amateur) tournaments. In 1968, commercial pressures and rumours of some","and rumours of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating theOpen Era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis.With the beginning of the Open Era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its middle-class English-speaking image(although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists). In 1954, Van Alen founded theInternational Tennis Hall of Fame, a nonprofit museum in Newport, Rhode Island.The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Equipment Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only aracketand balls. Rackets The components of a tennis racket include a","racket include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and strings were ofanimal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power. Meanwhile, technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added durability. Under modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to the following guidelines; The rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches (81 cm) until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches (74 cm). Many","(74 cm). Many companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are three of the most commonly used brands; however, many more companies exist.The same companies sponsor players to use these rackets in the hopes that the company name will become better known by the public. Strings There are multiple types of tennis strings, including natural gut and synthetic stings made from materials such asnylon,kevlar, orpolyester. Natural gut The first type of tennis strings available were natural gut strings, introduced by Babolat. They were the only type used until synthetic strings were introduced in the 1950s. Natural gut strings are still used frequently by players such as Roger Federer. They are made fromcowintestines, and provide increased power, and are easier on the arm than most strings. Synthetic Most synthetic strings are made from monofilament or multifiliament nylon strings. Monofilament strings are cheap to buy, and are used widely by many recreational level players for their","players for their all round performance, while multifilament strings are created to mimic natural gut more closely by weaving together fibres, but are generally more expensive than their monofilament counterparts.Polyester strings allow for more spin on the ball than any other string, due to their firm strings, while keeping control of the ball, and this is why many players use them, especially higher player ones.Kevlar tennis strings are highly durable, and are mostly used by players that frequently break strings, because they maintain tension well, but these strings can be stiff on the arm. Hybrid strings Hybrid stringing is when a tennis racket is strung with two different strings for the mains (the vertical strings) and the crosses (the horizontal strings). This is most commonly done with two different strings that are made of different materials, but can also be done with two different types of the same string. A notable example of a player using hybrid strings is Roger Federer, using natural gut","using natural gut strings in his mains and polyester strings in his crosses. Balls Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and stuffed with feathers.Modern tennis balls are made of hollowvulcanized rubberwith afeltcoating. Traditionally white, the predominant colour was gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight,deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as 65.41–68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 in). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 g (1.98 and 2.10 oz).Tennis balls were traditionally manufactured in the United States and Europe. Although the process of producing the balls has remained virtually unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of manufacturing now takes place in theFar East. The relocation is due to cheaperlabour costsand materials in the","materials in the region.Tournaments that are played under the ITF Rules of Tennis must use balls that are approved by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and be named on the official ITF list of approved tennis balls. Manner of play Court Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78feet(23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (11 m) for doubles matches.Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by either a cord or metal cable of diameter no greater than0.8 cm (1⁄3in).The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.91 m) high in the centre.The net posts are 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side. The modern tennis court owes its design to MajorWalter Clopton","MajorWalter Clopton Wingfield. In 1873, Wingfield patented a court much the same as the current one for hisstické tennis(sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with thehourglassshape of his court changed to a rectangle. Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces.Grass,clay, andhard courtsof concrete or asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood flooring having been historically used.Artificial turfcourts can also be found. Lines The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the centre of each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or the centre mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines; they are the boundaries for doubles matches. The lines to the inside of the doubles","of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines, and are the boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles alley, playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the centre of a player's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve. The line dividing the service line in two is called the centre line or centre service line. The boxes this centre line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player's position, they have to hit the ball into one of these when serving.A ball is out only if none of it has hit the area inside the lines, or the line, upon its first bounce. All lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (25 and 51 mm) in width, with the exception of the baseline which can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide, although in","wide, although in practice it is often the same width as the others. Play of a single point The players or teams start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated theserver, and the opposing player is thereceiver. The choice to be server or receiver in the first game and the choice of ends is decided by a coin toss before the warm-up starts. Service alternates game by game between the two players or teams. For each point, the server starts behind the baseline, between the centre mark and the sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server willserve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server. For a service to be legal, the ball must travel over the net without touching it into the diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is aletornet service, which is void, and the server retakes that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always","and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a \"foot fault\" when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the centre mark before the ball is hit. If the second service, after a fault, is also a fault, the serverdouble faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service. A legal service starts arally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of a player hitting the ball so that it falls in the server's court, before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel over or round the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is considered a legal return as long as it crosses into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses","legal return loses the point. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point. Scoring Game, set, match Game Agameconsists of a sequence ofpointsplayed with the same player serving. A game is won by the first player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are described as \"love\", \"15\", \"30\", and \"40\", respectively. If at least three points have been scored by each player, making the player's scores equal at 40 apiece, the score is not called out as \"40–40\", but rather as \"deuce\". If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his opponent, the score of the game is \"advantage\" for the player in the lead. During informal games, advantage can also be called \"ad in\" or \"van in\" when the serving player is ahead, and \"ad out\" or \"van out\" when the receiving player is ahead;","player is ahead; alternatively, either player may simply call out \"my ad\" or \"your ad\". The score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving player's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., \"15–love\") after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score. Set Asetconsists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game (tying the set 6–6) atiebreakis played. A tiebreak, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A tiebreak game can be","game can be won by scoring at least seven points and at least two points more than the opponent. In a tiebreak, two players serve by 'ABBA' system which has been proven to be fair.If a tiebreak is not played, the set is referred to as anadvantage set, where the set continues without limit until one player leads by a two-game margin. A \"love set\" means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a \"jam donut\" in the US.In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, e.g. \"6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5\". Match Amatchconsists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a best of three or fivesetssystem. On the professional circuit, men play best-of-five-set matches at all fourGrand Slamtournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of theOlympic Gamesand best-of-three-set matches at all other tournaments, while women play best-of-three-set matches at all tournaments. The first","The first player to win two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the match.Only in the final sets of matches at the Olympic Games andFed Cupare tiebreaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player has a two-game lead, occasionally leading to someremarkably long matches. In tournament play, the chairumpireannounces the end of the match with the well-known phrase \"Game, set, match\" followed by the winning person's or team's name. Special point terms Game point Agame pointoccurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40–love, the player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring","of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play. Break point Abreak pointoccurs if the receiver, not theserver, has a chance to win the game with the next point. Break points are of particular importance becauseservingis generally considered advantageous, with servers being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver who has one (score of 30–40 or advantage), two (score of 15–40) or three (score of love–40) consecutive chances to win the game hasbreak point,double break pointortriple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to haveconvertedtheir break point. If the receiver fails to win their break point it is called afailure to convert.Winning break points, and thus the game, is also referred to asbreaking serve, as the receiver has disrupted, orbrokenthe natural advantage of the server. If in the following game the previous server also wins a break point it","a break point it is referred to asbreaking back. Except wheretiebreaksapply, at least one break of serve is required to win a set (otherwise a two-game lead would never occur). Rule variations Another, however informal, tennis format is calledCanadian doubles. This involves three players, with one person playing against a doubles team. The single player gets to utilize the alleys normally reserved only for a doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as for a regular game. This format is not sanctioned by any official body. \"Australian doubles\", another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, is played with similar rules to theCanadian doublesstyle, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game, each player taking a turn at playing alone against the other two. As such, each player plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with the singles player always serving. Scoring styles vary, but one popular","but one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break serve. Wheelchair tenniscan be played by able-bodied players as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility. An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and able-bodied matches. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair player and an able-bodied player (referred to as \"one-up, one-down\"), or for a wheelchair player to play against an able-bodied player. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the wheelchair users only. Match play Continuity A tennis match is intended to be continuous.Because stamina is a relevant factor, arbitrary delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point.This is increased to 90 seconds when the players change ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a","game), and a 2-minute break is permitted between sets.Other than this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as rain, damaged footwear, damaged racket, or the need to retrieve an errant ball. Should a player be deemed to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire may initially give a warning followed by subsequent penalties of \"point\", \"game\", and default of the match for the player who is consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit. In the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and each player at the same end of the court as when rain halted play, or as close to the same relative compass point if play is resumed on a different court. Ball changes Balls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, inATPandWTAtournaments, they are changed after every nine games with the first change occurring after only seven games, because the","games, because the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm-up.InITFtournaments likeFed Cup, the balls are changed after every eleven games (rather than nine) with the first change occurring after only nine games (instead of seven). An exception is that a ball change may not take place at the beginning of a tiebreaker, in which case the ball change is delayed until the beginning of the second game of the next set.As a courtesy to the receiver, the server will often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new balls are used as a reminder that they are using new balls. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain), then the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes. On-court coaching A recent rule change is to allow coaching on court on a limited basis during a match.This has been introduced in","been introduced in women's tennis forWTA Tourevents in 2009 and allows the player to request her coach once per set. Stance Stance refers to the way a player prepares themselves in order to best be able to return a shot. Essentially, it enables them to move quickly in order to achieve a particular stroke. There are four main stances in modern tennis: open, semi-open, closed, and neutral. All four stances involve the player crouching in some manner: as well as being a more efficient striking posture, it allows them toisometrically preloadtheir muscles in order to play the stroke more dynamically. What stance is selected is strongly influenced by shot selection. A player may quickly alter their stance depending on the circumstances and the type of shot they intend to play. Any given stance also alters dramatically based upon the actual playing of the shot with dynamic movements and shifts of body weight occurring. Open stance This is the most common stance in tennis. The player's feet are placed parallel to","placed parallel to the net. They may be pointing sideways, directly at the net or diagonally towards it. This stance allows for a high degree of torso rotation which can add significant power to the stroke. This process is sometimes likened to the coiling and uncoiling of a spring. i.e. the torso is rotated as a means of preloading the muscular system in preparation for playing the stroke: this is the coiling phase. When the stroke is played the torso rotates to face forwards again, called uncoiling, and adds significant power to the stroke. A disadvantage of this stance is that it does not always allow ‘for proper weight transfer and maintenance of balance’when making powerful strokes. It is commonly used for forehand strokes; double-handed backhands can also be made effectively from it. Semi-open stance This stance is somewhere between open and closed and is a very flexible stance. The feet are aligned diagonally towards the net. It allows for a lot of shoulder rotation and the torso can be coiled, before","be coiled, before being uncoiled into the shot in order to increase the power of the shot. It is commonly used in modern tennis especially by ‘top professional players on the forehand’.Two-handed backhands can also be employed from this stance. Closed stance The closed stance is the least commonly used of the three main stances. One foot is placed further towards the net with the other foot further from it; there is a diagonal alignment between the feet. It allows for effective torso rotation in order to increase the power of the shot. It is usually used to play backhand shots and it is rare to see forehand shots played from it. A stroke from this stance may entail the rear foot coming completely off the floor with bodyweight being transferred entirely to the front foot. Neutral stance This is sometimes also referred to as the square stance. One foot is positioned closer to the net and ahead of the other which is behind and in line with it. Both feet are aligned at a 90 degree angle to the net. The neutral","net. The neutral stance is often taught early because ‘It allows beginners to learn about shifting weight and rotation of the body.’Forehands and backhands may be made from it. Shots Competent tennis players have eight basic shots in their repertoire: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley, half-volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob. Grip A grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots during a match. The grip affects the angle of the racket face when it hits the ball and influences the pace, spin, and placement of the shot. Players use various grips during play, including the Continental (The \"Handshake Grip\"), Eastern (either semi-eastern or full eastern, usually used for backhands), and Western (semi-western or full western, usually for forehand grips) grips. Most players change grips during a match depending on what shot they are hitting; for example, slice shots and serves call for a Continental grip. Serve A serve (or, more formally, a \"service\") in tennis is a shot to start a point.","to start a point. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it (usually near the apex of its trajectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without touching the net. The serve may be hit under- or overhand although underhand serving remains a rarity.If the ball hits the net on the first serve and bounces over into the correct diagonal box then it is called a \"let\" and the server gets two more additional serves to get it in. There can also be a let if the server serves the ball and the receiver isn't prepared.If the server misses his or her first serve and gets a let on the second serve, then they get one more try to get the serve in the box. Experienced players strive to master the conventional overhand serve to maximize its power and placement. The server may employ different types of serve including flat serve, topspin serve, slice serve, and kick (American twist) serve. A reverse type of spin serve is hit in a manner that spins the ball opposite the natural spin of the","natural spin of the server, the spin direction depending upon right- or left-handedness. If the ball is spinning counterclockwise, it will curve right from the hitter's point of view and curve left if spinning clockwise. Some servers are content to use the serve simply to initiate the point; however, advanced players often try to hit a winning shot with their serve. A winning serve that is not touched by the opponent is called an \"ace\". Forehand For a right-handed player, the forehand is a stroke that begins on the right side of the body, continues across the body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body. There are variousgripsfor executing the forehand, and their popularity has fluctuated over the years. The most important ones are thecontinental, theeastern, thesemi-western, and thewestern. For a number of years, the small, frail 1920s playerBill Johnstonwas considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high using awesterngrip.","using awesterngrip. Few top players used thewesterngrip after the 1920s, but in the latter part of the 20th century, as shot-making techniques and equipment changed radically, thewesternforehand made a strong comeback and is now used by many modern players. No matter which grip is used, most forehands are generally executed with one hand holding the racket, but there have been fine players with two-handed forehands. In the 1940s and 50s, the Ecuadorian/American playerPancho Seguraused a two-handed forehand to achieve a devastating effect against larger, more powerful players. Players such asMonica Selesor France'sFabrice SantoroandMarion Bartoliare also notable players known for their two-handed forehands. Backhand For right-handed players, the backhand is a stroke that begins on the left side of their body, continues across their body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the right side of their body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally considered more difficult to","more difficult to master than the forehand. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one hand, using either aneasternor acontinentalgrip. The first notable players to use two hands were the 1930s AustraliansVivian McGrathandJohn Bromwich, but they were lone exceptions. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s asBjörn Borg,Chris Evert,Jimmy Connors, and laterMats WilanderandMarat Safinused it to great effect, and it is now used by a large number of the world's best players, includingNovak Djokovic,Rafael NadalandSerena Williams. Two hands give the player more control, while one hand can generate a slice shot, applying backspin on the ball to produce a low trajectory bounce. Reach is also limited with the two-handed shot. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time,Don Budge, had a powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that imparted topspin onto the ball.Ken Rosewall, another player noted for his one-handed backhand, used a very accurate slice","very accurate slice backhand through the 1950s and 1960s. A small number of players, notablyMonica Seles, use two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides. Other shots Avolleyis a shot returned to the opponent in mid-air before the ball bounces, generally performed near the net, and is usually made with a stiff-wristed punching motion to hit the ball into an open area of the opponent's court. Thehalf volleyis made by hitting the ball on the rise just after it has bounced, also generally in the vicinity of the net, and played with the racket close to the ground.Theswinging volleyis hit out of the air as the player approaches the net. It is an offensive shot used to take preparation time away from the opponent, as it returns the ball into the opponent's court much faster than a standard volley. From a poor defensive position on the baseline, thelobcan be used as either an offensive or defensive weapon, hitting the ball high and deep into the opponent's court to either enable the lobber to get into better","to get into better defensive position or to win the point outright by hitting it over the opponent's head. If the lob is not hit deeply enough into the other court, however, an opponent near the net may then hit anoverhead smash, a hard, serve-like shot, to try to end the point. A difficult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob over the backhand side of a player. When the contact point is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand, most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball or sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand sky-hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful execution of any of these alternatives requires balance and timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play. If their opponent is deep in their court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpecteddrop shot, by softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the","the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to \"skid\" upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even backwards towards the net, thus making it even more difficult to return. Tournaments Tournaments are often organized by gender and number of players. Common tournament configurations include men's singles, women's singles, and doubles, where two players play on each side of the net. Tournaments may be organized for specific age groups, with upper age limits for youth and lower age limits for senior players. Example of this include theOrange BowlandLes Petits Asjunior tournaments. There are also tournaments for players with disabilities, such aswheelchair tennisand deaf tennis.In the fourGrand Slamtournaments, the singles draws are limited to 128 players for each gender. Most large tournamentsseedplayers, but players may also be matched by their skill level.","their skill level. According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a rating that is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. For example, theUnited States Tennis Associationadministers the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP), which rates players between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2 point increments. Average club players under this system would rate 3.0–4.5 while world class players would be 7.0 on this scale. Grand Slam tournaments The fourGrand Slamtournaments are considered to be the most prestigious tennis events in the world. They are held annually and comprise, in chronological order, theAustralian Open, theFrench Open,Wimbledon, and theUS Open. Apart from theOlympic Games,Davis Cup,Fed Cup, andHopman Cup, they are the only tournaments regulated by theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF).The ITF's national associations,Tennis Australia(Australian Open), theFédération Française de Tennis(French Open), theLawn Tennis Association(Wimbledon) and theUnited States Tennis","States Tennis Association(US Open) are delegated the responsibility to organize these events. Aside from the historical significance of these events, they also carry larger prize funds than any other tour event and are worth double the number of ranking points to the champion than in the next echelon of tournaments, theATP Masters 1000(men) andPremier events(women).Another distinguishing feature is the number of players in the singles draw. There are 128, more than any other professional tennis tournament. This draw is composed of 32 seeded players, other players ranked in the world's top 100, qualifiers, and players who receive invitations throughwild cards. Grand Slam men's tournaments have best-of-five set matches while the women play best-of-three. Grand Slam tournaments are among the small number of events that last two weeks, the others being theIndian Wells Mastersand theMiami Masters. Currently, the Grand Slam tournaments are the only tour events that havemixed doublescontests. Grand Slam tournaments","Slam tournaments are held in conjunction with wheelchair tennis tournaments andjunior tenniscompetitions. These tournaments also contain their own idiosyncrasies. For example, players at Wimbledon are required to wear predominantly white.Andre Agassichose to skip Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 citing the event's traditionalism, particularly its \"predominantly white\" dress code.Wimbledon has its own particular methods for disseminating tickets, often leading tennis fans to follow complex procedures to obtain tickets. Men's tournament structure Masters Series TheATP Masters 1000is a group of nine tournaments that form the second-highest echelon in men's tennis. Each event is held annually, and a win at one of these events is worth 1000 ranking points. When theATP, led byHamilton Jordan, began running the men's tour in 1990, the directors designated the top nine tournaments, outside of theGrand Slamevents, as \"Super 9\" events.In 2000 this became the Tennis Masters Series and in 2004 the ATP Masters Series. In","Masters Series. In November at the end of the tennis year, the world's top eight players compete in theATP Finals, a tournament with a rotating locale. It is currently held in Turin. In August 2007 the ATP announced major changes to the tour that were introduced in 2009. The Masters Series was renamed to the \"ATP Masters 1000\", the addition of the number 1000 referring to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of each tournament. Contrary to earlier plans, the number of tournaments was not reduced from nine to eight and theMonte-Carlo Mastersremains part of the series although, unlike the other events, it does not have a mandatory player commitment. TheHamburg Mastershas been downgraded to a 500-point event. TheMadrid Mastersmoved to May and onto clay courts, and a new tournament inShanghaitook over Madrid's former indoor October slot. As of 2011 six of the nine \"1000\" level tournaments are combined ATP andWTAevents. 500 and 250 series The third and fourth tier of men's tennis tournaments are","tournaments are formed by theATP 500 series, consisting of 11 tournaments, and theATP 250 serieswith 40 tournaments.Like theATP Masters 1000, these events offer various amounts of prize money and the numbers refer to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of a tournament.TheDubai Tennis Championshipsoffer the largest financial incentive to players, with total prize money of US$2,313,975 (2012).These series have various draws of 28, 32, 48 and 56 for singles and 16 and 24 for doubles. It is mandatory for leading players to enter at least four 500 events, including at least one after the US Open. Challenger Tour and Futures tournaments TheChallenger Tourfor men is the lowest level of tournament administered by theATP. It is composed of about 150 events and, as a result, features a more diverse range of countries hosting events.The majority of players use the Challenger Series at the beginning of their career to work their way up the rankings.Andre Agassi, between winning Grand Slam tournaments,","Slam tournaments, plummeted to World No. 141 and used Challenger Series events for match experience and to progress back up the rankings.The Challenger Series offers prize funds of between US$25,000 and US$150,000. Below the Challenger Tour are the Futures tournaments, events on theITF Men's Circuit. These tournaments also contribute towards a player'sATP rankingspoints. Futures Tournaments offer prize funds of between US$10,000 and US$15,000.Approximately 530 Futures Tournaments are played each year. Women's tournament structure In 2021, the WTA rebranded, resembling the men's tournament series, and also providing extra simplicity for fans and consumers. The numbers do not indicate ranking points, or prize money, but is a system to help define different levels of women's tennis. WTA 1000 TheWTA 1000 Tournaments(formerly thePremierMandatory and Premier 5 Tournaments), are a series of seven tournaments that are part of the second-highest tier in women's tennis. 500 and 250 Series The third and fourth tier of","and fourth tier of women's tennis tournaments are formed from theWTA 500 Series(formerly Premier 700), with fifteen tournaments, and theWTA 250 Series(formerly International), consisting of thirty tournaments. WTA 125 TheWTA 125 Series(formerly 125K Series), is the lowest tier of women's tennis, with fourteen tournaments. Players Professional players Professional tennis players enjoy the same relative perks as most top sports personalities: clothing, equipment and endorsements. Like players of other individual sports such asgolf, they are not salaried, but must play and finish highly in tournaments to obtain prize money. In recent years,professional tennis players have been mocked by tabloids and fans for the involuntary or deliberate noise caused by players'grunting. This controversy has spurred the Grand Slam Committee, the International Tennis Association, and the Women's Tennis Association to teach players techniques to avoid grunting. Singles and doubles professional careers While players are gradually","are gradually less competitive in singles by their late 20s and early 30s, they can still continue competitively in doubles (as instanced byMartina NavratilovaandJohn McEnroe, who won doubles titles in their 40s). In the Open Era, several female players such asMartina Navratilova,Margaret Court,Martina Hingis,Serena Williams, andVenus Williams(the latter two sisters playing together) have been prolific at both singles and doubles events throughout their careers.John McEnroeis one of the very few professional male players to be top ranked in both singles and doubles at the same time,andYevgeny Kafelnikovis the most recent male player to win multiple Grand Slams in both singles and doubles during the same period of his career. In terms of public attention and earnings (see below), singles champions have far surpassed their doubles counterparts. The Open Era, particularly the men's side, has seen many top-ranked singles players that only sparingly compete in doubles, while having \"doubles specialists\" who are","who are typically being eliminated early in the singles draw but do well in the doubles portion of a tournament. Notable doubles pairings includeThe Woodies(Todd WoodbridgeandMark Woodforde) and theBryan brothers(identical twin brothersRobert Charles \"Bob\" BryanandMichael Carl \"Mike\" Bryan). Woodbridge has disliked the term \"doubles 'specialists'\", saying that he and Woodforde \"set a singles schedule and doubles fitted in around that\", although later in Woodbridge's career he focused exclusively on doubles as his singles ranking fell too low that it was no longer financially viable to recover at that age. Woodbridge noted that while top singles players earn enough that they do not need to nor want to play doubles, he suggested that lower-ranked singles players outside the Top Ten should play doubles to earn more playing time and money. Olympics The Olympics doubles tennis tournament necessitates that both members of a doubles pairing be from the same country, hence several top professional pairs such asJamie","pairs such asJamie MurrayandBruno Soarescannot compete in the Olympics. Top-ranked singles players that are usually rivals on the professional circuit, such asBoris BeckerandMichael Stich, andRoger FedererandStan Wawrinkahave formed a rare doubles partnership for the Olympics. Unlike professional tennis tournaments (see below) where singles players receive much more prize money than doubles players, an Olympic medal for both singles and doubles has similar prestige. The Olympics is more of a priority for doubles champions while singles champions often skip the tournament.While the ATP has voted for Olympic results to count towards player ranking points, WTA players voted against it. For the2000 Olympics,Lisa Raymondwas passed over for Team USA in favour ofSerena Williamsby captainBillie Jean King, even though Raymond was the top-ranked doubles player in the world at the time, and Raymond unsuccessfully challenged the selection. Prize money In professional tennis tournaments such asWimbledon, the singles","the singles competition receives the most prize money and coverage, followed by doubles, and then mixed doubles usually receive the lowest monetary awards.For instance in theUS Openas of 2018, the men's and women's singles prize money (US$40,912,000) accounts for 80.9 percent of total player base compensation, while men's and women's doubles (US$6,140,840), men's and women's singles qualifying (US$3,008,000), and mixed doubles (US$505,000) account for 12.1 percent, 5.9 percent, and 1.0 percent, respectively. The singles winner receives US$3,800,000, while the doubles winning pair receives $700,000 and the mixed doubles winning pair receives US$155,000. Grand Slam tournament winners The following players have won at least five singles titles atGrand Slam tournaments(active players inbold): Greatest male players A frequent topic of discussion among tennis fans and commentators is who was the greatest male singles player of all time. By a large margin, anAssociated Presspoll in 1950 namedBill Tildenas the","Tildenas the greatest player of the first half of the 20th century.From 1920 to 1930, Tilden won singles titles atWimbledonthree times and theUS Championshipsseven times. In 1938, however,Donald Budgebecame the first person to win all four major singles titles during the same calendar year, theGrand Slam, and won six consecutive major titles in 1937 and 1938. Tilden called Budge \"the finest player 365 days a year that ever lived.\"In his 1979 autobiography,Jack Kramersaid that, based on consistent play, Budge was the greatest player ever.Some observers, however, also felt that Kramer deserved consideration for the title. Kramer was among the few who dominated amateur and professional tennis during the late 1940s and early 1950s.Tony Traberthas said that of the players he saw before the start of theOpen Era, Kramer was the best male champion. By the 1960s, Budge and others had addedPancho GonzalesandLew Hoadto the list of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever.Gonzales","ever.Gonzales said about Hoad, \"When Lew's game was at its peak nobody could touch him. ... I think his game was the best game ever. Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with the most natural tennis physique.\" Before and during the Open Era,Rod Laverremains the only male player in history to have won the calendar year Grand Slam twice in 1962 and 1969and also the calendar year Professional Grand Slam in 1967. Jimmy Connors,Björn Borg, andJohn McEnroehad a fierce rivalry in the late 1970s and early 1980s that propelled \"the men's game to new heights of popularity\".Connors had a long and prolific career and holds theOpen Era men's singles recordsof 109 titles including eight Grand Slams, 1,557 matches played, and 1,274 match wins. Borg was regarded by his contemporaries as among the greatest ever, having a calm court demeanor and unrivalled physical conditioning, winning six French Opens","six French Opens and five straight Wimbledon titles, retiring at age 26 when he was still in his prime. McEnroe attained the No. 1 ranking in bothsinglesanddoubles, finishing his career with 77 singles and 78 doubles titles; this remains thehighest men's combined totalof theOpen Era. TheAgassi–Sampras rivalryshowcased the two best players in the 1990s.Sampras had a precise and powerful serve while Agassi was considered to be one of the best service returners in the history of the game.By the early 2000s,Pete Samprashad won a then-record of 14 Grand Slam titles which was by far the most among his contemporaries. Sampras also held the record for most weeks at No. 1 with 286 until it was broken a decade later by Federer and Djokovic after that.Andre Agassi, was the first player to complete theCareer Grand Slamon all modern three surfaces (hard, grass, and clay courts) as previous winners of Grand Slam tournaments played in an era of grass and clay only (Rod Laver and Ken Rosewall also won majorPro tournamentson","tournamentson the three surfaces). Agassi also is the only player to win all four Grand Slam titles along with theyear-end championshipsand theolympics. Both Sampras and Agassi are regarded to be among the greatest players of all time. By the early twenty-first century, the 'Big Three' ofRoger Federer,Rafael NadalandNovak Djokovichave dominated men's singles tennis for two decades,collectively winning 66majorsingles tournaments; Djokovic with an all-time record 24 titles, Nadal with 22 and Federer with 20. They have been ranked asworld No. 1sin singles for a total 947 weeks (equivalent to 18 years); Djokovic for a record 428 weeks, Federer for 310, and Nadal for 209. Greatest female players As with the men there are frequent discussions about who is the greatest female singles player of all time withSteffi Graf,Martina NavratilovaandSerena Williamsbeing the three players most often nominated. In March 2012 the Tennis Channel published a combined list of the 100 greatest men and women tennis players of all","players of all time.It ranked Steffi Graf as the greatest female player (in 3rd place overall), followed byMartina Navratilova(4th place) andMargaret Court(8th place). The rankings were determined by an international panel. Sportswriter John Wertheim ofSports Illustratedstated in an article in July 2010 thatSerena Williamsis the greatest female tennis player ever with the argument that \"Head-to-head, on a neutral surface (i.e. hard courts), everyone at their best, I can't help feeling that she crushes the other legends.\".In a reaction to this article Yahoo sports blog Busted Racket published a list of the top-10 women's tennis players of all time placing Martina Navratilova in first spot.This top-10 list was similar to the one published in June 2008 by the Bleacher Report who also ranked Martina Navratilova as the top female player of all time. Steffi Graf is considered by some to be the greatest female player.Billie Jean Kingsaid in 1999, \"Steffi is definitely the greatest women's tennis player of all","player of all time.\"Martina Navratilovahas included Graf on her list of great players.In December 1999, Graf was named the greatest female tennis player of the 20th century by a panel of experts assembled by theAssociated Press.Tennis writer Steve Flink, in his bookThe Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century, named her as the best female player of the 20th century, directly followed by Martina Navratilova. Tennismagazine selected Martina Navratilova as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005.Tennis historian and journalistBud Collinshas called Navratilova \"arguably, the greatest player of all time.\"Billie Jean Kingsaid about Navratilova in 2006, \"She's the greatest singles, doubles and mixed doubles player who's ever lived.\" In 2018, aTennis.companel selected Serena Williams as thegreatest female tennis player in the Open Era.In May 2020, the Tennis Channel ranked Williams as the greatest female tennis player of all time. In November 2018, Tennis.com polled its readers to","its readers to choose the greatest women's tennis player of all time and Graf came in first.In July 2020, The Guardian polled its readers to determine the greatest female tennis player of the past 50 years, and Graf was the clear favorite, picking up nearly twice as many votes as any other player. Officials In most professional play and some amateur competition, there is an officiating head judge or chairumpire(usually referred to simply as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations. The umpire may be assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball has landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults. There also may be a net judge who determines whether the ball has touched the net during service. The umpire has the right to overrule a line judge or a net judge if the umpire is sure that a clear mistake has been made. In past tournaments, line judges tasked with calling the serve were","the serve were sometimes assisted byelectronic sensorsthat beeped to indicate an out-of-bounds serve; one such system was called \"Cyclops\".Cyclops has since largely been replaced by theHawk-Eyesystem.In professional tournaments using this system, players are allowed three unsuccessful appeals per set, plus one additional appeal in the tiebreak to challenge closeline callsby means of anelectronic review. TheUS Open,Miami Masters,US Open Series, andWorld Team Tennisstarted using this challenge system in 2006 and theAustralian OpenandWimbledonintroduced the system in 2007.In clay-court matches, such as at theFrench Open, a call may be questioned by reference to the mark left by the ball's impact on the court surface. The referee, who is usually located off the court, is the final authority about tennis rules. When called to the court by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change the umpire's decision on a","decision on a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the court during play, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision. (This would only happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup matches, not at the World Group level, when a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair.) Junior tennis In tennis, a junior is a player under 18 who is still legally protected by a parent or guardian. Players on the main adult tour who are under 18 must have documents signed by a parent or guardian. These players, however, are still eligible to play in junior tournaments. TheInternational Tennis Federation(ITF) conducts a junior tour that allows juniors to establish a world ranking and anAssociation of Tennis Professionals(ATP) orWomen's Tennis Association(WTA) ranking. Most juniors who enter the international circuit do so by progressing through ITF, Satellite, Future, and Challenger tournaments before entering the main circuit. The latter three circuits also have adults competing in them. Some juniors, however,","juniors, however, such as AustralianLleyton Hewittand FrenchmanGaël Monfils, have catapulted directly from the junior tour to the ATP tour by dominating the junior scene or by taking advantage of opportunities given to them to participate in professional tournaments. In 2004, the ITF implemented a new rankings scheme to encourage greater participation in doubles, by combining two rankings (singles and doubles) into one combined tally.Junior tournaments do not offerprize moneyexcept for theGrand Slam tournaments, which are the most prestigious junior events. Juniors may earn income from tennis by participating in the Future, Satellite, or Challenger tours. Tournaments are broken up into different tiers offering different amounts of ranking points, culminating with Grade A. Leading juniors are allowed to participate for their nation in theJunior Fed Cup and Davis Cupcompetitions. To succeed in tennis often means having to begin playing at a young age. To facilitate and nurture a junior's growth in tennis,","growth in tennis, almost all tennis playing nations have developed a junior development system. Juniors develop their play through a range of tournaments on all surfaces, accommodating all different standards of play. Talented juniors may also receive sponsorships from governing bodies or private institutions. Injuries Muscle strain is one of the most common injuries in tennis.When an isolated large-energy appears during the muscle contraction and at the same time body weight apply huge amount of pressure to the lengthened muscle,muscle straincan occur.Inflammation and bleeding are triggered when muscle strain occurs, which can result in redness, pain and swelling.Overuse is also common in tennis players of all levels.Muscle,cartilage,nerves,bursae,ligamentsandtendonsmay be damaged from overuse. The repetitive use of a particular muscle without time for repair and recovery is the most common cause of injury. In popular culture See also References Further reading External links","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis","Jordanne Whiley Jordanne Joyce WhileyMBE(born 11 June 1992) is a British retired wheelchair tennis player. Aged 14, she became Britain's youngest ever national women's singles champion inwheelchair tennis.She hasosteogenesis imperfectaas does her father,Keith, who was also a Paralympian and won a bronze medal in 1984 in New York.As well as the2015 US Openin wheelchair singles, Whiley has won 9 Grand Slam doubles titles, and she & JapaneseYui Kamijiare the fourth team in women's wheelchair doubles (as well as the most recent players) to complete theCalendar Year Grand Slam.Whiley was appointedMember of the Order of the British Empire(MBE) in the2015 Queens Birthday Honourslist for services to wheelchair tennis. Career Junior In 2006 at the age of 14 Whiley claimed her first senior main draw titles when she won the singles and doubles at the Cardiff Wheelchair Tennis tournament, also winning the girls title.At the end of 2006 Whiley had moved up from 112 to 48 in the rankings and had won junior titles in Poland","titles in Poland and the Netherlands.Whiley won two awards at the British Wheelchair Tennis Association awards: Most improved female player and players' player of the year.Whiley created history in 2007 when she defeated Katharine Kruger in Tarbes. She became the first Briton to claim the Cruyff Foundation Wheelchair Juniors Masters title, Whiley also claimed the doubles title with Louise Hunt.Following on from the Masters success Whiley won her second senior title at the North West Challenge.Whiley followed this up by becoming the youngest national British Champion and winning the doubles title as well.Whiley then successfully defended her Cardiff wheelchair tennis tournament titles.In 2008 Whiley successfully defended her Masters titles; defeating Emmy Kaiser in the singles before partnering Hunt to back to back doubles titles.The following week Whiley claimed her first international title the Sion Indoor.Whiley then successfully defended both titles at the North West Challenge.She was named in the team","named in the team for the 2008 Paralympic Games. Senior In 2012, she reached the finals of Women's wheelchair doubles at Wimbledon.She competed forGreat Britain at the 2012 Summer Paralympicswhere she shared a bronze withLucy Shukerinwomen's doubles.Whiley and Shuker won another bronze medal at the2016 Summer Paralympics, where Whiley was eliminated in the women's singles quarterfinals. Whiley and her partnerYui Kamijiof Japan achieved a calendar Grand Slam by winning the wheelchair doubles at the Australian Open (beating the Dutch pairMarjolein BuisandJiske Griffioen), the French Open, Wimbledon and the US Open (overcoming Griffioen and fellow DutchwomanAniek van Kootin all three finals). They finished the year by adding the Masters crown after defeating Louise Hunt and Katharina Kruger in the final. However, despite the absence of van Koot and Griffioen the pair did not go undefeated throughout the tournament as they lost to Marjolein Buis and Michaela Spaanstra during the round robin group stage. Whiley","group stage. Whiley and Kamiji are four times doubles champions atWimbledon, and Whiley was 11 weeks pregnant when they won their 4th title, in 2017.Whiley did not participate at the Championships in 2018, after giving birth to her son, earlier that year. She planned a comeback in late 2018.In the 2020 season, she won the Australian Open and US Open doubles titles. In June 2021 she andLucy Shukerwere among six tennis players named to represent the UK at the postponed2020 Paralympicsin Tokyo.Shuker and Whiley won the silver medal in thewomen's doubles,with Whiley winning bronze in thewomen's singles. Grand Slam performance timelines Wheelchair singles Wheelchair doubles References External links","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Reid_(tennis","Alfie Hewett Alfie HewettOBE(born 6 December 1997 in Norwich, Norfolk) is a British professionalwheelchair tennisplayer.He is the current world No. 1 in both singles and doubles. He has won a total of 30 Grand Slam titles, with 9 singles and 21 doubles titles. Hewett is a 30-timemajorchampion, having won nine titles in singles and 21 in doubles, the latter all partneringGordon Reid. The pair completed theGrand Slamin 2021, becoming the first to do so in wheelchair men's doubles sinceStéphane Houdetin 2014. Hewett wonParalympicgold inmen's doublesat the2024 Summer Paralympics, and is a three-time silver medalist. He won theWheelchair Tennis Mastersin both singles and doubles in 2017, 2021 and 2023. Hewett was born with a congenital heart defect that required surgery at six months, and suffered fromLegg–Calvé–Perthes disease, a condition that inhibits blood flow from the pelvis to the hip joint. His ability to walk was severely impaired and from the age of six he has been a wheelchair user. Though able to walk,","able to walk, Hewett is not fully mobile in the conventional sense and cannot do able-bodied sports. Tennis career Hewett attendedAcle High Schooland went on to study Sport and Exercise Science atCity College Norwich. In July 2016 Hewett won the2016 Wimbledon Championships – Wheelchair men's doubles, alongsideGordon Reid, coming back from a set down to win against the French pairStéphane HoudetandNicolas Peifer. He won a silver medal in the men's singles event atRio 2016and silver in the doubles event with Reid, who beat him in the singles final. In May 2017 Hewett won his firstGrand Slamin singles at theFrench Open, beatingGustavo FernándezofArgentinain three sets, despite losing the first to love. In July 2017, in a repeat of the final a year earlier, Hewett won the2017 Wimbledon Championships – Wheelchair men's doubles, alongside Reid, winning in three sets against Houdet and Peifer. Hewett won the 2017NEC Wheelchair Tennis Mastersin Loughborough, UK. He ended 2017 ranked No 2 in the world, then a","the world, then a career-high. On 29 January 2018 Hewett became the world number 1. In March 2018 Hewett won his first Super Series singles title at the Cajun Classic in Baton Rouge, USA. On 2 September 2018 he claimed his second Super Series title at the US Open USTA Wheelchair Championships inSt. Louis. Later that month Hewett won the singles title at theUS Openas well as the doubles title with Reid. In September 2019 he successfully defended both his singles and, with Reid, doubles titles at the US Open. In 2020 Hewett won theFrench Opensingles title in three sets againstJoachim Gérardand partnered Reid to win all three available Grand Slam doubles titles at theAustralian Open, US Open and French Open, with the Wimbledon Championships cancelled due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. After winning a silver medal in themen's doubleswith Reid at the2020 Summer Paralympicsand losing the bronze medalsingles matchto Reid, world number 2Hewett spoke about his Paralympic future being \"out of his hands\",due to a review into","to a review into whether his disability is severe enough to qualify him to play in a wheelchair under the 2019 revision ofInternational Tennis Federationrules.Hewett was allowed to continue his tennis career after an alteration to the new ITF rules in November 2021. Hewett was appointed Officer of theOrder of the British Empire(OBE) in the2023 Birthday Honoursfor services to tennis. Hewett kicked off 2024 by winning a fifth Australian Open doubles title in a row with Reid.In May 2024 Hewett was part of the Great Britain team which won the World Team Cup for a second successive year beating Spain 2-0 in the final of the event held in Turkey. It was the team's fourth win in the competition since 2015. Hewett and Reid won a fifth straightFrench Openin June with a 6-1 6-4 victory over second-seeded Japanese duo Takuya Miki and Tokito Oda in the final. At the2024 Wimbledon Championships, Hewett defeatedMartín de la Puentein the final, 6–2, 6–3, to complete the singlescareer Grand Slam.He and Reid also won doubles","also won doubles title, defeatingTakuya MikiandTokito Odain the final, 6–4, 7–6(7–2). Hewett won the doubles gold medal at the 2024 Summer Paralympics in Paris, France. He lost in Paralympic wheelchair tennis men's singles final. Career statistics Grand Slam performance timelines Wheelchair singles Wheelchair doubles Grand Slam tournament finals Wheelchair singles: 18 (9 titles, 9 runner-ups) Wheelchair doubles: 27 (21 titles, 6 runner-ups) References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Tennis Tennisis aracket sportthat is played either individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses atennis racketstrung with a cord to strike a hollow rubberballcovered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent'scourt. The object of the game is to manoeuvre the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player unable to return the ball validly will not gain apoint, while the opposite player will. Playable at all levels of society and at all ages, tennis can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, includingwheelchair users. The original forms of tennis developed inFranceduring the lateMiddle Ages.The modern form of tennis originated inBirmingham, England, in the late 19th century aslawn tennis.It had close connections to various field (lawn) games such ascroquetandbowlsas well as to the older racket sport today calledreal tennis. The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the 1890s.\",\n \"since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that until 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times,and the adoption of thetiebreakin the 1970s.A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point-challenge system, which allows a player to contest theline callof a point, a system known asHawk-Eye. Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is a popular worldwide spectator sport.The fourGrand Slamtournaments (also referred to as the majors) are especially popular and are considered the highest level of competition for the sport. These tournaments are theAustralian Open, played onhardcourts; theFrench Open, played on redclay courts;Wimbledon, played ongrass courts; and theUS Open, also played on hardcourts.Additionally, tennis was one of the originalOlympic sports, and has been consistently competed in theSummer Olympic Gamessince1988. History Predecessors Historians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in\",\n \"origin lay in 12th-century northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm of the hand.Louis X of Francewas a keen player ofjeu de paume(\\\"game of the palm\\\"), which evolved intoreal tennis, and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris \\\"around the end of the 13th century\\\".In due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe.In June 1316 atVincennes, Val-de-Marne, and following a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of eitherpneumoniaorpleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning.Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player known by name.Another of the early enthusiasts of the game was KingCharles V of France, who had a court set up at theLouvre Palace. It was not until the 16th century thatracketscame into use and the\",\n \"into use and the game began to be called \\\"tennis\\\", from the French termtenez, which can be translated as \\\"hold!\\\", \\\"receive!\\\" or \\\"take!\\\", aninterjectionused as a call from the server to his opponent.It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors, where the ball could be hit off the wall.Henry VIII of Englandwas a big fan of this game, which is now known asreal tennis. An epitaph inSt Michael's Church, Coventry, writtenc.1705, read, in part: Here lyes an old toss'd Tennis Ball:Was racketted, from spring to fall,With so much heat and so much hast,Time's arm for shame grew tyred at last. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England. The invention of the firstlawn mowerin Britain in 1830 is believed to have been a catalyst for the preparation of modern-style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most\",\n \"lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and others. Origins of the modern game Between 1859 and 1865,Harry Gem, a solicitor, and his friendAugurio Pereradeveloped a game that combined elements ofracquetsand the Basque ball gamepelota, which they played on Perera'scroquetlawn inBirmingham, England.In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis club on Avenue Road,Leamington Spa.This is where \\\"lawn tennis\\\" was used as the name of an activity by a club for the first time. InTennis: A Cultural History, Heiner Gillmeister reveals that on 8 December 1874, British army officerWalter Clopton Wingfieldwrote to Harry Gem, commenting that he (Wingfield) had been experimenting with his version of lawn tennis \\\"for a year and a half\\\".In December 1873, Wingfield designed and patented a game which he calledsphairistikè(Greek:σφαιριστική, meaning \\\"ball-playing\\\"), and which was soon known simply as \\\"sticky\\\" – for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his friend's estate ofNantclwyd\",\n \"estate ofNantclwyd Hall, inLlanelidan, Wales.According toR. D. C.Evans, turfgrassagronomist, \\\"Sports historians all agree that deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis.\\\"According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield \\\"popularized this game enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game – and most importantly you had his rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874.\\\"The world's oldest annual tennis tournament took place at Leamington Lawn Tennis Club in Birmingham in 1874.This was three years before theAll England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Clubwould hold its first championships at Wimbledon, in 1877. The first Championships culminated in a significant debate on how to standardise the rules. In the United States in\",\n \"United States in 1874,Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned fromBermudawith asphairistikèset. She became fascinated by the game of tennis after watching British army officers play.She laid out a tennis court at theStaten Island Cricket Clubat Camp Washington,Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York. The first American National championship was played there in September 1880. An Englishman named O.E. Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100, by defeating CanadianI. F. Hellmuth.There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York. On 21 May 1881, the oldest nationwide tennis organization in the worldwas formed, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now theUnited States Tennis Association) in order to standardize the rules and organize competitions.The US National Men's Singles Championship, now theUS Open, was first held in 1881 at theNewport\",\n \"1881 at theNewport Casino,Newport, Rhode Island.The US National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 inPhiladelphia. Tennis also became popular in France, where theFrench Championshipsdate to 1891, although until 1925 they were open only to tennis players who were members of French clubs.Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open and theAustralian Open(dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis.Together, these four events are called the Majors orSlams(a term borrowed frombridgerather thanbaseball). In 1913, the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF), now theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF), was founded and established three official tournaments as the major championships of the day. TheWorld Grass Court Championshipswere awarded to Great Britain. TheWorld Hard Court Championshipswere awarded to France; the term \\\"hard court\\\" was used for clay courts at the time. Some tournaments were held in Belgium instead. And theWorld Covered Court\",\n \"Covered Court Championshipsfor indoor courts were awarded annually; Sweden, France, Great Britain, Denmark, Switzerland and Spain each hosted the tournament.At a meeting held on 16 March 1923 in Paris, the title \\\"World Championship\\\" was dropped and a new category of \\\"Official Championship\\\" was created for events in Great Britain, France, the US and Australia– today's Grand Slam events.The impact on the four recipient nations to replace the \\\"world championships\\\" with \\\"official championships\\\" was simple in a general sense: each became a major nation of the federation with enhanced voting power, and each now operated a major event. The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the ILTF have remained largely stable in the ensuing 80 years, the one major change being the addition of thetiebreaksystem designed byJimmy Van Alen.That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the1924 Games, but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the\",\n \"was credited by the efforts of then ITF presidentPhilippe Chatrier, ITF general secretary David Gray and ITF vice president Pablo Llorens, with support fromInternational Olympic CommitteepresidentJuan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming, and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full-medal sport atSeoulin 1988. TheDavis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.The analogous competition for women's national teams, theFed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF. In 1926, promoterC. C. Pyleestablished the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.The most notable of these early professionals were the AmericanVinnie Richardsand the FrenchwomanSuzanne Lenglen.Playersturned prowould no longer be permitted to compete in the major (amateur) tournaments. In 1968, commercial pressures and rumours of some\",\n \"and rumours of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating theOpen Era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis.With the beginning of the Open Era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its middle-class English-speaking image(although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists). In 1954, Van Alen founded theInternational Tennis Hall of Fame, a nonprofit museum in Newport, Rhode Island.The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Equipment Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only aracketand balls. Rackets The components of a tennis racket include a\",\n \"racket include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and strings were ofanimal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power. Meanwhile, technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added durability. Under modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to the following guidelines; The rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches (81 cm) until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches (74 cm). Many\",\n \"(74 cm). Many companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are three of the most commonly used brands; however, many more companies exist.The same companies sponsor players to use these rackets in the hopes that the company name will become better known by the public. Strings There are multiple types of tennis strings, including natural gut and synthetic stings made from materials such asnylon,kevlar, orpolyester. Natural gut The first type of tennis strings available were natural gut strings, introduced by Babolat. They were the only type used until synthetic strings were introduced in the 1950s. Natural gut strings are still used frequently by players such as Roger Federer. They are made fromcowintestines, and provide increased power, and are easier on the arm than most strings. Synthetic Most synthetic strings are made from monofilament or multifiliament nylon strings. Monofilament strings are cheap to buy, and are used widely by many recreational level players for their\",\n \"players for their all round performance, while multifilament strings are created to mimic natural gut more closely by weaving together fibres, but are generally more expensive than their monofilament counterparts.Polyester strings allow for more spin on the ball than any other string, due to their firm strings, while keeping control of the ball, and this is why many players use them, especially higher player ones.Kevlar tennis strings are highly durable, and are mostly used by players that frequently break strings, because they maintain tension well, but these strings can be stiff on the arm. Hybrid strings Hybrid stringing is when a tennis racket is strung with two different strings for the mains (the vertical strings) and the crosses (the horizontal strings). This is most commonly done with two different strings that are made of different materials, but can also be done with two different types of the same string. A notable example of a player using hybrid strings is Roger Federer, using natural gut\",\n \"using natural gut strings in his mains and polyester strings in his crosses. Balls Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and stuffed with feathers.Modern tennis balls are made of hollowvulcanized rubberwith afeltcoating. Traditionally white, the predominant colour was gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight,deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as 65.41–68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 in). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 g (1.98 and 2.10 oz).Tennis balls were traditionally manufactured in the United States and Europe. Although the process of producing the balls has remained virtually unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of manufacturing now takes place in theFar East. The relocation is due to cheaperlabour costsand materials in the\",\n \"materials in the region.Tournaments that are played under the ITF Rules of Tennis must use balls that are approved by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and be named on the official ITF list of approved tennis balls. Manner of play Court Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78feet(23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (11 m) for doubles matches.Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by either a cord or metal cable of diameter no greater than0.8 cm (1⁄3in).The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.91 m) high in the centre.The net posts are 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side. The modern tennis court owes its design to MajorWalter Clopton\",\n \"MajorWalter Clopton Wingfield. In 1873, Wingfield patented a court much the same as the current one for hisstické tennis(sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with thehourglassshape of his court changed to a rectangle. Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces.Grass,clay, andhard courtsof concrete or asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood flooring having been historically used.Artificial turfcourts can also be found. Lines The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the centre of each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or the centre mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines; they are the boundaries for doubles matches. The lines to the inside of the doubles\",\n \"of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines, and are the boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles alley, playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the centre of a player's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve. The line dividing the service line in two is called the centre line or centre service line. The boxes this centre line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player's position, they have to hit the ball into one of these when serving.A ball is out only if none of it has hit the area inside the lines, or the line, upon its first bounce. All lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (25 and 51 mm) in width, with the exception of the baseline which can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide, although in\",\n \"wide, although in practice it is often the same width as the others. Play of a single point The players or teams start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated theserver, and the opposing player is thereceiver. The choice to be server or receiver in the first game and the choice of ends is decided by a coin toss before the warm-up starts. Service alternates game by game between the two players or teams. For each point, the server starts behind the baseline, between the centre mark and the sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server willserve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server. For a service to be legal, the ball must travel over the net without touching it into the diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is aletornet service, which is void, and the server retakes that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always\",\n \"and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a \\\"foot fault\\\" when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the centre mark before the ball is hit. If the second service, after a fault, is also a fault, the serverdouble faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service. A legal service starts arally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of a player hitting the ball so that it falls in the server's court, before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel over or round the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is considered a legal return as long as it crosses into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses\",\n \"legal return loses the point. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point. Scoring Game, set, match Game Agameconsists of a sequence ofpointsplayed with the same player serving. A game is won by the first player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are described as \\\"love\\\", \\\"15\\\", \\\"30\\\", and \\\"40\\\", respectively. If at least three points have been scored by each player, making the player's scores equal at 40 apiece, the score is not called out as \\\"40–40\\\", but rather as \\\"deuce\\\". If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his opponent, the score of the game is \\\"advantage\\\" for the player in the lead. During informal games, advantage can also be called \\\"ad in\\\" or \\\"van in\\\" when the serving player is ahead, and \\\"ad out\\\" or \\\"van out\\\" when the receiving player is ahead;\",\n \"player is ahead; alternatively, either player may simply call out \\\"my ad\\\" or \\\"your ad\\\". The score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving player's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., \\\"15–love\\\") after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score. Set Asetconsists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game (tying the set 6–6) atiebreakis played. A tiebreak, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A tiebreak game can be\",\n \"game can be won by scoring at least seven points and at least two points more than the opponent. In a tiebreak, two players serve by 'ABBA' system which has been proven to be fair.If a tiebreak is not played, the set is referred to as anadvantage set, where the set continues without limit until one player leads by a two-game margin. A \\\"love set\\\" means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a \\\"jam donut\\\" in the US.In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, e.g. \\\"6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5\\\". Match Amatchconsists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a best of three or fivesetssystem. On the professional circuit, men play best-of-five-set matches at all fourGrand Slamtournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of theOlympic Gamesand best-of-three-set matches at all other tournaments, while women play best-of-three-set matches at all tournaments. The first\",\n \"The first player to win two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the match.Only in the final sets of matches at the Olympic Games andFed Cupare tiebreaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player has a two-game lead, occasionally leading to someremarkably long matches. In tournament play, the chairumpireannounces the end of the match with the well-known phrase \\\"Game, set, match\\\" followed by the winning person's or team's name. Special point terms Game point Agame pointoccurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40–love, the player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring\",\n \"of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play. Break point Abreak pointoccurs if the receiver, not theserver, has a chance to win the game with the next point. Break points are of particular importance becauseservingis generally considered advantageous, with servers being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver who has one (score of 30–40 or advantage), two (score of 15–40) or three (score of love–40) consecutive chances to win the game hasbreak point,double break pointortriple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to haveconvertedtheir break point. If the receiver fails to win their break point it is called afailure to convert.Winning break points, and thus the game, is also referred to asbreaking serve, as the receiver has disrupted, orbrokenthe natural advantage of the server. If in the following game the previous server also wins a break point it\",\n \"a break point it is referred to asbreaking back. Except wheretiebreaksapply, at least one break of serve is required to win a set (otherwise a two-game lead would never occur). Rule variations Another, however informal, tennis format is calledCanadian doubles. This involves three players, with one person playing against a doubles team. The single player gets to utilize the alleys normally reserved only for a doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as for a regular game. This format is not sanctioned by any official body. \\\"Australian doubles\\\", another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, is played with similar rules to theCanadian doublesstyle, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game, each player taking a turn at playing alone against the other two. As such, each player plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with the singles player always serving. Scoring styles vary, but one popular\",\n \"but one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break serve. Wheelchair tenniscan be played by able-bodied players as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility. An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and able-bodied matches. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair player and an able-bodied player (referred to as \\\"one-up, one-down\\\"), or for a wheelchair player to play against an able-bodied player. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the wheelchair users only. Match play Continuity A tennis match is intended to be continuous.Because stamina is a relevant factor, arbitrary delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point.This is increased to 90 seconds when the players change ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a\",\n \"game), and a 2-minute break is permitted between sets.Other than this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as rain, damaged footwear, damaged racket, or the need to retrieve an errant ball. Should a player be deemed to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire may initially give a warning followed by subsequent penalties of \\\"point\\\", \\\"game\\\", and default of the match for the player who is consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit. In the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and each player at the same end of the court as when rain halted play, or as close to the same relative compass point if play is resumed on a different court. Ball changes Balls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, inATPandWTAtournaments, they are changed after every nine games with the first change occurring after only seven games, because the\",\n \"games, because the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm-up.InITFtournaments likeFed Cup, the balls are changed after every eleven games (rather than nine) with the first change occurring after only nine games (instead of seven). An exception is that a ball change may not take place at the beginning of a tiebreaker, in which case the ball change is delayed until the beginning of the second game of the next set.As a courtesy to the receiver, the server will often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new balls are used as a reminder that they are using new balls. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain), then the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes. On-court coaching A recent rule change is to allow coaching on court on a limited basis during a match.This has been introduced in\",\n \"been introduced in women's tennis forWTA Tourevents in 2009 and allows the player to request her coach once per set. Stance Stance refers to the way a player prepares themselves in order to best be able to return a shot. Essentially, it enables them to move quickly in order to achieve a particular stroke. There are four main stances in modern tennis: open, semi-open, closed, and neutral. All four stances involve the player crouching in some manner: as well as being a more efficient striking posture, it allows them toisometrically preloadtheir muscles in order to play the stroke more dynamically. What stance is selected is strongly influenced by shot selection. A player may quickly alter their stance depending on the circumstances and the type of shot they intend to play. Any given stance also alters dramatically based upon the actual playing of the shot with dynamic movements and shifts of body weight occurring. Open stance This is the most common stance in tennis. The player's feet are placed parallel to\",\n \"placed parallel to the net. They may be pointing sideways, directly at the net or diagonally towards it. This stance allows for a high degree of torso rotation which can add significant power to the stroke. This process is sometimes likened to the coiling and uncoiling of a spring. i.e. the torso is rotated as a means of preloading the muscular system in preparation for playing the stroke: this is the coiling phase. When the stroke is played the torso rotates to face forwards again, called uncoiling, and adds significant power to the stroke. A disadvantage of this stance is that it does not always allow ‘for proper weight transfer and maintenance of balance’when making powerful strokes. It is commonly used for forehand strokes; double-handed backhands can also be made effectively from it. Semi-open stance This stance is somewhere between open and closed and is a very flexible stance. The feet are aligned diagonally towards the net. It allows for a lot of shoulder rotation and the torso can be coiled, before\",\n \"be coiled, before being uncoiled into the shot in order to increase the power of the shot. It is commonly used in modern tennis especially by ‘top professional players on the forehand’.Two-handed backhands can also be employed from this stance. Closed stance The closed stance is the least commonly used of the three main stances. One foot is placed further towards the net with the other foot further from it; there is a diagonal alignment between the feet. It allows for effective torso rotation in order to increase the power of the shot. It is usually used to play backhand shots and it is rare to see forehand shots played from it. A stroke from this stance may entail the rear foot coming completely off the floor with bodyweight being transferred entirely to the front foot. Neutral stance This is sometimes also referred to as the square stance. One foot is positioned closer to the net and ahead of the other which is behind and in line with it. Both feet are aligned at a 90 degree angle to the net. The neutral\",\n \"net. The neutral stance is often taught early because ‘It allows beginners to learn about shifting weight and rotation of the body.’Forehands and backhands may be made from it. Shots Competent tennis players have eight basic shots in their repertoire: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley, half-volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob. Grip A grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots during a match. The grip affects the angle of the racket face when it hits the ball and influences the pace, spin, and placement of the shot. Players use various grips during play, including the Continental (The \\\"Handshake Grip\\\"), Eastern (either semi-eastern or full eastern, usually used for backhands), and Western (semi-western or full western, usually for forehand grips) grips. Most players change grips during a match depending on what shot they are hitting; for example, slice shots and serves call for a Continental grip. Serve A serve (or, more formally, a \\\"service\\\") in tennis is a shot to start a point.\",\n \"to start a point. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it (usually near the apex of its trajectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without touching the net. The serve may be hit under- or overhand although underhand serving remains a rarity.If the ball hits the net on the first serve and bounces over into the correct diagonal box then it is called a \\\"let\\\" and the server gets two more additional serves to get it in. There can also be a let if the server serves the ball and the receiver isn't prepared.If the server misses his or her first serve and gets a let on the second serve, then they get one more try to get the serve in the box. Experienced players strive to master the conventional overhand serve to maximize its power and placement. The server may employ different types of serve including flat serve, topspin serve, slice serve, and kick (American twist) serve. A reverse type of spin serve is hit in a manner that spins the ball opposite the natural spin of the\",\n \"natural spin of the server, the spin direction depending upon right- or left-handedness. If the ball is spinning counterclockwise, it will curve right from the hitter's point of view and curve left if spinning clockwise. Some servers are content to use the serve simply to initiate the point; however, advanced players often try to hit a winning shot with their serve. A winning serve that is not touched by the opponent is called an \\\"ace\\\". Forehand For a right-handed player, the forehand is a stroke that begins on the right side of the body, continues across the body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body. There are variousgripsfor executing the forehand, and their popularity has fluctuated over the years. The most important ones are thecontinental, theeastern, thesemi-western, and thewestern. For a number of years, the small, frail 1920s playerBill Johnstonwas considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high using awesterngrip.\",\n \"using awesterngrip. Few top players used thewesterngrip after the 1920s, but in the latter part of the 20th century, as shot-making techniques and equipment changed radically, thewesternforehand made a strong comeback and is now used by many modern players. No matter which grip is used, most forehands are generally executed with one hand holding the racket, but there have been fine players with two-handed forehands. In the 1940s and 50s, the Ecuadorian/American playerPancho Seguraused a two-handed forehand to achieve a devastating effect against larger, more powerful players. Players such asMonica Selesor France'sFabrice SantoroandMarion Bartoliare also notable players known for their two-handed forehands. Backhand For right-handed players, the backhand is a stroke that begins on the left side of their body, continues across their body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the right side of their body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally considered more difficult to\",\n \"more difficult to master than the forehand. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one hand, using either aneasternor acontinentalgrip. The first notable players to use two hands were the 1930s AustraliansVivian McGrathandJohn Bromwich, but they were lone exceptions. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s asBjörn Borg,Chris Evert,Jimmy Connors, and laterMats WilanderandMarat Safinused it to great effect, and it is now used by a large number of the world's best players, includingNovak Djokovic,Rafael NadalandSerena Williams. Two hands give the player more control, while one hand can generate a slice shot, applying backspin on the ball to produce a low trajectory bounce. Reach is also limited with the two-handed shot. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time,Don Budge, had a powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that imparted topspin onto the ball.Ken Rosewall, another player noted for his one-handed backhand, used a very accurate slice\",\n \"very accurate slice backhand through the 1950s and 1960s. A small number of players, notablyMonica Seles, use two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides. Other shots Avolleyis a shot returned to the opponent in mid-air before the ball bounces, generally performed near the net, and is usually made with a stiff-wristed punching motion to hit the ball into an open area of the opponent's court. Thehalf volleyis made by hitting the ball on the rise just after it has bounced, also generally in the vicinity of the net, and played with the racket close to the ground.Theswinging volleyis hit out of the air as the player approaches the net. It is an offensive shot used to take preparation time away from the opponent, as it returns the ball into the opponent's court much faster than a standard volley. From a poor defensive position on the baseline, thelobcan be used as either an offensive or defensive weapon, hitting the ball high and deep into the opponent's court to either enable the lobber to get into better\",\n \"to get into better defensive position or to win the point outright by hitting it over the opponent's head. If the lob is not hit deeply enough into the other court, however, an opponent near the net may then hit anoverhead smash, a hard, serve-like shot, to try to end the point. A difficult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob over the backhand side of a player. When the contact point is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand, most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball or sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand sky-hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful execution of any of these alternatives requires balance and timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play. If their opponent is deep in their court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpecteddrop shot, by softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the\",\n \"the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to \\\"skid\\\" upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even backwards towards the net, thus making it even more difficult to return. Tournaments Tournaments are often organized by gender and number of players. Common tournament configurations include men's singles, women's singles, and doubles, where two players play on each side of the net. Tournaments may be organized for specific age groups, with upper age limits for youth and lower age limits for senior players. Example of this include theOrange BowlandLes Petits Asjunior tournaments. There are also tournaments for players with disabilities, such aswheelchair tennisand deaf tennis.In the fourGrand Slamtournaments, the singles draws are limited to 128 players for each gender. Most large tournamentsseedplayers, but players may also be matched by their skill level.\",\n \"their skill level. According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a rating that is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. For example, theUnited States Tennis Associationadministers the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP), which rates players between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2 point increments. Average club players under this system would rate 3.0–4.5 while world class players would be 7.0 on this scale. Grand Slam tournaments The fourGrand Slamtournaments are considered to be the most prestigious tennis events in the world. They are held annually and comprise, in chronological order, theAustralian Open, theFrench Open,Wimbledon, and theUS Open. Apart from theOlympic Games,Davis Cup,Fed Cup, andHopman Cup, they are the only tournaments regulated by theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF).The ITF's national associations,Tennis Australia(Australian Open), theFédération Française de Tennis(French Open), theLawn Tennis Association(Wimbledon) and theUnited States Tennis\",\n \"States Tennis Association(US Open) are delegated the responsibility to organize these events. Aside from the historical significance of these events, they also carry larger prize funds than any other tour event and are worth double the number of ranking points to the champion than in the next echelon of tournaments, theATP Masters 1000(men) andPremier events(women).Another distinguishing feature is the number of players in the singles draw. There are 128, more than any other professional tennis tournament. This draw is composed of 32 seeded players, other players ranked in the world's top 100, qualifiers, and players who receive invitations throughwild cards. Grand Slam men's tournaments have best-of-five set matches while the women play best-of-three. Grand Slam tournaments are among the small number of events that last two weeks, the others being theIndian Wells Mastersand theMiami Masters. Currently, the Grand Slam tournaments are the only tour events that havemixed doublescontests. Grand Slam tournaments\",\n \"Slam tournaments are held in conjunction with wheelchair tennis tournaments andjunior tenniscompetitions. These tournaments also contain their own idiosyncrasies. For example, players at Wimbledon are required to wear predominantly white.Andre Agassichose to skip Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 citing the event's traditionalism, particularly its \\\"predominantly white\\\" dress code.Wimbledon has its own particular methods for disseminating tickets, often leading tennis fans to follow complex procedures to obtain tickets. Men's tournament structure Masters Series TheATP Masters 1000is a group of nine tournaments that form the second-highest echelon in men's tennis. Each event is held annually, and a win at one of these events is worth 1000 ranking points. When theATP, led byHamilton Jordan, began running the men's tour in 1990, the directors designated the top nine tournaments, outside of theGrand Slamevents, as \\\"Super 9\\\" events.In 2000 this became the Tennis Masters Series and in 2004 the ATP Masters Series. In\",\n \"Masters Series. In November at the end of the tennis year, the world's top eight players compete in theATP Finals, a tournament with a rotating locale. It is currently held in Turin. In August 2007 the ATP announced major changes to the tour that were introduced in 2009. The Masters Series was renamed to the \\\"ATP Masters 1000\\\", the addition of the number 1000 referring to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of each tournament. Contrary to earlier plans, the number of tournaments was not reduced from nine to eight and theMonte-Carlo Mastersremains part of the series although, unlike the other events, it does not have a mandatory player commitment. TheHamburg Mastershas been downgraded to a 500-point event. TheMadrid Mastersmoved to May and onto clay courts, and a new tournament inShanghaitook over Madrid's former indoor October slot. As of 2011 six of the nine \\\"1000\\\" level tournaments are combined ATP andWTAevents. 500 and 250 series The third and fourth tier of men's tennis tournaments are\",\n \"tournaments are formed by theATP 500 series, consisting of 11 tournaments, and theATP 250 serieswith 40 tournaments.Like theATP Masters 1000, these events offer various amounts of prize money and the numbers refer to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of a tournament.TheDubai Tennis Championshipsoffer the largest financial incentive to players, with total prize money of US$2,313,975 (2012).These series have various draws of 28, 32, 48 and 56 for singles and 16 and 24 for doubles. It is mandatory for leading players to enter at least four 500 events, including at least one after the US Open. Challenger Tour and Futures tournaments TheChallenger Tourfor men is the lowest level of tournament administered by theATP. It is composed of about 150 events and, as a result, features a more diverse range of countries hosting events.The majority of players use the Challenger Series at the beginning of their career to work their way up the rankings.Andre Agassi, between winning Grand Slam tournaments,\",\n \"Slam tournaments, plummeted to World No. 141 and used Challenger Series events for match experience and to progress back up the rankings.The Challenger Series offers prize funds of between US$25,000 and US$150,000. Below the Challenger Tour are the Futures tournaments, events on theITF Men's Circuit. These tournaments also contribute towards a player'sATP rankingspoints. Futures Tournaments offer prize funds of between US$10,000 and US$15,000.Approximately 530 Futures Tournaments are played each year. Women's tournament structure In 2021, the WTA rebranded, resembling the men's tournament series, and also providing extra simplicity for fans and consumers. The numbers do not indicate ranking points, or prize money, but is a system to help define different levels of women's tennis. WTA 1000 TheWTA 1000 Tournaments(formerly thePremierMandatory and Premier 5 Tournaments), are a series of seven tournaments that are part of the second-highest tier in women's tennis. 500 and 250 Series The third and fourth tier of\",\n \"and fourth tier of women's tennis tournaments are formed from theWTA 500 Series(formerly Premier 700), with fifteen tournaments, and theWTA 250 Series(formerly International), consisting of thirty tournaments. WTA 125 TheWTA 125 Series(formerly 125K Series), is the lowest tier of women's tennis, with fourteen tournaments. Players Professional players Professional tennis players enjoy the same relative perks as most top sports personalities: clothing, equipment and endorsements. Like players of other individual sports such asgolf, they are not salaried, but must play and finish highly in tournaments to obtain prize money. In recent years,professional tennis players have been mocked by tabloids and fans for the involuntary or deliberate noise caused by players'grunting. This controversy has spurred the Grand Slam Committee, the International Tennis Association, and the Women's Tennis Association to teach players techniques to avoid grunting. Singles and doubles professional careers While players are gradually\",\n \"are gradually less competitive in singles by their late 20s and early 30s, they can still continue competitively in doubles (as instanced byMartina NavratilovaandJohn McEnroe, who won doubles titles in their 40s). In the Open Era, several female players such asMartina Navratilova,Margaret Court,Martina Hingis,Serena Williams, andVenus Williams(the latter two sisters playing together) have been prolific at both singles and doubles events throughout their careers.John McEnroeis one of the very few professional male players to be top ranked in both singles and doubles at the same time,andYevgeny Kafelnikovis the most recent male player to win multiple Grand Slams in both singles and doubles during the same period of his career. In terms of public attention and earnings (see below), singles champions have far surpassed their doubles counterparts. The Open Era, particularly the men's side, has seen many top-ranked singles players that only sparingly compete in doubles, while having \\\"doubles specialists\\\" who are\",\n \"who are typically being eliminated early in the singles draw but do well in the doubles portion of a tournament. Notable doubles pairings includeThe Woodies(Todd WoodbridgeandMark Woodforde) and theBryan brothers(identical twin brothersRobert Charles \\\"Bob\\\" BryanandMichael Carl \\\"Mike\\\" Bryan). Woodbridge has disliked the term \\\"doubles 'specialists'\\\", saying that he and Woodforde \\\"set a singles schedule and doubles fitted in around that\\\", although later in Woodbridge's career he focused exclusively on doubles as his singles ranking fell too low that it was no longer financially viable to recover at that age. Woodbridge noted that while top singles players earn enough that they do not need to nor want to play doubles, he suggested that lower-ranked singles players outside the Top Ten should play doubles to earn more playing time and money. Olympics The Olympics doubles tennis tournament necessitates that both members of a doubles pairing be from the same country, hence several top professional pairs such asJamie\",\n \"pairs such asJamie MurrayandBruno Soarescannot compete in the Olympics. Top-ranked singles players that are usually rivals on the professional circuit, such asBoris BeckerandMichael Stich, andRoger FedererandStan Wawrinkahave formed a rare doubles partnership for the Olympics. Unlike professional tennis tournaments (see below) where singles players receive much more prize money than doubles players, an Olympic medal for both singles and doubles has similar prestige. The Olympics is more of a priority for doubles champions while singles champions often skip the tournament.While the ATP has voted for Olympic results to count towards player ranking points, WTA players voted against it. For the2000 Olympics,Lisa Raymondwas passed over for Team USA in favour ofSerena Williamsby captainBillie Jean King, even though Raymond was the top-ranked doubles player in the world at the time, and Raymond unsuccessfully challenged the selection. Prize money In professional tennis tournaments such asWimbledon, the singles\",\n \"the singles competition receives the most prize money and coverage, followed by doubles, and then mixed doubles usually receive the lowest monetary awards.For instance in theUS Openas of 2018, the men's and women's singles prize money (US$40,912,000) accounts for 80.9 percent of total player base compensation, while men's and women's doubles (US$6,140,840), men's and women's singles qualifying (US$3,008,000), and mixed doubles (US$505,000) account for 12.1 percent, 5.9 percent, and 1.0 percent, respectively. The singles winner receives US$3,800,000, while the doubles winning pair receives $700,000 and the mixed doubles winning pair receives US$155,000. Grand Slam tournament winners The following players have won at least five singles titles atGrand Slam tournaments(active players inbold): Greatest male players A frequent topic of discussion among tennis fans and commentators is who was the greatest male singles player of all time. By a large margin, anAssociated Presspoll in 1950 namedBill Tildenas the\",\n \"Tildenas the greatest player of the first half of the 20th century.From 1920 to 1930, Tilden won singles titles atWimbledonthree times and theUS Championshipsseven times. In 1938, however,Donald Budgebecame the first person to win all four major singles titles during the same calendar year, theGrand Slam, and won six consecutive major titles in 1937 and 1938. Tilden called Budge \\\"the finest player 365 days a year that ever lived.\\\"In his 1979 autobiography,Jack Kramersaid that, based on consistent play, Budge was the greatest player ever.Some observers, however, also felt that Kramer deserved consideration for the title. Kramer was among the few who dominated amateur and professional tennis during the late 1940s and early 1950s.Tony Traberthas said that of the players he saw before the start of theOpen Era, Kramer was the best male champion. By the 1960s, Budge and others had addedPancho GonzalesandLew Hoadto the list of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever.Gonzales\",\n \"ever.Gonzales said about Hoad, \\\"When Lew's game was at its peak nobody could touch him. ... I think his game was the best game ever. Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with the most natural tennis physique.\\\" Before and during the Open Era,Rod Laverremains the only male player in history to have won the calendar year Grand Slam twice in 1962 and 1969and also the calendar year Professional Grand Slam in 1967. Jimmy Connors,Björn Borg, andJohn McEnroehad a fierce rivalry in the late 1970s and early 1980s that propelled \\\"the men's game to new heights of popularity\\\".Connors had a long and prolific career and holds theOpen Era men's singles recordsof 109 titles including eight Grand Slams, 1,557 matches played, and 1,274 match wins. Borg was regarded by his contemporaries as among the greatest ever, having a calm court demeanor and unrivalled physical conditioning, winning six French Opens\",\n \"six French Opens and five straight Wimbledon titles, retiring at age 26 when he was still in his prime. McEnroe attained the No. 1 ranking in bothsinglesanddoubles, finishing his career with 77 singles and 78 doubles titles; this remains thehighest men's combined totalof theOpen Era. TheAgassi–Sampras rivalryshowcased the two best players in the 1990s.Sampras had a precise and powerful serve while Agassi was considered to be one of the best service returners in the history of the game.By the early 2000s,Pete Samprashad won a then-record of 14 Grand Slam titles which was by far the most among his contemporaries. Sampras also held the record for most weeks at No. 1 with 286 until it was broken a decade later by Federer and Djokovic after that.Andre Agassi, was the first player to complete theCareer Grand Slamon all modern three surfaces (hard, grass, and clay courts) as previous winners of Grand Slam tournaments played in an era of grass and clay only (Rod Laver and Ken Rosewall also won majorPro tournamentson\",\n \"tournamentson the three surfaces). Agassi also is the only player to win all four Grand Slam titles along with theyear-end championshipsand theolympics. Both Sampras and Agassi are regarded to be among the greatest players of all time. By the early twenty-first century, the 'Big Three' ofRoger Federer,Rafael NadalandNovak Djokovichave dominated men's singles tennis for two decades,collectively winning 66majorsingles tournaments; Djokovic with an all-time record 24 titles, Nadal with 22 and Federer with 20. They have been ranked asworld No. 1sin singles for a total 947 weeks (equivalent to 18 years); Djokovic for a record 428 weeks, Federer for 310, and Nadal for 209. Greatest female players As with the men there are frequent discussions about who is the greatest female singles player of all time withSteffi Graf,Martina NavratilovaandSerena Williamsbeing the three players most often nominated. In March 2012 the Tennis Channel published a combined list of the 100 greatest men and women tennis players of all\",\n \"players of all time.It ranked Steffi Graf as the greatest female player (in 3rd place overall), followed byMartina Navratilova(4th place) andMargaret Court(8th place). The rankings were determined by an international panel. Sportswriter John Wertheim ofSports Illustratedstated in an article in July 2010 thatSerena Williamsis the greatest female tennis player ever with the argument that \\\"Head-to-head, on a neutral surface (i.e. hard courts), everyone at their best, I can't help feeling that she crushes the other legends.\\\".In a reaction to this article Yahoo sports blog Busted Racket published a list of the top-10 women's tennis players of all time placing Martina Navratilova in first spot.This top-10 list was similar to the one published in June 2008 by the Bleacher Report who also ranked Martina Navratilova as the top female player of all time. Steffi Graf is considered by some to be the greatest female player.Billie Jean Kingsaid in 1999, \\\"Steffi is definitely the greatest women's tennis player of all\",\n \"player of all time.\\\"Martina Navratilovahas included Graf on her list of great players.In December 1999, Graf was named the greatest female tennis player of the 20th century by a panel of experts assembled by theAssociated Press.Tennis writer Steve Flink, in his bookThe Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century, named her as the best female player of the 20th century, directly followed by Martina Navratilova. Tennismagazine selected Martina Navratilova as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005.Tennis historian and journalistBud Collinshas called Navratilova \\\"arguably, the greatest player of all time.\\\"Billie Jean Kingsaid about Navratilova in 2006, \\\"She's the greatest singles, doubles and mixed doubles player who's ever lived.\\\" In 2018, aTennis.companel selected Serena Williams as thegreatest female tennis player in the Open Era.In May 2020, the Tennis Channel ranked Williams as the greatest female tennis player of all time. In November 2018, Tennis.com polled its readers to\",\n \"its readers to choose the greatest women's tennis player of all time and Graf came in first.In July 2020, The Guardian polled its readers to determine the greatest female tennis player of the past 50 years, and Graf was the clear favorite, picking up nearly twice as many votes as any other player. Officials In most professional play and some amateur competition, there is an officiating head judge or chairumpire(usually referred to simply as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations. The umpire may be assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball has landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults. There also may be a net judge who determines whether the ball has touched the net during service. The umpire has the right to overrule a line judge or a net judge if the umpire is sure that a clear mistake has been made. In past tournaments, line judges tasked with calling the serve were\",\n \"the serve were sometimes assisted byelectronic sensorsthat beeped to indicate an out-of-bounds serve; one such system was called \\\"Cyclops\\\".Cyclops has since largely been replaced by theHawk-Eyesystem.In professional tournaments using this system, players are allowed three unsuccessful appeals per set, plus one additional appeal in the tiebreak to challenge closeline callsby means of anelectronic review. TheUS Open,Miami Masters,US Open Series, andWorld Team Tennisstarted using this challenge system in 2006 and theAustralian OpenandWimbledonintroduced the system in 2007.In clay-court matches, such as at theFrench Open, a call may be questioned by reference to the mark left by the ball's impact on the court surface. The referee, who is usually located off the court, is the final authority about tennis rules. When called to the court by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change the umpire's decision on a\",\n \"decision on a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the court during play, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision. (This would only happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup matches, not at the World Group level, when a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair.) Junior tennis In tennis, a junior is a player under 18 who is still legally protected by a parent or guardian. Players on the main adult tour who are under 18 must have documents signed by a parent or guardian. These players, however, are still eligible to play in junior tournaments. TheInternational Tennis Federation(ITF) conducts a junior tour that allows juniors to establish a world ranking and anAssociation of Tennis Professionals(ATP) orWomen's Tennis Association(WTA) ranking. Most juniors who enter the international circuit do so by progressing through ITF, Satellite, Future, and Challenger tournaments before entering the main circuit. The latter three circuits also have adults competing in them. Some juniors, however,\",\n \"juniors, however, such as AustralianLleyton Hewittand FrenchmanGaël Monfils, have catapulted directly from the junior tour to the ATP tour by dominating the junior scene or by taking advantage of opportunities given to them to participate in professional tournaments. In 2004, the ITF implemented a new rankings scheme to encourage greater participation in doubles, by combining two rankings (singles and doubles) into one combined tally.Junior tournaments do not offerprize moneyexcept for theGrand Slam tournaments, which are the most prestigious junior events. Juniors may earn income from tennis by participating in the Future, Satellite, or Challenger tours. Tournaments are broken up into different tiers offering different amounts of ranking points, culminating with Grade A. Leading juniors are allowed to participate for their nation in theJunior Fed Cup and Davis Cupcompetitions. To succeed in tennis often means having to begin playing at a young age. To facilitate and nurture a junior's growth in tennis,\",\n \"growth in tennis, almost all tennis playing nations have developed a junior development system. Juniors develop their play through a range of tournaments on all surfaces, accommodating all different standards of play. Talented juniors may also receive sponsorships from governing bodies or private institutions. Injuries Muscle strain is one of the most common injuries in tennis.When an isolated large-energy appears during the muscle contraction and at the same time body weight apply huge amount of pressure to the lengthened muscle,muscle straincan occur.Inflammation and bleeding are triggered when muscle strain occurs, which can result in redness, pain and swelling.Overuse is also common in tennis players of all levels.Muscle,cartilage,nerves,bursae,ligamentsandtendonsmay be damaged from overuse. The repetitive use of a particular muscle without time for repair and recovery is the most common cause of injury. In popular culture See also References Further reading External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis\",\n \"Jordanne Whiley Jordanne Joyce WhileyMBE(born 11 June 1992) is a British retired wheelchair tennis player. Aged 14, she became Britain's youngest ever national women's singles champion inwheelchair tennis.She hasosteogenesis imperfectaas does her father,Keith, who was also a Paralympian and won a bronze medal in 1984 in New York.As well as the2015 US Openin wheelchair singles, Whiley has won 9 Grand Slam doubles titles, and she & JapaneseYui Kamijiare the fourth team in women's wheelchair doubles (as well as the most recent players) to complete theCalendar Year Grand Slam.Whiley was appointedMember of the Order of the British Empire(MBE) in the2015 Queens Birthday Honourslist for services to wheelchair tennis. Career Junior In 2006 at the age of 14 Whiley claimed her first senior main draw titles when she won the singles and doubles at the Cardiff Wheelchair Tennis tournament, also winning the girls title.At the end of 2006 Whiley had moved up from 112 to 48 in the rankings and had won junior titles in Poland\",\n \"titles in Poland and the Netherlands.Whiley won two awards at the British Wheelchair Tennis Association awards: Most improved female player and players' player of the year.Whiley created history in 2007 when she defeated Katharine Kruger in Tarbes. She became the first Briton to claim the Cruyff Foundation Wheelchair Juniors Masters title, Whiley also claimed the doubles title with Louise Hunt.Following on from the Masters success Whiley won her second senior title at the North West Challenge.Whiley followed this up by becoming the youngest national British Champion and winning the doubles title as well.Whiley then successfully defended her Cardiff wheelchair tennis tournament titles.In 2008 Whiley successfully defended her Masters titles; defeating Emmy Kaiser in the singles before partnering Hunt to back to back doubles titles.The following week Whiley claimed her first international title the Sion Indoor.Whiley then successfully defended both titles at the North West Challenge.She was named in the team\",\n \"named in the team for the 2008 Paralympic Games. Senior In 2012, she reached the finals of Women's wheelchair doubles at Wimbledon.She competed forGreat Britain at the 2012 Summer Paralympicswhere she shared a bronze withLucy Shukerinwomen's doubles.Whiley and Shuker won another bronze medal at the2016 Summer Paralympics, where Whiley was eliminated in the women's singles quarterfinals. Whiley and her partnerYui Kamijiof Japan achieved a calendar Grand Slam by winning the wheelchair doubles at the Australian Open (beating the Dutch pairMarjolein BuisandJiske Griffioen), the French Open, Wimbledon and the US Open (overcoming Griffioen and fellow DutchwomanAniek van Kootin all three finals). They finished the year by adding the Masters crown after defeating Louise Hunt and Katharina Kruger in the final. However, despite the absence of van Koot and Griffioen the pair did not go undefeated throughout the tournament as they lost to Marjolein Buis and Michaela Spaanstra during the round robin group stage. Whiley\",\n \"group stage. Whiley and Kamiji are four times doubles champions atWimbledon, and Whiley was 11 weeks pregnant when they won their 4th title, in 2017.Whiley did not participate at the Championships in 2018, after giving birth to her son, earlier that year. She planned a comeback in late 2018.In the 2020 season, she won the Australian Open and US Open doubles titles. In June 2021 she andLucy Shukerwere among six tennis players named to represent the UK at the postponed2020 Paralympicsin Tokyo.Shuker and Whiley won the silver medal in thewomen's doubles,with Whiley winning bronze in thewomen's singles. Grand Slam performance timelines Wheelchair singles Wheelchair doubles References External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Reid_(tennis\",\n \"Alfie Hewett Alfie HewettOBE(born 6 December 1997 in Norwich, Norfolk) is a British professionalwheelchair tennisplayer.He is the current world No. 1 in both singles and doubles. He has won a total of 30 Grand Slam titles, with 9 singles and 21 doubles titles. Hewett is a 30-timemajorchampion, having won nine titles in singles and 21 in doubles, the latter all partneringGordon Reid. The pair completed theGrand Slamin 2021, becoming the first to do so in wheelchair men's doubles sinceStéphane Houdetin 2014. Hewett wonParalympicgold inmen's doublesat the2024 Summer Paralympics, and is a three-time silver medalist. He won theWheelchair Tennis Mastersin both singles and doubles in 2017, 2021 and 2023. Hewett was born with a congenital heart defect that required surgery at six months, and suffered fromLegg–Calvé–Perthes disease, a condition that inhibits blood flow from the pelvis to the hip joint. His ability to walk was severely impaired and from the age of six he has been a wheelchair user. Though able to walk,\",\n \"able to walk, Hewett is not fully mobile in the conventional sense and cannot do able-bodied sports. Tennis career Hewett attendedAcle High Schooland went on to study Sport and Exercise Science atCity College Norwich. In July 2016 Hewett won the2016 Wimbledon Championships – Wheelchair men's doubles, alongsideGordon Reid, coming back from a set down to win against the French pairStéphane HoudetandNicolas Peifer. He won a silver medal in the men's singles event atRio 2016and silver in the doubles event with Reid, who beat him in the singles final. In May 2017 Hewett won his firstGrand Slamin singles at theFrench Open, beatingGustavo FernándezofArgentinain three sets, despite losing the first to love. In July 2017, in a repeat of the final a year earlier, Hewett won the2017 Wimbledon Championships – Wheelchair men's doubles, alongside Reid, winning in three sets against Houdet and Peifer. Hewett won the 2017NEC Wheelchair Tennis Mastersin Loughborough, UK. He ended 2017 ranked No 2 in the world, then a\",\n \"the world, then a career-high. On 29 January 2018 Hewett became the world number 1. In March 2018 Hewett won his first Super Series singles title at the Cajun Classic in Baton Rouge, USA. On 2 September 2018 he claimed his second Super Series title at the US Open USTA Wheelchair Championships inSt. Louis. Later that month Hewett won the singles title at theUS Openas well as the doubles title with Reid. In September 2019 he successfully defended both his singles and, with Reid, doubles titles at the US Open. In 2020 Hewett won theFrench Opensingles title in three sets againstJoachim Gérardand partnered Reid to win all three available Grand Slam doubles titles at theAustralian Open, US Open and French Open, with the Wimbledon Championships cancelled due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. After winning a silver medal in themen's doubleswith Reid at the2020 Summer Paralympicsand losing the bronze medalsingles matchto Reid, world number 2Hewett spoke about his Paralympic future being \\\"out of his hands\\\",due to a review into\",\n \"to a review into whether his disability is severe enough to qualify him to play in a wheelchair under the 2019 revision ofInternational Tennis Federationrules.Hewett was allowed to continue his tennis career after an alteration to the new ITF rules in November 2021. Hewett was appointed Officer of theOrder of the British Empire(OBE) in the2023 Birthday Honoursfor services to tennis. Hewett kicked off 2024 by winning a fifth Australian Open doubles title in a row with Reid.In May 2024 Hewett was part of the Great Britain team which won the World Team Cup for a second successive year beating Spain 2-0 in the final of the event held in Turkey. It was the team's fourth win in the competition since 2015. Hewett and Reid won a fifth straightFrench Openin June with a 6-1 6-4 victory over second-seeded Japanese duo Takuya Miki and Tokito Oda in the final. At the2024 Wimbledon Championships, Hewett defeatedMartín de la Puentein the final, 6–2, 6–3, to complete the singlescareer Grand Slam.He and Reid also won doubles\",\n \"also won doubles title, defeatingTakuya MikiandTokito Odain the final, 6–4, 7–6(7–2). Hewett won the doubles gold medal at the 2024 Summer Paralympics in Paris, France. He lost in Paralympic wheelchair tennis men's singles final. Career statistics Grand Slam performance timelines Wheelchair singles Wheelchair doubles Grand Slam tournament finals Wheelchair singles: 18 (9 titles, 9 runner-ups) Wheelchair doubles: 27 (21 titles, 6 runner-ups) References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":361,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How old was the United States Air Force when the 317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was inactivated, rounded to the nearest year?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"22 years old"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/317th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/317th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/317th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/317th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron The317th Fighter Interceptor Squadronis an inactiveUnited States Air Forceunit, last assigned toAerospace Defense Command, atElmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, where it was inactivated on 31 December 1969. Thesquadronwas first activated as the317th Fighter SquadronduringWorld War II. After training in the United States, it deployed to North Africa. In combat operations in theMediterranean Theater of Operations. It was withdrawn from combat from September to December 1943 while it equipped with different aircraft and moved from Africa to Italy. It earned twoDistinguished Unit Citationsbefore returning to the United States for inactivation. The squadron returned to service as anair defenseunit in 1947, serving in that role until inactivated in 1969. History World War II Thesquadronwas first organized atMitchel Field, New York on 3 August 1942 as one of the three original squadrons of the325th Fighter Group, but moved the same day toHillsgrove Army Air Field, Rhode Island. It equipped withCurtiss P-40 Warhawksand trained for combat at Hillsgrove until late January 1943, when it began to deploy overseas. The squadron arrived in theMediterranean Theater of Operationsin February and was established at its first combat station,Tafaraoui Airfield, Algeria by 28 February 1943. It flew its first combat mission on 17 April. It escortedmedium bombers. It flewstrafingmissions and flew sweeps over the Mediterranean Sea from bases in Algeria and Tunisia. The squadron participated in the defeat ofAxisforces in Tunisia. It participated in the reduction ofPantelleriaand inOperation Husky, the invasion and conquest of Sicily. On 30 July, the 325th Group used diversionary tactics to lure a superior number of enemy planes into the air over Sardinia, destroying more than half of them. The squadron was awarded its firstDistinguished Unit Citationfor this action. In late September 1943, the squadron was withdrawn from combat to convert toRepublic P-47 Thunderboltsand prepare to move to the Italian peninsula. By early December 1943, the squadron began to operate its Thunderbolts fromFoggia Airfield, Italy, flying its first mission with the new plane on 14 December. However, it only operated the P-47 for a short period, converting toNorth American P-51 Mustangsin March 1944, and moving toLesina Airfield, Italy on the 29th of the month. However, on 30 January it flew its \"T-Bolts\" more than 300 miles at very low altitude to make a surprise attack on Germaninterceptorsdefending airdromes nearVillorba. The severe losses it inflicted on the defending forces enabledheavy bombersto attack vital targets in the area without encountering serious opposition. This action resulted in the second award of the Distinguished Unit Citation to the squadron. It escorted the heavy bombers ofFifteenth Air Forceon long range missions against theDaimler Benzfactory inBerlin, theMesserschmittfactory inRegensburgandoil refineriesnearVienna. It also flew escort for attacks on other targets, such asairfieldsandmarshalling yardsandlines of communicationin Italy, France, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Romania. It also protectedreconnaissance aircraftand strafed trains, vehicles and airfields. The squadron continued operations until May 1945. The 317th was credited with the destruction of 209 enemy aircraft in air to air combat.AfterV-E Day, it moved toVincenzo Airfield, Italy, remaining there until October, when it returned to the United States and was inactivated atCamp Kilmer, New Jersey on 28 October. Air Defense Command In May 1947, the squadron was reactivated atMitchel Field, New York and equipped withNorthrop P-61 Black Widows. it moved toMoses Lake Air Force Base, Washington, the squadron was re-equipped with the newNorth American F-82 Twin Mustangin October 1948. The squadron was assigned for the defense of theHanford Nuclear Reservationin Eastern Washington. One month later it was reassigned toHamilton Air Force Base, California, and in April 1950, returned toMcChord Air Force Base, Washington. In 1951. the squadron was redesignated as the317th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, a component of the25th Air Division,Air Defense Command, During the period between 1947 and 1956. the 317th flew the F-82. theLockheed F-94 Starfire, and theNorth American F-86D Sabreinterceptor. In 1955 and 1956, atVincent Air Force Base, Yuma, Arizona, flying the F-86D, the 317th engaged in airborne rocket competition, breaking all records previously set. In August 1956 the squadron was selected as the best air defense unit in the Air Force and was awarded the Hughes Trophy, In addition, the squadron received its first Outstanding Unit Award for high combat readiness for the period of 1953 through 1956. In November 1956, the 317th began transitioning into theConvair F-102 Delta Dagger. Alaskan Air Command In November 1956, the 317th began transitioning into the F-102A Delta Dagger, becoming the second squadron to receive the new delta-winged supersonic aircraft. In August 1957, the 317th was reassigned in force, toElmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, where it assumed air defense mission of the southern portion ofAlaskaand the northwestern approaches to the United States. In the summer of 1960. the449th Fighter-Interceptor Squadronwas inactivated andLadd Air Force Basewas closed. leaving the entire Alaska air defense mission to the 317th. To carry out this mission, the squadron was authorized 40 aircraft and 60 pilots. The squadron received its secondAir Force Outstanding Unit Awardfor maintaining full combat readiness during and after the1964 Alaska earthquakeon 27 March 1964. In the summer of 1965, the 317th was reduced to 29 aircraft and the manning reduced accordingly, but the air defense mission remained the same. In October 1965, the squadron was awarded the Hughes Trophy for the second time, and a third Air Force Outstanding Unit Award for combat readiness. In December 1969, due to budget reductions, the 317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was inactivated. Lineage Assignments Stations Aircraft Awards and campaigns See also References Bibliography This article incorporatespublic domain materialfrom theAir Force Historical Research Agency","United States Air Force TheUnited States Air Force(USAF) is theairservice branchof theUnited States Armed Forces, and is one of the eightuniformed services of the United States.Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part of theUnited States ArmySignal Corps, the USAF was established as a separate branch of the United States Armed Forces in 1947 with the enactment of theNational Security Act of 1947. It is the second youngest branch of the United States Armed Forcesand the fourth inorder of precedence. The United States Air Force articulates its core missions asair supremacy,global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance,rapid global mobility,global strike, andcommand and control. The United States Air Force is a military service branch organized within theDepartment of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of theDepartment of Defense. The Air Force through the Department of the Air Force is headed by the civilianSecretary of the Air Force, who reports to theSecretary of Defenseand is appointed by the President withSenateconfirmation. The highest-ranking military officer in the Air Force is theChief of Staff of the Air Force, who exercises supervision over Air Force units and serves as one of theJoint Chiefs of Staff. As directed by the Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Air Force, certain Air Force components are assigned tounified combatant commands. Combatant commanders are delegated operational authority of the forces assigned to them, while the Secretary of the Air Force and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force retain administrative authority over their members. Along with conducting independent air operations, the United States Air Force providesair supportfor land and naval forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2020, the service operates approximately 5,500military aircraftand approximately 400ICBMs.The world's largest air force, it has a $179.7 billion budgetand is the second largest service branch of the U.S. Armed Forces, with 321,848active duty airmen,147,879 civilian personnel,68,927reserveairmen,105,104Air National Guardairmen,and approximately 65,000Civil Air Patrolauxiliarists. Mission, vision, and functions Missions According to theNational Security Act of 1947(61Stat. 502), which created the USAF: Section 9062 of Title 10 US Code defines the purpose of the USAF as: Core missions The five core missions of the Air Force have not changed dramatically since the Air Force became independent in 1947, but they have evolved and are now articulated as air superiority, global integrated ISR (intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance), rapid global mobility, global strike, and command and control. The purpose of all of these core missions is to provide what the Air Force states as global vigilance, global reach, and global power. Air superiority Air superiority is \"that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, air, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force\" (JP 1-02). Offensive Counter-Air(OCA) is defined as \"offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible\" (JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense. Defensive Counter-Air(DCA) is defined as \"all the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate or attack through friendly airspace\" (JP 1-02). In concert with OCA operations, a major goal of DCA operations is to provide an area from which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active defense is \"the employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to the enemy\" (JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and airborne threat defense and encompasses point defense, area defense, and high-value airborne asset defense. Passive defense is \"measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize the effects of damage caused by hostile action without the intention of taking the initiative\" (JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouflage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility, counter-measures, and stealth. Airspace control is \"a process used to increase operational effectiveness by promoting the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace\" (JP 1-02). It promotes the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace, mitigates the risk of fratricide, enhances both offensive and defensive operations, and permits greater agility of air operations as a whole. It both deconflicts and facilitates the integration of joint air operations. Global integrated ISR Global integrated intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across the globe to conduct current and future operations. Planning and directing is \"the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies\" (JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision-makers. Collection is \"the acquisition of information and the provision of this information to processing elements\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to obtain required information to satisfy intelligence needs (via use of sources and methods in all domains). Collection activities span the Range of Military Operations (ROMO). Processing and exploitation is \"the conversion of collected information into forms suitable to the production of intelligence\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to transform, extract, and make available collected information suitable for further analysis or action across the ROMO. Analysis and production is \"the conversion of processed information into intelligence through the integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of all source data and the preparation of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated user requirements\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to integrate, evaluate, and interpret information from available sources to create a finished intelligence product for presentation or dissemination to enable increased situational awareness. Dissemination and integration is \"the delivery of intelligence to users in a suitable form and the application of the intelligence to appropriate missions, tasks, and functions\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to present information and intelligence products across the ROMO enabling understanding of the operational environment to military and national decision-makers. Rapid global mobility Rapid global mobility is the timely deployment, employment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It provides joint military forces the capability to move from place to place while retaining the ability to fulfill their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the initiative through speed and surprise. Airlift is \"operations to transport and deliver forces andmaterielthrough the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives\" (Annex 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis. Air refueling is \"the refueling of an aircraft in flight by another aircraft\" (JP 1-02). Air refueling extends presence, increases range, and serves as a force multiplier. It allows air assets to more rapidly reach any trouble spot around the world with less dependence on forward staging bases or overflight/landing clearances. Air refueling significantly expands the options available to a commander by increasing the range, payload, persistence, and flexibility of receiver aircraft. Aeromedical evacuation is \"the movement of patients under medical supervision to and between medical treatment facilities by air transportation\" (JP 1-02). JP 4-02, Health Service Support, further defines it as \"the fixed wing movement of regulated casualties to and between medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained explicitly for this mission.\" Aeromedical evacuation forces can operate as far forward asfixed-wing aircraftare able to conduct airland operations. Global strike Global precision attack is the ability to hold at risk or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and precise effects across multiple domains. Strategic attack is defined as \"offensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives. These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or will to engage in conflict, and may achieve strategic objectives without necessarily having to achieve operational objectives as a precondition\" (Annex 3–70, Strategic Attack). Air Interdiction is defined as \"air operations conducted to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC objectives. Air Interdiction is conducted at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of friendly forces is not required\" (Annex 3-03, Counterland Operations). Close Air Support is defined as \"air action by fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces\" (JP 1-02). This can be as a pre-planned event or on demand from an alert posture (ground or airborne). It can be conducted across the ROMO. The purpose of nuclear deterrence operations (NDO) is to operate, maintain, and secure nuclear forces to achieve an assured capability to deter an adversary from taking action against vital US interests. In the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. The sub-elements of this function are: Assure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from the Air Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike operations mission as well as from specific actions taken to assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD and delivering them contributes to promoting security and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains and presents credible deterrent capabilities through successful visible demonstrations and exercises that assure allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries from actions that threaten US national security or the populations, and deploy military forces of the US, its allies, and friends. Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level and lead to a rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either theContinental United States, within a theater of operations, or both to effectively deter the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using a variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and effectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and military importance, destructive power, and the potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments. In conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, the Air Force achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. This program applies to materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to the safety, security, and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use (aBroken Arrow incident). The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control, communications; effective nuclear weapons security; and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. Command and control Command and control is \"the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission\" (JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives. At the strategic level command and control, the US determines national or multinational security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. These national objectives in turn provide the direction for developing overall military objectives, which are used to develop the objectives and strategy for each theater. At the operational level command and control, campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, sustained, and assessed to accomplish strategic goals within theaters or areas of operations. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic and operational objectives. Tactical Level Command and Control is where individual battles and engagements are fought. The tactical level of war deals with how forces are employed, and the specifics of how engagements are conducted and targets attacked. The goal of tactical level C2 is to achieve commander's intent and desired effects by gaining and keeping offensive initiative. History The origins of the United States Air Force can be traced back to theUnion Army Balloon Corpsof theAmerican Civil War. The Union Balloon Corps, established by aeronautThaddeus S. C. Lowe, provided aerial reconnaissance for theUnion Army. This early use of balloons for military purposes marked the beginning of modern aerial warfare and set the stage for the development of the United States Air Force. TheU.S. War Departmentcreated the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force, as a part of the U.S. Army, on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual independence 40 years later. InWorld War II, almost 68,000 U.S. airmen died helping to win the war, with only the infantry suffering more casualties.In practice, theU.S. Army Air Forces(USAAF) was virtually independent of theArmyduring World War II, and in virtually every way functioned as an independent service branch, but airmen still pressed for formal independence.TheNational Security Act of 1947was signed on 26 July 1947, which established theDepartment of the Air Force, but it was not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force,W. Stuart Symington, was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed as an independent service branch. The act created theNational Military Establishment(renamedDepartment of Defensein 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely theDepartment of the Army, theDepartment of the Navy, and the newly created Department of the Air Force.Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army Air Forces and its predecessor organizations (for land-based operations), theNavy(for sea-based operations fromaircraft carriersandamphibiousaircraft), and theMarine Corps(for close air support of Marine Corps operations). The 1940s proved to be important for military aviation in other ways as well. In 1947, Air Force CaptainChuck Yeagerbroke the sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America. Antecedents The predecessor organizations in the Army of today's Air Force are: 21st century During the early 2000s, two USAF aircraft procurement projects took longer than expected, theKC-XandF-35programs. As a result, the USAF was setting new records for average aircraft age. Since 2005, the USAF has placed a strong focus on the improvement ofBasic Military Training(BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a simulated combat environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle the massive obstacle courses along with the BEAST, the other portions include defending and protecting their base of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI) act as mentors and opposing forces in a deployment exercise.In November 2022, the USAF announced that it will discontinue BEAST and replace it with another deployment training program called PACER FORGE. In 2007, the USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty personnel to 316,000.The size of the active duty force in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was at the end of the firstGulf Warin 1991.However, the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 personnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of combatant commanders and associated mission requirements.These same constraints have seen a sharp reduction in flight hours for crew training since 2005and the Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Personnel directing Airmen's Time Assessments. On 5 June 2008,Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted the resignations of both theSecretary of the Air Force,Michael Wynne, and theChief of Staff of the Air Force,GeneralT. Michael Moseley. In his decision to fire both men Gates cited \"systemic issues associated with... declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance\".Left unmentioned by Gates was that he had repeatedly clashed with Wynne and Moseley over other important non-nuclear related issues to the service.This followed an investigation into two incidents involving mishandling ofnuclear weapons: specifically anuclear weapons incidentaboard a B-52 flight betweenMinot AFBandBarksdale AFB, and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan.To put more emphasis on nuclear assets, the USAF established the nuclear-focusedAir Force Global Strike Commandon 24 October 2008, which later assumed control of all USAF bomber aircraft. On 26 June 2009, the USAF released a force structure plan that cut fighter aircraft and shifted resources to better support nuclear, irregular and information warfare.On 23 July 2009, The USAF released their Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) Flight Plan, detailing Air Force UAS plans through 2047.One third of the planes that the USAF planned to buy in the future were to be unmanned.According to Air Force Chief Scientist,Greg Zacharias, the USAF anticipates having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s, hypersonicunmanned aerial vehicles(also known as remotely-piloted vehicles, or RPAs) by the 2030s and recoverable hypersonic RPAs aircraft by the 2040s.The USAF intends to deploy aSixth-generation jet fighterby the mid-2030s. On 22 October 2023, the USAF conducted its first-ever trilateral exercise with theSouth KoreanandJapaneseair forces near the Korean Peninsula.On 29 November 2023, a USAFBell Boeing V-22 Ospreycrashed in the Japan island of Yakushima killing 1 airman. In 2024, citing theSupreme Court's ruling inLoper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo, the Air Force refused to comply with anEPAorder that they develop a cleanup plan for drinking water aroundTucson, Arizonaafter the region's groundwater was contaminated byPFASrunoff from nearby Air Force bases. Conflicts The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts and operations using military air operations. The USAF possesses the lineage and heritage of its predecessor organizations, which played a pivotal role in U.S. military operations since 1907: In addition since the USAF dwarfs all other U.S. and allied air components, it often provides support for allied forces in conflicts to which the United States is otherwise not involved, such as the2013 French campaign in Mali. Humanitarian operations The USAF has also taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following: Culture The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily driven by pilots, at first those piloting bombers (driven originally by theBomber Mafia), followed by fighters (Fighter Mafia). In response to a2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident, Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted in June 2009 the resignations ofSecretary of the Air ForceMichael Wynneand theChief of Staff of the Air ForceGeneralT. Michael Moseley. Moseley's successor, GeneralNorton A. Schwartz, a former airlift and special operations pilot, was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot.The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps. In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals in the Air Force'smissile launch officercommunity, Secretary of the Air ForceDeborah Lee Jamesadmitted that there remained a \"systemic problem\" in the USAF's management of the nuclear mission. Daniel L. Magruder Jr. defines USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory.Major GeneralCharles J. Dunlap Jr.adds that the U.S. Air Force's culture also includes anegalitarianismbred from officers perceiving themselves as their service's principal \"warriors\" working with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard crew of their aircraft. Air Force officers have never felt they needed the formal social \"distance\" from their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its officers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being primarily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted force did go into harm's way, such as crew members of multi-crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat different kind of officer/enlisted relationship than exists elsewhere in the military. Cultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in neededUAVoperators.In spite of demand for UAVs or drones to provide round the clock coverage for American troops during the Iraq War,the USAF did not establish a new career field for piloting them until the last year of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA training syllabus again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training,and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of drone programs.Paul Scharre has reported that the cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept both services from adopting each other's drone handling innovations. Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from theRoyal Air Force(e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as theU.S. Army Air Service,U.S. Army Air Corpsand theU.S. Army Air Forces. Some of these traditions range from \"Friday Name Tags\" in flying units to an annual \"Mustache Month\".The use of\"challenge coins\"dates back to World War I when a member of one of the aero squadrons bought his entire unit medallions with their emblem,while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force is the \"roof stomp\", practiced by Airmen to welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a retirement. Organization Administrative organization TheDepartment of the Air Forceis one of three military departments within theDepartment of Defense, and is managed by the civilianSecretary of the Air Force, under the authority, direction, and control of theSecretary of Defense. The senior officials in theOffice of the Secretaryare theUnder Secretary of the Air Force, fourAssistant Secretaries of the Air Forceand theGeneral Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with theadvice and consentof theSenate. The senior uniformed leadership in theAir Staffis made up of theChief of Staff of the Air Forceand theVice Chief of Staff of the Air Force. The directly subordinate commands and units are namedField Operating Agency(FOA),Direct Reporting Unit(DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating Agency. TheMajor Command(MAJCOM) is the superior hierarchical level of command. Including theAir Force Reserve Command, as of 30 September 2006, USAF has ten major commands. TheNumbered Air Force(NAF) is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, followed by Operational Command (now unused),Air Division(also now unused),Wing,Group,Squadron, and Flight. Air Force structure and organization Headquarters, United States Air Force(HQ USAF): The major components of the U.S. Air Force, as of 28 August 2015, are the following: The USAF, including its Air Reserve Component (e.g., Air Force Reserve + Air National Guard), possesses a total of 302 flying squadrons. Installations Operational organization The organizational structure as shown above is responsible for the peacetime organization, equipping, and training of air units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) directs theSecretary of the Air Force(SECAF) to execute a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their administrative alignment to the operational command of aRegionalCombatant commander(CCDR).In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency toUSTRANSCOMunless chopped to a Regional CCDR. Air Expeditionary Task Force \"Chopped\" units are referred to asforces. The top-level structure of these forces is theAir Expeditionary Task Force(AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of air forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in theCCMD's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the preponderance of air forces in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will also serve as theJoint Forces Air Component Commander(JFACC). Commander, Air Force Forces The Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the senior USAF officer responsible for the employment of air power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission. Air Operations Center TheAir Operations Center(AOC) is the JFACC'sCommand and Control(C2) center. Several AOCs have been established throughout the Air Force worldwide. These centers are responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives. Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons The AETF generates air power to support CCMD objectives fromAir Expeditionary Wings(AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions. Personnel The classification of any USAF job for officers or enlisted airmen is theAir Force Specialty Code(AFSC). AFSCs range from officer specialties such as pilot,combat systems officer,special tactics, nuclear and missile operations, intelligence, cyberspace operations, judge advocate general (JAG), medical doctor, nurse or other fields, to various enlisted specialties. The latter range from flight combat operations such as loadmaster, to working in a dining facility to ensure that Airmen are properly fed. There are additional occupational fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties,enlisted aircrew, communication systems, cyberspace operations, avionics technicians, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations,security forces, and search and rescue specialties. Beyond combat flight crew personnel, other combat USAF AFSCs areSpecial Tactics Officer,Explosive Ordnance Disposal(EOD),Combat Rescue Officer,Pararescue,Security Forces,Combat Control,Tactical Air Control Party,Special Operations Weather Technician. Nearly all enlisted career fields are \"entry level\", meaning that the USAF provides all training. Some enlistees are able to choose a particular field, or at least a field before actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC at Basic Military Training (BMT). After BMT, new enlisted airmen attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Education and Training Command, is responsible for nearly all enlisted technical training. Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 (Services) has 29 days of tech school training,while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is one year of training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over ten separate divisions, sometimes taking students close to two years to complete. Officer technical training conducted by Second Air Force can also vary by AFSC, while flight training for aeronautically rated officers conducted by AETC's Nineteenth Air Force can last well in excess of one year. USAF rank is divided betweenenlistedairmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from the enlisted Airman Basic (E-1) to the commissioned officer rank of General (O-10), however in times of war officers may be appointed to the higher grade of General of the Air Force. Enlisted promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval while officer promotions are based on time-in-grade and a promotion selection board. Promotions among enlisted personnel and non-commissioned officers are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons.Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five stars.General of the Air ForceHenry \"Hap\" Arnoldis the only individual in the history of the US Air Force to attain the rank of five-star general. As of 30 June 2017, 70% of the Air Force is White, 15% Black and 4.8% Asian. The average age is 35 and 21% of its members are female. Commissioned officers The commissioned officer ranks of the USAF are divided into three categories:company grade officers,field grade officers, andgeneral officers. Company grade officers are those officers in pay grades O-1 to O-3, while field grade officers are those in pay grades O-4 to O-6, and general officers are those in pay grades of O-7 and above. Air Force officer promotions are governed by theDefense Officer Personnel Management Actof 1980 and its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act (ROPMA) for officers in the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard.DOPMA also establishes limits on the number of officers that can serve at any given time in the Air Force. Currently, promotion from second lieutenant to first lieutenant is virtually guaranteed after two years of satisfactory service. The promotion from first lieutenant to captain is competitive after successfully completing another two years of service, with a selection rate varying between 99% and 100%. Promotion to major through major general is through a formal selection board process, while promotions to lieutenant general and general are contingent upon nomination to specific general officer positions and subject to U.S. Senate approval. During the board process, an officer's record is reviewed by a selection board at the Air Force Personnel Center atRandolph Air Force Basein San Antonio, Texas. At the 10 to 11-year mark, captains will take part in a selection board to major. If not selected, they will meet a follow-on board to determine if they will be allowed to remain in the Air Force. Promotion from major to lieutenant colonel is similar and occurs approximately between the fourteen year and the fifteen year mark, where a certain percentage of majors will be in zone (i.e., \"on time\") or above zone (i.e., \"late\") for promotion to lieutenant colonel.This process will repeat at the 18-year mark to the 21-year mark for promotion to full colonel. The Air Force has the largest ratio of general officers to total strength of all of the U.S. Armed Forces and this ratio has continued to increase even as the force has shrunk from its Cold War highs. Warrant officers Although provisions were made inTitle 10 of the United States Codefor theSecretary of the Air Forceto appoint warrant officers, the Air Force had not usedwarrant officergrades for many years, and, along with the Space Force, were the onlyU.S. Armed Servicesnot to do so until 2024. The Air Force inherited warrant officer ranks from theArmyat its inception in 1947. The Air Force stopped appointing warrant officers in 1959,the same year the first promotions were made to the new top enlisted grade,Chief Master Sergeant. The remaining warrant officers were slowly phased out. The last active duty Air Force warrant officer, CWO4 James H. Long, retired in 1980, and the last Air Force Reserve warrant officer, CWO4 Bob Barrow, retired in 1992.Upon his retirement, he was honorarily promoted to CWO5, the only person in the Air Force ever to hold this grade.Since Barrow's retirement, the Air Force warrant officer ranks, while still authorized by law, were not used. It was announced at the AFA Warfare Symposium on 12 February 2024, that warrant officer ranks in the cyber and information technology fields would be reintroduced, beginning in FY25. It was stated that this effort was to retain talent in these technical fields for airmen who did not wish to pursue a leadership path.The Air Force initially wanted a class of 30 warrant officers that would begin training by the summer 2024.By the end of July 2024, 78 Airmen were selected to be among the first Air Force warrant officers in over 66 years, more than double than originally estimated.The 78 Airmen will be spread out across three training classes, with the first starting in October 2024. Enlisted airmen Enlisted airmen havepay gradesfrom E-1 (entry level) to E-9 (senior enlisted).While all USAF personnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to asairmen, in the same manner that allArmypersonnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to assoldiers, the term also refers to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4, which are below the level ofnon-commissioned officers(NCOs). Above the pay grade of E-4 (i.e., pay grades E-5 through E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are further subdivided into \"NCOs\" (pay grades E-5 and E-6) and \"senior NCOs\" (pay grades E-7 through E-9); the term \"junior NCO\" is sometimes used to refer to staff sergeants and technical sergeants (pay grades E-5 and E-6). The USAF, along with theUS Space Force, are the only branches of the U.S. military where NCO status is achieved when an enlisted person reaches the pay grade of E-5. In all other branches, NCO status is generally achieved at the pay grade of E-4 (e.g., acorporalin the ArmyandMarine Corps,Petty Officer Third Classin theNavyandCoast Guard). The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 1991 with an E-4 being either a senior airman wearing three stripes without a star or a sergeant (referred to as \"buck sergeant\"), which was noted by the presence of the central star and considered an NCO. Despite not being an NCO, a senior airman who has completedAirman Leadership Schoolcan be a supervisor according to the AFI 36–2618. Uniforms The first USAF dress uniform, in 1947, was dubbed and patented \"Uxbridgeblue\" after \"Uxbridge 1683 blue\", developed at the former Bachman-Uxbridge Worsted Company.The current service dress uniform, which was adopted in 1994, consists of a three-button coat with decorative pockets, matching trousers, and either a service cap or flight cap, all in Shade 1620, \"Air Force blue\" (a darker purplish-blue).This is worn with a light blue shirt (shade 1550) and shade 1620 herringbone patterned necktie. Silver \"U.S.\" pins are worn on the collar of the coat, with a surrounding silver ring for enlisted airmen. Enlisted airmen wear sleeve rank on both the jacket and shirt, while officers wear metal rank insignia pinned onto the epaulet loops on the coat, and Air Force blue slide-on epaulet loops on the shirt. USAF personnel assigned to base honor guard duties wear, for certain occasions, a modified version of the standard service dress uniform that includes silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the addition of a ceremonial belt (if necessary), service cap with silver trim and Hap Arnold Device (instead of the seal of the United States worn on the regular cap), and a silver aiguillette placed on the left shoulder seam and all devices and accoutrements. TheAirman Combat Uniform(ACU) in theOperational Camouflage Pattern(OCP) replaced the previousAirman Battle Uniform(ABU) on 1 October 2018. Awards and badges In addition to basic uniform clothing,various badgesare used by the USAF to indicate a billet assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-basedawards. Over time,various badgeshave been discontinued and are no longer distributed. Training All enlisted Airmen attendBasic Military Training(BMT) atLackland Air Force BaseinSan Antonio, Texas for7+1⁄2weeks.Individuals who have prior service of over 24 months of active duty in the other service branches who seek to enlist in the Air Force must go through a 10-day Air Force familiarization course rather than enlisted BMT, however prior service opportunities are severely limited. Officers may be commissioned upon graduation from theUnited States Air Force Academy, upon graduation from another college or university through theAir Force Reserve Officer Training Corps(AFROTC) program, or through theAir Force Officer Training School(OTS). OTS, located atMaxwell Air Force BaseinMontgomery, Alabamasince 1993, in turn encompasses two separate commissioning programs: Basic Officer Training (BOT), which is for officer candidates for the Regular Air Force and the Air Force Reserve; and theAcademy of Military Science(AMS), which is for officer candidates of the Air National Guard. The Air Force also provides Commissioned Officer Training (COT) for officers of all three components who are direct-commissioned into medicine, law, religion, biological sciences, or healthcare administration. COT is fully integrated into the OTS program and today encompasses extensive coursework as well as field exercises in leadership, confidence, fitness, and deployed-environment operations. Air Force Fitness Test The US Air Force Fitness Test (AFFT) is designed to test the abdominal circumference, muscular strength/endurance and cardiovascular respiratory fitness of airmen in the USAF. As part of theFit to Fightprogram, the USAF adopted a more stringent physical fitness assessment; the new fitness program was put into effect on 1 June 2010. The annual ergo-cycle test which the USAF had used for several years had been replaced in 2004. In the AFFT, Airmen are given a score based on performance consisting of four components: waist circumference, the sit-up, the push-up, and a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run. Airmen can potentially earn a score of 100, with the run counting as 60%, waist circumference as 20%, and both strength tests counting as 10% each. A passing score is 75 points. Effective 1 July 2010, the AFFT is administered by the base Fitness Assessment Cell (FAC), and is required twice a year. Personnel earning a score over 90% may test once a year. Additionally, only meeting the minimum standards on each one of these tests will not get you a passing score of 75%, and failing any one component will result in a failure for the entire test. Aircraft inventory The U.S. Air Force has a total force of approximately 5,500 aircraft.Of these, an estimated 4,131 are in active service.Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while theU.S. Navymaintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army and Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer toUnited States military aircraft designation systems. The various aircraft of the Air Force include: A – Attack The attack aircraftof the USAF are designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as close air support for, and in proximity to, U.S. ground forces. The proximity to friendly forces require precision strikes from these aircraft that are not always possible with bomber aircraft. Their role is tactical rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear. Current USAF attack aircraft are operated by Air Combat Command, Pacific Air Forces, and Air Force Special Operations Command. On 1 August 2022,USSOCOMselected the Air Tractor-L3Harris AT-802U Sky Warden as a result of theArmed Overwatchprogram, awarding an indefinite quantity contract (IDIQ) to deliver as many as 75 aircraft. B – Bomber US Air Force bombers are strategic weapons, primarily used for long range strike missions with either conventional or nuclear ordnance. Traditionally used for attacking strategic targets, today many bombers are also used in the tactical mission, such as providing close air support for ground forces and tactical interdiction missions.All Air Force bombers are under Global Strike Command. The service's B-2A aircraft entered service in the 1990s, its B-1B aircraft in the 1980s and its current B-52H aircraft in the early 1960s. TheB-52 Stratofortressairframe design is over 60 years old and the B-52H aircraft currently in the active inventory were all built between 1960 and 1962. The B-52H is scheduled to remain in service for another 30 years, which would keep the airframe in service for nearly 90 years, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft. TheB-21is projected to replace the B-52 and parts of the B-1B force by the mid-2020s. C – Cargo/Transport Cargo aircraft are typically used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations around the world, usually outside of the commercial flight routes in uncontrolled airspace. The workhorses of the USAF airlift forces are theC-130 Hercules,C-17 Globemaster III, andC-5 Galaxy. The CV-22 is used by the Air Force for special operations. It conducts long-range, special operations missions, and is equipped with extra fuel tanks and terrain-following radar. Some aircraft serve specialized cargo and transport roles such as executive or embassy support (C-12), Antarctic support (LC-130H), and AFSOC support (C-27J and C-146A). Although most of the US Air Force's cargo aircraft were specially designed with the Air Force in mind, some aircraft such as the C-12 Huron (Beechcraft Super King Air) and C-146 (Dornier 328) are militarized conversions of existing civilian aircraft. Transport aircraft are operated by Air Mobility Command, Air Force Special Operations Command, and United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces Africa. E – Special Electronic The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent an advantage in theEMSand ensure friendly, unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. Electronic warfare aircraft are used to keep airspaces friendly, and send critical information to anyone who needs it. They are often called \"the eye in the sky\". The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include electronic warfare and jamming (EC-130H), psychological operations and communications (EC-130J), airborne early warning and control (E-3), airborne command post (E-4B), range control (E-9A), and communications relay (E-11A, EQ-4B). F – Fighter The fighter aircraft of the USAF are small, fast, and maneuverable military aircraft primarily used for air-to-air combat. Many of these fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as fighter-bombers (e.g., theF-16 Fighting Falcon); the term \"fighter\" is also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft, such as theF-117 Nighthawk. Other missions include interception of bombers and other fighters, reconnaissance, and patrol. The F-16 is currently used by the USAF Air Demonstration squadron, theThunderbirds, while a small number of both man-rated and non-man-ratedF-4 Phantom IIare retained as QF-4 aircraft for use as full-scale aerial targets (FSATs) or as part of the USAF Heritage Flight program. These extant QF-4 aircraft are being replaced in the FSAT role by early model F-16 aircraft converted to QF-16 configuration. The USAF had 2,025 fighters in service as of September 2012. H – Search and rescue These aircraft are used forsearch and rescueandcombat search and rescueon land or sea. The HC-130N/P aircraft are being replaced by newer HC-130J models. HH-60W are replacement aircraft for \"G\" models that have been lost in combat operations or accidents. New HH-60W helicopters are under development to replace both the \"G\" and \"W\" model Pave Hawks. The Air Force also has four HH-60U \"Ghost Hawks\", which are converted \"M\" variants. They are based out ofArea 51. K – Tanker The USAF's KC-135 and KC-46 aerial refueling aircraft are based on civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom, and can be equipped with \"probe and drogue\" refueling systems. Air-to-air refueling is extensively used in large-scale operations and also used in normal operations; fighters, bombers, and cargo aircraft rely heavily on the lesser-known \"tanker\" aircraft. This makes these aircraft an essential part of the Air Force's global mobility and the U.S. force projection. TheKC-10A Extenderwas retired in 2024.TheKC-46A Pegasusbegan to be delivered to USAF units in 2019. M – Multi-mission Specialized multi-mission aircraft provide support for global special operations missions. These aircraft conduct infiltration, exfiltration, resupply, and refueling forSOFteams from improvised or otherwise short runways. The MC-130J is currently being fielded to replace \"H\" and \"P\" models used by U.S. Special Operations Command. The MC-12W is used in the \"intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance\" (ISR) role. Initial generations of RPAs were primarily surveillance aircraft, but some were fitted with weaponry (such as the MQ-1 Predator, which used AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles). An armed RPA is known as an \"unmanned combat aerial vehicle\" (UCAV). R – Reconnaissance The reconnaissance aircraft of the USAF are used for monitoring enemy activity, originally carrying no armament. Although the U-2 is designated as a \"utility\" aircraft, it is a reconnaissance platform. The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include general monitoring, ballistic missile monitoring (RC-135S), electronic intelligence gathering (RC-135U), signal intelligence gathering (RC-135V/W), and high altitude surveillance (U-2). Several unmanned remotely controlled reconnaissance aircraft (RPAs), have been developed and deployed. Recently, the RPAs have been seen to offer the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting machines that can be used without risk to aircrews. T – Trainer The Air Force's trainer aircraft are used to train pilots, combat systems officers, and other aircrew in their duties. TG – Trainer gliders Several gliders are used by the USAF, primarily used for cadet flying training at the U.S. Air Force Academy. U – Utility Utility aircraft are used basically for what they are needed for at the time. For example, aHueymay be used to transport personnel around a large base or launch site, while it can also be used for evacuation. These aircraft are all around use aircraft. V – VIP staff transport These aircraft are used for the transportation of Very Important Persons (VIPs). Notable people include the president, vice president, cabinet secretaries, government officials (e.g., senators and representatives), the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and other key personnel. W – Weather reconnaissance These aircraft are used to study meteorological events such as hurricanes and typhoons. Undesignated foreign aircraft See also Notes References External links Official Other"],"string":"[\n \"317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron The317th Fighter Interceptor Squadronis an inactiveUnited States Air Forceunit, last assigned toAerospace Defense Command, atElmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, where it was inactivated on 31 December 1969. Thesquadronwas first activated as the317th Fighter SquadronduringWorld War II. After training in the United States, it deployed to North Africa. In combat operations in theMediterranean Theater of Operations. It was withdrawn from combat from September to December 1943 while it equipped with different aircraft and moved from Africa to Italy. It earned twoDistinguished Unit Citationsbefore returning to the United States for inactivation. The squadron returned to service as anair defenseunit in 1947, serving in that role until inactivated in 1969. History World War II Thesquadronwas first organized atMitchel Field, New York on 3 August 1942 as one of the three original squadrons of the325th Fighter Group, but moved the same day toHillsgrove Army Air Field, Rhode Island. It equipped withCurtiss P-40 Warhawksand trained for combat at Hillsgrove until late January 1943, when it began to deploy overseas. The squadron arrived in theMediterranean Theater of Operationsin February and was established at its first combat station,Tafaraoui Airfield, Algeria by 28 February 1943. It flew its first combat mission on 17 April. It escortedmedium bombers. It flewstrafingmissions and flew sweeps over the Mediterranean Sea from bases in Algeria and Tunisia. The squadron participated in the defeat ofAxisforces in Tunisia. It participated in the reduction ofPantelleriaand inOperation Husky, the invasion and conquest of Sicily. On 30 July, the 325th Group used diversionary tactics to lure a superior number of enemy planes into the air over Sardinia, destroying more than half of them. The squadron was awarded its firstDistinguished Unit Citationfor this action. In late September 1943, the squadron was withdrawn from combat to convert toRepublic P-47 Thunderboltsand prepare to move to the Italian peninsula. By early December 1943, the squadron began to operate its Thunderbolts fromFoggia Airfield, Italy, flying its first mission with the new plane on 14 December. However, it only operated the P-47 for a short period, converting toNorth American P-51 Mustangsin March 1944, and moving toLesina Airfield, Italy on the 29th of the month. However, on 30 January it flew its \\\"T-Bolts\\\" more than 300 miles at very low altitude to make a surprise attack on Germaninterceptorsdefending airdromes nearVillorba. The severe losses it inflicted on the defending forces enabledheavy bombersto attack vital targets in the area without encountering serious opposition. This action resulted in the second award of the Distinguished Unit Citation to the squadron. It escorted the heavy bombers ofFifteenth Air Forceon long range missions against theDaimler Benzfactory inBerlin, theMesserschmittfactory inRegensburgandoil refineriesnearVienna. It also flew escort for attacks on other targets, such asairfieldsandmarshalling yardsandlines of communicationin Italy, France, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Romania. It also protectedreconnaissance aircraftand strafed trains, vehicles and airfields. The squadron continued operations until May 1945. The 317th was credited with the destruction of 209 enemy aircraft in air to air combat.AfterV-E Day, it moved toVincenzo Airfield, Italy, remaining there until October, when it returned to the United States and was inactivated atCamp Kilmer, New Jersey on 28 October. Air Defense Command In May 1947, the squadron was reactivated atMitchel Field, New York and equipped withNorthrop P-61 Black Widows. it moved toMoses Lake Air Force Base, Washington, the squadron was re-equipped with the newNorth American F-82 Twin Mustangin October 1948. The squadron was assigned for the defense of theHanford Nuclear Reservationin Eastern Washington. One month later it was reassigned toHamilton Air Force Base, California, and in April 1950, returned toMcChord Air Force Base, Washington. In 1951. the squadron was redesignated as the317th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, a component of the25th Air Division,Air Defense Command, During the period between 1947 and 1956. the 317th flew the F-82. theLockheed F-94 Starfire, and theNorth American F-86D Sabreinterceptor. In 1955 and 1956, atVincent Air Force Base, Yuma, Arizona, flying the F-86D, the 317th engaged in airborne rocket competition, breaking all records previously set. In August 1956 the squadron was selected as the best air defense unit in the Air Force and was awarded the Hughes Trophy, In addition, the squadron received its first Outstanding Unit Award for high combat readiness for the period of 1953 through 1956. In November 1956, the 317th began transitioning into theConvair F-102 Delta Dagger. Alaskan Air Command In November 1956, the 317th began transitioning into the F-102A Delta Dagger, becoming the second squadron to receive the new delta-winged supersonic aircraft. In August 1957, the 317th was reassigned in force, toElmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, where it assumed air defense mission of the southern portion ofAlaskaand the northwestern approaches to the United States. In the summer of 1960. the449th Fighter-Interceptor Squadronwas inactivated andLadd Air Force Basewas closed. leaving the entire Alaska air defense mission to the 317th. To carry out this mission, the squadron was authorized 40 aircraft and 60 pilots. The squadron received its secondAir Force Outstanding Unit Awardfor maintaining full combat readiness during and after the1964 Alaska earthquakeon 27 March 1964. In the summer of 1965, the 317th was reduced to 29 aircraft and the manning reduced accordingly, but the air defense mission remained the same. In October 1965, the squadron was awarded the Hughes Trophy for the second time, and a third Air Force Outstanding Unit Award for combat readiness. In December 1969, due to budget reductions, the 317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was inactivated. Lineage Assignments Stations Aircraft Awards and campaigns See also References Bibliography This article incorporatespublic domain materialfrom theAir Force Historical Research Agency\",\n \"United States Air Force TheUnited States Air Force(USAF) is theairservice branchof theUnited States Armed Forces, and is one of the eightuniformed services of the United States.Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part of theUnited States ArmySignal Corps, the USAF was established as a separate branch of the United States Armed Forces in 1947 with the enactment of theNational Security Act of 1947. It is the second youngest branch of the United States Armed Forcesand the fourth inorder of precedence. The United States Air Force articulates its core missions asair supremacy,global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance,rapid global mobility,global strike, andcommand and control. The United States Air Force is a military service branch organized within theDepartment of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of theDepartment of Defense. The Air Force through the Department of the Air Force is headed by the civilianSecretary of the Air Force, who reports to theSecretary of Defenseand is appointed by the President withSenateconfirmation. The highest-ranking military officer in the Air Force is theChief of Staff of the Air Force, who exercises supervision over Air Force units and serves as one of theJoint Chiefs of Staff. As directed by the Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Air Force, certain Air Force components are assigned tounified combatant commands. Combatant commanders are delegated operational authority of the forces assigned to them, while the Secretary of the Air Force and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force retain administrative authority over their members. Along with conducting independent air operations, the United States Air Force providesair supportfor land and naval forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2020, the service operates approximately 5,500military aircraftand approximately 400ICBMs.The world's largest air force, it has a $179.7 billion budgetand is the second largest service branch of the U.S. Armed Forces, with 321,848active duty airmen,147,879 civilian personnel,68,927reserveairmen,105,104Air National Guardairmen,and approximately 65,000Civil Air Patrolauxiliarists. Mission, vision, and functions Missions According to theNational Security Act of 1947(61Stat. 502), which created the USAF: Section 9062 of Title 10 US Code defines the purpose of the USAF as: Core missions The five core missions of the Air Force have not changed dramatically since the Air Force became independent in 1947, but they have evolved and are now articulated as air superiority, global integrated ISR (intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance), rapid global mobility, global strike, and command and control. The purpose of all of these core missions is to provide what the Air Force states as global vigilance, global reach, and global power. Air superiority Air superiority is \\\"that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, air, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force\\\" (JP 1-02). Offensive Counter-Air(OCA) is defined as \\\"offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible\\\" (JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense. Defensive Counter-Air(DCA) is defined as \\\"all the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate or attack through friendly airspace\\\" (JP 1-02). In concert with OCA operations, a major goal of DCA operations is to provide an area from which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active defense is \\\"the employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to the enemy\\\" (JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and airborne threat defense and encompasses point defense, area defense, and high-value airborne asset defense. Passive defense is \\\"measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize the effects of damage caused by hostile action without the intention of taking the initiative\\\" (JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouflage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility, counter-measures, and stealth. Airspace control is \\\"a process used to increase operational effectiveness by promoting the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace\\\" (JP 1-02). It promotes the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace, mitigates the risk of fratricide, enhances both offensive and defensive operations, and permits greater agility of air operations as a whole. It both deconflicts and facilitates the integration of joint air operations. Global integrated ISR Global integrated intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across the globe to conduct current and future operations. Planning and directing is \\\"the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies\\\" (JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision-makers. Collection is \\\"the acquisition of information and the provision of this information to processing elements\\\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to obtain required information to satisfy intelligence needs (via use of sources and methods in all domains). Collection activities span the Range of Military Operations (ROMO). Processing and exploitation is \\\"the conversion of collected information into forms suitable to the production of intelligence\\\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to transform, extract, and make available collected information suitable for further analysis or action across the ROMO. Analysis and production is \\\"the conversion of processed information into intelligence through the integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of all source data and the preparation of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated user requirements\\\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to integrate, evaluate, and interpret information from available sources to create a finished intelligence product for presentation or dissemination to enable increased situational awareness. Dissemination and integration is \\\"the delivery of intelligence to users in a suitable form and the application of the intelligence to appropriate missions, tasks, and functions\\\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to present information and intelligence products across the ROMO enabling understanding of the operational environment to military and national decision-makers. Rapid global mobility Rapid global mobility is the timely deployment, employment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It provides joint military forces the capability to move from place to place while retaining the ability to fulfill their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the initiative through speed and surprise. Airlift is \\\"operations to transport and deliver forces andmaterielthrough the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives\\\" (Annex 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis. Air refueling is \\\"the refueling of an aircraft in flight by another aircraft\\\" (JP 1-02). Air refueling extends presence, increases range, and serves as a force multiplier. It allows air assets to more rapidly reach any trouble spot around the world with less dependence on forward staging bases or overflight/landing clearances. Air refueling significantly expands the options available to a commander by increasing the range, payload, persistence, and flexibility of receiver aircraft. Aeromedical evacuation is \\\"the movement of patients under medical supervision to and between medical treatment facilities by air transportation\\\" (JP 1-02). JP 4-02, Health Service Support, further defines it as \\\"the fixed wing movement of regulated casualties to and between medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained explicitly for this mission.\\\" Aeromedical evacuation forces can operate as far forward asfixed-wing aircraftare able to conduct airland operations. Global strike Global precision attack is the ability to hold at risk or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and precise effects across multiple domains. Strategic attack is defined as \\\"offensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives. These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or will to engage in conflict, and may achieve strategic objectives without necessarily having to achieve operational objectives as a precondition\\\" (Annex 3–70, Strategic Attack). Air Interdiction is defined as \\\"air operations conducted to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC objectives. Air Interdiction is conducted at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of friendly forces is not required\\\" (Annex 3-03, Counterland Operations). Close Air Support is defined as \\\"air action by fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces\\\" (JP 1-02). This can be as a pre-planned event or on demand from an alert posture (ground or airborne). It can be conducted across the ROMO. The purpose of nuclear deterrence operations (NDO) is to operate, maintain, and secure nuclear forces to achieve an assured capability to deter an adversary from taking action against vital US interests. In the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. The sub-elements of this function are: Assure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from the Air Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike operations mission as well as from specific actions taken to assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD and delivering them contributes to promoting security and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains and presents credible deterrent capabilities through successful visible demonstrations and exercises that assure allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries from actions that threaten US national security or the populations, and deploy military forces of the US, its allies, and friends. Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level and lead to a rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either theContinental United States, within a theater of operations, or both to effectively deter the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using a variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and effectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and military importance, destructive power, and the potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments. In conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, the Air Force achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. This program applies to materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to the safety, security, and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use (aBroken Arrow incident). The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control, communications; effective nuclear weapons security; and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. Command and control Command and control is \\\"the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission\\\" (JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives. At the strategic level command and control, the US determines national or multinational security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. These national objectives in turn provide the direction for developing overall military objectives, which are used to develop the objectives and strategy for each theater. At the operational level command and control, campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, sustained, and assessed to accomplish strategic goals within theaters or areas of operations. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic and operational objectives. Tactical Level Command and Control is where individual battles and engagements are fought. The tactical level of war deals with how forces are employed, and the specifics of how engagements are conducted and targets attacked. The goal of tactical level C2 is to achieve commander's intent and desired effects by gaining and keeping offensive initiative. History The origins of the United States Air Force can be traced back to theUnion Army Balloon Corpsof theAmerican Civil War. The Union Balloon Corps, established by aeronautThaddeus S. C. Lowe, provided aerial reconnaissance for theUnion Army. This early use of balloons for military purposes marked the beginning of modern aerial warfare and set the stage for the development of the United States Air Force. TheU.S. War Departmentcreated the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force, as a part of the U.S. Army, on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual independence 40 years later. InWorld War II, almost 68,000 U.S. airmen died helping to win the war, with only the infantry suffering more casualties.In practice, theU.S. Army Air Forces(USAAF) was virtually independent of theArmyduring World War II, and in virtually every way functioned as an independent service branch, but airmen still pressed for formal independence.TheNational Security Act of 1947was signed on 26 July 1947, which established theDepartment of the Air Force, but it was not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force,W. Stuart Symington, was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed as an independent service branch. The act created theNational Military Establishment(renamedDepartment of Defensein 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely theDepartment of the Army, theDepartment of the Navy, and the newly created Department of the Air Force.Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army Air Forces and its predecessor organizations (for land-based operations), theNavy(for sea-based operations fromaircraft carriersandamphibiousaircraft), and theMarine Corps(for close air support of Marine Corps operations). The 1940s proved to be important for military aviation in other ways as well. In 1947, Air Force CaptainChuck Yeagerbroke the sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America. Antecedents The predecessor organizations in the Army of today's Air Force are: 21st century During the early 2000s, two USAF aircraft procurement projects took longer than expected, theKC-XandF-35programs. As a result, the USAF was setting new records for average aircraft age. Since 2005, the USAF has placed a strong focus on the improvement ofBasic Military Training(BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a simulated combat environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle the massive obstacle courses along with the BEAST, the other portions include defending and protecting their base of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI) act as mentors and opposing forces in a deployment exercise.In November 2022, the USAF announced that it will discontinue BEAST and replace it with another deployment training program called PACER FORGE. In 2007, the USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty personnel to 316,000.The size of the active duty force in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was at the end of the firstGulf Warin 1991.However, the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 personnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of combatant commanders and associated mission requirements.These same constraints have seen a sharp reduction in flight hours for crew training since 2005and the Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Personnel directing Airmen's Time Assessments. On 5 June 2008,Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted the resignations of both theSecretary of the Air Force,Michael Wynne, and theChief of Staff of the Air Force,GeneralT. Michael Moseley. In his decision to fire both men Gates cited \\\"systemic issues associated with... declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance\\\".Left unmentioned by Gates was that he had repeatedly clashed with Wynne and Moseley over other important non-nuclear related issues to the service.This followed an investigation into two incidents involving mishandling ofnuclear weapons: specifically anuclear weapons incidentaboard a B-52 flight betweenMinot AFBandBarksdale AFB, and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan.To put more emphasis on nuclear assets, the USAF established the nuclear-focusedAir Force Global Strike Commandon 24 October 2008, which later assumed control of all USAF bomber aircraft. On 26 June 2009, the USAF released a force structure plan that cut fighter aircraft and shifted resources to better support nuclear, irregular and information warfare.On 23 July 2009, The USAF released their Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) Flight Plan, detailing Air Force UAS plans through 2047.One third of the planes that the USAF planned to buy in the future were to be unmanned.According to Air Force Chief Scientist,Greg Zacharias, the USAF anticipates having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s, hypersonicunmanned aerial vehicles(also known as remotely-piloted vehicles, or RPAs) by the 2030s and recoverable hypersonic RPAs aircraft by the 2040s.The USAF intends to deploy aSixth-generation jet fighterby the mid-2030s. On 22 October 2023, the USAF conducted its first-ever trilateral exercise with theSouth KoreanandJapaneseair forces near the Korean Peninsula.On 29 November 2023, a USAFBell Boeing V-22 Ospreycrashed in the Japan island of Yakushima killing 1 airman. In 2024, citing theSupreme Court's ruling inLoper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo, the Air Force refused to comply with anEPAorder that they develop a cleanup plan for drinking water aroundTucson, Arizonaafter the region's groundwater was contaminated byPFASrunoff from nearby Air Force bases. Conflicts The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts and operations using military air operations. The USAF possesses the lineage and heritage of its predecessor organizations, which played a pivotal role in U.S. military operations since 1907: In addition since the USAF dwarfs all other U.S. and allied air components, it often provides support for allied forces in conflicts to which the United States is otherwise not involved, such as the2013 French campaign in Mali. Humanitarian operations The USAF has also taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following: Culture The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily driven by pilots, at first those piloting bombers (driven originally by theBomber Mafia), followed by fighters (Fighter Mafia). In response to a2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident, Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted in June 2009 the resignations ofSecretary of the Air ForceMichael Wynneand theChief of Staff of the Air ForceGeneralT. Michael Moseley. Moseley's successor, GeneralNorton A. Schwartz, a former airlift and special operations pilot, was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot.The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps. In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals in the Air Force'smissile launch officercommunity, Secretary of the Air ForceDeborah Lee Jamesadmitted that there remained a \\\"systemic problem\\\" in the USAF's management of the nuclear mission. Daniel L. Magruder Jr. defines USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory.Major GeneralCharles J. Dunlap Jr.adds that the U.S. Air Force's culture also includes anegalitarianismbred from officers perceiving themselves as their service's principal \\\"warriors\\\" working with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard crew of their aircraft. Air Force officers have never felt they needed the formal social \\\"distance\\\" from their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its officers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being primarily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted force did go into harm's way, such as crew members of multi-crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat different kind of officer/enlisted relationship than exists elsewhere in the military. Cultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in neededUAVoperators.In spite of demand for UAVs or drones to provide round the clock coverage for American troops during the Iraq War,the USAF did not establish a new career field for piloting them until the last year of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA training syllabus again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training,and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of drone programs.Paul Scharre has reported that the cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept both services from adopting each other's drone handling innovations. Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from theRoyal Air Force(e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as theU.S. Army Air Service,U.S. Army Air Corpsand theU.S. Army Air Forces. Some of these traditions range from \\\"Friday Name Tags\\\" in flying units to an annual \\\"Mustache Month\\\".The use of\\\"challenge coins\\\"dates back to World War I when a member of one of the aero squadrons bought his entire unit medallions with their emblem,while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force is the \\\"roof stomp\\\", practiced by Airmen to welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a retirement. Organization Administrative organization TheDepartment of the Air Forceis one of three military departments within theDepartment of Defense, and is managed by the civilianSecretary of the Air Force, under the authority, direction, and control of theSecretary of Defense. The senior officials in theOffice of the Secretaryare theUnder Secretary of the Air Force, fourAssistant Secretaries of the Air Forceand theGeneral Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with theadvice and consentof theSenate. The senior uniformed leadership in theAir Staffis made up of theChief of Staff of the Air Forceand theVice Chief of Staff of the Air Force. The directly subordinate commands and units are namedField Operating Agency(FOA),Direct Reporting Unit(DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating Agency. TheMajor Command(MAJCOM) is the superior hierarchical level of command. Including theAir Force Reserve Command, as of 30 September 2006, USAF has ten major commands. TheNumbered Air Force(NAF) is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, followed by Operational Command (now unused),Air Division(also now unused),Wing,Group,Squadron, and Flight. Air Force structure and organization Headquarters, United States Air Force(HQ USAF): The major components of the U.S. Air Force, as of 28 August 2015, are the following: The USAF, including its Air Reserve Component (e.g., Air Force Reserve + Air National Guard), possesses a total of 302 flying squadrons. Installations Operational organization The organizational structure as shown above is responsible for the peacetime organization, equipping, and training of air units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) directs theSecretary of the Air Force(SECAF) to execute a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their administrative alignment to the operational command of aRegionalCombatant commander(CCDR).In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency toUSTRANSCOMunless chopped to a Regional CCDR. Air Expeditionary Task Force \\\"Chopped\\\" units are referred to asforces. The top-level structure of these forces is theAir Expeditionary Task Force(AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of air forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in theCCMD's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the preponderance of air forces in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will also serve as theJoint Forces Air Component Commander(JFACC). Commander, Air Force Forces The Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the senior USAF officer responsible for the employment of air power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission. Air Operations Center TheAir Operations Center(AOC) is the JFACC'sCommand and Control(C2) center. Several AOCs have been established throughout the Air Force worldwide. These centers are responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives. Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons The AETF generates air power to support CCMD objectives fromAir Expeditionary Wings(AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions. Personnel The classification of any USAF job for officers or enlisted airmen is theAir Force Specialty Code(AFSC). AFSCs range from officer specialties such as pilot,combat systems officer,special tactics, nuclear and missile operations, intelligence, cyberspace operations, judge advocate general (JAG), medical doctor, nurse or other fields, to various enlisted specialties. The latter range from flight combat operations such as loadmaster, to working in a dining facility to ensure that Airmen are properly fed. There are additional occupational fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties,enlisted aircrew, communication systems, cyberspace operations, avionics technicians, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations,security forces, and search and rescue specialties. Beyond combat flight crew personnel, other combat USAF AFSCs areSpecial Tactics Officer,Explosive Ordnance Disposal(EOD),Combat Rescue Officer,Pararescue,Security Forces,Combat Control,Tactical Air Control Party,Special Operations Weather Technician. Nearly all enlisted career fields are \\\"entry level\\\", meaning that the USAF provides all training. Some enlistees are able to choose a particular field, or at least a field before actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC at Basic Military Training (BMT). After BMT, new enlisted airmen attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Education and Training Command, is responsible for nearly all enlisted technical training. Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 (Services) has 29 days of tech school training,while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is one year of training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over ten separate divisions, sometimes taking students close to two years to complete. Officer technical training conducted by Second Air Force can also vary by AFSC, while flight training for aeronautically rated officers conducted by AETC's Nineteenth Air Force can last well in excess of one year. USAF rank is divided betweenenlistedairmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from the enlisted Airman Basic (E-1) to the commissioned officer rank of General (O-10), however in times of war officers may be appointed to the higher grade of General of the Air Force. Enlisted promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval while officer promotions are based on time-in-grade and a promotion selection board. Promotions among enlisted personnel and non-commissioned officers are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons.Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five stars.General of the Air ForceHenry \\\"Hap\\\" Arnoldis the only individual in the history of the US Air Force to attain the rank of five-star general. As of 30 June 2017, 70% of the Air Force is White, 15% Black and 4.8% Asian. The average age is 35 and 21% of its members are female. Commissioned officers The commissioned officer ranks of the USAF are divided into three categories:company grade officers,field grade officers, andgeneral officers. Company grade officers are those officers in pay grades O-1 to O-3, while field grade officers are those in pay grades O-4 to O-6, and general officers are those in pay grades of O-7 and above. Air Force officer promotions are governed by theDefense Officer Personnel Management Actof 1980 and its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act (ROPMA) for officers in the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard.DOPMA also establishes limits on the number of officers that can serve at any given time in the Air Force. Currently, promotion from second lieutenant to first lieutenant is virtually guaranteed after two years of satisfactory service. The promotion from first lieutenant to captain is competitive after successfully completing another two years of service, with a selection rate varying between 99% and 100%. Promotion to major through major general is through a formal selection board process, while promotions to lieutenant general and general are contingent upon nomination to specific general officer positions and subject to U.S. Senate approval. During the board process, an officer's record is reviewed by a selection board at the Air Force Personnel Center atRandolph Air Force Basein San Antonio, Texas. At the 10 to 11-year mark, captains will take part in a selection board to major. If not selected, they will meet a follow-on board to determine if they will be allowed to remain in the Air Force. Promotion from major to lieutenant colonel is similar and occurs approximately between the fourteen year and the fifteen year mark, where a certain percentage of majors will be in zone (i.e., \\\"on time\\\") or above zone (i.e., \\\"late\\\") for promotion to lieutenant colonel.This process will repeat at the 18-year mark to the 21-year mark for promotion to full colonel. The Air Force has the largest ratio of general officers to total strength of all of the U.S. Armed Forces and this ratio has continued to increase even as the force has shrunk from its Cold War highs. Warrant officers Although provisions were made inTitle 10 of the United States Codefor theSecretary of the Air Forceto appoint warrant officers, the Air Force had not usedwarrant officergrades for many years, and, along with the Space Force, were the onlyU.S. Armed Servicesnot to do so until 2024. The Air Force inherited warrant officer ranks from theArmyat its inception in 1947. The Air Force stopped appointing warrant officers in 1959,the same year the first promotions were made to the new top enlisted grade,Chief Master Sergeant. The remaining warrant officers were slowly phased out. The last active duty Air Force warrant officer, CWO4 James H. Long, retired in 1980, and the last Air Force Reserve warrant officer, CWO4 Bob Barrow, retired in 1992.Upon his retirement, he was honorarily promoted to CWO5, the only person in the Air Force ever to hold this grade.Since Barrow's retirement, the Air Force warrant officer ranks, while still authorized by law, were not used. It was announced at the AFA Warfare Symposium on 12 February 2024, that warrant officer ranks in the cyber and information technology fields would be reintroduced, beginning in FY25. It was stated that this effort was to retain talent in these technical fields for airmen who did not wish to pursue a leadership path.The Air Force initially wanted a class of 30 warrant officers that would begin training by the summer 2024.By the end of July 2024, 78 Airmen were selected to be among the first Air Force warrant officers in over 66 years, more than double than originally estimated.The 78 Airmen will be spread out across three training classes, with the first starting in October 2024. Enlisted airmen Enlisted airmen havepay gradesfrom E-1 (entry level) to E-9 (senior enlisted).While all USAF personnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to asairmen, in the same manner that allArmypersonnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to assoldiers, the term also refers to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4, which are below the level ofnon-commissioned officers(NCOs). Above the pay grade of E-4 (i.e., pay grades E-5 through E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are further subdivided into \\\"NCOs\\\" (pay grades E-5 and E-6) and \\\"senior NCOs\\\" (pay grades E-7 through E-9); the term \\\"junior NCO\\\" is sometimes used to refer to staff sergeants and technical sergeants (pay grades E-5 and E-6). The USAF, along with theUS Space Force, are the only branches of the U.S. military where NCO status is achieved when an enlisted person reaches the pay grade of E-5. In all other branches, NCO status is generally achieved at the pay grade of E-4 (e.g., acorporalin the ArmyandMarine Corps,Petty Officer Third Classin theNavyandCoast Guard). The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 1991 with an E-4 being either a senior airman wearing three stripes without a star or a sergeant (referred to as \\\"buck sergeant\\\"), which was noted by the presence of the central star and considered an NCO. Despite not being an NCO, a senior airman who has completedAirman Leadership Schoolcan be a supervisor according to the AFI 36–2618. Uniforms The first USAF dress uniform, in 1947, was dubbed and patented \\\"Uxbridgeblue\\\" after \\\"Uxbridge 1683 blue\\\", developed at the former Bachman-Uxbridge Worsted Company.The current service dress uniform, which was adopted in 1994, consists of a three-button coat with decorative pockets, matching trousers, and either a service cap or flight cap, all in Shade 1620, \\\"Air Force blue\\\" (a darker purplish-blue).This is worn with a light blue shirt (shade 1550) and shade 1620 herringbone patterned necktie. Silver \\\"U.S.\\\" pins are worn on the collar of the coat, with a surrounding silver ring for enlisted airmen. Enlisted airmen wear sleeve rank on both the jacket and shirt, while officers wear metal rank insignia pinned onto the epaulet loops on the coat, and Air Force blue slide-on epaulet loops on the shirt. USAF personnel assigned to base honor guard duties wear, for certain occasions, a modified version of the standard service dress uniform that includes silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the addition of a ceremonial belt (if necessary), service cap with silver trim and Hap Arnold Device (instead of the seal of the United States worn on the regular cap), and a silver aiguillette placed on the left shoulder seam and all devices and accoutrements. TheAirman Combat Uniform(ACU) in theOperational Camouflage Pattern(OCP) replaced the previousAirman Battle Uniform(ABU) on 1 October 2018. Awards and badges In addition to basic uniform clothing,various badgesare used by the USAF to indicate a billet assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-basedawards. Over time,various badgeshave been discontinued and are no longer distributed. Training All enlisted Airmen attendBasic Military Training(BMT) atLackland Air Force BaseinSan Antonio, Texas for7+1⁄2weeks.Individuals who have prior service of over 24 months of active duty in the other service branches who seek to enlist in the Air Force must go through a 10-day Air Force familiarization course rather than enlisted BMT, however prior service opportunities are severely limited. Officers may be commissioned upon graduation from theUnited States Air Force Academy, upon graduation from another college or university through theAir Force Reserve Officer Training Corps(AFROTC) program, or through theAir Force Officer Training School(OTS). OTS, located atMaxwell Air Force BaseinMontgomery, Alabamasince 1993, in turn encompasses two separate commissioning programs: Basic Officer Training (BOT), which is for officer candidates for the Regular Air Force and the Air Force Reserve; and theAcademy of Military Science(AMS), which is for officer candidates of the Air National Guard. The Air Force also provides Commissioned Officer Training (COT) for officers of all three components who are direct-commissioned into medicine, law, religion, biological sciences, or healthcare administration. COT is fully integrated into the OTS program and today encompasses extensive coursework as well as field exercises in leadership, confidence, fitness, and deployed-environment operations. Air Force Fitness Test The US Air Force Fitness Test (AFFT) is designed to test the abdominal circumference, muscular strength/endurance and cardiovascular respiratory fitness of airmen in the USAF. As part of theFit to Fightprogram, the USAF adopted a more stringent physical fitness assessment; the new fitness program was put into effect on 1 June 2010. The annual ergo-cycle test which the USAF had used for several years had been replaced in 2004. In the AFFT, Airmen are given a score based on performance consisting of four components: waist circumference, the sit-up, the push-up, and a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run. Airmen can potentially earn a score of 100, with the run counting as 60%, waist circumference as 20%, and both strength tests counting as 10% each. A passing score is 75 points. Effective 1 July 2010, the AFFT is administered by the base Fitness Assessment Cell (FAC), and is required twice a year. Personnel earning a score over 90% may test once a year. Additionally, only meeting the minimum standards on each one of these tests will not get you a passing score of 75%, and failing any one component will result in a failure for the entire test. Aircraft inventory The U.S. Air Force has a total force of approximately 5,500 aircraft.Of these, an estimated 4,131 are in active service.Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while theU.S. Navymaintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army and Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer toUnited States military aircraft designation systems. The various aircraft of the Air Force include: A – Attack The attack aircraftof the USAF are designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as close air support for, and in proximity to, U.S. ground forces. The proximity to friendly forces require precision strikes from these aircraft that are not always possible with bomber aircraft. Their role is tactical rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear. Current USAF attack aircraft are operated by Air Combat Command, Pacific Air Forces, and Air Force Special Operations Command. On 1 August 2022,USSOCOMselected the Air Tractor-L3Harris AT-802U Sky Warden as a result of theArmed Overwatchprogram, awarding an indefinite quantity contract (IDIQ) to deliver as many as 75 aircraft. B – Bomber US Air Force bombers are strategic weapons, primarily used for long range strike missions with either conventional or nuclear ordnance. Traditionally used for attacking strategic targets, today many bombers are also used in the tactical mission, such as providing close air support for ground forces and tactical interdiction missions.All Air Force bombers are under Global Strike Command. The service's B-2A aircraft entered service in the 1990s, its B-1B aircraft in the 1980s and its current B-52H aircraft in the early 1960s. TheB-52 Stratofortressairframe design is over 60 years old and the B-52H aircraft currently in the active inventory were all built between 1960 and 1962. The B-52H is scheduled to remain in service for another 30 years, which would keep the airframe in service for nearly 90 years, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft. TheB-21is projected to replace the B-52 and parts of the B-1B force by the mid-2020s. C – Cargo/Transport Cargo aircraft are typically used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations around the world, usually outside of the commercial flight routes in uncontrolled airspace. The workhorses of the USAF airlift forces are theC-130 Hercules,C-17 Globemaster III, andC-5 Galaxy. The CV-22 is used by the Air Force for special operations. It conducts long-range, special operations missions, and is equipped with extra fuel tanks and terrain-following radar. Some aircraft serve specialized cargo and transport roles such as executive or embassy support (C-12), Antarctic support (LC-130H), and AFSOC support (C-27J and C-146A). Although most of the US Air Force's cargo aircraft were specially designed with the Air Force in mind, some aircraft such as the C-12 Huron (Beechcraft Super King Air) and C-146 (Dornier 328) are militarized conversions of existing civilian aircraft. Transport aircraft are operated by Air Mobility Command, Air Force Special Operations Command, and United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces Africa. E – Special Electronic The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent an advantage in theEMSand ensure friendly, unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. Electronic warfare aircraft are used to keep airspaces friendly, and send critical information to anyone who needs it. They are often called \\\"the eye in the sky\\\". The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include electronic warfare and jamming (EC-130H), psychological operations and communications (EC-130J), airborne early warning and control (E-3), airborne command post (E-4B), range control (E-9A), and communications relay (E-11A, EQ-4B). F – Fighter The fighter aircraft of the USAF are small, fast, and maneuverable military aircraft primarily used for air-to-air combat. Many of these fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as fighter-bombers (e.g., theF-16 Fighting Falcon); the term \\\"fighter\\\" is also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft, such as theF-117 Nighthawk. Other missions include interception of bombers and other fighters, reconnaissance, and patrol. The F-16 is currently used by the USAF Air Demonstration squadron, theThunderbirds, while a small number of both man-rated and non-man-ratedF-4 Phantom IIare retained as QF-4 aircraft for use as full-scale aerial targets (FSATs) or as part of the USAF Heritage Flight program. These extant QF-4 aircraft are being replaced in the FSAT role by early model F-16 aircraft converted to QF-16 configuration. The USAF had 2,025 fighters in service as of September 2012. H – Search and rescue These aircraft are used forsearch and rescueandcombat search and rescueon land or sea. The HC-130N/P aircraft are being replaced by newer HC-130J models. HH-60W are replacement aircraft for \\\"G\\\" models that have been lost in combat operations or accidents. New HH-60W helicopters are under development to replace both the \\\"G\\\" and \\\"W\\\" model Pave Hawks. The Air Force also has four HH-60U \\\"Ghost Hawks\\\", which are converted \\\"M\\\" variants. They are based out ofArea 51. K – Tanker The USAF's KC-135 and KC-46 aerial refueling aircraft are based on civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom, and can be equipped with \\\"probe and drogue\\\" refueling systems. Air-to-air refueling is extensively used in large-scale operations and also used in normal operations; fighters, bombers, and cargo aircraft rely heavily on the lesser-known \\\"tanker\\\" aircraft. This makes these aircraft an essential part of the Air Force's global mobility and the U.S. force projection. TheKC-10A Extenderwas retired in 2024.TheKC-46A Pegasusbegan to be delivered to USAF units in 2019. M – Multi-mission Specialized multi-mission aircraft provide support for global special operations missions. These aircraft conduct infiltration, exfiltration, resupply, and refueling forSOFteams from improvised or otherwise short runways. The MC-130J is currently being fielded to replace \\\"H\\\" and \\\"P\\\" models used by U.S. Special Operations Command. The MC-12W is used in the \\\"intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance\\\" (ISR) role. Initial generations of RPAs were primarily surveillance aircraft, but some were fitted with weaponry (such as the MQ-1 Predator, which used AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles). An armed RPA is known as an \\\"unmanned combat aerial vehicle\\\" (UCAV). R – Reconnaissance The reconnaissance aircraft of the USAF are used for monitoring enemy activity, originally carrying no armament. Although the U-2 is designated as a \\\"utility\\\" aircraft, it is a reconnaissance platform. The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include general monitoring, ballistic missile monitoring (RC-135S), electronic intelligence gathering (RC-135U), signal intelligence gathering (RC-135V/W), and high altitude surveillance (U-2). Several unmanned remotely controlled reconnaissance aircraft (RPAs), have been developed and deployed. Recently, the RPAs have been seen to offer the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting machines that can be used without risk to aircrews. T – Trainer The Air Force's trainer aircraft are used to train pilots, combat systems officers, and other aircrew in their duties. TG – Trainer gliders Several gliders are used by the USAF, primarily used for cadet flying training at the U.S. Air Force Academy. U – Utility Utility aircraft are used basically for what they are needed for at the time. For example, aHueymay be used to transport personnel around a large base or launch site, while it can also be used for evacuation. These aircraft are all around use aircraft. V – VIP staff transport These aircraft are used for the transportation of Very Important Persons (VIPs). Notable people include the president, vice president, cabinet secretaries, government officials (e.g., senators and representatives), the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and other key personnel. W – Weather reconnaissance These aircraft are used to study meteorological events such as hurricanes and typhoons. Undesignated foreign aircraft See also Notes References External links Official Other\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron The317th Fighter Interceptor Squadronis an inactiveUnited States Air Forceunit, last assigned toAerospace Defense Command, atElmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, where it was inactivated on 31 December 1969. Thesquadronwas first activated as the317th Fighter SquadronduringWorld War II. After training in the United States, it deployed to North Africa. In combat operations in theMediterranean Theater of Operations. It was withdrawn from combat from September to December 1943 while it equipped with different aircraft and moved from Africa to Italy. It earned twoDistinguished Unit Citationsbefore returning to the United States for inactivation. The squadron returned to service as anair defenseunit in 1947, serving in that role until inactivated in 1969. History World War II Thesquadronwas first organized atMitchel Field, New York on 3 August 1942 as one of the three original squadrons of the325th Fighter Group, but moved the same day toHillsgrove Army Air Field, Rhode Island. It","Rhode Island. It equipped withCurtiss P-40 Warhawksand trained for combat at Hillsgrove until late January 1943, when it began to deploy overseas. The squadron arrived in theMediterranean Theater of Operationsin February and was established at its first combat station,Tafaraoui Airfield, Algeria by 28 February 1943. It flew its first combat mission on 17 April. It escortedmedium bombers. It flewstrafingmissions and flew sweeps over the Mediterranean Sea from bases in Algeria and Tunisia. The squadron participated in the defeat ofAxisforces in Tunisia. It participated in the reduction ofPantelleriaand inOperation Husky, the invasion and conquest of Sicily. On 30 July, the 325th Group used diversionary tactics to lure a superior number of enemy planes into the air over Sardinia, destroying more than half of them. The squadron was awarded its firstDistinguished Unit Citationfor this action. In late September 1943, the squadron was withdrawn from combat to convert toRepublic P-47 Thunderboltsand prepare to move","prepare to move to the Italian peninsula. By early December 1943, the squadron began to operate its Thunderbolts fromFoggia Airfield, Italy, flying its first mission with the new plane on 14 December. However, it only operated the P-47 for a short period, converting toNorth American P-51 Mustangsin March 1944, and moving toLesina Airfield, Italy on the 29th of the month. However, on 30 January it flew its \"T-Bolts\" more than 300 miles at very low altitude to make a surprise attack on Germaninterceptorsdefending airdromes nearVillorba. The severe losses it inflicted on the defending forces enabledheavy bombersto attack vital targets in the area without encountering serious opposition. This action resulted in the second award of the Distinguished Unit Citation to the squadron. It escorted the heavy bombers ofFifteenth Air Forceon long range missions against theDaimler Benzfactory inBerlin, theMesserschmittfactory inRegensburgandoil refineriesnearVienna. It also flew escort for attacks on other targets, such","other targets, such asairfieldsandmarshalling yardsandlines of communicationin Italy, France, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Romania. It also protectedreconnaissance aircraftand strafed trains, vehicles and airfields. The squadron continued operations until May 1945. The 317th was credited with the destruction of 209 enemy aircraft in air to air combat.AfterV-E Day, it moved toVincenzo Airfield, Italy, remaining there until October, when it returned to the United States and was inactivated atCamp Kilmer, New Jersey on 28 October. Air Defense Command In May 1947, the squadron was reactivated atMitchel Field, New York and equipped withNorthrop P-61 Black Widows. it moved toMoses Lake Air Force Base, Washington, the squadron was re-equipped with the newNorth American F-82 Twin Mustangin October 1948. The squadron was assigned for the defense of theHanford Nuclear Reservationin Eastern Washington. One month later it was reassigned toHamilton Air Force Base, California, and in April","and in April 1950, returned toMcChord Air Force Base, Washington. In 1951. the squadron was redesignated as the317th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, a component of the25th Air Division,Air Defense Command, During the period between 1947 and 1956. the 317th flew the F-82. theLockheed F-94 Starfire, and theNorth American F-86D Sabreinterceptor. In 1955 and 1956, atVincent Air Force Base, Yuma, Arizona, flying the F-86D, the 317th engaged in airborne rocket competition, breaking all records previously set. In August 1956 the squadron was selected as the best air defense unit in the Air Force and was awarded the Hughes Trophy, In addition, the squadron received its first Outstanding Unit Award for high combat readiness for the period of 1953 through 1956. In November 1956, the 317th began transitioning into theConvair F-102 Delta Dagger. Alaskan Air Command In November 1956, the 317th began transitioning into the F-102A Delta Dagger, becoming the second squadron to receive the new delta-winged supersonic aircraft.","aircraft. In August 1957, the 317th was reassigned in force, toElmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, where it assumed air defense mission of the southern portion ofAlaskaand the northwestern approaches to the United States. In the summer of 1960. the449th Fighter-Interceptor Squadronwas inactivated andLadd Air Force Basewas closed. leaving the entire Alaska air defense mission to the 317th. To carry out this mission, the squadron was authorized 40 aircraft and 60 pilots. The squadron received its secondAir Force Outstanding Unit Awardfor maintaining full combat readiness during and after the1964 Alaska earthquakeon 27 March 1964. In the summer of 1965, the 317th was reduced to 29 aircraft and the manning reduced accordingly, but the air defense mission remained the same. In October 1965, the squadron was awarded the Hughes Trophy for the second time, and a third Air Force Outstanding Unit Award for combat readiness. In December 1969, due to budget reductions, the 317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was","Squadron was inactivated. Lineage Assignments Stations Aircraft Awards and campaigns See also References Bibliography This article incorporatespublic domain materialfrom theAir Force Historical Research Agency","United States Air Force TheUnited States Air Force(USAF) is theairservice branchof theUnited States Armed Forces, and is one of the eightuniformed services of the United States.Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part of theUnited States ArmySignal Corps, the USAF was established as a separate branch of the United States Armed Forces in 1947 with the enactment of theNational Security Act of 1947. It is the second youngest branch of the United States Armed Forcesand the fourth inorder of precedence. The United States Air Force articulates its core missions asair supremacy,global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance,rapid global mobility,global strike, andcommand and control. The United States Air Force is a military service branch organized within theDepartment of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of theDepartment of Defense. The Air Force through the Department of the Air Force is headed by the civilianSecretary of the Air Force, who reports to theSecretary of","to theSecretary of Defenseand is appointed by the President withSenateconfirmation. The highest-ranking military officer in the Air Force is theChief of Staff of the Air Force, who exercises supervision over Air Force units and serves as one of theJoint Chiefs of Staff. As directed by the Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Air Force, certain Air Force components are assigned tounified combatant commands. Combatant commanders are delegated operational authority of the forces assigned to them, while the Secretary of the Air Force and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force retain administrative authority over their members. Along with conducting independent air operations, the United States Air Force providesair supportfor land and naval forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2020, the service operates approximately 5,500military aircraftand approximately 400ICBMs.The world's largest air force, it has a $179.7 billion budgetand is the second largest service branch of the U.S. Armed","of the U.S. Armed Forces, with 321,848active duty airmen,147,879 civilian personnel,68,927reserveairmen,105,104Air National Guardairmen,and approximately 65,000Civil Air Patrolauxiliarists. Mission, vision, and functions Missions According to theNational Security Act of 1947(61Stat. 502), which created the USAF: Section 9062 of Title 10 US Code defines the purpose of the USAF as: Core missions The five core missions of the Air Force have not changed dramatically since the Air Force became independent in 1947, but they have evolved and are now articulated as air superiority, global integrated ISR (intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance), rapid global mobility, global strike, and command and control. The purpose of all of these core missions is to provide what the Air Force states as global vigilance, global reach, and global power. Air superiority Air superiority is \"that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its","the former and its related land, sea, air, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force\" (JP 1-02). Offensive Counter-Air(OCA) is defined as \"offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible\" (JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense. Defensive Counter-Air(DCA) is defined as \"all the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate or attack through friendly airspace\" (JP 1-02). In concert with OCA operations, a major goal of DCA operations is to provide an area from which forces can","which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active defense is \"the employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to the enemy\" (JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and airborne threat defense and encompasses point defense, area defense, and high-value airborne asset defense. Passive defense is \"measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize the effects of damage caused by hostile action without the intention of taking the initiative\" (JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouflage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility, counter-measures, and stealth. Airspace control is \"a process used to increase operational effectiveness by promoting the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace\" (JP 1-02). It promotes the safe,","promotes the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace, mitigates the risk of fratricide, enhances both offensive and defensive operations, and permits greater agility of air operations as a whole. It both deconflicts and facilitates the integration of joint air operations. Global integrated ISR Global integrated intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across the globe to conduct current and future operations. Planning and directing is \"the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies\" (JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination","and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision-makers. Collection is \"the acquisition of information and the provision of this information to processing elements\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to obtain required information to satisfy intelligence needs (via use of sources and methods in all domains). Collection activities span the Range of Military Operations (ROMO). Processing and exploitation is \"the conversion of collected information into forms suitable to the production of intelligence\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to transform, extract, and make available collected information suitable for further analysis or action across the ROMO. Analysis and production is \"the conversion of processed information into intelligence through the integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of all source data and the preparation of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated user requirements\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability","the ability to integrate, evaluate, and interpret information from available sources to create a finished intelligence product for presentation or dissemination to enable increased situational awareness. Dissemination and integration is \"the delivery of intelligence to users in a suitable form and the application of the intelligence to appropriate missions, tasks, and functions\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to present information and intelligence products across the ROMO enabling understanding of the operational environment to military and national decision-makers. Rapid global mobility Rapid global mobility is the timely deployment, employment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It provides joint military forces the capability to move from place to place while retaining the ability to fulfill their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach foreign or domestic","foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the initiative through speed and surprise. Airlift is \"operations to transport and deliver forces andmaterielthrough the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives\" (Annex 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis. Air refueling is \"the refueling of an aircraft in flight by another aircraft\" (JP 1-02). Air refueling extends presence, increases range, and serves as a force multiplier. It allows air assets to more rapidly reach any trouble spot around the world with less dependence on forward staging bases or overflight/landing clearances. Air refueling","Air refueling significantly expands the options available to a commander by increasing the range, payload, persistence, and flexibility of receiver aircraft. Aeromedical evacuation is \"the movement of patients under medical supervision to and between medical treatment facilities by air transportation\" (JP 1-02). JP 4-02, Health Service Support, further defines it as \"the fixed wing movement of regulated casualties to and between medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained explicitly for this mission.\" Aeromedical evacuation forces can operate as far forward asfixed-wing aircraftare able to conduct airland operations. Global strike Global precision attack is the ability to hold at risk or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and precise effects across multiple domains. Strategic attack is defined as \"offensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives.","objectives. These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or will to engage in conflict, and may achieve strategic objectives without necessarily having to achieve operational objectives as a precondition\" (Annex 3–70, Strategic Attack). Air Interdiction is defined as \"air operations conducted to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC objectives. Air Interdiction is conducted at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of friendly forces is not required\" (Annex 3-03, Counterland Operations). Close Air Support is defined as \"air action by fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces\" (JP 1-02). This can be as a pre-planned event or on demand from an alert","from an alert posture (ground or airborne). It can be conducted across the ROMO. The purpose of nuclear deterrence operations (NDO) is to operate, maintain, and secure nuclear forces to achieve an assured capability to deter an adversary from taking action against vital US interests. In the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. The sub-elements of this function are: Assure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from the Air Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike operations mission as well as from specific actions taken to assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD and delivering them contributes to promoting security and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains and presents credible deterrent capabilities","capabilities through successful visible demonstrations and exercises that assure allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries from actions that threaten US national security or the populations, and deploy military forces of the US, its allies, and friends. Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level and lead to a rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either theContinental United States, within","States, within a theater of operations, or both to effectively deter the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using a variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and effectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and military importance, destructive power, and the potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments. In conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, the Air","or Energy, the Air Force achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. This program applies to materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to the safety, security, and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use (aBroken Arrow incident). The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control, communications; effective nuclear weapons security; and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. Command and control Command and control is \"the exercise of authority and","of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission\" (JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives. At the strategic level command and control, the US determines national or multinational security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. These national objectives in turn provide the direction for developing overall military objectives, which are used to develop the objectives and strategy for each theater. At the operational","At the operational level command and control, campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, sustained, and assessed to accomplish strategic goals within theaters or areas of operations. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic and operational objectives. Tactical Level Command and Control is where individual battles and engagements are fought. The tactical level of war deals with how forces are employed, and the specifics of how engagements are conducted and targets attacked. The goal of tactical level C2 is to achieve commander's intent and desired effects by gaining and keeping offensive initiative. History The origins of the United States Air Force can be traced back to theUnion Army Balloon Corpsof theAmerican Civil War. The Union Balloon Corps, established by aeronautThaddeus S. C. Lowe, provided aerial reconnaissance for theUnion Army. This early use of balloons for","use of balloons for military purposes marked the beginning of modern aerial warfare and set the stage for the development of the United States Air Force. TheU.S. War Departmentcreated the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force, as a part of the U.S. Army, on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual independence 40 years later. InWorld War II, almost 68,000 U.S. airmen died helping to win the war, with only the infantry suffering more casualties.In practice, theU.S. Army Air Forces(USAAF) was virtually independent of theArmyduring World War II, and in virtually every way functioned as an independent service branch, but airmen still pressed for formal independence.TheNational Security Act of 1947was signed on 26 July 1947, which established theDepartment of the Air Force, but it was not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force,W. Stuart Symington, was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed","officially formed as an independent service branch. The act created theNational Military Establishment(renamedDepartment of Defensein 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely theDepartment of the Army, theDepartment of the Navy, and the newly created Department of the Air Force.Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army Air Forces and its predecessor organizations (for land-based operations), theNavy(for sea-based operations fromaircraft carriersandamphibiousaircraft), and theMarine Corps(for close air support of Marine Corps operations). The 1940s proved to be important for military aviation in other ways as well. In 1947, Air Force CaptainChuck Yeagerbroke the sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America. Antecedents The predecessor organizations in the Army of today's Air Force are: 21st century During the early 2000s, two USAF aircraft procurement projects took longer than","took longer than expected, theKC-XandF-35programs. As a result, the USAF was setting new records for average aircraft age. Since 2005, the USAF has placed a strong focus on the improvement ofBasic Military Training(BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a simulated combat environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle the massive obstacle courses along with the BEAST, the other portions include defending and protecting their base of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI) act as mentors and opposing forces in a deployment exercise.In November 2022, the USAF announced that it will discontinue BEAST and replace it with another deployment training program called PACER FORGE. In 2007, the USAF","In 2007, the USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty personnel to 316,000.The size of the active duty force in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was at the end of the firstGulf Warin 1991.However, the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 personnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of combatant commanders and associated mission requirements.These same constraints have seen a sharp reduction in flight hours for crew training since 2005and the Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Personnel directing Airmen's Time Assessments. On 5 June 2008,Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted the resignations of both theSecretary of the Air Force,Michael Wynne, and theChief of Staff of the Air Force,GeneralT. Michael Moseley. In his decision to fire both men Gates cited \"systemic issues associated with... declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance\".Left unmentioned by Gates","by Gates was that he had repeatedly clashed with Wynne and Moseley over other important non-nuclear related issues to the service.This followed an investigation into two incidents involving mishandling ofnuclear weapons: specifically anuclear weapons incidentaboard a B-52 flight betweenMinot AFBandBarksdale AFB, and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan.To put more emphasis on nuclear assets, the USAF established the nuclear-focusedAir Force Global Strike Commandon 24 October 2008, which later assumed control of all USAF bomber aircraft. On 26 June 2009, the USAF released a force structure plan that cut fighter aircraft and shifted resources to better support nuclear, irregular and information warfare.On 23 July 2009, The USAF released their Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) Flight Plan, detailing Air Force UAS plans through 2047.One third of the planes that the USAF planned to buy in the future were to be unmanned.According to Air Force Chief Scientist,Greg Zacharias, the USAF","Zacharias, the USAF anticipates having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s, hypersonicunmanned aerial vehicles(also known as remotely-piloted vehicles, or RPAs) by the 2030s and recoverable hypersonic RPAs aircraft by the 2040s.The USAF intends to deploy aSixth-generation jet fighterby the mid-2030s. On 22 October 2023, the USAF conducted its first-ever trilateral exercise with theSouth KoreanandJapaneseair forces near the Korean Peninsula.On 29 November 2023, a USAFBell Boeing V-22 Ospreycrashed in the Japan island of Yakushima killing 1 airman. In 2024, citing theSupreme Court's ruling inLoper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo, the Air Force refused to comply with anEPAorder that they develop a cleanup plan for drinking water aroundTucson, Arizonaafter the region's groundwater was contaminated byPFASrunoff from nearby Air Force bases. Conflicts The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts and operations using military air operations. The USAF possesses the lineage and heritage of its","and heritage of its predecessor organizations, which played a pivotal role in U.S. military operations since 1907: In addition since the USAF dwarfs all other U.S. and allied air components, it often provides support for allied forces in conflicts to which the United States is otherwise not involved, such as the2013 French campaign in Mali. Humanitarian operations The USAF has also taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following: Culture The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily driven by pilots, at first those piloting bombers (driven originally by theBomber Mafia), followed by fighters (Fighter Mafia). In response to a2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident, Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted in June 2009 the resignations ofSecretary of the Air ForceMichael Wynneand theChief of Staff of the Air ForceGeneralT. Michael Moseley. Moseley's successor, GeneralNorton A. Schwartz, a former airlift and special operations pilot, was","pilot, was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot.The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps. In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals in the Air Force'smissile launch officercommunity, Secretary of the Air ForceDeborah Lee Jamesadmitted that there remained a \"systemic problem\" in the USAF's management of the nuclear mission. Daniel L. Magruder Jr. defines USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory.Major GeneralCharles J. Dunlap Jr.adds that the U.S. Air Force's culture also includes anegalitarianismbred from officers perceiving themselves as their service's principal \"warriors\" working with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard crew of their aircraft. Air Force officers have never felt they needed the","they needed the formal social \"distance\" from their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its officers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being primarily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted force did go into harm's way, such as crew members of multi-crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat different kind of officer/enlisted relationship than exists elsewhere in the military. Cultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in neededUAVoperators.In spite of demand for UAVs or drones to provide round the clock coverage for American troops during the Iraq War,the USAF did not establish a new career field for piloting them until the last year of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA","changed its RPA training syllabus again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training,and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of drone programs.Paul Scharre has reported that the cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept both services from adopting each other's drone handling innovations. Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from theRoyal Air Force(e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as theU.S. Army Air Service,U.S. Army Air Corpsand theU.S. Army Air Forces. Some of these traditions range from \"Friday Name Tags\" in flying units to an annual \"Mustache Month\".The use of\"challenge coins\"dates back to World War I when a member of one of the aero squadrons bought his entire unit medallions with their emblem,while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force is the \"roof stomp\", practiced by Airmen to welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a","event, such as a retirement. Organization Administrative organization TheDepartment of the Air Forceis one of three military departments within theDepartment of Defense, and is managed by the civilianSecretary of the Air Force, under the authority, direction, and control of theSecretary of Defense. The senior officials in theOffice of the Secretaryare theUnder Secretary of the Air Force, fourAssistant Secretaries of the Air Forceand theGeneral Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with theadvice and consentof theSenate. The senior uniformed leadership in theAir Staffis made up of theChief of Staff of the Air Forceand theVice Chief of Staff of the Air Force. The directly subordinate commands and units are namedField Operating Agency(FOA),Direct Reporting Unit(DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating Agency. TheMajor Command(MAJCOM) is the superior hierarchical level of command. Including theAir Force Reserve Command, as of 30 September 2006, USAF has ten major commands. TheNumbered Air","TheNumbered Air Force(NAF) is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, followed by Operational Command (now unused),Air Division(also now unused),Wing,Group,Squadron, and Flight. Air Force structure and organization Headquarters, United States Air Force(HQ USAF): The major components of the U.S. Air Force, as of 28 August 2015, are the following: The USAF, including its Air Reserve Component (e.g., Air Force Reserve + Air National Guard), possesses a total of 302 flying squadrons. Installations Operational organization The organizational structure as shown above is responsible for the peacetime organization, equipping, and training of air units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) directs theSecretary of the Air Force(SECAF) to execute a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their administrative alignment to the operational command of aRegionalCombatant commander(CCDR).In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE","PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency toUSTRANSCOMunless chopped to a Regional CCDR. Air Expeditionary Task Force \"Chopped\" units are referred to asforces. The top-level structure of these forces is theAir Expeditionary Task Force(AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of air forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in theCCMD's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the preponderance of air forces in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will","the COMAFFOR will also serve as theJoint Forces Air Component Commander(JFACC). Commander, Air Force Forces The Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the senior USAF officer responsible for the employment of air power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission. Air Operations Center TheAir Operations Center(AOC) is the JFACC'sCommand and Control(C2) center. Several AOCs have been established throughout the Air Force worldwide. These centers are responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives. Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons The AETF generates air power to support CCMD objectives fromAir Expeditionary Wings(AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these","recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions. Personnel The classification of any USAF job for officers or enlisted airmen is theAir Force Specialty Code(AFSC). AFSCs range from officer specialties such as pilot,combat systems officer,special tactics, nuclear and missile operations, intelligence, cyberspace operations, judge advocate general (JAG), medical doctor, nurse or other fields, to various enlisted specialties. The latter range from flight combat operations such as loadmaster, to working in a dining facility to ensure that Airmen are properly fed. There are additional occupational fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties,enlisted aircrew, communication systems, cyberspace operations, avionics technicians, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations,security forces, and search and rescue specialties. Beyond combat","Beyond combat flight crew personnel, other combat USAF AFSCs areSpecial Tactics Officer,Explosive Ordnance Disposal(EOD),Combat Rescue Officer,Pararescue,Security Forces,Combat Control,Tactical Air Control Party,Special Operations Weather Technician. Nearly all enlisted career fields are \"entry level\", meaning that the USAF provides all training. Some enlistees are able to choose a particular field, or at least a field before actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC at Basic Military Training (BMT). After BMT, new enlisted airmen attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Education and Training Command, is responsible for nearly all enlisted technical training. Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 (Services) has 29 days of tech school training,while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is one year of training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over ten separate divisions, sometimes taking students","taking students close to two years to complete. Officer technical training conducted by Second Air Force can also vary by AFSC, while flight training for aeronautically rated officers conducted by AETC's Nineteenth Air Force can last well in excess of one year. USAF rank is divided betweenenlistedairmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from the enlisted Airman Basic (E-1) to the commissioned officer rank of General (O-10), however in times of war officers may be appointed to the higher grade of General of the Air Force. Enlisted promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval while officer promotions are based on time-in-grade and a promotion selection board. Promotions among enlisted personnel and non-commissioned officers are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons.Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five stars.General of","stars.General of the Air ForceHenry \"Hap\" Arnoldis the only individual in the history of the US Air Force to attain the rank of five-star general. As of 30 June 2017, 70% of the Air Force is White, 15% Black and 4.8% Asian. The average age is 35 and 21% of its members are female. Commissioned officers The commissioned officer ranks of the USAF are divided into three categories:company grade officers,field grade officers, andgeneral officers. Company grade officers are those officers in pay grades O-1 to O-3, while field grade officers are those in pay grades O-4 to O-6, and general officers are those in pay grades of O-7 and above. Air Force officer promotions are governed by theDefense Officer Personnel Management Actof 1980 and its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act (ROPMA) for officers in the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard.DOPMA also establishes limits on the number of officers that can serve at any given time in the Air Force. Currently, promotion from second lieutenant to","lieutenant to first lieutenant is virtually guaranteed after two years of satisfactory service. The promotion from first lieutenant to captain is competitive after successfully completing another two years of service, with a selection rate varying between 99% and 100%. Promotion to major through major general is through a formal selection board process, while promotions to lieutenant general and general are contingent upon nomination to specific general officer positions and subject to U.S. Senate approval. During the board process, an officer's record is reviewed by a selection board at the Air Force Personnel Center atRandolph Air Force Basein San Antonio, Texas. At the 10 to 11-year mark, captains will take part in a selection board to major. If not selected, they will meet a follow-on board to determine if they will be allowed to remain in the Air Force. Promotion from major to lieutenant colonel is similar and occurs approximately between the fourteen year and the fifteen year mark, where a certain","where a certain percentage of majors will be in zone (i.e., \"on time\") or above zone (i.e., \"late\") for promotion to lieutenant colonel.This process will repeat at the 18-year mark to the 21-year mark for promotion to full colonel. The Air Force has the largest ratio of general officers to total strength of all of the U.S. Armed Forces and this ratio has continued to increase even as the force has shrunk from its Cold War highs. Warrant officers Although provisions were made inTitle 10 of the United States Codefor theSecretary of the Air Forceto appoint warrant officers, the Air Force had not usedwarrant officergrades for many years, and, along with the Space Force, were the onlyU.S. Armed Servicesnot to do so until 2024. The Air Force inherited warrant officer ranks from theArmyat its inception in 1947. The Air Force stopped appointing warrant officers in 1959,the same year the first promotions were made to the new top enlisted grade,Chief Master Sergeant. The remaining warrant officers were slowly phased","were slowly phased out. The last active duty Air Force warrant officer, CWO4 James H. Long, retired in 1980, and the last Air Force Reserve warrant officer, CWO4 Bob Barrow, retired in 1992.Upon his retirement, he was honorarily promoted to CWO5, the only person in the Air Force ever to hold this grade.Since Barrow's retirement, the Air Force warrant officer ranks, while still authorized by law, were not used. It was announced at the AFA Warfare Symposium on 12 February 2024, that warrant officer ranks in the cyber and information technology fields would be reintroduced, beginning in FY25. It was stated that this effort was to retain talent in these technical fields for airmen who did not wish to pursue a leadership path.The Air Force initially wanted a class of 30 warrant officers that would begin training by the summer 2024.By the end of July 2024, 78 Airmen were selected to be among the first Air Force warrant officers in over 66 years, more than double than originally estimated.The 78 Airmen will be","78 Airmen will be spread out across three training classes, with the first starting in October 2024. Enlisted airmen Enlisted airmen havepay gradesfrom E-1 (entry level) to E-9 (senior enlisted).While all USAF personnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to asairmen, in the same manner that allArmypersonnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to assoldiers, the term also refers to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4, which are below the level ofnon-commissioned officers(NCOs). Above the pay grade of E-4 (i.e., pay grades E-5 through E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are further subdivided into \"NCOs\" (pay grades E-5 and E-6) and \"senior NCOs\" (pay grades E-7 through E-9); the term \"junior NCO\" is sometimes used to refer to staff sergeants and technical sergeants (pay grades E-5 and E-6). The USAF, along with theUS Space Force, are the only branches of the U.S. military where NCO status is achieved when an enlisted person reaches the pay grade of E-5. In all other branches, NCO status is","NCO status is generally achieved at the pay grade of E-4 (e.g., acorporalin the ArmyandMarine Corps,Petty Officer Third Classin theNavyandCoast Guard). The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 1991 with an E-4 being either a senior airman wearing three stripes without a star or a sergeant (referred to as \"buck sergeant\"), which was noted by the presence of the central star and considered an NCO. Despite not being an NCO, a senior airman who has completedAirman Leadership Schoolcan be a supervisor according to the AFI 36–2618. Uniforms The first USAF dress uniform, in 1947, was dubbed and patented \"Uxbridgeblue\" after \"Uxbridge 1683 blue\", developed at the former Bachman-Uxbridge Worsted Company.The current service dress uniform, which was adopted in 1994, consists of a three-button coat with decorative pockets, matching trousers, and either a service cap or flight cap, all in Shade 1620, \"Air Force blue\" (a darker purplish-blue).This is worn with a light blue shirt (shade 1550) and shade 1620 herringbone","1620 herringbone patterned necktie. Silver \"U.S.\" pins are worn on the collar of the coat, with a surrounding silver ring for enlisted airmen. Enlisted airmen wear sleeve rank on both the jacket and shirt, while officers wear metal rank insignia pinned onto the epaulet loops on the coat, and Air Force blue slide-on epaulet loops on the shirt. USAF personnel assigned to base honor guard duties wear, for certain occasions, a modified version of the standard service dress uniform that includes silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the addition of a ceremonial belt (if necessary), service cap with silver trim and Hap Arnold Device (instead of the seal of the United States worn on the regular cap), and a silver aiguillette placed on the left shoulder seam and all devices and accoutrements. TheAirman Combat Uniform(ACU) in theOperational Camouflage Pattern(OCP) replaced the previousAirman Battle Uniform(ABU) on 1 October 2018. Awards and badges In addition to basic uniform clothing,various badgesare used","badgesare used by the USAF to indicate a billet assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-basedawards. Over time,various badgeshave been discontinued and are no longer distributed. Training All enlisted Airmen attendBasic Military Training(BMT) atLackland Air Force BaseinSan Antonio, Texas for7+1⁄2weeks.Individuals who have prior service of over 24 months of active duty in the other service branches who seek to enlist in the Air Force must go through a 10-day Air Force familiarization course rather than enlisted BMT, however prior service opportunities are severely limited. Officers may be commissioned upon graduation from theUnited States Air Force Academy, upon graduation from another college or university through theAir Force Reserve Officer Training Corps(AFROTC) program, or through theAir Force Officer Training School(OTS). OTS, located atMaxwell Air Force BaseinMontgomery, Alabamasince 1993, in turn encompasses two separate commissioning","commissioning programs: Basic Officer Training (BOT), which is for officer candidates for the Regular Air Force and the Air Force Reserve; and theAcademy of Military Science(AMS), which is for officer candidates of the Air National Guard. The Air Force also provides Commissioned Officer Training (COT) for officers of all three components who are direct-commissioned into medicine, law, religion, biological sciences, or healthcare administration. COT is fully integrated into the OTS program and today encompasses extensive coursework as well as field exercises in leadership, confidence, fitness, and deployed-environment operations. Air Force Fitness Test The US Air Force Fitness Test (AFFT) is designed to test the abdominal circumference, muscular strength/endurance and cardiovascular respiratory fitness of airmen in the USAF. As part of theFit to Fightprogram, the USAF adopted a more stringent physical fitness assessment; the new fitness program was put into effect on 1 June 2010. The annual ergo-cycle test","ergo-cycle test which the USAF had used for several years had been replaced in 2004. In the AFFT, Airmen are given a score based on performance consisting of four components: waist circumference, the sit-up, the push-up, and a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run. Airmen can potentially earn a score of 100, with the run counting as 60%, waist circumference as 20%, and both strength tests counting as 10% each. A passing score is 75 points. Effective 1 July 2010, the AFFT is administered by the base Fitness Assessment Cell (FAC), and is required twice a year. Personnel earning a score over 90% may test once a year. Additionally, only meeting the minimum standards on each one of these tests will not get you a passing score of 75%, and failing any one component will result in a failure for the entire test. Aircraft inventory The U.S. Air Force has a total force of approximately 5,500 aircraft.Of these, an estimated 4,131 are in active service.Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while","naming, while theU.S. Navymaintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army and Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer toUnited States military aircraft designation systems. The various aircraft of the Air Force include: A – Attack The attack aircraftof the USAF are designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as close air support for, and in proximity to, U.S. ground forces. The proximity to friendly forces require precision strikes from these aircraft that are not always possible with bomber aircraft. Their role is tactical rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear. Current USAF attack aircraft are operated by Air Combat Command, Pacific Air Forces, and Air Force Special Operations Command. On 1 August 2022,USSOCOMselected the Air Tractor-L3Harris AT-802U Sky Warden as a result of theArmed Overwatchprogram,","Overwatchprogram, awarding an indefinite quantity contract (IDIQ) to deliver as many as 75 aircraft. B – Bomber US Air Force bombers are strategic weapons, primarily used for long range strike missions with either conventional or nuclear ordnance. Traditionally used for attacking strategic targets, today many bombers are also used in the tactical mission, such as providing close air support for ground forces and tactical interdiction missions.All Air Force bombers are under Global Strike Command. The service's B-2A aircraft entered service in the 1990s, its B-1B aircraft in the 1980s and its current B-52H aircraft in the early 1960s. TheB-52 Stratofortressairframe design is over 60 years old and the B-52H aircraft currently in the active inventory were all built between 1960 and 1962. The B-52H is scheduled to remain in service for another 30 years, which would keep the airframe in service for nearly 90 years, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft. TheB-21is projected to replace the B-52 and","the B-52 and parts of the B-1B force by the mid-2020s. C – Cargo/Transport Cargo aircraft are typically used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations around the world, usually outside of the commercial flight routes in uncontrolled airspace. The workhorses of the USAF airlift forces are theC-130 Hercules,C-17 Globemaster III, andC-5 Galaxy. The CV-22 is used by the Air Force for special operations. It conducts long-range, special operations missions, and is equipped with extra fuel tanks and terrain-following radar. Some aircraft serve specialized cargo and transport roles such as executive or embassy support (C-12), Antarctic support (LC-130H), and AFSOC support (C-27J and C-146A). Although most of the US Air Force's cargo aircraft were specially designed with the Air Force in mind, some aircraft such as the C-12 Huron (Beechcraft Super King Air) and C-146 (Dornier 328) are militarized conversions of existing civilian aircraft.","civilian aircraft. Transport aircraft are operated by Air Mobility Command, Air Force Special Operations Command, and United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces Africa. E – Special Electronic The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent an advantage in theEMSand ensure friendly, unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. Electronic warfare aircraft are used to keep airspaces friendly, and send critical information to anyone who needs it. They are often called \"the eye in the sky\". The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include electronic warfare and jamming (EC-130H), psychological operations and communications (EC-130J), airborne early warning and control (E-3), airborne command post (E-4B), range control (E-9A), and communications relay (E-11A, EQ-4B). F – Fighter The fighter aircraft of the USAF are small, fast, and maneuverable military aircraft primarily used for air-to-air combat. Many of these fighters have secondary","have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as fighter-bombers (e.g., theF-16 Fighting Falcon); the term \"fighter\" is also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft, such as theF-117 Nighthawk. Other missions include interception of bombers and other fighters, reconnaissance, and patrol. The F-16 is currently used by the USAF Air Demonstration squadron, theThunderbirds, while a small number of both man-rated and non-man-ratedF-4 Phantom IIare retained as QF-4 aircraft for use as full-scale aerial targets (FSATs) or as part of the USAF Heritage Flight program. These extant QF-4 aircraft are being replaced in the FSAT role by early model F-16 aircraft converted to QF-16 configuration. The USAF had 2,025 fighters in service as of September 2012. H – Search and rescue These aircraft are used forsearch and rescueandcombat search and rescueon land or sea. The HC-130N/P aircraft are being replaced by newer HC-130J models. HH-60W are replacement aircraft for \"G\" models","for \"G\" models that have been lost in combat operations or accidents. New HH-60W helicopters are under development to replace both the \"G\" and \"W\" model Pave Hawks. The Air Force also has four HH-60U \"Ghost Hawks\", which are converted \"M\" variants. They are based out ofArea 51. K – Tanker The USAF's KC-135 and KC-46 aerial refueling aircraft are based on civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom, and can be equipped with \"probe and drogue\" refueling systems. Air-to-air refueling is extensively used in large-scale operations and also used in normal operations; fighters, bombers, and cargo aircraft rely heavily on the lesser-known \"tanker\" aircraft. This makes these aircraft an essential part of the Air Force's global mobility and the U.S. force projection. TheKC-10A Extenderwas retired in 2024.TheKC-46A Pegasusbegan to be delivered to USAF units in 2019. M – Multi-mission Specialized multi-mission aircraft provide support for global","support for global special operations missions. These aircraft conduct infiltration, exfiltration, resupply, and refueling forSOFteams from improvised or otherwise short runways. The MC-130J is currently being fielded to replace \"H\" and \"P\" models used by U.S. Special Operations Command. The MC-12W is used in the \"intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance\" (ISR) role. Initial generations of RPAs were primarily surveillance aircraft, but some were fitted with weaponry (such as the MQ-1 Predator, which used AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles). An armed RPA is known as an \"unmanned combat aerial vehicle\" (UCAV). R – Reconnaissance The reconnaissance aircraft of the USAF are used for monitoring enemy activity, originally carrying no armament. Although the U-2 is designated as a \"utility\" aircraft, it is a reconnaissance platform. The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include general monitoring, ballistic missile monitoring (RC-135S), electronic intelligence gathering","gathering (RC-135U), signal intelligence gathering (RC-135V/W), and high altitude surveillance (U-2). Several unmanned remotely controlled reconnaissance aircraft (RPAs), have been developed and deployed. Recently, the RPAs have been seen to offer the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting machines that can be used without risk to aircrews. T – Trainer The Air Force's trainer aircraft are used to train pilots, combat systems officers, and other aircrew in their duties. TG – Trainer gliders Several gliders are used by the USAF, primarily used for cadet flying training at the U.S. Air Force Academy. U – Utility Utility aircraft are used basically for what they are needed for at the time. For example, aHueymay be used to transport personnel around a large base or launch site, while it can also be used for evacuation. These aircraft are all around use aircraft. V – VIP staff transport These aircraft are used for the transportation of Very Important Persons (VIPs). Notable people include the president,","the president, vice president, cabinet secretaries, government officials (e.g., senators and representatives), the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and other key personnel. W – Weather reconnaissance These aircraft are used to study meteorological events such as hurricanes and typhoons. Undesignated foreign aircraft See also Notes References External links Official Other"],"string":"[\n \"317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron The317th Fighter Interceptor Squadronis an inactiveUnited States Air Forceunit, last assigned toAerospace Defense Command, atElmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, where it was inactivated on 31 December 1969. Thesquadronwas first activated as the317th Fighter SquadronduringWorld War II. After training in the United States, it deployed to North Africa. In combat operations in theMediterranean Theater of Operations. It was withdrawn from combat from September to December 1943 while it equipped with different aircraft and moved from Africa to Italy. It earned twoDistinguished Unit Citationsbefore returning to the United States for inactivation. The squadron returned to service as anair defenseunit in 1947, serving in that role until inactivated in 1969. History World War II Thesquadronwas first organized atMitchel Field, New York on 3 August 1942 as one of the three original squadrons of the325th Fighter Group, but moved the same day toHillsgrove Army Air Field, Rhode Island. It\",\n \"Rhode Island. It equipped withCurtiss P-40 Warhawksand trained for combat at Hillsgrove until late January 1943, when it began to deploy overseas. The squadron arrived in theMediterranean Theater of Operationsin February and was established at its first combat station,Tafaraoui Airfield, Algeria by 28 February 1943. It flew its first combat mission on 17 April. It escortedmedium bombers. It flewstrafingmissions and flew sweeps over the Mediterranean Sea from bases in Algeria and Tunisia. The squadron participated in the defeat ofAxisforces in Tunisia. It participated in the reduction ofPantelleriaand inOperation Husky, the invasion and conquest of Sicily. On 30 July, the 325th Group used diversionary tactics to lure a superior number of enemy planes into the air over Sardinia, destroying more than half of them. The squadron was awarded its firstDistinguished Unit Citationfor this action. In late September 1943, the squadron was withdrawn from combat to convert toRepublic P-47 Thunderboltsand prepare to move\",\n \"prepare to move to the Italian peninsula. By early December 1943, the squadron began to operate its Thunderbolts fromFoggia Airfield, Italy, flying its first mission with the new plane on 14 December. However, it only operated the P-47 for a short period, converting toNorth American P-51 Mustangsin March 1944, and moving toLesina Airfield, Italy on the 29th of the month. However, on 30 January it flew its \\\"T-Bolts\\\" more than 300 miles at very low altitude to make a surprise attack on Germaninterceptorsdefending airdromes nearVillorba. The severe losses it inflicted on the defending forces enabledheavy bombersto attack vital targets in the area without encountering serious opposition. This action resulted in the second award of the Distinguished Unit Citation to the squadron. It escorted the heavy bombers ofFifteenth Air Forceon long range missions against theDaimler Benzfactory inBerlin, theMesserschmittfactory inRegensburgandoil refineriesnearVienna. It also flew escort for attacks on other targets, such\",\n \"other targets, such asairfieldsandmarshalling yardsandlines of communicationin Italy, France, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Romania. It also protectedreconnaissance aircraftand strafed trains, vehicles and airfields. The squadron continued operations until May 1945. The 317th was credited with the destruction of 209 enemy aircraft in air to air combat.AfterV-E Day, it moved toVincenzo Airfield, Italy, remaining there until October, when it returned to the United States and was inactivated atCamp Kilmer, New Jersey on 28 October. Air Defense Command In May 1947, the squadron was reactivated atMitchel Field, New York and equipped withNorthrop P-61 Black Widows. it moved toMoses Lake Air Force Base, Washington, the squadron was re-equipped with the newNorth American F-82 Twin Mustangin October 1948. The squadron was assigned for the defense of theHanford Nuclear Reservationin Eastern Washington. One month later it was reassigned toHamilton Air Force Base, California, and in April\",\n \"and in April 1950, returned toMcChord Air Force Base, Washington. In 1951. the squadron was redesignated as the317th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, a component of the25th Air Division,Air Defense Command, During the period between 1947 and 1956. the 317th flew the F-82. theLockheed F-94 Starfire, and theNorth American F-86D Sabreinterceptor. In 1955 and 1956, atVincent Air Force Base, Yuma, Arizona, flying the F-86D, the 317th engaged in airborne rocket competition, breaking all records previously set. In August 1956 the squadron was selected as the best air defense unit in the Air Force and was awarded the Hughes Trophy, In addition, the squadron received its first Outstanding Unit Award for high combat readiness for the period of 1953 through 1956. In November 1956, the 317th began transitioning into theConvair F-102 Delta Dagger. Alaskan Air Command In November 1956, the 317th began transitioning into the F-102A Delta Dagger, becoming the second squadron to receive the new delta-winged supersonic aircraft.\",\n \"aircraft. In August 1957, the 317th was reassigned in force, toElmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, where it assumed air defense mission of the southern portion ofAlaskaand the northwestern approaches to the United States. In the summer of 1960. the449th Fighter-Interceptor Squadronwas inactivated andLadd Air Force Basewas closed. leaving the entire Alaska air defense mission to the 317th. To carry out this mission, the squadron was authorized 40 aircraft and 60 pilots. The squadron received its secondAir Force Outstanding Unit Awardfor maintaining full combat readiness during and after the1964 Alaska earthquakeon 27 March 1964. In the summer of 1965, the 317th was reduced to 29 aircraft and the manning reduced accordingly, but the air defense mission remained the same. In October 1965, the squadron was awarded the Hughes Trophy for the second time, and a third Air Force Outstanding Unit Award for combat readiness. In December 1969, due to budget reductions, the 317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was\",\n \"Squadron was inactivated. Lineage Assignments Stations Aircraft Awards and campaigns See also References Bibliography This article incorporatespublic domain materialfrom theAir Force Historical Research Agency\",\n \"United States Air Force TheUnited States Air Force(USAF) is theairservice branchof theUnited States Armed Forces, and is one of the eightuniformed services of the United States.Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part of theUnited States ArmySignal Corps, the USAF was established as a separate branch of the United States Armed Forces in 1947 with the enactment of theNational Security Act of 1947. It is the second youngest branch of the United States Armed Forcesand the fourth inorder of precedence. The United States Air Force articulates its core missions asair supremacy,global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance,rapid global mobility,global strike, andcommand and control. The United States Air Force is a military service branch organized within theDepartment of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of theDepartment of Defense. The Air Force through the Department of the Air Force is headed by the civilianSecretary of the Air Force, who reports to theSecretary of\",\n \"to theSecretary of Defenseand is appointed by the President withSenateconfirmation. The highest-ranking military officer in the Air Force is theChief of Staff of the Air Force, who exercises supervision over Air Force units and serves as one of theJoint Chiefs of Staff. As directed by the Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Air Force, certain Air Force components are assigned tounified combatant commands. Combatant commanders are delegated operational authority of the forces assigned to them, while the Secretary of the Air Force and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force retain administrative authority over their members. Along with conducting independent air operations, the United States Air Force providesair supportfor land and naval forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2020, the service operates approximately 5,500military aircraftand approximately 400ICBMs.The world's largest air force, it has a $179.7 billion budgetand is the second largest service branch of the U.S. Armed\",\n \"of the U.S. Armed Forces, with 321,848active duty airmen,147,879 civilian personnel,68,927reserveairmen,105,104Air National Guardairmen,and approximately 65,000Civil Air Patrolauxiliarists. Mission, vision, and functions Missions According to theNational Security Act of 1947(61Stat. 502), which created the USAF: Section 9062 of Title 10 US Code defines the purpose of the USAF as: Core missions The five core missions of the Air Force have not changed dramatically since the Air Force became independent in 1947, but they have evolved and are now articulated as air superiority, global integrated ISR (intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance), rapid global mobility, global strike, and command and control. The purpose of all of these core missions is to provide what the Air Force states as global vigilance, global reach, and global power. Air superiority Air superiority is \\\"that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its\",\n \"the former and its related land, sea, air, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force\\\" (JP 1-02). Offensive Counter-Air(OCA) is defined as \\\"offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible\\\" (JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense. Defensive Counter-Air(DCA) is defined as \\\"all the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate or attack through friendly airspace\\\" (JP 1-02). In concert with OCA operations, a major goal of DCA operations is to provide an area from which forces can\",\n \"which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active defense is \\\"the employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to the enemy\\\" (JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and airborne threat defense and encompasses point defense, area defense, and high-value airborne asset defense. Passive defense is \\\"measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize the effects of damage caused by hostile action without the intention of taking the initiative\\\" (JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouflage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility, counter-measures, and stealth. Airspace control is \\\"a process used to increase operational effectiveness by promoting the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace\\\" (JP 1-02). It promotes the safe,\",\n \"promotes the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace, mitigates the risk of fratricide, enhances both offensive and defensive operations, and permits greater agility of air operations as a whole. It both deconflicts and facilitates the integration of joint air operations. Global integrated ISR Global integrated intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across the globe to conduct current and future operations. Planning and directing is \\\"the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies\\\" (JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination\",\n \"and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision-makers. Collection is \\\"the acquisition of information and the provision of this information to processing elements\\\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to obtain required information to satisfy intelligence needs (via use of sources and methods in all domains). Collection activities span the Range of Military Operations (ROMO). Processing and exploitation is \\\"the conversion of collected information into forms suitable to the production of intelligence\\\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to transform, extract, and make available collected information suitable for further analysis or action across the ROMO. Analysis and production is \\\"the conversion of processed information into intelligence through the integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of all source data and the preparation of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated user requirements\\\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability\",\n \"the ability to integrate, evaluate, and interpret information from available sources to create a finished intelligence product for presentation or dissemination to enable increased situational awareness. Dissemination and integration is \\\"the delivery of intelligence to users in a suitable form and the application of the intelligence to appropriate missions, tasks, and functions\\\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to present information and intelligence products across the ROMO enabling understanding of the operational environment to military and national decision-makers. Rapid global mobility Rapid global mobility is the timely deployment, employment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It provides joint military forces the capability to move from place to place while retaining the ability to fulfill their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach foreign or domestic\",\n \"foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the initiative through speed and surprise. Airlift is \\\"operations to transport and deliver forces andmaterielthrough the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives\\\" (Annex 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis. Air refueling is \\\"the refueling of an aircraft in flight by another aircraft\\\" (JP 1-02). Air refueling extends presence, increases range, and serves as a force multiplier. It allows air assets to more rapidly reach any trouble spot around the world with less dependence on forward staging bases or overflight/landing clearances. Air refueling\",\n \"Air refueling significantly expands the options available to a commander by increasing the range, payload, persistence, and flexibility of receiver aircraft. Aeromedical evacuation is \\\"the movement of patients under medical supervision to and between medical treatment facilities by air transportation\\\" (JP 1-02). JP 4-02, Health Service Support, further defines it as \\\"the fixed wing movement of regulated casualties to and between medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained explicitly for this mission.\\\" Aeromedical evacuation forces can operate as far forward asfixed-wing aircraftare able to conduct airland operations. Global strike Global precision attack is the ability to hold at risk or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and precise effects across multiple domains. Strategic attack is defined as \\\"offensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives.\",\n \"objectives. These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or will to engage in conflict, and may achieve strategic objectives without necessarily having to achieve operational objectives as a precondition\\\" (Annex 3–70, Strategic Attack). Air Interdiction is defined as \\\"air operations conducted to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC objectives. Air Interdiction is conducted at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of friendly forces is not required\\\" (Annex 3-03, Counterland Operations). Close Air Support is defined as \\\"air action by fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces\\\" (JP 1-02). This can be as a pre-planned event or on demand from an alert\",\n \"from an alert posture (ground or airborne). It can be conducted across the ROMO. The purpose of nuclear deterrence operations (NDO) is to operate, maintain, and secure nuclear forces to achieve an assured capability to deter an adversary from taking action against vital US interests. In the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. The sub-elements of this function are: Assure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from the Air Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike operations mission as well as from specific actions taken to assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD and delivering them contributes to promoting security and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains and presents credible deterrent capabilities\",\n \"capabilities through successful visible demonstrations and exercises that assure allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries from actions that threaten US national security or the populations, and deploy military forces of the US, its allies, and friends. Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level and lead to a rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either theContinental United States, within\",\n \"States, within a theater of operations, or both to effectively deter the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using a variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and effectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and military importance, destructive power, and the potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments. In conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, the Air\",\n \"or Energy, the Air Force achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. This program applies to materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to the safety, security, and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use (aBroken Arrow incident). The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control, communications; effective nuclear weapons security; and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. Command and control Command and control is \\\"the exercise of authority and\",\n \"of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission\\\" (JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives. At the strategic level command and control, the US determines national or multinational security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. These national objectives in turn provide the direction for developing overall military objectives, which are used to develop the objectives and strategy for each theater. At the operational\",\n \"At the operational level command and control, campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, sustained, and assessed to accomplish strategic goals within theaters or areas of operations. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic and operational objectives. Tactical Level Command and Control is where individual battles and engagements are fought. The tactical level of war deals with how forces are employed, and the specifics of how engagements are conducted and targets attacked. The goal of tactical level C2 is to achieve commander's intent and desired effects by gaining and keeping offensive initiative. History The origins of the United States Air Force can be traced back to theUnion Army Balloon Corpsof theAmerican Civil War. The Union Balloon Corps, established by aeronautThaddeus S. C. Lowe, provided aerial reconnaissance for theUnion Army. This early use of balloons for\",\n \"use of balloons for military purposes marked the beginning of modern aerial warfare and set the stage for the development of the United States Air Force. TheU.S. War Departmentcreated the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force, as a part of the U.S. Army, on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual independence 40 years later. InWorld War II, almost 68,000 U.S. airmen died helping to win the war, with only the infantry suffering more casualties.In practice, theU.S. Army Air Forces(USAAF) was virtually independent of theArmyduring World War II, and in virtually every way functioned as an independent service branch, but airmen still pressed for formal independence.TheNational Security Act of 1947was signed on 26 July 1947, which established theDepartment of the Air Force, but it was not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force,W. Stuart Symington, was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed\",\n \"officially formed as an independent service branch. The act created theNational Military Establishment(renamedDepartment of Defensein 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely theDepartment of the Army, theDepartment of the Navy, and the newly created Department of the Air Force.Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army Air Forces and its predecessor organizations (for land-based operations), theNavy(for sea-based operations fromaircraft carriersandamphibiousaircraft), and theMarine Corps(for close air support of Marine Corps operations). The 1940s proved to be important for military aviation in other ways as well. In 1947, Air Force CaptainChuck Yeagerbroke the sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America. Antecedents The predecessor organizations in the Army of today's Air Force are: 21st century During the early 2000s, two USAF aircraft procurement projects took longer than\",\n \"took longer than expected, theKC-XandF-35programs. As a result, the USAF was setting new records for average aircraft age. Since 2005, the USAF has placed a strong focus on the improvement ofBasic Military Training(BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a simulated combat environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle the massive obstacle courses along with the BEAST, the other portions include defending and protecting their base of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI) act as mentors and opposing forces in a deployment exercise.In November 2022, the USAF announced that it will discontinue BEAST and replace it with another deployment training program called PACER FORGE. In 2007, the USAF\",\n \"In 2007, the USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty personnel to 316,000.The size of the active duty force in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was at the end of the firstGulf Warin 1991.However, the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 personnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of combatant commanders and associated mission requirements.These same constraints have seen a sharp reduction in flight hours for crew training since 2005and the Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Personnel directing Airmen's Time Assessments. On 5 June 2008,Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted the resignations of both theSecretary of the Air Force,Michael Wynne, and theChief of Staff of the Air Force,GeneralT. Michael Moseley. In his decision to fire both men Gates cited \\\"systemic issues associated with... declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance\\\".Left unmentioned by Gates\",\n \"by Gates was that he had repeatedly clashed with Wynne and Moseley over other important non-nuclear related issues to the service.This followed an investigation into two incidents involving mishandling ofnuclear weapons: specifically anuclear weapons incidentaboard a B-52 flight betweenMinot AFBandBarksdale AFB, and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan.To put more emphasis on nuclear assets, the USAF established the nuclear-focusedAir Force Global Strike Commandon 24 October 2008, which later assumed control of all USAF bomber aircraft. On 26 June 2009, the USAF released a force structure plan that cut fighter aircraft and shifted resources to better support nuclear, irregular and information warfare.On 23 July 2009, The USAF released their Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) Flight Plan, detailing Air Force UAS plans through 2047.One third of the planes that the USAF planned to buy in the future were to be unmanned.According to Air Force Chief Scientist,Greg Zacharias, the USAF\",\n \"Zacharias, the USAF anticipates having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s, hypersonicunmanned aerial vehicles(also known as remotely-piloted vehicles, or RPAs) by the 2030s and recoverable hypersonic RPAs aircraft by the 2040s.The USAF intends to deploy aSixth-generation jet fighterby the mid-2030s. On 22 October 2023, the USAF conducted its first-ever trilateral exercise with theSouth KoreanandJapaneseair forces near the Korean Peninsula.On 29 November 2023, a USAFBell Boeing V-22 Ospreycrashed in the Japan island of Yakushima killing 1 airman. In 2024, citing theSupreme Court's ruling inLoper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo, the Air Force refused to comply with anEPAorder that they develop a cleanup plan for drinking water aroundTucson, Arizonaafter the region's groundwater was contaminated byPFASrunoff from nearby Air Force bases. Conflicts The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts and operations using military air operations. The USAF possesses the lineage and heritage of its\",\n \"and heritage of its predecessor organizations, which played a pivotal role in U.S. military operations since 1907: In addition since the USAF dwarfs all other U.S. and allied air components, it often provides support for allied forces in conflicts to which the United States is otherwise not involved, such as the2013 French campaign in Mali. Humanitarian operations The USAF has also taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following: Culture The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily driven by pilots, at first those piloting bombers (driven originally by theBomber Mafia), followed by fighters (Fighter Mafia). In response to a2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident, Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted in June 2009 the resignations ofSecretary of the Air ForceMichael Wynneand theChief of Staff of the Air ForceGeneralT. Michael Moseley. Moseley's successor, GeneralNorton A. Schwartz, a former airlift and special operations pilot, was\",\n \"pilot, was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot.The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps. In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals in the Air Force'smissile launch officercommunity, Secretary of the Air ForceDeborah Lee Jamesadmitted that there remained a \\\"systemic problem\\\" in the USAF's management of the nuclear mission. Daniel L. Magruder Jr. defines USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory.Major GeneralCharles J. Dunlap Jr.adds that the U.S. Air Force's culture also includes anegalitarianismbred from officers perceiving themselves as their service's principal \\\"warriors\\\" working with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard crew of their aircraft. Air Force officers have never felt they needed the\",\n \"they needed the formal social \\\"distance\\\" from their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its officers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being primarily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted force did go into harm's way, such as crew members of multi-crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat different kind of officer/enlisted relationship than exists elsewhere in the military. Cultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in neededUAVoperators.In spite of demand for UAVs or drones to provide round the clock coverage for American troops during the Iraq War,the USAF did not establish a new career field for piloting them until the last year of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA\",\n \"changed its RPA training syllabus again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training,and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of drone programs.Paul Scharre has reported that the cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept both services from adopting each other's drone handling innovations. Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from theRoyal Air Force(e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as theU.S. Army Air Service,U.S. Army Air Corpsand theU.S. Army Air Forces. Some of these traditions range from \\\"Friday Name Tags\\\" in flying units to an annual \\\"Mustache Month\\\".The use of\\\"challenge coins\\\"dates back to World War I when a member of one of the aero squadrons bought his entire unit medallions with their emblem,while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force is the \\\"roof stomp\\\", practiced by Airmen to welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a\",\n \"event, such as a retirement. Organization Administrative organization TheDepartment of the Air Forceis one of three military departments within theDepartment of Defense, and is managed by the civilianSecretary of the Air Force, under the authority, direction, and control of theSecretary of Defense. The senior officials in theOffice of the Secretaryare theUnder Secretary of the Air Force, fourAssistant Secretaries of the Air Forceand theGeneral Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with theadvice and consentof theSenate. The senior uniformed leadership in theAir Staffis made up of theChief of Staff of the Air Forceand theVice Chief of Staff of the Air Force. The directly subordinate commands and units are namedField Operating Agency(FOA),Direct Reporting Unit(DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating Agency. TheMajor Command(MAJCOM) is the superior hierarchical level of command. Including theAir Force Reserve Command, as of 30 September 2006, USAF has ten major commands. TheNumbered Air\",\n \"TheNumbered Air Force(NAF) is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, followed by Operational Command (now unused),Air Division(also now unused),Wing,Group,Squadron, and Flight. Air Force structure and organization Headquarters, United States Air Force(HQ USAF): The major components of the U.S. Air Force, as of 28 August 2015, are the following: The USAF, including its Air Reserve Component (e.g., Air Force Reserve + Air National Guard), possesses a total of 302 flying squadrons. Installations Operational organization The organizational structure as shown above is responsible for the peacetime organization, equipping, and training of air units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) directs theSecretary of the Air Force(SECAF) to execute a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their administrative alignment to the operational command of aRegionalCombatant commander(CCDR).In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE\",\n \"PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency toUSTRANSCOMunless chopped to a Regional CCDR. Air Expeditionary Task Force \\\"Chopped\\\" units are referred to asforces. The top-level structure of these forces is theAir Expeditionary Task Force(AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of air forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in theCCMD's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the preponderance of air forces in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will\",\n \"the COMAFFOR will also serve as theJoint Forces Air Component Commander(JFACC). Commander, Air Force Forces The Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the senior USAF officer responsible for the employment of air power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission. Air Operations Center TheAir Operations Center(AOC) is the JFACC'sCommand and Control(C2) center. Several AOCs have been established throughout the Air Force worldwide. These centers are responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives. Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons The AETF generates air power to support CCMD objectives fromAir Expeditionary Wings(AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these\",\n \"recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions. Personnel The classification of any USAF job for officers or enlisted airmen is theAir Force Specialty Code(AFSC). AFSCs range from officer specialties such as pilot,combat systems officer,special tactics, nuclear and missile operations, intelligence, cyberspace operations, judge advocate general (JAG), medical doctor, nurse or other fields, to various enlisted specialties. The latter range from flight combat operations such as loadmaster, to working in a dining facility to ensure that Airmen are properly fed. There are additional occupational fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties,enlisted aircrew, communication systems, cyberspace operations, avionics technicians, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations,security forces, and search and rescue specialties. Beyond combat\",\n \"Beyond combat flight crew personnel, other combat USAF AFSCs areSpecial Tactics Officer,Explosive Ordnance Disposal(EOD),Combat Rescue Officer,Pararescue,Security Forces,Combat Control,Tactical Air Control Party,Special Operations Weather Technician. Nearly all enlisted career fields are \\\"entry level\\\", meaning that the USAF provides all training. Some enlistees are able to choose a particular field, or at least a field before actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC at Basic Military Training (BMT). After BMT, new enlisted airmen attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Education and Training Command, is responsible for nearly all enlisted technical training. Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 (Services) has 29 days of tech school training,while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is one year of training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over ten separate divisions, sometimes taking students\",\n \"taking students close to two years to complete. Officer technical training conducted by Second Air Force can also vary by AFSC, while flight training for aeronautically rated officers conducted by AETC's Nineteenth Air Force can last well in excess of one year. USAF rank is divided betweenenlistedairmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from the enlisted Airman Basic (E-1) to the commissioned officer rank of General (O-10), however in times of war officers may be appointed to the higher grade of General of the Air Force. Enlisted promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval while officer promotions are based on time-in-grade and a promotion selection board. Promotions among enlisted personnel and non-commissioned officers are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons.Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five stars.General of\",\n \"stars.General of the Air ForceHenry \\\"Hap\\\" Arnoldis the only individual in the history of the US Air Force to attain the rank of five-star general. As of 30 June 2017, 70% of the Air Force is White, 15% Black and 4.8% Asian. The average age is 35 and 21% of its members are female. Commissioned officers The commissioned officer ranks of the USAF are divided into three categories:company grade officers,field grade officers, andgeneral officers. Company grade officers are those officers in pay grades O-1 to O-3, while field grade officers are those in pay grades O-4 to O-6, and general officers are those in pay grades of O-7 and above. Air Force officer promotions are governed by theDefense Officer Personnel Management Actof 1980 and its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act (ROPMA) for officers in the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard.DOPMA also establishes limits on the number of officers that can serve at any given time in the Air Force. Currently, promotion from second lieutenant to\",\n \"lieutenant to first lieutenant is virtually guaranteed after two years of satisfactory service. The promotion from first lieutenant to captain is competitive after successfully completing another two years of service, with a selection rate varying between 99% and 100%. Promotion to major through major general is through a formal selection board process, while promotions to lieutenant general and general are contingent upon nomination to specific general officer positions and subject to U.S. Senate approval. During the board process, an officer's record is reviewed by a selection board at the Air Force Personnel Center atRandolph Air Force Basein San Antonio, Texas. At the 10 to 11-year mark, captains will take part in a selection board to major. If not selected, they will meet a follow-on board to determine if they will be allowed to remain in the Air Force. Promotion from major to lieutenant colonel is similar and occurs approximately between the fourteen year and the fifteen year mark, where a certain\",\n \"where a certain percentage of majors will be in zone (i.e., \\\"on time\\\") or above zone (i.e., \\\"late\\\") for promotion to lieutenant colonel.This process will repeat at the 18-year mark to the 21-year mark for promotion to full colonel. The Air Force has the largest ratio of general officers to total strength of all of the U.S. Armed Forces and this ratio has continued to increase even as the force has shrunk from its Cold War highs. Warrant officers Although provisions were made inTitle 10 of the United States Codefor theSecretary of the Air Forceto appoint warrant officers, the Air Force had not usedwarrant officergrades for many years, and, along with the Space Force, were the onlyU.S. Armed Servicesnot to do so until 2024. The Air Force inherited warrant officer ranks from theArmyat its inception in 1947. The Air Force stopped appointing warrant officers in 1959,the same year the first promotions were made to the new top enlisted grade,Chief Master Sergeant. The remaining warrant officers were slowly phased\",\n \"were slowly phased out. The last active duty Air Force warrant officer, CWO4 James H. Long, retired in 1980, and the last Air Force Reserve warrant officer, CWO4 Bob Barrow, retired in 1992.Upon his retirement, he was honorarily promoted to CWO5, the only person in the Air Force ever to hold this grade.Since Barrow's retirement, the Air Force warrant officer ranks, while still authorized by law, were not used. It was announced at the AFA Warfare Symposium on 12 February 2024, that warrant officer ranks in the cyber and information technology fields would be reintroduced, beginning in FY25. It was stated that this effort was to retain talent in these technical fields for airmen who did not wish to pursue a leadership path.The Air Force initially wanted a class of 30 warrant officers that would begin training by the summer 2024.By the end of July 2024, 78 Airmen were selected to be among the first Air Force warrant officers in over 66 years, more than double than originally estimated.The 78 Airmen will be\",\n \"78 Airmen will be spread out across three training classes, with the first starting in October 2024. Enlisted airmen Enlisted airmen havepay gradesfrom E-1 (entry level) to E-9 (senior enlisted).While all USAF personnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to asairmen, in the same manner that allArmypersonnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to assoldiers, the term also refers to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4, which are below the level ofnon-commissioned officers(NCOs). Above the pay grade of E-4 (i.e., pay grades E-5 through E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are further subdivided into \\\"NCOs\\\" (pay grades E-5 and E-6) and \\\"senior NCOs\\\" (pay grades E-7 through E-9); the term \\\"junior NCO\\\" is sometimes used to refer to staff sergeants and technical sergeants (pay grades E-5 and E-6). The USAF, along with theUS Space Force, are the only branches of the U.S. military where NCO status is achieved when an enlisted person reaches the pay grade of E-5. In all other branches, NCO status is\",\n \"NCO status is generally achieved at the pay grade of E-4 (e.g., acorporalin the ArmyandMarine Corps,Petty Officer Third Classin theNavyandCoast Guard). The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 1991 with an E-4 being either a senior airman wearing three stripes without a star or a sergeant (referred to as \\\"buck sergeant\\\"), which was noted by the presence of the central star and considered an NCO. Despite not being an NCO, a senior airman who has completedAirman Leadership Schoolcan be a supervisor according to the AFI 36–2618. Uniforms The first USAF dress uniform, in 1947, was dubbed and patented \\\"Uxbridgeblue\\\" after \\\"Uxbridge 1683 blue\\\", developed at the former Bachman-Uxbridge Worsted Company.The current service dress uniform, which was adopted in 1994, consists of a three-button coat with decorative pockets, matching trousers, and either a service cap or flight cap, all in Shade 1620, \\\"Air Force blue\\\" (a darker purplish-blue).This is worn with a light blue shirt (shade 1550) and shade 1620 herringbone\",\n \"1620 herringbone patterned necktie. Silver \\\"U.S.\\\" pins are worn on the collar of the coat, with a surrounding silver ring for enlisted airmen. Enlisted airmen wear sleeve rank on both the jacket and shirt, while officers wear metal rank insignia pinned onto the epaulet loops on the coat, and Air Force blue slide-on epaulet loops on the shirt. USAF personnel assigned to base honor guard duties wear, for certain occasions, a modified version of the standard service dress uniform that includes silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the addition of a ceremonial belt (if necessary), service cap with silver trim and Hap Arnold Device (instead of the seal of the United States worn on the regular cap), and a silver aiguillette placed on the left shoulder seam and all devices and accoutrements. TheAirman Combat Uniform(ACU) in theOperational Camouflage Pattern(OCP) replaced the previousAirman Battle Uniform(ABU) on 1 October 2018. Awards and badges In addition to basic uniform clothing,various badgesare used\",\n \"badgesare used by the USAF to indicate a billet assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-basedawards. Over time,various badgeshave been discontinued and are no longer distributed. Training All enlisted Airmen attendBasic Military Training(BMT) atLackland Air Force BaseinSan Antonio, Texas for7+1⁄2weeks.Individuals who have prior service of over 24 months of active duty in the other service branches who seek to enlist in the Air Force must go through a 10-day Air Force familiarization course rather than enlisted BMT, however prior service opportunities are severely limited. Officers may be commissioned upon graduation from theUnited States Air Force Academy, upon graduation from another college or university through theAir Force Reserve Officer Training Corps(AFROTC) program, or through theAir Force Officer Training School(OTS). OTS, located atMaxwell Air Force BaseinMontgomery, Alabamasince 1993, in turn encompasses two separate commissioning\",\n \"commissioning programs: Basic Officer Training (BOT), which is for officer candidates for the Regular Air Force and the Air Force Reserve; and theAcademy of Military Science(AMS), which is for officer candidates of the Air National Guard. The Air Force also provides Commissioned Officer Training (COT) for officers of all three components who are direct-commissioned into medicine, law, religion, biological sciences, or healthcare administration. COT is fully integrated into the OTS program and today encompasses extensive coursework as well as field exercises in leadership, confidence, fitness, and deployed-environment operations. Air Force Fitness Test The US Air Force Fitness Test (AFFT) is designed to test the abdominal circumference, muscular strength/endurance and cardiovascular respiratory fitness of airmen in the USAF. As part of theFit to Fightprogram, the USAF adopted a more stringent physical fitness assessment; the new fitness program was put into effect on 1 June 2010. The annual ergo-cycle test\",\n \"ergo-cycle test which the USAF had used for several years had been replaced in 2004. In the AFFT, Airmen are given a score based on performance consisting of four components: waist circumference, the sit-up, the push-up, and a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run. Airmen can potentially earn a score of 100, with the run counting as 60%, waist circumference as 20%, and both strength tests counting as 10% each. A passing score is 75 points. Effective 1 July 2010, the AFFT is administered by the base Fitness Assessment Cell (FAC), and is required twice a year. Personnel earning a score over 90% may test once a year. Additionally, only meeting the minimum standards on each one of these tests will not get you a passing score of 75%, and failing any one component will result in a failure for the entire test. Aircraft inventory The U.S. Air Force has a total force of approximately 5,500 aircraft.Of these, an estimated 4,131 are in active service.Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while\",\n \"naming, while theU.S. Navymaintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army and Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer toUnited States military aircraft designation systems. The various aircraft of the Air Force include: A – Attack The attack aircraftof the USAF are designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as close air support for, and in proximity to, U.S. ground forces. The proximity to friendly forces require precision strikes from these aircraft that are not always possible with bomber aircraft. Their role is tactical rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear. Current USAF attack aircraft are operated by Air Combat Command, Pacific Air Forces, and Air Force Special Operations Command. On 1 August 2022,USSOCOMselected the Air Tractor-L3Harris AT-802U Sky Warden as a result of theArmed Overwatchprogram,\",\n \"Overwatchprogram, awarding an indefinite quantity contract (IDIQ) to deliver as many as 75 aircraft. B – Bomber US Air Force bombers are strategic weapons, primarily used for long range strike missions with either conventional or nuclear ordnance. Traditionally used for attacking strategic targets, today many bombers are also used in the tactical mission, such as providing close air support for ground forces and tactical interdiction missions.All Air Force bombers are under Global Strike Command. The service's B-2A aircraft entered service in the 1990s, its B-1B aircraft in the 1980s and its current B-52H aircraft in the early 1960s. TheB-52 Stratofortressairframe design is over 60 years old and the B-52H aircraft currently in the active inventory were all built between 1960 and 1962. The B-52H is scheduled to remain in service for another 30 years, which would keep the airframe in service for nearly 90 years, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft. TheB-21is projected to replace the B-52 and\",\n \"the B-52 and parts of the B-1B force by the mid-2020s. C – Cargo/Transport Cargo aircraft are typically used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations around the world, usually outside of the commercial flight routes in uncontrolled airspace. The workhorses of the USAF airlift forces are theC-130 Hercules,C-17 Globemaster III, andC-5 Galaxy. The CV-22 is used by the Air Force for special operations. It conducts long-range, special operations missions, and is equipped with extra fuel tanks and terrain-following radar. Some aircraft serve specialized cargo and transport roles such as executive or embassy support (C-12), Antarctic support (LC-130H), and AFSOC support (C-27J and C-146A). Although most of the US Air Force's cargo aircraft were specially designed with the Air Force in mind, some aircraft such as the C-12 Huron (Beechcraft Super King Air) and C-146 (Dornier 328) are militarized conversions of existing civilian aircraft.\",\n \"civilian aircraft. Transport aircraft are operated by Air Mobility Command, Air Force Special Operations Command, and United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces Africa. E – Special Electronic The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent an advantage in theEMSand ensure friendly, unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. Electronic warfare aircraft are used to keep airspaces friendly, and send critical information to anyone who needs it. They are often called \\\"the eye in the sky\\\". The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include electronic warfare and jamming (EC-130H), psychological operations and communications (EC-130J), airborne early warning and control (E-3), airborne command post (E-4B), range control (E-9A), and communications relay (E-11A, EQ-4B). F – Fighter The fighter aircraft of the USAF are small, fast, and maneuverable military aircraft primarily used for air-to-air combat. Many of these fighters have secondary\",\n \"have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as fighter-bombers (e.g., theF-16 Fighting Falcon); the term \\\"fighter\\\" is also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft, such as theF-117 Nighthawk. Other missions include interception of bombers and other fighters, reconnaissance, and patrol. The F-16 is currently used by the USAF Air Demonstration squadron, theThunderbirds, while a small number of both man-rated and non-man-ratedF-4 Phantom IIare retained as QF-4 aircraft for use as full-scale aerial targets (FSATs) or as part of the USAF Heritage Flight program. These extant QF-4 aircraft are being replaced in the FSAT role by early model F-16 aircraft converted to QF-16 configuration. The USAF had 2,025 fighters in service as of September 2012. H – Search and rescue These aircraft are used forsearch and rescueandcombat search and rescueon land or sea. The HC-130N/P aircraft are being replaced by newer HC-130J models. HH-60W are replacement aircraft for \\\"G\\\" models\",\n \"for \\\"G\\\" models that have been lost in combat operations or accidents. New HH-60W helicopters are under development to replace both the \\\"G\\\" and \\\"W\\\" model Pave Hawks. The Air Force also has four HH-60U \\\"Ghost Hawks\\\", which are converted \\\"M\\\" variants. They are based out ofArea 51. K – Tanker The USAF's KC-135 and KC-46 aerial refueling aircraft are based on civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom, and can be equipped with \\\"probe and drogue\\\" refueling systems. Air-to-air refueling is extensively used in large-scale operations and also used in normal operations; fighters, bombers, and cargo aircraft rely heavily on the lesser-known \\\"tanker\\\" aircraft. This makes these aircraft an essential part of the Air Force's global mobility and the U.S. force projection. TheKC-10A Extenderwas retired in 2024.TheKC-46A Pegasusbegan to be delivered to USAF units in 2019. M – Multi-mission Specialized multi-mission aircraft provide support for global\",\n \"support for global special operations missions. These aircraft conduct infiltration, exfiltration, resupply, and refueling forSOFteams from improvised or otherwise short runways. The MC-130J is currently being fielded to replace \\\"H\\\" and \\\"P\\\" models used by U.S. Special Operations Command. The MC-12W is used in the \\\"intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance\\\" (ISR) role. Initial generations of RPAs were primarily surveillance aircraft, but some were fitted with weaponry (such as the MQ-1 Predator, which used AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles). An armed RPA is known as an \\\"unmanned combat aerial vehicle\\\" (UCAV). R – Reconnaissance The reconnaissance aircraft of the USAF are used for monitoring enemy activity, originally carrying no armament. Although the U-2 is designated as a \\\"utility\\\" aircraft, it is a reconnaissance platform. The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include general monitoring, ballistic missile monitoring (RC-135S), electronic intelligence gathering\",\n \"gathering (RC-135U), signal intelligence gathering (RC-135V/W), and high altitude surveillance (U-2). Several unmanned remotely controlled reconnaissance aircraft (RPAs), have been developed and deployed. Recently, the RPAs have been seen to offer the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting machines that can be used without risk to aircrews. T – Trainer The Air Force's trainer aircraft are used to train pilots, combat systems officers, and other aircrew in their duties. TG – Trainer gliders Several gliders are used by the USAF, primarily used for cadet flying training at the U.S. Air Force Academy. U – Utility Utility aircraft are used basically for what they are needed for at the time. For example, aHueymay be used to transport personnel around a large base or launch site, while it can also be used for evacuation. These aircraft are all around use aircraft. V – VIP staff transport These aircraft are used for the transportation of Very Important Persons (VIPs). Notable people include the president,\",\n \"the president, vice president, cabinet secretaries, government officials (e.g., senators and representatives), the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and other key personnel. W – Weather reconnaissance These aircraft are used to study meteorological events such as hurricanes and typhoons. Undesignated foreign aircraft See also Notes References External links Official Other\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":362,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Emma Stone was the highest paid actress in 2017. How much did breakthrough movie for the highest paid actress 6 years after Emma Stone make in its theatrical run?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"$406.9 million"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Stone"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest-paid_film_actors"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margot_Robbie"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolf_of_Wall_Street_(2013_film)"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Tabular reasoning | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Stone', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest-paid_film_actors', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margot_Robbie', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolf_of_Wall_Street_(2013_film)']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Stone","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest-paid_film_actors","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margot_Robbie","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolf_of_Wall_Street_(2013_film"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Stone\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest-paid_film_actors\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margot_Robbie\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolf_of_Wall_Street_(2013_film\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Emma Stone Emily Jean\"Emma\"Stone(born November 6, 1988) is an American actress and producer.Her accoladesinclude twoAcademy Awards, twoBritish Academy Film Awards, and twoGolden Globe Awards. In 2017, she was theworld's highest-paid actressand named byTimemagazine as one of the100 most influential people in the world. Stone began acting as a child in a theater production ofThe Wind in the Willowsin 2000. As a teenager, she relocated to Los Angeles and made her television debut inIn Search of the New Partridge Family(2004), a reality show that produced only an unsold pilot. After small television roles, she appeared in a series of well-received teen comedy films, such asSuperbad(2007),Zombieland(2009), andEasy A(2010), which was Stone's first leading role. Following this breakthrough, she starred in the romantic comedyCrazy, Stupid, Love(2011) and the period dramaThe Help(2011), and gained wider recognition asGwen Stacyin the 2012 superhero filmThe Amazing Spider-Manandits 2014 sequel. Stone received nominations for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actressfor playing a recovering drug addict inBirdman(2014) and portrayingAbigail MashaminThe Favourite(2018). The latter marked her first of many collaborations with directorYorgos Lanthimos. She won twoAcademy Awards for Best Actress, for her roles as an aspiring actress in the romantic musicalLa La Land(2016) and a resurrected suicide victim in Lanthimos' comic fantasy filmPoor Things(2023). She also portrayed tennis playerBillie Jean KinginBattle of the Sexes(2017) and thetitle roleinCruella(2021). On television, she starred in the dark comedy miniseriesManiac(2018) andThe Curse(2023). OnBroadway, Stone has starred asSally Bowlesin a revival of the musicalCabaret(2014–2015). She and her husband,Dave McCary, founded the production companyFruit Treein 2020, under which they have produced the filmsWhen You Finish Saving the World(2022),Problemista(2023), andI Saw the TV Glow(2024). Early life Stone was born on November 6, 1988, inScottsdale, Arizona, to Jeffrey Charles Stone, the founder and CEO of a general-contracting company, and Krista Jean Stone (néeYeager), a homemaker.She lived on the grounds of theCamelback Innresort from ages 12 to 15.She has a younger brother, Spencer.Her paternal grandfather, Conrad Ostberg Sten, was from a Swedish family thatanglicizedtheir surname to \"Stone\". She also has German, English, Scottish, and Irish ancestry. As an infant, Stone hadbaby colicand cried frequently. She consequently developednodulesand calluses on her vocal cords while she was a child.Stone has described herself as \"loud\" and \"bossy\" while growing up.She was educated at Sequoya Elementary School and attendedCocopah Middle Schoolfor sixth grade. Stone did not like school, though once said that her controlling nature meant that \"I made sure I got allA's\".She sufferedpanic attacksandanxietyas a child,and said they caused a decline in her social skills.Stone underwent therapy but said it was her participation in local theater plays that helped cure the attacks, recalling: The first time I had a panic attack I was sitting in my friend's house, and I thought the house was burning down. I called my mom and she brought me home, and for the next three years it just would not stop. I would go to the nurse at lunch most days and just wring my hands. I would ask my mom to tell me exactly how the day was going to be, then ask again 30 seconds later. I just needed to know that no one was going to die and nothing was going to change. Stone wanted to act since age four;she wanted a career insketch comedyinitially, but shifted her focus to musical theater, and took vocal lessons for several years.Her acting debut, at age 11, came in a stage production ofThe Wind in the Willows, playing Otter.Stone washomeschooledfor two years, during which time she appeared in 16 productions at Phoenix'sValley Youth Theatre—includingThe Princess and the Pea,Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, andJoseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat—and performed with the theater'simprovisational comedytroupe.Around this time, she traveled to Los Angeles and auditioned unsuccessfully for a role onNickelodeon'sAll That.Her parents later sent her for private acting lessons with a local acting coach, who had worked at theWilliam Morris Agencyin the 1970s. Stone attendedXavier College Preparatory—an all-girlCatholic high school—as a freshman, but dropped out after one semester to become an actress.She prepared aPowerPointpresentation for her parents titled \"Project Hollywood\" (featuringMadonna's 2003 song \"Hollywood\") to convince them to let her move to California to pursue an acting career.In January 2004, she moved with her mother to an apartment in Los Angeles. She recalled, \"I went up for every single show on theDisney Channeland auditioned to play the daughter on every single sitcom\", adding, \"I ended up getting none.\"Between auditions for roles, she enrolled in online high-school classes and worked part-time at a dog-treat bakery. Career Career beginnings (2004–2009) When Stone registered for theScreen Actors Guildat age 16, the name \"Emily Stone\" was already taken, and she briefly went by \"Riley Stone\".She made her television debut as Laurie Partridge on theVH1talent competition reality showIn Search of the New Partridge Family(2004). The resulting show, retitledThe New Partridge Family(2004), remained an unsold pilot.After guest-starring in the television showsMedium(2005) andMalcolm in the Middle(2006), she decided to change her stage name to \"Emma\"—chosen in honor ofEmma Buntonof theSpice Girls—as she struggled to adapt to the name Riley.She next appeared inLouis C.K.'sHBOseriesLucky Louie(2006),and unsuccessfully auditioned to star asClaire Bennetin the NBC science fiction dramaHeroes(2007), later calling this her \"rock bottom\" experience.In April 2007, she playedViolet Trimblein the Fox action dramaDrive, but the show was canceled after seven episodes. Stone made her feature film debut inGreg Mottola's comedySuperbad(2007), co-starringMichael CeraandJonah Hill. The film tells the story of two high school students who go through a series of comic misadventures after they plan to buy alcohol for a party. To play Hill's romantic interest, she dyed her hair red.A reviewer forThe Hollywood Reporterfound her \"appealing\", but felt that her role was poorly written.Stone has described the experience of acting in her first film as \"amazing ... very different than other experiences I've had since then\".The film was a commercial success, and earned her theYoung Hollywood Awardfor Exciting New Face. The next year, Stone starred in the comedyThe Rocker(2008) as Amelia Stone, the \"straight face\"bass guitaristin a band; she learned to play the bass for the role.The actress, who has called herself \"a big smiler and laugher\", said she found it difficult to play a character whose personality was so different from her own. The film and her performance received negative reviews from critics and was a commercial failure.Her next release, the romantic comedyThe House Bunny, performed better at the box office, becoming a moderate commercial success.The film saw her play the president of a sorority, and perform acover versionofthe Waitresses' 1982 song \"I Know What Boys Like\".Reviews were generally negative,but Stone was praised,withTV Guide's Ken Fox writing that she \"is well on her way to becoming a star\". Stone appeared in three films released in 2009. The first of these was oppositeMatthew McConaughey,Jennifer GarnerandMichael DouglasinMark Waters'sGhosts of Girlfriends Past. Loosely based onCharles Dickens's 1843novellaA Christmas Carol, the romantic comedy has her playing a ghost who haunts her former boyfriend. Critical reaction to the film was negative, but it was a modest commercial success.Her most financially profitable venture that year wasRuben Fleischer's $102.3 million-grossing horror comedy filmZombieland,in which she featured alongsideJesse Eisenberg,Woody HarrelsonandAbigail Breslin. In the film, she appeared as a con artist and survivor of azombie apocalypse, in a role which Chris Hewitt ofEmpiremagazine thought was \"somewhat underwritten.\"In a more positive review, Tim Robey ofThe Daily Telegraphcalled \"the hugely promising Stone a tough cookie who projects the aura of being wiser than her years\".Stone's third release in 2009 wasKieran and Michelle Mulroney'sPaper Man, a comedy-drama which disappointed critics. Rise to prominence (2010–2013) Stone voiced anAustralian ShepherdinMarmaduke(2010), a comedy from directorTom Deybased onBrad Anderson'slong-running comic strip of the same name.Her breakthrough came the same year with a starring role inEasy A, a teen comedy directed byWill Gluck.Partially based onNathaniel Hawthorne's 1850 novelThe Scarlet Letter, the film tells the story of Olive Penderghast (Stone), a high school student who becomes embroiled in a comic sex scandal after a false rumor circulates that she is sexuallypromiscuous. Stone read the script before the project was optioned for production, and pursued it with her manager while production details were being finalized. She found the script \"so different and unique from anything I'd read before\", calling it \"funny and sweet\".When Stone discovered that the film had begun production, she met with Gluck, expressing her enthusiasm for the project. A few months later, the audition process started and she met again with Gluck, becoming one of the first actresses to audition.The film received positive critical reviews, and Stone's performance was considered its prime asset.Anna Smith ofTime Outwrote, \"Stone gives a terrific performance, her knowing drawl implying intellect and indifference with underlying warmth.\"The film was a commercial success, grossing $75 million against its $8 million budget.Stone was nominated for aBAFTA Rising Star Awardand aGolden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy, and won theMTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance. In October 2010, Stone hosted an episode of NBC's sketch comedySaturday Night Live; her appearances included a sketch playing off her resemblance toLindsay Lohan.Stone called it \"the greatest week of my life\".She hosted again in 2011, appeared in an episode in 2014, and inits 40th anniversary specialin 2015.A brief appearance in the sex comedyFriends with Benefits(2011) reunited her with Gluck.She followed this with a supporting role inGlenn FicarraandJohn Requa's romantic comedyCrazy, Stupid, Love(2011) alongsideSteve Carell,Ryan GoslingandJulianne Moore. The film featured her as a law school graduate, and the love interest of Gosling's character. Despite finding \"some inevitable collapses into convention\" in the film, Drew McWeeny ofHitFixwrote that Stone \"ties the whole film together\".At the2012 Teen Choice Awards, she won theChoice Movie Actress – Comedyaward for her performance in the film.Crazy, Stupid, Lovewas a box office success, grossing $142.9 million worldwide against a production budget of $50 million. Dismayed at beingtypecastas \"the sarcastic interest of the guy\", Stone co-starred withViola DavisinTate Taylor's period dramaThe Help(2011), a film she found challenging.The film is based onKathryn Stockett's2009 novel of the same nameand is set in 1960sJackson, Mississippi. She met with Taylor to express a desire to work on the film. The director said, \" was completely awkward and dorky, with her raspy voice, and she sat down and we got a little intoxicated and had a blast, and I just thought, 'God! God! This is Skeeter.\"She was cast as Eugenia \"Skeeter\" Phelan, an aspiring writer learning about the lives of the African-American maids. In preparation for the part, she learned to speak in aSouthern accentand educated herself on theCivil Rights Movementthrough literature and film.With a worldwide gross of $216 million against a $25 million budget,The Helpbecame Stone's highest-grossing film to that point.The film, and her performance, received positive reviews from critics. Writing forEmpire, Anna Smith thought Stone was \"well-meaning and hugely likable\" despite finding flaws in the character.The film was nominated for anAcademy Award for Best Picture,and won Best Ensemble Cast from theWomen Film Critics Circleand theBroadcast Film Critics Association. Stone turned down a role in the action comedy21 Jump Streetafter signing on toMarc Webb's 2012 filmThe Amazing Spider-Man, arebootofSam Raimi'sSpider-Manseries.She portrayedGwen Stacy, the love interest of thetitular superhero(played byAndrew Garfield).Stone returned to her natural blonde hair color for the role, having dyed it red previously.She admitted to having never read the comics, and therefore felt responsible to educate herself about Spider-Man: \"My experience was with the Sam Raimi movies ... I always assumed thatMary Janewas his first love\",adding that she was only familiar with Stacy's character as portrayed byBryce Dallas HowardinSpider-Man 3.The Amazing Spider-Manwas a commercial success and was theseventh highest-grossing film of the yearwith global revenues of $757.9 million.Entertainment Weekly'sLisa Schwarzbaumfound Stone to be \"irresistible\",andIan FreerofEmpirewas particularly impressed with Stone's and Garfield's performances.At the annualPeople's Choice Awardsceremony, she was nominated for three awards, including Favorite Movie Actress.Later that year, Stone voiced a role in the crime-based video gameSleeping Dogs, which earned her aSpike Video Game Award. Stone began 2013 with a voice role in theDreamWorks AnimationfilmThe Croods, which was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Animated Feature.This followed with an appearance inMovie 43, ananthology filmwhich consists of 16 short stories—she played the title role in the segment entitled \"Veronica\".She next starred alongside Ryan Gosling andSean Pennin Ruben Fleischer'sGangster Squad(2013), a crime thriller set in Los Angeles during the 1940s.A. O. ScottofThe New York Timesdismissed the film as \"a hectic jumble of fedoras and zoot suits\", but praised Stone's pairing with Gosling. Established actress (2014–2017) In 2014, Stone reprised the role of Gwen Stacy inThe Amazing Spider-Man 2. She believed that her character did not depend on the film's protagonist, asserting: \"She saves him more than he saves her. She's incredibly helpful to Spider-Man ... He's the muscle, she's the brains.\"Her performance was well received by critics;anEmpirereviewer commended her for standing out in the film, writing, \"Stone is theHeath Ledgerof this series, doing something unexpected with an easily dismissed supporting character.\"The role won her the Favorite Movie Actress award at the2015 Kids' Choice Awards.Later that year, Stone took on a role inWoody Allen's romantic comedyMagic in the Moonlight, a modest commercial success.A. O. Scott criticized her role, and pairing withColin Firth, describing it as \"the kind of pedantic nonsense that is meant to signify superior intellect\". The black comedyBirdman, directed byAlejandro González Iñárritu, was Stone's final film release of 2014. Co-starringMichael KeatonandEdward Norton, it featured her as Sam Thomson, the recovering-addict daughter of actor Riggan Thomson (Keaton), who becomes his assistant. Iñárritu created the character based on his experience with his daughter.Birdmanwas critically acclaimed,and was the most successful film at the87th Academy Awards; it was nominated for nine awards, winning four, including Best Picture.The Movie Networkdeemed it one of Stone's best performances to date, andRobbie CollinofThe Daily Telegraphfound her to be \"superb\" and \"tremendous\" in her role, while also highlighting her monologue in the film which he believed to have been \"delivered like a knitting needle to the gut.\"She receivedAcademy,BAFTA,Golden Globe, andSAG Awardnominations. From November 2014 to February 2015, Stone starred in a revival of theBroadwaymusicalCabaretasSally Bowles, taking over the role fromMichelle Williams.Deeming it \"the most nerve-racking thing ever\", Stone listened to a French radio station to mentally prepare herself for the role.Marilyn StasioofVarietywas critical of her singing abilities and found her performance to be \"a bit narrow as an emotional platform, but a smart choice for her acting skills, the perfect fit for her sharp intelligence and kinetic energy.\"Both of Stone's 2015 films—the romantic comedyAloha, and the dramaIrrational Man—were critical and commercial failures, and her roles were panned by critics.InCameron Crowe'sAloha, she played the role of an air force pilot alongsideBradley Cooper, and in Woody Allen'sIrrational Man, she played the love interest ofJoaquin Phoenix's character, a philosophy professor. The former wascontroversialforwhitewashingthe cast, as Stone's character was meant to be of Asian, Hawaiian, and Swedish descent. She later regretted taking part in the project, acknowledging whitewashing as a widespread problem in Hollywood.Despite the backlash, Stone was nominated for Choice Movie Actress – Comedy at the2015 Teen Choice Awards.She also appeared in the music video forWill Butler's single \"Anna\". During her run onCabaret, Stone met filmmakerDamien Chazelle, who, impressed with her performance, cast her in his musical comedy-dramaLa La Land.The project, which marked her third collaboration with Gosling, starred Stone as Mia Dolan, an aspiring actress living in Los Angeles.Stone borrowed several real-life experiences for her character, and in preparation, watchedThe Umbrellas of Cherbourgand films ofFred Astaire and Ginger Rogers.For thefilm's soundtrack, she recorded six songs.La La Landserved as the opening film at the2016 Venice Film Festival, where it generated critical acclaim and earned Stone theVolpi Cup for Best Actress.It emerged as a commercial success, with a worldwide gross of over $440 million against a production budget of $30 million.Peter BradshawofThe Guardianwrote that \"Stone has never been better: superbly smart, witty, vulnerable, her huge doe eyes radiating intelligence even, or especially, when they are filling with tears.\"For her performance, Stone won theAcademy,Golden Globe,SAG, andBAFTAAward for Best Actress. Stone's sole release of 2017 wasBattle of the Sexes, based on the 1973eponymous matchbetween tennis playersBillie Jean King(Stone) andBobby Riggs(Steve Carell). In preparation, Stone met with King, watched old footage and interviews of her, worked with a dialect coach to speak in King's accent, and drank high-calorie protein shakes to gain 15 pounds (6.8 kg).The film premiered to positive reviews at the2017 Toronto International Film Festival, and certain critics considered Stone's performance to be the finest of her career.Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianpraised her for playing against type, and for being \"strong\" and \"convincing\" in the part.Even so, the film earned less than its $25 million budget.Stone received her fourth Golden Globe nomination for it, and attended the ceremony with King. Films with Yorgos Lanthimos and professional expansion (2018–present) In 2018, Stone andRachel WeiszplayedAbigail MashamandSarah Churchill, two cousins fighting for the affection ofQueen Anne(Olivia Colman), inYorgos Lanthimos's historical comedy-dramaThe Favourite. She found it challenging to be an American among an all-British cast, and struggled with mastering her character's accent.The film premiered at the75th Venice International Film Festivalto critical acclaim.Michael Nordine ofIndieWirepraised Stone for taking on such a bold role following the success ofLa La Land, and termed the three lead actresses \"a majestic triumvirate in a period piece that's as tragic as it is hilarious.\"Stone then executive-produced and starred in theNetflixdark comedy miniseriesManiac(2018), directed byCary Joji Fukunaga. It featured Stone and Jonah Hill as two strangers whose lives are transformed due to a mysterious pharmaceutical trial. An admirer of Fukunaga's work, she agreed to the project without reading the script.Judy Berman ofTimemagazine was impressed with Stone and Hill for their growth as actors sinceSuperbadand noted the complexity in their performances.Stone received her fifth Golden Globe nomination and third Oscar nomination forThe Favourite, and additionally earned SAG nominations for bothManiacandThe Favourite.That same year, Stone appeared inPaul McCartney's music video for his song \"Who Cares\". Stone reprised her role as Wichita inZombieland: Double Tap(2019), the sequel to 2009'sZombieland, which received mixed reviews and grossed $125 million worldwide.She narrated the Netflix documentary seriesThe Mind, Explained(2019) and reprised the voice role of Eep inThe Croods: A New Age(2020), the sequel to 2013'sThe Croods.In 2021, Stone playedCruella de Vil(originated byGlenn Closein the previous live-action adaptations) inCraig Gillespie's crime comedyCruella, a Disney live-action based on the 1961 animationOne Hundred and One Dalmatians. Starring oppositeEmma Thompson, Stone also served as an executive producer of the film alongside Close.The film was released in US theaters and onDisney+ Premier Accessto positive reviews and grossed $233 million worldwide against its $100 million budget.Justin ChangofLos Angeles Timeswrote that despite the film's flawed screenplay, Stone was \"wholly committed, glammed-to-the-nines\"; Chang favorably compared it with her performance inThe Favourite, adding that she \"nailed every nuance as another lowly young woman turned ambitious schemer\".ForCruella, Stone garnered another Golden Globe nomination. In 2020, Stone and her husband,Dave McCary, launched the production companyFruit Tree.Their first project was the independent filmWhen You Finish Saving the World, which marked Jesse Eisenberg's feature directorial debut.The film premiered at the2022 Sundance Film Festival, and had modest reviews.The company's next release was the comedyProblemista, directed byJulio Torres.It premiered at the 2023South by Southwest, and was initially scheduled to be released that year, but was delayed due to the2023 SAG-AFTRA strike.Both films were produced in collaboration withA24. Continuing her collaboration with Lanthimos, Stone starred in his short filmBleat(2022) and feature filmPoor Things(2023).The latter, a fantasy coming-of-age film, is based on thenovel of the same namebyAlasdair Gray.Stone also produced the film, in which she starred as Bella, a young Victorian woman who is crudely resurrected after her suicide. She found the experience of playing a character liberated of societal pressures to be \"extremely freeing\",and she performed nudity and several sex scenes in it.David Rooney ofThe Hollywood Reporterwrote that Stone \"gorges on it in a fearless performance that traces an expansive arc most actors could only dream about\", and particularly praised her ability to perform physical comedy.Stephanie ZacharekofTimetermed her performance \"wonderful—vital, exploratory, almost lunar in its perfect oddness\".Stone next executive produced and starred in theShowtimesatirical comedy seriesThe Curse.She played Whitney, an influencer who hosts anHGTVshow with her husband.Commenting on her achievements of the year,BBC Culture'sCaryn Jamesopined that \"Stone has quickly moved past Hollywood stardom to claim serious artistic credentials\".She received two more Golden Globe nominations for Best Actress for her performances inPoor ThingsandThe Curse, winning for the former.Also forPoor Things, she won her second Academy Award and BAFTA for Best Actress in addition to a Best Picture nomination. The2024 Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of two films produced by Stone for Fruit Tree — the horror filmI Saw the TV Glowand Eisenberg's second directorial,A Real Pain.In her fourth collaboration with Lanthimos, Stone played three characters in hisabsurdistanthology filmKinds of Kindness, which premiered at the2024 Cannes Film Festival.She will next star inAri Aster'scontemporary WesternfilmEddingtonand in Lanthimos'Bugonia, a remake of the South Korean filmSave the Green Planet!. Reception and acting style Commenting on her performance inThe Help, Kirk Honeycutt ofThe Hollywood Reportercalled her \"one of our very best young actresses\".Time's Daniel D'Addario stated in 2015 that Stone \"appears to have fairly limited options\" and choosing roles in independent films by \"less established directors would represent a substantive risk\".Analyzing her on-screen persona, Jessica Kiang ofIndieWirenoted that Stone \"usually the approachable, down-to-earth, girl-next-door type, in person she demonstrates many of those qualities too, along with an absolute refusal to take herself too seriously.\"Biographer Karen Hollinger wrote that at the beginning of her career, Stone was often labeled a \"staringénue\", a perceived limitation she escaped despite not being a classically trained actress as she \"crafted a brilliant career based on performative skills, careful choice of roles and distinctive personality\".In a 2024 analysis of Stone's career trajectory,IndieWiresuggested that from breakout roles to acclaimed performances in indie films, Stone is positioned as a potential new movie star in Hollywood's evolving landscape. In 2008, Stone toppedSaturday Night Magazine's Top 20 Rising Stars Under 30 and was included in a similar list compiled byMoviefone.LoveFilmplaced her on their list of 2010 Top 20 Actresses Under 30, and her performance inEasy Awas included inTime's Top 10 Everything of 2010.She appeared in the 2013Celebrity 100list, a compilation of the 100 most powerful people in the world, as selected annually byForbes. The magazine reported that she had earned $16 million from June 2012 to June 2013.That same year, she was ranked first in the magazine's Top 10 Best Value Stars.In 2015,Forbespublished that she had become one of the world's highest-paid actresses with earnings of $6.5 million.The magazine ranked her theworld's highest-paid actresstwo years later with annual earnings of $26 million.In 2017, she was included onTime's annual list of the100 most influential people in the world. Stone has been described as a style icon, with her hair, eyes, and husky voice listed as her trademark features.Voguecredits the actress for her \"sophisticated, perfectly put-together looks\", writing that \"her charisma, both on-screen and off-, has charmed many\" and for her embrace of \"Old Hollywood Glamour\".Bee Shapiro ofThe New York Timescalled Stone a \"likable ... spunky, talented, self-deprecating and slightly goofy\" actress who is diverse in her fashion choices.In 2009, she was featured onFHM's100 Sexiest Women in the WorldandMaxim's Hot 100;the latter also placed her on the list on three other occasions—2010, 2011, and 2014.In 2011, she featured onVictoria's Secret's list of \"What is Sexy?\" as the Sexiest Actress.She was mentioned in other media outlet listings that year, includingPeople's 100 Most Beautiful Women, each ofFHM's andFHM Australia's 100 Sexiest Women in the World, andMen's Health's 100 Hottest Women.She was ranked sixth onEmpire's list of the 100 Sexiest Movie Stars in 2013.Stone was named the best-dressed woman of 2012 byVogueand was included on similar listings byGlamourin 2013 and 2015, andPeoplein 2014. Personal life Stone moved from Los Angeles toGreenwich Village,New York, in 2009.In 2016, she moved back to Los Angeles.Despite significant media attention, she refuses to publicly discuss her personal life. Concerned with living a normal life, Stone has said she dislikes receiving paparazzi attention outside her home.She has expressed her fondness for her profession,and has citedDiane Keatonas an acting influence, calling her \"one of the most covered-up actresses of all time\". Stone has a close relationship with her family.She says, \"I am blessed with a great family and great people around me that would be able to kick me in the shins if I ever for one minute got lost up in the clouds. I've been really lucky in that sense.\" Stone dated herPaper Manco-starKieran Culkinfor two years. In 2011, she started dating herAmazing Spider-Manco-star Andrew Garfield for four years.Their relationship was reported in the media with various speculations; the pair refused to speak publicly about it, though they made several appearances together. In 2014, on an occasion in New York City, Stone and Garfield encouraged paparazzi to visit websites that spread awareness of causes such asautism.In 2015, they were reported to have broken up. Stone metSaturday Night Livesegment directorDave McCaryon December 3, 2016, while hosting the show. They began dating the following year. On December 4, 2019, they announced their engagement. They married in a private ceremony in September 2020.In January 2021, they were reported to be expecting their first child together.In March 2021, Stone gave birth to their daughter named Louise Jean.As of 2021, the family lives inAustin, Texas.In 2022, Stone sold her house inMalibu, Californiafor $4.425 million,and in 2024, she sold herLos Angeleshome for $4 million. Stone has said she suffers fromasthma, which she discovered after having difficulty breathing while filmingEasy A.Her mother was diagnosed withtriple-negative breast cancerand cured in 2008.Stone and her mother celebrated by getting tattoos of birds' feet, designed byPaul McCartney, a reference tothe Beatlessong \"Blackbird\", which she and her mother love.Stone is a supporter ofPlanned Parenthood, and attended the2017 Academy Awardswearing a Planned Parenthood pin on her dress. Philanthropy Stone appeared in aRevloncampaign that promoted breast cancer awareness.In 2011, she appeared in a collaborative video betweenStar WarsandStand Up to Cancerto raise funds for cancer research.From 2012 to 2014, she hosted theEntertainment Industry Foundation's Revlon Run/Walk, which helps fight women's cancer. Stone and three other celebrities were present at the 2012Nickelodeon HALO Awards, a TV special that profiled four teenagers who are \"Helping And Leading Others\" (HALO).She attended the 2014Earth Hour, a worldwide movement for the planet organized by theWorld Wide Fund for Nature.In 2015, she was part of a fundraising event in support of theMotion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the film and television industries with limited or no resources.In 2018, she collaborated with 300 women in Hollywood to set up theTime's Upinitiative to protect women fromsexual harassmentand discrimination. Acting credits and awards According to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes and the box-office siteBox Office Mojo, Stone's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful films areSuperbad(2007),Zombieland(2009),Easy A(2010),Crazy, Stupid, Love(2011),The Help(2011),The Amazing Spider-Man(2012),The Amazing Spider-Man 2(2014),Birdman(2014),La La Land(2016),Battle of the Sexes(2017),The Favourite(2018),Cruella(2021), andPoor Things(2023). Stone has been recognized by theAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciencesfor the following: She has also been nominated for fiveBritish Academy Film Awards: BAFTA Rising Star Award, Best Supporting Actress forBirdmanandThe Favourite, and Best Actress in a Leading Role forLa La LandandPoor Things, winning for the last two.Her other awards include twoGolden Globe Awardsfor Best Actress in a Comedy or Musical forLa La LandandPoor Things,theScreen Actors Guild Awardfor Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role and the Volpi Cup for Best Actress at Venice Film Festival, both forLa La Land. See also Notes References Literary sources External links","List of highest-paid film actors While the highest-paidfilm actorscan command multi-million-dollar salaries, actors can potentially earn substantially more by deferring all or part of their salary against a percentage of the film's gross, known within the industry as a \"profit participation\" deal. Highest earnings for a single production Since not all salaries are made public, this is a non-definitive list of actors who have received $30 million or more as compensation for their services in a single production. Occasionally an actor's fee may cover multiple films, and they are included on the list if the films were filmed as a back-to-back production (for example, Keanu Reeves and theMatrixsequels). The figures are given at theirnominal value, since earnings from profit-based deals are accumulated over many years, making it unfeasible to adjust forinflation. Forbespublishes yearly lists of the highest-paid actors and actresses based on total earnings from 1 June the previous year to 1 June the current year. Highest annual earnings Forbespublishes yearly lists of the highest-paid actors and actresses based on total earnings from 1 June the previous year to 1 June the current year. See also References","Margot Robbie Margot Elise Robbie(/ˈmɑːrɡoʊˈrɒbi/MAR-gohROB-ee; born 2 July 1990) is an Australian actress and producer.Her workincludes bothblockbusterandindependent films, andher accoladesinclude nominations for threeAcademy Awards, sixBAFTA Awardsand fourGolden Globe Awards.Timenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the worldin 2017, andForbesnamed her theworld's highest-paid actressin 2023. Born and raised inQueensland, Robbie began her career in 2008 on the television seriesNeighbours, on which she was a regular until 2011. After moving to the United States, she led the television seriesPan Am(2011–2012) and had her breakthrough in 2013 withMartin Scorsese’s comedy filmThe Wolf of Wall Street. She achieved wider recognition with starring roles asJane PorterinThe Legend of Tarzan(2016), and asHarley Quinnin theDC Extended Universefilms beginning withSuicide Squad(2016). Robbie received critical acclaim and a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Actressfor her portrayal of figure skaterTonya Hardingin the biopicI, Tonya(2017). This acclaim continued for her performances asQueen Elizabeth IinMary Queen of Scots(2018),Sharon TateinOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood(2019), and aFox Newsemployee inBombshell(2019). The last of these earned her a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Robbie has since starred as an aspiring actress in the period filmBabylon(2022) andthe titular fashion dollin the fantasy comedyBarbie(2023), which emerged as her highest-grossing release and, as its producer, earned her a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture. Robbie and her husband, filmmakerTom Ackerley, co-founded the production companyLuckyChap Entertainmentin 2014, under which they have produced several films, includingI, Tonya,Promising Young Woman(2020),Barbie, andSaltburn(2023), as well as theHuluseriesDollface(2019–2022) and theNetflixminiseriesMaid(2021). Early life and education Margot Elise Robbie was born on 2 July 1990 inDalby, Queensland, to Doug Robbie, a former farm-owner andsugarcanetycoon, and Sarie Kessler, aphysiotherapist.She is the second youngest of four; older siblings Anya and Lachlan and younger brother Cameron.Her parents separated when she was five.Robbie and her siblings were raised by their single mother and had minimal contact with their father. The family spent the majority of Robbie's upbringing on her grandparents'Currumbin Valleyfarmin theGold Coast hinterland.An energetic child, Robbie often put on shows in her house. She was enrolled in acircus schoolby her mother, where she excelled intrapeze, in which she received a certificate at age eight.In high school, Robbie studied drama atSomerset College.As a teenager, she worked three jobs: she tended a bar, cleaned houses, and worked atSubway.After graduation, with a few commercials and independent thriller films on her résumé, Robbie relocated toMelbourneto begin acting professionally. Career 2008–2012: Early work andNeighbours Robbie's first acting roles came when she was in high school. She starred in two low-budget independent thriller films, calledVigilanteandI.C.U., both released years later. She described the experience of being on afilm setas \"a dream come true\".She made her television debut in a 2008 guest role as Caitlin Brentford in the drama seriesCity Homicideand followed this with a two-episode arc in the children's television seriesThe Elephant Princess, in which she starred alongsideLiam Hemsworth. With agent encouragement at the time and as Robbie recalled onThe Graham Norton Show,she calledFremantleMediaon a daily basis. \"One day, I got put through by accident to the casting director for Neighbours,\" and she said, \"I'm in town working on something.\" The casting director asked how old she was, and she responded \"seventeen.\" She was told, \"We're looking for exactly that, come in and audition\"for the television soap operaNeighbours. In June 2008, she began playingDonna Freedman, a role that was meant to be a guest character, but Robbie was promoted to the regular cast after she made her debut.In her three-year stint on the soap, she received twoLogie Awardnominations. Shortly after arriving in America, Robbie landed the role of Laura Cameron, a newly trained flight attendant in the period drama seriesPan Am(2011). The series premiered to high ratings and positive reviews but was cancelled after one season due to falling ratings. 2013–2015: Breakthrough Robbie next appeared inRichard Curtis' romantic comedyAbout Time(2013), co-starringDomhnall GleesonandRachel McAdams. It tells the story of a young man with the ability to time travel who tries to change his past in hopes of improving his future. To play Gleeson's unattainable teenage love interest, she adopted a British accent.The film was a modest commercial success.Robbie's breakthrough came the same year with the role ofNaomi Lapaglia, the wife of protagonistJordan Belfort, inMartin Scorsese's biographical black comedyThe Wolf of Wall Street. In her audition for the role, Robbie improvised a slap on co-starLeonardo DiCaprioduring a fight scene which ultimately won her the part.The film and her performance received positive reviews; she was particularly praised for her on-screenBrooklyn accent.CriticSasha Stonewrote of Robbie's performance, \"She's Scorsese's best blonde bombshell discovery sinceCathy MoriartyinRaging Bull. Robbie is funny, hard and kills every scene she's in.\"The Wolf of Wall Streetwas a box office success, grossing $392 million worldwide, making it Scorsese's highest-grossing film to date.Robbie was nominated for theMTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performanceand won theEmpire Award for Best Newcomer. She later said that the fame and attention the movie brought her led her to consider quitting acting, but her mother was philosophical about her profession and explained to her that it was probably too late to quit. She fully understood and stuck with it.With the aim to produce more female-driven projects, Robbie and her future husband, Tom Ackerley, and their respective longtime friends Sophia Kerr and Josey McNamara, started their own production companyLuckyChap Entertainment. The company was founded in 2014 and its name was inspired byCharlie Chaplin. Robbie appeared in four films released in 2015. The first of these was oppositeWill SmithinGlenn FicarraandJohn Requa's $158.8 million-grossing romantic comedy-drama filmFocus. In the film, she played an inexperiencedgrifterlearning the craft from Smith's character; she learned how topickpocketfromApollo Robbinsfor the role.Reviews of the film were generally mixed, but Robbie's performance was praised;Peter TraversofRolling Stonewrote, \"Robbie is wow and then some. Even whenFocusfumbles, deals a winning hand.\"She was nominated for theRising Star Awardat the68th British Academy Film Awards.Her next appearance was alongsideMichelle WilliamsandKristin Scott ThomasinSaul Dibb's war romantic dramaSuite Française, a film based on the second part ofIrène Némirovsky's 2004novel of the same name. In the film, she played a woman falling for a German soldier during theGerman occupation of France during World War II, a role which Leslie Felperin ofThe Hollywood Reporterfound \"underwritten\". She followed this withCraig Zobel's post-apocalyptic dramaZ for ZachariahoppositeChris PineandChiwetel Ejiofor, in her first leading role. Partially based onRobert C. O'Brien'sbook of the same name, the film follows Ann Burden (Robbie) as she finds herself in an emotionally charged love triangle with the last known survivors of a disaster that wipes out most of civilization. In preparation for the film, Robbie dyed her hair brown and learned to speak in anAppalachianaccent.The film received positive reviews, and Robbie's performance was widely praised, with Drew McWeeny ofHitFixasserting that \"Robbie's work here establishes her as one of the very best actresses in her age range today.\"Her fourth release of 2015 was acameo appearanceinAdam McKay's comedy-dramaThe Big Short, in which she breaks thefourth wallto explainsubprime mortgageswhile in a bathtub.The Big Shortwas a commercial and critical success and Robbie's cameo became atrending topicsix years later, in the wake of theGameStop short squeeze, as her explanation provided reference points for what was happening with the GameStop and related stocks. 2016–2018: Worldwide recognition In 2016, Robbie reunited with Ficarra and Requa, playing a Britishwar correspondentin the film adaptation ofThe Taliban Shuffle, calledWhiskey Tango Foxtrot, co-starringTina FeyandMartin Freeman.Later that year, Robbie took on the part ofJane PorterinDavid Yates's adventure filmThe Legend of Tarzan. She was adamant about not losing weight and ensuring the role was not adamsel in distresslike in previousTarzanadaptations.Reviews of the film were generally unfavourable,butManohla DargisofThe New York Timescredited Robbie for \"holding her own\" in her supporting role alongside the all-male cast withAlexander SkarsgårdandSamuel L. Jackson. Robbie became the first person to portrayDC ComicsvillainHarley Quinninlive-actionwhen she signed on toDavid Ayer's 2016 superhero filmSuicide Squadalongside anensemble castthat included Will Smith,Jared LetoandViola Davis. She admitted to having never read the comics, but felt a huge responsibility to do the character justice and satisfy the fans.Robbie began preparing for the role of thesupervillainesssix months prior to the film shoot; her schedule consisted ofgymnastics,boxing,aerial silktraining and learning how to hold her breath underwater for five minutes. She performed the majority of her own stunts in the film.Suicide Squadwas a commercial success and wastenth-highest-grossing film of 2016with global revenues of $746.8 million, and Robbie's performance was considered its prime asset.Writing forTime,Stephanie Zacharekfound Robbie to be \"a criminally appealing actress, likable in just about every way\" despite finding flaws in the characterandChristopher OrrofThe Atlanticcalled her performance \"genuinely terrific\".At the annualPeople's Choice Awardsceremony, she won theFavorite Action Movie Actressaward and was also awarded theCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in an Action Movie.In October 2016, Robbie hosted theseason 42premiere ofNBC's late-night sketch comedySaturday Night Live; her appearances included a parody ofIvanka Trump.The series logged its strongest season premiere ratings in eight years.Robbie collaborated with Domhnall Gleeson inSimon Curtis'Goodbye Christopher Robin(2017), a biographical drama about the lives ofWinnie-the-PoohcreatorA. A. Milneand his family. The film, and her performance, received modest reviews and was a commercial failure. Her final release of 2017 and LuckyChap Entertainment's first release wasCraig Gillespie's sports black comedyI, Tonya, based on the life of American figure skaterTonya Harding(Robbie) and her connection to the1994 assaulton rivalNancy Kerrigan. In preparation, Robbie met with Harding, watched old footage and interviews of her, worked with a voice coach to speak in Harding'sPacific Northwestaccent and vocal timbre at different ages, and underwent several months of rigorous skating instruction with choreographerSarah Kawahara.I, Tonyapremiered at the2017 Toronto International Film Festivalto critical acclaim.James Luxford ofMetrodeemed it Robbie's best performance to date, andMark KermodeofThe Observerwrote, \"Margot Robbie's performance in this satirical, postmodern tale of the disgraced star is a tour-de-force tornado that balances finely nuanced character development with impressively punchy physicality\".She received numerous accolades for her performance, including nominations for anAcademy Award, aBAFTA Award, aGolden Globe Award, aScreen Actors Guild Awardand aCritics' Choice Movie Award, all for Best Actress. Robbie began 2018 with the voice role ofFlopsy RabbitinPeter Rabbit, an animated comedy from directorWill Gluck, which is based on theBeatrix Potterbook series. The animated feature was a box office success, grossing $351.3 million worldwide against a production budget of $50 million.Her next two 2018 films—the neo-noir thrillerTerminaland comedy-horrorSlaughterhouse Rulez—were critical and commercial failures. The historical dramaMary Queen of Scots, directed byJosie Rourke, was her final release of 2018. The film featuredSaoirse Ronanas thetitular characterand Robbie as her cousinQueen Elizabeth I, and it chronicles the1569 conflict between their two countries. Robbie had initially turned down the role for being \"terrified\" of not living up to the history of portrayals of the Queen.Before each day of shooting, she spent three hours in the make-up chair while a prosthetic nose, painted on boils and blisters were applied.Critics dismissed the film for its screenplay and several historical inaccuracies, but praised the performances of Robbie and Ronan.Yolanda Machado ofTheWrapwrote, \"ow down to Ronan and Robbie for taking two legendarily complex characters, and completely owning both roles. Ronan's fiery Mary and Robbie's emotionally complex Elizabeth truly reign divine on screen.\"For her portrayal, Robbie received nominations for aBAFTA Awardand for aScreen Actors Guild Award. 2019–present: Established actress and producer Robbie's first release of 2019 was the LuckyChap Entertainment productionDreamland, a poorly received period crime thriller set during the 1930sDust Bowl.She began executive producing the comedy seriesDollface, which streamed onHulufrom 2019 to 2022.Robbie was filmmakerQuentin Tarantino's only choice to portray the late actressSharon Tatein his period filmOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood, starring Leonardo DiCaprio andBrad Pitt.With theTate–LaBianca murdersserving as a backdrop, the film tells the story of a fadingcharacter actor(DiCaprio) and hisstunt double(Pitt) as they navigateNew Hollywoodin 1969 Los Angeles.Feeling \"an enormous sense of responsibility\", Robbie prepared for the role by meeting Tate's family members and friends, watching all of her films and reading the autobiography by Tate's then-husband,Roman Polanski.Once Upon a Time in Hollywoodpremiered at the2019 Cannes Film Festivalto critical acclaim, and was a commercial success with a worldwide gross of $374.3 million.Despite many bemoaning Robbie's lack of lines in the film,Robbie CollinofThe Daily Telegraphhighlighted a scene with Robbie in the cinema, which he found to be the film's \"most delightful\" scene. Also in 2019, she starred as Kayla Pospisil, acomposite characterbased on severalFox Newsemployees, inJay Roach's dramaBombshell. Co-starringCharlize TheronandNicole Kidman, the film recounts stories of various female personnel at the news network and their sexual harassment by the network's chairmanRoger Ailes.Robbie based her character's accent onKatherine Harris.The film received positive reviews;Kenneth Turanof theLos Angeles Timeswrote, \"Robbie at her best, the arc of her story is so crushing that it stays with you the longest.\"For her performances inOnce Upon a Time in HollywoodandBombshell, she received two nominations for theBAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role,and for the latter she received nominations for anAcademy Award, aGolden Globeand a Screen Actors Guild Award; all in the Best Supporting Actress category. Robbie began the new decade by reprising the role of Harley Quinn inCathy Yan'sBirds of Prey(2020). Determined to make a female ensemble action film, she pitched the idea for the film toWarner Bros.in 2015. Robbie spent the subsequent three years developing the project under her production company, making a concerted effort to hire a female director and screenwriter.Birds of Prey, along with Robbie's performance, gained generally positive reviews;Ian FreerofEmpirewrote that \"theMVPis Robbie, who lends Harley charming quirk and believable menace, hinting at Harley's inner life without reams of dialogue.\"She received two nominations at the46th People's Choice Awards. Robbie served as a producer onPromising Young Woman(2020), a comedy thriller by writer-directorEmerald Fennell, starringCarey Mulliganas a woman who seeks to avenge the rape and death of her best friend. The film received acclaim,earning a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.In 2021, Robbie reprised her voice role as Flopsy Rabbit inPeter Rabbit 2: The Runaway, which received mixed reviews and grossed $153.8 million worldwide.She also made her third outing as Quinn in thestandalone sequelThe Suicide Squad, written and directed byJames Gunn. Due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, the film was simultaneously released theatrically and on the streaming serviceHBO Max.Owen Gleibermanpraised Robbie's \"delectable performance\" in it.She also served as an executive producer for theNetflixminiseriesMaid. In 2022, Robbie reprised her role as Donna Freedman for thefinal episodeofNeighbours.She starred alongside an ensemble cast inDavid O. Russell's period comedyAmsterdam, based on the 1933Business Plot.The film emerged as a critical and commercial failure.In her second film release of the year, she played Nellie LaRoy, an actress inspired by silent movie starClara Bow, inDamien Chazelle's comedy-dramaBabylon. In preparation, she studied the works of Bow and researched her traumatic childhood.She described LaRoy as \"the most physically and emotionally draining character I've ever played\".The film polarized critics and had poor box office returns, though her performance received praise;Caryn JamesofBBC Cultureopined, \"Robbie's bold, charismatic performance makes Nellie a daring, endlessly spiraling, sympathetic figure\".She received another Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress,although the underperformance of her two major releases that year led some commentators to brand her as \"box office poison\" at the time. In the following year, Robbie had a single scene inWes Anderson's ensemble comedy filmAsteroid City.Chris Hewitt of theStar Tribunedescribed her \"impassioned acting in her lone scene\" as \"perfectly judged\".The fantasy comedyBarbie, co-starringRyan GoslingasKen, was her next film release.As producer, Robbie bought the rights fromMattelfor a film about theeponymous fashion dollin 2018.She hiredGreta Gerwigto write and direct the film, and took on the title role herself afterGal Gadotdeclined her offer.In preparation, Gerwig and Robbie watched oldTechnicolormusicals such asThe Red Shoes(1948) andThe Umbrellas of Cherbourg(1964).Varietyreported that Robbie earned $12.5 million for the role, the highest for an actress in Hollywood that year.Vulture'sAlison Willmore took note of how much Robbie fit the part, and commended her for combining both \"heartbreaking earnestness\" and \"humor\" in her performance.With a worldwide gross of over $1.4 billion,Barbieemerged as Robbie's highest-grossing release.She received further BAFTA and Golden Globe nominations for her performance, in addition to a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture. Also in 2023, Robbie produced Fennell's second directorial,Saltburn.The2024 Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of her next production,Megan Park's comedy filmMy Old Ass.Robbie will next star alongsideColin FarrellinKogonada's filmA Big Bold Beautiful JourneyandJacob Elordiin Emerald Fennell'sWuthering Heights, adapted fromthe novel. Personal life Despite significant media attention, Robbie rarely discusses her personal life.Robbie moved from Melbourne toWilliamsburg, Brooklyn, in the early 2010s, having previously shared a flat withNeighboursco-starAshleigh Brewer.During that period, she became an avid ice hockey fan; she supports theNew York Rangersand previously playedright wingin an amateur ice hockey league. Robbie met British assistant directorTom Ackerleyon the set ofSuite Françaisein 2013.In 2014, she moved to London with Ackerley and LuckyChap Entertainment co-founders Sophia Kerr and Josey McNamara. Later that year, Robbie and Ackerley began a romantic relationship.In December 2016, they married in a private wedding ceremony inByron Bay, Australia.The couple reside inVenice Beach, California.Her pregnancy was confirmed by the media via multiple sources in July 2024. Other work Robbie has been a vocal supporter ofhuman rights,women's rights,gender equalityandLGBTrights.Through LuckyChap Entertainment, she and her co-founders focus on promoting female stories from female storytellers, whether it would be writers, directors, producers or all the above.In 2014, she was part of a fundraising event in support of theMotion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the film and television industries with limited or no resources; she joined the same event on two other occasions, in 2018 and 2020.In 2015, she helped raise $12 million through theBGC Global Charity Dayfundraising event, which donates money to different charities around the world.In 2016, Robbie joined other celebrities andUN Refugee Agencystaff in a petition aiming to gather public support for the growing number of families forced to flee conflict and persecution worldwide.Later in the year, she joinedOxfam's \"I Hear You\" project, which was designed to amplify the personal stories of the world's most vulnerable refugees and donated more than $50.000 toUNICEF's \"Children First\" campaign, in support of refugee children. In October 2016, while hostingSaturday Night Live, Robbie made a stand forsame-sex marriagein her native Australia wearing a T-shirt that read \"Say 'I Do' Down Under\", with a map of the country in rainbow colors. A year later, she joined fellow actorChris Hemsworthin advocating for the same purpose.In 2018, she pledged to support theTime's Upinitiative to protect women from harassment and discrimination.In April 2021, Robbie was announced as the recipient of the inaugural RAD Impact Award, for inspiring purpose with her philanthropy. She chose to share the prize withYoungcare, a charity she had previously worked with, and therefore an impact donation was made to fund a project benefiting young people with extensive care needs. Public image Robbie is known for starring in both high-profile, mainstream productions and low-budget independent films, in which she has been able to display both her dramatic and comedic range. For her role inThe Wolf of Wall Street,Vanity Fairnamed her one of its breakthrough actors of 2013.In 2017, she appeared on the annualForbes30 Under 30list, a compilation of the brightest young entrepreneurs, innovators and game changers in the world and was included on a similar list compiled byThe Hollywood Reporter.That same year,Timenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the world; herThe Wolf of Wall Streetdirector Martin Scorsese penned the article in the magazine, referring to Robbie as having \"a unique audacity that surprises and challenges and just burns like a brand into every character she plays. Margot is stunning in all she is and all she does, and she will astonish us forever.\"In 2019,Forbesranked her among the world's highest-paid actresses, with annual earnings of $23.5 million, andThe Hollywood Reporterlisted her among the 100 most powerful people in entertainment.In 2021, she was named one of the 100 most influential women in entertainment byThe Hollywood Reporter.In December 2023, Robbie has been listed inThe Hollywood Reporter’s 2023 Women in Entertainment Power 100.In 2024, she was named byForbesas theworld's highest-paid actressin 2023, with earnings of $78 million. Voguehas named her \"one of the most glamorous starlets\" and she was ranked as one of the best-dressed women in 2018 and 2019 by luxury fashion retailerNet-a-Porter.In 2014 and 2016, she featured onAskMen's Top 99 Women, ranking among the top ten each year.Also in 2016, Robbie was placed at number one onFHM's \"100 Sexiest Women in the World\" list.Since 2016, she has been chosen as the ambassador for brands such asCalvin Klein,NissanandChanel.She was the last brand ambassador picked byKarl Lagerfeldbefore his death in February 2019.She is the latest ambassador ofChanel No 5. Filmography and awards According to the review aggregator siteRotten Tomatoes, Robbie's most positively reviewed films areThe Wolf of Wall Street(2013),Z for Zachariah(2015),Suite Française(2015),I, Tonya(2017),Once Upon a Time in Hollywood(2019),Birds of Prey(2020),The Suicide Squad(2021), andBarbie(2023). Explanatory notes References Further reading External links","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolf_of_Wall_Street_(2013_film"],"string":"[\n \"Emma Stone Emily Jean\\\"Emma\\\"Stone(born November 6, 1988) is an American actress and producer.Her accoladesinclude twoAcademy Awards, twoBritish Academy Film Awards, and twoGolden Globe Awards. In 2017, she was theworld's highest-paid actressand named byTimemagazine as one of the100 most influential people in the world. Stone began acting as a child in a theater production ofThe Wind in the Willowsin 2000. As a teenager, she relocated to Los Angeles and made her television debut inIn Search of the New Partridge Family(2004), a reality show that produced only an unsold pilot. After small television roles, she appeared in a series of well-received teen comedy films, such asSuperbad(2007),Zombieland(2009), andEasy A(2010), which was Stone's first leading role. Following this breakthrough, she starred in the romantic comedyCrazy, Stupid, Love(2011) and the period dramaThe Help(2011), and gained wider recognition asGwen Stacyin the 2012 superhero filmThe Amazing Spider-Manandits 2014 sequel. Stone received nominations for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actressfor playing a recovering drug addict inBirdman(2014) and portrayingAbigail MashaminThe Favourite(2018). The latter marked her first of many collaborations with directorYorgos Lanthimos. She won twoAcademy Awards for Best Actress, for her roles as an aspiring actress in the romantic musicalLa La Land(2016) and a resurrected suicide victim in Lanthimos' comic fantasy filmPoor Things(2023). She also portrayed tennis playerBillie Jean KinginBattle of the Sexes(2017) and thetitle roleinCruella(2021). On television, she starred in the dark comedy miniseriesManiac(2018) andThe Curse(2023). OnBroadway, Stone has starred asSally Bowlesin a revival of the musicalCabaret(2014–2015). She and her husband,Dave McCary, founded the production companyFruit Treein 2020, under which they have produced the filmsWhen You Finish Saving the World(2022),Problemista(2023), andI Saw the TV Glow(2024). Early life Stone was born on November 6, 1988, inScottsdale, Arizona, to Jeffrey Charles Stone, the founder and CEO of a general-contracting company, and Krista Jean Stone (néeYeager), a homemaker.She lived on the grounds of theCamelback Innresort from ages 12 to 15.She has a younger brother, Spencer.Her paternal grandfather, Conrad Ostberg Sten, was from a Swedish family thatanglicizedtheir surname to \\\"Stone\\\". She also has German, English, Scottish, and Irish ancestry. As an infant, Stone hadbaby colicand cried frequently. She consequently developednodulesand calluses on her vocal cords while she was a child.Stone has described herself as \\\"loud\\\" and \\\"bossy\\\" while growing up.She was educated at Sequoya Elementary School and attendedCocopah Middle Schoolfor sixth grade. Stone did not like school, though once said that her controlling nature meant that \\\"I made sure I got allA's\\\".She sufferedpanic attacksandanxietyas a child,and said they caused a decline in her social skills.Stone underwent therapy but said it was her participation in local theater plays that helped cure the attacks, recalling: The first time I had a panic attack I was sitting in my friend's house, and I thought the house was burning down. I called my mom and she brought me home, and for the next three years it just would not stop. I would go to the nurse at lunch most days and just wring my hands. I would ask my mom to tell me exactly how the day was going to be, then ask again 30 seconds later. I just needed to know that no one was going to die and nothing was going to change. Stone wanted to act since age four;she wanted a career insketch comedyinitially, but shifted her focus to musical theater, and took vocal lessons for several years.Her acting debut, at age 11, came in a stage production ofThe Wind in the Willows, playing Otter.Stone washomeschooledfor two years, during which time she appeared in 16 productions at Phoenix'sValley Youth Theatre—includingThe Princess and the Pea,Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, andJoseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat—and performed with the theater'simprovisational comedytroupe.Around this time, she traveled to Los Angeles and auditioned unsuccessfully for a role onNickelodeon'sAll That.Her parents later sent her for private acting lessons with a local acting coach, who had worked at theWilliam Morris Agencyin the 1970s. Stone attendedXavier College Preparatory—an all-girlCatholic high school—as a freshman, but dropped out after one semester to become an actress.She prepared aPowerPointpresentation for her parents titled \\\"Project Hollywood\\\" (featuringMadonna's 2003 song \\\"Hollywood\\\") to convince them to let her move to California to pursue an acting career.In January 2004, she moved with her mother to an apartment in Los Angeles. She recalled, \\\"I went up for every single show on theDisney Channeland auditioned to play the daughter on every single sitcom\\\", adding, \\\"I ended up getting none.\\\"Between auditions for roles, she enrolled in online high-school classes and worked part-time at a dog-treat bakery. Career Career beginnings (2004–2009) When Stone registered for theScreen Actors Guildat age 16, the name \\\"Emily Stone\\\" was already taken, and she briefly went by \\\"Riley Stone\\\".She made her television debut as Laurie Partridge on theVH1talent competition reality showIn Search of the New Partridge Family(2004). The resulting show, retitledThe New Partridge Family(2004), remained an unsold pilot.After guest-starring in the television showsMedium(2005) andMalcolm in the Middle(2006), she decided to change her stage name to \\\"Emma\\\"—chosen in honor ofEmma Buntonof theSpice Girls—as she struggled to adapt to the name Riley.She next appeared inLouis C.K.'sHBOseriesLucky Louie(2006),and unsuccessfully auditioned to star asClaire Bennetin the NBC science fiction dramaHeroes(2007), later calling this her \\\"rock bottom\\\" experience.In April 2007, she playedViolet Trimblein the Fox action dramaDrive, but the show was canceled after seven episodes. Stone made her feature film debut inGreg Mottola's comedySuperbad(2007), co-starringMichael CeraandJonah Hill. The film tells the story of two high school students who go through a series of comic misadventures after they plan to buy alcohol for a party. To play Hill's romantic interest, she dyed her hair red.A reviewer forThe Hollywood Reporterfound her \\\"appealing\\\", but felt that her role was poorly written.Stone has described the experience of acting in her first film as \\\"amazing ... very different than other experiences I've had since then\\\".The film was a commercial success, and earned her theYoung Hollywood Awardfor Exciting New Face. The next year, Stone starred in the comedyThe Rocker(2008) as Amelia Stone, the \\\"straight face\\\"bass guitaristin a band; she learned to play the bass for the role.The actress, who has called herself \\\"a big smiler and laugher\\\", said she found it difficult to play a character whose personality was so different from her own. The film and her performance received negative reviews from critics and was a commercial failure.Her next release, the romantic comedyThe House Bunny, performed better at the box office, becoming a moderate commercial success.The film saw her play the president of a sorority, and perform acover versionofthe Waitresses' 1982 song \\\"I Know What Boys Like\\\".Reviews were generally negative,but Stone was praised,withTV Guide's Ken Fox writing that she \\\"is well on her way to becoming a star\\\". Stone appeared in three films released in 2009. The first of these was oppositeMatthew McConaughey,Jennifer GarnerandMichael DouglasinMark Waters'sGhosts of Girlfriends Past. Loosely based onCharles Dickens's 1843novellaA Christmas Carol, the romantic comedy has her playing a ghost who haunts her former boyfriend. Critical reaction to the film was negative, but it was a modest commercial success.Her most financially profitable venture that year wasRuben Fleischer's $102.3 million-grossing horror comedy filmZombieland,in which she featured alongsideJesse Eisenberg,Woody HarrelsonandAbigail Breslin. In the film, she appeared as a con artist and survivor of azombie apocalypse, in a role which Chris Hewitt ofEmpiremagazine thought was \\\"somewhat underwritten.\\\"In a more positive review, Tim Robey ofThe Daily Telegraphcalled \\\"the hugely promising Stone a tough cookie who projects the aura of being wiser than her years\\\".Stone's third release in 2009 wasKieran and Michelle Mulroney'sPaper Man, a comedy-drama which disappointed critics. Rise to prominence (2010–2013) Stone voiced anAustralian ShepherdinMarmaduke(2010), a comedy from directorTom Deybased onBrad Anderson'slong-running comic strip of the same name.Her breakthrough came the same year with a starring role inEasy A, a teen comedy directed byWill Gluck.Partially based onNathaniel Hawthorne's 1850 novelThe Scarlet Letter, the film tells the story of Olive Penderghast (Stone), a high school student who becomes embroiled in a comic sex scandal after a false rumor circulates that she is sexuallypromiscuous. Stone read the script before the project was optioned for production, and pursued it with her manager while production details were being finalized. She found the script \\\"so different and unique from anything I'd read before\\\", calling it \\\"funny and sweet\\\".When Stone discovered that the film had begun production, she met with Gluck, expressing her enthusiasm for the project. A few months later, the audition process started and she met again with Gluck, becoming one of the first actresses to audition.The film received positive critical reviews, and Stone's performance was considered its prime asset.Anna Smith ofTime Outwrote, \\\"Stone gives a terrific performance, her knowing drawl implying intellect and indifference with underlying warmth.\\\"The film was a commercial success, grossing $75 million against its $8 million budget.Stone was nominated for aBAFTA Rising Star Awardand aGolden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy, and won theMTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance. In October 2010, Stone hosted an episode of NBC's sketch comedySaturday Night Live; her appearances included a sketch playing off her resemblance toLindsay Lohan.Stone called it \\\"the greatest week of my life\\\".She hosted again in 2011, appeared in an episode in 2014, and inits 40th anniversary specialin 2015.A brief appearance in the sex comedyFriends with Benefits(2011) reunited her with Gluck.She followed this with a supporting role inGlenn FicarraandJohn Requa's romantic comedyCrazy, Stupid, Love(2011) alongsideSteve Carell,Ryan GoslingandJulianne Moore. The film featured her as a law school graduate, and the love interest of Gosling's character. Despite finding \\\"some inevitable collapses into convention\\\" in the film, Drew McWeeny ofHitFixwrote that Stone \\\"ties the whole film together\\\".At the2012 Teen Choice Awards, she won theChoice Movie Actress – Comedyaward for her performance in the film.Crazy, Stupid, Lovewas a box office success, grossing $142.9 million worldwide against a production budget of $50 million. Dismayed at beingtypecastas \\\"the sarcastic interest of the guy\\\", Stone co-starred withViola DavisinTate Taylor's period dramaThe Help(2011), a film she found challenging.The film is based onKathryn Stockett's2009 novel of the same nameand is set in 1960sJackson, Mississippi. She met with Taylor to express a desire to work on the film. The director said, \\\" was completely awkward and dorky, with her raspy voice, and she sat down and we got a little intoxicated and had a blast, and I just thought, 'God! God! This is Skeeter.\\\"She was cast as Eugenia \\\"Skeeter\\\" Phelan, an aspiring writer learning about the lives of the African-American maids. In preparation for the part, she learned to speak in aSouthern accentand educated herself on theCivil Rights Movementthrough literature and film.With a worldwide gross of $216 million against a $25 million budget,The Helpbecame Stone's highest-grossing film to that point.The film, and her performance, received positive reviews from critics. Writing forEmpire, Anna Smith thought Stone was \\\"well-meaning and hugely likable\\\" despite finding flaws in the character.The film was nominated for anAcademy Award for Best Picture,and won Best Ensemble Cast from theWomen Film Critics Circleand theBroadcast Film Critics Association. Stone turned down a role in the action comedy21 Jump Streetafter signing on toMarc Webb's 2012 filmThe Amazing Spider-Man, arebootofSam Raimi'sSpider-Manseries.She portrayedGwen Stacy, the love interest of thetitular superhero(played byAndrew Garfield).Stone returned to her natural blonde hair color for the role, having dyed it red previously.She admitted to having never read the comics, and therefore felt responsible to educate herself about Spider-Man: \\\"My experience was with the Sam Raimi movies ... I always assumed thatMary Janewas his first love\\\",adding that she was only familiar with Stacy's character as portrayed byBryce Dallas HowardinSpider-Man 3.The Amazing Spider-Manwas a commercial success and was theseventh highest-grossing film of the yearwith global revenues of $757.9 million.Entertainment Weekly'sLisa Schwarzbaumfound Stone to be \\\"irresistible\\\",andIan FreerofEmpirewas particularly impressed with Stone's and Garfield's performances.At the annualPeople's Choice Awardsceremony, she was nominated for three awards, including Favorite Movie Actress.Later that year, Stone voiced a role in the crime-based video gameSleeping Dogs, which earned her aSpike Video Game Award. Stone began 2013 with a voice role in theDreamWorks AnimationfilmThe Croods, which was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Animated Feature.This followed with an appearance inMovie 43, ananthology filmwhich consists of 16 short stories—she played the title role in the segment entitled \\\"Veronica\\\".She next starred alongside Ryan Gosling andSean Pennin Ruben Fleischer'sGangster Squad(2013), a crime thriller set in Los Angeles during the 1940s.A. O. ScottofThe New York Timesdismissed the film as \\\"a hectic jumble of fedoras and zoot suits\\\", but praised Stone's pairing with Gosling. Established actress (2014–2017) In 2014, Stone reprised the role of Gwen Stacy inThe Amazing Spider-Man 2. She believed that her character did not depend on the film's protagonist, asserting: \\\"She saves him more than he saves her. She's incredibly helpful to Spider-Man ... He's the muscle, she's the brains.\\\"Her performance was well received by critics;anEmpirereviewer commended her for standing out in the film, writing, \\\"Stone is theHeath Ledgerof this series, doing something unexpected with an easily dismissed supporting character.\\\"The role won her the Favorite Movie Actress award at the2015 Kids' Choice Awards.Later that year, Stone took on a role inWoody Allen's romantic comedyMagic in the Moonlight, a modest commercial success.A. O. Scott criticized her role, and pairing withColin Firth, describing it as \\\"the kind of pedantic nonsense that is meant to signify superior intellect\\\". The black comedyBirdman, directed byAlejandro González Iñárritu, was Stone's final film release of 2014. Co-starringMichael KeatonandEdward Norton, it featured her as Sam Thomson, the recovering-addict daughter of actor Riggan Thomson (Keaton), who becomes his assistant. Iñárritu created the character based on his experience with his daughter.Birdmanwas critically acclaimed,and was the most successful film at the87th Academy Awards; it was nominated for nine awards, winning four, including Best Picture.The Movie Networkdeemed it one of Stone's best performances to date, andRobbie CollinofThe Daily Telegraphfound her to be \\\"superb\\\" and \\\"tremendous\\\" in her role, while also highlighting her monologue in the film which he believed to have been \\\"delivered like a knitting needle to the gut.\\\"She receivedAcademy,BAFTA,Golden Globe, andSAG Awardnominations. From November 2014 to February 2015, Stone starred in a revival of theBroadwaymusicalCabaretasSally Bowles, taking over the role fromMichelle Williams.Deeming it \\\"the most nerve-racking thing ever\\\", Stone listened to a French radio station to mentally prepare herself for the role.Marilyn StasioofVarietywas critical of her singing abilities and found her performance to be \\\"a bit narrow as an emotional platform, but a smart choice for her acting skills, the perfect fit for her sharp intelligence and kinetic energy.\\\"Both of Stone's 2015 films—the romantic comedyAloha, and the dramaIrrational Man—were critical and commercial failures, and her roles were panned by critics.InCameron Crowe'sAloha, she played the role of an air force pilot alongsideBradley Cooper, and in Woody Allen'sIrrational Man, she played the love interest ofJoaquin Phoenix's character, a philosophy professor. The former wascontroversialforwhitewashingthe cast, as Stone's character was meant to be of Asian, Hawaiian, and Swedish descent. She later regretted taking part in the project, acknowledging whitewashing as a widespread problem in Hollywood.Despite the backlash, Stone was nominated for Choice Movie Actress – Comedy at the2015 Teen Choice Awards.She also appeared in the music video forWill Butler's single \\\"Anna\\\". During her run onCabaret, Stone met filmmakerDamien Chazelle, who, impressed with her performance, cast her in his musical comedy-dramaLa La Land.The project, which marked her third collaboration with Gosling, starred Stone as Mia Dolan, an aspiring actress living in Los Angeles.Stone borrowed several real-life experiences for her character, and in preparation, watchedThe Umbrellas of Cherbourgand films ofFred Astaire and Ginger Rogers.For thefilm's soundtrack, she recorded six songs.La La Landserved as the opening film at the2016 Venice Film Festival, where it generated critical acclaim and earned Stone theVolpi Cup for Best Actress.It emerged as a commercial success, with a worldwide gross of over $440 million against a production budget of $30 million.Peter BradshawofThe Guardianwrote that \\\"Stone has never been better: superbly smart, witty, vulnerable, her huge doe eyes radiating intelligence even, or especially, when they are filling with tears.\\\"For her performance, Stone won theAcademy,Golden Globe,SAG, andBAFTAAward for Best Actress. Stone's sole release of 2017 wasBattle of the Sexes, based on the 1973eponymous matchbetween tennis playersBillie Jean King(Stone) andBobby Riggs(Steve Carell). In preparation, Stone met with King, watched old footage and interviews of her, worked with a dialect coach to speak in King's accent, and drank high-calorie protein shakes to gain 15 pounds (6.8 kg).The film premiered to positive reviews at the2017 Toronto International Film Festival, and certain critics considered Stone's performance to be the finest of her career.Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianpraised her for playing against type, and for being \\\"strong\\\" and \\\"convincing\\\" in the part.Even so, the film earned less than its $25 million budget.Stone received her fourth Golden Globe nomination for it, and attended the ceremony with King. Films with Yorgos Lanthimos and professional expansion (2018–present) In 2018, Stone andRachel WeiszplayedAbigail MashamandSarah Churchill, two cousins fighting for the affection ofQueen Anne(Olivia Colman), inYorgos Lanthimos's historical comedy-dramaThe Favourite. She found it challenging to be an American among an all-British cast, and struggled with mastering her character's accent.The film premiered at the75th Venice International Film Festivalto critical acclaim.Michael Nordine ofIndieWirepraised Stone for taking on such a bold role following the success ofLa La Land, and termed the three lead actresses \\\"a majestic triumvirate in a period piece that's as tragic as it is hilarious.\\\"Stone then executive-produced and starred in theNetflixdark comedy miniseriesManiac(2018), directed byCary Joji Fukunaga. It featured Stone and Jonah Hill as two strangers whose lives are transformed due to a mysterious pharmaceutical trial. An admirer of Fukunaga's work, she agreed to the project without reading the script.Judy Berman ofTimemagazine was impressed with Stone and Hill for their growth as actors sinceSuperbadand noted the complexity in their performances.Stone received her fifth Golden Globe nomination and third Oscar nomination forThe Favourite, and additionally earned SAG nominations for bothManiacandThe Favourite.That same year, Stone appeared inPaul McCartney's music video for his song \\\"Who Cares\\\". Stone reprised her role as Wichita inZombieland: Double Tap(2019), the sequel to 2009'sZombieland, which received mixed reviews and grossed $125 million worldwide.She narrated the Netflix documentary seriesThe Mind, Explained(2019) and reprised the voice role of Eep inThe Croods: A New Age(2020), the sequel to 2013'sThe Croods.In 2021, Stone playedCruella de Vil(originated byGlenn Closein the previous live-action adaptations) inCraig Gillespie's crime comedyCruella, a Disney live-action based on the 1961 animationOne Hundred and One Dalmatians. Starring oppositeEmma Thompson, Stone also served as an executive producer of the film alongside Close.The film was released in US theaters and onDisney+ Premier Accessto positive reviews and grossed $233 million worldwide against its $100 million budget.Justin ChangofLos Angeles Timeswrote that despite the film's flawed screenplay, Stone was \\\"wholly committed, glammed-to-the-nines\\\"; Chang favorably compared it with her performance inThe Favourite, adding that she \\\"nailed every nuance as another lowly young woman turned ambitious schemer\\\".ForCruella, Stone garnered another Golden Globe nomination. In 2020, Stone and her husband,Dave McCary, launched the production companyFruit Tree.Their first project was the independent filmWhen You Finish Saving the World, which marked Jesse Eisenberg's feature directorial debut.The film premiered at the2022 Sundance Film Festival, and had modest reviews.The company's next release was the comedyProblemista, directed byJulio Torres.It premiered at the 2023South by Southwest, and was initially scheduled to be released that year, but was delayed due to the2023 SAG-AFTRA strike.Both films were produced in collaboration withA24. Continuing her collaboration with Lanthimos, Stone starred in his short filmBleat(2022) and feature filmPoor Things(2023).The latter, a fantasy coming-of-age film, is based on thenovel of the same namebyAlasdair Gray.Stone also produced the film, in which she starred as Bella, a young Victorian woman who is crudely resurrected after her suicide. She found the experience of playing a character liberated of societal pressures to be \\\"extremely freeing\\\",and she performed nudity and several sex scenes in it.David Rooney ofThe Hollywood Reporterwrote that Stone \\\"gorges on it in a fearless performance that traces an expansive arc most actors could only dream about\\\", and particularly praised her ability to perform physical comedy.Stephanie ZacharekofTimetermed her performance \\\"wonderful—vital, exploratory, almost lunar in its perfect oddness\\\".Stone next executive produced and starred in theShowtimesatirical comedy seriesThe Curse.She played Whitney, an influencer who hosts anHGTVshow with her husband.Commenting on her achievements of the year,BBC Culture'sCaryn Jamesopined that \\\"Stone has quickly moved past Hollywood stardom to claim serious artistic credentials\\\".She received two more Golden Globe nominations for Best Actress for her performances inPoor ThingsandThe Curse, winning for the former.Also forPoor Things, she won her second Academy Award and BAFTA for Best Actress in addition to a Best Picture nomination. The2024 Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of two films produced by Stone for Fruit Tree — the horror filmI Saw the TV Glowand Eisenberg's second directorial,A Real Pain.In her fourth collaboration with Lanthimos, Stone played three characters in hisabsurdistanthology filmKinds of Kindness, which premiered at the2024 Cannes Film Festival.She will next star inAri Aster'scontemporary WesternfilmEddingtonand in Lanthimos'Bugonia, a remake of the South Korean filmSave the Green Planet!. Reception and acting style Commenting on her performance inThe Help, Kirk Honeycutt ofThe Hollywood Reportercalled her \\\"one of our very best young actresses\\\".Time's Daniel D'Addario stated in 2015 that Stone \\\"appears to have fairly limited options\\\" and choosing roles in independent films by \\\"less established directors would represent a substantive risk\\\".Analyzing her on-screen persona, Jessica Kiang ofIndieWirenoted that Stone \\\"usually the approachable, down-to-earth, girl-next-door type, in person she demonstrates many of those qualities too, along with an absolute refusal to take herself too seriously.\\\"Biographer Karen Hollinger wrote that at the beginning of her career, Stone was often labeled a \\\"staringénue\\\", a perceived limitation she escaped despite not being a classically trained actress as she \\\"crafted a brilliant career based on performative skills, careful choice of roles and distinctive personality\\\".In a 2024 analysis of Stone's career trajectory,IndieWiresuggested that from breakout roles to acclaimed performances in indie films, Stone is positioned as a potential new movie star in Hollywood's evolving landscape. In 2008, Stone toppedSaturday Night Magazine's Top 20 Rising Stars Under 30 and was included in a similar list compiled byMoviefone.LoveFilmplaced her on their list of 2010 Top 20 Actresses Under 30, and her performance inEasy Awas included inTime's Top 10 Everything of 2010.She appeared in the 2013Celebrity 100list, a compilation of the 100 most powerful people in the world, as selected annually byForbes. The magazine reported that she had earned $16 million from June 2012 to June 2013.That same year, she was ranked first in the magazine's Top 10 Best Value Stars.In 2015,Forbespublished that she had become one of the world's highest-paid actresses with earnings of $6.5 million.The magazine ranked her theworld's highest-paid actresstwo years later with annual earnings of $26 million.In 2017, she was included onTime's annual list of the100 most influential people in the world. Stone has been described as a style icon, with her hair, eyes, and husky voice listed as her trademark features.Voguecredits the actress for her \\\"sophisticated, perfectly put-together looks\\\", writing that \\\"her charisma, both on-screen and off-, has charmed many\\\" and for her embrace of \\\"Old Hollywood Glamour\\\".Bee Shapiro ofThe New York Timescalled Stone a \\\"likable ... spunky, talented, self-deprecating and slightly goofy\\\" actress who is diverse in her fashion choices.In 2009, she was featured onFHM's100 Sexiest Women in the WorldandMaxim's Hot 100;the latter also placed her on the list on three other occasions—2010, 2011, and 2014.In 2011, she featured onVictoria's Secret's list of \\\"What is Sexy?\\\" as the Sexiest Actress.She was mentioned in other media outlet listings that year, includingPeople's 100 Most Beautiful Women, each ofFHM's andFHM Australia's 100 Sexiest Women in the World, andMen's Health's 100 Hottest Women.She was ranked sixth onEmpire's list of the 100 Sexiest Movie Stars in 2013.Stone was named the best-dressed woman of 2012 byVogueand was included on similar listings byGlamourin 2013 and 2015, andPeoplein 2014. Personal life Stone moved from Los Angeles toGreenwich Village,New York, in 2009.In 2016, she moved back to Los Angeles.Despite significant media attention, she refuses to publicly discuss her personal life. Concerned with living a normal life, Stone has said she dislikes receiving paparazzi attention outside her home.She has expressed her fondness for her profession,and has citedDiane Keatonas an acting influence, calling her \\\"one of the most covered-up actresses of all time\\\". Stone has a close relationship with her family.She says, \\\"I am blessed with a great family and great people around me that would be able to kick me in the shins if I ever for one minute got lost up in the clouds. I've been really lucky in that sense.\\\" Stone dated herPaper Manco-starKieran Culkinfor two years. In 2011, she started dating herAmazing Spider-Manco-star Andrew Garfield for four years.Their relationship was reported in the media with various speculations; the pair refused to speak publicly about it, though they made several appearances together. In 2014, on an occasion in New York City, Stone and Garfield encouraged paparazzi to visit websites that spread awareness of causes such asautism.In 2015, they were reported to have broken up. Stone metSaturday Night Livesegment directorDave McCaryon December 3, 2016, while hosting the show. They began dating the following year. On December 4, 2019, they announced their engagement. They married in a private ceremony in September 2020.In January 2021, they were reported to be expecting their first child together.In March 2021, Stone gave birth to their daughter named Louise Jean.As of 2021, the family lives inAustin, Texas.In 2022, Stone sold her house inMalibu, Californiafor $4.425 million,and in 2024, she sold herLos Angeleshome for $4 million. Stone has said she suffers fromasthma, which she discovered after having difficulty breathing while filmingEasy A.Her mother was diagnosed withtriple-negative breast cancerand cured in 2008.Stone and her mother celebrated by getting tattoos of birds' feet, designed byPaul McCartney, a reference tothe Beatlessong \\\"Blackbird\\\", which she and her mother love.Stone is a supporter ofPlanned Parenthood, and attended the2017 Academy Awardswearing a Planned Parenthood pin on her dress. Philanthropy Stone appeared in aRevloncampaign that promoted breast cancer awareness.In 2011, she appeared in a collaborative video betweenStar WarsandStand Up to Cancerto raise funds for cancer research.From 2012 to 2014, she hosted theEntertainment Industry Foundation's Revlon Run/Walk, which helps fight women's cancer. Stone and three other celebrities were present at the 2012Nickelodeon HALO Awards, a TV special that profiled four teenagers who are \\\"Helping And Leading Others\\\" (HALO).She attended the 2014Earth Hour, a worldwide movement for the planet organized by theWorld Wide Fund for Nature.In 2015, she was part of a fundraising event in support of theMotion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the film and television industries with limited or no resources.In 2018, she collaborated with 300 women in Hollywood to set up theTime's Upinitiative to protect women fromsexual harassmentand discrimination. Acting credits and awards According to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes and the box-office siteBox Office Mojo, Stone's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful films areSuperbad(2007),Zombieland(2009),Easy A(2010),Crazy, Stupid, Love(2011),The Help(2011),The Amazing Spider-Man(2012),The Amazing Spider-Man 2(2014),Birdman(2014),La La Land(2016),Battle of the Sexes(2017),The Favourite(2018),Cruella(2021), andPoor Things(2023). Stone has been recognized by theAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciencesfor the following: She has also been nominated for fiveBritish Academy Film Awards: BAFTA Rising Star Award, Best Supporting Actress forBirdmanandThe Favourite, and Best Actress in a Leading Role forLa La LandandPoor Things, winning for the last two.Her other awards include twoGolden Globe Awardsfor Best Actress in a Comedy or Musical forLa La LandandPoor Things,theScreen Actors Guild Awardfor Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role and the Volpi Cup for Best Actress at Venice Film Festival, both forLa La Land. See also Notes References Literary sources External links\",\n \"List of highest-paid film actors While the highest-paidfilm actorscan command multi-million-dollar salaries, actors can potentially earn substantially more by deferring all or part of their salary against a percentage of the film's gross, known within the industry as a \\\"profit participation\\\" deal. Highest earnings for a single production Since not all salaries are made public, this is a non-definitive list of actors who have received $30 million or more as compensation for their services in a single production. Occasionally an actor's fee may cover multiple films, and they are included on the list if the films were filmed as a back-to-back production (for example, Keanu Reeves and theMatrixsequels). The figures are given at theirnominal value, since earnings from profit-based deals are accumulated over many years, making it unfeasible to adjust forinflation. Forbespublishes yearly lists of the highest-paid actors and actresses based on total earnings from 1 June the previous year to 1 June the current year. Highest annual earnings Forbespublishes yearly lists of the highest-paid actors and actresses based on total earnings from 1 June the previous year to 1 June the current year. See also References\",\n \"Margot Robbie Margot Elise Robbie(/ˈmɑːrɡoʊˈrɒbi/MAR-gohROB-ee; born 2 July 1990) is an Australian actress and producer.Her workincludes bothblockbusterandindependent films, andher accoladesinclude nominations for threeAcademy Awards, sixBAFTA Awardsand fourGolden Globe Awards.Timenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the worldin 2017, andForbesnamed her theworld's highest-paid actressin 2023. Born and raised inQueensland, Robbie began her career in 2008 on the television seriesNeighbours, on which she was a regular until 2011. After moving to the United States, she led the television seriesPan Am(2011–2012) and had her breakthrough in 2013 withMartin Scorsese’s comedy filmThe Wolf of Wall Street. She achieved wider recognition with starring roles asJane PorterinThe Legend of Tarzan(2016), and asHarley Quinnin theDC Extended Universefilms beginning withSuicide Squad(2016). Robbie received critical acclaim and a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Actressfor her portrayal of figure skaterTonya Hardingin the biopicI, Tonya(2017). This acclaim continued for her performances asQueen Elizabeth IinMary Queen of Scots(2018),Sharon TateinOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood(2019), and aFox Newsemployee inBombshell(2019). The last of these earned her a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Robbie has since starred as an aspiring actress in the period filmBabylon(2022) andthe titular fashion dollin the fantasy comedyBarbie(2023), which emerged as her highest-grossing release and, as its producer, earned her a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture. Robbie and her husband, filmmakerTom Ackerley, co-founded the production companyLuckyChap Entertainmentin 2014, under which they have produced several films, includingI, Tonya,Promising Young Woman(2020),Barbie, andSaltburn(2023), as well as theHuluseriesDollface(2019–2022) and theNetflixminiseriesMaid(2021). Early life and education Margot Elise Robbie was born on 2 July 1990 inDalby, Queensland, to Doug Robbie, a former farm-owner andsugarcanetycoon, and Sarie Kessler, aphysiotherapist.She is the second youngest of four; older siblings Anya and Lachlan and younger brother Cameron.Her parents separated when she was five.Robbie and her siblings were raised by their single mother and had minimal contact with their father. The family spent the majority of Robbie's upbringing on her grandparents'Currumbin Valleyfarmin theGold Coast hinterland.An energetic child, Robbie often put on shows in her house. She was enrolled in acircus schoolby her mother, where she excelled intrapeze, in which she received a certificate at age eight.In high school, Robbie studied drama atSomerset College.As a teenager, she worked three jobs: she tended a bar, cleaned houses, and worked atSubway.After graduation, with a few commercials and independent thriller films on her résumé, Robbie relocated toMelbourneto begin acting professionally. Career 2008–2012: Early work andNeighbours Robbie's first acting roles came when she was in high school. She starred in two low-budget independent thriller films, calledVigilanteandI.C.U., both released years later. She described the experience of being on afilm setas \\\"a dream come true\\\".She made her television debut in a 2008 guest role as Caitlin Brentford in the drama seriesCity Homicideand followed this with a two-episode arc in the children's television seriesThe Elephant Princess, in which she starred alongsideLiam Hemsworth. With agent encouragement at the time and as Robbie recalled onThe Graham Norton Show,she calledFremantleMediaon a daily basis. \\\"One day, I got put through by accident to the casting director for Neighbours,\\\" and she said, \\\"I'm in town working on something.\\\" The casting director asked how old she was, and she responded \\\"seventeen.\\\" She was told, \\\"We're looking for exactly that, come in and audition\\\"for the television soap operaNeighbours. In June 2008, she began playingDonna Freedman, a role that was meant to be a guest character, but Robbie was promoted to the regular cast after she made her debut.In her three-year stint on the soap, she received twoLogie Awardnominations. Shortly after arriving in America, Robbie landed the role of Laura Cameron, a newly trained flight attendant in the period drama seriesPan Am(2011). The series premiered to high ratings and positive reviews but was cancelled after one season due to falling ratings. 2013–2015: Breakthrough Robbie next appeared inRichard Curtis' romantic comedyAbout Time(2013), co-starringDomhnall GleesonandRachel McAdams. It tells the story of a young man with the ability to time travel who tries to change his past in hopes of improving his future. To play Gleeson's unattainable teenage love interest, she adopted a British accent.The film was a modest commercial success.Robbie's breakthrough came the same year with the role ofNaomi Lapaglia, the wife of protagonistJordan Belfort, inMartin Scorsese's biographical black comedyThe Wolf of Wall Street. In her audition for the role, Robbie improvised a slap on co-starLeonardo DiCaprioduring a fight scene which ultimately won her the part.The film and her performance received positive reviews; she was particularly praised for her on-screenBrooklyn accent.CriticSasha Stonewrote of Robbie's performance, \\\"She's Scorsese's best blonde bombshell discovery sinceCathy MoriartyinRaging Bull. Robbie is funny, hard and kills every scene she's in.\\\"The Wolf of Wall Streetwas a box office success, grossing $392 million worldwide, making it Scorsese's highest-grossing film to date.Robbie was nominated for theMTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performanceand won theEmpire Award for Best Newcomer. She later said that the fame and attention the movie brought her led her to consider quitting acting, but her mother was philosophical about her profession and explained to her that it was probably too late to quit. She fully understood and stuck with it.With the aim to produce more female-driven projects, Robbie and her future husband, Tom Ackerley, and their respective longtime friends Sophia Kerr and Josey McNamara, started their own production companyLuckyChap Entertainment. The company was founded in 2014 and its name was inspired byCharlie Chaplin. Robbie appeared in four films released in 2015. The first of these was oppositeWill SmithinGlenn FicarraandJohn Requa's $158.8 million-grossing romantic comedy-drama filmFocus. In the film, she played an inexperiencedgrifterlearning the craft from Smith's character; she learned how topickpocketfromApollo Robbinsfor the role.Reviews of the film were generally mixed, but Robbie's performance was praised;Peter TraversofRolling Stonewrote, \\\"Robbie is wow and then some. Even whenFocusfumbles, deals a winning hand.\\\"She was nominated for theRising Star Awardat the68th British Academy Film Awards.Her next appearance was alongsideMichelle WilliamsandKristin Scott ThomasinSaul Dibb's war romantic dramaSuite Française, a film based on the second part ofIrène Némirovsky's 2004novel of the same name. In the film, she played a woman falling for a German soldier during theGerman occupation of France during World War II, a role which Leslie Felperin ofThe Hollywood Reporterfound \\\"underwritten\\\". She followed this withCraig Zobel's post-apocalyptic dramaZ for ZachariahoppositeChris PineandChiwetel Ejiofor, in her first leading role. Partially based onRobert C. O'Brien'sbook of the same name, the film follows Ann Burden (Robbie) as she finds herself in an emotionally charged love triangle with the last known survivors of a disaster that wipes out most of civilization. In preparation for the film, Robbie dyed her hair brown and learned to speak in anAppalachianaccent.The film received positive reviews, and Robbie's performance was widely praised, with Drew McWeeny ofHitFixasserting that \\\"Robbie's work here establishes her as one of the very best actresses in her age range today.\\\"Her fourth release of 2015 was acameo appearanceinAdam McKay's comedy-dramaThe Big Short, in which she breaks thefourth wallto explainsubprime mortgageswhile in a bathtub.The Big Shortwas a commercial and critical success and Robbie's cameo became atrending topicsix years later, in the wake of theGameStop short squeeze, as her explanation provided reference points for what was happening with the GameStop and related stocks. 2016–2018: Worldwide recognition In 2016, Robbie reunited with Ficarra and Requa, playing a Britishwar correspondentin the film adaptation ofThe Taliban Shuffle, calledWhiskey Tango Foxtrot, co-starringTina FeyandMartin Freeman.Later that year, Robbie took on the part ofJane PorterinDavid Yates's adventure filmThe Legend of Tarzan. She was adamant about not losing weight and ensuring the role was not adamsel in distresslike in previousTarzanadaptations.Reviews of the film were generally unfavourable,butManohla DargisofThe New York Timescredited Robbie for \\\"holding her own\\\" in her supporting role alongside the all-male cast withAlexander SkarsgårdandSamuel L. Jackson. Robbie became the first person to portrayDC ComicsvillainHarley Quinninlive-actionwhen she signed on toDavid Ayer's 2016 superhero filmSuicide Squadalongside anensemble castthat included Will Smith,Jared LetoandViola Davis. She admitted to having never read the comics, but felt a huge responsibility to do the character justice and satisfy the fans.Robbie began preparing for the role of thesupervillainesssix months prior to the film shoot; her schedule consisted ofgymnastics,boxing,aerial silktraining and learning how to hold her breath underwater for five minutes. She performed the majority of her own stunts in the film.Suicide Squadwas a commercial success and wastenth-highest-grossing film of 2016with global revenues of $746.8 million, and Robbie's performance was considered its prime asset.Writing forTime,Stephanie Zacharekfound Robbie to be \\\"a criminally appealing actress, likable in just about every way\\\" despite finding flaws in the characterandChristopher OrrofThe Atlanticcalled her performance \\\"genuinely terrific\\\".At the annualPeople's Choice Awardsceremony, she won theFavorite Action Movie Actressaward and was also awarded theCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in an Action Movie.In October 2016, Robbie hosted theseason 42premiere ofNBC's late-night sketch comedySaturday Night Live; her appearances included a parody ofIvanka Trump.The series logged its strongest season premiere ratings in eight years.Robbie collaborated with Domhnall Gleeson inSimon Curtis'Goodbye Christopher Robin(2017), a biographical drama about the lives ofWinnie-the-PoohcreatorA. A. Milneand his family. The film, and her performance, received modest reviews and was a commercial failure. Her final release of 2017 and LuckyChap Entertainment's first release wasCraig Gillespie's sports black comedyI, Tonya, based on the life of American figure skaterTonya Harding(Robbie) and her connection to the1994 assaulton rivalNancy Kerrigan. In preparation, Robbie met with Harding, watched old footage and interviews of her, worked with a voice coach to speak in Harding'sPacific Northwestaccent and vocal timbre at different ages, and underwent several months of rigorous skating instruction with choreographerSarah Kawahara.I, Tonyapremiered at the2017 Toronto International Film Festivalto critical acclaim.James Luxford ofMetrodeemed it Robbie's best performance to date, andMark KermodeofThe Observerwrote, \\\"Margot Robbie's performance in this satirical, postmodern tale of the disgraced star is a tour-de-force tornado that balances finely nuanced character development with impressively punchy physicality\\\".She received numerous accolades for her performance, including nominations for anAcademy Award, aBAFTA Award, aGolden Globe Award, aScreen Actors Guild Awardand aCritics' Choice Movie Award, all for Best Actress. Robbie began 2018 with the voice role ofFlopsy RabbitinPeter Rabbit, an animated comedy from directorWill Gluck, which is based on theBeatrix Potterbook series. The animated feature was a box office success, grossing $351.3 million worldwide against a production budget of $50 million.Her next two 2018 films—the neo-noir thrillerTerminaland comedy-horrorSlaughterhouse Rulez—were critical and commercial failures. The historical dramaMary Queen of Scots, directed byJosie Rourke, was her final release of 2018. The film featuredSaoirse Ronanas thetitular characterand Robbie as her cousinQueen Elizabeth I, and it chronicles the1569 conflict between their two countries. Robbie had initially turned down the role for being \\\"terrified\\\" of not living up to the history of portrayals of the Queen.Before each day of shooting, she spent three hours in the make-up chair while a prosthetic nose, painted on boils and blisters were applied.Critics dismissed the film for its screenplay and several historical inaccuracies, but praised the performances of Robbie and Ronan.Yolanda Machado ofTheWrapwrote, \\\"ow down to Ronan and Robbie for taking two legendarily complex characters, and completely owning both roles. Ronan's fiery Mary and Robbie's emotionally complex Elizabeth truly reign divine on screen.\\\"For her portrayal, Robbie received nominations for aBAFTA Awardand for aScreen Actors Guild Award. 2019–present: Established actress and producer Robbie's first release of 2019 was the LuckyChap Entertainment productionDreamland, a poorly received period crime thriller set during the 1930sDust Bowl.She began executive producing the comedy seriesDollface, which streamed onHulufrom 2019 to 2022.Robbie was filmmakerQuentin Tarantino's only choice to portray the late actressSharon Tatein his period filmOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood, starring Leonardo DiCaprio andBrad Pitt.With theTate–LaBianca murdersserving as a backdrop, the film tells the story of a fadingcharacter actor(DiCaprio) and hisstunt double(Pitt) as they navigateNew Hollywoodin 1969 Los Angeles.Feeling \\\"an enormous sense of responsibility\\\", Robbie prepared for the role by meeting Tate's family members and friends, watching all of her films and reading the autobiography by Tate's then-husband,Roman Polanski.Once Upon a Time in Hollywoodpremiered at the2019 Cannes Film Festivalto critical acclaim, and was a commercial success with a worldwide gross of $374.3 million.Despite many bemoaning Robbie's lack of lines in the film,Robbie CollinofThe Daily Telegraphhighlighted a scene with Robbie in the cinema, which he found to be the film's \\\"most delightful\\\" scene. Also in 2019, she starred as Kayla Pospisil, acomposite characterbased on severalFox Newsemployees, inJay Roach's dramaBombshell. Co-starringCharlize TheronandNicole Kidman, the film recounts stories of various female personnel at the news network and their sexual harassment by the network's chairmanRoger Ailes.Robbie based her character's accent onKatherine Harris.The film received positive reviews;Kenneth Turanof theLos Angeles Timeswrote, \\\"Robbie at her best, the arc of her story is so crushing that it stays with you the longest.\\\"For her performances inOnce Upon a Time in HollywoodandBombshell, she received two nominations for theBAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role,and for the latter she received nominations for anAcademy Award, aGolden Globeand a Screen Actors Guild Award; all in the Best Supporting Actress category. Robbie began the new decade by reprising the role of Harley Quinn inCathy Yan'sBirds of Prey(2020). Determined to make a female ensemble action film, she pitched the idea for the film toWarner Bros.in 2015. Robbie spent the subsequent three years developing the project under her production company, making a concerted effort to hire a female director and screenwriter.Birds of Prey, along with Robbie's performance, gained generally positive reviews;Ian FreerofEmpirewrote that \\\"theMVPis Robbie, who lends Harley charming quirk and believable menace, hinting at Harley's inner life without reams of dialogue.\\\"She received two nominations at the46th People's Choice Awards. Robbie served as a producer onPromising Young Woman(2020), a comedy thriller by writer-directorEmerald Fennell, starringCarey Mulliganas a woman who seeks to avenge the rape and death of her best friend. The film received acclaim,earning a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.In 2021, Robbie reprised her voice role as Flopsy Rabbit inPeter Rabbit 2: The Runaway, which received mixed reviews and grossed $153.8 million worldwide.She also made her third outing as Quinn in thestandalone sequelThe Suicide Squad, written and directed byJames Gunn. Due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, the film was simultaneously released theatrically and on the streaming serviceHBO Max.Owen Gleibermanpraised Robbie's \\\"delectable performance\\\" in it.She also served as an executive producer for theNetflixminiseriesMaid. In 2022, Robbie reprised her role as Donna Freedman for thefinal episodeofNeighbours.She starred alongside an ensemble cast inDavid O. Russell's period comedyAmsterdam, based on the 1933Business Plot.The film emerged as a critical and commercial failure.In her second film release of the year, she played Nellie LaRoy, an actress inspired by silent movie starClara Bow, inDamien Chazelle's comedy-dramaBabylon. In preparation, she studied the works of Bow and researched her traumatic childhood.She described LaRoy as \\\"the most physically and emotionally draining character I've ever played\\\".The film polarized critics and had poor box office returns, though her performance received praise;Caryn JamesofBBC Cultureopined, \\\"Robbie's bold, charismatic performance makes Nellie a daring, endlessly spiraling, sympathetic figure\\\".She received another Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress,although the underperformance of her two major releases that year led some commentators to brand her as \\\"box office poison\\\" at the time. In the following year, Robbie had a single scene inWes Anderson's ensemble comedy filmAsteroid City.Chris Hewitt of theStar Tribunedescribed her \\\"impassioned acting in her lone scene\\\" as \\\"perfectly judged\\\".The fantasy comedyBarbie, co-starringRyan GoslingasKen, was her next film release.As producer, Robbie bought the rights fromMattelfor a film about theeponymous fashion dollin 2018.She hiredGreta Gerwigto write and direct the film, and took on the title role herself afterGal Gadotdeclined her offer.In preparation, Gerwig and Robbie watched oldTechnicolormusicals such asThe Red Shoes(1948) andThe Umbrellas of Cherbourg(1964).Varietyreported that Robbie earned $12.5 million for the role, the highest for an actress in Hollywood that year.Vulture'sAlison Willmore took note of how much Robbie fit the part, and commended her for combining both \\\"heartbreaking earnestness\\\" and \\\"humor\\\" in her performance.With a worldwide gross of over $1.4 billion,Barbieemerged as Robbie's highest-grossing release.She received further BAFTA and Golden Globe nominations for her performance, in addition to a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture. Also in 2023, Robbie produced Fennell's second directorial,Saltburn.The2024 Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of her next production,Megan Park's comedy filmMy Old Ass.Robbie will next star alongsideColin FarrellinKogonada's filmA Big Bold Beautiful JourneyandJacob Elordiin Emerald Fennell'sWuthering Heights, adapted fromthe novel. Personal life Despite significant media attention, Robbie rarely discusses her personal life.Robbie moved from Melbourne toWilliamsburg, Brooklyn, in the early 2010s, having previously shared a flat withNeighboursco-starAshleigh Brewer.During that period, she became an avid ice hockey fan; she supports theNew York Rangersand previously playedright wingin an amateur ice hockey league. Robbie met British assistant directorTom Ackerleyon the set ofSuite Françaisein 2013.In 2014, she moved to London with Ackerley and LuckyChap Entertainment co-founders Sophia Kerr and Josey McNamara. Later that year, Robbie and Ackerley began a romantic relationship.In December 2016, they married in a private wedding ceremony inByron Bay, Australia.The couple reside inVenice Beach, California.Her pregnancy was confirmed by the media via multiple sources in July 2024. Other work Robbie has been a vocal supporter ofhuman rights,women's rights,gender equalityandLGBTrights.Through LuckyChap Entertainment, she and her co-founders focus on promoting female stories from female storytellers, whether it would be writers, directors, producers or all the above.In 2014, she was part of a fundraising event in support of theMotion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the film and television industries with limited or no resources; she joined the same event on two other occasions, in 2018 and 2020.In 2015, she helped raise $12 million through theBGC Global Charity Dayfundraising event, which donates money to different charities around the world.In 2016, Robbie joined other celebrities andUN Refugee Agencystaff in a petition aiming to gather public support for the growing number of families forced to flee conflict and persecution worldwide.Later in the year, she joinedOxfam's \\\"I Hear You\\\" project, which was designed to amplify the personal stories of the world's most vulnerable refugees and donated more than $50.000 toUNICEF's \\\"Children First\\\" campaign, in support of refugee children. In October 2016, while hostingSaturday Night Live, Robbie made a stand forsame-sex marriagein her native Australia wearing a T-shirt that read \\\"Say 'I Do' Down Under\\\", with a map of the country in rainbow colors. A year later, she joined fellow actorChris Hemsworthin advocating for the same purpose.In 2018, she pledged to support theTime's Upinitiative to protect women from harassment and discrimination.In April 2021, Robbie was announced as the recipient of the inaugural RAD Impact Award, for inspiring purpose with her philanthropy. She chose to share the prize withYoungcare, a charity she had previously worked with, and therefore an impact donation was made to fund a project benefiting young people with extensive care needs. Public image Robbie is known for starring in both high-profile, mainstream productions and low-budget independent films, in which she has been able to display both her dramatic and comedic range. For her role inThe Wolf of Wall Street,Vanity Fairnamed her one of its breakthrough actors of 2013.In 2017, she appeared on the annualForbes30 Under 30list, a compilation of the brightest young entrepreneurs, innovators and game changers in the world and was included on a similar list compiled byThe Hollywood Reporter.That same year,Timenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the world; herThe Wolf of Wall Streetdirector Martin Scorsese penned the article in the magazine, referring to Robbie as having \\\"a unique audacity that surprises and challenges and just burns like a brand into every character she plays. Margot is stunning in all she is and all she does, and she will astonish us forever.\\\"In 2019,Forbesranked her among the world's highest-paid actresses, with annual earnings of $23.5 million, andThe Hollywood Reporterlisted her among the 100 most powerful people in entertainment.In 2021, she was named one of the 100 most influential women in entertainment byThe Hollywood Reporter.In December 2023, Robbie has been listed inThe Hollywood Reporter’s 2023 Women in Entertainment Power 100.In 2024, she was named byForbesas theworld's highest-paid actressin 2023, with earnings of $78 million. Voguehas named her \\\"one of the most glamorous starlets\\\" and she was ranked as one of the best-dressed women in 2018 and 2019 by luxury fashion retailerNet-a-Porter.In 2014 and 2016, she featured onAskMen's Top 99 Women, ranking among the top ten each year.Also in 2016, Robbie was placed at number one onFHM's \\\"100 Sexiest Women in the World\\\" list.Since 2016, she has been chosen as the ambassador for brands such asCalvin Klein,NissanandChanel.She was the last brand ambassador picked byKarl Lagerfeldbefore his death in February 2019.She is the latest ambassador ofChanel No 5. Filmography and awards According to the review aggregator siteRotten Tomatoes, Robbie's most positively reviewed films areThe Wolf of Wall Street(2013),Z for Zachariah(2015),Suite Française(2015),I, Tonya(2017),Once Upon a Time in Hollywood(2019),Birds of Prey(2020),The Suicide Squad(2021), andBarbie(2023). Explanatory notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolf_of_Wall_Street_(2013_film\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Emma Stone Emily Jean\"Emma\"Stone(born November 6, 1988) is an American actress and producer.Her accoladesinclude twoAcademy Awards, twoBritish Academy Film Awards, and twoGolden Globe Awards. In 2017, she was theworld's highest-paid actressand named byTimemagazine as one of the100 most influential people in the world. Stone began acting as a child in a theater production ofThe Wind in the Willowsin 2000. As a teenager, she relocated to Los Angeles and made her television debut inIn Search of the New Partridge Family(2004), a reality show that produced only an unsold pilot. After small television roles, she appeared in a series of well-received teen comedy films, such asSuperbad(2007),Zombieland(2009), andEasy A(2010), which was Stone's first leading role. Following this breakthrough, she starred in the romantic comedyCrazy, Stupid, Love(2011) and the period dramaThe Help(2011), and gained wider recognition asGwen Stacyin the 2012 superhero filmThe Amazing Spider-Manandits 2014 sequel. Stone received","Stone received nominations for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actressfor playing a recovering drug addict inBirdman(2014) and portrayingAbigail MashaminThe Favourite(2018). The latter marked her first of many collaborations with directorYorgos Lanthimos. She won twoAcademy Awards for Best Actress, for her roles as an aspiring actress in the romantic musicalLa La Land(2016) and a resurrected suicide victim in Lanthimos' comic fantasy filmPoor Things(2023). She also portrayed tennis playerBillie Jean KinginBattle of the Sexes(2017) and thetitle roleinCruella(2021). On television, she starred in the dark comedy miniseriesManiac(2018) andThe Curse(2023). OnBroadway, Stone has starred asSally Bowlesin a revival of the musicalCabaret(2014–2015). She and her husband,Dave McCary, founded the production companyFruit Treein 2020, under which they have produced the filmsWhen You Finish Saving the World(2022),Problemista(2023), andI Saw the TV Glow(2024). Early life Stone was born on November 6, 1988,","November 6, 1988, inScottsdale, Arizona, to Jeffrey Charles Stone, the founder and CEO of a general-contracting company, and Krista Jean Stone (néeYeager), a homemaker.She lived on the grounds of theCamelback Innresort from ages 12 to 15.She has a younger brother, Spencer.Her paternal grandfather, Conrad Ostberg Sten, was from a Swedish family thatanglicizedtheir surname to \"Stone\". She also has German, English, Scottish, and Irish ancestry. As an infant, Stone hadbaby colicand cried frequently. She consequently developednodulesand calluses on her vocal cords while she was a child.Stone has described herself as \"loud\" and \"bossy\" while growing up.She was educated at Sequoya Elementary School and attendedCocopah Middle Schoolfor sixth grade. Stone did not like school, though once said that her controlling nature meant that \"I made sure I got allA's\".She sufferedpanic attacksandanxietyas a child,and said they caused a decline in her social skills.Stone underwent therapy but said it was her participation in","participation in local theater plays that helped cure the attacks, recalling: The first time I had a panic attack I was sitting in my friend's house, and I thought the house was burning down. I called my mom and she brought me home, and for the next three years it just would not stop. I would go to the nurse at lunch most days and just wring my hands. I would ask my mom to tell me exactly how the day was going to be, then ask again 30 seconds later. I just needed to know that no one was going to die and nothing was going to change. Stone wanted to act since age four;she wanted a career insketch comedyinitially, but shifted her focus to musical theater, and took vocal lessons for several years.Her acting debut, at age 11, came in a stage production ofThe Wind in the Willows, playing Otter.Stone washomeschooledfor two years, during which time she appeared in 16 productions at Phoenix'sValley Youth Theatre—includingThe Princess and the Pea,Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, andJoseph and the Amazing Technicolor","Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat—and performed with the theater'simprovisational comedytroupe.Around this time, she traveled to Los Angeles and auditioned unsuccessfully for a role onNickelodeon'sAll That.Her parents later sent her for private acting lessons with a local acting coach, who had worked at theWilliam Morris Agencyin the 1970s. Stone attendedXavier College Preparatory—an all-girlCatholic high school—as a freshman, but dropped out after one semester to become an actress.She prepared aPowerPointpresentation for her parents titled \"Project Hollywood\" (featuringMadonna's 2003 song \"Hollywood\") to convince them to let her move to California to pursue an acting career.In January 2004, she moved with her mother to an apartment in Los Angeles. She recalled, \"I went up for every single show on theDisney Channeland auditioned to play the daughter on every single sitcom\", adding, \"I ended up getting none.\"Between auditions for roles, she enrolled in online high-school classes and worked part-time at a","part-time at a dog-treat bakery. Career Career beginnings (2004–2009) When Stone registered for theScreen Actors Guildat age 16, the name \"Emily Stone\" was already taken, and she briefly went by \"Riley Stone\".She made her television debut as Laurie Partridge on theVH1talent competition reality showIn Search of the New Partridge Family(2004). The resulting show, retitledThe New Partridge Family(2004), remained an unsold pilot.After guest-starring in the television showsMedium(2005) andMalcolm in the Middle(2006), she decided to change her stage name to \"Emma\"—chosen in honor ofEmma Buntonof theSpice Girls—as she struggled to adapt to the name Riley.She next appeared inLouis C.K.'sHBOseriesLucky Louie(2006),and unsuccessfully auditioned to star asClaire Bennetin the NBC science fiction dramaHeroes(2007), later calling this her \"rock bottom\" experience.In April 2007, she playedViolet Trimblein the Fox action dramaDrive, but the show was canceled after seven episodes. Stone made her feature film debut inGreg","film debut inGreg Mottola's comedySuperbad(2007), co-starringMichael CeraandJonah Hill. The film tells the story of two high school students who go through a series of comic misadventures after they plan to buy alcohol for a party. To play Hill's romantic interest, she dyed her hair red.A reviewer forThe Hollywood Reporterfound her \"appealing\", but felt that her role was poorly written.Stone has described the experience of acting in her first film as \"amazing ... very different than other experiences I've had since then\".The film was a commercial success, and earned her theYoung Hollywood Awardfor Exciting New Face. The next year, Stone starred in the comedyThe Rocker(2008) as Amelia Stone, the \"straight face\"bass guitaristin a band; she learned to play the bass for the role.The actress, who has called herself \"a big smiler and laugher\", said she found it difficult to play a character whose personality was so different from her own. The film and her performance received negative reviews from critics and was","critics and was a commercial failure.Her next release, the romantic comedyThe House Bunny, performed better at the box office, becoming a moderate commercial success.The film saw her play the president of a sorority, and perform acover versionofthe Waitresses' 1982 song \"I Know What Boys Like\".Reviews were generally negative,but Stone was praised,withTV Guide's Ken Fox writing that she \"is well on her way to becoming a star\". Stone appeared in three films released in 2009. The first of these was oppositeMatthew McConaughey,Jennifer GarnerandMichael DouglasinMark Waters'sGhosts of Girlfriends Past. Loosely based onCharles Dickens's 1843novellaA Christmas Carol, the romantic comedy has her playing a ghost who haunts her former boyfriend. Critical reaction to the film was negative, but it was a modest commercial success.Her most financially profitable venture that year wasRuben Fleischer's $102.3 million-grossing horror comedy filmZombieland,in which she featured alongsideJesse Eisenberg,Woody","Eisenberg,Woody HarrelsonandAbigail Breslin. In the film, she appeared as a con artist and survivor of azombie apocalypse, in a role which Chris Hewitt ofEmpiremagazine thought was \"somewhat underwritten.\"In a more positive review, Tim Robey ofThe Daily Telegraphcalled \"the hugely promising Stone a tough cookie who projects the aura of being wiser than her years\".Stone's third release in 2009 wasKieran and Michelle Mulroney'sPaper Man, a comedy-drama which disappointed critics. Rise to prominence (2010–2013) Stone voiced anAustralian ShepherdinMarmaduke(2010), a comedy from directorTom Deybased onBrad Anderson'slong-running comic strip of the same name.Her breakthrough came the same year with a starring role inEasy A, a teen comedy directed byWill Gluck.Partially based onNathaniel Hawthorne's 1850 novelThe Scarlet Letter, the film tells the story of Olive Penderghast (Stone), a high school student who becomes embroiled in a comic sex scandal after a false rumor circulates that she is sexuallypromiscuous.","Stone read the script before the project was optioned for production, and pursued it with her manager while production details were being finalized. She found the script \"so different and unique from anything I'd read before\", calling it \"funny and sweet\".When Stone discovered that the film had begun production, she met with Gluck, expressing her enthusiasm for the project. A few months later, the audition process started and she met again with Gluck, becoming one of the first actresses to audition.The film received positive critical reviews, and Stone's performance was considered its prime asset.Anna Smith ofTime Outwrote, \"Stone gives a terrific performance, her knowing drawl implying intellect and indifference with underlying warmth.\"The film was a commercial success, grossing $75 million against its $8 million budget.Stone was nominated for aBAFTA Rising Star Awardand aGolden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy, and won theMTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance. In October 2010,","In October 2010, Stone hosted an episode of NBC's sketch comedySaturday Night Live; her appearances included a sketch playing off her resemblance toLindsay Lohan.Stone called it \"the greatest week of my life\".She hosted again in 2011, appeared in an episode in 2014, and inits 40th anniversary specialin 2015.A brief appearance in the sex comedyFriends with Benefits(2011) reunited her with Gluck.She followed this with a supporting role inGlenn FicarraandJohn Requa's romantic comedyCrazy, Stupid, Love(2011) alongsideSteve Carell,Ryan GoslingandJulianne Moore. The film featured her as a law school graduate, and the love interest of Gosling's character. Despite finding \"some inevitable collapses into convention\" in the film, Drew McWeeny ofHitFixwrote that Stone \"ties the whole film together\".At the2012 Teen Choice Awards, she won theChoice Movie Actress – Comedyaward for her performance in the film.Crazy, Stupid, Lovewas a box office success, grossing $142.9 million worldwide against a production budget of $50","budget of $50 million. Dismayed at beingtypecastas \"the sarcastic interest of the guy\", Stone co-starred withViola DavisinTate Taylor's period dramaThe Help(2011), a film she found challenging.The film is based onKathryn Stockett's2009 novel of the same nameand is set in 1960sJackson, Mississippi. She met with Taylor to express a desire to work on the film. The director said, \" was completely awkward and dorky, with her raspy voice, and she sat down and we got a little intoxicated and had a blast, and I just thought, 'God! God! This is Skeeter.\"She was cast as Eugenia \"Skeeter\" Phelan, an aspiring writer learning about the lives of the African-American maids. In preparation for the part, she learned to speak in aSouthern accentand educated herself on theCivil Rights Movementthrough literature and film.With a worldwide gross of $216 million against a $25 million budget,The Helpbecame Stone's highest-grossing film to that point.The film, and her performance, received positive reviews from critics. Writing","critics. Writing forEmpire, Anna Smith thought Stone was \"well-meaning and hugely likable\" despite finding flaws in the character.The film was nominated for anAcademy Award for Best Picture,and won Best Ensemble Cast from theWomen Film Critics Circleand theBroadcast Film Critics Association. Stone turned down a role in the action comedy21 Jump Streetafter signing on toMarc Webb's 2012 filmThe Amazing Spider-Man, arebootofSam Raimi'sSpider-Manseries.She portrayedGwen Stacy, the love interest of thetitular superhero(played byAndrew Garfield).Stone returned to her natural blonde hair color for the role, having dyed it red previously.She admitted to having never read the comics, and therefore felt responsible to educate herself about Spider-Man: \"My experience was with the Sam Raimi movies ... I always assumed thatMary Janewas his first love\",adding that she was only familiar with Stacy's character as portrayed byBryce Dallas HowardinSpider-Man 3.The Amazing Spider-Manwas a commercial success and was theseventh","and was theseventh highest-grossing film of the yearwith global revenues of $757.9 million.Entertainment Weekly'sLisa Schwarzbaumfound Stone to be \"irresistible\",andIan FreerofEmpirewas particularly impressed with Stone's and Garfield's performances.At the annualPeople's Choice Awardsceremony, she was nominated for three awards, including Favorite Movie Actress.Later that year, Stone voiced a role in the crime-based video gameSleeping Dogs, which earned her aSpike Video Game Award. Stone began 2013 with a voice role in theDreamWorks AnimationfilmThe Croods, which was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Animated Feature.This followed with an appearance inMovie 43, ananthology filmwhich consists of 16 short stories—she played the title role in the segment entitled \"Veronica\".She next starred alongside Ryan Gosling andSean Pennin Ruben Fleischer'sGangster Squad(2013), a crime thriller set in Los Angeles during the 1940s.A. O. ScottofThe New York Timesdismissed the film as \"a hectic jumble of fedoras and","of fedoras and zoot suits\", but praised Stone's pairing with Gosling. Established actress (2014–2017) In 2014, Stone reprised the role of Gwen Stacy inThe Amazing Spider-Man 2. She believed that her character did not depend on the film's protagonist, asserting: \"She saves him more than he saves her. She's incredibly helpful to Spider-Man ... He's the muscle, she's the brains.\"Her performance was well received by critics;anEmpirereviewer commended her for standing out in the film, writing, \"Stone is theHeath Ledgerof this series, doing something unexpected with an easily dismissed supporting character.\"The role won her the Favorite Movie Actress award at the2015 Kids' Choice Awards.Later that year, Stone took on a role inWoody Allen's romantic comedyMagic in the Moonlight, a modest commercial success.A. O. Scott criticized her role, and pairing withColin Firth, describing it as \"the kind of pedantic nonsense that is meant to signify superior intellect\". The black comedyBirdman, directed byAlejandro González","González Iñárritu, was Stone's final film release of 2014. Co-starringMichael KeatonandEdward Norton, it featured her as Sam Thomson, the recovering-addict daughter of actor Riggan Thomson (Keaton), who becomes his assistant. Iñárritu created the character based on his experience with his daughter.Birdmanwas critically acclaimed,and was the most successful film at the87th Academy Awards; it was nominated for nine awards, winning four, including Best Picture.The Movie Networkdeemed it one of Stone's best performances to date, andRobbie CollinofThe Daily Telegraphfound her to be \"superb\" and \"tremendous\" in her role, while also highlighting her monologue in the film which he believed to have been \"delivered like a knitting needle to the gut.\"She receivedAcademy,BAFTA,Golden Globe, andSAG Awardnominations. From November 2014 to February 2015, Stone starred in a revival of theBroadwaymusicalCabaretasSally Bowles, taking over the role fromMichelle Williams.Deeming it \"the most nerve-racking thing ever\", Stone","thing ever\", Stone listened to a French radio station to mentally prepare herself for the role.Marilyn StasioofVarietywas critical of her singing abilities and found her performance to be \"a bit narrow as an emotional platform, but a smart choice for her acting skills, the perfect fit for her sharp intelligence and kinetic energy.\"Both of Stone's 2015 films—the romantic comedyAloha, and the dramaIrrational Man—were critical and commercial failures, and her roles were panned by critics.InCameron Crowe'sAloha, she played the role of an air force pilot alongsideBradley Cooper, and in Woody Allen'sIrrational Man, she played the love interest ofJoaquin Phoenix's character, a philosophy professor. The former wascontroversialforwhitewashingthe cast, as Stone's character was meant to be of Asian, Hawaiian, and Swedish descent. She later regretted taking part in the project, acknowledging whitewashing as a widespread problem in Hollywood.Despite the backlash, Stone was nominated for Choice Movie Actress – Comedy at","Actress – Comedy at the2015 Teen Choice Awards.She also appeared in the music video forWill Butler's single \"Anna\". During her run onCabaret, Stone met filmmakerDamien Chazelle, who, impressed with her performance, cast her in his musical comedy-dramaLa La Land.The project, which marked her third collaboration with Gosling, starred Stone as Mia Dolan, an aspiring actress living in Los Angeles.Stone borrowed several real-life experiences for her character, and in preparation, watchedThe Umbrellas of Cherbourgand films ofFred Astaire and Ginger Rogers.For thefilm's soundtrack, she recorded six songs.La La Landserved as the opening film at the2016 Venice Film Festival, where it generated critical acclaim and earned Stone theVolpi Cup for Best Actress.It emerged as a commercial success, with a worldwide gross of over $440 million against a production budget of $30 million.Peter BradshawofThe Guardianwrote that \"Stone has never been better: superbly smart, witty, vulnerable, her huge doe eyes radiating","doe eyes radiating intelligence even, or especially, when they are filling with tears.\"For her performance, Stone won theAcademy,Golden Globe,SAG, andBAFTAAward for Best Actress. Stone's sole release of 2017 wasBattle of the Sexes, based on the 1973eponymous matchbetween tennis playersBillie Jean King(Stone) andBobby Riggs(Steve Carell). In preparation, Stone met with King, watched old footage and interviews of her, worked with a dialect coach to speak in King's accent, and drank high-calorie protein shakes to gain 15 pounds (6.8 kg).The film premiered to positive reviews at the2017 Toronto International Film Festival, and certain critics considered Stone's performance to be the finest of her career.Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianpraised her for playing against type, and for being \"strong\" and \"convincing\" in the part.Even so, the film earned less than its $25 million budget.Stone received her fourth Golden Globe nomination for it, and attended the ceremony with King. Films with Yorgos Lanthimos and professional","and professional expansion (2018–present) In 2018, Stone andRachel WeiszplayedAbigail MashamandSarah Churchill, two cousins fighting for the affection ofQueen Anne(Olivia Colman), inYorgos Lanthimos's historical comedy-dramaThe Favourite. She found it challenging to be an American among an all-British cast, and struggled with mastering her character's accent.The film premiered at the75th Venice International Film Festivalto critical acclaim.Michael Nordine ofIndieWirepraised Stone for taking on such a bold role following the success ofLa La Land, and termed the three lead actresses \"a majestic triumvirate in a period piece that's as tragic as it is hilarious.\"Stone then executive-produced and starred in theNetflixdark comedy miniseriesManiac(2018), directed byCary Joji Fukunaga. It featured Stone and Jonah Hill as two strangers whose lives are transformed due to a mysterious pharmaceutical trial. An admirer of Fukunaga's work, she agreed to the project without reading the script.Judy Berman ofTimemagazine","ofTimemagazine was impressed with Stone and Hill for their growth as actors sinceSuperbadand noted the complexity in their performances.Stone received her fifth Golden Globe nomination and third Oscar nomination forThe Favourite, and additionally earned SAG nominations for bothManiacandThe Favourite.That same year, Stone appeared inPaul McCartney's music video for his song \"Who Cares\". Stone reprised her role as Wichita inZombieland: Double Tap(2019), the sequel to 2009'sZombieland, which received mixed reviews and grossed $125 million worldwide.She narrated the Netflix documentary seriesThe Mind, Explained(2019) and reprised the voice role of Eep inThe Croods: A New Age(2020), the sequel to 2013'sThe Croods.In 2021, Stone playedCruella de Vil(originated byGlenn Closein the previous live-action adaptations) inCraig Gillespie's crime comedyCruella, a Disney live-action based on the 1961 animationOne Hundred and One Dalmatians. Starring oppositeEmma Thompson, Stone also served as an executive producer of the","producer of the film alongside Close.The film was released in US theaters and onDisney+ Premier Accessto positive reviews and grossed $233 million worldwide against its $100 million budget.Justin ChangofLos Angeles Timeswrote that despite the film's flawed screenplay, Stone was \"wholly committed, glammed-to-the-nines\"; Chang favorably compared it with her performance inThe Favourite, adding that she \"nailed every nuance as another lowly young woman turned ambitious schemer\".ForCruella, Stone garnered another Golden Globe nomination. In 2020, Stone and her husband,Dave McCary, launched the production companyFruit Tree.Their first project was the independent filmWhen You Finish Saving the World, which marked Jesse Eisenberg's feature directorial debut.The film premiered at the2022 Sundance Film Festival, and had modest reviews.The company's next release was the comedyProblemista, directed byJulio Torres.It premiered at the 2023South by Southwest, and was initially scheduled to be released that year, but was","that year, but was delayed due to the2023 SAG-AFTRA strike.Both films were produced in collaboration withA24. Continuing her collaboration with Lanthimos, Stone starred in his short filmBleat(2022) and feature filmPoor Things(2023).The latter, a fantasy coming-of-age film, is based on thenovel of the same namebyAlasdair Gray.Stone also produced the film, in which she starred as Bella, a young Victorian woman who is crudely resurrected after her suicide. She found the experience of playing a character liberated of societal pressures to be \"extremely freeing\",and she performed nudity and several sex scenes in it.David Rooney ofThe Hollywood Reporterwrote that Stone \"gorges on it in a fearless performance that traces an expansive arc most actors could only dream about\", and particularly praised her ability to perform physical comedy.Stephanie ZacharekofTimetermed her performance \"wonderful—vital, exploratory, almost lunar in its perfect oddness\".Stone next executive produced and starred in theShowtimesatirical","comedy seriesThe Curse.She played Whitney, an influencer who hosts anHGTVshow with her husband.Commenting on her achievements of the year,BBC Culture'sCaryn Jamesopined that \"Stone has quickly moved past Hollywood stardom to claim serious artistic credentials\".She received two more Golden Globe nominations for Best Actress for her performances inPoor ThingsandThe Curse, winning for the former.Also forPoor Things, she won her second Academy Award and BAFTA for Best Actress in addition to a Best Picture nomination. The2024 Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of two films produced by Stone for Fruit Tree — the horror filmI Saw the TV Glowand Eisenberg's second directorial,A Real Pain.In her fourth collaboration with Lanthimos, Stone played three characters in hisabsurdistanthology filmKinds of Kindness, which premiered at the2024 Cannes Film Festival.She will next star inAri Aster'scontemporary WesternfilmEddingtonand in Lanthimos'Bugonia, a remake of the South Korean filmSave the Green Planet!. Reception","Planet!. Reception and acting style Commenting on her performance inThe Help, Kirk Honeycutt ofThe Hollywood Reportercalled her \"one of our very best young actresses\".Time's Daniel D'Addario stated in 2015 that Stone \"appears to have fairly limited options\" and choosing roles in independent films by \"less established directors would represent a substantive risk\".Analyzing her on-screen persona, Jessica Kiang ofIndieWirenoted that Stone \"usually the approachable, down-to-earth, girl-next-door type, in person she demonstrates many of those qualities too, along with an absolute refusal to take herself too seriously.\"Biographer Karen Hollinger wrote that at the beginning of her career, Stone was often labeled a \"staringénue\", a perceived limitation she escaped despite not being a classically trained actress as she \"crafted a brilliant career based on performative skills, careful choice of roles and distinctive personality\".In a 2024 analysis of Stone's career trajectory,IndieWiresuggested that from breakout","that from breakout roles to acclaimed performances in indie films, Stone is positioned as a potential new movie star in Hollywood's evolving landscape. In 2008, Stone toppedSaturday Night Magazine's Top 20 Rising Stars Under 30 and was included in a similar list compiled byMoviefone.LoveFilmplaced her on their list of 2010 Top 20 Actresses Under 30, and her performance inEasy Awas included inTime's Top 10 Everything of 2010.She appeared in the 2013Celebrity 100list, a compilation of the 100 most powerful people in the world, as selected annually byForbes. The magazine reported that she had earned $16 million from June 2012 to June 2013.That same year, she was ranked first in the magazine's Top 10 Best Value Stars.In 2015,Forbespublished that she had become one of the world's highest-paid actresses with earnings of $6.5 million.The magazine ranked her theworld's highest-paid actresstwo years later with annual earnings of $26 million.In 2017, she was included onTime's annual list of the100 most influential","most influential people in the world. Stone has been described as a style icon, with her hair, eyes, and husky voice listed as her trademark features.Voguecredits the actress for her \"sophisticated, perfectly put-together looks\", writing that \"her charisma, both on-screen and off-, has charmed many\" and for her embrace of \"Old Hollywood Glamour\".Bee Shapiro ofThe New York Timescalled Stone a \"likable ... spunky, talented, self-deprecating and slightly goofy\" actress who is diverse in her fashion choices.In 2009, she was featured onFHM's100 Sexiest Women in the WorldandMaxim's Hot 100;the latter also placed her on the list on three other occasions—2010, 2011, and 2014.In 2011, she featured onVictoria's Secret's list of \"What is Sexy?\" as the Sexiest Actress.She was mentioned in other media outlet listings that year, includingPeople's 100 Most Beautiful Women, each ofFHM's andFHM Australia's 100 Sexiest Women in the World, andMen's Health's 100 Hottest Women.She was ranked sixth onEmpire's list of the 100","list of the 100 Sexiest Movie Stars in 2013.Stone was named the best-dressed woman of 2012 byVogueand was included on similar listings byGlamourin 2013 and 2015, andPeoplein 2014. Personal life Stone moved from Los Angeles toGreenwich Village,New York, in 2009.In 2016, she moved back to Los Angeles.Despite significant media attention, she refuses to publicly discuss her personal life. Concerned with living a normal life, Stone has said she dislikes receiving paparazzi attention outside her home.She has expressed her fondness for her profession,and has citedDiane Keatonas an acting influence, calling her \"one of the most covered-up actresses of all time\". Stone has a close relationship with her family.She says, \"I am blessed with a great family and great people around me that would be able to kick me in the shins if I ever for one minute got lost up in the clouds. I've been really lucky in that sense.\" Stone dated herPaper Manco-starKieran Culkinfor two years. In 2011, she started dating herAmazing","dating herAmazing Spider-Manco-star Andrew Garfield for four years.Their relationship was reported in the media with various speculations; the pair refused to speak publicly about it, though they made several appearances together. In 2014, on an occasion in New York City, Stone and Garfield encouraged paparazzi to visit websites that spread awareness of causes such asautism.In 2015, they were reported to have broken up. Stone metSaturday Night Livesegment directorDave McCaryon December 3, 2016, while hosting the show. They began dating the following year. On December 4, 2019, they announced their engagement. They married in a private ceremony in September 2020.In January 2021, they were reported to be expecting their first child together.In March 2021, Stone gave birth to their daughter named Louise Jean.As of 2021, the family lives inAustin, Texas.In 2022, Stone sold her house inMalibu, Californiafor $4.425 million,and in 2024, she sold herLos Angeleshome for $4 million. Stone has said she suffers","said she suffers fromasthma, which she discovered after having difficulty breathing while filmingEasy A.Her mother was diagnosed withtriple-negative breast cancerand cured in 2008.Stone and her mother celebrated by getting tattoos of birds' feet, designed byPaul McCartney, a reference tothe Beatlessong \"Blackbird\", which she and her mother love.Stone is a supporter ofPlanned Parenthood, and attended the2017 Academy Awardswearing a Planned Parenthood pin on her dress. Philanthropy Stone appeared in aRevloncampaign that promoted breast cancer awareness.In 2011, she appeared in a collaborative video betweenStar WarsandStand Up to Cancerto raise funds for cancer research.From 2012 to 2014, she hosted theEntertainment Industry Foundation's Revlon Run/Walk, which helps fight women's cancer. Stone and three other celebrities were present at the 2012Nickelodeon HALO Awards, a TV special that profiled four teenagers who are \"Helping And Leading Others\" (HALO).She attended the 2014Earth Hour, a worldwide movement for","movement for the planet organized by theWorld Wide Fund for Nature.In 2015, she was part of a fundraising event in support of theMotion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the film and television industries with limited or no resources.In 2018, she collaborated with 300 women in Hollywood to set up theTime's Upinitiative to protect women fromsexual harassmentand discrimination. Acting credits and awards According to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes and the box-office siteBox Office Mojo, Stone's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful films areSuperbad(2007),Zombieland(2009),Easy A(2010),Crazy, Stupid, Love(2011),The Help(2011),The Amazing Spider-Man(2012),The Amazing Spider-Man 2(2014),Birdman(2014),La La Land(2016),Battle of the Sexes(2017),The Favourite(2018),Cruella(2021), andPoor Things(2023). Stone has been recognized by theAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciencesfor the following: She has also been nominated for fiveBritish Academy Film Awards: BAFTA Rising Star","BAFTA Rising Star Award, Best Supporting Actress forBirdmanandThe Favourite, and Best Actress in a Leading Role forLa La LandandPoor Things, winning for the last two.Her other awards include twoGolden Globe Awardsfor Best Actress in a Comedy or Musical forLa La LandandPoor Things,theScreen Actors Guild Awardfor Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role and the Volpi Cup for Best Actress at Venice Film Festival, both forLa La Land. See also Notes References Literary sources External links","List of highest-paid film actors While the highest-paidfilm actorscan command multi-million-dollar salaries, actors can potentially earn substantially more by deferring all or part of their salary against a percentage of the film's gross, known within the industry as a \"profit participation\" deal. Highest earnings for a single production Since not all salaries are made public, this is a non-definitive list of actors who have received $30 million or more as compensation for their services in a single production. Occasionally an actor's fee may cover multiple films, and they are included on the list if the films were filmed as a back-to-back production (for example, Keanu Reeves and theMatrixsequels). The figures are given at theirnominal value, since earnings from profit-based deals are accumulated over many years, making it unfeasible to adjust forinflation. Forbespublishes yearly lists of the highest-paid actors and actresses based on total earnings from 1 June the previous year to 1 June the current year.","the current year. Highest annual earnings Forbespublishes yearly lists of the highest-paid actors and actresses based on total earnings from 1 June the previous year to 1 June the current year. See also References","Margot Robbie Margot Elise Robbie(/ˈmɑːrɡoʊˈrɒbi/MAR-gohROB-ee; born 2 July 1990) is an Australian actress and producer.Her workincludes bothblockbusterandindependent films, andher accoladesinclude nominations for threeAcademy Awards, sixBAFTA Awardsand fourGolden Globe Awards.Timenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the worldin 2017, andForbesnamed her theworld's highest-paid actressin 2023. Born and raised inQueensland, Robbie began her career in 2008 on the television seriesNeighbours, on which she was a regular until 2011. After moving to the United States, she led the television seriesPan Am(2011–2012) and had her breakthrough in 2013 withMartin Scorsese’s comedy filmThe Wolf of Wall Street. She achieved wider recognition with starring roles asJane PorterinThe Legend of Tarzan(2016), and asHarley Quinnin theDC Extended Universefilms beginning withSuicide Squad(2016). Robbie received critical acclaim and a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Actressfor her portrayal of figure","portrayal of figure skaterTonya Hardingin the biopicI, Tonya(2017). This acclaim continued for her performances asQueen Elizabeth IinMary Queen of Scots(2018),Sharon TateinOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood(2019), and aFox Newsemployee inBombshell(2019). The last of these earned her a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Robbie has since starred as an aspiring actress in the period filmBabylon(2022) andthe titular fashion dollin the fantasy comedyBarbie(2023), which emerged as her highest-grossing release and, as its producer, earned her a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture. Robbie and her husband, filmmakerTom Ackerley, co-founded the production companyLuckyChap Entertainmentin 2014, under which they have produced several films, includingI, Tonya,Promising Young Woman(2020),Barbie, andSaltburn(2023), as well as theHuluseriesDollface(2019–2022) and theNetflixminiseriesMaid(2021). Early life and education Margot Elise Robbie was born on 2 July 1990 inDalby, Queensland, to Doug","Queensland, to Doug Robbie, a former farm-owner andsugarcanetycoon, and Sarie Kessler, aphysiotherapist.She is the second youngest of four; older siblings Anya and Lachlan and younger brother Cameron.Her parents separated when she was five.Robbie and her siblings were raised by their single mother and had minimal contact with their father. The family spent the majority of Robbie's upbringing on her grandparents'Currumbin Valleyfarmin theGold Coast hinterland.An energetic child, Robbie often put on shows in her house. She was enrolled in acircus schoolby her mother, where she excelled intrapeze, in which she received a certificate at age eight.In high school, Robbie studied drama atSomerset College.As a teenager, she worked three jobs: she tended a bar, cleaned houses, and worked atSubway.After graduation, with a few commercials and independent thriller films on her résumé, Robbie relocated toMelbourneto begin acting professionally. Career 2008–2012: Early work andNeighbours Robbie's first acting roles came","acting roles came when she was in high school. She starred in two low-budget independent thriller films, calledVigilanteandI.C.U., both released years later. She described the experience of being on afilm setas \"a dream come true\".She made her television debut in a 2008 guest role as Caitlin Brentford in the drama seriesCity Homicideand followed this with a two-episode arc in the children's television seriesThe Elephant Princess, in which she starred alongsideLiam Hemsworth. With agent encouragement at the time and as Robbie recalled onThe Graham Norton Show,she calledFremantleMediaon a daily basis. \"One day, I got put through by accident to the casting director for Neighbours,\" and she said, \"I'm in town working on something.\" The casting director asked how old she was, and she responded \"seventeen.\" She was told, \"We're looking for exactly that, come in and audition\"for the television soap operaNeighbours. In June 2008, she began playingDonna Freedman, a role that was meant to be a guest character, but","character, but Robbie was promoted to the regular cast after she made her debut.In her three-year stint on the soap, she received twoLogie Awardnominations. Shortly after arriving in America, Robbie landed the role of Laura Cameron, a newly trained flight attendant in the period drama seriesPan Am(2011). The series premiered to high ratings and positive reviews but was cancelled after one season due to falling ratings. 2013–2015: Breakthrough Robbie next appeared inRichard Curtis' romantic comedyAbout Time(2013), co-starringDomhnall GleesonandRachel McAdams. It tells the story of a young man with the ability to time travel who tries to change his past in hopes of improving his future. To play Gleeson's unattainable teenage love interest, she adopted a British accent.The film was a modest commercial success.Robbie's breakthrough came the same year with the role ofNaomi Lapaglia, the wife of protagonistJordan Belfort, inMartin Scorsese's biographical black comedyThe Wolf of Wall Street. In her audition for the","audition for the role, Robbie improvised a slap on co-starLeonardo DiCaprioduring a fight scene which ultimately won her the part.The film and her performance received positive reviews; she was particularly praised for her on-screenBrooklyn accent.CriticSasha Stonewrote of Robbie's performance, \"She's Scorsese's best blonde bombshell discovery sinceCathy MoriartyinRaging Bull. Robbie is funny, hard and kills every scene she's in.\"The Wolf of Wall Streetwas a box office success, grossing $392 million worldwide, making it Scorsese's highest-grossing film to date.Robbie was nominated for theMTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performanceand won theEmpire Award for Best Newcomer. She later said that the fame and attention the movie brought her led her to consider quitting acting, but her mother was philosophical about her profession and explained to her that it was probably too late to quit. She fully understood and stuck with it.With the aim to produce more female-driven projects, Robbie and her future","and her future husband, Tom Ackerley, and their respective longtime friends Sophia Kerr and Josey McNamara, started their own production companyLuckyChap Entertainment. The company was founded in 2014 and its name was inspired byCharlie Chaplin. Robbie appeared in four films released in 2015. The first of these was oppositeWill SmithinGlenn FicarraandJohn Requa's $158.8 million-grossing romantic comedy-drama filmFocus. In the film, she played an inexperiencedgrifterlearning the craft from Smith's character; she learned how topickpocketfromApollo Robbinsfor the role.Reviews of the film were generally mixed, but Robbie's performance was praised;Peter TraversofRolling Stonewrote, \"Robbie is wow and then some. Even whenFocusfumbles, deals a winning hand.\"She was nominated for theRising Star Awardat the68th British Academy Film Awards.Her next appearance was alongsideMichelle WilliamsandKristin Scott ThomasinSaul Dibb's war romantic dramaSuite Française, a film based on the second part ofIrène Némirovsky's","Némirovsky's 2004novel of the same name. In the film, she played a woman falling for a German soldier during theGerman occupation of France during World War II, a role which Leslie Felperin ofThe Hollywood Reporterfound \"underwritten\". She followed this withCraig Zobel's post-apocalyptic dramaZ for ZachariahoppositeChris PineandChiwetel Ejiofor, in her first leading role. Partially based onRobert C. O'Brien'sbook of the same name, the film follows Ann Burden (Robbie) as she finds herself in an emotionally charged love triangle with the last known survivors of a disaster that wipes out most of civilization. In preparation for the film, Robbie dyed her hair brown and learned to speak in anAppalachianaccent.The film received positive reviews, and Robbie's performance was widely praised, with Drew McWeeny ofHitFixasserting that \"Robbie's work here establishes her as one of the very best actresses in her age range today.\"Her fourth release of 2015 was acameo appearanceinAdam McKay's comedy-dramaThe Big Short, in","Big Short, in which she breaks thefourth wallto explainsubprime mortgageswhile in a bathtub.The Big Shortwas a commercial and critical success and Robbie's cameo became atrending topicsix years later, in the wake of theGameStop short squeeze, as her explanation provided reference points for what was happening with the GameStop and related stocks. 2016–2018: Worldwide recognition In 2016, Robbie reunited with Ficarra and Requa, playing a Britishwar correspondentin the film adaptation ofThe Taliban Shuffle, calledWhiskey Tango Foxtrot, co-starringTina FeyandMartin Freeman.Later that year, Robbie took on the part ofJane PorterinDavid Yates's adventure filmThe Legend of Tarzan. She was adamant about not losing weight and ensuring the role was not adamsel in distresslike in previousTarzanadaptations.Reviews of the film were generally unfavourable,butManohla DargisofThe New York Timescredited Robbie for \"holding her own\" in her supporting role alongside the all-male cast withAlexander SkarsgårdandSamuel L.","L. Jackson. Robbie became the first person to portrayDC ComicsvillainHarley Quinninlive-actionwhen she signed on toDavid Ayer's 2016 superhero filmSuicide Squadalongside anensemble castthat included Will Smith,Jared LetoandViola Davis. She admitted to having never read the comics, but felt a huge responsibility to do the character justice and satisfy the fans.Robbie began preparing for the role of thesupervillainesssix months prior to the film shoot; her schedule consisted ofgymnastics,boxing,aerial silktraining and learning how to hold her breath underwater for five minutes. She performed the majority of her own stunts in the film.Suicide Squadwas a commercial success and wastenth-highest-grossing film of 2016with global revenues of $746.8 million, and Robbie's performance was considered its prime asset.Writing forTime,Stephanie Zacharekfound Robbie to be \"a criminally appealing actress, likable in just about every way\" despite finding flaws in the characterandChristopher OrrofThe Atlanticcalled her","Atlanticcalled her performance \"genuinely terrific\".At the annualPeople's Choice Awardsceremony, she won theFavorite Action Movie Actressaward and was also awarded theCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in an Action Movie.In October 2016, Robbie hosted theseason 42premiere ofNBC's late-night sketch comedySaturday Night Live; her appearances included a parody ofIvanka Trump.The series logged its strongest season premiere ratings in eight years.Robbie collaborated with Domhnall Gleeson inSimon Curtis'Goodbye Christopher Robin(2017), a biographical drama about the lives ofWinnie-the-PoohcreatorA. A. Milneand his family. The film, and her performance, received modest reviews and was a commercial failure. Her final release of 2017 and LuckyChap Entertainment's first release wasCraig Gillespie's sports black comedyI, Tonya, based on the life of American figure skaterTonya Harding(Robbie) and her connection to the1994 assaulton rivalNancy Kerrigan. In preparation, Robbie met with Harding, watched old","watched old footage and interviews of her, worked with a voice coach to speak in Harding'sPacific Northwestaccent and vocal timbre at different ages, and underwent several months of rigorous skating instruction with choreographerSarah Kawahara.I, Tonyapremiered at the2017 Toronto International Film Festivalto critical acclaim.James Luxford ofMetrodeemed it Robbie's best performance to date, andMark KermodeofThe Observerwrote, \"Margot Robbie's performance in this satirical, postmodern tale of the disgraced star is a tour-de-force tornado that balances finely nuanced character development with impressively punchy physicality\".She received numerous accolades for her performance, including nominations for anAcademy Award, aBAFTA Award, aGolden Globe Award, aScreen Actors Guild Awardand aCritics' Choice Movie Award, all for Best Actress. Robbie began 2018 with the voice role ofFlopsy RabbitinPeter Rabbit, an animated comedy from directorWill Gluck, which is based on theBeatrix Potterbook series. The animated","The animated feature was a box office success, grossing $351.3 million worldwide against a production budget of $50 million.Her next two 2018 films—the neo-noir thrillerTerminaland comedy-horrorSlaughterhouse Rulez—were critical and commercial failures. The historical dramaMary Queen of Scots, directed byJosie Rourke, was her final release of 2018. The film featuredSaoirse Ronanas thetitular characterand Robbie as her cousinQueen Elizabeth I, and it chronicles the1569 conflict between their two countries. Robbie had initially turned down the role for being \"terrified\" of not living up to the history of portrayals of the Queen.Before each day of shooting, she spent three hours in the make-up chair while a prosthetic nose, painted on boils and blisters were applied.Critics dismissed the film for its screenplay and several historical inaccuracies, but praised the performances of Robbie and Ronan.Yolanda Machado ofTheWrapwrote, \"ow down to Ronan and Robbie for taking two legendarily complex characters, and","characters, and completely owning both roles. Ronan's fiery Mary and Robbie's emotionally complex Elizabeth truly reign divine on screen.\"For her portrayal, Robbie received nominations for aBAFTA Awardand for aScreen Actors Guild Award. 2019–present: Established actress and producer Robbie's first release of 2019 was the LuckyChap Entertainment productionDreamland, a poorly received period crime thriller set during the 1930sDust Bowl.She began executive producing the comedy seriesDollface, which streamed onHulufrom 2019 to 2022.Robbie was filmmakerQuentin Tarantino's only choice to portray the late actressSharon Tatein his period filmOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood, starring Leonardo DiCaprio andBrad Pitt.With theTate–LaBianca murdersserving as a backdrop, the film tells the story of a fadingcharacter actor(DiCaprio) and hisstunt double(Pitt) as they navigateNew Hollywoodin 1969 Los Angeles.Feeling \"an enormous sense of responsibility\", Robbie prepared for the role by meeting Tate's family members and","family members and friends, watching all of her films and reading the autobiography by Tate's then-husband,Roman Polanski.Once Upon a Time in Hollywoodpremiered at the2019 Cannes Film Festivalto critical acclaim, and was a commercial success with a worldwide gross of $374.3 million.Despite many bemoaning Robbie's lack of lines in the film,Robbie CollinofThe Daily Telegraphhighlighted a scene with Robbie in the cinema, which he found to be the film's \"most delightful\" scene. Also in 2019, she starred as Kayla Pospisil, acomposite characterbased on severalFox Newsemployees, inJay Roach's dramaBombshell. Co-starringCharlize TheronandNicole Kidman, the film recounts stories of various female personnel at the news network and their sexual harassment by the network's chairmanRoger Ailes.Robbie based her character's accent onKatherine Harris.The film received positive reviews;Kenneth Turanof theLos Angeles Timeswrote, \"Robbie at her best, the arc of her story is so crushing that it stays with you the longest.\"For","the longest.\"For her performances inOnce Upon a Time in HollywoodandBombshell, she received two nominations for theBAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role,and for the latter she received nominations for anAcademy Award, aGolden Globeand a Screen Actors Guild Award; all in the Best Supporting Actress category. Robbie began the new decade by reprising the role of Harley Quinn inCathy Yan'sBirds of Prey(2020). Determined to make a female ensemble action film, she pitched the idea for the film toWarner Bros.in 2015. Robbie spent the subsequent three years developing the project under her production company, making a concerted effort to hire a female director and screenwriter.Birds of Prey, along with Robbie's performance, gained generally positive reviews;Ian FreerofEmpirewrote that \"theMVPis Robbie, who lends Harley charming quirk and believable menace, hinting at Harley's inner life without reams of dialogue.\"She received two nominations at the46th People's Choice Awards. Robbie served as a producer","as a producer onPromising Young Woman(2020), a comedy thriller by writer-directorEmerald Fennell, starringCarey Mulliganas a woman who seeks to avenge the rape and death of her best friend. The film received acclaim,earning a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.In 2021, Robbie reprised her voice role as Flopsy Rabbit inPeter Rabbit 2: The Runaway, which received mixed reviews and grossed $153.8 million worldwide.She also made her third outing as Quinn in thestandalone sequelThe Suicide Squad, written and directed byJames Gunn. Due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, the film was simultaneously released theatrically and on the streaming serviceHBO Max.Owen Gleibermanpraised Robbie's \"delectable performance\" in it.She also served as an executive producer for theNetflixminiseriesMaid. In 2022, Robbie reprised her role as Donna Freedman for thefinal episodeofNeighbours.She starred alongside an ensemble cast inDavid O. Russell's period comedyAmsterdam, based on the 1933Business Plot.The film emerged as a","film emerged as a critical and commercial failure.In her second film release of the year, she played Nellie LaRoy, an actress inspired by silent movie starClara Bow, inDamien Chazelle's comedy-dramaBabylon. In preparation, she studied the works of Bow and researched her traumatic childhood.She described LaRoy as \"the most physically and emotionally draining character I've ever played\".The film polarized critics and had poor box office returns, though her performance received praise;Caryn JamesofBBC Cultureopined, \"Robbie's bold, charismatic performance makes Nellie a daring, endlessly spiraling, sympathetic figure\".She received another Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress,although the underperformance of her two major releases that year led some commentators to brand her as \"box office poison\" at the time. In the following year, Robbie had a single scene inWes Anderson's ensemble comedy filmAsteroid City.Chris Hewitt of theStar Tribunedescribed her \"impassioned acting in her lone scene\" as \"perfectly","as \"perfectly judged\".The fantasy comedyBarbie, co-starringRyan GoslingasKen, was her next film release.As producer, Robbie bought the rights fromMattelfor a film about theeponymous fashion dollin 2018.She hiredGreta Gerwigto write and direct the film, and took on the title role herself afterGal Gadotdeclined her offer.In preparation, Gerwig and Robbie watched oldTechnicolormusicals such asThe Red Shoes(1948) andThe Umbrellas of Cherbourg(1964).Varietyreported that Robbie earned $12.5 million for the role, the highest for an actress in Hollywood that year.Vulture'sAlison Willmore took note of how much Robbie fit the part, and commended her for combining both \"heartbreaking earnestness\" and \"humor\" in her performance.With a worldwide gross of over $1.4 billion,Barbieemerged as Robbie's highest-grossing release.She received further BAFTA and Golden Globe nominations for her performance, in addition to a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture. Also in 2023, Robbie produced Fennell's second","Fennell's second directorial,Saltburn.The2024 Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of her next production,Megan Park's comedy filmMy Old Ass.Robbie will next star alongsideColin FarrellinKogonada's filmA Big Bold Beautiful JourneyandJacob Elordiin Emerald Fennell'sWuthering Heights, adapted fromthe novel. Personal life Despite significant media attention, Robbie rarely discusses her personal life.Robbie moved from Melbourne toWilliamsburg, Brooklyn, in the early 2010s, having previously shared a flat withNeighboursco-starAshleigh Brewer.During that period, she became an avid ice hockey fan; she supports theNew York Rangersand previously playedright wingin an amateur ice hockey league. Robbie met British assistant directorTom Ackerleyon the set ofSuite Françaisein 2013.In 2014, she moved to London with Ackerley and LuckyChap Entertainment co-founders Sophia Kerr and Josey McNamara. Later that year, Robbie and Ackerley began a romantic relationship.In December 2016, they married in a private wedding","a private wedding ceremony inByron Bay, Australia.The couple reside inVenice Beach, California.Her pregnancy was confirmed by the media via multiple sources in July 2024. Other work Robbie has been a vocal supporter ofhuman rights,women's rights,gender equalityandLGBTrights.Through LuckyChap Entertainment, she and her co-founders focus on promoting female stories from female storytellers, whether it would be writers, directors, producers or all the above.In 2014, she was part of a fundraising event in support of theMotion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the film and television industries with limited or no resources; she joined the same event on two other occasions, in 2018 and 2020.In 2015, she helped raise $12 million through theBGC Global Charity Dayfundraising event, which donates money to different charities around the world.In 2016, Robbie joined other celebrities andUN Refugee Agencystaff in a petition aiming to gather public support for the growing number of families forced to flee","forced to flee conflict and persecution worldwide.Later in the year, she joinedOxfam's \"I Hear You\" project, which was designed to amplify the personal stories of the world's most vulnerable refugees and donated more than $50.000 toUNICEF's \"Children First\" campaign, in support of refugee children. In October 2016, while hostingSaturday Night Live, Robbie made a stand forsame-sex marriagein her native Australia wearing a T-shirt that read \"Say 'I Do' Down Under\", with a map of the country in rainbow colors. A year later, she joined fellow actorChris Hemsworthin advocating for the same purpose.In 2018, she pledged to support theTime's Upinitiative to protect women from harassment and discrimination.In April 2021, Robbie was announced as the recipient of the inaugural RAD Impact Award, for inspiring purpose with her philanthropy. She chose to share the prize withYoungcare, a charity she had previously worked with, and therefore an impact donation was made to fund a project benefiting young people with","young people with extensive care needs. Public image Robbie is known for starring in both high-profile, mainstream productions and low-budget independent films, in which she has been able to display both her dramatic and comedic range. For her role inThe Wolf of Wall Street,Vanity Fairnamed her one of its breakthrough actors of 2013.In 2017, she appeared on the annualForbes30 Under 30list, a compilation of the brightest young entrepreneurs, innovators and game changers in the world and was included on a similar list compiled byThe Hollywood Reporter.That same year,Timenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the world; herThe Wolf of Wall Streetdirector Martin Scorsese penned the article in the magazine, referring to Robbie as having \"a unique audacity that surprises and challenges and just burns like a brand into every character she plays. Margot is stunning in all she is and all she does, and she will astonish us forever.\"In 2019,Forbesranked her among the world's highest-paid actresses, with","actresses, with annual earnings of $23.5 million, andThe Hollywood Reporterlisted her among the 100 most powerful people in entertainment.In 2021, she was named one of the 100 most influential women in entertainment byThe Hollywood Reporter.In December 2023, Robbie has been listed inThe Hollywood Reporter’s 2023 Women in Entertainment Power 100.In 2024, she was named byForbesas theworld's highest-paid actressin 2023, with earnings of $78 million. Voguehas named her \"one of the most glamorous starlets\" and she was ranked as one of the best-dressed women in 2018 and 2019 by luxury fashion retailerNet-a-Porter.In 2014 and 2016, she featured onAskMen's Top 99 Women, ranking among the top ten each year.Also in 2016, Robbie was placed at number one onFHM's \"100 Sexiest Women in the World\" list.Since 2016, she has been chosen as the ambassador for brands such asCalvin Klein,NissanandChanel.She was the last brand ambassador picked byKarl Lagerfeldbefore his death in February 2019.She is the latest ambassador","latest ambassador ofChanel No 5. Filmography and awards According to the review aggregator siteRotten Tomatoes, Robbie's most positively reviewed films areThe Wolf of Wall Street(2013),Z for Zachariah(2015),Suite Française(2015),I, Tonya(2017),Once Upon a Time in Hollywood(2019),Birds of Prey(2020),The Suicide Squad(2021), andBarbie(2023). Explanatory notes References Further reading External links","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolf_of_Wall_Street_(2013_film"],"string":"[\n \"Emma Stone Emily Jean\\\"Emma\\\"Stone(born November 6, 1988) is an American actress and producer.Her accoladesinclude twoAcademy Awards, twoBritish Academy Film Awards, and twoGolden Globe Awards. In 2017, she was theworld's highest-paid actressand named byTimemagazine as one of the100 most influential people in the world. Stone began acting as a child in a theater production ofThe Wind in the Willowsin 2000. As a teenager, she relocated to Los Angeles and made her television debut inIn Search of the New Partridge Family(2004), a reality show that produced only an unsold pilot. After small television roles, she appeared in a series of well-received teen comedy films, such asSuperbad(2007),Zombieland(2009), andEasy A(2010), which was Stone's first leading role. Following this breakthrough, she starred in the romantic comedyCrazy, Stupid, Love(2011) and the period dramaThe Help(2011), and gained wider recognition asGwen Stacyin the 2012 superhero filmThe Amazing Spider-Manandits 2014 sequel. Stone received\",\n \"Stone received nominations for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actressfor playing a recovering drug addict inBirdman(2014) and portrayingAbigail MashaminThe Favourite(2018). The latter marked her first of many collaborations with directorYorgos Lanthimos. She won twoAcademy Awards for Best Actress, for her roles as an aspiring actress in the romantic musicalLa La Land(2016) and a resurrected suicide victim in Lanthimos' comic fantasy filmPoor Things(2023). She also portrayed tennis playerBillie Jean KinginBattle of the Sexes(2017) and thetitle roleinCruella(2021). On television, she starred in the dark comedy miniseriesManiac(2018) andThe Curse(2023). OnBroadway, Stone has starred asSally Bowlesin a revival of the musicalCabaret(2014–2015). She and her husband,Dave McCary, founded the production companyFruit Treein 2020, under which they have produced the filmsWhen You Finish Saving the World(2022),Problemista(2023), andI Saw the TV Glow(2024). Early life Stone was born on November 6, 1988,\",\n \"November 6, 1988, inScottsdale, Arizona, to Jeffrey Charles Stone, the founder and CEO of a general-contracting company, and Krista Jean Stone (néeYeager), a homemaker.She lived on the grounds of theCamelback Innresort from ages 12 to 15.She has a younger brother, Spencer.Her paternal grandfather, Conrad Ostberg Sten, was from a Swedish family thatanglicizedtheir surname to \\\"Stone\\\". She also has German, English, Scottish, and Irish ancestry. As an infant, Stone hadbaby colicand cried frequently. She consequently developednodulesand calluses on her vocal cords while she was a child.Stone has described herself as \\\"loud\\\" and \\\"bossy\\\" while growing up.She was educated at Sequoya Elementary School and attendedCocopah Middle Schoolfor sixth grade. Stone did not like school, though once said that her controlling nature meant that \\\"I made sure I got allA's\\\".She sufferedpanic attacksandanxietyas a child,and said they caused a decline in her social skills.Stone underwent therapy but said it was her participation in\",\n \"participation in local theater plays that helped cure the attacks, recalling: The first time I had a panic attack I was sitting in my friend's house, and I thought the house was burning down. I called my mom and she brought me home, and for the next three years it just would not stop. I would go to the nurse at lunch most days and just wring my hands. I would ask my mom to tell me exactly how the day was going to be, then ask again 30 seconds later. I just needed to know that no one was going to die and nothing was going to change. Stone wanted to act since age four;she wanted a career insketch comedyinitially, but shifted her focus to musical theater, and took vocal lessons for several years.Her acting debut, at age 11, came in a stage production ofThe Wind in the Willows, playing Otter.Stone washomeschooledfor two years, during which time she appeared in 16 productions at Phoenix'sValley Youth Theatre—includingThe Princess and the Pea,Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, andJoseph and the Amazing Technicolor\",\n \"Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat—and performed with the theater'simprovisational comedytroupe.Around this time, she traveled to Los Angeles and auditioned unsuccessfully for a role onNickelodeon'sAll That.Her parents later sent her for private acting lessons with a local acting coach, who had worked at theWilliam Morris Agencyin the 1970s. Stone attendedXavier College Preparatory—an all-girlCatholic high school—as a freshman, but dropped out after one semester to become an actress.She prepared aPowerPointpresentation for her parents titled \\\"Project Hollywood\\\" (featuringMadonna's 2003 song \\\"Hollywood\\\") to convince them to let her move to California to pursue an acting career.In January 2004, she moved with her mother to an apartment in Los Angeles. She recalled, \\\"I went up for every single show on theDisney Channeland auditioned to play the daughter on every single sitcom\\\", adding, \\\"I ended up getting none.\\\"Between auditions for roles, she enrolled in online high-school classes and worked part-time at a\",\n \"part-time at a dog-treat bakery. Career Career beginnings (2004–2009) When Stone registered for theScreen Actors Guildat age 16, the name \\\"Emily Stone\\\" was already taken, and she briefly went by \\\"Riley Stone\\\".She made her television debut as Laurie Partridge on theVH1talent competition reality showIn Search of the New Partridge Family(2004). The resulting show, retitledThe New Partridge Family(2004), remained an unsold pilot.After guest-starring in the television showsMedium(2005) andMalcolm in the Middle(2006), she decided to change her stage name to \\\"Emma\\\"—chosen in honor ofEmma Buntonof theSpice Girls—as she struggled to adapt to the name Riley.She next appeared inLouis C.K.'sHBOseriesLucky Louie(2006),and unsuccessfully auditioned to star asClaire Bennetin the NBC science fiction dramaHeroes(2007), later calling this her \\\"rock bottom\\\" experience.In April 2007, she playedViolet Trimblein the Fox action dramaDrive, but the show was canceled after seven episodes. Stone made her feature film debut inGreg\",\n \"film debut inGreg Mottola's comedySuperbad(2007), co-starringMichael CeraandJonah Hill. The film tells the story of two high school students who go through a series of comic misadventures after they plan to buy alcohol for a party. To play Hill's romantic interest, she dyed her hair red.A reviewer forThe Hollywood Reporterfound her \\\"appealing\\\", but felt that her role was poorly written.Stone has described the experience of acting in her first film as \\\"amazing ... very different than other experiences I've had since then\\\".The film was a commercial success, and earned her theYoung Hollywood Awardfor Exciting New Face. The next year, Stone starred in the comedyThe Rocker(2008) as Amelia Stone, the \\\"straight face\\\"bass guitaristin a band; she learned to play the bass for the role.The actress, who has called herself \\\"a big smiler and laugher\\\", said she found it difficult to play a character whose personality was so different from her own. The film and her performance received negative reviews from critics and was\",\n \"critics and was a commercial failure.Her next release, the romantic comedyThe House Bunny, performed better at the box office, becoming a moderate commercial success.The film saw her play the president of a sorority, and perform acover versionofthe Waitresses' 1982 song \\\"I Know What Boys Like\\\".Reviews were generally negative,but Stone was praised,withTV Guide's Ken Fox writing that she \\\"is well on her way to becoming a star\\\". Stone appeared in three films released in 2009. The first of these was oppositeMatthew McConaughey,Jennifer GarnerandMichael DouglasinMark Waters'sGhosts of Girlfriends Past. Loosely based onCharles Dickens's 1843novellaA Christmas Carol, the romantic comedy has her playing a ghost who haunts her former boyfriend. Critical reaction to the film was negative, but it was a modest commercial success.Her most financially profitable venture that year wasRuben Fleischer's $102.3 million-grossing horror comedy filmZombieland,in which she featured alongsideJesse Eisenberg,Woody\",\n \"Eisenberg,Woody HarrelsonandAbigail Breslin. In the film, she appeared as a con artist and survivor of azombie apocalypse, in a role which Chris Hewitt ofEmpiremagazine thought was \\\"somewhat underwritten.\\\"In a more positive review, Tim Robey ofThe Daily Telegraphcalled \\\"the hugely promising Stone a tough cookie who projects the aura of being wiser than her years\\\".Stone's third release in 2009 wasKieran and Michelle Mulroney'sPaper Man, a comedy-drama which disappointed critics. Rise to prominence (2010–2013) Stone voiced anAustralian ShepherdinMarmaduke(2010), a comedy from directorTom Deybased onBrad Anderson'slong-running comic strip of the same name.Her breakthrough came the same year with a starring role inEasy A, a teen comedy directed byWill Gluck.Partially based onNathaniel Hawthorne's 1850 novelThe Scarlet Letter, the film tells the story of Olive Penderghast (Stone), a high school student who becomes embroiled in a comic sex scandal after a false rumor circulates that she is sexuallypromiscuous.\",\n \"Stone read the script before the project was optioned for production, and pursued it with her manager while production details were being finalized. She found the script \\\"so different and unique from anything I'd read before\\\", calling it \\\"funny and sweet\\\".When Stone discovered that the film had begun production, she met with Gluck, expressing her enthusiasm for the project. A few months later, the audition process started and she met again with Gluck, becoming one of the first actresses to audition.The film received positive critical reviews, and Stone's performance was considered its prime asset.Anna Smith ofTime Outwrote, \\\"Stone gives a terrific performance, her knowing drawl implying intellect and indifference with underlying warmth.\\\"The film was a commercial success, grossing $75 million against its $8 million budget.Stone was nominated for aBAFTA Rising Star Awardand aGolden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy, and won theMTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance. In October 2010,\",\n \"In October 2010, Stone hosted an episode of NBC's sketch comedySaturday Night Live; her appearances included a sketch playing off her resemblance toLindsay Lohan.Stone called it \\\"the greatest week of my life\\\".She hosted again in 2011, appeared in an episode in 2014, and inits 40th anniversary specialin 2015.A brief appearance in the sex comedyFriends with Benefits(2011) reunited her with Gluck.She followed this with a supporting role inGlenn FicarraandJohn Requa's romantic comedyCrazy, Stupid, Love(2011) alongsideSteve Carell,Ryan GoslingandJulianne Moore. The film featured her as a law school graduate, and the love interest of Gosling's character. Despite finding \\\"some inevitable collapses into convention\\\" in the film, Drew McWeeny ofHitFixwrote that Stone \\\"ties the whole film together\\\".At the2012 Teen Choice Awards, she won theChoice Movie Actress – Comedyaward for her performance in the film.Crazy, Stupid, Lovewas a box office success, grossing $142.9 million worldwide against a production budget of $50\",\n \"budget of $50 million. Dismayed at beingtypecastas \\\"the sarcastic interest of the guy\\\", Stone co-starred withViola DavisinTate Taylor's period dramaThe Help(2011), a film she found challenging.The film is based onKathryn Stockett's2009 novel of the same nameand is set in 1960sJackson, Mississippi. She met with Taylor to express a desire to work on the film. The director said, \\\" was completely awkward and dorky, with her raspy voice, and she sat down and we got a little intoxicated and had a blast, and I just thought, 'God! God! This is Skeeter.\\\"She was cast as Eugenia \\\"Skeeter\\\" Phelan, an aspiring writer learning about the lives of the African-American maids. In preparation for the part, she learned to speak in aSouthern accentand educated herself on theCivil Rights Movementthrough literature and film.With a worldwide gross of $216 million against a $25 million budget,The Helpbecame Stone's highest-grossing film to that point.The film, and her performance, received positive reviews from critics. Writing\",\n \"critics. Writing forEmpire, Anna Smith thought Stone was \\\"well-meaning and hugely likable\\\" despite finding flaws in the character.The film was nominated for anAcademy Award for Best Picture,and won Best Ensemble Cast from theWomen Film Critics Circleand theBroadcast Film Critics Association. Stone turned down a role in the action comedy21 Jump Streetafter signing on toMarc Webb's 2012 filmThe Amazing Spider-Man, arebootofSam Raimi'sSpider-Manseries.She portrayedGwen Stacy, the love interest of thetitular superhero(played byAndrew Garfield).Stone returned to her natural blonde hair color for the role, having dyed it red previously.She admitted to having never read the comics, and therefore felt responsible to educate herself about Spider-Man: \\\"My experience was with the Sam Raimi movies ... I always assumed thatMary Janewas his first love\\\",adding that she was only familiar with Stacy's character as portrayed byBryce Dallas HowardinSpider-Man 3.The Amazing Spider-Manwas a commercial success and was theseventh\",\n \"and was theseventh highest-grossing film of the yearwith global revenues of $757.9 million.Entertainment Weekly'sLisa Schwarzbaumfound Stone to be \\\"irresistible\\\",andIan FreerofEmpirewas particularly impressed with Stone's and Garfield's performances.At the annualPeople's Choice Awardsceremony, she was nominated for three awards, including Favorite Movie Actress.Later that year, Stone voiced a role in the crime-based video gameSleeping Dogs, which earned her aSpike Video Game Award. Stone began 2013 with a voice role in theDreamWorks AnimationfilmThe Croods, which was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Animated Feature.This followed with an appearance inMovie 43, ananthology filmwhich consists of 16 short stories—she played the title role in the segment entitled \\\"Veronica\\\".She next starred alongside Ryan Gosling andSean Pennin Ruben Fleischer'sGangster Squad(2013), a crime thriller set in Los Angeles during the 1940s.A. O. ScottofThe New York Timesdismissed the film as \\\"a hectic jumble of fedoras and\",\n \"of fedoras and zoot suits\\\", but praised Stone's pairing with Gosling. Established actress (2014–2017) In 2014, Stone reprised the role of Gwen Stacy inThe Amazing Spider-Man 2. She believed that her character did not depend on the film's protagonist, asserting: \\\"She saves him more than he saves her. She's incredibly helpful to Spider-Man ... He's the muscle, she's the brains.\\\"Her performance was well received by critics;anEmpirereviewer commended her for standing out in the film, writing, \\\"Stone is theHeath Ledgerof this series, doing something unexpected with an easily dismissed supporting character.\\\"The role won her the Favorite Movie Actress award at the2015 Kids' Choice Awards.Later that year, Stone took on a role inWoody Allen's romantic comedyMagic in the Moonlight, a modest commercial success.A. O. Scott criticized her role, and pairing withColin Firth, describing it as \\\"the kind of pedantic nonsense that is meant to signify superior intellect\\\". The black comedyBirdman, directed byAlejandro González\",\n \"González Iñárritu, was Stone's final film release of 2014. Co-starringMichael KeatonandEdward Norton, it featured her as Sam Thomson, the recovering-addict daughter of actor Riggan Thomson (Keaton), who becomes his assistant. Iñárritu created the character based on his experience with his daughter.Birdmanwas critically acclaimed,and was the most successful film at the87th Academy Awards; it was nominated for nine awards, winning four, including Best Picture.The Movie Networkdeemed it one of Stone's best performances to date, andRobbie CollinofThe Daily Telegraphfound her to be \\\"superb\\\" and \\\"tremendous\\\" in her role, while also highlighting her monologue in the film which he believed to have been \\\"delivered like a knitting needle to the gut.\\\"She receivedAcademy,BAFTA,Golden Globe, andSAG Awardnominations. From November 2014 to February 2015, Stone starred in a revival of theBroadwaymusicalCabaretasSally Bowles, taking over the role fromMichelle Williams.Deeming it \\\"the most nerve-racking thing ever\\\", Stone\",\n \"thing ever\\\", Stone listened to a French radio station to mentally prepare herself for the role.Marilyn StasioofVarietywas critical of her singing abilities and found her performance to be \\\"a bit narrow as an emotional platform, but a smart choice for her acting skills, the perfect fit for her sharp intelligence and kinetic energy.\\\"Both of Stone's 2015 films—the romantic comedyAloha, and the dramaIrrational Man—were critical and commercial failures, and her roles were panned by critics.InCameron Crowe'sAloha, she played the role of an air force pilot alongsideBradley Cooper, and in Woody Allen'sIrrational Man, she played the love interest ofJoaquin Phoenix's character, a philosophy professor. The former wascontroversialforwhitewashingthe cast, as Stone's character was meant to be of Asian, Hawaiian, and Swedish descent. She later regretted taking part in the project, acknowledging whitewashing as a widespread problem in Hollywood.Despite the backlash, Stone was nominated for Choice Movie Actress – Comedy at\",\n \"Actress – Comedy at the2015 Teen Choice Awards.She also appeared in the music video forWill Butler's single \\\"Anna\\\". During her run onCabaret, Stone met filmmakerDamien Chazelle, who, impressed with her performance, cast her in his musical comedy-dramaLa La Land.The project, which marked her third collaboration with Gosling, starred Stone as Mia Dolan, an aspiring actress living in Los Angeles.Stone borrowed several real-life experiences for her character, and in preparation, watchedThe Umbrellas of Cherbourgand films ofFred Astaire and Ginger Rogers.For thefilm's soundtrack, she recorded six songs.La La Landserved as the opening film at the2016 Venice Film Festival, where it generated critical acclaim and earned Stone theVolpi Cup for Best Actress.It emerged as a commercial success, with a worldwide gross of over $440 million against a production budget of $30 million.Peter BradshawofThe Guardianwrote that \\\"Stone has never been better: superbly smart, witty, vulnerable, her huge doe eyes radiating\",\n \"doe eyes radiating intelligence even, or especially, when they are filling with tears.\\\"For her performance, Stone won theAcademy,Golden Globe,SAG, andBAFTAAward for Best Actress. Stone's sole release of 2017 wasBattle of the Sexes, based on the 1973eponymous matchbetween tennis playersBillie Jean King(Stone) andBobby Riggs(Steve Carell). In preparation, Stone met with King, watched old footage and interviews of her, worked with a dialect coach to speak in King's accent, and drank high-calorie protein shakes to gain 15 pounds (6.8 kg).The film premiered to positive reviews at the2017 Toronto International Film Festival, and certain critics considered Stone's performance to be the finest of her career.Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianpraised her for playing against type, and for being \\\"strong\\\" and \\\"convincing\\\" in the part.Even so, the film earned less than its $25 million budget.Stone received her fourth Golden Globe nomination for it, and attended the ceremony with King. Films with Yorgos Lanthimos and professional\",\n \"and professional expansion (2018–present) In 2018, Stone andRachel WeiszplayedAbigail MashamandSarah Churchill, two cousins fighting for the affection ofQueen Anne(Olivia Colman), inYorgos Lanthimos's historical comedy-dramaThe Favourite. She found it challenging to be an American among an all-British cast, and struggled with mastering her character's accent.The film premiered at the75th Venice International Film Festivalto critical acclaim.Michael Nordine ofIndieWirepraised Stone for taking on such a bold role following the success ofLa La Land, and termed the three lead actresses \\\"a majestic triumvirate in a period piece that's as tragic as it is hilarious.\\\"Stone then executive-produced and starred in theNetflixdark comedy miniseriesManiac(2018), directed byCary Joji Fukunaga. It featured Stone and Jonah Hill as two strangers whose lives are transformed due to a mysterious pharmaceutical trial. An admirer of Fukunaga's work, she agreed to the project without reading the script.Judy Berman ofTimemagazine\",\n \"ofTimemagazine was impressed with Stone and Hill for their growth as actors sinceSuperbadand noted the complexity in their performances.Stone received her fifth Golden Globe nomination and third Oscar nomination forThe Favourite, and additionally earned SAG nominations for bothManiacandThe Favourite.That same year, Stone appeared inPaul McCartney's music video for his song \\\"Who Cares\\\". Stone reprised her role as Wichita inZombieland: Double Tap(2019), the sequel to 2009'sZombieland, which received mixed reviews and grossed $125 million worldwide.She narrated the Netflix documentary seriesThe Mind, Explained(2019) and reprised the voice role of Eep inThe Croods: A New Age(2020), the sequel to 2013'sThe Croods.In 2021, Stone playedCruella de Vil(originated byGlenn Closein the previous live-action adaptations) inCraig Gillespie's crime comedyCruella, a Disney live-action based on the 1961 animationOne Hundred and One Dalmatians. Starring oppositeEmma Thompson, Stone also served as an executive producer of the\",\n \"producer of the film alongside Close.The film was released in US theaters and onDisney+ Premier Accessto positive reviews and grossed $233 million worldwide against its $100 million budget.Justin ChangofLos Angeles Timeswrote that despite the film's flawed screenplay, Stone was \\\"wholly committed, glammed-to-the-nines\\\"; Chang favorably compared it with her performance inThe Favourite, adding that she \\\"nailed every nuance as another lowly young woman turned ambitious schemer\\\".ForCruella, Stone garnered another Golden Globe nomination. In 2020, Stone and her husband,Dave McCary, launched the production companyFruit Tree.Their first project was the independent filmWhen You Finish Saving the World, which marked Jesse Eisenberg's feature directorial debut.The film premiered at the2022 Sundance Film Festival, and had modest reviews.The company's next release was the comedyProblemista, directed byJulio Torres.It premiered at the 2023South by Southwest, and was initially scheduled to be released that year, but was\",\n \"that year, but was delayed due to the2023 SAG-AFTRA strike.Both films were produced in collaboration withA24. Continuing her collaboration with Lanthimos, Stone starred in his short filmBleat(2022) and feature filmPoor Things(2023).The latter, a fantasy coming-of-age film, is based on thenovel of the same namebyAlasdair Gray.Stone also produced the film, in which she starred as Bella, a young Victorian woman who is crudely resurrected after her suicide. She found the experience of playing a character liberated of societal pressures to be \\\"extremely freeing\\\",and she performed nudity and several sex scenes in it.David Rooney ofThe Hollywood Reporterwrote that Stone \\\"gorges on it in a fearless performance that traces an expansive arc most actors could only dream about\\\", and particularly praised her ability to perform physical comedy.Stephanie ZacharekofTimetermed her performance \\\"wonderful—vital, exploratory, almost lunar in its perfect oddness\\\".Stone next executive produced and starred in theShowtimesatirical\",\n \"comedy seriesThe Curse.She played Whitney, an influencer who hosts anHGTVshow with her husband.Commenting on her achievements of the year,BBC Culture'sCaryn Jamesopined that \\\"Stone has quickly moved past Hollywood stardom to claim serious artistic credentials\\\".She received two more Golden Globe nominations for Best Actress for her performances inPoor ThingsandThe Curse, winning for the former.Also forPoor Things, she won her second Academy Award and BAFTA for Best Actress in addition to a Best Picture nomination. The2024 Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of two films produced by Stone for Fruit Tree — the horror filmI Saw the TV Glowand Eisenberg's second directorial,A Real Pain.In her fourth collaboration with Lanthimos, Stone played three characters in hisabsurdistanthology filmKinds of Kindness, which premiered at the2024 Cannes Film Festival.She will next star inAri Aster'scontemporary WesternfilmEddingtonand in Lanthimos'Bugonia, a remake of the South Korean filmSave the Green Planet!. Reception\",\n \"Planet!. Reception and acting style Commenting on her performance inThe Help, Kirk Honeycutt ofThe Hollywood Reportercalled her \\\"one of our very best young actresses\\\".Time's Daniel D'Addario stated in 2015 that Stone \\\"appears to have fairly limited options\\\" and choosing roles in independent films by \\\"less established directors would represent a substantive risk\\\".Analyzing her on-screen persona, Jessica Kiang ofIndieWirenoted that Stone \\\"usually the approachable, down-to-earth, girl-next-door type, in person she demonstrates many of those qualities too, along with an absolute refusal to take herself too seriously.\\\"Biographer Karen Hollinger wrote that at the beginning of her career, Stone was often labeled a \\\"staringénue\\\", a perceived limitation she escaped despite not being a classically trained actress as she \\\"crafted a brilliant career based on performative skills, careful choice of roles and distinctive personality\\\".In a 2024 analysis of Stone's career trajectory,IndieWiresuggested that from breakout\",\n \"that from breakout roles to acclaimed performances in indie films, Stone is positioned as a potential new movie star in Hollywood's evolving landscape. In 2008, Stone toppedSaturday Night Magazine's Top 20 Rising Stars Under 30 and was included in a similar list compiled byMoviefone.LoveFilmplaced her on their list of 2010 Top 20 Actresses Under 30, and her performance inEasy Awas included inTime's Top 10 Everything of 2010.She appeared in the 2013Celebrity 100list, a compilation of the 100 most powerful people in the world, as selected annually byForbes. The magazine reported that she had earned $16 million from June 2012 to June 2013.That same year, she was ranked first in the magazine's Top 10 Best Value Stars.In 2015,Forbespublished that she had become one of the world's highest-paid actresses with earnings of $6.5 million.The magazine ranked her theworld's highest-paid actresstwo years later with annual earnings of $26 million.In 2017, she was included onTime's annual list of the100 most influential\",\n \"most influential people in the world. Stone has been described as a style icon, with her hair, eyes, and husky voice listed as her trademark features.Voguecredits the actress for her \\\"sophisticated, perfectly put-together looks\\\", writing that \\\"her charisma, both on-screen and off-, has charmed many\\\" and for her embrace of \\\"Old Hollywood Glamour\\\".Bee Shapiro ofThe New York Timescalled Stone a \\\"likable ... spunky, talented, self-deprecating and slightly goofy\\\" actress who is diverse in her fashion choices.In 2009, she was featured onFHM's100 Sexiest Women in the WorldandMaxim's Hot 100;the latter also placed her on the list on three other occasions—2010, 2011, and 2014.In 2011, she featured onVictoria's Secret's list of \\\"What is Sexy?\\\" as the Sexiest Actress.She was mentioned in other media outlet listings that year, includingPeople's 100 Most Beautiful Women, each ofFHM's andFHM Australia's 100 Sexiest Women in the World, andMen's Health's 100 Hottest Women.She was ranked sixth onEmpire's list of the 100\",\n \"list of the 100 Sexiest Movie Stars in 2013.Stone was named the best-dressed woman of 2012 byVogueand was included on similar listings byGlamourin 2013 and 2015, andPeoplein 2014. Personal life Stone moved from Los Angeles toGreenwich Village,New York, in 2009.In 2016, she moved back to Los Angeles.Despite significant media attention, she refuses to publicly discuss her personal life. Concerned with living a normal life, Stone has said she dislikes receiving paparazzi attention outside her home.She has expressed her fondness for her profession,and has citedDiane Keatonas an acting influence, calling her \\\"one of the most covered-up actresses of all time\\\". Stone has a close relationship with her family.She says, \\\"I am blessed with a great family and great people around me that would be able to kick me in the shins if I ever for one minute got lost up in the clouds. I've been really lucky in that sense.\\\" Stone dated herPaper Manco-starKieran Culkinfor two years. In 2011, she started dating herAmazing\",\n \"dating herAmazing Spider-Manco-star Andrew Garfield for four years.Their relationship was reported in the media with various speculations; the pair refused to speak publicly about it, though they made several appearances together. In 2014, on an occasion in New York City, Stone and Garfield encouraged paparazzi to visit websites that spread awareness of causes such asautism.In 2015, they were reported to have broken up. Stone metSaturday Night Livesegment directorDave McCaryon December 3, 2016, while hosting the show. They began dating the following year. On December 4, 2019, they announced their engagement. They married in a private ceremony in September 2020.In January 2021, they were reported to be expecting their first child together.In March 2021, Stone gave birth to their daughter named Louise Jean.As of 2021, the family lives inAustin, Texas.In 2022, Stone sold her house inMalibu, Californiafor $4.425 million,and in 2024, she sold herLos Angeleshome for $4 million. Stone has said she suffers\",\n \"said she suffers fromasthma, which she discovered after having difficulty breathing while filmingEasy A.Her mother was diagnosed withtriple-negative breast cancerand cured in 2008.Stone and her mother celebrated by getting tattoos of birds' feet, designed byPaul McCartney, a reference tothe Beatlessong \\\"Blackbird\\\", which she and her mother love.Stone is a supporter ofPlanned Parenthood, and attended the2017 Academy Awardswearing a Planned Parenthood pin on her dress. Philanthropy Stone appeared in aRevloncampaign that promoted breast cancer awareness.In 2011, she appeared in a collaborative video betweenStar WarsandStand Up to Cancerto raise funds for cancer research.From 2012 to 2014, she hosted theEntertainment Industry Foundation's Revlon Run/Walk, which helps fight women's cancer. Stone and three other celebrities were present at the 2012Nickelodeon HALO Awards, a TV special that profiled four teenagers who are \\\"Helping And Leading Others\\\" (HALO).She attended the 2014Earth Hour, a worldwide movement for\",\n \"movement for the planet organized by theWorld Wide Fund for Nature.In 2015, she was part of a fundraising event in support of theMotion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the film and television industries with limited or no resources.In 2018, she collaborated with 300 women in Hollywood to set up theTime's Upinitiative to protect women fromsexual harassmentand discrimination. Acting credits and awards According to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes and the box-office siteBox Office Mojo, Stone's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful films areSuperbad(2007),Zombieland(2009),Easy A(2010),Crazy, Stupid, Love(2011),The Help(2011),The Amazing Spider-Man(2012),The Amazing Spider-Man 2(2014),Birdman(2014),La La Land(2016),Battle of the Sexes(2017),The Favourite(2018),Cruella(2021), andPoor Things(2023). Stone has been recognized by theAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciencesfor the following: She has also been nominated for fiveBritish Academy Film Awards: BAFTA Rising Star\",\n \"BAFTA Rising Star Award, Best Supporting Actress forBirdmanandThe Favourite, and Best Actress in a Leading Role forLa La LandandPoor Things, winning for the last two.Her other awards include twoGolden Globe Awardsfor Best Actress in a Comedy or Musical forLa La LandandPoor Things,theScreen Actors Guild Awardfor Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role and the Volpi Cup for Best Actress at Venice Film Festival, both forLa La Land. See also Notes References Literary sources External links\",\n \"List of highest-paid film actors While the highest-paidfilm actorscan command multi-million-dollar salaries, actors can potentially earn substantially more by deferring all or part of their salary against a percentage of the film's gross, known within the industry as a \\\"profit participation\\\" deal. Highest earnings for a single production Since not all salaries are made public, this is a non-definitive list of actors who have received $30 million or more as compensation for their services in a single production. Occasionally an actor's fee may cover multiple films, and they are included on the list if the films were filmed as a back-to-back production (for example, Keanu Reeves and theMatrixsequels). The figures are given at theirnominal value, since earnings from profit-based deals are accumulated over many years, making it unfeasible to adjust forinflation. Forbespublishes yearly lists of the highest-paid actors and actresses based on total earnings from 1 June the previous year to 1 June the current year.\",\n \"the current year. Highest annual earnings Forbespublishes yearly lists of the highest-paid actors and actresses based on total earnings from 1 June the previous year to 1 June the current year. See also References\",\n \"Margot Robbie Margot Elise Robbie(/ˈmɑːrɡoʊˈrɒbi/MAR-gohROB-ee; born 2 July 1990) is an Australian actress and producer.Her workincludes bothblockbusterandindependent films, andher accoladesinclude nominations for threeAcademy Awards, sixBAFTA Awardsand fourGolden Globe Awards.Timenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the worldin 2017, andForbesnamed her theworld's highest-paid actressin 2023. Born and raised inQueensland, Robbie began her career in 2008 on the television seriesNeighbours, on which she was a regular until 2011. After moving to the United States, she led the television seriesPan Am(2011–2012) and had her breakthrough in 2013 withMartin Scorsese’s comedy filmThe Wolf of Wall Street. She achieved wider recognition with starring roles asJane PorterinThe Legend of Tarzan(2016), and asHarley Quinnin theDC Extended Universefilms beginning withSuicide Squad(2016). Robbie received critical acclaim and a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Actressfor her portrayal of figure\",\n \"portrayal of figure skaterTonya Hardingin the biopicI, Tonya(2017). This acclaim continued for her performances asQueen Elizabeth IinMary Queen of Scots(2018),Sharon TateinOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood(2019), and aFox Newsemployee inBombshell(2019). The last of these earned her a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Robbie has since starred as an aspiring actress in the period filmBabylon(2022) andthe titular fashion dollin the fantasy comedyBarbie(2023), which emerged as her highest-grossing release and, as its producer, earned her a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture. Robbie and her husband, filmmakerTom Ackerley, co-founded the production companyLuckyChap Entertainmentin 2014, under which they have produced several films, includingI, Tonya,Promising Young Woman(2020),Barbie, andSaltburn(2023), as well as theHuluseriesDollface(2019–2022) and theNetflixminiseriesMaid(2021). Early life and education Margot Elise Robbie was born on 2 July 1990 inDalby, Queensland, to Doug\",\n \"Queensland, to Doug Robbie, a former farm-owner andsugarcanetycoon, and Sarie Kessler, aphysiotherapist.She is the second youngest of four; older siblings Anya and Lachlan and younger brother Cameron.Her parents separated when she was five.Robbie and her siblings were raised by their single mother and had minimal contact with their father. The family spent the majority of Robbie's upbringing on her grandparents'Currumbin Valleyfarmin theGold Coast hinterland.An energetic child, Robbie often put on shows in her house. She was enrolled in acircus schoolby her mother, where she excelled intrapeze, in which she received a certificate at age eight.In high school, Robbie studied drama atSomerset College.As a teenager, she worked three jobs: she tended a bar, cleaned houses, and worked atSubway.After graduation, with a few commercials and independent thriller films on her résumé, Robbie relocated toMelbourneto begin acting professionally. Career 2008–2012: Early work andNeighbours Robbie's first acting roles came\",\n \"acting roles came when she was in high school. She starred in two low-budget independent thriller films, calledVigilanteandI.C.U., both released years later. She described the experience of being on afilm setas \\\"a dream come true\\\".She made her television debut in a 2008 guest role as Caitlin Brentford in the drama seriesCity Homicideand followed this with a two-episode arc in the children's television seriesThe Elephant Princess, in which she starred alongsideLiam Hemsworth. With agent encouragement at the time and as Robbie recalled onThe Graham Norton Show,she calledFremantleMediaon a daily basis. \\\"One day, I got put through by accident to the casting director for Neighbours,\\\" and she said, \\\"I'm in town working on something.\\\" The casting director asked how old she was, and she responded \\\"seventeen.\\\" She was told, \\\"We're looking for exactly that, come in and audition\\\"for the television soap operaNeighbours. In June 2008, she began playingDonna Freedman, a role that was meant to be a guest character, but\",\n \"character, but Robbie was promoted to the regular cast after she made her debut.In her three-year stint on the soap, she received twoLogie Awardnominations. Shortly after arriving in America, Robbie landed the role of Laura Cameron, a newly trained flight attendant in the period drama seriesPan Am(2011). The series premiered to high ratings and positive reviews but was cancelled after one season due to falling ratings. 2013–2015: Breakthrough Robbie next appeared inRichard Curtis' romantic comedyAbout Time(2013), co-starringDomhnall GleesonandRachel McAdams. It tells the story of a young man with the ability to time travel who tries to change his past in hopes of improving his future. To play Gleeson's unattainable teenage love interest, she adopted a British accent.The film was a modest commercial success.Robbie's breakthrough came the same year with the role ofNaomi Lapaglia, the wife of protagonistJordan Belfort, inMartin Scorsese's biographical black comedyThe Wolf of Wall Street. In her audition for the\",\n \"audition for the role, Robbie improvised a slap on co-starLeonardo DiCaprioduring a fight scene which ultimately won her the part.The film and her performance received positive reviews; she was particularly praised for her on-screenBrooklyn accent.CriticSasha Stonewrote of Robbie's performance, \\\"She's Scorsese's best blonde bombshell discovery sinceCathy MoriartyinRaging Bull. Robbie is funny, hard and kills every scene she's in.\\\"The Wolf of Wall Streetwas a box office success, grossing $392 million worldwide, making it Scorsese's highest-grossing film to date.Robbie was nominated for theMTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performanceand won theEmpire Award for Best Newcomer. She later said that the fame and attention the movie brought her led her to consider quitting acting, but her mother was philosophical about her profession and explained to her that it was probably too late to quit. She fully understood and stuck with it.With the aim to produce more female-driven projects, Robbie and her future\",\n \"and her future husband, Tom Ackerley, and their respective longtime friends Sophia Kerr and Josey McNamara, started their own production companyLuckyChap Entertainment. The company was founded in 2014 and its name was inspired byCharlie Chaplin. Robbie appeared in four films released in 2015. The first of these was oppositeWill SmithinGlenn FicarraandJohn Requa's $158.8 million-grossing romantic comedy-drama filmFocus. In the film, she played an inexperiencedgrifterlearning the craft from Smith's character; she learned how topickpocketfromApollo Robbinsfor the role.Reviews of the film were generally mixed, but Robbie's performance was praised;Peter TraversofRolling Stonewrote, \\\"Robbie is wow and then some. Even whenFocusfumbles, deals a winning hand.\\\"She was nominated for theRising Star Awardat the68th British Academy Film Awards.Her next appearance was alongsideMichelle WilliamsandKristin Scott ThomasinSaul Dibb's war romantic dramaSuite Française, a film based on the second part ofIrène Némirovsky's\",\n \"Némirovsky's 2004novel of the same name. In the film, she played a woman falling for a German soldier during theGerman occupation of France during World War II, a role which Leslie Felperin ofThe Hollywood Reporterfound \\\"underwritten\\\". She followed this withCraig Zobel's post-apocalyptic dramaZ for ZachariahoppositeChris PineandChiwetel Ejiofor, in her first leading role. Partially based onRobert C. O'Brien'sbook of the same name, the film follows Ann Burden (Robbie) as she finds herself in an emotionally charged love triangle with the last known survivors of a disaster that wipes out most of civilization. In preparation for the film, Robbie dyed her hair brown and learned to speak in anAppalachianaccent.The film received positive reviews, and Robbie's performance was widely praised, with Drew McWeeny ofHitFixasserting that \\\"Robbie's work here establishes her as one of the very best actresses in her age range today.\\\"Her fourth release of 2015 was acameo appearanceinAdam McKay's comedy-dramaThe Big Short, in\",\n \"Big Short, in which she breaks thefourth wallto explainsubprime mortgageswhile in a bathtub.The Big Shortwas a commercial and critical success and Robbie's cameo became atrending topicsix years later, in the wake of theGameStop short squeeze, as her explanation provided reference points for what was happening with the GameStop and related stocks. 2016–2018: Worldwide recognition In 2016, Robbie reunited with Ficarra and Requa, playing a Britishwar correspondentin the film adaptation ofThe Taliban Shuffle, calledWhiskey Tango Foxtrot, co-starringTina FeyandMartin Freeman.Later that year, Robbie took on the part ofJane PorterinDavid Yates's adventure filmThe Legend of Tarzan. She was adamant about not losing weight and ensuring the role was not adamsel in distresslike in previousTarzanadaptations.Reviews of the film were generally unfavourable,butManohla DargisofThe New York Timescredited Robbie for \\\"holding her own\\\" in her supporting role alongside the all-male cast withAlexander SkarsgårdandSamuel L.\",\n \"L. Jackson. Robbie became the first person to portrayDC ComicsvillainHarley Quinninlive-actionwhen she signed on toDavid Ayer's 2016 superhero filmSuicide Squadalongside anensemble castthat included Will Smith,Jared LetoandViola Davis. She admitted to having never read the comics, but felt a huge responsibility to do the character justice and satisfy the fans.Robbie began preparing for the role of thesupervillainesssix months prior to the film shoot; her schedule consisted ofgymnastics,boxing,aerial silktraining and learning how to hold her breath underwater for five minutes. She performed the majority of her own stunts in the film.Suicide Squadwas a commercial success and wastenth-highest-grossing film of 2016with global revenues of $746.8 million, and Robbie's performance was considered its prime asset.Writing forTime,Stephanie Zacharekfound Robbie to be \\\"a criminally appealing actress, likable in just about every way\\\" despite finding flaws in the characterandChristopher OrrofThe Atlanticcalled her\",\n \"Atlanticcalled her performance \\\"genuinely terrific\\\".At the annualPeople's Choice Awardsceremony, she won theFavorite Action Movie Actressaward and was also awarded theCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in an Action Movie.In October 2016, Robbie hosted theseason 42premiere ofNBC's late-night sketch comedySaturday Night Live; her appearances included a parody ofIvanka Trump.The series logged its strongest season premiere ratings in eight years.Robbie collaborated with Domhnall Gleeson inSimon Curtis'Goodbye Christopher Robin(2017), a biographical drama about the lives ofWinnie-the-PoohcreatorA. A. Milneand his family. The film, and her performance, received modest reviews and was a commercial failure. Her final release of 2017 and LuckyChap Entertainment's first release wasCraig Gillespie's sports black comedyI, Tonya, based on the life of American figure skaterTonya Harding(Robbie) and her connection to the1994 assaulton rivalNancy Kerrigan. In preparation, Robbie met with Harding, watched old\",\n \"watched old footage and interviews of her, worked with a voice coach to speak in Harding'sPacific Northwestaccent and vocal timbre at different ages, and underwent several months of rigorous skating instruction with choreographerSarah Kawahara.I, Tonyapremiered at the2017 Toronto International Film Festivalto critical acclaim.James Luxford ofMetrodeemed it Robbie's best performance to date, andMark KermodeofThe Observerwrote, \\\"Margot Robbie's performance in this satirical, postmodern tale of the disgraced star is a tour-de-force tornado that balances finely nuanced character development with impressively punchy physicality\\\".She received numerous accolades for her performance, including nominations for anAcademy Award, aBAFTA Award, aGolden Globe Award, aScreen Actors Guild Awardand aCritics' Choice Movie Award, all for Best Actress. Robbie began 2018 with the voice role ofFlopsy RabbitinPeter Rabbit, an animated comedy from directorWill Gluck, which is based on theBeatrix Potterbook series. The animated\",\n \"The animated feature was a box office success, grossing $351.3 million worldwide against a production budget of $50 million.Her next two 2018 films—the neo-noir thrillerTerminaland comedy-horrorSlaughterhouse Rulez—were critical and commercial failures. The historical dramaMary Queen of Scots, directed byJosie Rourke, was her final release of 2018. The film featuredSaoirse Ronanas thetitular characterand Robbie as her cousinQueen Elizabeth I, and it chronicles the1569 conflict between their two countries. Robbie had initially turned down the role for being \\\"terrified\\\" of not living up to the history of portrayals of the Queen.Before each day of shooting, she spent three hours in the make-up chair while a prosthetic nose, painted on boils and blisters were applied.Critics dismissed the film for its screenplay and several historical inaccuracies, but praised the performances of Robbie and Ronan.Yolanda Machado ofTheWrapwrote, \\\"ow down to Ronan and Robbie for taking two legendarily complex characters, and\",\n \"characters, and completely owning both roles. Ronan's fiery Mary and Robbie's emotionally complex Elizabeth truly reign divine on screen.\\\"For her portrayal, Robbie received nominations for aBAFTA Awardand for aScreen Actors Guild Award. 2019–present: Established actress and producer Robbie's first release of 2019 was the LuckyChap Entertainment productionDreamland, a poorly received period crime thriller set during the 1930sDust Bowl.She began executive producing the comedy seriesDollface, which streamed onHulufrom 2019 to 2022.Robbie was filmmakerQuentin Tarantino's only choice to portray the late actressSharon Tatein his period filmOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood, starring Leonardo DiCaprio andBrad Pitt.With theTate–LaBianca murdersserving as a backdrop, the film tells the story of a fadingcharacter actor(DiCaprio) and hisstunt double(Pitt) as they navigateNew Hollywoodin 1969 Los Angeles.Feeling \\\"an enormous sense of responsibility\\\", Robbie prepared for the role by meeting Tate's family members and\",\n \"family members and friends, watching all of her films and reading the autobiography by Tate's then-husband,Roman Polanski.Once Upon a Time in Hollywoodpremiered at the2019 Cannes Film Festivalto critical acclaim, and was a commercial success with a worldwide gross of $374.3 million.Despite many bemoaning Robbie's lack of lines in the film,Robbie CollinofThe Daily Telegraphhighlighted a scene with Robbie in the cinema, which he found to be the film's \\\"most delightful\\\" scene. Also in 2019, she starred as Kayla Pospisil, acomposite characterbased on severalFox Newsemployees, inJay Roach's dramaBombshell. Co-starringCharlize TheronandNicole Kidman, the film recounts stories of various female personnel at the news network and their sexual harassment by the network's chairmanRoger Ailes.Robbie based her character's accent onKatherine Harris.The film received positive reviews;Kenneth Turanof theLos Angeles Timeswrote, \\\"Robbie at her best, the arc of her story is so crushing that it stays with you the longest.\\\"For\",\n \"the longest.\\\"For her performances inOnce Upon a Time in HollywoodandBombshell, she received two nominations for theBAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role,and for the latter she received nominations for anAcademy Award, aGolden Globeand a Screen Actors Guild Award; all in the Best Supporting Actress category. Robbie began the new decade by reprising the role of Harley Quinn inCathy Yan'sBirds of Prey(2020). Determined to make a female ensemble action film, she pitched the idea for the film toWarner Bros.in 2015. Robbie spent the subsequent three years developing the project under her production company, making a concerted effort to hire a female director and screenwriter.Birds of Prey, along with Robbie's performance, gained generally positive reviews;Ian FreerofEmpirewrote that \\\"theMVPis Robbie, who lends Harley charming quirk and believable menace, hinting at Harley's inner life without reams of dialogue.\\\"She received two nominations at the46th People's Choice Awards. Robbie served as a producer\",\n \"as a producer onPromising Young Woman(2020), a comedy thriller by writer-directorEmerald Fennell, starringCarey Mulliganas a woman who seeks to avenge the rape and death of her best friend. The film received acclaim,earning a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.In 2021, Robbie reprised her voice role as Flopsy Rabbit inPeter Rabbit 2: The Runaway, which received mixed reviews and grossed $153.8 million worldwide.She also made her third outing as Quinn in thestandalone sequelThe Suicide Squad, written and directed byJames Gunn. Due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, the film was simultaneously released theatrically and on the streaming serviceHBO Max.Owen Gleibermanpraised Robbie's \\\"delectable performance\\\" in it.She also served as an executive producer for theNetflixminiseriesMaid. In 2022, Robbie reprised her role as Donna Freedman for thefinal episodeofNeighbours.She starred alongside an ensemble cast inDavid O. Russell's period comedyAmsterdam, based on the 1933Business Plot.The film emerged as a\",\n \"film emerged as a critical and commercial failure.In her second film release of the year, she played Nellie LaRoy, an actress inspired by silent movie starClara Bow, inDamien Chazelle's comedy-dramaBabylon. In preparation, she studied the works of Bow and researched her traumatic childhood.She described LaRoy as \\\"the most physically and emotionally draining character I've ever played\\\".The film polarized critics and had poor box office returns, though her performance received praise;Caryn JamesofBBC Cultureopined, \\\"Robbie's bold, charismatic performance makes Nellie a daring, endlessly spiraling, sympathetic figure\\\".She received another Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress,although the underperformance of her two major releases that year led some commentators to brand her as \\\"box office poison\\\" at the time. In the following year, Robbie had a single scene inWes Anderson's ensemble comedy filmAsteroid City.Chris Hewitt of theStar Tribunedescribed her \\\"impassioned acting in her lone scene\\\" as \\\"perfectly\",\n \"as \\\"perfectly judged\\\".The fantasy comedyBarbie, co-starringRyan GoslingasKen, was her next film release.As producer, Robbie bought the rights fromMattelfor a film about theeponymous fashion dollin 2018.She hiredGreta Gerwigto write and direct the film, and took on the title role herself afterGal Gadotdeclined her offer.In preparation, Gerwig and Robbie watched oldTechnicolormusicals such asThe Red Shoes(1948) andThe Umbrellas of Cherbourg(1964).Varietyreported that Robbie earned $12.5 million for the role, the highest for an actress in Hollywood that year.Vulture'sAlison Willmore took note of how much Robbie fit the part, and commended her for combining both \\\"heartbreaking earnestness\\\" and \\\"humor\\\" in her performance.With a worldwide gross of over $1.4 billion,Barbieemerged as Robbie's highest-grossing release.She received further BAFTA and Golden Globe nominations for her performance, in addition to a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture. Also in 2023, Robbie produced Fennell's second\",\n \"Fennell's second directorial,Saltburn.The2024 Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of her next production,Megan Park's comedy filmMy Old Ass.Robbie will next star alongsideColin FarrellinKogonada's filmA Big Bold Beautiful JourneyandJacob Elordiin Emerald Fennell'sWuthering Heights, adapted fromthe novel. Personal life Despite significant media attention, Robbie rarely discusses her personal life.Robbie moved from Melbourne toWilliamsburg, Brooklyn, in the early 2010s, having previously shared a flat withNeighboursco-starAshleigh Brewer.During that period, she became an avid ice hockey fan; she supports theNew York Rangersand previously playedright wingin an amateur ice hockey league. Robbie met British assistant directorTom Ackerleyon the set ofSuite Françaisein 2013.In 2014, she moved to London with Ackerley and LuckyChap Entertainment co-founders Sophia Kerr and Josey McNamara. Later that year, Robbie and Ackerley began a romantic relationship.In December 2016, they married in a private wedding\",\n \"a private wedding ceremony inByron Bay, Australia.The couple reside inVenice Beach, California.Her pregnancy was confirmed by the media via multiple sources in July 2024. Other work Robbie has been a vocal supporter ofhuman rights,women's rights,gender equalityandLGBTrights.Through LuckyChap Entertainment, she and her co-founders focus on promoting female stories from female storytellers, whether it would be writers, directors, producers or all the above.In 2014, she was part of a fundraising event in support of theMotion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the film and television industries with limited or no resources; she joined the same event on two other occasions, in 2018 and 2020.In 2015, she helped raise $12 million through theBGC Global Charity Dayfundraising event, which donates money to different charities around the world.In 2016, Robbie joined other celebrities andUN Refugee Agencystaff in a petition aiming to gather public support for the growing number of families forced to flee\",\n \"forced to flee conflict and persecution worldwide.Later in the year, she joinedOxfam's \\\"I Hear You\\\" project, which was designed to amplify the personal stories of the world's most vulnerable refugees and donated more than $50.000 toUNICEF's \\\"Children First\\\" campaign, in support of refugee children. In October 2016, while hostingSaturday Night Live, Robbie made a stand forsame-sex marriagein her native Australia wearing a T-shirt that read \\\"Say 'I Do' Down Under\\\", with a map of the country in rainbow colors. A year later, she joined fellow actorChris Hemsworthin advocating for the same purpose.In 2018, she pledged to support theTime's Upinitiative to protect women from harassment and discrimination.In April 2021, Robbie was announced as the recipient of the inaugural RAD Impact Award, for inspiring purpose with her philanthropy. She chose to share the prize withYoungcare, a charity she had previously worked with, and therefore an impact donation was made to fund a project benefiting young people with\",\n \"young people with extensive care needs. Public image Robbie is known for starring in both high-profile, mainstream productions and low-budget independent films, in which she has been able to display both her dramatic and comedic range. For her role inThe Wolf of Wall Street,Vanity Fairnamed her one of its breakthrough actors of 2013.In 2017, she appeared on the annualForbes30 Under 30list, a compilation of the brightest young entrepreneurs, innovators and game changers in the world and was included on a similar list compiled byThe Hollywood Reporter.That same year,Timenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the world; herThe Wolf of Wall Streetdirector Martin Scorsese penned the article in the magazine, referring to Robbie as having \\\"a unique audacity that surprises and challenges and just burns like a brand into every character she plays. Margot is stunning in all she is and all she does, and she will astonish us forever.\\\"In 2019,Forbesranked her among the world's highest-paid actresses, with\",\n \"actresses, with annual earnings of $23.5 million, andThe Hollywood Reporterlisted her among the 100 most powerful people in entertainment.In 2021, she was named one of the 100 most influential women in entertainment byThe Hollywood Reporter.In December 2023, Robbie has been listed inThe Hollywood Reporter’s 2023 Women in Entertainment Power 100.In 2024, she was named byForbesas theworld's highest-paid actressin 2023, with earnings of $78 million. Voguehas named her \\\"one of the most glamorous starlets\\\" and she was ranked as one of the best-dressed women in 2018 and 2019 by luxury fashion retailerNet-a-Porter.In 2014 and 2016, she featured onAskMen's Top 99 Women, ranking among the top ten each year.Also in 2016, Robbie was placed at number one onFHM's \\\"100 Sexiest Women in the World\\\" list.Since 2016, she has been chosen as the ambassador for brands such asCalvin Klein,NissanandChanel.She was the last brand ambassador picked byKarl Lagerfeldbefore his death in February 2019.She is the latest ambassador\",\n \"latest ambassador ofChanel No 5. Filmography and awards According to the review aggregator siteRotten Tomatoes, Robbie's most positively reviewed films areThe Wolf of Wall Street(2013),Z for Zachariah(2015),Suite Française(2015),I, Tonya(2017),Once Upon a Time in Hollywood(2019),Birds of Prey(2020),The Suicide Squad(2021), andBarbie(2023). Explanatory notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolf_of_Wall_Street_(2013_film\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":363,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What award was won in 2003 by the Swiss architecture firm that designed Roche Tower?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"The Stirling Prize."},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_Tower"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herzog_%26_de_Meuron"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_Tower', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herzog_%26_de_Meuron']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_Tower","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herzog_%26_de_Meuron"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_Tower\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herzog_%26_de_Meuron\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Roche Tower Roche Tower(German:Roche-Turm) is anofficeskyscraperin theSwisscity ofBasel. At 178 metres (584 ft), it is the secondtallest building in the country. The building, also known as \"Building 1\" (German:Bau 1), was financed by pharmaceutical companyHoffmann-La Rocheand designed byHerzog & de Meuron. It cost 550 millionSwiss francsto build. The entire construction ensemble, including the 205 m (673 ft)\"Building 2\"research facility completed in 2022, was expected to cost three billion francs in total. When finished on 18 September 2015, Roche Tower overtookPrime TowerinZürichas Switzerland's tallest building, the latter having held the record for four years. Strict planning laws mean there are few skyscrapers in the country.For the construction of the building,measures against earthquakeswere envisioned and it stands on 143 pillars ofreinforced concrete.It is supposed to endure an earthquake of 6.9 on theRichter scaleand therefore surpass the security regulations by the government. References External links 47°33′30″N7°36′27″E / 47.5583°N 7.6076°E /47.5583; 7.6076 This article about a Swiss building or structure is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.","Herzog & de Meuron Herzog & de Meuron Basel Ltd.is a Swiss architecture firm headquartered inBasel(Switzerland), founded byJacques Herzogand Pierre de Meuron. In addition to their architectural practice, Herzog and de Meuron served as professors atETH Zürichfrom 1999 to 2018, where they co-founded ETH Studio Basel in 1999 alongside architects Roger Diener and Marcel Meili within the department of architecture. They have also held teaching roles as visiting professors at theHarvard University Graduate School of Design, with Jacques Herzog serving as a visiting tutor at theCornell University College of Architecture, Art, and Planning. History Herzog & de Meuron was founded in Basel in 1978.In 2001, Herzog & de Meuron were awarded thePritzker Prize, the highest honor in architecture. Jury chairmanJ. Carter Browncommented, \"One is hard put to think of any architects in history that have addressed theintegumentof architecture with greater imagination and virtuosity\", in reference to HdM's use of exterior materials and treatments, such as silkscreened glass. Architecture critic and Pritzker jurorAda Louise Huxtablesummarized HdM's approach stating, \"They refine the traditions of modernism to elemental simplicity while transforming materials and surfaces through the exploration of new treatments and techniques.\"The firm was listed as \"one of the most admired design companies in the world\" in The New York Times Magazine in 2006.\" As part of the urban development project known as HafenCity, the Hamburg government approved the construction of the Elbe Philharmonic designed by Herzog & de Meuron. On a former warehouse in the port of Hamburg, rises a huge glass sail that houses a large concert hall, offices, and a hotel, while the former warehouse is used as a parking structure. The inaugural concert was held in January 2017. Selected projects Since 2022 Completed Exhibitions Selected publications Complete works (Birkhäuser) Source: Portfolios (special editions on Herzog & de Meuron) Single project monographs Teaching/research Exhibition catalogues, critical readings and focus statements Awards Style There have been a lot of discussions about whether Herzog & de Meuron has a specific style. Even though people have tried to describe an 'H&dM style', the office always declines to have one: In an interview, founding partner Jacques Herzog stated that Herzog & de Meuron \"never aspired to anything that might be called a typical style of our own. To this day, we do not want to of iconic buildings that would instantly communicate \"Herzog & de Meuron\" – as opposed to the new, specific location that can be created and communicated by a building. In that respect it's not wise to represent a style or a certain taste. We say that over and over again not out of modesty or to castigate ourselves but because we want to maintain our independence and because we are curious about new possibilities.\" Their recent work atPradaTokyo, theBarcelonaForum Building, and theBeijing National Stadiumfor the2008 Olympic Gamessuggest a changing attitude.The shapes and forms of some of the works suggest art glass and objects d'art that one would see on a coffee table, like anart decoashtray or quirky container for chocolates – a building becomes a blown-up version of desk art because the computer can do it, mimic the plasticity of the medium, and make it possible as a feat of engineering. Ethics Herzog & de Meuron have faced criticism for their vision for migrant workers in Beijing during the construction of theBeijing National Stadium. In a July 2008 interview with the German magazineDer Spiegel, Jacques Herzog was criticised for not having done more to ensure the conditions under which migrant workers constructed the stadium by the interviewer, to which Jacques Herzog responded that the influence of the architect on the construction process is declining rapidly. On the other hand, some scholars, such asDeyan Sudjic, have stated that the very building of the stadium sent a signal from the Western architecture firm to the Chinese government to change societal norms.However, others have argued that this statement would go with any stadium design, decreasing the potential of the signal. References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Roche Tower Roche Tower(German:Roche-Turm) is anofficeskyscraperin theSwisscity ofBasel. At 178 metres (584 ft), it is the secondtallest building in the country. The building, also known as \\\"Building 1\\\" (German:Bau 1), was financed by pharmaceutical companyHoffmann-La Rocheand designed byHerzog & de Meuron. It cost 550 millionSwiss francsto build. The entire construction ensemble, including the 205 m (673 ft)\\\"Building 2\\\"research facility completed in 2022, was expected to cost three billion francs in total. When finished on 18 September 2015, Roche Tower overtookPrime TowerinZürichas Switzerland's tallest building, the latter having held the record for four years. Strict planning laws mean there are few skyscrapers in the country.For the construction of the building,measures against earthquakeswere envisioned and it stands on 143 pillars ofreinforced concrete.It is supposed to endure an earthquake of 6.9 on theRichter scaleand therefore surpass the security regulations by the government. References External links 47°33′30″N7°36′27″E / 47.5583°N 7.6076°E /47.5583; 7.6076 This article about a Swiss building or structure is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.\",\n \"Herzog & de Meuron Herzog & de Meuron Basel Ltd.is a Swiss architecture firm headquartered inBasel(Switzerland), founded byJacques Herzogand Pierre de Meuron. In addition to their architectural practice, Herzog and de Meuron served as professors atETH Zürichfrom 1999 to 2018, where they co-founded ETH Studio Basel in 1999 alongside architects Roger Diener and Marcel Meili within the department of architecture. They have also held teaching roles as visiting professors at theHarvard University Graduate School of Design, with Jacques Herzog serving as a visiting tutor at theCornell University College of Architecture, Art, and Planning. History Herzog & de Meuron was founded in Basel in 1978.In 2001, Herzog & de Meuron were awarded thePritzker Prize, the highest honor in architecture. Jury chairmanJ. Carter Browncommented, \\\"One is hard put to think of any architects in history that have addressed theintegumentof architecture with greater imagination and virtuosity\\\", in reference to HdM's use of exterior materials and treatments, such as silkscreened glass. Architecture critic and Pritzker jurorAda Louise Huxtablesummarized HdM's approach stating, \\\"They refine the traditions of modernism to elemental simplicity while transforming materials and surfaces through the exploration of new treatments and techniques.\\\"The firm was listed as \\\"one of the most admired design companies in the world\\\" in The New York Times Magazine in 2006.\\\" As part of the urban development project known as HafenCity, the Hamburg government approved the construction of the Elbe Philharmonic designed by Herzog & de Meuron. On a former warehouse in the port of Hamburg, rises a huge glass sail that houses a large concert hall, offices, and a hotel, while the former warehouse is used as a parking structure. The inaugural concert was held in January 2017. Selected projects Since 2022 Completed Exhibitions Selected publications Complete works (Birkhäuser) Source: Portfolios (special editions on Herzog & de Meuron) Single project monographs Teaching/research Exhibition catalogues, critical readings and focus statements Awards Style There have been a lot of discussions about whether Herzog & de Meuron has a specific style. Even though people have tried to describe an 'H&dM style', the office always declines to have one: In an interview, founding partner Jacques Herzog stated that Herzog & de Meuron \\\"never aspired to anything that might be called a typical style of our own. To this day, we do not want to of iconic buildings that would instantly communicate \\\"Herzog & de Meuron\\\" – as opposed to the new, specific location that can be created and communicated by a building. In that respect it's not wise to represent a style or a certain taste. We say that over and over again not out of modesty or to castigate ourselves but because we want to maintain our independence and because we are curious about new possibilities.\\\" Their recent work atPradaTokyo, theBarcelonaForum Building, and theBeijing National Stadiumfor the2008 Olympic Gamessuggest a changing attitude.The shapes and forms of some of the works suggest art glass and objects d'art that one would see on a coffee table, like anart decoashtray or quirky container for chocolates – a building becomes a blown-up version of desk art because the computer can do it, mimic the plasticity of the medium, and make it possible as a feat of engineering. Ethics Herzog & de Meuron have faced criticism for their vision for migrant workers in Beijing during the construction of theBeijing National Stadium. In a July 2008 interview with the German magazineDer Spiegel, Jacques Herzog was criticised for not having done more to ensure the conditions under which migrant workers constructed the stadium by the interviewer, to which Jacques Herzog responded that the influence of the architect on the construction process is declining rapidly. On the other hand, some scholars, such asDeyan Sudjic, have stated that the very building of the stadium sent a signal from the Western architecture firm to the Chinese government to change societal norms.However, others have argued that this statement would go with any stadium design, decreasing the potential of the signal. References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Roche Tower Roche Tower(German:Roche-Turm) is anofficeskyscraperin theSwisscity ofBasel. At 178 metres (584 ft), it is the secondtallest building in the country. The building, also known as \"Building 1\" (German:Bau 1), was financed by pharmaceutical companyHoffmann-La Rocheand designed byHerzog & de Meuron. It cost 550 millionSwiss francsto build. The entire construction ensemble, including the 205 m (673 ft)\"Building 2\"research facility completed in 2022, was expected to cost three billion francs in total. When finished on 18 September 2015, Roche Tower overtookPrime TowerinZürichas Switzerland's tallest building, the latter having held the record for four years. Strict planning laws mean there are few skyscrapers in the country.For the construction of the building,measures against earthquakeswere envisioned and it stands on 143 pillars ofreinforced concrete.It is supposed to endure an earthquake of 6.9 on theRichter scaleand therefore surpass the security regulations by the government. References External","References External links 47°33′30″N7°36′27″E / 47.5583°N 7.6076°E /47.5583; 7.6076 This article about a Swiss building or structure is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.","Herzog & de Meuron Herzog & de Meuron Basel Ltd.is a Swiss architecture firm headquartered inBasel(Switzerland), founded byJacques Herzogand Pierre de Meuron. In addition to their architectural practice, Herzog and de Meuron served as professors atETH Zürichfrom 1999 to 2018, where they co-founded ETH Studio Basel in 1999 alongside architects Roger Diener and Marcel Meili within the department of architecture. They have also held teaching roles as visiting professors at theHarvard University Graduate School of Design, with Jacques Herzog serving as a visiting tutor at theCornell University College of Architecture, Art, and Planning. History Herzog & de Meuron was founded in Basel in 1978.In 2001, Herzog & de Meuron were awarded thePritzker Prize, the highest honor in architecture. Jury chairmanJ. Carter Browncommented, \"One is hard put to think of any architects in history that have addressed theintegumentof architecture with greater imagination and virtuosity\", in reference to HdM's use of exterior materials","exterior materials and treatments, such as silkscreened glass. Architecture critic and Pritzker jurorAda Louise Huxtablesummarized HdM's approach stating, \"They refine the traditions of modernism to elemental simplicity while transforming materials and surfaces through the exploration of new treatments and techniques.\"The firm was listed as \"one of the most admired design companies in the world\" in The New York Times Magazine in 2006.\" As part of the urban development project known as HafenCity, the Hamburg government approved the construction of the Elbe Philharmonic designed by Herzog & de Meuron. On a former warehouse in the port of Hamburg, rises a huge glass sail that houses a large concert hall, offices, and a hotel, while the former warehouse is used as a parking structure. The inaugural concert was held in January 2017. Selected projects Since 2022 Completed Exhibitions Selected publications Complete works (Birkhäuser) Source: Portfolios (special editions on Herzog & de Meuron) Single project","Single project monographs Teaching/research Exhibition catalogues, critical readings and focus statements Awards Style There have been a lot of discussions about whether Herzog & de Meuron has a specific style. Even though people have tried to describe an 'H&dM style', the office always declines to have one: In an interview, founding partner Jacques Herzog stated that Herzog & de Meuron \"never aspired to anything that might be called a typical style of our own. To this day, we do not want to of iconic buildings that would instantly communicate \"Herzog & de Meuron\" – as opposed to the new, specific location that can be created and communicated by a building. In that respect it's not wise to represent a style or a certain taste. We say that over and over again not out of modesty or to castigate ourselves but because we want to maintain our independence and because we are curious about new possibilities.\" Their recent work atPradaTokyo, theBarcelonaForum Building, and theBeijing National Stadiumfor the2008","Stadiumfor the2008 Olympic Gamessuggest a changing attitude.The shapes and forms of some of the works suggest art glass and objects d'art that one would see on a coffee table, like anart decoashtray or quirky container for chocolates – a building becomes a blown-up version of desk art because the computer can do it, mimic the plasticity of the medium, and make it possible as a feat of engineering. Ethics Herzog & de Meuron have faced criticism for their vision for migrant workers in Beijing during the construction of theBeijing National Stadium. In a July 2008 interview with the German magazineDer Spiegel, Jacques Herzog was criticised for not having done more to ensure the conditions under which migrant workers constructed the stadium by the interviewer, to which Jacques Herzog responded that the influence of the architect on the construction process is declining rapidly. On the other hand, some scholars, such asDeyan Sudjic, have stated that the very building of the stadium sent a signal from the Western","from the Western architecture firm to the Chinese government to change societal norms.However, others have argued that this statement would go with any stadium design, decreasing the potential of the signal. References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Roche Tower Roche Tower(German:Roche-Turm) is anofficeskyscraperin theSwisscity ofBasel. At 178 metres (584 ft), it is the secondtallest building in the country. The building, also known as \\\"Building 1\\\" (German:Bau 1), was financed by pharmaceutical companyHoffmann-La Rocheand designed byHerzog & de Meuron. It cost 550 millionSwiss francsto build. The entire construction ensemble, including the 205 m (673 ft)\\\"Building 2\\\"research facility completed in 2022, was expected to cost three billion francs in total. When finished on 18 September 2015, Roche Tower overtookPrime TowerinZürichas Switzerland's tallest building, the latter having held the record for four years. Strict planning laws mean there are few skyscrapers in the country.For the construction of the building,measures against earthquakeswere envisioned and it stands on 143 pillars ofreinforced concrete.It is supposed to endure an earthquake of 6.9 on theRichter scaleand therefore surpass the security regulations by the government. References External\",\n \"References External links 47°33′30″N7°36′27″E / 47.5583°N 7.6076°E /47.5583; 7.6076 This article about a Swiss building or structure is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.\",\n \"Herzog & de Meuron Herzog & de Meuron Basel Ltd.is a Swiss architecture firm headquartered inBasel(Switzerland), founded byJacques Herzogand Pierre de Meuron. In addition to their architectural practice, Herzog and de Meuron served as professors atETH Zürichfrom 1999 to 2018, where they co-founded ETH Studio Basel in 1999 alongside architects Roger Diener and Marcel Meili within the department of architecture. They have also held teaching roles as visiting professors at theHarvard University Graduate School of Design, with Jacques Herzog serving as a visiting tutor at theCornell University College of Architecture, Art, and Planning. History Herzog & de Meuron was founded in Basel in 1978.In 2001, Herzog & de Meuron were awarded thePritzker Prize, the highest honor in architecture. Jury chairmanJ. Carter Browncommented, \\\"One is hard put to think of any architects in history that have addressed theintegumentof architecture with greater imagination and virtuosity\\\", in reference to HdM's use of exterior materials\",\n \"exterior materials and treatments, such as silkscreened glass. Architecture critic and Pritzker jurorAda Louise Huxtablesummarized HdM's approach stating, \\\"They refine the traditions of modernism to elemental simplicity while transforming materials and surfaces through the exploration of new treatments and techniques.\\\"The firm was listed as \\\"one of the most admired design companies in the world\\\" in The New York Times Magazine in 2006.\\\" As part of the urban development project known as HafenCity, the Hamburg government approved the construction of the Elbe Philharmonic designed by Herzog & de Meuron. On a former warehouse in the port of Hamburg, rises a huge glass sail that houses a large concert hall, offices, and a hotel, while the former warehouse is used as a parking structure. The inaugural concert was held in January 2017. Selected projects Since 2022 Completed Exhibitions Selected publications Complete works (Birkhäuser) Source: Portfolios (special editions on Herzog & de Meuron) Single project\",\n \"Single project monographs Teaching/research Exhibition catalogues, critical readings and focus statements Awards Style There have been a lot of discussions about whether Herzog & de Meuron has a specific style. Even though people have tried to describe an 'H&dM style', the office always declines to have one: In an interview, founding partner Jacques Herzog stated that Herzog & de Meuron \\\"never aspired to anything that might be called a typical style of our own. To this day, we do not want to of iconic buildings that would instantly communicate \\\"Herzog & de Meuron\\\" – as opposed to the new, specific location that can be created and communicated by a building. In that respect it's not wise to represent a style or a certain taste. We say that over and over again not out of modesty or to castigate ourselves but because we want to maintain our independence and because we are curious about new possibilities.\\\" Their recent work atPradaTokyo, theBarcelonaForum Building, and theBeijing National Stadiumfor the2008\",\n \"Stadiumfor the2008 Olympic Gamessuggest a changing attitude.The shapes and forms of some of the works suggest art glass and objects d'art that one would see on a coffee table, like anart decoashtray or quirky container for chocolates – a building becomes a blown-up version of desk art because the computer can do it, mimic the plasticity of the medium, and make it possible as a feat of engineering. Ethics Herzog & de Meuron have faced criticism for their vision for migrant workers in Beijing during the construction of theBeijing National Stadium. In a July 2008 interview with the German magazineDer Spiegel, Jacques Herzog was criticised for not having done more to ensure the conditions under which migrant workers constructed the stadium by the interviewer, to which Jacques Herzog responded that the influence of the architect on the construction process is declining rapidly. On the other hand, some scholars, such asDeyan Sudjic, have stated that the very building of the stadium sent a signal from the Western\",\n \"from the Western architecture firm to the Chinese government to change societal norms.However, others have argued that this statement would go with any stadium design, decreasing the potential of the signal. References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":364,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"A 1986 song by Peter Gabriel shares the name with a tool. What is the name of the tool and how does it look?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Sledgehammer: A tool with a large, flat, often metal head, attached to a long handle."},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_(album)"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sledgehammer"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_(album)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sledgehammer']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_(album","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sledgehammer"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_(album\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sledgehammer\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Peter Gabriel Peter Brian Gabriel(born 13 February 1950) is an English singer, songwriter and human rights activist. He was the original lead singer of theprogressive rockbandGenesis.After leaving the band in 1975, he launched a solo career with \"Solsbury Hill\" as his first single. His fifth studio album,So(1986), is his best-selling release and is certified triple platinum in the UK and five times platinum in the US. The album's most successful single, \"Sledgehammer\", won a record nineMTV Awardsat the1987 MTV Video Music Awardsand, according to a report in 2011, it wasMTV's most played music video of all time. Gabriel has been a champion ofworld musicfor much of his career. He co-founded theWOMADfestival in 1982.He has continued to focus on producing and promoting world music through hisReal World Recordslabel. He has pioneered digital distribution methods for music, co-foundingOD2, one of the first online music download services.Gabriel has also been involved in numerous humanitarian efforts. In 1980, he released the anti-apartheidsingle \"Biko\".He has participated in several human-rights benefit concerts, includingAmnesty International'sHuman Rights Now!tour in 1988, and co-founded theWitnesshuman rights organisation in 1992.Gabriel developedThe ElderswithRichard Branson, which was launched byNelson Mandelain 2007. Gabriel has won threeBrit Awards—winning Best British Male in 1987,sixGrammy Awards,thirteenMTV Video Music Awards, the first Pioneer Award at theBT Digital Music Awards,theQmagazine Lifetime Achievement,theIvor Novello Awardfor Lifetime Achievement,and thePolar Music Prize.He was made aBMIIcon at the 57th annual BMI London Awards for his \"influence on generations of music makers\".In recognition of his many years of human rights activism, he received theMan of Peaceaward from theNobel Peace Prizelaureates in 2006,andTimemagazine named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2008.AllMusicdescribed Gabriel as \"one of rock's most ambitious, innovative musicians, as well as one of its most political\".He was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a member of Genesis in 2010,and as a solo artist in 2014.In March 2015, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from theUniversity of South Australiain recognition of his achievements in music. Early life Peter Brian Gabriel was born on 13 February 1950 inChobham,Surrey, England, son of Ralph Parton Gabriel (1912–2012) and Edith Irene (1921–2016), daughter of Colonel Edward Allen, chairman of theCivil Service Department Storeon theStrand, London. Gabriel's father was an electrical engineer and dairy farm-owner from a long-established family of London timber importers and merchants, and his mother was from a musical family. Gabriel was raised at Deep Pool Farm, Coxhill, a Victorian manor just outside Chobham.His great-great-great-uncle,Sir Thomas Gabriel, 1st Baronet, wasLord Mayor of Londonfrom 1866 to 1877.Gabriel attended Cable House, a private primary school inWoking, Surrey, followed by St Andrews Preparatory School for Boys inHorsell, Surrey.During his time at the latter, his teachers noticed his singing talent, but he opted for piano lessons from his mother and developed an interest in drumming. At age 10, he purchased a floor tom-tom. Gabriel remarked of his early influences, \"Hymnsplayed quite a large part. They were the closest I came tosoul musicbefore I discovered soul music. There are certain hymns that you can scream your lungs out on, and I used to love that. It was great when you used to get the old shivers down the back.\"At age 12, Gabriel wrote his first song, \"Sammy the Slug\". Around this time, an aunt gave him money for professional singing lessons, but he used it to buythe Beatles' debut studio albumPlease Please Me(1963).In September 1963, he started atCharterhouse, apublic schoolinGodalming, Surrey.There, he was a drummer and vocalist for his first band: thetrad jazzoutfit the Milords (or M'Lords). This was followed by a holiday band called the Spoken Word,which recorded anacetatein 1966.Gabriel played drums in both these bands, and his schoolmateMike Rutherfordcommented in 1985 that \"Pete was - and still is, I think - a frustrated drummer.\" In 1965, Gabriel formedGarden Wallwith school friendsTony Bankson piano, Johnny Trapman on trumpet, andChris Stewarton drums.Banks had started at Charterhouse at the same time as Gabriel; the two were uninterested in school activities but bonded over music and started to write songs. At a final concert before they broke up, Gabriel, dressed in akaftanand beads, showered the audience with petals he had picked from neighbouring gardens. Career 1967–1975: Genesis In April 1967, after Garden Wall had disbanded, Gabriel and Banks were invited by fellow pupilsAnthony PhillipsandMike Rutherfordto work on ademotape of songs.Gabriel and Banks contributed \"She Is Beautiful\", the first song they wrote together. The tape was sent to former Charterhouse pupil turned musicianJonathan King, who was immediately enthusiastic, largely due to Gabriel's vocals. He signed the group and suggested a band name of Gabriel's Angels, but it was unpopular with the other members. They settled on King's other suggestion,Genesis. After King suggested they stick to more straightforward pop, Gabriel and Banks wrote \"The Silent Sun\" as a pastiche of theBee Gees, one of King's favourite bands. It became Genesis's first single, released in 1968.It was included on their debut studio album,From Genesis to Revelation(1968). After the commercial failure ofFrom Genesis to Revelation, the band went their separate ways, and Gabriel continued his studies at Charterhouse.In September 1969, Gabriel, Banks, Rutherford and Phillips decided to drop their plans and make Genesis a full-time working band. In early 1970, Gabriel played the flute onMona Bone JakonbyCat Stevens. The second studio album by Genesis,Trespass(1970), marked Gabriel expanding his musical output with the flute, accordion, tambourine and bass drum, and incorporating hissoul musicinfluences. Gabriel explained that he was driven to play these instruments because he was uncomfortable with doing nothing during instrumental sections.He would have preferred to play keyboard instruments, but \"Tony was extraordinarily possessive about the keyboards. I'd done a bit of flute at school, I always liked the sound, and a little bit of oboe (I was an even worse oboe player, but it made a couple of good noises now and again). Then the bass drum was something physical, visual, that I could kick hard and occasionally it was in time!\"The album sold little and at one point, Gabriel secured a place atLondon School of Film Techniquebecause Genesis \"seemed to be dying.\"Genesis recruited guitaristSteve Hackettand drummerPhil Collins. Gabriel began growing in confidence as a frontman, and during an encore performance of \"The Knife\" on 19 June 1971, he took a running jump into the audience, expecting them to catch him, only for them to instead move out of the way and leave him to land on the floor, breaking an ankle. He consequently had to perform Genesis's next several shows with a wheelchair and crutches.Also during theTrespasstour, he started to recite stories to introduce numbers as a way to cover the silence between songs while the band tuned their instruments, or while technical faults were being fixed.These stories were all improvised on the spot, and evolved as the tour went along.The opener of their next studio album,Nursery Cryme(1971), \"The Musical Box\", was their first song in which Gabriel incorporated a story and characters into the lyrics; the lyrics to previous story-based Genesis songs such as \"White Mountain\" and \"One-Eyed Hound\" were all written by other members of the group.Gabriel was the primary writer of \"Harold the Barrel\", another story song onNursery Cryme, with Collins helping him on the lyrics. The shows featuringFoxtrot(1972) marked a key development in Gabriel's stage performance. During a gig inDublinin September 1972, he disappeared from the set during the instrumental section of \"The Musical Box\" and reappeared in his wife's red dress and a fox's head, mimicking the album's cover. The idea of the fox costume had been suggested to him byPaul Conroyand Glen Colson, employees of Genesis's record label,Charisma Records.Gabriel said he consulted the rest of Genesis about the fox costume but grew tired of arguing about it, but the other members all maintained that nothing was said about it beforehand and that when Gabriel came out in costume they initially mistook him for a fan invading the stage.The incident received front-page coverage inMelody Maker, giving them national exposure which allowed the group to double their performance fee.One of Gabriel's stories was printed on the liner notes of their live album,Genesis Live(1973). By late 1973, following the success ofSelling England by the Pound(1973), which centred on English themes and literary and materialistic references, a typical Genesis show had Gabriel wear fluorescent make-up, a cape, and bat wings for \"Watcher of the Skies\", a helmet, chest plate, and a shield for \"Dancing with the Moonlit Knight\", acrown of thornsand a flower mask for \"Supper's Ready\", and an old man mask for \"The Musical Box\". Gabriel continued to continued to fight for involvement with Genesis's keyboards throughout his time with the group, and following a lengthy argument with Banks, he was allowed to play a minor keyboard part on \"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)\", only for this part to be left out of the mix.\"I Know What I Like\" became Genesis's first hit single, reaching number 21 in theUK Singles Chart. The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway(1974) was Gabriel's final studio album with Genesis. He devised its story of the spiritual journey of Rael, a Puerto Rican youth living in New York City, and insisted upon writing all the lyrics himself, whereas on previous albums the lyrics had been divided among all the members of Genesis.Tensions increased during this period, and Gabriel split with the band to pursue a film project withWilliam Friedkin, only to rejoin a week later.Matters were complicated further with the difficult birth of Gabriel's first daughter, resulting in periods of time away from the band. The other members complained that Gabriel was showing a lack of commitment to the band. Gabriel saw this as a \"really unsympathetic handling of my dealing with a family crisis\" and said it caused a breakdown in his relationships with the rest of Genesis; Rutherford later admitted that they had been overly fixated on their music and were very unhelpful in what must have been a difficult time for Gabriel.Gabriel was late to deliver the lyrics, but has denied that he was too busy to write much music for the album and relied on contributions from Banks and Rutherford.Banks corroborated that Gabriel was the primary composer of theLambsongs \"The Carpet Crawlers\" and \"The Chamber of 32 Doors\" and the sole composer of \"Counting Out Time\". During a stop in Cleveland, Ohio, early into the album's tour, Gabriel informed the band of his intention to leave at its conclusion.Rutherford recalled that they all \"could see it coming.\"Music critics often focused their reviews on Gabriel's theatrics and took the band's musical performance as secondary, which irritated the rest of the band.The tour ended in May 1975, after which Gabriel wrote a piece for the press on 15 August, entitled \"Out, Angels Out\", about his departure, his disillusion with the business, and his desire to spend time with his family.The news stunned fans of the group and left commentators wondering if the band could survive without him.His exit resulted in drummerPhil Collinsreluctantly taking over on lead vocals after 400 singers were fruitlessly auditioned. 1975–1985: Solo debut with four self-titled albums Gabriel described his break from the music business as his \"learning period\", during which he took piano and music lessons. He had recorded demos by the end of 1975, the fruits of a period of writing around 20 songs with his friend Martin Hall.After preparing material for a studio album Gabriel recorded his solo debut,Peter Gabriel, in 1976 and 1977 in Toronto and London, with producerBob Ezrin. Gabriel did not title his first four studio albums. All were labelledPeter Gabriel, using the same typeface, with designs byHipgnosis. \"The idea is to do it like a magazine, which will only come out once a year,\" he remarked in 1978. \"So it's the same title, the same lettering in the same place; only the photo is different.\"Each album has, however, been given a nickname by fans, usually relating to the album cover. Peter Gabriel(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 1: Car) was released in February 1977 and reached No. 7 in the UK and No. 38 in the US. Itslead single, \"Solsbury Hill\", is an autobiographical song about a spiritual experience on top ofSolsbury Hillin Somerset. \"It's about being prepared to lose what you have for what you might get ...\" said Gabriel. \"It's about letting go.\"Gabriel toured the album with an 80-date tour from March to November 1977 with a band that included guitaristRobert FrippofKing Crimsonoften playing off stage and introduced as \"Dusty Rhodes\". In late 1977, Gabriel started recording thesecondPeter Gabrielstudio album(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 2: Scratch) in the Netherlands, with Fripp as producer. Its \"Mother of Violence\" was written by Gabriel and his first wife Jill. Released in June 1978, the album went to No. 10 in the UK and No. 45 in the US. Gabriel's tour for the album lasted from August to December 1978. On this tour, Gabriel and his band shaved their heads. Gabriel recorded thethirdPeter Gabrielstudio album(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 3: Melt) in England in 1979. He developed an interest in African music anddrum machinesand later hailed the record as his artistic breakthrough. Gabriel banned the use of cymbals on the album in order to grant more sonic space for instruments like keyboards and synths. This resulted in the creation of the distinctivegated reverb,a noise processing technique which came about while recording drums on \"Intruder\", one of the tracks featuringPhil Collins. Collins implemented the reverb to great effect on his debut solo single \"In the Air Tonight\" and it has since became a signature sound of the 1980s and beyond. Upon completionAtlantic Records, Gabriel's US distributor who had released his first two albums, refused to put outPeter Gabriel 3: Meltas they thought it was not commercial enough. Gabriel signed arecording contractwithMercury Records.Released in May 1980, the album went to No. 1 in the UK for three weeks. In the US, it peaked at No. 22. The single \"Games Without Frontiers\" went to No. 4 and \"Biko\" went to No. 36 in the UK. After a handful of shows in 1979, Gabriel toured the album from February to October 1980. The tour marked Gabriel's first successful instance ofcrowd surfing(following his failed June 1971 attempt when touring with Genesis) when he fell back into the audience in a crucifix position. The stunt became a staple of his live shows. OnPeter Gabrielfour(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 4: Security), Gabriel took on greater responsibility over the production than before. He recorded it in 1981 and 1982, solely on digital tape, with a mobile studio parked at his home,Ashcombe House, in Somerset. Gabriel utilized aFairlight CMIdigitalsamplingsynthesizer and incorporated electronic instrumentation with sampling world beat percussion. \"Over the course of the last two albums,\" he observed, \"I've got back into a rhythm consciousness. And the writing—particularly with the invention of these drum machines—is fantastic. You can store in their memories rhythms that interest you and excite you. And then the groove will carry on without you, and the groove will be exactly what you want it to be, rather than what a drummer thinks is appropriate for what you're doing.\" The fourthPeter Gabriel, released in September 1982, hit No. 6 in the UK and No. 28 in the US. The second single, \"Shock the Monkey\", became Gabriel's first top 40 hit in the US, reaching No. 29. To handle American distribution, Gabriel signed withGeffen Records, which—initially unbeknown to Gabriel—titled the albumSecurityto differentiate it from the first three. Gabriel's 1982 tour lasted a year and became his first to make a profit.Recordings from the tour were released on Gabriel's debut live release,Plays Live(1983). Gabriel produced versions of the third and fourthPeter Gabrielalbums with German lyrics. The third consisted of the studio recordings, overdubbed with new vocals. The fourth was remixed, with several tracks extended or altered. In 1983, Gabriel developed the soundtrack forAlan Parker's drama filmBirdy(1984), co-produced withDaniel Lanois. This consisted of new material, without lyrics, as well as remixed instrumentals from his previous studio album. 1985–1997:SoandUs After finishing the soundtrack toBirdy, Gabriel shifted his musical focus from rhythm and texture, as heard onPeter Gabrielfour andBirdy, towards more straightforward songs.In 1985, he recorded his fifth studio album,So(also co-produced with Lanois).Sowas released in May 1986 and reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 2 in the US. It remains Gabriel's best-selling album with over five million copies sold in the US alone.It produced one of Gabriel's signature songs, that has become a concert staple:In Your Eyes, with a distinctive vocal appearance byYoussou N'Dour, and three UK top 20 singles: \"Sledgehammer\", \"Big Time\" and \"Don't Give Up\", a duet withKate Bush. The first went to No. 1 on the USBillboardHot 100, Gabriel's only single of his career to do so. It knocked \"Invisible Touch\" by Genesis, his former band, out of the top spot, which was also their only US number one hit. In the UK, the single went to No. 4.In 1990,Rolling StonerankedSoat No. 14 on its list of \"Top 100 Albums of the Eighties\". \"Sledgehammer\" was particularly successful, dealing with sex and sexual relations through lyrical innuendos. Its famed music video was a collaboration between directorStephen R. Johnson,Aardman Animations,and theBrothers Quayand won a record nineMTV Video Music Awardsin 1987.In 1998, it was named MTV's number one animated video of all time.Soearned Gabriel two wins at the1987Brit Awardsfor Best British Male Solo Artist and Best British Video (for \"Sledgehammer\").He was nominated for fourGrammy Awards:Best Male Rock Vocal Performance,Song of the Year, andRecord of the Yearfor \"Sledgehammer\", andAlbum of the YearforSo.Gabriel toured worldwide to supportSowith the This Way Up Tour, from November 1986 to October 1987. In 1988, Gabriel became involved as composer forMartin Scorsese's filmThe Last Temptation of Christ(1988). Scorsese had contacted Gabriel about the project since 1983 and wished, according to Gabriel, to present \"the struggle between the humanity and divinity of Christ in a powerful and original way\".Gabriel used musicians fromWOMADto perform instrumental pieces with focus on rhythm and African, Middle Eastern and European textures, using theNational Sound Archivein London for additional inspiration.The initial plan had dedicated ten weeks for recording before it was cut to three, leaving Gabriel unable to finish all the pieces he originally wanted to record.When the film was finished, Gabriel worked on the soundtrack for an additional four months to develop more of his unfinished ideas. Its soundtrack was released asPassionin June 1989. It won Gabriel aGrammy AwardforBest New Age Performanceand a nomination for aGolden GlobeforBest Original Score – Motion Picture. In 1990, Gabriel put out his first compilation album,Shaking the Tree: Sixteen Golden Greats, which sold 2 million copies in the US. Up until 1989, Gabriel was managed byGail Colson.From 1989 to 1992, Gabriel recorded his follow-up toSo, titledUs. The album saw Gabriel address personal themes, including his failed first marriage, psychotherapy, and the growing distance between him and his eldest daughter at the time. Gabriel's introspection within the context of the albumUscan be seen in the first single release \"Digging in the Dirt\" directed by John Downer. Accompanied by a video featuring Gabriel covered in snails and various foliage, this song made reference to the psychotherapy which had taken up much of Gabriel's time since the previous studio album. Gabriel describes his struggle to get through to his daughter in \"Come Talk to Me\" directed byMatt Mahurin, which featured backing vocals bySinéad O'Connor. O'Connor also lent vocals to \"Blood of Eden\", directed byNichola Bruceand Michael Coulson, the third single to be released from the album, and once again dealing with relationship struggles, this time going right back toAdam's rib for inspiration. The album is one of Gabriel's most personal. It met with less success thanSo, reaching No. 2 in the album chart on both sides of the Atlantic, and making modest chart impact with the singles \"Digging in the Dirt\" and the funkier \"Steam\", which evoked memories of \"Sledgehammer\". Gabriel followed the release of the album with theSecret World Tour, first using touring keyboardist Joy Askew to sing O'Connor's part, then O'Connor herself for a few months.O'Connor quit the tour, and was replaced byPaula Cole, the latter appearing on the tour recordings: a double albumSecret World Live, and a concert video also calledSecret World Live, both released in 1994.The film received the 1996Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video, naming director Francois Girard and producer Robert Warr. Gabriel employed an innovative approach in the marketing of theUsalbum. Not wishing to feature only images of himself, he asked artist filmmakersNichola Bruceand Michael Coulson to co-ordinate a marketing campaign using contemporary artists. Artists such asHelen Chadwick,Rebecca Horn,Nils-Udo,Andy Goldsworthy,David MachandYayoi Kusamacollaborated to create original artworks for each song on the multi-million-selling CD. Coulson and Bruce documented the process on Hi-8 video. Bruce left Real World and Coulson continued with the campaign, using the documentary background material as the basis for a promotional EPK, the long-form videoAll About Usand the interactive CD-ROMXplora1: Peter Gabriel's Secret World. Gabriel won three moreGrammy Awards, all in the Music Video category. He won theGrammy Award for Best Short Form Music Videoin 1993 and 1994 for the videos to \"Digging in the Dirt\" and \"Steam\", respectively. Gabriel also won the 1996Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Videofor hisSecret World Livevideo. 1997–2009:OVOandUp In 1997, Gabriel was invited to participate in the direction and soundtrack of theMillennium Dome Show, a live multimedia performance staged in theMillennium Domein London throughout 2000.Gabriel said the team were given free rein, which contributed to the various problems they encountered with it, such as a lack of proper budgeting. He also felt that management, while succeeding to get the building finished on time, failed to understand the artistic side of the show and its content.Gabriel's soundtrack was released asOVOin June 2000.The Story of OVOwas released in the CD-booklet-shapedcomic bookwhich was part of the CD edition with the title \"OVO The Millennium Show\". Around that same time, the Genesis greatest hits album,Turn It On Again: The Hits(1999), featured Gabriel sharing vocals withPhil Collinson a new version of \"The Carpet Crawlers\" entitled \"The Carpet Crawlers 1999\", produced byTrevor Horn. In 2002 he stuck with soundtrack work for his next project, scoring for the Australian filmRabbit-Proof Fence(2002) withworldbeatmusic. Released in June 2002,Long Walk Home: Music from the Rabbit-Proof Fencereceived a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Original Score – Motion Picture. Later in 2002,Up, Gabriel's first full-length studio album in a decade, was released in September 2002. He started work on it in 1995 before production halted three years later to focus time on other projects and collaborations. Work resumed in 2000, by which time Gabriel had 130 potential songs for the album, and spent almost two years on it before management atVirgin Recordspushed Gabriel to complete it.Upreached No. 9 in the US and No. 11 in the UK, and supported with a world tour with a band that included Gabriel's daughter Melanie on backing vocals. The tour was documented with two live DVDs:Growing Up Live(2003) andStill Growing Up: Live & Unwrapped(2005). In 2004, Gabriel met with his former Genesis bandmates to discuss the possibility of stagingThe Lamb Lies Down on Broadway(1974) as a reunion tour. He ultimately dismissed the idea, paving the way for Banks, Rutherford and Collins to organise theTurn It On Again: The Tour. Gabriel produced and performed at theEden Project Live 8 concertin July 2005. He joinedCat Stevenson stage to perform \"Wild World\" duringNelson Mandela's46664concert. In 2005,FIFAasked Gabriel and Brian Eno to organise an opening ceremony for the2006 FIFA World Cupin Germany, but FIFA cancelled the idea in January 2006. At the opening ceremony of the2006 Winter OlympicsinTurin, Gabriel performedJohn Lennon's \"Imagine\". In November 2006, the Seventh World Summit ofNobel Peace Laureatesin Rome presented Gabriel with theMan of Peaceaward. The award, presented by former General Secretary of the USSR and Nobel Peace Prize winnerMikhail GorbachevandWalter Veltroni, Mayor of Rome, was an acknowledgement of Gabriel's extensive contribution and work on behalf of human rights and peace. The award was presented in the Giulio Cesare Hall of the Campidoglio in Rome. At the end of the year, he was awarded theQmagazine Lifetime Achievement Award, presented to him by American musicianMoby. In an interview published in the magazine to accompany the award, Gabriel's contribution to music was described as \"vast and enduring.\" Gabriel took on a project with theBBC World Service's competition \"The Next Big Thing\" to find the world's best young band. Gabriel judged the final six young artists withWilliam Orbit,Geoff TravisandAngélique Kidjo. In June 2008, Gabriel releasedBig Blue Ball, an album of various artists collaborating with each other at his Real World Studios across three summers in the 1990s. He planned its release in the US without assistance from a label; he raised £2 million towards the recording and distribution of the album withIngenious Mediawith the worldwide release handled throughWarner Bros. Records.Gabriel appeared on a nationwide tour for the album in 2009. Gabriel was a judge for the 6th and 8th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists. Gabriel contributed to thePixarfilmWALL-Esoundtrack in 2008 withThomas Newman, including the film's closing song, \"Down to Earth\", for which they received theGrammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. The song was also nominated for aGolden Globe Award for Best Original Songand anAcademy Award for Best Original Song. In February 2009, Gabriel announced that he would not be performing on the2008 Academy Awardstelecast because producers of the show were limiting his performance of \"Down to Earth\" fromWALL-Eto 90 seconds. According to Gabriel, his window was reduced to 65 seconds.John Legendand theSoweto Gospel Choirperformed the song in his stead. Gabriel's 2009 tour appearances included Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Venezuela. His first ever performance in Peru was held in Lima on 20 March 2009, during his second visit to the country. On 25 July 2009, he played at WOMAD Charlton Park, his only European performance of the year, to promote Witness. The show included two tracks from the then-forthcomingScratch My Back:Paul Simon's \"The Boy in the Bubble\" andthe Magnetic Fields' \"The Book of Love\". 2009–2019:Scratch My Back,New Bloodand further side projects In 2009, Gabriel recordedScratch My Back, an album of cover songs by various artists includingDavid Bowie,Lou Reed,Arcade Fire,Radiohead,Regina SpektorandNeil Young. The original concept was for Gabriel to cover an artists' song if they, in turn, covered one of his for an album simultaneously released asI'll Scratch Yours, but several participants later declined or were late to deliver and it was placed on hold.Gabriel avoided using drums and guitar in favour of orchestral arrangements, and altered his usual songwriting method by finishing the vocals first and then the song, for which he collaborated withJohn Metcalfe.Released in February 2010,Scratch My Backreached No. 12 in the UK. Gabriel toured worldwide with the New Blood Tour from March 2010 to July 2012 with a 54-piece orchestra and his daughterMelanieand Norwegian singer-songwriterAne Brunon backing vocals. The follow-up,And I'll Scratch Yours, was released in September 2013. During the New Blood Tour, Gabriel decided to expand on theScratch My Backconcept and, with Metcalfe's assistance, re-record a collection of his own songs with an orchestra. The result,New Blood, was released in October 2011. In September 2012, Gabriel kicked off hisBack to Front Tourwhich featuredSo(1986) performed in its entirety with the original musicians who played on the album, to mark its 25th anniversary.When the opening leg finished a month later, Gabriel took one year off to travel the world with his children.The tour resumed with a European leg from September 2013 to December 2014. In 2014, Gabriel was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a solo artist byColdplayfrontmanChris Martin. They performed Gabriel's \"Washing of the Water\" together. Gabriel performed \"Heroes\" byDavid Bowiewith an orchestra at a concert in Berlin to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the fall of theBerlin Wallin November 2014. In 2016, he was featured on the song \"A.I.\" by American pop rock bandOneRepublicfrom their fourth studio albumOh My My. In June 2016, Gabriel released the single \"I'm Amazing\". The song was written several years prior, in part as a tribute to boxerMuhammad Ali.That month, he embarked on a joint tour withStingtitled The Rock Paper Scissors North American Tour. Gabriel re-emerged in 2019 with the release ofRated PG, a compilation of songs that were created for film soundtracks throughout his career. The song selection spans over 30 years and includes tracks that had never been released on an official Gabriel album previously, including \"Down to Earth\" (fromWALL-E) and \"That'll Do\" (fromBabe: Pig in the City), an Oscar-nominated collaboration withRandy Newman. Initially only released on vinyl forRecord Store Dayon 13 April, the album was eventually released on digital streaming services later that month.Later that same year, Gabriel issued another digital release on 13 September titledFlotsam and Jetsam, a collection ofB-sides, remixes and rarities that span Gabriel's entire solo career from 1976 to 2016, including his first solo recording, a cover ofthe Beatles' song \"Strawberry Fields Forever\". 2022–present:I/Oand possible follow-up album By 2002, Gabriel had been continually working on what he had given the tentative title ofI/O, his tenth studio album, which he had begun work on as early as 1995.It was originally set to be released 18 months afterUp, but touring pushed the release far away.He did an interview withRolling Stonein 2005 stating that he had 150 songs in various stages.From 2013 to 2016, he posted regularly on social media about recording the new album.In 2019, he spoke onBBC Radio 6about how he had taken a hiatus from making music due to his wife being sick, but he had begun to return to it now that she had recovered.In 2021, he was interviewed multiple times about his new album, and revealed that he had been recording withManu Katché,Tony LevinandDavid Rhodeson 17 new songs.He posted multiple photos to his Facebook and Instagram of these sessions.In June 2022, Katché told the French magazineL'Illustréthat the album was nearly complete and would be released later that year, pending an official announcement. In November 2022, Gabriel announced his upcoming \"I/O The Tour\" for the spring of 2023 across several European cities, with later dates to be confirmed for the North America leg of the tour for the late summer/fall of 2023.This announcement also confirmed the name of the upcoming album to be stylised asI/O. The first single from the album, \"Panopticom\", was released digitally on 6 January 2023.A new piece from the album will be released on the date of each full moon in 2023,as well as a different mix of the song on each new moon in 2023, starting with the Dark Side Mix of \"Panopticom\".On 5 February, Gabriel released \"The Court\", the second single from the album. On 7 March, Gabriel released the third single, \"Playing for Time\". A basic arrangement of the song featuring only Gabriel on piano and Levin on bass had already opened the shows on theBack to Front Tour, by the name of \"Daddy Long Legs\".The title track \"I/O\" was the fourth single released on 6 April. On 5 May, Peter Gabriel released the fifth single from the album, \"Four Kinds of Horses\", a track which is a collaboration withBrian EnoandRichard Russell. The sixth single, \"Road to Joy\", was released on 4 June. Six more singles were released, separately, within the next six months—\"So Much\", \"Olive Tree\", \"Love Can Heal\", \"This Is Home\", \"And Still\" and \"Live and Let Live\"—beforeI/Owas finally released on 1 December 2023. One day prior toI/O's release, Gabriel toldThe New York Timesthat he does not expect a follow-up album (which he described as his \"brain project\") to take another 21 years, saying that \"there's a lot of stuff in the can\" but added that the material is not yet finished. Additionally, Gabriel stated in his November 2023 Full Moon update video that the track \"What Lies Ahead\" will be on \"the next record\".He performed \"What Lies Ahead\" several times in 2023 and it was a contender forI/O. Artistry Stylistically, Gabriel's music has been alternately described by music writers asprogressive rock,art rock,art pop,worldbeat,post-progressiveandprogressive soul.According toRolling Stonejournalist Ryan Reed, Gabriel has developed in all as an \"art-rock innovator, soul-pop craftsman, 'world music' ambassador\" over the course of his career,while music scholar Gregg Akkermann argues that, despite his progressive rock origins, he has \"managed to attract fans from across the spectrum: prog rock, alternative rock, world beat, blue-eyed soul, dance music, the college crowd, the teens, Americans and Europeans\".More broadly,AllMusic'sStephen Thomas Erlewinesays Gabriel emerged during the 1980s as \"one of rock's most ambitious, innovative musicians\", as well as \"an international pop star\". Gabriel has worked with a relatively stable crew of musicians and recording engineers throughout his solo career. Bass andStickplayerTony Levinhas performed on every Gabriel studio album and every live tour except forScratch My Back(2010), the soundtracksPassion(1989) andLong Walk Home(2002), and the New Blood Tour. GuitaristDavid Rhodeshas been Gabriel's guitarist of choice since 1979. Prior toSo(1986),Jerry Marottawas Gabriel's preferred drummer, both in the studio and on the road. (For theSoandUsalbums and tours Marotta was replaced byManu Katché, who was then replaced byGed Lynchon parts of theUpalbum and all of the subsequent tour). Gabriel is known for choosing top-flight collaborators, from co-producers such as Ezrin, Fripp, Lillywhite and Lanois to musicians such asNatalie Merchant,Elizabeth Fraser,L. Shankar,Trent Reznor,Youssou N'Dour,Larry Fast,Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan,Sinéad O'Connor,Kate Bush,Ane Brun,Paula Cole,John Giblin,Dave Gregory,Peter Hammill,Papa Wemba,Manu Katché,Bayete,Milton Nascimento,Phil Collins,Stewart CopelandandOneRepublic. Over the years, Gabriel has collaborated with singerKate Bushseveral times; Bush provided backing vocals for Gabriel's \"Games Without Frontiers\" and \"No Self Control\" in 1980, and female lead vocal for \"Don't Give Up\" (a top 10 hit in the UK) in 1986, and Gabriel appeared on her television special. Their duet ofRoy Harper's \"Another Day\" was discussed for release as a single, but never appeared. He also collaborated withavant-gardeartistLaurie Andersonon two versions of her composition \"Excellent Birds\"—one for her second albumMister Heartbreak(1984),and another version called \"This is the Picture (Excellent Birds)\", which appeared oncassetteand CD versions ofSo. Gabriel sang (along withJim KerrofSimple Minds) on \"Everywhere I Go\", fromthe Call's 1986 studio album,Reconciled. OnToni Childs' 1994 studio album,The Woman's Boat, Gabriel sang on the track, \"I Met a Man\". In 1998, Gabriel appeared on the soundtrack ofBabe: Pig in the Cityas the lead vocalist of the song \"That'll Do\", written byRandy Newman. The song was nominated for anAcademy Award, and Gabriel and Newman performed it at the following year's Oscar telecast. He performed a similar soundtrack appearance for the 2004 filmShall We Dance?, singing acover versionof \"The Book of Love\" bythe Magnetic Fields. In 1987, Gabriel appeared onRobbie Robertson'sself-titled solo studio album, singing on \"Fallen Angel\"; co-wrote twoTom Robinsonsingles; and appeared onJoni Mitchell's 1988 studio albumChalk Mark in a Rain Storm, on the opening track \"My Secret Place\". In 2001, Gabriel contributed lead vocals to the song \"When You're Falling\" onAfro Celt Sound System'sVolume 3: Further in Time.In the summer of 2003, Gabriel performed in Ohio with a guest performance by Uzbek singerSevara Nazarkhan. Gabriel collaborated on tracks with electronic musicianBT, who also worked on theOVOsoundtrack with him. The tracks were never released, as the computers they were contained on were stolen from BT's home in California. He also sang the lyrics forDeep Foreston their theme song for the movieStrange Days(1995). In addition, Gabriel has appeared onAngelique Kidjo's 2007 studio albumDjin Djin, singing on the song \"Salala\". Gabriel has recorded a cover of theVampire Weekendsingle \"Cape Cod Kwassa Kwassa\" withHot Chip, where his name is mentioned several times in the chorus. He substitutes the original line \"But this feels so unnatural / Peter Gabriel too / This feels so unnatural/ Peter Gabriel too\" with \"It feels so unnatural / Peter Gabriel too / and it feels so unnatural / to sing your own name.\" Gabriel collaborated withArcade Fireon their 2022 studio album,We. He sang backing vocals on the track \"Unconditional II (Race and Religion)\". WOMAD and other projects Gabriel's interest inworld musicwas first apparent on his third solo studio album. According to Spencer Kornhaber inThe Atlanticin 2019: \"When Peter Gabriel moved toward 'world music' four decades ago, he not only evangelized sounds that were novel to Western pop. He also set a radio template: majestic, with flourishes meant to read as 'exotic,' and lyrics meant to change lives.\"This influence has increased over time, and he is the driving force behind theWorld of Music, Arts and Dance(WOMAD) movement. Gabriel said: The first time I really got into music from another culture was as a result of the shifting ofRadio 4, which I used to wake up to. I'd lost it onmedium waveand was groping around in the morning on the dial, trying to find something that I could listen to, and came across a Dutch radio station who were playing the soundtrack from some obscureStanley Bakermovie calledDingaka. That had quite a lot of stuff from—I think it was—Ghana. I can't remember now, but it really moved me. One of the songs I heard on that was a thing called 'Shosholoza', which I recorded on the b-side of the 'Biko' single. Gabriel created theReal World Studiosand record label to facilitate the creation and distribution of such music by various artists, and he has worked to educate Western culture about such musicians asYungchen Lhamo,Nusrat Fateh Ali KhanandYoussou N'dour. He has a longstanding interest in human rights and launchedWitness,a charity that trains human rights activists to use video and online technologies to expose human rights abuses. In 2006, his work with WITNESS and his long-standing support of peace and human rights causes was recognised by theNobel Peace PrizeLaureates with theMan of Peaceaward. In the 1990s, with Steve Nelson of Brilliant Media and director Michael Coulson, he developed advanced multimedia CD-ROM-based entertainment projects, creatingXplora(the world's largest-selling music CD-ROM), and subsequently theEVECD-ROM.EVEwas a music and art adventure game directed by Michael Coulson and co-produced by theStarwaveCorporation in Seattle; it won the Milia d'Or award Grand Prize at the Cannes in 1996. In 1990, Gabriel lent his backing vocals to Ugandan political exileGeoffrey Oryema's \"Land of Anaka\", appearing on Oryema's first studio albumExile, released on Gabriel's Real World label. In 1994, Gabriel starred inBreck Eisner's short filmReconas a detective who enters the minds of murder victims to find their killer's identity. Gabriel helped pioneer a new realm of musical interaction in 2001, visitingGeorgia State University's Language Research Center to participate in keyboard jam sessions withbonoboapes from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. (This experience inspired the song \"Animal Nation\", which was performed on Gabriel's 2002 \"Growing Up\" tour and was featured on theGrowing Up LiveDVD andThe Wild Thornberrys Moviesoundtrack.) Gabriel's desire to bring attention to the intelligence of primates also took the form of ApeNet, a project that aimed to link great apes through the internet, enabling the first interspecies internet communication. He was one of the founders of on Demand Distribution (OD2), one of the first online music download services. Prior to its closure in 2009, its technology had been used by over 100 music download sites including MSN Music UK, MyCokeMusic, Planet Internet (KPN), Wanadoo and CD WOW!. OD2 was bought by US company Loudeye in June 2004 and subsequently by Finnish mobile giantNokiain October 2006 for $60 million. Gabriel is co-founder (withBrian Eno) of a musicians union called Mudda, short for \"magnificent union of digitally downloading artists.\" In 2000, Gabriel collaborated withZucchero,Anggunand others in a charity for kids withAIDS. Erick Benzi wrote words and music and Patrick Bruel, Stephan Eicher, Faudel, Lokua Kanza, Laam, Nourith, Axelle Red have accepted to sing it. In 2003, Gabriel contributed a song for the video gameUru: Ages Beyond Myst.In 2004, Gabriel contributed another song (\"Curtains\") and contributed voice work on another game in theMystfranchise,Myst IV: Revelation. In June 2005, Gabriel and broadcast industry entrepreneurDavid EngelkepurchasedSolid State Logic, a manufacturer of mixing consoles and digital audio workstations.In 2017, the company was sold to theAudiotonixGroup. In May 2008, Gabriel'sReal World Studios, in partnership withBowers & Wilkins, started the Bowers & Wilkins Music Club—later known as Society of Sound—a subscription-based music retail site. Albums are currently available in eitherApple LosslessorFLACformat. He is one of the founding supporters of the annual global eventAsteroid Day. Activist for humanitarian causes In 1986, he started what has become a longstanding association withAmnesty International, becoming a pioneering participant in all 28 of Amnesty'sHuman rights concerts—a series of music events and tours staged by the US Section of Amnesty International between 1986 and 1998. He performed during the six-concertA Conspiracy of HopeUS tour in June 1986; the twenty-concertHuman Rights Now!world tour in 1988; theChile: Embrace of Hope Concertin 1990 and atThe Paris Concert for Amnesty Internationalin 1998. He also performed in Amnesty'sSecret Policeman's Ballbenefit shows in collaboration with other artists and friends such as Lou Reed,David GilmourofPink Floydand Youssou N'Dour; Gabriel closed those concerts performing his anti-apartheidanthem \"Biko\".He spoke of his support for Amnesty onNBC'sToday Showin 1986. Inspired by the social activism he encountered in his work with Amnesty, in 1992, Gabriel co-foundedWITNESS, a non-profit organisation that equips, trains and supports locally based organisations worldwide to use video and the internet in human rights documentation and advocacy. In 1995, Gabriel and Cape Verdean human rights activistVera Duartewere awarded theNorth–South Prizein its inaugural year. In the late 1990s, Gabriel and entrepreneurRichard Bransondiscussed withNelson Mandelatheir idea of a small, dedicated group of leaders, working objectively and without any vested personal interest to solve difficult global conflicts. On 18 July 2007, inJohannesburg, South Africa, Nelson Mandela announced the formation of a new group,The Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th birthday.Kofi Annanserved as Chair of the Elders andGro Harlem Brundtlandas deputy chair. The other members of the group areMartti Ahtisaari,Ela Bhatt,Lakhdar Brahimi,Fernando Henrique Cardoso,Jimmy Carter,Hina Jilani,Graça Machel,Mary RobinsonandErnesto Zedillo.Desmond Tutuwas an Honorary Elder, as was Nelson Mandela. The Elders is independently funded by a group of donors, including Branson and Gabriel. The Elders use their collective skills to catalyse peaceful resolutions to long-standing conflicts, articulate new approaches to global issues that are causing or may later cause immense human suffering, and share wisdom by helping to connect voices all over the world. They work together to consider carefully which specific issues to approach. In November 2007, Gabriel's non-profit group WITNESS launched The Hub, a participatory media site for human rights. In September 2008, Gabriel was named as the recipient of Amnesty International's 2008Ambassador of Conscience Award. In the same month, he receivedQuadrigaUnited We Careaward of Werkstatt Deutschland along withBoris Tadić,Eckart Höflingand Wikipedia. The award was presented to him byQueen Silvia of Sweden. In 2010, Gabriel lent his support to the campaign to releaseSakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani, an Iranian Azeri woman who was sentenced to death by stoning after being convicted of committing adultery. In December 2013, Gabriel posted a video message in tribute to the deceased former South African president and anti-apartheid leaderNelson Mandela. Gabriel was quoted: To come out of 27 years in jail and to immediately set about building a Rainbow Nation with your sworn enemy is a unique and extraordinary example of courage and forgiveness. In this case, Mandela had seen many of his people beaten, imprisoned and murdered, yet he was still willing to trust the humanity and idealism of those who had been the oppressors, without whom he knew he could not achieve an almostpeaceful transition of power. There is no other example of such inspirational leadership in my lifetime. Gabriel has criticisedAir Francefor their continued transport of monkeys to laboratories. In a letter to the airline, Gabriel wrote that in laboratories, \"primates are violently force-fed chemicals, inflicted with brain damage, crippled, addicted to cocaine or alcohol, deprived of food and water, or psychologically tormented and ultimately killed.\" In March 2014, Gabriel publicly supported #withsyria, a campaign to rally support for victims of theSyrian Civil War. In November 2014, Gabriel, along withPussy RiotandIron & Winesupported Hong Kong protesters atHong Kong's Lennon Wallin their efforts. In March 2015, Gabriel was awarded an honorary doctorate by theUniversity of South Australiain recognition of his commitment to creativity and its transformational power in building peace and understanding. He composed the song \"The Veil\" forOliver Stone's filmSnowden(2016). Political views Gabriel has been described as one of rock's most political musicians byAllMusic.In 1992, on the 20th anniversary of theBloody Sundaymassacre, Gabriel joinedPeter Hain,Jeremy Corbyn,Tony Benn,Ken Loach,John PilgerandAdrian Mitchellin voicing his support for a demonstration in London calling for British withdrawal fromNorthern Ireland. At the1997 general election, he declared his support for theLabour Party, which won that election by a landslide after 18 years out of power, led byTony Blair.In 1998, he was named in a list of the biggest private financial donors to Labour.He subsequently distanced himself from the Labour government following Tony Blair's support forGeorge W. Bushand Britain's involvement in theIraq War, which he strongly opposed.Gabriel later explained his decision for funding Labour, saying, \"after all those years ofThatcher, that was the only time I've put money into a political party because I wanted to help get rid of theTorygovernment of that time.\" In 2005, Gabriel gave aGreen Party of England and Walesgeneral election candidate special permission to record a cover of his song \"Don't Give Up\" for his campaign.In 2010,The Guardiandescribed Gabriel as \"a staunch advocate ofproportional representation.\"In 2013, he stated that he had become more interested in online petitioning organisations to effect change than traditional party politics. In 2012, Gabriel condemned the use of his music by the Americanconservative talk radiopersonalityRush Limbaughduringa controversial segment in which Limbaugh vilifiedGeorgetown Universitylaw studentSandra Fluke. A statement on behalf of Gabriel read: \"Peter was appalled to learn that his music was linked to Rush Limbaugh's extraordinary attack on Sandra Fluke. It is obvious from anyone that knows Peter's work that he would never approve such a use. He has asked his representatives to make sure his music is withdrawn and especially from these unfair, aggressive and ignorant comments.\" In 2016, Gabriel supported the UK's continued membership of theEuropean Unionin thereferendum on the issue. Gabriel has declared his support for thetwo-state solutionto theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict. In 2014, he contributed songs to a new compilation album to raise funds for humanitarian organisations aiding Palestinian Arabs inGaza. Gabriel was quoted: \"I am certain that Israelis and Palestinians will both benefit from a two-state solution based on the 1967 borders. We have watched Palestinians suffer for too long, especially in Gaza. I am not, and never was, anti-Israeli oranti-Semitic, but I oppose the policy of the Israeli government, oppose injustice and oppose the occupation ... I am proud to be one of the voices asking the Israeli government: 'Where is the two-state solution that you wanted so much?' and clearly say that enough is enough.\"In 2019, Gabriel was among 50 artists who urged theBBCto ask for theEurovision Song Contestto be moved out of Israel, citing human rights concerns.In 2023, Gabriel signed theArtists4Ceasefireopen letter to PresidentJoe Bidencalling for a ceasefire during theIsraeli bombardment of Gaza. Gabriel has been in support of theArmenian genociderecognition.In October 2020, he posted a message on social media in support ofArmeniaandArtsakhin regards to theNagorno-Karabakh war. He said, \"The fighting that has now broken out between Azerbaijan and Armenia is really horrific and we need to lobby whoever we can to encourage a ceasefire, but hearing reports that PresidentErdoğanhas now lined up 80,000 Turkish troops on the Armenian border is a terrifying prospect, full of the dark echoes of history.\" In popular culture Gabriel's music featured prominently on the popular 1980s television showMiami Vice. The songs include \"The Rhythm of the Heat\" and \"Biko\" (from \"Evan\"), \"Red Rain\" (from \"Stone's War\"), \"Mercy Street\" (from \"Killshot\"), \"Sledgehammer\" (from \"Better Living Through Chemistry\"), \"We Do What We're Told (Milgram's 37)\" (from \"Forgive Us Our Debts\" and \"Deliver Us from Evil\") and \"Don't Give Up\" (from \"Redemption in Blood\"). With seven songs used total, Gabriel had the most music featured by a solo artist in the series, and he is the only artist to have had a song used in four of Vice's five seasons. Five of the nine tracks on his most popular albumSo(1986) were used in the series. Gabriel’s song \"In Your Eyes\" features twice in the teen romance dramaSay Anything(1989). It is the song playing on Lloyd Dobler’s boombox as he serenades Diane, creating the film’s most iconic scene. Gabriel's cover ofDavid Bowie's \"Heroes\" was featured in the fourth season finale ofBig Love, as well as the first season and the ending scene ofStranger Thingsseason 3 and the ending credits ofLone Survivor. The song also features in 'Children of Mars', a 2020 episode of the web seriesStar Trek: Short Treks. A series of spoof documentaries about the fictitious rock starBrian Pernwere based loosely on Gabriel. In 2021, Northern Irish post-punk band Invaderband released their second studio album entitled 'Peter Gabriel'.The sleeve was a painting of Gabriel byLuke Haines. Personal life Gabriel has married twice and has four children. In 1971, at age 21, he married Jill Moore, daughter of BaronPhilip Moore.They had two daughters,one of whom, Anna-Marie, is a filmmaker who filmed and directed Gabriel's live DVDsGrowing Up on Tour: A Family Portrait(2003),Still Growing Up: Live & Unwrapped(2005) and some of his music videos. Melanie is a musician who had been a backing vocalist in her father's band in 2002–2011. Both daughters appear in the final sequence of the video for their father's song \"Sledgehammer\". Gabriel's marriage became increasingly strained, culminating in Moore's affair withDavid Lord, the co-producer of Gabriel'sfourth studio album. After the coupledivorcedin 1987, Gabriel fell into a period of depression and attended therapy sessions for six years. For a time after his divorce, Gabriel lived with American actressRosanna Arquette.In 2021, Irish singerSinéad O'Connorsaid that she maintained an on-and-off relationship with Gabriel in the wake of his divorce. She ended the relationship because of her frustration with his lack of commitment, which inspired her single \"Thank You for Hearing Me\". Gabriel married Meabh Flynn in 2002, with whom he has two sons. Gabriel has resided inWiltshirefor many years and runsReal World StudiosfromBox, Wiltshire. He previously lived in the Woolley Valley nearBath, Somerset. In 2010, he joined a campaign to stop agricultural development in the valley, which had also inspired his first solo single, \"Solsbury Hill\", in 1977. Discography Studio albums Soundtracks Awards and nominations See also References Citations Works cited External links","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_(album","Sledgehammer Asledgehammeris atoolwith a large, flat, oftenmetalhead, attached to a long handle. The long handle combined with a heavy head allows the sledgehammer to gather momentum during a swing and apply a largeforcecompared to hammers designed to drive nails. Along with themallet, it shares the ability to distribute force over a wide area. This is in contrast to other types ofhammers, which concentrate force in a relatively small area. Etymology The word sledgehammer is derived from the Old-English \"slægan\", which, in its first sense, means \"to strike violently\". The English words \"slag\", \"slay\", and \"slog\" arecognates. Uses The handle can range from 50 centimetres (1 ft 8 in) to a full 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) long, depending on the mass of the head.The head mass is usually 1 to 9 kilograms (2.2 to 19.8 lb). Modern heavy duty sledgehammers come with 10-to-20-pound (4.5–9.1 kg) heads. Sledgehammers usually require two hands and a swinging motion involving the entiretorso, in contrast to smallerhammersused for driving innails. The combination of a long swinging range, and heavy head, increases the force of the resulting impact. Sledgehammers are often used indemolitionwork, for breaking throughdrywallormasonrywalls. Sledgehammers were formerly widely used inminingoperations, particularlyhand steel, but are rarely used in modern mining. Sledgehammers are also used when substantial force is necessary to dislodge a trapped object (often infarmoroil fieldwork), or for fracturing concrete. Another common use is for driving fence posts into the ground. Sledgehammers are used by police forces in raids on property to gain entry by force, commonly through doors. They were and still are commonly used by blacksmiths to shape heavy sections of iron. The BritishSAScounter terroristteam used sledgehammers to gain access to rooms during the 1980Iranian Embassy Siege. However, today they use a tool called a \"dynamic hammer\". Another use of sledgehammers is for driving railroad spikes into woodensleepersduring rail construction. When the two ends of theUnion Pacificrailroad were joined atPromontory, Utah,Leland Stanfordhammered agolden spikeinto a sleeper with a silver hammer.Sledges used to drive spikes for rails had curved headsthat came down to a \"beak\" that was only about one inch across. The shape meant that drivers needed to be accurate, and spot where the spike hit was often not much larger than a small coin, as anything larger would hit the plate or the sleeper. The curved head kept the handle away from the rail, as the spikes were driven with the rail between the spike and the driver. These are often calledspike mauls. Drilling hammer Adrilling hammer,club hammer,lump hammer,crack hammer,mini-sledgeorthor hammeris a small sledgehammer whose relatively light weight and short handle allow one-handed use.It is useful for light demolition work, driving masonry nails, and for use with a steelchiselwhen cutting stone or metal.In this last application, its weight drives the chisel more deeply into the material being cut than lighter hammers. Club hammers are common on the British inland waterways for driving mooring pins into the towpath or canal bank. Scouts BSAhas adopted the shorter sledgehammer, commonly referred to as an engineer's hammer,as an unofficial tool referred to as the scout hammer, as a complement to the pocket knife and hand axe. The handle is 12–18 inches (30–46 cm) long with a head weighing 2 to 6 lb (0.91–2.72 kg). The hammer is used for a variety of purposes such as driving tent stakes, establishing temporary fencing using wood or metal rebar, splitting wood in conjunction with a wedge, or straightening all that is bent. Post maul Post mauls are similar to sledgehammers in shape, but are meant to drive wooden fence posts or tree stakes into the earth. Newer mauls have broad, flat circular faces that are significantly larger in diameter than the body of the head (where the handle attaches). Older post mauls are significantly larger than sledgehammers like their newer counterparts except the outside diameter (body) of older post maul designs remained the same large diameter as that of the faces of the hammer from one side to the other side. Sledgehammers usually have octagonal faces that are the same diameter or slightly smaller than the body of the head, and they are not nearly as large in overall diameter as a post maul. References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Peter Gabriel Peter Brian Gabriel(born 13 February 1950) is an English singer, songwriter and human rights activist. He was the original lead singer of theprogressive rockbandGenesis.After leaving the band in 1975, he launched a solo career with \\\"Solsbury Hill\\\" as his first single. His fifth studio album,So(1986), is his best-selling release and is certified triple platinum in the UK and five times platinum in the US. The album's most successful single, \\\"Sledgehammer\\\", won a record nineMTV Awardsat the1987 MTV Video Music Awardsand, according to a report in 2011, it wasMTV's most played music video of all time. Gabriel has been a champion ofworld musicfor much of his career. He co-founded theWOMADfestival in 1982.He has continued to focus on producing and promoting world music through hisReal World Recordslabel. He has pioneered digital distribution methods for music, co-foundingOD2, one of the first online music download services.Gabriel has also been involved in numerous humanitarian efforts. In 1980, he released the anti-apartheidsingle \\\"Biko\\\".He has participated in several human-rights benefit concerts, includingAmnesty International'sHuman Rights Now!tour in 1988, and co-founded theWitnesshuman rights organisation in 1992.Gabriel developedThe ElderswithRichard Branson, which was launched byNelson Mandelain 2007. Gabriel has won threeBrit Awards—winning Best British Male in 1987,sixGrammy Awards,thirteenMTV Video Music Awards, the first Pioneer Award at theBT Digital Music Awards,theQmagazine Lifetime Achievement,theIvor Novello Awardfor Lifetime Achievement,and thePolar Music Prize.He was made aBMIIcon at the 57th annual BMI London Awards for his \\\"influence on generations of music makers\\\".In recognition of his many years of human rights activism, he received theMan of Peaceaward from theNobel Peace Prizelaureates in 2006,andTimemagazine named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2008.AllMusicdescribed Gabriel as \\\"one of rock's most ambitious, innovative musicians, as well as one of its most political\\\".He was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a member of Genesis in 2010,and as a solo artist in 2014.In March 2015, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from theUniversity of South Australiain recognition of his achievements in music. Early life Peter Brian Gabriel was born on 13 February 1950 inChobham,Surrey, England, son of Ralph Parton Gabriel (1912–2012) and Edith Irene (1921–2016), daughter of Colonel Edward Allen, chairman of theCivil Service Department Storeon theStrand, London. Gabriel's father was an electrical engineer and dairy farm-owner from a long-established family of London timber importers and merchants, and his mother was from a musical family. Gabriel was raised at Deep Pool Farm, Coxhill, a Victorian manor just outside Chobham.His great-great-great-uncle,Sir Thomas Gabriel, 1st Baronet, wasLord Mayor of Londonfrom 1866 to 1877.Gabriel attended Cable House, a private primary school inWoking, Surrey, followed by St Andrews Preparatory School for Boys inHorsell, Surrey.During his time at the latter, his teachers noticed his singing talent, but he opted for piano lessons from his mother and developed an interest in drumming. At age 10, he purchased a floor tom-tom. Gabriel remarked of his early influences, \\\"Hymnsplayed quite a large part. They were the closest I came tosoul musicbefore I discovered soul music. There are certain hymns that you can scream your lungs out on, and I used to love that. It was great when you used to get the old shivers down the back.\\\"At age 12, Gabriel wrote his first song, \\\"Sammy the Slug\\\". Around this time, an aunt gave him money for professional singing lessons, but he used it to buythe Beatles' debut studio albumPlease Please Me(1963).In September 1963, he started atCharterhouse, apublic schoolinGodalming, Surrey.There, he was a drummer and vocalist for his first band: thetrad jazzoutfit the Milords (or M'Lords). This was followed by a holiday band called the Spoken Word,which recorded anacetatein 1966.Gabriel played drums in both these bands, and his schoolmateMike Rutherfordcommented in 1985 that \\\"Pete was - and still is, I think - a frustrated drummer.\\\" In 1965, Gabriel formedGarden Wallwith school friendsTony Bankson piano, Johnny Trapman on trumpet, andChris Stewarton drums.Banks had started at Charterhouse at the same time as Gabriel; the two were uninterested in school activities but bonded over music and started to write songs. At a final concert before they broke up, Gabriel, dressed in akaftanand beads, showered the audience with petals he had picked from neighbouring gardens. Career 1967–1975: Genesis In April 1967, after Garden Wall had disbanded, Gabriel and Banks were invited by fellow pupilsAnthony PhillipsandMike Rutherfordto work on ademotape of songs.Gabriel and Banks contributed \\\"She Is Beautiful\\\", the first song they wrote together. The tape was sent to former Charterhouse pupil turned musicianJonathan King, who was immediately enthusiastic, largely due to Gabriel's vocals. He signed the group and suggested a band name of Gabriel's Angels, but it was unpopular with the other members. They settled on King's other suggestion,Genesis. After King suggested they stick to more straightforward pop, Gabriel and Banks wrote \\\"The Silent Sun\\\" as a pastiche of theBee Gees, one of King's favourite bands. It became Genesis's first single, released in 1968.It was included on their debut studio album,From Genesis to Revelation(1968). After the commercial failure ofFrom Genesis to Revelation, the band went their separate ways, and Gabriel continued his studies at Charterhouse.In September 1969, Gabriel, Banks, Rutherford and Phillips decided to drop their plans and make Genesis a full-time working band. In early 1970, Gabriel played the flute onMona Bone JakonbyCat Stevens. The second studio album by Genesis,Trespass(1970), marked Gabriel expanding his musical output with the flute, accordion, tambourine and bass drum, and incorporating hissoul musicinfluences. Gabriel explained that he was driven to play these instruments because he was uncomfortable with doing nothing during instrumental sections.He would have preferred to play keyboard instruments, but \\\"Tony was extraordinarily possessive about the keyboards. I'd done a bit of flute at school, I always liked the sound, and a little bit of oboe (I was an even worse oboe player, but it made a couple of good noises now and again). Then the bass drum was something physical, visual, that I could kick hard and occasionally it was in time!\\\"The album sold little and at one point, Gabriel secured a place atLondon School of Film Techniquebecause Genesis \\\"seemed to be dying.\\\"Genesis recruited guitaristSteve Hackettand drummerPhil Collins. Gabriel began growing in confidence as a frontman, and during an encore performance of \\\"The Knife\\\" on 19 June 1971, he took a running jump into the audience, expecting them to catch him, only for them to instead move out of the way and leave him to land on the floor, breaking an ankle. He consequently had to perform Genesis's next several shows with a wheelchair and crutches.Also during theTrespasstour, he started to recite stories to introduce numbers as a way to cover the silence between songs while the band tuned their instruments, or while technical faults were being fixed.These stories were all improvised on the spot, and evolved as the tour went along.The opener of their next studio album,Nursery Cryme(1971), \\\"The Musical Box\\\", was their first song in which Gabriel incorporated a story and characters into the lyrics; the lyrics to previous story-based Genesis songs such as \\\"White Mountain\\\" and \\\"One-Eyed Hound\\\" were all written by other members of the group.Gabriel was the primary writer of \\\"Harold the Barrel\\\", another story song onNursery Cryme, with Collins helping him on the lyrics. The shows featuringFoxtrot(1972) marked a key development in Gabriel's stage performance. During a gig inDublinin September 1972, he disappeared from the set during the instrumental section of \\\"The Musical Box\\\" and reappeared in his wife's red dress and a fox's head, mimicking the album's cover. The idea of the fox costume had been suggested to him byPaul Conroyand Glen Colson, employees of Genesis's record label,Charisma Records.Gabriel said he consulted the rest of Genesis about the fox costume but grew tired of arguing about it, but the other members all maintained that nothing was said about it beforehand and that when Gabriel came out in costume they initially mistook him for a fan invading the stage.The incident received front-page coverage inMelody Maker, giving them national exposure which allowed the group to double their performance fee.One of Gabriel's stories was printed on the liner notes of their live album,Genesis Live(1973). By late 1973, following the success ofSelling England by the Pound(1973), which centred on English themes and literary and materialistic references, a typical Genesis show had Gabriel wear fluorescent make-up, a cape, and bat wings for \\\"Watcher of the Skies\\\", a helmet, chest plate, and a shield for \\\"Dancing with the Moonlit Knight\\\", acrown of thornsand a flower mask for \\\"Supper's Ready\\\", and an old man mask for \\\"The Musical Box\\\". Gabriel continued to continued to fight for involvement with Genesis's keyboards throughout his time with the group, and following a lengthy argument with Banks, he was allowed to play a minor keyboard part on \\\"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)\\\", only for this part to be left out of the mix.\\\"I Know What I Like\\\" became Genesis's first hit single, reaching number 21 in theUK Singles Chart. The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway(1974) was Gabriel's final studio album with Genesis. He devised its story of the spiritual journey of Rael, a Puerto Rican youth living in New York City, and insisted upon writing all the lyrics himself, whereas on previous albums the lyrics had been divided among all the members of Genesis.Tensions increased during this period, and Gabriel split with the band to pursue a film project withWilliam Friedkin, only to rejoin a week later.Matters were complicated further with the difficult birth of Gabriel's first daughter, resulting in periods of time away from the band. The other members complained that Gabriel was showing a lack of commitment to the band. Gabriel saw this as a \\\"really unsympathetic handling of my dealing with a family crisis\\\" and said it caused a breakdown in his relationships with the rest of Genesis; Rutherford later admitted that they had been overly fixated on their music and were very unhelpful in what must have been a difficult time for Gabriel.Gabriel was late to deliver the lyrics, but has denied that he was too busy to write much music for the album and relied on contributions from Banks and Rutherford.Banks corroborated that Gabriel was the primary composer of theLambsongs \\\"The Carpet Crawlers\\\" and \\\"The Chamber of 32 Doors\\\" and the sole composer of \\\"Counting Out Time\\\". During a stop in Cleveland, Ohio, early into the album's tour, Gabriel informed the band of his intention to leave at its conclusion.Rutherford recalled that they all \\\"could see it coming.\\\"Music critics often focused their reviews on Gabriel's theatrics and took the band's musical performance as secondary, which irritated the rest of the band.The tour ended in May 1975, after which Gabriel wrote a piece for the press on 15 August, entitled \\\"Out, Angels Out\\\", about his departure, his disillusion with the business, and his desire to spend time with his family.The news stunned fans of the group and left commentators wondering if the band could survive without him.His exit resulted in drummerPhil Collinsreluctantly taking over on lead vocals after 400 singers were fruitlessly auditioned. 1975–1985: Solo debut with four self-titled albums Gabriel described his break from the music business as his \\\"learning period\\\", during which he took piano and music lessons. He had recorded demos by the end of 1975, the fruits of a period of writing around 20 songs with his friend Martin Hall.After preparing material for a studio album Gabriel recorded his solo debut,Peter Gabriel, in 1976 and 1977 in Toronto and London, with producerBob Ezrin. Gabriel did not title his first four studio albums. All were labelledPeter Gabriel, using the same typeface, with designs byHipgnosis. \\\"The idea is to do it like a magazine, which will only come out once a year,\\\" he remarked in 1978. \\\"So it's the same title, the same lettering in the same place; only the photo is different.\\\"Each album has, however, been given a nickname by fans, usually relating to the album cover. Peter Gabriel(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 1: Car) was released in February 1977 and reached No. 7 in the UK and No. 38 in the US. Itslead single, \\\"Solsbury Hill\\\", is an autobiographical song about a spiritual experience on top ofSolsbury Hillin Somerset. \\\"It's about being prepared to lose what you have for what you might get ...\\\" said Gabriel. \\\"It's about letting go.\\\"Gabriel toured the album with an 80-date tour from March to November 1977 with a band that included guitaristRobert FrippofKing Crimsonoften playing off stage and introduced as \\\"Dusty Rhodes\\\". In late 1977, Gabriel started recording thesecondPeter Gabrielstudio album(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 2: Scratch) in the Netherlands, with Fripp as producer. Its \\\"Mother of Violence\\\" was written by Gabriel and his first wife Jill. Released in June 1978, the album went to No. 10 in the UK and No. 45 in the US. Gabriel's tour for the album lasted from August to December 1978. On this tour, Gabriel and his band shaved their heads. Gabriel recorded thethirdPeter Gabrielstudio album(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 3: Melt) in England in 1979. He developed an interest in African music anddrum machinesand later hailed the record as his artistic breakthrough. Gabriel banned the use of cymbals on the album in order to grant more sonic space for instruments like keyboards and synths. This resulted in the creation of the distinctivegated reverb,a noise processing technique which came about while recording drums on \\\"Intruder\\\", one of the tracks featuringPhil Collins. Collins implemented the reverb to great effect on his debut solo single \\\"In the Air Tonight\\\" and it has since became a signature sound of the 1980s and beyond. Upon completionAtlantic Records, Gabriel's US distributor who had released his first two albums, refused to put outPeter Gabriel 3: Meltas they thought it was not commercial enough. Gabriel signed arecording contractwithMercury Records.Released in May 1980, the album went to No. 1 in the UK for three weeks. In the US, it peaked at No. 22. The single \\\"Games Without Frontiers\\\" went to No. 4 and \\\"Biko\\\" went to No. 36 in the UK. After a handful of shows in 1979, Gabriel toured the album from February to October 1980. The tour marked Gabriel's first successful instance ofcrowd surfing(following his failed June 1971 attempt when touring with Genesis) when he fell back into the audience in a crucifix position. The stunt became a staple of his live shows. OnPeter Gabrielfour(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 4: Security), Gabriel took on greater responsibility over the production than before. He recorded it in 1981 and 1982, solely on digital tape, with a mobile studio parked at his home,Ashcombe House, in Somerset. Gabriel utilized aFairlight CMIdigitalsamplingsynthesizer and incorporated electronic instrumentation with sampling world beat percussion. \\\"Over the course of the last two albums,\\\" he observed, \\\"I've got back into a rhythm consciousness. And the writing—particularly with the invention of these drum machines—is fantastic. You can store in their memories rhythms that interest you and excite you. And then the groove will carry on without you, and the groove will be exactly what you want it to be, rather than what a drummer thinks is appropriate for what you're doing.\\\" The fourthPeter Gabriel, released in September 1982, hit No. 6 in the UK and No. 28 in the US. The second single, \\\"Shock the Monkey\\\", became Gabriel's first top 40 hit in the US, reaching No. 29. To handle American distribution, Gabriel signed withGeffen Records, which—initially unbeknown to Gabriel—titled the albumSecurityto differentiate it from the first three. Gabriel's 1982 tour lasted a year and became his first to make a profit.Recordings from the tour were released on Gabriel's debut live release,Plays Live(1983). Gabriel produced versions of the third and fourthPeter Gabrielalbums with German lyrics. The third consisted of the studio recordings, overdubbed with new vocals. The fourth was remixed, with several tracks extended or altered. In 1983, Gabriel developed the soundtrack forAlan Parker's drama filmBirdy(1984), co-produced withDaniel Lanois. This consisted of new material, without lyrics, as well as remixed instrumentals from his previous studio album. 1985–1997:SoandUs After finishing the soundtrack toBirdy, Gabriel shifted his musical focus from rhythm and texture, as heard onPeter Gabrielfour andBirdy, towards more straightforward songs.In 1985, he recorded his fifth studio album,So(also co-produced with Lanois).Sowas released in May 1986 and reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 2 in the US. It remains Gabriel's best-selling album with over five million copies sold in the US alone.It produced one of Gabriel's signature songs, that has become a concert staple:In Your Eyes, with a distinctive vocal appearance byYoussou N'Dour, and three UK top 20 singles: \\\"Sledgehammer\\\", \\\"Big Time\\\" and \\\"Don't Give Up\\\", a duet withKate Bush. The first went to No. 1 on the USBillboardHot 100, Gabriel's only single of his career to do so. It knocked \\\"Invisible Touch\\\" by Genesis, his former band, out of the top spot, which was also their only US number one hit. In the UK, the single went to No. 4.In 1990,Rolling StonerankedSoat No. 14 on its list of \\\"Top 100 Albums of the Eighties\\\". \\\"Sledgehammer\\\" was particularly successful, dealing with sex and sexual relations through lyrical innuendos. Its famed music video was a collaboration between directorStephen R. Johnson,Aardman Animations,and theBrothers Quayand won a record nineMTV Video Music Awardsin 1987.In 1998, it was named MTV's number one animated video of all time.Soearned Gabriel two wins at the1987Brit Awardsfor Best British Male Solo Artist and Best British Video (for \\\"Sledgehammer\\\").He was nominated for fourGrammy Awards:Best Male Rock Vocal Performance,Song of the Year, andRecord of the Yearfor \\\"Sledgehammer\\\", andAlbum of the YearforSo.Gabriel toured worldwide to supportSowith the This Way Up Tour, from November 1986 to October 1987. In 1988, Gabriel became involved as composer forMartin Scorsese's filmThe Last Temptation of Christ(1988). Scorsese had contacted Gabriel about the project since 1983 and wished, according to Gabriel, to present \\\"the struggle between the humanity and divinity of Christ in a powerful and original way\\\".Gabriel used musicians fromWOMADto perform instrumental pieces with focus on rhythm and African, Middle Eastern and European textures, using theNational Sound Archivein London for additional inspiration.The initial plan had dedicated ten weeks for recording before it was cut to three, leaving Gabriel unable to finish all the pieces he originally wanted to record.When the film was finished, Gabriel worked on the soundtrack for an additional four months to develop more of his unfinished ideas. Its soundtrack was released asPassionin June 1989. It won Gabriel aGrammy AwardforBest New Age Performanceand a nomination for aGolden GlobeforBest Original Score – Motion Picture. In 1990, Gabriel put out his first compilation album,Shaking the Tree: Sixteen Golden Greats, which sold 2 million copies in the US. Up until 1989, Gabriel was managed byGail Colson.From 1989 to 1992, Gabriel recorded his follow-up toSo, titledUs. The album saw Gabriel address personal themes, including his failed first marriage, psychotherapy, and the growing distance between him and his eldest daughter at the time. Gabriel's introspection within the context of the albumUscan be seen in the first single release \\\"Digging in the Dirt\\\" directed by John Downer. Accompanied by a video featuring Gabriel covered in snails and various foliage, this song made reference to the psychotherapy which had taken up much of Gabriel's time since the previous studio album. Gabriel describes his struggle to get through to his daughter in \\\"Come Talk to Me\\\" directed byMatt Mahurin, which featured backing vocals bySinéad O'Connor. O'Connor also lent vocals to \\\"Blood of Eden\\\", directed byNichola Bruceand Michael Coulson, the third single to be released from the album, and once again dealing with relationship struggles, this time going right back toAdam's rib for inspiration. The album is one of Gabriel's most personal. It met with less success thanSo, reaching No. 2 in the album chart on both sides of the Atlantic, and making modest chart impact with the singles \\\"Digging in the Dirt\\\" and the funkier \\\"Steam\\\", which evoked memories of \\\"Sledgehammer\\\". Gabriel followed the release of the album with theSecret World Tour, first using touring keyboardist Joy Askew to sing O'Connor's part, then O'Connor herself for a few months.O'Connor quit the tour, and was replaced byPaula Cole, the latter appearing on the tour recordings: a double albumSecret World Live, and a concert video also calledSecret World Live, both released in 1994.The film received the 1996Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video, naming director Francois Girard and producer Robert Warr. Gabriel employed an innovative approach in the marketing of theUsalbum. Not wishing to feature only images of himself, he asked artist filmmakersNichola Bruceand Michael Coulson to co-ordinate a marketing campaign using contemporary artists. Artists such asHelen Chadwick,Rebecca Horn,Nils-Udo,Andy Goldsworthy,David MachandYayoi Kusamacollaborated to create original artworks for each song on the multi-million-selling CD. Coulson and Bruce documented the process on Hi-8 video. Bruce left Real World and Coulson continued with the campaign, using the documentary background material as the basis for a promotional EPK, the long-form videoAll About Usand the interactive CD-ROMXplora1: Peter Gabriel's Secret World. Gabriel won three moreGrammy Awards, all in the Music Video category. He won theGrammy Award for Best Short Form Music Videoin 1993 and 1994 for the videos to \\\"Digging in the Dirt\\\" and \\\"Steam\\\", respectively. Gabriel also won the 1996Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Videofor hisSecret World Livevideo. 1997–2009:OVOandUp In 1997, Gabriel was invited to participate in the direction and soundtrack of theMillennium Dome Show, a live multimedia performance staged in theMillennium Domein London throughout 2000.Gabriel said the team were given free rein, which contributed to the various problems they encountered with it, such as a lack of proper budgeting. He also felt that management, while succeeding to get the building finished on time, failed to understand the artistic side of the show and its content.Gabriel's soundtrack was released asOVOin June 2000.The Story of OVOwas released in the CD-booklet-shapedcomic bookwhich was part of the CD edition with the title \\\"OVO The Millennium Show\\\". Around that same time, the Genesis greatest hits album,Turn It On Again: The Hits(1999), featured Gabriel sharing vocals withPhil Collinson a new version of \\\"The Carpet Crawlers\\\" entitled \\\"The Carpet Crawlers 1999\\\", produced byTrevor Horn. In 2002 he stuck with soundtrack work for his next project, scoring for the Australian filmRabbit-Proof Fence(2002) withworldbeatmusic. Released in June 2002,Long Walk Home: Music from the Rabbit-Proof Fencereceived a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Original Score – Motion Picture. Later in 2002,Up, Gabriel's first full-length studio album in a decade, was released in September 2002. He started work on it in 1995 before production halted three years later to focus time on other projects and collaborations. Work resumed in 2000, by which time Gabriel had 130 potential songs for the album, and spent almost two years on it before management atVirgin Recordspushed Gabriel to complete it.Upreached No. 9 in the US and No. 11 in the UK, and supported with a world tour with a band that included Gabriel's daughter Melanie on backing vocals. The tour was documented with two live DVDs:Growing Up Live(2003) andStill Growing Up: Live & Unwrapped(2005). In 2004, Gabriel met with his former Genesis bandmates to discuss the possibility of stagingThe Lamb Lies Down on Broadway(1974) as a reunion tour. He ultimately dismissed the idea, paving the way for Banks, Rutherford and Collins to organise theTurn It On Again: The Tour. Gabriel produced and performed at theEden Project Live 8 concertin July 2005. He joinedCat Stevenson stage to perform \\\"Wild World\\\" duringNelson Mandela's46664concert. In 2005,FIFAasked Gabriel and Brian Eno to organise an opening ceremony for the2006 FIFA World Cupin Germany, but FIFA cancelled the idea in January 2006. At the opening ceremony of the2006 Winter OlympicsinTurin, Gabriel performedJohn Lennon's \\\"Imagine\\\". In November 2006, the Seventh World Summit ofNobel Peace Laureatesin Rome presented Gabriel with theMan of Peaceaward. The award, presented by former General Secretary of the USSR and Nobel Peace Prize winnerMikhail GorbachevandWalter Veltroni, Mayor of Rome, was an acknowledgement of Gabriel's extensive contribution and work on behalf of human rights and peace. The award was presented in the Giulio Cesare Hall of the Campidoglio in Rome. At the end of the year, he was awarded theQmagazine Lifetime Achievement Award, presented to him by American musicianMoby. In an interview published in the magazine to accompany the award, Gabriel's contribution to music was described as \\\"vast and enduring.\\\" Gabriel took on a project with theBBC World Service's competition \\\"The Next Big Thing\\\" to find the world's best young band. Gabriel judged the final six young artists withWilliam Orbit,Geoff TravisandAngélique Kidjo. In June 2008, Gabriel releasedBig Blue Ball, an album of various artists collaborating with each other at his Real World Studios across three summers in the 1990s. He planned its release in the US without assistance from a label; he raised £2 million towards the recording and distribution of the album withIngenious Mediawith the worldwide release handled throughWarner Bros. Records.Gabriel appeared on a nationwide tour for the album in 2009. Gabriel was a judge for the 6th and 8th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists. Gabriel contributed to thePixarfilmWALL-Esoundtrack in 2008 withThomas Newman, including the film's closing song, \\\"Down to Earth\\\", for which they received theGrammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. The song was also nominated for aGolden Globe Award for Best Original Songand anAcademy Award for Best Original Song. In February 2009, Gabriel announced that he would not be performing on the2008 Academy Awardstelecast because producers of the show were limiting his performance of \\\"Down to Earth\\\" fromWALL-Eto 90 seconds. According to Gabriel, his window was reduced to 65 seconds.John Legendand theSoweto Gospel Choirperformed the song in his stead. Gabriel's 2009 tour appearances included Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Venezuela. His first ever performance in Peru was held in Lima on 20 March 2009, during his second visit to the country. On 25 July 2009, he played at WOMAD Charlton Park, his only European performance of the year, to promote Witness. The show included two tracks from the then-forthcomingScratch My Back:Paul Simon's \\\"The Boy in the Bubble\\\" andthe Magnetic Fields' \\\"The Book of Love\\\". 2009–2019:Scratch My Back,New Bloodand further side projects In 2009, Gabriel recordedScratch My Back, an album of cover songs by various artists includingDavid Bowie,Lou Reed,Arcade Fire,Radiohead,Regina SpektorandNeil Young. The original concept was for Gabriel to cover an artists' song if they, in turn, covered one of his for an album simultaneously released asI'll Scratch Yours, but several participants later declined or were late to deliver and it was placed on hold.Gabriel avoided using drums and guitar in favour of orchestral arrangements, and altered his usual songwriting method by finishing the vocals first and then the song, for which he collaborated withJohn Metcalfe.Released in February 2010,Scratch My Backreached No. 12 in the UK. Gabriel toured worldwide with the New Blood Tour from March 2010 to July 2012 with a 54-piece orchestra and his daughterMelanieand Norwegian singer-songwriterAne Brunon backing vocals. The follow-up,And I'll Scratch Yours, was released in September 2013. During the New Blood Tour, Gabriel decided to expand on theScratch My Backconcept and, with Metcalfe's assistance, re-record a collection of his own songs with an orchestra. The result,New Blood, was released in October 2011. In September 2012, Gabriel kicked off hisBack to Front Tourwhich featuredSo(1986) performed in its entirety with the original musicians who played on the album, to mark its 25th anniversary.When the opening leg finished a month later, Gabriel took one year off to travel the world with his children.The tour resumed with a European leg from September 2013 to December 2014. In 2014, Gabriel was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a solo artist byColdplayfrontmanChris Martin. They performed Gabriel's \\\"Washing of the Water\\\" together. Gabriel performed \\\"Heroes\\\" byDavid Bowiewith an orchestra at a concert in Berlin to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the fall of theBerlin Wallin November 2014. In 2016, he was featured on the song \\\"A.I.\\\" by American pop rock bandOneRepublicfrom their fourth studio albumOh My My. In June 2016, Gabriel released the single \\\"I'm Amazing\\\". The song was written several years prior, in part as a tribute to boxerMuhammad Ali.That month, he embarked on a joint tour withStingtitled The Rock Paper Scissors North American Tour. Gabriel re-emerged in 2019 with the release ofRated PG, a compilation of songs that were created for film soundtracks throughout his career. The song selection spans over 30 years and includes tracks that had never been released on an official Gabriel album previously, including \\\"Down to Earth\\\" (fromWALL-E) and \\\"That'll Do\\\" (fromBabe: Pig in the City), an Oscar-nominated collaboration withRandy Newman. Initially only released on vinyl forRecord Store Dayon 13 April, the album was eventually released on digital streaming services later that month.Later that same year, Gabriel issued another digital release on 13 September titledFlotsam and Jetsam, a collection ofB-sides, remixes and rarities that span Gabriel's entire solo career from 1976 to 2016, including his first solo recording, a cover ofthe Beatles' song \\\"Strawberry Fields Forever\\\". 2022–present:I/Oand possible follow-up album By 2002, Gabriel had been continually working on what he had given the tentative title ofI/O, his tenth studio album, which he had begun work on as early as 1995.It was originally set to be released 18 months afterUp, but touring pushed the release far away.He did an interview withRolling Stonein 2005 stating that he had 150 songs in various stages.From 2013 to 2016, he posted regularly on social media about recording the new album.In 2019, he spoke onBBC Radio 6about how he had taken a hiatus from making music due to his wife being sick, but he had begun to return to it now that she had recovered.In 2021, he was interviewed multiple times about his new album, and revealed that he had been recording withManu Katché,Tony LevinandDavid Rhodeson 17 new songs.He posted multiple photos to his Facebook and Instagram of these sessions.In June 2022, Katché told the French magazineL'Illustréthat the album was nearly complete and would be released later that year, pending an official announcement. In November 2022, Gabriel announced his upcoming \\\"I/O The Tour\\\" for the spring of 2023 across several European cities, with later dates to be confirmed for the North America leg of the tour for the late summer/fall of 2023.This announcement also confirmed the name of the upcoming album to be stylised asI/O. The first single from the album, \\\"Panopticom\\\", was released digitally on 6 January 2023.A new piece from the album will be released on the date of each full moon in 2023,as well as a different mix of the song on each new moon in 2023, starting with the Dark Side Mix of \\\"Panopticom\\\".On 5 February, Gabriel released \\\"The Court\\\", the second single from the album. On 7 March, Gabriel released the third single, \\\"Playing for Time\\\". A basic arrangement of the song featuring only Gabriel on piano and Levin on bass had already opened the shows on theBack to Front Tour, by the name of \\\"Daddy Long Legs\\\".The title track \\\"I/O\\\" was the fourth single released on 6 April. On 5 May, Peter Gabriel released the fifth single from the album, \\\"Four Kinds of Horses\\\", a track which is a collaboration withBrian EnoandRichard Russell. The sixth single, \\\"Road to Joy\\\", was released on 4 June. Six more singles were released, separately, within the next six months—\\\"So Much\\\", \\\"Olive Tree\\\", \\\"Love Can Heal\\\", \\\"This Is Home\\\", \\\"And Still\\\" and \\\"Live and Let Live\\\"—beforeI/Owas finally released on 1 December 2023. One day prior toI/O's release, Gabriel toldThe New York Timesthat he does not expect a follow-up album (which he described as his \\\"brain project\\\") to take another 21 years, saying that \\\"there's a lot of stuff in the can\\\" but added that the material is not yet finished. Additionally, Gabriel stated in his November 2023 Full Moon update video that the track \\\"What Lies Ahead\\\" will be on \\\"the next record\\\".He performed \\\"What Lies Ahead\\\" several times in 2023 and it was a contender forI/O. Artistry Stylistically, Gabriel's music has been alternately described by music writers asprogressive rock,art rock,art pop,worldbeat,post-progressiveandprogressive soul.According toRolling Stonejournalist Ryan Reed, Gabriel has developed in all as an \\\"art-rock innovator, soul-pop craftsman, 'world music' ambassador\\\" over the course of his career,while music scholar Gregg Akkermann argues that, despite his progressive rock origins, he has \\\"managed to attract fans from across the spectrum: prog rock, alternative rock, world beat, blue-eyed soul, dance music, the college crowd, the teens, Americans and Europeans\\\".More broadly,AllMusic'sStephen Thomas Erlewinesays Gabriel emerged during the 1980s as \\\"one of rock's most ambitious, innovative musicians\\\", as well as \\\"an international pop star\\\". Gabriel has worked with a relatively stable crew of musicians and recording engineers throughout his solo career. Bass andStickplayerTony Levinhas performed on every Gabriel studio album and every live tour except forScratch My Back(2010), the soundtracksPassion(1989) andLong Walk Home(2002), and the New Blood Tour. GuitaristDavid Rhodeshas been Gabriel's guitarist of choice since 1979. Prior toSo(1986),Jerry Marottawas Gabriel's preferred drummer, both in the studio and on the road. (For theSoandUsalbums and tours Marotta was replaced byManu Katché, who was then replaced byGed Lynchon parts of theUpalbum and all of the subsequent tour). Gabriel is known for choosing top-flight collaborators, from co-producers such as Ezrin, Fripp, Lillywhite and Lanois to musicians such asNatalie Merchant,Elizabeth Fraser,L. Shankar,Trent Reznor,Youssou N'Dour,Larry Fast,Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan,Sinéad O'Connor,Kate Bush,Ane Brun,Paula Cole,John Giblin,Dave Gregory,Peter Hammill,Papa Wemba,Manu Katché,Bayete,Milton Nascimento,Phil Collins,Stewart CopelandandOneRepublic. Over the years, Gabriel has collaborated with singerKate Bushseveral times; Bush provided backing vocals for Gabriel's \\\"Games Without Frontiers\\\" and \\\"No Self Control\\\" in 1980, and female lead vocal for \\\"Don't Give Up\\\" (a top 10 hit in the UK) in 1986, and Gabriel appeared on her television special. Their duet ofRoy Harper's \\\"Another Day\\\" was discussed for release as a single, but never appeared. He also collaborated withavant-gardeartistLaurie Andersonon two versions of her composition \\\"Excellent Birds\\\"—one for her second albumMister Heartbreak(1984),and another version called \\\"This is the Picture (Excellent Birds)\\\", which appeared oncassetteand CD versions ofSo. Gabriel sang (along withJim KerrofSimple Minds) on \\\"Everywhere I Go\\\", fromthe Call's 1986 studio album,Reconciled. OnToni Childs' 1994 studio album,The Woman's Boat, Gabriel sang on the track, \\\"I Met a Man\\\". In 1998, Gabriel appeared on the soundtrack ofBabe: Pig in the Cityas the lead vocalist of the song \\\"That'll Do\\\", written byRandy Newman. The song was nominated for anAcademy Award, and Gabriel and Newman performed it at the following year's Oscar telecast. He performed a similar soundtrack appearance for the 2004 filmShall We Dance?, singing acover versionof \\\"The Book of Love\\\" bythe Magnetic Fields. In 1987, Gabriel appeared onRobbie Robertson'sself-titled solo studio album, singing on \\\"Fallen Angel\\\"; co-wrote twoTom Robinsonsingles; and appeared onJoni Mitchell's 1988 studio albumChalk Mark in a Rain Storm, on the opening track \\\"My Secret Place\\\". In 2001, Gabriel contributed lead vocals to the song \\\"When You're Falling\\\" onAfro Celt Sound System'sVolume 3: Further in Time.In the summer of 2003, Gabriel performed in Ohio with a guest performance by Uzbek singerSevara Nazarkhan. Gabriel collaborated on tracks with electronic musicianBT, who also worked on theOVOsoundtrack with him. The tracks were never released, as the computers they were contained on were stolen from BT's home in California. He also sang the lyrics forDeep Foreston their theme song for the movieStrange Days(1995). In addition, Gabriel has appeared onAngelique Kidjo's 2007 studio albumDjin Djin, singing on the song \\\"Salala\\\". Gabriel has recorded a cover of theVampire Weekendsingle \\\"Cape Cod Kwassa Kwassa\\\" withHot Chip, where his name is mentioned several times in the chorus. He substitutes the original line \\\"But this feels so unnatural / Peter Gabriel too / This feels so unnatural/ Peter Gabriel too\\\" with \\\"It feels so unnatural / Peter Gabriel too / and it feels so unnatural / to sing your own name.\\\" Gabriel collaborated withArcade Fireon their 2022 studio album,We. He sang backing vocals on the track \\\"Unconditional II (Race and Religion)\\\". WOMAD and other projects Gabriel's interest inworld musicwas first apparent on his third solo studio album. According to Spencer Kornhaber inThe Atlanticin 2019: \\\"When Peter Gabriel moved toward 'world music' four decades ago, he not only evangelized sounds that were novel to Western pop. He also set a radio template: majestic, with flourishes meant to read as 'exotic,' and lyrics meant to change lives.\\\"This influence has increased over time, and he is the driving force behind theWorld of Music, Arts and Dance(WOMAD) movement. Gabriel said: The first time I really got into music from another culture was as a result of the shifting ofRadio 4, which I used to wake up to. I'd lost it onmedium waveand was groping around in the morning on the dial, trying to find something that I could listen to, and came across a Dutch radio station who were playing the soundtrack from some obscureStanley Bakermovie calledDingaka. That had quite a lot of stuff from—I think it was—Ghana. I can't remember now, but it really moved me. One of the songs I heard on that was a thing called 'Shosholoza', which I recorded on the b-side of the 'Biko' single. Gabriel created theReal World Studiosand record label to facilitate the creation and distribution of such music by various artists, and he has worked to educate Western culture about such musicians asYungchen Lhamo,Nusrat Fateh Ali KhanandYoussou N'dour. He has a longstanding interest in human rights and launchedWitness,a charity that trains human rights activists to use video and online technologies to expose human rights abuses. In 2006, his work with WITNESS and his long-standing support of peace and human rights causes was recognised by theNobel Peace PrizeLaureates with theMan of Peaceaward. In the 1990s, with Steve Nelson of Brilliant Media and director Michael Coulson, he developed advanced multimedia CD-ROM-based entertainment projects, creatingXplora(the world's largest-selling music CD-ROM), and subsequently theEVECD-ROM.EVEwas a music and art adventure game directed by Michael Coulson and co-produced by theStarwaveCorporation in Seattle; it won the Milia d'Or award Grand Prize at the Cannes in 1996. In 1990, Gabriel lent his backing vocals to Ugandan political exileGeoffrey Oryema's \\\"Land of Anaka\\\", appearing on Oryema's first studio albumExile, released on Gabriel's Real World label. In 1994, Gabriel starred inBreck Eisner's short filmReconas a detective who enters the minds of murder victims to find their killer's identity. Gabriel helped pioneer a new realm of musical interaction in 2001, visitingGeorgia State University's Language Research Center to participate in keyboard jam sessions withbonoboapes from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. (This experience inspired the song \\\"Animal Nation\\\", which was performed on Gabriel's 2002 \\\"Growing Up\\\" tour and was featured on theGrowing Up LiveDVD andThe Wild Thornberrys Moviesoundtrack.) Gabriel's desire to bring attention to the intelligence of primates also took the form of ApeNet, a project that aimed to link great apes through the internet, enabling the first interspecies internet communication. He was one of the founders of on Demand Distribution (OD2), one of the first online music download services. Prior to its closure in 2009, its technology had been used by over 100 music download sites including MSN Music UK, MyCokeMusic, Planet Internet (KPN), Wanadoo and CD WOW!. OD2 was bought by US company Loudeye in June 2004 and subsequently by Finnish mobile giantNokiain October 2006 for $60 million. Gabriel is co-founder (withBrian Eno) of a musicians union called Mudda, short for \\\"magnificent union of digitally downloading artists.\\\" In 2000, Gabriel collaborated withZucchero,Anggunand others in a charity for kids withAIDS. Erick Benzi wrote words and music and Patrick Bruel, Stephan Eicher, Faudel, Lokua Kanza, Laam, Nourith, Axelle Red have accepted to sing it. In 2003, Gabriel contributed a song for the video gameUru: Ages Beyond Myst.In 2004, Gabriel contributed another song (\\\"Curtains\\\") and contributed voice work on another game in theMystfranchise,Myst IV: Revelation. In June 2005, Gabriel and broadcast industry entrepreneurDavid EngelkepurchasedSolid State Logic, a manufacturer of mixing consoles and digital audio workstations.In 2017, the company was sold to theAudiotonixGroup. In May 2008, Gabriel'sReal World Studios, in partnership withBowers & Wilkins, started the Bowers & Wilkins Music Club—later known as Society of Sound—a subscription-based music retail site. Albums are currently available in eitherApple LosslessorFLACformat. He is one of the founding supporters of the annual global eventAsteroid Day. Activist for humanitarian causes In 1986, he started what has become a longstanding association withAmnesty International, becoming a pioneering participant in all 28 of Amnesty'sHuman rights concerts—a series of music events and tours staged by the US Section of Amnesty International between 1986 and 1998. He performed during the six-concertA Conspiracy of HopeUS tour in June 1986; the twenty-concertHuman Rights Now!world tour in 1988; theChile: Embrace of Hope Concertin 1990 and atThe Paris Concert for Amnesty Internationalin 1998. He also performed in Amnesty'sSecret Policeman's Ballbenefit shows in collaboration with other artists and friends such as Lou Reed,David GilmourofPink Floydand Youssou N'Dour; Gabriel closed those concerts performing his anti-apartheidanthem \\\"Biko\\\".He spoke of his support for Amnesty onNBC'sToday Showin 1986. Inspired by the social activism he encountered in his work with Amnesty, in 1992, Gabriel co-foundedWITNESS, a non-profit organisation that equips, trains and supports locally based organisations worldwide to use video and the internet in human rights documentation and advocacy. In 1995, Gabriel and Cape Verdean human rights activistVera Duartewere awarded theNorth–South Prizein its inaugural year. In the late 1990s, Gabriel and entrepreneurRichard Bransondiscussed withNelson Mandelatheir idea of a small, dedicated group of leaders, working objectively and without any vested personal interest to solve difficult global conflicts. On 18 July 2007, inJohannesburg, South Africa, Nelson Mandela announced the formation of a new group,The Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th birthday.Kofi Annanserved as Chair of the Elders andGro Harlem Brundtlandas deputy chair. The other members of the group areMartti Ahtisaari,Ela Bhatt,Lakhdar Brahimi,Fernando Henrique Cardoso,Jimmy Carter,Hina Jilani,Graça Machel,Mary RobinsonandErnesto Zedillo.Desmond Tutuwas an Honorary Elder, as was Nelson Mandela. The Elders is independently funded by a group of donors, including Branson and Gabriel. The Elders use their collective skills to catalyse peaceful resolutions to long-standing conflicts, articulate new approaches to global issues that are causing or may later cause immense human suffering, and share wisdom by helping to connect voices all over the world. They work together to consider carefully which specific issues to approach. In November 2007, Gabriel's non-profit group WITNESS launched The Hub, a participatory media site for human rights. In September 2008, Gabriel was named as the recipient of Amnesty International's 2008Ambassador of Conscience Award. In the same month, he receivedQuadrigaUnited We Careaward of Werkstatt Deutschland along withBoris Tadić,Eckart Höflingand Wikipedia. The award was presented to him byQueen Silvia of Sweden. In 2010, Gabriel lent his support to the campaign to releaseSakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani, an Iranian Azeri woman who was sentenced to death by stoning after being convicted of committing adultery. In December 2013, Gabriel posted a video message in tribute to the deceased former South African president and anti-apartheid leaderNelson Mandela. Gabriel was quoted: To come out of 27 years in jail and to immediately set about building a Rainbow Nation with your sworn enemy is a unique and extraordinary example of courage and forgiveness. In this case, Mandela had seen many of his people beaten, imprisoned and murdered, yet he was still willing to trust the humanity and idealism of those who had been the oppressors, without whom he knew he could not achieve an almostpeaceful transition of power. There is no other example of such inspirational leadership in my lifetime. Gabriel has criticisedAir Francefor their continued transport of monkeys to laboratories. In a letter to the airline, Gabriel wrote that in laboratories, \\\"primates are violently force-fed chemicals, inflicted with brain damage, crippled, addicted to cocaine or alcohol, deprived of food and water, or psychologically tormented and ultimately killed.\\\" In March 2014, Gabriel publicly supported #withsyria, a campaign to rally support for victims of theSyrian Civil War. In November 2014, Gabriel, along withPussy RiotandIron & Winesupported Hong Kong protesters atHong Kong's Lennon Wallin their efforts. In March 2015, Gabriel was awarded an honorary doctorate by theUniversity of South Australiain recognition of his commitment to creativity and its transformational power in building peace and understanding. He composed the song \\\"The Veil\\\" forOliver Stone's filmSnowden(2016). Political views Gabriel has been described as one of rock's most political musicians byAllMusic.In 1992, on the 20th anniversary of theBloody Sundaymassacre, Gabriel joinedPeter Hain,Jeremy Corbyn,Tony Benn,Ken Loach,John PilgerandAdrian Mitchellin voicing his support for a demonstration in London calling for British withdrawal fromNorthern Ireland. At the1997 general election, he declared his support for theLabour Party, which won that election by a landslide after 18 years out of power, led byTony Blair.In 1998, he was named in a list of the biggest private financial donors to Labour.He subsequently distanced himself from the Labour government following Tony Blair's support forGeorge W. Bushand Britain's involvement in theIraq War, which he strongly opposed.Gabriel later explained his decision for funding Labour, saying, \\\"after all those years ofThatcher, that was the only time I've put money into a political party because I wanted to help get rid of theTorygovernment of that time.\\\" In 2005, Gabriel gave aGreen Party of England and Walesgeneral election candidate special permission to record a cover of his song \\\"Don't Give Up\\\" for his campaign.In 2010,The Guardiandescribed Gabriel as \\\"a staunch advocate ofproportional representation.\\\"In 2013, he stated that he had become more interested in online petitioning organisations to effect change than traditional party politics. In 2012, Gabriel condemned the use of his music by the Americanconservative talk radiopersonalityRush Limbaughduringa controversial segment in which Limbaugh vilifiedGeorgetown Universitylaw studentSandra Fluke. A statement on behalf of Gabriel read: \\\"Peter was appalled to learn that his music was linked to Rush Limbaugh's extraordinary attack on Sandra Fluke. It is obvious from anyone that knows Peter's work that he would never approve such a use. He has asked his representatives to make sure his music is withdrawn and especially from these unfair, aggressive and ignorant comments.\\\" In 2016, Gabriel supported the UK's continued membership of theEuropean Unionin thereferendum on the issue. Gabriel has declared his support for thetwo-state solutionto theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict. In 2014, he contributed songs to a new compilation album to raise funds for humanitarian organisations aiding Palestinian Arabs inGaza. Gabriel was quoted: \\\"I am certain that Israelis and Palestinians will both benefit from a two-state solution based on the 1967 borders. We have watched Palestinians suffer for too long, especially in Gaza. I am not, and never was, anti-Israeli oranti-Semitic, but I oppose the policy of the Israeli government, oppose injustice and oppose the occupation ... I am proud to be one of the voices asking the Israeli government: 'Where is the two-state solution that you wanted so much?' and clearly say that enough is enough.\\\"In 2019, Gabriel was among 50 artists who urged theBBCto ask for theEurovision Song Contestto be moved out of Israel, citing human rights concerns.In 2023, Gabriel signed theArtists4Ceasefireopen letter to PresidentJoe Bidencalling for a ceasefire during theIsraeli bombardment of Gaza. Gabriel has been in support of theArmenian genociderecognition.In October 2020, he posted a message on social media in support ofArmeniaandArtsakhin regards to theNagorno-Karabakh war. He said, \\\"The fighting that has now broken out between Azerbaijan and Armenia is really horrific and we need to lobby whoever we can to encourage a ceasefire, but hearing reports that PresidentErdoğanhas now lined up 80,000 Turkish troops on the Armenian border is a terrifying prospect, full of the dark echoes of history.\\\" In popular culture Gabriel's music featured prominently on the popular 1980s television showMiami Vice. The songs include \\\"The Rhythm of the Heat\\\" and \\\"Biko\\\" (from \\\"Evan\\\"), \\\"Red Rain\\\" (from \\\"Stone's War\\\"), \\\"Mercy Street\\\" (from \\\"Killshot\\\"), \\\"Sledgehammer\\\" (from \\\"Better Living Through Chemistry\\\"), \\\"We Do What We're Told (Milgram's 37)\\\" (from \\\"Forgive Us Our Debts\\\" and \\\"Deliver Us from Evil\\\") and \\\"Don't Give Up\\\" (from \\\"Redemption in Blood\\\"). With seven songs used total, Gabriel had the most music featured by a solo artist in the series, and he is the only artist to have had a song used in four of Vice's five seasons. Five of the nine tracks on his most popular albumSo(1986) were used in the series. Gabriel’s song \\\"In Your Eyes\\\" features twice in the teen romance dramaSay Anything(1989). It is the song playing on Lloyd Dobler’s boombox as he serenades Diane, creating the film’s most iconic scene. Gabriel's cover ofDavid Bowie's \\\"Heroes\\\" was featured in the fourth season finale ofBig Love, as well as the first season and the ending scene ofStranger Thingsseason 3 and the ending credits ofLone Survivor. The song also features in 'Children of Mars', a 2020 episode of the web seriesStar Trek: Short Treks. A series of spoof documentaries about the fictitious rock starBrian Pernwere based loosely on Gabriel. In 2021, Northern Irish post-punk band Invaderband released their second studio album entitled 'Peter Gabriel'.The sleeve was a painting of Gabriel byLuke Haines. Personal life Gabriel has married twice and has four children. In 1971, at age 21, he married Jill Moore, daughter of BaronPhilip Moore.They had two daughters,one of whom, Anna-Marie, is a filmmaker who filmed and directed Gabriel's live DVDsGrowing Up on Tour: A Family Portrait(2003),Still Growing Up: Live & Unwrapped(2005) and some of his music videos. Melanie is a musician who had been a backing vocalist in her father's band in 2002–2011. Both daughters appear in the final sequence of the video for their father's song \\\"Sledgehammer\\\". Gabriel's marriage became increasingly strained, culminating in Moore's affair withDavid Lord, the co-producer of Gabriel'sfourth studio album. After the coupledivorcedin 1987, Gabriel fell into a period of depression and attended therapy sessions for six years. For a time after his divorce, Gabriel lived with American actressRosanna Arquette.In 2021, Irish singerSinéad O'Connorsaid that she maintained an on-and-off relationship with Gabriel in the wake of his divorce. She ended the relationship because of her frustration with his lack of commitment, which inspired her single \\\"Thank You for Hearing Me\\\". Gabriel married Meabh Flynn in 2002, with whom he has two sons. Gabriel has resided inWiltshirefor many years and runsReal World StudiosfromBox, Wiltshire. He previously lived in the Woolley Valley nearBath, Somerset. In 2010, he joined a campaign to stop agricultural development in the valley, which had also inspired his first solo single, \\\"Solsbury Hill\\\", in 1977. Discography Studio albums Soundtracks Awards and nominations See also References Citations Works cited External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_(album\",\n \"Sledgehammer Asledgehammeris atoolwith a large, flat, oftenmetalhead, attached to a long handle. The long handle combined with a heavy head allows the sledgehammer to gather momentum during a swing and apply a largeforcecompared to hammers designed to drive nails. Along with themallet, it shares the ability to distribute force over a wide area. This is in contrast to other types ofhammers, which concentrate force in a relatively small area. Etymology The word sledgehammer is derived from the Old-English \\\"slægan\\\", which, in its first sense, means \\\"to strike violently\\\". The English words \\\"slag\\\", \\\"slay\\\", and \\\"slog\\\" arecognates. Uses The handle can range from 50 centimetres (1 ft 8 in) to a full 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) long, depending on the mass of the head.The head mass is usually 1 to 9 kilograms (2.2 to 19.8 lb). Modern heavy duty sledgehammers come with 10-to-20-pound (4.5–9.1 kg) heads. Sledgehammers usually require two hands and a swinging motion involving the entiretorso, in contrast to smallerhammersused for driving innails. The combination of a long swinging range, and heavy head, increases the force of the resulting impact. Sledgehammers are often used indemolitionwork, for breaking throughdrywallormasonrywalls. Sledgehammers were formerly widely used inminingoperations, particularlyhand steel, but are rarely used in modern mining. Sledgehammers are also used when substantial force is necessary to dislodge a trapped object (often infarmoroil fieldwork), or for fracturing concrete. Another common use is for driving fence posts into the ground. Sledgehammers are used by police forces in raids on property to gain entry by force, commonly through doors. They were and still are commonly used by blacksmiths to shape heavy sections of iron. The BritishSAScounter terroristteam used sledgehammers to gain access to rooms during the 1980Iranian Embassy Siege. However, today they use a tool called a \\\"dynamic hammer\\\". Another use of sledgehammers is for driving railroad spikes into woodensleepersduring rail construction. When the two ends of theUnion Pacificrailroad were joined atPromontory, Utah,Leland Stanfordhammered agolden spikeinto a sleeper with a silver hammer.Sledges used to drive spikes for rails had curved headsthat came down to a \\\"beak\\\" that was only about one inch across. The shape meant that drivers needed to be accurate, and spot where the spike hit was often not much larger than a small coin, as anything larger would hit the plate or the sleeper. The curved head kept the handle away from the rail, as the spikes were driven with the rail between the spike and the driver. These are often calledspike mauls. Drilling hammer Adrilling hammer,club hammer,lump hammer,crack hammer,mini-sledgeorthor hammeris a small sledgehammer whose relatively light weight and short handle allow one-handed use.It is useful for light demolition work, driving masonry nails, and for use with a steelchiselwhen cutting stone or metal.In this last application, its weight drives the chisel more deeply into the material being cut than lighter hammers. Club hammers are common on the British inland waterways for driving mooring pins into the towpath or canal bank. Scouts BSAhas adopted the shorter sledgehammer, commonly referred to as an engineer's hammer,as an unofficial tool referred to as the scout hammer, as a complement to the pocket knife and hand axe. The handle is 12–18 inches (30–46 cm) long with a head weighing 2 to 6 lb (0.91–2.72 kg). The hammer is used for a variety of purposes such as driving tent stakes, establishing temporary fencing using wood or metal rebar, splitting wood in conjunction with a wedge, or straightening all that is bent. Post maul Post mauls are similar to sledgehammers in shape, but are meant to drive wooden fence posts or tree stakes into the earth. Newer mauls have broad, flat circular faces that are significantly larger in diameter than the body of the head (where the handle attaches). Older post mauls are significantly larger than sledgehammers like their newer counterparts except the outside diameter (body) of older post maul designs remained the same large diameter as that of the faces of the hammer from one side to the other side. Sledgehammers usually have octagonal faces that are the same diameter or slightly smaller than the body of the head, and they are not nearly as large in overall diameter as a post maul. References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Peter Gabriel Peter Brian Gabriel(born 13 February 1950) is an English singer, songwriter and human rights activist. He was the original lead singer of theprogressive rockbandGenesis.After leaving the band in 1975, he launched a solo career with \"Solsbury Hill\" as his first single. His fifth studio album,So(1986), is his best-selling release and is certified triple platinum in the UK and five times platinum in the US. The album's most successful single, \"Sledgehammer\", won a record nineMTV Awardsat the1987 MTV Video Music Awardsand, according to a report in 2011, it wasMTV's most played music video of all time. Gabriel has been a champion ofworld musicfor much of his career. He co-founded theWOMADfestival in 1982.He has continued to focus on producing and promoting world music through hisReal World Recordslabel. He has pioneered digital distribution methods for music, co-foundingOD2, one of the first online music download services.Gabriel has also been involved in numerous humanitarian efforts. In 1980, he","In 1980, he released the anti-apartheidsingle \"Biko\".He has participated in several human-rights benefit concerts, includingAmnesty International'sHuman Rights Now!tour in 1988, and co-founded theWitnesshuman rights organisation in 1992.Gabriel developedThe ElderswithRichard Branson, which was launched byNelson Mandelain 2007. Gabriel has won threeBrit Awards—winning Best British Male in 1987,sixGrammy Awards,thirteenMTV Video Music Awards, the first Pioneer Award at theBT Digital Music Awards,theQmagazine Lifetime Achievement,theIvor Novello Awardfor Lifetime Achievement,and thePolar Music Prize.He was made aBMIIcon at the 57th annual BMI London Awards for his \"influence on generations of music makers\".In recognition of his many years of human rights activism, he received theMan of Peaceaward from theNobel Peace Prizelaureates in 2006,andTimemagazine named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2008.AllMusicdescribed Gabriel as \"one of rock's most ambitious, innovative musicians, as well","musicians, as well as one of its most political\".He was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a member of Genesis in 2010,and as a solo artist in 2014.In March 2015, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from theUniversity of South Australiain recognition of his achievements in music. Early life Peter Brian Gabriel was born on 13 February 1950 inChobham,Surrey, England, son of Ralph Parton Gabriel (1912–2012) and Edith Irene (1921–2016), daughter of Colonel Edward Allen, chairman of theCivil Service Department Storeon theStrand, London. Gabriel's father was an electrical engineer and dairy farm-owner from a long-established family of London timber importers and merchants, and his mother was from a musical family. Gabriel was raised at Deep Pool Farm, Coxhill, a Victorian manor just outside Chobham.His great-great-great-uncle,Sir Thomas Gabriel, 1st Baronet, wasLord Mayor of Londonfrom 1866 to 1877.Gabriel attended Cable House, a private primary school inWoking, Surrey, followed by St Andrews","by St Andrews Preparatory School for Boys inHorsell, Surrey.During his time at the latter, his teachers noticed his singing talent, but he opted for piano lessons from his mother and developed an interest in drumming. At age 10, he purchased a floor tom-tom. Gabriel remarked of his early influences, \"Hymnsplayed quite a large part. They were the closest I came tosoul musicbefore I discovered soul music. There are certain hymns that you can scream your lungs out on, and I used to love that. It was great when you used to get the old shivers down the back.\"At age 12, Gabriel wrote his first song, \"Sammy the Slug\". Around this time, an aunt gave him money for professional singing lessons, but he used it to buythe Beatles' debut studio albumPlease Please Me(1963).In September 1963, he started atCharterhouse, apublic schoolinGodalming, Surrey.There, he was a drummer and vocalist for his first band: thetrad jazzoutfit the Milords (or M'Lords). This was followed by a holiday band called the Spoken Word,which","Spoken Word,which recorded anacetatein 1966.Gabriel played drums in both these bands, and his schoolmateMike Rutherfordcommented in 1985 that \"Pete was - and still is, I think - a frustrated drummer.\" In 1965, Gabriel formedGarden Wallwith school friendsTony Bankson piano, Johnny Trapman on trumpet, andChris Stewarton drums.Banks had started at Charterhouse at the same time as Gabriel; the two were uninterested in school activities but bonded over music and started to write songs. At a final concert before they broke up, Gabriel, dressed in akaftanand beads, showered the audience with petals he had picked from neighbouring gardens. Career 1967–1975: Genesis In April 1967, after Garden Wall had disbanded, Gabriel and Banks were invited by fellow pupilsAnthony PhillipsandMike Rutherfordto work on ademotape of songs.Gabriel and Banks contributed \"She Is Beautiful\", the first song they wrote together. The tape was sent to former Charterhouse pupil turned musicianJonathan King, who was immediately enthusiastic,","enthusiastic, largely due to Gabriel's vocals. He signed the group and suggested a band name of Gabriel's Angels, but it was unpopular with the other members. They settled on King's other suggestion,Genesis. After King suggested they stick to more straightforward pop, Gabriel and Banks wrote \"The Silent Sun\" as a pastiche of theBee Gees, one of King's favourite bands. It became Genesis's first single, released in 1968.It was included on their debut studio album,From Genesis to Revelation(1968). After the commercial failure ofFrom Genesis to Revelation, the band went their separate ways, and Gabriel continued his studies at Charterhouse.In September 1969, Gabriel, Banks, Rutherford and Phillips decided to drop their plans and make Genesis a full-time working band. In early 1970, Gabriel played the flute onMona Bone JakonbyCat Stevens. The second studio album by Genesis,Trespass(1970), marked Gabriel expanding his musical output with the flute, accordion, tambourine and bass drum, and incorporating hissoul","hissoul musicinfluences. Gabriel explained that he was driven to play these instruments because he was uncomfortable with doing nothing during instrumental sections.He would have preferred to play keyboard instruments, but \"Tony was extraordinarily possessive about the keyboards. I'd done a bit of flute at school, I always liked the sound, and a little bit of oboe (I was an even worse oboe player, but it made a couple of good noises now and again). Then the bass drum was something physical, visual, that I could kick hard and occasionally it was in time!\"The album sold little and at one point, Gabriel secured a place atLondon School of Film Techniquebecause Genesis \"seemed to be dying.\"Genesis recruited guitaristSteve Hackettand drummerPhil Collins. Gabriel began growing in confidence as a frontman, and during an encore performance of \"The Knife\" on 19 June 1971, he took a running jump into the audience, expecting them to catch him, only for them to instead move out of the way and leave him to land on the","him to land on the floor, breaking an ankle. He consequently had to perform Genesis's next several shows with a wheelchair and crutches.Also during theTrespasstour, he started to recite stories to introduce numbers as a way to cover the silence between songs while the band tuned their instruments, or while technical faults were being fixed.These stories were all improvised on the spot, and evolved as the tour went along.The opener of their next studio album,Nursery Cryme(1971), \"The Musical Box\", was their first song in which Gabriel incorporated a story and characters into the lyrics; the lyrics to previous story-based Genesis songs such as \"White Mountain\" and \"One-Eyed Hound\" were all written by other members of the group.Gabriel was the primary writer of \"Harold the Barrel\", another story song onNursery Cryme, with Collins helping him on the lyrics. The shows featuringFoxtrot(1972) marked a key development in Gabriel's stage performance. During a gig inDublinin September 1972, he disappeared from the set","from the set during the instrumental section of \"The Musical Box\" and reappeared in his wife's red dress and a fox's head, mimicking the album's cover. The idea of the fox costume had been suggested to him byPaul Conroyand Glen Colson, employees of Genesis's record label,Charisma Records.Gabriel said he consulted the rest of Genesis about the fox costume but grew tired of arguing about it, but the other members all maintained that nothing was said about it beforehand and that when Gabriel came out in costume they initially mistook him for a fan invading the stage.The incident received front-page coverage inMelody Maker, giving them national exposure which allowed the group to double their performance fee.One of Gabriel's stories was printed on the liner notes of their live album,Genesis Live(1973). By late 1973, following the success ofSelling England by the Pound(1973), which centred on English themes and literary and materialistic references, a typical Genesis show had Gabriel wear fluorescent make-up, a","make-up, a cape, and bat wings for \"Watcher of the Skies\", a helmet, chest plate, and a shield for \"Dancing with the Moonlit Knight\", acrown of thornsand a flower mask for \"Supper's Ready\", and an old man mask for \"The Musical Box\". Gabriel continued to continued to fight for involvement with Genesis's keyboards throughout his time with the group, and following a lengthy argument with Banks, he was allowed to play a minor keyboard part on \"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)\", only for this part to be left out of the mix.\"I Know What I Like\" became Genesis's first hit single, reaching number 21 in theUK Singles Chart. The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway(1974) was Gabriel's final studio album with Genesis. He devised its story of the spiritual journey of Rael, a Puerto Rican youth living in New York City, and insisted upon writing all the lyrics himself, whereas on previous albums the lyrics had been divided among all the members of Genesis.Tensions increased during this period, and Gabriel split with the band","split with the band to pursue a film project withWilliam Friedkin, only to rejoin a week later.Matters were complicated further with the difficult birth of Gabriel's first daughter, resulting in periods of time away from the band. The other members complained that Gabriel was showing a lack of commitment to the band. Gabriel saw this as a \"really unsympathetic handling of my dealing with a family crisis\" and said it caused a breakdown in his relationships with the rest of Genesis; Rutherford later admitted that they had been overly fixated on their music and were very unhelpful in what must have been a difficult time for Gabriel.Gabriel was late to deliver the lyrics, but has denied that he was too busy to write much music for the album and relied on contributions from Banks and Rutherford.Banks corroborated that Gabriel was the primary composer of theLambsongs \"The Carpet Crawlers\" and \"The Chamber of 32 Doors\" and the sole composer of \"Counting Out Time\". During a stop in Cleveland, Ohio, early into the","early into the album's tour, Gabriel informed the band of his intention to leave at its conclusion.Rutherford recalled that they all \"could see it coming.\"Music critics often focused their reviews on Gabriel's theatrics and took the band's musical performance as secondary, which irritated the rest of the band.The tour ended in May 1975, after which Gabriel wrote a piece for the press on 15 August, entitled \"Out, Angels Out\", about his departure, his disillusion with the business, and his desire to spend time with his family.The news stunned fans of the group and left commentators wondering if the band could survive without him.His exit resulted in drummerPhil Collinsreluctantly taking over on lead vocals after 400 singers were fruitlessly auditioned. 1975–1985: Solo debut with four self-titled albums Gabriel described his break from the music business as his \"learning period\", during which he took piano and music lessons. He had recorded demos by the end of 1975, the fruits of a period of writing around 20","writing around 20 songs with his friend Martin Hall.After preparing material for a studio album Gabriel recorded his solo debut,Peter Gabriel, in 1976 and 1977 in Toronto and London, with producerBob Ezrin. Gabriel did not title his first four studio albums. All were labelledPeter Gabriel, using the same typeface, with designs byHipgnosis. \"The idea is to do it like a magazine, which will only come out once a year,\" he remarked in 1978. \"So it's the same title, the same lettering in the same place; only the photo is different.\"Each album has, however, been given a nickname by fans, usually relating to the album cover. Peter Gabriel(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 1: Car) was released in February 1977 and reached No. 7 in the UK and No. 38 in the US. Itslead single, \"Solsbury Hill\", is an autobiographical song about a spiritual experience on top ofSolsbury Hillin Somerset. \"It's about being prepared to lose what you have for what you might get ...\" said Gabriel. \"It's about letting go.\"Gabriel toured the album with an","the album with an 80-date tour from March to November 1977 with a band that included guitaristRobert FrippofKing Crimsonoften playing off stage and introduced as \"Dusty Rhodes\". In late 1977, Gabriel started recording thesecondPeter Gabrielstudio album(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 2: Scratch) in the Netherlands, with Fripp as producer. Its \"Mother of Violence\" was written by Gabriel and his first wife Jill. Released in June 1978, the album went to No. 10 in the UK and No. 45 in the US. Gabriel's tour for the album lasted from August to December 1978. On this tour, Gabriel and his band shaved their heads. Gabriel recorded thethirdPeter Gabrielstudio album(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 3: Melt) in England in 1979. He developed an interest in African music anddrum machinesand later hailed the record as his artistic breakthrough. Gabriel banned the use of cymbals on the album in order to grant more sonic space for instruments like keyboards and synths. This resulted in the creation of the distinctivegated reverb,a noise processing","noise processing technique which came about while recording drums on \"Intruder\", one of the tracks featuringPhil Collins. Collins implemented the reverb to great effect on his debut solo single \"In the Air Tonight\" and it has since became a signature sound of the 1980s and beyond. Upon completionAtlantic Records, Gabriel's US distributor who had released his first two albums, refused to put outPeter Gabriel 3: Meltas they thought it was not commercial enough. Gabriel signed arecording contractwithMercury Records.Released in May 1980, the album went to No. 1 in the UK for three weeks. In the US, it peaked at No. 22. The single \"Games Without Frontiers\" went to No. 4 and \"Biko\" went to No. 36 in the UK. After a handful of shows in 1979, Gabriel toured the album from February to October 1980. The tour marked Gabriel's first successful instance ofcrowd surfing(following his failed June 1971 attempt when touring with Genesis) when he fell back into the audience in a crucifix position. The stunt became a staple of","became a staple of his live shows. OnPeter Gabrielfour(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 4: Security), Gabriel took on greater responsibility over the production than before. He recorded it in 1981 and 1982, solely on digital tape, with a mobile studio parked at his home,Ashcombe House, in Somerset. Gabriel utilized aFairlight CMIdigitalsamplingsynthesizer and incorporated electronic instrumentation with sampling world beat percussion. \"Over the course of the last two albums,\" he observed, \"I've got back into a rhythm consciousness. And the writing—particularly with the invention of these drum machines—is fantastic. You can store in their memories rhythms that interest you and excite you. And then the groove will carry on without you, and the groove will be exactly what you want it to be, rather than what a drummer thinks is appropriate for what you're doing.\" The fourthPeter Gabriel, released in September 1982, hit No. 6 in the UK and No. 28 in the US. The second single, \"Shock the Monkey\", became Gabriel's first top 40","first top 40 hit in the US, reaching No. 29. To handle American distribution, Gabriel signed withGeffen Records, which—initially unbeknown to Gabriel—titled the albumSecurityto differentiate it from the first three. Gabriel's 1982 tour lasted a year and became his first to make a profit.Recordings from the tour were released on Gabriel's debut live release,Plays Live(1983). Gabriel produced versions of the third and fourthPeter Gabrielalbums with German lyrics. The third consisted of the studio recordings, overdubbed with new vocals. The fourth was remixed, with several tracks extended or altered. In 1983, Gabriel developed the soundtrack forAlan Parker's drama filmBirdy(1984), co-produced withDaniel Lanois. This consisted of new material, without lyrics, as well as remixed instrumentals from his previous studio album. 1985–1997:SoandUs After finishing the soundtrack toBirdy, Gabriel shifted his musical focus from rhythm and texture, as heard onPeter Gabrielfour andBirdy, towards more straightforward","straightforward songs.In 1985, he recorded his fifth studio album,So(also co-produced with Lanois).Sowas released in May 1986 and reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 2 in the US. It remains Gabriel's best-selling album with over five million copies sold in the US alone.It produced one of Gabriel's signature songs, that has become a concert staple:In Your Eyes, with a distinctive vocal appearance byYoussou N'Dour, and three UK top 20 singles: \"Sledgehammer\", \"Big Time\" and \"Don't Give Up\", a duet withKate Bush. The first went to No. 1 on the USBillboardHot 100, Gabriel's only single of his career to do so. It knocked \"Invisible Touch\" by Genesis, his former band, out of the top spot, which was also their only US number one hit. In the UK, the single went to No. 4.In 1990,Rolling StonerankedSoat No. 14 on its list of \"Top 100 Albums of the Eighties\". \"Sledgehammer\" was particularly successful, dealing with sex and sexual relations through lyrical innuendos. Its famed music video was a collaboration between","between directorStephen R. Johnson,Aardman Animations,and theBrothers Quayand won a record nineMTV Video Music Awardsin 1987.In 1998, it was named MTV's number one animated video of all time.Soearned Gabriel two wins at the1987Brit Awardsfor Best British Male Solo Artist and Best British Video (for \"Sledgehammer\").He was nominated for fourGrammy Awards:Best Male Rock Vocal Performance,Song of the Year, andRecord of the Yearfor \"Sledgehammer\", andAlbum of the YearforSo.Gabriel toured worldwide to supportSowith the This Way Up Tour, from November 1986 to October 1987. In 1988, Gabriel became involved as composer forMartin Scorsese's filmThe Last Temptation of Christ(1988). Scorsese had contacted Gabriel about the project since 1983 and wished, according to Gabriel, to present \"the struggle between the humanity and divinity of Christ in a powerful and original way\".Gabriel used musicians fromWOMADto perform instrumental pieces with focus on rhythm and African, Middle Eastern and European textures, using","textures, using theNational Sound Archivein London for additional inspiration.The initial plan had dedicated ten weeks for recording before it was cut to three, leaving Gabriel unable to finish all the pieces he originally wanted to record.When the film was finished, Gabriel worked on the soundtrack for an additional four months to develop more of his unfinished ideas. Its soundtrack was released asPassionin June 1989. It won Gabriel aGrammy AwardforBest New Age Performanceand a nomination for aGolden GlobeforBest Original Score – Motion Picture. In 1990, Gabriel put out his first compilation album,Shaking the Tree: Sixteen Golden Greats, which sold 2 million copies in the US. Up until 1989, Gabriel was managed byGail Colson.From 1989 to 1992, Gabriel recorded his follow-up toSo, titledUs. The album saw Gabriel address personal themes, including his failed first marriage, psychotherapy, and the growing distance between him and his eldest daughter at the time. Gabriel's introspection within the context of the","the context of the albumUscan be seen in the first single release \"Digging in the Dirt\" directed by John Downer. Accompanied by a video featuring Gabriel covered in snails and various foliage, this song made reference to the psychotherapy which had taken up much of Gabriel's time since the previous studio album. Gabriel describes his struggle to get through to his daughter in \"Come Talk to Me\" directed byMatt Mahurin, which featured backing vocals bySinéad O'Connor. O'Connor also lent vocals to \"Blood of Eden\", directed byNichola Bruceand Michael Coulson, the third single to be released from the album, and once again dealing with relationship struggles, this time going right back toAdam's rib for inspiration. The album is one of Gabriel's most personal. It met with less success thanSo, reaching No. 2 in the album chart on both sides of the Atlantic, and making modest chart impact with the singles \"Digging in the Dirt\" and the funkier \"Steam\", which evoked memories of \"Sledgehammer\". Gabriel followed the","followed the release of the album with theSecret World Tour, first using touring keyboardist Joy Askew to sing O'Connor's part, then O'Connor herself for a few months.O'Connor quit the tour, and was replaced byPaula Cole, the latter appearing on the tour recordings: a double albumSecret World Live, and a concert video also calledSecret World Live, both released in 1994.The film received the 1996Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video, naming director Francois Girard and producer Robert Warr. Gabriel employed an innovative approach in the marketing of theUsalbum. Not wishing to feature only images of himself, he asked artist filmmakersNichola Bruceand Michael Coulson to co-ordinate a marketing campaign using contemporary artists. Artists such asHelen Chadwick,Rebecca Horn,Nils-Udo,Andy Goldsworthy,David MachandYayoi Kusamacollaborated to create original artworks for each song on the multi-million-selling CD. Coulson and Bruce documented the process on Hi-8 video. Bruce left Real World and Coulson","World and Coulson continued with the campaign, using the documentary background material as the basis for a promotional EPK, the long-form videoAll About Usand the interactive CD-ROMXplora1: Peter Gabriel's Secret World. Gabriel won three moreGrammy Awards, all in the Music Video category. He won theGrammy Award for Best Short Form Music Videoin 1993 and 1994 for the videos to \"Digging in the Dirt\" and \"Steam\", respectively. Gabriel also won the 1996Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Videofor hisSecret World Livevideo. 1997–2009:OVOandUp In 1997, Gabriel was invited to participate in the direction and soundtrack of theMillennium Dome Show, a live multimedia performance staged in theMillennium Domein London throughout 2000.Gabriel said the team were given free rein, which contributed to the various problems they encountered with it, such as a lack of proper budgeting. He also felt that management, while succeeding to get the building finished on time, failed to understand the artistic side of the show and","of the show and its content.Gabriel's soundtrack was released asOVOin June 2000.The Story of OVOwas released in the CD-booklet-shapedcomic bookwhich was part of the CD edition with the title \"OVO The Millennium Show\". Around that same time, the Genesis greatest hits album,Turn It On Again: The Hits(1999), featured Gabriel sharing vocals withPhil Collinson a new version of \"The Carpet Crawlers\" entitled \"The Carpet Crawlers 1999\", produced byTrevor Horn. In 2002 he stuck with soundtrack work for his next project, scoring for the Australian filmRabbit-Proof Fence(2002) withworldbeatmusic. Released in June 2002,Long Walk Home: Music from the Rabbit-Proof Fencereceived a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Original Score – Motion Picture. Later in 2002,Up, Gabriel's first full-length studio album in a decade, was released in September 2002. He started work on it in 1995 before production halted three years later to focus time on other projects and collaborations. Work resumed in 2000, by which time Gabriel","which time Gabriel had 130 potential songs for the album, and spent almost two years on it before management atVirgin Recordspushed Gabriel to complete it.Upreached No. 9 in the US and No. 11 in the UK, and supported with a world tour with a band that included Gabriel's daughter Melanie on backing vocals. The tour was documented with two live DVDs:Growing Up Live(2003) andStill Growing Up: Live & Unwrapped(2005). In 2004, Gabriel met with his former Genesis bandmates to discuss the possibility of stagingThe Lamb Lies Down on Broadway(1974) as a reunion tour. He ultimately dismissed the idea, paving the way for Banks, Rutherford and Collins to organise theTurn It On Again: The Tour. Gabriel produced and performed at theEden Project Live 8 concertin July 2005. He joinedCat Stevenson stage to perform \"Wild World\" duringNelson Mandela's46664concert. In 2005,FIFAasked Gabriel and Brian Eno to organise an opening ceremony for the2006 FIFA World Cupin Germany, but FIFA cancelled the idea in January 2006. At the","2006. At the opening ceremony of the2006 Winter OlympicsinTurin, Gabriel performedJohn Lennon's \"Imagine\". In November 2006, the Seventh World Summit ofNobel Peace Laureatesin Rome presented Gabriel with theMan of Peaceaward. The award, presented by former General Secretary of the USSR and Nobel Peace Prize winnerMikhail GorbachevandWalter Veltroni, Mayor of Rome, was an acknowledgement of Gabriel's extensive contribution and work on behalf of human rights and peace. The award was presented in the Giulio Cesare Hall of the Campidoglio in Rome. At the end of the year, he was awarded theQmagazine Lifetime Achievement Award, presented to him by American musicianMoby. In an interview published in the magazine to accompany the award, Gabriel's contribution to music was described as \"vast and enduring.\" Gabriel took on a project with theBBC World Service's competition \"The Next Big Thing\" to find the world's best young band. Gabriel judged the final six young artists withWilliam Orbit,Geoff TravisandAngélique","TravisandAngélique Kidjo. In June 2008, Gabriel releasedBig Blue Ball, an album of various artists collaborating with each other at his Real World Studios across three summers in the 1990s. He planned its release in the US without assistance from a label; he raised £2 million towards the recording and distribution of the album withIngenious Mediawith the worldwide release handled throughWarner Bros. Records.Gabriel appeared on a nationwide tour for the album in 2009. Gabriel was a judge for the 6th and 8th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists. Gabriel contributed to thePixarfilmWALL-Esoundtrack in 2008 withThomas Newman, including the film's closing song, \"Down to Earth\", for which they received theGrammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. The song was also nominated for aGolden Globe Award for Best Original Songand anAcademy Award for Best Original Song. In February 2009, Gabriel announced that he would not be performing on the2008","on the2008 Academy Awardstelecast because producers of the show were limiting his performance of \"Down to Earth\" fromWALL-Eto 90 seconds. According to Gabriel, his window was reduced to 65 seconds.John Legendand theSoweto Gospel Choirperformed the song in his stead. Gabriel's 2009 tour appearances included Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Venezuela. His first ever performance in Peru was held in Lima on 20 March 2009, during his second visit to the country. On 25 July 2009, he played at WOMAD Charlton Park, his only European performance of the year, to promote Witness. The show included two tracks from the then-forthcomingScratch My Back:Paul Simon's \"The Boy in the Bubble\" andthe Magnetic Fields' \"The Book of Love\". 2009–2019:Scratch My Back,New Bloodand further side projects In 2009, Gabriel recordedScratch My Back, an album of cover songs by various artists includingDavid Bowie,Lou Reed,Arcade Fire,Radiohead,Regina SpektorandNeil Young. The original concept was for Gabriel to cover an artists' song if","an artists' song if they, in turn, covered one of his for an album simultaneously released asI'll Scratch Yours, but several participants later declined or were late to deliver and it was placed on hold.Gabriel avoided using drums and guitar in favour of orchestral arrangements, and altered his usual songwriting method by finishing the vocals first and then the song, for which he collaborated withJohn Metcalfe.Released in February 2010,Scratch My Backreached No. 12 in the UK. Gabriel toured worldwide with the New Blood Tour from March 2010 to July 2012 with a 54-piece orchestra and his daughterMelanieand Norwegian singer-songwriterAne Brunon backing vocals. The follow-up,And I'll Scratch Yours, was released in September 2013. During the New Blood Tour, Gabriel decided to expand on theScratch My Backconcept and, with Metcalfe's assistance, re-record a collection of his own songs with an orchestra. The result,New Blood, was released in October 2011. In September 2012, Gabriel kicked off hisBack to Front","hisBack to Front Tourwhich featuredSo(1986) performed in its entirety with the original musicians who played on the album, to mark its 25th anniversary.When the opening leg finished a month later, Gabriel took one year off to travel the world with his children.The tour resumed with a European leg from September 2013 to December 2014. In 2014, Gabriel was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a solo artist byColdplayfrontmanChris Martin. They performed Gabriel's \"Washing of the Water\" together. Gabriel performed \"Heroes\" byDavid Bowiewith an orchestra at a concert in Berlin to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the fall of theBerlin Wallin November 2014. In 2016, he was featured on the song \"A.I.\" by American pop rock bandOneRepublicfrom their fourth studio albumOh My My. In June 2016, Gabriel released the single \"I'm Amazing\". The song was written several years prior, in part as a tribute to boxerMuhammad Ali.That month, he embarked on a joint tour withStingtitled The Rock Paper Scissors North","Scissors North American Tour. Gabriel re-emerged in 2019 with the release ofRated PG, a compilation of songs that were created for film soundtracks throughout his career. The song selection spans over 30 years and includes tracks that had never been released on an official Gabriel album previously, including \"Down to Earth\" (fromWALL-E) and \"That'll Do\" (fromBabe: Pig in the City), an Oscar-nominated collaboration withRandy Newman. Initially only released on vinyl forRecord Store Dayon 13 April, the album was eventually released on digital streaming services later that month.Later that same year, Gabriel issued another digital release on 13 September titledFlotsam and Jetsam, a collection ofB-sides, remixes and rarities that span Gabriel's entire solo career from 1976 to 2016, including his first solo recording, a cover ofthe Beatles' song \"Strawberry Fields Forever\". 2022–present:I/Oand possible follow-up album By 2002, Gabriel had been continually working on what he had given the tentative title ofI/O, his","title ofI/O, his tenth studio album, which he had begun work on as early as 1995.It was originally set to be released 18 months afterUp, but touring pushed the release far away.He did an interview withRolling Stonein 2005 stating that he had 150 songs in various stages.From 2013 to 2016, he posted regularly on social media about recording the new album.In 2019, he spoke onBBC Radio 6about how he had taken a hiatus from making music due to his wife being sick, but he had begun to return to it now that she had recovered.In 2021, he was interviewed multiple times about his new album, and revealed that he had been recording withManu Katché,Tony LevinandDavid Rhodeson 17 new songs.He posted multiple photos to his Facebook and Instagram of these sessions.In June 2022, Katché told the French magazineL'Illustréthat the album was nearly complete and would be released later that year, pending an official announcement. In November 2022, Gabriel announced his upcoming \"I/O The Tour\" for the spring of 2023 across several","2023 across several European cities, with later dates to be confirmed for the North America leg of the tour for the late summer/fall of 2023.This announcement also confirmed the name of the upcoming album to be stylised asI/O. The first single from the album, \"Panopticom\", was released digitally on 6 January 2023.A new piece from the album will be released on the date of each full moon in 2023,as well as a different mix of the song on each new moon in 2023, starting with the Dark Side Mix of \"Panopticom\".On 5 February, Gabriel released \"The Court\", the second single from the album. On 7 March, Gabriel released the third single, \"Playing for Time\". A basic arrangement of the song featuring only Gabriel on piano and Levin on bass had already opened the shows on theBack to Front Tour, by the name of \"Daddy Long Legs\".The title track \"I/O\" was the fourth single released on 6 April. On 5 May, Peter Gabriel released the fifth single from the album, \"Four Kinds of Horses\", a track which is a collaboration withBrian","withBrian EnoandRichard Russell. The sixth single, \"Road to Joy\", was released on 4 June. Six more singles were released, separately, within the next six months—\"So Much\", \"Olive Tree\", \"Love Can Heal\", \"This Is Home\", \"And Still\" and \"Live and Let Live\"—beforeI/Owas finally released on 1 December 2023. One day prior toI/O's release, Gabriel toldThe New York Timesthat he does not expect a follow-up album (which he described as his \"brain project\") to take another 21 years, saying that \"there's a lot of stuff in the can\" but added that the material is not yet finished. Additionally, Gabriel stated in his November 2023 Full Moon update video that the track \"What Lies Ahead\" will be on \"the next record\".He performed \"What Lies Ahead\" several times in 2023 and it was a contender forI/O. Artistry Stylistically, Gabriel's music has been alternately described by music writers asprogressive rock,art rock,art pop,worldbeat,post-progressiveandprogressive soul.According toRolling Stonejournalist Ryan Reed, Gabriel has","Reed, Gabriel has developed in all as an \"art-rock innovator, soul-pop craftsman, 'world music' ambassador\" over the course of his career,while music scholar Gregg Akkermann argues that, despite his progressive rock origins, he has \"managed to attract fans from across the spectrum: prog rock, alternative rock, world beat, blue-eyed soul, dance music, the college crowd, the teens, Americans and Europeans\".More broadly,AllMusic'sStephen Thomas Erlewinesays Gabriel emerged during the 1980s as \"one of rock's most ambitious, innovative musicians\", as well as \"an international pop star\". Gabriel has worked with a relatively stable crew of musicians and recording engineers throughout his solo career. Bass andStickplayerTony Levinhas performed on every Gabriel studio album and every live tour except forScratch My Back(2010), the soundtracksPassion(1989) andLong Walk Home(2002), and the New Blood Tour. GuitaristDavid Rhodeshas been Gabriel's guitarist of choice since 1979. Prior toSo(1986),Jerry Marottawas Gabriel's","Gabriel's preferred drummer, both in the studio and on the road. (For theSoandUsalbums and tours Marotta was replaced byManu Katché, who was then replaced byGed Lynchon parts of theUpalbum and all of the subsequent tour). Gabriel is known for choosing top-flight collaborators, from co-producers such as Ezrin, Fripp, Lillywhite and Lanois to musicians such asNatalie Merchant,Elizabeth Fraser,L. Shankar,Trent Reznor,Youssou N'Dour,Larry Fast,Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan,Sinéad O'Connor,Kate Bush,Ane Brun,Paula Cole,John Giblin,Dave Gregory,Peter Hammill,Papa Wemba,Manu Katché,Bayete,Milton Nascimento,Phil Collins,Stewart CopelandandOneRepublic. Over the years, Gabriel has collaborated with singerKate Bushseveral times; Bush provided backing vocals for Gabriel's \"Games Without Frontiers\" and \"No Self Control\" in 1980, and female lead vocal for \"Don't Give Up\" (a top 10 hit in the UK) in 1986, and Gabriel appeared on her television special. Their duet ofRoy Harper's \"Another Day\" was discussed for release as a single,","as a single, but never appeared. He also collaborated withavant-gardeartistLaurie Andersonon two versions of her composition \"Excellent Birds\"—one for her second albumMister Heartbreak(1984),and another version called \"This is the Picture (Excellent Birds)\", which appeared oncassetteand CD versions ofSo. Gabriel sang (along withJim KerrofSimple Minds) on \"Everywhere I Go\", fromthe Call's 1986 studio album,Reconciled. OnToni Childs' 1994 studio album,The Woman's Boat, Gabriel sang on the track, \"I Met a Man\". In 1998, Gabriel appeared on the soundtrack ofBabe: Pig in the Cityas the lead vocalist of the song \"That'll Do\", written byRandy Newman. The song was nominated for anAcademy Award, and Gabriel and Newman performed it at the following year's Oscar telecast. He performed a similar soundtrack appearance for the 2004 filmShall We Dance?, singing acover versionof \"The Book of Love\" bythe Magnetic Fields. In 1987, Gabriel appeared onRobbie Robertson'sself-titled solo studio album, singing on \"Fallen Angel\";","on \"Fallen Angel\"; co-wrote twoTom Robinsonsingles; and appeared onJoni Mitchell's 1988 studio albumChalk Mark in a Rain Storm, on the opening track \"My Secret Place\". In 2001, Gabriel contributed lead vocals to the song \"When You're Falling\" onAfro Celt Sound System'sVolume 3: Further in Time.In the summer of 2003, Gabriel performed in Ohio with a guest performance by Uzbek singerSevara Nazarkhan. Gabriel collaborated on tracks with electronic musicianBT, who also worked on theOVOsoundtrack with him. The tracks were never released, as the computers they were contained on were stolen from BT's home in California. He also sang the lyrics forDeep Foreston their theme song for the movieStrange Days(1995). In addition, Gabriel has appeared onAngelique Kidjo's 2007 studio albumDjin Djin, singing on the song \"Salala\". Gabriel has recorded a cover of theVampire Weekendsingle \"Cape Cod Kwassa Kwassa\" withHot Chip, where his name is mentioned several times in the chorus. He substitutes the original line \"But this","line \"But this feels so unnatural / Peter Gabriel too / This feels so unnatural/ Peter Gabriel too\" with \"It feels so unnatural / Peter Gabriel too / and it feels so unnatural / to sing your own name.\" Gabriel collaborated withArcade Fireon their 2022 studio album,We. He sang backing vocals on the track \"Unconditional II (Race and Religion)\". WOMAD and other projects Gabriel's interest inworld musicwas first apparent on his third solo studio album. According to Spencer Kornhaber inThe Atlanticin 2019: \"When Peter Gabriel moved toward 'world music' four decades ago, he not only evangelized sounds that were novel to Western pop. He also set a radio template: majestic, with flourishes meant to read as 'exotic,' and lyrics meant to change lives.\"This influence has increased over time, and he is the driving force behind theWorld of Music, Arts and Dance(WOMAD) movement. Gabriel said: The first time I really got into music from another culture was as a result of the shifting ofRadio 4, which I used to wake up to.","used to wake up to. I'd lost it onmedium waveand was groping around in the morning on the dial, trying to find something that I could listen to, and came across a Dutch radio station who were playing the soundtrack from some obscureStanley Bakermovie calledDingaka. That had quite a lot of stuff from—I think it was—Ghana. I can't remember now, but it really moved me. One of the songs I heard on that was a thing called 'Shosholoza', which I recorded on the b-side of the 'Biko' single. Gabriel created theReal World Studiosand record label to facilitate the creation and distribution of such music by various artists, and he has worked to educate Western culture about such musicians asYungchen Lhamo,Nusrat Fateh Ali KhanandYoussou N'dour. He has a longstanding interest in human rights and launchedWitness,a charity that trains human rights activists to use video and online technologies to expose human rights abuses. In 2006, his work with WITNESS and his long-standing support of peace and human rights causes was","rights causes was recognised by theNobel Peace PrizeLaureates with theMan of Peaceaward. In the 1990s, with Steve Nelson of Brilliant Media and director Michael Coulson, he developed advanced multimedia CD-ROM-based entertainment projects, creatingXplora(the world's largest-selling music CD-ROM), and subsequently theEVECD-ROM.EVEwas a music and art adventure game directed by Michael Coulson and co-produced by theStarwaveCorporation in Seattle; it won the Milia d'Or award Grand Prize at the Cannes in 1996. In 1990, Gabriel lent his backing vocals to Ugandan political exileGeoffrey Oryema's \"Land of Anaka\", appearing on Oryema's first studio albumExile, released on Gabriel's Real World label. In 1994, Gabriel starred inBreck Eisner's short filmReconas a detective who enters the minds of murder victims to find their killer's identity. Gabriel helped pioneer a new realm of musical interaction in 2001, visitingGeorgia State University's Language Research Center to participate in keyboard jam sessions","jam sessions withbonoboapes from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. (This experience inspired the song \"Animal Nation\", which was performed on Gabriel's 2002 \"Growing Up\" tour and was featured on theGrowing Up LiveDVD andThe Wild Thornberrys Moviesoundtrack.) Gabriel's desire to bring attention to the intelligence of primates also took the form of ApeNet, a project that aimed to link great apes through the internet, enabling the first interspecies internet communication. He was one of the founders of on Demand Distribution (OD2), one of the first online music download services. Prior to its closure in 2009, its technology had been used by over 100 music download sites including MSN Music UK, MyCokeMusic, Planet Internet (KPN), Wanadoo and CD WOW!. OD2 was bought by US company Loudeye in June 2004 and subsequently by Finnish mobile giantNokiain October 2006 for $60 million. Gabriel is co-founder (withBrian Eno) of a musicians union called Mudda, short for \"magnificent union of digitally downloading","downloading artists.\" In 2000, Gabriel collaborated withZucchero,Anggunand others in a charity for kids withAIDS. Erick Benzi wrote words and music and Patrick Bruel, Stephan Eicher, Faudel, Lokua Kanza, Laam, Nourith, Axelle Red have accepted to sing it. In 2003, Gabriel contributed a song for the video gameUru: Ages Beyond Myst.In 2004, Gabriel contributed another song (\"Curtains\") and contributed voice work on another game in theMystfranchise,Myst IV: Revelation. In June 2005, Gabriel and broadcast industry entrepreneurDavid EngelkepurchasedSolid State Logic, a manufacturer of mixing consoles and digital audio workstations.In 2017, the company was sold to theAudiotonixGroup. In May 2008, Gabriel'sReal World Studios, in partnership withBowers & Wilkins, started the Bowers & Wilkins Music Club—later known as Society of Sound—a subscription-based music retail site. Albums are currently available in eitherApple LosslessorFLACformat. He is one of the founding supporters of the annual global eventAsteroid Day.","eventAsteroid Day. Activist for humanitarian causes In 1986, he started what has become a longstanding association withAmnesty International, becoming a pioneering participant in all 28 of Amnesty'sHuman rights concerts—a series of music events and tours staged by the US Section of Amnesty International between 1986 and 1998. He performed during the six-concertA Conspiracy of HopeUS tour in June 1986; the twenty-concertHuman Rights Now!world tour in 1988; theChile: Embrace of Hope Concertin 1990 and atThe Paris Concert for Amnesty Internationalin 1998. He also performed in Amnesty'sSecret Policeman's Ballbenefit shows in collaboration with other artists and friends such as Lou Reed,David GilmourofPink Floydand Youssou N'Dour; Gabriel closed those concerts performing his anti-apartheidanthem \"Biko\".He spoke of his support for Amnesty onNBC'sToday Showin 1986. Inspired by the social activism he encountered in his work with Amnesty, in 1992, Gabriel co-foundedWITNESS, a non-profit organisation that equips,","that equips, trains and supports locally based organisations worldwide to use video and the internet in human rights documentation and advocacy. In 1995, Gabriel and Cape Verdean human rights activistVera Duartewere awarded theNorth–South Prizein its inaugural year. In the late 1990s, Gabriel and entrepreneurRichard Bransondiscussed withNelson Mandelatheir idea of a small, dedicated group of leaders, working objectively and without any vested personal interest to solve difficult global conflicts. On 18 July 2007, inJohannesburg, South Africa, Nelson Mandela announced the formation of a new group,The Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th birthday.Kofi Annanserved as Chair of the Elders andGro Harlem Brundtlandas deputy chair. The other members of the group areMartti Ahtisaari,Ela Bhatt,Lakhdar Brahimi,Fernando Henrique Cardoso,Jimmy Carter,Hina Jilani,Graça Machel,Mary RobinsonandErnesto Zedillo.Desmond Tutuwas an Honorary Elder, as was Nelson Mandela. The Elders is independently funded","funded by a group of donors, including Branson and Gabriel. The Elders use their collective skills to catalyse peaceful resolutions to long-standing conflicts, articulate new approaches to global issues that are causing or may later cause immense human suffering, and share wisdom by helping to connect voices all over the world. They work together to consider carefully which specific issues to approach. In November 2007, Gabriel's non-profit group WITNESS launched The Hub, a participatory media site for human rights. In September 2008, Gabriel was named as the recipient of Amnesty International's 2008Ambassador of Conscience Award. In the same month, he receivedQuadrigaUnited We Careaward of Werkstatt Deutschland along withBoris Tadić,Eckart Höflingand Wikipedia. The award was presented to him byQueen Silvia of Sweden. In 2010, Gabriel lent his support to the campaign to releaseSakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani, an Iranian Azeri woman who was sentenced to death by stoning after being convicted of committing","of committing adultery. In December 2013, Gabriel posted a video message in tribute to the deceased former South African president and anti-apartheid leaderNelson Mandela. Gabriel was quoted: To come out of 27 years in jail and to immediately set about building a Rainbow Nation with your sworn enemy is a unique and extraordinary example of courage and forgiveness. In this case, Mandela had seen many of his people beaten, imprisoned and murdered, yet he was still willing to trust the humanity and idealism of those who had been the oppressors, without whom he knew he could not achieve an almostpeaceful transition of power. There is no other example of such inspirational leadership in my lifetime. Gabriel has criticisedAir Francefor their continued transport of monkeys to laboratories. In a letter to the airline, Gabriel wrote that in laboratories, \"primates are violently force-fed chemicals, inflicted with brain damage, crippled, addicted to cocaine or alcohol, deprived of food and water, or psychologically","or psychologically tormented and ultimately killed.\" In March 2014, Gabriel publicly supported #withsyria, a campaign to rally support for victims of theSyrian Civil War. In November 2014, Gabriel, along withPussy RiotandIron & Winesupported Hong Kong protesters atHong Kong's Lennon Wallin their efforts. In March 2015, Gabriel was awarded an honorary doctorate by theUniversity of South Australiain recognition of his commitment to creativity and its transformational power in building peace and understanding. He composed the song \"The Veil\" forOliver Stone's filmSnowden(2016). Political views Gabriel has been described as one of rock's most political musicians byAllMusic.In 1992, on the 20th anniversary of theBloody Sundaymassacre, Gabriel joinedPeter Hain,Jeremy Corbyn,Tony Benn,Ken Loach,John PilgerandAdrian Mitchellin voicing his support for a demonstration in London calling for British withdrawal fromNorthern Ireland. At the1997 general election, he declared his support for theLabour Party, which won that","which won that election by a landslide after 18 years out of power, led byTony Blair.In 1998, he was named in a list of the biggest private financial donors to Labour.He subsequently distanced himself from the Labour government following Tony Blair's support forGeorge W. Bushand Britain's involvement in theIraq War, which he strongly opposed.Gabriel later explained his decision for funding Labour, saying, \"after all those years ofThatcher, that was the only time I've put money into a political party because I wanted to help get rid of theTorygovernment of that time.\" In 2005, Gabriel gave aGreen Party of England and Walesgeneral election candidate special permission to record a cover of his song \"Don't Give Up\" for his campaign.In 2010,The Guardiandescribed Gabriel as \"a staunch advocate ofproportional representation.\"In 2013, he stated that he had become more interested in online petitioning organisations to effect change than traditional party politics. In 2012, Gabriel condemned the use of his music by","use of his music by the Americanconservative talk radiopersonalityRush Limbaughduringa controversial segment in which Limbaugh vilifiedGeorgetown Universitylaw studentSandra Fluke. A statement on behalf of Gabriel read: \"Peter was appalled to learn that his music was linked to Rush Limbaugh's extraordinary attack on Sandra Fluke. It is obvious from anyone that knows Peter's work that he would never approve such a use. He has asked his representatives to make sure his music is withdrawn and especially from these unfair, aggressive and ignorant comments.\" In 2016, Gabriel supported the UK's continued membership of theEuropean Unionin thereferendum on the issue. Gabriel has declared his support for thetwo-state solutionto theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict. In 2014, he contributed songs to a new compilation album to raise funds for humanitarian organisations aiding Palestinian Arabs inGaza. Gabriel was quoted: \"I am certain that Israelis and Palestinians will both benefit from a two-state solution based on the","based on the 1967 borders. We have watched Palestinians suffer for too long, especially in Gaza. I am not, and never was, anti-Israeli oranti-Semitic, but I oppose the policy of the Israeli government, oppose injustice and oppose the occupation ... I am proud to be one of the voices asking the Israeli government: 'Where is the two-state solution that you wanted so much?' and clearly say that enough is enough.\"In 2019, Gabriel was among 50 artists who urged theBBCto ask for theEurovision Song Contestto be moved out of Israel, citing human rights concerns.In 2023, Gabriel signed theArtists4Ceasefireopen letter to PresidentJoe Bidencalling for a ceasefire during theIsraeli bombardment of Gaza. Gabriel has been in support of theArmenian genociderecognition.In October 2020, he posted a message on social media in support ofArmeniaandArtsakhin regards to theNagorno-Karabakh war. He said, \"The fighting that has now broken out between Azerbaijan and Armenia is really horrific and we need to lobby whoever we can to","whoever we can to encourage a ceasefire, but hearing reports that PresidentErdoğanhas now lined up 80,000 Turkish troops on the Armenian border is a terrifying prospect, full of the dark echoes of history.\" In popular culture Gabriel's music featured prominently on the popular 1980s television showMiami Vice. The songs include \"The Rhythm of the Heat\" and \"Biko\" (from \"Evan\"), \"Red Rain\" (from \"Stone's War\"), \"Mercy Street\" (from \"Killshot\"), \"Sledgehammer\" (from \"Better Living Through Chemistry\"), \"We Do What We're Told (Milgram's 37)\" (from \"Forgive Us Our Debts\" and \"Deliver Us from Evil\") and \"Don't Give Up\" (from \"Redemption in Blood\"). With seven songs used total, Gabriel had the most music featured by a solo artist in the series, and he is the only artist to have had a song used in four of Vice's five seasons. Five of the nine tracks on his most popular albumSo(1986) were used in the series. Gabriel’s song \"In Your Eyes\" features twice in the teen romance dramaSay Anything(1989). It is the song","It is the song playing on Lloyd Dobler’s boombox as he serenades Diane, creating the film’s most iconic scene. Gabriel's cover ofDavid Bowie's \"Heroes\" was featured in the fourth season finale ofBig Love, as well as the first season and the ending scene ofStranger Thingsseason 3 and the ending credits ofLone Survivor. The song also features in 'Children of Mars', a 2020 episode of the web seriesStar Trek: Short Treks. A series of spoof documentaries about the fictitious rock starBrian Pernwere based loosely on Gabriel. In 2021, Northern Irish post-punk band Invaderband released their second studio album entitled 'Peter Gabriel'.The sleeve was a painting of Gabriel byLuke Haines. Personal life Gabriel has married twice and has four children. In 1971, at age 21, he married Jill Moore, daughter of BaronPhilip Moore.They had two daughters,one of whom, Anna-Marie, is a filmmaker who filmed and directed Gabriel's live DVDsGrowing Up on Tour: A Family Portrait(2003),Still Growing Up: Live & Unwrapped(2005) and some","and some of his music videos. Melanie is a musician who had been a backing vocalist in her father's band in 2002–2011. Both daughters appear in the final sequence of the video for their father's song \"Sledgehammer\". Gabriel's marriage became increasingly strained, culminating in Moore's affair withDavid Lord, the co-producer of Gabriel'sfourth studio album. After the coupledivorcedin 1987, Gabriel fell into a period of depression and attended therapy sessions for six years. For a time after his divorce, Gabriel lived with American actressRosanna Arquette.In 2021, Irish singerSinéad O'Connorsaid that she maintained an on-and-off relationship with Gabriel in the wake of his divorce. She ended the relationship because of her frustration with his lack of commitment, which inspired her single \"Thank You for Hearing Me\". Gabriel married Meabh Flynn in 2002, with whom he has two sons. Gabriel has resided inWiltshirefor many years and runsReal World StudiosfromBox, Wiltshire. He previously lived in the Woolley","in the Woolley Valley nearBath, Somerset. In 2010, he joined a campaign to stop agricultural development in the valley, which had also inspired his first solo single, \"Solsbury Hill\", in 1977. Discography Studio albums Soundtracks Awards and nominations See also References Citations Works cited External links","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_(album","Sledgehammer Asledgehammeris atoolwith a large, flat, oftenmetalhead, attached to a long handle. The long handle combined with a heavy head allows the sledgehammer to gather momentum during a swing and apply a largeforcecompared to hammers designed to drive nails. Along with themallet, it shares the ability to distribute force over a wide area. This is in contrast to other types ofhammers, which concentrate force in a relatively small area. Etymology The word sledgehammer is derived from the Old-English \"slægan\", which, in its first sense, means \"to strike violently\". The English words \"slag\", \"slay\", and \"slog\" arecognates. Uses The handle can range from 50 centimetres (1 ft 8 in) to a full 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) long, depending on the mass of the head.The head mass is usually 1 to 9 kilograms (2.2 to 19.8 lb). Modern heavy duty sledgehammers come with 10-to-20-pound (4.5–9.1 kg) heads. Sledgehammers usually require two hands and a swinging motion involving the entiretorso, in contrast to smallerhammersused for","for driving innails. The combination of a long swinging range, and heavy head, increases the force of the resulting impact. Sledgehammers are often used indemolitionwork, for breaking throughdrywallormasonrywalls. Sledgehammers were formerly widely used inminingoperations, particularlyhand steel, but are rarely used in modern mining. Sledgehammers are also used when substantial force is necessary to dislodge a trapped object (often infarmoroil fieldwork), or for fracturing concrete. Another common use is for driving fence posts into the ground. Sledgehammers are used by police forces in raids on property to gain entry by force, commonly through doors. They were and still are commonly used by blacksmiths to shape heavy sections of iron. The BritishSAScounter terroristteam used sledgehammers to gain access to rooms during the 1980Iranian Embassy Siege. However, today they use a tool called a \"dynamic hammer\". Another use of sledgehammers is for driving railroad spikes into woodensleepersduring rail","rail construction. When the two ends of theUnion Pacificrailroad were joined atPromontory, Utah,Leland Stanfordhammered agolden spikeinto a sleeper with a silver hammer.Sledges used to drive spikes for rails had curved headsthat came down to a \"beak\" that was only about one inch across. The shape meant that drivers needed to be accurate, and spot where the spike hit was often not much larger than a small coin, as anything larger would hit the plate or the sleeper. The curved head kept the handle away from the rail, as the spikes were driven with the rail between the spike and the driver. These are often calledspike mauls. Drilling hammer Adrilling hammer,club hammer,lump hammer,crack hammer,mini-sledgeorthor hammeris a small sledgehammer whose relatively light weight and short handle allow one-handed use.It is useful for light demolition work, driving masonry nails, and for use with a steelchiselwhen cutting stone or metal.In this last application, its weight drives the chisel more deeply into the material","into the material being cut than lighter hammers. Club hammers are common on the British inland waterways for driving mooring pins into the towpath or canal bank. Scouts BSAhas adopted the shorter sledgehammer, commonly referred to as an engineer's hammer,as an unofficial tool referred to as the scout hammer, as a complement to the pocket knife and hand axe. The handle is 12–18 inches (30–46 cm) long with a head weighing 2 to 6 lb (0.91–2.72 kg). The hammer is used for a variety of purposes such as driving tent stakes, establishing temporary fencing using wood or metal rebar, splitting wood in conjunction with a wedge, or straightening all that is bent. Post maul Post mauls are similar to sledgehammers in shape, but are meant to drive wooden fence posts or tree stakes into the earth. Newer mauls have broad, flat circular faces that are significantly larger in diameter than the body of the head (where the handle attaches). Older post mauls are significantly larger than sledgehammers like their newer","like their newer counterparts except the outside diameter (body) of older post maul designs remained the same large diameter as that of the faces of the hammer from one side to the other side. Sledgehammers usually have octagonal faces that are the same diameter or slightly smaller than the body of the head, and they are not nearly as large in overall diameter as a post maul. References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Peter Gabriel Peter Brian Gabriel(born 13 February 1950) is an English singer, songwriter and human rights activist. He was the original lead singer of theprogressive rockbandGenesis.After leaving the band in 1975, he launched a solo career with \\\"Solsbury Hill\\\" as his first single. His fifth studio album,So(1986), is his best-selling release and is certified triple platinum in the UK and five times platinum in the US. The album's most successful single, \\\"Sledgehammer\\\", won a record nineMTV Awardsat the1987 MTV Video Music Awardsand, according to a report in 2011, it wasMTV's most played music video of all time. Gabriel has been a champion ofworld musicfor much of his career. He co-founded theWOMADfestival in 1982.He has continued to focus on producing and promoting world music through hisReal World Recordslabel. He has pioneered digital distribution methods for music, co-foundingOD2, one of the first online music download services.Gabriel has also been involved in numerous humanitarian efforts. In 1980, he\",\n \"In 1980, he released the anti-apartheidsingle \\\"Biko\\\".He has participated in several human-rights benefit concerts, includingAmnesty International'sHuman Rights Now!tour in 1988, and co-founded theWitnesshuman rights organisation in 1992.Gabriel developedThe ElderswithRichard Branson, which was launched byNelson Mandelain 2007. Gabriel has won threeBrit Awards—winning Best British Male in 1987,sixGrammy Awards,thirteenMTV Video Music Awards, the first Pioneer Award at theBT Digital Music Awards,theQmagazine Lifetime Achievement,theIvor Novello Awardfor Lifetime Achievement,and thePolar Music Prize.He was made aBMIIcon at the 57th annual BMI London Awards for his \\\"influence on generations of music makers\\\".In recognition of his many years of human rights activism, he received theMan of Peaceaward from theNobel Peace Prizelaureates in 2006,andTimemagazine named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2008.AllMusicdescribed Gabriel as \\\"one of rock's most ambitious, innovative musicians, as well\",\n \"musicians, as well as one of its most political\\\".He was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a member of Genesis in 2010,and as a solo artist in 2014.In March 2015, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from theUniversity of South Australiain recognition of his achievements in music. Early life Peter Brian Gabriel was born on 13 February 1950 inChobham,Surrey, England, son of Ralph Parton Gabriel (1912–2012) and Edith Irene (1921–2016), daughter of Colonel Edward Allen, chairman of theCivil Service Department Storeon theStrand, London. Gabriel's father was an electrical engineer and dairy farm-owner from a long-established family of London timber importers and merchants, and his mother was from a musical family. Gabriel was raised at Deep Pool Farm, Coxhill, a Victorian manor just outside Chobham.His great-great-great-uncle,Sir Thomas Gabriel, 1st Baronet, wasLord Mayor of Londonfrom 1866 to 1877.Gabriel attended Cable House, a private primary school inWoking, Surrey, followed by St Andrews\",\n \"by St Andrews Preparatory School for Boys inHorsell, Surrey.During his time at the latter, his teachers noticed his singing talent, but he opted for piano lessons from his mother and developed an interest in drumming. At age 10, he purchased a floor tom-tom. Gabriel remarked of his early influences, \\\"Hymnsplayed quite a large part. They were the closest I came tosoul musicbefore I discovered soul music. There are certain hymns that you can scream your lungs out on, and I used to love that. It was great when you used to get the old shivers down the back.\\\"At age 12, Gabriel wrote his first song, \\\"Sammy the Slug\\\". Around this time, an aunt gave him money for professional singing lessons, but he used it to buythe Beatles' debut studio albumPlease Please Me(1963).In September 1963, he started atCharterhouse, apublic schoolinGodalming, Surrey.There, he was a drummer and vocalist for his first band: thetrad jazzoutfit the Milords (or M'Lords). This was followed by a holiday band called the Spoken Word,which\",\n \"Spoken Word,which recorded anacetatein 1966.Gabriel played drums in both these bands, and his schoolmateMike Rutherfordcommented in 1985 that \\\"Pete was - and still is, I think - a frustrated drummer.\\\" In 1965, Gabriel formedGarden Wallwith school friendsTony Bankson piano, Johnny Trapman on trumpet, andChris Stewarton drums.Banks had started at Charterhouse at the same time as Gabriel; the two were uninterested in school activities but bonded over music and started to write songs. At a final concert before they broke up, Gabriel, dressed in akaftanand beads, showered the audience with petals he had picked from neighbouring gardens. Career 1967–1975: Genesis In April 1967, after Garden Wall had disbanded, Gabriel and Banks were invited by fellow pupilsAnthony PhillipsandMike Rutherfordto work on ademotape of songs.Gabriel and Banks contributed \\\"She Is Beautiful\\\", the first song they wrote together. The tape was sent to former Charterhouse pupil turned musicianJonathan King, who was immediately enthusiastic,\",\n \"enthusiastic, largely due to Gabriel's vocals. He signed the group and suggested a band name of Gabriel's Angels, but it was unpopular with the other members. They settled on King's other suggestion,Genesis. After King suggested they stick to more straightforward pop, Gabriel and Banks wrote \\\"The Silent Sun\\\" as a pastiche of theBee Gees, one of King's favourite bands. It became Genesis's first single, released in 1968.It was included on their debut studio album,From Genesis to Revelation(1968). After the commercial failure ofFrom Genesis to Revelation, the band went their separate ways, and Gabriel continued his studies at Charterhouse.In September 1969, Gabriel, Banks, Rutherford and Phillips decided to drop their plans and make Genesis a full-time working band. In early 1970, Gabriel played the flute onMona Bone JakonbyCat Stevens. The second studio album by Genesis,Trespass(1970), marked Gabriel expanding his musical output with the flute, accordion, tambourine and bass drum, and incorporating hissoul\",\n \"hissoul musicinfluences. Gabriel explained that he was driven to play these instruments because he was uncomfortable with doing nothing during instrumental sections.He would have preferred to play keyboard instruments, but \\\"Tony was extraordinarily possessive about the keyboards. I'd done a bit of flute at school, I always liked the sound, and a little bit of oboe (I was an even worse oboe player, but it made a couple of good noises now and again). Then the bass drum was something physical, visual, that I could kick hard and occasionally it was in time!\\\"The album sold little and at one point, Gabriel secured a place atLondon School of Film Techniquebecause Genesis \\\"seemed to be dying.\\\"Genesis recruited guitaristSteve Hackettand drummerPhil Collins. Gabriel began growing in confidence as a frontman, and during an encore performance of \\\"The Knife\\\" on 19 June 1971, he took a running jump into the audience, expecting them to catch him, only for them to instead move out of the way and leave him to land on the\",\n \"him to land on the floor, breaking an ankle. He consequently had to perform Genesis's next several shows with a wheelchair and crutches.Also during theTrespasstour, he started to recite stories to introduce numbers as a way to cover the silence between songs while the band tuned their instruments, or while technical faults were being fixed.These stories were all improvised on the spot, and evolved as the tour went along.The opener of their next studio album,Nursery Cryme(1971), \\\"The Musical Box\\\", was their first song in which Gabriel incorporated a story and characters into the lyrics; the lyrics to previous story-based Genesis songs such as \\\"White Mountain\\\" and \\\"One-Eyed Hound\\\" were all written by other members of the group.Gabriel was the primary writer of \\\"Harold the Barrel\\\", another story song onNursery Cryme, with Collins helping him on the lyrics. The shows featuringFoxtrot(1972) marked a key development in Gabriel's stage performance. During a gig inDublinin September 1972, he disappeared from the set\",\n \"from the set during the instrumental section of \\\"The Musical Box\\\" and reappeared in his wife's red dress and a fox's head, mimicking the album's cover. The idea of the fox costume had been suggested to him byPaul Conroyand Glen Colson, employees of Genesis's record label,Charisma Records.Gabriel said he consulted the rest of Genesis about the fox costume but grew tired of arguing about it, but the other members all maintained that nothing was said about it beforehand and that when Gabriel came out in costume they initially mistook him for a fan invading the stage.The incident received front-page coverage inMelody Maker, giving them national exposure which allowed the group to double their performance fee.One of Gabriel's stories was printed on the liner notes of their live album,Genesis Live(1973). By late 1973, following the success ofSelling England by the Pound(1973), which centred on English themes and literary and materialistic references, a typical Genesis show had Gabriel wear fluorescent make-up, a\",\n \"make-up, a cape, and bat wings for \\\"Watcher of the Skies\\\", a helmet, chest plate, and a shield for \\\"Dancing with the Moonlit Knight\\\", acrown of thornsand a flower mask for \\\"Supper's Ready\\\", and an old man mask for \\\"The Musical Box\\\". Gabriel continued to continued to fight for involvement with Genesis's keyboards throughout his time with the group, and following a lengthy argument with Banks, he was allowed to play a minor keyboard part on \\\"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)\\\", only for this part to be left out of the mix.\\\"I Know What I Like\\\" became Genesis's first hit single, reaching number 21 in theUK Singles Chart. The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway(1974) was Gabriel's final studio album with Genesis. He devised its story of the spiritual journey of Rael, a Puerto Rican youth living in New York City, and insisted upon writing all the lyrics himself, whereas on previous albums the lyrics had been divided among all the members of Genesis.Tensions increased during this period, and Gabriel split with the band\",\n \"split with the band to pursue a film project withWilliam Friedkin, only to rejoin a week later.Matters were complicated further with the difficult birth of Gabriel's first daughter, resulting in periods of time away from the band. The other members complained that Gabriel was showing a lack of commitment to the band. Gabriel saw this as a \\\"really unsympathetic handling of my dealing with a family crisis\\\" and said it caused a breakdown in his relationships with the rest of Genesis; Rutherford later admitted that they had been overly fixated on their music and were very unhelpful in what must have been a difficult time for Gabriel.Gabriel was late to deliver the lyrics, but has denied that he was too busy to write much music for the album and relied on contributions from Banks and Rutherford.Banks corroborated that Gabriel was the primary composer of theLambsongs \\\"The Carpet Crawlers\\\" and \\\"The Chamber of 32 Doors\\\" and the sole composer of \\\"Counting Out Time\\\". During a stop in Cleveland, Ohio, early into the\",\n \"early into the album's tour, Gabriel informed the band of his intention to leave at its conclusion.Rutherford recalled that they all \\\"could see it coming.\\\"Music critics often focused their reviews on Gabriel's theatrics and took the band's musical performance as secondary, which irritated the rest of the band.The tour ended in May 1975, after which Gabriel wrote a piece for the press on 15 August, entitled \\\"Out, Angels Out\\\", about his departure, his disillusion with the business, and his desire to spend time with his family.The news stunned fans of the group and left commentators wondering if the band could survive without him.His exit resulted in drummerPhil Collinsreluctantly taking over on lead vocals after 400 singers were fruitlessly auditioned. 1975–1985: Solo debut with four self-titled albums Gabriel described his break from the music business as his \\\"learning period\\\", during which he took piano and music lessons. He had recorded demos by the end of 1975, the fruits of a period of writing around 20\",\n \"writing around 20 songs with his friend Martin Hall.After preparing material for a studio album Gabriel recorded his solo debut,Peter Gabriel, in 1976 and 1977 in Toronto and London, with producerBob Ezrin. Gabriel did not title his first four studio albums. All were labelledPeter Gabriel, using the same typeface, with designs byHipgnosis. \\\"The idea is to do it like a magazine, which will only come out once a year,\\\" he remarked in 1978. \\\"So it's the same title, the same lettering in the same place; only the photo is different.\\\"Each album has, however, been given a nickname by fans, usually relating to the album cover. Peter Gabriel(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 1: Car) was released in February 1977 and reached No. 7 in the UK and No. 38 in the US. Itslead single, \\\"Solsbury Hill\\\", is an autobiographical song about a spiritual experience on top ofSolsbury Hillin Somerset. \\\"It's about being prepared to lose what you have for what you might get ...\\\" said Gabriel. \\\"It's about letting go.\\\"Gabriel toured the album with an\",\n \"the album with an 80-date tour from March to November 1977 with a band that included guitaristRobert FrippofKing Crimsonoften playing off stage and introduced as \\\"Dusty Rhodes\\\". In late 1977, Gabriel started recording thesecondPeter Gabrielstudio album(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 2: Scratch) in the Netherlands, with Fripp as producer. Its \\\"Mother of Violence\\\" was written by Gabriel and his first wife Jill. Released in June 1978, the album went to No. 10 in the UK and No. 45 in the US. Gabriel's tour for the album lasted from August to December 1978. On this tour, Gabriel and his band shaved their heads. Gabriel recorded thethirdPeter Gabrielstudio album(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 3: Melt) in England in 1979. He developed an interest in African music anddrum machinesand later hailed the record as his artistic breakthrough. Gabriel banned the use of cymbals on the album in order to grant more sonic space for instruments like keyboards and synths. This resulted in the creation of the distinctivegated reverb,a noise processing\",\n \"noise processing technique which came about while recording drums on \\\"Intruder\\\", one of the tracks featuringPhil Collins. Collins implemented the reverb to great effect on his debut solo single \\\"In the Air Tonight\\\" and it has since became a signature sound of the 1980s and beyond. Upon completionAtlantic Records, Gabriel's US distributor who had released his first two albums, refused to put outPeter Gabriel 3: Meltas they thought it was not commercial enough. Gabriel signed arecording contractwithMercury Records.Released in May 1980, the album went to No. 1 in the UK for three weeks. In the US, it peaked at No. 22. The single \\\"Games Without Frontiers\\\" went to No. 4 and \\\"Biko\\\" went to No. 36 in the UK. After a handful of shows in 1979, Gabriel toured the album from February to October 1980. The tour marked Gabriel's first successful instance ofcrowd surfing(following his failed June 1971 attempt when touring with Genesis) when he fell back into the audience in a crucifix position. The stunt became a staple of\",\n \"became a staple of his live shows. OnPeter Gabrielfour(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 4: Security), Gabriel took on greater responsibility over the production than before. He recorded it in 1981 and 1982, solely on digital tape, with a mobile studio parked at his home,Ashcombe House, in Somerset. Gabriel utilized aFairlight CMIdigitalsamplingsynthesizer and incorporated electronic instrumentation with sampling world beat percussion. \\\"Over the course of the last two albums,\\\" he observed, \\\"I've got back into a rhythm consciousness. And the writing—particularly with the invention of these drum machines—is fantastic. You can store in their memories rhythms that interest you and excite you. And then the groove will carry on without you, and the groove will be exactly what you want it to be, rather than what a drummer thinks is appropriate for what you're doing.\\\" The fourthPeter Gabriel, released in September 1982, hit No. 6 in the UK and No. 28 in the US. The second single, \\\"Shock the Monkey\\\", became Gabriel's first top 40\",\n \"first top 40 hit in the US, reaching No. 29. To handle American distribution, Gabriel signed withGeffen Records, which—initially unbeknown to Gabriel—titled the albumSecurityto differentiate it from the first three. Gabriel's 1982 tour lasted a year and became his first to make a profit.Recordings from the tour were released on Gabriel's debut live release,Plays Live(1983). Gabriel produced versions of the third and fourthPeter Gabrielalbums with German lyrics. The third consisted of the studio recordings, overdubbed with new vocals. The fourth was remixed, with several tracks extended or altered. In 1983, Gabriel developed the soundtrack forAlan Parker's drama filmBirdy(1984), co-produced withDaniel Lanois. This consisted of new material, without lyrics, as well as remixed instrumentals from his previous studio album. 1985–1997:SoandUs After finishing the soundtrack toBirdy, Gabriel shifted his musical focus from rhythm and texture, as heard onPeter Gabrielfour andBirdy, towards more straightforward\",\n \"straightforward songs.In 1985, he recorded his fifth studio album,So(also co-produced with Lanois).Sowas released in May 1986 and reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 2 in the US. It remains Gabriel's best-selling album with over five million copies sold in the US alone.It produced one of Gabriel's signature songs, that has become a concert staple:In Your Eyes, with a distinctive vocal appearance byYoussou N'Dour, and three UK top 20 singles: \\\"Sledgehammer\\\", \\\"Big Time\\\" and \\\"Don't Give Up\\\", a duet withKate Bush. The first went to No. 1 on the USBillboardHot 100, Gabriel's only single of his career to do so. It knocked \\\"Invisible Touch\\\" by Genesis, his former band, out of the top spot, which was also their only US number one hit. In the UK, the single went to No. 4.In 1990,Rolling StonerankedSoat No. 14 on its list of \\\"Top 100 Albums of the Eighties\\\". \\\"Sledgehammer\\\" was particularly successful, dealing with sex and sexual relations through lyrical innuendos. Its famed music video was a collaboration between\",\n \"between directorStephen R. Johnson,Aardman Animations,and theBrothers Quayand won a record nineMTV Video Music Awardsin 1987.In 1998, it was named MTV's number one animated video of all time.Soearned Gabriel two wins at the1987Brit Awardsfor Best British Male Solo Artist and Best British Video (for \\\"Sledgehammer\\\").He was nominated for fourGrammy Awards:Best Male Rock Vocal Performance,Song of the Year, andRecord of the Yearfor \\\"Sledgehammer\\\", andAlbum of the YearforSo.Gabriel toured worldwide to supportSowith the This Way Up Tour, from November 1986 to October 1987. In 1988, Gabriel became involved as composer forMartin Scorsese's filmThe Last Temptation of Christ(1988). Scorsese had contacted Gabriel about the project since 1983 and wished, according to Gabriel, to present \\\"the struggle between the humanity and divinity of Christ in a powerful and original way\\\".Gabriel used musicians fromWOMADto perform instrumental pieces with focus on rhythm and African, Middle Eastern and European textures, using\",\n \"textures, using theNational Sound Archivein London for additional inspiration.The initial plan had dedicated ten weeks for recording before it was cut to three, leaving Gabriel unable to finish all the pieces he originally wanted to record.When the film was finished, Gabriel worked on the soundtrack for an additional four months to develop more of his unfinished ideas. Its soundtrack was released asPassionin June 1989. It won Gabriel aGrammy AwardforBest New Age Performanceand a nomination for aGolden GlobeforBest Original Score – Motion Picture. In 1990, Gabriel put out his first compilation album,Shaking the Tree: Sixteen Golden Greats, which sold 2 million copies in the US. Up until 1989, Gabriel was managed byGail Colson.From 1989 to 1992, Gabriel recorded his follow-up toSo, titledUs. The album saw Gabriel address personal themes, including his failed first marriage, psychotherapy, and the growing distance between him and his eldest daughter at the time. Gabriel's introspection within the context of the\",\n \"the context of the albumUscan be seen in the first single release \\\"Digging in the Dirt\\\" directed by John Downer. Accompanied by a video featuring Gabriel covered in snails and various foliage, this song made reference to the psychotherapy which had taken up much of Gabriel's time since the previous studio album. Gabriel describes his struggle to get through to his daughter in \\\"Come Talk to Me\\\" directed byMatt Mahurin, which featured backing vocals bySinéad O'Connor. O'Connor also lent vocals to \\\"Blood of Eden\\\", directed byNichola Bruceand Michael Coulson, the third single to be released from the album, and once again dealing with relationship struggles, this time going right back toAdam's rib for inspiration. The album is one of Gabriel's most personal. It met with less success thanSo, reaching No. 2 in the album chart on both sides of the Atlantic, and making modest chart impact with the singles \\\"Digging in the Dirt\\\" and the funkier \\\"Steam\\\", which evoked memories of \\\"Sledgehammer\\\". Gabriel followed the\",\n \"followed the release of the album with theSecret World Tour, first using touring keyboardist Joy Askew to sing O'Connor's part, then O'Connor herself for a few months.O'Connor quit the tour, and was replaced byPaula Cole, the latter appearing on the tour recordings: a double albumSecret World Live, and a concert video also calledSecret World Live, both released in 1994.The film received the 1996Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video, naming director Francois Girard and producer Robert Warr. Gabriel employed an innovative approach in the marketing of theUsalbum. Not wishing to feature only images of himself, he asked artist filmmakersNichola Bruceand Michael Coulson to co-ordinate a marketing campaign using contemporary artists. Artists such asHelen Chadwick,Rebecca Horn,Nils-Udo,Andy Goldsworthy,David MachandYayoi Kusamacollaborated to create original artworks for each song on the multi-million-selling CD. Coulson and Bruce documented the process on Hi-8 video. Bruce left Real World and Coulson\",\n \"World and Coulson continued with the campaign, using the documentary background material as the basis for a promotional EPK, the long-form videoAll About Usand the interactive CD-ROMXplora1: Peter Gabriel's Secret World. Gabriel won three moreGrammy Awards, all in the Music Video category. He won theGrammy Award for Best Short Form Music Videoin 1993 and 1994 for the videos to \\\"Digging in the Dirt\\\" and \\\"Steam\\\", respectively. Gabriel also won the 1996Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Videofor hisSecret World Livevideo. 1997–2009:OVOandUp In 1997, Gabriel was invited to participate in the direction and soundtrack of theMillennium Dome Show, a live multimedia performance staged in theMillennium Domein London throughout 2000.Gabriel said the team were given free rein, which contributed to the various problems they encountered with it, such as a lack of proper budgeting. He also felt that management, while succeeding to get the building finished on time, failed to understand the artistic side of the show and\",\n \"of the show and its content.Gabriel's soundtrack was released asOVOin June 2000.The Story of OVOwas released in the CD-booklet-shapedcomic bookwhich was part of the CD edition with the title \\\"OVO The Millennium Show\\\". Around that same time, the Genesis greatest hits album,Turn It On Again: The Hits(1999), featured Gabriel sharing vocals withPhil Collinson a new version of \\\"The Carpet Crawlers\\\" entitled \\\"The Carpet Crawlers 1999\\\", produced byTrevor Horn. In 2002 he stuck with soundtrack work for his next project, scoring for the Australian filmRabbit-Proof Fence(2002) withworldbeatmusic. Released in June 2002,Long Walk Home: Music from the Rabbit-Proof Fencereceived a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Original Score – Motion Picture. Later in 2002,Up, Gabriel's first full-length studio album in a decade, was released in September 2002. He started work on it in 1995 before production halted three years later to focus time on other projects and collaborations. Work resumed in 2000, by which time Gabriel\",\n \"which time Gabriel had 130 potential songs for the album, and spent almost two years on it before management atVirgin Recordspushed Gabriel to complete it.Upreached No. 9 in the US and No. 11 in the UK, and supported with a world tour with a band that included Gabriel's daughter Melanie on backing vocals. The tour was documented with two live DVDs:Growing Up Live(2003) andStill Growing Up: Live & Unwrapped(2005). In 2004, Gabriel met with his former Genesis bandmates to discuss the possibility of stagingThe Lamb Lies Down on Broadway(1974) as a reunion tour. He ultimately dismissed the idea, paving the way for Banks, Rutherford and Collins to organise theTurn It On Again: The Tour. Gabriel produced and performed at theEden Project Live 8 concertin July 2005. He joinedCat Stevenson stage to perform \\\"Wild World\\\" duringNelson Mandela's46664concert. In 2005,FIFAasked Gabriel and Brian Eno to organise an opening ceremony for the2006 FIFA World Cupin Germany, but FIFA cancelled the idea in January 2006. At the\",\n \"2006. At the opening ceremony of the2006 Winter OlympicsinTurin, Gabriel performedJohn Lennon's \\\"Imagine\\\". In November 2006, the Seventh World Summit ofNobel Peace Laureatesin Rome presented Gabriel with theMan of Peaceaward. The award, presented by former General Secretary of the USSR and Nobel Peace Prize winnerMikhail GorbachevandWalter Veltroni, Mayor of Rome, was an acknowledgement of Gabriel's extensive contribution and work on behalf of human rights and peace. The award was presented in the Giulio Cesare Hall of the Campidoglio in Rome. At the end of the year, he was awarded theQmagazine Lifetime Achievement Award, presented to him by American musicianMoby. In an interview published in the magazine to accompany the award, Gabriel's contribution to music was described as \\\"vast and enduring.\\\" Gabriel took on a project with theBBC World Service's competition \\\"The Next Big Thing\\\" to find the world's best young band. Gabriel judged the final six young artists withWilliam Orbit,Geoff TravisandAngélique\",\n \"TravisandAngélique Kidjo. In June 2008, Gabriel releasedBig Blue Ball, an album of various artists collaborating with each other at his Real World Studios across three summers in the 1990s. He planned its release in the US without assistance from a label; he raised £2 million towards the recording and distribution of the album withIngenious Mediawith the worldwide release handled throughWarner Bros. Records.Gabriel appeared on a nationwide tour for the album in 2009. Gabriel was a judge for the 6th and 8th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists. Gabriel contributed to thePixarfilmWALL-Esoundtrack in 2008 withThomas Newman, including the film's closing song, \\\"Down to Earth\\\", for which they received theGrammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. The song was also nominated for aGolden Globe Award for Best Original Songand anAcademy Award for Best Original Song. In February 2009, Gabriel announced that he would not be performing on the2008\",\n \"on the2008 Academy Awardstelecast because producers of the show were limiting his performance of \\\"Down to Earth\\\" fromWALL-Eto 90 seconds. According to Gabriel, his window was reduced to 65 seconds.John Legendand theSoweto Gospel Choirperformed the song in his stead. Gabriel's 2009 tour appearances included Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Venezuela. His first ever performance in Peru was held in Lima on 20 March 2009, during his second visit to the country. On 25 July 2009, he played at WOMAD Charlton Park, his only European performance of the year, to promote Witness. The show included two tracks from the then-forthcomingScratch My Back:Paul Simon's \\\"The Boy in the Bubble\\\" andthe Magnetic Fields' \\\"The Book of Love\\\". 2009–2019:Scratch My Back,New Bloodand further side projects In 2009, Gabriel recordedScratch My Back, an album of cover songs by various artists includingDavid Bowie,Lou Reed,Arcade Fire,Radiohead,Regina SpektorandNeil Young. The original concept was for Gabriel to cover an artists' song if\",\n \"an artists' song if they, in turn, covered one of his for an album simultaneously released asI'll Scratch Yours, but several participants later declined or were late to deliver and it was placed on hold.Gabriel avoided using drums and guitar in favour of orchestral arrangements, and altered his usual songwriting method by finishing the vocals first and then the song, for which he collaborated withJohn Metcalfe.Released in February 2010,Scratch My Backreached No. 12 in the UK. Gabriel toured worldwide with the New Blood Tour from March 2010 to July 2012 with a 54-piece orchestra and his daughterMelanieand Norwegian singer-songwriterAne Brunon backing vocals. The follow-up,And I'll Scratch Yours, was released in September 2013. During the New Blood Tour, Gabriel decided to expand on theScratch My Backconcept and, with Metcalfe's assistance, re-record a collection of his own songs with an orchestra. The result,New Blood, was released in October 2011. In September 2012, Gabriel kicked off hisBack to Front\",\n \"hisBack to Front Tourwhich featuredSo(1986) performed in its entirety with the original musicians who played on the album, to mark its 25th anniversary.When the opening leg finished a month later, Gabriel took one year off to travel the world with his children.The tour resumed with a European leg from September 2013 to December 2014. In 2014, Gabriel was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a solo artist byColdplayfrontmanChris Martin. They performed Gabriel's \\\"Washing of the Water\\\" together. Gabriel performed \\\"Heroes\\\" byDavid Bowiewith an orchestra at a concert in Berlin to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the fall of theBerlin Wallin November 2014. In 2016, he was featured on the song \\\"A.I.\\\" by American pop rock bandOneRepublicfrom their fourth studio albumOh My My. In June 2016, Gabriel released the single \\\"I'm Amazing\\\". The song was written several years prior, in part as a tribute to boxerMuhammad Ali.That month, he embarked on a joint tour withStingtitled The Rock Paper Scissors North\",\n \"Scissors North American Tour. Gabriel re-emerged in 2019 with the release ofRated PG, a compilation of songs that were created for film soundtracks throughout his career. The song selection spans over 30 years and includes tracks that had never been released on an official Gabriel album previously, including \\\"Down to Earth\\\" (fromWALL-E) and \\\"That'll Do\\\" (fromBabe: Pig in the City), an Oscar-nominated collaboration withRandy Newman. Initially only released on vinyl forRecord Store Dayon 13 April, the album was eventually released on digital streaming services later that month.Later that same year, Gabriel issued another digital release on 13 September titledFlotsam and Jetsam, a collection ofB-sides, remixes and rarities that span Gabriel's entire solo career from 1976 to 2016, including his first solo recording, a cover ofthe Beatles' song \\\"Strawberry Fields Forever\\\". 2022–present:I/Oand possible follow-up album By 2002, Gabriel had been continually working on what he had given the tentative title ofI/O, his\",\n \"title ofI/O, his tenth studio album, which he had begun work on as early as 1995.It was originally set to be released 18 months afterUp, but touring pushed the release far away.He did an interview withRolling Stonein 2005 stating that he had 150 songs in various stages.From 2013 to 2016, he posted regularly on social media about recording the new album.In 2019, he spoke onBBC Radio 6about how he had taken a hiatus from making music due to his wife being sick, but he had begun to return to it now that she had recovered.In 2021, he was interviewed multiple times about his new album, and revealed that he had been recording withManu Katché,Tony LevinandDavid Rhodeson 17 new songs.He posted multiple photos to his Facebook and Instagram of these sessions.In June 2022, Katché told the French magazineL'Illustréthat the album was nearly complete and would be released later that year, pending an official announcement. In November 2022, Gabriel announced his upcoming \\\"I/O The Tour\\\" for the spring of 2023 across several\",\n \"2023 across several European cities, with later dates to be confirmed for the North America leg of the tour for the late summer/fall of 2023.This announcement also confirmed the name of the upcoming album to be stylised asI/O. The first single from the album, \\\"Panopticom\\\", was released digitally on 6 January 2023.A new piece from the album will be released on the date of each full moon in 2023,as well as a different mix of the song on each new moon in 2023, starting with the Dark Side Mix of \\\"Panopticom\\\".On 5 February, Gabriel released \\\"The Court\\\", the second single from the album. On 7 March, Gabriel released the third single, \\\"Playing for Time\\\". A basic arrangement of the song featuring only Gabriel on piano and Levin on bass had already opened the shows on theBack to Front Tour, by the name of \\\"Daddy Long Legs\\\".The title track \\\"I/O\\\" was the fourth single released on 6 April. On 5 May, Peter Gabriel released the fifth single from the album, \\\"Four Kinds of Horses\\\", a track which is a collaboration withBrian\",\n \"withBrian EnoandRichard Russell. The sixth single, \\\"Road to Joy\\\", was released on 4 June. Six more singles were released, separately, within the next six months—\\\"So Much\\\", \\\"Olive Tree\\\", \\\"Love Can Heal\\\", \\\"This Is Home\\\", \\\"And Still\\\" and \\\"Live and Let Live\\\"—beforeI/Owas finally released on 1 December 2023. One day prior toI/O's release, Gabriel toldThe New York Timesthat he does not expect a follow-up album (which he described as his \\\"brain project\\\") to take another 21 years, saying that \\\"there's a lot of stuff in the can\\\" but added that the material is not yet finished. Additionally, Gabriel stated in his November 2023 Full Moon update video that the track \\\"What Lies Ahead\\\" will be on \\\"the next record\\\".He performed \\\"What Lies Ahead\\\" several times in 2023 and it was a contender forI/O. Artistry Stylistically, Gabriel's music has been alternately described by music writers asprogressive rock,art rock,art pop,worldbeat,post-progressiveandprogressive soul.According toRolling Stonejournalist Ryan Reed, Gabriel has\",\n \"Reed, Gabriel has developed in all as an \\\"art-rock innovator, soul-pop craftsman, 'world music' ambassador\\\" over the course of his career,while music scholar Gregg Akkermann argues that, despite his progressive rock origins, he has \\\"managed to attract fans from across the spectrum: prog rock, alternative rock, world beat, blue-eyed soul, dance music, the college crowd, the teens, Americans and Europeans\\\".More broadly,AllMusic'sStephen Thomas Erlewinesays Gabriel emerged during the 1980s as \\\"one of rock's most ambitious, innovative musicians\\\", as well as \\\"an international pop star\\\". Gabriel has worked with a relatively stable crew of musicians and recording engineers throughout his solo career. Bass andStickplayerTony Levinhas performed on every Gabriel studio album and every live tour except forScratch My Back(2010), the soundtracksPassion(1989) andLong Walk Home(2002), and the New Blood Tour. GuitaristDavid Rhodeshas been Gabriel's guitarist of choice since 1979. Prior toSo(1986),Jerry Marottawas Gabriel's\",\n \"Gabriel's preferred drummer, both in the studio and on the road. (For theSoandUsalbums and tours Marotta was replaced byManu Katché, who was then replaced byGed Lynchon parts of theUpalbum and all of the subsequent tour). Gabriel is known for choosing top-flight collaborators, from co-producers such as Ezrin, Fripp, Lillywhite and Lanois to musicians such asNatalie Merchant,Elizabeth Fraser,L. Shankar,Trent Reznor,Youssou N'Dour,Larry Fast,Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan,Sinéad O'Connor,Kate Bush,Ane Brun,Paula Cole,John Giblin,Dave Gregory,Peter Hammill,Papa Wemba,Manu Katché,Bayete,Milton Nascimento,Phil Collins,Stewart CopelandandOneRepublic. Over the years, Gabriel has collaborated with singerKate Bushseveral times; Bush provided backing vocals for Gabriel's \\\"Games Without Frontiers\\\" and \\\"No Self Control\\\" in 1980, and female lead vocal for \\\"Don't Give Up\\\" (a top 10 hit in the UK) in 1986, and Gabriel appeared on her television special. Their duet ofRoy Harper's \\\"Another Day\\\" was discussed for release as a single,\",\n \"as a single, but never appeared. He also collaborated withavant-gardeartistLaurie Andersonon two versions of her composition \\\"Excellent Birds\\\"—one for her second albumMister Heartbreak(1984),and another version called \\\"This is the Picture (Excellent Birds)\\\", which appeared oncassetteand CD versions ofSo. Gabriel sang (along withJim KerrofSimple Minds) on \\\"Everywhere I Go\\\", fromthe Call's 1986 studio album,Reconciled. OnToni Childs' 1994 studio album,The Woman's Boat, Gabriel sang on the track, \\\"I Met a Man\\\". In 1998, Gabriel appeared on the soundtrack ofBabe: Pig in the Cityas the lead vocalist of the song \\\"That'll Do\\\", written byRandy Newman. The song was nominated for anAcademy Award, and Gabriel and Newman performed it at the following year's Oscar telecast. He performed a similar soundtrack appearance for the 2004 filmShall We Dance?, singing acover versionof \\\"The Book of Love\\\" bythe Magnetic Fields. In 1987, Gabriel appeared onRobbie Robertson'sself-titled solo studio album, singing on \\\"Fallen Angel\\\";\",\n \"on \\\"Fallen Angel\\\"; co-wrote twoTom Robinsonsingles; and appeared onJoni Mitchell's 1988 studio albumChalk Mark in a Rain Storm, on the opening track \\\"My Secret Place\\\". In 2001, Gabriel contributed lead vocals to the song \\\"When You're Falling\\\" onAfro Celt Sound System'sVolume 3: Further in Time.In the summer of 2003, Gabriel performed in Ohio with a guest performance by Uzbek singerSevara Nazarkhan. Gabriel collaborated on tracks with electronic musicianBT, who also worked on theOVOsoundtrack with him. The tracks were never released, as the computers they were contained on were stolen from BT's home in California. He also sang the lyrics forDeep Foreston their theme song for the movieStrange Days(1995). In addition, Gabriel has appeared onAngelique Kidjo's 2007 studio albumDjin Djin, singing on the song \\\"Salala\\\". Gabriel has recorded a cover of theVampire Weekendsingle \\\"Cape Cod Kwassa Kwassa\\\" withHot Chip, where his name is mentioned several times in the chorus. He substitutes the original line \\\"But this\",\n \"line \\\"But this feels so unnatural / Peter Gabriel too / This feels so unnatural/ Peter Gabriel too\\\" with \\\"It feels so unnatural / Peter Gabriel too / and it feels so unnatural / to sing your own name.\\\" Gabriel collaborated withArcade Fireon their 2022 studio album,We. He sang backing vocals on the track \\\"Unconditional II (Race and Religion)\\\". WOMAD and other projects Gabriel's interest inworld musicwas first apparent on his third solo studio album. According to Spencer Kornhaber inThe Atlanticin 2019: \\\"When Peter Gabriel moved toward 'world music' four decades ago, he not only evangelized sounds that were novel to Western pop. He also set a radio template: majestic, with flourishes meant to read as 'exotic,' and lyrics meant to change lives.\\\"This influence has increased over time, and he is the driving force behind theWorld of Music, Arts and Dance(WOMAD) movement. Gabriel said: The first time I really got into music from another culture was as a result of the shifting ofRadio 4, which I used to wake up to.\",\n \"used to wake up to. I'd lost it onmedium waveand was groping around in the morning on the dial, trying to find something that I could listen to, and came across a Dutch radio station who were playing the soundtrack from some obscureStanley Bakermovie calledDingaka. That had quite a lot of stuff from—I think it was—Ghana. I can't remember now, but it really moved me. One of the songs I heard on that was a thing called 'Shosholoza', which I recorded on the b-side of the 'Biko' single. Gabriel created theReal World Studiosand record label to facilitate the creation and distribution of such music by various artists, and he has worked to educate Western culture about such musicians asYungchen Lhamo,Nusrat Fateh Ali KhanandYoussou N'dour. He has a longstanding interest in human rights and launchedWitness,a charity that trains human rights activists to use video and online technologies to expose human rights abuses. In 2006, his work with WITNESS and his long-standing support of peace and human rights causes was\",\n \"rights causes was recognised by theNobel Peace PrizeLaureates with theMan of Peaceaward. In the 1990s, with Steve Nelson of Brilliant Media and director Michael Coulson, he developed advanced multimedia CD-ROM-based entertainment projects, creatingXplora(the world's largest-selling music CD-ROM), and subsequently theEVECD-ROM.EVEwas a music and art adventure game directed by Michael Coulson and co-produced by theStarwaveCorporation in Seattle; it won the Milia d'Or award Grand Prize at the Cannes in 1996. In 1990, Gabriel lent his backing vocals to Ugandan political exileGeoffrey Oryema's \\\"Land of Anaka\\\", appearing on Oryema's first studio albumExile, released on Gabriel's Real World label. In 1994, Gabriel starred inBreck Eisner's short filmReconas a detective who enters the minds of murder victims to find their killer's identity. Gabriel helped pioneer a new realm of musical interaction in 2001, visitingGeorgia State University's Language Research Center to participate in keyboard jam sessions\",\n \"jam sessions withbonoboapes from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. (This experience inspired the song \\\"Animal Nation\\\", which was performed on Gabriel's 2002 \\\"Growing Up\\\" tour and was featured on theGrowing Up LiveDVD andThe Wild Thornberrys Moviesoundtrack.) Gabriel's desire to bring attention to the intelligence of primates also took the form of ApeNet, a project that aimed to link great apes through the internet, enabling the first interspecies internet communication. He was one of the founders of on Demand Distribution (OD2), one of the first online music download services. Prior to its closure in 2009, its technology had been used by over 100 music download sites including MSN Music UK, MyCokeMusic, Planet Internet (KPN), Wanadoo and CD WOW!. OD2 was bought by US company Loudeye in June 2004 and subsequently by Finnish mobile giantNokiain October 2006 for $60 million. Gabriel is co-founder (withBrian Eno) of a musicians union called Mudda, short for \\\"magnificent union of digitally downloading\",\n \"downloading artists.\\\" In 2000, Gabriel collaborated withZucchero,Anggunand others in a charity for kids withAIDS. Erick Benzi wrote words and music and Patrick Bruel, Stephan Eicher, Faudel, Lokua Kanza, Laam, Nourith, Axelle Red have accepted to sing it. In 2003, Gabriel contributed a song for the video gameUru: Ages Beyond Myst.In 2004, Gabriel contributed another song (\\\"Curtains\\\") and contributed voice work on another game in theMystfranchise,Myst IV: Revelation. In June 2005, Gabriel and broadcast industry entrepreneurDavid EngelkepurchasedSolid State Logic, a manufacturer of mixing consoles and digital audio workstations.In 2017, the company was sold to theAudiotonixGroup. In May 2008, Gabriel'sReal World Studios, in partnership withBowers & Wilkins, started the Bowers & Wilkins Music Club—later known as Society of Sound—a subscription-based music retail site. Albums are currently available in eitherApple LosslessorFLACformat. He is one of the founding supporters of the annual global eventAsteroid Day.\",\n \"eventAsteroid Day. Activist for humanitarian causes In 1986, he started what has become a longstanding association withAmnesty International, becoming a pioneering participant in all 28 of Amnesty'sHuman rights concerts—a series of music events and tours staged by the US Section of Amnesty International between 1986 and 1998. He performed during the six-concertA Conspiracy of HopeUS tour in June 1986; the twenty-concertHuman Rights Now!world tour in 1988; theChile: Embrace of Hope Concertin 1990 and atThe Paris Concert for Amnesty Internationalin 1998. He also performed in Amnesty'sSecret Policeman's Ballbenefit shows in collaboration with other artists and friends such as Lou Reed,David GilmourofPink Floydand Youssou N'Dour; Gabriel closed those concerts performing his anti-apartheidanthem \\\"Biko\\\".He spoke of his support for Amnesty onNBC'sToday Showin 1986. Inspired by the social activism he encountered in his work with Amnesty, in 1992, Gabriel co-foundedWITNESS, a non-profit organisation that equips,\",\n \"that equips, trains and supports locally based organisations worldwide to use video and the internet in human rights documentation and advocacy. In 1995, Gabriel and Cape Verdean human rights activistVera Duartewere awarded theNorth–South Prizein its inaugural year. In the late 1990s, Gabriel and entrepreneurRichard Bransondiscussed withNelson Mandelatheir idea of a small, dedicated group of leaders, working objectively and without any vested personal interest to solve difficult global conflicts. On 18 July 2007, inJohannesburg, South Africa, Nelson Mandela announced the formation of a new group,The Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th birthday.Kofi Annanserved as Chair of the Elders andGro Harlem Brundtlandas deputy chair. The other members of the group areMartti Ahtisaari,Ela Bhatt,Lakhdar Brahimi,Fernando Henrique Cardoso,Jimmy Carter,Hina Jilani,Graça Machel,Mary RobinsonandErnesto Zedillo.Desmond Tutuwas an Honorary Elder, as was Nelson Mandela. The Elders is independently funded\",\n \"funded by a group of donors, including Branson and Gabriel. The Elders use their collective skills to catalyse peaceful resolutions to long-standing conflicts, articulate new approaches to global issues that are causing or may later cause immense human suffering, and share wisdom by helping to connect voices all over the world. They work together to consider carefully which specific issues to approach. In November 2007, Gabriel's non-profit group WITNESS launched The Hub, a participatory media site for human rights. In September 2008, Gabriel was named as the recipient of Amnesty International's 2008Ambassador of Conscience Award. In the same month, he receivedQuadrigaUnited We Careaward of Werkstatt Deutschland along withBoris Tadić,Eckart Höflingand Wikipedia. The award was presented to him byQueen Silvia of Sweden. In 2010, Gabriel lent his support to the campaign to releaseSakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani, an Iranian Azeri woman who was sentenced to death by stoning after being convicted of committing\",\n \"of committing adultery. In December 2013, Gabriel posted a video message in tribute to the deceased former South African president and anti-apartheid leaderNelson Mandela. Gabriel was quoted: To come out of 27 years in jail and to immediately set about building a Rainbow Nation with your sworn enemy is a unique and extraordinary example of courage and forgiveness. In this case, Mandela had seen many of his people beaten, imprisoned and murdered, yet he was still willing to trust the humanity and idealism of those who had been the oppressors, without whom he knew he could not achieve an almostpeaceful transition of power. There is no other example of such inspirational leadership in my lifetime. Gabriel has criticisedAir Francefor their continued transport of monkeys to laboratories. In a letter to the airline, Gabriel wrote that in laboratories, \\\"primates are violently force-fed chemicals, inflicted with brain damage, crippled, addicted to cocaine or alcohol, deprived of food and water, or psychologically\",\n \"or psychologically tormented and ultimately killed.\\\" In March 2014, Gabriel publicly supported #withsyria, a campaign to rally support for victims of theSyrian Civil War. In November 2014, Gabriel, along withPussy RiotandIron & Winesupported Hong Kong protesters atHong Kong's Lennon Wallin their efforts. In March 2015, Gabriel was awarded an honorary doctorate by theUniversity of South Australiain recognition of his commitment to creativity and its transformational power in building peace and understanding. He composed the song \\\"The Veil\\\" forOliver Stone's filmSnowden(2016). Political views Gabriel has been described as one of rock's most political musicians byAllMusic.In 1992, on the 20th anniversary of theBloody Sundaymassacre, Gabriel joinedPeter Hain,Jeremy Corbyn,Tony Benn,Ken Loach,John PilgerandAdrian Mitchellin voicing his support for a demonstration in London calling for British withdrawal fromNorthern Ireland. At the1997 general election, he declared his support for theLabour Party, which won that\",\n \"which won that election by a landslide after 18 years out of power, led byTony Blair.In 1998, he was named in a list of the biggest private financial donors to Labour.He subsequently distanced himself from the Labour government following Tony Blair's support forGeorge W. Bushand Britain's involvement in theIraq War, which he strongly opposed.Gabriel later explained his decision for funding Labour, saying, \\\"after all those years ofThatcher, that was the only time I've put money into a political party because I wanted to help get rid of theTorygovernment of that time.\\\" In 2005, Gabriel gave aGreen Party of England and Walesgeneral election candidate special permission to record a cover of his song \\\"Don't Give Up\\\" for his campaign.In 2010,The Guardiandescribed Gabriel as \\\"a staunch advocate ofproportional representation.\\\"In 2013, he stated that he had become more interested in online petitioning organisations to effect change than traditional party politics. In 2012, Gabriel condemned the use of his music by\",\n \"use of his music by the Americanconservative talk radiopersonalityRush Limbaughduringa controversial segment in which Limbaugh vilifiedGeorgetown Universitylaw studentSandra Fluke. A statement on behalf of Gabriel read: \\\"Peter was appalled to learn that his music was linked to Rush Limbaugh's extraordinary attack on Sandra Fluke. It is obvious from anyone that knows Peter's work that he would never approve such a use. He has asked his representatives to make sure his music is withdrawn and especially from these unfair, aggressive and ignorant comments.\\\" In 2016, Gabriel supported the UK's continued membership of theEuropean Unionin thereferendum on the issue. Gabriel has declared his support for thetwo-state solutionto theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict. In 2014, he contributed songs to a new compilation album to raise funds for humanitarian organisations aiding Palestinian Arabs inGaza. Gabriel was quoted: \\\"I am certain that Israelis and Palestinians will both benefit from a two-state solution based on the\",\n \"based on the 1967 borders. We have watched Palestinians suffer for too long, especially in Gaza. I am not, and never was, anti-Israeli oranti-Semitic, but I oppose the policy of the Israeli government, oppose injustice and oppose the occupation ... I am proud to be one of the voices asking the Israeli government: 'Where is the two-state solution that you wanted so much?' and clearly say that enough is enough.\\\"In 2019, Gabriel was among 50 artists who urged theBBCto ask for theEurovision Song Contestto be moved out of Israel, citing human rights concerns.In 2023, Gabriel signed theArtists4Ceasefireopen letter to PresidentJoe Bidencalling for a ceasefire during theIsraeli bombardment of Gaza. Gabriel has been in support of theArmenian genociderecognition.In October 2020, he posted a message on social media in support ofArmeniaandArtsakhin regards to theNagorno-Karabakh war. He said, \\\"The fighting that has now broken out between Azerbaijan and Armenia is really horrific and we need to lobby whoever we can to\",\n \"whoever we can to encourage a ceasefire, but hearing reports that PresidentErdoğanhas now lined up 80,000 Turkish troops on the Armenian border is a terrifying prospect, full of the dark echoes of history.\\\" In popular culture Gabriel's music featured prominently on the popular 1980s television showMiami Vice. The songs include \\\"The Rhythm of the Heat\\\" and \\\"Biko\\\" (from \\\"Evan\\\"), \\\"Red Rain\\\" (from \\\"Stone's War\\\"), \\\"Mercy Street\\\" (from \\\"Killshot\\\"), \\\"Sledgehammer\\\" (from \\\"Better Living Through Chemistry\\\"), \\\"We Do What We're Told (Milgram's 37)\\\" (from \\\"Forgive Us Our Debts\\\" and \\\"Deliver Us from Evil\\\") and \\\"Don't Give Up\\\" (from \\\"Redemption in Blood\\\"). With seven songs used total, Gabriel had the most music featured by a solo artist in the series, and he is the only artist to have had a song used in four of Vice's five seasons. Five of the nine tracks on his most popular albumSo(1986) were used in the series. Gabriel’s song \\\"In Your Eyes\\\" features twice in the teen romance dramaSay Anything(1989). It is the song\",\n \"It is the song playing on Lloyd Dobler’s boombox as he serenades Diane, creating the film’s most iconic scene. Gabriel's cover ofDavid Bowie's \\\"Heroes\\\" was featured in the fourth season finale ofBig Love, as well as the first season and the ending scene ofStranger Thingsseason 3 and the ending credits ofLone Survivor. The song also features in 'Children of Mars', a 2020 episode of the web seriesStar Trek: Short Treks. A series of spoof documentaries about the fictitious rock starBrian Pernwere based loosely on Gabriel. In 2021, Northern Irish post-punk band Invaderband released their second studio album entitled 'Peter Gabriel'.The sleeve was a painting of Gabriel byLuke Haines. Personal life Gabriel has married twice and has four children. In 1971, at age 21, he married Jill Moore, daughter of BaronPhilip Moore.They had two daughters,one of whom, Anna-Marie, is a filmmaker who filmed and directed Gabriel's live DVDsGrowing Up on Tour: A Family Portrait(2003),Still Growing Up: Live & Unwrapped(2005) and some\",\n \"and some of his music videos. Melanie is a musician who had been a backing vocalist in her father's band in 2002–2011. Both daughters appear in the final sequence of the video for their father's song \\\"Sledgehammer\\\". Gabriel's marriage became increasingly strained, culminating in Moore's affair withDavid Lord, the co-producer of Gabriel'sfourth studio album. After the coupledivorcedin 1987, Gabriel fell into a period of depression and attended therapy sessions for six years. For a time after his divorce, Gabriel lived with American actressRosanna Arquette.In 2021, Irish singerSinéad O'Connorsaid that she maintained an on-and-off relationship with Gabriel in the wake of his divorce. She ended the relationship because of her frustration with his lack of commitment, which inspired her single \\\"Thank You for Hearing Me\\\". Gabriel married Meabh Flynn in 2002, with whom he has two sons. Gabriel has resided inWiltshirefor many years and runsReal World StudiosfromBox, Wiltshire. He previously lived in the Woolley\",\n \"in the Woolley Valley nearBath, Somerset. In 2010, he joined a campaign to stop agricultural development in the valley, which had also inspired his first solo single, \\\"Solsbury Hill\\\", in 1977. Discography Studio albums Soundtracks Awards and nominations See also References Citations Works cited External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_(album\",\n \"Sledgehammer Asledgehammeris atoolwith a large, flat, oftenmetalhead, attached to a long handle. The long handle combined with a heavy head allows the sledgehammer to gather momentum during a swing and apply a largeforcecompared to hammers designed to drive nails. Along with themallet, it shares the ability to distribute force over a wide area. This is in contrast to other types ofhammers, which concentrate force in a relatively small area. Etymology The word sledgehammer is derived from the Old-English \\\"slægan\\\", which, in its first sense, means \\\"to strike violently\\\". The English words \\\"slag\\\", \\\"slay\\\", and \\\"slog\\\" arecognates. Uses The handle can range from 50 centimetres (1 ft 8 in) to a full 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) long, depending on the mass of the head.The head mass is usually 1 to 9 kilograms (2.2 to 19.8 lb). Modern heavy duty sledgehammers come with 10-to-20-pound (4.5–9.1 kg) heads. Sledgehammers usually require two hands and a swinging motion involving the entiretorso, in contrast to smallerhammersused for\",\n \"for driving innails. The combination of a long swinging range, and heavy head, increases the force of the resulting impact. Sledgehammers are often used indemolitionwork, for breaking throughdrywallormasonrywalls. Sledgehammers were formerly widely used inminingoperations, particularlyhand steel, but are rarely used in modern mining. Sledgehammers are also used when substantial force is necessary to dislodge a trapped object (often infarmoroil fieldwork), or for fracturing concrete. Another common use is for driving fence posts into the ground. Sledgehammers are used by police forces in raids on property to gain entry by force, commonly through doors. They were and still are commonly used by blacksmiths to shape heavy sections of iron. The BritishSAScounter terroristteam used sledgehammers to gain access to rooms during the 1980Iranian Embassy Siege. However, today they use a tool called a \\\"dynamic hammer\\\". Another use of sledgehammers is for driving railroad spikes into woodensleepersduring rail\",\n \"rail construction. When the two ends of theUnion Pacificrailroad were joined atPromontory, Utah,Leland Stanfordhammered agolden spikeinto a sleeper with a silver hammer.Sledges used to drive spikes for rails had curved headsthat came down to a \\\"beak\\\" that was only about one inch across. The shape meant that drivers needed to be accurate, and spot where the spike hit was often not much larger than a small coin, as anything larger would hit the plate or the sleeper. The curved head kept the handle away from the rail, as the spikes were driven with the rail between the spike and the driver. These are often calledspike mauls. Drilling hammer Adrilling hammer,club hammer,lump hammer,crack hammer,mini-sledgeorthor hammeris a small sledgehammer whose relatively light weight and short handle allow one-handed use.It is useful for light demolition work, driving masonry nails, and for use with a steelchiselwhen cutting stone or metal.In this last application, its weight drives the chisel more deeply into the material\",\n \"into the material being cut than lighter hammers. Club hammers are common on the British inland waterways for driving mooring pins into the towpath or canal bank. Scouts BSAhas adopted the shorter sledgehammer, commonly referred to as an engineer's hammer,as an unofficial tool referred to as the scout hammer, as a complement to the pocket knife and hand axe. The handle is 12–18 inches (30–46 cm) long with a head weighing 2 to 6 lb (0.91–2.72 kg). The hammer is used for a variety of purposes such as driving tent stakes, establishing temporary fencing using wood or metal rebar, splitting wood in conjunction with a wedge, or straightening all that is bent. Post maul Post mauls are similar to sledgehammers in shape, but are meant to drive wooden fence posts or tree stakes into the earth. Newer mauls have broad, flat circular faces that are significantly larger in diameter than the body of the head (where the handle attaches). Older post mauls are significantly larger than sledgehammers like their newer\",\n \"like their newer counterparts except the outside diameter (body) of older post maul designs remained the same large diameter as that of the faces of the hammer from one side to the other side. Sledgehammers usually have octagonal faces that are the same diameter or slightly smaller than the body of the head, and they are not nearly as large in overall diameter as a post maul. References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":365,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"When the San Francisco 49ers and San Diego Chargers met in Super Bowl XXIX, what was the #1 film at the box office in the U.S.? 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The game was played on January 29, 1995, atJoe Robbie StadiuminMiami, Florida. This game is regarded as 49ers quarterbackSteve Young's final leap out of the shadow of his predecessor,Joe Montana, who had won four Super Bowls with the 49ers (in1981,1984,1988, and1989), two with Young as the backup quarterback. With Young at the helm, and a defense consisting of several veteranfree agentswho joined the team during the previous offseason, San Francisco finished the regular season with a league-best 13–3 record, and led the league in total points scored (505). The Chargers, on the other hand, were regarded as a\"Cinderella\" team, and advanced to their first Super Bowl after posting an 11–5 regular-season record and overcoming halftime deficits in both of their playoff wins. This was the first Super Bowl in which both teams scored in all four quarters. The combined aggregate score of 75 points and the ten totaltouchdownsboth remain Super Bowl records. Still, the 49ers controlled most of the game, with Young completing touchdown passes in each of the 49ers' first two drives. The Chargers were able to cut the deficit late in the first quarter, 14–7, on a 13-play, 78-yard drive, but could not slow down San Francisco afterwards. Young was named theSuper Bowl MVP, throwing a Super Bowl-record six touchdown passes, and completing 24 out of 36 passes for 325 yards. Despite the predicted blowout (18 1⁄2- points is the second largest margin a team has been favored by in a Super Bowl), the fact that San Diego did not have as much national appeal nor a relatively large core fan base, and two teams fromCaliforniaplaying, which could have significantly diminished interest along theEast Coast, the telecast of the game onABCstill had aNielsen ratingof 41.3. Background Host selection process NFL owners voted to award Super Bowl XXIX to Miami during their May 23, 1991 meeting inMinneapolis. Three cities presented bids:Miami(Joe Robbie Stadium),Tampa(Tampa Stadium), andHouston(Astrodome).New Orleans pulled out of the running early on due to conflicts with other conventions. Houston was considered an early favorite, since they had not hosted the game since1974. However, the Astrodome would need to add approximately 10,000 temporary seats in order to meet the NFL's capacity requirement of 70,000. Rules required a candidate to receive a3⁄4vote (21 of 28 owners) in order to win the bidding. Tampa was eliminated on the first ballot, having just hostedXXV, along with their lack of premium seating. Then neither Miami nor Houston managed to get 21 votes on the second ballot or on the third ballot. For the fourth ballot, the threshold was reduced to a simple majority. In what was said to be a close vote, Miami was selected as the host.It marked the seventh time overall theMiami-areahosted the Super Bowl, and the second time it was played in Joe Robbie Stadium. San Diego Chargers The Chargers were the biggest surprise of the 1994 season, with very few expecting them to even reach the playoffs, let alone the Super Bowl. San Diego suffered losing seasons in the 1980s until formerWashington Redskinsgeneral managerBobby Beathardjoined the team in 1990. Beathard decided to rebuild the Chargers using the same model that he used to build the Redskins into Super Bowl contenders during the 1980s: a powerful running game built around big linemen, a passing game that helped sustain extremely long drives, and a bending but steady defense. After formerGeorgia Techhead coachBobby Rosswas hired by theChargers in 1992, the team won theAFC Westwith an 11–5 regular season record and won an opening round playoff game againstKansas City. But in1993, they slumped back to 8–8 and did not reach the postseason. Before the start of the 1994 season, San Diego was not expected to do well because they had so many newcomers via the draft and free agency; the Chargers ended up with 22 new players on their roster, and 10 of them became starters. However, they ended up winning their first six regular season games en route to an 11–5 record, the AFC West championship, and the #2 AFC playoffseed. The Chargers went into the final game of the season against thePittsburgh Steelersneeding a win to get the #2 seed (a loss would have given that spot to theMiami Dolphins), which came with a first-round bye and a home game in the divisional round of the playoffs. Backup quarterbackGale Gilbert, subbing for injured starterStan Humphries, led the Chargers to a come-from-behind 37–34 win, withJohn Carneykicking a game-winning field goal in the game's final seconds. The Chargers' offense was led by quarterbackStan Humphries, who was the Redskins' backup toMark Rypienduring the1991 season, when they wonSuper Bowl XXVI. During the 1994 season for San Diego, Humphries completed 264 out of 453 attempts for 3,209 yards and 17 touchdowns, with 12 interceptions. Wide receiverMark Seaywas the team's leading receiver with 58 receptions for 645 yards and 6 touchdowns. Wide receiverTony Martinhad 50 catches for 885 yards and 7 touchdowns, wide receiverShawn Jeffersonrecorded 43 catches for 627 yards and 3 touchdowns, and tight endAlfred Pupunuhad 21 receptions for 214 yards and 2 touchdowns. Running backNatrone Meansled the team in rushing with 1,350 yards and 12 touchdowns. He also recorded 39 receptions for 235 yards, and was named to the Pro Bowl. Third-down backRonnie Harmonwas also a big contributor, catching 58 passes for 615 yards and a touchdown. Meanwhile, the Chargers'special teamswas also a major threat withAndre Coleman, who returned 49 kickoffs for 1,293 yards (26.4 average yards per return) and 2 touchdowns. The Chargers had an excellent defensive line, anchored by Pro Bowl defensive endLeslie O'Neal, who led the team with 12.5 sacks and forced four fumbles, defensive tackleChris Mims, who recorded 11 sacks, andShawn Lee, who added 6.5 sacks and a fumble recovery. Their linebacking corps was led byJunior Seau, who was a Pro Bowl selection for the fourth consecutive year, recording 123 tackles, 5.5 sacks, and 3 fumble recoveries. Defensive backStanley Richardwas a major weapon in the secondary, recording 4 interceptions, 224 return yards, and 2 touchdowns. Defensive backDarrien Gordonwas also a major asset to the team, recording 4 interceptions and 32 return yards, while also adding another 475 yards and 2 touchdowns returning punts. SafetyRodney Harrisonwas a rookie on the team. Chargers backup quarterbackGale Gilbertbecame the first player to be a member of five consecutive Super Bowl teams. He had been a third-string quarterback for theBuffalo Bills, who had won AFC Championships in the four previous seasons (1990–1993). San Francisco 49ers From the1988to the1993seasons, the 49ers played in five out of six NFC Championship Games, winning Super BowlsXXIIIandXXIV. But after head coachGeorge Seifert's team lost two consecutive NFC Championship games to theDallas Cowboysin1992and1993, San Francisco brought in several veteranfree agentsto strengthen their defense. Among the players signed were defensive linemenRichard Dent(the MVP ofSuper Bowl XX),Charles Mann,Rhett Hall, andRickey Jackson; linebackersKen Norton Jr.andGary Plummer; and cornerbackDeion Sanders. The free agents enabled the 49ers to jump from the 18th-ranked defense in the league to the 8th, and to jump from the league's 16th-best defense against the run to the 2nd.Pro Bowldefensive linemanDana Stubblefieldled the team with 8.5 sacks. Rookie defensive tackleBryant Youngwas also a big threat to opposing quarterbacks and rushers, recording 42 tackles, 6 sacks, and a fumble recovery. Behind them, Norton played very effectively at the middle linebacker position, leading the team with 77 tackles and recording an interception. Pro Bowl safetyMerton Hanksled the team with 7 interceptions for 93 return yards, while Sanders had 6 interceptions for 303 return yards and 3 touchdowns, earning him theNFL Defensive Player of the Year Award. His 303 return yards was the third-highest total in NFL history, while his touchdown returns of 74, 93, and 90 yards made him the first player ever to have two 90-yard interception returns in one season. Pro Bowl safetyTim McDonaldwas also a big contributor, recording 2 interceptions for 79 yards and a touchdown. The 49ers' offense was led by quarterbackSteve Young, who replaced futureHall of FamerJoe Montanaas the starter in1991and1992due to injuries. After Young led the league in passing in both seasons, Montana was traded to theKansas City Chiefs, leaving Young as the undisputed starter in 1993. But even with his impressive passing statistics, Young was criticized as \"not being able to win the big games\" as Montana had done in leading the 49ers to Super Bowl victories inXVI,XIX, XXIII, and XXIV. It also didn't help that the team had lost to Montana's Chiefs 24–17 during the regular season. Still, Young again led the league in passing during the 1994 regular season with apasser ratingof 112.8, breaking Montana's record for the highest regular season rating in NFL history. Young recorded 324 out of 461 completions for 3,969 yards, 35 touchdowns, and just 10 interceptions. He also had 58 rushes for 293 yards and 7 touchdowns, and earned theNFL Most Valuable Player Award. With Young at the helm, the 49ers led the league in total points scored (505) and helped them earn a league best 13–3 regular season record. Pro Bowl running backRicky Watterswas the team's leading rusher with 877 yards and 6 touchdowns, while also recording 66 receptions for 719 yards and 5 touchdowns. Rookie fullbackWilliam Floydwas the team's second-leading rusher with 305 yards and 6 touchdowns, while also having 19 receptions for 145 yards. The team's leading receiver was Pro Bowl wide receiverJerry Rice, who had 112 catches for 1,499 yards and 13 touchdowns, while also gaining 93 yards and two more touchdowns rushing the ball. ReceiverJohn Taylorwas also a reliable target, catching 41 passes for 531 yards and 5 touchdowns. Pro Bowl tight endBrent Jonesadded 49 receptions for 670 yards and 9 touchdowns. The offensive line was led by Pro Bowl centerBart Oates, another offseason free agent pickup, and Pro Bowl guardJesse Sapolu. Running backDexter Carterhad a standout season as a returner onspecial teams, gaining a combined total of 1,426 yards and a touchdown returning both punts and kickoffs. Playoffs Chargers In the AFC Divisional Playoffs, the Chargers managed to overcome a 21–6 halftime deficit to defeat theMiami Dolphins, 22–21. In the first half, San Diego was limited to only twoJohn Carneyfield goals, while Miami quarterbackDan Marinothrew for over 180 yards and 3 touchdowns. However, the Chargers dominated the Dolphins in the second half, limiting their offense to just 16 plays. In the third quarter, after the Chargers were stopped on fourth and goal at the 1-yard line, Chargers defensive linemanReuben Davistackled Dolphins running backBernie Parmaleein the end zone for a safety. San Diego then took the ensuing free kick and marched 54 yards to score on Means's 24-yard touchdown run. Then with time running out, Humphries threw an 8-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Mark Seay, giving his team a one-point lead. The Dolphins, aided by a pass interference call, responded with a drive to the Chargers' 31-yard line, but kickerPete Stoyanovich's potential game-winning 48-yard field goal attempt sailed far to the right of the goal posts and sealed San Diego's stirring win. San Diego then faced thePittsburgh Steelersin theAFC Championship Game. Once again, the Chargers fell behind early as the Steelers built up a 13–3 halftime lead, but Humphries fooled the Steelers secondary with a 43-yardplay-actiontouchdown pass to a wide open tight endAlfred Pupunu. The Chargers then took a 17–13 lead when Martin beat the Steelers secondary (particularly a badly overmatchedTim McKyer) down the right sideline for a 43-yard touchdown reception. On their final drive, the Steelers advanced to the San Diego 3-yard line, but Chargers linebackerDennis Gibsonsealed the victory on fourth down by deflecting quarterbackNeil O'Donnell's pass intended for running backBarry Fosterto turn the ball back over to San Diego. Just like the 49ers in the NFC title game, the Chargers advanced to the Super Bowl despite the fact that their opponent had outgained them in many key statistical categories such as total plays (80–47), total offensive yards (415–226), and time of possession (37:13–22:47). 49ers The 49ers first defeated theChicago Bears, 44–15, in the NFC Divisional Playoffs. Although Chicago scored first with a field goal, San Francisco scored 37 unanswered points to put the game out of reach by the end of the third quarter. Floyd scored three rushing touchdowns, while Young rushed for a touchdown and threw for another. San Francisco then defeatedtheir nemesis, theDallas Cowboys, 38–28, in theNFC Championship Game. Expected to be a close game, the 49ers converted 3 Dallas turnovers into 21 points in the first quarter. On the third play of the game, cornerbackEric Davisreturned an interception from Cowboys quarterbackTroy Aikmanfor a touchdown. Wide receiverMichael Irvinlost a fumble on Dallas' next drive, setting up Young's 29-yard touchdown pass to Watters. Then Cowboys returnerKevin Williamslost a fumble on the ensuing kickoff, and it was recovered by kickerDoug Brienat Dallas' 35-yard line. Several plays later, Floyd scored on a 1-yard touchdown run to give San Francisco a 21–0 lead less than 8 minutes into the game. With the score 24–14 in the closing minutes of the first half, Aikman threw 3 straight incompletions, and a short punt by the Cowboys set up Young's 28-yard touchdown completion to Rice with 8 seconds remaining in the first half. The Cowboys eventually cut their deficit to 38–28 with a touchdown run byEmmitt Smithand Aikman's 10-yard touchdown pass to Irvin in the final period, but they were unable to score again.Although the Cowboys outgained the 49ers in total offensive yards (451–294), Aikman broke an NFC Championship Game record with 380 yards passing, and Irvin also broke an NFC Championship Game record with 192 receiving yards, Dallas was ultimately unable to overcome their first-quarter turnovers. Super Bowl pregame news Entering Super Bowl XXIX, most sports writers and fans thought the Chargers had absolutely no chance of defeating the 49ers. San Francisco was on track, winning 12 of its last 13 games (with their only loss in that span coming against theMinnesota Vikingsin a meaningless regular season finale at Minnesota), including their playoff victories. Many people also thought that the NFC Championship Game between the 49ers and the Cowboys was \"the real Super Bowl\",because those two teams were commonly viewed as vastly superior to any AFC team. Furthermore, San Francisco had defeated San Diego, 38–15, during the regular season. As a result, the 49ers entered the game favored to win by 18 1⁄2- points, surpassed only by the 19 1⁄2- points, by theBaltimore Coltswho were favored over theNew York JetsinSuper Bowl IIImore than two decades prior. Many also speculated that Super Bowl XXIX would be the least watched game in Super Bowl history because the Chargers did not have as large of a core fan base as other AFC teams like the Chiefs, the Dolphins, or the Steelers. (This prediction ultimately turned out to be false. Although Super Bowl XXIX was viewed by 125.2 million people and had aNielsen ratingof 41.3,Super Bowl XXVIthree years earlier was seen by 119.7 million viewers and recorded a 40.3 rating.) This was the seventh Super Bowl to be played in Miami, at the time tying bothNew Orleans, Louisiana and theGreater Los Angeles areafor hosting the Super Bowl the most times. It remains the only Super Bowl played between teams that play their home games in the same state (althoughSuper Bowl XXVwas played between theNew York Giantsand theBuffalo Bills, two teams representing areas ofNew York, the Giants play their home games inNew Jersey). Broadcasting The game was broadcast in the United States byABC, withplay-by-play announcerAl Michaelsandcolor commentatorsFrank GiffordandDan Dierdorf.Lynn Swannreported from theChargerssideline andLesley Visserreported from the49erssideline). Visser became the first woman assigned to a Super Bowl sideline; she had previously become the first woman sportscaster to cover theVince Lombardi Trophypresentation ceremony, when she coveredSuper Bowl XXVIforCBS.Brent Musburgerhosted all the Super Bowl XXIX pregame (2 hours), halftime, and postgame events with the help of then-ABC Sports analystDick Vermeil, Musburger's regular color commentator on ABC'scollege football telecasts, and then-New York JetsquarterbackBoomer Esiason. This was the last Super Bowl broadcast by the broadcast team of Michaels, Gifford and Dierdorf. The three calledMonday Night Footballfrom the1987to1997, and also worked ABC's coverage of Super BowlsXXIIandXXV. This would also be the last Super Bowl aired on ABC until the1999 season(when Al Michaels called the game with Boomer Esiason). This would also be the final Super Bowl hosted by Musburger, as all subsequent Super Bowls on ABC were hosted byESPN'sChris Bermanfollowing theDisneypurchase of ABC (which included ESPN), and the subsequent integration of ESPN and ABC Sports (now ESPN on ABC). Also, the trophy presentation for this game was the last to be held in the winning team's locker room, as all subsequent Vince Lombardi Trophy presentations would be held on the field. For theSuper Bowl lead-out program, ABC premiered the television dramaExtremestarringJames Brolin; this was the last series to premiere following the Super Bowl untilFamily Guypremiered followingSuper Bowl XXXIIIand is one of only four in the last 14 years to premiere following a Super Bowl (joiningFamily Guy, its spinoffAmerican Dad!, andUndercover Bosswhich premiered followingSuper Bowl XLIV), since the networks have preferred to have new episodes of established shows to catch as much of the post-game audience as possible. Thirty-second television advertisements for Super Bowl XXIX averaged $1.15 million in costs, the first time that Super Bowl ads exceeded the $1 million mark. Super Bowl XXIX aired in over 150 countries worldwide. It was simulcast in Canada onCTVandTVA(in French), in Mexico onTelevisa'sCanal 5, whose commentators were able to call the game live from San Diego on the last minute,in Germany onTele 5, inAustraliaonABC, in thePhilippineson theGMA Networkand later aired in the United Kingdom onChannel 4. This Super Bowl would later be featured onNFL's Greatest Gamesunder the titleExercise in Excellence.The Super Bowl highlight film on which the episode was based was the only Super Bowl highlight film to be narrated byHarry Kalas. In popular culture In the Tuesday prior to the Super Bowl, the ABC sitcomFull Houseaired an episode called \"Super Bowl Fun Day\" involving main characters Danny Tanner and Rebecca Donaldson reporting at the game for their showWake Up, San Francisco. (Full Housewas set in San Francisco, and this was the only time during the show's run that the 49ers advanced to a Super Bowl aired on ABC.) A week earlier, theSeinfeldepisode \"The Label Maker\" involvedJerrytrying to give away his tickets to the game. He eventually decided to go, but unfortunately was stuck sitting next toNewman. Two days after the Super Bowl, the game was the main plot feature of an episode of the ABC sitcomHome Improvement, \"Super Bowl Fever\", in whichJillwas sick with the flu whileTimand his buddies tried to watch the game. Entertainment Pregame ceremonies The pregame show held before the game featuredcountry musicsingerHank Williams Jr., who performed his theme song forMonday Night Football, which was based on his single \"All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight\". Actress and singerKathie Lee Gifford(Frank Gifford's wife) later sang the national anthem. She was accompanied by then-Miss AmericaHeather Whitestonewhosignedthe anthem for the hearing impaired. To honor the NFL's 75th season, four former players all Hall of Fame members, who were named to the league's 75th Anniversary All-Time Team joined thecoin tossceremony:Otto Graham,Joe Greene,Ray Nitschke, andGale Sayers. A special 75th anniversary logo was painted at midfield. Each player also wore a patch on hisjerseywith the same logo; the 75th anniversary patch was worn by all players league-wide during the1994 season. During the regular season, teams also wore \"throwback\" jerseys for selected games. The 49ers wore their throwbacks (which paid tribute to the1957 Niners) for most of the season, this game included. Halftime show The halftime show was titled \"Indiana Jones and the Temple of the Forbidden Eye\" and was produced byDisneyto promote theirIndiana Jones Adventureattraction atDisneylandthat opened later that year. The show featured actors playingIndiana Jonesand his girlfriendMarion Ravenwoodwho were raiding theVince Lombardi Trophyfrom the Temple of the Forbidden Eye. The show also had performances by singersTony BennettandPatti LaBelle,jazztrumpeterArturo Sandoval, and theMiami Sound Machine. The show ended with everybody singing \"Can You Feel The Love Tonight\", the song featured in Disney's (which later acquired ABC) 1994 filmThe Lion King. The dancers on the field were members of the Coral Gables Senior High marching band. This halftime show also had a connection with past ABC programming: the first twoIndiana Jonesfilms had their broadcast premieres on ABC, and the network aired a TV series,The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, from 1992 to 1993 (actually serving as the lead-in toMonday Night Footballat one point). Radio The game was broadcast on nationwide radio byCBSwithplay-by-play announcerJack Buckandcolor commentatorHank Stram.Jim Hunterhosted all of the events. Locally, Super Bowl XXIX was broadcast byXTRA-AMinSan DiegowithLee \"Hacksaw\" HamiltonandJim Laslavicand byKGO-AMinSan FranciscowithJoe StarkeyandWayne Walker. Game summary First quarter After 49ers running backDexter Carterreturned the opening kickoff 9 yards to the San Francisco 26-yard line, a face mask penalty on Chargers linebackerDoug Millerallowed San Francisco to start at their own 41. On the third play of the drive, quarterbackSteve Youngthrew a 44-yard touchdown pass to wideJerry Riceto take an early 7–0 lead. The 49ers became the second team to take the opening kickoff and score a touchdown on that first drive (the first being theMiami DolphinsinSuper Bowl VIII), and also set a new Super Bowl record for the fastest touchdown (later broken by theChicago Bears'Devin HesterinSuper Bowl XLI). After forcing the Chargers to punt after a three-and-out on their opening possession, the 49ers advanced 79 yards in four plays, with Young rushing for 21 yards and then throwing a 51-yard touchdown pass to running backRicky Wattersto give San Francisco a 14–0 lead less than 5 minutes into the first quarter and set a Super Bowl record for the fastest second touchdown scored by a team. San Diego responded on their ensuing possession, marching 78 yards in 13 plays and taking more than 7 minutes off the clock. The drive featured two receptions and a run by running backRonnie Harmonfor 33 yards and six runs by running backNatrone Meansfor 22 yards, the last one being a 1-yard touchdown run, cutting the Chargers' deficit to 14–7. However, the 49ers quickly countered after the ensuing kickoff, driving 70 yards in 10 plays. Rice started off the drive with a 19-yard reception and 10-yard run on a reverse play, while Young added a 12-yard completion to wide receiverJohn Taylorand a 15-yard scramble. Second quarter Four plays into the second quarter, Young threw a 5-yard touchdown pass to fullbackWilliam Floyd, increasing the San Francisco lead to 21–7 and making the 49ers the second team to score on its first three possessions (afterGreen Bay) of a Super Bowl and the first (and only as of 2024) to score touchdowns on its first three possessions. After the next three possessions ended in punts, Chargers punterBryan Wagner's 40-yard punt from his own 9-yard line gave the 49ers the ball at the San Diego 49. San Francisco then marched on a 9-play drive, which included two receptions by Rice for 19 yards and ended with Young's fourth touchdown pass, an 8-yard toss to Watters, with 4:44 left in the half, making the score 28–7. San Diego then took the ensuing kickoff and drove 62 yards from their own 25-yard line to the San Francisco 13, featuring a 17-yard reception by wide receiverMark Seay, a 10-yard reverse run by wide receiverShawn Jefferson, and a 33-yard gain on ascreen passfrom quarterbackStan Humphriesto running backEric Bieniemy, the Chargers' longest play of the game. But after Humphries threw three incomplete passes, one of which was a perfectly thrown pass that Seay dropped in the end zone, they were forced to settle for kickerJohn Carney's 31-yard field goal, cutting their deficit to 28–10. A 33-yard completion from Young to tight endBrent Joneshelped the 49ers reach the San Diego 29-yard line on their next possession, but Young's third-down pass to Jones was overthrown, and kickerDoug Brienmissed a 47-yard field goal attempt wide right. The Chargers then drove to their own 46-yard line, but 49ers cornerbackEric Davisintercepted Humphries' third-down pass intended for wide receiverTony Martinin the end zone for a touchback with 10 seconds left in the half, and the score remained 28–10 at halftime. The Chargers' 18-point halftime deficit ended up being the closest scoring margin they would reach for the rest of the game. Third quarter The 49ers picked up right where they left off going into the second half. The Chargers were forced to punt after three plays on the opening drive of the half, and Carter returned the ball 11 yards to his own 38-yard line. Young subsequently completed two passes to Rice for 37 yards (including a 21-yard pass on 3rd-and-17) and a 16-yard pass to Taylor on a 7-play, 62-yard drive that ended with Watters' third touchdown of the game on a 9-yard run, increasing the 49ers' lead to 35–10. After a 33-yard kickoff return by wide receiverAndre Coleman, the Chargers advanced to the San Francisco 33-yard line, aided by a 23-yard reception by tight endAlfred Pupunu, but they turned the ball over on downs when Humphries' 4th-and-7 pass intended for Martin was broken up by Davis. Young then led San Francisco on a 10-play, 67-yard drive, aided by a 22-yard pass interference penalty against cornerbackDarrien Gordonon 3rd-and-14, to score on his fifth touchdown pass, a 15-yard completion to Rice. But San Diego immediately responded when Coleman returned the ensuing kickoff 98 yards for a touchdown. Then Humphries completed a pass to Seay for atwo-point conversion(the first in Super Bowl history; the rule had been adopted by the NFL at the start of the season), but it only cut the deficit to 42–18. The 49ers were forced to punt on their next drive, but the Chargers ended up turning the ball over on downs again when Means was tackled for a 4-yard loss by safetyMerton Hankson 4th-and-1 from the San Diego 37. Fourth quarter Six plays later, after three runs by Watters for 25 yards, Young threw his record-setting sixth touchdown pass to Rice on a 7-yard completion with 13:49 remaining in the game, increasing the San Francisco lead to 49–18 and essentially ending any hopes of a San Diego comeback. The Chargers, now playing for pride, responded with a 13-play, 59-yard drive to reach the San Francisco 7-yard line. Humphries led his team down the field 12 yards for the first four plays, but hurt his ankle while being tackled by defensive tackleBryant Young, and was temporarily replaced byGale Gilbert, who completed two passes to Harmon for 24 yards, but threw an interception on 4th-and-6 to cornerbackDeion Sanders, who returned the ball to the San Francisco 14-yard line. After two punts by the 49ers and an interception by San Francisco defensive backToi Cook(during which Humphries returned to the game), the Chargers scored the final points of the game on a 67-yard, 8-play drive, which consisted of two receptions by Seay for 30 yards and two receptions by Martin for 42 yards, the second of which was caught for a 30-yard touchdown. TV viewers didn't see most of the play as ABC had cut to the 49ers celebrating on the sideline. Humphries then completed another pass for a two-point conversion, this time to Pupunu, to make the final score 49–26. The 49ers recovered the ensuing onside kick and ran time off the clock before punting to the San Diego 7. San Diego drove to the San Francisco 35 before the game ended. Once the 49ers victory was assured, Young said \"somebody take the monkey off my back!\" Years later, he regretted saying that saying this was a team effort not an individual performance. At the end of the game, Young showed his jubilation at finally being able to win \"the big one\" while accepting the MVP trophy. \"There were times when this was hard! But this is the greatest feeling in the world! No one —no one!— can ever take this away from us! No one,ever!It's ours!\" Young and his teammates were equally enthusiastic in the locker room afterwards. \"We're part of history,\" said guardJesse Sapolu. \"This is probably the best offense people will see in their lifetimes.\" \"Is this great or what?\" Young added. \"I mean, I haven't thrown six touchdown passes in a game in my life. Then I throw six in the Super Bowl! Unbelievable.\" Rice caught 10 passes for 149 yards and 3 touchdowns, tying his own record for most touchdown receptions in a Super Bowl, and becoming the first player ever to do it twice. He also recorded 10 rushing yards. Watters rushed for 47 yards and a touchdown, while also catching 3 passes for 61 yards and two touchdowns. Means, who rushed for 1,350 yards in the regular season, was held to just 33 yards in the game. Humphries finished 24 out of 49 for 275 yards and one touchdown, with two interceptions. Seay was the Chargers' top receiver with 7 receptions for 75 yards, whileRonnie Harmonadded 8 catches for 68 yards. Defensive end Raylee Johnson had two sacks. Coleman's 8 kickoff returns for 244 yards and a touchdown set the following Super Bowl records: most kickoff returns in a Super Bowl, most kickoff return yards in a Super Bowl, and most combined net yards gained in a Super Bowl. This was the first Super Bowl to have two players each score three touchdowns. Rice matched hisSuper Bowl XXIVperformance with his three touchdown catches. Watters also had three touchdowns, matching Roger Craig's three touchdowns (two receiving and one rushing) inSuper Bowl XIX. Watters also became the second running back to catch two touchdown passes in a game, matching Craig. Ken Norton Jr.became the first player to win three straight Super Bowls, although as a member of two teams. Norton was a member of the Cowboys teams who won Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII.Deion Sandersbecame the first player to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series, playing in the1992 World Serieswith theAtlanta Braves. Chargers quarterbackGale Gilbertbecame the first player to be a member of five straight Super Bowl teams. Gilbert was a member of the Bills who played in four straight Super Bowls (XXV–XXVIII). Gilbert was on the losing team in all five Super Bowl games. The 49ers' spectacular performance led to their offensive coordinator,Mike Shanahan, and defensive coordinator,Ray Rhodes, earning head coaching positions in 1995 for theDenver Broncosand thePhiladelphia Eagles, respectively.Bobby Rossbecame the second coach, afterJimmy JohnsoninSuper Bowl XXVII, to lead a team to acollege football national championship(Georgia Techin 1990) and a Super Bowl. One year later,Barry Switzerwould join Johnson as the only head coaches to win championships in both NCAA Division I-A (now FBS) college football and the NFL. Box score atJoe Robbie Stadium,Miami, Florida Final statistics Sources:NFL.com Super Bowl XXIX,Super Bowl XXIX Play Finder SF,Super Bowl XXIX Play Finder SD,USA Today Super Bowl XXIX Play by Play Statistical comparison Individual statistics 1Completions/attempts2Carries3Longest gain4Receptions5Times targeted Records set The following records were set in Super Bowl XXIX, according to the official NFL.com boxscoreand the Pro-Football-Reference.com game summary.Some records have to meet NFL minimum number of attempts to be recognized.The minimums are shown (in parentheses). Turnovers are defined as the number of times losing the ball on interceptions and fumbles. Starting lineups Source: Pro Football Hall of Fame‡ Officials Jerry Markbreit became the first official to serve as referee in four Super Bowls, a record that still stands. Officials wore a black armband with number 42 to honor umpire Dave Hamilton, who died on January 9 at age 61 due to liver failure. Hamilton had completed his 20th season as an NFL official in 1994. The day after the Super Bowl, Donnie Hampton, who had been a field judge since 1988, died of a heart attack at age 47. Aftermath As of the 2022 season, this is the only Super Bowl played between teams based in the same state. It is also the most recent Super Bowl title to date for the 49ers. They would play in three more in the 21st Century (Super Bowl XLVII,Super Bowl LIVandSuper Bowl LVIII), but lost all of them. As for the Chargers, the implications of their defeat were far worse in hindsight. This remains the only Super Bowl the Chargers have ever played in. Including the era before theAFL–NFL merger, it isthe third championship gamethat the Chargers have lost. TheAFL Championship in 1963remains to this day as the only major sports championship the city of San Diego has won (and also the longest championship drought for any city that has at least two major sports franchises), so even though they were heavy underdogs, the loss still had great significance.The Chargers did not win another playoff game until the2007 season, when they reached the AFC Championship Game but lost to the then-undefeated New England Patriots, 21–12. Super Bowl XXIX would be their only appearance while playing in San Diego before they moved to Los Angeles following the 2016 season. Notable deaths from 1994 Chargers team In addition, eight players from the 1994 Chargers Super Bowl team have died prior to reaching age 45.They include: Notes References External links","Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_1995_box_office_number-one_films_in_the_United_States (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"],"string":"[\n \"Super Bowl XXIX Super Bowl XXIXwas anAmerican footballgame between theAmerican Football Conference(AFC) championSan Diego Chargersand theNational Football Conference(NFC) championSan Francisco 49ersto decide theNational Football League(NFL) champion for the1994 season.The 49ers defeated the Chargers by the score of 49–26, becoming the first team to win five Super Bowl championships. The game was played on January 29, 1995, atJoe Robbie StadiuminMiami, Florida. This game is regarded as 49ers quarterbackSteve Young's final leap out of the shadow of his predecessor,Joe Montana, who had won four Super Bowls with the 49ers (in1981,1984,1988, and1989), two with Young as the backup quarterback. With Young at the helm, and a defense consisting of several veteranfree agentswho joined the team during the previous offseason, San Francisco finished the regular season with a league-best 13–3 record, and led the league in total points scored (505). The Chargers, on the other hand, were regarded as a\\\"Cinderella\\\" team, and advanced to their first Super Bowl after posting an 11–5 regular-season record and overcoming halftime deficits in both of their playoff wins. This was the first Super Bowl in which both teams scored in all four quarters. The combined aggregate score of 75 points and the ten totaltouchdownsboth remain Super Bowl records. Still, the 49ers controlled most of the game, with Young completing touchdown passes in each of the 49ers' first two drives. The Chargers were able to cut the deficit late in the first quarter, 14–7, on a 13-play, 78-yard drive, but could not slow down San Francisco afterwards. Young was named theSuper Bowl MVP, throwing a Super Bowl-record six touchdown passes, and completing 24 out of 36 passes for 325 yards. Despite the predicted blowout (18 1⁄2- points is the second largest margin a team has been favored by in a Super Bowl), the fact that San Diego did not have as much national appeal nor a relatively large core fan base, and two teams fromCaliforniaplaying, which could have significantly diminished interest along theEast Coast, the telecast of the game onABCstill had aNielsen ratingof 41.3. Background Host selection process NFL owners voted to award Super Bowl XXIX to Miami during their May 23, 1991 meeting inMinneapolis. Three cities presented bids:Miami(Joe Robbie Stadium),Tampa(Tampa Stadium), andHouston(Astrodome).New Orleans pulled out of the running early on due to conflicts with other conventions. Houston was considered an early favorite, since they had not hosted the game since1974. However, the Astrodome would need to add approximately 10,000 temporary seats in order to meet the NFL's capacity requirement of 70,000. Rules required a candidate to receive a3⁄4vote (21 of 28 owners) in order to win the bidding. Tampa was eliminated on the first ballot, having just hostedXXV, along with their lack of premium seating. Then neither Miami nor Houston managed to get 21 votes on the second ballot or on the third ballot. For the fourth ballot, the threshold was reduced to a simple majority. In what was said to be a close vote, Miami was selected as the host.It marked the seventh time overall theMiami-areahosted the Super Bowl, and the second time it was played in Joe Robbie Stadium. San Diego Chargers The Chargers were the biggest surprise of the 1994 season, with very few expecting them to even reach the playoffs, let alone the Super Bowl. San Diego suffered losing seasons in the 1980s until formerWashington Redskinsgeneral managerBobby Beathardjoined the team in 1990. Beathard decided to rebuild the Chargers using the same model that he used to build the Redskins into Super Bowl contenders during the 1980s: a powerful running game built around big linemen, a passing game that helped sustain extremely long drives, and a bending but steady defense. After formerGeorgia Techhead coachBobby Rosswas hired by theChargers in 1992, the team won theAFC Westwith an 11–5 regular season record and won an opening round playoff game againstKansas City. But in1993, they slumped back to 8–8 and did not reach the postseason. Before the start of the 1994 season, San Diego was not expected to do well because they had so many newcomers via the draft and free agency; the Chargers ended up with 22 new players on their roster, and 10 of them became starters. However, they ended up winning their first six regular season games en route to an 11–5 record, the AFC West championship, and the #2 AFC playoffseed. The Chargers went into the final game of the season against thePittsburgh Steelersneeding a win to get the #2 seed (a loss would have given that spot to theMiami Dolphins), which came with a first-round bye and a home game in the divisional round of the playoffs. Backup quarterbackGale Gilbert, subbing for injured starterStan Humphries, led the Chargers to a come-from-behind 37–34 win, withJohn Carneykicking a game-winning field goal in the game's final seconds. The Chargers' offense was led by quarterbackStan Humphries, who was the Redskins' backup toMark Rypienduring the1991 season, when they wonSuper Bowl XXVI. During the 1994 season for San Diego, Humphries completed 264 out of 453 attempts for 3,209 yards and 17 touchdowns, with 12 interceptions. Wide receiverMark Seaywas the team's leading receiver with 58 receptions for 645 yards and 6 touchdowns. Wide receiverTony Martinhad 50 catches for 885 yards and 7 touchdowns, wide receiverShawn Jeffersonrecorded 43 catches for 627 yards and 3 touchdowns, and tight endAlfred Pupunuhad 21 receptions for 214 yards and 2 touchdowns. Running backNatrone Meansled the team in rushing with 1,350 yards and 12 touchdowns. He also recorded 39 receptions for 235 yards, and was named to the Pro Bowl. Third-down backRonnie Harmonwas also a big contributor, catching 58 passes for 615 yards and a touchdown. Meanwhile, the Chargers'special teamswas also a major threat withAndre Coleman, who returned 49 kickoffs for 1,293 yards (26.4 average yards per return) and 2 touchdowns. The Chargers had an excellent defensive line, anchored by Pro Bowl defensive endLeslie O'Neal, who led the team with 12.5 sacks and forced four fumbles, defensive tackleChris Mims, who recorded 11 sacks, andShawn Lee, who added 6.5 sacks and a fumble recovery. Their linebacking corps was led byJunior Seau, who was a Pro Bowl selection for the fourth consecutive year, recording 123 tackles, 5.5 sacks, and 3 fumble recoveries. Defensive backStanley Richardwas a major weapon in the secondary, recording 4 interceptions, 224 return yards, and 2 touchdowns. Defensive backDarrien Gordonwas also a major asset to the team, recording 4 interceptions and 32 return yards, while also adding another 475 yards and 2 touchdowns returning punts. SafetyRodney Harrisonwas a rookie on the team. Chargers backup quarterbackGale Gilbertbecame the first player to be a member of five consecutive Super Bowl teams. He had been a third-string quarterback for theBuffalo Bills, who had won AFC Championships in the four previous seasons (1990–1993). San Francisco 49ers From the1988to the1993seasons, the 49ers played in five out of six NFC Championship Games, winning Super BowlsXXIIIandXXIV. But after head coachGeorge Seifert's team lost two consecutive NFC Championship games to theDallas Cowboysin1992and1993, San Francisco brought in several veteranfree agentsto strengthen their defense. Among the players signed were defensive linemenRichard Dent(the MVP ofSuper Bowl XX),Charles Mann,Rhett Hall, andRickey Jackson; linebackersKen Norton Jr.andGary Plummer; and cornerbackDeion Sanders. The free agents enabled the 49ers to jump from the 18th-ranked defense in the league to the 8th, and to jump from the league's 16th-best defense against the run to the 2nd.Pro Bowldefensive linemanDana Stubblefieldled the team with 8.5 sacks. Rookie defensive tackleBryant Youngwas also a big threat to opposing quarterbacks and rushers, recording 42 tackles, 6 sacks, and a fumble recovery. Behind them, Norton played very effectively at the middle linebacker position, leading the team with 77 tackles and recording an interception. Pro Bowl safetyMerton Hanksled the team with 7 interceptions for 93 return yards, while Sanders had 6 interceptions for 303 return yards and 3 touchdowns, earning him theNFL Defensive Player of the Year Award. His 303 return yards was the third-highest total in NFL history, while his touchdown returns of 74, 93, and 90 yards made him the first player ever to have two 90-yard interception returns in one season. Pro Bowl safetyTim McDonaldwas also a big contributor, recording 2 interceptions for 79 yards and a touchdown. The 49ers' offense was led by quarterbackSteve Young, who replaced futureHall of FamerJoe Montanaas the starter in1991and1992due to injuries. After Young led the league in passing in both seasons, Montana was traded to theKansas City Chiefs, leaving Young as the undisputed starter in 1993. But even with his impressive passing statistics, Young was criticized as \\\"not being able to win the big games\\\" as Montana had done in leading the 49ers to Super Bowl victories inXVI,XIX, XXIII, and XXIV. It also didn't help that the team had lost to Montana's Chiefs 24–17 during the regular season. Still, Young again led the league in passing during the 1994 regular season with apasser ratingof 112.8, breaking Montana's record for the highest regular season rating in NFL history. Young recorded 324 out of 461 completions for 3,969 yards, 35 touchdowns, and just 10 interceptions. He also had 58 rushes for 293 yards and 7 touchdowns, and earned theNFL Most Valuable Player Award. With Young at the helm, the 49ers led the league in total points scored (505) and helped them earn a league best 13–3 regular season record. Pro Bowl running backRicky Watterswas the team's leading rusher with 877 yards and 6 touchdowns, while also recording 66 receptions for 719 yards and 5 touchdowns. Rookie fullbackWilliam Floydwas the team's second-leading rusher with 305 yards and 6 touchdowns, while also having 19 receptions for 145 yards. The team's leading receiver was Pro Bowl wide receiverJerry Rice, who had 112 catches for 1,499 yards and 13 touchdowns, while also gaining 93 yards and two more touchdowns rushing the ball. ReceiverJohn Taylorwas also a reliable target, catching 41 passes for 531 yards and 5 touchdowns. Pro Bowl tight endBrent Jonesadded 49 receptions for 670 yards and 9 touchdowns. The offensive line was led by Pro Bowl centerBart Oates, another offseason free agent pickup, and Pro Bowl guardJesse Sapolu. Running backDexter Carterhad a standout season as a returner onspecial teams, gaining a combined total of 1,426 yards and a touchdown returning both punts and kickoffs. Playoffs Chargers In the AFC Divisional Playoffs, the Chargers managed to overcome a 21–6 halftime deficit to defeat theMiami Dolphins, 22–21. In the first half, San Diego was limited to only twoJohn Carneyfield goals, while Miami quarterbackDan Marinothrew for over 180 yards and 3 touchdowns. However, the Chargers dominated the Dolphins in the second half, limiting their offense to just 16 plays. In the third quarter, after the Chargers were stopped on fourth and goal at the 1-yard line, Chargers defensive linemanReuben Davistackled Dolphins running backBernie Parmaleein the end zone for a safety. San Diego then took the ensuing free kick and marched 54 yards to score on Means's 24-yard touchdown run. Then with time running out, Humphries threw an 8-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Mark Seay, giving his team a one-point lead. The Dolphins, aided by a pass interference call, responded with a drive to the Chargers' 31-yard line, but kickerPete Stoyanovich's potential game-winning 48-yard field goal attempt sailed far to the right of the goal posts and sealed San Diego's stirring win. San Diego then faced thePittsburgh Steelersin theAFC Championship Game. Once again, the Chargers fell behind early as the Steelers built up a 13–3 halftime lead, but Humphries fooled the Steelers secondary with a 43-yardplay-actiontouchdown pass to a wide open tight endAlfred Pupunu. The Chargers then took a 17–13 lead when Martin beat the Steelers secondary (particularly a badly overmatchedTim McKyer) down the right sideline for a 43-yard touchdown reception. On their final drive, the Steelers advanced to the San Diego 3-yard line, but Chargers linebackerDennis Gibsonsealed the victory on fourth down by deflecting quarterbackNeil O'Donnell's pass intended for running backBarry Fosterto turn the ball back over to San Diego. Just like the 49ers in the NFC title game, the Chargers advanced to the Super Bowl despite the fact that their opponent had outgained them in many key statistical categories such as total plays (80–47), total offensive yards (415–226), and time of possession (37:13–22:47). 49ers The 49ers first defeated theChicago Bears, 44–15, in the NFC Divisional Playoffs. Although Chicago scored first with a field goal, San Francisco scored 37 unanswered points to put the game out of reach by the end of the third quarter. Floyd scored three rushing touchdowns, while Young rushed for a touchdown and threw for another. San Francisco then defeatedtheir nemesis, theDallas Cowboys, 38–28, in theNFC Championship Game. Expected to be a close game, the 49ers converted 3 Dallas turnovers into 21 points in the first quarter. On the third play of the game, cornerbackEric Davisreturned an interception from Cowboys quarterbackTroy Aikmanfor a touchdown. Wide receiverMichael Irvinlost a fumble on Dallas' next drive, setting up Young's 29-yard touchdown pass to Watters. Then Cowboys returnerKevin Williamslost a fumble on the ensuing kickoff, and it was recovered by kickerDoug Brienat Dallas' 35-yard line. Several plays later, Floyd scored on a 1-yard touchdown run to give San Francisco a 21–0 lead less than 8 minutes into the game. With the score 24–14 in the closing minutes of the first half, Aikman threw 3 straight incompletions, and a short punt by the Cowboys set up Young's 28-yard touchdown completion to Rice with 8 seconds remaining in the first half. The Cowboys eventually cut their deficit to 38–28 with a touchdown run byEmmitt Smithand Aikman's 10-yard touchdown pass to Irvin in the final period, but they were unable to score again.Although the Cowboys outgained the 49ers in total offensive yards (451–294), Aikman broke an NFC Championship Game record with 380 yards passing, and Irvin also broke an NFC Championship Game record with 192 receiving yards, Dallas was ultimately unable to overcome their first-quarter turnovers. Super Bowl pregame news Entering Super Bowl XXIX, most sports writers and fans thought the Chargers had absolutely no chance of defeating the 49ers. San Francisco was on track, winning 12 of its last 13 games (with their only loss in that span coming against theMinnesota Vikingsin a meaningless regular season finale at Minnesota), including their playoff victories. Many people also thought that the NFC Championship Game between the 49ers and the Cowboys was \\\"the real Super Bowl\\\",because those two teams were commonly viewed as vastly superior to any AFC team. Furthermore, San Francisco had defeated San Diego, 38–15, during the regular season. As a result, the 49ers entered the game favored to win by 18 1⁄2- points, surpassed only by the 19 1⁄2- points, by theBaltimore Coltswho were favored over theNew York JetsinSuper Bowl IIImore than two decades prior. Many also speculated that Super Bowl XXIX would be the least watched game in Super Bowl history because the Chargers did not have as large of a core fan base as other AFC teams like the Chiefs, the Dolphins, or the Steelers. (This prediction ultimately turned out to be false. Although Super Bowl XXIX was viewed by 125.2 million people and had aNielsen ratingof 41.3,Super Bowl XXVIthree years earlier was seen by 119.7 million viewers and recorded a 40.3 rating.) This was the seventh Super Bowl to be played in Miami, at the time tying bothNew Orleans, Louisiana and theGreater Los Angeles areafor hosting the Super Bowl the most times. It remains the only Super Bowl played between teams that play their home games in the same state (althoughSuper Bowl XXVwas played between theNew York Giantsand theBuffalo Bills, two teams representing areas ofNew York, the Giants play their home games inNew Jersey). Broadcasting The game was broadcast in the United States byABC, withplay-by-play announcerAl Michaelsandcolor commentatorsFrank GiffordandDan Dierdorf.Lynn Swannreported from theChargerssideline andLesley Visserreported from the49erssideline). Visser became the first woman assigned to a Super Bowl sideline; she had previously become the first woman sportscaster to cover theVince Lombardi Trophypresentation ceremony, when she coveredSuper Bowl XXVIforCBS.Brent Musburgerhosted all the Super Bowl XXIX pregame (2 hours), halftime, and postgame events with the help of then-ABC Sports analystDick Vermeil, Musburger's regular color commentator on ABC'scollege football telecasts, and then-New York JetsquarterbackBoomer Esiason. This was the last Super Bowl broadcast by the broadcast team of Michaels, Gifford and Dierdorf. The three calledMonday Night Footballfrom the1987to1997, and also worked ABC's coverage of Super BowlsXXIIandXXV. This would also be the last Super Bowl aired on ABC until the1999 season(when Al Michaels called the game with Boomer Esiason). This would also be the final Super Bowl hosted by Musburger, as all subsequent Super Bowls on ABC were hosted byESPN'sChris Bermanfollowing theDisneypurchase of ABC (which included ESPN), and the subsequent integration of ESPN and ABC Sports (now ESPN on ABC). Also, the trophy presentation for this game was the last to be held in the winning team's locker room, as all subsequent Vince Lombardi Trophy presentations would be held on the field. For theSuper Bowl lead-out program, ABC premiered the television dramaExtremestarringJames Brolin; this was the last series to premiere following the Super Bowl untilFamily Guypremiered followingSuper Bowl XXXIIIand is one of only four in the last 14 years to premiere following a Super Bowl (joiningFamily Guy, its spinoffAmerican Dad!, andUndercover Bosswhich premiered followingSuper Bowl XLIV), since the networks have preferred to have new episodes of established shows to catch as much of the post-game audience as possible. Thirty-second television advertisements for Super Bowl XXIX averaged $1.15 million in costs, the first time that Super Bowl ads exceeded the $1 million mark. Super Bowl XXIX aired in over 150 countries worldwide. It was simulcast in Canada onCTVandTVA(in French), in Mexico onTelevisa'sCanal 5, whose commentators were able to call the game live from San Diego on the last minute,in Germany onTele 5, inAustraliaonABC, in thePhilippineson theGMA Networkand later aired in the United Kingdom onChannel 4. This Super Bowl would later be featured onNFL's Greatest Gamesunder the titleExercise in Excellence.The Super Bowl highlight film on which the episode was based was the only Super Bowl highlight film to be narrated byHarry Kalas. In popular culture In the Tuesday prior to the Super Bowl, the ABC sitcomFull Houseaired an episode called \\\"Super Bowl Fun Day\\\" involving main characters Danny Tanner and Rebecca Donaldson reporting at the game for their showWake Up, San Francisco. (Full Housewas set in San Francisco, and this was the only time during the show's run that the 49ers advanced to a Super Bowl aired on ABC.) A week earlier, theSeinfeldepisode \\\"The Label Maker\\\" involvedJerrytrying to give away his tickets to the game. He eventually decided to go, but unfortunately was stuck sitting next toNewman. Two days after the Super Bowl, the game was the main plot feature of an episode of the ABC sitcomHome Improvement, \\\"Super Bowl Fever\\\", in whichJillwas sick with the flu whileTimand his buddies tried to watch the game. Entertainment Pregame ceremonies The pregame show held before the game featuredcountry musicsingerHank Williams Jr., who performed his theme song forMonday Night Football, which was based on his single \\\"All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight\\\". Actress and singerKathie Lee Gifford(Frank Gifford's wife) later sang the national anthem. She was accompanied by then-Miss AmericaHeather Whitestonewhosignedthe anthem for the hearing impaired. To honor the NFL's 75th season, four former players all Hall of Fame members, who were named to the league's 75th Anniversary All-Time Team joined thecoin tossceremony:Otto Graham,Joe Greene,Ray Nitschke, andGale Sayers. A special 75th anniversary logo was painted at midfield. Each player also wore a patch on hisjerseywith the same logo; the 75th anniversary patch was worn by all players league-wide during the1994 season. During the regular season, teams also wore \\\"throwback\\\" jerseys for selected games. The 49ers wore their throwbacks (which paid tribute to the1957 Niners) for most of the season, this game included. Halftime show The halftime show was titled \\\"Indiana Jones and the Temple of the Forbidden Eye\\\" and was produced byDisneyto promote theirIndiana Jones Adventureattraction atDisneylandthat opened later that year. The show featured actors playingIndiana Jonesand his girlfriendMarion Ravenwoodwho were raiding theVince Lombardi Trophyfrom the Temple of the Forbidden Eye. The show also had performances by singersTony BennettandPatti LaBelle,jazztrumpeterArturo Sandoval, and theMiami Sound Machine. The show ended with everybody singing \\\"Can You Feel The Love Tonight\\\", the song featured in Disney's (which later acquired ABC) 1994 filmThe Lion King. The dancers on the field were members of the Coral Gables Senior High marching band. This halftime show also had a connection with past ABC programming: the first twoIndiana Jonesfilms had their broadcast premieres on ABC, and the network aired a TV series,The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, from 1992 to 1993 (actually serving as the lead-in toMonday Night Footballat one point). Radio The game was broadcast on nationwide radio byCBSwithplay-by-play announcerJack Buckandcolor commentatorHank Stram.Jim Hunterhosted all of the events. Locally, Super Bowl XXIX was broadcast byXTRA-AMinSan DiegowithLee \\\"Hacksaw\\\" HamiltonandJim Laslavicand byKGO-AMinSan FranciscowithJoe StarkeyandWayne Walker. Game summary First quarter After 49ers running backDexter Carterreturned the opening kickoff 9 yards to the San Francisco 26-yard line, a face mask penalty on Chargers linebackerDoug Millerallowed San Francisco to start at their own 41. On the third play of the drive, quarterbackSteve Youngthrew a 44-yard touchdown pass to wideJerry Riceto take an early 7–0 lead. The 49ers became the second team to take the opening kickoff and score a touchdown on that first drive (the first being theMiami DolphinsinSuper Bowl VIII), and also set a new Super Bowl record for the fastest touchdown (later broken by theChicago Bears'Devin HesterinSuper Bowl XLI). After forcing the Chargers to punt after a three-and-out on their opening possession, the 49ers advanced 79 yards in four plays, with Young rushing for 21 yards and then throwing a 51-yard touchdown pass to running backRicky Wattersto give San Francisco a 14–0 lead less than 5 minutes into the first quarter and set a Super Bowl record for the fastest second touchdown scored by a team. San Diego responded on their ensuing possession, marching 78 yards in 13 plays and taking more than 7 minutes off the clock. The drive featured two receptions and a run by running backRonnie Harmonfor 33 yards and six runs by running backNatrone Meansfor 22 yards, the last one being a 1-yard touchdown run, cutting the Chargers' deficit to 14–7. However, the 49ers quickly countered after the ensuing kickoff, driving 70 yards in 10 plays. Rice started off the drive with a 19-yard reception and 10-yard run on a reverse play, while Young added a 12-yard completion to wide receiverJohn Taylorand a 15-yard scramble. Second quarter Four plays into the second quarter, Young threw a 5-yard touchdown pass to fullbackWilliam Floyd, increasing the San Francisco lead to 21–7 and making the 49ers the second team to score on its first three possessions (afterGreen Bay) of a Super Bowl and the first (and only as of 2024) to score touchdowns on its first three possessions. After the next three possessions ended in punts, Chargers punterBryan Wagner's 40-yard punt from his own 9-yard line gave the 49ers the ball at the San Diego 49. San Francisco then marched on a 9-play drive, which included two receptions by Rice for 19 yards and ended with Young's fourth touchdown pass, an 8-yard toss to Watters, with 4:44 left in the half, making the score 28–7. San Diego then took the ensuing kickoff and drove 62 yards from their own 25-yard line to the San Francisco 13, featuring a 17-yard reception by wide receiverMark Seay, a 10-yard reverse run by wide receiverShawn Jefferson, and a 33-yard gain on ascreen passfrom quarterbackStan Humphriesto running backEric Bieniemy, the Chargers' longest play of the game. But after Humphries threw three incomplete passes, one of which was a perfectly thrown pass that Seay dropped in the end zone, they were forced to settle for kickerJohn Carney's 31-yard field goal, cutting their deficit to 28–10. A 33-yard completion from Young to tight endBrent Joneshelped the 49ers reach the San Diego 29-yard line on their next possession, but Young's third-down pass to Jones was overthrown, and kickerDoug Brienmissed a 47-yard field goal attempt wide right. The Chargers then drove to their own 46-yard line, but 49ers cornerbackEric Davisintercepted Humphries' third-down pass intended for wide receiverTony Martinin the end zone for a touchback with 10 seconds left in the half, and the score remained 28–10 at halftime. The Chargers' 18-point halftime deficit ended up being the closest scoring margin they would reach for the rest of the game. Third quarter The 49ers picked up right where they left off going into the second half. The Chargers were forced to punt after three plays on the opening drive of the half, and Carter returned the ball 11 yards to his own 38-yard line. Young subsequently completed two passes to Rice for 37 yards (including a 21-yard pass on 3rd-and-17) and a 16-yard pass to Taylor on a 7-play, 62-yard drive that ended with Watters' third touchdown of the game on a 9-yard run, increasing the 49ers' lead to 35–10. After a 33-yard kickoff return by wide receiverAndre Coleman, the Chargers advanced to the San Francisco 33-yard line, aided by a 23-yard reception by tight endAlfred Pupunu, but they turned the ball over on downs when Humphries' 4th-and-7 pass intended for Martin was broken up by Davis. Young then led San Francisco on a 10-play, 67-yard drive, aided by a 22-yard pass interference penalty against cornerbackDarrien Gordonon 3rd-and-14, to score on his fifth touchdown pass, a 15-yard completion to Rice. But San Diego immediately responded when Coleman returned the ensuing kickoff 98 yards for a touchdown. Then Humphries completed a pass to Seay for atwo-point conversion(the first in Super Bowl history; the rule had been adopted by the NFL at the start of the season), but it only cut the deficit to 42–18. The 49ers were forced to punt on their next drive, but the Chargers ended up turning the ball over on downs again when Means was tackled for a 4-yard loss by safetyMerton Hankson 4th-and-1 from the San Diego 37. Fourth quarter Six plays later, after three runs by Watters for 25 yards, Young threw his record-setting sixth touchdown pass to Rice on a 7-yard completion with 13:49 remaining in the game, increasing the San Francisco lead to 49–18 and essentially ending any hopes of a San Diego comeback. The Chargers, now playing for pride, responded with a 13-play, 59-yard drive to reach the San Francisco 7-yard line. Humphries led his team down the field 12 yards for the first four plays, but hurt his ankle while being tackled by defensive tackleBryant Young, and was temporarily replaced byGale Gilbert, who completed two passes to Harmon for 24 yards, but threw an interception on 4th-and-6 to cornerbackDeion Sanders, who returned the ball to the San Francisco 14-yard line. After two punts by the 49ers and an interception by San Francisco defensive backToi Cook(during which Humphries returned to the game), the Chargers scored the final points of the game on a 67-yard, 8-play drive, which consisted of two receptions by Seay for 30 yards and two receptions by Martin for 42 yards, the second of which was caught for a 30-yard touchdown. TV viewers didn't see most of the play as ABC had cut to the 49ers celebrating on the sideline. Humphries then completed another pass for a two-point conversion, this time to Pupunu, to make the final score 49–26. The 49ers recovered the ensuing onside kick and ran time off the clock before punting to the San Diego 7. San Diego drove to the San Francisco 35 before the game ended. Once the 49ers victory was assured, Young said \\\"somebody take the monkey off my back!\\\" Years later, he regretted saying that saying this was a team effort not an individual performance. At the end of the game, Young showed his jubilation at finally being able to win \\\"the big one\\\" while accepting the MVP trophy. \\\"There were times when this was hard! But this is the greatest feeling in the world! No one —no one!— can ever take this away from us! No one,ever!It's ours!\\\" Young and his teammates were equally enthusiastic in the locker room afterwards. \\\"We're part of history,\\\" said guardJesse Sapolu. \\\"This is probably the best offense people will see in their lifetimes.\\\" \\\"Is this great or what?\\\" Young added. \\\"I mean, I haven't thrown six touchdown passes in a game in my life. Then I throw six in the Super Bowl! Unbelievable.\\\" Rice caught 10 passes for 149 yards and 3 touchdowns, tying his own record for most touchdown receptions in a Super Bowl, and becoming the first player ever to do it twice. He also recorded 10 rushing yards. Watters rushed for 47 yards and a touchdown, while also catching 3 passes for 61 yards and two touchdowns. Means, who rushed for 1,350 yards in the regular season, was held to just 33 yards in the game. Humphries finished 24 out of 49 for 275 yards and one touchdown, with two interceptions. Seay was the Chargers' top receiver with 7 receptions for 75 yards, whileRonnie Harmonadded 8 catches for 68 yards. Defensive end Raylee Johnson had two sacks. Coleman's 8 kickoff returns for 244 yards and a touchdown set the following Super Bowl records: most kickoff returns in a Super Bowl, most kickoff return yards in a Super Bowl, and most combined net yards gained in a Super Bowl. This was the first Super Bowl to have two players each score three touchdowns. Rice matched hisSuper Bowl XXIVperformance with his three touchdown catches. Watters also had three touchdowns, matching Roger Craig's three touchdowns (two receiving and one rushing) inSuper Bowl XIX. Watters also became the second running back to catch two touchdown passes in a game, matching Craig. Ken Norton Jr.became the first player to win three straight Super Bowls, although as a member of two teams. Norton was a member of the Cowboys teams who won Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII.Deion Sandersbecame the first player to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series, playing in the1992 World Serieswith theAtlanta Braves. Chargers quarterbackGale Gilbertbecame the first player to be a member of five straight Super Bowl teams. Gilbert was a member of the Bills who played in four straight Super Bowls (XXV–XXVIII). Gilbert was on the losing team in all five Super Bowl games. The 49ers' spectacular performance led to their offensive coordinator,Mike Shanahan, and defensive coordinator,Ray Rhodes, earning head coaching positions in 1995 for theDenver Broncosand thePhiladelphia Eagles, respectively.Bobby Rossbecame the second coach, afterJimmy JohnsoninSuper Bowl XXVII, to lead a team to acollege football national championship(Georgia Techin 1990) and a Super Bowl. One year later,Barry Switzerwould join Johnson as the only head coaches to win championships in both NCAA Division I-A (now FBS) college football and the NFL. Box score atJoe Robbie Stadium,Miami, Florida Final statistics Sources:NFL.com Super Bowl XXIX,Super Bowl XXIX Play Finder SF,Super Bowl XXIX Play Finder SD,USA Today Super Bowl XXIX Play by Play Statistical comparison Individual statistics 1Completions/attempts2Carries3Longest gain4Receptions5Times targeted Records set The following records were set in Super Bowl XXIX, according to the official NFL.com boxscoreand the Pro-Football-Reference.com game summary.Some records have to meet NFL minimum number of attempts to be recognized.The minimums are shown (in parentheses). Turnovers are defined as the number of times losing the ball on interceptions and fumbles. Starting lineups Source: Pro Football Hall of Fame‡ Officials Jerry Markbreit became the first official to serve as referee in four Super Bowls, a record that still stands. Officials wore a black armband with number 42 to honor umpire Dave Hamilton, who died on January 9 at age 61 due to liver failure. Hamilton had completed his 20th season as an NFL official in 1994. The day after the Super Bowl, Donnie Hampton, who had been a field judge since 1988, died of a heart attack at age 47. Aftermath As of the 2022 season, this is the only Super Bowl played between teams based in the same state. It is also the most recent Super Bowl title to date for the 49ers. They would play in three more in the 21st Century (Super Bowl XLVII,Super Bowl LIVandSuper Bowl LVIII), but lost all of them. As for the Chargers, the implications of their defeat were far worse in hindsight. This remains the only Super Bowl the Chargers have ever played in. Including the era before theAFL–NFL merger, it isthe third championship gamethat the Chargers have lost. TheAFL Championship in 1963remains to this day as the only major sports championship the city of San Diego has won (and also the longest championship drought for any city that has at least two major sports franchises), so even though they were heavy underdogs, the loss still had great significance.The Chargers did not win another playoff game until the2007 season, when they reached the AFC Championship Game but lost to the then-undefeated New England Patriots, 21–12. Super Bowl XXIX would be their only appearance while playing in San Diego before they moved to Los Angeles following the 2016 season. Notable deaths from 1994 Chargers team In addition, eight players from the 1994 Chargers Super Bowl team have died prior to reaching age 45.They include: Notes References External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_1995_box_office_number-one_films_in_the_United_States (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Super Bowl XXIX Super Bowl XXIXwas anAmerican footballgame between theAmerican Football Conference(AFC) championSan Diego Chargersand theNational Football Conference(NFC) championSan Francisco 49ersto decide theNational Football League(NFL) champion for the1994 season.The 49ers defeated the Chargers by the score of 49–26, becoming the first team to win five Super Bowl championships. The game was played on January 29, 1995, atJoe Robbie StadiuminMiami, Florida. This game is regarded as 49ers quarterbackSteve Young's final leap out of the shadow of his predecessor,Joe Montana, who had won four Super Bowls with the 49ers (in1981,1984,1988, and1989), two with Young as the backup quarterback. With Young at the helm, and a defense consisting of several veteranfree agentswho joined the team during the previous offseason, San Francisco finished the regular season with a league-best 13–3 record, and led the league in total points scored (505). The Chargers, on the other hand, were regarded as a\"Cinderella\" team, and","team, and advanced to their first Super Bowl after posting an 11–5 regular-season record and overcoming halftime deficits in both of their playoff wins. This was the first Super Bowl in which both teams scored in all four quarters. The combined aggregate score of 75 points and the ten totaltouchdownsboth remain Super Bowl records. Still, the 49ers controlled most of the game, with Young completing touchdown passes in each of the 49ers' first two drives. The Chargers were able to cut the deficit late in the first quarter, 14–7, on a 13-play, 78-yard drive, but could not slow down San Francisco afterwards. Young was named theSuper Bowl MVP, throwing a Super Bowl-record six touchdown passes, and completing 24 out of 36 passes for 325 yards. Despite the predicted blowout (18 1⁄2- points is the second largest margin a team has been favored by in a Super Bowl), the fact that San Diego did not have as much national appeal nor a relatively large core fan base, and two teams fromCaliforniaplaying, which could have","which could have significantly diminished interest along theEast Coast, the telecast of the game onABCstill had aNielsen ratingof 41.3. Background Host selection process NFL owners voted to award Super Bowl XXIX to Miami during their May 23, 1991 meeting inMinneapolis. Three cities presented bids:Miami(Joe Robbie Stadium),Tampa(Tampa Stadium), andHouston(Astrodome).New Orleans pulled out of the running early on due to conflicts with other conventions. Houston was considered an early favorite, since they had not hosted the game since1974. However, the Astrodome would need to add approximately 10,000 temporary seats in order to meet the NFL's capacity requirement of 70,000. Rules required a candidate to receive a3⁄4vote (21 of 28 owners) in order to win the bidding. Tampa was eliminated on the first ballot, having just hostedXXV, along with their lack of premium seating. Then neither Miami nor Houston managed to get 21 votes on the second ballot or on the third ballot. For the fourth ballot, the threshold was","the threshold was reduced to a simple majority. In what was said to be a close vote, Miami was selected as the host.It marked the seventh time overall theMiami-areahosted the Super Bowl, and the second time it was played in Joe Robbie Stadium. San Diego Chargers The Chargers were the biggest surprise of the 1994 season, with very few expecting them to even reach the playoffs, let alone the Super Bowl. San Diego suffered losing seasons in the 1980s until formerWashington Redskinsgeneral managerBobby Beathardjoined the team in 1990. Beathard decided to rebuild the Chargers using the same model that he used to build the Redskins into Super Bowl contenders during the 1980s: a powerful running game built around big linemen, a passing game that helped sustain extremely long drives, and a bending but steady defense. After formerGeorgia Techhead coachBobby Rosswas hired by theChargers in 1992, the team won theAFC Westwith an 11–5 regular season record and won an opening round playoff game againstKansas City. But","City. But in1993, they slumped back to 8–8 and did not reach the postseason. Before the start of the 1994 season, San Diego was not expected to do well because they had so many newcomers via the draft and free agency; the Chargers ended up with 22 new players on their roster, and 10 of them became starters. However, they ended up winning their first six regular season games en route to an 11–5 record, the AFC West championship, and the #2 AFC playoffseed. The Chargers went into the final game of the season against thePittsburgh Steelersneeding a win to get the #2 seed (a loss would have given that spot to theMiami Dolphins), which came with a first-round bye and a home game in the divisional round of the playoffs. Backup quarterbackGale Gilbert, subbing for injured starterStan Humphries, led the Chargers to a come-from-behind 37–34 win, withJohn Carneykicking a game-winning field goal in the game's final seconds. The Chargers' offense was led by quarterbackStan Humphries, who was the Redskins' backup toMark","backup toMark Rypienduring the1991 season, when they wonSuper Bowl XXVI. During the 1994 season for San Diego, Humphries completed 264 out of 453 attempts for 3,209 yards and 17 touchdowns, with 12 interceptions. Wide receiverMark Seaywas the team's leading receiver with 58 receptions for 645 yards and 6 touchdowns. Wide receiverTony Martinhad 50 catches for 885 yards and 7 touchdowns, wide receiverShawn Jeffersonrecorded 43 catches for 627 yards and 3 touchdowns, and tight endAlfred Pupunuhad 21 receptions for 214 yards and 2 touchdowns. Running backNatrone Meansled the team in rushing with 1,350 yards and 12 touchdowns. He also recorded 39 receptions for 235 yards, and was named to the Pro Bowl. Third-down backRonnie Harmonwas also a big contributor, catching 58 passes for 615 yards and a touchdown. Meanwhile, the Chargers'special teamswas also a major threat withAndre Coleman, who returned 49 kickoffs for 1,293 yards (26.4 average yards per return) and 2 touchdowns. The Chargers had an excellent defensive","excellent defensive line, anchored by Pro Bowl defensive endLeslie O'Neal, who led the team with 12.5 sacks and forced four fumbles, defensive tackleChris Mims, who recorded 11 sacks, andShawn Lee, who added 6.5 sacks and a fumble recovery. Their linebacking corps was led byJunior Seau, who was a Pro Bowl selection for the fourth consecutive year, recording 123 tackles, 5.5 sacks, and 3 fumble recoveries. Defensive backStanley Richardwas a major weapon in the secondary, recording 4 interceptions, 224 return yards, and 2 touchdowns. Defensive backDarrien Gordonwas also a major asset to the team, recording 4 interceptions and 32 return yards, while also adding another 475 yards and 2 touchdowns returning punts. SafetyRodney Harrisonwas a rookie on the team. Chargers backup quarterbackGale Gilbertbecame the first player to be a member of five consecutive Super Bowl teams. He had been a third-string quarterback for theBuffalo Bills, who had won AFC Championships in the four previous seasons (1990–1993). San","(1990–1993). San Francisco 49ers From the1988to the1993seasons, the 49ers played in five out of six NFC Championship Games, winning Super BowlsXXIIIandXXIV. But after head coachGeorge Seifert's team lost two consecutive NFC Championship games to theDallas Cowboysin1992and1993, San Francisco brought in several veteranfree agentsto strengthen their defense. Among the players signed were defensive linemenRichard Dent(the MVP ofSuper Bowl XX),Charles Mann,Rhett Hall, andRickey Jackson; linebackersKen Norton Jr.andGary Plummer; and cornerbackDeion Sanders. The free agents enabled the 49ers to jump from the 18th-ranked defense in the league to the 8th, and to jump from the league's 16th-best defense against the run to the 2nd.Pro Bowldefensive linemanDana Stubblefieldled the team with 8.5 sacks. Rookie defensive tackleBryant Youngwas also a big threat to opposing quarterbacks and rushers, recording 42 tackles, 6 sacks, and a fumble recovery. Behind them, Norton played very effectively at the middle linebacker","middle linebacker position, leading the team with 77 tackles and recording an interception. Pro Bowl safetyMerton Hanksled the team with 7 interceptions for 93 return yards, while Sanders had 6 interceptions for 303 return yards and 3 touchdowns, earning him theNFL Defensive Player of the Year Award. His 303 return yards was the third-highest total in NFL history, while his touchdown returns of 74, 93, and 90 yards made him the first player ever to have two 90-yard interception returns in one season. Pro Bowl safetyTim McDonaldwas also a big contributor, recording 2 interceptions for 79 yards and a touchdown. The 49ers' offense was led by quarterbackSteve Young, who replaced futureHall of FamerJoe Montanaas the starter in1991and1992due to injuries. After Young led the league in passing in both seasons, Montana was traded to theKansas City Chiefs, leaving Young as the undisputed starter in 1993. But even with his impressive passing statistics, Young was criticized as \"not being able to win the big games\" as","the big games\" as Montana had done in leading the 49ers to Super Bowl victories inXVI,XIX, XXIII, and XXIV. It also didn't help that the team had lost to Montana's Chiefs 24–17 during the regular season. Still, Young again led the league in passing during the 1994 regular season with apasser ratingof 112.8, breaking Montana's record for the highest regular season rating in NFL history. Young recorded 324 out of 461 completions for 3,969 yards, 35 touchdowns, and just 10 interceptions. He also had 58 rushes for 293 yards and 7 touchdowns, and earned theNFL Most Valuable Player Award. With Young at the helm, the 49ers led the league in total points scored (505) and helped them earn a league best 13–3 regular season record. Pro Bowl running backRicky Watterswas the team's leading rusher with 877 yards and 6 touchdowns, while also recording 66 receptions for 719 yards and 5 touchdowns. Rookie fullbackWilliam Floydwas the team's second-leading rusher with 305 yards and 6 touchdowns, while also having 19","also having 19 receptions for 145 yards. The team's leading receiver was Pro Bowl wide receiverJerry Rice, who had 112 catches for 1,499 yards and 13 touchdowns, while also gaining 93 yards and two more touchdowns rushing the ball. ReceiverJohn Taylorwas also a reliable target, catching 41 passes for 531 yards and 5 touchdowns. Pro Bowl tight endBrent Jonesadded 49 receptions for 670 yards and 9 touchdowns. The offensive line was led by Pro Bowl centerBart Oates, another offseason free agent pickup, and Pro Bowl guardJesse Sapolu. Running backDexter Carterhad a standout season as a returner onspecial teams, gaining a combined total of 1,426 yards and a touchdown returning both punts and kickoffs. Playoffs Chargers In the AFC Divisional Playoffs, the Chargers managed to overcome a 21–6 halftime deficit to defeat theMiami Dolphins, 22–21. In the first half, San Diego was limited to only twoJohn Carneyfield goals, while Miami quarterbackDan Marinothrew for over 180 yards and 3 touchdowns. However, the Chargers","the Chargers dominated the Dolphins in the second half, limiting their offense to just 16 plays. In the third quarter, after the Chargers were stopped on fourth and goal at the 1-yard line, Chargers defensive linemanReuben Davistackled Dolphins running backBernie Parmaleein the end zone for a safety. San Diego then took the ensuing free kick and marched 54 yards to score on Means's 24-yard touchdown run. Then with time running out, Humphries threw an 8-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Mark Seay, giving his team a one-point lead. The Dolphins, aided by a pass interference call, responded with a drive to the Chargers' 31-yard line, but kickerPete Stoyanovich's potential game-winning 48-yard field goal attempt sailed far to the right of the goal posts and sealed San Diego's stirring win. San Diego then faced thePittsburgh Steelersin theAFC Championship Game. Once again, the Chargers fell behind early as the Steelers built up a 13–3 halftime lead, but Humphries fooled the Steelers secondary with a","secondary with a 43-yardplay-actiontouchdown pass to a wide open tight endAlfred Pupunu. The Chargers then took a 17–13 lead when Martin beat the Steelers secondary (particularly a badly overmatchedTim McKyer) down the right sideline for a 43-yard touchdown reception. On their final drive, the Steelers advanced to the San Diego 3-yard line, but Chargers linebackerDennis Gibsonsealed the victory on fourth down by deflecting quarterbackNeil O'Donnell's pass intended for running backBarry Fosterto turn the ball back over to San Diego. Just like the 49ers in the NFC title game, the Chargers advanced to the Super Bowl despite the fact that their opponent had outgained them in many key statistical categories such as total plays (80–47), total offensive yards (415–226), and time of possession (37:13–22:47). 49ers The 49ers first defeated theChicago Bears, 44–15, in the NFC Divisional Playoffs. Although Chicago scored first with a field goal, San Francisco scored 37 unanswered points to put the game out of reach by","out of reach by the end of the third quarter. Floyd scored three rushing touchdowns, while Young rushed for a touchdown and threw for another. San Francisco then defeatedtheir nemesis, theDallas Cowboys, 38–28, in theNFC Championship Game. Expected to be a close game, the 49ers converted 3 Dallas turnovers into 21 points in the first quarter. On the third play of the game, cornerbackEric Davisreturned an interception from Cowboys quarterbackTroy Aikmanfor a touchdown. Wide receiverMichael Irvinlost a fumble on Dallas' next drive, setting up Young's 29-yard touchdown pass to Watters. Then Cowboys returnerKevin Williamslost a fumble on the ensuing kickoff, and it was recovered by kickerDoug Brienat Dallas' 35-yard line. Several plays later, Floyd scored on a 1-yard touchdown run to give San Francisco a 21–0 lead less than 8 minutes into the game. With the score 24–14 in the closing minutes of the first half, Aikman threw 3 straight incompletions, and a short punt by the Cowboys set up Young's 28-yard touchdown","28-yard touchdown completion to Rice with 8 seconds remaining in the first half. The Cowboys eventually cut their deficit to 38–28 with a touchdown run byEmmitt Smithand Aikman's 10-yard touchdown pass to Irvin in the final period, but they were unable to score again.Although the Cowboys outgained the 49ers in total offensive yards (451–294), Aikman broke an NFC Championship Game record with 380 yards passing, and Irvin also broke an NFC Championship Game record with 192 receiving yards, Dallas was ultimately unable to overcome their first-quarter turnovers. Super Bowl pregame news Entering Super Bowl XXIX, most sports writers and fans thought the Chargers had absolutely no chance of defeating the 49ers. San Francisco was on track, winning 12 of its last 13 games (with their only loss in that span coming against theMinnesota Vikingsin a meaningless regular season finale at Minnesota), including their playoff victories. Many people also thought that the NFC Championship Game between the 49ers and the Cowboys","and the Cowboys was \"the real Super Bowl\",because those two teams were commonly viewed as vastly superior to any AFC team. Furthermore, San Francisco had defeated San Diego, 38–15, during the regular season. As a result, the 49ers entered the game favored to win by 18 1⁄2- points, surpassed only by the 19 1⁄2- points, by theBaltimore Coltswho were favored over theNew York JetsinSuper Bowl IIImore than two decades prior. Many also speculated that Super Bowl XXIX would be the least watched game in Super Bowl history because the Chargers did not have as large of a core fan base as other AFC teams like the Chiefs, the Dolphins, or the Steelers. (This prediction ultimately turned out to be false. Although Super Bowl XXIX was viewed by 125.2 million people and had aNielsen ratingof 41.3,Super Bowl XXVIthree years earlier was seen by 119.7 million viewers and recorded a 40.3 rating.) This was the seventh Super Bowl to be played in Miami, at the time tying bothNew Orleans, Louisiana and theGreater Los Angeles","Los Angeles areafor hosting the Super Bowl the most times. It remains the only Super Bowl played between teams that play their home games in the same state (althoughSuper Bowl XXVwas played between theNew York Giantsand theBuffalo Bills, two teams representing areas ofNew York, the Giants play their home games inNew Jersey). Broadcasting The game was broadcast in the United States byABC, withplay-by-play announcerAl Michaelsandcolor commentatorsFrank GiffordandDan Dierdorf.Lynn Swannreported from theChargerssideline andLesley Visserreported from the49erssideline). Visser became the first woman assigned to a Super Bowl sideline; she had previously become the first woman sportscaster to cover theVince Lombardi Trophypresentation ceremony, when she coveredSuper Bowl XXVIforCBS.Brent Musburgerhosted all the Super Bowl XXIX pregame (2 hours), halftime, and postgame events with the help of then-ABC Sports analystDick Vermeil, Musburger's regular color commentator on ABC'scollege football telecasts, and then-New","and then-New York JetsquarterbackBoomer Esiason. This was the last Super Bowl broadcast by the broadcast team of Michaels, Gifford and Dierdorf. The three calledMonday Night Footballfrom the1987to1997, and also worked ABC's coverage of Super BowlsXXIIandXXV. This would also be the last Super Bowl aired on ABC until the1999 season(when Al Michaels called the game with Boomer Esiason). This would also be the final Super Bowl hosted by Musburger, as all subsequent Super Bowls on ABC were hosted byESPN'sChris Bermanfollowing theDisneypurchase of ABC (which included ESPN), and the subsequent integration of ESPN and ABC Sports (now ESPN on ABC). Also, the trophy presentation for this game was the last to be held in the winning team's locker room, as all subsequent Vince Lombardi Trophy presentations would be held on the field. For theSuper Bowl lead-out program, ABC premiered the television dramaExtremestarringJames Brolin; this was the last series to premiere following the Super Bowl untilFamily Guypremiered","Guypremiered followingSuper Bowl XXXIIIand is one of only four in the last 14 years to premiere following a Super Bowl (joiningFamily Guy, its spinoffAmerican Dad!, andUndercover Bosswhich premiered followingSuper Bowl XLIV), since the networks have preferred to have new episodes of established shows to catch as much of the post-game audience as possible. Thirty-second television advertisements for Super Bowl XXIX averaged $1.15 million in costs, the first time that Super Bowl ads exceeded the $1 million mark. Super Bowl XXIX aired in over 150 countries worldwide. It was simulcast in Canada onCTVandTVA(in French), in Mexico onTelevisa'sCanal 5, whose commentators were able to call the game live from San Diego on the last minute,in Germany onTele 5, inAustraliaonABC, in thePhilippineson theGMA Networkand later aired in the United Kingdom onChannel 4. This Super Bowl would later be featured onNFL's Greatest Gamesunder the titleExercise in Excellence.The Super Bowl highlight film on which the episode was based","episode was based was the only Super Bowl highlight film to be narrated byHarry Kalas. In popular culture In the Tuesday prior to the Super Bowl, the ABC sitcomFull Houseaired an episode called \"Super Bowl Fun Day\" involving main characters Danny Tanner and Rebecca Donaldson reporting at the game for their showWake Up, San Francisco. (Full Housewas set in San Francisco, and this was the only time during the show's run that the 49ers advanced to a Super Bowl aired on ABC.) A week earlier, theSeinfeldepisode \"The Label Maker\" involvedJerrytrying to give away his tickets to the game. He eventually decided to go, but unfortunately was stuck sitting next toNewman. Two days after the Super Bowl, the game was the main plot feature of an episode of the ABC sitcomHome Improvement, \"Super Bowl Fever\", in whichJillwas sick with the flu whileTimand his buddies tried to watch the game. Entertainment Pregame ceremonies The pregame show held before the game featuredcountry musicsingerHank Williams Jr., who performed his","who performed his theme song forMonday Night Football, which was based on his single \"All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight\". Actress and singerKathie Lee Gifford(Frank Gifford's wife) later sang the national anthem. She was accompanied by then-Miss AmericaHeather Whitestonewhosignedthe anthem for the hearing impaired. To honor the NFL's 75th season, four former players all Hall of Fame members, who were named to the league's 75th Anniversary All-Time Team joined thecoin tossceremony:Otto Graham,Joe Greene,Ray Nitschke, andGale Sayers. A special 75th anniversary logo was painted at midfield. Each player also wore a patch on hisjerseywith the same logo; the 75th anniversary patch was worn by all players league-wide during the1994 season. During the regular season, teams also wore \"throwback\" jerseys for selected games. The 49ers wore their throwbacks (which paid tribute to the1957 Niners) for most of the season, this game included. Halftime show The halftime show was titled \"Indiana Jones and the","Jones and the Temple of the Forbidden Eye\" and was produced byDisneyto promote theirIndiana Jones Adventureattraction atDisneylandthat opened later that year. The show featured actors playingIndiana Jonesand his girlfriendMarion Ravenwoodwho were raiding theVince Lombardi Trophyfrom the Temple of the Forbidden Eye. The show also had performances by singersTony BennettandPatti LaBelle,jazztrumpeterArturo Sandoval, and theMiami Sound Machine. The show ended with everybody singing \"Can You Feel The Love Tonight\", the song featured in Disney's (which later acquired ABC) 1994 filmThe Lion King. The dancers on the field were members of the Coral Gables Senior High marching band. This halftime show also had a connection with past ABC programming: the first twoIndiana Jonesfilms had their broadcast premieres on ABC, and the network aired a TV series,The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, from 1992 to 1993 (actually serving as the lead-in toMonday Night Footballat one point). Radio The game was broadcast on nationwide","on nationwide radio byCBSwithplay-by-play announcerJack Buckandcolor commentatorHank Stram.Jim Hunterhosted all of the events. Locally, Super Bowl XXIX was broadcast byXTRA-AMinSan DiegowithLee \"Hacksaw\" HamiltonandJim Laslavicand byKGO-AMinSan FranciscowithJoe StarkeyandWayne Walker. Game summary First quarter After 49ers running backDexter Carterreturned the opening kickoff 9 yards to the San Francisco 26-yard line, a face mask penalty on Chargers linebackerDoug Millerallowed San Francisco to start at their own 41. On the third play of the drive, quarterbackSteve Youngthrew a 44-yard touchdown pass to wideJerry Riceto take an early 7–0 lead. The 49ers became the second team to take the opening kickoff and score a touchdown on that first drive (the first being theMiami DolphinsinSuper Bowl VIII), and also set a new Super Bowl record for the fastest touchdown (later broken by theChicago Bears'Devin HesterinSuper Bowl XLI). After forcing the Chargers to punt after a three-and-out on their opening possession,","opening possession, the 49ers advanced 79 yards in four plays, with Young rushing for 21 yards and then throwing a 51-yard touchdown pass to running backRicky Wattersto give San Francisco a 14–0 lead less than 5 minutes into the first quarter and set a Super Bowl record for the fastest second touchdown scored by a team. San Diego responded on their ensuing possession, marching 78 yards in 13 plays and taking more than 7 minutes off the clock. The drive featured two receptions and a run by running backRonnie Harmonfor 33 yards and six runs by running backNatrone Meansfor 22 yards, the last one being a 1-yard touchdown run, cutting the Chargers' deficit to 14–7. However, the 49ers quickly countered after the ensuing kickoff, driving 70 yards in 10 plays. Rice started off the drive with a 19-yard reception and 10-yard run on a reverse play, while Young added a 12-yard completion to wide receiverJohn Taylorand a 15-yard scramble. Second quarter Four plays into the second quarter, Young threw a 5-yard touchdown","a 5-yard touchdown pass to fullbackWilliam Floyd, increasing the San Francisco lead to 21–7 and making the 49ers the second team to score on its first three possessions (afterGreen Bay) of a Super Bowl and the first (and only as of 2024) to score touchdowns on its first three possessions. After the next three possessions ended in punts, Chargers punterBryan Wagner's 40-yard punt from his own 9-yard line gave the 49ers the ball at the San Diego 49. San Francisco then marched on a 9-play drive, which included two receptions by Rice for 19 yards and ended with Young's fourth touchdown pass, an 8-yard toss to Watters, with 4:44 left in the half, making the score 28–7. San Diego then took the ensuing kickoff and drove 62 yards from their own 25-yard line to the San Francisco 13, featuring a 17-yard reception by wide receiverMark Seay, a 10-yard reverse run by wide receiverShawn Jefferson, and a 33-yard gain on ascreen passfrom quarterbackStan Humphriesto running backEric Bieniemy, the Chargers' longest play of","longest play of the game. But after Humphries threw three incomplete passes, one of which was a perfectly thrown pass that Seay dropped in the end zone, they were forced to settle for kickerJohn Carney's 31-yard field goal, cutting their deficit to 28–10. A 33-yard completion from Young to tight endBrent Joneshelped the 49ers reach the San Diego 29-yard line on their next possession, but Young's third-down pass to Jones was overthrown, and kickerDoug Brienmissed a 47-yard field goal attempt wide right. The Chargers then drove to their own 46-yard line, but 49ers cornerbackEric Davisintercepted Humphries' third-down pass intended for wide receiverTony Martinin the end zone for a touchback with 10 seconds left in the half, and the score remained 28–10 at halftime. The Chargers' 18-point halftime deficit ended up being the closest scoring margin they would reach for the rest of the game. Third quarter The 49ers picked up right where they left off going into the second half. The Chargers were forced to punt","were forced to punt after three plays on the opening drive of the half, and Carter returned the ball 11 yards to his own 38-yard line. Young subsequently completed two passes to Rice for 37 yards (including a 21-yard pass on 3rd-and-17) and a 16-yard pass to Taylor on a 7-play, 62-yard drive that ended with Watters' third touchdown of the game on a 9-yard run, increasing the 49ers' lead to 35–10. After a 33-yard kickoff return by wide receiverAndre Coleman, the Chargers advanced to the San Francisco 33-yard line, aided by a 23-yard reception by tight endAlfred Pupunu, but they turned the ball over on downs when Humphries' 4th-and-7 pass intended for Martin was broken up by Davis. Young then led San Francisco on a 10-play, 67-yard drive, aided by a 22-yard pass interference penalty against cornerbackDarrien Gordonon 3rd-and-14, to score on his fifth touchdown pass, a 15-yard completion to Rice. But San Diego immediately responded when Coleman returned the ensuing kickoff 98 yards for a touchdown. Then","a touchdown. Then Humphries completed a pass to Seay for atwo-point conversion(the first in Super Bowl history; the rule had been adopted by the NFL at the start of the season), but it only cut the deficit to 42–18. The 49ers were forced to punt on their next drive, but the Chargers ended up turning the ball over on downs again when Means was tackled for a 4-yard loss by safetyMerton Hankson 4th-and-1 from the San Diego 37. Fourth quarter Six plays later, after three runs by Watters for 25 yards, Young threw his record-setting sixth touchdown pass to Rice on a 7-yard completion with 13:49 remaining in the game, increasing the San Francisco lead to 49–18 and essentially ending any hopes of a San Diego comeback. The Chargers, now playing for pride, responded with a 13-play, 59-yard drive to reach the San Francisco 7-yard line. Humphries led his team down the field 12 yards for the first four plays, but hurt his ankle while being tackled by defensive tackleBryant Young, and was temporarily replaced byGale","replaced byGale Gilbert, who completed two passes to Harmon for 24 yards, but threw an interception on 4th-and-6 to cornerbackDeion Sanders, who returned the ball to the San Francisco 14-yard line. After two punts by the 49ers and an interception by San Francisco defensive backToi Cook(during which Humphries returned to the game), the Chargers scored the final points of the game on a 67-yard, 8-play drive, which consisted of two receptions by Seay for 30 yards and two receptions by Martin for 42 yards, the second of which was caught for a 30-yard touchdown. TV viewers didn't see most of the play as ABC had cut to the 49ers celebrating on the sideline. Humphries then completed another pass for a two-point conversion, this time to Pupunu, to make the final score 49–26. The 49ers recovered the ensuing onside kick and ran time off the clock before punting to the San Diego 7. San Diego drove to the San Francisco 35 before the game ended. Once the 49ers victory was assured, Young said \"somebody take the monkey off","take the monkey off my back!\" Years later, he regretted saying that saying this was a team effort not an individual performance. At the end of the game, Young showed his jubilation at finally being able to win \"the big one\" while accepting the MVP trophy. \"There were times when this was hard! But this is the greatest feeling in the world! No one —no one!— can ever take this away from us! No one,ever!It's ours!\" Young and his teammates were equally enthusiastic in the locker room afterwards. \"We're part of history,\" said guardJesse Sapolu. \"This is probably the best offense people will see in their lifetimes.\" \"Is this great or what?\" Young added. \"I mean, I haven't thrown six touchdown passes in a game in my life. Then I throw six in the Super Bowl! Unbelievable.\" Rice caught 10 passes for 149 yards and 3 touchdowns, tying his own record for most touchdown receptions in a Super Bowl, and becoming the first player ever to do it twice. He also recorded 10 rushing yards. Watters rushed for 47 yards and a","for 47 yards and a touchdown, while also catching 3 passes for 61 yards and two touchdowns. Means, who rushed for 1,350 yards in the regular season, was held to just 33 yards in the game. Humphries finished 24 out of 49 for 275 yards and one touchdown, with two interceptions. Seay was the Chargers' top receiver with 7 receptions for 75 yards, whileRonnie Harmonadded 8 catches for 68 yards. Defensive end Raylee Johnson had two sacks. Coleman's 8 kickoff returns for 244 yards and a touchdown set the following Super Bowl records: most kickoff returns in a Super Bowl, most kickoff return yards in a Super Bowl, and most combined net yards gained in a Super Bowl. This was the first Super Bowl to have two players each score three touchdowns. Rice matched hisSuper Bowl XXIVperformance with his three touchdown catches. Watters also had three touchdowns, matching Roger Craig's three touchdowns (two receiving and one rushing) inSuper Bowl XIX. Watters also became the second running back to catch two touchdown passes in","touchdown passes in a game, matching Craig. Ken Norton Jr.became the first player to win three straight Super Bowls, although as a member of two teams. Norton was a member of the Cowboys teams who won Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII.Deion Sandersbecame the first player to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series, playing in the1992 World Serieswith theAtlanta Braves. Chargers quarterbackGale Gilbertbecame the first player to be a member of five straight Super Bowl teams. Gilbert was a member of the Bills who played in four straight Super Bowls (XXV–XXVIII). Gilbert was on the losing team in all five Super Bowl games. The 49ers' spectacular performance led to their offensive coordinator,Mike Shanahan, and defensive coordinator,Ray Rhodes, earning head coaching positions in 1995 for theDenver Broncosand thePhiladelphia Eagles, respectively.Bobby Rossbecame the second coach, afterJimmy JohnsoninSuper Bowl XXVII, to lead a team to acollege football national championship(Georgia Techin 1990) and a Super Bowl.","and a Super Bowl. One year later,Barry Switzerwould join Johnson as the only head coaches to win championships in both NCAA Division I-A (now FBS) college football and the NFL. Box score atJoe Robbie Stadium,Miami, Florida Final statistics Sources:NFL.com Super Bowl XXIX,Super Bowl XXIX Play Finder SF,Super Bowl XXIX Play Finder SD,USA Today Super Bowl XXIX Play by Play Statistical comparison Individual statistics 1Completions/attempts2Carries3Longest gain4Receptions5Times targeted Records set The following records were set in Super Bowl XXIX, according to the official NFL.com boxscoreand the Pro-Football-Reference.com game summary.Some records have to meet NFL minimum number of attempts to be recognized.The minimums are shown (in parentheses). Turnovers are defined as the number of times losing the ball on interceptions and fumbles. Starting lineups Source: Pro Football Hall of Fame‡ Officials Jerry Markbreit became the first official to serve as referee in four Super Bowls, a record that still stands.","that still stands. Officials wore a black armband with number 42 to honor umpire Dave Hamilton, who died on January 9 at age 61 due to liver failure. Hamilton had completed his 20th season as an NFL official in 1994. The day after the Super Bowl, Donnie Hampton, who had been a field judge since 1988, died of a heart attack at age 47. Aftermath As of the 2022 season, this is the only Super Bowl played between teams based in the same state. It is also the most recent Super Bowl title to date for the 49ers. They would play in three more in the 21st Century (Super Bowl XLVII,Super Bowl LIVandSuper Bowl LVIII), but lost all of them. As for the Chargers, the implications of their defeat were far worse in hindsight. This remains the only Super Bowl the Chargers have ever played in. Including the era before theAFL–NFL merger, it isthe third championship gamethat the Chargers have lost. TheAFL Championship in 1963remains to this day as the only major sports championship the city of San Diego has won (and also the","won (and also the longest championship drought for any city that has at least two major sports franchises), so even though they were heavy underdogs, the loss still had great significance.The Chargers did not win another playoff game until the2007 season, when they reached the AFC Championship Game but lost to the then-undefeated New England Patriots, 21–12. Super Bowl XXIX would be their only appearance while playing in San Diego before they moved to Los Angeles following the 2016 season. Notable deaths from 1994 Chargers team In addition, eight players from the 1994 Chargers Super Bowl team have died prior to reaching age 45.They include: Notes References External links","Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_1995_box_office_number-one_films_in_the_United_States (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"],"string":"[\n \"Super Bowl XXIX Super Bowl XXIXwas anAmerican footballgame between theAmerican Football Conference(AFC) championSan Diego Chargersand theNational Football Conference(NFC) championSan Francisco 49ersto decide theNational Football League(NFL) champion for the1994 season.The 49ers defeated the Chargers by the score of 49–26, becoming the first team to win five Super Bowl championships. The game was played on January 29, 1995, atJoe Robbie StadiuminMiami, Florida. This game is regarded as 49ers quarterbackSteve Young's final leap out of the shadow of his predecessor,Joe Montana, who had won four Super Bowls with the 49ers (in1981,1984,1988, and1989), two with Young as the backup quarterback. With Young at the helm, and a defense consisting of several veteranfree agentswho joined the team during the previous offseason, San Francisco finished the regular season with a league-best 13–3 record, and led the league in total points scored (505). The Chargers, on the other hand, were regarded as a\\\"Cinderella\\\" team, and\",\n \"team, and advanced to their first Super Bowl after posting an 11–5 regular-season record and overcoming halftime deficits in both of their playoff wins. This was the first Super Bowl in which both teams scored in all four quarters. The combined aggregate score of 75 points and the ten totaltouchdownsboth remain Super Bowl records. Still, the 49ers controlled most of the game, with Young completing touchdown passes in each of the 49ers' first two drives. The Chargers were able to cut the deficit late in the first quarter, 14–7, on a 13-play, 78-yard drive, but could not slow down San Francisco afterwards. Young was named theSuper Bowl MVP, throwing a Super Bowl-record six touchdown passes, and completing 24 out of 36 passes for 325 yards. Despite the predicted blowout (18 1⁄2- points is the second largest margin a team has been favored by in a Super Bowl), the fact that San Diego did not have as much national appeal nor a relatively large core fan base, and two teams fromCaliforniaplaying, which could have\",\n \"which could have significantly diminished interest along theEast Coast, the telecast of the game onABCstill had aNielsen ratingof 41.3. Background Host selection process NFL owners voted to award Super Bowl XXIX to Miami during their May 23, 1991 meeting inMinneapolis. Three cities presented bids:Miami(Joe Robbie Stadium),Tampa(Tampa Stadium), andHouston(Astrodome).New Orleans pulled out of the running early on due to conflicts with other conventions. Houston was considered an early favorite, since they had not hosted the game since1974. However, the Astrodome would need to add approximately 10,000 temporary seats in order to meet the NFL's capacity requirement of 70,000. Rules required a candidate to receive a3⁄4vote (21 of 28 owners) in order to win the bidding. Tampa was eliminated on the first ballot, having just hostedXXV, along with their lack of premium seating. Then neither Miami nor Houston managed to get 21 votes on the second ballot or on the third ballot. For the fourth ballot, the threshold was\",\n \"the threshold was reduced to a simple majority. In what was said to be a close vote, Miami was selected as the host.It marked the seventh time overall theMiami-areahosted the Super Bowl, and the second time it was played in Joe Robbie Stadium. San Diego Chargers The Chargers were the biggest surprise of the 1994 season, with very few expecting them to even reach the playoffs, let alone the Super Bowl. San Diego suffered losing seasons in the 1980s until formerWashington Redskinsgeneral managerBobby Beathardjoined the team in 1990. Beathard decided to rebuild the Chargers using the same model that he used to build the Redskins into Super Bowl contenders during the 1980s: a powerful running game built around big linemen, a passing game that helped sustain extremely long drives, and a bending but steady defense. After formerGeorgia Techhead coachBobby Rosswas hired by theChargers in 1992, the team won theAFC Westwith an 11–5 regular season record and won an opening round playoff game againstKansas City. But\",\n \"City. But in1993, they slumped back to 8–8 and did not reach the postseason. Before the start of the 1994 season, San Diego was not expected to do well because they had so many newcomers via the draft and free agency; the Chargers ended up with 22 new players on their roster, and 10 of them became starters. However, they ended up winning their first six regular season games en route to an 11–5 record, the AFC West championship, and the #2 AFC playoffseed. The Chargers went into the final game of the season against thePittsburgh Steelersneeding a win to get the #2 seed (a loss would have given that spot to theMiami Dolphins), which came with a first-round bye and a home game in the divisional round of the playoffs. Backup quarterbackGale Gilbert, subbing for injured starterStan Humphries, led the Chargers to a come-from-behind 37–34 win, withJohn Carneykicking a game-winning field goal in the game's final seconds. The Chargers' offense was led by quarterbackStan Humphries, who was the Redskins' backup toMark\",\n \"backup toMark Rypienduring the1991 season, when they wonSuper Bowl XXVI. During the 1994 season for San Diego, Humphries completed 264 out of 453 attempts for 3,209 yards and 17 touchdowns, with 12 interceptions. Wide receiverMark Seaywas the team's leading receiver with 58 receptions for 645 yards and 6 touchdowns. Wide receiverTony Martinhad 50 catches for 885 yards and 7 touchdowns, wide receiverShawn Jeffersonrecorded 43 catches for 627 yards and 3 touchdowns, and tight endAlfred Pupunuhad 21 receptions for 214 yards and 2 touchdowns. Running backNatrone Meansled the team in rushing with 1,350 yards and 12 touchdowns. He also recorded 39 receptions for 235 yards, and was named to the Pro Bowl. Third-down backRonnie Harmonwas also a big contributor, catching 58 passes for 615 yards and a touchdown. Meanwhile, the Chargers'special teamswas also a major threat withAndre Coleman, who returned 49 kickoffs for 1,293 yards (26.4 average yards per return) and 2 touchdowns. The Chargers had an excellent defensive\",\n \"excellent defensive line, anchored by Pro Bowl defensive endLeslie O'Neal, who led the team with 12.5 sacks and forced four fumbles, defensive tackleChris Mims, who recorded 11 sacks, andShawn Lee, who added 6.5 sacks and a fumble recovery. Their linebacking corps was led byJunior Seau, who was a Pro Bowl selection for the fourth consecutive year, recording 123 tackles, 5.5 sacks, and 3 fumble recoveries. Defensive backStanley Richardwas a major weapon in the secondary, recording 4 interceptions, 224 return yards, and 2 touchdowns. Defensive backDarrien Gordonwas also a major asset to the team, recording 4 interceptions and 32 return yards, while also adding another 475 yards and 2 touchdowns returning punts. SafetyRodney Harrisonwas a rookie on the team. Chargers backup quarterbackGale Gilbertbecame the first player to be a member of five consecutive Super Bowl teams. He had been a third-string quarterback for theBuffalo Bills, who had won AFC Championships in the four previous seasons (1990–1993). San\",\n \"(1990–1993). San Francisco 49ers From the1988to the1993seasons, the 49ers played in five out of six NFC Championship Games, winning Super BowlsXXIIIandXXIV. But after head coachGeorge Seifert's team lost two consecutive NFC Championship games to theDallas Cowboysin1992and1993, San Francisco brought in several veteranfree agentsto strengthen their defense. Among the players signed were defensive linemenRichard Dent(the MVP ofSuper Bowl XX),Charles Mann,Rhett Hall, andRickey Jackson; linebackersKen Norton Jr.andGary Plummer; and cornerbackDeion Sanders. The free agents enabled the 49ers to jump from the 18th-ranked defense in the league to the 8th, and to jump from the league's 16th-best defense against the run to the 2nd.Pro Bowldefensive linemanDana Stubblefieldled the team with 8.5 sacks. Rookie defensive tackleBryant Youngwas also a big threat to opposing quarterbacks and rushers, recording 42 tackles, 6 sacks, and a fumble recovery. Behind them, Norton played very effectively at the middle linebacker\",\n \"middle linebacker position, leading the team with 77 tackles and recording an interception. Pro Bowl safetyMerton Hanksled the team with 7 interceptions for 93 return yards, while Sanders had 6 interceptions for 303 return yards and 3 touchdowns, earning him theNFL Defensive Player of the Year Award. His 303 return yards was the third-highest total in NFL history, while his touchdown returns of 74, 93, and 90 yards made him the first player ever to have two 90-yard interception returns in one season. Pro Bowl safetyTim McDonaldwas also a big contributor, recording 2 interceptions for 79 yards and a touchdown. The 49ers' offense was led by quarterbackSteve Young, who replaced futureHall of FamerJoe Montanaas the starter in1991and1992due to injuries. After Young led the league in passing in both seasons, Montana was traded to theKansas City Chiefs, leaving Young as the undisputed starter in 1993. But even with his impressive passing statistics, Young was criticized as \\\"not being able to win the big games\\\" as\",\n \"the big games\\\" as Montana had done in leading the 49ers to Super Bowl victories inXVI,XIX, XXIII, and XXIV. It also didn't help that the team had lost to Montana's Chiefs 24–17 during the regular season. Still, Young again led the league in passing during the 1994 regular season with apasser ratingof 112.8, breaking Montana's record for the highest regular season rating in NFL history. Young recorded 324 out of 461 completions for 3,969 yards, 35 touchdowns, and just 10 interceptions. He also had 58 rushes for 293 yards and 7 touchdowns, and earned theNFL Most Valuable Player Award. With Young at the helm, the 49ers led the league in total points scored (505) and helped them earn a league best 13–3 regular season record. Pro Bowl running backRicky Watterswas the team's leading rusher with 877 yards and 6 touchdowns, while also recording 66 receptions for 719 yards and 5 touchdowns. Rookie fullbackWilliam Floydwas the team's second-leading rusher with 305 yards and 6 touchdowns, while also having 19\",\n \"also having 19 receptions for 145 yards. The team's leading receiver was Pro Bowl wide receiverJerry Rice, who had 112 catches for 1,499 yards and 13 touchdowns, while also gaining 93 yards and two more touchdowns rushing the ball. ReceiverJohn Taylorwas also a reliable target, catching 41 passes for 531 yards and 5 touchdowns. Pro Bowl tight endBrent Jonesadded 49 receptions for 670 yards and 9 touchdowns. The offensive line was led by Pro Bowl centerBart Oates, another offseason free agent pickup, and Pro Bowl guardJesse Sapolu. Running backDexter Carterhad a standout season as a returner onspecial teams, gaining a combined total of 1,426 yards and a touchdown returning both punts and kickoffs. Playoffs Chargers In the AFC Divisional Playoffs, the Chargers managed to overcome a 21–6 halftime deficit to defeat theMiami Dolphins, 22–21. In the first half, San Diego was limited to only twoJohn Carneyfield goals, while Miami quarterbackDan Marinothrew for over 180 yards and 3 touchdowns. However, the Chargers\",\n \"the Chargers dominated the Dolphins in the second half, limiting their offense to just 16 plays. In the third quarter, after the Chargers were stopped on fourth and goal at the 1-yard line, Chargers defensive linemanReuben Davistackled Dolphins running backBernie Parmaleein the end zone for a safety. San Diego then took the ensuing free kick and marched 54 yards to score on Means's 24-yard touchdown run. Then with time running out, Humphries threw an 8-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Mark Seay, giving his team a one-point lead. The Dolphins, aided by a pass interference call, responded with a drive to the Chargers' 31-yard line, but kickerPete Stoyanovich's potential game-winning 48-yard field goal attempt sailed far to the right of the goal posts and sealed San Diego's stirring win. San Diego then faced thePittsburgh Steelersin theAFC Championship Game. Once again, the Chargers fell behind early as the Steelers built up a 13–3 halftime lead, but Humphries fooled the Steelers secondary with a\",\n \"secondary with a 43-yardplay-actiontouchdown pass to a wide open tight endAlfred Pupunu. The Chargers then took a 17–13 lead when Martin beat the Steelers secondary (particularly a badly overmatchedTim McKyer) down the right sideline for a 43-yard touchdown reception. On their final drive, the Steelers advanced to the San Diego 3-yard line, but Chargers linebackerDennis Gibsonsealed the victory on fourth down by deflecting quarterbackNeil O'Donnell's pass intended for running backBarry Fosterto turn the ball back over to San Diego. Just like the 49ers in the NFC title game, the Chargers advanced to the Super Bowl despite the fact that their opponent had outgained them in many key statistical categories such as total plays (80–47), total offensive yards (415–226), and time of possession (37:13–22:47). 49ers The 49ers first defeated theChicago Bears, 44–15, in the NFC Divisional Playoffs. Although Chicago scored first with a field goal, San Francisco scored 37 unanswered points to put the game out of reach by\",\n \"out of reach by the end of the third quarter. Floyd scored three rushing touchdowns, while Young rushed for a touchdown and threw for another. San Francisco then defeatedtheir nemesis, theDallas Cowboys, 38–28, in theNFC Championship Game. Expected to be a close game, the 49ers converted 3 Dallas turnovers into 21 points in the first quarter. On the third play of the game, cornerbackEric Davisreturned an interception from Cowboys quarterbackTroy Aikmanfor a touchdown. Wide receiverMichael Irvinlost a fumble on Dallas' next drive, setting up Young's 29-yard touchdown pass to Watters. Then Cowboys returnerKevin Williamslost a fumble on the ensuing kickoff, and it was recovered by kickerDoug Brienat Dallas' 35-yard line. Several plays later, Floyd scored on a 1-yard touchdown run to give San Francisco a 21–0 lead less than 8 minutes into the game. With the score 24–14 in the closing minutes of the first half, Aikman threw 3 straight incompletions, and a short punt by the Cowboys set up Young's 28-yard touchdown\",\n \"28-yard touchdown completion to Rice with 8 seconds remaining in the first half. The Cowboys eventually cut their deficit to 38–28 with a touchdown run byEmmitt Smithand Aikman's 10-yard touchdown pass to Irvin in the final period, but they were unable to score again.Although the Cowboys outgained the 49ers in total offensive yards (451–294), Aikman broke an NFC Championship Game record with 380 yards passing, and Irvin also broke an NFC Championship Game record with 192 receiving yards, Dallas was ultimately unable to overcome their first-quarter turnovers. Super Bowl pregame news Entering Super Bowl XXIX, most sports writers and fans thought the Chargers had absolutely no chance of defeating the 49ers. San Francisco was on track, winning 12 of its last 13 games (with their only loss in that span coming against theMinnesota Vikingsin a meaningless regular season finale at Minnesota), including their playoff victories. Many people also thought that the NFC Championship Game between the 49ers and the Cowboys\",\n \"and the Cowboys was \\\"the real Super Bowl\\\",because those two teams were commonly viewed as vastly superior to any AFC team. Furthermore, San Francisco had defeated San Diego, 38–15, during the regular season. As a result, the 49ers entered the game favored to win by 18 1⁄2- points, surpassed only by the 19 1⁄2- points, by theBaltimore Coltswho were favored over theNew York JetsinSuper Bowl IIImore than two decades prior. Many also speculated that Super Bowl XXIX would be the least watched game in Super Bowl history because the Chargers did not have as large of a core fan base as other AFC teams like the Chiefs, the Dolphins, or the Steelers. (This prediction ultimately turned out to be false. Although Super Bowl XXIX was viewed by 125.2 million people and had aNielsen ratingof 41.3,Super Bowl XXVIthree years earlier was seen by 119.7 million viewers and recorded a 40.3 rating.) This was the seventh Super Bowl to be played in Miami, at the time tying bothNew Orleans, Louisiana and theGreater Los Angeles\",\n \"Los Angeles areafor hosting the Super Bowl the most times. It remains the only Super Bowl played between teams that play their home games in the same state (althoughSuper Bowl XXVwas played between theNew York Giantsand theBuffalo Bills, two teams representing areas ofNew York, the Giants play their home games inNew Jersey). Broadcasting The game was broadcast in the United States byABC, withplay-by-play announcerAl Michaelsandcolor commentatorsFrank GiffordandDan Dierdorf.Lynn Swannreported from theChargerssideline andLesley Visserreported from the49erssideline). Visser became the first woman assigned to a Super Bowl sideline; she had previously become the first woman sportscaster to cover theVince Lombardi Trophypresentation ceremony, when she coveredSuper Bowl XXVIforCBS.Brent Musburgerhosted all the Super Bowl XXIX pregame (2 hours), halftime, and postgame events with the help of then-ABC Sports analystDick Vermeil, Musburger's regular color commentator on ABC'scollege football telecasts, and then-New\",\n \"and then-New York JetsquarterbackBoomer Esiason. This was the last Super Bowl broadcast by the broadcast team of Michaels, Gifford and Dierdorf. The three calledMonday Night Footballfrom the1987to1997, and also worked ABC's coverage of Super BowlsXXIIandXXV. This would also be the last Super Bowl aired on ABC until the1999 season(when Al Michaels called the game with Boomer Esiason). This would also be the final Super Bowl hosted by Musburger, as all subsequent Super Bowls on ABC were hosted byESPN'sChris Bermanfollowing theDisneypurchase of ABC (which included ESPN), and the subsequent integration of ESPN and ABC Sports (now ESPN on ABC). Also, the trophy presentation for this game was the last to be held in the winning team's locker room, as all subsequent Vince Lombardi Trophy presentations would be held on the field. For theSuper Bowl lead-out program, ABC premiered the television dramaExtremestarringJames Brolin; this was the last series to premiere following the Super Bowl untilFamily Guypremiered\",\n \"Guypremiered followingSuper Bowl XXXIIIand is one of only four in the last 14 years to premiere following a Super Bowl (joiningFamily Guy, its spinoffAmerican Dad!, andUndercover Bosswhich premiered followingSuper Bowl XLIV), since the networks have preferred to have new episodes of established shows to catch as much of the post-game audience as possible. Thirty-second television advertisements for Super Bowl XXIX averaged $1.15 million in costs, the first time that Super Bowl ads exceeded the $1 million mark. Super Bowl XXIX aired in over 150 countries worldwide. It was simulcast in Canada onCTVandTVA(in French), in Mexico onTelevisa'sCanal 5, whose commentators were able to call the game live from San Diego on the last minute,in Germany onTele 5, inAustraliaonABC, in thePhilippineson theGMA Networkand later aired in the United Kingdom onChannel 4. This Super Bowl would later be featured onNFL's Greatest Gamesunder the titleExercise in Excellence.The Super Bowl highlight film on which the episode was based\",\n \"episode was based was the only Super Bowl highlight film to be narrated byHarry Kalas. In popular culture In the Tuesday prior to the Super Bowl, the ABC sitcomFull Houseaired an episode called \\\"Super Bowl Fun Day\\\" involving main characters Danny Tanner and Rebecca Donaldson reporting at the game for their showWake Up, San Francisco. (Full Housewas set in San Francisco, and this was the only time during the show's run that the 49ers advanced to a Super Bowl aired on ABC.) A week earlier, theSeinfeldepisode \\\"The Label Maker\\\" involvedJerrytrying to give away his tickets to the game. He eventually decided to go, but unfortunately was stuck sitting next toNewman. Two days after the Super Bowl, the game was the main plot feature of an episode of the ABC sitcomHome Improvement, \\\"Super Bowl Fever\\\", in whichJillwas sick with the flu whileTimand his buddies tried to watch the game. Entertainment Pregame ceremonies The pregame show held before the game featuredcountry musicsingerHank Williams Jr., who performed his\",\n \"who performed his theme song forMonday Night Football, which was based on his single \\\"All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight\\\". Actress and singerKathie Lee Gifford(Frank Gifford's wife) later sang the national anthem. She was accompanied by then-Miss AmericaHeather Whitestonewhosignedthe anthem for the hearing impaired. To honor the NFL's 75th season, four former players all Hall of Fame members, who were named to the league's 75th Anniversary All-Time Team joined thecoin tossceremony:Otto Graham,Joe Greene,Ray Nitschke, andGale Sayers. A special 75th anniversary logo was painted at midfield. Each player also wore a patch on hisjerseywith the same logo; the 75th anniversary patch was worn by all players league-wide during the1994 season. During the regular season, teams also wore \\\"throwback\\\" jerseys for selected games. The 49ers wore their throwbacks (which paid tribute to the1957 Niners) for most of the season, this game included. Halftime show The halftime show was titled \\\"Indiana Jones and the\",\n \"Jones and the Temple of the Forbidden Eye\\\" and was produced byDisneyto promote theirIndiana Jones Adventureattraction atDisneylandthat opened later that year. The show featured actors playingIndiana Jonesand his girlfriendMarion Ravenwoodwho were raiding theVince Lombardi Trophyfrom the Temple of the Forbidden Eye. The show also had performances by singersTony BennettandPatti LaBelle,jazztrumpeterArturo Sandoval, and theMiami Sound Machine. The show ended with everybody singing \\\"Can You Feel The Love Tonight\\\", the song featured in Disney's (which later acquired ABC) 1994 filmThe Lion King. The dancers on the field were members of the Coral Gables Senior High marching band. This halftime show also had a connection with past ABC programming: the first twoIndiana Jonesfilms had their broadcast premieres on ABC, and the network aired a TV series,The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, from 1992 to 1993 (actually serving as the lead-in toMonday Night Footballat one point). Radio The game was broadcast on nationwide\",\n \"on nationwide radio byCBSwithplay-by-play announcerJack Buckandcolor commentatorHank Stram.Jim Hunterhosted all of the events. Locally, Super Bowl XXIX was broadcast byXTRA-AMinSan DiegowithLee \\\"Hacksaw\\\" HamiltonandJim Laslavicand byKGO-AMinSan FranciscowithJoe StarkeyandWayne Walker. Game summary First quarter After 49ers running backDexter Carterreturned the opening kickoff 9 yards to the San Francisco 26-yard line, a face mask penalty on Chargers linebackerDoug Millerallowed San Francisco to start at their own 41. On the third play of the drive, quarterbackSteve Youngthrew a 44-yard touchdown pass to wideJerry Riceto take an early 7–0 lead. The 49ers became the second team to take the opening kickoff and score a touchdown on that first drive (the first being theMiami DolphinsinSuper Bowl VIII), and also set a new Super Bowl record for the fastest touchdown (later broken by theChicago Bears'Devin HesterinSuper Bowl XLI). After forcing the Chargers to punt after a three-and-out on their opening possession,\",\n \"opening possession, the 49ers advanced 79 yards in four plays, with Young rushing for 21 yards and then throwing a 51-yard touchdown pass to running backRicky Wattersto give San Francisco a 14–0 lead less than 5 minutes into the first quarter and set a Super Bowl record for the fastest second touchdown scored by a team. San Diego responded on their ensuing possession, marching 78 yards in 13 plays and taking more than 7 minutes off the clock. The drive featured two receptions and a run by running backRonnie Harmonfor 33 yards and six runs by running backNatrone Meansfor 22 yards, the last one being a 1-yard touchdown run, cutting the Chargers' deficit to 14–7. However, the 49ers quickly countered after the ensuing kickoff, driving 70 yards in 10 plays. Rice started off the drive with a 19-yard reception and 10-yard run on a reverse play, while Young added a 12-yard completion to wide receiverJohn Taylorand a 15-yard scramble. Second quarter Four plays into the second quarter, Young threw a 5-yard touchdown\",\n \"a 5-yard touchdown pass to fullbackWilliam Floyd, increasing the San Francisco lead to 21–7 and making the 49ers the second team to score on its first three possessions (afterGreen Bay) of a Super Bowl and the first (and only as of 2024) to score touchdowns on its first three possessions. After the next three possessions ended in punts, Chargers punterBryan Wagner's 40-yard punt from his own 9-yard line gave the 49ers the ball at the San Diego 49. San Francisco then marched on a 9-play drive, which included two receptions by Rice for 19 yards and ended with Young's fourth touchdown pass, an 8-yard toss to Watters, with 4:44 left in the half, making the score 28–7. San Diego then took the ensuing kickoff and drove 62 yards from their own 25-yard line to the San Francisco 13, featuring a 17-yard reception by wide receiverMark Seay, a 10-yard reverse run by wide receiverShawn Jefferson, and a 33-yard gain on ascreen passfrom quarterbackStan Humphriesto running backEric Bieniemy, the Chargers' longest play of\",\n \"longest play of the game. But after Humphries threw three incomplete passes, one of which was a perfectly thrown pass that Seay dropped in the end zone, they were forced to settle for kickerJohn Carney's 31-yard field goal, cutting their deficit to 28–10. A 33-yard completion from Young to tight endBrent Joneshelped the 49ers reach the San Diego 29-yard line on their next possession, but Young's third-down pass to Jones was overthrown, and kickerDoug Brienmissed a 47-yard field goal attempt wide right. The Chargers then drove to their own 46-yard line, but 49ers cornerbackEric Davisintercepted Humphries' third-down pass intended for wide receiverTony Martinin the end zone for a touchback with 10 seconds left in the half, and the score remained 28–10 at halftime. The Chargers' 18-point halftime deficit ended up being the closest scoring margin they would reach for the rest of the game. Third quarter The 49ers picked up right where they left off going into the second half. The Chargers were forced to punt\",\n \"were forced to punt after three plays on the opening drive of the half, and Carter returned the ball 11 yards to his own 38-yard line. Young subsequently completed two passes to Rice for 37 yards (including a 21-yard pass on 3rd-and-17) and a 16-yard pass to Taylor on a 7-play, 62-yard drive that ended with Watters' third touchdown of the game on a 9-yard run, increasing the 49ers' lead to 35–10. After a 33-yard kickoff return by wide receiverAndre Coleman, the Chargers advanced to the San Francisco 33-yard line, aided by a 23-yard reception by tight endAlfred Pupunu, but they turned the ball over on downs when Humphries' 4th-and-7 pass intended for Martin was broken up by Davis. Young then led San Francisco on a 10-play, 67-yard drive, aided by a 22-yard pass interference penalty against cornerbackDarrien Gordonon 3rd-and-14, to score on his fifth touchdown pass, a 15-yard completion to Rice. But San Diego immediately responded when Coleman returned the ensuing kickoff 98 yards for a touchdown. Then\",\n \"a touchdown. Then Humphries completed a pass to Seay for atwo-point conversion(the first in Super Bowl history; the rule had been adopted by the NFL at the start of the season), but it only cut the deficit to 42–18. The 49ers were forced to punt on their next drive, but the Chargers ended up turning the ball over on downs again when Means was tackled for a 4-yard loss by safetyMerton Hankson 4th-and-1 from the San Diego 37. Fourth quarter Six plays later, after three runs by Watters for 25 yards, Young threw his record-setting sixth touchdown pass to Rice on a 7-yard completion with 13:49 remaining in the game, increasing the San Francisco lead to 49–18 and essentially ending any hopes of a San Diego comeback. The Chargers, now playing for pride, responded with a 13-play, 59-yard drive to reach the San Francisco 7-yard line. Humphries led his team down the field 12 yards for the first four plays, but hurt his ankle while being tackled by defensive tackleBryant Young, and was temporarily replaced byGale\",\n \"replaced byGale Gilbert, who completed two passes to Harmon for 24 yards, but threw an interception on 4th-and-6 to cornerbackDeion Sanders, who returned the ball to the San Francisco 14-yard line. After two punts by the 49ers and an interception by San Francisco defensive backToi Cook(during which Humphries returned to the game), the Chargers scored the final points of the game on a 67-yard, 8-play drive, which consisted of two receptions by Seay for 30 yards and two receptions by Martin for 42 yards, the second of which was caught for a 30-yard touchdown. TV viewers didn't see most of the play as ABC had cut to the 49ers celebrating on the sideline. Humphries then completed another pass for a two-point conversion, this time to Pupunu, to make the final score 49–26. The 49ers recovered the ensuing onside kick and ran time off the clock before punting to the San Diego 7. San Diego drove to the San Francisco 35 before the game ended. Once the 49ers victory was assured, Young said \\\"somebody take the monkey off\",\n \"take the monkey off my back!\\\" Years later, he regretted saying that saying this was a team effort not an individual performance. At the end of the game, Young showed his jubilation at finally being able to win \\\"the big one\\\" while accepting the MVP trophy. \\\"There were times when this was hard! But this is the greatest feeling in the world! No one —no one!— can ever take this away from us! No one,ever!It's ours!\\\" Young and his teammates were equally enthusiastic in the locker room afterwards. \\\"We're part of history,\\\" said guardJesse Sapolu. \\\"This is probably the best offense people will see in their lifetimes.\\\" \\\"Is this great or what?\\\" Young added. \\\"I mean, I haven't thrown six touchdown passes in a game in my life. Then I throw six in the Super Bowl! Unbelievable.\\\" Rice caught 10 passes for 149 yards and 3 touchdowns, tying his own record for most touchdown receptions in a Super Bowl, and becoming the first player ever to do it twice. He also recorded 10 rushing yards. Watters rushed for 47 yards and a\",\n \"for 47 yards and a touchdown, while also catching 3 passes for 61 yards and two touchdowns. Means, who rushed for 1,350 yards in the regular season, was held to just 33 yards in the game. Humphries finished 24 out of 49 for 275 yards and one touchdown, with two interceptions. Seay was the Chargers' top receiver with 7 receptions for 75 yards, whileRonnie Harmonadded 8 catches for 68 yards. Defensive end Raylee Johnson had two sacks. Coleman's 8 kickoff returns for 244 yards and a touchdown set the following Super Bowl records: most kickoff returns in a Super Bowl, most kickoff return yards in a Super Bowl, and most combined net yards gained in a Super Bowl. This was the first Super Bowl to have two players each score three touchdowns. Rice matched hisSuper Bowl XXIVperformance with his three touchdown catches. Watters also had three touchdowns, matching Roger Craig's three touchdowns (two receiving and one rushing) inSuper Bowl XIX. Watters also became the second running back to catch two touchdown passes in\",\n \"touchdown passes in a game, matching Craig. Ken Norton Jr.became the first player to win three straight Super Bowls, although as a member of two teams. Norton was a member of the Cowboys teams who won Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII.Deion Sandersbecame the first player to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series, playing in the1992 World Serieswith theAtlanta Braves. Chargers quarterbackGale Gilbertbecame the first player to be a member of five straight Super Bowl teams. Gilbert was a member of the Bills who played in four straight Super Bowls (XXV–XXVIII). Gilbert was on the losing team in all five Super Bowl games. The 49ers' spectacular performance led to their offensive coordinator,Mike Shanahan, and defensive coordinator,Ray Rhodes, earning head coaching positions in 1995 for theDenver Broncosand thePhiladelphia Eagles, respectively.Bobby Rossbecame the second coach, afterJimmy JohnsoninSuper Bowl XXVII, to lead a team to acollege football national championship(Georgia Techin 1990) and a Super Bowl.\",\n \"and a Super Bowl. One year later,Barry Switzerwould join Johnson as the only head coaches to win championships in both NCAA Division I-A (now FBS) college football and the NFL. Box score atJoe Robbie Stadium,Miami, Florida Final statistics Sources:NFL.com Super Bowl XXIX,Super Bowl XXIX Play Finder SF,Super Bowl XXIX Play Finder SD,USA Today Super Bowl XXIX Play by Play Statistical comparison Individual statistics 1Completions/attempts2Carries3Longest gain4Receptions5Times targeted Records set The following records were set in Super Bowl XXIX, according to the official NFL.com boxscoreand the Pro-Football-Reference.com game summary.Some records have to meet NFL minimum number of attempts to be recognized.The minimums are shown (in parentheses). Turnovers are defined as the number of times losing the ball on interceptions and fumbles. Starting lineups Source: Pro Football Hall of Fame‡ Officials Jerry Markbreit became the first official to serve as referee in four Super Bowls, a record that still stands.\",\n \"that still stands. Officials wore a black armband with number 42 to honor umpire Dave Hamilton, who died on January 9 at age 61 due to liver failure. Hamilton had completed his 20th season as an NFL official in 1994. The day after the Super Bowl, Donnie Hampton, who had been a field judge since 1988, died of a heart attack at age 47. Aftermath As of the 2022 season, this is the only Super Bowl played between teams based in the same state. It is also the most recent Super Bowl title to date for the 49ers. They would play in three more in the 21st Century (Super Bowl XLVII,Super Bowl LIVandSuper Bowl LVIII), but lost all of them. As for the Chargers, the implications of their defeat were far worse in hindsight. This remains the only Super Bowl the Chargers have ever played in. Including the era before theAFL–NFL merger, it isthe third championship gamethat the Chargers have lost. TheAFL Championship in 1963remains to this day as the only major sports championship the city of San Diego has won (and also the\",\n \"won (and also the longest championship drought for any city that has at least two major sports franchises), so even though they were heavy underdogs, the loss still had great significance.The Chargers did not win another playoff game until the2007 season, when they reached the AFC Championship Game but lost to the then-undefeated New England Patriots, 21–12. Super Bowl XXIX would be their only appearance while playing in San Diego before they moved to Los Angeles following the 2016 season. Notable deaths from 1994 Chargers team In addition, eight players from the 1994 Chargers Super Bowl team have died prior to reaching age 45.They include: Notes References External links\",\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_1995_box_office_number-one_films_in_the_United_States (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":366,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What Pink Floyd album came out the year Pablo Picasso died?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Dark Side of the Moon"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picasso"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Side_of_the_Moon"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picasso', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Side_of_the_Moon']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picasso","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Side_of_the_Moon"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picasso\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Side_of_the_Moon\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Pablo Picasso Pablo Ruiz Picasso(25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973) was a Spanish painter, sculptor,printmaker,ceramicist, andtheatre designerwho spent most of his adult life inFrance. One of the most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding theCubistmovement, the invention ofconstructed sculpture,the co-invention ofcollage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are theproto-CubistLes Demoiselles d'Avignon(1907) and the anti-war paintingGuernica(1937), a dramatic portrayal of thebombing of Guernicaby German and Italian air forces during theSpanish Civil War. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his early years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood and adolescence. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, and ideas. After 1906, theFauvistwork of the older artistHenri Matissemotivated Picasso to explore more radical styles, beginning a fruitful rivalry between the two artists, who subsequently were often paired by critics as the leaders ofmodern art. Picasso's output, especially in his early career, is often periodized. While the names of many of his later periods are debated, the most commonly accepted periods in his work are theBlue Period(1901–1904), theRose Period(1904–1906), theAfrican-influenced Period(1907–1909), AnalyticCubism(1909–1912), and Synthetic Cubism (1912–1919), also referred to as theCrystal period. Much of Picasso's work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in aneoclassicalstyle, and his work in the mid-1920s often has characteristics ofSurrealism. His later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Exceptionally prolific throughout the course of his long life, Picasso achieved universal renown and immense fortune for his revolutionary artistic accomplishments, and became one of the best-known figures in20th-century art. Early life Picasso was born at 23:15 on 25 October 1881, in the city ofMálaga, Andalusia, in southern Spain.He was the first child ofDon José Ruiz y Blasco(1838–1913) and María Picasso y López.Picasso's family was of middle-class background. His father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life, Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts and acuratorof a local museum. Picasso's birth certificate and the record of his baptism include very long names, combining those of various saints and relatives.Ruiz y Picassowere his paternal and maternal surnames, respectively, per Spanish custom. The surname \"Picasso\" comes fromLiguria, a coastal region of north-western Italy.Pablo's maternal great-grandfather, Tommaso Picasso, moved to Spain around 1807. Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were \"piz, piz\", a shortening oflápiz, the Spanish word for \"pencil\".From the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was a traditional academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters, and drawing the human body from plaster casts and live models. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork. The family moved toA Coruñain 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. They stayed for almost four years. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his unfinished sketch of a pigeon. Observing the precision of his son's technique, an apocryphal story relates, Ruiz felt that the thirteen-year-old Picasso had surpassed him, and vowed to give up painting,though paintings by him exist from later years. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his seven-year-old sister, Conchita, died ofdiphtheria.After her death, the family moved toBarcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home.Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, and the jury admitted him, at just 13. As a student, Picasso lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a small room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day, judging his drawings. The two argued frequently. Picasso's father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrid'sReal Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, the country's foremost art school.At age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrollment. Madrid held many other attractions. ThePradohoused paintings byDiego Velázquez,Francisco Goya, andFrancisco Zurbarán. Picasso especially admired the works ofEl Greco; elements such as his elongated limbs, arresting colours, and mystical visages are echoed in Picasso's later work. Career Before 1900 Picasso's training under his father began before 1890. His progress can be traced in the collection of early works now held by theMuseu PicassoinBarcelona, which provides one of the most comprehensive extant records of any major artist's beginnings.During 1893 the juvenile quality of his earliest work falls away, and by 1894 his career as a painter can be said to have begun.The academic realism apparent in the works of the mid-1890s is well displayed inThe First Communion(1896), a large composition that depicts his sister, Lola. In the same year, at the age of 14, he paintedPortrait of Aunt Pepa, a vigorous and dramatic portrait thatJuan-Eduardo Cirlothas called \"without a doubt one of the greatest in the whole history of Spanish painting.\" In 1897, his realism began to show aSymbolistinfluence, for example, in a series of landscape paintings rendered in non-naturalistic violet and green tones. What some call his Modernist period (1899–1900) followed. His exposure to the work ofRossetti,Steinlen,Toulouse-LautrecandEdvard Munch, combined with his admiration for favourite old masters such asEl Greco, led Picasso to a personal version of modernism in his works of this period. Picasso made his first trip toParis, then the art capital of Europe, in 1900. There, he met his first Parisian friend, journalist and poetMax Jacob, who helped Picasso learn the language and its literature. Soon they shared an apartment; Max slept at night while Picasso slept during the day and worked at night. These were times of severe poverty, cold, and desperation. Much of his work was burned to keep the small room warm. During the first five months of 1901, Picasso lived inMadrid, where he and hisanarchistfriend Francisco de Asís Soler founded the magazineArte Joven(Young Art), which published five issues. Soler solicited articles and Picasso illustrated the journal, mostly contributing grim cartoons depicting and sympathizing with the state of the poor. The first issue was published on 31 March 1901, by which time the artist had started to sign his workPicasso.From 1898 he signed his works as \"Pablo Ruiz Picasso\", then as \"Pablo R. Picasso\" until 1901. The change does not seem to imply a rejection of the father figure. Rather, he wanted to distinguish himself from others; initiated by his Catalan friends who habitually called him by his maternal surname, much less current than the paternal Ruiz. Blue Period: 1901–1904 Picasso's Blue Period (1901–1904), characterized by sombre paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green only occasionally warmed by other colours, began either in Spain in early 1901 or in Paris in the second half of the year.Many paintings of gaunt mothers with children date from the Blue Period, during which Picasso divided his time betweenBarcelonaand Paris. In his austere use of colour and sometimes doleful subject matter—prostitutes and beggars are frequent subjects—Picasso was influenced by a trip through Spain and by the suicide of his friendCarles Casagemas. Starting in autumn of 1901, he painted several posthumous portraits of Casagemas culminating in the gloomy allegorical paintingLa Vie(1903), now in theCleveland Museum of Art. The same mood pervades the well-known etchingThe Frugal Repast(1904),which depicts a blind man and a sighted woman, both emaciated, seated at a nearly bare table. Blindness, a recurrent theme in Picasso's works of this period, is also represented inThe Blindman's Meal(1903, theMetropolitan Museum of Art) and in the portrait ofCelestina(1903). Other Blue Period works includePortrait of SolerandPortrait of Suzanne Bloch. Rose Period: 1904–1906 The Rose Period (1904–1906)is characterized by a lighter tone and style utilizing orange and pink colours and featuring many circus people,acrobatsandharlequinsknown in France as saltimbanques. The harlequin, a comedic character usually depicted in checkered patterned clothing, became a personal symbol for Picasso. Picasso metFernande Olivier, abohemianartist who became his mistress, in Paris in 1904.Olivier appears in many of his Rose Period paintings, many of which are influenced by his warm relationship with her, in addition to his increased exposure to French painting. The generally upbeat and optimistic mood of paintings in this period is reminiscent of the 1899–1901 period (i.e., just prior to the Blue Period), and 1904 can be considered a transition year between the two periods. By 1905, Picasso became a favourite of American art collectorsLeoandGertrude Stein. Their older brother Michael Stein and his wife Sarah also became collectors of his work. Picasso painted aportrait of Gertrude Steinand one of her nephewAllan Stein. Gertrude Stein became Picasso's principal patron, acquiring his drawings and paintings and exhibiting them in her informalSalonat her home in Paris.At one of her gatherings in 1905, he metHenri Matisse, who was to become a lifelong friend and rival. The Steins introduced him toClaribel Coneand her sister Etta, who were American art collectors; they also began to acquire Picasso's and Matisse's paintings. Eventually, Leo Stein moved to Italy. Michael and Sarah Stein became patrons of Matisse, while Gertrude Stein continued to collect Picassos. In 1907, Picasso joined an art gallery that had recently been opened in Paris byDaniel-Henry Kahnweiler, a German art historian and art collector who became one of the premier French art dealers of the 20th century. He was among the first champions of Pablo Picasso,Georges Braqueand theCubismthat they jointly developed. Kahnweiler promoted burgeoning artists such asAndré Derain,Kees van Dongen,Fernand Léger,Juan Gris,Maurice de Vlaminckand several others who had come from all over the globe to live and work inMontparnasseat the time. African art and primitivism: 1907–1909 Picasso's African-influenced Period (1907–1909) begins with his paintingLes Demoiselles d'Avignon. The three figures on the left were inspired byIberian sculpture, but he repainted the faces of the two figures on the right after being powerfully impressed by African artefacts he saw in June 1907 in the ethnographic museum atPalais du Trocadéro.When he displayed the painting to acquaintances in his studio later that year, the nearly universal reaction was shock and revulsion; Matisse angrily dismissed the work as a hoax.Picasso did not exhibitLes Demoisellespublicly until 1916. Other works from this period includeNude with Raised Arms(1907) andThree Women(1908). Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that follows.Analyticcubism(1909–1912) is a style of painting Picasso developed withGeorges Braqueusing monochrome brownish and neutral colours. Both artists took apart objects and \"analyzed\" them in terms of their shapes. Picasso and Braque's paintings at this time share many similarities. In Paris, Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of friends in theMontmartreandMontparnassequarters, includingAndré Breton, poetGuillaume Apollinaire, writerAlfred JarryandGertrude Stein. In 1911, Picasso was arrested and questioned aboutthe theft of theMona Lisafrom theLouvre. Suspicion for the crime had initially fallen upon Apollinaire due to his links to Géry Pieret, an artist with a history of thefts from the gallery. Apollinaire in turn implicated his close friend Picasso, who had also purchased stolen artworks from the artist in the past. Afraid of a conviction that could result in his deportation to Spain, Picasso denied having ever met Apollinaire. Both were later cleared of any involvement in the painting's disappearance. Synthetic cubism: 1912–1919 Synthetic cubism (1912–1919) was a further development of the genre of cubism, in which cut paper fragments – often wallpaper or portions of newspaper pages – were pasted into compositions, marking the first use ofcollagein fine art. Between 1915 and 1917, Picasso began a series of paintings depicting highly geometric and minimalist Cubist objects, consisting of either a pipe, a guitar or a glass, with an occasional element of collage. \"Hard-edged square-cut diamonds\", notes art historianJohn Richardson, \"these gems do not always have upside or downside\".\"We need a new name to designate them,\" wrote Picasso toGertrude Stein. The term \"Crystal Cubism\" was later used as a result of visual analogies with crystals at the time.These \"little gems\" may have been produced by Picasso in response to critics who had claimed his defection from the movement, through his experimentation with classicism within the so-calledreturn to orderfollowing the war. After acquiring some fame and fortune, Picasso left Olivier for Marcelle Humbert, also known asEva Gouel. Picasso included declarations of his love for Eva in many Cubist works. Picasso was devastated by her premature death from illness at the age of 30 in 1915. At the outbreak ofWorld War Iin August 1914, Picasso was living inAvignon. Braque and Derain were mobilized and Apollinaire joined the French artillery, while the SpaniardJuan Grisremained from the Cubist circle. During the war, Picasso was able to continue painting uninterrupted, unlike his French comrades. His paintings became more sombre and his life changed with dramatic consequences. Kahnweiler's contract had terminated on his exile from France. At this point, Picasso's work would be taken on by the art dealerLéonce Rosenberg. After the loss of Eva Gouel, Picasso had an affair withGaby Lespinasse. During the spring of 1916, Apollinaire returned from the front wounded. They renewed their friendship, but Picasso began to frequent new social circles. Towards the end of World War I, Picasso became involved withSerge Diaghilev'sBallets Russes. Among his friends during this period wereJean Cocteau,Jean Hugo, Juan Gris, and others. In the summer of 1918, Picasso marriedOlga Khokhlova, a ballerina with Sergei Diaghilev's troupe, for whom Picasso was designing a ballet, Erik Satie'sParade, in Rome; they spent their honeymoon nearBiarritzin the villa of glamorous Chilean art patronEugenia Errázuriz. Khokhlova introduced Picasso to high society, formal dinner parties, and other dimensions of the life of the rich in 1920s Paris. The two had a son,Paulo Picasso,who would grow up to be a motorcycle racer and chauffeur to his father. Khokhlova's insistence on social propriety clashed with Picasso'sbohemiantendencies and the two lived in a state of constant conflict. During the same period that Picasso collaborated with Diaghilev's troupe, he andIgor Stravinskycollaborated onPulcinellain 1920. Picasso took the opportunity to make several drawings of the composer. In 1927, Picasso met 17-year-oldMarie-Thérèse Walterand began a secret affair with her. Picasso's marriage to Khokhlova soon ended in separation rather than divorce, as French law required an even division of property in the case of divorce, and Picasso did not want Khokhlova to have half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova's death in 1955. Picasso carried on a long-standing affair with Marie-Thérèse Walter and fathered a daughter with her, named Maya. Marie-Thérèse lived in the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and hanged herself four years after Picasso's death. Neoclassicism and surrealism: 1919–1929 In February 1917, Picasso made his first trip to Italy.In the period following the upheaval of World War I, Picasso produced work in aneoclassicalstyle. This \"return to order\" is evident in the work of many European artists in the 1920s, includingAndré Derain,Giorgio de Chirico,Gino Severini,Jean Metzinger, the artists of theNew Objectivitymovement and of theNovecento Italianomovement. Picasso's paintings and drawings from this period frequently recall the work ofRaphaelandIngres. In 1925 theSurrealistwriter and poetAndré Bretondeclared Picasso as 'one of ours' in his articleLe Surréalisme et la peinture, published inRévolution surréaliste.Les Demoiselleswas reproduced for the first time in Europe in the same issue. Yet Picasso exhibited Cubist works at the first Surrealist group exhibition in 1925; the concept of 'psychic automatism in its pure state' defined in theManifeste du surréalismenever appealed to him entirely. He did at the time develop new imagery and formal syntax for expressing himself emotionally, \"releasing the violence, the psychic fears and the eroticism that had been largely contained or sublimated since 1909\", writes art historian Melissa McQuillan. Although this transition in Picasso's work was informed by Cubism for its spatial relations, \"the fusion of ritual and abandon in the imagery recalls the primitivism of the Demoiselles and the elusive psychological resonances of his Symbolist work\", writes McQuillan. Surrealism revived Picasso's attraction to primitivism and eroticism. The Great Depression,Guernica, and the MoMA exhibition: 1930–1939 During the 1930s, theminotaurreplaced theharlequinas a common motif in his work. His use of the minotaur came partly from his contact with the surrealists, who often used it as their symbol, and it appears in Picasso'sGuernica. The minotaur and Picasso's mistressMarie-Thérèse Walterare heavily featured in his celebratedVollard Suiteof etchings. Arguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of the Germanbombing of Guernicaduring theSpanish Civil War–Guernica. This large canvas embodies for many the inhumanity, brutality and hopelessness of war. Asked to explain its symbolism, Picasso said, \"It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them.\" Guernicawas exhibited in July 1937 at the Spanish Pavilion at theParis International Exposition, and then became the centrepiece of an exhibition of 118 works by Picasso,Matisse,BraqueandHenri Laurensthat toured Scandinavia and England. After the victory of Francisco Franco in Spain, the painting was sent to the United States to raise funds and support for Spanish refugees. Until 1981 it was entrusted to the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City, as it was Picasso's expressed desire that the painting should not be delivered to Spain until liberty and democracy had been established in the country. BeforeGuernica, Picasso had never addressed political themes in his art. The politicized nature of the work is largely attributed to his romantic relationship at the time with the French anti-fascist activist andsurrealistphotographer,Dora Maar.In addition, her black and white photographs are likely to have influenced the black and white scheme ofGuernica, in stark contrast to Picasso's usual colorful paintings. “Maar’s practice of photography influenced the art of Picasso – she had a great influence on his work,” said Antoine Romand, a Dora Maar expert. “She contested him. She pushed him to do something new and to be more creative politically.\"Maar had exclusive access to Picasso's studio to observe and photograph the creation ofGuernica.At Picasso's request, Maar painted parts of the dying horse. In 1939 and 1940, theMuseum of Modern Artin New York City, under its directorAlfred Barr, a Picasso enthusiast, held a major retrospective of Picasso's principal works until that time. This exhibition lionized Picasso, brought into full public view in America the scope of his artistry, and resulted in a reinterpretation of his work by contemporary art historians and scholars.According to Jonathan Weinberg, \"Given the extraordinary quality of the show and Picasso's enormous prestige, generally heightened by the political impact ofGuernica... the critics were surprisingly ambivalent\".Picasso's \"multiplicity of styles\" was disturbing to one journalist; another described him as \"wayward and even malicious\";Alfred Frankenstein's review inARTnewsconcluded that Picasso was both charlatan and genius. World War II and late 1940s: 1939–1949 DuringWorld War II, Picasso remained in Paris while the Germans occupied the city. Picasso's artistic style did not fit theNazi ideal of art, so he did not exhibit during this time. He was often harassed by theGestapo. During one search of his apartment, an officer saw a photograph of the paintingGuernica. \"Did you do that?\" the German asked Picasso. \"No,\" he replied, \"You did.\" Retreating to his studio, he continued to paint, producing works such as theStill Life with Guitar(1942) andThe Charnel House(1944–48). Although the Germans outlawedbronzecasting in Paris, Picasso continued regardless, using bronze smuggled to him by theFrench Resistance. Around this time,Picasso wrote poetryas an alternative outlet. Between 1935 and 1959 he wrote more than 300 poems. Largely untitled except for a date and sometimes the location of where they were written (for example \"Paris 16 May 1936\"), these works were gustatory, erotic, and at timesscatological, as were his two full-length plays,Desire Caught by the Tail(1941),The Four Little Girls(1949) andThe Burial of the Count of Orgaz(1959). In 1944, after the liberation of Paris, Picasso, then 63 years old, began a romantic relationship with a young art student namedFrançoise Gilot. She was 40 years younger than he was. Picasso grew tired of his mistressDora Maar; Picasso and Gilot began to live together. Eventually, they had two children:Claude Picasso, born in 1947 andPaloma Picasso, born in 1949. In her 1964 bookLife with Picasso,Gilot describes his abusive treatment and myriad infidelities which led her to leave him, taking the children with her. This was a severe blow to Picasso. Picasso had affairs with women of an even greater age disparity than his and Gilot's. While still involved with Gilot, in 1951 Picasso had a six-week affair withGeneviève Laporte, who was four years younger than Gilot. By his 70s, many paintings, ink drawings and prints have as their theme an old, grotesque dwarf as the doting lover of a beautiful young model.Jacqueline Roque(1927–1986) worked at the Madoura Pottery inVallaurison theFrench Riviera, where Picasso made and painted ceramics. She became his lover, and then his second wife in 1961. The two were together for the remainder of Picasso's life. His marriage to Roque was also a means of revenge against Gilot; with Picasso's encouragement, Gilot had divorced her then-husband, Luc Simon, with the plan to marry Picasso to secure the rights of her children as Picasso's legitimate heirs. Picasso had already secretly married Roque, after Gilot had filed for divorce. His strained relationship with Claude and Paloma was never healed. By this time, Picasso had constructed a hugeGothichome, and could afford large villas in the south of France, such as Mas Notre-Dame-de-Vie on the outskirts ofMougins, and in theProvence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. He was an international celebrity, with often as much interest in his personal life as his art. Later works to final years: 1949–1973 Picasso was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the3rd Sculpture Internationalheld at thePhiladelphia Museum of Artin mid-1949. In the 1950s, Picasso's style changed once again, as he took to producing reinterpretations of the art of the great masters. He made aseriesof works based onVelázquez's painting ofLas Meninas. He also based paintings on works byGoya,Poussin,Manet,CourbetandDelacroix. In addition to his artistic accomplishments, Picasso made a few film appearances, always as himself, including a cameo inJean Cocteau'sTestament of Orpheus(1960). In 1955, he helped make the filmLe Mystère Picasso(The Mystery of Picasso) directed byHenri-Georges Clouzot. He was commissioned to make amaquettefor a huge 50-foot (15 m)-highpublic sculptureto be built in Chicago, known usually as theChicago Picasso. He approached the project with a great deal of enthusiasm, designing a sculpture which was ambiguous and somewhat controversial. Picasso said the figure represented the head of anAfghan Houndnamed Kabul.The sculpture, one of the most recognizable landmarks in downtown Chicago, was unveiled in 1967. Picasso refused to be paid $100,000 for it, donating it to the people of the city. Picasso's final works were a mixture of styles, his means of expression in constant flux until the end of his life. Devoting his full energies to his work, Picasso became more daring, his works more colourful and expressive, and from 1968 to 1971 he produced a torrent of paintings and hundreds of copperplate etchings. At the time these works were dismissed by most as pornographic fantasies of an impotent old man or the slapdash works of an artist who was past his prime.Only later, after Picasso's death, when the rest of the art world had moved on fromabstract expressionism, did the critical community come to see the late works of Picasso as prefiguringNeo-Expressionism. Death Pablo Picasso died on 8 April 1973 inMougins, France, frompulmonary edemaand aheart attack, the morning after he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinner. He was interred at theChâteau of VauvenarguesnearAix-en-Provence, a property he had acquired in 1958 and occupied with Jacqueline between 1959 and 1962. Jacqueline prevented his children Claude and Paloma from attending the funeral.Devastated and lonely after the death of Picasso, Jacqueline killed herself by gunshot in 1986 when she was 59 years old. Political views Picasso remained aloof from theCatalanindependence movement during his youth, despite expressing general support and being friendly with activists within it.He did not join the armed forces for any side or country duringWorld War I, theSpanish Civil War, or World War II. As a Spanish citizen living in France, Picasso was under no compulsion to fight against the invading Germans in either world war. In 1940, he applied for French citizenship, but it was refused on the grounds of his \"extremist ideas evolving towards communism\". This information was not revealed until 2003. At the start of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, Picasso was 54 years of age. Soon after hostilities began, the Republicans appointed him \"director of the Prado, albeit in absentia\", and \"he took his duties very seriously\", according to John Richardson, supplying the funds to evacuate the museum's collection to Geneva.The war provided the impetus for Picasso's first overtlypolitical work. He expressed anger and condemnation ofFrancisco Francoand fascists inThe Dream and Lie of Franco(1937), which was produced \"specifically for propagandistic and fundraising purposes\".This surreal fusion of words and images was intended to be sold as a series of postcards to raise funds for theSpanish Republican cause. In 1944, Picasso joined theFrench Communist Party. He attended the 1948World Congress of Intellectuals in Defense of Peacein Poland, and in 1950 received theStalin Peace Prizefrom the Soviet government.A portrait ofJoseph Stalinmade by Picasso in 1953 drew Party criticism due to being insufficiently realistic, though he remained a loyal member of the Communist Party until his death.His dealer,D-H. Kahnweiler, a socialist, termed Picasso's communism \"sentimental\" rather than political, saying \"He has never read a line ofKarl Marx, nor ofEngelsof course.\"In a 1945 interview with Jerome Seckler, Picasso stated: \"I am a Communist and my painting is Communist painting. ... But if I were a shoemaker, Royalist or Communist or anything else, I would not necessarily hammer my shoes in a special way to show my politics.\"His commitment to communism, common amongcontinentalintellectuals and artists at the time, has long been the subject of some controversy; a notable demonstration thereof was a quote bySalvador Dalí(with whom Picasso had a rather strained relationship): Picasso es pintor, yo también; ... Picasso es español, yo también; Picasso es comunista, yo tampoco.(Picasso is a painter, so am I; ... Picasso is a Spaniard, so am I; Picasso is a communist, neither am I.) In the late 1940s, his old friend surrealist poetAndré Breton, who was aTrotskyistandanti-Stalinist, was more blunt;refusing to shake hands with Picasso, he told him: \"I don't approve of your joining the Communist Party nor with the stand you have taken concerning the purges of the intellectuals after the Liberation.\"As a communist, Picasso opposed the intervention of theUnited Nationsand the United States in theKorean War, and depicted it inMassacre in Korea.The art critic Kirsten Hoving Keen wrote that it was \"inspired by reports of American atrocities\" and considered it one of Picasso's communist works. On 9 January 1949, Picasso createdDove, a black and white lithograph. It was used to illustrate a poster at the 1949World Peace Counciland became an iconographic image of the period, known as \"The dove of peace\". Picasso's image was used around the world as a symbol of the Peace Congresses and communism. In 1962, he received theLenin Peace Prize.Biographer and art criticJohn Bergerfelt his talents as an artist were \"wasted\" by the communists.According toJean Cocteau's diaries, Picasso once said to him in reference to the communists: \"I have joined a family, and like all families, it's full of shit.\" Style and technique Picasso was exceptionally prolific throughout his long lifetime. At his death there were more than 45,000 unsold works in his estate, comprising 1,885 paintings, 1,228 sculptures, 3,222 ceramics, 7,089 drawings, 150 sketchbooks, many thousands of prints, and numerous tapestries and rugs.The most complete – but not exhaustive – catalogue of his works, thecatalogue raisonnécompiled byChristian Zervos, lists more than 16,000 paintings and drawings.Picasso's output was several times more prolific than most artists of his era; by at least one account, American artistBob Rossis the only one to rival Picasso's volume, and Ross's artwork was designed specifically to be easily mass-produced quickly. The medium in which Picasso made his most important contribution was painting.In his paintings, Picasso used colour as an expressive element, but relied on drawing rather than subtleties of colour to create form and space.He sometimes added sand to his paint to vary its texture. Ananoprobeof Picasso'sThe Red Armchair(1931), in the collection of theArt Institute of Chicago, by physicists atArgonne National Laboratoryin 2012 confirmed art historians' belief that Picasso used common house paint in many of his paintings.Much of his painting was done at night by artificial light. Picasso's early sculptures were carved from wood or modelled in wax or clay, but from 1909 to 1928 Picasso abandoned modelling and instead made sculptural constructions using diverse materials.An example isGuitar(1912), a relief construction made of sheet metal and wire that Jane Fluegel terms a \"three-dimensional planar counterpart of Cubist painting\" that marks a \"revolutionary departure from the traditional approaches, modeling and carving\". From the beginning of his career, Picasso displayed an interest in subject matter of every kind,and demonstrated a great stylistic versatility that enabled him to work in several styles at once. For example, his paintings of 1917 included thepointillistWoman with a Mantilla, the CubistFigure in an Armchair, and the naturalisticHarlequin(all in theMuseu Picasso, Barcelona). In 1919, he made a number of drawings from postcards and photographs that reflect his interest in the stylistic conventions and static character of posed photographs.In 1921 he simultaneously painted several large neoclassical paintings and two versions of the Cubist compositionThree Musicians(Museum of Modern Art, New York; Philadelphia Museum of Art).In an interview published in 1923, Picasso said, \"The several manners I have used in my art must not be considered as an evolution, or as steps towards an unknown ideal of painting ... If the subjects I have wanted to express have suggested different ways of expression I have never hesitated to adopt them.\" Although his Cubist works approach abstraction, Picasso never relinquished the objects of the real world as subject matter. Prominent in his Cubist paintings are forms easily recognized as guitars, violins, and bottles.When Picasso depicted complex narrative scenes it was usually in prints, drawings, and small-scale works;Guernica(1937) is one of his few large narrative paintings. Picasso painted mostly from imagination or memory. According toWilliam Rubin, Picasso \"could only make great art from subjects that truly involved him ... Unlike Matisse, Picasso had eschewed models virtually all his mature life, preferring to paint individuals whose lives had both impinged on, and had real significance for, his own.\"The art criticArthur Dantosaid Picasso's work constitutes a \"vast pictorial autobiography\" that provides some basis for the popular conception that \"Picasso invented a new style each time he fell in love with a new woman\".The autobiographical nature of Picasso's art is reinforced by his habit of dating his works, often to the day. He explained: \"I want to leave to posterity a documentation that will be as complete as possible. That's why I put a date on everything I do.\" Artistic legacy Picasso's influence was and remains immense and widely acknowledged by his admirers and detractors alike. On the occasion of his 1939 retrospective at MoMA,Lifemagazine wrote: \"During the 25 years he has dominated modern European art, his enemies say he has been a corrupting influence. With equal violence, his friends say he is the greatest artist alive.\"Picasso was the first artist to receive a special honour exhibition at the Grand Gallery of theLouvreMuseum in Paris in celebration of his 90 years.In 1998,Robert Hugheswrote of him: \"To say that Pablo Picasso dominated Western art in the 20th century is, by now, the merest commonplace. ... No painter or sculptor, not even Michelangelo, had been as famous as this in his own lifetime. ... ThoughMarcel Duchamp, that cunning old fox of conceptual irony, has certainly had more influence on nominally vanguard art over the past 30 years than Picasso, the Spaniard was the last great beneficiary of the belief that the language of painting and sculpture really mattered to people other than their devotees.\" At the time of Picasso's death many of his paintings were in his possession, as he had kept off the art market what he did not need to sell. In addition, Picasso had a considerable collection of the work of other famous artists, some his contemporaries, such asHenri Matisse, with whom he had exchanged works. Since Picasso left no will, his death duties (estate tax) to the French state were paid in the form of his works and others from his collection. These works form the core of the immense and representative collection of theMusée Picassoin Paris.In 2003, relatives of Picasso inaugurated a museum dedicated to him in his birthplace, Málaga, Spain, theMuseo Picasso Málaga. TheMuseu Picassoin Barcelona features many of his early works, created while he was living in Spain, including many rarely seen works which reveal his firm grounding in classical techniques. The museum also holds many precise and detailed figure studies done in his youth under his father's tutelage, as well as the extensive collection of Jaime Sabartés, his close friend and personal secretary. Guernicawas on display in New York'sMuseum of Modern Artfor many years. In 1981, it was returned to Spain and was on exhibit at theCasón del Buen Retiroof theMuseo del Prado. In 1992, the painting was put on display in theReina Sofía Museumwhen it opened. In 1985, a museum was established inBuitrago del Lozoyaby Picasso's friend Eugenio Arias Herranz. It was announced on 22 September 2020 that the project for a new Picasso Museum due to open inAix-en-Provencein 2021, in a former convent (Couvent des Prêcheurs), which would have held the largest collection of his paintings of any museum, had been scrapped due to the fact that Catherine Hutin-Blay,Jacqueline Picasso's daughter, and the City Council had failed to reach an agreement. In the 1996 movieSurviving Picasso, Picasso is portrayed by actorAnthony Hopkins.Picasso is also a character inSteve Martin's 1993 play,Picasso at the Lapin Agile. InA Moveable FeastbyErnest Hemingway, Hemingway tellsGertrude Steinthat he would like to have some Picassos, but cannot afford them. Later in the book, Hemingway mentions looking at one of Picasso's paintings. He refers to it as Picasso's nude of the girl with the basket of flowers, possibly related toYoung Naked Girl with Flower Basket. On 8 October 2010,Picasso: Masterpieces from the Musée National Picasso, Paris,an exhibition of 150 paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints and photographs from the Musée National Picasso in Paris, opened at theSeattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington, US. The exhibition subsequently travelled to theVirginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia: theM.H. de Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, California, US.;theArt Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia;and theArt Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. As of 2015, Picasso remained the top-ranked artist (based on sales of his works at auctions) according to the Art Market Trends report.More of his paintings have been stolen than any other artist's;in 2012, theArt Loss Registerhad 1,147 of his works listed as stolen.The Picasso Administration functions as his official Estate. The US copyright representative for the Picasso Administration is theArtists Rights Society. Picasso is played byAntonio Banderasin the2018 seasonofGeniuswhich focuses on his life and art. The Basel vote In the 1940s, a Swiss insurance company based inBaselhad bought two paintings by Picasso to diversify its investments and serve as a guarantee for the insured risks. Following an air disaster in 1967, the company had to pay out heavy reimbursements. The company decided to part with the two paintings, which were deposited in theKunstmuseum Basel. In 1968, a large number of Basel citizens called for a local referendum on the purchase of the Picassos by theCanton of Basel-Stadt, which was successful, making it the first time in democratic history that the population of a city voted on the purchase of works of art for a public art museum.The paintings therefore remained in the museum in Basel. Informed of this, Picasso donated three paintings and a sketch to the city and its museum and was later made an honorary citizen by the city. Auction history Several paintings by Picasso rank among themost expensive paintings in the world.Garçon à la pipesold for US$104 million atSotheby'son 4 May 2004.Dora Maar au Chatsold for US$95.2 million at Sotheby's on 3 May 2006.On 4 May 2010,Nude, Green Leaves and Bustwas sold atChristie'sfor US$106.5 million. The 1932 work, which depicts Picasso's mistressMarie-Thérèse Walterreclining and as a bust, was in the personal collection of Los Angeles philanthropist Frances Lasker Brody, who died in November 2009.On 11 May 2015 his paintingWomen of Algiersset the record for thehighest price ever paid for a paintingwhen it sold for US$179.3 million at Christie's in New York. On 21 June 2016, a painting by Pablo Picasso titledFemme Assise(1909) sold for £43.2 million ($63.4 million) at Sotheby's London, exceeding the estimate by nearly $20 million, setting a world record for the highest price ever paid at auction for a Cubist work. On 17 May 2017,The Jerusalem Postin an article titled \"Picasso Work Stolen By Nazis Sells for $45 Million at Auction\" reported the sale of a portrait painted by Picasso, the 1939Femme assise, robe bleu, which was previously misappropriated during the early years of WWII. The painting has changed hands several times since its recovery, most recently through auction in May 2017 at Christie's in New York City. In March 2018, hisFemme au Béret et à la Robe Quadrillée(1937), a portrait of Marie-Thérèse Walter, sold for £49.8m at Sotheby's in London. Personal life From early adolescence, Picasso maintained both superficial and intense amatory and sexual relationships. Biographer John Richardson stated that 'work, sex and tobacco' were his addictions.Picasso was married twice and had four children by three women: Photographer and painterDora Maarwas a constant companion and lover of Picasso. The two were closest in the late 1930s and early 1940s, and it was Maar who documented the painting ofGuernica. The women in Picasso's life played an important role in the emotional and erotic aspects of his creative expression, and the tumultuous nature of these relationships has been considered vital to his artistic process. Many of these women functioned as muses for him, and their inclusion in his extensive oeuvre granted them a place in art history.A largely recurring motif in his body of work is the female form. The variations in his relationships informed and collided with his progression of style throughout his career. For example, portraits created of his first wife, Olga, were rendered in a naturalistic style during hisNeoclassicalperiod. His relationship with Marie-Thérèse Walter inspired many of hissurrealistpieces, as well as what is referred to as his \"Year of Wonders\".Reappearance of acrobats theme in 1905 put an end to his \"Blue Period\" and transitioned into his \"Rose Period\". This transition has been incorrectly attributed to the presence ofFernande Olivierin his life. Picasso has been characterised as a womaniser and a misogynist, being quoted as saying to long-time partner Françoise Gilot that \"women are machines for suffering.\"He later allegedly told her, \"For me there are only two kinds of women: goddesses and doormats.\"In her memoir,Picasso, My Grandfather,Marina Picassowrites of his treatment of women, \"He submitted them to his animal sexuality, tamed them, bewitched them, ingested them, and crushed them onto his canvas. After he had spent many nights extracting their essence, once they were bled dry, he would dispose of them.\" Of the several important women in his life, two – lover Marie-Thèrése Walter and his second wife Jacqueline Roque – died by suicide. Others, notably his first wife Olga Khokhlova and lover Dora Maar, succumbed to nervous breakdowns. His son, Paulo, developed a fatal alcoholism due to depression. His grandson, Pablito, also died by suicide that same year by ingesting bleach when he was barred byJacqueline Roquefrom attending the artist's funeral. Catalogue raisonné Picasso entrustedChristian Zervosto constitute thecatalogue raisonnéof his work (painted and drawn). The first volume of the catalogue,Works from 1895 to 1906, published in 1932, entailed the financial ruin of Zervos, self-publishing under the nameCahiers d'art, forcing him to sell part of his art collection at auction to avoid bankruptcy. From 1932 to 1978, Zervos constituted the catalogue raisonné of the complete works of Picasso in the company of the artist who had become one of his friends in 1924. Following the death of Zervos, Mila Gagarin supervised the publication of 11 additional volumes from 1970 to 1978. The 33 volumes cover the entire work from 1895 to 1972, with close to 16,000 black and white photographs, in accord with the will of the artist. Further publications by Zervos See also Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading External links","The Dark Side of the Moon The Dark Side of the Moonis the eighth studio album by the English rock bandPink Floyd, released on 1 March 1973, byHarvest Recordsin the UK andCapitol Recordsin the US. Developed during live performances before recording began, it was conceived as aconcept albumthat would focus on the pressures faced by the band during their arduous lifestyle, and also deal with the mental health problems of the former band memberSyd Barrett, who had departed the group in 1968. New material was recorded in two sessions in 1972 and 1973 at EMI Studios (nowAbbey Road Studios) in London. The record builds on ideas explored in Pink Floyd's earlier recordings and performances, while omitting the extended instrumentals that characterised the band's earlier work. The group employedmultitrack recording,tape loops, andanalogue synthesisers, including experimentation with theEMS VCS 3and aSynthi A. The engineerAlan Parsonswas responsible for many of the sonic aspects of the recording, and for the recruitment of the session singerClare Torry, who appears on \"The Great Gig in the Sky\". The Dark Side of the Moonexplores themes such as conflict, greed, time, death, and mental illness. Snippets from interviews with the band'sroad crewand others are featured alongside philosophical quotations. The sleeve, which depicts aprismaticspectrum, was designed byStorm Thorgersonin response to the keyboardistRichard Wright's request for a \"simple and bold\" design which would represent the band's lighting and the album's themes. The album was promoted with two singles: \"Money\" and \"Us and Them\". The Dark Side of the Moonis among the most critically acclaimed albums and often features in professional listings of the greatest of all time. It brought Pink Floyd international fame, wealth and plaudits to all four band members. Ablockbusterrelease of thealbum era, it also propelled record sales throughout the music industry during the 1970s.The Dark Side of the Moonis certified14x platinumin the United Kingdom, and topped the USBillboardTop LPs & Tapechart, where it has charted for 990 weeks. By 2013,The Dark Side of the Moonhad sold over 45 million copies worldwide, making it the band's best-selling release, the best-selling album of the 1970s, and thefourth-best-selling album in history.In 2012, the album was selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Recording Registryby theLibrary of Congressas being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". It was inducted into theGrammy Hall of Famein 1999. Background FollowingMeddlein 1971,Pink Floydassembled for a tour of Britain, Japan and the United States that December. In a band meeting at the home of the drummer,Nick Mason, in North London, the bassist,Roger Waters, proposed that a new album could form part of the tour. Waters conceived an album that dealt with things that \"make people mad\", focusing on the pressures associated with the band's arduous lifestyle, and dealing with the mental health problems suffered by the former band memberSyd Barrett.The band had explored a similar idea with the 1969 concert suiteThe ManandThe Journey.In an interview forRolling Stone, the guitarist,David Gilmour, said: \"I think we all thought – and Roger definitely thought – that a lot of the lyrics that we had been using were a little too indirect. There was definitely a feeling that the words were going to be very clear and specific.\" The band approved of Waters' concept for an album unified by a single theme,and all the members participated in writing and producing material. Waters createddemo tracksin a small studio in a garden shed at his home inIslington.Parts of the album were taken from previously unused material; the opening line of \"Breathe\" came from an earlier work by Waters andRon Geesin, written for the soundtrack ofThe Body,and the basic structure of \"Us and Them\" was borrowed from an original composition, \"The Violent Sequence\", by the keyboardist,Richard Wright, forZabriskie Point.The band rehearsed at a warehouse in London owned bythe Rolling Stonesand at theRainbow TheatreinFinsbury Park, London. They also purchased extra equipment, which included new speakers, aPA system, a 28-track mixing desk with a four channelquadraphonicoutput, and a custom-built lighting rig. Nine tonnes of kit was transported in threelorries. This would be the first time the band had taken an entire album on tour.The album had been given the provisional title ofDark Side of the Moon(an allusion to lunacy, rather than astronomy).After discovering that title had already been used by another band,Medicine Head, it was temporarily changed toEclipse. The new material was premiered atThe DomeinBrighton, on 20 January 1972,and after the commercial failure of Medicine Head's album the title was changed back to the band's original preference. Dark Side of the Moon: A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, as it was then known,was performed for an assembled press on 17 February 1972 at the Rainbow Theatre, more than a year before its release, and was critically acclaimed.Michael Wale ofThe Timesdescribed the piece as \"bringing tears to the eyes. It was so completely understanding and musically questioning.\"Derek JewellofThe Sunday Timeswrote \"The ambition of the Floyd's artistic intention is now vast.\"Melody Makerwas less enthusiastic: \"Musically, there were some great ideas, but the sound effects often left me wondering if I was in a bird-cage at London Zoo.\"The following tour was praised by the public. The new material was performed in the same order in which it was eventually sequenced on the album. Differences included the lack of synthesisers in tracks such as \"On the Run\", andClare Torry's vocals on \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" replaced by readings from the Bible. Pink Floyd'slengthy tourthrough Europe and North America gave them the opportunity to make improvements to the scale and quality of their performances.Work on the album was interrupted in late February when the band travelled to France and recorded music for the French directorBarbet Schroeder's filmLa Vallée.They performed in Japan, returned to France in March to complete work on the film, played more shows in North America, then flew to London and resumed recording in May and June. After more concerts in Europe and North America, the band returned to London on 9 January 1973 to complete the album. Concept The Dark Side of the Moonwas built upon experiments Pink Floyd had attempted in their previous live shows and recordings, although it lacked the extended instrumental excursions which, according to the criticDavid Fricke, had become characteristic of the band following the departure of the founding member Syd Barrett in 1968. Gilmour, Barrett's replacement, later referred to those instrumentals as \"that psychedelic noodling stuff\". He and Waters cited 1971'sMeddleas a turning point towards what would later be realised on the album.The Dark Side of the Moon's lyrical themes include conflict, greed, the passage of time, death and insanity, the last inspired in part by Barrett's deteriorating mental state.The album containsmusique concrèteon several tracks. Each side of the vinyl album is a continuous piece of music. The five tracks on each side reflect various stages of human life, beginning and ending with a heartbeat, exploring the nature of the human experience and, according to Waters, \"empathy\".\"Speak to Me\" and \"Breathe\" together highlight the mundane and futile elements of life that accompany the ever-present threat of madness, and the importance of living one's own life – \"Don't be afraid to care\".By shifting the scene to an airport, the synthesiser-driven instrumental \"On the Run\" evokes the stress and anxiety of modern travel, in particular Wright's fear of flying.\"Time\" examines the manner in which its passage can control one's life and offers a stark warning to those who remain focused on mundane pursuits; it is followed by a retreat into solitude and withdrawal in \"Breathe (Reprise)\". The first side of the album ends with Wright and Clare Torry's soulful metaphor for death, \"The Great Gig in the Sky\". \"Money\", the first track on side two, opens with the sound ofcash registersand rhythmically jingling coins. The song mocks greed andconsumerismwith sarcastic lyrics and cash-relatedsound effects. \"Money\" became the band's most commercially successful track and was covered by other artists.\"Us and Them\" addresses the isolation of the depressed with the symbolism ofconflictand the use of simpledichotomiesto describe personal relationships. \"Any Colour You Like\" tackles the illusion of choice one has in society. \"Brain Damage\" looks atmental illnessresulting from the elevation of fame and success above the needs of the self; in particular, the line \"and if the band you're in starts playing different tunes\" reflects the mental breakdown of Syd Barrett. The album ends with \"Eclipse\", which espouses the concepts of otherness and unity, while encouraging the listener to recognise the common traits shared by humanity. Recording The Dark Side of the Moonwas recorded at EMI Studios (nowAbbey Road Studios) in approximately 60 daysbetween 31 May 1972 and 9 February 1973. Pink Floyd were assigned the staff engineerAlan Parsons, who had worked as the assistant tape operator on their fifth album,Atom Heart Mother(1970), and had gained experience as a recording engineer onthe BeatlesalbumsAbbey RoadandLet It Be.TheDark Side of the Moonsessions made use ofadvanced studio techniques, as the studio was capable of16-trackmixes which offered greater flexibility than the eight- or four-track mixes Pink Floyd had previously worked with, although the band often used so many tracks that second-generation copies were still needed to make more space available on the tape.The mix supervisorChris Thomasrecalled later, \"There were only two or three tracks of drums when we came to mixing it. Depending on the song, there would be one or two tracks of guitar, and these would include the solo and the rhythm guitar parts. One track for keyboard, one track for bass, and one or two sound effects tracks. They had been very, very efficient in the way they'd worked.\" The first track recorded was \"Us and Them\" on 31 May, followed seven days later by \"Money\".For \"Money\", Waters had created effectsloopsin an unusual74time signaturefrom recordings of money-related objects, including coins thrown into a mixing bowl in his wife's pottery studio. These were re-recorded to take advantage of the band's decision to create a quadraphonic mix of the album, although Parsons later expressed dissatisfaction with the result of this mix, which he attributed to a lack of time and a shortage of multitrack tape recorders. \"Time\" and \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" were recorded next, followed by a two-month break, during which the band spent time with their families and prepared for a tour of the United States.The recording sessions were frequently interrupted: Waters, a supporter ofArsenal F.C., would break to see his team compete, and the band would occasionally stop to watchMonty Python's Flying Circuson television while Parsons worked on the tracks.Gilmour recalled, \"...but when we were on a roll, we would get on.\" After returning from the US in January 1973, they recorded \"Brain Damage\", \"Eclipse\", \"Any Colour You Like\" and \"On the Run\", and fine-tuned work from previous sessions. Four female vocalists were assembled to sing on \"Brain Damage\", \"Eclipse\" and \"Time\", and the saxophonistDick Parrywas booked to play on \"Us and Them\" and \"Money\". With the director Adrian Maben, the band also filmed studio footage forPink Floyd: Live at Pompeii.The album was completed and signed off at Abbey Road on 9 February 1973.Gilmour recalled the band listening to the finished album for the first time as \"a moment of great joy and of satisfaction and the feeling of achievement that we'd really gone that extra mile\". Instrumentation The album features metronomic sound effects during \"Speak to Me\" and tape loops for the opening of \"Money\". Mason created a rough version of \"Speak to Me\" at his home before completing it in the studio. The track serves as anovertureand contains cross-fades of elements from other pieces on the album. A piano chord, replayed backwards, serves to augment the build-up of effects, which are immediately followed by the opening of \"Breathe\". Mason received a rare solo composing credit for \"Speak to Me\". The sound effects on \"Money\" were created by splicing together Waters' recordings of clinking coins, tearing paper, a ringing cash register, and a clicking adding machine, which were used to create a 7-beateffects loop. This was later adapted to four tracks to create a \"walk around the room\" effect in quadraphonic presentations of the album.At times, the degree of sonic experimentation on the album required the studio engineers and all four band members to operate the mixing console's faders simultaneously, in order to mix down the intricately assembled multitrack recordings of several of the songs, particularly \"On the Run\". Along with conventional rock band instrumentation, Pink Floyd introduced prominent synthesisers to their sound. The band experimented with anEMS VCS 3on \"Brain Damage\" and \"Any Colour You Like\", and aSynthi Aon \"Time\" and \"On the Run\". They also devised and recorded unconventional sounds, such as assistant engineer Peter Jamesrunning around the studio's echo chamber during \"On the Run\",and a specially treatedbass drummade to simulate a humanheartbeatduring \"Speak to Me\", \"On the Run\", \"Time\" and \"Eclipse\". This heartbeat is most prominent in the intro and the outro to the album, but it can also be heard sporadically on \"Time\" and \"On the Run\".\"Time\" features assorted clocks ticking, then chiming simultaneously at the start of the song, accompanied by a series ofRototoms. The recordings were initially created as a quadraphonic test by Parsons, who recorded each timepiece at an antique clock shop.Although these recordings had not been created specifically for the album, elements of this material were eventually used in the track. Voices Several tracks, including \"Us and Them\" and \"Time\", demonstrated Wright's and Gilmour's ability to harmonise their similar-sounding voices, and the engineer Alan Parsons used techniques such asdouble trackingvocals and guitars, which allowed Gilmour to harmonise with himself. Prominent use was also made offlangingand phase-shifting on vocals and instruments, odd trickery withreverb,and the panning of sounds between channels, most notably in thequadraphonicmix of \"On the Run\", where the sound of theHammond B3organ played through aLeslie speakerswirls around the listener. Wright's \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" featuresClare Torry, a session singer and songwriter and a regular at Abbey Road. Parsons liked her voice, and when the band decided to use a female vocalist he suggested that she could sing on the track. The band explained the album concept to her, but they were unable to tell her exactly what she should do, and Gilmour, who was in charge of the session, asked her to try to express emotions rather than sing words.In a few takes on a Sunday night, Torry improvised a wordless melody to accompany Wright's emotive piano solo. She was initially embarrassed by her exuberance in the recording booth and wanted to apologise to the band, who were impressed with her performance but did not tell her so.Her takes were edited to produce the version used on the track.She left the studio under the impression that her vocals would not make the final cut,and she only became aware that she had been included in the final mix when she picked up the album at a local record store and saw her name in the credits.For her contribution she was paid her standard session feeof £30,equivalent to about £500 in 2024. In 2004, Torry suedEMIand Pink Floyd for 50% of the songwritingroyalties, arguing that her contribution to \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" was substantial enough to be considered co-authorship. The case was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, with all post-2005 pressings crediting Wright and Torry jointly. In the final week of recording,Waters asked staff and others at Abbey Road to respond to questions printed onflashcardsand some of their replies were edited into the final mix. The interviewees were placed in front of a microphone in a darkened Studio 3and shown such questions as \"What's your favourite colour?\" and \"What's your favourite food?\", before moving on to themes central to the album, including those of madness, violence, and death. Questions such as \"When was the last time you were violent?\", followed immediately by \"Were you in the right?\", were answered in the order they were presented. RoadieRoger \"The Hat\" Manifold was recorded in a conventional sit-down interview. Waters asked him about a violent encounter he had had with a motorist, and Manifold replied \"... give 'em a quick, short, sharp shock ...\" Asked about death, he responded, \"Live for today, gone tomorrow, that's me ...\"Another roadie, Chris Adamson, recorded the words that open the album: \"I've been mad for fucking years. Absolutely years. Over the edge... It's working with bands that does it.\" The band's road managerPeter Watts(father of the actressNaomi Watts)contributed the repeated laughter during \"Brain Damage\" and \"Speak to Me\", as well as the line \"I can't think of anything to say\". His second wife, Patricia \"Puddie\" Watts (now Patricia Gleason), was responsible for the line about the \"geezer\" who was \"cruisin' for a bruisin'\", used in the segue between \"Money\" and \"Us and Them\", and the words \"I never said I was frightened of dying\" halfway through \"The Great Gig in the Sky\". Several of the responses – \"I am not frightened of dying. Any time will do, I don't mind. Why should I be frightened of dying? There's no reason for it ... you've got to go sometime\"; \"I know I've been mad, I've always been mad, like most of us have\"; and the closing \"There is no dark side in the moon really. Matter of fact, it's all dark\" – came from the studios' Irish doorman, Gerry O'Driscoll.\"The bit you don't hear,\" said Parsons, \"is that, after that, he said, 'The only thing that makes it look alight is the sun.' The band were too overjoyed with his first line, and it would have been an anticlimax to continue.\" PaulandLinda McCartneywere interviewed, but their answers – judged to be \"trying too hard to be funny\" – were not used.The McCartneys'WingsbandmateHenry McCulloughcontributed the line, \"I don't know, I was really drunk at the time.\" Completion When the flashcard sessions were finished, producerChris Thomaswas hired to provide \"a fresh pair of ears\" for the final mix. Thomas's background was in music rather than engineering; he had worked with Beatles producerGeorge Martinand was an acquaintance of Pink Floyd's manager,Steve O'Rourke.The members of the band were said to have disagreed over the mix, with Waters and Mason preferring a \"dry\" and \"clean\" mix that made more use of the non-musical elements and Gilmour and Wright preferring a subtler and more \"echoey\" mix.Thomas said later, \"There was no difference in opinion between them, I don't remember Roger once saying that he wanted less echo. In fact, there were never any hints that they were later going to fall out. It was a very creative atmosphere. A lot of fun.\" Thomas's intervention resulted in a compromise between Waters and Gilmour, who were both satisfied with the result. Thomas was responsible for significant changes, including the perfect timing of the echo used on \"Us and Them\". He was also present for the recording of \"The Great Gig in the Sky\".Waters said in an interview in 2006, when asked if he felt his goals had been accomplished in the studio: When the record was finished I took a reel-to-reel copy home with me and I remember playing it for my wife then, and I remember her bursting into tears when it was finished. And I thought, \"This has obviously struck a chord somewhere\", and I was kinda pleased by that. You know when you've done something, certainly if you create a piece of music, you then hear it with fresh ears when you play it for somebody else. And at that point I thought to myself, \"Wow, this is a pretty complete piece of work\", and I had every confidence that people would respond to it. Packaging It felt like the whole band were working together. It was a creative time. We were all very open. – Richard Wright The album was originally released in agatefoldLP sleeve designed byHipgnosisandGeorge Hardie. Hipgnosis had designed several of the band's previous albums, with controversial results; EMI had reacted with confusion when faced with the cover designs forAtom Heart MotherandObscured by Clouds, as they had expected to see traditional designs which included lettering and words. DesignersStorm ThorgersonandAubrey Powellwere able to ignore such criticism, as they were employed by the band. ForThe Dark Side of the Moon, Wright suggested something \"smarter, neater – more classy\",and simple, \"like the artwork of a Black Magic chocolate box\". The design was inspired by a photograph of a prism with a beam of white light projected through it and emerging in the colours of thevisible spectrumthat Thorgerson had found in a 1963 physics textbook,as well as by an illustration byAlex Steinweiss, the inventor of album cover art, for theNew York Philharmonic's 1942 performance ofLudwig van Beethoven'sEmperor Concerto.The artwork was created by an associate of Hipgnosis, George Hardie.Hipgnosis offered a choice of seven designs for the sleeve, but all four members of the band agreed that the prism was the best. \"There were no arguments,\" said Roger Waters. \"We all pointed to the prism and said 'That's the one'.\" The design depicts a glassprismdispersing white light into colours and represents three elements: the band's stage lighting, the album lyrics, and Wright's request for a \"simple and bold\" design.At Waters' suggestion, the spectrum of light continues through to the gatefold.Added shortly afterwards, the gatefold design also includes a visual representation of the heartbeat sound used throughout the album, and the back of the album cover contains Thorgerson's suggestion of another prism recombining the spectrum of light, to make possible interesting layouts of the sleeve in record shops.The light band emanating from the prism on the album cover has six colours, missingindigo, compared with the usual division of the visible spectrum into red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Inside the sleeve were two posters and two pyramid-themed stickers. One poster bore pictures of the band in concert, overlaid with scattered letters to form PINK FLOYD, and the other aninfrared photographof theGreat Pyramids of Giza, created by Powell and Thorgerson. The band were so confident of the quality of Waters' lyrics that, for the first time, they printed them on the album's sleeve. Release As the quadraphonic mix of the album was not then complete, the band (with the exception of Wright) boycotted the press reception held at theLondon Planetariumon 27 February.The guests were, instead, presented with a quartet of life-sized cardboard cut-outs of the band, and the stereo mix of the album was played over a poor-qualitypublic address system.Generally, however, the press were enthusiastic;Melody Maker's Roy Hollingworth described Side One as \"so utterly confused with itself it was difficult to follow\", but praised Side Two, writing: \"The songs, the sounds, the rhythms were solid and sound, Saxophone hit the air, the band rocked and rolled, and then gushed and tripped away into the night.\"Steve Peacock ofSoundswrote: \"I don't care if you've never heard a note of the Pink Floyd's music in your life, I'd unreservedly recommend everyone toThe Dark Side of the Moon\".In his 1973 review forRolling Stonemagazine,Loyd GrossmandeclaredDark Side\"a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites, but demands involvement\".InChristgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies(1981),Robert Christgaufound its lyrical ideas clichéd and its music pretentious, but called it a \"kitschmasterpiece\" that can be charming with highlights such as taped speech fragments, Parry's saxophone, and studio effects which enhance Gilmour's guitar solos. The Dark Side of the Moonwas released first in the US on 1 March 1973,and then in the UK on 16 March.It became an instant chart success in Britain and throughout Western Europe;by the following month, it had gained agold certificationin the US.Throughout March 1973 the band played the album as part of theirUS tour, including a midnight performance atRadio City Music Hallin New York City on 17 March before an audience of 6,000. The album reached theBillboardTop LPs & Tapechart's number one spot on 28 April 1973,and was so successful that the band returned two months later for another tour. Label Much of the album's early American success is attributed to the efforts of Pink Floyd's US record company,Capitol Records. Newly appointed chairmanBhaskar Menonset about trying to reverse the relatively poor sales of the band's 1971 studio albumMeddle. Meanwhile, disenchanted with Capitol, the band and manager O'Rourke had been quietly negotiating a new contract withCBSpresidentClive Davis, onColumbia Records.The Dark Side of the Moonwas the last album that Pink Floyd were obliged to release before formally signing a new contract. Menon's enthusiasm for the new album was such that he began a huge promotional advertising campaign, which included radio-friendly truncated versions of \"Us and Them\" and \"Time\". In some countries – notably the UK – Pink Floyd had not released a single since 1968's \"Point Me at the Sky\", and unusually \"Money\" was released as a single on 7 May, with \"Any Colour You Like\" on theB-side.It reached number 13 on theBillboardHot 100in July 1973.A two-sided white label promotional version of the single, with mono and stereo mixes, was sent to radio stations. The mono side had the word \"bullshit\" removed from the song – leaving \"bull\" in its place – however, the stereo side retained the uncensored version. This was subsequently withdrawn; the replacement was sent to radio stations with a note advising disc jockeys to dispose of the first uncensored copy.On 4 February 1974, adouble A-sidesingle was released with \"Time\" on one side, and \"Us and Them\" on the opposite side.Menon's efforts to secure a contract renewal with Pink Floyd were in vain however; at the beginning of 1974, the band signed for Columbia with a reported advance fee of $1M (in Britain and Europe they continued to be represented byHarvest Records). Sales The Dark Side of the Moonbecame one of thebest-selling albumsof all timeand is in the top 25 of a list ofbest-sellingalbums in the United States.Although it held the number one spot in the US for only a week, it remained in theBillboard200albums chart for 736 nonconsecutive weeks (from 17 March 1973 to 16 July 1988).Of those first 736 charted weeks, the album had two notable consecutive runs in theBillboard200 chart: 84 weeks (from 17 March 1973 to 19 October 1974) and 593 weeks (from 18 December 1976 to 23 April 1988).It made its final appearance in theBillboard200 albums chart during its initial run on the week ending 8 October 1988, in its 741st charted week.It re-appeared on theBillboardcharts with the introduction of theTop Pop Catalog Albumschart in the issue dated 25 May 1991, and was still a perennial feature ten years later.It reached number one on the Pop Catalog chart when the 2003 hybrid CD/SACDedition was released and sold 800,000 copies in the US.On the week of 5 May 2006The Dark Side of the Moonachieved a combined total of 1,716 weeks on theBillboard200 and Pop Catalog charts. After a change in chart methodology in 2009 which allowed catalogue titles to be included in theBillboard200,The Dark Side of the Moonreturned to the chart at number 189 on 12 December of that year for its 742nd charting week.It has continued to sporadically appear on theBillboard 200since then, with the total at 990 weeks on the chart as of May 2024.\"On a slow week\" between 8,000 and 9,000 copies are sold.As of April 2013, the album had sold 9,502,000 copies in the US since 1991 whenNielsen SoundScanbegan tracking sales forBillboard.One in every fourteen people in the US under the age of 50 is estimated to own, or to have owned, a copy. The Dark Side of the Moonwas released before the introduction ofplatinum certificationin 1976 byRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA), and therefore held only a gold certification until 16 February 1990, when it was certified 11 times platinum. On 4 June 1998, the RIAA certified the album 15× platinum,denoting sales of fifteen million in the United States. This makes it Pink Floyd's biggest-selling work there;The Wallis 23 times platinum, but as a double album this signifies sales of 11.5 million.\"Money\" has sold well as a single, and as with \"Time\", remains a radio favourite; in the US, for the year ending 20 April 2005, \"Time\" was played on 13,723 occasions, and \"Money\" on 13,731 occasions.In 2017,The Dark Side of the Moonwas the seventh-bestselling album of all time in the UK and the highest-selling album never to reach number one.As one of theblockbusterLPs of thealbum era(1960s–2000s),The Dark Side of the Moonalso led to an increase in record sales overall into the late 1970s.In 2013, industry sources suggested that worldwide sales ofThe Dark Side of the Moontotalled about 45 million. In 1993, Gilmour attributed the album's success to the combination of music, lyrics and cover art: \"All the music before had not had any great lyrical point to it. And this one was clear and concise.\"Mason said that, when they finished the album, Pink Floyd felt confident it was their best work to date, but were surprised by its commercial success. He said it was \"not only about being a good album but also about being in the right place at the right time\". Reissues and remasters In 1979,The Dark Side of the Moonwas released as a remastered LP byMobile Fidelity Sound Lab,and in April 1988 on their \"Ultradisc\" gold CD format.It was released by EMI and Harvest on CD in Japan in June 1983 andin the US and Europe in August 1984.In 1992, it was rereleased as a remastered CD in the box setShine On.This version was re-released as a 20th-anniversary box set edition with postcards the following year, with a cover design by Thorgerson.On some pressings, an orchestral version of the Beatles' \"Ticket to Ride\" is faintly audible after \"Eclipse\" over the closing heartbeats. 30th-anniversary 5.1 surround sound mix A quadraphonic mix,created by Alan Parsons,was commissioned by EMI but never endorsed by Pink Floyd, as Parsons was disappointed with his mix.For the album's 30th anniversary, an updated surround version was released in 2003. The band elected not to use Parsons' quadraphonic mix, and instead had the engineerJames Guthriecreate a new5.1channel surround sound mix on theSACDformat.Guthrie had worked with Pink Floyd since their eleventh album,The Wall, and had previously worked on surround versions ofThe Wallfor DVD-Video and Waters'In the Fleshfor SACD. In 2003, Parsons expressed disappointment with Guthrie's SACD mix, suggesting he was \"possibly a little too true to the original mix\", but was generally complimentary.The 30th-anniversary edition won four Surround Music Awards in 2003,and sold more than 800,000 copies. The cover image of the 30th-anniversary edition was created by a team of designers including Thorgerson.The image is a photograph of a custom-madestained glasswindow, built to match the dimensions and proportions of the original prism design. Transparent glass, held in place by strips of lead, was used in place of the opaque colours of the original. The idea is derived from the \"sense of purity in the sound quality, being 5.1 surround sound ...\" The image was created out of a desire to be \"the same but different, such that the design was clearly DSotM, still the recognisable prism design, but was different and hence new\". Later reissues The Dark Side of the Moonwas rereleased in 2003 on 180-gram virgin vinyl and mastered by Kevin Gray at AcousTech Mastering. It included slightly different versions of the posters and stickers that came with the original vinyl release, along with a new 30th-anniversary poster. In 2007, the album was included inOh, by the Way, a box set celebrating the 40th anniversary of Pink Floyd,and aDRM-free version was released on theiTunes Store.In 2011, it was reissued featuring a remastered version with various other material. In 2023, Pink Floyd released theDark Side of the Moon 50th Anniversarybox set, including a newly remastered edition of the album, surround sound mixes (including the 5.1 mix and a newDolby Atmosmix), a photo book, andThe Dark Side of the Moon Live at Wembley 1974, on vinyl. In 2024, the 50th Anniversary LP edition was rereleased as The Dark Side Of The Moon 50th Anniversary 2 LP UV Printed Clear Vinyl Collector's Edition. The new edition uses 2 clear LP instead of one, just one side is playable so theUV artworkcan be printed on the non-groove side. Legacy It's changed me in many ways, because it's brought in a lot of money, and one feels very secure when you can sell an album for two years. But it hasn't changed my attitude to music. Even though it was so successful, it was made in the same way as all our other albums, and the only criterion we have about releasing music is whether we like it or not. It was not a deliberate attempt to make a commercial album. It just happened that way. We knew it had a lot more melody than previous Floyd albums, and there was a concept that ran all through it. The music was easier to absorb and having girls singing away added a commercial touch that none of our records had. – Richard Wright The success of the album brought wealth to all four members of the band; Richard Wright and Roger Waters bought large country houses, and Nick Mason became a collector of upmarket cars.The group were fans of the British comedy troupeMonty Python, and as such, some of the profits were invested in the production ofMonty Python and the Holy Grail.EngineerAlan Parsonsreceived aGrammy Awardnomination forBest Engineered Recording, Non-ClassicalforThe Dark Side of the Moon,and he went on to have a successful career as a recording artist withthe Alan Parsons Project. Although Waters and Gilmour have on occasion downplayed his contribution to the success of the album, Mason has praised his role.In 2003, Parsons reflected: \"I think they all felt that I managed to hang the rest of my career onDark Side of the Moon, which has an element of truth to it. But I still wake up occasionally, frustrated about the fact that they made untold millions and a lot of the people involved in the record didn't.\" Part of the legacy ofThe Dark Side of the Moonis its influence on modern music and on the musicians who have performedcover versionsof its songs. It is often seen as a pivotal point in the history of rock music, and comparisons are sometimes made withRadiohead's 1997 albumOK Computer,including a premise explored by Ben Schleifer in 'Speak to Me': The Legacy of Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon(2006) that the two albums share a theme that \"the creative individual loses the ability to function in the world\". In a 2018 book aboutclassic rock,Steven Hydenrecalls concluding, in his teens, thatThe Dark Side of the MoonandLed Zeppelin IVwere the two greatest albums of the genre,vision quests\"encompass the twin poles of teenage desire\". They had similarities, in that both albums' cover and internal artwork eschew pictures of the bands in favour of \"inscrutable iconography without any tangible meaning (which always seemed to give the music packaged insidemoremeaning)\". But whereas Led Zeppelin had looked outward, toward \"conquering the world\" and were known at the time for their outrageous sexual antics on tour, Pink Floyd looked inward, toward \"overcoming your own hang-ups\".In 2013,The Dark Side of the Moonwas selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Recording Registryby theLibrary of Congressas \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Rankings The Dark Side of the Moonfrequently appears on professional rankings of the greatest albums. In 1987,Rolling Stoneranked it the 35th best album of the preceding 20 years.Rolling Stoneranked it number 43 on its 2003 and 2012 lists of the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\"and number 55 in its 2020 list, Pink Floyd's highest placement.BothRolling StoneandQhave listedThe Dark Side of the Moonas the best progressive rock album. In 2006,Australian Broadcasting Corporationviewers votedThe Dark Side of the Moontheir favourite album.NMEreaders voted it the eighth-best album in a 2006 poll,and in 2009,Planet Rocklisteners voted it the greatest of all time.The album is also number two on the \"Definitive 200\" list of albums, made by theNational Association of Recording Merchandisers\"in celebration of the art form of the record album\".It ranked 29th inThe Observer's 2006 list of \"The 50 Albums That Changed Music\",and 37th inThe Guardian's 1997 list of the \"100 Best Albums Ever\", as voted for by a panel of artists and music critics.In 2014, readers ofRhythmvoted it the seventh most influential progressive drumming album.It was voted number 9 inColin Larkin'sAll Time Top 1000 Albums3rd Edition (2000).In 2007,VH1namedDark Side of the Moonthe fourth-greatest album cover. Covers, tributes and samples Return to the Dark Side of the Moon: A Tribute to Pink Floyd, released in 2006, is a cover album ofThe Dark Side of the Moonfeaturing artists such asAdrian Belew,Tommy Shaw,Dweezil Zappa, andRick Wakeman.In 2000,The SquirrelsreleasedThe Not So Bright Side of the Moon, which features a cover of the entire album.The New York dub collectiveEasy Star All-StarsreleasedDub Side of the Moonin 2003andDubber Side of the Moonin 2010.The group Voices on the Dark Side released the albumDark Side of the Moon a Cappella, a completea cappellaversion of the album.Thebluegrassband Poor Man's Whiskey frequently play the album in bluegrass style, calling the suiteDark Side of the Moonshine.Astring quartetversion of the album was released in 2003.In 2009,the Flaming Lipsreleased atrack-by-track remake of the albumin collaboration withStardeath and White Dwarfs, and featuringHenry RollinsandPeachesas guest musicians. Several notable acts have covered the album live in its entirety, and a range of performers have usedsamplesfromThe Dark Side of the Moonin their own material. Jam-rock bandPhishperformed a semi-improvised version of the entire album as part of their show on 2 November 1998 inWest Valley City, Utah.Progressive metal bandDream Theaterhave twice covered the album in their live shows,and in May 2011Mary FahlreleasedFrom the Dark Side of the Moon, a song-by-song \"re-imagining\" of the album.Milli Vanilliused the tape loops from Pink Floyd's \"Money\" to open their track \"Money\", followed byMarky Mark and the Funky BunchonMusic for the People. The Wizard of Oz In the 1990s, it was discovered that playingThe Dark Side of the Moonalongside the 1939 filmThe Wizard of Ozproduced moments of apparent synchronicity, and it was suggested that this was intentional.Such moments includeDorothybeginning to jog at the lyric \"no one told you when to run\" during \"Time\", balancing on a fence,tightrope-style, during the line \"balanced on the biggest wave\" in \"Breathe\",and putting her ear to the Tin Man's chest as the album's closing heartbeats are heard.Parsons and members of Pink Floyd denied any connection, with Parsons calling it \"a complete load of eyewash ... If you play any record with the sound turned down on the TV, you will find things that work.\" The Dark Side of the Moon Redux For the 50th anniversary ofThe Dark Side of the Moon, Waters recorded a new version,The Dark Side of the Moon Redux, released in October 2023.It was recorded with no other members of Pink Floyd,and featuresspoken wordsections and more downbeat arrangements, with no guitar solos. Waters said he wanted to \"bring out the heart and soul of the album musically and spiritually\".He also said it is intended to be taken from the perspective of an older man, as \"not enough people recognised what it's about, what it was I was saying then\". Track listing All lyrics are written byRoger Waters. Note Personnel Pink Floyd Additional musicians Production Design Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications and sales *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history See also References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Pablo Picasso Pablo Ruiz Picasso(25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973) was a Spanish painter, sculptor,printmaker,ceramicist, andtheatre designerwho spent most of his adult life inFrance. One of the most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding theCubistmovement, the invention ofconstructed sculpture,the co-invention ofcollage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are theproto-CubistLes Demoiselles d'Avignon(1907) and the anti-war paintingGuernica(1937), a dramatic portrayal of thebombing of Guernicaby German and Italian air forces during theSpanish Civil War. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his early years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood and adolescence. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, and ideas. After 1906, theFauvistwork of the older artistHenri Matissemotivated Picasso to explore more radical styles, beginning a fruitful rivalry between the two artists, who subsequently were often paired by critics as the leaders ofmodern art. Picasso's output, especially in his early career, is often periodized. While the names of many of his later periods are debated, the most commonly accepted periods in his work are theBlue Period(1901–1904), theRose Period(1904–1906), theAfrican-influenced Period(1907–1909), AnalyticCubism(1909–1912), and Synthetic Cubism (1912–1919), also referred to as theCrystal period. Much of Picasso's work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in aneoclassicalstyle, and his work in the mid-1920s often has characteristics ofSurrealism. His later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Exceptionally prolific throughout the course of his long life, Picasso achieved universal renown and immense fortune for his revolutionary artistic accomplishments, and became one of the best-known figures in20th-century art. Early life Picasso was born at 23:15 on 25 October 1881, in the city ofMálaga, Andalusia, in southern Spain.He was the first child ofDon José Ruiz y Blasco(1838–1913) and María Picasso y López.Picasso's family was of middle-class background. His father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life, Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts and acuratorof a local museum. Picasso's birth certificate and the record of his baptism include very long names, combining those of various saints and relatives.Ruiz y Picassowere his paternal and maternal surnames, respectively, per Spanish custom. The surname \\\"Picasso\\\" comes fromLiguria, a coastal region of north-western Italy.Pablo's maternal great-grandfather, Tommaso Picasso, moved to Spain around 1807. Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were \\\"piz, piz\\\", a shortening oflápiz, the Spanish word for \\\"pencil\\\".From the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was a traditional academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters, and drawing the human body from plaster casts and live models. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork. The family moved toA Coruñain 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. They stayed for almost four years. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his unfinished sketch of a pigeon. Observing the precision of his son's technique, an apocryphal story relates, Ruiz felt that the thirteen-year-old Picasso had surpassed him, and vowed to give up painting,though paintings by him exist from later years. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his seven-year-old sister, Conchita, died ofdiphtheria.After her death, the family moved toBarcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home.Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, and the jury admitted him, at just 13. As a student, Picasso lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a small room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day, judging his drawings. The two argued frequently. Picasso's father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrid'sReal Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, the country's foremost art school.At age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrollment. Madrid held many other attractions. ThePradohoused paintings byDiego Velázquez,Francisco Goya, andFrancisco Zurbarán. Picasso especially admired the works ofEl Greco; elements such as his elongated limbs, arresting colours, and mystical visages are echoed in Picasso's later work. Career Before 1900 Picasso's training under his father began before 1890. His progress can be traced in the collection of early works now held by theMuseu PicassoinBarcelona, which provides one of the most comprehensive extant records of any major artist's beginnings.During 1893 the juvenile quality of his earliest work falls away, and by 1894 his career as a painter can be said to have begun.The academic realism apparent in the works of the mid-1890s is well displayed inThe First Communion(1896), a large composition that depicts his sister, Lola. In the same year, at the age of 14, he paintedPortrait of Aunt Pepa, a vigorous and dramatic portrait thatJuan-Eduardo Cirlothas called \\\"without a doubt one of the greatest in the whole history of Spanish painting.\\\" In 1897, his realism began to show aSymbolistinfluence, for example, in a series of landscape paintings rendered in non-naturalistic violet and green tones. What some call his Modernist period (1899–1900) followed. His exposure to the work ofRossetti,Steinlen,Toulouse-LautrecandEdvard Munch, combined with his admiration for favourite old masters such asEl Greco, led Picasso to a personal version of modernism in his works of this period. Picasso made his first trip toParis, then the art capital of Europe, in 1900. There, he met his first Parisian friend, journalist and poetMax Jacob, who helped Picasso learn the language and its literature. Soon they shared an apartment; Max slept at night while Picasso slept during the day and worked at night. These were times of severe poverty, cold, and desperation. Much of his work was burned to keep the small room warm. During the first five months of 1901, Picasso lived inMadrid, where he and hisanarchistfriend Francisco de Asís Soler founded the magazineArte Joven(Young Art), which published five issues. Soler solicited articles and Picasso illustrated the journal, mostly contributing grim cartoons depicting and sympathizing with the state of the poor. The first issue was published on 31 March 1901, by which time the artist had started to sign his workPicasso.From 1898 he signed his works as \\\"Pablo Ruiz Picasso\\\", then as \\\"Pablo R. Picasso\\\" until 1901. The change does not seem to imply a rejection of the father figure. Rather, he wanted to distinguish himself from others; initiated by his Catalan friends who habitually called him by his maternal surname, much less current than the paternal Ruiz. Blue Period: 1901–1904 Picasso's Blue Period (1901–1904), characterized by sombre paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green only occasionally warmed by other colours, began either in Spain in early 1901 or in Paris in the second half of the year.Many paintings of gaunt mothers with children date from the Blue Period, during which Picasso divided his time betweenBarcelonaand Paris. In his austere use of colour and sometimes doleful subject matter—prostitutes and beggars are frequent subjects—Picasso was influenced by a trip through Spain and by the suicide of his friendCarles Casagemas. Starting in autumn of 1901, he painted several posthumous portraits of Casagemas culminating in the gloomy allegorical paintingLa Vie(1903), now in theCleveland Museum of Art. The same mood pervades the well-known etchingThe Frugal Repast(1904),which depicts a blind man and a sighted woman, both emaciated, seated at a nearly bare table. Blindness, a recurrent theme in Picasso's works of this period, is also represented inThe Blindman's Meal(1903, theMetropolitan Museum of Art) and in the portrait ofCelestina(1903). Other Blue Period works includePortrait of SolerandPortrait of Suzanne Bloch. Rose Period: 1904–1906 The Rose Period (1904–1906)is characterized by a lighter tone and style utilizing orange and pink colours and featuring many circus people,acrobatsandharlequinsknown in France as saltimbanques. The harlequin, a comedic character usually depicted in checkered patterned clothing, became a personal symbol for Picasso. Picasso metFernande Olivier, abohemianartist who became his mistress, in Paris in 1904.Olivier appears in many of his Rose Period paintings, many of which are influenced by his warm relationship with her, in addition to his increased exposure to French painting. The generally upbeat and optimistic mood of paintings in this period is reminiscent of the 1899–1901 period (i.e., just prior to the Blue Period), and 1904 can be considered a transition year between the two periods. By 1905, Picasso became a favourite of American art collectorsLeoandGertrude Stein. Their older brother Michael Stein and his wife Sarah also became collectors of his work. Picasso painted aportrait of Gertrude Steinand one of her nephewAllan Stein. Gertrude Stein became Picasso's principal patron, acquiring his drawings and paintings and exhibiting them in her informalSalonat her home in Paris.At one of her gatherings in 1905, he metHenri Matisse, who was to become a lifelong friend and rival. The Steins introduced him toClaribel Coneand her sister Etta, who were American art collectors; they also began to acquire Picasso's and Matisse's paintings. Eventually, Leo Stein moved to Italy. Michael and Sarah Stein became patrons of Matisse, while Gertrude Stein continued to collect Picassos. In 1907, Picasso joined an art gallery that had recently been opened in Paris byDaniel-Henry Kahnweiler, a German art historian and art collector who became one of the premier French art dealers of the 20th century. He was among the first champions of Pablo Picasso,Georges Braqueand theCubismthat they jointly developed. Kahnweiler promoted burgeoning artists such asAndré Derain,Kees van Dongen,Fernand Léger,Juan Gris,Maurice de Vlaminckand several others who had come from all over the globe to live and work inMontparnasseat the time. African art and primitivism: 1907–1909 Picasso's African-influenced Period (1907–1909) begins with his paintingLes Demoiselles d'Avignon. The three figures on the left were inspired byIberian sculpture, but he repainted the faces of the two figures on the right after being powerfully impressed by African artefacts he saw in June 1907 in the ethnographic museum atPalais du Trocadéro.When he displayed the painting to acquaintances in his studio later that year, the nearly universal reaction was shock and revulsion; Matisse angrily dismissed the work as a hoax.Picasso did not exhibitLes Demoisellespublicly until 1916. Other works from this period includeNude with Raised Arms(1907) andThree Women(1908). Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that follows.Analyticcubism(1909–1912) is a style of painting Picasso developed withGeorges Braqueusing monochrome brownish and neutral colours. Both artists took apart objects and \\\"analyzed\\\" them in terms of their shapes. Picasso and Braque's paintings at this time share many similarities. In Paris, Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of friends in theMontmartreandMontparnassequarters, includingAndré Breton, poetGuillaume Apollinaire, writerAlfred JarryandGertrude Stein. In 1911, Picasso was arrested and questioned aboutthe theft of theMona Lisafrom theLouvre. Suspicion for the crime had initially fallen upon Apollinaire due to his links to Géry Pieret, an artist with a history of thefts from the gallery. Apollinaire in turn implicated his close friend Picasso, who had also purchased stolen artworks from the artist in the past. Afraid of a conviction that could result in his deportation to Spain, Picasso denied having ever met Apollinaire. Both were later cleared of any involvement in the painting's disappearance. Synthetic cubism: 1912–1919 Synthetic cubism (1912–1919) was a further development of the genre of cubism, in which cut paper fragments – often wallpaper or portions of newspaper pages – were pasted into compositions, marking the first use ofcollagein fine art. Between 1915 and 1917, Picasso began a series of paintings depicting highly geometric and minimalist Cubist objects, consisting of either a pipe, a guitar or a glass, with an occasional element of collage. \\\"Hard-edged square-cut diamonds\\\", notes art historianJohn Richardson, \\\"these gems do not always have upside or downside\\\".\\\"We need a new name to designate them,\\\" wrote Picasso toGertrude Stein. The term \\\"Crystal Cubism\\\" was later used as a result of visual analogies with crystals at the time.These \\\"little gems\\\" may have been produced by Picasso in response to critics who had claimed his defection from the movement, through his experimentation with classicism within the so-calledreturn to orderfollowing the war. After acquiring some fame and fortune, Picasso left Olivier for Marcelle Humbert, also known asEva Gouel. Picasso included declarations of his love for Eva in many Cubist works. Picasso was devastated by her premature death from illness at the age of 30 in 1915. At the outbreak ofWorld War Iin August 1914, Picasso was living inAvignon. Braque and Derain were mobilized and Apollinaire joined the French artillery, while the SpaniardJuan Grisremained from the Cubist circle. During the war, Picasso was able to continue painting uninterrupted, unlike his French comrades. His paintings became more sombre and his life changed with dramatic consequences. Kahnweiler's contract had terminated on his exile from France. At this point, Picasso's work would be taken on by the art dealerLéonce Rosenberg. After the loss of Eva Gouel, Picasso had an affair withGaby Lespinasse. During the spring of 1916, Apollinaire returned from the front wounded. They renewed their friendship, but Picasso began to frequent new social circles. Towards the end of World War I, Picasso became involved withSerge Diaghilev'sBallets Russes. Among his friends during this period wereJean Cocteau,Jean Hugo, Juan Gris, and others. In the summer of 1918, Picasso marriedOlga Khokhlova, a ballerina with Sergei Diaghilev's troupe, for whom Picasso was designing a ballet, Erik Satie'sParade, in Rome; they spent their honeymoon nearBiarritzin the villa of glamorous Chilean art patronEugenia Errázuriz. Khokhlova introduced Picasso to high society, formal dinner parties, and other dimensions of the life of the rich in 1920s Paris. The two had a son,Paulo Picasso,who would grow up to be a motorcycle racer and chauffeur to his father. Khokhlova's insistence on social propriety clashed with Picasso'sbohemiantendencies and the two lived in a state of constant conflict. During the same period that Picasso collaborated with Diaghilev's troupe, he andIgor Stravinskycollaborated onPulcinellain 1920. Picasso took the opportunity to make several drawings of the composer. In 1927, Picasso met 17-year-oldMarie-Thérèse Walterand began a secret affair with her. Picasso's marriage to Khokhlova soon ended in separation rather than divorce, as French law required an even division of property in the case of divorce, and Picasso did not want Khokhlova to have half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova's death in 1955. Picasso carried on a long-standing affair with Marie-Thérèse Walter and fathered a daughter with her, named Maya. Marie-Thérèse lived in the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and hanged herself four years after Picasso's death. Neoclassicism and surrealism: 1919–1929 In February 1917, Picasso made his first trip to Italy.In the period following the upheaval of World War I, Picasso produced work in aneoclassicalstyle. This \\\"return to order\\\" is evident in the work of many European artists in the 1920s, includingAndré Derain,Giorgio de Chirico,Gino Severini,Jean Metzinger, the artists of theNew Objectivitymovement and of theNovecento Italianomovement. Picasso's paintings and drawings from this period frequently recall the work ofRaphaelandIngres. In 1925 theSurrealistwriter and poetAndré Bretondeclared Picasso as 'one of ours' in his articleLe Surréalisme et la peinture, published inRévolution surréaliste.Les Demoiselleswas reproduced for the first time in Europe in the same issue. Yet Picasso exhibited Cubist works at the first Surrealist group exhibition in 1925; the concept of 'psychic automatism in its pure state' defined in theManifeste du surréalismenever appealed to him entirely. He did at the time develop new imagery and formal syntax for expressing himself emotionally, \\\"releasing the violence, the psychic fears and the eroticism that had been largely contained or sublimated since 1909\\\", writes art historian Melissa McQuillan. Although this transition in Picasso's work was informed by Cubism for its spatial relations, \\\"the fusion of ritual and abandon in the imagery recalls the primitivism of the Demoiselles and the elusive psychological resonances of his Symbolist work\\\", writes McQuillan. Surrealism revived Picasso's attraction to primitivism and eroticism. The Great Depression,Guernica, and the MoMA exhibition: 1930–1939 During the 1930s, theminotaurreplaced theharlequinas a common motif in his work. His use of the minotaur came partly from his contact with the surrealists, who often used it as their symbol, and it appears in Picasso'sGuernica. The minotaur and Picasso's mistressMarie-Thérèse Walterare heavily featured in his celebratedVollard Suiteof etchings. Arguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of the Germanbombing of Guernicaduring theSpanish Civil War–Guernica. This large canvas embodies for many the inhumanity, brutality and hopelessness of war. Asked to explain its symbolism, Picasso said, \\\"It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them.\\\" Guernicawas exhibited in July 1937 at the Spanish Pavilion at theParis International Exposition, and then became the centrepiece of an exhibition of 118 works by Picasso,Matisse,BraqueandHenri Laurensthat toured Scandinavia and England. After the victory of Francisco Franco in Spain, the painting was sent to the United States to raise funds and support for Spanish refugees. Until 1981 it was entrusted to the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City, as it was Picasso's expressed desire that the painting should not be delivered to Spain until liberty and democracy had been established in the country. BeforeGuernica, Picasso had never addressed political themes in his art. The politicized nature of the work is largely attributed to his romantic relationship at the time with the French anti-fascist activist andsurrealistphotographer,Dora Maar.In addition, her black and white photographs are likely to have influenced the black and white scheme ofGuernica, in stark contrast to Picasso's usual colorful paintings. “Maar’s practice of photography influenced the art of Picasso – she had a great influence on his work,” said Antoine Romand, a Dora Maar expert. “She contested him. She pushed him to do something new and to be more creative politically.\\\"Maar had exclusive access to Picasso's studio to observe and photograph the creation ofGuernica.At Picasso's request, Maar painted parts of the dying horse. In 1939 and 1940, theMuseum of Modern Artin New York City, under its directorAlfred Barr, a Picasso enthusiast, held a major retrospective of Picasso's principal works until that time. This exhibition lionized Picasso, brought into full public view in America the scope of his artistry, and resulted in a reinterpretation of his work by contemporary art historians and scholars.According to Jonathan Weinberg, \\\"Given the extraordinary quality of the show and Picasso's enormous prestige, generally heightened by the political impact ofGuernica... the critics were surprisingly ambivalent\\\".Picasso's \\\"multiplicity of styles\\\" was disturbing to one journalist; another described him as \\\"wayward and even malicious\\\";Alfred Frankenstein's review inARTnewsconcluded that Picasso was both charlatan and genius. World War II and late 1940s: 1939–1949 DuringWorld War II, Picasso remained in Paris while the Germans occupied the city. Picasso's artistic style did not fit theNazi ideal of art, so he did not exhibit during this time. He was often harassed by theGestapo. During one search of his apartment, an officer saw a photograph of the paintingGuernica. \\\"Did you do that?\\\" the German asked Picasso. \\\"No,\\\" he replied, \\\"You did.\\\" Retreating to his studio, he continued to paint, producing works such as theStill Life with Guitar(1942) andThe Charnel House(1944–48). Although the Germans outlawedbronzecasting in Paris, Picasso continued regardless, using bronze smuggled to him by theFrench Resistance. Around this time,Picasso wrote poetryas an alternative outlet. Between 1935 and 1959 he wrote more than 300 poems. Largely untitled except for a date and sometimes the location of where they were written (for example \\\"Paris 16 May 1936\\\"), these works were gustatory, erotic, and at timesscatological, as were his two full-length plays,Desire Caught by the Tail(1941),The Four Little Girls(1949) andThe Burial of the Count of Orgaz(1959). In 1944, after the liberation of Paris, Picasso, then 63 years old, began a romantic relationship with a young art student namedFrançoise Gilot. She was 40 years younger than he was. Picasso grew tired of his mistressDora Maar; Picasso and Gilot began to live together. Eventually, they had two children:Claude Picasso, born in 1947 andPaloma Picasso, born in 1949. In her 1964 bookLife with Picasso,Gilot describes his abusive treatment and myriad infidelities which led her to leave him, taking the children with her. This was a severe blow to Picasso. Picasso had affairs with women of an even greater age disparity than his and Gilot's. While still involved with Gilot, in 1951 Picasso had a six-week affair withGeneviève Laporte, who was four years younger than Gilot. By his 70s, many paintings, ink drawings and prints have as their theme an old, grotesque dwarf as the doting lover of a beautiful young model.Jacqueline Roque(1927–1986) worked at the Madoura Pottery inVallaurison theFrench Riviera, where Picasso made and painted ceramics. She became his lover, and then his second wife in 1961. The two were together for the remainder of Picasso's life. His marriage to Roque was also a means of revenge against Gilot; with Picasso's encouragement, Gilot had divorced her then-husband, Luc Simon, with the plan to marry Picasso to secure the rights of her children as Picasso's legitimate heirs. Picasso had already secretly married Roque, after Gilot had filed for divorce. His strained relationship with Claude and Paloma was never healed. By this time, Picasso had constructed a hugeGothichome, and could afford large villas in the south of France, such as Mas Notre-Dame-de-Vie on the outskirts ofMougins, and in theProvence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. He was an international celebrity, with often as much interest in his personal life as his art. Later works to final years: 1949–1973 Picasso was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the3rd Sculpture Internationalheld at thePhiladelphia Museum of Artin mid-1949. In the 1950s, Picasso's style changed once again, as he took to producing reinterpretations of the art of the great masters. He made aseriesof works based onVelázquez's painting ofLas Meninas. He also based paintings on works byGoya,Poussin,Manet,CourbetandDelacroix. In addition to his artistic accomplishments, Picasso made a few film appearances, always as himself, including a cameo inJean Cocteau'sTestament of Orpheus(1960). In 1955, he helped make the filmLe Mystère Picasso(The Mystery of Picasso) directed byHenri-Georges Clouzot. He was commissioned to make amaquettefor a huge 50-foot (15 m)-highpublic sculptureto be built in Chicago, known usually as theChicago Picasso. He approached the project with a great deal of enthusiasm, designing a sculpture which was ambiguous and somewhat controversial. Picasso said the figure represented the head of anAfghan Houndnamed Kabul.The sculpture, one of the most recognizable landmarks in downtown Chicago, was unveiled in 1967. Picasso refused to be paid $100,000 for it, donating it to the people of the city. Picasso's final works were a mixture of styles, his means of expression in constant flux until the end of his life. Devoting his full energies to his work, Picasso became more daring, his works more colourful and expressive, and from 1968 to 1971 he produced a torrent of paintings and hundreds of copperplate etchings. At the time these works were dismissed by most as pornographic fantasies of an impotent old man or the slapdash works of an artist who was past his prime.Only later, after Picasso's death, when the rest of the art world had moved on fromabstract expressionism, did the critical community come to see the late works of Picasso as prefiguringNeo-Expressionism. Death Pablo Picasso died on 8 April 1973 inMougins, France, frompulmonary edemaand aheart attack, the morning after he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinner. He was interred at theChâteau of VauvenarguesnearAix-en-Provence, a property he had acquired in 1958 and occupied with Jacqueline between 1959 and 1962. Jacqueline prevented his children Claude and Paloma from attending the funeral.Devastated and lonely after the death of Picasso, Jacqueline killed herself by gunshot in 1986 when she was 59 years old. Political views Picasso remained aloof from theCatalanindependence movement during his youth, despite expressing general support and being friendly with activists within it.He did not join the armed forces for any side or country duringWorld War I, theSpanish Civil War, or World War II. As a Spanish citizen living in France, Picasso was under no compulsion to fight against the invading Germans in either world war. In 1940, he applied for French citizenship, but it was refused on the grounds of his \\\"extremist ideas evolving towards communism\\\". This information was not revealed until 2003. At the start of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, Picasso was 54 years of age. Soon after hostilities began, the Republicans appointed him \\\"director of the Prado, albeit in absentia\\\", and \\\"he took his duties very seriously\\\", according to John Richardson, supplying the funds to evacuate the museum's collection to Geneva.The war provided the impetus for Picasso's first overtlypolitical work. He expressed anger and condemnation ofFrancisco Francoand fascists inThe Dream and Lie of Franco(1937), which was produced \\\"specifically for propagandistic and fundraising purposes\\\".This surreal fusion of words and images was intended to be sold as a series of postcards to raise funds for theSpanish Republican cause. In 1944, Picasso joined theFrench Communist Party. He attended the 1948World Congress of Intellectuals in Defense of Peacein Poland, and in 1950 received theStalin Peace Prizefrom the Soviet government.A portrait ofJoseph Stalinmade by Picasso in 1953 drew Party criticism due to being insufficiently realistic, though he remained a loyal member of the Communist Party until his death.His dealer,D-H. Kahnweiler, a socialist, termed Picasso's communism \\\"sentimental\\\" rather than political, saying \\\"He has never read a line ofKarl Marx, nor ofEngelsof course.\\\"In a 1945 interview with Jerome Seckler, Picasso stated: \\\"I am a Communist and my painting is Communist painting. ... But if I were a shoemaker, Royalist or Communist or anything else, I would not necessarily hammer my shoes in a special way to show my politics.\\\"His commitment to communism, common amongcontinentalintellectuals and artists at the time, has long been the subject of some controversy; a notable demonstration thereof was a quote bySalvador Dalí(with whom Picasso had a rather strained relationship): Picasso es pintor, yo también; ... Picasso es español, yo también; Picasso es comunista, yo tampoco.(Picasso is a painter, so am I; ... Picasso is a Spaniard, so am I; Picasso is a communist, neither am I.) In the late 1940s, his old friend surrealist poetAndré Breton, who was aTrotskyistandanti-Stalinist, was more blunt;refusing to shake hands with Picasso, he told him: \\\"I don't approve of your joining the Communist Party nor with the stand you have taken concerning the purges of the intellectuals after the Liberation.\\\"As a communist, Picasso opposed the intervention of theUnited Nationsand the United States in theKorean War, and depicted it inMassacre in Korea.The art critic Kirsten Hoving Keen wrote that it was \\\"inspired by reports of American atrocities\\\" and considered it one of Picasso's communist works. On 9 January 1949, Picasso createdDove, a black and white lithograph. It was used to illustrate a poster at the 1949World Peace Counciland became an iconographic image of the period, known as \\\"The dove of peace\\\". Picasso's image was used around the world as a symbol of the Peace Congresses and communism. In 1962, he received theLenin Peace Prize.Biographer and art criticJohn Bergerfelt his talents as an artist were \\\"wasted\\\" by the communists.According toJean Cocteau's diaries, Picasso once said to him in reference to the communists: \\\"I have joined a family, and like all families, it's full of shit.\\\" Style and technique Picasso was exceptionally prolific throughout his long lifetime. At his death there were more than 45,000 unsold works in his estate, comprising 1,885 paintings, 1,228 sculptures, 3,222 ceramics, 7,089 drawings, 150 sketchbooks, many thousands of prints, and numerous tapestries and rugs.The most complete – but not exhaustive – catalogue of his works, thecatalogue raisonnécompiled byChristian Zervos, lists more than 16,000 paintings and drawings.Picasso's output was several times more prolific than most artists of his era; by at least one account, American artistBob Rossis the only one to rival Picasso's volume, and Ross's artwork was designed specifically to be easily mass-produced quickly. The medium in which Picasso made his most important contribution was painting.In his paintings, Picasso used colour as an expressive element, but relied on drawing rather than subtleties of colour to create form and space.He sometimes added sand to his paint to vary its texture. Ananoprobeof Picasso'sThe Red Armchair(1931), in the collection of theArt Institute of Chicago, by physicists atArgonne National Laboratoryin 2012 confirmed art historians' belief that Picasso used common house paint in many of his paintings.Much of his painting was done at night by artificial light. Picasso's early sculptures were carved from wood or modelled in wax or clay, but from 1909 to 1928 Picasso abandoned modelling and instead made sculptural constructions using diverse materials.An example isGuitar(1912), a relief construction made of sheet metal and wire that Jane Fluegel terms a \\\"three-dimensional planar counterpart of Cubist painting\\\" that marks a \\\"revolutionary departure from the traditional approaches, modeling and carving\\\". From the beginning of his career, Picasso displayed an interest in subject matter of every kind,and demonstrated a great stylistic versatility that enabled him to work in several styles at once. For example, his paintings of 1917 included thepointillistWoman with a Mantilla, the CubistFigure in an Armchair, and the naturalisticHarlequin(all in theMuseu Picasso, Barcelona). In 1919, he made a number of drawings from postcards and photographs that reflect his interest in the stylistic conventions and static character of posed photographs.In 1921 he simultaneously painted several large neoclassical paintings and two versions of the Cubist compositionThree Musicians(Museum of Modern Art, New York; Philadelphia Museum of Art).In an interview published in 1923, Picasso said, \\\"The several manners I have used in my art must not be considered as an evolution, or as steps towards an unknown ideal of painting ... If the subjects I have wanted to express have suggested different ways of expression I have never hesitated to adopt them.\\\" Although his Cubist works approach abstraction, Picasso never relinquished the objects of the real world as subject matter. Prominent in his Cubist paintings are forms easily recognized as guitars, violins, and bottles.When Picasso depicted complex narrative scenes it was usually in prints, drawings, and small-scale works;Guernica(1937) is one of his few large narrative paintings. Picasso painted mostly from imagination or memory. According toWilliam Rubin, Picasso \\\"could only make great art from subjects that truly involved him ... Unlike Matisse, Picasso had eschewed models virtually all his mature life, preferring to paint individuals whose lives had both impinged on, and had real significance for, his own.\\\"The art criticArthur Dantosaid Picasso's work constitutes a \\\"vast pictorial autobiography\\\" that provides some basis for the popular conception that \\\"Picasso invented a new style each time he fell in love with a new woman\\\".The autobiographical nature of Picasso's art is reinforced by his habit of dating his works, often to the day. He explained: \\\"I want to leave to posterity a documentation that will be as complete as possible. That's why I put a date on everything I do.\\\" Artistic legacy Picasso's influence was and remains immense and widely acknowledged by his admirers and detractors alike. On the occasion of his 1939 retrospective at MoMA,Lifemagazine wrote: \\\"During the 25 years he has dominated modern European art, his enemies say he has been a corrupting influence. With equal violence, his friends say he is the greatest artist alive.\\\"Picasso was the first artist to receive a special honour exhibition at the Grand Gallery of theLouvreMuseum in Paris in celebration of his 90 years.In 1998,Robert Hugheswrote of him: \\\"To say that Pablo Picasso dominated Western art in the 20th century is, by now, the merest commonplace. ... No painter or sculptor, not even Michelangelo, had been as famous as this in his own lifetime. ... ThoughMarcel Duchamp, that cunning old fox of conceptual irony, has certainly had more influence on nominally vanguard art over the past 30 years than Picasso, the Spaniard was the last great beneficiary of the belief that the language of painting and sculpture really mattered to people other than their devotees.\\\" At the time of Picasso's death many of his paintings were in his possession, as he had kept off the art market what he did not need to sell. In addition, Picasso had a considerable collection of the work of other famous artists, some his contemporaries, such asHenri Matisse, with whom he had exchanged works. Since Picasso left no will, his death duties (estate tax) to the French state were paid in the form of his works and others from his collection. These works form the core of the immense and representative collection of theMusée Picassoin Paris.In 2003, relatives of Picasso inaugurated a museum dedicated to him in his birthplace, Málaga, Spain, theMuseo Picasso Málaga. TheMuseu Picassoin Barcelona features many of his early works, created while he was living in Spain, including many rarely seen works which reveal his firm grounding in classical techniques. The museum also holds many precise and detailed figure studies done in his youth under his father's tutelage, as well as the extensive collection of Jaime Sabartés, his close friend and personal secretary. Guernicawas on display in New York'sMuseum of Modern Artfor many years. In 1981, it was returned to Spain and was on exhibit at theCasón del Buen Retiroof theMuseo del Prado. In 1992, the painting was put on display in theReina Sofía Museumwhen it opened. In 1985, a museum was established inBuitrago del Lozoyaby Picasso's friend Eugenio Arias Herranz. It was announced on 22 September 2020 that the project for a new Picasso Museum due to open inAix-en-Provencein 2021, in a former convent (Couvent des Prêcheurs), which would have held the largest collection of his paintings of any museum, had been scrapped due to the fact that Catherine Hutin-Blay,Jacqueline Picasso's daughter, and the City Council had failed to reach an agreement. In the 1996 movieSurviving Picasso, Picasso is portrayed by actorAnthony Hopkins.Picasso is also a character inSteve Martin's 1993 play,Picasso at the Lapin Agile. InA Moveable FeastbyErnest Hemingway, Hemingway tellsGertrude Steinthat he would like to have some Picassos, but cannot afford them. Later in the book, Hemingway mentions looking at one of Picasso's paintings. He refers to it as Picasso's nude of the girl with the basket of flowers, possibly related toYoung Naked Girl with Flower Basket. On 8 October 2010,Picasso: Masterpieces from the Musée National Picasso, Paris,an exhibition of 150 paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints and photographs from the Musée National Picasso in Paris, opened at theSeattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington, US. The exhibition subsequently travelled to theVirginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia: theM.H. de Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, California, US.;theArt Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia;and theArt Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. As of 2015, Picasso remained the top-ranked artist (based on sales of his works at auctions) according to the Art Market Trends report.More of his paintings have been stolen than any other artist's;in 2012, theArt Loss Registerhad 1,147 of his works listed as stolen.The Picasso Administration functions as his official Estate. The US copyright representative for the Picasso Administration is theArtists Rights Society. Picasso is played byAntonio Banderasin the2018 seasonofGeniuswhich focuses on his life and art. The Basel vote In the 1940s, a Swiss insurance company based inBaselhad bought two paintings by Picasso to diversify its investments and serve as a guarantee for the insured risks. Following an air disaster in 1967, the company had to pay out heavy reimbursements. The company decided to part with the two paintings, which were deposited in theKunstmuseum Basel. In 1968, a large number of Basel citizens called for a local referendum on the purchase of the Picassos by theCanton of Basel-Stadt, which was successful, making it the first time in democratic history that the population of a city voted on the purchase of works of art for a public art museum.The paintings therefore remained in the museum in Basel. Informed of this, Picasso donated three paintings and a sketch to the city and its museum and was later made an honorary citizen by the city. Auction history Several paintings by Picasso rank among themost expensive paintings in the world.Garçon à la pipesold for US$104 million atSotheby'son 4 May 2004.Dora Maar au Chatsold for US$95.2 million at Sotheby's on 3 May 2006.On 4 May 2010,Nude, Green Leaves and Bustwas sold atChristie'sfor US$106.5 million. The 1932 work, which depicts Picasso's mistressMarie-Thérèse Walterreclining and as a bust, was in the personal collection of Los Angeles philanthropist Frances Lasker Brody, who died in November 2009.On 11 May 2015 his paintingWomen of Algiersset the record for thehighest price ever paid for a paintingwhen it sold for US$179.3 million at Christie's in New York. On 21 June 2016, a painting by Pablo Picasso titledFemme Assise(1909) sold for £43.2 million ($63.4 million) at Sotheby's London, exceeding the estimate by nearly $20 million, setting a world record for the highest price ever paid at auction for a Cubist work. On 17 May 2017,The Jerusalem Postin an article titled \\\"Picasso Work Stolen By Nazis Sells for $45 Million at Auction\\\" reported the sale of a portrait painted by Picasso, the 1939Femme assise, robe bleu, which was previously misappropriated during the early years of WWII. The painting has changed hands several times since its recovery, most recently through auction in May 2017 at Christie's in New York City. In March 2018, hisFemme au Béret et à la Robe Quadrillée(1937), a portrait of Marie-Thérèse Walter, sold for £49.8m at Sotheby's in London. Personal life From early adolescence, Picasso maintained both superficial and intense amatory and sexual relationships. Biographer John Richardson stated that 'work, sex and tobacco' were his addictions.Picasso was married twice and had four children by three women: Photographer and painterDora Maarwas a constant companion and lover of Picasso. The two were closest in the late 1930s and early 1940s, and it was Maar who documented the painting ofGuernica. The women in Picasso's life played an important role in the emotional and erotic aspects of his creative expression, and the tumultuous nature of these relationships has been considered vital to his artistic process. Many of these women functioned as muses for him, and their inclusion in his extensive oeuvre granted them a place in art history.A largely recurring motif in his body of work is the female form. The variations in his relationships informed and collided with his progression of style throughout his career. For example, portraits created of his first wife, Olga, were rendered in a naturalistic style during hisNeoclassicalperiod. His relationship with Marie-Thérèse Walter inspired many of hissurrealistpieces, as well as what is referred to as his \\\"Year of Wonders\\\".Reappearance of acrobats theme in 1905 put an end to his \\\"Blue Period\\\" and transitioned into his \\\"Rose Period\\\". This transition has been incorrectly attributed to the presence ofFernande Olivierin his life. Picasso has been characterised as a womaniser and a misogynist, being quoted as saying to long-time partner Françoise Gilot that \\\"women are machines for suffering.\\\"He later allegedly told her, \\\"For me there are only two kinds of women: goddesses and doormats.\\\"In her memoir,Picasso, My Grandfather,Marina Picassowrites of his treatment of women, \\\"He submitted them to his animal sexuality, tamed them, bewitched them, ingested them, and crushed them onto his canvas. After he had spent many nights extracting their essence, once they were bled dry, he would dispose of them.\\\" Of the several important women in his life, two – lover Marie-Thèrése Walter and his second wife Jacqueline Roque – died by suicide. Others, notably his first wife Olga Khokhlova and lover Dora Maar, succumbed to nervous breakdowns. His son, Paulo, developed a fatal alcoholism due to depression. His grandson, Pablito, also died by suicide that same year by ingesting bleach when he was barred byJacqueline Roquefrom attending the artist's funeral. Catalogue raisonné Picasso entrustedChristian Zervosto constitute thecatalogue raisonnéof his work (painted and drawn). The first volume of the catalogue,Works from 1895 to 1906, published in 1932, entailed the financial ruin of Zervos, self-publishing under the nameCahiers d'art, forcing him to sell part of his art collection at auction to avoid bankruptcy. From 1932 to 1978, Zervos constituted the catalogue raisonné of the complete works of Picasso in the company of the artist who had become one of his friends in 1924. Following the death of Zervos, Mila Gagarin supervised the publication of 11 additional volumes from 1970 to 1978. The 33 volumes cover the entire work from 1895 to 1972, with close to 16,000 black and white photographs, in accord with the will of the artist. Further publications by Zervos See also Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading External links\",\n \"The Dark Side of the Moon The Dark Side of the Moonis the eighth studio album by the English rock bandPink Floyd, released on 1 March 1973, byHarvest Recordsin the UK andCapitol Recordsin the US. Developed during live performances before recording began, it was conceived as aconcept albumthat would focus on the pressures faced by the band during their arduous lifestyle, and also deal with the mental health problems of the former band memberSyd Barrett, who had departed the group in 1968. New material was recorded in two sessions in 1972 and 1973 at EMI Studios (nowAbbey Road Studios) in London. The record builds on ideas explored in Pink Floyd's earlier recordings and performances, while omitting the extended instrumentals that characterised the band's earlier work. The group employedmultitrack recording,tape loops, andanalogue synthesisers, including experimentation with theEMS VCS 3and aSynthi A. The engineerAlan Parsonswas responsible for many of the sonic aspects of the recording, and for the recruitment of the session singerClare Torry, who appears on \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\". The Dark Side of the Moonexplores themes such as conflict, greed, time, death, and mental illness. Snippets from interviews with the band'sroad crewand others are featured alongside philosophical quotations. The sleeve, which depicts aprismaticspectrum, was designed byStorm Thorgersonin response to the keyboardistRichard Wright's request for a \\\"simple and bold\\\" design which would represent the band's lighting and the album's themes. The album was promoted with two singles: \\\"Money\\\" and \\\"Us and Them\\\". The Dark Side of the Moonis among the most critically acclaimed albums and often features in professional listings of the greatest of all time. It brought Pink Floyd international fame, wealth and plaudits to all four band members. Ablockbusterrelease of thealbum era, it also propelled record sales throughout the music industry during the 1970s.The Dark Side of the Moonis certified14x platinumin the United Kingdom, and topped the USBillboardTop LPs & Tapechart, where it has charted for 990 weeks. By 2013,The Dark Side of the Moonhad sold over 45 million copies worldwide, making it the band's best-selling release, the best-selling album of the 1970s, and thefourth-best-selling album in history.In 2012, the album was selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Recording Registryby theLibrary of Congressas being \\\"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\\\". It was inducted into theGrammy Hall of Famein 1999. Background FollowingMeddlein 1971,Pink Floydassembled for a tour of Britain, Japan and the United States that December. In a band meeting at the home of the drummer,Nick Mason, in North London, the bassist,Roger Waters, proposed that a new album could form part of the tour. Waters conceived an album that dealt with things that \\\"make people mad\\\", focusing on the pressures associated with the band's arduous lifestyle, and dealing with the mental health problems suffered by the former band memberSyd Barrett.The band had explored a similar idea with the 1969 concert suiteThe ManandThe Journey.In an interview forRolling Stone, the guitarist,David Gilmour, said: \\\"I think we all thought – and Roger definitely thought – that a lot of the lyrics that we had been using were a little too indirect. There was definitely a feeling that the words were going to be very clear and specific.\\\" The band approved of Waters' concept for an album unified by a single theme,and all the members participated in writing and producing material. Waters createddemo tracksin a small studio in a garden shed at his home inIslington.Parts of the album were taken from previously unused material; the opening line of \\\"Breathe\\\" came from an earlier work by Waters andRon Geesin, written for the soundtrack ofThe Body,and the basic structure of \\\"Us and Them\\\" was borrowed from an original composition, \\\"The Violent Sequence\\\", by the keyboardist,Richard Wright, forZabriskie Point.The band rehearsed at a warehouse in London owned bythe Rolling Stonesand at theRainbow TheatreinFinsbury Park, London. They also purchased extra equipment, which included new speakers, aPA system, a 28-track mixing desk with a four channelquadraphonicoutput, and a custom-built lighting rig. Nine tonnes of kit was transported in threelorries. This would be the first time the band had taken an entire album on tour.The album had been given the provisional title ofDark Side of the Moon(an allusion to lunacy, rather than astronomy).After discovering that title had already been used by another band,Medicine Head, it was temporarily changed toEclipse. The new material was premiered atThe DomeinBrighton, on 20 January 1972,and after the commercial failure of Medicine Head's album the title was changed back to the band's original preference. Dark Side of the Moon: A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, as it was then known,was performed for an assembled press on 17 February 1972 at the Rainbow Theatre, more than a year before its release, and was critically acclaimed.Michael Wale ofThe Timesdescribed the piece as \\\"bringing tears to the eyes. It was so completely understanding and musically questioning.\\\"Derek JewellofThe Sunday Timeswrote \\\"The ambition of the Floyd's artistic intention is now vast.\\\"Melody Makerwas less enthusiastic: \\\"Musically, there were some great ideas, but the sound effects often left me wondering if I was in a bird-cage at London Zoo.\\\"The following tour was praised by the public. The new material was performed in the same order in which it was eventually sequenced on the album. Differences included the lack of synthesisers in tracks such as \\\"On the Run\\\", andClare Torry's vocals on \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\" replaced by readings from the Bible. Pink Floyd'slengthy tourthrough Europe and North America gave them the opportunity to make improvements to the scale and quality of their performances.Work on the album was interrupted in late February when the band travelled to France and recorded music for the French directorBarbet Schroeder's filmLa Vallée.They performed in Japan, returned to France in March to complete work on the film, played more shows in North America, then flew to London and resumed recording in May and June. After more concerts in Europe and North America, the band returned to London on 9 January 1973 to complete the album. Concept The Dark Side of the Moonwas built upon experiments Pink Floyd had attempted in their previous live shows and recordings, although it lacked the extended instrumental excursions which, according to the criticDavid Fricke, had become characteristic of the band following the departure of the founding member Syd Barrett in 1968. Gilmour, Barrett's replacement, later referred to those instrumentals as \\\"that psychedelic noodling stuff\\\". He and Waters cited 1971'sMeddleas a turning point towards what would later be realised on the album.The Dark Side of the Moon's lyrical themes include conflict, greed, the passage of time, death and insanity, the last inspired in part by Barrett's deteriorating mental state.The album containsmusique concrèteon several tracks. Each side of the vinyl album is a continuous piece of music. The five tracks on each side reflect various stages of human life, beginning and ending with a heartbeat, exploring the nature of the human experience and, according to Waters, \\\"empathy\\\".\\\"Speak to Me\\\" and \\\"Breathe\\\" together highlight the mundane and futile elements of life that accompany the ever-present threat of madness, and the importance of living one's own life – \\\"Don't be afraid to care\\\".By shifting the scene to an airport, the synthesiser-driven instrumental \\\"On the Run\\\" evokes the stress and anxiety of modern travel, in particular Wright's fear of flying.\\\"Time\\\" examines the manner in which its passage can control one's life and offers a stark warning to those who remain focused on mundane pursuits; it is followed by a retreat into solitude and withdrawal in \\\"Breathe (Reprise)\\\". The first side of the album ends with Wright and Clare Torry's soulful metaphor for death, \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\". \\\"Money\\\", the first track on side two, opens with the sound ofcash registersand rhythmically jingling coins. The song mocks greed andconsumerismwith sarcastic lyrics and cash-relatedsound effects. \\\"Money\\\" became the band's most commercially successful track and was covered by other artists.\\\"Us and Them\\\" addresses the isolation of the depressed with the symbolism ofconflictand the use of simpledichotomiesto describe personal relationships. \\\"Any Colour You Like\\\" tackles the illusion of choice one has in society. \\\"Brain Damage\\\" looks atmental illnessresulting from the elevation of fame and success above the needs of the self; in particular, the line \\\"and if the band you're in starts playing different tunes\\\" reflects the mental breakdown of Syd Barrett. The album ends with \\\"Eclipse\\\", which espouses the concepts of otherness and unity, while encouraging the listener to recognise the common traits shared by humanity. Recording The Dark Side of the Moonwas recorded at EMI Studios (nowAbbey Road Studios) in approximately 60 daysbetween 31 May 1972 and 9 February 1973. Pink Floyd were assigned the staff engineerAlan Parsons, who had worked as the assistant tape operator on their fifth album,Atom Heart Mother(1970), and had gained experience as a recording engineer onthe BeatlesalbumsAbbey RoadandLet It Be.TheDark Side of the Moonsessions made use ofadvanced studio techniques, as the studio was capable of16-trackmixes which offered greater flexibility than the eight- or four-track mixes Pink Floyd had previously worked with, although the band often used so many tracks that second-generation copies were still needed to make more space available on the tape.The mix supervisorChris Thomasrecalled later, \\\"There were only two or three tracks of drums when we came to mixing it. Depending on the song, there would be one or two tracks of guitar, and these would include the solo and the rhythm guitar parts. One track for keyboard, one track for bass, and one or two sound effects tracks. They had been very, very efficient in the way they'd worked.\\\" The first track recorded was \\\"Us and Them\\\" on 31 May, followed seven days later by \\\"Money\\\".For \\\"Money\\\", Waters had created effectsloopsin an unusual74time signaturefrom recordings of money-related objects, including coins thrown into a mixing bowl in his wife's pottery studio. These were re-recorded to take advantage of the band's decision to create a quadraphonic mix of the album, although Parsons later expressed dissatisfaction with the result of this mix, which he attributed to a lack of time and a shortage of multitrack tape recorders. \\\"Time\\\" and \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\" were recorded next, followed by a two-month break, during which the band spent time with their families and prepared for a tour of the United States.The recording sessions were frequently interrupted: Waters, a supporter ofArsenal F.C., would break to see his team compete, and the band would occasionally stop to watchMonty Python's Flying Circuson television while Parsons worked on the tracks.Gilmour recalled, \\\"...but when we were on a roll, we would get on.\\\" After returning from the US in January 1973, they recorded \\\"Brain Damage\\\", \\\"Eclipse\\\", \\\"Any Colour You Like\\\" and \\\"On the Run\\\", and fine-tuned work from previous sessions. Four female vocalists were assembled to sing on \\\"Brain Damage\\\", \\\"Eclipse\\\" and \\\"Time\\\", and the saxophonistDick Parrywas booked to play on \\\"Us and Them\\\" and \\\"Money\\\". With the director Adrian Maben, the band also filmed studio footage forPink Floyd: Live at Pompeii.The album was completed and signed off at Abbey Road on 9 February 1973.Gilmour recalled the band listening to the finished album for the first time as \\\"a moment of great joy and of satisfaction and the feeling of achievement that we'd really gone that extra mile\\\". Instrumentation The album features metronomic sound effects during \\\"Speak to Me\\\" and tape loops for the opening of \\\"Money\\\". Mason created a rough version of \\\"Speak to Me\\\" at his home before completing it in the studio. The track serves as anovertureand contains cross-fades of elements from other pieces on the album. A piano chord, replayed backwards, serves to augment the build-up of effects, which are immediately followed by the opening of \\\"Breathe\\\". Mason received a rare solo composing credit for \\\"Speak to Me\\\". The sound effects on \\\"Money\\\" were created by splicing together Waters' recordings of clinking coins, tearing paper, a ringing cash register, and a clicking adding machine, which were used to create a 7-beateffects loop. This was later adapted to four tracks to create a \\\"walk around the room\\\" effect in quadraphonic presentations of the album.At times, the degree of sonic experimentation on the album required the studio engineers and all four band members to operate the mixing console's faders simultaneously, in order to mix down the intricately assembled multitrack recordings of several of the songs, particularly \\\"On the Run\\\". Along with conventional rock band instrumentation, Pink Floyd introduced prominent synthesisers to their sound. The band experimented with anEMS VCS 3on \\\"Brain Damage\\\" and \\\"Any Colour You Like\\\", and aSynthi Aon \\\"Time\\\" and \\\"On the Run\\\". They also devised and recorded unconventional sounds, such as assistant engineer Peter Jamesrunning around the studio's echo chamber during \\\"On the Run\\\",and a specially treatedbass drummade to simulate a humanheartbeatduring \\\"Speak to Me\\\", \\\"On the Run\\\", \\\"Time\\\" and \\\"Eclipse\\\". This heartbeat is most prominent in the intro and the outro to the album, but it can also be heard sporadically on \\\"Time\\\" and \\\"On the Run\\\".\\\"Time\\\" features assorted clocks ticking, then chiming simultaneously at the start of the song, accompanied by a series ofRototoms. The recordings were initially created as a quadraphonic test by Parsons, who recorded each timepiece at an antique clock shop.Although these recordings had not been created specifically for the album, elements of this material were eventually used in the track. Voices Several tracks, including \\\"Us and Them\\\" and \\\"Time\\\", demonstrated Wright's and Gilmour's ability to harmonise their similar-sounding voices, and the engineer Alan Parsons used techniques such asdouble trackingvocals and guitars, which allowed Gilmour to harmonise with himself. Prominent use was also made offlangingand phase-shifting on vocals and instruments, odd trickery withreverb,and the panning of sounds between channels, most notably in thequadraphonicmix of \\\"On the Run\\\", where the sound of theHammond B3organ played through aLeslie speakerswirls around the listener. Wright's \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\" featuresClare Torry, a session singer and songwriter and a regular at Abbey Road. Parsons liked her voice, and when the band decided to use a female vocalist he suggested that she could sing on the track. The band explained the album concept to her, but they were unable to tell her exactly what she should do, and Gilmour, who was in charge of the session, asked her to try to express emotions rather than sing words.In a few takes on a Sunday night, Torry improvised a wordless melody to accompany Wright's emotive piano solo. She was initially embarrassed by her exuberance in the recording booth and wanted to apologise to the band, who were impressed with her performance but did not tell her so.Her takes were edited to produce the version used on the track.She left the studio under the impression that her vocals would not make the final cut,and she only became aware that she had been included in the final mix when she picked up the album at a local record store and saw her name in the credits.For her contribution she was paid her standard session feeof £30,equivalent to about £500 in 2024. In 2004, Torry suedEMIand Pink Floyd for 50% of the songwritingroyalties, arguing that her contribution to \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\" was substantial enough to be considered co-authorship. The case was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, with all post-2005 pressings crediting Wright and Torry jointly. In the final week of recording,Waters asked staff and others at Abbey Road to respond to questions printed onflashcardsand some of their replies were edited into the final mix. The interviewees were placed in front of a microphone in a darkened Studio 3and shown such questions as \\\"What's your favourite colour?\\\" and \\\"What's your favourite food?\\\", before moving on to themes central to the album, including those of madness, violence, and death. Questions such as \\\"When was the last time you were violent?\\\", followed immediately by \\\"Were you in the right?\\\", were answered in the order they were presented. RoadieRoger \\\"The Hat\\\" Manifold was recorded in a conventional sit-down interview. Waters asked him about a violent encounter he had had with a motorist, and Manifold replied \\\"... give 'em a quick, short, sharp shock ...\\\" Asked about death, he responded, \\\"Live for today, gone tomorrow, that's me ...\\\"Another roadie, Chris Adamson, recorded the words that open the album: \\\"I've been mad for fucking years. Absolutely years. Over the edge... It's working with bands that does it.\\\" The band's road managerPeter Watts(father of the actressNaomi Watts)contributed the repeated laughter during \\\"Brain Damage\\\" and \\\"Speak to Me\\\", as well as the line \\\"I can't think of anything to say\\\". His second wife, Patricia \\\"Puddie\\\" Watts (now Patricia Gleason), was responsible for the line about the \\\"geezer\\\" who was \\\"cruisin' for a bruisin'\\\", used in the segue between \\\"Money\\\" and \\\"Us and Them\\\", and the words \\\"I never said I was frightened of dying\\\" halfway through \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\". Several of the responses – \\\"I am not frightened of dying. Any time will do, I don't mind. Why should I be frightened of dying? There's no reason for it ... you've got to go sometime\\\"; \\\"I know I've been mad, I've always been mad, like most of us have\\\"; and the closing \\\"There is no dark side in the moon really. Matter of fact, it's all dark\\\" – came from the studios' Irish doorman, Gerry O'Driscoll.\\\"The bit you don't hear,\\\" said Parsons, \\\"is that, after that, he said, 'The only thing that makes it look alight is the sun.' The band were too overjoyed with his first line, and it would have been an anticlimax to continue.\\\" PaulandLinda McCartneywere interviewed, but their answers – judged to be \\\"trying too hard to be funny\\\" – were not used.The McCartneys'WingsbandmateHenry McCulloughcontributed the line, \\\"I don't know, I was really drunk at the time.\\\" Completion When the flashcard sessions were finished, producerChris Thomaswas hired to provide \\\"a fresh pair of ears\\\" for the final mix. Thomas's background was in music rather than engineering; he had worked with Beatles producerGeorge Martinand was an acquaintance of Pink Floyd's manager,Steve O'Rourke.The members of the band were said to have disagreed over the mix, with Waters and Mason preferring a \\\"dry\\\" and \\\"clean\\\" mix that made more use of the non-musical elements and Gilmour and Wright preferring a subtler and more \\\"echoey\\\" mix.Thomas said later, \\\"There was no difference in opinion between them, I don't remember Roger once saying that he wanted less echo. In fact, there were never any hints that they were later going to fall out. It was a very creative atmosphere. A lot of fun.\\\" Thomas's intervention resulted in a compromise between Waters and Gilmour, who were both satisfied with the result. Thomas was responsible for significant changes, including the perfect timing of the echo used on \\\"Us and Them\\\". He was also present for the recording of \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\".Waters said in an interview in 2006, when asked if he felt his goals had been accomplished in the studio: When the record was finished I took a reel-to-reel copy home with me and I remember playing it for my wife then, and I remember her bursting into tears when it was finished. And I thought, \\\"This has obviously struck a chord somewhere\\\", and I was kinda pleased by that. You know when you've done something, certainly if you create a piece of music, you then hear it with fresh ears when you play it for somebody else. And at that point I thought to myself, \\\"Wow, this is a pretty complete piece of work\\\", and I had every confidence that people would respond to it. Packaging It felt like the whole band were working together. It was a creative time. We were all very open. – Richard Wright The album was originally released in agatefoldLP sleeve designed byHipgnosisandGeorge Hardie. Hipgnosis had designed several of the band's previous albums, with controversial results; EMI had reacted with confusion when faced with the cover designs forAtom Heart MotherandObscured by Clouds, as they had expected to see traditional designs which included lettering and words. DesignersStorm ThorgersonandAubrey Powellwere able to ignore such criticism, as they were employed by the band. ForThe Dark Side of the Moon, Wright suggested something \\\"smarter, neater – more classy\\\",and simple, \\\"like the artwork of a Black Magic chocolate box\\\". The design was inspired by a photograph of a prism with a beam of white light projected through it and emerging in the colours of thevisible spectrumthat Thorgerson had found in a 1963 physics textbook,as well as by an illustration byAlex Steinweiss, the inventor of album cover art, for theNew York Philharmonic's 1942 performance ofLudwig van Beethoven'sEmperor Concerto.The artwork was created by an associate of Hipgnosis, George Hardie.Hipgnosis offered a choice of seven designs for the sleeve, but all four members of the band agreed that the prism was the best. \\\"There were no arguments,\\\" said Roger Waters. \\\"We all pointed to the prism and said 'That's the one'.\\\" The design depicts a glassprismdispersing white light into colours and represents three elements: the band's stage lighting, the album lyrics, and Wright's request for a \\\"simple and bold\\\" design.At Waters' suggestion, the spectrum of light continues through to the gatefold.Added shortly afterwards, the gatefold design also includes a visual representation of the heartbeat sound used throughout the album, and the back of the album cover contains Thorgerson's suggestion of another prism recombining the spectrum of light, to make possible interesting layouts of the sleeve in record shops.The light band emanating from the prism on the album cover has six colours, missingindigo, compared with the usual division of the visible spectrum into red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Inside the sleeve were two posters and two pyramid-themed stickers. One poster bore pictures of the band in concert, overlaid with scattered letters to form PINK FLOYD, and the other aninfrared photographof theGreat Pyramids of Giza, created by Powell and Thorgerson. The band were so confident of the quality of Waters' lyrics that, for the first time, they printed them on the album's sleeve. Release As the quadraphonic mix of the album was not then complete, the band (with the exception of Wright) boycotted the press reception held at theLondon Planetariumon 27 February.The guests were, instead, presented with a quartet of life-sized cardboard cut-outs of the band, and the stereo mix of the album was played over a poor-qualitypublic address system.Generally, however, the press were enthusiastic;Melody Maker's Roy Hollingworth described Side One as \\\"so utterly confused with itself it was difficult to follow\\\", but praised Side Two, writing: \\\"The songs, the sounds, the rhythms were solid and sound, Saxophone hit the air, the band rocked and rolled, and then gushed and tripped away into the night.\\\"Steve Peacock ofSoundswrote: \\\"I don't care if you've never heard a note of the Pink Floyd's music in your life, I'd unreservedly recommend everyone toThe Dark Side of the Moon\\\".In his 1973 review forRolling Stonemagazine,Loyd GrossmandeclaredDark Side\\\"a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites, but demands involvement\\\".InChristgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies(1981),Robert Christgaufound its lyrical ideas clichéd and its music pretentious, but called it a \\\"kitschmasterpiece\\\" that can be charming with highlights such as taped speech fragments, Parry's saxophone, and studio effects which enhance Gilmour's guitar solos. The Dark Side of the Moonwas released first in the US on 1 March 1973,and then in the UK on 16 March.It became an instant chart success in Britain and throughout Western Europe;by the following month, it had gained agold certificationin the US.Throughout March 1973 the band played the album as part of theirUS tour, including a midnight performance atRadio City Music Hallin New York City on 17 March before an audience of 6,000. The album reached theBillboardTop LPs & Tapechart's number one spot on 28 April 1973,and was so successful that the band returned two months later for another tour. Label Much of the album's early American success is attributed to the efforts of Pink Floyd's US record company,Capitol Records. Newly appointed chairmanBhaskar Menonset about trying to reverse the relatively poor sales of the band's 1971 studio albumMeddle. Meanwhile, disenchanted with Capitol, the band and manager O'Rourke had been quietly negotiating a new contract withCBSpresidentClive Davis, onColumbia Records.The Dark Side of the Moonwas the last album that Pink Floyd were obliged to release before formally signing a new contract. Menon's enthusiasm for the new album was such that he began a huge promotional advertising campaign, which included radio-friendly truncated versions of \\\"Us and Them\\\" and \\\"Time\\\". In some countries – notably the UK – Pink Floyd had not released a single since 1968's \\\"Point Me at the Sky\\\", and unusually \\\"Money\\\" was released as a single on 7 May, with \\\"Any Colour You Like\\\" on theB-side.It reached number 13 on theBillboardHot 100in July 1973.A two-sided white label promotional version of the single, with mono and stereo mixes, was sent to radio stations. The mono side had the word \\\"bullshit\\\" removed from the song – leaving \\\"bull\\\" in its place – however, the stereo side retained the uncensored version. This was subsequently withdrawn; the replacement was sent to radio stations with a note advising disc jockeys to dispose of the first uncensored copy.On 4 February 1974, adouble A-sidesingle was released with \\\"Time\\\" on one side, and \\\"Us and Them\\\" on the opposite side.Menon's efforts to secure a contract renewal with Pink Floyd were in vain however; at the beginning of 1974, the band signed for Columbia with a reported advance fee of $1M (in Britain and Europe they continued to be represented byHarvest Records). Sales The Dark Side of the Moonbecame one of thebest-selling albumsof all timeand is in the top 25 of a list ofbest-sellingalbums in the United States.Although it held the number one spot in the US for only a week, it remained in theBillboard200albums chart for 736 nonconsecutive weeks (from 17 March 1973 to 16 July 1988).Of those first 736 charted weeks, the album had two notable consecutive runs in theBillboard200 chart: 84 weeks (from 17 March 1973 to 19 October 1974) and 593 weeks (from 18 December 1976 to 23 April 1988).It made its final appearance in theBillboard200 albums chart during its initial run on the week ending 8 October 1988, in its 741st charted week.It re-appeared on theBillboardcharts with the introduction of theTop Pop Catalog Albumschart in the issue dated 25 May 1991, and was still a perennial feature ten years later.It reached number one on the Pop Catalog chart when the 2003 hybrid CD/SACDedition was released and sold 800,000 copies in the US.On the week of 5 May 2006The Dark Side of the Moonachieved a combined total of 1,716 weeks on theBillboard200 and Pop Catalog charts. After a change in chart methodology in 2009 which allowed catalogue titles to be included in theBillboard200,The Dark Side of the Moonreturned to the chart at number 189 on 12 December of that year for its 742nd charting week.It has continued to sporadically appear on theBillboard 200since then, with the total at 990 weeks on the chart as of May 2024.\\\"On a slow week\\\" between 8,000 and 9,000 copies are sold.As of April 2013, the album had sold 9,502,000 copies in the US since 1991 whenNielsen SoundScanbegan tracking sales forBillboard.One in every fourteen people in the US under the age of 50 is estimated to own, or to have owned, a copy. The Dark Side of the Moonwas released before the introduction ofplatinum certificationin 1976 byRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA), and therefore held only a gold certification until 16 February 1990, when it was certified 11 times platinum. On 4 June 1998, the RIAA certified the album 15× platinum,denoting sales of fifteen million in the United States. This makes it Pink Floyd's biggest-selling work there;The Wallis 23 times platinum, but as a double album this signifies sales of 11.5 million.\\\"Money\\\" has sold well as a single, and as with \\\"Time\\\", remains a radio favourite; in the US, for the year ending 20 April 2005, \\\"Time\\\" was played on 13,723 occasions, and \\\"Money\\\" on 13,731 occasions.In 2017,The Dark Side of the Moonwas the seventh-bestselling album of all time in the UK and the highest-selling album never to reach number one.As one of theblockbusterLPs of thealbum era(1960s–2000s),The Dark Side of the Moonalso led to an increase in record sales overall into the late 1970s.In 2013, industry sources suggested that worldwide sales ofThe Dark Side of the Moontotalled about 45 million. In 1993, Gilmour attributed the album's success to the combination of music, lyrics and cover art: \\\"All the music before had not had any great lyrical point to it. And this one was clear and concise.\\\"Mason said that, when they finished the album, Pink Floyd felt confident it was their best work to date, but were surprised by its commercial success. He said it was \\\"not only about being a good album but also about being in the right place at the right time\\\". Reissues and remasters In 1979,The Dark Side of the Moonwas released as a remastered LP byMobile Fidelity Sound Lab,and in April 1988 on their \\\"Ultradisc\\\" gold CD format.It was released by EMI and Harvest on CD in Japan in June 1983 andin the US and Europe in August 1984.In 1992, it was rereleased as a remastered CD in the box setShine On.This version was re-released as a 20th-anniversary box set edition with postcards the following year, with a cover design by Thorgerson.On some pressings, an orchestral version of the Beatles' \\\"Ticket to Ride\\\" is faintly audible after \\\"Eclipse\\\" over the closing heartbeats. 30th-anniversary 5.1 surround sound mix A quadraphonic mix,created by Alan Parsons,was commissioned by EMI but never endorsed by Pink Floyd, as Parsons was disappointed with his mix.For the album's 30th anniversary, an updated surround version was released in 2003. The band elected not to use Parsons' quadraphonic mix, and instead had the engineerJames Guthriecreate a new5.1channel surround sound mix on theSACDformat.Guthrie had worked with Pink Floyd since their eleventh album,The Wall, and had previously worked on surround versions ofThe Wallfor DVD-Video and Waters'In the Fleshfor SACD. In 2003, Parsons expressed disappointment with Guthrie's SACD mix, suggesting he was \\\"possibly a little too true to the original mix\\\", but was generally complimentary.The 30th-anniversary edition won four Surround Music Awards in 2003,and sold more than 800,000 copies. The cover image of the 30th-anniversary edition was created by a team of designers including Thorgerson.The image is a photograph of a custom-madestained glasswindow, built to match the dimensions and proportions of the original prism design. Transparent glass, held in place by strips of lead, was used in place of the opaque colours of the original. The idea is derived from the \\\"sense of purity in the sound quality, being 5.1 surround sound ...\\\" The image was created out of a desire to be \\\"the same but different, such that the design was clearly DSotM, still the recognisable prism design, but was different and hence new\\\". Later reissues The Dark Side of the Moonwas rereleased in 2003 on 180-gram virgin vinyl and mastered by Kevin Gray at AcousTech Mastering. It included slightly different versions of the posters and stickers that came with the original vinyl release, along with a new 30th-anniversary poster. In 2007, the album was included inOh, by the Way, a box set celebrating the 40th anniversary of Pink Floyd,and aDRM-free version was released on theiTunes Store.In 2011, it was reissued featuring a remastered version with various other material. In 2023, Pink Floyd released theDark Side of the Moon 50th Anniversarybox set, including a newly remastered edition of the album, surround sound mixes (including the 5.1 mix and a newDolby Atmosmix), a photo book, andThe Dark Side of the Moon Live at Wembley 1974, on vinyl. In 2024, the 50th Anniversary LP edition was rereleased as The Dark Side Of The Moon 50th Anniversary 2 LP UV Printed Clear Vinyl Collector's Edition. The new edition uses 2 clear LP instead of one, just one side is playable so theUV artworkcan be printed on the non-groove side. Legacy It's changed me in many ways, because it's brought in a lot of money, and one feels very secure when you can sell an album for two years. But it hasn't changed my attitude to music. Even though it was so successful, it was made in the same way as all our other albums, and the only criterion we have about releasing music is whether we like it or not. It was not a deliberate attempt to make a commercial album. It just happened that way. We knew it had a lot more melody than previous Floyd albums, and there was a concept that ran all through it. The music was easier to absorb and having girls singing away added a commercial touch that none of our records had. – Richard Wright The success of the album brought wealth to all four members of the band; Richard Wright and Roger Waters bought large country houses, and Nick Mason became a collector of upmarket cars.The group were fans of the British comedy troupeMonty Python, and as such, some of the profits were invested in the production ofMonty Python and the Holy Grail.EngineerAlan Parsonsreceived aGrammy Awardnomination forBest Engineered Recording, Non-ClassicalforThe Dark Side of the Moon,and he went on to have a successful career as a recording artist withthe Alan Parsons Project. Although Waters and Gilmour have on occasion downplayed his contribution to the success of the album, Mason has praised his role.In 2003, Parsons reflected: \\\"I think they all felt that I managed to hang the rest of my career onDark Side of the Moon, which has an element of truth to it. But I still wake up occasionally, frustrated about the fact that they made untold millions and a lot of the people involved in the record didn't.\\\" Part of the legacy ofThe Dark Side of the Moonis its influence on modern music and on the musicians who have performedcover versionsof its songs. It is often seen as a pivotal point in the history of rock music, and comparisons are sometimes made withRadiohead's 1997 albumOK Computer,including a premise explored by Ben Schleifer in 'Speak to Me': The Legacy of Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon(2006) that the two albums share a theme that \\\"the creative individual loses the ability to function in the world\\\". In a 2018 book aboutclassic rock,Steven Hydenrecalls concluding, in his teens, thatThe Dark Side of the MoonandLed Zeppelin IVwere the two greatest albums of the genre,vision quests\\\"encompass the twin poles of teenage desire\\\". They had similarities, in that both albums' cover and internal artwork eschew pictures of the bands in favour of \\\"inscrutable iconography without any tangible meaning (which always seemed to give the music packaged insidemoremeaning)\\\". But whereas Led Zeppelin had looked outward, toward \\\"conquering the world\\\" and were known at the time for their outrageous sexual antics on tour, Pink Floyd looked inward, toward \\\"overcoming your own hang-ups\\\".In 2013,The Dark Side of the Moonwas selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Recording Registryby theLibrary of Congressas \\\"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\\\". Rankings The Dark Side of the Moonfrequently appears on professional rankings of the greatest albums. In 1987,Rolling Stoneranked it the 35th best album of the preceding 20 years.Rolling Stoneranked it number 43 on its 2003 and 2012 lists of the \\\"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\\\"and number 55 in its 2020 list, Pink Floyd's highest placement.BothRolling StoneandQhave listedThe Dark Side of the Moonas the best progressive rock album. In 2006,Australian Broadcasting Corporationviewers votedThe Dark Side of the Moontheir favourite album.NMEreaders voted it the eighth-best album in a 2006 poll,and in 2009,Planet Rocklisteners voted it the greatest of all time.The album is also number two on the \\\"Definitive 200\\\" list of albums, made by theNational Association of Recording Merchandisers\\\"in celebration of the art form of the record album\\\".It ranked 29th inThe Observer's 2006 list of \\\"The 50 Albums That Changed Music\\\",and 37th inThe Guardian's 1997 list of the \\\"100 Best Albums Ever\\\", as voted for by a panel of artists and music critics.In 2014, readers ofRhythmvoted it the seventh most influential progressive drumming album.It was voted number 9 inColin Larkin'sAll Time Top 1000 Albums3rd Edition (2000).In 2007,VH1namedDark Side of the Moonthe fourth-greatest album cover. Covers, tributes and samples Return to the Dark Side of the Moon: A Tribute to Pink Floyd, released in 2006, is a cover album ofThe Dark Side of the Moonfeaturing artists such asAdrian Belew,Tommy Shaw,Dweezil Zappa, andRick Wakeman.In 2000,The SquirrelsreleasedThe Not So Bright Side of the Moon, which features a cover of the entire album.The New York dub collectiveEasy Star All-StarsreleasedDub Side of the Moonin 2003andDubber Side of the Moonin 2010.The group Voices on the Dark Side released the albumDark Side of the Moon a Cappella, a completea cappellaversion of the album.Thebluegrassband Poor Man's Whiskey frequently play the album in bluegrass style, calling the suiteDark Side of the Moonshine.Astring quartetversion of the album was released in 2003.In 2009,the Flaming Lipsreleased atrack-by-track remake of the albumin collaboration withStardeath and White Dwarfs, and featuringHenry RollinsandPeachesas guest musicians. Several notable acts have covered the album live in its entirety, and a range of performers have usedsamplesfromThe Dark Side of the Moonin their own material. Jam-rock bandPhishperformed a semi-improvised version of the entire album as part of their show on 2 November 1998 inWest Valley City, Utah.Progressive metal bandDream Theaterhave twice covered the album in their live shows,and in May 2011Mary FahlreleasedFrom the Dark Side of the Moon, a song-by-song \\\"re-imagining\\\" of the album.Milli Vanilliused the tape loops from Pink Floyd's \\\"Money\\\" to open their track \\\"Money\\\", followed byMarky Mark and the Funky BunchonMusic for the People. The Wizard of Oz In the 1990s, it was discovered that playingThe Dark Side of the Moonalongside the 1939 filmThe Wizard of Ozproduced moments of apparent synchronicity, and it was suggested that this was intentional.Such moments includeDorothybeginning to jog at the lyric \\\"no one told you when to run\\\" during \\\"Time\\\", balancing on a fence,tightrope-style, during the line \\\"balanced on the biggest wave\\\" in \\\"Breathe\\\",and putting her ear to the Tin Man's chest as the album's closing heartbeats are heard.Parsons and members of Pink Floyd denied any connection, with Parsons calling it \\\"a complete load of eyewash ... If you play any record with the sound turned down on the TV, you will find things that work.\\\" The Dark Side of the Moon Redux For the 50th anniversary ofThe Dark Side of the Moon, Waters recorded a new version,The Dark Side of the Moon Redux, released in October 2023.It was recorded with no other members of Pink Floyd,and featuresspoken wordsections and more downbeat arrangements, with no guitar solos. Waters said he wanted to \\\"bring out the heart and soul of the album musically and spiritually\\\".He also said it is intended to be taken from the perspective of an older man, as \\\"not enough people recognised what it's about, what it was I was saying then\\\". Track listing All lyrics are written byRoger Waters. Note Personnel Pink Floyd Additional musicians Production Design Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications and sales *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history See also References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Pablo Picasso Pablo Ruiz Picasso(25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973) was a Spanish painter, sculptor,printmaker,ceramicist, andtheatre designerwho spent most of his adult life inFrance. One of the most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding theCubistmovement, the invention ofconstructed sculpture,the co-invention ofcollage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are theproto-CubistLes Demoiselles d'Avignon(1907) and the anti-war paintingGuernica(1937), a dramatic portrayal of thebombing of Guernicaby German and Italian air forces during theSpanish Civil War. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his early years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood and adolescence. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, and ideas. After 1906, theFauvistwork of the older artistHenri Matissemotivated Picasso to explore more","to explore more radical styles, beginning a fruitful rivalry between the two artists, who subsequently were often paired by critics as the leaders ofmodern art. Picasso's output, especially in his early career, is often periodized. While the names of many of his later periods are debated, the most commonly accepted periods in his work are theBlue Period(1901–1904), theRose Period(1904–1906), theAfrican-influenced Period(1907–1909), AnalyticCubism(1909–1912), and Synthetic Cubism (1912–1919), also referred to as theCrystal period. Much of Picasso's work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in aneoclassicalstyle, and his work in the mid-1920s often has characteristics ofSurrealism. His later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Exceptionally prolific throughout the course of his long life, Picasso achieved universal renown and immense fortune for his revolutionary artistic accomplishments, and became one of the best-known figures in20th-century art. Early life Picasso was born at 23:15 on 25","born at 23:15 on 25 October 1881, in the city ofMálaga, Andalusia, in southern Spain.He was the first child ofDon José Ruiz y Blasco(1838–1913) and María Picasso y López.Picasso's family was of middle-class background. His father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life, Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts and acuratorof a local museum. Picasso's birth certificate and the record of his baptism include very long names, combining those of various saints and relatives.Ruiz y Picassowere his paternal and maternal surnames, respectively, per Spanish custom. The surname \"Picasso\" comes fromLiguria, a coastal region of north-western Italy.Pablo's maternal great-grandfather, Tommaso Picasso, moved to Spain around 1807. Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were \"piz, piz\", a shortening oflápiz, the Spanish word for \"pencil\".From the age of seven, Picasso received formal","received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was a traditional academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters, and drawing the human body from plaster casts and live models. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork. The family moved toA Coruñain 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. They stayed for almost four years. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his unfinished sketch of a pigeon. Observing the precision of his son's technique, an apocryphal story relates, Ruiz felt that the thirteen-year-old Picasso had surpassed him, and vowed to give up painting,though paintings by him exist from later years. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his seven-year-old sister, Conchita, died ofdiphtheria.After her death, the family moved toBarcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city,","in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home.Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, and the jury admitted him, at just 13. As a student, Picasso lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a small room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day, judging his drawings. The two argued frequently. Picasso's father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrid'sReal Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, the country's foremost art school.At age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrollment. Madrid held many other attractions. ThePradohoused paintings byDiego Velázquez,Francisco Goya, andFrancisco Zurbarán. Picasso especially admired the","admired the works ofEl Greco; elements such as his elongated limbs, arresting colours, and mystical visages are echoed in Picasso's later work. Career Before 1900 Picasso's training under his father began before 1890. His progress can be traced in the collection of early works now held by theMuseu PicassoinBarcelona, which provides one of the most comprehensive extant records of any major artist's beginnings.During 1893 the juvenile quality of his earliest work falls away, and by 1894 his career as a painter can be said to have begun.The academic realism apparent in the works of the mid-1890s is well displayed inThe First Communion(1896), a large composition that depicts his sister, Lola. In the same year, at the age of 14, he paintedPortrait of Aunt Pepa, a vigorous and dramatic portrait thatJuan-Eduardo Cirlothas called \"without a doubt one of the greatest in the whole history of Spanish painting.\" In 1897, his realism began to show aSymbolistinfluence, for example, in a series of landscape paintings","landscape paintings rendered in non-naturalistic violet and green tones. What some call his Modernist period (1899–1900) followed. His exposure to the work ofRossetti,Steinlen,Toulouse-LautrecandEdvard Munch, combined with his admiration for favourite old masters such asEl Greco, led Picasso to a personal version of modernism in his works of this period. Picasso made his first trip toParis, then the art capital of Europe, in 1900. There, he met his first Parisian friend, journalist and poetMax Jacob, who helped Picasso learn the language and its literature. Soon they shared an apartment; Max slept at night while Picasso slept during the day and worked at night. These were times of severe poverty, cold, and desperation. Much of his work was burned to keep the small room warm. During the first five months of 1901, Picasso lived inMadrid, where he and hisanarchistfriend Francisco de Asís Soler founded the magazineArte Joven(Young Art), which published five issues. Soler solicited articles and Picasso","and Picasso illustrated the journal, mostly contributing grim cartoons depicting and sympathizing with the state of the poor. The first issue was published on 31 March 1901, by which time the artist had started to sign his workPicasso.From 1898 he signed his works as \"Pablo Ruiz Picasso\", then as \"Pablo R. Picasso\" until 1901. The change does not seem to imply a rejection of the father figure. Rather, he wanted to distinguish himself from others; initiated by his Catalan friends who habitually called him by his maternal surname, much less current than the paternal Ruiz. Blue Period: 1901–1904 Picasso's Blue Period (1901–1904), characterized by sombre paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green only occasionally warmed by other colours, began either in Spain in early 1901 or in Paris in the second half of the year.Many paintings of gaunt mothers with children date from the Blue Period, during which Picasso divided his time betweenBarcelonaand Paris. In his austere use of colour and sometimes doleful","sometimes doleful subject matter—prostitutes and beggars are frequent subjects—Picasso was influenced by a trip through Spain and by the suicide of his friendCarles Casagemas. Starting in autumn of 1901, he painted several posthumous portraits of Casagemas culminating in the gloomy allegorical paintingLa Vie(1903), now in theCleveland Museum of Art. The same mood pervades the well-known etchingThe Frugal Repast(1904),which depicts a blind man and a sighted woman, both emaciated, seated at a nearly bare table. Blindness, a recurrent theme in Picasso's works of this period, is also represented inThe Blindman's Meal(1903, theMetropolitan Museum of Art) and in the portrait ofCelestina(1903). Other Blue Period works includePortrait of SolerandPortrait of Suzanne Bloch. Rose Period: 1904–1906 The Rose Period (1904–1906)is characterized by a lighter tone and style utilizing orange and pink colours and featuring many circus people,acrobatsandharlequinsknown in France as saltimbanques. The harlequin, a comedic","a comedic character usually depicted in checkered patterned clothing, became a personal symbol for Picasso. Picasso metFernande Olivier, abohemianartist who became his mistress, in Paris in 1904.Olivier appears in many of his Rose Period paintings, many of which are influenced by his warm relationship with her, in addition to his increased exposure to French painting. The generally upbeat and optimistic mood of paintings in this period is reminiscent of the 1899–1901 period (i.e., just prior to the Blue Period), and 1904 can be considered a transition year between the two periods. By 1905, Picasso became a favourite of American art collectorsLeoandGertrude Stein. Their older brother Michael Stein and his wife Sarah also became collectors of his work. Picasso painted aportrait of Gertrude Steinand one of her nephewAllan Stein. Gertrude Stein became Picasso's principal patron, acquiring his drawings and paintings and exhibiting them in her informalSalonat her home in Paris.At one of her gatherings in 1905, he","in 1905, he metHenri Matisse, who was to become a lifelong friend and rival. The Steins introduced him toClaribel Coneand her sister Etta, who were American art collectors; they also began to acquire Picasso's and Matisse's paintings. Eventually, Leo Stein moved to Italy. Michael and Sarah Stein became patrons of Matisse, while Gertrude Stein continued to collect Picassos. In 1907, Picasso joined an art gallery that had recently been opened in Paris byDaniel-Henry Kahnweiler, a German art historian and art collector who became one of the premier French art dealers of the 20th century. He was among the first champions of Pablo Picasso,Georges Braqueand theCubismthat they jointly developed. Kahnweiler promoted burgeoning artists such asAndré Derain,Kees van Dongen,Fernand Léger,Juan Gris,Maurice de Vlaminckand several others who had come from all over the globe to live and work inMontparnasseat the time. African art and primitivism: 1907–1909 Picasso's African-influenced Period (1907–1909) begins with his","begins with his paintingLes Demoiselles d'Avignon. The three figures on the left were inspired byIberian sculpture, but he repainted the faces of the two figures on the right after being powerfully impressed by African artefacts he saw in June 1907 in the ethnographic museum atPalais du Trocadéro.When he displayed the painting to acquaintances in his studio later that year, the nearly universal reaction was shock and revulsion; Matisse angrily dismissed the work as a hoax.Picasso did not exhibitLes Demoisellespublicly until 1916. Other works from this period includeNude with Raised Arms(1907) andThree Women(1908). Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that follows.Analyticcubism(1909–1912) is a style of painting Picasso developed withGeorges Braqueusing monochrome brownish and neutral colours. Both artists took apart objects and \"analyzed\" them in terms of their shapes. Picasso and Braque's paintings at this time share many similarities. In Paris, Picasso entertained","Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of friends in theMontmartreandMontparnassequarters, includingAndré Breton, poetGuillaume Apollinaire, writerAlfred JarryandGertrude Stein. In 1911, Picasso was arrested and questioned aboutthe theft of theMona Lisafrom theLouvre. Suspicion for the crime had initially fallen upon Apollinaire due to his links to Géry Pieret, an artist with a history of thefts from the gallery. Apollinaire in turn implicated his close friend Picasso, who had also purchased stolen artworks from the artist in the past. Afraid of a conviction that could result in his deportation to Spain, Picasso denied having ever met Apollinaire. Both were later cleared of any involvement in the painting's disappearance. Synthetic cubism: 1912–1919 Synthetic cubism (1912–1919) was a further development of the genre of cubism, in which cut paper fragments – often wallpaper or portions of newspaper pages – were pasted into compositions, marking the first use ofcollagein fine art. Between 1915 and 1917,","1915 and 1917, Picasso began a series of paintings depicting highly geometric and minimalist Cubist objects, consisting of either a pipe, a guitar or a glass, with an occasional element of collage. \"Hard-edged square-cut diamonds\", notes art historianJohn Richardson, \"these gems do not always have upside or downside\".\"We need a new name to designate them,\" wrote Picasso toGertrude Stein. The term \"Crystal Cubism\" was later used as a result of visual analogies with crystals at the time.These \"little gems\" may have been produced by Picasso in response to critics who had claimed his defection from the movement, through his experimentation with classicism within the so-calledreturn to orderfollowing the war. After acquiring some fame and fortune, Picasso left Olivier for Marcelle Humbert, also known asEva Gouel. Picasso included declarations of his love for Eva in many Cubist works. Picasso was devastated by her premature death from illness at the age of 30 in 1915. At the outbreak ofWorld War Iin August 1914,","Iin August 1914, Picasso was living inAvignon. Braque and Derain were mobilized and Apollinaire joined the French artillery, while the SpaniardJuan Grisremained from the Cubist circle. During the war, Picasso was able to continue painting uninterrupted, unlike his French comrades. His paintings became more sombre and his life changed with dramatic consequences. Kahnweiler's contract had terminated on his exile from France. At this point, Picasso's work would be taken on by the art dealerLéonce Rosenberg. After the loss of Eva Gouel, Picasso had an affair withGaby Lespinasse. During the spring of 1916, Apollinaire returned from the front wounded. They renewed their friendship, but Picasso began to frequent new social circles. Towards the end of World War I, Picasso became involved withSerge Diaghilev'sBallets Russes. Among his friends during this period wereJean Cocteau,Jean Hugo, Juan Gris, and others. In the summer of 1918, Picasso marriedOlga Khokhlova, a ballerina with Sergei Diaghilev's troupe, for whom","troupe, for whom Picasso was designing a ballet, Erik Satie'sParade, in Rome; they spent their honeymoon nearBiarritzin the villa of glamorous Chilean art patronEugenia Errázuriz. Khokhlova introduced Picasso to high society, formal dinner parties, and other dimensions of the life of the rich in 1920s Paris. The two had a son,Paulo Picasso,who would grow up to be a motorcycle racer and chauffeur to his father. Khokhlova's insistence on social propriety clashed with Picasso'sbohemiantendencies and the two lived in a state of constant conflict. During the same period that Picasso collaborated with Diaghilev's troupe, he andIgor Stravinskycollaborated onPulcinellain 1920. Picasso took the opportunity to make several drawings of the composer. In 1927, Picasso met 17-year-oldMarie-Thérèse Walterand began a secret affair with her. Picasso's marriage to Khokhlova soon ended in separation rather than divorce, as French law required an even division of property in the case of divorce, and Picasso did not want","did not want Khokhlova to have half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova's death in 1955. Picasso carried on a long-standing affair with Marie-Thérèse Walter and fathered a daughter with her, named Maya. Marie-Thérèse lived in the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and hanged herself four years after Picasso's death. Neoclassicism and surrealism: 1919–1929 In February 1917, Picasso made his first trip to Italy.In the period following the upheaval of World War I, Picasso produced work in aneoclassicalstyle. This \"return to order\" is evident in the work of many European artists in the 1920s, includingAndré Derain,Giorgio de Chirico,Gino Severini,Jean Metzinger, the artists of theNew Objectivitymovement and of theNovecento Italianomovement. Picasso's paintings and drawings from this period frequently recall the work ofRaphaelandIngres. In 1925 theSurrealistwriter and poetAndré Bretondeclared Picasso as 'one of ours' in his articleLe Surréalisme et la peinture, published","peinture, published inRévolution surréaliste.Les Demoiselleswas reproduced for the first time in Europe in the same issue. Yet Picasso exhibited Cubist works at the first Surrealist group exhibition in 1925; the concept of 'psychic automatism in its pure state' defined in theManifeste du surréalismenever appealed to him entirely. He did at the time develop new imagery and formal syntax for expressing himself emotionally, \"releasing the violence, the psychic fears and the eroticism that had been largely contained or sublimated since 1909\", writes art historian Melissa McQuillan. Although this transition in Picasso's work was informed by Cubism for its spatial relations, \"the fusion of ritual and abandon in the imagery recalls the primitivism of the Demoiselles and the elusive psychological resonances of his Symbolist work\", writes McQuillan. Surrealism revived Picasso's attraction to primitivism and eroticism. The Great Depression,Guernica, and the MoMA exhibition: 1930–1939 During the 1930s,","During the 1930s, theminotaurreplaced theharlequinas a common motif in his work. His use of the minotaur came partly from his contact with the surrealists, who often used it as their symbol, and it appears in Picasso'sGuernica. The minotaur and Picasso's mistressMarie-Thérèse Walterare heavily featured in his celebratedVollard Suiteof etchings. Arguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of the Germanbombing of Guernicaduring theSpanish Civil War–Guernica. This large canvas embodies for many the inhumanity, brutality and hopelessness of war. Asked to explain its symbolism, Picasso said, \"It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them.\" Guernicawas exhibited in July 1937 at the Spanish Pavilion at theParis International Exposition, and then became the centrepiece of an exhibition of 118 works by Picasso,Matisse,BraqueandHenri Laurensthat toured","Laurensthat toured Scandinavia and England. After the victory of Francisco Franco in Spain, the painting was sent to the United States to raise funds and support for Spanish refugees. Until 1981 it was entrusted to the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City, as it was Picasso's expressed desire that the painting should not be delivered to Spain until liberty and democracy had been established in the country. BeforeGuernica, Picasso had never addressed political themes in his art. The politicized nature of the work is largely attributed to his romantic relationship at the time with the French anti-fascist activist andsurrealistphotographer,Dora Maar.In addition, her black and white photographs are likely to have influenced the black and white scheme ofGuernica, in stark contrast to Picasso's usual colorful paintings. “Maar’s practice of photography influenced the art of Picasso – she had a great influence on his work,” said Antoine Romand, a Dora Maar expert. “She contested him. She pushed him to do","pushed him to do something new and to be more creative politically.\"Maar had exclusive access to Picasso's studio to observe and photograph the creation ofGuernica.At Picasso's request, Maar painted parts of the dying horse. In 1939 and 1940, theMuseum of Modern Artin New York City, under its directorAlfred Barr, a Picasso enthusiast, held a major retrospective of Picasso's principal works until that time. This exhibition lionized Picasso, brought into full public view in America the scope of his artistry, and resulted in a reinterpretation of his work by contemporary art historians and scholars.According to Jonathan Weinberg, \"Given the extraordinary quality of the show and Picasso's enormous prestige, generally heightened by the political impact ofGuernica... the critics were surprisingly ambivalent\".Picasso's \"multiplicity of styles\" was disturbing to one journalist; another described him as \"wayward and even malicious\";Alfred Frankenstein's review inARTnewsconcluded that Picasso was both charlatan and","both charlatan and genius. World War II and late 1940s: 1939–1949 DuringWorld War II, Picasso remained in Paris while the Germans occupied the city. Picasso's artistic style did not fit theNazi ideal of art, so he did not exhibit during this time. He was often harassed by theGestapo. During one search of his apartment, an officer saw a photograph of the paintingGuernica. \"Did you do that?\" the German asked Picasso. \"No,\" he replied, \"You did.\" Retreating to his studio, he continued to paint, producing works such as theStill Life with Guitar(1942) andThe Charnel House(1944–48). Although the Germans outlawedbronzecasting in Paris, Picasso continued regardless, using bronze smuggled to him by theFrench Resistance. Around this time,Picasso wrote poetryas an alternative outlet. Between 1935 and 1959 he wrote more than 300 poems. Largely untitled except for a date and sometimes the location of where they were written (for example \"Paris 16 May 1936\"), these works were gustatory, erotic, and at timesscatological,","timesscatological, as were his two full-length plays,Desire Caught by the Tail(1941),The Four Little Girls(1949) andThe Burial of the Count of Orgaz(1959). In 1944, after the liberation of Paris, Picasso, then 63 years old, began a romantic relationship with a young art student namedFrançoise Gilot. She was 40 years younger than he was. Picasso grew tired of his mistressDora Maar; Picasso and Gilot began to live together. Eventually, they had two children:Claude Picasso, born in 1947 andPaloma Picasso, born in 1949. In her 1964 bookLife with Picasso,Gilot describes his abusive treatment and myriad infidelities which led her to leave him, taking the children with her. This was a severe blow to Picasso. Picasso had affairs with women of an even greater age disparity than his and Gilot's. While still involved with Gilot, in 1951 Picasso had a six-week affair withGeneviève Laporte, who was four years younger than Gilot. By his 70s, many paintings, ink drawings and prints have as their theme an old, grotesque","an old, grotesque dwarf as the doting lover of a beautiful young model.Jacqueline Roque(1927–1986) worked at the Madoura Pottery inVallaurison theFrench Riviera, where Picasso made and painted ceramics. She became his lover, and then his second wife in 1961. The two were together for the remainder of Picasso's life. His marriage to Roque was also a means of revenge against Gilot; with Picasso's encouragement, Gilot had divorced her then-husband, Luc Simon, with the plan to marry Picasso to secure the rights of her children as Picasso's legitimate heirs. Picasso had already secretly married Roque, after Gilot had filed for divorce. His strained relationship with Claude and Paloma was never healed. By this time, Picasso had constructed a hugeGothichome, and could afford large villas in the south of France, such as Mas Notre-Dame-de-Vie on the outskirts ofMougins, and in theProvence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. He was an international celebrity, with often as much interest in his personal life as his art. Later works to","art. Later works to final years: 1949–1973 Picasso was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the3rd Sculpture Internationalheld at thePhiladelphia Museum of Artin mid-1949. In the 1950s, Picasso's style changed once again, as he took to producing reinterpretations of the art of the great masters. He made aseriesof works based onVelázquez's painting ofLas Meninas. He also based paintings on works byGoya,Poussin,Manet,CourbetandDelacroix. In addition to his artistic accomplishments, Picasso made a few film appearances, always as himself, including a cameo inJean Cocteau'sTestament of Orpheus(1960). In 1955, he helped make the filmLe Mystère Picasso(The Mystery of Picasso) directed byHenri-Georges Clouzot. He was commissioned to make amaquettefor a huge 50-foot (15 m)-highpublic sculptureto be built in Chicago, known usually as theChicago Picasso. He approached the project with a great deal of enthusiasm, designing a sculpture which was ambiguous and somewhat controversial. Picasso said the figure represented","figure represented the head of anAfghan Houndnamed Kabul.The sculpture, one of the most recognizable landmarks in downtown Chicago, was unveiled in 1967. Picasso refused to be paid $100,000 for it, donating it to the people of the city. Picasso's final works were a mixture of styles, his means of expression in constant flux until the end of his life. Devoting his full energies to his work, Picasso became more daring, his works more colourful and expressive, and from 1968 to 1971 he produced a torrent of paintings and hundreds of copperplate etchings. At the time these works were dismissed by most as pornographic fantasies of an impotent old man or the slapdash works of an artist who was past his prime.Only later, after Picasso's death, when the rest of the art world had moved on fromabstract expressionism, did the critical community come to see the late works of Picasso as prefiguringNeo-Expressionism. Death Pablo Picasso died on 8 April 1973 inMougins, France, frompulmonary edemaand aheart attack, the","aheart attack, the morning after he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinner. He was interred at theChâteau of VauvenarguesnearAix-en-Provence, a property he had acquired in 1958 and occupied with Jacqueline between 1959 and 1962. Jacqueline prevented his children Claude and Paloma from attending the funeral.Devastated and lonely after the death of Picasso, Jacqueline killed herself by gunshot in 1986 when she was 59 years old. Political views Picasso remained aloof from theCatalanindependence movement during his youth, despite expressing general support and being friendly with activists within it.He did not join the armed forces for any side or country duringWorld War I, theSpanish Civil War, or World War II. As a Spanish citizen living in France, Picasso was under no compulsion to fight against the invading Germans in either world war. In 1940, he applied for French citizenship, but it was refused on the grounds of his \"extremist ideas evolving towards communism\". This information was not","information was not revealed until 2003. At the start of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, Picasso was 54 years of age. Soon after hostilities began, the Republicans appointed him \"director of the Prado, albeit in absentia\", and \"he took his duties very seriously\", according to John Richardson, supplying the funds to evacuate the museum's collection to Geneva.The war provided the impetus for Picasso's first overtlypolitical work. He expressed anger and condemnation ofFrancisco Francoand fascists inThe Dream and Lie of Franco(1937), which was produced \"specifically for propagandistic and fundraising purposes\".This surreal fusion of words and images was intended to be sold as a series of postcards to raise funds for theSpanish Republican cause. In 1944, Picasso joined theFrench Communist Party. He attended the 1948World Congress of Intellectuals in Defense of Peacein Poland, and in 1950 received theStalin Peace Prizefrom the Soviet government.A portrait ofJoseph Stalinmade by Picasso in 1953 drew Party criticism","Party criticism due to being insufficiently realistic, though he remained a loyal member of the Communist Party until his death.His dealer,D-H. Kahnweiler, a socialist, termed Picasso's communism \"sentimental\" rather than political, saying \"He has never read a line ofKarl Marx, nor ofEngelsof course.\"In a 1945 interview with Jerome Seckler, Picasso stated: \"I am a Communist and my painting is Communist painting. ... But if I were a shoemaker, Royalist or Communist or anything else, I would not necessarily hammer my shoes in a special way to show my politics.\"His commitment to communism, common amongcontinentalintellectuals and artists at the time, has long been the subject of some controversy; a notable demonstration thereof was a quote bySalvador Dalí(with whom Picasso had a rather strained relationship): Picasso es pintor, yo también; ... Picasso es español, yo también; Picasso es comunista, yo tampoco.(Picasso is a painter, so am I; ... Picasso is a Spaniard, so am I; Picasso is a communist, neither am","neither am I.) In the late 1940s, his old friend surrealist poetAndré Breton, who was aTrotskyistandanti-Stalinist, was more blunt;refusing to shake hands with Picasso, he told him: \"I don't approve of your joining the Communist Party nor with the stand you have taken concerning the purges of the intellectuals after the Liberation.\"As a communist, Picasso opposed the intervention of theUnited Nationsand the United States in theKorean War, and depicted it inMassacre in Korea.The art critic Kirsten Hoving Keen wrote that it was \"inspired by reports of American atrocities\" and considered it one of Picasso's communist works. On 9 January 1949, Picasso createdDove, a black and white lithograph. It was used to illustrate a poster at the 1949World Peace Counciland became an iconographic image of the period, known as \"The dove of peace\". Picasso's image was used around the world as a symbol of the Peace Congresses and communism. In 1962, he received theLenin Peace Prize.Biographer and art criticJohn Bergerfelt his","Bergerfelt his talents as an artist were \"wasted\" by the communists.According toJean Cocteau's diaries, Picasso once said to him in reference to the communists: \"I have joined a family, and like all families, it's full of shit.\" Style and technique Picasso was exceptionally prolific throughout his long lifetime. At his death there were more than 45,000 unsold works in his estate, comprising 1,885 paintings, 1,228 sculptures, 3,222 ceramics, 7,089 drawings, 150 sketchbooks, many thousands of prints, and numerous tapestries and rugs.The most complete – but not exhaustive – catalogue of his works, thecatalogue raisonnécompiled byChristian Zervos, lists more than 16,000 paintings and drawings.Picasso's output was several times more prolific than most artists of his era; by at least one account, American artistBob Rossis the only one to rival Picasso's volume, and Ross's artwork was designed specifically to be easily mass-produced quickly. The medium in which Picasso made his most important contribution was","contribution was painting.In his paintings, Picasso used colour as an expressive element, but relied on drawing rather than subtleties of colour to create form and space.He sometimes added sand to his paint to vary its texture. Ananoprobeof Picasso'sThe Red Armchair(1931), in the collection of theArt Institute of Chicago, by physicists atArgonne National Laboratoryin 2012 confirmed art historians' belief that Picasso used common house paint in many of his paintings.Much of his painting was done at night by artificial light. Picasso's early sculptures were carved from wood or modelled in wax or clay, but from 1909 to 1928 Picasso abandoned modelling and instead made sculptural constructions using diverse materials.An example isGuitar(1912), a relief construction made of sheet metal and wire that Jane Fluegel terms a \"three-dimensional planar counterpart of Cubist painting\" that marks a \"revolutionary departure from the traditional approaches, modeling and carving\". From the beginning of his career, Picasso","his career, Picasso displayed an interest in subject matter of every kind,and demonstrated a great stylistic versatility that enabled him to work in several styles at once. For example, his paintings of 1917 included thepointillistWoman with a Mantilla, the CubistFigure in an Armchair, and the naturalisticHarlequin(all in theMuseu Picasso, Barcelona). In 1919, he made a number of drawings from postcards and photographs that reflect his interest in the stylistic conventions and static character of posed photographs.In 1921 he simultaneously painted several large neoclassical paintings and two versions of the Cubist compositionThree Musicians(Museum of Modern Art, New York; Philadelphia Museum of Art).In an interview published in 1923, Picasso said, \"The several manners I have used in my art must not be considered as an evolution, or as steps towards an unknown ideal of painting ... If the subjects I have wanted to express have suggested different ways of expression I have never hesitated to adopt them.\"","to adopt them.\" Although his Cubist works approach abstraction, Picasso never relinquished the objects of the real world as subject matter. Prominent in his Cubist paintings are forms easily recognized as guitars, violins, and bottles.When Picasso depicted complex narrative scenes it was usually in prints, drawings, and small-scale works;Guernica(1937) is one of his few large narrative paintings. Picasso painted mostly from imagination or memory. According toWilliam Rubin, Picasso \"could only make great art from subjects that truly involved him ... Unlike Matisse, Picasso had eschewed models virtually all his mature life, preferring to paint individuals whose lives had both impinged on, and had real significance for, his own.\"The art criticArthur Dantosaid Picasso's work constitutes a \"vast pictorial autobiography\" that provides some basis for the popular conception that \"Picasso invented a new style each time he fell in love with a new woman\".The autobiographical nature of Picasso's art is reinforced by his","reinforced by his habit of dating his works, often to the day. He explained: \"I want to leave to posterity a documentation that will be as complete as possible. That's why I put a date on everything I do.\" Artistic legacy Picasso's influence was and remains immense and widely acknowledged by his admirers and detractors alike. On the occasion of his 1939 retrospective at MoMA,Lifemagazine wrote: \"During the 25 years he has dominated modern European art, his enemies say he has been a corrupting influence. With equal violence, his friends say he is the greatest artist alive.\"Picasso was the first artist to receive a special honour exhibition at the Grand Gallery of theLouvreMuseum in Paris in celebration of his 90 years.In 1998,Robert Hugheswrote of him: \"To say that Pablo Picasso dominated Western art in the 20th century is, by now, the merest commonplace. ... No painter or sculptor, not even Michelangelo, had been as famous as this in his own lifetime. ... ThoughMarcel Duchamp, that cunning old fox of","cunning old fox of conceptual irony, has certainly had more influence on nominally vanguard art over the past 30 years than Picasso, the Spaniard was the last great beneficiary of the belief that the language of painting and sculpture really mattered to people other than their devotees.\" At the time of Picasso's death many of his paintings were in his possession, as he had kept off the art market what he did not need to sell. In addition, Picasso had a considerable collection of the work of other famous artists, some his contemporaries, such asHenri Matisse, with whom he had exchanged works. Since Picasso left no will, his death duties (estate tax) to the French state were paid in the form of his works and others from his collection. These works form the core of the immense and representative collection of theMusée Picassoin Paris.In 2003, relatives of Picasso inaugurated a museum dedicated to him in his birthplace, Málaga, Spain, theMuseo Picasso Málaga. TheMuseu Picassoin Barcelona features many of his","many of his early works, created while he was living in Spain, including many rarely seen works which reveal his firm grounding in classical techniques. The museum also holds many precise and detailed figure studies done in his youth under his father's tutelage, as well as the extensive collection of Jaime Sabartés, his close friend and personal secretary. Guernicawas on display in New York'sMuseum of Modern Artfor many years. In 1981, it was returned to Spain and was on exhibit at theCasón del Buen Retiroof theMuseo del Prado. In 1992, the painting was put on display in theReina Sofía Museumwhen it opened. In 1985, a museum was established inBuitrago del Lozoyaby Picasso's friend Eugenio Arias Herranz. It was announced on 22 September 2020 that the project for a new Picasso Museum due to open inAix-en-Provencein 2021, in a former convent (Couvent des Prêcheurs), which would have held the largest collection of his paintings of any museum, had been scrapped due to the fact that Catherine Hutin-Blay,Jacqueline","Picasso's daughter, and the City Council had failed to reach an agreement. In the 1996 movieSurviving Picasso, Picasso is portrayed by actorAnthony Hopkins.Picasso is also a character inSteve Martin's 1993 play,Picasso at the Lapin Agile. InA Moveable FeastbyErnest Hemingway, Hemingway tellsGertrude Steinthat he would like to have some Picassos, but cannot afford them. Later in the book, Hemingway mentions looking at one of Picasso's paintings. He refers to it as Picasso's nude of the girl with the basket of flowers, possibly related toYoung Naked Girl with Flower Basket. On 8 October 2010,Picasso: Masterpieces from the Musée National Picasso, Paris,an exhibition of 150 paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints and photographs from the Musée National Picasso in Paris, opened at theSeattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington, US. The exhibition subsequently travelled to theVirginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia: theM.H. de Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, California, US.;theArt Gallery of New South","of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia;and theArt Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. As of 2015, Picasso remained the top-ranked artist (based on sales of his works at auctions) according to the Art Market Trends report.More of his paintings have been stolen than any other artist's;in 2012, theArt Loss Registerhad 1,147 of his works listed as stolen.The Picasso Administration functions as his official Estate. The US copyright representative for the Picasso Administration is theArtists Rights Society. Picasso is played byAntonio Banderasin the2018 seasonofGeniuswhich focuses on his life and art. The Basel vote In the 1940s, a Swiss insurance company based inBaselhad bought two paintings by Picasso to diversify its investments and serve as a guarantee for the insured risks. Following an air disaster in 1967, the company had to pay out heavy reimbursements. The company decided to part with the two paintings, which were deposited in theKunstmuseum Basel. In 1968, a large number of Basel citizens called","citizens called for a local referendum on the purchase of the Picassos by theCanton of Basel-Stadt, which was successful, making it the first time in democratic history that the population of a city voted on the purchase of works of art for a public art museum.The paintings therefore remained in the museum in Basel. Informed of this, Picasso donated three paintings and a sketch to the city and its museum and was later made an honorary citizen by the city. Auction history Several paintings by Picasso rank among themost expensive paintings in the world.Garçon à la pipesold for US$104 million atSotheby'son 4 May 2004.Dora Maar au Chatsold for US$95.2 million at Sotheby's on 3 May 2006.On 4 May 2010,Nude, Green Leaves and Bustwas sold atChristie'sfor US$106.5 million. The 1932 work, which depicts Picasso's mistressMarie-Thérèse Walterreclining and as a bust, was in the personal collection of Los Angeles philanthropist Frances Lasker Brody, who died in November 2009.On 11 May 2015 his paintingWomen of Algiersset","of Algiersset the record for thehighest price ever paid for a paintingwhen it sold for US$179.3 million at Christie's in New York. On 21 June 2016, a painting by Pablo Picasso titledFemme Assise(1909) sold for £43.2 million ($63.4 million) at Sotheby's London, exceeding the estimate by nearly $20 million, setting a world record for the highest price ever paid at auction for a Cubist work. On 17 May 2017,The Jerusalem Postin an article titled \"Picasso Work Stolen By Nazis Sells for $45 Million at Auction\" reported the sale of a portrait painted by Picasso, the 1939Femme assise, robe bleu, which was previously misappropriated during the early years of WWII. The painting has changed hands several times since its recovery, most recently through auction in May 2017 at Christie's in New York City. In March 2018, hisFemme au Béret et à la Robe Quadrillée(1937), a portrait of Marie-Thérèse Walter, sold for £49.8m at Sotheby's in London. Personal life From early adolescence, Picasso maintained both superficial and","superficial and intense amatory and sexual relationships. Biographer John Richardson stated that 'work, sex and tobacco' were his addictions.Picasso was married twice and had four children by three women: Photographer and painterDora Maarwas a constant companion and lover of Picasso. The two were closest in the late 1930s and early 1940s, and it was Maar who documented the painting ofGuernica. The women in Picasso's life played an important role in the emotional and erotic aspects of his creative expression, and the tumultuous nature of these relationships has been considered vital to his artistic process. Many of these women functioned as muses for him, and their inclusion in his extensive oeuvre granted them a place in art history.A largely recurring motif in his body of work is the female form. The variations in his relationships informed and collided with his progression of style throughout his career. For example, portraits created of his first wife, Olga, were rendered in a naturalistic style during","style during hisNeoclassicalperiod. His relationship with Marie-Thérèse Walter inspired many of hissurrealistpieces, as well as what is referred to as his \"Year of Wonders\".Reappearance of acrobats theme in 1905 put an end to his \"Blue Period\" and transitioned into his \"Rose Period\". This transition has been incorrectly attributed to the presence ofFernande Olivierin his life. Picasso has been characterised as a womaniser and a misogynist, being quoted as saying to long-time partner Françoise Gilot that \"women are machines for suffering.\"He later allegedly told her, \"For me there are only two kinds of women: goddesses and doormats.\"In her memoir,Picasso, My Grandfather,Marina Picassowrites of his treatment of women, \"He submitted them to his animal sexuality, tamed them, bewitched them, ingested them, and crushed them onto his canvas. After he had spent many nights extracting their essence, once they were bled dry, he would dispose of them.\" Of the several important women in his life, two – lover","life, two – lover Marie-Thèrése Walter and his second wife Jacqueline Roque – died by suicide. Others, notably his first wife Olga Khokhlova and lover Dora Maar, succumbed to nervous breakdowns. His son, Paulo, developed a fatal alcoholism due to depression. His grandson, Pablito, also died by suicide that same year by ingesting bleach when he was barred byJacqueline Roquefrom attending the artist's funeral. Catalogue raisonné Picasso entrustedChristian Zervosto constitute thecatalogue raisonnéof his work (painted and drawn). The first volume of the catalogue,Works from 1895 to 1906, published in 1932, entailed the financial ruin of Zervos, self-publishing under the nameCahiers d'art, forcing him to sell part of his art collection at auction to avoid bankruptcy. From 1932 to 1978, Zervos constituted the catalogue raisonné of the complete works of Picasso in the company of the artist who had become one of his friends in 1924. Following the death of Zervos, Mila Gagarin supervised the publication of 11","publication of 11 additional volumes from 1970 to 1978. The 33 volumes cover the entire work from 1895 to 1972, with close to 16,000 black and white photographs, in accord with the will of the artist. Further publications by Zervos See also Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading External links","The Dark Side of the Moon The Dark Side of the Moonis the eighth studio album by the English rock bandPink Floyd, released on 1 March 1973, byHarvest Recordsin the UK andCapitol Recordsin the US. Developed during live performances before recording began, it was conceived as aconcept albumthat would focus on the pressures faced by the band during their arduous lifestyle, and also deal with the mental health problems of the former band memberSyd Barrett, who had departed the group in 1968. New material was recorded in two sessions in 1972 and 1973 at EMI Studios (nowAbbey Road Studios) in London. The record builds on ideas explored in Pink Floyd's earlier recordings and performances, while omitting the extended instrumentals that characterised the band's earlier work. The group employedmultitrack recording,tape loops, andanalogue synthesisers, including experimentation with theEMS VCS 3and aSynthi A. The engineerAlan Parsonswas responsible for many of the sonic aspects of the recording, and for the recruitment","for the recruitment of the session singerClare Torry, who appears on \"The Great Gig in the Sky\". The Dark Side of the Moonexplores themes such as conflict, greed, time, death, and mental illness. Snippets from interviews with the band'sroad crewand others are featured alongside philosophical quotations. The sleeve, which depicts aprismaticspectrum, was designed byStorm Thorgersonin response to the keyboardistRichard Wright's request for a \"simple and bold\" design which would represent the band's lighting and the album's themes. The album was promoted with two singles: \"Money\" and \"Us and Them\". The Dark Side of the Moonis among the most critically acclaimed albums and often features in professional listings of the greatest of all time. It brought Pink Floyd international fame, wealth and plaudits to all four band members. Ablockbusterrelease of thealbum era, it also propelled record sales throughout the music industry during the 1970s.The Dark Side of the Moonis certified14x platinumin the United Kingdom,","the United Kingdom, and topped the USBillboardTop LPs & Tapechart, where it has charted for 990 weeks. By 2013,The Dark Side of the Moonhad sold over 45 million copies worldwide, making it the band's best-selling release, the best-selling album of the 1970s, and thefourth-best-selling album in history.In 2012, the album was selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Recording Registryby theLibrary of Congressas being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". It was inducted into theGrammy Hall of Famein 1999. Background FollowingMeddlein 1971,Pink Floydassembled for a tour of Britain, Japan and the United States that December. In a band meeting at the home of the drummer,Nick Mason, in North London, the bassist,Roger Waters, proposed that a new album could form part of the tour. Waters conceived an album that dealt with things that \"make people mad\", focusing on the pressures associated with the band's arduous lifestyle, and dealing with the mental health problems suffered by the","suffered by the former band memberSyd Barrett.The band had explored a similar idea with the 1969 concert suiteThe ManandThe Journey.In an interview forRolling Stone, the guitarist,David Gilmour, said: \"I think we all thought – and Roger definitely thought – that a lot of the lyrics that we had been using were a little too indirect. There was definitely a feeling that the words were going to be very clear and specific.\" The band approved of Waters' concept for an album unified by a single theme,and all the members participated in writing and producing material. Waters createddemo tracksin a small studio in a garden shed at his home inIslington.Parts of the album were taken from previously unused material; the opening line of \"Breathe\" came from an earlier work by Waters andRon Geesin, written for the soundtrack ofThe Body,and the basic structure of \"Us and Them\" was borrowed from an original composition, \"The Violent Sequence\", by the keyboardist,Richard Wright, forZabriskie Point.The band rehearsed at a","band rehearsed at a warehouse in London owned bythe Rolling Stonesand at theRainbow TheatreinFinsbury Park, London. They also purchased extra equipment, which included new speakers, aPA system, a 28-track mixing desk with a four channelquadraphonicoutput, and a custom-built lighting rig. Nine tonnes of kit was transported in threelorries. This would be the first time the band had taken an entire album on tour.The album had been given the provisional title ofDark Side of the Moon(an allusion to lunacy, rather than astronomy).After discovering that title had already been used by another band,Medicine Head, it was temporarily changed toEclipse. The new material was premiered atThe DomeinBrighton, on 20 January 1972,and after the commercial failure of Medicine Head's album the title was changed back to the band's original preference. Dark Side of the Moon: A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, as it was then known,was performed for an assembled press on 17 February 1972 at the Rainbow Theatre, more than a year before","than a year before its release, and was critically acclaimed.Michael Wale ofThe Timesdescribed the piece as \"bringing tears to the eyes. It was so completely understanding and musically questioning.\"Derek JewellofThe Sunday Timeswrote \"The ambition of the Floyd's artistic intention is now vast.\"Melody Makerwas less enthusiastic: \"Musically, there were some great ideas, but the sound effects often left me wondering if I was in a bird-cage at London Zoo.\"The following tour was praised by the public. The new material was performed in the same order in which it was eventually sequenced on the album. Differences included the lack of synthesisers in tracks such as \"On the Run\", andClare Torry's vocals on \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" replaced by readings from the Bible. Pink Floyd'slengthy tourthrough Europe and North America gave them the opportunity to make improvements to the scale and quality of their performances.Work on the album was interrupted in late February when the band travelled to France and recorded","France and recorded music for the French directorBarbet Schroeder's filmLa Vallée.They performed in Japan, returned to France in March to complete work on the film, played more shows in North America, then flew to London and resumed recording in May and June. After more concerts in Europe and North America, the band returned to London on 9 January 1973 to complete the album. Concept The Dark Side of the Moonwas built upon experiments Pink Floyd had attempted in their previous live shows and recordings, although it lacked the extended instrumental excursions which, according to the criticDavid Fricke, had become characteristic of the band following the departure of the founding member Syd Barrett in 1968. Gilmour, Barrett's replacement, later referred to those instrumentals as \"that psychedelic noodling stuff\". He and Waters cited 1971'sMeddleas a turning point towards what would later be realised on the album.The Dark Side of the Moon's lyrical themes include conflict, greed, the passage of time, death and","of time, death and insanity, the last inspired in part by Barrett's deteriorating mental state.The album containsmusique concrèteon several tracks. Each side of the vinyl album is a continuous piece of music. The five tracks on each side reflect various stages of human life, beginning and ending with a heartbeat, exploring the nature of the human experience and, according to Waters, \"empathy\".\"Speak to Me\" and \"Breathe\" together highlight the mundane and futile elements of life that accompany the ever-present threat of madness, and the importance of living one's own life – \"Don't be afraid to care\".By shifting the scene to an airport, the synthesiser-driven instrumental \"On the Run\" evokes the stress and anxiety of modern travel, in particular Wright's fear of flying.\"Time\" examines the manner in which its passage can control one's life and offers a stark warning to those who remain focused on mundane pursuits; it is followed by a retreat into solitude and withdrawal in \"Breathe (Reprise)\". The first side of","The first side of the album ends with Wright and Clare Torry's soulful metaphor for death, \"The Great Gig in the Sky\". \"Money\", the first track on side two, opens with the sound ofcash registersand rhythmically jingling coins. The song mocks greed andconsumerismwith sarcastic lyrics and cash-relatedsound effects. \"Money\" became the band's most commercially successful track and was covered by other artists.\"Us and Them\" addresses the isolation of the depressed with the symbolism ofconflictand the use of simpledichotomiesto describe personal relationships. \"Any Colour You Like\" tackles the illusion of choice one has in society. \"Brain Damage\" looks atmental illnessresulting from the elevation of fame and success above the needs of the self; in particular, the line \"and if the band you're in starts playing different tunes\" reflects the mental breakdown of Syd Barrett. The album ends with \"Eclipse\", which espouses the concepts of otherness and unity, while encouraging the listener to recognise the common traits","the common traits shared by humanity. Recording The Dark Side of the Moonwas recorded at EMI Studios (nowAbbey Road Studios) in approximately 60 daysbetween 31 May 1972 and 9 February 1973. Pink Floyd were assigned the staff engineerAlan Parsons, who had worked as the assistant tape operator on their fifth album,Atom Heart Mother(1970), and had gained experience as a recording engineer onthe BeatlesalbumsAbbey RoadandLet It Be.TheDark Side of the Moonsessions made use ofadvanced studio techniques, as the studio was capable of16-trackmixes which offered greater flexibility than the eight- or four-track mixes Pink Floyd had previously worked with, although the band often used so many tracks that second-generation copies were still needed to make more space available on the tape.The mix supervisorChris Thomasrecalled later, \"There were only two or three tracks of drums when we came to mixing it. Depending on the song, there would be one or two tracks of guitar, and these would include the solo and the rhythm","solo and the rhythm guitar parts. One track for keyboard, one track for bass, and one or two sound effects tracks. They had been very, very efficient in the way they'd worked.\" The first track recorded was \"Us and Them\" on 31 May, followed seven days later by \"Money\".For \"Money\", Waters had created effectsloopsin an unusual74time signaturefrom recordings of money-related objects, including coins thrown into a mixing bowl in his wife's pottery studio. These were re-recorded to take advantage of the band's decision to create a quadraphonic mix of the album, although Parsons later expressed dissatisfaction with the result of this mix, which he attributed to a lack of time and a shortage of multitrack tape recorders. \"Time\" and \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" were recorded next, followed by a two-month break, during which the band spent time with their families and prepared for a tour of the United States.The recording sessions were frequently interrupted: Waters, a supporter ofArsenal F.C., would break to see his","break to see his team compete, and the band would occasionally stop to watchMonty Python's Flying Circuson television while Parsons worked on the tracks.Gilmour recalled, \"...but when we were on a roll, we would get on.\" After returning from the US in January 1973, they recorded \"Brain Damage\", \"Eclipse\", \"Any Colour You Like\" and \"On the Run\", and fine-tuned work from previous sessions. Four female vocalists were assembled to sing on \"Brain Damage\", \"Eclipse\" and \"Time\", and the saxophonistDick Parrywas booked to play on \"Us and Them\" and \"Money\". With the director Adrian Maben, the band also filmed studio footage forPink Floyd: Live at Pompeii.The album was completed and signed off at Abbey Road on 9 February 1973.Gilmour recalled the band listening to the finished album for the first time as \"a moment of great joy and of satisfaction and the feeling of achievement that we'd really gone that extra mile\". Instrumentation The album features metronomic sound effects during \"Speak to Me\" and tape loops for the","tape loops for the opening of \"Money\". Mason created a rough version of \"Speak to Me\" at his home before completing it in the studio. The track serves as anovertureand contains cross-fades of elements from other pieces on the album. A piano chord, replayed backwards, serves to augment the build-up of effects, which are immediately followed by the opening of \"Breathe\". Mason received a rare solo composing credit for \"Speak to Me\". The sound effects on \"Money\" were created by splicing together Waters' recordings of clinking coins, tearing paper, a ringing cash register, and a clicking adding machine, which were used to create a 7-beateffects loop. This was later adapted to four tracks to create a \"walk around the room\" effect in quadraphonic presentations of the album.At times, the degree of sonic experimentation on the album required the studio engineers and all four band members to operate the mixing console's faders simultaneously, in order to mix down the intricately assembled multitrack recordings of","recordings of several of the songs, particularly \"On the Run\". Along with conventional rock band instrumentation, Pink Floyd introduced prominent synthesisers to their sound. The band experimented with anEMS VCS 3on \"Brain Damage\" and \"Any Colour You Like\", and aSynthi Aon \"Time\" and \"On the Run\". They also devised and recorded unconventional sounds, such as assistant engineer Peter Jamesrunning around the studio's echo chamber during \"On the Run\",and a specially treatedbass drummade to simulate a humanheartbeatduring \"Speak to Me\", \"On the Run\", \"Time\" and \"Eclipse\". This heartbeat is most prominent in the intro and the outro to the album, but it can also be heard sporadically on \"Time\" and \"On the Run\".\"Time\" features assorted clocks ticking, then chiming simultaneously at the start of the song, accompanied by a series ofRototoms. The recordings were initially created as a quadraphonic test by Parsons, who recorded each timepiece at an antique clock shop.Although these recordings had not been created","not been created specifically for the album, elements of this material were eventually used in the track. Voices Several tracks, including \"Us and Them\" and \"Time\", demonstrated Wright's and Gilmour's ability to harmonise their similar-sounding voices, and the engineer Alan Parsons used techniques such asdouble trackingvocals and guitars, which allowed Gilmour to harmonise with himself. Prominent use was also made offlangingand phase-shifting on vocals and instruments, odd trickery withreverb,and the panning of sounds between channels, most notably in thequadraphonicmix of \"On the Run\", where the sound of theHammond B3organ played through aLeslie speakerswirls around the listener. Wright's \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" featuresClare Torry, a session singer and songwriter and a regular at Abbey Road. Parsons liked her voice, and when the band decided to use a female vocalist he suggested that she could sing on the track. The band explained the album concept to her, but they were unable to tell her exactly what","her exactly what she should do, and Gilmour, who was in charge of the session, asked her to try to express emotions rather than sing words.In a few takes on a Sunday night, Torry improvised a wordless melody to accompany Wright's emotive piano solo. She was initially embarrassed by her exuberance in the recording booth and wanted to apologise to the band, who were impressed with her performance but did not tell her so.Her takes were edited to produce the version used on the track.She left the studio under the impression that her vocals would not make the final cut,and she only became aware that she had been included in the final mix when she picked up the album at a local record store and saw her name in the credits.For her contribution she was paid her standard session feeof £30,equivalent to about £500 in 2024. In 2004, Torry suedEMIand Pink Floyd for 50% of the songwritingroyalties, arguing that her contribution to \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" was substantial enough to be considered co-authorship. The case","The case was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, with all post-2005 pressings crediting Wright and Torry jointly. In the final week of recording,Waters asked staff and others at Abbey Road to respond to questions printed onflashcardsand some of their replies were edited into the final mix. The interviewees were placed in front of a microphone in a darkened Studio 3and shown such questions as \"What's your favourite colour?\" and \"What's your favourite food?\", before moving on to themes central to the album, including those of madness, violence, and death. Questions such as \"When was the last time you were violent?\", followed immediately by \"Were you in the right?\", were answered in the order they were presented. RoadieRoger \"The Hat\" Manifold was recorded in a conventional sit-down interview. Waters asked him about a violent encounter he had had with a motorist, and Manifold replied \"... give 'em a quick, short, sharp shock ...\" Asked about death, he responded, \"Live for today, gone tomorrow, that's","tomorrow, that's me ...\"Another roadie, Chris Adamson, recorded the words that open the album: \"I've been mad for fucking years. Absolutely years. Over the edge... It's working with bands that does it.\" The band's road managerPeter Watts(father of the actressNaomi Watts)contributed the repeated laughter during \"Brain Damage\" and \"Speak to Me\", as well as the line \"I can't think of anything to say\". His second wife, Patricia \"Puddie\" Watts (now Patricia Gleason), was responsible for the line about the \"geezer\" who was \"cruisin' for a bruisin'\", used in the segue between \"Money\" and \"Us and Them\", and the words \"I never said I was frightened of dying\" halfway through \"The Great Gig in the Sky\". Several of the responses – \"I am not frightened of dying. Any time will do, I don't mind. Why should I be frightened of dying? There's no reason for it ... you've got to go sometime\"; \"I know I've been mad, I've always been mad, like most of us have\"; and the closing \"There is no dark side in the moon really. Matter of","really. Matter of fact, it's all dark\" – came from the studios' Irish doorman, Gerry O'Driscoll.\"The bit you don't hear,\" said Parsons, \"is that, after that, he said, 'The only thing that makes it look alight is the sun.' The band were too overjoyed with his first line, and it would have been an anticlimax to continue.\" PaulandLinda McCartneywere interviewed, but their answers – judged to be \"trying too hard to be funny\" – were not used.The McCartneys'WingsbandmateHenry McCulloughcontributed the line, \"I don't know, I was really drunk at the time.\" Completion When the flashcard sessions were finished, producerChris Thomaswas hired to provide \"a fresh pair of ears\" for the final mix. Thomas's background was in music rather than engineering; he had worked with Beatles producerGeorge Martinand was an acquaintance of Pink Floyd's manager,Steve O'Rourke.The members of the band were said to have disagreed over the mix, with Waters and Mason preferring a \"dry\" and \"clean\" mix that made more use of the non-musical","of the non-musical elements and Gilmour and Wright preferring a subtler and more \"echoey\" mix.Thomas said later, \"There was no difference in opinion between them, I don't remember Roger once saying that he wanted less echo. In fact, there were never any hints that they were later going to fall out. It was a very creative atmosphere. A lot of fun.\" Thomas's intervention resulted in a compromise between Waters and Gilmour, who were both satisfied with the result. Thomas was responsible for significant changes, including the perfect timing of the echo used on \"Us and Them\". He was also present for the recording of \"The Great Gig in the Sky\".Waters said in an interview in 2006, when asked if he felt his goals had been accomplished in the studio: When the record was finished I took a reel-to-reel copy home with me and I remember playing it for my wife then, and I remember her bursting into tears when it was finished. And I thought, \"This has obviously struck a chord somewhere\", and I was kinda pleased by that.","pleased by that. You know when you've done something, certainly if you create a piece of music, you then hear it with fresh ears when you play it for somebody else. And at that point I thought to myself, \"Wow, this is a pretty complete piece of work\", and I had every confidence that people would respond to it. Packaging It felt like the whole band were working together. It was a creative time. We were all very open. – Richard Wright The album was originally released in agatefoldLP sleeve designed byHipgnosisandGeorge Hardie. Hipgnosis had designed several of the band's previous albums, with controversial results; EMI had reacted with confusion when faced with the cover designs forAtom Heart MotherandObscured by Clouds, as they had expected to see traditional designs which included lettering and words. DesignersStorm ThorgersonandAubrey Powellwere able to ignore such criticism, as they were employed by the band. ForThe Dark Side of the Moon, Wright suggested something \"smarter, neater – more classy\",and","– more classy\",and simple, \"like the artwork of a Black Magic chocolate box\". The design was inspired by a photograph of a prism with a beam of white light projected through it and emerging in the colours of thevisible spectrumthat Thorgerson had found in a 1963 physics textbook,as well as by an illustration byAlex Steinweiss, the inventor of album cover art, for theNew York Philharmonic's 1942 performance ofLudwig van Beethoven'sEmperor Concerto.The artwork was created by an associate of Hipgnosis, George Hardie.Hipgnosis offered a choice of seven designs for the sleeve, but all four members of the band agreed that the prism was the best. \"There were no arguments,\" said Roger Waters. \"We all pointed to the prism and said 'That's the one'.\" The design depicts a glassprismdispersing white light into colours and represents three elements: the band's stage lighting, the album lyrics, and Wright's request for a \"simple and bold\" design.At Waters' suggestion, the spectrum of light continues through to the","through to the gatefold.Added shortly afterwards, the gatefold design also includes a visual representation of the heartbeat sound used throughout the album, and the back of the album cover contains Thorgerson's suggestion of another prism recombining the spectrum of light, to make possible interesting layouts of the sleeve in record shops.The light band emanating from the prism on the album cover has six colours, missingindigo, compared with the usual division of the visible spectrum into red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Inside the sleeve were two posters and two pyramid-themed stickers. One poster bore pictures of the band in concert, overlaid with scattered letters to form PINK FLOYD, and the other aninfrared photographof theGreat Pyramids of Giza, created by Powell and Thorgerson. The band were so confident of the quality of Waters' lyrics that, for the first time, they printed them on the album's sleeve. Release As the quadraphonic mix of the album was not then complete, the band","complete, the band (with the exception of Wright) boycotted the press reception held at theLondon Planetariumon 27 February.The guests were, instead, presented with a quartet of life-sized cardboard cut-outs of the band, and the stereo mix of the album was played over a poor-qualitypublic address system.Generally, however, the press were enthusiastic;Melody Maker's Roy Hollingworth described Side One as \"so utterly confused with itself it was difficult to follow\", but praised Side Two, writing: \"The songs, the sounds, the rhythms were solid and sound, Saxophone hit the air, the band rocked and rolled, and then gushed and tripped away into the night.\"Steve Peacock ofSoundswrote: \"I don't care if you've never heard a note of the Pink Floyd's music in your life, I'd unreservedly recommend everyone toThe Dark Side of the Moon\".In his 1973 review forRolling Stonemagazine,Loyd GrossmandeclaredDark Side\"a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites, but demands","but demands involvement\".InChristgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies(1981),Robert Christgaufound its lyrical ideas clichéd and its music pretentious, but called it a \"kitschmasterpiece\" that can be charming with highlights such as taped speech fragments, Parry's saxophone, and studio effects which enhance Gilmour's guitar solos. The Dark Side of the Moonwas released first in the US on 1 March 1973,and then in the UK on 16 March.It became an instant chart success in Britain and throughout Western Europe;by the following month, it had gained agold certificationin the US.Throughout March 1973 the band played the album as part of theirUS tour, including a midnight performance atRadio City Music Hallin New York City on 17 March before an audience of 6,000. The album reached theBillboardTop LPs & Tapechart's number one spot on 28 April 1973,and was so successful that the band returned two months later for another tour. Label Much of the album's early American success is attributed to the efforts of","to the efforts of Pink Floyd's US record company,Capitol Records. Newly appointed chairmanBhaskar Menonset about trying to reverse the relatively poor sales of the band's 1971 studio albumMeddle. Meanwhile, disenchanted with Capitol, the band and manager O'Rourke had been quietly negotiating a new contract withCBSpresidentClive Davis, onColumbia Records.The Dark Side of the Moonwas the last album that Pink Floyd were obliged to release before formally signing a new contract. Menon's enthusiasm for the new album was such that he began a huge promotional advertising campaign, which included radio-friendly truncated versions of \"Us and Them\" and \"Time\". In some countries – notably the UK – Pink Floyd had not released a single since 1968's \"Point Me at the Sky\", and unusually \"Money\" was released as a single on 7 May, with \"Any Colour You Like\" on theB-side.It reached number 13 on theBillboardHot 100in July 1973.A two-sided white label promotional version of the single, with mono and stereo mixes, was sent to","mixes, was sent to radio stations. The mono side had the word \"bullshit\" removed from the song – leaving \"bull\" in its place – however, the stereo side retained the uncensored version. This was subsequently withdrawn; the replacement was sent to radio stations with a note advising disc jockeys to dispose of the first uncensored copy.On 4 February 1974, adouble A-sidesingle was released with \"Time\" on one side, and \"Us and Them\" on the opposite side.Menon's efforts to secure a contract renewal with Pink Floyd were in vain however; at the beginning of 1974, the band signed for Columbia with a reported advance fee of $1M (in Britain and Europe they continued to be represented byHarvest Records). Sales The Dark Side of the Moonbecame one of thebest-selling albumsof all timeand is in the top 25 of a list ofbest-sellingalbums in the United States.Although it held the number one spot in the US for only a week, it remained in theBillboard200albums chart for 736 nonconsecutive weeks (from 17 March 1973 to 16 July","1973 to 16 July 1988).Of those first 736 charted weeks, the album had two notable consecutive runs in theBillboard200 chart: 84 weeks (from 17 March 1973 to 19 October 1974) and 593 weeks (from 18 December 1976 to 23 April 1988).It made its final appearance in theBillboard200 albums chart during its initial run on the week ending 8 October 1988, in its 741st charted week.It re-appeared on theBillboardcharts with the introduction of theTop Pop Catalog Albumschart in the issue dated 25 May 1991, and was still a perennial feature ten years later.It reached number one on the Pop Catalog chart when the 2003 hybrid CD/SACDedition was released and sold 800,000 copies in the US.On the week of 5 May 2006The Dark Side of the Moonachieved a combined total of 1,716 weeks on theBillboard200 and Pop Catalog charts. After a change in chart methodology in 2009 which allowed catalogue titles to be included in theBillboard200,The Dark Side of the Moonreturned to the chart at number 189 on 12 December of that year for its","that year for its 742nd charting week.It has continued to sporadically appear on theBillboard 200since then, with the total at 990 weeks on the chart as of May 2024.\"On a slow week\" between 8,000 and 9,000 copies are sold.As of April 2013, the album had sold 9,502,000 copies in the US since 1991 whenNielsen SoundScanbegan tracking sales forBillboard.One in every fourteen people in the US under the age of 50 is estimated to own, or to have owned, a copy. The Dark Side of the Moonwas released before the introduction ofplatinum certificationin 1976 byRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA), and therefore held only a gold certification until 16 February 1990, when it was certified 11 times platinum. On 4 June 1998, the RIAA certified the album 15× platinum,denoting sales of fifteen million in the United States. This makes it Pink Floyd's biggest-selling work there;The Wallis 23 times platinum, but as a double album this signifies sales of 11.5 million.\"Money\" has sold well as a single, and as with","single, and as with \"Time\", remains a radio favourite; in the US, for the year ending 20 April 2005, \"Time\" was played on 13,723 occasions, and \"Money\" on 13,731 occasions.In 2017,The Dark Side of the Moonwas the seventh-bestselling album of all time in the UK and the highest-selling album never to reach number one.As one of theblockbusterLPs of thealbum era(1960s–2000s),The Dark Side of the Moonalso led to an increase in record sales overall into the late 1970s.In 2013, industry sources suggested that worldwide sales ofThe Dark Side of the Moontotalled about 45 million. In 1993, Gilmour attributed the album's success to the combination of music, lyrics and cover art: \"All the music before had not had any great lyrical point to it. And this one was clear and concise.\"Mason said that, when they finished the album, Pink Floyd felt confident it was their best work to date, but were surprised by its commercial success. He said it was \"not only about being a good album but also about being in the right place at","the right place at the right time\". Reissues and remasters In 1979,The Dark Side of the Moonwas released as a remastered LP byMobile Fidelity Sound Lab,and in April 1988 on their \"Ultradisc\" gold CD format.It was released by EMI and Harvest on CD in Japan in June 1983 andin the US and Europe in August 1984.In 1992, it was rereleased as a remastered CD in the box setShine On.This version was re-released as a 20th-anniversary box set edition with postcards the following year, with a cover design by Thorgerson.On some pressings, an orchestral version of the Beatles' \"Ticket to Ride\" is faintly audible after \"Eclipse\" over the closing heartbeats. 30th-anniversary 5.1 surround sound mix A quadraphonic mix,created by Alan Parsons,was commissioned by EMI but never endorsed by Pink Floyd, as Parsons was disappointed with his mix.For the album's 30th anniversary, an updated surround version was released in 2003. The band elected not to use Parsons' quadraphonic mix, and instead had the engineerJames Guthriecreate a","Guthriecreate a new5.1channel surround sound mix on theSACDformat.Guthrie had worked with Pink Floyd since their eleventh album,The Wall, and had previously worked on surround versions ofThe Wallfor DVD-Video and Waters'In the Fleshfor SACD. In 2003, Parsons expressed disappointment with Guthrie's SACD mix, suggesting he was \"possibly a little too true to the original mix\", but was generally complimentary.The 30th-anniversary edition won four Surround Music Awards in 2003,and sold more than 800,000 copies. The cover image of the 30th-anniversary edition was created by a team of designers including Thorgerson.The image is a photograph of a custom-madestained glasswindow, built to match the dimensions and proportions of the original prism design. Transparent glass, held in place by strips of lead, was used in place of the opaque colours of the original. The idea is derived from the \"sense of purity in the sound quality, being 5.1 surround sound ...\" The image was created out of a desire to be \"the same but","to be \"the same but different, such that the design was clearly DSotM, still the recognisable prism design, but was different and hence new\". Later reissues The Dark Side of the Moonwas rereleased in 2003 on 180-gram virgin vinyl and mastered by Kevin Gray at AcousTech Mastering. It included slightly different versions of the posters and stickers that came with the original vinyl release, along with a new 30th-anniversary poster. In 2007, the album was included inOh, by the Way, a box set celebrating the 40th anniversary of Pink Floyd,and aDRM-free version was released on theiTunes Store.In 2011, it was reissued featuring a remastered version with various other material. In 2023, Pink Floyd released theDark Side of the Moon 50th Anniversarybox set, including a newly remastered edition of the album, surround sound mixes (including the 5.1 mix and a newDolby Atmosmix), a photo book, andThe Dark Side of the Moon Live at Wembley 1974, on vinyl. In 2024, the 50th Anniversary LP edition was rereleased as The Dark","as The Dark Side Of The Moon 50th Anniversary 2 LP UV Printed Clear Vinyl Collector's Edition. The new edition uses 2 clear LP instead of one, just one side is playable so theUV artworkcan be printed on the non-groove side. Legacy It's changed me in many ways, because it's brought in a lot of money, and one feels very secure when you can sell an album for two years. But it hasn't changed my attitude to music. Even though it was so successful, it was made in the same way as all our other albums, and the only criterion we have about releasing music is whether we like it or not. It was not a deliberate attempt to make a commercial album. It just happened that way. We knew it had a lot more melody than previous Floyd albums, and there was a concept that ran all through it. The music was easier to absorb and having girls singing away added a commercial touch that none of our records had. – Richard Wright The success of the album brought wealth to all four members of the band; Richard Wright and Roger Waters","and Roger Waters bought large country houses, and Nick Mason became a collector of upmarket cars.The group were fans of the British comedy troupeMonty Python, and as such, some of the profits were invested in the production ofMonty Python and the Holy Grail.EngineerAlan Parsonsreceived aGrammy Awardnomination forBest Engineered Recording, Non-ClassicalforThe Dark Side of the Moon,and he went on to have a successful career as a recording artist withthe Alan Parsons Project. Although Waters and Gilmour have on occasion downplayed his contribution to the success of the album, Mason has praised his role.In 2003, Parsons reflected: \"I think they all felt that I managed to hang the rest of my career onDark Side of the Moon, which has an element of truth to it. But I still wake up occasionally, frustrated about the fact that they made untold millions and a lot of the people involved in the record didn't.\" Part of the legacy ofThe Dark Side of the Moonis its influence on modern music and on the musicians who have","musicians who have performedcover versionsof its songs. It is often seen as a pivotal point in the history of rock music, and comparisons are sometimes made withRadiohead's 1997 albumOK Computer,including a premise explored by Ben Schleifer in 'Speak to Me': The Legacy of Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon(2006) that the two albums share a theme that \"the creative individual loses the ability to function in the world\". In a 2018 book aboutclassic rock,Steven Hydenrecalls concluding, in his teens, thatThe Dark Side of the MoonandLed Zeppelin IVwere the two greatest albums of the genre,vision quests\"encompass the twin poles of teenage desire\". They had similarities, in that both albums' cover and internal artwork eschew pictures of the bands in favour of \"inscrutable iconography without any tangible meaning (which always seemed to give the music packaged insidemoremeaning)\". But whereas Led Zeppelin had looked outward, toward \"conquering the world\" and were known at the time for their outrageous sexual","outrageous sexual antics on tour, Pink Floyd looked inward, toward \"overcoming your own hang-ups\".In 2013,The Dark Side of the Moonwas selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Recording Registryby theLibrary of Congressas \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Rankings The Dark Side of the Moonfrequently appears on professional rankings of the greatest albums. In 1987,Rolling Stoneranked it the 35th best album of the preceding 20 years.Rolling Stoneranked it number 43 on its 2003 and 2012 lists of the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\"and number 55 in its 2020 list, Pink Floyd's highest placement.BothRolling StoneandQhave listedThe Dark Side of the Moonas the best progressive rock album. In 2006,Australian Broadcasting Corporationviewers votedThe Dark Side of the Moontheir favourite album.NMEreaders voted it the eighth-best album in a 2006 poll,and in 2009,Planet Rocklisteners voted it the greatest of all time.The album is also number two on the \"Definitive 200\" list of","200\" list of albums, made by theNational Association of Recording Merchandisers\"in celebration of the art form of the record album\".It ranked 29th inThe Observer's 2006 list of \"The 50 Albums That Changed Music\",and 37th inThe Guardian's 1997 list of the \"100 Best Albums Ever\", as voted for by a panel of artists and music critics.In 2014, readers ofRhythmvoted it the seventh most influential progressive drumming album.It was voted number 9 inColin Larkin'sAll Time Top 1000 Albums3rd Edition (2000).In 2007,VH1namedDark Side of the Moonthe fourth-greatest album cover. Covers, tributes and samples Return to the Dark Side of the Moon: A Tribute to Pink Floyd, released in 2006, is a cover album ofThe Dark Side of the Moonfeaturing artists such asAdrian Belew,Tommy Shaw,Dweezil Zappa, andRick Wakeman.In 2000,The SquirrelsreleasedThe Not So Bright Side of the Moon, which features a cover of the entire album.The New York dub collectiveEasy Star All-StarsreleasedDub Side of the Moonin 2003andDubber Side of the Moonin","Side of the Moonin 2010.The group Voices on the Dark Side released the albumDark Side of the Moon a Cappella, a completea cappellaversion of the album.Thebluegrassband Poor Man's Whiskey frequently play the album in bluegrass style, calling the suiteDark Side of the Moonshine.Astring quartetversion of the album was released in 2003.In 2009,the Flaming Lipsreleased atrack-by-track remake of the albumin collaboration withStardeath and White Dwarfs, and featuringHenry RollinsandPeachesas guest musicians. Several notable acts have covered the album live in its entirety, and a range of performers have usedsamplesfromThe Dark Side of the Moonin their own material. Jam-rock bandPhishperformed a semi-improvised version of the entire album as part of their show on 2 November 1998 inWest Valley City, Utah.Progressive metal bandDream Theaterhave twice covered the album in their live shows,and in May 2011Mary FahlreleasedFrom the Dark Side of the Moon, a song-by-song \"re-imagining\" of the album.Milli Vanilliused the","Vanilliused the tape loops from Pink Floyd's \"Money\" to open their track \"Money\", followed byMarky Mark and the Funky BunchonMusic for the People. The Wizard of Oz In the 1990s, it was discovered that playingThe Dark Side of the Moonalongside the 1939 filmThe Wizard of Ozproduced moments of apparent synchronicity, and it was suggested that this was intentional.Such moments includeDorothybeginning to jog at the lyric \"no one told you when to run\" during \"Time\", balancing on a fence,tightrope-style, during the line \"balanced on the biggest wave\" in \"Breathe\",and putting her ear to the Tin Man's chest as the album's closing heartbeats are heard.Parsons and members of Pink Floyd denied any connection, with Parsons calling it \"a complete load of eyewash ... If you play any record with the sound turned down on the TV, you will find things that work.\" The Dark Side of the Moon Redux For the 50th anniversary ofThe Dark Side of the Moon, Waters recorded a new version,The Dark Side of the Moon Redux, released in","Redux, released in October 2023.It was recorded with no other members of Pink Floyd,and featuresspoken wordsections and more downbeat arrangements, with no guitar solos. Waters said he wanted to \"bring out the heart and soul of the album musically and spiritually\".He also said it is intended to be taken from the perspective of an older man, as \"not enough people recognised what it's about, what it was I was saying then\". Track listing All lyrics are written byRoger Waters. Note Personnel Pink Floyd Additional musicians Production Design Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications and sales *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history See also References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Pablo Picasso Pablo Ruiz Picasso(25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973) was a Spanish painter, sculptor,printmaker,ceramicist, andtheatre designerwho spent most of his adult life inFrance. One of the most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding theCubistmovement, the invention ofconstructed sculpture,the co-invention ofcollage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are theproto-CubistLes Demoiselles d'Avignon(1907) and the anti-war paintingGuernica(1937), a dramatic portrayal of thebombing of Guernicaby German and Italian air forces during theSpanish Civil War. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his early years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood and adolescence. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, and ideas. After 1906, theFauvistwork of the older artistHenri Matissemotivated Picasso to explore more\",\n \"to explore more radical styles, beginning a fruitful rivalry between the two artists, who subsequently were often paired by critics as the leaders ofmodern art. Picasso's output, especially in his early career, is often periodized. While the names of many of his later periods are debated, the most commonly accepted periods in his work are theBlue Period(1901–1904), theRose Period(1904–1906), theAfrican-influenced Period(1907–1909), AnalyticCubism(1909–1912), and Synthetic Cubism (1912–1919), also referred to as theCrystal period. Much of Picasso's work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in aneoclassicalstyle, and his work in the mid-1920s often has characteristics ofSurrealism. His later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Exceptionally prolific throughout the course of his long life, Picasso achieved universal renown and immense fortune for his revolutionary artistic accomplishments, and became one of the best-known figures in20th-century art. Early life Picasso was born at 23:15 on 25\",\n \"born at 23:15 on 25 October 1881, in the city ofMálaga, Andalusia, in southern Spain.He was the first child ofDon José Ruiz y Blasco(1838–1913) and María Picasso y López.Picasso's family was of middle-class background. His father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life, Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts and acuratorof a local museum. Picasso's birth certificate and the record of his baptism include very long names, combining those of various saints and relatives.Ruiz y Picassowere his paternal and maternal surnames, respectively, per Spanish custom. The surname \\\"Picasso\\\" comes fromLiguria, a coastal region of north-western Italy.Pablo's maternal great-grandfather, Tommaso Picasso, moved to Spain around 1807. Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were \\\"piz, piz\\\", a shortening oflápiz, the Spanish word for \\\"pencil\\\".From the age of seven, Picasso received formal\",\n \"received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was a traditional academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters, and drawing the human body from plaster casts and live models. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork. The family moved toA Coruñain 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. They stayed for almost four years. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his unfinished sketch of a pigeon. Observing the precision of his son's technique, an apocryphal story relates, Ruiz felt that the thirteen-year-old Picasso had surpassed him, and vowed to give up painting,though paintings by him exist from later years. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his seven-year-old sister, Conchita, died ofdiphtheria.After her death, the family moved toBarcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city,\",\n \"in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home.Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, and the jury admitted him, at just 13. As a student, Picasso lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a small room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day, judging his drawings. The two argued frequently. Picasso's father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrid'sReal Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, the country's foremost art school.At age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrollment. Madrid held many other attractions. ThePradohoused paintings byDiego Velázquez,Francisco Goya, andFrancisco Zurbarán. Picasso especially admired the\",\n \"admired the works ofEl Greco; elements such as his elongated limbs, arresting colours, and mystical visages are echoed in Picasso's later work. Career Before 1900 Picasso's training under his father began before 1890. His progress can be traced in the collection of early works now held by theMuseu PicassoinBarcelona, which provides one of the most comprehensive extant records of any major artist's beginnings.During 1893 the juvenile quality of his earliest work falls away, and by 1894 his career as a painter can be said to have begun.The academic realism apparent in the works of the mid-1890s is well displayed inThe First Communion(1896), a large composition that depicts his sister, Lola. In the same year, at the age of 14, he paintedPortrait of Aunt Pepa, a vigorous and dramatic portrait thatJuan-Eduardo Cirlothas called \\\"without a doubt one of the greatest in the whole history of Spanish painting.\\\" In 1897, his realism began to show aSymbolistinfluence, for example, in a series of landscape paintings\",\n \"landscape paintings rendered in non-naturalistic violet and green tones. What some call his Modernist period (1899–1900) followed. His exposure to the work ofRossetti,Steinlen,Toulouse-LautrecandEdvard Munch, combined with his admiration for favourite old masters such asEl Greco, led Picasso to a personal version of modernism in his works of this period. Picasso made his first trip toParis, then the art capital of Europe, in 1900. There, he met his first Parisian friend, journalist and poetMax Jacob, who helped Picasso learn the language and its literature. Soon they shared an apartment; Max slept at night while Picasso slept during the day and worked at night. These were times of severe poverty, cold, and desperation. Much of his work was burned to keep the small room warm. During the first five months of 1901, Picasso lived inMadrid, where he and hisanarchistfriend Francisco de Asís Soler founded the magazineArte Joven(Young Art), which published five issues. Soler solicited articles and Picasso\",\n \"and Picasso illustrated the journal, mostly contributing grim cartoons depicting and sympathizing with the state of the poor. The first issue was published on 31 March 1901, by which time the artist had started to sign his workPicasso.From 1898 he signed his works as \\\"Pablo Ruiz Picasso\\\", then as \\\"Pablo R. Picasso\\\" until 1901. The change does not seem to imply a rejection of the father figure. Rather, he wanted to distinguish himself from others; initiated by his Catalan friends who habitually called him by his maternal surname, much less current than the paternal Ruiz. Blue Period: 1901–1904 Picasso's Blue Period (1901–1904), characterized by sombre paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green only occasionally warmed by other colours, began either in Spain in early 1901 or in Paris in the second half of the year.Many paintings of gaunt mothers with children date from the Blue Period, during which Picasso divided his time betweenBarcelonaand Paris. In his austere use of colour and sometimes doleful\",\n \"sometimes doleful subject matter—prostitutes and beggars are frequent subjects—Picasso was influenced by a trip through Spain and by the suicide of his friendCarles Casagemas. Starting in autumn of 1901, he painted several posthumous portraits of Casagemas culminating in the gloomy allegorical paintingLa Vie(1903), now in theCleveland Museum of Art. The same mood pervades the well-known etchingThe Frugal Repast(1904),which depicts a blind man and a sighted woman, both emaciated, seated at a nearly bare table. Blindness, a recurrent theme in Picasso's works of this period, is also represented inThe Blindman's Meal(1903, theMetropolitan Museum of Art) and in the portrait ofCelestina(1903). Other Blue Period works includePortrait of SolerandPortrait of Suzanne Bloch. Rose Period: 1904–1906 The Rose Period (1904–1906)is characterized by a lighter tone and style utilizing orange and pink colours and featuring many circus people,acrobatsandharlequinsknown in France as saltimbanques. The harlequin, a comedic\",\n \"a comedic character usually depicted in checkered patterned clothing, became a personal symbol for Picasso. Picasso metFernande Olivier, abohemianartist who became his mistress, in Paris in 1904.Olivier appears in many of his Rose Period paintings, many of which are influenced by his warm relationship with her, in addition to his increased exposure to French painting. The generally upbeat and optimistic mood of paintings in this period is reminiscent of the 1899–1901 period (i.e., just prior to the Blue Period), and 1904 can be considered a transition year between the two periods. By 1905, Picasso became a favourite of American art collectorsLeoandGertrude Stein. Their older brother Michael Stein and his wife Sarah also became collectors of his work. Picasso painted aportrait of Gertrude Steinand one of her nephewAllan Stein. Gertrude Stein became Picasso's principal patron, acquiring his drawings and paintings and exhibiting them in her informalSalonat her home in Paris.At one of her gatherings in 1905, he\",\n \"in 1905, he metHenri Matisse, who was to become a lifelong friend and rival. The Steins introduced him toClaribel Coneand her sister Etta, who were American art collectors; they also began to acquire Picasso's and Matisse's paintings. Eventually, Leo Stein moved to Italy. Michael and Sarah Stein became patrons of Matisse, while Gertrude Stein continued to collect Picassos. In 1907, Picasso joined an art gallery that had recently been opened in Paris byDaniel-Henry Kahnweiler, a German art historian and art collector who became one of the premier French art dealers of the 20th century. He was among the first champions of Pablo Picasso,Georges Braqueand theCubismthat they jointly developed. Kahnweiler promoted burgeoning artists such asAndré Derain,Kees van Dongen,Fernand Léger,Juan Gris,Maurice de Vlaminckand several others who had come from all over the globe to live and work inMontparnasseat the time. African art and primitivism: 1907–1909 Picasso's African-influenced Period (1907–1909) begins with his\",\n \"begins with his paintingLes Demoiselles d'Avignon. The three figures on the left were inspired byIberian sculpture, but he repainted the faces of the two figures on the right after being powerfully impressed by African artefacts he saw in June 1907 in the ethnographic museum atPalais du Trocadéro.When he displayed the painting to acquaintances in his studio later that year, the nearly universal reaction was shock and revulsion; Matisse angrily dismissed the work as a hoax.Picasso did not exhibitLes Demoisellespublicly until 1916. Other works from this period includeNude with Raised Arms(1907) andThree Women(1908). Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that follows.Analyticcubism(1909–1912) is a style of painting Picasso developed withGeorges Braqueusing monochrome brownish and neutral colours. Both artists took apart objects and \\\"analyzed\\\" them in terms of their shapes. Picasso and Braque's paintings at this time share many similarities. In Paris, Picasso entertained\",\n \"Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of friends in theMontmartreandMontparnassequarters, includingAndré Breton, poetGuillaume Apollinaire, writerAlfred JarryandGertrude Stein. In 1911, Picasso was arrested and questioned aboutthe theft of theMona Lisafrom theLouvre. Suspicion for the crime had initially fallen upon Apollinaire due to his links to Géry Pieret, an artist with a history of thefts from the gallery. Apollinaire in turn implicated his close friend Picasso, who had also purchased stolen artworks from the artist in the past. Afraid of a conviction that could result in his deportation to Spain, Picasso denied having ever met Apollinaire. Both were later cleared of any involvement in the painting's disappearance. Synthetic cubism: 1912–1919 Synthetic cubism (1912–1919) was a further development of the genre of cubism, in which cut paper fragments – often wallpaper or portions of newspaper pages – were pasted into compositions, marking the first use ofcollagein fine art. Between 1915 and 1917,\",\n \"1915 and 1917, Picasso began a series of paintings depicting highly geometric and minimalist Cubist objects, consisting of either a pipe, a guitar or a glass, with an occasional element of collage. \\\"Hard-edged square-cut diamonds\\\", notes art historianJohn Richardson, \\\"these gems do not always have upside or downside\\\".\\\"We need a new name to designate them,\\\" wrote Picasso toGertrude Stein. The term \\\"Crystal Cubism\\\" was later used as a result of visual analogies with crystals at the time.These \\\"little gems\\\" may have been produced by Picasso in response to critics who had claimed his defection from the movement, through his experimentation with classicism within the so-calledreturn to orderfollowing the war. After acquiring some fame and fortune, Picasso left Olivier for Marcelle Humbert, also known asEva Gouel. Picasso included declarations of his love for Eva in many Cubist works. Picasso was devastated by her premature death from illness at the age of 30 in 1915. At the outbreak ofWorld War Iin August 1914,\",\n \"Iin August 1914, Picasso was living inAvignon. Braque and Derain were mobilized and Apollinaire joined the French artillery, while the SpaniardJuan Grisremained from the Cubist circle. During the war, Picasso was able to continue painting uninterrupted, unlike his French comrades. His paintings became more sombre and his life changed with dramatic consequences. Kahnweiler's contract had terminated on his exile from France. At this point, Picasso's work would be taken on by the art dealerLéonce Rosenberg. After the loss of Eva Gouel, Picasso had an affair withGaby Lespinasse. During the spring of 1916, Apollinaire returned from the front wounded. They renewed their friendship, but Picasso began to frequent new social circles. Towards the end of World War I, Picasso became involved withSerge Diaghilev'sBallets Russes. Among his friends during this period wereJean Cocteau,Jean Hugo, Juan Gris, and others. In the summer of 1918, Picasso marriedOlga Khokhlova, a ballerina with Sergei Diaghilev's troupe, for whom\",\n \"troupe, for whom Picasso was designing a ballet, Erik Satie'sParade, in Rome; they spent their honeymoon nearBiarritzin the villa of glamorous Chilean art patronEugenia Errázuriz. Khokhlova introduced Picasso to high society, formal dinner parties, and other dimensions of the life of the rich in 1920s Paris. The two had a son,Paulo Picasso,who would grow up to be a motorcycle racer and chauffeur to his father. Khokhlova's insistence on social propriety clashed with Picasso'sbohemiantendencies and the two lived in a state of constant conflict. During the same period that Picasso collaborated with Diaghilev's troupe, he andIgor Stravinskycollaborated onPulcinellain 1920. Picasso took the opportunity to make several drawings of the composer. In 1927, Picasso met 17-year-oldMarie-Thérèse Walterand began a secret affair with her. Picasso's marriage to Khokhlova soon ended in separation rather than divorce, as French law required an even division of property in the case of divorce, and Picasso did not want\",\n \"did not want Khokhlova to have half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova's death in 1955. Picasso carried on a long-standing affair with Marie-Thérèse Walter and fathered a daughter with her, named Maya. Marie-Thérèse lived in the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and hanged herself four years after Picasso's death. Neoclassicism and surrealism: 1919–1929 In February 1917, Picasso made his first trip to Italy.In the period following the upheaval of World War I, Picasso produced work in aneoclassicalstyle. This \\\"return to order\\\" is evident in the work of many European artists in the 1920s, includingAndré Derain,Giorgio de Chirico,Gino Severini,Jean Metzinger, the artists of theNew Objectivitymovement and of theNovecento Italianomovement. Picasso's paintings and drawings from this period frequently recall the work ofRaphaelandIngres. In 1925 theSurrealistwriter and poetAndré Bretondeclared Picasso as 'one of ours' in his articleLe Surréalisme et la peinture, published\",\n \"peinture, published inRévolution surréaliste.Les Demoiselleswas reproduced for the first time in Europe in the same issue. Yet Picasso exhibited Cubist works at the first Surrealist group exhibition in 1925; the concept of 'psychic automatism in its pure state' defined in theManifeste du surréalismenever appealed to him entirely. He did at the time develop new imagery and formal syntax for expressing himself emotionally, \\\"releasing the violence, the psychic fears and the eroticism that had been largely contained or sublimated since 1909\\\", writes art historian Melissa McQuillan. Although this transition in Picasso's work was informed by Cubism for its spatial relations, \\\"the fusion of ritual and abandon in the imagery recalls the primitivism of the Demoiselles and the elusive psychological resonances of his Symbolist work\\\", writes McQuillan. Surrealism revived Picasso's attraction to primitivism and eroticism. The Great Depression,Guernica, and the MoMA exhibition: 1930–1939 During the 1930s,\",\n \"During the 1930s, theminotaurreplaced theharlequinas a common motif in his work. His use of the minotaur came partly from his contact with the surrealists, who often used it as their symbol, and it appears in Picasso'sGuernica. The minotaur and Picasso's mistressMarie-Thérèse Walterare heavily featured in his celebratedVollard Suiteof etchings. Arguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of the Germanbombing of Guernicaduring theSpanish Civil War–Guernica. This large canvas embodies for many the inhumanity, brutality and hopelessness of war. Asked to explain its symbolism, Picasso said, \\\"It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them.\\\" Guernicawas exhibited in July 1937 at the Spanish Pavilion at theParis International Exposition, and then became the centrepiece of an exhibition of 118 works by Picasso,Matisse,BraqueandHenri Laurensthat toured\",\n \"Laurensthat toured Scandinavia and England. After the victory of Francisco Franco in Spain, the painting was sent to the United States to raise funds and support for Spanish refugees. Until 1981 it was entrusted to the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City, as it was Picasso's expressed desire that the painting should not be delivered to Spain until liberty and democracy had been established in the country. BeforeGuernica, Picasso had never addressed political themes in his art. The politicized nature of the work is largely attributed to his romantic relationship at the time with the French anti-fascist activist andsurrealistphotographer,Dora Maar.In addition, her black and white photographs are likely to have influenced the black and white scheme ofGuernica, in stark contrast to Picasso's usual colorful paintings. “Maar’s practice of photography influenced the art of Picasso – she had a great influence on his work,” said Antoine Romand, a Dora Maar expert. “She contested him. She pushed him to do\",\n \"pushed him to do something new and to be more creative politically.\\\"Maar had exclusive access to Picasso's studio to observe and photograph the creation ofGuernica.At Picasso's request, Maar painted parts of the dying horse. In 1939 and 1940, theMuseum of Modern Artin New York City, under its directorAlfred Barr, a Picasso enthusiast, held a major retrospective of Picasso's principal works until that time. This exhibition lionized Picasso, brought into full public view in America the scope of his artistry, and resulted in a reinterpretation of his work by contemporary art historians and scholars.According to Jonathan Weinberg, \\\"Given the extraordinary quality of the show and Picasso's enormous prestige, generally heightened by the political impact ofGuernica... the critics were surprisingly ambivalent\\\".Picasso's \\\"multiplicity of styles\\\" was disturbing to one journalist; another described him as \\\"wayward and even malicious\\\";Alfred Frankenstein's review inARTnewsconcluded that Picasso was both charlatan and\",\n \"both charlatan and genius. World War II and late 1940s: 1939–1949 DuringWorld War II, Picasso remained in Paris while the Germans occupied the city. Picasso's artistic style did not fit theNazi ideal of art, so he did not exhibit during this time. He was often harassed by theGestapo. During one search of his apartment, an officer saw a photograph of the paintingGuernica. \\\"Did you do that?\\\" the German asked Picasso. \\\"No,\\\" he replied, \\\"You did.\\\" Retreating to his studio, he continued to paint, producing works such as theStill Life with Guitar(1942) andThe Charnel House(1944–48). Although the Germans outlawedbronzecasting in Paris, Picasso continued regardless, using bronze smuggled to him by theFrench Resistance. Around this time,Picasso wrote poetryas an alternative outlet. Between 1935 and 1959 he wrote more than 300 poems. Largely untitled except for a date and sometimes the location of where they were written (for example \\\"Paris 16 May 1936\\\"), these works were gustatory, erotic, and at timesscatological,\",\n \"timesscatological, as were his two full-length plays,Desire Caught by the Tail(1941),The Four Little Girls(1949) andThe Burial of the Count of Orgaz(1959). In 1944, after the liberation of Paris, Picasso, then 63 years old, began a romantic relationship with a young art student namedFrançoise Gilot. She was 40 years younger than he was. Picasso grew tired of his mistressDora Maar; Picasso and Gilot began to live together. Eventually, they had two children:Claude Picasso, born in 1947 andPaloma Picasso, born in 1949. In her 1964 bookLife with Picasso,Gilot describes his abusive treatment and myriad infidelities which led her to leave him, taking the children with her. This was a severe blow to Picasso. Picasso had affairs with women of an even greater age disparity than his and Gilot's. While still involved with Gilot, in 1951 Picasso had a six-week affair withGeneviève Laporte, who was four years younger than Gilot. By his 70s, many paintings, ink drawings and prints have as their theme an old, grotesque\",\n \"an old, grotesque dwarf as the doting lover of a beautiful young model.Jacqueline Roque(1927–1986) worked at the Madoura Pottery inVallaurison theFrench Riviera, where Picasso made and painted ceramics. She became his lover, and then his second wife in 1961. The two were together for the remainder of Picasso's life. His marriage to Roque was also a means of revenge against Gilot; with Picasso's encouragement, Gilot had divorced her then-husband, Luc Simon, with the plan to marry Picasso to secure the rights of her children as Picasso's legitimate heirs. Picasso had already secretly married Roque, after Gilot had filed for divorce. His strained relationship with Claude and Paloma was never healed. By this time, Picasso had constructed a hugeGothichome, and could afford large villas in the south of France, such as Mas Notre-Dame-de-Vie on the outskirts ofMougins, and in theProvence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. He was an international celebrity, with often as much interest in his personal life as his art. Later works to\",\n \"art. Later works to final years: 1949–1973 Picasso was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the3rd Sculpture Internationalheld at thePhiladelphia Museum of Artin mid-1949. In the 1950s, Picasso's style changed once again, as he took to producing reinterpretations of the art of the great masters. He made aseriesof works based onVelázquez's painting ofLas Meninas. He also based paintings on works byGoya,Poussin,Manet,CourbetandDelacroix. In addition to his artistic accomplishments, Picasso made a few film appearances, always as himself, including a cameo inJean Cocteau'sTestament of Orpheus(1960). In 1955, he helped make the filmLe Mystère Picasso(The Mystery of Picasso) directed byHenri-Georges Clouzot. He was commissioned to make amaquettefor a huge 50-foot (15 m)-highpublic sculptureto be built in Chicago, known usually as theChicago Picasso. He approached the project with a great deal of enthusiasm, designing a sculpture which was ambiguous and somewhat controversial. Picasso said the figure represented\",\n \"figure represented the head of anAfghan Houndnamed Kabul.The sculpture, one of the most recognizable landmarks in downtown Chicago, was unveiled in 1967. Picasso refused to be paid $100,000 for it, donating it to the people of the city. Picasso's final works were a mixture of styles, his means of expression in constant flux until the end of his life. Devoting his full energies to his work, Picasso became more daring, his works more colourful and expressive, and from 1968 to 1971 he produced a torrent of paintings and hundreds of copperplate etchings. At the time these works were dismissed by most as pornographic fantasies of an impotent old man or the slapdash works of an artist who was past his prime.Only later, after Picasso's death, when the rest of the art world had moved on fromabstract expressionism, did the critical community come to see the late works of Picasso as prefiguringNeo-Expressionism. Death Pablo Picasso died on 8 April 1973 inMougins, France, frompulmonary edemaand aheart attack, the\",\n \"aheart attack, the morning after he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinner. He was interred at theChâteau of VauvenarguesnearAix-en-Provence, a property he had acquired in 1958 and occupied with Jacqueline between 1959 and 1962. Jacqueline prevented his children Claude and Paloma from attending the funeral.Devastated and lonely after the death of Picasso, Jacqueline killed herself by gunshot in 1986 when she was 59 years old. Political views Picasso remained aloof from theCatalanindependence movement during his youth, despite expressing general support and being friendly with activists within it.He did not join the armed forces for any side or country duringWorld War I, theSpanish Civil War, or World War II. As a Spanish citizen living in France, Picasso was under no compulsion to fight against the invading Germans in either world war. In 1940, he applied for French citizenship, but it was refused on the grounds of his \\\"extremist ideas evolving towards communism\\\". This information was not\",\n \"information was not revealed until 2003. At the start of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, Picasso was 54 years of age. Soon after hostilities began, the Republicans appointed him \\\"director of the Prado, albeit in absentia\\\", and \\\"he took his duties very seriously\\\", according to John Richardson, supplying the funds to evacuate the museum's collection to Geneva.The war provided the impetus for Picasso's first overtlypolitical work. He expressed anger and condemnation ofFrancisco Francoand fascists inThe Dream and Lie of Franco(1937), which was produced \\\"specifically for propagandistic and fundraising purposes\\\".This surreal fusion of words and images was intended to be sold as a series of postcards to raise funds for theSpanish Republican cause. In 1944, Picasso joined theFrench Communist Party. He attended the 1948World Congress of Intellectuals in Defense of Peacein Poland, and in 1950 received theStalin Peace Prizefrom the Soviet government.A portrait ofJoseph Stalinmade by Picasso in 1953 drew Party criticism\",\n \"Party criticism due to being insufficiently realistic, though he remained a loyal member of the Communist Party until his death.His dealer,D-H. Kahnweiler, a socialist, termed Picasso's communism \\\"sentimental\\\" rather than political, saying \\\"He has never read a line ofKarl Marx, nor ofEngelsof course.\\\"In a 1945 interview with Jerome Seckler, Picasso stated: \\\"I am a Communist and my painting is Communist painting. ... But if I were a shoemaker, Royalist or Communist or anything else, I would not necessarily hammer my shoes in a special way to show my politics.\\\"His commitment to communism, common amongcontinentalintellectuals and artists at the time, has long been the subject of some controversy; a notable demonstration thereof was a quote bySalvador Dalí(with whom Picasso had a rather strained relationship): Picasso es pintor, yo también; ... Picasso es español, yo también; Picasso es comunista, yo tampoco.(Picasso is a painter, so am I; ... Picasso is a Spaniard, so am I; Picasso is a communist, neither am\",\n \"neither am I.) In the late 1940s, his old friend surrealist poetAndré Breton, who was aTrotskyistandanti-Stalinist, was more blunt;refusing to shake hands with Picasso, he told him: \\\"I don't approve of your joining the Communist Party nor with the stand you have taken concerning the purges of the intellectuals after the Liberation.\\\"As a communist, Picasso opposed the intervention of theUnited Nationsand the United States in theKorean War, and depicted it inMassacre in Korea.The art critic Kirsten Hoving Keen wrote that it was \\\"inspired by reports of American atrocities\\\" and considered it one of Picasso's communist works. On 9 January 1949, Picasso createdDove, a black and white lithograph. It was used to illustrate a poster at the 1949World Peace Counciland became an iconographic image of the period, known as \\\"The dove of peace\\\". Picasso's image was used around the world as a symbol of the Peace Congresses and communism. In 1962, he received theLenin Peace Prize.Biographer and art criticJohn Bergerfelt his\",\n \"Bergerfelt his talents as an artist were \\\"wasted\\\" by the communists.According toJean Cocteau's diaries, Picasso once said to him in reference to the communists: \\\"I have joined a family, and like all families, it's full of shit.\\\" Style and technique Picasso was exceptionally prolific throughout his long lifetime. At his death there were more than 45,000 unsold works in his estate, comprising 1,885 paintings, 1,228 sculptures, 3,222 ceramics, 7,089 drawings, 150 sketchbooks, many thousands of prints, and numerous tapestries and rugs.The most complete – but not exhaustive – catalogue of his works, thecatalogue raisonnécompiled byChristian Zervos, lists more than 16,000 paintings and drawings.Picasso's output was several times more prolific than most artists of his era; by at least one account, American artistBob Rossis the only one to rival Picasso's volume, and Ross's artwork was designed specifically to be easily mass-produced quickly. The medium in which Picasso made his most important contribution was\",\n \"contribution was painting.In his paintings, Picasso used colour as an expressive element, but relied on drawing rather than subtleties of colour to create form and space.He sometimes added sand to his paint to vary its texture. Ananoprobeof Picasso'sThe Red Armchair(1931), in the collection of theArt Institute of Chicago, by physicists atArgonne National Laboratoryin 2012 confirmed art historians' belief that Picasso used common house paint in many of his paintings.Much of his painting was done at night by artificial light. Picasso's early sculptures were carved from wood or modelled in wax or clay, but from 1909 to 1928 Picasso abandoned modelling and instead made sculptural constructions using diverse materials.An example isGuitar(1912), a relief construction made of sheet metal and wire that Jane Fluegel terms a \\\"three-dimensional planar counterpart of Cubist painting\\\" that marks a \\\"revolutionary departure from the traditional approaches, modeling and carving\\\". From the beginning of his career, Picasso\",\n \"his career, Picasso displayed an interest in subject matter of every kind,and demonstrated a great stylistic versatility that enabled him to work in several styles at once. For example, his paintings of 1917 included thepointillistWoman with a Mantilla, the CubistFigure in an Armchair, and the naturalisticHarlequin(all in theMuseu Picasso, Barcelona). In 1919, he made a number of drawings from postcards and photographs that reflect his interest in the stylistic conventions and static character of posed photographs.In 1921 he simultaneously painted several large neoclassical paintings and two versions of the Cubist compositionThree Musicians(Museum of Modern Art, New York; Philadelphia Museum of Art).In an interview published in 1923, Picasso said, \\\"The several manners I have used in my art must not be considered as an evolution, or as steps towards an unknown ideal of painting ... If the subjects I have wanted to express have suggested different ways of expression I have never hesitated to adopt them.\\\"\",\n \"to adopt them.\\\" Although his Cubist works approach abstraction, Picasso never relinquished the objects of the real world as subject matter. Prominent in his Cubist paintings are forms easily recognized as guitars, violins, and bottles.When Picasso depicted complex narrative scenes it was usually in prints, drawings, and small-scale works;Guernica(1937) is one of his few large narrative paintings. Picasso painted mostly from imagination or memory. According toWilliam Rubin, Picasso \\\"could only make great art from subjects that truly involved him ... Unlike Matisse, Picasso had eschewed models virtually all his mature life, preferring to paint individuals whose lives had both impinged on, and had real significance for, his own.\\\"The art criticArthur Dantosaid Picasso's work constitutes a \\\"vast pictorial autobiography\\\" that provides some basis for the popular conception that \\\"Picasso invented a new style each time he fell in love with a new woman\\\".The autobiographical nature of Picasso's art is reinforced by his\",\n \"reinforced by his habit of dating his works, often to the day. He explained: \\\"I want to leave to posterity a documentation that will be as complete as possible. That's why I put a date on everything I do.\\\" Artistic legacy Picasso's influence was and remains immense and widely acknowledged by his admirers and detractors alike. On the occasion of his 1939 retrospective at MoMA,Lifemagazine wrote: \\\"During the 25 years he has dominated modern European art, his enemies say he has been a corrupting influence. With equal violence, his friends say he is the greatest artist alive.\\\"Picasso was the first artist to receive a special honour exhibition at the Grand Gallery of theLouvreMuseum in Paris in celebration of his 90 years.In 1998,Robert Hugheswrote of him: \\\"To say that Pablo Picasso dominated Western art in the 20th century is, by now, the merest commonplace. ... No painter or sculptor, not even Michelangelo, had been as famous as this in his own lifetime. ... ThoughMarcel Duchamp, that cunning old fox of\",\n \"cunning old fox of conceptual irony, has certainly had more influence on nominally vanguard art over the past 30 years than Picasso, the Spaniard was the last great beneficiary of the belief that the language of painting and sculpture really mattered to people other than their devotees.\\\" At the time of Picasso's death many of his paintings were in his possession, as he had kept off the art market what he did not need to sell. In addition, Picasso had a considerable collection of the work of other famous artists, some his contemporaries, such asHenri Matisse, with whom he had exchanged works. Since Picasso left no will, his death duties (estate tax) to the French state were paid in the form of his works and others from his collection. These works form the core of the immense and representative collection of theMusée Picassoin Paris.In 2003, relatives of Picasso inaugurated a museum dedicated to him in his birthplace, Málaga, Spain, theMuseo Picasso Málaga. TheMuseu Picassoin Barcelona features many of his\",\n \"many of his early works, created while he was living in Spain, including many rarely seen works which reveal his firm grounding in classical techniques. The museum also holds many precise and detailed figure studies done in his youth under his father's tutelage, as well as the extensive collection of Jaime Sabartés, his close friend and personal secretary. Guernicawas on display in New York'sMuseum of Modern Artfor many years. In 1981, it was returned to Spain and was on exhibit at theCasón del Buen Retiroof theMuseo del Prado. In 1992, the painting was put on display in theReina Sofía Museumwhen it opened. In 1985, a museum was established inBuitrago del Lozoyaby Picasso's friend Eugenio Arias Herranz. It was announced on 22 September 2020 that the project for a new Picasso Museum due to open inAix-en-Provencein 2021, in a former convent (Couvent des Prêcheurs), which would have held the largest collection of his paintings of any museum, had been scrapped due to the fact that Catherine Hutin-Blay,Jacqueline\",\n \"Picasso's daughter, and the City Council had failed to reach an agreement. In the 1996 movieSurviving Picasso, Picasso is portrayed by actorAnthony Hopkins.Picasso is also a character inSteve Martin's 1993 play,Picasso at the Lapin Agile. InA Moveable FeastbyErnest Hemingway, Hemingway tellsGertrude Steinthat he would like to have some Picassos, but cannot afford them. Later in the book, Hemingway mentions looking at one of Picasso's paintings. He refers to it as Picasso's nude of the girl with the basket of flowers, possibly related toYoung Naked Girl with Flower Basket. On 8 October 2010,Picasso: Masterpieces from the Musée National Picasso, Paris,an exhibition of 150 paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints and photographs from the Musée National Picasso in Paris, opened at theSeattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington, US. The exhibition subsequently travelled to theVirginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia: theM.H. de Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, California, US.;theArt Gallery of New South\",\n \"of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia;and theArt Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. As of 2015, Picasso remained the top-ranked artist (based on sales of his works at auctions) according to the Art Market Trends report.More of his paintings have been stolen than any other artist's;in 2012, theArt Loss Registerhad 1,147 of his works listed as stolen.The Picasso Administration functions as his official Estate. The US copyright representative for the Picasso Administration is theArtists Rights Society. Picasso is played byAntonio Banderasin the2018 seasonofGeniuswhich focuses on his life and art. The Basel vote In the 1940s, a Swiss insurance company based inBaselhad bought two paintings by Picasso to diversify its investments and serve as a guarantee for the insured risks. Following an air disaster in 1967, the company had to pay out heavy reimbursements. The company decided to part with the two paintings, which were deposited in theKunstmuseum Basel. In 1968, a large number of Basel citizens called\",\n \"citizens called for a local referendum on the purchase of the Picassos by theCanton of Basel-Stadt, which was successful, making it the first time in democratic history that the population of a city voted on the purchase of works of art for a public art museum.The paintings therefore remained in the museum in Basel. Informed of this, Picasso donated three paintings and a sketch to the city and its museum and was later made an honorary citizen by the city. Auction history Several paintings by Picasso rank among themost expensive paintings in the world.Garçon à la pipesold for US$104 million atSotheby'son 4 May 2004.Dora Maar au Chatsold for US$95.2 million at Sotheby's on 3 May 2006.On 4 May 2010,Nude, Green Leaves and Bustwas sold atChristie'sfor US$106.5 million. The 1932 work, which depicts Picasso's mistressMarie-Thérèse Walterreclining and as a bust, was in the personal collection of Los Angeles philanthropist Frances Lasker Brody, who died in November 2009.On 11 May 2015 his paintingWomen of Algiersset\",\n \"of Algiersset the record for thehighest price ever paid for a paintingwhen it sold for US$179.3 million at Christie's in New York. On 21 June 2016, a painting by Pablo Picasso titledFemme Assise(1909) sold for £43.2 million ($63.4 million) at Sotheby's London, exceeding the estimate by nearly $20 million, setting a world record for the highest price ever paid at auction for a Cubist work. On 17 May 2017,The Jerusalem Postin an article titled \\\"Picasso Work Stolen By Nazis Sells for $45 Million at Auction\\\" reported the sale of a portrait painted by Picasso, the 1939Femme assise, robe bleu, which was previously misappropriated during the early years of WWII. The painting has changed hands several times since its recovery, most recently through auction in May 2017 at Christie's in New York City. In March 2018, hisFemme au Béret et à la Robe Quadrillée(1937), a portrait of Marie-Thérèse Walter, sold for £49.8m at Sotheby's in London. Personal life From early adolescence, Picasso maintained both superficial and\",\n \"superficial and intense amatory and sexual relationships. Biographer John Richardson stated that 'work, sex and tobacco' were his addictions.Picasso was married twice and had four children by three women: Photographer and painterDora Maarwas a constant companion and lover of Picasso. The two were closest in the late 1930s and early 1940s, and it was Maar who documented the painting ofGuernica. The women in Picasso's life played an important role in the emotional and erotic aspects of his creative expression, and the tumultuous nature of these relationships has been considered vital to his artistic process. Many of these women functioned as muses for him, and their inclusion in his extensive oeuvre granted them a place in art history.A largely recurring motif in his body of work is the female form. The variations in his relationships informed and collided with his progression of style throughout his career. For example, portraits created of his first wife, Olga, were rendered in a naturalistic style during\",\n \"style during hisNeoclassicalperiod. His relationship with Marie-Thérèse Walter inspired many of hissurrealistpieces, as well as what is referred to as his \\\"Year of Wonders\\\".Reappearance of acrobats theme in 1905 put an end to his \\\"Blue Period\\\" and transitioned into his \\\"Rose Period\\\". This transition has been incorrectly attributed to the presence ofFernande Olivierin his life. Picasso has been characterised as a womaniser and a misogynist, being quoted as saying to long-time partner Françoise Gilot that \\\"women are machines for suffering.\\\"He later allegedly told her, \\\"For me there are only two kinds of women: goddesses and doormats.\\\"In her memoir,Picasso, My Grandfather,Marina Picassowrites of his treatment of women, \\\"He submitted them to his animal sexuality, tamed them, bewitched them, ingested them, and crushed them onto his canvas. After he had spent many nights extracting their essence, once they were bled dry, he would dispose of them.\\\" Of the several important women in his life, two – lover\",\n \"life, two – lover Marie-Thèrése Walter and his second wife Jacqueline Roque – died by suicide. Others, notably his first wife Olga Khokhlova and lover Dora Maar, succumbed to nervous breakdowns. His son, Paulo, developed a fatal alcoholism due to depression. His grandson, Pablito, also died by suicide that same year by ingesting bleach when he was barred byJacqueline Roquefrom attending the artist's funeral. Catalogue raisonné Picasso entrustedChristian Zervosto constitute thecatalogue raisonnéof his work (painted and drawn). The first volume of the catalogue,Works from 1895 to 1906, published in 1932, entailed the financial ruin of Zervos, self-publishing under the nameCahiers d'art, forcing him to sell part of his art collection at auction to avoid bankruptcy. From 1932 to 1978, Zervos constituted the catalogue raisonné of the complete works of Picasso in the company of the artist who had become one of his friends in 1924. Following the death of Zervos, Mila Gagarin supervised the publication of 11\",\n \"publication of 11 additional volumes from 1970 to 1978. The 33 volumes cover the entire work from 1895 to 1972, with close to 16,000 black and white photographs, in accord with the will of the artist. Further publications by Zervos See also Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading External links\",\n \"The Dark Side of the Moon The Dark Side of the Moonis the eighth studio album by the English rock bandPink Floyd, released on 1 March 1973, byHarvest Recordsin the UK andCapitol Recordsin the US. Developed during live performances before recording began, it was conceived as aconcept albumthat would focus on the pressures faced by the band during their arduous lifestyle, and also deal with the mental health problems of the former band memberSyd Barrett, who had departed the group in 1968. New material was recorded in two sessions in 1972 and 1973 at EMI Studios (nowAbbey Road Studios) in London. The record builds on ideas explored in Pink Floyd's earlier recordings and performances, while omitting the extended instrumentals that characterised the band's earlier work. The group employedmultitrack recording,tape loops, andanalogue synthesisers, including experimentation with theEMS VCS 3and aSynthi A. The engineerAlan Parsonswas responsible for many of the sonic aspects of the recording, and for the recruitment\",\n \"for the recruitment of the session singerClare Torry, who appears on \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\". The Dark Side of the Moonexplores themes such as conflict, greed, time, death, and mental illness. Snippets from interviews with the band'sroad crewand others are featured alongside philosophical quotations. The sleeve, which depicts aprismaticspectrum, was designed byStorm Thorgersonin response to the keyboardistRichard Wright's request for a \\\"simple and bold\\\" design which would represent the band's lighting and the album's themes. The album was promoted with two singles: \\\"Money\\\" and \\\"Us and Them\\\". The Dark Side of the Moonis among the most critically acclaimed albums and often features in professional listings of the greatest of all time. It brought Pink Floyd international fame, wealth and plaudits to all four band members. Ablockbusterrelease of thealbum era, it also propelled record sales throughout the music industry during the 1970s.The Dark Side of the Moonis certified14x platinumin the United Kingdom,\",\n \"the United Kingdom, and topped the USBillboardTop LPs & Tapechart, where it has charted for 990 weeks. By 2013,The Dark Side of the Moonhad sold over 45 million copies worldwide, making it the band's best-selling release, the best-selling album of the 1970s, and thefourth-best-selling album in history.In 2012, the album was selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Recording Registryby theLibrary of Congressas being \\\"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\\\". It was inducted into theGrammy Hall of Famein 1999. Background FollowingMeddlein 1971,Pink Floydassembled for a tour of Britain, Japan and the United States that December. In a band meeting at the home of the drummer,Nick Mason, in North London, the bassist,Roger Waters, proposed that a new album could form part of the tour. Waters conceived an album that dealt with things that \\\"make people mad\\\", focusing on the pressures associated with the band's arduous lifestyle, and dealing with the mental health problems suffered by the\",\n \"suffered by the former band memberSyd Barrett.The band had explored a similar idea with the 1969 concert suiteThe ManandThe Journey.In an interview forRolling Stone, the guitarist,David Gilmour, said: \\\"I think we all thought – and Roger definitely thought – that a lot of the lyrics that we had been using were a little too indirect. There was definitely a feeling that the words were going to be very clear and specific.\\\" The band approved of Waters' concept for an album unified by a single theme,and all the members participated in writing and producing material. Waters createddemo tracksin a small studio in a garden shed at his home inIslington.Parts of the album were taken from previously unused material; the opening line of \\\"Breathe\\\" came from an earlier work by Waters andRon Geesin, written for the soundtrack ofThe Body,and the basic structure of \\\"Us and Them\\\" was borrowed from an original composition, \\\"The Violent Sequence\\\", by the keyboardist,Richard Wright, forZabriskie Point.The band rehearsed at a\",\n \"band rehearsed at a warehouse in London owned bythe Rolling Stonesand at theRainbow TheatreinFinsbury Park, London. They also purchased extra equipment, which included new speakers, aPA system, a 28-track mixing desk with a four channelquadraphonicoutput, and a custom-built lighting rig. Nine tonnes of kit was transported in threelorries. This would be the first time the band had taken an entire album on tour.The album had been given the provisional title ofDark Side of the Moon(an allusion to lunacy, rather than astronomy).After discovering that title had already been used by another band,Medicine Head, it was temporarily changed toEclipse. The new material was premiered atThe DomeinBrighton, on 20 January 1972,and after the commercial failure of Medicine Head's album the title was changed back to the band's original preference. Dark Side of the Moon: A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, as it was then known,was performed for an assembled press on 17 February 1972 at the Rainbow Theatre, more than a year before\",\n \"than a year before its release, and was critically acclaimed.Michael Wale ofThe Timesdescribed the piece as \\\"bringing tears to the eyes. It was so completely understanding and musically questioning.\\\"Derek JewellofThe Sunday Timeswrote \\\"The ambition of the Floyd's artistic intention is now vast.\\\"Melody Makerwas less enthusiastic: \\\"Musically, there were some great ideas, but the sound effects often left me wondering if I was in a bird-cage at London Zoo.\\\"The following tour was praised by the public. The new material was performed in the same order in which it was eventually sequenced on the album. Differences included the lack of synthesisers in tracks such as \\\"On the Run\\\", andClare Torry's vocals on \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\" replaced by readings from the Bible. Pink Floyd'slengthy tourthrough Europe and North America gave them the opportunity to make improvements to the scale and quality of their performances.Work on the album was interrupted in late February when the band travelled to France and recorded\",\n \"France and recorded music for the French directorBarbet Schroeder's filmLa Vallée.They performed in Japan, returned to France in March to complete work on the film, played more shows in North America, then flew to London and resumed recording in May and June. After more concerts in Europe and North America, the band returned to London on 9 January 1973 to complete the album. Concept The Dark Side of the Moonwas built upon experiments Pink Floyd had attempted in their previous live shows and recordings, although it lacked the extended instrumental excursions which, according to the criticDavid Fricke, had become characteristic of the band following the departure of the founding member Syd Barrett in 1968. Gilmour, Barrett's replacement, later referred to those instrumentals as \\\"that psychedelic noodling stuff\\\". He and Waters cited 1971'sMeddleas a turning point towards what would later be realised on the album.The Dark Side of the Moon's lyrical themes include conflict, greed, the passage of time, death and\",\n \"of time, death and insanity, the last inspired in part by Barrett's deteriorating mental state.The album containsmusique concrèteon several tracks. Each side of the vinyl album is a continuous piece of music. The five tracks on each side reflect various stages of human life, beginning and ending with a heartbeat, exploring the nature of the human experience and, according to Waters, \\\"empathy\\\".\\\"Speak to Me\\\" and \\\"Breathe\\\" together highlight the mundane and futile elements of life that accompany the ever-present threat of madness, and the importance of living one's own life – \\\"Don't be afraid to care\\\".By shifting the scene to an airport, the synthesiser-driven instrumental \\\"On the Run\\\" evokes the stress and anxiety of modern travel, in particular Wright's fear of flying.\\\"Time\\\" examines the manner in which its passage can control one's life and offers a stark warning to those who remain focused on mundane pursuits; it is followed by a retreat into solitude and withdrawal in \\\"Breathe (Reprise)\\\". The first side of\",\n \"The first side of the album ends with Wright and Clare Torry's soulful metaphor for death, \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\". \\\"Money\\\", the first track on side two, opens with the sound ofcash registersand rhythmically jingling coins. The song mocks greed andconsumerismwith sarcastic lyrics and cash-relatedsound effects. \\\"Money\\\" became the band's most commercially successful track and was covered by other artists.\\\"Us and Them\\\" addresses the isolation of the depressed with the symbolism ofconflictand the use of simpledichotomiesto describe personal relationships. \\\"Any Colour You Like\\\" tackles the illusion of choice one has in society. \\\"Brain Damage\\\" looks atmental illnessresulting from the elevation of fame and success above the needs of the self; in particular, the line \\\"and if the band you're in starts playing different tunes\\\" reflects the mental breakdown of Syd Barrett. The album ends with \\\"Eclipse\\\", which espouses the concepts of otherness and unity, while encouraging the listener to recognise the common traits\",\n \"the common traits shared by humanity. Recording The Dark Side of the Moonwas recorded at EMI Studios (nowAbbey Road Studios) in approximately 60 daysbetween 31 May 1972 and 9 February 1973. Pink Floyd were assigned the staff engineerAlan Parsons, who had worked as the assistant tape operator on their fifth album,Atom Heart Mother(1970), and had gained experience as a recording engineer onthe BeatlesalbumsAbbey RoadandLet It Be.TheDark Side of the Moonsessions made use ofadvanced studio techniques, as the studio was capable of16-trackmixes which offered greater flexibility than the eight- or four-track mixes Pink Floyd had previously worked with, although the band often used so many tracks that second-generation copies were still needed to make more space available on the tape.The mix supervisorChris Thomasrecalled later, \\\"There were only two or three tracks of drums when we came to mixing it. Depending on the song, there would be one or two tracks of guitar, and these would include the solo and the rhythm\",\n \"solo and the rhythm guitar parts. One track for keyboard, one track for bass, and one or two sound effects tracks. They had been very, very efficient in the way they'd worked.\\\" The first track recorded was \\\"Us and Them\\\" on 31 May, followed seven days later by \\\"Money\\\".For \\\"Money\\\", Waters had created effectsloopsin an unusual74time signaturefrom recordings of money-related objects, including coins thrown into a mixing bowl in his wife's pottery studio. These were re-recorded to take advantage of the band's decision to create a quadraphonic mix of the album, although Parsons later expressed dissatisfaction with the result of this mix, which he attributed to a lack of time and a shortage of multitrack tape recorders. \\\"Time\\\" and \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\" were recorded next, followed by a two-month break, during which the band spent time with their families and prepared for a tour of the United States.The recording sessions were frequently interrupted: Waters, a supporter ofArsenal F.C., would break to see his\",\n \"break to see his team compete, and the band would occasionally stop to watchMonty Python's Flying Circuson television while Parsons worked on the tracks.Gilmour recalled, \\\"...but when we were on a roll, we would get on.\\\" After returning from the US in January 1973, they recorded \\\"Brain Damage\\\", \\\"Eclipse\\\", \\\"Any Colour You Like\\\" and \\\"On the Run\\\", and fine-tuned work from previous sessions. Four female vocalists were assembled to sing on \\\"Brain Damage\\\", \\\"Eclipse\\\" and \\\"Time\\\", and the saxophonistDick Parrywas booked to play on \\\"Us and Them\\\" and \\\"Money\\\". With the director Adrian Maben, the band also filmed studio footage forPink Floyd: Live at Pompeii.The album was completed and signed off at Abbey Road on 9 February 1973.Gilmour recalled the band listening to the finished album for the first time as \\\"a moment of great joy and of satisfaction and the feeling of achievement that we'd really gone that extra mile\\\". Instrumentation The album features metronomic sound effects during \\\"Speak to Me\\\" and tape loops for the\",\n \"tape loops for the opening of \\\"Money\\\". Mason created a rough version of \\\"Speak to Me\\\" at his home before completing it in the studio. The track serves as anovertureand contains cross-fades of elements from other pieces on the album. A piano chord, replayed backwards, serves to augment the build-up of effects, which are immediately followed by the opening of \\\"Breathe\\\". Mason received a rare solo composing credit for \\\"Speak to Me\\\". The sound effects on \\\"Money\\\" were created by splicing together Waters' recordings of clinking coins, tearing paper, a ringing cash register, and a clicking adding machine, which were used to create a 7-beateffects loop. This was later adapted to four tracks to create a \\\"walk around the room\\\" effect in quadraphonic presentations of the album.At times, the degree of sonic experimentation on the album required the studio engineers and all four band members to operate the mixing console's faders simultaneously, in order to mix down the intricately assembled multitrack recordings of\",\n \"recordings of several of the songs, particularly \\\"On the Run\\\". Along with conventional rock band instrumentation, Pink Floyd introduced prominent synthesisers to their sound. The band experimented with anEMS VCS 3on \\\"Brain Damage\\\" and \\\"Any Colour You Like\\\", and aSynthi Aon \\\"Time\\\" and \\\"On the Run\\\". They also devised and recorded unconventional sounds, such as assistant engineer Peter Jamesrunning around the studio's echo chamber during \\\"On the Run\\\",and a specially treatedbass drummade to simulate a humanheartbeatduring \\\"Speak to Me\\\", \\\"On the Run\\\", \\\"Time\\\" and \\\"Eclipse\\\". This heartbeat is most prominent in the intro and the outro to the album, but it can also be heard sporadically on \\\"Time\\\" and \\\"On the Run\\\".\\\"Time\\\" features assorted clocks ticking, then chiming simultaneously at the start of the song, accompanied by a series ofRototoms. The recordings were initially created as a quadraphonic test by Parsons, who recorded each timepiece at an antique clock shop.Although these recordings had not been created\",\n \"not been created specifically for the album, elements of this material were eventually used in the track. Voices Several tracks, including \\\"Us and Them\\\" and \\\"Time\\\", demonstrated Wright's and Gilmour's ability to harmonise their similar-sounding voices, and the engineer Alan Parsons used techniques such asdouble trackingvocals and guitars, which allowed Gilmour to harmonise with himself. Prominent use was also made offlangingand phase-shifting on vocals and instruments, odd trickery withreverb,and the panning of sounds between channels, most notably in thequadraphonicmix of \\\"On the Run\\\", where the sound of theHammond B3organ played through aLeslie speakerswirls around the listener. Wright's \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\" featuresClare Torry, a session singer and songwriter and a regular at Abbey Road. Parsons liked her voice, and when the band decided to use a female vocalist he suggested that she could sing on the track. The band explained the album concept to her, but they were unable to tell her exactly what\",\n \"her exactly what she should do, and Gilmour, who was in charge of the session, asked her to try to express emotions rather than sing words.In a few takes on a Sunday night, Torry improvised a wordless melody to accompany Wright's emotive piano solo. She was initially embarrassed by her exuberance in the recording booth and wanted to apologise to the band, who were impressed with her performance but did not tell her so.Her takes were edited to produce the version used on the track.She left the studio under the impression that her vocals would not make the final cut,and she only became aware that she had been included in the final mix when she picked up the album at a local record store and saw her name in the credits.For her contribution she was paid her standard session feeof £30,equivalent to about £500 in 2024. In 2004, Torry suedEMIand Pink Floyd for 50% of the songwritingroyalties, arguing that her contribution to \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\" was substantial enough to be considered co-authorship. The case\",\n \"The case was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, with all post-2005 pressings crediting Wright and Torry jointly. In the final week of recording,Waters asked staff and others at Abbey Road to respond to questions printed onflashcardsand some of their replies were edited into the final mix. The interviewees were placed in front of a microphone in a darkened Studio 3and shown such questions as \\\"What's your favourite colour?\\\" and \\\"What's your favourite food?\\\", before moving on to themes central to the album, including those of madness, violence, and death. Questions such as \\\"When was the last time you were violent?\\\", followed immediately by \\\"Were you in the right?\\\", were answered in the order they were presented. RoadieRoger \\\"The Hat\\\" Manifold was recorded in a conventional sit-down interview. Waters asked him about a violent encounter he had had with a motorist, and Manifold replied \\\"... give 'em a quick, short, sharp shock ...\\\" Asked about death, he responded, \\\"Live for today, gone tomorrow, that's\",\n \"tomorrow, that's me ...\\\"Another roadie, Chris Adamson, recorded the words that open the album: \\\"I've been mad for fucking years. Absolutely years. Over the edge... It's working with bands that does it.\\\" The band's road managerPeter Watts(father of the actressNaomi Watts)contributed the repeated laughter during \\\"Brain Damage\\\" and \\\"Speak to Me\\\", as well as the line \\\"I can't think of anything to say\\\". His second wife, Patricia \\\"Puddie\\\" Watts (now Patricia Gleason), was responsible for the line about the \\\"geezer\\\" who was \\\"cruisin' for a bruisin'\\\", used in the segue between \\\"Money\\\" and \\\"Us and Them\\\", and the words \\\"I never said I was frightened of dying\\\" halfway through \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\". Several of the responses – \\\"I am not frightened of dying. Any time will do, I don't mind. Why should I be frightened of dying? There's no reason for it ... you've got to go sometime\\\"; \\\"I know I've been mad, I've always been mad, like most of us have\\\"; and the closing \\\"There is no dark side in the moon really. Matter of\",\n \"really. Matter of fact, it's all dark\\\" – came from the studios' Irish doorman, Gerry O'Driscoll.\\\"The bit you don't hear,\\\" said Parsons, \\\"is that, after that, he said, 'The only thing that makes it look alight is the sun.' The band were too overjoyed with his first line, and it would have been an anticlimax to continue.\\\" PaulandLinda McCartneywere interviewed, but their answers – judged to be \\\"trying too hard to be funny\\\" – were not used.The McCartneys'WingsbandmateHenry McCulloughcontributed the line, \\\"I don't know, I was really drunk at the time.\\\" Completion When the flashcard sessions were finished, producerChris Thomaswas hired to provide \\\"a fresh pair of ears\\\" for the final mix. Thomas's background was in music rather than engineering; he had worked with Beatles producerGeorge Martinand was an acquaintance of Pink Floyd's manager,Steve O'Rourke.The members of the band were said to have disagreed over the mix, with Waters and Mason preferring a \\\"dry\\\" and \\\"clean\\\" mix that made more use of the non-musical\",\n \"of the non-musical elements and Gilmour and Wright preferring a subtler and more \\\"echoey\\\" mix.Thomas said later, \\\"There was no difference in opinion between them, I don't remember Roger once saying that he wanted less echo. In fact, there were never any hints that they were later going to fall out. It was a very creative atmosphere. A lot of fun.\\\" Thomas's intervention resulted in a compromise between Waters and Gilmour, who were both satisfied with the result. Thomas was responsible for significant changes, including the perfect timing of the echo used on \\\"Us and Them\\\". He was also present for the recording of \\\"The Great Gig in the Sky\\\".Waters said in an interview in 2006, when asked if he felt his goals had been accomplished in the studio: When the record was finished I took a reel-to-reel copy home with me and I remember playing it for my wife then, and I remember her bursting into tears when it was finished. And I thought, \\\"This has obviously struck a chord somewhere\\\", and I was kinda pleased by that.\",\n \"pleased by that. You know when you've done something, certainly if you create a piece of music, you then hear it with fresh ears when you play it for somebody else. And at that point I thought to myself, \\\"Wow, this is a pretty complete piece of work\\\", and I had every confidence that people would respond to it. Packaging It felt like the whole band were working together. It was a creative time. We were all very open. – Richard Wright The album was originally released in agatefoldLP sleeve designed byHipgnosisandGeorge Hardie. Hipgnosis had designed several of the band's previous albums, with controversial results; EMI had reacted with confusion when faced with the cover designs forAtom Heart MotherandObscured by Clouds, as they had expected to see traditional designs which included lettering and words. DesignersStorm ThorgersonandAubrey Powellwere able to ignore such criticism, as they were employed by the band. ForThe Dark Side of the Moon, Wright suggested something \\\"smarter, neater – more classy\\\",and\",\n \"– more classy\\\",and simple, \\\"like the artwork of a Black Magic chocolate box\\\". The design was inspired by a photograph of a prism with a beam of white light projected through it and emerging in the colours of thevisible spectrumthat Thorgerson had found in a 1963 physics textbook,as well as by an illustration byAlex Steinweiss, the inventor of album cover art, for theNew York Philharmonic's 1942 performance ofLudwig van Beethoven'sEmperor Concerto.The artwork was created by an associate of Hipgnosis, George Hardie.Hipgnosis offered a choice of seven designs for the sleeve, but all four members of the band agreed that the prism was the best. \\\"There were no arguments,\\\" said Roger Waters. \\\"We all pointed to the prism and said 'That's the one'.\\\" The design depicts a glassprismdispersing white light into colours and represents three elements: the band's stage lighting, the album lyrics, and Wright's request for a \\\"simple and bold\\\" design.At Waters' suggestion, the spectrum of light continues through to the\",\n \"through to the gatefold.Added shortly afterwards, the gatefold design also includes a visual representation of the heartbeat sound used throughout the album, and the back of the album cover contains Thorgerson's suggestion of another prism recombining the spectrum of light, to make possible interesting layouts of the sleeve in record shops.The light band emanating from the prism on the album cover has six colours, missingindigo, compared with the usual division of the visible spectrum into red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Inside the sleeve were two posters and two pyramid-themed stickers. One poster bore pictures of the band in concert, overlaid with scattered letters to form PINK FLOYD, and the other aninfrared photographof theGreat Pyramids of Giza, created by Powell and Thorgerson. The band were so confident of the quality of Waters' lyrics that, for the first time, they printed them on the album's sleeve. Release As the quadraphonic mix of the album was not then complete, the band\",\n \"complete, the band (with the exception of Wright) boycotted the press reception held at theLondon Planetariumon 27 February.The guests were, instead, presented with a quartet of life-sized cardboard cut-outs of the band, and the stereo mix of the album was played over a poor-qualitypublic address system.Generally, however, the press were enthusiastic;Melody Maker's Roy Hollingworth described Side One as \\\"so utterly confused with itself it was difficult to follow\\\", but praised Side Two, writing: \\\"The songs, the sounds, the rhythms were solid and sound, Saxophone hit the air, the band rocked and rolled, and then gushed and tripped away into the night.\\\"Steve Peacock ofSoundswrote: \\\"I don't care if you've never heard a note of the Pink Floyd's music in your life, I'd unreservedly recommend everyone toThe Dark Side of the Moon\\\".In his 1973 review forRolling Stonemagazine,Loyd GrossmandeclaredDark Side\\\"a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites, but demands\",\n \"but demands involvement\\\".InChristgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies(1981),Robert Christgaufound its lyrical ideas clichéd and its music pretentious, but called it a \\\"kitschmasterpiece\\\" that can be charming with highlights such as taped speech fragments, Parry's saxophone, and studio effects which enhance Gilmour's guitar solos. The Dark Side of the Moonwas released first in the US on 1 March 1973,and then in the UK on 16 March.It became an instant chart success in Britain and throughout Western Europe;by the following month, it had gained agold certificationin the US.Throughout March 1973 the band played the album as part of theirUS tour, including a midnight performance atRadio City Music Hallin New York City on 17 March before an audience of 6,000. The album reached theBillboardTop LPs & Tapechart's number one spot on 28 April 1973,and was so successful that the band returned two months later for another tour. Label Much of the album's early American success is attributed to the efforts of\",\n \"to the efforts of Pink Floyd's US record company,Capitol Records. Newly appointed chairmanBhaskar Menonset about trying to reverse the relatively poor sales of the band's 1971 studio albumMeddle. Meanwhile, disenchanted with Capitol, the band and manager O'Rourke had been quietly negotiating a new contract withCBSpresidentClive Davis, onColumbia Records.The Dark Side of the Moonwas the last album that Pink Floyd were obliged to release before formally signing a new contract. Menon's enthusiasm for the new album was such that he began a huge promotional advertising campaign, which included radio-friendly truncated versions of \\\"Us and Them\\\" and \\\"Time\\\". In some countries – notably the UK – Pink Floyd had not released a single since 1968's \\\"Point Me at the Sky\\\", and unusually \\\"Money\\\" was released as a single on 7 May, with \\\"Any Colour You Like\\\" on theB-side.It reached number 13 on theBillboardHot 100in July 1973.A two-sided white label promotional version of the single, with mono and stereo mixes, was sent to\",\n \"mixes, was sent to radio stations. The mono side had the word \\\"bullshit\\\" removed from the song – leaving \\\"bull\\\" in its place – however, the stereo side retained the uncensored version. This was subsequently withdrawn; the replacement was sent to radio stations with a note advising disc jockeys to dispose of the first uncensored copy.On 4 February 1974, adouble A-sidesingle was released with \\\"Time\\\" on one side, and \\\"Us and Them\\\" on the opposite side.Menon's efforts to secure a contract renewal with Pink Floyd were in vain however; at the beginning of 1974, the band signed for Columbia with a reported advance fee of $1M (in Britain and Europe they continued to be represented byHarvest Records). Sales The Dark Side of the Moonbecame one of thebest-selling albumsof all timeand is in the top 25 of a list ofbest-sellingalbums in the United States.Although it held the number one spot in the US for only a week, it remained in theBillboard200albums chart for 736 nonconsecutive weeks (from 17 March 1973 to 16 July\",\n \"1973 to 16 July 1988).Of those first 736 charted weeks, the album had two notable consecutive runs in theBillboard200 chart: 84 weeks (from 17 March 1973 to 19 October 1974) and 593 weeks (from 18 December 1976 to 23 April 1988).It made its final appearance in theBillboard200 albums chart during its initial run on the week ending 8 October 1988, in its 741st charted week.It re-appeared on theBillboardcharts with the introduction of theTop Pop Catalog Albumschart in the issue dated 25 May 1991, and was still a perennial feature ten years later.It reached number one on the Pop Catalog chart when the 2003 hybrid CD/SACDedition was released and sold 800,000 copies in the US.On the week of 5 May 2006The Dark Side of the Moonachieved a combined total of 1,716 weeks on theBillboard200 and Pop Catalog charts. After a change in chart methodology in 2009 which allowed catalogue titles to be included in theBillboard200,The Dark Side of the Moonreturned to the chart at number 189 on 12 December of that year for its\",\n \"that year for its 742nd charting week.It has continued to sporadically appear on theBillboard 200since then, with the total at 990 weeks on the chart as of May 2024.\\\"On a slow week\\\" between 8,000 and 9,000 copies are sold.As of April 2013, the album had sold 9,502,000 copies in the US since 1991 whenNielsen SoundScanbegan tracking sales forBillboard.One in every fourteen people in the US under the age of 50 is estimated to own, or to have owned, a copy. The Dark Side of the Moonwas released before the introduction ofplatinum certificationin 1976 byRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA), and therefore held only a gold certification until 16 February 1990, when it was certified 11 times platinum. On 4 June 1998, the RIAA certified the album 15× platinum,denoting sales of fifteen million in the United States. This makes it Pink Floyd's biggest-selling work there;The Wallis 23 times platinum, but as a double album this signifies sales of 11.5 million.\\\"Money\\\" has sold well as a single, and as with\",\n \"single, and as with \\\"Time\\\", remains a radio favourite; in the US, for the year ending 20 April 2005, \\\"Time\\\" was played on 13,723 occasions, and \\\"Money\\\" on 13,731 occasions.In 2017,The Dark Side of the Moonwas the seventh-bestselling album of all time in the UK and the highest-selling album never to reach number one.As one of theblockbusterLPs of thealbum era(1960s–2000s),The Dark Side of the Moonalso led to an increase in record sales overall into the late 1970s.In 2013, industry sources suggested that worldwide sales ofThe Dark Side of the Moontotalled about 45 million. In 1993, Gilmour attributed the album's success to the combination of music, lyrics and cover art: \\\"All the music before had not had any great lyrical point to it. And this one was clear and concise.\\\"Mason said that, when they finished the album, Pink Floyd felt confident it was their best work to date, but were surprised by its commercial success. He said it was \\\"not only about being a good album but also about being in the right place at\",\n \"the right place at the right time\\\". Reissues and remasters In 1979,The Dark Side of the Moonwas released as a remastered LP byMobile Fidelity Sound Lab,and in April 1988 on their \\\"Ultradisc\\\" gold CD format.It was released by EMI and Harvest on CD in Japan in June 1983 andin the US and Europe in August 1984.In 1992, it was rereleased as a remastered CD in the box setShine On.This version was re-released as a 20th-anniversary box set edition with postcards the following year, with a cover design by Thorgerson.On some pressings, an orchestral version of the Beatles' \\\"Ticket to Ride\\\" is faintly audible after \\\"Eclipse\\\" over the closing heartbeats. 30th-anniversary 5.1 surround sound mix A quadraphonic mix,created by Alan Parsons,was commissioned by EMI but never endorsed by Pink Floyd, as Parsons was disappointed with his mix.For the album's 30th anniversary, an updated surround version was released in 2003. The band elected not to use Parsons' quadraphonic mix, and instead had the engineerJames Guthriecreate a\",\n \"Guthriecreate a new5.1channel surround sound mix on theSACDformat.Guthrie had worked with Pink Floyd since their eleventh album,The Wall, and had previously worked on surround versions ofThe Wallfor DVD-Video and Waters'In the Fleshfor SACD. In 2003, Parsons expressed disappointment with Guthrie's SACD mix, suggesting he was \\\"possibly a little too true to the original mix\\\", but was generally complimentary.The 30th-anniversary edition won four Surround Music Awards in 2003,and sold more than 800,000 copies. The cover image of the 30th-anniversary edition was created by a team of designers including Thorgerson.The image is a photograph of a custom-madestained glasswindow, built to match the dimensions and proportions of the original prism design. Transparent glass, held in place by strips of lead, was used in place of the opaque colours of the original. The idea is derived from the \\\"sense of purity in the sound quality, being 5.1 surround sound ...\\\" The image was created out of a desire to be \\\"the same but\",\n \"to be \\\"the same but different, such that the design was clearly DSotM, still the recognisable prism design, but was different and hence new\\\". Later reissues The Dark Side of the Moonwas rereleased in 2003 on 180-gram virgin vinyl and mastered by Kevin Gray at AcousTech Mastering. It included slightly different versions of the posters and stickers that came with the original vinyl release, along with a new 30th-anniversary poster. In 2007, the album was included inOh, by the Way, a box set celebrating the 40th anniversary of Pink Floyd,and aDRM-free version was released on theiTunes Store.In 2011, it was reissued featuring a remastered version with various other material. In 2023, Pink Floyd released theDark Side of the Moon 50th Anniversarybox set, including a newly remastered edition of the album, surround sound mixes (including the 5.1 mix and a newDolby Atmosmix), a photo book, andThe Dark Side of the Moon Live at Wembley 1974, on vinyl. In 2024, the 50th Anniversary LP edition was rereleased as The Dark\",\n \"as The Dark Side Of The Moon 50th Anniversary 2 LP UV Printed Clear Vinyl Collector's Edition. The new edition uses 2 clear LP instead of one, just one side is playable so theUV artworkcan be printed on the non-groove side. Legacy It's changed me in many ways, because it's brought in a lot of money, and one feels very secure when you can sell an album for two years. But it hasn't changed my attitude to music. Even though it was so successful, it was made in the same way as all our other albums, and the only criterion we have about releasing music is whether we like it or not. It was not a deliberate attempt to make a commercial album. It just happened that way. We knew it had a lot more melody than previous Floyd albums, and there was a concept that ran all through it. The music was easier to absorb and having girls singing away added a commercial touch that none of our records had. – Richard Wright The success of the album brought wealth to all four members of the band; Richard Wright and Roger Waters\",\n \"and Roger Waters bought large country houses, and Nick Mason became a collector of upmarket cars.The group were fans of the British comedy troupeMonty Python, and as such, some of the profits were invested in the production ofMonty Python and the Holy Grail.EngineerAlan Parsonsreceived aGrammy Awardnomination forBest Engineered Recording, Non-ClassicalforThe Dark Side of the Moon,and he went on to have a successful career as a recording artist withthe Alan Parsons Project. Although Waters and Gilmour have on occasion downplayed his contribution to the success of the album, Mason has praised his role.In 2003, Parsons reflected: \\\"I think they all felt that I managed to hang the rest of my career onDark Side of the Moon, which has an element of truth to it. But I still wake up occasionally, frustrated about the fact that they made untold millions and a lot of the people involved in the record didn't.\\\" Part of the legacy ofThe Dark Side of the Moonis its influence on modern music and on the musicians who have\",\n \"musicians who have performedcover versionsof its songs. It is often seen as a pivotal point in the history of rock music, and comparisons are sometimes made withRadiohead's 1997 albumOK Computer,including a premise explored by Ben Schleifer in 'Speak to Me': The Legacy of Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon(2006) that the two albums share a theme that \\\"the creative individual loses the ability to function in the world\\\". In a 2018 book aboutclassic rock,Steven Hydenrecalls concluding, in his teens, thatThe Dark Side of the MoonandLed Zeppelin IVwere the two greatest albums of the genre,vision quests\\\"encompass the twin poles of teenage desire\\\". They had similarities, in that both albums' cover and internal artwork eschew pictures of the bands in favour of \\\"inscrutable iconography without any tangible meaning (which always seemed to give the music packaged insidemoremeaning)\\\". But whereas Led Zeppelin had looked outward, toward \\\"conquering the world\\\" and were known at the time for their outrageous sexual\",\n \"outrageous sexual antics on tour, Pink Floyd looked inward, toward \\\"overcoming your own hang-ups\\\".In 2013,The Dark Side of the Moonwas selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Recording Registryby theLibrary of Congressas \\\"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\\\". Rankings The Dark Side of the Moonfrequently appears on professional rankings of the greatest albums. In 1987,Rolling Stoneranked it the 35th best album of the preceding 20 years.Rolling Stoneranked it number 43 on its 2003 and 2012 lists of the \\\"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\\\"and number 55 in its 2020 list, Pink Floyd's highest placement.BothRolling StoneandQhave listedThe Dark Side of the Moonas the best progressive rock album. In 2006,Australian Broadcasting Corporationviewers votedThe Dark Side of the Moontheir favourite album.NMEreaders voted it the eighth-best album in a 2006 poll,and in 2009,Planet Rocklisteners voted it the greatest of all time.The album is also number two on the \\\"Definitive 200\\\" list of\",\n \"200\\\" list of albums, made by theNational Association of Recording Merchandisers\\\"in celebration of the art form of the record album\\\".It ranked 29th inThe Observer's 2006 list of \\\"The 50 Albums That Changed Music\\\",and 37th inThe Guardian's 1997 list of the \\\"100 Best Albums Ever\\\", as voted for by a panel of artists and music critics.In 2014, readers ofRhythmvoted it the seventh most influential progressive drumming album.It was voted number 9 inColin Larkin'sAll Time Top 1000 Albums3rd Edition (2000).In 2007,VH1namedDark Side of the Moonthe fourth-greatest album cover. Covers, tributes and samples Return to the Dark Side of the Moon: A Tribute to Pink Floyd, released in 2006, is a cover album ofThe Dark Side of the Moonfeaturing artists such asAdrian Belew,Tommy Shaw,Dweezil Zappa, andRick Wakeman.In 2000,The SquirrelsreleasedThe Not So Bright Side of the Moon, which features a cover of the entire album.The New York dub collectiveEasy Star All-StarsreleasedDub Side of the Moonin 2003andDubber Side of the Moonin\",\n \"Side of the Moonin 2010.The group Voices on the Dark Side released the albumDark Side of the Moon a Cappella, a completea cappellaversion of the album.Thebluegrassband Poor Man's Whiskey frequently play the album in bluegrass style, calling the suiteDark Side of the Moonshine.Astring quartetversion of the album was released in 2003.In 2009,the Flaming Lipsreleased atrack-by-track remake of the albumin collaboration withStardeath and White Dwarfs, and featuringHenry RollinsandPeachesas guest musicians. Several notable acts have covered the album live in its entirety, and a range of performers have usedsamplesfromThe Dark Side of the Moonin their own material. Jam-rock bandPhishperformed a semi-improvised version of the entire album as part of their show on 2 November 1998 inWest Valley City, Utah.Progressive metal bandDream Theaterhave twice covered the album in their live shows,and in May 2011Mary FahlreleasedFrom the Dark Side of the Moon, a song-by-song \\\"re-imagining\\\" of the album.Milli Vanilliused the\",\n \"Vanilliused the tape loops from Pink Floyd's \\\"Money\\\" to open their track \\\"Money\\\", followed byMarky Mark and the Funky BunchonMusic for the People. The Wizard of Oz In the 1990s, it was discovered that playingThe Dark Side of the Moonalongside the 1939 filmThe Wizard of Ozproduced moments of apparent synchronicity, and it was suggested that this was intentional.Such moments includeDorothybeginning to jog at the lyric \\\"no one told you when to run\\\" during \\\"Time\\\", balancing on a fence,tightrope-style, during the line \\\"balanced on the biggest wave\\\" in \\\"Breathe\\\",and putting her ear to the Tin Man's chest as the album's closing heartbeats are heard.Parsons and members of Pink Floyd denied any connection, with Parsons calling it \\\"a complete load of eyewash ... If you play any record with the sound turned down on the TV, you will find things that work.\\\" The Dark Side of the Moon Redux For the 50th anniversary ofThe Dark Side of the Moon, Waters recorded a new version,The Dark Side of the Moon Redux, released in\",\n \"Redux, released in October 2023.It was recorded with no other members of Pink Floyd,and featuresspoken wordsections and more downbeat arrangements, with no guitar solos. Waters said he wanted to \\\"bring out the heart and soul of the album musically and spiritually\\\".He also said it is intended to be taken from the perspective of an older man, as \\\"not enough people recognised what it's about, what it was I was saying then\\\". Track listing All lyrics are written byRoger Waters. Note Personnel Pink Floyd Additional musicians Production Design Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications and sales *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history See also References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":367,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"For how long was the \"Father of the National Parks\", the first president to declare a national park, and the president who declared the most national parks all alive at the same time?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"26 years, 8 months, and 26 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II"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Elizabeth_II (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))","Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar(12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was aRomangeneral and statesman. A member of theFirst Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in theGallic Warsbefore defeating his political rivalPompeyina civil war, and subsequently becamedictatorfrom 49 BC untilhis assassinationin 44 BC. He played a critical role inthe events that led to the demise oftheRoman Republicand the rise of theRoman Empire. In 60 BC, Caesar,Crassus, andPompeyformed theFirst Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominatedRoman politicsfor several years. Their attempts to amass political power were opposed by many in theSenate, among themCato the Youngerwith the private support ofCicero. Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in theGallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time he bothinvaded Britainandbuilt a bridge across the river Rhine. These achievements and the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after thedeath of Crassusin 53 BC. With theGallic Warsconcluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. In 49 BC, Caesar openly defied the Senate's authority bycrossing the Rubiconand marching towards Rome at the head of an army.This beganCaesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near-unchallenged power and influence in 45 BC. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reform, including the creation of theJulian calendar. He gavecitizenshipto many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reforms to support his veterans and initiated an enormous building programme. In early 44 BC, he was proclaimed \"dictator for life\" (dictator perpetuo). Fearful of his power and domination of the state, a group of senators led byBrutusandCassiusassassinated Caesar on theIdes of March(15 March) 44 BC. A newseries of civil warsbroke out and theconstitutional government of the Republicwas never fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known asAugustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in thelast civil war of the Roman Republic. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of theRoman Empirebegan. Caesar was an accomplished author and historian as well as a statesman; much of his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns. Other contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings ofSallust. Later biographies of Caesar bySuetoniusandPlutarchare also important sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history.Hiscognomenwas subsequently adopted as asynonymfor \"Emperor\"; the title \"Caesar\" was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern descendants such asKaiserandTsar. He hasfrequently appeared in literary and artistic works. Early life and career Gaius Julius Caesar was born into apatricianfamily, thegensJuliaon 12 July 100 BC.The family claimed to have immigrated to Rome fromAlba Longaduring the seventh century BC after the thirdking of Rome,Tullus Hostilius, took and destroyed their city. The family also claimed descent from Julus, the son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa. Given that Aeneas was a son of Venus, this made the clan divine. This genealogy had not yet taken its final form by the first century, but the clan's claimed descent from Venus was well established in public consciousness.There is no evidence that Caesar himself was born byCaesarian section; such operations entailed the death of the mother, butCaesar's motherlived for decades after his birth and no ancient sources record any difficulty with the birth. Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential during the middle republic. The first person known to have had thecognomenCaesarwas a praetor in 208 BC during theSecond Punic War. The family's first consul was in 157 BC, though their political fortunes had recovered in the early first century, producing two consuls in 91 and 90 BC.Caesar's homonymous father was moderately successful politically. He marriedAurelia, a member of the politically influentialAurelii Cottae, producing – along with Caesar – two daughters. Buoyed by his own marriage andhis sister'smarriage (the dictator's aunt) with the extremely influentialGaius Marius, he also served on theSaturninianland commission in 103 BC and was elected praetor some time between 92 and 85 BC; he served as proconsular governor of Asia for two years, likely 91–90 BC. Life under Sulla and military service Caesar's father did not seek a consulship during the domination ofLucius Cornelius Cinnaand instead chose retirement.During Cinna's dominance, Caesar was named asflamen Dialis(a priest ofJupiter) which led to his marriage to Cinna's daughter,Cornelia. The religious taboos of the priesthood would have forced Caesar to forgo a political career; the appointment – one of the highest non-political honours – indicates that there were few expectations of a major career for Caesar.In early 84 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly.AfterSulla's victory in thecivil war(82 BC), Cinna'sactawere annulled. Sulla consequently ordered Caesar to abdicate and divorce Cinna's daughter. Caesar refused, implicitly questioning the legitimacy of Sulla's annulment. Sulla may have put Caesar on theproscription lists, though scholars are mixed.Caesar then went into hiding before his relatives and contacts among theVestal Virginswere able to intercede on his behalf.They then reached a compromise where Caesar would resign his priesthood but keep his wife and chattels; Sulla's alleged remark he saw \"in many Mariuses\"is apocryphal. Caesar then left Italy to serve in the staff of the governor of Asia,Marcus Minucius Thermus. While there, he travelled to Bithynia to collect naval reinforcements and stayed some time as a guest of the king,Nicomedes IV, though later invective connected Caesar to a homosexual relation with the monarch.He then served at theSiege of Mytilenewhere he won thecivic crownfor saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle. The privileges of the crown – the Senate was supposed to stand on a holder's entrance and holders were permitted to wear the crown at public occasions – whetted Caesar's appetite for honours. After the capture of Mytilene, Caesar transferred to the staff ofPublius Servilius Vatiain Cilicia before learning of Sulla's death in 78 BC and returning home immediately.He was alleged to have wanted to join in on the consulLepidus' revolt that yearbut this is likely literary embellishment of Caesar's desire for tyranny from a young age. Afterward, Caesar attacked some of the Sullan aristocracy in the courts but was unsuccessful in his attempted prosecution ofGnaeus Cornelius Dolabellain 77 BC, who had recently returned from a proconsulship in Macedonia. Going after a less well-connected senator, he was successful the next year in prosecutingGaius Antonius Hybrida(later consul in 63 BC) for profiteering from the proscriptions but was forestalled when a tribune interceded on Antonius' behalf.After these oratorical attempts, Caesar left Rome for Rhodes seeking the tutelage of the rhetoricianApollonius Molon.While travelling, he was intercepted and ransomed by pirates in a story that was later much embellished. According to Plutarch and Suetonius, he was freed after paying a ransom of fiftytalentsand responded by returning with a fleet to capture and execute the pirates. The recorded sum for the ransom is literary embellishment and it is more likely that the pirates were sold into slavery perVelleius Paterculus.His studies were interrupted by the outbreak of theThird Mithridatic Warover the winter of 75 and 74 BC; Caesar is alleged to have gone around collecting troops in the province at the locals' expense and leading them successfully against Mithridates' forces. Entrance to politics While absent from Rome, in 73 BC, Caesar was co-opted into thepontificesin place of his deceased relativeGaius Aurelius Cotta. The promotion marked him as a well-accepted member of the aristocracy with great future prospects in his political career.Caesar decided to return shortly thereafter and on his return was elected one of themilitary tribunesfor 71 BC.There is no evidence that Caesar served in war – even thoughthe waronSpartacuswas on-going – during his term; he did, however, agitate for the removal of Sulla's disabilities on the plebeian tribunate and for those who supported Lepidus' revolt to be pardoned.These advocacies were common and uncontroversial.The next year, 70 BC,PompeyandCrassuswere consuls and brought legislation restoring the plebeian tribunate's rights; one of the tribunes, with Caesar supporting, then brought legislation pardoning the Lepidan exiles. For his quaestorship in 69 BC, Caesar was allotted to serve underGaius Antistius VetusinHispania Ulterior. His election also gave him a lifetime seat in the Senate. However, before he left, his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius died and, soon afterwards, his wife Cornelia died shortly after bearing his only legitimate child,Julia. He gave eulogies for both at public funerals.During Julia's funeral, Caesar displayed the images of his aunt's husband Marius, whose memory had been suppressed after Sulla's victory in the civil war. Some of the Sullan nobles – includingQuintus Lutatius Catulus– who had suffered under the Marian regime objected, but by this point depictions of husbands in aristocratic women's funerary processions was common.Contra Plutarch,Caesar's action here was likely in keeping with a political trend for reconciliation and normalisation rather than a display of renewed factionalism.Caesar quickly remarried, taking the hand of Sulla's granddaughterPompeia. Aedileship and election aspontifex maximus For much of this period, Caesar was one ofPompey's supporters. Caesar joined with Pompey in the late 70s to support restoration of tribunician rights; his support for the law recalling the Lepidan exiles may have been related to the same tribune's bill to grant lands to Pompey's veterans. Caesar also supported thelex Gabiniain 67 BC granting Pompey an extraordinary command against piracy in the Mediterranean and also supported thelex Maniliain 66 BC to reassign the Third Mithridatic War from its then-commanderLucullusto Pompey. Four years after his aunt Julia's funeral, in 65 BC, Caesar served ascurule aedileand staged lavishgamesthat won him further attention and popular support.He also restored the trophies won by Marius, and taken down by Sulla, overJugurthaand theCimbri.According to Plutarch's narrative, the trophies were restored overnight to the applause and tears of joy of the onlookers; any sudden and secret restoration of this sort would not have been possible – architects, restorers, and other workmen would have to have been hired and paid for – nor would it have been likely that the work could have been done in a single night.It is more likely that Caesar was merely restoring his family's public monuments – consistent with standard aristocratic practice and the virtue ofpietas– and, over objections from Catulus, these actions were broadly supported by the Senate. In 63 BC, Caesar stood for the praetorship and also for the post ofpontifex maximus,who was the head of theCollege of Pontiffsand the highest ranking state religious official. In the pontifical election before thetribes, Caesar faced two influential senators:Quintus Lutatius CatulusandPublius Servilius Isauricus. Caesar came out victorious. Many scholars have expressed astonishment that Caesar's candidacy was taken seriously, but this was not without historical precedent.Ancient sources allege that Caesar paid huge bribes or was shamelessly ingratiating;that no charge was ever laid alleging this implies that bribery alone is insufficient to explain his victory.If bribes or other monies were needed, they may have been underwritten by Pompey, whom Caesar at this time supported and who opposed Catulus' candidacy. Many sources also assert that Caesar supported the land reform proposals brought that year by plebeian tribunePublius Servilius Rullus, however, there are no ancient sources so attesting.Caesar also engaged in a collateral manner in the trial ofGaius Rabiriusby one of the plebeian tribunes –Titus Labienus– for the murder of Saturninus in accordance with asenatus consultum ultimumsome forty years earlier.The most famous event of the year was theCatilinarian conspiracy. While some of Caesar's enemies, including Catulus, alleged that he participated in the conspiracy,the chance that he was a participant is extremely small. Praetorship Caesar won his election to the praetorship in 63 BC easily and, as one of the praetor-elects, spoke out that December in the Senate against executing certain citizens who had been arrested in the city conspiring with Gauls in furtherance of the conspiracy.Caesar's proposal at the time is not entirely clear. The earlier sources assert that he advocated life imprisonment without trial; the later sources assert he instead wanted the conspirators imprisoned pending trial. Most accounts agree that Caesar supported confiscation of the conspirators' property.Caesar likely advocated the former, which was a compromise position that would place the Senate within the bounds of thelex Sempronia de capite civis, and was initially successful in swaying the body; a later intervention byCato, however, swayed the Senate at the end for execution. During his year as praetor, Caesar first attempted to deprive his enemy Catulus of the honour of completing the rebuiltTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, accusing him of embezzling funds, and threatening to bring legislation to reassign it to Pompey. This proposal was quickly dropped amid near-universal opposition.He then supported the attempt by plebeian tribuneMetellus Neposto transfer the command against Catiline from the consul of 63, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, to Pompey. After a violent meeting of thecomitia tributain the forum, where Metellus came into fisticuffs with his tribunician colleagues Cato andQuintus Minucius Thermus,the Senate passed a decree against Metellus – Suetonius claims that both Nepos and Caesar were deposed from their magistracies; this would have been a constitutional impossibility– which led Caesar to distance himself from the proposals: hopes for a provincial command and need to repair relations with the aristocracy took priority.He also was engaged in theBona Deaaffair, wherePublius Clodius Pulchersneaked into Caesar's house sacrilegiously during a female religious observance; Caesar avoided any part of the affair by divorcing his wife immediately – claiming that his wife needed to be \"above suspicion\"– but there is no indication that Caesar supported Clodius in any way. After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to governHispania Ulteriorpro consule.Deeply indebted from his campaigns for the praetorship and for the pontificate, Caesar required military victory beyond the normal provincial extortion to pay them off.He campaigned against theCallaeciandLusitaniand seized the Callaeci capital in northwestern Spain, bringing Roman troops to the Atlantic and seizing enough plunder to pay his debts.Claiming to have completed the peninsula's conquest, he made for home after having been hailedimperator.When he arrived home in the summer of 60 BC, he was then forced to choose between a triumph and election to the consulship: either he could remain outside thepomerium(Rome's sacred boundary) awaiting a triumph or cross the boundary, giving up his command and triumph, to make a declaration of consular candidacy.Attempts to waive the requirement for the declaration to be made in person were filibustered in the Senate by Caesar's enemy Cato, even though the Senate seemed to support the exception.Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship. First consulship and the Gallic Wars Caesar stood for the consulship of 59 BC along with two other candidates. His political position at the time was strong: he had supporters among the families which had supported Marius or Cinna; his connection with the Sullan aristocracy was good; his support of Pompey had won him support in turn. His support for reconciliation in continuing aftershocks of the civil war was popular in all parts of society.With the support of Crassus, who supported Caesar's joint ticket with oneLucius Lucceius, Caesar won. Lucceius, however, did not and the voters returnedMarcus Calpurnius Bibulusinstead, one of Caesar's long-standing personal and political enemies. First consulship After the elections, Caesar reconciled Pompey and Crassus, two political foes, in a three-way alliance misleadinglytermed the \"First Triumvirate\" in modern times.Caesar was still at work in December of 60 BC attempting to find allies for his consulship and the alliance was finalised only some time around its start.Pompey and Crassus joined in pursuit of two respective goals: the ratification ofPompey's eastern settlementand the bailing out of tax farmers in Asia, many of whom were Crassus' clients. All three sought the extended patronage of land grants, with Pompey especially seeking the promised land grants for his veterans. Caesar's first act was topublishthe minutes of the Senate and the assemblies, signalling the Senate's accountability to the public. He then brought in the Senate a bill – crafted to avoid objections to previous land reform proposals and any indications of radicalism – to purchase property from willing sellers to distribute to Pompey's veterans and the urban poor. It would be administered by a board of twenty (with Caesar excluded), and financed by Pompey's plunder and territorial gains.Referring it to the Senate in hope that it would take up the matter to show its beneficence for the people,there was little opposition and the obstructionism that occurred was largely unprincipled, firmly opposing it not on grounds of public interest but rather opposition to Caesar's political advancement.Unable to overcome Cato's filibustering, he moved the bill before the people and, at a public meeting, Caesar's co-consul Bibulus threatened a permanent veto for the entire year. This clearly violated the people's well-established legislative sovereigntyand triggered a riot in which Bibulus' fasces were broken, symbolising popular rejection of his magistracy.The bill was then voted through. Bibulus attempted to induce the Senate to nullify it on grounds it was passed by violence and contrary to the auspices but the Senate refused. Caesar also brought and passed a one-third write-down of tax farmers' arrears for Crassus and ratification of Pompey's eastern settlements. Both bills were passed with little or no debate in the Senate.Caesar then moved to extend his agrarian bill to Campania some time in May; this may be when Bibulus withdrew to his house.Pompey, shortly thereafter, also wed Caesar's daughter Julia to seal their alliance.An ally of Caesar's, plebeian tribunePublius Vatiniusmoved thelex Vatiniaassigning the provinces ofIllyricumandCisalpine Gaulto Caesar for five years.Suetonius' claim that the Senate had assigned to Caesar thesilvae callesque(\"woods and tracks\") is likely an exaggeration: fear of Gallic invasion had grown in 60 BC and it is more likely that the consuls had been assigned to Italy, a defensive posture that Caesarian partisans dismissed as \"mere 'forest tracks'\".The Senate was also persuaded to assign to CaesarTransalpine Gaulas well, subject to annual renewal, most likely to control his ability to make war on the far side of the Alps. Some time in the year, perhaps after the passing of the bill distributing the Campanian landand after these political defeats, Bibulus withdrew to his house. There, he issued edicts in absentia, purporting unprecedentedly to cancel all days on which Caesar or his allies could hold votes for religious reasons.Cato too attempted symbolic gestures against Caesar, which allowed him and his allies to \"feign victimisation\"; these tactics were successful in building revulsion to Caesar and his allies through the year.This opposition caused serious political difficulties to Caesar and his allies, belying the common depiction of triumviral political supremacy.Later in the year, however, Caesar – with the support of his opponents – brought and passed thelex Julia de repetundisto crack down on provincial corruption.When his consulship ended, Caesar's legislation was challenged by two of the new praetors but discussion in the Senate stalled and was regardless dropped. He stayed near the city until some time around mid-March. Campaigns in Gaul During the Gallic Wars, Caesar wrote hisCommentariesthereon, which were acknowledged even in his time as a Latin literary masterwork. Meant to document Caesar's campaigns in his own words and maintain support in Rome for his military operations and career, he produced some ten volumes covering operations in Gaul from 58 to 52 BC.Each was likely produced in the year following the events described and was likely aimed at the general, or at least literate, population in Rome;the account is naturally partial to Caesar – his defeats are excused and victories highlighted – but it is almost the sole source for events in Gaul in this period. Gaul in 58 BC was in the midst of some instability. Tribes had raided into Transalpine Gaul and there was an on-going struggle between two tribes in central Gaul which collaterally involved Roman alliances and politics. The divisions within the Gauls – they were no unified bloc – would be exploited in the coming years.The first engagement was in April 58 BC when Caesar prevented the migratingHelvetiifrom moving through Roman territory, allegedly because he feared they would unseat a Roman ally.Building a wall, he stopped their movement near Geneva and – after raising two legions – defeated them at theBattle of Bibractebefore forcing them to return to their original homes.He was drawn further north responding to requests from Gallic tribes, including theAedui, for aid againstAriovistus– king of theSuebiand a declared friend of Rome by the Senate during Caesar's own consulship – and he defeated them at theBattle of Vosges.Wintering in northeastern Gaul near theBelgaein the winter of 58–57, Caesar's forward military position triggered an uprising to remove his troops; able to eke out a victory at theBattle of the Sabis, Caesar spent much of 56 BC suppressing the Belgae and dispersing his troops to campaign across much of Gaul, including against theVenetiin what is nowBrittany.At this point, almost all of Gaul – except its central regions – fell under Roman subjugation. Seeking to buttress his military reputation, he engaged Germans attempting to cross the Rhine, which marked it as a Roman frontier;displaying Roman engineering prowess, he here built abridge across the Rhinein a feat of engineering meant to show Rome's ability to project power.Ostensibly seeking to interdict British aid to his Gallic enemies, he led expeditions into southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC, perhaps seeking further conquests or otherwise wanting to impress readers in Rome; Britain at the time was to the Romans an \"island of mystery\" and \"a land of wonder\".He, however, withdrew from the island in the face of winter uprisings in Gaul led by theEburonesandBelgaestarting in late 54 BC which ambushed and virtually annihilated a legion and five cohorts.Caesar was, however, able to lure the rebels into unfavourable terrain and routed them in battle.The next year, a greater challenge emerged with the uprising of most of central Gaul, led byVercingetorixof theAverni. Caesar was initially defeated atGergoviabeforebesieging Vercingetorix at Alesia. After becoming himself besieged, Caesar won a major victory which forced Vercingetorix's surrender; Caesar then spent much of his time into 51 BC suppressing any remaining resistance. Politics, Gaul, and Rome In the initial years from the end of Caesar's consulship in 59 BC, the three so-called triumvirs sought to maintain the goodwill of the extremely popularPublius Clodius Pulcher,who wasplebeian tribunein 58 BC and in that year successfully sent Cicero into exile. When Clodius took an anti-Pompeian stance later that year, he unsettled Pompey's eastern arrangements, started attacking the validity of Caesar's consular legislation, and by August 58 forced Pompey into seclusion. Caesar and Pompey responded by successfully backing the election of magistrates to recall Cicero from exile on the condition that Cicero would refrain from criticism or obstruction of the allies. Politics in Rome fell into violent street clashes between Clodius and two tribunes who were friends of Cicero. With Cicero now supporting Caesar and Pompey, Caesar sent news of Gaul to Rome and claimed total victory and pacification. The Senate at Cicero's motion voted him an unprecedented fifteen days of thanksgiving.Such reports were necessary for Caesar, especially in light of senatorial opponents, to prevent the Senate from reassigning his command in Transalpine Gaul, even if his position in Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum was guaranteed by thelex Vatiniauntil 54 BC.His success was evidently recognised when the Senate voted state funds for some of Caesar's legions, which until this time Caesar had paid for personally. The three allies' relations broke down in 57 BC: one of Pompey's allies challenged Caesar's land reform bill and the allies had a poor showing in the elections that year.With a real threat to Caesar's command andactabrewing in 56 BC under the aegis of the unfriendly consuls, Caesar needed his allies' political support.Pompey and Crassus too wanted military commands. Their combined interests led to a renewal of the alliance; drawing in the support ofAppius Claudius Pulcherand his younger brother Clodius for the consulship of 54 BC, they planned second consulships with following governorships in 55 BC for both Pompey and Crassus. Caesar, for his part, would receive a five-year extension of command. Cicero was induced to oppose reassignment of Caesar's provinces and to defend a number of the allies' clients; his gloomy predictions of a triumviral set of consuls-designate for years on end proved an exaggeration when, only by desperate tactics, bribery, intimidation and violence were Pompey and Crassus elected consuls for 55 BC.During their consulship, Pompey and Crassus passed – with some tribunician support – thelex Pompeia Liciniaextending Caesar's command and thelex Treboniagiving them respective commands in Spain and Syria,though Pompey never left for the province and remained politically active at Rome.The opposition again unified against their heavy-handed political tactics – though not against Caesar's activities in Gaul– and defeated the allies in the elections of that year. The ambush and destruction in Gaul of a legion and five cohorts in the winter of 55–54 BC produced substantial concern in Rome about Caesar's command and competence, evidenced by the highly defensive narrative in Caesar'sCommentaries.The death of Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife Julia in childbirthc.late August 54did not create a rift between Caesar and Pompey.At the start of 53 BC, Caesar sought and received reinforcements by recruitment and a private deal with Pompey before two years of largely unsuccessful campaigning against Gallic insurgents.In the same year, Crassus's campaign ended in disaster at theBattle of Carrhae, culminating in his death at the hands of theParthians. When in 52 BC Pompey started the year with a sole consulship to restore order to the city,Caesar was in Gaul suppressing insurgencies; after news of his victory at Alesia, with the support of Pompey he received twenty days of thanksgiving and, pursuant to the \"Law of the Ten Tribunes\", the right to stand for the consulship in absentia. Civil war From the period 52 to 49 BC, trust between Caesar and Pompey disintegrated.In 51 BC, the consulMarcellusproposed recalling Caesar, arguing that hisprovincia(here meaning \"task\") in Gaul – due to his victory against Vercingetorix in 52 – was complete; it evidently was incomplete as Caesar was that year fighting theBellovaciand regardless the proposal was vetoed.That year, it seemed that the conservatives around Cato in the Senate would seek to enlist Pompey to force Caesar to return from Gaul without honours or a second consulship.Cato, Bibulus, and their allies, however, were successful in winning Pompey over to take a hard line against Caesar's continued command. As 50 BC progressed, fears of civil war grew; both Caesar and his opponents started building up troops in southern Gaul and northern Italy, respectively.In the autumn, Cicero and others sought disarmament by both Caesar and Pompey, and on 1 December 50 BC this was formally proposed in the Senate.It received overwhelming support – 370 to 22 – but was not passed whenone of the consulsdissolved the meeting.That year, when a rumour came to Rome that Caesar was marching into Italy, both consuls instructed Pompey to defend Italy, a charge he accepted as a last resort.At the start of 49 BC, Caesar's renewed offer that he and Pompey disarm was read to the Senate and was rejected by the hardliners.A later compromise given privately to Pompey was also rejected at their insistence.On 7 January, his supportive tribunes were driven from Rome; the Senate then declared Caesar an enemy and it issued itssenatus consultum ultimum. There is scholarly disagreement as to the specific reasons why Caesar marched on Rome. A very popular theory is that Caesar was forced to choose – when denied the immunity of his proconsular tenure – between prosecution, conviction, and exile or civil war in defence of his position.Whether Caesar actually would have been prosecuted and convicted is debated. Some scholars believe the possibility of successful prosecution was extremely unlikely.Caesar's main objectives were to secure a second consulship – first mooted in 52 as colleague to Pompey's sole consulship– and a triumph. He feared that his opponents – then holding both consulships for 50 BC – would reject his candidacy or refuse to ratify an election he won.This also was the core of his war justification: that Pompey and his allies were planning, by force if necessary (indicated in the expulsion of the tribunes), to suppress the liberty of the Roman people to elect Caesar and honour his accomplishments. Italy, Spain, and Greece Around 10 or 11 January 49 BC,in response to the Senate's \"final decree\",Caesarcrossed the Rubicon– the river defining the northern boundary of Italy – with a single legion, theLegio XIII Gemina, and ignitedcivil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwrightMenander, in Greek, \"let the die be cast\".Pompey and many senators fled south, believing that Caesar was marching quickly for Rome.Caesar, after capturing communication routes to Rome, paused and opened negotiations, but they fell apart amid mutual distrust.Caesar responded by advancing south, seeking to capture Pompey to force a conference. Pompey withdrew toBrundisiumand was able to escape to Greece, abandoning Italy in face of Caesar's superior forces and evading Caesar's pursuit.Caesar stayed near Rome for about two weeks – during his stay his forceful seizure of the treasury over tribunician veto put the lie to his pro-tribunician war justifications– and left Lepidus in charge of Italy while he attacked Pompey's Spanish provinces.He defeated two of Pompey's legates at theBattle of Ilerdabefore forcing surrender ofthe third; his legates moved into Sicily and intoAfrica, though the African expedition failed.Returning to Rome in the autumn, Caesar had Lepidus, as praetor, bring a law appointing Caesardictatorto conduct the elections; he, along withPublius Servilius Isauricus, won the following elections and would serve as consuls for 48 BC.Resigning the dictatorship after eleven days,Caesar then left Italy for Greece to stop Pompey's preparations, arriving in force in early 48 BC. Caesarbesieged Pompey at Dyrrhachium, but Pompey was able to break out and force Caesar's forces to flee. Following Pompey southeast into Greece and to save one of his legates, he engaged and decisively defeated Pompeyat Pharsaluson 9 August 48 BC. Pompey then fled for Egypt; Cato fled for Africa; others, like Cicero andMarcus Junius Brutus, begged for Caesar's pardon. Alexandrine war and Asia Minor Pompey was killed when he arrived inAlexandria, the capital ofEgypt. Caesar arrived three days later on 2 October 48 BC. Prevented from leaving the city byEtesian winds, Caesar decided to arbitrate an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaohPtolemy XIII Theos PhilopatorandCleopatra, his sister, wife, and co-regent queen.In late October 48 BC, Caesar was appointed in absentia to a year-long dictatorship,after news of his victory at Pharsalus arrived to Rome.While in Alexandria, he started anaffairwith Cleopatra and withstood asiege by Ptolemyand his other sisterArsinoeuntil March 47 BC. Reinforced by eastern client allies underMithridates of Pergamum, he then defeated Ptolemy at theBattle of the Nileand installed Cleopatra as ruler.Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated the victory with a triumphal procession on theNile. He stayed in Egypt with Cleopatra until June or July that year, though the relevant commentaries attributed to him give no such impression. Some time in late June, Cleopatra gave birth to a child by Caesar, calledCaesarion. When Caesar landed atAntioch, he learnt that during his time in Egypt, the king of what is now Crimea,Pharnaces, had attempted to seize what had been his father's kingdom, Pontus, across theBlack Seain northern Anatolia. His invasion had swept aside Caesar's legates and the local client kings, but Caesar engaged him atZelaand defeated him immediately, leading Caesar to writeveni, vidi, vici(\"I came, I saw, I conquered\"), downplaying Pompey's previous Pontic victories. He then left quickly for Italy. Italy, Africa, and Spain Caesar's absence from Italy put Mark Antony, asmagister equitum, in charge. His rule was unpopular:Publius Cornelius Dolabella, serving as plebeian tribune in 47 BC, agitated for debt relief and after that agitation got out of hand the Senate moved for Antony to restore order. Delayed by a mutiny in southern Italy, he returned and suppressed the riots by force, killing many and delivering a similar blow to his popularity. Cato had marched to Africaand thereMetellus Scipiowas in charge of the remaining republicans; they allied withJubaofNumidia; what used to be Pompey's fleet also raided the central Mediterranean islands. Caesar's governor in Spain, moreover, was sufficiently unpopular that the province revolted and switched to the republican side. Caesar demoted Antony on his return and pacified the mutineers without violencebefore overseeing the election of the rest of the magistrates for 47 BC – no elections had yet been held – and also for those of 46 BC. Caesar would serve with Lepidus as consul in 46; he borrowed money for the war, confiscated and sold the property of his enemies at fair prices, and then left for Africa on 25 December 47 BC.Caesar's landing in Africa was marked with some difficulties establishing a beachhead and logistically. He was defeated byTitus LabienusatRuspinaon 4 January 46 BC and thereafter took a rather cautious approach.After inducing some desertions from the republicans, Caesar ended up surrounded atThapsus. His troops attacked prematurely on 6 April 46 BC, starting abattle; they then won it and massacred the republican forceswithout quarter. Marching on Utica, where Cato commanded, Caesar arrived to find that Cato had killed himself rather than receive Caesar's clemency.Many of the remaining anti-Caesarian leaders, including Metellus Scipio and Juba, also committed suicide shortly thereafter.Labienus and two of Pompey's sons, however, had moved to the Spanish provinces in revolt. Caesar started a process of annexing parts of Numidia and then returned to Italy via Sardinia in June 46 BC. Caesar stayed in Italy to celebrate four triumphs in late September, supposedly over four foreign enemies: Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces (Asia), and Juba (Africa). He led Vercingetorix, Cleopatra's younger sister Arsinoe, and Juba's son before his chariot; Vercingetorix was executed.According to Appian, in some of the triumphs, Caesar paraded pictures and models of his victories over fellow Romans in the civil wars, to popular dismay.The soldiers were each given 24,000sesterces(a lifetime's worth of pay); further games and celebrations were put on for the plebs. Near the end of the year, Caesar heard bad news from Spain and, with an army, left for the peninsula, leaving Lepidus in charge asmagister equitum. At a bloody battle atMundaon 17 March 45 BC, Caesar narrowly found victory;his enemies were treated as rebels and he had them massacred.Labienus died on the field. While one of Pompey's sons,Sextus, escaped, the war was effectively over.Caesar remained in the province until June before setting out for Rome, arriving in October of the same year, and celebrated an unseemly triumph over fellow Romans.By this point he had started preparations for war on theParthiansto avenge Crassus' death atCarrhaein 53 BC, with wide-ranging objectives that would take him into Dacia for three or more years. It was set to start on 18 March 44 BC. Dictatorship and assassination Dictatorships and honours Prior to Caesar's assumption of the titledictator perpetuoin February 44 BC, he had been appointed dictator some four times since his first dictatorship in 49 BC. After occupying Rome, he engineered this first appointment, largely to hold elections; after 11 days he resigned. The other dictatorships lasted for longer periods, up to a year, and by April 46 BC he was given a new dictatorship annually.The task he was assigned revived that of Sulla's dictatorship:rei publicae constituendae.These appointments, however, were not the source of legal power themselves; in the eyes of the literary sources, they were instead honours and titles which reflected Caesar's dominant position in the state, secured not by extraordinary magistracy or legal powers, but by personal status as victor over other Romans. Through the period after Pharsalus, the Senate showered Caesar with honours,including the titlepraefectus moribus(lit.'prefect of morals') which historically was associated with thecensorialpower to revise the Senate rolls. He was also granted power over war and peace,usurping a power traditionally held by thecomitia centuriata.These powers attached to Caesar personally.Similarly extraordinary were a number of symbolic honours which saw Caesar's portrait placed on coins in Rome – the first for a living Roman– with special rights to wear royal dress, sit atop a golden chair in the Senate, and have his statues erected in public temples. The month Quintilis, in which he was born, was renamedJulius(now July).These were symbols of divine monarchy and, later, objects of resentment. The decisions on the normal operation of the state – justice, legislation, administration, and public works – were concentrated into Caesar's person without regard for or even notice given to the traditional institutions of the republic.Caesar's domination over public affairs and his competitive instinct to preclude all others alienated the political class and led eventually to the conspiracy against his life. Legislation Caesar, as far as is attested in evidence, did not intend to restructure Roman society. Ernst Badian, writing in theOxford Classical Dictionary, noted that although Caesar did implement a series of reforms, they did not touch on the core of the republican system: he \"had no plans for basic social and constitutional reform\" and that \"the extraordinary honours heaped upon him... merely grafted him as an ill-fitting head on to the body of the traditional structure\". The most important of Caesar's reforms was to the calendar, which saw the abolition of thetraditional republican lunisolar calendarand its replacement with a solar calendar now called theJulian calendar.He also increased the number of magistrates and senators (from 600 to 900) to better administer the empire and reward his supporters with offices. Colonies also were founded outside Italy – notably on the sites of Carthage and Corinth, which had both been destroyed during Rome's 2nd century BC conquests – to discharge Italy's population into the provinces and reduce unrest.The royal power of naming patricians was revived to benefit the families of his menand thepermanent courtsjury pools were also altered to remove thetribuni aerarii, leaving only the equestrians and senators. He also took further administrative actions to stabilise his rule and that of the state.Caesar reduced the size of the grain dole from 320,000 down to around 150,000 by tightening the qualifications; special bonuses were offered to families with many children to stall depopulation.Plans were drawn for the conduct of a census. Citizenship was extended to a number of communities in Cisalpine Gaul and toCádiz.During the civil wars, Caesar had also instituted a novel debt repayment programme (no debts would be forgiven but they could be paid in kind), remitted rents up to a certain amount, and thrown games distributing food.Many of his enemies during the civil wars were pardoned – Caesar's clemency was exalted in his propaganda and temple works – with the intent to cultivate gratitude and draw a contrast between himself and the vengeful dictatorship of Sulla. The building programmes, started prior to his expedition to Spain, continued, with the construction of theForum of Caesarand theTemple of Venus Genetrixtherein. Other public works, including an expansion of Ostia's port and a canal through theCorinthian Isthmus, were also planned.Very busy with this work, the heavy-handedness with which he ignored the Senate, magistrates, and those who came to visit him also alienated many in Rome. Thecollegia, civic associations restored by Clodius in 58 BC, were again abolished.His actions to reward his supporters saw him allow his subordinates illegal triumphal processions and resign the consulship so that allies could take it up for the rest of the year. On the last day of 45 BC, when one of the succeeding consuls died, Caesar had anallyelected as replacement for a single day.Corruption on the part of his partisans was also overlooked to ensure their support; provincial cities and client kingdoms were extorted for favours to pay his bills. Conspiracy and death Attempts in January 44 BC to call Caesarrex(lit.'king') – a title associated with arbitrary oppression against citizens – were shut down by two tribunes before a supportive crowd. Caesar, claiming that the two tribunes infringed on his honour by doing so, had them deposed from office and ejected from the Senate.The incident both undermined Caesar's original arguments for pursuing the civil war (protecting the tribunes) and angered a public which still revered the tribunes as protectors of popular freedom.Shortly before 15 February 44 BC, he assumed the dictatorship for life, putting an end to any hopes that his powers would be merely temporary.Transforming his dictatorship, even with a decadal appointment, into one for life clearly showed to all contemporaries that Caesar had no intention to restore a free republic and that no free republic could be restored so long as he was in power. Just days after his assumption of the life dictatorship, he publicly rejected adiademfrom Antony at celebrations for theLupercalia. Interpretations of the episode vary: he may have been rejecting the diadem publicly only because the crowd was insufficiently supportive; he could have done it performatively to signal he was no monarch; alternatively, Antony could have acted on his own initiative. By this point, however, rumour was rife that Caesar – already wearing the dress of a monarch – sought a formal crown and the episode did little to reassure. The plan to assassinate Caesar had started by the summer of 45 BC. An attempt to recruit Antony was made around that time, though he declined and gave Caesar no warning. By February 44 BC, there were some sixty conspirators.It is clear that by this time, the victorious Caesarian coalition from the civil war had broken apart.While most of the conspirators were former Pompeians, they were joined by a substantial number of Caesarians.Among their leaders wereGaius Trebonius(consul in 45), Decimus Brutus (consul designate for 42), as well asCassiusandBrutus(both praetors in 44 BC).Trebonius and Decimus had joined Caesar during the war while Brutus and Cassius had joined Pompey; other Caesarians involved includedServius Sulpicius Galba,Lucius Minucius Basilus,Lucius Tullius Cimber, andGaius Servilius Casca.Many of the conspirators would have been candidates in the consular elections for 43 to 41 BC,likely dismayed by Caesar's sham elections in early 44 BC that produced advance results for the years 43–41 BC. Those electoral results came from the grace of the dictator and not that of the people; for the republican elite this was no substitute for actual popular support.Nor is it likely that the subordination of the normal magistrates to Caesar's masters of horse (Latin:magistri equitum) was appreciated. Brutus, who claimed descent from theLucius Junius Brutuswho haddriven out the kingsand theGaius Servilius Ahalawho had freed Rome from incipient tyranny, was the main leader of the conspiracy.By late autumn 45 BC, graffitiand some public comments at Rome were condemning Caesar as a tyrant and insinuating the need for a Brutus to remove the dictator. The ancient sources, exceptingNicolaus of Damascus, are unanimous that this reflected a genuine turn in public opinion against Caesar.Popular indignation at Caesar was likely rooted in his debt policies (too friendly to lenders), use of lethal force to suppress protests for debt relief, his reduction in the grain dole, his abolition of thecollegiarestored by Clodius, his abolition of the poorest panel of jurors in the permanent courts, and his abolition of open elections which deprived the people of their ancient right of decision.A popular turn against Caesar is also observed with reports that the two deposed tribunes were written-in on ballots at Caesar's advance consular elections in place of Caesar's candidates.Whether the Romans thought they had a tradition of tyrannicide is unclear;Cicero wrote in private as if the duty to kill tyrants was already given, but he made no public speeches to that effect and there is little evidence that the public accepted the logic of preventive tyrannicide.The philosophical tradition of thePlatonicOld Academywas also a factor driving Brutus to action due to its emphasis on a duty to free the state from tyranny. While some news of the conspiracy did leak, Caesar refused to take precautions and rejected escort by a bodyguard. The date decided upon by the conspirators was 15 March, theIdes of March, three days before Caesar intended to leave for his Parthian campaign.News of his imminent departure forced the conspirators to move up their plans; the Senate meeting on the 15th would be the last before his departure.They had decided that a Senate meeting was the best place to frame the killing as political, rejecting the alternatives at games, elections, or on the road.That only the conspirators would be armed at the Senate meeting, per Dio, also would have been an advantage. The day, 15 March, was also symbolically important as it was the day on which consuls took office until the mid-2nd century BC. Various stories purport that Caesar was on the cusp of not attending or otherwise being warned about the plot.Approached on his golden chair at the foot of the statue of Pompey, the conspirators attacked him with daggers. Whether he fell in silence, per Suetonius, or after reply to Brutus' appearance –kai su teknon?(\"you too, child?\") – isvariantly recorded.He was stabbed at least twenty-three times and died at once. Aftermath of the assassination The assassins seized the Capitoline hill after killing the dictator. They then summoned a public meeting in the Forum where they were coldly received by the population. They were also unable to fully secure the city, as Lepidus – Caesar'slieutenant in the dictatorship– moved troops from theTiber Islandinto the city proper. Antony, the consul who escaped the assassination, urged an illogical compromise position in the Senate:Caesar was not declared a tyrant and the conspirators were not punished.Caesar's funeral was then approved. At the funeral, Antony inflamed the public against the assassins, which triggered mob violence that lasted for some months before the assassins were forced to flee the capital and Antony then finally acted to suppress it by force. In 44 BC, there was a seven-daycometary outburstthat the Romans believe to represent the deification of Caeser, giving it the nameCaesar's Comet. On the site of his cremation, theTemple of Caesarwas begun by the triumvirs in 42 BC at the east side of the main square of theRoman Forum. Only its altar now remains.The terms of the will were also read to the public: it gave a generous donative to the plebs at large and left as principal heir oneGaius Octavius, Caesar's great-nephew then atApollonia, and adopted him in the will. Resumption of the pre-existing republic proved impossible as various actors appealed in the aftermath of Caesar's death to liberty or to vengeance to mobilise huge armies that led to a series of civil wars.Thefirst warwas between Antony in 43 BC and the Senate (including senators of both Caesarian and Pompeian persuasion) which resulted in Octavian – Caesar's heir – exploiting the chaos to seize the consulship and join with Antony and Lepidus to form theSecond Triumvirate.After purging their political enemies in aseries of proscriptions,the triumvirs secured the deification of Caesar – the Senate declared on 1 January 42 BC that Caesar would be placed among the Roman gods– and marched on the east where asecond warsaw the triumvirs defeat the tyrannicides inbattle,resulting in a final death of the republican cause and a three-way division of much of the Roman world.By 31 BC, Caesar's heir had taken sole control of the empire, ejecting his triumviral rivals after two decades of civil war. Pretending to restore the republic, his masked autocracy was acceptable to the war-weary Romans and marked the establishment of anew Roman monarchy. Personal life Health and physical appearance Based on remarks by Plutarch,Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered fromepilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s BC.Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to aparasitic infection in the brainby a tapeworm. Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have hadabsence seizuresin his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim ofhypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures. A line fromShakespeare'sJulius Caesarhas sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: \"Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf.\"No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence. Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral manifestations – headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility – and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in hisNatural Historythat Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes.These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. Caesar possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease. Suetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as \"tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes\".He adds that thebaldingCaesar was sensitive to teasing on the subject, and therefore had acombover. Suetonius reports that Caesar was thus especially pleased to be granted the honor of wearing a wreath at all times. Name and family The name Gaius Julius Caesar Using theLatin alphabetof the period, which lacked the lettersJandU, Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation ofGbyC. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling. (The letterformÆis aligatureof the lettersAandE, and is often used in Latininscriptionsto save space.) In Classical Latin, it waspronounced. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin,Brutus. InGreek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the GermanKaiser() or Dutchkeizer(). InVulgar Latin, the originaldiphthongfirst began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel. Then, theplosive/k/beforefront vowelsbegan, due topalatalization, to be pronounced as anaffricate, hence renderings likeinItalianandinGermanregional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title ofTsar. With the evolution of theRomance languages, the affricatebecame africative(thus,) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. Caesar'scognomenitself became atitle; it was promulgated by theBible, which contains the famous verse \"Render unto Caesarthe things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's\". The title became, from the late first millennium,KaiserinGermanand (throughOld Church Slaviccěsarĭ)Tsaror Czar in theSlavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power wasSimeon II of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946, but is still alive in 2023. This means that for approximately two thousand years, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. As a term for the highest ruler, the word Caesar constitutes one of the earliest, best attested and most widespread Latin loanwords in the Germanic languages, being found in thetext corporaofOld High German(keisar),Old Saxon(kēsur),Old English(cāsere),Old Norse(keisari),Old Dutch(keisere) and (throughGreek)Gothic(kaisar). Posterity Some ancient sources refer to the possibility of the tyrannicide,Marcus Junius Brutus, being one of Julius Caesar's illegitimate children.Caesar, at the time Brutus was born, was 15. Most ancient historians were sceptical of this and \"on the whole, scholars have rejected the possibility that Brutus was the love-child of Servilia and Caesar on the grounds of chronology\". Grandchild fromJuliaandPompey, dead at several days, unnamed. Rumors of passive homosexuality Roman society viewed the passive role duringsexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, \"Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar.\"According to Cicero,Bibulus,Gaius Memmius, and others – mainly Caesar's enemies – he had an affair withNicomedes IV of Bithyniaearly in his career. The stories were repeated, referring to Caesar as the \"Queen of Bithynia\", by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according toCassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion.This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. Catulluswrote a poem suggesting that Caesar and his engineerMamurrawere lovers,but later apologised. Mark Antonycharged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as politicalslander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus. Literary works During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin – even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works arehis funeral orationfor his paternal auntJuliaand his \"Anticato\", a document attackingCatoin response to Cicero's eulogy.Poems by Julius Caesarare also mentioned in ancient sources. Memoirs Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt: These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of \"dispatches from the front\". They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings.As a model of clear and direct Latin style,The Gallic Warstraditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students. Legacy Historiography The texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most completeprimary sourcefor the reconstruction of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind.Julius Caesar is also considered one of the first historical figures to fold his message scrolls into a concertina form, which made them easier to read.The Roman emperorAugustusbegan acult of personalityof Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by this tradition. Many rulers in history became interested in thehistoriography of Caesar.Napoleon IIIwrote the scholarly workHistoire de Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic.Charles VIIIordered a monk to prepare a translation of theGallic Warsin 1480.Charles Vordered a topographic study in France, to place the Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultanSuleiman the Magnificentcatalogued the surviving editions of theCommentaries, and translated them to Turkish language.Henry IVandLouis XIIIof France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively;Louis XIVre-translated the first one afterwards. The remains ofCaesar's altarare a pilgrimage site for visitors from across Italy and the world. Flowers and other items are left there daily and special commemorations take place on 15 March to commemorate Caesar's death. Politics Julius Caesar is seen as the main example ofCaesarism, a form of political rule led by acharismaticstrongmanwhose rule is based upon acult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violentsocial order, and being a regime involving prominence of themilitaryin the government.Other people in history, such as the FrenchNapoleon Bonaparteand the ItalianBenito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists.Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor topopulism.The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule. Depictions Battle record ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ Atrebates,Aduatuci ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ Chronology See also Notes References Sources Primary sources Own writings Ancient historians' writings Secondary sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Elizabeth_II (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar(12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was aRomangeneral and statesman. A member of theFirst Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in theGallic Warsbefore defeating his political rivalPompeyina civil war, and subsequently becamedictatorfrom 49 BC untilhis assassinationin 44 BC. He played a critical role inthe events that led to the demise oftheRoman Republicand the rise of theRoman Empire. In 60 BC, Caesar,Crassus, andPompeyformed theFirst Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominatedRoman politicsfor several years. Their attempts to amass political power were opposed by many in theSenate, among themCato the Youngerwith the private support ofCicero. Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in theGallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time he bothinvaded Britainandbuilt a bridge across the river Rhine. These achievements and the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after thedeath of Crassusin 53 BC. With theGallic Warsconcluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. In 49 BC, Caesar openly defied the Senate's authority bycrossing the Rubiconand marching towards Rome at the head of an army.This beganCaesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near-unchallenged power and influence in 45 BC. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reform, including the creation of theJulian calendar. He gavecitizenshipto many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reforms to support his veterans and initiated an enormous building programme. In early 44 BC, he was proclaimed \\\"dictator for life\\\" (dictator perpetuo). Fearful of his power and domination of the state, a group of senators led byBrutusandCassiusassassinated Caesar on theIdes of March(15 March) 44 BC. A newseries of civil warsbroke out and theconstitutional government of the Republicwas never fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known asAugustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in thelast civil war of the Roman Republic. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of theRoman Empirebegan. Caesar was an accomplished author and historian as well as a statesman; much of his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns. Other contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings ofSallust. Later biographies of Caesar bySuetoniusandPlutarchare also important sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history.Hiscognomenwas subsequently adopted as asynonymfor \\\"Emperor\\\"; the title \\\"Caesar\\\" was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern descendants such asKaiserandTsar. He hasfrequently appeared in literary and artistic works. Early life and career Gaius Julius Caesar was born into apatricianfamily, thegensJuliaon 12 July 100 BC.The family claimed to have immigrated to Rome fromAlba Longaduring the seventh century BC after the thirdking of Rome,Tullus Hostilius, took and destroyed their city. The family also claimed descent from Julus, the son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa. Given that Aeneas was a son of Venus, this made the clan divine. This genealogy had not yet taken its final form by the first century, but the clan's claimed descent from Venus was well established in public consciousness.There is no evidence that Caesar himself was born byCaesarian section; such operations entailed the death of the mother, butCaesar's motherlived for decades after his birth and no ancient sources record any difficulty with the birth. Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential during the middle republic. The first person known to have had thecognomenCaesarwas a praetor in 208 BC during theSecond Punic War. The family's first consul was in 157 BC, though their political fortunes had recovered in the early first century, producing two consuls in 91 and 90 BC.Caesar's homonymous father was moderately successful politically. He marriedAurelia, a member of the politically influentialAurelii Cottae, producing – along with Caesar – two daughters. Buoyed by his own marriage andhis sister'smarriage (the dictator's aunt) with the extremely influentialGaius Marius, he also served on theSaturninianland commission in 103 BC and was elected praetor some time between 92 and 85 BC; he served as proconsular governor of Asia for two years, likely 91–90 BC. Life under Sulla and military service Caesar's father did not seek a consulship during the domination ofLucius Cornelius Cinnaand instead chose retirement.During Cinna's dominance, Caesar was named asflamen Dialis(a priest ofJupiter) which led to his marriage to Cinna's daughter,Cornelia. The religious taboos of the priesthood would have forced Caesar to forgo a political career; the appointment – one of the highest non-political honours – indicates that there were few expectations of a major career for Caesar.In early 84 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly.AfterSulla's victory in thecivil war(82 BC), Cinna'sactawere annulled. Sulla consequently ordered Caesar to abdicate and divorce Cinna's daughter. Caesar refused, implicitly questioning the legitimacy of Sulla's annulment. Sulla may have put Caesar on theproscription lists, though scholars are mixed.Caesar then went into hiding before his relatives and contacts among theVestal Virginswere able to intercede on his behalf.They then reached a compromise where Caesar would resign his priesthood but keep his wife and chattels; Sulla's alleged remark he saw \\\"in many Mariuses\\\"is apocryphal. Caesar then left Italy to serve in the staff of the governor of Asia,Marcus Minucius Thermus. While there, he travelled to Bithynia to collect naval reinforcements and stayed some time as a guest of the king,Nicomedes IV, though later invective connected Caesar to a homosexual relation with the monarch.He then served at theSiege of Mytilenewhere he won thecivic crownfor saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle. The privileges of the crown – the Senate was supposed to stand on a holder's entrance and holders were permitted to wear the crown at public occasions – whetted Caesar's appetite for honours. After the capture of Mytilene, Caesar transferred to the staff ofPublius Servilius Vatiain Cilicia before learning of Sulla's death in 78 BC and returning home immediately.He was alleged to have wanted to join in on the consulLepidus' revolt that yearbut this is likely literary embellishment of Caesar's desire for tyranny from a young age. Afterward, Caesar attacked some of the Sullan aristocracy in the courts but was unsuccessful in his attempted prosecution ofGnaeus Cornelius Dolabellain 77 BC, who had recently returned from a proconsulship in Macedonia. Going after a less well-connected senator, he was successful the next year in prosecutingGaius Antonius Hybrida(later consul in 63 BC) for profiteering from the proscriptions but was forestalled when a tribune interceded on Antonius' behalf.After these oratorical attempts, Caesar left Rome for Rhodes seeking the tutelage of the rhetoricianApollonius Molon.While travelling, he was intercepted and ransomed by pirates in a story that was later much embellished. According to Plutarch and Suetonius, he was freed after paying a ransom of fiftytalentsand responded by returning with a fleet to capture and execute the pirates. The recorded sum for the ransom is literary embellishment and it is more likely that the pirates were sold into slavery perVelleius Paterculus.His studies were interrupted by the outbreak of theThird Mithridatic Warover the winter of 75 and 74 BC; Caesar is alleged to have gone around collecting troops in the province at the locals' expense and leading them successfully against Mithridates' forces. Entrance to politics While absent from Rome, in 73 BC, Caesar was co-opted into thepontificesin place of his deceased relativeGaius Aurelius Cotta. The promotion marked him as a well-accepted member of the aristocracy with great future prospects in his political career.Caesar decided to return shortly thereafter and on his return was elected one of themilitary tribunesfor 71 BC.There is no evidence that Caesar served in war – even thoughthe waronSpartacuswas on-going – during his term; he did, however, agitate for the removal of Sulla's disabilities on the plebeian tribunate and for those who supported Lepidus' revolt to be pardoned.These advocacies were common and uncontroversial.The next year, 70 BC,PompeyandCrassuswere consuls and brought legislation restoring the plebeian tribunate's rights; one of the tribunes, with Caesar supporting, then brought legislation pardoning the Lepidan exiles. For his quaestorship in 69 BC, Caesar was allotted to serve underGaius Antistius VetusinHispania Ulterior. His election also gave him a lifetime seat in the Senate. However, before he left, his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius died and, soon afterwards, his wife Cornelia died shortly after bearing his only legitimate child,Julia. He gave eulogies for both at public funerals.During Julia's funeral, Caesar displayed the images of his aunt's husband Marius, whose memory had been suppressed after Sulla's victory in the civil war. Some of the Sullan nobles – includingQuintus Lutatius Catulus– who had suffered under the Marian regime objected, but by this point depictions of husbands in aristocratic women's funerary processions was common.Contra Plutarch,Caesar's action here was likely in keeping with a political trend for reconciliation and normalisation rather than a display of renewed factionalism.Caesar quickly remarried, taking the hand of Sulla's granddaughterPompeia. Aedileship and election aspontifex maximus For much of this period, Caesar was one ofPompey's supporters. Caesar joined with Pompey in the late 70s to support restoration of tribunician rights; his support for the law recalling the Lepidan exiles may have been related to the same tribune's bill to grant lands to Pompey's veterans. Caesar also supported thelex Gabiniain 67 BC granting Pompey an extraordinary command against piracy in the Mediterranean and also supported thelex Maniliain 66 BC to reassign the Third Mithridatic War from its then-commanderLucullusto Pompey. Four years after his aunt Julia's funeral, in 65 BC, Caesar served ascurule aedileand staged lavishgamesthat won him further attention and popular support.He also restored the trophies won by Marius, and taken down by Sulla, overJugurthaand theCimbri.According to Plutarch's narrative, the trophies were restored overnight to the applause and tears of joy of the onlookers; any sudden and secret restoration of this sort would not have been possible – architects, restorers, and other workmen would have to have been hired and paid for – nor would it have been likely that the work could have been done in a single night.It is more likely that Caesar was merely restoring his family's public monuments – consistent with standard aristocratic practice and the virtue ofpietas– and, over objections from Catulus, these actions were broadly supported by the Senate. In 63 BC, Caesar stood for the praetorship and also for the post ofpontifex maximus,who was the head of theCollege of Pontiffsand the highest ranking state religious official. In the pontifical election before thetribes, Caesar faced two influential senators:Quintus Lutatius CatulusandPublius Servilius Isauricus. Caesar came out victorious. Many scholars have expressed astonishment that Caesar's candidacy was taken seriously, but this was not without historical precedent.Ancient sources allege that Caesar paid huge bribes or was shamelessly ingratiating;that no charge was ever laid alleging this implies that bribery alone is insufficient to explain his victory.If bribes or other monies were needed, they may have been underwritten by Pompey, whom Caesar at this time supported and who opposed Catulus' candidacy. Many sources also assert that Caesar supported the land reform proposals brought that year by plebeian tribunePublius Servilius Rullus, however, there are no ancient sources so attesting.Caesar also engaged in a collateral manner in the trial ofGaius Rabiriusby one of the plebeian tribunes –Titus Labienus– for the murder of Saturninus in accordance with asenatus consultum ultimumsome forty years earlier.The most famous event of the year was theCatilinarian conspiracy. While some of Caesar's enemies, including Catulus, alleged that he participated in the conspiracy,the chance that he was a participant is extremely small. Praetorship Caesar won his election to the praetorship in 63 BC easily and, as one of the praetor-elects, spoke out that December in the Senate against executing certain citizens who had been arrested in the city conspiring with Gauls in furtherance of the conspiracy.Caesar's proposal at the time is not entirely clear. The earlier sources assert that he advocated life imprisonment without trial; the later sources assert he instead wanted the conspirators imprisoned pending trial. Most accounts agree that Caesar supported confiscation of the conspirators' property.Caesar likely advocated the former, which was a compromise position that would place the Senate within the bounds of thelex Sempronia de capite civis, and was initially successful in swaying the body; a later intervention byCato, however, swayed the Senate at the end for execution. During his year as praetor, Caesar first attempted to deprive his enemy Catulus of the honour of completing the rebuiltTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, accusing him of embezzling funds, and threatening to bring legislation to reassign it to Pompey. This proposal was quickly dropped amid near-universal opposition.He then supported the attempt by plebeian tribuneMetellus Neposto transfer the command against Catiline from the consul of 63, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, to Pompey. After a violent meeting of thecomitia tributain the forum, where Metellus came into fisticuffs with his tribunician colleagues Cato andQuintus Minucius Thermus,the Senate passed a decree against Metellus – Suetonius claims that both Nepos and Caesar were deposed from their magistracies; this would have been a constitutional impossibility– which led Caesar to distance himself from the proposals: hopes for a provincial command and need to repair relations with the aristocracy took priority.He also was engaged in theBona Deaaffair, wherePublius Clodius Pulchersneaked into Caesar's house sacrilegiously during a female religious observance; Caesar avoided any part of the affair by divorcing his wife immediately – claiming that his wife needed to be \\\"above suspicion\\\"– but there is no indication that Caesar supported Clodius in any way. After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to governHispania Ulteriorpro consule.Deeply indebted from his campaigns for the praetorship and for the pontificate, Caesar required military victory beyond the normal provincial extortion to pay them off.He campaigned against theCallaeciandLusitaniand seized the Callaeci capital in northwestern Spain, bringing Roman troops to the Atlantic and seizing enough plunder to pay his debts.Claiming to have completed the peninsula's conquest, he made for home after having been hailedimperator.When he arrived home in the summer of 60 BC, he was then forced to choose between a triumph and election to the consulship: either he could remain outside thepomerium(Rome's sacred boundary) awaiting a triumph or cross the boundary, giving up his command and triumph, to make a declaration of consular candidacy.Attempts to waive the requirement for the declaration to be made in person were filibustered in the Senate by Caesar's enemy Cato, even though the Senate seemed to support the exception.Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship. First consulship and the Gallic Wars Caesar stood for the consulship of 59 BC along with two other candidates. His political position at the time was strong: he had supporters among the families which had supported Marius or Cinna; his connection with the Sullan aristocracy was good; his support of Pompey had won him support in turn. His support for reconciliation in continuing aftershocks of the civil war was popular in all parts of society.With the support of Crassus, who supported Caesar's joint ticket with oneLucius Lucceius, Caesar won. Lucceius, however, did not and the voters returnedMarcus Calpurnius Bibulusinstead, one of Caesar's long-standing personal and political enemies. First consulship After the elections, Caesar reconciled Pompey and Crassus, two political foes, in a three-way alliance misleadinglytermed the \\\"First Triumvirate\\\" in modern times.Caesar was still at work in December of 60 BC attempting to find allies for his consulship and the alliance was finalised only some time around its start.Pompey and Crassus joined in pursuit of two respective goals: the ratification ofPompey's eastern settlementand the bailing out of tax farmers in Asia, many of whom were Crassus' clients. All three sought the extended patronage of land grants, with Pompey especially seeking the promised land grants for his veterans. Caesar's first act was topublishthe minutes of the Senate and the assemblies, signalling the Senate's accountability to the public. He then brought in the Senate a bill – crafted to avoid objections to previous land reform proposals and any indications of radicalism – to purchase property from willing sellers to distribute to Pompey's veterans and the urban poor. It would be administered by a board of twenty (with Caesar excluded), and financed by Pompey's plunder and territorial gains.Referring it to the Senate in hope that it would take up the matter to show its beneficence for the people,there was little opposition and the obstructionism that occurred was largely unprincipled, firmly opposing it not on grounds of public interest but rather opposition to Caesar's political advancement.Unable to overcome Cato's filibustering, he moved the bill before the people and, at a public meeting, Caesar's co-consul Bibulus threatened a permanent veto for the entire year. This clearly violated the people's well-established legislative sovereigntyand triggered a riot in which Bibulus' fasces were broken, symbolising popular rejection of his magistracy.The bill was then voted through. Bibulus attempted to induce the Senate to nullify it on grounds it was passed by violence and contrary to the auspices but the Senate refused. Caesar also brought and passed a one-third write-down of tax farmers' arrears for Crassus and ratification of Pompey's eastern settlements. Both bills were passed with little or no debate in the Senate.Caesar then moved to extend his agrarian bill to Campania some time in May; this may be when Bibulus withdrew to his house.Pompey, shortly thereafter, also wed Caesar's daughter Julia to seal their alliance.An ally of Caesar's, plebeian tribunePublius Vatiniusmoved thelex Vatiniaassigning the provinces ofIllyricumandCisalpine Gaulto Caesar for five years.Suetonius' claim that the Senate had assigned to Caesar thesilvae callesque(\\\"woods and tracks\\\") is likely an exaggeration: fear of Gallic invasion had grown in 60 BC and it is more likely that the consuls had been assigned to Italy, a defensive posture that Caesarian partisans dismissed as \\\"mere 'forest tracks'\\\".The Senate was also persuaded to assign to CaesarTransalpine Gaulas well, subject to annual renewal, most likely to control his ability to make war on the far side of the Alps. Some time in the year, perhaps after the passing of the bill distributing the Campanian landand after these political defeats, Bibulus withdrew to his house. There, he issued edicts in absentia, purporting unprecedentedly to cancel all days on which Caesar or his allies could hold votes for religious reasons.Cato too attempted symbolic gestures against Caesar, which allowed him and his allies to \\\"feign victimisation\\\"; these tactics were successful in building revulsion to Caesar and his allies through the year.This opposition caused serious political difficulties to Caesar and his allies, belying the common depiction of triumviral political supremacy.Later in the year, however, Caesar – with the support of his opponents – brought and passed thelex Julia de repetundisto crack down on provincial corruption.When his consulship ended, Caesar's legislation was challenged by two of the new praetors but discussion in the Senate stalled and was regardless dropped. He stayed near the city until some time around mid-March. Campaigns in Gaul During the Gallic Wars, Caesar wrote hisCommentariesthereon, which were acknowledged even in his time as a Latin literary masterwork. Meant to document Caesar's campaigns in his own words and maintain support in Rome for his military operations and career, he produced some ten volumes covering operations in Gaul from 58 to 52 BC.Each was likely produced in the year following the events described and was likely aimed at the general, or at least literate, population in Rome;the account is naturally partial to Caesar – his defeats are excused and victories highlighted – but it is almost the sole source for events in Gaul in this period. Gaul in 58 BC was in the midst of some instability. Tribes had raided into Transalpine Gaul and there was an on-going struggle between two tribes in central Gaul which collaterally involved Roman alliances and politics. The divisions within the Gauls – they were no unified bloc – would be exploited in the coming years.The first engagement was in April 58 BC when Caesar prevented the migratingHelvetiifrom moving through Roman territory, allegedly because he feared they would unseat a Roman ally.Building a wall, he stopped their movement near Geneva and – after raising two legions – defeated them at theBattle of Bibractebefore forcing them to return to their original homes.He was drawn further north responding to requests from Gallic tribes, including theAedui, for aid againstAriovistus– king of theSuebiand a declared friend of Rome by the Senate during Caesar's own consulship – and he defeated them at theBattle of Vosges.Wintering in northeastern Gaul near theBelgaein the winter of 58–57, Caesar's forward military position triggered an uprising to remove his troops; able to eke out a victory at theBattle of the Sabis, Caesar spent much of 56 BC suppressing the Belgae and dispersing his troops to campaign across much of Gaul, including against theVenetiin what is nowBrittany.At this point, almost all of Gaul – except its central regions – fell under Roman subjugation. Seeking to buttress his military reputation, he engaged Germans attempting to cross the Rhine, which marked it as a Roman frontier;displaying Roman engineering prowess, he here built abridge across the Rhinein a feat of engineering meant to show Rome's ability to project power.Ostensibly seeking to interdict British aid to his Gallic enemies, he led expeditions into southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC, perhaps seeking further conquests or otherwise wanting to impress readers in Rome; Britain at the time was to the Romans an \\\"island of mystery\\\" and \\\"a land of wonder\\\".He, however, withdrew from the island in the face of winter uprisings in Gaul led by theEburonesandBelgaestarting in late 54 BC which ambushed and virtually annihilated a legion and five cohorts.Caesar was, however, able to lure the rebels into unfavourable terrain and routed them in battle.The next year, a greater challenge emerged with the uprising of most of central Gaul, led byVercingetorixof theAverni. Caesar was initially defeated atGergoviabeforebesieging Vercingetorix at Alesia. After becoming himself besieged, Caesar won a major victory which forced Vercingetorix's surrender; Caesar then spent much of his time into 51 BC suppressing any remaining resistance. Politics, Gaul, and Rome In the initial years from the end of Caesar's consulship in 59 BC, the three so-called triumvirs sought to maintain the goodwill of the extremely popularPublius Clodius Pulcher,who wasplebeian tribunein 58 BC and in that year successfully sent Cicero into exile. When Clodius took an anti-Pompeian stance later that year, he unsettled Pompey's eastern arrangements, started attacking the validity of Caesar's consular legislation, and by August 58 forced Pompey into seclusion. Caesar and Pompey responded by successfully backing the election of magistrates to recall Cicero from exile on the condition that Cicero would refrain from criticism or obstruction of the allies. Politics in Rome fell into violent street clashes between Clodius and two tribunes who were friends of Cicero. With Cicero now supporting Caesar and Pompey, Caesar sent news of Gaul to Rome and claimed total victory and pacification. The Senate at Cicero's motion voted him an unprecedented fifteen days of thanksgiving.Such reports were necessary for Caesar, especially in light of senatorial opponents, to prevent the Senate from reassigning his command in Transalpine Gaul, even if his position in Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum was guaranteed by thelex Vatiniauntil 54 BC.His success was evidently recognised when the Senate voted state funds for some of Caesar's legions, which until this time Caesar had paid for personally. The three allies' relations broke down in 57 BC: one of Pompey's allies challenged Caesar's land reform bill and the allies had a poor showing in the elections that year.With a real threat to Caesar's command andactabrewing in 56 BC under the aegis of the unfriendly consuls, Caesar needed his allies' political support.Pompey and Crassus too wanted military commands. Their combined interests led to a renewal of the alliance; drawing in the support ofAppius Claudius Pulcherand his younger brother Clodius for the consulship of 54 BC, they planned second consulships with following governorships in 55 BC for both Pompey and Crassus. Caesar, for his part, would receive a five-year extension of command. Cicero was induced to oppose reassignment of Caesar's provinces and to defend a number of the allies' clients; his gloomy predictions of a triumviral set of consuls-designate for years on end proved an exaggeration when, only by desperate tactics, bribery, intimidation and violence were Pompey and Crassus elected consuls for 55 BC.During their consulship, Pompey and Crassus passed – with some tribunician support – thelex Pompeia Liciniaextending Caesar's command and thelex Treboniagiving them respective commands in Spain and Syria,though Pompey never left for the province and remained politically active at Rome.The opposition again unified against their heavy-handed political tactics – though not against Caesar's activities in Gaul– and defeated the allies in the elections of that year. The ambush and destruction in Gaul of a legion and five cohorts in the winter of 55–54 BC produced substantial concern in Rome about Caesar's command and competence, evidenced by the highly defensive narrative in Caesar'sCommentaries.The death of Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife Julia in childbirthc.late August 54did not create a rift between Caesar and Pompey.At the start of 53 BC, Caesar sought and received reinforcements by recruitment and a private deal with Pompey before two years of largely unsuccessful campaigning against Gallic insurgents.In the same year, Crassus's campaign ended in disaster at theBattle of Carrhae, culminating in his death at the hands of theParthians. When in 52 BC Pompey started the year with a sole consulship to restore order to the city,Caesar was in Gaul suppressing insurgencies; after news of his victory at Alesia, with the support of Pompey he received twenty days of thanksgiving and, pursuant to the \\\"Law of the Ten Tribunes\\\", the right to stand for the consulship in absentia. Civil war From the period 52 to 49 BC, trust between Caesar and Pompey disintegrated.In 51 BC, the consulMarcellusproposed recalling Caesar, arguing that hisprovincia(here meaning \\\"task\\\") in Gaul – due to his victory against Vercingetorix in 52 – was complete; it evidently was incomplete as Caesar was that year fighting theBellovaciand regardless the proposal was vetoed.That year, it seemed that the conservatives around Cato in the Senate would seek to enlist Pompey to force Caesar to return from Gaul without honours or a second consulship.Cato, Bibulus, and their allies, however, were successful in winning Pompey over to take a hard line against Caesar's continued command. As 50 BC progressed, fears of civil war grew; both Caesar and his opponents started building up troops in southern Gaul and northern Italy, respectively.In the autumn, Cicero and others sought disarmament by both Caesar and Pompey, and on 1 December 50 BC this was formally proposed in the Senate.It received overwhelming support – 370 to 22 – but was not passed whenone of the consulsdissolved the meeting.That year, when a rumour came to Rome that Caesar was marching into Italy, both consuls instructed Pompey to defend Italy, a charge he accepted as a last resort.At the start of 49 BC, Caesar's renewed offer that he and Pompey disarm was read to the Senate and was rejected by the hardliners.A later compromise given privately to Pompey was also rejected at their insistence.On 7 January, his supportive tribunes were driven from Rome; the Senate then declared Caesar an enemy and it issued itssenatus consultum ultimum. There is scholarly disagreement as to the specific reasons why Caesar marched on Rome. A very popular theory is that Caesar was forced to choose – when denied the immunity of his proconsular tenure – between prosecution, conviction, and exile or civil war in defence of his position.Whether Caesar actually would have been prosecuted and convicted is debated. Some scholars believe the possibility of successful prosecution was extremely unlikely.Caesar's main objectives were to secure a second consulship – first mooted in 52 as colleague to Pompey's sole consulship– and a triumph. He feared that his opponents – then holding both consulships for 50 BC – would reject his candidacy or refuse to ratify an election he won.This also was the core of his war justification: that Pompey and his allies were planning, by force if necessary (indicated in the expulsion of the tribunes), to suppress the liberty of the Roman people to elect Caesar and honour his accomplishments. Italy, Spain, and Greece Around 10 or 11 January 49 BC,in response to the Senate's \\\"final decree\\\",Caesarcrossed the Rubicon– the river defining the northern boundary of Italy – with a single legion, theLegio XIII Gemina, and ignitedcivil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwrightMenander, in Greek, \\\"let the die be cast\\\".Pompey and many senators fled south, believing that Caesar was marching quickly for Rome.Caesar, after capturing communication routes to Rome, paused and opened negotiations, but they fell apart amid mutual distrust.Caesar responded by advancing south, seeking to capture Pompey to force a conference. Pompey withdrew toBrundisiumand was able to escape to Greece, abandoning Italy in face of Caesar's superior forces and evading Caesar's pursuit.Caesar stayed near Rome for about two weeks – during his stay his forceful seizure of the treasury over tribunician veto put the lie to his pro-tribunician war justifications– and left Lepidus in charge of Italy while he attacked Pompey's Spanish provinces.He defeated two of Pompey's legates at theBattle of Ilerdabefore forcing surrender ofthe third; his legates moved into Sicily and intoAfrica, though the African expedition failed.Returning to Rome in the autumn, Caesar had Lepidus, as praetor, bring a law appointing Caesardictatorto conduct the elections; he, along withPublius Servilius Isauricus, won the following elections and would serve as consuls for 48 BC.Resigning the dictatorship after eleven days,Caesar then left Italy for Greece to stop Pompey's preparations, arriving in force in early 48 BC. Caesarbesieged Pompey at Dyrrhachium, but Pompey was able to break out and force Caesar's forces to flee. Following Pompey southeast into Greece and to save one of his legates, he engaged and decisively defeated Pompeyat Pharsaluson 9 August 48 BC. Pompey then fled for Egypt; Cato fled for Africa; others, like Cicero andMarcus Junius Brutus, begged for Caesar's pardon. Alexandrine war and Asia Minor Pompey was killed when he arrived inAlexandria, the capital ofEgypt. Caesar arrived three days later on 2 October 48 BC. Prevented from leaving the city byEtesian winds, Caesar decided to arbitrate an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaohPtolemy XIII Theos PhilopatorandCleopatra, his sister, wife, and co-regent queen.In late October 48 BC, Caesar was appointed in absentia to a year-long dictatorship,after news of his victory at Pharsalus arrived to Rome.While in Alexandria, he started anaffairwith Cleopatra and withstood asiege by Ptolemyand his other sisterArsinoeuntil March 47 BC. Reinforced by eastern client allies underMithridates of Pergamum, he then defeated Ptolemy at theBattle of the Nileand installed Cleopatra as ruler.Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated the victory with a triumphal procession on theNile. He stayed in Egypt with Cleopatra until June or July that year, though the relevant commentaries attributed to him give no such impression. Some time in late June, Cleopatra gave birth to a child by Caesar, calledCaesarion. When Caesar landed atAntioch, he learnt that during his time in Egypt, the king of what is now Crimea,Pharnaces, had attempted to seize what had been his father's kingdom, Pontus, across theBlack Seain northern Anatolia. His invasion had swept aside Caesar's legates and the local client kings, but Caesar engaged him atZelaand defeated him immediately, leading Caesar to writeveni, vidi, vici(\\\"I came, I saw, I conquered\\\"), downplaying Pompey's previous Pontic victories. He then left quickly for Italy. Italy, Africa, and Spain Caesar's absence from Italy put Mark Antony, asmagister equitum, in charge. His rule was unpopular:Publius Cornelius Dolabella, serving as plebeian tribune in 47 BC, agitated for debt relief and after that agitation got out of hand the Senate moved for Antony to restore order. Delayed by a mutiny in southern Italy, he returned and suppressed the riots by force, killing many and delivering a similar blow to his popularity. Cato had marched to Africaand thereMetellus Scipiowas in charge of the remaining republicans; they allied withJubaofNumidia; what used to be Pompey's fleet also raided the central Mediterranean islands. Caesar's governor in Spain, moreover, was sufficiently unpopular that the province revolted and switched to the republican side. Caesar demoted Antony on his return and pacified the mutineers without violencebefore overseeing the election of the rest of the magistrates for 47 BC – no elections had yet been held – and also for those of 46 BC. Caesar would serve with Lepidus as consul in 46; he borrowed money for the war, confiscated and sold the property of his enemies at fair prices, and then left for Africa on 25 December 47 BC.Caesar's landing in Africa was marked with some difficulties establishing a beachhead and logistically. He was defeated byTitus LabienusatRuspinaon 4 January 46 BC and thereafter took a rather cautious approach.After inducing some desertions from the republicans, Caesar ended up surrounded atThapsus. His troops attacked prematurely on 6 April 46 BC, starting abattle; they then won it and massacred the republican forceswithout quarter. Marching on Utica, where Cato commanded, Caesar arrived to find that Cato had killed himself rather than receive Caesar's clemency.Many of the remaining anti-Caesarian leaders, including Metellus Scipio and Juba, also committed suicide shortly thereafter.Labienus and two of Pompey's sons, however, had moved to the Spanish provinces in revolt. Caesar started a process of annexing parts of Numidia and then returned to Italy via Sardinia in June 46 BC. Caesar stayed in Italy to celebrate four triumphs in late September, supposedly over four foreign enemies: Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces (Asia), and Juba (Africa). He led Vercingetorix, Cleopatra's younger sister Arsinoe, and Juba's son before his chariot; Vercingetorix was executed.According to Appian, in some of the triumphs, Caesar paraded pictures and models of his victories over fellow Romans in the civil wars, to popular dismay.The soldiers were each given 24,000sesterces(a lifetime's worth of pay); further games and celebrations were put on for the plebs. Near the end of the year, Caesar heard bad news from Spain and, with an army, left for the peninsula, leaving Lepidus in charge asmagister equitum. At a bloody battle atMundaon 17 March 45 BC, Caesar narrowly found victory;his enemies were treated as rebels and he had them massacred.Labienus died on the field. While one of Pompey's sons,Sextus, escaped, the war was effectively over.Caesar remained in the province until June before setting out for Rome, arriving in October of the same year, and celebrated an unseemly triumph over fellow Romans.By this point he had started preparations for war on theParthiansto avenge Crassus' death atCarrhaein 53 BC, with wide-ranging objectives that would take him into Dacia for three or more years. It was set to start on 18 March 44 BC. Dictatorship and assassination Dictatorships and honours Prior to Caesar's assumption of the titledictator perpetuoin February 44 BC, he had been appointed dictator some four times since his first dictatorship in 49 BC. After occupying Rome, he engineered this first appointment, largely to hold elections; after 11 days he resigned. The other dictatorships lasted for longer periods, up to a year, and by April 46 BC he was given a new dictatorship annually.The task he was assigned revived that of Sulla's dictatorship:rei publicae constituendae.These appointments, however, were not the source of legal power themselves; in the eyes of the literary sources, they were instead honours and titles which reflected Caesar's dominant position in the state, secured not by extraordinary magistracy or legal powers, but by personal status as victor over other Romans. Through the period after Pharsalus, the Senate showered Caesar with honours,including the titlepraefectus moribus(lit.'prefect of morals') which historically was associated with thecensorialpower to revise the Senate rolls. He was also granted power over war and peace,usurping a power traditionally held by thecomitia centuriata.These powers attached to Caesar personally.Similarly extraordinary were a number of symbolic honours which saw Caesar's portrait placed on coins in Rome – the first for a living Roman– with special rights to wear royal dress, sit atop a golden chair in the Senate, and have his statues erected in public temples. The month Quintilis, in which he was born, was renamedJulius(now July).These were symbols of divine monarchy and, later, objects of resentment. The decisions on the normal operation of the state – justice, legislation, administration, and public works – were concentrated into Caesar's person without regard for or even notice given to the traditional institutions of the republic.Caesar's domination over public affairs and his competitive instinct to preclude all others alienated the political class and led eventually to the conspiracy against his life. Legislation Caesar, as far as is attested in evidence, did not intend to restructure Roman society. Ernst Badian, writing in theOxford Classical Dictionary, noted that although Caesar did implement a series of reforms, they did not touch on the core of the republican system: he \\\"had no plans for basic social and constitutional reform\\\" and that \\\"the extraordinary honours heaped upon him... merely grafted him as an ill-fitting head on to the body of the traditional structure\\\". The most important of Caesar's reforms was to the calendar, which saw the abolition of thetraditional republican lunisolar calendarand its replacement with a solar calendar now called theJulian calendar.He also increased the number of magistrates and senators (from 600 to 900) to better administer the empire and reward his supporters with offices. Colonies also were founded outside Italy – notably on the sites of Carthage and Corinth, which had both been destroyed during Rome's 2nd century BC conquests – to discharge Italy's population into the provinces and reduce unrest.The royal power of naming patricians was revived to benefit the families of his menand thepermanent courtsjury pools were also altered to remove thetribuni aerarii, leaving only the equestrians and senators. He also took further administrative actions to stabilise his rule and that of the state.Caesar reduced the size of the grain dole from 320,000 down to around 150,000 by tightening the qualifications; special bonuses were offered to families with many children to stall depopulation.Plans were drawn for the conduct of a census. Citizenship was extended to a number of communities in Cisalpine Gaul and toCádiz.During the civil wars, Caesar had also instituted a novel debt repayment programme (no debts would be forgiven but they could be paid in kind), remitted rents up to a certain amount, and thrown games distributing food.Many of his enemies during the civil wars were pardoned – Caesar's clemency was exalted in his propaganda and temple works – with the intent to cultivate gratitude and draw a contrast between himself and the vengeful dictatorship of Sulla. The building programmes, started prior to his expedition to Spain, continued, with the construction of theForum of Caesarand theTemple of Venus Genetrixtherein. Other public works, including an expansion of Ostia's port and a canal through theCorinthian Isthmus, were also planned.Very busy with this work, the heavy-handedness with which he ignored the Senate, magistrates, and those who came to visit him also alienated many in Rome. Thecollegia, civic associations restored by Clodius in 58 BC, were again abolished.His actions to reward his supporters saw him allow his subordinates illegal triumphal processions and resign the consulship so that allies could take it up for the rest of the year. On the last day of 45 BC, when one of the succeeding consuls died, Caesar had anallyelected as replacement for a single day.Corruption on the part of his partisans was also overlooked to ensure their support; provincial cities and client kingdoms were extorted for favours to pay his bills. Conspiracy and death Attempts in January 44 BC to call Caesarrex(lit.'king') – a title associated with arbitrary oppression against citizens – were shut down by two tribunes before a supportive crowd. Caesar, claiming that the two tribunes infringed on his honour by doing so, had them deposed from office and ejected from the Senate.The incident both undermined Caesar's original arguments for pursuing the civil war (protecting the tribunes) and angered a public which still revered the tribunes as protectors of popular freedom.Shortly before 15 February 44 BC, he assumed the dictatorship for life, putting an end to any hopes that his powers would be merely temporary.Transforming his dictatorship, even with a decadal appointment, into one for life clearly showed to all contemporaries that Caesar had no intention to restore a free republic and that no free republic could be restored so long as he was in power. Just days after his assumption of the life dictatorship, he publicly rejected adiademfrom Antony at celebrations for theLupercalia. Interpretations of the episode vary: he may have been rejecting the diadem publicly only because the crowd was insufficiently supportive; he could have done it performatively to signal he was no monarch; alternatively, Antony could have acted on his own initiative. By this point, however, rumour was rife that Caesar – already wearing the dress of a monarch – sought a formal crown and the episode did little to reassure. The plan to assassinate Caesar had started by the summer of 45 BC. An attempt to recruit Antony was made around that time, though he declined and gave Caesar no warning. By February 44 BC, there were some sixty conspirators.It is clear that by this time, the victorious Caesarian coalition from the civil war had broken apart.While most of the conspirators were former Pompeians, they were joined by a substantial number of Caesarians.Among their leaders wereGaius Trebonius(consul in 45), Decimus Brutus (consul designate for 42), as well asCassiusandBrutus(both praetors in 44 BC).Trebonius and Decimus had joined Caesar during the war while Brutus and Cassius had joined Pompey; other Caesarians involved includedServius Sulpicius Galba,Lucius Minucius Basilus,Lucius Tullius Cimber, andGaius Servilius Casca.Many of the conspirators would have been candidates in the consular elections for 43 to 41 BC,likely dismayed by Caesar's sham elections in early 44 BC that produced advance results for the years 43–41 BC. Those electoral results came from the grace of the dictator and not that of the people; for the republican elite this was no substitute for actual popular support.Nor is it likely that the subordination of the normal magistrates to Caesar's masters of horse (Latin:magistri equitum) was appreciated. Brutus, who claimed descent from theLucius Junius Brutuswho haddriven out the kingsand theGaius Servilius Ahalawho had freed Rome from incipient tyranny, was the main leader of the conspiracy.By late autumn 45 BC, graffitiand some public comments at Rome were condemning Caesar as a tyrant and insinuating the need for a Brutus to remove the dictator. The ancient sources, exceptingNicolaus of Damascus, are unanimous that this reflected a genuine turn in public opinion against Caesar.Popular indignation at Caesar was likely rooted in his debt policies (too friendly to lenders), use of lethal force to suppress protests for debt relief, his reduction in the grain dole, his abolition of thecollegiarestored by Clodius, his abolition of the poorest panel of jurors in the permanent courts, and his abolition of open elections which deprived the people of their ancient right of decision.A popular turn against Caesar is also observed with reports that the two deposed tribunes were written-in on ballots at Caesar's advance consular elections in place of Caesar's candidates.Whether the Romans thought they had a tradition of tyrannicide is unclear;Cicero wrote in private as if the duty to kill tyrants was already given, but he made no public speeches to that effect and there is little evidence that the public accepted the logic of preventive tyrannicide.The philosophical tradition of thePlatonicOld Academywas also a factor driving Brutus to action due to its emphasis on a duty to free the state from tyranny. While some news of the conspiracy did leak, Caesar refused to take precautions and rejected escort by a bodyguard. The date decided upon by the conspirators was 15 March, theIdes of March, three days before Caesar intended to leave for his Parthian campaign.News of his imminent departure forced the conspirators to move up their plans; the Senate meeting on the 15th would be the last before his departure.They had decided that a Senate meeting was the best place to frame the killing as political, rejecting the alternatives at games, elections, or on the road.That only the conspirators would be armed at the Senate meeting, per Dio, also would have been an advantage. The day, 15 March, was also symbolically important as it was the day on which consuls took office until the mid-2nd century BC. Various stories purport that Caesar was on the cusp of not attending or otherwise being warned about the plot.Approached on his golden chair at the foot of the statue of Pompey, the conspirators attacked him with daggers. Whether he fell in silence, per Suetonius, or after reply to Brutus' appearance –kai su teknon?(\\\"you too, child?\\\") – isvariantly recorded.He was stabbed at least twenty-three times and died at once. Aftermath of the assassination The assassins seized the Capitoline hill after killing the dictator. They then summoned a public meeting in the Forum where they were coldly received by the population. They were also unable to fully secure the city, as Lepidus – Caesar'slieutenant in the dictatorship– moved troops from theTiber Islandinto the city proper. Antony, the consul who escaped the assassination, urged an illogical compromise position in the Senate:Caesar was not declared a tyrant and the conspirators were not punished.Caesar's funeral was then approved. At the funeral, Antony inflamed the public against the assassins, which triggered mob violence that lasted for some months before the assassins were forced to flee the capital and Antony then finally acted to suppress it by force. In 44 BC, there was a seven-daycometary outburstthat the Romans believe to represent the deification of Caeser, giving it the nameCaesar's Comet. On the site of his cremation, theTemple of Caesarwas begun by the triumvirs in 42 BC at the east side of the main square of theRoman Forum. Only its altar now remains.The terms of the will were also read to the public: it gave a generous donative to the plebs at large and left as principal heir oneGaius Octavius, Caesar's great-nephew then atApollonia, and adopted him in the will. Resumption of the pre-existing republic proved impossible as various actors appealed in the aftermath of Caesar's death to liberty or to vengeance to mobilise huge armies that led to a series of civil wars.Thefirst warwas between Antony in 43 BC and the Senate (including senators of both Caesarian and Pompeian persuasion) which resulted in Octavian – Caesar's heir – exploiting the chaos to seize the consulship and join with Antony and Lepidus to form theSecond Triumvirate.After purging their political enemies in aseries of proscriptions,the triumvirs secured the deification of Caesar – the Senate declared on 1 January 42 BC that Caesar would be placed among the Roman gods– and marched on the east where asecond warsaw the triumvirs defeat the tyrannicides inbattle,resulting in a final death of the republican cause and a three-way division of much of the Roman world.By 31 BC, Caesar's heir had taken sole control of the empire, ejecting his triumviral rivals after two decades of civil war. Pretending to restore the republic, his masked autocracy was acceptable to the war-weary Romans and marked the establishment of anew Roman monarchy. Personal life Health and physical appearance Based on remarks by Plutarch,Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered fromepilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s BC.Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to aparasitic infection in the brainby a tapeworm. Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have hadabsence seizuresin his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim ofhypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures. A line fromShakespeare'sJulius Caesarhas sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: \\\"Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf.\\\"No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence. Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral manifestations – headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility – and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in hisNatural Historythat Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes.These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. Caesar possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease. Suetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as \\\"tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes\\\".He adds that thebaldingCaesar was sensitive to teasing on the subject, and therefore had acombover. Suetonius reports that Caesar was thus especially pleased to be granted the honor of wearing a wreath at all times. Name and family The name Gaius Julius Caesar Using theLatin alphabetof the period, which lacked the lettersJandU, Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation ofGbyC. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling. (The letterformÆis aligatureof the lettersAandE, and is often used in Latininscriptionsto save space.) In Classical Latin, it waspronounced. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin,Brutus. InGreek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the GermanKaiser() or Dutchkeizer(). InVulgar Latin, the originaldiphthongfirst began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel. Then, theplosive/k/beforefront vowelsbegan, due topalatalization, to be pronounced as anaffricate, hence renderings likeinItalianandinGermanregional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title ofTsar. With the evolution of theRomance languages, the affricatebecame africative(thus,) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. Caesar'scognomenitself became atitle; it was promulgated by theBible, which contains the famous verse \\\"Render unto Caesarthe things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's\\\". The title became, from the late first millennium,KaiserinGermanand (throughOld Church Slaviccěsarĭ)Tsaror Czar in theSlavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power wasSimeon II of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946, but is still alive in 2023. This means that for approximately two thousand years, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. As a term for the highest ruler, the word Caesar constitutes one of the earliest, best attested and most widespread Latin loanwords in the Germanic languages, being found in thetext corporaofOld High German(keisar),Old Saxon(kēsur),Old English(cāsere),Old Norse(keisari),Old Dutch(keisere) and (throughGreek)Gothic(kaisar). Posterity Some ancient sources refer to the possibility of the tyrannicide,Marcus Junius Brutus, being one of Julius Caesar's illegitimate children.Caesar, at the time Brutus was born, was 15. Most ancient historians were sceptical of this and \\\"on the whole, scholars have rejected the possibility that Brutus was the love-child of Servilia and Caesar on the grounds of chronology\\\". Grandchild fromJuliaandPompey, dead at several days, unnamed. Rumors of passive homosexuality Roman society viewed the passive role duringsexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, \\\"Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar.\\\"According to Cicero,Bibulus,Gaius Memmius, and others – mainly Caesar's enemies – he had an affair withNicomedes IV of Bithyniaearly in his career. The stories were repeated, referring to Caesar as the \\\"Queen of Bithynia\\\", by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according toCassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion.This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. Catulluswrote a poem suggesting that Caesar and his engineerMamurrawere lovers,but later apologised. Mark Antonycharged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as politicalslander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus. Literary works During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin – even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works arehis funeral orationfor his paternal auntJuliaand his \\\"Anticato\\\", a document attackingCatoin response to Cicero's eulogy.Poems by Julius Caesarare also mentioned in ancient sources. Memoirs Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt: These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of \\\"dispatches from the front\\\". They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings.As a model of clear and direct Latin style,The Gallic Warstraditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students. Legacy Historiography The texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most completeprimary sourcefor the reconstruction of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind.Julius Caesar is also considered one of the first historical figures to fold his message scrolls into a concertina form, which made them easier to read.The Roman emperorAugustusbegan acult of personalityof Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by this tradition. Many rulers in history became interested in thehistoriography of Caesar.Napoleon IIIwrote the scholarly workHistoire de Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic.Charles VIIIordered a monk to prepare a translation of theGallic Warsin 1480.Charles Vordered a topographic study in France, to place the Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultanSuleiman the Magnificentcatalogued the surviving editions of theCommentaries, and translated them to Turkish language.Henry IVandLouis XIIIof France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively;Louis XIVre-translated the first one afterwards. The remains ofCaesar's altarare a pilgrimage site for visitors from across Italy and the world. Flowers and other items are left there daily and special commemorations take place on 15 March to commemorate Caesar's death. Politics Julius Caesar is seen as the main example ofCaesarism, a form of political rule led by acharismaticstrongmanwhose rule is based upon acult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violentsocial order, and being a regime involving prominence of themilitaryin the government.Other people in history, such as the FrenchNapoleon Bonaparteand the ItalianBenito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists.Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor topopulism.The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule. Depictions Battle record ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ Atrebates,Aduatuci ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ Chronology See also Notes References Sources Primary sources Own writings Ancient historians' writings Secondary sources External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Elizabeth_II (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))","Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar(12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was aRomangeneral and statesman. A member of theFirst Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in theGallic Warsbefore defeating his political rivalPompeyina civil war, and subsequently becamedictatorfrom 49 BC untilhis assassinationin 44 BC. He played a critical role inthe events that led to the demise oftheRoman Republicand the rise of theRoman Empire. In 60 BC, Caesar,Crassus, andPompeyformed theFirst Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominatedRoman politicsfor several years. Their attempts to amass political power were opposed by many in theSenate, among themCato the Youngerwith the private support ofCicero. Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in theGallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time he bothinvaded Britainandbuilt a bridge across the river Rhine. These achievements and the support of his","the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after thedeath of Crassusin 53 BC. With theGallic Warsconcluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. In 49 BC, Caesar openly defied the Senate's authority bycrossing the Rubiconand marching towards Rome at the head of an army.This beganCaesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near-unchallenged power and influence in 45 BC. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reform, including the creation of theJulian calendar. He gavecitizenshipto many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reforms to support his veterans and initiated an enormous building programme. In early 44 BC, he was proclaimed \"dictator for life\" (dictator perpetuo). Fearful of his power and domination of the state, a group of senators led byBrutusandCassiusassassinated Caesar on","Caesar on theIdes of March(15 March) 44 BC. A newseries of civil warsbroke out and theconstitutional government of the Republicwas never fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known asAugustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in thelast civil war of the Roman Republic. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of theRoman Empirebegan. Caesar was an accomplished author and historian as well as a statesman; much of his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns. Other contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings ofSallust. Later biographies of Caesar bySuetoniusandPlutarchare also important sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history.Hiscognomenwas subsequently adopted as asynonymfor \"Emperor\"; the title \"Caesar\" was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern descendants such asKaiserandTsar. He hasfrequently","He hasfrequently appeared in literary and artistic works. Early life and career Gaius Julius Caesar was born into apatricianfamily, thegensJuliaon 12 July 100 BC.The family claimed to have immigrated to Rome fromAlba Longaduring the seventh century BC after the thirdking of Rome,Tullus Hostilius, took and destroyed their city. The family also claimed descent from Julus, the son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa. Given that Aeneas was a son of Venus, this made the clan divine. This genealogy had not yet taken its final form by the first century, but the clan's claimed descent from Venus was well established in public consciousness.There is no evidence that Caesar himself was born byCaesarian section; such operations entailed the death of the mother, butCaesar's motherlived for decades after his birth and no ancient sources record any difficulty with the birth. Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential during the middle republic. The first person known to","person known to have had thecognomenCaesarwas a praetor in 208 BC during theSecond Punic War. The family's first consul was in 157 BC, though their political fortunes had recovered in the early first century, producing two consuls in 91 and 90 BC.Caesar's homonymous father was moderately successful politically. He marriedAurelia, a member of the politically influentialAurelii Cottae, producing – along with Caesar – two daughters. Buoyed by his own marriage andhis sister'smarriage (the dictator's aunt) with the extremely influentialGaius Marius, he also served on theSaturninianland commission in 103 BC and was elected praetor some time between 92 and 85 BC; he served as proconsular governor of Asia for two years, likely 91–90 BC. Life under Sulla and military service Caesar's father did not seek a consulship during the domination ofLucius Cornelius Cinnaand instead chose retirement.During Cinna's dominance, Caesar was named asflamen Dialis(a priest ofJupiter) which led to his marriage to Cinna's","marriage to Cinna's daughter,Cornelia. The religious taboos of the priesthood would have forced Caesar to forgo a political career; the appointment – one of the highest non-political honours – indicates that there were few expectations of a major career for Caesar.In early 84 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly.AfterSulla's victory in thecivil war(82 BC), Cinna'sactawere annulled. Sulla consequently ordered Caesar to abdicate and divorce Cinna's daughter. Caesar refused, implicitly questioning the legitimacy of Sulla's annulment. Sulla may have put Caesar on theproscription lists, though scholars are mixed.Caesar then went into hiding before his relatives and contacts among theVestal Virginswere able to intercede on his behalf.They then reached a compromise where Caesar would resign his priesthood but keep his wife and chattels; Sulla's alleged remark he saw \"in many Mariuses\"is apocryphal. Caesar then left Italy to serve in the staff of the governor of Asia,Marcus Minucius Thermus. While there, he travelled","there, he travelled to Bithynia to collect naval reinforcements and stayed some time as a guest of the king,Nicomedes IV, though later invective connected Caesar to a homosexual relation with the monarch.He then served at theSiege of Mytilenewhere he won thecivic crownfor saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle. The privileges of the crown – the Senate was supposed to stand on a holder's entrance and holders were permitted to wear the crown at public occasions – whetted Caesar's appetite for honours. After the capture of Mytilene, Caesar transferred to the staff ofPublius Servilius Vatiain Cilicia before learning of Sulla's death in 78 BC and returning home immediately.He was alleged to have wanted to join in on the consulLepidus' revolt that yearbut this is likely literary embellishment of Caesar's desire for tyranny from a young age. Afterward, Caesar attacked some of the Sullan aristocracy in the courts but was unsuccessful in his attempted prosecution ofGnaeus Cornelius Dolabellain 77 BC, who had","77 BC, who had recently returned from a proconsulship in Macedonia. Going after a less well-connected senator, he was successful the next year in prosecutingGaius Antonius Hybrida(later consul in 63 BC) for profiteering from the proscriptions but was forestalled when a tribune interceded on Antonius' behalf.After these oratorical attempts, Caesar left Rome for Rhodes seeking the tutelage of the rhetoricianApollonius Molon.While travelling, he was intercepted and ransomed by pirates in a story that was later much embellished. According to Plutarch and Suetonius, he was freed after paying a ransom of fiftytalentsand responded by returning with a fleet to capture and execute the pirates. The recorded sum for the ransom is literary embellishment and it is more likely that the pirates were sold into slavery perVelleius Paterculus.His studies were interrupted by the outbreak of theThird Mithridatic Warover the winter of 75 and 74 BC; Caesar is alleged to have gone around collecting troops in the province at the","the province at the locals' expense and leading them successfully against Mithridates' forces. Entrance to politics While absent from Rome, in 73 BC, Caesar was co-opted into thepontificesin place of his deceased relativeGaius Aurelius Cotta. The promotion marked him as a well-accepted member of the aristocracy with great future prospects in his political career.Caesar decided to return shortly thereafter and on his return was elected one of themilitary tribunesfor 71 BC.There is no evidence that Caesar served in war – even thoughthe waronSpartacuswas on-going – during his term; he did, however, agitate for the removal of Sulla's disabilities on the plebeian tribunate and for those who supported Lepidus' revolt to be pardoned.These advocacies were common and uncontroversial.The next year, 70 BC,PompeyandCrassuswere consuls and brought legislation restoring the plebeian tribunate's rights; one of the tribunes, with Caesar supporting, then brought legislation pardoning the Lepidan exiles. For his quaestorship","his quaestorship in 69 BC, Caesar was allotted to serve underGaius Antistius VetusinHispania Ulterior. His election also gave him a lifetime seat in the Senate. However, before he left, his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius died and, soon afterwards, his wife Cornelia died shortly after bearing his only legitimate child,Julia. He gave eulogies for both at public funerals.During Julia's funeral, Caesar displayed the images of his aunt's husband Marius, whose memory had been suppressed after Sulla's victory in the civil war. Some of the Sullan nobles – includingQuintus Lutatius Catulus– who had suffered under the Marian regime objected, but by this point depictions of husbands in aristocratic women's funerary processions was common.Contra Plutarch,Caesar's action here was likely in keeping with a political trend for reconciliation and normalisation rather than a display of renewed factionalism.Caesar quickly remarried, taking the hand of Sulla's granddaughterPompeia. Aedileship and election aspontifex maximus","aspontifex maximus For much of this period, Caesar was one ofPompey's supporters. Caesar joined with Pompey in the late 70s to support restoration of tribunician rights; his support for the law recalling the Lepidan exiles may have been related to the same tribune's bill to grant lands to Pompey's veterans. Caesar also supported thelex Gabiniain 67 BC granting Pompey an extraordinary command against piracy in the Mediterranean and also supported thelex Maniliain 66 BC to reassign the Third Mithridatic War from its then-commanderLucullusto Pompey. Four years after his aunt Julia's funeral, in 65 BC, Caesar served ascurule aedileand staged lavishgamesthat won him further attention and popular support.He also restored the trophies won by Marius, and taken down by Sulla, overJugurthaand theCimbri.According to Plutarch's narrative, the trophies were restored overnight to the applause and tears of joy of the onlookers; any sudden and secret restoration of this sort would not have been possible – architects,","– architects, restorers, and other workmen would have to have been hired and paid for – nor would it have been likely that the work could have been done in a single night.It is more likely that Caesar was merely restoring his family's public monuments – consistent with standard aristocratic practice and the virtue ofpietas– and, over objections from Catulus, these actions were broadly supported by the Senate. In 63 BC, Caesar stood for the praetorship and also for the post ofpontifex maximus,who was the head of theCollege of Pontiffsand the highest ranking state religious official. In the pontifical election before thetribes, Caesar faced two influential senators:Quintus Lutatius CatulusandPublius Servilius Isauricus. Caesar came out victorious. Many scholars have expressed astonishment that Caesar's candidacy was taken seriously, but this was not without historical precedent.Ancient sources allege that Caesar paid huge bribes or was shamelessly ingratiating;that no charge was ever laid alleging this implies","this implies that bribery alone is insufficient to explain his victory.If bribes or other monies were needed, they may have been underwritten by Pompey, whom Caesar at this time supported and who opposed Catulus' candidacy. Many sources also assert that Caesar supported the land reform proposals brought that year by plebeian tribunePublius Servilius Rullus, however, there are no ancient sources so attesting.Caesar also engaged in a collateral manner in the trial ofGaius Rabiriusby one of the plebeian tribunes –Titus Labienus– for the murder of Saturninus in accordance with asenatus consultum ultimumsome forty years earlier.The most famous event of the year was theCatilinarian conspiracy. While some of Caesar's enemies, including Catulus, alleged that he participated in the conspiracy,the chance that he was a participant is extremely small. Praetorship Caesar won his election to the praetorship in 63 BC easily and, as one of the praetor-elects, spoke out that December in the Senate against executing certain","executing certain citizens who had been arrested in the city conspiring with Gauls in furtherance of the conspiracy.Caesar's proposal at the time is not entirely clear. The earlier sources assert that he advocated life imprisonment without trial; the later sources assert he instead wanted the conspirators imprisoned pending trial. Most accounts agree that Caesar supported confiscation of the conspirators' property.Caesar likely advocated the former, which was a compromise position that would place the Senate within the bounds of thelex Sempronia de capite civis, and was initially successful in swaying the body; a later intervention byCato, however, swayed the Senate at the end for execution. During his year as praetor, Caesar first attempted to deprive his enemy Catulus of the honour of completing the rebuiltTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, accusing him of embezzling funds, and threatening to bring legislation to reassign it to Pompey. This proposal was quickly dropped amid near-universal opposition.He","opposition.He then supported the attempt by plebeian tribuneMetellus Neposto transfer the command against Catiline from the consul of 63, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, to Pompey. After a violent meeting of thecomitia tributain the forum, where Metellus came into fisticuffs with his tribunician colleagues Cato andQuintus Minucius Thermus,the Senate passed a decree against Metellus – Suetonius claims that both Nepos and Caesar were deposed from their magistracies; this would have been a constitutional impossibility– which led Caesar to distance himself from the proposals: hopes for a provincial command and need to repair relations with the aristocracy took priority.He also was engaged in theBona Deaaffair, wherePublius Clodius Pulchersneaked into Caesar's house sacrilegiously during a female religious observance; Caesar avoided any part of the affair by divorcing his wife immediately – claiming that his wife needed to be \"above suspicion\"– but there is no indication that Caesar supported Clodius in any way. After","in any way. After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to governHispania Ulteriorpro consule.Deeply indebted from his campaigns for the praetorship and for the pontificate, Caesar required military victory beyond the normal provincial extortion to pay them off.He campaigned against theCallaeciandLusitaniand seized the Callaeci capital in northwestern Spain, bringing Roman troops to the Atlantic and seizing enough plunder to pay his debts.Claiming to have completed the peninsula's conquest, he made for home after having been hailedimperator.When he arrived home in the summer of 60 BC, he was then forced to choose between a triumph and election to the consulship: either he could remain outside thepomerium(Rome's sacred boundary) awaiting a triumph or cross the boundary, giving up his command and triumph, to make a declaration of consular candidacy.Attempts to waive the requirement for the declaration to be made in person were filibustered in the Senate by Caesar's enemy Cato, even though the Senate seemed to","Senate seemed to support the exception.Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship. First consulship and the Gallic Wars Caesar stood for the consulship of 59 BC along with two other candidates. His political position at the time was strong: he had supporters among the families which had supported Marius or Cinna; his connection with the Sullan aristocracy was good; his support of Pompey had won him support in turn. His support for reconciliation in continuing aftershocks of the civil war was popular in all parts of society.With the support of Crassus, who supported Caesar's joint ticket with oneLucius Lucceius, Caesar won. Lucceius, however, did not and the voters returnedMarcus Calpurnius Bibulusinstead, one of Caesar's long-standing personal and political enemies. First consulship After the elections, Caesar reconciled Pompey and Crassus, two political foes, in a three-way alliance misleadinglytermed the \"First Triumvirate\" in modern times.Caesar was still at","was still at work in December of 60 BC attempting to find allies for his consulship and the alliance was finalised only some time around its start.Pompey and Crassus joined in pursuit of two respective goals: the ratification ofPompey's eastern settlementand the bailing out of tax farmers in Asia, many of whom were Crassus' clients. All three sought the extended patronage of land grants, with Pompey especially seeking the promised land grants for his veterans. Caesar's first act was topublishthe minutes of the Senate and the assemblies, signalling the Senate's accountability to the public. He then brought in the Senate a bill – crafted to avoid objections to previous land reform proposals and any indications of radicalism – to purchase property from willing sellers to distribute to Pompey's veterans and the urban poor. It would be administered by a board of twenty (with Caesar excluded), and financed by Pompey's plunder and territorial gains.Referring it to the Senate in hope that it would take up the matter","take up the matter to show its beneficence for the people,there was little opposition and the obstructionism that occurred was largely unprincipled, firmly opposing it not on grounds of public interest but rather opposition to Caesar's political advancement.Unable to overcome Cato's filibustering, he moved the bill before the people and, at a public meeting, Caesar's co-consul Bibulus threatened a permanent veto for the entire year. This clearly violated the people's well-established legislative sovereigntyand triggered a riot in which Bibulus' fasces were broken, symbolising popular rejection of his magistracy.The bill was then voted through. Bibulus attempted to induce the Senate to nullify it on grounds it was passed by violence and contrary to the auspices but the Senate refused. Caesar also brought and passed a one-third write-down of tax farmers' arrears for Crassus and ratification of Pompey's eastern settlements. Both bills were passed with little or no debate in the Senate.Caesar then moved to","then moved to extend his agrarian bill to Campania some time in May; this may be when Bibulus withdrew to his house.Pompey, shortly thereafter, also wed Caesar's daughter Julia to seal their alliance.An ally of Caesar's, plebeian tribunePublius Vatiniusmoved thelex Vatiniaassigning the provinces ofIllyricumandCisalpine Gaulto Caesar for five years.Suetonius' claim that the Senate had assigned to Caesar thesilvae callesque(\"woods and tracks\") is likely an exaggeration: fear of Gallic invasion had grown in 60 BC and it is more likely that the consuls had been assigned to Italy, a defensive posture that Caesarian partisans dismissed as \"mere 'forest tracks'\".The Senate was also persuaded to assign to CaesarTransalpine Gaulas well, subject to annual renewal, most likely to control his ability to make war on the far side of the Alps. Some time in the year, perhaps after the passing of the bill distributing the Campanian landand after these political defeats, Bibulus withdrew to his house. There, he issued edicts","he issued edicts in absentia, purporting unprecedentedly to cancel all days on which Caesar or his allies could hold votes for religious reasons.Cato too attempted symbolic gestures against Caesar, which allowed him and his allies to \"feign victimisation\"; these tactics were successful in building revulsion to Caesar and his allies through the year.This opposition caused serious political difficulties to Caesar and his allies, belying the common depiction of triumviral political supremacy.Later in the year, however, Caesar – with the support of his opponents – brought and passed thelex Julia de repetundisto crack down on provincial corruption.When his consulship ended, Caesar's legislation was challenged by two of the new praetors but discussion in the Senate stalled and was regardless dropped. He stayed near the city until some time around mid-March. Campaigns in Gaul During the Gallic Wars, Caesar wrote hisCommentariesthereon, which were acknowledged even in his time as a Latin literary masterwork. Meant","masterwork. Meant to document Caesar's campaigns in his own words and maintain support in Rome for his military operations and career, he produced some ten volumes covering operations in Gaul from 58 to 52 BC.Each was likely produced in the year following the events described and was likely aimed at the general, or at least literate, population in Rome;the account is naturally partial to Caesar – his defeats are excused and victories highlighted – but it is almost the sole source for events in Gaul in this period. Gaul in 58 BC was in the midst of some instability. Tribes had raided into Transalpine Gaul and there was an on-going struggle between two tribes in central Gaul which collaterally involved Roman alliances and politics. The divisions within the Gauls – they were no unified bloc – would be exploited in the coming years.The first engagement was in April 58 BC when Caesar prevented the migratingHelvetiifrom moving through Roman territory, allegedly because he feared they would unseat a Roman","unseat a Roman ally.Building a wall, he stopped their movement near Geneva and – after raising two legions – defeated them at theBattle of Bibractebefore forcing them to return to their original homes.He was drawn further north responding to requests from Gallic tribes, including theAedui, for aid againstAriovistus– king of theSuebiand a declared friend of Rome by the Senate during Caesar's own consulship – and he defeated them at theBattle of Vosges.Wintering in northeastern Gaul near theBelgaein the winter of 58–57, Caesar's forward military position triggered an uprising to remove his troops; able to eke out a victory at theBattle of the Sabis, Caesar spent much of 56 BC suppressing the Belgae and dispersing his troops to campaign across much of Gaul, including against theVenetiin what is nowBrittany.At this point, almost all of Gaul – except its central regions – fell under Roman subjugation. Seeking to buttress his military reputation, he engaged Germans attempting to cross the Rhine, which marked it as","which marked it as a Roman frontier;displaying Roman engineering prowess, he here built abridge across the Rhinein a feat of engineering meant to show Rome's ability to project power.Ostensibly seeking to interdict British aid to his Gallic enemies, he led expeditions into southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC, perhaps seeking further conquests or otherwise wanting to impress readers in Rome; Britain at the time was to the Romans an \"island of mystery\" and \"a land of wonder\".He, however, withdrew from the island in the face of winter uprisings in Gaul led by theEburonesandBelgaestarting in late 54 BC which ambushed and virtually annihilated a legion and five cohorts.Caesar was, however, able to lure the rebels into unfavourable terrain and routed them in battle.The next year, a greater challenge emerged with the uprising of most of central Gaul, led byVercingetorixof theAverni. Caesar was initially defeated atGergoviabeforebesieging Vercingetorix at Alesia. After becoming himself besieged, Caesar won a major","Caesar won a major victory which forced Vercingetorix's surrender; Caesar then spent much of his time into 51 BC suppressing any remaining resistance. Politics, Gaul, and Rome In the initial years from the end of Caesar's consulship in 59 BC, the three so-called triumvirs sought to maintain the goodwill of the extremely popularPublius Clodius Pulcher,who wasplebeian tribunein 58 BC and in that year successfully sent Cicero into exile. When Clodius took an anti-Pompeian stance later that year, he unsettled Pompey's eastern arrangements, started attacking the validity of Caesar's consular legislation, and by August 58 forced Pompey into seclusion. Caesar and Pompey responded by successfully backing the election of magistrates to recall Cicero from exile on the condition that Cicero would refrain from criticism or obstruction of the allies. Politics in Rome fell into violent street clashes between Clodius and two tribunes who were friends of Cicero. With Cicero now supporting Caesar and Pompey, Caesar sent news","Caesar sent news of Gaul to Rome and claimed total victory and pacification. The Senate at Cicero's motion voted him an unprecedented fifteen days of thanksgiving.Such reports were necessary for Caesar, especially in light of senatorial opponents, to prevent the Senate from reassigning his command in Transalpine Gaul, even if his position in Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum was guaranteed by thelex Vatiniauntil 54 BC.His success was evidently recognised when the Senate voted state funds for some of Caesar's legions, which until this time Caesar had paid for personally. The three allies' relations broke down in 57 BC: one of Pompey's allies challenged Caesar's land reform bill and the allies had a poor showing in the elections that year.With a real threat to Caesar's command andactabrewing in 56 BC under the aegis of the unfriendly consuls, Caesar needed his allies' political support.Pompey and Crassus too wanted military commands. Their combined interests led to a renewal of the alliance; drawing in the support","in the support ofAppius Claudius Pulcherand his younger brother Clodius for the consulship of 54 BC, they planned second consulships with following governorships in 55 BC for both Pompey and Crassus. Caesar, for his part, would receive a five-year extension of command. Cicero was induced to oppose reassignment of Caesar's provinces and to defend a number of the allies' clients; his gloomy predictions of a triumviral set of consuls-designate for years on end proved an exaggeration when, only by desperate tactics, bribery, intimidation and violence were Pompey and Crassus elected consuls for 55 BC.During their consulship, Pompey and Crassus passed – with some tribunician support – thelex Pompeia Liciniaextending Caesar's command and thelex Treboniagiving them respective commands in Spain and Syria,though Pompey never left for the province and remained politically active at Rome.The opposition again unified against their heavy-handed political tactics – though not against Caesar's activities in Gaul– and","in Gaul– and defeated the allies in the elections of that year. The ambush and destruction in Gaul of a legion and five cohorts in the winter of 55–54 BC produced substantial concern in Rome about Caesar's command and competence, evidenced by the highly defensive narrative in Caesar'sCommentaries.The death of Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife Julia in childbirthc.late August 54did not create a rift between Caesar and Pompey.At the start of 53 BC, Caesar sought and received reinforcements by recruitment and a private deal with Pompey before two years of largely unsuccessful campaigning against Gallic insurgents.In the same year, Crassus's campaign ended in disaster at theBattle of Carrhae, culminating in his death at the hands of theParthians. When in 52 BC Pompey started the year with a sole consulship to restore order to the city,Caesar was in Gaul suppressing insurgencies; after news of his victory at Alesia, with the support of Pompey he received twenty days of thanksgiving and, pursuant to the \"Law of","to the \"Law of the Ten Tribunes\", the right to stand for the consulship in absentia. Civil war From the period 52 to 49 BC, trust between Caesar and Pompey disintegrated.In 51 BC, the consulMarcellusproposed recalling Caesar, arguing that hisprovincia(here meaning \"task\") in Gaul – due to his victory against Vercingetorix in 52 – was complete; it evidently was incomplete as Caesar was that year fighting theBellovaciand regardless the proposal was vetoed.That year, it seemed that the conservatives around Cato in the Senate would seek to enlist Pompey to force Caesar to return from Gaul without honours or a second consulship.Cato, Bibulus, and their allies, however, were successful in winning Pompey over to take a hard line against Caesar's continued command. As 50 BC progressed, fears of civil war grew; both Caesar and his opponents started building up troops in southern Gaul and northern Italy, respectively.In the autumn, Cicero and others sought disarmament by both Caesar and Pompey, and on 1 December 50 BC","on 1 December 50 BC this was formally proposed in the Senate.It received overwhelming support – 370 to 22 – but was not passed whenone of the consulsdissolved the meeting.That year, when a rumour came to Rome that Caesar was marching into Italy, both consuls instructed Pompey to defend Italy, a charge he accepted as a last resort.At the start of 49 BC, Caesar's renewed offer that he and Pompey disarm was read to the Senate and was rejected by the hardliners.A later compromise given privately to Pompey was also rejected at their insistence.On 7 January, his supportive tribunes were driven from Rome; the Senate then declared Caesar an enemy and it issued itssenatus consultum ultimum. There is scholarly disagreement as to the specific reasons why Caesar marched on Rome. A very popular theory is that Caesar was forced to choose – when denied the immunity of his proconsular tenure – between prosecution, conviction, and exile or civil war in defence of his position.Whether Caesar actually would have been","would have been prosecuted and convicted is debated. Some scholars believe the possibility of successful prosecution was extremely unlikely.Caesar's main objectives were to secure a second consulship – first mooted in 52 as colleague to Pompey's sole consulship– and a triumph. He feared that his opponents – then holding both consulships for 50 BC – would reject his candidacy or refuse to ratify an election he won.This also was the core of his war justification: that Pompey and his allies were planning, by force if necessary (indicated in the expulsion of the tribunes), to suppress the liberty of the Roman people to elect Caesar and honour his accomplishments. Italy, Spain, and Greece Around 10 or 11 January 49 BC,in response to the Senate's \"final decree\",Caesarcrossed the Rubicon– the river defining the northern boundary of Italy – with a single legion, theLegio XIII Gemina, and ignitedcivil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian","quoted the Athenian playwrightMenander, in Greek, \"let the die be cast\".Pompey and many senators fled south, believing that Caesar was marching quickly for Rome.Caesar, after capturing communication routes to Rome, paused and opened negotiations, but they fell apart amid mutual distrust.Caesar responded by advancing south, seeking to capture Pompey to force a conference. Pompey withdrew toBrundisiumand was able to escape to Greece, abandoning Italy in face of Caesar's superior forces and evading Caesar's pursuit.Caesar stayed near Rome for about two weeks – during his stay his forceful seizure of the treasury over tribunician veto put the lie to his pro-tribunician war justifications– and left Lepidus in charge of Italy while he attacked Pompey's Spanish provinces.He defeated two of Pompey's legates at theBattle of Ilerdabefore forcing surrender ofthe third; his legates moved into Sicily and intoAfrica, though the African expedition failed.Returning to Rome in the autumn, Caesar had Lepidus, as praetor,","as praetor, bring a law appointing Caesardictatorto conduct the elections; he, along withPublius Servilius Isauricus, won the following elections and would serve as consuls for 48 BC.Resigning the dictatorship after eleven days,Caesar then left Italy for Greece to stop Pompey's preparations, arriving in force in early 48 BC. Caesarbesieged Pompey at Dyrrhachium, but Pompey was able to break out and force Caesar's forces to flee. Following Pompey southeast into Greece and to save one of his legates, he engaged and decisively defeated Pompeyat Pharsaluson 9 August 48 BC. Pompey then fled for Egypt; Cato fled for Africa; others, like Cicero andMarcus Junius Brutus, begged for Caesar's pardon. Alexandrine war and Asia Minor Pompey was killed when he arrived inAlexandria, the capital ofEgypt. Caesar arrived three days later on 2 October 48 BC. Prevented from leaving the city byEtesian winds, Caesar decided to arbitrate an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaohPtolemy XIII Theos PhilopatorandCleopatra, his","his sister, wife, and co-regent queen.In late October 48 BC, Caesar was appointed in absentia to a year-long dictatorship,after news of his victory at Pharsalus arrived to Rome.While in Alexandria, he started anaffairwith Cleopatra and withstood asiege by Ptolemyand his other sisterArsinoeuntil March 47 BC. Reinforced by eastern client allies underMithridates of Pergamum, he then defeated Ptolemy at theBattle of the Nileand installed Cleopatra as ruler.Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated the victory with a triumphal procession on theNile. He stayed in Egypt with Cleopatra until June or July that year, though the relevant commentaries attributed to him give no such impression. Some time in late June, Cleopatra gave birth to a child by Caesar, calledCaesarion. When Caesar landed atAntioch, he learnt that during his time in Egypt, the king of what is now Crimea,Pharnaces, had attempted to seize what had been his father's kingdom, Pontus, across theBlack Seain northern Anatolia. His invasion had swept aside Caesar's","aside Caesar's legates and the local client kings, but Caesar engaged him atZelaand defeated him immediately, leading Caesar to writeveni, vidi, vici(\"I came, I saw, I conquered\"), downplaying Pompey's previous Pontic victories. He then left quickly for Italy. Italy, Africa, and Spain Caesar's absence from Italy put Mark Antony, asmagister equitum, in charge. His rule was unpopular:Publius Cornelius Dolabella, serving as plebeian tribune in 47 BC, agitated for debt relief and after that agitation got out of hand the Senate moved for Antony to restore order. Delayed by a mutiny in southern Italy, he returned and suppressed the riots by force, killing many and delivering a similar blow to his popularity. Cato had marched to Africaand thereMetellus Scipiowas in charge of the remaining republicans; they allied withJubaofNumidia; what used to be Pompey's fleet also raided the central Mediterranean islands. Caesar's governor in Spain, moreover, was sufficiently unpopular that the province revolted and switched to","and switched to the republican side. Caesar demoted Antony on his return and pacified the mutineers without violencebefore overseeing the election of the rest of the magistrates for 47 BC – no elections had yet been held – and also for those of 46 BC. Caesar would serve with Lepidus as consul in 46; he borrowed money for the war, confiscated and sold the property of his enemies at fair prices, and then left for Africa on 25 December 47 BC.Caesar's landing in Africa was marked with some difficulties establishing a beachhead and logistically. He was defeated byTitus LabienusatRuspinaon 4 January 46 BC and thereafter took a rather cautious approach.After inducing some desertions from the republicans, Caesar ended up surrounded atThapsus. His troops attacked prematurely on 6 April 46 BC, starting abattle; they then won it and massacred the republican forceswithout quarter. Marching on Utica, where Cato commanded, Caesar arrived to find that Cato had killed himself rather than receive Caesar's clemency.Many of","clemency.Many of the remaining anti-Caesarian leaders, including Metellus Scipio and Juba, also committed suicide shortly thereafter.Labienus and two of Pompey's sons, however, had moved to the Spanish provinces in revolt. Caesar started a process of annexing parts of Numidia and then returned to Italy via Sardinia in June 46 BC. Caesar stayed in Italy to celebrate four triumphs in late September, supposedly over four foreign enemies: Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces (Asia), and Juba (Africa). He led Vercingetorix, Cleopatra's younger sister Arsinoe, and Juba's son before his chariot; Vercingetorix was executed.According to Appian, in some of the triumphs, Caesar paraded pictures and models of his victories over fellow Romans in the civil wars, to popular dismay.The soldiers were each given 24,000sesterces(a lifetime's worth of pay); further games and celebrations were put on for the plebs. Near the end of the year, Caesar heard bad news from Spain and, with an army, left for the peninsula, leaving Lepidus in charge","Lepidus in charge asmagister equitum. At a bloody battle atMundaon 17 March 45 BC, Caesar narrowly found victory;his enemies were treated as rebels and he had them massacred.Labienus died on the field. While one of Pompey's sons,Sextus, escaped, the war was effectively over.Caesar remained in the province until June before setting out for Rome, arriving in October of the same year, and celebrated an unseemly triumph over fellow Romans.By this point he had started preparations for war on theParthiansto avenge Crassus' death atCarrhaein 53 BC, with wide-ranging objectives that would take him into Dacia for three or more years. It was set to start on 18 March 44 BC. Dictatorship and assassination Dictatorships and honours Prior to Caesar's assumption of the titledictator perpetuoin February 44 BC, he had been appointed dictator some four times since his first dictatorship in 49 BC. After occupying Rome, he engineered this first appointment, largely to hold elections; after 11 days he resigned. The other","resigned. The other dictatorships lasted for longer periods, up to a year, and by April 46 BC he was given a new dictatorship annually.The task he was assigned revived that of Sulla's dictatorship:rei publicae constituendae.These appointments, however, were not the source of legal power themselves; in the eyes of the literary sources, they were instead honours and titles which reflected Caesar's dominant position in the state, secured not by extraordinary magistracy or legal powers, but by personal status as victor over other Romans. Through the period after Pharsalus, the Senate showered Caesar with honours,including the titlepraefectus moribus(lit.'prefect of morals') which historically was associated with thecensorialpower to revise the Senate rolls. He was also granted power over war and peace,usurping a power traditionally held by thecomitia centuriata.These powers attached to Caesar personally.Similarly extraordinary were a number of symbolic honours which saw Caesar's portrait placed on coins in Rome","on coins in Rome – the first for a living Roman– with special rights to wear royal dress, sit atop a golden chair in the Senate, and have his statues erected in public temples. The month Quintilis, in which he was born, was renamedJulius(now July).These were symbols of divine monarchy and, later, objects of resentment. The decisions on the normal operation of the state – justice, legislation, administration, and public works – were concentrated into Caesar's person without regard for or even notice given to the traditional institutions of the republic.Caesar's domination over public affairs and his competitive instinct to preclude all others alienated the political class and led eventually to the conspiracy against his life. Legislation Caesar, as far as is attested in evidence, did not intend to restructure Roman society. Ernst Badian, writing in theOxford Classical Dictionary, noted that although Caesar did implement a series of reforms, they did not touch on the core of the republican system: he \"had no","system: he \"had no plans for basic social and constitutional reform\" and that \"the extraordinary honours heaped upon him... merely grafted him as an ill-fitting head on to the body of the traditional structure\". The most important of Caesar's reforms was to the calendar, which saw the abolition of thetraditional republican lunisolar calendarand its replacement with a solar calendar now called theJulian calendar.He also increased the number of magistrates and senators (from 600 to 900) to better administer the empire and reward his supporters with offices. Colonies also were founded outside Italy – notably on the sites of Carthage and Corinth, which had both been destroyed during Rome's 2nd century BC conquests – to discharge Italy's population into the provinces and reduce unrest.The royal power of naming patricians was revived to benefit the families of his menand thepermanent courtsjury pools were also altered to remove thetribuni aerarii, leaving only the equestrians and senators. He also took further","also took further administrative actions to stabilise his rule and that of the state.Caesar reduced the size of the grain dole from 320,000 down to around 150,000 by tightening the qualifications; special bonuses were offered to families with many children to stall depopulation.Plans were drawn for the conduct of a census. Citizenship was extended to a number of communities in Cisalpine Gaul and toCádiz.During the civil wars, Caesar had also instituted a novel debt repayment programme (no debts would be forgiven but they could be paid in kind), remitted rents up to a certain amount, and thrown games distributing food.Many of his enemies during the civil wars were pardoned – Caesar's clemency was exalted in his propaganda and temple works – with the intent to cultivate gratitude and draw a contrast between himself and the vengeful dictatorship of Sulla. The building programmes, started prior to his expedition to Spain, continued, with the construction of theForum of Caesarand theTemple of Venus","theTemple of Venus Genetrixtherein. Other public works, including an expansion of Ostia's port and a canal through theCorinthian Isthmus, were also planned.Very busy with this work, the heavy-handedness with which he ignored the Senate, magistrates, and those who came to visit him also alienated many in Rome. Thecollegia, civic associations restored by Clodius in 58 BC, were again abolished.His actions to reward his supporters saw him allow his subordinates illegal triumphal processions and resign the consulship so that allies could take it up for the rest of the year. On the last day of 45 BC, when one of the succeeding consuls died, Caesar had anallyelected as replacement for a single day.Corruption on the part of his partisans was also overlooked to ensure their support; provincial cities and client kingdoms were extorted for favours to pay his bills. Conspiracy and death Attempts in January 44 BC to call Caesarrex(lit.'king') – a title associated with arbitrary oppression against citizens – were shut","– were shut down by two tribunes before a supportive crowd. Caesar, claiming that the two tribunes infringed on his honour by doing so, had them deposed from office and ejected from the Senate.The incident both undermined Caesar's original arguments for pursuing the civil war (protecting the tribunes) and angered a public which still revered the tribunes as protectors of popular freedom.Shortly before 15 February 44 BC, he assumed the dictatorship for life, putting an end to any hopes that his powers would be merely temporary.Transforming his dictatorship, even with a decadal appointment, into one for life clearly showed to all contemporaries that Caesar had no intention to restore a free republic and that no free republic could be restored so long as he was in power. Just days after his assumption of the life dictatorship, he publicly rejected adiademfrom Antony at celebrations for theLupercalia. Interpretations of the episode vary: he may have been rejecting the diadem publicly only because the crowd was","the crowd was insufficiently supportive; he could have done it performatively to signal he was no monarch; alternatively, Antony could have acted on his own initiative. By this point, however, rumour was rife that Caesar – already wearing the dress of a monarch – sought a formal crown and the episode did little to reassure. The plan to assassinate Caesar had started by the summer of 45 BC. An attempt to recruit Antony was made around that time, though he declined and gave Caesar no warning. By February 44 BC, there were some sixty conspirators.It is clear that by this time, the victorious Caesarian coalition from the civil war had broken apart.While most of the conspirators were former Pompeians, they were joined by a substantial number of Caesarians.Among their leaders wereGaius Trebonius(consul in 45), Decimus Brutus (consul designate for 42), as well asCassiusandBrutus(both praetors in 44 BC).Trebonius and Decimus had joined Caesar during the war while Brutus and Cassius had joined Pompey; other","Pompey; other Caesarians involved includedServius Sulpicius Galba,Lucius Minucius Basilus,Lucius Tullius Cimber, andGaius Servilius Casca.Many of the conspirators would have been candidates in the consular elections for 43 to 41 BC,likely dismayed by Caesar's sham elections in early 44 BC that produced advance results for the years 43–41 BC. Those electoral results came from the grace of the dictator and not that of the people; for the republican elite this was no substitute for actual popular support.Nor is it likely that the subordination of the normal magistrates to Caesar's masters of horse (Latin:magistri equitum) was appreciated. Brutus, who claimed descent from theLucius Junius Brutuswho haddriven out the kingsand theGaius Servilius Ahalawho had freed Rome from incipient tyranny, was the main leader of the conspiracy.By late autumn 45 BC, graffitiand some public comments at Rome were condemning Caesar as a tyrant and insinuating the need for a Brutus to remove the dictator. The ancient sources,","ancient sources, exceptingNicolaus of Damascus, are unanimous that this reflected a genuine turn in public opinion against Caesar.Popular indignation at Caesar was likely rooted in his debt policies (too friendly to lenders), use of lethal force to suppress protests for debt relief, his reduction in the grain dole, his abolition of thecollegiarestored by Clodius, his abolition of the poorest panel of jurors in the permanent courts, and his abolition of open elections which deprived the people of their ancient right of decision.A popular turn against Caesar is also observed with reports that the two deposed tribunes were written-in on ballots at Caesar's advance consular elections in place of Caesar's candidates.Whether the Romans thought they had a tradition of tyrannicide is unclear;Cicero wrote in private as if the duty to kill tyrants was already given, but he made no public speeches to that effect and there is little evidence that the public accepted the logic of preventive tyrannicide.The philosophical","philosophical tradition of thePlatonicOld Academywas also a factor driving Brutus to action due to its emphasis on a duty to free the state from tyranny. While some news of the conspiracy did leak, Caesar refused to take precautions and rejected escort by a bodyguard. The date decided upon by the conspirators was 15 March, theIdes of March, three days before Caesar intended to leave for his Parthian campaign.News of his imminent departure forced the conspirators to move up their plans; the Senate meeting on the 15th would be the last before his departure.They had decided that a Senate meeting was the best place to frame the killing as political, rejecting the alternatives at games, elections, or on the road.That only the conspirators would be armed at the Senate meeting, per Dio, also would have been an advantage. The day, 15 March, was also symbolically important as it was the day on which consuls took office until the mid-2nd century BC. Various stories purport that Caesar was on the cusp of not attending","of not attending or otherwise being warned about the plot.Approached on his golden chair at the foot of the statue of Pompey, the conspirators attacked him with daggers. Whether he fell in silence, per Suetonius, or after reply to Brutus' appearance –kai su teknon?(\"you too, child?\") – isvariantly recorded.He was stabbed at least twenty-three times and died at once. Aftermath of the assassination The assassins seized the Capitoline hill after killing the dictator. They then summoned a public meeting in the Forum where they were coldly received by the population. They were also unable to fully secure the city, as Lepidus – Caesar'slieutenant in the dictatorship– moved troops from theTiber Islandinto the city proper. Antony, the consul who escaped the assassination, urged an illogical compromise position in the Senate:Caesar was not declared a tyrant and the conspirators were not punished.Caesar's funeral was then approved. At the funeral, Antony inflamed the public against the assassins, which triggered mob","which triggered mob violence that lasted for some months before the assassins were forced to flee the capital and Antony then finally acted to suppress it by force. In 44 BC, there was a seven-daycometary outburstthat the Romans believe to represent the deification of Caeser, giving it the nameCaesar's Comet. On the site of his cremation, theTemple of Caesarwas begun by the triumvirs in 42 BC at the east side of the main square of theRoman Forum. Only its altar now remains.The terms of the will were also read to the public: it gave a generous donative to the plebs at large and left as principal heir oneGaius Octavius, Caesar's great-nephew then atApollonia, and adopted him in the will. Resumption of the pre-existing republic proved impossible as various actors appealed in the aftermath of Caesar's death to liberty or to vengeance to mobilise huge armies that led to a series of civil wars.Thefirst warwas between Antony in 43 BC and the Senate (including senators of both Caesarian and Pompeian persuasion)","persuasion) which resulted in Octavian – Caesar's heir – exploiting the chaos to seize the consulship and join with Antony and Lepidus to form theSecond Triumvirate.After purging their political enemies in aseries of proscriptions,the triumvirs secured the deification of Caesar – the Senate declared on 1 January 42 BC that Caesar would be placed among the Roman gods– and marched on the east where asecond warsaw the triumvirs defeat the tyrannicides inbattle,resulting in a final death of the republican cause and a three-way division of much of the Roman world.By 31 BC, Caesar's heir had taken sole control of the empire, ejecting his triumviral rivals after two decades of civil war. Pretending to restore the republic, his masked autocracy was acceptable to the war-weary Romans and marked the establishment of anew Roman monarchy. Personal life Health and physical appearance Based on remarks by Plutarch,Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered fromepilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the","divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s BC.Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to aparasitic infection in the brainby a tapeworm. Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have hadabsence seizuresin his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim ofhypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures. A line fromShakespeare'sJulius Caesarhas sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: \"Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf.\"No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily","Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence. Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral manifestations – headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility – and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in hisNatural Historythat Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes.These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. Caesar possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease. Suetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as \"tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes\".He adds that thebaldingCaesar was sensitive to teasing","to teasing on the subject, and therefore had acombover. Suetonius reports that Caesar was thus especially pleased to be granted the honor of wearing a wreath at all times. Name and family The name Gaius Julius Caesar Using theLatin alphabetof the period, which lacked the lettersJandU, Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation ofGbyC. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling. (The letterformÆis aligatureof the lettersAandE, and is often used in Latininscriptionsto save space.) In Classical Latin, it waspronounced. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin,Brutus. InGreek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary","its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the GermanKaiser() or Dutchkeizer(). InVulgar Latin, the originaldiphthongfirst began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel. Then, theplosive/k/beforefront vowelsbegan, due topalatalization, to be pronounced as anaffricate, hence renderings likeinItalianandinGermanregional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title ofTsar. With the evolution of theRomance languages, the affricatebecame africative(thus,) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. Caesar'scognomenitself became atitle; it was promulgated by theBible, which contains the famous verse \"Render unto Caesarthe things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's\". The title became, from the late first millennium,KaiserinGermanand (throughOld Church Slaviccěsarĭ)Tsaror Czar in theSlavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power wasSimeon II of Bulgaria, whose","of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946, but is still alive in 2023. This means that for approximately two thousand years, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. As a term for the highest ruler, the word Caesar constitutes one of the earliest, best attested and most widespread Latin loanwords in the Germanic languages, being found in thetext corporaofOld High German(keisar),Old Saxon(kēsur),Old English(cāsere),Old Norse(keisari),Old Dutch(keisere) and (throughGreek)Gothic(kaisar). Posterity Some ancient sources refer to the possibility of the tyrannicide,Marcus Junius Brutus, being one of Julius Caesar's illegitimate children.Caesar, at the time Brutus was born, was 15. Most ancient historians were sceptical of this and \"on the whole, scholars have rejected the possibility that Brutus was the love-child of Servilia and Caesar on the grounds of chronology\". Grandchild fromJuliaandPompey, dead at several days, unnamed. Rumors of passive homosexuality Roman society viewed the passive role","the passive role duringsexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, \"Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar.\"According to Cicero,Bibulus,Gaius Memmius, and others – mainly Caesar's enemies – he had an affair withNicomedes IV of Bithyniaearly in his career. The stories were repeated, referring to Caesar as the \"Queen of Bithynia\", by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according toCassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion.This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. Catulluswrote a poem suggesting that Caesar and his engineerMamurrawere lovers,but later apologised. Mark Antonycharged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an","accusation of an affair with Octavian as politicalslander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus. Literary works During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin – even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works arehis funeral orationfor his paternal auntJuliaand his \"Anticato\", a document attackingCatoin response to Cicero's eulogy.Poems by Julius Caesarare also mentioned in ancient sources. Memoirs Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt: These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of \"dispatches from the front\". They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings.As a","readings.As a model of clear and direct Latin style,The Gallic Warstraditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students. Legacy Historiography The texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most completeprimary sourcefor the reconstruction of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind.Julius Caesar is also considered one of the first historical figures to fold his message scrolls into a concertina form, which made them easier to read.The Roman emperorAugustusbegan acult of personalityof Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by this tradition. Many rulers in history became interested in thehistoriography of Caesar.Napoleon IIIwrote the scholarly workHistoire de Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic.Charles VIIIordered a monk to prepare a translation of theGallic Warsin","of theGallic Warsin 1480.Charles Vordered a topographic study in France, to place the Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultanSuleiman the Magnificentcatalogued the surviving editions of theCommentaries, and translated them to Turkish language.Henry IVandLouis XIIIof France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively;Louis XIVre-translated the first one afterwards. The remains ofCaesar's altarare a pilgrimage site for visitors from across Italy and the world. Flowers and other items are left there daily and special commemorations take place on 15 March to commemorate Caesar's death. Politics Julius Caesar is seen as the main example ofCaesarism, a form of political rule led by acharismaticstrongmanwhose rule is based upon acult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violentsocial order, and being a regime involving prominence of themilitaryin the government.Other people in","people in history, such as the FrenchNapoleon Bonaparteand the ItalianBenito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists.Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor topopulism.The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule. Depictions Battle record ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ Atrebates,Aduatuci ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ Chronology See also Notes References Sources Primary sources Own writings Ancient historians' writings Secondary sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Elizabeth_II (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar(12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was aRomangeneral and statesman. A member of theFirst Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in theGallic Warsbefore defeating his political rivalPompeyina civil war, and subsequently becamedictatorfrom 49 BC untilhis assassinationin 44 BC. He played a critical role inthe events that led to the demise oftheRoman Republicand the rise of theRoman Empire. In 60 BC, Caesar,Crassus, andPompeyformed theFirst Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominatedRoman politicsfor several years. Their attempts to amass political power were opposed by many in theSenate, among themCato the Youngerwith the private support ofCicero. Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in theGallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time he bothinvaded Britainandbuilt a bridge across the river Rhine. These achievements and the support of his\",\n \"the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after thedeath of Crassusin 53 BC. With theGallic Warsconcluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. In 49 BC, Caesar openly defied the Senate's authority bycrossing the Rubiconand marching towards Rome at the head of an army.This beganCaesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near-unchallenged power and influence in 45 BC. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reform, including the creation of theJulian calendar. He gavecitizenshipto many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reforms to support his veterans and initiated an enormous building programme. In early 44 BC, he was proclaimed \\\"dictator for life\\\" (dictator perpetuo). Fearful of his power and domination of the state, a group of senators led byBrutusandCassiusassassinated Caesar on\",\n \"Caesar on theIdes of March(15 March) 44 BC. A newseries of civil warsbroke out and theconstitutional government of the Republicwas never fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known asAugustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in thelast civil war of the Roman Republic. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of theRoman Empirebegan. Caesar was an accomplished author and historian as well as a statesman; much of his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns. Other contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings ofSallust. Later biographies of Caesar bySuetoniusandPlutarchare also important sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history.Hiscognomenwas subsequently adopted as asynonymfor \\\"Emperor\\\"; the title \\\"Caesar\\\" was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern descendants such asKaiserandTsar. He hasfrequently\",\n \"He hasfrequently appeared in literary and artistic works. Early life and career Gaius Julius Caesar was born into apatricianfamily, thegensJuliaon 12 July 100 BC.The family claimed to have immigrated to Rome fromAlba Longaduring the seventh century BC after the thirdking of Rome,Tullus Hostilius, took and destroyed their city. The family also claimed descent from Julus, the son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa. Given that Aeneas was a son of Venus, this made the clan divine. This genealogy had not yet taken its final form by the first century, but the clan's claimed descent from Venus was well established in public consciousness.There is no evidence that Caesar himself was born byCaesarian section; such operations entailed the death of the mother, butCaesar's motherlived for decades after his birth and no ancient sources record any difficulty with the birth. Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential during the middle republic. The first person known to\",\n \"person known to have had thecognomenCaesarwas a praetor in 208 BC during theSecond Punic War. The family's first consul was in 157 BC, though their political fortunes had recovered in the early first century, producing two consuls in 91 and 90 BC.Caesar's homonymous father was moderately successful politically. He marriedAurelia, a member of the politically influentialAurelii Cottae, producing – along with Caesar – two daughters. Buoyed by his own marriage andhis sister'smarriage (the dictator's aunt) with the extremely influentialGaius Marius, he also served on theSaturninianland commission in 103 BC and was elected praetor some time between 92 and 85 BC; he served as proconsular governor of Asia for two years, likely 91–90 BC. Life under Sulla and military service Caesar's father did not seek a consulship during the domination ofLucius Cornelius Cinnaand instead chose retirement.During Cinna's dominance, Caesar was named asflamen Dialis(a priest ofJupiter) which led to his marriage to Cinna's\",\n \"marriage to Cinna's daughter,Cornelia. The religious taboos of the priesthood would have forced Caesar to forgo a political career; the appointment – one of the highest non-political honours – indicates that there were few expectations of a major career for Caesar.In early 84 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly.AfterSulla's victory in thecivil war(82 BC), Cinna'sactawere annulled. Sulla consequently ordered Caesar to abdicate and divorce Cinna's daughter. Caesar refused, implicitly questioning the legitimacy of Sulla's annulment. Sulla may have put Caesar on theproscription lists, though scholars are mixed.Caesar then went into hiding before his relatives and contacts among theVestal Virginswere able to intercede on his behalf.They then reached a compromise where Caesar would resign his priesthood but keep his wife and chattels; Sulla's alleged remark he saw \\\"in many Mariuses\\\"is apocryphal. Caesar then left Italy to serve in the staff of the governor of Asia,Marcus Minucius Thermus. While there, he travelled\",\n \"there, he travelled to Bithynia to collect naval reinforcements and stayed some time as a guest of the king,Nicomedes IV, though later invective connected Caesar to a homosexual relation with the monarch.He then served at theSiege of Mytilenewhere he won thecivic crownfor saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle. The privileges of the crown – the Senate was supposed to stand on a holder's entrance and holders were permitted to wear the crown at public occasions – whetted Caesar's appetite for honours. After the capture of Mytilene, Caesar transferred to the staff ofPublius Servilius Vatiain Cilicia before learning of Sulla's death in 78 BC and returning home immediately.He was alleged to have wanted to join in on the consulLepidus' revolt that yearbut this is likely literary embellishment of Caesar's desire for tyranny from a young age. Afterward, Caesar attacked some of the Sullan aristocracy in the courts but was unsuccessful in his attempted prosecution ofGnaeus Cornelius Dolabellain 77 BC, who had\",\n \"77 BC, who had recently returned from a proconsulship in Macedonia. Going after a less well-connected senator, he was successful the next year in prosecutingGaius Antonius Hybrida(later consul in 63 BC) for profiteering from the proscriptions but was forestalled when a tribune interceded on Antonius' behalf.After these oratorical attempts, Caesar left Rome for Rhodes seeking the tutelage of the rhetoricianApollonius Molon.While travelling, he was intercepted and ransomed by pirates in a story that was later much embellished. According to Plutarch and Suetonius, he was freed after paying a ransom of fiftytalentsand responded by returning with a fleet to capture and execute the pirates. The recorded sum for the ransom is literary embellishment and it is more likely that the pirates were sold into slavery perVelleius Paterculus.His studies were interrupted by the outbreak of theThird Mithridatic Warover the winter of 75 and 74 BC; Caesar is alleged to have gone around collecting troops in the province at the\",\n \"the province at the locals' expense and leading them successfully against Mithridates' forces. Entrance to politics While absent from Rome, in 73 BC, Caesar was co-opted into thepontificesin place of his deceased relativeGaius Aurelius Cotta. The promotion marked him as a well-accepted member of the aristocracy with great future prospects in his political career.Caesar decided to return shortly thereafter and on his return was elected one of themilitary tribunesfor 71 BC.There is no evidence that Caesar served in war – even thoughthe waronSpartacuswas on-going – during his term; he did, however, agitate for the removal of Sulla's disabilities on the plebeian tribunate and for those who supported Lepidus' revolt to be pardoned.These advocacies were common and uncontroversial.The next year, 70 BC,PompeyandCrassuswere consuls and brought legislation restoring the plebeian tribunate's rights; one of the tribunes, with Caesar supporting, then brought legislation pardoning the Lepidan exiles. For his quaestorship\",\n \"his quaestorship in 69 BC, Caesar was allotted to serve underGaius Antistius VetusinHispania Ulterior. His election also gave him a lifetime seat in the Senate. However, before he left, his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius died and, soon afterwards, his wife Cornelia died shortly after bearing his only legitimate child,Julia. He gave eulogies for both at public funerals.During Julia's funeral, Caesar displayed the images of his aunt's husband Marius, whose memory had been suppressed after Sulla's victory in the civil war. Some of the Sullan nobles – includingQuintus Lutatius Catulus– who had suffered under the Marian regime objected, but by this point depictions of husbands in aristocratic women's funerary processions was common.Contra Plutarch,Caesar's action here was likely in keeping with a political trend for reconciliation and normalisation rather than a display of renewed factionalism.Caesar quickly remarried, taking the hand of Sulla's granddaughterPompeia. Aedileship and election aspontifex maximus\",\n \"aspontifex maximus For much of this period, Caesar was one ofPompey's supporters. Caesar joined with Pompey in the late 70s to support restoration of tribunician rights; his support for the law recalling the Lepidan exiles may have been related to the same tribune's bill to grant lands to Pompey's veterans. Caesar also supported thelex Gabiniain 67 BC granting Pompey an extraordinary command against piracy in the Mediterranean and also supported thelex Maniliain 66 BC to reassign the Third Mithridatic War from its then-commanderLucullusto Pompey. Four years after his aunt Julia's funeral, in 65 BC, Caesar served ascurule aedileand staged lavishgamesthat won him further attention and popular support.He also restored the trophies won by Marius, and taken down by Sulla, overJugurthaand theCimbri.According to Plutarch's narrative, the trophies were restored overnight to the applause and tears of joy of the onlookers; any sudden and secret restoration of this sort would not have been possible – architects,\",\n \"– architects, restorers, and other workmen would have to have been hired and paid for – nor would it have been likely that the work could have been done in a single night.It is more likely that Caesar was merely restoring his family's public monuments – consistent with standard aristocratic practice and the virtue ofpietas– and, over objections from Catulus, these actions were broadly supported by the Senate. In 63 BC, Caesar stood for the praetorship and also for the post ofpontifex maximus,who was the head of theCollege of Pontiffsand the highest ranking state religious official. In the pontifical election before thetribes, Caesar faced two influential senators:Quintus Lutatius CatulusandPublius Servilius Isauricus. Caesar came out victorious. Many scholars have expressed astonishment that Caesar's candidacy was taken seriously, but this was not without historical precedent.Ancient sources allege that Caesar paid huge bribes or was shamelessly ingratiating;that no charge was ever laid alleging this implies\",\n \"this implies that bribery alone is insufficient to explain his victory.If bribes or other monies were needed, they may have been underwritten by Pompey, whom Caesar at this time supported and who opposed Catulus' candidacy. Many sources also assert that Caesar supported the land reform proposals brought that year by plebeian tribunePublius Servilius Rullus, however, there are no ancient sources so attesting.Caesar also engaged in a collateral manner in the trial ofGaius Rabiriusby one of the plebeian tribunes –Titus Labienus– for the murder of Saturninus in accordance with asenatus consultum ultimumsome forty years earlier.The most famous event of the year was theCatilinarian conspiracy. While some of Caesar's enemies, including Catulus, alleged that he participated in the conspiracy,the chance that he was a participant is extremely small. Praetorship Caesar won his election to the praetorship in 63 BC easily and, as one of the praetor-elects, spoke out that December in the Senate against executing certain\",\n \"executing certain citizens who had been arrested in the city conspiring with Gauls in furtherance of the conspiracy.Caesar's proposal at the time is not entirely clear. The earlier sources assert that he advocated life imprisonment without trial; the later sources assert he instead wanted the conspirators imprisoned pending trial. Most accounts agree that Caesar supported confiscation of the conspirators' property.Caesar likely advocated the former, which was a compromise position that would place the Senate within the bounds of thelex Sempronia de capite civis, and was initially successful in swaying the body; a later intervention byCato, however, swayed the Senate at the end for execution. During his year as praetor, Caesar first attempted to deprive his enemy Catulus of the honour of completing the rebuiltTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, accusing him of embezzling funds, and threatening to bring legislation to reassign it to Pompey. This proposal was quickly dropped amid near-universal opposition.He\",\n \"opposition.He then supported the attempt by plebeian tribuneMetellus Neposto transfer the command against Catiline from the consul of 63, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, to Pompey. After a violent meeting of thecomitia tributain the forum, where Metellus came into fisticuffs with his tribunician colleagues Cato andQuintus Minucius Thermus,the Senate passed a decree against Metellus – Suetonius claims that both Nepos and Caesar were deposed from their magistracies; this would have been a constitutional impossibility– which led Caesar to distance himself from the proposals: hopes for a provincial command and need to repair relations with the aristocracy took priority.He also was engaged in theBona Deaaffair, wherePublius Clodius Pulchersneaked into Caesar's house sacrilegiously during a female religious observance; Caesar avoided any part of the affair by divorcing his wife immediately – claiming that his wife needed to be \\\"above suspicion\\\"– but there is no indication that Caesar supported Clodius in any way. After\",\n \"in any way. After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to governHispania Ulteriorpro consule.Deeply indebted from his campaigns for the praetorship and for the pontificate, Caesar required military victory beyond the normal provincial extortion to pay them off.He campaigned against theCallaeciandLusitaniand seized the Callaeci capital in northwestern Spain, bringing Roman troops to the Atlantic and seizing enough plunder to pay his debts.Claiming to have completed the peninsula's conquest, he made for home after having been hailedimperator.When he arrived home in the summer of 60 BC, he was then forced to choose between a triumph and election to the consulship: either he could remain outside thepomerium(Rome's sacred boundary) awaiting a triumph or cross the boundary, giving up his command and triumph, to make a declaration of consular candidacy.Attempts to waive the requirement for the declaration to be made in person were filibustered in the Senate by Caesar's enemy Cato, even though the Senate seemed to\",\n \"Senate seemed to support the exception.Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship. First consulship and the Gallic Wars Caesar stood for the consulship of 59 BC along with two other candidates. His political position at the time was strong: he had supporters among the families which had supported Marius or Cinna; his connection with the Sullan aristocracy was good; his support of Pompey had won him support in turn. His support for reconciliation in continuing aftershocks of the civil war was popular in all parts of society.With the support of Crassus, who supported Caesar's joint ticket with oneLucius Lucceius, Caesar won. Lucceius, however, did not and the voters returnedMarcus Calpurnius Bibulusinstead, one of Caesar's long-standing personal and political enemies. First consulship After the elections, Caesar reconciled Pompey and Crassus, two political foes, in a three-way alliance misleadinglytermed the \\\"First Triumvirate\\\" in modern times.Caesar was still at\",\n \"was still at work in December of 60 BC attempting to find allies for his consulship and the alliance was finalised only some time around its start.Pompey and Crassus joined in pursuit of two respective goals: the ratification ofPompey's eastern settlementand the bailing out of tax farmers in Asia, many of whom were Crassus' clients. All three sought the extended patronage of land grants, with Pompey especially seeking the promised land grants for his veterans. Caesar's first act was topublishthe minutes of the Senate and the assemblies, signalling the Senate's accountability to the public. He then brought in the Senate a bill – crafted to avoid objections to previous land reform proposals and any indications of radicalism – to purchase property from willing sellers to distribute to Pompey's veterans and the urban poor. It would be administered by a board of twenty (with Caesar excluded), and financed by Pompey's plunder and territorial gains.Referring it to the Senate in hope that it would take up the matter\",\n \"take up the matter to show its beneficence for the people,there was little opposition and the obstructionism that occurred was largely unprincipled, firmly opposing it not on grounds of public interest but rather opposition to Caesar's political advancement.Unable to overcome Cato's filibustering, he moved the bill before the people and, at a public meeting, Caesar's co-consul Bibulus threatened a permanent veto for the entire year. This clearly violated the people's well-established legislative sovereigntyand triggered a riot in which Bibulus' fasces were broken, symbolising popular rejection of his magistracy.The bill was then voted through. Bibulus attempted to induce the Senate to nullify it on grounds it was passed by violence and contrary to the auspices but the Senate refused. Caesar also brought and passed a one-third write-down of tax farmers' arrears for Crassus and ratification of Pompey's eastern settlements. Both bills were passed with little or no debate in the Senate.Caesar then moved to\",\n \"then moved to extend his agrarian bill to Campania some time in May; this may be when Bibulus withdrew to his house.Pompey, shortly thereafter, also wed Caesar's daughter Julia to seal their alliance.An ally of Caesar's, plebeian tribunePublius Vatiniusmoved thelex Vatiniaassigning the provinces ofIllyricumandCisalpine Gaulto Caesar for five years.Suetonius' claim that the Senate had assigned to Caesar thesilvae callesque(\\\"woods and tracks\\\") is likely an exaggeration: fear of Gallic invasion had grown in 60 BC and it is more likely that the consuls had been assigned to Italy, a defensive posture that Caesarian partisans dismissed as \\\"mere 'forest tracks'\\\".The Senate was also persuaded to assign to CaesarTransalpine Gaulas well, subject to annual renewal, most likely to control his ability to make war on the far side of the Alps. Some time in the year, perhaps after the passing of the bill distributing the Campanian landand after these political defeats, Bibulus withdrew to his house. There, he issued edicts\",\n \"he issued edicts in absentia, purporting unprecedentedly to cancel all days on which Caesar or his allies could hold votes for religious reasons.Cato too attempted symbolic gestures against Caesar, which allowed him and his allies to \\\"feign victimisation\\\"; these tactics were successful in building revulsion to Caesar and his allies through the year.This opposition caused serious political difficulties to Caesar and his allies, belying the common depiction of triumviral political supremacy.Later in the year, however, Caesar – with the support of his opponents – brought and passed thelex Julia de repetundisto crack down on provincial corruption.When his consulship ended, Caesar's legislation was challenged by two of the new praetors but discussion in the Senate stalled and was regardless dropped. He stayed near the city until some time around mid-March. Campaigns in Gaul During the Gallic Wars, Caesar wrote hisCommentariesthereon, which were acknowledged even in his time as a Latin literary masterwork. Meant\",\n \"masterwork. Meant to document Caesar's campaigns in his own words and maintain support in Rome for his military operations and career, he produced some ten volumes covering operations in Gaul from 58 to 52 BC.Each was likely produced in the year following the events described and was likely aimed at the general, or at least literate, population in Rome;the account is naturally partial to Caesar – his defeats are excused and victories highlighted – but it is almost the sole source for events in Gaul in this period. Gaul in 58 BC was in the midst of some instability. Tribes had raided into Transalpine Gaul and there was an on-going struggle between two tribes in central Gaul which collaterally involved Roman alliances and politics. The divisions within the Gauls – they were no unified bloc – would be exploited in the coming years.The first engagement was in April 58 BC when Caesar prevented the migratingHelvetiifrom moving through Roman territory, allegedly because he feared they would unseat a Roman\",\n \"unseat a Roman ally.Building a wall, he stopped their movement near Geneva and – after raising two legions – defeated them at theBattle of Bibractebefore forcing them to return to their original homes.He was drawn further north responding to requests from Gallic tribes, including theAedui, for aid againstAriovistus– king of theSuebiand a declared friend of Rome by the Senate during Caesar's own consulship – and he defeated them at theBattle of Vosges.Wintering in northeastern Gaul near theBelgaein the winter of 58–57, Caesar's forward military position triggered an uprising to remove his troops; able to eke out a victory at theBattle of the Sabis, Caesar spent much of 56 BC suppressing the Belgae and dispersing his troops to campaign across much of Gaul, including against theVenetiin what is nowBrittany.At this point, almost all of Gaul – except its central regions – fell under Roman subjugation. Seeking to buttress his military reputation, he engaged Germans attempting to cross the Rhine, which marked it as\",\n \"which marked it as a Roman frontier;displaying Roman engineering prowess, he here built abridge across the Rhinein a feat of engineering meant to show Rome's ability to project power.Ostensibly seeking to interdict British aid to his Gallic enemies, he led expeditions into southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC, perhaps seeking further conquests or otherwise wanting to impress readers in Rome; Britain at the time was to the Romans an \\\"island of mystery\\\" and \\\"a land of wonder\\\".He, however, withdrew from the island in the face of winter uprisings in Gaul led by theEburonesandBelgaestarting in late 54 BC which ambushed and virtually annihilated a legion and five cohorts.Caesar was, however, able to lure the rebels into unfavourable terrain and routed them in battle.The next year, a greater challenge emerged with the uprising of most of central Gaul, led byVercingetorixof theAverni. Caesar was initially defeated atGergoviabeforebesieging Vercingetorix at Alesia. After becoming himself besieged, Caesar won a major\",\n \"Caesar won a major victory which forced Vercingetorix's surrender; Caesar then spent much of his time into 51 BC suppressing any remaining resistance. Politics, Gaul, and Rome In the initial years from the end of Caesar's consulship in 59 BC, the three so-called triumvirs sought to maintain the goodwill of the extremely popularPublius Clodius Pulcher,who wasplebeian tribunein 58 BC and in that year successfully sent Cicero into exile. When Clodius took an anti-Pompeian stance later that year, he unsettled Pompey's eastern arrangements, started attacking the validity of Caesar's consular legislation, and by August 58 forced Pompey into seclusion. Caesar and Pompey responded by successfully backing the election of magistrates to recall Cicero from exile on the condition that Cicero would refrain from criticism or obstruction of the allies. Politics in Rome fell into violent street clashes between Clodius and two tribunes who were friends of Cicero. With Cicero now supporting Caesar and Pompey, Caesar sent news\",\n \"Caesar sent news of Gaul to Rome and claimed total victory and pacification. The Senate at Cicero's motion voted him an unprecedented fifteen days of thanksgiving.Such reports were necessary for Caesar, especially in light of senatorial opponents, to prevent the Senate from reassigning his command in Transalpine Gaul, even if his position in Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum was guaranteed by thelex Vatiniauntil 54 BC.His success was evidently recognised when the Senate voted state funds for some of Caesar's legions, which until this time Caesar had paid for personally. The three allies' relations broke down in 57 BC: one of Pompey's allies challenged Caesar's land reform bill and the allies had a poor showing in the elections that year.With a real threat to Caesar's command andactabrewing in 56 BC under the aegis of the unfriendly consuls, Caesar needed his allies' political support.Pompey and Crassus too wanted military commands. Their combined interests led to a renewal of the alliance; drawing in the support\",\n \"in the support ofAppius Claudius Pulcherand his younger brother Clodius for the consulship of 54 BC, they planned second consulships with following governorships in 55 BC for both Pompey and Crassus. Caesar, for his part, would receive a five-year extension of command. Cicero was induced to oppose reassignment of Caesar's provinces and to defend a number of the allies' clients; his gloomy predictions of a triumviral set of consuls-designate for years on end proved an exaggeration when, only by desperate tactics, bribery, intimidation and violence were Pompey and Crassus elected consuls for 55 BC.During their consulship, Pompey and Crassus passed – with some tribunician support – thelex Pompeia Liciniaextending Caesar's command and thelex Treboniagiving them respective commands in Spain and Syria,though Pompey never left for the province and remained politically active at Rome.The opposition again unified against their heavy-handed political tactics – though not against Caesar's activities in Gaul– and\",\n \"in Gaul– and defeated the allies in the elections of that year. The ambush and destruction in Gaul of a legion and five cohorts in the winter of 55–54 BC produced substantial concern in Rome about Caesar's command and competence, evidenced by the highly defensive narrative in Caesar'sCommentaries.The death of Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife Julia in childbirthc.late August 54did not create a rift between Caesar and Pompey.At the start of 53 BC, Caesar sought and received reinforcements by recruitment and a private deal with Pompey before two years of largely unsuccessful campaigning against Gallic insurgents.In the same year, Crassus's campaign ended in disaster at theBattle of Carrhae, culminating in his death at the hands of theParthians. When in 52 BC Pompey started the year with a sole consulship to restore order to the city,Caesar was in Gaul suppressing insurgencies; after news of his victory at Alesia, with the support of Pompey he received twenty days of thanksgiving and, pursuant to the \\\"Law of\",\n \"to the \\\"Law of the Ten Tribunes\\\", the right to stand for the consulship in absentia. Civil war From the period 52 to 49 BC, trust between Caesar and Pompey disintegrated.In 51 BC, the consulMarcellusproposed recalling Caesar, arguing that hisprovincia(here meaning \\\"task\\\") in Gaul – due to his victory against Vercingetorix in 52 – was complete; it evidently was incomplete as Caesar was that year fighting theBellovaciand regardless the proposal was vetoed.That year, it seemed that the conservatives around Cato in the Senate would seek to enlist Pompey to force Caesar to return from Gaul without honours or a second consulship.Cato, Bibulus, and their allies, however, were successful in winning Pompey over to take a hard line against Caesar's continued command. As 50 BC progressed, fears of civil war grew; both Caesar and his opponents started building up troops in southern Gaul and northern Italy, respectively.In the autumn, Cicero and others sought disarmament by both Caesar and Pompey, and on 1 December 50 BC\",\n \"on 1 December 50 BC this was formally proposed in the Senate.It received overwhelming support – 370 to 22 – but was not passed whenone of the consulsdissolved the meeting.That year, when a rumour came to Rome that Caesar was marching into Italy, both consuls instructed Pompey to defend Italy, a charge he accepted as a last resort.At the start of 49 BC, Caesar's renewed offer that he and Pompey disarm was read to the Senate and was rejected by the hardliners.A later compromise given privately to Pompey was also rejected at their insistence.On 7 January, his supportive tribunes were driven from Rome; the Senate then declared Caesar an enemy and it issued itssenatus consultum ultimum. There is scholarly disagreement as to the specific reasons why Caesar marched on Rome. A very popular theory is that Caesar was forced to choose – when denied the immunity of his proconsular tenure – between prosecution, conviction, and exile or civil war in defence of his position.Whether Caesar actually would have been\",\n \"would have been prosecuted and convicted is debated. Some scholars believe the possibility of successful prosecution was extremely unlikely.Caesar's main objectives were to secure a second consulship – first mooted in 52 as colleague to Pompey's sole consulship– and a triumph. He feared that his opponents – then holding both consulships for 50 BC – would reject his candidacy or refuse to ratify an election he won.This also was the core of his war justification: that Pompey and his allies were planning, by force if necessary (indicated in the expulsion of the tribunes), to suppress the liberty of the Roman people to elect Caesar and honour his accomplishments. Italy, Spain, and Greece Around 10 or 11 January 49 BC,in response to the Senate's \\\"final decree\\\",Caesarcrossed the Rubicon– the river defining the northern boundary of Italy – with a single legion, theLegio XIII Gemina, and ignitedcivil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian\",\n \"quoted the Athenian playwrightMenander, in Greek, \\\"let the die be cast\\\".Pompey and many senators fled south, believing that Caesar was marching quickly for Rome.Caesar, after capturing communication routes to Rome, paused and opened negotiations, but they fell apart amid mutual distrust.Caesar responded by advancing south, seeking to capture Pompey to force a conference. Pompey withdrew toBrundisiumand was able to escape to Greece, abandoning Italy in face of Caesar's superior forces and evading Caesar's pursuit.Caesar stayed near Rome for about two weeks – during his stay his forceful seizure of the treasury over tribunician veto put the lie to his pro-tribunician war justifications– and left Lepidus in charge of Italy while he attacked Pompey's Spanish provinces.He defeated two of Pompey's legates at theBattle of Ilerdabefore forcing surrender ofthe third; his legates moved into Sicily and intoAfrica, though the African expedition failed.Returning to Rome in the autumn, Caesar had Lepidus, as praetor,\",\n \"as praetor, bring a law appointing Caesardictatorto conduct the elections; he, along withPublius Servilius Isauricus, won the following elections and would serve as consuls for 48 BC.Resigning the dictatorship after eleven days,Caesar then left Italy for Greece to stop Pompey's preparations, arriving in force in early 48 BC. Caesarbesieged Pompey at Dyrrhachium, but Pompey was able to break out and force Caesar's forces to flee. Following Pompey southeast into Greece and to save one of his legates, he engaged and decisively defeated Pompeyat Pharsaluson 9 August 48 BC. Pompey then fled for Egypt; Cato fled for Africa; others, like Cicero andMarcus Junius Brutus, begged for Caesar's pardon. Alexandrine war and Asia Minor Pompey was killed when he arrived inAlexandria, the capital ofEgypt. Caesar arrived three days later on 2 October 48 BC. Prevented from leaving the city byEtesian winds, Caesar decided to arbitrate an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaohPtolemy XIII Theos PhilopatorandCleopatra, his\",\n \"his sister, wife, and co-regent queen.In late October 48 BC, Caesar was appointed in absentia to a year-long dictatorship,after news of his victory at Pharsalus arrived to Rome.While in Alexandria, he started anaffairwith Cleopatra and withstood asiege by Ptolemyand his other sisterArsinoeuntil March 47 BC. Reinforced by eastern client allies underMithridates of Pergamum, he then defeated Ptolemy at theBattle of the Nileand installed Cleopatra as ruler.Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated the victory with a triumphal procession on theNile. He stayed in Egypt with Cleopatra until June or July that year, though the relevant commentaries attributed to him give no such impression. Some time in late June, Cleopatra gave birth to a child by Caesar, calledCaesarion. When Caesar landed atAntioch, he learnt that during his time in Egypt, the king of what is now Crimea,Pharnaces, had attempted to seize what had been his father's kingdom, Pontus, across theBlack Seain northern Anatolia. His invasion had swept aside Caesar's\",\n \"aside Caesar's legates and the local client kings, but Caesar engaged him atZelaand defeated him immediately, leading Caesar to writeveni, vidi, vici(\\\"I came, I saw, I conquered\\\"), downplaying Pompey's previous Pontic victories. He then left quickly for Italy. Italy, Africa, and Spain Caesar's absence from Italy put Mark Antony, asmagister equitum, in charge. His rule was unpopular:Publius Cornelius Dolabella, serving as plebeian tribune in 47 BC, agitated for debt relief and after that agitation got out of hand the Senate moved for Antony to restore order. Delayed by a mutiny in southern Italy, he returned and suppressed the riots by force, killing many and delivering a similar blow to his popularity. Cato had marched to Africaand thereMetellus Scipiowas in charge of the remaining republicans; they allied withJubaofNumidia; what used to be Pompey's fleet also raided the central Mediterranean islands. Caesar's governor in Spain, moreover, was sufficiently unpopular that the province revolted and switched to\",\n \"and switched to the republican side. Caesar demoted Antony on his return and pacified the mutineers without violencebefore overseeing the election of the rest of the magistrates for 47 BC – no elections had yet been held – and also for those of 46 BC. Caesar would serve with Lepidus as consul in 46; he borrowed money for the war, confiscated and sold the property of his enemies at fair prices, and then left for Africa on 25 December 47 BC.Caesar's landing in Africa was marked with some difficulties establishing a beachhead and logistically. He was defeated byTitus LabienusatRuspinaon 4 January 46 BC and thereafter took a rather cautious approach.After inducing some desertions from the republicans, Caesar ended up surrounded atThapsus. His troops attacked prematurely on 6 April 46 BC, starting abattle; they then won it and massacred the republican forceswithout quarter. Marching on Utica, where Cato commanded, Caesar arrived to find that Cato had killed himself rather than receive Caesar's clemency.Many of\",\n \"clemency.Many of the remaining anti-Caesarian leaders, including Metellus Scipio and Juba, also committed suicide shortly thereafter.Labienus and two of Pompey's sons, however, had moved to the Spanish provinces in revolt. Caesar started a process of annexing parts of Numidia and then returned to Italy via Sardinia in June 46 BC. Caesar stayed in Italy to celebrate four triumphs in late September, supposedly over four foreign enemies: Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces (Asia), and Juba (Africa). He led Vercingetorix, Cleopatra's younger sister Arsinoe, and Juba's son before his chariot; Vercingetorix was executed.According to Appian, in some of the triumphs, Caesar paraded pictures and models of his victories over fellow Romans in the civil wars, to popular dismay.The soldiers were each given 24,000sesterces(a lifetime's worth of pay); further games and celebrations were put on for the plebs. Near the end of the year, Caesar heard bad news from Spain and, with an army, left for the peninsula, leaving Lepidus in charge\",\n \"Lepidus in charge asmagister equitum. At a bloody battle atMundaon 17 March 45 BC, Caesar narrowly found victory;his enemies were treated as rebels and he had them massacred.Labienus died on the field. While one of Pompey's sons,Sextus, escaped, the war was effectively over.Caesar remained in the province until June before setting out for Rome, arriving in October of the same year, and celebrated an unseemly triumph over fellow Romans.By this point he had started preparations for war on theParthiansto avenge Crassus' death atCarrhaein 53 BC, with wide-ranging objectives that would take him into Dacia for three or more years. It was set to start on 18 March 44 BC. Dictatorship and assassination Dictatorships and honours Prior to Caesar's assumption of the titledictator perpetuoin February 44 BC, he had been appointed dictator some four times since his first dictatorship in 49 BC. After occupying Rome, he engineered this first appointment, largely to hold elections; after 11 days he resigned. The other\",\n \"resigned. The other dictatorships lasted for longer periods, up to a year, and by April 46 BC he was given a new dictatorship annually.The task he was assigned revived that of Sulla's dictatorship:rei publicae constituendae.These appointments, however, were not the source of legal power themselves; in the eyes of the literary sources, they were instead honours and titles which reflected Caesar's dominant position in the state, secured not by extraordinary magistracy or legal powers, but by personal status as victor over other Romans. Through the period after Pharsalus, the Senate showered Caesar with honours,including the titlepraefectus moribus(lit.'prefect of morals') which historically was associated with thecensorialpower to revise the Senate rolls. He was also granted power over war and peace,usurping a power traditionally held by thecomitia centuriata.These powers attached to Caesar personally.Similarly extraordinary were a number of symbolic honours which saw Caesar's portrait placed on coins in Rome\",\n \"on coins in Rome – the first for a living Roman– with special rights to wear royal dress, sit atop a golden chair in the Senate, and have his statues erected in public temples. The month Quintilis, in which he was born, was renamedJulius(now July).These were symbols of divine monarchy and, later, objects of resentment. The decisions on the normal operation of the state – justice, legislation, administration, and public works – were concentrated into Caesar's person without regard for or even notice given to the traditional institutions of the republic.Caesar's domination over public affairs and his competitive instinct to preclude all others alienated the political class and led eventually to the conspiracy against his life. Legislation Caesar, as far as is attested in evidence, did not intend to restructure Roman society. Ernst Badian, writing in theOxford Classical Dictionary, noted that although Caesar did implement a series of reforms, they did not touch on the core of the republican system: he \\\"had no\",\n \"system: he \\\"had no plans for basic social and constitutional reform\\\" and that \\\"the extraordinary honours heaped upon him... merely grafted him as an ill-fitting head on to the body of the traditional structure\\\". The most important of Caesar's reforms was to the calendar, which saw the abolition of thetraditional republican lunisolar calendarand its replacement with a solar calendar now called theJulian calendar.He also increased the number of magistrates and senators (from 600 to 900) to better administer the empire and reward his supporters with offices. Colonies also were founded outside Italy – notably on the sites of Carthage and Corinth, which had both been destroyed during Rome's 2nd century BC conquests – to discharge Italy's population into the provinces and reduce unrest.The royal power of naming patricians was revived to benefit the families of his menand thepermanent courtsjury pools were also altered to remove thetribuni aerarii, leaving only the equestrians and senators. He also took further\",\n \"also took further administrative actions to stabilise his rule and that of the state.Caesar reduced the size of the grain dole from 320,000 down to around 150,000 by tightening the qualifications; special bonuses were offered to families with many children to stall depopulation.Plans were drawn for the conduct of a census. Citizenship was extended to a number of communities in Cisalpine Gaul and toCádiz.During the civil wars, Caesar had also instituted a novel debt repayment programme (no debts would be forgiven but they could be paid in kind), remitted rents up to a certain amount, and thrown games distributing food.Many of his enemies during the civil wars were pardoned – Caesar's clemency was exalted in his propaganda and temple works – with the intent to cultivate gratitude and draw a contrast between himself and the vengeful dictatorship of Sulla. The building programmes, started prior to his expedition to Spain, continued, with the construction of theForum of Caesarand theTemple of Venus\",\n \"theTemple of Venus Genetrixtherein. Other public works, including an expansion of Ostia's port and a canal through theCorinthian Isthmus, were also planned.Very busy with this work, the heavy-handedness with which he ignored the Senate, magistrates, and those who came to visit him also alienated many in Rome. Thecollegia, civic associations restored by Clodius in 58 BC, were again abolished.His actions to reward his supporters saw him allow his subordinates illegal triumphal processions and resign the consulship so that allies could take it up for the rest of the year. On the last day of 45 BC, when one of the succeeding consuls died, Caesar had anallyelected as replacement for a single day.Corruption on the part of his partisans was also overlooked to ensure their support; provincial cities and client kingdoms were extorted for favours to pay his bills. Conspiracy and death Attempts in January 44 BC to call Caesarrex(lit.'king') – a title associated with arbitrary oppression against citizens – were shut\",\n \"– were shut down by two tribunes before a supportive crowd. Caesar, claiming that the two tribunes infringed on his honour by doing so, had them deposed from office and ejected from the Senate.The incident both undermined Caesar's original arguments for pursuing the civil war (protecting the tribunes) and angered a public which still revered the tribunes as protectors of popular freedom.Shortly before 15 February 44 BC, he assumed the dictatorship for life, putting an end to any hopes that his powers would be merely temporary.Transforming his dictatorship, even with a decadal appointment, into one for life clearly showed to all contemporaries that Caesar had no intention to restore a free republic and that no free republic could be restored so long as he was in power. Just days after his assumption of the life dictatorship, he publicly rejected adiademfrom Antony at celebrations for theLupercalia. Interpretations of the episode vary: he may have been rejecting the diadem publicly only because the crowd was\",\n \"the crowd was insufficiently supportive; he could have done it performatively to signal he was no monarch; alternatively, Antony could have acted on his own initiative. By this point, however, rumour was rife that Caesar – already wearing the dress of a monarch – sought a formal crown and the episode did little to reassure. The plan to assassinate Caesar had started by the summer of 45 BC. An attempt to recruit Antony was made around that time, though he declined and gave Caesar no warning. By February 44 BC, there were some sixty conspirators.It is clear that by this time, the victorious Caesarian coalition from the civil war had broken apart.While most of the conspirators were former Pompeians, they were joined by a substantial number of Caesarians.Among their leaders wereGaius Trebonius(consul in 45), Decimus Brutus (consul designate for 42), as well asCassiusandBrutus(both praetors in 44 BC).Trebonius and Decimus had joined Caesar during the war while Brutus and Cassius had joined Pompey; other\",\n \"Pompey; other Caesarians involved includedServius Sulpicius Galba,Lucius Minucius Basilus,Lucius Tullius Cimber, andGaius Servilius Casca.Many of the conspirators would have been candidates in the consular elections for 43 to 41 BC,likely dismayed by Caesar's sham elections in early 44 BC that produced advance results for the years 43–41 BC. Those electoral results came from the grace of the dictator and not that of the people; for the republican elite this was no substitute for actual popular support.Nor is it likely that the subordination of the normal magistrates to Caesar's masters of horse (Latin:magistri equitum) was appreciated. Brutus, who claimed descent from theLucius Junius Brutuswho haddriven out the kingsand theGaius Servilius Ahalawho had freed Rome from incipient tyranny, was the main leader of the conspiracy.By late autumn 45 BC, graffitiand some public comments at Rome were condemning Caesar as a tyrant and insinuating the need for a Brutus to remove the dictator. The ancient sources,\",\n \"ancient sources, exceptingNicolaus of Damascus, are unanimous that this reflected a genuine turn in public opinion against Caesar.Popular indignation at Caesar was likely rooted in his debt policies (too friendly to lenders), use of lethal force to suppress protests for debt relief, his reduction in the grain dole, his abolition of thecollegiarestored by Clodius, his abolition of the poorest panel of jurors in the permanent courts, and his abolition of open elections which deprived the people of their ancient right of decision.A popular turn against Caesar is also observed with reports that the two deposed tribunes were written-in on ballots at Caesar's advance consular elections in place of Caesar's candidates.Whether the Romans thought they had a tradition of tyrannicide is unclear;Cicero wrote in private as if the duty to kill tyrants was already given, but he made no public speeches to that effect and there is little evidence that the public accepted the logic of preventive tyrannicide.The philosophical\",\n \"philosophical tradition of thePlatonicOld Academywas also a factor driving Brutus to action due to its emphasis on a duty to free the state from tyranny. While some news of the conspiracy did leak, Caesar refused to take precautions and rejected escort by a bodyguard. The date decided upon by the conspirators was 15 March, theIdes of March, three days before Caesar intended to leave for his Parthian campaign.News of his imminent departure forced the conspirators to move up their plans; the Senate meeting on the 15th would be the last before his departure.They had decided that a Senate meeting was the best place to frame the killing as political, rejecting the alternatives at games, elections, or on the road.That only the conspirators would be armed at the Senate meeting, per Dio, also would have been an advantage. The day, 15 March, was also symbolically important as it was the day on which consuls took office until the mid-2nd century BC. Various stories purport that Caesar was on the cusp of not attending\",\n \"of not attending or otherwise being warned about the plot.Approached on his golden chair at the foot of the statue of Pompey, the conspirators attacked him with daggers. Whether he fell in silence, per Suetonius, or after reply to Brutus' appearance –kai su teknon?(\\\"you too, child?\\\") – isvariantly recorded.He was stabbed at least twenty-three times and died at once. Aftermath of the assassination The assassins seized the Capitoline hill after killing the dictator. They then summoned a public meeting in the Forum where they were coldly received by the population. They were also unable to fully secure the city, as Lepidus – Caesar'slieutenant in the dictatorship– moved troops from theTiber Islandinto the city proper. Antony, the consul who escaped the assassination, urged an illogical compromise position in the Senate:Caesar was not declared a tyrant and the conspirators were not punished.Caesar's funeral was then approved. At the funeral, Antony inflamed the public against the assassins, which triggered mob\",\n \"which triggered mob violence that lasted for some months before the assassins were forced to flee the capital and Antony then finally acted to suppress it by force. In 44 BC, there was a seven-daycometary outburstthat the Romans believe to represent the deification of Caeser, giving it the nameCaesar's Comet. On the site of his cremation, theTemple of Caesarwas begun by the triumvirs in 42 BC at the east side of the main square of theRoman Forum. Only its altar now remains.The terms of the will were also read to the public: it gave a generous donative to the plebs at large and left as principal heir oneGaius Octavius, Caesar's great-nephew then atApollonia, and adopted him in the will. Resumption of the pre-existing republic proved impossible as various actors appealed in the aftermath of Caesar's death to liberty or to vengeance to mobilise huge armies that led to a series of civil wars.Thefirst warwas between Antony in 43 BC and the Senate (including senators of both Caesarian and Pompeian persuasion)\",\n \"persuasion) which resulted in Octavian – Caesar's heir – exploiting the chaos to seize the consulship and join with Antony and Lepidus to form theSecond Triumvirate.After purging their political enemies in aseries of proscriptions,the triumvirs secured the deification of Caesar – the Senate declared on 1 January 42 BC that Caesar would be placed among the Roman gods– and marched on the east where asecond warsaw the triumvirs defeat the tyrannicides inbattle,resulting in a final death of the republican cause and a three-way division of much of the Roman world.By 31 BC, Caesar's heir had taken sole control of the empire, ejecting his triumviral rivals after two decades of civil war. Pretending to restore the republic, his masked autocracy was acceptable to the war-weary Romans and marked the establishment of anew Roman monarchy. Personal life Health and physical appearance Based on remarks by Plutarch,Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered fromepilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the\",\n \"divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s BC.Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to aparasitic infection in the brainby a tapeworm. Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have hadabsence seizuresin his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim ofhypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures. A line fromShakespeare'sJulius Caesarhas sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: \\\"Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf.\\\"No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily\",\n \"Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence. Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral manifestations – headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility – and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in hisNatural Historythat Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes.These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. Caesar possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease. Suetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as \\\"tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes\\\".He adds that thebaldingCaesar was sensitive to teasing\",\n \"to teasing on the subject, and therefore had acombover. Suetonius reports that Caesar was thus especially pleased to be granted the honor of wearing a wreath at all times. Name and family The name Gaius Julius Caesar Using theLatin alphabetof the period, which lacked the lettersJandU, Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation ofGbyC. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling. (The letterformÆis aligatureof the lettersAandE, and is often used in Latininscriptionsto save space.) In Classical Latin, it waspronounced. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin,Brutus. InGreek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary\",\n \"its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the GermanKaiser() or Dutchkeizer(). InVulgar Latin, the originaldiphthongfirst began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel. Then, theplosive/k/beforefront vowelsbegan, due topalatalization, to be pronounced as anaffricate, hence renderings likeinItalianandinGermanregional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title ofTsar. With the evolution of theRomance languages, the affricatebecame africative(thus,) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. Caesar'scognomenitself became atitle; it was promulgated by theBible, which contains the famous verse \\\"Render unto Caesarthe things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's\\\". The title became, from the late first millennium,KaiserinGermanand (throughOld Church Slaviccěsarĭ)Tsaror Czar in theSlavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power wasSimeon II of Bulgaria, whose\",\n \"of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946, but is still alive in 2023. This means that for approximately two thousand years, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. As a term for the highest ruler, the word Caesar constitutes one of the earliest, best attested and most widespread Latin loanwords in the Germanic languages, being found in thetext corporaofOld High German(keisar),Old Saxon(kēsur),Old English(cāsere),Old Norse(keisari),Old Dutch(keisere) and (throughGreek)Gothic(kaisar). Posterity Some ancient sources refer to the possibility of the tyrannicide,Marcus Junius Brutus, being one of Julius Caesar's illegitimate children.Caesar, at the time Brutus was born, was 15. Most ancient historians were sceptical of this and \\\"on the whole, scholars have rejected the possibility that Brutus was the love-child of Servilia and Caesar on the grounds of chronology\\\". Grandchild fromJuliaandPompey, dead at several days, unnamed. Rumors of passive homosexuality Roman society viewed the passive role\",\n \"the passive role duringsexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, \\\"Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar.\\\"According to Cicero,Bibulus,Gaius Memmius, and others – mainly Caesar's enemies – he had an affair withNicomedes IV of Bithyniaearly in his career. The stories were repeated, referring to Caesar as the \\\"Queen of Bithynia\\\", by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according toCassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion.This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. Catulluswrote a poem suggesting that Caesar and his engineerMamurrawere lovers,but later apologised. Mark Antonycharged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an\",\n \"accusation of an affair with Octavian as politicalslander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus. Literary works During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin – even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works arehis funeral orationfor his paternal auntJuliaand his \\\"Anticato\\\", a document attackingCatoin response to Cicero's eulogy.Poems by Julius Caesarare also mentioned in ancient sources. Memoirs Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt: These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of \\\"dispatches from the front\\\". They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings.As a\",\n \"readings.As a model of clear and direct Latin style,The Gallic Warstraditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students. Legacy Historiography The texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most completeprimary sourcefor the reconstruction of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind.Julius Caesar is also considered one of the first historical figures to fold his message scrolls into a concertina form, which made them easier to read.The Roman emperorAugustusbegan acult of personalityof Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by this tradition. Many rulers in history became interested in thehistoriography of Caesar.Napoleon IIIwrote the scholarly workHistoire de Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic.Charles VIIIordered a monk to prepare a translation of theGallic Warsin\",\n \"of theGallic Warsin 1480.Charles Vordered a topographic study in France, to place the Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultanSuleiman the Magnificentcatalogued the surviving editions of theCommentaries, and translated them to Turkish language.Henry IVandLouis XIIIof France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively;Louis XIVre-translated the first one afterwards. The remains ofCaesar's altarare a pilgrimage site for visitors from across Italy and the world. Flowers and other items are left there daily and special commemorations take place on 15 March to commemorate Caesar's death. Politics Julius Caesar is seen as the main example ofCaesarism, a form of political rule led by acharismaticstrongmanwhose rule is based upon acult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violentsocial order, and being a regime involving prominence of themilitaryin the government.Other people in\",\n \"people in history, such as the FrenchNapoleon Bonaparteand the ItalianBenito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists.Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor topopulism.The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule. Depictions Battle record ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ Atrebates,Aduatuci ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ Chronology See also Notes References Sources Primary sources Own writings Ancient historians' writings Secondary sources External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":369,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which female athlete achieved a \"world's best\" and a \"world record\" for the marathon during Tony Blair's second term as British Prime Minister."},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Paula Radcliffe"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon_world_record_progression"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Tabular reasoning | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon_world_record_progression']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon_world_record_progression"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon_world_record_progression\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Tony Blair Sir Anthony Charles Lynton BlairKG(born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 1997 to 2007 andLeader of the Labour Partyfrom 1994 to 2007. He wasLeader of the Oppositionfrom 1994 to 1997 and held variousshadow cabinetposts from 1987 to 1994. Blair wasMember of Parliament(MP) forSedgefieldfrom 1983 to 2007, and was special envoy of theQuartet on the Middle Eastfrom 2007 to 2015. He is the second-longest-serving prime ministerin post-war British history afterMargaret Thatcher, the longest-servingLabourpolitician to have held the office, and the first and only person to date to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Blair attended the independent schoolFettes College, studied law atSt John's College, Oxford, and qualified as a barrister. He became involved in the Labour Party and was elected to theHouse of Commonsin 1983 for the Sedgefield constituency inCounty Durham. As abackbencher, Blair supported moving the party to thepolitical centre of British politics. He was appointed toNeil Kinnock'sshadow cabinetin 1988 and was appointedshadow home secretarybyJohn Smithin 1992. Following Smith's death in 1994, Blair wona leadership electionto succeed him. As leader, Blair began a historic rebranding of the party, which became known as \"New Labour\". Blair became theyoungest prime ministerof the 20th century after his party won a landslide victory of 418 seats (the largest in its history) in the1997 general election, bringing an end to 18 years in the opposition. It was the first victory for the Labour Party in nearly 23 years, the last one being inOctober 1974. Duringhis first term, Blair enactedconstitutional reformsand significantly increasedpublic spendingon healthcare and education while also introducing controversial market-based reforms in these areas. In addition, Blair saw theintroduction of a minimum wage,tuition feesfor higher education, constitutional reform such asdevolution in Scotland and Wales, an extensive expansion ofLGBT+ rights in the UK, and significant progress in theNorthern Ireland peace processwith the passing of the landmarkGood Friday Agreement. On foreign policy, Blair oversaw British interventions inKosovo in 1999andSierra Leone in 2000, which were generally perceived to be successful. Blair won a second term after Labour won a second landslide victory in the2001 general election. Three months intohis second term, Blair's premiership was shaped by the9/11 terrorist attacks, resulting in the start of thewar on terror. Blair supported theforeign policy of the George W. Bush administrationby ensuring that theBritish Armed Forcesparticipated in theWar in Afghanistanto overthrow theTaliban, destroyal-Qaeda, and captureOsama bin Laden. Blair supported the2003 invasion of Iraqand had the British Armed Forces participate in theIraq War, on the inaccurate beliefs thatSaddam Hussein's regimepossessed weapons of mass destructionand developedties with al-Qaeda. The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attractedwidespread public oppositionand 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it. As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision. TheIraq Inquiryreport of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War. As thecasualties of the Iraq Warmounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament, and his popularity dropped dramatically. Blair won a third termafter Labour won a third election victory in 2005, in part thanks to the UK's strong economic performance, but with a substantially reduced majority, due to the UK's involvement in the Iraq War. Duringhis third term, Blair pushed for more systemic public sector reform and brokereda settlementto restore powersharing to Northern Ireland. He had a surge in popularity at the time ofterrorist bombings of Londonof July 2005, but by the Spring of 2006 faced significant difficulties, most notably with scandals over failures by theHome Officeto deport illegal immigrants. Amid theCash-for-Honours scandal, Blair was interviewed three times as prime minister, though only as a witness and notunder caution. The Afghanistan and Iraq wars continued, and in 2006, Blair announced he would resign within a year. He resigned the party leadership on 24 June 2007 and as prime minister on 27 June, andwas succeededbyGordon Brown, hischancellor. After leaving office, Blairgave up his seatand was appointed special envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East, a diplomatic post he held until 2015. He has been the executive chairman of theTony Blair Institute for Global Changesince 2016 and has made occasional political interventions, and has been a key influence onKeir Starmer. In 2009, Blair was awarded thePresidential Medal of FreedombyGeorge W. Bush. He was made aKnight Companion of the GarterbyQueen Elizabeth IIin 2022. At various points in his premiership, Blair was among both the most popular and most unpopular politicians in British history. As prime minister, he achieved the highest recorded approval ratings during his first few years in office but also one of the lowest ratings during and after the Iraq War.Blair is usually rated as above average inhistorical rankingsand public opinion of British prime ministers. Early years Anthony Charles Lynton Blair was born on 6 May 1953 at Queen Mary Maternity Home inEdinburgh, Scotland.He was the second son ofLeoand Hazel (néeCorscadden) Blair.Leo Blair was the illegitimate son of two entertainers and was adopted as a baby by the Glasgow shipyard worker James Blair and his wife, Mary.Hazel Corscadden was the daughter of George Corscadden, a butcher andOrangemanwho moved to Glasgow in 1916. In 1923, he returned to (and later died in)Ballyshannon, County Donegal, inIreland. In Ballyshannon, Corscadden's wife, Sarah Margaret (née Lipsett), gave birth above the family's grocery shop to Blair's mother, Hazel. Blair has an elder brother,William, and a younger sister, Sarah. Blair's first home was with his family at Paisley Terrace in the Willowbrae area of Edinburgh. During this period, his father worked as a junior tax inspector whilst studying for a law degree from theUniversity of Edinburgh. Blair's first relocation was when he was nineteen months old. At the end of 1954, Blair's parents and their two sons moved from Paisley Terrace toAdelaide,South Australia.His father lectured in law at theUniversity of Adelaide.In Australia, Blair's sister, Sarah, was born. The Blairs lived in the suburb ofDulwichclose to the university. The family returned to the United Kingdom in mid-1958. They lived for a time with Hazel's mother and stepfather (William McClay) at their home inSteppson the outskirts of north-east Glasgow. Blair's father accepted a job as a lecturer atDurham University, and moved the family toDurhamwhen Blair was five. It was the beginning of a long association Blair was to have with Durham. Since childhood, Blair has been a fan ofNewcastle United Football Club. Education and legal career With his parents basing their family in Durham, Blair attended theChorister Schoolfrom 1961 to 1966.Aged 13, he was sent to spend his school term-time boarding atFettes Collegein Edinburgh from 1966 to 1971.According to Blair, he hated his time at Fettes.His teachers were unimpressed with him; his biographer,John Rentoul, reported that \"ll the teachers I spoke to when researching the book said he was a complete pain in the backside and they were very glad to see the back of him.\"Blair reportedly modelled himself onMick Jagger, lead singer ofthe Rolling Stones.Leaving Fettes College at the age of 18, Blair next spent a gap year in London working as a rock music promoter. In 1972, at the age of 19, Blair matriculated atSt John's College, Oxford, readingjurisprudencefor three years.As a student, he played guitar and sang in a rock band calledUgly Rumours,and performedstand-up comedy.He was influenced by fellow student andAnglicanpriestPeter Thomson, who awakened his religious faith and left-wing politics. While at Oxford, Blair has stated that he was briefly aTrotskyist, after reading the first volume ofIsaac Deutscher's biography ofLeon Trotsky, which was \"like a light going on\".He graduated from Oxford at the age of 22 in 1975 with asecond-class HonoursB.A. in jurisprudence. In 1975, while Blair was at Oxford, his mother Hazel died aged 52 ofthyroid cancer, which greatly affected him.After Oxford, Blair served his barrister pupillage atLincoln's Inn, where he was called to the Bar. He met his future wife,Cherie Booth, at the chambers founded byDerry Irvine(who was to be Blair's first lord chancellor), 11 King's Bench Walk Chambers. Early political career Blair joined theLabour Partyshortly after graduating from Oxford in 1975. In the early 1980s, he was involved in Labour politics inHackney South and Shoreditch, where he aligned himself with the \"soft left\" of the party. He stood as a candidate for theHackney councilelections of 1982 in Queensbridge ward, a safe Labour area, but was not selected. In 1982, Blair was selected as the Labour Party candidate for the safe Conservative seat ofBeaconsfield, where there was a forthcoming by-election.Although Blair lost theBeaconsfield by-electionand Labour's share of the vote fell by ten percentage points, he acquired a profile within the party.Despite his defeat, William Russell, political correspondent forThe Glasgow Herald, described Blair as \"a very good candidate\", while acknowledging that the result was \"a disaster\" for the Labour Party.In contrast to his latercentrism, Blair made it clear in a letter he wrote to Labour leaderMichael Footin July 1982 (published in 2006) that he had \"come to Socialism through Marxism\" and considered himself on the left.LikeTony Benn, Blair believed that the \"Labour right\" was bankrupt,saying \"ocialism ultimately must appeal to the better minds of the people. You cannot do that if you are tainted overmuch with a pragmatic period in power.\"Yet, he saw thehard leftas no better, saying: There is an arrogance and self-righteousness about many of the groups on the far left which is deeply unattractive to the ordinary would-be member ... There's too much mixing only with people whom they agree. With a general election due, Blair had not been selected as a candidate anywhere. He was invited to stand again in Beaconsfield, and was initially inclined to agree but was advised by his head of chambers Derry Irvine to find somewhere else which might be winnable.The situation was complicated by the fact that Labour was fighting a legal action against planned boundary changes, and had selected candidates on the basis of previous boundaries. When the legal challenge failed, the party had to rerun all selections on the new boundaries; most were based on existing seats, but unusually in County Durham a newSedgefieldconstituency had been created out of Labour-voting areas which had no obvious predecessor seat. The selection for Sedgefield did not begin until after the1983 general electionwas called. Blair's initial inquiries discovered that the left was trying to arrange the selection forLes Huckfield, sitting MP for Nuneaton, who was trying elsewhere; several sitting MPs displaced by boundary changes were also interested in it. When he discovered theTrimdon branchhad not yet made a nomination, Blair visited them and won the support of the branch secretaryJohn Burton, and with Burton's help was nominated by the branch. At the last minute, he was added to the shortlist and won the selection over Huckfield. It was the last candidate selection made by Labour before the election, and was made after the Labour Party had issued biographies of all its candidates (\"Labour's Election Who's Who\"). John Burton became Blair'selection agentand one of his most trusted and longest-standing allies.Blair's election literature in the 1983 general election endorsed left-wing policies that Labour advocated in the early 1980s.He called for Britain to leave theEECas early as the 1970s,though he had told his selection conference that he personally favoured continuing membershipand voted \"Yes\" in the1975 referendum on the subject. He opposed theExchange Rate Mechanism(ERM) in 1986 but supported the ERM by 1989.He was a member of theCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament, despite never strongly being in favour ofunilateral nuclear disarmament.Blair was helped on the campaign trail by soap opera actressPat Phoenix, his father-in-law's girlfriend. At the age of thirty, he was elected as MP for Sedgefield in 1983; despite the party'slandslide defeat at the general election. In hismaiden speechin theHouse of Commonson 6 July 1983, Blair stated, \"I am a socialist not through reading a textbook that has caught my intellectual fancy, nor through unthinking tradition, but because I believe that, at its best, socialism corresponds most closely to an existence that is both rational and moral. It stands for cooperation, not confrontation; for fellowship, not fear. It stands for equality.\" Once elected, Blair's political ascent was rapid. He received his firstfront benchappointment in 1984 as assistantTreasuryspokesman. In May 1985, he appeared on the BBC'sQuestion Time, arguing that the Conservative Government'sPublic Order White Paperwas a threat to civil liberties. Blair demanded an inquiry into theBank of England's decision to rescue the collapsedJohnson Mattheybank in October 1985. By this time, Blair was aligned with the reforming tendencies in the party (headed by leaderNeil Kinnock) and in 1988 was promoted to the shadowTrade and Industryteam as spokesman on theCity of London. Leadership roles In 1987, he stood forelection to the Shadow Cabinet, receiving 71 votes.When Kinnock resigned after a fourth consecutive Conservative victory in the1992 general election, Blair becameshadow home secretaryunderJohn Smith. The old guard argued that trends showed they were regaining strength under Smith's strong leadership. Meanwhile, the breakawaySDPfaction had merged with theLiberal Party; the resultingLiberal Democratsseemed to pose a major threat to the Labour base. Blair, the leader of the modernising faction, had an entirely different vision, arguing that the long-term trends had to be reversed. The Labour Party was too locked into a base that was shrinking, since it was based on the working-class, on trade unions, and on residents of subsidised council housing. The rapidly growing middle-class was largely ignored, especially the more ambitious working-class families. They aspired to middle-class status but accepted the Conservative argument that Labour was holding ambitious people back with its levelling-down policies. They increasingly saw Labour in terms defined by the opposition, regarding higher taxes and higher interest rates. The steps towards what would become New Labour were procedural but essential. Calling on the slogan \"One member, one vote\", John Smith, with limited input from Blair, secured an end to the trade union block vote for Westminster candidate selection at the 1993 conference.But Blair and the modernisers wanted Smith to go further still, and called for radical adjustment of Party goals by repealing \"Clause IV\", the historic commitment tonationalisationof industry. This would be achieved in 1995. Leader of the Opposition John Smith died suddenly of a heart attack on 12 May 1994. Blair defeatedJohn PrescottandMargaret Beckettin thesubsequent leadership electionand becameLeader of the Opposition.As is customary for the holder of that office, Blair was appointed aPrivy Counsellor.It has long been rumoureda dealwas struck between Blair andShadow ChancellorGordon Brownat the former Granita restaurant inIslington, in which Blair promised to give Brown control of economic policy in return for Brown not standing against him in the leadership election.Whether this is true or not, the relationship between Blair and Brown was central to the fortunes ofNew Labour, and they mostly remained united in public, despite reported serious private rifts. During his speech at the 1994 Labour Party conference, Blair announced a forthcoming proposal to update the party's objects and objectives, which was widely interpreted to relate to replacingClause IVof the party's constitution with a new statement of aims and values.This involved the deletion of the party's stated commitment to \"the common ownership of the means of production and exchange\", which was generally understood to mean wholesale nationalisation of major industries.At a special conference in April 1995, the clause was replaced by a statement that the party is \"democratic socialist\",and Blair also claimed to be a \"democratic socialist\" himself in the same year.However, the move away from nationalisation in the old Clause IV made many on the left wing of the Labour Party feel that Labour was moving away from traditional socialist principles of nationalisation set out in 1918, and was seen by them as part of a shift of the party towards \"New Labour\". Blair inherited the Labour leadership at a time when the party was ascendant over the Conservatives in the opinion polls, since the Conservative government's reputation in monetary policy declined as a result of theBlack Wednesdayeconomic disaster of September 1992. Blair's election as leader saw Labour support surge higher stillin spite of the continuing economic recovery and fall in unemployment that the Conservative government (led byJohn Major) had overseen since the end of the 1990–92recession.At the 1996 Labour Party conference, Blair stated that his three top priorities on coming to office were \"education, education, and education\". Aided by the unpopularity of John Major's Conservative government (itself deeply divided over theEuropean Union),Blair won a landslide victory for Labour at the1997 general election, ending eighteen years of Conservative Party government, with the heaviest Conservative defeat since1906.In 1996, themanifestoNew Labour, New Life for Britainwas published, which set out the party's new \"Third Way\"centristapproach to policy, and was presented as the brand of a newly reformed party that had altered Clause IV and endorsedmarket economics. In May 1995, Labour had achieved considerable success in the local and European elections and had won four by-elections. For Blair, these achievements were a source of optimism, as they indicated that the Conservatives were in decline. Virtually every opinion poll since late-1992 put Labour ahead of the Conservatives with enough support to form an overall majority. Prime Minister (1997–2007) Blair becamePrime Minister of the United Kingdomon 2 May 1997; aged 43, he was the youngest person to reach that office sinceLord Liverpoolbecame prime minister aged 42 in 1812.He was also the first prime minister born after theSecond World Warand the accession ofElizabeth IIto the throne. With victories in 1997, 2001, and 2005, Blair was the Labour Party's longest-serving prime minister,and the first person (and the only one, to date) to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Northern Ireland His contribution towards assisting theNorthern Ireland peace processby helping to negotiate theGood Friday Agreement(after 30 years of conflict) was widely recognised.Following theOmagh bombingon 15 August 1998, by members of theReal IRAopposed to the peace process, which killed 29 people and wounded hundreds, Blair visited theCounty Tyronetown and met with victims atRoyal Victoria Hospital, Belfast. Military intervention and the War on Terror In his first six years in office, Blair ordered British troops into combat five times, more than any other prime minister in British history. This included Iraq in both1998and2003,Kosovo(1999),Sierra Leone(2000) andAfghanistan(2001). The Kosovo War, which Blair had advocated on moral grounds, was initially a failure when it relied solely on air strikes; the threat of a ground offensive convinced Serbia'sSlobodan Miloševićto withdraw. Blair had been a major advocate for a ground offensive, whichBill Clintonwas reluctant to do, and ordered that 50,000 soldiers – most of the available British Army – should be made ready for action.The following year, the limitedOperation Palliserin Sierra Leone swiftly swung the tide against the rebel forces; before deployment, theUnited Nations Mission in Sierra Leonehad been on the verge of collapse.Palliser had been intended as an evacuation mission butBrigadier David Richardswas able to convince Blair to allow him to expand the role; at the time, Richards' action was not known and Blair was assumed to be behind it. Blair orderedOperation Barras, a highly successfulSAS/Parachute Regimentstrike to rescue hostages from a Sierra Leone rebel group.JournalistAndrew Marrhas argued that the success of ground attacks, real and threatened, over air strikes alone was influential on how Blair planned the Iraq War, and that the success of the first three wars Blair fought \"played to his sense of himself as a moral war leader\".When asked in 2010 if the success of Palliser may have \"embolden British politicians\" to think of military action as a policy option, General Sir David Richards admitted there \"might be something in that\". From the start of theWar on Terrorin 2001, Blair strongly supported theforeign policyofGeorge W. Bush, participating in the2001 invasion of Afghanistanand2003 invasion of Iraq. The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attracted widespread public opposition and 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it.As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision.Alastair Campbelldescribed Blair's statement that the intelligence on WMDs was \"beyond doubt\" as his \"assessment of the assessment that was given to him.\"In 2009, Blair stated that he would have supported removingSaddam Husseinfrom power even in the face of proof that he had no such weapons.PlaywrightHarold Pinterand former Malaysian prime ministerMahathir Mohamadaccused Blair of war crimes. Testifying before theIraq Inquiryon 29 January 2010, Blair said Saddam Hussein was a \"monster and I believe he threatened not just the region but the world.\"Blair said that British and American attitude towards Hussein had \"changed dramatically\" after theSeptember 11 attacks. Blair denied that he would have supported the invasion of Iraq even if he had thought Hussein had no weapons of mass destruction. He said he believed the world was safer as a result of the invasion.He said there was \"no real difference between wanting regime change and wanting Iraq to disarm: regime change was US policy because Iraq was in breach of its UN obligations.\" In an October 2015CNNinterview withFareed Zakaria, Blair apologised for his \"mistakes\" over the Iraq War and admitted there were \"elements of truth\" to the view that the invasion helped promote the rise ofISIS.TheChilcot Inquiryreport of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War, though the former prime minister again refused to apologise for his decision to back the US-led invasion. Relationship with Parliament One of Blair's first acts as prime minister was to replace the then twice-weekly 15-minute sessions ofPrime Minister's Questionsheld on Tuesdays and Thursdays with a single 30-minute session on Wednesdays. In addition to PMQs, Blair held monthly press conferences at which he fielded questions from journalistsand, from 2002, broke precedent by agreeing to give evidence twice yearly before the most senior Commons select committee, theLiaison Committee.Blair was sometimes perceived as paying insufficient attention both to the views of his own Cabinet colleagues and to those of the House of Commons.His style was sometimes criticised as not that of a prime minister andhead of government, which he was, but of a president and head of state, which he was not.Blair was accused of excessive reliance onspin.He was the first UK prime minister to have been formally questioned by police, though notunder caution, while still in office. Events before resignation As thecasualties of the Iraq Warmounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament,and his popularity dropped as a result,with Labour's overall majority at the2005 electionreduced from 167 to 66 seats. As a combined result of theBlair–Brown pact, the Iraq War and low approval ratings, pressure built up within the Labour Party for Blair to resign.Over the summer of 2006, many MPs criticised Blair for not calling for a ceasefire in theIsrael–Lebanon conflict.On 7 September 2006, Blair publicly stated he would step down as leader by the time of theTrades Union Congressconference held from 10 to 13 September 2007,despite promising to serve a full term during the previous general election campaign. On 10 May 2007, during a speech at theTrimdon Labour Club, Blair announced his intention to resign as both Labour leader and prime minister,triggeringa leadership electionin which Brown was the only candidate. At a special party conference in Manchester on 24 June 2007, Blair formally handed over the leadership of the Labour Party to Brown, who had been Chancellor of the Exchequer in Blair's three ministries.Blair tendered his resignation as prime minister on 27 June and Brown assumed office the same afternoon. Blair resigned from his Sedgefield seat in the traditional form of accepting theStewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds, to which he was appointed by Brown in one of the latter's last acts as chancellor;the resultingby-electionwas won by Labour candidatePhil Wilson.Blair decided not to issue a list ofResignation Honours, making him the first prime minister of the modern era not to do so. Policies In 2001, Blair said, \"We are aleft of centreparty, pursuing economic prosperity and social justice as partners and not as opposites.\"Blair rarely applies such labels to himself; he promised before the 1997 election that New Labour would govern \"from the radical centre\", and according to one lifelong Labour Party member always described himself as asocial democrat.In a 2007 opinion piece inThe Guardian, left-wing commentator Neil Lawson described Blair as to theright of centre.AYouGovopinion poll in 2005 found that a small majority of British voters, including many New Labour supporters, placed Blair on the right of the political spectrum.TheFinancial Timesargued that Blair is not conservative but instead apopulist. Critics and admirers tend to agree that Blair's electoral success was based on his ability to occupy the centre ground and appeal to voters across the political spectrum, to the extent that he has been fundamentally at odds with traditional Labour Party values. Some left-wing critics, such asMike Marquseein 2001, argued that Blair oversaw the final stage of a long term shift of the Labour Party to the right. There is some evidence that Blair's long term dominance of the centre forced his Conservative opponents to shift a long distance to the left to challenge hishegemonythere.Leading Conservatives of the post-New Labour era hold Blair in high regard:George Osbornedescribes him as \"the master\",Michael Govethought he had an \"entitlement to conservative respect\" in February 2003, whileDavid Cameronreportedly maintained Blair as an informal adviser.Former Conservative Party Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher declared Blair and New Labour to be her greatest achievement. Social reforms Blair introduced significant constitutional reforms; promoted new rights for gay people; and signed treaties integrating Britain more closely with the EU. With specific regards to Blair'sLGBTQ+reforms, Blair introduced theCivil Partnership Act 2004which granted civil partners rights and responsibilities similar to those in civil marriages, equalised the age of consent between straight and gay couples, ended the ban on gay people serving in the British military, introduced theGender Recognition Act 2004which allows those withgender dysphoriato legally change their gender, repealedSection 28, gave gay couples the right to adopt and enacted several anti-discrimination policies into law. In 2014 he was proclaimed a \"gay icon\" by theGay Times. The New Labour government increased police powers by adding to the number of arrestable offences, compulsoryDNA recordingand the use of dispersal orders.Under Blair's government the amount of new legislation increasedwhich attracted criticism.He also introduced tough anti-terrorism andidentity card legislation. Economic policies Blair has been credited with overseeing a strong economy, with real incomes of British citizens growing 18% between 1997 and 2006. Britain saw rapid productivity growth and significant GDP growth, as well as falling poverty rates and inequality which, despite stubbornly failing to fall, stalled thanks to New Labour's economic policies (such as tax credits). Despite the financial bubble developing in the property markets, studies have credited the growth to investments in education and the maintenance of fiscal responsibility, rather than a financial sugar-high. During his time as prime minister, Blair kept direct taxes low, while raising indirect taxation; invested a significant amount inHuman capital; introduced aNational Minimum Wageand some new employment rights (while keepingMargaret Thatcher's trade union reforms).He introduced substantial market-based reforms in the education and health sectors; introduced studenttuition fees; introduced a welfare to work scheme and sought to reduce certain categories of welfare payments. He did not reverse theprivatisation of the railwaysenacted by his predecessor John Major and instead strengthened regulation (by creating theOffice of Rail Regulation) and limited fare rises toinflation+1%. Blair and Brown raised spending on the NHS and other public services, increasing spending from 39.9% of GDP to 48.1% in 2010–11.They pledged in 2001 to bring NHS spending to the levels of other European countries, and doubled spending in real terms to over £100 billion in England alone. Immigration Non-European immigration rose significantly during the period from 1997, not least because of thegovernment's abolition of the primary purpose rule in June 1997.This change made it easier for UK residents to bring foreign spouses into the country. The former government advisor Andrew Neather in theEvening Standardstated that the deliberate policy of ministers from late 2000 until early 2008 was to open up the UK to mass migration.Neather later stated that his words had been twisted, saying: \"The main goal was to allow in more migrant workers at a point when – hard as it is to imagine now – the booming economy was running up against skills shortages.... Somehow this has become distorted by excitable Right-wing newspaper columnists into being a \"plot\" to make Britain multicultural. There was no plot.\" Environmental record Blair criticised other governments for not doing enough to solveglobal climate change. In a 1997 visit to the United States, he made a comment on \"great industrialised nations\" that fail to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Again in 2003, Blair went before theUnited States Congressand said that climate change \"cannot be ignored\", insisting \"we need to go beyond evenKyoto.\"Blair and his party promised a 20% reduction in carbon dioxide.The Labour Party also claimed that by 2010 10% of the energy would come from renewable resources; however, it only reached 7% by that point. In 2000, Blair \"flagged up\" 100 million euros for green policies and urged environmentalists and businesses to work together. Foreign policy Blair built his foreign policy on basic principles (close ties with the United States and European Union) and added a new activist philosophy of \"interventionism\". In 2001, Britain joined the U.S. in the global war on terror. Blair forged friendships with several European leaders, includingSilvio Berlusconiof Italy,Angela Merkelof Germanyand laterNicolas Sarkozyof France. Along with enjoying a close relationship with Bill Clinton, Blair formed a strong political alliance with George W. Bush, particularly in the area of foreign policy. For his part, Bush lauded Blair and the UK. In hispost-9/11speech, for example, he stated that \"America has no truer friend than Great Britain\". The alliance between Bush and Blair seriously damaged Blair's standing in the eyes of Britons angry at American influence;a 2002 poll revealed that a large amount of Britons viewed Blair as a \"lapdog\" of Bush.Blair argued it was in Britain's interest to \"protect and strengthen the bond\" with the United States regardless of who was in the White House. However, a perception of one-sided compromising personal and political closeness led to discussion of the term \"Poodle-ism\" in the UK media, to describe the \"Special Relationship\" of the UK government and prime minister with the US White House and president.A revealing conversation between Bush and Blair, with the former addressing the latter as \"Yo , Blair\" was recorded when they did not know a microphone was live at theG8 summitinSaint Petersburgin 2006. Middle East policy On 30 January 2003, Blair signedThe letter of the eightsupportingU.S. policy on Iraq. Blair showed a deep feeling for Israel, born in part from his faith.Blair has been a longtime member of the pro-Israel lobby groupLabour Friends of Israel. In 1994, Blair forged close ties withMichael Levy, a leader of theJewish Leadership Council.Levy ran the Labour Leader's Office Fund to finance Blair's campaign before the 1997 election and raised £12 million towards Labour's landslide victory, Levy was rewarded with apeerage, and in 2002, Blair appointed Lord Levy as his personal envoy to the Middle East. Levy praised Blair for his \"solid and committed support of the State of Israel\".Tam Dalyell, whileFather of the Houseof Commons, suggested in 2003 that Blair's foreign policy decisions were unduly influenced by a \"cabal\" of Jewish advisers, including Levy,Peter MandelsonandJack Straw(the last two are not Jewish but have some Jewish ancestry). Blair, on coming to office, had been \"cool towards the right-wingNetanyahugovernment\".During his first visit to Israel, Blair thought the Israelis bugged him in his car.After the election in 1999 ofEhud Barak, with whom Blair forged a close relationship, he became much more sympathetic to Israel.From 2001, Blair built up a relationshipwith Barak's successor,Ariel Sharon, and responded positively toArafat, whom he had met thirteen times since becoming prime minister and regarded as essential to future negotiations.In 2004, 50 former diplomats, including ambassadors toBaghdadandTel Aviv, stated they had \"watched with deepening concern\" at Britain following the US into war in Iraq in 2003. They criticised Blair's support for theroad map for peacewhich included the retaining ofIsraeli settlementson theWest Bank. In 2006 Blair was criticised for his failure to immediately call for a ceasefire in the2006 Lebanon War.The Observernewspaper claimed that at a cabinet meeting before Blair left for a summit with Bush on 28 July 2006, a significant number of ministers pressured Blair to publicly criticise Israel over the scale of deaths and destruction in Lebanon.Blair was criticised for his solid stance alongside US president George W. Bush on Middle East policy. Syria and Libya A Freedom of Information request byThe Sunday Timesin 2012 revealed that Blair's government consideredknightingSyria's PresidentBashar al-Assad. The documents showed Blair was willing to appear alongside Assad at a joint press conference even though the Syrians would probably have settled for a farewell handshake for the cameras; British officials sought to manipulate the media to portray Assad in a favourable light; and Blair's aides tried to help Assad's \"photogenic\" wifeAsma al-Assadboost her profile. The newspaper noted: The Arab leader was granted audiences with the Queen and the Prince of Wales, lunch with Blair at Downing Street, a platform in parliament and many other privileges ... The red carpet treatment he and his entourage received is embarrassing given the bloodbath that has since taken place under his rule in Syria ... The courtship has parallels with Blair's friendly relations withMuammar Gaddafi. Blair had been on friendly terms with Colonel Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, when sanctions imposed on the country were lifted by the US and the UK. Even after theLibyan Civil Warin 2011, he said he had no regrets about his close relationship with the late Libyan leader.During Blair's premiership,MI6renderedAbdelhakim Belhajto the Gaddafi regime in 2004, though Blair later claimed he had \"no recollection\" of the incident. Zimbabwe Blair had an antagonistic relationship with Zimbabwean presidentRobert Mugabeand allegedly plannedregime changeagainst Mugabe in the early 2000s.Zimbabwe had embarked on a program ofuncompensated land redistributionfrom the country's white commercial farmers to the black population, a policy that disrupted agricultural production and threw Zimbabwe's economy into chaos. GeneralCharles Guthrie, theChief of the Defence Staff, revealed in 2007 that he and Blair had discussed the invasion of Zimbabwe.Guthrie advised against military action: \"Hold hard, you'll make it worse.\"In 2013, South African presidentThabo Mbekisaid that Blair had pressured South Africa to join in a \"regime change scheme, even to the point of using military force\" in Zimbabwe.Mbeki refused because he felt that \"Mugabe is part of the solution to this problem.\"However, a spokesman for Blair said that \"he never asked anyone to plan or take part in any such military intervention.\" Russia Blair went on a trip to Moscow to watch a performance of theWar and PeaceoperawithVladimir Putin, while he was theacting president of Russia. This meeting was criticised by groups such asHuman Rights WatchandAmnesty International.In 2018, SirRichard Dearlove, former head of MI6, said there was \"significant regret\" over this trip, which helped Putin rise to power. Dearlove also alleged that in 2000, aKGBofficer approached him, seeking Britain's help in boosting Putin's political profile, and this was why Blair met Putin in Russia. Blair also hosted Putin in London in April 2000, despite hesitation towards Putin from other world leaders, and opposition fromhuman rights groupsoveratrocities committed in Chechnya. Blair toldJim HoaglandofThe Washington Postthat \" vision of the future is one that we would feel comfortable with. Putin has a very clear agenda of modernizing Russia. When he talks of a strong Russia, he means strength not in a threatening way but in a way that means the country economically and politically is capable of standing up for itself, which is a perfectly good aim to have\".During the meeting, Blair acknowledged and discussed \"concerns about Chechnya\",but described Putin as a political reformer \"who is ready to embrace a new relationship with the European Union and the United States, who wants a strong and modern Russia and a strong relationship with the West\". Relationship with media Rupert Murdoch Blair was reported byThe Guardianin 2006 to have been supported politically byRupert Murdoch, the founder of theNews Corporationorganisation.In 2011, Blair becamegodfatherto one of Rupert Murdoch's children withWendi Deng,but he and Murdoch later ended their friendship, in 2014, after Murdoch suspected him of having an affair with Deng while they were still married, according toThe Economistmagazine. Contacts with UK media proprietors ACabinet Officefreedom of informationresponse, released the day after Blair handed over power to Gordon Brown, documents Blair having various official phone calls and meetings with Rupert Murdoch of News Corporation andRichard Desmondof Northern and Shell Media. The response includes contacts \"clearly of an official nature\" in the specified period, but excludes contacts \"not clearly of an official nature.\"No details were given of the subjects discussed. In the period between September 2002 and April 2005, Blair and Murdoch are documented speaking six times; three times in the nine days before the Iraq War, including the eve of the 20 March US and UK invasion, and on 29 January, 25 April, and 3 October 2004. Between January 2003 and February 2004, Blair had three meetings with Richard Desmond; on 29 January and 3 September 2003, and 23 February 2004. The information was disclosed after a3+1⁄2-year battle by the Liberal Democrats'Lord Avebury.Lord Avebury's initial October 2003 information request was dismissed by then leader of the Lords,Baroness Amos.A following complaint was rejected, withDowning Streetclaiming the information compromised \"free and frank discussions\", while Cabinet Office claimed releasing the timing of the PM's contacts with individuals is \"undesirable\", as it might lead to the content of the discussions being disclosed.While awaiting a following appeal from Lord Avebury, the cabinet office announced that it would release the information. Lord Avebury said: \"The public can now scrutinise the timing of his (Murdoch's) contacts with the former prime minister, to see whether they can be linked to events in the outside world.\" Blair appeared before theLeveson Inquiryon Monday 28 May 2012.During his appearance, a protester, later named as David Lawley-Wakelin, got into the court-room and claimed he was guilty of war crimes before being dragged out. Media portrayal Blair has been noted as acharismatic, articulate speaker with an informal style.Film and theatre directorRichard Eyreopined that \"Blair had a very considerable skill as a performer\".A few months after becoming prime minister Blair gave a tribute toDiana, Princess of Wales, on the morning of her death in August 1997, in which he famously described her as \"the People's Princess\". After taking office in 1997, Blair gave particular prominence to his press secretary, who became known as theprime minister's official spokesman(the two roles have since been separated). Blair's first PMOS was Alastair Campbell, who served in that role from May 1997 to 8 June 2001, after which he served as the prime minister's director of communications and strategy until his resignation on 29 August 2003 in the aftermath of theHutton Inquiry. Blair had close relationships with the Clinton family. The strong partnership with Bill Clinton was made into the filmThe Special Relationshipin 2010. Relationship with Labour Party Blair's apparent refusal to set a date for his departure was criticised by the British press and Members of Parliament. It has been reported that a number of cabinet ministers believed that Blair's timely departure from office would be required to be able to win a fourth election.Some ministers viewed Blair's announcement of policy initiatives in September 2006 as an attempt to draw attention away from these issues. Gordon Brown After the death of John Smith in 1994, Blair and his close colleague Gordon Brown (they shared an office at the House of Commons) were both seen as possible candidates for the party leadership. They agreed not to stand against each other, it is said, as part of a supposed Blair–Brown pact. Brown, who considered himself the senior of the two, understood that Blair would give way to him: opinion polls soon indicated, however, that Blair appeared to enjoy greater support among voters.Their relationship in power became so turbulent that it was reported thedeputy prime minister, John Prescott, often had to act as \"marriage guidance counsellor\". During the 2010 election campaign Blair publicly endorsed Brown's leadership, praising the way he had handled the financial crisis. Post-premiership (2007-present) Diplomacy On 27 June 2007, Blair officially resigned as prime minister after ten years in office, and he was officially confirmed as Middle Eastenvoyfor the United Nations, European Union, United States, and Russia.Blair originally indicated that he would retain his parliamentary seat after his resignation as prime minister came into effect; however, on being confirmed for the Middle East role he resigned from the Commons by taking up anoffice of profit.President George W. Bush had preliminary talks with Blair to ask him to take up the envoy role. White House sources stated that \"both Israel and the Palestinians had signed up to the proposal\".In May 2008 Blair announced a new plan for peace and for Palestinian rights, based heavily on the ideas of thePeace Valley plan.Blair resigned as envoy in May 2015. Private sector In January 2008, it was confirmed that Blair would be joining investment bankJPMorgan Chasein a \"senior advisory capacity\"and that he would adviseZurich Financial Servicesonclimate change. His salary for this work is unknown, although it has been claimed it may be in excess of £500,000 per year.Blair also gives lectures, earning up to US$250,000 for a 90-minute speech, and in 2008 he was said to be the highest paid speaker in the world. Blair taught a course on issues of faith and globalisation at theYale UniversitySchools ofManagementandDivinityas aHowland distinguished fellowduring the 2008–09 academic year. In July 2009, this accomplishment was followed by the launching of theFaith and Globalisation Initiativewith Yale University in the US, Durham University in the UK, and theNational University of Singaporein Asia, to deliver a postgraduate programme in partnership with the Foundation. Blair's links with, and receipt of an undisclosed sum from,UI Energy Corporation, have also been subject to media comment in the UK. In July 2010 it was reported that his personal security guards claimed £250,000 a year in expenses from the taxpayer. Foreign SecretaryWilliam Haguesaid; \"we have to make sure that is as cost-effective as possible, that it doesn't cost any more to the taxpayer than is absolutely necessary\". Tony Blair Associates Blair establishedTony Blair Associatesto \"allow him to provide, in partnership with others, strategic advice on a commercial andpro bonobasis, on political and economic trends and governmental reform\".The profits from the firm go towards supporting Blair's \"work on faith, Africa and climate change\". Blair has been subject to criticism for potential conflicts of interest between his diplomatic role as a Middle East envoy, and his work with Tony Blair Associates,and a number of prominent critics have even called for him to be sacked.Blair has used hisQuartetTony Blair Associates works with the Kazakhstan government, advising the regime on judicial, economic and political reforms, but has been subject to criticism after accusations of \"whitewashing\" the image and human rights record of the regime. Blair responded to such criticism by saying his choice to advise the country is an example of how he can \"nudge controversial figures on a progressive path of reform\", and has stated that he receives no personal profit from this advisory role.The Kazakhstan foreign minister said that the country was \"honoured and privileged\" to be receiving advice from Blair.A letter obtained byThe Daily Telegraphin August 2014 revealed Blair had given damage-limitation advice toNursultan Nazarbayevafter the December 2011Zhanaozen massacre.Blair was reported to have accepted a business advisory role with PresidentAbdel Fattah el-Sisiof Egypt, a situation deemed incompatible with his role as Middle East envoy. Blair described the report as \"nonsense\". Charity and non-profits In November 2007 Blair launched the Tony Blair Sports Foundation, which aims to \"increase childhood participation in sports activities, especially in the North East of England, where a larger proportion of children are socially excluded, and to promote overall health and prevent childhood obesity.\"On 30 May 2008, Blair launched theTony Blair Faith Foundationas a vehicle for encouraging different faiths to join in promoting respect and understanding, as well as working to tackle poverty. Reflecting Blair's own faith but not dedicated to any particular religion, the Foundation aims to \"show how faith is a powerful force for good in the modern world\". \"The Foundation will use its profile and resources to encourage people of faith to work together more closely to tackle global poverty and conflict,\" says its mission statement. In February 2009 he applied to set up a charity called the Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative: the application was approved in November 2009.Blair's foundation hit controversy in October 2012, when news emerged that it was taking on unpaid interns. In December 2016, Blair created theTony Blair Instituteto promote global outlooks by governments and organisations.In September 2023 former Finnish prime ministerSanna Marinjoined him as a strategic adviser on political leaders' reform programmes in the institute. Books A Journey In March 2010, it was reported that Blair's memoirs, titledThe Journey, would be published in September 2010.In July 2010 it was announced the memoirs would be retitledA Journey.The memoirs were seen by many as controversial and a further attempt to profit from his office and from acts related to overseas wars that were widely seen as wrong,leading to anger and suspicion prior to launch. On 16 August 2010 it was announced that Blair would give the £4.6 million advance and all royalties from his memoirs to theRoyal British Legion– the charity's largest ever single donation. Media analysis of the sudden announcement was wide-ranging, describing it as an act of \"desperation\" to obtain a better launch reception of a humiliating \"publishing flop\"that had languished in the ratings,\"blood money\" for the lives lost in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars,an act with a \"hidden motive\" or an expression of \"guilt\",a \"genius move\" to address the problem that \"Tony Blair ha one of the most toxic brands around\" from a PR perspective, and a \"cynical stunt to wipe the slate\", but also as an attempt to make amends.Friends had said that the act was partly motivated by the wish to \"repair his reputation\". The book was published on 1 September and within hours of its launch had become the fastest-selling autobiography of all time.On 3 September Blair gave his first live interview since publication onThe Late Late Showin Ireland, with protesters lying in wait there for him.On 4 September, Blair was confronted by 200 anti-war and hardline Irish nationalist demonstrators before the first book signing of his memoirs atEason'sbookstore onO'Connell Streetin Dublin, with angry activists chanting \"war criminal\" and that he had \"blood on his hands\", and clashing with Irish Police (Garda Síochána) as they tried to break through a security cordon outside the Eason's store. Blair was pelted with eggs and shoes, and encountered an attemptedcitizen's arrestforwar crimes. On Leadership Published in 2024, and described byGeorge Osborneas \"the most practically useful guide to politics I have ever read.\" Accusations of war crimes Since the Iraq War, Blair has been the subject of war crimes accusations. Critics of his actions, including BishopDesmond Tutu,Harold PinterandArundhati Royhave called for his trial at theInternational Criminal Court. In November 2011, a war crimes tribunal of theKuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission, established by Malaysia's former prime minister Mahathir Mohamad, reached a unanimous conclusion that Blair was guilty of crimes against peace, as a result of his role in the Iraq War.The proceedings lasted for four days, and consisted of five judges of judicial and academic backgrounds, a tribunal-appointed defence team in lieu of the defendants or representatives, and a prosecution team including international law professorFrancis Boyle. In September 2012, Desmond Tutu suggested that Blair should follow the path of former African leaders who had been brought before the International Criminal Court inThe Hague.The human rights lawyerGeoffrey Bindmanconcurred with Tutu's suggestion that there should be a war crimes trial.In a statement made in response to Tutu's comments, Blair defended his actions.He was supported byLord Falconer, who stated that the war had been authorised byUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1441. In July 2017, former Iraqi general Abdulwaheed al-Rabbat launched a private war crimes prosecution in the High Court in London, asking for Blair, former foreign secretary Jack Straw and former attorney generalLord Goldsmithto be prosecuted for \"the crime of aggression\" for their role in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The High Court ruled that, although the crime of aggression was recognised in international law, it was not an offence under UK law, and therefore the prosecution could not proceed. Blair defended Some, such asJohn Rentoul,John McTernan,Geoffrey RobertsonandIain Dale, have countered accusations that Blair committed war crimes during his premiership, often highlighting how no case against Blair has ever made it to trial, suggesting that Blair broke no laws. Blair himself has defended his involvement in the Iraq War by highlighting the findings of theIraq Survey Group, which found that Saddam had attempted to get sanctions lifted by undermining them, which would have enabled him to restart his WMD program. Political interventions and views Response to the Iraq Inquiry The Chilcot report issued after the conclusion of the Iraq Inquiry was published on 6 July 2016; it criticised Blair for joining the US in the war in Iraq in 2003. Afterward, Blair issued a statement and held a two-hour press conference to apologise, to justify the decisions he had made in 2003 \"in good faith\" and to deny allegations that the war had led to a significant increase in terrorism.He acknowledged that the report made \"real and material criticisms of preparation, planning, process and of the relationship with the United States\" but cited sections of the report that he said \"should lay to rest allegations of bad faith, lies or deceit\". He stated: \"whether people agree or disagree with my decision to take military action against Saddam Hussein; I took it in good faith and in what I believed to be the best interests of the country. ... I will take full responsibility for any mistakes without exception or excuse. I will at the same time say why, nonetheless, I believe that it was better to remove Saddam Hussein and why I do not believe this is the cause of the terrorism we see today whether in the Middle East or elsewhere in the world\". Iran–West tensions In an op-ed published byThe Washington Poston 8 February 2019, Blair said: \"Where Iran is exercising military interference, it should be strongly pushed back. Where it is seeking influence, it should be countered. Where its proxies operate, it should be held responsible. Where its networks exist, they should be disrupted. Where its leaders are saying what is unacceptable, they should be exposed. Where the Iranian people — highly educated and connected, despite their government — are protesting for freedom, they should be supported.\"TheTony Blair Institute for Global Changewarned of a growing Iranian threat.The Tony Blair Institute confirmed that it has received donations from the U.S. State Department and Saudi Arabia. European Union Blair did not wantthe UK to leave the EUand called for areferendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement. Blair also maintained that once the terms deciding how the UK leaves the EU were known, the people should be able to vote again on those terms. Blair stated, \"We know the options for Brexit. Parliament will have to decide on one of them. If Parliament can't then it should decide to go back to the people.\" However, after the2019 general electionin which the pro-withdrawal Conservative party won a sizeable majority of seats, Blair argued that remain supporters should \"face up to one simple point: we lost\" and \"pivot to a completely new position...We're going to have to be constructive about it and see how Britain develops a constructive relationship with Europe and finds its new niche in the world.\" American power Blair was interviewed in June 2020 for an article in the American magazineThe Atlanticon European views of U.S. foreign policy concerning theCOVID-19 pandemicand resultingrecession, the rise of China, and theGeorge Floyd protests. He affirmed his belief in the continued strength of Americansoft powerand the need to address Iranian military aggression, European military underinvestment, and illicit Chinese trade practices. He said, however, \"I think it's fair to say a lot of political leaders in Europe are dismayed by what they see as the isolationism growing in America and the seeming indifference to alliances. But I think there will come a time when America decides in its own interest to reengage, so I'm optimistic that America will in the end understand that this is not about relegating your self-interest behind the common interest; it's an understanding that by acting collectively in alliance with others you promote your own interests.\" Blair warned that structural issues plaguing American domestic policy needed to be addressed imminently. In August 2021, Blair criticised thewithdrawal of U.S. and NATO troops from Afghanistan, saying that it was \"in obedience to an imbecilic slogan about ending 'theforever wars'\". Blair admitted mistakes in the management of the war but warned that \"the reaction to our mistakes has been, unfortunately, further mistakes\". Labour Party Jeremy Corbyn Blair was a critic ofJeremy Corbyn'sleadership of the Labour Party, seeing it as too left-wing. He wrote in an opinion piece forThe Guardianduring the party's2015 leadership electionthat if the party elected Corbyn, it would face a \"rout, possibly annihilation\" at the next election.After the2019 general election, Blair accused Corbyn of turning the party into a \"glorified protest movement\" and in a May 2021New Statesmanarticle, Blair suggested that the party needed to undergo a programme of \"total deconstruction and reconstruction\" and also said the party needed to shift to the centre on social issues in order to survive.Blair touched on controversial topics such astransgender rights, theBlack Lives Mattermovement and climate change. Keir Starmer Keir Starmer's leadership of the party has been widely compared to Blair's leadership and New Labour, having taken the party rightward to gain electability. Initially saying in 2021 that Starmer lacked a compelling message, Blair has since reacted more positively towards Starmer's leadership of the party, telling him he's \"done a great job\" in reforming the party during a Tony Blair Institute for Global Change's Future of Britain conference in 2023.Blair's continued influence on the party, and on Starmer led him to be ranked sixteenth in the New Statesman's Left Power List 2023, described by the paper as electorally an \"incomparable authority on how to win\".After Labour won the2024 general electionand Starmer became prime minister, Blair congratulated him on his victory, saying Starmer was \"determined and ruthlessly effective\" and appointed \"exceptional talent to conduct the change and put the most capable frontbenchers in the most important positions for future government.\" He also offered Starmer advice, recommending he controls immigration amid the rise of theReform UKparty led byNigel Farage, saying that the party poses a threat to Labour and not just the Conservatives. Personal life Family Blair marriedCherie Boothon 29 March 1980.They have four children:Euan,Nicky, Kathryn, and Leo.Leo was the first legitimate child born to a serving prime minister in over 150 years – since Francis Russell was born toLord John Russellon 11 July 1849.All four children have Irish passports, by virtue of Blair's mother, Hazel Elizabeth Rosaleen Corscadden (12 June 1923 – 28 June 1975).The family's primary residence is in Connaught Square; the Blairs own eight residences in total.His first grandchild (a girl) was born in October 2016. Wealth Blair's financial assets are structured in an opaque manner, and estimates of their extent vary widely.These include figures of up to £100 million. Blair stated in 2014 that he was worth \"less than £20 million\".A 2015 assertion, byFrancis Beckett,David HenckeandNick Kochan, concluded that Blair had acquired $90 million and a property portfolio worth $37.5 million in the eight years since he had left office. In October 2021, Blair wasnamedin thePandora Papers. Religious faith In 2006, Blair referred to the role of his Christian faith in his decision to go to war in Iraq, stating that he had prayed about the issue, and saying that God would judge him for his decision: \"I think if you have faith about these things, you realise that judgement is made by other people ... and if you believe in God, it's made by God as well.\" According to Press Secretary Alastair Campbell's diary, Blair often read the Bible before taking any important decisions. He states that Blair had a \"wobble\" and considered changing his mind on the eve of the bombing of Iraq in 1998. A longer exploration of his faith can be found in an interview withThird Way Magazine. There he says that \"I was brought up as , but I was not in any real sense a practising one until I went to Oxford. There was an Australian priest at the same college as me who got me interested again. In a sense, it was a rediscovery of religion as something living, that was about the world around me rather than some sort of special one-to-one relationship with a remote Being on high. Suddenly I began to see its social relevance. I began to make sense of the world\". At one point Alastair Campbell intervened in an interview, preventing Blair from answering a question about his Christianity, explaining, \"We don't do God.\"Campbell later said that he had intervened only to end the interview because the journalist had been taking an excessive time, and that the comment had just been a throwaway line. Cherie Blair's friend and \"spiritual guru\"Carole Caplinis credited with introducing her and her husband to variousNew Agesymbols and beliefs, including \"magic pendants\" known as \"BioElectric Shields\".The most controversial of the Blairs' New Age practices occurred when on holiday in Mexico. The couple, wearing only bathing costumes, took part in a rebirthing procedure, which involved smearing mud and fruit over each other's bodies while sitting in a steam bath. In 1996, Blair, then an Anglican, was reprimanded by CardinalBasil Humefor receivingHoly Communionwhile attending Mass at Cherie Blair's Catholic church, in contravention ofcanon law.On 22 December 2007, it was disclosed that Blair had joined theCatholic Church. The move was described as \"a private matter\".He had informedPope Benedict XVIon 23 June 2007 — four days before he stepped down as Prime Minister — that he wanted to become a Catholic. The Pope and his advisors criticised some of Blair's political actions, but followed up with a reportedly unprecedented red carpet welcome, which included the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster,Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, who would be responsible for Blair'sCatholic instruction.In 2009, Blair questioned the Pope's attitude towards homosexuality, arguing that religious leaders must start \"rethinking\" the issue.In 2010,The Tabletnamed him as one of Britain's most influential Catholics. Honours In May 2007, Blair was invested as aparamount chiefby the chiefs and people of the village of Mahera in Sierra Leone. The honour was bestowed upon him in recognition of the role played by his government in the Sierra Leone Civil War. On 22 May 2008, Blair received an honorary law doctorate fromQueen's University Belfast, alongside Bertie Ahern, for distinction in public service and roles in the Northern Ireland peace process. On 13 January 2009, Blair was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby President George W. Bush.Bush stated that Blair was given the award \"in recognition of exemplary achievement and to convey the utmost esteem of the American people\"and cited Blair's support for the War on Terror and his role in achieving peace in Northern Ireland as two reasons for justifying his being presented with the award. On 16 February 2009, Blair was awarded theDan David PrizebyTel Aviv Universityfor \"exceptional leadership and steadfast determination in helping to engineer agreements and forge lasting solutions to areas in conflict\". He was awarded the prize in May 2009. On 8 July 2010, Blair was awarded theOrder of Freedomby PresidentFatmir Sejdiuof Kosovo.As Blair is considered to have been instrumental in ending theconflict in Kosovo, some boys born in the country following the war have been given the nameToniorTonibler. On 13 September 2010, Blair was awarded theLiberty Medalat theNational Constitution CenterinPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania.It was presented by former president Bill Clinton, and is awarded annually to \"men and women of courage and conviction who strive to secure the blessings of liberty to people around the globe\". On 31 December 2021, it was announced that the Queen had appointed Blair aKnight Companion of the Order of the Garter(KG).Blair had reportedly indicated when he left office that he did not want the traditional knighthood or peerage bestowed on former prime ministers.A petition cited his role in the Iraq War as a reason to remove the knighthood and garnered more than one million signatures.He received his Garter insignia on 10 June 2022 from the Queen during an audience at Windsor Castle. Works See also Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading Primary sources External links e","Marathon world record progression World recordsin themarathonare ratified byWorld Athletics, the internationalgoverning bodyfor the sport ofathletics. The late Kenyan athleteKelvin Kiptumset a men's world record time of 2:00:35 on October 8, 2023, at the2023 Chicago Marathon. Kenyan athleteRuth Chepngetichbroke the women's world record for a mixed-sex race with a time of 2:09:56 on October 13, 2024 at the2024 Chicago Marathon. In addition to the standard women's marathon world record, World Athletics also recognizes a second world record for women in the \"Women Only\" category, meaning that the marathon was run on a course without any male athletes in the competition. The current \"Women Only\" record of 2:16:16 was set byPeres Jepchirchiron April 21, 2024 at the London Marathon in the elite women's race. History Marathon races were first held in 1896, but the distance was not standardized by theInternational Association of Athletics Federations(IAAF, now World Athletics) until 1921. The actual distance for pre-1921 races frequently varied from the 1921 standard of 42.195 km (26 miles 385 yards). In qualifying races for the1896 Summer Olympics, Greek runnersCharilaos Vasilakos(3:18:00) andIoannis Lavrentis(3:11:27) won the first two modern marathons.On April 10, 1896,Spiridon Louisof Greece wonthe first Olympic marathon in Athens, Greece, in a time of 2:58:50.However, the distance for the event was 40,000 meters.Three months later, British runnerLen Hurstwon the inauguralParis to Conflans Marathon(also around 40 km) in a time of 2:31:30.In 1900, Hurst would better his time on the same course with a 2:26:28 performance. Later,Shizo Kanakuriof Japan was reported to have set a world record of 2:32:45 in a November 1911 domestic qualification race for the1912 Summer Olympics, but this performance was also run over a distance of approximately 40 km. The first marathon over the official distance was won by AmericanJohnny Hayesat the1908 Summer Olympics, with a time of 2:55:18.4. It is possible thatStamata Revithi, who ran the 1896 Olympic course a day after Louis, is the first woman to run the modern marathon; she is said to have finished in5+1⁄2hours.World Athletics creditsViolet Piercy's 1926 performance as the first woman to race the standard marathon distance; however, other sources report that the 1918 performance ofMarie-Louise Ledruin the Tour de Paris set the initial mark for women.Other \"unofficial\" performances have also been reported to be world bests or world records over time: although her performance is not recognized by World Athletics,Adrienne Beamesfrom Australia is frequently credited as the first woman to break the three-hour barrier in the marathon. In the 1953Boston Marathon, the top three male finishers were thought to have broken the standing world record,butKeizo Yamada's mark of 2:18:51 is considered to have been set on a short course of 25.54 miles (41.1 km).TheBoston Athletic Associationalso does not report Yamada's performance as a world best for this reason. On October 25, 1981, AmericanAlberto Salazarand New ZealanderAllison Roeset apparent world bests at theNew York City Marathon(2:08:13 and 2:25:29), however, these marks were invalidated when the course was later found to have been 151 meters short.Although World Athletics' progression notes three performances set on the same course in 1978, 1979, and 1980 by NorwegianGrete Waitz, theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticiansconsiders the New York City course suspect for those performances, too. On April 18, 2011, the Boston Marathon produced what were at that time the two fastest marathon performances of all time. WinnerGeoffrey Mutaiof Kenya recorded a time of 2:03:02,followed by countrymanMoses Mosopin 2:03:06. However, since the Boston course does not meet the criteria for record attempts, these times were not ratified by the IAAF. Eight IAAF world records were set at thePolytechnic Marathon(1909, 1913, 1952–54, 1963–65).WA-recognized world records have been broken at all of the original fiveWorld Marathon Majorson numerous occasions (updated 09/2022); twelve times at theBerlin Marathon, three times at theBoston Marathon, five times at theChicago Marathon, six times at theLondon Marathon, and five times at theNew York City Marathon. However, the records established in the Boston event have been disputed on grounds of a downhill point-to-point course, while four of the five New York records have been disputed on grounds of a short course. Criteria for record eligibility For a performance to be ratified as a world record by World Athletics, the marathon course on which the performance occurred must be 42.195 km (26.219 mi) long,measured in a defined manner using thecalibrated bicycle method(the distance in kilometers being the official distance; the distance in miles is an approximation) and meet other criteria that rule out artificially fast times produced on courses aided by downhill slope or tailwind.The criteria include: In recognizing KenyanGeoffrey Mutai's mark of 2:03:02 at the2011 Boston Marathonas (at the time) \"the fastest Marathon ever run\", the IAAF said: \"Due to the elevation drop and point-to-point measurements of the Boston course, performances are not eligible for World record consideration.\" TheAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians, an independent organization that compiles data fromroad runningevents, also maintains an alternate marathon world best progression but with standards they consider to be more stringent. Women's world record changes The IAAF Congress, at the 2011 World Championships, passed a motion changing the record eligibility criteria effective October 6, 2007, so that women's world records must be set in all-women competitions.The result of the change was that Radcliffe's 2:17:42 performance at the 2005 London Marathon supplanted her own existing women's mark as the \"world record\"; the earlier performance is to be referred to as a \"world best\". Per the 2021 IAAF Competition Rules, \"a World Record for performance achieved in mixed sex (\"Mixed\") races and a World Record for performance achieved in single sex (\"Women only\") races\" are tracked separately. Unofficial record attempts In December 2016,Nike, Inc., announced that three top distance runners —Eliud Kipchoge,Zersenay Tadese, andLelisa Desisa— had agreed to forgo the spring marathon season to work with the company in an effort to run a sub-two-hour marathon. TheBreaking2event took place in the early morning of May 6, 2017; Kipchoge crossed the finish line with a time of 2:00:25.This time was more than two minutes faster than the world record. Kipchoge took part in a similar attempt to break the two-hour barrier in Vienna on October 12, 2019, as part of theIneos 1:59 Challenge. He successfully ran the first sub two-hour marathon distance, with a time of 1:59:40.2.The effort did not count as a new world record under IAAF rules due to the setup of the challenge. Specifically, it was not an open event, Kipchoge was handed fluids by his support team throughout, the run featured a pace car, and included rotating teams of other runners pacing Kipchoge in a formation designed to reduce wind resistance and maximize efficiency.The achievement was recognized byGuinness World Recordswith the titles 'Fastest marathon distance (male)' and 'First marathon distance run under two hours' instead of an official world record. Men Table key:Listed by World Athletics as a world best prior to official acceptanceRatified by World Athletics as a world best (since January 1, 2003) or world record (since January 1, 2004)Recognized by theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians(ARRS) The edition of the marathon is linked on some of the dates. Women Table key:Listed by World Athletics as a world best prior to official acceptanceRatified by World Athletics as a world best (since January 1, 2003) or world record (since January 1, 2004)Recognized by theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians(ARRS) Gallery of world record holders See also Men's Masters Records Women's Masters Records Notes References Sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"Tony Blair Sir Anthony Charles Lynton BlairKG(born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 1997 to 2007 andLeader of the Labour Partyfrom 1994 to 2007. He wasLeader of the Oppositionfrom 1994 to 1997 and held variousshadow cabinetposts from 1987 to 1994. Blair wasMember of Parliament(MP) forSedgefieldfrom 1983 to 2007, and was special envoy of theQuartet on the Middle Eastfrom 2007 to 2015. He is the second-longest-serving prime ministerin post-war British history afterMargaret Thatcher, the longest-servingLabourpolitician to have held the office, and the first and only person to date to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Blair attended the independent schoolFettes College, studied law atSt John's College, Oxford, and qualified as a barrister. He became involved in the Labour Party and was elected to theHouse of Commonsin 1983 for the Sedgefield constituency inCounty Durham. As abackbencher, Blair supported moving the party to thepolitical centre of British politics. He was appointed toNeil Kinnock'sshadow cabinetin 1988 and was appointedshadow home secretarybyJohn Smithin 1992. Following Smith's death in 1994, Blair wona leadership electionto succeed him. As leader, Blair began a historic rebranding of the party, which became known as \\\"New Labour\\\". Blair became theyoungest prime ministerof the 20th century after his party won a landslide victory of 418 seats (the largest in its history) in the1997 general election, bringing an end to 18 years in the opposition. It was the first victory for the Labour Party in nearly 23 years, the last one being inOctober 1974. Duringhis first term, Blair enactedconstitutional reformsand significantly increasedpublic spendingon healthcare and education while also introducing controversial market-based reforms in these areas. In addition, Blair saw theintroduction of a minimum wage,tuition feesfor higher education, constitutional reform such asdevolution in Scotland and Wales, an extensive expansion ofLGBT+ rights in the UK, and significant progress in theNorthern Ireland peace processwith the passing of the landmarkGood Friday Agreement. On foreign policy, Blair oversaw British interventions inKosovo in 1999andSierra Leone in 2000, which were generally perceived to be successful. Blair won a second term after Labour won a second landslide victory in the2001 general election. Three months intohis second term, Blair's premiership was shaped by the9/11 terrorist attacks, resulting in the start of thewar on terror. Blair supported theforeign policy of the George W. Bush administrationby ensuring that theBritish Armed Forcesparticipated in theWar in Afghanistanto overthrow theTaliban, destroyal-Qaeda, and captureOsama bin Laden. Blair supported the2003 invasion of Iraqand had the British Armed Forces participate in theIraq War, on the inaccurate beliefs thatSaddam Hussein's regimepossessed weapons of mass destructionand developedties with al-Qaeda. The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attractedwidespread public oppositionand 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it. As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision. TheIraq Inquiryreport of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War. As thecasualties of the Iraq Warmounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament, and his popularity dropped dramatically. Blair won a third termafter Labour won a third election victory in 2005, in part thanks to the UK's strong economic performance, but with a substantially reduced majority, due to the UK's involvement in the Iraq War. Duringhis third term, Blair pushed for more systemic public sector reform and brokereda settlementto restore powersharing to Northern Ireland. He had a surge in popularity at the time ofterrorist bombings of Londonof July 2005, but by the Spring of 2006 faced significant difficulties, most notably with scandals over failures by theHome Officeto deport illegal immigrants. Amid theCash-for-Honours scandal, Blair was interviewed three times as prime minister, though only as a witness and notunder caution. The Afghanistan and Iraq wars continued, and in 2006, Blair announced he would resign within a year. He resigned the party leadership on 24 June 2007 and as prime minister on 27 June, andwas succeededbyGordon Brown, hischancellor. After leaving office, Blairgave up his seatand was appointed special envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East, a diplomatic post he held until 2015. He has been the executive chairman of theTony Blair Institute for Global Changesince 2016 and has made occasional political interventions, and has been a key influence onKeir Starmer. In 2009, Blair was awarded thePresidential Medal of FreedombyGeorge W. Bush. He was made aKnight Companion of the GarterbyQueen Elizabeth IIin 2022. At various points in his premiership, Blair was among both the most popular and most unpopular politicians in British history. As prime minister, he achieved the highest recorded approval ratings during his first few years in office but also one of the lowest ratings during and after the Iraq War.Blair is usually rated as above average inhistorical rankingsand public opinion of British prime ministers. Early years Anthony Charles Lynton Blair was born on 6 May 1953 at Queen Mary Maternity Home inEdinburgh, Scotland.He was the second son ofLeoand Hazel (néeCorscadden) Blair.Leo Blair was the illegitimate son of two entertainers and was adopted as a baby by the Glasgow shipyard worker James Blair and his wife, Mary.Hazel Corscadden was the daughter of George Corscadden, a butcher andOrangemanwho moved to Glasgow in 1916. In 1923, he returned to (and later died in)Ballyshannon, County Donegal, inIreland. In Ballyshannon, Corscadden's wife, Sarah Margaret (née Lipsett), gave birth above the family's grocery shop to Blair's mother, Hazel. Blair has an elder brother,William, and a younger sister, Sarah. Blair's first home was with his family at Paisley Terrace in the Willowbrae area of Edinburgh. During this period, his father worked as a junior tax inspector whilst studying for a law degree from theUniversity of Edinburgh. Blair's first relocation was when he was nineteen months old. At the end of 1954, Blair's parents and their two sons moved from Paisley Terrace toAdelaide,South Australia.His father lectured in law at theUniversity of Adelaide.In Australia, Blair's sister, Sarah, was born. The Blairs lived in the suburb ofDulwichclose to the university. The family returned to the United Kingdom in mid-1958. They lived for a time with Hazel's mother and stepfather (William McClay) at their home inSteppson the outskirts of north-east Glasgow. Blair's father accepted a job as a lecturer atDurham University, and moved the family toDurhamwhen Blair was five. It was the beginning of a long association Blair was to have with Durham. Since childhood, Blair has been a fan ofNewcastle United Football Club. Education and legal career With his parents basing their family in Durham, Blair attended theChorister Schoolfrom 1961 to 1966.Aged 13, he was sent to spend his school term-time boarding atFettes Collegein Edinburgh from 1966 to 1971.According to Blair, he hated his time at Fettes.His teachers were unimpressed with him; his biographer,John Rentoul, reported that \\\"ll the teachers I spoke to when researching the book said he was a complete pain in the backside and they were very glad to see the back of him.\\\"Blair reportedly modelled himself onMick Jagger, lead singer ofthe Rolling Stones.Leaving Fettes College at the age of 18, Blair next spent a gap year in London working as a rock music promoter. In 1972, at the age of 19, Blair matriculated atSt John's College, Oxford, readingjurisprudencefor three years.As a student, he played guitar and sang in a rock band calledUgly Rumours,and performedstand-up comedy.He was influenced by fellow student andAnglicanpriestPeter Thomson, who awakened his religious faith and left-wing politics. While at Oxford, Blair has stated that he was briefly aTrotskyist, after reading the first volume ofIsaac Deutscher's biography ofLeon Trotsky, which was \\\"like a light going on\\\".He graduated from Oxford at the age of 22 in 1975 with asecond-class HonoursB.A. in jurisprudence. In 1975, while Blair was at Oxford, his mother Hazel died aged 52 ofthyroid cancer, which greatly affected him.After Oxford, Blair served his barrister pupillage atLincoln's Inn, where he was called to the Bar. He met his future wife,Cherie Booth, at the chambers founded byDerry Irvine(who was to be Blair's first lord chancellor), 11 King's Bench Walk Chambers. Early political career Blair joined theLabour Partyshortly after graduating from Oxford in 1975. In the early 1980s, he was involved in Labour politics inHackney South and Shoreditch, where he aligned himself with the \\\"soft left\\\" of the party. He stood as a candidate for theHackney councilelections of 1982 in Queensbridge ward, a safe Labour area, but was not selected. In 1982, Blair was selected as the Labour Party candidate for the safe Conservative seat ofBeaconsfield, where there was a forthcoming by-election.Although Blair lost theBeaconsfield by-electionand Labour's share of the vote fell by ten percentage points, he acquired a profile within the party.Despite his defeat, William Russell, political correspondent forThe Glasgow Herald, described Blair as \\\"a very good candidate\\\", while acknowledging that the result was \\\"a disaster\\\" for the Labour Party.In contrast to his latercentrism, Blair made it clear in a letter he wrote to Labour leaderMichael Footin July 1982 (published in 2006) that he had \\\"come to Socialism through Marxism\\\" and considered himself on the left.LikeTony Benn, Blair believed that the \\\"Labour right\\\" was bankrupt,saying \\\"ocialism ultimately must appeal to the better minds of the people. You cannot do that if you are tainted overmuch with a pragmatic period in power.\\\"Yet, he saw thehard leftas no better, saying: There is an arrogance and self-righteousness about many of the groups on the far left which is deeply unattractive to the ordinary would-be member ... There's too much mixing only with people whom they agree. With a general election due, Blair had not been selected as a candidate anywhere. He was invited to stand again in Beaconsfield, and was initially inclined to agree but was advised by his head of chambers Derry Irvine to find somewhere else which might be winnable.The situation was complicated by the fact that Labour was fighting a legal action against planned boundary changes, and had selected candidates on the basis of previous boundaries. When the legal challenge failed, the party had to rerun all selections on the new boundaries; most were based on existing seats, but unusually in County Durham a newSedgefieldconstituency had been created out of Labour-voting areas which had no obvious predecessor seat. The selection for Sedgefield did not begin until after the1983 general electionwas called. Blair's initial inquiries discovered that the left was trying to arrange the selection forLes Huckfield, sitting MP for Nuneaton, who was trying elsewhere; several sitting MPs displaced by boundary changes were also interested in it. When he discovered theTrimdon branchhad not yet made a nomination, Blair visited them and won the support of the branch secretaryJohn Burton, and with Burton's help was nominated by the branch. At the last minute, he was added to the shortlist and won the selection over Huckfield. It was the last candidate selection made by Labour before the election, and was made after the Labour Party had issued biographies of all its candidates (\\\"Labour's Election Who's Who\\\"). John Burton became Blair'selection agentand one of his most trusted and longest-standing allies.Blair's election literature in the 1983 general election endorsed left-wing policies that Labour advocated in the early 1980s.He called for Britain to leave theEECas early as the 1970s,though he had told his selection conference that he personally favoured continuing membershipand voted \\\"Yes\\\" in the1975 referendum on the subject. He opposed theExchange Rate Mechanism(ERM) in 1986 but supported the ERM by 1989.He was a member of theCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament, despite never strongly being in favour ofunilateral nuclear disarmament.Blair was helped on the campaign trail by soap opera actressPat Phoenix, his father-in-law's girlfriend. At the age of thirty, he was elected as MP for Sedgefield in 1983; despite the party'slandslide defeat at the general election. In hismaiden speechin theHouse of Commonson 6 July 1983, Blair stated, \\\"I am a socialist not through reading a textbook that has caught my intellectual fancy, nor through unthinking tradition, but because I believe that, at its best, socialism corresponds most closely to an existence that is both rational and moral. It stands for cooperation, not confrontation; for fellowship, not fear. It stands for equality.\\\" Once elected, Blair's political ascent was rapid. He received his firstfront benchappointment in 1984 as assistantTreasuryspokesman. In May 1985, he appeared on the BBC'sQuestion Time, arguing that the Conservative Government'sPublic Order White Paperwas a threat to civil liberties. Blair demanded an inquiry into theBank of England's decision to rescue the collapsedJohnson Mattheybank in October 1985. By this time, Blair was aligned with the reforming tendencies in the party (headed by leaderNeil Kinnock) and in 1988 was promoted to the shadowTrade and Industryteam as spokesman on theCity of London. Leadership roles In 1987, he stood forelection to the Shadow Cabinet, receiving 71 votes.When Kinnock resigned after a fourth consecutive Conservative victory in the1992 general election, Blair becameshadow home secretaryunderJohn Smith. The old guard argued that trends showed they were regaining strength under Smith's strong leadership. Meanwhile, the breakawaySDPfaction had merged with theLiberal Party; the resultingLiberal Democratsseemed to pose a major threat to the Labour base. Blair, the leader of the modernising faction, had an entirely different vision, arguing that the long-term trends had to be reversed. The Labour Party was too locked into a base that was shrinking, since it was based on the working-class, on trade unions, and on residents of subsidised council housing. The rapidly growing middle-class was largely ignored, especially the more ambitious working-class families. They aspired to middle-class status but accepted the Conservative argument that Labour was holding ambitious people back with its levelling-down policies. They increasingly saw Labour in terms defined by the opposition, regarding higher taxes and higher interest rates. The steps towards what would become New Labour were procedural but essential. Calling on the slogan \\\"One member, one vote\\\", John Smith, with limited input from Blair, secured an end to the trade union block vote for Westminster candidate selection at the 1993 conference.But Blair and the modernisers wanted Smith to go further still, and called for radical adjustment of Party goals by repealing \\\"Clause IV\\\", the historic commitment tonationalisationof industry. This would be achieved in 1995. Leader of the Opposition John Smith died suddenly of a heart attack on 12 May 1994. Blair defeatedJohn PrescottandMargaret Beckettin thesubsequent leadership electionand becameLeader of the Opposition.As is customary for the holder of that office, Blair was appointed aPrivy Counsellor.It has long been rumoureda dealwas struck between Blair andShadow ChancellorGordon Brownat the former Granita restaurant inIslington, in which Blair promised to give Brown control of economic policy in return for Brown not standing against him in the leadership election.Whether this is true or not, the relationship between Blair and Brown was central to the fortunes ofNew Labour, and they mostly remained united in public, despite reported serious private rifts. During his speech at the 1994 Labour Party conference, Blair announced a forthcoming proposal to update the party's objects and objectives, which was widely interpreted to relate to replacingClause IVof the party's constitution with a new statement of aims and values.This involved the deletion of the party's stated commitment to \\\"the common ownership of the means of production and exchange\\\", which was generally understood to mean wholesale nationalisation of major industries.At a special conference in April 1995, the clause was replaced by a statement that the party is \\\"democratic socialist\\\",and Blair also claimed to be a \\\"democratic socialist\\\" himself in the same year.However, the move away from nationalisation in the old Clause IV made many on the left wing of the Labour Party feel that Labour was moving away from traditional socialist principles of nationalisation set out in 1918, and was seen by them as part of a shift of the party towards \\\"New Labour\\\". Blair inherited the Labour leadership at a time when the party was ascendant over the Conservatives in the opinion polls, since the Conservative government's reputation in monetary policy declined as a result of theBlack Wednesdayeconomic disaster of September 1992. Blair's election as leader saw Labour support surge higher stillin spite of the continuing economic recovery and fall in unemployment that the Conservative government (led byJohn Major) had overseen since the end of the 1990–92recession.At the 1996 Labour Party conference, Blair stated that his three top priorities on coming to office were \\\"education, education, and education\\\". Aided by the unpopularity of John Major's Conservative government (itself deeply divided over theEuropean Union),Blair won a landslide victory for Labour at the1997 general election, ending eighteen years of Conservative Party government, with the heaviest Conservative defeat since1906.In 1996, themanifestoNew Labour, New Life for Britainwas published, which set out the party's new \\\"Third Way\\\"centristapproach to policy, and was presented as the brand of a newly reformed party that had altered Clause IV and endorsedmarket economics. In May 1995, Labour had achieved considerable success in the local and European elections and had won four by-elections. For Blair, these achievements were a source of optimism, as they indicated that the Conservatives were in decline. Virtually every opinion poll since late-1992 put Labour ahead of the Conservatives with enough support to form an overall majority. Prime Minister (1997–2007) Blair becamePrime Minister of the United Kingdomon 2 May 1997; aged 43, he was the youngest person to reach that office sinceLord Liverpoolbecame prime minister aged 42 in 1812.He was also the first prime minister born after theSecond World Warand the accession ofElizabeth IIto the throne. With victories in 1997, 2001, and 2005, Blair was the Labour Party's longest-serving prime minister,and the first person (and the only one, to date) to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Northern Ireland His contribution towards assisting theNorthern Ireland peace processby helping to negotiate theGood Friday Agreement(after 30 years of conflict) was widely recognised.Following theOmagh bombingon 15 August 1998, by members of theReal IRAopposed to the peace process, which killed 29 people and wounded hundreds, Blair visited theCounty Tyronetown and met with victims atRoyal Victoria Hospital, Belfast. Military intervention and the War on Terror In his first six years in office, Blair ordered British troops into combat five times, more than any other prime minister in British history. This included Iraq in both1998and2003,Kosovo(1999),Sierra Leone(2000) andAfghanistan(2001). The Kosovo War, which Blair had advocated on moral grounds, was initially a failure when it relied solely on air strikes; the threat of a ground offensive convinced Serbia'sSlobodan Miloševićto withdraw. Blair had been a major advocate for a ground offensive, whichBill Clintonwas reluctant to do, and ordered that 50,000 soldiers – most of the available British Army – should be made ready for action.The following year, the limitedOperation Palliserin Sierra Leone swiftly swung the tide against the rebel forces; before deployment, theUnited Nations Mission in Sierra Leonehad been on the verge of collapse.Palliser had been intended as an evacuation mission butBrigadier David Richardswas able to convince Blair to allow him to expand the role; at the time, Richards' action was not known and Blair was assumed to be behind it. Blair orderedOperation Barras, a highly successfulSAS/Parachute Regimentstrike to rescue hostages from a Sierra Leone rebel group.JournalistAndrew Marrhas argued that the success of ground attacks, real and threatened, over air strikes alone was influential on how Blair planned the Iraq War, and that the success of the first three wars Blair fought \\\"played to his sense of himself as a moral war leader\\\".When asked in 2010 if the success of Palliser may have \\\"embolden British politicians\\\" to think of military action as a policy option, General Sir David Richards admitted there \\\"might be something in that\\\". From the start of theWar on Terrorin 2001, Blair strongly supported theforeign policyofGeorge W. Bush, participating in the2001 invasion of Afghanistanand2003 invasion of Iraq. The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attracted widespread public opposition and 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it.As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision.Alastair Campbelldescribed Blair's statement that the intelligence on WMDs was \\\"beyond doubt\\\" as his \\\"assessment of the assessment that was given to him.\\\"In 2009, Blair stated that he would have supported removingSaddam Husseinfrom power even in the face of proof that he had no such weapons.PlaywrightHarold Pinterand former Malaysian prime ministerMahathir Mohamadaccused Blair of war crimes. Testifying before theIraq Inquiryon 29 January 2010, Blair said Saddam Hussein was a \\\"monster and I believe he threatened not just the region but the world.\\\"Blair said that British and American attitude towards Hussein had \\\"changed dramatically\\\" after theSeptember 11 attacks. Blair denied that he would have supported the invasion of Iraq even if he had thought Hussein had no weapons of mass destruction. He said he believed the world was safer as a result of the invasion.He said there was \\\"no real difference between wanting regime change and wanting Iraq to disarm: regime change was US policy because Iraq was in breach of its UN obligations.\\\" In an October 2015CNNinterview withFareed Zakaria, Blair apologised for his \\\"mistakes\\\" over the Iraq War and admitted there were \\\"elements of truth\\\" to the view that the invasion helped promote the rise ofISIS.TheChilcot Inquiryreport of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War, though the former prime minister again refused to apologise for his decision to back the US-led invasion. Relationship with Parliament One of Blair's first acts as prime minister was to replace the then twice-weekly 15-minute sessions ofPrime Minister's Questionsheld on Tuesdays and Thursdays with a single 30-minute session on Wednesdays. In addition to PMQs, Blair held monthly press conferences at which he fielded questions from journalistsand, from 2002, broke precedent by agreeing to give evidence twice yearly before the most senior Commons select committee, theLiaison Committee.Blair was sometimes perceived as paying insufficient attention both to the views of his own Cabinet colleagues and to those of the House of Commons.His style was sometimes criticised as not that of a prime minister andhead of government, which he was, but of a president and head of state, which he was not.Blair was accused of excessive reliance onspin.He was the first UK prime minister to have been formally questioned by police, though notunder caution, while still in office. Events before resignation As thecasualties of the Iraq Warmounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament,and his popularity dropped as a result,with Labour's overall majority at the2005 electionreduced from 167 to 66 seats. As a combined result of theBlair–Brown pact, the Iraq War and low approval ratings, pressure built up within the Labour Party for Blair to resign.Over the summer of 2006, many MPs criticised Blair for not calling for a ceasefire in theIsrael–Lebanon conflict.On 7 September 2006, Blair publicly stated he would step down as leader by the time of theTrades Union Congressconference held from 10 to 13 September 2007,despite promising to serve a full term during the previous general election campaign. On 10 May 2007, during a speech at theTrimdon Labour Club, Blair announced his intention to resign as both Labour leader and prime minister,triggeringa leadership electionin which Brown was the only candidate. At a special party conference in Manchester on 24 June 2007, Blair formally handed over the leadership of the Labour Party to Brown, who had been Chancellor of the Exchequer in Blair's three ministries.Blair tendered his resignation as prime minister on 27 June and Brown assumed office the same afternoon. Blair resigned from his Sedgefield seat in the traditional form of accepting theStewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds, to which he was appointed by Brown in one of the latter's last acts as chancellor;the resultingby-electionwas won by Labour candidatePhil Wilson.Blair decided not to issue a list ofResignation Honours, making him the first prime minister of the modern era not to do so. Policies In 2001, Blair said, \\\"We are aleft of centreparty, pursuing economic prosperity and social justice as partners and not as opposites.\\\"Blair rarely applies such labels to himself; he promised before the 1997 election that New Labour would govern \\\"from the radical centre\\\", and according to one lifelong Labour Party member always described himself as asocial democrat.In a 2007 opinion piece inThe Guardian, left-wing commentator Neil Lawson described Blair as to theright of centre.AYouGovopinion poll in 2005 found that a small majority of British voters, including many New Labour supporters, placed Blair on the right of the political spectrum.TheFinancial Timesargued that Blair is not conservative but instead apopulist. Critics and admirers tend to agree that Blair's electoral success was based on his ability to occupy the centre ground and appeal to voters across the political spectrum, to the extent that he has been fundamentally at odds with traditional Labour Party values. Some left-wing critics, such asMike Marquseein 2001, argued that Blair oversaw the final stage of a long term shift of the Labour Party to the right. There is some evidence that Blair's long term dominance of the centre forced his Conservative opponents to shift a long distance to the left to challenge hishegemonythere.Leading Conservatives of the post-New Labour era hold Blair in high regard:George Osbornedescribes him as \\\"the master\\\",Michael Govethought he had an \\\"entitlement to conservative respect\\\" in February 2003, whileDavid Cameronreportedly maintained Blair as an informal adviser.Former Conservative Party Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher declared Blair and New Labour to be her greatest achievement. Social reforms Blair introduced significant constitutional reforms; promoted new rights for gay people; and signed treaties integrating Britain more closely with the EU. With specific regards to Blair'sLGBTQ+reforms, Blair introduced theCivil Partnership Act 2004which granted civil partners rights and responsibilities similar to those in civil marriages, equalised the age of consent between straight and gay couples, ended the ban on gay people serving in the British military, introduced theGender Recognition Act 2004which allows those withgender dysphoriato legally change their gender, repealedSection 28, gave gay couples the right to adopt and enacted several anti-discrimination policies into law. In 2014 he was proclaimed a \\\"gay icon\\\" by theGay Times. The New Labour government increased police powers by adding to the number of arrestable offences, compulsoryDNA recordingand the use of dispersal orders.Under Blair's government the amount of new legislation increasedwhich attracted criticism.He also introduced tough anti-terrorism andidentity card legislation. Economic policies Blair has been credited with overseeing a strong economy, with real incomes of British citizens growing 18% between 1997 and 2006. Britain saw rapid productivity growth and significant GDP growth, as well as falling poverty rates and inequality which, despite stubbornly failing to fall, stalled thanks to New Labour's economic policies (such as tax credits). Despite the financial bubble developing in the property markets, studies have credited the growth to investments in education and the maintenance of fiscal responsibility, rather than a financial sugar-high. During his time as prime minister, Blair kept direct taxes low, while raising indirect taxation; invested a significant amount inHuman capital; introduced aNational Minimum Wageand some new employment rights (while keepingMargaret Thatcher's trade union reforms).He introduced substantial market-based reforms in the education and health sectors; introduced studenttuition fees; introduced a welfare to work scheme and sought to reduce certain categories of welfare payments. He did not reverse theprivatisation of the railwaysenacted by his predecessor John Major and instead strengthened regulation (by creating theOffice of Rail Regulation) and limited fare rises toinflation+1%. Blair and Brown raised spending on the NHS and other public services, increasing spending from 39.9% of GDP to 48.1% in 2010–11.They pledged in 2001 to bring NHS spending to the levels of other European countries, and doubled spending in real terms to over £100 billion in England alone. Immigration Non-European immigration rose significantly during the period from 1997, not least because of thegovernment's abolition of the primary purpose rule in June 1997.This change made it easier for UK residents to bring foreign spouses into the country. The former government advisor Andrew Neather in theEvening Standardstated that the deliberate policy of ministers from late 2000 until early 2008 was to open up the UK to mass migration.Neather later stated that his words had been twisted, saying: \\\"The main goal was to allow in more migrant workers at a point when – hard as it is to imagine now – the booming economy was running up against skills shortages.... Somehow this has become distorted by excitable Right-wing newspaper columnists into being a \\\"plot\\\" to make Britain multicultural. There was no plot.\\\" Environmental record Blair criticised other governments for not doing enough to solveglobal climate change. In a 1997 visit to the United States, he made a comment on \\\"great industrialised nations\\\" that fail to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Again in 2003, Blair went before theUnited States Congressand said that climate change \\\"cannot be ignored\\\", insisting \\\"we need to go beyond evenKyoto.\\\"Blair and his party promised a 20% reduction in carbon dioxide.The Labour Party also claimed that by 2010 10% of the energy would come from renewable resources; however, it only reached 7% by that point. In 2000, Blair \\\"flagged up\\\" 100 million euros for green policies and urged environmentalists and businesses to work together. Foreign policy Blair built his foreign policy on basic principles (close ties with the United States and European Union) and added a new activist philosophy of \\\"interventionism\\\". In 2001, Britain joined the U.S. in the global war on terror. Blair forged friendships with several European leaders, includingSilvio Berlusconiof Italy,Angela Merkelof Germanyand laterNicolas Sarkozyof France. Along with enjoying a close relationship with Bill Clinton, Blair formed a strong political alliance with George W. Bush, particularly in the area of foreign policy. For his part, Bush lauded Blair and the UK. In hispost-9/11speech, for example, he stated that \\\"America has no truer friend than Great Britain\\\". The alliance between Bush and Blair seriously damaged Blair's standing in the eyes of Britons angry at American influence;a 2002 poll revealed that a large amount of Britons viewed Blair as a \\\"lapdog\\\" of Bush.Blair argued it was in Britain's interest to \\\"protect and strengthen the bond\\\" with the United States regardless of who was in the White House. However, a perception of one-sided compromising personal and political closeness led to discussion of the term \\\"Poodle-ism\\\" in the UK media, to describe the \\\"Special Relationship\\\" of the UK government and prime minister with the US White House and president.A revealing conversation between Bush and Blair, with the former addressing the latter as \\\"Yo , Blair\\\" was recorded when they did not know a microphone was live at theG8 summitinSaint Petersburgin 2006. Middle East policy On 30 January 2003, Blair signedThe letter of the eightsupportingU.S. policy on Iraq. Blair showed a deep feeling for Israel, born in part from his faith.Blair has been a longtime member of the pro-Israel lobby groupLabour Friends of Israel. In 1994, Blair forged close ties withMichael Levy, a leader of theJewish Leadership Council.Levy ran the Labour Leader's Office Fund to finance Blair's campaign before the 1997 election and raised £12 million towards Labour's landslide victory, Levy was rewarded with apeerage, and in 2002, Blair appointed Lord Levy as his personal envoy to the Middle East. Levy praised Blair for his \\\"solid and committed support of the State of Israel\\\".Tam Dalyell, whileFather of the Houseof Commons, suggested in 2003 that Blair's foreign policy decisions were unduly influenced by a \\\"cabal\\\" of Jewish advisers, including Levy,Peter MandelsonandJack Straw(the last two are not Jewish but have some Jewish ancestry). Blair, on coming to office, had been \\\"cool towards the right-wingNetanyahugovernment\\\".During his first visit to Israel, Blair thought the Israelis bugged him in his car.After the election in 1999 ofEhud Barak, with whom Blair forged a close relationship, he became much more sympathetic to Israel.From 2001, Blair built up a relationshipwith Barak's successor,Ariel Sharon, and responded positively toArafat, whom he had met thirteen times since becoming prime minister and regarded as essential to future negotiations.In 2004, 50 former diplomats, including ambassadors toBaghdadandTel Aviv, stated they had \\\"watched with deepening concern\\\" at Britain following the US into war in Iraq in 2003. They criticised Blair's support for theroad map for peacewhich included the retaining ofIsraeli settlementson theWest Bank. In 2006 Blair was criticised for his failure to immediately call for a ceasefire in the2006 Lebanon War.The Observernewspaper claimed that at a cabinet meeting before Blair left for a summit with Bush on 28 July 2006, a significant number of ministers pressured Blair to publicly criticise Israel over the scale of deaths and destruction in Lebanon.Blair was criticised for his solid stance alongside US president George W. Bush on Middle East policy. Syria and Libya A Freedom of Information request byThe Sunday Timesin 2012 revealed that Blair's government consideredknightingSyria's PresidentBashar al-Assad. The documents showed Blair was willing to appear alongside Assad at a joint press conference even though the Syrians would probably have settled for a farewell handshake for the cameras; British officials sought to manipulate the media to portray Assad in a favourable light; and Blair's aides tried to help Assad's \\\"photogenic\\\" wifeAsma al-Assadboost her profile. The newspaper noted: The Arab leader was granted audiences with the Queen and the Prince of Wales, lunch with Blair at Downing Street, a platform in parliament and many other privileges ... The red carpet treatment he and his entourage received is embarrassing given the bloodbath that has since taken place under his rule in Syria ... The courtship has parallels with Blair's friendly relations withMuammar Gaddafi. Blair had been on friendly terms with Colonel Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, when sanctions imposed on the country were lifted by the US and the UK. Even after theLibyan Civil Warin 2011, he said he had no regrets about his close relationship with the late Libyan leader.During Blair's premiership,MI6renderedAbdelhakim Belhajto the Gaddafi regime in 2004, though Blair later claimed he had \\\"no recollection\\\" of the incident. Zimbabwe Blair had an antagonistic relationship with Zimbabwean presidentRobert Mugabeand allegedly plannedregime changeagainst Mugabe in the early 2000s.Zimbabwe had embarked on a program ofuncompensated land redistributionfrom the country's white commercial farmers to the black population, a policy that disrupted agricultural production and threw Zimbabwe's economy into chaos. GeneralCharles Guthrie, theChief of the Defence Staff, revealed in 2007 that he and Blair had discussed the invasion of Zimbabwe.Guthrie advised against military action: \\\"Hold hard, you'll make it worse.\\\"In 2013, South African presidentThabo Mbekisaid that Blair had pressured South Africa to join in a \\\"regime change scheme, even to the point of using military force\\\" in Zimbabwe.Mbeki refused because he felt that \\\"Mugabe is part of the solution to this problem.\\\"However, a spokesman for Blair said that \\\"he never asked anyone to plan or take part in any such military intervention.\\\" Russia Blair went on a trip to Moscow to watch a performance of theWar and PeaceoperawithVladimir Putin, while he was theacting president of Russia. This meeting was criticised by groups such asHuman Rights WatchandAmnesty International.In 2018, SirRichard Dearlove, former head of MI6, said there was \\\"significant regret\\\" over this trip, which helped Putin rise to power. Dearlove also alleged that in 2000, aKGBofficer approached him, seeking Britain's help in boosting Putin's political profile, and this was why Blair met Putin in Russia. Blair also hosted Putin in London in April 2000, despite hesitation towards Putin from other world leaders, and opposition fromhuman rights groupsoveratrocities committed in Chechnya. Blair toldJim HoaglandofThe Washington Postthat \\\" vision of the future is one that we would feel comfortable with. Putin has a very clear agenda of modernizing Russia. When he talks of a strong Russia, he means strength not in a threatening way but in a way that means the country economically and politically is capable of standing up for itself, which is a perfectly good aim to have\\\".During the meeting, Blair acknowledged and discussed \\\"concerns about Chechnya\\\",but described Putin as a political reformer \\\"who is ready to embrace a new relationship with the European Union and the United States, who wants a strong and modern Russia and a strong relationship with the West\\\". Relationship with media Rupert Murdoch Blair was reported byThe Guardianin 2006 to have been supported politically byRupert Murdoch, the founder of theNews Corporationorganisation.In 2011, Blair becamegodfatherto one of Rupert Murdoch's children withWendi Deng,but he and Murdoch later ended their friendship, in 2014, after Murdoch suspected him of having an affair with Deng while they were still married, according toThe Economistmagazine. Contacts with UK media proprietors ACabinet Officefreedom of informationresponse, released the day after Blair handed over power to Gordon Brown, documents Blair having various official phone calls and meetings with Rupert Murdoch of News Corporation andRichard Desmondof Northern and Shell Media. The response includes contacts \\\"clearly of an official nature\\\" in the specified period, but excludes contacts \\\"not clearly of an official nature.\\\"No details were given of the subjects discussed. In the period between September 2002 and April 2005, Blair and Murdoch are documented speaking six times; three times in the nine days before the Iraq War, including the eve of the 20 March US and UK invasion, and on 29 January, 25 April, and 3 October 2004. Between January 2003 and February 2004, Blair had three meetings with Richard Desmond; on 29 January and 3 September 2003, and 23 February 2004. The information was disclosed after a3+1⁄2-year battle by the Liberal Democrats'Lord Avebury.Lord Avebury's initial October 2003 information request was dismissed by then leader of the Lords,Baroness Amos.A following complaint was rejected, withDowning Streetclaiming the information compromised \\\"free and frank discussions\\\", while Cabinet Office claimed releasing the timing of the PM's contacts with individuals is \\\"undesirable\\\", as it might lead to the content of the discussions being disclosed.While awaiting a following appeal from Lord Avebury, the cabinet office announced that it would release the information. Lord Avebury said: \\\"The public can now scrutinise the timing of his (Murdoch's) contacts with the former prime minister, to see whether they can be linked to events in the outside world.\\\" Blair appeared before theLeveson Inquiryon Monday 28 May 2012.During his appearance, a protester, later named as David Lawley-Wakelin, got into the court-room and claimed he was guilty of war crimes before being dragged out. Media portrayal Blair has been noted as acharismatic, articulate speaker with an informal style.Film and theatre directorRichard Eyreopined that \\\"Blair had a very considerable skill as a performer\\\".A few months after becoming prime minister Blair gave a tribute toDiana, Princess of Wales, on the morning of her death in August 1997, in which he famously described her as \\\"the People's Princess\\\". After taking office in 1997, Blair gave particular prominence to his press secretary, who became known as theprime minister's official spokesman(the two roles have since been separated). Blair's first PMOS was Alastair Campbell, who served in that role from May 1997 to 8 June 2001, after which he served as the prime minister's director of communications and strategy until his resignation on 29 August 2003 in the aftermath of theHutton Inquiry. Blair had close relationships with the Clinton family. The strong partnership with Bill Clinton was made into the filmThe Special Relationshipin 2010. Relationship with Labour Party Blair's apparent refusal to set a date for his departure was criticised by the British press and Members of Parliament. It has been reported that a number of cabinet ministers believed that Blair's timely departure from office would be required to be able to win a fourth election.Some ministers viewed Blair's announcement of policy initiatives in September 2006 as an attempt to draw attention away from these issues. Gordon Brown After the death of John Smith in 1994, Blair and his close colleague Gordon Brown (they shared an office at the House of Commons) were both seen as possible candidates for the party leadership. They agreed not to stand against each other, it is said, as part of a supposed Blair–Brown pact. Brown, who considered himself the senior of the two, understood that Blair would give way to him: opinion polls soon indicated, however, that Blair appeared to enjoy greater support among voters.Their relationship in power became so turbulent that it was reported thedeputy prime minister, John Prescott, often had to act as \\\"marriage guidance counsellor\\\". During the 2010 election campaign Blair publicly endorsed Brown's leadership, praising the way he had handled the financial crisis. Post-premiership (2007-present) Diplomacy On 27 June 2007, Blair officially resigned as prime minister after ten years in office, and he was officially confirmed as Middle Eastenvoyfor the United Nations, European Union, United States, and Russia.Blair originally indicated that he would retain his parliamentary seat after his resignation as prime minister came into effect; however, on being confirmed for the Middle East role he resigned from the Commons by taking up anoffice of profit.President George W. Bush had preliminary talks with Blair to ask him to take up the envoy role. White House sources stated that \\\"both Israel and the Palestinians had signed up to the proposal\\\".In May 2008 Blair announced a new plan for peace and for Palestinian rights, based heavily on the ideas of thePeace Valley plan.Blair resigned as envoy in May 2015. Private sector In January 2008, it was confirmed that Blair would be joining investment bankJPMorgan Chasein a \\\"senior advisory capacity\\\"and that he would adviseZurich Financial Servicesonclimate change. His salary for this work is unknown, although it has been claimed it may be in excess of £500,000 per year.Blair also gives lectures, earning up to US$250,000 for a 90-minute speech, and in 2008 he was said to be the highest paid speaker in the world. Blair taught a course on issues of faith and globalisation at theYale UniversitySchools ofManagementandDivinityas aHowland distinguished fellowduring the 2008–09 academic year. In July 2009, this accomplishment was followed by the launching of theFaith and Globalisation Initiativewith Yale University in the US, Durham University in the UK, and theNational University of Singaporein Asia, to deliver a postgraduate programme in partnership with the Foundation. Blair's links with, and receipt of an undisclosed sum from,UI Energy Corporation, have also been subject to media comment in the UK. In July 2010 it was reported that his personal security guards claimed £250,000 a year in expenses from the taxpayer. Foreign SecretaryWilliam Haguesaid; \\\"we have to make sure that is as cost-effective as possible, that it doesn't cost any more to the taxpayer than is absolutely necessary\\\". Tony Blair Associates Blair establishedTony Blair Associatesto \\\"allow him to provide, in partnership with others, strategic advice on a commercial andpro bonobasis, on political and economic trends and governmental reform\\\".The profits from the firm go towards supporting Blair's \\\"work on faith, Africa and climate change\\\". Blair has been subject to criticism for potential conflicts of interest between his diplomatic role as a Middle East envoy, and his work with Tony Blair Associates,and a number of prominent critics have even called for him to be sacked.Blair has used hisQuartetTony Blair Associates works with the Kazakhstan government, advising the regime on judicial, economic and political reforms, but has been subject to criticism after accusations of \\\"whitewashing\\\" the image and human rights record of the regime. Blair responded to such criticism by saying his choice to advise the country is an example of how he can \\\"nudge controversial figures on a progressive path of reform\\\", and has stated that he receives no personal profit from this advisory role.The Kazakhstan foreign minister said that the country was \\\"honoured and privileged\\\" to be receiving advice from Blair.A letter obtained byThe Daily Telegraphin August 2014 revealed Blair had given damage-limitation advice toNursultan Nazarbayevafter the December 2011Zhanaozen massacre.Blair was reported to have accepted a business advisory role with PresidentAbdel Fattah el-Sisiof Egypt, a situation deemed incompatible with his role as Middle East envoy. Blair described the report as \\\"nonsense\\\". Charity and non-profits In November 2007 Blair launched the Tony Blair Sports Foundation, which aims to \\\"increase childhood participation in sports activities, especially in the North East of England, where a larger proportion of children are socially excluded, and to promote overall health and prevent childhood obesity.\\\"On 30 May 2008, Blair launched theTony Blair Faith Foundationas a vehicle for encouraging different faiths to join in promoting respect and understanding, as well as working to tackle poverty. Reflecting Blair's own faith but not dedicated to any particular religion, the Foundation aims to \\\"show how faith is a powerful force for good in the modern world\\\". \\\"The Foundation will use its profile and resources to encourage people of faith to work together more closely to tackle global poverty and conflict,\\\" says its mission statement. In February 2009 he applied to set up a charity called the Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative: the application was approved in November 2009.Blair's foundation hit controversy in October 2012, when news emerged that it was taking on unpaid interns. In December 2016, Blair created theTony Blair Instituteto promote global outlooks by governments and organisations.In September 2023 former Finnish prime ministerSanna Marinjoined him as a strategic adviser on political leaders' reform programmes in the institute. Books A Journey In March 2010, it was reported that Blair's memoirs, titledThe Journey, would be published in September 2010.In July 2010 it was announced the memoirs would be retitledA Journey.The memoirs were seen by many as controversial and a further attempt to profit from his office and from acts related to overseas wars that were widely seen as wrong,leading to anger and suspicion prior to launch. On 16 August 2010 it was announced that Blair would give the £4.6 million advance and all royalties from his memoirs to theRoyal British Legion– the charity's largest ever single donation. Media analysis of the sudden announcement was wide-ranging, describing it as an act of \\\"desperation\\\" to obtain a better launch reception of a humiliating \\\"publishing flop\\\"that had languished in the ratings,\\\"blood money\\\" for the lives lost in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars,an act with a \\\"hidden motive\\\" or an expression of \\\"guilt\\\",a \\\"genius move\\\" to address the problem that \\\"Tony Blair ha one of the most toxic brands around\\\" from a PR perspective, and a \\\"cynical stunt to wipe the slate\\\", but also as an attempt to make amends.Friends had said that the act was partly motivated by the wish to \\\"repair his reputation\\\". The book was published on 1 September and within hours of its launch had become the fastest-selling autobiography of all time.On 3 September Blair gave his first live interview since publication onThe Late Late Showin Ireland, with protesters lying in wait there for him.On 4 September, Blair was confronted by 200 anti-war and hardline Irish nationalist demonstrators before the first book signing of his memoirs atEason'sbookstore onO'Connell Streetin Dublin, with angry activists chanting \\\"war criminal\\\" and that he had \\\"blood on his hands\\\", and clashing with Irish Police (Garda Síochána) as they tried to break through a security cordon outside the Eason's store. Blair was pelted with eggs and shoes, and encountered an attemptedcitizen's arrestforwar crimes. On Leadership Published in 2024, and described byGeorge Osborneas \\\"the most practically useful guide to politics I have ever read.\\\" Accusations of war crimes Since the Iraq War, Blair has been the subject of war crimes accusations. Critics of his actions, including BishopDesmond Tutu,Harold PinterandArundhati Royhave called for his trial at theInternational Criminal Court. In November 2011, a war crimes tribunal of theKuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission, established by Malaysia's former prime minister Mahathir Mohamad, reached a unanimous conclusion that Blair was guilty of crimes against peace, as a result of his role in the Iraq War.The proceedings lasted for four days, and consisted of five judges of judicial and academic backgrounds, a tribunal-appointed defence team in lieu of the defendants or representatives, and a prosecution team including international law professorFrancis Boyle. In September 2012, Desmond Tutu suggested that Blair should follow the path of former African leaders who had been brought before the International Criminal Court inThe Hague.The human rights lawyerGeoffrey Bindmanconcurred with Tutu's suggestion that there should be a war crimes trial.In a statement made in response to Tutu's comments, Blair defended his actions.He was supported byLord Falconer, who stated that the war had been authorised byUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1441. In July 2017, former Iraqi general Abdulwaheed al-Rabbat launched a private war crimes prosecution in the High Court in London, asking for Blair, former foreign secretary Jack Straw and former attorney generalLord Goldsmithto be prosecuted for \\\"the crime of aggression\\\" for their role in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The High Court ruled that, although the crime of aggression was recognised in international law, it was not an offence under UK law, and therefore the prosecution could not proceed. Blair defended Some, such asJohn Rentoul,John McTernan,Geoffrey RobertsonandIain Dale, have countered accusations that Blair committed war crimes during his premiership, often highlighting how no case against Blair has ever made it to trial, suggesting that Blair broke no laws. Blair himself has defended his involvement in the Iraq War by highlighting the findings of theIraq Survey Group, which found that Saddam had attempted to get sanctions lifted by undermining them, which would have enabled him to restart his WMD program. Political interventions and views Response to the Iraq Inquiry The Chilcot report issued after the conclusion of the Iraq Inquiry was published on 6 July 2016; it criticised Blair for joining the US in the war in Iraq in 2003. Afterward, Blair issued a statement and held a two-hour press conference to apologise, to justify the decisions he had made in 2003 \\\"in good faith\\\" and to deny allegations that the war had led to a significant increase in terrorism.He acknowledged that the report made \\\"real and material criticisms of preparation, planning, process and of the relationship with the United States\\\" but cited sections of the report that he said \\\"should lay to rest allegations of bad faith, lies or deceit\\\". He stated: \\\"whether people agree or disagree with my decision to take military action against Saddam Hussein; I took it in good faith and in what I believed to be the best interests of the country. ... I will take full responsibility for any mistakes without exception or excuse. I will at the same time say why, nonetheless, I believe that it was better to remove Saddam Hussein and why I do not believe this is the cause of the terrorism we see today whether in the Middle East or elsewhere in the world\\\". Iran–West tensions In an op-ed published byThe Washington Poston 8 February 2019, Blair said: \\\"Where Iran is exercising military interference, it should be strongly pushed back. Where it is seeking influence, it should be countered. Where its proxies operate, it should be held responsible. Where its networks exist, they should be disrupted. Where its leaders are saying what is unacceptable, they should be exposed. Where the Iranian people — highly educated and connected, despite their government — are protesting for freedom, they should be supported.\\\"TheTony Blair Institute for Global Changewarned of a growing Iranian threat.The Tony Blair Institute confirmed that it has received donations from the U.S. State Department and Saudi Arabia. European Union Blair did not wantthe UK to leave the EUand called for areferendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement. Blair also maintained that once the terms deciding how the UK leaves the EU were known, the people should be able to vote again on those terms. Blair stated, \\\"We know the options for Brexit. Parliament will have to decide on one of them. If Parliament can't then it should decide to go back to the people.\\\" However, after the2019 general electionin which the pro-withdrawal Conservative party won a sizeable majority of seats, Blair argued that remain supporters should \\\"face up to one simple point: we lost\\\" and \\\"pivot to a completely new position...We're going to have to be constructive about it and see how Britain develops a constructive relationship with Europe and finds its new niche in the world.\\\" American power Blair was interviewed in June 2020 for an article in the American magazineThe Atlanticon European views of U.S. foreign policy concerning theCOVID-19 pandemicand resultingrecession, the rise of China, and theGeorge Floyd protests. He affirmed his belief in the continued strength of Americansoft powerand the need to address Iranian military aggression, European military underinvestment, and illicit Chinese trade practices. He said, however, \\\"I think it's fair to say a lot of political leaders in Europe are dismayed by what they see as the isolationism growing in America and the seeming indifference to alliances. But I think there will come a time when America decides in its own interest to reengage, so I'm optimistic that America will in the end understand that this is not about relegating your self-interest behind the common interest; it's an understanding that by acting collectively in alliance with others you promote your own interests.\\\" Blair warned that structural issues plaguing American domestic policy needed to be addressed imminently. In August 2021, Blair criticised thewithdrawal of U.S. and NATO troops from Afghanistan, saying that it was \\\"in obedience to an imbecilic slogan about ending 'theforever wars'\\\". Blair admitted mistakes in the management of the war but warned that \\\"the reaction to our mistakes has been, unfortunately, further mistakes\\\". Labour Party Jeremy Corbyn Blair was a critic ofJeremy Corbyn'sleadership of the Labour Party, seeing it as too left-wing. He wrote in an opinion piece forThe Guardianduring the party's2015 leadership electionthat if the party elected Corbyn, it would face a \\\"rout, possibly annihilation\\\" at the next election.After the2019 general election, Blair accused Corbyn of turning the party into a \\\"glorified protest movement\\\" and in a May 2021New Statesmanarticle, Blair suggested that the party needed to undergo a programme of \\\"total deconstruction and reconstruction\\\" and also said the party needed to shift to the centre on social issues in order to survive.Blair touched on controversial topics such astransgender rights, theBlack Lives Mattermovement and climate change. Keir Starmer Keir Starmer's leadership of the party has been widely compared to Blair's leadership and New Labour, having taken the party rightward to gain electability. Initially saying in 2021 that Starmer lacked a compelling message, Blair has since reacted more positively towards Starmer's leadership of the party, telling him he's \\\"done a great job\\\" in reforming the party during a Tony Blair Institute for Global Change's Future of Britain conference in 2023.Blair's continued influence on the party, and on Starmer led him to be ranked sixteenth in the New Statesman's Left Power List 2023, described by the paper as electorally an \\\"incomparable authority on how to win\\\".After Labour won the2024 general electionand Starmer became prime minister, Blair congratulated him on his victory, saying Starmer was \\\"determined and ruthlessly effective\\\" and appointed \\\"exceptional talent to conduct the change and put the most capable frontbenchers in the most important positions for future government.\\\" He also offered Starmer advice, recommending he controls immigration amid the rise of theReform UKparty led byNigel Farage, saying that the party poses a threat to Labour and not just the Conservatives. Personal life Family Blair marriedCherie Boothon 29 March 1980.They have four children:Euan,Nicky, Kathryn, and Leo.Leo was the first legitimate child born to a serving prime minister in over 150 years – since Francis Russell was born toLord John Russellon 11 July 1849.All four children have Irish passports, by virtue of Blair's mother, Hazel Elizabeth Rosaleen Corscadden (12 June 1923 – 28 June 1975).The family's primary residence is in Connaught Square; the Blairs own eight residences in total.His first grandchild (a girl) was born in October 2016. Wealth Blair's financial assets are structured in an opaque manner, and estimates of their extent vary widely.These include figures of up to £100 million. Blair stated in 2014 that he was worth \\\"less than £20 million\\\".A 2015 assertion, byFrancis Beckett,David HenckeandNick Kochan, concluded that Blair had acquired $90 million and a property portfolio worth $37.5 million in the eight years since he had left office. In October 2021, Blair wasnamedin thePandora Papers. Religious faith In 2006, Blair referred to the role of his Christian faith in his decision to go to war in Iraq, stating that he had prayed about the issue, and saying that God would judge him for his decision: \\\"I think if you have faith about these things, you realise that judgement is made by other people ... and if you believe in God, it's made by God as well.\\\" According to Press Secretary Alastair Campbell's diary, Blair often read the Bible before taking any important decisions. He states that Blair had a \\\"wobble\\\" and considered changing his mind on the eve of the bombing of Iraq in 1998. A longer exploration of his faith can be found in an interview withThird Way Magazine. There he says that \\\"I was brought up as , but I was not in any real sense a practising one until I went to Oxford. There was an Australian priest at the same college as me who got me interested again. In a sense, it was a rediscovery of religion as something living, that was about the world around me rather than some sort of special one-to-one relationship with a remote Being on high. Suddenly I began to see its social relevance. I began to make sense of the world\\\". At one point Alastair Campbell intervened in an interview, preventing Blair from answering a question about his Christianity, explaining, \\\"We don't do God.\\\"Campbell later said that he had intervened only to end the interview because the journalist had been taking an excessive time, and that the comment had just been a throwaway line. Cherie Blair's friend and \\\"spiritual guru\\\"Carole Caplinis credited with introducing her and her husband to variousNew Agesymbols and beliefs, including \\\"magic pendants\\\" known as \\\"BioElectric Shields\\\".The most controversial of the Blairs' New Age practices occurred when on holiday in Mexico. The couple, wearing only bathing costumes, took part in a rebirthing procedure, which involved smearing mud and fruit over each other's bodies while sitting in a steam bath. In 1996, Blair, then an Anglican, was reprimanded by CardinalBasil Humefor receivingHoly Communionwhile attending Mass at Cherie Blair's Catholic church, in contravention ofcanon law.On 22 December 2007, it was disclosed that Blair had joined theCatholic Church. The move was described as \\\"a private matter\\\".He had informedPope Benedict XVIon 23 June 2007 — four days before he stepped down as Prime Minister — that he wanted to become a Catholic. The Pope and his advisors criticised some of Blair's political actions, but followed up with a reportedly unprecedented red carpet welcome, which included the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster,Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, who would be responsible for Blair'sCatholic instruction.In 2009, Blair questioned the Pope's attitude towards homosexuality, arguing that religious leaders must start \\\"rethinking\\\" the issue.In 2010,The Tabletnamed him as one of Britain's most influential Catholics. Honours In May 2007, Blair was invested as aparamount chiefby the chiefs and people of the village of Mahera in Sierra Leone. The honour was bestowed upon him in recognition of the role played by his government in the Sierra Leone Civil War. On 22 May 2008, Blair received an honorary law doctorate fromQueen's University Belfast, alongside Bertie Ahern, for distinction in public service and roles in the Northern Ireland peace process. On 13 January 2009, Blair was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby President George W. Bush.Bush stated that Blair was given the award \\\"in recognition of exemplary achievement and to convey the utmost esteem of the American people\\\"and cited Blair's support for the War on Terror and his role in achieving peace in Northern Ireland as two reasons for justifying his being presented with the award. On 16 February 2009, Blair was awarded theDan David PrizebyTel Aviv Universityfor \\\"exceptional leadership and steadfast determination in helping to engineer agreements and forge lasting solutions to areas in conflict\\\". He was awarded the prize in May 2009. On 8 July 2010, Blair was awarded theOrder of Freedomby PresidentFatmir Sejdiuof Kosovo.As Blair is considered to have been instrumental in ending theconflict in Kosovo, some boys born in the country following the war have been given the nameToniorTonibler. On 13 September 2010, Blair was awarded theLiberty Medalat theNational Constitution CenterinPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania.It was presented by former president Bill Clinton, and is awarded annually to \\\"men and women of courage and conviction who strive to secure the blessings of liberty to people around the globe\\\". On 31 December 2021, it was announced that the Queen had appointed Blair aKnight Companion of the Order of the Garter(KG).Blair had reportedly indicated when he left office that he did not want the traditional knighthood or peerage bestowed on former prime ministers.A petition cited his role in the Iraq War as a reason to remove the knighthood and garnered more than one million signatures.He received his Garter insignia on 10 June 2022 from the Queen during an audience at Windsor Castle. Works See also Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading Primary sources External links e\",\n \"Marathon world record progression World recordsin themarathonare ratified byWorld Athletics, the internationalgoverning bodyfor the sport ofathletics. The late Kenyan athleteKelvin Kiptumset a men's world record time of 2:00:35 on October 8, 2023, at the2023 Chicago Marathon. Kenyan athleteRuth Chepngetichbroke the women's world record for a mixed-sex race with a time of 2:09:56 on October 13, 2024 at the2024 Chicago Marathon. In addition to the standard women's marathon world record, World Athletics also recognizes a second world record for women in the \\\"Women Only\\\" category, meaning that the marathon was run on a course without any male athletes in the competition. The current \\\"Women Only\\\" record of 2:16:16 was set byPeres Jepchirchiron April 21, 2024 at the London Marathon in the elite women's race. History Marathon races were first held in 1896, but the distance was not standardized by theInternational Association of Athletics Federations(IAAF, now World Athletics) until 1921. The actual distance for pre-1921 races frequently varied from the 1921 standard of 42.195 km (26 miles 385 yards). In qualifying races for the1896 Summer Olympics, Greek runnersCharilaos Vasilakos(3:18:00) andIoannis Lavrentis(3:11:27) won the first two modern marathons.On April 10, 1896,Spiridon Louisof Greece wonthe first Olympic marathon in Athens, Greece, in a time of 2:58:50.However, the distance for the event was 40,000 meters.Three months later, British runnerLen Hurstwon the inauguralParis to Conflans Marathon(also around 40 km) in a time of 2:31:30.In 1900, Hurst would better his time on the same course with a 2:26:28 performance. Later,Shizo Kanakuriof Japan was reported to have set a world record of 2:32:45 in a November 1911 domestic qualification race for the1912 Summer Olympics, but this performance was also run over a distance of approximately 40 km. The first marathon over the official distance was won by AmericanJohnny Hayesat the1908 Summer Olympics, with a time of 2:55:18.4. It is possible thatStamata Revithi, who ran the 1896 Olympic course a day after Louis, is the first woman to run the modern marathon; she is said to have finished in5+1⁄2hours.World Athletics creditsViolet Piercy's 1926 performance as the first woman to race the standard marathon distance; however, other sources report that the 1918 performance ofMarie-Louise Ledruin the Tour de Paris set the initial mark for women.Other \\\"unofficial\\\" performances have also been reported to be world bests or world records over time: although her performance is not recognized by World Athletics,Adrienne Beamesfrom Australia is frequently credited as the first woman to break the three-hour barrier in the marathon. In the 1953Boston Marathon, the top three male finishers were thought to have broken the standing world record,butKeizo Yamada's mark of 2:18:51 is considered to have been set on a short course of 25.54 miles (41.1 km).TheBoston Athletic Associationalso does not report Yamada's performance as a world best for this reason. On October 25, 1981, AmericanAlberto Salazarand New ZealanderAllison Roeset apparent world bests at theNew York City Marathon(2:08:13 and 2:25:29), however, these marks were invalidated when the course was later found to have been 151 meters short.Although World Athletics' progression notes three performances set on the same course in 1978, 1979, and 1980 by NorwegianGrete Waitz, theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticiansconsiders the New York City course suspect for those performances, too. On April 18, 2011, the Boston Marathon produced what were at that time the two fastest marathon performances of all time. WinnerGeoffrey Mutaiof Kenya recorded a time of 2:03:02,followed by countrymanMoses Mosopin 2:03:06. However, since the Boston course does not meet the criteria for record attempts, these times were not ratified by the IAAF. Eight IAAF world records were set at thePolytechnic Marathon(1909, 1913, 1952–54, 1963–65).WA-recognized world records have been broken at all of the original fiveWorld Marathon Majorson numerous occasions (updated 09/2022); twelve times at theBerlin Marathon, three times at theBoston Marathon, five times at theChicago Marathon, six times at theLondon Marathon, and five times at theNew York City Marathon. However, the records established in the Boston event have been disputed on grounds of a downhill point-to-point course, while four of the five New York records have been disputed on grounds of a short course. Criteria for record eligibility For a performance to be ratified as a world record by World Athletics, the marathon course on which the performance occurred must be 42.195 km (26.219 mi) long,measured in a defined manner using thecalibrated bicycle method(the distance in kilometers being the official distance; the distance in miles is an approximation) and meet other criteria that rule out artificially fast times produced on courses aided by downhill slope or tailwind.The criteria include: In recognizing KenyanGeoffrey Mutai's mark of 2:03:02 at the2011 Boston Marathonas (at the time) \\\"the fastest Marathon ever run\\\", the IAAF said: \\\"Due to the elevation drop and point-to-point measurements of the Boston course, performances are not eligible for World record consideration.\\\" TheAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians, an independent organization that compiles data fromroad runningevents, also maintains an alternate marathon world best progression but with standards they consider to be more stringent. Women's world record changes The IAAF Congress, at the 2011 World Championships, passed a motion changing the record eligibility criteria effective October 6, 2007, so that women's world records must be set in all-women competitions.The result of the change was that Radcliffe's 2:17:42 performance at the 2005 London Marathon supplanted her own existing women's mark as the \\\"world record\\\"; the earlier performance is to be referred to as a \\\"world best\\\". Per the 2021 IAAF Competition Rules, \\\"a World Record for performance achieved in mixed sex (\\\"Mixed\\\") races and a World Record for performance achieved in single sex (\\\"Women only\\\") races\\\" are tracked separately. Unofficial record attempts In December 2016,Nike, Inc., announced that three top distance runners —Eliud Kipchoge,Zersenay Tadese, andLelisa Desisa— had agreed to forgo the spring marathon season to work with the company in an effort to run a sub-two-hour marathon. TheBreaking2event took place in the early morning of May 6, 2017; Kipchoge crossed the finish line with a time of 2:00:25.This time was more than two minutes faster than the world record. Kipchoge took part in a similar attempt to break the two-hour barrier in Vienna on October 12, 2019, as part of theIneos 1:59 Challenge. He successfully ran the first sub two-hour marathon distance, with a time of 1:59:40.2.The effort did not count as a new world record under IAAF rules due to the setup of the challenge. Specifically, it was not an open event, Kipchoge was handed fluids by his support team throughout, the run featured a pace car, and included rotating teams of other runners pacing Kipchoge in a formation designed to reduce wind resistance and maximize efficiency.The achievement was recognized byGuinness World Recordswith the titles 'Fastest marathon distance (male)' and 'First marathon distance run under two hours' instead of an official world record. Men Table key:Listed by World Athletics as a world best prior to official acceptanceRatified by World Athletics as a world best (since January 1, 2003) or world record (since January 1, 2004)Recognized by theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians(ARRS) The edition of the marathon is linked on some of the dates. Women Table key:Listed by World Athletics as a world best prior to official acceptanceRatified by World Athletics as a world best (since January 1, 2003) or world record (since January 1, 2004)Recognized by theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians(ARRS) Gallery of world record holders See also Men's Masters Records Women's Masters Records Notes References Sources External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Tony Blair Sir Anthony Charles Lynton BlairKG(born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 1997 to 2007 andLeader of the Labour Partyfrom 1994 to 2007. He wasLeader of the Oppositionfrom 1994 to 1997 and held variousshadow cabinetposts from 1987 to 1994. Blair wasMember of Parliament(MP) forSedgefieldfrom 1983 to 2007, and was special envoy of theQuartet on the Middle Eastfrom 2007 to 2015. He is the second-longest-serving prime ministerin post-war British history afterMargaret Thatcher, the longest-servingLabourpolitician to have held the office, and the first and only person to date to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Blair attended the independent schoolFettes College, studied law atSt John's College, Oxford, and qualified as a barrister. He became involved in the Labour Party and was elected to theHouse of Commonsin 1983 for the Sedgefield constituency inCounty Durham. As abackbencher, Blair supported moving the party to","moving the party to thepolitical centre of British politics. He was appointed toNeil Kinnock'sshadow cabinetin 1988 and was appointedshadow home secretarybyJohn Smithin 1992. Following Smith's death in 1994, Blair wona leadership electionto succeed him. As leader, Blair began a historic rebranding of the party, which became known as \"New Labour\". Blair became theyoungest prime ministerof the 20th century after his party won a landslide victory of 418 seats (the largest in its history) in the1997 general election, bringing an end to 18 years in the opposition. It was the first victory for the Labour Party in nearly 23 years, the last one being inOctober 1974. Duringhis first term, Blair enactedconstitutional reformsand significantly increasedpublic spendingon healthcare and education while also introducing controversial market-based reforms in these areas. In addition, Blair saw theintroduction of a minimum wage,tuition feesfor higher education, constitutional reform such asdevolution in Scotland and Wales,","Scotland and Wales, an extensive expansion ofLGBT+ rights in the UK, and significant progress in theNorthern Ireland peace processwith the passing of the landmarkGood Friday Agreement. On foreign policy, Blair oversaw British interventions inKosovo in 1999andSierra Leone in 2000, which were generally perceived to be successful. Blair won a second term after Labour won a second landslide victory in the2001 general election. Three months intohis second term, Blair's premiership was shaped by the9/11 terrorist attacks, resulting in the start of thewar on terror. Blair supported theforeign policy of the George W. Bush administrationby ensuring that theBritish Armed Forcesparticipated in theWar in Afghanistanto overthrow theTaliban, destroyal-Qaeda, and captureOsama bin Laden. Blair supported the2003 invasion of Iraqand had the British Armed Forces participate in theIraq War, on the inaccurate beliefs thatSaddam Hussein's regimepossessed weapons of mass destructionand developedties with al-Qaeda. The invasion of","The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attractedwidespread public oppositionand 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it. As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision. TheIraq Inquiryreport of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War. As thecasualties of the Iraq Warmounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament, and his popularity dropped dramatically. Blair won a third termafter Labour won a third election victory in 2005, in part thanks to the UK's strong economic performance, but with a substantially reduced majority, due to the UK's involvement in the Iraq War. Duringhis third term, Blair pushed for more systemic public sector reform and brokereda settlementto restore powersharing to Northern Ireland. He had a surge in popularity at the time ofterrorist bombings of Londonof July 2005, but by the Spring of 2006 faced significant difficulties, most notably with scandals over failures by theHome Officeto deport illegal","deport illegal immigrants. Amid theCash-for-Honours scandal, Blair was interviewed three times as prime minister, though only as a witness and notunder caution. The Afghanistan and Iraq wars continued, and in 2006, Blair announced he would resign within a year. He resigned the party leadership on 24 June 2007 and as prime minister on 27 June, andwas succeededbyGordon Brown, hischancellor. After leaving office, Blairgave up his seatand was appointed special envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East, a diplomatic post he held until 2015. He has been the executive chairman of theTony Blair Institute for Global Changesince 2016 and has made occasional political interventions, and has been a key influence onKeir Starmer. In 2009, Blair was awarded thePresidential Medal of FreedombyGeorge W. Bush. He was made aKnight Companion of the GarterbyQueen Elizabeth IIin 2022. At various points in his premiership, Blair was among both the most popular and most unpopular politicians in British history. As prime minister, he","prime minister, he achieved the highest recorded approval ratings during his first few years in office but also one of the lowest ratings during and after the Iraq War.Blair is usually rated as above average inhistorical rankingsand public opinion of British prime ministers. Early years Anthony Charles Lynton Blair was born on 6 May 1953 at Queen Mary Maternity Home inEdinburgh, Scotland.He was the second son ofLeoand Hazel (néeCorscadden) Blair.Leo Blair was the illegitimate son of two entertainers and was adopted as a baby by the Glasgow shipyard worker James Blair and his wife, Mary.Hazel Corscadden was the daughter of George Corscadden, a butcher andOrangemanwho moved to Glasgow in 1916. In 1923, he returned to (and later died in)Ballyshannon, County Donegal, inIreland. In Ballyshannon, Corscadden's wife, Sarah Margaret (née Lipsett), gave birth above the family's grocery shop to Blair's mother, Hazel. Blair has an elder brother,William, and a younger sister, Sarah. Blair's first home was with his family","was with his family at Paisley Terrace in the Willowbrae area of Edinburgh. During this period, his father worked as a junior tax inspector whilst studying for a law degree from theUniversity of Edinburgh. Blair's first relocation was when he was nineteen months old. At the end of 1954, Blair's parents and their two sons moved from Paisley Terrace toAdelaide,South Australia.His father lectured in law at theUniversity of Adelaide.In Australia, Blair's sister, Sarah, was born. The Blairs lived in the suburb ofDulwichclose to the university. The family returned to the United Kingdom in mid-1958. They lived for a time with Hazel's mother and stepfather (William McClay) at their home inSteppson the outskirts of north-east Glasgow. Blair's father accepted a job as a lecturer atDurham University, and moved the family toDurhamwhen Blair was five. It was the beginning of a long association Blair was to have with Durham. Since childhood, Blair has been a fan ofNewcastle United Football Club. Education and legal career","and legal career With his parents basing their family in Durham, Blair attended theChorister Schoolfrom 1961 to 1966.Aged 13, he was sent to spend his school term-time boarding atFettes Collegein Edinburgh from 1966 to 1971.According to Blair, he hated his time at Fettes.His teachers were unimpressed with him; his biographer,John Rentoul, reported that \"ll the teachers I spoke to when researching the book said he was a complete pain in the backside and they were very glad to see the back of him.\"Blair reportedly modelled himself onMick Jagger, lead singer ofthe Rolling Stones.Leaving Fettes College at the age of 18, Blair next spent a gap year in London working as a rock music promoter. In 1972, at the age of 19, Blair matriculated atSt John's College, Oxford, readingjurisprudencefor three years.As a student, he played guitar and sang in a rock band calledUgly Rumours,and performedstand-up comedy.He was influenced by fellow student andAnglicanpriestPeter Thomson, who awakened his religious faith and","religious faith and left-wing politics. While at Oxford, Blair has stated that he was briefly aTrotskyist, after reading the first volume ofIsaac Deutscher's biography ofLeon Trotsky, which was \"like a light going on\".He graduated from Oxford at the age of 22 in 1975 with asecond-class HonoursB.A. in jurisprudence. In 1975, while Blair was at Oxford, his mother Hazel died aged 52 ofthyroid cancer, which greatly affected him.After Oxford, Blair served his barrister pupillage atLincoln's Inn, where he was called to the Bar. He met his future wife,Cherie Booth, at the chambers founded byDerry Irvine(who was to be Blair's first lord chancellor), 11 King's Bench Walk Chambers. Early political career Blair joined theLabour Partyshortly after graduating from Oxford in 1975. In the early 1980s, he was involved in Labour politics inHackney South and Shoreditch, where he aligned himself with the \"soft left\" of the party. He stood as a candidate for theHackney councilelections of 1982 in Queensbridge ward, a safe","ward, a safe Labour area, but was not selected. In 1982, Blair was selected as the Labour Party candidate for the safe Conservative seat ofBeaconsfield, where there was a forthcoming by-election.Although Blair lost theBeaconsfield by-electionand Labour's share of the vote fell by ten percentage points, he acquired a profile within the party.Despite his defeat, William Russell, political correspondent forThe Glasgow Herald, described Blair as \"a very good candidate\", while acknowledging that the result was \"a disaster\" for the Labour Party.In contrast to his latercentrism, Blair made it clear in a letter he wrote to Labour leaderMichael Footin July 1982 (published in 2006) that he had \"come to Socialism through Marxism\" and considered himself on the left.LikeTony Benn, Blair believed that the \"Labour right\" was bankrupt,saying \"ocialism ultimately must appeal to the better minds of the people. You cannot do that if you are tainted overmuch with a pragmatic period in power.\"Yet, he saw thehard leftas no","thehard leftas no better, saying: There is an arrogance and self-righteousness about many of the groups on the far left which is deeply unattractive to the ordinary would-be member ... There's too much mixing only with people whom they agree. With a general election due, Blair had not been selected as a candidate anywhere. He was invited to stand again in Beaconsfield, and was initially inclined to agree but was advised by his head of chambers Derry Irvine to find somewhere else which might be winnable.The situation was complicated by the fact that Labour was fighting a legal action against planned boundary changes, and had selected candidates on the basis of previous boundaries. When the legal challenge failed, the party had to rerun all selections on the new boundaries; most were based on existing seats, but unusually in County Durham a newSedgefieldconstituency had been created out of Labour-voting areas which had no obvious predecessor seat. The selection for Sedgefield did not begin until after the1983","until after the1983 general electionwas called. Blair's initial inquiries discovered that the left was trying to arrange the selection forLes Huckfield, sitting MP for Nuneaton, who was trying elsewhere; several sitting MPs displaced by boundary changes were also interested in it. When he discovered theTrimdon branchhad not yet made a nomination, Blair visited them and won the support of the branch secretaryJohn Burton, and with Burton's help was nominated by the branch. At the last minute, he was added to the shortlist and won the selection over Huckfield. It was the last candidate selection made by Labour before the election, and was made after the Labour Party had issued biographies of all its candidates (\"Labour's Election Who's Who\"). John Burton became Blair'selection agentand one of his most trusted and longest-standing allies.Blair's election literature in the 1983 general election endorsed left-wing policies that Labour advocated in the early 1980s.He called for Britain to leave theEECas early as","theEECas early as the 1970s,though he had told his selection conference that he personally favoured continuing membershipand voted \"Yes\" in the1975 referendum on the subject. He opposed theExchange Rate Mechanism(ERM) in 1986 but supported the ERM by 1989.He was a member of theCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament, despite never strongly being in favour ofunilateral nuclear disarmament.Blair was helped on the campaign trail by soap opera actressPat Phoenix, his father-in-law's girlfriend. At the age of thirty, he was elected as MP for Sedgefield in 1983; despite the party'slandslide defeat at the general election. In hismaiden speechin theHouse of Commonson 6 July 1983, Blair stated, \"I am a socialist not through reading a textbook that has caught my intellectual fancy, nor through unthinking tradition, but because I believe that, at its best, socialism corresponds most closely to an existence that is both rational and moral. It stands for cooperation, not confrontation; for fellowship, not fear. It stands for","fear. It stands for equality.\" Once elected, Blair's political ascent was rapid. He received his firstfront benchappointment in 1984 as assistantTreasuryspokesman. In May 1985, he appeared on the BBC'sQuestion Time, arguing that the Conservative Government'sPublic Order White Paperwas a threat to civil liberties. Blair demanded an inquiry into theBank of England's decision to rescue the collapsedJohnson Mattheybank in October 1985. By this time, Blair was aligned with the reforming tendencies in the party (headed by leaderNeil Kinnock) and in 1988 was promoted to the shadowTrade and Industryteam as spokesman on theCity of London. Leadership roles In 1987, he stood forelection to the Shadow Cabinet, receiving 71 votes.When Kinnock resigned after a fourth consecutive Conservative victory in the1992 general election, Blair becameshadow home secretaryunderJohn Smith. The old guard argued that trends showed they were regaining strength under Smith's strong leadership. Meanwhile, the breakawaySDPfaction had merged","had merged with theLiberal Party; the resultingLiberal Democratsseemed to pose a major threat to the Labour base. Blair, the leader of the modernising faction, had an entirely different vision, arguing that the long-term trends had to be reversed. The Labour Party was too locked into a base that was shrinking, since it was based on the working-class, on trade unions, and on residents of subsidised council housing. The rapidly growing middle-class was largely ignored, especially the more ambitious working-class families. They aspired to middle-class status but accepted the Conservative argument that Labour was holding ambitious people back with its levelling-down policies. They increasingly saw Labour in terms defined by the opposition, regarding higher taxes and higher interest rates. The steps towards what would become New Labour were procedural but essential. Calling on the slogan \"One member, one vote\", John Smith, with limited input from Blair, secured an end to the trade union block vote for Westminster","for Westminster candidate selection at the 1993 conference.But Blair and the modernisers wanted Smith to go further still, and called for radical adjustment of Party goals by repealing \"Clause IV\", the historic commitment tonationalisationof industry. This would be achieved in 1995. Leader of the Opposition John Smith died suddenly of a heart attack on 12 May 1994. Blair defeatedJohn PrescottandMargaret Beckettin thesubsequent leadership electionand becameLeader of the Opposition.As is customary for the holder of that office, Blair was appointed aPrivy Counsellor.It has long been rumoureda dealwas struck between Blair andShadow ChancellorGordon Brownat the former Granita restaurant inIslington, in which Blair promised to give Brown control of economic policy in return for Brown not standing against him in the leadership election.Whether this is true or not, the relationship between Blair and Brown was central to the fortunes ofNew Labour, and they mostly remained united in public, despite reported serious","reported serious private rifts. During his speech at the 1994 Labour Party conference, Blair announced a forthcoming proposal to update the party's objects and objectives, which was widely interpreted to relate to replacingClause IVof the party's constitution with a new statement of aims and values.This involved the deletion of the party's stated commitment to \"the common ownership of the means of production and exchange\", which was generally understood to mean wholesale nationalisation of major industries.At a special conference in April 1995, the clause was replaced by a statement that the party is \"democratic socialist\",and Blair also claimed to be a \"democratic socialist\" himself in the same year.However, the move away from nationalisation in the old Clause IV made many on the left wing of the Labour Party feel that Labour was moving away from traditional socialist principles of nationalisation set out in 1918, and was seen by them as part of a shift of the party towards \"New Labour\". Blair inherited the","Blair inherited the Labour leadership at a time when the party was ascendant over the Conservatives in the opinion polls, since the Conservative government's reputation in monetary policy declined as a result of theBlack Wednesdayeconomic disaster of September 1992. Blair's election as leader saw Labour support surge higher stillin spite of the continuing economic recovery and fall in unemployment that the Conservative government (led byJohn Major) had overseen since the end of the 1990–92recession.At the 1996 Labour Party conference, Blair stated that his three top priorities on coming to office were \"education, education, and education\". Aided by the unpopularity of John Major's Conservative government (itself deeply divided over theEuropean Union),Blair won a landslide victory for Labour at the1997 general election, ending eighteen years of Conservative Party government, with the heaviest Conservative defeat since1906.In 1996, themanifestoNew Labour, New Life for Britainwas published, which set out the","which set out the party's new \"Third Way\"centristapproach to policy, and was presented as the brand of a newly reformed party that had altered Clause IV and endorsedmarket economics. In May 1995, Labour had achieved considerable success in the local and European elections and had won four by-elections. For Blair, these achievements were a source of optimism, as they indicated that the Conservatives were in decline. Virtually every opinion poll since late-1992 put Labour ahead of the Conservatives with enough support to form an overall majority. Prime Minister (1997–2007) Blair becamePrime Minister of the United Kingdomon 2 May 1997; aged 43, he was the youngest person to reach that office sinceLord Liverpoolbecame prime minister aged 42 in 1812.He was also the first prime minister born after theSecond World Warand the accession ofElizabeth IIto the throne. With victories in 1997, 2001, and 2005, Blair was the Labour Party's longest-serving prime minister,and the first person (and the only one, to date) to","one, to date) to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Northern Ireland His contribution towards assisting theNorthern Ireland peace processby helping to negotiate theGood Friday Agreement(after 30 years of conflict) was widely recognised.Following theOmagh bombingon 15 August 1998, by members of theReal IRAopposed to the peace process, which killed 29 people and wounded hundreds, Blair visited theCounty Tyronetown and met with victims atRoyal Victoria Hospital, Belfast. Military intervention and the War on Terror In his first six years in office, Blair ordered British troops into combat five times, more than any other prime minister in British history. This included Iraq in both1998and2003,Kosovo(1999),Sierra Leone(2000) andAfghanistan(2001). The Kosovo War, which Blair had advocated on moral grounds, was initially a failure when it relied solely on air strikes; the threat of a ground offensive convinced Serbia'sSlobodan Miloševićto withdraw. Blair had been a major advocate for a","advocate for a ground offensive, whichBill Clintonwas reluctant to do, and ordered that 50,000 soldiers – most of the available British Army – should be made ready for action.The following year, the limitedOperation Palliserin Sierra Leone swiftly swung the tide against the rebel forces; before deployment, theUnited Nations Mission in Sierra Leonehad been on the verge of collapse.Palliser had been intended as an evacuation mission butBrigadier David Richardswas able to convince Blair to allow him to expand the role; at the time, Richards' action was not known and Blair was assumed to be behind it. Blair orderedOperation Barras, a highly successfulSAS/Parachute Regimentstrike to rescue hostages from a Sierra Leone rebel group.JournalistAndrew Marrhas argued that the success of ground attacks, real and threatened, over air strikes alone was influential on how Blair planned the Iraq War, and that the success of the first three wars Blair fought \"played to his sense of himself as a moral war leader\".When asked","leader\".When asked in 2010 if the success of Palliser may have \"embolden British politicians\" to think of military action as a policy option, General Sir David Richards admitted there \"might be something in that\". From the start of theWar on Terrorin 2001, Blair strongly supported theforeign policyofGeorge W. Bush, participating in the2001 invasion of Afghanistanand2003 invasion of Iraq. The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attracted widespread public opposition and 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it.As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision.Alastair Campbelldescribed Blair's statement that the intelligence on WMDs was \"beyond doubt\" as his \"assessment of the assessment that was given to him.\"In 2009, Blair stated that he would have supported removingSaddam Husseinfrom power even in the face of proof that he had no such weapons.PlaywrightHarold Pinterand former Malaysian prime ministerMahathir Mohamadaccused Blair of war crimes.","of war crimes. Testifying before theIraq Inquiryon 29 January 2010, Blair said Saddam Hussein was a \"monster and I believe he threatened not just the region but the world.\"Blair said that British and American attitude towards Hussein had \"changed dramatically\" after theSeptember 11 attacks. Blair denied that he would have supported the invasion of Iraq even if he had thought Hussein had no weapons of mass destruction. He said he believed the world was safer as a result of the invasion.He said there was \"no real difference between wanting regime change and wanting Iraq to disarm: regime change was US policy because Iraq was in breach of its UN obligations.\" In an October 2015CNNinterview withFareed Zakaria, Blair apologised for his \"mistakes\" over the Iraq War and admitted there were \"elements of truth\" to the view that the invasion helped promote the rise ofISIS.TheChilcot Inquiryreport of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War, though the former prime minister again refused to","again refused to apologise for his decision to back the US-led invasion. Relationship with Parliament One of Blair's first acts as prime minister was to replace the then twice-weekly 15-minute sessions ofPrime Minister's Questionsheld on Tuesdays and Thursdays with a single 30-minute session on Wednesdays. In addition to PMQs, Blair held monthly press conferences at which he fielded questions from journalistsand, from 2002, broke precedent by agreeing to give evidence twice yearly before the most senior Commons select committee, theLiaison Committee.Blair was sometimes perceived as paying insufficient attention both to the views of his own Cabinet colleagues and to those of the House of Commons.His style was sometimes criticised as not that of a prime minister andhead of government, which he was, but of a president and head of state, which he was not.Blair was accused of excessive reliance onspin.He was the first UK prime minister to have been formally questioned by police, though notunder caution, while","caution, while still in office. Events before resignation As thecasualties of the Iraq Warmounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament,and his popularity dropped as a result,with Labour's overall majority at the2005 electionreduced from 167 to 66 seats. As a combined result of theBlair–Brown pact, the Iraq War and low approval ratings, pressure built up within the Labour Party for Blair to resign.Over the summer of 2006, many MPs criticised Blair for not calling for a ceasefire in theIsrael–Lebanon conflict.On 7 September 2006, Blair publicly stated he would step down as leader by the time of theTrades Union Congressconference held from 10 to 13 September 2007,despite promising to serve a full term during the previous general election campaign. On 10 May 2007, during a speech at theTrimdon Labour Club, Blair announced his intention to resign as both Labour leader and prime minister,triggeringa leadership electionin which Brown was the only candidate. At a special party conference in Manchester on 24","in Manchester on 24 June 2007, Blair formally handed over the leadership of the Labour Party to Brown, who had been Chancellor of the Exchequer in Blair's three ministries.Blair tendered his resignation as prime minister on 27 June and Brown assumed office the same afternoon. Blair resigned from his Sedgefield seat in the traditional form of accepting theStewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds, to which he was appointed by Brown in one of the latter's last acts as chancellor;the resultingby-electionwas won by Labour candidatePhil Wilson.Blair decided not to issue a list ofResignation Honours, making him the first prime minister of the modern era not to do so. Policies In 2001, Blair said, \"We are aleft of centreparty, pursuing economic prosperity and social justice as partners and not as opposites.\"Blair rarely applies such labels to himself; he promised before the 1997 election that New Labour would govern \"from the radical centre\", and according to one lifelong Labour Party member always described himself as","himself as asocial democrat.In a 2007 opinion piece inThe Guardian, left-wing commentator Neil Lawson described Blair as to theright of centre.AYouGovopinion poll in 2005 found that a small majority of British voters, including many New Labour supporters, placed Blair on the right of the political spectrum.TheFinancial Timesargued that Blair is not conservative but instead apopulist. Critics and admirers tend to agree that Blair's electoral success was based on his ability to occupy the centre ground and appeal to voters across the political spectrum, to the extent that he has been fundamentally at odds with traditional Labour Party values. Some left-wing critics, such asMike Marquseein 2001, argued that Blair oversaw the final stage of a long term shift of the Labour Party to the right. There is some evidence that Blair's long term dominance of the centre forced his Conservative opponents to shift a long distance to the left to challenge hishegemonythere.Leading Conservatives of the post-New Labour era hold","Labour era hold Blair in high regard:George Osbornedescribes him as \"the master\",Michael Govethought he had an \"entitlement to conservative respect\" in February 2003, whileDavid Cameronreportedly maintained Blair as an informal adviser.Former Conservative Party Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher declared Blair and New Labour to be her greatest achievement. Social reforms Blair introduced significant constitutional reforms; promoted new rights for gay people; and signed treaties integrating Britain more closely with the EU. With specific regards to Blair'sLGBTQ+reforms, Blair introduced theCivil Partnership Act 2004which granted civil partners rights and responsibilities similar to those in civil marriages, equalised the age of consent between straight and gay couples, ended the ban on gay people serving in the British military, introduced theGender Recognition Act 2004which allows those withgender dysphoriato legally change their gender, repealedSection 28, gave gay couples the right to adopt and enacted","adopt and enacted several anti-discrimination policies into law. In 2014 he was proclaimed a \"gay icon\" by theGay Times. The New Labour government increased police powers by adding to the number of arrestable offences, compulsoryDNA recordingand the use of dispersal orders.Under Blair's government the amount of new legislation increasedwhich attracted criticism.He also introduced tough anti-terrorism andidentity card legislation. Economic policies Blair has been credited with overseeing a strong economy, with real incomes of British citizens growing 18% between 1997 and 2006. Britain saw rapid productivity growth and significant GDP growth, as well as falling poverty rates and inequality which, despite stubbornly failing to fall, stalled thanks to New Labour's economic policies (such as tax credits). Despite the financial bubble developing in the property markets, studies have credited the growth to investments in education and the maintenance of fiscal responsibility, rather than a financial sugar-high.","sugar-high. During his time as prime minister, Blair kept direct taxes low, while raising indirect taxation; invested a significant amount inHuman capital; introduced aNational Minimum Wageand some new employment rights (while keepingMargaret Thatcher's trade union reforms).He introduced substantial market-based reforms in the education and health sectors; introduced studenttuition fees; introduced a welfare to work scheme and sought to reduce certain categories of welfare payments. He did not reverse theprivatisation of the railwaysenacted by his predecessor John Major and instead strengthened regulation (by creating theOffice of Rail Regulation) and limited fare rises toinflation+1%. Blair and Brown raised spending on the NHS and other public services, increasing spending from 39.9% of GDP to 48.1% in 2010–11.They pledged in 2001 to bring NHS spending to the levels of other European countries, and doubled spending in real terms to over £100 billion in England alone. Immigration Non-European immigration","immigration rose significantly during the period from 1997, not least because of thegovernment's abolition of the primary purpose rule in June 1997.This change made it easier for UK residents to bring foreign spouses into the country. The former government advisor Andrew Neather in theEvening Standardstated that the deliberate policy of ministers from late 2000 until early 2008 was to open up the UK to mass migration.Neather later stated that his words had been twisted, saying: \"The main goal was to allow in more migrant workers at a point when – hard as it is to imagine now – the booming economy was running up against skills shortages.... Somehow this has become distorted by excitable Right-wing newspaper columnists into being a \"plot\" to make Britain multicultural. There was no plot.\" Environmental record Blair criticised other governments for not doing enough to solveglobal climate change. In a 1997 visit to the United States, he made a comment on \"great industrialised nations\" that fail to reduce","that fail to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Again in 2003, Blair went before theUnited States Congressand said that climate change \"cannot be ignored\", insisting \"we need to go beyond evenKyoto.\"Blair and his party promised a 20% reduction in carbon dioxide.The Labour Party also claimed that by 2010 10% of the energy would come from renewable resources; however, it only reached 7% by that point. In 2000, Blair \"flagged up\" 100 million euros for green policies and urged environmentalists and businesses to work together. Foreign policy Blair built his foreign policy on basic principles (close ties with the United States and European Union) and added a new activist philosophy of \"interventionism\". In 2001, Britain joined the U.S. in the global war on terror. Blair forged friendships with several European leaders, includingSilvio Berlusconiof Italy,Angela Merkelof Germanyand laterNicolas Sarkozyof France. Along with enjoying a close relationship with Bill Clinton, Blair formed a strong political alliance with","alliance with George W. Bush, particularly in the area of foreign policy. For his part, Bush lauded Blair and the UK. In hispost-9/11speech, for example, he stated that \"America has no truer friend than Great Britain\". The alliance between Bush and Blair seriously damaged Blair's standing in the eyes of Britons angry at American influence;a 2002 poll revealed that a large amount of Britons viewed Blair as a \"lapdog\" of Bush.Blair argued it was in Britain's interest to \"protect and strengthen the bond\" with the United States regardless of who was in the White House. However, a perception of one-sided compromising personal and political closeness led to discussion of the term \"Poodle-ism\" in the UK media, to describe the \"Special Relationship\" of the UK government and prime minister with the US White House and president.A revealing conversation between Bush and Blair, with the former addressing the latter as \"Yo , Blair\" was recorded when they did not know a microphone was live at theG8 summitinSaint","theG8 summitinSaint Petersburgin 2006. Middle East policy On 30 January 2003, Blair signedThe letter of the eightsupportingU.S. policy on Iraq. Blair showed a deep feeling for Israel, born in part from his faith.Blair has been a longtime member of the pro-Israel lobby groupLabour Friends of Israel. In 1994, Blair forged close ties withMichael Levy, a leader of theJewish Leadership Council.Levy ran the Labour Leader's Office Fund to finance Blair's campaign before the 1997 election and raised £12 million towards Labour's landslide victory, Levy was rewarded with apeerage, and in 2002, Blair appointed Lord Levy as his personal envoy to the Middle East. Levy praised Blair for his \"solid and committed support of the State of Israel\".Tam Dalyell, whileFather of the Houseof Commons, suggested in 2003 that Blair's foreign policy decisions were unduly influenced by a \"cabal\" of Jewish advisers, including Levy,Peter MandelsonandJack Straw(the last two are not Jewish but have some Jewish ancestry). Blair, on coming to","Blair, on coming to office, had been \"cool towards the right-wingNetanyahugovernment\".During his first visit to Israel, Blair thought the Israelis bugged him in his car.After the election in 1999 ofEhud Barak, with whom Blair forged a close relationship, he became much more sympathetic to Israel.From 2001, Blair built up a relationshipwith Barak's successor,Ariel Sharon, and responded positively toArafat, whom he had met thirteen times since becoming prime minister and regarded as essential to future negotiations.In 2004, 50 former diplomats, including ambassadors toBaghdadandTel Aviv, stated they had \"watched with deepening concern\" at Britain following the US into war in Iraq in 2003. They criticised Blair's support for theroad map for peacewhich included the retaining ofIsraeli settlementson theWest Bank. In 2006 Blair was criticised for his failure to immediately call for a ceasefire in the2006 Lebanon War.The Observernewspaper claimed that at a cabinet meeting before Blair left for a summit with Bush on","summit with Bush on 28 July 2006, a significant number of ministers pressured Blair to publicly criticise Israel over the scale of deaths and destruction in Lebanon.Blair was criticised for his solid stance alongside US president George W. Bush on Middle East policy. Syria and Libya A Freedom of Information request byThe Sunday Timesin 2012 revealed that Blair's government consideredknightingSyria's PresidentBashar al-Assad. The documents showed Blair was willing to appear alongside Assad at a joint press conference even though the Syrians would probably have settled for a farewell handshake for the cameras; British officials sought to manipulate the media to portray Assad in a favourable light; and Blair's aides tried to help Assad's \"photogenic\" wifeAsma al-Assadboost her profile. The newspaper noted: The Arab leader was granted audiences with the Queen and the Prince of Wales, lunch with Blair at Downing Street, a platform in parliament and many other privileges ... The red carpet treatment he and his","he and his entourage received is embarrassing given the bloodbath that has since taken place under his rule in Syria ... The courtship has parallels with Blair's friendly relations withMuammar Gaddafi. Blair had been on friendly terms with Colonel Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, when sanctions imposed on the country were lifted by the US and the UK. Even after theLibyan Civil Warin 2011, he said he had no regrets about his close relationship with the late Libyan leader.During Blair's premiership,MI6renderedAbdelhakim Belhajto the Gaddafi regime in 2004, though Blair later claimed he had \"no recollection\" of the incident. Zimbabwe Blair had an antagonistic relationship with Zimbabwean presidentRobert Mugabeand allegedly plannedregime changeagainst Mugabe in the early 2000s.Zimbabwe had embarked on a program ofuncompensated land redistributionfrom the country's white commercial farmers to the black population, a policy that disrupted agricultural production and threw Zimbabwe's economy into chaos. GeneralCharles","GeneralCharles Guthrie, theChief of the Defence Staff, revealed in 2007 that he and Blair had discussed the invasion of Zimbabwe.Guthrie advised against military action: \"Hold hard, you'll make it worse.\"In 2013, South African presidentThabo Mbekisaid that Blair had pressured South Africa to join in a \"regime change scheme, even to the point of using military force\" in Zimbabwe.Mbeki refused because he felt that \"Mugabe is part of the solution to this problem.\"However, a spokesman for Blair said that \"he never asked anyone to plan or take part in any such military intervention.\" Russia Blair went on a trip to Moscow to watch a performance of theWar and PeaceoperawithVladimir Putin, while he was theacting president of Russia. This meeting was criticised by groups such asHuman Rights WatchandAmnesty International.In 2018, SirRichard Dearlove, former head of MI6, said there was \"significant regret\" over this trip, which helped Putin rise to power. Dearlove also alleged that in 2000, aKGBofficer approached him,","approached him, seeking Britain's help in boosting Putin's political profile, and this was why Blair met Putin in Russia. Blair also hosted Putin in London in April 2000, despite hesitation towards Putin from other world leaders, and opposition fromhuman rights groupsoveratrocities committed in Chechnya. Blair toldJim HoaglandofThe Washington Postthat \" vision of the future is one that we would feel comfortable with. Putin has a very clear agenda of modernizing Russia. When he talks of a strong Russia, he means strength not in a threatening way but in a way that means the country economically and politically is capable of standing up for itself, which is a perfectly good aim to have\".During the meeting, Blair acknowledged and discussed \"concerns about Chechnya\",but described Putin as a political reformer \"who is ready to embrace a new relationship with the European Union and the United States, who wants a strong and modern Russia and a strong relationship with the West\". Relationship with media Rupert","with media Rupert Murdoch Blair was reported byThe Guardianin 2006 to have been supported politically byRupert Murdoch, the founder of theNews Corporationorganisation.In 2011, Blair becamegodfatherto one of Rupert Murdoch's children withWendi Deng,but he and Murdoch later ended their friendship, in 2014, after Murdoch suspected him of having an affair with Deng while they were still married, according toThe Economistmagazine. Contacts with UK media proprietors ACabinet Officefreedom of informationresponse, released the day after Blair handed over power to Gordon Brown, documents Blair having various official phone calls and meetings with Rupert Murdoch of News Corporation andRichard Desmondof Northern and Shell Media. The response includes contacts \"clearly of an official nature\" in the specified period, but excludes contacts \"not clearly of an official nature.\"No details were given of the subjects discussed. In the period between September 2002 and April 2005, Blair and Murdoch are documented speaking six","speaking six times; three times in the nine days before the Iraq War, including the eve of the 20 March US and UK invasion, and on 29 January, 25 April, and 3 October 2004. Between January 2003 and February 2004, Blair had three meetings with Richard Desmond; on 29 January and 3 September 2003, and 23 February 2004. The information was disclosed after a3+1⁄2-year battle by the Liberal Democrats'Lord Avebury.Lord Avebury's initial October 2003 information request was dismissed by then leader of the Lords,Baroness Amos.A following complaint was rejected, withDowning Streetclaiming the information compromised \"free and frank discussions\", while Cabinet Office claimed releasing the timing of the PM's contacts with individuals is \"undesirable\", as it might lead to the content of the discussions being disclosed.While awaiting a following appeal from Lord Avebury, the cabinet office announced that it would release the information. Lord Avebury said: \"The public can now scrutinise the timing of his (Murdoch's)","of his (Murdoch's) contacts with the former prime minister, to see whether they can be linked to events in the outside world.\" Blair appeared before theLeveson Inquiryon Monday 28 May 2012.During his appearance, a protester, later named as David Lawley-Wakelin, got into the court-room and claimed he was guilty of war crimes before being dragged out. Media portrayal Blair has been noted as acharismatic, articulate speaker with an informal style.Film and theatre directorRichard Eyreopined that \"Blair had a very considerable skill as a performer\".A few months after becoming prime minister Blair gave a tribute toDiana, Princess of Wales, on the morning of her death in August 1997, in which he famously described her as \"the People's Princess\". After taking office in 1997, Blair gave particular prominence to his press secretary, who became known as theprime minister's official spokesman(the two roles have since been separated). Blair's first PMOS was Alastair Campbell, who served in that role from May 1997 to 8","from May 1997 to 8 June 2001, after which he served as the prime minister's director of communications and strategy until his resignation on 29 August 2003 in the aftermath of theHutton Inquiry. Blair had close relationships with the Clinton family. The strong partnership with Bill Clinton was made into the filmThe Special Relationshipin 2010. Relationship with Labour Party Blair's apparent refusal to set a date for his departure was criticised by the British press and Members of Parliament. It has been reported that a number of cabinet ministers believed that Blair's timely departure from office would be required to be able to win a fourth election.Some ministers viewed Blair's announcement of policy initiatives in September 2006 as an attempt to draw attention away from these issues. Gordon Brown After the death of John Smith in 1994, Blair and his close colleague Gordon Brown (they shared an office at the House of Commons) were both seen as possible candidates for the party leadership. They agreed not to","They agreed not to stand against each other, it is said, as part of a supposed Blair–Brown pact. Brown, who considered himself the senior of the two, understood that Blair would give way to him: opinion polls soon indicated, however, that Blair appeared to enjoy greater support among voters.Their relationship in power became so turbulent that it was reported thedeputy prime minister, John Prescott, often had to act as \"marriage guidance counsellor\". During the 2010 election campaign Blair publicly endorsed Brown's leadership, praising the way he had handled the financial crisis. Post-premiership (2007-present) Diplomacy On 27 June 2007, Blair officially resigned as prime minister after ten years in office, and he was officially confirmed as Middle Eastenvoyfor the United Nations, European Union, United States, and Russia.Blair originally indicated that he would retain his parliamentary seat after his resignation as prime minister came into effect; however, on being confirmed for the Middle East role he","Middle East role he resigned from the Commons by taking up anoffice of profit.President George W. Bush had preliminary talks with Blair to ask him to take up the envoy role. White House sources stated that \"both Israel and the Palestinians had signed up to the proposal\".In May 2008 Blair announced a new plan for peace and for Palestinian rights, based heavily on the ideas of thePeace Valley plan.Blair resigned as envoy in May 2015. Private sector In January 2008, it was confirmed that Blair would be joining investment bankJPMorgan Chasein a \"senior advisory capacity\"and that he would adviseZurich Financial Servicesonclimate change. His salary for this work is unknown, although it has been claimed it may be in excess of £500,000 per year.Blair also gives lectures, earning up to US$250,000 for a 90-minute speech, and in 2008 he was said to be the highest paid speaker in the world. Blair taught a course on issues of faith and globalisation at theYale UniversitySchools ofManagementandDivinityas aHowland","aHowland distinguished fellowduring the 2008–09 academic year. In July 2009, this accomplishment was followed by the launching of theFaith and Globalisation Initiativewith Yale University in the US, Durham University in the UK, and theNational University of Singaporein Asia, to deliver a postgraduate programme in partnership with the Foundation. Blair's links with, and receipt of an undisclosed sum from,UI Energy Corporation, have also been subject to media comment in the UK. In July 2010 it was reported that his personal security guards claimed £250,000 a year in expenses from the taxpayer. Foreign SecretaryWilliam Haguesaid; \"we have to make sure that is as cost-effective as possible, that it doesn't cost any more to the taxpayer than is absolutely necessary\". Tony Blair Associates Blair establishedTony Blair Associatesto \"allow him to provide, in partnership with others, strategic advice on a commercial andpro bonobasis, on political and economic trends and governmental reform\".The profits from the firm","from the firm go towards supporting Blair's \"work on faith, Africa and climate change\". Blair has been subject to criticism for potential conflicts of interest between his diplomatic role as a Middle East envoy, and his work with Tony Blair Associates,and a number of prominent critics have even called for him to be sacked.Blair has used hisQuartetTony Blair Associates works with the Kazakhstan government, advising the regime on judicial, economic and political reforms, but has been subject to criticism after accusations of \"whitewashing\" the image and human rights record of the regime. Blair responded to such criticism by saying his choice to advise the country is an example of how he can \"nudge controversial figures on a progressive path of reform\", and has stated that he receives no personal profit from this advisory role.The Kazakhstan foreign minister said that the country was \"honoured and privileged\" to be receiving advice from Blair.A letter obtained byThe Daily Telegraphin August 2014 revealed Blair","2014 revealed Blair had given damage-limitation advice toNursultan Nazarbayevafter the December 2011Zhanaozen massacre.Blair was reported to have accepted a business advisory role with PresidentAbdel Fattah el-Sisiof Egypt, a situation deemed incompatible with his role as Middle East envoy. Blair described the report as \"nonsense\". Charity and non-profits In November 2007 Blair launched the Tony Blair Sports Foundation, which aims to \"increase childhood participation in sports activities, especially in the North East of England, where a larger proportion of children are socially excluded, and to promote overall health and prevent childhood obesity.\"On 30 May 2008, Blair launched theTony Blair Faith Foundationas a vehicle for encouraging different faiths to join in promoting respect and understanding, as well as working to tackle poverty. Reflecting Blair's own faith but not dedicated to any particular religion, the Foundation aims to \"show how faith is a powerful force for good in the modern world\". \"The","modern world\". \"The Foundation will use its profile and resources to encourage people of faith to work together more closely to tackle global poverty and conflict,\" says its mission statement. In February 2009 he applied to set up a charity called the Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative: the application was approved in November 2009.Blair's foundation hit controversy in October 2012, when news emerged that it was taking on unpaid interns. In December 2016, Blair created theTony Blair Instituteto promote global outlooks by governments and organisations.In September 2023 former Finnish prime ministerSanna Marinjoined him as a strategic adviser on political leaders' reform programmes in the institute. Books A Journey In March 2010, it was reported that Blair's memoirs, titledThe Journey, would be published in September 2010.In July 2010 it was announced the memoirs would be retitledA Journey.The memoirs were seen by many as controversial and a further attempt to profit from his office and from acts related","from acts related to overseas wars that were widely seen as wrong,leading to anger and suspicion prior to launch. On 16 August 2010 it was announced that Blair would give the £4.6 million advance and all royalties from his memoirs to theRoyal British Legion– the charity's largest ever single donation. Media analysis of the sudden announcement was wide-ranging, describing it as an act of \"desperation\" to obtain a better launch reception of a humiliating \"publishing flop\"that had languished in the ratings,\"blood money\" for the lives lost in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars,an act with a \"hidden motive\" or an expression of \"guilt\",a \"genius move\" to address the problem that \"Tony Blair ha one of the most toxic brands around\" from a PR perspective, and a \"cynical stunt to wipe the slate\", but also as an attempt to make amends.Friends had said that the act was partly motivated by the wish to \"repair his reputation\". The book was published on 1 September and within hours of its launch had become the fastest-selling","the fastest-selling autobiography of all time.On 3 September Blair gave his first live interview since publication onThe Late Late Showin Ireland, with protesters lying in wait there for him.On 4 September, Blair was confronted by 200 anti-war and hardline Irish nationalist demonstrators before the first book signing of his memoirs atEason'sbookstore onO'Connell Streetin Dublin, with angry activists chanting \"war criminal\" and that he had \"blood on his hands\", and clashing with Irish Police (Garda Síochána) as they tried to break through a security cordon outside the Eason's store. Blair was pelted with eggs and shoes, and encountered an attemptedcitizen's arrestforwar crimes. On Leadership Published in 2024, and described byGeorge Osborneas \"the most practically useful guide to politics I have ever read.\" Accusations of war crimes Since the Iraq War, Blair has been the subject of war crimes accusations. Critics of his actions, including BishopDesmond Tutu,Harold PinterandArundhati Royhave called for his","called for his trial at theInternational Criminal Court. In November 2011, a war crimes tribunal of theKuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission, established by Malaysia's former prime minister Mahathir Mohamad, reached a unanimous conclusion that Blair was guilty of crimes against peace, as a result of his role in the Iraq War.The proceedings lasted for four days, and consisted of five judges of judicial and academic backgrounds, a tribunal-appointed defence team in lieu of the defendants or representatives, and a prosecution team including international law professorFrancis Boyle. In September 2012, Desmond Tutu suggested that Blair should follow the path of former African leaders who had been brought before the International Criminal Court inThe Hague.The human rights lawyerGeoffrey Bindmanconcurred with Tutu's suggestion that there should be a war crimes trial.In a statement made in response to Tutu's comments, Blair defended his actions.He was supported byLord Falconer, who stated that the war had been","the war had been authorised byUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1441. In July 2017, former Iraqi general Abdulwaheed al-Rabbat launched a private war crimes prosecution in the High Court in London, asking for Blair, former foreign secretary Jack Straw and former attorney generalLord Goldsmithto be prosecuted for \"the crime of aggression\" for their role in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The High Court ruled that, although the crime of aggression was recognised in international law, it was not an offence under UK law, and therefore the prosecution could not proceed. Blair defended Some, such asJohn Rentoul,John McTernan,Geoffrey RobertsonandIain Dale, have countered accusations that Blair committed war crimes during his premiership, often highlighting how no case against Blair has ever made it to trial, suggesting that Blair broke no laws. Blair himself has defended his involvement in the Iraq War by highlighting the findings of theIraq Survey Group, which found that Saddam had attempted to get sanctions","to get sanctions lifted by undermining them, which would have enabled him to restart his WMD program. Political interventions and views Response to the Iraq Inquiry The Chilcot report issued after the conclusion of the Iraq Inquiry was published on 6 July 2016; it criticised Blair for joining the US in the war in Iraq in 2003. Afterward, Blair issued a statement and held a two-hour press conference to apologise, to justify the decisions he had made in 2003 \"in good faith\" and to deny allegations that the war had led to a significant increase in terrorism.He acknowledged that the report made \"real and material criticisms of preparation, planning, process and of the relationship with the United States\" but cited sections of the report that he said \"should lay to rest allegations of bad faith, lies or deceit\". He stated: \"whether people agree or disagree with my decision to take military action against Saddam Hussein; I took it in good faith and in what I believed to be the best interests of the country. ... I","the country. ... I will take full responsibility for any mistakes without exception or excuse. I will at the same time say why, nonetheless, I believe that it was better to remove Saddam Hussein and why I do not believe this is the cause of the terrorism we see today whether in the Middle East or elsewhere in the world\". Iran–West tensions In an op-ed published byThe Washington Poston 8 February 2019, Blair said: \"Where Iran is exercising military interference, it should be strongly pushed back. Where it is seeking influence, it should be countered. Where its proxies operate, it should be held responsible. Where its networks exist, they should be disrupted. Where its leaders are saying what is unacceptable, they should be exposed. Where the Iranian people — highly educated and connected, despite their government — are protesting for freedom, they should be supported.\"TheTony Blair Institute for Global Changewarned of a growing Iranian threat.The Tony Blair Institute confirmed that it has received donations","received donations from the U.S. State Department and Saudi Arabia. European Union Blair did not wantthe UK to leave the EUand called for areferendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement. Blair also maintained that once the terms deciding how the UK leaves the EU were known, the people should be able to vote again on those terms. Blair stated, \"We know the options for Brexit. Parliament will have to decide on one of them. If Parliament can't then it should decide to go back to the people.\" However, after the2019 general electionin which the pro-withdrawal Conservative party won a sizeable majority of seats, Blair argued that remain supporters should \"face up to one simple point: we lost\" and \"pivot to a completely new position...We're going to have to be constructive about it and see how Britain develops a constructive relationship with Europe and finds its new niche in the world.\" American power Blair was interviewed in June 2020 for an article in the American magazineThe Atlanticon European views of U.S.","views of U.S. foreign policy concerning theCOVID-19 pandemicand resultingrecession, the rise of China, and theGeorge Floyd protests. He affirmed his belief in the continued strength of Americansoft powerand the need to address Iranian military aggression, European military underinvestment, and illicit Chinese trade practices. He said, however, \"I think it's fair to say a lot of political leaders in Europe are dismayed by what they see as the isolationism growing in America and the seeming indifference to alliances. But I think there will come a time when America decides in its own interest to reengage, so I'm optimistic that America will in the end understand that this is not about relegating your self-interest behind the common interest; it's an understanding that by acting collectively in alliance with others you promote your own interests.\" Blair warned that structural issues plaguing American domestic policy needed to be addressed imminently. In August 2021, Blair criticised thewithdrawal of U.S. and","of U.S. and NATO troops from Afghanistan, saying that it was \"in obedience to an imbecilic slogan about ending 'theforever wars'\". Blair admitted mistakes in the management of the war but warned that \"the reaction to our mistakes has been, unfortunately, further mistakes\". Labour Party Jeremy Corbyn Blair was a critic ofJeremy Corbyn'sleadership of the Labour Party, seeing it as too left-wing. He wrote in an opinion piece forThe Guardianduring the party's2015 leadership electionthat if the party elected Corbyn, it would face a \"rout, possibly annihilation\" at the next election.After the2019 general election, Blair accused Corbyn of turning the party into a \"glorified protest movement\" and in a May 2021New Statesmanarticle, Blair suggested that the party needed to undergo a programme of \"total deconstruction and reconstruction\" and also said the party needed to shift to the centre on social issues in order to survive.Blair touched on controversial topics such astransgender rights, theBlack Lives","theBlack Lives Mattermovement and climate change. Keir Starmer Keir Starmer's leadership of the party has been widely compared to Blair's leadership and New Labour, having taken the party rightward to gain electability. Initially saying in 2021 that Starmer lacked a compelling message, Blair has since reacted more positively towards Starmer's leadership of the party, telling him he's \"done a great job\" in reforming the party during a Tony Blair Institute for Global Change's Future of Britain conference in 2023.Blair's continued influence on the party, and on Starmer led him to be ranked sixteenth in the New Statesman's Left Power List 2023, described by the paper as electorally an \"incomparable authority on how to win\".After Labour won the2024 general electionand Starmer became prime minister, Blair congratulated him on his victory, saying Starmer was \"determined and ruthlessly effective\" and appointed \"exceptional talent to conduct the change and put the most capable frontbenchers in the most important","the most important positions for future government.\" He also offered Starmer advice, recommending he controls immigration amid the rise of theReform UKparty led byNigel Farage, saying that the party poses a threat to Labour and not just the Conservatives. Personal life Family Blair marriedCherie Boothon 29 March 1980.They have four children:Euan,Nicky, Kathryn, and Leo.Leo was the first legitimate child born to a serving prime minister in over 150 years – since Francis Russell was born toLord John Russellon 11 July 1849.All four children have Irish passports, by virtue of Blair's mother, Hazel Elizabeth Rosaleen Corscadden (12 June 1923 – 28 June 1975).The family's primary residence is in Connaught Square; the Blairs own eight residences in total.His first grandchild (a girl) was born in October 2016. Wealth Blair's financial assets are structured in an opaque manner, and estimates of their extent vary widely.These include figures of up to £100 million. Blair stated in 2014 that he was worth \"less than £20","\"less than £20 million\".A 2015 assertion, byFrancis Beckett,David HenckeandNick Kochan, concluded that Blair had acquired $90 million and a property portfolio worth $37.5 million in the eight years since he had left office. In October 2021, Blair wasnamedin thePandora Papers. Religious faith In 2006, Blair referred to the role of his Christian faith in his decision to go to war in Iraq, stating that he had prayed about the issue, and saying that God would judge him for his decision: \"I think if you have faith about these things, you realise that judgement is made by other people ... and if you believe in God, it's made by God as well.\" According to Press Secretary Alastair Campbell's diary, Blair often read the Bible before taking any important decisions. He states that Blair had a \"wobble\" and considered changing his mind on the eve of the bombing of Iraq in 1998. A longer exploration of his faith can be found in an interview withThird Way Magazine. There he says that \"I was brought up as , but I was not in",", but I was not in any real sense a practising one until I went to Oxford. There was an Australian priest at the same college as me who got me interested again. In a sense, it was a rediscovery of religion as something living, that was about the world around me rather than some sort of special one-to-one relationship with a remote Being on high. Suddenly I began to see its social relevance. I began to make sense of the world\". At one point Alastair Campbell intervened in an interview, preventing Blair from answering a question about his Christianity, explaining, \"We don't do God.\"Campbell later said that he had intervened only to end the interview because the journalist had been taking an excessive time, and that the comment had just been a throwaway line. Cherie Blair's friend and \"spiritual guru\"Carole Caplinis credited with introducing her and her husband to variousNew Agesymbols and beliefs, including \"magic pendants\" known as \"BioElectric Shields\".The most controversial of the Blairs' New Age practices","New Age practices occurred when on holiday in Mexico. The couple, wearing only bathing costumes, took part in a rebirthing procedure, which involved smearing mud and fruit over each other's bodies while sitting in a steam bath. In 1996, Blair, then an Anglican, was reprimanded by CardinalBasil Humefor receivingHoly Communionwhile attending Mass at Cherie Blair's Catholic church, in contravention ofcanon law.On 22 December 2007, it was disclosed that Blair had joined theCatholic Church. The move was described as \"a private matter\".He had informedPope Benedict XVIon 23 June 2007 — four days before he stepped down as Prime Minister — that he wanted to become a Catholic. The Pope and his advisors criticised some of Blair's political actions, but followed up with a reportedly unprecedented red carpet welcome, which included the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster,Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, who would be responsible for Blair'sCatholic instruction.In 2009, Blair questioned the Pope's attitude towards homosexuality,","homosexuality, arguing that religious leaders must start \"rethinking\" the issue.In 2010,The Tabletnamed him as one of Britain's most influential Catholics. Honours In May 2007, Blair was invested as aparamount chiefby the chiefs and people of the village of Mahera in Sierra Leone. The honour was bestowed upon him in recognition of the role played by his government in the Sierra Leone Civil War. On 22 May 2008, Blair received an honorary law doctorate fromQueen's University Belfast, alongside Bertie Ahern, for distinction in public service and roles in the Northern Ireland peace process. On 13 January 2009, Blair was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby President George W. Bush.Bush stated that Blair was given the award \"in recognition of exemplary achievement and to convey the utmost esteem of the American people\"and cited Blair's support for the War on Terror and his role in achieving peace in Northern Ireland as two reasons for justifying his being presented with the award. On 16 February 2009, Blair","2009, Blair was awarded theDan David PrizebyTel Aviv Universityfor \"exceptional leadership and steadfast determination in helping to engineer agreements and forge lasting solutions to areas in conflict\". He was awarded the prize in May 2009. On 8 July 2010, Blair was awarded theOrder of Freedomby PresidentFatmir Sejdiuof Kosovo.As Blair is considered to have been instrumental in ending theconflict in Kosovo, some boys born in the country following the war have been given the nameToniorTonibler. On 13 September 2010, Blair was awarded theLiberty Medalat theNational Constitution CenterinPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania.It was presented by former president Bill Clinton, and is awarded annually to \"men and women of courage and conviction who strive to secure the blessings of liberty to people around the globe\". On 31 December 2021, it was announced that the Queen had appointed Blair aKnight Companion of the Order of the Garter(KG).Blair had reportedly indicated when he left office that he did not want the traditional","the traditional knighthood or peerage bestowed on former prime ministers.A petition cited his role in the Iraq War as a reason to remove the knighthood and garnered more than one million signatures.He received his Garter insignia on 10 June 2022 from the Queen during an audience at Windsor Castle. Works See also Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading Primary sources External links e","Marathon world record progression World recordsin themarathonare ratified byWorld Athletics, the internationalgoverning bodyfor the sport ofathletics. The late Kenyan athleteKelvin Kiptumset a men's world record time of 2:00:35 on October 8, 2023, at the2023 Chicago Marathon. Kenyan athleteRuth Chepngetichbroke the women's world record for a mixed-sex race with a time of 2:09:56 on October 13, 2024 at the2024 Chicago Marathon. In addition to the standard women's marathon world record, World Athletics also recognizes a second world record for women in the \"Women Only\" category, meaning that the marathon was run on a course without any male athletes in the competition. The current \"Women Only\" record of 2:16:16 was set byPeres Jepchirchiron April 21, 2024 at the London Marathon in the elite women's race. History Marathon races were first held in 1896, but the distance was not standardized by theInternational Association of Athletics Federations(IAAF, now World Athletics) until 1921. The actual distance for","actual distance for pre-1921 races frequently varied from the 1921 standard of 42.195 km (26 miles 385 yards). In qualifying races for the1896 Summer Olympics, Greek runnersCharilaos Vasilakos(3:18:00) andIoannis Lavrentis(3:11:27) won the first two modern marathons.On April 10, 1896,Spiridon Louisof Greece wonthe first Olympic marathon in Athens, Greece, in a time of 2:58:50.However, the distance for the event was 40,000 meters.Three months later, British runnerLen Hurstwon the inauguralParis to Conflans Marathon(also around 40 km) in a time of 2:31:30.In 1900, Hurst would better his time on the same course with a 2:26:28 performance. Later,Shizo Kanakuriof Japan was reported to have set a world record of 2:32:45 in a November 1911 domestic qualification race for the1912 Summer Olympics, but this performance was also run over a distance of approximately 40 km. The first marathon over the official distance was won by AmericanJohnny Hayesat the1908 Summer Olympics, with a time of 2:55:18.4. It is possible","It is possible thatStamata Revithi, who ran the 1896 Olympic course a day after Louis, is the first woman to run the modern marathon; she is said to have finished in5+1⁄2hours.World Athletics creditsViolet Piercy's 1926 performance as the first woman to race the standard marathon distance; however, other sources report that the 1918 performance ofMarie-Louise Ledruin the Tour de Paris set the initial mark for women.Other \"unofficial\" performances have also been reported to be world bests or world records over time: although her performance is not recognized by World Athletics,Adrienne Beamesfrom Australia is frequently credited as the first woman to break the three-hour barrier in the marathon. In the 1953Boston Marathon, the top three male finishers were thought to have broken the standing world record,butKeizo Yamada's mark of 2:18:51 is considered to have been set on a short course of 25.54 miles (41.1 km).TheBoston Athletic Associationalso does not report Yamada's performance as a world best for this","world best for this reason. On October 25, 1981, AmericanAlberto Salazarand New ZealanderAllison Roeset apparent world bests at theNew York City Marathon(2:08:13 and 2:25:29), however, these marks were invalidated when the course was later found to have been 151 meters short.Although World Athletics' progression notes three performances set on the same course in 1978, 1979, and 1980 by NorwegianGrete Waitz, theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticiansconsiders the New York City course suspect for those performances, too. On April 18, 2011, the Boston Marathon produced what were at that time the two fastest marathon performances of all time. WinnerGeoffrey Mutaiof Kenya recorded a time of 2:03:02,followed by countrymanMoses Mosopin 2:03:06. However, since the Boston course does not meet the criteria for record attempts, these times were not ratified by the IAAF. Eight IAAF world records were set at thePolytechnic Marathon(1909, 1913, 1952–54, 1963–65).WA-recognized world records have been broken at all of the","at all of the original fiveWorld Marathon Majorson numerous occasions (updated 09/2022); twelve times at theBerlin Marathon, three times at theBoston Marathon, five times at theChicago Marathon, six times at theLondon Marathon, and five times at theNew York City Marathon. However, the records established in the Boston event have been disputed on grounds of a downhill point-to-point course, while four of the five New York records have been disputed on grounds of a short course. Criteria for record eligibility For a performance to be ratified as a world record by World Athletics, the marathon course on which the performance occurred must be 42.195 km (26.219 mi) long,measured in a defined manner using thecalibrated bicycle method(the distance in kilometers being the official distance; the distance in miles is an approximation) and meet other criteria that rule out artificially fast times produced on courses aided by downhill slope or tailwind.The criteria include: In recognizing KenyanGeoffrey Mutai's mark of","Mutai's mark of 2:03:02 at the2011 Boston Marathonas (at the time) \"the fastest Marathon ever run\", the IAAF said: \"Due to the elevation drop and point-to-point measurements of the Boston course, performances are not eligible for World record consideration.\" TheAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians, an independent organization that compiles data fromroad runningevents, also maintains an alternate marathon world best progression but with standards they consider to be more stringent. Women's world record changes The IAAF Congress, at the 2011 World Championships, passed a motion changing the record eligibility criteria effective October 6, 2007, so that women's world records must be set in all-women competitions.The result of the change was that Radcliffe's 2:17:42 performance at the 2005 London Marathon supplanted her own existing women's mark as the \"world record\"; the earlier performance is to be referred to as a \"world best\". Per the 2021 IAAF Competition Rules, \"a World Record for performance achieved","achieved in mixed sex (\"Mixed\") races and a World Record for performance achieved in single sex (\"Women only\") races\" are tracked separately. Unofficial record attempts In December 2016,Nike, Inc., announced that three top distance runners —Eliud Kipchoge,Zersenay Tadese, andLelisa Desisa— had agreed to forgo the spring marathon season to work with the company in an effort to run a sub-two-hour marathon. TheBreaking2event took place in the early morning of May 6, 2017; Kipchoge crossed the finish line with a time of 2:00:25.This time was more than two minutes faster than the world record. Kipchoge took part in a similar attempt to break the two-hour barrier in Vienna on October 12, 2019, as part of theIneos 1:59 Challenge. He successfully ran the first sub two-hour marathon distance, with a time of 1:59:40.2.The effort did not count as a new world record under IAAF rules due to the setup of the challenge. Specifically, it was not an open event, Kipchoge was handed fluids by his support team throughout, the","throughout, the run featured a pace car, and included rotating teams of other runners pacing Kipchoge in a formation designed to reduce wind resistance and maximize efficiency.The achievement was recognized byGuinness World Recordswith the titles 'Fastest marathon distance (male)' and 'First marathon distance run under two hours' instead of an official world record. Men Table key:Listed by World Athletics as a world best prior to official acceptanceRatified by World Athletics as a world best (since January 1, 2003) or world record (since January 1, 2004)Recognized by theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians(ARRS) The edition of the marathon is linked on some of the dates. Women Table key:Listed by World Athletics as a world best prior to official acceptanceRatified by World Athletics as a world best (since January 1, 2003) or world record (since January 1, 2004)Recognized by theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians(ARRS) Gallery of world record holders See also Men's Masters Records Women's Masters","Women's Masters Records Notes References Sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"Tony Blair Sir Anthony Charles Lynton BlairKG(born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 1997 to 2007 andLeader of the Labour Partyfrom 1994 to 2007. He wasLeader of the Oppositionfrom 1994 to 1997 and held variousshadow cabinetposts from 1987 to 1994. Blair wasMember of Parliament(MP) forSedgefieldfrom 1983 to 2007, and was special envoy of theQuartet on the Middle Eastfrom 2007 to 2015. He is the second-longest-serving prime ministerin post-war British history afterMargaret Thatcher, the longest-servingLabourpolitician to have held the office, and the first and only person to date to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Blair attended the independent schoolFettes College, studied law atSt John's College, Oxford, and qualified as a barrister. He became involved in the Labour Party and was elected to theHouse of Commonsin 1983 for the Sedgefield constituency inCounty Durham. As abackbencher, Blair supported moving the party to\",\n \"moving the party to thepolitical centre of British politics. He was appointed toNeil Kinnock'sshadow cabinetin 1988 and was appointedshadow home secretarybyJohn Smithin 1992. Following Smith's death in 1994, Blair wona leadership electionto succeed him. As leader, Blair began a historic rebranding of the party, which became known as \\\"New Labour\\\". Blair became theyoungest prime ministerof the 20th century after his party won a landslide victory of 418 seats (the largest in its history) in the1997 general election, bringing an end to 18 years in the opposition. It was the first victory for the Labour Party in nearly 23 years, the last one being inOctober 1974. Duringhis first term, Blair enactedconstitutional reformsand significantly increasedpublic spendingon healthcare and education while also introducing controversial market-based reforms in these areas. In addition, Blair saw theintroduction of a minimum wage,tuition feesfor higher education, constitutional reform such asdevolution in Scotland and Wales,\",\n \"Scotland and Wales, an extensive expansion ofLGBT+ rights in the UK, and significant progress in theNorthern Ireland peace processwith the passing of the landmarkGood Friday Agreement. On foreign policy, Blair oversaw British interventions inKosovo in 1999andSierra Leone in 2000, which were generally perceived to be successful. Blair won a second term after Labour won a second landslide victory in the2001 general election. Three months intohis second term, Blair's premiership was shaped by the9/11 terrorist attacks, resulting in the start of thewar on terror. Blair supported theforeign policy of the George W. Bush administrationby ensuring that theBritish Armed Forcesparticipated in theWar in Afghanistanto overthrow theTaliban, destroyal-Qaeda, and captureOsama bin Laden. Blair supported the2003 invasion of Iraqand had the British Armed Forces participate in theIraq War, on the inaccurate beliefs thatSaddam Hussein's regimepossessed weapons of mass destructionand developedties with al-Qaeda. The invasion of\",\n \"The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attractedwidespread public oppositionand 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it. As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision. TheIraq Inquiryreport of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War. As thecasualties of the Iraq Warmounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament, and his popularity dropped dramatically. Blair won a third termafter Labour won a third election victory in 2005, in part thanks to the UK's strong economic performance, but with a substantially reduced majority, due to the UK's involvement in the Iraq War. Duringhis third term, Blair pushed for more systemic public sector reform and brokereda settlementto restore powersharing to Northern Ireland. He had a surge in popularity at the time ofterrorist bombings of Londonof July 2005, but by the Spring of 2006 faced significant difficulties, most notably with scandals over failures by theHome Officeto deport illegal\",\n \"deport illegal immigrants. Amid theCash-for-Honours scandal, Blair was interviewed three times as prime minister, though only as a witness and notunder caution. The Afghanistan and Iraq wars continued, and in 2006, Blair announced he would resign within a year. He resigned the party leadership on 24 June 2007 and as prime minister on 27 June, andwas succeededbyGordon Brown, hischancellor. After leaving office, Blairgave up his seatand was appointed special envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East, a diplomatic post he held until 2015. He has been the executive chairman of theTony Blair Institute for Global Changesince 2016 and has made occasional political interventions, and has been a key influence onKeir Starmer. In 2009, Blair was awarded thePresidential Medal of FreedombyGeorge W. Bush. He was made aKnight Companion of the GarterbyQueen Elizabeth IIin 2022. At various points in his premiership, Blair was among both the most popular and most unpopular politicians in British history. As prime minister, he\",\n \"prime minister, he achieved the highest recorded approval ratings during his first few years in office but also one of the lowest ratings during and after the Iraq War.Blair is usually rated as above average inhistorical rankingsand public opinion of British prime ministers. Early years Anthony Charles Lynton Blair was born on 6 May 1953 at Queen Mary Maternity Home inEdinburgh, Scotland.He was the second son ofLeoand Hazel (néeCorscadden) Blair.Leo Blair was the illegitimate son of two entertainers and was adopted as a baby by the Glasgow shipyard worker James Blair and his wife, Mary.Hazel Corscadden was the daughter of George Corscadden, a butcher andOrangemanwho moved to Glasgow in 1916. In 1923, he returned to (and later died in)Ballyshannon, County Donegal, inIreland. In Ballyshannon, Corscadden's wife, Sarah Margaret (née Lipsett), gave birth above the family's grocery shop to Blair's mother, Hazel. Blair has an elder brother,William, and a younger sister, Sarah. Blair's first home was with his family\",\n \"was with his family at Paisley Terrace in the Willowbrae area of Edinburgh. During this period, his father worked as a junior tax inspector whilst studying for a law degree from theUniversity of Edinburgh. Blair's first relocation was when he was nineteen months old. At the end of 1954, Blair's parents and their two sons moved from Paisley Terrace toAdelaide,South Australia.His father lectured in law at theUniversity of Adelaide.In Australia, Blair's sister, Sarah, was born. The Blairs lived in the suburb ofDulwichclose to the university. The family returned to the United Kingdom in mid-1958. They lived for a time with Hazel's mother and stepfather (William McClay) at their home inSteppson the outskirts of north-east Glasgow. Blair's father accepted a job as a lecturer atDurham University, and moved the family toDurhamwhen Blair was five. It was the beginning of a long association Blair was to have with Durham. Since childhood, Blair has been a fan ofNewcastle United Football Club. Education and legal career\",\n \"and legal career With his parents basing their family in Durham, Blair attended theChorister Schoolfrom 1961 to 1966.Aged 13, he was sent to spend his school term-time boarding atFettes Collegein Edinburgh from 1966 to 1971.According to Blair, he hated his time at Fettes.His teachers were unimpressed with him; his biographer,John Rentoul, reported that \\\"ll the teachers I spoke to when researching the book said he was a complete pain in the backside and they were very glad to see the back of him.\\\"Blair reportedly modelled himself onMick Jagger, lead singer ofthe Rolling Stones.Leaving Fettes College at the age of 18, Blair next spent a gap year in London working as a rock music promoter. In 1972, at the age of 19, Blair matriculated atSt John's College, Oxford, readingjurisprudencefor three years.As a student, he played guitar and sang in a rock band calledUgly Rumours,and performedstand-up comedy.He was influenced by fellow student andAnglicanpriestPeter Thomson, who awakened his religious faith and\",\n \"religious faith and left-wing politics. While at Oxford, Blair has stated that he was briefly aTrotskyist, after reading the first volume ofIsaac Deutscher's biography ofLeon Trotsky, which was \\\"like a light going on\\\".He graduated from Oxford at the age of 22 in 1975 with asecond-class HonoursB.A. in jurisprudence. In 1975, while Blair was at Oxford, his mother Hazel died aged 52 ofthyroid cancer, which greatly affected him.After Oxford, Blair served his barrister pupillage atLincoln's Inn, where he was called to the Bar. He met his future wife,Cherie Booth, at the chambers founded byDerry Irvine(who was to be Blair's first lord chancellor), 11 King's Bench Walk Chambers. Early political career Blair joined theLabour Partyshortly after graduating from Oxford in 1975. In the early 1980s, he was involved in Labour politics inHackney South and Shoreditch, where he aligned himself with the \\\"soft left\\\" of the party. He stood as a candidate for theHackney councilelections of 1982 in Queensbridge ward, a safe\",\n \"ward, a safe Labour area, but was not selected. In 1982, Blair was selected as the Labour Party candidate for the safe Conservative seat ofBeaconsfield, where there was a forthcoming by-election.Although Blair lost theBeaconsfield by-electionand Labour's share of the vote fell by ten percentage points, he acquired a profile within the party.Despite his defeat, William Russell, political correspondent forThe Glasgow Herald, described Blair as \\\"a very good candidate\\\", while acknowledging that the result was \\\"a disaster\\\" for the Labour Party.In contrast to his latercentrism, Blair made it clear in a letter he wrote to Labour leaderMichael Footin July 1982 (published in 2006) that he had \\\"come to Socialism through Marxism\\\" and considered himself on the left.LikeTony Benn, Blair believed that the \\\"Labour right\\\" was bankrupt,saying \\\"ocialism ultimately must appeal to the better minds of the people. You cannot do that if you are tainted overmuch with a pragmatic period in power.\\\"Yet, he saw thehard leftas no\",\n \"thehard leftas no better, saying: There is an arrogance and self-righteousness about many of the groups on the far left which is deeply unattractive to the ordinary would-be member ... There's too much mixing only with people whom they agree. With a general election due, Blair had not been selected as a candidate anywhere. He was invited to stand again in Beaconsfield, and was initially inclined to agree but was advised by his head of chambers Derry Irvine to find somewhere else which might be winnable.The situation was complicated by the fact that Labour was fighting a legal action against planned boundary changes, and had selected candidates on the basis of previous boundaries. When the legal challenge failed, the party had to rerun all selections on the new boundaries; most were based on existing seats, but unusually in County Durham a newSedgefieldconstituency had been created out of Labour-voting areas which had no obvious predecessor seat. The selection for Sedgefield did not begin until after the1983\",\n \"until after the1983 general electionwas called. Blair's initial inquiries discovered that the left was trying to arrange the selection forLes Huckfield, sitting MP for Nuneaton, who was trying elsewhere; several sitting MPs displaced by boundary changes were also interested in it. When he discovered theTrimdon branchhad not yet made a nomination, Blair visited them and won the support of the branch secretaryJohn Burton, and with Burton's help was nominated by the branch. At the last minute, he was added to the shortlist and won the selection over Huckfield. It was the last candidate selection made by Labour before the election, and was made after the Labour Party had issued biographies of all its candidates (\\\"Labour's Election Who's Who\\\"). John Burton became Blair'selection agentand one of his most trusted and longest-standing allies.Blair's election literature in the 1983 general election endorsed left-wing policies that Labour advocated in the early 1980s.He called for Britain to leave theEECas early as\",\n \"theEECas early as the 1970s,though he had told his selection conference that he personally favoured continuing membershipand voted \\\"Yes\\\" in the1975 referendum on the subject. He opposed theExchange Rate Mechanism(ERM) in 1986 but supported the ERM by 1989.He was a member of theCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament, despite never strongly being in favour ofunilateral nuclear disarmament.Blair was helped on the campaign trail by soap opera actressPat Phoenix, his father-in-law's girlfriend. At the age of thirty, he was elected as MP for Sedgefield in 1983; despite the party'slandslide defeat at the general election. In hismaiden speechin theHouse of Commonson 6 July 1983, Blair stated, \\\"I am a socialist not through reading a textbook that has caught my intellectual fancy, nor through unthinking tradition, but because I believe that, at its best, socialism corresponds most closely to an existence that is both rational and moral. It stands for cooperation, not confrontation; for fellowship, not fear. It stands for\",\n \"fear. It stands for equality.\\\" Once elected, Blair's political ascent was rapid. He received his firstfront benchappointment in 1984 as assistantTreasuryspokesman. In May 1985, he appeared on the BBC'sQuestion Time, arguing that the Conservative Government'sPublic Order White Paperwas a threat to civil liberties. Blair demanded an inquiry into theBank of England's decision to rescue the collapsedJohnson Mattheybank in October 1985. By this time, Blair was aligned with the reforming tendencies in the party (headed by leaderNeil Kinnock) and in 1988 was promoted to the shadowTrade and Industryteam as spokesman on theCity of London. Leadership roles In 1987, he stood forelection to the Shadow Cabinet, receiving 71 votes.When Kinnock resigned after a fourth consecutive Conservative victory in the1992 general election, Blair becameshadow home secretaryunderJohn Smith. The old guard argued that trends showed they were regaining strength under Smith's strong leadership. Meanwhile, the breakawaySDPfaction had merged\",\n \"had merged with theLiberal Party; the resultingLiberal Democratsseemed to pose a major threat to the Labour base. Blair, the leader of the modernising faction, had an entirely different vision, arguing that the long-term trends had to be reversed. The Labour Party was too locked into a base that was shrinking, since it was based on the working-class, on trade unions, and on residents of subsidised council housing. The rapidly growing middle-class was largely ignored, especially the more ambitious working-class families. They aspired to middle-class status but accepted the Conservative argument that Labour was holding ambitious people back with its levelling-down policies. They increasingly saw Labour in terms defined by the opposition, regarding higher taxes and higher interest rates. The steps towards what would become New Labour were procedural but essential. Calling on the slogan \\\"One member, one vote\\\", John Smith, with limited input from Blair, secured an end to the trade union block vote for Westminster\",\n \"for Westminster candidate selection at the 1993 conference.But Blair and the modernisers wanted Smith to go further still, and called for radical adjustment of Party goals by repealing \\\"Clause IV\\\", the historic commitment tonationalisationof industry. This would be achieved in 1995. Leader of the Opposition John Smith died suddenly of a heart attack on 12 May 1994. Blair defeatedJohn PrescottandMargaret Beckettin thesubsequent leadership electionand becameLeader of the Opposition.As is customary for the holder of that office, Blair was appointed aPrivy Counsellor.It has long been rumoureda dealwas struck between Blair andShadow ChancellorGordon Brownat the former Granita restaurant inIslington, in which Blair promised to give Brown control of economic policy in return for Brown not standing against him in the leadership election.Whether this is true or not, the relationship between Blair and Brown was central to the fortunes ofNew Labour, and they mostly remained united in public, despite reported serious\",\n \"reported serious private rifts. During his speech at the 1994 Labour Party conference, Blair announced a forthcoming proposal to update the party's objects and objectives, which was widely interpreted to relate to replacingClause IVof the party's constitution with a new statement of aims and values.This involved the deletion of the party's stated commitment to \\\"the common ownership of the means of production and exchange\\\", which was generally understood to mean wholesale nationalisation of major industries.At a special conference in April 1995, the clause was replaced by a statement that the party is \\\"democratic socialist\\\",and Blair also claimed to be a \\\"democratic socialist\\\" himself in the same year.However, the move away from nationalisation in the old Clause IV made many on the left wing of the Labour Party feel that Labour was moving away from traditional socialist principles of nationalisation set out in 1918, and was seen by them as part of a shift of the party towards \\\"New Labour\\\". Blair inherited the\",\n \"Blair inherited the Labour leadership at a time when the party was ascendant over the Conservatives in the opinion polls, since the Conservative government's reputation in monetary policy declined as a result of theBlack Wednesdayeconomic disaster of September 1992. Blair's election as leader saw Labour support surge higher stillin spite of the continuing economic recovery and fall in unemployment that the Conservative government (led byJohn Major) had overseen since the end of the 1990–92recession.At the 1996 Labour Party conference, Blair stated that his three top priorities on coming to office were \\\"education, education, and education\\\". Aided by the unpopularity of John Major's Conservative government (itself deeply divided over theEuropean Union),Blair won a landslide victory for Labour at the1997 general election, ending eighteen years of Conservative Party government, with the heaviest Conservative defeat since1906.In 1996, themanifestoNew Labour, New Life for Britainwas published, which set out the\",\n \"which set out the party's new \\\"Third Way\\\"centristapproach to policy, and was presented as the brand of a newly reformed party that had altered Clause IV and endorsedmarket economics. In May 1995, Labour had achieved considerable success in the local and European elections and had won four by-elections. For Blair, these achievements were a source of optimism, as they indicated that the Conservatives were in decline. Virtually every opinion poll since late-1992 put Labour ahead of the Conservatives with enough support to form an overall majority. Prime Minister (1997–2007) Blair becamePrime Minister of the United Kingdomon 2 May 1997; aged 43, he was the youngest person to reach that office sinceLord Liverpoolbecame prime minister aged 42 in 1812.He was also the first prime minister born after theSecond World Warand the accession ofElizabeth IIto the throne. With victories in 1997, 2001, and 2005, Blair was the Labour Party's longest-serving prime minister,and the first person (and the only one, to date) to\",\n \"one, to date) to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Northern Ireland His contribution towards assisting theNorthern Ireland peace processby helping to negotiate theGood Friday Agreement(after 30 years of conflict) was widely recognised.Following theOmagh bombingon 15 August 1998, by members of theReal IRAopposed to the peace process, which killed 29 people and wounded hundreds, Blair visited theCounty Tyronetown and met with victims atRoyal Victoria Hospital, Belfast. Military intervention and the War on Terror In his first six years in office, Blair ordered British troops into combat five times, more than any other prime minister in British history. This included Iraq in both1998and2003,Kosovo(1999),Sierra Leone(2000) andAfghanistan(2001). The Kosovo War, which Blair had advocated on moral grounds, was initially a failure when it relied solely on air strikes; the threat of a ground offensive convinced Serbia'sSlobodan Miloševićto withdraw. Blair had been a major advocate for a\",\n \"advocate for a ground offensive, whichBill Clintonwas reluctant to do, and ordered that 50,000 soldiers – most of the available British Army – should be made ready for action.The following year, the limitedOperation Palliserin Sierra Leone swiftly swung the tide against the rebel forces; before deployment, theUnited Nations Mission in Sierra Leonehad been on the verge of collapse.Palliser had been intended as an evacuation mission butBrigadier David Richardswas able to convince Blair to allow him to expand the role; at the time, Richards' action was not known and Blair was assumed to be behind it. Blair orderedOperation Barras, a highly successfulSAS/Parachute Regimentstrike to rescue hostages from a Sierra Leone rebel group.JournalistAndrew Marrhas argued that the success of ground attacks, real and threatened, over air strikes alone was influential on how Blair planned the Iraq War, and that the success of the first three wars Blair fought \\\"played to his sense of himself as a moral war leader\\\".When asked\",\n \"leader\\\".When asked in 2010 if the success of Palliser may have \\\"embolden British politicians\\\" to think of military action as a policy option, General Sir David Richards admitted there \\\"might be something in that\\\". From the start of theWar on Terrorin 2001, Blair strongly supported theforeign policyofGeorge W. Bush, participating in the2001 invasion of Afghanistanand2003 invasion of Iraq. The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attracted widespread public opposition and 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it.As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision.Alastair Campbelldescribed Blair's statement that the intelligence on WMDs was \\\"beyond doubt\\\" as his \\\"assessment of the assessment that was given to him.\\\"In 2009, Blair stated that he would have supported removingSaddam Husseinfrom power even in the face of proof that he had no such weapons.PlaywrightHarold Pinterand former Malaysian prime ministerMahathir Mohamadaccused Blair of war crimes.\",\n \"of war crimes. Testifying before theIraq Inquiryon 29 January 2010, Blair said Saddam Hussein was a \\\"monster and I believe he threatened not just the region but the world.\\\"Blair said that British and American attitude towards Hussein had \\\"changed dramatically\\\" after theSeptember 11 attacks. Blair denied that he would have supported the invasion of Iraq even if he had thought Hussein had no weapons of mass destruction. He said he believed the world was safer as a result of the invasion.He said there was \\\"no real difference between wanting regime change and wanting Iraq to disarm: regime change was US policy because Iraq was in breach of its UN obligations.\\\" In an October 2015CNNinterview withFareed Zakaria, Blair apologised for his \\\"mistakes\\\" over the Iraq War and admitted there were \\\"elements of truth\\\" to the view that the invasion helped promote the rise ofISIS.TheChilcot Inquiryreport of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War, though the former prime minister again refused to\",\n \"again refused to apologise for his decision to back the US-led invasion. Relationship with Parliament One of Blair's first acts as prime minister was to replace the then twice-weekly 15-minute sessions ofPrime Minister's Questionsheld on Tuesdays and Thursdays with a single 30-minute session on Wednesdays. In addition to PMQs, Blair held monthly press conferences at which he fielded questions from journalistsand, from 2002, broke precedent by agreeing to give evidence twice yearly before the most senior Commons select committee, theLiaison Committee.Blair was sometimes perceived as paying insufficient attention both to the views of his own Cabinet colleagues and to those of the House of Commons.His style was sometimes criticised as not that of a prime minister andhead of government, which he was, but of a president and head of state, which he was not.Blair was accused of excessive reliance onspin.He was the first UK prime minister to have been formally questioned by police, though notunder caution, while\",\n \"caution, while still in office. Events before resignation As thecasualties of the Iraq Warmounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament,and his popularity dropped as a result,with Labour's overall majority at the2005 electionreduced from 167 to 66 seats. As a combined result of theBlair–Brown pact, the Iraq War and low approval ratings, pressure built up within the Labour Party for Blair to resign.Over the summer of 2006, many MPs criticised Blair for not calling for a ceasefire in theIsrael–Lebanon conflict.On 7 September 2006, Blair publicly stated he would step down as leader by the time of theTrades Union Congressconference held from 10 to 13 September 2007,despite promising to serve a full term during the previous general election campaign. On 10 May 2007, during a speech at theTrimdon Labour Club, Blair announced his intention to resign as both Labour leader and prime minister,triggeringa leadership electionin which Brown was the only candidate. At a special party conference in Manchester on 24\",\n \"in Manchester on 24 June 2007, Blair formally handed over the leadership of the Labour Party to Brown, who had been Chancellor of the Exchequer in Blair's three ministries.Blair tendered his resignation as prime minister on 27 June and Brown assumed office the same afternoon. Blair resigned from his Sedgefield seat in the traditional form of accepting theStewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds, to which he was appointed by Brown in one of the latter's last acts as chancellor;the resultingby-electionwas won by Labour candidatePhil Wilson.Blair decided not to issue a list ofResignation Honours, making him the first prime minister of the modern era not to do so. Policies In 2001, Blair said, \\\"We are aleft of centreparty, pursuing economic prosperity and social justice as partners and not as opposites.\\\"Blair rarely applies such labels to himself; he promised before the 1997 election that New Labour would govern \\\"from the radical centre\\\", and according to one lifelong Labour Party member always described himself as\",\n \"himself as asocial democrat.In a 2007 opinion piece inThe Guardian, left-wing commentator Neil Lawson described Blair as to theright of centre.AYouGovopinion poll in 2005 found that a small majority of British voters, including many New Labour supporters, placed Blair on the right of the political spectrum.TheFinancial Timesargued that Blair is not conservative but instead apopulist. Critics and admirers tend to agree that Blair's electoral success was based on his ability to occupy the centre ground and appeal to voters across the political spectrum, to the extent that he has been fundamentally at odds with traditional Labour Party values. Some left-wing critics, such asMike Marquseein 2001, argued that Blair oversaw the final stage of a long term shift of the Labour Party to the right. There is some evidence that Blair's long term dominance of the centre forced his Conservative opponents to shift a long distance to the left to challenge hishegemonythere.Leading Conservatives of the post-New Labour era hold\",\n \"Labour era hold Blair in high regard:George Osbornedescribes him as \\\"the master\\\",Michael Govethought he had an \\\"entitlement to conservative respect\\\" in February 2003, whileDavid Cameronreportedly maintained Blair as an informal adviser.Former Conservative Party Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher declared Blair and New Labour to be her greatest achievement. Social reforms Blair introduced significant constitutional reforms; promoted new rights for gay people; and signed treaties integrating Britain more closely with the EU. With specific regards to Blair'sLGBTQ+reforms, Blair introduced theCivil Partnership Act 2004which granted civil partners rights and responsibilities similar to those in civil marriages, equalised the age of consent between straight and gay couples, ended the ban on gay people serving in the British military, introduced theGender Recognition Act 2004which allows those withgender dysphoriato legally change their gender, repealedSection 28, gave gay couples the right to adopt and enacted\",\n \"adopt and enacted several anti-discrimination policies into law. In 2014 he was proclaimed a \\\"gay icon\\\" by theGay Times. The New Labour government increased police powers by adding to the number of arrestable offences, compulsoryDNA recordingand the use of dispersal orders.Under Blair's government the amount of new legislation increasedwhich attracted criticism.He also introduced tough anti-terrorism andidentity card legislation. Economic policies Blair has been credited with overseeing a strong economy, with real incomes of British citizens growing 18% between 1997 and 2006. Britain saw rapid productivity growth and significant GDP growth, as well as falling poverty rates and inequality which, despite stubbornly failing to fall, stalled thanks to New Labour's economic policies (such as tax credits). Despite the financial bubble developing in the property markets, studies have credited the growth to investments in education and the maintenance of fiscal responsibility, rather than a financial sugar-high.\",\n \"sugar-high. During his time as prime minister, Blair kept direct taxes low, while raising indirect taxation; invested a significant amount inHuman capital; introduced aNational Minimum Wageand some new employment rights (while keepingMargaret Thatcher's trade union reforms).He introduced substantial market-based reforms in the education and health sectors; introduced studenttuition fees; introduced a welfare to work scheme and sought to reduce certain categories of welfare payments. He did not reverse theprivatisation of the railwaysenacted by his predecessor John Major and instead strengthened regulation (by creating theOffice of Rail Regulation) and limited fare rises toinflation+1%. Blair and Brown raised spending on the NHS and other public services, increasing spending from 39.9% of GDP to 48.1% in 2010–11.They pledged in 2001 to bring NHS spending to the levels of other European countries, and doubled spending in real terms to over £100 billion in England alone. Immigration Non-European immigration\",\n \"immigration rose significantly during the period from 1997, not least because of thegovernment's abolition of the primary purpose rule in June 1997.This change made it easier for UK residents to bring foreign spouses into the country. The former government advisor Andrew Neather in theEvening Standardstated that the deliberate policy of ministers from late 2000 until early 2008 was to open up the UK to mass migration.Neather later stated that his words had been twisted, saying: \\\"The main goal was to allow in more migrant workers at a point when – hard as it is to imagine now – the booming economy was running up against skills shortages.... Somehow this has become distorted by excitable Right-wing newspaper columnists into being a \\\"plot\\\" to make Britain multicultural. There was no plot.\\\" Environmental record Blair criticised other governments for not doing enough to solveglobal climate change. In a 1997 visit to the United States, he made a comment on \\\"great industrialised nations\\\" that fail to reduce\",\n \"that fail to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Again in 2003, Blair went before theUnited States Congressand said that climate change \\\"cannot be ignored\\\", insisting \\\"we need to go beyond evenKyoto.\\\"Blair and his party promised a 20% reduction in carbon dioxide.The Labour Party also claimed that by 2010 10% of the energy would come from renewable resources; however, it only reached 7% by that point. In 2000, Blair \\\"flagged up\\\" 100 million euros for green policies and urged environmentalists and businesses to work together. Foreign policy Blair built his foreign policy on basic principles (close ties with the United States and European Union) and added a new activist philosophy of \\\"interventionism\\\". In 2001, Britain joined the U.S. in the global war on terror. Blair forged friendships with several European leaders, includingSilvio Berlusconiof Italy,Angela Merkelof Germanyand laterNicolas Sarkozyof France. Along with enjoying a close relationship with Bill Clinton, Blair formed a strong political alliance with\",\n \"alliance with George W. Bush, particularly in the area of foreign policy. For his part, Bush lauded Blair and the UK. In hispost-9/11speech, for example, he stated that \\\"America has no truer friend than Great Britain\\\". The alliance between Bush and Blair seriously damaged Blair's standing in the eyes of Britons angry at American influence;a 2002 poll revealed that a large amount of Britons viewed Blair as a \\\"lapdog\\\" of Bush.Blair argued it was in Britain's interest to \\\"protect and strengthen the bond\\\" with the United States regardless of who was in the White House. However, a perception of one-sided compromising personal and political closeness led to discussion of the term \\\"Poodle-ism\\\" in the UK media, to describe the \\\"Special Relationship\\\" of the UK government and prime minister with the US White House and president.A revealing conversation between Bush and Blair, with the former addressing the latter as \\\"Yo , Blair\\\" was recorded when they did not know a microphone was live at theG8 summitinSaint\",\n \"theG8 summitinSaint Petersburgin 2006. Middle East policy On 30 January 2003, Blair signedThe letter of the eightsupportingU.S. policy on Iraq. Blair showed a deep feeling for Israel, born in part from his faith.Blair has been a longtime member of the pro-Israel lobby groupLabour Friends of Israel. In 1994, Blair forged close ties withMichael Levy, a leader of theJewish Leadership Council.Levy ran the Labour Leader's Office Fund to finance Blair's campaign before the 1997 election and raised £12 million towards Labour's landslide victory, Levy was rewarded with apeerage, and in 2002, Blair appointed Lord Levy as his personal envoy to the Middle East. Levy praised Blair for his \\\"solid and committed support of the State of Israel\\\".Tam Dalyell, whileFather of the Houseof Commons, suggested in 2003 that Blair's foreign policy decisions were unduly influenced by a \\\"cabal\\\" of Jewish advisers, including Levy,Peter MandelsonandJack Straw(the last two are not Jewish but have some Jewish ancestry). Blair, on coming to\",\n \"Blair, on coming to office, had been \\\"cool towards the right-wingNetanyahugovernment\\\".During his first visit to Israel, Blair thought the Israelis bugged him in his car.After the election in 1999 ofEhud Barak, with whom Blair forged a close relationship, he became much more sympathetic to Israel.From 2001, Blair built up a relationshipwith Barak's successor,Ariel Sharon, and responded positively toArafat, whom he had met thirteen times since becoming prime minister and regarded as essential to future negotiations.In 2004, 50 former diplomats, including ambassadors toBaghdadandTel Aviv, stated they had \\\"watched with deepening concern\\\" at Britain following the US into war in Iraq in 2003. They criticised Blair's support for theroad map for peacewhich included the retaining ofIsraeli settlementson theWest Bank. In 2006 Blair was criticised for his failure to immediately call for a ceasefire in the2006 Lebanon War.The Observernewspaper claimed that at a cabinet meeting before Blair left for a summit with Bush on\",\n \"summit with Bush on 28 July 2006, a significant number of ministers pressured Blair to publicly criticise Israel over the scale of deaths and destruction in Lebanon.Blair was criticised for his solid stance alongside US president George W. Bush on Middle East policy. Syria and Libya A Freedom of Information request byThe Sunday Timesin 2012 revealed that Blair's government consideredknightingSyria's PresidentBashar al-Assad. The documents showed Blair was willing to appear alongside Assad at a joint press conference even though the Syrians would probably have settled for a farewell handshake for the cameras; British officials sought to manipulate the media to portray Assad in a favourable light; and Blair's aides tried to help Assad's \\\"photogenic\\\" wifeAsma al-Assadboost her profile. The newspaper noted: The Arab leader was granted audiences with the Queen and the Prince of Wales, lunch with Blair at Downing Street, a platform in parliament and many other privileges ... The red carpet treatment he and his\",\n \"he and his entourage received is embarrassing given the bloodbath that has since taken place under his rule in Syria ... The courtship has parallels with Blair's friendly relations withMuammar Gaddafi. Blair had been on friendly terms with Colonel Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, when sanctions imposed on the country were lifted by the US and the UK. Even after theLibyan Civil Warin 2011, he said he had no regrets about his close relationship with the late Libyan leader.During Blair's premiership,MI6renderedAbdelhakim Belhajto the Gaddafi regime in 2004, though Blair later claimed he had \\\"no recollection\\\" of the incident. Zimbabwe Blair had an antagonistic relationship with Zimbabwean presidentRobert Mugabeand allegedly plannedregime changeagainst Mugabe in the early 2000s.Zimbabwe had embarked on a program ofuncompensated land redistributionfrom the country's white commercial farmers to the black population, a policy that disrupted agricultural production and threw Zimbabwe's economy into chaos. GeneralCharles\",\n \"GeneralCharles Guthrie, theChief of the Defence Staff, revealed in 2007 that he and Blair had discussed the invasion of Zimbabwe.Guthrie advised against military action: \\\"Hold hard, you'll make it worse.\\\"In 2013, South African presidentThabo Mbekisaid that Blair had pressured South Africa to join in a \\\"regime change scheme, even to the point of using military force\\\" in Zimbabwe.Mbeki refused because he felt that \\\"Mugabe is part of the solution to this problem.\\\"However, a spokesman for Blair said that \\\"he never asked anyone to plan or take part in any such military intervention.\\\" Russia Blair went on a trip to Moscow to watch a performance of theWar and PeaceoperawithVladimir Putin, while he was theacting president of Russia. This meeting was criticised by groups such asHuman Rights WatchandAmnesty International.In 2018, SirRichard Dearlove, former head of MI6, said there was \\\"significant regret\\\" over this trip, which helped Putin rise to power. Dearlove also alleged that in 2000, aKGBofficer approached him,\",\n \"approached him, seeking Britain's help in boosting Putin's political profile, and this was why Blair met Putin in Russia. Blair also hosted Putin in London in April 2000, despite hesitation towards Putin from other world leaders, and opposition fromhuman rights groupsoveratrocities committed in Chechnya. Blair toldJim HoaglandofThe Washington Postthat \\\" vision of the future is one that we would feel comfortable with. Putin has a very clear agenda of modernizing Russia. When he talks of a strong Russia, he means strength not in a threatening way but in a way that means the country economically and politically is capable of standing up for itself, which is a perfectly good aim to have\\\".During the meeting, Blair acknowledged and discussed \\\"concerns about Chechnya\\\",but described Putin as a political reformer \\\"who is ready to embrace a new relationship with the European Union and the United States, who wants a strong and modern Russia and a strong relationship with the West\\\". Relationship with media Rupert\",\n \"with media Rupert Murdoch Blair was reported byThe Guardianin 2006 to have been supported politically byRupert Murdoch, the founder of theNews Corporationorganisation.In 2011, Blair becamegodfatherto one of Rupert Murdoch's children withWendi Deng,but he and Murdoch later ended their friendship, in 2014, after Murdoch suspected him of having an affair with Deng while they were still married, according toThe Economistmagazine. Contacts with UK media proprietors ACabinet Officefreedom of informationresponse, released the day after Blair handed over power to Gordon Brown, documents Blair having various official phone calls and meetings with Rupert Murdoch of News Corporation andRichard Desmondof Northern and Shell Media. The response includes contacts \\\"clearly of an official nature\\\" in the specified period, but excludes contacts \\\"not clearly of an official nature.\\\"No details were given of the subjects discussed. In the period between September 2002 and April 2005, Blair and Murdoch are documented speaking six\",\n \"speaking six times; three times in the nine days before the Iraq War, including the eve of the 20 March US and UK invasion, and on 29 January, 25 April, and 3 October 2004. Between January 2003 and February 2004, Blair had three meetings with Richard Desmond; on 29 January and 3 September 2003, and 23 February 2004. The information was disclosed after a3+1⁄2-year battle by the Liberal Democrats'Lord Avebury.Lord Avebury's initial October 2003 information request was dismissed by then leader of the Lords,Baroness Amos.A following complaint was rejected, withDowning Streetclaiming the information compromised \\\"free and frank discussions\\\", while Cabinet Office claimed releasing the timing of the PM's contacts with individuals is \\\"undesirable\\\", as it might lead to the content of the discussions being disclosed.While awaiting a following appeal from Lord Avebury, the cabinet office announced that it would release the information. Lord Avebury said: \\\"The public can now scrutinise the timing of his (Murdoch's)\",\n \"of his (Murdoch's) contacts with the former prime minister, to see whether they can be linked to events in the outside world.\\\" Blair appeared before theLeveson Inquiryon Monday 28 May 2012.During his appearance, a protester, later named as David Lawley-Wakelin, got into the court-room and claimed he was guilty of war crimes before being dragged out. Media portrayal Blair has been noted as acharismatic, articulate speaker with an informal style.Film and theatre directorRichard Eyreopined that \\\"Blair had a very considerable skill as a performer\\\".A few months after becoming prime minister Blair gave a tribute toDiana, Princess of Wales, on the morning of her death in August 1997, in which he famously described her as \\\"the People's Princess\\\". After taking office in 1997, Blair gave particular prominence to his press secretary, who became known as theprime minister's official spokesman(the two roles have since been separated). Blair's first PMOS was Alastair Campbell, who served in that role from May 1997 to 8\",\n \"from May 1997 to 8 June 2001, after which he served as the prime minister's director of communications and strategy until his resignation on 29 August 2003 in the aftermath of theHutton Inquiry. Blair had close relationships with the Clinton family. The strong partnership with Bill Clinton was made into the filmThe Special Relationshipin 2010. Relationship with Labour Party Blair's apparent refusal to set a date for his departure was criticised by the British press and Members of Parliament. It has been reported that a number of cabinet ministers believed that Blair's timely departure from office would be required to be able to win a fourth election.Some ministers viewed Blair's announcement of policy initiatives in September 2006 as an attempt to draw attention away from these issues. Gordon Brown After the death of John Smith in 1994, Blair and his close colleague Gordon Brown (they shared an office at the House of Commons) were both seen as possible candidates for the party leadership. They agreed not to\",\n \"They agreed not to stand against each other, it is said, as part of a supposed Blair–Brown pact. Brown, who considered himself the senior of the two, understood that Blair would give way to him: opinion polls soon indicated, however, that Blair appeared to enjoy greater support among voters.Their relationship in power became so turbulent that it was reported thedeputy prime minister, John Prescott, often had to act as \\\"marriage guidance counsellor\\\". During the 2010 election campaign Blair publicly endorsed Brown's leadership, praising the way he had handled the financial crisis. Post-premiership (2007-present) Diplomacy On 27 June 2007, Blair officially resigned as prime minister after ten years in office, and he was officially confirmed as Middle Eastenvoyfor the United Nations, European Union, United States, and Russia.Blair originally indicated that he would retain his parliamentary seat after his resignation as prime minister came into effect; however, on being confirmed for the Middle East role he\",\n \"Middle East role he resigned from the Commons by taking up anoffice of profit.President George W. Bush had preliminary talks with Blair to ask him to take up the envoy role. White House sources stated that \\\"both Israel and the Palestinians had signed up to the proposal\\\".In May 2008 Blair announced a new plan for peace and for Palestinian rights, based heavily on the ideas of thePeace Valley plan.Blair resigned as envoy in May 2015. Private sector In January 2008, it was confirmed that Blair would be joining investment bankJPMorgan Chasein a \\\"senior advisory capacity\\\"and that he would adviseZurich Financial Servicesonclimate change. His salary for this work is unknown, although it has been claimed it may be in excess of £500,000 per year.Blair also gives lectures, earning up to US$250,000 for a 90-minute speech, and in 2008 he was said to be the highest paid speaker in the world. Blair taught a course on issues of faith and globalisation at theYale UniversitySchools ofManagementandDivinityas aHowland\",\n \"aHowland distinguished fellowduring the 2008–09 academic year. In July 2009, this accomplishment was followed by the launching of theFaith and Globalisation Initiativewith Yale University in the US, Durham University in the UK, and theNational University of Singaporein Asia, to deliver a postgraduate programme in partnership with the Foundation. Blair's links with, and receipt of an undisclosed sum from,UI Energy Corporation, have also been subject to media comment in the UK. In July 2010 it was reported that his personal security guards claimed £250,000 a year in expenses from the taxpayer. Foreign SecretaryWilliam Haguesaid; \\\"we have to make sure that is as cost-effective as possible, that it doesn't cost any more to the taxpayer than is absolutely necessary\\\". Tony Blair Associates Blair establishedTony Blair Associatesto \\\"allow him to provide, in partnership with others, strategic advice on a commercial andpro bonobasis, on political and economic trends and governmental reform\\\".The profits from the firm\",\n \"from the firm go towards supporting Blair's \\\"work on faith, Africa and climate change\\\". Blair has been subject to criticism for potential conflicts of interest between his diplomatic role as a Middle East envoy, and his work with Tony Blair Associates,and a number of prominent critics have even called for him to be sacked.Blair has used hisQuartetTony Blair Associates works with the Kazakhstan government, advising the regime on judicial, economic and political reforms, but has been subject to criticism after accusations of \\\"whitewashing\\\" the image and human rights record of the regime. Blair responded to such criticism by saying his choice to advise the country is an example of how he can \\\"nudge controversial figures on a progressive path of reform\\\", and has stated that he receives no personal profit from this advisory role.The Kazakhstan foreign minister said that the country was \\\"honoured and privileged\\\" to be receiving advice from Blair.A letter obtained byThe Daily Telegraphin August 2014 revealed Blair\",\n \"2014 revealed Blair had given damage-limitation advice toNursultan Nazarbayevafter the December 2011Zhanaozen massacre.Blair was reported to have accepted a business advisory role with PresidentAbdel Fattah el-Sisiof Egypt, a situation deemed incompatible with his role as Middle East envoy. Blair described the report as \\\"nonsense\\\". Charity and non-profits In November 2007 Blair launched the Tony Blair Sports Foundation, which aims to \\\"increase childhood participation in sports activities, especially in the North East of England, where a larger proportion of children are socially excluded, and to promote overall health and prevent childhood obesity.\\\"On 30 May 2008, Blair launched theTony Blair Faith Foundationas a vehicle for encouraging different faiths to join in promoting respect and understanding, as well as working to tackle poverty. Reflecting Blair's own faith but not dedicated to any particular religion, the Foundation aims to \\\"show how faith is a powerful force for good in the modern world\\\". \\\"The\",\n \"modern world\\\". \\\"The Foundation will use its profile and resources to encourage people of faith to work together more closely to tackle global poverty and conflict,\\\" says its mission statement. In February 2009 he applied to set up a charity called the Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative: the application was approved in November 2009.Blair's foundation hit controversy in October 2012, when news emerged that it was taking on unpaid interns. In December 2016, Blair created theTony Blair Instituteto promote global outlooks by governments and organisations.In September 2023 former Finnish prime ministerSanna Marinjoined him as a strategic adviser on political leaders' reform programmes in the institute. Books A Journey In March 2010, it was reported that Blair's memoirs, titledThe Journey, would be published in September 2010.In July 2010 it was announced the memoirs would be retitledA Journey.The memoirs were seen by many as controversial and a further attempt to profit from his office and from acts related\",\n \"from acts related to overseas wars that were widely seen as wrong,leading to anger and suspicion prior to launch. On 16 August 2010 it was announced that Blair would give the £4.6 million advance and all royalties from his memoirs to theRoyal British Legion– the charity's largest ever single donation. Media analysis of the sudden announcement was wide-ranging, describing it as an act of \\\"desperation\\\" to obtain a better launch reception of a humiliating \\\"publishing flop\\\"that had languished in the ratings,\\\"blood money\\\" for the lives lost in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars,an act with a \\\"hidden motive\\\" or an expression of \\\"guilt\\\",a \\\"genius move\\\" to address the problem that \\\"Tony Blair ha one of the most toxic brands around\\\" from a PR perspective, and a \\\"cynical stunt to wipe the slate\\\", but also as an attempt to make amends.Friends had said that the act was partly motivated by the wish to \\\"repair his reputation\\\". The book was published on 1 September and within hours of its launch had become the fastest-selling\",\n \"the fastest-selling autobiography of all time.On 3 September Blair gave his first live interview since publication onThe Late Late Showin Ireland, with protesters lying in wait there for him.On 4 September, Blair was confronted by 200 anti-war and hardline Irish nationalist demonstrators before the first book signing of his memoirs atEason'sbookstore onO'Connell Streetin Dublin, with angry activists chanting \\\"war criminal\\\" and that he had \\\"blood on his hands\\\", and clashing with Irish Police (Garda Síochána) as they tried to break through a security cordon outside the Eason's store. Blair was pelted with eggs and shoes, and encountered an attemptedcitizen's arrestforwar crimes. On Leadership Published in 2024, and described byGeorge Osborneas \\\"the most practically useful guide to politics I have ever read.\\\" Accusations of war crimes Since the Iraq War, Blair has been the subject of war crimes accusations. Critics of his actions, including BishopDesmond Tutu,Harold PinterandArundhati Royhave called for his\",\n \"called for his trial at theInternational Criminal Court. In November 2011, a war crimes tribunal of theKuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission, established by Malaysia's former prime minister Mahathir Mohamad, reached a unanimous conclusion that Blair was guilty of crimes against peace, as a result of his role in the Iraq War.The proceedings lasted for four days, and consisted of five judges of judicial and academic backgrounds, a tribunal-appointed defence team in lieu of the defendants or representatives, and a prosecution team including international law professorFrancis Boyle. In September 2012, Desmond Tutu suggested that Blair should follow the path of former African leaders who had been brought before the International Criminal Court inThe Hague.The human rights lawyerGeoffrey Bindmanconcurred with Tutu's suggestion that there should be a war crimes trial.In a statement made in response to Tutu's comments, Blair defended his actions.He was supported byLord Falconer, who stated that the war had been\",\n \"the war had been authorised byUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1441. In July 2017, former Iraqi general Abdulwaheed al-Rabbat launched a private war crimes prosecution in the High Court in London, asking for Blair, former foreign secretary Jack Straw and former attorney generalLord Goldsmithto be prosecuted for \\\"the crime of aggression\\\" for their role in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The High Court ruled that, although the crime of aggression was recognised in international law, it was not an offence under UK law, and therefore the prosecution could not proceed. Blair defended Some, such asJohn Rentoul,John McTernan,Geoffrey RobertsonandIain Dale, have countered accusations that Blair committed war crimes during his premiership, often highlighting how no case against Blair has ever made it to trial, suggesting that Blair broke no laws. Blair himself has defended his involvement in the Iraq War by highlighting the findings of theIraq Survey Group, which found that Saddam had attempted to get sanctions\",\n \"to get sanctions lifted by undermining them, which would have enabled him to restart his WMD program. Political interventions and views Response to the Iraq Inquiry The Chilcot report issued after the conclusion of the Iraq Inquiry was published on 6 July 2016; it criticised Blair for joining the US in the war in Iraq in 2003. Afterward, Blair issued a statement and held a two-hour press conference to apologise, to justify the decisions he had made in 2003 \\\"in good faith\\\" and to deny allegations that the war had led to a significant increase in terrorism.He acknowledged that the report made \\\"real and material criticisms of preparation, planning, process and of the relationship with the United States\\\" but cited sections of the report that he said \\\"should lay to rest allegations of bad faith, lies or deceit\\\". He stated: \\\"whether people agree or disagree with my decision to take military action against Saddam Hussein; I took it in good faith and in what I believed to be the best interests of the country. ... I\",\n \"the country. ... I will take full responsibility for any mistakes without exception or excuse. I will at the same time say why, nonetheless, I believe that it was better to remove Saddam Hussein and why I do not believe this is the cause of the terrorism we see today whether in the Middle East or elsewhere in the world\\\". Iran–West tensions In an op-ed published byThe Washington Poston 8 February 2019, Blair said: \\\"Where Iran is exercising military interference, it should be strongly pushed back. Where it is seeking influence, it should be countered. Where its proxies operate, it should be held responsible. Where its networks exist, they should be disrupted. Where its leaders are saying what is unacceptable, they should be exposed. Where the Iranian people — highly educated and connected, despite their government — are protesting for freedom, they should be supported.\\\"TheTony Blair Institute for Global Changewarned of a growing Iranian threat.The Tony Blair Institute confirmed that it has received donations\",\n \"received donations from the U.S. State Department and Saudi Arabia. European Union Blair did not wantthe UK to leave the EUand called for areferendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement. Blair also maintained that once the terms deciding how the UK leaves the EU were known, the people should be able to vote again on those terms. Blair stated, \\\"We know the options for Brexit. Parliament will have to decide on one of them. If Parliament can't then it should decide to go back to the people.\\\" However, after the2019 general electionin which the pro-withdrawal Conservative party won a sizeable majority of seats, Blair argued that remain supporters should \\\"face up to one simple point: we lost\\\" and \\\"pivot to a completely new position...We're going to have to be constructive about it and see how Britain develops a constructive relationship with Europe and finds its new niche in the world.\\\" American power Blair was interviewed in June 2020 for an article in the American magazineThe Atlanticon European views of U.S.\",\n \"views of U.S. foreign policy concerning theCOVID-19 pandemicand resultingrecession, the rise of China, and theGeorge Floyd protests. He affirmed his belief in the continued strength of Americansoft powerand the need to address Iranian military aggression, European military underinvestment, and illicit Chinese trade practices. He said, however, \\\"I think it's fair to say a lot of political leaders in Europe are dismayed by what they see as the isolationism growing in America and the seeming indifference to alliances. But I think there will come a time when America decides in its own interest to reengage, so I'm optimistic that America will in the end understand that this is not about relegating your self-interest behind the common interest; it's an understanding that by acting collectively in alliance with others you promote your own interests.\\\" Blair warned that structural issues plaguing American domestic policy needed to be addressed imminently. In August 2021, Blair criticised thewithdrawal of U.S. and\",\n \"of U.S. and NATO troops from Afghanistan, saying that it was \\\"in obedience to an imbecilic slogan about ending 'theforever wars'\\\". Blair admitted mistakes in the management of the war but warned that \\\"the reaction to our mistakes has been, unfortunately, further mistakes\\\". Labour Party Jeremy Corbyn Blair was a critic ofJeremy Corbyn'sleadership of the Labour Party, seeing it as too left-wing. He wrote in an opinion piece forThe Guardianduring the party's2015 leadership electionthat if the party elected Corbyn, it would face a \\\"rout, possibly annihilation\\\" at the next election.After the2019 general election, Blair accused Corbyn of turning the party into a \\\"glorified protest movement\\\" and in a May 2021New Statesmanarticle, Blair suggested that the party needed to undergo a programme of \\\"total deconstruction and reconstruction\\\" and also said the party needed to shift to the centre on social issues in order to survive.Blair touched on controversial topics such astransgender rights, theBlack Lives\",\n \"theBlack Lives Mattermovement and climate change. Keir Starmer Keir Starmer's leadership of the party has been widely compared to Blair's leadership and New Labour, having taken the party rightward to gain electability. Initially saying in 2021 that Starmer lacked a compelling message, Blair has since reacted more positively towards Starmer's leadership of the party, telling him he's \\\"done a great job\\\" in reforming the party during a Tony Blair Institute for Global Change's Future of Britain conference in 2023.Blair's continued influence on the party, and on Starmer led him to be ranked sixteenth in the New Statesman's Left Power List 2023, described by the paper as electorally an \\\"incomparable authority on how to win\\\".After Labour won the2024 general electionand Starmer became prime minister, Blair congratulated him on his victory, saying Starmer was \\\"determined and ruthlessly effective\\\" and appointed \\\"exceptional talent to conduct the change and put the most capable frontbenchers in the most important\",\n \"the most important positions for future government.\\\" He also offered Starmer advice, recommending he controls immigration amid the rise of theReform UKparty led byNigel Farage, saying that the party poses a threat to Labour and not just the Conservatives. Personal life Family Blair marriedCherie Boothon 29 March 1980.They have four children:Euan,Nicky, Kathryn, and Leo.Leo was the first legitimate child born to a serving prime minister in over 150 years – since Francis Russell was born toLord John Russellon 11 July 1849.All four children have Irish passports, by virtue of Blair's mother, Hazel Elizabeth Rosaleen Corscadden (12 June 1923 – 28 June 1975).The family's primary residence is in Connaught Square; the Blairs own eight residences in total.His first grandchild (a girl) was born in October 2016. Wealth Blair's financial assets are structured in an opaque manner, and estimates of their extent vary widely.These include figures of up to £100 million. Blair stated in 2014 that he was worth \\\"less than £20\",\n \"\\\"less than £20 million\\\".A 2015 assertion, byFrancis Beckett,David HenckeandNick Kochan, concluded that Blair had acquired $90 million and a property portfolio worth $37.5 million in the eight years since he had left office. In October 2021, Blair wasnamedin thePandora Papers. Religious faith In 2006, Blair referred to the role of his Christian faith in his decision to go to war in Iraq, stating that he had prayed about the issue, and saying that God would judge him for his decision: \\\"I think if you have faith about these things, you realise that judgement is made by other people ... and if you believe in God, it's made by God as well.\\\" According to Press Secretary Alastair Campbell's diary, Blair often read the Bible before taking any important decisions. He states that Blair had a \\\"wobble\\\" and considered changing his mind on the eve of the bombing of Iraq in 1998. A longer exploration of his faith can be found in an interview withThird Way Magazine. There he says that \\\"I was brought up as , but I was not in\",\n \", but I was not in any real sense a practising one until I went to Oxford. There was an Australian priest at the same college as me who got me interested again. In a sense, it was a rediscovery of religion as something living, that was about the world around me rather than some sort of special one-to-one relationship with a remote Being on high. Suddenly I began to see its social relevance. I began to make sense of the world\\\". At one point Alastair Campbell intervened in an interview, preventing Blair from answering a question about his Christianity, explaining, \\\"We don't do God.\\\"Campbell later said that he had intervened only to end the interview because the journalist had been taking an excessive time, and that the comment had just been a throwaway line. Cherie Blair's friend and \\\"spiritual guru\\\"Carole Caplinis credited with introducing her and her husband to variousNew Agesymbols and beliefs, including \\\"magic pendants\\\" known as \\\"BioElectric Shields\\\".The most controversial of the Blairs' New Age practices\",\n \"New Age practices occurred when on holiday in Mexico. The couple, wearing only bathing costumes, took part in a rebirthing procedure, which involved smearing mud and fruit over each other's bodies while sitting in a steam bath. In 1996, Blair, then an Anglican, was reprimanded by CardinalBasil Humefor receivingHoly Communionwhile attending Mass at Cherie Blair's Catholic church, in contravention ofcanon law.On 22 December 2007, it was disclosed that Blair had joined theCatholic Church. The move was described as \\\"a private matter\\\".He had informedPope Benedict XVIon 23 June 2007 — four days before he stepped down as Prime Minister — that he wanted to become a Catholic. The Pope and his advisors criticised some of Blair's political actions, but followed up with a reportedly unprecedented red carpet welcome, which included the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster,Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, who would be responsible for Blair'sCatholic instruction.In 2009, Blair questioned the Pope's attitude towards homosexuality,\",\n \"homosexuality, arguing that religious leaders must start \\\"rethinking\\\" the issue.In 2010,The Tabletnamed him as one of Britain's most influential Catholics. Honours In May 2007, Blair was invested as aparamount chiefby the chiefs and people of the village of Mahera in Sierra Leone. The honour was bestowed upon him in recognition of the role played by his government in the Sierra Leone Civil War. On 22 May 2008, Blair received an honorary law doctorate fromQueen's University Belfast, alongside Bertie Ahern, for distinction in public service and roles in the Northern Ireland peace process. On 13 January 2009, Blair was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby President George W. Bush.Bush stated that Blair was given the award \\\"in recognition of exemplary achievement and to convey the utmost esteem of the American people\\\"and cited Blair's support for the War on Terror and his role in achieving peace in Northern Ireland as two reasons for justifying his being presented with the award. On 16 February 2009, Blair\",\n \"2009, Blair was awarded theDan David PrizebyTel Aviv Universityfor \\\"exceptional leadership and steadfast determination in helping to engineer agreements and forge lasting solutions to areas in conflict\\\". He was awarded the prize in May 2009. On 8 July 2010, Blair was awarded theOrder of Freedomby PresidentFatmir Sejdiuof Kosovo.As Blair is considered to have been instrumental in ending theconflict in Kosovo, some boys born in the country following the war have been given the nameToniorTonibler. On 13 September 2010, Blair was awarded theLiberty Medalat theNational Constitution CenterinPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania.It was presented by former president Bill Clinton, and is awarded annually to \\\"men and women of courage and conviction who strive to secure the blessings of liberty to people around the globe\\\". On 31 December 2021, it was announced that the Queen had appointed Blair aKnight Companion of the Order of the Garter(KG).Blair had reportedly indicated when he left office that he did not want the traditional\",\n \"the traditional knighthood or peerage bestowed on former prime ministers.A petition cited his role in the Iraq War as a reason to remove the knighthood and garnered more than one million signatures.He received his Garter insignia on 10 June 2022 from the Queen during an audience at Windsor Castle. Works See also Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading Primary sources External links e\",\n \"Marathon world record progression World recordsin themarathonare ratified byWorld Athletics, the internationalgoverning bodyfor the sport ofathletics. The late Kenyan athleteKelvin Kiptumset a men's world record time of 2:00:35 on October 8, 2023, at the2023 Chicago Marathon. Kenyan athleteRuth Chepngetichbroke the women's world record for a mixed-sex race with a time of 2:09:56 on October 13, 2024 at the2024 Chicago Marathon. In addition to the standard women's marathon world record, World Athletics also recognizes a second world record for women in the \\\"Women Only\\\" category, meaning that the marathon was run on a course without any male athletes in the competition. The current \\\"Women Only\\\" record of 2:16:16 was set byPeres Jepchirchiron April 21, 2024 at the London Marathon in the elite women's race. History Marathon races were first held in 1896, but the distance was not standardized by theInternational Association of Athletics Federations(IAAF, now World Athletics) until 1921. The actual distance for\",\n \"actual distance for pre-1921 races frequently varied from the 1921 standard of 42.195 km (26 miles 385 yards). In qualifying races for the1896 Summer Olympics, Greek runnersCharilaos Vasilakos(3:18:00) andIoannis Lavrentis(3:11:27) won the first two modern marathons.On April 10, 1896,Spiridon Louisof Greece wonthe first Olympic marathon in Athens, Greece, in a time of 2:58:50.However, the distance for the event was 40,000 meters.Three months later, British runnerLen Hurstwon the inauguralParis to Conflans Marathon(also around 40 km) in a time of 2:31:30.In 1900, Hurst would better his time on the same course with a 2:26:28 performance. Later,Shizo Kanakuriof Japan was reported to have set a world record of 2:32:45 in a November 1911 domestic qualification race for the1912 Summer Olympics, but this performance was also run over a distance of approximately 40 km. The first marathon over the official distance was won by AmericanJohnny Hayesat the1908 Summer Olympics, with a time of 2:55:18.4. It is possible\",\n \"It is possible thatStamata Revithi, who ran the 1896 Olympic course a day after Louis, is the first woman to run the modern marathon; she is said to have finished in5+1⁄2hours.World Athletics creditsViolet Piercy's 1926 performance as the first woman to race the standard marathon distance; however, other sources report that the 1918 performance ofMarie-Louise Ledruin the Tour de Paris set the initial mark for women.Other \\\"unofficial\\\" performances have also been reported to be world bests or world records over time: although her performance is not recognized by World Athletics,Adrienne Beamesfrom Australia is frequently credited as the first woman to break the three-hour barrier in the marathon. In the 1953Boston Marathon, the top three male finishers were thought to have broken the standing world record,butKeizo Yamada's mark of 2:18:51 is considered to have been set on a short course of 25.54 miles (41.1 km).TheBoston Athletic Associationalso does not report Yamada's performance as a world best for this\",\n \"world best for this reason. On October 25, 1981, AmericanAlberto Salazarand New ZealanderAllison Roeset apparent world bests at theNew York City Marathon(2:08:13 and 2:25:29), however, these marks were invalidated when the course was later found to have been 151 meters short.Although World Athletics' progression notes three performances set on the same course in 1978, 1979, and 1980 by NorwegianGrete Waitz, theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticiansconsiders the New York City course suspect for those performances, too. On April 18, 2011, the Boston Marathon produced what were at that time the two fastest marathon performances of all time. WinnerGeoffrey Mutaiof Kenya recorded a time of 2:03:02,followed by countrymanMoses Mosopin 2:03:06. However, since the Boston course does not meet the criteria for record attempts, these times were not ratified by the IAAF. Eight IAAF world records were set at thePolytechnic Marathon(1909, 1913, 1952–54, 1963–65).WA-recognized world records have been broken at all of the\",\n \"at all of the original fiveWorld Marathon Majorson numerous occasions (updated 09/2022); twelve times at theBerlin Marathon, three times at theBoston Marathon, five times at theChicago Marathon, six times at theLondon Marathon, and five times at theNew York City Marathon. However, the records established in the Boston event have been disputed on grounds of a downhill point-to-point course, while four of the five New York records have been disputed on grounds of a short course. Criteria for record eligibility For a performance to be ratified as a world record by World Athletics, the marathon course on which the performance occurred must be 42.195 km (26.219 mi) long,measured in a defined manner using thecalibrated bicycle method(the distance in kilometers being the official distance; the distance in miles is an approximation) and meet other criteria that rule out artificially fast times produced on courses aided by downhill slope or tailwind.The criteria include: In recognizing KenyanGeoffrey Mutai's mark of\",\n \"Mutai's mark of 2:03:02 at the2011 Boston Marathonas (at the time) \\\"the fastest Marathon ever run\\\", the IAAF said: \\\"Due to the elevation drop and point-to-point measurements of the Boston course, performances are not eligible for World record consideration.\\\" TheAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians, an independent organization that compiles data fromroad runningevents, also maintains an alternate marathon world best progression but with standards they consider to be more stringent. Women's world record changes The IAAF Congress, at the 2011 World Championships, passed a motion changing the record eligibility criteria effective October 6, 2007, so that women's world records must be set in all-women competitions.The result of the change was that Radcliffe's 2:17:42 performance at the 2005 London Marathon supplanted her own existing women's mark as the \\\"world record\\\"; the earlier performance is to be referred to as a \\\"world best\\\". Per the 2021 IAAF Competition Rules, \\\"a World Record for performance achieved\",\n \"achieved in mixed sex (\\\"Mixed\\\") races and a World Record for performance achieved in single sex (\\\"Women only\\\") races\\\" are tracked separately. Unofficial record attempts In December 2016,Nike, Inc., announced that three top distance runners —Eliud Kipchoge,Zersenay Tadese, andLelisa Desisa— had agreed to forgo the spring marathon season to work with the company in an effort to run a sub-two-hour marathon. TheBreaking2event took place in the early morning of May 6, 2017; Kipchoge crossed the finish line with a time of 2:00:25.This time was more than two minutes faster than the world record. Kipchoge took part in a similar attempt to break the two-hour barrier in Vienna on October 12, 2019, as part of theIneos 1:59 Challenge. He successfully ran the first sub two-hour marathon distance, with a time of 1:59:40.2.The effort did not count as a new world record under IAAF rules due to the setup of the challenge. Specifically, it was not an open event, Kipchoge was handed fluids by his support team throughout, the\",\n \"throughout, the run featured a pace car, and included rotating teams of other runners pacing Kipchoge in a formation designed to reduce wind resistance and maximize efficiency.The achievement was recognized byGuinness World Recordswith the titles 'Fastest marathon distance (male)' and 'First marathon distance run under two hours' instead of an official world record. Men Table key:Listed by World Athletics as a world best prior to official acceptanceRatified by World Athletics as a world best (since January 1, 2003) or world record (since January 1, 2004)Recognized by theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians(ARRS) The edition of the marathon is linked on some of the dates. Women Table key:Listed by World Athletics as a world best prior to official acceptanceRatified by World Athletics as a world best (since January 1, 2003) or world record (since January 1, 2004)Recognized by theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians(ARRS) Gallery of world record holders See also Men's Masters Records Women's Masters\",\n \"Women's Masters Records Notes References Sources External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":370,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How many Mount Katahdins makes up the height of Mount Kilimanjaro?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Mount Kilimanjaro stands at a height of 5,895 meters whereas Mount Katahdn stands at a height of 1,606 meters. Therefore, Mount Kilimanjaro is the height of approximately 3.7 Mount Katahdins."},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Katahdin"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Katahdin']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Katahdin"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Katahdin\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Mount Kilimanjaro Mount Kilimanjaro(/ˌkɪlɪmənˈdʒɑːroʊ/)is adormant volcanoinTanzania. It is thehighest mountain in Africaand thehighest free-standing mountain above sea level in the world: 5,895 m (19,341 ft) above sea level and 4,900 m (16,100 ft) above its plateau base. It is also thehighest volcanoin theEastern Hemisphereand thefourth most topographically prominentpeak on Earth. Kilimanjaro's southern and eastern slopes served as the home of theChagga Kingdomsuntil their abolition in 1963 byJulius Nyerere. The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is unknown, but may mean \"mountain of greatness\" or refer to its snowy peak or a mountain deity. Although described inclassicalsources, Germany missionaryJohannes Rebmannis credited as the first European to report the mountain's extistence, in 1848. After several European attempts,Hans Meyerreached Kilimanjaro's highest summit in 1889. The mountain was incorporated intoKilimanjaro National Parkin 1973. As one of theSeven Summits, Kilimanjaro is a major hiking and climbing destination. There areseven established routesto Uhuru Peak, the mountain's highest point. Although not as technically challenging as similar mountains, the prominence of Kilimanjaro poses a serious risk ofaltitude sickness. One ofseveral mountainsarising from theEast African Rift, Kilimanjaro was formed from volcanic activity over 2 million years ago. Its slopes hostmontane forestsandcloud forests. Multiple species areendemicto Mount Kilimanjaro, including thegiant groundselDendrosenecio kilimanjari. The mountain possesses a largeice capand the largest glaciers in Africa, includingCredner Glacier,Furtwängler Glacier, and theRebmann Glacier. This ice cap is rapidly shrinking, with over 80% lost in the 20th century. The cap is projected to disappear entirely by the mid-21st century. Toponymy The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is disputed. Although theChagga peopleof theKilimanjaro regionhave no name for the mountain, they call its two peaksKipooandKimawenze. The peaks' names—usually rendered Kibo and Mawenzi—mean \"spotted\" in reference to Kibo's snow and \"broken top\" due to Mawenzi's jagged peak.\"Kilimanjaro\" may originate from the Chagga calling the mountain unclimbable—kilemajyaro—and explorers misinterpreting this as the mountain's name. Early Western etymologies used a compoundSwahiliorigin, withkilimatranslated as \"mountain\".In 1860,Johann Ludwig Krapfwrote that theSwahilisused the name Kilimanjaro and that it meant either \"mountain of greatness\" or \"mountain of caravans\", with a translation ofnjaroas greatness orjaroas \"caravans\".In 1885, Scottish explorerJoseph Thomsonreported \"white mountain\" as an alternative, withnjarodenoting whiteness.Similarly, Krapf mentions an 1849 visit with aWakambachief that called the mountainKima jajeu, meaning \"mountain of whiteness\". These etymologies are criticized askilimais adiminutiveofmlima(mountain) and actually means \"hill\". However,mlimamay have been misintrepreted askilimavia conflation with the two peaks' names,KipooandKimawenze. Alternatively, thekileman-part of Kilimanjaro may originate from theKichaggakileme, \"that which defeats\", orkilelema, \"that which has become difficult or impossible\". The-jarocould be derived fromnjaare, a bird, or fromjyaro, a caravan. Another explanation is thatjyaromay refer to a god or a deity that guarded the mountain from tresspassers. In the 1880s, the mountain became part ofGerman East Africaand was calledKilima-Ndscharoin German.In 1889,Hans Meyerreached the highest summit on Kibo, which he namedKaiser-Wilhelm-SpitzeforKaiser Wilhelm.Following theZanzibar Revolutionand the formation ofTanzaniain 1964, the summit was renamed Uhuru Peak: \"Freedom Peak\" in Swahili. Geology and geography Kilimanjaro is a large dormantstratovolcanocomposed of three distinct volcanic cones: Kibo, the highest; Mawenzi at 5,149 m (16,893 ft);and Shira, the lowest at 4,005 m (13,140 ft).Mawenzi and Shira areextinct, while Kibo isdormantand could erupt again. Uhuru Peak is the highest summit on Kibo's crater rim. TheTanzania National Parks Authority, a Tanzanian government agency,and theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizationlists the height of Uhuru Peak as 5,895 m (19,341 ft), based on aBritish surveyin 1952.The height has since been measured as 5,892 m (19,331 ft) in 1999, 5,902 m (19,364 ft) in 2008, and 5,899 m (19,354 ft) in 2014. A map of the Kibo cone on Mount Kilimanjaro was published by the British government'sDirectorate of Overseas Surveys(DOS) in 1964 based on aerial photography conducted in 1962 as the \"Subset of Kilimanjaro, East Africa (Tanganyika) Series Y742, Sheet 56/2, D.O.S. 422 1964, Edition 1, Scale 1:50,000\".Tourist mapping was first published by theOrdnance Surveyin England in 1989 based on the original DOS mapping at a scale of 1:100,000, with 100 ft (30 m) contour intervals, as DOS 522.West Col Productions produced a map with tourist information in 1990, at a scale of 1:75,000, with 100 m (330 ft) contour intervals; it included inset maps of Kibo and Mawenzi on 1:20,000 and 1:30,000 scales respectively and with 50 m (160 ft) contour intervals.In recent years, numerous other maps have become available, of various qualities. Volcanology The volcanic interior of Kilimanjaro is poorly known because there has not been any significant erosion to expose theigneousstrata that comprise the volcano's structure. Eruptive activity at the Shira center commenced about 2.5 million years ago, with the last important phase occurring about 1.9 million years ago, just before the northern part of the edifice collapsed.Shira is topped by a broadhigh plainat 3,800 m (12,500 ft), which may be a filledcaldera. The remnant caldera rim has been degraded deeply by erosion. Before the caldera formed and erosion began, Shira might have been between 4,900 and 5,200 m (16,100 and 17,100 ft) high. It is mostly composed of basaltic lavas, with somepyroclastics. The formation of the caldera was accompanied by lava emanating fromring fractures, but there was no large-scaleexplosive activity. Two cones formed subsequently, thephonoliticone at the northwest end of the ridge and thedoleriticPlatzkegel in the caldera center. Both Mawenzi and Kibo began erupting about 1 million years ago.They are separated by the Saddle Plateau at 4,400 m (14,400 ft) elevation.: 3 The youngest dated rocks at Mawenzi are about 448,000 years old.Mawenzi forms a horseshoe-shaped ridge withpinnaclesand ridges opening to the northeast, with a tower-like shape resulting from deep erosion and amaficdike swarm. Several largecirquescut into the ring and the largest of these sits on top of the Great Barranco gorge. Also notable are the East and West Barrancos on the northeastern side of the mountain. Most of the eastern side of the mountain has been removed by erosion. Mawenzi has asubsidiary peak, Neumann Tower, 4,425 m (14,518 ft). Kibo is the largest cone on the mountain and is more than 24 km (15 mi) wide at the Saddle Plateau altitude. The last activity here, dated to 150,000–200,000 years ago, created the current Kibo summit crater. Kibo still has gas-emittingfumarolesin its crater.Kibo is capped by an almost symmetrical cone withescarpmentsrising 180 to 200 m (590 to 660 ft) on the south side. These escarpments define a 2.5 km-wide (1.6 mi) calderacaused by the collapse of the summit. Within this caldera is the Inner Cone and within the crater of the Inner Cone is the Reusch Crater, which the Tanganyika government in 1954 named after Gustav Otto Richard Reusch, upon his climbing the mountain for the 25th time (out of 65 attempts during his lifetime).The Ash Pit, 350 m (1,150 ft) deep, lies within the Reusch Crater.About 100,000 years ago, part of Kibo's crater rim collapsed, creating the area known as theWestern Breachand the Great Barranco. An almost continuous layer of lava buries most older geological features, except exposedstratawithin the Great West Notch and the Kibo Barranco. The former exposes intrusions ofsyenite.Kibo has five main lava formations: Kibo has more than 250parasitic coneson its northwest and southeast flanks that were formed between 150,000 and 200,000 years agoand eruptedpicrobasalts,trachybasalts,ankaramites, andbasanites.They reach as far asLake ChalaandTavetain the southeast and the Lengurumani Plain in the northwest. Most of these cones are well preserved, except the Saddle Plateau cones which were heavily affected by glacial action. Despite their mostly small size, lava from the cones has obscured large portions of the mountain. The Saddle Plateau cones are mostly cinder cones with terminal effusion of lava, while the Upper Rombo Zone cones mostly generated lava flows. All Saddle Plateau cones predate the last glaciation. According to reports gathered in the 19th century from theMaasai, Lake Chala on Kibo's eastern flank was the site of a village that was destroyed by an eruption. Glaciers Kibo'sdiminishingice cap exists because Kilimanjaro is a little-dissected, massive mountain that rises above thesnow line. The cap is divergent and at the edges splits into individual glaciers. The central portion of the ice cap is interrupted by the presence of the Kibo crater.: 5The summit glaciers and ice fields do not display significant horizontal movements because their low thickness precludes major deformation. Geological evidence shows five successive glacial episodes during theQuaternaryperiod, namely First (500,000BP), Second (greater than 360,000 years ago to 240,000 BP), Third (150,000 to 120,000 BP), Fourth (also known as \"Main\") (20,000 to 17,000 BP), and Little (16,000 to 14,000 BP). The Third may have been the most extensive, and the Little appears to be statistically indistinguishable from the Fourth. A continuous ice cap covering approximately 400 km2(150 sq mi) down to an elevation of 3,200 m (10,500 ft) covered Kilimanjaro during theLast Glacial Maximumin thePleistoceneepoch (the Main glacial episode), extending across the summits of Kibo and Mawenzi.Because of the exceptionally prolonged dry conditions during the subsequentYounger Dryasstadial, the ice fields on Kilimanjaro may have become extinct around 11,500 years BP.Ice corestaken from Kilimanjaro's Northern Ice Field (NIF) indicates that the glaciers there have a basal age of about 11,700 years,although an analysis of ice taken in 2011 from exposed vertical cliffs in the NIF supports an age extending only to 800 years BP.Higher precipitation rates at the beginningof theHoloceneepoch (11,500 years BP) allowed the ice cap to reform.The glaciers survived a widespread drought during a three century period beginning around 4,000 years BP. In the late 1880s, the summit of Kibo was completely covered by an ice cap about 20 km2(7.7 sq mi) in extent with outlet glaciers cascading down the western and southern slopes, and except for the inner cone, the entire caldera was buried. Glacier ice also flowed through the Western Breach.The slope glaciers retreated rapidly between 1912 and 1953, in response to a sudden shift in climate at the end of the 19th century that made them \"drastically out of equilibrium\", and more slowly thereafter. Their continuing demise indicates they are still out of equilibrium in response to a constant change in climate over the past century. In contrast to the persistent slope glaciers, the glaciers on Kilimanjaro's crater plateau have appeared and disappeared repeatedly during the Holocene epoch, with each cycle lasting a few hundred years.: 1088It appears that decreasing specific humidity instead of temperature changes has caused the shrinkage of the slope glaciers since the late 19th century. No clear warming trend at the elevation of those glaciers occurred between 1948 and 2005. Although air temperatures at that elevation are always below freezing, solar radiation causes melting on vertical faces. Vertical ice margin walls are a unique characteristic of the summit glaciers and a major place of the shrinkage of the glaciers. They manifest stratifications,calving, and other ice features.\"There is no pathway for the plateau glaciers other than to continuously retreat once their vertical margins are exposed to solar radiation.\"The Kilimanjaro glaciers have been used for deriving ice core records, including two from the southern icefield. Based on this data, this icefield formed between 1,250 and 1,450 years BP. Almost 85 percent of the ice cover on Kilimanjaro disappeared between October 1912 and June 2011, with coverage decreasing from 11.40 km2(4.40 sq mi) to 1.76 km2(0.68 sq mi).: 423Between 1912 and 1953, there was about a 1.1 percent average annual loss of ice coverage.The average annual loss for 1953 to 1989 was 1.4 percent, while the loss rate for 1989 to 2007 was 2.5 percent.Of the ice cover still present in 2000, almost 40 percent had disappeared by 2011.: 425Ice climber Will Gadd noticed differences between his 2014 and 2020 climbs.The glaciers are thinning in addition to losing areal coverage,and do not have active accumulation zones; retreat occurs on all glacier surfaces. Loss of glacier mass is caused by both melting andsublimation.While the current shrinking and thinning of Kilimanjaro's ice fields appear to be unique within its almost twelve-millennium history, it is contemporaneous with widespreadglacier retreatin mid-to-low latitudes across the globe.In 2013, it was estimated that, at the currentrate of global warming, most of the ice on Kilimanjaro will disappear by 2040, and \"it is highly unlikely that any ice body will remain after 2060\".: 430 The Furtwangler Glacier on Kilimanjaro is a remnant of the ice cap that once covered the mountain. This has retreated dramatically over the last century with over 80 percent glacial retreat. The glacier is named after Walter Furtwangler, who along with Ziegfried Koenig, was the fourth to ascend to the summit of Kilimanjaro in 1912. A complete disappearance of the ice would be of only \"negligible importance\" to the water budget of the area around the mountain. The forests of Kilimanjaro, far below the ice fields, \"are essential water reservoirs for the local and regional populations\". Drainage Kilimanjaro is drained by a network of rivers and streams, especially on the wetter and more heavily eroded southern side and especially above 1,200 m (3,900 ft). Below that altitude, increased evaporation and human water usage reduce the water flows. TheLumiandPanganirivers drain Kilimanjaro on the eastern and southern sides, respectively. IUGS geological heritage site In respect of it being 'the higheststratovolcanoof the East African Rift that maintains a glacier on its summit', theInternational Union of Geological Sciences(IUGS) included 'The Pleistocene Kilimanjaro volcano' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organization defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.' Human history Chagga states Kilimanjaro is attested to in numerous stories by the people who live in East Africa. TheChagga, who traditionally lived on the southern and eastern slopes of the mountain in sovereignChagga states, tell how a man named Tone once provoked a god, Ruwa, to bring famine upon the land. The people became angry at Tone, forcing him to flee. Nobody wanted to protect him but a solitary dweller who had stones that turned miraculously into cattle. The dweller bid that Tone never open the stable of the cattle. When Tone did not heed the warning and the cattle escaped, Tone followed them, but the fleeing cattle threw up hills to run on, including Mawenzi and Kibo. Tone finally collapsed on Kibo, ending the pursuit. Another Chagga legend tells of ivory-filled graves of elephants on the mountain, and of a cow named Rayli that produces miraculous fat from her tail glands. If a man tries to steal such a gland but is too slow in his moves, Rayli will blast a powerful snort and blow the thief down onto the plain. Early records The mountain may have been known to non-Africans sinceantiquity. Sailors' reports recorded byPtolemymention a \"moon mountain\" and a spring lake of the Nile, which may indicate Kilimanjaro, although available historical information does not allow differentiation among others in East Africa likeMount Kenya, the mountains ofEthiopia, theVirunga Mountains, theRwenzori Mountains, and Kilimanjaro. Before Ptolemy,AeschylusandHerodotusreferred to \"Egypt nurtured by the snows\" and to a spring between two mountains, respectively. One of these mentions two tall mountains in the coastal regions with a valley with traces of fire between them.Martín Fernández de Enciso, a Spanish traveler toMombasawho obtained information about the interior from native caravans, said in hisSumma de Geografía(1519) that west of Mombasa \"stands the Ethiopian Mount Olympus, which is exceedingly high, and beyond it are the Mountains of the Moon, in which are the sources of the Nile\".: 1–5: 114 European exploration The German missionariesJohannes Rebmannof Mombasa andJohann Krapfwere the first Europeans known to have attempted to reach the mountain. According to English geographerHalford Mackinderand English explorerHarry Johnston, Rebmann in 1848 was the first European to report the existence of Kilimanjaro.Hans Meyer has claimed that Rebmann first arrived in Africa in 1846 and quotes Rebmann's diary entry of 11 May 1848 as saying, This morning, at 10 o'clock, we obtained a clearer view of the mountains of Jagga, the summit of one of which was covered by what looked like a beautiful white cloud. When I inquired as to the dazzling whiteness, the guide merely called it 'cold' and at once I knew it could be neither more nor less than snow.... Immediately I understood how to interpret the marvelous tales Dr. Krapf and I had heard at the coast, of a vast mountain of gold and silver in the far interior, the approach to which was guarded by evil spirits.: 6 In August 1861, the Prussian officer BaronKarl Klaus von der Deckenaccompanied by English geologist Richard Thorntonattempted to climb Kibo but \"got no farther than 2,500 m (8,200 ft) owing to the inclemency of the weather\".: 9In December 1862, von der Decken tried a second time together withOtto Kersten, reaching a height of 4,300 m (14,000 ft). In August 1871, missionary Charles New became the \"first European to reach the equatorial snows\" on Kilimanjaro at an elevation of slightly more than 4,000 m (13,000 ft).: 11In June 1887, the Hungarian CountSámuel Telekiand the Austrian LieutenantLudwig von Höhnelmade an attempt to climb the mountain. Approaching from the saddle between Mawenzi and Kibo, Höhnel stopped at 4,950 m (16,240 ft), but Teleki continued until he reached the snow at 5,300 m (17,400 ft).Later in 1887, the German geology professor Hans Meyer reached the lower edge of the ice cap on Kibo, where he was forced to turn back because he lacked the equipment needed to progress across the ice.: 81The following year, Meyer planned another attempt withOscar Baumann, acartographer, but the mission was aborted after the pair were held hostage and ransomed during theAbushiri Revolt.: 82In the autumn of 1888, the American naturalist Abbott and the German explorerOtto Ehrenfried Ehlersapproached the summit from the northwest. While Abbott turned back earlier, Ehlers at first claimed to have reached the summit rim, but after severe criticism of the claim, withdrew it.: 17–19 In 1889, Meyer returned to Kilimanjaro with the Austrian mountaineerLudwig Purtschellerfor a third attempt.: 82This attempt was based on the establishment of several campsites with food supplies so that multiple attempts at the top could be made without having to descend too far.: 82Meyer and Purtscheller pushed to near the crater rim on 3 October but turned back exhausted from hacking footsteps in the icy slope.: 82Three days later, they reached the highest summit, on the southern rim of the crater.: 82They were the first to confirm that Kibo has a crater.: 82After descending to the saddle between Kibo and Mawenzi, Meyer and Purtscheller attempted to climb the more technically challenging Mawenzi but could only reach the top of Klute Peak, a subsidiary peak, before retreating due to illness.: 84On 18 October, they reascended Kibo to enter and study the crater, cresting the rim at Hans Meyers Notch.: 84In total, Meyer and Purtscheller spent 16 days above 4,600 m (15,000 ft) during their expedition.: 84They were accompanied in their high camps by Mwini Amani ofPangani, who cooked and supplied the sites with water and firewood.: 135–186 The first ascent of the highest summit of Mawenzi was made on 29 July 1912, by the German climbersEduard Hans OehlerandFritz Klute, who named it Hans Meyer Peak. Oehler and Klute went on to make the third-ever ascent of Kibo, via theDrygalski Glacier, and descended via the Western Breach.: 85The mountain lent its name to the 1914Battle of KilimanjaroduringWorld War I. In 1989, the organizing committee of the 100-year celebration of the first ascent decided to award posthumous certificates to the African porter-guides who had accompanied Meyer and Purtscheller.One person in pictures or documents of the 1889 expedition was thought to match a living inhabitant ofMarangu, Yohani Kinyala Lauwo.Lauwo did not know his own age,nor remember Meyer or Purtscheller. He did recall joining a Kilimanjaro expedition involving a Dutch doctor who lived near the mountain, and that he did not wear shoes during the climb.Lauwo claimed that he had climbed the mountain three times before the beginning ofWorld War I.The committee concluded that he had been a member of Meyer's team and therefore must have been born around 1871.Lauwo died on 10 May 1996, 107 years after the first ascent. It is sometimes suggested that he was a co-first-ascendant of Kilimanjaro. Fauna and flora Animals Large animals are rare on Kilimanjaro and are more frequent in the forests and lower parts of the mountain.ElephantsandCape buffaloesare among the animals that can be potentially hazardous to trekkers.Bushbucks,chameleons,dik-diks,duikers,mongooses,sunbirds, andwarthogshave also been reported.Zebras,leopardsandhyenashave been observed sporadically on the Shira plateau.Specific species associated with the mountain include theKilimanjaro shrewand the chameleonKinyongia tavetana. Vegetation Natural forests cover about 1,000 km2(250,000 acres) on Kilimanjaro.In the foothill area,maize, beans,sunflowersand, on the western side, wheat are cultivated. There are remnants of the formersavannavegetation withAcacia,Combretum,TerminaliaandGrewia. Between 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and 1,800 m (5,900 ft), coffee appears as part of the \"Chaggahome gardens\"agroforestry. Native vegetation at this altitude range (Strombosia,Newtonia, andEntandrophragma) is limited to inaccessible valleys and gorgesand is different from vegetation at higher altitudes. On the southern slope,montane forestsfirst containOcotea usambarensisas well asfernsandepiphytes; farther up incloud forestsPodocarpus latifolius,Hagenia abyssinicaandErica excelsagrow, as well as fog-dependent mosses. On the drier northern slopesolive,Croton-Calodendrum,Cassipourea, andJuniperusform forests in order of increasing altitude. Between 3,100 m (10,200 ft) and 3,900 m (12,800 ft) lieEricabush and heathlands, followed byHelichrysum, until 4,500 m (14,800 ft).Neophyteshave been observed, includingPoa annua. Records from the Maundi crater at 2,780 m (9,120 ft) indicate that the vegetation of Kilimanjaro has varied over time. Forest vegetation retreated during the Last Glacial Maximum and the ericaceous vegetation belt lowered by 1,500 m (4,900 ft) between 42,000 and 30,000 years ago because of the drier and colder conditions. The Tussock Grassland is an area on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro that contains many unique species of vegetation, such as thewater holding cabbage. Climate The climate of Kilimanjaro is influenced by the height of the mountain, which allows the simultaneous influence of the equatorialtrade windsand the high altitudeanti-trades, and by the isolated position of the mountain. Kilimanjaro hasdaily upslope and nightly downslope winds, a regimen stronger on the southern than the northern side of the mountain. The flatter southern flanks are more extended and affect the atmosphere more strongly.: 3–4 Kilimanjaro has two distinct rainy seasons, one from March to May and another around November. The northern slopes receive much less rainfall than the southern ones.The lower southern slope receives 800 to 900 mm (31 to 35 in) annually, rising to 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59 to 79 in) at 1,500 m (4,900 ft) altitude and peaking \"partly over\" 3,000 mm (120 in) in the forest belt at 2,000 to 2,300 m (6,600 to 7,500 ft). In the alpine zone, annual precipitation decreases to 200 mm (7.9 in).: 18 The average temperature in the summit area is approximately −7 °C (19 °F). Nighttime surface temperatures on theNorthern Ice Field(NIF) fall on average to −9 °C (16 °F), with an average daytime high of −4 °C (25 °F). During nights of extremeradiational cooling, the NIF can cool to as low as −15 to −27 °C (5 to −17 °F).: 674 Snowfall can occur at any time of year but is mostly associated with northern Tanzania's two rainy seasons.: 673Precipitation in the summit area occurs principally as snow andgraupelof 250 to 500 mm (9.8 to 19.7 in) per year and ablates within days or years. Climatic zones Tourism industry Kilimanjaro National Parkgenerated US$51 million in revenue in 2013,: 285the second-most of any Tanzanian national park.: 258The Tanzania National Parks Authority reported that the park recorded 57,456 tourists during the 2011–12 budget year, of whom 16,425 hiked the mountain; the park's General Management Plan specifies an annual capacity of 28,470.The mountain hikers generated irregular and seasonal jobs for about 11,000 guides, porters, and cooks in 2007.Concerns have been raised about the poor working conditions and inadequate wages of these workers.: 287–291: 259Due to Kilimanjaro National Park's popularity as a destination, the Tanzanian government has invested in road infrastructure to improve accessibility. In Tanzania,Kilimanjaro International Airportalso serves as an important transportation hub. There are seven official trekking routes by which to ascend and descend Kilimanjaro: Lemosho, Lemosho Western-Breach, Machame, Marangu, Mweka, Rongai, Shira, and Umbwe.The Machame route can be completed in six or seven days,Lemosho in six to eight, and the Northern Circuit routes in seven or more days.The Lemosho Route can also be continued via the Western-Breach, submitting via the western side of the mountain. The Western Breach is more secluded and avoids the 6-hour midnight ascent to the summit (like other routes). The Rongai is the easiest of the camping routes.The Marangu is also relatively easy, if frequently busy; accommodation is in shared huts.The Lemosho Western-Breach Route commences on the western side of Kilimanjaro at Lemosho and continues to the summit via the Western-Breach Route. Climbing records The oldest person to climb Mount Kilimanjaro isAnne Lorimor, aged 89 years and 37 days, who reached Uhuru Peak at 3:14p.m. local time on 18 July 2019.The oldest man to summit is AmericanFred Dishelhorst, who reached the top on 19 July 2017 at the age of 88 years old.The second oldest man to summit the mountain is the American Robert Wheeler, who was 85 years and 201 days when he summited on 2 October 2014.Maxwell J. Ojerholm of Massachusetts, USA, reached Uhuru Peak, the true summit, unassisted, at the age of ten years, on July 4, 2009, taking the difficult Machame Route. Colin M. Barker of Missouri, USA, later completed the same route at the age of ten years on December 22, 2020.Theodore Margarolifrom London, age 10, reached the summit unassisted by the Western Breach, the hardest but most scenic route, in 2019.Despite an age-limit of 10 years for a climbing permit, Keats Boyd from Los Angeles reached the summit on 21 January 2008 at the age of 7.This record was equaled by Montannah Kenney from Texas in March 2018 and again in July 2018 by Coaltan Tanner from New Mexico.The fastest ascent and the fastest round trip have been recorded by the Swiss-Ecuadorian mountain guideKarl Egloff. On 13 August 2014, after guiding a party to the summit the previous days, he ran from Umbwe Gate to the top in 4 hours and 56 minutes and returned to the Mweka Gate at 1,630 m (5,350 ft) in a total time of 6 hours, 42 minutes and 24 seconds.Previous records, using the same route, were held by Spanish mountain runnerKílian Jornet(ascent in 5:23:50, round trip 7:14 on 29 September 2010) and by Tanzanian guide Simon Mtuy (an unsupported round trip in 9:21 on 22 February 2006). The female round trip record is held by Fernanda Maciel from Brazil in a time of 10 hours and 6 minutes.Her ascent time of 7:08 was broken on 23 February 2018 by the Danish ultramarathon runner Kristina Schou Madsen with a time of 6:52:54 from Mweka Gate. Several climbs by disabled people have drawn attention. Wheelchair user Bernard Goosen from South Africa scaled Kilimanjaro in six days in 2007. In 2012,Kyle Maynardwho has no forearms or lower legs, crawled unassisted to the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro. In 2020, a team featuring two double above-knee amputees,Hari Budha Magarand Justin Oliver Davis, summited Kilimanjaro. It took them six days to cover the 56 km (35 mi) distance to the summit. Safety Though the climb is not technically as challenging as theHimalayasorAndes, the high elevation, low temperature, and occasional high winds can make Kilimanjaro a difficult trek. Acclimatization is required, and even experienced and physically fit trekkers may suffer some degree ofaltitude sickness.A study of people attempting to reach the summit of Kilimanjaro in July and August 2005 found that 61.3 percent succeeded and 77 percent experienced acute mountain sickness (AMS).A retrospective study of 917 persons who attempted to reach the summit via the Lemosho or Machame routes found that 70.4 percent experienced AMS, defined in this study to be headache, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, or loss of appetite. Kilimanjaro's summit is well above the altitude at which life-threateninghigh altitude pulmonary edema(HAPE) orhigh altitude cerebral edema(HACE), the most severe forms of AMS, can occur.These health risks are increased substantially by excessively fast climbing schedules motivated by high daily national park fees, busy holiday travel schedules, and the lack of permanent shelter on most routes.The six-day Machame route, which involves one day of \"climbing high\" to Lava Tower (4,630 m (15,190 ft) and \"sleeping low\" at Barranco Camp (3,976 m (13,044 ft)), may delay the onset of AMS but does not ultimately prevent its occurrence. Falls on steep portions of the mountain and rock slides have killed trekkers. For this reason, the route via theArrow Glacierwas closed for several years, reopening in December 2007. Now again it officially closed as of January 20th 2024. Due to strong El Niño, the Western Breach has washed down the mountain. This huge runoff has carved new ravines on the slopes and seems to be dislodging the sediment that cements the rock together, disrupting the rock stability. At the route's base, rain water has opened new drainages and there is an active, flowing river through the Arrow Glacier Camp were there has been no water at all for decades.The improper disposal of human waste on the mountain environment has created a health hazard, necessitating the boiling of all water. According to the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Moshi, 25 people died from January 1996 to October 2003 while climbing the mountain. Seventeen were female and eight were male, ranging in age from 29 to 74. Fourteen died from advanced high altitude illness, including one withHACE, five withHAPE, and six with both HACE and HAPE. The remaining eleven deaths resulted from \"trauma (3),myocardial infarction(4),pneumonia(2), cardio-pulmonary failure of other underlying cause (1), and acuteappendicitis(1). The overall mortality rate was 13.6 per 100,000 climbers.\" In literature and film Kilimanjaro is a snow-covered mountain 19,710 feet high, and is said to be the highest mountain in Africa. Its western summit is called the Masai 'Ngaje Ngai', the House of God. Close to the western summit there is a dried and frozen carcas of a leopard. No one has explained what the leopard was seeking at that altitude. —Ernest Hemingway's \"riddle\" preceding his 1936 short storyThe Snows of Kilimanjaro JournalistTom Bissellnoted that Kilimanjaro is \"perhaps the world’s most literary mountain\".The mountain is prominently featured inErnest Hemingway's 1936 short storyThe Snows of Kilimanjaro, which was adapted into a1952 filmstarringGregory Peck.Dave Eggerswrote about his ascent in the short storyUp the Mountain Coming Down Slowly.WriterDouglas Adamsclimbed the mountain in a rubber rhinoceros suit to raise money forAfrican rhinoconservation efforts. Kilimanjaro was featured inToto's 1982 song \"Africa\".An IMAX film documenting an ascent—Kilimanjaro: To The Roof Of Africa—was released in 2002. See also References Citations Works cited Academic articles Books External links","Mount Katahdin Mount Katahdin(/kəˈtɑːdɪn/kə-TAH-din) is the highest mountain in theU.S. stateofMaineat 5,269 feet (1,606 m). NamedKatahdin, which means \"Great Mountain\",by thePenobscotNative Americans, it is withinNortheast Piscataquis,Piscataquis County, and is the centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. It is a steep, tallmassifformed from agranite intrusionweathered to the surface. The flora and fauna on the mountain are typical of those found in northernNew England, with the summit hosting fragile and endangered alpine tundra. Katahdin was known to theNative Americansin the region and was known to Europeans at least since 1689. It has inspired hikes, climbs, journal narratives, paintings, and a piano sonata.The area around the peak was protected by GovernorPercival Baxterstarting in the 1930s. Katahdin is the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trailand is near a stretch known as theHundred-Mile Wilderness. Though part of the Appalachian Mountain system, Katahdin is isolated from the range, and sits largely on its own as amonadnock. The nearest higher mountains in any direction are the high peaks of thePresidential Range, around 170 miles (270 km) to the south-west. In 1967, Mount Katahdin was designated as aNational Natural Landmarkby theNational Park Service. The mountain is commonly called just \"Katahdin\",though the official name is \"Mount Katahdin\" as decided by theUS Board on Geographic Namesin 1893. Geology Katahdin is part of alaccoliththat formed in theAcadian orogenywhen anisland arccollided with easternNorth Americaapproximately 400 million years ago. On the sides of Katahdin are four glacialcirquescarved into the granite by alpineglaciersand in these cirques behindmorainesandeskersare several ponds. In Baxter State Park, many outcrops ofsedimentary rockshavestriations, whereas KatahdinGraniteand TravelerRhyolitelavahave weathered surfaces on which striations are commonly not preserved. Bedrock surfaces ofigneous rockswhich were buried by glacial sediments and only recently exposed have well preserved striations, as in the vicinity ofRipogenusDam. Several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the Patten Road show striations, especially on the north side of the road at Hurricane Deck. A few outcrops near the Pattern Road just north of Horse Mountain are striated, as are several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the road from Trout Brook Farm northward toSecond Lake Matagamon. Fauna Faunaincludeblack bear,deer, andmooseas well asblack fliesandmosquitosin the spring. A subspecies of Arctic butterfly, known as the Katahdin Arctic (Oeneis polixeneskatahdin) is specific to the area, and is currently listed as endangered.Among the birds areBicknell's thrushand various songbirds and raptors. A study of the animal communities was published by Irving H. Blake in 1926.The flora includespine,spruce,fir,hemlock,beech,maple,birch,aspen, andpincushion plant(Diapensia lapponica). Geography Katahdin is in Baxter State Park, which is in east central Piscataquis County, about 25 mi (40 km) northwest ofMillinocket. It is on thedrainage dividebetween theEastandWest branchesof thePenobscot River. The mountain massif itself consists of multiple peaks. Baxter Peak is the tallest, and is the official northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail. South Peak and Pamola Peak are southeast and east of Baxter Peak, respectively, along the Knife Edge ridgeline, whileHamlin Peaklies to the north. There is low lake country to the south and west of Katahdin, and lowlands extending east to the Atlantic and north to theSaint Lawrence RiverinCanada. It is commonly thought that Katahdin is the first place in the United States mainland to receive sunlight in the morning, but this is incorrect. Other mountains lower in elevation but farther to the east or southeast see the first sunrise of the day, depending on the season.Regardless, the summit of Katahdin offers some of the longest unbroken lines of sight in the United States, and on clear days can be seen all the way from theWhite Mountainsof neighboringNew Hampshire; a distance of 170 miles (270 km). Katahdin's height and isolation earns it significant coverage in indigenous and post-colonial Maine culture and literature. Katahdin's profile is distinctive and the indisputable centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. Katahdin and nearby Hamlin Peak are the only two areas to host a subarctic climate and alpine vegetation inMaine. In winter, the snowcapped east and west faces of Katahdin resemble \"theKilimanjaroof New England\", and it dominates the otherwise flat and endless forests of theNorth Maine Woods. Katahdin is also the northernmost mountain in the eastern United States with an elevation over 4,000 feet (1,200 m). Climate Human history Katahdin is referred to 60 years after Field's climb of Agiokochuk (Mount Washington) in the writings ofJohn Gyles, a teenage colonist who was captured nearPortland, Maine, in 1689 by theAbenaki. While in the company of Abenaki hunting parties, he traveled up and down several Maine rivers including both branches of thePenobscot, passing close to \"Teddon\". He remarked that it was higher than theWhite Hillsabove theSaco River. Among someNative Americans, Katahdin was believed to be the home of the storm godPamola, and thus an area to be avoided. The first recorded climb of \"Catahrdin\" was by Massachusetts surveyors Zackery AdleyandCharles Turner, Jr.in August 1804.The letter describing the ascent of Charles Turner Jr. states that they began at the (West Branch Penobscot) at 8:00 a.m. and arrived on the summit at 5:00 p.m. guided by two Native Americans who were initially cautious but when the \"cold part of the mountain\" was reached and sensing the determination of the others became ambitious to reach the top first. Turner lists his party as: William Howe, Amos Patten, Joseph Treat, Samuel Call, William Rice, Richard Winslow, Charles Turner, Jr. In the 1930sGovernorPercival Baxterbegan to acquire land and finally deeded more than 200,000acres(810 km2) to the State of Maine for a park, namedBaxter State Parkafter him. The summit was officially recognized by theUS Board on Geographic Namesas \"Baxter Peak\" in 1931. In the 1840sHenry David Thoreauclimbed Katahdin, which he spelled \"Ktaadn\"; his ascent is recorded in a well-known chapter ofThe Maine Woods.A few years laterTheodore Winthropwrote about his visit inLife in the Open Air. PaintersFrederic Edwin ChurchandMarsden Hartleyare well-known artists who created landscapes of Katahdin. On 30 November 2011, Christie's auctioned Church's 1860 paintingTwilight (Katahdin)for $3.1 million. Elizabeth Oakes Smith\"climbed Mount Katahdin in 1849—reportedly the first white woman to do so\". Recreation opportunities As the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trailand southern terminus of theInternational Appalachian Trail, Katahdin is a popular hiking and backpacking destination and the centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. Baxter State Park is open year-round, though strictly regulated in winter. The overnight camping season is, weather permitting, from May 15 to October 15 each year, with some campgrounds staying open until October 22. Capacity limits have been placed on day use parking at the trailheads to minimize the overuse of trails. Mt. Katahdin has several trails leading up to Baxter, Pamola, or Hamlin PeaksThese trails start right up the mountain, but each trail on the mountain ends up taking eight to ten hours round-trip depending on ability. Even for experienced hikers, Katahdin is often considered one of the most challenging hikes in the entireAppalachian Mountainrange.The rest of the trails go up the north side or west side of the mountain. These are accessed from the Chimney Pond Trail. For these trails, hikers must park at the Roaring Brook Campground and hike in. All trails are maintained by the Baxter State Park Authority, which runs the State Park. All of the trails on the mountain are classified as very strenuous, the highest classification the Park Authority gives, except for Saddle (strenuous), Hamlin Ridge trail (moderate), and Chimney Pond (moderate). The most famous hike to the summit goes along Knife Edge, a glacialarêtewhich traverses the ridge between Pamola Peak and Baxter Peak. There have been more than 60 deaths on Katahdin since 1933 including October 8 and 9, 2020.The park as a whole typically sees a need for roughly 40 search-and-rescue events per year (1 in 2,000 hikers), with a peak of 70 in 2013. The vast majority of incidents occur in the summer months, and the primary causes are leg injury, exhaustion, dehydration and disorientation.Because of this, Katahdin and not-so-nearbyMount Washingtonroutinely near the top of the most deadly \"low mountains\" on Earth, with more fatalities per foot of elevation gained than some much higher mountains in theHimalaya. Namesakes See also References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Mount Kilimanjaro Mount Kilimanjaro(/ˌkɪlɪmənˈdʒɑːroʊ/)is adormant volcanoinTanzania. It is thehighest mountain in Africaand thehighest free-standing mountain above sea level in the world: 5,895 m (19,341 ft) above sea level and 4,900 m (16,100 ft) above its plateau base. It is also thehighest volcanoin theEastern Hemisphereand thefourth most topographically prominentpeak on Earth. Kilimanjaro's southern and eastern slopes served as the home of theChagga Kingdomsuntil their abolition in 1963 byJulius Nyerere. The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is unknown, but may mean \\\"mountain of greatness\\\" or refer to its snowy peak or a mountain deity. Although described inclassicalsources, Germany missionaryJohannes Rebmannis credited as the first European to report the mountain's extistence, in 1848. After several European attempts,Hans Meyerreached Kilimanjaro's highest summit in 1889. The mountain was incorporated intoKilimanjaro National Parkin 1973. As one of theSeven Summits, Kilimanjaro is a major hiking and climbing destination. There areseven established routesto Uhuru Peak, the mountain's highest point. Although not as technically challenging as similar mountains, the prominence of Kilimanjaro poses a serious risk ofaltitude sickness. One ofseveral mountainsarising from theEast African Rift, Kilimanjaro was formed from volcanic activity over 2 million years ago. Its slopes hostmontane forestsandcloud forests. Multiple species areendemicto Mount Kilimanjaro, including thegiant groundselDendrosenecio kilimanjari. The mountain possesses a largeice capand the largest glaciers in Africa, includingCredner Glacier,Furtwängler Glacier, and theRebmann Glacier. This ice cap is rapidly shrinking, with over 80% lost in the 20th century. The cap is projected to disappear entirely by the mid-21st century. Toponymy The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is disputed. Although theChagga peopleof theKilimanjaro regionhave no name for the mountain, they call its two peaksKipooandKimawenze. The peaks' names—usually rendered Kibo and Mawenzi—mean \\\"spotted\\\" in reference to Kibo's snow and \\\"broken top\\\" due to Mawenzi's jagged peak.\\\"Kilimanjaro\\\" may originate from the Chagga calling the mountain unclimbable—kilemajyaro—and explorers misinterpreting this as the mountain's name. Early Western etymologies used a compoundSwahiliorigin, withkilimatranslated as \\\"mountain\\\".In 1860,Johann Ludwig Krapfwrote that theSwahilisused the name Kilimanjaro and that it meant either \\\"mountain of greatness\\\" or \\\"mountain of caravans\\\", with a translation ofnjaroas greatness orjaroas \\\"caravans\\\".In 1885, Scottish explorerJoseph Thomsonreported \\\"white mountain\\\" as an alternative, withnjarodenoting whiteness.Similarly, Krapf mentions an 1849 visit with aWakambachief that called the mountainKima jajeu, meaning \\\"mountain of whiteness\\\". These etymologies are criticized askilimais adiminutiveofmlima(mountain) and actually means \\\"hill\\\". However,mlimamay have been misintrepreted askilimavia conflation with the two peaks' names,KipooandKimawenze. Alternatively, thekileman-part of Kilimanjaro may originate from theKichaggakileme, \\\"that which defeats\\\", orkilelema, \\\"that which has become difficult or impossible\\\". The-jarocould be derived fromnjaare, a bird, or fromjyaro, a caravan. Another explanation is thatjyaromay refer to a god or a deity that guarded the mountain from tresspassers. In the 1880s, the mountain became part ofGerman East Africaand was calledKilima-Ndscharoin German.In 1889,Hans Meyerreached the highest summit on Kibo, which he namedKaiser-Wilhelm-SpitzeforKaiser Wilhelm.Following theZanzibar Revolutionand the formation ofTanzaniain 1964, the summit was renamed Uhuru Peak: \\\"Freedom Peak\\\" in Swahili. Geology and geography Kilimanjaro is a large dormantstratovolcanocomposed of three distinct volcanic cones: Kibo, the highest; Mawenzi at 5,149 m (16,893 ft);and Shira, the lowest at 4,005 m (13,140 ft).Mawenzi and Shira areextinct, while Kibo isdormantand could erupt again. Uhuru Peak is the highest summit on Kibo's crater rim. TheTanzania National Parks Authority, a Tanzanian government agency,and theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizationlists the height of Uhuru Peak as 5,895 m (19,341 ft), based on aBritish surveyin 1952.The height has since been measured as 5,892 m (19,331 ft) in 1999, 5,902 m (19,364 ft) in 2008, and 5,899 m (19,354 ft) in 2014. A map of the Kibo cone on Mount Kilimanjaro was published by the British government'sDirectorate of Overseas Surveys(DOS) in 1964 based on aerial photography conducted in 1962 as the \\\"Subset of Kilimanjaro, East Africa (Tanganyika) Series Y742, Sheet 56/2, D.O.S. 422 1964, Edition 1, Scale 1:50,000\\\".Tourist mapping was first published by theOrdnance Surveyin England in 1989 based on the original DOS mapping at a scale of 1:100,000, with 100 ft (30 m) contour intervals, as DOS 522.West Col Productions produced a map with tourist information in 1990, at a scale of 1:75,000, with 100 m (330 ft) contour intervals; it included inset maps of Kibo and Mawenzi on 1:20,000 and 1:30,000 scales respectively and with 50 m (160 ft) contour intervals.In recent years, numerous other maps have become available, of various qualities. Volcanology The volcanic interior of Kilimanjaro is poorly known because there has not been any significant erosion to expose theigneousstrata that comprise the volcano's structure. Eruptive activity at the Shira center commenced about 2.5 million years ago, with the last important phase occurring about 1.9 million years ago, just before the northern part of the edifice collapsed.Shira is topped by a broadhigh plainat 3,800 m (12,500 ft), which may be a filledcaldera. The remnant caldera rim has been degraded deeply by erosion. Before the caldera formed and erosion began, Shira might have been between 4,900 and 5,200 m (16,100 and 17,100 ft) high. It is mostly composed of basaltic lavas, with somepyroclastics. The formation of the caldera was accompanied by lava emanating fromring fractures, but there was no large-scaleexplosive activity. Two cones formed subsequently, thephonoliticone at the northwest end of the ridge and thedoleriticPlatzkegel in the caldera center. Both Mawenzi and Kibo began erupting about 1 million years ago.They are separated by the Saddle Plateau at 4,400 m (14,400 ft) elevation.: 3 The youngest dated rocks at Mawenzi are about 448,000 years old.Mawenzi forms a horseshoe-shaped ridge withpinnaclesand ridges opening to the northeast, with a tower-like shape resulting from deep erosion and amaficdike swarm. Several largecirquescut into the ring and the largest of these sits on top of the Great Barranco gorge. Also notable are the East and West Barrancos on the northeastern side of the mountain. Most of the eastern side of the mountain has been removed by erosion. Mawenzi has asubsidiary peak, Neumann Tower, 4,425 m (14,518 ft). Kibo is the largest cone on the mountain and is more than 24 km (15 mi) wide at the Saddle Plateau altitude. The last activity here, dated to 150,000–200,000 years ago, created the current Kibo summit crater. Kibo still has gas-emittingfumarolesin its crater.Kibo is capped by an almost symmetrical cone withescarpmentsrising 180 to 200 m (590 to 660 ft) on the south side. These escarpments define a 2.5 km-wide (1.6 mi) calderacaused by the collapse of the summit. Within this caldera is the Inner Cone and within the crater of the Inner Cone is the Reusch Crater, which the Tanganyika government in 1954 named after Gustav Otto Richard Reusch, upon his climbing the mountain for the 25th time (out of 65 attempts during his lifetime).The Ash Pit, 350 m (1,150 ft) deep, lies within the Reusch Crater.About 100,000 years ago, part of Kibo's crater rim collapsed, creating the area known as theWestern Breachand the Great Barranco. An almost continuous layer of lava buries most older geological features, except exposedstratawithin the Great West Notch and the Kibo Barranco. The former exposes intrusions ofsyenite.Kibo has five main lava formations: Kibo has more than 250parasitic coneson its northwest and southeast flanks that were formed between 150,000 and 200,000 years agoand eruptedpicrobasalts,trachybasalts,ankaramites, andbasanites.They reach as far asLake ChalaandTavetain the southeast and the Lengurumani Plain in the northwest. Most of these cones are well preserved, except the Saddle Plateau cones which were heavily affected by glacial action. Despite their mostly small size, lava from the cones has obscured large portions of the mountain. The Saddle Plateau cones are mostly cinder cones with terminal effusion of lava, while the Upper Rombo Zone cones mostly generated lava flows. All Saddle Plateau cones predate the last glaciation. According to reports gathered in the 19th century from theMaasai, Lake Chala on Kibo's eastern flank was the site of a village that was destroyed by an eruption. Glaciers Kibo'sdiminishingice cap exists because Kilimanjaro is a little-dissected, massive mountain that rises above thesnow line. The cap is divergent and at the edges splits into individual glaciers. The central portion of the ice cap is interrupted by the presence of the Kibo crater.: 5The summit glaciers and ice fields do not display significant horizontal movements because their low thickness precludes major deformation. Geological evidence shows five successive glacial episodes during theQuaternaryperiod, namely First (500,000BP), Second (greater than 360,000 years ago to 240,000 BP), Third (150,000 to 120,000 BP), Fourth (also known as \\\"Main\\\") (20,000 to 17,000 BP), and Little (16,000 to 14,000 BP). The Third may have been the most extensive, and the Little appears to be statistically indistinguishable from the Fourth. A continuous ice cap covering approximately 400 km2(150 sq mi) down to an elevation of 3,200 m (10,500 ft) covered Kilimanjaro during theLast Glacial Maximumin thePleistoceneepoch (the Main glacial episode), extending across the summits of Kibo and Mawenzi.Because of the exceptionally prolonged dry conditions during the subsequentYounger Dryasstadial, the ice fields on Kilimanjaro may have become extinct around 11,500 years BP.Ice corestaken from Kilimanjaro's Northern Ice Field (NIF) indicates that the glaciers there have a basal age of about 11,700 years,although an analysis of ice taken in 2011 from exposed vertical cliffs in the NIF supports an age extending only to 800 years BP.Higher precipitation rates at the beginningof theHoloceneepoch (11,500 years BP) allowed the ice cap to reform.The glaciers survived a widespread drought during a three century period beginning around 4,000 years BP. In the late 1880s, the summit of Kibo was completely covered by an ice cap about 20 km2(7.7 sq mi) in extent with outlet glaciers cascading down the western and southern slopes, and except for the inner cone, the entire caldera was buried. Glacier ice also flowed through the Western Breach.The slope glaciers retreated rapidly between 1912 and 1953, in response to a sudden shift in climate at the end of the 19th century that made them \\\"drastically out of equilibrium\\\", and more slowly thereafter. Their continuing demise indicates they are still out of equilibrium in response to a constant change in climate over the past century. In contrast to the persistent slope glaciers, the glaciers on Kilimanjaro's crater plateau have appeared and disappeared repeatedly during the Holocene epoch, with each cycle lasting a few hundred years.: 1088It appears that decreasing specific humidity instead of temperature changes has caused the shrinkage of the slope glaciers since the late 19th century. No clear warming trend at the elevation of those glaciers occurred between 1948 and 2005. Although air temperatures at that elevation are always below freezing, solar radiation causes melting on vertical faces. Vertical ice margin walls are a unique characteristic of the summit glaciers and a major place of the shrinkage of the glaciers. They manifest stratifications,calving, and other ice features.\\\"There is no pathway for the plateau glaciers other than to continuously retreat once their vertical margins are exposed to solar radiation.\\\"The Kilimanjaro glaciers have been used for deriving ice core records, including two from the southern icefield. Based on this data, this icefield formed between 1,250 and 1,450 years BP. Almost 85 percent of the ice cover on Kilimanjaro disappeared between October 1912 and June 2011, with coverage decreasing from 11.40 km2(4.40 sq mi) to 1.76 km2(0.68 sq mi).: 423Between 1912 and 1953, there was about a 1.1 percent average annual loss of ice coverage.The average annual loss for 1953 to 1989 was 1.4 percent, while the loss rate for 1989 to 2007 was 2.5 percent.Of the ice cover still present in 2000, almost 40 percent had disappeared by 2011.: 425Ice climber Will Gadd noticed differences between his 2014 and 2020 climbs.The glaciers are thinning in addition to losing areal coverage,and do not have active accumulation zones; retreat occurs on all glacier surfaces. Loss of glacier mass is caused by both melting andsublimation.While the current shrinking and thinning of Kilimanjaro's ice fields appear to be unique within its almost twelve-millennium history, it is contemporaneous with widespreadglacier retreatin mid-to-low latitudes across the globe.In 2013, it was estimated that, at the currentrate of global warming, most of the ice on Kilimanjaro will disappear by 2040, and \\\"it is highly unlikely that any ice body will remain after 2060\\\".: 430 The Furtwangler Glacier on Kilimanjaro is a remnant of the ice cap that once covered the mountain. This has retreated dramatically over the last century with over 80 percent glacial retreat. The glacier is named after Walter Furtwangler, who along with Ziegfried Koenig, was the fourth to ascend to the summit of Kilimanjaro in 1912. A complete disappearance of the ice would be of only \\\"negligible importance\\\" to the water budget of the area around the mountain. The forests of Kilimanjaro, far below the ice fields, \\\"are essential water reservoirs for the local and regional populations\\\". Drainage Kilimanjaro is drained by a network of rivers and streams, especially on the wetter and more heavily eroded southern side and especially above 1,200 m (3,900 ft). Below that altitude, increased evaporation and human water usage reduce the water flows. TheLumiandPanganirivers drain Kilimanjaro on the eastern and southern sides, respectively. IUGS geological heritage site In respect of it being 'the higheststratovolcanoof the East African Rift that maintains a glacier on its summit', theInternational Union of Geological Sciences(IUGS) included 'The Pleistocene Kilimanjaro volcano' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organization defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.' Human history Chagga states Kilimanjaro is attested to in numerous stories by the people who live in East Africa. TheChagga, who traditionally lived on the southern and eastern slopes of the mountain in sovereignChagga states, tell how a man named Tone once provoked a god, Ruwa, to bring famine upon the land. The people became angry at Tone, forcing him to flee. Nobody wanted to protect him but a solitary dweller who had stones that turned miraculously into cattle. The dweller bid that Tone never open the stable of the cattle. When Tone did not heed the warning and the cattle escaped, Tone followed them, but the fleeing cattle threw up hills to run on, including Mawenzi and Kibo. Tone finally collapsed on Kibo, ending the pursuit. Another Chagga legend tells of ivory-filled graves of elephants on the mountain, and of a cow named Rayli that produces miraculous fat from her tail glands. If a man tries to steal such a gland but is too slow in his moves, Rayli will blast a powerful snort and blow the thief down onto the plain. Early records The mountain may have been known to non-Africans sinceantiquity. Sailors' reports recorded byPtolemymention a \\\"moon mountain\\\" and a spring lake of the Nile, which may indicate Kilimanjaro, although available historical information does not allow differentiation among others in East Africa likeMount Kenya, the mountains ofEthiopia, theVirunga Mountains, theRwenzori Mountains, and Kilimanjaro. Before Ptolemy,AeschylusandHerodotusreferred to \\\"Egypt nurtured by the snows\\\" and to a spring between two mountains, respectively. One of these mentions two tall mountains in the coastal regions with a valley with traces of fire between them.Martín Fernández de Enciso, a Spanish traveler toMombasawho obtained information about the interior from native caravans, said in hisSumma de Geografía(1519) that west of Mombasa \\\"stands the Ethiopian Mount Olympus, which is exceedingly high, and beyond it are the Mountains of the Moon, in which are the sources of the Nile\\\".: 1–5: 114 European exploration The German missionariesJohannes Rebmannof Mombasa andJohann Krapfwere the first Europeans known to have attempted to reach the mountain. According to English geographerHalford Mackinderand English explorerHarry Johnston, Rebmann in 1848 was the first European to report the existence of Kilimanjaro.Hans Meyer has claimed that Rebmann first arrived in Africa in 1846 and quotes Rebmann's diary entry of 11 May 1848 as saying, This morning, at 10 o'clock, we obtained a clearer view of the mountains of Jagga, the summit of one of which was covered by what looked like a beautiful white cloud. When I inquired as to the dazzling whiteness, the guide merely called it 'cold' and at once I knew it could be neither more nor less than snow.... Immediately I understood how to interpret the marvelous tales Dr. Krapf and I had heard at the coast, of a vast mountain of gold and silver in the far interior, the approach to which was guarded by evil spirits.: 6 In August 1861, the Prussian officer BaronKarl Klaus von der Deckenaccompanied by English geologist Richard Thorntonattempted to climb Kibo but \\\"got no farther than 2,500 m (8,200 ft) owing to the inclemency of the weather\\\".: 9In December 1862, von der Decken tried a second time together withOtto Kersten, reaching a height of 4,300 m (14,000 ft). In August 1871, missionary Charles New became the \\\"first European to reach the equatorial snows\\\" on Kilimanjaro at an elevation of slightly more than 4,000 m (13,000 ft).: 11In June 1887, the Hungarian CountSámuel Telekiand the Austrian LieutenantLudwig von Höhnelmade an attempt to climb the mountain. Approaching from the saddle between Mawenzi and Kibo, Höhnel stopped at 4,950 m (16,240 ft), but Teleki continued until he reached the snow at 5,300 m (17,400 ft).Later in 1887, the German geology professor Hans Meyer reached the lower edge of the ice cap on Kibo, where he was forced to turn back because he lacked the equipment needed to progress across the ice.: 81The following year, Meyer planned another attempt withOscar Baumann, acartographer, but the mission was aborted after the pair were held hostage and ransomed during theAbushiri Revolt.: 82In the autumn of 1888, the American naturalist Abbott and the German explorerOtto Ehrenfried Ehlersapproached the summit from the northwest. While Abbott turned back earlier, Ehlers at first claimed to have reached the summit rim, but after severe criticism of the claim, withdrew it.: 17–19 In 1889, Meyer returned to Kilimanjaro with the Austrian mountaineerLudwig Purtschellerfor a third attempt.: 82This attempt was based on the establishment of several campsites with food supplies so that multiple attempts at the top could be made without having to descend too far.: 82Meyer and Purtscheller pushed to near the crater rim on 3 October but turned back exhausted from hacking footsteps in the icy slope.: 82Three days later, they reached the highest summit, on the southern rim of the crater.: 82They were the first to confirm that Kibo has a crater.: 82After descending to the saddle between Kibo and Mawenzi, Meyer and Purtscheller attempted to climb the more technically challenging Mawenzi but could only reach the top of Klute Peak, a subsidiary peak, before retreating due to illness.: 84On 18 October, they reascended Kibo to enter and study the crater, cresting the rim at Hans Meyers Notch.: 84In total, Meyer and Purtscheller spent 16 days above 4,600 m (15,000 ft) during their expedition.: 84They were accompanied in their high camps by Mwini Amani ofPangani, who cooked and supplied the sites with water and firewood.: 135–186 The first ascent of the highest summit of Mawenzi was made on 29 July 1912, by the German climbersEduard Hans OehlerandFritz Klute, who named it Hans Meyer Peak. Oehler and Klute went on to make the third-ever ascent of Kibo, via theDrygalski Glacier, and descended via the Western Breach.: 85The mountain lent its name to the 1914Battle of KilimanjaroduringWorld War I. In 1989, the organizing committee of the 100-year celebration of the first ascent decided to award posthumous certificates to the African porter-guides who had accompanied Meyer and Purtscheller.One person in pictures or documents of the 1889 expedition was thought to match a living inhabitant ofMarangu, Yohani Kinyala Lauwo.Lauwo did not know his own age,nor remember Meyer or Purtscheller. He did recall joining a Kilimanjaro expedition involving a Dutch doctor who lived near the mountain, and that he did not wear shoes during the climb.Lauwo claimed that he had climbed the mountain three times before the beginning ofWorld War I.The committee concluded that he had been a member of Meyer's team and therefore must have been born around 1871.Lauwo died on 10 May 1996, 107 years after the first ascent. It is sometimes suggested that he was a co-first-ascendant of Kilimanjaro. Fauna and flora Animals Large animals are rare on Kilimanjaro and are more frequent in the forests and lower parts of the mountain.ElephantsandCape buffaloesare among the animals that can be potentially hazardous to trekkers.Bushbucks,chameleons,dik-diks,duikers,mongooses,sunbirds, andwarthogshave also been reported.Zebras,leopardsandhyenashave been observed sporadically on the Shira plateau.Specific species associated with the mountain include theKilimanjaro shrewand the chameleonKinyongia tavetana. Vegetation Natural forests cover about 1,000 km2(250,000 acres) on Kilimanjaro.In the foothill area,maize, beans,sunflowersand, on the western side, wheat are cultivated. There are remnants of the formersavannavegetation withAcacia,Combretum,TerminaliaandGrewia. Between 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and 1,800 m (5,900 ft), coffee appears as part of the \\\"Chaggahome gardens\\\"agroforestry. Native vegetation at this altitude range (Strombosia,Newtonia, andEntandrophragma) is limited to inaccessible valleys and gorgesand is different from vegetation at higher altitudes. On the southern slope,montane forestsfirst containOcotea usambarensisas well asfernsandepiphytes; farther up incloud forestsPodocarpus latifolius,Hagenia abyssinicaandErica excelsagrow, as well as fog-dependent mosses. On the drier northern slopesolive,Croton-Calodendrum,Cassipourea, andJuniperusform forests in order of increasing altitude. Between 3,100 m (10,200 ft) and 3,900 m (12,800 ft) lieEricabush and heathlands, followed byHelichrysum, until 4,500 m (14,800 ft).Neophyteshave been observed, includingPoa annua. Records from the Maundi crater at 2,780 m (9,120 ft) indicate that the vegetation of Kilimanjaro has varied over time. Forest vegetation retreated during the Last Glacial Maximum and the ericaceous vegetation belt lowered by 1,500 m (4,900 ft) between 42,000 and 30,000 years ago because of the drier and colder conditions. The Tussock Grassland is an area on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro that contains many unique species of vegetation, such as thewater holding cabbage. Climate The climate of Kilimanjaro is influenced by the height of the mountain, which allows the simultaneous influence of the equatorialtrade windsand the high altitudeanti-trades, and by the isolated position of the mountain. Kilimanjaro hasdaily upslope and nightly downslope winds, a regimen stronger on the southern than the northern side of the mountain. The flatter southern flanks are more extended and affect the atmosphere more strongly.: 3–4 Kilimanjaro has two distinct rainy seasons, one from March to May and another around November. The northern slopes receive much less rainfall than the southern ones.The lower southern slope receives 800 to 900 mm (31 to 35 in) annually, rising to 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59 to 79 in) at 1,500 m (4,900 ft) altitude and peaking \\\"partly over\\\" 3,000 mm (120 in) in the forest belt at 2,000 to 2,300 m (6,600 to 7,500 ft). In the alpine zone, annual precipitation decreases to 200 mm (7.9 in).: 18 The average temperature in the summit area is approximately −7 °C (19 °F). Nighttime surface temperatures on theNorthern Ice Field(NIF) fall on average to −9 °C (16 °F), with an average daytime high of −4 °C (25 °F). During nights of extremeradiational cooling, the NIF can cool to as low as −15 to −27 °C (5 to −17 °F).: 674 Snowfall can occur at any time of year but is mostly associated with northern Tanzania's two rainy seasons.: 673Precipitation in the summit area occurs principally as snow andgraupelof 250 to 500 mm (9.8 to 19.7 in) per year and ablates within days or years. Climatic zones Tourism industry Kilimanjaro National Parkgenerated US$51 million in revenue in 2013,: 285the second-most of any Tanzanian national park.: 258The Tanzania National Parks Authority reported that the park recorded 57,456 tourists during the 2011–12 budget year, of whom 16,425 hiked the mountain; the park's General Management Plan specifies an annual capacity of 28,470.The mountain hikers generated irregular and seasonal jobs for about 11,000 guides, porters, and cooks in 2007.Concerns have been raised about the poor working conditions and inadequate wages of these workers.: 287–291: 259Due to Kilimanjaro National Park's popularity as a destination, the Tanzanian government has invested in road infrastructure to improve accessibility. In Tanzania,Kilimanjaro International Airportalso serves as an important transportation hub. There are seven official trekking routes by which to ascend and descend Kilimanjaro: Lemosho, Lemosho Western-Breach, Machame, Marangu, Mweka, Rongai, Shira, and Umbwe.The Machame route can be completed in six or seven days,Lemosho in six to eight, and the Northern Circuit routes in seven or more days.The Lemosho Route can also be continued via the Western-Breach, submitting via the western side of the mountain. The Western Breach is more secluded and avoids the 6-hour midnight ascent to the summit (like other routes). The Rongai is the easiest of the camping routes.The Marangu is also relatively easy, if frequently busy; accommodation is in shared huts.The Lemosho Western-Breach Route commences on the western side of Kilimanjaro at Lemosho and continues to the summit via the Western-Breach Route. Climbing records The oldest person to climb Mount Kilimanjaro isAnne Lorimor, aged 89 years and 37 days, who reached Uhuru Peak at 3:14p.m. local time on 18 July 2019.The oldest man to summit is AmericanFred Dishelhorst, who reached the top on 19 July 2017 at the age of 88 years old.The second oldest man to summit the mountain is the American Robert Wheeler, who was 85 years and 201 days when he summited on 2 October 2014.Maxwell J. Ojerholm of Massachusetts, USA, reached Uhuru Peak, the true summit, unassisted, at the age of ten years, on July 4, 2009, taking the difficult Machame Route. Colin M. Barker of Missouri, USA, later completed the same route at the age of ten years on December 22, 2020.Theodore Margarolifrom London, age 10, reached the summit unassisted by the Western Breach, the hardest but most scenic route, in 2019.Despite an age-limit of 10 years for a climbing permit, Keats Boyd from Los Angeles reached the summit on 21 January 2008 at the age of 7.This record was equaled by Montannah Kenney from Texas in March 2018 and again in July 2018 by Coaltan Tanner from New Mexico.The fastest ascent and the fastest round trip have been recorded by the Swiss-Ecuadorian mountain guideKarl Egloff. On 13 August 2014, after guiding a party to the summit the previous days, he ran from Umbwe Gate to the top in 4 hours and 56 minutes and returned to the Mweka Gate at 1,630 m (5,350 ft) in a total time of 6 hours, 42 minutes and 24 seconds.Previous records, using the same route, were held by Spanish mountain runnerKílian Jornet(ascent in 5:23:50, round trip 7:14 on 29 September 2010) and by Tanzanian guide Simon Mtuy (an unsupported round trip in 9:21 on 22 February 2006). The female round trip record is held by Fernanda Maciel from Brazil in a time of 10 hours and 6 minutes.Her ascent time of 7:08 was broken on 23 February 2018 by the Danish ultramarathon runner Kristina Schou Madsen with a time of 6:52:54 from Mweka Gate. Several climbs by disabled people have drawn attention. Wheelchair user Bernard Goosen from South Africa scaled Kilimanjaro in six days in 2007. In 2012,Kyle Maynardwho has no forearms or lower legs, crawled unassisted to the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro. In 2020, a team featuring two double above-knee amputees,Hari Budha Magarand Justin Oliver Davis, summited Kilimanjaro. It took them six days to cover the 56 km (35 mi) distance to the summit. Safety Though the climb is not technically as challenging as theHimalayasorAndes, the high elevation, low temperature, and occasional high winds can make Kilimanjaro a difficult trek. Acclimatization is required, and even experienced and physically fit trekkers may suffer some degree ofaltitude sickness.A study of people attempting to reach the summit of Kilimanjaro in July and August 2005 found that 61.3 percent succeeded and 77 percent experienced acute mountain sickness (AMS).A retrospective study of 917 persons who attempted to reach the summit via the Lemosho or Machame routes found that 70.4 percent experienced AMS, defined in this study to be headache, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, or loss of appetite. Kilimanjaro's summit is well above the altitude at which life-threateninghigh altitude pulmonary edema(HAPE) orhigh altitude cerebral edema(HACE), the most severe forms of AMS, can occur.These health risks are increased substantially by excessively fast climbing schedules motivated by high daily national park fees, busy holiday travel schedules, and the lack of permanent shelter on most routes.The six-day Machame route, which involves one day of \\\"climbing high\\\" to Lava Tower (4,630 m (15,190 ft) and \\\"sleeping low\\\" at Barranco Camp (3,976 m (13,044 ft)), may delay the onset of AMS but does not ultimately prevent its occurrence. Falls on steep portions of the mountain and rock slides have killed trekkers. For this reason, the route via theArrow Glacierwas closed for several years, reopening in December 2007. Now again it officially closed as of January 20th 2024. Due to strong El Niño, the Western Breach has washed down the mountain. This huge runoff has carved new ravines on the slopes and seems to be dislodging the sediment that cements the rock together, disrupting the rock stability. At the route's base, rain water has opened new drainages and there is an active, flowing river through the Arrow Glacier Camp were there has been no water at all for decades.The improper disposal of human waste on the mountain environment has created a health hazard, necessitating the boiling of all water. According to the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Moshi, 25 people died from January 1996 to October 2003 while climbing the mountain. Seventeen were female and eight were male, ranging in age from 29 to 74. Fourteen died from advanced high altitude illness, including one withHACE, five withHAPE, and six with both HACE and HAPE. The remaining eleven deaths resulted from \\\"trauma (3),myocardial infarction(4),pneumonia(2), cardio-pulmonary failure of other underlying cause (1), and acuteappendicitis(1). The overall mortality rate was 13.6 per 100,000 climbers.\\\" In literature and film Kilimanjaro is a snow-covered mountain 19,710 feet high, and is said to be the highest mountain in Africa. Its western summit is called the Masai 'Ngaje Ngai', the House of God. Close to the western summit there is a dried and frozen carcas of a leopard. No one has explained what the leopard was seeking at that altitude. —Ernest Hemingway's \\\"riddle\\\" preceding his 1936 short storyThe Snows of Kilimanjaro JournalistTom Bissellnoted that Kilimanjaro is \\\"perhaps the world’s most literary mountain\\\".The mountain is prominently featured inErnest Hemingway's 1936 short storyThe Snows of Kilimanjaro, which was adapted into a1952 filmstarringGregory Peck.Dave Eggerswrote about his ascent in the short storyUp the Mountain Coming Down Slowly.WriterDouglas Adamsclimbed the mountain in a rubber rhinoceros suit to raise money forAfrican rhinoconservation efforts. Kilimanjaro was featured inToto's 1982 song \\\"Africa\\\".An IMAX film documenting an ascent—Kilimanjaro: To The Roof Of Africa—was released in 2002. See also References Citations Works cited Academic articles Books External links\",\n \"Mount Katahdin Mount Katahdin(/kəˈtɑːdɪn/kə-TAH-din) is the highest mountain in theU.S. stateofMaineat 5,269 feet (1,606 m). NamedKatahdin, which means \\\"Great Mountain\\\",by thePenobscotNative Americans, it is withinNortheast Piscataquis,Piscataquis County, and is the centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. It is a steep, tallmassifformed from agranite intrusionweathered to the surface. The flora and fauna on the mountain are typical of those found in northernNew England, with the summit hosting fragile and endangered alpine tundra. Katahdin was known to theNative Americansin the region and was known to Europeans at least since 1689. It has inspired hikes, climbs, journal narratives, paintings, and a piano sonata.The area around the peak was protected by GovernorPercival Baxterstarting in the 1930s. Katahdin is the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trailand is near a stretch known as theHundred-Mile Wilderness. Though part of the Appalachian Mountain system, Katahdin is isolated from the range, and sits largely on its own as amonadnock. The nearest higher mountains in any direction are the high peaks of thePresidential Range, around 170 miles (270 km) to the south-west. In 1967, Mount Katahdin was designated as aNational Natural Landmarkby theNational Park Service. The mountain is commonly called just \\\"Katahdin\\\",though the official name is \\\"Mount Katahdin\\\" as decided by theUS Board on Geographic Namesin 1893. Geology Katahdin is part of alaccoliththat formed in theAcadian orogenywhen anisland arccollided with easternNorth Americaapproximately 400 million years ago. On the sides of Katahdin are four glacialcirquescarved into the granite by alpineglaciersand in these cirques behindmorainesandeskersare several ponds. In Baxter State Park, many outcrops ofsedimentary rockshavestriations, whereas KatahdinGraniteand TravelerRhyolitelavahave weathered surfaces on which striations are commonly not preserved. Bedrock surfaces ofigneous rockswhich were buried by glacial sediments and only recently exposed have well preserved striations, as in the vicinity ofRipogenusDam. Several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the Patten Road show striations, especially on the north side of the road at Hurricane Deck. A few outcrops near the Pattern Road just north of Horse Mountain are striated, as are several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the road from Trout Brook Farm northward toSecond Lake Matagamon. Fauna Faunaincludeblack bear,deer, andmooseas well asblack fliesandmosquitosin the spring. A subspecies of Arctic butterfly, known as the Katahdin Arctic (Oeneis polixeneskatahdin) is specific to the area, and is currently listed as endangered.Among the birds areBicknell's thrushand various songbirds and raptors. A study of the animal communities was published by Irving H. Blake in 1926.The flora includespine,spruce,fir,hemlock,beech,maple,birch,aspen, andpincushion plant(Diapensia lapponica). Geography Katahdin is in Baxter State Park, which is in east central Piscataquis County, about 25 mi (40 km) northwest ofMillinocket. It is on thedrainage dividebetween theEastandWest branchesof thePenobscot River. The mountain massif itself consists of multiple peaks. Baxter Peak is the tallest, and is the official northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail. South Peak and Pamola Peak are southeast and east of Baxter Peak, respectively, along the Knife Edge ridgeline, whileHamlin Peaklies to the north. There is low lake country to the south and west of Katahdin, and lowlands extending east to the Atlantic and north to theSaint Lawrence RiverinCanada. It is commonly thought that Katahdin is the first place in the United States mainland to receive sunlight in the morning, but this is incorrect. Other mountains lower in elevation but farther to the east or southeast see the first sunrise of the day, depending on the season.Regardless, the summit of Katahdin offers some of the longest unbroken lines of sight in the United States, and on clear days can be seen all the way from theWhite Mountainsof neighboringNew Hampshire; a distance of 170 miles (270 km). Katahdin's height and isolation earns it significant coverage in indigenous and post-colonial Maine culture and literature. Katahdin's profile is distinctive and the indisputable centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. Katahdin and nearby Hamlin Peak are the only two areas to host a subarctic climate and alpine vegetation inMaine. In winter, the snowcapped east and west faces of Katahdin resemble \\\"theKilimanjaroof New England\\\", and it dominates the otherwise flat and endless forests of theNorth Maine Woods. Katahdin is also the northernmost mountain in the eastern United States with an elevation over 4,000 feet (1,200 m). Climate Human history Katahdin is referred to 60 years after Field's climb of Agiokochuk (Mount Washington) in the writings ofJohn Gyles, a teenage colonist who was captured nearPortland, Maine, in 1689 by theAbenaki. While in the company of Abenaki hunting parties, he traveled up and down several Maine rivers including both branches of thePenobscot, passing close to \\\"Teddon\\\". He remarked that it was higher than theWhite Hillsabove theSaco River. Among someNative Americans, Katahdin was believed to be the home of the storm godPamola, and thus an area to be avoided. The first recorded climb of \\\"Catahrdin\\\" was by Massachusetts surveyors Zackery AdleyandCharles Turner, Jr.in August 1804.The letter describing the ascent of Charles Turner Jr. states that they began at the (West Branch Penobscot) at 8:00 a.m. and arrived on the summit at 5:00 p.m. guided by two Native Americans who were initially cautious but when the \\\"cold part of the mountain\\\" was reached and sensing the determination of the others became ambitious to reach the top first. Turner lists his party as: William Howe, Amos Patten, Joseph Treat, Samuel Call, William Rice, Richard Winslow, Charles Turner, Jr. In the 1930sGovernorPercival Baxterbegan to acquire land and finally deeded more than 200,000acres(810 km2) to the State of Maine for a park, namedBaxter State Parkafter him. The summit was officially recognized by theUS Board on Geographic Namesas \\\"Baxter Peak\\\" in 1931. In the 1840sHenry David Thoreauclimbed Katahdin, which he spelled \\\"Ktaadn\\\"; his ascent is recorded in a well-known chapter ofThe Maine Woods.A few years laterTheodore Winthropwrote about his visit inLife in the Open Air. PaintersFrederic Edwin ChurchandMarsden Hartleyare well-known artists who created landscapes of Katahdin. On 30 November 2011, Christie's auctioned Church's 1860 paintingTwilight (Katahdin)for $3.1 million. Elizabeth Oakes Smith\\\"climbed Mount Katahdin in 1849—reportedly the first white woman to do so\\\". Recreation opportunities As the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trailand southern terminus of theInternational Appalachian Trail, Katahdin is a popular hiking and backpacking destination and the centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. Baxter State Park is open year-round, though strictly regulated in winter. The overnight camping season is, weather permitting, from May 15 to October 15 each year, with some campgrounds staying open until October 22. Capacity limits have been placed on day use parking at the trailheads to minimize the overuse of trails. Mt. Katahdin has several trails leading up to Baxter, Pamola, or Hamlin PeaksThese trails start right up the mountain, but each trail on the mountain ends up taking eight to ten hours round-trip depending on ability. Even for experienced hikers, Katahdin is often considered one of the most challenging hikes in the entireAppalachian Mountainrange.The rest of the trails go up the north side or west side of the mountain. These are accessed from the Chimney Pond Trail. For these trails, hikers must park at the Roaring Brook Campground and hike in. All trails are maintained by the Baxter State Park Authority, which runs the State Park. All of the trails on the mountain are classified as very strenuous, the highest classification the Park Authority gives, except for Saddle (strenuous), Hamlin Ridge trail (moderate), and Chimney Pond (moderate). The most famous hike to the summit goes along Knife Edge, a glacialarêtewhich traverses the ridge between Pamola Peak and Baxter Peak. There have been more than 60 deaths on Katahdin since 1933 including October 8 and 9, 2020.The park as a whole typically sees a need for roughly 40 search-and-rescue events per year (1 in 2,000 hikers), with a peak of 70 in 2013. The vast majority of incidents occur in the summer months, and the primary causes are leg injury, exhaustion, dehydration and disorientation.Because of this, Katahdin and not-so-nearbyMount Washingtonroutinely near the top of the most deadly \\\"low mountains\\\" on Earth, with more fatalities per foot of elevation gained than some much higher mountains in theHimalaya. Namesakes See also References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Mount Kilimanjaro Mount Kilimanjaro(/ˌkɪlɪmənˈdʒɑːroʊ/)is adormant volcanoinTanzania. It is thehighest mountain in Africaand thehighest free-standing mountain above sea level in the world: 5,895 m (19,341 ft) above sea level and 4,900 m (16,100 ft) above its plateau base. It is also thehighest volcanoin theEastern Hemisphereand thefourth most topographically prominentpeak on Earth. Kilimanjaro's southern and eastern slopes served as the home of theChagga Kingdomsuntil their abolition in 1963 byJulius Nyerere. The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is unknown, but may mean \"mountain of greatness\" or refer to its snowy peak or a mountain deity. Although described inclassicalsources, Germany missionaryJohannes Rebmannis credited as the first European to report the mountain's extistence, in 1848. After several European attempts,Hans Meyerreached Kilimanjaro's highest summit in 1889. The mountain was incorporated intoKilimanjaro National Parkin 1973. As one of theSeven Summits, Kilimanjaro is a major","is a major hiking and climbing destination. There areseven established routesto Uhuru Peak, the mountain's highest point. Although not as technically challenging as similar mountains, the prominence of Kilimanjaro poses a serious risk ofaltitude sickness. One ofseveral mountainsarising from theEast African Rift, Kilimanjaro was formed from volcanic activity over 2 million years ago. Its slopes hostmontane forestsandcloud forests. Multiple species areendemicto Mount Kilimanjaro, including thegiant groundselDendrosenecio kilimanjari. The mountain possesses a largeice capand the largest glaciers in Africa, includingCredner Glacier,Furtwängler Glacier, and theRebmann Glacier. This ice cap is rapidly shrinking, with over 80% lost in the 20th century. The cap is projected to disappear entirely by the mid-21st century. Toponymy The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is disputed. Although theChagga peopleof theKilimanjaro regionhave no name for the mountain, they call its two peaksKipooandKimawenze. The","The peaks' names—usually rendered Kibo and Mawenzi—mean \"spotted\" in reference to Kibo's snow and \"broken top\" due to Mawenzi's jagged peak.\"Kilimanjaro\" may originate from the Chagga calling the mountain unclimbable—kilemajyaro—and explorers misinterpreting this as the mountain's name. Early Western etymologies used a compoundSwahiliorigin, withkilimatranslated as \"mountain\".In 1860,Johann Ludwig Krapfwrote that theSwahilisused the name Kilimanjaro and that it meant either \"mountain of greatness\" or \"mountain of caravans\", with a translation ofnjaroas greatness orjaroas \"caravans\".In 1885, Scottish explorerJoseph Thomsonreported \"white mountain\" as an alternative, withnjarodenoting whiteness.Similarly, Krapf mentions an 1849 visit with aWakambachief that called the mountainKima jajeu, meaning \"mountain of whiteness\". These etymologies are criticized askilimais adiminutiveofmlima(mountain) and actually means \"hill\". However,mlimamay have been misintrepreted askilimavia conflation with the two peaks'","with the two peaks' names,KipooandKimawenze. Alternatively, thekileman-part of Kilimanjaro may originate from theKichaggakileme, \"that which defeats\", orkilelema, \"that which has become difficult or impossible\". The-jarocould be derived fromnjaare, a bird, or fromjyaro, a caravan. Another explanation is thatjyaromay refer to a god or a deity that guarded the mountain from tresspassers. In the 1880s, the mountain became part ofGerman East Africaand was calledKilima-Ndscharoin German.In 1889,Hans Meyerreached the highest summit on Kibo, which he namedKaiser-Wilhelm-SpitzeforKaiser Wilhelm.Following theZanzibar Revolutionand the formation ofTanzaniain 1964, the summit was renamed Uhuru Peak: \"Freedom Peak\" in Swahili. Geology and geography Kilimanjaro is a large dormantstratovolcanocomposed of three distinct volcanic cones: Kibo, the highest; Mawenzi at 5,149 m (16,893 ft);and Shira, the lowest at 4,005 m (13,140 ft).Mawenzi and Shira areextinct, while Kibo isdormantand could erupt again. Uhuru Peak is the","Uhuru Peak is the highest summit on Kibo's crater rim. TheTanzania National Parks Authority, a Tanzanian government agency,and theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizationlists the height of Uhuru Peak as 5,895 m (19,341 ft), based on aBritish surveyin 1952.The height has since been measured as 5,892 m (19,331 ft) in 1999, 5,902 m (19,364 ft) in 2008, and 5,899 m (19,354 ft) in 2014. A map of the Kibo cone on Mount Kilimanjaro was published by the British government'sDirectorate of Overseas Surveys(DOS) in 1964 based on aerial photography conducted in 1962 as the \"Subset of Kilimanjaro, East Africa (Tanganyika) Series Y742, Sheet 56/2, D.O.S. 422 1964, Edition 1, Scale 1:50,000\".Tourist mapping was first published by theOrdnance Surveyin England in 1989 based on the original DOS mapping at a scale of 1:100,000, with 100 ft (30 m) contour intervals, as DOS 522.West Col Productions produced a map with tourist information in 1990, at a scale of 1:75,000, with 100 m (330 ft) contour","m (330 ft) contour intervals; it included inset maps of Kibo and Mawenzi on 1:20,000 and 1:30,000 scales respectively and with 50 m (160 ft) contour intervals.In recent years, numerous other maps have become available, of various qualities. Volcanology The volcanic interior of Kilimanjaro is poorly known because there has not been any significant erosion to expose theigneousstrata that comprise the volcano's structure. Eruptive activity at the Shira center commenced about 2.5 million years ago, with the last important phase occurring about 1.9 million years ago, just before the northern part of the edifice collapsed.Shira is topped by a broadhigh plainat 3,800 m (12,500 ft), which may be a filledcaldera. The remnant caldera rim has been degraded deeply by erosion. Before the caldera formed and erosion began, Shira might have been between 4,900 and 5,200 m (16,100 and 17,100 ft) high. It is mostly composed of basaltic lavas, with somepyroclastics. The formation of the caldera was accompanied by lava emanating","by lava emanating fromring fractures, but there was no large-scaleexplosive activity. Two cones formed subsequently, thephonoliticone at the northwest end of the ridge and thedoleriticPlatzkegel in the caldera center. Both Mawenzi and Kibo began erupting about 1 million years ago.They are separated by the Saddle Plateau at 4,400 m (14,400 ft) elevation.: 3 The youngest dated rocks at Mawenzi are about 448,000 years old.Mawenzi forms a horseshoe-shaped ridge withpinnaclesand ridges opening to the northeast, with a tower-like shape resulting from deep erosion and amaficdike swarm. Several largecirquescut into the ring and the largest of these sits on top of the Great Barranco gorge. Also notable are the East and West Barrancos on the northeastern side of the mountain. Most of the eastern side of the mountain has been removed by erosion. Mawenzi has asubsidiary peak, Neumann Tower, 4,425 m (14,518 ft). Kibo is the largest cone on the mountain and is more than 24 km (15 mi) wide at the Saddle Plateau altitude.","Plateau altitude. The last activity here, dated to 150,000–200,000 years ago, created the current Kibo summit crater. Kibo still has gas-emittingfumarolesin its crater.Kibo is capped by an almost symmetrical cone withescarpmentsrising 180 to 200 m (590 to 660 ft) on the south side. These escarpments define a 2.5 km-wide (1.6 mi) calderacaused by the collapse of the summit. Within this caldera is the Inner Cone and within the crater of the Inner Cone is the Reusch Crater, which the Tanganyika government in 1954 named after Gustav Otto Richard Reusch, upon his climbing the mountain for the 25th time (out of 65 attempts during his lifetime).The Ash Pit, 350 m (1,150 ft) deep, lies within the Reusch Crater.About 100,000 years ago, part of Kibo's crater rim collapsed, creating the area known as theWestern Breachand the Great Barranco. An almost continuous layer of lava buries most older geological features, except exposedstratawithin the Great West Notch and the Kibo Barranco. The former exposes intrusions","exposes intrusions ofsyenite.Kibo has five main lava formations: Kibo has more than 250parasitic coneson its northwest and southeast flanks that were formed between 150,000 and 200,000 years agoand eruptedpicrobasalts,trachybasalts,ankaramites, andbasanites.They reach as far asLake ChalaandTavetain the southeast and the Lengurumani Plain in the northwest. Most of these cones are well preserved, except the Saddle Plateau cones which were heavily affected by glacial action. Despite their mostly small size, lava from the cones has obscured large portions of the mountain. The Saddle Plateau cones are mostly cinder cones with terminal effusion of lava, while the Upper Rombo Zone cones mostly generated lava flows. All Saddle Plateau cones predate the last glaciation. According to reports gathered in the 19th century from theMaasai, Lake Chala on Kibo's eastern flank was the site of a village that was destroyed by an eruption. Glaciers Kibo'sdiminishingice cap exists because Kilimanjaro is a little-dissected,","a little-dissected, massive mountain that rises above thesnow line. The cap is divergent and at the edges splits into individual glaciers. The central portion of the ice cap is interrupted by the presence of the Kibo crater.: 5The summit glaciers and ice fields do not display significant horizontal movements because their low thickness precludes major deformation. Geological evidence shows five successive glacial episodes during theQuaternaryperiod, namely First (500,000BP), Second (greater than 360,000 years ago to 240,000 BP), Third (150,000 to 120,000 BP), Fourth (also known as \"Main\") (20,000 to 17,000 BP), and Little (16,000 to 14,000 BP). The Third may have been the most extensive, and the Little appears to be statistically indistinguishable from the Fourth. A continuous ice cap covering approximately 400 km2(150 sq mi) down to an elevation of 3,200 m (10,500 ft) covered Kilimanjaro during theLast Glacial Maximumin thePleistoceneepoch (the Main glacial episode), extending across the summits of Kibo and","summits of Kibo and Mawenzi.Because of the exceptionally prolonged dry conditions during the subsequentYounger Dryasstadial, the ice fields on Kilimanjaro may have become extinct around 11,500 years BP.Ice corestaken from Kilimanjaro's Northern Ice Field (NIF) indicates that the glaciers there have a basal age of about 11,700 years,although an analysis of ice taken in 2011 from exposed vertical cliffs in the NIF supports an age extending only to 800 years BP.Higher precipitation rates at the beginningof theHoloceneepoch (11,500 years BP) allowed the ice cap to reform.The glaciers survived a widespread drought during a three century period beginning around 4,000 years BP. In the late 1880s, the summit of Kibo was completely covered by an ice cap about 20 km2(7.7 sq mi) in extent with outlet glaciers cascading down the western and southern slopes, and except for the inner cone, the entire caldera was buried. Glacier ice also flowed through the Western Breach.The slope glaciers retreated rapidly between 1912","between 1912 and 1953, in response to a sudden shift in climate at the end of the 19th century that made them \"drastically out of equilibrium\", and more slowly thereafter. Their continuing demise indicates they are still out of equilibrium in response to a constant change in climate over the past century. In contrast to the persistent slope glaciers, the glaciers on Kilimanjaro's crater plateau have appeared and disappeared repeatedly during the Holocene epoch, with each cycle lasting a few hundred years.: 1088It appears that decreasing specific humidity instead of temperature changes has caused the shrinkage of the slope glaciers since the late 19th century. No clear warming trend at the elevation of those glaciers occurred between 1948 and 2005. Although air temperatures at that elevation are always below freezing, solar radiation causes melting on vertical faces. Vertical ice margin walls are a unique characteristic of the summit glaciers and a major place of the shrinkage of the glaciers. They manifest","They manifest stratifications,calving, and other ice features.\"There is no pathway for the plateau glaciers other than to continuously retreat once their vertical margins are exposed to solar radiation.\"The Kilimanjaro glaciers have been used for deriving ice core records, including two from the southern icefield. Based on this data, this icefield formed between 1,250 and 1,450 years BP. Almost 85 percent of the ice cover on Kilimanjaro disappeared between October 1912 and June 2011, with coverage decreasing from 11.40 km2(4.40 sq mi) to 1.76 km2(0.68 sq mi).: 423Between 1912 and 1953, there was about a 1.1 percent average annual loss of ice coverage.The average annual loss for 1953 to 1989 was 1.4 percent, while the loss rate for 1989 to 2007 was 2.5 percent.Of the ice cover still present in 2000, almost 40 percent had disappeared by 2011.: 425Ice climber Will Gadd noticed differences between his 2014 and 2020 climbs.The glaciers are thinning in addition to losing areal coverage,and do not have active","do not have active accumulation zones; retreat occurs on all glacier surfaces. Loss of glacier mass is caused by both melting andsublimation.While the current shrinking and thinning of Kilimanjaro's ice fields appear to be unique within its almost twelve-millennium history, it is contemporaneous with widespreadglacier retreatin mid-to-low latitudes across the globe.In 2013, it was estimated that, at the currentrate of global warming, most of the ice on Kilimanjaro will disappear by 2040, and \"it is highly unlikely that any ice body will remain after 2060\".: 430 The Furtwangler Glacier on Kilimanjaro is a remnant of the ice cap that once covered the mountain. This has retreated dramatically over the last century with over 80 percent glacial retreat. The glacier is named after Walter Furtwangler, who along with Ziegfried Koenig, was the fourth to ascend to the summit of Kilimanjaro in 1912. A complete disappearance of the ice would be of only \"negligible importance\" to the water budget of the area around the","the area around the mountain. The forests of Kilimanjaro, far below the ice fields, \"are essential water reservoirs for the local and regional populations\". Drainage Kilimanjaro is drained by a network of rivers and streams, especially on the wetter and more heavily eroded southern side and especially above 1,200 m (3,900 ft). Below that altitude, increased evaporation and human water usage reduce the water flows. TheLumiandPanganirivers drain Kilimanjaro on the eastern and southern sides, respectively. IUGS geological heritage site In respect of it being 'the higheststratovolcanoof the East African Rift that maintains a glacier on its summit', theInternational Union of Geological Sciences(IUGS) included 'The Pleistocene Kilimanjaro volcano' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organization defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used","relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.' Human history Chagga states Kilimanjaro is attested to in numerous stories by the people who live in East Africa. TheChagga, who traditionally lived on the southern and eastern slopes of the mountain in sovereignChagga states, tell how a man named Tone once provoked a god, Ruwa, to bring famine upon the land. The people became angry at Tone, forcing him to flee. Nobody wanted to protect him but a solitary dweller who had stones that turned miraculously into cattle. The dweller bid that Tone never open the stable of the cattle. When Tone did not heed the warning and the cattle escaped, Tone followed them, but the fleeing cattle threw up hills to run on, including Mawenzi and Kibo. Tone finally collapsed on Kibo, ending the pursuit. Another Chagga legend tells of ivory-filled graves of elephants on the mountain, and of a cow named Rayli that produces miraculous fat from her tail","fat from her tail glands. If a man tries to steal such a gland but is too slow in his moves, Rayli will blast a powerful snort and blow the thief down onto the plain. Early records The mountain may have been known to non-Africans sinceantiquity. Sailors' reports recorded byPtolemymention a \"moon mountain\" and a spring lake of the Nile, which may indicate Kilimanjaro, although available historical information does not allow differentiation among others in East Africa likeMount Kenya, the mountains ofEthiopia, theVirunga Mountains, theRwenzori Mountains, and Kilimanjaro. Before Ptolemy,AeschylusandHerodotusreferred to \"Egypt nurtured by the snows\" and to a spring between two mountains, respectively. One of these mentions two tall mountains in the coastal regions with a valley with traces of fire between them.Martín Fernández de Enciso, a Spanish traveler toMombasawho obtained information about the interior from native caravans, said in hisSumma de Geografía(1519) that west of Mombasa \"stands the Ethiopian","the Ethiopian Mount Olympus, which is exceedingly high, and beyond it are the Mountains of the Moon, in which are the sources of the Nile\".: 1–5: 114 European exploration The German missionariesJohannes Rebmannof Mombasa andJohann Krapfwere the first Europeans known to have attempted to reach the mountain. According to English geographerHalford Mackinderand English explorerHarry Johnston, Rebmann in 1848 was the first European to report the existence of Kilimanjaro.Hans Meyer has claimed that Rebmann first arrived in Africa in 1846 and quotes Rebmann's diary entry of 11 May 1848 as saying, This morning, at 10 o'clock, we obtained a clearer view of the mountains of Jagga, the summit of one of which was covered by what looked like a beautiful white cloud. When I inquired as to the dazzling whiteness, the guide merely called it 'cold' and at once I knew it could be neither more nor less than snow.... Immediately I understood how to interpret the marvelous tales Dr. Krapf and I had heard at the coast, of a vast","coast, of a vast mountain of gold and silver in the far interior, the approach to which was guarded by evil spirits.: 6 In August 1861, the Prussian officer BaronKarl Klaus von der Deckenaccompanied by English geologist Richard Thorntonattempted to climb Kibo but \"got no farther than 2,500 m (8,200 ft) owing to the inclemency of the weather\".: 9In December 1862, von der Decken tried a second time together withOtto Kersten, reaching a height of 4,300 m (14,000 ft). In August 1871, missionary Charles New became the \"first European to reach the equatorial snows\" on Kilimanjaro at an elevation of slightly more than 4,000 m (13,000 ft).: 11In June 1887, the Hungarian CountSámuel Telekiand the Austrian LieutenantLudwig von Höhnelmade an attempt to climb the mountain. Approaching from the saddle between Mawenzi and Kibo, Höhnel stopped at 4,950 m (16,240 ft), but Teleki continued until he reached the snow at 5,300 m (17,400 ft).Later in 1887, the German geology professor Hans Meyer reached the lower edge of the ice","edge of the ice cap on Kibo, where he was forced to turn back because he lacked the equipment needed to progress across the ice.: 81The following year, Meyer planned another attempt withOscar Baumann, acartographer, but the mission was aborted after the pair were held hostage and ransomed during theAbushiri Revolt.: 82In the autumn of 1888, the American naturalist Abbott and the German explorerOtto Ehrenfried Ehlersapproached the summit from the northwest. While Abbott turned back earlier, Ehlers at first claimed to have reached the summit rim, but after severe criticism of the claim, withdrew it.: 17–19 In 1889, Meyer returned to Kilimanjaro with the Austrian mountaineerLudwig Purtschellerfor a third attempt.: 82This attempt was based on the establishment of several campsites with food supplies so that multiple attempts at the top could be made without having to descend too far.: 82Meyer and Purtscheller pushed to near the crater rim on 3 October but turned back exhausted from hacking footsteps in the icy","in the icy slope.: 82Three days later, they reached the highest summit, on the southern rim of the crater.: 82They were the first to confirm that Kibo has a crater.: 82After descending to the saddle between Kibo and Mawenzi, Meyer and Purtscheller attempted to climb the more technically challenging Mawenzi but could only reach the top of Klute Peak, a subsidiary peak, before retreating due to illness.: 84On 18 October, they reascended Kibo to enter and study the crater, cresting the rim at Hans Meyers Notch.: 84In total, Meyer and Purtscheller spent 16 days above 4,600 m (15,000 ft) during their expedition.: 84They were accompanied in their high camps by Mwini Amani ofPangani, who cooked and supplied the sites with water and firewood.: 135–186 The first ascent of the highest summit of Mawenzi was made on 29 July 1912, by the German climbersEduard Hans OehlerandFritz Klute, who named it Hans Meyer Peak. Oehler and Klute went on to make the third-ever ascent of Kibo, via theDrygalski Glacier, and descended via","and descended via the Western Breach.: 85The mountain lent its name to the 1914Battle of KilimanjaroduringWorld War I. In 1989, the organizing committee of the 100-year celebration of the first ascent decided to award posthumous certificates to the African porter-guides who had accompanied Meyer and Purtscheller.One person in pictures or documents of the 1889 expedition was thought to match a living inhabitant ofMarangu, Yohani Kinyala Lauwo.Lauwo did not know his own age,nor remember Meyer or Purtscheller. He did recall joining a Kilimanjaro expedition involving a Dutch doctor who lived near the mountain, and that he did not wear shoes during the climb.Lauwo claimed that he had climbed the mountain three times before the beginning ofWorld War I.The committee concluded that he had been a member of Meyer's team and therefore must have been born around 1871.Lauwo died on 10 May 1996, 107 years after the first ascent. It is sometimes suggested that he was a co-first-ascendant of Kilimanjaro. Fauna and flora","Fauna and flora Animals Large animals are rare on Kilimanjaro and are more frequent in the forests and lower parts of the mountain.ElephantsandCape buffaloesare among the animals that can be potentially hazardous to trekkers.Bushbucks,chameleons,dik-diks,duikers,mongooses,sunbirds, andwarthogshave also been reported.Zebras,leopardsandhyenashave been observed sporadically on the Shira plateau.Specific species associated with the mountain include theKilimanjaro shrewand the chameleonKinyongia tavetana. Vegetation Natural forests cover about 1,000 km2(250,000 acres) on Kilimanjaro.In the foothill area,maize, beans,sunflowersand, on the western side, wheat are cultivated. There are remnants of the formersavannavegetation withAcacia,Combretum,TerminaliaandGrewia. Between 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and 1,800 m (5,900 ft), coffee appears as part of the \"Chaggahome gardens\"agroforestry. Native vegetation at this altitude range (Strombosia,Newtonia, andEntandrophragma) is limited to inaccessible valleys and gorgesand is","and gorgesand is different from vegetation at higher altitudes. On the southern slope,montane forestsfirst containOcotea usambarensisas well asfernsandepiphytes; farther up incloud forestsPodocarpus latifolius,Hagenia abyssinicaandErica excelsagrow, as well as fog-dependent mosses. On the drier northern slopesolive,Croton-Calodendrum,Cassipourea, andJuniperusform forests in order of increasing altitude. Between 3,100 m (10,200 ft) and 3,900 m (12,800 ft) lieEricabush and heathlands, followed byHelichrysum, until 4,500 m (14,800 ft).Neophyteshave been observed, includingPoa annua. Records from the Maundi crater at 2,780 m (9,120 ft) indicate that the vegetation of Kilimanjaro has varied over time. Forest vegetation retreated during the Last Glacial Maximum and the ericaceous vegetation belt lowered by 1,500 m (4,900 ft) between 42,000 and 30,000 years ago because of the drier and colder conditions. The Tussock Grassland is an area on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro that contains many unique species of","unique species of vegetation, such as thewater holding cabbage. Climate The climate of Kilimanjaro is influenced by the height of the mountain, which allows the simultaneous influence of the equatorialtrade windsand the high altitudeanti-trades, and by the isolated position of the mountain. Kilimanjaro hasdaily upslope and nightly downslope winds, a regimen stronger on the southern than the northern side of the mountain. The flatter southern flanks are more extended and affect the atmosphere more strongly.: 3–4 Kilimanjaro has two distinct rainy seasons, one from March to May and another around November. The northern slopes receive much less rainfall than the southern ones.The lower southern slope receives 800 to 900 mm (31 to 35 in) annually, rising to 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59 to 79 in) at 1,500 m (4,900 ft) altitude and peaking \"partly over\" 3,000 mm (120 in) in the forest belt at 2,000 to 2,300 m (6,600 to 7,500 ft). In the alpine zone, annual precipitation decreases to 200 mm (7.9 in).: 18 The average","18 The average temperature in the summit area is approximately −7 °C (19 °F). Nighttime surface temperatures on theNorthern Ice Field(NIF) fall on average to −9 °C (16 °F), with an average daytime high of −4 °C (25 °F). During nights of extremeradiational cooling, the NIF can cool to as low as −15 to −27 °C (5 to −17 °F).: 674 Snowfall can occur at any time of year but is mostly associated with northern Tanzania's two rainy seasons.: 673Precipitation in the summit area occurs principally as snow andgraupelof 250 to 500 mm (9.8 to 19.7 in) per year and ablates within days or years. Climatic zones Tourism industry Kilimanjaro National Parkgenerated US$51 million in revenue in 2013,: 285the second-most of any Tanzanian national park.: 258The Tanzania National Parks Authority reported that the park recorded 57,456 tourists during the 2011–12 budget year, of whom 16,425 hiked the mountain; the park's General Management Plan specifies an annual capacity of 28,470.The mountain hikers generated irregular and","irregular and seasonal jobs for about 11,000 guides, porters, and cooks in 2007.Concerns have been raised about the poor working conditions and inadequate wages of these workers.: 287–291: 259Due to Kilimanjaro National Park's popularity as a destination, the Tanzanian government has invested in road infrastructure to improve accessibility. In Tanzania,Kilimanjaro International Airportalso serves as an important transportation hub. There are seven official trekking routes by which to ascend and descend Kilimanjaro: Lemosho, Lemosho Western-Breach, Machame, Marangu, Mweka, Rongai, Shira, and Umbwe.The Machame route can be completed in six or seven days,Lemosho in six to eight, and the Northern Circuit routes in seven or more days.The Lemosho Route can also be continued via the Western-Breach, submitting via the western side of the mountain. The Western Breach is more secluded and avoids the 6-hour midnight ascent to the summit (like other routes). The Rongai is the easiest of the camping routes.The Marangu is","Marangu is also relatively easy, if frequently busy; accommodation is in shared huts.The Lemosho Western-Breach Route commences on the western side of Kilimanjaro at Lemosho and continues to the summit via the Western-Breach Route. Climbing records The oldest person to climb Mount Kilimanjaro isAnne Lorimor, aged 89 years and 37 days, who reached Uhuru Peak at 3:14p.m. local time on 18 July 2019.The oldest man to summit is AmericanFred Dishelhorst, who reached the top on 19 July 2017 at the age of 88 years old.The second oldest man to summit the mountain is the American Robert Wheeler, who was 85 years and 201 days when he summited on 2 October 2014.Maxwell J. Ojerholm of Massachusetts, USA, reached Uhuru Peak, the true summit, unassisted, at the age of ten years, on July 4, 2009, taking the difficult Machame Route. Colin M. Barker of Missouri, USA, later completed the same route at the age of ten years on December 22, 2020.Theodore Margarolifrom London, age 10, reached the summit unassisted by the Western","by the Western Breach, the hardest but most scenic route, in 2019.Despite an age-limit of 10 years for a climbing permit, Keats Boyd from Los Angeles reached the summit on 21 January 2008 at the age of 7.This record was equaled by Montannah Kenney from Texas in March 2018 and again in July 2018 by Coaltan Tanner from New Mexico.The fastest ascent and the fastest round trip have been recorded by the Swiss-Ecuadorian mountain guideKarl Egloff. On 13 August 2014, after guiding a party to the summit the previous days, he ran from Umbwe Gate to the top in 4 hours and 56 minutes and returned to the Mweka Gate at 1,630 m (5,350 ft) in a total time of 6 hours, 42 minutes and 24 seconds.Previous records, using the same route, were held by Spanish mountain runnerKílian Jornet(ascent in 5:23:50, round trip 7:14 on 29 September 2010) and by Tanzanian guide Simon Mtuy (an unsupported round trip in 9:21 on 22 February 2006). The female round trip record is held by Fernanda Maciel from Brazil in a time of 10 hours and 6","of 10 hours and 6 minutes.Her ascent time of 7:08 was broken on 23 February 2018 by the Danish ultramarathon runner Kristina Schou Madsen with a time of 6:52:54 from Mweka Gate. Several climbs by disabled people have drawn attention. Wheelchair user Bernard Goosen from South Africa scaled Kilimanjaro in six days in 2007. In 2012,Kyle Maynardwho has no forearms or lower legs, crawled unassisted to the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro. In 2020, a team featuring two double above-knee amputees,Hari Budha Magarand Justin Oliver Davis, summited Kilimanjaro. It took them six days to cover the 56 km (35 mi) distance to the summit. Safety Though the climb is not technically as challenging as theHimalayasorAndes, the high elevation, low temperature, and occasional high winds can make Kilimanjaro a difficult trek. Acclimatization is required, and even experienced and physically fit trekkers may suffer some degree ofaltitude sickness.A study of people attempting to reach the summit of Kilimanjaro in July and August 2005","and August 2005 found that 61.3 percent succeeded and 77 percent experienced acute mountain sickness (AMS).A retrospective study of 917 persons who attempted to reach the summit via the Lemosho or Machame routes found that 70.4 percent experienced AMS, defined in this study to be headache, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, or loss of appetite. Kilimanjaro's summit is well above the altitude at which life-threateninghigh altitude pulmonary edema(HAPE) orhigh altitude cerebral edema(HACE), the most severe forms of AMS, can occur.These health risks are increased substantially by excessively fast climbing schedules motivated by high daily national park fees, busy holiday travel schedules, and the lack of permanent shelter on most routes.The six-day Machame route, which involves one day of \"climbing high\" to Lava Tower (4,630 m (15,190 ft) and \"sleeping low\" at Barranco Camp (3,976 m (13,044 ft)), may delay the onset of AMS but does not ultimately prevent its occurrence. Falls on steep portions of the mountain and rock","mountain and rock slides have killed trekkers. For this reason, the route via theArrow Glacierwas closed for several years, reopening in December 2007. Now again it officially closed as of January 20th 2024. Due to strong El Niño, the Western Breach has washed down the mountain. This huge runoff has carved new ravines on the slopes and seems to be dislodging the sediment that cements the rock together, disrupting the rock stability. At the route's base, rain water has opened new drainages and there is an active, flowing river through the Arrow Glacier Camp were there has been no water at all for decades.The improper disposal of human waste on the mountain environment has created a health hazard, necessitating the boiling of all water. According to the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Moshi, 25 people died from January 1996 to October 2003 while climbing the mountain. Seventeen were female and eight were male, ranging in age from 29 to 74. Fourteen died from advanced high altitude illness, including","illness, including one withHACE, five withHAPE, and six with both HACE and HAPE. The remaining eleven deaths resulted from \"trauma (3),myocardial infarction(4),pneumonia(2), cardio-pulmonary failure of other underlying cause (1), and acuteappendicitis(1). The overall mortality rate was 13.6 per 100,000 climbers.\" In literature and film Kilimanjaro is a snow-covered mountain 19,710 feet high, and is said to be the highest mountain in Africa. Its western summit is called the Masai 'Ngaje Ngai', the House of God. Close to the western summit there is a dried and frozen carcas of a leopard. No one has explained what the leopard was seeking at that altitude. —Ernest Hemingway's \"riddle\" preceding his 1936 short storyThe Snows of Kilimanjaro JournalistTom Bissellnoted that Kilimanjaro is \"perhaps the world’s most literary mountain\".The mountain is prominently featured inErnest Hemingway's 1936 short storyThe Snows of Kilimanjaro, which was adapted into a1952 filmstarringGregory Peck.Dave Eggerswrote about his","about his ascent in the short storyUp the Mountain Coming Down Slowly.WriterDouglas Adamsclimbed the mountain in a rubber rhinoceros suit to raise money forAfrican rhinoconservation efforts. Kilimanjaro was featured inToto's 1982 song \"Africa\".An IMAX film documenting an ascent—Kilimanjaro: To The Roof Of Africa—was released in 2002. See also References Citations Works cited Academic articles Books External links","Mount Katahdin Mount Katahdin(/kəˈtɑːdɪn/kə-TAH-din) is the highest mountain in theU.S. stateofMaineat 5,269 feet (1,606 m). NamedKatahdin, which means \"Great Mountain\",by thePenobscotNative Americans, it is withinNortheast Piscataquis,Piscataquis County, and is the centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. It is a steep, tallmassifformed from agranite intrusionweathered to the surface. The flora and fauna on the mountain are typical of those found in northernNew England, with the summit hosting fragile and endangered alpine tundra. Katahdin was known to theNative Americansin the region and was known to Europeans at least since 1689. It has inspired hikes, climbs, journal narratives, paintings, and a piano sonata.The area around the peak was protected by GovernorPercival Baxterstarting in the 1930s. Katahdin is the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trailand is near a stretch known as theHundred-Mile Wilderness. Though part of the Appalachian Mountain system, Katahdin is isolated from the range, and sits largely on","and sits largely on its own as amonadnock. The nearest higher mountains in any direction are the high peaks of thePresidential Range, around 170 miles (270 km) to the south-west. In 1967, Mount Katahdin was designated as aNational Natural Landmarkby theNational Park Service. The mountain is commonly called just \"Katahdin\",though the official name is \"Mount Katahdin\" as decided by theUS Board on Geographic Namesin 1893. Geology Katahdin is part of alaccoliththat formed in theAcadian orogenywhen anisland arccollided with easternNorth Americaapproximately 400 million years ago. On the sides of Katahdin are four glacialcirquescarved into the granite by alpineglaciersand in these cirques behindmorainesandeskersare several ponds. In Baxter State Park, many outcrops ofsedimentary rockshavestriations, whereas KatahdinGraniteand TravelerRhyolitelavahave weathered surfaces on which striations are commonly not preserved. Bedrock surfaces ofigneous rockswhich were buried by glacial sediments and only recently exposed","recently exposed have well preserved striations, as in the vicinity ofRipogenusDam. Several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the Patten Road show striations, especially on the north side of the road at Hurricane Deck. A few outcrops near the Pattern Road just north of Horse Mountain are striated, as are several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the road from Trout Brook Farm northward toSecond Lake Matagamon. Fauna Faunaincludeblack bear,deer, andmooseas well asblack fliesandmosquitosin the spring. A subspecies of Arctic butterfly, known as the Katahdin Arctic (Oeneis polixeneskatahdin) is specific to the area, and is currently listed as endangered.Among the birds areBicknell's thrushand various songbirds and raptors. A study of the animal communities was published by Irving H. Blake in 1926.The flora includespine,spruce,fir,hemlock,beech,maple,birch,aspen, andpincushion plant(Diapensia lapponica). Geography Katahdin is in Baxter State Park, which is in east central Piscataquis County, about 25 mi (40","about 25 mi (40 km) northwest ofMillinocket. It is on thedrainage dividebetween theEastandWest branchesof thePenobscot River. The mountain massif itself consists of multiple peaks. Baxter Peak is the tallest, and is the official northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail. South Peak and Pamola Peak are southeast and east of Baxter Peak, respectively, along the Knife Edge ridgeline, whileHamlin Peaklies to the north. There is low lake country to the south and west of Katahdin, and lowlands extending east to the Atlantic and north to theSaint Lawrence RiverinCanada. It is commonly thought that Katahdin is the first place in the United States mainland to receive sunlight in the morning, but this is incorrect. Other mountains lower in elevation but farther to the east or southeast see the first sunrise of the day, depending on the season.Regardless, the summit of Katahdin offers some of the longest unbroken lines of sight in the United States, and on clear days can be seen all the way from theWhite Mountainsof","Mountainsof neighboringNew Hampshire; a distance of 170 miles (270 km). Katahdin's height and isolation earns it significant coverage in indigenous and post-colonial Maine culture and literature. Katahdin's profile is distinctive and the indisputable centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. Katahdin and nearby Hamlin Peak are the only two areas to host a subarctic climate and alpine vegetation inMaine. In winter, the snowcapped east and west faces of Katahdin resemble \"theKilimanjaroof New England\", and it dominates the otherwise flat and endless forests of theNorth Maine Woods. Katahdin is also the northernmost mountain in the eastern United States with an elevation over 4,000 feet (1,200 m). Climate Human history Katahdin is referred to 60 years after Field's climb of Agiokochuk (Mount Washington) in the writings ofJohn Gyles, a teenage colonist who was captured nearPortland, Maine, in 1689 by theAbenaki. While in the company of Abenaki hunting parties, he traveled up and down several Maine rivers including both","including both branches of thePenobscot, passing close to \"Teddon\". He remarked that it was higher than theWhite Hillsabove theSaco River. Among someNative Americans, Katahdin was believed to be the home of the storm godPamola, and thus an area to be avoided. The first recorded climb of \"Catahrdin\" was by Massachusetts surveyors Zackery AdleyandCharles Turner, Jr.in August 1804.The letter describing the ascent of Charles Turner Jr. states that they began at the (West Branch Penobscot) at 8:00 a.m. and arrived on the summit at 5:00 p.m. guided by two Native Americans who were initially cautious but when the \"cold part of the mountain\" was reached and sensing the determination of the others became ambitious to reach the top first. Turner lists his party as: William Howe, Amos Patten, Joseph Treat, Samuel Call, William Rice, Richard Winslow, Charles Turner, Jr. In the 1930sGovernorPercival Baxterbegan to acquire land and finally deeded more than 200,000acres(810 km2) to the State of Maine for a park,","Maine for a park, namedBaxter State Parkafter him. The summit was officially recognized by theUS Board on Geographic Namesas \"Baxter Peak\" in 1931. In the 1840sHenry David Thoreauclimbed Katahdin, which he spelled \"Ktaadn\"; his ascent is recorded in a well-known chapter ofThe Maine Woods.A few years laterTheodore Winthropwrote about his visit inLife in the Open Air. PaintersFrederic Edwin ChurchandMarsden Hartleyare well-known artists who created landscapes of Katahdin. On 30 November 2011, Christie's auctioned Church's 1860 paintingTwilight (Katahdin)for $3.1 million. Elizabeth Oakes Smith\"climbed Mount Katahdin in 1849—reportedly the first white woman to do so\". Recreation opportunities As the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trailand southern terminus of theInternational Appalachian Trail, Katahdin is a popular hiking and backpacking destination and the centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. Baxter State Park is open year-round, though strictly regulated in winter. The overnight camping season is, weather","season is, weather permitting, from May 15 to October 15 each year, with some campgrounds staying open until October 22. Capacity limits have been placed on day use parking at the trailheads to minimize the overuse of trails. Mt. Katahdin has several trails leading up to Baxter, Pamola, or Hamlin PeaksThese trails start right up the mountain, but each trail on the mountain ends up taking eight to ten hours round-trip depending on ability. Even for experienced hikers, Katahdin is often considered one of the most challenging hikes in the entireAppalachian Mountainrange.The rest of the trails go up the north side or west side of the mountain. These are accessed from the Chimney Pond Trail. For these trails, hikers must park at the Roaring Brook Campground and hike in. All trails are maintained by the Baxter State Park Authority, which runs the State Park. All of the trails on the mountain are classified as very strenuous, the highest classification the Park Authority gives, except for Saddle (strenuous), Hamlin","(strenuous), Hamlin Ridge trail (moderate), and Chimney Pond (moderate). The most famous hike to the summit goes along Knife Edge, a glacialarêtewhich traverses the ridge between Pamola Peak and Baxter Peak. There have been more than 60 deaths on Katahdin since 1933 including October 8 and 9, 2020.The park as a whole typically sees a need for roughly 40 search-and-rescue events per year (1 in 2,000 hikers), with a peak of 70 in 2013. The vast majority of incidents occur in the summer months, and the primary causes are leg injury, exhaustion, dehydration and disorientation.Because of this, Katahdin and not-so-nearbyMount Washingtonroutinely near the top of the most deadly \"low mountains\" on Earth, with more fatalities per foot of elevation gained than some much higher mountains in theHimalaya. Namesakes See also References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Mount Kilimanjaro Mount Kilimanjaro(/ˌkɪlɪmənˈdʒɑːroʊ/)is adormant volcanoinTanzania. It is thehighest mountain in Africaand thehighest free-standing mountain above sea level in the world: 5,895 m (19,341 ft) above sea level and 4,900 m (16,100 ft) above its plateau base. It is also thehighest volcanoin theEastern Hemisphereand thefourth most topographically prominentpeak on Earth. Kilimanjaro's southern and eastern slopes served as the home of theChagga Kingdomsuntil their abolition in 1963 byJulius Nyerere. The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is unknown, but may mean \\\"mountain of greatness\\\" or refer to its snowy peak or a mountain deity. Although described inclassicalsources, Germany missionaryJohannes Rebmannis credited as the first European to report the mountain's extistence, in 1848. After several European attempts,Hans Meyerreached Kilimanjaro's highest summit in 1889. The mountain was incorporated intoKilimanjaro National Parkin 1973. As one of theSeven Summits, Kilimanjaro is a major\",\n \"is a major hiking and climbing destination. There areseven established routesto Uhuru Peak, the mountain's highest point. Although not as technically challenging as similar mountains, the prominence of Kilimanjaro poses a serious risk ofaltitude sickness. One ofseveral mountainsarising from theEast African Rift, Kilimanjaro was formed from volcanic activity over 2 million years ago. Its slopes hostmontane forestsandcloud forests. Multiple species areendemicto Mount Kilimanjaro, including thegiant groundselDendrosenecio kilimanjari. The mountain possesses a largeice capand the largest glaciers in Africa, includingCredner Glacier,Furtwängler Glacier, and theRebmann Glacier. This ice cap is rapidly shrinking, with over 80% lost in the 20th century. The cap is projected to disappear entirely by the mid-21st century. Toponymy The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is disputed. Although theChagga peopleof theKilimanjaro regionhave no name for the mountain, they call its two peaksKipooandKimawenze. The\",\n \"The peaks' names—usually rendered Kibo and Mawenzi—mean \\\"spotted\\\" in reference to Kibo's snow and \\\"broken top\\\" due to Mawenzi's jagged peak.\\\"Kilimanjaro\\\" may originate from the Chagga calling the mountain unclimbable—kilemajyaro—and explorers misinterpreting this as the mountain's name. Early Western etymologies used a compoundSwahiliorigin, withkilimatranslated as \\\"mountain\\\".In 1860,Johann Ludwig Krapfwrote that theSwahilisused the name Kilimanjaro and that it meant either \\\"mountain of greatness\\\" or \\\"mountain of caravans\\\", with a translation ofnjaroas greatness orjaroas \\\"caravans\\\".In 1885, Scottish explorerJoseph Thomsonreported \\\"white mountain\\\" as an alternative, withnjarodenoting whiteness.Similarly, Krapf mentions an 1849 visit with aWakambachief that called the mountainKima jajeu, meaning \\\"mountain of whiteness\\\". These etymologies are criticized askilimais adiminutiveofmlima(mountain) and actually means \\\"hill\\\". However,mlimamay have been misintrepreted askilimavia conflation with the two peaks'\",\n \"with the two peaks' names,KipooandKimawenze. Alternatively, thekileman-part of Kilimanjaro may originate from theKichaggakileme, \\\"that which defeats\\\", orkilelema, \\\"that which has become difficult or impossible\\\". The-jarocould be derived fromnjaare, a bird, or fromjyaro, a caravan. Another explanation is thatjyaromay refer to a god or a deity that guarded the mountain from tresspassers. In the 1880s, the mountain became part ofGerman East Africaand was calledKilima-Ndscharoin German.In 1889,Hans Meyerreached the highest summit on Kibo, which he namedKaiser-Wilhelm-SpitzeforKaiser Wilhelm.Following theZanzibar Revolutionand the formation ofTanzaniain 1964, the summit was renamed Uhuru Peak: \\\"Freedom Peak\\\" in Swahili. Geology and geography Kilimanjaro is a large dormantstratovolcanocomposed of three distinct volcanic cones: Kibo, the highest; Mawenzi at 5,149 m (16,893 ft);and Shira, the lowest at 4,005 m (13,140 ft).Mawenzi and Shira areextinct, while Kibo isdormantand could erupt again. Uhuru Peak is the\",\n \"Uhuru Peak is the highest summit on Kibo's crater rim. TheTanzania National Parks Authority, a Tanzanian government agency,and theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizationlists the height of Uhuru Peak as 5,895 m (19,341 ft), based on aBritish surveyin 1952.The height has since been measured as 5,892 m (19,331 ft) in 1999, 5,902 m (19,364 ft) in 2008, and 5,899 m (19,354 ft) in 2014. A map of the Kibo cone on Mount Kilimanjaro was published by the British government'sDirectorate of Overseas Surveys(DOS) in 1964 based on aerial photography conducted in 1962 as the \\\"Subset of Kilimanjaro, East Africa (Tanganyika) Series Y742, Sheet 56/2, D.O.S. 422 1964, Edition 1, Scale 1:50,000\\\".Tourist mapping was first published by theOrdnance Surveyin England in 1989 based on the original DOS mapping at a scale of 1:100,000, with 100 ft (30 m) contour intervals, as DOS 522.West Col Productions produced a map with tourist information in 1990, at a scale of 1:75,000, with 100 m (330 ft) contour\",\n \"m (330 ft) contour intervals; it included inset maps of Kibo and Mawenzi on 1:20,000 and 1:30,000 scales respectively and with 50 m (160 ft) contour intervals.In recent years, numerous other maps have become available, of various qualities. Volcanology The volcanic interior of Kilimanjaro is poorly known because there has not been any significant erosion to expose theigneousstrata that comprise the volcano's structure. Eruptive activity at the Shira center commenced about 2.5 million years ago, with the last important phase occurring about 1.9 million years ago, just before the northern part of the edifice collapsed.Shira is topped by a broadhigh plainat 3,800 m (12,500 ft), which may be a filledcaldera. The remnant caldera rim has been degraded deeply by erosion. Before the caldera formed and erosion began, Shira might have been between 4,900 and 5,200 m (16,100 and 17,100 ft) high. It is mostly composed of basaltic lavas, with somepyroclastics. The formation of the caldera was accompanied by lava emanating\",\n \"by lava emanating fromring fractures, but there was no large-scaleexplosive activity. Two cones formed subsequently, thephonoliticone at the northwest end of the ridge and thedoleriticPlatzkegel in the caldera center. Both Mawenzi and Kibo began erupting about 1 million years ago.They are separated by the Saddle Plateau at 4,400 m (14,400 ft) elevation.: 3 The youngest dated rocks at Mawenzi are about 448,000 years old.Mawenzi forms a horseshoe-shaped ridge withpinnaclesand ridges opening to the northeast, with a tower-like shape resulting from deep erosion and amaficdike swarm. Several largecirquescut into the ring and the largest of these sits on top of the Great Barranco gorge. Also notable are the East and West Barrancos on the northeastern side of the mountain. Most of the eastern side of the mountain has been removed by erosion. Mawenzi has asubsidiary peak, Neumann Tower, 4,425 m (14,518 ft). Kibo is the largest cone on the mountain and is more than 24 km (15 mi) wide at the Saddle Plateau altitude.\",\n \"Plateau altitude. The last activity here, dated to 150,000–200,000 years ago, created the current Kibo summit crater. Kibo still has gas-emittingfumarolesin its crater.Kibo is capped by an almost symmetrical cone withescarpmentsrising 180 to 200 m (590 to 660 ft) on the south side. These escarpments define a 2.5 km-wide (1.6 mi) calderacaused by the collapse of the summit. Within this caldera is the Inner Cone and within the crater of the Inner Cone is the Reusch Crater, which the Tanganyika government in 1954 named after Gustav Otto Richard Reusch, upon his climbing the mountain for the 25th time (out of 65 attempts during his lifetime).The Ash Pit, 350 m (1,150 ft) deep, lies within the Reusch Crater.About 100,000 years ago, part of Kibo's crater rim collapsed, creating the area known as theWestern Breachand the Great Barranco. An almost continuous layer of lava buries most older geological features, except exposedstratawithin the Great West Notch and the Kibo Barranco. The former exposes intrusions\",\n \"exposes intrusions ofsyenite.Kibo has five main lava formations: Kibo has more than 250parasitic coneson its northwest and southeast flanks that were formed between 150,000 and 200,000 years agoand eruptedpicrobasalts,trachybasalts,ankaramites, andbasanites.They reach as far asLake ChalaandTavetain the southeast and the Lengurumani Plain in the northwest. Most of these cones are well preserved, except the Saddle Plateau cones which were heavily affected by glacial action. Despite their mostly small size, lava from the cones has obscured large portions of the mountain. The Saddle Plateau cones are mostly cinder cones with terminal effusion of lava, while the Upper Rombo Zone cones mostly generated lava flows. All Saddle Plateau cones predate the last glaciation. According to reports gathered in the 19th century from theMaasai, Lake Chala on Kibo's eastern flank was the site of a village that was destroyed by an eruption. Glaciers Kibo'sdiminishingice cap exists because Kilimanjaro is a little-dissected,\",\n \"a little-dissected, massive mountain that rises above thesnow line. The cap is divergent and at the edges splits into individual glaciers. The central portion of the ice cap is interrupted by the presence of the Kibo crater.: 5The summit glaciers and ice fields do not display significant horizontal movements because their low thickness precludes major deformation. Geological evidence shows five successive glacial episodes during theQuaternaryperiod, namely First (500,000BP), Second (greater than 360,000 years ago to 240,000 BP), Third (150,000 to 120,000 BP), Fourth (also known as \\\"Main\\\") (20,000 to 17,000 BP), and Little (16,000 to 14,000 BP). The Third may have been the most extensive, and the Little appears to be statistically indistinguishable from the Fourth. A continuous ice cap covering approximately 400 km2(150 sq mi) down to an elevation of 3,200 m (10,500 ft) covered Kilimanjaro during theLast Glacial Maximumin thePleistoceneepoch (the Main glacial episode), extending across the summits of Kibo and\",\n \"summits of Kibo and Mawenzi.Because of the exceptionally prolonged dry conditions during the subsequentYounger Dryasstadial, the ice fields on Kilimanjaro may have become extinct around 11,500 years BP.Ice corestaken from Kilimanjaro's Northern Ice Field (NIF) indicates that the glaciers there have a basal age of about 11,700 years,although an analysis of ice taken in 2011 from exposed vertical cliffs in the NIF supports an age extending only to 800 years BP.Higher precipitation rates at the beginningof theHoloceneepoch (11,500 years BP) allowed the ice cap to reform.The glaciers survived a widespread drought during a three century period beginning around 4,000 years BP. In the late 1880s, the summit of Kibo was completely covered by an ice cap about 20 km2(7.7 sq mi) in extent with outlet glaciers cascading down the western and southern slopes, and except for the inner cone, the entire caldera was buried. Glacier ice also flowed through the Western Breach.The slope glaciers retreated rapidly between 1912\",\n \"between 1912 and 1953, in response to a sudden shift in climate at the end of the 19th century that made them \\\"drastically out of equilibrium\\\", and more slowly thereafter. Their continuing demise indicates they are still out of equilibrium in response to a constant change in climate over the past century. In contrast to the persistent slope glaciers, the glaciers on Kilimanjaro's crater plateau have appeared and disappeared repeatedly during the Holocene epoch, with each cycle lasting a few hundred years.: 1088It appears that decreasing specific humidity instead of temperature changes has caused the shrinkage of the slope glaciers since the late 19th century. No clear warming trend at the elevation of those glaciers occurred between 1948 and 2005. Although air temperatures at that elevation are always below freezing, solar radiation causes melting on vertical faces. Vertical ice margin walls are a unique characteristic of the summit glaciers and a major place of the shrinkage of the glaciers. They manifest\",\n \"They manifest stratifications,calving, and other ice features.\\\"There is no pathway for the plateau glaciers other than to continuously retreat once their vertical margins are exposed to solar radiation.\\\"The Kilimanjaro glaciers have been used for deriving ice core records, including two from the southern icefield. Based on this data, this icefield formed between 1,250 and 1,450 years BP. Almost 85 percent of the ice cover on Kilimanjaro disappeared between October 1912 and June 2011, with coverage decreasing from 11.40 km2(4.40 sq mi) to 1.76 km2(0.68 sq mi).: 423Between 1912 and 1953, there was about a 1.1 percent average annual loss of ice coverage.The average annual loss for 1953 to 1989 was 1.4 percent, while the loss rate for 1989 to 2007 was 2.5 percent.Of the ice cover still present in 2000, almost 40 percent had disappeared by 2011.: 425Ice climber Will Gadd noticed differences between his 2014 and 2020 climbs.The glaciers are thinning in addition to losing areal coverage,and do not have active\",\n \"do not have active accumulation zones; retreat occurs on all glacier surfaces. Loss of glacier mass is caused by both melting andsublimation.While the current shrinking and thinning of Kilimanjaro's ice fields appear to be unique within its almost twelve-millennium history, it is contemporaneous with widespreadglacier retreatin mid-to-low latitudes across the globe.In 2013, it was estimated that, at the currentrate of global warming, most of the ice on Kilimanjaro will disappear by 2040, and \\\"it is highly unlikely that any ice body will remain after 2060\\\".: 430 The Furtwangler Glacier on Kilimanjaro is a remnant of the ice cap that once covered the mountain. This has retreated dramatically over the last century with over 80 percent glacial retreat. The glacier is named after Walter Furtwangler, who along with Ziegfried Koenig, was the fourth to ascend to the summit of Kilimanjaro in 1912. A complete disappearance of the ice would be of only \\\"negligible importance\\\" to the water budget of the area around the\",\n \"the area around the mountain. The forests of Kilimanjaro, far below the ice fields, \\\"are essential water reservoirs for the local and regional populations\\\". Drainage Kilimanjaro is drained by a network of rivers and streams, especially on the wetter and more heavily eroded southern side and especially above 1,200 m (3,900 ft). Below that altitude, increased evaporation and human water usage reduce the water flows. TheLumiandPanganirivers drain Kilimanjaro on the eastern and southern sides, respectively. IUGS geological heritage site In respect of it being 'the higheststratovolcanoof the East African Rift that maintains a glacier on its summit', theInternational Union of Geological Sciences(IUGS) included 'The Pleistocene Kilimanjaro volcano' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organization defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used\",\n \"relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.' Human history Chagga states Kilimanjaro is attested to in numerous stories by the people who live in East Africa. TheChagga, who traditionally lived on the southern and eastern slopes of the mountain in sovereignChagga states, tell how a man named Tone once provoked a god, Ruwa, to bring famine upon the land. The people became angry at Tone, forcing him to flee. Nobody wanted to protect him but a solitary dweller who had stones that turned miraculously into cattle. The dweller bid that Tone never open the stable of the cattle. When Tone did not heed the warning and the cattle escaped, Tone followed them, but the fleeing cattle threw up hills to run on, including Mawenzi and Kibo. Tone finally collapsed on Kibo, ending the pursuit. Another Chagga legend tells of ivory-filled graves of elephants on the mountain, and of a cow named Rayli that produces miraculous fat from her tail\",\n \"fat from her tail glands. If a man tries to steal such a gland but is too slow in his moves, Rayli will blast a powerful snort and blow the thief down onto the plain. Early records The mountain may have been known to non-Africans sinceantiquity. Sailors' reports recorded byPtolemymention a \\\"moon mountain\\\" and a spring lake of the Nile, which may indicate Kilimanjaro, although available historical information does not allow differentiation among others in East Africa likeMount Kenya, the mountains ofEthiopia, theVirunga Mountains, theRwenzori Mountains, and Kilimanjaro. Before Ptolemy,AeschylusandHerodotusreferred to \\\"Egypt nurtured by the snows\\\" and to a spring between two mountains, respectively. One of these mentions two tall mountains in the coastal regions with a valley with traces of fire between them.Martín Fernández de Enciso, a Spanish traveler toMombasawho obtained information about the interior from native caravans, said in hisSumma de Geografía(1519) that west of Mombasa \\\"stands the Ethiopian\",\n \"the Ethiopian Mount Olympus, which is exceedingly high, and beyond it are the Mountains of the Moon, in which are the sources of the Nile\\\".: 1–5: 114 European exploration The German missionariesJohannes Rebmannof Mombasa andJohann Krapfwere the first Europeans known to have attempted to reach the mountain. According to English geographerHalford Mackinderand English explorerHarry Johnston, Rebmann in 1848 was the first European to report the existence of Kilimanjaro.Hans Meyer has claimed that Rebmann first arrived in Africa in 1846 and quotes Rebmann's diary entry of 11 May 1848 as saying, This morning, at 10 o'clock, we obtained a clearer view of the mountains of Jagga, the summit of one of which was covered by what looked like a beautiful white cloud. When I inquired as to the dazzling whiteness, the guide merely called it 'cold' and at once I knew it could be neither more nor less than snow.... Immediately I understood how to interpret the marvelous tales Dr. Krapf and I had heard at the coast, of a vast\",\n \"coast, of a vast mountain of gold and silver in the far interior, the approach to which was guarded by evil spirits.: 6 In August 1861, the Prussian officer BaronKarl Klaus von der Deckenaccompanied by English geologist Richard Thorntonattempted to climb Kibo but \\\"got no farther than 2,500 m (8,200 ft) owing to the inclemency of the weather\\\".: 9In December 1862, von der Decken tried a second time together withOtto Kersten, reaching a height of 4,300 m (14,000 ft). In August 1871, missionary Charles New became the \\\"first European to reach the equatorial snows\\\" on Kilimanjaro at an elevation of slightly more than 4,000 m (13,000 ft).: 11In June 1887, the Hungarian CountSámuel Telekiand the Austrian LieutenantLudwig von Höhnelmade an attempt to climb the mountain. Approaching from the saddle between Mawenzi and Kibo, Höhnel stopped at 4,950 m (16,240 ft), but Teleki continued until he reached the snow at 5,300 m (17,400 ft).Later in 1887, the German geology professor Hans Meyer reached the lower edge of the ice\",\n \"edge of the ice cap on Kibo, where he was forced to turn back because he lacked the equipment needed to progress across the ice.: 81The following year, Meyer planned another attempt withOscar Baumann, acartographer, but the mission was aborted after the pair were held hostage and ransomed during theAbushiri Revolt.: 82In the autumn of 1888, the American naturalist Abbott and the German explorerOtto Ehrenfried Ehlersapproached the summit from the northwest. While Abbott turned back earlier, Ehlers at first claimed to have reached the summit rim, but after severe criticism of the claim, withdrew it.: 17–19 In 1889, Meyer returned to Kilimanjaro with the Austrian mountaineerLudwig Purtschellerfor a third attempt.: 82This attempt was based on the establishment of several campsites with food supplies so that multiple attempts at the top could be made without having to descend too far.: 82Meyer and Purtscheller pushed to near the crater rim on 3 October but turned back exhausted from hacking footsteps in the icy\",\n \"in the icy slope.: 82Three days later, they reached the highest summit, on the southern rim of the crater.: 82They were the first to confirm that Kibo has a crater.: 82After descending to the saddle between Kibo and Mawenzi, Meyer and Purtscheller attempted to climb the more technically challenging Mawenzi but could only reach the top of Klute Peak, a subsidiary peak, before retreating due to illness.: 84On 18 October, they reascended Kibo to enter and study the crater, cresting the rim at Hans Meyers Notch.: 84In total, Meyer and Purtscheller spent 16 days above 4,600 m (15,000 ft) during their expedition.: 84They were accompanied in their high camps by Mwini Amani ofPangani, who cooked and supplied the sites with water and firewood.: 135–186 The first ascent of the highest summit of Mawenzi was made on 29 July 1912, by the German climbersEduard Hans OehlerandFritz Klute, who named it Hans Meyer Peak. Oehler and Klute went on to make the third-ever ascent of Kibo, via theDrygalski Glacier, and descended via\",\n \"and descended via the Western Breach.: 85The mountain lent its name to the 1914Battle of KilimanjaroduringWorld War I. In 1989, the organizing committee of the 100-year celebration of the first ascent decided to award posthumous certificates to the African porter-guides who had accompanied Meyer and Purtscheller.One person in pictures or documents of the 1889 expedition was thought to match a living inhabitant ofMarangu, Yohani Kinyala Lauwo.Lauwo did not know his own age,nor remember Meyer or Purtscheller. He did recall joining a Kilimanjaro expedition involving a Dutch doctor who lived near the mountain, and that he did not wear shoes during the climb.Lauwo claimed that he had climbed the mountain three times before the beginning ofWorld War I.The committee concluded that he had been a member of Meyer's team and therefore must have been born around 1871.Lauwo died on 10 May 1996, 107 years after the first ascent. It is sometimes suggested that he was a co-first-ascendant of Kilimanjaro. Fauna and flora\",\n \"Fauna and flora Animals Large animals are rare on Kilimanjaro and are more frequent in the forests and lower parts of the mountain.ElephantsandCape buffaloesare among the animals that can be potentially hazardous to trekkers.Bushbucks,chameleons,dik-diks,duikers,mongooses,sunbirds, andwarthogshave also been reported.Zebras,leopardsandhyenashave been observed sporadically on the Shira plateau.Specific species associated with the mountain include theKilimanjaro shrewand the chameleonKinyongia tavetana. Vegetation Natural forests cover about 1,000 km2(250,000 acres) on Kilimanjaro.In the foothill area,maize, beans,sunflowersand, on the western side, wheat are cultivated. There are remnants of the formersavannavegetation withAcacia,Combretum,TerminaliaandGrewia. Between 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and 1,800 m (5,900 ft), coffee appears as part of the \\\"Chaggahome gardens\\\"agroforestry. Native vegetation at this altitude range (Strombosia,Newtonia, andEntandrophragma) is limited to inaccessible valleys and gorgesand is\",\n \"and gorgesand is different from vegetation at higher altitudes. On the southern slope,montane forestsfirst containOcotea usambarensisas well asfernsandepiphytes; farther up incloud forestsPodocarpus latifolius,Hagenia abyssinicaandErica excelsagrow, as well as fog-dependent mosses. On the drier northern slopesolive,Croton-Calodendrum,Cassipourea, andJuniperusform forests in order of increasing altitude. Between 3,100 m (10,200 ft) and 3,900 m (12,800 ft) lieEricabush and heathlands, followed byHelichrysum, until 4,500 m (14,800 ft).Neophyteshave been observed, includingPoa annua. Records from the Maundi crater at 2,780 m (9,120 ft) indicate that the vegetation of Kilimanjaro has varied over time. Forest vegetation retreated during the Last Glacial Maximum and the ericaceous vegetation belt lowered by 1,500 m (4,900 ft) between 42,000 and 30,000 years ago because of the drier and colder conditions. The Tussock Grassland is an area on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro that contains many unique species of\",\n \"unique species of vegetation, such as thewater holding cabbage. Climate The climate of Kilimanjaro is influenced by the height of the mountain, which allows the simultaneous influence of the equatorialtrade windsand the high altitudeanti-trades, and by the isolated position of the mountain. Kilimanjaro hasdaily upslope and nightly downslope winds, a regimen stronger on the southern than the northern side of the mountain. The flatter southern flanks are more extended and affect the atmosphere more strongly.: 3–4 Kilimanjaro has two distinct rainy seasons, one from March to May and another around November. The northern slopes receive much less rainfall than the southern ones.The lower southern slope receives 800 to 900 mm (31 to 35 in) annually, rising to 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59 to 79 in) at 1,500 m (4,900 ft) altitude and peaking \\\"partly over\\\" 3,000 mm (120 in) in the forest belt at 2,000 to 2,300 m (6,600 to 7,500 ft). In the alpine zone, annual precipitation decreases to 200 mm (7.9 in).: 18 The average\",\n \"18 The average temperature in the summit area is approximately −7 °C (19 °F). Nighttime surface temperatures on theNorthern Ice Field(NIF) fall on average to −9 °C (16 °F), with an average daytime high of −4 °C (25 °F). During nights of extremeradiational cooling, the NIF can cool to as low as −15 to −27 °C (5 to −17 °F).: 674 Snowfall can occur at any time of year but is mostly associated with northern Tanzania's two rainy seasons.: 673Precipitation in the summit area occurs principally as snow andgraupelof 250 to 500 mm (9.8 to 19.7 in) per year and ablates within days or years. Climatic zones Tourism industry Kilimanjaro National Parkgenerated US$51 million in revenue in 2013,: 285the second-most of any Tanzanian national park.: 258The Tanzania National Parks Authority reported that the park recorded 57,456 tourists during the 2011–12 budget year, of whom 16,425 hiked the mountain; the park's General Management Plan specifies an annual capacity of 28,470.The mountain hikers generated irregular and\",\n \"irregular and seasonal jobs for about 11,000 guides, porters, and cooks in 2007.Concerns have been raised about the poor working conditions and inadequate wages of these workers.: 287–291: 259Due to Kilimanjaro National Park's popularity as a destination, the Tanzanian government has invested in road infrastructure to improve accessibility. In Tanzania,Kilimanjaro International Airportalso serves as an important transportation hub. There are seven official trekking routes by which to ascend and descend Kilimanjaro: Lemosho, Lemosho Western-Breach, Machame, Marangu, Mweka, Rongai, Shira, and Umbwe.The Machame route can be completed in six or seven days,Lemosho in six to eight, and the Northern Circuit routes in seven or more days.The Lemosho Route can also be continued via the Western-Breach, submitting via the western side of the mountain. The Western Breach is more secluded and avoids the 6-hour midnight ascent to the summit (like other routes). The Rongai is the easiest of the camping routes.The Marangu is\",\n \"Marangu is also relatively easy, if frequently busy; accommodation is in shared huts.The Lemosho Western-Breach Route commences on the western side of Kilimanjaro at Lemosho and continues to the summit via the Western-Breach Route. Climbing records The oldest person to climb Mount Kilimanjaro isAnne Lorimor, aged 89 years and 37 days, who reached Uhuru Peak at 3:14p.m. local time on 18 July 2019.The oldest man to summit is AmericanFred Dishelhorst, who reached the top on 19 July 2017 at the age of 88 years old.The second oldest man to summit the mountain is the American Robert Wheeler, who was 85 years and 201 days when he summited on 2 October 2014.Maxwell J. Ojerholm of Massachusetts, USA, reached Uhuru Peak, the true summit, unassisted, at the age of ten years, on July 4, 2009, taking the difficult Machame Route. Colin M. Barker of Missouri, USA, later completed the same route at the age of ten years on December 22, 2020.Theodore Margarolifrom London, age 10, reached the summit unassisted by the Western\",\n \"by the Western Breach, the hardest but most scenic route, in 2019.Despite an age-limit of 10 years for a climbing permit, Keats Boyd from Los Angeles reached the summit on 21 January 2008 at the age of 7.This record was equaled by Montannah Kenney from Texas in March 2018 and again in July 2018 by Coaltan Tanner from New Mexico.The fastest ascent and the fastest round trip have been recorded by the Swiss-Ecuadorian mountain guideKarl Egloff. On 13 August 2014, after guiding a party to the summit the previous days, he ran from Umbwe Gate to the top in 4 hours and 56 minutes and returned to the Mweka Gate at 1,630 m (5,350 ft) in a total time of 6 hours, 42 minutes and 24 seconds.Previous records, using the same route, were held by Spanish mountain runnerKílian Jornet(ascent in 5:23:50, round trip 7:14 on 29 September 2010) and by Tanzanian guide Simon Mtuy (an unsupported round trip in 9:21 on 22 February 2006). The female round trip record is held by Fernanda Maciel from Brazil in a time of 10 hours and 6\",\n \"of 10 hours and 6 minutes.Her ascent time of 7:08 was broken on 23 February 2018 by the Danish ultramarathon runner Kristina Schou Madsen with a time of 6:52:54 from Mweka Gate. Several climbs by disabled people have drawn attention. Wheelchair user Bernard Goosen from South Africa scaled Kilimanjaro in six days in 2007. In 2012,Kyle Maynardwho has no forearms or lower legs, crawled unassisted to the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro. In 2020, a team featuring two double above-knee amputees,Hari Budha Magarand Justin Oliver Davis, summited Kilimanjaro. It took them six days to cover the 56 km (35 mi) distance to the summit. Safety Though the climb is not technically as challenging as theHimalayasorAndes, the high elevation, low temperature, and occasional high winds can make Kilimanjaro a difficult trek. Acclimatization is required, and even experienced and physically fit trekkers may suffer some degree ofaltitude sickness.A study of people attempting to reach the summit of Kilimanjaro in July and August 2005\",\n \"and August 2005 found that 61.3 percent succeeded and 77 percent experienced acute mountain sickness (AMS).A retrospective study of 917 persons who attempted to reach the summit via the Lemosho or Machame routes found that 70.4 percent experienced AMS, defined in this study to be headache, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, or loss of appetite. Kilimanjaro's summit is well above the altitude at which life-threateninghigh altitude pulmonary edema(HAPE) orhigh altitude cerebral edema(HACE), the most severe forms of AMS, can occur.These health risks are increased substantially by excessively fast climbing schedules motivated by high daily national park fees, busy holiday travel schedules, and the lack of permanent shelter on most routes.The six-day Machame route, which involves one day of \\\"climbing high\\\" to Lava Tower (4,630 m (15,190 ft) and \\\"sleeping low\\\" at Barranco Camp (3,976 m (13,044 ft)), may delay the onset of AMS but does not ultimately prevent its occurrence. Falls on steep portions of the mountain and rock\",\n \"mountain and rock slides have killed trekkers. For this reason, the route via theArrow Glacierwas closed for several years, reopening in December 2007. Now again it officially closed as of January 20th 2024. Due to strong El Niño, the Western Breach has washed down the mountain. This huge runoff has carved new ravines on the slopes and seems to be dislodging the sediment that cements the rock together, disrupting the rock stability. At the route's base, rain water has opened new drainages and there is an active, flowing river through the Arrow Glacier Camp were there has been no water at all for decades.The improper disposal of human waste on the mountain environment has created a health hazard, necessitating the boiling of all water. According to the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Moshi, 25 people died from January 1996 to October 2003 while climbing the mountain. Seventeen were female and eight were male, ranging in age from 29 to 74. Fourteen died from advanced high altitude illness, including\",\n \"illness, including one withHACE, five withHAPE, and six with both HACE and HAPE. The remaining eleven deaths resulted from \\\"trauma (3),myocardial infarction(4),pneumonia(2), cardio-pulmonary failure of other underlying cause (1), and acuteappendicitis(1). The overall mortality rate was 13.6 per 100,000 climbers.\\\" In literature and film Kilimanjaro is a snow-covered mountain 19,710 feet high, and is said to be the highest mountain in Africa. Its western summit is called the Masai 'Ngaje Ngai', the House of God. Close to the western summit there is a dried and frozen carcas of a leopard. No one has explained what the leopard was seeking at that altitude. —Ernest Hemingway's \\\"riddle\\\" preceding his 1936 short storyThe Snows of Kilimanjaro JournalistTom Bissellnoted that Kilimanjaro is \\\"perhaps the world’s most literary mountain\\\".The mountain is prominently featured inErnest Hemingway's 1936 short storyThe Snows of Kilimanjaro, which was adapted into a1952 filmstarringGregory Peck.Dave Eggerswrote about his\",\n \"about his ascent in the short storyUp the Mountain Coming Down Slowly.WriterDouglas Adamsclimbed the mountain in a rubber rhinoceros suit to raise money forAfrican rhinoconservation efforts. Kilimanjaro was featured inToto's 1982 song \\\"Africa\\\".An IMAX film documenting an ascent—Kilimanjaro: To The Roof Of Africa—was released in 2002. See also References Citations Works cited Academic articles Books External links\",\n \"Mount Katahdin Mount Katahdin(/kəˈtɑːdɪn/kə-TAH-din) is the highest mountain in theU.S. stateofMaineat 5,269 feet (1,606 m). NamedKatahdin, which means \\\"Great Mountain\\\",by thePenobscotNative Americans, it is withinNortheast Piscataquis,Piscataquis County, and is the centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. It is a steep, tallmassifformed from agranite intrusionweathered to the surface. The flora and fauna on the mountain are typical of those found in northernNew England, with the summit hosting fragile and endangered alpine tundra. Katahdin was known to theNative Americansin the region and was known to Europeans at least since 1689. It has inspired hikes, climbs, journal narratives, paintings, and a piano sonata.The area around the peak was protected by GovernorPercival Baxterstarting in the 1930s. Katahdin is the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trailand is near a stretch known as theHundred-Mile Wilderness. Though part of the Appalachian Mountain system, Katahdin is isolated from the range, and sits largely on\",\n \"and sits largely on its own as amonadnock. The nearest higher mountains in any direction are the high peaks of thePresidential Range, around 170 miles (270 km) to the south-west. In 1967, Mount Katahdin was designated as aNational Natural Landmarkby theNational Park Service. The mountain is commonly called just \\\"Katahdin\\\",though the official name is \\\"Mount Katahdin\\\" as decided by theUS Board on Geographic Namesin 1893. Geology Katahdin is part of alaccoliththat formed in theAcadian orogenywhen anisland arccollided with easternNorth Americaapproximately 400 million years ago. On the sides of Katahdin are four glacialcirquescarved into the granite by alpineglaciersand in these cirques behindmorainesandeskersare several ponds. In Baxter State Park, many outcrops ofsedimentary rockshavestriations, whereas KatahdinGraniteand TravelerRhyolitelavahave weathered surfaces on which striations are commonly not preserved. Bedrock surfaces ofigneous rockswhich were buried by glacial sediments and only recently exposed\",\n \"recently exposed have well preserved striations, as in the vicinity ofRipogenusDam. Several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the Patten Road show striations, especially on the north side of the road at Hurricane Deck. A few outcrops near the Pattern Road just north of Horse Mountain are striated, as are several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the road from Trout Brook Farm northward toSecond Lake Matagamon. Fauna Faunaincludeblack bear,deer, andmooseas well asblack fliesandmosquitosin the spring. A subspecies of Arctic butterfly, known as the Katahdin Arctic (Oeneis polixeneskatahdin) is specific to the area, and is currently listed as endangered.Among the birds areBicknell's thrushand various songbirds and raptors. A study of the animal communities was published by Irving H. Blake in 1926.The flora includespine,spruce,fir,hemlock,beech,maple,birch,aspen, andpincushion plant(Diapensia lapponica). Geography Katahdin is in Baxter State Park, which is in east central Piscataquis County, about 25 mi (40\",\n \"about 25 mi (40 km) northwest ofMillinocket. It is on thedrainage dividebetween theEastandWest branchesof thePenobscot River. The mountain massif itself consists of multiple peaks. Baxter Peak is the tallest, and is the official northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail. South Peak and Pamola Peak are southeast and east of Baxter Peak, respectively, along the Knife Edge ridgeline, whileHamlin Peaklies to the north. There is low lake country to the south and west of Katahdin, and lowlands extending east to the Atlantic and north to theSaint Lawrence RiverinCanada. It is commonly thought that Katahdin is the first place in the United States mainland to receive sunlight in the morning, but this is incorrect. Other mountains lower in elevation but farther to the east or southeast see the first sunrise of the day, depending on the season.Regardless, the summit of Katahdin offers some of the longest unbroken lines of sight in the United States, and on clear days can be seen all the way from theWhite Mountainsof\",\n \"Mountainsof neighboringNew Hampshire; a distance of 170 miles (270 km). Katahdin's height and isolation earns it significant coverage in indigenous and post-colonial Maine culture and literature. Katahdin's profile is distinctive and the indisputable centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. Katahdin and nearby Hamlin Peak are the only two areas to host a subarctic climate and alpine vegetation inMaine. In winter, the snowcapped east and west faces of Katahdin resemble \\\"theKilimanjaroof New England\\\", and it dominates the otherwise flat and endless forests of theNorth Maine Woods. Katahdin is also the northernmost mountain in the eastern United States with an elevation over 4,000 feet (1,200 m). Climate Human history Katahdin is referred to 60 years after Field's climb of Agiokochuk (Mount Washington) in the writings ofJohn Gyles, a teenage colonist who was captured nearPortland, Maine, in 1689 by theAbenaki. While in the company of Abenaki hunting parties, he traveled up and down several Maine rivers including both\",\n \"including both branches of thePenobscot, passing close to \\\"Teddon\\\". He remarked that it was higher than theWhite Hillsabove theSaco River. Among someNative Americans, Katahdin was believed to be the home of the storm godPamola, and thus an area to be avoided. The first recorded climb of \\\"Catahrdin\\\" was by Massachusetts surveyors Zackery AdleyandCharles Turner, Jr.in August 1804.The letter describing the ascent of Charles Turner Jr. states that they began at the (West Branch Penobscot) at 8:00 a.m. and arrived on the summit at 5:00 p.m. guided by two Native Americans who were initially cautious but when the \\\"cold part of the mountain\\\" was reached and sensing the determination of the others became ambitious to reach the top first. Turner lists his party as: William Howe, Amos Patten, Joseph Treat, Samuel Call, William Rice, Richard Winslow, Charles Turner, Jr. In the 1930sGovernorPercival Baxterbegan to acquire land and finally deeded more than 200,000acres(810 km2) to the State of Maine for a park,\",\n \"Maine for a park, namedBaxter State Parkafter him. The summit was officially recognized by theUS Board on Geographic Namesas \\\"Baxter Peak\\\" in 1931. In the 1840sHenry David Thoreauclimbed Katahdin, which he spelled \\\"Ktaadn\\\"; his ascent is recorded in a well-known chapter ofThe Maine Woods.A few years laterTheodore Winthropwrote about his visit inLife in the Open Air. PaintersFrederic Edwin ChurchandMarsden Hartleyare well-known artists who created landscapes of Katahdin. On 30 November 2011, Christie's auctioned Church's 1860 paintingTwilight (Katahdin)for $3.1 million. Elizabeth Oakes Smith\\\"climbed Mount Katahdin in 1849—reportedly the first white woman to do so\\\". Recreation opportunities As the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trailand southern terminus of theInternational Appalachian Trail, Katahdin is a popular hiking and backpacking destination and the centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. Baxter State Park is open year-round, though strictly regulated in winter. The overnight camping season is, weather\",\n \"season is, weather permitting, from May 15 to October 15 each year, with some campgrounds staying open until October 22. Capacity limits have been placed on day use parking at the trailheads to minimize the overuse of trails. Mt. Katahdin has several trails leading up to Baxter, Pamola, or Hamlin PeaksThese trails start right up the mountain, but each trail on the mountain ends up taking eight to ten hours round-trip depending on ability. Even for experienced hikers, Katahdin is often considered one of the most challenging hikes in the entireAppalachian Mountainrange.The rest of the trails go up the north side or west side of the mountain. These are accessed from the Chimney Pond Trail. For these trails, hikers must park at the Roaring Brook Campground and hike in. All trails are maintained by the Baxter State Park Authority, which runs the State Park. All of the trails on the mountain are classified as very strenuous, the highest classification the Park Authority gives, except for Saddle (strenuous), Hamlin\",\n \"(strenuous), Hamlin Ridge trail (moderate), and Chimney Pond (moderate). The most famous hike to the summit goes along Knife Edge, a glacialarêtewhich traverses the ridge between Pamola Peak and Baxter Peak. There have been more than 60 deaths on Katahdin since 1933 including October 8 and 9, 2020.The park as a whole typically sees a need for roughly 40 search-and-rescue events per year (1 in 2,000 hikers), with a peak of 70 in 2013. The vast majority of incidents occur in the summer months, and the primary causes are leg injury, exhaustion, dehydration and disorientation.Because of this, Katahdin and not-so-nearbyMount Washingtonroutinely near the top of the most deadly \\\"low mountains\\\" on Earth, with more fatalities per foot of elevation gained than some much higher mountains in theHimalaya. Namesakes See also References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":371,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Who was the president of the USA the year that the European Convention on Human Rights came into effect?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Dwight D Eisenhower"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States#Presidents"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Tabular reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States#Presidents']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States#Presidents"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States#Presidents\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["European Convention on Human Rights TheEuropean Convention on Human Rights(ECHR; formally theConvention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms)is an international convention to protecthuman rightsandpolitical freedomsinEurope. Drafted in 1950 by the then newly formedCouncil of Europe,the convention entered into force on 3 September 1953. AllCouncil of Europe member statesare party to the convention and new members are expected to ratify the convention at the earliest opportunity. The convention established theEuropean Court of Human Rights(generally referred to by the initials ECtHR). Any person who feels their rights have been violated under the convention by a state party can take a case to the court. Judgments finding violations are binding on the states concerned and they are obliged to execute them. TheCommittee of Ministers of the Council of Europemonitors the execution of judgments, particularly to ensure payments awarded by the court appropriately compensate applicants for the damage they have sustained. The convention has sixteenprotocols, which amend the convention framework. The convention has had a significant influence on the law in Council of Europe member countriesand is widely considered the most effective international treaty for human rights protection. History The European Convention on Human Rights has played an important role in the development and awareness ofhuman rightsin Europe. The development of a regional system of human rights protections operating across Europe can be seen as a direct response to twin concerns. First, in the aftermath of theSecond World War, the convention, drawing on the inspiration of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights, can be seen as part of a wider response from theAllied powersin delivering a human rights agenda to prevent the most serious human rights violations which had occurred during the Second World War from happening again. Second, the convention was a response to the growth ofStalinisminCentralandEastern Europeand was designed to protect the member states of theCouncil of Europefromcommunistsubversion. This, in part, explains the constant references to values and principles that are \"necessary in a democratic society\" throughout the convention, despite the fact that such principles are not in any way defined within the convention itself.Consequently, the convention was principally conceived, at the time of its creation, as an \"anti-totalitarian\" measure to help stabilise social democracies in Western Europe, rather than as a specific reaction to the legacy of Nazism and the Holocaust. This approach was a continuation of Atlanticist beliefs from World War II and the early Cold War which called for the defence of democracy against all forms of authoritarianism. From 7 to 10 May 1948, politicians includingWinston Churchill,François Mitterrand, andKonrad Adenauer, as well as civil society representatives, academics, business leaders, trade unionists, and religious leaders convened theCongress of EuropeinThe Hague. At the end of the Congress, a declaration and following pledge to create the convention was issued. The second and third articles of the pledge state: \"We desire a Charter of Human Rights guaranteeing liberty of thought, assembly and expression as well as right to form a political opposition. We desire a Court of Justice with adequate sanctions for the implementation of this Charter.\" The convention was drafted by theCouncil of Europeafter theSecond World Warand Hague Congress. Over 100 parliamentarians from the twelve member states of the Council of Europe gathered in Strasbourg in the summer of 1949 for the first-ever meeting of the council's Consultative Assembly to draft a \"charter of human rights\" and to establish a court to enforce it. British MP and lawyer SirDavid Maxwell-Fyfe, the chair of the Assembly's Committee on Legal and Administrative Questions, was one of its leading members and guided the drafting of the convention, based on an earlier draft produced by theEuropean Movement. As a prosecutor at theNuremberg Trials, he had seen first-hand of a binding international court. French former minister and French Resistance fighterPierre-Henri Teitgensubmitted a reportto the Assembly proposing a list of rights to be protected, selecting a number from theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsthat had recently been agreed to in New York, and defining how the enforcing judicial mechanism might operate. After extensive debates,the Assembly sent its final proposalto the council's Committee of Ministers, which convened a group of experts to draft the convention itself. The convention was designed to incorporate a traditionalcivil libertiesapproach to securing \"effective political democracy\", from the strongest traditions in the United Kingdom, France and other member states of the fledgling Council of Europe, as said byGuido Raimondi, President of theEuropean Court of Human Rights: The European system of protection of human rights with its Court would be inconceivable untied from democracy. In fact, we have a bond that is not only regional or geographic: a State cannot be party to the European Convention on Human Rights if it is not a member of the Council of Europe; it cannot be a member State of the Council of Europe if it does not respect pluralist democracy, the rule of law and human rights. So a non-democratic State could not participate in the ECHR system: the protection of democracy goes hand in hand with the protection of rights. The convention was opened for signature on 4 November 1950 in Rome. It was ratified and entered into force on 3 September 1953. It is overseen and enforced by theEuropean Court of Human Rightsin Strasbourg, and theCouncil of Europe. Until procedural reforms in the late 1990s, the convention was also overseen by aEuropean Commission on Human Rights. Proposals for reform of the convention have been put forward, for example by former UK Prime MinisterRishi Sunak,and other UK politicians.Conservativepoliticians have proposed reform or withdrawal from the convention during the2024 Conservative Party leadership election. Drafting The convention is drafted in broad terms, in a similar (albeit more modern) manner to the 1689 ScottishClaim of Right Act 1689, to the 1689English Bill of Rights, the 1791U.S. Bill of Rights, the 1789 FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, or the first part of the GermanBasic Law. Statements of principle are, from a juridical point of view, not determinative and require and have given occasion to extensive interpretation by courts to bring out meaning in particular factual situations, Convention articles As amended by Protocol 11, the convention consists of three parts. The main rights and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18. Section II (Articles 19 to 51) sets up the court and its rules of operation. Section III contains various concluding provisions. Before the entry into force of Protocol 11, Section II (Article 19) set up the commission and the court, Sections III (Articles 20 to 37) and IV (Articles 38 to 59) included the high-level machinery for the operation of, respectively, the commission and the court, and Section V contained various concluding provisions. Many of the articles in Section I are structured in two paragraphs: the first sets out a basic right or freedom (such as Article 2(1) – the right to life) but the second contains various exclusions, exceptions or limitations on the basic right (such as Article 2(2) – which excepts certain uses of force leading to death). Article 1 – respecting rights Article 1 simply binds the signatory parties to secure the rights under the other articles of the convention \"within their jurisdiction\". In exceptional cases, \"jurisdiction\" may not be confined to a contracting state's own national territory; the obligation to secure convention rights then also extends to foreign territories, such as occupied land in which the state exercises effective control. InLoizidou v Turkey,theEuropean Court of Human Rightsruled that jurisdiction of member states to the convention extended to areas under that state's effective control as a result of military action. Article 2 – life Article 2 protects the right of every person to their life. The right to life extends only to human beings, not to animals,nor to \"legal persons\" such as corporations.InEvans v United Kingdom, the court ruled that the question of whether the right to life extends to a human embryo fell within a state'smargin of appreciation. InVo v France,the court declined to extend the right to life to an unborn child, while stating that \"it is neither desirable, nor even possible as matters stand, to answer in the abstract the question whether the unborn child is a person for the purposes of Article 2 of the Convention\". The court has ruled that states have three main duties under Article 2: The first paragraph of the article contains an exception forlawful executions, although this exception has largely been superseded by Protocols 6 and 13. Protocol 6 prohibits the imposition of the death penalty in peacetime, while Protocol 13 extends the prohibition to all circumstances. (For more on Protocols 6 and 13, seebelow). The second paragraph of Article 2 provides that death resulting from defending oneself or others, arresting a suspect or fugitive, or suppressing riots or insurrections, will not contravene the Article when the use of force involved is \"no more than absolutely necessary\". Signatory states to the convention can only derogate from the rights contained in Article 2 for deaths which result from lawful acts of war. The European Court of Human Rights did not rule upon the right to life until 1995, when inMcCann and Others v United Kingdomit ruled that the exception contained in the second paragraph does not constitute situations when it is permitted to kill, but situations where it is permitted to use force which might result in the deprivation of life. Article 3 – torture Article 3 prohibitstortureand \"inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment\". There are no exceptions or limitations on this right. This provision usually applies, apart from torture, to cases of severe police violence and poor conditions in detention. The court has emphasised the fundamental nature of Article 3 in holding that the prohibition is made in \"absolute terms ... irrespective of the victim's conduct\".The court has also held that states cannot deport orextraditeindividuals who might be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the recipient state. The first case to examine Article 3 was theGreek case, which set an influential precedent.InIreland v. United Kingdom(1979–1980) the court ruled that thefive techniquesdeveloped by the United Kingdom (wall-standing,hooding,subjection to noise,deprivation of sleep, anddeprivation of food and drink), as used against fourteen detainees in Northern Ireland by the United Kingdom were \"inhuman and degrading\" and breached the European Convention on Human Rights, but did not amount to \"torture\". InAksoy v. Turkey(1997) the court found Turkey guilty of torture in 1996 in the case of a detainee who was suspended by his arms while his hands were tied behind his back. Selmouni v. France(2000) the court has appeared to be more open to finding states guilty of torture ruling that since the convention is a \"living instrument\", treatment which it had previously characterized as inhuman or degrading treatment might in future be regarded as torture. In 2014, after new information was uncovered that showed the decision to use the five techniques in Northern Ireland in 1971–1972 had been taken by British ministers,theIrish Governmentasked the European Court of Human Rights to review its judgement. In 2018, by six votes to one, the court declined. Article 4 – servitude Article 4 prohibitsslavery, servitude andforced labourbut exempts labour: Article 5 – liberty and security Article 5 provides that everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. Liberty and security of the person are taken as a \"compound\" concept – security of the person has not been subject to separate interpretation by the court. Article 5 provides the right toliberty, subject only to lawful arrest or detention under certain other circumstances, such as arrest on reasonable suspicion of a crime or imprisonment in fulfilment of a sentence. The article also provides those arrested with the right to be informed, in a language they understand, of the reasons for the arrest and any charge they face, the right of prompt access to judicial proceedings to determine the legality of the arrest or detention, to trial within a reasonable time or release pending trial, and the right to compensation in the case of arrest or detention in violation of this article. Article 6 – fair trial Article 6 provides a detailedright to a fair trial, including the right to apublic hearingbefore an independent and impartial tribunal within reasonable time, thepresumption of innocence, and other minimum rights for those charged with a criminal offence (adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence, access to legal representation, right to examine witnesses against them or have them examined, right to the free assistance of an interpreter). The majority of convention violations that the court finds today are excessive delays, in violation of the \"reasonable time\" requirement, in civil and criminal proceedings before national courts, mostly inItalyandFrance. Under the \"independent tribunal\" requirement, the court has ruled that military judges in Turkish state security courts are incompatible with Article 6. In compliance with this Article, Turkey has now adopted a law abolishing these courts. Another significant set of violations concerns the \"confrontation clause\" of Article 6 (i.e. the right to examine witnesses or have them examined). In this respect, problems of compliance with Article 6 may arise when national laws allow the use in evidence of the testimonies of absent, anonymous and vulnerable witnesses. Article 7 – retroactivity Article 7 prohibits the retroactive criminalisation of acts and omissions. No person may be punished for an act that was not a criminal offence at the time of its commission. The article states that a criminal offence is one under either national or international law, which would permit a party to prosecute someone for a crime which was not illegal under domestic law at the time, so long as it was prohibited byinternational law. The Article also prohibits a heavier penalty being imposed than was applicable at the time when the criminal act was committed. Article 7 incorporates the legal principlenullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege(no crime, no penalty without law) into the convention. Relevant cases are: Article 8 – privacy Article 8 provides a right to respect for one's \"private and family life, his home and hiscorrespondence\", subject to restrictions that are \"in accordance with law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others\".This article clearly provides a right to be free of unlawful searches, but the court has given the protection for \"private and family life\" that this article provides a broad interpretation, taking for instance that prohibition of private consensual homosexual acts violates this article. There have been cases discussing consensual familial sexual relationships, and how the criminalisation of this may violate this article. However, the ECHR still allows such familial sexual acts to be criminal. This may be compared to the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, which has also adopted a somewhat broad interpretation of theright to privacy. Furthermore, Article 8 sometimes comprisespositive obligations:whereas classical human rights are formulated as prohibiting a state from interfering with rights, and thusnotto do something (e.g. not to separate a family under family life protection), the effective enjoyment of such rights may also include an obligation for the state to become active, and todosomething (e.g. to enforce access for a divorced parent to his/her child). Notable cases: Article 9 – conscience and religion Article 9 provides a right tofreedom of thought, conscience andreligion. This includes the freedom to change a religion or belief, and to manifest a religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". Relevant cases are: Article 10 – expression Article 10 provides the right tofreedom of expression, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". This right includes the freedom to hold opinions, and to receive and impart information and ideas, but allows restrictions for: Relevant cases are: Article 11 – association Article 11 protects the right tofreedom of assemblyand association, including the right to formtrade unions, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". Article 12 – marriage Article 12 provides a right for women and men ofmarriageable agetomarryand establish a family. Despite a number of invitations, the court has so far refused to apply the protections of this article tosame-sex marriage. The court has defended this on the grounds that the article was intended to apply only to different-sex marriage, and that a wide margin of appreciation must be granted to parties in this area. InGoodwin v. United Kingdomthe court ruled that a law which still classified post-operativetranssexualpeople under their pre-operative sex violated article 12 as it meant that transsexual people were unable to marry individuals of their post-operative opposite sex. This reversed an earlier ruling inRees v. United Kingdom. This did not, however, alter the Court's understanding that Article 12 protects only different-sex couples. The European Court of Human Rights ruled inSchalk and Kopf v. Austriathat countries are not required to provide marriage licenses for same-sex couples; however, if a country allows same-sex couple marriage it must be done under the same conditions that opposite-sex couples marriage face,in order to prevent a breach of article 14 – the prohibition of discrimination. Additionally, the court ruled in the 2015 case ofOliari and Others v. Italythat states have a positive obligation to ensure there is a specific legal framework for the recognition and protection of same-sex couples. Article 13 – effective remedy Article 13 provides for theright for an effective remedybefore national authorities for violations of rights under the convention. The inability to obtain aremedybefore a national court for an infringement of a Convention right is thus a free-standing and separately actionable infringement of the convention. Article 14 – discrimination Article 14 contains a prohibition ofdiscrimination. This prohibition is broad in some ways and narrow in others. It is broad in that it prohibits discrimination under a potentially unlimited number of grounds. While the article specifically prohibits discrimination based on \"sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status\", the last of these allows the court to extend to Article 14 protection to other grounds not specifically mentioned such as has been done regarding discrimination based on a person's sexual orientation. At the same time, the article's protection is limited in that it only prohibits discrimination with respect to rights under the convention. Thus, an applicant must prove discrimination in the enjoyment of a specific right that is guaranteed elsewhere in the convention (e.g. discrimination based on sex – Article 14 – in the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression – Article 10). Protocol 12 extends this prohibition to cover discrimination in any legal right, even when that legal right is not protected under the convention, so long as it is provided for in national law. Article 15 – derogations Article 15 allows contracting states toderogatefrom certain rights guaranteed by the convention in a time of \"war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation\". Permissible derogations under article 15 must meet three substantive conditions: In addition to these substantive requirements, the derogation must be procedurally sound. There must be some formal announcement of the derogation and notice of the derogation and any measures adopted under it, and the ending of the derogation must be communicated to theSecretary-General of the Council of Europe. As of 2016, only eight member states had ever invoked derogations.The court is quite permissive in accepting a state's derogations from the convention but applies a higher degree of scrutiny in deciding whether measures taken by states under a derogation are, in the words of Article 15, \"strictly required by the exigencies of the situation\". Thus inA v United Kingdom, the court dismissed a claim that a derogation lodged by the British government in response to theSeptember 11 attackswas invalid, but went on to find that measures taken by the United Kingdom under that derogation were disproportionate. Examples of such derogations include: Article 16 – foreign parties Article 16 allows states to restrict the political activity of foreigners. The court has ruled that European Union member states cannot consider the nationals of other member states to be aliens. Article 17 – abuse of rights Article 17 provides that no one may use the rights guaranteed by the convention to seek the abolition or limitation of rights guaranteed in the convention. This addresses instances where states seek to restrict a human right in the name of another human right, or where individuals rely on a human right to undermine other human rights (for example where an individual issues a death threat). Article 18 – permitted restrictions Article 18 provides that any limitations on the rights provided for in the convention may be used only for the purpose for which they are provided. For example, Article 5, which guarantees the right to personal freedom, may be explicitly limited in order to bring a suspect before a judge. To use pre-trial detention as a means of intimidation of a person under a false pretext is, therefore, a limitation of right (to freedom) which does not serve an explicitly provided purpose (to be brought before a judge), and is therefore contrary to Article 18. Convention protocols As of January 2010, fifteen protocols to the convention have been opened for signature. These can be divided into two main groups: those amending the framework of the convention system, and those expanding the rights that can be protected. The former require unanimous ratification by member states before coming into force, while the latter require a certain number of states to sign before coming into force. Protocol 1 This Protocol contains three different rights which the signatories could not agree to place in the convention itself.MonacoandSwitzerlandhave signed but never ratified Protocol 1. Article 1 – property Article 1 (\"A1P1\")provides that \"every natural orlegal personis entitled to thepeaceful enjoyment of his possessions\". TheEuropean Court of Human Rightsacknowledged a violation of the fair balance between the demands of the general interest of the community and the requirements of the protection of the individual's fundamental rights, also, in the uncertainty – for the owner – about the future of the property, and in the absence of an allowance. In the case ofMifsud and others v Malta(38770/17) the Maltese state was found to have violated Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the convention. The case involved a plot of land owned by the Mifsud family and their heirs which was expropriated twice (in 1984 and in 2012). The court, in its judgment, stated that \"the (Maltese) Constitutional Court had no basis on which to ground its finding. The Court is disconcerted by the circumstances of the present case which led to an expropriation of property being endorsed without anyone being able to assert the reasons behind such an expropriation.\" Article 2 – education Article 2 provides for the right not to be denied an education and theright for parents to have their children educatedin accordance with their religious and other views. It does not however guarantee any particular level of education of any particular quality. Although phrased in the Protocol as a negative right, inŞahin v. Turkeythe court ruled that: it would be hard to imagine that institutions of higher education existing at a given time do not come within the scope of the first sentence of Article 2 of Protocol No 1. Although that Article does not impose a duty on the Contracting States to set up institutions of higher education, any State doing so will be under an obligation to afford an effective right of access to them. In a democratic society, the right to education, which is indispensable to the furtherance of human rights, plays such a fundamental role that a restrictive interpretation of the first sentence of Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 would not be consistent with the aim or purpose of that provision. Article 3 – elections Article 3 provides for the right to elections performed by secret ballot, that are also free and that occur at regular intervals. Protocol 4 – civil imprisonment, free movement, expulsion Article 1 prohibits the imprisonment of people for inability to fulfil a contract. Article 2 provides for aright to freely movewithin a country once lawfully there and for a right to leave any country. Article 3 prohibits the expulsion of nationals and provides for the right of an individual to enter a country of their nationality. Article 4 prohibits the collective expulsion of foreigners. Turkeyand theUnited Kingdomhave signed but never ratified Protocol 4.GreeceandSwitzerlandhave neither signed nor ratified this protocol. The United Kingdom's failure to ratify this protocol is due to concerns over the interaction of Article 2 and Article 3 withBritish nationality law. Specifically, several classes of \"British national\" (such asBritish National (Overseas)) do not have the right of abode in the United Kingdom and are subject to immigration control there. In 2009, the UK government stated that it had no plans to ratify Protocol 4 because of concerns that those articles could be taken as conferring that right. Protocol 6 – restriction of death penalty Requires parties to restrict the application of thedeath penaltyexcept for \"acts committed in time of war\" or of \"imminent threat of war\". Every Council of Europe member state has signed and ratified Protocol 6. Protocol 7 – crime and family Despite having signed the protocol more than thirty years ago Germany and the Netherlands have never ratified it. Turkey, which signed the protocol in 1985, ratified it in 2016, becoming the latest member state to do so. The United Kingdom has neither signed nor ratified the protocol. Protocol 12 – discrimination Protocol 12 applies the current expansive and indefinite grounds of prohibited discrimination inArticle 14to the exercise of any legal right and to the actions (including the obligations) of public authorities. The Protocol entered into force on 1 April 2005 and has (as of March 2018) been ratified by 20 member states. Several member states—Bulgaria,Denmark,France,Lithuania,Monaco,Poland,Sweden,Switzerland, and theUnited Kingdom—have not signed the protocol. The United Kingdom government has declined to sign Protocol 12 on the basis that they believe the wording of protocol is too wide and would result in a flood of new cases testing the extent of the new provision. They believe that the phrase \"rights set forth by law\" might include international conventions to which the UK is not a party, and would result in incorporation of these instruments by stealth. It has been suggested that the protocol is therefore in acatch-22, since the UK will decline to either sign or ratify the protocol until theEuropean Court of Human Rightshas addressed the meaning of the provision, while the court is hindered in doing so by the lack of applications to the court concerning the protocol caused by the decisions of Europe's most populous states—including the UK—not to ratify the protocol. The UK government, nevertheless, stated in 2004 that it \"agrees in principle that the ECHR should contain a provision against discrimination that is free-standing and not parasitic on the other Convention rights\".The first judgment that found a violation of Protocol No. 12,Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, was delivered in 2009. Protocol 13 – complete abolition of death penalty Protocol 13 provides for the total abolition of thedeath penalty.Currently all Council of Europe member states butAzerbaijanhave ratified Protocol 13. Procedural and institutional protocols The convention's provisions affecting institutional and procedural matters have been altered several times by means of protocols. These amendments have, with the exception of Protocol 2, amended the text of the convention. Protocol 2 did not amend the text of the convention as such but stipulated that it was to be treated as an integral part of the text. All of these protocols have required the unanimous ratification of all the member states of the Council of Europe to enter into force. Protocol 11 Protocols 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 have now been superseded by Protocol 11 which entered into force on 1 November 1998.It established a fundamental change in the machinery of the convention. It abolished the commission, allowing individuals to apply directly to the court, which was given compulsory jurisdiction and altered the latter's structure. Previously states could ratify the convention without accepting the jurisdiction of the Court of Human Rights. The protocol also abolished the judicial functions of the Committee of Ministers. Protocol 14 Protocol 14 follows on from Protocol 11 in proposing to further improve the efficiency of the court. It seeks to \"filter\" out cases that have less chance of succeeding along with those that are broadly similar to cases brought previously against the same member state. Furthermore, a case will not be considered admissible where an applicant has not suffered a \"significant disadvantage\". This latter ground can only be used when an examination of the application on the merits is not considered necessary and where the subject-matter of the application had already been considered by a national court. A new mechanism was introduced by Protocol 14 to assist enforcement of judgements by the Committee of Ministers. The committee can ask the court for an interpretation of a judgement and can even bring a member state before the court for non-compliance of a previous judgement against that state. Protocol 14 also allows forEuropean Union accession to the convention.The protocol has been ratified by every Council of Europe member state, Russia being last in February 2010. It entered into force on 1 June 2010. A provisionalProtocol 14bishad been opened for signature in 2009.Pending the ratification of Protocol 14 itself, 14bis was devised to allow the court to implement revised procedures in respect of the states which have ratified it. It allowed single judges to reject manifestly inadmissible applications made against the states that have ratified the protocol. It also extended the competence of three-judge chambers to declare applications made against those states admissible and to decide on their merits where there already is a well-established case law of the court. Now that all Council of Europe member states have ratified Protocol 14, Protocol 14bis has lost itsraison d'êtreand according to its own terms ceased to have any effect when Protocol 14 entered into force on 1 June 2010. See also Notes Further reading External links","List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"European Convention on Human Rights TheEuropean Convention on Human Rights(ECHR; formally theConvention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms)is an international convention to protecthuman rightsandpolitical freedomsinEurope. Drafted in 1950 by the then newly formedCouncil of Europe,the convention entered into force on 3 September 1953. AllCouncil of Europe member statesare party to the convention and new members are expected to ratify the convention at the earliest opportunity. The convention established theEuropean Court of Human Rights(generally referred to by the initials ECtHR). Any person who feels their rights have been violated under the convention by a state party can take a case to the court. Judgments finding violations are binding on the states concerned and they are obliged to execute them. TheCommittee of Ministers of the Council of Europemonitors the execution of judgments, particularly to ensure payments awarded by the court appropriately compensate applicants for the damage they have sustained. The convention has sixteenprotocols, which amend the convention framework. The convention has had a significant influence on the law in Council of Europe member countriesand is widely considered the most effective international treaty for human rights protection. History The European Convention on Human Rights has played an important role in the development and awareness ofhuman rightsin Europe. The development of a regional system of human rights protections operating across Europe can be seen as a direct response to twin concerns. First, in the aftermath of theSecond World War, the convention, drawing on the inspiration of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights, can be seen as part of a wider response from theAllied powersin delivering a human rights agenda to prevent the most serious human rights violations which had occurred during the Second World War from happening again. Second, the convention was a response to the growth ofStalinisminCentralandEastern Europeand was designed to protect the member states of theCouncil of Europefromcommunistsubversion. This, in part, explains the constant references to values and principles that are \\\"necessary in a democratic society\\\" throughout the convention, despite the fact that such principles are not in any way defined within the convention itself.Consequently, the convention was principally conceived, at the time of its creation, as an \\\"anti-totalitarian\\\" measure to help stabilise social democracies in Western Europe, rather than as a specific reaction to the legacy of Nazism and the Holocaust. This approach was a continuation of Atlanticist beliefs from World War II and the early Cold War which called for the defence of democracy against all forms of authoritarianism. From 7 to 10 May 1948, politicians includingWinston Churchill,François Mitterrand, andKonrad Adenauer, as well as civil society representatives, academics, business leaders, trade unionists, and religious leaders convened theCongress of EuropeinThe Hague. At the end of the Congress, a declaration and following pledge to create the convention was issued. The second and third articles of the pledge state: \\\"We desire a Charter of Human Rights guaranteeing liberty of thought, assembly and expression as well as right to form a political opposition. We desire a Court of Justice with adequate sanctions for the implementation of this Charter.\\\" The convention was drafted by theCouncil of Europeafter theSecond World Warand Hague Congress. Over 100 parliamentarians from the twelve member states of the Council of Europe gathered in Strasbourg in the summer of 1949 for the first-ever meeting of the council's Consultative Assembly to draft a \\\"charter of human rights\\\" and to establish a court to enforce it. British MP and lawyer SirDavid Maxwell-Fyfe, the chair of the Assembly's Committee on Legal and Administrative Questions, was one of its leading members and guided the drafting of the convention, based on an earlier draft produced by theEuropean Movement. As a prosecutor at theNuremberg Trials, he had seen first-hand of a binding international court. French former minister and French Resistance fighterPierre-Henri Teitgensubmitted a reportto the Assembly proposing a list of rights to be protected, selecting a number from theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsthat had recently been agreed to in New York, and defining how the enforcing judicial mechanism might operate. After extensive debates,the Assembly sent its final proposalto the council's Committee of Ministers, which convened a group of experts to draft the convention itself. The convention was designed to incorporate a traditionalcivil libertiesapproach to securing \\\"effective political democracy\\\", from the strongest traditions in the United Kingdom, France and other member states of the fledgling Council of Europe, as said byGuido Raimondi, President of theEuropean Court of Human Rights: The European system of protection of human rights with its Court would be inconceivable untied from democracy. In fact, we have a bond that is not only regional or geographic: a State cannot be party to the European Convention on Human Rights if it is not a member of the Council of Europe; it cannot be a member State of the Council of Europe if it does not respect pluralist democracy, the rule of law and human rights. So a non-democratic State could not participate in the ECHR system: the protection of democracy goes hand in hand with the protection of rights. The convention was opened for signature on 4 November 1950 in Rome. It was ratified and entered into force on 3 September 1953. It is overseen and enforced by theEuropean Court of Human Rightsin Strasbourg, and theCouncil of Europe. Until procedural reforms in the late 1990s, the convention was also overseen by aEuropean Commission on Human Rights. Proposals for reform of the convention have been put forward, for example by former UK Prime MinisterRishi Sunak,and other UK politicians.Conservativepoliticians have proposed reform or withdrawal from the convention during the2024 Conservative Party leadership election. Drafting The convention is drafted in broad terms, in a similar (albeit more modern) manner to the 1689 ScottishClaim of Right Act 1689, to the 1689English Bill of Rights, the 1791U.S. Bill of Rights, the 1789 FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, or the first part of the GermanBasic Law. Statements of principle are, from a juridical point of view, not determinative and require and have given occasion to extensive interpretation by courts to bring out meaning in particular factual situations, Convention articles As amended by Protocol 11, the convention consists of three parts. The main rights and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18. Section II (Articles 19 to 51) sets up the court and its rules of operation. Section III contains various concluding provisions. Before the entry into force of Protocol 11, Section II (Article 19) set up the commission and the court, Sections III (Articles 20 to 37) and IV (Articles 38 to 59) included the high-level machinery for the operation of, respectively, the commission and the court, and Section V contained various concluding provisions. Many of the articles in Section I are structured in two paragraphs: the first sets out a basic right or freedom (such as Article 2(1) – the right to life) but the second contains various exclusions, exceptions or limitations on the basic right (such as Article 2(2) – which excepts certain uses of force leading to death). Article 1 – respecting rights Article 1 simply binds the signatory parties to secure the rights under the other articles of the convention \\\"within their jurisdiction\\\". In exceptional cases, \\\"jurisdiction\\\" may not be confined to a contracting state's own national territory; the obligation to secure convention rights then also extends to foreign territories, such as occupied land in which the state exercises effective control. InLoizidou v Turkey,theEuropean Court of Human Rightsruled that jurisdiction of member states to the convention extended to areas under that state's effective control as a result of military action. Article 2 – life Article 2 protects the right of every person to their life. The right to life extends only to human beings, not to animals,nor to \\\"legal persons\\\" such as corporations.InEvans v United Kingdom, the court ruled that the question of whether the right to life extends to a human embryo fell within a state'smargin of appreciation. InVo v France,the court declined to extend the right to life to an unborn child, while stating that \\\"it is neither desirable, nor even possible as matters stand, to answer in the abstract the question whether the unborn child is a person for the purposes of Article 2 of the Convention\\\". The court has ruled that states have three main duties under Article 2: The first paragraph of the article contains an exception forlawful executions, although this exception has largely been superseded by Protocols 6 and 13. Protocol 6 prohibits the imposition of the death penalty in peacetime, while Protocol 13 extends the prohibition to all circumstances. (For more on Protocols 6 and 13, seebelow). The second paragraph of Article 2 provides that death resulting from defending oneself or others, arresting a suspect or fugitive, or suppressing riots or insurrections, will not contravene the Article when the use of force involved is \\\"no more than absolutely necessary\\\". Signatory states to the convention can only derogate from the rights contained in Article 2 for deaths which result from lawful acts of war. The European Court of Human Rights did not rule upon the right to life until 1995, when inMcCann and Others v United Kingdomit ruled that the exception contained in the second paragraph does not constitute situations when it is permitted to kill, but situations where it is permitted to use force which might result in the deprivation of life. Article 3 – torture Article 3 prohibitstortureand \\\"inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment\\\". There are no exceptions or limitations on this right. This provision usually applies, apart from torture, to cases of severe police violence and poor conditions in detention. The court has emphasised the fundamental nature of Article 3 in holding that the prohibition is made in \\\"absolute terms ... irrespective of the victim's conduct\\\".The court has also held that states cannot deport orextraditeindividuals who might be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the recipient state. The first case to examine Article 3 was theGreek case, which set an influential precedent.InIreland v. United Kingdom(1979–1980) the court ruled that thefive techniquesdeveloped by the United Kingdom (wall-standing,hooding,subjection to noise,deprivation of sleep, anddeprivation of food and drink), as used against fourteen detainees in Northern Ireland by the United Kingdom were \\\"inhuman and degrading\\\" and breached the European Convention on Human Rights, but did not amount to \\\"torture\\\". InAksoy v. Turkey(1997) the court found Turkey guilty of torture in 1996 in the case of a detainee who was suspended by his arms while his hands were tied behind his back. Selmouni v. France(2000) the court has appeared to be more open to finding states guilty of torture ruling that since the convention is a \\\"living instrument\\\", treatment which it had previously characterized as inhuman or degrading treatment might in future be regarded as torture. In 2014, after new information was uncovered that showed the decision to use the five techniques in Northern Ireland in 1971–1972 had been taken by British ministers,theIrish Governmentasked the European Court of Human Rights to review its judgement. In 2018, by six votes to one, the court declined. Article 4 – servitude Article 4 prohibitsslavery, servitude andforced labourbut exempts labour: Article 5 – liberty and security Article 5 provides that everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. Liberty and security of the person are taken as a \\\"compound\\\" concept – security of the person has not been subject to separate interpretation by the court. Article 5 provides the right toliberty, subject only to lawful arrest or detention under certain other circumstances, such as arrest on reasonable suspicion of a crime or imprisonment in fulfilment of a sentence. The article also provides those arrested with the right to be informed, in a language they understand, of the reasons for the arrest and any charge they face, the right of prompt access to judicial proceedings to determine the legality of the arrest or detention, to trial within a reasonable time or release pending trial, and the right to compensation in the case of arrest or detention in violation of this article. Article 6 – fair trial Article 6 provides a detailedright to a fair trial, including the right to apublic hearingbefore an independent and impartial tribunal within reasonable time, thepresumption of innocence, and other minimum rights for those charged with a criminal offence (adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence, access to legal representation, right to examine witnesses against them or have them examined, right to the free assistance of an interpreter). The majority of convention violations that the court finds today are excessive delays, in violation of the \\\"reasonable time\\\" requirement, in civil and criminal proceedings before national courts, mostly inItalyandFrance. Under the \\\"independent tribunal\\\" requirement, the court has ruled that military judges in Turkish state security courts are incompatible with Article 6. In compliance with this Article, Turkey has now adopted a law abolishing these courts. Another significant set of violations concerns the \\\"confrontation clause\\\" of Article 6 (i.e. the right to examine witnesses or have them examined). In this respect, problems of compliance with Article 6 may arise when national laws allow the use in evidence of the testimonies of absent, anonymous and vulnerable witnesses. Article 7 – retroactivity Article 7 prohibits the retroactive criminalisation of acts and omissions. No person may be punished for an act that was not a criminal offence at the time of its commission. The article states that a criminal offence is one under either national or international law, which would permit a party to prosecute someone for a crime which was not illegal under domestic law at the time, so long as it was prohibited byinternational law. The Article also prohibits a heavier penalty being imposed than was applicable at the time when the criminal act was committed. Article 7 incorporates the legal principlenullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege(no crime, no penalty without law) into the convention. Relevant cases are: Article 8 – privacy Article 8 provides a right to respect for one's \\\"private and family life, his home and hiscorrespondence\\\", subject to restrictions that are \\\"in accordance with law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others\\\".This article clearly provides a right to be free of unlawful searches, but the court has given the protection for \\\"private and family life\\\" that this article provides a broad interpretation, taking for instance that prohibition of private consensual homosexual acts violates this article. There have been cases discussing consensual familial sexual relationships, and how the criminalisation of this may violate this article. However, the ECHR still allows such familial sexual acts to be criminal. This may be compared to the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, which has also adopted a somewhat broad interpretation of theright to privacy. Furthermore, Article 8 sometimes comprisespositive obligations:whereas classical human rights are formulated as prohibiting a state from interfering with rights, and thusnotto do something (e.g. not to separate a family under family life protection), the effective enjoyment of such rights may also include an obligation for the state to become active, and todosomething (e.g. to enforce access for a divorced parent to his/her child). Notable cases: Article 9 – conscience and religion Article 9 provides a right tofreedom of thought, conscience andreligion. This includes the freedom to change a religion or belief, and to manifest a religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance, subject to certain restrictions that are \\\"in accordance with law\\\" and \\\"necessary in a democratic society\\\". Relevant cases are: Article 10 – expression Article 10 provides the right tofreedom of expression, subject to certain restrictions that are \\\"in accordance with law\\\" and \\\"necessary in a democratic society\\\". This right includes the freedom to hold opinions, and to receive and impart information and ideas, but allows restrictions for: Relevant cases are: Article 11 – association Article 11 protects the right tofreedom of assemblyand association, including the right to formtrade unions, subject to certain restrictions that are \\\"in accordance with law\\\" and \\\"necessary in a democratic society\\\". Article 12 – marriage Article 12 provides a right for women and men ofmarriageable agetomarryand establish a family. Despite a number of invitations, the court has so far refused to apply the protections of this article tosame-sex marriage. The court has defended this on the grounds that the article was intended to apply only to different-sex marriage, and that a wide margin of appreciation must be granted to parties in this area. InGoodwin v. United Kingdomthe court ruled that a law which still classified post-operativetranssexualpeople under their pre-operative sex violated article 12 as it meant that transsexual people were unable to marry individuals of their post-operative opposite sex. This reversed an earlier ruling inRees v. United Kingdom. This did not, however, alter the Court's understanding that Article 12 protects only different-sex couples. The European Court of Human Rights ruled inSchalk and Kopf v. Austriathat countries are not required to provide marriage licenses for same-sex couples; however, if a country allows same-sex couple marriage it must be done under the same conditions that opposite-sex couples marriage face,in order to prevent a breach of article 14 – the prohibition of discrimination. Additionally, the court ruled in the 2015 case ofOliari and Others v. Italythat states have a positive obligation to ensure there is a specific legal framework for the recognition and protection of same-sex couples. Article 13 – effective remedy Article 13 provides for theright for an effective remedybefore national authorities for violations of rights under the convention. The inability to obtain aremedybefore a national court for an infringement of a Convention right is thus a free-standing and separately actionable infringement of the convention. Article 14 – discrimination Article 14 contains a prohibition ofdiscrimination. This prohibition is broad in some ways and narrow in others. It is broad in that it prohibits discrimination under a potentially unlimited number of grounds. While the article specifically prohibits discrimination based on \\\"sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status\\\", the last of these allows the court to extend to Article 14 protection to other grounds not specifically mentioned such as has been done regarding discrimination based on a person's sexual orientation. At the same time, the article's protection is limited in that it only prohibits discrimination with respect to rights under the convention. Thus, an applicant must prove discrimination in the enjoyment of a specific right that is guaranteed elsewhere in the convention (e.g. discrimination based on sex – Article 14 – in the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression – Article 10). Protocol 12 extends this prohibition to cover discrimination in any legal right, even when that legal right is not protected under the convention, so long as it is provided for in national law. Article 15 – derogations Article 15 allows contracting states toderogatefrom certain rights guaranteed by the convention in a time of \\\"war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation\\\". Permissible derogations under article 15 must meet three substantive conditions: In addition to these substantive requirements, the derogation must be procedurally sound. There must be some formal announcement of the derogation and notice of the derogation and any measures adopted under it, and the ending of the derogation must be communicated to theSecretary-General of the Council of Europe. As of 2016, only eight member states had ever invoked derogations.The court is quite permissive in accepting a state's derogations from the convention but applies a higher degree of scrutiny in deciding whether measures taken by states under a derogation are, in the words of Article 15, \\\"strictly required by the exigencies of the situation\\\". Thus inA v United Kingdom, the court dismissed a claim that a derogation lodged by the British government in response to theSeptember 11 attackswas invalid, but went on to find that measures taken by the United Kingdom under that derogation were disproportionate. Examples of such derogations include: Article 16 – foreign parties Article 16 allows states to restrict the political activity of foreigners. The court has ruled that European Union member states cannot consider the nationals of other member states to be aliens. Article 17 – abuse of rights Article 17 provides that no one may use the rights guaranteed by the convention to seek the abolition or limitation of rights guaranteed in the convention. This addresses instances where states seek to restrict a human right in the name of another human right, or where individuals rely on a human right to undermine other human rights (for example where an individual issues a death threat). Article 18 – permitted restrictions Article 18 provides that any limitations on the rights provided for in the convention may be used only for the purpose for which they are provided. For example, Article 5, which guarantees the right to personal freedom, may be explicitly limited in order to bring a suspect before a judge. To use pre-trial detention as a means of intimidation of a person under a false pretext is, therefore, a limitation of right (to freedom) which does not serve an explicitly provided purpose (to be brought before a judge), and is therefore contrary to Article 18. Convention protocols As of January 2010, fifteen protocols to the convention have been opened for signature. These can be divided into two main groups: those amending the framework of the convention system, and those expanding the rights that can be protected. The former require unanimous ratification by member states before coming into force, while the latter require a certain number of states to sign before coming into force. Protocol 1 This Protocol contains three different rights which the signatories could not agree to place in the convention itself.MonacoandSwitzerlandhave signed but never ratified Protocol 1. Article 1 – property Article 1 (\\\"A1P1\\\")provides that \\\"every natural orlegal personis entitled to thepeaceful enjoyment of his possessions\\\". TheEuropean Court of Human Rightsacknowledged a violation of the fair balance between the demands of the general interest of the community and the requirements of the protection of the individual's fundamental rights, also, in the uncertainty – for the owner – about the future of the property, and in the absence of an allowance. In the case ofMifsud and others v Malta(38770/17) the Maltese state was found to have violated Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the convention. The case involved a plot of land owned by the Mifsud family and their heirs which was expropriated twice (in 1984 and in 2012). The court, in its judgment, stated that \\\"the (Maltese) Constitutional Court had no basis on which to ground its finding. The Court is disconcerted by the circumstances of the present case which led to an expropriation of property being endorsed without anyone being able to assert the reasons behind such an expropriation.\\\" Article 2 – education Article 2 provides for the right not to be denied an education and theright for parents to have their children educatedin accordance with their religious and other views. It does not however guarantee any particular level of education of any particular quality. Although phrased in the Protocol as a negative right, inŞahin v. Turkeythe court ruled that: it would be hard to imagine that institutions of higher education existing at a given time do not come within the scope of the first sentence of Article 2 of Protocol No 1. Although that Article does not impose a duty on the Contracting States to set up institutions of higher education, any State doing so will be under an obligation to afford an effective right of access to them. In a democratic society, the right to education, which is indispensable to the furtherance of human rights, plays such a fundamental role that a restrictive interpretation of the first sentence of Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 would not be consistent with the aim or purpose of that provision. Article 3 – elections Article 3 provides for the right to elections performed by secret ballot, that are also free and that occur at regular intervals. Protocol 4 – civil imprisonment, free movement, expulsion Article 1 prohibits the imprisonment of people for inability to fulfil a contract. Article 2 provides for aright to freely movewithin a country once lawfully there and for a right to leave any country. Article 3 prohibits the expulsion of nationals and provides for the right of an individual to enter a country of their nationality. Article 4 prohibits the collective expulsion of foreigners. Turkeyand theUnited Kingdomhave signed but never ratified Protocol 4.GreeceandSwitzerlandhave neither signed nor ratified this protocol. The United Kingdom's failure to ratify this protocol is due to concerns over the interaction of Article 2 and Article 3 withBritish nationality law. Specifically, several classes of \\\"British national\\\" (such asBritish National (Overseas)) do not have the right of abode in the United Kingdom and are subject to immigration control there. In 2009, the UK government stated that it had no plans to ratify Protocol 4 because of concerns that those articles could be taken as conferring that right. Protocol 6 – restriction of death penalty Requires parties to restrict the application of thedeath penaltyexcept for \\\"acts committed in time of war\\\" or of \\\"imminent threat of war\\\". Every Council of Europe member state has signed and ratified Protocol 6. Protocol 7 – crime and family Despite having signed the protocol more than thirty years ago Germany and the Netherlands have never ratified it. Turkey, which signed the protocol in 1985, ratified it in 2016, becoming the latest member state to do so. The United Kingdom has neither signed nor ratified the protocol. Protocol 12 – discrimination Protocol 12 applies the current expansive and indefinite grounds of prohibited discrimination inArticle 14to the exercise of any legal right and to the actions (including the obligations) of public authorities. The Protocol entered into force on 1 April 2005 and has (as of March 2018) been ratified by 20 member states. Several member states—Bulgaria,Denmark,France,Lithuania,Monaco,Poland,Sweden,Switzerland, and theUnited Kingdom—have not signed the protocol. The United Kingdom government has declined to sign Protocol 12 on the basis that they believe the wording of protocol is too wide and would result in a flood of new cases testing the extent of the new provision. They believe that the phrase \\\"rights set forth by law\\\" might include international conventions to which the UK is not a party, and would result in incorporation of these instruments by stealth. It has been suggested that the protocol is therefore in acatch-22, since the UK will decline to either sign or ratify the protocol until theEuropean Court of Human Rightshas addressed the meaning of the provision, while the court is hindered in doing so by the lack of applications to the court concerning the protocol caused by the decisions of Europe's most populous states—including the UK—not to ratify the protocol. The UK government, nevertheless, stated in 2004 that it \\\"agrees in principle that the ECHR should contain a provision against discrimination that is free-standing and not parasitic on the other Convention rights\\\".The first judgment that found a violation of Protocol No. 12,Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, was delivered in 2009. Protocol 13 – complete abolition of death penalty Protocol 13 provides for the total abolition of thedeath penalty.Currently all Council of Europe member states butAzerbaijanhave ratified Protocol 13. Procedural and institutional protocols The convention's provisions affecting institutional and procedural matters have been altered several times by means of protocols. These amendments have, with the exception of Protocol 2, amended the text of the convention. Protocol 2 did not amend the text of the convention as such but stipulated that it was to be treated as an integral part of the text. All of these protocols have required the unanimous ratification of all the member states of the Council of Europe to enter into force. Protocol 11 Protocols 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 have now been superseded by Protocol 11 which entered into force on 1 November 1998.It established a fundamental change in the machinery of the convention. It abolished the commission, allowing individuals to apply directly to the court, which was given compulsory jurisdiction and altered the latter's structure. Previously states could ratify the convention without accepting the jurisdiction of the Court of Human Rights. The protocol also abolished the judicial functions of the Committee of Ministers. Protocol 14 Protocol 14 follows on from Protocol 11 in proposing to further improve the efficiency of the court. It seeks to \\\"filter\\\" out cases that have less chance of succeeding along with those that are broadly similar to cases brought previously against the same member state. Furthermore, a case will not be considered admissible where an applicant has not suffered a \\\"significant disadvantage\\\". This latter ground can only be used when an examination of the application on the merits is not considered necessary and where the subject-matter of the application had already been considered by a national court. A new mechanism was introduced by Protocol 14 to assist enforcement of judgements by the Committee of Ministers. The committee can ask the court for an interpretation of a judgement and can even bring a member state before the court for non-compliance of a previous judgement against that state. Protocol 14 also allows forEuropean Union accession to the convention.The protocol has been ratified by every Council of Europe member state, Russia being last in February 2010. It entered into force on 1 June 2010. A provisionalProtocol 14bishad been opened for signature in 2009.Pending the ratification of Protocol 14 itself, 14bis was devised to allow the court to implement revised procedures in respect of the states which have ratified it. It allowed single judges to reject manifestly inadmissible applications made against the states that have ratified the protocol. It also extended the competence of three-judge chambers to declare applications made against those states admissible and to decide on their merits where there already is a well-established case law of the court. Now that all Council of Europe member states have ratified Protocol 14, Protocol 14bis has lost itsraison d'êtreand according to its own terms ceased to have any effect when Protocol 14 entered into force on 1 June 2010. See also Notes Further reading External links\",\n \"List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["European Convention on Human Rights TheEuropean Convention on Human Rights(ECHR; formally theConvention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms)is an international convention to protecthuman rightsandpolitical freedomsinEurope. Drafted in 1950 by the then newly formedCouncil of Europe,the convention entered into force on 3 September 1953. AllCouncil of Europe member statesare party to the convention and new members are expected to ratify the convention at the earliest opportunity. The convention established theEuropean Court of Human Rights(generally referred to by the initials ECtHR). Any person who feels their rights have been violated under the convention by a state party can take a case to the court. Judgments finding violations are binding on the states concerned and they are obliged to execute them. TheCommittee of Ministers of the Council of Europemonitors the execution of judgments, particularly to ensure payments awarded by the court appropriately compensate applicants for the","applicants for the damage they have sustained. The convention has sixteenprotocols, which amend the convention framework. The convention has had a significant influence on the law in Council of Europe member countriesand is widely considered the most effective international treaty for human rights protection. History The European Convention on Human Rights has played an important role in the development and awareness ofhuman rightsin Europe. The development of a regional system of human rights protections operating across Europe can be seen as a direct response to twin concerns. First, in the aftermath of theSecond World War, the convention, drawing on the inspiration of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights, can be seen as part of a wider response from theAllied powersin delivering a human rights agenda to prevent the most serious human rights violations which had occurred during the Second World War from happening again. Second, the convention was a response to the growth ofStalinisminCentralandEastern","Europeand was designed to protect the member states of theCouncil of Europefromcommunistsubversion. This, in part, explains the constant references to values and principles that are \"necessary in a democratic society\" throughout the convention, despite the fact that such principles are not in any way defined within the convention itself.Consequently, the convention was principally conceived, at the time of its creation, as an \"anti-totalitarian\" measure to help stabilise social democracies in Western Europe, rather than as a specific reaction to the legacy of Nazism and the Holocaust. This approach was a continuation of Atlanticist beliefs from World War II and the early Cold War which called for the defence of democracy against all forms of authoritarianism. From 7 to 10 May 1948, politicians includingWinston Churchill,François Mitterrand, andKonrad Adenauer, as well as civil society representatives, academics, business leaders, trade unionists, and religious leaders convened theCongress of EuropeinThe","of EuropeinThe Hague. At the end of the Congress, a declaration and following pledge to create the convention was issued. The second and third articles of the pledge state: \"We desire a Charter of Human Rights guaranteeing liberty of thought, assembly and expression as well as right to form a political opposition. We desire a Court of Justice with adequate sanctions for the implementation of this Charter.\" The convention was drafted by theCouncil of Europeafter theSecond World Warand Hague Congress. Over 100 parliamentarians from the twelve member states of the Council of Europe gathered in Strasbourg in the summer of 1949 for the first-ever meeting of the council's Consultative Assembly to draft a \"charter of human rights\" and to establish a court to enforce it. British MP and lawyer SirDavid Maxwell-Fyfe, the chair of the Assembly's Committee on Legal and Administrative Questions, was one of its leading members and guided the drafting of the convention, based on an earlier draft produced by theEuropean","by theEuropean Movement. As a prosecutor at theNuremberg Trials, he had seen first-hand of a binding international court. French former minister and French Resistance fighterPierre-Henri Teitgensubmitted a reportto the Assembly proposing a list of rights to be protected, selecting a number from theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsthat had recently been agreed to in New York, and defining how the enforcing judicial mechanism might operate. After extensive debates,the Assembly sent its final proposalto the council's Committee of Ministers, which convened a group of experts to draft the convention itself. The convention was designed to incorporate a traditionalcivil libertiesapproach to securing \"effective political democracy\", from the strongest traditions in the United Kingdom, France and other member states of the fledgling Council of Europe, as said byGuido Raimondi, President of theEuropean Court of Human Rights: The European system of protection of human rights with its Court would be inconceivable","be inconceivable untied from democracy. In fact, we have a bond that is not only regional or geographic: a State cannot be party to the European Convention on Human Rights if it is not a member of the Council of Europe; it cannot be a member State of the Council of Europe if it does not respect pluralist democracy, the rule of law and human rights. So a non-democratic State could not participate in the ECHR system: the protection of democracy goes hand in hand with the protection of rights. The convention was opened for signature on 4 November 1950 in Rome. It was ratified and entered into force on 3 September 1953. It is overseen and enforced by theEuropean Court of Human Rightsin Strasbourg, and theCouncil of Europe. Until procedural reforms in the late 1990s, the convention was also overseen by aEuropean Commission on Human Rights. Proposals for reform of the convention have been put forward, for example by former UK Prime MinisterRishi Sunak,and other UK politicians.Conservativepoliticians have proposed","have proposed reform or withdrawal from the convention during the2024 Conservative Party leadership election. Drafting The convention is drafted in broad terms, in a similar (albeit more modern) manner to the 1689 ScottishClaim of Right Act 1689, to the 1689English Bill of Rights, the 1791U.S. Bill of Rights, the 1789 FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, or the first part of the GermanBasic Law. Statements of principle are, from a juridical point of view, not determinative and require and have given occasion to extensive interpretation by courts to bring out meaning in particular factual situations, Convention articles As amended by Protocol 11, the convention consists of three parts. The main rights and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18. Section II (Articles 19 to 51) sets up the court and its rules of operation. Section III contains various concluding provisions. Before the entry into force of Protocol 11, Section II (Article 19) set up the","19) set up the commission and the court, Sections III (Articles 20 to 37) and IV (Articles 38 to 59) included the high-level machinery for the operation of, respectively, the commission and the court, and Section V contained various concluding provisions. Many of the articles in Section I are structured in two paragraphs: the first sets out a basic right or freedom (such as Article 2(1) – the right to life) but the second contains various exclusions, exceptions or limitations on the basic right (such as Article 2(2) – which excepts certain uses of force leading to death). Article 1 – respecting rights Article 1 simply binds the signatory parties to secure the rights under the other articles of the convention \"within their jurisdiction\". In exceptional cases, \"jurisdiction\" may not be confined to a contracting state's own national territory; the obligation to secure convention rights then also extends to foreign territories, such as occupied land in which the state exercises effective control. InLoizidou v","InLoizidou v Turkey,theEuropean Court of Human Rightsruled that jurisdiction of member states to the convention extended to areas under that state's effective control as a result of military action. Article 2 – life Article 2 protects the right of every person to their life. The right to life extends only to human beings, not to animals,nor to \"legal persons\" such as corporations.InEvans v United Kingdom, the court ruled that the question of whether the right to life extends to a human embryo fell within a state'smargin of appreciation. InVo v France,the court declined to extend the right to life to an unborn child, while stating that \"it is neither desirable, nor even possible as matters stand, to answer in the abstract the question whether the unborn child is a person for the purposes of Article 2 of the Convention\". The court has ruled that states have three main duties under Article 2: The first paragraph of the article contains an exception forlawful executions, although this exception has largely been","has largely been superseded by Protocols 6 and 13. Protocol 6 prohibits the imposition of the death penalty in peacetime, while Protocol 13 extends the prohibition to all circumstances. (For more on Protocols 6 and 13, seebelow). The second paragraph of Article 2 provides that death resulting from defending oneself or others, arresting a suspect or fugitive, or suppressing riots or insurrections, will not contravene the Article when the use of force involved is \"no more than absolutely necessary\". Signatory states to the convention can only derogate from the rights contained in Article 2 for deaths which result from lawful acts of war. The European Court of Human Rights did not rule upon the right to life until 1995, when inMcCann and Others v United Kingdomit ruled that the exception contained in the second paragraph does not constitute situations when it is permitted to kill, but situations where it is permitted to use force which might result in the deprivation of life. Article 3 – torture Article 3","– torture Article 3 prohibitstortureand \"inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment\". There are no exceptions or limitations on this right. This provision usually applies, apart from torture, to cases of severe police violence and poor conditions in detention. The court has emphasised the fundamental nature of Article 3 in holding that the prohibition is made in \"absolute terms ... irrespective of the victim's conduct\".The court has also held that states cannot deport orextraditeindividuals who might be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the recipient state. The first case to examine Article 3 was theGreek case, which set an influential precedent.InIreland v. United Kingdom(1979–1980) the court ruled that thefive techniquesdeveloped by the United Kingdom (wall-standing,hooding,subjection to noise,deprivation of sleep, anddeprivation of food and drink), as used against fourteen detainees in Northern Ireland by the United Kingdom were \"inhuman and degrading\" and breached","and breached the European Convention on Human Rights, but did not amount to \"torture\". InAksoy v. Turkey(1997) the court found Turkey guilty of torture in 1996 in the case of a detainee who was suspended by his arms while his hands were tied behind his back. Selmouni v. France(2000) the court has appeared to be more open to finding states guilty of torture ruling that since the convention is a \"living instrument\", treatment which it had previously characterized as inhuman or degrading treatment might in future be regarded as torture. In 2014, after new information was uncovered that showed the decision to use the five techniques in Northern Ireland in 1971–1972 had been taken by British ministers,theIrish Governmentasked the European Court of Human Rights to review its judgement. In 2018, by six votes to one, the court declined. Article 4 – servitude Article 4 prohibitsslavery, servitude andforced labourbut exempts labour: Article 5 – liberty and security Article 5 provides that everyone has the right to","has the right to liberty and security of person. Liberty and security of the person are taken as a \"compound\" concept – security of the person has not been subject to separate interpretation by the court. Article 5 provides the right toliberty, subject only to lawful arrest or detention under certain other circumstances, such as arrest on reasonable suspicion of a crime or imprisonment in fulfilment of a sentence. The article also provides those arrested with the right to be informed, in a language they understand, of the reasons for the arrest and any charge they face, the right of prompt access to judicial proceedings to determine the legality of the arrest or detention, to trial within a reasonable time or release pending trial, and the right to compensation in the case of arrest or detention in violation of this article. Article 6 – fair trial Article 6 provides a detailedright to a fair trial, including the right to apublic hearingbefore an independent and impartial tribunal within reasonable time,","reasonable time, thepresumption of innocence, and other minimum rights for those charged with a criminal offence (adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence, access to legal representation, right to examine witnesses against them or have them examined, right to the free assistance of an interpreter). The majority of convention violations that the court finds today are excessive delays, in violation of the \"reasonable time\" requirement, in civil and criminal proceedings before national courts, mostly inItalyandFrance. Under the \"independent tribunal\" requirement, the court has ruled that military judges in Turkish state security courts are incompatible with Article 6. In compliance with this Article, Turkey has now adopted a law abolishing these courts. Another significant set of violations concerns the \"confrontation clause\" of Article 6 (i.e. the right to examine witnesses or have them examined). In this respect, problems of compliance with Article 6 may arise when national laws allow the use in","allow the use in evidence of the testimonies of absent, anonymous and vulnerable witnesses. Article 7 – retroactivity Article 7 prohibits the retroactive criminalisation of acts and omissions. No person may be punished for an act that was not a criminal offence at the time of its commission. The article states that a criminal offence is one under either national or international law, which would permit a party to prosecute someone for a crime which was not illegal under domestic law at the time, so long as it was prohibited byinternational law. The Article also prohibits a heavier penalty being imposed than was applicable at the time when the criminal act was committed. Article 7 incorporates the legal principlenullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege(no crime, no penalty without law) into the convention. Relevant cases are: Article 8 – privacy Article 8 provides a right to respect for one's \"private and family life, his home and hiscorrespondence\", subject to restrictions that are \"in accordance with law and is","with law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others\".This article clearly provides a right to be free of unlawful searches, but the court has given the protection for \"private and family life\" that this article provides a broad interpretation, taking for instance that prohibition of private consensual homosexual acts violates this article. There have been cases discussing consensual familial sexual relationships, and how the criminalisation of this may violate this article. However, the ECHR still allows such familial sexual acts to be criminal. This may be compared to the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, which has also adopted a somewhat broad interpretation of theright to privacy. Furthermore, Article 8 sometimes comprisespositive obligations:whereas classical","classical human rights are formulated as prohibiting a state from interfering with rights, and thusnotto do something (e.g. not to separate a family under family life protection), the effective enjoyment of such rights may also include an obligation for the state to become active, and todosomething (e.g. to enforce access for a divorced parent to his/her child). Notable cases: Article 9 – conscience and religion Article 9 provides a right tofreedom of thought, conscience andreligion. This includes the freedom to change a religion or belief, and to manifest a religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". Relevant cases are: Article 10 – expression Article 10 provides the right tofreedom of expression, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". This right includes the freedom to hold opinions, and to receive and impart","receive and impart information and ideas, but allows restrictions for: Relevant cases are: Article 11 – association Article 11 protects the right tofreedom of assemblyand association, including the right to formtrade unions, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". Article 12 – marriage Article 12 provides a right for women and men ofmarriageable agetomarryand establish a family. Despite a number of invitations, the court has so far refused to apply the protections of this article tosame-sex marriage. The court has defended this on the grounds that the article was intended to apply only to different-sex marriage, and that a wide margin of appreciation must be granted to parties in this area. InGoodwin v. United Kingdomthe court ruled that a law which still classified post-operativetranssexualpeople under their pre-operative sex violated article 12 as it meant that transsexual people were unable to marry individuals of their post-operative","post-operative opposite sex. This reversed an earlier ruling inRees v. United Kingdom. This did not, however, alter the Court's understanding that Article 12 protects only different-sex couples. The European Court of Human Rights ruled inSchalk and Kopf v. Austriathat countries are not required to provide marriage licenses for same-sex couples; however, if a country allows same-sex couple marriage it must be done under the same conditions that opposite-sex couples marriage face,in order to prevent a breach of article 14 – the prohibition of discrimination. Additionally, the court ruled in the 2015 case ofOliari and Others v. Italythat states have a positive obligation to ensure there is a specific legal framework for the recognition and protection of same-sex couples. Article 13 – effective remedy Article 13 provides for theright for an effective remedybefore national authorities for violations of rights under the convention. The inability to obtain aremedybefore a national court for an infringement of a","infringement of a Convention right is thus a free-standing and separately actionable infringement of the convention. Article 14 – discrimination Article 14 contains a prohibition ofdiscrimination. This prohibition is broad in some ways and narrow in others. It is broad in that it prohibits discrimination under a potentially unlimited number of grounds. While the article specifically prohibits discrimination based on \"sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status\", the last of these allows the court to extend to Article 14 protection to other grounds not specifically mentioned such as has been done regarding discrimination based on a person's sexual orientation. At the same time, the article's protection is limited in that it only prohibits discrimination with respect to rights under the convention. Thus, an applicant must prove discrimination in the enjoyment of a specific right that is","right that is guaranteed elsewhere in the convention (e.g. discrimination based on sex – Article 14 – in the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression – Article 10). Protocol 12 extends this prohibition to cover discrimination in any legal right, even when that legal right is not protected under the convention, so long as it is provided for in national law. Article 15 – derogations Article 15 allows contracting states toderogatefrom certain rights guaranteed by the convention in a time of \"war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation\". Permissible derogations under article 15 must meet three substantive conditions: In addition to these substantive requirements, the derogation must be procedurally sound. There must be some formal announcement of the derogation and notice of the derogation and any measures adopted under it, and the ending of the derogation must be communicated to theSecretary-General of the Council of Europe. As of 2016, only eight member states had ever invoked","had ever invoked derogations.The court is quite permissive in accepting a state's derogations from the convention but applies a higher degree of scrutiny in deciding whether measures taken by states under a derogation are, in the words of Article 15, \"strictly required by the exigencies of the situation\". Thus inA v United Kingdom, the court dismissed a claim that a derogation lodged by the British government in response to theSeptember 11 attackswas invalid, but went on to find that measures taken by the United Kingdom under that derogation were disproportionate. Examples of such derogations include: Article 16 – foreign parties Article 16 allows states to restrict the political activity of foreigners. The court has ruled that European Union member states cannot consider the nationals of other member states to be aliens. Article 17 – abuse of rights Article 17 provides that no one may use the rights guaranteed by the convention to seek the abolition or limitation of rights guaranteed in the convention. This","convention. This addresses instances where states seek to restrict a human right in the name of another human right, or where individuals rely on a human right to undermine other human rights (for example where an individual issues a death threat). Article 18 – permitted restrictions Article 18 provides that any limitations on the rights provided for in the convention may be used only for the purpose for which they are provided. For example, Article 5, which guarantees the right to personal freedom, may be explicitly limited in order to bring a suspect before a judge. To use pre-trial detention as a means of intimidation of a person under a false pretext is, therefore, a limitation of right (to freedom) which does not serve an explicitly provided purpose (to be brought before a judge), and is therefore contrary to Article 18. Convention protocols As of January 2010, fifteen protocols to the convention have been opened for signature. These can be divided into two main groups: those amending the framework of","the framework of the convention system, and those expanding the rights that can be protected. The former require unanimous ratification by member states before coming into force, while the latter require a certain number of states to sign before coming into force. Protocol 1 This Protocol contains three different rights which the signatories could not agree to place in the convention itself.MonacoandSwitzerlandhave signed but never ratified Protocol 1. Article 1 – property Article 1 (\"A1P1\")provides that \"every natural orlegal personis entitled to thepeaceful enjoyment of his possessions\". TheEuropean Court of Human Rightsacknowledged a violation of the fair balance between the demands of the general interest of the community and the requirements of the protection of the individual's fundamental rights, also, in the uncertainty – for the owner – about the future of the property, and in the absence of an allowance. In the case ofMifsud and others v Malta(38770/17) the Maltese state was found to have violated","to have violated Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the convention. The case involved a plot of land owned by the Mifsud family and their heirs which was expropriated twice (in 1984 and in 2012). The court, in its judgment, stated that \"the (Maltese) Constitutional Court had no basis on which to ground its finding. The Court is disconcerted by the circumstances of the present case which led to an expropriation of property being endorsed without anyone being able to assert the reasons behind such an expropriation.\" Article 2 – education Article 2 provides for the right not to be denied an education and theright for parents to have their children educatedin accordance with their religious and other views. It does not however guarantee any particular level of education of any particular quality. Although phrased in the Protocol as a negative right, inŞahin v. Turkeythe court ruled that: it would be hard to imagine that institutions of higher education existing at a given time do not come within the scope of the","the scope of the first sentence of Article 2 of Protocol No 1. Although that Article does not impose a duty on the Contracting States to set up institutions of higher education, any State doing so will be under an obligation to afford an effective right of access to them. In a democratic society, the right to education, which is indispensable to the furtherance of human rights, plays such a fundamental role that a restrictive interpretation of the first sentence of Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 would not be consistent with the aim or purpose of that provision. Article 3 – elections Article 3 provides for the right to elections performed by secret ballot, that are also free and that occur at regular intervals. Protocol 4 – civil imprisonment, free movement, expulsion Article 1 prohibits the imprisonment of people for inability to fulfil a contract. Article 2 provides for aright to freely movewithin a country once lawfully there and for a right to leave any country. Article 3 prohibits the expulsion of nationals","of nationals and provides for the right of an individual to enter a country of their nationality. Article 4 prohibits the collective expulsion of foreigners. Turkeyand theUnited Kingdomhave signed but never ratified Protocol 4.GreeceandSwitzerlandhave neither signed nor ratified this protocol. The United Kingdom's failure to ratify this protocol is due to concerns over the interaction of Article 2 and Article 3 withBritish nationality law. Specifically, several classes of \"British national\" (such asBritish National (Overseas)) do not have the right of abode in the United Kingdom and are subject to immigration control there. In 2009, the UK government stated that it had no plans to ratify Protocol 4 because of concerns that those articles could be taken as conferring that right. Protocol 6 – restriction of death penalty Requires parties to restrict the application of thedeath penaltyexcept for \"acts committed in time of war\" or of \"imminent threat of war\". Every Council of Europe member state has signed and","has signed and ratified Protocol 6. Protocol 7 – crime and family Despite having signed the protocol more than thirty years ago Germany and the Netherlands have never ratified it. Turkey, which signed the protocol in 1985, ratified it in 2016, becoming the latest member state to do so. The United Kingdom has neither signed nor ratified the protocol. Protocol 12 – discrimination Protocol 12 applies the current expansive and indefinite grounds of prohibited discrimination inArticle 14to the exercise of any legal right and to the actions (including the obligations) of public authorities. The Protocol entered into force on 1 April 2005 and has (as of March 2018) been ratified by 20 member states. Several member states—Bulgaria,Denmark,France,Lithuania,Monaco,Poland,Sweden,Switzerland, and theUnited Kingdom—have not signed the protocol. The United Kingdom government has declined to sign Protocol 12 on the basis that they believe the wording of protocol is too wide and would result in a flood of new cases testing","new cases testing the extent of the new provision. They believe that the phrase \"rights set forth by law\" might include international conventions to which the UK is not a party, and would result in incorporation of these instruments by stealth. It has been suggested that the protocol is therefore in acatch-22, since the UK will decline to either sign or ratify the protocol until theEuropean Court of Human Rightshas addressed the meaning of the provision, while the court is hindered in doing so by the lack of applications to the court concerning the protocol caused by the decisions of Europe's most populous states—including the UK—not to ratify the protocol. The UK government, nevertheless, stated in 2004 that it \"agrees in principle that the ECHR should contain a provision against discrimination that is free-standing and not parasitic on the other Convention rights\".The first judgment that found a violation of Protocol No. 12,Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, was delivered in 2009. Protocol 13 –","2009. Protocol 13 – complete abolition of death penalty Protocol 13 provides for the total abolition of thedeath penalty.Currently all Council of Europe member states butAzerbaijanhave ratified Protocol 13. Procedural and institutional protocols The convention's provisions affecting institutional and procedural matters have been altered several times by means of protocols. These amendments have, with the exception of Protocol 2, amended the text of the convention. Protocol 2 did not amend the text of the convention as such but stipulated that it was to be treated as an integral part of the text. All of these protocols have required the unanimous ratification of all the member states of the Council of Europe to enter into force. Protocol 11 Protocols 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 have now been superseded by Protocol 11 which entered into force on 1 November 1998.It established a fundamental change in the machinery of the convention. It abolished the commission, allowing individuals to apply directly to the court,","to the court, which was given compulsory jurisdiction and altered the latter's structure. Previously states could ratify the convention without accepting the jurisdiction of the Court of Human Rights. The protocol also abolished the judicial functions of the Committee of Ministers. Protocol 14 Protocol 14 follows on from Protocol 11 in proposing to further improve the efficiency of the court. It seeks to \"filter\" out cases that have less chance of succeeding along with those that are broadly similar to cases brought previously against the same member state. Furthermore, a case will not be considered admissible where an applicant has not suffered a \"significant disadvantage\". This latter ground can only be used when an examination of the application on the merits is not considered necessary and where the subject-matter of the application had already been considered by a national court. A new mechanism was introduced by Protocol 14 to assist enforcement of judgements by the Committee of Ministers. The","of Ministers. The committee can ask the court for an interpretation of a judgement and can even bring a member state before the court for non-compliance of a previous judgement against that state. Protocol 14 also allows forEuropean Union accession to the convention.The protocol has been ratified by every Council of Europe member state, Russia being last in February 2010. It entered into force on 1 June 2010. A provisionalProtocol 14bishad been opened for signature in 2009.Pending the ratification of Protocol 14 itself, 14bis was devised to allow the court to implement revised procedures in respect of the states which have ratified it. It allowed single judges to reject manifestly inadmissible applications made against the states that have ratified the protocol. It also extended the competence of three-judge chambers to declare applications made against those states admissible and to decide on their merits where there already is a well-established case law of the court. Now that all Council of Europe member","of Europe member states have ratified Protocol 14, Protocol 14bis has lost itsraison d'êtreand according to its own terms ceased to have any effect when Protocol 14 entered into force on 1 June 2010. See also Notes Further reading External links","List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more","to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no","force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"European Convention on Human Rights TheEuropean Convention on Human Rights(ECHR; formally theConvention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms)is an international convention to protecthuman rightsandpolitical freedomsinEurope. Drafted in 1950 by the then newly formedCouncil of Europe,the convention entered into force on 3 September 1953. AllCouncil of Europe member statesare party to the convention and new members are expected to ratify the convention at the earliest opportunity. The convention established theEuropean Court of Human Rights(generally referred to by the initials ECtHR). Any person who feels their rights have been violated under the convention by a state party can take a case to the court. Judgments finding violations are binding on the states concerned and they are obliged to execute them. TheCommittee of Ministers of the Council of Europemonitors the execution of judgments, particularly to ensure payments awarded by the court appropriately compensate applicants for the\",\n \"applicants for the damage they have sustained. The convention has sixteenprotocols, which amend the convention framework. The convention has had a significant influence on the law in Council of Europe member countriesand is widely considered the most effective international treaty for human rights protection. History The European Convention on Human Rights has played an important role in the development and awareness ofhuman rightsin Europe. The development of a regional system of human rights protections operating across Europe can be seen as a direct response to twin concerns. First, in the aftermath of theSecond World War, the convention, drawing on the inspiration of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights, can be seen as part of a wider response from theAllied powersin delivering a human rights agenda to prevent the most serious human rights violations which had occurred during the Second World War from happening again. Second, the convention was a response to the growth ofStalinisminCentralandEastern\",\n \"Europeand was designed to protect the member states of theCouncil of Europefromcommunistsubversion. This, in part, explains the constant references to values and principles that are \\\"necessary in a democratic society\\\" throughout the convention, despite the fact that such principles are not in any way defined within the convention itself.Consequently, the convention was principally conceived, at the time of its creation, as an \\\"anti-totalitarian\\\" measure to help stabilise social democracies in Western Europe, rather than as a specific reaction to the legacy of Nazism and the Holocaust. This approach was a continuation of Atlanticist beliefs from World War II and the early Cold War which called for the defence of democracy against all forms of authoritarianism. From 7 to 10 May 1948, politicians includingWinston Churchill,François Mitterrand, andKonrad Adenauer, as well as civil society representatives, academics, business leaders, trade unionists, and religious leaders convened theCongress of EuropeinThe\",\n \"of EuropeinThe Hague. At the end of the Congress, a declaration and following pledge to create the convention was issued. The second and third articles of the pledge state: \\\"We desire a Charter of Human Rights guaranteeing liberty of thought, assembly and expression as well as right to form a political opposition. We desire a Court of Justice with adequate sanctions for the implementation of this Charter.\\\" The convention was drafted by theCouncil of Europeafter theSecond World Warand Hague Congress. Over 100 parliamentarians from the twelve member states of the Council of Europe gathered in Strasbourg in the summer of 1949 for the first-ever meeting of the council's Consultative Assembly to draft a \\\"charter of human rights\\\" and to establish a court to enforce it. British MP and lawyer SirDavid Maxwell-Fyfe, the chair of the Assembly's Committee on Legal and Administrative Questions, was one of its leading members and guided the drafting of the convention, based on an earlier draft produced by theEuropean\",\n \"by theEuropean Movement. As a prosecutor at theNuremberg Trials, he had seen first-hand of a binding international court. French former minister and French Resistance fighterPierre-Henri Teitgensubmitted a reportto the Assembly proposing a list of rights to be protected, selecting a number from theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsthat had recently been agreed to in New York, and defining how the enforcing judicial mechanism might operate. After extensive debates,the Assembly sent its final proposalto the council's Committee of Ministers, which convened a group of experts to draft the convention itself. The convention was designed to incorporate a traditionalcivil libertiesapproach to securing \\\"effective political democracy\\\", from the strongest traditions in the United Kingdom, France and other member states of the fledgling Council of Europe, as said byGuido Raimondi, President of theEuropean Court of Human Rights: The European system of protection of human rights with its Court would be inconceivable\",\n \"be inconceivable untied from democracy. In fact, we have a bond that is not only regional or geographic: a State cannot be party to the European Convention on Human Rights if it is not a member of the Council of Europe; it cannot be a member State of the Council of Europe if it does not respect pluralist democracy, the rule of law and human rights. So a non-democratic State could not participate in the ECHR system: the protection of democracy goes hand in hand with the protection of rights. The convention was opened for signature on 4 November 1950 in Rome. It was ratified and entered into force on 3 September 1953. It is overseen and enforced by theEuropean Court of Human Rightsin Strasbourg, and theCouncil of Europe. Until procedural reforms in the late 1990s, the convention was also overseen by aEuropean Commission on Human Rights. Proposals for reform of the convention have been put forward, for example by former UK Prime MinisterRishi Sunak,and other UK politicians.Conservativepoliticians have proposed\",\n \"have proposed reform or withdrawal from the convention during the2024 Conservative Party leadership election. Drafting The convention is drafted in broad terms, in a similar (albeit more modern) manner to the 1689 ScottishClaim of Right Act 1689, to the 1689English Bill of Rights, the 1791U.S. Bill of Rights, the 1789 FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, or the first part of the GermanBasic Law. Statements of principle are, from a juridical point of view, not determinative and require and have given occasion to extensive interpretation by courts to bring out meaning in particular factual situations, Convention articles As amended by Protocol 11, the convention consists of three parts. The main rights and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18. Section II (Articles 19 to 51) sets up the court and its rules of operation. Section III contains various concluding provisions. Before the entry into force of Protocol 11, Section II (Article 19) set up the\",\n \"19) set up the commission and the court, Sections III (Articles 20 to 37) and IV (Articles 38 to 59) included the high-level machinery for the operation of, respectively, the commission and the court, and Section V contained various concluding provisions. Many of the articles in Section I are structured in two paragraphs: the first sets out a basic right or freedom (such as Article 2(1) – the right to life) but the second contains various exclusions, exceptions or limitations on the basic right (such as Article 2(2) – which excepts certain uses of force leading to death). Article 1 – respecting rights Article 1 simply binds the signatory parties to secure the rights under the other articles of the convention \\\"within their jurisdiction\\\". In exceptional cases, \\\"jurisdiction\\\" may not be confined to a contracting state's own national territory; the obligation to secure convention rights then also extends to foreign territories, such as occupied land in which the state exercises effective control. InLoizidou v\",\n \"InLoizidou v Turkey,theEuropean Court of Human Rightsruled that jurisdiction of member states to the convention extended to areas under that state's effective control as a result of military action. Article 2 – life Article 2 protects the right of every person to their life. The right to life extends only to human beings, not to animals,nor to \\\"legal persons\\\" such as corporations.InEvans v United Kingdom, the court ruled that the question of whether the right to life extends to a human embryo fell within a state'smargin of appreciation. InVo v France,the court declined to extend the right to life to an unborn child, while stating that \\\"it is neither desirable, nor even possible as matters stand, to answer in the abstract the question whether the unborn child is a person for the purposes of Article 2 of the Convention\\\". The court has ruled that states have three main duties under Article 2: The first paragraph of the article contains an exception forlawful executions, although this exception has largely been\",\n \"has largely been superseded by Protocols 6 and 13. Protocol 6 prohibits the imposition of the death penalty in peacetime, while Protocol 13 extends the prohibition to all circumstances. (For more on Protocols 6 and 13, seebelow). The second paragraph of Article 2 provides that death resulting from defending oneself or others, arresting a suspect or fugitive, or suppressing riots or insurrections, will not contravene the Article when the use of force involved is \\\"no more than absolutely necessary\\\". Signatory states to the convention can only derogate from the rights contained in Article 2 for deaths which result from lawful acts of war. The European Court of Human Rights did not rule upon the right to life until 1995, when inMcCann and Others v United Kingdomit ruled that the exception contained in the second paragraph does not constitute situations when it is permitted to kill, but situations where it is permitted to use force which might result in the deprivation of life. Article 3 – torture Article 3\",\n \"– torture Article 3 prohibitstortureand \\\"inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment\\\". There are no exceptions or limitations on this right. This provision usually applies, apart from torture, to cases of severe police violence and poor conditions in detention. The court has emphasised the fundamental nature of Article 3 in holding that the prohibition is made in \\\"absolute terms ... irrespective of the victim's conduct\\\".The court has also held that states cannot deport orextraditeindividuals who might be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the recipient state. The first case to examine Article 3 was theGreek case, which set an influential precedent.InIreland v. United Kingdom(1979–1980) the court ruled that thefive techniquesdeveloped by the United Kingdom (wall-standing,hooding,subjection to noise,deprivation of sleep, anddeprivation of food and drink), as used against fourteen detainees in Northern Ireland by the United Kingdom were \\\"inhuman and degrading\\\" and breached\",\n \"and breached the European Convention on Human Rights, but did not amount to \\\"torture\\\". InAksoy v. Turkey(1997) the court found Turkey guilty of torture in 1996 in the case of a detainee who was suspended by his arms while his hands were tied behind his back. Selmouni v. France(2000) the court has appeared to be more open to finding states guilty of torture ruling that since the convention is a \\\"living instrument\\\", treatment which it had previously characterized as inhuman or degrading treatment might in future be regarded as torture. In 2014, after new information was uncovered that showed the decision to use the five techniques in Northern Ireland in 1971–1972 had been taken by British ministers,theIrish Governmentasked the European Court of Human Rights to review its judgement. In 2018, by six votes to one, the court declined. Article 4 – servitude Article 4 prohibitsslavery, servitude andforced labourbut exempts labour: Article 5 – liberty and security Article 5 provides that everyone has the right to\",\n \"has the right to liberty and security of person. Liberty and security of the person are taken as a \\\"compound\\\" concept – security of the person has not been subject to separate interpretation by the court. Article 5 provides the right toliberty, subject only to lawful arrest or detention under certain other circumstances, such as arrest on reasonable suspicion of a crime or imprisonment in fulfilment of a sentence. The article also provides those arrested with the right to be informed, in a language they understand, of the reasons for the arrest and any charge they face, the right of prompt access to judicial proceedings to determine the legality of the arrest or detention, to trial within a reasonable time or release pending trial, and the right to compensation in the case of arrest or detention in violation of this article. Article 6 – fair trial Article 6 provides a detailedright to a fair trial, including the right to apublic hearingbefore an independent and impartial tribunal within reasonable time,\",\n \"reasonable time, thepresumption of innocence, and other minimum rights for those charged with a criminal offence (adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence, access to legal representation, right to examine witnesses against them or have them examined, right to the free assistance of an interpreter). The majority of convention violations that the court finds today are excessive delays, in violation of the \\\"reasonable time\\\" requirement, in civil and criminal proceedings before national courts, mostly inItalyandFrance. Under the \\\"independent tribunal\\\" requirement, the court has ruled that military judges in Turkish state security courts are incompatible with Article 6. In compliance with this Article, Turkey has now adopted a law abolishing these courts. Another significant set of violations concerns the \\\"confrontation clause\\\" of Article 6 (i.e. the right to examine witnesses or have them examined). In this respect, problems of compliance with Article 6 may arise when national laws allow the use in\",\n \"allow the use in evidence of the testimonies of absent, anonymous and vulnerable witnesses. Article 7 – retroactivity Article 7 prohibits the retroactive criminalisation of acts and omissions. No person may be punished for an act that was not a criminal offence at the time of its commission. The article states that a criminal offence is one under either national or international law, which would permit a party to prosecute someone for a crime which was not illegal under domestic law at the time, so long as it was prohibited byinternational law. The Article also prohibits a heavier penalty being imposed than was applicable at the time when the criminal act was committed. Article 7 incorporates the legal principlenullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege(no crime, no penalty without law) into the convention. Relevant cases are: Article 8 – privacy Article 8 provides a right to respect for one's \\\"private and family life, his home and hiscorrespondence\\\", subject to restrictions that are \\\"in accordance with law and is\",\n \"with law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others\\\".This article clearly provides a right to be free of unlawful searches, but the court has given the protection for \\\"private and family life\\\" that this article provides a broad interpretation, taking for instance that prohibition of private consensual homosexual acts violates this article. There have been cases discussing consensual familial sexual relationships, and how the criminalisation of this may violate this article. However, the ECHR still allows such familial sexual acts to be criminal. This may be compared to the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, which has also adopted a somewhat broad interpretation of theright to privacy. Furthermore, Article 8 sometimes comprisespositive obligations:whereas classical\",\n \"classical human rights are formulated as prohibiting a state from interfering with rights, and thusnotto do something (e.g. not to separate a family under family life protection), the effective enjoyment of such rights may also include an obligation for the state to become active, and todosomething (e.g. to enforce access for a divorced parent to his/her child). Notable cases: Article 9 – conscience and religion Article 9 provides a right tofreedom of thought, conscience andreligion. This includes the freedom to change a religion or belief, and to manifest a religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance, subject to certain restrictions that are \\\"in accordance with law\\\" and \\\"necessary in a democratic society\\\". Relevant cases are: Article 10 – expression Article 10 provides the right tofreedom of expression, subject to certain restrictions that are \\\"in accordance with law\\\" and \\\"necessary in a democratic society\\\". This right includes the freedom to hold opinions, and to receive and impart\",\n \"receive and impart information and ideas, but allows restrictions for: Relevant cases are: Article 11 – association Article 11 protects the right tofreedom of assemblyand association, including the right to formtrade unions, subject to certain restrictions that are \\\"in accordance with law\\\" and \\\"necessary in a democratic society\\\". Article 12 – marriage Article 12 provides a right for women and men ofmarriageable agetomarryand establish a family. Despite a number of invitations, the court has so far refused to apply the protections of this article tosame-sex marriage. The court has defended this on the grounds that the article was intended to apply only to different-sex marriage, and that a wide margin of appreciation must be granted to parties in this area. InGoodwin v. United Kingdomthe court ruled that a law which still classified post-operativetranssexualpeople under their pre-operative sex violated article 12 as it meant that transsexual people were unable to marry individuals of their post-operative\",\n \"post-operative opposite sex. This reversed an earlier ruling inRees v. United Kingdom. This did not, however, alter the Court's understanding that Article 12 protects only different-sex couples. The European Court of Human Rights ruled inSchalk and Kopf v. Austriathat countries are not required to provide marriage licenses for same-sex couples; however, if a country allows same-sex couple marriage it must be done under the same conditions that opposite-sex couples marriage face,in order to prevent a breach of article 14 – the prohibition of discrimination. Additionally, the court ruled in the 2015 case ofOliari and Others v. Italythat states have a positive obligation to ensure there is a specific legal framework for the recognition and protection of same-sex couples. Article 13 – effective remedy Article 13 provides for theright for an effective remedybefore national authorities for violations of rights under the convention. The inability to obtain aremedybefore a national court for an infringement of a\",\n \"infringement of a Convention right is thus a free-standing and separately actionable infringement of the convention. Article 14 – discrimination Article 14 contains a prohibition ofdiscrimination. This prohibition is broad in some ways and narrow in others. It is broad in that it prohibits discrimination under a potentially unlimited number of grounds. While the article specifically prohibits discrimination based on \\\"sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status\\\", the last of these allows the court to extend to Article 14 protection to other grounds not specifically mentioned such as has been done regarding discrimination based on a person's sexual orientation. At the same time, the article's protection is limited in that it only prohibits discrimination with respect to rights under the convention. Thus, an applicant must prove discrimination in the enjoyment of a specific right that is\",\n \"right that is guaranteed elsewhere in the convention (e.g. discrimination based on sex – Article 14 – in the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression – Article 10). Protocol 12 extends this prohibition to cover discrimination in any legal right, even when that legal right is not protected under the convention, so long as it is provided for in national law. Article 15 – derogations Article 15 allows contracting states toderogatefrom certain rights guaranteed by the convention in a time of \\\"war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation\\\". Permissible derogations under article 15 must meet three substantive conditions: In addition to these substantive requirements, the derogation must be procedurally sound. There must be some formal announcement of the derogation and notice of the derogation and any measures adopted under it, and the ending of the derogation must be communicated to theSecretary-General of the Council of Europe. As of 2016, only eight member states had ever invoked\",\n \"had ever invoked derogations.The court is quite permissive in accepting a state's derogations from the convention but applies a higher degree of scrutiny in deciding whether measures taken by states under a derogation are, in the words of Article 15, \\\"strictly required by the exigencies of the situation\\\". Thus inA v United Kingdom, the court dismissed a claim that a derogation lodged by the British government in response to theSeptember 11 attackswas invalid, but went on to find that measures taken by the United Kingdom under that derogation were disproportionate. Examples of such derogations include: Article 16 – foreign parties Article 16 allows states to restrict the political activity of foreigners. The court has ruled that European Union member states cannot consider the nationals of other member states to be aliens. Article 17 – abuse of rights Article 17 provides that no one may use the rights guaranteed by the convention to seek the abolition or limitation of rights guaranteed in the convention. This\",\n \"convention. This addresses instances where states seek to restrict a human right in the name of another human right, or where individuals rely on a human right to undermine other human rights (for example where an individual issues a death threat). Article 18 – permitted restrictions Article 18 provides that any limitations on the rights provided for in the convention may be used only for the purpose for which they are provided. For example, Article 5, which guarantees the right to personal freedom, may be explicitly limited in order to bring a suspect before a judge. To use pre-trial detention as a means of intimidation of a person under a false pretext is, therefore, a limitation of right (to freedom) which does not serve an explicitly provided purpose (to be brought before a judge), and is therefore contrary to Article 18. Convention protocols As of January 2010, fifteen protocols to the convention have been opened for signature. These can be divided into two main groups: those amending the framework of\",\n \"the framework of the convention system, and those expanding the rights that can be protected. The former require unanimous ratification by member states before coming into force, while the latter require a certain number of states to sign before coming into force. Protocol 1 This Protocol contains three different rights which the signatories could not agree to place in the convention itself.MonacoandSwitzerlandhave signed but never ratified Protocol 1. Article 1 – property Article 1 (\\\"A1P1\\\")provides that \\\"every natural orlegal personis entitled to thepeaceful enjoyment of his possessions\\\". TheEuropean Court of Human Rightsacknowledged a violation of the fair balance between the demands of the general interest of the community and the requirements of the protection of the individual's fundamental rights, also, in the uncertainty – for the owner – about the future of the property, and in the absence of an allowance. In the case ofMifsud and others v Malta(38770/17) the Maltese state was found to have violated\",\n \"to have violated Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the convention. The case involved a plot of land owned by the Mifsud family and their heirs which was expropriated twice (in 1984 and in 2012). The court, in its judgment, stated that \\\"the (Maltese) Constitutional Court had no basis on which to ground its finding. The Court is disconcerted by the circumstances of the present case which led to an expropriation of property being endorsed without anyone being able to assert the reasons behind such an expropriation.\\\" Article 2 – education Article 2 provides for the right not to be denied an education and theright for parents to have their children educatedin accordance with their religious and other views. It does not however guarantee any particular level of education of any particular quality. Although phrased in the Protocol as a negative right, inŞahin v. Turkeythe court ruled that: it would be hard to imagine that institutions of higher education existing at a given time do not come within the scope of the\",\n \"the scope of the first sentence of Article 2 of Protocol No 1. Although that Article does not impose a duty on the Contracting States to set up institutions of higher education, any State doing so will be under an obligation to afford an effective right of access to them. In a democratic society, the right to education, which is indispensable to the furtherance of human rights, plays such a fundamental role that a restrictive interpretation of the first sentence of Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 would not be consistent with the aim or purpose of that provision. Article 3 – elections Article 3 provides for the right to elections performed by secret ballot, that are also free and that occur at regular intervals. Protocol 4 – civil imprisonment, free movement, expulsion Article 1 prohibits the imprisonment of people for inability to fulfil a contract. Article 2 provides for aright to freely movewithin a country once lawfully there and for a right to leave any country. Article 3 prohibits the expulsion of nationals\",\n \"of nationals and provides for the right of an individual to enter a country of their nationality. Article 4 prohibits the collective expulsion of foreigners. Turkeyand theUnited Kingdomhave signed but never ratified Protocol 4.GreeceandSwitzerlandhave neither signed nor ratified this protocol. The United Kingdom's failure to ratify this protocol is due to concerns over the interaction of Article 2 and Article 3 withBritish nationality law. Specifically, several classes of \\\"British national\\\" (such asBritish National (Overseas)) do not have the right of abode in the United Kingdom and are subject to immigration control there. In 2009, the UK government stated that it had no plans to ratify Protocol 4 because of concerns that those articles could be taken as conferring that right. Protocol 6 – restriction of death penalty Requires parties to restrict the application of thedeath penaltyexcept for \\\"acts committed in time of war\\\" or of \\\"imminent threat of war\\\". Every Council of Europe member state has signed and\",\n \"has signed and ratified Protocol 6. Protocol 7 – crime and family Despite having signed the protocol more than thirty years ago Germany and the Netherlands have never ratified it. Turkey, which signed the protocol in 1985, ratified it in 2016, becoming the latest member state to do so. The United Kingdom has neither signed nor ratified the protocol. Protocol 12 – discrimination Protocol 12 applies the current expansive and indefinite grounds of prohibited discrimination inArticle 14to the exercise of any legal right and to the actions (including the obligations) of public authorities. The Protocol entered into force on 1 April 2005 and has (as of March 2018) been ratified by 20 member states. Several member states—Bulgaria,Denmark,France,Lithuania,Monaco,Poland,Sweden,Switzerland, and theUnited Kingdom—have not signed the protocol. The United Kingdom government has declined to sign Protocol 12 on the basis that they believe the wording of protocol is too wide and would result in a flood of new cases testing\",\n \"new cases testing the extent of the new provision. They believe that the phrase \\\"rights set forth by law\\\" might include international conventions to which the UK is not a party, and would result in incorporation of these instruments by stealth. It has been suggested that the protocol is therefore in acatch-22, since the UK will decline to either sign or ratify the protocol until theEuropean Court of Human Rightshas addressed the meaning of the provision, while the court is hindered in doing so by the lack of applications to the court concerning the protocol caused by the decisions of Europe's most populous states—including the UK—not to ratify the protocol. The UK government, nevertheless, stated in 2004 that it \\\"agrees in principle that the ECHR should contain a provision against discrimination that is free-standing and not parasitic on the other Convention rights\\\".The first judgment that found a violation of Protocol No. 12,Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, was delivered in 2009. Protocol 13 –\",\n \"2009. Protocol 13 – complete abolition of death penalty Protocol 13 provides for the total abolition of thedeath penalty.Currently all Council of Europe member states butAzerbaijanhave ratified Protocol 13. Procedural and institutional protocols The convention's provisions affecting institutional and procedural matters have been altered several times by means of protocols. These amendments have, with the exception of Protocol 2, amended the text of the convention. Protocol 2 did not amend the text of the convention as such but stipulated that it was to be treated as an integral part of the text. All of these protocols have required the unanimous ratification of all the member states of the Council of Europe to enter into force. Protocol 11 Protocols 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 have now been superseded by Protocol 11 which entered into force on 1 November 1998.It established a fundamental change in the machinery of the convention. It abolished the commission, allowing individuals to apply directly to the court,\",\n \"to the court, which was given compulsory jurisdiction and altered the latter's structure. Previously states could ratify the convention without accepting the jurisdiction of the Court of Human Rights. The protocol also abolished the judicial functions of the Committee of Ministers. Protocol 14 Protocol 14 follows on from Protocol 11 in proposing to further improve the efficiency of the court. It seeks to \\\"filter\\\" out cases that have less chance of succeeding along with those that are broadly similar to cases brought previously against the same member state. Furthermore, a case will not be considered admissible where an applicant has not suffered a \\\"significant disadvantage\\\". This latter ground can only be used when an examination of the application on the merits is not considered necessary and where the subject-matter of the application had already been considered by a national court. A new mechanism was introduced by Protocol 14 to assist enforcement of judgements by the Committee of Ministers. The\",\n \"of Ministers. The committee can ask the court for an interpretation of a judgement and can even bring a member state before the court for non-compliance of a previous judgement against that state. Protocol 14 also allows forEuropean Union accession to the convention.The protocol has been ratified by every Council of Europe member state, Russia being last in February 2010. It entered into force on 1 June 2010. A provisionalProtocol 14bishad been opened for signature in 2009.Pending the ratification of Protocol 14 itself, 14bis was devised to allow the court to implement revised procedures in respect of the states which have ratified it. It allowed single judges to reject manifestly inadmissible applications made against the states that have ratified the protocol. It also extended the competence of three-judge chambers to declare applications made against those states admissible and to decide on their merits where there already is a well-established case law of the court. Now that all Council of Europe member\",\n \"of Europe member states have ratified Protocol 14, Protocol 14bis has lost itsraison d'êtreand according to its own terms ceased to have any effect when Protocol 14 entered into force on 1 June 2010. See also Notes Further reading External links\",\n \"List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more\",\n \"to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no\",\n \"force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":372,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Spryo the Dragon released a sequel just a year after it came out. In the same year Spryo's sequel came out, what popular skateboarding based game hit shelves? 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The first game in theSpyroseries, it stars the title character, a young purpledragonnamedSpyro, and hisdragonflyfriend, Sparx, who must journey across the Dragon Kingdom to defeat Gnasty Gnorc, who has overtaken the five dragon Homeworlds by trapping the other dragons in crystal and turning their hoard of gems into an army of minions.Spyro the Dragonis an open-ended 3D platformer, featuring large, sprawling levels in which the player must locate collectable items, among which are gemstones, crystallized dragons, and stolen dragon eggs. Spyro's abilities as a dragon include fire breath, a head-on charging attack, and a mid-air glide which he can use to scale large distances, all of which must be used strategically to find items and defeat enemies. Spyro the Dragonstarted development following the release of Insomniac's debut game,Disruptor, which sold poorly but was generally praised by critics, impressingUniversal Interactiveenough to encourage them to make a second game. Artist Craig Stitt suggested a game about a dragon, and work began on a new game. Taking inspiration from the filmDragonheart, the game started out as a more mature title with a dark and realistic approach, but the direction was shifted to have a more whimsical and light-hearted tone to appeal to a wider market of consumers. The game was one of the first on the PlayStation to utilize shiftinglevels of detailamong rendered objects, thanks to a panoramic engine developed by Alex Hastings which allowed the game's open-ended nature to be fully realized.Stewart Copeland, the former drummer forThe Police, composed the game's music, and the titular character was voice acted byCarlos Alazraqui, alongside additional voices done byClancy Brown,Michael GoughandJamie Alcroft. Spyro the Dragonwas released by Sony Computer Entertainment as part of a general effort to reach out to a younger age demographic and compete with the more popular children's platform, theNintendo 64. Although sales were initially sluggish, it found larger success following the advent of the 1998 holiday season and went on to sell nearly five million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling PlayStation games. Critics praised the game's graphics and gameplay, while some noted its low difficulty level. The game established Spyro as a well-known platforming mascot on the PlayStation alongsideCrash Bandicoot, and two sequels, titledSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!andSpyro: Year of the Dragon, were later released for the PlayStation in 1999 and 2000, respectively. Although Insomniac gave up the development rights to theSpyroseries following the third game, the success of the PlayStation titles lent itself to a continued series of games across various platforms. The game, alongside its two successors, was later remade as part ofSpyro Reignited Trilogyin 2018. Gameplay Spyro the Dragonis a3D platform game;the player controlsthe titular characteras he ventures across the realms of the Dragon World to defeat the antagonistic Gnasty Gnorc, as well as rescue his fellow dragons and recover all of their stolen treasure.Worldsconsist of six dragon \"home worlds\",each of which acts as a dedicated hub, containing portals that serve as gateways to different levels.The player must progress from one Homeworld to the next by talking to aballoonist, who transports Spyro to the next world on ahot air balloonafter the player has found the required collectibles in the current given world.In addition to regular platforming stages, each Homeworld contains aboss fightand a hidden flight stage that involves flying throughout an environment and destroying a number of objects. The levels inSpyro the Dragonare open-ended, and they revolve around exploring and obtaining various collectible items to progress in the game.Each stage contains a number of crystallized dragons, whom Spyro must turn back to normal by locating and stepping on their statue bases. These dragons give the player advice on how to progress through the game, as well as their respective locations acting as save points after the dragon has been freed.Another important collectible in the game is the dragons' stolen treasure, which is dispersed throughout each level in the form of multicoloredgemstones. These gems are located in numerous different places, including inside enemies, breakable boxes, and treasure chests, and most stages contain a set amount of treasure to be found.There are also stolen dragon eggs that must be reclaimed by chasing and defeating thieves.Finding every collectible in the game unlocks an additional world that otherwise cannot be accessed. Spyro has two main offensive moves, which are used to attack enemies as well as destroy certain objects: charging, in which Spyro sprints forward and rams into things with his head, and breathing fire. These attacks must be used appropriately for certain enemies and situations; for instance, some enemies carry fireproof metal armor, meaning that they can only be defeated by charging, while larger enemies can only be hit using fire breath, as they will immediately crush Spyro otherwise.Spyro can also use his wings to glide in midair, letting him travel further distances in the air and access areas otherwise unreachable via a regular jump.Throughout the game, Spyro is accompanied by Sparx, a yellow dragonfly who protects Spyro from taking damage and serves as the player's system ofhealth. Sparx's current health is represented by the color of his body; if Spyro is hurt by an obstacle, such as an enemy or by touching water, Sparx changes colors, with yellow, blue and green representing different subsequent amounts of withheld damage. If the player is damaged too many times, Sparx disappears, leaving Spyro vulnerable to losing a life if he is hurt again. Sparx can be rejuvenated by consumingbutterflies, which are found by killing passive creatures such assheepthat roam throughout most levels.Sparx also helps Spyro collect items by retrieving any gems that Spyro passes by. Plot In the world of dragons, the Dragon Kingdom consists of five Homeworlds – the Artisans, the Peace Keepers, the Magic Crafters, the Beast Makers, and the Dream Weavers – which have lived in harmony for many years.One day, a TV interview with a pair of dragons from the Artisan realm catches the attention of Gnasty Gnorc, a powerful gnorc (halfgnomeand halforc) who was banished from the kingdom due to his abrasive demeanor and sent to an abandoned junkyard, which he renames to \"Gnasty's World\".The dragons' openly dismissive and derisive commentary concerning Gnasty enrages him, driving him to unleash a full-fledged attack on the kingdom. Using his magic, he casts a spell across the land that encases every dragon in a crystal shell; he also steals the dragons' prized collection of treasure, turning the gemstones into devious gnorc soldiers and other creatures to help him take over the dragon worlds.Spyro, a young purple dragon, is the only dragon that manages to avoid getting crystallized by the attack. Aided by his dragonfly companion, Sparx, Spyro eagerly sets out to locate and defeat Gnasty. Spyro visits each of the dragon homeworlds, defeating Gnasty's forces who have been set out to stop him. Along the way, he frees the crystallized dragons, who give him advice and urge him to recover any stolen treasure and dragon eggs along the way. He eventually makes his way to Gnasty's World, where he finally confronts and defeats Gnasty. After Spyro's quest is over, he has access to Gnasty's treasure portal, which can only be opened if Spyro rescues every dragon in the kingdom and recovers all of the dragons' treasure and retrieves the stolen dragon eggs. A secret ending can then be unlocked by retrieving everything inside of the treasure portal. In this ending, Spyro is seen getting interviewed on TV when another spell is placed on the dragons, prompting Spyro to set out on yet another adventure. Development Concept Spyro the Dragonwas the second game developed byInsomniac Games,following the release of their first game,Disruptor, in December 1996. AlthoughDisruptorwas a commercial failure, its positive critical reception was enough to impressUniversal Interactive Studiosand encourage the team to continue with their next endeavor.The idea of a game about adragonwas introduced by Insomniac artist Craig Stitt, who suggested the concept out of his own interest in the mythical creature.Initially, the game's tone was far darker and more realistic; according to Insomniac's COO, John Fiorito, who joined the company in 1997 duringSpyro's development, inspiration was taken in part from the filmDragonHeart, and the game was initially \"realistic and kind of dark and gritty\" before it eventually took a more whimsical, light-hearted direction.Mark Cerny, an executive at Universal Interactive Studios and the game's producer,advised that the team create a game with more mass market appeal, as the demographics of the PlayStation were decreasing and its selection of children's titles were greatly outnumbered by theNintendo 64's. According to programmer Peter Hastings, the dragon character was originally going to be named \"Pete\", but due to copyright concerns over similarities to theDisneyfilmPete's Dragon, the name was scrapped. After considering the name \"Pyro,\" which was ultimately considered \"too mature\", they finally settled on \"Spyro\".In-game dialogue was written by Peter Kleiner, and Spyro's character was designed byCharles Zembillas, who had previously done design work onCrash Bandicoot.Spyro was originally going to be green, but the developers worried he would blend in with grass, so they eventually changed him to purple.During development ofSpyro, Insomniac had a very close relationship withCrash Bandicootcreator and fellow PlayStation developerNaughty Dog, who had their office located directly across the hall from theirs. The two developers frequently worked together, playing early builds of each other's games and later sharing game technology. As a result, a demo ofCrash Bandicoot: Warpedwas hidden inSpyro, and vice versa. Design Spyro the Dragonwas unique compared to other 3D platform games of the time; Spyro's ability to glide allowed him to travel long distances in the air, meaning that the player could cross almost an entire level if starting from a high enough point. While this made designing levels more difficult for the team, it also meant that levels could be made more open-ended and explorative in nature. To makeSpyro’s controls feel fluid, Matt Whiting—aNASAengineer who specialized in flight controls—was brought on to help with programming camera movement as well Spyro's movement controls. The game's camera was particularly challenging; initially, it always followed directly behind Spyro, but the resulting high-speed movements were found to make several playtesters feelnauseous. This was most evident with Spyro's basic jump, which triggered the camera to quickly tilt up and down, compared by Whiting to the motion of a rocking boat; this was ultimately tweaked so that the camera would stay steady.Spyrowas coded with efficiency in mind, as 3D rendering technology was new at the time and the game had to fit the limited specifications of the PlayStation. Around 80% of the game's code was written usingAssembly, while other parts were programmed inCdue to its simplicity and speed. Graphics Spyro the Dragonmade use of a 3D panoramic engine, developed by Alex Hastings, that could display far-away objects by utilizing varyinglevels of detail, a method of rendering which was new and unexplored at the time. The developers believed that the engine would be fitting for the game, as it could allow for more expansive levels that could take advantage of the character's abilities, such as gliding.This dynamic system, used to complement the large and sprawling environments, generated two different versions of a level; one version rendered in high detail and the other a simpler, textureless render. Objects in the player's vicinity were drawn using the detailed render, whereas distant ones were drawn from the simple render. This system allowed objects to be displayed from far distances while adhering to the PlayStation's limited RAM capabilities; it was one of the first video games to make use of such a system. The game made extensive use of vertex shading to colour objects andprovide light and shade- with the smooth skies entirely reliant on the technique to depict clouds and other distant details without the use of textures. Base textures were intentionally kept relatively desaturated so as to prevent them from becoming oversaturated with use of the technique. Audio The game's music was composed and produced byStewart Copeland, formerly the drummer for the British bandThe Police. Copeland was given early builds of the game's levels, which he played through to get a feel for them and come up with a fitting composition.He was also given game cheats such as invincibility so that he could have an easier time clearing levels. Copeland wrote four songs per day, all of which he further developed and polished the next day.According to Copeland, each song in the game was written to correspond to a specific level, but this correlation ultimately went unused.Copeland has looked back positively on his work onSpyro, calling the game's music some of his best compositions. Carlos Alazraquiprovided the voice of Spyro in the game, and additional voices were done byClancy Brown,Michael Gough,Jamie Alcroftand Michael Connor. Alazraqui explained in an issue ofElectronic Gaming Monthlythat he tried to make Spyro's voice sound like \"a kid at camp that everybody likes.\"Alazraqui did not continue in this role after the first game, being replaced byTom Kennyfor the sequels. Release Spyro the Dragonwas first unveiled at the 1998E3convention inAtlanta, Georgia.It was then later released in North America on September 9, 1998, and in Europe on October 23 of the same year.According toSony Computer Entertainment's American Marketing Vice President, Andrew House, at a press party inLas Vegas, the game, along with other upcoming 4th quarter PlayStation releases such asCrash Bandicoot: Warped,A Bug's Life, andRugrats: Search for Reptar, was part of a general effort to appeal to a wider demographic of younger audiences and provide more games suited for younger players to compete with theNintendo 64, which had a far larger library of children's titles at the time compared to the PlayStation's largely adult-centric demographic.An advertisement campaign was pushed to promote the game, featuring a character from the game, Toasty the Sheep, protesting against the title character's actions against sheep. The campaign included TV commercials, featuring an actor in ananimatroniccostume of Toasty, and a promotional website,sheepagainstspyro.com.On August 16, 1999, SCEA announced that the game would be included as a part of their \"Greatest Hits\" lineup of budgeted releases alongside other games such asCrash Bandicoot: Warped,Gran Turismo,Cool Boarders 3, andTwisted Metal III, and alongside the announcement of a price drop for the PlayStation console to compete with the highly anticipated launch of theSega Dreamcast.On December 12, 2012, the game was digitally re-released to thePlayStation Storetogether withSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!andSpyro: Year of the Dragon.A remake of the game, alongside its two sequels, was included as a part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogycompilation for thePlayStation 4andXbox Onein November 2018, followed by theNintendo SwitchandMicrosoft Windowsin September 2019. Sales According toSpyro's developers, sales were initially slow at the game's launch but quickly began picking up following the holiday season.In the week of November 29, 1998, it was the 3rd best-selling game in the UK, behindTomb RaiderandFIFA 99.At the 1999 Milia festival inCannes, it took home a \"Gold\" prize for revenues above €20,000,000 in theEuropean Unionduring the previous year.Spyro the Dragonreceived a \"Gold\" award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) by the end of August 1999,for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland.By December 1999, the game had sold 1,000,000 copies in North America.As of 2007, the title had gone on to sell a total of nearly 5,000,000 units. Reception Spyro the Dragoncurrently holds a score of 85% atGameRankings, based on an aggregate of 18 reviews.IGN's Craig Harris hailed it as the most fun 3D platformer he had played sinceCrash Bandicoot, writing \"Two claws up. Way up.\"Computer and Video Gamescalled the game \"easily the best 3D platform game on the PlayStation\", despite noting its largely child-friendly nature.Shawn Smith ofElectronic Gaming Monthlywrote that \"Spyrois to the PlayStation whatBanjo-Kazooieis to theNintendo 64\", and stated that it \"combines the two most-important aspects in any good game: graphics and gameplay.\" Crispin Boyer, also ofElectronic Gaming Monthly, proclaimed that Spyro \"raises the bar\" for 3D platformers, and wrote that it had replacedGex 3D: Enter the Geckoas his favorite \"PS mascot game\".Joe Fielder ofGameSpotcalled the game \"a proficient, fully 3D platform game\" for the PlayStation, comparing it favorably to one of the more recent platformers on the system,Blasto, and proclaiming that it \"excels overBlastoin every way imaginable.\" Despite this, he wrote that the game \"only gets very, very high marks, instead of outrageously high marks\", citing its lack of high difficulty as the main factor that made it inferior to games likeSuper Mario 64andBanjo-Kazooie.Edgenamed it the best 3D platform game for the PlayStation, but criticized Spyro's limited abilities and said that the game was not as varied asSuper Mario 64. Critics lauded the game's presentation, specifically speaking praise for its graphics, technical performance, and Copeland's music done for the game.GameProreviewer \"Slo Mo\" wrote that the game's graphics and animations gaveSpyro\"the look and feel of ananimated film\" while calling the in-game environments \"breathtaking\".Harris wrote that the game \"utilizes the PlayStation's hardware to the max\", and praised the quality of the in-game animations; he particularly praised the rescued dragons' talking animations, which he said gave the characters \"incredible personality.\"Fielder praised the game's dynamic lighting system and character designs, and noted \"a near-complete lack ofpop-up\" during gameplay.Sushi-X ofElectronic Gaming Monthlysaid that the graphics were \"among the finest\" on the PlayStation.AllGameeditor Scott Alan Marriott applauded the graphics, scenery, characters and control as some of the best on the PlayStation, if not the best at the time of the games release.Fielder spoke positively of Copeland's compositional work, calling it \"wonderfully atmospheric.\"Slo Mo described the music as having a \"catchy, mellow jazz-rock swing to it\" while also praising the voice work for its wide array of unique voices. Many critics held praise for the game's level design and controls, though some noted its simplicity and low difficulty level (with the exception of Tree Tops). Fielder called the level design \"exceptional\",while Boyer praised the levels for encouraging exploration among players.Sushi-X called the play controls \"perfectly tuned\" whilst Fielder wrote that they worked well both with and without theDualShock's analog stick, although Smith expressed that controls were unsuited for maneuvering in \"high-risk areas.\"The camera system received varying reactions, with Boyer praising it as one of the best in any 3D platformer and Fielder declaring that it fixed the common issues present in most other 3D platform games,while Harris criticized its lack of precision when following the player, stating that it \"tends to float around on a loose tether\", and highlighted the camera system as one of the game's only flaws.Fielder wrote that an overabundance of extra lives caused the game to feel \"like it was aimed at a younger or broader audience,\" holding the final boss and the bonus level as the only exceptions.Despite praisingSpyro, Sushi-X noted the game's \"lack of diversity\" in obstacles and objects leading to \"repetitive play.\" Boyer lamented that the common trope of collecting items, while still very fun inSpyro, was starting to become less interesting, while also criticizing the game's boss fights, calling them \"small, easy and decidedly unBoss-like.\" During the2nd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards,Spyro the Dragonwas named as a finalist by theAcademy of Interactive Arts & Sciencesfor \"Outstanding Achievement in Art/Graphics\", \"Console Action Game of the Year\", and \"Console Game of the Year\"; the first two awards went toBanjo-Kazooie, while the latter was won byThe Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time. Legacy The popularity ofSpyro the Dragonhelped to push the character of Spyro as a popular platformingmascotfor the PlayStation alongsideCrash Bandicoot.It was the first game in what became an expansivevideo game series, spawning 2 more platforming sequels for the PlayStation –Ripto's RageandYear of the Dragon– released in 1999 and 2000, respectively. As of the year 2000, the series had sold more than 3.2 million copies in the U.S. and over 4 million copies worldwide.Insomniac stopped developing theSpyroseries afterYear of the Dragon, as it finished off their 4-game contract with Universal Interactive. Despite this, the series was continued across various different developers, and shifted to several other platforms besides PlayStation.Spyrobeing their first considerable success, Insomniac went on to develop several other successful video game franchises, including theRatchet & Clankseries of platform games and thefirst-person shooterseriesResistance.The game's rendering system, new and unheard of at the time, has gone on to be used in several other 3D video games. References External links","Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage! Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!, known asSpyro 2: Gateway to GlimmerinPAL regions, is a 1999platform gamedeveloped byInsomniac Gamesand published bySony Computer Entertainmentfor thePlayStation. It is the second game in the mainSpyroseries. A remake was released as part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogyin 2018. Gameplay Players controlSpyro the Dragonas he fights against various enemies and obstacles using his flame breath, charge attack, and glide abilities. His health is indicated by the color of his dragonfly partner, Sparx, who can replenish his health by eating butterflies. Bottled butterflies will both completely restore Sparx's health and give Spyro an extra life. The game is split up into three main hub worlds containing portals to various realms. In order to progress through the first two hub worlds, the player must acquire a talisman from each realm, which is awarded for reaching the end of the level, before facing the boss of each world. Each level also contains a certain number of orbs, which can be earned by completing secondary tasks for particularNPCs, such as lighting a series of lamps or protecting characters from attacks. These orbs are required for opening some of the portals to certain levels, as well as progressing through the third hub world. Gems gathered throughout the game are required to pay fees Moneybags charges in order to progress through the game. As well as opening portals or granting access to certain areas, Moneybags also teaches Spyro three brand new abilities over the course of the game. Swimming lets Spyro dive underwater to reach submerged treasure and hidden tunnels, climbing lets Spyro climb up certain surfaces, and the headbash lets Spyro perform an overhead smashing attack which can break rocks and certain cages. In addition, each level has a power-up gate, activated after defeating a specific number of enemies in a level, which grants Spyro a temporary super-ability. The power-up can grant invulnerability or the abilities to fly, supercharge, super flame, breathe ice, or super jump to reach high up areas. Characters and setting The only characters from the original game to return as main characters in this game areSpyro, the game's protagonist, and Sparx, his dragonfly sidekick. Sparx functions as the player's health meter, and assists the player in gathering gems. This game introduces new characters into the Spyro series, many of whom would appear in later games. Both Hunter and Moneybags make recurring appearances in the series, while Ripto would make more series appearances than any other antagonist, making him the key villain of the original series. The dragons of the previous installment have been replaced with an entirely new cast of characters, including fauns, satyrs, anthropomorphic animals, and robotic businessmen, among others. The world of Avalar is divided into three realms: the Summer Forest, the Autumn Plains, and the Winter Tundra. In every realm, there is a castle that, during the course of the storyline, is captured by Ripto. Each realm features a number of different worlds, a speedway world, and a dungeon in which Ripto or his minions are hiding. Plot A few years after the defeat of Gnasty Gnorc,Spyro the Dragonand his dragonfly partner, Sparx, having had enough with the continuous raining in Artisans, decide to take avacationto Dragon Shores. Upon going through the portal, however, Spyro instead ends up in Glimmer, one of the many realms of the fantasy land of Avalar, having been summoned there by Elora the Faun, Hunter the Cheetah, and the Professor. They explain that one week prior, they were experimenting with a large portal device when they inadvertently summoned an angry, iron-fistedwarlockknown as Ripto, along with his minions Crush and Gulp. Pleased to find himself in a world without dragons, whom he views as pests, Ripto decided to conquer Avalar, prompting Elora and the others to deactivate the portal by scattering the mystical orbs powering it all across the realm. As Ripto and his henchmen leave to retrieve the orbs, Elora gets the idea to summon a dragon to fight against him, thus leading to Spyro's situation. After getting stranded in Avalar as a result of Ripto destroying the portal he came in through, Spyro agrees to help fight against him. During his quest, Spyro must travel through the various realms of Avalar and help the inhabitants with certain problems they are facing in order to receive their realm's talisman, which Spyro must use to undo Ripto's tyranny. He must also collect the orbs scattered across Avalar to empower portals and other various devices or spells, as well as gems to pay off the sleazy elitist bear, Moneybags for certain favors. Hunter the Cheetah helps out Spyro on certain missions with his athletic abilities, and the Professor does the same using his intellect. After collecting six talismans in Summer Forest, Spyro fights and defeats Crush, prompting Ripto and Gulp to retreat. The young dragon then pursues them to Autumn Plains, where he collects eight more talismans before engaging and vanquishing Gulp in combat. Then, Ripto seemingly falls to his demise, and Elora and her friends repay Spyro by returning to Winter Tundra and reactivating the portal device to send him to Dragon Shores. However, Ripto reveals himself to be alive and steals the power crystal that was meant to power the portal, using it to create a new magic scepter (since Gulp ate the original in the intro). After collecting enough orbs, Spyro is able to confront Ripto; the warlock ironically perishes in a lake of lava which he himself created. With peace returned to Avalar, Elora and the others return all the gems that Moneybags had extorted from Spyro to fix the portal device, allowing him to take his long-awaited vacation to Dragon Shores. The game's epilogue, which is unlocked by completing the Skill Points list in the Guidebook, reveals what happened to various friends and enemies that Spyro encountered in Avalar, as well as moments such as Spyro and Elora missing their chance to kiss, Crush being taught by the Professor how to spell, and a list of dummied enemies that didn't make it into the game. In the end, Spyro returns to the Dragon Realm, with Hunter joining him, setting the stage for thenext game. Development The sequel toSpyro the Dragonwas tentatively titledSpyro the Dragon 2during its pre-production phase.According to Ted Price,Insomniac'spresident and founder, the game was designed to provide a \"greater challenge\" for experienced players, as it was made to have greater depth and more gameplay variety thanSpyro the Dragon.The music forSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!was composed byStewart Copelandand was engineered and co-produced by Jeff Seitz. The character Spyro is voiced byTom Kenny, replacingCarlos Alazraquifrom the first game, while additional voices are provided by Kenny,Gregg Berger,Melissa Disney,Milton James, Mary Linda Phillips andMarcelo Tubert. The game's sound effects were created by Mike Gollom, Harry Woolway and Ron Horwitz of Universal Sound Studios. The game was officially announced at the 1999E3convention inLos Angeles, CA.In Volume 3 Issue 1 of the Official US PlayStation Magazine, which was released in October 1999, the name \"Ripto\" originated from the Japanese katakana spelling of Spyro.The game was released in North America on November 2, 1999.Sony Computer Entertainment of America director of product development Ami Blaire stated, \"Spyro 2isn't just another sequel. Players will surely be lured by Spyro's playful antics, but they'll experience gameplay that's more challenging and more fun then ever before.\" Re-releases The game became available for download on the EuropeanPlayStation Networkon July 26, 2007,before its predecessor was released to the same market. Less than a week later, however, it was removed because the Colossus and Idol Springs levels failed to load. On April 17, 2008, it was released on the Japanese PlayStation Store. On May 7, 2009, the game became available for download from the North American PlayStation Store and a corrected version was re-released on the European PlayStation Store on December 12, 2012, although as theNTSCversion instead ofPAL.Spyro 2, alongside itspredecessorandsequel, received a remastered release with updated visuals on November 13, 2018 as part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogycompilation forPlayStation 4andXbox One. This compilation retains the game's North American name,Ripto's Rage!, as opposed to the title used for the original European and Australasian release,Gateway to Glimmer. Reception The game received favorable reviews according to thereview aggregationwebsiteGameRankings.However, Chris Kramer ofNextGensaid that the game \"feels like a kids' title, but it has more meat to it than the first, and the cute graphics may make your girlfriend finally stop cooing over those damnPokémon.\"In Japan, where the game was ported for release under the nameSpyro X Sparx: Tondemo Tours(スパイロ×スパークス トンでもツアーズ,Supairo × Supākusu Tondemo Tsuāzu)on March 16, 2000,Famitsugave it a score of 30 out of 40.GameProsaid of the game, \"If you simply loved the firstSpyro, or are very intrigued by the second, you can't go wrong withSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage. Once you get over its cute exterior, you'll find an excellent platform action/adventure game ripe with the goods that make gaming great.\" The game received a \"Gold\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association(ELSPA),indicating sales of at least 200,000 units in the UK. As of June 30, 2007, the game sold more than 3.4 million units. Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!received nominations for \"Console Children's/Family Title of the Year\", \"Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction\", and \"Outstanding Achievement in Animation\" during theAIAS'3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards; they were ultimately awarded toPokémon Snap(Children's/Family) andFinal Fantasy VIII(Art Direction, Animation). Notes References External links","Tony Hawk's Pro Skater Tony Hawk's Pro Skater, released asTony Hawk's Skateboardingin the UK, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Europe, is a 1999skateboardingvideo gamedeveloped byNeversoftand published byActivision. It is the first installment in theTony Hawk'sseries. It was released for thePlayStationon September 29, 1999and was laterportedto theNintendo 64,Game Boy Color,Dreamcast, andN-Gage. Tony Hawk's Pro Skatertakes place in an urban environment permeated by an ambience ofpunk rockandska punkmusic. The player takes control of a variety of skateboarders and must complete missions by performingskateboarding tricksand collecting objects. The game offers several modes of gameplay, including a career mode in which the player must complete objectives and evolve their character's attributes, a single session, in which the player accumulates a high score within two minutes, a free skate mode in which the player may skate without any given objective, and a multiplayer mode that features a number of competitive games. Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas met with critical acclaim for all versions except theGame Boy Colorversion, which had a more mixed reception. The game resulted in a successful franchise, receiving eight annualized sequels developed by Neversoft fromPro Skater 2(2000) toProving Ground(2007). It is also credited with introducing skateboarding to a more mainstream global audience.It received a remakealong with the sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2, in 2020. Gameplay Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterputs the player in control of a skateboarder and takes place in a third-person view with a fixed camera. The goal of the game is to perform tricks and combinations thereof in an effort to increase the player's score. Movement can be altered using thed-padoranalog stick, andollies,grabs,flipsandgrindsare each assigned to individual buttons. Each skateboarder has eight grabs, eight grinds and eight flips. The number of points earned from a successful trick sequence is dependent on the amount of time spent in the air, the degree of rotation, and the number and variety of tricks performed; the more a single trick is performed in a sequence, the fewer points it will earn. When the player succeeds in performing tricks, a special gauge increases. When this gauge is full and flashing, the player is capable of performing a special trick that is worth many more points than ordinary tricks.If the player bails (falls off their skateboard), any points that may have been earned from the current combo are lost, and the special gauge is emptied. In the game's \"Career Mode\", the player must complete five objectives (represented byVHS tapes) in each level within a period of two minutes. The player is not obligated to complete all the objectives within a single run; any completed objective is committed to the game's memory, which allows other objectives to be completed within multiple playthroughs of a level. Two common objectives in each level are achieved by accumulating two defined scores, which gradually increases in difficulty throughout the game; while one other common objective is to collect letters of the word \"SKATE\". Another common objective is to destroy five of a certain object within each level. The fifth objective involves collecting a VHS tape hidden in the level. Completing objectives unlocks additional levels and equipment for use. Three of the mode's levels take place in a competition setting in which the player performs for judges and accumulates the highest score within three one-minute rounds. The player receives a bronze, silver or gold medal depending on the final score they are given. Other single-player modes include the \"Single Session\", in which the player can freely accumulate a high score within two minutes using any previously obtained levels and characters, and the \"Free Skate\", in which there is no time limit imposed. The multiplayer mode is played by two players in asplit screenview and offers three games: \"Graffiti\", \"Trick Attack\", and \"HORSE\". In \"Graffiti\", players must accumulate the highest score by changing level elements into their own color via the use of tricks. If a player performs a higher-scoring trick on an element that has already been marked, the element will change to that player's color. \"Trick Attack\" is a mode in which players must accumulate the highest score by chaining tricks together. \"HORSE\" is a game that isplayed intermittently between two players, who must compete in rounds lasting either eight seconds or until a trick has been made. The player with the lower score on any given turn receives a letter in the word \"HORSE\" or whatever word the players have generated prior to the game's start. The first player to accumulate the entire word loses. Featured pro skaters The game features a total of ten real life professional skateboarders, along with two unlockable original characters: Officer Dick and Private Carrera. Development Following the releases of arcade gameTop Skater(1997) bySegaand PlayStation gameStreet Sk8er(1998) byElectronic Arts,Activisionidentified skateboarding-simulation games as a growing market in the gaming industry and concluded that such a title would resonate with a young audience. Preceding Neversoft's involvement in the project, the task of developing a skateboarding title for Activision was given to another studio. However, this studio's attempt did not impress Activision and didn't move past the concept stage. The publisher then decided to entrust the project to Neversoft, which had recently completed the third-person shooter gameApocalypse(1998) within nine months. Although Neversoft had never developed a sports video game before, the development team was confident in its ability to accomplish the task before its given deadline of the 1999 Christmas season. During development, the Neversoft team would spend its lunch breaks at a bowling alley near the studio, where they would play and subsequently study from Sega'sTop Skaterin the arcade. The game's design served as a strong basic influence, along with observances of real skaters performing in theX Games, which were taking place during the game's development. Although the team decided early on thatTop Skater's linearity lacked the sense of fun they aimed for, the \"racetrack\" element was retained in two of the game's final levels. Contrary to subsequent titles in the series, Neversoft did not primarily focus on using pre-existing locations as reference for the game's level design, but simply envisioned potential skating areas such as a school or a city and incorporated elements such as ramps and rails to benefit the gameplay. The team consciously prioritized fun over realism in the approach to the game's level design and physics. The game's engine is a modified version of that of Neversoft's previous titleApocalypse, and the game's prototype usedBruce Willis's character from that game as the placeholder player character.Once the prototype reached a functional and demonstrable state, the Neversoft team realized that they would require a professional skateboarder to aid in the remainder of production. At the time,Tony Hawkhad been a popular figure within skateboarding for quite some time.In September 1998, Activision established contact with Hawk and arranged a meeting between him and Neversoft. Hawk was quickly impressed by the design team members' devotion to skateboarding, the controls and engine of their game's early build and agreed to lend his name and involvement to the production. Subsequently, Hawk would turn down Activision's offer of a one-time buyout for the permanent use of his name and likeness on the game in favor of a royalty deal in which Hawk would earn a percentage for every copy sold. As a result of the series' eventual success, Hawk would earn ten times Activision's initial offer within two years.By January 1999, Activision publicly announced their agreement with Hawk to include him in the game. Activision senior vice president Mitch Lasky, in an interview withGameSpot, stated that the character was meant \"to reflect Tony's signature style – an intense mix of acrobatics and hard-core technical skating\". Hawk remarked that \" always wanted to help create a video game that represented the reality and excitement of professional skateboarding\". Hawk would spend the development time periodically playing through the game's beta builds and providing feedback, using aspecially modifiedPlayStationconsole that can play games burned onCD-Rs. Hawk even went so far as to purposely send advanced copies of the game to a trusted group of people who also owned modchipped PlayStations: \"I had a modified PlayStation so I could use burned discs, and they'd send me new developments and we'd go back and forth. I'd let people play it, people that I trust. At one point, I felt it was getting so far along that I started to sneak out copies for those same people - these people had modded PlayStations. As subversive as that was, it started to create a buzz in the industry, because they were key players in the skating industry and they were also hardcore gamers\".He would also personally select a group of other professional skaters to include as playable characters based on their skills, personalities and diversity; each skater received a cut of the royalties and got to select their own attire and special tricks for the game.While animating the skaters, the design team largely depended on using available video footage as reference. The incorporation ofmotion capturewas attempted to aid in the realism of the animation, but due to the technology's infancy, the result was ultimately determined to have not translated as well as what had already been animated.The900featured in the game was itself drawn from footage of Hawk's famed performance of the feat in the X Games that summer, and was a relatively late addition as a result. The collection of VHS tapes was directly inspired by the collection of stars inSuper Mario 64(1996). In designing the objectives, the team would gather at a table, draw a level and then ask what could be done within said level, upon which the team members would provide ideas. Rejected concepts arising from these sessions include levels taking place on ahighwayand ajetty, and a scenario in which the player would lose a wheel and have to skate on three wheels.Manualswere originally intended to be implemented into the game, but were omitted due to time constraints; manuals would subsequently be included inTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2. Promotion and release Elissa Steamer's inclusion in the game, along with the game's final release date of September 29, was presented on August 26, 1999.A playable demo with only two available skaters was integrated into the Jampack Summer '99 compilation CD released byPlayStation Underground.The game was made available for pre-order two weeks prior to the game's release; those who pre-ordered the game atElectronics BoutiqueorFuncoLandrespectively received a miniature replica of Tony Hawk's Birdhouse skateboard, a sticker sheet featuring the game's ten professional skaters and a game tip on the back of each sticker.A second playable demo was included on a promotional compilation disc released byPizza Huton November 14. While Neversoft would begin development of the game's sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, shortly before the release of the first game,Activision would entrust the game's Nintendo 64 port toEdge of Reality, which had recently portedMonster Truck Madness 2to the same system.The Nintendo 64 and Game Boy Color versions received a multi-million dollar advertising campaign on several major youth-targeted channels in the United States beginning in April 2000. Customers who purchased the Game Boy Color version atToys \"R\" Usor FuncoLand received a special-edition miniature skateboard. As a result of the disappointing sales ofBlue Stinger, Activision was discouraged from publishing further titles for the Dreamcast and relinquished the distribution ofTony Hawk's Pro Skateron the console to Crave Entertainment.After online speculation and teasing comments from company insiders,a port for the Dreamcast was revealed to be developed byTreyarch.Later in 2003, the N-Gage version was in development.The game came bundled with theN-Gage QDthat was released in 2004. Ports The Nintendo 64 port ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas developed by Edge of Reality and released on March 15, 2000.While the port is largely faithful to the original version and retains all game modes, characters and levels, the soundtrack had been truncated and the voices were removed to accommodate the lessened space in the cartridge format. The blood effects had also been removed, so Nintendo could market the game with an \"E\" game rating.The Dreamcast version was developed by Treyarch, published by Crave Entertainment and released on May 24, 2000. The graphics and animations in the Dreamcast version are improved from those in the PlayStation version. The Game Boy Color version was developed by the Japanese company Natsume and released on March 30, 2000. The Game Boy Color version is an adaptation rather than a true port of the PlayStation version due to the limited capacity of the platform. The game offers two different gameplay styles: an overhead view with vertical scrolling, and a side-scrolling view in which there is a ramp on each side. There are four gameplay modes in which the player can only perform a few tricks. In \"Half Pipe Mode\", the player must attempt to achieve the highest score possible. \"Tournament Mode\" is a five-level vertically scrolling game in which the player must race against three computer-controlled skaters and achieve the highest rank. Jumps are made automatically when the player maneuvers onto ramps, and tricks are displayed as a brief static image. \"Versus Mode\" and \"Rival Mode\" are identical to \"Tournament Mode\", except the player plays in a single level against a single opponent; the opponent in \"Rival Mode\" is computer-controlled, while the opponent in \"Versus Mode\" is human, which necessitates the use of aGame Link Cable. The N-Gage version was developed by Ideaworks3D and released on October 13, 2003, a week following the launch of the N-Gage.The game is a faithful port of the PlayStation version and retains most of the characters, levels, control scheme and original music while adding levels fromTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2and two multiplayer games.The game's multiplayer functions via the N-Gage'sBluetoothfeature.The N-Gage version was named \"Best-Mobile Game\" by theBritish Academy of Film and Television Artsin 2004. A remakeof both the first game andTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, titledTony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2, was developed byVicarious Visionsand released on September 4, 2020, forPlayStation 4,Windows, andXbox One, followed up a year later onPlayStation 5,Xbox Series X/S, andNintendo Switch. The remake includes all of the original levels and skaters from the original games, but also includes improved skater creation and park creation modes, online multiplayer, and other new features, and featuring most of the original soundtracks, with a few exceptions due to licensing issues. Reception Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas met with critical acclaim. Doug Perry ofIGNpraised the game's \"imaginative, deep, and amazingly addictive\" gameplay, \"steady and consistent\" learning curve, \"intuitive and natural\" controls, large and complex levels, \"jaw-dropping\" physics and \"perfect\" soundtrack. Perry concluded that the game had \"captured the pure grit and radical feel of skateboarding, delivering it in near perfect form onto the PlayStation with a mastery and sense of programming finesse beyond anyone's imagination\", and described the game as \"that rare gem of a game that defies what other developers say can't be done\".Jeff GerstmannofGameSpotcommended the game's graphics, frame rate, camera and sound effects, and declared the game to be \"a worthy addition to anyone's PlayStation collection\", though he was not personally fond of the soundtrack and wished that there was more variety in the game's tricks.He additionally noted that the Dreamcast version used the console's hardware to its advantage by displaying clearer textures and a smoother frame rate \"that may very well cause longtime fans of the game to weep\".Chris Carle ofIGNalso praised the Dreamcast version's improved textures. Matt Casamassina ofIGNpraised the Nintendo 64 version's visuals as \"very impressive\" in spite of the reduced quality of the textures and the omitted full-motion video effects, and the audio as \"surprisingly clear\", albeit compressed and \"dumbed down\" to accommodate the cartridge format.Martin Taylor ofEurogamercited the game's graphics as \"crisp, smooth and very, very hard to fault\", but noted that the game's soundtrack suffered from the compression process and that the looping music \"quickly becomes incredibly annoying\";the latter sentiment was mirrored by Dr. Moo of Game Revolution. In reviewing the Game Boy Color version, Craig Harris ofIGNdecided that while the half-pipe portion of the game \"isn't half-bad\", the overhead portion is \"absolutely stupid\"; he criticized the representation of tricks as static images as \"completely destroy the flow of the game\", and noted that the issue is exacerbated in the \"Versus\" mode by having both parties' game pause when either one performs a trick.Frank Provo ofGameSpotcited the game's lack of level variety and \"borderline mediocre\" audio, but felt that it was the best skateboarding title to be made for a portable console.Both Chadd Chambers ofIGNand Jeff Gerstmann ofGameSpotconsidered the N-Gage version to be the best game available on the system and were relatively impressed by the game's graphics, but noted the less comfortable control scheme and reduced sound quality. Three reviewers forNext Generationmagazine - Blake Fischer, Eric Bratcher, and Greg Orlando - gave five stars out of five for PlayStation, Nintendo 64, and Dreamcast versions, respectively. They virtually praised every aspect of the game despite noting some minor differences between all three versions. Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas ranked #36 inGame Informer's \"Top 100 Games of All Time\" in its 100th issue in August 2001.The game was nominated for \"Console Game of the Year\" and \"Console Sports Game of the Year\" during the3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, but lost toSoulcaliburandKnockout Kings 2000, respectively.The game was included onPolygon's 2017 list ofThe 500 Best Games of All Time. Sales Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas the third highest-selling PlayStation title of November 1999 in the United States. From its release date to late-December 1999, the game shipped in excess of 350,000 units and was available in over 10,000 retailers nationwide.The PlayStation version ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterreceived a \"Platinum\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association(ELSPA),indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom.The Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland gave the PlayStation version a Gold Award for 100,000 sold copies in Germany by February 2000.The PlayStation versions ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterand its successor were respectively the third and second highest-selling console games of 2000.The Nintendo 64 version was the sixth highest-selling Nintendo 64 title in the United States during the week of November 19–26, 2000.As of 2001, it has sold 3.5 million units. Sequels The game resulted in a successful franchise, receiving eight annualized sequels developed by Neversoft fromPro Skater 2(2000) toProving Ground(2007), and a 2020 remake along with the sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2. Cultural impact Tony Hawk's Pro Skateris credited with introducing skateboarding to a more mainstream global audience. In a 2023 essay forThe New York Times MagazineIrish writer Jack Sheehan reflected on the game's impact writing, \"Released at a moment when skateboarding was beginning to go mainstream, T.H.P.S. became popular because it invited skaters and nonskaters alike to feel the thrill of getting air, doing a kick flip or landing a trick by the thinnest margin.\"In 2023, the bookRight, Down + Circle: Tony Hawk’s Pro Skaterby Cole Nowicki was released tackling and analyzingTony Hawk's Pro Skater's meaning and impact. Reflecting on both the game's development history and his personal experience as a skateboarder and player, Nowicki called the game an \"unprecedented success\" and a \"Trojan horse, entering the homes of millions worldwide, exposing kids, teenagers, their parents, and more to this gamified version of skateboarding.\" In 2020, a documentary filmPretending I'm Superman: The Tony Hawk Video Game Storyfrom Swedish director Ludvig Gür was released chronicling the development and impact of the game. Throughout the 2010s and 2020s the game's soundtrack was acknowledged as having been a major cultural influence in music, particularly in spreading punk and metal tomillennials. Notes References Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Spyro the Dragon Spyro the Dragonis a 1998platform gamedeveloped byInsomniac Gamesand published bySony Computer Entertainmentfor thePlayStation. The first game in theSpyroseries, it stars the title character, a young purpledragonnamedSpyro, and hisdragonflyfriend, Sparx, who must journey across the Dragon Kingdom to defeat Gnasty Gnorc, who has overtaken the five dragon Homeworlds by trapping the other dragons in crystal and turning their hoard of gems into an army of minions.Spyro the Dragonis an open-ended 3D platformer, featuring large, sprawling levels in which the player must locate collectable items, among which are gemstones, crystallized dragons, and stolen dragon eggs. Spyro's abilities as a dragon include fire breath, a head-on charging attack, and a mid-air glide which he can use to scale large distances, all of which must be used strategically to find items and defeat enemies. Spyro the Dragonstarted development following the release of Insomniac's debut game,Disruptor, which sold poorly but was generally praised by critics, impressingUniversal Interactiveenough to encourage them to make a second game. Artist Craig Stitt suggested a game about a dragon, and work began on a new game. Taking inspiration from the filmDragonheart, the game started out as a more mature title with a dark and realistic approach, but the direction was shifted to have a more whimsical and light-hearted tone to appeal to a wider market of consumers. The game was one of the first on the PlayStation to utilize shiftinglevels of detailamong rendered objects, thanks to a panoramic engine developed by Alex Hastings which allowed the game's open-ended nature to be fully realized.Stewart Copeland, the former drummer forThe Police, composed the game's music, and the titular character was voice acted byCarlos Alazraqui, alongside additional voices done byClancy Brown,Michael GoughandJamie Alcroft. Spyro the Dragonwas released by Sony Computer Entertainment as part of a general effort to reach out to a younger age demographic and compete with the more popular children's platform, theNintendo 64. Although sales were initially sluggish, it found larger success following the advent of the 1998 holiday season and went on to sell nearly five million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling PlayStation games. Critics praised the game's graphics and gameplay, while some noted its low difficulty level. The game established Spyro as a well-known platforming mascot on the PlayStation alongsideCrash Bandicoot, and two sequels, titledSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!andSpyro: Year of the Dragon, were later released for the PlayStation in 1999 and 2000, respectively. Although Insomniac gave up the development rights to theSpyroseries following the third game, the success of the PlayStation titles lent itself to a continued series of games across various platforms. The game, alongside its two successors, was later remade as part ofSpyro Reignited Trilogyin 2018. Gameplay Spyro the Dragonis a3D platform game;the player controlsthe titular characteras he ventures across the realms of the Dragon World to defeat the antagonistic Gnasty Gnorc, as well as rescue his fellow dragons and recover all of their stolen treasure.Worldsconsist of six dragon \\\"home worlds\\\",each of which acts as a dedicated hub, containing portals that serve as gateways to different levels.The player must progress from one Homeworld to the next by talking to aballoonist, who transports Spyro to the next world on ahot air balloonafter the player has found the required collectibles in the current given world.In addition to regular platforming stages, each Homeworld contains aboss fightand a hidden flight stage that involves flying throughout an environment and destroying a number of objects. The levels inSpyro the Dragonare open-ended, and they revolve around exploring and obtaining various collectible items to progress in the game.Each stage contains a number of crystallized dragons, whom Spyro must turn back to normal by locating and stepping on their statue bases. These dragons give the player advice on how to progress through the game, as well as their respective locations acting as save points after the dragon has been freed.Another important collectible in the game is the dragons' stolen treasure, which is dispersed throughout each level in the form of multicoloredgemstones. These gems are located in numerous different places, including inside enemies, breakable boxes, and treasure chests, and most stages contain a set amount of treasure to be found.There are also stolen dragon eggs that must be reclaimed by chasing and defeating thieves.Finding every collectible in the game unlocks an additional world that otherwise cannot be accessed. Spyro has two main offensive moves, which are used to attack enemies as well as destroy certain objects: charging, in which Spyro sprints forward and rams into things with his head, and breathing fire. These attacks must be used appropriately for certain enemies and situations; for instance, some enemies carry fireproof metal armor, meaning that they can only be defeated by charging, while larger enemies can only be hit using fire breath, as they will immediately crush Spyro otherwise.Spyro can also use his wings to glide in midair, letting him travel further distances in the air and access areas otherwise unreachable via a regular jump.Throughout the game, Spyro is accompanied by Sparx, a yellow dragonfly who protects Spyro from taking damage and serves as the player's system ofhealth. Sparx's current health is represented by the color of his body; if Spyro is hurt by an obstacle, such as an enemy or by touching water, Sparx changes colors, with yellow, blue and green representing different subsequent amounts of withheld damage. If the player is damaged too many times, Sparx disappears, leaving Spyro vulnerable to losing a life if he is hurt again. Sparx can be rejuvenated by consumingbutterflies, which are found by killing passive creatures such assheepthat roam throughout most levels.Sparx also helps Spyro collect items by retrieving any gems that Spyro passes by. Plot In the world of dragons, the Dragon Kingdom consists of five Homeworlds – the Artisans, the Peace Keepers, the Magic Crafters, the Beast Makers, and the Dream Weavers – which have lived in harmony for many years.One day, a TV interview with a pair of dragons from the Artisan realm catches the attention of Gnasty Gnorc, a powerful gnorc (halfgnomeand halforc) who was banished from the kingdom due to his abrasive demeanor and sent to an abandoned junkyard, which he renames to \\\"Gnasty's World\\\".The dragons' openly dismissive and derisive commentary concerning Gnasty enrages him, driving him to unleash a full-fledged attack on the kingdom. Using his magic, he casts a spell across the land that encases every dragon in a crystal shell; he also steals the dragons' prized collection of treasure, turning the gemstones into devious gnorc soldiers and other creatures to help him take over the dragon worlds.Spyro, a young purple dragon, is the only dragon that manages to avoid getting crystallized by the attack. Aided by his dragonfly companion, Sparx, Spyro eagerly sets out to locate and defeat Gnasty. Spyro visits each of the dragon homeworlds, defeating Gnasty's forces who have been set out to stop him. Along the way, he frees the crystallized dragons, who give him advice and urge him to recover any stolen treasure and dragon eggs along the way. He eventually makes his way to Gnasty's World, where he finally confronts and defeats Gnasty. After Spyro's quest is over, he has access to Gnasty's treasure portal, which can only be opened if Spyro rescues every dragon in the kingdom and recovers all of the dragons' treasure and retrieves the stolen dragon eggs. A secret ending can then be unlocked by retrieving everything inside of the treasure portal. In this ending, Spyro is seen getting interviewed on TV when another spell is placed on the dragons, prompting Spyro to set out on yet another adventure. Development Concept Spyro the Dragonwas the second game developed byInsomniac Games,following the release of their first game,Disruptor, in December 1996. AlthoughDisruptorwas a commercial failure, its positive critical reception was enough to impressUniversal Interactive Studiosand encourage the team to continue with their next endeavor.The idea of a game about adragonwas introduced by Insomniac artist Craig Stitt, who suggested the concept out of his own interest in the mythical creature.Initially, the game's tone was far darker and more realistic; according to Insomniac's COO, John Fiorito, who joined the company in 1997 duringSpyro's development, inspiration was taken in part from the filmDragonHeart, and the game was initially \\\"realistic and kind of dark and gritty\\\" before it eventually took a more whimsical, light-hearted direction.Mark Cerny, an executive at Universal Interactive Studios and the game's producer,advised that the team create a game with more mass market appeal, as the demographics of the PlayStation were decreasing and its selection of children's titles were greatly outnumbered by theNintendo 64's. According to programmer Peter Hastings, the dragon character was originally going to be named \\\"Pete\\\", but due to copyright concerns over similarities to theDisneyfilmPete's Dragon, the name was scrapped. After considering the name \\\"Pyro,\\\" which was ultimately considered \\\"too mature\\\", they finally settled on \\\"Spyro\\\".In-game dialogue was written by Peter Kleiner, and Spyro's character was designed byCharles Zembillas, who had previously done design work onCrash Bandicoot.Spyro was originally going to be green, but the developers worried he would blend in with grass, so they eventually changed him to purple.During development ofSpyro, Insomniac had a very close relationship withCrash Bandicootcreator and fellow PlayStation developerNaughty Dog, who had their office located directly across the hall from theirs. The two developers frequently worked together, playing early builds of each other's games and later sharing game technology. As a result, a demo ofCrash Bandicoot: Warpedwas hidden inSpyro, and vice versa. Design Spyro the Dragonwas unique compared to other 3D platform games of the time; Spyro's ability to glide allowed him to travel long distances in the air, meaning that the player could cross almost an entire level if starting from a high enough point. While this made designing levels more difficult for the team, it also meant that levels could be made more open-ended and explorative in nature. To makeSpyro’s controls feel fluid, Matt Whiting—aNASAengineer who specialized in flight controls—was brought on to help with programming camera movement as well Spyro's movement controls. The game's camera was particularly challenging; initially, it always followed directly behind Spyro, but the resulting high-speed movements were found to make several playtesters feelnauseous. This was most evident with Spyro's basic jump, which triggered the camera to quickly tilt up and down, compared by Whiting to the motion of a rocking boat; this was ultimately tweaked so that the camera would stay steady.Spyrowas coded with efficiency in mind, as 3D rendering technology was new at the time and the game had to fit the limited specifications of the PlayStation. Around 80% of the game's code was written usingAssembly, while other parts were programmed inCdue to its simplicity and speed. Graphics Spyro the Dragonmade use of a 3D panoramic engine, developed by Alex Hastings, that could display far-away objects by utilizing varyinglevels of detail, a method of rendering which was new and unexplored at the time. The developers believed that the engine would be fitting for the game, as it could allow for more expansive levels that could take advantage of the character's abilities, such as gliding.This dynamic system, used to complement the large and sprawling environments, generated two different versions of a level; one version rendered in high detail and the other a simpler, textureless render. Objects in the player's vicinity were drawn using the detailed render, whereas distant ones were drawn from the simple render. This system allowed objects to be displayed from far distances while adhering to the PlayStation's limited RAM capabilities; it was one of the first video games to make use of such a system. The game made extensive use of vertex shading to colour objects andprovide light and shade- with the smooth skies entirely reliant on the technique to depict clouds and other distant details without the use of textures. Base textures were intentionally kept relatively desaturated so as to prevent them from becoming oversaturated with use of the technique. Audio The game's music was composed and produced byStewart Copeland, formerly the drummer for the British bandThe Police. Copeland was given early builds of the game's levels, which he played through to get a feel for them and come up with a fitting composition.He was also given game cheats such as invincibility so that he could have an easier time clearing levels. Copeland wrote four songs per day, all of which he further developed and polished the next day.According to Copeland, each song in the game was written to correspond to a specific level, but this correlation ultimately went unused.Copeland has looked back positively on his work onSpyro, calling the game's music some of his best compositions. Carlos Alazraquiprovided the voice of Spyro in the game, and additional voices were done byClancy Brown,Michael Gough,Jamie Alcroftand Michael Connor. Alazraqui explained in an issue ofElectronic Gaming Monthlythat he tried to make Spyro's voice sound like \\\"a kid at camp that everybody likes.\\\"Alazraqui did not continue in this role after the first game, being replaced byTom Kennyfor the sequels. Release Spyro the Dragonwas first unveiled at the 1998E3convention inAtlanta, Georgia.It was then later released in North America on September 9, 1998, and in Europe on October 23 of the same year.According toSony Computer Entertainment's American Marketing Vice President, Andrew House, at a press party inLas Vegas, the game, along with other upcoming 4th quarter PlayStation releases such asCrash Bandicoot: Warped,A Bug's Life, andRugrats: Search for Reptar, was part of a general effort to appeal to a wider demographic of younger audiences and provide more games suited for younger players to compete with theNintendo 64, which had a far larger library of children's titles at the time compared to the PlayStation's largely adult-centric demographic.An advertisement campaign was pushed to promote the game, featuring a character from the game, Toasty the Sheep, protesting against the title character's actions against sheep. The campaign included TV commercials, featuring an actor in ananimatroniccostume of Toasty, and a promotional website,sheepagainstspyro.com.On August 16, 1999, SCEA announced that the game would be included as a part of their \\\"Greatest Hits\\\" lineup of budgeted releases alongside other games such asCrash Bandicoot: Warped,Gran Turismo,Cool Boarders 3, andTwisted Metal III, and alongside the announcement of a price drop for the PlayStation console to compete with the highly anticipated launch of theSega Dreamcast.On December 12, 2012, the game was digitally re-released to thePlayStation Storetogether withSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!andSpyro: Year of the Dragon.A remake of the game, alongside its two sequels, was included as a part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogycompilation for thePlayStation 4andXbox Onein November 2018, followed by theNintendo SwitchandMicrosoft Windowsin September 2019. Sales According toSpyro's developers, sales were initially slow at the game's launch but quickly began picking up following the holiday season.In the week of November 29, 1998, it was the 3rd best-selling game in the UK, behindTomb RaiderandFIFA 99.At the 1999 Milia festival inCannes, it took home a \\\"Gold\\\" prize for revenues above €20,000,000 in theEuropean Unionduring the previous year.Spyro the Dragonreceived a \\\"Gold\\\" award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) by the end of August 1999,for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland.By December 1999, the game had sold 1,000,000 copies in North America.As of 2007, the title had gone on to sell a total of nearly 5,000,000 units. Reception Spyro the Dragoncurrently holds a score of 85% atGameRankings, based on an aggregate of 18 reviews.IGN's Craig Harris hailed it as the most fun 3D platformer he had played sinceCrash Bandicoot, writing \\\"Two claws up. Way up.\\\"Computer and Video Gamescalled the game \\\"easily the best 3D platform game on the PlayStation\\\", despite noting its largely child-friendly nature.Shawn Smith ofElectronic Gaming Monthlywrote that \\\"Spyrois to the PlayStation whatBanjo-Kazooieis to theNintendo 64\\\", and stated that it \\\"combines the two most-important aspects in any good game: graphics and gameplay.\\\" Crispin Boyer, also ofElectronic Gaming Monthly, proclaimed that Spyro \\\"raises the bar\\\" for 3D platformers, and wrote that it had replacedGex 3D: Enter the Geckoas his favorite \\\"PS mascot game\\\".Joe Fielder ofGameSpotcalled the game \\\"a proficient, fully 3D platform game\\\" for the PlayStation, comparing it favorably to one of the more recent platformers on the system,Blasto, and proclaiming that it \\\"excels overBlastoin every way imaginable.\\\" Despite this, he wrote that the game \\\"only gets very, very high marks, instead of outrageously high marks\\\", citing its lack of high difficulty as the main factor that made it inferior to games likeSuper Mario 64andBanjo-Kazooie.Edgenamed it the best 3D platform game for the PlayStation, but criticized Spyro's limited abilities and said that the game was not as varied asSuper Mario 64. Critics lauded the game's presentation, specifically speaking praise for its graphics, technical performance, and Copeland's music done for the game.GameProreviewer \\\"Slo Mo\\\" wrote that the game's graphics and animations gaveSpyro\\\"the look and feel of ananimated film\\\" while calling the in-game environments \\\"breathtaking\\\".Harris wrote that the game \\\"utilizes the PlayStation's hardware to the max\\\", and praised the quality of the in-game animations; he particularly praised the rescued dragons' talking animations, which he said gave the characters \\\"incredible personality.\\\"Fielder praised the game's dynamic lighting system and character designs, and noted \\\"a near-complete lack ofpop-up\\\" during gameplay.Sushi-X ofElectronic Gaming Monthlysaid that the graphics were \\\"among the finest\\\" on the PlayStation.AllGameeditor Scott Alan Marriott applauded the graphics, scenery, characters and control as some of the best on the PlayStation, if not the best at the time of the games release.Fielder spoke positively of Copeland's compositional work, calling it \\\"wonderfully atmospheric.\\\"Slo Mo described the music as having a \\\"catchy, mellow jazz-rock swing to it\\\" while also praising the voice work for its wide array of unique voices. Many critics held praise for the game's level design and controls, though some noted its simplicity and low difficulty level (with the exception of Tree Tops). Fielder called the level design \\\"exceptional\\\",while Boyer praised the levels for encouraging exploration among players.Sushi-X called the play controls \\\"perfectly tuned\\\" whilst Fielder wrote that they worked well both with and without theDualShock's analog stick, although Smith expressed that controls were unsuited for maneuvering in \\\"high-risk areas.\\\"The camera system received varying reactions, with Boyer praising it as one of the best in any 3D platformer and Fielder declaring that it fixed the common issues present in most other 3D platform games,while Harris criticized its lack of precision when following the player, stating that it \\\"tends to float around on a loose tether\\\", and highlighted the camera system as one of the game's only flaws.Fielder wrote that an overabundance of extra lives caused the game to feel \\\"like it was aimed at a younger or broader audience,\\\" holding the final boss and the bonus level as the only exceptions.Despite praisingSpyro, Sushi-X noted the game's \\\"lack of diversity\\\" in obstacles and objects leading to \\\"repetitive play.\\\" Boyer lamented that the common trope of collecting items, while still very fun inSpyro, was starting to become less interesting, while also criticizing the game's boss fights, calling them \\\"small, easy and decidedly unBoss-like.\\\" During the2nd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards,Spyro the Dragonwas named as a finalist by theAcademy of Interactive Arts & Sciencesfor \\\"Outstanding Achievement in Art/Graphics\\\", \\\"Console Action Game of the Year\\\", and \\\"Console Game of the Year\\\"; the first two awards went toBanjo-Kazooie, while the latter was won byThe Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time. Legacy The popularity ofSpyro the Dragonhelped to push the character of Spyro as a popular platformingmascotfor the PlayStation alongsideCrash Bandicoot.It was the first game in what became an expansivevideo game series, spawning 2 more platforming sequels for the PlayStation –Ripto's RageandYear of the Dragon– released in 1999 and 2000, respectively. As of the year 2000, the series had sold more than 3.2 million copies in the U.S. and over 4 million copies worldwide.Insomniac stopped developing theSpyroseries afterYear of the Dragon, as it finished off their 4-game contract with Universal Interactive. Despite this, the series was continued across various different developers, and shifted to several other platforms besides PlayStation.Spyrobeing their first considerable success, Insomniac went on to develop several other successful video game franchises, including theRatchet & Clankseries of platform games and thefirst-person shooterseriesResistance.The game's rendering system, new and unheard of at the time, has gone on to be used in several other 3D video games. References External links\",\n \"Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage! Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!, known asSpyro 2: Gateway to GlimmerinPAL regions, is a 1999platform gamedeveloped byInsomniac Gamesand published bySony Computer Entertainmentfor thePlayStation. It is the second game in the mainSpyroseries. A remake was released as part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogyin 2018. Gameplay Players controlSpyro the Dragonas he fights against various enemies and obstacles using his flame breath, charge attack, and glide abilities. His health is indicated by the color of his dragonfly partner, Sparx, who can replenish his health by eating butterflies. Bottled butterflies will both completely restore Sparx's health and give Spyro an extra life. The game is split up into three main hub worlds containing portals to various realms. In order to progress through the first two hub worlds, the player must acquire a talisman from each realm, which is awarded for reaching the end of the level, before facing the boss of each world. Each level also contains a certain number of orbs, which can be earned by completing secondary tasks for particularNPCs, such as lighting a series of lamps or protecting characters from attacks. These orbs are required for opening some of the portals to certain levels, as well as progressing through the third hub world. Gems gathered throughout the game are required to pay fees Moneybags charges in order to progress through the game. As well as opening portals or granting access to certain areas, Moneybags also teaches Spyro three brand new abilities over the course of the game. Swimming lets Spyro dive underwater to reach submerged treasure and hidden tunnels, climbing lets Spyro climb up certain surfaces, and the headbash lets Spyro perform an overhead smashing attack which can break rocks and certain cages. In addition, each level has a power-up gate, activated after defeating a specific number of enemies in a level, which grants Spyro a temporary super-ability. The power-up can grant invulnerability or the abilities to fly, supercharge, super flame, breathe ice, or super jump to reach high up areas. Characters and setting The only characters from the original game to return as main characters in this game areSpyro, the game's protagonist, and Sparx, his dragonfly sidekick. Sparx functions as the player's health meter, and assists the player in gathering gems. This game introduces new characters into the Spyro series, many of whom would appear in later games. Both Hunter and Moneybags make recurring appearances in the series, while Ripto would make more series appearances than any other antagonist, making him the key villain of the original series. The dragons of the previous installment have been replaced with an entirely new cast of characters, including fauns, satyrs, anthropomorphic animals, and robotic businessmen, among others. The world of Avalar is divided into three realms: the Summer Forest, the Autumn Plains, and the Winter Tundra. In every realm, there is a castle that, during the course of the storyline, is captured by Ripto. Each realm features a number of different worlds, a speedway world, and a dungeon in which Ripto or his minions are hiding. Plot A few years after the defeat of Gnasty Gnorc,Spyro the Dragonand his dragonfly partner, Sparx, having had enough with the continuous raining in Artisans, decide to take avacationto Dragon Shores. Upon going through the portal, however, Spyro instead ends up in Glimmer, one of the many realms of the fantasy land of Avalar, having been summoned there by Elora the Faun, Hunter the Cheetah, and the Professor. They explain that one week prior, they were experimenting with a large portal device when they inadvertently summoned an angry, iron-fistedwarlockknown as Ripto, along with his minions Crush and Gulp. Pleased to find himself in a world without dragons, whom he views as pests, Ripto decided to conquer Avalar, prompting Elora and the others to deactivate the portal by scattering the mystical orbs powering it all across the realm. As Ripto and his henchmen leave to retrieve the orbs, Elora gets the idea to summon a dragon to fight against him, thus leading to Spyro's situation. After getting stranded in Avalar as a result of Ripto destroying the portal he came in through, Spyro agrees to help fight against him. During his quest, Spyro must travel through the various realms of Avalar and help the inhabitants with certain problems they are facing in order to receive their realm's talisman, which Spyro must use to undo Ripto's tyranny. He must also collect the orbs scattered across Avalar to empower portals and other various devices or spells, as well as gems to pay off the sleazy elitist bear, Moneybags for certain favors. Hunter the Cheetah helps out Spyro on certain missions with his athletic abilities, and the Professor does the same using his intellect. After collecting six talismans in Summer Forest, Spyro fights and defeats Crush, prompting Ripto and Gulp to retreat. The young dragon then pursues them to Autumn Plains, where he collects eight more talismans before engaging and vanquishing Gulp in combat. Then, Ripto seemingly falls to his demise, and Elora and her friends repay Spyro by returning to Winter Tundra and reactivating the portal device to send him to Dragon Shores. However, Ripto reveals himself to be alive and steals the power crystal that was meant to power the portal, using it to create a new magic scepter (since Gulp ate the original in the intro). After collecting enough orbs, Spyro is able to confront Ripto; the warlock ironically perishes in a lake of lava which he himself created. With peace returned to Avalar, Elora and the others return all the gems that Moneybags had extorted from Spyro to fix the portal device, allowing him to take his long-awaited vacation to Dragon Shores. The game's epilogue, which is unlocked by completing the Skill Points list in the Guidebook, reveals what happened to various friends and enemies that Spyro encountered in Avalar, as well as moments such as Spyro and Elora missing their chance to kiss, Crush being taught by the Professor how to spell, and a list of dummied enemies that didn't make it into the game. In the end, Spyro returns to the Dragon Realm, with Hunter joining him, setting the stage for thenext game. Development The sequel toSpyro the Dragonwas tentatively titledSpyro the Dragon 2during its pre-production phase.According to Ted Price,Insomniac'spresident and founder, the game was designed to provide a \\\"greater challenge\\\" for experienced players, as it was made to have greater depth and more gameplay variety thanSpyro the Dragon.The music forSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!was composed byStewart Copelandand was engineered and co-produced by Jeff Seitz. The character Spyro is voiced byTom Kenny, replacingCarlos Alazraquifrom the first game, while additional voices are provided by Kenny,Gregg Berger,Melissa Disney,Milton James, Mary Linda Phillips andMarcelo Tubert. The game's sound effects were created by Mike Gollom, Harry Woolway and Ron Horwitz of Universal Sound Studios. The game was officially announced at the 1999E3convention inLos Angeles, CA.In Volume 3 Issue 1 of the Official US PlayStation Magazine, which was released in October 1999, the name \\\"Ripto\\\" originated from the Japanese katakana spelling of Spyro.The game was released in North America on November 2, 1999.Sony Computer Entertainment of America director of product development Ami Blaire stated, \\\"Spyro 2isn't just another sequel. Players will surely be lured by Spyro's playful antics, but they'll experience gameplay that's more challenging and more fun then ever before.\\\" Re-releases The game became available for download on the EuropeanPlayStation Networkon July 26, 2007,before its predecessor was released to the same market. Less than a week later, however, it was removed because the Colossus and Idol Springs levels failed to load. On April 17, 2008, it was released on the Japanese PlayStation Store. On May 7, 2009, the game became available for download from the North American PlayStation Store and a corrected version was re-released on the European PlayStation Store on December 12, 2012, although as theNTSCversion instead ofPAL.Spyro 2, alongside itspredecessorandsequel, received a remastered release with updated visuals on November 13, 2018 as part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogycompilation forPlayStation 4andXbox One. This compilation retains the game's North American name,Ripto's Rage!, as opposed to the title used for the original European and Australasian release,Gateway to Glimmer. Reception The game received favorable reviews according to thereview aggregationwebsiteGameRankings.However, Chris Kramer ofNextGensaid that the game \\\"feels like a kids' title, but it has more meat to it than the first, and the cute graphics may make your girlfriend finally stop cooing over those damnPokémon.\\\"In Japan, where the game was ported for release under the nameSpyro X Sparx: Tondemo Tours(スパイロ×スパークス トンでもツアーズ,Supairo × Supākusu Tondemo Tsuāzu)on March 16, 2000,Famitsugave it a score of 30 out of 40.GameProsaid of the game, \\\"If you simply loved the firstSpyro, or are very intrigued by the second, you can't go wrong withSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage. Once you get over its cute exterior, you'll find an excellent platform action/adventure game ripe with the goods that make gaming great.\\\" The game received a \\\"Gold\\\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association(ELSPA),indicating sales of at least 200,000 units in the UK. As of June 30, 2007, the game sold more than 3.4 million units. Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!received nominations for \\\"Console Children's/Family Title of the Year\\\", \\\"Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction\\\", and \\\"Outstanding Achievement in Animation\\\" during theAIAS'3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards; they were ultimately awarded toPokémon Snap(Children's/Family) andFinal Fantasy VIII(Art Direction, Animation). Notes References External links\",\n \"Tony Hawk's Pro Skater Tony Hawk's Pro Skater, released asTony Hawk's Skateboardingin the UK, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Europe, is a 1999skateboardingvideo gamedeveloped byNeversoftand published byActivision. It is the first installment in theTony Hawk'sseries. It was released for thePlayStationon September 29, 1999and was laterportedto theNintendo 64,Game Boy Color,Dreamcast, andN-Gage. Tony Hawk's Pro Skatertakes place in an urban environment permeated by an ambience ofpunk rockandska punkmusic. The player takes control of a variety of skateboarders and must complete missions by performingskateboarding tricksand collecting objects. The game offers several modes of gameplay, including a career mode in which the player must complete objectives and evolve their character's attributes, a single session, in which the player accumulates a high score within two minutes, a free skate mode in which the player may skate without any given objective, and a multiplayer mode that features a number of competitive games. Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas met with critical acclaim for all versions except theGame Boy Colorversion, which had a more mixed reception. The game resulted in a successful franchise, receiving eight annualized sequels developed by Neversoft fromPro Skater 2(2000) toProving Ground(2007). It is also credited with introducing skateboarding to a more mainstream global audience.It received a remakealong with the sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2, in 2020. Gameplay Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterputs the player in control of a skateboarder and takes place in a third-person view with a fixed camera. The goal of the game is to perform tricks and combinations thereof in an effort to increase the player's score. Movement can be altered using thed-padoranalog stick, andollies,grabs,flipsandgrindsare each assigned to individual buttons. Each skateboarder has eight grabs, eight grinds and eight flips. The number of points earned from a successful trick sequence is dependent on the amount of time spent in the air, the degree of rotation, and the number and variety of tricks performed; the more a single trick is performed in a sequence, the fewer points it will earn. When the player succeeds in performing tricks, a special gauge increases. When this gauge is full and flashing, the player is capable of performing a special trick that is worth many more points than ordinary tricks.If the player bails (falls off their skateboard), any points that may have been earned from the current combo are lost, and the special gauge is emptied. In the game's \\\"Career Mode\\\", the player must complete five objectives (represented byVHS tapes) in each level within a period of two minutes. The player is not obligated to complete all the objectives within a single run; any completed objective is committed to the game's memory, which allows other objectives to be completed within multiple playthroughs of a level. Two common objectives in each level are achieved by accumulating two defined scores, which gradually increases in difficulty throughout the game; while one other common objective is to collect letters of the word \\\"SKATE\\\". Another common objective is to destroy five of a certain object within each level. The fifth objective involves collecting a VHS tape hidden in the level. Completing objectives unlocks additional levels and equipment for use. Three of the mode's levels take place in a competition setting in which the player performs for judges and accumulates the highest score within three one-minute rounds. The player receives a bronze, silver or gold medal depending on the final score they are given. Other single-player modes include the \\\"Single Session\\\", in which the player can freely accumulate a high score within two minutes using any previously obtained levels and characters, and the \\\"Free Skate\\\", in which there is no time limit imposed. The multiplayer mode is played by two players in asplit screenview and offers three games: \\\"Graffiti\\\", \\\"Trick Attack\\\", and \\\"HORSE\\\". In \\\"Graffiti\\\", players must accumulate the highest score by changing level elements into their own color via the use of tricks. If a player performs a higher-scoring trick on an element that has already been marked, the element will change to that player's color. \\\"Trick Attack\\\" is a mode in which players must accumulate the highest score by chaining tricks together. \\\"HORSE\\\" is a game that isplayed intermittently between two players, who must compete in rounds lasting either eight seconds or until a trick has been made. The player with the lower score on any given turn receives a letter in the word \\\"HORSE\\\" or whatever word the players have generated prior to the game's start. The first player to accumulate the entire word loses. Featured pro skaters The game features a total of ten real life professional skateboarders, along with two unlockable original characters: Officer Dick and Private Carrera. Development Following the releases of arcade gameTop Skater(1997) bySegaand PlayStation gameStreet Sk8er(1998) byElectronic Arts,Activisionidentified skateboarding-simulation games as a growing market in the gaming industry and concluded that such a title would resonate with a young audience. Preceding Neversoft's involvement in the project, the task of developing a skateboarding title for Activision was given to another studio. However, this studio's attempt did not impress Activision and didn't move past the concept stage. The publisher then decided to entrust the project to Neversoft, which had recently completed the third-person shooter gameApocalypse(1998) within nine months. Although Neversoft had never developed a sports video game before, the development team was confident in its ability to accomplish the task before its given deadline of the 1999 Christmas season. During development, the Neversoft team would spend its lunch breaks at a bowling alley near the studio, where they would play and subsequently study from Sega'sTop Skaterin the arcade. The game's design served as a strong basic influence, along with observances of real skaters performing in theX Games, which were taking place during the game's development. Although the team decided early on thatTop Skater's linearity lacked the sense of fun they aimed for, the \\\"racetrack\\\" element was retained in two of the game's final levels. Contrary to subsequent titles in the series, Neversoft did not primarily focus on using pre-existing locations as reference for the game's level design, but simply envisioned potential skating areas such as a school or a city and incorporated elements such as ramps and rails to benefit the gameplay. The team consciously prioritized fun over realism in the approach to the game's level design and physics. The game's engine is a modified version of that of Neversoft's previous titleApocalypse, and the game's prototype usedBruce Willis's character from that game as the placeholder player character.Once the prototype reached a functional and demonstrable state, the Neversoft team realized that they would require a professional skateboarder to aid in the remainder of production. At the time,Tony Hawkhad been a popular figure within skateboarding for quite some time.In September 1998, Activision established contact with Hawk and arranged a meeting between him and Neversoft. Hawk was quickly impressed by the design team members' devotion to skateboarding, the controls and engine of their game's early build and agreed to lend his name and involvement to the production. Subsequently, Hawk would turn down Activision's offer of a one-time buyout for the permanent use of his name and likeness on the game in favor of a royalty deal in which Hawk would earn a percentage for every copy sold. As a result of the series' eventual success, Hawk would earn ten times Activision's initial offer within two years.By January 1999, Activision publicly announced their agreement with Hawk to include him in the game. Activision senior vice president Mitch Lasky, in an interview withGameSpot, stated that the character was meant \\\"to reflect Tony's signature style – an intense mix of acrobatics and hard-core technical skating\\\". Hawk remarked that \\\" always wanted to help create a video game that represented the reality and excitement of professional skateboarding\\\". Hawk would spend the development time periodically playing through the game's beta builds and providing feedback, using aspecially modifiedPlayStationconsole that can play games burned onCD-Rs. Hawk even went so far as to purposely send advanced copies of the game to a trusted group of people who also owned modchipped PlayStations: \\\"I had a modified PlayStation so I could use burned discs, and they'd send me new developments and we'd go back and forth. I'd let people play it, people that I trust. At one point, I felt it was getting so far along that I started to sneak out copies for those same people - these people had modded PlayStations. As subversive as that was, it started to create a buzz in the industry, because they were key players in the skating industry and they were also hardcore gamers\\\".He would also personally select a group of other professional skaters to include as playable characters based on their skills, personalities and diversity; each skater received a cut of the royalties and got to select their own attire and special tricks for the game.While animating the skaters, the design team largely depended on using available video footage as reference. The incorporation ofmotion capturewas attempted to aid in the realism of the animation, but due to the technology's infancy, the result was ultimately determined to have not translated as well as what had already been animated.The900featured in the game was itself drawn from footage of Hawk's famed performance of the feat in the X Games that summer, and was a relatively late addition as a result. The collection of VHS tapes was directly inspired by the collection of stars inSuper Mario 64(1996). In designing the objectives, the team would gather at a table, draw a level and then ask what could be done within said level, upon which the team members would provide ideas. Rejected concepts arising from these sessions include levels taking place on ahighwayand ajetty, and a scenario in which the player would lose a wheel and have to skate on three wheels.Manualswere originally intended to be implemented into the game, but were omitted due to time constraints; manuals would subsequently be included inTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2. Promotion and release Elissa Steamer's inclusion in the game, along with the game's final release date of September 29, was presented on August 26, 1999.A playable demo with only two available skaters was integrated into the Jampack Summer '99 compilation CD released byPlayStation Underground.The game was made available for pre-order two weeks prior to the game's release; those who pre-ordered the game atElectronics BoutiqueorFuncoLandrespectively received a miniature replica of Tony Hawk's Birdhouse skateboard, a sticker sheet featuring the game's ten professional skaters and a game tip on the back of each sticker.A second playable demo was included on a promotional compilation disc released byPizza Huton November 14. While Neversoft would begin development of the game's sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, shortly before the release of the first game,Activision would entrust the game's Nintendo 64 port toEdge of Reality, which had recently portedMonster Truck Madness 2to the same system.The Nintendo 64 and Game Boy Color versions received a multi-million dollar advertising campaign on several major youth-targeted channels in the United States beginning in April 2000. Customers who purchased the Game Boy Color version atToys \\\"R\\\" Usor FuncoLand received a special-edition miniature skateboard. As a result of the disappointing sales ofBlue Stinger, Activision was discouraged from publishing further titles for the Dreamcast and relinquished the distribution ofTony Hawk's Pro Skateron the console to Crave Entertainment.After online speculation and teasing comments from company insiders,a port for the Dreamcast was revealed to be developed byTreyarch.Later in 2003, the N-Gage version was in development.The game came bundled with theN-Gage QDthat was released in 2004. Ports The Nintendo 64 port ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas developed by Edge of Reality and released on March 15, 2000.While the port is largely faithful to the original version and retains all game modes, characters and levels, the soundtrack had been truncated and the voices were removed to accommodate the lessened space in the cartridge format. The blood effects had also been removed, so Nintendo could market the game with an \\\"E\\\" game rating.The Dreamcast version was developed by Treyarch, published by Crave Entertainment and released on May 24, 2000. The graphics and animations in the Dreamcast version are improved from those in the PlayStation version. The Game Boy Color version was developed by the Japanese company Natsume and released on March 30, 2000. The Game Boy Color version is an adaptation rather than a true port of the PlayStation version due to the limited capacity of the platform. The game offers two different gameplay styles: an overhead view with vertical scrolling, and a side-scrolling view in which there is a ramp on each side. There are four gameplay modes in which the player can only perform a few tricks. In \\\"Half Pipe Mode\\\", the player must attempt to achieve the highest score possible. \\\"Tournament Mode\\\" is a five-level vertically scrolling game in which the player must race against three computer-controlled skaters and achieve the highest rank. Jumps are made automatically when the player maneuvers onto ramps, and tricks are displayed as a brief static image. \\\"Versus Mode\\\" and \\\"Rival Mode\\\" are identical to \\\"Tournament Mode\\\", except the player plays in a single level against a single opponent; the opponent in \\\"Rival Mode\\\" is computer-controlled, while the opponent in \\\"Versus Mode\\\" is human, which necessitates the use of aGame Link Cable. The N-Gage version was developed by Ideaworks3D and released on October 13, 2003, a week following the launch of the N-Gage.The game is a faithful port of the PlayStation version and retains most of the characters, levels, control scheme and original music while adding levels fromTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2and two multiplayer games.The game's multiplayer functions via the N-Gage'sBluetoothfeature.The N-Gage version was named \\\"Best-Mobile Game\\\" by theBritish Academy of Film and Television Artsin 2004. A remakeof both the first game andTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, titledTony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2, was developed byVicarious Visionsand released on September 4, 2020, forPlayStation 4,Windows, andXbox One, followed up a year later onPlayStation 5,Xbox Series X/S, andNintendo Switch. The remake includes all of the original levels and skaters from the original games, but also includes improved skater creation and park creation modes, online multiplayer, and other new features, and featuring most of the original soundtracks, with a few exceptions due to licensing issues. Reception Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas met with critical acclaim. Doug Perry ofIGNpraised the game's \\\"imaginative, deep, and amazingly addictive\\\" gameplay, \\\"steady and consistent\\\" learning curve, \\\"intuitive and natural\\\" controls, large and complex levels, \\\"jaw-dropping\\\" physics and \\\"perfect\\\" soundtrack. Perry concluded that the game had \\\"captured the pure grit and radical feel of skateboarding, delivering it in near perfect form onto the PlayStation with a mastery and sense of programming finesse beyond anyone's imagination\\\", and described the game as \\\"that rare gem of a game that defies what other developers say can't be done\\\".Jeff GerstmannofGameSpotcommended the game's graphics, frame rate, camera and sound effects, and declared the game to be \\\"a worthy addition to anyone's PlayStation collection\\\", though he was not personally fond of the soundtrack and wished that there was more variety in the game's tricks.He additionally noted that the Dreamcast version used the console's hardware to its advantage by displaying clearer textures and a smoother frame rate \\\"that may very well cause longtime fans of the game to weep\\\".Chris Carle ofIGNalso praised the Dreamcast version's improved textures. Matt Casamassina ofIGNpraised the Nintendo 64 version's visuals as \\\"very impressive\\\" in spite of the reduced quality of the textures and the omitted full-motion video effects, and the audio as \\\"surprisingly clear\\\", albeit compressed and \\\"dumbed down\\\" to accommodate the cartridge format.Martin Taylor ofEurogamercited the game's graphics as \\\"crisp, smooth and very, very hard to fault\\\", but noted that the game's soundtrack suffered from the compression process and that the looping music \\\"quickly becomes incredibly annoying\\\";the latter sentiment was mirrored by Dr. Moo of Game Revolution. In reviewing the Game Boy Color version, Craig Harris ofIGNdecided that while the half-pipe portion of the game \\\"isn't half-bad\\\", the overhead portion is \\\"absolutely stupid\\\"; he criticized the representation of tricks as static images as \\\"completely destroy the flow of the game\\\", and noted that the issue is exacerbated in the \\\"Versus\\\" mode by having both parties' game pause when either one performs a trick.Frank Provo ofGameSpotcited the game's lack of level variety and \\\"borderline mediocre\\\" audio, but felt that it was the best skateboarding title to be made for a portable console.Both Chadd Chambers ofIGNand Jeff Gerstmann ofGameSpotconsidered the N-Gage version to be the best game available on the system and were relatively impressed by the game's graphics, but noted the less comfortable control scheme and reduced sound quality. Three reviewers forNext Generationmagazine - Blake Fischer, Eric Bratcher, and Greg Orlando - gave five stars out of five for PlayStation, Nintendo 64, and Dreamcast versions, respectively. They virtually praised every aspect of the game despite noting some minor differences between all three versions. Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas ranked #36 inGame Informer's \\\"Top 100 Games of All Time\\\" in its 100th issue in August 2001.The game was nominated for \\\"Console Game of the Year\\\" and \\\"Console Sports Game of the Year\\\" during the3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, but lost toSoulcaliburandKnockout Kings 2000, respectively.The game was included onPolygon's 2017 list ofThe 500 Best Games of All Time. Sales Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas the third highest-selling PlayStation title of November 1999 in the United States. From its release date to late-December 1999, the game shipped in excess of 350,000 units and was available in over 10,000 retailers nationwide.The PlayStation version ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterreceived a \\\"Platinum\\\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association(ELSPA),indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom.The Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland gave the PlayStation version a Gold Award for 100,000 sold copies in Germany by February 2000.The PlayStation versions ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterand its successor were respectively the third and second highest-selling console games of 2000.The Nintendo 64 version was the sixth highest-selling Nintendo 64 title in the United States during the week of November 19–26, 2000.As of 2001, it has sold 3.5 million units. Sequels The game resulted in a successful franchise, receiving eight annualized sequels developed by Neversoft fromPro Skater 2(2000) toProving Ground(2007), and a 2020 remake along with the sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2. Cultural impact Tony Hawk's Pro Skateris credited with introducing skateboarding to a more mainstream global audience. In a 2023 essay forThe New York Times MagazineIrish writer Jack Sheehan reflected on the game's impact writing, \\\"Released at a moment when skateboarding was beginning to go mainstream, T.H.P.S. became popular because it invited skaters and nonskaters alike to feel the thrill of getting air, doing a kick flip or landing a trick by the thinnest margin.\\\"In 2023, the bookRight, Down + Circle: Tony Hawk’s Pro Skaterby Cole Nowicki was released tackling and analyzingTony Hawk's Pro Skater's meaning and impact. Reflecting on both the game's development history and his personal experience as a skateboarder and player, Nowicki called the game an \\\"unprecedented success\\\" and a \\\"Trojan horse, entering the homes of millions worldwide, exposing kids, teenagers, their parents, and more to this gamified version of skateboarding.\\\" In 2020, a documentary filmPretending I'm Superman: The Tony Hawk Video Game Storyfrom Swedish director Ludvig Gür was released chronicling the development and impact of the game. Throughout the 2010s and 2020s the game's soundtrack was acknowledged as having been a major cultural influence in music, particularly in spreading punk and metal tomillennials. Notes References Further reading External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Spyro the Dragon Spyro the Dragonis a 1998platform gamedeveloped byInsomniac Gamesand published bySony Computer Entertainmentfor thePlayStation. The first game in theSpyroseries, it stars the title character, a young purpledragonnamedSpyro, and hisdragonflyfriend, Sparx, who must journey across the Dragon Kingdom to defeat Gnasty Gnorc, who has overtaken the five dragon Homeworlds by trapping the other dragons in crystal and turning their hoard of gems into an army of minions.Spyro the Dragonis an open-ended 3D platformer, featuring large, sprawling levels in which the player must locate collectable items, among which are gemstones, crystallized dragons, and stolen dragon eggs. Spyro's abilities as a dragon include fire breath, a head-on charging attack, and a mid-air glide which he can use to scale large distances, all of which must be used strategically to find items and defeat enemies. Spyro the Dragonstarted development following the release of Insomniac's debut game,Disruptor, which sold poorly but was","sold poorly but was generally praised by critics, impressingUniversal Interactiveenough to encourage them to make a second game. Artist Craig Stitt suggested a game about a dragon, and work began on a new game. Taking inspiration from the filmDragonheart, the game started out as a more mature title with a dark and realistic approach, but the direction was shifted to have a more whimsical and light-hearted tone to appeal to a wider market of consumers. The game was one of the first on the PlayStation to utilize shiftinglevels of detailamong rendered objects, thanks to a panoramic engine developed by Alex Hastings which allowed the game's open-ended nature to be fully realized.Stewart Copeland, the former drummer forThe Police, composed the game's music, and the titular character was voice acted byCarlos Alazraqui, alongside additional voices done byClancy Brown,Michael GoughandJamie Alcroft. Spyro the Dragonwas released by Sony Computer Entertainment as part of a general effort to reach out to a younger age","to a younger age demographic and compete with the more popular children's platform, theNintendo 64. Although sales were initially sluggish, it found larger success following the advent of the 1998 holiday season and went on to sell nearly five million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling PlayStation games. Critics praised the game's graphics and gameplay, while some noted its low difficulty level. The game established Spyro as a well-known platforming mascot on the PlayStation alongsideCrash Bandicoot, and two sequels, titledSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!andSpyro: Year of the Dragon, were later released for the PlayStation in 1999 and 2000, respectively. Although Insomniac gave up the development rights to theSpyroseries following the third game, the success of the PlayStation titles lent itself to a continued series of games across various platforms. The game, alongside its two successors, was later remade as part ofSpyro Reignited Trilogyin 2018. Gameplay Spyro the Dragonis a3D platform game;the","platform game;the player controlsthe titular characteras he ventures across the realms of the Dragon World to defeat the antagonistic Gnasty Gnorc, as well as rescue his fellow dragons and recover all of their stolen treasure.Worldsconsist of six dragon \"home worlds\",each of which acts as a dedicated hub, containing portals that serve as gateways to different levels.The player must progress from one Homeworld to the next by talking to aballoonist, who transports Spyro to the next world on ahot air balloonafter the player has found the required collectibles in the current given world.In addition to regular platforming stages, each Homeworld contains aboss fightand a hidden flight stage that involves flying throughout an environment and destroying a number of objects. The levels inSpyro the Dragonare open-ended, and they revolve around exploring and obtaining various collectible items to progress in the game.Each stage contains a number of crystallized dragons, whom Spyro must turn back to normal by locating","normal by locating and stepping on their statue bases. These dragons give the player advice on how to progress through the game, as well as their respective locations acting as save points after the dragon has been freed.Another important collectible in the game is the dragons' stolen treasure, which is dispersed throughout each level in the form of multicoloredgemstones. These gems are located in numerous different places, including inside enemies, breakable boxes, and treasure chests, and most stages contain a set amount of treasure to be found.There are also stolen dragon eggs that must be reclaimed by chasing and defeating thieves.Finding every collectible in the game unlocks an additional world that otherwise cannot be accessed. Spyro has two main offensive moves, which are used to attack enemies as well as destroy certain objects: charging, in which Spyro sprints forward and rams into things with his head, and breathing fire. These attacks must be used appropriately for certain enemies and situations;","and situations; for instance, some enemies carry fireproof metal armor, meaning that they can only be defeated by charging, while larger enemies can only be hit using fire breath, as they will immediately crush Spyro otherwise.Spyro can also use his wings to glide in midair, letting him travel further distances in the air and access areas otherwise unreachable via a regular jump.Throughout the game, Spyro is accompanied by Sparx, a yellow dragonfly who protects Spyro from taking damage and serves as the player's system ofhealth. Sparx's current health is represented by the color of his body; if Spyro is hurt by an obstacle, such as an enemy or by touching water, Sparx changes colors, with yellow, blue and green representing different subsequent amounts of withheld damage. If the player is damaged too many times, Sparx disappears, leaving Spyro vulnerable to losing a life if he is hurt again. Sparx can be rejuvenated by consumingbutterflies, which are found by killing passive creatures such assheepthat roam","assheepthat roam throughout most levels.Sparx also helps Spyro collect items by retrieving any gems that Spyro passes by. Plot In the world of dragons, the Dragon Kingdom consists of five Homeworlds – the Artisans, the Peace Keepers, the Magic Crafters, the Beast Makers, and the Dream Weavers – which have lived in harmony for many years.One day, a TV interview with a pair of dragons from the Artisan realm catches the attention of Gnasty Gnorc, a powerful gnorc (halfgnomeand halforc) who was banished from the kingdom due to his abrasive demeanor and sent to an abandoned junkyard, which he renames to \"Gnasty's World\".The dragons' openly dismissive and derisive commentary concerning Gnasty enrages him, driving him to unleash a full-fledged attack on the kingdom. Using his magic, he casts a spell across the land that encases every dragon in a crystal shell; he also steals the dragons' prized collection of treasure, turning the gemstones into devious gnorc soldiers and other creatures to help him take over the","him take over the dragon worlds.Spyro, a young purple dragon, is the only dragon that manages to avoid getting crystallized by the attack. Aided by his dragonfly companion, Sparx, Spyro eagerly sets out to locate and defeat Gnasty. Spyro visits each of the dragon homeworlds, defeating Gnasty's forces who have been set out to stop him. Along the way, he frees the crystallized dragons, who give him advice and urge him to recover any stolen treasure and dragon eggs along the way. He eventually makes his way to Gnasty's World, where he finally confronts and defeats Gnasty. After Spyro's quest is over, he has access to Gnasty's treasure portal, which can only be opened if Spyro rescues every dragon in the kingdom and recovers all of the dragons' treasure and retrieves the stolen dragon eggs. A secret ending can then be unlocked by retrieving everything inside of the treasure portal. In this ending, Spyro is seen getting interviewed on TV when another spell is placed on the dragons, prompting Spyro to set out on","Spyro to set out on yet another adventure. Development Concept Spyro the Dragonwas the second game developed byInsomniac Games,following the release of their first game,Disruptor, in December 1996. AlthoughDisruptorwas a commercial failure, its positive critical reception was enough to impressUniversal Interactive Studiosand encourage the team to continue with their next endeavor.The idea of a game about adragonwas introduced by Insomniac artist Craig Stitt, who suggested the concept out of his own interest in the mythical creature.Initially, the game's tone was far darker and more realistic; according to Insomniac's COO, John Fiorito, who joined the company in 1997 duringSpyro's development, inspiration was taken in part from the filmDragonHeart, and the game was initially \"realistic and kind of dark and gritty\" before it eventually took a more whimsical, light-hearted direction.Mark Cerny, an executive at Universal Interactive Studios and the game's producer,advised that the team create a game with more","a game with more mass market appeal, as the demographics of the PlayStation were decreasing and its selection of children's titles were greatly outnumbered by theNintendo 64's. According to programmer Peter Hastings, the dragon character was originally going to be named \"Pete\", but due to copyright concerns over similarities to theDisneyfilmPete's Dragon, the name was scrapped. After considering the name \"Pyro,\" which was ultimately considered \"too mature\", they finally settled on \"Spyro\".In-game dialogue was written by Peter Kleiner, and Spyro's character was designed byCharles Zembillas, who had previously done design work onCrash Bandicoot.Spyro was originally going to be green, but the developers worried he would blend in with grass, so they eventually changed him to purple.During development ofSpyro, Insomniac had a very close relationship withCrash Bandicootcreator and fellow PlayStation developerNaughty Dog, who had their office located directly across the hall from theirs. The two developers","The two developers frequently worked together, playing early builds of each other's games and later sharing game technology. As a result, a demo ofCrash Bandicoot: Warpedwas hidden inSpyro, and vice versa. Design Spyro the Dragonwas unique compared to other 3D platform games of the time; Spyro's ability to glide allowed him to travel long distances in the air, meaning that the player could cross almost an entire level if starting from a high enough point. While this made designing levels more difficult for the team, it also meant that levels could be made more open-ended and explorative in nature. To makeSpyro’s controls feel fluid, Matt Whiting—aNASAengineer who specialized in flight controls—was brought on to help with programming camera movement as well Spyro's movement controls. The game's camera was particularly challenging; initially, it always followed directly behind Spyro, but the resulting high-speed movements were found to make several playtesters feelnauseous. This was most evident with Spyro's","with Spyro's basic jump, which triggered the camera to quickly tilt up and down, compared by Whiting to the motion of a rocking boat; this was ultimately tweaked so that the camera would stay steady.Spyrowas coded with efficiency in mind, as 3D rendering technology was new at the time and the game had to fit the limited specifications of the PlayStation. Around 80% of the game's code was written usingAssembly, while other parts were programmed inCdue to its simplicity and speed. Graphics Spyro the Dragonmade use of a 3D panoramic engine, developed by Alex Hastings, that could display far-away objects by utilizing varyinglevels of detail, a method of rendering which was new and unexplored at the time. The developers believed that the engine would be fitting for the game, as it could allow for more expansive levels that could take advantage of the character's abilities, such as gliding.This dynamic system, used to complement the large and sprawling environments, generated two different versions of a level; one","of a level; one version rendered in high detail and the other a simpler, textureless render. Objects in the player's vicinity were drawn using the detailed render, whereas distant ones were drawn from the simple render. This system allowed objects to be displayed from far distances while adhering to the PlayStation's limited RAM capabilities; it was one of the first video games to make use of such a system. The game made extensive use of vertex shading to colour objects andprovide light and shade- with the smooth skies entirely reliant on the technique to depict clouds and other distant details without the use of textures. Base textures were intentionally kept relatively desaturated so as to prevent them from becoming oversaturated with use of the technique. Audio The game's music was composed and produced byStewart Copeland, formerly the drummer for the British bandThe Police. Copeland was given early builds of the game's levels, which he played through to get a feel for them and come up with a fitting","up with a fitting composition.He was also given game cheats such as invincibility so that he could have an easier time clearing levels. Copeland wrote four songs per day, all of which he further developed and polished the next day.According to Copeland, each song in the game was written to correspond to a specific level, but this correlation ultimately went unused.Copeland has looked back positively on his work onSpyro, calling the game's music some of his best compositions. Carlos Alazraquiprovided the voice of Spyro in the game, and additional voices were done byClancy Brown,Michael Gough,Jamie Alcroftand Michael Connor. Alazraqui explained in an issue ofElectronic Gaming Monthlythat he tried to make Spyro's voice sound like \"a kid at camp that everybody likes.\"Alazraqui did not continue in this role after the first game, being replaced byTom Kennyfor the sequels. Release Spyro the Dragonwas first unveiled at the 1998E3convention inAtlanta, Georgia.It was then later released in North America on September","on September 9, 1998, and in Europe on October 23 of the same year.According toSony Computer Entertainment's American Marketing Vice President, Andrew House, at a press party inLas Vegas, the game, along with other upcoming 4th quarter PlayStation releases such asCrash Bandicoot: Warped,A Bug's Life, andRugrats: Search for Reptar, was part of a general effort to appeal to a wider demographic of younger audiences and provide more games suited for younger players to compete with theNintendo 64, which had a far larger library of children's titles at the time compared to the PlayStation's largely adult-centric demographic.An advertisement campaign was pushed to promote the game, featuring a character from the game, Toasty the Sheep, protesting against the title character's actions against sheep. The campaign included TV commercials, featuring an actor in ananimatroniccostume of Toasty, and a promotional website,sheepagainstspyro.com.On August 16, 1999, SCEA announced that the game would be included as a part of","as a part of their \"Greatest Hits\" lineup of budgeted releases alongside other games such asCrash Bandicoot: Warped,Gran Turismo,Cool Boarders 3, andTwisted Metal III, and alongside the announcement of a price drop for the PlayStation console to compete with the highly anticipated launch of theSega Dreamcast.On December 12, 2012, the game was digitally re-released to thePlayStation Storetogether withSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!andSpyro: Year of the Dragon.A remake of the game, alongside its two sequels, was included as a part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogycompilation for thePlayStation 4andXbox Onein November 2018, followed by theNintendo SwitchandMicrosoft Windowsin September 2019. Sales According toSpyro's developers, sales were initially slow at the game's launch but quickly began picking up following the holiday season.In the week of November 29, 1998, it was the 3rd best-selling game in the UK, behindTomb RaiderandFIFA 99.At the 1999 Milia festival inCannes, it took home a \"Gold\" prize for revenues above","for revenues above €20,000,000 in theEuropean Unionduring the previous year.Spyro the Dragonreceived a \"Gold\" award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) by the end of August 1999,for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland.By December 1999, the game had sold 1,000,000 copies in North America.As of 2007, the title had gone on to sell a total of nearly 5,000,000 units. Reception Spyro the Dragoncurrently holds a score of 85% atGameRankings, based on an aggregate of 18 reviews.IGN's Craig Harris hailed it as the most fun 3D platformer he had played sinceCrash Bandicoot, writing \"Two claws up. Way up.\"Computer and Video Gamescalled the game \"easily the best 3D platform game on the PlayStation\", despite noting its largely child-friendly nature.Shawn Smith ofElectronic Gaming Monthlywrote that \"Spyrois to the PlayStation whatBanjo-Kazooieis to theNintendo 64\", and stated that it \"combines the two most-important aspects in any good game: graphics and","game: graphics and gameplay.\" Crispin Boyer, also ofElectronic Gaming Monthly, proclaimed that Spyro \"raises the bar\" for 3D platformers, and wrote that it had replacedGex 3D: Enter the Geckoas his favorite \"PS mascot game\".Joe Fielder ofGameSpotcalled the game \"a proficient, fully 3D platform game\" for the PlayStation, comparing it favorably to one of the more recent platformers on the system,Blasto, and proclaiming that it \"excels overBlastoin every way imaginable.\" Despite this, he wrote that the game \"only gets very, very high marks, instead of outrageously high marks\", citing its lack of high difficulty as the main factor that made it inferior to games likeSuper Mario 64andBanjo-Kazooie.Edgenamed it the best 3D platform game for the PlayStation, but criticized Spyro's limited abilities and said that the game was not as varied asSuper Mario 64. Critics lauded the game's presentation, specifically speaking praise for its graphics, technical performance, and Copeland's music done for the","music done for the game.GameProreviewer \"Slo Mo\" wrote that the game's graphics and animations gaveSpyro\"the look and feel of ananimated film\" while calling the in-game environments \"breathtaking\".Harris wrote that the game \"utilizes the PlayStation's hardware to the max\", and praised the quality of the in-game animations; he particularly praised the rescued dragons' talking animations, which he said gave the characters \"incredible personality.\"Fielder praised the game's dynamic lighting system and character designs, and noted \"a near-complete lack ofpop-up\" during gameplay.Sushi-X ofElectronic Gaming Monthlysaid that the graphics were \"among the finest\" on the PlayStation.AllGameeditor Scott Alan Marriott applauded the graphics, scenery, characters and control as some of the best on the PlayStation, if not the best at the time of the games release.Fielder spoke positively of Copeland's compositional work, calling it \"wonderfully atmospheric.\"Slo Mo described the music as having a \"catchy, mellow jazz-rock","mellow jazz-rock swing to it\" while also praising the voice work for its wide array of unique voices. Many critics held praise for the game's level design and controls, though some noted its simplicity and low difficulty level (with the exception of Tree Tops). Fielder called the level design \"exceptional\",while Boyer praised the levels for encouraging exploration among players.Sushi-X called the play controls \"perfectly tuned\" whilst Fielder wrote that they worked well both with and without theDualShock's analog stick, although Smith expressed that controls were unsuited for maneuvering in \"high-risk areas.\"The camera system received varying reactions, with Boyer praising it as one of the best in any 3D platformer and Fielder declaring that it fixed the common issues present in most other 3D platform games,while Harris criticized its lack of precision when following the player, stating that it \"tends to float around on a loose tether\", and highlighted the camera system as one of the game's only","of the game's only flaws.Fielder wrote that an overabundance of extra lives caused the game to feel \"like it was aimed at a younger or broader audience,\" holding the final boss and the bonus level as the only exceptions.Despite praisingSpyro, Sushi-X noted the game's \"lack of diversity\" in obstacles and objects leading to \"repetitive play.\" Boyer lamented that the common trope of collecting items, while still very fun inSpyro, was starting to become less interesting, while also criticizing the game's boss fights, calling them \"small, easy and decidedly unBoss-like.\" During the2nd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards,Spyro the Dragonwas named as a finalist by theAcademy of Interactive Arts & Sciencesfor \"Outstanding Achievement in Art/Graphics\", \"Console Action Game of the Year\", and \"Console Game of the Year\"; the first two awards went toBanjo-Kazooie, while the latter was won byThe Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time. Legacy The popularity ofSpyro the Dragonhelped to push the character of Spyro as a popular","Spyro as a popular platformingmascotfor the PlayStation alongsideCrash Bandicoot.It was the first game in what became an expansivevideo game series, spawning 2 more platforming sequels for the PlayStation –Ripto's RageandYear of the Dragon– released in 1999 and 2000, respectively. As of the year 2000, the series had sold more than 3.2 million copies in the U.S. and over 4 million copies worldwide.Insomniac stopped developing theSpyroseries afterYear of the Dragon, as it finished off their 4-game contract with Universal Interactive. Despite this, the series was continued across various different developers, and shifted to several other platforms besides PlayStation.Spyrobeing their first considerable success, Insomniac went on to develop several other successful video game franchises, including theRatchet & Clankseries of platform games and thefirst-person shooterseriesResistance.The game's rendering system, new and unheard of at the time, has gone on to be used in several other 3D video games. References","games. References External links","Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage! Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!, known asSpyro 2: Gateway to GlimmerinPAL regions, is a 1999platform gamedeveloped byInsomniac Gamesand published bySony Computer Entertainmentfor thePlayStation. It is the second game in the mainSpyroseries. A remake was released as part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogyin 2018. Gameplay Players controlSpyro the Dragonas he fights against various enemies and obstacles using his flame breath, charge attack, and glide abilities. His health is indicated by the color of his dragonfly partner, Sparx, who can replenish his health by eating butterflies. Bottled butterflies will both completely restore Sparx's health and give Spyro an extra life. The game is split up into three main hub worlds containing portals to various realms. In order to progress through the first two hub worlds, the player must acquire a talisman from each realm, which is awarded for reaching the end of the level, before facing the boss of each world. Each level also contains a certain number of orbs,","number of orbs, which can be earned by completing secondary tasks for particularNPCs, such as lighting a series of lamps or protecting characters from attacks. These orbs are required for opening some of the portals to certain levels, as well as progressing through the third hub world. Gems gathered throughout the game are required to pay fees Moneybags charges in order to progress through the game. As well as opening portals or granting access to certain areas, Moneybags also teaches Spyro three brand new abilities over the course of the game. Swimming lets Spyro dive underwater to reach submerged treasure and hidden tunnels, climbing lets Spyro climb up certain surfaces, and the headbash lets Spyro perform an overhead smashing attack which can break rocks and certain cages. In addition, each level has a power-up gate, activated after defeating a specific number of enemies in a level, which grants Spyro a temporary super-ability. The power-up can grant invulnerability or the abilities to fly, supercharge,","fly, supercharge, super flame, breathe ice, or super jump to reach high up areas. Characters and setting The only characters from the original game to return as main characters in this game areSpyro, the game's protagonist, and Sparx, his dragonfly sidekick. Sparx functions as the player's health meter, and assists the player in gathering gems. This game introduces new characters into the Spyro series, many of whom would appear in later games. Both Hunter and Moneybags make recurring appearances in the series, while Ripto would make more series appearances than any other antagonist, making him the key villain of the original series. The dragons of the previous installment have been replaced with an entirely new cast of characters, including fauns, satyrs, anthropomorphic animals, and robotic businessmen, among others. The world of Avalar is divided into three realms: the Summer Forest, the Autumn Plains, and the Winter Tundra. In every realm, there is a castle that, during the course of the storyline, is","the storyline, is captured by Ripto. Each realm features a number of different worlds, a speedway world, and a dungeon in which Ripto or his minions are hiding. Plot A few years after the defeat of Gnasty Gnorc,Spyro the Dragonand his dragonfly partner, Sparx, having had enough with the continuous raining in Artisans, decide to take avacationto Dragon Shores. Upon going through the portal, however, Spyro instead ends up in Glimmer, one of the many realms of the fantasy land of Avalar, having been summoned there by Elora the Faun, Hunter the Cheetah, and the Professor. They explain that one week prior, they were experimenting with a large portal device when they inadvertently summoned an angry, iron-fistedwarlockknown as Ripto, along with his minions Crush and Gulp. Pleased to find himself in a world without dragons, whom he views as pests, Ripto decided to conquer Avalar, prompting Elora and the others to deactivate the portal by scattering the mystical orbs powering it all across the realm. As Ripto and his","As Ripto and his henchmen leave to retrieve the orbs, Elora gets the idea to summon a dragon to fight against him, thus leading to Spyro's situation. After getting stranded in Avalar as a result of Ripto destroying the portal he came in through, Spyro agrees to help fight against him. During his quest, Spyro must travel through the various realms of Avalar and help the inhabitants with certain problems they are facing in order to receive their realm's talisman, which Spyro must use to undo Ripto's tyranny. He must also collect the orbs scattered across Avalar to empower portals and other various devices or spells, as well as gems to pay off the sleazy elitist bear, Moneybags for certain favors. Hunter the Cheetah helps out Spyro on certain missions with his athletic abilities, and the Professor does the same using his intellect. After collecting six talismans in Summer Forest, Spyro fights and defeats Crush, prompting Ripto and Gulp to retreat. The young dragon then pursues them to Autumn Plains, where he","Plains, where he collects eight more talismans before engaging and vanquishing Gulp in combat. Then, Ripto seemingly falls to his demise, and Elora and her friends repay Spyro by returning to Winter Tundra and reactivating the portal device to send him to Dragon Shores. However, Ripto reveals himself to be alive and steals the power crystal that was meant to power the portal, using it to create a new magic scepter (since Gulp ate the original in the intro). After collecting enough orbs, Spyro is able to confront Ripto; the warlock ironically perishes in a lake of lava which he himself created. With peace returned to Avalar, Elora and the others return all the gems that Moneybags had extorted from Spyro to fix the portal device, allowing him to take his long-awaited vacation to Dragon Shores. The game's epilogue, which is unlocked by completing the Skill Points list in the Guidebook, reveals what happened to various friends and enemies that Spyro encountered in Avalar, as well as moments such as Spyro and","such as Spyro and Elora missing their chance to kiss, Crush being taught by the Professor how to spell, and a list of dummied enemies that didn't make it into the game. In the end, Spyro returns to the Dragon Realm, with Hunter joining him, setting the stage for thenext game. Development The sequel toSpyro the Dragonwas tentatively titledSpyro the Dragon 2during its pre-production phase.According to Ted Price,Insomniac'spresident and founder, the game was designed to provide a \"greater challenge\" for experienced players, as it was made to have greater depth and more gameplay variety thanSpyro the Dragon.The music forSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!was composed byStewart Copelandand was engineered and co-produced by Jeff Seitz. The character Spyro is voiced byTom Kenny, replacingCarlos Alazraquifrom the first game, while additional voices are provided by Kenny,Gregg Berger,Melissa Disney,Milton James, Mary Linda Phillips andMarcelo Tubert. The game's sound effects were created by Mike Gollom, Harry Woolway and Ron","Woolway and Ron Horwitz of Universal Sound Studios. The game was officially announced at the 1999E3convention inLos Angeles, CA.In Volume 3 Issue 1 of the Official US PlayStation Magazine, which was released in October 1999, the name \"Ripto\" originated from the Japanese katakana spelling of Spyro.The game was released in North America on November 2, 1999.Sony Computer Entertainment of America director of product development Ami Blaire stated, \"Spyro 2isn't just another sequel. Players will surely be lured by Spyro's playful antics, but they'll experience gameplay that's more challenging and more fun then ever before.\" Re-releases The game became available for download on the EuropeanPlayStation Networkon July 26, 2007,before its predecessor was released to the same market. Less than a week later, however, it was removed because the Colossus and Idol Springs levels failed to load. On April 17, 2008, it was released on the Japanese PlayStation Store. On May 7, 2009, the game became available for download from","for download from the North American PlayStation Store and a corrected version was re-released on the European PlayStation Store on December 12, 2012, although as theNTSCversion instead ofPAL.Spyro 2, alongside itspredecessorandsequel, received a remastered release with updated visuals on November 13, 2018 as part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogycompilation forPlayStation 4andXbox One. This compilation retains the game's North American name,Ripto's Rage!, as opposed to the title used for the original European and Australasian release,Gateway to Glimmer. Reception The game received favorable reviews according to thereview aggregationwebsiteGameRankings.However, Chris Kramer ofNextGensaid that the game \"feels like a kids' title, but it has more meat to it than the first, and the cute graphics may make your girlfriend finally stop cooing over those damnPokémon.\"In Japan, where the game was ported for release under the nameSpyro X Sparx: Tondemo Tours(スパイロ×スパークス トンでもツアーズ,Supairo × Supākusu Tondemo Tsuāzu)on March","Tsuāzu)on March 16, 2000,Famitsugave it a score of 30 out of 40.GameProsaid of the game, \"If you simply loved the firstSpyro, or are very intrigued by the second, you can't go wrong withSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage. Once you get over its cute exterior, you'll find an excellent platform action/adventure game ripe with the goods that make gaming great.\" The game received a \"Gold\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association(ELSPA),indicating sales of at least 200,000 units in the UK. As of June 30, 2007, the game sold more than 3.4 million units. Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!received nominations for \"Console Children's/Family Title of the Year\", \"Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction\", and \"Outstanding Achievement in Animation\" during theAIAS'3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards; they were ultimately awarded toPokémon Snap(Children's/Family) andFinal Fantasy VIII(Art Direction, Animation). Notes References External links","Tony Hawk's Pro Skater Tony Hawk's Pro Skater, released asTony Hawk's Skateboardingin the UK, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Europe, is a 1999skateboardingvideo gamedeveloped byNeversoftand published byActivision. It is the first installment in theTony Hawk'sseries. It was released for thePlayStationon September 29, 1999and was laterportedto theNintendo 64,Game Boy Color,Dreamcast, andN-Gage. Tony Hawk's Pro Skatertakes place in an urban environment permeated by an ambience ofpunk rockandska punkmusic. The player takes control of a variety of skateboarders and must complete missions by performingskateboarding tricksand collecting objects. The game offers several modes of gameplay, including a career mode in which the player must complete objectives and evolve their character's attributes, a single session, in which the player accumulates a high score within two minutes, a free skate mode in which the player may skate without any given objective, and a multiplayer mode that features a number of","a number of competitive games. Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas met with critical acclaim for all versions except theGame Boy Colorversion, which had a more mixed reception. The game resulted in a successful franchise, receiving eight annualized sequels developed by Neversoft fromPro Skater 2(2000) toProving Ground(2007). It is also credited with introducing skateboarding to a more mainstream global audience.It received a remakealong with the sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2, in 2020. Gameplay Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterputs the player in control of a skateboarder and takes place in a third-person view with a fixed camera. The goal of the game is to perform tricks and combinations thereof in an effort to increase the player's score. Movement can be altered using thed-padoranalog stick, andollies,grabs,flipsandgrindsare each assigned to individual buttons. Each skateboarder has eight grabs, eight grinds and eight flips. The number of points earned from a successful trick sequence is dependent on the amount of time","the amount of time spent in the air, the degree of rotation, and the number and variety of tricks performed; the more a single trick is performed in a sequence, the fewer points it will earn. When the player succeeds in performing tricks, a special gauge increases. When this gauge is full and flashing, the player is capable of performing a special trick that is worth many more points than ordinary tricks.If the player bails (falls off their skateboard), any points that may have been earned from the current combo are lost, and the special gauge is emptied. In the game's \"Career Mode\", the player must complete five objectives (represented byVHS tapes) in each level within a period of two minutes. The player is not obligated to complete all the objectives within a single run; any completed objective is committed to the game's memory, which allows other objectives to be completed within multiple playthroughs of a level. Two common objectives in each level are achieved by accumulating two defined scores, which","scores, which gradually increases in difficulty throughout the game; while one other common objective is to collect letters of the word \"SKATE\". Another common objective is to destroy five of a certain object within each level. The fifth objective involves collecting a VHS tape hidden in the level. Completing objectives unlocks additional levels and equipment for use. Three of the mode's levels take place in a competition setting in which the player performs for judges and accumulates the highest score within three one-minute rounds. The player receives a bronze, silver or gold medal depending on the final score they are given. Other single-player modes include the \"Single Session\", in which the player can freely accumulate a high score within two minutes using any previously obtained levels and characters, and the \"Free Skate\", in which there is no time limit imposed. The multiplayer mode is played by two players in asplit screenview and offers three games: \"Graffiti\", \"Trick Attack\", and \"HORSE\". In","and \"HORSE\". In \"Graffiti\", players must accumulate the highest score by changing level elements into their own color via the use of tricks. If a player performs a higher-scoring trick on an element that has already been marked, the element will change to that player's color. \"Trick Attack\" is a mode in which players must accumulate the highest score by chaining tricks together. \"HORSE\" is a game that isplayed intermittently between two players, who must compete in rounds lasting either eight seconds or until a trick has been made. The player with the lower score on any given turn receives a letter in the word \"HORSE\" or whatever word the players have generated prior to the game's start. The first player to accumulate the entire word loses. Featured pro skaters The game features a total of ten real life professional skateboarders, along with two unlockable original characters: Officer Dick and Private Carrera. Development Following the releases of arcade gameTop Skater(1997) bySegaand PlayStation gameStreet","gameStreet Sk8er(1998) byElectronic Arts,Activisionidentified skateboarding-simulation games as a growing market in the gaming industry and concluded that such a title would resonate with a young audience. Preceding Neversoft's involvement in the project, the task of developing a skateboarding title for Activision was given to another studio. However, this studio's attempt did not impress Activision and didn't move past the concept stage. The publisher then decided to entrust the project to Neversoft, which had recently completed the third-person shooter gameApocalypse(1998) within nine months. Although Neversoft had never developed a sports video game before, the development team was confident in its ability to accomplish the task before its given deadline of the 1999 Christmas season. During development, the Neversoft team would spend its lunch breaks at a bowling alley near the studio, where they would play and subsequently study from Sega'sTop Skaterin the arcade. The game's design served as a strong","served as a strong basic influence, along with observances of real skaters performing in theX Games, which were taking place during the game's development. Although the team decided early on thatTop Skater's linearity lacked the sense of fun they aimed for, the \"racetrack\" element was retained in two of the game's final levels. Contrary to subsequent titles in the series, Neversoft did not primarily focus on using pre-existing locations as reference for the game's level design, but simply envisioned potential skating areas such as a school or a city and incorporated elements such as ramps and rails to benefit the gameplay. The team consciously prioritized fun over realism in the approach to the game's level design and physics. The game's engine is a modified version of that of Neversoft's previous titleApocalypse, and the game's prototype usedBruce Willis's character from that game as the placeholder player character.Once the prototype reached a functional and demonstrable state, the Neversoft team realized","team realized that they would require a professional skateboarder to aid in the remainder of production. At the time,Tony Hawkhad been a popular figure within skateboarding for quite some time.In September 1998, Activision established contact with Hawk and arranged a meeting between him and Neversoft. Hawk was quickly impressed by the design team members' devotion to skateboarding, the controls and engine of their game's early build and agreed to lend his name and involvement to the production. Subsequently, Hawk would turn down Activision's offer of a one-time buyout for the permanent use of his name and likeness on the game in favor of a royalty deal in which Hawk would earn a percentage for every copy sold. As a result of the series' eventual success, Hawk would earn ten times Activision's initial offer within two years.By January 1999, Activision publicly announced their agreement with Hawk to include him in the game. Activision senior vice president Mitch Lasky, in an interview withGameSpot, stated that","stated that the character was meant \"to reflect Tony's signature style – an intense mix of acrobatics and hard-core technical skating\". Hawk remarked that \" always wanted to help create a video game that represented the reality and excitement of professional skateboarding\". Hawk would spend the development time periodically playing through the game's beta builds and providing feedback, using aspecially modifiedPlayStationconsole that can play games burned onCD-Rs. Hawk even went so far as to purposely send advanced copies of the game to a trusted group of people who also owned modchipped PlayStations: \"I had a modified PlayStation so I could use burned discs, and they'd send me new developments and we'd go back and forth. I'd let people play it, people that I trust. At one point, I felt it was getting so far along that I started to sneak out copies for those same people - these people had modded PlayStations. As subversive as that was, it started to create a buzz in the industry, because they were key","they were key players in the skating industry and they were also hardcore gamers\".He would also personally select a group of other professional skaters to include as playable characters based on their skills, personalities and diversity; each skater received a cut of the royalties and got to select their own attire and special tricks for the game.While animating the skaters, the design team largely depended on using available video footage as reference. The incorporation ofmotion capturewas attempted to aid in the realism of the animation, but due to the technology's infancy, the result was ultimately determined to have not translated as well as what had already been animated.The900featured in the game was itself drawn from footage of Hawk's famed performance of the feat in the X Games that summer, and was a relatively late addition as a result. The collection of VHS tapes was directly inspired by the collection of stars inSuper Mario 64(1996). In designing the objectives, the team would gather at a table,","gather at a table, draw a level and then ask what could be done within said level, upon which the team members would provide ideas. Rejected concepts arising from these sessions include levels taking place on ahighwayand ajetty, and a scenario in which the player would lose a wheel and have to skate on three wheels.Manualswere originally intended to be implemented into the game, but were omitted due to time constraints; manuals would subsequently be included inTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2. Promotion and release Elissa Steamer's inclusion in the game, along with the game's final release date of September 29, was presented on August 26, 1999.A playable demo with only two available skaters was integrated into the Jampack Summer '99 compilation CD released byPlayStation Underground.The game was made available for pre-order two weeks prior to the game's release; those who pre-ordered the game atElectronics BoutiqueorFuncoLandrespectively received a miniature replica of Tony Hawk's Birdhouse skateboard, a sticker","a sticker sheet featuring the game's ten professional skaters and a game tip on the back of each sticker.A second playable demo was included on a promotional compilation disc released byPizza Huton November 14. While Neversoft would begin development of the game's sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, shortly before the release of the first game,Activision would entrust the game's Nintendo 64 port toEdge of Reality, which had recently portedMonster Truck Madness 2to the same system.The Nintendo 64 and Game Boy Color versions received a multi-million dollar advertising campaign on several major youth-targeted channels in the United States beginning in April 2000. Customers who purchased the Game Boy Color version atToys \"R\" Usor FuncoLand received a special-edition miniature skateboard. As a result of the disappointing sales ofBlue Stinger, Activision was discouraged from publishing further titles for the Dreamcast and relinquished the distribution ofTony Hawk's Pro Skateron the console to Crave","console to Crave Entertainment.After online speculation and teasing comments from company insiders,a port for the Dreamcast was revealed to be developed byTreyarch.Later in 2003, the N-Gage version was in development.The game came bundled with theN-Gage QDthat was released in 2004. Ports The Nintendo 64 port ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas developed by Edge of Reality and released on March 15, 2000.While the port is largely faithful to the original version and retains all game modes, characters and levels, the soundtrack had been truncated and the voices were removed to accommodate the lessened space in the cartridge format. The blood effects had also been removed, so Nintendo could market the game with an \"E\" game rating.The Dreamcast version was developed by Treyarch, published by Crave Entertainment and released on May 24, 2000. The graphics and animations in the Dreamcast version are improved from those in the PlayStation version. The Game Boy Color version was developed by the Japanese company Natsume and","company Natsume and released on March 30, 2000. The Game Boy Color version is an adaptation rather than a true port of the PlayStation version due to the limited capacity of the platform. The game offers two different gameplay styles: an overhead view with vertical scrolling, and a side-scrolling view in which there is a ramp on each side. There are four gameplay modes in which the player can only perform a few tricks. In \"Half Pipe Mode\", the player must attempt to achieve the highest score possible. \"Tournament Mode\" is a five-level vertically scrolling game in which the player must race against three computer-controlled skaters and achieve the highest rank. Jumps are made automatically when the player maneuvers onto ramps, and tricks are displayed as a brief static image. \"Versus Mode\" and \"Rival Mode\" are identical to \"Tournament Mode\", except the player plays in a single level against a single opponent; the opponent in \"Rival Mode\" is computer-controlled, while the opponent in \"Versus Mode\" is human,","Mode\" is human, which necessitates the use of aGame Link Cable. The N-Gage version was developed by Ideaworks3D and released on October 13, 2003, a week following the launch of the N-Gage.The game is a faithful port of the PlayStation version and retains most of the characters, levels, control scheme and original music while adding levels fromTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2and two multiplayer games.The game's multiplayer functions via the N-Gage'sBluetoothfeature.The N-Gage version was named \"Best-Mobile Game\" by theBritish Academy of Film and Television Artsin 2004. A remakeof both the first game andTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, titledTony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2, was developed byVicarious Visionsand released on September 4, 2020, forPlayStation 4,Windows, andXbox One, followed up a year later onPlayStation 5,Xbox Series X/S, andNintendo Switch. The remake includes all of the original levels and skaters from the original games, but also includes improved skater creation and park creation modes, online multiplayer, and","multiplayer, and other new features, and featuring most of the original soundtracks, with a few exceptions due to licensing issues. Reception Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas met with critical acclaim. Doug Perry ofIGNpraised the game's \"imaginative, deep, and amazingly addictive\" gameplay, \"steady and consistent\" learning curve, \"intuitive and natural\" controls, large and complex levels, \"jaw-dropping\" physics and \"perfect\" soundtrack. Perry concluded that the game had \"captured the pure grit and radical feel of skateboarding, delivering it in near perfect form onto the PlayStation with a mastery and sense of programming finesse beyond anyone's imagination\", and described the game as \"that rare gem of a game that defies what other developers say can't be done\".Jeff GerstmannofGameSpotcommended the game's graphics, frame rate, camera and sound effects, and declared the game to be \"a worthy addition to anyone's PlayStation collection\", though he was not personally fond of the soundtrack and wished that there was","that there was more variety in the game's tricks.He additionally noted that the Dreamcast version used the console's hardware to its advantage by displaying clearer textures and a smoother frame rate \"that may very well cause longtime fans of the game to weep\".Chris Carle ofIGNalso praised the Dreamcast version's improved textures. Matt Casamassina ofIGNpraised the Nintendo 64 version's visuals as \"very impressive\" in spite of the reduced quality of the textures and the omitted full-motion video effects, and the audio as \"surprisingly clear\", albeit compressed and \"dumbed down\" to accommodate the cartridge format.Martin Taylor ofEurogamercited the game's graphics as \"crisp, smooth and very, very hard to fault\", but noted that the game's soundtrack suffered from the compression process and that the looping music \"quickly becomes incredibly annoying\";the latter sentiment was mirrored by Dr. Moo of Game Revolution. In reviewing the Game Boy Color version, Craig Harris ofIGNdecided that while the half-pipe","while the half-pipe portion of the game \"isn't half-bad\", the overhead portion is \"absolutely stupid\"; he criticized the representation of tricks as static images as \"completely destroy the flow of the game\", and noted that the issue is exacerbated in the \"Versus\" mode by having both parties' game pause when either one performs a trick.Frank Provo ofGameSpotcited the game's lack of level variety and \"borderline mediocre\" audio, but felt that it was the best skateboarding title to be made for a portable console.Both Chadd Chambers ofIGNand Jeff Gerstmann ofGameSpotconsidered the N-Gage version to be the best game available on the system and were relatively impressed by the game's graphics, but noted the less comfortable control scheme and reduced sound quality. Three reviewers forNext Generationmagazine - Blake Fischer, Eric Bratcher, and Greg Orlando - gave five stars out of five for PlayStation, Nintendo 64, and Dreamcast versions, respectively. They virtually praised every aspect of the game despite noting","game despite noting some minor differences between all three versions. Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas ranked #36 inGame Informer's \"Top 100 Games of All Time\" in its 100th issue in August 2001.The game was nominated for \"Console Game of the Year\" and \"Console Sports Game of the Year\" during the3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, but lost toSoulcaliburandKnockout Kings 2000, respectively.The game was included onPolygon's 2017 list ofThe 500 Best Games of All Time. Sales Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas the third highest-selling PlayStation title of November 1999 in the United States. From its release date to late-December 1999, the game shipped in excess of 350,000 units and was available in over 10,000 retailers nationwide.The PlayStation version ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterreceived a \"Platinum\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association(ELSPA),indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom.The Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland gave the PlayStation","the PlayStation version a Gold Award for 100,000 sold copies in Germany by February 2000.The PlayStation versions ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterand its successor were respectively the third and second highest-selling console games of 2000.The Nintendo 64 version was the sixth highest-selling Nintendo 64 title in the United States during the week of November 19–26, 2000.As of 2001, it has sold 3.5 million units. Sequels The game resulted in a successful franchise, receiving eight annualized sequels developed by Neversoft fromPro Skater 2(2000) toProving Ground(2007), and a 2020 remake along with the sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2. Cultural impact Tony Hawk's Pro Skateris credited with introducing skateboarding to a more mainstream global audience. In a 2023 essay forThe New York Times MagazineIrish writer Jack Sheehan reflected on the game's impact writing, \"Released at a moment when skateboarding was beginning to go mainstream, T.H.P.S. became popular because it invited skaters and nonskaters alike to feel","alike to feel the thrill of getting air, doing a kick flip or landing a trick by the thinnest margin.\"In 2023, the bookRight, Down + Circle: Tony Hawk’s Pro Skaterby Cole Nowicki was released tackling and analyzingTony Hawk's Pro Skater's meaning and impact. Reflecting on both the game's development history and his personal experience as a skateboarder and player, Nowicki called the game an \"unprecedented success\" and a \"Trojan horse, entering the homes of millions worldwide, exposing kids, teenagers, their parents, and more to this gamified version of skateboarding.\" In 2020, a documentary filmPretending I'm Superman: The Tony Hawk Video Game Storyfrom Swedish director Ludvig Gür was released chronicling the development and impact of the game. Throughout the 2010s and 2020s the game's soundtrack was acknowledged as having been a major cultural influence in music, particularly in spreading punk and metal tomillennials. Notes References Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Spyro the Dragon Spyro the Dragonis a 1998platform gamedeveloped byInsomniac Gamesand published bySony Computer Entertainmentfor thePlayStation. The first game in theSpyroseries, it stars the title character, a young purpledragonnamedSpyro, and hisdragonflyfriend, Sparx, who must journey across the Dragon Kingdom to defeat Gnasty Gnorc, who has overtaken the five dragon Homeworlds by trapping the other dragons in crystal and turning their hoard of gems into an army of minions.Spyro the Dragonis an open-ended 3D platformer, featuring large, sprawling levels in which the player must locate collectable items, among which are gemstones, crystallized dragons, and stolen dragon eggs. Spyro's abilities as a dragon include fire breath, a head-on charging attack, and a mid-air glide which he can use to scale large distances, all of which must be used strategically to find items and defeat enemies. Spyro the Dragonstarted development following the release of Insomniac's debut game,Disruptor, which sold poorly but was\",\n \"sold poorly but was generally praised by critics, impressingUniversal Interactiveenough to encourage them to make a second game. Artist Craig Stitt suggested a game about a dragon, and work began on a new game. Taking inspiration from the filmDragonheart, the game started out as a more mature title with a dark and realistic approach, but the direction was shifted to have a more whimsical and light-hearted tone to appeal to a wider market of consumers. The game was one of the first on the PlayStation to utilize shiftinglevels of detailamong rendered objects, thanks to a panoramic engine developed by Alex Hastings which allowed the game's open-ended nature to be fully realized.Stewart Copeland, the former drummer forThe Police, composed the game's music, and the titular character was voice acted byCarlos Alazraqui, alongside additional voices done byClancy Brown,Michael GoughandJamie Alcroft. Spyro the Dragonwas released by Sony Computer Entertainment as part of a general effort to reach out to a younger age\",\n \"to a younger age demographic and compete with the more popular children's platform, theNintendo 64. Although sales were initially sluggish, it found larger success following the advent of the 1998 holiday season and went on to sell nearly five million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling PlayStation games. Critics praised the game's graphics and gameplay, while some noted its low difficulty level. The game established Spyro as a well-known platforming mascot on the PlayStation alongsideCrash Bandicoot, and two sequels, titledSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!andSpyro: Year of the Dragon, were later released for the PlayStation in 1999 and 2000, respectively. Although Insomniac gave up the development rights to theSpyroseries following the third game, the success of the PlayStation titles lent itself to a continued series of games across various platforms. The game, alongside its two successors, was later remade as part ofSpyro Reignited Trilogyin 2018. Gameplay Spyro the Dragonis a3D platform game;the\",\n \"platform game;the player controlsthe titular characteras he ventures across the realms of the Dragon World to defeat the antagonistic Gnasty Gnorc, as well as rescue his fellow dragons and recover all of their stolen treasure.Worldsconsist of six dragon \\\"home worlds\\\",each of which acts as a dedicated hub, containing portals that serve as gateways to different levels.The player must progress from one Homeworld to the next by talking to aballoonist, who transports Spyro to the next world on ahot air balloonafter the player has found the required collectibles in the current given world.In addition to regular platforming stages, each Homeworld contains aboss fightand a hidden flight stage that involves flying throughout an environment and destroying a number of objects. The levels inSpyro the Dragonare open-ended, and they revolve around exploring and obtaining various collectible items to progress in the game.Each stage contains a number of crystallized dragons, whom Spyro must turn back to normal by locating\",\n \"normal by locating and stepping on their statue bases. These dragons give the player advice on how to progress through the game, as well as their respective locations acting as save points after the dragon has been freed.Another important collectible in the game is the dragons' stolen treasure, which is dispersed throughout each level in the form of multicoloredgemstones. These gems are located in numerous different places, including inside enemies, breakable boxes, and treasure chests, and most stages contain a set amount of treasure to be found.There are also stolen dragon eggs that must be reclaimed by chasing and defeating thieves.Finding every collectible in the game unlocks an additional world that otherwise cannot be accessed. Spyro has two main offensive moves, which are used to attack enemies as well as destroy certain objects: charging, in which Spyro sprints forward and rams into things with his head, and breathing fire. These attacks must be used appropriately for certain enemies and situations;\",\n \"and situations; for instance, some enemies carry fireproof metal armor, meaning that they can only be defeated by charging, while larger enemies can only be hit using fire breath, as they will immediately crush Spyro otherwise.Spyro can also use his wings to glide in midair, letting him travel further distances in the air and access areas otherwise unreachable via a regular jump.Throughout the game, Spyro is accompanied by Sparx, a yellow dragonfly who protects Spyro from taking damage and serves as the player's system ofhealth. Sparx's current health is represented by the color of his body; if Spyro is hurt by an obstacle, such as an enemy or by touching water, Sparx changes colors, with yellow, blue and green representing different subsequent amounts of withheld damage. If the player is damaged too many times, Sparx disappears, leaving Spyro vulnerable to losing a life if he is hurt again. Sparx can be rejuvenated by consumingbutterflies, which are found by killing passive creatures such assheepthat roam\",\n \"assheepthat roam throughout most levels.Sparx also helps Spyro collect items by retrieving any gems that Spyro passes by. Plot In the world of dragons, the Dragon Kingdom consists of five Homeworlds – the Artisans, the Peace Keepers, the Magic Crafters, the Beast Makers, and the Dream Weavers – which have lived in harmony for many years.One day, a TV interview with a pair of dragons from the Artisan realm catches the attention of Gnasty Gnorc, a powerful gnorc (halfgnomeand halforc) who was banished from the kingdom due to his abrasive demeanor and sent to an abandoned junkyard, which he renames to \\\"Gnasty's World\\\".The dragons' openly dismissive and derisive commentary concerning Gnasty enrages him, driving him to unleash a full-fledged attack on the kingdom. Using his magic, he casts a spell across the land that encases every dragon in a crystal shell; he also steals the dragons' prized collection of treasure, turning the gemstones into devious gnorc soldiers and other creatures to help him take over the\",\n \"him take over the dragon worlds.Spyro, a young purple dragon, is the only dragon that manages to avoid getting crystallized by the attack. Aided by his dragonfly companion, Sparx, Spyro eagerly sets out to locate and defeat Gnasty. Spyro visits each of the dragon homeworlds, defeating Gnasty's forces who have been set out to stop him. Along the way, he frees the crystallized dragons, who give him advice and urge him to recover any stolen treasure and dragon eggs along the way. He eventually makes his way to Gnasty's World, where he finally confronts and defeats Gnasty. After Spyro's quest is over, he has access to Gnasty's treasure portal, which can only be opened if Spyro rescues every dragon in the kingdom and recovers all of the dragons' treasure and retrieves the stolen dragon eggs. A secret ending can then be unlocked by retrieving everything inside of the treasure portal. In this ending, Spyro is seen getting interviewed on TV when another spell is placed on the dragons, prompting Spyro to set out on\",\n \"Spyro to set out on yet another adventure. Development Concept Spyro the Dragonwas the second game developed byInsomniac Games,following the release of their first game,Disruptor, in December 1996. AlthoughDisruptorwas a commercial failure, its positive critical reception was enough to impressUniversal Interactive Studiosand encourage the team to continue with their next endeavor.The idea of a game about adragonwas introduced by Insomniac artist Craig Stitt, who suggested the concept out of his own interest in the mythical creature.Initially, the game's tone was far darker and more realistic; according to Insomniac's COO, John Fiorito, who joined the company in 1997 duringSpyro's development, inspiration was taken in part from the filmDragonHeart, and the game was initially \\\"realistic and kind of dark and gritty\\\" before it eventually took a more whimsical, light-hearted direction.Mark Cerny, an executive at Universal Interactive Studios and the game's producer,advised that the team create a game with more\",\n \"a game with more mass market appeal, as the demographics of the PlayStation were decreasing and its selection of children's titles were greatly outnumbered by theNintendo 64's. According to programmer Peter Hastings, the dragon character was originally going to be named \\\"Pete\\\", but due to copyright concerns over similarities to theDisneyfilmPete's Dragon, the name was scrapped. After considering the name \\\"Pyro,\\\" which was ultimately considered \\\"too mature\\\", they finally settled on \\\"Spyro\\\".In-game dialogue was written by Peter Kleiner, and Spyro's character was designed byCharles Zembillas, who had previously done design work onCrash Bandicoot.Spyro was originally going to be green, but the developers worried he would blend in with grass, so they eventually changed him to purple.During development ofSpyro, Insomniac had a very close relationship withCrash Bandicootcreator and fellow PlayStation developerNaughty Dog, who had their office located directly across the hall from theirs. The two developers\",\n \"The two developers frequently worked together, playing early builds of each other's games and later sharing game technology. As a result, a demo ofCrash Bandicoot: Warpedwas hidden inSpyro, and vice versa. Design Spyro the Dragonwas unique compared to other 3D platform games of the time; Spyro's ability to glide allowed him to travel long distances in the air, meaning that the player could cross almost an entire level if starting from a high enough point. While this made designing levels more difficult for the team, it also meant that levels could be made more open-ended and explorative in nature. To makeSpyro’s controls feel fluid, Matt Whiting—aNASAengineer who specialized in flight controls—was brought on to help with programming camera movement as well Spyro's movement controls. The game's camera was particularly challenging; initially, it always followed directly behind Spyro, but the resulting high-speed movements were found to make several playtesters feelnauseous. This was most evident with Spyro's\",\n \"with Spyro's basic jump, which triggered the camera to quickly tilt up and down, compared by Whiting to the motion of a rocking boat; this was ultimately tweaked so that the camera would stay steady.Spyrowas coded with efficiency in mind, as 3D rendering technology was new at the time and the game had to fit the limited specifications of the PlayStation. Around 80% of the game's code was written usingAssembly, while other parts were programmed inCdue to its simplicity and speed. Graphics Spyro the Dragonmade use of a 3D panoramic engine, developed by Alex Hastings, that could display far-away objects by utilizing varyinglevels of detail, a method of rendering which was new and unexplored at the time. The developers believed that the engine would be fitting for the game, as it could allow for more expansive levels that could take advantage of the character's abilities, such as gliding.This dynamic system, used to complement the large and sprawling environments, generated two different versions of a level; one\",\n \"of a level; one version rendered in high detail and the other a simpler, textureless render. Objects in the player's vicinity were drawn using the detailed render, whereas distant ones were drawn from the simple render. This system allowed objects to be displayed from far distances while adhering to the PlayStation's limited RAM capabilities; it was one of the first video games to make use of such a system. The game made extensive use of vertex shading to colour objects andprovide light and shade- with the smooth skies entirely reliant on the technique to depict clouds and other distant details without the use of textures. Base textures were intentionally kept relatively desaturated so as to prevent them from becoming oversaturated with use of the technique. Audio The game's music was composed and produced byStewart Copeland, formerly the drummer for the British bandThe Police. Copeland was given early builds of the game's levels, which he played through to get a feel for them and come up with a fitting\",\n \"up with a fitting composition.He was also given game cheats such as invincibility so that he could have an easier time clearing levels. Copeland wrote four songs per day, all of which he further developed and polished the next day.According to Copeland, each song in the game was written to correspond to a specific level, but this correlation ultimately went unused.Copeland has looked back positively on his work onSpyro, calling the game's music some of his best compositions. Carlos Alazraquiprovided the voice of Spyro in the game, and additional voices were done byClancy Brown,Michael Gough,Jamie Alcroftand Michael Connor. Alazraqui explained in an issue ofElectronic Gaming Monthlythat he tried to make Spyro's voice sound like \\\"a kid at camp that everybody likes.\\\"Alazraqui did not continue in this role after the first game, being replaced byTom Kennyfor the sequels. Release Spyro the Dragonwas first unveiled at the 1998E3convention inAtlanta, Georgia.It was then later released in North America on September\",\n \"on September 9, 1998, and in Europe on October 23 of the same year.According toSony Computer Entertainment's American Marketing Vice President, Andrew House, at a press party inLas Vegas, the game, along with other upcoming 4th quarter PlayStation releases such asCrash Bandicoot: Warped,A Bug's Life, andRugrats: Search for Reptar, was part of a general effort to appeal to a wider demographic of younger audiences and provide more games suited for younger players to compete with theNintendo 64, which had a far larger library of children's titles at the time compared to the PlayStation's largely adult-centric demographic.An advertisement campaign was pushed to promote the game, featuring a character from the game, Toasty the Sheep, protesting against the title character's actions against sheep. The campaign included TV commercials, featuring an actor in ananimatroniccostume of Toasty, and a promotional website,sheepagainstspyro.com.On August 16, 1999, SCEA announced that the game would be included as a part of\",\n \"as a part of their \\\"Greatest Hits\\\" lineup of budgeted releases alongside other games such asCrash Bandicoot: Warped,Gran Turismo,Cool Boarders 3, andTwisted Metal III, and alongside the announcement of a price drop for the PlayStation console to compete with the highly anticipated launch of theSega Dreamcast.On December 12, 2012, the game was digitally re-released to thePlayStation Storetogether withSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!andSpyro: Year of the Dragon.A remake of the game, alongside its two sequels, was included as a part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogycompilation for thePlayStation 4andXbox Onein November 2018, followed by theNintendo SwitchandMicrosoft Windowsin September 2019. Sales According toSpyro's developers, sales were initially slow at the game's launch but quickly began picking up following the holiday season.In the week of November 29, 1998, it was the 3rd best-selling game in the UK, behindTomb RaiderandFIFA 99.At the 1999 Milia festival inCannes, it took home a \\\"Gold\\\" prize for revenues above\",\n \"for revenues above €20,000,000 in theEuropean Unionduring the previous year.Spyro the Dragonreceived a \\\"Gold\\\" award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) by the end of August 1999,for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland.By December 1999, the game had sold 1,000,000 copies in North America.As of 2007, the title had gone on to sell a total of nearly 5,000,000 units. Reception Spyro the Dragoncurrently holds a score of 85% atGameRankings, based on an aggregate of 18 reviews.IGN's Craig Harris hailed it as the most fun 3D platformer he had played sinceCrash Bandicoot, writing \\\"Two claws up. Way up.\\\"Computer and Video Gamescalled the game \\\"easily the best 3D platform game on the PlayStation\\\", despite noting its largely child-friendly nature.Shawn Smith ofElectronic Gaming Monthlywrote that \\\"Spyrois to the PlayStation whatBanjo-Kazooieis to theNintendo 64\\\", and stated that it \\\"combines the two most-important aspects in any good game: graphics and\",\n \"game: graphics and gameplay.\\\" Crispin Boyer, also ofElectronic Gaming Monthly, proclaimed that Spyro \\\"raises the bar\\\" for 3D platformers, and wrote that it had replacedGex 3D: Enter the Geckoas his favorite \\\"PS mascot game\\\".Joe Fielder ofGameSpotcalled the game \\\"a proficient, fully 3D platform game\\\" for the PlayStation, comparing it favorably to one of the more recent platformers on the system,Blasto, and proclaiming that it \\\"excels overBlastoin every way imaginable.\\\" Despite this, he wrote that the game \\\"only gets very, very high marks, instead of outrageously high marks\\\", citing its lack of high difficulty as the main factor that made it inferior to games likeSuper Mario 64andBanjo-Kazooie.Edgenamed it the best 3D platform game for the PlayStation, but criticized Spyro's limited abilities and said that the game was not as varied asSuper Mario 64. Critics lauded the game's presentation, specifically speaking praise for its graphics, technical performance, and Copeland's music done for the\",\n \"music done for the game.GameProreviewer \\\"Slo Mo\\\" wrote that the game's graphics and animations gaveSpyro\\\"the look and feel of ananimated film\\\" while calling the in-game environments \\\"breathtaking\\\".Harris wrote that the game \\\"utilizes the PlayStation's hardware to the max\\\", and praised the quality of the in-game animations; he particularly praised the rescued dragons' talking animations, which he said gave the characters \\\"incredible personality.\\\"Fielder praised the game's dynamic lighting system and character designs, and noted \\\"a near-complete lack ofpop-up\\\" during gameplay.Sushi-X ofElectronic Gaming Monthlysaid that the graphics were \\\"among the finest\\\" on the PlayStation.AllGameeditor Scott Alan Marriott applauded the graphics, scenery, characters and control as some of the best on the PlayStation, if not the best at the time of the games release.Fielder spoke positively of Copeland's compositional work, calling it \\\"wonderfully atmospheric.\\\"Slo Mo described the music as having a \\\"catchy, mellow jazz-rock\",\n \"mellow jazz-rock swing to it\\\" while also praising the voice work for its wide array of unique voices. Many critics held praise for the game's level design and controls, though some noted its simplicity and low difficulty level (with the exception of Tree Tops). Fielder called the level design \\\"exceptional\\\",while Boyer praised the levels for encouraging exploration among players.Sushi-X called the play controls \\\"perfectly tuned\\\" whilst Fielder wrote that they worked well both with and without theDualShock's analog stick, although Smith expressed that controls were unsuited for maneuvering in \\\"high-risk areas.\\\"The camera system received varying reactions, with Boyer praising it as one of the best in any 3D platformer and Fielder declaring that it fixed the common issues present in most other 3D platform games,while Harris criticized its lack of precision when following the player, stating that it \\\"tends to float around on a loose tether\\\", and highlighted the camera system as one of the game's only\",\n \"of the game's only flaws.Fielder wrote that an overabundance of extra lives caused the game to feel \\\"like it was aimed at a younger or broader audience,\\\" holding the final boss and the bonus level as the only exceptions.Despite praisingSpyro, Sushi-X noted the game's \\\"lack of diversity\\\" in obstacles and objects leading to \\\"repetitive play.\\\" Boyer lamented that the common trope of collecting items, while still very fun inSpyro, was starting to become less interesting, while also criticizing the game's boss fights, calling them \\\"small, easy and decidedly unBoss-like.\\\" During the2nd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards,Spyro the Dragonwas named as a finalist by theAcademy of Interactive Arts & Sciencesfor \\\"Outstanding Achievement in Art/Graphics\\\", \\\"Console Action Game of the Year\\\", and \\\"Console Game of the Year\\\"; the first two awards went toBanjo-Kazooie, while the latter was won byThe Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time. Legacy The popularity ofSpyro the Dragonhelped to push the character of Spyro as a popular\",\n \"Spyro as a popular platformingmascotfor the PlayStation alongsideCrash Bandicoot.It was the first game in what became an expansivevideo game series, spawning 2 more platforming sequels for the PlayStation –Ripto's RageandYear of the Dragon– released in 1999 and 2000, respectively. As of the year 2000, the series had sold more than 3.2 million copies in the U.S. and over 4 million copies worldwide.Insomniac stopped developing theSpyroseries afterYear of the Dragon, as it finished off their 4-game contract with Universal Interactive. Despite this, the series was continued across various different developers, and shifted to several other platforms besides PlayStation.Spyrobeing their first considerable success, Insomniac went on to develop several other successful video game franchises, including theRatchet & Clankseries of platform games and thefirst-person shooterseriesResistance.The game's rendering system, new and unheard of at the time, has gone on to be used in several other 3D video games. References\",\n \"games. References External links\",\n \"Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage! Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!, known asSpyro 2: Gateway to GlimmerinPAL regions, is a 1999platform gamedeveloped byInsomniac Gamesand published bySony Computer Entertainmentfor thePlayStation. It is the second game in the mainSpyroseries. A remake was released as part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogyin 2018. Gameplay Players controlSpyro the Dragonas he fights against various enemies and obstacles using his flame breath, charge attack, and glide abilities. His health is indicated by the color of his dragonfly partner, Sparx, who can replenish his health by eating butterflies. Bottled butterflies will both completely restore Sparx's health and give Spyro an extra life. The game is split up into three main hub worlds containing portals to various realms. In order to progress through the first two hub worlds, the player must acquire a talisman from each realm, which is awarded for reaching the end of the level, before facing the boss of each world. Each level also contains a certain number of orbs,\",\n \"number of orbs, which can be earned by completing secondary tasks for particularNPCs, such as lighting a series of lamps or protecting characters from attacks. These orbs are required for opening some of the portals to certain levels, as well as progressing through the third hub world. Gems gathered throughout the game are required to pay fees Moneybags charges in order to progress through the game. As well as opening portals or granting access to certain areas, Moneybags also teaches Spyro three brand new abilities over the course of the game. Swimming lets Spyro dive underwater to reach submerged treasure and hidden tunnels, climbing lets Spyro climb up certain surfaces, and the headbash lets Spyro perform an overhead smashing attack which can break rocks and certain cages. In addition, each level has a power-up gate, activated after defeating a specific number of enemies in a level, which grants Spyro a temporary super-ability. The power-up can grant invulnerability or the abilities to fly, supercharge,\",\n \"fly, supercharge, super flame, breathe ice, or super jump to reach high up areas. Characters and setting The only characters from the original game to return as main characters in this game areSpyro, the game's protagonist, and Sparx, his dragonfly sidekick. Sparx functions as the player's health meter, and assists the player in gathering gems. This game introduces new characters into the Spyro series, many of whom would appear in later games. Both Hunter and Moneybags make recurring appearances in the series, while Ripto would make more series appearances than any other antagonist, making him the key villain of the original series. The dragons of the previous installment have been replaced with an entirely new cast of characters, including fauns, satyrs, anthropomorphic animals, and robotic businessmen, among others. The world of Avalar is divided into three realms: the Summer Forest, the Autumn Plains, and the Winter Tundra. In every realm, there is a castle that, during the course of the storyline, is\",\n \"the storyline, is captured by Ripto. Each realm features a number of different worlds, a speedway world, and a dungeon in which Ripto or his minions are hiding. Plot A few years after the defeat of Gnasty Gnorc,Spyro the Dragonand his dragonfly partner, Sparx, having had enough with the continuous raining in Artisans, decide to take avacationto Dragon Shores. Upon going through the portal, however, Spyro instead ends up in Glimmer, one of the many realms of the fantasy land of Avalar, having been summoned there by Elora the Faun, Hunter the Cheetah, and the Professor. They explain that one week prior, they were experimenting with a large portal device when they inadvertently summoned an angry, iron-fistedwarlockknown as Ripto, along with his minions Crush and Gulp. Pleased to find himself in a world without dragons, whom he views as pests, Ripto decided to conquer Avalar, prompting Elora and the others to deactivate the portal by scattering the mystical orbs powering it all across the realm. As Ripto and his\",\n \"As Ripto and his henchmen leave to retrieve the orbs, Elora gets the idea to summon a dragon to fight against him, thus leading to Spyro's situation. After getting stranded in Avalar as a result of Ripto destroying the portal he came in through, Spyro agrees to help fight against him. During his quest, Spyro must travel through the various realms of Avalar and help the inhabitants with certain problems they are facing in order to receive their realm's talisman, which Spyro must use to undo Ripto's tyranny. He must also collect the orbs scattered across Avalar to empower portals and other various devices or spells, as well as gems to pay off the sleazy elitist bear, Moneybags for certain favors. Hunter the Cheetah helps out Spyro on certain missions with his athletic abilities, and the Professor does the same using his intellect. After collecting six talismans in Summer Forest, Spyro fights and defeats Crush, prompting Ripto and Gulp to retreat. The young dragon then pursues them to Autumn Plains, where he\",\n \"Plains, where he collects eight more talismans before engaging and vanquishing Gulp in combat. Then, Ripto seemingly falls to his demise, and Elora and her friends repay Spyro by returning to Winter Tundra and reactivating the portal device to send him to Dragon Shores. However, Ripto reveals himself to be alive and steals the power crystal that was meant to power the portal, using it to create a new magic scepter (since Gulp ate the original in the intro). After collecting enough orbs, Spyro is able to confront Ripto; the warlock ironically perishes in a lake of lava which he himself created. With peace returned to Avalar, Elora and the others return all the gems that Moneybags had extorted from Spyro to fix the portal device, allowing him to take his long-awaited vacation to Dragon Shores. The game's epilogue, which is unlocked by completing the Skill Points list in the Guidebook, reveals what happened to various friends and enemies that Spyro encountered in Avalar, as well as moments such as Spyro and\",\n \"such as Spyro and Elora missing their chance to kiss, Crush being taught by the Professor how to spell, and a list of dummied enemies that didn't make it into the game. In the end, Spyro returns to the Dragon Realm, with Hunter joining him, setting the stage for thenext game. Development The sequel toSpyro the Dragonwas tentatively titledSpyro the Dragon 2during its pre-production phase.According to Ted Price,Insomniac'spresident and founder, the game was designed to provide a \\\"greater challenge\\\" for experienced players, as it was made to have greater depth and more gameplay variety thanSpyro the Dragon.The music forSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!was composed byStewart Copelandand was engineered and co-produced by Jeff Seitz. The character Spyro is voiced byTom Kenny, replacingCarlos Alazraquifrom the first game, while additional voices are provided by Kenny,Gregg Berger,Melissa Disney,Milton James, Mary Linda Phillips andMarcelo Tubert. The game's sound effects were created by Mike Gollom, Harry Woolway and Ron\",\n \"Woolway and Ron Horwitz of Universal Sound Studios. The game was officially announced at the 1999E3convention inLos Angeles, CA.In Volume 3 Issue 1 of the Official US PlayStation Magazine, which was released in October 1999, the name \\\"Ripto\\\" originated from the Japanese katakana spelling of Spyro.The game was released in North America on November 2, 1999.Sony Computer Entertainment of America director of product development Ami Blaire stated, \\\"Spyro 2isn't just another sequel. Players will surely be lured by Spyro's playful antics, but they'll experience gameplay that's more challenging and more fun then ever before.\\\" Re-releases The game became available for download on the EuropeanPlayStation Networkon July 26, 2007,before its predecessor was released to the same market. Less than a week later, however, it was removed because the Colossus and Idol Springs levels failed to load. On April 17, 2008, it was released on the Japanese PlayStation Store. On May 7, 2009, the game became available for download from\",\n \"for download from the North American PlayStation Store and a corrected version was re-released on the European PlayStation Store on December 12, 2012, although as theNTSCversion instead ofPAL.Spyro 2, alongside itspredecessorandsequel, received a remastered release with updated visuals on November 13, 2018 as part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogycompilation forPlayStation 4andXbox One. This compilation retains the game's North American name,Ripto's Rage!, as opposed to the title used for the original European and Australasian release,Gateway to Glimmer. Reception The game received favorable reviews according to thereview aggregationwebsiteGameRankings.However, Chris Kramer ofNextGensaid that the game \\\"feels like a kids' title, but it has more meat to it than the first, and the cute graphics may make your girlfriend finally stop cooing over those damnPokémon.\\\"In Japan, where the game was ported for release under the nameSpyro X Sparx: Tondemo Tours(スパイロ×スパークス トンでもツアーズ,Supairo × Supākusu Tondemo Tsuāzu)on March\",\n \"Tsuāzu)on March 16, 2000,Famitsugave it a score of 30 out of 40.GameProsaid of the game, \\\"If you simply loved the firstSpyro, or are very intrigued by the second, you can't go wrong withSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage. Once you get over its cute exterior, you'll find an excellent platform action/adventure game ripe with the goods that make gaming great.\\\" The game received a \\\"Gold\\\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association(ELSPA),indicating sales of at least 200,000 units in the UK. As of June 30, 2007, the game sold more than 3.4 million units. Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!received nominations for \\\"Console Children's/Family Title of the Year\\\", \\\"Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction\\\", and \\\"Outstanding Achievement in Animation\\\" during theAIAS'3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards; they were ultimately awarded toPokémon Snap(Children's/Family) andFinal Fantasy VIII(Art Direction, Animation). Notes References External links\",\n \"Tony Hawk's Pro Skater Tony Hawk's Pro Skater, released asTony Hawk's Skateboardingin the UK, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Europe, is a 1999skateboardingvideo gamedeveloped byNeversoftand published byActivision. It is the first installment in theTony Hawk'sseries. It was released for thePlayStationon September 29, 1999and was laterportedto theNintendo 64,Game Boy Color,Dreamcast, andN-Gage. Tony Hawk's Pro Skatertakes place in an urban environment permeated by an ambience ofpunk rockandska punkmusic. The player takes control of a variety of skateboarders and must complete missions by performingskateboarding tricksand collecting objects. The game offers several modes of gameplay, including a career mode in which the player must complete objectives and evolve their character's attributes, a single session, in which the player accumulates a high score within two minutes, a free skate mode in which the player may skate without any given objective, and a multiplayer mode that features a number of\",\n \"a number of competitive games. Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas met with critical acclaim for all versions except theGame Boy Colorversion, which had a more mixed reception. The game resulted in a successful franchise, receiving eight annualized sequels developed by Neversoft fromPro Skater 2(2000) toProving Ground(2007). It is also credited with introducing skateboarding to a more mainstream global audience.It received a remakealong with the sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2, in 2020. Gameplay Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterputs the player in control of a skateboarder and takes place in a third-person view with a fixed camera. The goal of the game is to perform tricks and combinations thereof in an effort to increase the player's score. Movement can be altered using thed-padoranalog stick, andollies,grabs,flipsandgrindsare each assigned to individual buttons. Each skateboarder has eight grabs, eight grinds and eight flips. The number of points earned from a successful trick sequence is dependent on the amount of time\",\n \"the amount of time spent in the air, the degree of rotation, and the number and variety of tricks performed; the more a single trick is performed in a sequence, the fewer points it will earn. When the player succeeds in performing tricks, a special gauge increases. When this gauge is full and flashing, the player is capable of performing a special trick that is worth many more points than ordinary tricks.If the player bails (falls off their skateboard), any points that may have been earned from the current combo are lost, and the special gauge is emptied. In the game's \\\"Career Mode\\\", the player must complete five objectives (represented byVHS tapes) in each level within a period of two minutes. The player is not obligated to complete all the objectives within a single run; any completed objective is committed to the game's memory, which allows other objectives to be completed within multiple playthroughs of a level. Two common objectives in each level are achieved by accumulating two defined scores, which\",\n \"scores, which gradually increases in difficulty throughout the game; while one other common objective is to collect letters of the word \\\"SKATE\\\". Another common objective is to destroy five of a certain object within each level. The fifth objective involves collecting a VHS tape hidden in the level. Completing objectives unlocks additional levels and equipment for use. Three of the mode's levels take place in a competition setting in which the player performs for judges and accumulates the highest score within three one-minute rounds. The player receives a bronze, silver or gold medal depending on the final score they are given. Other single-player modes include the \\\"Single Session\\\", in which the player can freely accumulate a high score within two minutes using any previously obtained levels and characters, and the \\\"Free Skate\\\", in which there is no time limit imposed. The multiplayer mode is played by two players in asplit screenview and offers three games: \\\"Graffiti\\\", \\\"Trick Attack\\\", and \\\"HORSE\\\". In\",\n \"and \\\"HORSE\\\". In \\\"Graffiti\\\", players must accumulate the highest score by changing level elements into their own color via the use of tricks. If a player performs a higher-scoring trick on an element that has already been marked, the element will change to that player's color. \\\"Trick Attack\\\" is a mode in which players must accumulate the highest score by chaining tricks together. \\\"HORSE\\\" is a game that isplayed intermittently between two players, who must compete in rounds lasting either eight seconds or until a trick has been made. The player with the lower score on any given turn receives a letter in the word \\\"HORSE\\\" or whatever word the players have generated prior to the game's start. The first player to accumulate the entire word loses. Featured pro skaters The game features a total of ten real life professional skateboarders, along with two unlockable original characters: Officer Dick and Private Carrera. Development Following the releases of arcade gameTop Skater(1997) bySegaand PlayStation gameStreet\",\n \"gameStreet Sk8er(1998) byElectronic Arts,Activisionidentified skateboarding-simulation games as a growing market in the gaming industry and concluded that such a title would resonate with a young audience. Preceding Neversoft's involvement in the project, the task of developing a skateboarding title for Activision was given to another studio. However, this studio's attempt did not impress Activision and didn't move past the concept stage. The publisher then decided to entrust the project to Neversoft, which had recently completed the third-person shooter gameApocalypse(1998) within nine months. Although Neversoft had never developed a sports video game before, the development team was confident in its ability to accomplish the task before its given deadline of the 1999 Christmas season. During development, the Neversoft team would spend its lunch breaks at a bowling alley near the studio, where they would play and subsequently study from Sega'sTop Skaterin the arcade. The game's design served as a strong\",\n \"served as a strong basic influence, along with observances of real skaters performing in theX Games, which were taking place during the game's development. Although the team decided early on thatTop Skater's linearity lacked the sense of fun they aimed for, the \\\"racetrack\\\" element was retained in two of the game's final levels. Contrary to subsequent titles in the series, Neversoft did not primarily focus on using pre-existing locations as reference for the game's level design, but simply envisioned potential skating areas such as a school or a city and incorporated elements such as ramps and rails to benefit the gameplay. The team consciously prioritized fun over realism in the approach to the game's level design and physics. The game's engine is a modified version of that of Neversoft's previous titleApocalypse, and the game's prototype usedBruce Willis's character from that game as the placeholder player character.Once the prototype reached a functional and demonstrable state, the Neversoft team realized\",\n \"team realized that they would require a professional skateboarder to aid in the remainder of production. At the time,Tony Hawkhad been a popular figure within skateboarding for quite some time.In September 1998, Activision established contact with Hawk and arranged a meeting between him and Neversoft. Hawk was quickly impressed by the design team members' devotion to skateboarding, the controls and engine of their game's early build and agreed to lend his name and involvement to the production. Subsequently, Hawk would turn down Activision's offer of a one-time buyout for the permanent use of his name and likeness on the game in favor of a royalty deal in which Hawk would earn a percentage for every copy sold. As a result of the series' eventual success, Hawk would earn ten times Activision's initial offer within two years.By January 1999, Activision publicly announced their agreement with Hawk to include him in the game. Activision senior vice president Mitch Lasky, in an interview withGameSpot, stated that\",\n \"stated that the character was meant \\\"to reflect Tony's signature style – an intense mix of acrobatics and hard-core technical skating\\\". Hawk remarked that \\\" always wanted to help create a video game that represented the reality and excitement of professional skateboarding\\\". Hawk would spend the development time periodically playing through the game's beta builds and providing feedback, using aspecially modifiedPlayStationconsole that can play games burned onCD-Rs. Hawk even went so far as to purposely send advanced copies of the game to a trusted group of people who also owned modchipped PlayStations: \\\"I had a modified PlayStation so I could use burned discs, and they'd send me new developments and we'd go back and forth. I'd let people play it, people that I trust. At one point, I felt it was getting so far along that I started to sneak out copies for those same people - these people had modded PlayStations. As subversive as that was, it started to create a buzz in the industry, because they were key\",\n \"they were key players in the skating industry and they were also hardcore gamers\\\".He would also personally select a group of other professional skaters to include as playable characters based on their skills, personalities and diversity; each skater received a cut of the royalties and got to select their own attire and special tricks for the game.While animating the skaters, the design team largely depended on using available video footage as reference. The incorporation ofmotion capturewas attempted to aid in the realism of the animation, but due to the technology's infancy, the result was ultimately determined to have not translated as well as what had already been animated.The900featured in the game was itself drawn from footage of Hawk's famed performance of the feat in the X Games that summer, and was a relatively late addition as a result. The collection of VHS tapes was directly inspired by the collection of stars inSuper Mario 64(1996). In designing the objectives, the team would gather at a table,\",\n \"gather at a table, draw a level and then ask what could be done within said level, upon which the team members would provide ideas. Rejected concepts arising from these sessions include levels taking place on ahighwayand ajetty, and a scenario in which the player would lose a wheel and have to skate on three wheels.Manualswere originally intended to be implemented into the game, but were omitted due to time constraints; manuals would subsequently be included inTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2. Promotion and release Elissa Steamer's inclusion in the game, along with the game's final release date of September 29, was presented on August 26, 1999.A playable demo with only two available skaters was integrated into the Jampack Summer '99 compilation CD released byPlayStation Underground.The game was made available for pre-order two weeks prior to the game's release; those who pre-ordered the game atElectronics BoutiqueorFuncoLandrespectively received a miniature replica of Tony Hawk's Birdhouse skateboard, a sticker\",\n \"a sticker sheet featuring the game's ten professional skaters and a game tip on the back of each sticker.A second playable demo was included on a promotional compilation disc released byPizza Huton November 14. While Neversoft would begin development of the game's sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, shortly before the release of the first game,Activision would entrust the game's Nintendo 64 port toEdge of Reality, which had recently portedMonster Truck Madness 2to the same system.The Nintendo 64 and Game Boy Color versions received a multi-million dollar advertising campaign on several major youth-targeted channels in the United States beginning in April 2000. Customers who purchased the Game Boy Color version atToys \\\"R\\\" Usor FuncoLand received a special-edition miniature skateboard. As a result of the disappointing sales ofBlue Stinger, Activision was discouraged from publishing further titles for the Dreamcast and relinquished the distribution ofTony Hawk's Pro Skateron the console to Crave\",\n \"console to Crave Entertainment.After online speculation and teasing comments from company insiders,a port for the Dreamcast was revealed to be developed byTreyarch.Later in 2003, the N-Gage version was in development.The game came bundled with theN-Gage QDthat was released in 2004. Ports The Nintendo 64 port ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas developed by Edge of Reality and released on March 15, 2000.While the port is largely faithful to the original version and retains all game modes, characters and levels, the soundtrack had been truncated and the voices were removed to accommodate the lessened space in the cartridge format. The blood effects had also been removed, so Nintendo could market the game with an \\\"E\\\" game rating.The Dreamcast version was developed by Treyarch, published by Crave Entertainment and released on May 24, 2000. The graphics and animations in the Dreamcast version are improved from those in the PlayStation version. The Game Boy Color version was developed by the Japanese company Natsume and\",\n \"company Natsume and released on March 30, 2000. The Game Boy Color version is an adaptation rather than a true port of the PlayStation version due to the limited capacity of the platform. The game offers two different gameplay styles: an overhead view with vertical scrolling, and a side-scrolling view in which there is a ramp on each side. There are four gameplay modes in which the player can only perform a few tricks. In \\\"Half Pipe Mode\\\", the player must attempt to achieve the highest score possible. \\\"Tournament Mode\\\" is a five-level vertically scrolling game in which the player must race against three computer-controlled skaters and achieve the highest rank. Jumps are made automatically when the player maneuvers onto ramps, and tricks are displayed as a brief static image. \\\"Versus Mode\\\" and \\\"Rival Mode\\\" are identical to \\\"Tournament Mode\\\", except the player plays in a single level against a single opponent; the opponent in \\\"Rival Mode\\\" is computer-controlled, while the opponent in \\\"Versus Mode\\\" is human,\",\n \"Mode\\\" is human, which necessitates the use of aGame Link Cable. The N-Gage version was developed by Ideaworks3D and released on October 13, 2003, a week following the launch of the N-Gage.The game is a faithful port of the PlayStation version and retains most of the characters, levels, control scheme and original music while adding levels fromTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2and two multiplayer games.The game's multiplayer functions via the N-Gage'sBluetoothfeature.The N-Gage version was named \\\"Best-Mobile Game\\\" by theBritish Academy of Film and Television Artsin 2004. A remakeof both the first game andTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, titledTony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2, was developed byVicarious Visionsand released on September 4, 2020, forPlayStation 4,Windows, andXbox One, followed up a year later onPlayStation 5,Xbox Series X/S, andNintendo Switch. The remake includes all of the original levels and skaters from the original games, but also includes improved skater creation and park creation modes, online multiplayer, and\",\n \"multiplayer, and other new features, and featuring most of the original soundtracks, with a few exceptions due to licensing issues. Reception Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas met with critical acclaim. Doug Perry ofIGNpraised the game's \\\"imaginative, deep, and amazingly addictive\\\" gameplay, \\\"steady and consistent\\\" learning curve, \\\"intuitive and natural\\\" controls, large and complex levels, \\\"jaw-dropping\\\" physics and \\\"perfect\\\" soundtrack. Perry concluded that the game had \\\"captured the pure grit and radical feel of skateboarding, delivering it in near perfect form onto the PlayStation with a mastery and sense of programming finesse beyond anyone's imagination\\\", and described the game as \\\"that rare gem of a game that defies what other developers say can't be done\\\".Jeff GerstmannofGameSpotcommended the game's graphics, frame rate, camera and sound effects, and declared the game to be \\\"a worthy addition to anyone's PlayStation collection\\\", though he was not personally fond of the soundtrack and wished that there was\",\n \"that there was more variety in the game's tricks.He additionally noted that the Dreamcast version used the console's hardware to its advantage by displaying clearer textures and a smoother frame rate \\\"that may very well cause longtime fans of the game to weep\\\".Chris Carle ofIGNalso praised the Dreamcast version's improved textures. Matt Casamassina ofIGNpraised the Nintendo 64 version's visuals as \\\"very impressive\\\" in spite of the reduced quality of the textures and the omitted full-motion video effects, and the audio as \\\"surprisingly clear\\\", albeit compressed and \\\"dumbed down\\\" to accommodate the cartridge format.Martin Taylor ofEurogamercited the game's graphics as \\\"crisp, smooth and very, very hard to fault\\\", but noted that the game's soundtrack suffered from the compression process and that the looping music \\\"quickly becomes incredibly annoying\\\";the latter sentiment was mirrored by Dr. Moo of Game Revolution. In reviewing the Game Boy Color version, Craig Harris ofIGNdecided that while the half-pipe\",\n \"while the half-pipe portion of the game \\\"isn't half-bad\\\", the overhead portion is \\\"absolutely stupid\\\"; he criticized the representation of tricks as static images as \\\"completely destroy the flow of the game\\\", and noted that the issue is exacerbated in the \\\"Versus\\\" mode by having both parties' game pause when either one performs a trick.Frank Provo ofGameSpotcited the game's lack of level variety and \\\"borderline mediocre\\\" audio, but felt that it was the best skateboarding title to be made for a portable console.Both Chadd Chambers ofIGNand Jeff Gerstmann ofGameSpotconsidered the N-Gage version to be the best game available on the system and were relatively impressed by the game's graphics, but noted the less comfortable control scheme and reduced sound quality. Three reviewers forNext Generationmagazine - Blake Fischer, Eric Bratcher, and Greg Orlando - gave five stars out of five for PlayStation, Nintendo 64, and Dreamcast versions, respectively. They virtually praised every aspect of the game despite noting\",\n \"game despite noting some minor differences between all three versions. Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas ranked #36 inGame Informer's \\\"Top 100 Games of All Time\\\" in its 100th issue in August 2001.The game was nominated for \\\"Console Game of the Year\\\" and \\\"Console Sports Game of the Year\\\" during the3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, but lost toSoulcaliburandKnockout Kings 2000, respectively.The game was included onPolygon's 2017 list ofThe 500 Best Games of All Time. Sales Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas the third highest-selling PlayStation title of November 1999 in the United States. From its release date to late-December 1999, the game shipped in excess of 350,000 units and was available in over 10,000 retailers nationwide.The PlayStation version ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterreceived a \\\"Platinum\\\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association(ELSPA),indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom.The Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland gave the PlayStation\",\n \"the PlayStation version a Gold Award for 100,000 sold copies in Germany by February 2000.The PlayStation versions ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterand its successor were respectively the third and second highest-selling console games of 2000.The Nintendo 64 version was the sixth highest-selling Nintendo 64 title in the United States during the week of November 19–26, 2000.As of 2001, it has sold 3.5 million units. Sequels The game resulted in a successful franchise, receiving eight annualized sequels developed by Neversoft fromPro Skater 2(2000) toProving Ground(2007), and a 2020 remake along with the sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2. Cultural impact Tony Hawk's Pro Skateris credited with introducing skateboarding to a more mainstream global audience. In a 2023 essay forThe New York Times MagazineIrish writer Jack Sheehan reflected on the game's impact writing, \\\"Released at a moment when skateboarding was beginning to go mainstream, T.H.P.S. became popular because it invited skaters and nonskaters alike to feel\",\n \"alike to feel the thrill of getting air, doing a kick flip or landing a trick by the thinnest margin.\\\"In 2023, the bookRight, Down + Circle: Tony Hawk’s Pro Skaterby Cole Nowicki was released tackling and analyzingTony Hawk's Pro Skater's meaning and impact. Reflecting on both the game's development history and his personal experience as a skateboarder and player, Nowicki called the game an \\\"unprecedented success\\\" and a \\\"Trojan horse, entering the homes of millions worldwide, exposing kids, teenagers, their parents, and more to this gamified version of skateboarding.\\\" In 2020, a documentary filmPretending I'm Superman: The Tony Hawk Video Game Storyfrom Swedish director Ludvig Gür was released chronicling the development and impact of the game. Throughout the 2010s and 2020s the game's soundtrack was acknowledged as having been a major cultural influence in music, particularly in spreading punk and metal tomillennials. Notes References Further reading External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":373,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"I'm thinking of a painting. It was done by the same man who painted The Anti-Slavery Society Convention in the 1840's. The painting is about an election. Can you tell me the name of it?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Mock Election"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Anti-Slavery_Convention"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Haydon"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Anti-Slavery_Convention', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Haydon']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Anti-Slavery_Convention","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Haydon"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Anti-Slavery_Convention\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Haydon\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["World Anti-Slavery Convention TheWorld Anti-Slavery Conventionmet for the first time atExeter Hallin London, on 12–23 June 1840.It was organised by theBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, largely on the initiative of the EnglishQuakerJoseph Sturge.The exclusion of women from the convention gave a great impetus to thewomen's suffrage movement in the United States. Background TheSociety for the Abolition of the Slave Trade(officially Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade) was principally aQuakersociety founded in 1787 by 12 men, nine of whom wereQuakersand threeAnglicans, one of whom wasThomas Clarkson. Due to their efforts, theinternational slave tradewas abolished throughout theBritish Empirewith the passing of theSlave Trade Act 1807. TheSociety for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions, in existence from 1823 to 1838, helped to bring about theSlavery Abolition Act 1833, advocated byWilliam Wilberforce, which abolished slavery in the British Empire from August 1834, when some 800,000 people in the British empire became free. Similarly, in the 1830s many women and men in America acted on their religious convictions and moral outrage to become a part of theabolitionistmovement. Many women in particular responded toWm. Lloyd Garrison'sinvitation to become involved in theAmerican Anti-Slavery Society. They were heavily involved, attending meetings and writing petitions.Arthur Tappanand other conservative members of the society objected to women engaging in politics publicly. Given the perceived need for a society to campaign for anti-slavery worldwide, theBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society(BFASS) was accordingly founded in 1839.One of its first significant deeds was to organise the World Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840: \"Our expectations, we confess, were high, and the reality did not disappoint them.\"The preparations for this event had begun in 1839, when the Society circulated an advertisement inviting delegates to participate in the convention.Over 200 of the official delegates were British. The next largest group was the Americans, with around 50 delegates. Only small numbers of delegates from other nations attended. Benjamin Robert HaydonpaintedThe Anti-Slavery Society Convention, 1840, a year after the eventthat today is in theNational Portrait Gallery. This very large and detailed work shows Alexander as Treasurer of the new Society.The painting portrays the 1840 meeting and was completed the next year.The new society's mission was \"The universal extinction of slavery and theslave tradeand the protection of the rights and interests of the enfranchised population in theBritish possessionsand of all persons captured as slaves.\" The question of women's participation The circular message, distributed in 1839, provoked a controversial response from some American opponents of slavery. TheGarrisonianfaction supported the participation of women in the anti-slavery movement. They were opposed by the supporters ofArthur andLewis Tappan. When the latter group sent a message to the BFASS opposing the inclusion of women, a second circular was issued in February 1840 which explicitly stated that the meeting was limited to \"gentlemen\". Despite the statement that women would not be admitted, many American and British female abolitionists, includingLucretia Mott,Elizabeth Cady Stanton, andLady Byron, appeared at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. TheAmerican Anti-Slavery Society, the Garrisonian faction, made a point to include a woman,Lucretia Mott, and an African American,Charles Lenox Remond, in their delegation.Both theMassachusettsandPennsylvania Anti-Slavery Societiessent women members as their delegates, includingAbigail Kimber,Elizabeth Neall,Mary Grew, andSarah Pugh.Cady Stanton was not herself a delegate; she was in England on her honeymoon, accompanying her husbandHenry Brewster Stanton, who was a delegate. (Notably, he was aligned with the American faction that opposed women's equality.)Wendell Phillipsproposed that female delegates should be admitted, and much of the first day of the convention was devoted to discussing whether they should be allowed to participate.Published reports from the convention noted \"The upper end and one side of the room were appropriated to ladies, of whom a considerable number were present, including several female abolitionists from the United States.\" The women were allowed to watch and listen from the spectators gallery but could not take part. In sympathy with the excluded women, the AmericansWilliam Garrison,Charles Lenox Remond,Nathaniel P. Rogers, and William Adams refused to take their seat as delegates as well, and joined the women in the spectators' gallery. Lucretia MottandElizabeth Cady Stanton, who eight years later organized theSeneca Falls Convention, met at this convention. Proceedings (incomplete) The convention's organising committee had asked the ReverendBenjamin Godwinto prepare a paper on the ethics of slavery.The convention unanimously accepted his paper, which condemned not just slavery but also the world's religious leaders and every community who had failed to condemn the practice. The convention resolved to write to every religious leader to share this view. The convention called on all religious communities to eject any supporters of slavery from their midst. George William Alexanderreported on his visits in 1839, with James Whitehorn, toSwedenand theNetherlandsto discuss the conditions of slaves in theDutch coloniesand inSuriname. In Suriname, he reported, there were over 100,000 slaves with an annual attrition rate of twenty per cent. The convention prepared open letters of protest to the respective sovereigns. Joseph Peasespoke and accused the British government of being complicit in the continuing existence of slavery in India. Legacy After leaving the convention on the first day, being denied full access to the proceedings,Lucretia MottandElizabeth Cady Stanton\"walked home arm in arm, commenting on the incidents of the day, we resolved to hold a convention as soon as we returned home, and form a society to advocate the rights of women.\" Eight years later they hosted theSeneca Falls ConventioninSeneca Falls, New York. One hundred years later, theWomen's Centennial Congresswas held in America to celebrate the progress that women had made since they were prevented from speaking at this conference. Incomplete list of delegates (and women who attended) The official list of delegates has 493 names. References Sources Further reading External links","Benjamin Haydon Benjamin Robert Haydon(/ˈheɪdən/; 26 January 1786 – 22 June 1846) was a British painter who specialised in grand historical pictures, although he also painted a few contemporary subjects and portraits. His commercial success was damaged by his often tactless dealings with patrons, and by the enormous scale on which he preferred to work. He was troubled by financial problems throughout his life, which led to several periods of imprisonment for debt. He died by suicide in 1846. He gave lectures on art, and kept extensive diaries that were published after his death. Early years Childhood Haydon was born inPlymouth, the only son of another Benjamin Robert Haydon, a prosperous printer, stationer and publisher, and his wife Mary, the daughter of the Rev. Benjamin Cobley, rector ofDodbrooke, near Kingsbridge, Devon. At an early age he showed an aptitude for study, which was carefully fostered by his mother. At the age of six he was placed inPlymouth Grammar School, and at twelve inPlympton Grammar School, where SirJoshua Reynoldshad received most of his education. ReadingAlbinusinspired him with a love for anatomy, and from childhood he wanted to become a painter. Royal Academy Full of energy and hope, he left home, on 14 May 1804, for London, where he entered theRoyal AcademySchools. He was so enthusiastic thatHenry Fuseliasked when he found time to eat. In 1807, at the age of 21, Haydon exhibited, for the first time, at theRoyal Academy. The painting he entered,The Repose in Egypt, was bought byThomas Hopea year later for the Egyptian Room at his townhouse inDuchess Street. This was a good start for Haydon, who shortly afterwards received a commission fromLord Mulgraveand an introduction toSir George Beaumont.In 1809 he finished his picture ofDentatus, which, though it increased his fame, resulted in a lifelong quarrel with the Royal Academy, whose committee hung it in a small side-room instead of in the great hall.That same year, he took on his first pupil,Charles Lock Eastlake, later a leading figure in the British art establishment. Financial troubles The financial difficulties which were to dog him for the rest of his life began in 1810 when, in response to Haydon having achieved a certain amount of commercial success,his father stopped paying him his annual allowance of £200. He also became involved in disputes with Beaumont, for whom he had painted a picture ofMacbeth, and withRichard Payne Knight, who had outraged Haydon by denying both the aesthetic and the financial value of thesculptures from the Parthenon, recently brought to Britain byLord Elgin.Haydon was fascinated by the \"Elgin Marbles\", and believed that they provided evidence that ancient Greek artists had studied anatomy.The Judgment of Solomon, his next production, was sold for £700, to two Plymouth bankers,and also brought £100 voted to him by the directors of the British Institution, and the freedom of the borough of Plymouth.The income was not enough to pay off all his debts, but it maintained his credit, allowing him to continue borrowing. Height of career Early paintings At the end of May 1814 Haydon took advantage of thecessation of hostilities with Franceto visit Paris with his friendDavid Wilkie, and see the art collections gathered byNapoleonfrom across Europe at theLouvre.Much of what he saw there disappointed him: he described Raphael'sTransfiguration, a painting he had particularly wanted to see, as \"small & insignificant\".AtFrançois Gérard's studio he saw a portrait of Napoleon, and began to develop a fascination with the defeated French leader, although, unlike some of his more radical friends such asWilliam Hazlitt, Haydon never admired him politically. On returning to England, he producedChrist's Entry into Jerusalem, which was later to form the nucleus of theAmerican Gallery of Painting, erected by his cousin,John HavilandofPhiladelphia. While painting another large work, theResurrection of Lazarus, his financial problems increased, and he was arrested but not imprisoned, the sheriff-officer taking his word for his appearance.In October, 1821, he increased his commitments when he married Mary Hyman, a widow with two young children, whom he had known for some years.In 1823 Haydon spent two months imprisoned for debt in theKing's Bench Prison, where he received consoling letters from leading men of the day. While there, he drew up a petition toParliamentin favour of the appointment of \"a committee to inquire into the state of encouragement of historical painting\", which was presented byLord Brougham. Further paintings During 1825, following an agreement for his financial support with his lawyer, Thomas Kearsey, Haydon turned, rather unwillingly, to portrait painting, and at first had considerable success.His works in the genre were, however, attacked in a savage review inTheodore Hook's weekly newspaperJohn Bull. Haydon later blamed the article for his loss of clientele, and falling back into unmanageable levels of debt.Following a second period of incarceration at the King's Bench Prison in 1827, he painted theMock Electioninspired by anincident he had witnessed there. The picture was bought byKing George IVfor £500.Encouraged by this success, he painted a companion picture,Chairing the Member, returning to the prison to make drawings of some of the inmates. A third painting of contemporary life showed the audience at aPunch and Judyshow in the New Road atMarylebone. His hopes that the king would buy this work were disappointed, a setback he blamed on the actions of the Keeper of the King's Pictures,William Seguier. Among Haydon's other pictures were:Eucles(1829);Napoleonat St Helena, for SirRobert Peel;Xenophon, on his Retreat with the 'Ten Thousand,' first seeing the Sea; andWaiting for the Times, purchased by the Marquis of Stafford (all 1831); andFalstaffandAchilles playing the Lyre(1832).Curtius Leaping into the Gulf, andUriel and Satan. (1843)As a supporter of parliamentary reform, he had the idea of painting a grand canvas of a meeting onNewhall Hillnear theJewellery Quarter, addressed byThomas Attwood, leader of theBirmingham Political Union. Attempts to raise subscriptions to fund the painting failed, and only sketches were ever made, but Haydon did receive a commission from the new Whig prime minister, Lord Grey, for a picture of the Reform Banquet held at the Guildhall.Completed in 1834, theThe Reform Banquetcontained 597 individual portraits. He also made a painting of theMeeting of the Anti-Slavery Society,now in theNational Portrait Gallery. Later years Haydon became well known as a lecturer on painting, and from 1835 onwards travelled throughout England and Scotland on lecture tours. He campaigned to have the country's public buildings decorated withhistory paintingsshowing the glories of the nation's past,and within three days of thedestruction of the Palace of Westminsterby fire in 1834 he visited the prime minister,Lord Melbourne, in order to impress on him the importance of government patronage of art, especially in relation to the opportunities offered by the rebuilding made necessary by the disaster.Although a scheme along the lines of his suggestions was in fact carried out at the Houses of Parliament, Haydon played no part in it. When, in 1843, an exhibition was held atWestminster Hall, to choose designs for paintings to decorate the Houses of Parliament,he submitted two cartoons –The Curse of AdamandEdward the Black Prince– but the commission charged with choosing artists to carry out the work (which included his former pupil, Eastlake) found neither suitable. He then paintedThe Banishment of Aristides,which was exhibited, along with other works,at theEgyptian Hallin Piccadilly, where he had hired a gallery several times over the years.The American dwarfGeneral Tom Thumbwas then appearing at the same venue; over the Easter week 12,000 people paid to see him, while only 133 visited Haydon's exhibition. Death The artist's difficulties increased to such an extent that, whilst employed on his last grand effort,Alfred and the Trial by Jury,overcome by debts of over £3,000, disappointment, and ingratitude, he wrote \"Stretch me no longer on this rough world,\" and attemptedsuicideby shooting himself. The bullet failed to kill him, and he finished the task by cutting his throat. He left a widow and three surviving children, who were generously supported by Haydon's friends, includingSir Robert Peel,the Count d'Orsay,Thomas TalfourdandLord Carlisle.A resident ofPaddington, he was buried just to the north-west of the grave ofSarah Siddonsat St Mary's Church, Paddington, London.: p.183The cemetery was converted to a park, St Mary's Gardens, in 1885. Haydon's is one of the few preserved stones. It is modest and eroded but his name is still (2014) just legible. Writings In 1839 Haydon began work on an autobiography, drawing on materials from his extensive diaries. Before his death he had completed the story of his life up to the year 1820. It was published in three volumes in 1853, edited byTom Taylor, with additional material from the diaries, under the titleLife of Benjamin Robert Haydon, Historical Painter, from his Autobiography and Journals. The autobiography was assessed by theEncyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Editionin this way: Haydon'sLectures,published shortly after their delivery, showed that he was as bold a writer as painter. He also wrote the long and elaborate article on \"Painting,\" in the 7th edition of theEncyclopædia Britannica. Critical opinion Charles Dickenswrote in 1846 that \"All his life had utterly mistaken his vocation. No amount of sympathy with him and sorrow for him in his manly pursuit of a wrong idea for so many years – until, by dint of his perseverance and courage it almost began to seem a right one – ought to prevent one from saying that he most unquestionably was a very bad painter, and that his pictures could not be expected to sell or to succeed.\"Dickens also observed Haydon's art to be \"quite marvellous in its badness\". Legacy Pupils Haydon had several pupils. These includedCharlesandEdwin Landseer,William Bewick,John JacksonandEdward Chatfield. In written works In drama Gallery References and sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"World Anti-Slavery Convention TheWorld Anti-Slavery Conventionmet for the first time atExeter Hallin London, on 12–23 June 1840.It was organised by theBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, largely on the initiative of the EnglishQuakerJoseph Sturge.The exclusion of women from the convention gave a great impetus to thewomen's suffrage movement in the United States. Background TheSociety for the Abolition of the Slave Trade(officially Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade) was principally aQuakersociety founded in 1787 by 12 men, nine of whom wereQuakersand threeAnglicans, one of whom wasThomas Clarkson. Due to their efforts, theinternational slave tradewas abolished throughout theBritish Empirewith the passing of theSlave Trade Act 1807. TheSociety for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions, in existence from 1823 to 1838, helped to bring about theSlavery Abolition Act 1833, advocated byWilliam Wilberforce, which abolished slavery in the British Empire from August 1834, when some 800,000 people in the British empire became free. Similarly, in the 1830s many women and men in America acted on their religious convictions and moral outrage to become a part of theabolitionistmovement. Many women in particular responded toWm. Lloyd Garrison'sinvitation to become involved in theAmerican Anti-Slavery Society. They were heavily involved, attending meetings and writing petitions.Arthur Tappanand other conservative members of the society objected to women engaging in politics publicly. Given the perceived need for a society to campaign for anti-slavery worldwide, theBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society(BFASS) was accordingly founded in 1839.One of its first significant deeds was to organise the World Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840: \\\"Our expectations, we confess, were high, and the reality did not disappoint them.\\\"The preparations for this event had begun in 1839, when the Society circulated an advertisement inviting delegates to participate in the convention.Over 200 of the official delegates were British. The next largest group was the Americans, with around 50 delegates. Only small numbers of delegates from other nations attended. Benjamin Robert HaydonpaintedThe Anti-Slavery Society Convention, 1840, a year after the eventthat today is in theNational Portrait Gallery. This very large and detailed work shows Alexander as Treasurer of the new Society.The painting portrays the 1840 meeting and was completed the next year.The new society's mission was \\\"The universal extinction of slavery and theslave tradeand the protection of the rights and interests of the enfranchised population in theBritish possessionsand of all persons captured as slaves.\\\" The question of women's participation The circular message, distributed in 1839, provoked a controversial response from some American opponents of slavery. TheGarrisonianfaction supported the participation of women in the anti-slavery movement. They were opposed by the supporters ofArthur andLewis Tappan. When the latter group sent a message to the BFASS opposing the inclusion of women, a second circular was issued in February 1840 which explicitly stated that the meeting was limited to \\\"gentlemen\\\". Despite the statement that women would not be admitted, many American and British female abolitionists, includingLucretia Mott,Elizabeth Cady Stanton, andLady Byron, appeared at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. TheAmerican Anti-Slavery Society, the Garrisonian faction, made a point to include a woman,Lucretia Mott, and an African American,Charles Lenox Remond, in their delegation.Both theMassachusettsandPennsylvania Anti-Slavery Societiessent women members as their delegates, includingAbigail Kimber,Elizabeth Neall,Mary Grew, andSarah Pugh.Cady Stanton was not herself a delegate; she was in England on her honeymoon, accompanying her husbandHenry Brewster Stanton, who was a delegate. (Notably, he was aligned with the American faction that opposed women's equality.)Wendell Phillipsproposed that female delegates should be admitted, and much of the first day of the convention was devoted to discussing whether they should be allowed to participate.Published reports from the convention noted \\\"The upper end and one side of the room were appropriated to ladies, of whom a considerable number were present, including several female abolitionists from the United States.\\\" The women were allowed to watch and listen from the spectators gallery but could not take part. In sympathy with the excluded women, the AmericansWilliam Garrison,Charles Lenox Remond,Nathaniel P. Rogers, and William Adams refused to take their seat as delegates as well, and joined the women in the spectators' gallery. Lucretia MottandElizabeth Cady Stanton, who eight years later organized theSeneca Falls Convention, met at this convention. Proceedings (incomplete) The convention's organising committee had asked the ReverendBenjamin Godwinto prepare a paper on the ethics of slavery.The convention unanimously accepted his paper, which condemned not just slavery but also the world's religious leaders and every community who had failed to condemn the practice. The convention resolved to write to every religious leader to share this view. The convention called on all religious communities to eject any supporters of slavery from their midst. George William Alexanderreported on his visits in 1839, with James Whitehorn, toSwedenand theNetherlandsto discuss the conditions of slaves in theDutch coloniesand inSuriname. In Suriname, he reported, there were over 100,000 slaves with an annual attrition rate of twenty per cent. The convention prepared open letters of protest to the respective sovereigns. Joseph Peasespoke and accused the British government of being complicit in the continuing existence of slavery in India. Legacy After leaving the convention on the first day, being denied full access to the proceedings,Lucretia MottandElizabeth Cady Stanton\\\"walked home arm in arm, commenting on the incidents of the day, we resolved to hold a convention as soon as we returned home, and form a society to advocate the rights of women.\\\" Eight years later they hosted theSeneca Falls ConventioninSeneca Falls, New York. One hundred years later, theWomen's Centennial Congresswas held in America to celebrate the progress that women had made since they were prevented from speaking at this conference. Incomplete list of delegates (and women who attended) The official list of delegates has 493 names. References Sources Further reading External links\",\n \"Benjamin Haydon Benjamin Robert Haydon(/ˈheɪdən/; 26 January 1786 – 22 June 1846) was a British painter who specialised in grand historical pictures, although he also painted a few contemporary subjects and portraits. His commercial success was damaged by his often tactless dealings with patrons, and by the enormous scale on which he preferred to work. He was troubled by financial problems throughout his life, which led to several periods of imprisonment for debt. He died by suicide in 1846. He gave lectures on art, and kept extensive diaries that were published after his death. Early years Childhood Haydon was born inPlymouth, the only son of another Benjamin Robert Haydon, a prosperous printer, stationer and publisher, and his wife Mary, the daughter of the Rev. Benjamin Cobley, rector ofDodbrooke, near Kingsbridge, Devon. At an early age he showed an aptitude for study, which was carefully fostered by his mother. At the age of six he was placed inPlymouth Grammar School, and at twelve inPlympton Grammar School, where SirJoshua Reynoldshad received most of his education. ReadingAlbinusinspired him with a love for anatomy, and from childhood he wanted to become a painter. Royal Academy Full of energy and hope, he left home, on 14 May 1804, for London, where he entered theRoyal AcademySchools. He was so enthusiastic thatHenry Fuseliasked when he found time to eat. In 1807, at the age of 21, Haydon exhibited, for the first time, at theRoyal Academy. The painting he entered,The Repose in Egypt, was bought byThomas Hopea year later for the Egyptian Room at his townhouse inDuchess Street. This was a good start for Haydon, who shortly afterwards received a commission fromLord Mulgraveand an introduction toSir George Beaumont.In 1809 he finished his picture ofDentatus, which, though it increased his fame, resulted in a lifelong quarrel with the Royal Academy, whose committee hung it in a small side-room instead of in the great hall.That same year, he took on his first pupil,Charles Lock Eastlake, later a leading figure in the British art establishment. Financial troubles The financial difficulties which were to dog him for the rest of his life began in 1810 when, in response to Haydon having achieved a certain amount of commercial success,his father stopped paying him his annual allowance of £200. He also became involved in disputes with Beaumont, for whom he had painted a picture ofMacbeth, and withRichard Payne Knight, who had outraged Haydon by denying both the aesthetic and the financial value of thesculptures from the Parthenon, recently brought to Britain byLord Elgin.Haydon was fascinated by the \\\"Elgin Marbles\\\", and believed that they provided evidence that ancient Greek artists had studied anatomy.The Judgment of Solomon, his next production, was sold for £700, to two Plymouth bankers,and also brought £100 voted to him by the directors of the British Institution, and the freedom of the borough of Plymouth.The income was not enough to pay off all his debts, but it maintained his credit, allowing him to continue borrowing. Height of career Early paintings At the end of May 1814 Haydon took advantage of thecessation of hostilities with Franceto visit Paris with his friendDavid Wilkie, and see the art collections gathered byNapoleonfrom across Europe at theLouvre.Much of what he saw there disappointed him: he described Raphael'sTransfiguration, a painting he had particularly wanted to see, as \\\"small & insignificant\\\".AtFrançois Gérard's studio he saw a portrait of Napoleon, and began to develop a fascination with the defeated French leader, although, unlike some of his more radical friends such asWilliam Hazlitt, Haydon never admired him politically. On returning to England, he producedChrist's Entry into Jerusalem, which was later to form the nucleus of theAmerican Gallery of Painting, erected by his cousin,John HavilandofPhiladelphia. While painting another large work, theResurrection of Lazarus, his financial problems increased, and he was arrested but not imprisoned, the sheriff-officer taking his word for his appearance.In October, 1821, he increased his commitments when he married Mary Hyman, a widow with two young children, whom he had known for some years.In 1823 Haydon spent two months imprisoned for debt in theKing's Bench Prison, where he received consoling letters from leading men of the day. While there, he drew up a petition toParliamentin favour of the appointment of \\\"a committee to inquire into the state of encouragement of historical painting\\\", which was presented byLord Brougham. Further paintings During 1825, following an agreement for his financial support with his lawyer, Thomas Kearsey, Haydon turned, rather unwillingly, to portrait painting, and at first had considerable success.His works in the genre were, however, attacked in a savage review inTheodore Hook's weekly newspaperJohn Bull. Haydon later blamed the article for his loss of clientele, and falling back into unmanageable levels of debt.Following a second period of incarceration at the King's Bench Prison in 1827, he painted theMock Electioninspired by anincident he had witnessed there. The picture was bought byKing George IVfor £500.Encouraged by this success, he painted a companion picture,Chairing the Member, returning to the prison to make drawings of some of the inmates. A third painting of contemporary life showed the audience at aPunch and Judyshow in the New Road atMarylebone. His hopes that the king would buy this work were disappointed, a setback he blamed on the actions of the Keeper of the King's Pictures,William Seguier. Among Haydon's other pictures were:Eucles(1829);Napoleonat St Helena, for SirRobert Peel;Xenophon, on his Retreat with the 'Ten Thousand,' first seeing the Sea; andWaiting for the Times, purchased by the Marquis of Stafford (all 1831); andFalstaffandAchilles playing the Lyre(1832).Curtius Leaping into the Gulf, andUriel and Satan. (1843)As a supporter of parliamentary reform, he had the idea of painting a grand canvas of a meeting onNewhall Hillnear theJewellery Quarter, addressed byThomas Attwood, leader of theBirmingham Political Union. Attempts to raise subscriptions to fund the painting failed, and only sketches were ever made, but Haydon did receive a commission from the new Whig prime minister, Lord Grey, for a picture of the Reform Banquet held at the Guildhall.Completed in 1834, theThe Reform Banquetcontained 597 individual portraits. He also made a painting of theMeeting of the Anti-Slavery Society,now in theNational Portrait Gallery. Later years Haydon became well known as a lecturer on painting, and from 1835 onwards travelled throughout England and Scotland on lecture tours. He campaigned to have the country's public buildings decorated withhistory paintingsshowing the glories of the nation's past,and within three days of thedestruction of the Palace of Westminsterby fire in 1834 he visited the prime minister,Lord Melbourne, in order to impress on him the importance of government patronage of art, especially in relation to the opportunities offered by the rebuilding made necessary by the disaster.Although a scheme along the lines of his suggestions was in fact carried out at the Houses of Parliament, Haydon played no part in it. When, in 1843, an exhibition was held atWestminster Hall, to choose designs for paintings to decorate the Houses of Parliament,he submitted two cartoons –The Curse of AdamandEdward the Black Prince– but the commission charged with choosing artists to carry out the work (which included his former pupil, Eastlake) found neither suitable. He then paintedThe Banishment of Aristides,which was exhibited, along with other works,at theEgyptian Hallin Piccadilly, where he had hired a gallery several times over the years.The American dwarfGeneral Tom Thumbwas then appearing at the same venue; over the Easter week 12,000 people paid to see him, while only 133 visited Haydon's exhibition. Death The artist's difficulties increased to such an extent that, whilst employed on his last grand effort,Alfred and the Trial by Jury,overcome by debts of over £3,000, disappointment, and ingratitude, he wrote \\\"Stretch me no longer on this rough world,\\\" and attemptedsuicideby shooting himself. The bullet failed to kill him, and he finished the task by cutting his throat. He left a widow and three surviving children, who were generously supported by Haydon's friends, includingSir Robert Peel,the Count d'Orsay,Thomas TalfourdandLord Carlisle.A resident ofPaddington, he was buried just to the north-west of the grave ofSarah Siddonsat St Mary's Church, Paddington, London.: p.183The cemetery was converted to a park, St Mary's Gardens, in 1885. Haydon's is one of the few preserved stones. It is modest and eroded but his name is still (2014) just legible. Writings In 1839 Haydon began work on an autobiography, drawing on materials from his extensive diaries. Before his death he had completed the story of his life up to the year 1820. It was published in three volumes in 1853, edited byTom Taylor, with additional material from the diaries, under the titleLife of Benjamin Robert Haydon, Historical Painter, from his Autobiography and Journals. The autobiography was assessed by theEncyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Editionin this way: Haydon'sLectures,published shortly after their delivery, showed that he was as bold a writer as painter. He also wrote the long and elaborate article on \\\"Painting,\\\" in the 7th edition of theEncyclopædia Britannica. Critical opinion Charles Dickenswrote in 1846 that \\\"All his life had utterly mistaken his vocation. No amount of sympathy with him and sorrow for him in his manly pursuit of a wrong idea for so many years – until, by dint of his perseverance and courage it almost began to seem a right one – ought to prevent one from saying that he most unquestionably was a very bad painter, and that his pictures could not be expected to sell or to succeed.\\\"Dickens also observed Haydon's art to be \\\"quite marvellous in its badness\\\". Legacy Pupils Haydon had several pupils. These includedCharlesandEdwin Landseer,William Bewick,John JacksonandEdward Chatfield. In written works In drama Gallery References and sources External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["World Anti-Slavery Convention TheWorld Anti-Slavery Conventionmet for the first time atExeter Hallin London, on 12–23 June 1840.It was organised by theBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, largely on the initiative of the EnglishQuakerJoseph Sturge.The exclusion of women from the convention gave a great impetus to thewomen's suffrage movement in the United States. Background TheSociety for the Abolition of the Slave Trade(officially Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade) was principally aQuakersociety founded in 1787 by 12 men, nine of whom wereQuakersand threeAnglicans, one of whom wasThomas Clarkson. Due to their efforts, theinternational slave tradewas abolished throughout theBritish Empirewith the passing of theSlave Trade Act 1807. TheSociety for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions, in existence from 1823 to 1838, helped to bring about theSlavery Abolition Act 1833, advocated byWilliam Wilberforce, which abolished slavery in the British","in the British Empire from August 1834, when some 800,000 people in the British empire became free. Similarly, in the 1830s many women and men in America acted on their religious convictions and moral outrage to become a part of theabolitionistmovement. Many women in particular responded toWm. Lloyd Garrison'sinvitation to become involved in theAmerican Anti-Slavery Society. They were heavily involved, attending meetings and writing petitions.Arthur Tappanand other conservative members of the society objected to women engaging in politics publicly. Given the perceived need for a society to campaign for anti-slavery worldwide, theBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society(BFASS) was accordingly founded in 1839.One of its first significant deeds was to organise the World Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840: \"Our expectations, we confess, were high, and the reality did not disappoint them.\"The preparations for this event had begun in 1839, when the Society circulated an advertisement inviting delegates to participate","to participate in the convention.Over 200 of the official delegates were British. The next largest group was the Americans, with around 50 delegates. Only small numbers of delegates from other nations attended. Benjamin Robert HaydonpaintedThe Anti-Slavery Society Convention, 1840, a year after the eventthat today is in theNational Portrait Gallery. This very large and detailed work shows Alexander as Treasurer of the new Society.The painting portrays the 1840 meeting and was completed the next year.The new society's mission was \"The universal extinction of slavery and theslave tradeand the protection of the rights and interests of the enfranchised population in theBritish possessionsand of all persons captured as slaves.\" The question of women's participation The circular message, distributed in 1839, provoked a controversial response from some American opponents of slavery. TheGarrisonianfaction supported the participation of women in the anti-slavery movement. They were opposed by the supporters ofArthur","supporters ofArthur andLewis Tappan. When the latter group sent a message to the BFASS opposing the inclusion of women, a second circular was issued in February 1840 which explicitly stated that the meeting was limited to \"gentlemen\". Despite the statement that women would not be admitted, many American and British female abolitionists, includingLucretia Mott,Elizabeth Cady Stanton, andLady Byron, appeared at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. TheAmerican Anti-Slavery Society, the Garrisonian faction, made a point to include a woman,Lucretia Mott, and an African American,Charles Lenox Remond, in their delegation.Both theMassachusettsandPennsylvania Anti-Slavery Societiessent women members as their delegates, includingAbigail Kimber,Elizabeth Neall,Mary Grew, andSarah Pugh.Cady Stanton was not herself a delegate; she was in England on her honeymoon, accompanying her husbandHenry Brewster Stanton, who was a delegate. (Notably, he was aligned with the American faction that opposed women's","opposed women's equality.)Wendell Phillipsproposed that female delegates should be admitted, and much of the first day of the convention was devoted to discussing whether they should be allowed to participate.Published reports from the convention noted \"The upper end and one side of the room were appropriated to ladies, of whom a considerable number were present, including several female abolitionists from the United States.\" The women were allowed to watch and listen from the spectators gallery but could not take part. In sympathy with the excluded women, the AmericansWilliam Garrison,Charles Lenox Remond,Nathaniel P. Rogers, and William Adams refused to take their seat as delegates as well, and joined the women in the spectators' gallery. Lucretia MottandElizabeth Cady Stanton, who eight years later organized theSeneca Falls Convention, met at this convention. Proceedings (incomplete) The convention's organising committee had asked the ReverendBenjamin Godwinto prepare a paper on the ethics of slavery.The","of slavery.The convention unanimously accepted his paper, which condemned not just slavery but also the world's religious leaders and every community who had failed to condemn the practice. The convention resolved to write to every religious leader to share this view. The convention called on all religious communities to eject any supporters of slavery from their midst. George William Alexanderreported on his visits in 1839, with James Whitehorn, toSwedenand theNetherlandsto discuss the conditions of slaves in theDutch coloniesand inSuriname. In Suriname, he reported, there were over 100,000 slaves with an annual attrition rate of twenty per cent. The convention prepared open letters of protest to the respective sovereigns. Joseph Peasespoke and accused the British government of being complicit in the continuing existence of slavery in India. Legacy After leaving the convention on the first day, being denied full access to the proceedings,Lucretia MottandElizabeth Cady Stanton\"walked home arm in arm,","home arm in arm, commenting on the incidents of the day, we resolved to hold a convention as soon as we returned home, and form a society to advocate the rights of women.\" Eight years later they hosted theSeneca Falls ConventioninSeneca Falls, New York. One hundred years later, theWomen's Centennial Congresswas held in America to celebrate the progress that women had made since they were prevented from speaking at this conference. Incomplete list of delegates (and women who attended) The official list of delegates has 493 names. References Sources Further reading External links","Benjamin Haydon Benjamin Robert Haydon(/ˈheɪdən/; 26 January 1786 – 22 June 1846) was a British painter who specialised in grand historical pictures, although he also painted a few contemporary subjects and portraits. His commercial success was damaged by his often tactless dealings with patrons, and by the enormous scale on which he preferred to work. He was troubled by financial problems throughout his life, which led to several periods of imprisonment for debt. He died by suicide in 1846. He gave lectures on art, and kept extensive diaries that were published after his death. Early years Childhood Haydon was born inPlymouth, the only son of another Benjamin Robert Haydon, a prosperous printer, stationer and publisher, and his wife Mary, the daughter of the Rev. Benjamin Cobley, rector ofDodbrooke, near Kingsbridge, Devon. At an early age he showed an aptitude for study, which was carefully fostered by his mother. At the age of six he was placed inPlymouth Grammar School, and at twelve inPlympton Grammar","inPlympton Grammar School, where SirJoshua Reynoldshad received most of his education. ReadingAlbinusinspired him with a love for anatomy, and from childhood he wanted to become a painter. Royal Academy Full of energy and hope, he left home, on 14 May 1804, for London, where he entered theRoyal AcademySchools. He was so enthusiastic thatHenry Fuseliasked when he found time to eat. In 1807, at the age of 21, Haydon exhibited, for the first time, at theRoyal Academy. The painting he entered,The Repose in Egypt, was bought byThomas Hopea year later for the Egyptian Room at his townhouse inDuchess Street. This was a good start for Haydon, who shortly afterwards received a commission fromLord Mulgraveand an introduction toSir George Beaumont.In 1809 he finished his picture ofDentatus, which, though it increased his fame, resulted in a lifelong quarrel with the Royal Academy, whose committee hung it in a small side-room instead of in the great hall.That same year, he took on his first pupil,Charles Lock Eastlake,","Lock Eastlake, later a leading figure in the British art establishment. Financial troubles The financial difficulties which were to dog him for the rest of his life began in 1810 when, in response to Haydon having achieved a certain amount of commercial success,his father stopped paying him his annual allowance of £200. He also became involved in disputes with Beaumont, for whom he had painted a picture ofMacbeth, and withRichard Payne Knight, who had outraged Haydon by denying both the aesthetic and the financial value of thesculptures from the Parthenon, recently brought to Britain byLord Elgin.Haydon was fascinated by the \"Elgin Marbles\", and believed that they provided evidence that ancient Greek artists had studied anatomy.The Judgment of Solomon, his next production, was sold for £700, to two Plymouth bankers,and also brought £100 voted to him by the directors of the British Institution, and the freedom of the borough of Plymouth.The income was not enough to pay off all his debts, but it maintained his","it maintained his credit, allowing him to continue borrowing. Height of career Early paintings At the end of May 1814 Haydon took advantage of thecessation of hostilities with Franceto visit Paris with his friendDavid Wilkie, and see the art collections gathered byNapoleonfrom across Europe at theLouvre.Much of what he saw there disappointed him: he described Raphael'sTransfiguration, a painting he had particularly wanted to see, as \"small & insignificant\".AtFrançois Gérard's studio he saw a portrait of Napoleon, and began to develop a fascination with the defeated French leader, although, unlike some of his more radical friends such asWilliam Hazlitt, Haydon never admired him politically. On returning to England, he producedChrist's Entry into Jerusalem, which was later to form the nucleus of theAmerican Gallery of Painting, erected by his cousin,John HavilandofPhiladelphia. While painting another large work, theResurrection of Lazarus, his financial problems increased, and he was arrested but not","arrested but not imprisoned, the sheriff-officer taking his word for his appearance.In October, 1821, he increased his commitments when he married Mary Hyman, a widow with two young children, whom he had known for some years.In 1823 Haydon spent two months imprisoned for debt in theKing's Bench Prison, where he received consoling letters from leading men of the day. While there, he drew up a petition toParliamentin favour of the appointment of \"a committee to inquire into the state of encouragement of historical painting\", which was presented byLord Brougham. Further paintings During 1825, following an agreement for his financial support with his lawyer, Thomas Kearsey, Haydon turned, rather unwillingly, to portrait painting, and at first had considerable success.His works in the genre were, however, attacked in a savage review inTheodore Hook's weekly newspaperJohn Bull. Haydon later blamed the article for his loss of clientele, and falling back into unmanageable levels of debt.Following a second period of","a second period of incarceration at the King's Bench Prison in 1827, he painted theMock Electioninspired by anincident he had witnessed there. The picture was bought byKing George IVfor £500.Encouraged by this success, he painted a companion picture,Chairing the Member, returning to the prison to make drawings of some of the inmates. A third painting of contemporary life showed the audience at aPunch and Judyshow in the New Road atMarylebone. His hopes that the king would buy this work were disappointed, a setback he blamed on the actions of the Keeper of the King's Pictures,William Seguier. Among Haydon's other pictures were:Eucles(1829);Napoleonat St Helena, for SirRobert Peel;Xenophon, on his Retreat with the 'Ten Thousand,' first seeing the Sea; andWaiting for the Times, purchased by the Marquis of Stafford (all 1831); andFalstaffandAchilles playing the Lyre(1832).Curtius Leaping into the Gulf, andUriel and Satan. (1843)As a supporter of parliamentary reform, he had the idea of painting a grand canvas of","a grand canvas of a meeting onNewhall Hillnear theJewellery Quarter, addressed byThomas Attwood, leader of theBirmingham Political Union. Attempts to raise subscriptions to fund the painting failed, and only sketches were ever made, but Haydon did receive a commission from the new Whig prime minister, Lord Grey, for a picture of the Reform Banquet held at the Guildhall.Completed in 1834, theThe Reform Banquetcontained 597 individual portraits. He also made a painting of theMeeting of the Anti-Slavery Society,now in theNational Portrait Gallery. Later years Haydon became well known as a lecturer on painting, and from 1835 onwards travelled throughout England and Scotland on lecture tours. He campaigned to have the country's public buildings decorated withhistory paintingsshowing the glories of the nation's past,and within three days of thedestruction of the Palace of Westminsterby fire in 1834 he visited the prime minister,Lord Melbourne, in order to impress on him the importance of government patronage of","patronage of art, especially in relation to the opportunities offered by the rebuilding made necessary by the disaster.Although a scheme along the lines of his suggestions was in fact carried out at the Houses of Parliament, Haydon played no part in it. When, in 1843, an exhibition was held atWestminster Hall, to choose designs for paintings to decorate the Houses of Parliament,he submitted two cartoons –The Curse of AdamandEdward the Black Prince– but the commission charged with choosing artists to carry out the work (which included his former pupil, Eastlake) found neither suitable. He then paintedThe Banishment of Aristides,which was exhibited, along with other works,at theEgyptian Hallin Piccadilly, where he had hired a gallery several times over the years.The American dwarfGeneral Tom Thumbwas then appearing at the same venue; over the Easter week 12,000 people paid to see him, while only 133 visited Haydon's exhibition. Death The artist's difficulties increased to such an extent that, whilst employed","whilst employed on his last grand effort,Alfred and the Trial by Jury,overcome by debts of over £3,000, disappointment, and ingratitude, he wrote \"Stretch me no longer on this rough world,\" and attemptedsuicideby shooting himself. The bullet failed to kill him, and he finished the task by cutting his throat. He left a widow and three surviving children, who were generously supported by Haydon's friends, includingSir Robert Peel,the Count d'Orsay,Thomas TalfourdandLord Carlisle.A resident ofPaddington, he was buried just to the north-west of the grave ofSarah Siddonsat St Mary's Church, Paddington, London.: p.183The cemetery was converted to a park, St Mary's Gardens, in 1885. Haydon's is one of the few preserved stones. It is modest and eroded but his name is still (2014) just legible. Writings In 1839 Haydon began work on an autobiography, drawing on materials from his extensive diaries. Before his death he had completed the story of his life up to the year 1820. It was published in three volumes in 1853,","volumes in 1853, edited byTom Taylor, with additional material from the diaries, under the titleLife of Benjamin Robert Haydon, Historical Painter, from his Autobiography and Journals. The autobiography was assessed by theEncyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Editionin this way: Haydon'sLectures,published shortly after their delivery, showed that he was as bold a writer as painter. He also wrote the long and elaborate article on \"Painting,\" in the 7th edition of theEncyclopædia Britannica. Critical opinion Charles Dickenswrote in 1846 that \"All his life had utterly mistaken his vocation. No amount of sympathy with him and sorrow for him in his manly pursuit of a wrong idea for so many years – until, by dint of his perseverance and courage it almost began to seem a right one – ought to prevent one from saying that he most unquestionably was a very bad painter, and that his pictures could not be expected to sell or to succeed.\"Dickens also observed Haydon's art to be \"quite marvellous in its badness\". Legacy","badness\". Legacy Pupils Haydon had several pupils. These includedCharlesandEdwin Landseer,William Bewick,John JacksonandEdward Chatfield. In written works In drama Gallery References and sources External links"],"string":"[\n \"World Anti-Slavery Convention TheWorld Anti-Slavery Conventionmet for the first time atExeter Hallin London, on 12–23 June 1840.It was organised by theBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, largely on the initiative of the EnglishQuakerJoseph Sturge.The exclusion of women from the convention gave a great impetus to thewomen's suffrage movement in the United States. Background TheSociety for the Abolition of the Slave Trade(officially Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade) was principally aQuakersociety founded in 1787 by 12 men, nine of whom wereQuakersand threeAnglicans, one of whom wasThomas Clarkson. Due to their efforts, theinternational slave tradewas abolished throughout theBritish Empirewith the passing of theSlave Trade Act 1807. TheSociety for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions, in existence from 1823 to 1838, helped to bring about theSlavery Abolition Act 1833, advocated byWilliam Wilberforce, which abolished slavery in the British\",\n \"in the British Empire from August 1834, when some 800,000 people in the British empire became free. Similarly, in the 1830s many women and men in America acted on their religious convictions and moral outrage to become a part of theabolitionistmovement. Many women in particular responded toWm. Lloyd Garrison'sinvitation to become involved in theAmerican Anti-Slavery Society. They were heavily involved, attending meetings and writing petitions.Arthur Tappanand other conservative members of the society objected to women engaging in politics publicly. Given the perceived need for a society to campaign for anti-slavery worldwide, theBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society(BFASS) was accordingly founded in 1839.One of its first significant deeds was to organise the World Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840: \\\"Our expectations, we confess, were high, and the reality did not disappoint them.\\\"The preparations for this event had begun in 1839, when the Society circulated an advertisement inviting delegates to participate\",\n \"to participate in the convention.Over 200 of the official delegates were British. The next largest group was the Americans, with around 50 delegates. Only small numbers of delegates from other nations attended. Benjamin Robert HaydonpaintedThe Anti-Slavery Society Convention, 1840, a year after the eventthat today is in theNational Portrait Gallery. This very large and detailed work shows Alexander as Treasurer of the new Society.The painting portrays the 1840 meeting and was completed the next year.The new society's mission was \\\"The universal extinction of slavery and theslave tradeand the protection of the rights and interests of the enfranchised population in theBritish possessionsand of all persons captured as slaves.\\\" The question of women's participation The circular message, distributed in 1839, provoked a controversial response from some American opponents of slavery. TheGarrisonianfaction supported the participation of women in the anti-slavery movement. They were opposed by the supporters ofArthur\",\n \"supporters ofArthur andLewis Tappan. When the latter group sent a message to the BFASS opposing the inclusion of women, a second circular was issued in February 1840 which explicitly stated that the meeting was limited to \\\"gentlemen\\\". Despite the statement that women would not be admitted, many American and British female abolitionists, includingLucretia Mott,Elizabeth Cady Stanton, andLady Byron, appeared at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. TheAmerican Anti-Slavery Society, the Garrisonian faction, made a point to include a woman,Lucretia Mott, and an African American,Charles Lenox Remond, in their delegation.Both theMassachusettsandPennsylvania Anti-Slavery Societiessent women members as their delegates, includingAbigail Kimber,Elizabeth Neall,Mary Grew, andSarah Pugh.Cady Stanton was not herself a delegate; she was in England on her honeymoon, accompanying her husbandHenry Brewster Stanton, who was a delegate. (Notably, he was aligned with the American faction that opposed women's\",\n \"opposed women's equality.)Wendell Phillipsproposed that female delegates should be admitted, and much of the first day of the convention was devoted to discussing whether they should be allowed to participate.Published reports from the convention noted \\\"The upper end and one side of the room were appropriated to ladies, of whom a considerable number were present, including several female abolitionists from the United States.\\\" The women were allowed to watch and listen from the spectators gallery but could not take part. In sympathy with the excluded women, the AmericansWilliam Garrison,Charles Lenox Remond,Nathaniel P. Rogers, and William Adams refused to take their seat as delegates as well, and joined the women in the spectators' gallery. Lucretia MottandElizabeth Cady Stanton, who eight years later organized theSeneca Falls Convention, met at this convention. Proceedings (incomplete) The convention's organising committee had asked the ReverendBenjamin Godwinto prepare a paper on the ethics of slavery.The\",\n \"of slavery.The convention unanimously accepted his paper, which condemned not just slavery but also the world's religious leaders and every community who had failed to condemn the practice. The convention resolved to write to every religious leader to share this view. The convention called on all religious communities to eject any supporters of slavery from their midst. George William Alexanderreported on his visits in 1839, with James Whitehorn, toSwedenand theNetherlandsto discuss the conditions of slaves in theDutch coloniesand inSuriname. In Suriname, he reported, there were over 100,000 slaves with an annual attrition rate of twenty per cent. The convention prepared open letters of protest to the respective sovereigns. Joseph Peasespoke and accused the British government of being complicit in the continuing existence of slavery in India. Legacy After leaving the convention on the first day, being denied full access to the proceedings,Lucretia MottandElizabeth Cady Stanton\\\"walked home arm in arm,\",\n \"home arm in arm, commenting on the incidents of the day, we resolved to hold a convention as soon as we returned home, and form a society to advocate the rights of women.\\\" Eight years later they hosted theSeneca Falls ConventioninSeneca Falls, New York. One hundred years later, theWomen's Centennial Congresswas held in America to celebrate the progress that women had made since they were prevented from speaking at this conference. Incomplete list of delegates (and women who attended) The official list of delegates has 493 names. References Sources Further reading External links\",\n \"Benjamin Haydon Benjamin Robert Haydon(/ˈheɪdən/; 26 January 1786 – 22 June 1846) was a British painter who specialised in grand historical pictures, although he also painted a few contemporary subjects and portraits. His commercial success was damaged by his often tactless dealings with patrons, and by the enormous scale on which he preferred to work. He was troubled by financial problems throughout his life, which led to several periods of imprisonment for debt. He died by suicide in 1846. He gave lectures on art, and kept extensive diaries that were published after his death. Early years Childhood Haydon was born inPlymouth, the only son of another Benjamin Robert Haydon, a prosperous printer, stationer and publisher, and his wife Mary, the daughter of the Rev. Benjamin Cobley, rector ofDodbrooke, near Kingsbridge, Devon. At an early age he showed an aptitude for study, which was carefully fostered by his mother. At the age of six he was placed inPlymouth Grammar School, and at twelve inPlympton Grammar\",\n \"inPlympton Grammar School, where SirJoshua Reynoldshad received most of his education. ReadingAlbinusinspired him with a love for anatomy, and from childhood he wanted to become a painter. Royal Academy Full of energy and hope, he left home, on 14 May 1804, for London, where he entered theRoyal AcademySchools. He was so enthusiastic thatHenry Fuseliasked when he found time to eat. In 1807, at the age of 21, Haydon exhibited, for the first time, at theRoyal Academy. The painting he entered,The Repose in Egypt, was bought byThomas Hopea year later for the Egyptian Room at his townhouse inDuchess Street. This was a good start for Haydon, who shortly afterwards received a commission fromLord Mulgraveand an introduction toSir George Beaumont.In 1809 he finished his picture ofDentatus, which, though it increased his fame, resulted in a lifelong quarrel with the Royal Academy, whose committee hung it in a small side-room instead of in the great hall.That same year, he took on his first pupil,Charles Lock Eastlake,\",\n \"Lock Eastlake, later a leading figure in the British art establishment. Financial troubles The financial difficulties which were to dog him for the rest of his life began in 1810 when, in response to Haydon having achieved a certain amount of commercial success,his father stopped paying him his annual allowance of £200. He also became involved in disputes with Beaumont, for whom he had painted a picture ofMacbeth, and withRichard Payne Knight, who had outraged Haydon by denying both the aesthetic and the financial value of thesculptures from the Parthenon, recently brought to Britain byLord Elgin.Haydon was fascinated by the \\\"Elgin Marbles\\\", and believed that they provided evidence that ancient Greek artists had studied anatomy.The Judgment of Solomon, his next production, was sold for £700, to two Plymouth bankers,and also brought £100 voted to him by the directors of the British Institution, and the freedom of the borough of Plymouth.The income was not enough to pay off all his debts, but it maintained his\",\n \"it maintained his credit, allowing him to continue borrowing. Height of career Early paintings At the end of May 1814 Haydon took advantage of thecessation of hostilities with Franceto visit Paris with his friendDavid Wilkie, and see the art collections gathered byNapoleonfrom across Europe at theLouvre.Much of what he saw there disappointed him: he described Raphael'sTransfiguration, a painting he had particularly wanted to see, as \\\"small & insignificant\\\".AtFrançois Gérard's studio he saw a portrait of Napoleon, and began to develop a fascination with the defeated French leader, although, unlike some of his more radical friends such asWilliam Hazlitt, Haydon never admired him politically. On returning to England, he producedChrist's Entry into Jerusalem, which was later to form the nucleus of theAmerican Gallery of Painting, erected by his cousin,John HavilandofPhiladelphia. While painting another large work, theResurrection of Lazarus, his financial problems increased, and he was arrested but not\",\n \"arrested but not imprisoned, the sheriff-officer taking his word for his appearance.In October, 1821, he increased his commitments when he married Mary Hyman, a widow with two young children, whom he had known for some years.In 1823 Haydon spent two months imprisoned for debt in theKing's Bench Prison, where he received consoling letters from leading men of the day. While there, he drew up a petition toParliamentin favour of the appointment of \\\"a committee to inquire into the state of encouragement of historical painting\\\", which was presented byLord Brougham. Further paintings During 1825, following an agreement for his financial support with his lawyer, Thomas Kearsey, Haydon turned, rather unwillingly, to portrait painting, and at first had considerable success.His works in the genre were, however, attacked in a savage review inTheodore Hook's weekly newspaperJohn Bull. Haydon later blamed the article for his loss of clientele, and falling back into unmanageable levels of debt.Following a second period of\",\n \"a second period of incarceration at the King's Bench Prison in 1827, he painted theMock Electioninspired by anincident he had witnessed there. The picture was bought byKing George IVfor £500.Encouraged by this success, he painted a companion picture,Chairing the Member, returning to the prison to make drawings of some of the inmates. A third painting of contemporary life showed the audience at aPunch and Judyshow in the New Road atMarylebone. His hopes that the king would buy this work were disappointed, a setback he blamed on the actions of the Keeper of the King's Pictures,William Seguier. Among Haydon's other pictures were:Eucles(1829);Napoleonat St Helena, for SirRobert Peel;Xenophon, on his Retreat with the 'Ten Thousand,' first seeing the Sea; andWaiting for the Times, purchased by the Marquis of Stafford (all 1831); andFalstaffandAchilles playing the Lyre(1832).Curtius Leaping into the Gulf, andUriel and Satan. (1843)As a supporter of parliamentary reform, he had the idea of painting a grand canvas of\",\n \"a grand canvas of a meeting onNewhall Hillnear theJewellery Quarter, addressed byThomas Attwood, leader of theBirmingham Political Union. Attempts to raise subscriptions to fund the painting failed, and only sketches were ever made, but Haydon did receive a commission from the new Whig prime minister, Lord Grey, for a picture of the Reform Banquet held at the Guildhall.Completed in 1834, theThe Reform Banquetcontained 597 individual portraits. He also made a painting of theMeeting of the Anti-Slavery Society,now in theNational Portrait Gallery. Later years Haydon became well known as a lecturer on painting, and from 1835 onwards travelled throughout England and Scotland on lecture tours. He campaigned to have the country's public buildings decorated withhistory paintingsshowing the glories of the nation's past,and within three days of thedestruction of the Palace of Westminsterby fire in 1834 he visited the prime minister,Lord Melbourne, in order to impress on him the importance of government patronage of\",\n \"patronage of art, especially in relation to the opportunities offered by the rebuilding made necessary by the disaster.Although a scheme along the lines of his suggestions was in fact carried out at the Houses of Parliament, Haydon played no part in it. When, in 1843, an exhibition was held atWestminster Hall, to choose designs for paintings to decorate the Houses of Parliament,he submitted two cartoons –The Curse of AdamandEdward the Black Prince– but the commission charged with choosing artists to carry out the work (which included his former pupil, Eastlake) found neither suitable. He then paintedThe Banishment of Aristides,which was exhibited, along with other works,at theEgyptian Hallin Piccadilly, where he had hired a gallery several times over the years.The American dwarfGeneral Tom Thumbwas then appearing at the same venue; over the Easter week 12,000 people paid to see him, while only 133 visited Haydon's exhibition. Death The artist's difficulties increased to such an extent that, whilst employed\",\n \"whilst employed on his last grand effort,Alfred and the Trial by Jury,overcome by debts of over £3,000, disappointment, and ingratitude, he wrote \\\"Stretch me no longer on this rough world,\\\" and attemptedsuicideby shooting himself. The bullet failed to kill him, and he finished the task by cutting his throat. He left a widow and three surviving children, who were generously supported by Haydon's friends, includingSir Robert Peel,the Count d'Orsay,Thomas TalfourdandLord Carlisle.A resident ofPaddington, he was buried just to the north-west of the grave ofSarah Siddonsat St Mary's Church, Paddington, London.: p.183The cemetery was converted to a park, St Mary's Gardens, in 1885. Haydon's is one of the few preserved stones. It is modest and eroded but his name is still (2014) just legible. Writings In 1839 Haydon began work on an autobiography, drawing on materials from his extensive diaries. Before his death he had completed the story of his life up to the year 1820. It was published in three volumes in 1853,\",\n \"volumes in 1853, edited byTom Taylor, with additional material from the diaries, under the titleLife of Benjamin Robert Haydon, Historical Painter, from his Autobiography and Journals. The autobiography was assessed by theEncyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Editionin this way: Haydon'sLectures,published shortly after their delivery, showed that he was as bold a writer as painter. He also wrote the long and elaborate article on \\\"Painting,\\\" in the 7th edition of theEncyclopædia Britannica. Critical opinion Charles Dickenswrote in 1846 that \\\"All his life had utterly mistaken his vocation. No amount of sympathy with him and sorrow for him in his manly pursuit of a wrong idea for so many years – until, by dint of his perseverance and courage it almost began to seem a right one – ought to prevent one from saying that he most unquestionably was a very bad painter, and that his pictures could not be expected to sell or to succeed.\\\"Dickens also observed Haydon's art to be \\\"quite marvellous in its badness\\\". Legacy\",\n \"badness\\\". Legacy Pupils Haydon had several pupils. These includedCharlesandEdwin Landseer,William Bewick,John JacksonandEdward Chatfield. In written works In drama Gallery References and sources External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":374,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What was the last prose book written by the poet who referred to Wyndham Lewis as \"that lonely old volcano of the Right.\"?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Forewords and Afterwords (1973)"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyndham_Lewis"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._H._Auden"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyndham_Lewis', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._H._Auden']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyndham_Lewis","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._H._Auden"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyndham_Lewis\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._H._Auden\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Wyndham Lewis Percy Wyndham Lewis(18 November 1882 – 7 March 1957) was a British writer, painter and critic. He was a co-founder of theVorticistmovement in art and editedBLAST, the literary magazine of the Vorticists. His novels includeTarr(1918) andThe Human Agetrilogy, composed ofThe Childermass(1928),Monstre Gai(1955) andMalign Fiesta(1955). A fourth volume, titledThe Trial of Man, was unfinished at the time of his death. He also wrote two autobiographical volumes:Blasting and Bombardiering(1937) andRude Assignment: A Narrative of my Career Up-to-Date(1950). Life and career Early life Lewis was born on 18 November 1882, reputedly on his father's yacht off the Canadian province ofNova Scotia.His English mother, Anne Stuart Lewis (née Prickett), and American father, Charles Edward Lewis, separated about 1893.His mother subsequently returned to England. Lewis was educated in England atRugby Schooland then, from 16, theSlade School of Fine Art,University College London, but left for Paris without finishing his course.He spent most of the 1900s travelling around Europe and studying art in Paris. While in Paris, he attended lectures byHenri Bergsononprocess philosophy. Early work and development of Vorticism (1908–1915) In 1908, Lewis moved to London, where he would reside for much of his life. In 1909, he published his first work, accounts of his travels in Brittany, inFord Madox Ford'sThe English Review. He was a founding member of theCamden Town Group, which brought him into close contact with theBloomsbury Group, particularlyRoger FryandClive Bell, with whom he soon fell out. In 1912, Lewis exhibited his work at the second Postimpressionist exhibition:Cubo-Futuristillustrations toTimon of Athensand three major oil paintings. In 1912, he was commissioned to produce a decorative mural, a drop curtain, and more designs forThe Cave of the Golden Calf, an avant-garde cabaret and nightclub onHeddon Street. From 1913 to 1915, Lewis developed the style of geometric abstraction for which he is best known today, which his friendEzra Pounddubbed \"Vorticism\". Lewis sought to combine the strong structure ofCubism, which he found was not \"alive\", with the liveliness ofFuturistart, which lacked structure. The combination was a strikingly dramatic critique of modernity. In his early visual works, Lewis may have been influenced by Bergson'sprocess philosophy. Though he was later savagely critical of Bergson, he admitted in a letter to Theodore Weiss (19 April 1949) that he \"began by embracing his evolutionary system.\"Nietzschewas an equally important influence. Lewis had a brief tenure at Roger Fry'sOmega Workshops, but left after a quarrel with Fry over a commission to provide wall decorations for theDaily MailIdeal Home Exhibition, which Lewis believed Fry had misappropriated. He and several other Omega artists started a competing workshop called theRebel Art Centre. The Centre operated for only four months, but it gave birth to the Vorticist group and its publication,BLAST.InBLAST,Lewis formally expounded the Vorticist aesthetic in a manifesto, distinguishing it from other avant-garde practices. He also wrote and published a play,Enemy of the Stars. It is a proto-absurdist,Expressionistdrama. Lewis scholar Melania Terrazas identifies it as a precursor to the plays ofSamuel Beckett. World War I (1915–1918) In 1915, the Vorticists held their only U.K. exhibition before the movement broke up, largely as a result of World War I. Lewis himself was posted to thewestern frontand served as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. Much of his time was spent inForward Observation Postslooking down at apparently deserted German lines, registering targets and calling down fire from batteries massed around the rim of theYpres Salient. He made vivid accounts of narrow misses and deadly artillery duels. After theThird Battle of Ypres, Lewis was appointed an officialwar artistfor both the Canadian and British governments. For the Canadians, he paintedA Canadian Gun-pit(1918) from sketches made onVimy Ridge. For the British, he painted one of his best-known works,A Battery Shelled(1919), drawing on his own experience at Ypres.Lewis exhibited his war drawings and some other paintings of the war in an exhibition, \"Guns\", in 1918. Although the Vorticist group broke up after the war, Lewis's patron,John Quinn, organized a Vorticist exhibition at the Penguin Club in New York in 1917. His first novel,Tarr, was serialized inThe Egoistduring 1916–17 and published in book form in 1918. It is widely regarded as one of the key modernist texts. Lewis later documented his experiences and opinions of this period of his life in the autobiographicalBlasting and Bombardiering(1937), which covered his life up to 1926. Tyrosand writing (1918–1929) After the war, Lewis resumed his career as a painter with a major exhibition,Tyros and Portraits, at theLeicester Galleriesin 1921. \"Tyros\" were satirical caricatures intended to comment on the culture of the \"new epoch\" that succeeded the First World War.A Reading ofOvidandMr Wyndham Lewis as a Tyroare the only surviving oil paintings from this series. Lewis also launched his second magazine,The Tyro, of which there were only two issues. The second (1922) contained an important statement of Lewis's visual aesthetic: \"Essay on the Objective of Plastic Art in our Time\".It was during the early 1920s that he perfected his incisive draughtsmanship. By the late 1920s, he concentrated on writing. He launched yet another magazine,The Enemy(1927–1929), largely written by himself and declaring its belligerent critical stance in its title. The magazine and other theoretical and critical works he published from 1926 to 1929 mark a deliberate separation from the avant-garde and his previous associates. He believed that their work failed to show sufficient critical awareness of those ideologies that worked against truly revolutionary change in the West, and therefore became a vehicle for these pernicious ideologies.His major theoretical and cultural statement from this period isThe Art of Being Ruled(1926). Time and Western Man(1927) is a cultural and philosophical discussion that includes penetrating critiques ofJames Joyce,Gertrude SteinandEzra Poundthat are still read. Lewis also attacked theprocess philosophyof Bergson,Samuel Alexander,Alfred North Whitehead, and others. By 1931 he was advocating the art of ancient Egypt as impossible to surpass. Fiction and political writing (1930–1936) Between the years 1907–11 Lewis wrote amodernistnovel entitledTarrwhich was revised and expanded in 1914–15and first serialized in the magazineThe Egoistfrom April 1916 until November 1917. The American version was published in 1918. In 1930 Lewis publishedThe Apes of God, a biting satirical attack on the London literary scene, including a long chapter caricaturing theSitwellfamily.Richard Aldington, however, found it \"the greatest piece ofwritingsinceUlysses\", byJames Joyce.In 1937 Lewis publishedThe Revenge for Love, set in the period leading up to theSpanish Civil Warand regarded by many as his best novel.It is strongly critical of communist activity in Spain and presents English intellectualfellow travellersas deluded. Despite serious illness necessitating several operations, he was very productive as a critic and painter. He produced a book of poems,One-Way Song, in 1933, and a revised version ofEnemy of the Stars. An important book of critical essays also belongs to this period:Men without Art(1934). It grew out of a defence of Lewis's satirical practice inThe Apes of Godand puts forward a theory of \"non-moral\", or metaphysical, satire. The book is probably best remembered for one of the first commentaries onFaulknerand a famous essay onHemingway. Return to painting (1936–1941) After becoming better known for his writing than his painting in the 1920s and early 1930s, he returned to more concentrated work on visual art, and paintings from the 1930s and 1940s constitute some of his best-known work. TheSurrender of Barcelona(1936–37) makes a significant statement about theSpanish Civil War. It was included in an exhibition at the Leicester Galleries in 1937 that Lewis hoped would re-establish his reputation as a painter. After the publication inThe Timesof a letter of support for the exhibition, asking that something from the show be purchased for the national collection (signed by, among others,Stephen Spender,W. H. Auden,Geoffrey Grigson,Rebecca West,Naomi Mitchison,Henry MooreandEric Gill) theTate Gallerybought the painting,Red Scene. Like others from the exhibition, it shows an influence fromSurrealismandde Chirico'sMetaphysical Painting. Lewis was highly critical of the ideology of Surrealism, but admired the visual qualities of some Surrealist art. During this period, Lewis also produced many of his most well-known portraits, including pictures ofEdith Sitwell(1923–1936),T. S. Eliot(1938and 1949), andEzra Pound(1939). His 1938 portrait of Eliot was rejected by the selection committee of theRoyal Academyfor their annual exhibition and caused a furore.Augustus Johnresigned in protest. World War II and North America (1941–1945) Lewis spent World War II in the United States and Canada. In 1941, in Toronto, he produced a series of watercolour fantasies centred on themes of creation, crucifixion and bathing. He grew to appreciate the cosmopolitan and \"rootless\" nature of the American melting pot, declaring that the greatest advantage of being American was to have \"turned one's back on race, caste, and all that pertains to the rooted state.\"He praised the contributions of African-Americans to American culture, and regardedDiego Rivera,David Alfaro Siqueiros, andJosé Clemente Orozcoas the \"best North American artists,\" predicting that when \"the Indian culture of Mexico melts into the great American mass to the North, the Indian will probably give it its art.\"He returned to England in 1945. Later life and blindness (1945–1951) By 1951, he was completely blinded by apituitary tumorthat placed pressure on his optic nerve. It ended his artistic career, but he continued writing until his death. He published several autobiographical and critical works:Rude Assignment(1950),Rotting Hill(1951), a collection of allegorical short stories about his life in \"the capital of a dying empire\";The Writer and the Absolute(1952), a book of essays on writers includingGeorge Orwell,Jean-Paul SartreandAndré Malraux; and the semi-autobiographical novelSelf Condemned(1954). TheBBCcommissioned Lewis to complete his 1928 workThe Childermass, which was published asThe Human Ageand dramatized for theBBC Third Programmein 1955.In 1956, theTate Galleryheld a major exhibition of his work, \"Wyndham Lewis and Vorticism\", in the catalogue to which he declared that \"Vorticism, in fact, was what I, personally, did and said at a certain period\"—a statement which brought forth a series of \"Vortex Pamphlets\" from his fellowBLASTsignatoryWilliam Roberts. Personal life From 1918 to 1921, Lewis lived withIris Barry, with whom he had two children. He is said to have shown little affection for them. In 1930, Lewis married Gladys Anne Hoskins (1900–1979), who was affectionately known as Froanna. They lived together for 10 years before marrying and never had children. Lewis kept Froanna in the background, and many of his friends were unaware of her existence. It seems that Lewis was extraordinarily jealous and protective of his wife, owing to her youth and beauty. Froanna was patient and caring toward her husband through financial troubles and his frequent illnesses. She was the model for some of Lewis's more tender and intimate portraits as well as a number of characters in his fiction. In contrast to his earlier, impersonal portraits, which are purely concerned with external appearance, the portraits of Froanna show a preoccupation with her inner life. Always interested in Roman Catholicism, he never converted.He died in 1957 and was cremated atGolders Green Crematorium. By the time of his death, Lewis had written 40 books in all. Political views In 1931, after a visit to Berlin, Lewis publishedHitler(1931), a book presentingAdolf Hitleras a \"man of peace\", with members of his party being threatened by communist street violence. His unpopularity among liberals and anti-fascists grew, especially after Hitler came to power in 1933.Following a second visit to Germany in 1937, Lewis changed his views and began to retract his previous political comments. He recognized the reality of Nazi treatment of Jews after a visit to Berlin in 1937. In 1939, he published an attack on anti-semitism titledThe Jews, Are They Human?,which was favourably reviewed inThe Jewish Chronicle. He also publishedThe Hitler Cult(1939), which firmly revoked his earlier support for Hitler. Politically, Lewis remained an isolated figure through the 1930s. InLetter toLord Byron,W. H. Audencalled Lewis \"that lonely old volcano of the Right.\" Lewis thought there was what he called a \"left-wing orthodoxy\" in Britain in the 1930s. He believed it was against Britain's self-interest to ally with theSoviet Union, \"which the newspapers most of us read tell us has slaughtered out-of-hand, only a few years ago, millions of its better fed citizens, as well as its whole imperial family.\" InAnglosaxony: A League that Works(1941), Lewis reflected on his earlier support for fascism: Fascism – once I understood it – left me colder than communism. The latter at least pretended, at the start, to have something to do with helping the helpless and making the world a more decent and sensible place. It does start from the human being and his suffering. Whereas fascism glorifies bloodshed and preaches that man should model himself upon the wolf. His sense that America and Canada lacked a British-type class structure had increased his opinion of liberal democracy, and in the same pamphlet, Lewis defends liberal democracy's respect for individual freedom against its critics on both the left and right.InAmerica and Cosmic Man(1949), Lewis argued thatFranklin Delano Roosevelthad successfully managed to reconcile individual rights with the demands of the state. Legacy In recent years, there has been renewed critical and biographical interest in Lewis and his work, and he is now regarded as a major British artist and writer of the twentieth century.Rugby School hosted an exhibition of his works in November 2007 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his death. TheNational Portrait Galleryin London held a major retrospective of his portraits in 2008. Two years later, held at the Fundación Juan March (Madrid, Spain), a large exhibition (Wyndham Lewis 1882–1957) featured a comprehensive collection of Lewis's paintings and drawings. As Tom Lubbock pointed out, it was \"the retrospective that Britain has never managed to get together.\". In 2010, Oxford World Classics published a critical edition of the 1928 text ofTarr, edited by Scott W. Klein ofWake Forest University. TheNasher Museum of ArtatDuke Universityheld an exhibition entitled \"The Vorticists: Rebel Artists in London and New York, 1914–18\" from 30 September 2010 through 2 January 2011.The exhibition then travelled to the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice (29 January – 15 May 2011: \"I Vorticisti: Artisti ribellia a Londra e New York, 1914–1918\") and then toTate Britainunder the title \"The Vorticists: Manifesto for a Modern World\" between 14 June and 4 September 2011. Several readings by Lewis are collected onThe Enemy Speaks, an audiobook CD published in 2007 and featuring extracts from \"One Way Song\" andThe Apes of God, as well as radio talks titled \"When John Bull Laughs\" (1938), \"A Crisis of Thought\" (1947) and \"The Essential Purposes of Art\" (1951). Ablue plaquenow stands on the house inKensington, London, where Lewis lived, No. 61 Palace Gardens Terrace. Critical reception In his essay \"Good Bad Books\",George Orwellpresents Lewis as the exemplary writer who is cerebral without being artistic. Orwell wrote, \"Enough talent to set up dozens of ordinary writers has been poured into Wyndham Lewis's so-called novels… Yet it would be a very heavy labour to read one of these books right through. Some indefinable quality, a sort of literary vitamin, which exists even in a book like If Winter Comes, is absent from them.\" In 1932,Walter Sickertsent Lewis a telegram in which he said that Lewis's pencil portrait ofRebecca Westproved him to be \"the greatest portraitist of this or any other time.\" Anti-semitism For many years, Lewis's novels have been criticised for their satirical and hostile portrayals of Jews.Tarrwas revised and republished in 1928, giving a new Jewish character a key role in making sure a duel is fought. This has been interpreted as an allegorical representation ofa supposed Zionist conspiracy against the West.His literary satireThe Apes of Godhas been interpreted similarly, because many of the characters are Jewish, including the modernist author and editor Julius Ratner, a portrait which blends anti-semitic stereotype with historical literary figuresJohn Rodkerand James Joyce. A key feature of these interpretations is that Lewis is held to have kept his conspiracy theories hidden and marginalized. Since the publication ofAnthony Julius'sT. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form(1995), where Lewis's anti-semitism is described as \"essentially trivial\", this view is no longer taken seriously. Books Paintings Notes and references Further reading External links","W. H. Auden Wystan Hugh Auden(/ˈwɪstənˈhjuːˈɔːdən/; 21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973) was aBritish-Americanpoet. Auden's poetry is noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety intone,form, andcontent. Some of his best known poems are about love, such as \"Funeral Blues\"; on political and social themes, such as \"September 1, 1939\" and \"The Shield of Achilles\"; on cultural and psychological themes, such asThe Age of Anxiety; and on religious themes, such as \"For the Time Being\" and \"Horae Canonicae\". Auden was born inYorkand grew up in and nearBirminghamin a professional, middle-class family. He attended various English independent (orpublic) schools and studied English atChrist Church, Oxford. After a few months in Berlin in 1928–29, he spent five years (1930–1935) teaching in British privatepreparatory schools. In 1939, he moved to the United States; he became an American citizen in 1946, retaining his British citizenship. Auden taught from 1941 to 1945 in American universities, followed by occasional visiting professorships in the 1950s. Auden came to wide public attention in 1930 with his first book,Poems; it was followed in 1932 byThe Orators. Three plays written in collaboration withChristopher Isherwoodbetween 1935 and 1938 built his reputation as a left-wing political writer. Auden moved to the United States partly to escape this reputation, and his work in the 1940s, including thelong poems\"For the Time Being\" and \"The Sea and the Mirror\", focused on religious themes. He won thePulitzer Prize for Poetryfor his 1947 long poemThe Age of Anxiety, the title of which became a popular phrase describing the modern era.From 1956 to 1961, he wasProfessor of Poetry at Oxford; his lectures were popular with students and faculty and served as the basis for his 1962 prose collectionThe Dyer's Hand. Auden was a prolific writer of prose essays and reviews on literary, political, psychological, and religious subjects, and he worked at various times on documentary films, poetic plays, and other forms of performance. Throughout his career he was both controversial and influential. Critical views on his work ranged from sharply dismissive (treating him as a lesser figure thanW. B. YeatsandT. S. Eliot) to strongly affirmative (as inJoseph Brodsky's statement that he had \"the greatest mind of the twentieth century\"). After his death, his poems became known to a much wider public through films, broadcasts, and popular media. Life Childhood Auden was born at54 Bootham,York, England, toGeorge Augustus Auden(1872–1957), a physician, and Constance Rosalie Auden (née Bicknell; 1869–1941), who had trained (but never served) as a missionary nurse.He was the third of three sons; the eldest, George Bernard Auden (1900–1978), became a farmer, while the second,John Bicknell Auden(1903–1991), became a geologist.The Audens were minor gentry with a strongclericaltradition, originally ofRowley Regis, later ofHorninglow, Staffordshire. Auden, whose grandfathers were bothChurch of Englandclergymen,grew up in anAnglo-Catholichousehold that followed a \"high\" form ofAnglicanism, with doctrine and ritual resembling those ofCatholicism.He traced his love of music and language partly to the church services of his childhood.He believed he was ofIcelandicdescent, and his lifelong fascination with Icelandic legends andOld Norsesagas is evident in his work. His family moved to Homer Road inSolihull, nearBirmingham, in 1908,where his father had been appointed the School Medical Officer and Lecturer (later Professor) of Public Health. Auden's lifelongpsychoanalyticinterests began in his father's library. From the age of eight he attended boarding schools, returning home for holidays.His visits to thePenninelandscape and its declining lead-mining industry figure in many of his poems; the remote decaying mining village ofRookhopewas for him a \"sacred landscape\", evoked in a late poem, \"Amor Loci\".Until he was fifteen he expected to become a mining engineer, but his passion for words had already begun. He wrote later: \"words so excite me that a pornographic story, for example, excites me sexually more than a living person can do.\" Education Auden attendedSt Edmund's School, Hindhead, Surrey, where he metChristopher Isherwood, later famous in his own right as a novelist.At thirteen he went toGresham's SchoolinHolt, Norfolk; there, in 1922, when his friendRobert Medleyasked him if he wrote poetry, Auden first realised his vocation was to be a poet.Soon after, he \"discover(ed) that he (had) lost his faith\" (through a gradual realisation that he had lost interest in religion, not through any decisive change of views).In school productions ofShakespeare, he played Katherina inThe Taming of the Shrewin 1922,andCalibaninThe Tempestin 1925, his last year at Gresham's.A review of his performance as Katherina noted that despite a poor wig, he had been able \"to infuse considerable dignity into his passionate outbursts\". His first published poems appeared in the school magazine in 1923.Auden later wrote a chapter on Gresham's forGraham Greene'sThe Old School: Essays by Divers Hands(1934). In 1925 he went up toChrist Church, Oxford, with a scholarship in biology; he changed to English by his second year, and was introduced to Old English poetry through the lectures ofJ. R. R. Tolkien. Friends he met at Oxford includeCecil Day-Lewis,Louis MacNeice, andStephen Spender- Auden and these three were commonly though misleadingly identified in the 1930s as the \"Auden Group\" for their shared (but not identical) left-wing views. Auden left Oxford in 1928 with athird-classdegree. Auden was reintroduced to Christopher Isherwood in 1925 by his fellow studentA. S. T. Fisher. For the next few years Auden sent poems to Isherwood for comments and criticism; the two maintained a sexual friendship in intervals between their relations with others. In 1935–39 they collaborated on three plays and a travel book. From his Oxford years onward, Auden's friends uniformly described him as funny, extravagant, sympathetic, generous, and, partly by his own choice, lonely. In groups he was often dogmatic and overbearing in a comic way; in more private settings he was diffident and shy except when certain of his welcome. He was punctual in his habits, and obsessive about meeting deadlines, while living amidst physical disorder. Britain and Europe, 1928–1938 In late 1928 Auden left Britain for nine months, going toBerlin, perhaps partly as an escape from English repressiveness. In Berlin, he first experienced the political and economic unrest that became one of his central subjects.Around the same time, Stephen Spender privately printed a small pamphlet of Auden'sPoemsin an edition of about 45 copies, distributed among Auden's and Spender's friends and family; this edition is usually referred to asPoems to avoid confusion with Auden's commercially published 1930 volume. On returning to Britain in 1929 he worked briefly as a tutor. In 1930 his first published book,Poems(1930), was accepted byT. S. EliotforFaber and Faber, and the same firm remained the British publisher of all the books he published thereafter. In 1930, he began five years as a schoolmaster in boys' schools: two years at theLarchfield AcademyinHelensburgh, Scotland, then three years atthe Downs Schoolin theMalvern Hills, where he was a much-loved teacher.At the Downs, in June 1933, he experienced what he later described as a \"Vision ofAgape\", while sitting with three fellow teachers at the school, when he suddenly found that he loved them for themselves, that their existence had infinite value for him; this experience, he said, later influenced his decision to return to the Anglican Church in 1940. During these years Auden's erotic interests focused, as he later said, on an idealised \"Alter Ego\"rather than on individual people. His relationships (and his unsuccessful courtships) tended to be unequal either in age or intelligence; his sexual relations were transient, although some evolved into long friendships. He contrasted these relationships with what he later regarded as the \"marriage\" (his word) of equals that he began withChester Kallmanin 1939, based on the unique individuality of both partners. In 1935 Auden marriedErika Mann(1905–1969), the lesbian novelist daughter ofThomas Mannwhen it became apparent that the Nazis were intending to strip her of her German citizenship.Mann had asked Christopher Isherwood if he would marry her so she could become a British citizen. He declined but suggested she approach Auden, who readily agreed to amarriage of convenience.Mann and Auden never lived together, but remained on good terms throughout their lives and were still married when Mann died in 1969. She left him a small bequest in her will.In 1936, Auden introduced actressTherese Giehse, Mann's lover, to the writerJohn Hampsonand they too married so that Giehse could leave Germany. From 1935 until he left Britain early in 1939, Auden worked as freelance reviewer, essayist, and lecturer, first with theGPO Film Unit, a documentary film-making branch of the post office, headed byJohn Grierson. Through his work for the Film Unit in 1935 he met and collaborated withBenjamin Britten, with whom he also worked on plays, song cycles, and a libretto.Auden's plays in the 1930s were performed by theGroup Theatre, in productions that he supervised to varying degrees. His work now reflected his belief that any good artist must be \"more than a bit of a reporting journalist\".In 1936, Auden spent three months in Iceland where he gathered material for a travel bookLetters from Iceland(1937), written in collaboration with Louis MacNeice. In 1937, he went to Spain intending to drive an ambulance for theRepublicin theSpanish Civil War, but was put to work writing propaganda at the Republican press and propaganda office, where he felt useless and left after a week.He returned to England after a brief visit to the front at Sarineña. His seven-week visit to Spain affected him deeply, and his social views grew more complex as he found political realities to be more ambiguous and troubling than he had imagined.Again attempting to combine reportage and art, he and Isherwood spent six months in 1938 visiting China amid theSino-Japanese War, working on their bookJourney to a War(1939). On their way back to England they stayed briefly in New York and decided to move to the United States. Auden spent late 1938 partly in England, partly in Brussels. Many of Auden's poems during the 1930s and after were inspired by unconsummated love, and in the 1950s he summarised his emotional life in a famous couplet: \"If equal affection cannot be / Let the more loving one be me\" (\"The More Loving One\"). He had a gift for friendship and, starting in the late 1930s, a strong wish for the stability of marriage; in a letter to his friendJames Sternhe called marriage \"theonlysubject.\"Throughout his life, Auden performed charitable acts, sometimes in public, as in his 1935 marriage of convenience to Erika Mann,but, especially in later years, more often in private. He was embarrassed if they were publicly revealed, as when his gift to his friendDorothy Dayfor theCatholic Workermovement was reported on the front page ofThe New York Timesin 1956. United States and Europe, 1939–1973 Auden and Isherwood sailed to New York City in January 1939, entering on temporary visas. Their departure from Britain was later seen by many as a betrayal, and Auden's reputation suffered.In April 1939, Isherwood moved to California, and he and Auden saw each other only intermittently in later years. Around this time, Auden met the poetChester Kallman, who became his lover for the next two years (Auden described their relation as a \"marriage\" that began with a cross-country \"honeymoon\" journey). In 1941 Kallman ended their sexual relationship because he could not accept Auden's insistence on mutual fidelity,but he and Auden remained companions for the rest of Auden's life, sharing houses and apartments from 1953 until Auden's death.Auden dedicated both editions of his collected poetry (1945/50 and 1966) to Isherwood and Kallman. In 1940–41 Auden lived in a house at 7 Middagh Street inBrooklyn Heights, that he shared withCarson McCullers, Benjamin Britten, and others, which became a famous centre of artistic life, nicknamed \"February House\".In 1940, Auden joined theEpiscopal Church, returning to the Anglican Communion he had abandoned at fifteen. His reconversion was influenced partly by what he called the \"sainthood\" ofCharles Williams,whom he had met in 1937, and partly by readingSøren KierkegaardandReinhold Niebuhr; hisexistential, this-worldly Christianity became a central element in his life. After Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939, Auden told the British embassy in Washington that he would return to the UK if needed. He was told that, among those his age (32), only qualified personnel were needed. In 1941–42 he taught English at theUniversity of Michigan. He was called for the draft in the United States Army in August 1942, but was rejected on medical grounds. He had been awarded aGuggenheim Fellowshipfor 1942–43 but did not use it, choosing instead to teach atSwarthmore Collegein 1942–45. In mid-1945, after the end ofWorld War IIin Europe, he was in Germany with theUS Strategic Bombing Survey, studying the effects of Allied bombing on German morale, an experience that affected his postwar work as his visit to Spain had affected him earlier.On his return, he settled inManhattan, working as a freelance writer, a lecturer atThe New Schoolfor Social Research, and a visiting professor atBennington,Smith, and other American colleges. In 1946, he became anaturalised citizenof the US. In 1948 Auden began spending his summers in Europe, together with Chester Kallman, first inIschia, Italy, where he rented a house. Starting in 1958 he began spending his summers inKirchstetten, Austria, where he bought a farmhouse with the prize money of thePremio Feltrinelliawarded to him in 1957.He said that he shed tears of joy at owning a home for the first time.His later poetry, mostly written in Austria, includes his sequence \"Thanksgiving for a Habitat\" about his Kirchstetten home.Auden's letters and papers sent to his friend the translator Stella Musulin (1915–1996), available online, provide insights into his Austrian years. In 1956–61 Auden wasProfessor of PoetryatOxford University, where he was required to give three lectures each year. This fairly light workload allowed him to continue to spend winter in New York, where he lived at 77St. Mark's Placein Manhattan'sEast Village, and to spend summer in Europe, spending only three weeks each year lecturing in Oxford. He earned his income mostly from readings and lecture tours, and by writing forThe New Yorker,The New York Review of Books,and other magazines. In 1963 Kallman left the apartment he shared in New York with Auden, and lived during the winter in Athens while continuing to spend his summers with Auden in Austria. Auden spent the winter of 1964-1965 inBerlinthrough anartist-in-residence programof theFord Foundation. Following some years of lobbying by his friendDavid Luke, Auden's old college, Christ Church, in February 1972 offered him a cottage on its grounds to live in; he moved his books and other possessions from New York to Oxford in September 1972,while continuing to spend summers in Austria with Kallman. He spent only one winter in Oxford before his death in 1973. Auden died at 66 of heart failure at the Altenburgerhof Hotel in Vienna overnight on 28–29 September 1973, a few hours after giving a reading of his poems for the Austrian Society for Literature at thePalais Pálffy. He had intended to return to Oxford the following day. He was buried on 4 October in Kirchstetten, and a memorial stone was placed in Westminster Abbey in London a year later. Work Auden published about four hundred poems, including seven long poems (two of them book-length). His poetry was encyclopaedic in scope and method, ranging in style from obscure twentieth-century modernism to the lucid traditional forms such asballadsandlimericks, fromdoggerelthroughhaikuandvillanellesto a \"Christmas Oratorio\" and abaroqueecloguein Anglo-Saxon meters.The tone and content of his poems ranged from pop-song clichés to complex philosophical meditations, from the corns on his toes to atoms and stars, from contemporary crises to the evolution of society. He also wrote more than four hundred essays and reviews about literature, history, politics, music, religion, and many other subjects. He collaborated on plays withChristopher Isherwoodand on opera libretti withChester Kallman, and worked with a group of artists and filmmakers on documentary films in the 1930s and with theNew York Pro Musicaearly musicgroup in the 1950s and 1960s. About collaboration he wrote in 1964: \"collaboration has brought me greater erotic joy . . . than any sexual relations I have had.\" Auden controversially rewrote or discarded some of his most famous poems when he prepared his later collected editions. He wrote that he rejected poems that he found \"boring\" or \"dishonest\" in the sense that they expressed views he had never held but had used only because he felt they would be rhetorically effective.His rejected poems include \"Spain\" and \"September 1, 1939\". Hisliterary executor,Edward Mendelson, argues in his introduction toSelected Poemsthat Auden's practice reflected his sense of the persuasive power of poetry and his reluctance to misuse it.(Selected Poemsincludes some poems that Auden rejected and early texts of poems that he revised.) Early work, 1922–1939 Up to 1930 Auden began writing poems in 1922, at 15, mostly in the styles of 19th-century romantic poets, especiallyWordsworth, and later poets with rural interests, especiallyThomas Hardy. At 18 he discoveredT. S. Eliotand adopted an extreme version of Eliot's style. He found his own voice at 20 when he wrote the first poem later included in his collected work, \"From the very first coming down\".This and other poems of the late 1920s tended to be in a clipped, elusive style that alluded to, but did not directly state, their themes of loneliness and loss. Twenty of these poems appeared in his first bookPoems(1928), a pamphlet hand-printed byStephen Spender. In 1928 he wrote his first dramatic work,Paid on Both Sides, subtitled \"A Charade\", which combined style and content from the Icelandicsagaswith jokes from English school life. This mixture of tragedy and farce, with a dream play-within-a-play, introduced the mixed styles and content of much of his later work.This drama and thirty short poems appeared in his first published bookPoems(1930, 2nd edition with seven poems replaced, 1933); the poems in the book were mostly lyrical and gnomic meditations on hoped-for or unconsummated love and on themes of personal, social, and seasonal renewal; among these poems were \"It was Easter as I walked\", \"Doom is dark\", \"Sir, no man's enemy\", and \"This lunar beauty\". A recurrent theme in these early poems is the effect of \"family ghosts\", Auden's term for the powerful, unseen psychological effects of preceding generations on any individual life (and the title of a poem). A parallel theme, present throughout his work, is the contrast between biological evolution (unchosen and involuntary) and the psychological evolution of cultures and individuals (voluntary and deliberate even in its subconscious aspects). 1931–1935 Auden's next large-scale work wasThe Orators: An English Study(1932; revised editions, 1934, 1966), in verse and prose, largely about hero-worship in personal and political life. In his shorter poems, his style became more open and accessible, and the exuberant \"Six Odes\" inThe Oratorsreflect his new interest inRobert Burns.During the next few years, many of his poems took their form and style from traditional ballads and popular songs, and also from expansive classical forms like theOdesofHorace, which he seems to have discovered through the German poetHölderlin.Around this time his main influences wereDante,William Langland, andAlexander Pope. During these years much of his work expressed left-wing views, and he became widely known as a political poet although he was privately more ambivalent about revolutionary politics than many reviewers recognised,and Mendelson argues that he expounded political views partly out of a sense of moral duty and partly because it enhanced his reputation, and that he later regretted having done so.He generally wrote about revolutionary change in terms of a \"change of heart\", a transformation of a society from a closed-off psychology of fear to an open psychology of love. His verse dramaThe Dance of Death(1933) was a political extravaganza in the style of a theatrical revue, which Auden later called \"a nihilistic leg-pull.\"His next playThe Dog Beneath the Skin(1935), written in collaboration with Isherwood, was similarly a quasi-Marxist updating ofGilbert and Sullivanin which the general idea of social transformation was more prominent than any specific political action or structure. The Ascent of F6(1937), another play written with Isherwood, was partly an anti-imperialist satire, partly (in the character of the self-destroying climber Michael Ransom) an examination of Auden's own motives in taking on a public role as a political poet.This play included the first version of \"Funeral Blues\" (\"Stop all the clocks\"), written as a satiric eulogy for a politician; Auden later rewrote the poem as a \"Cabaret Song\" about lost love (written to be sung by the sopranoHedli Anderson, for whom he wrote many lyrics in the 1930s).In 1935, he worked briefly on documentary films with theGPO Film Unit, writing his famous verse commentary forNight Mailand lyrics for other films that were among his attempts in the 1930s to create a widely accessible, socially conscious art. 1936–1939 In 1936 Auden's publisher chose the titleLook, Stranger!for a collection of political odes, love poems, comic songs, meditative lyrics, and a variety of intellectually intense but emotionally accessible verse; Auden hated the title and retitled the collection for the 1937 US editionOn This Island.Among the poems included in the book are \"Hearing of harvests\", \"Out on the lawn I lie in bed\", \"O what is that sound\", \"Look, stranger, on this island now\" (later revised versions change \"on\" to \"at\"), and \"Our hunting fathers\". Auden was now arguing that an artist should be a kind of journalist, and he put this view into practice inLetters from Iceland(1937) a travel book in prose and verse written withLouis MacNeice, which included his long social, literary, and autobiographical commentary \"Letter to Lord Byron\".In 1937, after observing theSpanish Civil Warhe wrote a politically engaged pamphlet poemSpain(1937); he later discarded it from his collected works.Journey to a War(1939) a travel book in prose and verse, was written with Isherwood after their visit to theSino-Japanese War.Auden's last collaboration with Isherwood was their third play,On the Frontier, an anti-war satire written in Broadway and West End styles. Auden's shorter poems now engaged with the fragility and transience of personal love (\"Danse Macabre\", \"The Dream\", \"Lay your sleeping head\"), a subject he treated with ironic wit in his \"Four Cabaret Songs for MissHedli Anderson\" (which included \"Tell Me the Truth About Love\" and the revised version of \"Funeral Blues\"), and also the corrupting effect of public and official culture on individual lives (\"Casino\", \"School Children\", \"Dover\").In 1938, he wrote a series of dark, ironic ballads about individual failure (\"Miss Gee\", \"James Honeyman\", \"Victor\"). All these appeared inAnother Time(1940), together with poems including \"Dover\", \"As He Is\", and \"Musée des Beaux Arts\" (all of which were written before he moved to America in 1939), and \"In Memory of W. B. Yeats\", \"The Unknown Citizen\", \"Law Like Love\", \"September 1, 1939\", and \"In Memory of Sigmund Freud\" (all written in America). The elegies for Yeats and Freud are partly anti-heroic statements, in which great deeds are performed, not by unique geniuses whom others cannot hope to imitate, but by otherwise ordinary individuals who were \"silly like us\" (Yeats) or of whom it could be said \"he wasn't clever at all\" (Freud), and who became teachers of others, not awe-inspiring heroes. Middle period, 1940–1957 1940–1946 In 1940 Auden wrote a long philosophical poem \"New Year Letter\", which appeared with miscellaneous notes and other poems inThe Double Man(1941). At the time of his return to the Anglican Communion he began writing abstract verse on theological themes, such as \"Canzone\" and \"Kairos and Logos\". Around 1942, as he became more comfortable with religious themes, his verse became more open and relaxed, and he increasingly used thesyllabic versehe had learned from the poetry ofMarianne Moore. Auden's work in this era addresses the artist's temptation to use other persons as material for his art rather than valuing them for themselves (\"Prospero to Ariel\") and the corresponding moral obligation to make and keep commitments while recognising the temptation to break them (\"In Sickness and Health\").From 1942 through 1947 he worked mostly on three long poems in dramatic form, each differing from the others in form and content: \"For the Time Being: A Christmas Oratorio\", \"The Sea and the Mirror: A Commentary on Shakespeare'sThe Tempest\"(both published inFor the Time Being, 1944), andThe Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue(published separately in 1947).The first two, with Auden's other new poems from 1940 to 1944, were included in his first collected edition,The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden(1945), with most of his earlier poems, many in revised versions. 1947–1957 After completingThe Age of Anxietyin 1946 he focused again on shorter poems, notably \"A Walk After Dark\", \"The Love Feast\", and \"The Fall of Rome\".Many of these evoked the Italian village where he spent his summers between 1948 and 1957, and his next book,Nones(1951), had a Mediterranean atmosphere new to his work.A new theme was the \"sacred importance\" of the human bodyin its ordinary aspect (breathing, sleeping, eating) and the continuity with nature that the body made possible (in contrast to the division between humanity and nature that he had emphasised in the 1930s);his poems on these themes included \"In Praise of Limestone\" (1948) and \"Memorial for the City\" (1949).In 1947-1948, Auden and Kallman wrote the libretto forIgor Stravinsky's operaThe Rake's Progress, and later collaborated on two libretti for operas byHans Werner Henze. Auden's first separate prose book wasThe Enchafèd Flood: The Romantic Iconography of the Sea(1950), based on a series of lectures on the image of the sea in romantic literature.Between 1949 and 1954 he worked on a sequence of sevenGood Fridaypoems, titled \"Horae Canonicae\", an encyclopaedic survey of geological, biological, cultural, and personal history, focused on the irreversible act of murder; the poem was also a study in cyclical and linear ideas of time. While writing this, he also wrote \"Bucolics\", a sequence of seven poems about man's relation to nature. Both sequences appeared in his next book,The Shield of Achilles(1955), with other short poems, including the book's title poem, \"Fleet Visit\", and \"Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier\". In 1955–56 Auden wrote a group of poems about \"history\", the term he used to mean the set of unique events made by human choices, as opposed to \"nature\", the set of involuntary events created by natural processes, statistics, and anonymous forces such as crowds. These poems included \"T the Great\", \"The Maker\", and the title poem of his next collectionHomage to Clio(1960). Later work, 1958–1973 In the late 1950s Auden's style became less rhetorical while its range of styles increased. In 1958, having moved his summer home from Italy to Austria, he wrote \"Good-bye to the Mezzogiorno\"; other poems from this period include \"Dichtung und Wahrheit: An Unwritten Poem\", a prose poem about the relation between love and personal and poetic language, and the contrasting \"Dame Kind\", about the anonymous impersonal reproductive instinct. These and other poems, including his 1955–66 poems about history, appeared inHomage to Clio(1960).His prose bookThe Dyer's Hand(1962) gathered many of the lectures he gave in Oxford as Professor of Poetry in 1956–61, together with revised versions of essays and notes written since the mid-1940s. Among the new styles and forms in Auden's later work were thehaikuandtankathat he began writing after translating the haiku and other verse inDag Hammarskjöld'sMarkings.A sequence of fifteen poems about his house in Austria, \"Thanksgiving for a Habitat\" (written in various styles that included an imitation ofWilliam Carlos Williams) appeared inAbout the House(1965), together with other poems that included his reflection on his lecture tours, \"On the Circuit\".In the late 1960s he wrote some of his most vigorous poems, including \"River Profile\" and two poems that looked back over his life, \"Prologue at Sixty\" and \"Forty Years On\". All these appeared inCity Without Walls(1969). His lifelong passion for Icelandic legend culminated in his verse translation ofTheElder Edda(1969).Among his later themes was the \"religionless Christianity\" he learned partly fromDietrich Bonhoeffer, the dedicatee of his poem \"Friday's Child\". A Certain World: A Commonplace Book(1970) was a kind of self-portrait made up of favourite quotations with commentary, arranged in alphabetical order by subject.His last prose book was a selection of essays and reviews,Forewords and Afterwords(1973).His last books of verse,Epistle to a Godson(1972) and the unfinishedThank You, Fog(published posthumously, 1974) include reflective poems about language (\"Natural Linguistics\", \"Aubade\"), philosophy and science (\"No, Plato, No\", \"Unpredictable but Providential\"), and his own aging (\"A New Year Greeting\", \"Talking to Myself\", \"A Lullaby\" ). His last completed poem was \"Archaeology\", about ritual and timelessness, two recurring themes in his later years. Reputation and influence Auden's stature in modern literature has been contested. Probably the most common critical view from the 1930s onward ranked him as the last and least of the three major twentieth-century poets of the UK or Ireland—behind Yeats and Eliot—while a minority view, more prominent in recent years, ranks him as the highest of the three.Opinions have ranged from those ofHugh MacDiarmid, who called him \"a complete wash-out\";F. R. Leavis, who wrote that Auden's ironic style was \"self-defensive, self-indulgent or merely irresponsible\";andHarold Bloom, who wrote \"Close thy Auden, open thy Stevens,\"to the obituarist inThe Times, who wrote: \"W.H. Auden, for long theenfant terribleof English poetry... emerges as its undisputed master.\"Joseph Brodskywrote that Auden had \"the greatest mind of the twentieth century\". Critical estimates were divided from the start. Reviewing Auden's first book,Poems(1930),Naomi Mitchisonwrote \"If this is really only the beginning, we have perhaps a master to look forward to.\"ButJohn Sparrow, recalling Mitchison's comment in 1934, dismissed Auden's early work as \"a monument to the misguided aims that prevail among contemporary poets, and the fact that... he is being hailed as 'a master' shows how criticism is helping poetry on the downward path.\" Auden's clipped, satiric, and ironic style in the 1930s was widely imitated by younger poets such asCharles Madge, who wrote in a poem \"there waited for me in the summer morning / Auden fiercely. I read, shuddered, and knew.\"He was widely described as the leader of an \"Auden group\" that comprised his friendsStephen Spender,Cecil Day-Lewis, andLouis MacNeice.The four were mocked by the poetRoy Campbellas if they were a single undifferentiated poet named \"Macspaunday.\"Auden's propagandistic poetic plays, includingThe Dog Beneath the SkinandThe Ascent of F6, and his political poems such as \"Spain\" gave him the reputation as a political poet writing in a progressive and accessible voice, in contrast to Eliot; but this political stance provoked opposing opinions, such as that ofAustin Clarkewho called Auden's work \"liberal, democratic, and humane\",and John Drummond, who wrote that Auden misused a \"characteristic and popularizing trick, the generalized image\", to present ostensibly left-wing views that were in fact \"confined to bourgeois experience.\" Auden's departure for America in 1939 was debated in Britain (once even in Parliament), with some seeing his emigration as a betrayal. Defenders of Auden such asGeoffrey Grigson, in an introduction to a 1949 anthology of modern poetry, wrote that Auden \"arches over all\". His stature was suggested by book titles such asAuden and AfterbyFrancis Scarfe(1942) andThe Auden GenerationbySamuel Hynes(1977). In the US, starting in the late 1930s, the detached, ironic tone of Auden's regular stanzas became influential;John Ashberyrecalled that in the 1940s Auden \"wasthemodern poet\".Auden's formal influences were so pervasive in American poetry that the ecstatic style of theBeat Generationwas partly a reaction against his influence. From the 1940s through the 1960s, many critics lamented that Auden's work had declined from its earlier promise;Randall Jarrellwrote a series of essays making a case against Auden's later work,andPhilip Larkin's \"What's Become of Wystan?\" (1960) had a wide impact. The first full-length study of Auden wasRichard Hoggart'sAuden: An Introductory Essay(1951), which concluded that \"Auden's work, then, is a civilising force.\"It was followed byJoseph Warren Beach'sThe Making of the Auden Canon(1957), a disapproving account of Auden's revisions of his earlier work.The first systematic critical account was Monroe K. Spears'The Poetry of W. H. Auden: The Disenchanted Island(1963), \"written out of the conviction that Auden's poetry can offer the reader entertainment, instruction, intellectual excitement, and a prodigal variety of aesthetic pleasures, all in a generous abundance that is unique in our time.\" Auden was one of three candidates recommended by the Nobel Committee to the Swedish Academy for theNobel Prize in Literaturein 1963and 1965and six recommended for the 1964 prize.By the time of his death in 1973 he had attained the status of a respected elder statesman, and a memorial stone for him was placed inPoets' CornerinWestminster Abbeyin 1974.TheEncyclopædia Britannicawrites that \"by the time of Eliot's death in 1965... a convincing case could be made for the assertion that Auden was indeed Eliot's successor, as Eliot had inherited sole claim to supremacy whenYeatsdied in 1939.\"With some exceptions, British critics tended to treat his early work as his best, while American critics tended to favour his middle and later work. Another group of critics and poets has maintained that unlike other modern poets, Auden's reputation did not decline after his death, and the influence of his later writing was especially strong on younger American poets includingJohn Ashbery,James Merrill,Anthony Hecht, andMaxine Kumin.Typical later evaluations describe him as \"arguably the century's greatest poet\" (Peter Parker and Frank Kermode),who \"now clearly seems the greatest poet in English since Tennyson\" (Philip Hensher). Public recognition of Auden's work sharply increased after his \"Funeral Blues\" (\"Stop all the clocks\") was read aloud in the filmFour Weddings and a Funeral(1994); subsequently, a pamphlet edition of ten of his poems,Tell Me the Truth About Love, sold more than 275,000 copies. An excerpt from his poem \"As I walked out one evening\" was recited in the filmBefore Sunrise(1995).After 11 September 2001, his 1939 poem \"September 1, 1939\" was widely circulated and frequently broadcast.Public readings and broadcast tributes in the UK and US in 2007 marked his centenary year. Overall Auden's poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety in tone, form and content. Memorial stones and plaques commemorating Auden include those inWestminster Abbey; at his birthplace at 55 Bootham, York;near his home on Lordswood Road, Birmingham;in the chapel of Christ Church, Oxford; on the site of his apartment at 1 Montague Terrace, Brooklyn Heights; at his apartment in 77 St. Marks Place, New York (damaged and now removed);at the site of his death at Walfischgasse 5 in Vienna;and in theRainbow Honor Walkin San Francisco.In his house in Kirchstetten, his study is open to the public upon request. In 2023, newly declassified UK government files revealed that Auden was considered as a candidate to be the newPoet Laureate of the United Kingdomin 1967 following the death ofJohn Masefield. He was rejected due to having taken American citizenship. Published works The following list includes only the books of poems and essays that Auden prepared during his lifetime; for a more complete list, including other works and posthumous editions, seeW. H. Auden bibliography. Dates refer to first publication or first performance, not of composition. In the list below, works reprinted in theComplete Works of W. H. Audenare indicated by footnote references. References Citations General and cited sources Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Wyndham Lewis Percy Wyndham Lewis(18 November 1882 – 7 March 1957) was a British writer, painter and critic. He was a co-founder of theVorticistmovement in art and editedBLAST, the literary magazine of the Vorticists. His novels includeTarr(1918) andThe Human Agetrilogy, composed ofThe Childermass(1928),Monstre Gai(1955) andMalign Fiesta(1955). A fourth volume, titledThe Trial of Man, was unfinished at the time of his death. He also wrote two autobiographical volumes:Blasting and Bombardiering(1937) andRude Assignment: A Narrative of my Career Up-to-Date(1950). Life and career Early life Lewis was born on 18 November 1882, reputedly on his father's yacht off the Canadian province ofNova Scotia.His English mother, Anne Stuart Lewis (née Prickett), and American father, Charles Edward Lewis, separated about 1893.His mother subsequently returned to England. Lewis was educated in England atRugby Schooland then, from 16, theSlade School of Fine Art,University College London, but left for Paris without finishing his course.He spent most of the 1900s travelling around Europe and studying art in Paris. While in Paris, he attended lectures byHenri Bergsononprocess philosophy. Early work and development of Vorticism (1908–1915) In 1908, Lewis moved to London, where he would reside for much of his life. In 1909, he published his first work, accounts of his travels in Brittany, inFord Madox Ford'sThe English Review. He was a founding member of theCamden Town Group, which brought him into close contact with theBloomsbury Group, particularlyRoger FryandClive Bell, with whom he soon fell out. In 1912, Lewis exhibited his work at the second Postimpressionist exhibition:Cubo-Futuristillustrations toTimon of Athensand three major oil paintings. In 1912, he was commissioned to produce a decorative mural, a drop curtain, and more designs forThe Cave of the Golden Calf, an avant-garde cabaret and nightclub onHeddon Street. From 1913 to 1915, Lewis developed the style of geometric abstraction for which he is best known today, which his friendEzra Pounddubbed \\\"Vorticism\\\". Lewis sought to combine the strong structure ofCubism, which he found was not \\\"alive\\\", with the liveliness ofFuturistart, which lacked structure. The combination was a strikingly dramatic critique of modernity. In his early visual works, Lewis may have been influenced by Bergson'sprocess philosophy. Though he was later savagely critical of Bergson, he admitted in a letter to Theodore Weiss (19 April 1949) that he \\\"began by embracing his evolutionary system.\\\"Nietzschewas an equally important influence. Lewis had a brief tenure at Roger Fry'sOmega Workshops, but left after a quarrel with Fry over a commission to provide wall decorations for theDaily MailIdeal Home Exhibition, which Lewis believed Fry had misappropriated. He and several other Omega artists started a competing workshop called theRebel Art Centre. The Centre operated for only four months, but it gave birth to the Vorticist group and its publication,BLAST.InBLAST,Lewis formally expounded the Vorticist aesthetic in a manifesto, distinguishing it from other avant-garde practices. He also wrote and published a play,Enemy of the Stars. It is a proto-absurdist,Expressionistdrama. Lewis scholar Melania Terrazas identifies it as a precursor to the plays ofSamuel Beckett. World War I (1915–1918) In 1915, the Vorticists held their only U.K. exhibition before the movement broke up, largely as a result of World War I. Lewis himself was posted to thewestern frontand served as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. Much of his time was spent inForward Observation Postslooking down at apparently deserted German lines, registering targets and calling down fire from batteries massed around the rim of theYpres Salient. He made vivid accounts of narrow misses and deadly artillery duels. After theThird Battle of Ypres, Lewis was appointed an officialwar artistfor both the Canadian and British governments. For the Canadians, he paintedA Canadian Gun-pit(1918) from sketches made onVimy Ridge. For the British, he painted one of his best-known works,A Battery Shelled(1919), drawing on his own experience at Ypres.Lewis exhibited his war drawings and some other paintings of the war in an exhibition, \\\"Guns\\\", in 1918. Although the Vorticist group broke up after the war, Lewis's patron,John Quinn, organized a Vorticist exhibition at the Penguin Club in New York in 1917. His first novel,Tarr, was serialized inThe Egoistduring 1916–17 and published in book form in 1918. It is widely regarded as one of the key modernist texts. Lewis later documented his experiences and opinions of this period of his life in the autobiographicalBlasting and Bombardiering(1937), which covered his life up to 1926. Tyrosand writing (1918–1929) After the war, Lewis resumed his career as a painter with a major exhibition,Tyros and Portraits, at theLeicester Galleriesin 1921. \\\"Tyros\\\" were satirical caricatures intended to comment on the culture of the \\\"new epoch\\\" that succeeded the First World War.A Reading ofOvidandMr Wyndham Lewis as a Tyroare the only surviving oil paintings from this series. Lewis also launched his second magazine,The Tyro, of which there were only two issues. The second (1922) contained an important statement of Lewis's visual aesthetic: \\\"Essay on the Objective of Plastic Art in our Time\\\".It was during the early 1920s that he perfected his incisive draughtsmanship. By the late 1920s, he concentrated on writing. He launched yet another magazine,The Enemy(1927–1929), largely written by himself and declaring its belligerent critical stance in its title. The magazine and other theoretical and critical works he published from 1926 to 1929 mark a deliberate separation from the avant-garde and his previous associates. He believed that their work failed to show sufficient critical awareness of those ideologies that worked against truly revolutionary change in the West, and therefore became a vehicle for these pernicious ideologies.His major theoretical and cultural statement from this period isThe Art of Being Ruled(1926). Time and Western Man(1927) is a cultural and philosophical discussion that includes penetrating critiques ofJames Joyce,Gertrude SteinandEzra Poundthat are still read. Lewis also attacked theprocess philosophyof Bergson,Samuel Alexander,Alfred North Whitehead, and others. By 1931 he was advocating the art of ancient Egypt as impossible to surpass. Fiction and political writing (1930–1936) Between the years 1907–11 Lewis wrote amodernistnovel entitledTarrwhich was revised and expanded in 1914–15and first serialized in the magazineThe Egoistfrom April 1916 until November 1917. The American version was published in 1918. In 1930 Lewis publishedThe Apes of God, a biting satirical attack on the London literary scene, including a long chapter caricaturing theSitwellfamily.Richard Aldington, however, found it \\\"the greatest piece ofwritingsinceUlysses\\\", byJames Joyce.In 1937 Lewis publishedThe Revenge for Love, set in the period leading up to theSpanish Civil Warand regarded by many as his best novel.It is strongly critical of communist activity in Spain and presents English intellectualfellow travellersas deluded. Despite serious illness necessitating several operations, he was very productive as a critic and painter. He produced a book of poems,One-Way Song, in 1933, and a revised version ofEnemy of the Stars. An important book of critical essays also belongs to this period:Men without Art(1934). It grew out of a defence of Lewis's satirical practice inThe Apes of Godand puts forward a theory of \\\"non-moral\\\", or metaphysical, satire. The book is probably best remembered for one of the first commentaries onFaulknerand a famous essay onHemingway. Return to painting (1936–1941) After becoming better known for his writing than his painting in the 1920s and early 1930s, he returned to more concentrated work on visual art, and paintings from the 1930s and 1940s constitute some of his best-known work. TheSurrender of Barcelona(1936–37) makes a significant statement about theSpanish Civil War. It was included in an exhibition at the Leicester Galleries in 1937 that Lewis hoped would re-establish his reputation as a painter. After the publication inThe Timesof a letter of support for the exhibition, asking that something from the show be purchased for the national collection (signed by, among others,Stephen Spender,W. H. Auden,Geoffrey Grigson,Rebecca West,Naomi Mitchison,Henry MooreandEric Gill) theTate Gallerybought the painting,Red Scene. Like others from the exhibition, it shows an influence fromSurrealismandde Chirico'sMetaphysical Painting. Lewis was highly critical of the ideology of Surrealism, but admired the visual qualities of some Surrealist art. During this period, Lewis also produced many of his most well-known portraits, including pictures ofEdith Sitwell(1923–1936),T. S. Eliot(1938and 1949), andEzra Pound(1939). His 1938 portrait of Eliot was rejected by the selection committee of theRoyal Academyfor their annual exhibition and caused a furore.Augustus Johnresigned in protest. World War II and North America (1941–1945) Lewis spent World War II in the United States and Canada. In 1941, in Toronto, he produced a series of watercolour fantasies centred on themes of creation, crucifixion and bathing. He grew to appreciate the cosmopolitan and \\\"rootless\\\" nature of the American melting pot, declaring that the greatest advantage of being American was to have \\\"turned one's back on race, caste, and all that pertains to the rooted state.\\\"He praised the contributions of African-Americans to American culture, and regardedDiego Rivera,David Alfaro Siqueiros, andJosé Clemente Orozcoas the \\\"best North American artists,\\\" predicting that when \\\"the Indian culture of Mexico melts into the great American mass to the North, the Indian will probably give it its art.\\\"He returned to England in 1945. Later life and blindness (1945–1951) By 1951, he was completely blinded by apituitary tumorthat placed pressure on his optic nerve. It ended his artistic career, but he continued writing until his death. He published several autobiographical and critical works:Rude Assignment(1950),Rotting Hill(1951), a collection of allegorical short stories about his life in \\\"the capital of a dying empire\\\";The Writer and the Absolute(1952), a book of essays on writers includingGeorge Orwell,Jean-Paul SartreandAndré Malraux; and the semi-autobiographical novelSelf Condemned(1954). TheBBCcommissioned Lewis to complete his 1928 workThe Childermass, which was published asThe Human Ageand dramatized for theBBC Third Programmein 1955.In 1956, theTate Galleryheld a major exhibition of his work, \\\"Wyndham Lewis and Vorticism\\\", in the catalogue to which he declared that \\\"Vorticism, in fact, was what I, personally, did and said at a certain period\\\"—a statement which brought forth a series of \\\"Vortex Pamphlets\\\" from his fellowBLASTsignatoryWilliam Roberts. Personal life From 1918 to 1921, Lewis lived withIris Barry, with whom he had two children. He is said to have shown little affection for them. In 1930, Lewis married Gladys Anne Hoskins (1900–1979), who was affectionately known as Froanna. They lived together for 10 years before marrying and never had children. Lewis kept Froanna in the background, and many of his friends were unaware of her existence. It seems that Lewis was extraordinarily jealous and protective of his wife, owing to her youth and beauty. Froanna was patient and caring toward her husband through financial troubles and his frequent illnesses. She was the model for some of Lewis's more tender and intimate portraits as well as a number of characters in his fiction. In contrast to his earlier, impersonal portraits, which are purely concerned with external appearance, the portraits of Froanna show a preoccupation with her inner life. Always interested in Roman Catholicism, he never converted.He died in 1957 and was cremated atGolders Green Crematorium. By the time of his death, Lewis had written 40 books in all. Political views In 1931, after a visit to Berlin, Lewis publishedHitler(1931), a book presentingAdolf Hitleras a \\\"man of peace\\\", with members of his party being threatened by communist street violence. His unpopularity among liberals and anti-fascists grew, especially after Hitler came to power in 1933.Following a second visit to Germany in 1937, Lewis changed his views and began to retract his previous political comments. He recognized the reality of Nazi treatment of Jews after a visit to Berlin in 1937. In 1939, he published an attack on anti-semitism titledThe Jews, Are They Human?,which was favourably reviewed inThe Jewish Chronicle. He also publishedThe Hitler Cult(1939), which firmly revoked his earlier support for Hitler. Politically, Lewis remained an isolated figure through the 1930s. InLetter toLord Byron,W. H. Audencalled Lewis \\\"that lonely old volcano of the Right.\\\" Lewis thought there was what he called a \\\"left-wing orthodoxy\\\" in Britain in the 1930s. He believed it was against Britain's self-interest to ally with theSoviet Union, \\\"which the newspapers most of us read tell us has slaughtered out-of-hand, only a few years ago, millions of its better fed citizens, as well as its whole imperial family.\\\" InAnglosaxony: A League that Works(1941), Lewis reflected on his earlier support for fascism: Fascism – once I understood it – left me colder than communism. The latter at least pretended, at the start, to have something to do with helping the helpless and making the world a more decent and sensible place. It does start from the human being and his suffering. Whereas fascism glorifies bloodshed and preaches that man should model himself upon the wolf. His sense that America and Canada lacked a British-type class structure had increased his opinion of liberal democracy, and in the same pamphlet, Lewis defends liberal democracy's respect for individual freedom against its critics on both the left and right.InAmerica and Cosmic Man(1949), Lewis argued thatFranklin Delano Roosevelthad successfully managed to reconcile individual rights with the demands of the state. Legacy In recent years, there has been renewed critical and biographical interest in Lewis and his work, and he is now regarded as a major British artist and writer of the twentieth century.Rugby School hosted an exhibition of his works in November 2007 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his death. TheNational Portrait Galleryin London held a major retrospective of his portraits in 2008. Two years later, held at the Fundación Juan March (Madrid, Spain), a large exhibition (Wyndham Lewis 1882–1957) featured a comprehensive collection of Lewis's paintings and drawings. As Tom Lubbock pointed out, it was \\\"the retrospective that Britain has never managed to get together.\\\". In 2010, Oxford World Classics published a critical edition of the 1928 text ofTarr, edited by Scott W. Klein ofWake Forest University. TheNasher Museum of ArtatDuke Universityheld an exhibition entitled \\\"The Vorticists: Rebel Artists in London and New York, 1914–18\\\" from 30 September 2010 through 2 January 2011.The exhibition then travelled to the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice (29 January – 15 May 2011: \\\"I Vorticisti: Artisti ribellia a Londra e New York, 1914–1918\\\") and then toTate Britainunder the title \\\"The Vorticists: Manifesto for a Modern World\\\" between 14 June and 4 September 2011. Several readings by Lewis are collected onThe Enemy Speaks, an audiobook CD published in 2007 and featuring extracts from \\\"One Way Song\\\" andThe Apes of God, as well as radio talks titled \\\"When John Bull Laughs\\\" (1938), \\\"A Crisis of Thought\\\" (1947) and \\\"The Essential Purposes of Art\\\" (1951). Ablue plaquenow stands on the house inKensington, London, where Lewis lived, No. 61 Palace Gardens Terrace. Critical reception In his essay \\\"Good Bad Books\\\",George Orwellpresents Lewis as the exemplary writer who is cerebral without being artistic. Orwell wrote, \\\"Enough talent to set up dozens of ordinary writers has been poured into Wyndham Lewis's so-called novels… Yet it would be a very heavy labour to read one of these books right through. Some indefinable quality, a sort of literary vitamin, which exists even in a book like If Winter Comes, is absent from them.\\\" In 1932,Walter Sickertsent Lewis a telegram in which he said that Lewis's pencil portrait ofRebecca Westproved him to be \\\"the greatest portraitist of this or any other time.\\\" Anti-semitism For many years, Lewis's novels have been criticised for their satirical and hostile portrayals of Jews.Tarrwas revised and republished in 1928, giving a new Jewish character a key role in making sure a duel is fought. This has been interpreted as an allegorical representation ofa supposed Zionist conspiracy against the West.His literary satireThe Apes of Godhas been interpreted similarly, because many of the characters are Jewish, including the modernist author and editor Julius Ratner, a portrait which blends anti-semitic stereotype with historical literary figuresJohn Rodkerand James Joyce. A key feature of these interpretations is that Lewis is held to have kept his conspiracy theories hidden and marginalized. Since the publication ofAnthony Julius'sT. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form(1995), where Lewis's anti-semitism is described as \\\"essentially trivial\\\", this view is no longer taken seriously. Books Paintings Notes and references Further reading External links\",\n \"W. H. Auden Wystan Hugh Auden(/ˈwɪstənˈhjuːˈɔːdən/; 21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973) was aBritish-Americanpoet. Auden's poetry is noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety intone,form, andcontent. Some of his best known poems are about love, such as \\\"Funeral Blues\\\"; on political and social themes, such as \\\"September 1, 1939\\\" and \\\"The Shield of Achilles\\\"; on cultural and psychological themes, such asThe Age of Anxiety; and on religious themes, such as \\\"For the Time Being\\\" and \\\"Horae Canonicae\\\". Auden was born inYorkand grew up in and nearBirminghamin a professional, middle-class family. He attended various English independent (orpublic) schools and studied English atChrist Church, Oxford. After a few months in Berlin in 1928–29, he spent five years (1930–1935) teaching in British privatepreparatory schools. In 1939, he moved to the United States; he became an American citizen in 1946, retaining his British citizenship. Auden taught from 1941 to 1945 in American universities, followed by occasional visiting professorships in the 1950s. Auden came to wide public attention in 1930 with his first book,Poems; it was followed in 1932 byThe Orators. Three plays written in collaboration withChristopher Isherwoodbetween 1935 and 1938 built his reputation as a left-wing political writer. Auden moved to the United States partly to escape this reputation, and his work in the 1940s, including thelong poems\\\"For the Time Being\\\" and \\\"The Sea and the Mirror\\\", focused on religious themes. He won thePulitzer Prize for Poetryfor his 1947 long poemThe Age of Anxiety, the title of which became a popular phrase describing the modern era.From 1956 to 1961, he wasProfessor of Poetry at Oxford; his lectures were popular with students and faculty and served as the basis for his 1962 prose collectionThe Dyer's Hand. Auden was a prolific writer of prose essays and reviews on literary, political, psychological, and religious subjects, and he worked at various times on documentary films, poetic plays, and other forms of performance. Throughout his career he was both controversial and influential. Critical views on his work ranged from sharply dismissive (treating him as a lesser figure thanW. B. YeatsandT. S. Eliot) to strongly affirmative (as inJoseph Brodsky's statement that he had \\\"the greatest mind of the twentieth century\\\"). After his death, his poems became known to a much wider public through films, broadcasts, and popular media. Life Childhood Auden was born at54 Bootham,York, England, toGeorge Augustus Auden(1872–1957), a physician, and Constance Rosalie Auden (née Bicknell; 1869–1941), who had trained (but never served) as a missionary nurse.He was the third of three sons; the eldest, George Bernard Auden (1900–1978), became a farmer, while the second,John Bicknell Auden(1903–1991), became a geologist.The Audens were minor gentry with a strongclericaltradition, originally ofRowley Regis, later ofHorninglow, Staffordshire. Auden, whose grandfathers were bothChurch of Englandclergymen,grew up in anAnglo-Catholichousehold that followed a \\\"high\\\" form ofAnglicanism, with doctrine and ritual resembling those ofCatholicism.He traced his love of music and language partly to the church services of his childhood.He believed he was ofIcelandicdescent, and his lifelong fascination with Icelandic legends andOld Norsesagas is evident in his work. His family moved to Homer Road inSolihull, nearBirmingham, in 1908,where his father had been appointed the School Medical Officer and Lecturer (later Professor) of Public Health. Auden's lifelongpsychoanalyticinterests began in his father's library. From the age of eight he attended boarding schools, returning home for holidays.His visits to thePenninelandscape and its declining lead-mining industry figure in many of his poems; the remote decaying mining village ofRookhopewas for him a \\\"sacred landscape\\\", evoked in a late poem, \\\"Amor Loci\\\".Until he was fifteen he expected to become a mining engineer, but his passion for words had already begun. He wrote later: \\\"words so excite me that a pornographic story, for example, excites me sexually more than a living person can do.\\\" Education Auden attendedSt Edmund's School, Hindhead, Surrey, where he metChristopher Isherwood, later famous in his own right as a novelist.At thirteen he went toGresham's SchoolinHolt, Norfolk; there, in 1922, when his friendRobert Medleyasked him if he wrote poetry, Auden first realised his vocation was to be a poet.Soon after, he \\\"discover(ed) that he (had) lost his faith\\\" (through a gradual realisation that he had lost interest in religion, not through any decisive change of views).In school productions ofShakespeare, he played Katherina inThe Taming of the Shrewin 1922,andCalibaninThe Tempestin 1925, his last year at Gresham's.A review of his performance as Katherina noted that despite a poor wig, he had been able \\\"to infuse considerable dignity into his passionate outbursts\\\". His first published poems appeared in the school magazine in 1923.Auden later wrote a chapter on Gresham's forGraham Greene'sThe Old School: Essays by Divers Hands(1934). In 1925 he went up toChrist Church, Oxford, with a scholarship in biology; he changed to English by his second year, and was introduced to Old English poetry through the lectures ofJ. R. R. Tolkien. Friends he met at Oxford includeCecil Day-Lewis,Louis MacNeice, andStephen Spender- Auden and these three were commonly though misleadingly identified in the 1930s as the \\\"Auden Group\\\" for their shared (but not identical) left-wing views. Auden left Oxford in 1928 with athird-classdegree. Auden was reintroduced to Christopher Isherwood in 1925 by his fellow studentA. S. T. Fisher. For the next few years Auden sent poems to Isherwood for comments and criticism; the two maintained a sexual friendship in intervals between their relations with others. In 1935–39 they collaborated on three plays and a travel book. From his Oxford years onward, Auden's friends uniformly described him as funny, extravagant, sympathetic, generous, and, partly by his own choice, lonely. In groups he was often dogmatic and overbearing in a comic way; in more private settings he was diffident and shy except when certain of his welcome. He was punctual in his habits, and obsessive about meeting deadlines, while living amidst physical disorder. Britain and Europe, 1928–1938 In late 1928 Auden left Britain for nine months, going toBerlin, perhaps partly as an escape from English repressiveness. In Berlin, he first experienced the political and economic unrest that became one of his central subjects.Around the same time, Stephen Spender privately printed a small pamphlet of Auden'sPoemsin an edition of about 45 copies, distributed among Auden's and Spender's friends and family; this edition is usually referred to asPoems to avoid confusion with Auden's commercially published 1930 volume. On returning to Britain in 1929 he worked briefly as a tutor. In 1930 his first published book,Poems(1930), was accepted byT. S. EliotforFaber and Faber, and the same firm remained the British publisher of all the books he published thereafter. In 1930, he began five years as a schoolmaster in boys' schools: two years at theLarchfield AcademyinHelensburgh, Scotland, then three years atthe Downs Schoolin theMalvern Hills, where he was a much-loved teacher.At the Downs, in June 1933, he experienced what he later described as a \\\"Vision ofAgape\\\", while sitting with three fellow teachers at the school, when he suddenly found that he loved them for themselves, that their existence had infinite value for him; this experience, he said, later influenced his decision to return to the Anglican Church in 1940. During these years Auden's erotic interests focused, as he later said, on an idealised \\\"Alter Ego\\\"rather than on individual people. His relationships (and his unsuccessful courtships) tended to be unequal either in age or intelligence; his sexual relations were transient, although some evolved into long friendships. He contrasted these relationships with what he later regarded as the \\\"marriage\\\" (his word) of equals that he began withChester Kallmanin 1939, based on the unique individuality of both partners. In 1935 Auden marriedErika Mann(1905–1969), the lesbian novelist daughter ofThomas Mannwhen it became apparent that the Nazis were intending to strip her of her German citizenship.Mann had asked Christopher Isherwood if he would marry her so she could become a British citizen. He declined but suggested she approach Auden, who readily agreed to amarriage of convenience.Mann and Auden never lived together, but remained on good terms throughout their lives and were still married when Mann died in 1969. She left him a small bequest in her will.In 1936, Auden introduced actressTherese Giehse, Mann's lover, to the writerJohn Hampsonand they too married so that Giehse could leave Germany. From 1935 until he left Britain early in 1939, Auden worked as freelance reviewer, essayist, and lecturer, first with theGPO Film Unit, a documentary film-making branch of the post office, headed byJohn Grierson. Through his work for the Film Unit in 1935 he met and collaborated withBenjamin Britten, with whom he also worked on plays, song cycles, and a libretto.Auden's plays in the 1930s were performed by theGroup Theatre, in productions that he supervised to varying degrees. His work now reflected his belief that any good artist must be \\\"more than a bit of a reporting journalist\\\".In 1936, Auden spent three months in Iceland where he gathered material for a travel bookLetters from Iceland(1937), written in collaboration with Louis MacNeice. In 1937, he went to Spain intending to drive an ambulance for theRepublicin theSpanish Civil War, but was put to work writing propaganda at the Republican press and propaganda office, where he felt useless and left after a week.He returned to England after a brief visit to the front at Sarineña. His seven-week visit to Spain affected him deeply, and his social views grew more complex as he found political realities to be more ambiguous and troubling than he had imagined.Again attempting to combine reportage and art, he and Isherwood spent six months in 1938 visiting China amid theSino-Japanese War, working on their bookJourney to a War(1939). On their way back to England they stayed briefly in New York and decided to move to the United States. Auden spent late 1938 partly in England, partly in Brussels. Many of Auden's poems during the 1930s and after were inspired by unconsummated love, and in the 1950s he summarised his emotional life in a famous couplet: \\\"If equal affection cannot be / Let the more loving one be me\\\" (\\\"The More Loving One\\\"). He had a gift for friendship and, starting in the late 1930s, a strong wish for the stability of marriage; in a letter to his friendJames Sternhe called marriage \\\"theonlysubject.\\\"Throughout his life, Auden performed charitable acts, sometimes in public, as in his 1935 marriage of convenience to Erika Mann,but, especially in later years, more often in private. He was embarrassed if they were publicly revealed, as when his gift to his friendDorothy Dayfor theCatholic Workermovement was reported on the front page ofThe New York Timesin 1956. United States and Europe, 1939–1973 Auden and Isherwood sailed to New York City in January 1939, entering on temporary visas. Their departure from Britain was later seen by many as a betrayal, and Auden's reputation suffered.In April 1939, Isherwood moved to California, and he and Auden saw each other only intermittently in later years. Around this time, Auden met the poetChester Kallman, who became his lover for the next two years (Auden described their relation as a \\\"marriage\\\" that began with a cross-country \\\"honeymoon\\\" journey). In 1941 Kallman ended their sexual relationship because he could not accept Auden's insistence on mutual fidelity,but he and Auden remained companions for the rest of Auden's life, sharing houses and apartments from 1953 until Auden's death.Auden dedicated both editions of his collected poetry (1945/50 and 1966) to Isherwood and Kallman. In 1940–41 Auden lived in a house at 7 Middagh Street inBrooklyn Heights, that he shared withCarson McCullers, Benjamin Britten, and others, which became a famous centre of artistic life, nicknamed \\\"February House\\\".In 1940, Auden joined theEpiscopal Church, returning to the Anglican Communion he had abandoned at fifteen. His reconversion was influenced partly by what he called the \\\"sainthood\\\" ofCharles Williams,whom he had met in 1937, and partly by readingSøren KierkegaardandReinhold Niebuhr; hisexistential, this-worldly Christianity became a central element in his life. After Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939, Auden told the British embassy in Washington that he would return to the UK if needed. He was told that, among those his age (32), only qualified personnel were needed. In 1941–42 he taught English at theUniversity of Michigan. He was called for the draft in the United States Army in August 1942, but was rejected on medical grounds. He had been awarded aGuggenheim Fellowshipfor 1942–43 but did not use it, choosing instead to teach atSwarthmore Collegein 1942–45. In mid-1945, after the end ofWorld War IIin Europe, he was in Germany with theUS Strategic Bombing Survey, studying the effects of Allied bombing on German morale, an experience that affected his postwar work as his visit to Spain had affected him earlier.On his return, he settled inManhattan, working as a freelance writer, a lecturer atThe New Schoolfor Social Research, and a visiting professor atBennington,Smith, and other American colleges. In 1946, he became anaturalised citizenof the US. In 1948 Auden began spending his summers in Europe, together with Chester Kallman, first inIschia, Italy, where he rented a house. Starting in 1958 he began spending his summers inKirchstetten, Austria, where he bought a farmhouse with the prize money of thePremio Feltrinelliawarded to him in 1957.He said that he shed tears of joy at owning a home for the first time.His later poetry, mostly written in Austria, includes his sequence \\\"Thanksgiving for a Habitat\\\" about his Kirchstetten home.Auden's letters and papers sent to his friend the translator Stella Musulin (1915–1996), available online, provide insights into his Austrian years. In 1956–61 Auden wasProfessor of PoetryatOxford University, where he was required to give three lectures each year. This fairly light workload allowed him to continue to spend winter in New York, where he lived at 77St. Mark's Placein Manhattan'sEast Village, and to spend summer in Europe, spending only three weeks each year lecturing in Oxford. He earned his income mostly from readings and lecture tours, and by writing forThe New Yorker,The New York Review of Books,and other magazines. In 1963 Kallman left the apartment he shared in New York with Auden, and lived during the winter in Athens while continuing to spend his summers with Auden in Austria. Auden spent the winter of 1964-1965 inBerlinthrough anartist-in-residence programof theFord Foundation. Following some years of lobbying by his friendDavid Luke, Auden's old college, Christ Church, in February 1972 offered him a cottage on its grounds to live in; he moved his books and other possessions from New York to Oxford in September 1972,while continuing to spend summers in Austria with Kallman. He spent only one winter in Oxford before his death in 1973. Auden died at 66 of heart failure at the Altenburgerhof Hotel in Vienna overnight on 28–29 September 1973, a few hours after giving a reading of his poems for the Austrian Society for Literature at thePalais Pálffy. He had intended to return to Oxford the following day. He was buried on 4 October in Kirchstetten, and a memorial stone was placed in Westminster Abbey in London a year later. Work Auden published about four hundred poems, including seven long poems (two of them book-length). His poetry was encyclopaedic in scope and method, ranging in style from obscure twentieth-century modernism to the lucid traditional forms such asballadsandlimericks, fromdoggerelthroughhaikuandvillanellesto a \\\"Christmas Oratorio\\\" and abaroqueecloguein Anglo-Saxon meters.The tone and content of his poems ranged from pop-song clichés to complex philosophical meditations, from the corns on his toes to atoms and stars, from contemporary crises to the evolution of society. He also wrote more than four hundred essays and reviews about literature, history, politics, music, religion, and many other subjects. He collaborated on plays withChristopher Isherwoodand on opera libretti withChester Kallman, and worked with a group of artists and filmmakers on documentary films in the 1930s and with theNew York Pro Musicaearly musicgroup in the 1950s and 1960s. About collaboration he wrote in 1964: \\\"collaboration has brought me greater erotic joy . . . than any sexual relations I have had.\\\" Auden controversially rewrote or discarded some of his most famous poems when he prepared his later collected editions. He wrote that he rejected poems that he found \\\"boring\\\" or \\\"dishonest\\\" in the sense that they expressed views he had never held but had used only because he felt they would be rhetorically effective.His rejected poems include \\\"Spain\\\" and \\\"September 1, 1939\\\". Hisliterary executor,Edward Mendelson, argues in his introduction toSelected Poemsthat Auden's practice reflected his sense of the persuasive power of poetry and his reluctance to misuse it.(Selected Poemsincludes some poems that Auden rejected and early texts of poems that he revised.) Early work, 1922–1939 Up to 1930 Auden began writing poems in 1922, at 15, mostly in the styles of 19th-century romantic poets, especiallyWordsworth, and later poets with rural interests, especiallyThomas Hardy. At 18 he discoveredT. S. Eliotand adopted an extreme version of Eliot's style. He found his own voice at 20 when he wrote the first poem later included in his collected work, \\\"From the very first coming down\\\".This and other poems of the late 1920s tended to be in a clipped, elusive style that alluded to, but did not directly state, their themes of loneliness and loss. Twenty of these poems appeared in his first bookPoems(1928), a pamphlet hand-printed byStephen Spender. In 1928 he wrote his first dramatic work,Paid on Both Sides, subtitled \\\"A Charade\\\", which combined style and content from the Icelandicsagaswith jokes from English school life. This mixture of tragedy and farce, with a dream play-within-a-play, introduced the mixed styles and content of much of his later work.This drama and thirty short poems appeared in his first published bookPoems(1930, 2nd edition with seven poems replaced, 1933); the poems in the book were mostly lyrical and gnomic meditations on hoped-for or unconsummated love and on themes of personal, social, and seasonal renewal; among these poems were \\\"It was Easter as I walked\\\", \\\"Doom is dark\\\", \\\"Sir, no man's enemy\\\", and \\\"This lunar beauty\\\". A recurrent theme in these early poems is the effect of \\\"family ghosts\\\", Auden's term for the powerful, unseen psychological effects of preceding generations on any individual life (and the title of a poem). A parallel theme, present throughout his work, is the contrast between biological evolution (unchosen and involuntary) and the psychological evolution of cultures and individuals (voluntary and deliberate even in its subconscious aspects). 1931–1935 Auden's next large-scale work wasThe Orators: An English Study(1932; revised editions, 1934, 1966), in verse and prose, largely about hero-worship in personal and political life. In his shorter poems, his style became more open and accessible, and the exuberant \\\"Six Odes\\\" inThe Oratorsreflect his new interest inRobert Burns.During the next few years, many of his poems took their form and style from traditional ballads and popular songs, and also from expansive classical forms like theOdesofHorace, which he seems to have discovered through the German poetHölderlin.Around this time his main influences wereDante,William Langland, andAlexander Pope. During these years much of his work expressed left-wing views, and he became widely known as a political poet although he was privately more ambivalent about revolutionary politics than many reviewers recognised,and Mendelson argues that he expounded political views partly out of a sense of moral duty and partly because it enhanced his reputation, and that he later regretted having done so.He generally wrote about revolutionary change in terms of a \\\"change of heart\\\", a transformation of a society from a closed-off psychology of fear to an open psychology of love. His verse dramaThe Dance of Death(1933) was a political extravaganza in the style of a theatrical revue, which Auden later called \\\"a nihilistic leg-pull.\\\"His next playThe Dog Beneath the Skin(1935), written in collaboration with Isherwood, was similarly a quasi-Marxist updating ofGilbert and Sullivanin which the general idea of social transformation was more prominent than any specific political action or structure. The Ascent of F6(1937), another play written with Isherwood, was partly an anti-imperialist satire, partly (in the character of the self-destroying climber Michael Ransom) an examination of Auden's own motives in taking on a public role as a political poet.This play included the first version of \\\"Funeral Blues\\\" (\\\"Stop all the clocks\\\"), written as a satiric eulogy for a politician; Auden later rewrote the poem as a \\\"Cabaret Song\\\" about lost love (written to be sung by the sopranoHedli Anderson, for whom he wrote many lyrics in the 1930s).In 1935, he worked briefly on documentary films with theGPO Film Unit, writing his famous verse commentary forNight Mailand lyrics for other films that were among his attempts in the 1930s to create a widely accessible, socially conscious art. 1936–1939 In 1936 Auden's publisher chose the titleLook, Stranger!for a collection of political odes, love poems, comic songs, meditative lyrics, and a variety of intellectually intense but emotionally accessible verse; Auden hated the title and retitled the collection for the 1937 US editionOn This Island.Among the poems included in the book are \\\"Hearing of harvests\\\", \\\"Out on the lawn I lie in bed\\\", \\\"O what is that sound\\\", \\\"Look, stranger, on this island now\\\" (later revised versions change \\\"on\\\" to \\\"at\\\"), and \\\"Our hunting fathers\\\". Auden was now arguing that an artist should be a kind of journalist, and he put this view into practice inLetters from Iceland(1937) a travel book in prose and verse written withLouis MacNeice, which included his long social, literary, and autobiographical commentary \\\"Letter to Lord Byron\\\".In 1937, after observing theSpanish Civil Warhe wrote a politically engaged pamphlet poemSpain(1937); he later discarded it from his collected works.Journey to a War(1939) a travel book in prose and verse, was written with Isherwood after their visit to theSino-Japanese War.Auden's last collaboration with Isherwood was their third play,On the Frontier, an anti-war satire written in Broadway and West End styles. Auden's shorter poems now engaged with the fragility and transience of personal love (\\\"Danse Macabre\\\", \\\"The Dream\\\", \\\"Lay your sleeping head\\\"), a subject he treated with ironic wit in his \\\"Four Cabaret Songs for MissHedli Anderson\\\" (which included \\\"Tell Me the Truth About Love\\\" and the revised version of \\\"Funeral Blues\\\"), and also the corrupting effect of public and official culture on individual lives (\\\"Casino\\\", \\\"School Children\\\", \\\"Dover\\\").In 1938, he wrote a series of dark, ironic ballads about individual failure (\\\"Miss Gee\\\", \\\"James Honeyman\\\", \\\"Victor\\\"). All these appeared inAnother Time(1940), together with poems including \\\"Dover\\\", \\\"As He Is\\\", and \\\"Musée des Beaux Arts\\\" (all of which were written before he moved to America in 1939), and \\\"In Memory of W. B. Yeats\\\", \\\"The Unknown Citizen\\\", \\\"Law Like Love\\\", \\\"September 1, 1939\\\", and \\\"In Memory of Sigmund Freud\\\" (all written in America). The elegies for Yeats and Freud are partly anti-heroic statements, in which great deeds are performed, not by unique geniuses whom others cannot hope to imitate, but by otherwise ordinary individuals who were \\\"silly like us\\\" (Yeats) or of whom it could be said \\\"he wasn't clever at all\\\" (Freud), and who became teachers of others, not awe-inspiring heroes. Middle period, 1940–1957 1940–1946 In 1940 Auden wrote a long philosophical poem \\\"New Year Letter\\\", which appeared with miscellaneous notes and other poems inThe Double Man(1941). At the time of his return to the Anglican Communion he began writing abstract verse on theological themes, such as \\\"Canzone\\\" and \\\"Kairos and Logos\\\". Around 1942, as he became more comfortable with religious themes, his verse became more open and relaxed, and he increasingly used thesyllabic versehe had learned from the poetry ofMarianne Moore. Auden's work in this era addresses the artist's temptation to use other persons as material for his art rather than valuing them for themselves (\\\"Prospero to Ariel\\\") and the corresponding moral obligation to make and keep commitments while recognising the temptation to break them (\\\"In Sickness and Health\\\").From 1942 through 1947 he worked mostly on three long poems in dramatic form, each differing from the others in form and content: \\\"For the Time Being: A Christmas Oratorio\\\", \\\"The Sea and the Mirror: A Commentary on Shakespeare'sThe Tempest\\\"(both published inFor the Time Being, 1944), andThe Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue(published separately in 1947).The first two, with Auden's other new poems from 1940 to 1944, were included in his first collected edition,The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden(1945), with most of his earlier poems, many in revised versions. 1947–1957 After completingThe Age of Anxietyin 1946 he focused again on shorter poems, notably \\\"A Walk After Dark\\\", \\\"The Love Feast\\\", and \\\"The Fall of Rome\\\".Many of these evoked the Italian village where he spent his summers between 1948 and 1957, and his next book,Nones(1951), had a Mediterranean atmosphere new to his work.A new theme was the \\\"sacred importance\\\" of the human bodyin its ordinary aspect (breathing, sleeping, eating) and the continuity with nature that the body made possible (in contrast to the division between humanity and nature that he had emphasised in the 1930s);his poems on these themes included \\\"In Praise of Limestone\\\" (1948) and \\\"Memorial for the City\\\" (1949).In 1947-1948, Auden and Kallman wrote the libretto forIgor Stravinsky's operaThe Rake's Progress, and later collaborated on two libretti for operas byHans Werner Henze. Auden's first separate prose book wasThe Enchafèd Flood: The Romantic Iconography of the Sea(1950), based on a series of lectures on the image of the sea in romantic literature.Between 1949 and 1954 he worked on a sequence of sevenGood Fridaypoems, titled \\\"Horae Canonicae\\\", an encyclopaedic survey of geological, biological, cultural, and personal history, focused on the irreversible act of murder; the poem was also a study in cyclical and linear ideas of time. While writing this, he also wrote \\\"Bucolics\\\", a sequence of seven poems about man's relation to nature. Both sequences appeared in his next book,The Shield of Achilles(1955), with other short poems, including the book's title poem, \\\"Fleet Visit\\\", and \\\"Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier\\\". In 1955–56 Auden wrote a group of poems about \\\"history\\\", the term he used to mean the set of unique events made by human choices, as opposed to \\\"nature\\\", the set of involuntary events created by natural processes, statistics, and anonymous forces such as crowds. These poems included \\\"T the Great\\\", \\\"The Maker\\\", and the title poem of his next collectionHomage to Clio(1960). Later work, 1958–1973 In the late 1950s Auden's style became less rhetorical while its range of styles increased. In 1958, having moved his summer home from Italy to Austria, he wrote \\\"Good-bye to the Mezzogiorno\\\"; other poems from this period include \\\"Dichtung und Wahrheit: An Unwritten Poem\\\", a prose poem about the relation between love and personal and poetic language, and the contrasting \\\"Dame Kind\\\", about the anonymous impersonal reproductive instinct. These and other poems, including his 1955–66 poems about history, appeared inHomage to Clio(1960).His prose bookThe Dyer's Hand(1962) gathered many of the lectures he gave in Oxford as Professor of Poetry in 1956–61, together with revised versions of essays and notes written since the mid-1940s. Among the new styles and forms in Auden's later work were thehaikuandtankathat he began writing after translating the haiku and other verse inDag Hammarskjöld'sMarkings.A sequence of fifteen poems about his house in Austria, \\\"Thanksgiving for a Habitat\\\" (written in various styles that included an imitation ofWilliam Carlos Williams) appeared inAbout the House(1965), together with other poems that included his reflection on his lecture tours, \\\"On the Circuit\\\".In the late 1960s he wrote some of his most vigorous poems, including \\\"River Profile\\\" and two poems that looked back over his life, \\\"Prologue at Sixty\\\" and \\\"Forty Years On\\\". All these appeared inCity Without Walls(1969). His lifelong passion for Icelandic legend culminated in his verse translation ofTheElder Edda(1969).Among his later themes was the \\\"religionless Christianity\\\" he learned partly fromDietrich Bonhoeffer, the dedicatee of his poem \\\"Friday's Child\\\". A Certain World: A Commonplace Book(1970) was a kind of self-portrait made up of favourite quotations with commentary, arranged in alphabetical order by subject.His last prose book was a selection of essays and reviews,Forewords and Afterwords(1973).His last books of verse,Epistle to a Godson(1972) and the unfinishedThank You, Fog(published posthumously, 1974) include reflective poems about language (\\\"Natural Linguistics\\\", \\\"Aubade\\\"), philosophy and science (\\\"No, Plato, No\\\", \\\"Unpredictable but Providential\\\"), and his own aging (\\\"A New Year Greeting\\\", \\\"Talking to Myself\\\", \\\"A Lullaby\\\" ). His last completed poem was \\\"Archaeology\\\", about ritual and timelessness, two recurring themes in his later years. Reputation and influence Auden's stature in modern literature has been contested. Probably the most common critical view from the 1930s onward ranked him as the last and least of the three major twentieth-century poets of the UK or Ireland—behind Yeats and Eliot—while a minority view, more prominent in recent years, ranks him as the highest of the three.Opinions have ranged from those ofHugh MacDiarmid, who called him \\\"a complete wash-out\\\";F. R. Leavis, who wrote that Auden's ironic style was \\\"self-defensive, self-indulgent or merely irresponsible\\\";andHarold Bloom, who wrote \\\"Close thy Auden, open thy Stevens,\\\"to the obituarist inThe Times, who wrote: \\\"W.H. Auden, for long theenfant terribleof English poetry... emerges as its undisputed master.\\\"Joseph Brodskywrote that Auden had \\\"the greatest mind of the twentieth century\\\". Critical estimates were divided from the start. Reviewing Auden's first book,Poems(1930),Naomi Mitchisonwrote \\\"If this is really only the beginning, we have perhaps a master to look forward to.\\\"ButJohn Sparrow, recalling Mitchison's comment in 1934, dismissed Auden's early work as \\\"a monument to the misguided aims that prevail among contemporary poets, and the fact that... he is being hailed as 'a master' shows how criticism is helping poetry on the downward path.\\\" Auden's clipped, satiric, and ironic style in the 1930s was widely imitated by younger poets such asCharles Madge, who wrote in a poem \\\"there waited for me in the summer morning / Auden fiercely. I read, shuddered, and knew.\\\"He was widely described as the leader of an \\\"Auden group\\\" that comprised his friendsStephen Spender,Cecil Day-Lewis, andLouis MacNeice.The four were mocked by the poetRoy Campbellas if they were a single undifferentiated poet named \\\"Macspaunday.\\\"Auden's propagandistic poetic plays, includingThe Dog Beneath the SkinandThe Ascent of F6, and his political poems such as \\\"Spain\\\" gave him the reputation as a political poet writing in a progressive and accessible voice, in contrast to Eliot; but this political stance provoked opposing opinions, such as that ofAustin Clarkewho called Auden's work \\\"liberal, democratic, and humane\\\",and John Drummond, who wrote that Auden misused a \\\"characteristic and popularizing trick, the generalized image\\\", to present ostensibly left-wing views that were in fact \\\"confined to bourgeois experience.\\\" Auden's departure for America in 1939 was debated in Britain (once even in Parliament), with some seeing his emigration as a betrayal. Defenders of Auden such asGeoffrey Grigson, in an introduction to a 1949 anthology of modern poetry, wrote that Auden \\\"arches over all\\\". His stature was suggested by book titles such asAuden and AfterbyFrancis Scarfe(1942) andThe Auden GenerationbySamuel Hynes(1977). In the US, starting in the late 1930s, the detached, ironic tone of Auden's regular stanzas became influential;John Ashberyrecalled that in the 1940s Auden \\\"wasthemodern poet\\\".Auden's formal influences were so pervasive in American poetry that the ecstatic style of theBeat Generationwas partly a reaction against his influence. From the 1940s through the 1960s, many critics lamented that Auden's work had declined from its earlier promise;Randall Jarrellwrote a series of essays making a case against Auden's later work,andPhilip Larkin's \\\"What's Become of Wystan?\\\" (1960) had a wide impact. The first full-length study of Auden wasRichard Hoggart'sAuden: An Introductory Essay(1951), which concluded that \\\"Auden's work, then, is a civilising force.\\\"It was followed byJoseph Warren Beach'sThe Making of the Auden Canon(1957), a disapproving account of Auden's revisions of his earlier work.The first systematic critical account was Monroe K. Spears'The Poetry of W. H. Auden: The Disenchanted Island(1963), \\\"written out of the conviction that Auden's poetry can offer the reader entertainment, instruction, intellectual excitement, and a prodigal variety of aesthetic pleasures, all in a generous abundance that is unique in our time.\\\" Auden was one of three candidates recommended by the Nobel Committee to the Swedish Academy for theNobel Prize in Literaturein 1963and 1965and six recommended for the 1964 prize.By the time of his death in 1973 he had attained the status of a respected elder statesman, and a memorial stone for him was placed inPoets' CornerinWestminster Abbeyin 1974.TheEncyclopædia Britannicawrites that \\\"by the time of Eliot's death in 1965... a convincing case could be made for the assertion that Auden was indeed Eliot's successor, as Eliot had inherited sole claim to supremacy whenYeatsdied in 1939.\\\"With some exceptions, British critics tended to treat his early work as his best, while American critics tended to favour his middle and later work. Another group of critics and poets has maintained that unlike other modern poets, Auden's reputation did not decline after his death, and the influence of his later writing was especially strong on younger American poets includingJohn Ashbery,James Merrill,Anthony Hecht, andMaxine Kumin.Typical later evaluations describe him as \\\"arguably the century's greatest poet\\\" (Peter Parker and Frank Kermode),who \\\"now clearly seems the greatest poet in English since Tennyson\\\" (Philip Hensher). Public recognition of Auden's work sharply increased after his \\\"Funeral Blues\\\" (\\\"Stop all the clocks\\\") was read aloud in the filmFour Weddings and a Funeral(1994); subsequently, a pamphlet edition of ten of his poems,Tell Me the Truth About Love, sold more than 275,000 copies. An excerpt from his poem \\\"As I walked out one evening\\\" was recited in the filmBefore Sunrise(1995).After 11 September 2001, his 1939 poem \\\"September 1, 1939\\\" was widely circulated and frequently broadcast.Public readings and broadcast tributes in the UK and US in 2007 marked his centenary year. Overall Auden's poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety in tone, form and content. Memorial stones and plaques commemorating Auden include those inWestminster Abbey; at his birthplace at 55 Bootham, York;near his home on Lordswood Road, Birmingham;in the chapel of Christ Church, Oxford; on the site of his apartment at 1 Montague Terrace, Brooklyn Heights; at his apartment in 77 St. Marks Place, New York (damaged and now removed);at the site of his death at Walfischgasse 5 in Vienna;and in theRainbow Honor Walkin San Francisco.In his house in Kirchstetten, his study is open to the public upon request. In 2023, newly declassified UK government files revealed that Auden was considered as a candidate to be the newPoet Laureate of the United Kingdomin 1967 following the death ofJohn Masefield. He was rejected due to having taken American citizenship. Published works The following list includes only the books of poems and essays that Auden prepared during his lifetime; for a more complete list, including other works and posthumous editions, seeW. H. Auden bibliography. Dates refer to first publication or first performance, not of composition. In the list below, works reprinted in theComplete Works of W. H. Audenare indicated by footnote references. References Citations General and cited sources Further reading External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Wyndham Lewis Percy Wyndham Lewis(18 November 1882 – 7 March 1957) was a British writer, painter and critic. He was a co-founder of theVorticistmovement in art and editedBLAST, the literary magazine of the Vorticists. His novels includeTarr(1918) andThe Human Agetrilogy, composed ofThe Childermass(1928),Monstre Gai(1955) andMalign Fiesta(1955). A fourth volume, titledThe Trial of Man, was unfinished at the time of his death. He also wrote two autobiographical volumes:Blasting and Bombardiering(1937) andRude Assignment: A Narrative of my Career Up-to-Date(1950). Life and career Early life Lewis was born on 18 November 1882, reputedly on his father's yacht off the Canadian province ofNova Scotia.His English mother, Anne Stuart Lewis (née Prickett), and American father, Charles Edward Lewis, separated about 1893.His mother subsequently returned to England. Lewis was educated in England atRugby Schooland then, from 16, theSlade School of Fine Art,University College London, but left for Paris without finishing his","finishing his course.He spent most of the 1900s travelling around Europe and studying art in Paris. While in Paris, he attended lectures byHenri Bergsononprocess philosophy. Early work and development of Vorticism (1908–1915) In 1908, Lewis moved to London, where he would reside for much of his life. In 1909, he published his first work, accounts of his travels in Brittany, inFord Madox Ford'sThe English Review. He was a founding member of theCamden Town Group, which brought him into close contact with theBloomsbury Group, particularlyRoger FryandClive Bell, with whom he soon fell out. In 1912, Lewis exhibited his work at the second Postimpressionist exhibition:Cubo-Futuristillustrations toTimon of Athensand three major oil paintings. In 1912, he was commissioned to produce a decorative mural, a drop curtain, and more designs forThe Cave of the Golden Calf, an avant-garde cabaret and nightclub onHeddon Street. From 1913 to 1915, Lewis developed the style of geometric abstraction for which he is best known","he is best known today, which his friendEzra Pounddubbed \"Vorticism\". Lewis sought to combine the strong structure ofCubism, which he found was not \"alive\", with the liveliness ofFuturistart, which lacked structure. The combination was a strikingly dramatic critique of modernity. In his early visual works, Lewis may have been influenced by Bergson'sprocess philosophy. Though he was later savagely critical of Bergson, he admitted in a letter to Theodore Weiss (19 April 1949) that he \"began by embracing his evolutionary system.\"Nietzschewas an equally important influence. Lewis had a brief tenure at Roger Fry'sOmega Workshops, but left after a quarrel with Fry over a commission to provide wall decorations for theDaily MailIdeal Home Exhibition, which Lewis believed Fry had misappropriated. He and several other Omega artists started a competing workshop called theRebel Art Centre. The Centre operated for only four months, but it gave birth to the Vorticist group and its publication,BLAST.InBLAST,Lewis formally","formally expounded the Vorticist aesthetic in a manifesto, distinguishing it from other avant-garde practices. He also wrote and published a play,Enemy of the Stars. It is a proto-absurdist,Expressionistdrama. Lewis scholar Melania Terrazas identifies it as a precursor to the plays ofSamuel Beckett. World War I (1915–1918) In 1915, the Vorticists held their only U.K. exhibition before the movement broke up, largely as a result of World War I. Lewis himself was posted to thewestern frontand served as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. Much of his time was spent inForward Observation Postslooking down at apparently deserted German lines, registering targets and calling down fire from batteries massed around the rim of theYpres Salient. He made vivid accounts of narrow misses and deadly artillery duels. After theThird Battle of Ypres, Lewis was appointed an officialwar artistfor both the Canadian and British governments. For the Canadians, he paintedA Canadian Gun-pit(1918) from sketches made onVimy","made onVimy Ridge. For the British, he painted one of his best-known works,A Battery Shelled(1919), drawing on his own experience at Ypres.Lewis exhibited his war drawings and some other paintings of the war in an exhibition, \"Guns\", in 1918. Although the Vorticist group broke up after the war, Lewis's patron,John Quinn, organized a Vorticist exhibition at the Penguin Club in New York in 1917. His first novel,Tarr, was serialized inThe Egoistduring 1916–17 and published in book form in 1918. It is widely regarded as one of the key modernist texts. Lewis later documented his experiences and opinions of this period of his life in the autobiographicalBlasting and Bombardiering(1937), which covered his life up to 1926. Tyrosand writing (1918–1929) After the war, Lewis resumed his career as a painter with a major exhibition,Tyros and Portraits, at theLeicester Galleriesin 1921. \"Tyros\" were satirical caricatures intended to comment on the culture of the \"new epoch\" that succeeded the First World War.A Reading","World War.A Reading ofOvidandMr Wyndham Lewis as a Tyroare the only surviving oil paintings from this series. Lewis also launched his second magazine,The Tyro, of which there were only two issues. The second (1922) contained an important statement of Lewis's visual aesthetic: \"Essay on the Objective of Plastic Art in our Time\".It was during the early 1920s that he perfected his incisive draughtsmanship. By the late 1920s, he concentrated on writing. He launched yet another magazine,The Enemy(1927–1929), largely written by himself and declaring its belligerent critical stance in its title. The magazine and other theoretical and critical works he published from 1926 to 1929 mark a deliberate separation from the avant-garde and his previous associates. He believed that their work failed to show sufficient critical awareness of those ideologies that worked against truly revolutionary change in the West, and therefore became a vehicle for these pernicious ideologies.His major theoretical and cultural statement","cultural statement from this period isThe Art of Being Ruled(1926). Time and Western Man(1927) is a cultural and philosophical discussion that includes penetrating critiques ofJames Joyce,Gertrude SteinandEzra Poundthat are still read. Lewis also attacked theprocess philosophyof Bergson,Samuel Alexander,Alfred North Whitehead, and others. By 1931 he was advocating the art of ancient Egypt as impossible to surpass. Fiction and political writing (1930–1936) Between the years 1907–11 Lewis wrote amodernistnovel entitledTarrwhich was revised and expanded in 1914–15and first serialized in the magazineThe Egoistfrom April 1916 until November 1917. The American version was published in 1918. In 1930 Lewis publishedThe Apes of God, a biting satirical attack on the London literary scene, including a long chapter caricaturing theSitwellfamily.Richard Aldington, however, found it \"the greatest piece ofwritingsinceUlysses\", byJames Joyce.In 1937 Lewis publishedThe Revenge for Love, set in the period leading up to","leading up to theSpanish Civil Warand regarded by many as his best novel.It is strongly critical of communist activity in Spain and presents English intellectualfellow travellersas deluded. Despite serious illness necessitating several operations, he was very productive as a critic and painter. He produced a book of poems,One-Way Song, in 1933, and a revised version ofEnemy of the Stars. An important book of critical essays also belongs to this period:Men without Art(1934). It grew out of a defence of Lewis's satirical practice inThe Apes of Godand puts forward a theory of \"non-moral\", or metaphysical, satire. The book is probably best remembered for one of the first commentaries onFaulknerand a famous essay onHemingway. Return to painting (1936–1941) After becoming better known for his writing than his painting in the 1920s and early 1930s, he returned to more concentrated work on visual art, and paintings from the 1930s and 1940s constitute some of his best-known work. TheSurrender of Barcelona(1936–37)","Barcelona(1936–37) makes a significant statement about theSpanish Civil War. It was included in an exhibition at the Leicester Galleries in 1937 that Lewis hoped would re-establish his reputation as a painter. After the publication inThe Timesof a letter of support for the exhibition, asking that something from the show be purchased for the national collection (signed by, among others,Stephen Spender,W. H. Auden,Geoffrey Grigson,Rebecca West,Naomi Mitchison,Henry MooreandEric Gill) theTate Gallerybought the painting,Red Scene. Like others from the exhibition, it shows an influence fromSurrealismandde Chirico'sMetaphysical Painting. Lewis was highly critical of the ideology of Surrealism, but admired the visual qualities of some Surrealist art. During this period, Lewis also produced many of his most well-known portraits, including pictures ofEdith Sitwell(1923–1936),T. S. Eliot(1938and 1949), andEzra Pound(1939). His 1938 portrait of Eliot was rejected by the selection committee of theRoyal Academyfor their","Academyfor their annual exhibition and caused a furore.Augustus Johnresigned in protest. World War II and North America (1941–1945) Lewis spent World War II in the United States and Canada. In 1941, in Toronto, he produced a series of watercolour fantasies centred on themes of creation, crucifixion and bathing. He grew to appreciate the cosmopolitan and \"rootless\" nature of the American melting pot, declaring that the greatest advantage of being American was to have \"turned one's back on race, caste, and all that pertains to the rooted state.\"He praised the contributions of African-Americans to American culture, and regardedDiego Rivera,David Alfaro Siqueiros, andJosé Clemente Orozcoas the \"best North American artists,\" predicting that when \"the Indian culture of Mexico melts into the great American mass to the North, the Indian will probably give it its art.\"He returned to England in 1945. Later life and blindness (1945–1951) By 1951, he was completely blinded by apituitary tumorthat placed pressure on his","pressure on his optic nerve. It ended his artistic career, but he continued writing until his death. He published several autobiographical and critical works:Rude Assignment(1950),Rotting Hill(1951), a collection of allegorical short stories about his life in \"the capital of a dying empire\";The Writer and the Absolute(1952), a book of essays on writers includingGeorge Orwell,Jean-Paul SartreandAndré Malraux; and the semi-autobiographical novelSelf Condemned(1954). TheBBCcommissioned Lewis to complete his 1928 workThe Childermass, which was published asThe Human Ageand dramatized for theBBC Third Programmein 1955.In 1956, theTate Galleryheld a major exhibition of his work, \"Wyndham Lewis and Vorticism\", in the catalogue to which he declared that \"Vorticism, in fact, was what I, personally, did and said at a certain period\"—a statement which brought forth a series of \"Vortex Pamphlets\" from his fellowBLASTsignatoryWilliam Roberts. Personal life From 1918 to 1921, Lewis lived withIris Barry, with whom he had","with whom he had two children. He is said to have shown little affection for them. In 1930, Lewis married Gladys Anne Hoskins (1900–1979), who was affectionately known as Froanna. They lived together for 10 years before marrying and never had children. Lewis kept Froanna in the background, and many of his friends were unaware of her existence. It seems that Lewis was extraordinarily jealous and protective of his wife, owing to her youth and beauty. Froanna was patient and caring toward her husband through financial troubles and his frequent illnesses. She was the model for some of Lewis's more tender and intimate portraits as well as a number of characters in his fiction. In contrast to his earlier, impersonal portraits, which are purely concerned with external appearance, the portraits of Froanna show a preoccupation with her inner life. Always interested in Roman Catholicism, he never converted.He died in 1957 and was cremated atGolders Green Crematorium. By the time of his death, Lewis had written 40","had written 40 books in all. Political views In 1931, after a visit to Berlin, Lewis publishedHitler(1931), a book presentingAdolf Hitleras a \"man of peace\", with members of his party being threatened by communist street violence. His unpopularity among liberals and anti-fascists grew, especially after Hitler came to power in 1933.Following a second visit to Germany in 1937, Lewis changed his views and began to retract his previous political comments. He recognized the reality of Nazi treatment of Jews after a visit to Berlin in 1937. In 1939, he published an attack on anti-semitism titledThe Jews, Are They Human?,which was favourably reviewed inThe Jewish Chronicle. He also publishedThe Hitler Cult(1939), which firmly revoked his earlier support for Hitler. Politically, Lewis remained an isolated figure through the 1930s. InLetter toLord Byron,W. H. Audencalled Lewis \"that lonely old volcano of the Right.\" Lewis thought there was what he called a \"left-wing orthodoxy\" in Britain in the 1930s. He believed it","He believed it was against Britain's self-interest to ally with theSoviet Union, \"which the newspapers most of us read tell us has slaughtered out-of-hand, only a few years ago, millions of its better fed citizens, as well as its whole imperial family.\" InAnglosaxony: A League that Works(1941), Lewis reflected on his earlier support for fascism: Fascism – once I understood it – left me colder than communism. The latter at least pretended, at the start, to have something to do with helping the helpless and making the world a more decent and sensible place. It does start from the human being and his suffering. Whereas fascism glorifies bloodshed and preaches that man should model himself upon the wolf. His sense that America and Canada lacked a British-type class structure had increased his opinion of liberal democracy, and in the same pamphlet, Lewis defends liberal democracy's respect for individual freedom against its critics on both the left and right.InAmerica and Cosmic Man(1949), Lewis argued","Lewis argued thatFranklin Delano Roosevelthad successfully managed to reconcile individual rights with the demands of the state. Legacy In recent years, there has been renewed critical and biographical interest in Lewis and his work, and he is now regarded as a major British artist and writer of the twentieth century.Rugby School hosted an exhibition of his works in November 2007 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his death. TheNational Portrait Galleryin London held a major retrospective of his portraits in 2008. Two years later, held at the Fundación Juan March (Madrid, Spain), a large exhibition (Wyndham Lewis 1882–1957) featured a comprehensive collection of Lewis's paintings and drawings. As Tom Lubbock pointed out, it was \"the retrospective that Britain has never managed to get together.\". In 2010, Oxford World Classics published a critical edition of the 1928 text ofTarr, edited by Scott W. Klein ofWake Forest University. TheNasher Museum of ArtatDuke Universityheld an exhibition entitled \"The","entitled \"The Vorticists: Rebel Artists in London and New York, 1914–18\" from 30 September 2010 through 2 January 2011.The exhibition then travelled to the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice (29 January – 15 May 2011: \"I Vorticisti: Artisti ribellia a Londra e New York, 1914–1918\") and then toTate Britainunder the title \"The Vorticists: Manifesto for a Modern World\" between 14 June and 4 September 2011. Several readings by Lewis are collected onThe Enemy Speaks, an audiobook CD published in 2007 and featuring extracts from \"One Way Song\" andThe Apes of God, as well as radio talks titled \"When John Bull Laughs\" (1938), \"A Crisis of Thought\" (1947) and \"The Essential Purposes of Art\" (1951). Ablue plaquenow stands on the house inKensington, London, where Lewis lived, No. 61 Palace Gardens Terrace. Critical reception In his essay \"Good Bad Books\",George Orwellpresents Lewis as the exemplary writer who is cerebral without being artistic. Orwell wrote, \"Enough talent to set up dozens of ordinary writers has been","writers has been poured into Wyndham Lewis's so-called novels… Yet it would be a very heavy labour to read one of these books right through. Some indefinable quality, a sort of literary vitamin, which exists even in a book like If Winter Comes, is absent from them.\" In 1932,Walter Sickertsent Lewis a telegram in which he said that Lewis's pencil portrait ofRebecca Westproved him to be \"the greatest portraitist of this or any other time.\" Anti-semitism For many years, Lewis's novels have been criticised for their satirical and hostile portrayals of Jews.Tarrwas revised and republished in 1928, giving a new Jewish character a key role in making sure a duel is fought. This has been interpreted as an allegorical representation ofa supposed Zionist conspiracy against the West.His literary satireThe Apes of Godhas been interpreted similarly, because many of the characters are Jewish, including the modernist author and editor Julius Ratner, a portrait which blends anti-semitic stereotype with historical literary","historical literary figuresJohn Rodkerand James Joyce. A key feature of these interpretations is that Lewis is held to have kept his conspiracy theories hidden and marginalized. Since the publication ofAnthony Julius'sT. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form(1995), where Lewis's anti-semitism is described as \"essentially trivial\", this view is no longer taken seriously. Books Paintings Notes and references Further reading External links","W. H. Auden Wystan Hugh Auden(/ˈwɪstənˈhjuːˈɔːdən/; 21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973) was aBritish-Americanpoet. Auden's poetry is noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety intone,form, andcontent. Some of his best known poems are about love, such as \"Funeral Blues\"; on political and social themes, such as \"September 1, 1939\" and \"The Shield of Achilles\"; on cultural and psychological themes, such asThe Age of Anxiety; and on religious themes, such as \"For the Time Being\" and \"Horae Canonicae\". Auden was born inYorkand grew up in and nearBirminghamin a professional, middle-class family. He attended various English independent (orpublic) schools and studied English atChrist Church, Oxford. After a few months in Berlin in 1928–29, he spent five years (1930–1935) teaching in British privatepreparatory schools. In 1939, he moved to the United States; he became an American citizen in 1946, retaining his British citizenship.","citizenship. Auden taught from 1941 to 1945 in American universities, followed by occasional visiting professorships in the 1950s. Auden came to wide public attention in 1930 with his first book,Poems; it was followed in 1932 byThe Orators. Three plays written in collaboration withChristopher Isherwoodbetween 1935 and 1938 built his reputation as a left-wing political writer. Auden moved to the United States partly to escape this reputation, and his work in the 1940s, including thelong poems\"For the Time Being\" and \"The Sea and the Mirror\", focused on religious themes. He won thePulitzer Prize for Poetryfor his 1947 long poemThe Age of Anxiety, the title of which became a popular phrase describing the modern era.From 1956 to 1961, he wasProfessor of Poetry at Oxford; his lectures were popular with students and faculty and served as the basis for his 1962 prose collectionThe Dyer's Hand. Auden was a prolific writer of prose essays and reviews on literary, political, psychological, and religious subjects, and","subjects, and he worked at various times on documentary films, poetic plays, and other forms of performance. Throughout his career he was both controversial and influential. Critical views on his work ranged from sharply dismissive (treating him as a lesser figure thanW. B. YeatsandT. S. Eliot) to strongly affirmative (as inJoseph Brodsky's statement that he had \"the greatest mind of the twentieth century\"). After his death, his poems became known to a much wider public through films, broadcasts, and popular media. Life Childhood Auden was born at54 Bootham,York, England, toGeorge Augustus Auden(1872–1957), a physician, and Constance Rosalie Auden (née Bicknell; 1869–1941), who had trained (but never served) as a missionary nurse.He was the third of three sons; the eldest, George Bernard Auden (1900–1978), became a farmer, while the second,John Bicknell Auden(1903–1991), became a geologist.The Audens were minor gentry with a strongclericaltradition, originally ofRowley Regis, later ofHorninglow,","later ofHorninglow, Staffordshire. Auden, whose grandfathers were bothChurch of Englandclergymen,grew up in anAnglo-Catholichousehold that followed a \"high\" form ofAnglicanism, with doctrine and ritual resembling those ofCatholicism.He traced his love of music and language partly to the church services of his childhood.He believed he was ofIcelandicdescent, and his lifelong fascination with Icelandic legends andOld Norsesagas is evident in his work. His family moved to Homer Road inSolihull, nearBirmingham, in 1908,where his father had been appointed the School Medical Officer and Lecturer (later Professor) of Public Health. Auden's lifelongpsychoanalyticinterests began in his father's library. From the age of eight he attended boarding schools, returning home for holidays.His visits to thePenninelandscape and its declining lead-mining industry figure in many of his poems; the remote decaying mining village ofRookhopewas for him a \"sacred landscape\", evoked in a late poem, \"Amor Loci\".Until he was fifteen he","he was fifteen he expected to become a mining engineer, but his passion for words had already begun. He wrote later: \"words so excite me that a pornographic story, for example, excites me sexually more than a living person can do.\" Education Auden attendedSt Edmund's School, Hindhead, Surrey, where he metChristopher Isherwood, later famous in his own right as a novelist.At thirteen he went toGresham's SchoolinHolt, Norfolk; there, in 1922, when his friendRobert Medleyasked him if he wrote poetry, Auden first realised his vocation was to be a poet.Soon after, he \"discover(ed) that he (had) lost his faith\" (through a gradual realisation that he had lost interest in religion, not through any decisive change of views).In school productions ofShakespeare, he played Katherina inThe Taming of the Shrewin 1922,andCalibaninThe Tempestin 1925, his last year at Gresham's.A review of his performance as Katherina noted that despite a poor wig, he had been able \"to infuse considerable dignity into his passionate","into his passionate outbursts\". His first published poems appeared in the school magazine in 1923.Auden later wrote a chapter on Gresham's forGraham Greene'sThe Old School: Essays by Divers Hands(1934). In 1925 he went up toChrist Church, Oxford, with a scholarship in biology; he changed to English by his second year, and was introduced to Old English poetry through the lectures ofJ. R. R. Tolkien. Friends he met at Oxford includeCecil Day-Lewis,Louis MacNeice, andStephen Spender- Auden and these three were commonly though misleadingly identified in the 1930s as the \"Auden Group\" for their shared (but not identical) left-wing views. Auden left Oxford in 1928 with athird-classdegree. Auden was reintroduced to Christopher Isherwood in 1925 by his fellow studentA. S. T. Fisher. For the next few years Auden sent poems to Isherwood for comments and criticism; the two maintained a sexual friendship in intervals between their relations with others. In 1935–39 they collaborated on three plays and a travel book. From","a travel book. From his Oxford years onward, Auden's friends uniformly described him as funny, extravagant, sympathetic, generous, and, partly by his own choice, lonely. In groups he was often dogmatic and overbearing in a comic way; in more private settings he was diffident and shy except when certain of his welcome. He was punctual in his habits, and obsessive about meeting deadlines, while living amidst physical disorder. Britain and Europe, 1928–1938 In late 1928 Auden left Britain for nine months, going toBerlin, perhaps partly as an escape from English repressiveness. In Berlin, he first experienced the political and economic unrest that became one of his central subjects.Around the same time, Stephen Spender privately printed a small pamphlet of Auden'sPoemsin an edition of about 45 copies, distributed among Auden's and Spender's friends and family; this edition is usually referred to asPoems to avoid confusion with Auden's commercially published 1930 volume. On returning to Britain in 1929 he worked","in 1929 he worked briefly as a tutor. In 1930 his first published book,Poems(1930), was accepted byT. S. EliotforFaber and Faber, and the same firm remained the British publisher of all the books he published thereafter. In 1930, he began five years as a schoolmaster in boys' schools: two years at theLarchfield AcademyinHelensburgh, Scotland, then three years atthe Downs Schoolin theMalvern Hills, where he was a much-loved teacher.At the Downs, in June 1933, he experienced what he later described as a \"Vision ofAgape\", while sitting with three fellow teachers at the school, when he suddenly found that he loved them for themselves, that their existence had infinite value for him; this experience, he said, later influenced his decision to return to the Anglican Church in 1940. During these years Auden's erotic interests focused, as he later said, on an idealised \"Alter Ego\"rather than on individual people. His relationships (and his unsuccessful courtships) tended to be unequal either in age or intelligence;","or intelligence; his sexual relations were transient, although some evolved into long friendships. He contrasted these relationships with what he later regarded as the \"marriage\" (his word) of equals that he began withChester Kallmanin 1939, based on the unique individuality of both partners. In 1935 Auden marriedErika Mann(1905–1969), the lesbian novelist daughter ofThomas Mannwhen it became apparent that the Nazis were intending to strip her of her German citizenship.Mann had asked Christopher Isherwood if he would marry her so she could become a British citizen. He declined but suggested she approach Auden, who readily agreed to amarriage of convenience.Mann and Auden never lived together, but remained on good terms throughout their lives and were still married when Mann died in 1969. She left him a small bequest in her will.In 1936, Auden introduced actressTherese Giehse, Mann's lover, to the writerJohn Hampsonand they too married so that Giehse could leave Germany. From 1935 until he left Britain early","left Britain early in 1939, Auden worked as freelance reviewer, essayist, and lecturer, first with theGPO Film Unit, a documentary film-making branch of the post office, headed byJohn Grierson. Through his work for the Film Unit in 1935 he met and collaborated withBenjamin Britten, with whom he also worked on plays, song cycles, and a libretto.Auden's plays in the 1930s were performed by theGroup Theatre, in productions that he supervised to varying degrees. His work now reflected his belief that any good artist must be \"more than a bit of a reporting journalist\".In 1936, Auden spent three months in Iceland where he gathered material for a travel bookLetters from Iceland(1937), written in collaboration with Louis MacNeice. In 1937, he went to Spain intending to drive an ambulance for theRepublicin theSpanish Civil War, but was put to work writing propaganda at the Republican press and propaganda office, where he felt useless and left after a week.He returned to England after a brief visit to the front at","to the front at Sarineña. His seven-week visit to Spain affected him deeply, and his social views grew more complex as he found political realities to be more ambiguous and troubling than he had imagined.Again attempting to combine reportage and art, he and Isherwood spent six months in 1938 visiting China amid theSino-Japanese War, working on their bookJourney to a War(1939). On their way back to England they stayed briefly in New York and decided to move to the United States. Auden spent late 1938 partly in England, partly in Brussels. Many of Auden's poems during the 1930s and after were inspired by unconsummated love, and in the 1950s he summarised his emotional life in a famous couplet: \"If equal affection cannot be / Let the more loving one be me\" (\"The More Loving One\"). He had a gift for friendship and, starting in the late 1930s, a strong wish for the stability of marriage; in a letter to his friendJames Sternhe called marriage \"theonlysubject.\"Throughout his life, Auden performed charitable acts,","charitable acts, sometimes in public, as in his 1935 marriage of convenience to Erika Mann,but, especially in later years, more often in private. He was embarrassed if they were publicly revealed, as when his gift to his friendDorothy Dayfor theCatholic Workermovement was reported on the front page ofThe New York Timesin 1956. United States and Europe, 1939–1973 Auden and Isherwood sailed to New York City in January 1939, entering on temporary visas. Their departure from Britain was later seen by many as a betrayal, and Auden's reputation suffered.In April 1939, Isherwood moved to California, and he and Auden saw each other only intermittently in later years. Around this time, Auden met the poetChester Kallman, who became his lover for the next two years (Auden described their relation as a \"marriage\" that began with a cross-country \"honeymoon\" journey). In 1941 Kallman ended their sexual relationship because he could not accept Auden's insistence on mutual fidelity,but he and Auden remained companions for","companions for the rest of Auden's life, sharing houses and apartments from 1953 until Auden's death.Auden dedicated both editions of his collected poetry (1945/50 and 1966) to Isherwood and Kallman. In 1940–41 Auden lived in a house at 7 Middagh Street inBrooklyn Heights, that he shared withCarson McCullers, Benjamin Britten, and others, which became a famous centre of artistic life, nicknamed \"February House\".In 1940, Auden joined theEpiscopal Church, returning to the Anglican Communion he had abandoned at fifteen. His reconversion was influenced partly by what he called the \"sainthood\" ofCharles Williams,whom he had met in 1937, and partly by readingSøren KierkegaardandReinhold Niebuhr; hisexistential, this-worldly Christianity became a central element in his life. After Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939, Auden told the British embassy in Washington that he would return to the UK if needed. He was told that, among those his age (32), only qualified personnel were needed. In 1941–42 he","In 1941–42 he taught English at theUniversity of Michigan. He was called for the draft in the United States Army in August 1942, but was rejected on medical grounds. He had been awarded aGuggenheim Fellowshipfor 1942–43 but did not use it, choosing instead to teach atSwarthmore Collegein 1942–45. In mid-1945, after the end ofWorld War IIin Europe, he was in Germany with theUS Strategic Bombing Survey, studying the effects of Allied bombing on German morale, an experience that affected his postwar work as his visit to Spain had affected him earlier.On his return, he settled inManhattan, working as a freelance writer, a lecturer atThe New Schoolfor Social Research, and a visiting professor atBennington,Smith, and other American colleges. In 1946, he became anaturalised citizenof the US. In 1948 Auden began spending his summers in Europe, together with Chester Kallman, first inIschia, Italy, where he rented a house. Starting in 1958 he began spending his summers inKirchstetten, Austria, where he bought a","where he bought a farmhouse with the prize money of thePremio Feltrinelliawarded to him in 1957.He said that he shed tears of joy at owning a home for the first time.His later poetry, mostly written in Austria, includes his sequence \"Thanksgiving for a Habitat\" about his Kirchstetten home.Auden's letters and papers sent to his friend the translator Stella Musulin (1915–1996), available online, provide insights into his Austrian years. In 1956–61 Auden wasProfessor of PoetryatOxford University, where he was required to give three lectures each year. This fairly light workload allowed him to continue to spend winter in New York, where he lived at 77St. Mark's Placein Manhattan'sEast Village, and to spend summer in Europe, spending only three weeks each year lecturing in Oxford. He earned his income mostly from readings and lecture tours, and by writing forThe New Yorker,The New York Review of Books,and other magazines. In 1963 Kallman left the apartment he shared in New York with Auden, and lived during the","lived during the winter in Athens while continuing to spend his summers with Auden in Austria. Auden spent the winter of 1964-1965 inBerlinthrough anartist-in-residence programof theFord Foundation. Following some years of lobbying by his friendDavid Luke, Auden's old college, Christ Church, in February 1972 offered him a cottage on its grounds to live in; he moved his books and other possessions from New York to Oxford in September 1972,while continuing to spend summers in Austria with Kallman. He spent only one winter in Oxford before his death in 1973. Auden died at 66 of heart failure at the Altenburgerhof Hotel in Vienna overnight on 28–29 September 1973, a few hours after giving a reading of his poems for the Austrian Society for Literature at thePalais Pálffy. He had intended to return to Oxford the following day. He was buried on 4 October in Kirchstetten, and a memorial stone was placed in Westminster Abbey in London a year later. Work Auden published about four hundred poems, including seven long","seven long poems (two of them book-length). His poetry was encyclopaedic in scope and method, ranging in style from obscure twentieth-century modernism to the lucid traditional forms such asballadsandlimericks, fromdoggerelthroughhaikuandvillanellesto a \"Christmas Oratorio\" and abaroqueecloguein Anglo-Saxon meters.The tone and content of his poems ranged from pop-song clichés to complex philosophical meditations, from the corns on his toes to atoms and stars, from contemporary crises to the evolution of society. He also wrote more than four hundred essays and reviews about literature, history, politics, music, religion, and many other subjects. He collaborated on plays withChristopher Isherwoodand on opera libretti withChester Kallman, and worked with a group of artists and filmmakers on documentary films in the 1930s and with theNew York Pro Musicaearly musicgroup in the 1950s and 1960s. About collaboration he wrote in 1964: \"collaboration has brought me greater erotic joy . . . than any sexual relations I","sexual relations I have had.\" Auden controversially rewrote or discarded some of his most famous poems when he prepared his later collected editions. He wrote that he rejected poems that he found \"boring\" or \"dishonest\" in the sense that they expressed views he had never held but had used only because he felt they would be rhetorically effective.His rejected poems include \"Spain\" and \"September 1, 1939\". Hisliterary executor,Edward Mendelson, argues in his introduction toSelected Poemsthat Auden's practice reflected his sense of the persuasive power of poetry and his reluctance to misuse it.(Selected Poemsincludes some poems that Auden rejected and early texts of poems that he revised.) Early work, 1922–1939 Up to 1930 Auden began writing poems in 1922, at 15, mostly in the styles of 19th-century romantic poets, especiallyWordsworth, and later poets with rural interests, especiallyThomas Hardy. At 18 he discoveredT. S. Eliotand adopted an extreme version of Eliot's style. He found his own voice at 20 when he","voice at 20 when he wrote the first poem later included in his collected work, \"From the very first coming down\".This and other poems of the late 1920s tended to be in a clipped, elusive style that alluded to, but did not directly state, their themes of loneliness and loss. Twenty of these poems appeared in his first bookPoems(1928), a pamphlet hand-printed byStephen Spender. In 1928 he wrote his first dramatic work,Paid on Both Sides, subtitled \"A Charade\", which combined style and content from the Icelandicsagaswith jokes from English school life. This mixture of tragedy and farce, with a dream play-within-a-play, introduced the mixed styles and content of much of his later work.This drama and thirty short poems appeared in his first published bookPoems(1930, 2nd edition with seven poems replaced, 1933); the poems in the book were mostly lyrical and gnomic meditations on hoped-for or unconsummated love and on themes of personal, social, and seasonal renewal; among these poems were \"It was Easter as I","\"It was Easter as I walked\", \"Doom is dark\", \"Sir, no man's enemy\", and \"This lunar beauty\". A recurrent theme in these early poems is the effect of \"family ghosts\", Auden's term for the powerful, unseen psychological effects of preceding generations on any individual life (and the title of a poem). A parallel theme, present throughout his work, is the contrast between biological evolution (unchosen and involuntary) and the psychological evolution of cultures and individuals (voluntary and deliberate even in its subconscious aspects). 1931–1935 Auden's next large-scale work wasThe Orators: An English Study(1932; revised editions, 1934, 1966), in verse and prose, largely about hero-worship in personal and political life. In his shorter poems, his style became more open and accessible, and the exuberant \"Six Odes\" inThe Oratorsreflect his new interest inRobert Burns.During the next few years, many of his poems took their form and style from traditional ballads and popular songs, and also from expansive","also from expansive classical forms like theOdesofHorace, which he seems to have discovered through the German poetHölderlin.Around this time his main influences wereDante,William Langland, andAlexander Pope. During these years much of his work expressed left-wing views, and he became widely known as a political poet although he was privately more ambivalent about revolutionary politics than many reviewers recognised,and Mendelson argues that he expounded political views partly out of a sense of moral duty and partly because it enhanced his reputation, and that he later regretted having done so.He generally wrote about revolutionary change in terms of a \"change of heart\", a transformation of a society from a closed-off psychology of fear to an open psychology of love. His verse dramaThe Dance of Death(1933) was a political extravaganza in the style of a theatrical revue, which Auden later called \"a nihilistic leg-pull.\"His next playThe Dog Beneath the Skin(1935), written in collaboration with Isherwood, was","with Isherwood, was similarly a quasi-Marxist updating ofGilbert and Sullivanin which the general idea of social transformation was more prominent than any specific political action or structure. The Ascent of F6(1937), another play written with Isherwood, was partly an anti-imperialist satire, partly (in the character of the self-destroying climber Michael Ransom) an examination of Auden's own motives in taking on a public role as a political poet.This play included the first version of \"Funeral Blues\" (\"Stop all the clocks\"), written as a satiric eulogy for a politician; Auden later rewrote the poem as a \"Cabaret Song\" about lost love (written to be sung by the sopranoHedli Anderson, for whom he wrote many lyrics in the 1930s).In 1935, he worked briefly on documentary films with theGPO Film Unit, writing his famous verse commentary forNight Mailand lyrics for other films that were among his attempts in the 1930s to create a widely accessible, socially conscious art. 1936–1939 In 1936 Auden's publisher","Auden's publisher chose the titleLook, Stranger!for a collection of political odes, love poems, comic songs, meditative lyrics, and a variety of intellectually intense but emotionally accessible verse; Auden hated the title and retitled the collection for the 1937 US editionOn This Island.Among the poems included in the book are \"Hearing of harvests\", \"Out on the lawn I lie in bed\", \"O what is that sound\", \"Look, stranger, on this island now\" (later revised versions change \"on\" to \"at\"), and \"Our hunting fathers\". Auden was now arguing that an artist should be a kind of journalist, and he put this view into practice inLetters from Iceland(1937) a travel book in prose and verse written withLouis MacNeice, which included his long social, literary, and autobiographical commentary \"Letter to Lord Byron\".In 1937, after observing theSpanish Civil Warhe wrote a politically engaged pamphlet poemSpain(1937); he later discarded it from his collected works.Journey to a War(1939) a travel book in prose and verse, was","and verse, was written with Isherwood after their visit to theSino-Japanese War.Auden's last collaboration with Isherwood was their third play,On the Frontier, an anti-war satire written in Broadway and West End styles. Auden's shorter poems now engaged with the fragility and transience of personal love (\"Danse Macabre\", \"The Dream\", \"Lay your sleeping head\"), a subject he treated with ironic wit in his \"Four Cabaret Songs for MissHedli Anderson\" (which included \"Tell Me the Truth About Love\" and the revised version of \"Funeral Blues\"), and also the corrupting effect of public and official culture on individual lives (\"Casino\", \"School Children\", \"Dover\").In 1938, he wrote a series of dark, ironic ballads about individual failure (\"Miss Gee\", \"James Honeyman\", \"Victor\"). All these appeared inAnother Time(1940), together with poems including \"Dover\", \"As He Is\", and \"Musée des Beaux Arts\" (all of which were written before he moved to America in 1939), and \"In Memory of W. B. Yeats\", \"The Unknown Citizen\",","Unknown Citizen\", \"Law Like Love\", \"September 1, 1939\", and \"In Memory of Sigmund Freud\" (all written in America). The elegies for Yeats and Freud are partly anti-heroic statements, in which great deeds are performed, not by unique geniuses whom others cannot hope to imitate, but by otherwise ordinary individuals who were \"silly like us\" (Yeats) or of whom it could be said \"he wasn't clever at all\" (Freud), and who became teachers of others, not awe-inspiring heroes. Middle period, 1940–1957 1940–1946 In 1940 Auden wrote a long philosophical poem \"New Year Letter\", which appeared with miscellaneous notes and other poems inThe Double Man(1941). At the time of his return to the Anglican Communion he began writing abstract verse on theological themes, such as \"Canzone\" and \"Kairos and Logos\". Around 1942, as he became more comfortable with religious themes, his verse became more open and relaxed, and he increasingly used thesyllabic versehe had learned from the poetry ofMarianne Moore. Auden's work in this era","work in this era addresses the artist's temptation to use other persons as material for his art rather than valuing them for themselves (\"Prospero to Ariel\") and the corresponding moral obligation to make and keep commitments while recognising the temptation to break them (\"In Sickness and Health\").From 1942 through 1947 he worked mostly on three long poems in dramatic form, each differing from the others in form and content: \"For the Time Being: A Christmas Oratorio\", \"The Sea and the Mirror: A Commentary on Shakespeare'sThe Tempest\"(both published inFor the Time Being, 1944), andThe Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue(published separately in 1947).The first two, with Auden's other new poems from 1940 to 1944, were included in his first collected edition,The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden(1945), with most of his earlier poems, many in revised versions. 1947–1957 After completingThe Age of Anxietyin 1946 he focused again on shorter poems, notably \"A Walk After Dark\", \"The Love Feast\", and \"The Fall of","and \"The Fall of Rome\".Many of these evoked the Italian village where he spent his summers between 1948 and 1957, and his next book,Nones(1951), had a Mediterranean atmosphere new to his work.A new theme was the \"sacred importance\" of the human bodyin its ordinary aspect (breathing, sleeping, eating) and the continuity with nature that the body made possible (in contrast to the division between humanity and nature that he had emphasised in the 1930s);his poems on these themes included \"In Praise of Limestone\" (1948) and \"Memorial for the City\" (1949).In 1947-1948, Auden and Kallman wrote the libretto forIgor Stravinsky's operaThe Rake's Progress, and later collaborated on two libretti for operas byHans Werner Henze. Auden's first separate prose book wasThe Enchafèd Flood: The Romantic Iconography of the Sea(1950), based on a series of lectures on the image of the sea in romantic literature.Between 1949 and 1954 he worked on a sequence of sevenGood Fridaypoems, titled \"Horae Canonicae\", an encyclopaedic","an encyclopaedic survey of geological, biological, cultural, and personal history, focused on the irreversible act of murder; the poem was also a study in cyclical and linear ideas of time. While writing this, he also wrote \"Bucolics\", a sequence of seven poems about man's relation to nature. Both sequences appeared in his next book,The Shield of Achilles(1955), with other short poems, including the book's title poem, \"Fleet Visit\", and \"Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier\". In 1955–56 Auden wrote a group of poems about \"history\", the term he used to mean the set of unique events made by human choices, as opposed to \"nature\", the set of involuntary events created by natural processes, statistics, and anonymous forces such as crowds. These poems included \"T the Great\", \"The Maker\", and the title poem of his next collectionHomage to Clio(1960). Later work, 1958–1973 In the late 1950s Auden's style became less rhetorical while its range of styles increased. In 1958, having moved his summer home from Italy to","home from Italy to Austria, he wrote \"Good-bye to the Mezzogiorno\"; other poems from this period include \"Dichtung und Wahrheit: An Unwritten Poem\", a prose poem about the relation between love and personal and poetic language, and the contrasting \"Dame Kind\", about the anonymous impersonal reproductive instinct. These and other poems, including his 1955–66 poems about history, appeared inHomage to Clio(1960).His prose bookThe Dyer's Hand(1962) gathered many of the lectures he gave in Oxford as Professor of Poetry in 1956–61, together with revised versions of essays and notes written since the mid-1940s. Among the new styles and forms in Auden's later work were thehaikuandtankathat he began writing after translating the haiku and other verse inDag Hammarskjöld'sMarkings.A sequence of fifteen poems about his house in Austria, \"Thanksgiving for a Habitat\" (written in various styles that included an imitation ofWilliam Carlos Williams) appeared inAbout the House(1965), together with other poems that included","poems that included his reflection on his lecture tours, \"On the Circuit\".In the late 1960s he wrote some of his most vigorous poems, including \"River Profile\" and two poems that looked back over his life, \"Prologue at Sixty\" and \"Forty Years On\". All these appeared inCity Without Walls(1969). His lifelong passion for Icelandic legend culminated in his verse translation ofTheElder Edda(1969).Among his later themes was the \"religionless Christianity\" he learned partly fromDietrich Bonhoeffer, the dedicatee of his poem \"Friday's Child\". A Certain World: A Commonplace Book(1970) was a kind of self-portrait made up of favourite quotations with commentary, arranged in alphabetical order by subject.His last prose book was a selection of essays and reviews,Forewords and Afterwords(1973).His last books of verse,Epistle to a Godson(1972) and the unfinishedThank You, Fog(published posthumously, 1974) include reflective poems about language (\"Natural Linguistics\", \"Aubade\"), philosophy and science (\"No, Plato, No\",","(\"No, Plato, No\", \"Unpredictable but Providential\"), and his own aging (\"A New Year Greeting\", \"Talking to Myself\", \"A Lullaby\" ). His last completed poem was \"Archaeology\", about ritual and timelessness, two recurring themes in his later years. Reputation and influence Auden's stature in modern literature has been contested. Probably the most common critical view from the 1930s onward ranked him as the last and least of the three major twentieth-century poets of the UK or Ireland—behind Yeats and Eliot—while a minority view, more prominent in recent years, ranks him as the highest of the three.Opinions have ranged from those ofHugh MacDiarmid, who called him \"a complete wash-out\";F. R. Leavis, who wrote that Auden's ironic style was \"self-defensive, self-indulgent or merely irresponsible\";andHarold Bloom, who wrote \"Close thy Auden, open thy Stevens,\"to the obituarist inThe Times, who wrote: \"W.H. Auden, for long theenfant terribleof English poetry... emerges as its undisputed master.\"Joseph Brodskywrote","Brodskywrote that Auden had \"the greatest mind of the twentieth century\". Critical estimates were divided from the start. Reviewing Auden's first book,Poems(1930),Naomi Mitchisonwrote \"If this is really only the beginning, we have perhaps a master to look forward to.\"ButJohn Sparrow, recalling Mitchison's comment in 1934, dismissed Auden's early work as \"a monument to the misguided aims that prevail among contemporary poets, and the fact that... he is being hailed as 'a master' shows how criticism is helping poetry on the downward path.\" Auden's clipped, satiric, and ironic style in the 1930s was widely imitated by younger poets such asCharles Madge, who wrote in a poem \"there waited for me in the summer morning / Auden fiercely. I read, shuddered, and knew.\"He was widely described as the leader of an \"Auden group\" that comprised his friendsStephen Spender,Cecil Day-Lewis, andLouis MacNeice.The four were mocked by the poetRoy Campbellas if they were a single undifferentiated poet named \"Macspaunday.\"Auden's","propagandistic poetic plays, includingThe Dog Beneath the SkinandThe Ascent of F6, and his political poems such as \"Spain\" gave him the reputation as a political poet writing in a progressive and accessible voice, in contrast to Eliot; but this political stance provoked opposing opinions, such as that ofAustin Clarkewho called Auden's work \"liberal, democratic, and humane\",and John Drummond, who wrote that Auden misused a \"characteristic and popularizing trick, the generalized image\", to present ostensibly left-wing views that were in fact \"confined to bourgeois experience.\" Auden's departure for America in 1939 was debated in Britain (once even in Parliament), with some seeing his emigration as a betrayal. Defenders of Auden such asGeoffrey Grigson, in an introduction to a 1949 anthology of modern poetry, wrote that Auden \"arches over all\". His stature was suggested by book titles such asAuden and AfterbyFrancis Scarfe(1942) andThe Auden GenerationbySamuel Hynes(1977). In the US, starting in the late 1930s,","in the late 1930s, the detached, ironic tone of Auden's regular stanzas became influential;John Ashberyrecalled that in the 1940s Auden \"wasthemodern poet\".Auden's formal influences were so pervasive in American poetry that the ecstatic style of theBeat Generationwas partly a reaction against his influence. From the 1940s through the 1960s, many critics lamented that Auden's work had declined from its earlier promise;Randall Jarrellwrote a series of essays making a case against Auden's later work,andPhilip Larkin's \"What's Become of Wystan?\" (1960) had a wide impact. The first full-length study of Auden wasRichard Hoggart'sAuden: An Introductory Essay(1951), which concluded that \"Auden's work, then, is a civilising force.\"It was followed byJoseph Warren Beach'sThe Making of the Auden Canon(1957), a disapproving account of Auden's revisions of his earlier work.The first systematic critical account was Monroe K. Spears'The Poetry of W. H. Auden: The Disenchanted Island(1963), \"written out of the conviction","of the conviction that Auden's poetry can offer the reader entertainment, instruction, intellectual excitement, and a prodigal variety of aesthetic pleasures, all in a generous abundance that is unique in our time.\" Auden was one of three candidates recommended by the Nobel Committee to the Swedish Academy for theNobel Prize in Literaturein 1963and 1965and six recommended for the 1964 prize.By the time of his death in 1973 he had attained the status of a respected elder statesman, and a memorial stone for him was placed inPoets' CornerinWestminster Abbeyin 1974.TheEncyclopædia Britannicawrites that \"by the time of Eliot's death in 1965... a convincing case could be made for the assertion that Auden was indeed Eliot's successor, as Eliot had inherited sole claim to supremacy whenYeatsdied in 1939.\"With some exceptions, British critics tended to treat his early work as his best, while American critics tended to favour his middle and later work. Another group of critics and poets has maintained that unlike","that unlike other modern poets, Auden's reputation did not decline after his death, and the influence of his later writing was especially strong on younger American poets includingJohn Ashbery,James Merrill,Anthony Hecht, andMaxine Kumin.Typical later evaluations describe him as \"arguably the century's greatest poet\" (Peter Parker and Frank Kermode),who \"now clearly seems the greatest poet in English since Tennyson\" (Philip Hensher). Public recognition of Auden's work sharply increased after his \"Funeral Blues\" (\"Stop all the clocks\") was read aloud in the filmFour Weddings and a Funeral(1994); subsequently, a pamphlet edition of ten of his poems,Tell Me the Truth About Love, sold more than 275,000 copies. An excerpt from his poem \"As I walked out one evening\" was recited in the filmBefore Sunrise(1995).After 11 September 2001, his 1939 poem \"September 1, 1939\" was widely circulated and frequently broadcast.Public readings and broadcast tributes in the UK and US in 2007 marked his centenary year. Overall","year. Overall Auden's poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety in tone, form and content. Memorial stones and plaques commemorating Auden include those inWestminster Abbey; at his birthplace at 55 Bootham, York;near his home on Lordswood Road, Birmingham;in the chapel of Christ Church, Oxford; on the site of his apartment at 1 Montague Terrace, Brooklyn Heights; at his apartment in 77 St. Marks Place, New York (damaged and now removed);at the site of his death at Walfischgasse 5 in Vienna;and in theRainbow Honor Walkin San Francisco.In his house in Kirchstetten, his study is open to the public upon request. In 2023, newly declassified UK government files revealed that Auden was considered as a candidate to be the newPoet Laureate of the United Kingdomin 1967 following the death ofJohn Masefield. He was rejected due to having taken American citizenship. Published works The following list includes only the books of","only the books of poems and essays that Auden prepared during his lifetime; for a more complete list, including other works and posthumous editions, seeW. H. Auden bibliography. Dates refer to first publication or first performance, not of composition. In the list below, works reprinted in theComplete Works of W. H. Audenare indicated by footnote references. References Citations General and cited sources Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Wyndham Lewis Percy Wyndham Lewis(18 November 1882 – 7 March 1957) was a British writer, painter and critic. He was a co-founder of theVorticistmovement in art and editedBLAST, the literary magazine of the Vorticists. His novels includeTarr(1918) andThe Human Agetrilogy, composed ofThe Childermass(1928),Monstre Gai(1955) andMalign Fiesta(1955). A fourth volume, titledThe Trial of Man, was unfinished at the time of his death. He also wrote two autobiographical volumes:Blasting and Bombardiering(1937) andRude Assignment: A Narrative of my Career Up-to-Date(1950). Life and career Early life Lewis was born on 18 November 1882, reputedly on his father's yacht off the Canadian province ofNova Scotia.His English mother, Anne Stuart Lewis (née Prickett), and American father, Charles Edward Lewis, separated about 1893.His mother subsequently returned to England. Lewis was educated in England atRugby Schooland then, from 16, theSlade School of Fine Art,University College London, but left for Paris without finishing his\",\n \"finishing his course.He spent most of the 1900s travelling around Europe and studying art in Paris. While in Paris, he attended lectures byHenri Bergsononprocess philosophy. Early work and development of Vorticism (1908–1915) In 1908, Lewis moved to London, where he would reside for much of his life. In 1909, he published his first work, accounts of his travels in Brittany, inFord Madox Ford'sThe English Review. He was a founding member of theCamden Town Group, which brought him into close contact with theBloomsbury Group, particularlyRoger FryandClive Bell, with whom he soon fell out. In 1912, Lewis exhibited his work at the second Postimpressionist exhibition:Cubo-Futuristillustrations toTimon of Athensand three major oil paintings. In 1912, he was commissioned to produce a decorative mural, a drop curtain, and more designs forThe Cave of the Golden Calf, an avant-garde cabaret and nightclub onHeddon Street. From 1913 to 1915, Lewis developed the style of geometric abstraction for which he is best known\",\n \"he is best known today, which his friendEzra Pounddubbed \\\"Vorticism\\\". Lewis sought to combine the strong structure ofCubism, which he found was not \\\"alive\\\", with the liveliness ofFuturistart, which lacked structure. The combination was a strikingly dramatic critique of modernity. In his early visual works, Lewis may have been influenced by Bergson'sprocess philosophy. Though he was later savagely critical of Bergson, he admitted in a letter to Theodore Weiss (19 April 1949) that he \\\"began by embracing his evolutionary system.\\\"Nietzschewas an equally important influence. Lewis had a brief tenure at Roger Fry'sOmega Workshops, but left after a quarrel with Fry over a commission to provide wall decorations for theDaily MailIdeal Home Exhibition, which Lewis believed Fry had misappropriated. He and several other Omega artists started a competing workshop called theRebel Art Centre. The Centre operated for only four months, but it gave birth to the Vorticist group and its publication,BLAST.InBLAST,Lewis formally\",\n \"formally expounded the Vorticist aesthetic in a manifesto, distinguishing it from other avant-garde practices. He also wrote and published a play,Enemy of the Stars. It is a proto-absurdist,Expressionistdrama. Lewis scholar Melania Terrazas identifies it as a precursor to the plays ofSamuel Beckett. World War I (1915–1918) In 1915, the Vorticists held their only U.K. exhibition before the movement broke up, largely as a result of World War I. Lewis himself was posted to thewestern frontand served as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. Much of his time was spent inForward Observation Postslooking down at apparently deserted German lines, registering targets and calling down fire from batteries massed around the rim of theYpres Salient. He made vivid accounts of narrow misses and deadly artillery duels. After theThird Battle of Ypres, Lewis was appointed an officialwar artistfor both the Canadian and British governments. For the Canadians, he paintedA Canadian Gun-pit(1918) from sketches made onVimy\",\n \"made onVimy Ridge. For the British, he painted one of his best-known works,A Battery Shelled(1919), drawing on his own experience at Ypres.Lewis exhibited his war drawings and some other paintings of the war in an exhibition, \\\"Guns\\\", in 1918. Although the Vorticist group broke up after the war, Lewis's patron,John Quinn, organized a Vorticist exhibition at the Penguin Club in New York in 1917. His first novel,Tarr, was serialized inThe Egoistduring 1916–17 and published in book form in 1918. It is widely regarded as one of the key modernist texts. Lewis later documented his experiences and opinions of this period of his life in the autobiographicalBlasting and Bombardiering(1937), which covered his life up to 1926. Tyrosand writing (1918–1929) After the war, Lewis resumed his career as a painter with a major exhibition,Tyros and Portraits, at theLeicester Galleriesin 1921. \\\"Tyros\\\" were satirical caricatures intended to comment on the culture of the \\\"new epoch\\\" that succeeded the First World War.A Reading\",\n \"World War.A Reading ofOvidandMr Wyndham Lewis as a Tyroare the only surviving oil paintings from this series. Lewis also launched his second magazine,The Tyro, of which there were only two issues. The second (1922) contained an important statement of Lewis's visual aesthetic: \\\"Essay on the Objective of Plastic Art in our Time\\\".It was during the early 1920s that he perfected his incisive draughtsmanship. By the late 1920s, he concentrated on writing. He launched yet another magazine,The Enemy(1927–1929), largely written by himself and declaring its belligerent critical stance in its title. The magazine and other theoretical and critical works he published from 1926 to 1929 mark a deliberate separation from the avant-garde and his previous associates. He believed that their work failed to show sufficient critical awareness of those ideologies that worked against truly revolutionary change in the West, and therefore became a vehicle for these pernicious ideologies.His major theoretical and cultural statement\",\n \"cultural statement from this period isThe Art of Being Ruled(1926). Time and Western Man(1927) is a cultural and philosophical discussion that includes penetrating critiques ofJames Joyce,Gertrude SteinandEzra Poundthat are still read. Lewis also attacked theprocess philosophyof Bergson,Samuel Alexander,Alfred North Whitehead, and others. By 1931 he was advocating the art of ancient Egypt as impossible to surpass. Fiction and political writing (1930–1936) Between the years 1907–11 Lewis wrote amodernistnovel entitledTarrwhich was revised and expanded in 1914–15and first serialized in the magazineThe Egoistfrom April 1916 until November 1917. The American version was published in 1918. In 1930 Lewis publishedThe Apes of God, a biting satirical attack on the London literary scene, including a long chapter caricaturing theSitwellfamily.Richard Aldington, however, found it \\\"the greatest piece ofwritingsinceUlysses\\\", byJames Joyce.In 1937 Lewis publishedThe Revenge for Love, set in the period leading up to\",\n \"leading up to theSpanish Civil Warand regarded by many as his best novel.It is strongly critical of communist activity in Spain and presents English intellectualfellow travellersas deluded. Despite serious illness necessitating several operations, he was very productive as a critic and painter. He produced a book of poems,One-Way Song, in 1933, and a revised version ofEnemy of the Stars. An important book of critical essays also belongs to this period:Men without Art(1934). It grew out of a defence of Lewis's satirical practice inThe Apes of Godand puts forward a theory of \\\"non-moral\\\", or metaphysical, satire. The book is probably best remembered for one of the first commentaries onFaulknerand a famous essay onHemingway. Return to painting (1936–1941) After becoming better known for his writing than his painting in the 1920s and early 1930s, he returned to more concentrated work on visual art, and paintings from the 1930s and 1940s constitute some of his best-known work. TheSurrender of Barcelona(1936–37)\",\n \"Barcelona(1936–37) makes a significant statement about theSpanish Civil War. It was included in an exhibition at the Leicester Galleries in 1937 that Lewis hoped would re-establish his reputation as a painter. After the publication inThe Timesof a letter of support for the exhibition, asking that something from the show be purchased for the national collection (signed by, among others,Stephen Spender,W. H. Auden,Geoffrey Grigson,Rebecca West,Naomi Mitchison,Henry MooreandEric Gill) theTate Gallerybought the painting,Red Scene. Like others from the exhibition, it shows an influence fromSurrealismandde Chirico'sMetaphysical Painting. Lewis was highly critical of the ideology of Surrealism, but admired the visual qualities of some Surrealist art. During this period, Lewis also produced many of his most well-known portraits, including pictures ofEdith Sitwell(1923–1936),T. S. Eliot(1938and 1949), andEzra Pound(1939). His 1938 portrait of Eliot was rejected by the selection committee of theRoyal Academyfor their\",\n \"Academyfor their annual exhibition and caused a furore.Augustus Johnresigned in protest. World War II and North America (1941–1945) Lewis spent World War II in the United States and Canada. In 1941, in Toronto, he produced a series of watercolour fantasies centred on themes of creation, crucifixion and bathing. He grew to appreciate the cosmopolitan and \\\"rootless\\\" nature of the American melting pot, declaring that the greatest advantage of being American was to have \\\"turned one's back on race, caste, and all that pertains to the rooted state.\\\"He praised the contributions of African-Americans to American culture, and regardedDiego Rivera,David Alfaro Siqueiros, andJosé Clemente Orozcoas the \\\"best North American artists,\\\" predicting that when \\\"the Indian culture of Mexico melts into the great American mass to the North, the Indian will probably give it its art.\\\"He returned to England in 1945. Later life and blindness (1945–1951) By 1951, he was completely blinded by apituitary tumorthat placed pressure on his\",\n \"pressure on his optic nerve. It ended his artistic career, but he continued writing until his death. He published several autobiographical and critical works:Rude Assignment(1950),Rotting Hill(1951), a collection of allegorical short stories about his life in \\\"the capital of a dying empire\\\";The Writer and the Absolute(1952), a book of essays on writers includingGeorge Orwell,Jean-Paul SartreandAndré Malraux; and the semi-autobiographical novelSelf Condemned(1954). TheBBCcommissioned Lewis to complete his 1928 workThe Childermass, which was published asThe Human Ageand dramatized for theBBC Third Programmein 1955.In 1956, theTate Galleryheld a major exhibition of his work, \\\"Wyndham Lewis and Vorticism\\\", in the catalogue to which he declared that \\\"Vorticism, in fact, was what I, personally, did and said at a certain period\\\"—a statement which brought forth a series of \\\"Vortex Pamphlets\\\" from his fellowBLASTsignatoryWilliam Roberts. Personal life From 1918 to 1921, Lewis lived withIris Barry, with whom he had\",\n \"with whom he had two children. He is said to have shown little affection for them. In 1930, Lewis married Gladys Anne Hoskins (1900–1979), who was affectionately known as Froanna. They lived together for 10 years before marrying and never had children. Lewis kept Froanna in the background, and many of his friends were unaware of her existence. It seems that Lewis was extraordinarily jealous and protective of his wife, owing to her youth and beauty. Froanna was patient and caring toward her husband through financial troubles and his frequent illnesses. She was the model for some of Lewis's more tender and intimate portraits as well as a number of characters in his fiction. In contrast to his earlier, impersonal portraits, which are purely concerned with external appearance, the portraits of Froanna show a preoccupation with her inner life. Always interested in Roman Catholicism, he never converted.He died in 1957 and was cremated atGolders Green Crematorium. By the time of his death, Lewis had written 40\",\n \"had written 40 books in all. Political views In 1931, after a visit to Berlin, Lewis publishedHitler(1931), a book presentingAdolf Hitleras a \\\"man of peace\\\", with members of his party being threatened by communist street violence. His unpopularity among liberals and anti-fascists grew, especially after Hitler came to power in 1933.Following a second visit to Germany in 1937, Lewis changed his views and began to retract his previous political comments. He recognized the reality of Nazi treatment of Jews after a visit to Berlin in 1937. In 1939, he published an attack on anti-semitism titledThe Jews, Are They Human?,which was favourably reviewed inThe Jewish Chronicle. He also publishedThe Hitler Cult(1939), which firmly revoked his earlier support for Hitler. Politically, Lewis remained an isolated figure through the 1930s. InLetter toLord Byron,W. H. Audencalled Lewis \\\"that lonely old volcano of the Right.\\\" Lewis thought there was what he called a \\\"left-wing orthodoxy\\\" in Britain in the 1930s. He believed it\",\n \"He believed it was against Britain's self-interest to ally with theSoviet Union, \\\"which the newspapers most of us read tell us has slaughtered out-of-hand, only a few years ago, millions of its better fed citizens, as well as its whole imperial family.\\\" InAnglosaxony: A League that Works(1941), Lewis reflected on his earlier support for fascism: Fascism – once I understood it – left me colder than communism. The latter at least pretended, at the start, to have something to do with helping the helpless and making the world a more decent and sensible place. It does start from the human being and his suffering. Whereas fascism glorifies bloodshed and preaches that man should model himself upon the wolf. His sense that America and Canada lacked a British-type class structure had increased his opinion of liberal democracy, and in the same pamphlet, Lewis defends liberal democracy's respect for individual freedom against its critics on both the left and right.InAmerica and Cosmic Man(1949), Lewis argued\",\n \"Lewis argued thatFranklin Delano Roosevelthad successfully managed to reconcile individual rights with the demands of the state. Legacy In recent years, there has been renewed critical and biographical interest in Lewis and his work, and he is now regarded as a major British artist and writer of the twentieth century.Rugby School hosted an exhibition of his works in November 2007 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his death. TheNational Portrait Galleryin London held a major retrospective of his portraits in 2008. Two years later, held at the Fundación Juan March (Madrid, Spain), a large exhibition (Wyndham Lewis 1882–1957) featured a comprehensive collection of Lewis's paintings and drawings. As Tom Lubbock pointed out, it was \\\"the retrospective that Britain has never managed to get together.\\\". In 2010, Oxford World Classics published a critical edition of the 1928 text ofTarr, edited by Scott W. Klein ofWake Forest University. TheNasher Museum of ArtatDuke Universityheld an exhibition entitled \\\"The\",\n \"entitled \\\"The Vorticists: Rebel Artists in London and New York, 1914–18\\\" from 30 September 2010 through 2 January 2011.The exhibition then travelled to the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice (29 January – 15 May 2011: \\\"I Vorticisti: Artisti ribellia a Londra e New York, 1914–1918\\\") and then toTate Britainunder the title \\\"The Vorticists: Manifesto for a Modern World\\\" between 14 June and 4 September 2011. Several readings by Lewis are collected onThe Enemy Speaks, an audiobook CD published in 2007 and featuring extracts from \\\"One Way Song\\\" andThe Apes of God, as well as radio talks titled \\\"When John Bull Laughs\\\" (1938), \\\"A Crisis of Thought\\\" (1947) and \\\"The Essential Purposes of Art\\\" (1951). Ablue plaquenow stands on the house inKensington, London, where Lewis lived, No. 61 Palace Gardens Terrace. Critical reception In his essay \\\"Good Bad Books\\\",George Orwellpresents Lewis as the exemplary writer who is cerebral without being artistic. Orwell wrote, \\\"Enough talent to set up dozens of ordinary writers has been\",\n \"writers has been poured into Wyndham Lewis's so-called novels… Yet it would be a very heavy labour to read one of these books right through. Some indefinable quality, a sort of literary vitamin, which exists even in a book like If Winter Comes, is absent from them.\\\" In 1932,Walter Sickertsent Lewis a telegram in which he said that Lewis's pencil portrait ofRebecca Westproved him to be \\\"the greatest portraitist of this or any other time.\\\" Anti-semitism For many years, Lewis's novels have been criticised for their satirical and hostile portrayals of Jews.Tarrwas revised and republished in 1928, giving a new Jewish character a key role in making sure a duel is fought. This has been interpreted as an allegorical representation ofa supposed Zionist conspiracy against the West.His literary satireThe Apes of Godhas been interpreted similarly, because many of the characters are Jewish, including the modernist author and editor Julius Ratner, a portrait which blends anti-semitic stereotype with historical literary\",\n \"historical literary figuresJohn Rodkerand James Joyce. A key feature of these interpretations is that Lewis is held to have kept his conspiracy theories hidden and marginalized. Since the publication ofAnthony Julius'sT. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form(1995), where Lewis's anti-semitism is described as \\\"essentially trivial\\\", this view is no longer taken seriously. Books Paintings Notes and references Further reading External links\",\n \"W. H. Auden Wystan Hugh Auden(/ˈwɪstənˈhjuːˈɔːdən/; 21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973) was aBritish-Americanpoet. Auden's poetry is noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety intone,form, andcontent. Some of his best known poems are about love, such as \\\"Funeral Blues\\\"; on political and social themes, such as \\\"September 1, 1939\\\" and \\\"The Shield of Achilles\\\"; on cultural and psychological themes, such asThe Age of Anxiety; and on religious themes, such as \\\"For the Time Being\\\" and \\\"Horae Canonicae\\\". Auden was born inYorkand grew up in and nearBirminghamin a professional, middle-class family. He attended various English independent (orpublic) schools and studied English atChrist Church, Oxford. After a few months in Berlin in 1928–29, he spent five years (1930–1935) teaching in British privatepreparatory schools. In 1939, he moved to the United States; he became an American citizen in 1946, retaining his British citizenship.\",\n \"citizenship. Auden taught from 1941 to 1945 in American universities, followed by occasional visiting professorships in the 1950s. Auden came to wide public attention in 1930 with his first book,Poems; it was followed in 1932 byThe Orators. Three plays written in collaboration withChristopher Isherwoodbetween 1935 and 1938 built his reputation as a left-wing political writer. Auden moved to the United States partly to escape this reputation, and his work in the 1940s, including thelong poems\\\"For the Time Being\\\" and \\\"The Sea and the Mirror\\\", focused on religious themes. He won thePulitzer Prize for Poetryfor his 1947 long poemThe Age of Anxiety, the title of which became a popular phrase describing the modern era.From 1956 to 1961, he wasProfessor of Poetry at Oxford; his lectures were popular with students and faculty and served as the basis for his 1962 prose collectionThe Dyer's Hand. Auden was a prolific writer of prose essays and reviews on literary, political, psychological, and religious subjects, and\",\n \"subjects, and he worked at various times on documentary films, poetic plays, and other forms of performance. Throughout his career he was both controversial and influential. Critical views on his work ranged from sharply dismissive (treating him as a lesser figure thanW. B. YeatsandT. S. Eliot) to strongly affirmative (as inJoseph Brodsky's statement that he had \\\"the greatest mind of the twentieth century\\\"). After his death, his poems became known to a much wider public through films, broadcasts, and popular media. Life Childhood Auden was born at54 Bootham,York, England, toGeorge Augustus Auden(1872–1957), a physician, and Constance Rosalie Auden (née Bicknell; 1869–1941), who had trained (but never served) as a missionary nurse.He was the third of three sons; the eldest, George Bernard Auden (1900–1978), became a farmer, while the second,John Bicknell Auden(1903–1991), became a geologist.The Audens were minor gentry with a strongclericaltradition, originally ofRowley Regis, later ofHorninglow,\",\n \"later ofHorninglow, Staffordshire. Auden, whose grandfathers were bothChurch of Englandclergymen,grew up in anAnglo-Catholichousehold that followed a \\\"high\\\" form ofAnglicanism, with doctrine and ritual resembling those ofCatholicism.He traced his love of music and language partly to the church services of his childhood.He believed he was ofIcelandicdescent, and his lifelong fascination with Icelandic legends andOld Norsesagas is evident in his work. His family moved to Homer Road inSolihull, nearBirmingham, in 1908,where his father had been appointed the School Medical Officer and Lecturer (later Professor) of Public Health. Auden's lifelongpsychoanalyticinterests began in his father's library. From the age of eight he attended boarding schools, returning home for holidays.His visits to thePenninelandscape and its declining lead-mining industry figure in many of his poems; the remote decaying mining village ofRookhopewas for him a \\\"sacred landscape\\\", evoked in a late poem, \\\"Amor Loci\\\".Until he was fifteen he\",\n \"he was fifteen he expected to become a mining engineer, but his passion for words had already begun. He wrote later: \\\"words so excite me that a pornographic story, for example, excites me sexually more than a living person can do.\\\" Education Auden attendedSt Edmund's School, Hindhead, Surrey, where he metChristopher Isherwood, later famous in his own right as a novelist.At thirteen he went toGresham's SchoolinHolt, Norfolk; there, in 1922, when his friendRobert Medleyasked him if he wrote poetry, Auden first realised his vocation was to be a poet.Soon after, he \\\"discover(ed) that he (had) lost his faith\\\" (through a gradual realisation that he had lost interest in religion, not through any decisive change of views).In school productions ofShakespeare, he played Katherina inThe Taming of the Shrewin 1922,andCalibaninThe Tempestin 1925, his last year at Gresham's.A review of his performance as Katherina noted that despite a poor wig, he had been able \\\"to infuse considerable dignity into his passionate\",\n \"into his passionate outbursts\\\". His first published poems appeared in the school magazine in 1923.Auden later wrote a chapter on Gresham's forGraham Greene'sThe Old School: Essays by Divers Hands(1934). In 1925 he went up toChrist Church, Oxford, with a scholarship in biology; he changed to English by his second year, and was introduced to Old English poetry through the lectures ofJ. R. R. Tolkien. Friends he met at Oxford includeCecil Day-Lewis,Louis MacNeice, andStephen Spender- Auden and these three were commonly though misleadingly identified in the 1930s as the \\\"Auden Group\\\" for their shared (but not identical) left-wing views. Auden left Oxford in 1928 with athird-classdegree. Auden was reintroduced to Christopher Isherwood in 1925 by his fellow studentA. S. T. Fisher. For the next few years Auden sent poems to Isherwood for comments and criticism; the two maintained a sexual friendship in intervals between their relations with others. In 1935–39 they collaborated on three plays and a travel book. From\",\n \"a travel book. From his Oxford years onward, Auden's friends uniformly described him as funny, extravagant, sympathetic, generous, and, partly by his own choice, lonely. In groups he was often dogmatic and overbearing in a comic way; in more private settings he was diffident and shy except when certain of his welcome. He was punctual in his habits, and obsessive about meeting deadlines, while living amidst physical disorder. Britain and Europe, 1928–1938 In late 1928 Auden left Britain for nine months, going toBerlin, perhaps partly as an escape from English repressiveness. In Berlin, he first experienced the political and economic unrest that became one of his central subjects.Around the same time, Stephen Spender privately printed a small pamphlet of Auden'sPoemsin an edition of about 45 copies, distributed among Auden's and Spender's friends and family; this edition is usually referred to asPoems to avoid confusion with Auden's commercially published 1930 volume. On returning to Britain in 1929 he worked\",\n \"in 1929 he worked briefly as a tutor. In 1930 his first published book,Poems(1930), was accepted byT. S. EliotforFaber and Faber, and the same firm remained the British publisher of all the books he published thereafter. In 1930, he began five years as a schoolmaster in boys' schools: two years at theLarchfield AcademyinHelensburgh, Scotland, then three years atthe Downs Schoolin theMalvern Hills, where he was a much-loved teacher.At the Downs, in June 1933, he experienced what he later described as a \\\"Vision ofAgape\\\", while sitting with three fellow teachers at the school, when he suddenly found that he loved them for themselves, that their existence had infinite value for him; this experience, he said, later influenced his decision to return to the Anglican Church in 1940. During these years Auden's erotic interests focused, as he later said, on an idealised \\\"Alter Ego\\\"rather than on individual people. His relationships (and his unsuccessful courtships) tended to be unequal either in age or intelligence;\",\n \"or intelligence; his sexual relations were transient, although some evolved into long friendships. He contrasted these relationships with what he later regarded as the \\\"marriage\\\" (his word) of equals that he began withChester Kallmanin 1939, based on the unique individuality of both partners. In 1935 Auden marriedErika Mann(1905–1969), the lesbian novelist daughter ofThomas Mannwhen it became apparent that the Nazis were intending to strip her of her German citizenship.Mann had asked Christopher Isherwood if he would marry her so she could become a British citizen. He declined but suggested she approach Auden, who readily agreed to amarriage of convenience.Mann and Auden never lived together, but remained on good terms throughout their lives and were still married when Mann died in 1969. She left him a small bequest in her will.In 1936, Auden introduced actressTherese Giehse, Mann's lover, to the writerJohn Hampsonand they too married so that Giehse could leave Germany. From 1935 until he left Britain early\",\n \"left Britain early in 1939, Auden worked as freelance reviewer, essayist, and lecturer, first with theGPO Film Unit, a documentary film-making branch of the post office, headed byJohn Grierson. Through his work for the Film Unit in 1935 he met and collaborated withBenjamin Britten, with whom he also worked on plays, song cycles, and a libretto.Auden's plays in the 1930s were performed by theGroup Theatre, in productions that he supervised to varying degrees. His work now reflected his belief that any good artist must be \\\"more than a bit of a reporting journalist\\\".In 1936, Auden spent three months in Iceland where he gathered material for a travel bookLetters from Iceland(1937), written in collaboration with Louis MacNeice. In 1937, he went to Spain intending to drive an ambulance for theRepublicin theSpanish Civil War, but was put to work writing propaganda at the Republican press and propaganda office, where he felt useless and left after a week.He returned to England after a brief visit to the front at\",\n \"to the front at Sarineña. His seven-week visit to Spain affected him deeply, and his social views grew more complex as he found political realities to be more ambiguous and troubling than he had imagined.Again attempting to combine reportage and art, he and Isherwood spent six months in 1938 visiting China amid theSino-Japanese War, working on their bookJourney to a War(1939). On their way back to England they stayed briefly in New York and decided to move to the United States. Auden spent late 1938 partly in England, partly in Brussels. Many of Auden's poems during the 1930s and after were inspired by unconsummated love, and in the 1950s he summarised his emotional life in a famous couplet: \\\"If equal affection cannot be / Let the more loving one be me\\\" (\\\"The More Loving One\\\"). He had a gift for friendship and, starting in the late 1930s, a strong wish for the stability of marriage; in a letter to his friendJames Sternhe called marriage \\\"theonlysubject.\\\"Throughout his life, Auden performed charitable acts,\",\n \"charitable acts, sometimes in public, as in his 1935 marriage of convenience to Erika Mann,but, especially in later years, more often in private. He was embarrassed if they were publicly revealed, as when his gift to his friendDorothy Dayfor theCatholic Workermovement was reported on the front page ofThe New York Timesin 1956. United States and Europe, 1939–1973 Auden and Isherwood sailed to New York City in January 1939, entering on temporary visas. Their departure from Britain was later seen by many as a betrayal, and Auden's reputation suffered.In April 1939, Isherwood moved to California, and he and Auden saw each other only intermittently in later years. Around this time, Auden met the poetChester Kallman, who became his lover for the next two years (Auden described their relation as a \\\"marriage\\\" that began with a cross-country \\\"honeymoon\\\" journey). In 1941 Kallman ended their sexual relationship because he could not accept Auden's insistence on mutual fidelity,but he and Auden remained companions for\",\n \"companions for the rest of Auden's life, sharing houses and apartments from 1953 until Auden's death.Auden dedicated both editions of his collected poetry (1945/50 and 1966) to Isherwood and Kallman. In 1940–41 Auden lived in a house at 7 Middagh Street inBrooklyn Heights, that he shared withCarson McCullers, Benjamin Britten, and others, which became a famous centre of artistic life, nicknamed \\\"February House\\\".In 1940, Auden joined theEpiscopal Church, returning to the Anglican Communion he had abandoned at fifteen. His reconversion was influenced partly by what he called the \\\"sainthood\\\" ofCharles Williams,whom he had met in 1937, and partly by readingSøren KierkegaardandReinhold Niebuhr; hisexistential, this-worldly Christianity became a central element in his life. After Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939, Auden told the British embassy in Washington that he would return to the UK if needed. He was told that, among those his age (32), only qualified personnel were needed. In 1941–42 he\",\n \"In 1941–42 he taught English at theUniversity of Michigan. He was called for the draft in the United States Army in August 1942, but was rejected on medical grounds. He had been awarded aGuggenheim Fellowshipfor 1942–43 but did not use it, choosing instead to teach atSwarthmore Collegein 1942–45. In mid-1945, after the end ofWorld War IIin Europe, he was in Germany with theUS Strategic Bombing Survey, studying the effects of Allied bombing on German morale, an experience that affected his postwar work as his visit to Spain had affected him earlier.On his return, he settled inManhattan, working as a freelance writer, a lecturer atThe New Schoolfor Social Research, and a visiting professor atBennington,Smith, and other American colleges. In 1946, he became anaturalised citizenof the US. In 1948 Auden began spending his summers in Europe, together with Chester Kallman, first inIschia, Italy, where he rented a house. Starting in 1958 he began spending his summers inKirchstetten, Austria, where he bought a\",\n \"where he bought a farmhouse with the prize money of thePremio Feltrinelliawarded to him in 1957.He said that he shed tears of joy at owning a home for the first time.His later poetry, mostly written in Austria, includes his sequence \\\"Thanksgiving for a Habitat\\\" about his Kirchstetten home.Auden's letters and papers sent to his friend the translator Stella Musulin (1915–1996), available online, provide insights into his Austrian years. In 1956–61 Auden wasProfessor of PoetryatOxford University, where he was required to give three lectures each year. This fairly light workload allowed him to continue to spend winter in New York, where he lived at 77St. Mark's Placein Manhattan'sEast Village, and to spend summer in Europe, spending only three weeks each year lecturing in Oxford. He earned his income mostly from readings and lecture tours, and by writing forThe New Yorker,The New York Review of Books,and other magazines. In 1963 Kallman left the apartment he shared in New York with Auden, and lived during the\",\n \"lived during the winter in Athens while continuing to spend his summers with Auden in Austria. Auden spent the winter of 1964-1965 inBerlinthrough anartist-in-residence programof theFord Foundation. Following some years of lobbying by his friendDavid Luke, Auden's old college, Christ Church, in February 1972 offered him a cottage on its grounds to live in; he moved his books and other possessions from New York to Oxford in September 1972,while continuing to spend summers in Austria with Kallman. He spent only one winter in Oxford before his death in 1973. Auden died at 66 of heart failure at the Altenburgerhof Hotel in Vienna overnight on 28–29 September 1973, a few hours after giving a reading of his poems for the Austrian Society for Literature at thePalais Pálffy. He had intended to return to Oxford the following day. He was buried on 4 October in Kirchstetten, and a memorial stone was placed in Westminster Abbey in London a year later. Work Auden published about four hundred poems, including seven long\",\n \"seven long poems (two of them book-length). His poetry was encyclopaedic in scope and method, ranging in style from obscure twentieth-century modernism to the lucid traditional forms such asballadsandlimericks, fromdoggerelthroughhaikuandvillanellesto a \\\"Christmas Oratorio\\\" and abaroqueecloguein Anglo-Saxon meters.The tone and content of his poems ranged from pop-song clichés to complex philosophical meditations, from the corns on his toes to atoms and stars, from contemporary crises to the evolution of society. He also wrote more than four hundred essays and reviews about literature, history, politics, music, religion, and many other subjects. He collaborated on plays withChristopher Isherwoodand on opera libretti withChester Kallman, and worked with a group of artists and filmmakers on documentary films in the 1930s and with theNew York Pro Musicaearly musicgroup in the 1950s and 1960s. About collaboration he wrote in 1964: \\\"collaboration has brought me greater erotic joy . . . than any sexual relations I\",\n \"sexual relations I have had.\\\" Auden controversially rewrote or discarded some of his most famous poems when he prepared his later collected editions. He wrote that he rejected poems that he found \\\"boring\\\" or \\\"dishonest\\\" in the sense that they expressed views he had never held but had used only because he felt they would be rhetorically effective.His rejected poems include \\\"Spain\\\" and \\\"September 1, 1939\\\". Hisliterary executor,Edward Mendelson, argues in his introduction toSelected Poemsthat Auden's practice reflected his sense of the persuasive power of poetry and his reluctance to misuse it.(Selected Poemsincludes some poems that Auden rejected and early texts of poems that he revised.) Early work, 1922–1939 Up to 1930 Auden began writing poems in 1922, at 15, mostly in the styles of 19th-century romantic poets, especiallyWordsworth, and later poets with rural interests, especiallyThomas Hardy. At 18 he discoveredT. S. Eliotand adopted an extreme version of Eliot's style. He found his own voice at 20 when he\",\n \"voice at 20 when he wrote the first poem later included in his collected work, \\\"From the very first coming down\\\".This and other poems of the late 1920s tended to be in a clipped, elusive style that alluded to, but did not directly state, their themes of loneliness and loss. Twenty of these poems appeared in his first bookPoems(1928), a pamphlet hand-printed byStephen Spender. In 1928 he wrote his first dramatic work,Paid on Both Sides, subtitled \\\"A Charade\\\", which combined style and content from the Icelandicsagaswith jokes from English school life. This mixture of tragedy and farce, with a dream play-within-a-play, introduced the mixed styles and content of much of his later work.This drama and thirty short poems appeared in his first published bookPoems(1930, 2nd edition with seven poems replaced, 1933); the poems in the book were mostly lyrical and gnomic meditations on hoped-for or unconsummated love and on themes of personal, social, and seasonal renewal; among these poems were \\\"It was Easter as I\",\n \"\\\"It was Easter as I walked\\\", \\\"Doom is dark\\\", \\\"Sir, no man's enemy\\\", and \\\"This lunar beauty\\\". A recurrent theme in these early poems is the effect of \\\"family ghosts\\\", Auden's term for the powerful, unseen psychological effects of preceding generations on any individual life (and the title of a poem). A parallel theme, present throughout his work, is the contrast between biological evolution (unchosen and involuntary) and the psychological evolution of cultures and individuals (voluntary and deliberate even in its subconscious aspects). 1931–1935 Auden's next large-scale work wasThe Orators: An English Study(1932; revised editions, 1934, 1966), in verse and prose, largely about hero-worship in personal and political life. In his shorter poems, his style became more open and accessible, and the exuberant \\\"Six Odes\\\" inThe Oratorsreflect his new interest inRobert Burns.During the next few years, many of his poems took their form and style from traditional ballads and popular songs, and also from expansive\",\n \"also from expansive classical forms like theOdesofHorace, which he seems to have discovered through the German poetHölderlin.Around this time his main influences wereDante,William Langland, andAlexander Pope. During these years much of his work expressed left-wing views, and he became widely known as a political poet although he was privately more ambivalent about revolutionary politics than many reviewers recognised,and Mendelson argues that he expounded political views partly out of a sense of moral duty and partly because it enhanced his reputation, and that he later regretted having done so.He generally wrote about revolutionary change in terms of a \\\"change of heart\\\", a transformation of a society from a closed-off psychology of fear to an open psychology of love. His verse dramaThe Dance of Death(1933) was a political extravaganza in the style of a theatrical revue, which Auden later called \\\"a nihilistic leg-pull.\\\"His next playThe Dog Beneath the Skin(1935), written in collaboration with Isherwood, was\",\n \"with Isherwood, was similarly a quasi-Marxist updating ofGilbert and Sullivanin which the general idea of social transformation was more prominent than any specific political action or structure. The Ascent of F6(1937), another play written with Isherwood, was partly an anti-imperialist satire, partly (in the character of the self-destroying climber Michael Ransom) an examination of Auden's own motives in taking on a public role as a political poet.This play included the first version of \\\"Funeral Blues\\\" (\\\"Stop all the clocks\\\"), written as a satiric eulogy for a politician; Auden later rewrote the poem as a \\\"Cabaret Song\\\" about lost love (written to be sung by the sopranoHedli Anderson, for whom he wrote many lyrics in the 1930s).In 1935, he worked briefly on documentary films with theGPO Film Unit, writing his famous verse commentary forNight Mailand lyrics for other films that were among his attempts in the 1930s to create a widely accessible, socially conscious art. 1936–1939 In 1936 Auden's publisher\",\n \"Auden's publisher chose the titleLook, Stranger!for a collection of political odes, love poems, comic songs, meditative lyrics, and a variety of intellectually intense but emotionally accessible verse; Auden hated the title and retitled the collection for the 1937 US editionOn This Island.Among the poems included in the book are \\\"Hearing of harvests\\\", \\\"Out on the lawn I lie in bed\\\", \\\"O what is that sound\\\", \\\"Look, stranger, on this island now\\\" (later revised versions change \\\"on\\\" to \\\"at\\\"), and \\\"Our hunting fathers\\\". Auden was now arguing that an artist should be a kind of journalist, and he put this view into practice inLetters from Iceland(1937) a travel book in prose and verse written withLouis MacNeice, which included his long social, literary, and autobiographical commentary \\\"Letter to Lord Byron\\\".In 1937, after observing theSpanish Civil Warhe wrote a politically engaged pamphlet poemSpain(1937); he later discarded it from his collected works.Journey to a War(1939) a travel book in prose and verse, was\",\n \"and verse, was written with Isherwood after their visit to theSino-Japanese War.Auden's last collaboration with Isherwood was their third play,On the Frontier, an anti-war satire written in Broadway and West End styles. Auden's shorter poems now engaged with the fragility and transience of personal love (\\\"Danse Macabre\\\", \\\"The Dream\\\", \\\"Lay your sleeping head\\\"), a subject he treated with ironic wit in his \\\"Four Cabaret Songs for MissHedli Anderson\\\" (which included \\\"Tell Me the Truth About Love\\\" and the revised version of \\\"Funeral Blues\\\"), and also the corrupting effect of public and official culture on individual lives (\\\"Casino\\\", \\\"School Children\\\", \\\"Dover\\\").In 1938, he wrote a series of dark, ironic ballads about individual failure (\\\"Miss Gee\\\", \\\"James Honeyman\\\", \\\"Victor\\\"). All these appeared inAnother Time(1940), together with poems including \\\"Dover\\\", \\\"As He Is\\\", and \\\"Musée des Beaux Arts\\\" (all of which were written before he moved to America in 1939), and \\\"In Memory of W. B. Yeats\\\", \\\"The Unknown Citizen\\\",\",\n \"Unknown Citizen\\\", \\\"Law Like Love\\\", \\\"September 1, 1939\\\", and \\\"In Memory of Sigmund Freud\\\" (all written in America). The elegies for Yeats and Freud are partly anti-heroic statements, in which great deeds are performed, not by unique geniuses whom others cannot hope to imitate, but by otherwise ordinary individuals who were \\\"silly like us\\\" (Yeats) or of whom it could be said \\\"he wasn't clever at all\\\" (Freud), and who became teachers of others, not awe-inspiring heroes. Middle period, 1940–1957 1940–1946 In 1940 Auden wrote a long philosophical poem \\\"New Year Letter\\\", which appeared with miscellaneous notes and other poems inThe Double Man(1941). At the time of his return to the Anglican Communion he began writing abstract verse on theological themes, such as \\\"Canzone\\\" and \\\"Kairos and Logos\\\". Around 1942, as he became more comfortable with religious themes, his verse became more open and relaxed, and he increasingly used thesyllabic versehe had learned from the poetry ofMarianne Moore. Auden's work in this era\",\n \"work in this era addresses the artist's temptation to use other persons as material for his art rather than valuing them for themselves (\\\"Prospero to Ariel\\\") and the corresponding moral obligation to make and keep commitments while recognising the temptation to break them (\\\"In Sickness and Health\\\").From 1942 through 1947 he worked mostly on three long poems in dramatic form, each differing from the others in form and content: \\\"For the Time Being: A Christmas Oratorio\\\", \\\"The Sea and the Mirror: A Commentary on Shakespeare'sThe Tempest\\\"(both published inFor the Time Being, 1944), andThe Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue(published separately in 1947).The first two, with Auden's other new poems from 1940 to 1944, were included in his first collected edition,The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden(1945), with most of his earlier poems, many in revised versions. 1947–1957 After completingThe Age of Anxietyin 1946 he focused again on shorter poems, notably \\\"A Walk After Dark\\\", \\\"The Love Feast\\\", and \\\"The Fall of\",\n \"and \\\"The Fall of Rome\\\".Many of these evoked the Italian village where he spent his summers between 1948 and 1957, and his next book,Nones(1951), had a Mediterranean atmosphere new to his work.A new theme was the \\\"sacred importance\\\" of the human bodyin its ordinary aspect (breathing, sleeping, eating) and the continuity with nature that the body made possible (in contrast to the division between humanity and nature that he had emphasised in the 1930s);his poems on these themes included \\\"In Praise of Limestone\\\" (1948) and \\\"Memorial for the City\\\" (1949).In 1947-1948, Auden and Kallman wrote the libretto forIgor Stravinsky's operaThe Rake's Progress, and later collaborated on two libretti for operas byHans Werner Henze. Auden's first separate prose book wasThe Enchafèd Flood: The Romantic Iconography of the Sea(1950), based on a series of lectures on the image of the sea in romantic literature.Between 1949 and 1954 he worked on a sequence of sevenGood Fridaypoems, titled \\\"Horae Canonicae\\\", an encyclopaedic\",\n \"an encyclopaedic survey of geological, biological, cultural, and personal history, focused on the irreversible act of murder; the poem was also a study in cyclical and linear ideas of time. While writing this, he also wrote \\\"Bucolics\\\", a sequence of seven poems about man's relation to nature. Both sequences appeared in his next book,The Shield of Achilles(1955), with other short poems, including the book's title poem, \\\"Fleet Visit\\\", and \\\"Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier\\\". In 1955–56 Auden wrote a group of poems about \\\"history\\\", the term he used to mean the set of unique events made by human choices, as opposed to \\\"nature\\\", the set of involuntary events created by natural processes, statistics, and anonymous forces such as crowds. These poems included \\\"T the Great\\\", \\\"The Maker\\\", and the title poem of his next collectionHomage to Clio(1960). Later work, 1958–1973 In the late 1950s Auden's style became less rhetorical while its range of styles increased. In 1958, having moved his summer home from Italy to\",\n \"home from Italy to Austria, he wrote \\\"Good-bye to the Mezzogiorno\\\"; other poems from this period include \\\"Dichtung und Wahrheit: An Unwritten Poem\\\", a prose poem about the relation between love and personal and poetic language, and the contrasting \\\"Dame Kind\\\", about the anonymous impersonal reproductive instinct. These and other poems, including his 1955–66 poems about history, appeared inHomage to Clio(1960).His prose bookThe Dyer's Hand(1962) gathered many of the lectures he gave in Oxford as Professor of Poetry in 1956–61, together with revised versions of essays and notes written since the mid-1940s. Among the new styles and forms in Auden's later work were thehaikuandtankathat he began writing after translating the haiku and other verse inDag Hammarskjöld'sMarkings.A sequence of fifteen poems about his house in Austria, \\\"Thanksgiving for a Habitat\\\" (written in various styles that included an imitation ofWilliam Carlos Williams) appeared inAbout the House(1965), together with other poems that included\",\n \"poems that included his reflection on his lecture tours, \\\"On the Circuit\\\".In the late 1960s he wrote some of his most vigorous poems, including \\\"River Profile\\\" and two poems that looked back over his life, \\\"Prologue at Sixty\\\" and \\\"Forty Years On\\\". All these appeared inCity Without Walls(1969). His lifelong passion for Icelandic legend culminated in his verse translation ofTheElder Edda(1969).Among his later themes was the \\\"religionless Christianity\\\" he learned partly fromDietrich Bonhoeffer, the dedicatee of his poem \\\"Friday's Child\\\". A Certain World: A Commonplace Book(1970) was a kind of self-portrait made up of favourite quotations with commentary, arranged in alphabetical order by subject.His last prose book was a selection of essays and reviews,Forewords and Afterwords(1973).His last books of verse,Epistle to a Godson(1972) and the unfinishedThank You, Fog(published posthumously, 1974) include reflective poems about language (\\\"Natural Linguistics\\\", \\\"Aubade\\\"), philosophy and science (\\\"No, Plato, No\\\",\",\n \"(\\\"No, Plato, No\\\", \\\"Unpredictable but Providential\\\"), and his own aging (\\\"A New Year Greeting\\\", \\\"Talking to Myself\\\", \\\"A Lullaby\\\" ). His last completed poem was \\\"Archaeology\\\", about ritual and timelessness, two recurring themes in his later years. Reputation and influence Auden's stature in modern literature has been contested. Probably the most common critical view from the 1930s onward ranked him as the last and least of the three major twentieth-century poets of the UK or Ireland—behind Yeats and Eliot—while a minority view, more prominent in recent years, ranks him as the highest of the three.Opinions have ranged from those ofHugh MacDiarmid, who called him \\\"a complete wash-out\\\";F. R. Leavis, who wrote that Auden's ironic style was \\\"self-defensive, self-indulgent or merely irresponsible\\\";andHarold Bloom, who wrote \\\"Close thy Auden, open thy Stevens,\\\"to the obituarist inThe Times, who wrote: \\\"W.H. Auden, for long theenfant terribleof English poetry... emerges as its undisputed master.\\\"Joseph Brodskywrote\",\n \"Brodskywrote that Auden had \\\"the greatest mind of the twentieth century\\\". Critical estimates were divided from the start. Reviewing Auden's first book,Poems(1930),Naomi Mitchisonwrote \\\"If this is really only the beginning, we have perhaps a master to look forward to.\\\"ButJohn Sparrow, recalling Mitchison's comment in 1934, dismissed Auden's early work as \\\"a monument to the misguided aims that prevail among contemporary poets, and the fact that... he is being hailed as 'a master' shows how criticism is helping poetry on the downward path.\\\" Auden's clipped, satiric, and ironic style in the 1930s was widely imitated by younger poets such asCharles Madge, who wrote in a poem \\\"there waited for me in the summer morning / Auden fiercely. I read, shuddered, and knew.\\\"He was widely described as the leader of an \\\"Auden group\\\" that comprised his friendsStephen Spender,Cecil Day-Lewis, andLouis MacNeice.The four were mocked by the poetRoy Campbellas if they were a single undifferentiated poet named \\\"Macspaunday.\\\"Auden's\",\n \"propagandistic poetic plays, includingThe Dog Beneath the SkinandThe Ascent of F6, and his political poems such as \\\"Spain\\\" gave him the reputation as a political poet writing in a progressive and accessible voice, in contrast to Eliot; but this political stance provoked opposing opinions, such as that ofAustin Clarkewho called Auden's work \\\"liberal, democratic, and humane\\\",and John Drummond, who wrote that Auden misused a \\\"characteristic and popularizing trick, the generalized image\\\", to present ostensibly left-wing views that were in fact \\\"confined to bourgeois experience.\\\" Auden's departure for America in 1939 was debated in Britain (once even in Parliament), with some seeing his emigration as a betrayal. Defenders of Auden such asGeoffrey Grigson, in an introduction to a 1949 anthology of modern poetry, wrote that Auden \\\"arches over all\\\". His stature was suggested by book titles such asAuden and AfterbyFrancis Scarfe(1942) andThe Auden GenerationbySamuel Hynes(1977). In the US, starting in the late 1930s,\",\n \"in the late 1930s, the detached, ironic tone of Auden's regular stanzas became influential;John Ashberyrecalled that in the 1940s Auden \\\"wasthemodern poet\\\".Auden's formal influences were so pervasive in American poetry that the ecstatic style of theBeat Generationwas partly a reaction against his influence. From the 1940s through the 1960s, many critics lamented that Auden's work had declined from its earlier promise;Randall Jarrellwrote a series of essays making a case against Auden's later work,andPhilip Larkin's \\\"What's Become of Wystan?\\\" (1960) had a wide impact. The first full-length study of Auden wasRichard Hoggart'sAuden: An Introductory Essay(1951), which concluded that \\\"Auden's work, then, is a civilising force.\\\"It was followed byJoseph Warren Beach'sThe Making of the Auden Canon(1957), a disapproving account of Auden's revisions of his earlier work.The first systematic critical account was Monroe K. Spears'The Poetry of W. H. Auden: The Disenchanted Island(1963), \\\"written out of the conviction\",\n \"of the conviction that Auden's poetry can offer the reader entertainment, instruction, intellectual excitement, and a prodigal variety of aesthetic pleasures, all in a generous abundance that is unique in our time.\\\" Auden was one of three candidates recommended by the Nobel Committee to the Swedish Academy for theNobel Prize in Literaturein 1963and 1965and six recommended for the 1964 prize.By the time of his death in 1973 he had attained the status of a respected elder statesman, and a memorial stone for him was placed inPoets' CornerinWestminster Abbeyin 1974.TheEncyclopædia Britannicawrites that \\\"by the time of Eliot's death in 1965... a convincing case could be made for the assertion that Auden was indeed Eliot's successor, as Eliot had inherited sole claim to supremacy whenYeatsdied in 1939.\\\"With some exceptions, British critics tended to treat his early work as his best, while American critics tended to favour his middle and later work. Another group of critics and poets has maintained that unlike\",\n \"that unlike other modern poets, Auden's reputation did not decline after his death, and the influence of his later writing was especially strong on younger American poets includingJohn Ashbery,James Merrill,Anthony Hecht, andMaxine Kumin.Typical later evaluations describe him as \\\"arguably the century's greatest poet\\\" (Peter Parker and Frank Kermode),who \\\"now clearly seems the greatest poet in English since Tennyson\\\" (Philip Hensher). Public recognition of Auden's work sharply increased after his \\\"Funeral Blues\\\" (\\\"Stop all the clocks\\\") was read aloud in the filmFour Weddings and a Funeral(1994); subsequently, a pamphlet edition of ten of his poems,Tell Me the Truth About Love, sold more than 275,000 copies. An excerpt from his poem \\\"As I walked out one evening\\\" was recited in the filmBefore Sunrise(1995).After 11 September 2001, his 1939 poem \\\"September 1, 1939\\\" was widely circulated and frequently broadcast.Public readings and broadcast tributes in the UK and US in 2007 marked his centenary year. Overall\",\n \"year. Overall Auden's poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety in tone, form and content. Memorial stones and plaques commemorating Auden include those inWestminster Abbey; at his birthplace at 55 Bootham, York;near his home on Lordswood Road, Birmingham;in the chapel of Christ Church, Oxford; on the site of his apartment at 1 Montague Terrace, Brooklyn Heights; at his apartment in 77 St. Marks Place, New York (damaged and now removed);at the site of his death at Walfischgasse 5 in Vienna;and in theRainbow Honor Walkin San Francisco.In his house in Kirchstetten, his study is open to the public upon request. In 2023, newly declassified UK government files revealed that Auden was considered as a candidate to be the newPoet Laureate of the United Kingdomin 1967 following the death ofJohn Masefield. He was rejected due to having taken American citizenship. Published works The following list includes only the books of\",\n \"only the books of poems and essays that Auden prepared during his lifetime; for a more complete list, including other works and posthumous editions, seeW. H. Auden bibliography. Dates refer to first publication or first performance, not of composition. In the list below, works reprinted in theComplete Works of W. H. Audenare indicated by footnote references. References Citations General and cited sources Further reading External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":375,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"If Mr. Rogers were still alive, how old would he have been when the movie \"A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood\", featuring Tom Hanks came out in the U.S.?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Fred McFeely Rogers would have been 91 years old when \"A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood\" was released in the U.S."},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Rogers"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Beautiful_Day_in_the_Neighborhood"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Rogers', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Beautiful_Day_in_the_Neighborhood']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Rogers","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Beautiful_Day_in_the_Neighborhood"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Rogers\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Beautiful_Day_in_the_Neighborhood\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Fred Rogers Fred McFeely Rogers(March 20, 1928 – February 27, 2003), better known asMister Rogers, was an American television host, author, producer, andPresbyterianminister.He was the creator, showrunner, and host of the preschool television seriesMister Rogers' Neighborhood, which ran from 1968 to 2001. Born inLatrobe, Pennsylvania, Rogers earned a bachelor's degree in music fromRollins Collegein 1951. He began his television career atNBCin New York City, returning to Pittsburgh in 1953 to work for children's programming at NET (laterPBS) television stationWQED. He graduated fromPittsburgh Theological Seminarywith a bachelor's degree in divinity in 1962 and became a Presbyterian minister in 1963. He attended theUniversity of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Child Development, where he began his thirty-year collaboration with child psychologistMargaret McFarland. He also helped develop the children's showsThe Children's Corner(1955) for WQED in Pittsburgh andMisterogers(1963) in Canada for theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation. In 1968, he returned to Pittsburgh and adapted the format of his Canadian series to createMister Rogers' Neighborhood.It ran for 33 years and was critically acclaimed for focusing on children's emotional and physical concerns, such as death, sibling rivalry, school enrollment, and divorce. Rogers died ofstomach cancerin 2003, aged 74. His work in children's television has been widely lauded, and he received more than forty honorary degrees and several awards, including aLifetime Achievement Emmyin 1997 and thePresidential Medal of Freedomin 2002. He was inducted into theTelevision Hall of Famein 1999. Rogers influenced many writers and producers of children's television shows, and his broadcasts provided comfort during tragic events, even after his death. Early life Rogers was born in 1928, at 705 Main Street inLatrobe, Pennsylvania.His father, James Hillis Rogers, was \"a very successful businessman\"who was president of the McFeely Brick Company, one of Latrobe's most prominent businesses. His mother, Nancy (née McFeely), knitted sweaters for American soldiers from western Pennsylvania who were fighting in Europe and regularly volunteered at the Latrobe Hospital. Initially dreaming of becoming a doctor, she settled for a life of hospital volunteer work. Her father, Fred Brooks McFeely, after whom Rogers was named, was an entrepreneur. Rogers grew up in a large three-story brick house at 737 Weldon Street in Latrobe.He had a sister, Elaine, whom the Rogerses adopted when he was eleven years old.Rogers spent much of his childhood alone, playing with puppets, and also spent time with his grandfather. He began playing the piano when he was five.Through an ancestor who immigrated from Germany to the U.S., Johannes Meffert (born 1732), Rogers is the sixth cousin of actorTom Hanks, who portrays him in the filmA Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood(2019). Rogers had a difficult childhood. Shy, introverted, and overweight, he was frequently homebound after suffering bouts ofasthma.He was bullied as a child for his weight and called \"Fat Freddy\".According toMorgan Neville, director of the 2018 documentaryWon't You Be My Neighbor?, Rogers had a \"lonely childhood... I think he made friends with himself as much as he could. He had aventriloquist dummy, he had animals, and he would create his own worlds in his childhood bedroom\". Rogers attendedLatrobe High School, where he overcame his shyness.\"It was tough for me at the beginning,\" Rogers told NPR'sTerry Grossin 1984, \"and then I made a couple friends who found out that the core of me was okay. And one of them was... the head of the football team\".Rogers became president of the student council, a member of theNational Honor Society, and editor-in-chief of the schoolyearbook.He registered for the draft inGreensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1948 at age 20, where he was classified 1-A (available for military service);however, his status was changed to unqualified for military service following an Armed Forces physical on October 12, 1950.He attendedDartmouth Collegefor one year before transferring toRollins College,where he graduatedmagna cum laudein 1951 with aBachelor of Music. He then attendedPittsburgh Theological Seminary, from which he graduatedmagna cum laudein 1962 with aBachelor of Divinity, and was ordained a Presbyterian minister by the Pittsburgh Presbytery of theUnited Presbyterian Churchin 1963.His work as an ordained minister, rather than to pastor a church, was to minister to children and their families through television. He regularly appeared before church officials to maintain his ordination. Career Early work Rogers wanted to enterseminaryafter college,but instead chose to go into the nascent medium of television after experiencing TV at his parents' home in 1951, during his senior year at Rollins College.In aCNNinterview, he said, \"I went into television because I hated it so, and I thought there's some way of using this fabulous instrument to nurture those who would watch and listen\".After graduating in 1951, he worked atNBCin New York City as floor director ofYour Hit Parade,The Kate Smith Hour, andGabby Hayes's children's show, and as an assistant producer ofThe Voice of Firestone. In 1953, Rogers returned to Pittsburgh to work as a program developer atpublic televisionstationWQED.Josie Careyworked with him to develop the children's showThe Children's Corner, which Carey hosted. Rogers worked off-camera to develop puppets, characters, and music for the show. He used many puppet characters developed during this time, such as Daniel the Striped Tiger (named after WQED's station manager, Dorothy Daniel, who gave Rogers a tiger puppet before the show's premiere),King Friday XIII, Queen Sara Saturday (named after Rogers' wife),X the Owl, Henrietta, and Lady Elaine, in his later work.Children's television entertainerErnie Coombswas an assistant puppeteer.The Children's Cornerwon aSylvania Awardfor best locally produced children's programming in 1955 and was broadcast nationally on NBC.While working on the show, Rogers attended Pittsburgh Theological Seminary and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1963. He also attended theUniversity of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Child Development,where he began working with child psychologistMargaret McFarland—who, according to Rogers' biographer Maxwell King, became his \"key advisor and collaborator\" and \"child-education guru\".Much of Rogers' \"thinking about and appreciation for children was shaped and informed\" by McFarland.She was his consultant for most ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood's scripts and songs for 30 years. In 1963, theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation(CBC) in Toronto contracted Rogers to come to Toronto to develop and host the 15-minute black-and-white children's programMisterogers;it lasted from 1963 to 1967.It was the first time Rogers appeared on camera. CBC's children's programming head Fred Rainsberry insisted on it, telling Rogers, \"Fred, I've seen you talk with kids. Let's put you yourself on the air\".Coombs joined Rogers in Toronto as an assistant puppeteer.Rogers also worked with Coombs on the children's showButternut Squarefrom 1964 to 1967. Rogers acquired the rights toMisterogersin 1967 and returned to Pittsburgh with his wife, two young sons, and the sets he developed, despite a potentially promising career with CBC and no job prospects in Pittsburgh.On Rogers' recommendation, Coombs remained in Toronto and became Rogers' Canadian equivalent of an iconic television personality, creating the children's programMr. Dressup, which ran from 1967 to 1996.Rogers' work for CBC \"helped shape and develop the concept and style of his later program for the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) in the U.S.\" Mister Rogers' Neighborhood Mister Rogers' Neighborhood(also called theNeighborhood), a half-hour educational children's program starring Rogers, began airing nationally in 1968 and ran for 895 episodes.It was videotaped at WQED in Pittsburgh and broadcast byNational Educational Television(NET), which later became thePublic Broadcasting Service(PBS).Its first season had 180 black-and-white episodes. Each subsequent season, filmed in color and funded by PBS, theSears-RoebuckFoundation, and other charities, consisted of 65 episodes.By the time it ended production in December 2000, its average rating was about 0.7% of television households or 680,000 homes, and it aired on 384 PBS stations. At its peak in 1985–1986, its ratings were 2.1%, or 1.8 million homes.The last original episode aired in 2001, but PBS continued to air reruns, and by 2016 it was the third-longest-running program in PBS history. Many of the sets and props inMister Rogers' Neighborhood, like the trolley, the sneakers, and the castle, were created for Rogers' show in Toronto by CBC designers and producers. The program also \"incorporated most of the highly imaginative elements that later became famous\",such as its slow pace and its host's quiet manner.The format ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood\"remained virtually unchanged\" for the entire run of the program.Every episode begins with a camera's-eye view of a model of a neighborhood, then panning in closer to a representation of a house while a piano instrumental of the theme song, \"Won't You be My Neighbor?\", performed by music directorJohnny Costaand inspired by a Beethoven sonata, is played.The camera zooms in to a model representing Mr. Rogers' house, then cuts to the house's interior and pans across the room to the front door, which Rogers opens as he sings the theme song to greet his visitors while changing his suit jacket to a cardigan (knitted by his mother)and his dress shoes to sneakers, \"complete with a shoe tossed from one hand to another\".The episode's theme is introduced, and Mr. Rogers leaves his home to visit another location, the camera panning back to the neighborhood model and zooming in to the new location as he enters it. Once this segment ends, Mr. Rogers leaves and returns to his home, indicating that it is time to visit the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Mr. Rogers proceeds to the window seat by the trolley track and sets up the action there as the Trolley comes out. The camera follows it down a tunnel in the back wall of the house as it enters the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. The stories and lessons take place over a week's worth of episodes and involve puppets and human characters. The end of the visit occurs when the Trolley returns to the same tunnel from which it emerged, reappearing in Mr. Rogers' home. He then talks to the viewers before concluding the episode. He often feeds his fish, cleans up any props he has used, and returns to the front room, where he sings the closing song while changing back into his dress shoes and jacket. He exits the front door as he ends the song, and the camera zooms out of his home and pans across the neighborhood model as the episode ends. Mister Rogers' Neighborhoodemphasized young children's social and emotional needs, and unlike another PBS show,Sesame Street, which premiered in 1969, did not focus on cognitive learning.Writer Kathy Merlock Jackson said, \"While both shows target the same preschool audience and prepare children for kindergarten,Sesame Streetconcentrates on school-readiness skills whileMister Rogers Neighborhoodfocuses on the child's developing psyche and feelings and sense of moral and ethical reasoning\".TheNeighborhoodalso spent fewer resources on research thanSesame Street, but Rogers used early childhood education concepts taught by his mentor Margaret McFarland,Benjamin Spock,Erik Erikson, andT. Berry Brazeltonin his lessons.AsThe Washington Postnoted, Rogers taught young children about civility, tolerance, sharing, and self-worth \"in a reassuring tone and leisurely cadence\".He tackled difficult topics such as the death of a family pet, sibling rivalry, the addition of a newborn into a family, moving and enrolling in a new school, and divorce.For example, he wrote a special segment that dealt with theassassination of Robert F. Kennedythat aired on June 7, 1968, two days after the assassination occurred. According to King, the process of putting each episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodtogether was \"painstaking\"and Rogers' contribution to the program was \"astounding\". Rogers wrote and edited all the episodes, played the piano and sang for most of the songs, wrote 200 songs and 13 operas, created all the characters (both puppet and human), played most of the significant puppet roles, hosted every episode, and produced and approved every detail of the program.The puppets created for the Neighborhood of Make-Believe \"included an extraordinary variety of personalities\".They were simple puppets but \"complex, complicated, and utterly honest beings\".In 1971, Rogers formed Family Communications, Inc. (FCI, nowThe Fred Rogers Company), to produce theNeighborhood, other programs, and non-broadcast materials. In 1975, Rogers stopped producingMr. Rogers' Neighborhoodto focus on adult programming. Reruns of theNeighborhoodcontinued to air on PBS.King reports that the decision caught many of his coworkers and supporters \"off guard\".Rogers continued to confer with McFarland about child development and early childhood education, however.In 1979, after an almost five-year hiatus, Rogers returned to producing theNeighborhood; King calls the new version \"stronger and more sophisticated than ever\".King writes that by the program's second run in the 1980s, it was \"such a cultural touchstone that it had inspired numerous parodies\",most notablyEddie Murphy's parody onSaturday Night Livein the early 1980s. Rogers retired from producing theNeighborhoodin 2001 at age 73, although reruns continued to air. He and FCI had been making about two or three weeks of new programs per year for many years, \"filling the rest of his time slots from a library of about 300 shows made since 1979\".The final original episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodaired on August 31, 2001. Other work and appearances In 1969, Rogers testified before theU.S. SenateSubcommittee on Communications, which was chaired by Democratic SenatorJohn Pastoreof Rhode Island. U.S. PresidentLyndon Johnsonhad proposed a $20 million bill for the creation of PBS before he left office, but his successor,Richard Nixon, wanted to cut the funding to $10 million.Even though Rogers was not yet nationally known, he was chosen to testify because of his ability to make persuasive arguments and to connect emotionally with his audience. The clip of Rogers' testimony, which was televised and has since been viewed by millions of people on the internet, helped to secure funding for PBS for many years afterward.According to King, Rogers' testimony was \"considered one of the most powerful pieces of testimony ever offered before Congress, and one of the most powerful pieces of video presentation ever filmed\".It brought Pastore to tears and also, according to King, has been studied by public relations experts and academics.Congressional funding for PBS increased from $9 million to $22 million.In 1970, Nixon appointed Rogers as chair of theWhite House Conference on Children and Youth. In 1978, while on hiatus fromMister Rogers' Neighborhood, Rogers wrote, produced, and hosted a 30-minute interview program for adults on PBS calledOld Friends... New Friends.It lasted 20 episodes. Rogers' guests includedHoagy Carmichael,Helen Hayes,Milton Berle,Lorin Hollander, poetRobert Frost's daughter Lesley, andWillie Stargell. In September 1987, Rogers visited Moscow to appear as the first guest on the long-running Soviet children's TV showGood Night, Little Ones!with hostTatyana Vedeneyeva.The appearance was broadcast in the Soviet Union on December 7, coinciding with theWashington Summitmeeting between Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachevand U.S. PresidentRonald Reaganin Washington, D.C.Vedeneyeva visited the set ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin November. Her visit was taped and later aired in March 1988 as part of Rogers' program.In 1994, Rogers wrote, produced, and hosted a special for PBS calledFred Rogers' Heroes, which featured interviews and portraits of four people from across the country who were having a positive impact on children and education.The first time Rogers appeared on television as an actor, and not himself, was in a 1996 episode ofDr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, playing a preacher. Rogers gave \"scores of interviews\".Though reluctant to appear on television talk shows, he would usually \"charm the host with his quick wit and ability to ad-lib on a moment's notice\".Rogers was \"one of the country's most sought-after commencement speakers\",making over 150 speeches.His friend and colleague David Newell reported that Rogers would \"agonize over a speech\",and King reported that Rogers was at his least guarded during his speeches, which were about children, television, education, his view of the world, how to make the world a better place, and his quest for self-knowledge. His tone was quiet and informal but \"commanded attention\".In many speeches, including the ones he made accepting aLifetime Achievement Emmyin 1997,for his induction into the Television Hall of Fame in 1999,and his final commencement speech at Dartmouth College in 2002, he instructed his audiences to remain silent and think for a moment about someone who had a good influence on them. Personal life Rogers metSara Joanne Byrd(called \"Joanne\") fromJacksonville, Florida, while attending Rollins College. They were married from 1952 until he died in 2003. They had two sons, James and John.Joanne Rogerswas \"an accomplished pianist\"who, like Fred, earned a Bachelor of Music from Rollins, and went on to earn a Master of Music fromFlorida State University. She performed publicly with her college classmate, Jeannine Morrison, from 1976 to 2008.According to biographer Maxwell King, Rogers' close associates said he was \"absolutely faithful to his marriage vows\". Rogers was red-greencolor-blind.He became apescatarianin 1970, after the death of his father, and a vegetarian in the early 1980s,saying he \"couldn't eat anything that had a mother\".He became a co-owner ofVegetarian Timesin the mid-1980sand said in one issue, \"I love tofu burgers and beets\".He toldVegetarian Timesthat he became a vegetarian for both ethical and health reasons.According to his biographer Maxwell King, Rogers also signed his name to a statementprotesting wearing animal furs. Rogers was a registeredRepublican, but according to Joanne Rogers, he was \"very independent in the way he voted\", choosing not to talk about politics because he wanted to be impartial. Rogers was aPresbyterian, and many of the messages he expressed inMister Rogers' Neighborhoodwere inspired by the core tenets of Christianity. Rogers rarely spoke about his faith on air; he believed that teaching through example was as powerful as preaching. He said, \"You don't need to speak overtly about religion in order to get a message across\". According to writer Shea Tuttle, Rogers considered his faith a fundamental part of his personality and \"called the space between the viewer and the television set 'holy ground'\". He also studiedCatholic mysticism,Judaism,Buddhism, and other faiths and cultures.King called him \"that unique television star with a real spiritual life\",emphasizing the values of patience, reflection, and \"silence in a noisy world\". King reported that despite Rogers' family's wealth, he cared little about making money, and lived frugally, especially as he and his wife grew older.King reported that Rogers' relationship with his young audience was important to him. For example, since hostingMisterogersin Canada, he answered every letter sent to him by hand. AfterMister Rogers' Neighborhoodbegan airing in the U.S., the letters increased in volume, and he hired staff member and producer Hedda Sharapan to answer them, but he read, edited, and signed each one. King wrote that Rogers saw responding to his viewers' letters as \"a pastoral duty of sorts\". The New York Timescalled Rogers \"a dedicated lap-swimmer\",andTom Junod, author of \"Can You Say... Hero?\", the 1998Esquireprofile of Rogers, said, \"Nearly every morning of his life, Mister Rogers has gone swimming\".Rogers began swimming when he was a child at his family's vacation home outside Latrobe, where they owned a pool, and during their winter trips to Florida. King wrote that swimming and playing the piano were \"lifelong passions\" and that \"both gave him a chance to feel capable and in charge of his destiny\",and that swimming became \"an important part of the strong sense of self-discipline he cultivated\". Rogers swam daily at thePittsburgh Athletic Association, after waking every morning between 4:30 and 5:30 A.M. to pray and to \"read the Bible and prepare himself for the day\".He did not smoke or drink.According to Junod, he did nothing to change his weight from the 143 pounds (65 kg) he weighed for most of his adult life; by 1998, this also included napping daily, going to bed at 9:30 P.M., and sleeping eight hours per night without interruption. Junod said Rogers saw his weight \"as a destiny fulfilled\", telling Junod, \"the number 143 means 'I love you.' It takes one letter to say 'I' and four letters to say 'love' and three letters to say 'you'\". Sexuality According to biographer Michael Long in a 2016HuffPostessay, Rogers' sexuality had long been a topic of curiosity due to his lack of traditional machismo.The 2018 documentaryWon't You Be My Neighbor?briefly addresses the subject, including an interview withFrançois Clemmons, the gay actor who played Officer Clemmons onMister Rogers' Neighborhood, who denied that Rogers was gay, saying that if he had a \"gay vibe\" he would have noticed it. In 2019, social media users shared an excerpt from the 2018 biographyThe Good Neighbor: The Life and Work of Fred Rogers, which recounts Rogers telling openly gay friend Dr. William Hirsch that he \"must be right smack in the middle\" of a one-to-ten sexuality scale, because \"I have found women attractive, and I have found men attractive.\"This led some social media users to suggest that Rogers may have beenbisexual,although Long noted in his essay that there is no evidence that Rogers ever had sexual relations with men. Death and memorials After Rogers' retirement in 2001, he remained busy working with FCI, studying religion and spirituality, making public appearances, traveling, and working on a children's media center named after him atSaint Vincent Collegein Latrobe with ArchabbotDouglas Nowicki, chancellor of the college.By the summer of 2002, his chronic stomach pain became severe enough for him to see a doctor about it, and in October 2002, he was diagnosed with stomach cancer.He delayed treatment until after he served as Grand Marshal of the 2003Rose Parade, withArt LinkletterandBill Cosby, in January.On January 6, Rogers underwent stomach surgery. He died less than two months later, on February 27, 2003, less than a month short of his 75th birthdayat his home in Pittsburgh, with his wife of 50 years, Joanne, at his side. While comatose shortly before his death, he received thelast rites of the Catholic ChurchfromArchabbotNowicki. The following day, thePittsburgh Post-Gazettecovered Rogers' death on the front page and dedicated an entire section to his death and impact.The newspaper also reported that by noon, the internet \"was already full of appreciative pieces\" by parents, viewers, producers, and writers.Rogers' death was widely lamented. Most U.S. metropolitan newspapers ran his obituary on their front page and some dedicated entire sections to coverage of his death.WQED aired programs about Rogers the evening he died; thePost-Gazettereported that the ratings for their coverage were three times higher than their normal ratings.That same evening,NightlineonABCbroadcast a rerun of a recent interview with Rogers; the program got the highest ratings of the day, beating the February average ratings ofLate Show with David LettermanandThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno.On March 4, theU.S. House of Representativesunanimously passed a resolution honoring Rogers sponsored by RepresentativeMike Doylefrom Pennsylvania. On March 1, 2003, a private funeral was held for Rogers in Unity Chapel, which was restored by Rogers' father, at Unity Cemetery in Latrobe. About 80 relatives, co-workers, and close friends attended the service, which \"was planned in great secrecy so that those closest to him could grieve in private\".Reverend John McCall, pastor of the Rogers family's church, Sixth Presbyterian Church inSquirrel Hill, gave thehomily; Reverend William Barker, a retired Presbyterian minister who was a \"close friend of Mr. Rogers and the voice of Mr. Platypus on his show\",read Rogers' favorite Bible passages. Rogers was interred at Unity Cemetery in his hometown of Latrobe, Pennsylvania, in amausoleumowned by his mother's family. On May 3, 2003, a public memorial was held atHeinz Hallin Pittsburgh. According to thePost-Gazette, 2,700 people attended. ViolinistItzhak Perlman, cellistYo-Yo Ma(via video), and organistAlan Morrisonperformed in honor of Rogers. Barker officiated the service; also in attendance were Pittsburgh philanthropistElsie Hillman, formerGood Morning AmericahostDavid Hartman,The Very Hungry CaterpillarauthorEric Carle, andArthurcreatorMarc Brown. Businesswoman and philanthropistTeresa Heinz, PBS PresidentPat Mitchell, and executive director of The Pittsburgh Project Saleem Ghubril gave remarks.Jeff Erlanger, who at age 10 appeared onMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 1981 to explain his electric wheelchair, also spoke.The memorial was broadcast several times on Pittsburgh television stations and websites throughout the day. Legacy When I was a boy and I would see scary things in the news, my mother would say to me, \"Look for the helpers. You will always find people who are helping.\" To this day, especially in times of \"disaster\", I remember my mother's words and I am always comforted by realizing that there are still so many helpers—so many caring people in this world.—Fred Rogers Whenever a great tragedy strikes—war, famine, mass shootings, or even an outbreak of populist rage—millions of people turn to Fred's messages about life. Then the web is filled with his words and images. With fascinating frequency, his written messages and video clips surge across the internet, reaching hundreds of thousands of people who, confronted with a tough issue or ominous development, open themselves to Rogers' messages of quiet contemplation, of simplicity, of active listening and the practice of human kindness.—Rogers biographer Maxwell King Marc Brown, creator of another PBS children's show,Arthur, considered Rogers both a friend and \"a terrific role model for how to use television and the media to be helpful to kids and families\".Josh Selig, creator ofWonder Pets, credits Rogers with influencing his use of structure and predictability, and his use of music, opera, and originality. Rogers inspiredAngela Santomero, co-creator of the children's television showBlue's Clues, to earn a degree in developmental psychology and go into educational television.She and the other producers ofBlue's Cluesused many of Rogers' techniques, such as using child developmental and educational research and having the host speak directly to the camera and transition to a make-believe world.In 2006, three years after Rogers' death and the end of production ofBlue's Clues, the Fred Rogers Company contacted Santomero to create a show that would promote Rogers' legacy.In 2012,Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood, with characters from and based uponMister Rogers' Neighborhood, premiered on PBS. Rogers' style and approach to children's television and early childhood education also \"begged to be parodied\".Comedian Eddie Murphy parodiedMister Rogers' NeighborhoodonSaturday Night Liveduring the 1980s.Rogers told interviewerDavid Lettermanin 1982 that he believed parodies like Murphy's were done \"with kindness in their hearts\". Video of Rogers' 1969 testimony in defense of public programming has experienced a resurgence since 2012, goingviralat least twice. It first resurfaced after then presidential candidateMitt Romneysuggested cutting funding for PBS.In 2017, video of the testimony again went viral after PresidentDonald Trumpproposed defunding several arts-related government programs including PBS and theNational Endowment for the Arts. A roadside Pennsylvania Historical Marker dedicated to Rogers to be installed in Latrobe was approvedby the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission on March 4, 2014.It was installed on June 11, 2016, with the title \"Fred McFeely Rogers (1928–2003)\". Won't You Be My Neighbor?director Morgan Neville's 2018 documentary about Rogers' life, grossed over $22 million and became the top-grossing biographical documentary ever produced, the highest-grossing documentary in five years, and the twelfth-largest-grossing documentary ever made.The 2019 drama filmA Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodtells the story of Rogers and his television series, with Tom Hanks portraying Rogers. According to Caitlin Gibson ofThe Washington Post, Rogers became a source for parenting advice; she called him \"a timeless oracle against a backdrop of ever-shifting parenting philosophies and cultural trends\".Robert Thompson ofSyracuse Universitynoted that Rogers \"took American childhood—and I think Americans in general—through some very turbulent and trying times\",from theVietnam Warand the assassination of Robert Kennedy in 1968 to the9/11 attacks in 2001. According to Asia Simone Burns ofNational Public Radio, in the years following the end of production onMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 2001 and his death in 2003, Rogers became \"a source of comfort, sometimes in the wake of tragedy\".Burns has said Rogers' words of comfort \"began circulating on social media\"following tragedies such as theSandy Hook Elementary School shootingin 2012, theManchester Arena bombingin Manchester, England, in 2017, and theStoneman Douglas High School shootingin Parkland, Florida, in 2018. Awards and honors Museum exhibits Art pieces Several pieces of art are dedicated to Rogers throughout Pittsburgh, including an eleven-foot (3.4 m) tall, 7,000-pound (3,200 kg) bronze statue of him in the North Shore neighborhood. In theOaklandneighborhood, his portrait is included in theMartin Luther King Jr.and \"Interpretations of Oakland\" murals. A dinosaur statue titled \"Fredasaurus Rex Friday XIII\" originally stood in front of the WQED building and, as of 2014, stood in front of the building containing the Fred Rogers Company offices. There is a \"Mister Rogers' Neighborhood of Make-Believe\" inIdlewild Parkand a kiosk ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodartifacts atPittsburgh International Airport.The Carnegie Science Center's Miniature Railroad and Village debuted a miniature recreation of Rogers' house fromMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 2005.In Rogers' hometown of Latrobe, a statue of Rogers on a bench is situated in James H. Rogers Park—a park named for Rogers' father.In 2021,A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood—a seven-foot (2.1 m) tall, 3,000-pound (1,400 kg) bronze statue byPaul Day—was dedicated at Rollins College. The memorial depicts Rogers and Daniel Tiger speaking with a group of children and features lyrics fromMister Rogers' Neighborhood'stheme on the base. Honorary degrees Rogers has received honorary degrees from over 43 colleges and universities. After 1973, two commemorative quilts, created by two of Rogers' friends and archived at the Fred Rogers Center at St. Vincent College in Latrobe, were made out of the academic hoods he received during the graduation ceremonies. Note: Much of the below list is taken from \"Honorary Degrees Awarded to Fred Rogers\",unless otherwise stated. Filmography Television Published works Children's books Songbooks Books for adults Discography See also Notes References Works cited External links","A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodis a 2019 Americanbiographicaldrama filmon the TV presenterFred Rogers, directed byMarielle Hellerand written byMicah Fitzerman-BlueandNoah Harpster, inspired by the 1998 article \"Can You Say... Hero?\" byTom Junod, published inEsquire. It starsTom Hanks,Matthew Rhys,Susan Kelechi Watson, andChris Cooper. It depicts Lloyd Vogel (Rhys), a troubled journalist forEsquirewho is assigned to profile television icon Fred Rogers (Hanks). The film premiered at theToronto International Film Festivalon September 7, 2019, and was theatrically released in the United States on November 22, 2019, bySony Pictures Releasing. It grossed $68 million worldwide. Critics praised Hanks and Rhys's performances, Heller's direction, and its heart-warming messages. It was chosen byTimemagazineas one of the ten best films of the year.For his performance, Hanks was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at theAcademy Awards, as well as theGolden Globes,Critics' Choice,Screen Actors Guild Awards, andBAFTA Awards, among others. Plot In 1998, at the beginning of an episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood,Mr. Rogersdisplays a picture board with five doors. Three of the doors are opened to reveal the familiar faces ofLady Aberlin,King Friday, andMr. McFeely. The fourth door is opened to reveal the face of Mr. Rogers' troubled new friend, Lloyd Vogel, who has a black eye and a cut near his nose. Mr. Rogers explains that Lloyd has been hurt (and not necessarily on his face), and he is struggling to forgive the one who hurt him. After explaining what forgiveness means, Mr. Rogers leaves to visit Lloyd. Lloyd Vogel is anEsquirejournalist known for his cynical writing. He is nervous to attend his sister Lorraine's third wedding because his estranged father, Jerry, against whom he has long held a grudge, is also attending. However, he attends with his wife Andrea and their newborn son, Gavin. During the reception, Lloyd is approached by Jerry, who notes his son’s new family. When Jerry makes a joke about Lloyd's deceased mother Lila -- whom he cheated on and abandoned when she was dying of cancer twenty years earlier -- this enrages Lloyd into punching his father and starting a chaotic brawl, in which he is punched against the wall by another guest, explaining the scar on his face. Lloyd's editor, Ellen, assigns him to interview children's television presenter Fred Rogers for a 400-word article about heroes. Lloyd feels that the assignment is beneath him, but is informed that none of the other heroes were willing to talk to him. Still cynical, Lloyd questions whether Mister Rogers is \"for real\". Lloyd travels to theWQEDstudio inPittsburghto interview him. Rogers is dismissive of his fame and displays concern for Lloyd's nose injury. With coaxing, he relates some of the issues with his father, whose apology and attempt at reconciliation Lloyd has rebuffed. Rogers tells him his ways of dealing with anger, including striking the keys of a piano. Determined to expose Rogers' friendly persona as an act, Lloyd watches several episodes of Rogers' show, but cannot discern anything. Interviewing Rogers again when he visits New York, seemingly dodging Lloyd's questions, he reminisces about raising his two sons. Fred takes out his puppets and asks Lloyd about his childhood rabbit stuffed animal and his father, provoking Lloyd into ending the interview. Lloyd arrives home to find Jerry and his wife Dorothy having brought pizza while talking with Andrea. They have a tense argument over Jerry’s absence during Lila’s cancer progression and his self-development since. As Lloyd relates how his mother suffered hysterically in her last moments with only him and his sister present, Jerry suffers a heart attack and is transported to the hospital. Faced with his resurgent trauma at staying overnight at the hospital for Jerry, Lloyd decides to go to Pittsburgh to see Rogers for counsel under the guise of work against Andrea’s protests. Exhausted on arriving, he envisions himself as Rogers’ guest, being asked about hospitals. Next, he finds himself wearing rabbit ears and shrunken to the size ofDaniel Striped TigerandKing Friday XIII, while Rogers and Andrea (as Lady Aberlin) tower over him. Finally, Lloyd also dreams about Lila, who gently recognizes his anger being for her memory, but assures him that she doesn’t need it. Lloyd awakens to find he collapsed on set. Rogers and his wife, Joanne, bring Lloyd to their home to recuperate. The men later go to a restaurant, where Rogers asks Lloyd to spend one minute thinking about the people who \"loved him into being\", and encourages him to forgive Jerry. Lloyd apologizes to Andrea for leaving her and Gavin at the hospital and visits Jerry and Dorothy at their home. He learns Jerry is dying of cardiacstenosis, and that is why Jerry attempted to reconnect with Lloyd. Lloyd forgives him, promises to be a better father, and writes an article about Rogers' impact on his life. Dorothy tells Lloyd that Jerry had never mentioned his previous marriage or children until recently, after he became ill. Lorraine, her husband Todd, and Rogers visit Jerry. Rogers asks Jerry to pray for him before he departs. Jerry dies shortly after Rogers' visit and Lloyd's 10,000-word article, \"Can You Say... Hero?\" is published asEsquire's cover story. At his studio, Rogers finishes the episode he was earlier working on, opening the fifth and final door on his picture board, revealing a picture of Lloyd happily reunited with his family. As the production ends, Mr. Rogers plays the piano alone, stops, strikes the keys in frustration, and resumes playing. Cast Additional cast members includeCarmen Cusackas Margy, a producer ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood;Jessica Hechtas Lila Vogel, Lloyd's late mother and Jerry's ex-wife;Maddie CormanasBetty Aberlin, an actress starring as Lady Aberlin onMister Rogers' Neighborhood; Daniel Krell as Mr. McFeely; and Jordan, Naomi, and Zoey Harsh as Gavin Vogel, Lloyd's son. Notable cameos in the film include Rogers' wife Joanne, Mr. McFeely actorDavid Newell, Family Communications head Bill Isler, andMister Rogers' Neighborhoodproducer Margy Whitmerwho appear as customers in a restaurant that Rogers and Lloyd meet in.Arsenio HallandOprah Winfreymake uncredited appearances in archive footage of talk shows that Lloyd watches in the film, and Fred Rogers appears in archive footage of his show during the ending credits, singing the song \"You've Got to Do It\". Production Development On January 29, 2018, it was announced thatSony'sTriStar Pictureshad bought the worldwide distribution rights to the filmYou Are My Friend, a biographical film based on a 1998Esquiremagazine article about television personalityFred Rogers, who would be played byTom Hanks.The script by Micah Fitzerman-Blue andNoah Harpsterappeared on the 2013Black Listof best unproduced screenplays. It would be directed byMarielle Heller; its producers would beBig Beach'sMarc TurtletaubandPeter Sarafalong with Youree Henley. In July 2018,Matthew Rhyssigned to play journalist Lloyd Vogel, with production set to start in September 2018. Being Welsh, Rhys had never heard of Fred Rogers before he was offered the role.In August 2018,Chris Cooperwas added to play Vogel's father;and in September,Susan Kelechi Watsonwas added.In October 2018,Enrico Colantoni,Maryann Plunkett,Tammy Blanchard,Wendy Makkena,Sakina Jaffrey,Carmen Cusack, Harpster andMaddie Cormanjoined the cast.In 2018, Nate Heller was chosen to score the film. Filming Principal photographybegan on September 10, 2018, inPittsburgh, with several sets converted intoNew York City.Filming also took place in the Fred Rogers Studio atWQED (TV)where the late television host recordedMister Rogers' Neighborhood, and at the Jewish Community Center inSquirrel Hill. The crew consulted with original crew members from Rogers' television series, and brought in the same cameras and monitors used in the original production.The film received tax credits of approximately $9.5 million against a production budget of $45 million for filming in Pittsburgh.Production wrapped on November 9, 2018. On October 12, 2018, sound mixer James Emswillerhad a heart attack and fell from a second-story balcony. He was taken toUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center-Mercy, where he was pronounced dead. Release A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodpremiered at theToronto International Film Festivalon September 7, 2019.It was originally going to be released on October 18, 2019 bySony Pictures Releasing,but in May 2018 was pushed back a month to November 22, 2019.It was released in China on September 18, 2020, after the country reopened theaters followingCOVID-19 pandemic lockdowns. Marketing The film's title was announced on December 27, 2018.The trailer was released on July 22, 2019. Home media The film was released bySony Pictures Home EntertainmentonDigital HDon February 4, 2020, and onUltra HD Blu-ray,Blu-rayandDVDon February 18. Reception Box office A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodgrossed $61.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $6.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $68.4 million, against a production budget of $25 million. In the United States and Canada, it was released alongsideFrozen IIand21 Bridges, and was projected to gross around $15 million from 3,231 theaters in its opening weekend.It made $4.5 million on its first day, including $900,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $13.3 million, finishing third at the box office.It fell just 11% in its second weekend, making $11.8 million and finishing fifth, and remained in fifth place the following weekend with $5.2 million. Critical response On review aggregation websiteRotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 95% based on 372 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"Much like the beloved TV personality that inspired it,A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodoffers a powerfully affecting message about acceptance and understanding.\"OnMetacritic, the film has aweighted averagescore of 80 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film an average grade of \"A\" on an A+ to F scale, while those atPostTrakgave it an average four out of five stars, with 66% saying they would definitely recommend it. Steve Pond ofTheWrapwrote: \"A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodfinds a gentle state of grace and shows the courage and smarts to stay in that zone, never rushing things or playing for drama... But just as Mr. Rogers used his show to talk about big issues with children in a tone that was softer and more halting than you'd expect given the subject matter, so does Heller stick to understatement in a way that threatens to become dull or sappy but never does.\"Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianwrote: \"It's a given that Hanks will nab at least a best supporting actor nomination but it would be all too easy to forget his co-star. The cynic-becomes-a-believer arc is age old but it unfolds here without cliche thanks to an emotionally intelligent script from Noah Harpster and Micah Fitzerman-Blue, but mainly because of a marvelous, prickly turn from Rhys.\" Armond Whiteof theNational Reviewwas more critical: \"Heller and screenwriters Micah Fitzerman-Blue and Noah Harpster don't show enough faith in Rogers' remedies—and not enough interest in their religious origins. In short, the movie seems wary of faith (it briefly mentions that Rogers was an ordained minister) and settles for secular sentimentality to account for his sensibility and behavior. This not only weakens the film, but it also hobbles Hanks's characterization.\" Accolades References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Fred Rogers Fred McFeely Rogers(March 20, 1928 – February 27, 2003), better known asMister Rogers, was an American television host, author, producer, andPresbyterianminister.He was the creator, showrunner, and host of the preschool television seriesMister Rogers' Neighborhood, which ran from 1968 to 2001. Born inLatrobe, Pennsylvania, Rogers earned a bachelor's degree in music fromRollins Collegein 1951. He began his television career atNBCin New York City, returning to Pittsburgh in 1953 to work for children's programming at NET (laterPBS) television stationWQED. He graduated fromPittsburgh Theological Seminarywith a bachelor's degree in divinity in 1962 and became a Presbyterian minister in 1963. He attended theUniversity of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Child Development, where he began his thirty-year collaboration with child psychologistMargaret McFarland. He also helped develop the children's showsThe Children's Corner(1955) for WQED in Pittsburgh andMisterogers(1963) in Canada for theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation. In 1968, he returned to Pittsburgh and adapted the format of his Canadian series to createMister Rogers' Neighborhood.It ran for 33 years and was critically acclaimed for focusing on children's emotional and physical concerns, such as death, sibling rivalry, school enrollment, and divorce. Rogers died ofstomach cancerin 2003, aged 74. His work in children's television has been widely lauded, and he received more than forty honorary degrees and several awards, including aLifetime Achievement Emmyin 1997 and thePresidential Medal of Freedomin 2002. He was inducted into theTelevision Hall of Famein 1999. Rogers influenced many writers and producers of children's television shows, and his broadcasts provided comfort during tragic events, even after his death. Early life Rogers was born in 1928, at 705 Main Street inLatrobe, Pennsylvania.His father, James Hillis Rogers, was \\\"a very successful businessman\\\"who was president of the McFeely Brick Company, one of Latrobe's most prominent businesses. His mother, Nancy (née McFeely), knitted sweaters for American soldiers from western Pennsylvania who were fighting in Europe and regularly volunteered at the Latrobe Hospital. Initially dreaming of becoming a doctor, she settled for a life of hospital volunteer work. Her father, Fred Brooks McFeely, after whom Rogers was named, was an entrepreneur. Rogers grew up in a large three-story brick house at 737 Weldon Street in Latrobe.He had a sister, Elaine, whom the Rogerses adopted when he was eleven years old.Rogers spent much of his childhood alone, playing with puppets, and also spent time with his grandfather. He began playing the piano when he was five.Through an ancestor who immigrated from Germany to the U.S., Johannes Meffert (born 1732), Rogers is the sixth cousin of actorTom Hanks, who portrays him in the filmA Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood(2019). Rogers had a difficult childhood. Shy, introverted, and overweight, he was frequently homebound after suffering bouts ofasthma.He was bullied as a child for his weight and called \\\"Fat Freddy\\\".According toMorgan Neville, director of the 2018 documentaryWon't You Be My Neighbor?, Rogers had a \\\"lonely childhood... I think he made friends with himself as much as he could. He had aventriloquist dummy, he had animals, and he would create his own worlds in his childhood bedroom\\\". Rogers attendedLatrobe High School, where he overcame his shyness.\\\"It was tough for me at the beginning,\\\" Rogers told NPR'sTerry Grossin 1984, \\\"and then I made a couple friends who found out that the core of me was okay. And one of them was... the head of the football team\\\".Rogers became president of the student council, a member of theNational Honor Society, and editor-in-chief of the schoolyearbook.He registered for the draft inGreensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1948 at age 20, where he was classified 1-A (available for military service);however, his status was changed to unqualified for military service following an Armed Forces physical on October 12, 1950.He attendedDartmouth Collegefor one year before transferring toRollins College,where he graduatedmagna cum laudein 1951 with aBachelor of Music. He then attendedPittsburgh Theological Seminary, from which he graduatedmagna cum laudein 1962 with aBachelor of Divinity, and was ordained a Presbyterian minister by the Pittsburgh Presbytery of theUnited Presbyterian Churchin 1963.His work as an ordained minister, rather than to pastor a church, was to minister to children and their families through television. He regularly appeared before church officials to maintain his ordination. Career Early work Rogers wanted to enterseminaryafter college,but instead chose to go into the nascent medium of television after experiencing TV at his parents' home in 1951, during his senior year at Rollins College.In aCNNinterview, he said, \\\"I went into television because I hated it so, and I thought there's some way of using this fabulous instrument to nurture those who would watch and listen\\\".After graduating in 1951, he worked atNBCin New York City as floor director ofYour Hit Parade,The Kate Smith Hour, andGabby Hayes's children's show, and as an assistant producer ofThe Voice of Firestone. In 1953, Rogers returned to Pittsburgh to work as a program developer atpublic televisionstationWQED.Josie Careyworked with him to develop the children's showThe Children's Corner, which Carey hosted. Rogers worked off-camera to develop puppets, characters, and music for the show. He used many puppet characters developed during this time, such as Daniel the Striped Tiger (named after WQED's station manager, Dorothy Daniel, who gave Rogers a tiger puppet before the show's premiere),King Friday XIII, Queen Sara Saturday (named after Rogers' wife),X the Owl, Henrietta, and Lady Elaine, in his later work.Children's television entertainerErnie Coombswas an assistant puppeteer.The Children's Cornerwon aSylvania Awardfor best locally produced children's programming in 1955 and was broadcast nationally on NBC.While working on the show, Rogers attended Pittsburgh Theological Seminary and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1963. He also attended theUniversity of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Child Development,where he began working with child psychologistMargaret McFarland—who, according to Rogers' biographer Maxwell King, became his \\\"key advisor and collaborator\\\" and \\\"child-education guru\\\".Much of Rogers' \\\"thinking about and appreciation for children was shaped and informed\\\" by McFarland.She was his consultant for most ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood's scripts and songs for 30 years. In 1963, theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation(CBC) in Toronto contracted Rogers to come to Toronto to develop and host the 15-minute black-and-white children's programMisterogers;it lasted from 1963 to 1967.It was the first time Rogers appeared on camera. CBC's children's programming head Fred Rainsberry insisted on it, telling Rogers, \\\"Fred, I've seen you talk with kids. Let's put you yourself on the air\\\".Coombs joined Rogers in Toronto as an assistant puppeteer.Rogers also worked with Coombs on the children's showButternut Squarefrom 1964 to 1967. Rogers acquired the rights toMisterogersin 1967 and returned to Pittsburgh with his wife, two young sons, and the sets he developed, despite a potentially promising career with CBC and no job prospects in Pittsburgh.On Rogers' recommendation, Coombs remained in Toronto and became Rogers' Canadian equivalent of an iconic television personality, creating the children's programMr. Dressup, which ran from 1967 to 1996.Rogers' work for CBC \\\"helped shape and develop the concept and style of his later program for the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) in the U.S.\\\" Mister Rogers' Neighborhood Mister Rogers' Neighborhood(also called theNeighborhood), a half-hour educational children's program starring Rogers, began airing nationally in 1968 and ran for 895 episodes.It was videotaped at WQED in Pittsburgh and broadcast byNational Educational Television(NET), which later became thePublic Broadcasting Service(PBS).Its first season had 180 black-and-white episodes. Each subsequent season, filmed in color and funded by PBS, theSears-RoebuckFoundation, and other charities, consisted of 65 episodes.By the time it ended production in December 2000, its average rating was about 0.7% of television households or 680,000 homes, and it aired on 384 PBS stations. At its peak in 1985–1986, its ratings were 2.1%, or 1.8 million homes.The last original episode aired in 2001, but PBS continued to air reruns, and by 2016 it was the third-longest-running program in PBS history. Many of the sets and props inMister Rogers' Neighborhood, like the trolley, the sneakers, and the castle, were created for Rogers' show in Toronto by CBC designers and producers. The program also \\\"incorporated most of the highly imaginative elements that later became famous\\\",such as its slow pace and its host's quiet manner.The format ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood\\\"remained virtually unchanged\\\" for the entire run of the program.Every episode begins with a camera's-eye view of a model of a neighborhood, then panning in closer to a representation of a house while a piano instrumental of the theme song, \\\"Won't You be My Neighbor?\\\", performed by music directorJohnny Costaand inspired by a Beethoven sonata, is played.The camera zooms in to a model representing Mr. Rogers' house, then cuts to the house's interior and pans across the room to the front door, which Rogers opens as he sings the theme song to greet his visitors while changing his suit jacket to a cardigan (knitted by his mother)and his dress shoes to sneakers, \\\"complete with a shoe tossed from one hand to another\\\".The episode's theme is introduced, and Mr. Rogers leaves his home to visit another location, the camera panning back to the neighborhood model and zooming in to the new location as he enters it. Once this segment ends, Mr. Rogers leaves and returns to his home, indicating that it is time to visit the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Mr. Rogers proceeds to the window seat by the trolley track and sets up the action there as the Trolley comes out. The camera follows it down a tunnel in the back wall of the house as it enters the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. The stories and lessons take place over a week's worth of episodes and involve puppets and human characters. The end of the visit occurs when the Trolley returns to the same tunnel from which it emerged, reappearing in Mr. Rogers' home. He then talks to the viewers before concluding the episode. He often feeds his fish, cleans up any props he has used, and returns to the front room, where he sings the closing song while changing back into his dress shoes and jacket. He exits the front door as he ends the song, and the camera zooms out of his home and pans across the neighborhood model as the episode ends. Mister Rogers' Neighborhoodemphasized young children's social and emotional needs, and unlike another PBS show,Sesame Street, which premiered in 1969, did not focus on cognitive learning.Writer Kathy Merlock Jackson said, \\\"While both shows target the same preschool audience and prepare children for kindergarten,Sesame Streetconcentrates on school-readiness skills whileMister Rogers Neighborhoodfocuses on the child's developing psyche and feelings and sense of moral and ethical reasoning\\\".TheNeighborhoodalso spent fewer resources on research thanSesame Street, but Rogers used early childhood education concepts taught by his mentor Margaret McFarland,Benjamin Spock,Erik Erikson, andT. Berry Brazeltonin his lessons.AsThe Washington Postnoted, Rogers taught young children about civility, tolerance, sharing, and self-worth \\\"in a reassuring tone and leisurely cadence\\\".He tackled difficult topics such as the death of a family pet, sibling rivalry, the addition of a newborn into a family, moving and enrolling in a new school, and divorce.For example, he wrote a special segment that dealt with theassassination of Robert F. Kennedythat aired on June 7, 1968, two days after the assassination occurred. According to King, the process of putting each episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodtogether was \\\"painstaking\\\"and Rogers' contribution to the program was \\\"astounding\\\". Rogers wrote and edited all the episodes, played the piano and sang for most of the songs, wrote 200 songs and 13 operas, created all the characters (both puppet and human), played most of the significant puppet roles, hosted every episode, and produced and approved every detail of the program.The puppets created for the Neighborhood of Make-Believe \\\"included an extraordinary variety of personalities\\\".They were simple puppets but \\\"complex, complicated, and utterly honest beings\\\".In 1971, Rogers formed Family Communications, Inc. (FCI, nowThe Fred Rogers Company), to produce theNeighborhood, other programs, and non-broadcast materials. In 1975, Rogers stopped producingMr. Rogers' Neighborhoodto focus on adult programming. Reruns of theNeighborhoodcontinued to air on PBS.King reports that the decision caught many of his coworkers and supporters \\\"off guard\\\".Rogers continued to confer with McFarland about child development and early childhood education, however.In 1979, after an almost five-year hiatus, Rogers returned to producing theNeighborhood; King calls the new version \\\"stronger and more sophisticated than ever\\\".King writes that by the program's second run in the 1980s, it was \\\"such a cultural touchstone that it had inspired numerous parodies\\\",most notablyEddie Murphy's parody onSaturday Night Livein the early 1980s. Rogers retired from producing theNeighborhoodin 2001 at age 73, although reruns continued to air. He and FCI had been making about two or three weeks of new programs per year for many years, \\\"filling the rest of his time slots from a library of about 300 shows made since 1979\\\".The final original episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodaired on August 31, 2001. Other work and appearances In 1969, Rogers testified before theU.S. SenateSubcommittee on Communications, which was chaired by Democratic SenatorJohn Pastoreof Rhode Island. U.S. PresidentLyndon Johnsonhad proposed a $20 million bill for the creation of PBS before he left office, but his successor,Richard Nixon, wanted to cut the funding to $10 million.Even though Rogers was not yet nationally known, he was chosen to testify because of his ability to make persuasive arguments and to connect emotionally with his audience. The clip of Rogers' testimony, which was televised and has since been viewed by millions of people on the internet, helped to secure funding for PBS for many years afterward.According to King, Rogers' testimony was \\\"considered one of the most powerful pieces of testimony ever offered before Congress, and one of the most powerful pieces of video presentation ever filmed\\\".It brought Pastore to tears and also, according to King, has been studied by public relations experts and academics.Congressional funding for PBS increased from $9 million to $22 million.In 1970, Nixon appointed Rogers as chair of theWhite House Conference on Children and Youth. In 1978, while on hiatus fromMister Rogers' Neighborhood, Rogers wrote, produced, and hosted a 30-minute interview program for adults on PBS calledOld Friends... New Friends.It lasted 20 episodes. Rogers' guests includedHoagy Carmichael,Helen Hayes,Milton Berle,Lorin Hollander, poetRobert Frost's daughter Lesley, andWillie Stargell. In September 1987, Rogers visited Moscow to appear as the first guest on the long-running Soviet children's TV showGood Night, Little Ones!with hostTatyana Vedeneyeva.The appearance was broadcast in the Soviet Union on December 7, coinciding with theWashington Summitmeeting between Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachevand U.S. PresidentRonald Reaganin Washington, D.C.Vedeneyeva visited the set ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin November. Her visit was taped and later aired in March 1988 as part of Rogers' program.In 1994, Rogers wrote, produced, and hosted a special for PBS calledFred Rogers' Heroes, which featured interviews and portraits of four people from across the country who were having a positive impact on children and education.The first time Rogers appeared on television as an actor, and not himself, was in a 1996 episode ofDr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, playing a preacher. Rogers gave \\\"scores of interviews\\\".Though reluctant to appear on television talk shows, he would usually \\\"charm the host with his quick wit and ability to ad-lib on a moment's notice\\\".Rogers was \\\"one of the country's most sought-after commencement speakers\\\",making over 150 speeches.His friend and colleague David Newell reported that Rogers would \\\"agonize over a speech\\\",and King reported that Rogers was at his least guarded during his speeches, which were about children, television, education, his view of the world, how to make the world a better place, and his quest for self-knowledge. His tone was quiet and informal but \\\"commanded attention\\\".In many speeches, including the ones he made accepting aLifetime Achievement Emmyin 1997,for his induction into the Television Hall of Fame in 1999,and his final commencement speech at Dartmouth College in 2002, he instructed his audiences to remain silent and think for a moment about someone who had a good influence on them. Personal life Rogers metSara Joanne Byrd(called \\\"Joanne\\\") fromJacksonville, Florida, while attending Rollins College. They were married from 1952 until he died in 2003. They had two sons, James and John.Joanne Rogerswas \\\"an accomplished pianist\\\"who, like Fred, earned a Bachelor of Music from Rollins, and went on to earn a Master of Music fromFlorida State University. She performed publicly with her college classmate, Jeannine Morrison, from 1976 to 2008.According to biographer Maxwell King, Rogers' close associates said he was \\\"absolutely faithful to his marriage vows\\\". Rogers was red-greencolor-blind.He became apescatarianin 1970, after the death of his father, and a vegetarian in the early 1980s,saying he \\\"couldn't eat anything that had a mother\\\".He became a co-owner ofVegetarian Timesin the mid-1980sand said in one issue, \\\"I love tofu burgers and beets\\\".He toldVegetarian Timesthat he became a vegetarian for both ethical and health reasons.According to his biographer Maxwell King, Rogers also signed his name to a statementprotesting wearing animal furs. Rogers was a registeredRepublican, but according to Joanne Rogers, he was \\\"very independent in the way he voted\\\", choosing not to talk about politics because he wanted to be impartial. Rogers was aPresbyterian, and many of the messages he expressed inMister Rogers' Neighborhoodwere inspired by the core tenets of Christianity. Rogers rarely spoke about his faith on air; he believed that teaching through example was as powerful as preaching. He said, \\\"You don't need to speak overtly about religion in order to get a message across\\\". According to writer Shea Tuttle, Rogers considered his faith a fundamental part of his personality and \\\"called the space between the viewer and the television set 'holy ground'\\\". He also studiedCatholic mysticism,Judaism,Buddhism, and other faiths and cultures.King called him \\\"that unique television star with a real spiritual life\\\",emphasizing the values of patience, reflection, and \\\"silence in a noisy world\\\". King reported that despite Rogers' family's wealth, he cared little about making money, and lived frugally, especially as he and his wife grew older.King reported that Rogers' relationship with his young audience was important to him. For example, since hostingMisterogersin Canada, he answered every letter sent to him by hand. AfterMister Rogers' Neighborhoodbegan airing in the U.S., the letters increased in volume, and he hired staff member and producer Hedda Sharapan to answer them, but he read, edited, and signed each one. King wrote that Rogers saw responding to his viewers' letters as \\\"a pastoral duty of sorts\\\". The New York Timescalled Rogers \\\"a dedicated lap-swimmer\\\",andTom Junod, author of \\\"Can You Say... Hero?\\\", the 1998Esquireprofile of Rogers, said, \\\"Nearly every morning of his life, Mister Rogers has gone swimming\\\".Rogers began swimming when he was a child at his family's vacation home outside Latrobe, where they owned a pool, and during their winter trips to Florida. King wrote that swimming and playing the piano were \\\"lifelong passions\\\" and that \\\"both gave him a chance to feel capable and in charge of his destiny\\\",and that swimming became \\\"an important part of the strong sense of self-discipline he cultivated\\\". Rogers swam daily at thePittsburgh Athletic Association, after waking every morning between 4:30 and 5:30 A.M. to pray and to \\\"read the Bible and prepare himself for the day\\\".He did not smoke or drink.According to Junod, he did nothing to change his weight from the 143 pounds (65 kg) he weighed for most of his adult life; by 1998, this also included napping daily, going to bed at 9:30 P.M., and sleeping eight hours per night without interruption. Junod said Rogers saw his weight \\\"as a destiny fulfilled\\\", telling Junod, \\\"the number 143 means 'I love you.' It takes one letter to say 'I' and four letters to say 'love' and three letters to say 'you'\\\". Sexuality According to biographer Michael Long in a 2016HuffPostessay, Rogers' sexuality had long been a topic of curiosity due to his lack of traditional machismo.The 2018 documentaryWon't You Be My Neighbor?briefly addresses the subject, including an interview withFrançois Clemmons, the gay actor who played Officer Clemmons onMister Rogers' Neighborhood, who denied that Rogers was gay, saying that if he had a \\\"gay vibe\\\" he would have noticed it. In 2019, social media users shared an excerpt from the 2018 biographyThe Good Neighbor: The Life and Work of Fred Rogers, which recounts Rogers telling openly gay friend Dr. William Hirsch that he \\\"must be right smack in the middle\\\" of a one-to-ten sexuality scale, because \\\"I have found women attractive, and I have found men attractive.\\\"This led some social media users to suggest that Rogers may have beenbisexual,although Long noted in his essay that there is no evidence that Rogers ever had sexual relations with men. Death and memorials After Rogers' retirement in 2001, he remained busy working with FCI, studying religion and spirituality, making public appearances, traveling, and working on a children's media center named after him atSaint Vincent Collegein Latrobe with ArchabbotDouglas Nowicki, chancellor of the college.By the summer of 2002, his chronic stomach pain became severe enough for him to see a doctor about it, and in October 2002, he was diagnosed with stomach cancer.He delayed treatment until after he served as Grand Marshal of the 2003Rose Parade, withArt LinkletterandBill Cosby, in January.On January 6, Rogers underwent stomach surgery. He died less than two months later, on February 27, 2003, less than a month short of his 75th birthdayat his home in Pittsburgh, with his wife of 50 years, Joanne, at his side. While comatose shortly before his death, he received thelast rites of the Catholic ChurchfromArchabbotNowicki. The following day, thePittsburgh Post-Gazettecovered Rogers' death on the front page and dedicated an entire section to his death and impact.The newspaper also reported that by noon, the internet \\\"was already full of appreciative pieces\\\" by parents, viewers, producers, and writers.Rogers' death was widely lamented. Most U.S. metropolitan newspapers ran his obituary on their front page and some dedicated entire sections to coverage of his death.WQED aired programs about Rogers the evening he died; thePost-Gazettereported that the ratings for their coverage were three times higher than their normal ratings.That same evening,NightlineonABCbroadcast a rerun of a recent interview with Rogers; the program got the highest ratings of the day, beating the February average ratings ofLate Show with David LettermanandThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno.On March 4, theU.S. House of Representativesunanimously passed a resolution honoring Rogers sponsored by RepresentativeMike Doylefrom Pennsylvania. On March 1, 2003, a private funeral was held for Rogers in Unity Chapel, which was restored by Rogers' father, at Unity Cemetery in Latrobe. About 80 relatives, co-workers, and close friends attended the service, which \\\"was planned in great secrecy so that those closest to him could grieve in private\\\".Reverend John McCall, pastor of the Rogers family's church, Sixth Presbyterian Church inSquirrel Hill, gave thehomily; Reverend William Barker, a retired Presbyterian minister who was a \\\"close friend of Mr. Rogers and the voice of Mr. Platypus on his show\\\",read Rogers' favorite Bible passages. Rogers was interred at Unity Cemetery in his hometown of Latrobe, Pennsylvania, in amausoleumowned by his mother's family. On May 3, 2003, a public memorial was held atHeinz Hallin Pittsburgh. According to thePost-Gazette, 2,700 people attended. ViolinistItzhak Perlman, cellistYo-Yo Ma(via video), and organistAlan Morrisonperformed in honor of Rogers. Barker officiated the service; also in attendance were Pittsburgh philanthropistElsie Hillman, formerGood Morning AmericahostDavid Hartman,The Very Hungry CaterpillarauthorEric Carle, andArthurcreatorMarc Brown. Businesswoman and philanthropistTeresa Heinz, PBS PresidentPat Mitchell, and executive director of The Pittsburgh Project Saleem Ghubril gave remarks.Jeff Erlanger, who at age 10 appeared onMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 1981 to explain his electric wheelchair, also spoke.The memorial was broadcast several times on Pittsburgh television stations and websites throughout the day. Legacy When I was a boy and I would see scary things in the news, my mother would say to me, \\\"Look for the helpers. You will always find people who are helping.\\\" To this day, especially in times of \\\"disaster\\\", I remember my mother's words and I am always comforted by realizing that there are still so many helpers—so many caring people in this world.—Fred Rogers Whenever a great tragedy strikes—war, famine, mass shootings, or even an outbreak of populist rage—millions of people turn to Fred's messages about life. Then the web is filled with his words and images. With fascinating frequency, his written messages and video clips surge across the internet, reaching hundreds of thousands of people who, confronted with a tough issue or ominous development, open themselves to Rogers' messages of quiet contemplation, of simplicity, of active listening and the practice of human kindness.—Rogers biographer Maxwell King Marc Brown, creator of another PBS children's show,Arthur, considered Rogers both a friend and \\\"a terrific role model for how to use television and the media to be helpful to kids and families\\\".Josh Selig, creator ofWonder Pets, credits Rogers with influencing his use of structure and predictability, and his use of music, opera, and originality. Rogers inspiredAngela Santomero, co-creator of the children's television showBlue's Clues, to earn a degree in developmental psychology and go into educational television.She and the other producers ofBlue's Cluesused many of Rogers' techniques, such as using child developmental and educational research and having the host speak directly to the camera and transition to a make-believe world.In 2006, three years after Rogers' death and the end of production ofBlue's Clues, the Fred Rogers Company contacted Santomero to create a show that would promote Rogers' legacy.In 2012,Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood, with characters from and based uponMister Rogers' Neighborhood, premiered on PBS. Rogers' style and approach to children's television and early childhood education also \\\"begged to be parodied\\\".Comedian Eddie Murphy parodiedMister Rogers' NeighborhoodonSaturday Night Liveduring the 1980s.Rogers told interviewerDavid Lettermanin 1982 that he believed parodies like Murphy's were done \\\"with kindness in their hearts\\\". Video of Rogers' 1969 testimony in defense of public programming has experienced a resurgence since 2012, goingviralat least twice. It first resurfaced after then presidential candidateMitt Romneysuggested cutting funding for PBS.In 2017, video of the testimony again went viral after PresidentDonald Trumpproposed defunding several arts-related government programs including PBS and theNational Endowment for the Arts. A roadside Pennsylvania Historical Marker dedicated to Rogers to be installed in Latrobe was approvedby the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission on March 4, 2014.It was installed on June 11, 2016, with the title \\\"Fred McFeely Rogers (1928–2003)\\\". Won't You Be My Neighbor?director Morgan Neville's 2018 documentary about Rogers' life, grossed over $22 million and became the top-grossing biographical documentary ever produced, the highest-grossing documentary in five years, and the twelfth-largest-grossing documentary ever made.The 2019 drama filmA Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodtells the story of Rogers and his television series, with Tom Hanks portraying Rogers. According to Caitlin Gibson ofThe Washington Post, Rogers became a source for parenting advice; she called him \\\"a timeless oracle against a backdrop of ever-shifting parenting philosophies and cultural trends\\\".Robert Thompson ofSyracuse Universitynoted that Rogers \\\"took American childhood—and I think Americans in general—through some very turbulent and trying times\\\",from theVietnam Warand the assassination of Robert Kennedy in 1968 to the9/11 attacks in 2001. According to Asia Simone Burns ofNational Public Radio, in the years following the end of production onMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 2001 and his death in 2003, Rogers became \\\"a source of comfort, sometimes in the wake of tragedy\\\".Burns has said Rogers' words of comfort \\\"began circulating on social media\\\"following tragedies such as theSandy Hook Elementary School shootingin 2012, theManchester Arena bombingin Manchester, England, in 2017, and theStoneman Douglas High School shootingin Parkland, Florida, in 2018. Awards and honors Museum exhibits Art pieces Several pieces of art are dedicated to Rogers throughout Pittsburgh, including an eleven-foot (3.4 m) tall, 7,000-pound (3,200 kg) bronze statue of him in the North Shore neighborhood. In theOaklandneighborhood, his portrait is included in theMartin Luther King Jr.and \\\"Interpretations of Oakland\\\" murals. A dinosaur statue titled \\\"Fredasaurus Rex Friday XIII\\\" originally stood in front of the WQED building and, as of 2014, stood in front of the building containing the Fred Rogers Company offices. There is a \\\"Mister Rogers' Neighborhood of Make-Believe\\\" inIdlewild Parkand a kiosk ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodartifacts atPittsburgh International Airport.The Carnegie Science Center's Miniature Railroad and Village debuted a miniature recreation of Rogers' house fromMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 2005.In Rogers' hometown of Latrobe, a statue of Rogers on a bench is situated in James H. Rogers Park—a park named for Rogers' father.In 2021,A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood—a seven-foot (2.1 m) tall, 3,000-pound (1,400 kg) bronze statue byPaul Day—was dedicated at Rollins College. The memorial depicts Rogers and Daniel Tiger speaking with a group of children and features lyrics fromMister Rogers' Neighborhood'stheme on the base. Honorary degrees Rogers has received honorary degrees from over 43 colleges and universities. After 1973, two commemorative quilts, created by two of Rogers' friends and archived at the Fred Rogers Center at St. Vincent College in Latrobe, were made out of the academic hoods he received during the graduation ceremonies. Note: Much of the below list is taken from \\\"Honorary Degrees Awarded to Fred Rogers\\\",unless otherwise stated. Filmography Television Published works Children's books Songbooks Books for adults Discography See also Notes References Works cited External links\",\n \"A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodis a 2019 Americanbiographicaldrama filmon the TV presenterFred Rogers, directed byMarielle Hellerand written byMicah Fitzerman-BlueandNoah Harpster, inspired by the 1998 article \\\"Can You Say... Hero?\\\" byTom Junod, published inEsquire. It starsTom Hanks,Matthew Rhys,Susan Kelechi Watson, andChris Cooper. It depicts Lloyd Vogel (Rhys), a troubled journalist forEsquirewho is assigned to profile television icon Fred Rogers (Hanks). The film premiered at theToronto International Film Festivalon September 7, 2019, and was theatrically released in the United States on November 22, 2019, bySony Pictures Releasing. It grossed $68 million worldwide. Critics praised Hanks and Rhys's performances, Heller's direction, and its heart-warming messages. It was chosen byTimemagazineas one of the ten best films of the year.For his performance, Hanks was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at theAcademy Awards, as well as theGolden Globes,Critics' Choice,Screen Actors Guild Awards, andBAFTA Awards, among others. Plot In 1998, at the beginning of an episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood,Mr. Rogersdisplays a picture board with five doors. Three of the doors are opened to reveal the familiar faces ofLady Aberlin,King Friday, andMr. McFeely. The fourth door is opened to reveal the face of Mr. Rogers' troubled new friend, Lloyd Vogel, who has a black eye and a cut near his nose. Mr. Rogers explains that Lloyd has been hurt (and not necessarily on his face), and he is struggling to forgive the one who hurt him. After explaining what forgiveness means, Mr. Rogers leaves to visit Lloyd. Lloyd Vogel is anEsquirejournalist known for his cynical writing. He is nervous to attend his sister Lorraine's third wedding because his estranged father, Jerry, against whom he has long held a grudge, is also attending. However, he attends with his wife Andrea and their newborn son, Gavin. During the reception, Lloyd is approached by Jerry, who notes his son’s new family. When Jerry makes a joke about Lloyd's deceased mother Lila -- whom he cheated on and abandoned when she was dying of cancer twenty years earlier -- this enrages Lloyd into punching his father and starting a chaotic brawl, in which he is punched against the wall by another guest, explaining the scar on his face. Lloyd's editor, Ellen, assigns him to interview children's television presenter Fred Rogers for a 400-word article about heroes. Lloyd feels that the assignment is beneath him, but is informed that none of the other heroes were willing to talk to him. Still cynical, Lloyd questions whether Mister Rogers is \\\"for real\\\". Lloyd travels to theWQEDstudio inPittsburghto interview him. Rogers is dismissive of his fame and displays concern for Lloyd's nose injury. With coaxing, he relates some of the issues with his father, whose apology and attempt at reconciliation Lloyd has rebuffed. Rogers tells him his ways of dealing with anger, including striking the keys of a piano. Determined to expose Rogers' friendly persona as an act, Lloyd watches several episodes of Rogers' show, but cannot discern anything. Interviewing Rogers again when he visits New York, seemingly dodging Lloyd's questions, he reminisces about raising his two sons. Fred takes out his puppets and asks Lloyd about his childhood rabbit stuffed animal and his father, provoking Lloyd into ending the interview. Lloyd arrives home to find Jerry and his wife Dorothy having brought pizza while talking with Andrea. They have a tense argument over Jerry’s absence during Lila’s cancer progression and his self-development since. As Lloyd relates how his mother suffered hysterically in her last moments with only him and his sister present, Jerry suffers a heart attack and is transported to the hospital. Faced with his resurgent trauma at staying overnight at the hospital for Jerry, Lloyd decides to go to Pittsburgh to see Rogers for counsel under the guise of work against Andrea’s protests. Exhausted on arriving, he envisions himself as Rogers’ guest, being asked about hospitals. Next, he finds himself wearing rabbit ears and shrunken to the size ofDaniel Striped TigerandKing Friday XIII, while Rogers and Andrea (as Lady Aberlin) tower over him. Finally, Lloyd also dreams about Lila, who gently recognizes his anger being for her memory, but assures him that she doesn’t need it. Lloyd awakens to find he collapsed on set. Rogers and his wife, Joanne, bring Lloyd to their home to recuperate. The men later go to a restaurant, where Rogers asks Lloyd to spend one minute thinking about the people who \\\"loved him into being\\\", and encourages him to forgive Jerry. Lloyd apologizes to Andrea for leaving her and Gavin at the hospital and visits Jerry and Dorothy at their home. He learns Jerry is dying of cardiacstenosis, and that is why Jerry attempted to reconnect with Lloyd. Lloyd forgives him, promises to be a better father, and writes an article about Rogers' impact on his life. Dorothy tells Lloyd that Jerry had never mentioned his previous marriage or children until recently, after he became ill. Lorraine, her husband Todd, and Rogers visit Jerry. Rogers asks Jerry to pray for him before he departs. Jerry dies shortly after Rogers' visit and Lloyd's 10,000-word article, \\\"Can You Say... Hero?\\\" is published asEsquire's cover story. At his studio, Rogers finishes the episode he was earlier working on, opening the fifth and final door on his picture board, revealing a picture of Lloyd happily reunited with his family. As the production ends, Mr. Rogers plays the piano alone, stops, strikes the keys in frustration, and resumes playing. Cast Additional cast members includeCarmen Cusackas Margy, a producer ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood;Jessica Hechtas Lila Vogel, Lloyd's late mother and Jerry's ex-wife;Maddie CormanasBetty Aberlin, an actress starring as Lady Aberlin onMister Rogers' Neighborhood; Daniel Krell as Mr. McFeely; and Jordan, Naomi, and Zoey Harsh as Gavin Vogel, Lloyd's son. Notable cameos in the film include Rogers' wife Joanne, Mr. McFeely actorDavid Newell, Family Communications head Bill Isler, andMister Rogers' Neighborhoodproducer Margy Whitmerwho appear as customers in a restaurant that Rogers and Lloyd meet in.Arsenio HallandOprah Winfreymake uncredited appearances in archive footage of talk shows that Lloyd watches in the film, and Fred Rogers appears in archive footage of his show during the ending credits, singing the song \\\"You've Got to Do It\\\". Production Development On January 29, 2018, it was announced thatSony'sTriStar Pictureshad bought the worldwide distribution rights to the filmYou Are My Friend, a biographical film based on a 1998Esquiremagazine article about television personalityFred Rogers, who would be played byTom Hanks.The script by Micah Fitzerman-Blue andNoah Harpsterappeared on the 2013Black Listof best unproduced screenplays. It would be directed byMarielle Heller; its producers would beBig Beach'sMarc TurtletaubandPeter Sarafalong with Youree Henley. In July 2018,Matthew Rhyssigned to play journalist Lloyd Vogel, with production set to start in September 2018. Being Welsh, Rhys had never heard of Fred Rogers before he was offered the role.In August 2018,Chris Cooperwas added to play Vogel's father;and in September,Susan Kelechi Watsonwas added.In October 2018,Enrico Colantoni,Maryann Plunkett,Tammy Blanchard,Wendy Makkena,Sakina Jaffrey,Carmen Cusack, Harpster andMaddie Cormanjoined the cast.In 2018, Nate Heller was chosen to score the film. Filming Principal photographybegan on September 10, 2018, inPittsburgh, with several sets converted intoNew York City.Filming also took place in the Fred Rogers Studio atWQED (TV)where the late television host recordedMister Rogers' Neighborhood, and at the Jewish Community Center inSquirrel Hill. The crew consulted with original crew members from Rogers' television series, and brought in the same cameras and monitors used in the original production.The film received tax credits of approximately $9.5 million against a production budget of $45 million for filming in Pittsburgh.Production wrapped on November 9, 2018. On October 12, 2018, sound mixer James Emswillerhad a heart attack and fell from a second-story balcony. He was taken toUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center-Mercy, where he was pronounced dead. Release A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodpremiered at theToronto International Film Festivalon September 7, 2019.It was originally going to be released on October 18, 2019 bySony Pictures Releasing,but in May 2018 was pushed back a month to November 22, 2019.It was released in China on September 18, 2020, after the country reopened theaters followingCOVID-19 pandemic lockdowns. Marketing The film's title was announced on December 27, 2018.The trailer was released on July 22, 2019. Home media The film was released bySony Pictures Home EntertainmentonDigital HDon February 4, 2020, and onUltra HD Blu-ray,Blu-rayandDVDon February 18. Reception Box office A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodgrossed $61.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $6.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $68.4 million, against a production budget of $25 million. In the United States and Canada, it was released alongsideFrozen IIand21 Bridges, and was projected to gross around $15 million from 3,231 theaters in its opening weekend.It made $4.5 million on its first day, including $900,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $13.3 million, finishing third at the box office.It fell just 11% in its second weekend, making $11.8 million and finishing fifth, and remained in fifth place the following weekend with $5.2 million. Critical response On review aggregation websiteRotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 95% based on 372 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \\\"Much like the beloved TV personality that inspired it,A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodoffers a powerfully affecting message about acceptance and understanding.\\\"OnMetacritic, the film has aweighted averagescore of 80 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating \\\"generally favorable reviews\\\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film an average grade of \\\"A\\\" on an A+ to F scale, while those atPostTrakgave it an average four out of five stars, with 66% saying they would definitely recommend it. Steve Pond ofTheWrapwrote: \\\"A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodfinds a gentle state of grace and shows the courage and smarts to stay in that zone, never rushing things or playing for drama... But just as Mr. Rogers used his show to talk about big issues with children in a tone that was softer and more halting than you'd expect given the subject matter, so does Heller stick to understatement in a way that threatens to become dull or sappy but never does.\\\"Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianwrote: \\\"It's a given that Hanks will nab at least a best supporting actor nomination but it would be all too easy to forget his co-star. The cynic-becomes-a-believer arc is age old but it unfolds here without cliche thanks to an emotionally intelligent script from Noah Harpster and Micah Fitzerman-Blue, but mainly because of a marvelous, prickly turn from Rhys.\\\" Armond Whiteof theNational Reviewwas more critical: \\\"Heller and screenwriters Micah Fitzerman-Blue and Noah Harpster don't show enough faith in Rogers' remedies—and not enough interest in their religious origins. In short, the movie seems wary of faith (it briefly mentions that Rogers was an ordained minister) and settles for secular sentimentality to account for his sensibility and behavior. This not only weakens the film, but it also hobbles Hanks's characterization.\\\" Accolades References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Fred Rogers Fred McFeely Rogers(March 20, 1928 – February 27, 2003), better known asMister Rogers, was an American television host, author, producer, andPresbyterianminister.He was the creator, showrunner, and host of the preschool television seriesMister Rogers' Neighborhood, which ran from 1968 to 2001. Born inLatrobe, Pennsylvania, Rogers earned a bachelor's degree in music fromRollins Collegein 1951. He began his television career atNBCin New York City, returning to Pittsburgh in 1953 to work for children's programming at NET (laterPBS) television stationWQED. He graduated fromPittsburgh Theological Seminarywith a bachelor's degree in divinity in 1962 and became a Presbyterian minister in 1963. He attended theUniversity of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Child Development, where he began his thirty-year collaboration with child psychologistMargaret McFarland. He also helped develop the children's showsThe Children's Corner(1955) for WQED in Pittsburgh andMisterogers(1963) in Canada for theCanadian","for theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation. In 1968, he returned to Pittsburgh and adapted the format of his Canadian series to createMister Rogers' Neighborhood.It ran for 33 years and was critically acclaimed for focusing on children's emotional and physical concerns, such as death, sibling rivalry, school enrollment, and divorce. Rogers died ofstomach cancerin 2003, aged 74. His work in children's television has been widely lauded, and he received more than forty honorary degrees and several awards, including aLifetime Achievement Emmyin 1997 and thePresidential Medal of Freedomin 2002. He was inducted into theTelevision Hall of Famein 1999. Rogers influenced many writers and producers of children's television shows, and his broadcasts provided comfort during tragic events, even after his death. Early life Rogers was born in 1928, at 705 Main Street inLatrobe, Pennsylvania.His father, James Hillis Rogers, was \"a very successful businessman\"who was president of the McFeely Brick Company, one of Latrobe's","one of Latrobe's most prominent businesses. His mother, Nancy (née McFeely), knitted sweaters for American soldiers from western Pennsylvania who were fighting in Europe and regularly volunteered at the Latrobe Hospital. Initially dreaming of becoming a doctor, she settled for a life of hospital volunteer work. Her father, Fred Brooks McFeely, after whom Rogers was named, was an entrepreneur. Rogers grew up in a large three-story brick house at 737 Weldon Street in Latrobe.He had a sister, Elaine, whom the Rogerses adopted when he was eleven years old.Rogers spent much of his childhood alone, playing with puppets, and also spent time with his grandfather. He began playing the piano when he was five.Through an ancestor who immigrated from Germany to the U.S., Johannes Meffert (born 1732), Rogers is the sixth cousin of actorTom Hanks, who portrays him in the filmA Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood(2019). Rogers had a difficult childhood. Shy, introverted, and overweight, he was frequently homebound after","homebound after suffering bouts ofasthma.He was bullied as a child for his weight and called \"Fat Freddy\".According toMorgan Neville, director of the 2018 documentaryWon't You Be My Neighbor?, Rogers had a \"lonely childhood... I think he made friends with himself as much as he could. He had aventriloquist dummy, he had animals, and he would create his own worlds in his childhood bedroom\". Rogers attendedLatrobe High School, where he overcame his shyness.\"It was tough for me at the beginning,\" Rogers told NPR'sTerry Grossin 1984, \"and then I made a couple friends who found out that the core of me was okay. And one of them was... the head of the football team\".Rogers became president of the student council, a member of theNational Honor Society, and editor-in-chief of the schoolyearbook.He registered for the draft inGreensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1948 at age 20, where he was classified 1-A (available for military service);however, his status was changed to unqualified for military service following an Armed","following an Armed Forces physical on October 12, 1950.He attendedDartmouth Collegefor one year before transferring toRollins College,where he graduatedmagna cum laudein 1951 with aBachelor of Music. He then attendedPittsburgh Theological Seminary, from which he graduatedmagna cum laudein 1962 with aBachelor of Divinity, and was ordained a Presbyterian minister by the Pittsburgh Presbytery of theUnited Presbyterian Churchin 1963.His work as an ordained minister, rather than to pastor a church, was to minister to children and their families through television. He regularly appeared before church officials to maintain his ordination. Career Early work Rogers wanted to enterseminaryafter college,but instead chose to go into the nascent medium of television after experiencing TV at his parents' home in 1951, during his senior year at Rollins College.In aCNNinterview, he said, \"I went into television because I hated it so, and I thought there's some way of using this fabulous instrument to nurture those who would","those who would watch and listen\".After graduating in 1951, he worked atNBCin New York City as floor director ofYour Hit Parade,The Kate Smith Hour, andGabby Hayes's children's show, and as an assistant producer ofThe Voice of Firestone. In 1953, Rogers returned to Pittsburgh to work as a program developer atpublic televisionstationWQED.Josie Careyworked with him to develop the children's showThe Children's Corner, which Carey hosted. Rogers worked off-camera to develop puppets, characters, and music for the show. He used many puppet characters developed during this time, such as Daniel the Striped Tiger (named after WQED's station manager, Dorothy Daniel, who gave Rogers a tiger puppet before the show's premiere),King Friday XIII, Queen Sara Saturday (named after Rogers' wife),X the Owl, Henrietta, and Lady Elaine, in his later work.Children's television entertainerErnie Coombswas an assistant puppeteer.The Children's Cornerwon aSylvania Awardfor best locally produced children's programming in 1955 and was","in 1955 and was broadcast nationally on NBC.While working on the show, Rogers attended Pittsburgh Theological Seminary and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1963. He also attended theUniversity of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Child Development,where he began working with child psychologistMargaret McFarland—who, according to Rogers' biographer Maxwell King, became his \"key advisor and collaborator\" and \"child-education guru\".Much of Rogers' \"thinking about and appreciation for children was shaped and informed\" by McFarland.She was his consultant for most ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood's scripts and songs for 30 years. In 1963, theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation(CBC) in Toronto contracted Rogers to come to Toronto to develop and host the 15-minute black-and-white children's programMisterogers;it lasted from 1963 to 1967.It was the first time Rogers appeared on camera. CBC's children's programming head Fred Rainsberry insisted on it, telling Rogers, \"Fred, I've seen you talk with kids. Let's put","kids. Let's put you yourself on the air\".Coombs joined Rogers in Toronto as an assistant puppeteer.Rogers also worked with Coombs on the children's showButternut Squarefrom 1964 to 1967. Rogers acquired the rights toMisterogersin 1967 and returned to Pittsburgh with his wife, two young sons, and the sets he developed, despite a potentially promising career with CBC and no job prospects in Pittsburgh.On Rogers' recommendation, Coombs remained in Toronto and became Rogers' Canadian equivalent of an iconic television personality, creating the children's programMr. Dressup, which ran from 1967 to 1996.Rogers' work for CBC \"helped shape and develop the concept and style of his later program for the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) in the U.S.\" Mister Rogers' Neighborhood Mister Rogers' Neighborhood(also called theNeighborhood), a half-hour educational children's program starring Rogers, began airing nationally in 1968 and ran for 895 episodes.It was videotaped at WQED in Pittsburgh and broadcast byNational","byNational Educational Television(NET), which later became thePublic Broadcasting Service(PBS).Its first season had 180 black-and-white episodes. Each subsequent season, filmed in color and funded by PBS, theSears-RoebuckFoundation, and other charities, consisted of 65 episodes.By the time it ended production in December 2000, its average rating was about 0.7% of television households or 680,000 homes, and it aired on 384 PBS stations. At its peak in 1985–1986, its ratings were 2.1%, or 1.8 million homes.The last original episode aired in 2001, but PBS continued to air reruns, and by 2016 it was the third-longest-running program in PBS history. Many of the sets and props inMister Rogers' Neighborhood, like the trolley, the sneakers, and the castle, were created for Rogers' show in Toronto by CBC designers and producers. The program also \"incorporated most of the highly imaginative elements that later became famous\",such as its slow pace and its host's quiet manner.The format ofMister Rogers'","ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood\"remained virtually unchanged\" for the entire run of the program.Every episode begins with a camera's-eye view of a model of a neighborhood, then panning in closer to a representation of a house while a piano instrumental of the theme song, \"Won't You be My Neighbor?\", performed by music directorJohnny Costaand inspired by a Beethoven sonata, is played.The camera zooms in to a model representing Mr. Rogers' house, then cuts to the house's interior and pans across the room to the front door, which Rogers opens as he sings the theme song to greet his visitors while changing his suit jacket to a cardigan (knitted by his mother)and his dress shoes to sneakers, \"complete with a shoe tossed from one hand to another\".The episode's theme is introduced, and Mr. Rogers leaves his home to visit another location, the camera panning back to the neighborhood model and zooming in to the new location as he enters it. Once this segment ends, Mr. Rogers leaves and returns to his home, indicating","home, indicating that it is time to visit the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Mr. Rogers proceeds to the window seat by the trolley track and sets up the action there as the Trolley comes out. The camera follows it down a tunnel in the back wall of the house as it enters the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. The stories and lessons take place over a week's worth of episodes and involve puppets and human characters. The end of the visit occurs when the Trolley returns to the same tunnel from which it emerged, reappearing in Mr. Rogers' home. He then talks to the viewers before concluding the episode. He often feeds his fish, cleans up any props he has used, and returns to the front room, where he sings the closing song while changing back into his dress shoes and jacket. He exits the front door as he ends the song, and the camera zooms out of his home and pans across the neighborhood model as the episode ends. Mister Rogers' Neighborhoodemphasized young children's social and emotional needs, and unlike another PBS","unlike another PBS show,Sesame Street, which premiered in 1969, did not focus on cognitive learning.Writer Kathy Merlock Jackson said, \"While both shows target the same preschool audience and prepare children for kindergarten,Sesame Streetconcentrates on school-readiness skills whileMister Rogers Neighborhoodfocuses on the child's developing psyche and feelings and sense of moral and ethical reasoning\".TheNeighborhoodalso spent fewer resources on research thanSesame Street, but Rogers used early childhood education concepts taught by his mentor Margaret McFarland,Benjamin Spock,Erik Erikson, andT. Berry Brazeltonin his lessons.AsThe Washington Postnoted, Rogers taught young children about civility, tolerance, sharing, and self-worth \"in a reassuring tone and leisurely cadence\".He tackled difficult topics such as the death of a family pet, sibling rivalry, the addition of a newborn into a family, moving and enrolling in a new school, and divorce.For example, he wrote a special segment that dealt with","that dealt with theassassination of Robert F. Kennedythat aired on June 7, 1968, two days after the assassination occurred. According to King, the process of putting each episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodtogether was \"painstaking\"and Rogers' contribution to the program was \"astounding\". Rogers wrote and edited all the episodes, played the piano and sang for most of the songs, wrote 200 songs and 13 operas, created all the characters (both puppet and human), played most of the significant puppet roles, hosted every episode, and produced and approved every detail of the program.The puppets created for the Neighborhood of Make-Believe \"included an extraordinary variety of personalities\".They were simple puppets but \"complex, complicated, and utterly honest beings\".In 1971, Rogers formed Family Communications, Inc. (FCI, nowThe Fred Rogers Company), to produce theNeighborhood, other programs, and non-broadcast materials. In 1975, Rogers stopped producingMr. Rogers' Neighborhoodto focus on adult programming.","adult programming. Reruns of theNeighborhoodcontinued to air on PBS.King reports that the decision caught many of his coworkers and supporters \"off guard\".Rogers continued to confer with McFarland about child development and early childhood education, however.In 1979, after an almost five-year hiatus, Rogers returned to producing theNeighborhood; King calls the new version \"stronger and more sophisticated than ever\".King writes that by the program's second run in the 1980s, it was \"such a cultural touchstone that it had inspired numerous parodies\",most notablyEddie Murphy's parody onSaturday Night Livein the early 1980s. Rogers retired from producing theNeighborhoodin 2001 at age 73, although reruns continued to air. He and FCI had been making about two or three weeks of new programs per year for many years, \"filling the rest of his time slots from a library of about 300 shows made since 1979\".The final original episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodaired on August 31, 2001. Other work and appearances In","and appearances In 1969, Rogers testified before theU.S. SenateSubcommittee on Communications, which was chaired by Democratic SenatorJohn Pastoreof Rhode Island. U.S. PresidentLyndon Johnsonhad proposed a $20 million bill for the creation of PBS before he left office, but his successor,Richard Nixon, wanted to cut the funding to $10 million.Even though Rogers was not yet nationally known, he was chosen to testify because of his ability to make persuasive arguments and to connect emotionally with his audience. The clip of Rogers' testimony, which was televised and has since been viewed by millions of people on the internet, helped to secure funding for PBS for many years afterward.According to King, Rogers' testimony was \"considered one of the most powerful pieces of testimony ever offered before Congress, and one of the most powerful pieces of video presentation ever filmed\".It brought Pastore to tears and also, according to King, has been studied by public relations experts and academics.Congressional","funding for PBS increased from $9 million to $22 million.In 1970, Nixon appointed Rogers as chair of theWhite House Conference on Children and Youth. In 1978, while on hiatus fromMister Rogers' Neighborhood, Rogers wrote, produced, and hosted a 30-minute interview program for adults on PBS calledOld Friends... New Friends.It lasted 20 episodes. Rogers' guests includedHoagy Carmichael,Helen Hayes,Milton Berle,Lorin Hollander, poetRobert Frost's daughter Lesley, andWillie Stargell. In September 1987, Rogers visited Moscow to appear as the first guest on the long-running Soviet children's TV showGood Night, Little Ones!with hostTatyana Vedeneyeva.The appearance was broadcast in the Soviet Union on December 7, coinciding with theWashington Summitmeeting between Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachevand U.S. PresidentRonald Reaganin Washington, D.C.Vedeneyeva visited the set ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin November. Her visit was taped and later aired in March 1988 as part of Rogers' program.In 1994, Rogers wrote,","1994, Rogers wrote, produced, and hosted a special for PBS calledFred Rogers' Heroes, which featured interviews and portraits of four people from across the country who were having a positive impact on children and education.The first time Rogers appeared on television as an actor, and not himself, was in a 1996 episode ofDr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, playing a preacher. Rogers gave \"scores of interviews\".Though reluctant to appear on television talk shows, he would usually \"charm the host with his quick wit and ability to ad-lib on a moment's notice\".Rogers was \"one of the country's most sought-after commencement speakers\",making over 150 speeches.His friend and colleague David Newell reported that Rogers would \"agonize over a speech\",and King reported that Rogers was at his least guarded during his speeches, which were about children, television, education, his view of the world, how to make the world a better place, and his quest for self-knowledge. His tone was quiet and informal but \"commanded","but \"commanded attention\".In many speeches, including the ones he made accepting aLifetime Achievement Emmyin 1997,for his induction into the Television Hall of Fame in 1999,and his final commencement speech at Dartmouth College in 2002, he instructed his audiences to remain silent and think for a moment about someone who had a good influence on them. Personal life Rogers metSara Joanne Byrd(called \"Joanne\") fromJacksonville, Florida, while attending Rollins College. They were married from 1952 until he died in 2003. They had two sons, James and John.Joanne Rogerswas \"an accomplished pianist\"who, like Fred, earned a Bachelor of Music from Rollins, and went on to earn a Master of Music fromFlorida State University. She performed publicly with her college classmate, Jeannine Morrison, from 1976 to 2008.According to biographer Maxwell King, Rogers' close associates said he was \"absolutely faithful to his marriage vows\". Rogers was red-greencolor-blind.He became apescatarianin 1970, after the death of his","the death of his father, and a vegetarian in the early 1980s,saying he \"couldn't eat anything that had a mother\".He became a co-owner ofVegetarian Timesin the mid-1980sand said in one issue, \"I love tofu burgers and beets\".He toldVegetarian Timesthat he became a vegetarian for both ethical and health reasons.According to his biographer Maxwell King, Rogers also signed his name to a statementprotesting wearing animal furs. Rogers was a registeredRepublican, but according to Joanne Rogers, he was \"very independent in the way he voted\", choosing not to talk about politics because he wanted to be impartial. Rogers was aPresbyterian, and many of the messages he expressed inMister Rogers' Neighborhoodwere inspired by the core tenets of Christianity. Rogers rarely spoke about his faith on air; he believed that teaching through example was as powerful as preaching. He said, \"You don't need to speak overtly about religion in order to get a message across\". According to writer Shea Tuttle, Rogers considered his faith","his faith a fundamental part of his personality and \"called the space between the viewer and the television set 'holy ground'\". He also studiedCatholic mysticism,Judaism,Buddhism, and other faiths and cultures.King called him \"that unique television star with a real spiritual life\",emphasizing the values of patience, reflection, and \"silence in a noisy world\". King reported that despite Rogers' family's wealth, he cared little about making money, and lived frugally, especially as he and his wife grew older.King reported that Rogers' relationship with his young audience was important to him. For example, since hostingMisterogersin Canada, he answered every letter sent to him by hand. AfterMister Rogers' Neighborhoodbegan airing in the U.S., the letters increased in volume, and he hired staff member and producer Hedda Sharapan to answer them, but he read, edited, and signed each one. King wrote that Rogers saw responding to his viewers' letters as \"a pastoral duty of sorts\". The New York Timescalled Rogers \"a","Rogers \"a dedicated lap-swimmer\",andTom Junod, author of \"Can You Say... Hero?\", the 1998Esquireprofile of Rogers, said, \"Nearly every morning of his life, Mister Rogers has gone swimming\".Rogers began swimming when he was a child at his family's vacation home outside Latrobe, where they owned a pool, and during their winter trips to Florida. King wrote that swimming and playing the piano were \"lifelong passions\" and that \"both gave him a chance to feel capable and in charge of his destiny\",and that swimming became \"an important part of the strong sense of self-discipline he cultivated\". Rogers swam daily at thePittsburgh Athletic Association, after waking every morning between 4:30 and 5:30 A.M. to pray and to \"read the Bible and prepare himself for the day\".He did not smoke or drink.According to Junod, he did nothing to change his weight from the 143 pounds (65 kg) he weighed for most of his adult life; by 1998, this also included napping daily, going to bed at 9:30 P.M., and sleeping eight hours per night","hours per night without interruption. Junod said Rogers saw his weight \"as a destiny fulfilled\", telling Junod, \"the number 143 means 'I love you.' It takes one letter to say 'I' and four letters to say 'love' and three letters to say 'you'\". Sexuality According to biographer Michael Long in a 2016HuffPostessay, Rogers' sexuality had long been a topic of curiosity due to his lack of traditional machismo.The 2018 documentaryWon't You Be My Neighbor?briefly addresses the subject, including an interview withFrançois Clemmons, the gay actor who played Officer Clemmons onMister Rogers' Neighborhood, who denied that Rogers was gay, saying that if he had a \"gay vibe\" he would have noticed it. In 2019, social media users shared an excerpt from the 2018 biographyThe Good Neighbor: The Life and Work of Fred Rogers, which recounts Rogers telling openly gay friend Dr. William Hirsch that he \"must be right smack in the middle\" of a one-to-ten sexuality scale, because \"I have found women attractive, and I have found men","I have found men attractive.\"This led some social media users to suggest that Rogers may have beenbisexual,although Long noted in his essay that there is no evidence that Rogers ever had sexual relations with men. Death and memorials After Rogers' retirement in 2001, he remained busy working with FCI, studying religion and spirituality, making public appearances, traveling, and working on a children's media center named after him atSaint Vincent Collegein Latrobe with ArchabbotDouglas Nowicki, chancellor of the college.By the summer of 2002, his chronic stomach pain became severe enough for him to see a doctor about it, and in October 2002, he was diagnosed with stomach cancer.He delayed treatment until after he served as Grand Marshal of the 2003Rose Parade, withArt LinkletterandBill Cosby, in January.On January 6, Rogers underwent stomach surgery. He died less than two months later, on February 27, 2003, less than a month short of his 75th birthdayat his home in Pittsburgh, with his wife of 50 years,","wife of 50 years, Joanne, at his side. While comatose shortly before his death, he received thelast rites of the Catholic ChurchfromArchabbotNowicki. The following day, thePittsburgh Post-Gazettecovered Rogers' death on the front page and dedicated an entire section to his death and impact.The newspaper also reported that by noon, the internet \"was already full of appreciative pieces\" by parents, viewers, producers, and writers.Rogers' death was widely lamented. Most U.S. metropolitan newspapers ran his obituary on their front page and some dedicated entire sections to coverage of his death.WQED aired programs about Rogers the evening he died; thePost-Gazettereported that the ratings for their coverage were three times higher than their normal ratings.That same evening,NightlineonABCbroadcast a rerun of a recent interview with Rogers; the program got the highest ratings of the day, beating the February average ratings ofLate Show with David LettermanandThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno.On March 4, theU.S. House","4, theU.S. House of Representativesunanimously passed a resolution honoring Rogers sponsored by RepresentativeMike Doylefrom Pennsylvania. On March 1, 2003, a private funeral was held for Rogers in Unity Chapel, which was restored by Rogers' father, at Unity Cemetery in Latrobe. About 80 relatives, co-workers, and close friends attended the service, which \"was planned in great secrecy so that those closest to him could grieve in private\".Reverend John McCall, pastor of the Rogers family's church, Sixth Presbyterian Church inSquirrel Hill, gave thehomily; Reverend William Barker, a retired Presbyterian minister who was a \"close friend of Mr. Rogers and the voice of Mr. Platypus on his show\",read Rogers' favorite Bible passages. Rogers was interred at Unity Cemetery in his hometown of Latrobe, Pennsylvania, in amausoleumowned by his mother's family. On May 3, 2003, a public memorial was held atHeinz Hallin Pittsburgh. According to thePost-Gazette, 2,700 people attended. ViolinistItzhak Perlman, cellistYo-Yo","cellistYo-Yo Ma(via video), and organistAlan Morrisonperformed in honor of Rogers. Barker officiated the service; also in attendance were Pittsburgh philanthropistElsie Hillman, formerGood Morning AmericahostDavid Hartman,The Very Hungry CaterpillarauthorEric Carle, andArthurcreatorMarc Brown. Businesswoman and philanthropistTeresa Heinz, PBS PresidentPat Mitchell, and executive director of The Pittsburgh Project Saleem Ghubril gave remarks.Jeff Erlanger, who at age 10 appeared onMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 1981 to explain his electric wheelchair, also spoke.The memorial was broadcast several times on Pittsburgh television stations and websites throughout the day. Legacy When I was a boy and I would see scary things in the news, my mother would say to me, \"Look for the helpers. You will always find people who are helping.\" To this day, especially in times of \"disaster\", I remember my mother's words and I am always comforted by realizing that there are still so many helpers—so many caring people in this","people in this world.—Fred Rogers Whenever a great tragedy strikes—war, famine, mass shootings, or even an outbreak of populist rage—millions of people turn to Fred's messages about life. Then the web is filled with his words and images. With fascinating frequency, his written messages and video clips surge across the internet, reaching hundreds of thousands of people who, confronted with a tough issue or ominous development, open themselves to Rogers' messages of quiet contemplation, of simplicity, of active listening and the practice of human kindness.—Rogers biographer Maxwell King Marc Brown, creator of another PBS children's show,Arthur, considered Rogers both a friend and \"a terrific role model for how to use television and the media to be helpful to kids and families\".Josh Selig, creator ofWonder Pets, credits Rogers with influencing his use of structure and predictability, and his use of music, opera, and originality. Rogers inspiredAngela Santomero, co-creator of the children's television showBlue's","showBlue's Clues, to earn a degree in developmental psychology and go into educational television.She and the other producers ofBlue's Cluesused many of Rogers' techniques, such as using child developmental and educational research and having the host speak directly to the camera and transition to a make-believe world.In 2006, three years after Rogers' death and the end of production ofBlue's Clues, the Fred Rogers Company contacted Santomero to create a show that would promote Rogers' legacy.In 2012,Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood, with characters from and based uponMister Rogers' Neighborhood, premiered on PBS. Rogers' style and approach to children's television and early childhood education also \"begged to be parodied\".Comedian Eddie Murphy parodiedMister Rogers' NeighborhoodonSaturday Night Liveduring the 1980s.Rogers told interviewerDavid Lettermanin 1982 that he believed parodies like Murphy's were done \"with kindness in their hearts\". Video of Rogers' 1969 testimony in defense of public programming has","programming has experienced a resurgence since 2012, goingviralat least twice. It first resurfaced after then presidential candidateMitt Romneysuggested cutting funding for PBS.In 2017, video of the testimony again went viral after PresidentDonald Trumpproposed defunding several arts-related government programs including PBS and theNational Endowment for the Arts. A roadside Pennsylvania Historical Marker dedicated to Rogers to be installed in Latrobe was approvedby the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission on March 4, 2014.It was installed on June 11, 2016, with the title \"Fred McFeely Rogers (1928–2003)\". Won't You Be My Neighbor?director Morgan Neville's 2018 documentary about Rogers' life, grossed over $22 million and became the top-grossing biographical documentary ever produced, the highest-grossing documentary in five years, and the twelfth-largest-grossing documentary ever made.The 2019 drama filmA Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodtells the story of Rogers and his television series, with Tom","series, with Tom Hanks portraying Rogers. According to Caitlin Gibson ofThe Washington Post, Rogers became a source for parenting advice; she called him \"a timeless oracle against a backdrop of ever-shifting parenting philosophies and cultural trends\".Robert Thompson ofSyracuse Universitynoted that Rogers \"took American childhood—and I think Americans in general—through some very turbulent and trying times\",from theVietnam Warand the assassination of Robert Kennedy in 1968 to the9/11 attacks in 2001. According to Asia Simone Burns ofNational Public Radio, in the years following the end of production onMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 2001 and his death in 2003, Rogers became \"a source of comfort, sometimes in the wake of tragedy\".Burns has said Rogers' words of comfort \"began circulating on social media\"following tragedies such as theSandy Hook Elementary School shootingin 2012, theManchester Arena bombingin Manchester, England, in 2017, and theStoneman Douglas High School shootingin Parkland, Florida, in 2018.","Florida, in 2018. Awards and honors Museum exhibits Art pieces Several pieces of art are dedicated to Rogers throughout Pittsburgh, including an eleven-foot (3.4 m) tall, 7,000-pound (3,200 kg) bronze statue of him in the North Shore neighborhood. In theOaklandneighborhood, his portrait is included in theMartin Luther King Jr.and \"Interpretations of Oakland\" murals. A dinosaur statue titled \"Fredasaurus Rex Friday XIII\" originally stood in front of the WQED building and, as of 2014, stood in front of the building containing the Fred Rogers Company offices. There is a \"Mister Rogers' Neighborhood of Make-Believe\" inIdlewild Parkand a kiosk ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodartifacts atPittsburgh International Airport.The Carnegie Science Center's Miniature Railroad and Village debuted a miniature recreation of Rogers' house fromMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 2005.In Rogers' hometown of Latrobe, a statue of Rogers on a bench is situated in James H. Rogers Park—a park named for Rogers' father.In 2021,A Beautiful Day","Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood—a seven-foot (2.1 m) tall, 3,000-pound (1,400 kg) bronze statue byPaul Day—was dedicated at Rollins College. The memorial depicts Rogers and Daniel Tiger speaking with a group of children and features lyrics fromMister Rogers' Neighborhood'stheme on the base. Honorary degrees Rogers has received honorary degrees from over 43 colleges and universities. After 1973, two commemorative quilts, created by two of Rogers' friends and archived at the Fred Rogers Center at St. Vincent College in Latrobe, were made out of the academic hoods he received during the graduation ceremonies. Note: Much of the below list is taken from \"Honorary Degrees Awarded to Fred Rogers\",unless otherwise stated. Filmography Television Published works Children's books Songbooks Books for adults Discography See also Notes References Works cited External links","A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodis a 2019 Americanbiographicaldrama filmon the TV presenterFred Rogers, directed byMarielle Hellerand written byMicah Fitzerman-BlueandNoah Harpster, inspired by the 1998 article \"Can You Say... Hero?\" byTom Junod, published inEsquire. It starsTom Hanks,Matthew Rhys,Susan Kelechi Watson, andChris Cooper. It depicts Lloyd Vogel (Rhys), a troubled journalist forEsquirewho is assigned to profile television icon Fred Rogers (Hanks). The film premiered at theToronto International Film Festivalon September 7, 2019, and was theatrically released in the United States on November 22, 2019, bySony Pictures Releasing. It grossed $68 million worldwide. Critics praised Hanks and Rhys's performances, Heller's direction, and its heart-warming messages. It was chosen byTimemagazineas one of the ten best films of the year.For his performance, Hanks was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at theAcademy Awards, as well as theGolden Globes,Critics'","Globes,Critics' Choice,Screen Actors Guild Awards, andBAFTA Awards, among others. Plot In 1998, at the beginning of an episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood,Mr. Rogersdisplays a picture board with five doors. Three of the doors are opened to reveal the familiar faces ofLady Aberlin,King Friday, andMr. McFeely. The fourth door is opened to reveal the face of Mr. Rogers' troubled new friend, Lloyd Vogel, who has a black eye and a cut near his nose. Mr. Rogers explains that Lloyd has been hurt (and not necessarily on his face), and he is struggling to forgive the one who hurt him. After explaining what forgiveness means, Mr. Rogers leaves to visit Lloyd. Lloyd Vogel is anEsquirejournalist known for his cynical writing. He is nervous to attend his sister Lorraine's third wedding because his estranged father, Jerry, against whom he has long held a grudge, is also attending. However, he attends with his wife Andrea and their newborn son, Gavin. During the reception, Lloyd is approached by Jerry, who notes his","who notes his son’s new family. When Jerry makes a joke about Lloyd's deceased mother Lila -- whom he cheated on and abandoned when she was dying of cancer twenty years earlier -- this enrages Lloyd into punching his father and starting a chaotic brawl, in which he is punched against the wall by another guest, explaining the scar on his face. Lloyd's editor, Ellen, assigns him to interview children's television presenter Fred Rogers for a 400-word article about heroes. Lloyd feels that the assignment is beneath him, but is informed that none of the other heroes were willing to talk to him. Still cynical, Lloyd questions whether Mister Rogers is \"for real\". Lloyd travels to theWQEDstudio inPittsburghto interview him. Rogers is dismissive of his fame and displays concern for Lloyd's nose injury. With coaxing, he relates some of the issues with his father, whose apology and attempt at reconciliation Lloyd has rebuffed. Rogers tells him his ways of dealing with anger, including striking the keys of a piano.","keys of a piano. Determined to expose Rogers' friendly persona as an act, Lloyd watches several episodes of Rogers' show, but cannot discern anything. Interviewing Rogers again when he visits New York, seemingly dodging Lloyd's questions, he reminisces about raising his two sons. Fred takes out his puppets and asks Lloyd about his childhood rabbit stuffed animal and his father, provoking Lloyd into ending the interview. Lloyd arrives home to find Jerry and his wife Dorothy having brought pizza while talking with Andrea. They have a tense argument over Jerry’s absence during Lila’s cancer progression and his self-development since. As Lloyd relates how his mother suffered hysterically in her last moments with only him and his sister present, Jerry suffers a heart attack and is transported to the hospital. Faced with his resurgent trauma at staying overnight at the hospital for Jerry, Lloyd decides to go to Pittsburgh to see Rogers for counsel under the guise of work against Andrea’s protests. Exhausted on","Exhausted on arriving, he envisions himself as Rogers’ guest, being asked about hospitals. Next, he finds himself wearing rabbit ears and shrunken to the size ofDaniel Striped TigerandKing Friday XIII, while Rogers and Andrea (as Lady Aberlin) tower over him. Finally, Lloyd also dreams about Lila, who gently recognizes his anger being for her memory, but assures him that she doesn’t need it. Lloyd awakens to find he collapsed on set. Rogers and his wife, Joanne, bring Lloyd to their home to recuperate. The men later go to a restaurant, where Rogers asks Lloyd to spend one minute thinking about the people who \"loved him into being\", and encourages him to forgive Jerry. Lloyd apologizes to Andrea for leaving her and Gavin at the hospital and visits Jerry and Dorothy at their home. He learns Jerry is dying of cardiacstenosis, and that is why Jerry attempted to reconnect with Lloyd. Lloyd forgives him, promises to be a better father, and writes an article about Rogers' impact on his life. Dorothy tells Lloyd","Dorothy tells Lloyd that Jerry had never mentioned his previous marriage or children until recently, after he became ill. Lorraine, her husband Todd, and Rogers visit Jerry. Rogers asks Jerry to pray for him before he departs. Jerry dies shortly after Rogers' visit and Lloyd's 10,000-word article, \"Can You Say... Hero?\" is published asEsquire's cover story. At his studio, Rogers finishes the episode he was earlier working on, opening the fifth and final door on his picture board, revealing a picture of Lloyd happily reunited with his family. As the production ends, Mr. Rogers plays the piano alone, stops, strikes the keys in frustration, and resumes playing. Cast Additional cast members includeCarmen Cusackas Margy, a producer ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood;Jessica Hechtas Lila Vogel, Lloyd's late mother and Jerry's ex-wife;Maddie CormanasBetty Aberlin, an actress starring as Lady Aberlin onMister Rogers' Neighborhood; Daniel Krell as Mr. McFeely; and Jordan, Naomi, and Zoey Harsh as Gavin Vogel, Lloyd's son.","Vogel, Lloyd's son. Notable cameos in the film include Rogers' wife Joanne, Mr. McFeely actorDavid Newell, Family Communications head Bill Isler, andMister Rogers' Neighborhoodproducer Margy Whitmerwho appear as customers in a restaurant that Rogers and Lloyd meet in.Arsenio HallandOprah Winfreymake uncredited appearances in archive footage of talk shows that Lloyd watches in the film, and Fred Rogers appears in archive footage of his show during the ending credits, singing the song \"You've Got to Do It\". Production Development On January 29, 2018, it was announced thatSony'sTriStar Pictureshad bought the worldwide distribution rights to the filmYou Are My Friend, a biographical film based on a 1998Esquiremagazine article about television personalityFred Rogers, who would be played byTom Hanks.The script by Micah Fitzerman-Blue andNoah Harpsterappeared on the 2013Black Listof best unproduced screenplays. It would be directed byMarielle Heller; its producers would beBig Beach'sMarc TurtletaubandPeter","TurtletaubandPeter Sarafalong with Youree Henley. In July 2018,Matthew Rhyssigned to play journalist Lloyd Vogel, with production set to start in September 2018. Being Welsh, Rhys had never heard of Fred Rogers before he was offered the role.In August 2018,Chris Cooperwas added to play Vogel's father;and in September,Susan Kelechi Watsonwas added.In October 2018,Enrico Colantoni,Maryann Plunkett,Tammy Blanchard,Wendy Makkena,Sakina Jaffrey,Carmen Cusack, Harpster andMaddie Cormanjoined the cast.In 2018, Nate Heller was chosen to score the film. Filming Principal photographybegan on September 10, 2018, inPittsburgh, with several sets converted intoNew York City.Filming also took place in the Fred Rogers Studio atWQED (TV)where the late television host recordedMister Rogers' Neighborhood, and at the Jewish Community Center inSquirrel Hill. The crew consulted with original crew members from Rogers' television series, and brought in the same cameras and monitors used in the original production.The film received","film received tax credits of approximately $9.5 million against a production budget of $45 million for filming in Pittsburgh.Production wrapped on November 9, 2018. On October 12, 2018, sound mixer James Emswillerhad a heart attack and fell from a second-story balcony. He was taken toUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center-Mercy, where he was pronounced dead. Release A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodpremiered at theToronto International Film Festivalon September 7, 2019.It was originally going to be released on October 18, 2019 bySony Pictures Releasing,but in May 2018 was pushed back a month to November 22, 2019.It was released in China on September 18, 2020, after the country reopened theaters followingCOVID-19 pandemic lockdowns. Marketing The film's title was announced on December 27, 2018.The trailer was released on July 22, 2019. Home media The film was released bySony Pictures Home EntertainmentonDigital HDon February 4, 2020, and onUltra HD Blu-ray,Blu-rayandDVDon February 18. Reception Box office","Box office A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodgrossed $61.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $6.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $68.4 million, against a production budget of $25 million. In the United States and Canada, it was released alongsideFrozen IIand21 Bridges, and was projected to gross around $15 million from 3,231 theaters in its opening weekend.It made $4.5 million on its first day, including $900,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $13.3 million, finishing third at the box office.It fell just 11% in its second weekend, making $11.8 million and finishing fifth, and remained in fifth place the following weekend with $5.2 million. Critical response On review aggregation websiteRotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 95% based on 372 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"Much like the beloved TV personality that inspired it,A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodoffers a powerfully","a powerfully affecting message about acceptance and understanding.\"OnMetacritic, the film has aweighted averagescore of 80 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film an average grade of \"A\" on an A+ to F scale, while those atPostTrakgave it an average four out of five stars, with 66% saying they would definitely recommend it. Steve Pond ofTheWrapwrote: \"A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodfinds a gentle state of grace and shows the courage and smarts to stay in that zone, never rushing things or playing for drama... But just as Mr. Rogers used his show to talk about big issues with children in a tone that was softer and more halting than you'd expect given the subject matter, so does Heller stick to understatement in a way that threatens to become dull or sappy but never does.\"Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianwrote: \"It's a given that Hanks will nab at least a best supporting actor nomination but it would be all too easy to forget his","easy to forget his co-star. The cynic-becomes-a-believer arc is age old but it unfolds here without cliche thanks to an emotionally intelligent script from Noah Harpster and Micah Fitzerman-Blue, but mainly because of a marvelous, prickly turn from Rhys.\" Armond Whiteof theNational Reviewwas more critical: \"Heller and screenwriters Micah Fitzerman-Blue and Noah Harpster don't show enough faith in Rogers' remedies—and not enough interest in their religious origins. In short, the movie seems wary of faith (it briefly mentions that Rogers was an ordained minister) and settles for secular sentimentality to account for his sensibility and behavior. This not only weakens the film, but it also hobbles Hanks's characterization.\" Accolades References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Fred Rogers Fred McFeely Rogers(March 20, 1928 – February 27, 2003), better known asMister Rogers, was an American television host, author, producer, andPresbyterianminister.He was the creator, showrunner, and host of the preschool television seriesMister Rogers' Neighborhood, which ran from 1968 to 2001. Born inLatrobe, Pennsylvania, Rogers earned a bachelor's degree in music fromRollins Collegein 1951. He began his television career atNBCin New York City, returning to Pittsburgh in 1953 to work for children's programming at NET (laterPBS) television stationWQED. He graduated fromPittsburgh Theological Seminarywith a bachelor's degree in divinity in 1962 and became a Presbyterian minister in 1963. He attended theUniversity of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Child Development, where he began his thirty-year collaboration with child psychologistMargaret McFarland. He also helped develop the children's showsThe Children's Corner(1955) for WQED in Pittsburgh andMisterogers(1963) in Canada for theCanadian\",\n \"for theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation. In 1968, he returned to Pittsburgh and adapted the format of his Canadian series to createMister Rogers' Neighborhood.It ran for 33 years and was critically acclaimed for focusing on children's emotional and physical concerns, such as death, sibling rivalry, school enrollment, and divorce. Rogers died ofstomach cancerin 2003, aged 74. His work in children's television has been widely lauded, and he received more than forty honorary degrees and several awards, including aLifetime Achievement Emmyin 1997 and thePresidential Medal of Freedomin 2002. He was inducted into theTelevision Hall of Famein 1999. Rogers influenced many writers and producers of children's television shows, and his broadcasts provided comfort during tragic events, even after his death. Early life Rogers was born in 1928, at 705 Main Street inLatrobe, Pennsylvania.His father, James Hillis Rogers, was \\\"a very successful businessman\\\"who was president of the McFeely Brick Company, one of Latrobe's\",\n \"one of Latrobe's most prominent businesses. His mother, Nancy (née McFeely), knitted sweaters for American soldiers from western Pennsylvania who were fighting in Europe and regularly volunteered at the Latrobe Hospital. Initially dreaming of becoming a doctor, she settled for a life of hospital volunteer work. Her father, Fred Brooks McFeely, after whom Rogers was named, was an entrepreneur. Rogers grew up in a large three-story brick house at 737 Weldon Street in Latrobe.He had a sister, Elaine, whom the Rogerses adopted when he was eleven years old.Rogers spent much of his childhood alone, playing with puppets, and also spent time with his grandfather. He began playing the piano when he was five.Through an ancestor who immigrated from Germany to the U.S., Johannes Meffert (born 1732), Rogers is the sixth cousin of actorTom Hanks, who portrays him in the filmA Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood(2019). Rogers had a difficult childhood. Shy, introverted, and overweight, he was frequently homebound after\",\n \"homebound after suffering bouts ofasthma.He was bullied as a child for his weight and called \\\"Fat Freddy\\\".According toMorgan Neville, director of the 2018 documentaryWon't You Be My Neighbor?, Rogers had a \\\"lonely childhood... I think he made friends with himself as much as he could. He had aventriloquist dummy, he had animals, and he would create his own worlds in his childhood bedroom\\\". Rogers attendedLatrobe High School, where he overcame his shyness.\\\"It was tough for me at the beginning,\\\" Rogers told NPR'sTerry Grossin 1984, \\\"and then I made a couple friends who found out that the core of me was okay. And one of them was... the head of the football team\\\".Rogers became president of the student council, a member of theNational Honor Society, and editor-in-chief of the schoolyearbook.He registered for the draft inGreensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1948 at age 20, where he was classified 1-A (available for military service);however, his status was changed to unqualified for military service following an Armed\",\n \"following an Armed Forces physical on October 12, 1950.He attendedDartmouth Collegefor one year before transferring toRollins College,where he graduatedmagna cum laudein 1951 with aBachelor of Music. He then attendedPittsburgh Theological Seminary, from which he graduatedmagna cum laudein 1962 with aBachelor of Divinity, and was ordained a Presbyterian minister by the Pittsburgh Presbytery of theUnited Presbyterian Churchin 1963.His work as an ordained minister, rather than to pastor a church, was to minister to children and their families through television. He regularly appeared before church officials to maintain his ordination. Career Early work Rogers wanted to enterseminaryafter college,but instead chose to go into the nascent medium of television after experiencing TV at his parents' home in 1951, during his senior year at Rollins College.In aCNNinterview, he said, \\\"I went into television because I hated it so, and I thought there's some way of using this fabulous instrument to nurture those who would\",\n \"those who would watch and listen\\\".After graduating in 1951, he worked atNBCin New York City as floor director ofYour Hit Parade,The Kate Smith Hour, andGabby Hayes's children's show, and as an assistant producer ofThe Voice of Firestone. In 1953, Rogers returned to Pittsburgh to work as a program developer atpublic televisionstationWQED.Josie Careyworked with him to develop the children's showThe Children's Corner, which Carey hosted. Rogers worked off-camera to develop puppets, characters, and music for the show. He used many puppet characters developed during this time, such as Daniel the Striped Tiger (named after WQED's station manager, Dorothy Daniel, who gave Rogers a tiger puppet before the show's premiere),King Friday XIII, Queen Sara Saturday (named after Rogers' wife),X the Owl, Henrietta, and Lady Elaine, in his later work.Children's television entertainerErnie Coombswas an assistant puppeteer.The Children's Cornerwon aSylvania Awardfor best locally produced children's programming in 1955 and was\",\n \"in 1955 and was broadcast nationally on NBC.While working on the show, Rogers attended Pittsburgh Theological Seminary and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1963. He also attended theUniversity of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Child Development,where he began working with child psychologistMargaret McFarland—who, according to Rogers' biographer Maxwell King, became his \\\"key advisor and collaborator\\\" and \\\"child-education guru\\\".Much of Rogers' \\\"thinking about and appreciation for children was shaped and informed\\\" by McFarland.She was his consultant for most ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood's scripts and songs for 30 years. In 1963, theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation(CBC) in Toronto contracted Rogers to come to Toronto to develop and host the 15-minute black-and-white children's programMisterogers;it lasted from 1963 to 1967.It was the first time Rogers appeared on camera. CBC's children's programming head Fred Rainsberry insisted on it, telling Rogers, \\\"Fred, I've seen you talk with kids. Let's put\",\n \"kids. Let's put you yourself on the air\\\".Coombs joined Rogers in Toronto as an assistant puppeteer.Rogers also worked with Coombs on the children's showButternut Squarefrom 1964 to 1967. Rogers acquired the rights toMisterogersin 1967 and returned to Pittsburgh with his wife, two young sons, and the sets he developed, despite a potentially promising career with CBC and no job prospects in Pittsburgh.On Rogers' recommendation, Coombs remained in Toronto and became Rogers' Canadian equivalent of an iconic television personality, creating the children's programMr. Dressup, which ran from 1967 to 1996.Rogers' work for CBC \\\"helped shape and develop the concept and style of his later program for the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) in the U.S.\\\" Mister Rogers' Neighborhood Mister Rogers' Neighborhood(also called theNeighborhood), a half-hour educational children's program starring Rogers, began airing nationally in 1968 and ran for 895 episodes.It was videotaped at WQED in Pittsburgh and broadcast byNational\",\n \"byNational Educational Television(NET), which later became thePublic Broadcasting Service(PBS).Its first season had 180 black-and-white episodes. Each subsequent season, filmed in color and funded by PBS, theSears-RoebuckFoundation, and other charities, consisted of 65 episodes.By the time it ended production in December 2000, its average rating was about 0.7% of television households or 680,000 homes, and it aired on 384 PBS stations. At its peak in 1985–1986, its ratings were 2.1%, or 1.8 million homes.The last original episode aired in 2001, but PBS continued to air reruns, and by 2016 it was the third-longest-running program in PBS history. Many of the sets and props inMister Rogers' Neighborhood, like the trolley, the sneakers, and the castle, were created for Rogers' show in Toronto by CBC designers and producers. The program also \\\"incorporated most of the highly imaginative elements that later became famous\\\",such as its slow pace and its host's quiet manner.The format ofMister Rogers'\",\n \"ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood\\\"remained virtually unchanged\\\" for the entire run of the program.Every episode begins with a camera's-eye view of a model of a neighborhood, then panning in closer to a representation of a house while a piano instrumental of the theme song, \\\"Won't You be My Neighbor?\\\", performed by music directorJohnny Costaand inspired by a Beethoven sonata, is played.The camera zooms in to a model representing Mr. Rogers' house, then cuts to the house's interior and pans across the room to the front door, which Rogers opens as he sings the theme song to greet his visitors while changing his suit jacket to a cardigan (knitted by his mother)and his dress shoes to sneakers, \\\"complete with a shoe tossed from one hand to another\\\".The episode's theme is introduced, and Mr. Rogers leaves his home to visit another location, the camera panning back to the neighborhood model and zooming in to the new location as he enters it. Once this segment ends, Mr. Rogers leaves and returns to his home, indicating\",\n \"home, indicating that it is time to visit the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Mr. Rogers proceeds to the window seat by the trolley track and sets up the action there as the Trolley comes out. The camera follows it down a tunnel in the back wall of the house as it enters the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. The stories and lessons take place over a week's worth of episodes and involve puppets and human characters. The end of the visit occurs when the Trolley returns to the same tunnel from which it emerged, reappearing in Mr. Rogers' home. He then talks to the viewers before concluding the episode. He often feeds his fish, cleans up any props he has used, and returns to the front room, where he sings the closing song while changing back into his dress shoes and jacket. He exits the front door as he ends the song, and the camera zooms out of his home and pans across the neighborhood model as the episode ends. Mister Rogers' Neighborhoodemphasized young children's social and emotional needs, and unlike another PBS\",\n \"unlike another PBS show,Sesame Street, which premiered in 1969, did not focus on cognitive learning.Writer Kathy Merlock Jackson said, \\\"While both shows target the same preschool audience and prepare children for kindergarten,Sesame Streetconcentrates on school-readiness skills whileMister Rogers Neighborhoodfocuses on the child's developing psyche and feelings and sense of moral and ethical reasoning\\\".TheNeighborhoodalso spent fewer resources on research thanSesame Street, but Rogers used early childhood education concepts taught by his mentor Margaret McFarland,Benjamin Spock,Erik Erikson, andT. Berry Brazeltonin his lessons.AsThe Washington Postnoted, Rogers taught young children about civility, tolerance, sharing, and self-worth \\\"in a reassuring tone and leisurely cadence\\\".He tackled difficult topics such as the death of a family pet, sibling rivalry, the addition of a newborn into a family, moving and enrolling in a new school, and divorce.For example, he wrote a special segment that dealt with\",\n \"that dealt with theassassination of Robert F. Kennedythat aired on June 7, 1968, two days after the assassination occurred. According to King, the process of putting each episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodtogether was \\\"painstaking\\\"and Rogers' contribution to the program was \\\"astounding\\\". Rogers wrote and edited all the episodes, played the piano and sang for most of the songs, wrote 200 songs and 13 operas, created all the characters (both puppet and human), played most of the significant puppet roles, hosted every episode, and produced and approved every detail of the program.The puppets created for the Neighborhood of Make-Believe \\\"included an extraordinary variety of personalities\\\".They were simple puppets but \\\"complex, complicated, and utterly honest beings\\\".In 1971, Rogers formed Family Communications, Inc. (FCI, nowThe Fred Rogers Company), to produce theNeighborhood, other programs, and non-broadcast materials. In 1975, Rogers stopped producingMr. Rogers' Neighborhoodto focus on adult programming.\",\n \"adult programming. Reruns of theNeighborhoodcontinued to air on PBS.King reports that the decision caught many of his coworkers and supporters \\\"off guard\\\".Rogers continued to confer with McFarland about child development and early childhood education, however.In 1979, after an almost five-year hiatus, Rogers returned to producing theNeighborhood; King calls the new version \\\"stronger and more sophisticated than ever\\\".King writes that by the program's second run in the 1980s, it was \\\"such a cultural touchstone that it had inspired numerous parodies\\\",most notablyEddie Murphy's parody onSaturday Night Livein the early 1980s. Rogers retired from producing theNeighborhoodin 2001 at age 73, although reruns continued to air. He and FCI had been making about two or three weeks of new programs per year for many years, \\\"filling the rest of his time slots from a library of about 300 shows made since 1979\\\".The final original episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodaired on August 31, 2001. Other work and appearances In\",\n \"and appearances In 1969, Rogers testified before theU.S. SenateSubcommittee on Communications, which was chaired by Democratic SenatorJohn Pastoreof Rhode Island. U.S. PresidentLyndon Johnsonhad proposed a $20 million bill for the creation of PBS before he left office, but his successor,Richard Nixon, wanted to cut the funding to $10 million.Even though Rogers was not yet nationally known, he was chosen to testify because of his ability to make persuasive arguments and to connect emotionally with his audience. The clip of Rogers' testimony, which was televised and has since been viewed by millions of people on the internet, helped to secure funding for PBS for many years afterward.According to King, Rogers' testimony was \\\"considered one of the most powerful pieces of testimony ever offered before Congress, and one of the most powerful pieces of video presentation ever filmed\\\".It brought Pastore to tears and also, according to King, has been studied by public relations experts and academics.Congressional\",\n \"funding for PBS increased from $9 million to $22 million.In 1970, Nixon appointed Rogers as chair of theWhite House Conference on Children and Youth. In 1978, while on hiatus fromMister Rogers' Neighborhood, Rogers wrote, produced, and hosted a 30-minute interview program for adults on PBS calledOld Friends... New Friends.It lasted 20 episodes. Rogers' guests includedHoagy Carmichael,Helen Hayes,Milton Berle,Lorin Hollander, poetRobert Frost's daughter Lesley, andWillie Stargell. In September 1987, Rogers visited Moscow to appear as the first guest on the long-running Soviet children's TV showGood Night, Little Ones!with hostTatyana Vedeneyeva.The appearance was broadcast in the Soviet Union on December 7, coinciding with theWashington Summitmeeting between Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachevand U.S. PresidentRonald Reaganin Washington, D.C.Vedeneyeva visited the set ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin November. Her visit was taped and later aired in March 1988 as part of Rogers' program.In 1994, Rogers wrote,\",\n \"1994, Rogers wrote, produced, and hosted a special for PBS calledFred Rogers' Heroes, which featured interviews and portraits of four people from across the country who were having a positive impact on children and education.The first time Rogers appeared on television as an actor, and not himself, was in a 1996 episode ofDr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, playing a preacher. Rogers gave \\\"scores of interviews\\\".Though reluctant to appear on television talk shows, he would usually \\\"charm the host with his quick wit and ability to ad-lib on a moment's notice\\\".Rogers was \\\"one of the country's most sought-after commencement speakers\\\",making over 150 speeches.His friend and colleague David Newell reported that Rogers would \\\"agonize over a speech\\\",and King reported that Rogers was at his least guarded during his speeches, which were about children, television, education, his view of the world, how to make the world a better place, and his quest for self-knowledge. His tone was quiet and informal but \\\"commanded\",\n \"but \\\"commanded attention\\\".In many speeches, including the ones he made accepting aLifetime Achievement Emmyin 1997,for his induction into the Television Hall of Fame in 1999,and his final commencement speech at Dartmouth College in 2002, he instructed his audiences to remain silent and think for a moment about someone who had a good influence on them. Personal life Rogers metSara Joanne Byrd(called \\\"Joanne\\\") fromJacksonville, Florida, while attending Rollins College. They were married from 1952 until he died in 2003. They had two sons, James and John.Joanne Rogerswas \\\"an accomplished pianist\\\"who, like Fred, earned a Bachelor of Music from Rollins, and went on to earn a Master of Music fromFlorida State University. She performed publicly with her college classmate, Jeannine Morrison, from 1976 to 2008.According to biographer Maxwell King, Rogers' close associates said he was \\\"absolutely faithful to his marriage vows\\\". Rogers was red-greencolor-blind.He became apescatarianin 1970, after the death of his\",\n \"the death of his father, and a vegetarian in the early 1980s,saying he \\\"couldn't eat anything that had a mother\\\".He became a co-owner ofVegetarian Timesin the mid-1980sand said in one issue, \\\"I love tofu burgers and beets\\\".He toldVegetarian Timesthat he became a vegetarian for both ethical and health reasons.According to his biographer Maxwell King, Rogers also signed his name to a statementprotesting wearing animal furs. Rogers was a registeredRepublican, but according to Joanne Rogers, he was \\\"very independent in the way he voted\\\", choosing not to talk about politics because he wanted to be impartial. Rogers was aPresbyterian, and many of the messages he expressed inMister Rogers' Neighborhoodwere inspired by the core tenets of Christianity. Rogers rarely spoke about his faith on air; he believed that teaching through example was as powerful as preaching. He said, \\\"You don't need to speak overtly about religion in order to get a message across\\\". According to writer Shea Tuttle, Rogers considered his faith\",\n \"his faith a fundamental part of his personality and \\\"called the space between the viewer and the television set 'holy ground'\\\". He also studiedCatholic mysticism,Judaism,Buddhism, and other faiths and cultures.King called him \\\"that unique television star with a real spiritual life\\\",emphasizing the values of patience, reflection, and \\\"silence in a noisy world\\\". King reported that despite Rogers' family's wealth, he cared little about making money, and lived frugally, especially as he and his wife grew older.King reported that Rogers' relationship with his young audience was important to him. For example, since hostingMisterogersin Canada, he answered every letter sent to him by hand. AfterMister Rogers' Neighborhoodbegan airing in the U.S., the letters increased in volume, and he hired staff member and producer Hedda Sharapan to answer them, but he read, edited, and signed each one. King wrote that Rogers saw responding to his viewers' letters as \\\"a pastoral duty of sorts\\\". The New York Timescalled Rogers \\\"a\",\n \"Rogers \\\"a dedicated lap-swimmer\\\",andTom Junod, author of \\\"Can You Say... Hero?\\\", the 1998Esquireprofile of Rogers, said, \\\"Nearly every morning of his life, Mister Rogers has gone swimming\\\".Rogers began swimming when he was a child at his family's vacation home outside Latrobe, where they owned a pool, and during their winter trips to Florida. King wrote that swimming and playing the piano were \\\"lifelong passions\\\" and that \\\"both gave him a chance to feel capable and in charge of his destiny\\\",and that swimming became \\\"an important part of the strong sense of self-discipline he cultivated\\\". Rogers swam daily at thePittsburgh Athletic Association, after waking every morning between 4:30 and 5:30 A.M. to pray and to \\\"read the Bible and prepare himself for the day\\\".He did not smoke or drink.According to Junod, he did nothing to change his weight from the 143 pounds (65 kg) he weighed for most of his adult life; by 1998, this also included napping daily, going to bed at 9:30 P.M., and sleeping eight hours per night\",\n \"hours per night without interruption. Junod said Rogers saw his weight \\\"as a destiny fulfilled\\\", telling Junod, \\\"the number 143 means 'I love you.' It takes one letter to say 'I' and four letters to say 'love' and three letters to say 'you'\\\". Sexuality According to biographer Michael Long in a 2016HuffPostessay, Rogers' sexuality had long been a topic of curiosity due to his lack of traditional machismo.The 2018 documentaryWon't You Be My Neighbor?briefly addresses the subject, including an interview withFrançois Clemmons, the gay actor who played Officer Clemmons onMister Rogers' Neighborhood, who denied that Rogers was gay, saying that if he had a \\\"gay vibe\\\" he would have noticed it. In 2019, social media users shared an excerpt from the 2018 biographyThe Good Neighbor: The Life and Work of Fred Rogers, which recounts Rogers telling openly gay friend Dr. William Hirsch that he \\\"must be right smack in the middle\\\" of a one-to-ten sexuality scale, because \\\"I have found women attractive, and I have found men\",\n \"I have found men attractive.\\\"This led some social media users to suggest that Rogers may have beenbisexual,although Long noted in his essay that there is no evidence that Rogers ever had sexual relations with men. Death and memorials After Rogers' retirement in 2001, he remained busy working with FCI, studying religion and spirituality, making public appearances, traveling, and working on a children's media center named after him atSaint Vincent Collegein Latrobe with ArchabbotDouglas Nowicki, chancellor of the college.By the summer of 2002, his chronic stomach pain became severe enough for him to see a doctor about it, and in October 2002, he was diagnosed with stomach cancer.He delayed treatment until after he served as Grand Marshal of the 2003Rose Parade, withArt LinkletterandBill Cosby, in January.On January 6, Rogers underwent stomach surgery. He died less than two months later, on February 27, 2003, less than a month short of his 75th birthdayat his home in Pittsburgh, with his wife of 50 years,\",\n \"wife of 50 years, Joanne, at his side. While comatose shortly before his death, he received thelast rites of the Catholic ChurchfromArchabbotNowicki. The following day, thePittsburgh Post-Gazettecovered Rogers' death on the front page and dedicated an entire section to his death and impact.The newspaper also reported that by noon, the internet \\\"was already full of appreciative pieces\\\" by parents, viewers, producers, and writers.Rogers' death was widely lamented. Most U.S. metropolitan newspapers ran his obituary on their front page and some dedicated entire sections to coverage of his death.WQED aired programs about Rogers the evening he died; thePost-Gazettereported that the ratings for their coverage were three times higher than their normal ratings.That same evening,NightlineonABCbroadcast a rerun of a recent interview with Rogers; the program got the highest ratings of the day, beating the February average ratings ofLate Show with David LettermanandThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno.On March 4, theU.S. House\",\n \"4, theU.S. House of Representativesunanimously passed a resolution honoring Rogers sponsored by RepresentativeMike Doylefrom Pennsylvania. On March 1, 2003, a private funeral was held for Rogers in Unity Chapel, which was restored by Rogers' father, at Unity Cemetery in Latrobe. About 80 relatives, co-workers, and close friends attended the service, which \\\"was planned in great secrecy so that those closest to him could grieve in private\\\".Reverend John McCall, pastor of the Rogers family's church, Sixth Presbyterian Church inSquirrel Hill, gave thehomily; Reverend William Barker, a retired Presbyterian minister who was a \\\"close friend of Mr. Rogers and the voice of Mr. Platypus on his show\\\",read Rogers' favorite Bible passages. Rogers was interred at Unity Cemetery in his hometown of Latrobe, Pennsylvania, in amausoleumowned by his mother's family. On May 3, 2003, a public memorial was held atHeinz Hallin Pittsburgh. According to thePost-Gazette, 2,700 people attended. ViolinistItzhak Perlman, cellistYo-Yo\",\n \"cellistYo-Yo Ma(via video), and organistAlan Morrisonperformed in honor of Rogers. Barker officiated the service; also in attendance were Pittsburgh philanthropistElsie Hillman, formerGood Morning AmericahostDavid Hartman,The Very Hungry CaterpillarauthorEric Carle, andArthurcreatorMarc Brown. Businesswoman and philanthropistTeresa Heinz, PBS PresidentPat Mitchell, and executive director of The Pittsburgh Project Saleem Ghubril gave remarks.Jeff Erlanger, who at age 10 appeared onMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 1981 to explain his electric wheelchair, also spoke.The memorial was broadcast several times on Pittsburgh television stations and websites throughout the day. Legacy When I was a boy and I would see scary things in the news, my mother would say to me, \\\"Look for the helpers. You will always find people who are helping.\\\" To this day, especially in times of \\\"disaster\\\", I remember my mother's words and I am always comforted by realizing that there are still so many helpers—so many caring people in this\",\n \"people in this world.—Fred Rogers Whenever a great tragedy strikes—war, famine, mass shootings, or even an outbreak of populist rage—millions of people turn to Fred's messages about life. Then the web is filled with his words and images. With fascinating frequency, his written messages and video clips surge across the internet, reaching hundreds of thousands of people who, confronted with a tough issue or ominous development, open themselves to Rogers' messages of quiet contemplation, of simplicity, of active listening and the practice of human kindness.—Rogers biographer Maxwell King Marc Brown, creator of another PBS children's show,Arthur, considered Rogers both a friend and \\\"a terrific role model for how to use television and the media to be helpful to kids and families\\\".Josh Selig, creator ofWonder Pets, credits Rogers with influencing his use of structure and predictability, and his use of music, opera, and originality. Rogers inspiredAngela Santomero, co-creator of the children's television showBlue's\",\n \"showBlue's Clues, to earn a degree in developmental psychology and go into educational television.She and the other producers ofBlue's Cluesused many of Rogers' techniques, such as using child developmental and educational research and having the host speak directly to the camera and transition to a make-believe world.In 2006, three years after Rogers' death and the end of production ofBlue's Clues, the Fred Rogers Company contacted Santomero to create a show that would promote Rogers' legacy.In 2012,Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood, with characters from and based uponMister Rogers' Neighborhood, premiered on PBS. Rogers' style and approach to children's television and early childhood education also \\\"begged to be parodied\\\".Comedian Eddie Murphy parodiedMister Rogers' NeighborhoodonSaturday Night Liveduring the 1980s.Rogers told interviewerDavid Lettermanin 1982 that he believed parodies like Murphy's were done \\\"with kindness in their hearts\\\". Video of Rogers' 1969 testimony in defense of public programming has\",\n \"programming has experienced a resurgence since 2012, goingviralat least twice. It first resurfaced after then presidential candidateMitt Romneysuggested cutting funding for PBS.In 2017, video of the testimony again went viral after PresidentDonald Trumpproposed defunding several arts-related government programs including PBS and theNational Endowment for the Arts. A roadside Pennsylvania Historical Marker dedicated to Rogers to be installed in Latrobe was approvedby the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission on March 4, 2014.It was installed on June 11, 2016, with the title \\\"Fred McFeely Rogers (1928–2003)\\\". Won't You Be My Neighbor?director Morgan Neville's 2018 documentary about Rogers' life, grossed over $22 million and became the top-grossing biographical documentary ever produced, the highest-grossing documentary in five years, and the twelfth-largest-grossing documentary ever made.The 2019 drama filmA Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodtells the story of Rogers and his television series, with Tom\",\n \"series, with Tom Hanks portraying Rogers. According to Caitlin Gibson ofThe Washington Post, Rogers became a source for parenting advice; she called him \\\"a timeless oracle against a backdrop of ever-shifting parenting philosophies and cultural trends\\\".Robert Thompson ofSyracuse Universitynoted that Rogers \\\"took American childhood—and I think Americans in general—through some very turbulent and trying times\\\",from theVietnam Warand the assassination of Robert Kennedy in 1968 to the9/11 attacks in 2001. According to Asia Simone Burns ofNational Public Radio, in the years following the end of production onMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 2001 and his death in 2003, Rogers became \\\"a source of comfort, sometimes in the wake of tragedy\\\".Burns has said Rogers' words of comfort \\\"began circulating on social media\\\"following tragedies such as theSandy Hook Elementary School shootingin 2012, theManchester Arena bombingin Manchester, England, in 2017, and theStoneman Douglas High School shootingin Parkland, Florida, in 2018.\",\n \"Florida, in 2018. Awards and honors Museum exhibits Art pieces Several pieces of art are dedicated to Rogers throughout Pittsburgh, including an eleven-foot (3.4 m) tall, 7,000-pound (3,200 kg) bronze statue of him in the North Shore neighborhood. In theOaklandneighborhood, his portrait is included in theMartin Luther King Jr.and \\\"Interpretations of Oakland\\\" murals. A dinosaur statue titled \\\"Fredasaurus Rex Friday XIII\\\" originally stood in front of the WQED building and, as of 2014, stood in front of the building containing the Fred Rogers Company offices. There is a \\\"Mister Rogers' Neighborhood of Make-Believe\\\" inIdlewild Parkand a kiosk ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodartifacts atPittsburgh International Airport.The Carnegie Science Center's Miniature Railroad and Village debuted a miniature recreation of Rogers' house fromMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 2005.In Rogers' hometown of Latrobe, a statue of Rogers on a bench is situated in James H. Rogers Park—a park named for Rogers' father.In 2021,A Beautiful Day\",\n \"Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood—a seven-foot (2.1 m) tall, 3,000-pound (1,400 kg) bronze statue byPaul Day—was dedicated at Rollins College. The memorial depicts Rogers and Daniel Tiger speaking with a group of children and features lyrics fromMister Rogers' Neighborhood'stheme on the base. Honorary degrees Rogers has received honorary degrees from over 43 colleges and universities. After 1973, two commemorative quilts, created by two of Rogers' friends and archived at the Fred Rogers Center at St. Vincent College in Latrobe, were made out of the academic hoods he received during the graduation ceremonies. Note: Much of the below list is taken from \\\"Honorary Degrees Awarded to Fred Rogers\\\",unless otherwise stated. Filmography Television Published works Children's books Songbooks Books for adults Discography See also Notes References Works cited External links\",\n \"A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodis a 2019 Americanbiographicaldrama filmon the TV presenterFred Rogers, directed byMarielle Hellerand written byMicah Fitzerman-BlueandNoah Harpster, inspired by the 1998 article \\\"Can You Say... Hero?\\\" byTom Junod, published inEsquire. It starsTom Hanks,Matthew Rhys,Susan Kelechi Watson, andChris Cooper. It depicts Lloyd Vogel (Rhys), a troubled journalist forEsquirewho is assigned to profile television icon Fred Rogers (Hanks). The film premiered at theToronto International Film Festivalon September 7, 2019, and was theatrically released in the United States on November 22, 2019, bySony Pictures Releasing. It grossed $68 million worldwide. Critics praised Hanks and Rhys's performances, Heller's direction, and its heart-warming messages. It was chosen byTimemagazineas one of the ten best films of the year.For his performance, Hanks was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at theAcademy Awards, as well as theGolden Globes,Critics'\",\n \"Globes,Critics' Choice,Screen Actors Guild Awards, andBAFTA Awards, among others. Plot In 1998, at the beginning of an episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood,Mr. Rogersdisplays a picture board with five doors. Three of the doors are opened to reveal the familiar faces ofLady Aberlin,King Friday, andMr. McFeely. The fourth door is opened to reveal the face of Mr. Rogers' troubled new friend, Lloyd Vogel, who has a black eye and a cut near his nose. Mr. Rogers explains that Lloyd has been hurt (and not necessarily on his face), and he is struggling to forgive the one who hurt him. After explaining what forgiveness means, Mr. Rogers leaves to visit Lloyd. Lloyd Vogel is anEsquirejournalist known for his cynical writing. He is nervous to attend his sister Lorraine's third wedding because his estranged father, Jerry, against whom he has long held a grudge, is also attending. However, he attends with his wife Andrea and their newborn son, Gavin. During the reception, Lloyd is approached by Jerry, who notes his\",\n \"who notes his son’s new family. When Jerry makes a joke about Lloyd's deceased mother Lila -- whom he cheated on and abandoned when she was dying of cancer twenty years earlier -- this enrages Lloyd into punching his father and starting a chaotic brawl, in which he is punched against the wall by another guest, explaining the scar on his face. Lloyd's editor, Ellen, assigns him to interview children's television presenter Fred Rogers for a 400-word article about heroes. Lloyd feels that the assignment is beneath him, but is informed that none of the other heroes were willing to talk to him. Still cynical, Lloyd questions whether Mister Rogers is \\\"for real\\\". Lloyd travels to theWQEDstudio inPittsburghto interview him. Rogers is dismissive of his fame and displays concern for Lloyd's nose injury. With coaxing, he relates some of the issues with his father, whose apology and attempt at reconciliation Lloyd has rebuffed. Rogers tells him his ways of dealing with anger, including striking the keys of a piano.\",\n \"keys of a piano. Determined to expose Rogers' friendly persona as an act, Lloyd watches several episodes of Rogers' show, but cannot discern anything. Interviewing Rogers again when he visits New York, seemingly dodging Lloyd's questions, he reminisces about raising his two sons. Fred takes out his puppets and asks Lloyd about his childhood rabbit stuffed animal and his father, provoking Lloyd into ending the interview. Lloyd arrives home to find Jerry and his wife Dorothy having brought pizza while talking with Andrea. They have a tense argument over Jerry’s absence during Lila’s cancer progression and his self-development since. As Lloyd relates how his mother suffered hysterically in her last moments with only him and his sister present, Jerry suffers a heart attack and is transported to the hospital. Faced with his resurgent trauma at staying overnight at the hospital for Jerry, Lloyd decides to go to Pittsburgh to see Rogers for counsel under the guise of work against Andrea’s protests. Exhausted on\",\n \"Exhausted on arriving, he envisions himself as Rogers’ guest, being asked about hospitals. Next, he finds himself wearing rabbit ears and shrunken to the size ofDaniel Striped TigerandKing Friday XIII, while Rogers and Andrea (as Lady Aberlin) tower over him. Finally, Lloyd also dreams about Lila, who gently recognizes his anger being for her memory, but assures him that she doesn’t need it. Lloyd awakens to find he collapsed on set. Rogers and his wife, Joanne, bring Lloyd to their home to recuperate. The men later go to a restaurant, where Rogers asks Lloyd to spend one minute thinking about the people who \\\"loved him into being\\\", and encourages him to forgive Jerry. Lloyd apologizes to Andrea for leaving her and Gavin at the hospital and visits Jerry and Dorothy at their home. He learns Jerry is dying of cardiacstenosis, and that is why Jerry attempted to reconnect with Lloyd. Lloyd forgives him, promises to be a better father, and writes an article about Rogers' impact on his life. Dorothy tells Lloyd\",\n \"Dorothy tells Lloyd that Jerry had never mentioned his previous marriage or children until recently, after he became ill. Lorraine, her husband Todd, and Rogers visit Jerry. Rogers asks Jerry to pray for him before he departs. Jerry dies shortly after Rogers' visit and Lloyd's 10,000-word article, \\\"Can You Say... Hero?\\\" is published asEsquire's cover story. At his studio, Rogers finishes the episode he was earlier working on, opening the fifth and final door on his picture board, revealing a picture of Lloyd happily reunited with his family. As the production ends, Mr. Rogers plays the piano alone, stops, strikes the keys in frustration, and resumes playing. Cast Additional cast members includeCarmen Cusackas Margy, a producer ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood;Jessica Hechtas Lila Vogel, Lloyd's late mother and Jerry's ex-wife;Maddie CormanasBetty Aberlin, an actress starring as Lady Aberlin onMister Rogers' Neighborhood; Daniel Krell as Mr. McFeely; and Jordan, Naomi, and Zoey Harsh as Gavin Vogel, Lloyd's son.\",\n \"Vogel, Lloyd's son. Notable cameos in the film include Rogers' wife Joanne, Mr. McFeely actorDavid Newell, Family Communications head Bill Isler, andMister Rogers' Neighborhoodproducer Margy Whitmerwho appear as customers in a restaurant that Rogers and Lloyd meet in.Arsenio HallandOprah Winfreymake uncredited appearances in archive footage of talk shows that Lloyd watches in the film, and Fred Rogers appears in archive footage of his show during the ending credits, singing the song \\\"You've Got to Do It\\\". Production Development On January 29, 2018, it was announced thatSony'sTriStar Pictureshad bought the worldwide distribution rights to the filmYou Are My Friend, a biographical film based on a 1998Esquiremagazine article about television personalityFred Rogers, who would be played byTom Hanks.The script by Micah Fitzerman-Blue andNoah Harpsterappeared on the 2013Black Listof best unproduced screenplays. It would be directed byMarielle Heller; its producers would beBig Beach'sMarc TurtletaubandPeter\",\n \"TurtletaubandPeter Sarafalong with Youree Henley. In July 2018,Matthew Rhyssigned to play journalist Lloyd Vogel, with production set to start in September 2018. Being Welsh, Rhys had never heard of Fred Rogers before he was offered the role.In August 2018,Chris Cooperwas added to play Vogel's father;and in September,Susan Kelechi Watsonwas added.In October 2018,Enrico Colantoni,Maryann Plunkett,Tammy Blanchard,Wendy Makkena,Sakina Jaffrey,Carmen Cusack, Harpster andMaddie Cormanjoined the cast.In 2018, Nate Heller was chosen to score the film. Filming Principal photographybegan on September 10, 2018, inPittsburgh, with several sets converted intoNew York City.Filming also took place in the Fred Rogers Studio atWQED (TV)where the late television host recordedMister Rogers' Neighborhood, and at the Jewish Community Center inSquirrel Hill. The crew consulted with original crew members from Rogers' television series, and brought in the same cameras and monitors used in the original production.The film received\",\n \"film received tax credits of approximately $9.5 million against a production budget of $45 million for filming in Pittsburgh.Production wrapped on November 9, 2018. On October 12, 2018, sound mixer James Emswillerhad a heart attack and fell from a second-story balcony. He was taken toUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center-Mercy, where he was pronounced dead. Release A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodpremiered at theToronto International Film Festivalon September 7, 2019.It was originally going to be released on October 18, 2019 bySony Pictures Releasing,but in May 2018 was pushed back a month to November 22, 2019.It was released in China on September 18, 2020, after the country reopened theaters followingCOVID-19 pandemic lockdowns. Marketing The film's title was announced on December 27, 2018.The trailer was released on July 22, 2019. Home media The film was released bySony Pictures Home EntertainmentonDigital HDon February 4, 2020, and onUltra HD Blu-ray,Blu-rayandDVDon February 18. Reception Box office\",\n \"Box office A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodgrossed $61.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $6.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $68.4 million, against a production budget of $25 million. In the United States and Canada, it was released alongsideFrozen IIand21 Bridges, and was projected to gross around $15 million from 3,231 theaters in its opening weekend.It made $4.5 million on its first day, including $900,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $13.3 million, finishing third at the box office.It fell just 11% in its second weekend, making $11.8 million and finishing fifth, and remained in fifth place the following weekend with $5.2 million. Critical response On review aggregation websiteRotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 95% based on 372 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \\\"Much like the beloved TV personality that inspired it,A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodoffers a powerfully\",\n \"a powerfully affecting message about acceptance and understanding.\\\"OnMetacritic, the film has aweighted averagescore of 80 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating \\\"generally favorable reviews\\\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film an average grade of \\\"A\\\" on an A+ to F scale, while those atPostTrakgave it an average four out of five stars, with 66% saying they would definitely recommend it. Steve Pond ofTheWrapwrote: \\\"A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodfinds a gentle state of grace and shows the courage and smarts to stay in that zone, never rushing things or playing for drama... But just as Mr. Rogers used his show to talk about big issues with children in a tone that was softer and more halting than you'd expect given the subject matter, so does Heller stick to understatement in a way that threatens to become dull or sappy but never does.\\\"Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianwrote: \\\"It's a given that Hanks will nab at least a best supporting actor nomination but it would be all too easy to forget his\",\n \"easy to forget his co-star. The cynic-becomes-a-believer arc is age old but it unfolds here without cliche thanks to an emotionally intelligent script from Noah Harpster and Micah Fitzerman-Blue, but mainly because of a marvelous, prickly turn from Rhys.\\\" Armond Whiteof theNational Reviewwas more critical: \\\"Heller and screenwriters Micah Fitzerman-Blue and Noah Harpster don't show enough faith in Rogers' remedies—and not enough interest in their religious origins. In short, the movie seems wary of faith (it briefly mentions that Rogers was an ordained minister) and settles for secular sentimentality to account for his sensibility and behavior. This not only weakens the film, but it also hobbles Hanks's characterization.\\\" Accolades References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":376,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"There's a comedy club on Sunset in West Hollywood that opened in 1972. One of its founders opened for one of Elvis' comeback performances. Where was this founder's first wife born?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Marinette, Wisconsin"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Comedy_Store"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Shore"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitzi_Shore"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Comedy_Store', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Shore', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitzi_Shore']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Comedy_Store","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Shore","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitzi_Shore"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Comedy_Store\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Shore\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitzi_Shore\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["The Comedy Store The Comedy Storeis an Americancomedy clubopened in April 1972. It is located inWest Hollywood, California, at 8433Sunset Boulevardon theSunset Strip. An associated club is located inLa Jolla,San Diego,California. History The Comedy Store was opened in April 1972 by comediansSammy Shore(1927–2019), andRudy De Luca. The building was formerly the home of Club Seville (1935),later,Ciro's(1940–1957), a popular Hollywood nightclub owned byWilliam Wilkerson, and later Ciro's Le Disc,arock and rollvenue,wherethe Byrdswere discovered in 1964. When the venue reopened as The Comedy Store in 1972, it included a 99-seat theatre. As a result of a divorce settlement, Sammy Shore's ex-wifeMitzi Shorebegan operating the club in 1973, and she was able to buy the building in 1976. She immediately renovated and expanded the club to include a 450-seat main room. In 1974, The Comedy Store hosted the wedding reception of newlywedsLiza MinnelliandJack Haley, Jr.The Comedy Club signage was covered, for the evening, by signs reading \"Ciro's\", denoting the venue's prior identity. The event was attended by many dozens of Hollywood glitterati, includingElizabeth Taylor,Sammy Davis Jr.,Cher,Bob Fosse,Johnny Carson,Goldie Hawn,Cesar Romero,Priscilla Presleyand other stars, past and present. Locations The original Comedy Store on Sunset at Ciro's had been joined by the Comedy StoreWestwood, at 1621 Westwood Blvd.,the Comedy StoreLa Jolla, at 916 Pearl St.,Comedy Store Playhouse,on Las Palmas, Comedy Store at the Sheraton Universal Hotel,inUniversal City,and the Comedy Store Las Vegas at theDunes Hotel. Job action Beginning in 1979, The Comedy Store served for many years as the host location for the annualHBOYoung Comediansspecials. Tension between the club owners stems from a 1979 strike of Los Angeles comedians against the Comedy Store's \"no-pay policy\". Until that time, neitherShorenorFriedmanpaid comedians a salary. The theory was that comedians should almost be paying the owners for the exposure the clubs provided. When the comedians' strike began,The Improv(opened in 1974 at 8162 Melrose Avenue) was closed for fire-damage repairs. Therefore, the strike focused on Shore, not Friedman. Also in 1979,stand-upcomedians formed a short-lived labor union and demanded to be paid for their appearances at The Comedy Store. For six weeks (beginning in March),several comedians staged a protest in front of the club, while others crossed the picket line.The comedians involved formed a union called Comedians for Compensation and fought for pay where they had received none before. They eventually picketed in front of the club when their demands were not met.Jay LenoandDavid Lettermanwere among those on the picket line whileGarry ShandlingandYakov Smirnoffcrossed the line. The job action was not legally a strike as the comedians were classified as \"independent contractors\" and were not under contract with the club. Mitzi Shore arguedthat the club was and had always been a showcase and training ground for young comedians and was not about profits. She alleged that comedians came to the club and could work on their material in front of casting agents and other talent scouts who would possibly hire them as professionals if they were good enough. The comedians at the club became unhappy when the club was expanded several times and it was perceived that Shore's profits were quite substantial. Shore also paid the rest of her staff, including waitresses and bartenders. After the strike, some comedians were no longer allowed to perform at the club, including Steve Lubetkin, who committed suicide by jumping off the roof of theContinental Hyatt Housenext door. His suicide note included the line: \"My name is Steve Lubetkin. I used to work at The Comedy Store.\"Lubetkin hoped that his suicide would resolve the labor dispute. He also cited Shore as the reason he no longer had a job. The union ceased to exist in 1980, although from the time of the job action onward, comedians in Los Angeles were paid for their shows. This included The Comedy Store andThe Improv. Cresthill house \"When she and Sammy divorced in 1974, he gave her the club to lower his alimony payments; two years later, after being briefly evicted (and opening a new Comedy Store location in Westwood), she negotiated a deal to buy the entire building — plus Cresthill...around the time of Lubetkin’s suicide(After a bitter labor dispute between comedians and management), she essentially gave the place over to the comedians who worked at the Store.\" Mitzi Shore also owned a 5,000-square-foot house a few doors away from the club, on 8420 Cresthill Road. The house was bought with the club in 1976. In 1979, she started to let the comedians from the clubs sleep there. During the 1980s, numerous comedians resided or just partied there, including Andrew Dice Clay, Marc Maron, Robin Williams, and Richard Pryor.Argus HamiltonandMike Binderwere the first to officially move into the house.Dave Coulierwas also an early resident, andYakov Smirnoffmoved in in 1980. The place was known for its all-night parties and heavy consumption of cocaine and alcohol.Bill Hicksmoved there in 1980 when he was 18 and running away from his parents to pursue his career as a comedian. Many of those comedians developed their style while residing there.Sam Kinisonwas a pillar there, andJim Carreyturned his act around in this house. Mitzi Shore had a plan to cash in on the house's unique atmosphere, and even shot a 12-minute pilot around 1987 starring Daphne Davis, Nancy Redman, and Tamayo Otsuki. In 1988, because of the debauchery that had been going on for years, Mitzi Shore kicked everybody out of the house and turned it into a recovery house. By the early 1990s, Her son Pauly moved into the house, and by the end of the 1990s, the house was sold. Notable alumni Knoedelseder, William(2009).I'm Dying Up Here: Heartbreak and High Times in Standup Comedy's Golden Era(1st ed.). New York:PublicAffairs.ISBN9781586483173.— \"A history of the young comedians coming to Los Angeles in the 1970s and performing at the club.\" Docu-series A docu-series based on The Comedy Store debuted onShowtimein October 2020. Each episode is an hour long and breaks down a different time period throughout the existence of the Comedy Store. The director,Mike Bindergoes on a podcast with a different comedian to set the tone and help provide the narrative of each episode. Episodes References External links","Sammy Shore Sammy Shore(February 7, 1927 – May 18, 2019)was an American actor, stand-up comedian and co-founder ofThe Comedy Store. Early life Sammy Shore was born in 1927inNew York Cityat the start of theGreat Depression in the United States. He grew up in a traditional household to Jewish parents. Career Shore began his career doing stand-up comedy withShecky Greenein theCatskill Mountains.He was chosen, in 1969, toopenforElvis Presley’s comeback performance at theInternational Hotel,Las Vegas. He then opened for Elvis’ road shows until 1972.Shore continued to perform comedy, opening forTony Orlando,Tony Bennett,Barbra Streisand,Sammy Davis Jr. and others.Shore served in theU.S. NavyduringWorld War II. On April 7, 1972, he founded the Comedy Store with his writing partner Rudy De Luca.In 1974, his ex-wife,Mitzi, became the owner of the club.The club launched the careers of many comedians includingRodney Dangerfield,David Letterman,Eddie Murphy,Robin Williams,Jim Carrey, andJoe Rogan, also including his own son, Pauly. Shore appeared in many films includingThe BellboywithJerry Lewisand bothLife StinksandHistory of the World Part 1fromMel Brooks.He appeared onThe Ed Sullivan Showand was onSanford and Son. Shore was voted Best Comedy Act inAtlantic City, New Jersey, and theLos Angeles Board of Supervisorsnamed a day after him on July 24, 1990. He appeared atHarrah's Casinosand hotels more than any other entertainer. Personal life Shore was married to Mitzi for 24 years, and was the father of four, including actor and comedianPauly Shore.Shore married Suzanne Dennie in 1990. She wasMiss Alabamain 1970.They remained together until his death inLas Vegas, Nevadaof natural causes at the age of 92. References IMDB","Mitzi Shore Mitzi Shore(bornLillian Saidel; July 25, 1930 – April 11, 2018) was an American comedy club owner. Her husband,Sammy Shore, co-foundedThe Comedy Storein 1972 and she became its owner two years later. Through the club, she had a huge influence on the careers of up-and-coming comedians for many decades. Early life Shore was born Lillian Saidel inMarinette, Wisconsin, on July 25, 1930, the daughter of Jewish parents Fanny and Morris Saidel. Her father was a traveling salesman. She grew up nearGreen Bay, Wisconsin,and attendedGreen Bay East High School.She later studied art at theUniversity of Wisconsin–Madison, but dropped out to marrySammy Shoreafter meeting him in 1950. Career Overview Shore's husband Sammy co-foundedThe Comedy Storein 1972 alongside screenwriter and actorRudy De Luca.When Sammy and Mitzi divorced in 1974, Mitzi acquired complete ownership as part of their divorce settlement.Sammy was later quoted in 2003 by theLos Angeles Timesas explaining that he \"relinquished control of the club to lower his alimony payments\".Shortly after she took full control, Shore obtained a significant cash loan from comedianShecky Greeneto help ensure continued operations. She was not only involved in day-to-day management but also in the recruitment and development of talent. Comedians whose rise to fame was associated with working at the Comedy Store includeRoseanne Barr,Bill Burr,Jim Carrey,Chevy Chase,Andrew Dice Clay,Joey Diaz,Whoopi Goldberg,Bobcat Goldthwait,Tony Hinchcliffe,Sam Kinison,Bobby Lee,Jay Leno,David Letterman,Sebastian Maniscalco,Marc Maron,Carlos Mencia,Joe Rogan,Jerry Seinfeld,Garry Shandling,Duncan Trussell,Robin Williams, andJohn Witherspoon. 1979 strike and picket Shore refused to pay comics who performed in her club, insisting that the venue was a sort of \"college of comedy\" where comedians learned their craft rather than a money-making enterprise.However, in 1979, after the club had been expanded extensively, comedians began to insist that they be paid for their work.Shore refused and the performers picketed the establishment in what became a bitter six-weekstrike action.Among those involved in leading the strike wereJay Leno,Tom Dreesen, and the club's MCDavid Letterman. After several months of picketing, and an incident in which Leno was injured by a car attempting to rush the picket line, Shore relented after Budd Friedman fromThe Improvdecided to start paying comics. She then agreed to pay talent $15 (an amount equal to $63 today)per set.The events in L.A. set a precedent that resulted in New York City comedy clubs beginning to pay their talent as well, and other comedy clubs across the U.S. followed suit by paying comics to perform. Belly Room As early as 1978, Shore had converted the upstairs section of The Comedy Store into the Belly Room: a 50-seat audience for which she exclusively booked female comedians. At the time, professional comedy was very much a \"boys' club\", and bookings for female comedians were rare; opportunities for women to perform their own stand-up material with the most popular comics in the U.S. were unheard of. Shore's liberal risk-taking with booking talent continued for decades.In the 1990s, once female comics had become more established, Shore continued to cross boundaries with her audience by creating specialty nights for Latino, gay and lesbian performers. She was also instrumental in providing a space for Black American comics in Los Angeles. Phat Tuesday's became a staple in the Black comedy scene and was the start of many of today's favorite comics. Comedy Channel Inc. Shore owned and operated Comedy Channel Inc. from 1982 until her death—a company established to create and sell video tapes of performances at The Comedy Store. In 1989, HBO launched its premium cable service The Comedy Channel.Shore's suit claimed HBO's service was an \"indirect unauthorized use\" of the name and trademark Comedy Channel.Mitzi Shore retained counsel James Blancarte and sued HBO for copyright infringement.The channel merged with Viacom's competingHa!channel two years later, first under the name CTV: The Comedy Network, and then under its current nameComedy Central. Depictions in media The character Goldie on theShowtimeseriesI'm Dying Up Hereis based loosely on Shore. Joe Rogandedicated his 2018 comedy specialStrange Timesto Shore following her death earlier in the year. Personal life Shore and her husbandSammywere married in 1950 and divorced in 1974.They had four children: sons Peter, Scott, andPauly, and daughter Sandi. Death On April 11, 2018, at the age of 87, Shore died of an undisclosed neurological disorder at a hospice inWest Hollywood, California.She had been suffering fromParkinson's diseasein her later years. References External links"],"string":"[\n \"The Comedy Store The Comedy Storeis an Americancomedy clubopened in April 1972. It is located inWest Hollywood, California, at 8433Sunset Boulevardon theSunset Strip. An associated club is located inLa Jolla,San Diego,California. History The Comedy Store was opened in April 1972 by comediansSammy Shore(1927–2019), andRudy De Luca. The building was formerly the home of Club Seville (1935),later,Ciro's(1940–1957), a popular Hollywood nightclub owned byWilliam Wilkerson, and later Ciro's Le Disc,arock and rollvenue,wherethe Byrdswere discovered in 1964. When the venue reopened as The Comedy Store in 1972, it included a 99-seat theatre. As a result of a divorce settlement, Sammy Shore's ex-wifeMitzi Shorebegan operating the club in 1973, and she was able to buy the building in 1976. She immediately renovated and expanded the club to include a 450-seat main room. In 1974, The Comedy Store hosted the wedding reception of newlywedsLiza MinnelliandJack Haley, Jr.The Comedy Club signage was covered, for the evening, by signs reading \\\"Ciro's\\\", denoting the venue's prior identity. The event was attended by many dozens of Hollywood glitterati, includingElizabeth Taylor,Sammy Davis Jr.,Cher,Bob Fosse,Johnny Carson,Goldie Hawn,Cesar Romero,Priscilla Presleyand other stars, past and present. Locations The original Comedy Store on Sunset at Ciro's had been joined by the Comedy StoreWestwood, at 1621 Westwood Blvd.,the Comedy StoreLa Jolla, at 916 Pearl St.,Comedy Store Playhouse,on Las Palmas, Comedy Store at the Sheraton Universal Hotel,inUniversal City,and the Comedy Store Las Vegas at theDunes Hotel. Job action Beginning in 1979, The Comedy Store served for many years as the host location for the annualHBOYoung Comediansspecials. Tension between the club owners stems from a 1979 strike of Los Angeles comedians against the Comedy Store's \\\"no-pay policy\\\". Until that time, neitherShorenorFriedmanpaid comedians a salary. The theory was that comedians should almost be paying the owners for the exposure the clubs provided. When the comedians' strike began,The Improv(opened in 1974 at 8162 Melrose Avenue) was closed for fire-damage repairs. Therefore, the strike focused on Shore, not Friedman. Also in 1979,stand-upcomedians formed a short-lived labor union and demanded to be paid for their appearances at The Comedy Store. For six weeks (beginning in March),several comedians staged a protest in front of the club, while others crossed the picket line.The comedians involved formed a union called Comedians for Compensation and fought for pay where they had received none before. They eventually picketed in front of the club when their demands were not met.Jay LenoandDavid Lettermanwere among those on the picket line whileGarry ShandlingandYakov Smirnoffcrossed the line. The job action was not legally a strike as the comedians were classified as \\\"independent contractors\\\" and were not under contract with the club. Mitzi Shore arguedthat the club was and had always been a showcase and training ground for young comedians and was not about profits. She alleged that comedians came to the club and could work on their material in front of casting agents and other talent scouts who would possibly hire them as professionals if they were good enough. The comedians at the club became unhappy when the club was expanded several times and it was perceived that Shore's profits were quite substantial. Shore also paid the rest of her staff, including waitresses and bartenders. After the strike, some comedians were no longer allowed to perform at the club, including Steve Lubetkin, who committed suicide by jumping off the roof of theContinental Hyatt Housenext door. His suicide note included the line: \\\"My name is Steve Lubetkin. I used to work at The Comedy Store.\\\"Lubetkin hoped that his suicide would resolve the labor dispute. He also cited Shore as the reason he no longer had a job. The union ceased to exist in 1980, although from the time of the job action onward, comedians in Los Angeles were paid for their shows. This included The Comedy Store andThe Improv. Cresthill house \\\"When she and Sammy divorced in 1974, he gave her the club to lower his alimony payments; two years later, after being briefly evicted (and opening a new Comedy Store location in Westwood), she negotiated a deal to buy the entire building — plus Cresthill...around the time of Lubetkin’s suicide(After a bitter labor dispute between comedians and management), she essentially gave the place over to the comedians who worked at the Store.\\\" Mitzi Shore also owned a 5,000-square-foot house a few doors away from the club, on 8420 Cresthill Road. The house was bought with the club in 1976. In 1979, she started to let the comedians from the clubs sleep there. During the 1980s, numerous comedians resided or just partied there, including Andrew Dice Clay, Marc Maron, Robin Williams, and Richard Pryor.Argus HamiltonandMike Binderwere the first to officially move into the house.Dave Coulierwas also an early resident, andYakov Smirnoffmoved in in 1980. The place was known for its all-night parties and heavy consumption of cocaine and alcohol.Bill Hicksmoved there in 1980 when he was 18 and running away from his parents to pursue his career as a comedian. Many of those comedians developed their style while residing there.Sam Kinisonwas a pillar there, andJim Carreyturned his act around in this house. Mitzi Shore had a plan to cash in on the house's unique atmosphere, and even shot a 12-minute pilot around 1987 starring Daphne Davis, Nancy Redman, and Tamayo Otsuki. In 1988, because of the debauchery that had been going on for years, Mitzi Shore kicked everybody out of the house and turned it into a recovery house. By the early 1990s, Her son Pauly moved into the house, and by the end of the 1990s, the house was sold. Notable alumni Knoedelseder, William(2009).I'm Dying Up Here: Heartbreak and High Times in Standup Comedy's Golden Era(1st ed.). New York:PublicAffairs.ISBN9781586483173.— \\\"A history of the young comedians coming to Los Angeles in the 1970s and performing at the club.\\\" Docu-series A docu-series based on The Comedy Store debuted onShowtimein October 2020. Each episode is an hour long and breaks down a different time period throughout the existence of the Comedy Store. The director,Mike Bindergoes on a podcast with a different comedian to set the tone and help provide the narrative of each episode. Episodes References External links\",\n \"Sammy Shore Sammy Shore(February 7, 1927 – May 18, 2019)was an American actor, stand-up comedian and co-founder ofThe Comedy Store. Early life Sammy Shore was born in 1927inNew York Cityat the start of theGreat Depression in the United States. He grew up in a traditional household to Jewish parents. Career Shore began his career doing stand-up comedy withShecky Greenein theCatskill Mountains.He was chosen, in 1969, toopenforElvis Presley’s comeback performance at theInternational Hotel,Las Vegas. He then opened for Elvis’ road shows until 1972.Shore continued to perform comedy, opening forTony Orlando,Tony Bennett,Barbra Streisand,Sammy Davis Jr. and others.Shore served in theU.S. NavyduringWorld War II. On April 7, 1972, he founded the Comedy Store with his writing partner Rudy De Luca.In 1974, his ex-wife,Mitzi, became the owner of the club.The club launched the careers of many comedians includingRodney Dangerfield,David Letterman,Eddie Murphy,Robin Williams,Jim Carrey, andJoe Rogan, also including his own son, Pauly. Shore appeared in many films includingThe BellboywithJerry Lewisand bothLife StinksandHistory of the World Part 1fromMel Brooks.He appeared onThe Ed Sullivan Showand was onSanford and Son. Shore was voted Best Comedy Act inAtlantic City, New Jersey, and theLos Angeles Board of Supervisorsnamed a day after him on July 24, 1990. He appeared atHarrah's Casinosand hotels more than any other entertainer. Personal life Shore was married to Mitzi for 24 years, and was the father of four, including actor and comedianPauly Shore.Shore married Suzanne Dennie in 1990. She wasMiss Alabamain 1970.They remained together until his death inLas Vegas, Nevadaof natural causes at the age of 92. References IMDB\",\n \"Mitzi Shore Mitzi Shore(bornLillian Saidel; July 25, 1930 – April 11, 2018) was an American comedy club owner. Her husband,Sammy Shore, co-foundedThe Comedy Storein 1972 and she became its owner two years later. Through the club, she had a huge influence on the careers of up-and-coming comedians for many decades. Early life Shore was born Lillian Saidel inMarinette, Wisconsin, on July 25, 1930, the daughter of Jewish parents Fanny and Morris Saidel. Her father was a traveling salesman. She grew up nearGreen Bay, Wisconsin,and attendedGreen Bay East High School.She later studied art at theUniversity of Wisconsin–Madison, but dropped out to marrySammy Shoreafter meeting him in 1950. Career Overview Shore's husband Sammy co-foundedThe Comedy Storein 1972 alongside screenwriter and actorRudy De Luca.When Sammy and Mitzi divorced in 1974, Mitzi acquired complete ownership as part of their divorce settlement.Sammy was later quoted in 2003 by theLos Angeles Timesas explaining that he \\\"relinquished control of the club to lower his alimony payments\\\".Shortly after she took full control, Shore obtained a significant cash loan from comedianShecky Greeneto help ensure continued operations. She was not only involved in day-to-day management but also in the recruitment and development of talent. Comedians whose rise to fame was associated with working at the Comedy Store includeRoseanne Barr,Bill Burr,Jim Carrey,Chevy Chase,Andrew Dice Clay,Joey Diaz,Whoopi Goldberg,Bobcat Goldthwait,Tony Hinchcliffe,Sam Kinison,Bobby Lee,Jay Leno,David Letterman,Sebastian Maniscalco,Marc Maron,Carlos Mencia,Joe Rogan,Jerry Seinfeld,Garry Shandling,Duncan Trussell,Robin Williams, andJohn Witherspoon. 1979 strike and picket Shore refused to pay comics who performed in her club, insisting that the venue was a sort of \\\"college of comedy\\\" where comedians learned their craft rather than a money-making enterprise.However, in 1979, after the club had been expanded extensively, comedians began to insist that they be paid for their work.Shore refused and the performers picketed the establishment in what became a bitter six-weekstrike action.Among those involved in leading the strike wereJay Leno,Tom Dreesen, and the club's MCDavid Letterman. After several months of picketing, and an incident in which Leno was injured by a car attempting to rush the picket line, Shore relented after Budd Friedman fromThe Improvdecided to start paying comics. She then agreed to pay talent $15 (an amount equal to $63 today)per set.The events in L.A. set a precedent that resulted in New York City comedy clubs beginning to pay their talent as well, and other comedy clubs across the U.S. followed suit by paying comics to perform. Belly Room As early as 1978, Shore had converted the upstairs section of The Comedy Store into the Belly Room: a 50-seat audience for which she exclusively booked female comedians. At the time, professional comedy was very much a \\\"boys' club\\\", and bookings for female comedians were rare; opportunities for women to perform their own stand-up material with the most popular comics in the U.S. were unheard of. Shore's liberal risk-taking with booking talent continued for decades.In the 1990s, once female comics had become more established, Shore continued to cross boundaries with her audience by creating specialty nights for Latino, gay and lesbian performers. She was also instrumental in providing a space for Black American comics in Los Angeles. Phat Tuesday's became a staple in the Black comedy scene and was the start of many of today's favorite comics. Comedy Channel Inc. Shore owned and operated Comedy Channel Inc. from 1982 until her death—a company established to create and sell video tapes of performances at The Comedy Store. In 1989, HBO launched its premium cable service The Comedy Channel.Shore's suit claimed HBO's service was an \\\"indirect unauthorized use\\\" of the name and trademark Comedy Channel.Mitzi Shore retained counsel James Blancarte and sued HBO for copyright infringement.The channel merged with Viacom's competingHa!channel two years later, first under the name CTV: The Comedy Network, and then under its current nameComedy Central. Depictions in media The character Goldie on theShowtimeseriesI'm Dying Up Hereis based loosely on Shore. Joe Rogandedicated his 2018 comedy specialStrange Timesto Shore following her death earlier in the year. Personal life Shore and her husbandSammywere married in 1950 and divorced in 1974.They had four children: sons Peter, Scott, andPauly, and daughter Sandi. Death On April 11, 2018, at the age of 87, Shore died of an undisclosed neurological disorder at a hospice inWest Hollywood, California.She had been suffering fromParkinson's diseasein her later years. References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["The Comedy Store The Comedy Storeis an Americancomedy clubopened in April 1972. It is located inWest Hollywood, California, at 8433Sunset Boulevardon theSunset Strip. An associated club is located inLa Jolla,San Diego,California. History The Comedy Store was opened in April 1972 by comediansSammy Shore(1927–2019), andRudy De Luca. The building was formerly the home of Club Seville (1935),later,Ciro's(1940–1957), a popular Hollywood nightclub owned byWilliam Wilkerson, and later Ciro's Le Disc,arock and rollvenue,wherethe Byrdswere discovered in 1964. When the venue reopened as The Comedy Store in 1972, it included a 99-seat theatre. As a result of a divorce settlement, Sammy Shore's ex-wifeMitzi Shorebegan operating the club in 1973, and she was able to buy the building in 1976. She immediately renovated and expanded the club to include a 450-seat main room. In 1974, The Comedy Store hosted the wedding reception of newlywedsLiza MinnelliandJack Haley, Jr.The Comedy Club signage was covered, for the evening,","for the evening, by signs reading \"Ciro's\", denoting the venue's prior identity. The event was attended by many dozens of Hollywood glitterati, includingElizabeth Taylor,Sammy Davis Jr.,Cher,Bob Fosse,Johnny Carson,Goldie Hawn,Cesar Romero,Priscilla Presleyand other stars, past and present. Locations The original Comedy Store on Sunset at Ciro's had been joined by the Comedy StoreWestwood, at 1621 Westwood Blvd.,the Comedy StoreLa Jolla, at 916 Pearl St.,Comedy Store Playhouse,on Las Palmas, Comedy Store at the Sheraton Universal Hotel,inUniversal City,and the Comedy Store Las Vegas at theDunes Hotel. Job action Beginning in 1979, The Comedy Store served for many years as the host location for the annualHBOYoung Comediansspecials. Tension between the club owners stems from a 1979 strike of Los Angeles comedians against the Comedy Store's \"no-pay policy\". Until that time, neitherShorenorFriedmanpaid comedians a salary. The theory was that comedians should almost be paying the owners for the exposure the clubs","exposure the clubs provided. When the comedians' strike began,The Improv(opened in 1974 at 8162 Melrose Avenue) was closed for fire-damage repairs. Therefore, the strike focused on Shore, not Friedman. Also in 1979,stand-upcomedians formed a short-lived labor union and demanded to be paid for their appearances at The Comedy Store. For six weeks (beginning in March),several comedians staged a protest in front of the club, while others crossed the picket line.The comedians involved formed a union called Comedians for Compensation and fought for pay where they had received none before. They eventually picketed in front of the club when their demands were not met.Jay LenoandDavid Lettermanwere among those on the picket line whileGarry ShandlingandYakov Smirnoffcrossed the line. The job action was not legally a strike as the comedians were classified as \"independent contractors\" and were not under contract with the club. Mitzi Shore arguedthat the club was and had always been a showcase and training ground for","training ground for young comedians and was not about profits. She alleged that comedians came to the club and could work on their material in front of casting agents and other talent scouts who would possibly hire them as professionals if they were good enough. The comedians at the club became unhappy when the club was expanded several times and it was perceived that Shore's profits were quite substantial. Shore also paid the rest of her staff, including waitresses and bartenders. After the strike, some comedians were no longer allowed to perform at the club, including Steve Lubetkin, who committed suicide by jumping off the roof of theContinental Hyatt Housenext door. His suicide note included the line: \"My name is Steve Lubetkin. I used to work at The Comedy Store.\"Lubetkin hoped that his suicide would resolve the labor dispute. He also cited Shore as the reason he no longer had a job. The union ceased to exist in 1980, although from the time of the job action onward, comedians in Los Angeles were paid","Angeles were paid for their shows. This included The Comedy Store andThe Improv. Cresthill house \"When she and Sammy divorced in 1974, he gave her the club to lower his alimony payments; two years later, after being briefly evicted (and opening a new Comedy Store location in Westwood), she negotiated a deal to buy the entire building — plus Cresthill...around the time of Lubetkin’s suicide(After a bitter labor dispute between comedians and management), she essentially gave the place over to the comedians who worked at the Store.\" Mitzi Shore also owned a 5,000-square-foot house a few doors away from the club, on 8420 Cresthill Road. The house was bought with the club in 1976. In 1979, she started to let the comedians from the clubs sleep there. During the 1980s, numerous comedians resided or just partied there, including Andrew Dice Clay, Marc Maron, Robin Williams, and Richard Pryor.Argus HamiltonandMike Binderwere the first to officially move into the house.Dave Coulierwas also an early resident, andYakov","resident, andYakov Smirnoffmoved in in 1980. The place was known for its all-night parties and heavy consumption of cocaine and alcohol.Bill Hicksmoved there in 1980 when he was 18 and running away from his parents to pursue his career as a comedian. Many of those comedians developed their style while residing there.Sam Kinisonwas a pillar there, andJim Carreyturned his act around in this house. Mitzi Shore had a plan to cash in on the house's unique atmosphere, and even shot a 12-minute pilot around 1987 starring Daphne Davis, Nancy Redman, and Tamayo Otsuki. In 1988, because of the debauchery that had been going on for years, Mitzi Shore kicked everybody out of the house and turned it into a recovery house. By the early 1990s, Her son Pauly moved into the house, and by the end of the 1990s, the house was sold. Notable alumni Knoedelseder, William(2009).I'm Dying Up Here: Heartbreak and High Times in Standup Comedy's Golden Era(1st ed.). New York:PublicAffairs.ISBN9781586483173.— \"A history of the young","of the young comedians coming to Los Angeles in the 1970s and performing at the club.\" Docu-series A docu-series based on The Comedy Store debuted onShowtimein October 2020. Each episode is an hour long and breaks down a different time period throughout the existence of the Comedy Store. The director,Mike Bindergoes on a podcast with a different comedian to set the tone and help provide the narrative of each episode. Episodes References External links","Sammy Shore Sammy Shore(February 7, 1927 – May 18, 2019)was an American actor, stand-up comedian and co-founder ofThe Comedy Store. Early life Sammy Shore was born in 1927inNew York Cityat the start of theGreat Depression in the United States. He grew up in a traditional household to Jewish parents. Career Shore began his career doing stand-up comedy withShecky Greenein theCatskill Mountains.He was chosen, in 1969, toopenforElvis Presley’s comeback performance at theInternational Hotel,Las Vegas. He then opened for Elvis’ road shows until 1972.Shore continued to perform comedy, opening forTony Orlando,Tony Bennett,Barbra Streisand,Sammy Davis Jr. and others.Shore served in theU.S. NavyduringWorld War II. On April 7, 1972, he founded the Comedy Store with his writing partner Rudy De Luca.In 1974, his ex-wife,Mitzi, became the owner of the club.The club launched the careers of many comedians includingRodney Dangerfield,David Letterman,Eddie Murphy,Robin Williams,Jim Carrey, andJoe Rogan, also including his own","including his own son, Pauly. Shore appeared in many films includingThe BellboywithJerry Lewisand bothLife StinksandHistory of the World Part 1fromMel Brooks.He appeared onThe Ed Sullivan Showand was onSanford and Son. Shore was voted Best Comedy Act inAtlantic City, New Jersey, and theLos Angeles Board of Supervisorsnamed a day after him on July 24, 1990. He appeared atHarrah's Casinosand hotels more than any other entertainer. Personal life Shore was married to Mitzi for 24 years, and was the father of four, including actor and comedianPauly Shore.Shore married Suzanne Dennie in 1990. She wasMiss Alabamain 1970.They remained together until his death inLas Vegas, Nevadaof natural causes at the age of 92. References IMDB","Mitzi Shore Mitzi Shore(bornLillian Saidel; July 25, 1930 – April 11, 2018) was an American comedy club owner. Her husband,Sammy Shore, co-foundedThe Comedy Storein 1972 and she became its owner two years later. Through the club, she had a huge influence on the careers of up-and-coming comedians for many decades. Early life Shore was born Lillian Saidel inMarinette, Wisconsin, on July 25, 1930, the daughter of Jewish parents Fanny and Morris Saidel. Her father was a traveling salesman. She grew up nearGreen Bay, Wisconsin,and attendedGreen Bay East High School.She later studied art at theUniversity of Wisconsin–Madison, but dropped out to marrySammy Shoreafter meeting him in 1950. Career Overview Shore's husband Sammy co-foundedThe Comedy Storein 1972 alongside screenwriter and actorRudy De Luca.When Sammy and Mitzi divorced in 1974, Mitzi acquired complete ownership as part of their divorce settlement.Sammy was later quoted in 2003 by theLos Angeles Timesas explaining that he \"relinquished control of the","control of the club to lower his alimony payments\".Shortly after she took full control, Shore obtained a significant cash loan from comedianShecky Greeneto help ensure continued operations. She was not only involved in day-to-day management but also in the recruitment and development of talent. Comedians whose rise to fame was associated with working at the Comedy Store includeRoseanne Barr,Bill Burr,Jim Carrey,Chevy Chase,Andrew Dice Clay,Joey Diaz,Whoopi Goldberg,Bobcat Goldthwait,Tony Hinchcliffe,Sam Kinison,Bobby Lee,Jay Leno,David Letterman,Sebastian Maniscalco,Marc Maron,Carlos Mencia,Joe Rogan,Jerry Seinfeld,Garry Shandling,Duncan Trussell,Robin Williams, andJohn Witherspoon. 1979 strike and picket Shore refused to pay comics who performed in her club, insisting that the venue was a sort of \"college of comedy\" where comedians learned their craft rather than a money-making enterprise.However, in 1979, after the club had been expanded extensively, comedians began to insist that they be paid for their","be paid for their work.Shore refused and the performers picketed the establishment in what became a bitter six-weekstrike action.Among those involved in leading the strike wereJay Leno,Tom Dreesen, and the club's MCDavid Letterman. After several months of picketing, and an incident in which Leno was injured by a car attempting to rush the picket line, Shore relented after Budd Friedman fromThe Improvdecided to start paying comics. She then agreed to pay talent $15 (an amount equal to $63 today)per set.The events in L.A. set a precedent that resulted in New York City comedy clubs beginning to pay their talent as well, and other comedy clubs across the U.S. followed suit by paying comics to perform. Belly Room As early as 1978, Shore had converted the upstairs section of The Comedy Store into the Belly Room: a 50-seat audience for which she exclusively booked female comedians. At the time, professional comedy was very much a \"boys' club\", and bookings for female comedians were rare; opportunities for women to","for women to perform their own stand-up material with the most popular comics in the U.S. were unheard of. Shore's liberal risk-taking with booking talent continued for decades.In the 1990s, once female comics had become more established, Shore continued to cross boundaries with her audience by creating specialty nights for Latino, gay and lesbian performers. She was also instrumental in providing a space for Black American comics in Los Angeles. Phat Tuesday's became a staple in the Black comedy scene and was the start of many of today's favorite comics. Comedy Channel Inc. Shore owned and operated Comedy Channel Inc. from 1982 until her death—a company established to create and sell video tapes of performances at The Comedy Store. In 1989, HBO launched its premium cable service The Comedy Channel.Shore's suit claimed HBO's service was an \"indirect unauthorized use\" of the name and trademark Comedy Channel.Mitzi Shore retained counsel James Blancarte and sued HBO for copyright infringement.The channel","channel merged with Viacom's competingHa!channel two years later, first under the name CTV: The Comedy Network, and then under its current nameComedy Central. Depictions in media The character Goldie on theShowtimeseriesI'm Dying Up Hereis based loosely on Shore. Joe Rogandedicated his 2018 comedy specialStrange Timesto Shore following her death earlier in the year. Personal life Shore and her husbandSammywere married in 1950 and divorced in 1974.They had four children: sons Peter, Scott, andPauly, and daughter Sandi. Death On April 11, 2018, at the age of 87, Shore died of an undisclosed neurological disorder at a hospice inWest Hollywood, California.She had been suffering fromParkinson's diseasein her later years. References External links"],"string":"[\n \"The Comedy Store The Comedy Storeis an Americancomedy clubopened in April 1972. It is located inWest Hollywood, California, at 8433Sunset Boulevardon theSunset Strip. An associated club is located inLa Jolla,San Diego,California. History The Comedy Store was opened in April 1972 by comediansSammy Shore(1927–2019), andRudy De Luca. The building was formerly the home of Club Seville (1935),later,Ciro's(1940–1957), a popular Hollywood nightclub owned byWilliam Wilkerson, and later Ciro's Le Disc,arock and rollvenue,wherethe Byrdswere discovered in 1964. When the venue reopened as The Comedy Store in 1972, it included a 99-seat theatre. As a result of a divorce settlement, Sammy Shore's ex-wifeMitzi Shorebegan operating the club in 1973, and she was able to buy the building in 1976. She immediately renovated and expanded the club to include a 450-seat main room. In 1974, The Comedy Store hosted the wedding reception of newlywedsLiza MinnelliandJack Haley, Jr.The Comedy Club signage was covered, for the evening,\",\n \"for the evening, by signs reading \\\"Ciro's\\\", denoting the venue's prior identity. The event was attended by many dozens of Hollywood glitterati, includingElizabeth Taylor,Sammy Davis Jr.,Cher,Bob Fosse,Johnny Carson,Goldie Hawn,Cesar Romero,Priscilla Presleyand other stars, past and present. Locations The original Comedy Store on Sunset at Ciro's had been joined by the Comedy StoreWestwood, at 1621 Westwood Blvd.,the Comedy StoreLa Jolla, at 916 Pearl St.,Comedy Store Playhouse,on Las Palmas, Comedy Store at the Sheraton Universal Hotel,inUniversal City,and the Comedy Store Las Vegas at theDunes Hotel. Job action Beginning in 1979, The Comedy Store served for many years as the host location for the annualHBOYoung Comediansspecials. Tension between the club owners stems from a 1979 strike of Los Angeles comedians against the Comedy Store's \\\"no-pay policy\\\". Until that time, neitherShorenorFriedmanpaid comedians a salary. The theory was that comedians should almost be paying the owners for the exposure the clubs\",\n \"exposure the clubs provided. When the comedians' strike began,The Improv(opened in 1974 at 8162 Melrose Avenue) was closed for fire-damage repairs. Therefore, the strike focused on Shore, not Friedman. Also in 1979,stand-upcomedians formed a short-lived labor union and demanded to be paid for their appearances at The Comedy Store. For six weeks (beginning in March),several comedians staged a protest in front of the club, while others crossed the picket line.The comedians involved formed a union called Comedians for Compensation and fought for pay where they had received none before. They eventually picketed in front of the club when their demands were not met.Jay LenoandDavid Lettermanwere among those on the picket line whileGarry ShandlingandYakov Smirnoffcrossed the line. The job action was not legally a strike as the comedians were classified as \\\"independent contractors\\\" and were not under contract with the club. Mitzi Shore arguedthat the club was and had always been a showcase and training ground for\",\n \"training ground for young comedians and was not about profits. She alleged that comedians came to the club and could work on their material in front of casting agents and other talent scouts who would possibly hire them as professionals if they were good enough. The comedians at the club became unhappy when the club was expanded several times and it was perceived that Shore's profits were quite substantial. Shore also paid the rest of her staff, including waitresses and bartenders. After the strike, some comedians were no longer allowed to perform at the club, including Steve Lubetkin, who committed suicide by jumping off the roof of theContinental Hyatt Housenext door. His suicide note included the line: \\\"My name is Steve Lubetkin. I used to work at The Comedy Store.\\\"Lubetkin hoped that his suicide would resolve the labor dispute. He also cited Shore as the reason he no longer had a job. The union ceased to exist in 1980, although from the time of the job action onward, comedians in Los Angeles were paid\",\n \"Angeles were paid for their shows. This included The Comedy Store andThe Improv. Cresthill house \\\"When she and Sammy divorced in 1974, he gave her the club to lower his alimony payments; two years later, after being briefly evicted (and opening a new Comedy Store location in Westwood), she negotiated a deal to buy the entire building — plus Cresthill...around the time of Lubetkin’s suicide(After a bitter labor dispute between comedians and management), she essentially gave the place over to the comedians who worked at the Store.\\\" Mitzi Shore also owned a 5,000-square-foot house a few doors away from the club, on 8420 Cresthill Road. The house was bought with the club in 1976. In 1979, she started to let the comedians from the clubs sleep there. During the 1980s, numerous comedians resided or just partied there, including Andrew Dice Clay, Marc Maron, Robin Williams, and Richard Pryor.Argus HamiltonandMike Binderwere the first to officially move into the house.Dave Coulierwas also an early resident, andYakov\",\n \"resident, andYakov Smirnoffmoved in in 1980. The place was known for its all-night parties and heavy consumption of cocaine and alcohol.Bill Hicksmoved there in 1980 when he was 18 and running away from his parents to pursue his career as a comedian. Many of those comedians developed their style while residing there.Sam Kinisonwas a pillar there, andJim Carreyturned his act around in this house. Mitzi Shore had a plan to cash in on the house's unique atmosphere, and even shot a 12-minute pilot around 1987 starring Daphne Davis, Nancy Redman, and Tamayo Otsuki. In 1988, because of the debauchery that had been going on for years, Mitzi Shore kicked everybody out of the house and turned it into a recovery house. By the early 1990s, Her son Pauly moved into the house, and by the end of the 1990s, the house was sold. Notable alumni Knoedelseder, William(2009).I'm Dying Up Here: Heartbreak and High Times in Standup Comedy's Golden Era(1st ed.). New York:PublicAffairs.ISBN9781586483173.— \\\"A history of the young\",\n \"of the young comedians coming to Los Angeles in the 1970s and performing at the club.\\\" Docu-series A docu-series based on The Comedy Store debuted onShowtimein October 2020. Each episode is an hour long and breaks down a different time period throughout the existence of the Comedy Store. The director,Mike Bindergoes on a podcast with a different comedian to set the tone and help provide the narrative of each episode. Episodes References External links\",\n \"Sammy Shore Sammy Shore(February 7, 1927 – May 18, 2019)was an American actor, stand-up comedian and co-founder ofThe Comedy Store. Early life Sammy Shore was born in 1927inNew York Cityat the start of theGreat Depression in the United States. He grew up in a traditional household to Jewish parents. Career Shore began his career doing stand-up comedy withShecky Greenein theCatskill Mountains.He was chosen, in 1969, toopenforElvis Presley’s comeback performance at theInternational Hotel,Las Vegas. He then opened for Elvis’ road shows until 1972.Shore continued to perform comedy, opening forTony Orlando,Tony Bennett,Barbra Streisand,Sammy Davis Jr. and others.Shore served in theU.S. NavyduringWorld War II. On April 7, 1972, he founded the Comedy Store with his writing partner Rudy De Luca.In 1974, his ex-wife,Mitzi, became the owner of the club.The club launched the careers of many comedians includingRodney Dangerfield,David Letterman,Eddie Murphy,Robin Williams,Jim Carrey, andJoe Rogan, also including his own\",\n \"including his own son, Pauly. Shore appeared in many films includingThe BellboywithJerry Lewisand bothLife StinksandHistory of the World Part 1fromMel Brooks.He appeared onThe Ed Sullivan Showand was onSanford and Son. Shore was voted Best Comedy Act inAtlantic City, New Jersey, and theLos Angeles Board of Supervisorsnamed a day after him on July 24, 1990. He appeared atHarrah's Casinosand hotels more than any other entertainer. Personal life Shore was married to Mitzi for 24 years, and was the father of four, including actor and comedianPauly Shore.Shore married Suzanne Dennie in 1990. She wasMiss Alabamain 1970.They remained together until his death inLas Vegas, Nevadaof natural causes at the age of 92. References IMDB\",\n \"Mitzi Shore Mitzi Shore(bornLillian Saidel; July 25, 1930 – April 11, 2018) was an American comedy club owner. Her husband,Sammy Shore, co-foundedThe Comedy Storein 1972 and she became its owner two years later. Through the club, she had a huge influence on the careers of up-and-coming comedians for many decades. Early life Shore was born Lillian Saidel inMarinette, Wisconsin, on July 25, 1930, the daughter of Jewish parents Fanny and Morris Saidel. Her father was a traveling salesman. She grew up nearGreen Bay, Wisconsin,and attendedGreen Bay East High School.She later studied art at theUniversity of Wisconsin–Madison, but dropped out to marrySammy Shoreafter meeting him in 1950. Career Overview Shore's husband Sammy co-foundedThe Comedy Storein 1972 alongside screenwriter and actorRudy De Luca.When Sammy and Mitzi divorced in 1974, Mitzi acquired complete ownership as part of their divorce settlement.Sammy was later quoted in 2003 by theLos Angeles Timesas explaining that he \\\"relinquished control of the\",\n \"control of the club to lower his alimony payments\\\".Shortly after she took full control, Shore obtained a significant cash loan from comedianShecky Greeneto help ensure continued operations. She was not only involved in day-to-day management but also in the recruitment and development of talent. Comedians whose rise to fame was associated with working at the Comedy Store includeRoseanne Barr,Bill Burr,Jim Carrey,Chevy Chase,Andrew Dice Clay,Joey Diaz,Whoopi Goldberg,Bobcat Goldthwait,Tony Hinchcliffe,Sam Kinison,Bobby Lee,Jay Leno,David Letterman,Sebastian Maniscalco,Marc Maron,Carlos Mencia,Joe Rogan,Jerry Seinfeld,Garry Shandling,Duncan Trussell,Robin Williams, andJohn Witherspoon. 1979 strike and picket Shore refused to pay comics who performed in her club, insisting that the venue was a sort of \\\"college of comedy\\\" where comedians learned their craft rather than a money-making enterprise.However, in 1979, after the club had been expanded extensively, comedians began to insist that they be paid for their\",\n \"be paid for their work.Shore refused and the performers picketed the establishment in what became a bitter six-weekstrike action.Among those involved in leading the strike wereJay Leno,Tom Dreesen, and the club's MCDavid Letterman. After several months of picketing, and an incident in which Leno was injured by a car attempting to rush the picket line, Shore relented after Budd Friedman fromThe Improvdecided to start paying comics. She then agreed to pay talent $15 (an amount equal to $63 today)per set.The events in L.A. set a precedent that resulted in New York City comedy clubs beginning to pay their talent as well, and other comedy clubs across the U.S. followed suit by paying comics to perform. Belly Room As early as 1978, Shore had converted the upstairs section of The Comedy Store into the Belly Room: a 50-seat audience for which she exclusively booked female comedians. At the time, professional comedy was very much a \\\"boys' club\\\", and bookings for female comedians were rare; opportunities for women to\",\n \"for women to perform their own stand-up material with the most popular comics in the U.S. were unheard of. Shore's liberal risk-taking with booking talent continued for decades.In the 1990s, once female comics had become more established, Shore continued to cross boundaries with her audience by creating specialty nights for Latino, gay and lesbian performers. She was also instrumental in providing a space for Black American comics in Los Angeles. Phat Tuesday's became a staple in the Black comedy scene and was the start of many of today's favorite comics. Comedy Channel Inc. Shore owned and operated Comedy Channel Inc. from 1982 until her death—a company established to create and sell video tapes of performances at The Comedy Store. In 1989, HBO launched its premium cable service The Comedy Channel.Shore's suit claimed HBO's service was an \\\"indirect unauthorized use\\\" of the name and trademark Comedy Channel.Mitzi Shore retained counsel James Blancarte and sued HBO for copyright infringement.The channel\",\n \"channel merged with Viacom's competingHa!channel two years later, first under the name CTV: The Comedy Network, and then under its current nameComedy Central. Depictions in media The character Goldie on theShowtimeseriesI'm Dying Up Hereis based loosely on Shore. Joe Rogandedicated his 2018 comedy specialStrange Timesto Shore following her death earlier in the year. Personal life Shore and her husbandSammywere married in 1950 and divorced in 1974.They had four children: sons Peter, Scott, andPauly, and daughter Sandi. Death On April 11, 2018, at the age of 87, Shore died of an undisclosed neurological disorder at a hospice inWest Hollywood, California.She had been suffering fromParkinson's diseasein her later years. References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":377,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In series six of Downton Abbey, Lord Merton is diagnosed with a terminal condition. A deficiency in which vitamin causes this condition?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Vitamin B12"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downton_Abbey"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pernicious_anemia"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downton_Abbey', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pernicious_anemia']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downton_Abbey","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pernicious_anemia"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downton_Abbey\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pernicious_anemia\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Downton Abbey Downton Abbeyis a Britishhistorical dramatelevision series set in the early 20th century, created and co-written byJulian Fellowes. It first aired in the United Kingdom onITVon 26 September 2010 and in the United States onPBS, which supported its production as part of itsMasterpiece Classicanthology, on 9 January 2011. The show ran for fifty-two episodes across six series, including five Christmas specials. The series, set on the fictionalYorkshirecountry estateof Downton Abbey between 1912 and 1926, depicts the lives of thearistocraticCrawley family and theirdomestic servantsin the post-Edwardian era, and the effects the great events of the time have on their lives and on theBritish social hierarchy. These events include news of thesinking of theTitanic(first series); the outbreak of theFirst World War, theSpanish influenza pandemicand theMarconi scandal(second series); theIrish War of Independenceleading to the formation of theIrish Free State(third series); theTeapot Dome scandal(fourth series); and theBritish general election of 1923and theBeer Hall Putsch(fifth series). The sixth and final series introduces the rise of the working class during theinterwar periodand hints at the eventual decline of theBritish aristocracy. Downton Abbeyhas received acclaim from television critics andnumerous accolades, including aGolden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Filmand aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries or Movie. It was recognised byGuinness World Recordsas the most critically acclaimed English-language television series of 2011. It earned 27Primetime Emmy Awardnominations after its first two series, the most for any international television series in the awards' history.It was the most watched television series on both ITV and PBS, and became the most successful Britishcostume dramasince the 1981 television serial ofBrideshead Revisited. On 26 March 2015,Carnival Filmsand ITV announced that the sixth series would be the last; it aired on ITV between 20 September 2015 and 8 November 2015. The final episode, the annual Christmas special, was broadcast on 25 December 2015. Afilm adaptation, a continuation of the series, was confirmed on 13 July 2018 and released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, and in the United States on 20 September 2019. A second feature film,Downton Abbey: A New Era, was released in the United Kingdom on 29 April 2022 byUniversal Pictures, and in the United States and Canada on 20 May 2022 byFocus Features.A third film is in production. Plot overview Series 1 (2010) The first series, comprising seven episodes, explores the lives of the fictional Crawley family, the hereditary Earl of Grantham, and their domestic servants. The storyline centres on thefee tail, or \"entail\", governing the titled elite, which endows title and estate exclusively tomale heirs. As part of the backstory, the main character, Robert Crawley, Earl of Grantham, had resolved his father's past financial difficulties by marrying Cora Levinson, an American heiress. Her considerabledowryis now contractually incorporated into the committal entail in perpetuity; however, Robert and Cora have three daughters and no son. As the eldest daughter, Lady Mary Crawley had agreed to marry her second cousin Patrick, the son of the then-heir presumptiveJames Crawley. The series begins the day after thesinking of RMSTitanicon 14/15 April 1912. The first episode starts as news reaches Downton Abbey that both James and Patrick have perished in the sinking of the ocean liner. The family then learns that a more distant and unknown male cousin, solicitor Matthew Crawley, the son of anupper-middle-classdoctor, has become the next heir presumptive. The story initially centres on the relationship between Lady Mary and Matthew, who resists embracing an aristocratic lifestyle, while Lady Mary resists her own attraction to the new heir presumptive. Of several subplots, one involves John Bates, Lord Grantham's newvaletand formerBoer Warbatman, and Thomas Barrow, an ambitious youngfootman, who resents the former for taking a position he had desired for himself. Bates and Thomas remain at odds as Barrow works to sabotage Bates's every move. After learning Bates had recently been released from prison, Thomas and Miss O'Brien (Lady Grantham'slady's maid) begin a relentless pursuit that nearly ruins the Crawley family in scandal. Barrow – ahomosexualman in lateEdwardian England– and O'Brien create havoc for most of the staff and family. When Barrow is caught stealing, he hands in hisnoticeto join theRoyal Army Medical Corps. Matthew eventually does propose to Lady Mary, but she puts him off when Lady Grantham becomes pregnant, understanding that Matthew would no longer be heir if the baby is a boy. Cora loses the baby after O'Brien, believing she is soon to be fired, retaliates by leaving a bar of soap on the floor next to the bathtub, causing Cora to slip while getting out of the tub, and the fall resulting in a miscarriage. It is later revealed that the miscarried foetus was a male. Although Lady Mary intends to accept Matthew, Matthew believes her reluctance is due to the earlier uncertainty of his heirship and emotionally rescinds his proposal, leaving Lady Mary devastated. The series ends just after theassassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinandand the outbreak of theFirst World Warin August 1914. Series 2 (2011) The second series comprises eight episodes and runs from theBattle of the Sommein 1916 to the1918 Spanish flu pandemic. During the war, Downton Abbey is temporarily converted into an officers'convalescent hospital. Matthew, having left Downton, is now aBritish Armyofficer and has become engaged. His fiancée is Lavinia Swire, the niece of aLiberalminister. William Mason, the second footman, is drafted, even after attempts by the Dowager Countess of Grantham to save him fromconscription. William is taken under Matthew's protection as his personalorderly. Enduring trench warfare and charging against machine guns and artillery, both are injured by an exploding shell. William dies from his wounds, but only after a deathbed marriage to Daisy, thekitchen maid. While Daisy does not believe she loves William, she marries him in his last hours as his dying wish. It is not until a brief encounter with the Dowager Countess that she begins to realise that her love was real, but she could not admit it to herself. Matthew is now paralysed from the waist down by his battle injury, and seemingly unable to father children. Lavinia remains true to him despite his attempts to set her free, and he finally accepts her devotion. Mary, while acknowledging her feelings for Matthew, becomes engaged to Sir Richard Carlisle, a powerful and overbearing newspaper mogul, but their relationship is rocky. Bates's wife, Vera, repeatedly causes trouble for John and Anna, who are now engaged. Vera threatens to expose Mary's past scandalous indiscretion, but Carlisle agrees to purchase andkillher story. Embittered, Mrs Bates mysteriously commits suicide with an arsenic pie after a visit by Bates, and he is arrested on suspicion of her murder. Matthew regains the use of his legs, and he and Mary realise they are still in love, but Matthew remains honourably committed to Lavinia after she stood by him during his misfortune. Unknown to them both, Lavinia, ill withSpanish flu, sees and overhears Matthew and Mary admit their love for one another while dancing to a song playing on thephonographgifted as a wedding present to Matthew and Lavinia. The Spanish influenza epidemic hits Downton Abbey further with Cora taken seriously ill, as well as Carson, thebutler. During the outbreak, Thomas attempts to make up for his inability to find other employment after the war by making himself as useful as possible and is made Lord Grantham's valet after Bates is arrested. Lavinia dies abruptly, which causes great guilt to both Matthew and Mary. Bates is found guilty of murder and sentenced to death but the sentence iscommutedto life in prison due to Lord Grantham's influence. After a talk with Robert, Mary realises that she must break off her engagement to Carlisle; he and Matthew fight in the drawing room, but in the end Carlisle goes quietly and is never heard from again. The annual Servants' Ball is held at Downton, and Mary and Matthew finally find their way to a marriage proposal on a snowy evening outside the Abbey. Lady Sybil, the youngest Crawley daughter, beginning to find her aristocratic life stifling, falls in love with Tom Branson, the new chauffeur ofIrishdescent with strongsocialistleanings. She is talked out ofelopementby her sisters, but her wayward marriage eventually receives Lord Grantham's reluctant blessing. Ethel Parks, a new housemaid, is seduced by a wounded officer, Major Bryant. Mrs Hughes, the housekeeper, finds them together in bed and dismisses Ethel, but takes pity on her and helps her when Ethel tells her she is pregnant. She has a baby boy and names him Charlie after his father, but Major Bryant refuses to acknowledge his paternity. The filming location,Highclere Castle, in reality served as a convalescent home during World War I. Series 3 (2012) In episode one of the third series, covering 1920 to 1921, preparations are underway for Mary and Matthew's wedding. Tom and Sybil Branson arrive from Ireland, where they now live, to attend the wedding. Also arriving to attend the wedding of her granddaughter is Cora's mother, Martha Levinson, from America. Robert (Lord Grantham) learns that the bulk of the family's fortune (including Cora's dowry) has been lost due to his impetuous investment in theGrand Trunk Railway. Meanwhile Edith has fallen for Sir Anthony Strallan, whom Robert discourages from marrying Edith due to his age and crippled arm. At Edith's insistence, Robert gives in and welcomes Sir Anthony, but even though he loves her, Strallan cannot accept that the Grantham family disapproves of the match, and at the altar announces that he cannot go through with the wedding, devastating Edith. Strallan flees the church and is never heard from again. Meanwhile, Bates's cellmate plants a small surgical knife in his bedding, but Bates is informed by a fellow prisoner allowing him time to find and hide it (this same small knife is later used by Bates to threaten his cellmate when he had been using his connections through corrupt prison guards to keep a witness from testifying to Bates's innocence of the crime for which he is incarcerated). At Downton, Mrs Hughes finds out she may havebreast cancer, which only some of the household hear about, causing deep concern, but the tumour turns out to bebenign. Tom Branson and Lady Sybil, now pregnant, return to Downton after Tom is implicated in the burning of an Anglo-Irish aristocrat's house. After Matthew's reluctance to accept an inheritance from Lavinia's recently deceased father and then Robert's reluctance to accept that inheritance as a gift, Matthew and Robert reach a compromise in which Matthew accepts that the inheritance will be used as an investment in the estate, giving Matthew an equal say in how it is run. However, as time goes on Robert repeatedly resists Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise the running of the estate to make it profitable. Tragedy strikes when Sybil dies fromeclampsiashortly after giving birth. Tom, devastated, names his daughter Sybil after his late wife. Bates is released from prison after Anna uncovers evidence clearing him of his wife's murder. Tom becomes the newland agentat the suggestion of Violet, the Dowager Countess. Barrow and O'Brien have a falling out, after which O'Brien leads Barrow to believe that Jimmy, the new footman, is sexually attracted to him. Barrow enters Jimmy's room and kisses him while he is sleeping, which wakes him up shocked, confused, and very angry. In the end, Lord Grantham (familiar with homosexuality from Eton) defuses the situation. The family, except Branson, visits Violet's niece Susan, her husband \"Shrimpie\", theMarquessofFlintshire; and their daughter Rose, inScotland, accompanied by Matthew and a very pregnant Mary. The Marquess confides to Robert that his estate is bankrupt and will be sold, making Robert recognise that Downton has been saved through Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise. At Downton, Edna Braithwaite, the new maid, enters Tom's room and kisses him, whereupon he asks her to leave, and she is eventually fired. Mary returns to Downton with Anna and gives birth to the new heir, but Matthew dies in a car crash while driving home from the hospital after seeing his newborn son. Series 4 (2013) In series four, covering 1922 to 1923, O'Brien leaves to serve Lady Flintshire inBritish India. Cora hires Edna Braithwaite, who had previously been fired for her interest in Tom. Eventually the situation blows up, and Edna is replaced by Phyllis Baxter. Mary deeply mourns Matthew's death. Matthew's newly-found letter states Mary is to be his soleheirand thus gives her management over his share of the estate until their son, George,comes of age. With Tom's encouragement, Mary assumes a more active role in running Downton. Two new suitors—Lord Gillingham and Charles Blake—arrive at Downton, though Mary, still grieving, is not interested. Edith, who has begun writing a weekly newspaper column, and Michael Gregson, a magazine editor, fall in love. Due to British law, he is unable todivorcehis wife, who is mentally ill and in an asylum. Gregson travels toGermanyto seekcitizenshipthere, enabling him to divorce, but is killed by Hitler'sBrownshirtsduring riots. Edith is left pregnant and decides to have an illegal abortion, but changes her mind at the last minute. With the help from her paternal aunt, Lady Rosamund, Edith secretly gives birth to a daughter while abroad, and places the baby with adoptive parents inSwitzerland, but reclaims her after arranging a new adoptive family on the estate. Mr and Mrs Drewe of Yew Tree Farm take the baby in and raise her as their own. Anna is raped by Lord Gillingham's valet Mr Green, which Mr Bates later discovers. Subsequently, Green is killed in a London street accident. A local school teacher, Sarah Bunting, and Tom begin a friendship. In the Christmas special set mainly in London, Sampson, acard sharp, steals a letter written byEdward VIII, thenPrince of Wales, to his mistress, Rose's friendFreda Dudley Ward, which if made public would create a scandal; the entire Crawley family connives to retrieve it, although it is Bates who extracts the letter from Sampson's overcoat, and it is returned to Mrs Dudley Ward. The family hold adebutanteball for Lady Rose following her presentation at court, and the grateful Prince makes an appearance at the ball. Series 5 (2014) In series five, covering the year 1924, aRussian exile, Prince Kuragin, wishes to renew his past affections for the Dowager Countess (Violet). Violet instead locates his wife inBritish Hong Kongand reunites the Prince and his estranged wife.Scotland Yardand the local police investigate Green's death. Violet learns that Marigold is Edith's daughter. Meanwhile, Mrs Drewe, not knowing Marigold's true parentage, resents Edith's constant visits. To increase his chances with Mary, Charles Blake plots to reunite Gillingham and his ex-fiancée, Mabel. After Edith inherits Michael Gregson's publishing company, she removes Marigold from the Drewes and relocates to London. Simon Bricker, an art expert interested in one of Downton's paintings, shows his true intentions toward Cora and is thrown out by Robert, causing a temporary rift between the couple. Mrs Patmore's decision to invest her inheritance in real estate inspires Mr Carson, Downton's butler, to do likewise. He suggests that head housekeeper Mrs Hughes invest with him; she confesses she has no money due to supporting a mentally incapacitated sister. The Crawleys' cousin, Lady Rose, daughter of Lord and Lady Flintshire, becomes engaged to Atticus Aldridge, son of Lord and Lady Sinderby. Lord Sinderby strongly objects to Atticus's marrying outside theJewish faith. Lord Merton proposes to Isobel Crawley (Matthew's mother). She accepts, but later ends the engagement due to Lord Merton's sons' disparaging comments over her status as acommoner. Lady Flintshire employs underhanded schemes to derail Rose and Atticus's engagement, including announcing to everyone at the wedding that she and her husband are divorcing, intending to cause a scandal to stop Rose's marriage to Atticus; they are married anyway. When Anna is arrested on suspicion of Green's murder, Bates writes afalse confessionbefore fleeing toIreland. Baxter and Molesley, a footman and Matthew's former valet, are able to prove that Bates was inYorkat the time of the murder. This new information allows Anna to be released. Cora eventually learns the truth about Marigold, and wants her raised at Downton; Marigold is presented as Edith'sward, but Robert and Tom eventually discern the truth. Only Mary is unaware. When a war memorial is unveiled in the town, Robert arranges for a separate plaque to honour the cook Mrs Patmore's late nephew, who was shot forcowardiceand excluded from his own village's memorial. The Crawleys are invited to Brancaster Castle, which Lord and Lady Sinderby have rented for a shooting party. While there, Lady Rose, with help from the Crawleys, defuses a personal near-disaster for Lord Sinderby, earning his gratitude and securing his approval of Rose. A second footman, Andy, is hired on Barrow's recommendation. During the annual Downton Abbey Christmas celebration, Tom announces he is moving toAmericato work for his cousin, taking daughter Sybil with him. Mr Carson proposes marriage to Mrs Hughes and she accepts. Series 6 (2015) In series six, changes are once again afoot at Downton Abbey as themiddle classrises and morebankrupted aristocratsare forced to sell off their large estates. Downton must do more to ensure its future survival;reductions in staffare considered, forcing Barrow to look for a job elsewhere. Having formed a close bond with young George, Barrow realises that Downton has become the first real home he has ever had, but feels unwanted. Mary defies a blackmailer, who is thwarted by Robert. With Tom's departure to Boston, Mary becomes theestate agent. Edith is more hands-on in running her magazine and hires a female editor. Violet and Isobel once again draw battle lines as a government take-over of the local hospital is considered. Mary begins seeing Henry Talbot, a racing driver, and Edith begins seeing Bertie Pelham, a cousin of the owner of Brancaster Castle. Meanwhile, Anna suffers repeated miscarriages. Mary takes her to a specialist, who diagnoses a treatable condition, and she becomes pregnant again. Mr Carson and Mrs Hughes disagree on where to hold their wedding reception, but eventually choose to have it at the schoolhouse, during which Tom reappears with Sybil, having returned to Downton for good. Coyle, who tricked Baxter into stealing a previous employer's jewellery, is convicted after she and other witnesses are persuaded to testify. After Mrs Drewe kidnaps Marigold when Edith is not looking, the Drewes vacate Yew Tree Farm; Daisy convinces Tom to ask Robert to give her father-in-law, Mr Mason, the tenancy. Andy, a footman, offers to help Mr Mason so he can learn about farming, but Andy is held back by his illiteracy. Barrow offers to teach him to read, but Andy soon trades his help for that of a teacher at the local school. Robert suffers a near-fatal health crisis. Previous episodes alluded to health problems for Robert; hisulcerbursts and he is rushed to the hospital for emergency surgery. The operation is successful, but Mary and Tom must take over Downton's operations. Larry Merton's fiancée, Amelia, encourages Lord Merton and Isobel to renew their engagement, but Violet rightly becomes suspicious. Violet discovers that Amelia wants Isobel, and not her, to be Lord Merton's caretaker in his old age.Daisy and Molesley score high marks on their academic exams; Molesley's are so exceptional that he is offered a teaching position at the school. Mary breaks up with Henry, unable to live with the constant fear he could be killed in an accident like Matthew was. Bertie proposes to Edith, but she hesitates to accept because of Marigold. Violet, upset over Cora replacing her as hospital president, abruptly departs for a long cruise to restore her equanimity. Bertie unexpectedly succeeds his late second cousin as 7th Marquess of Hexham and moves into Brancaster Castle; Edith accepts him. Mary spitefully exposes Marigold's parentage, causing Bertie to walk out. Tom confronts Mary over her malicious behaviour and her true feelings for Henry. Despondent over his inability to find another job and his sense of being unloved, Barrow attemptssuicide, and is saved by Baxter and Andy. Realising the extent of Barrow's pain for the first time, Robert and Carson allow Barrow to stay at Downton while he recovers and searches for new employment. Mary and Henry reunite and are married. Edith returns to Downton for the wedding; she and Mary agree to work on improving their relationship. Mrs Patmore's newbed and breakfastbusiness is tainted by scandal, but saved when Robert, Cora and Rosamund appear there publicly to support her. Mary arranges a surprise meeting for Edith and Bertie with Bertie proposing again. Edith accepts. Edith tells Bertie's moralistic mother Mirada about Marigold; initially appalled, she is won over by Edith's honesty. Barrow, having decided to turn over a new leaf and become a kinder person, finds a position as butler and leaves Downton on good terms, but he is unhappy at his new post; the family and other servants also find themselves missing him. Lord Merton is diagnosed with terminalpernicious anaemiaand Amelia blocks Isobel from seeing him. Goaded by Violet, Isobel pushes into the Merton house and announces she will take Lord Merton to her house to care for and marry him, to his delight. Later, Lord Merton is correctly diagnosed with a non-fatal form ofanaemia. Robert resents Cora's frequent absences as the hospital president, but comes to admire her ability after watching her chair a hospital meeting. Henry and Tom go into business together selling used cars, while Mary announces her pregnancy. Molesley accepts a permanent teaching position and he and Baxter promise to continue seeing each other. Daisy and Andy finally acknowledge their feelings; Daisy decides to move to the farm with Mr Mason, her father-in-law. Carson developspalsyand must retire. Following Robert and Mary's suggestion, Barrow happily returns to Downton as butler, with Carson in an overseeing role. Edith and Bertie are finally married in the series finale, set on New Year's Eve 1925. Anna goes into labour during the reception, and she and Bates become parents to a healthy son. Cast and characters The main cast of the Crawley family is led byHugh Bonnevilleas Robert Crawley, the Earl of Grantham, andElizabeth McGovernas his wife Cora Crawley, the Countess of Grantham. Their three daughters are depicted byMichelle Dockeryas Lady Mary Crawley (Talbot),Laura Carmichaelas Lady Edith Crawley (Pelham) andJessica Brown Findlayas Lady Sybil Crawley (Branson).Maggie Smithis Robert Crawley's mother Violet, Dowager Countess of Grantham.Samantha Bondportrays Lady Rosamund Painswick, Robert's sister who resides inBelgrave Square, London.Dan Stevensportrays Matthew Crawley, the new heir, along withPenelope Wiltonas his mother, Isobel Crawley, who are brought to Downton.Allen Leechas Tom Branson begins the series as the familychauffeur, but falls in love with Lady Sybil, marries her and later becomes theagentfor the estate.David Robbportrays Dr Richard Clarkson, the local town doctor. Joining the cast in series three isLily Jamesas Lady Rose MacClare, a cousin whose mother is Violet's niece Susan, the Marchioness of Flintshire, and who is sent to live with the Crawleys because her parents are serving the empire in India and, later, remains there because of family problems. In series three and four,Shirley MacLaineportrays the mother of Cora Crawley, Martha Levinson. Suitors for Lady Mary's affections during the series includeTom Cullenas Lord Gillingham,Julian Ovendenas Charles Blake, andMatthew Goodeas Henry Talbot. Edith's fiancé and eventual husband Bertie Pelham, 7th Marquess of Hexham, is played byHarry Hadden-Paton. Downton Abbey's senior household staff are portrayed byJim Carteras Mr Carson, thebutler, andPhyllis Loganas Mrs Hughes, thehousekeeper. Tensions rise whenRob James-Collier, portraying Thomas Barrow, afootmanand later avaletandunder-butler, along withSiobhan Finneranas Miss O'Brien, the lady'smaidto the Countess of Grantham (up to series three), plot againstBrendan Coyleas Mr Bates, the valet to the Earl of Grantham, and his love interest and eventual wife, Anna (Joanne Froggatt), lady's maid to Lady Mary.Kevin Doyleplays the unlucky Mr Molesley, valet to Matthew Crawley.Thomas Howesportrays William Mason, the second footman. Other household staff areRose Leslieas Gwen Dawson, ahousemaidstudying to be asecretaryin series one.Amy Nuttallplays Ethel Parks, a maid, beginning in series two and three.Matt Milnejoined the cast as Alfred Nugent, O'Brien's nephew, the awkward new footman for series three and four, andRaquel Cassidyplays Baxter, Cora's new lady's maid, who was hired to replace Edna Braithwaithe, who was sacked.Ed Speleersplays the dashing James (Jimmy) Kent, the second footman, from series three to five. In series five and sixMichael Foxplays Andy Parker, a replacement footman for Jimmy. In series four, five, and sixAndrew Scarboroughplays Tim Drewe, a farmer of the estate, who helps Lady Edith conceal a big secret. The kitchen staff includeLesley Nicolas Mrs Patmore thecook, andSophie McSheraas Daisy, thescullery maidwho works her way up to assistant cook having earlier married William Mason.Cara Theoboldportrays Ivy Stuart, a kitchen maid, joining the cast for series three and four. Crawley family The series is set in Downton Abbey, aYorkshirecountry house, which is the home and seat of theEarlandCountessofGrantham, along with their three daughters and other family members. Each series follows the lives of thearistocraticCrawley family, their friends, and their servants during the reign of KingGeorge V. Production Gareth NeameofCarnival Filmsconceived the idea of anEdwardian-eraTV drama set in a country house and approached Fellowes, who had won anAcademy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay)forGosford Park. The TV seriesDownton Abbey– written and created by Fellowes – was originally planned as a spin-off ofGosford Park, but instead was developed as a stand-alone property inspired by the film, set decades earlier.Although Fellowes was reluctant to work on another project resemblingGosford Park, within a few weeks he returned to Neame with an outline of the first series. Influenced by Edith Wharton'sThe Custom of the Country,Fellowes wrote the scripts; and his wife, Emma, acted as an informalstory editor. Filming locations Highclere Castle in northHampshireis used for exterior shots of Downton Abbey and most of the interior filming.The kitchen,servants' quartersand working areas, and some of the \"upstairs\" bedrooms were constructed and filmed atEaling Studios.Bridgewater Housein the St James area of London served as the family's London home. Outdoor scenes are filmed in the village ofBamptoninOxfordshire. Notable locations include the Church of St Mary the Virgin and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital.The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed at Hall Place nearBeaconsfieldinBuckinghamshire. The fictional Downton Abbey is said to be located inYorkshire. The towns ofEasingwold,Kirkby Malzeard,Kirkbymoorside,Malton,Middlesbrough,Ripon,RichmondandThirsk, each mentioned by characters in the series, lie inNorth Yorkshire, as does the city of York, whileLeeds—similarly mentioned—lies inWest Yorkshire. Yorkshire media speculated the general location of the fictional Downton Abbey to be somewhere in the triangulated area between the towns of Easingwold, Ripon and Thirsk. First World Wartrench warfarescenes in France were filmed in a specially constructed replica battlefield for period war scenes near the village ofAkenhamin ruralSuffolk. Many historical locations and aristocratic mansions have been used to film various scenes: The fictional Haxby Park, the estate Sir Richard Carlisle intends to buy in series two, is part ofWaddesdon ManorinBuckinghamshire.Byfleet ManorinSurreyis the location for theDower house, home to Violet,DowagerCountess of Grantham,whileWest Wycombe ParkinBuckinghamshireis used for the interior scenes of Lady Rosamund (Samantha Bond)'sLondonresidence inBelgrave Square.A house in Belgrave Square is used for exterior shots. The farm scenes in series two in which Lady Edith learns to drive a tractor as part of the war effort were filmed on location at theChiltern Open Air Museumin Buckinghamshire. Inveraray CastleinArgyll, Scotland, doubled as \"Duneagle Castle\" in the 2012 Christmas special. Greys CourtnearHenley-on-ThamesinOxfordshirewas used as the family's secondary property, which they proposed moving into and calling \"Downton Place\" due to financial difficulties in series three. Also in the third series, Bates's prison scenes were filmed atLincoln CastleinLincolnshire. Horsted Keynes railway stationinSussexis used as Downton station.The station is part of the heritageBluebell Railway.St Pancrasstation inLondondoubled forKing's Crossstation in episode one of series four, in the scene where Lady Edith Crawley meets her lover Michael Gregson.The restaurant scene where Lady Edith meets Michael Gregson and where they share their kiss was filmed at theCriterion RestaurantinPiccadilly Circuswhich was originally opened in 1874. Bridgewater House in the St James area of London served as the family's London home. Outdoor scenes are filmed in the village of Bampton in Oxfordshire. Notable locations include St Mary's the Virgin Church and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital. The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed atHall Barn, Hall Place near Beaconsfield in Buckinghamshire, featured as Loxley House, the home of Sir Anthony Strallan. Parts of series four were filmed atThe Historic Dockyard Chatham,Kent– The Tarred Yarn Store was used in episode one as a workhouse where Mrs Hughes (Phyllis Logan) visits Mr Grigg (Nicky Henson) and in episode two, streets atThe Historic Dockyard Chathamwere used for the scenes where Lady Rose MacClare (Lily James) is at the market with James Kent (Ed Speleers) watching her.The production had previously filmed inKentfor series one where the opening sequence of a train going through the countryside was filmed at theKent & East Sussex Railway. Other filming locations for series four include the ballroom of The Savile Club inMayfair, London. Scenes for the 2013 Christmas special were filmed atRoyal Holloway, University of LondonnearEgham, Surrey,West Witteringbeach inWest Sussexand Berkshire'sBasildon ParknearStreatley.Lancaster Housein London stood in forBuckingham Palace. Alnwick Castle, inNorthumberland, was the filming location used for Brancaster Castle in the 2014 and 2015 Christmas specials, which included filming in Alnwick Castle'sState Rooms, as well as on the castle's grounds, and at the nearby semi-ruined Hulne Abbey on theDuke of Northumberland's parklands inAlnwick. In series five and six, Kingston Bagpuize House in Oxfordshire was used as the location for Cavenham Park, the home of Lord Merton.In series six, the scenes of motor racing atBrooklandswere filmed at theGoodwood Circuitin West Sussex. In 2015, Wayfair.co.uk published a map of 70+ Downton Abbey filming locations. The 2019 film ofDownton Abbeyuses many of the television locations such as Highclere Castle and Bampton, as well as exterior shots filmed atBeamish Museum.TheNorth York Moors Railwaywas used for railway scenes. Opening theme music The opening music ofDownton Abbey, titled \"Did I Make the Most of Loving You?\",was composed byJohn Lunn. A suite version was released on the soundtrack for the show on 19 September 2011 in the UK and later in the US on 13 December 2011. The soundtrack also included the song performed by singerMary-Jess Leaverland,with lyrics written byDon Black. Broadcasts The rights to broadcastDownton Abbeyhave been acquired in over 220 countries and territories, and the series has been viewed by a global audience of an estimated 120 million people. United Kingdom The series first aired on theITV networkin the United Kingdom beginning on 26 September 2010, and received its first Britain-wide broadcast when shown onITV3beginning in February 2011. STV, the ITV franchisee in central and northernScotland(including theOrkneyandShetlandislands), originally opted out of showingDownton Abbey, choosing instead to screen a brand-new six-part series ofTaggart, following a long practice of opting out of networked United Kingdom-wide programming on the ITV network.This led to backlash from Scottish viewers, who were frustrated at not being able to watch the programme. Many viewers with satellite or cable television tuned into other regional stations of the ITV network, for exampleITV London, with viewing figures showing this is also commonplace for other ITV programmes.STV announced in July 2011 that it would show the first and second series ofDownton Abbeyas part of its autumn schedule.Scottish cast membersPhyllis LoganandIain Glenwere both quoted as being pleased with the decision. United States In the United States,Downton Abbeywas first broadcast in January 2011 onPBS, as part of the 40th season ofMasterpiece.The programme was aired in four 90-minute episodes, controversially requiring PBS to alter the beginning and endpoints of each episode and make other small changes, slightly altering each episode's structure to fit the programme precisely into the allotted running-time.As part ofMasterpiece, episodes shown on PBS also featuredMasterpiecehost (Laura Linney), who introduced each episode, explaining matters such as \"theentail\" and \"Buccaneers\"for the benefit of American viewers; this was perceived as condescending by some American critics.PBS editing for broadcasts in the United States continued in the subsequent seasons.The final and sixth season aired in 2016. PBS continued to repeat episodes until 2020, whenNBC Universaltook over the US broadcasting rights for its streaming servicePeacock. The series became available onNetflixin 2021. The series also aired on the E! network in 2022. Canada In Canada,VisionTVbegan airing the programme on 7 September 2011;CBC Televisionrepeated the whole series in 2021; Downton Abbey was aired in French onIci Radio-Canada Télé. Australia and New Zealand In Australia, the first series was broadcast on theSeven Networkbeginning on 29 May 2011;the second series was broadcast beginning on 20 May 2012;and the third series beginning on 10 February 2013.In New Zealand,Primebegan airing the first series on 10 May 2011, the second series on 18 October 2011 and the third series on 18 October 2012. Ireland In Ireland, independent television channelTV3aired the first series in January and February 2011. France Downton Abbeywas broadcast onTMCin France beginning in 11 December 2011. Reception Critical response AtMetacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the first series received anaveragescore of 91, based on 16 reviews, which indicates \"universal acclaim\".This result earned the show a Guinness World Record in 2011 for \"Highest critical review ratings for a TV show\", makingDownton Abbeythe critically best received TV show in the world.Season 4 ofBreaking BadsurpassedDownton Abbey's record later in the year, with a score of 96, making the first series ofDownton Abbeythe second highest rated show of 2011. The series has been noted for its relatively sympathetic portrayal of thearistocraticfamily and the class-based society of early 20th-century Britain. This has led to criticism from the political left and praise from the right.James Fentonwrote inThe New York Review of Books, \"it is noticeable that the aristocrats in the series, even the ones who are supposed to be the most ridiculous, never lapse into the most offensive kind of upper-class drawl one would expect of them. Great care has been taken to keep them pleasant and approachable, even when the things they say are sometimes shown to be class-bound and unfeeling.\"Jerry Bowyerargued inForbesthat the sympathy for aristocracy is over-stated, and that the show is simply more balanced than most period dramas, which he believes have had a tendency to demonise or ridicule upper class characters. He wrote thatDownton Abbeyshows \"there is no inherent need for good TV to be left of center. Stories sympathetic to virtue, preservation of property and admiration of nobility and of wealth can be told beautifully and to wide audiences.\" Downton Abbeyhas been a commercial success and received general acclaim from critics, although some criticise it as superficial,melodramaticor unrealistic. Others defend these qualities as the reason for the show's appeal. David Kamp wrote inVanity Fairthat \"melodrama is an uncool thing to trade in these days, but then, that's precisely whyDownton Abbeyis so pleasurable. In its clear delineation between the goodies and the baddies, in its regulated dosages of highs and lows, the show is welcome counter-programming to the slow-burning despair and moral ambiguity of most quality drama on television right now.\"In September 2019,The Guardian,which ranked the show 50th on its list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century, stated that the show \"was TV drama as comfort blanket: at a time of austerity, Julian Fellowes's country house epic offered elegantly realised solace in the homilies of the past\".Mary McNamara ofLos Angeles Timeswrote, \"Possibly the best series of the year.\"Jill Serjeant ofReuterswrote, \"There's a new darling in U.S. pop culture.\"The staff ofEntertainment Weeklywrote, \"It's the biggest PBS phenomenon since Sesame Street.\"David Hinckley ofNew York Daily Newswrote, \"Maintains its magic touch.\" James Parker, writing inThe Atlantic, said, \"Preposterous as history, preposterous as drama, the show succeeds magnificently as bad television. The dialogue spins light-operatically along in the service of multiplying plotlets, not too hard on the ear, although now and again a line lands like a tray of dropped spoons. The acting is superb—it has to be.\"Ben W. Heineman Jr. compared the series unfavourably toBrideshead Revisited, writing \"Downton Abbeyis entertainment. Its illustrious predecessor in television mega-success about the English upper class,Brideshead Revisited, is art.\"He noted the lack of character development in Downton. Writing inThe Sunday Times,A. A. Gillsaid that the show is \"everything I despise and despair of on British television:National Trustsentimentality, costumed comfort drama that flogs an embarrassing, demeaning, and bogus vision of the place I live in.\" Sam Wollaston ofThe Guardianwrote, It's beautifully made—handsome, artfully crafted and acted. Smith, who plays the formidable and disdainful Dowager Countess, has a lovely way of delivering words, always spaced to perfection. This is going to be a treat if you like a lavish period drama of a Sunday evening. While rumoured due to the departure of actorDan Stevens, the death of Matthew Crawley in the 2012 Christmas special drew criticism.Fellowes defended the decision stating that they 'didn't really have an option' once Stevens decided to leave.Stevens later said that he had no say in the manner of his character's departure but that he was 'sorry' his character had died on Christmas Day. The third episode of the fourth series, which aired on 6 October 2013, included a warning at the beginning: \"This episode contains violent scenes that some viewers may find upsetting.\"The episode content, in which Anna Bates was raped, led to more than 200 complaints by viewers to UK television regulatorOfcom,while ITV received 60 complaints directly.On 4 November 2013, Ofcom announced it would not be taking action over the controversy citing the warning given, that the episode was screened after 9 pm, and, that the rape took place 'off-screen'.Series four also introduced a recurring character, black jazz musician Jack Ross, who had a brief romantic affair with Lady Rose. The casting ofGary Carrdrew critical accusations ofpolitical correctnessin the media. The character of Ross was partially based onLeslie Hutchinson(\"Hutch\"), a real-life 1920s jazz singer who had an affair with a number of women in high society, among themEdwina Mountbatten. Ratings The first episode ofDownton Abbeyhad a consolidated British audience of 9.2 million viewers, a 32% audience share—making it the most successful new drama on any channel sinceWhitechapelwas launched on ITV in February 2009. The total audience for the first episode, including repeats andITV Playerviewings, exceeded 11.6 million viewers. This was beaten by the next episode, with a total audience of 11.8 million viewers—including repeats and ITV Player views.Downton Abbeybroke the record for a single episode viewing onITV Player. The second series premiered in Britain on 18 September 2011 in the same 9 pm slot as the first series, with the first episode attracting an average audience of 9 million viewers on ITV1, a 34.6% share.The second episode attracted a similar following with an average of 9.3 million viewers.In January 2012, the PBS premiere attracted 4.2 million viewers, over double the network's average primetime audience of 2 million. The premiere audience was 18% higher than the first series premiere. The second series ofDownton Abbeygave PBS its highest ratings since 2009. The second series averaged 5.4 million viewers, excluding station replays, DVR viewings and online streaming. The 5.4 million average improved on PBS first series numbers by 25%. Additionally, episodes of series two have been viewed 4.8 million times on PBS's digital portal, surpassing the online viewing numbers of series one by more than 400 per cent. Overall,Downton Abbey-related content has racked up more than 9 million streams across all platforms, with 1.5 million unique visitors, since series 2's 8 January premiere.In 2013,Downton Abbeywas ranked the 43rd most well-written TV show of all time by theWriters Guild of America. The third series premiered in the UK on 16 September 2012 with an average of 9 million viewers (or a 36% audience share). For the first time in the UK, episode three received an average of more than 10 million viewers (or a 38.2% audience share).Premiering in the US in January 2013, the third series had an average audience of 11.5 million viewers and the finale on 17 February 2013, drew 12.3 million viewers making it the night's highest rating show.Overall, during its seven-week run, the series had an audience of 24 million viewers making it PBS's highest-rated drama of all time. The fourth series premiered in the UK on 22 September 2013 with an average audience of 9.5 million viewers—the highest ever for one of the drama's debut episodes.It premiered in the US on 5 January 2014, to an audience of at least 10.2 million viewers, outperforming every other drama on that night; it was the largest audience forPBSsince the 1990 premiere of theKen BurnsdocumentaryThe Civil War.The second episode attracted an average of 9.6 million UK viewers. Awards and nominations Cultural reaction Although Julian Fellowes supports aunited Ireland,there has been criticism of the stereotypicalIrish charactersused in the show, specifically the character of Tom Branson's brother, Kieran, portrayed as a rude and boorish drunk.Allen Leech, who plays Tom Branson, defended the series, stating that the show did not portray Irish characters in a pejorative fashion.Branson's character took some criticism in Ireland fromThe Irish Times, which described the character as \"an Irish republican turned Downtonian toff.\" The character of the Earl of Grantham occasionally expresses negative views about Catholics and is described, byThe Washington Post, as \"xenophobic\" but \"at least historically accurate\".Episodes in Season 3 featured Lord Grantham using offensive derogatory terms against Catholics such as the phrase \"left-footer\" and mocking theCatholic Massby calling it a \"gymnastics display\". A dinner scene also features a Protestant minister calling Catholic practices \"pagan\". Fellowes, himself a Roman Catholic, explained that he chose to address this in terms of \"that casual, almost unconscious anti-Catholicism that was found among the upper classes, which lasted well into my growing up years\", adding that he \"thought it might be interesting\" to explore this in the series and described his own experiences where the aristocracy \"were happy for you to come to their dances or shoot their pheasants, but there were plenty who did not want you to marry their daughters and risk Catholic grandchildren.\" Authenticity Fellowes has said he tries to be as authentic in his depiction of the period as he can.Despite this, the show features many linguisticanachronisms.The accents of characters have also been questioned, with theReceived Pronunciationof the actors who play the wealthy characters described as \"slightly more contemporary\" than would be expected among early-20th-century aristocrats; however, this \"elicited more natural and unaffected performances from the cast\". In 2010, Fellowes hiredAlastair Bruce, an expert on state and court ritual, as historical adviser.Bruce explains his role as being \"here to guide the production and particularly the director as they bring Julian's words to life. That also involves getting the social conduct right, and giving actors a sense of surety in the way they deliver a performance.\"ActorJim Carter, who plays butler Carson, describes Bruce as the series \"etiquette watchdog\",and the UK'sDaily Telegraphfinished its 2011 profile of Bruce's role stating \"Downton's authenticity, it seems, is in safe hands.\"However, historianSimon Schamacriticised the show for historical inaccuracies and \"pandering toclichés\".Producer Gareth Neame defended the show, saying, \"Downton is a fictional drama. It is not a history programme, but a drama of social satire about a time when relationships, behaviour and hierarchy were very different from those we enjoy today.\" A \"tremendous amount of research\" went into recreating the servants' quarters atEaling StudiosbecauseHighclere Castle, where many of the upstairs scenes are filmed,was not adequate for representing the \"downstairs\" life at the fictional manor house.Researchers visited nearly 40 English country houses to help inform what the kitchen should look like, and production designer Donal Woods said of the kitchen equipment that \"probably about 60 to 70 per cent of the stuff in there is from that period\".Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Managementis an important guide to the food served in the series, but Highclere owner, and author ofLady Almina and the Real Downton Abbey: The Lost Legacy of Highclere Castle, Lady Carnarvon, states that dinner parties in the era \"would have been even more over the top\" than those shown.Lady Pamela Hicksagreed, stating that \"it is ridiculous to think that a weekend party would consist of only fourteen house guests, it would have consisted of at least 40!\"However, Carnarvon understood the compromises that must be made for television, and adds, \"It's a fun costume drama. It's not a social documentary. Because it's so popular, I think some people take it as historical fact.\" Home media Streaming The series was made available in its entirety on Netflix in June 2021. It has also been made available onAmazon Prime Video,Peacock, the PBS app and PBS.org with a PBS Passport subscription. Blu-ray and DVD On 16 September 2011, two days before the UK premiere of the second series, it was reported byAmazon.comthat the first series ofDownton Abbeyhad become the highest selling DVD boxset of all time on the online retailer's website, surpassing popular American programmes such asThe Sopranos,FriendsandThe Wire. Books The World of Downton Abbey, a book featuring a behind-the-scenes look atDownton Abbeyand the era in which it is set, was released on 15 September 2011. It was written byJessica Fellowes(the niece ofJulian Fellowes) and published byHarperCollins. A second book, also written by Jessica Fellowes and published by HarperCollins,The Chronicles of Downton Abbey, was released on 13 September 2012. It is a guide to the show's characters through the early part of the third series. Four spin-off cookbooks have been published –The Official Downton Abbey Cookbook(2019), which features dishes from the Edwardian period researched by food historian Dr Annie Gray,The Official Downton Abbey Christmas Cookbook(2020) by Regula Ysewijn,The Official Downton Abbey Cocktail Book(2019) and TheOfficial Downton Abbey Afternoon Tea Cookbook(2020). Soundtracks A soundtrack, featuring music from the series and also new songs, was released byDeccain September 2011. Music byJohn LunnandDon Blackfeatures, with vocals fromMary-Jess LeaverlandandAlfie Boe.A second soundtrack was released on 19 November 2012 entitledDownton Abbey: The Essential Collectionand a third and final soundtrack, containing two discs, was released on 15 January 2016 entitledDownton Abbey: The Ultimate Collectionand featured music spanning from all six seasons of the series including some from the first soundtrack. Cultural impact Some of the fashion items worn by characters on the show have seen a strong revival of interest in the UK and elsewhere during the show's run, includingstarched collars,midi skirts, beadedgowns, andhunting plaids. TheEquality (Titles) Billwas an unsuccessful piece of legislation introduced in theUK Parliamentin 2013 that would have allowed equal succession of female heirs tohereditary titles and peerages. It was nicknamed the \"Downton Abbeylaw\" because it addressed the same issue that affects Lady Mary Crawley, who cannot inherit the estate because it must pass to a male heir. The decor used onDownton AbbeyinspiredUS Representative Aaron Schockto redecorate his congressional offices in a more luxurious style.He repaid the $40,000 cost of redecoration following scrutiny of his expenses and questions about his use of public money for personal benefit,and subsequently resigned in March 2015. Other media Due to the show's popularity, there have been a number of references and spoofs on it, such asFamily Guyepisode \"Chap Stewie\", which has Stewie Griffin reborn in a household similar to Downton Abbey, andHow I Met Your Motherepisode \"The Fortress\", where the gang watch a television show calledWoodworthy Manor, which is remarkably similar toDownton Abbey. A short scene featuring the characters of Sybil and Tom Branson made a screen-in-screen appearance in the movieIron Man 3. The Gilded Age Julian Fellowes'sThe Gilded Age, which debuted onHBOin 2022, portrays New York in the 1880s and how itsold New York societycoped with the influx of newly wealthy families.While a separate series, a young Violet, Countess of Grantham, couldmake an appearance on the new show. Film adaptations On 13 July 2018, a feature-length film was confirmed, with production commencing mid-2018.The film was written byJulian Fellowesand is a continuation of the TV series, with direction byBrian Percival. It was distributed byFocus FeaturesandUniversal Pictures International.The film was released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, with the United States following one week later on 20 September 2019.Filming of a sequel began in April 2021.The film was finally released in the UK on 29 April 2022, and in the US on 20 May. In March 2024,Imelda Staunton, who plays Lady Maud Bagshaw in the first two films, and is married toJim Carter(butler Mr Carson), revealed onBBC Radio 2that athird and final filmis in the pipeline.On 13 May 2024 it was announced on social media and the Focus Films website that a third film is planned, withPaul Giamatti,Joely Richardson,Alessandro Nivola,Simon Russell BealeandArty Froushanjoining the cast.On 26 June 2024 it was announced that the film would be released in cinemas on 12 September 2025. See also Notes References Further reading External links","Pernicious anemia Pernicious anemiais a disease where not enoughred blood cellsare produced due to a deficiency ofvitamin B12.Those affected often have a gradual onset.The most common initial symptoms arefeeling tiredand weak.Other symptoms may includeshortness of breath, feeling faint, a smooth red tongue,paleskin, chest pain,nauseaandvomiting, loss of appetite, heartburn, numbness in the hands and feet,difficulty walking, memory loss, muscle weakness, poorreflexes, blurred vision, clumsiness, depression, and confusion.Without treatment, some of these problems may become permanent. Pernicious anemia refers to a type ofvitamin B12deficiencyanemiathat results from lack ofintrinsic factor.Lack of intrinsic factor is most commonly due to anautoimmuneattack on thecellsthat create it in thestomach.It can also occur following the surgical removal of all or part of the stomach orsmall intestine; from an inherited disorder or illnesses that damage the stomach lining.When suspected, diagnosis is made byblood testsinitially acomplete blood count, and occasionally,bone marrow tests.Blood tests may showfewer but larger red blood cells, low numbers ofyoung red blood cells, low levels of vitamin B12, andantibodiesto intrinsic factor.Diagnosis is not always straightforward and can be challenging. Because pernicious anemia is due to a lack of intrinsic factor, it is not preventable.Pernicious anemia can be treated with injections of vitamin B12.If the symptoms are serious, frequent injections are typically recommended initially.There are not enough studies that pills are effective in improving or eliminating symptoms.Often, treatment may be needed for life. Pernicious anemia is the most common cause of clinically evident vitamin B12deficiency worldwide.Pernicious anemia due to autoimmune problems occurs in about one per 1000 people in the US. Among those over the age of 60, about 2% have the condition.It more commonly affects people of northern European descent.Women are more commonly affected than men.With proper treatment, most people live normal lives.Due to a higher risk ofstomach cancer, those with pernicious anemia should be checked regularly for this.The first clear description was byThomas Addisonin 1849.The term \"pernicious\" means \"deadly\", and this term came into use because, before the availability of treatment, the disease was often fatal. Signs and symptoms Pernicious anemia often presents slowly, and can cause harm insidiously and unnoticeably. Untreated, it can lead to neurological complications, and in serious cases, death.The onset may be vague and slow and the condition can be confused with other conditions, and there may be few to many symptoms without anemia.Pernicious anemia may be present without a person experiencing symptoms at first, over time,feeling tired and weak,lightheadedness,dizziness, headaches,rapidorirregularheartbeat, breathlessness,glossitis(a sore red tongue), poor ability to exercise,low blood pressure, cold hands and feet,paleoryellowskin, easy bruising and bleeding, low-gradefevers, tremor,cold sensitivity,chest pain,upset stomach,nausea, loss of appetite, heartburn, weight loss,diarrhea,constipation, severejoint pain,feeling abnormal sensationsincluding tingling or numbness to the fingers and toes (pins and needles), and tinnitus, may occur.Anemia may present with a number of further common symptoms,including hair thinning and loss, early greying of the hair, mouth ulcers, bleeding gums,angular cheilitis, a look of exhaustion with pale and dehydrated or cracked lips and dark circles around the eyes, as well as brittle nails. In more severe or prolonged cases of pernicious anemia, nerve cell damage may occur. This is may result in sense loss, difficulty inproprioception,neuropathic pain, difficulty walking, poor balance, loss of sensation in the feet,muscle weakness, blurred vision (either due toretinopathyoroptic neuropathy), impaired urination, fertility problems, decreased sense of taste and smell,decreased level of consciousness, changes in reflexes, memory loss, mood swings,depression,irritability, cognitive impairment, confusion, anxiety, clumsiness, psychosis, and, in more severe cases, dementia.Anemia may also lead to cardiac murmursand/or altered blood pressure (loworhigh). The deficiency may also present with thyroid disorders.In severe cases, the anemia may cause congestive heart failure.A complication of severe chronic PA issubacute combined degeneration of spinal cord, which leads to distal sensory loss (posterior column), absent ankle reflex, increased knee reflex response, and extensor plantar response.Other than anemia, hematological symptoms may includecytopenias, intramedullaryhemolysis, and pseudothrombotic microangiopathy.Vitamin B12deficiency, which is reversible, is occasionally confused withacute myeloid leukemia, which is an irreversible condition presenting with some of the same hematological symptoms, including hypercellular bone marrow with blastic differentiation and hypersegmented neutrophils.Pernicious anemia can causeosteoporosisand may lead tobone fractures.Pernicious anemia can contribute to a delay in physical growth in children, and may also be a cause for delay in puberty for adolescents. Causes Vitamin B12cannot be produced by the human body, and must be obtained from the diet. When foods containing B12are eaten, the vitamin is usually bound to protein and is released by proteases released by the pancreas into the small bowel. Following its release, most B12is absorbed by the body in the small bowel (ileum) after binding to a protein known asintrinsic factor. Intrinsic factor is produced byparietal cellsof thegastric mucosa(stomach lining) and the intrinsic factor-B12-complex is absorbed by enterocytes in theileum'scubamreceptors.PA is characterised by B12deficiency caused by the absence of intrinsic factor.Other disorders that can disrupt the absorption of vitamin B12in the small intestine includeceliac disease, surgical removal ofcrohn's disease, andHIV. PA may be considered as an end stage of autoimmuneatrophic gastritis, a disease characterised by stomach atrophy and the presence ofantibodiesto parietal cells and intrinsic factor.Autoimmune atrophic gastritis, is localised to the body of the stomach, where parietal cells are located.Antibodies to intrinsic factor and parietal cells cause the destruction of the oxyntic gastric mucosa, in which the parietal cells are located, leading to the subsequent loss of intrinsic factor synthesis. Without intrinsic factor, the ileum can no longer absorb the B12.Atrophic gastritis is often a precursor togastric cancer. Although the exact role ofHelicobacter pyloriinfection in PA remains controversial, evidence indicatesH. pyloriis involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. A long-standingH. pyloriinfection may cause gastric autoimmunity by a mechanism known asmolecular mimicry. Antibodies produced by the immune system can be cross-reactive and may bind to bothH. pyloriantigensand those found in thegastric mucosa. The antibodies are produced by activatedB cellsthat recognise both pathogen and self-derived peptides. Theautoantigensbelieved to cause the autoreactivity are the alpha and beta subunits of thesodium-potassium pump.In a study, B12deficiency caused byHelicobacter pyloriwas positively correlated withCagApositivity and gastric inflammatory activity, rather than gastric atrophy.Less commonly,H. pyloriandZollinger-Ellison syndromemay cause a form of nonautoimmune gastritis that can lead to pernicious anemia. Impaired B12absorption can also occur following gastric removal (gastrectomy) or gastric bypass surgery. In these surgeries, either the parts of the stomach that produce gastric secretions are removed or they are bypassed. This means intrinsic factor, as well as other factors required for B12absorption, are not available. However, B12deficiency after gastric surgery does not usually become a clinical issue. This is probably because the body stores many years' worth of B12in the liver and gastric surgery patients are adequately supplemented with the vitamin. Although no specific PA susceptibility genes have been identified, a genetic factor likely is involved in the disease. Pernicious anemia is often found in conjunction with other autoimmune disorders, suggesting common autoimmune susceptibility genes may be a causative factor.In spite of that, previous family studies and case reports focusing on PA have suggested that there is a tendency of genetic heritance of PA in particular, and close relatives of the PA patients seem to have higher incidence of PA and associated PA conditions.Moreover, it was further indicated that the formation of antibodies to gastric cells was autosomal dominant gene determined, and the presence of antibodies to the gastric cells might not be necessarily related to the occurrence of atrophic gastritis related to PA. Pathophysiology Although the healthy body stores three to five years' worth of B12in the liver, the usually undetected autoimmune activity in one's gut over a prolonged period of time leads to B12depletion and the resulting anemia; pernicious anemia refers to one of the hematologic manifestations ofchronic auto-immune gastritis, in which the immune system targets the parietal cells of the stomach orintrinsic factoritself, leading to decreased absorption of vitamin B12. The body needs enough intrinsic factor to absorb and reabsorb vitamin B12from thebile, in which reduces the time needed to develop a deficiency. B12is required by enzymes for two reactions: the conversion ofmethylmalonyl-CoAtosuccinyl-CoA, and the conversion ofhomocysteinetomethionine. In the latter reaction, themethyl groupoflevomefolic acidis transferred to homocysteine to producetetrahydrofolateand methionine. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzymemethionine synthasewith B12as an essential cofactor. During B12deficiency, this reaction cannot proceed, which leads to the accumulation of levomefolic acid. This accumulation depletes the other types of folate required forpurineandthymidylatesynthesis, which are required for the synthesis of DNA. Inhibition ofDNA replicationin maturing red blood cells results in the formation of large, fragile megaloblasticerythrocytes. The neurological aspects of the disease are thought to arise from the accumulation of methylmalonyl- CoA due to the requirement of B12as a cofactor to the enzyme methylmalonyl-CoA mutase. Diagnosis The insidious nature of PA may mean that diagnosis is delayed.Diagnosis is not always straightforward and can be challenging and can take up to several years to receive a diagnosis from the onset of symptoms and almost 60% of those affected are misdiagnosed or not initially diagnosed at all.PA may be suspected when a patient'sblood smearshows large, fragile, immature erythrocytes, known asmegaloblasts. A diagnosis of PA first requires demonstration ofmegaloblastic anemiaby conducting afull blood countand blood smear, which evaluates themean corpuscular volume(MCV), as well themean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration(MCHC).PA is identified with a high MCV (macrocytic anemia) and a normal MCHC (normochromicanemia).Ovalocytesare also typically seen on the blood smear, and apathognomonicfeature of megaloblastic anemias (which include PA and others) is hypersegmented neutrophils.Neuropsychiatric symptoms can precede hematological signs and are often the presenting manifestation of the disease. Vitamin B12serum levels are used to detect its deficiency, but do not distinguish its causes. Vitamin B12levels can be falsely high or low and data forsensitivity and specificityvary widely. Normal serum levels may be found in cases of deficiency wheremyeloproliferative disorders,liver disease,transcobalamin II, orsmall intestinal bacterial overgrowthare present.Low levels of serum vitamin B12may be caused by other factors than B12deficiency, such asfolate deficiency,pregnancy,oral contraceptiveuse,haptocorrindeficiency, andmyeloma.High serum levels may caused by supplementing with vitamin B12, present of antibodies to intrinsic factor, or due to underlying condition. The presence of antibodies to gastric parietal cells and intrinsic factor is common in PA. Parietal cell antibodies are found in other autoimmune disorders and also in up to 10% of healthy individuals. However, around 85% of PA patients have parietal cell antibodies, which means they are a sensitive marker for the disease. Intrinsic factor antibodies are much less sensitive than parietal cell antibodies, but they are much more specific. They are found in about half of PA patients and are very rarely found in other disorders. These antibody tests can distinguish between PA and food-B12malabsorption. A buildup of certain metabolites occurs in B12deficiency due to its role in metabolic processes and cellular functions.Methylmalonic acid(MMA) can be measured in both the blood and urine, whereashomocysteineis only measured in the blood. An increase in both MMA and homocysteine distinguishes B12deficiency from folate deficiency because homocysteine alone increases in the latter. Elevatedgastrinlevels can be found in around 80–90% of PA cases, but they may also be found in other forms of gastritis. Decreased pepsinogen I levels or a decreased pepsinogen I to pepsinogen II ratio may also be found, although these findings are less specific to PA and can be found in food-B12malabsorption and other forms of gastritis. The diagnosis of atrophic gastritis type A should be confirmed by gastroscopy and stepwise biopsy.About 90% of individuals with PA have antibodies for parietal cells; however, only 50% of all individuals in the general population with these antibodies have pernicious anemia. Differential diagnosis Forms of vitamin B12deficiency other than PA must be considered in thedifferential diagnosisof megaloblastic anemia. For example, a B12-deficient state which causes megaloblastic anemia and which may be mistaken for classical PA may be caused by infection with thetapewormDiphyllobothrium latum, possibly due to the parasite's competition with host for vitamin B12. The classic test for PA, theSchilling test, is no longer widely used, as more efficient methods are available. This historic test consisted, in its first step, of taking an oral dose ofradiolabelledvitamin B12, followed by quantitation of the vitamin in the patient's urine over a 24-hour period via measurement of theradioactivity. A second step of the test repeats the regimen and procedure of the first step, with the addition of oral intrinsic factor. A patient with PA presents lower than normal amounts of intrinsic factor; hence, addition of intrinsic factor in the second step results in an increase in vitamin B12absorption (over the baseline established in the first). The Schilling test distinguished PA from other forms of B12deficiency,specifically, fromImerslund–Gräsbeck syndrome, a B12-deficiency caused by mutations inCUBNthat codes forcubilinthe cobalamin receptor. Vitamin B12 deficiency is also prevalent in patients havingCrohn's disease(CD) so it should be differentiated. Treatment Pernicious anemia is usually easily treated by providing the necessary level of vitamin B12supplementation.Pernicious anemia can be treated with intramuscular injections of vitamin B12.Initially in high daily doses, followed by less frequent lower doses, as the condition improves.Activity may need to be limited during the course of treatment.As long as the body is saturated with vitamin B12expected to result in cessation of anemia-related symptoms and there are no other symptoms, unless there are irreversible neurological complications.There are not enough studies on whether pills are as effective in improving or eliminating symptoms as parenteral treatment.Folatesupplementation may affect the course and treatment of pernicious anemia if vitamin B12not replaced.In some severe cases of anemia, ablood transfusionmay be needed to resolve haematological effects.Treatment is lifelong. The treatment of PA varies by country and area. Opinions vary over the efficacy of administration (parenteral/oral), the amount and time interval of the doses, or the forms of vitamin B12(e.g. cyanocobalamin/hydroxocobalamin). More comprehensive studies are still needed in order to validate the feasibility of a particular therapeutic method for PA in clinical practices. Prognosis A person with well-treated PA can live a healthy life. Failure to diagnose and treat in time, however, may result in permanent neurological damage, excessive fatigue, depression, memory loss, and other complications. In severe cases, the neurological complications of pernicious anemia can lead to death – hence the name, \"pernicious\", meaning deadly. There is an increased risk ofgastric cancerin those with pernicious anemia linked to the common feature of atrophic gastritis. Epidemiology PA is estimated to affect 0.1% of the general population and 1.9% of those over 60, accounting for 20–50% of B12deficiency in adults.A review of literature shows that the prevalence of PA is higher in Northern Europe, especially in Scandinavian countries, and among people of African descent, and that increased awareness of the disease and better diagnostic tools might play a role in apparently higher rates of incidence. History A case of anemia with a first recognition of associatedatrophic gastritisa feature of pernicious anemia, was first described in 1824 byJames Combe. This was fully investigated in 1849, by British physicianThomas Addison, from which it acquired the common name ofAddison's anemia. In 1871, the first accurate description of the disease in continental Europe was made byMichael Anton Biermer, aGermanphysician who noted the insidious course of the condition. Because it was untreatable and fatal at the time, he first referred to it as \"pernicious\" anemia.Russellcoined the termsubacute combined degeneration of spinal cord. In 1907,Richard Clarke Cabotreported on a series of 1,200 patients with PA; their average survival was between one and three years.Pernicious anemia was a fatal disease before about the year 1920; until the importance of theliverinhematopoiesiswas recognized, the treatment of pernicious anemia was unsuccessful and arbitrary. It may have motivatedGeorge Whipple, who had a keen interest inliver diseases, to investigate the liver's role in hematopoiesis. Whipple began evaluating the effects of treatments for anemia caused by chronic blood loss. Whipple, Huber, and Robchett studied the effects onhemoglobinand blood regeneration of a variety of treatments, among which only raw liver showed real promise.Serendipity is said to have played a role in this discovery. Whipple observed that blood regeneration was poor in dogs fed cooked liver afterchronic blood loss. Had it not been that a lazy laboratory technician gave the dogs raw liver, the much more dramatic response might not have been discovered then. Around 1926,George MinotandWilliam P. Murphy, who learned of Whipple's discovery, sought raw liver as a treatment for pernicious anemia. They later suggested a high-protein diet with high amounts of raw liver. This caused a rapid improvement in symptoms and a simultaneous rise inred blood cellcounts.Fruitandironwere also part of the diet, and it appears that at this point, Minot and Murphy were not quite sure that the liver was a very important factor. It was thought that iron in liver tissue, not liver juice-soluble factor, cured hemorrhagic anemia in dogs. Thus, the discovery of liver juice as a treatment for pernicious anemia had been by coincidence. However, Minot, Murphy, and Whipple received the joint Nobel Prize for discovering a cure for a previously fatal disease of unknown cause in 1934, becoming the first Americans to be awarded theNobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. It is not easy to eat uncooked liver, and extracts were developed as a concentrate of liver juice forintramuscular injection. In 1928, chemistEdwin Cohnprepared an extract that was 50 to 100 times stronger than obtained from raw liver. This became part of the standard management of pernicious anemia until the 1950s. The active ingredient in the liver remained unknown until 1948.The anti-pernicious anemia factor was only isolated from the liver by Smith, Rex, and others. The substance wascobalamin, which the discoverers called \"vitamin B12\".They showed that giving a few micrograms could prevent relapse in the disease.Dorothy Hodgkinand co-workers went on to useX-ray crystallographyto elucidate the structure of cobalamin for which she, too, was awarded aNobel Prize. Understanding of the pathogenesis of pernicious anaemia increased over subsequent decades. It had long been known that the disease was associated withdefects in the gastrointestinal tract: patients hadchronic gastritisand lack of acid secretion (achlorhydria). It is known that transport of physiological amounts of vitamin B12depends on the combined actions of gastric, ileal and pancreatic components. The gastric moiety was discovered and named 'intrinsic factor' byWilliam Castlein 1930. A further important advance was made in the early 1960s by Doniach with the recognition that pernicious anemia is anautoimmune disease.Pernicious anemia is eventually treated with only injections of B12; injections are typically 1 mg every other day, or twice weekly. A medical author takes the view thatMary Todd Lincoln, the wife of American PresidentAbraham Lincoln, had pernicious anemia for decades and died from it in 1882. Research Permeation enhancers Treatment using oral drugs is an easier option in management but the bioavailabity of B12 is low. This is due to low absorption in the intestine, and breakdown by enzyme activity. Research continues to focus on the use of permeation enhancers or permeation absorbers in combination with the treatment. One of the better performing enhancers studied issalcoprozate sodium(SNAC).SNAC is able to form a noncovalent complex with cobalamin while preserving its chemical integrity and protect B12 from gastric acidity.This complex is much more lipophilic than the water-soluble vitamin B12, so is able to pass through cellular membranes with greater ease.Molecular dynamicsare used in experiments to gain an understanding of the molecular interactions involved in the different molecules used and the degree of ease achieved in absorption across the gastric epithelium. References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Downton Abbey Downton Abbeyis a Britishhistorical dramatelevision series set in the early 20th century, created and co-written byJulian Fellowes. It first aired in the United Kingdom onITVon 26 September 2010 and in the United States onPBS, which supported its production as part of itsMasterpiece Classicanthology, on 9 January 2011. The show ran for fifty-two episodes across six series, including five Christmas specials. The series, set on the fictionalYorkshirecountry estateof Downton Abbey between 1912 and 1926, depicts the lives of thearistocraticCrawley family and theirdomestic servantsin the post-Edwardian era, and the effects the great events of the time have on their lives and on theBritish social hierarchy. These events include news of thesinking of theTitanic(first series); the outbreak of theFirst World War, theSpanish influenza pandemicand theMarconi scandal(second series); theIrish War of Independenceleading to the formation of theIrish Free State(third series); theTeapot Dome scandal(fourth series); and theBritish general election of 1923and theBeer Hall Putsch(fifth series). The sixth and final series introduces the rise of the working class during theinterwar periodand hints at the eventual decline of theBritish aristocracy. Downton Abbeyhas received acclaim from television critics andnumerous accolades, including aGolden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Filmand aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries or Movie. It was recognised byGuinness World Recordsas the most critically acclaimed English-language television series of 2011. It earned 27Primetime Emmy Awardnominations after its first two series, the most for any international television series in the awards' history.It was the most watched television series on both ITV and PBS, and became the most successful Britishcostume dramasince the 1981 television serial ofBrideshead Revisited. On 26 March 2015,Carnival Filmsand ITV announced that the sixth series would be the last; it aired on ITV between 20 September 2015 and 8 November 2015. The final episode, the annual Christmas special, was broadcast on 25 December 2015. Afilm adaptation, a continuation of the series, was confirmed on 13 July 2018 and released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, and in the United States on 20 September 2019. A second feature film,Downton Abbey: A New Era, was released in the United Kingdom on 29 April 2022 byUniversal Pictures, and in the United States and Canada on 20 May 2022 byFocus Features.A third film is in production. Plot overview Series 1 (2010) The first series, comprising seven episodes, explores the lives of the fictional Crawley family, the hereditary Earl of Grantham, and their domestic servants. The storyline centres on thefee tail, or \\\"entail\\\", governing the titled elite, which endows title and estate exclusively tomale heirs. As part of the backstory, the main character, Robert Crawley, Earl of Grantham, had resolved his father's past financial difficulties by marrying Cora Levinson, an American heiress. Her considerabledowryis now contractually incorporated into the committal entail in perpetuity; however, Robert and Cora have three daughters and no son. As the eldest daughter, Lady Mary Crawley had agreed to marry her second cousin Patrick, the son of the then-heir presumptiveJames Crawley. The series begins the day after thesinking of RMSTitanicon 14/15 April 1912. The first episode starts as news reaches Downton Abbey that both James and Patrick have perished in the sinking of the ocean liner. The family then learns that a more distant and unknown male cousin, solicitor Matthew Crawley, the son of anupper-middle-classdoctor, has become the next heir presumptive. The story initially centres on the relationship between Lady Mary and Matthew, who resists embracing an aristocratic lifestyle, while Lady Mary resists her own attraction to the new heir presumptive. Of several subplots, one involves John Bates, Lord Grantham's newvaletand formerBoer Warbatman, and Thomas Barrow, an ambitious youngfootman, who resents the former for taking a position he had desired for himself. Bates and Thomas remain at odds as Barrow works to sabotage Bates's every move. After learning Bates had recently been released from prison, Thomas and Miss O'Brien (Lady Grantham'slady's maid) begin a relentless pursuit that nearly ruins the Crawley family in scandal. Barrow – ahomosexualman in lateEdwardian England– and O'Brien create havoc for most of the staff and family. When Barrow is caught stealing, he hands in hisnoticeto join theRoyal Army Medical Corps. Matthew eventually does propose to Lady Mary, but she puts him off when Lady Grantham becomes pregnant, understanding that Matthew would no longer be heir if the baby is a boy. Cora loses the baby after O'Brien, believing she is soon to be fired, retaliates by leaving a bar of soap on the floor next to the bathtub, causing Cora to slip while getting out of the tub, and the fall resulting in a miscarriage. It is later revealed that the miscarried foetus was a male. Although Lady Mary intends to accept Matthew, Matthew believes her reluctance is due to the earlier uncertainty of his heirship and emotionally rescinds his proposal, leaving Lady Mary devastated. The series ends just after theassassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinandand the outbreak of theFirst World Warin August 1914. Series 2 (2011) The second series comprises eight episodes and runs from theBattle of the Sommein 1916 to the1918 Spanish flu pandemic. During the war, Downton Abbey is temporarily converted into an officers'convalescent hospital. Matthew, having left Downton, is now aBritish Armyofficer and has become engaged. His fiancée is Lavinia Swire, the niece of aLiberalminister. William Mason, the second footman, is drafted, even after attempts by the Dowager Countess of Grantham to save him fromconscription. William is taken under Matthew's protection as his personalorderly. Enduring trench warfare and charging against machine guns and artillery, both are injured by an exploding shell. William dies from his wounds, but only after a deathbed marriage to Daisy, thekitchen maid. While Daisy does not believe she loves William, she marries him in his last hours as his dying wish. It is not until a brief encounter with the Dowager Countess that she begins to realise that her love was real, but she could not admit it to herself. Matthew is now paralysed from the waist down by his battle injury, and seemingly unable to father children. Lavinia remains true to him despite his attempts to set her free, and he finally accepts her devotion. Mary, while acknowledging her feelings for Matthew, becomes engaged to Sir Richard Carlisle, a powerful and overbearing newspaper mogul, but their relationship is rocky. Bates's wife, Vera, repeatedly causes trouble for John and Anna, who are now engaged. Vera threatens to expose Mary's past scandalous indiscretion, but Carlisle agrees to purchase andkillher story. Embittered, Mrs Bates mysteriously commits suicide with an arsenic pie after a visit by Bates, and he is arrested on suspicion of her murder. Matthew regains the use of his legs, and he and Mary realise they are still in love, but Matthew remains honourably committed to Lavinia after she stood by him during his misfortune. Unknown to them both, Lavinia, ill withSpanish flu, sees and overhears Matthew and Mary admit their love for one another while dancing to a song playing on thephonographgifted as a wedding present to Matthew and Lavinia. The Spanish influenza epidemic hits Downton Abbey further with Cora taken seriously ill, as well as Carson, thebutler. During the outbreak, Thomas attempts to make up for his inability to find other employment after the war by making himself as useful as possible and is made Lord Grantham's valet after Bates is arrested. Lavinia dies abruptly, which causes great guilt to both Matthew and Mary. Bates is found guilty of murder and sentenced to death but the sentence iscommutedto life in prison due to Lord Grantham's influence. After a talk with Robert, Mary realises that she must break off her engagement to Carlisle; he and Matthew fight in the drawing room, but in the end Carlisle goes quietly and is never heard from again. The annual Servants' Ball is held at Downton, and Mary and Matthew finally find their way to a marriage proposal on a snowy evening outside the Abbey. Lady Sybil, the youngest Crawley daughter, beginning to find her aristocratic life stifling, falls in love with Tom Branson, the new chauffeur ofIrishdescent with strongsocialistleanings. She is talked out ofelopementby her sisters, but her wayward marriage eventually receives Lord Grantham's reluctant blessing. Ethel Parks, a new housemaid, is seduced by a wounded officer, Major Bryant. Mrs Hughes, the housekeeper, finds them together in bed and dismisses Ethel, but takes pity on her and helps her when Ethel tells her she is pregnant. She has a baby boy and names him Charlie after his father, but Major Bryant refuses to acknowledge his paternity. The filming location,Highclere Castle, in reality served as a convalescent home during World War I. Series 3 (2012) In episode one of the third series, covering 1920 to 1921, preparations are underway for Mary and Matthew's wedding. Tom and Sybil Branson arrive from Ireland, where they now live, to attend the wedding. Also arriving to attend the wedding of her granddaughter is Cora's mother, Martha Levinson, from America. Robert (Lord Grantham) learns that the bulk of the family's fortune (including Cora's dowry) has been lost due to his impetuous investment in theGrand Trunk Railway. Meanwhile Edith has fallen for Sir Anthony Strallan, whom Robert discourages from marrying Edith due to his age and crippled arm. At Edith's insistence, Robert gives in and welcomes Sir Anthony, but even though he loves her, Strallan cannot accept that the Grantham family disapproves of the match, and at the altar announces that he cannot go through with the wedding, devastating Edith. Strallan flees the church and is never heard from again. Meanwhile, Bates's cellmate plants a small surgical knife in his bedding, but Bates is informed by a fellow prisoner allowing him time to find and hide it (this same small knife is later used by Bates to threaten his cellmate when he had been using his connections through corrupt prison guards to keep a witness from testifying to Bates's innocence of the crime for which he is incarcerated). At Downton, Mrs Hughes finds out she may havebreast cancer, which only some of the household hear about, causing deep concern, but the tumour turns out to bebenign. Tom Branson and Lady Sybil, now pregnant, return to Downton after Tom is implicated in the burning of an Anglo-Irish aristocrat's house. After Matthew's reluctance to accept an inheritance from Lavinia's recently deceased father and then Robert's reluctance to accept that inheritance as a gift, Matthew and Robert reach a compromise in which Matthew accepts that the inheritance will be used as an investment in the estate, giving Matthew an equal say in how it is run. However, as time goes on Robert repeatedly resists Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise the running of the estate to make it profitable. Tragedy strikes when Sybil dies fromeclampsiashortly after giving birth. Tom, devastated, names his daughter Sybil after his late wife. Bates is released from prison after Anna uncovers evidence clearing him of his wife's murder. Tom becomes the newland agentat the suggestion of Violet, the Dowager Countess. Barrow and O'Brien have a falling out, after which O'Brien leads Barrow to believe that Jimmy, the new footman, is sexually attracted to him. Barrow enters Jimmy's room and kisses him while he is sleeping, which wakes him up shocked, confused, and very angry. In the end, Lord Grantham (familiar with homosexuality from Eton) defuses the situation. The family, except Branson, visits Violet's niece Susan, her husband \\\"Shrimpie\\\", theMarquessofFlintshire; and their daughter Rose, inScotland, accompanied by Matthew and a very pregnant Mary. The Marquess confides to Robert that his estate is bankrupt and will be sold, making Robert recognise that Downton has been saved through Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise. At Downton, Edna Braithwaite, the new maid, enters Tom's room and kisses him, whereupon he asks her to leave, and she is eventually fired. Mary returns to Downton with Anna and gives birth to the new heir, but Matthew dies in a car crash while driving home from the hospital after seeing his newborn son. Series 4 (2013) In series four, covering 1922 to 1923, O'Brien leaves to serve Lady Flintshire inBritish India. Cora hires Edna Braithwaite, who had previously been fired for her interest in Tom. Eventually the situation blows up, and Edna is replaced by Phyllis Baxter. Mary deeply mourns Matthew's death. Matthew's newly-found letter states Mary is to be his soleheirand thus gives her management over his share of the estate until their son, George,comes of age. With Tom's encouragement, Mary assumes a more active role in running Downton. Two new suitors—Lord Gillingham and Charles Blake—arrive at Downton, though Mary, still grieving, is not interested. Edith, who has begun writing a weekly newspaper column, and Michael Gregson, a magazine editor, fall in love. Due to British law, he is unable todivorcehis wife, who is mentally ill and in an asylum. Gregson travels toGermanyto seekcitizenshipthere, enabling him to divorce, but is killed by Hitler'sBrownshirtsduring riots. Edith is left pregnant and decides to have an illegal abortion, but changes her mind at the last minute. With the help from her paternal aunt, Lady Rosamund, Edith secretly gives birth to a daughter while abroad, and places the baby with adoptive parents inSwitzerland, but reclaims her after arranging a new adoptive family on the estate. Mr and Mrs Drewe of Yew Tree Farm take the baby in and raise her as their own. Anna is raped by Lord Gillingham's valet Mr Green, which Mr Bates later discovers. Subsequently, Green is killed in a London street accident. A local school teacher, Sarah Bunting, and Tom begin a friendship. In the Christmas special set mainly in London, Sampson, acard sharp, steals a letter written byEdward VIII, thenPrince of Wales, to his mistress, Rose's friendFreda Dudley Ward, which if made public would create a scandal; the entire Crawley family connives to retrieve it, although it is Bates who extracts the letter from Sampson's overcoat, and it is returned to Mrs Dudley Ward. The family hold adebutanteball for Lady Rose following her presentation at court, and the grateful Prince makes an appearance at the ball. Series 5 (2014) In series five, covering the year 1924, aRussian exile, Prince Kuragin, wishes to renew his past affections for the Dowager Countess (Violet). Violet instead locates his wife inBritish Hong Kongand reunites the Prince and his estranged wife.Scotland Yardand the local police investigate Green's death. Violet learns that Marigold is Edith's daughter. Meanwhile, Mrs Drewe, not knowing Marigold's true parentage, resents Edith's constant visits. To increase his chances with Mary, Charles Blake plots to reunite Gillingham and his ex-fiancée, Mabel. After Edith inherits Michael Gregson's publishing company, she removes Marigold from the Drewes and relocates to London. Simon Bricker, an art expert interested in one of Downton's paintings, shows his true intentions toward Cora and is thrown out by Robert, causing a temporary rift between the couple. Mrs Patmore's decision to invest her inheritance in real estate inspires Mr Carson, Downton's butler, to do likewise. He suggests that head housekeeper Mrs Hughes invest with him; she confesses she has no money due to supporting a mentally incapacitated sister. The Crawleys' cousin, Lady Rose, daughter of Lord and Lady Flintshire, becomes engaged to Atticus Aldridge, son of Lord and Lady Sinderby. Lord Sinderby strongly objects to Atticus's marrying outside theJewish faith. Lord Merton proposes to Isobel Crawley (Matthew's mother). She accepts, but later ends the engagement due to Lord Merton's sons' disparaging comments over her status as acommoner. Lady Flintshire employs underhanded schemes to derail Rose and Atticus's engagement, including announcing to everyone at the wedding that she and her husband are divorcing, intending to cause a scandal to stop Rose's marriage to Atticus; they are married anyway. When Anna is arrested on suspicion of Green's murder, Bates writes afalse confessionbefore fleeing toIreland. Baxter and Molesley, a footman and Matthew's former valet, are able to prove that Bates was inYorkat the time of the murder. This new information allows Anna to be released. Cora eventually learns the truth about Marigold, and wants her raised at Downton; Marigold is presented as Edith'sward, but Robert and Tom eventually discern the truth. Only Mary is unaware. When a war memorial is unveiled in the town, Robert arranges for a separate plaque to honour the cook Mrs Patmore's late nephew, who was shot forcowardiceand excluded from his own village's memorial. The Crawleys are invited to Brancaster Castle, which Lord and Lady Sinderby have rented for a shooting party. While there, Lady Rose, with help from the Crawleys, defuses a personal near-disaster for Lord Sinderby, earning his gratitude and securing his approval of Rose. A second footman, Andy, is hired on Barrow's recommendation. During the annual Downton Abbey Christmas celebration, Tom announces he is moving toAmericato work for his cousin, taking daughter Sybil with him. Mr Carson proposes marriage to Mrs Hughes and she accepts. Series 6 (2015) In series six, changes are once again afoot at Downton Abbey as themiddle classrises and morebankrupted aristocratsare forced to sell off their large estates. Downton must do more to ensure its future survival;reductions in staffare considered, forcing Barrow to look for a job elsewhere. Having formed a close bond with young George, Barrow realises that Downton has become the first real home he has ever had, but feels unwanted. Mary defies a blackmailer, who is thwarted by Robert. With Tom's departure to Boston, Mary becomes theestate agent. Edith is more hands-on in running her magazine and hires a female editor. Violet and Isobel once again draw battle lines as a government take-over of the local hospital is considered. Mary begins seeing Henry Talbot, a racing driver, and Edith begins seeing Bertie Pelham, a cousin of the owner of Brancaster Castle. Meanwhile, Anna suffers repeated miscarriages. Mary takes her to a specialist, who diagnoses a treatable condition, and she becomes pregnant again. Mr Carson and Mrs Hughes disagree on where to hold their wedding reception, but eventually choose to have it at the schoolhouse, during which Tom reappears with Sybil, having returned to Downton for good. Coyle, who tricked Baxter into stealing a previous employer's jewellery, is convicted after she and other witnesses are persuaded to testify. After Mrs Drewe kidnaps Marigold when Edith is not looking, the Drewes vacate Yew Tree Farm; Daisy convinces Tom to ask Robert to give her father-in-law, Mr Mason, the tenancy. Andy, a footman, offers to help Mr Mason so he can learn about farming, but Andy is held back by his illiteracy. Barrow offers to teach him to read, but Andy soon trades his help for that of a teacher at the local school. Robert suffers a near-fatal health crisis. Previous episodes alluded to health problems for Robert; hisulcerbursts and he is rushed to the hospital for emergency surgery. The operation is successful, but Mary and Tom must take over Downton's operations. Larry Merton's fiancée, Amelia, encourages Lord Merton and Isobel to renew their engagement, but Violet rightly becomes suspicious. Violet discovers that Amelia wants Isobel, and not her, to be Lord Merton's caretaker in his old age.Daisy and Molesley score high marks on their academic exams; Molesley's are so exceptional that he is offered a teaching position at the school. Mary breaks up with Henry, unable to live with the constant fear he could be killed in an accident like Matthew was. Bertie proposes to Edith, but she hesitates to accept because of Marigold. Violet, upset over Cora replacing her as hospital president, abruptly departs for a long cruise to restore her equanimity. Bertie unexpectedly succeeds his late second cousin as 7th Marquess of Hexham and moves into Brancaster Castle; Edith accepts him. Mary spitefully exposes Marigold's parentage, causing Bertie to walk out. Tom confronts Mary over her malicious behaviour and her true feelings for Henry. Despondent over his inability to find another job and his sense of being unloved, Barrow attemptssuicide, and is saved by Baxter and Andy. Realising the extent of Barrow's pain for the first time, Robert and Carson allow Barrow to stay at Downton while he recovers and searches for new employment. Mary and Henry reunite and are married. Edith returns to Downton for the wedding; she and Mary agree to work on improving their relationship. Mrs Patmore's newbed and breakfastbusiness is tainted by scandal, but saved when Robert, Cora and Rosamund appear there publicly to support her. Mary arranges a surprise meeting for Edith and Bertie with Bertie proposing again. Edith accepts. Edith tells Bertie's moralistic mother Mirada about Marigold; initially appalled, she is won over by Edith's honesty. Barrow, having decided to turn over a new leaf and become a kinder person, finds a position as butler and leaves Downton on good terms, but he is unhappy at his new post; the family and other servants also find themselves missing him. Lord Merton is diagnosed with terminalpernicious anaemiaand Amelia blocks Isobel from seeing him. Goaded by Violet, Isobel pushes into the Merton house and announces she will take Lord Merton to her house to care for and marry him, to his delight. Later, Lord Merton is correctly diagnosed with a non-fatal form ofanaemia. Robert resents Cora's frequent absences as the hospital president, but comes to admire her ability after watching her chair a hospital meeting. Henry and Tom go into business together selling used cars, while Mary announces her pregnancy. Molesley accepts a permanent teaching position and he and Baxter promise to continue seeing each other. Daisy and Andy finally acknowledge their feelings; Daisy decides to move to the farm with Mr Mason, her father-in-law. Carson developspalsyand must retire. Following Robert and Mary's suggestion, Barrow happily returns to Downton as butler, with Carson in an overseeing role. Edith and Bertie are finally married in the series finale, set on New Year's Eve 1925. Anna goes into labour during the reception, and she and Bates become parents to a healthy son. Cast and characters The main cast of the Crawley family is led byHugh Bonnevilleas Robert Crawley, the Earl of Grantham, andElizabeth McGovernas his wife Cora Crawley, the Countess of Grantham. Their three daughters are depicted byMichelle Dockeryas Lady Mary Crawley (Talbot),Laura Carmichaelas Lady Edith Crawley (Pelham) andJessica Brown Findlayas Lady Sybil Crawley (Branson).Maggie Smithis Robert Crawley's mother Violet, Dowager Countess of Grantham.Samantha Bondportrays Lady Rosamund Painswick, Robert's sister who resides inBelgrave Square, London.Dan Stevensportrays Matthew Crawley, the new heir, along withPenelope Wiltonas his mother, Isobel Crawley, who are brought to Downton.Allen Leechas Tom Branson begins the series as the familychauffeur, but falls in love with Lady Sybil, marries her and later becomes theagentfor the estate.David Robbportrays Dr Richard Clarkson, the local town doctor. Joining the cast in series three isLily Jamesas Lady Rose MacClare, a cousin whose mother is Violet's niece Susan, the Marchioness of Flintshire, and who is sent to live with the Crawleys because her parents are serving the empire in India and, later, remains there because of family problems. In series three and four,Shirley MacLaineportrays the mother of Cora Crawley, Martha Levinson. Suitors for Lady Mary's affections during the series includeTom Cullenas Lord Gillingham,Julian Ovendenas Charles Blake, andMatthew Goodeas Henry Talbot. Edith's fiancé and eventual husband Bertie Pelham, 7th Marquess of Hexham, is played byHarry Hadden-Paton. Downton Abbey's senior household staff are portrayed byJim Carteras Mr Carson, thebutler, andPhyllis Loganas Mrs Hughes, thehousekeeper. Tensions rise whenRob James-Collier, portraying Thomas Barrow, afootmanand later avaletandunder-butler, along withSiobhan Finneranas Miss O'Brien, the lady'smaidto the Countess of Grantham (up to series three), plot againstBrendan Coyleas Mr Bates, the valet to the Earl of Grantham, and his love interest and eventual wife, Anna (Joanne Froggatt), lady's maid to Lady Mary.Kevin Doyleplays the unlucky Mr Molesley, valet to Matthew Crawley.Thomas Howesportrays William Mason, the second footman. Other household staff areRose Leslieas Gwen Dawson, ahousemaidstudying to be asecretaryin series one.Amy Nuttallplays Ethel Parks, a maid, beginning in series two and three.Matt Milnejoined the cast as Alfred Nugent, O'Brien's nephew, the awkward new footman for series three and four, andRaquel Cassidyplays Baxter, Cora's new lady's maid, who was hired to replace Edna Braithwaithe, who was sacked.Ed Speleersplays the dashing James (Jimmy) Kent, the second footman, from series three to five. In series five and sixMichael Foxplays Andy Parker, a replacement footman for Jimmy. In series four, five, and sixAndrew Scarboroughplays Tim Drewe, a farmer of the estate, who helps Lady Edith conceal a big secret. The kitchen staff includeLesley Nicolas Mrs Patmore thecook, andSophie McSheraas Daisy, thescullery maidwho works her way up to assistant cook having earlier married William Mason.Cara Theoboldportrays Ivy Stuart, a kitchen maid, joining the cast for series three and four. Crawley family The series is set in Downton Abbey, aYorkshirecountry house, which is the home and seat of theEarlandCountessofGrantham, along with their three daughters and other family members. Each series follows the lives of thearistocraticCrawley family, their friends, and their servants during the reign of KingGeorge V. Production Gareth NeameofCarnival Filmsconceived the idea of anEdwardian-eraTV drama set in a country house and approached Fellowes, who had won anAcademy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay)forGosford Park. The TV seriesDownton Abbey– written and created by Fellowes – was originally planned as a spin-off ofGosford Park, but instead was developed as a stand-alone property inspired by the film, set decades earlier.Although Fellowes was reluctant to work on another project resemblingGosford Park, within a few weeks he returned to Neame with an outline of the first series. Influenced by Edith Wharton'sThe Custom of the Country,Fellowes wrote the scripts; and his wife, Emma, acted as an informalstory editor. Filming locations Highclere Castle in northHampshireis used for exterior shots of Downton Abbey and most of the interior filming.The kitchen,servants' quartersand working areas, and some of the \\\"upstairs\\\" bedrooms were constructed and filmed atEaling Studios.Bridgewater Housein the St James area of London served as the family's London home. Outdoor scenes are filmed in the village ofBamptoninOxfordshire. Notable locations include the Church of St Mary the Virgin and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital.The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed at Hall Place nearBeaconsfieldinBuckinghamshire. The fictional Downton Abbey is said to be located inYorkshire. The towns ofEasingwold,Kirkby Malzeard,Kirkbymoorside,Malton,Middlesbrough,Ripon,RichmondandThirsk, each mentioned by characters in the series, lie inNorth Yorkshire, as does the city of York, whileLeeds—similarly mentioned—lies inWest Yorkshire. Yorkshire media speculated the general location of the fictional Downton Abbey to be somewhere in the triangulated area between the towns of Easingwold, Ripon and Thirsk. First World Wartrench warfarescenes in France were filmed in a specially constructed replica battlefield for period war scenes near the village ofAkenhamin ruralSuffolk. Many historical locations and aristocratic mansions have been used to film various scenes: The fictional Haxby Park, the estate Sir Richard Carlisle intends to buy in series two, is part ofWaddesdon ManorinBuckinghamshire.Byfleet ManorinSurreyis the location for theDower house, home to Violet,DowagerCountess of Grantham,whileWest Wycombe ParkinBuckinghamshireis used for the interior scenes of Lady Rosamund (Samantha Bond)'sLondonresidence inBelgrave Square.A house in Belgrave Square is used for exterior shots. The farm scenes in series two in which Lady Edith learns to drive a tractor as part of the war effort were filmed on location at theChiltern Open Air Museumin Buckinghamshire. Inveraray CastleinArgyll, Scotland, doubled as \\\"Duneagle Castle\\\" in the 2012 Christmas special. Greys CourtnearHenley-on-ThamesinOxfordshirewas used as the family's secondary property, which they proposed moving into and calling \\\"Downton Place\\\" due to financial difficulties in series three. Also in the third series, Bates's prison scenes were filmed atLincoln CastleinLincolnshire. Horsted Keynes railway stationinSussexis used as Downton station.The station is part of the heritageBluebell Railway.St Pancrasstation inLondondoubled forKing's Crossstation in episode one of series four, in the scene where Lady Edith Crawley meets her lover Michael Gregson.The restaurant scene where Lady Edith meets Michael Gregson and where they share their kiss was filmed at theCriterion RestaurantinPiccadilly Circuswhich was originally opened in 1874. Bridgewater House in the St James area of London served as the family's London home. Outdoor scenes are filmed in the village of Bampton in Oxfordshire. Notable locations include St Mary's the Virgin Church and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital. The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed atHall Barn, Hall Place near Beaconsfield in Buckinghamshire, featured as Loxley House, the home of Sir Anthony Strallan. Parts of series four were filmed atThe Historic Dockyard Chatham,Kent– The Tarred Yarn Store was used in episode one as a workhouse where Mrs Hughes (Phyllis Logan) visits Mr Grigg (Nicky Henson) and in episode two, streets atThe Historic Dockyard Chathamwere used for the scenes where Lady Rose MacClare (Lily James) is at the market with James Kent (Ed Speleers) watching her.The production had previously filmed inKentfor series one where the opening sequence of a train going through the countryside was filmed at theKent & East Sussex Railway. Other filming locations for series four include the ballroom of The Savile Club inMayfair, London. Scenes for the 2013 Christmas special were filmed atRoyal Holloway, University of LondonnearEgham, Surrey,West Witteringbeach inWest Sussexand Berkshire'sBasildon ParknearStreatley.Lancaster Housein London stood in forBuckingham Palace. Alnwick Castle, inNorthumberland, was the filming location used for Brancaster Castle in the 2014 and 2015 Christmas specials, which included filming in Alnwick Castle'sState Rooms, as well as on the castle's grounds, and at the nearby semi-ruined Hulne Abbey on theDuke of Northumberland's parklands inAlnwick. In series five and six, Kingston Bagpuize House in Oxfordshire was used as the location for Cavenham Park, the home of Lord Merton.In series six, the scenes of motor racing atBrooklandswere filmed at theGoodwood Circuitin West Sussex. In 2015, Wayfair.co.uk published a map of 70+ Downton Abbey filming locations. The 2019 film ofDownton Abbeyuses many of the television locations such as Highclere Castle and Bampton, as well as exterior shots filmed atBeamish Museum.TheNorth York Moors Railwaywas used for railway scenes. Opening theme music The opening music ofDownton Abbey, titled \\\"Did I Make the Most of Loving You?\\\",was composed byJohn Lunn. A suite version was released on the soundtrack for the show on 19 September 2011 in the UK and later in the US on 13 December 2011. The soundtrack also included the song performed by singerMary-Jess Leaverland,with lyrics written byDon Black. Broadcasts The rights to broadcastDownton Abbeyhave been acquired in over 220 countries and territories, and the series has been viewed by a global audience of an estimated 120 million people. United Kingdom The series first aired on theITV networkin the United Kingdom beginning on 26 September 2010, and received its first Britain-wide broadcast when shown onITV3beginning in February 2011. STV, the ITV franchisee in central and northernScotland(including theOrkneyandShetlandislands), originally opted out of showingDownton Abbey, choosing instead to screen a brand-new six-part series ofTaggart, following a long practice of opting out of networked United Kingdom-wide programming on the ITV network.This led to backlash from Scottish viewers, who were frustrated at not being able to watch the programme. Many viewers with satellite or cable television tuned into other regional stations of the ITV network, for exampleITV London, with viewing figures showing this is also commonplace for other ITV programmes.STV announced in July 2011 that it would show the first and second series ofDownton Abbeyas part of its autumn schedule.Scottish cast membersPhyllis LoganandIain Glenwere both quoted as being pleased with the decision. United States In the United States,Downton Abbeywas first broadcast in January 2011 onPBS, as part of the 40th season ofMasterpiece.The programme was aired in four 90-minute episodes, controversially requiring PBS to alter the beginning and endpoints of each episode and make other small changes, slightly altering each episode's structure to fit the programme precisely into the allotted running-time.As part ofMasterpiece, episodes shown on PBS also featuredMasterpiecehost (Laura Linney), who introduced each episode, explaining matters such as \\\"theentail\\\" and \\\"Buccaneers\\\"for the benefit of American viewers; this was perceived as condescending by some American critics.PBS editing for broadcasts in the United States continued in the subsequent seasons.The final and sixth season aired in 2016. PBS continued to repeat episodes until 2020, whenNBC Universaltook over the US broadcasting rights for its streaming servicePeacock. The series became available onNetflixin 2021. The series also aired on the E! network in 2022. Canada In Canada,VisionTVbegan airing the programme on 7 September 2011;CBC Televisionrepeated the whole series in 2021; Downton Abbey was aired in French onIci Radio-Canada Télé. Australia and New Zealand In Australia, the first series was broadcast on theSeven Networkbeginning on 29 May 2011;the second series was broadcast beginning on 20 May 2012;and the third series beginning on 10 February 2013.In New Zealand,Primebegan airing the first series on 10 May 2011, the second series on 18 October 2011 and the third series on 18 October 2012. Ireland In Ireland, independent television channelTV3aired the first series in January and February 2011. France Downton Abbeywas broadcast onTMCin France beginning in 11 December 2011. Reception Critical response AtMetacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the first series received anaveragescore of 91, based on 16 reviews, which indicates \\\"universal acclaim\\\".This result earned the show a Guinness World Record in 2011 for \\\"Highest critical review ratings for a TV show\\\", makingDownton Abbeythe critically best received TV show in the world.Season 4 ofBreaking BadsurpassedDownton Abbey's record later in the year, with a score of 96, making the first series ofDownton Abbeythe second highest rated show of 2011. The series has been noted for its relatively sympathetic portrayal of thearistocraticfamily and the class-based society of early 20th-century Britain. This has led to criticism from the political left and praise from the right.James Fentonwrote inThe New York Review of Books, \\\"it is noticeable that the aristocrats in the series, even the ones who are supposed to be the most ridiculous, never lapse into the most offensive kind of upper-class drawl one would expect of them. Great care has been taken to keep them pleasant and approachable, even when the things they say are sometimes shown to be class-bound and unfeeling.\\\"Jerry Bowyerargued inForbesthat the sympathy for aristocracy is over-stated, and that the show is simply more balanced than most period dramas, which he believes have had a tendency to demonise or ridicule upper class characters. He wrote thatDownton Abbeyshows \\\"there is no inherent need for good TV to be left of center. Stories sympathetic to virtue, preservation of property and admiration of nobility and of wealth can be told beautifully and to wide audiences.\\\" Downton Abbeyhas been a commercial success and received general acclaim from critics, although some criticise it as superficial,melodramaticor unrealistic. Others defend these qualities as the reason for the show's appeal. David Kamp wrote inVanity Fairthat \\\"melodrama is an uncool thing to trade in these days, but then, that's precisely whyDownton Abbeyis so pleasurable. In its clear delineation between the goodies and the baddies, in its regulated dosages of highs and lows, the show is welcome counter-programming to the slow-burning despair and moral ambiguity of most quality drama on television right now.\\\"In September 2019,The Guardian,which ranked the show 50th on its list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century, stated that the show \\\"was TV drama as comfort blanket: at a time of austerity, Julian Fellowes's country house epic offered elegantly realised solace in the homilies of the past\\\".Mary McNamara ofLos Angeles Timeswrote, \\\"Possibly the best series of the year.\\\"Jill Serjeant ofReuterswrote, \\\"There's a new darling in U.S. pop culture.\\\"The staff ofEntertainment Weeklywrote, \\\"It's the biggest PBS phenomenon since Sesame Street.\\\"David Hinckley ofNew York Daily Newswrote, \\\"Maintains its magic touch.\\\" James Parker, writing inThe Atlantic, said, \\\"Preposterous as history, preposterous as drama, the show succeeds magnificently as bad television. The dialogue spins light-operatically along in the service of multiplying plotlets, not too hard on the ear, although now and again a line lands like a tray of dropped spoons. The acting is superb—it has to be.\\\"Ben W. Heineman Jr. compared the series unfavourably toBrideshead Revisited, writing \\\"Downton Abbeyis entertainment. Its illustrious predecessor in television mega-success about the English upper class,Brideshead Revisited, is art.\\\"He noted the lack of character development in Downton. Writing inThe Sunday Times,A. A. Gillsaid that the show is \\\"everything I despise and despair of on British television:National Trustsentimentality, costumed comfort drama that flogs an embarrassing, demeaning, and bogus vision of the place I live in.\\\" Sam Wollaston ofThe Guardianwrote, It's beautifully made—handsome, artfully crafted and acted. Smith, who plays the formidable and disdainful Dowager Countess, has a lovely way of delivering words, always spaced to perfection. This is going to be a treat if you like a lavish period drama of a Sunday evening. While rumoured due to the departure of actorDan Stevens, the death of Matthew Crawley in the 2012 Christmas special drew criticism.Fellowes defended the decision stating that they 'didn't really have an option' once Stevens decided to leave.Stevens later said that he had no say in the manner of his character's departure but that he was 'sorry' his character had died on Christmas Day. The third episode of the fourth series, which aired on 6 October 2013, included a warning at the beginning: \\\"This episode contains violent scenes that some viewers may find upsetting.\\\"The episode content, in which Anna Bates was raped, led to more than 200 complaints by viewers to UK television regulatorOfcom,while ITV received 60 complaints directly.On 4 November 2013, Ofcom announced it would not be taking action over the controversy citing the warning given, that the episode was screened after 9 pm, and, that the rape took place 'off-screen'.Series four also introduced a recurring character, black jazz musician Jack Ross, who had a brief romantic affair with Lady Rose. The casting ofGary Carrdrew critical accusations ofpolitical correctnessin the media. The character of Ross was partially based onLeslie Hutchinson(\\\"Hutch\\\"), a real-life 1920s jazz singer who had an affair with a number of women in high society, among themEdwina Mountbatten. Ratings The first episode ofDownton Abbeyhad a consolidated British audience of 9.2 million viewers, a 32% audience share—making it the most successful new drama on any channel sinceWhitechapelwas launched on ITV in February 2009. The total audience for the first episode, including repeats andITV Playerviewings, exceeded 11.6 million viewers. This was beaten by the next episode, with a total audience of 11.8 million viewers—including repeats and ITV Player views.Downton Abbeybroke the record for a single episode viewing onITV Player. The second series premiered in Britain on 18 September 2011 in the same 9 pm slot as the first series, with the first episode attracting an average audience of 9 million viewers on ITV1, a 34.6% share.The second episode attracted a similar following with an average of 9.3 million viewers.In January 2012, the PBS premiere attracted 4.2 million viewers, over double the network's average primetime audience of 2 million. The premiere audience was 18% higher than the first series premiere. The second series ofDownton Abbeygave PBS its highest ratings since 2009. The second series averaged 5.4 million viewers, excluding station replays, DVR viewings and online streaming. The 5.4 million average improved on PBS first series numbers by 25%. Additionally, episodes of series two have been viewed 4.8 million times on PBS's digital portal, surpassing the online viewing numbers of series one by more than 400 per cent. Overall,Downton Abbey-related content has racked up more than 9 million streams across all platforms, with 1.5 million unique visitors, since series 2's 8 January premiere.In 2013,Downton Abbeywas ranked the 43rd most well-written TV show of all time by theWriters Guild of America. The third series premiered in the UK on 16 September 2012 with an average of 9 million viewers (or a 36% audience share). For the first time in the UK, episode three received an average of more than 10 million viewers (or a 38.2% audience share).Premiering in the US in January 2013, the third series had an average audience of 11.5 million viewers and the finale on 17 February 2013, drew 12.3 million viewers making it the night's highest rating show.Overall, during its seven-week run, the series had an audience of 24 million viewers making it PBS's highest-rated drama of all time. The fourth series premiered in the UK on 22 September 2013 with an average audience of 9.5 million viewers—the highest ever for one of the drama's debut episodes.It premiered in the US on 5 January 2014, to an audience of at least 10.2 million viewers, outperforming every other drama on that night; it was the largest audience forPBSsince the 1990 premiere of theKen BurnsdocumentaryThe Civil War.The second episode attracted an average of 9.6 million UK viewers. Awards and nominations Cultural reaction Although Julian Fellowes supports aunited Ireland,there has been criticism of the stereotypicalIrish charactersused in the show, specifically the character of Tom Branson's brother, Kieran, portrayed as a rude and boorish drunk.Allen Leech, who plays Tom Branson, defended the series, stating that the show did not portray Irish characters in a pejorative fashion.Branson's character took some criticism in Ireland fromThe Irish Times, which described the character as \\\"an Irish republican turned Downtonian toff.\\\" The character of the Earl of Grantham occasionally expresses negative views about Catholics and is described, byThe Washington Post, as \\\"xenophobic\\\" but \\\"at least historically accurate\\\".Episodes in Season 3 featured Lord Grantham using offensive derogatory terms against Catholics such as the phrase \\\"left-footer\\\" and mocking theCatholic Massby calling it a \\\"gymnastics display\\\". A dinner scene also features a Protestant minister calling Catholic practices \\\"pagan\\\". Fellowes, himself a Roman Catholic, explained that he chose to address this in terms of \\\"that casual, almost unconscious anti-Catholicism that was found among the upper classes, which lasted well into my growing up years\\\", adding that he \\\"thought it might be interesting\\\" to explore this in the series and described his own experiences where the aristocracy \\\"were happy for you to come to their dances or shoot their pheasants, but there were plenty who did not want you to marry their daughters and risk Catholic grandchildren.\\\" Authenticity Fellowes has said he tries to be as authentic in his depiction of the period as he can.Despite this, the show features many linguisticanachronisms.The accents of characters have also been questioned, with theReceived Pronunciationof the actors who play the wealthy characters described as \\\"slightly more contemporary\\\" than would be expected among early-20th-century aristocrats; however, this \\\"elicited more natural and unaffected performances from the cast\\\". In 2010, Fellowes hiredAlastair Bruce, an expert on state and court ritual, as historical adviser.Bruce explains his role as being \\\"here to guide the production and particularly the director as they bring Julian's words to life. That also involves getting the social conduct right, and giving actors a sense of surety in the way they deliver a performance.\\\"ActorJim Carter, who plays butler Carson, describes Bruce as the series \\\"etiquette watchdog\\\",and the UK'sDaily Telegraphfinished its 2011 profile of Bruce's role stating \\\"Downton's authenticity, it seems, is in safe hands.\\\"However, historianSimon Schamacriticised the show for historical inaccuracies and \\\"pandering toclichés\\\".Producer Gareth Neame defended the show, saying, \\\"Downton is a fictional drama. It is not a history programme, but a drama of social satire about a time when relationships, behaviour and hierarchy were very different from those we enjoy today.\\\" A \\\"tremendous amount of research\\\" went into recreating the servants' quarters atEaling StudiosbecauseHighclere Castle, where many of the upstairs scenes are filmed,was not adequate for representing the \\\"downstairs\\\" life at the fictional manor house.Researchers visited nearly 40 English country houses to help inform what the kitchen should look like, and production designer Donal Woods said of the kitchen equipment that \\\"probably about 60 to 70 per cent of the stuff in there is from that period\\\".Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Managementis an important guide to the food served in the series, but Highclere owner, and author ofLady Almina and the Real Downton Abbey: The Lost Legacy of Highclere Castle, Lady Carnarvon, states that dinner parties in the era \\\"would have been even more over the top\\\" than those shown.Lady Pamela Hicksagreed, stating that \\\"it is ridiculous to think that a weekend party would consist of only fourteen house guests, it would have consisted of at least 40!\\\"However, Carnarvon understood the compromises that must be made for television, and adds, \\\"It's a fun costume drama. It's not a social documentary. Because it's so popular, I think some people take it as historical fact.\\\" Home media Streaming The series was made available in its entirety on Netflix in June 2021. It has also been made available onAmazon Prime Video,Peacock, the PBS app and PBS.org with a PBS Passport subscription. Blu-ray and DVD On 16 September 2011, two days before the UK premiere of the second series, it was reported byAmazon.comthat the first series ofDownton Abbeyhad become the highest selling DVD boxset of all time on the online retailer's website, surpassing popular American programmes such asThe Sopranos,FriendsandThe Wire. Books The World of Downton Abbey, a book featuring a behind-the-scenes look atDownton Abbeyand the era in which it is set, was released on 15 September 2011. It was written byJessica Fellowes(the niece ofJulian Fellowes) and published byHarperCollins. A second book, also written by Jessica Fellowes and published by HarperCollins,The Chronicles of Downton Abbey, was released on 13 September 2012. It is a guide to the show's characters through the early part of the third series. Four spin-off cookbooks have been published –The Official Downton Abbey Cookbook(2019), which features dishes from the Edwardian period researched by food historian Dr Annie Gray,The Official Downton Abbey Christmas Cookbook(2020) by Regula Ysewijn,The Official Downton Abbey Cocktail Book(2019) and TheOfficial Downton Abbey Afternoon Tea Cookbook(2020). Soundtracks A soundtrack, featuring music from the series and also new songs, was released byDeccain September 2011. Music byJohn LunnandDon Blackfeatures, with vocals fromMary-Jess LeaverlandandAlfie Boe.A second soundtrack was released on 19 November 2012 entitledDownton Abbey: The Essential Collectionand a third and final soundtrack, containing two discs, was released on 15 January 2016 entitledDownton Abbey: The Ultimate Collectionand featured music spanning from all six seasons of the series including some from the first soundtrack. Cultural impact Some of the fashion items worn by characters on the show have seen a strong revival of interest in the UK and elsewhere during the show's run, includingstarched collars,midi skirts, beadedgowns, andhunting plaids. TheEquality (Titles) Billwas an unsuccessful piece of legislation introduced in theUK Parliamentin 2013 that would have allowed equal succession of female heirs tohereditary titles and peerages. It was nicknamed the \\\"Downton Abbeylaw\\\" because it addressed the same issue that affects Lady Mary Crawley, who cannot inherit the estate because it must pass to a male heir. The decor used onDownton AbbeyinspiredUS Representative Aaron Schockto redecorate his congressional offices in a more luxurious style.He repaid the $40,000 cost of redecoration following scrutiny of his expenses and questions about his use of public money for personal benefit,and subsequently resigned in March 2015. Other media Due to the show's popularity, there have been a number of references and spoofs on it, such asFamily Guyepisode \\\"Chap Stewie\\\", which has Stewie Griffin reborn in a household similar to Downton Abbey, andHow I Met Your Motherepisode \\\"The Fortress\\\", where the gang watch a television show calledWoodworthy Manor, which is remarkably similar toDownton Abbey. A short scene featuring the characters of Sybil and Tom Branson made a screen-in-screen appearance in the movieIron Man 3. The Gilded Age Julian Fellowes'sThe Gilded Age, which debuted onHBOin 2022, portrays New York in the 1880s and how itsold New York societycoped with the influx of newly wealthy families.While a separate series, a young Violet, Countess of Grantham, couldmake an appearance on the new show. Film adaptations On 13 July 2018, a feature-length film was confirmed, with production commencing mid-2018.The film was written byJulian Fellowesand is a continuation of the TV series, with direction byBrian Percival. It was distributed byFocus FeaturesandUniversal Pictures International.The film was released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, with the United States following one week later on 20 September 2019.Filming of a sequel began in April 2021.The film was finally released in the UK on 29 April 2022, and in the US on 20 May. In March 2024,Imelda Staunton, who plays Lady Maud Bagshaw in the first two films, and is married toJim Carter(butler Mr Carson), revealed onBBC Radio 2that athird and final filmis in the pipeline.On 13 May 2024 it was announced on social media and the Focus Films website that a third film is planned, withPaul Giamatti,Joely Richardson,Alessandro Nivola,Simon Russell BealeandArty Froushanjoining the cast.On 26 June 2024 it was announced that the film would be released in cinemas on 12 September 2025. See also Notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"Pernicious anemia Pernicious anemiais a disease where not enoughred blood cellsare produced due to a deficiency ofvitamin B12.Those affected often have a gradual onset.The most common initial symptoms arefeeling tiredand weak.Other symptoms may includeshortness of breath, feeling faint, a smooth red tongue,paleskin, chest pain,nauseaandvomiting, loss of appetite, heartburn, numbness in the hands and feet,difficulty walking, memory loss, muscle weakness, poorreflexes, blurred vision, clumsiness, depression, and confusion.Without treatment, some of these problems may become permanent. Pernicious anemia refers to a type ofvitamin B12deficiencyanemiathat results from lack ofintrinsic factor.Lack of intrinsic factor is most commonly due to anautoimmuneattack on thecellsthat create it in thestomach.It can also occur following the surgical removal of all or part of the stomach orsmall intestine; from an inherited disorder or illnesses that damage the stomach lining.When suspected, diagnosis is made byblood testsinitially acomplete blood count, and occasionally,bone marrow tests.Blood tests may showfewer but larger red blood cells, low numbers ofyoung red blood cells, low levels of vitamin B12, andantibodiesto intrinsic factor.Diagnosis is not always straightforward and can be challenging. Because pernicious anemia is due to a lack of intrinsic factor, it is not preventable.Pernicious anemia can be treated with injections of vitamin B12.If the symptoms are serious, frequent injections are typically recommended initially.There are not enough studies that pills are effective in improving or eliminating symptoms.Often, treatment may be needed for life. Pernicious anemia is the most common cause of clinically evident vitamin B12deficiency worldwide.Pernicious anemia due to autoimmune problems occurs in about one per 1000 people in the US. Among those over the age of 60, about 2% have the condition.It more commonly affects people of northern European descent.Women are more commonly affected than men.With proper treatment, most people live normal lives.Due to a higher risk ofstomach cancer, those with pernicious anemia should be checked regularly for this.The first clear description was byThomas Addisonin 1849.The term \\\"pernicious\\\" means \\\"deadly\\\", and this term came into use because, before the availability of treatment, the disease was often fatal. Signs and symptoms Pernicious anemia often presents slowly, and can cause harm insidiously and unnoticeably. Untreated, it can lead to neurological complications, and in serious cases, death.The onset may be vague and slow and the condition can be confused with other conditions, and there may be few to many symptoms without anemia.Pernicious anemia may be present without a person experiencing symptoms at first, over time,feeling tired and weak,lightheadedness,dizziness, headaches,rapidorirregularheartbeat, breathlessness,glossitis(a sore red tongue), poor ability to exercise,low blood pressure, cold hands and feet,paleoryellowskin, easy bruising and bleeding, low-gradefevers, tremor,cold sensitivity,chest pain,upset stomach,nausea, loss of appetite, heartburn, weight loss,diarrhea,constipation, severejoint pain,feeling abnormal sensationsincluding tingling or numbness to the fingers and toes (pins and needles), and tinnitus, may occur.Anemia may present with a number of further common symptoms,including hair thinning and loss, early greying of the hair, mouth ulcers, bleeding gums,angular cheilitis, a look of exhaustion with pale and dehydrated or cracked lips and dark circles around the eyes, as well as brittle nails. In more severe or prolonged cases of pernicious anemia, nerve cell damage may occur. This is may result in sense loss, difficulty inproprioception,neuropathic pain, difficulty walking, poor balance, loss of sensation in the feet,muscle weakness, blurred vision (either due toretinopathyoroptic neuropathy), impaired urination, fertility problems, decreased sense of taste and smell,decreased level of consciousness, changes in reflexes, memory loss, mood swings,depression,irritability, cognitive impairment, confusion, anxiety, clumsiness, psychosis, and, in more severe cases, dementia.Anemia may also lead to cardiac murmursand/or altered blood pressure (loworhigh). The deficiency may also present with thyroid disorders.In severe cases, the anemia may cause congestive heart failure.A complication of severe chronic PA issubacute combined degeneration of spinal cord, which leads to distal sensory loss (posterior column), absent ankle reflex, increased knee reflex response, and extensor plantar response.Other than anemia, hematological symptoms may includecytopenias, intramedullaryhemolysis, and pseudothrombotic microangiopathy.Vitamin B12deficiency, which is reversible, is occasionally confused withacute myeloid leukemia, which is an irreversible condition presenting with some of the same hematological symptoms, including hypercellular bone marrow with blastic differentiation and hypersegmented neutrophils.Pernicious anemia can causeosteoporosisand may lead tobone fractures.Pernicious anemia can contribute to a delay in physical growth in children, and may also be a cause for delay in puberty for adolescents. Causes Vitamin B12cannot be produced by the human body, and must be obtained from the diet. When foods containing B12are eaten, the vitamin is usually bound to protein and is released by proteases released by the pancreas into the small bowel. Following its release, most B12is absorbed by the body in the small bowel (ileum) after binding to a protein known asintrinsic factor. Intrinsic factor is produced byparietal cellsof thegastric mucosa(stomach lining) and the intrinsic factor-B12-complex is absorbed by enterocytes in theileum'scubamreceptors.PA is characterised by B12deficiency caused by the absence of intrinsic factor.Other disorders that can disrupt the absorption of vitamin B12in the small intestine includeceliac disease, surgical removal ofcrohn's disease, andHIV. PA may be considered as an end stage of autoimmuneatrophic gastritis, a disease characterised by stomach atrophy and the presence ofantibodiesto parietal cells and intrinsic factor.Autoimmune atrophic gastritis, is localised to the body of the stomach, where parietal cells are located.Antibodies to intrinsic factor and parietal cells cause the destruction of the oxyntic gastric mucosa, in which the parietal cells are located, leading to the subsequent loss of intrinsic factor synthesis. Without intrinsic factor, the ileum can no longer absorb the B12.Atrophic gastritis is often a precursor togastric cancer. Although the exact role ofHelicobacter pyloriinfection in PA remains controversial, evidence indicatesH. pyloriis involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. A long-standingH. pyloriinfection may cause gastric autoimmunity by a mechanism known asmolecular mimicry. Antibodies produced by the immune system can be cross-reactive and may bind to bothH. pyloriantigensand those found in thegastric mucosa. The antibodies are produced by activatedB cellsthat recognise both pathogen and self-derived peptides. Theautoantigensbelieved to cause the autoreactivity are the alpha and beta subunits of thesodium-potassium pump.In a study, B12deficiency caused byHelicobacter pyloriwas positively correlated withCagApositivity and gastric inflammatory activity, rather than gastric atrophy.Less commonly,H. pyloriandZollinger-Ellison syndromemay cause a form of nonautoimmune gastritis that can lead to pernicious anemia. Impaired B12absorption can also occur following gastric removal (gastrectomy) or gastric bypass surgery. In these surgeries, either the parts of the stomach that produce gastric secretions are removed or they are bypassed. This means intrinsic factor, as well as other factors required for B12absorption, are not available. However, B12deficiency after gastric surgery does not usually become a clinical issue. This is probably because the body stores many years' worth of B12in the liver and gastric surgery patients are adequately supplemented with the vitamin. Although no specific PA susceptibility genes have been identified, a genetic factor likely is involved in the disease. Pernicious anemia is often found in conjunction with other autoimmune disorders, suggesting common autoimmune susceptibility genes may be a causative factor.In spite of that, previous family studies and case reports focusing on PA have suggested that there is a tendency of genetic heritance of PA in particular, and close relatives of the PA patients seem to have higher incidence of PA and associated PA conditions.Moreover, it was further indicated that the formation of antibodies to gastric cells was autosomal dominant gene determined, and the presence of antibodies to the gastric cells might not be necessarily related to the occurrence of atrophic gastritis related to PA. Pathophysiology Although the healthy body stores three to five years' worth of B12in the liver, the usually undetected autoimmune activity in one's gut over a prolonged period of time leads to B12depletion and the resulting anemia; pernicious anemia refers to one of the hematologic manifestations ofchronic auto-immune gastritis, in which the immune system targets the parietal cells of the stomach orintrinsic factoritself, leading to decreased absorption of vitamin B12. The body needs enough intrinsic factor to absorb and reabsorb vitamin B12from thebile, in which reduces the time needed to develop a deficiency. B12is required by enzymes for two reactions: the conversion ofmethylmalonyl-CoAtosuccinyl-CoA, and the conversion ofhomocysteinetomethionine. In the latter reaction, themethyl groupoflevomefolic acidis transferred to homocysteine to producetetrahydrofolateand methionine. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzymemethionine synthasewith B12as an essential cofactor. During B12deficiency, this reaction cannot proceed, which leads to the accumulation of levomefolic acid. This accumulation depletes the other types of folate required forpurineandthymidylatesynthesis, which are required for the synthesis of DNA. Inhibition ofDNA replicationin maturing red blood cells results in the formation of large, fragile megaloblasticerythrocytes. The neurological aspects of the disease are thought to arise from the accumulation of methylmalonyl- CoA due to the requirement of B12as a cofactor to the enzyme methylmalonyl-CoA mutase. Diagnosis The insidious nature of PA may mean that diagnosis is delayed.Diagnosis is not always straightforward and can be challenging and can take up to several years to receive a diagnosis from the onset of symptoms and almost 60% of those affected are misdiagnosed or not initially diagnosed at all.PA may be suspected when a patient'sblood smearshows large, fragile, immature erythrocytes, known asmegaloblasts. A diagnosis of PA first requires demonstration ofmegaloblastic anemiaby conducting afull blood countand blood smear, which evaluates themean corpuscular volume(MCV), as well themean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration(MCHC).PA is identified with a high MCV (macrocytic anemia) and a normal MCHC (normochromicanemia).Ovalocytesare also typically seen on the blood smear, and apathognomonicfeature of megaloblastic anemias (which include PA and others) is hypersegmented neutrophils.Neuropsychiatric symptoms can precede hematological signs and are often the presenting manifestation of the disease. Vitamin B12serum levels are used to detect its deficiency, but do not distinguish its causes. Vitamin B12levels can be falsely high or low and data forsensitivity and specificityvary widely. Normal serum levels may be found in cases of deficiency wheremyeloproliferative disorders,liver disease,transcobalamin II, orsmall intestinal bacterial overgrowthare present.Low levels of serum vitamin B12may be caused by other factors than B12deficiency, such asfolate deficiency,pregnancy,oral contraceptiveuse,haptocorrindeficiency, andmyeloma.High serum levels may caused by supplementing with vitamin B12, present of antibodies to intrinsic factor, or due to underlying condition. The presence of antibodies to gastric parietal cells and intrinsic factor is common in PA. Parietal cell antibodies are found in other autoimmune disorders and also in up to 10% of healthy individuals. However, around 85% of PA patients have parietal cell antibodies, which means they are a sensitive marker for the disease. Intrinsic factor antibodies are much less sensitive than parietal cell antibodies, but they are much more specific. They are found in about half of PA patients and are very rarely found in other disorders. These antibody tests can distinguish between PA and food-B12malabsorption. A buildup of certain metabolites occurs in B12deficiency due to its role in metabolic processes and cellular functions.Methylmalonic acid(MMA) can be measured in both the blood and urine, whereashomocysteineis only measured in the blood. An increase in both MMA and homocysteine distinguishes B12deficiency from folate deficiency because homocysteine alone increases in the latter. Elevatedgastrinlevels can be found in around 80–90% of PA cases, but they may also be found in other forms of gastritis. Decreased pepsinogen I levels or a decreased pepsinogen I to pepsinogen II ratio may also be found, although these findings are less specific to PA and can be found in food-B12malabsorption and other forms of gastritis. The diagnosis of atrophic gastritis type A should be confirmed by gastroscopy and stepwise biopsy.About 90% of individuals with PA have antibodies for parietal cells; however, only 50% of all individuals in the general population with these antibodies have pernicious anemia. Differential diagnosis Forms of vitamin B12deficiency other than PA must be considered in thedifferential diagnosisof megaloblastic anemia. For example, a B12-deficient state which causes megaloblastic anemia and which may be mistaken for classical PA may be caused by infection with thetapewormDiphyllobothrium latum, possibly due to the parasite's competition with host for vitamin B12. The classic test for PA, theSchilling test, is no longer widely used, as more efficient methods are available. This historic test consisted, in its first step, of taking an oral dose ofradiolabelledvitamin B12, followed by quantitation of the vitamin in the patient's urine over a 24-hour period via measurement of theradioactivity. A second step of the test repeats the regimen and procedure of the first step, with the addition of oral intrinsic factor. A patient with PA presents lower than normal amounts of intrinsic factor; hence, addition of intrinsic factor in the second step results in an increase in vitamin B12absorption (over the baseline established in the first). The Schilling test distinguished PA from other forms of B12deficiency,specifically, fromImerslund–Gräsbeck syndrome, a B12-deficiency caused by mutations inCUBNthat codes forcubilinthe cobalamin receptor. Vitamin B12 deficiency is also prevalent in patients havingCrohn's disease(CD) so it should be differentiated. Treatment Pernicious anemia is usually easily treated by providing the necessary level of vitamin B12supplementation.Pernicious anemia can be treated with intramuscular injections of vitamin B12.Initially in high daily doses, followed by less frequent lower doses, as the condition improves.Activity may need to be limited during the course of treatment.As long as the body is saturated with vitamin B12expected to result in cessation of anemia-related symptoms and there are no other symptoms, unless there are irreversible neurological complications.There are not enough studies on whether pills are as effective in improving or eliminating symptoms as parenteral treatment.Folatesupplementation may affect the course and treatment of pernicious anemia if vitamin B12not replaced.In some severe cases of anemia, ablood transfusionmay be needed to resolve haematological effects.Treatment is lifelong. The treatment of PA varies by country and area. Opinions vary over the efficacy of administration (parenteral/oral), the amount and time interval of the doses, or the forms of vitamin B12(e.g. cyanocobalamin/hydroxocobalamin). More comprehensive studies are still needed in order to validate the feasibility of a particular therapeutic method for PA in clinical practices. Prognosis A person with well-treated PA can live a healthy life. Failure to diagnose and treat in time, however, may result in permanent neurological damage, excessive fatigue, depression, memory loss, and other complications. In severe cases, the neurological complications of pernicious anemia can lead to death – hence the name, \\\"pernicious\\\", meaning deadly. There is an increased risk ofgastric cancerin those with pernicious anemia linked to the common feature of atrophic gastritis. Epidemiology PA is estimated to affect 0.1% of the general population and 1.9% of those over 60, accounting for 20–50% of B12deficiency in adults.A review of literature shows that the prevalence of PA is higher in Northern Europe, especially in Scandinavian countries, and among people of African descent, and that increased awareness of the disease and better diagnostic tools might play a role in apparently higher rates of incidence. History A case of anemia with a first recognition of associatedatrophic gastritisa feature of pernicious anemia, was first described in 1824 byJames Combe. This was fully investigated in 1849, by British physicianThomas Addison, from which it acquired the common name ofAddison's anemia. In 1871, the first accurate description of the disease in continental Europe was made byMichael Anton Biermer, aGermanphysician who noted the insidious course of the condition. Because it was untreatable and fatal at the time, he first referred to it as \\\"pernicious\\\" anemia.Russellcoined the termsubacute combined degeneration of spinal cord. In 1907,Richard Clarke Cabotreported on a series of 1,200 patients with PA; their average survival was between one and three years.Pernicious anemia was a fatal disease before about the year 1920; until the importance of theliverinhematopoiesiswas recognized, the treatment of pernicious anemia was unsuccessful and arbitrary. It may have motivatedGeorge Whipple, who had a keen interest inliver diseases, to investigate the liver's role in hematopoiesis. Whipple began evaluating the effects of treatments for anemia caused by chronic blood loss. Whipple, Huber, and Robchett studied the effects onhemoglobinand blood regeneration of a variety of treatments, among which only raw liver showed real promise.Serendipity is said to have played a role in this discovery. Whipple observed that blood regeneration was poor in dogs fed cooked liver afterchronic blood loss. Had it not been that a lazy laboratory technician gave the dogs raw liver, the much more dramatic response might not have been discovered then. Around 1926,George MinotandWilliam P. Murphy, who learned of Whipple's discovery, sought raw liver as a treatment for pernicious anemia. They later suggested a high-protein diet with high amounts of raw liver. This caused a rapid improvement in symptoms and a simultaneous rise inred blood cellcounts.Fruitandironwere also part of the diet, and it appears that at this point, Minot and Murphy were not quite sure that the liver was a very important factor. It was thought that iron in liver tissue, not liver juice-soluble factor, cured hemorrhagic anemia in dogs. Thus, the discovery of liver juice as a treatment for pernicious anemia had been by coincidence. However, Minot, Murphy, and Whipple received the joint Nobel Prize for discovering a cure for a previously fatal disease of unknown cause in 1934, becoming the first Americans to be awarded theNobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. It is not easy to eat uncooked liver, and extracts were developed as a concentrate of liver juice forintramuscular injection. In 1928, chemistEdwin Cohnprepared an extract that was 50 to 100 times stronger than obtained from raw liver. This became part of the standard management of pernicious anemia until the 1950s. The active ingredient in the liver remained unknown until 1948.The anti-pernicious anemia factor was only isolated from the liver by Smith, Rex, and others. The substance wascobalamin, which the discoverers called \\\"vitamin B12\\\".They showed that giving a few micrograms could prevent relapse in the disease.Dorothy Hodgkinand co-workers went on to useX-ray crystallographyto elucidate the structure of cobalamin for which she, too, was awarded aNobel Prize. Understanding of the pathogenesis of pernicious anaemia increased over subsequent decades. It had long been known that the disease was associated withdefects in the gastrointestinal tract: patients hadchronic gastritisand lack of acid secretion (achlorhydria). It is known that transport of physiological amounts of vitamin B12depends on the combined actions of gastric, ileal and pancreatic components. The gastric moiety was discovered and named 'intrinsic factor' byWilliam Castlein 1930. A further important advance was made in the early 1960s by Doniach with the recognition that pernicious anemia is anautoimmune disease.Pernicious anemia is eventually treated with only injections of B12; injections are typically 1 mg every other day, or twice weekly. A medical author takes the view thatMary Todd Lincoln, the wife of American PresidentAbraham Lincoln, had pernicious anemia for decades and died from it in 1882. Research Permeation enhancers Treatment using oral drugs is an easier option in management but the bioavailabity of B12 is low. This is due to low absorption in the intestine, and breakdown by enzyme activity. Research continues to focus on the use of permeation enhancers or permeation absorbers in combination with the treatment. One of the better performing enhancers studied issalcoprozate sodium(SNAC).SNAC is able to form a noncovalent complex with cobalamin while preserving its chemical integrity and protect B12 from gastric acidity.This complex is much more lipophilic than the water-soluble vitamin B12, so is able to pass through cellular membranes with greater ease.Molecular dynamicsare used in experiments to gain an understanding of the molecular interactions involved in the different molecules used and the degree of ease achieved in absorption across the gastric epithelium. References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Downton Abbey Downton Abbeyis a Britishhistorical dramatelevision series set in the early 20th century, created and co-written byJulian Fellowes. It first aired in the United Kingdom onITVon 26 September 2010 and in the United States onPBS, which supported its production as part of itsMasterpiece Classicanthology, on 9 January 2011. The show ran for fifty-two episodes across six series, including five Christmas specials. The series, set on the fictionalYorkshirecountry estateof Downton Abbey between 1912 and 1926, depicts the lives of thearistocraticCrawley family and theirdomestic servantsin the post-Edwardian era, and the effects the great events of the time have on their lives and on theBritish social hierarchy. These events include news of thesinking of theTitanic(first series); the outbreak of theFirst World War, theSpanish influenza pandemicand theMarconi scandal(second series); theIrish War of Independenceleading to the formation of theIrish Free State(third series); theTeapot Dome scandal(fourth","Dome scandal(fourth series); and theBritish general election of 1923and theBeer Hall Putsch(fifth series). The sixth and final series introduces the rise of the working class during theinterwar periodand hints at the eventual decline of theBritish aristocracy. Downton Abbeyhas received acclaim from television critics andnumerous accolades, including aGolden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Filmand aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries or Movie. It was recognised byGuinness World Recordsas the most critically acclaimed English-language television series of 2011. It earned 27Primetime Emmy Awardnominations after its first two series, the most for any international television series in the awards' history.It was the most watched television series on both ITV and PBS, and became the most successful Britishcostume dramasince the 1981 television serial ofBrideshead Revisited. On 26 March 2015,Carnival Filmsand ITV announced that the sixth series would be the last; it aired on ITV between 20","on ITV between 20 September 2015 and 8 November 2015. The final episode, the annual Christmas special, was broadcast on 25 December 2015. Afilm adaptation, a continuation of the series, was confirmed on 13 July 2018 and released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, and in the United States on 20 September 2019. A second feature film,Downton Abbey: A New Era, was released in the United Kingdom on 29 April 2022 byUniversal Pictures, and in the United States and Canada on 20 May 2022 byFocus Features.A third film is in production. Plot overview Series 1 (2010) The first series, comprising seven episodes, explores the lives of the fictional Crawley family, the hereditary Earl of Grantham, and their domestic servants. The storyline centres on thefee tail, or \"entail\", governing the titled elite, which endows title and estate exclusively tomale heirs. As part of the backstory, the main character, Robert Crawley, Earl of Grantham, had resolved his father's past financial difficulties by marrying Cora","by marrying Cora Levinson, an American heiress. Her considerabledowryis now contractually incorporated into the committal entail in perpetuity; however, Robert and Cora have three daughters and no son. As the eldest daughter, Lady Mary Crawley had agreed to marry her second cousin Patrick, the son of the then-heir presumptiveJames Crawley. The series begins the day after thesinking of RMSTitanicon 14/15 April 1912. The first episode starts as news reaches Downton Abbey that both James and Patrick have perished in the sinking of the ocean liner. The family then learns that a more distant and unknown male cousin, solicitor Matthew Crawley, the son of anupper-middle-classdoctor, has become the next heir presumptive. The story initially centres on the relationship between Lady Mary and Matthew, who resists embracing an aristocratic lifestyle, while Lady Mary resists her own attraction to the new heir presumptive. Of several subplots, one involves John Bates, Lord Grantham's newvaletand formerBoer Warbatman, and","Warbatman, and Thomas Barrow, an ambitious youngfootman, who resents the former for taking a position he had desired for himself. Bates and Thomas remain at odds as Barrow works to sabotage Bates's every move. After learning Bates had recently been released from prison, Thomas and Miss O'Brien (Lady Grantham'slady's maid) begin a relentless pursuit that nearly ruins the Crawley family in scandal. Barrow – ahomosexualman in lateEdwardian England– and O'Brien create havoc for most of the staff and family. When Barrow is caught stealing, he hands in hisnoticeto join theRoyal Army Medical Corps. Matthew eventually does propose to Lady Mary, but she puts him off when Lady Grantham becomes pregnant, understanding that Matthew would no longer be heir if the baby is a boy. Cora loses the baby after O'Brien, believing she is soon to be fired, retaliates by leaving a bar of soap on the floor next to the bathtub, causing Cora to slip while getting out of the tub, and the fall resulting in a miscarriage. It is later","It is later revealed that the miscarried foetus was a male. Although Lady Mary intends to accept Matthew, Matthew believes her reluctance is due to the earlier uncertainty of his heirship and emotionally rescinds his proposal, leaving Lady Mary devastated. The series ends just after theassassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinandand the outbreak of theFirst World Warin August 1914. Series 2 (2011) The second series comprises eight episodes and runs from theBattle of the Sommein 1916 to the1918 Spanish flu pandemic. During the war, Downton Abbey is temporarily converted into an officers'convalescent hospital. Matthew, having left Downton, is now aBritish Armyofficer and has become engaged. His fiancée is Lavinia Swire, the niece of aLiberalminister. William Mason, the second footman, is drafted, even after attempts by the Dowager Countess of Grantham to save him fromconscription. William is taken under Matthew's protection as his personalorderly. Enduring trench warfare and charging against machine guns and","machine guns and artillery, both are injured by an exploding shell. William dies from his wounds, but only after a deathbed marriage to Daisy, thekitchen maid. While Daisy does not believe she loves William, she marries him in his last hours as his dying wish. It is not until a brief encounter with the Dowager Countess that she begins to realise that her love was real, but she could not admit it to herself. Matthew is now paralysed from the waist down by his battle injury, and seemingly unable to father children. Lavinia remains true to him despite his attempts to set her free, and he finally accepts her devotion. Mary, while acknowledging her feelings for Matthew, becomes engaged to Sir Richard Carlisle, a powerful and overbearing newspaper mogul, but their relationship is rocky. Bates's wife, Vera, repeatedly causes trouble for John and Anna, who are now engaged. Vera threatens to expose Mary's past scandalous indiscretion, but Carlisle agrees to purchase andkillher story. Embittered, Mrs Bates","Mrs Bates mysteriously commits suicide with an arsenic pie after a visit by Bates, and he is arrested on suspicion of her murder. Matthew regains the use of his legs, and he and Mary realise they are still in love, but Matthew remains honourably committed to Lavinia after she stood by him during his misfortune. Unknown to them both, Lavinia, ill withSpanish flu, sees and overhears Matthew and Mary admit their love for one another while dancing to a song playing on thephonographgifted as a wedding present to Matthew and Lavinia. The Spanish influenza epidemic hits Downton Abbey further with Cora taken seriously ill, as well as Carson, thebutler. During the outbreak, Thomas attempts to make up for his inability to find other employment after the war by making himself as useful as possible and is made Lord Grantham's valet after Bates is arrested. Lavinia dies abruptly, which causes great guilt to both Matthew and Mary. Bates is found guilty of murder and sentenced to death but the sentence iscommutedto life in","life in prison due to Lord Grantham's influence. After a talk with Robert, Mary realises that she must break off her engagement to Carlisle; he and Matthew fight in the drawing room, but in the end Carlisle goes quietly and is never heard from again. The annual Servants' Ball is held at Downton, and Mary and Matthew finally find their way to a marriage proposal on a snowy evening outside the Abbey. Lady Sybil, the youngest Crawley daughter, beginning to find her aristocratic life stifling, falls in love with Tom Branson, the new chauffeur ofIrishdescent with strongsocialistleanings. She is talked out ofelopementby her sisters, but her wayward marriage eventually receives Lord Grantham's reluctant blessing. Ethel Parks, a new housemaid, is seduced by a wounded officer, Major Bryant. Mrs Hughes, the housekeeper, finds them together in bed and dismisses Ethel, but takes pity on her and helps her when Ethel tells her she is pregnant. She has a baby boy and names him Charlie after his father, but Major Bryant","but Major Bryant refuses to acknowledge his paternity. The filming location,Highclere Castle, in reality served as a convalescent home during World War I. Series 3 (2012) In episode one of the third series, covering 1920 to 1921, preparations are underway for Mary and Matthew's wedding. Tom and Sybil Branson arrive from Ireland, where they now live, to attend the wedding. Also arriving to attend the wedding of her granddaughter is Cora's mother, Martha Levinson, from America. Robert (Lord Grantham) learns that the bulk of the family's fortune (including Cora's dowry) has been lost due to his impetuous investment in theGrand Trunk Railway. Meanwhile Edith has fallen for Sir Anthony Strallan, whom Robert discourages from marrying Edith due to his age and crippled arm. At Edith's insistence, Robert gives in and welcomes Sir Anthony, but even though he loves her, Strallan cannot accept that the Grantham family disapproves of the match, and at the altar announces that he cannot go through with the wedding,","with the wedding, devastating Edith. Strallan flees the church and is never heard from again. Meanwhile, Bates's cellmate plants a small surgical knife in his bedding, but Bates is informed by a fellow prisoner allowing him time to find and hide it (this same small knife is later used by Bates to threaten his cellmate when he had been using his connections through corrupt prison guards to keep a witness from testifying to Bates's innocence of the crime for which he is incarcerated). At Downton, Mrs Hughes finds out she may havebreast cancer, which only some of the household hear about, causing deep concern, but the tumour turns out to bebenign. Tom Branson and Lady Sybil, now pregnant, return to Downton after Tom is implicated in the burning of an Anglo-Irish aristocrat's house. After Matthew's reluctance to accept an inheritance from Lavinia's recently deceased father and then Robert's reluctance to accept that inheritance as a gift, Matthew and Robert reach a compromise in which Matthew accepts that the","accepts that the inheritance will be used as an investment in the estate, giving Matthew an equal say in how it is run. However, as time goes on Robert repeatedly resists Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise the running of the estate to make it profitable. Tragedy strikes when Sybil dies fromeclampsiashortly after giving birth. Tom, devastated, names his daughter Sybil after his late wife. Bates is released from prison after Anna uncovers evidence clearing him of his wife's murder. Tom becomes the newland agentat the suggestion of Violet, the Dowager Countess. Barrow and O'Brien have a falling out, after which O'Brien leads Barrow to believe that Jimmy, the new footman, is sexually attracted to him. Barrow enters Jimmy's room and kisses him while he is sleeping, which wakes him up shocked, confused, and very angry. In the end, Lord Grantham (familiar with homosexuality from Eton) defuses the situation. The family, except Branson, visits Violet's niece Susan, her husband \"Shrimpie\", theMarquessofFlintshire;","and their daughter Rose, inScotland, accompanied by Matthew and a very pregnant Mary. The Marquess confides to Robert that his estate is bankrupt and will be sold, making Robert recognise that Downton has been saved through Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise. At Downton, Edna Braithwaite, the new maid, enters Tom's room and kisses him, whereupon he asks her to leave, and she is eventually fired. Mary returns to Downton with Anna and gives birth to the new heir, but Matthew dies in a car crash while driving home from the hospital after seeing his newborn son. Series 4 (2013) In series four, covering 1922 to 1923, O'Brien leaves to serve Lady Flintshire inBritish India. Cora hires Edna Braithwaite, who had previously been fired for her interest in Tom. Eventually the situation blows up, and Edna is replaced by Phyllis Baxter. Mary deeply mourns Matthew's death. Matthew's newly-found letter states Mary is to be his soleheirand thus gives her management over his share of the estate until their son,","until their son, George,comes of age. With Tom's encouragement, Mary assumes a more active role in running Downton. Two new suitors—Lord Gillingham and Charles Blake—arrive at Downton, though Mary, still grieving, is not interested. Edith, who has begun writing a weekly newspaper column, and Michael Gregson, a magazine editor, fall in love. Due to British law, he is unable todivorcehis wife, who is mentally ill and in an asylum. Gregson travels toGermanyto seekcitizenshipthere, enabling him to divorce, but is killed by Hitler'sBrownshirtsduring riots. Edith is left pregnant and decides to have an illegal abortion, but changes her mind at the last minute. With the help from her paternal aunt, Lady Rosamund, Edith secretly gives birth to a daughter while abroad, and places the baby with adoptive parents inSwitzerland, but reclaims her after arranging a new adoptive family on the estate. Mr and Mrs Drewe of Yew Tree Farm take the baby in and raise her as their own. Anna is raped by Lord Gillingham's valet Mr","valet Mr Green, which Mr Bates later discovers. Subsequently, Green is killed in a London street accident. A local school teacher, Sarah Bunting, and Tom begin a friendship. In the Christmas special set mainly in London, Sampson, acard sharp, steals a letter written byEdward VIII, thenPrince of Wales, to his mistress, Rose's friendFreda Dudley Ward, which if made public would create a scandal; the entire Crawley family connives to retrieve it, although it is Bates who extracts the letter from Sampson's overcoat, and it is returned to Mrs Dudley Ward. The family hold adebutanteball for Lady Rose following her presentation at court, and the grateful Prince makes an appearance at the ball. Series 5 (2014) In series five, covering the year 1924, aRussian exile, Prince Kuragin, wishes to renew his past affections for the Dowager Countess (Violet). Violet instead locates his wife inBritish Hong Kongand reunites the Prince and his estranged wife.Scotland Yardand the local police investigate Green's death. Violet","death. Violet learns that Marigold is Edith's daughter. Meanwhile, Mrs Drewe, not knowing Marigold's true parentage, resents Edith's constant visits. To increase his chances with Mary, Charles Blake plots to reunite Gillingham and his ex-fiancée, Mabel. After Edith inherits Michael Gregson's publishing company, she removes Marigold from the Drewes and relocates to London. Simon Bricker, an art expert interested in one of Downton's paintings, shows his true intentions toward Cora and is thrown out by Robert, causing a temporary rift between the couple. Mrs Patmore's decision to invest her inheritance in real estate inspires Mr Carson, Downton's butler, to do likewise. He suggests that head housekeeper Mrs Hughes invest with him; she confesses she has no money due to supporting a mentally incapacitated sister. The Crawleys' cousin, Lady Rose, daughter of Lord and Lady Flintshire, becomes engaged to Atticus Aldridge, son of Lord and Lady Sinderby. Lord Sinderby strongly objects to Atticus's marrying outside","marrying outside theJewish faith. Lord Merton proposes to Isobel Crawley (Matthew's mother). She accepts, but later ends the engagement due to Lord Merton's sons' disparaging comments over her status as acommoner. Lady Flintshire employs underhanded schemes to derail Rose and Atticus's engagement, including announcing to everyone at the wedding that she and her husband are divorcing, intending to cause a scandal to stop Rose's marriage to Atticus; they are married anyway. When Anna is arrested on suspicion of Green's murder, Bates writes afalse confessionbefore fleeing toIreland. Baxter and Molesley, a footman and Matthew's former valet, are able to prove that Bates was inYorkat the time of the murder. This new information allows Anna to be released. Cora eventually learns the truth about Marigold, and wants her raised at Downton; Marigold is presented as Edith'sward, but Robert and Tom eventually discern the truth. Only Mary is unaware. When a war memorial is unveiled in the town, Robert arranges for a","arranges for a separate plaque to honour the cook Mrs Patmore's late nephew, who was shot forcowardiceand excluded from his own village's memorial. The Crawleys are invited to Brancaster Castle, which Lord and Lady Sinderby have rented for a shooting party. While there, Lady Rose, with help from the Crawleys, defuses a personal near-disaster for Lord Sinderby, earning his gratitude and securing his approval of Rose. A second footman, Andy, is hired on Barrow's recommendation. During the annual Downton Abbey Christmas celebration, Tom announces he is moving toAmericato work for his cousin, taking daughter Sybil with him. Mr Carson proposes marriage to Mrs Hughes and she accepts. Series 6 (2015) In series six, changes are once again afoot at Downton Abbey as themiddle classrises and morebankrupted aristocratsare forced to sell off their large estates. Downton must do more to ensure its future survival;reductions in staffare considered, forcing Barrow to look for a job elsewhere. Having formed a close bond with","a close bond with young George, Barrow realises that Downton has become the first real home he has ever had, but feels unwanted. Mary defies a blackmailer, who is thwarted by Robert. With Tom's departure to Boston, Mary becomes theestate agent. Edith is more hands-on in running her magazine and hires a female editor. Violet and Isobel once again draw battle lines as a government take-over of the local hospital is considered. Mary begins seeing Henry Talbot, a racing driver, and Edith begins seeing Bertie Pelham, a cousin of the owner of Brancaster Castle. Meanwhile, Anna suffers repeated miscarriages. Mary takes her to a specialist, who diagnoses a treatable condition, and she becomes pregnant again. Mr Carson and Mrs Hughes disagree on where to hold their wedding reception, but eventually choose to have it at the schoolhouse, during which Tom reappears with Sybil, having returned to Downton for good. Coyle, who tricked Baxter into stealing a previous employer's jewellery, is convicted after she and other","after she and other witnesses are persuaded to testify. After Mrs Drewe kidnaps Marigold when Edith is not looking, the Drewes vacate Yew Tree Farm; Daisy convinces Tom to ask Robert to give her father-in-law, Mr Mason, the tenancy. Andy, a footman, offers to help Mr Mason so he can learn about farming, but Andy is held back by his illiteracy. Barrow offers to teach him to read, but Andy soon trades his help for that of a teacher at the local school. Robert suffers a near-fatal health crisis. Previous episodes alluded to health problems for Robert; hisulcerbursts and he is rushed to the hospital for emergency surgery. The operation is successful, but Mary and Tom must take over Downton's operations. Larry Merton's fiancée, Amelia, encourages Lord Merton and Isobel to renew their engagement, but Violet rightly becomes suspicious. Violet discovers that Amelia wants Isobel, and not her, to be Lord Merton's caretaker in his old age.Daisy and Molesley score high marks on their academic exams; Molesley's are so","Molesley's are so exceptional that he is offered a teaching position at the school. Mary breaks up with Henry, unable to live with the constant fear he could be killed in an accident like Matthew was. Bertie proposes to Edith, but she hesitates to accept because of Marigold. Violet, upset over Cora replacing her as hospital president, abruptly departs for a long cruise to restore her equanimity. Bertie unexpectedly succeeds his late second cousin as 7th Marquess of Hexham and moves into Brancaster Castle; Edith accepts him. Mary spitefully exposes Marigold's parentage, causing Bertie to walk out. Tom confronts Mary over her malicious behaviour and her true feelings for Henry. Despondent over his inability to find another job and his sense of being unloved, Barrow attemptssuicide, and is saved by Baxter and Andy. Realising the extent of Barrow's pain for the first time, Robert and Carson allow Barrow to stay at Downton while he recovers and searches for new employment. Mary and Henry reunite and are married.","and are married. Edith returns to Downton for the wedding; she and Mary agree to work on improving their relationship. Mrs Patmore's newbed and breakfastbusiness is tainted by scandal, but saved when Robert, Cora and Rosamund appear there publicly to support her. Mary arranges a surprise meeting for Edith and Bertie with Bertie proposing again. Edith accepts. Edith tells Bertie's moralistic mother Mirada about Marigold; initially appalled, she is won over by Edith's honesty. Barrow, having decided to turn over a new leaf and become a kinder person, finds a position as butler and leaves Downton on good terms, but he is unhappy at his new post; the family and other servants also find themselves missing him. Lord Merton is diagnosed with terminalpernicious anaemiaand Amelia blocks Isobel from seeing him. Goaded by Violet, Isobel pushes into the Merton house and announces she will take Lord Merton to her house to care for and marry him, to his delight. Later, Lord Merton is correctly diagnosed with a non-fatal","with a non-fatal form ofanaemia. Robert resents Cora's frequent absences as the hospital president, but comes to admire her ability after watching her chair a hospital meeting. Henry and Tom go into business together selling used cars, while Mary announces her pregnancy. Molesley accepts a permanent teaching position and he and Baxter promise to continue seeing each other. Daisy and Andy finally acknowledge their feelings; Daisy decides to move to the farm with Mr Mason, her father-in-law. Carson developspalsyand must retire. Following Robert and Mary's suggestion, Barrow happily returns to Downton as butler, with Carson in an overseeing role. Edith and Bertie are finally married in the series finale, set on New Year's Eve 1925. Anna goes into labour during the reception, and she and Bates become parents to a healthy son. Cast and characters The main cast of the Crawley family is led byHugh Bonnevilleas Robert Crawley, the Earl of Grantham, andElizabeth McGovernas his wife Cora Crawley, the Countess of","the Countess of Grantham. Their three daughters are depicted byMichelle Dockeryas Lady Mary Crawley (Talbot),Laura Carmichaelas Lady Edith Crawley (Pelham) andJessica Brown Findlayas Lady Sybil Crawley (Branson).Maggie Smithis Robert Crawley's mother Violet, Dowager Countess of Grantham.Samantha Bondportrays Lady Rosamund Painswick, Robert's sister who resides inBelgrave Square, London.Dan Stevensportrays Matthew Crawley, the new heir, along withPenelope Wiltonas his mother, Isobel Crawley, who are brought to Downton.Allen Leechas Tom Branson begins the series as the familychauffeur, but falls in love with Lady Sybil, marries her and later becomes theagentfor the estate.David Robbportrays Dr Richard Clarkson, the local town doctor. Joining the cast in series three isLily Jamesas Lady Rose MacClare, a cousin whose mother is Violet's niece Susan, the Marchioness of Flintshire, and who is sent to live with the Crawleys because her parents are serving the empire in India and, later, remains there because of","there because of family problems. In series three and four,Shirley MacLaineportrays the mother of Cora Crawley, Martha Levinson. Suitors for Lady Mary's affections during the series includeTom Cullenas Lord Gillingham,Julian Ovendenas Charles Blake, andMatthew Goodeas Henry Talbot. Edith's fiancé and eventual husband Bertie Pelham, 7th Marquess of Hexham, is played byHarry Hadden-Paton. Downton Abbey's senior household staff are portrayed byJim Carteras Mr Carson, thebutler, andPhyllis Loganas Mrs Hughes, thehousekeeper. Tensions rise whenRob James-Collier, portraying Thomas Barrow, afootmanand later avaletandunder-butler, along withSiobhan Finneranas Miss O'Brien, the lady'smaidto the Countess of Grantham (up to series three), plot againstBrendan Coyleas Mr Bates, the valet to the Earl of Grantham, and his love interest and eventual wife, Anna (Joanne Froggatt), lady's maid to Lady Mary.Kevin Doyleplays the unlucky Mr Molesley, valet to Matthew Crawley.Thomas Howesportrays William Mason, the second footman.","the second footman. Other household staff areRose Leslieas Gwen Dawson, ahousemaidstudying to be asecretaryin series one.Amy Nuttallplays Ethel Parks, a maid, beginning in series two and three.Matt Milnejoined the cast as Alfred Nugent, O'Brien's nephew, the awkward new footman for series three and four, andRaquel Cassidyplays Baxter, Cora's new lady's maid, who was hired to replace Edna Braithwaithe, who was sacked.Ed Speleersplays the dashing James (Jimmy) Kent, the second footman, from series three to five. In series five and sixMichael Foxplays Andy Parker, a replacement footman for Jimmy. In series four, five, and sixAndrew Scarboroughplays Tim Drewe, a farmer of the estate, who helps Lady Edith conceal a big secret. The kitchen staff includeLesley Nicolas Mrs Patmore thecook, andSophie McSheraas Daisy, thescullery maidwho works her way up to assistant cook having earlier married William Mason.Cara Theoboldportrays Ivy Stuart, a kitchen maid, joining the cast for series three and four. Crawley family","Crawley family The series is set in Downton Abbey, aYorkshirecountry house, which is the home and seat of theEarlandCountessofGrantham, along with their three daughters and other family members. Each series follows the lives of thearistocraticCrawley family, their friends, and their servants during the reign of KingGeorge V. Production Gareth NeameofCarnival Filmsconceived the idea of anEdwardian-eraTV drama set in a country house and approached Fellowes, who had won anAcademy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay)forGosford Park. The TV seriesDownton Abbey– written and created by Fellowes – was originally planned as a spin-off ofGosford Park, but instead was developed as a stand-alone property inspired by the film, set decades earlier.Although Fellowes was reluctant to work on another project resemblingGosford Park, within a few weeks he returned to Neame with an outline of the first series. Influenced by Edith Wharton'sThe Custom of the Country,Fellowes wrote the scripts; and his wife, Emma, acted as","Emma, acted as an informalstory editor. Filming locations Highclere Castle in northHampshireis used for exterior shots of Downton Abbey and most of the interior filming.The kitchen,servants' quartersand working areas, and some of the \"upstairs\" bedrooms were constructed and filmed atEaling Studios.Bridgewater Housein the St James area of London served as the family's London home. Outdoor scenes are filmed in the village ofBamptoninOxfordshire. Notable locations include the Church of St Mary the Virgin and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital.The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed at Hall Place nearBeaconsfieldinBuckinghamshire. The fictional Downton Abbey is said to be located inYorkshire. The towns ofEasingwold,Kirkby Malzeard,Kirkbymoorside,Malton,Middlesbrough,Ripon,RichmondandThirsk, each mentioned by characters in the series, lie inNorth Yorkshire, as does the city of York, whileLeeds—similarly","mentioned—lies inWest Yorkshire. Yorkshire media speculated the general location of the fictional Downton Abbey to be somewhere in the triangulated area between the towns of Easingwold, Ripon and Thirsk. First World Wartrench warfarescenes in France were filmed in a specially constructed replica battlefield for period war scenes near the village ofAkenhamin ruralSuffolk. Many historical locations and aristocratic mansions have been used to film various scenes: The fictional Haxby Park, the estate Sir Richard Carlisle intends to buy in series two, is part ofWaddesdon ManorinBuckinghamshire.Byfleet ManorinSurreyis the location for theDower house, home to Violet,DowagerCountess of Grantham,whileWest Wycombe ParkinBuckinghamshireis used for the interior scenes of Lady Rosamund (Samantha Bond)'sLondonresidence inBelgrave Square.A house in Belgrave Square is used for exterior shots. The farm scenes in series two in which Lady Edith learns to drive a tractor as part of the war effort were filmed on location at","on location at theChiltern Open Air Museumin Buckinghamshire. Inveraray CastleinArgyll, Scotland, doubled as \"Duneagle Castle\" in the 2012 Christmas special. Greys CourtnearHenley-on-ThamesinOxfordshirewas used as the family's secondary property, which they proposed moving into and calling \"Downton Place\" due to financial difficulties in series three. Also in the third series, Bates's prison scenes were filmed atLincoln CastleinLincolnshire. Horsted Keynes railway stationinSussexis used as Downton station.The station is part of the heritageBluebell Railway.St Pancrasstation inLondondoubled forKing's Crossstation in episode one of series four, in the scene where Lady Edith Crawley meets her lover Michael Gregson.The restaurant scene where Lady Edith meets Michael Gregson and where they share their kiss was filmed at theCriterion RestaurantinPiccadilly Circuswhich was originally opened in 1874. Bridgewater House in the St James area of London served as the family's London home. Outdoor scenes are filmed in the","are filmed in the village of Bampton in Oxfordshire. Notable locations include St Mary's the Virgin Church and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital. The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed atHall Barn, Hall Place near Beaconsfield in Buckinghamshire, featured as Loxley House, the home of Sir Anthony Strallan. Parts of series four were filmed atThe Historic Dockyard Chatham,Kent– The Tarred Yarn Store was used in episode one as a workhouse where Mrs Hughes (Phyllis Logan) visits Mr Grigg (Nicky Henson) and in episode two, streets atThe Historic Dockyard Chathamwere used for the scenes where Lady Rose MacClare (Lily James) is at the market with James Kent (Ed Speleers) watching her.The production had previously filmed inKentfor series one where the opening sequence of a train going through the countryside was filmed at theKent & East Sussex Railway. Other filming locations for series four include the ballroom of","the ballroom of The Savile Club inMayfair, London. Scenes for the 2013 Christmas special were filmed atRoyal Holloway, University of LondonnearEgham, Surrey,West Witteringbeach inWest Sussexand Berkshire'sBasildon ParknearStreatley.Lancaster Housein London stood in forBuckingham Palace. Alnwick Castle, inNorthumberland, was the filming location used for Brancaster Castle in the 2014 and 2015 Christmas specials, which included filming in Alnwick Castle'sState Rooms, as well as on the castle's grounds, and at the nearby semi-ruined Hulne Abbey on theDuke of Northumberland's parklands inAlnwick. In series five and six, Kingston Bagpuize House in Oxfordshire was used as the location for Cavenham Park, the home of Lord Merton.In series six, the scenes of motor racing atBrooklandswere filmed at theGoodwood Circuitin West Sussex. In 2015, Wayfair.co.uk published a map of 70+ Downton Abbey filming locations. The 2019 film ofDownton Abbeyuses many of the television locations such as Highclere Castle and Bampton, as","and Bampton, as well as exterior shots filmed atBeamish Museum.TheNorth York Moors Railwaywas used for railway scenes. Opening theme music The opening music ofDownton Abbey, titled \"Did I Make the Most of Loving You?\",was composed byJohn Lunn. A suite version was released on the soundtrack for the show on 19 September 2011 in the UK and later in the US on 13 December 2011. The soundtrack also included the song performed by singerMary-Jess Leaverland,with lyrics written byDon Black. Broadcasts The rights to broadcastDownton Abbeyhave been acquired in over 220 countries and territories, and the series has been viewed by a global audience of an estimated 120 million people. United Kingdom The series first aired on theITV networkin the United Kingdom beginning on 26 September 2010, and received its first Britain-wide broadcast when shown onITV3beginning in February 2011. STV, the ITV franchisee in central and northernScotland(including theOrkneyandShetlandislands), originally opted out of showingDownton Abbey,","Abbey, choosing instead to screen a brand-new six-part series ofTaggart, following a long practice of opting out of networked United Kingdom-wide programming on the ITV network.This led to backlash from Scottish viewers, who were frustrated at not being able to watch the programme. Many viewers with satellite or cable television tuned into other regional stations of the ITV network, for exampleITV London, with viewing figures showing this is also commonplace for other ITV programmes.STV announced in July 2011 that it would show the first and second series ofDownton Abbeyas part of its autumn schedule.Scottish cast membersPhyllis LoganandIain Glenwere both quoted as being pleased with the decision. United States In the United States,Downton Abbeywas first broadcast in January 2011 onPBS, as part of the 40th season ofMasterpiece.The programme was aired in four 90-minute episodes, controversially requiring PBS to alter the beginning and endpoints of each episode and make other small changes, slightly altering","slightly altering each episode's structure to fit the programme precisely into the allotted running-time.As part ofMasterpiece, episodes shown on PBS also featuredMasterpiecehost (Laura Linney), who introduced each episode, explaining matters such as \"theentail\" and \"Buccaneers\"for the benefit of American viewers; this was perceived as condescending by some American critics.PBS editing for broadcasts in the United States continued in the subsequent seasons.The final and sixth season aired in 2016. PBS continued to repeat episodes until 2020, whenNBC Universaltook over the US broadcasting rights for its streaming servicePeacock. The series became available onNetflixin 2021. The series also aired on the E! network in 2022. Canada In Canada,VisionTVbegan airing the programme on 7 September 2011;CBC Televisionrepeated the whole series in 2021; Downton Abbey was aired in French onIci Radio-Canada Télé. Australia and New Zealand In Australia, the first series was broadcast on theSeven Networkbeginning on 29 May","on 29 May 2011;the second series was broadcast beginning on 20 May 2012;and the third series beginning on 10 February 2013.In New Zealand,Primebegan airing the first series on 10 May 2011, the second series on 18 October 2011 and the third series on 18 October 2012. Ireland In Ireland, independent television channelTV3aired the first series in January and February 2011. France Downton Abbeywas broadcast onTMCin France beginning in 11 December 2011. Reception Critical response AtMetacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the first series received anaveragescore of 91, based on 16 reviews, which indicates \"universal acclaim\".This result earned the show a Guinness World Record in 2011 for \"Highest critical review ratings for a TV show\", makingDownton Abbeythe critically best received TV show in the world.Season 4 ofBreaking BadsurpassedDownton Abbey's record later in the year, with a score of 96, making the first series ofDownton Abbeythe second highest rated show of 2011.","rated show of 2011. The series has been noted for its relatively sympathetic portrayal of thearistocraticfamily and the class-based society of early 20th-century Britain. This has led to criticism from the political left and praise from the right.James Fentonwrote inThe New York Review of Books, \"it is noticeable that the aristocrats in the series, even the ones who are supposed to be the most ridiculous, never lapse into the most offensive kind of upper-class drawl one would expect of them. Great care has been taken to keep them pleasant and approachable, even when the things they say are sometimes shown to be class-bound and unfeeling.\"Jerry Bowyerargued inForbesthat the sympathy for aristocracy is over-stated, and that the show is simply more balanced than most period dramas, which he believes have had a tendency to demonise or ridicule upper class characters. He wrote thatDownton Abbeyshows \"there is no inherent need for good TV to be left of center. Stories sympathetic to virtue, preservation of","preservation of property and admiration of nobility and of wealth can be told beautifully and to wide audiences.\" Downton Abbeyhas been a commercial success and received general acclaim from critics, although some criticise it as superficial,melodramaticor unrealistic. Others defend these qualities as the reason for the show's appeal. David Kamp wrote inVanity Fairthat \"melodrama is an uncool thing to trade in these days, but then, that's precisely whyDownton Abbeyis so pleasurable. In its clear delineation between the goodies and the baddies, in its regulated dosages of highs and lows, the show is welcome counter-programming to the slow-burning despair and moral ambiguity of most quality drama on television right now.\"In September 2019,The Guardian,which ranked the show 50th on its list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century, stated that the show \"was TV drama as comfort blanket: at a time of austerity, Julian Fellowes's country house epic offered elegantly realised solace in the homilies of the","the homilies of the past\".Mary McNamara ofLos Angeles Timeswrote, \"Possibly the best series of the year.\"Jill Serjeant ofReuterswrote, \"There's a new darling in U.S. pop culture.\"The staff ofEntertainment Weeklywrote, \"It's the biggest PBS phenomenon since Sesame Street.\"David Hinckley ofNew York Daily Newswrote, \"Maintains its magic touch.\" James Parker, writing inThe Atlantic, said, \"Preposterous as history, preposterous as drama, the show succeeds magnificently as bad television. The dialogue spins light-operatically along in the service of multiplying plotlets, not too hard on the ear, although now and again a line lands like a tray of dropped spoons. The acting is superb—it has to be.\"Ben W. Heineman Jr. compared the series unfavourably toBrideshead Revisited, writing \"Downton Abbeyis entertainment. Its illustrious predecessor in television mega-success about the English upper class,Brideshead Revisited, is art.\"He noted the lack of character development in Downton. Writing inThe Sunday Times,A. A.","Sunday Times,A. A. Gillsaid that the show is \"everything I despise and despair of on British television:National Trustsentimentality, costumed comfort drama that flogs an embarrassing, demeaning, and bogus vision of the place I live in.\" Sam Wollaston ofThe Guardianwrote, It's beautifully made—handsome, artfully crafted and acted. Smith, who plays the formidable and disdainful Dowager Countess, has a lovely way of delivering words, always spaced to perfection. This is going to be a treat if you like a lavish period drama of a Sunday evening. While rumoured due to the departure of actorDan Stevens, the death of Matthew Crawley in the 2012 Christmas special drew criticism.Fellowes defended the decision stating that they 'didn't really have an option' once Stevens decided to leave.Stevens later said that he had no say in the manner of his character's departure but that he was 'sorry' his character had died on Christmas Day. The third episode of the fourth series, which aired on 6 October 2013, included a","2013, included a warning at the beginning: \"This episode contains violent scenes that some viewers may find upsetting.\"The episode content, in which Anna Bates was raped, led to more than 200 complaints by viewers to UK television regulatorOfcom,while ITV received 60 complaints directly.On 4 November 2013, Ofcom announced it would not be taking action over the controversy citing the warning given, that the episode was screened after 9 pm, and, that the rape took place 'off-screen'.Series four also introduced a recurring character, black jazz musician Jack Ross, who had a brief romantic affair with Lady Rose. The casting ofGary Carrdrew critical accusations ofpolitical correctnessin the media. The character of Ross was partially based onLeslie Hutchinson(\"Hutch\"), a real-life 1920s jazz singer who had an affair with a number of women in high society, among themEdwina Mountbatten. Ratings The first episode ofDownton Abbeyhad a consolidated British audience of 9.2 million viewers, a 32% audience share—making it","share—making it the most successful new drama on any channel sinceWhitechapelwas launched on ITV in February 2009. The total audience for the first episode, including repeats andITV Playerviewings, exceeded 11.6 million viewers. This was beaten by the next episode, with a total audience of 11.8 million viewers—including repeats and ITV Player views.Downton Abbeybroke the record for a single episode viewing onITV Player. The second series premiered in Britain on 18 September 2011 in the same 9 pm slot as the first series, with the first episode attracting an average audience of 9 million viewers on ITV1, a 34.6% share.The second episode attracted a similar following with an average of 9.3 million viewers.In January 2012, the PBS premiere attracted 4.2 million viewers, over double the network's average primetime audience of 2 million. The premiere audience was 18% higher than the first series premiere. The second series ofDownton Abbeygave PBS its highest ratings since 2009. The second series averaged 5.4","series averaged 5.4 million viewers, excluding station replays, DVR viewings and online streaming. The 5.4 million average improved on PBS first series numbers by 25%. Additionally, episodes of series two have been viewed 4.8 million times on PBS's digital portal, surpassing the online viewing numbers of series one by more than 400 per cent. Overall,Downton Abbey-related content has racked up more than 9 million streams across all platforms, with 1.5 million unique visitors, since series 2's 8 January premiere.In 2013,Downton Abbeywas ranked the 43rd most well-written TV show of all time by theWriters Guild of America. The third series premiered in the UK on 16 September 2012 with an average of 9 million viewers (or a 36% audience share). For the first time in the UK, episode three received an average of more than 10 million viewers (or a 38.2% audience share).Premiering in the US in January 2013, the third series had an average audience of 11.5 million viewers and the finale on 17 February 2013, drew 12.3","2013, drew 12.3 million viewers making it the night's highest rating show.Overall, during its seven-week run, the series had an audience of 24 million viewers making it PBS's highest-rated drama of all time. The fourth series premiered in the UK on 22 September 2013 with an average audience of 9.5 million viewers—the highest ever for one of the drama's debut episodes.It premiered in the US on 5 January 2014, to an audience of at least 10.2 million viewers, outperforming every other drama on that night; it was the largest audience forPBSsince the 1990 premiere of theKen BurnsdocumentaryThe Civil War.The second episode attracted an average of 9.6 million UK viewers. Awards and nominations Cultural reaction Although Julian Fellowes supports aunited Ireland,there has been criticism of the stereotypicalIrish charactersused in the show, specifically the character of Tom Branson's brother, Kieran, portrayed as a rude and boorish drunk.Allen Leech, who plays Tom Branson, defended the series, stating that the show","that the show did not portray Irish characters in a pejorative fashion.Branson's character took some criticism in Ireland fromThe Irish Times, which described the character as \"an Irish republican turned Downtonian toff.\" The character of the Earl of Grantham occasionally expresses negative views about Catholics and is described, byThe Washington Post, as \"xenophobic\" but \"at least historically accurate\".Episodes in Season 3 featured Lord Grantham using offensive derogatory terms against Catholics such as the phrase \"left-footer\" and mocking theCatholic Massby calling it a \"gymnastics display\". A dinner scene also features a Protestant minister calling Catholic practices \"pagan\". Fellowes, himself a Roman Catholic, explained that he chose to address this in terms of \"that casual, almost unconscious anti-Catholicism that was found among the upper classes, which lasted well into my growing up years\", adding that he \"thought it might be interesting\" to explore this in the series and described his own","described his own experiences where the aristocracy \"were happy for you to come to their dances or shoot their pheasants, but there were plenty who did not want you to marry their daughters and risk Catholic grandchildren.\" Authenticity Fellowes has said he tries to be as authentic in his depiction of the period as he can.Despite this, the show features many linguisticanachronisms.The accents of characters have also been questioned, with theReceived Pronunciationof the actors who play the wealthy characters described as \"slightly more contemporary\" than would be expected among early-20th-century aristocrats; however, this \"elicited more natural and unaffected performances from the cast\". In 2010, Fellowes hiredAlastair Bruce, an expert on state and court ritual, as historical adviser.Bruce explains his role as being \"here to guide the production and particularly the director as they bring Julian's words to life. That also involves getting the social conduct right, and giving actors a sense of surety in the","of surety in the way they deliver a performance.\"ActorJim Carter, who plays butler Carson, describes Bruce as the series \"etiquette watchdog\",and the UK'sDaily Telegraphfinished its 2011 profile of Bruce's role stating \"Downton's authenticity, it seems, is in safe hands.\"However, historianSimon Schamacriticised the show for historical inaccuracies and \"pandering toclichés\".Producer Gareth Neame defended the show, saying, \"Downton is a fictional drama. It is not a history programme, but a drama of social satire about a time when relationships, behaviour and hierarchy were very different from those we enjoy today.\" A \"tremendous amount of research\" went into recreating the servants' quarters atEaling StudiosbecauseHighclere Castle, where many of the upstairs scenes are filmed,was not adequate for representing the \"downstairs\" life at the fictional manor house.Researchers visited nearly 40 English country houses to help inform what the kitchen should look like, and production designer Donal Woods said of the","Woods said of the kitchen equipment that \"probably about 60 to 70 per cent of the stuff in there is from that period\".Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Managementis an important guide to the food served in the series, but Highclere owner, and author ofLady Almina and the Real Downton Abbey: The Lost Legacy of Highclere Castle, Lady Carnarvon, states that dinner parties in the era \"would have been even more over the top\" than those shown.Lady Pamela Hicksagreed, stating that \"it is ridiculous to think that a weekend party would consist of only fourteen house guests, it would have consisted of at least 40!\"However, Carnarvon understood the compromises that must be made for television, and adds, \"It's a fun costume drama. It's not a social documentary. Because it's so popular, I think some people take it as historical fact.\" Home media Streaming The series was made available in its entirety on Netflix in June 2021. It has also been made available onAmazon Prime Video,Peacock, the PBS app and PBS.org with a PBS","PBS.org with a PBS Passport subscription. Blu-ray and DVD On 16 September 2011, two days before the UK premiere of the second series, it was reported byAmazon.comthat the first series ofDownton Abbeyhad become the highest selling DVD boxset of all time on the online retailer's website, surpassing popular American programmes such asThe Sopranos,FriendsandThe Wire. Books The World of Downton Abbey, a book featuring a behind-the-scenes look atDownton Abbeyand the era in which it is set, was released on 15 September 2011. It was written byJessica Fellowes(the niece ofJulian Fellowes) and published byHarperCollins. A second book, also written by Jessica Fellowes and published by HarperCollins,The Chronicles of Downton Abbey, was released on 13 September 2012. It is a guide to the show's characters through the early part of the third series. Four spin-off cookbooks have been published –The Official Downton Abbey Cookbook(2019), which features dishes from the Edwardian period researched by food historian Dr Annie","historian Dr Annie Gray,The Official Downton Abbey Christmas Cookbook(2020) by Regula Ysewijn,The Official Downton Abbey Cocktail Book(2019) and TheOfficial Downton Abbey Afternoon Tea Cookbook(2020). Soundtracks A soundtrack, featuring music from the series and also new songs, was released byDeccain September 2011. Music byJohn LunnandDon Blackfeatures, with vocals fromMary-Jess LeaverlandandAlfie Boe.A second soundtrack was released on 19 November 2012 entitledDownton Abbey: The Essential Collectionand a third and final soundtrack, containing two discs, was released on 15 January 2016 entitledDownton Abbey: The Ultimate Collectionand featured music spanning from all six seasons of the series including some from the first soundtrack. Cultural impact Some of the fashion items worn by characters on the show have seen a strong revival of interest in the UK and elsewhere during the show's run, includingstarched collars,midi skirts, beadedgowns, andhunting plaids. TheEquality (Titles) Billwas an unsuccessful","an unsuccessful piece of legislation introduced in theUK Parliamentin 2013 that would have allowed equal succession of female heirs tohereditary titles and peerages. It was nicknamed the \"Downton Abbeylaw\" because it addressed the same issue that affects Lady Mary Crawley, who cannot inherit the estate because it must pass to a male heir. The decor used onDownton AbbeyinspiredUS Representative Aaron Schockto redecorate his congressional offices in a more luxurious style.He repaid the $40,000 cost of redecoration following scrutiny of his expenses and questions about his use of public money for personal benefit,and subsequently resigned in March 2015. Other media Due to the show's popularity, there have been a number of references and spoofs on it, such asFamily Guyepisode \"Chap Stewie\", which has Stewie Griffin reborn in a household similar to Downton Abbey, andHow I Met Your Motherepisode \"The Fortress\", where the gang watch a television show calledWoodworthy Manor, which is remarkably similar toDownton","similar toDownton Abbey. A short scene featuring the characters of Sybil and Tom Branson made a screen-in-screen appearance in the movieIron Man 3. The Gilded Age Julian Fellowes'sThe Gilded Age, which debuted onHBOin 2022, portrays New York in the 1880s and how itsold New York societycoped with the influx of newly wealthy families.While a separate series, a young Violet, Countess of Grantham, couldmake an appearance on the new show. Film adaptations On 13 July 2018, a feature-length film was confirmed, with production commencing mid-2018.The film was written byJulian Fellowesand is a continuation of the TV series, with direction byBrian Percival. It was distributed byFocus FeaturesandUniversal Pictures International.The film was released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, with the United States following one week later on 20 September 2019.Filming of a sequel began in April 2021.The film was finally released in the UK on 29 April 2022, and in the US on 20 May. In March 2024,Imelda Staunton, who","Staunton, who plays Lady Maud Bagshaw in the first two films, and is married toJim Carter(butler Mr Carson), revealed onBBC Radio 2that athird and final filmis in the pipeline.On 13 May 2024 it was announced on social media and the Focus Films website that a third film is planned, withPaul Giamatti,Joely Richardson,Alessandro Nivola,Simon Russell BealeandArty Froushanjoining the cast.On 26 June 2024 it was announced that the film would be released in cinemas on 12 September 2025. See also Notes References Further reading External links","Pernicious anemia Pernicious anemiais a disease where not enoughred blood cellsare produced due to a deficiency ofvitamin B12.Those affected often have a gradual onset.The most common initial symptoms arefeeling tiredand weak.Other symptoms may includeshortness of breath, feeling faint, a smooth red tongue,paleskin, chest pain,nauseaandvomiting, loss of appetite, heartburn, numbness in the hands and feet,difficulty walking, memory loss, muscle weakness, poorreflexes, blurred vision, clumsiness, depression, and confusion.Without treatment, some of these problems may become permanent. Pernicious anemia refers to a type ofvitamin B12deficiencyanemiathat results from lack ofintrinsic factor.Lack of intrinsic factor is most commonly due to anautoimmuneattack on thecellsthat create it in thestomach.It can also occur following the surgical removal of all or part of the stomach orsmall intestine; from an inherited disorder or illnesses that damage the stomach lining.When suspected, diagnosis is made byblood","is made byblood testsinitially acomplete blood count, and occasionally,bone marrow tests.Blood tests may showfewer but larger red blood cells, low numbers ofyoung red blood cells, low levels of vitamin B12, andantibodiesto intrinsic factor.Diagnosis is not always straightforward and can be challenging. Because pernicious anemia is due to a lack of intrinsic factor, it is not preventable.Pernicious anemia can be treated with injections of vitamin B12.If the symptoms are serious, frequent injections are typically recommended initially.There are not enough studies that pills are effective in improving or eliminating symptoms.Often, treatment may be needed for life. Pernicious anemia is the most common cause of clinically evident vitamin B12deficiency worldwide.Pernicious anemia due to autoimmune problems occurs in about one per 1000 people in the US. Among those over the age of 60, about 2% have the condition.It more commonly affects people of northern European descent.Women are more commonly affected than","affected than men.With proper treatment, most people live normal lives.Due to a higher risk ofstomach cancer, those with pernicious anemia should be checked regularly for this.The first clear description was byThomas Addisonin 1849.The term \"pernicious\" means \"deadly\", and this term came into use because, before the availability of treatment, the disease was often fatal. Signs and symptoms Pernicious anemia often presents slowly, and can cause harm insidiously and unnoticeably. Untreated, it can lead to neurological complications, and in serious cases, death.The onset may be vague and slow and the condition can be confused with other conditions, and there may be few to many symptoms without anemia.Pernicious anemia may be present without a person experiencing symptoms at first, over time,feeling tired and weak,lightheadedness,dizziness, headaches,rapidorirregularheartbeat, breathlessness,glossitis(a sore red tongue), poor ability to exercise,low blood pressure, cold hands and feet,paleoryellowskin, easy","easy bruising and bleeding, low-gradefevers, tremor,cold sensitivity,chest pain,upset stomach,nausea, loss of appetite, heartburn, weight loss,diarrhea,constipation, severejoint pain,feeling abnormal sensationsincluding tingling or numbness to the fingers and toes (pins and needles), and tinnitus, may occur.Anemia may present with a number of further common symptoms,including hair thinning and loss, early greying of the hair, mouth ulcers, bleeding gums,angular cheilitis, a look of exhaustion with pale and dehydrated or cracked lips and dark circles around the eyes, as well as brittle nails. In more severe or prolonged cases of pernicious anemia, nerve cell damage may occur. This is may result in sense loss, difficulty inproprioception,neuropathic pain, difficulty walking, poor balance, loss of sensation in the feet,muscle weakness, blurred vision (either due toretinopathyoroptic neuropathy), impaired urination, fertility problems, decreased sense of taste and smell,decreased level of consciousness, changes","changes in reflexes, memory loss, mood swings,depression,irritability, cognitive impairment, confusion, anxiety, clumsiness, psychosis, and, in more severe cases, dementia.Anemia may also lead to cardiac murmursand/or altered blood pressure (loworhigh). The deficiency may also present with thyroid disorders.In severe cases, the anemia may cause congestive heart failure.A complication of severe chronic PA issubacute combined degeneration of spinal cord, which leads to distal sensory loss (posterior column), absent ankle reflex, increased knee reflex response, and extensor plantar response.Other than anemia, hematological symptoms may includecytopenias, intramedullaryhemolysis, and pseudothrombotic microangiopathy.Vitamin B12deficiency, which is reversible, is occasionally confused withacute myeloid leukemia, which is an irreversible condition presenting with some of the same hematological symptoms, including hypercellular bone marrow with blastic differentiation and hypersegmented neutrophils.Pernicious","anemia can causeosteoporosisand may lead tobone fractures.Pernicious anemia can contribute to a delay in physical growth in children, and may also be a cause for delay in puberty for adolescents. Causes Vitamin B12cannot be produced by the human body, and must be obtained from the diet. When foods containing B12are eaten, the vitamin is usually bound to protein and is released by proteases released by the pancreas into the small bowel. Following its release, most B12is absorbed by the body in the small bowel (ileum) after binding to a protein known asintrinsic factor. Intrinsic factor is produced byparietal cellsof thegastric mucosa(stomach lining) and the intrinsic factor-B12-complex is absorbed by enterocytes in theileum'scubamreceptors.PA is characterised by B12deficiency caused by the absence of intrinsic factor.Other disorders that can disrupt the absorption of vitamin B12in the small intestine includeceliac disease, surgical removal ofcrohn's disease, andHIV. PA may be considered as an end stage of","as an end stage of autoimmuneatrophic gastritis, a disease characterised by stomach atrophy and the presence ofantibodiesto parietal cells and intrinsic factor.Autoimmune atrophic gastritis, is localised to the body of the stomach, where parietal cells are located.Antibodies to intrinsic factor and parietal cells cause the destruction of the oxyntic gastric mucosa, in which the parietal cells are located, leading to the subsequent loss of intrinsic factor synthesis. Without intrinsic factor, the ileum can no longer absorb the B12.Atrophic gastritis is often a precursor togastric cancer. Although the exact role ofHelicobacter pyloriinfection in PA remains controversial, evidence indicatesH. pyloriis involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. A long-standingH. pyloriinfection may cause gastric autoimmunity by a mechanism known asmolecular mimicry. Antibodies produced by the immune system can be cross-reactive and may bind to bothH. pyloriantigensand those found in thegastric mucosa. The antibodies are","The antibodies are produced by activatedB cellsthat recognise both pathogen and self-derived peptides. Theautoantigensbelieved to cause the autoreactivity are the alpha and beta subunits of thesodium-potassium pump.In a study, B12deficiency caused byHelicobacter pyloriwas positively correlated withCagApositivity and gastric inflammatory activity, rather than gastric atrophy.Less commonly,H. pyloriandZollinger-Ellison syndromemay cause a form of nonautoimmune gastritis that can lead to pernicious anemia. Impaired B12absorption can also occur following gastric removal (gastrectomy) or gastric bypass surgery. In these surgeries, either the parts of the stomach that produce gastric secretions are removed or they are bypassed. This means intrinsic factor, as well as other factors required for B12absorption, are not available. However, B12deficiency after gastric surgery does not usually become a clinical issue. This is probably because the body stores many years' worth of B12in the liver and gastric surgery","and gastric surgery patients are adequately supplemented with the vitamin. Although no specific PA susceptibility genes have been identified, a genetic factor likely is involved in the disease. Pernicious anemia is often found in conjunction with other autoimmune disorders, suggesting common autoimmune susceptibility genes may be a causative factor.In spite of that, previous family studies and case reports focusing on PA have suggested that there is a tendency of genetic heritance of PA in particular, and close relatives of the PA patients seem to have higher incidence of PA and associated PA conditions.Moreover, it was further indicated that the formation of antibodies to gastric cells was autosomal dominant gene determined, and the presence of antibodies to the gastric cells might not be necessarily related to the occurrence of atrophic gastritis related to PA. Pathophysiology Although the healthy body stores three to five years' worth of B12in the liver, the usually undetected autoimmune activity in one's","activity in one's gut over a prolonged period of time leads to B12depletion and the resulting anemia; pernicious anemia refers to one of the hematologic manifestations ofchronic auto-immune gastritis, in which the immune system targets the parietal cells of the stomach orintrinsic factoritself, leading to decreased absorption of vitamin B12. The body needs enough intrinsic factor to absorb and reabsorb vitamin B12from thebile, in which reduces the time needed to develop a deficiency. B12is required by enzymes for two reactions: the conversion ofmethylmalonyl-CoAtosuccinyl-CoA, and the conversion ofhomocysteinetomethionine. In the latter reaction, themethyl groupoflevomefolic acidis transferred to homocysteine to producetetrahydrofolateand methionine. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzymemethionine synthasewith B12as an essential cofactor. During B12deficiency, this reaction cannot proceed, which leads to the accumulation of levomefolic acid. This accumulation depletes the other types of folate required","of folate required forpurineandthymidylatesynthesis, which are required for the synthesis of DNA. Inhibition ofDNA replicationin maturing red blood cells results in the formation of large, fragile megaloblasticerythrocytes. The neurological aspects of the disease are thought to arise from the accumulation of methylmalonyl- CoA due to the requirement of B12as a cofactor to the enzyme methylmalonyl-CoA mutase. Diagnosis The insidious nature of PA may mean that diagnosis is delayed.Diagnosis is not always straightforward and can be challenging and can take up to several years to receive a diagnosis from the onset of symptoms and almost 60% of those affected are misdiagnosed or not initially diagnosed at all.PA may be suspected when a patient'sblood smearshows large, fragile, immature erythrocytes, known asmegaloblasts. A diagnosis of PA first requires demonstration ofmegaloblastic anemiaby conducting afull blood countand blood smear, which evaluates themean corpuscular volume(MCV), as well themean corpuscular","themean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration(MCHC).PA is identified with a high MCV (macrocytic anemia) and a normal MCHC (normochromicanemia).Ovalocytesare also typically seen on the blood smear, and apathognomonicfeature of megaloblastic anemias (which include PA and others) is hypersegmented neutrophils.Neuropsychiatric symptoms can precede hematological signs and are often the presenting manifestation of the disease. Vitamin B12serum levels are used to detect its deficiency, but do not distinguish its causes. Vitamin B12levels can be falsely high or low and data forsensitivity and specificityvary widely. Normal serum levels may be found in cases of deficiency wheremyeloproliferative disorders,liver disease,transcobalamin II, orsmall intestinal bacterial overgrowthare present.Low levels of serum vitamin B12may be caused by other factors than B12deficiency, such asfolate deficiency,pregnancy,oral contraceptiveuse,haptocorrindeficiency, andmyeloma.High serum levels may caused by supplementing with vitamin","with vitamin B12, present of antibodies to intrinsic factor, or due to underlying condition. The presence of antibodies to gastric parietal cells and intrinsic factor is common in PA. Parietal cell antibodies are found in other autoimmune disorders and also in up to 10% of healthy individuals. However, around 85% of PA patients have parietal cell antibodies, which means they are a sensitive marker for the disease. Intrinsic factor antibodies are much less sensitive than parietal cell antibodies, but they are much more specific. They are found in about half of PA patients and are very rarely found in other disorders. These antibody tests can distinguish between PA and food-B12malabsorption. A buildup of certain metabolites occurs in B12deficiency due to its role in metabolic processes and cellular functions.Methylmalonic acid(MMA) can be measured in both the blood and urine, whereashomocysteineis only measured in the blood. An increase in both MMA and homocysteine distinguishes B12deficiency from folate","from folate deficiency because homocysteine alone increases in the latter. Elevatedgastrinlevels can be found in around 80–90% of PA cases, but they may also be found in other forms of gastritis. Decreased pepsinogen I levels or a decreased pepsinogen I to pepsinogen II ratio may also be found, although these findings are less specific to PA and can be found in food-B12malabsorption and other forms of gastritis. The diagnosis of atrophic gastritis type A should be confirmed by gastroscopy and stepwise biopsy.About 90% of individuals with PA have antibodies for parietal cells; however, only 50% of all individuals in the general population with these antibodies have pernicious anemia. Differential diagnosis Forms of vitamin B12deficiency other than PA must be considered in thedifferential diagnosisof megaloblastic anemia. For example, a B12-deficient state which causes megaloblastic anemia and which may be mistaken for classical PA may be caused by infection with thetapewormDiphyllobothrium latum, possibly due","latum, possibly due to the parasite's competition with host for vitamin B12. The classic test for PA, theSchilling test, is no longer widely used, as more efficient methods are available. This historic test consisted, in its first step, of taking an oral dose ofradiolabelledvitamin B12, followed by quantitation of the vitamin in the patient's urine over a 24-hour period via measurement of theradioactivity. A second step of the test repeats the regimen and procedure of the first step, with the addition of oral intrinsic factor. A patient with PA presents lower than normal amounts of intrinsic factor; hence, addition of intrinsic factor in the second step results in an increase in vitamin B12absorption (over the baseline established in the first). The Schilling test distinguished PA from other forms of B12deficiency,specifically, fromImerslund–Gräsbeck syndrome, a B12-deficiency caused by mutations inCUBNthat codes forcubilinthe cobalamin receptor. Vitamin B12 deficiency is also prevalent in patients","in patients havingCrohn's disease(CD) so it should be differentiated. Treatment Pernicious anemia is usually easily treated by providing the necessary level of vitamin B12supplementation.Pernicious anemia can be treated with intramuscular injections of vitamin B12.Initially in high daily doses, followed by less frequent lower doses, as the condition improves.Activity may need to be limited during the course of treatment.As long as the body is saturated with vitamin B12expected to result in cessation of anemia-related symptoms and there are no other symptoms, unless there are irreversible neurological complications.There are not enough studies on whether pills are as effective in improving or eliminating symptoms as parenteral treatment.Folatesupplementation may affect the course and treatment of pernicious anemia if vitamin B12not replaced.In some severe cases of anemia, ablood transfusionmay be needed to resolve haematological effects.Treatment is lifelong. The treatment of PA varies by country and area.","country and area. Opinions vary over the efficacy of administration (parenteral/oral), the amount and time interval of the doses, or the forms of vitamin B12(e.g. cyanocobalamin/hydroxocobalamin). More comprehensive studies are still needed in order to validate the feasibility of a particular therapeutic method for PA in clinical practices. Prognosis A person with well-treated PA can live a healthy life. Failure to diagnose and treat in time, however, may result in permanent neurological damage, excessive fatigue, depression, memory loss, and other complications. In severe cases, the neurological complications of pernicious anemia can lead to death – hence the name, \"pernicious\", meaning deadly. There is an increased risk ofgastric cancerin those with pernicious anemia linked to the common feature of atrophic gastritis. Epidemiology PA is estimated to affect 0.1% of the general population and 1.9% of those over 60, accounting for 20–50% of B12deficiency in adults.A review of literature shows that the","shows that the prevalence of PA is higher in Northern Europe, especially in Scandinavian countries, and among people of African descent, and that increased awareness of the disease and better diagnostic tools might play a role in apparently higher rates of incidence. History A case of anemia with a first recognition of associatedatrophic gastritisa feature of pernicious anemia, was first described in 1824 byJames Combe. This was fully investigated in 1849, by British physicianThomas Addison, from which it acquired the common name ofAddison's anemia. In 1871, the first accurate description of the disease in continental Europe was made byMichael Anton Biermer, aGermanphysician who noted the insidious course of the condition. Because it was untreatable and fatal at the time, he first referred to it as \"pernicious\" anemia.Russellcoined the termsubacute combined degeneration of spinal cord. In 1907,Richard Clarke Cabotreported on a series of 1,200 patients with PA; their average survival was between one and three","one and three years.Pernicious anemia was a fatal disease before about the year 1920; until the importance of theliverinhematopoiesiswas recognized, the treatment of pernicious anemia was unsuccessful and arbitrary. It may have motivatedGeorge Whipple, who had a keen interest inliver diseases, to investigate the liver's role in hematopoiesis. Whipple began evaluating the effects of treatments for anemia caused by chronic blood loss. Whipple, Huber, and Robchett studied the effects onhemoglobinand blood regeneration of a variety of treatments, among which only raw liver showed real promise.Serendipity is said to have played a role in this discovery. Whipple observed that blood regeneration was poor in dogs fed cooked liver afterchronic blood loss. Had it not been that a lazy laboratory technician gave the dogs raw liver, the much more dramatic response might not have been discovered then. Around 1926,George MinotandWilliam P. Murphy, who learned of Whipple's discovery, sought raw liver as a treatment for","as a treatment for pernicious anemia. They later suggested a high-protein diet with high amounts of raw liver. This caused a rapid improvement in symptoms and a simultaneous rise inred blood cellcounts.Fruitandironwere also part of the diet, and it appears that at this point, Minot and Murphy were not quite sure that the liver was a very important factor. It was thought that iron in liver tissue, not liver juice-soluble factor, cured hemorrhagic anemia in dogs. Thus, the discovery of liver juice as a treatment for pernicious anemia had been by coincidence. However, Minot, Murphy, and Whipple received the joint Nobel Prize for discovering a cure for a previously fatal disease of unknown cause in 1934, becoming the first Americans to be awarded theNobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. It is not easy to eat uncooked liver, and extracts were developed as a concentrate of liver juice forintramuscular injection. In 1928, chemistEdwin Cohnprepared an extract that was 50 to 100 times stronger than obtained from","than obtained from raw liver. This became part of the standard management of pernicious anemia until the 1950s. The active ingredient in the liver remained unknown until 1948.The anti-pernicious anemia factor was only isolated from the liver by Smith, Rex, and others. The substance wascobalamin, which the discoverers called \"vitamin B12\".They showed that giving a few micrograms could prevent relapse in the disease.Dorothy Hodgkinand co-workers went on to useX-ray crystallographyto elucidate the structure of cobalamin for which she, too, was awarded aNobel Prize. Understanding of the pathogenesis of pernicious anaemia increased over subsequent decades. It had long been known that the disease was associated withdefects in the gastrointestinal tract: patients hadchronic gastritisand lack of acid secretion (achlorhydria). It is known that transport of physiological amounts of vitamin B12depends on the combined actions of gastric, ileal and pancreatic components. The gastric moiety was discovered and named","and named 'intrinsic factor' byWilliam Castlein 1930. A further important advance was made in the early 1960s by Doniach with the recognition that pernicious anemia is anautoimmune disease.Pernicious anemia is eventually treated with only injections of B12; injections are typically 1 mg every other day, or twice weekly. A medical author takes the view thatMary Todd Lincoln, the wife of American PresidentAbraham Lincoln, had pernicious anemia for decades and died from it in 1882. Research Permeation enhancers Treatment using oral drugs is an easier option in management but the bioavailabity of B12 is low. This is due to low absorption in the intestine, and breakdown by enzyme activity. Research continues to focus on the use of permeation enhancers or permeation absorbers in combination with the treatment. One of the better performing enhancers studied issalcoprozate sodium(SNAC).SNAC is able to form a noncovalent complex with cobalamin while preserving its chemical integrity and protect B12 from gastric","B12 from gastric acidity.This complex is much more lipophilic than the water-soluble vitamin B12, so is able to pass through cellular membranes with greater ease.Molecular dynamicsare used in experiments to gain an understanding of the molecular interactions involved in the different molecules used and the degree of ease achieved in absorption across the gastric epithelium. References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Downton Abbey Downton Abbeyis a Britishhistorical dramatelevision series set in the early 20th century, created and co-written byJulian Fellowes. It first aired in the United Kingdom onITVon 26 September 2010 and in the United States onPBS, which supported its production as part of itsMasterpiece Classicanthology, on 9 January 2011. The show ran for fifty-two episodes across six series, including five Christmas specials. The series, set on the fictionalYorkshirecountry estateof Downton Abbey between 1912 and 1926, depicts the lives of thearistocraticCrawley family and theirdomestic servantsin the post-Edwardian era, and the effects the great events of the time have on their lives and on theBritish social hierarchy. These events include news of thesinking of theTitanic(first series); the outbreak of theFirst World War, theSpanish influenza pandemicand theMarconi scandal(second series); theIrish War of Independenceleading to the formation of theIrish Free State(third series); theTeapot Dome scandal(fourth\",\n \"Dome scandal(fourth series); and theBritish general election of 1923and theBeer Hall Putsch(fifth series). The sixth and final series introduces the rise of the working class during theinterwar periodand hints at the eventual decline of theBritish aristocracy. Downton Abbeyhas received acclaim from television critics andnumerous accolades, including aGolden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Filmand aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries or Movie. It was recognised byGuinness World Recordsas the most critically acclaimed English-language television series of 2011. It earned 27Primetime Emmy Awardnominations after its first two series, the most for any international television series in the awards' history.It was the most watched television series on both ITV and PBS, and became the most successful Britishcostume dramasince the 1981 television serial ofBrideshead Revisited. On 26 March 2015,Carnival Filmsand ITV announced that the sixth series would be the last; it aired on ITV between 20\",\n \"on ITV between 20 September 2015 and 8 November 2015. The final episode, the annual Christmas special, was broadcast on 25 December 2015. Afilm adaptation, a continuation of the series, was confirmed on 13 July 2018 and released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, and in the United States on 20 September 2019. A second feature film,Downton Abbey: A New Era, was released in the United Kingdom on 29 April 2022 byUniversal Pictures, and in the United States and Canada on 20 May 2022 byFocus Features.A third film is in production. Plot overview Series 1 (2010) The first series, comprising seven episodes, explores the lives of the fictional Crawley family, the hereditary Earl of Grantham, and their domestic servants. The storyline centres on thefee tail, or \\\"entail\\\", governing the titled elite, which endows title and estate exclusively tomale heirs. As part of the backstory, the main character, Robert Crawley, Earl of Grantham, had resolved his father's past financial difficulties by marrying Cora\",\n \"by marrying Cora Levinson, an American heiress. Her considerabledowryis now contractually incorporated into the committal entail in perpetuity; however, Robert and Cora have three daughters and no son. As the eldest daughter, Lady Mary Crawley had agreed to marry her second cousin Patrick, the son of the then-heir presumptiveJames Crawley. The series begins the day after thesinking of RMSTitanicon 14/15 April 1912. The first episode starts as news reaches Downton Abbey that both James and Patrick have perished in the sinking of the ocean liner. The family then learns that a more distant and unknown male cousin, solicitor Matthew Crawley, the son of anupper-middle-classdoctor, has become the next heir presumptive. The story initially centres on the relationship between Lady Mary and Matthew, who resists embracing an aristocratic lifestyle, while Lady Mary resists her own attraction to the new heir presumptive. Of several subplots, one involves John Bates, Lord Grantham's newvaletand formerBoer Warbatman, and\",\n \"Warbatman, and Thomas Barrow, an ambitious youngfootman, who resents the former for taking a position he had desired for himself. Bates and Thomas remain at odds as Barrow works to sabotage Bates's every move. After learning Bates had recently been released from prison, Thomas and Miss O'Brien (Lady Grantham'slady's maid) begin a relentless pursuit that nearly ruins the Crawley family in scandal. Barrow – ahomosexualman in lateEdwardian England– and O'Brien create havoc for most of the staff and family. When Barrow is caught stealing, he hands in hisnoticeto join theRoyal Army Medical Corps. Matthew eventually does propose to Lady Mary, but she puts him off when Lady Grantham becomes pregnant, understanding that Matthew would no longer be heir if the baby is a boy. Cora loses the baby after O'Brien, believing she is soon to be fired, retaliates by leaving a bar of soap on the floor next to the bathtub, causing Cora to slip while getting out of the tub, and the fall resulting in a miscarriage. It is later\",\n \"It is later revealed that the miscarried foetus was a male. Although Lady Mary intends to accept Matthew, Matthew believes her reluctance is due to the earlier uncertainty of his heirship and emotionally rescinds his proposal, leaving Lady Mary devastated. The series ends just after theassassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinandand the outbreak of theFirst World Warin August 1914. Series 2 (2011) The second series comprises eight episodes and runs from theBattle of the Sommein 1916 to the1918 Spanish flu pandemic. During the war, Downton Abbey is temporarily converted into an officers'convalescent hospital. Matthew, having left Downton, is now aBritish Armyofficer and has become engaged. His fiancée is Lavinia Swire, the niece of aLiberalminister. William Mason, the second footman, is drafted, even after attempts by the Dowager Countess of Grantham to save him fromconscription. William is taken under Matthew's protection as his personalorderly. Enduring trench warfare and charging against machine guns and\",\n \"machine guns and artillery, both are injured by an exploding shell. William dies from his wounds, but only after a deathbed marriage to Daisy, thekitchen maid. While Daisy does not believe she loves William, she marries him in his last hours as his dying wish. It is not until a brief encounter with the Dowager Countess that she begins to realise that her love was real, but she could not admit it to herself. Matthew is now paralysed from the waist down by his battle injury, and seemingly unable to father children. Lavinia remains true to him despite his attempts to set her free, and he finally accepts her devotion. Mary, while acknowledging her feelings for Matthew, becomes engaged to Sir Richard Carlisle, a powerful and overbearing newspaper mogul, but their relationship is rocky. Bates's wife, Vera, repeatedly causes trouble for John and Anna, who are now engaged. Vera threatens to expose Mary's past scandalous indiscretion, but Carlisle agrees to purchase andkillher story. Embittered, Mrs Bates\",\n \"Mrs Bates mysteriously commits suicide with an arsenic pie after a visit by Bates, and he is arrested on suspicion of her murder. Matthew regains the use of his legs, and he and Mary realise they are still in love, but Matthew remains honourably committed to Lavinia after she stood by him during his misfortune. Unknown to them both, Lavinia, ill withSpanish flu, sees and overhears Matthew and Mary admit their love for one another while dancing to a song playing on thephonographgifted as a wedding present to Matthew and Lavinia. The Spanish influenza epidemic hits Downton Abbey further with Cora taken seriously ill, as well as Carson, thebutler. During the outbreak, Thomas attempts to make up for his inability to find other employment after the war by making himself as useful as possible and is made Lord Grantham's valet after Bates is arrested. Lavinia dies abruptly, which causes great guilt to both Matthew and Mary. Bates is found guilty of murder and sentenced to death but the sentence iscommutedto life in\",\n \"life in prison due to Lord Grantham's influence. After a talk with Robert, Mary realises that she must break off her engagement to Carlisle; he and Matthew fight in the drawing room, but in the end Carlisle goes quietly and is never heard from again. The annual Servants' Ball is held at Downton, and Mary and Matthew finally find their way to a marriage proposal on a snowy evening outside the Abbey. Lady Sybil, the youngest Crawley daughter, beginning to find her aristocratic life stifling, falls in love with Tom Branson, the new chauffeur ofIrishdescent with strongsocialistleanings. She is talked out ofelopementby her sisters, but her wayward marriage eventually receives Lord Grantham's reluctant blessing. Ethel Parks, a new housemaid, is seduced by a wounded officer, Major Bryant. Mrs Hughes, the housekeeper, finds them together in bed and dismisses Ethel, but takes pity on her and helps her when Ethel tells her she is pregnant. She has a baby boy and names him Charlie after his father, but Major Bryant\",\n \"but Major Bryant refuses to acknowledge his paternity. The filming location,Highclere Castle, in reality served as a convalescent home during World War I. Series 3 (2012) In episode one of the third series, covering 1920 to 1921, preparations are underway for Mary and Matthew's wedding. Tom and Sybil Branson arrive from Ireland, where they now live, to attend the wedding. Also arriving to attend the wedding of her granddaughter is Cora's mother, Martha Levinson, from America. Robert (Lord Grantham) learns that the bulk of the family's fortune (including Cora's dowry) has been lost due to his impetuous investment in theGrand Trunk Railway. Meanwhile Edith has fallen for Sir Anthony Strallan, whom Robert discourages from marrying Edith due to his age and crippled arm. At Edith's insistence, Robert gives in and welcomes Sir Anthony, but even though he loves her, Strallan cannot accept that the Grantham family disapproves of the match, and at the altar announces that he cannot go through with the wedding,\",\n \"with the wedding, devastating Edith. Strallan flees the church and is never heard from again. Meanwhile, Bates's cellmate plants a small surgical knife in his bedding, but Bates is informed by a fellow prisoner allowing him time to find and hide it (this same small knife is later used by Bates to threaten his cellmate when he had been using his connections through corrupt prison guards to keep a witness from testifying to Bates's innocence of the crime for which he is incarcerated). At Downton, Mrs Hughes finds out she may havebreast cancer, which only some of the household hear about, causing deep concern, but the tumour turns out to bebenign. Tom Branson and Lady Sybil, now pregnant, return to Downton after Tom is implicated in the burning of an Anglo-Irish aristocrat's house. After Matthew's reluctance to accept an inheritance from Lavinia's recently deceased father and then Robert's reluctance to accept that inheritance as a gift, Matthew and Robert reach a compromise in which Matthew accepts that the\",\n \"accepts that the inheritance will be used as an investment in the estate, giving Matthew an equal say in how it is run. However, as time goes on Robert repeatedly resists Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise the running of the estate to make it profitable. Tragedy strikes when Sybil dies fromeclampsiashortly after giving birth. Tom, devastated, names his daughter Sybil after his late wife. Bates is released from prison after Anna uncovers evidence clearing him of his wife's murder. Tom becomes the newland agentat the suggestion of Violet, the Dowager Countess. Barrow and O'Brien have a falling out, after which O'Brien leads Barrow to believe that Jimmy, the new footman, is sexually attracted to him. Barrow enters Jimmy's room and kisses him while he is sleeping, which wakes him up shocked, confused, and very angry. In the end, Lord Grantham (familiar with homosexuality from Eton) defuses the situation. The family, except Branson, visits Violet's niece Susan, her husband \\\"Shrimpie\\\", theMarquessofFlintshire;\",\n \"and their daughter Rose, inScotland, accompanied by Matthew and a very pregnant Mary. The Marquess confides to Robert that his estate is bankrupt and will be sold, making Robert recognise that Downton has been saved through Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise. At Downton, Edna Braithwaite, the new maid, enters Tom's room and kisses him, whereupon he asks her to leave, and she is eventually fired. Mary returns to Downton with Anna and gives birth to the new heir, but Matthew dies in a car crash while driving home from the hospital after seeing his newborn son. Series 4 (2013) In series four, covering 1922 to 1923, O'Brien leaves to serve Lady Flintshire inBritish India. Cora hires Edna Braithwaite, who had previously been fired for her interest in Tom. Eventually the situation blows up, and Edna is replaced by Phyllis Baxter. Mary deeply mourns Matthew's death. Matthew's newly-found letter states Mary is to be his soleheirand thus gives her management over his share of the estate until their son,\",\n \"until their son, George,comes of age. With Tom's encouragement, Mary assumes a more active role in running Downton. Two new suitors—Lord Gillingham and Charles Blake—arrive at Downton, though Mary, still grieving, is not interested. Edith, who has begun writing a weekly newspaper column, and Michael Gregson, a magazine editor, fall in love. Due to British law, he is unable todivorcehis wife, who is mentally ill and in an asylum. Gregson travels toGermanyto seekcitizenshipthere, enabling him to divorce, but is killed by Hitler'sBrownshirtsduring riots. Edith is left pregnant and decides to have an illegal abortion, but changes her mind at the last minute. With the help from her paternal aunt, Lady Rosamund, Edith secretly gives birth to a daughter while abroad, and places the baby with adoptive parents inSwitzerland, but reclaims her after arranging a new adoptive family on the estate. Mr and Mrs Drewe of Yew Tree Farm take the baby in and raise her as their own. Anna is raped by Lord Gillingham's valet Mr\",\n \"valet Mr Green, which Mr Bates later discovers. Subsequently, Green is killed in a London street accident. A local school teacher, Sarah Bunting, and Tom begin a friendship. In the Christmas special set mainly in London, Sampson, acard sharp, steals a letter written byEdward VIII, thenPrince of Wales, to his mistress, Rose's friendFreda Dudley Ward, which if made public would create a scandal; the entire Crawley family connives to retrieve it, although it is Bates who extracts the letter from Sampson's overcoat, and it is returned to Mrs Dudley Ward. The family hold adebutanteball for Lady Rose following her presentation at court, and the grateful Prince makes an appearance at the ball. Series 5 (2014) In series five, covering the year 1924, aRussian exile, Prince Kuragin, wishes to renew his past affections for the Dowager Countess (Violet). Violet instead locates his wife inBritish Hong Kongand reunites the Prince and his estranged wife.Scotland Yardand the local police investigate Green's death. Violet\",\n \"death. Violet learns that Marigold is Edith's daughter. Meanwhile, Mrs Drewe, not knowing Marigold's true parentage, resents Edith's constant visits. To increase his chances with Mary, Charles Blake plots to reunite Gillingham and his ex-fiancée, Mabel. After Edith inherits Michael Gregson's publishing company, she removes Marigold from the Drewes and relocates to London. Simon Bricker, an art expert interested in one of Downton's paintings, shows his true intentions toward Cora and is thrown out by Robert, causing a temporary rift between the couple. Mrs Patmore's decision to invest her inheritance in real estate inspires Mr Carson, Downton's butler, to do likewise. He suggests that head housekeeper Mrs Hughes invest with him; she confesses she has no money due to supporting a mentally incapacitated sister. The Crawleys' cousin, Lady Rose, daughter of Lord and Lady Flintshire, becomes engaged to Atticus Aldridge, son of Lord and Lady Sinderby. Lord Sinderby strongly objects to Atticus's marrying outside\",\n \"marrying outside theJewish faith. Lord Merton proposes to Isobel Crawley (Matthew's mother). She accepts, but later ends the engagement due to Lord Merton's sons' disparaging comments over her status as acommoner. Lady Flintshire employs underhanded schemes to derail Rose and Atticus's engagement, including announcing to everyone at the wedding that she and her husband are divorcing, intending to cause a scandal to stop Rose's marriage to Atticus; they are married anyway. When Anna is arrested on suspicion of Green's murder, Bates writes afalse confessionbefore fleeing toIreland. Baxter and Molesley, a footman and Matthew's former valet, are able to prove that Bates was inYorkat the time of the murder. This new information allows Anna to be released. Cora eventually learns the truth about Marigold, and wants her raised at Downton; Marigold is presented as Edith'sward, but Robert and Tom eventually discern the truth. Only Mary is unaware. When a war memorial is unveiled in the town, Robert arranges for a\",\n \"arranges for a separate plaque to honour the cook Mrs Patmore's late nephew, who was shot forcowardiceand excluded from his own village's memorial. The Crawleys are invited to Brancaster Castle, which Lord and Lady Sinderby have rented for a shooting party. While there, Lady Rose, with help from the Crawleys, defuses a personal near-disaster for Lord Sinderby, earning his gratitude and securing his approval of Rose. A second footman, Andy, is hired on Barrow's recommendation. During the annual Downton Abbey Christmas celebration, Tom announces he is moving toAmericato work for his cousin, taking daughter Sybil with him. Mr Carson proposes marriage to Mrs Hughes and she accepts. Series 6 (2015) In series six, changes are once again afoot at Downton Abbey as themiddle classrises and morebankrupted aristocratsare forced to sell off their large estates. Downton must do more to ensure its future survival;reductions in staffare considered, forcing Barrow to look for a job elsewhere. Having formed a close bond with\",\n \"a close bond with young George, Barrow realises that Downton has become the first real home he has ever had, but feels unwanted. Mary defies a blackmailer, who is thwarted by Robert. With Tom's departure to Boston, Mary becomes theestate agent. Edith is more hands-on in running her magazine and hires a female editor. Violet and Isobel once again draw battle lines as a government take-over of the local hospital is considered. Mary begins seeing Henry Talbot, a racing driver, and Edith begins seeing Bertie Pelham, a cousin of the owner of Brancaster Castle. Meanwhile, Anna suffers repeated miscarriages. Mary takes her to a specialist, who diagnoses a treatable condition, and she becomes pregnant again. Mr Carson and Mrs Hughes disagree on where to hold their wedding reception, but eventually choose to have it at the schoolhouse, during which Tom reappears with Sybil, having returned to Downton for good. Coyle, who tricked Baxter into stealing a previous employer's jewellery, is convicted after she and other\",\n \"after she and other witnesses are persuaded to testify. After Mrs Drewe kidnaps Marigold when Edith is not looking, the Drewes vacate Yew Tree Farm; Daisy convinces Tom to ask Robert to give her father-in-law, Mr Mason, the tenancy. Andy, a footman, offers to help Mr Mason so he can learn about farming, but Andy is held back by his illiteracy. Barrow offers to teach him to read, but Andy soon trades his help for that of a teacher at the local school. Robert suffers a near-fatal health crisis. Previous episodes alluded to health problems for Robert; hisulcerbursts and he is rushed to the hospital for emergency surgery. The operation is successful, but Mary and Tom must take over Downton's operations. Larry Merton's fiancée, Amelia, encourages Lord Merton and Isobel to renew their engagement, but Violet rightly becomes suspicious. Violet discovers that Amelia wants Isobel, and not her, to be Lord Merton's caretaker in his old age.Daisy and Molesley score high marks on their academic exams; Molesley's are so\",\n \"Molesley's are so exceptional that he is offered a teaching position at the school. Mary breaks up with Henry, unable to live with the constant fear he could be killed in an accident like Matthew was. Bertie proposes to Edith, but she hesitates to accept because of Marigold. Violet, upset over Cora replacing her as hospital president, abruptly departs for a long cruise to restore her equanimity. Bertie unexpectedly succeeds his late second cousin as 7th Marquess of Hexham and moves into Brancaster Castle; Edith accepts him. Mary spitefully exposes Marigold's parentage, causing Bertie to walk out. Tom confronts Mary over her malicious behaviour and her true feelings for Henry. Despondent over his inability to find another job and his sense of being unloved, Barrow attemptssuicide, and is saved by Baxter and Andy. Realising the extent of Barrow's pain for the first time, Robert and Carson allow Barrow to stay at Downton while he recovers and searches for new employment. Mary and Henry reunite and are married.\",\n \"and are married. Edith returns to Downton for the wedding; she and Mary agree to work on improving their relationship. Mrs Patmore's newbed and breakfastbusiness is tainted by scandal, but saved when Robert, Cora and Rosamund appear there publicly to support her. Mary arranges a surprise meeting for Edith and Bertie with Bertie proposing again. Edith accepts. Edith tells Bertie's moralistic mother Mirada about Marigold; initially appalled, she is won over by Edith's honesty. Barrow, having decided to turn over a new leaf and become a kinder person, finds a position as butler and leaves Downton on good terms, but he is unhappy at his new post; the family and other servants also find themselves missing him. Lord Merton is diagnosed with terminalpernicious anaemiaand Amelia blocks Isobel from seeing him. Goaded by Violet, Isobel pushes into the Merton house and announces she will take Lord Merton to her house to care for and marry him, to his delight. Later, Lord Merton is correctly diagnosed with a non-fatal\",\n \"with a non-fatal form ofanaemia. Robert resents Cora's frequent absences as the hospital president, but comes to admire her ability after watching her chair a hospital meeting. Henry and Tom go into business together selling used cars, while Mary announces her pregnancy. Molesley accepts a permanent teaching position and he and Baxter promise to continue seeing each other. Daisy and Andy finally acknowledge their feelings; Daisy decides to move to the farm with Mr Mason, her father-in-law. Carson developspalsyand must retire. Following Robert and Mary's suggestion, Barrow happily returns to Downton as butler, with Carson in an overseeing role. Edith and Bertie are finally married in the series finale, set on New Year's Eve 1925. Anna goes into labour during the reception, and she and Bates become parents to a healthy son. Cast and characters The main cast of the Crawley family is led byHugh Bonnevilleas Robert Crawley, the Earl of Grantham, andElizabeth McGovernas his wife Cora Crawley, the Countess of\",\n \"the Countess of Grantham. Their three daughters are depicted byMichelle Dockeryas Lady Mary Crawley (Talbot),Laura Carmichaelas Lady Edith Crawley (Pelham) andJessica Brown Findlayas Lady Sybil Crawley (Branson).Maggie Smithis Robert Crawley's mother Violet, Dowager Countess of Grantham.Samantha Bondportrays Lady Rosamund Painswick, Robert's sister who resides inBelgrave Square, London.Dan Stevensportrays Matthew Crawley, the new heir, along withPenelope Wiltonas his mother, Isobel Crawley, who are brought to Downton.Allen Leechas Tom Branson begins the series as the familychauffeur, but falls in love with Lady Sybil, marries her and later becomes theagentfor the estate.David Robbportrays Dr Richard Clarkson, the local town doctor. Joining the cast in series three isLily Jamesas Lady Rose MacClare, a cousin whose mother is Violet's niece Susan, the Marchioness of Flintshire, and who is sent to live with the Crawleys because her parents are serving the empire in India and, later, remains there because of\",\n \"there because of family problems. In series three and four,Shirley MacLaineportrays the mother of Cora Crawley, Martha Levinson. Suitors for Lady Mary's affections during the series includeTom Cullenas Lord Gillingham,Julian Ovendenas Charles Blake, andMatthew Goodeas Henry Talbot. Edith's fiancé and eventual husband Bertie Pelham, 7th Marquess of Hexham, is played byHarry Hadden-Paton. Downton Abbey's senior household staff are portrayed byJim Carteras Mr Carson, thebutler, andPhyllis Loganas Mrs Hughes, thehousekeeper. Tensions rise whenRob James-Collier, portraying Thomas Barrow, afootmanand later avaletandunder-butler, along withSiobhan Finneranas Miss O'Brien, the lady'smaidto the Countess of Grantham (up to series three), plot againstBrendan Coyleas Mr Bates, the valet to the Earl of Grantham, and his love interest and eventual wife, Anna (Joanne Froggatt), lady's maid to Lady Mary.Kevin Doyleplays the unlucky Mr Molesley, valet to Matthew Crawley.Thomas Howesportrays William Mason, the second footman.\",\n \"the second footman. Other household staff areRose Leslieas Gwen Dawson, ahousemaidstudying to be asecretaryin series one.Amy Nuttallplays Ethel Parks, a maid, beginning in series two and three.Matt Milnejoined the cast as Alfred Nugent, O'Brien's nephew, the awkward new footman for series three and four, andRaquel Cassidyplays Baxter, Cora's new lady's maid, who was hired to replace Edna Braithwaithe, who was sacked.Ed Speleersplays the dashing James (Jimmy) Kent, the second footman, from series three to five. In series five and sixMichael Foxplays Andy Parker, a replacement footman for Jimmy. In series four, five, and sixAndrew Scarboroughplays Tim Drewe, a farmer of the estate, who helps Lady Edith conceal a big secret. The kitchen staff includeLesley Nicolas Mrs Patmore thecook, andSophie McSheraas Daisy, thescullery maidwho works her way up to assistant cook having earlier married William Mason.Cara Theoboldportrays Ivy Stuart, a kitchen maid, joining the cast for series three and four. Crawley family\",\n \"Crawley family The series is set in Downton Abbey, aYorkshirecountry house, which is the home and seat of theEarlandCountessofGrantham, along with their three daughters and other family members. Each series follows the lives of thearistocraticCrawley family, their friends, and their servants during the reign of KingGeorge V. Production Gareth NeameofCarnival Filmsconceived the idea of anEdwardian-eraTV drama set in a country house and approached Fellowes, who had won anAcademy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay)forGosford Park. The TV seriesDownton Abbey– written and created by Fellowes – was originally planned as a spin-off ofGosford Park, but instead was developed as a stand-alone property inspired by the film, set decades earlier.Although Fellowes was reluctant to work on another project resemblingGosford Park, within a few weeks he returned to Neame with an outline of the first series. Influenced by Edith Wharton'sThe Custom of the Country,Fellowes wrote the scripts; and his wife, Emma, acted as\",\n \"Emma, acted as an informalstory editor. Filming locations Highclere Castle in northHampshireis used for exterior shots of Downton Abbey and most of the interior filming.The kitchen,servants' quartersand working areas, and some of the \\\"upstairs\\\" bedrooms were constructed and filmed atEaling Studios.Bridgewater Housein the St James area of London served as the family's London home. Outdoor scenes are filmed in the village ofBamptoninOxfordshire. Notable locations include the Church of St Mary the Virgin and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital.The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed at Hall Place nearBeaconsfieldinBuckinghamshire. The fictional Downton Abbey is said to be located inYorkshire. The towns ofEasingwold,Kirkby Malzeard,Kirkbymoorside,Malton,Middlesbrough,Ripon,RichmondandThirsk, each mentioned by characters in the series, lie inNorth Yorkshire, as does the city of York, whileLeeds—similarly\",\n \"mentioned—lies inWest Yorkshire. Yorkshire media speculated the general location of the fictional Downton Abbey to be somewhere in the triangulated area between the towns of Easingwold, Ripon and Thirsk. First World Wartrench warfarescenes in France were filmed in a specially constructed replica battlefield for period war scenes near the village ofAkenhamin ruralSuffolk. Many historical locations and aristocratic mansions have been used to film various scenes: The fictional Haxby Park, the estate Sir Richard Carlisle intends to buy in series two, is part ofWaddesdon ManorinBuckinghamshire.Byfleet ManorinSurreyis the location for theDower house, home to Violet,DowagerCountess of Grantham,whileWest Wycombe ParkinBuckinghamshireis used for the interior scenes of Lady Rosamund (Samantha Bond)'sLondonresidence inBelgrave Square.A house in Belgrave Square is used for exterior shots. The farm scenes in series two in which Lady Edith learns to drive a tractor as part of the war effort were filmed on location at\",\n \"on location at theChiltern Open Air Museumin Buckinghamshire. Inveraray CastleinArgyll, Scotland, doubled as \\\"Duneagle Castle\\\" in the 2012 Christmas special. Greys CourtnearHenley-on-ThamesinOxfordshirewas used as the family's secondary property, which they proposed moving into and calling \\\"Downton Place\\\" due to financial difficulties in series three. Also in the third series, Bates's prison scenes were filmed atLincoln CastleinLincolnshire. Horsted Keynes railway stationinSussexis used as Downton station.The station is part of the heritageBluebell Railway.St Pancrasstation inLondondoubled forKing's Crossstation in episode one of series four, in the scene where Lady Edith Crawley meets her lover Michael Gregson.The restaurant scene where Lady Edith meets Michael Gregson and where they share their kiss was filmed at theCriterion RestaurantinPiccadilly Circuswhich was originally opened in 1874. Bridgewater House in the St James area of London served as the family's London home. Outdoor scenes are filmed in the\",\n \"are filmed in the village of Bampton in Oxfordshire. Notable locations include St Mary's the Virgin Church and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital. The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed atHall Barn, Hall Place near Beaconsfield in Buckinghamshire, featured as Loxley House, the home of Sir Anthony Strallan. Parts of series four were filmed atThe Historic Dockyard Chatham,Kent– The Tarred Yarn Store was used in episode one as a workhouse where Mrs Hughes (Phyllis Logan) visits Mr Grigg (Nicky Henson) and in episode two, streets atThe Historic Dockyard Chathamwere used for the scenes where Lady Rose MacClare (Lily James) is at the market with James Kent (Ed Speleers) watching her.The production had previously filmed inKentfor series one where the opening sequence of a train going through the countryside was filmed at theKent & East Sussex Railway. Other filming locations for series four include the ballroom of\",\n \"the ballroom of The Savile Club inMayfair, London. Scenes for the 2013 Christmas special were filmed atRoyal Holloway, University of LondonnearEgham, Surrey,West Witteringbeach inWest Sussexand Berkshire'sBasildon ParknearStreatley.Lancaster Housein London stood in forBuckingham Palace. Alnwick Castle, inNorthumberland, was the filming location used for Brancaster Castle in the 2014 and 2015 Christmas specials, which included filming in Alnwick Castle'sState Rooms, as well as on the castle's grounds, and at the nearby semi-ruined Hulne Abbey on theDuke of Northumberland's parklands inAlnwick. In series five and six, Kingston Bagpuize House in Oxfordshire was used as the location for Cavenham Park, the home of Lord Merton.In series six, the scenes of motor racing atBrooklandswere filmed at theGoodwood Circuitin West Sussex. In 2015, Wayfair.co.uk published a map of 70+ Downton Abbey filming locations. The 2019 film ofDownton Abbeyuses many of the television locations such as Highclere Castle and Bampton, as\",\n \"and Bampton, as well as exterior shots filmed atBeamish Museum.TheNorth York Moors Railwaywas used for railway scenes. Opening theme music The opening music ofDownton Abbey, titled \\\"Did I Make the Most of Loving You?\\\",was composed byJohn Lunn. A suite version was released on the soundtrack for the show on 19 September 2011 in the UK and later in the US on 13 December 2011. The soundtrack also included the song performed by singerMary-Jess Leaverland,with lyrics written byDon Black. Broadcasts The rights to broadcastDownton Abbeyhave been acquired in over 220 countries and territories, and the series has been viewed by a global audience of an estimated 120 million people. United Kingdom The series first aired on theITV networkin the United Kingdom beginning on 26 September 2010, and received its first Britain-wide broadcast when shown onITV3beginning in February 2011. STV, the ITV franchisee in central and northernScotland(including theOrkneyandShetlandislands), originally opted out of showingDownton Abbey,\",\n \"Abbey, choosing instead to screen a brand-new six-part series ofTaggart, following a long practice of opting out of networked United Kingdom-wide programming on the ITV network.This led to backlash from Scottish viewers, who were frustrated at not being able to watch the programme. Many viewers with satellite or cable television tuned into other regional stations of the ITV network, for exampleITV London, with viewing figures showing this is also commonplace for other ITV programmes.STV announced in July 2011 that it would show the first and second series ofDownton Abbeyas part of its autumn schedule.Scottish cast membersPhyllis LoganandIain Glenwere both quoted as being pleased with the decision. United States In the United States,Downton Abbeywas first broadcast in January 2011 onPBS, as part of the 40th season ofMasterpiece.The programme was aired in four 90-minute episodes, controversially requiring PBS to alter the beginning and endpoints of each episode and make other small changes, slightly altering\",\n \"slightly altering each episode's structure to fit the programme precisely into the allotted running-time.As part ofMasterpiece, episodes shown on PBS also featuredMasterpiecehost (Laura Linney), who introduced each episode, explaining matters such as \\\"theentail\\\" and \\\"Buccaneers\\\"for the benefit of American viewers; this was perceived as condescending by some American critics.PBS editing for broadcasts in the United States continued in the subsequent seasons.The final and sixth season aired in 2016. PBS continued to repeat episodes until 2020, whenNBC Universaltook over the US broadcasting rights for its streaming servicePeacock. The series became available onNetflixin 2021. The series also aired on the E! network in 2022. Canada In Canada,VisionTVbegan airing the programme on 7 September 2011;CBC Televisionrepeated the whole series in 2021; Downton Abbey was aired in French onIci Radio-Canada Télé. Australia and New Zealand In Australia, the first series was broadcast on theSeven Networkbeginning on 29 May\",\n \"on 29 May 2011;the second series was broadcast beginning on 20 May 2012;and the third series beginning on 10 February 2013.In New Zealand,Primebegan airing the first series on 10 May 2011, the second series on 18 October 2011 and the third series on 18 October 2012. Ireland In Ireland, independent television channelTV3aired the first series in January and February 2011. France Downton Abbeywas broadcast onTMCin France beginning in 11 December 2011. Reception Critical response AtMetacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the first series received anaveragescore of 91, based on 16 reviews, which indicates \\\"universal acclaim\\\".This result earned the show a Guinness World Record in 2011 for \\\"Highest critical review ratings for a TV show\\\", makingDownton Abbeythe critically best received TV show in the world.Season 4 ofBreaking BadsurpassedDownton Abbey's record later in the year, with a score of 96, making the first series ofDownton Abbeythe second highest rated show of 2011.\",\n \"rated show of 2011. The series has been noted for its relatively sympathetic portrayal of thearistocraticfamily and the class-based society of early 20th-century Britain. This has led to criticism from the political left and praise from the right.James Fentonwrote inThe New York Review of Books, \\\"it is noticeable that the aristocrats in the series, even the ones who are supposed to be the most ridiculous, never lapse into the most offensive kind of upper-class drawl one would expect of them. Great care has been taken to keep them pleasant and approachable, even when the things they say are sometimes shown to be class-bound and unfeeling.\\\"Jerry Bowyerargued inForbesthat the sympathy for aristocracy is over-stated, and that the show is simply more balanced than most period dramas, which he believes have had a tendency to demonise or ridicule upper class characters. He wrote thatDownton Abbeyshows \\\"there is no inherent need for good TV to be left of center. Stories sympathetic to virtue, preservation of\",\n \"preservation of property and admiration of nobility and of wealth can be told beautifully and to wide audiences.\\\" Downton Abbeyhas been a commercial success and received general acclaim from critics, although some criticise it as superficial,melodramaticor unrealistic. Others defend these qualities as the reason for the show's appeal. David Kamp wrote inVanity Fairthat \\\"melodrama is an uncool thing to trade in these days, but then, that's precisely whyDownton Abbeyis so pleasurable. In its clear delineation between the goodies and the baddies, in its regulated dosages of highs and lows, the show is welcome counter-programming to the slow-burning despair and moral ambiguity of most quality drama on television right now.\\\"In September 2019,The Guardian,which ranked the show 50th on its list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century, stated that the show \\\"was TV drama as comfort blanket: at a time of austerity, Julian Fellowes's country house epic offered elegantly realised solace in the homilies of the\",\n \"the homilies of the past\\\".Mary McNamara ofLos Angeles Timeswrote, \\\"Possibly the best series of the year.\\\"Jill Serjeant ofReuterswrote, \\\"There's a new darling in U.S. pop culture.\\\"The staff ofEntertainment Weeklywrote, \\\"It's the biggest PBS phenomenon since Sesame Street.\\\"David Hinckley ofNew York Daily Newswrote, \\\"Maintains its magic touch.\\\" James Parker, writing inThe Atlantic, said, \\\"Preposterous as history, preposterous as drama, the show succeeds magnificently as bad television. The dialogue spins light-operatically along in the service of multiplying plotlets, not too hard on the ear, although now and again a line lands like a tray of dropped spoons. The acting is superb—it has to be.\\\"Ben W. Heineman Jr. compared the series unfavourably toBrideshead Revisited, writing \\\"Downton Abbeyis entertainment. Its illustrious predecessor in television mega-success about the English upper class,Brideshead Revisited, is art.\\\"He noted the lack of character development in Downton. Writing inThe Sunday Times,A. A.\",\n \"Sunday Times,A. A. Gillsaid that the show is \\\"everything I despise and despair of on British television:National Trustsentimentality, costumed comfort drama that flogs an embarrassing, demeaning, and bogus vision of the place I live in.\\\" Sam Wollaston ofThe Guardianwrote, It's beautifully made—handsome, artfully crafted and acted. Smith, who plays the formidable and disdainful Dowager Countess, has a lovely way of delivering words, always spaced to perfection. This is going to be a treat if you like a lavish period drama of a Sunday evening. While rumoured due to the departure of actorDan Stevens, the death of Matthew Crawley in the 2012 Christmas special drew criticism.Fellowes defended the decision stating that they 'didn't really have an option' once Stevens decided to leave.Stevens later said that he had no say in the manner of his character's departure but that he was 'sorry' his character had died on Christmas Day. The third episode of the fourth series, which aired on 6 October 2013, included a\",\n \"2013, included a warning at the beginning: \\\"This episode contains violent scenes that some viewers may find upsetting.\\\"The episode content, in which Anna Bates was raped, led to more than 200 complaints by viewers to UK television regulatorOfcom,while ITV received 60 complaints directly.On 4 November 2013, Ofcom announced it would not be taking action over the controversy citing the warning given, that the episode was screened after 9 pm, and, that the rape took place 'off-screen'.Series four also introduced a recurring character, black jazz musician Jack Ross, who had a brief romantic affair with Lady Rose. The casting ofGary Carrdrew critical accusations ofpolitical correctnessin the media. The character of Ross was partially based onLeslie Hutchinson(\\\"Hutch\\\"), a real-life 1920s jazz singer who had an affair with a number of women in high society, among themEdwina Mountbatten. Ratings The first episode ofDownton Abbeyhad a consolidated British audience of 9.2 million viewers, a 32% audience share—making it\",\n \"share—making it the most successful new drama on any channel sinceWhitechapelwas launched on ITV in February 2009. The total audience for the first episode, including repeats andITV Playerviewings, exceeded 11.6 million viewers. This was beaten by the next episode, with a total audience of 11.8 million viewers—including repeats and ITV Player views.Downton Abbeybroke the record for a single episode viewing onITV Player. The second series premiered in Britain on 18 September 2011 in the same 9 pm slot as the first series, with the first episode attracting an average audience of 9 million viewers on ITV1, a 34.6% share.The second episode attracted a similar following with an average of 9.3 million viewers.In January 2012, the PBS premiere attracted 4.2 million viewers, over double the network's average primetime audience of 2 million. The premiere audience was 18% higher than the first series premiere. The second series ofDownton Abbeygave PBS its highest ratings since 2009. The second series averaged 5.4\",\n \"series averaged 5.4 million viewers, excluding station replays, DVR viewings and online streaming. The 5.4 million average improved on PBS first series numbers by 25%. Additionally, episodes of series two have been viewed 4.8 million times on PBS's digital portal, surpassing the online viewing numbers of series one by more than 400 per cent. Overall,Downton Abbey-related content has racked up more than 9 million streams across all platforms, with 1.5 million unique visitors, since series 2's 8 January premiere.In 2013,Downton Abbeywas ranked the 43rd most well-written TV show of all time by theWriters Guild of America. The third series premiered in the UK on 16 September 2012 with an average of 9 million viewers (or a 36% audience share). For the first time in the UK, episode three received an average of more than 10 million viewers (or a 38.2% audience share).Premiering in the US in January 2013, the third series had an average audience of 11.5 million viewers and the finale on 17 February 2013, drew 12.3\",\n \"2013, drew 12.3 million viewers making it the night's highest rating show.Overall, during its seven-week run, the series had an audience of 24 million viewers making it PBS's highest-rated drama of all time. The fourth series premiered in the UK on 22 September 2013 with an average audience of 9.5 million viewers—the highest ever for one of the drama's debut episodes.It premiered in the US on 5 January 2014, to an audience of at least 10.2 million viewers, outperforming every other drama on that night; it was the largest audience forPBSsince the 1990 premiere of theKen BurnsdocumentaryThe Civil War.The second episode attracted an average of 9.6 million UK viewers. Awards and nominations Cultural reaction Although Julian Fellowes supports aunited Ireland,there has been criticism of the stereotypicalIrish charactersused in the show, specifically the character of Tom Branson's brother, Kieran, portrayed as a rude and boorish drunk.Allen Leech, who plays Tom Branson, defended the series, stating that the show\",\n \"that the show did not portray Irish characters in a pejorative fashion.Branson's character took some criticism in Ireland fromThe Irish Times, which described the character as \\\"an Irish republican turned Downtonian toff.\\\" The character of the Earl of Grantham occasionally expresses negative views about Catholics and is described, byThe Washington Post, as \\\"xenophobic\\\" but \\\"at least historically accurate\\\".Episodes in Season 3 featured Lord Grantham using offensive derogatory terms against Catholics such as the phrase \\\"left-footer\\\" and mocking theCatholic Massby calling it a \\\"gymnastics display\\\". A dinner scene also features a Protestant minister calling Catholic practices \\\"pagan\\\". Fellowes, himself a Roman Catholic, explained that he chose to address this in terms of \\\"that casual, almost unconscious anti-Catholicism that was found among the upper classes, which lasted well into my growing up years\\\", adding that he \\\"thought it might be interesting\\\" to explore this in the series and described his own\",\n \"described his own experiences where the aristocracy \\\"were happy for you to come to their dances or shoot their pheasants, but there were plenty who did not want you to marry their daughters and risk Catholic grandchildren.\\\" Authenticity Fellowes has said he tries to be as authentic in his depiction of the period as he can.Despite this, the show features many linguisticanachronisms.The accents of characters have also been questioned, with theReceived Pronunciationof the actors who play the wealthy characters described as \\\"slightly more contemporary\\\" than would be expected among early-20th-century aristocrats; however, this \\\"elicited more natural and unaffected performances from the cast\\\". In 2010, Fellowes hiredAlastair Bruce, an expert on state and court ritual, as historical adviser.Bruce explains his role as being \\\"here to guide the production and particularly the director as they bring Julian's words to life. That also involves getting the social conduct right, and giving actors a sense of surety in the\",\n \"of surety in the way they deliver a performance.\\\"ActorJim Carter, who plays butler Carson, describes Bruce as the series \\\"etiquette watchdog\\\",and the UK'sDaily Telegraphfinished its 2011 profile of Bruce's role stating \\\"Downton's authenticity, it seems, is in safe hands.\\\"However, historianSimon Schamacriticised the show for historical inaccuracies and \\\"pandering toclichés\\\".Producer Gareth Neame defended the show, saying, \\\"Downton is a fictional drama. It is not a history programme, but a drama of social satire about a time when relationships, behaviour and hierarchy were very different from those we enjoy today.\\\" A \\\"tremendous amount of research\\\" went into recreating the servants' quarters atEaling StudiosbecauseHighclere Castle, where many of the upstairs scenes are filmed,was not adequate for representing the \\\"downstairs\\\" life at the fictional manor house.Researchers visited nearly 40 English country houses to help inform what the kitchen should look like, and production designer Donal Woods said of the\",\n \"Woods said of the kitchen equipment that \\\"probably about 60 to 70 per cent of the stuff in there is from that period\\\".Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Managementis an important guide to the food served in the series, but Highclere owner, and author ofLady Almina and the Real Downton Abbey: The Lost Legacy of Highclere Castle, Lady Carnarvon, states that dinner parties in the era \\\"would have been even more over the top\\\" than those shown.Lady Pamela Hicksagreed, stating that \\\"it is ridiculous to think that a weekend party would consist of only fourteen house guests, it would have consisted of at least 40!\\\"However, Carnarvon understood the compromises that must be made for television, and adds, \\\"It's a fun costume drama. It's not a social documentary. Because it's so popular, I think some people take it as historical fact.\\\" Home media Streaming The series was made available in its entirety on Netflix in June 2021. It has also been made available onAmazon Prime Video,Peacock, the PBS app and PBS.org with a PBS\",\n \"PBS.org with a PBS Passport subscription. Blu-ray and DVD On 16 September 2011, two days before the UK premiere of the second series, it was reported byAmazon.comthat the first series ofDownton Abbeyhad become the highest selling DVD boxset of all time on the online retailer's website, surpassing popular American programmes such asThe Sopranos,FriendsandThe Wire. Books The World of Downton Abbey, a book featuring a behind-the-scenes look atDownton Abbeyand the era in which it is set, was released on 15 September 2011. It was written byJessica Fellowes(the niece ofJulian Fellowes) and published byHarperCollins. A second book, also written by Jessica Fellowes and published by HarperCollins,The Chronicles of Downton Abbey, was released on 13 September 2012. It is a guide to the show's characters through the early part of the third series. Four spin-off cookbooks have been published –The Official Downton Abbey Cookbook(2019), which features dishes from the Edwardian period researched by food historian Dr Annie\",\n \"historian Dr Annie Gray,The Official Downton Abbey Christmas Cookbook(2020) by Regula Ysewijn,The Official Downton Abbey Cocktail Book(2019) and TheOfficial Downton Abbey Afternoon Tea Cookbook(2020). Soundtracks A soundtrack, featuring music from the series and also new songs, was released byDeccain September 2011. Music byJohn LunnandDon Blackfeatures, with vocals fromMary-Jess LeaverlandandAlfie Boe.A second soundtrack was released on 19 November 2012 entitledDownton Abbey: The Essential Collectionand a third and final soundtrack, containing two discs, was released on 15 January 2016 entitledDownton Abbey: The Ultimate Collectionand featured music spanning from all six seasons of the series including some from the first soundtrack. Cultural impact Some of the fashion items worn by characters on the show have seen a strong revival of interest in the UK and elsewhere during the show's run, includingstarched collars,midi skirts, beadedgowns, andhunting plaids. TheEquality (Titles) Billwas an unsuccessful\",\n \"an unsuccessful piece of legislation introduced in theUK Parliamentin 2013 that would have allowed equal succession of female heirs tohereditary titles and peerages. It was nicknamed the \\\"Downton Abbeylaw\\\" because it addressed the same issue that affects Lady Mary Crawley, who cannot inherit the estate because it must pass to a male heir. The decor used onDownton AbbeyinspiredUS Representative Aaron Schockto redecorate his congressional offices in a more luxurious style.He repaid the $40,000 cost of redecoration following scrutiny of his expenses and questions about his use of public money for personal benefit,and subsequently resigned in March 2015. Other media Due to the show's popularity, there have been a number of references and spoofs on it, such asFamily Guyepisode \\\"Chap Stewie\\\", which has Stewie Griffin reborn in a household similar to Downton Abbey, andHow I Met Your Motherepisode \\\"The Fortress\\\", where the gang watch a television show calledWoodworthy Manor, which is remarkably similar toDownton\",\n \"similar toDownton Abbey. A short scene featuring the characters of Sybil and Tom Branson made a screen-in-screen appearance in the movieIron Man 3. The Gilded Age Julian Fellowes'sThe Gilded Age, which debuted onHBOin 2022, portrays New York in the 1880s and how itsold New York societycoped with the influx of newly wealthy families.While a separate series, a young Violet, Countess of Grantham, couldmake an appearance on the new show. Film adaptations On 13 July 2018, a feature-length film was confirmed, with production commencing mid-2018.The film was written byJulian Fellowesand is a continuation of the TV series, with direction byBrian Percival. It was distributed byFocus FeaturesandUniversal Pictures International.The film was released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, with the United States following one week later on 20 September 2019.Filming of a sequel began in April 2021.The film was finally released in the UK on 29 April 2022, and in the US on 20 May. In March 2024,Imelda Staunton, who\",\n \"Staunton, who plays Lady Maud Bagshaw in the first two films, and is married toJim Carter(butler Mr Carson), revealed onBBC Radio 2that athird and final filmis in the pipeline.On 13 May 2024 it was announced on social media and the Focus Films website that a third film is planned, withPaul Giamatti,Joely Richardson,Alessandro Nivola,Simon Russell BealeandArty Froushanjoining the cast.On 26 June 2024 it was announced that the film would be released in cinemas on 12 September 2025. See also Notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"Pernicious anemia Pernicious anemiais a disease where not enoughred blood cellsare produced due to a deficiency ofvitamin B12.Those affected often have a gradual onset.The most common initial symptoms arefeeling tiredand weak.Other symptoms may includeshortness of breath, feeling faint, a smooth red tongue,paleskin, chest pain,nauseaandvomiting, loss of appetite, heartburn, numbness in the hands and feet,difficulty walking, memory loss, muscle weakness, poorreflexes, blurred vision, clumsiness, depression, and confusion.Without treatment, some of these problems may become permanent. Pernicious anemia refers to a type ofvitamin B12deficiencyanemiathat results from lack ofintrinsic factor.Lack of intrinsic factor is most commonly due to anautoimmuneattack on thecellsthat create it in thestomach.It can also occur following the surgical removal of all or part of the stomach orsmall intestine; from an inherited disorder or illnesses that damage the stomach lining.When suspected, diagnosis is made byblood\",\n \"is made byblood testsinitially acomplete blood count, and occasionally,bone marrow tests.Blood tests may showfewer but larger red blood cells, low numbers ofyoung red blood cells, low levels of vitamin B12, andantibodiesto intrinsic factor.Diagnosis is not always straightforward and can be challenging. Because pernicious anemia is due to a lack of intrinsic factor, it is not preventable.Pernicious anemia can be treated with injections of vitamin B12.If the symptoms are serious, frequent injections are typically recommended initially.There are not enough studies that pills are effective in improving or eliminating symptoms.Often, treatment may be needed for life. Pernicious anemia is the most common cause of clinically evident vitamin B12deficiency worldwide.Pernicious anemia due to autoimmune problems occurs in about one per 1000 people in the US. Among those over the age of 60, about 2% have the condition.It more commonly affects people of northern European descent.Women are more commonly affected than\",\n \"affected than men.With proper treatment, most people live normal lives.Due to a higher risk ofstomach cancer, those with pernicious anemia should be checked regularly for this.The first clear description was byThomas Addisonin 1849.The term \\\"pernicious\\\" means \\\"deadly\\\", and this term came into use because, before the availability of treatment, the disease was often fatal. Signs and symptoms Pernicious anemia often presents slowly, and can cause harm insidiously and unnoticeably. Untreated, it can lead to neurological complications, and in serious cases, death.The onset may be vague and slow and the condition can be confused with other conditions, and there may be few to many symptoms without anemia.Pernicious anemia may be present without a person experiencing symptoms at first, over time,feeling tired and weak,lightheadedness,dizziness, headaches,rapidorirregularheartbeat, breathlessness,glossitis(a sore red tongue), poor ability to exercise,low blood pressure, cold hands and feet,paleoryellowskin, easy\",\n \"easy bruising and bleeding, low-gradefevers, tremor,cold sensitivity,chest pain,upset stomach,nausea, loss of appetite, heartburn, weight loss,diarrhea,constipation, severejoint pain,feeling abnormal sensationsincluding tingling or numbness to the fingers and toes (pins and needles), and tinnitus, may occur.Anemia may present with a number of further common symptoms,including hair thinning and loss, early greying of the hair, mouth ulcers, bleeding gums,angular cheilitis, a look of exhaustion with pale and dehydrated or cracked lips and dark circles around the eyes, as well as brittle nails. In more severe or prolonged cases of pernicious anemia, nerve cell damage may occur. This is may result in sense loss, difficulty inproprioception,neuropathic pain, difficulty walking, poor balance, loss of sensation in the feet,muscle weakness, blurred vision (either due toretinopathyoroptic neuropathy), impaired urination, fertility problems, decreased sense of taste and smell,decreased level of consciousness, changes\",\n \"changes in reflexes, memory loss, mood swings,depression,irritability, cognitive impairment, confusion, anxiety, clumsiness, psychosis, and, in more severe cases, dementia.Anemia may also lead to cardiac murmursand/or altered blood pressure (loworhigh). The deficiency may also present with thyroid disorders.In severe cases, the anemia may cause congestive heart failure.A complication of severe chronic PA issubacute combined degeneration of spinal cord, which leads to distal sensory loss (posterior column), absent ankle reflex, increased knee reflex response, and extensor plantar response.Other than anemia, hematological symptoms may includecytopenias, intramedullaryhemolysis, and pseudothrombotic microangiopathy.Vitamin B12deficiency, which is reversible, is occasionally confused withacute myeloid leukemia, which is an irreversible condition presenting with some of the same hematological symptoms, including hypercellular bone marrow with blastic differentiation and hypersegmented neutrophils.Pernicious\",\n \"anemia can causeosteoporosisand may lead tobone fractures.Pernicious anemia can contribute to a delay in physical growth in children, and may also be a cause for delay in puberty for adolescents. Causes Vitamin B12cannot be produced by the human body, and must be obtained from the diet. When foods containing B12are eaten, the vitamin is usually bound to protein and is released by proteases released by the pancreas into the small bowel. Following its release, most B12is absorbed by the body in the small bowel (ileum) after binding to a protein known asintrinsic factor. Intrinsic factor is produced byparietal cellsof thegastric mucosa(stomach lining) and the intrinsic factor-B12-complex is absorbed by enterocytes in theileum'scubamreceptors.PA is characterised by B12deficiency caused by the absence of intrinsic factor.Other disorders that can disrupt the absorption of vitamin B12in the small intestine includeceliac disease, surgical removal ofcrohn's disease, andHIV. PA may be considered as an end stage of\",\n \"as an end stage of autoimmuneatrophic gastritis, a disease characterised by stomach atrophy and the presence ofantibodiesto parietal cells and intrinsic factor.Autoimmune atrophic gastritis, is localised to the body of the stomach, where parietal cells are located.Antibodies to intrinsic factor and parietal cells cause the destruction of the oxyntic gastric mucosa, in which the parietal cells are located, leading to the subsequent loss of intrinsic factor synthesis. Without intrinsic factor, the ileum can no longer absorb the B12.Atrophic gastritis is often a precursor togastric cancer. Although the exact role ofHelicobacter pyloriinfection in PA remains controversial, evidence indicatesH. pyloriis involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. A long-standingH. pyloriinfection may cause gastric autoimmunity by a mechanism known asmolecular mimicry. Antibodies produced by the immune system can be cross-reactive and may bind to bothH. pyloriantigensand those found in thegastric mucosa. The antibodies are\",\n \"The antibodies are produced by activatedB cellsthat recognise both pathogen and self-derived peptides. Theautoantigensbelieved to cause the autoreactivity are the alpha and beta subunits of thesodium-potassium pump.In a study, B12deficiency caused byHelicobacter pyloriwas positively correlated withCagApositivity and gastric inflammatory activity, rather than gastric atrophy.Less commonly,H. pyloriandZollinger-Ellison syndromemay cause a form of nonautoimmune gastritis that can lead to pernicious anemia. Impaired B12absorption can also occur following gastric removal (gastrectomy) or gastric bypass surgery. In these surgeries, either the parts of the stomach that produce gastric secretions are removed or they are bypassed. This means intrinsic factor, as well as other factors required for B12absorption, are not available. However, B12deficiency after gastric surgery does not usually become a clinical issue. This is probably because the body stores many years' worth of B12in the liver and gastric surgery\",\n \"and gastric surgery patients are adequately supplemented with the vitamin. Although no specific PA susceptibility genes have been identified, a genetic factor likely is involved in the disease. Pernicious anemia is often found in conjunction with other autoimmune disorders, suggesting common autoimmune susceptibility genes may be a causative factor.In spite of that, previous family studies and case reports focusing on PA have suggested that there is a tendency of genetic heritance of PA in particular, and close relatives of the PA patients seem to have higher incidence of PA and associated PA conditions.Moreover, it was further indicated that the formation of antibodies to gastric cells was autosomal dominant gene determined, and the presence of antibodies to the gastric cells might not be necessarily related to the occurrence of atrophic gastritis related to PA. Pathophysiology Although the healthy body stores three to five years' worth of B12in the liver, the usually undetected autoimmune activity in one's\",\n \"activity in one's gut over a prolonged period of time leads to B12depletion and the resulting anemia; pernicious anemia refers to one of the hematologic manifestations ofchronic auto-immune gastritis, in which the immune system targets the parietal cells of the stomach orintrinsic factoritself, leading to decreased absorption of vitamin B12. The body needs enough intrinsic factor to absorb and reabsorb vitamin B12from thebile, in which reduces the time needed to develop a deficiency. B12is required by enzymes for two reactions: the conversion ofmethylmalonyl-CoAtosuccinyl-CoA, and the conversion ofhomocysteinetomethionine. In the latter reaction, themethyl groupoflevomefolic acidis transferred to homocysteine to producetetrahydrofolateand methionine. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzymemethionine synthasewith B12as an essential cofactor. During B12deficiency, this reaction cannot proceed, which leads to the accumulation of levomefolic acid. This accumulation depletes the other types of folate required\",\n \"of folate required forpurineandthymidylatesynthesis, which are required for the synthesis of DNA. Inhibition ofDNA replicationin maturing red blood cells results in the formation of large, fragile megaloblasticerythrocytes. The neurological aspects of the disease are thought to arise from the accumulation of methylmalonyl- CoA due to the requirement of B12as a cofactor to the enzyme methylmalonyl-CoA mutase. Diagnosis The insidious nature of PA may mean that diagnosis is delayed.Diagnosis is not always straightforward and can be challenging and can take up to several years to receive a diagnosis from the onset of symptoms and almost 60% of those affected are misdiagnosed or not initially diagnosed at all.PA may be suspected when a patient'sblood smearshows large, fragile, immature erythrocytes, known asmegaloblasts. A diagnosis of PA first requires demonstration ofmegaloblastic anemiaby conducting afull blood countand blood smear, which evaluates themean corpuscular volume(MCV), as well themean corpuscular\",\n \"themean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration(MCHC).PA is identified with a high MCV (macrocytic anemia) and a normal MCHC (normochromicanemia).Ovalocytesare also typically seen on the blood smear, and apathognomonicfeature of megaloblastic anemias (which include PA and others) is hypersegmented neutrophils.Neuropsychiatric symptoms can precede hematological signs and are often the presenting manifestation of the disease. Vitamin B12serum levels are used to detect its deficiency, but do not distinguish its causes. Vitamin B12levels can be falsely high or low and data forsensitivity and specificityvary widely. Normal serum levels may be found in cases of deficiency wheremyeloproliferative disorders,liver disease,transcobalamin II, orsmall intestinal bacterial overgrowthare present.Low levels of serum vitamin B12may be caused by other factors than B12deficiency, such asfolate deficiency,pregnancy,oral contraceptiveuse,haptocorrindeficiency, andmyeloma.High serum levels may caused by supplementing with vitamin\",\n \"with vitamin B12, present of antibodies to intrinsic factor, or due to underlying condition. The presence of antibodies to gastric parietal cells and intrinsic factor is common in PA. Parietal cell antibodies are found in other autoimmune disorders and also in up to 10% of healthy individuals. However, around 85% of PA patients have parietal cell antibodies, which means they are a sensitive marker for the disease. Intrinsic factor antibodies are much less sensitive than parietal cell antibodies, but they are much more specific. They are found in about half of PA patients and are very rarely found in other disorders. These antibody tests can distinguish between PA and food-B12malabsorption. A buildup of certain metabolites occurs in B12deficiency due to its role in metabolic processes and cellular functions.Methylmalonic acid(MMA) can be measured in both the blood and urine, whereashomocysteineis only measured in the blood. An increase in both MMA and homocysteine distinguishes B12deficiency from folate\",\n \"from folate deficiency because homocysteine alone increases in the latter. Elevatedgastrinlevels can be found in around 80–90% of PA cases, but they may also be found in other forms of gastritis. Decreased pepsinogen I levels or a decreased pepsinogen I to pepsinogen II ratio may also be found, although these findings are less specific to PA and can be found in food-B12malabsorption and other forms of gastritis. The diagnosis of atrophic gastritis type A should be confirmed by gastroscopy and stepwise biopsy.About 90% of individuals with PA have antibodies for parietal cells; however, only 50% of all individuals in the general population with these antibodies have pernicious anemia. Differential diagnosis Forms of vitamin B12deficiency other than PA must be considered in thedifferential diagnosisof megaloblastic anemia. For example, a B12-deficient state which causes megaloblastic anemia and which may be mistaken for classical PA may be caused by infection with thetapewormDiphyllobothrium latum, possibly due\",\n \"latum, possibly due to the parasite's competition with host for vitamin B12. The classic test for PA, theSchilling test, is no longer widely used, as more efficient methods are available. This historic test consisted, in its first step, of taking an oral dose ofradiolabelledvitamin B12, followed by quantitation of the vitamin in the patient's urine over a 24-hour period via measurement of theradioactivity. A second step of the test repeats the regimen and procedure of the first step, with the addition of oral intrinsic factor. A patient with PA presents lower than normal amounts of intrinsic factor; hence, addition of intrinsic factor in the second step results in an increase in vitamin B12absorption (over the baseline established in the first). The Schilling test distinguished PA from other forms of B12deficiency,specifically, fromImerslund–Gräsbeck syndrome, a B12-deficiency caused by mutations inCUBNthat codes forcubilinthe cobalamin receptor. Vitamin B12 deficiency is also prevalent in patients\",\n \"in patients havingCrohn's disease(CD) so it should be differentiated. Treatment Pernicious anemia is usually easily treated by providing the necessary level of vitamin B12supplementation.Pernicious anemia can be treated with intramuscular injections of vitamin B12.Initially in high daily doses, followed by less frequent lower doses, as the condition improves.Activity may need to be limited during the course of treatment.As long as the body is saturated with vitamin B12expected to result in cessation of anemia-related symptoms and there are no other symptoms, unless there are irreversible neurological complications.There are not enough studies on whether pills are as effective in improving or eliminating symptoms as parenteral treatment.Folatesupplementation may affect the course and treatment of pernicious anemia if vitamin B12not replaced.In some severe cases of anemia, ablood transfusionmay be needed to resolve haematological effects.Treatment is lifelong. The treatment of PA varies by country and area.\",\n \"country and area. Opinions vary over the efficacy of administration (parenteral/oral), the amount and time interval of the doses, or the forms of vitamin B12(e.g. cyanocobalamin/hydroxocobalamin). More comprehensive studies are still needed in order to validate the feasibility of a particular therapeutic method for PA in clinical practices. Prognosis A person with well-treated PA can live a healthy life. Failure to diagnose and treat in time, however, may result in permanent neurological damage, excessive fatigue, depression, memory loss, and other complications. In severe cases, the neurological complications of pernicious anemia can lead to death – hence the name, \\\"pernicious\\\", meaning deadly. There is an increased risk ofgastric cancerin those with pernicious anemia linked to the common feature of atrophic gastritis. Epidemiology PA is estimated to affect 0.1% of the general population and 1.9% of those over 60, accounting for 20–50% of B12deficiency in adults.A review of literature shows that the\",\n \"shows that the prevalence of PA is higher in Northern Europe, especially in Scandinavian countries, and among people of African descent, and that increased awareness of the disease and better diagnostic tools might play a role in apparently higher rates of incidence. History A case of anemia with a first recognition of associatedatrophic gastritisa feature of pernicious anemia, was first described in 1824 byJames Combe. This was fully investigated in 1849, by British physicianThomas Addison, from which it acquired the common name ofAddison's anemia. In 1871, the first accurate description of the disease in continental Europe was made byMichael Anton Biermer, aGermanphysician who noted the insidious course of the condition. Because it was untreatable and fatal at the time, he first referred to it as \\\"pernicious\\\" anemia.Russellcoined the termsubacute combined degeneration of spinal cord. In 1907,Richard Clarke Cabotreported on a series of 1,200 patients with PA; their average survival was between one and three\",\n \"one and three years.Pernicious anemia was a fatal disease before about the year 1920; until the importance of theliverinhematopoiesiswas recognized, the treatment of pernicious anemia was unsuccessful and arbitrary. It may have motivatedGeorge Whipple, who had a keen interest inliver diseases, to investigate the liver's role in hematopoiesis. Whipple began evaluating the effects of treatments for anemia caused by chronic blood loss. Whipple, Huber, and Robchett studied the effects onhemoglobinand blood regeneration of a variety of treatments, among which only raw liver showed real promise.Serendipity is said to have played a role in this discovery. Whipple observed that blood regeneration was poor in dogs fed cooked liver afterchronic blood loss. Had it not been that a lazy laboratory technician gave the dogs raw liver, the much more dramatic response might not have been discovered then. Around 1926,George MinotandWilliam P. Murphy, who learned of Whipple's discovery, sought raw liver as a treatment for\",\n \"as a treatment for pernicious anemia. They later suggested a high-protein diet with high amounts of raw liver. This caused a rapid improvement in symptoms and a simultaneous rise inred blood cellcounts.Fruitandironwere also part of the diet, and it appears that at this point, Minot and Murphy were not quite sure that the liver was a very important factor. It was thought that iron in liver tissue, not liver juice-soluble factor, cured hemorrhagic anemia in dogs. Thus, the discovery of liver juice as a treatment for pernicious anemia had been by coincidence. However, Minot, Murphy, and Whipple received the joint Nobel Prize for discovering a cure for a previously fatal disease of unknown cause in 1934, becoming the first Americans to be awarded theNobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. It is not easy to eat uncooked liver, and extracts were developed as a concentrate of liver juice forintramuscular injection. In 1928, chemistEdwin Cohnprepared an extract that was 50 to 100 times stronger than obtained from\",\n \"than obtained from raw liver. This became part of the standard management of pernicious anemia until the 1950s. The active ingredient in the liver remained unknown until 1948.The anti-pernicious anemia factor was only isolated from the liver by Smith, Rex, and others. The substance wascobalamin, which the discoverers called \\\"vitamin B12\\\".They showed that giving a few micrograms could prevent relapse in the disease.Dorothy Hodgkinand co-workers went on to useX-ray crystallographyto elucidate the structure of cobalamin for which she, too, was awarded aNobel Prize. Understanding of the pathogenesis of pernicious anaemia increased over subsequent decades. It had long been known that the disease was associated withdefects in the gastrointestinal tract: patients hadchronic gastritisand lack of acid secretion (achlorhydria). It is known that transport of physiological amounts of vitamin B12depends on the combined actions of gastric, ileal and pancreatic components. The gastric moiety was discovered and named\",\n \"and named 'intrinsic factor' byWilliam Castlein 1930. A further important advance was made in the early 1960s by Doniach with the recognition that pernicious anemia is anautoimmune disease.Pernicious anemia is eventually treated with only injections of B12; injections are typically 1 mg every other day, or twice weekly. A medical author takes the view thatMary Todd Lincoln, the wife of American PresidentAbraham Lincoln, had pernicious anemia for decades and died from it in 1882. Research Permeation enhancers Treatment using oral drugs is an easier option in management but the bioavailabity of B12 is low. This is due to low absorption in the intestine, and breakdown by enzyme activity. Research continues to focus on the use of permeation enhancers or permeation absorbers in combination with the treatment. One of the better performing enhancers studied issalcoprozate sodium(SNAC).SNAC is able to form a noncovalent complex with cobalamin while preserving its chemical integrity and protect B12 from gastric\",\n \"B12 from gastric acidity.This complex is much more lipophilic than the water-soluble vitamin B12, so is able to pass through cellular membranes with greater ease.Molecular dynamicsare used in experiments to gain an understanding of the molecular interactions involved in the different molecules used and the degree of ease achieved in absorption across the gastric epithelium. References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":378,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"The latest game, as of August 4, 2024, from the creator of Kirby won an award at The Game Awards. What won Game of the Year the following year?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"The Last of Us Part II"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirby_(series)"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masahiro_Sakurai"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Smash_Bros._Ultimate"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Game_Awards_2020"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirby_(series)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masahiro_Sakurai', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Smash_Bros._Ultimate', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Game_Awards_2020']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirby_(series","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masahiro_Sakurai","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Smash_Bros._Ultimate","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Game_Awards_2020"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirby_(series\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masahiro_Sakurai\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Smash_Bros._Ultimate\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Game_Awards_2020\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirby_(series","Masahiro Sakurai Masahiro Sakurai(桜井 政博,Sakurai Masahiro, born August 3, 1970)is a Japanese video game director andgame designerbest known as the creator of theKirbyandSuper Smash Bros.series. Apart from his work on those series, he also led the design ofMeteosin 2005 and directedKid Icarus: Uprisingin 2012. Formerly an employee ofHAL Laboratory, Sakurai left the company in 2003 and in 2005 with his wife Michiko Sakurai (also ex-HAL Laboratory) founded their companySora Ltd., under which they work on a freelance basis. He was also an author of a weekly column forFamitsumagazine from 2003 to 2021, and has done voice acting work in some of his games, most notably providing the voice ofKing DededeinKirby 64: The Crystal Shardsand theSuper Smash Bros.series. From 2022 to 2024, Sakurai has been creating videos for hisYouTubechannel,Masahiro Sakurai on Creating Games, where he discusses game design and his career. Career Masahiro Sakurai was born on August 3, 1970, inMusashimurayama, Tokyo, Japan. One of Sakurai's earliest experiences in the video game industry began when he worked forHAL Laboratory, where he created the characterKirbyat age 19 and directed his first title,Kirby's Dream Land. Sakurai left HAL on August 5, 2003. He explained in an interview withNintendo Dreamthat that he felt it would be difficult to create new projects while staying at HAL due to the direction of the gaming industry, where the risk of failure was high. While he was not being pressured by HAL to createKirbysequels, he noted increasing tension within the industry as a whole: \"It was tough for me to see that every time I made a new game, people automatically assumed that a sequel was coming. Even if it's a sequel, lots of people have to give their all to make a game, but some people think the sequel process happens naturally.\" Soon after, Sakurai began working on a project withQ Entertainment, along withTetsuya Mizuguchi. This collaboration resulted inMeteosin 2005, a puzzle game for theNintendo DS. On September 30, 2005, Sakurai announced that he had formed his own company, Sora Ltd.Two games were announced to be in development but no information on the titles had been divulged. As for the future of theSuper Smash Bros.series, Nintendo and HAL Laboratory presidentSatoru Iwata, during Nintendo'sE3 2005press conference, promised an online iteration of the game would come to theNintendo Wii. In issue #885 ofFamitsumagazine, Sakurai revealed that he would be serving as a director and game designer onSuper Smash Bros. Brawlfor theWii.Super Smash Bros. Brawlwas released in 2008, after personnel borrowed from 19 different developer studios assisted in development.Sakurai had been updating daily theSuper Smash Bros Brawlwebsite called the Smash Bros. Dojo. Starting a year previous the release, he revealedBrawlsecrets and gameplay content through the site. The Smash Bros. Dojo had regular updates from May 22, 2007, to April 14, 2008. On the final day of updates, it was revealed that Sakurai provided the voice forKing DededeinKirby 64: The Crystal Shardsas well as Dedede inSuper Smash Bros. Brawl. He and his company, Sora Ltd. alongside Nintendo, started a first-party studio,Project Sora, which was 72% owned by Nintendo and 28% owned by Sora Ltd. It was revealed atE3 2010that Sakurai and Project Sora were working onKid Icarus: Uprisingfor the Nintendo 3DS. Project Sora was closed and ended development on June 30, 2012.AtE3 2011, Nintendo announced that Sakurai was working onSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U. Sakurai began development of the title upon the release ofKid Icarus: Uprisingin March 2012. In February 2013, Sakurai was diagnosed withcalcific tendinitisnear his right shoulder, which caused him substantial pain whenever he moved his arm. He mentioned that this could effectively slow down his work, as he does some of hisgame testinghimself.Sakurai's wife, Michiko, has worked on the graphical user interface for many of his games, includingKirby Air Ride,Meteos, and theSuper Smash Bros.series. In a January 2015 column inWeekly Famitsu, Sakurai alluded to the possibility of retirement, expressing doubt that he would be able to continue making games if his career continued to be as stressful as it was.In December 2015, Sakurai once again stated that he was not sure if there would be another game in theSmash Bros.series,prior toSuper Smash Bros. Ultimatebeing released in 2018 with Sakurai once again as director. On March 14, 2022, Sakurai was awarded Best Creator byWeekly Famitsu. Sakurai also announced that he is working on a new project not related to game production. Masahiro Sakurai on Creating Games Sakurai launchedMasahiro Sakurai on Creating Games, aYouTubechannel in both English and Japanese in August 2022. The channel's videos are focused on game development and design as well as his career.He stated that the channel was founded because he wanted to reach more people with his lessons after being asked tolectureat schools. Sakurai additionally noted that other venues for lessons from game developers, such as theGame Developers Conference, focused on more advanced, technical details, rather than more basic principles.Less than a day after its launch, the English edition of his channel gained over 200,000 subscribers.The opening and ending jingles for the channel were composed byYuzo Koshiro. Works Notes References External links","Super Smash Bros. Ultimate Super Smash Bros. Ultimateis a 2018crossoverfighting gamedeveloped byBandai Namco StudiosandSora Ltd. and published byNintendofor theNintendo Switch. It is the fifthinstallment in theSuper Smash Bros.series, succeedingSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U(2014). The game follows the series' traditional style of gameplay, in which players control one of thevarious charactersand use attacks to weaken their opponents and knock them out of an arena. It features a wide variety ofgame modes, including asingle-playercampaignandmultiplayerversus modes.Ultimatefeatures 89 playable fighters, including all characters from previousSuper Smash Bros.games as well as newcomers. The roster ranges from Nintendo characters to those fromthird-partyfranchises. Planning for the game had begun by December 2015, with full development starting after the completion of3DS/Wii U'sdownloadable content(DLC). Series creator and directorMasahiro Sakuraireturned along with Bandai Namco Studios and Sora, the studios that developed3DS/Wii U,with their return speeding up the preparation process. Sakurai's goal withUltimatewas to include every character from previous games in the series, despite the various development and licensing challenges this would present. Several well-known video game musicians contributed to the soundtrack, withHideki Sakamotowriting the main theme \"Lifelight\". Nintendo first teasedUltimatein aNintendo Directin March 2018 and fully revealed it atE3 2018the following June. It later received two additional Directs prior to its release on December 7, 2018. The game received universal acclaim, with some critics calling it the best game in the series; they praised its large amount of content and fine-tuning of existingSmashgameplay elements, although its online mode received criticism.Ultimateis the best-selling fighting game of all time and one of thebest-selling on the Switch, having sold over 34 million copies as of March 2024. It is also a popularcompetitive fighting gameand has been cited as one of thegreatest video games of all time.Ultimatereceiveddownloadable contentadding new fighters, stages, and other content for nearly three years after release. Gameplay Super Smash Bros. Ultimateis aplatform fighterfor up to eight players in which characters fromNintendogames and third-party franchises fight to knock each other out of an arena. Each player has a percentage meter which raises as they take damage, thus increasing the knockback they take and making them easier to launch in the air and out of the arena.Standard battles use one of three victory conditions: Timed, where players aim to win the most points by defeating opponents within a time limit; Stock, where players have a set number of lives and aim to be the last player standing; and Stamina, where players reduce their opponent's health down to zero to defeat them. Players can adjust the rules to their liking and save them as presets for future matches. Players can also enable various items which attack enemies or grant them power-ups, along with Poké Balls and Assist Trophies, which respectively summonPokémonand other non-playable characters to assist them in battle. In Timed matches, certain Assist Trophies can be attacked and defeated to earn points.Each character also possesses a powerful Final Smash attack, which can be performed either by obtaining a Smash Ball or by filling up a special meter, both of which can be toggled on and off.The base game features 104 different stages, with additional stages being added alongside DLC fighters. Stages can be played in alternative Battlefield and Omega forms or toggled to remove stage hazards. A new feature called Stage Morph allows players to select two stages that the game alternates between at certain intervals during a match.Other tweaks include new icons and gauges for character-specific abilities, such asCloud's Limit gauge. In addition to returning modes such as Classic, Special Smash, and Home-Run Contest,Ultimateadds new modes. These are Smashdown, where each character can only be played once; Squad Strike, where players battle in teams of multiple characters; and a tournament mode that allows up to 32 players to battle in playoff brackets. Spirits Ultimateintroduces the Spirits mechanic, replacing the collectible trophies from previous games. Each of these Spirits, based on characters from represented franchises, can be used to power up a fighter with unique abilities.Players mainly gain Spirits through pre-made challenges called \"Spirit Battles\" that represent the character the Spirit depicts, which are embodied by one or more of the game's fighters and other specific level effects. For example, the Spirit battle of Rayquaza, a flying dragon Pokémon, requires players to defeat a large version of Ridley with a similar color palette and wind effects. Players are encouraged to strategically choose Spirits based on the level effects; in the same example, a player would need to equip a Spirit that provides wind resistance or immunity, or one that allows them to deal extra damage to a giant opponent. A separate mode called the Spirit Board presents a rotating set of Spirit battles for players to gain Spirits from. Spirits have a growth and evolution system, in which they can be leveled up to become more powerful or converted into Cores to summon new Spirits.Certain Spirits will also become an \"enhanced\" form upon reaching max level, but will return to level 1. Nintendo offers limited-timed Spirit events in cross-promotion with other games and franchises, with the Spirits featured only available to collect during the event. Eventually, these Spirits make their way into general rotation and can be found on the Spirit Board.The local multiplayer mode also allows for the option to use Spirits. World of Light Ultimatefeatures the return of Adventure Mode, which was absent in3DS/Wii U.It is now integrated into the Spirits mode with a new story,World of Light, which prominently uses the game's Spirit mechanics.The mode's narrative begins with an evil entity, Galeem, destroying theSmash Bros.world, vaporizing almost all of the fighter characters and placing them under his imprisonment; onlyKirby, due to his Warp Star, evades this attack.Players explore the titular World of Light, a new world that Galeem created in the original world's place, to rescue captured fighters and Spirits -the remnants of other characters' physical forms- by completing marked Spirit Battles. Players can use regained allies and Spirits to overcome certain challenges on the map and defeat Galeem.However, after Galeem is defeated, a new enemy, Dharkon, emerges; after Dharkon's defeat, it wages war against Galeem. If just Galeem is defeated, Dharkon will engulf the world in darkness, but if just Dharkon is defeated, then Galeem will cover the universe with light. However, by defeating an equal amount of light and dark Spirits on the final map, players are able to challenge and defeat both of them, freeing the Spirits from their control and allowing them to return to the real world. Additional features The game supports local multiplayer, local wireless with other systems, and online play viaWi-FiorLAN connections. By defeating players online, players earn tags which can be traded for in-game currency to buy new Spirits, music, andMiiFighter costumes. The game is compatible withJoy-Concontrollers, theNintendo Switch Pro Controller, andGameCube controllersvia a USB adapter.Like the previous entry,amiibofigurines can be used to create AI-controlled Figure Players, which can be trained to become stronger.Shortly after the game's release, a service for the Nintendo Switch Online mobile app, known as \"Smash World\", was launched, which allows players to check their game statistics and share images and videos captured from the game to social media.Ultimatefeatures over 900 music tracks, which can be played through the Switch's handheld mode while in standby mode.Version 3.0 of the game, released in April 2019, adds a Stage Builder, which allows players to create custom stages which can be shared or downloaded through the Switch Online service. The update also includes a replay editor, allowing players to edit stored replays, which can be shared online or downloaded to other devices. These replays are available within the Smash World app.An update in May 2019 provided limited support for thevirtual realityVR Kit ofNintendo Labo, allowing players to view computer-only matches in VR or play in a 1-on-1 mode against the computer.An update in September 2019 added the Home-Run Contest mode from previousSmashgames. Playable characters Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, like other games in theSuper Smash Bros.series, features acrossovercast of fighters from several differentNintendo franchises, as well as fighters from series bythird-partydevelopers such asKonami,Sega,Capcom,Bandai Namco Entertainment,Square Enix,PlatinumGames,Microsoft,SNK, andDisney. The base game features 74 playable fighters,consisting of all 63 previous fighters from past entries and 11 newcomers: theInklingsfromSplatoon;Princess Daisyfrom theMarioseries;Ridleyand Dark Samus from theMetroidseries;Simon Belmontand Richter Belmont from theCastlevaniaseries;ChromfromFire Emblem Awakening;King K. Roolfrom theDonkey Kongseries;Isabellefrom theAnimal Crossingseries;Ken Mastersfrom theStreet Fighterseries; and Incineroar fromPokémon SunandMoon.When starting the game, players only have access to the eight starter characters of the originalSuper Smash Bros.and unlock the rest by completing the game's Classic modes, playing through World of Light, or fighting a certain amount of battles. Certain characters whose movesets are directly based on other characters are now classified as \"Echo Fighters\", possessing similar movesets and proportions to the fighters they are based on, but with unique animations and gameplay differences. On the character selection screen, these characters can either be listed individually or stacked with the fighters they are based on.Select characters also have alternative skins featuring different genders or sometimes other characters, such asBowser Jr., who has the otherKoopalingsas skins, but with identical animations and abilities.Several returning characters received updates to their appearances, such asMariohaving Cappy fromSuper Mario Odysseyaccompanying him andThe Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild's incarnation ofLinkreplacing the one fromTwilight Princess. Additional fighters have been added to the game via post-releasedownloadable content(DLC). The first of these,Piranha Plantfrom theMarioseries, was released in January 2019 and made available for free to those who purchased and registered the game with aMy Nintendoaccount before the end of that month.Additional fighters, each coming with a unique stage and related music, have been released both individually and as part of two Fighters Pass bundles.The first Fighters Pass consisted of five characters:JokerfromAtlus'Persona 5, released in April 2019;the Herofrom Square Enix'sDragon Questseries, released in July 2019;Banjo & KazooiefromRare'sBanjo-Kazooieseries, released in September 2019;Terry BogardfromSNK'sFatal Furyseries, released in November 2019;andBylethfromFire Emblem: Three Houses, released in January 2020. The second Fighters Pass, titled Fighters Pass Volume 2, consisted of six additional fighters and was the final content planned forUltimate.The first character in this collection,Min MinfromARMS, was released in June 2020.Steve,the default player avatar fromMojang Studios'Minecraft, was released in October 2020.Sephiroth, the antagonist from Square Enix'sFinal Fantasy VII, was released in December 2020, with players able to unlock him a few days early by defeating him in a limited-time boss battle known as the \"Sephiroth Challenge\".Pyra and Mythra, a dual character fromXenoblade Chronicles 2, were released in March 2021.Kazuya Mishimafrom Bandai Namco'sTekkenseries was released in June 2021.SorafromDisneyand Square Enix seriesKingdom Heartswas the final fighter to be added in October 2021. Development Super Smash Bros. Ultimatewas developed byBandai Namco StudiosandSora Ltd., the same studios that developedSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U, for theNintendo Switch, with series creatorMasahiro Sakuraireturning as game director.Unlike previousSuper Smash Bros.games, the team was not assembled from the ground up, which sped up preparation time.The project plan for the game was in the works by December 2015, when the DLC for3DSandWii Uwas in development,and finished after it was completed.Staff gathering was done soon afterward.The development period was shorter compared to previous entries in the series.Hatenaassisted with the development of some elements,andtri-Crescendocontributed to programming and design. According to Sakurai, producing aSuper Smash Bros.game for the Switch was the last request that former Nintendo presidentSatoru Iwatahad given him before his death in 2015, and he wanted to make the game the best possible product he could to respect him.Sakurai sought to include every character from previous games, as to not disappoint fans.However, he knew this would be a complex problem for both development and licensing;it would also drastically increase the cost of development. The return of Bandai and Sora made it easier for this to happen.Sakurai also wanted to adjust character abilities to speed up the game,although not to an extent that would alienate players unfamiliar with the series.Sakurai knew thatUltimatewas a core game for Nintendo and that it had a dedicated player base that he did not want to disappoint, and believed that completing this goal was necessary to satisfy them.Sakurai was also faced with the decision to either create a completely new game system or build off of pre-existing ones; he chose to build off pre-existing ones because there would only be about a third of the characters he desired in the final game.All the returning characters' abilities had to be re-balancedso they could work inUltimate.Originally, gameplay would differ between the Switch's docked and handheld modes, but Sakurai scrapped this idea since the system's screen in handheld mode was better than he thought.Sakurai believed this would be the onlySmashgame to have the full roster of returning characters, calling the effort to include the characters, music, stage settings, and other elements as \"unprecedented\", and cautioned that future games in the series would likely be smaller in scope. However, he still wanted to add as many fighters as possible through DLC. Voice lines recorded byDavid Hayterfor Snake were re-used forUltimate.Xander Mobus, who voiced Crazy Hand,Master Hand, and the announcer inSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U,also made a return with new voice clips, in addition to reprising his role asJokerfromPersona 5when he was added as DLC.The addition of Ridley fromMetroidas a playable character had been highly requested within theSuper Smash Bros.community for some time. In 2008, Sakurai stated that he knew Ridley was a high-demand character, but thought that he was \"impossible\" to add unless they were able to sacrifice the character's size for balancing purposes.So that Ridley could be included in the game, Sakurai studied the art of the character and redesigned him so he could stand upright.All characters were chosen at the beginning of development except for Incineroar, who had not been created yet;the team instead left a space open for aSun and MoonPokémon. The Inklings' inkmechanicproved challenging to implement due to its interactions with environments. The team builtUltimatefrom scratch with new assets and content. Localization manager Nate Bihldorff stated that the game significantly upgraded lighting effects and texture rendering from thegame engineof theWii Uversion.The World of Light mode was inspired byBrawl's(2008) Subspace Emissary, and Sakurai chose to start it with a cataclysmic event because he thought it would leave a greater impact on players.The team conceived the Spirits mechanic because they wanted to create an enjoyable single-player mode, but did not have enough resources to createcharacter models. While it did not let them tell stories for individual fighters or create new locations and rules, it let them use various characters and assets.One part of the team chose Spirits to include in the game and had to thoroughly research them; according to Sakurai, the Spirits mode was essential for using various franchises. Music Like previous games in the series,Ultimatefeatures several well-known video game music composers and arrangers providing a mix of original music and rearrangements of various tracks for the represented franchises, with over 1,000 tracks in total.New toUltimateis the tying of tracks to franchises instead of individual stages, as well as the ability to create custom playlists to listen to outside the game when the Switch is in handheld mode.Sakurai stated that he began contacting composers over a year before release, providing them with a database of over a thousand suggested track ideas.In addition, he allowed them to submit their own personal favorites, with those choices being given priority for inclusion.While Sakurai oversaw the process and preferred that the music retain the spirit of the original games, the direction of them was generally handled by the composers themselves.The main theme, \"Lifelight\", composed byHideki Sakamoto, is the basis of most of the game's original music. Downloadable content As with previous entries, Nintendo planned to offer new fighters through DLC; however, unlike with the3DSandWii U,where players could request which characters they wished to see in the game, Nintendo chose which characters they would add by November 2018.Like the previous title, additional Mii costumes were released as paid DLC, with certain costumes also adding new music tracks to the game.Sakurai believed that despite characters likeJoker, the first announced DLC fighter, not being from games usually associated with Nintendo, they were added because they were \"emblematic\" of the types of characters they wanted to add toUltimate.He also stated that they \"bring just a whole different level of fun and enjoyment for players\".The Piranha Plant was chosen as a DLC character because Sakurai wanted to add diversity to the roster.Nintendo met withRarestudio head Craig Duncan at E3 2018 to discuss the possibility of including Banjo and Kazooie as downloadable content; Duncan, believing it to be \"a great opportunity\", agreed and connected the two development teams for further discussions.Sakurai noted that Banjo and Kazooie were the second most requested character forSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii Uin a Nintendo-sanctioned fan vote in 2015,and that their addition happened \"quite easily\", despite the property being owned byMicrosoftthrough its acquisition ofRare.Phil Spencer, the head ofXbox, stated that negotiating their inclusion was \"an easy deal to make\" thanks to Microsoft's strong partnership with Nintendo. The development of Fighters Pass Volume 2 was heavily affected by theCOVID-19 pandemicin 2020, as due tostay-at-home ordersin Japan, Sakurai and his development team had to work remotely.According to Daniel Kaplan ofMojang Studios, early discussions between Nintendo andMicrosoftincludingMinecraftcontent in theSuper Smash Bros.series had begun roughly five years prior to Steve's addition into the game.The character's inclusion required the development team to rework every stage in the game to accommodate Steve's gameplay mechanics.Sakurai had wanted to includeSorafromKingdom Heartsin the game because he was the top fighter requested forNintendo 3DSandWii Uin the 2015 fan vote.However, they initially thought that the legality surrounding the intellectual property withDisneywould be insurmountable, and originally planned for only five fighters in the second pass. However, Sakurai met a Disney representative at an award venue, which facilitated the start of negotiations for Sora's inclusion. Nintendo, Disney, andSquare Enixsaw towards including Sora in the game and overseeing all aspects related to his inclusion, with several limitations and guidelines they were required to follow.The Sora Challenger Pack featured a promotional tie-in with the 2020 rhythm gameKingdom Hearts: Melody of Memory: players withMelody of Memorysave data on their Nintendo Switch would unlock the music track \"Dearly Beloved (Swing Version)\". Release Ultimatewas teased during aNintendo Directpresentation on March 8, 2018, under theworking titleSuper Smash Bros., with the release year shown to be 2018. Nintendo formally announced the game atE3 2018, revealing that the full roster of characters from past games would be included, as well as its release date.Demoversions were playable at E3 in June and atSan Diego Comic-Conthe following month.IGNnominatedUltimatefor its Best Game of E3 2018 award; the game won Best Nintendo Switch Game from bothIGNandGamescom.Two Nintendo Direct presentations in 2018, one on August 8 and another one on November 1, were devoted to the game, revealing new characters, stages, and game modes. Nintendo releasedSuper Smash Bros. Ultimateworldwide on December 7, 2018.In addition to the standard retail version, a special edition containing aSuper Smash Bros.-themedNintendo Switch Pro Controllerand a Switch with a download code was also released.An additional special edition contained a pair ofSuper Smash Bros.-themedJoy-Conas well as a Switch console, aSuper Smash Bros.-themed dock, and a download code for the game.AGameCube controllerwith theSuper Smash Bros. Ultimatelogo was released on November 2, 2018. One of the game's new additions had the characterMr. Game & Watchassuming the appearance of a feather- and loincloth-wearingNative Americanwhen using one of his attacks—a reference toFire Attack(1982), in which players controlled acowboydefending his fort from attacking indigenous people. Some users on social media saw this as racist, leading to Nintendo of America apologizing and removing the animation in an update shortly after release.Two weeks before its release, a leaked copy of the game was distributed across the internet. Nintendo took steps to issue copyright strikes on YouTube videos usingdata minedcontent, while fans worked to isolatespoilers, particularly the World of Light story mode, from those that had played the leaked version. Reception Ultimatereceived \"universal acclaim\" from critics, according to thereview aggregatorplatformMetacritic.Critics lauded the huge cast of characters and levels, new game modes, and combining of the best elements from its predecessors.French video game websiteJeuxvideo.comcalled it the best game in the series, praising its features which \"brilliantly mix gargantuan content with nostalgia\".Bleacher Reporthailed the game's colorful art style, faster gameplay, and unique stages.IGNpraised the game's decision to bring back every character from the series as \"ambitious and excellent\".The game's massive soundtrack and portable music player were praised byThe Verge. However, the game's online mode received criticism for its technical performance and matchmaking. Many players found significantlagaffecting their games, even when using wired connections over wireless, while the game's matchmaking features did not adhere to players' criteria, with players frequently playing matches with rule sets they did not choose. The matchmaking process was further criticized for making it difficult for friends to join matches over random players, and not allowing multiple local players to join in online matches.There had been so many complaints onUltimate'ssubredditthat the administrators forwarded all complaints to a separate thread.Ultimate'sWorld of Lightmode also received mixed reviews. While some found the single-player mode both accessible and challenging,others found the mode tedious and excessive. Sales In November 2018, Nintendo announcedUltimatewas the most pre-ordered game for the Switch and in the series.The Association for UK Interactive Entertainmentreported thatUltimatewas the fastest-selling Switch andSuper Smash Bros.game in the United Kingdom, with physical launch sales 302% higher than those forSuper Smash Bros. for Wii U, 233% higher than those for3DS, and 62.5% higher than those forBrawl.In its first three days on sale in Japan, the game sold 1.2 million copies, outsellingPokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu!andLet's Go, Eevee!andThe Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wildin the region. Within 11 days of its release,Ultimatehad sold more than three million copies within the United States, making it the fastest-selling Switch game in the country.It was similarly the fastest-selling Switch game as well as the fastest-selling game for any Nintendo console in Europe based on the first 11-day sales.It was estimated that the game sold and shipped over five million copies within its first three days of release.Within three weeks,Ultimatebecame the fifth best-selling Switch game in the United Kingdom, surpassing the sales ofSplatoon 2.In January 2019,Amazonreported thatUltimatewas their highest selling video game product of 2018,with Nintendo officially announcing that the game had shipped over 12.08 million copies worldwide.Ultimatewas also Nintendo's fastest-selling game of all time until being surpassed byPokémon SwordandShieldin 2019.By September 2020, the game had sold over 21.10 million copies worldwide,making it the best-selling fighting game of all time,surpassing the record ofStreet Fighter II,and became thethird-best-selling Nintendo Switch game, only behindAnimal Crossing: New HorizonsandMario Kart 8 Deluxe. As of June 30, 2024, total sales reached34.66million. Awards The game won the award for \"Best Nintendo Switch Game\", \"Best Fighting Game\", and \"Best Multiplayer Game\" inIGN's Best of 2018 Awards, whereas its other nominations were for \"Game of the Year\" and \"Best Video Game Music\". Esports EVO 2019, held on August 2–4, 2019, featuredUltimateas one of its main events. It was the largest offlineSmash Bros.tournament of all time, with 3,534 entrants signed up.It set a new record for EVO concurrent viewership, with over 279,000 viewers during Top 8.On May 8–10, 2020, topSuper Smash Bros. MeleeplayerHungryboxpartnered withNFLrunning backLe'Veon Belland esports organizationTeam Liquidto host The Box, an online tournament with a $10,000 prize pool.With over 8,000 entrants, it was the largest onlineSmash Bros.tournament of all time. In February 2020, it was announced that the Smash World Tour would feature bothSuper Smash Bros. MeleeandUltimateplayers for a grand prize pool of $250,000. The tournament would have included international qualifiers, with the grand finals' location to be in the United States.However, theCOVID-19 pandemicquickly led to several of the qualifiers getting either postponed or canceled.The Smash World Tour was successfully relaunched in 2021, featuring a mix of online and offline qualifiers and culminating in a final offline championship.In 2022, an officially licensed circuit was introduced, being the Panda Cup, featuringSuper Smash Bros. MeleeandSuper Smash Bros. Ultimate.However on November 24, 2022, Nintendo stated that the Smash World Tour 2022 could not continue, as they did not have a license from Nintendo. Accusations of Panda CEO, Alan Bunney, caused many players who had qualified for the Panda Cup to drop out. This caused both the Panda Cup and the Smash World Tour 2022 Championships to be cancelled, along with the Smash World Tour 2023. Notes References External links","The Game Awards 2020 The Game Awards 2020was an award show that honored the bestvideo games of 2020. It was produced and hosted byGeoff Keighley, and took place on December 10, 2020. The preshow ceremony was hosted by Sydnee Goodman. Unlike previousGame Awards, the show was broadcast virtually due to theCOVID-19 pandemic; Keighley presented at a soundstage inLos Angeles, while musical performances took place virtually at stages inLondonandTokyo. The show introduced the award's first Future Class, a list of individuals from the video game industry who best represent the future of video games, Innovation in Accessibility award, an award for games that featured notableaccessibility options. The show waslive streamedacross 45 different platforms. It featured musical performances from theLondon Philharmonic OrchestraandEddie Vedder, and presentations from celebrity guests, includingReggie Fils-Aimé,Gal Gadot,Brie Larson, andKeanu Reeves. The Last of Us Part IIreceived the most nominations and wins in the show's history—eleven and seven, respectively—and was awardedGame of the Year.Neil DruckmannandHalley Grosswon Best Narrative for their work on the game, whileLaura Baileywas awarded Best Performance for her role asAbby. Several new games were announced, includingArk II,Perfect Dark, andan untitledMass Effectgame. The show was the most expensive ceremony to date. It was viewed by over 83 million streams, the most in its history to date,with 8.3 million concurrent viewers at its peak. It received a mixed reception from media publications, with praise directed at new game announcements, and criticism for not allowing developers more time to speak. Some critics and viewers shared concerns over the success ofThe Last of Us Part IIdue to its developer'scrunchpractices. Background As with previous iterations ofThe Game Awards, the 2020 show was hosted and produced by Canadian games journalistGeoff Keighley. He returned as an executive producer alongside Kimmie Kim, and Richard Preuss and LeRoy Bennett returned as director and creative director, respectively.Sydnee Goodman returned as host of the preshow.Due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, Keighley did not want to host a normal ceremony.Not wanting to take a hiatus and inspired by the success ofSummer Game Fest,he considered hosting from his home but his board urged him to attempt a larger show on par with previous years.In case of a significant surge ofCOVID-19 cases in California, the crew had several back-up plans, including broadcasting from Keighley's house.He worked with his partners to develop a virtual show;he and his team took inspiration from other shows throughout the year, including theDemocratic National Convention, in which the \"audience\" was featured on virtual screens,as well as the72nd Primetime Emmy Awards, wherein the hosts were isolated on stage and the winners accepted viavideo call. The presentation used three soundstages in Los Angeles, London, and Tokyo; each had minimal attendees, mostly related to production crew and presenters. Keighley said this allowed them to include additional presentation events as with past shows, as well as explore taking future shows to different venues.The 2020 show—featuring a production of more than 400 people, six of whom are full-time employees—had a budget of underUS$10 millionand was the most expensive to date, partly due to theCOVID-19 testsrequired for the crew and the worldwide remote camera set-ups.It remained profitable due to revenue from advertisers and sponsors, as well as minor earnings from streaming services.The show's theme was strength and comfort due to the impact of the pandemic. Keighley wanted to implore the theme of unity, given the release of thePlayStation 5andXbox Series X/Sin November 2020; he citedThe Game Awards 2018as an example of this theme, which had led withNintendo'sReggie Fils-Aimé, Microsoft'sPhil Spencer, and Sony'sShawn Laydensharing the stage.Keighley felt the inclusion of film and television stars was an interesting way to show a wider appreciation for the industry. His team wanted to includeHenry Cavillin the show, but he was busy working onThe Witcher. While developing the show, Keighley spoke to hundreds of viewers viaZoomto discuss their own interests,often alongside industry figures likeValve CorporationpresidentGabe NewellandEpic Gamescreative director Donald Mustard.As with the previous show, the presentation ran alongside the Game Festival, consisting of playable demos and additional in-game content.The show introduced the award's first Future Class, a list of individuals from across the video game industry who best represent the future of video games. The inductees included industry professionals such asKinda Funny's Blessing Adeoye Jr.,Naughty Dog'sHalley Gross, andGameSpot'sKallie Plagge.The presentation was aired on December 10, 2020,live streamedacross more than 45 online platforms.It aired on more than ten networks in China, includingBilibili,Douyin, andHuya Live, and on several networks in India includingDisney+ Hotstar,JioTV, andMX Player. Announcements Around April and May in 2020, Keighley was worried about a potential lack of game announcements due to theimpact of COVID-19 on the industry; however, several developers were able to submit their announcements and trailers for demonstration.Announcements on recently released and upcoming games were made for: New games announced during the ceremony included: Winners and nominees The nominees for The Game Awards 2020 were announced on November 18, 2020.Any game released on or before November 20, 2020 was eligible for consideration.The nominees were compiled by a jury panel with members from 96 media outlets globally;ballots were sent to outlets on October 29 and due back on November 6, though they had until November 13 to submit updated ballots. Outlets were required to submit three games for each category to determine the nominees.Winners were determined between the jury (90%) and public votes (10%); the latter was held via the official website and on social media platforms such asFacebookandTwitter, and closed on December 9.The two exceptions were the Most Anticipated Game and Player's Voice awards, which were fully nominated and voted-on by the public;the former was determined exclusively on Twitter and announced during the show,and the latter was announced on December 8 after several rounds of voting.A new Innovation in Accessibility award was added for games that featured notableaccessibility options.Around 18.3 million people participated in the public vote, doubling from the previous show. Awards Winners are listed first, highlighted inboldface, and indicated with a double dagger (‡). Video games Esports and creators Games with multiple nominations and awards Multiple nominations The Last of Us Part IIreceived eleven nominations, the most in the show's history. Other games with multiple nominations includedHadeswith nine,Ghost of Tsushimawith eight,Final Fantasy VII Remakewith six, andDoom Eternalwith five.Sony Interactive Entertainmenthad 26 total nominations, more than any other publisher, followed bySupergiant GamesandXbox Game Studioswith eight. Multiple awards The Last of Us Part IIreceived the most wins in the show's history, with seven. Four games—Among Us,Final Fantasy VII Remake,Ghost of Tsushima, andHades—won two awards. Across its two winning games, Sony Interactive Entertainment won a total of nine awards, whileInnersloth,Square Enix, Supergiant Games, and Xbox Game Studios won two. Presenters and performers Presenters The following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or introduced trailers. All other awards were presented by Keighley or Goodman. Performers The following individuals or groups performed musical numbers.A planned orchestral version ofCyberpunk 2077's music was scrapped when the game was delayed to the same day as the ceremony, rendering it ineligible for nomination. Ratings and reception Nominees Inverse's Corey Plante felt the cutoff date led to several games getting snubbed, includingDemon's SoulsandMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales, as well asPokémon SwordandShield, which was eligible for both the2019and 2020 awards but was unrecognized in both. He feltGhost of Tsushimawas more deserving of a Best Score and Music nomination thanDoom Eternal.Den of Geek's Matthew Byrd similarly lamented the lack of recognition forDemon's SoulsandMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales.Kat Bailey ofUSgamerquestionedDoom Eternal'snomination for Game of the Year, describing it as \"messy, unfocused, and, well, just not as good\" as its predecessor.Kotaku Australia's Alex Walker similarly found the nomination misplaced and considered games likeHalf-Life: AlyxandMicrosoft Flight Simulatormore deserving. Ceremony The show received a mixed reception from media publications.VentureBeat'sDean Takahashipraised the ceremony, particularly applauding its celebration of diverse games such asThe Last of Us Part IIandTell Me Whyas well as the varied and interesting new game announcements.Todd Martens ofLos Angeles Timesfelt the show should have allowed more time for the developers to speak and discuss their artistic visions behind the games, noting the presentation does little to demonstratevideo games as art.Eurogamer's Martin Robinson said the show was understandably \"low-key\" but called it a \"three-hour long advert\".Inverse's Ana Diaz criticized the rapid announcement of winners between premieres and during the preshow, preventing developers from accepting the awards, and its focus onHollywoodactors over game creators. Similar to concerns overDeath Stranding'spredominance in the nominations and ceremony for the 2019 awards due to its creatorHideo Kojima's friendship with Keighley, some viewers shared concerns related toThe Last of Us Part IIat the 2020 awards, both for its awards success and due to the developer'scrunchpractices.The Last of Us Part IIwas well-received at release but narrative elements polarized some critics and players, and the game had been subject toreview bombing;Keighley clarified the awards were not rigged in the manner some viewers had suggested and there was no influence of Naughty Dog or its staff on the award selection, citing the game's popularity among players and media alike as proven by its runner-up placement in the Player's Voice award.Kotaku'sIan Walker criticized the game's Best Game Direction win, notingHadesshould have won due to developer Supergiant Games's less demanding work culture.TheGamer's Peter Glagowski similarly felt the game's awards were a message excusing crunch culture in game development.Keighley felt it would be difficult to incorporate criteria related to games developed under poor industry practices like crunch into the awards selection process without becoming aslippery slope, but believes discussions of these practices should be a conversation held by the larger community. Viewership Over 83 million streams were used to view the ceremony, the most in the show's history to date,with 8.3 million concurrent viewers at its peak.OnTwitch, the show had over 2.63 million concurrent viewers, more than double the previous year, with 9,000 creators co-streaming the ceremony. OnYouTube, live viewership increased 84 percent over the previous year. In total, live hours viewed increased by over 129 percent acrossFacebook Gaming, Twitch, and YouTube. The showtrended worldwide on Twitter, with a 31 percent increase in conversation from the previous year, while usage of thehashtag#TheGameAwards increased 107 percent.Keighley expressed his surprise by the consistent growth of the show over the years, but confessed it has led him to fear \"that year where it doesn't grow ... There's going to be a year where we don't have the same viewers\". Notes References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirby_(series\",\n \"Masahiro Sakurai Masahiro Sakurai(桜井 政博,Sakurai Masahiro, born August 3, 1970)is a Japanese video game director andgame designerbest known as the creator of theKirbyandSuper Smash Bros.series. Apart from his work on those series, he also led the design ofMeteosin 2005 and directedKid Icarus: Uprisingin 2012. Formerly an employee ofHAL Laboratory, Sakurai left the company in 2003 and in 2005 with his wife Michiko Sakurai (also ex-HAL Laboratory) founded their companySora Ltd., under which they work on a freelance basis. He was also an author of a weekly column forFamitsumagazine from 2003 to 2021, and has done voice acting work in some of his games, most notably providing the voice ofKing DededeinKirby 64: The Crystal Shardsand theSuper Smash Bros.series. From 2022 to 2024, Sakurai has been creating videos for hisYouTubechannel,Masahiro Sakurai on Creating Games, where he discusses game design and his career. Career Masahiro Sakurai was born on August 3, 1970, inMusashimurayama, Tokyo, Japan. One of Sakurai's earliest experiences in the video game industry began when he worked forHAL Laboratory, where he created the characterKirbyat age 19 and directed his first title,Kirby's Dream Land. Sakurai left HAL on August 5, 2003. He explained in an interview withNintendo Dreamthat that he felt it would be difficult to create new projects while staying at HAL due to the direction of the gaming industry, where the risk of failure was high. While he was not being pressured by HAL to createKirbysequels, he noted increasing tension within the industry as a whole: \\\"It was tough for me to see that every time I made a new game, people automatically assumed that a sequel was coming. Even if it's a sequel, lots of people have to give their all to make a game, but some people think the sequel process happens naturally.\\\" Soon after, Sakurai began working on a project withQ Entertainment, along withTetsuya Mizuguchi. This collaboration resulted inMeteosin 2005, a puzzle game for theNintendo DS. On September 30, 2005, Sakurai announced that he had formed his own company, Sora Ltd.Two games were announced to be in development but no information on the titles had been divulged. As for the future of theSuper Smash Bros.series, Nintendo and HAL Laboratory presidentSatoru Iwata, during Nintendo'sE3 2005press conference, promised an online iteration of the game would come to theNintendo Wii. In issue #885 ofFamitsumagazine, Sakurai revealed that he would be serving as a director and game designer onSuper Smash Bros. Brawlfor theWii.Super Smash Bros. Brawlwas released in 2008, after personnel borrowed from 19 different developer studios assisted in development.Sakurai had been updating daily theSuper Smash Bros Brawlwebsite called the Smash Bros. Dojo. Starting a year previous the release, he revealedBrawlsecrets and gameplay content through the site. The Smash Bros. Dojo had regular updates from May 22, 2007, to April 14, 2008. On the final day of updates, it was revealed that Sakurai provided the voice forKing DededeinKirby 64: The Crystal Shardsas well as Dedede inSuper Smash Bros. Brawl. He and his company, Sora Ltd. alongside Nintendo, started a first-party studio,Project Sora, which was 72% owned by Nintendo and 28% owned by Sora Ltd. It was revealed atE3 2010that Sakurai and Project Sora were working onKid Icarus: Uprisingfor the Nintendo 3DS. Project Sora was closed and ended development on June 30, 2012.AtE3 2011, Nintendo announced that Sakurai was working onSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U. Sakurai began development of the title upon the release ofKid Icarus: Uprisingin March 2012. In February 2013, Sakurai was diagnosed withcalcific tendinitisnear his right shoulder, which caused him substantial pain whenever he moved his arm. He mentioned that this could effectively slow down his work, as he does some of hisgame testinghimself.Sakurai's wife, Michiko, has worked on the graphical user interface for many of his games, includingKirby Air Ride,Meteos, and theSuper Smash Bros.series. In a January 2015 column inWeekly Famitsu, Sakurai alluded to the possibility of retirement, expressing doubt that he would be able to continue making games if his career continued to be as stressful as it was.In December 2015, Sakurai once again stated that he was not sure if there would be another game in theSmash Bros.series,prior toSuper Smash Bros. Ultimatebeing released in 2018 with Sakurai once again as director. On March 14, 2022, Sakurai was awarded Best Creator byWeekly Famitsu. Sakurai also announced that he is working on a new project not related to game production. Masahiro Sakurai on Creating Games Sakurai launchedMasahiro Sakurai on Creating Games, aYouTubechannel in both English and Japanese in August 2022. The channel's videos are focused on game development and design as well as his career.He stated that the channel was founded because he wanted to reach more people with his lessons after being asked tolectureat schools. Sakurai additionally noted that other venues for lessons from game developers, such as theGame Developers Conference, focused on more advanced, technical details, rather than more basic principles.Less than a day after its launch, the English edition of his channel gained over 200,000 subscribers.The opening and ending jingles for the channel were composed byYuzo Koshiro. Works Notes References External links\",\n \"Super Smash Bros. Ultimate Super Smash Bros. Ultimateis a 2018crossoverfighting gamedeveloped byBandai Namco StudiosandSora Ltd. and published byNintendofor theNintendo Switch. It is the fifthinstallment in theSuper Smash Bros.series, succeedingSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U(2014). The game follows the series' traditional style of gameplay, in which players control one of thevarious charactersand use attacks to weaken their opponents and knock them out of an arena. It features a wide variety ofgame modes, including asingle-playercampaignandmultiplayerversus modes.Ultimatefeatures 89 playable fighters, including all characters from previousSuper Smash Bros.games as well as newcomers. The roster ranges from Nintendo characters to those fromthird-partyfranchises. Planning for the game had begun by December 2015, with full development starting after the completion of3DS/Wii U'sdownloadable content(DLC). Series creator and directorMasahiro Sakuraireturned along with Bandai Namco Studios and Sora, the studios that developed3DS/Wii U,with their return speeding up the preparation process. Sakurai's goal withUltimatewas to include every character from previous games in the series, despite the various development and licensing challenges this would present. Several well-known video game musicians contributed to the soundtrack, withHideki Sakamotowriting the main theme \\\"Lifelight\\\". Nintendo first teasedUltimatein aNintendo Directin March 2018 and fully revealed it atE3 2018the following June. It later received two additional Directs prior to its release on December 7, 2018. The game received universal acclaim, with some critics calling it the best game in the series; they praised its large amount of content and fine-tuning of existingSmashgameplay elements, although its online mode received criticism.Ultimateis the best-selling fighting game of all time and one of thebest-selling on the Switch, having sold over 34 million copies as of March 2024. It is also a popularcompetitive fighting gameand has been cited as one of thegreatest video games of all time.Ultimatereceiveddownloadable contentadding new fighters, stages, and other content for nearly three years after release. Gameplay Super Smash Bros. Ultimateis aplatform fighterfor up to eight players in which characters fromNintendogames and third-party franchises fight to knock each other out of an arena. Each player has a percentage meter which raises as they take damage, thus increasing the knockback they take and making them easier to launch in the air and out of the arena.Standard battles use one of three victory conditions: Timed, where players aim to win the most points by defeating opponents within a time limit; Stock, where players have a set number of lives and aim to be the last player standing; and Stamina, where players reduce their opponent's health down to zero to defeat them. Players can adjust the rules to their liking and save them as presets for future matches. Players can also enable various items which attack enemies or grant them power-ups, along with Poké Balls and Assist Trophies, which respectively summonPokémonand other non-playable characters to assist them in battle. In Timed matches, certain Assist Trophies can be attacked and defeated to earn points.Each character also possesses a powerful Final Smash attack, which can be performed either by obtaining a Smash Ball or by filling up a special meter, both of which can be toggled on and off.The base game features 104 different stages, with additional stages being added alongside DLC fighters. Stages can be played in alternative Battlefield and Omega forms or toggled to remove stage hazards. A new feature called Stage Morph allows players to select two stages that the game alternates between at certain intervals during a match.Other tweaks include new icons and gauges for character-specific abilities, such asCloud's Limit gauge. In addition to returning modes such as Classic, Special Smash, and Home-Run Contest,Ultimateadds new modes. These are Smashdown, where each character can only be played once; Squad Strike, where players battle in teams of multiple characters; and a tournament mode that allows up to 32 players to battle in playoff brackets. Spirits Ultimateintroduces the Spirits mechanic, replacing the collectible trophies from previous games. Each of these Spirits, based on characters from represented franchises, can be used to power up a fighter with unique abilities.Players mainly gain Spirits through pre-made challenges called \\\"Spirit Battles\\\" that represent the character the Spirit depicts, which are embodied by one or more of the game's fighters and other specific level effects. For example, the Spirit battle of Rayquaza, a flying dragon Pokémon, requires players to defeat a large version of Ridley with a similar color palette and wind effects. Players are encouraged to strategically choose Spirits based on the level effects; in the same example, a player would need to equip a Spirit that provides wind resistance or immunity, or one that allows them to deal extra damage to a giant opponent. A separate mode called the Spirit Board presents a rotating set of Spirit battles for players to gain Spirits from. Spirits have a growth and evolution system, in which they can be leveled up to become more powerful or converted into Cores to summon new Spirits.Certain Spirits will also become an \\\"enhanced\\\" form upon reaching max level, but will return to level 1. Nintendo offers limited-timed Spirit events in cross-promotion with other games and franchises, with the Spirits featured only available to collect during the event. Eventually, these Spirits make their way into general rotation and can be found on the Spirit Board.The local multiplayer mode also allows for the option to use Spirits. World of Light Ultimatefeatures the return of Adventure Mode, which was absent in3DS/Wii U.It is now integrated into the Spirits mode with a new story,World of Light, which prominently uses the game's Spirit mechanics.The mode's narrative begins with an evil entity, Galeem, destroying theSmash Bros.world, vaporizing almost all of the fighter characters and placing them under his imprisonment; onlyKirby, due to his Warp Star, evades this attack.Players explore the titular World of Light, a new world that Galeem created in the original world's place, to rescue captured fighters and Spirits -the remnants of other characters' physical forms- by completing marked Spirit Battles. Players can use regained allies and Spirits to overcome certain challenges on the map and defeat Galeem.However, after Galeem is defeated, a new enemy, Dharkon, emerges; after Dharkon's defeat, it wages war against Galeem. If just Galeem is defeated, Dharkon will engulf the world in darkness, but if just Dharkon is defeated, then Galeem will cover the universe with light. However, by defeating an equal amount of light and dark Spirits on the final map, players are able to challenge and defeat both of them, freeing the Spirits from their control and allowing them to return to the real world. Additional features The game supports local multiplayer, local wireless with other systems, and online play viaWi-FiorLAN connections. By defeating players online, players earn tags which can be traded for in-game currency to buy new Spirits, music, andMiiFighter costumes. The game is compatible withJoy-Concontrollers, theNintendo Switch Pro Controller, andGameCube controllersvia a USB adapter.Like the previous entry,amiibofigurines can be used to create AI-controlled Figure Players, which can be trained to become stronger.Shortly after the game's release, a service for the Nintendo Switch Online mobile app, known as \\\"Smash World\\\", was launched, which allows players to check their game statistics and share images and videos captured from the game to social media.Ultimatefeatures over 900 music tracks, which can be played through the Switch's handheld mode while in standby mode.Version 3.0 of the game, released in April 2019, adds a Stage Builder, which allows players to create custom stages which can be shared or downloaded through the Switch Online service. The update also includes a replay editor, allowing players to edit stored replays, which can be shared online or downloaded to other devices. These replays are available within the Smash World app.An update in May 2019 provided limited support for thevirtual realityVR Kit ofNintendo Labo, allowing players to view computer-only matches in VR or play in a 1-on-1 mode against the computer.An update in September 2019 added the Home-Run Contest mode from previousSmashgames. Playable characters Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, like other games in theSuper Smash Bros.series, features acrossovercast of fighters from several differentNintendo franchises, as well as fighters from series bythird-partydevelopers such asKonami,Sega,Capcom,Bandai Namco Entertainment,Square Enix,PlatinumGames,Microsoft,SNK, andDisney. The base game features 74 playable fighters,consisting of all 63 previous fighters from past entries and 11 newcomers: theInklingsfromSplatoon;Princess Daisyfrom theMarioseries;Ridleyand Dark Samus from theMetroidseries;Simon Belmontand Richter Belmont from theCastlevaniaseries;ChromfromFire Emblem Awakening;King K. Roolfrom theDonkey Kongseries;Isabellefrom theAnimal Crossingseries;Ken Mastersfrom theStreet Fighterseries; and Incineroar fromPokémon SunandMoon.When starting the game, players only have access to the eight starter characters of the originalSuper Smash Bros.and unlock the rest by completing the game's Classic modes, playing through World of Light, or fighting a certain amount of battles. Certain characters whose movesets are directly based on other characters are now classified as \\\"Echo Fighters\\\", possessing similar movesets and proportions to the fighters they are based on, but with unique animations and gameplay differences. On the character selection screen, these characters can either be listed individually or stacked with the fighters they are based on.Select characters also have alternative skins featuring different genders or sometimes other characters, such asBowser Jr., who has the otherKoopalingsas skins, but with identical animations and abilities.Several returning characters received updates to their appearances, such asMariohaving Cappy fromSuper Mario Odysseyaccompanying him andThe Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild's incarnation ofLinkreplacing the one fromTwilight Princess. Additional fighters have been added to the game via post-releasedownloadable content(DLC). The first of these,Piranha Plantfrom theMarioseries, was released in January 2019 and made available for free to those who purchased and registered the game with aMy Nintendoaccount before the end of that month.Additional fighters, each coming with a unique stage and related music, have been released both individually and as part of two Fighters Pass bundles.The first Fighters Pass consisted of five characters:JokerfromAtlus'Persona 5, released in April 2019;the Herofrom Square Enix'sDragon Questseries, released in July 2019;Banjo & KazooiefromRare'sBanjo-Kazooieseries, released in September 2019;Terry BogardfromSNK'sFatal Furyseries, released in November 2019;andBylethfromFire Emblem: Three Houses, released in January 2020. The second Fighters Pass, titled Fighters Pass Volume 2, consisted of six additional fighters and was the final content planned forUltimate.The first character in this collection,Min MinfromARMS, was released in June 2020.Steve,the default player avatar fromMojang Studios'Minecraft, was released in October 2020.Sephiroth, the antagonist from Square Enix'sFinal Fantasy VII, was released in December 2020, with players able to unlock him a few days early by defeating him in a limited-time boss battle known as the \\\"Sephiroth Challenge\\\".Pyra and Mythra, a dual character fromXenoblade Chronicles 2, were released in March 2021.Kazuya Mishimafrom Bandai Namco'sTekkenseries was released in June 2021.SorafromDisneyand Square Enix seriesKingdom Heartswas the final fighter to be added in October 2021. Development Super Smash Bros. Ultimatewas developed byBandai Namco StudiosandSora Ltd., the same studios that developedSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U, for theNintendo Switch, with series creatorMasahiro Sakuraireturning as game director.Unlike previousSuper Smash Bros.games, the team was not assembled from the ground up, which sped up preparation time.The project plan for the game was in the works by December 2015, when the DLC for3DSandWii Uwas in development,and finished after it was completed.Staff gathering was done soon afterward.The development period was shorter compared to previous entries in the series.Hatenaassisted with the development of some elements,andtri-Crescendocontributed to programming and design. According to Sakurai, producing aSuper Smash Bros.game for the Switch was the last request that former Nintendo presidentSatoru Iwatahad given him before his death in 2015, and he wanted to make the game the best possible product he could to respect him.Sakurai sought to include every character from previous games, as to not disappoint fans.However, he knew this would be a complex problem for both development and licensing;it would also drastically increase the cost of development. The return of Bandai and Sora made it easier for this to happen.Sakurai also wanted to adjust character abilities to speed up the game,although not to an extent that would alienate players unfamiliar with the series.Sakurai knew thatUltimatewas a core game for Nintendo and that it had a dedicated player base that he did not want to disappoint, and believed that completing this goal was necessary to satisfy them.Sakurai was also faced with the decision to either create a completely new game system or build off of pre-existing ones; he chose to build off pre-existing ones because there would only be about a third of the characters he desired in the final game.All the returning characters' abilities had to be re-balancedso they could work inUltimate.Originally, gameplay would differ between the Switch's docked and handheld modes, but Sakurai scrapped this idea since the system's screen in handheld mode was better than he thought.Sakurai believed this would be the onlySmashgame to have the full roster of returning characters, calling the effort to include the characters, music, stage settings, and other elements as \\\"unprecedented\\\", and cautioned that future games in the series would likely be smaller in scope. However, he still wanted to add as many fighters as possible through DLC. Voice lines recorded byDavid Hayterfor Snake were re-used forUltimate.Xander Mobus, who voiced Crazy Hand,Master Hand, and the announcer inSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U,also made a return with new voice clips, in addition to reprising his role asJokerfromPersona 5when he was added as DLC.The addition of Ridley fromMetroidas a playable character had been highly requested within theSuper Smash Bros.community for some time. In 2008, Sakurai stated that he knew Ridley was a high-demand character, but thought that he was \\\"impossible\\\" to add unless they were able to sacrifice the character's size for balancing purposes.So that Ridley could be included in the game, Sakurai studied the art of the character and redesigned him so he could stand upright.All characters were chosen at the beginning of development except for Incineroar, who had not been created yet;the team instead left a space open for aSun and MoonPokémon. The Inklings' inkmechanicproved challenging to implement due to its interactions with environments. The team builtUltimatefrom scratch with new assets and content. Localization manager Nate Bihldorff stated that the game significantly upgraded lighting effects and texture rendering from thegame engineof theWii Uversion.The World of Light mode was inspired byBrawl's(2008) Subspace Emissary, and Sakurai chose to start it with a cataclysmic event because he thought it would leave a greater impact on players.The team conceived the Spirits mechanic because they wanted to create an enjoyable single-player mode, but did not have enough resources to createcharacter models. While it did not let them tell stories for individual fighters or create new locations and rules, it let them use various characters and assets.One part of the team chose Spirits to include in the game and had to thoroughly research them; according to Sakurai, the Spirits mode was essential for using various franchises. Music Like previous games in the series,Ultimatefeatures several well-known video game music composers and arrangers providing a mix of original music and rearrangements of various tracks for the represented franchises, with over 1,000 tracks in total.New toUltimateis the tying of tracks to franchises instead of individual stages, as well as the ability to create custom playlists to listen to outside the game when the Switch is in handheld mode.Sakurai stated that he began contacting composers over a year before release, providing them with a database of over a thousand suggested track ideas.In addition, he allowed them to submit their own personal favorites, with those choices being given priority for inclusion.While Sakurai oversaw the process and preferred that the music retain the spirit of the original games, the direction of them was generally handled by the composers themselves.The main theme, \\\"Lifelight\\\", composed byHideki Sakamoto, is the basis of most of the game's original music. Downloadable content As with previous entries, Nintendo planned to offer new fighters through DLC; however, unlike with the3DSandWii U,where players could request which characters they wished to see in the game, Nintendo chose which characters they would add by November 2018.Like the previous title, additional Mii costumes were released as paid DLC, with certain costumes also adding new music tracks to the game.Sakurai believed that despite characters likeJoker, the first announced DLC fighter, not being from games usually associated with Nintendo, they were added because they were \\\"emblematic\\\" of the types of characters they wanted to add toUltimate.He also stated that they \\\"bring just a whole different level of fun and enjoyment for players\\\".The Piranha Plant was chosen as a DLC character because Sakurai wanted to add diversity to the roster.Nintendo met withRarestudio head Craig Duncan at E3 2018 to discuss the possibility of including Banjo and Kazooie as downloadable content; Duncan, believing it to be \\\"a great opportunity\\\", agreed and connected the two development teams for further discussions.Sakurai noted that Banjo and Kazooie were the second most requested character forSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii Uin a Nintendo-sanctioned fan vote in 2015,and that their addition happened \\\"quite easily\\\", despite the property being owned byMicrosoftthrough its acquisition ofRare.Phil Spencer, the head ofXbox, stated that negotiating their inclusion was \\\"an easy deal to make\\\" thanks to Microsoft's strong partnership with Nintendo. The development of Fighters Pass Volume 2 was heavily affected by theCOVID-19 pandemicin 2020, as due tostay-at-home ordersin Japan, Sakurai and his development team had to work remotely.According to Daniel Kaplan ofMojang Studios, early discussions between Nintendo andMicrosoftincludingMinecraftcontent in theSuper Smash Bros.series had begun roughly five years prior to Steve's addition into the game.The character's inclusion required the development team to rework every stage in the game to accommodate Steve's gameplay mechanics.Sakurai had wanted to includeSorafromKingdom Heartsin the game because he was the top fighter requested forNintendo 3DSandWii Uin the 2015 fan vote.However, they initially thought that the legality surrounding the intellectual property withDisneywould be insurmountable, and originally planned for only five fighters in the second pass. However, Sakurai met a Disney representative at an award venue, which facilitated the start of negotiations for Sora's inclusion. Nintendo, Disney, andSquare Enixsaw towards including Sora in the game and overseeing all aspects related to his inclusion, with several limitations and guidelines they were required to follow.The Sora Challenger Pack featured a promotional tie-in with the 2020 rhythm gameKingdom Hearts: Melody of Memory: players withMelody of Memorysave data on their Nintendo Switch would unlock the music track \\\"Dearly Beloved (Swing Version)\\\". Release Ultimatewas teased during aNintendo Directpresentation on March 8, 2018, under theworking titleSuper Smash Bros., with the release year shown to be 2018. Nintendo formally announced the game atE3 2018, revealing that the full roster of characters from past games would be included, as well as its release date.Demoversions were playable at E3 in June and atSan Diego Comic-Conthe following month.IGNnominatedUltimatefor its Best Game of E3 2018 award; the game won Best Nintendo Switch Game from bothIGNandGamescom.Two Nintendo Direct presentations in 2018, one on August 8 and another one on November 1, were devoted to the game, revealing new characters, stages, and game modes. Nintendo releasedSuper Smash Bros. Ultimateworldwide on December 7, 2018.In addition to the standard retail version, a special edition containing aSuper Smash Bros.-themedNintendo Switch Pro Controllerand a Switch with a download code was also released.An additional special edition contained a pair ofSuper Smash Bros.-themedJoy-Conas well as a Switch console, aSuper Smash Bros.-themed dock, and a download code for the game.AGameCube controllerwith theSuper Smash Bros. Ultimatelogo was released on November 2, 2018. One of the game's new additions had the characterMr. Game & Watchassuming the appearance of a feather- and loincloth-wearingNative Americanwhen using one of his attacks—a reference toFire Attack(1982), in which players controlled acowboydefending his fort from attacking indigenous people. Some users on social media saw this as racist, leading to Nintendo of America apologizing and removing the animation in an update shortly after release.Two weeks before its release, a leaked copy of the game was distributed across the internet. Nintendo took steps to issue copyright strikes on YouTube videos usingdata minedcontent, while fans worked to isolatespoilers, particularly the World of Light story mode, from those that had played the leaked version. Reception Ultimatereceived \\\"universal acclaim\\\" from critics, according to thereview aggregatorplatformMetacritic.Critics lauded the huge cast of characters and levels, new game modes, and combining of the best elements from its predecessors.French video game websiteJeuxvideo.comcalled it the best game in the series, praising its features which \\\"brilliantly mix gargantuan content with nostalgia\\\".Bleacher Reporthailed the game's colorful art style, faster gameplay, and unique stages.IGNpraised the game's decision to bring back every character from the series as \\\"ambitious and excellent\\\".The game's massive soundtrack and portable music player were praised byThe Verge. However, the game's online mode received criticism for its technical performance and matchmaking. Many players found significantlagaffecting their games, even when using wired connections over wireless, while the game's matchmaking features did not adhere to players' criteria, with players frequently playing matches with rule sets they did not choose. The matchmaking process was further criticized for making it difficult for friends to join matches over random players, and not allowing multiple local players to join in online matches.There had been so many complaints onUltimate'ssubredditthat the administrators forwarded all complaints to a separate thread.Ultimate'sWorld of Lightmode also received mixed reviews. While some found the single-player mode both accessible and challenging,others found the mode tedious and excessive. Sales In November 2018, Nintendo announcedUltimatewas the most pre-ordered game for the Switch and in the series.The Association for UK Interactive Entertainmentreported thatUltimatewas the fastest-selling Switch andSuper Smash Bros.game in the United Kingdom, with physical launch sales 302% higher than those forSuper Smash Bros. for Wii U, 233% higher than those for3DS, and 62.5% higher than those forBrawl.In its first three days on sale in Japan, the game sold 1.2 million copies, outsellingPokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu!andLet's Go, Eevee!andThe Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wildin the region. Within 11 days of its release,Ultimatehad sold more than three million copies within the United States, making it the fastest-selling Switch game in the country.It was similarly the fastest-selling Switch game as well as the fastest-selling game for any Nintendo console in Europe based on the first 11-day sales.It was estimated that the game sold and shipped over five million copies within its first three days of release.Within three weeks,Ultimatebecame the fifth best-selling Switch game in the United Kingdom, surpassing the sales ofSplatoon 2.In January 2019,Amazonreported thatUltimatewas their highest selling video game product of 2018,with Nintendo officially announcing that the game had shipped over 12.08 million copies worldwide.Ultimatewas also Nintendo's fastest-selling game of all time until being surpassed byPokémon SwordandShieldin 2019.By September 2020, the game had sold over 21.10 million copies worldwide,making it the best-selling fighting game of all time,surpassing the record ofStreet Fighter II,and became thethird-best-selling Nintendo Switch game, only behindAnimal Crossing: New HorizonsandMario Kart 8 Deluxe. As of June 30, 2024, total sales reached34.66million. Awards The game won the award for \\\"Best Nintendo Switch Game\\\", \\\"Best Fighting Game\\\", and \\\"Best Multiplayer Game\\\" inIGN's Best of 2018 Awards, whereas its other nominations were for \\\"Game of the Year\\\" and \\\"Best Video Game Music\\\". Esports EVO 2019, held on August 2–4, 2019, featuredUltimateas one of its main events. It was the largest offlineSmash Bros.tournament of all time, with 3,534 entrants signed up.It set a new record for EVO concurrent viewership, with over 279,000 viewers during Top 8.On May 8–10, 2020, topSuper Smash Bros. MeleeplayerHungryboxpartnered withNFLrunning backLe'Veon Belland esports organizationTeam Liquidto host The Box, an online tournament with a $10,000 prize pool.With over 8,000 entrants, it was the largest onlineSmash Bros.tournament of all time. In February 2020, it was announced that the Smash World Tour would feature bothSuper Smash Bros. MeleeandUltimateplayers for a grand prize pool of $250,000. The tournament would have included international qualifiers, with the grand finals' location to be in the United States.However, theCOVID-19 pandemicquickly led to several of the qualifiers getting either postponed or canceled.The Smash World Tour was successfully relaunched in 2021, featuring a mix of online and offline qualifiers and culminating in a final offline championship.In 2022, an officially licensed circuit was introduced, being the Panda Cup, featuringSuper Smash Bros. MeleeandSuper Smash Bros. Ultimate.However on November 24, 2022, Nintendo stated that the Smash World Tour 2022 could not continue, as they did not have a license from Nintendo. Accusations of Panda CEO, Alan Bunney, caused many players who had qualified for the Panda Cup to drop out. This caused both the Panda Cup and the Smash World Tour 2022 Championships to be cancelled, along with the Smash World Tour 2023. Notes References External links\",\n \"The Game Awards 2020 The Game Awards 2020was an award show that honored the bestvideo games of 2020. It was produced and hosted byGeoff Keighley, and took place on December 10, 2020. The preshow ceremony was hosted by Sydnee Goodman. Unlike previousGame Awards, the show was broadcast virtually due to theCOVID-19 pandemic; Keighley presented at a soundstage inLos Angeles, while musical performances took place virtually at stages inLondonandTokyo. The show introduced the award's first Future Class, a list of individuals from the video game industry who best represent the future of video games, Innovation in Accessibility award, an award for games that featured notableaccessibility options. The show waslive streamedacross 45 different platforms. It featured musical performances from theLondon Philharmonic OrchestraandEddie Vedder, and presentations from celebrity guests, includingReggie Fils-Aimé,Gal Gadot,Brie Larson, andKeanu Reeves. The Last of Us Part IIreceived the most nominations and wins in the show's history—eleven and seven, respectively—and was awardedGame of the Year.Neil DruckmannandHalley Grosswon Best Narrative for their work on the game, whileLaura Baileywas awarded Best Performance for her role asAbby. Several new games were announced, includingArk II,Perfect Dark, andan untitledMass Effectgame. The show was the most expensive ceremony to date. It was viewed by over 83 million streams, the most in its history to date,with 8.3 million concurrent viewers at its peak. It received a mixed reception from media publications, with praise directed at new game announcements, and criticism for not allowing developers more time to speak. Some critics and viewers shared concerns over the success ofThe Last of Us Part IIdue to its developer'scrunchpractices. Background As with previous iterations ofThe Game Awards, the 2020 show was hosted and produced by Canadian games journalistGeoff Keighley. He returned as an executive producer alongside Kimmie Kim, and Richard Preuss and LeRoy Bennett returned as director and creative director, respectively.Sydnee Goodman returned as host of the preshow.Due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, Keighley did not want to host a normal ceremony.Not wanting to take a hiatus and inspired by the success ofSummer Game Fest,he considered hosting from his home but his board urged him to attempt a larger show on par with previous years.In case of a significant surge ofCOVID-19 cases in California, the crew had several back-up plans, including broadcasting from Keighley's house.He worked with his partners to develop a virtual show;he and his team took inspiration from other shows throughout the year, including theDemocratic National Convention, in which the \\\"audience\\\" was featured on virtual screens,as well as the72nd Primetime Emmy Awards, wherein the hosts were isolated on stage and the winners accepted viavideo call. The presentation used three soundstages in Los Angeles, London, and Tokyo; each had minimal attendees, mostly related to production crew and presenters. Keighley said this allowed them to include additional presentation events as with past shows, as well as explore taking future shows to different venues.The 2020 show—featuring a production of more than 400 people, six of whom are full-time employees—had a budget of underUS$10 millionand was the most expensive to date, partly due to theCOVID-19 testsrequired for the crew and the worldwide remote camera set-ups.It remained profitable due to revenue from advertisers and sponsors, as well as minor earnings from streaming services.The show's theme was strength and comfort due to the impact of the pandemic. Keighley wanted to implore the theme of unity, given the release of thePlayStation 5andXbox Series X/Sin November 2020; he citedThe Game Awards 2018as an example of this theme, which had led withNintendo'sReggie Fils-Aimé, Microsoft'sPhil Spencer, and Sony'sShawn Laydensharing the stage.Keighley felt the inclusion of film and television stars was an interesting way to show a wider appreciation for the industry. His team wanted to includeHenry Cavillin the show, but he was busy working onThe Witcher. While developing the show, Keighley spoke to hundreds of viewers viaZoomto discuss their own interests,often alongside industry figures likeValve CorporationpresidentGabe NewellandEpic Gamescreative director Donald Mustard.As with the previous show, the presentation ran alongside the Game Festival, consisting of playable demos and additional in-game content.The show introduced the award's first Future Class, a list of individuals from across the video game industry who best represent the future of video games. The inductees included industry professionals such asKinda Funny's Blessing Adeoye Jr.,Naughty Dog'sHalley Gross, andGameSpot'sKallie Plagge.The presentation was aired on December 10, 2020,live streamedacross more than 45 online platforms.It aired on more than ten networks in China, includingBilibili,Douyin, andHuya Live, and on several networks in India includingDisney+ Hotstar,JioTV, andMX Player. Announcements Around April and May in 2020, Keighley was worried about a potential lack of game announcements due to theimpact of COVID-19 on the industry; however, several developers were able to submit their announcements and trailers for demonstration.Announcements on recently released and upcoming games were made for: New games announced during the ceremony included: Winners and nominees The nominees for The Game Awards 2020 were announced on November 18, 2020.Any game released on or before November 20, 2020 was eligible for consideration.The nominees were compiled by a jury panel with members from 96 media outlets globally;ballots were sent to outlets on October 29 and due back on November 6, though they had until November 13 to submit updated ballots. Outlets were required to submit three games for each category to determine the nominees.Winners were determined between the jury (90%) and public votes (10%); the latter was held via the official website and on social media platforms such asFacebookandTwitter, and closed on December 9.The two exceptions were the Most Anticipated Game and Player's Voice awards, which were fully nominated and voted-on by the public;the former was determined exclusively on Twitter and announced during the show,and the latter was announced on December 8 after several rounds of voting.A new Innovation in Accessibility award was added for games that featured notableaccessibility options.Around 18.3 million people participated in the public vote, doubling from the previous show. Awards Winners are listed first, highlighted inboldface, and indicated with a double dagger (‡). Video games Esports and creators Games with multiple nominations and awards Multiple nominations The Last of Us Part IIreceived eleven nominations, the most in the show's history. Other games with multiple nominations includedHadeswith nine,Ghost of Tsushimawith eight,Final Fantasy VII Remakewith six, andDoom Eternalwith five.Sony Interactive Entertainmenthad 26 total nominations, more than any other publisher, followed bySupergiant GamesandXbox Game Studioswith eight. Multiple awards The Last of Us Part IIreceived the most wins in the show's history, with seven. Four games—Among Us,Final Fantasy VII Remake,Ghost of Tsushima, andHades—won two awards. Across its two winning games, Sony Interactive Entertainment won a total of nine awards, whileInnersloth,Square Enix, Supergiant Games, and Xbox Game Studios won two. Presenters and performers Presenters The following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or introduced trailers. All other awards were presented by Keighley or Goodman. Performers The following individuals or groups performed musical numbers.A planned orchestral version ofCyberpunk 2077's music was scrapped when the game was delayed to the same day as the ceremony, rendering it ineligible for nomination. Ratings and reception Nominees Inverse's Corey Plante felt the cutoff date led to several games getting snubbed, includingDemon's SoulsandMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales, as well asPokémon SwordandShield, which was eligible for both the2019and 2020 awards but was unrecognized in both. He feltGhost of Tsushimawas more deserving of a Best Score and Music nomination thanDoom Eternal.Den of Geek's Matthew Byrd similarly lamented the lack of recognition forDemon's SoulsandMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales.Kat Bailey ofUSgamerquestionedDoom Eternal'snomination for Game of the Year, describing it as \\\"messy, unfocused, and, well, just not as good\\\" as its predecessor.Kotaku Australia's Alex Walker similarly found the nomination misplaced and considered games likeHalf-Life: AlyxandMicrosoft Flight Simulatormore deserving. Ceremony The show received a mixed reception from media publications.VentureBeat'sDean Takahashipraised the ceremony, particularly applauding its celebration of diverse games such asThe Last of Us Part IIandTell Me Whyas well as the varied and interesting new game announcements.Todd Martens ofLos Angeles Timesfelt the show should have allowed more time for the developers to speak and discuss their artistic visions behind the games, noting the presentation does little to demonstratevideo games as art.Eurogamer's Martin Robinson said the show was understandably \\\"low-key\\\" but called it a \\\"three-hour long advert\\\".Inverse's Ana Diaz criticized the rapid announcement of winners between premieres and during the preshow, preventing developers from accepting the awards, and its focus onHollywoodactors over game creators. Similar to concerns overDeath Stranding'spredominance in the nominations and ceremony for the 2019 awards due to its creatorHideo Kojima's friendship with Keighley, some viewers shared concerns related toThe Last of Us Part IIat the 2020 awards, both for its awards success and due to the developer'scrunchpractices.The Last of Us Part IIwas well-received at release but narrative elements polarized some critics and players, and the game had been subject toreview bombing;Keighley clarified the awards were not rigged in the manner some viewers had suggested and there was no influence of Naughty Dog or its staff on the award selection, citing the game's popularity among players and media alike as proven by its runner-up placement in the Player's Voice award.Kotaku'sIan Walker criticized the game's Best Game Direction win, notingHadesshould have won due to developer Supergiant Games's less demanding work culture.TheGamer's Peter Glagowski similarly felt the game's awards were a message excusing crunch culture in game development.Keighley felt it would be difficult to incorporate criteria related to games developed under poor industry practices like crunch into the awards selection process without becoming aslippery slope, but believes discussions of these practices should be a conversation held by the larger community. Viewership Over 83 million streams were used to view the ceremony, the most in the show's history to date,with 8.3 million concurrent viewers at its peak.OnTwitch, the show had over 2.63 million concurrent viewers, more than double the previous year, with 9,000 creators co-streaming the ceremony. OnYouTube, live viewership increased 84 percent over the previous year. In total, live hours viewed increased by over 129 percent acrossFacebook Gaming, Twitch, and YouTube. The showtrended worldwide on Twitter, with a 31 percent increase in conversation from the previous year, while usage of thehashtag#TheGameAwards increased 107 percent.Keighley expressed his surprise by the consistent growth of the show over the years, but confessed it has led him to fear \\\"that year where it doesn't grow ... There's going to be a year where we don't have the same viewers\\\". Notes References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirby_(series","Masahiro Sakurai Masahiro Sakurai(桜井 政博,Sakurai Masahiro, born August 3, 1970)is a Japanese video game director andgame designerbest known as the creator of theKirbyandSuper Smash Bros.series. Apart from his work on those series, he also led the design ofMeteosin 2005 and directedKid Icarus: Uprisingin 2012. Formerly an employee ofHAL Laboratory, Sakurai left the company in 2003 and in 2005 with his wife Michiko Sakurai (also ex-HAL Laboratory) founded their companySora Ltd., under which they work on a freelance basis. He was also an author of a weekly column forFamitsumagazine from 2003 to 2021, and has done voice acting work in some of his games, most notably providing the voice ofKing DededeinKirby 64: The Crystal Shardsand theSuper Smash Bros.series. From 2022 to 2024, Sakurai has been creating videos for hisYouTubechannel,Masahiro Sakurai on Creating Games, where he discusses game design and his career. Career Masahiro Sakurai was born on August 3, 1970, inMusashimurayama, Tokyo, Japan. One of Sakurai's","One of Sakurai's earliest experiences in the video game industry began when he worked forHAL Laboratory, where he created the characterKirbyat age 19 and directed his first title,Kirby's Dream Land. Sakurai left HAL on August 5, 2003. He explained in an interview withNintendo Dreamthat that he felt it would be difficult to create new projects while staying at HAL due to the direction of the gaming industry, where the risk of failure was high. While he was not being pressured by HAL to createKirbysequels, he noted increasing tension within the industry as a whole: \"It was tough for me to see that every time I made a new game, people automatically assumed that a sequel was coming. Even if it's a sequel, lots of people have to give their all to make a game, but some people think the sequel process happens naturally.\" Soon after, Sakurai began working on a project withQ Entertainment, along withTetsuya Mizuguchi. This collaboration resulted inMeteosin 2005, a puzzle game for theNintendo DS. On September 30,","On September 30, 2005, Sakurai announced that he had formed his own company, Sora Ltd.Two games were announced to be in development but no information on the titles had been divulged. As for the future of theSuper Smash Bros.series, Nintendo and HAL Laboratory presidentSatoru Iwata, during Nintendo'sE3 2005press conference, promised an online iteration of the game would come to theNintendo Wii. In issue #885 ofFamitsumagazine, Sakurai revealed that he would be serving as a director and game designer onSuper Smash Bros. Brawlfor theWii.Super Smash Bros. Brawlwas released in 2008, after personnel borrowed from 19 different developer studios assisted in development.Sakurai had been updating daily theSuper Smash Bros Brawlwebsite called the Smash Bros. Dojo. Starting a year previous the release, he revealedBrawlsecrets and gameplay content through the site. The Smash Bros. Dojo had regular updates from May 22, 2007, to April 14, 2008. On the final day of updates, it was revealed that Sakurai provided the voice","provided the voice forKing DededeinKirby 64: The Crystal Shardsas well as Dedede inSuper Smash Bros. Brawl. He and his company, Sora Ltd. alongside Nintendo, started a first-party studio,Project Sora, which was 72% owned by Nintendo and 28% owned by Sora Ltd. It was revealed atE3 2010that Sakurai and Project Sora were working onKid Icarus: Uprisingfor the Nintendo 3DS. Project Sora was closed and ended development on June 30, 2012.AtE3 2011, Nintendo announced that Sakurai was working onSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U. Sakurai began development of the title upon the release ofKid Icarus: Uprisingin March 2012. In February 2013, Sakurai was diagnosed withcalcific tendinitisnear his right shoulder, which caused him substantial pain whenever he moved his arm. He mentioned that this could effectively slow down his work, as he does some of hisgame testinghimself.Sakurai's wife, Michiko, has worked on the graphical user interface for many of his games, includingKirby Air Ride,Meteos, and theSuper Smash","and theSuper Smash Bros.series. In a January 2015 column inWeekly Famitsu, Sakurai alluded to the possibility of retirement, expressing doubt that he would be able to continue making games if his career continued to be as stressful as it was.In December 2015, Sakurai once again stated that he was not sure if there would be another game in theSmash Bros.series,prior toSuper Smash Bros. Ultimatebeing released in 2018 with Sakurai once again as director. On March 14, 2022, Sakurai was awarded Best Creator byWeekly Famitsu. Sakurai also announced that he is working on a new project not related to game production. Masahiro Sakurai on Creating Games Sakurai launchedMasahiro Sakurai on Creating Games, aYouTubechannel in both English and Japanese in August 2022. The channel's videos are focused on game development and design as well as his career.He stated that the channel was founded because he wanted to reach more people with his lessons after being asked tolectureat schools. Sakurai additionally noted that other","noted that other venues for lessons from game developers, such as theGame Developers Conference, focused on more advanced, technical details, rather than more basic principles.Less than a day after its launch, the English edition of his channel gained over 200,000 subscribers.The opening and ending jingles for the channel were composed byYuzo Koshiro. Works Notes References External links","Super Smash Bros. Ultimate Super Smash Bros. Ultimateis a 2018crossoverfighting gamedeveloped byBandai Namco StudiosandSora Ltd. and published byNintendofor theNintendo Switch. It is the fifthinstallment in theSuper Smash Bros.series, succeedingSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U(2014). The game follows the series' traditional style of gameplay, in which players control one of thevarious charactersand use attacks to weaken their opponents and knock them out of an arena. It features a wide variety ofgame modes, including asingle-playercampaignandmultiplayerversus modes.Ultimatefeatures 89 playable fighters, including all characters from previousSuper Smash Bros.games as well as newcomers. The roster ranges from Nintendo characters to those fromthird-partyfranchises. Planning for the game had begun by December 2015, with full development starting after the completion of3DS/Wii U'sdownloadable content(DLC). Series creator and directorMasahiro Sakuraireturned along with Bandai Namco Studios and Sora, the","and Sora, the studios that developed3DS/Wii U,with their return speeding up the preparation process. Sakurai's goal withUltimatewas to include every character from previous games in the series, despite the various development and licensing challenges this would present. Several well-known video game musicians contributed to the soundtrack, withHideki Sakamotowriting the main theme \"Lifelight\". Nintendo first teasedUltimatein aNintendo Directin March 2018 and fully revealed it atE3 2018the following June. It later received two additional Directs prior to its release on December 7, 2018. The game received universal acclaim, with some critics calling it the best game in the series; they praised its large amount of content and fine-tuning of existingSmashgameplay elements, although its online mode received criticism.Ultimateis the best-selling fighting game of all time and one of thebest-selling on the Switch, having sold over 34 million copies as of March 2024. It is also a popularcompetitive fighting gameand","fighting gameand has been cited as one of thegreatest video games of all time.Ultimatereceiveddownloadable contentadding new fighters, stages, and other content for nearly three years after release. Gameplay Super Smash Bros. Ultimateis aplatform fighterfor up to eight players in which characters fromNintendogames and third-party franchises fight to knock each other out of an arena. Each player has a percentage meter which raises as they take damage, thus increasing the knockback they take and making them easier to launch in the air and out of the arena.Standard battles use one of three victory conditions: Timed, where players aim to win the most points by defeating opponents within a time limit; Stock, where players have a set number of lives and aim to be the last player standing; and Stamina, where players reduce their opponent's health down to zero to defeat them. Players can adjust the rules to their liking and save them as presets for future matches. Players can also enable various items which attack","items which attack enemies or grant them power-ups, along with Poké Balls and Assist Trophies, which respectively summonPokémonand other non-playable characters to assist them in battle. In Timed matches, certain Assist Trophies can be attacked and defeated to earn points.Each character also possesses a powerful Final Smash attack, which can be performed either by obtaining a Smash Ball or by filling up a special meter, both of which can be toggled on and off.The base game features 104 different stages, with additional stages being added alongside DLC fighters. Stages can be played in alternative Battlefield and Omega forms or toggled to remove stage hazards. A new feature called Stage Morph allows players to select two stages that the game alternates between at certain intervals during a match.Other tweaks include new icons and gauges for character-specific abilities, such asCloud's Limit gauge. In addition to returning modes such as Classic, Special Smash, and Home-Run Contest,Ultimateadds new modes. These","new modes. These are Smashdown, where each character can only be played once; Squad Strike, where players battle in teams of multiple characters; and a tournament mode that allows up to 32 players to battle in playoff brackets. Spirits Ultimateintroduces the Spirits mechanic, replacing the collectible trophies from previous games. Each of these Spirits, based on characters from represented franchises, can be used to power up a fighter with unique abilities.Players mainly gain Spirits through pre-made challenges called \"Spirit Battles\" that represent the character the Spirit depicts, which are embodied by one or more of the game's fighters and other specific level effects. For example, the Spirit battle of Rayquaza, a flying dragon Pokémon, requires players to defeat a large version of Ridley with a similar color palette and wind effects. Players are encouraged to strategically choose Spirits based on the level effects; in the same example, a player would need to equip a Spirit that provides wind resistance","wind resistance or immunity, or one that allows them to deal extra damage to a giant opponent. A separate mode called the Spirit Board presents a rotating set of Spirit battles for players to gain Spirits from. Spirits have a growth and evolution system, in which they can be leveled up to become more powerful or converted into Cores to summon new Spirits.Certain Spirits will also become an \"enhanced\" form upon reaching max level, but will return to level 1. Nintendo offers limited-timed Spirit events in cross-promotion with other games and franchises, with the Spirits featured only available to collect during the event. Eventually, these Spirits make their way into general rotation and can be found on the Spirit Board.The local multiplayer mode also allows for the option to use Spirits. World of Light Ultimatefeatures the return of Adventure Mode, which was absent in3DS/Wii U.It is now integrated into the Spirits mode with a new story,World of Light, which prominently uses the game's Spirit mechanics.The","mechanics.The mode's narrative begins with an evil entity, Galeem, destroying theSmash Bros.world, vaporizing almost all of the fighter characters and placing them under his imprisonment; onlyKirby, due to his Warp Star, evades this attack.Players explore the titular World of Light, a new world that Galeem created in the original world's place, to rescue captured fighters and Spirits -the remnants of other characters' physical forms- by completing marked Spirit Battles. Players can use regained allies and Spirits to overcome certain challenges on the map and defeat Galeem.However, after Galeem is defeated, a new enemy, Dharkon, emerges; after Dharkon's defeat, it wages war against Galeem. If just Galeem is defeated, Dharkon will engulf the world in darkness, but if just Dharkon is defeated, then Galeem will cover the universe with light. However, by defeating an equal amount of light and dark Spirits on the final map, players are able to challenge and defeat both of them, freeing the Spirits from their","Spirits from their control and allowing them to return to the real world. Additional features The game supports local multiplayer, local wireless with other systems, and online play viaWi-FiorLAN connections. By defeating players online, players earn tags which can be traded for in-game currency to buy new Spirits, music, andMiiFighter costumes. The game is compatible withJoy-Concontrollers, theNintendo Switch Pro Controller, andGameCube controllersvia a USB adapter.Like the previous entry,amiibofigurines can be used to create AI-controlled Figure Players, which can be trained to become stronger.Shortly after the game's release, a service for the Nintendo Switch Online mobile app, known as \"Smash World\", was launched, which allows players to check their game statistics and share images and videos captured from the game to social media.Ultimatefeatures over 900 music tracks, which can be played through the Switch's handheld mode while in standby mode.Version 3.0 of the game, released in April 2019, adds a","April 2019, adds a Stage Builder, which allows players to create custom stages which can be shared or downloaded through the Switch Online service. The update also includes a replay editor, allowing players to edit stored replays, which can be shared online or downloaded to other devices. These replays are available within the Smash World app.An update in May 2019 provided limited support for thevirtual realityVR Kit ofNintendo Labo, allowing players to view computer-only matches in VR or play in a 1-on-1 mode against the computer.An update in September 2019 added the Home-Run Contest mode from previousSmashgames. Playable characters Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, like other games in theSuper Smash Bros.series, features acrossovercast of fighters from several differentNintendo franchises, as well as fighters from series bythird-partydevelopers such asKonami,Sega,Capcom,Bandai Namco Entertainment,Square Enix,PlatinumGames,Microsoft,SNK, andDisney. The base game features 74 playable fighters,consisting of all 63","of all 63 previous fighters from past entries and 11 newcomers: theInklingsfromSplatoon;Princess Daisyfrom theMarioseries;Ridleyand Dark Samus from theMetroidseries;Simon Belmontand Richter Belmont from theCastlevaniaseries;ChromfromFire Emblem Awakening;King K. Roolfrom theDonkey Kongseries;Isabellefrom theAnimal Crossingseries;Ken Mastersfrom theStreet Fighterseries; and Incineroar fromPokémon SunandMoon.When starting the game, players only have access to the eight starter characters of the originalSuper Smash Bros.and unlock the rest by completing the game's Classic modes, playing through World of Light, or fighting a certain amount of battles. Certain characters whose movesets are directly based on other characters are now classified as \"Echo Fighters\", possessing similar movesets and proportions to the fighters they are based on, but with unique animations and gameplay differences. On the character selection screen, these characters can either be listed individually or stacked with the fighters they are","fighters they are based on.Select characters also have alternative skins featuring different genders or sometimes other characters, such asBowser Jr., who has the otherKoopalingsas skins, but with identical animations and abilities.Several returning characters received updates to their appearances, such asMariohaving Cappy fromSuper Mario Odysseyaccompanying him andThe Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild's incarnation ofLinkreplacing the one fromTwilight Princess. Additional fighters have been added to the game via post-releasedownloadable content(DLC). The first of these,Piranha Plantfrom theMarioseries, was released in January 2019 and made available for free to those who purchased and registered the game with aMy Nintendoaccount before the end of that month.Additional fighters, each coming with a unique stage and related music, have been released both individually and as part of two Fighters Pass bundles.The first Fighters Pass consisted of five characters:JokerfromAtlus'Persona 5, released in April","released in April 2019;the Herofrom Square Enix'sDragon Questseries, released in July 2019;Banjo & KazooiefromRare'sBanjo-Kazooieseries, released in September 2019;Terry BogardfromSNK'sFatal Furyseries, released in November 2019;andBylethfromFire Emblem: Three Houses, released in January 2020. The second Fighters Pass, titled Fighters Pass Volume 2, consisted of six additional fighters and was the final content planned forUltimate.The first character in this collection,Min MinfromARMS, was released in June 2020.Steve,the default player avatar fromMojang Studios'Minecraft, was released in October 2020.Sephiroth, the antagonist from Square Enix'sFinal Fantasy VII, was released in December 2020, with players able to unlock him a few days early by defeating him in a limited-time boss battle known as the \"Sephiroth Challenge\".Pyra and Mythra, a dual character fromXenoblade Chronicles 2, were released in March 2021.Kazuya Mishimafrom Bandai Namco'sTekkenseries was released in June 2021.SorafromDisneyand Square","Square Enix seriesKingdom Heartswas the final fighter to be added in October 2021. Development Super Smash Bros. Ultimatewas developed byBandai Namco StudiosandSora Ltd., the same studios that developedSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U, for theNintendo Switch, with series creatorMasahiro Sakuraireturning as game director.Unlike previousSuper Smash Bros.games, the team was not assembled from the ground up, which sped up preparation time.The project plan for the game was in the works by December 2015, when the DLC for3DSandWii Uwas in development,and finished after it was completed.Staff gathering was done soon afterward.The development period was shorter compared to previous entries in the series.Hatenaassisted with the development of some elements,andtri-Crescendocontributed to programming and design. According to Sakurai, producing aSuper Smash Bros.game for the Switch was the last request that former Nintendo presidentSatoru Iwatahad given him before his death in 2015, and he wanted to make the","wanted to make the game the best possible product he could to respect him.Sakurai sought to include every character from previous games, as to not disappoint fans.However, he knew this would be a complex problem for both development and licensing;it would also drastically increase the cost of development. The return of Bandai and Sora made it easier for this to happen.Sakurai also wanted to adjust character abilities to speed up the game,although not to an extent that would alienate players unfamiliar with the series.Sakurai knew thatUltimatewas a core game for Nintendo and that it had a dedicated player base that he did not want to disappoint, and believed that completing this goal was necessary to satisfy them.Sakurai was also faced with the decision to either create a completely new game system or build off of pre-existing ones; he chose to build off pre-existing ones because there would only be about a third of the characters he desired in the final game.All the returning characters' abilities had to be","abilities had to be re-balancedso they could work inUltimate.Originally, gameplay would differ between the Switch's docked and handheld modes, but Sakurai scrapped this idea since the system's screen in handheld mode was better than he thought.Sakurai believed this would be the onlySmashgame to have the full roster of returning characters, calling the effort to include the characters, music, stage settings, and other elements as \"unprecedented\", and cautioned that future games in the series would likely be smaller in scope. However, he still wanted to add as many fighters as possible through DLC. Voice lines recorded byDavid Hayterfor Snake were re-used forUltimate.Xander Mobus, who voiced Crazy Hand,Master Hand, and the announcer inSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U,also made a return with new voice clips, in addition to reprising his role asJokerfromPersona 5when he was added as DLC.The addition of Ridley fromMetroidas a playable character had been highly requested within theSuper Smash","theSuper Smash Bros.community for some time. In 2008, Sakurai stated that he knew Ridley was a high-demand character, but thought that he was \"impossible\" to add unless they were able to sacrifice the character's size for balancing purposes.So that Ridley could be included in the game, Sakurai studied the art of the character and redesigned him so he could stand upright.All characters were chosen at the beginning of development except for Incineroar, who had not been created yet;the team instead left a space open for aSun and MoonPokémon. The Inklings' inkmechanicproved challenging to implement due to its interactions with environments. The team builtUltimatefrom scratch with new assets and content. Localization manager Nate Bihldorff stated that the game significantly upgraded lighting effects and texture rendering from thegame engineof theWii Uversion.The World of Light mode was inspired byBrawl's(2008) Subspace Emissary, and Sakurai chose to start it with a cataclysmic event because he thought it would","he thought it would leave a greater impact on players.The team conceived the Spirits mechanic because they wanted to create an enjoyable single-player mode, but did not have enough resources to createcharacter models. While it did not let them tell stories for individual fighters or create new locations and rules, it let them use various characters and assets.One part of the team chose Spirits to include in the game and had to thoroughly research them; according to Sakurai, the Spirits mode was essential for using various franchises. Music Like previous games in the series,Ultimatefeatures several well-known video game music composers and arrangers providing a mix of original music and rearrangements of various tracks for the represented franchises, with over 1,000 tracks in total.New toUltimateis the tying of tracks to franchises instead of individual stages, as well as the ability to create custom playlists to listen to outside the game when the Switch is in handheld mode.Sakurai stated that he began","that he began contacting composers over a year before release, providing them with a database of over a thousand suggested track ideas.In addition, he allowed them to submit their own personal favorites, with those choices being given priority for inclusion.While Sakurai oversaw the process and preferred that the music retain the spirit of the original games, the direction of them was generally handled by the composers themselves.The main theme, \"Lifelight\", composed byHideki Sakamoto, is the basis of most of the game's original music. Downloadable content As with previous entries, Nintendo planned to offer new fighters through DLC; however, unlike with the3DSandWii U,where players could request which characters they wished to see in the game, Nintendo chose which characters they would add by November 2018.Like the previous title, additional Mii costumes were released as paid DLC, with certain costumes also adding new music tracks to the game.Sakurai believed that despite characters likeJoker, the first","the first announced DLC fighter, not being from games usually associated with Nintendo, they were added because they were \"emblematic\" of the types of characters they wanted to add toUltimate.He also stated that they \"bring just a whole different level of fun and enjoyment for players\".The Piranha Plant was chosen as a DLC character because Sakurai wanted to add diversity to the roster.Nintendo met withRarestudio head Craig Duncan at E3 2018 to discuss the possibility of including Banjo and Kazooie as downloadable content; Duncan, believing it to be \"a great opportunity\", agreed and connected the two development teams for further discussions.Sakurai noted that Banjo and Kazooie were the second most requested character forSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii Uin a Nintendo-sanctioned fan vote in 2015,and that their addition happened \"quite easily\", despite the property being owned byMicrosoftthrough its acquisition ofRare.Phil Spencer, the head ofXbox, stated that negotiating their inclusion was \"an easy","was \"an easy deal to make\" thanks to Microsoft's strong partnership with Nintendo. The development of Fighters Pass Volume 2 was heavily affected by theCOVID-19 pandemicin 2020, as due tostay-at-home ordersin Japan, Sakurai and his development team had to work remotely.According to Daniel Kaplan ofMojang Studios, early discussions between Nintendo andMicrosoftincludingMinecraftcontent in theSuper Smash Bros.series had begun roughly five years prior to Steve's addition into the game.The character's inclusion required the development team to rework every stage in the game to accommodate Steve's gameplay mechanics.Sakurai had wanted to includeSorafromKingdom Heartsin the game because he was the top fighter requested forNintendo 3DSandWii Uin the 2015 fan vote.However, they initially thought that the legality surrounding the intellectual property withDisneywould be insurmountable, and originally planned for only five fighters in the second pass. However, Sakurai met a Disney representative at an award venue,","at an award venue, which facilitated the start of negotiations for Sora's inclusion. Nintendo, Disney, andSquare Enixsaw towards including Sora in the game and overseeing all aspects related to his inclusion, with several limitations and guidelines they were required to follow.The Sora Challenger Pack featured a promotional tie-in with the 2020 rhythm gameKingdom Hearts: Melody of Memory: players withMelody of Memorysave data on their Nintendo Switch would unlock the music track \"Dearly Beloved (Swing Version)\". Release Ultimatewas teased during aNintendo Directpresentation on March 8, 2018, under theworking titleSuper Smash Bros., with the release year shown to be 2018. Nintendo formally announced the game atE3 2018, revealing that the full roster of characters from past games would be included, as well as its release date.Demoversions were playable at E3 in June and atSan Diego Comic-Conthe following month.IGNnominatedUltimatefor its Best Game of E3 2018 award; the game won Best Nintendo Switch Game from","Switch Game from bothIGNandGamescom.Two Nintendo Direct presentations in 2018, one on August 8 and another one on November 1, were devoted to the game, revealing new characters, stages, and game modes. Nintendo releasedSuper Smash Bros. Ultimateworldwide on December 7, 2018.In addition to the standard retail version, a special edition containing aSuper Smash Bros.-themedNintendo Switch Pro Controllerand a Switch with a download code was also released.An additional special edition contained a pair ofSuper Smash Bros.-themedJoy-Conas well as a Switch console, aSuper Smash Bros.-themed dock, and a download code for the game.AGameCube controllerwith theSuper Smash Bros. Ultimatelogo was released on November 2, 2018. One of the game's new additions had the characterMr. Game & Watchassuming the appearance of a feather- and loincloth-wearingNative Americanwhen using one of his attacks—a reference toFire Attack(1982), in which players controlled acowboydefending his fort from attacking indigenous people. Some users","people. Some users on social media saw this as racist, leading to Nintendo of America apologizing and removing the animation in an update shortly after release.Two weeks before its release, a leaked copy of the game was distributed across the internet. Nintendo took steps to issue copyright strikes on YouTube videos usingdata minedcontent, while fans worked to isolatespoilers, particularly the World of Light story mode, from those that had played the leaked version. Reception Ultimatereceived \"universal acclaim\" from critics, according to thereview aggregatorplatformMetacritic.Critics lauded the huge cast of characters and levels, new game modes, and combining of the best elements from its predecessors.French video game websiteJeuxvideo.comcalled it the best game in the series, praising its features which \"brilliantly mix gargantuan content with nostalgia\".Bleacher Reporthailed the game's colorful art style, faster gameplay, and unique stages.IGNpraised the game's decision to bring back every character from","character from the series as \"ambitious and excellent\".The game's massive soundtrack and portable music player were praised byThe Verge. However, the game's online mode received criticism for its technical performance and matchmaking. Many players found significantlagaffecting their games, even when using wired connections over wireless, while the game's matchmaking features did not adhere to players' criteria, with players frequently playing matches with rule sets they did not choose. The matchmaking process was further criticized for making it difficult for friends to join matches over random players, and not allowing multiple local players to join in online matches.There had been so many complaints onUltimate'ssubredditthat the administrators forwarded all complaints to a separate thread.Ultimate'sWorld of Lightmode also received mixed reviews. While some found the single-player mode both accessible and challenging,others found the mode tedious and excessive. Sales In November 2018, Nintendo","2018, Nintendo announcedUltimatewas the most pre-ordered game for the Switch and in the series.The Association for UK Interactive Entertainmentreported thatUltimatewas the fastest-selling Switch andSuper Smash Bros.game in the United Kingdom, with physical launch sales 302% higher than those forSuper Smash Bros. for Wii U, 233% higher than those for3DS, and 62.5% higher than those forBrawl.In its first three days on sale in Japan, the game sold 1.2 million copies, outsellingPokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu!andLet's Go, Eevee!andThe Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wildin the region. Within 11 days of its release,Ultimatehad sold more than three million copies within the United States, making it the fastest-selling Switch game in the country.It was similarly the fastest-selling Switch game as well as the fastest-selling game for any Nintendo console in Europe based on the first 11-day sales.It was estimated that the game sold and shipped over five million copies within its first three days of release.Within three","three weeks,Ultimatebecame the fifth best-selling Switch game in the United Kingdom, surpassing the sales ofSplatoon 2.In January 2019,Amazonreported thatUltimatewas their highest selling video game product of 2018,with Nintendo officially announcing that the game had shipped over 12.08 million copies worldwide.Ultimatewas also Nintendo's fastest-selling game of all time until being surpassed byPokémon SwordandShieldin 2019.By September 2020, the game had sold over 21.10 million copies worldwide,making it the best-selling fighting game of all time,surpassing the record ofStreet Fighter II,and became thethird-best-selling Nintendo Switch game, only behindAnimal Crossing: New HorizonsandMario Kart 8 Deluxe. As of June 30, 2024, total sales reached34.66million. Awards The game won the award for \"Best Nintendo Switch Game\", \"Best Fighting Game\", and \"Best Multiplayer Game\" inIGN's Best of 2018 Awards, whereas its other nominations were for \"Game of the Year\" and \"Best Video Game Music\". Esports EVO 2019, held on","EVO 2019, held on August 2–4, 2019, featuredUltimateas one of its main events. It was the largest offlineSmash Bros.tournament of all time, with 3,534 entrants signed up.It set a new record for EVO concurrent viewership, with over 279,000 viewers during Top 8.On May 8–10, 2020, topSuper Smash Bros. MeleeplayerHungryboxpartnered withNFLrunning backLe'Veon Belland esports organizationTeam Liquidto host The Box, an online tournament with a $10,000 prize pool.With over 8,000 entrants, it was the largest onlineSmash Bros.tournament of all time. In February 2020, it was announced that the Smash World Tour would feature bothSuper Smash Bros. MeleeandUltimateplayers for a grand prize pool of $250,000. The tournament would have included international qualifiers, with the grand finals' location to be in the United States.However, theCOVID-19 pandemicquickly led to several of the qualifiers getting either postponed or canceled.The Smash World Tour was successfully relaunched in 2021, featuring a mix of online and","a mix of online and offline qualifiers and culminating in a final offline championship.In 2022, an officially licensed circuit was introduced, being the Panda Cup, featuringSuper Smash Bros. MeleeandSuper Smash Bros. Ultimate.However on November 24, 2022, Nintendo stated that the Smash World Tour 2022 could not continue, as they did not have a license from Nintendo. Accusations of Panda CEO, Alan Bunney, caused many players who had qualified for the Panda Cup to drop out. This caused both the Panda Cup and the Smash World Tour 2022 Championships to be cancelled, along with the Smash World Tour 2023. Notes References External links","The Game Awards 2020 The Game Awards 2020was an award show that honored the bestvideo games of 2020. It was produced and hosted byGeoff Keighley, and took place on December 10, 2020. The preshow ceremony was hosted by Sydnee Goodman. Unlike previousGame Awards, the show was broadcast virtually due to theCOVID-19 pandemic; Keighley presented at a soundstage inLos Angeles, while musical performances took place virtually at stages inLondonandTokyo. The show introduced the award's first Future Class, a list of individuals from the video game industry who best represent the future of video games, Innovation in Accessibility award, an award for games that featured notableaccessibility options. The show waslive streamedacross 45 different platforms. It featured musical performances from theLondon Philharmonic OrchestraandEddie Vedder, and presentations from celebrity guests, includingReggie Fils-Aimé,Gal Gadot,Brie Larson, andKeanu Reeves. The Last of Us Part IIreceived the most nominations and wins in the show's","wins in the show's history—eleven and seven, respectively—and was awardedGame of the Year.Neil DruckmannandHalley Grosswon Best Narrative for their work on the game, whileLaura Baileywas awarded Best Performance for her role asAbby. Several new games were announced, includingArk II,Perfect Dark, andan untitledMass Effectgame. The show was the most expensive ceremony to date. It was viewed by over 83 million streams, the most in its history to date,with 8.3 million concurrent viewers at its peak. It received a mixed reception from media publications, with praise directed at new game announcements, and criticism for not allowing developers more time to speak. Some critics and viewers shared concerns over the success ofThe Last of Us Part IIdue to its developer'scrunchpractices. Background As with previous iterations ofThe Game Awards, the 2020 show was hosted and produced by Canadian games journalistGeoff Keighley. He returned as an executive producer alongside Kimmie Kim, and Richard Preuss and LeRoy Bennett","and LeRoy Bennett returned as director and creative director, respectively.Sydnee Goodman returned as host of the preshow.Due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, Keighley did not want to host a normal ceremony.Not wanting to take a hiatus and inspired by the success ofSummer Game Fest,he considered hosting from his home but his board urged him to attempt a larger show on par with previous years.In case of a significant surge ofCOVID-19 cases in California, the crew had several back-up plans, including broadcasting from Keighley's house.He worked with his partners to develop a virtual show;he and his team took inspiration from other shows throughout the year, including theDemocratic National Convention, in which the \"audience\" was featured on virtual screens,as well as the72nd Primetime Emmy Awards, wherein the hosts were isolated on stage and the winners accepted viavideo call. The presentation used three soundstages in Los Angeles, London, and Tokyo; each had minimal attendees, mostly related to production crew and","production crew and presenters. Keighley said this allowed them to include additional presentation events as with past shows, as well as explore taking future shows to different venues.The 2020 show—featuring a production of more than 400 people, six of whom are full-time employees—had a budget of underUS$10 millionand was the most expensive to date, partly due to theCOVID-19 testsrequired for the crew and the worldwide remote camera set-ups.It remained profitable due to revenue from advertisers and sponsors, as well as minor earnings from streaming services.The show's theme was strength and comfort due to the impact of the pandemic. Keighley wanted to implore the theme of unity, given the release of thePlayStation 5andXbox Series X/Sin November 2020; he citedThe Game Awards 2018as an example of this theme, which had led withNintendo'sReggie Fils-Aimé, Microsoft'sPhil Spencer, and Sony'sShawn Laydensharing the stage.Keighley felt the inclusion of film and television stars was an interesting way to show a","way to show a wider appreciation for the industry. His team wanted to includeHenry Cavillin the show, but he was busy working onThe Witcher. While developing the show, Keighley spoke to hundreds of viewers viaZoomto discuss their own interests,often alongside industry figures likeValve CorporationpresidentGabe NewellandEpic Gamescreative director Donald Mustard.As with the previous show, the presentation ran alongside the Game Festival, consisting of playable demos and additional in-game content.The show introduced the award's first Future Class, a list of individuals from across the video game industry who best represent the future of video games. The inductees included industry professionals such asKinda Funny's Blessing Adeoye Jr.,Naughty Dog'sHalley Gross, andGameSpot'sKallie Plagge.The presentation was aired on December 10, 2020,live streamedacross more than 45 online platforms.It aired on more than ten networks in China, includingBilibili,Douyin, andHuya Live, and on several networks in India","networks in India includingDisney+ Hotstar,JioTV, andMX Player. Announcements Around April and May in 2020, Keighley was worried about a potential lack of game announcements due to theimpact of COVID-19 on the industry; however, several developers were able to submit their announcements and trailers for demonstration.Announcements on recently released and upcoming games were made for: New games announced during the ceremony included: Winners and nominees The nominees for The Game Awards 2020 were announced on November 18, 2020.Any game released on or before November 20, 2020 was eligible for consideration.The nominees were compiled by a jury panel with members from 96 media outlets globally;ballots were sent to outlets on October 29 and due back on November 6, though they had until November 13 to submit updated ballots. Outlets were required to submit three games for each category to determine the nominees.Winners were determined between the jury (90%) and public votes (10%); the latter was held via the","was held via the official website and on social media platforms such asFacebookandTwitter, and closed on December 9.The two exceptions were the Most Anticipated Game and Player's Voice awards, which were fully nominated and voted-on by the public;the former was determined exclusively on Twitter and announced during the show,and the latter was announced on December 8 after several rounds of voting.A new Innovation in Accessibility award was added for games that featured notableaccessibility options.Around 18.3 million people participated in the public vote, doubling from the previous show. Awards Winners are listed first, highlighted inboldface, and indicated with a double dagger (‡). Video games Esports and creators Games with multiple nominations and awards Multiple nominations The Last of Us Part IIreceived eleven nominations, the most in the show's history. Other games with multiple nominations includedHadeswith nine,Ghost of Tsushimawith eight,Final Fantasy VII Remakewith six, andDoom Eternalwith","andDoom Eternalwith five.Sony Interactive Entertainmenthad 26 total nominations, more than any other publisher, followed bySupergiant GamesandXbox Game Studioswith eight. Multiple awards The Last of Us Part IIreceived the most wins in the show's history, with seven. Four games—Among Us,Final Fantasy VII Remake,Ghost of Tsushima, andHades—won two awards. Across its two winning games, Sony Interactive Entertainment won a total of nine awards, whileInnersloth,Square Enix, Supergiant Games, and Xbox Game Studios won two. Presenters and performers Presenters The following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or introduced trailers. All other awards were presented by Keighley or Goodman. Performers The following individuals or groups performed musical numbers.A planned orchestral version ofCyberpunk 2077's music was scrapped when the game was delayed to the same day as the ceremony, rendering it ineligible for nomination. Ratings and reception Nominees Inverse's Corey Plante felt the cutoff","felt the cutoff date led to several games getting snubbed, includingDemon's SoulsandMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales, as well asPokémon SwordandShield, which was eligible for both the2019and 2020 awards but was unrecognized in both. He feltGhost of Tsushimawas more deserving of a Best Score and Music nomination thanDoom Eternal.Den of Geek's Matthew Byrd similarly lamented the lack of recognition forDemon's SoulsandMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales.Kat Bailey ofUSgamerquestionedDoom Eternal'snomination for Game of the Year, describing it as \"messy, unfocused, and, well, just not as good\" as its predecessor.Kotaku Australia's Alex Walker similarly found the nomination misplaced and considered games likeHalf-Life: AlyxandMicrosoft Flight Simulatormore deserving. Ceremony The show received a mixed reception from media publications.VentureBeat'sDean Takahashipraised the ceremony, particularly applauding its celebration of diverse games such asThe Last of Us Part IIandTell Me Whyas well as the varied and","as the varied and interesting new game announcements.Todd Martens ofLos Angeles Timesfelt the show should have allowed more time for the developers to speak and discuss their artistic visions behind the games, noting the presentation does little to demonstratevideo games as art.Eurogamer's Martin Robinson said the show was understandably \"low-key\" but called it a \"three-hour long advert\".Inverse's Ana Diaz criticized the rapid announcement of winners between premieres and during the preshow, preventing developers from accepting the awards, and its focus onHollywoodactors over game creators. Similar to concerns overDeath Stranding'spredominance in the nominations and ceremony for the 2019 awards due to its creatorHideo Kojima's friendship with Keighley, some viewers shared concerns related toThe Last of Us Part IIat the 2020 awards, both for its awards success and due to the developer'scrunchpractices.The Last of Us Part IIwas well-received at release but narrative elements polarized some critics and players,","and players, and the game had been subject toreview bombing;Keighley clarified the awards were not rigged in the manner some viewers had suggested and there was no influence of Naughty Dog or its staff on the award selection, citing the game's popularity among players and media alike as proven by its runner-up placement in the Player's Voice award.Kotaku'sIan Walker criticized the game's Best Game Direction win, notingHadesshould have won due to developer Supergiant Games's less demanding work culture.TheGamer's Peter Glagowski similarly felt the game's awards were a message excusing crunch culture in game development.Keighley felt it would be difficult to incorporate criteria related to games developed under poor industry practices like crunch into the awards selection process without becoming aslippery slope, but believes discussions of these practices should be a conversation held by the larger community. Viewership Over 83 million streams were used to view the ceremony, the most in the show's history to","show's history to date,with 8.3 million concurrent viewers at its peak.OnTwitch, the show had over 2.63 million concurrent viewers, more than double the previous year, with 9,000 creators co-streaming the ceremony. OnYouTube, live viewership increased 84 percent over the previous year. In total, live hours viewed increased by over 129 percent acrossFacebook Gaming, Twitch, and YouTube. The showtrended worldwide on Twitter, with a 31 percent increase in conversation from the previous year, while usage of thehashtag#TheGameAwards increased 107 percent.Keighley expressed his surprise by the consistent growth of the show over the years, but confessed it has led him to fear \"that year where it doesn't grow ... There's going to be a year where we don't have the same viewers\". Notes References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirby_(series\",\n \"Masahiro Sakurai Masahiro Sakurai(桜井 政博,Sakurai Masahiro, born August 3, 1970)is a Japanese video game director andgame designerbest known as the creator of theKirbyandSuper Smash Bros.series. Apart from his work on those series, he also led the design ofMeteosin 2005 and directedKid Icarus: Uprisingin 2012. Formerly an employee ofHAL Laboratory, Sakurai left the company in 2003 and in 2005 with his wife Michiko Sakurai (also ex-HAL Laboratory) founded their companySora Ltd., under which they work on a freelance basis. He was also an author of a weekly column forFamitsumagazine from 2003 to 2021, and has done voice acting work in some of his games, most notably providing the voice ofKing DededeinKirby 64: The Crystal Shardsand theSuper Smash Bros.series. From 2022 to 2024, Sakurai has been creating videos for hisYouTubechannel,Masahiro Sakurai on Creating Games, where he discusses game design and his career. Career Masahiro Sakurai was born on August 3, 1970, inMusashimurayama, Tokyo, Japan. One of Sakurai's\",\n \"One of Sakurai's earliest experiences in the video game industry began when he worked forHAL Laboratory, where he created the characterKirbyat age 19 and directed his first title,Kirby's Dream Land. Sakurai left HAL on August 5, 2003. He explained in an interview withNintendo Dreamthat that he felt it would be difficult to create new projects while staying at HAL due to the direction of the gaming industry, where the risk of failure was high. While he was not being pressured by HAL to createKirbysequels, he noted increasing tension within the industry as a whole: \\\"It was tough for me to see that every time I made a new game, people automatically assumed that a sequel was coming. Even if it's a sequel, lots of people have to give their all to make a game, but some people think the sequel process happens naturally.\\\" Soon after, Sakurai began working on a project withQ Entertainment, along withTetsuya Mizuguchi. This collaboration resulted inMeteosin 2005, a puzzle game for theNintendo DS. On September 30,\",\n \"On September 30, 2005, Sakurai announced that he had formed his own company, Sora Ltd.Two games were announced to be in development but no information on the titles had been divulged. As for the future of theSuper Smash Bros.series, Nintendo and HAL Laboratory presidentSatoru Iwata, during Nintendo'sE3 2005press conference, promised an online iteration of the game would come to theNintendo Wii. In issue #885 ofFamitsumagazine, Sakurai revealed that he would be serving as a director and game designer onSuper Smash Bros. Brawlfor theWii.Super Smash Bros. Brawlwas released in 2008, after personnel borrowed from 19 different developer studios assisted in development.Sakurai had been updating daily theSuper Smash Bros Brawlwebsite called the Smash Bros. Dojo. Starting a year previous the release, he revealedBrawlsecrets and gameplay content through the site. The Smash Bros. Dojo had regular updates from May 22, 2007, to April 14, 2008. On the final day of updates, it was revealed that Sakurai provided the voice\",\n \"provided the voice forKing DededeinKirby 64: The Crystal Shardsas well as Dedede inSuper Smash Bros. Brawl. He and his company, Sora Ltd. alongside Nintendo, started a first-party studio,Project Sora, which was 72% owned by Nintendo and 28% owned by Sora Ltd. It was revealed atE3 2010that Sakurai and Project Sora were working onKid Icarus: Uprisingfor the Nintendo 3DS. Project Sora was closed and ended development on June 30, 2012.AtE3 2011, Nintendo announced that Sakurai was working onSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U. Sakurai began development of the title upon the release ofKid Icarus: Uprisingin March 2012. In February 2013, Sakurai was diagnosed withcalcific tendinitisnear his right shoulder, which caused him substantial pain whenever he moved his arm. He mentioned that this could effectively slow down his work, as he does some of hisgame testinghimself.Sakurai's wife, Michiko, has worked on the graphical user interface for many of his games, includingKirby Air Ride,Meteos, and theSuper Smash\",\n \"and theSuper Smash Bros.series. In a January 2015 column inWeekly Famitsu, Sakurai alluded to the possibility of retirement, expressing doubt that he would be able to continue making games if his career continued to be as stressful as it was.In December 2015, Sakurai once again stated that he was not sure if there would be another game in theSmash Bros.series,prior toSuper Smash Bros. Ultimatebeing released in 2018 with Sakurai once again as director. On March 14, 2022, Sakurai was awarded Best Creator byWeekly Famitsu. Sakurai also announced that he is working on a new project not related to game production. Masahiro Sakurai on Creating Games Sakurai launchedMasahiro Sakurai on Creating Games, aYouTubechannel in both English and Japanese in August 2022. The channel's videos are focused on game development and design as well as his career.He stated that the channel was founded because he wanted to reach more people with his lessons after being asked tolectureat schools. Sakurai additionally noted that other\",\n \"noted that other venues for lessons from game developers, such as theGame Developers Conference, focused on more advanced, technical details, rather than more basic principles.Less than a day after its launch, the English edition of his channel gained over 200,000 subscribers.The opening and ending jingles for the channel were composed byYuzo Koshiro. Works Notes References External links\",\n \"Super Smash Bros. Ultimate Super Smash Bros. Ultimateis a 2018crossoverfighting gamedeveloped byBandai Namco StudiosandSora Ltd. and published byNintendofor theNintendo Switch. It is the fifthinstallment in theSuper Smash Bros.series, succeedingSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U(2014). The game follows the series' traditional style of gameplay, in which players control one of thevarious charactersand use attacks to weaken their opponents and knock them out of an arena. It features a wide variety ofgame modes, including asingle-playercampaignandmultiplayerversus modes.Ultimatefeatures 89 playable fighters, including all characters from previousSuper Smash Bros.games as well as newcomers. The roster ranges from Nintendo characters to those fromthird-partyfranchises. Planning for the game had begun by December 2015, with full development starting after the completion of3DS/Wii U'sdownloadable content(DLC). Series creator and directorMasahiro Sakuraireturned along with Bandai Namco Studios and Sora, the\",\n \"and Sora, the studios that developed3DS/Wii U,with their return speeding up the preparation process. Sakurai's goal withUltimatewas to include every character from previous games in the series, despite the various development and licensing challenges this would present. Several well-known video game musicians contributed to the soundtrack, withHideki Sakamotowriting the main theme \\\"Lifelight\\\". Nintendo first teasedUltimatein aNintendo Directin March 2018 and fully revealed it atE3 2018the following June. It later received two additional Directs prior to its release on December 7, 2018. The game received universal acclaim, with some critics calling it the best game in the series; they praised its large amount of content and fine-tuning of existingSmashgameplay elements, although its online mode received criticism.Ultimateis the best-selling fighting game of all time and one of thebest-selling on the Switch, having sold over 34 million copies as of March 2024. It is also a popularcompetitive fighting gameand\",\n \"fighting gameand has been cited as one of thegreatest video games of all time.Ultimatereceiveddownloadable contentadding new fighters, stages, and other content for nearly three years after release. Gameplay Super Smash Bros. Ultimateis aplatform fighterfor up to eight players in which characters fromNintendogames and third-party franchises fight to knock each other out of an arena. Each player has a percentage meter which raises as they take damage, thus increasing the knockback they take and making them easier to launch in the air and out of the arena.Standard battles use one of three victory conditions: Timed, where players aim to win the most points by defeating opponents within a time limit; Stock, where players have a set number of lives and aim to be the last player standing; and Stamina, where players reduce their opponent's health down to zero to defeat them. Players can adjust the rules to their liking and save them as presets for future matches. Players can also enable various items which attack\",\n \"items which attack enemies or grant them power-ups, along with Poké Balls and Assist Trophies, which respectively summonPokémonand other non-playable characters to assist them in battle. In Timed matches, certain Assist Trophies can be attacked and defeated to earn points.Each character also possesses a powerful Final Smash attack, which can be performed either by obtaining a Smash Ball or by filling up a special meter, both of which can be toggled on and off.The base game features 104 different stages, with additional stages being added alongside DLC fighters. Stages can be played in alternative Battlefield and Omega forms or toggled to remove stage hazards. A new feature called Stage Morph allows players to select two stages that the game alternates between at certain intervals during a match.Other tweaks include new icons and gauges for character-specific abilities, such asCloud's Limit gauge. In addition to returning modes such as Classic, Special Smash, and Home-Run Contest,Ultimateadds new modes. These\",\n \"new modes. These are Smashdown, where each character can only be played once; Squad Strike, where players battle in teams of multiple characters; and a tournament mode that allows up to 32 players to battle in playoff brackets. Spirits Ultimateintroduces the Spirits mechanic, replacing the collectible trophies from previous games. Each of these Spirits, based on characters from represented franchises, can be used to power up a fighter with unique abilities.Players mainly gain Spirits through pre-made challenges called \\\"Spirit Battles\\\" that represent the character the Spirit depicts, which are embodied by one or more of the game's fighters and other specific level effects. For example, the Spirit battle of Rayquaza, a flying dragon Pokémon, requires players to defeat a large version of Ridley with a similar color palette and wind effects. Players are encouraged to strategically choose Spirits based on the level effects; in the same example, a player would need to equip a Spirit that provides wind resistance\",\n \"wind resistance or immunity, or one that allows them to deal extra damage to a giant opponent. A separate mode called the Spirit Board presents a rotating set of Spirit battles for players to gain Spirits from. Spirits have a growth and evolution system, in which they can be leveled up to become more powerful or converted into Cores to summon new Spirits.Certain Spirits will also become an \\\"enhanced\\\" form upon reaching max level, but will return to level 1. Nintendo offers limited-timed Spirit events in cross-promotion with other games and franchises, with the Spirits featured only available to collect during the event. Eventually, these Spirits make their way into general rotation and can be found on the Spirit Board.The local multiplayer mode also allows for the option to use Spirits. World of Light Ultimatefeatures the return of Adventure Mode, which was absent in3DS/Wii U.It is now integrated into the Spirits mode with a new story,World of Light, which prominently uses the game's Spirit mechanics.The\",\n \"mechanics.The mode's narrative begins with an evil entity, Galeem, destroying theSmash Bros.world, vaporizing almost all of the fighter characters and placing them under his imprisonment; onlyKirby, due to his Warp Star, evades this attack.Players explore the titular World of Light, a new world that Galeem created in the original world's place, to rescue captured fighters and Spirits -the remnants of other characters' physical forms- by completing marked Spirit Battles. Players can use regained allies and Spirits to overcome certain challenges on the map and defeat Galeem.However, after Galeem is defeated, a new enemy, Dharkon, emerges; after Dharkon's defeat, it wages war against Galeem. If just Galeem is defeated, Dharkon will engulf the world in darkness, but if just Dharkon is defeated, then Galeem will cover the universe with light. However, by defeating an equal amount of light and dark Spirits on the final map, players are able to challenge and defeat both of them, freeing the Spirits from their\",\n \"Spirits from their control and allowing them to return to the real world. Additional features The game supports local multiplayer, local wireless with other systems, and online play viaWi-FiorLAN connections. By defeating players online, players earn tags which can be traded for in-game currency to buy new Spirits, music, andMiiFighter costumes. The game is compatible withJoy-Concontrollers, theNintendo Switch Pro Controller, andGameCube controllersvia a USB adapter.Like the previous entry,amiibofigurines can be used to create AI-controlled Figure Players, which can be trained to become stronger.Shortly after the game's release, a service for the Nintendo Switch Online mobile app, known as \\\"Smash World\\\", was launched, which allows players to check their game statistics and share images and videos captured from the game to social media.Ultimatefeatures over 900 music tracks, which can be played through the Switch's handheld mode while in standby mode.Version 3.0 of the game, released in April 2019, adds a\",\n \"April 2019, adds a Stage Builder, which allows players to create custom stages which can be shared or downloaded through the Switch Online service. The update also includes a replay editor, allowing players to edit stored replays, which can be shared online or downloaded to other devices. These replays are available within the Smash World app.An update in May 2019 provided limited support for thevirtual realityVR Kit ofNintendo Labo, allowing players to view computer-only matches in VR or play in a 1-on-1 mode against the computer.An update in September 2019 added the Home-Run Contest mode from previousSmashgames. Playable characters Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, like other games in theSuper Smash Bros.series, features acrossovercast of fighters from several differentNintendo franchises, as well as fighters from series bythird-partydevelopers such asKonami,Sega,Capcom,Bandai Namco Entertainment,Square Enix,PlatinumGames,Microsoft,SNK, andDisney. The base game features 74 playable fighters,consisting of all 63\",\n \"of all 63 previous fighters from past entries and 11 newcomers: theInklingsfromSplatoon;Princess Daisyfrom theMarioseries;Ridleyand Dark Samus from theMetroidseries;Simon Belmontand Richter Belmont from theCastlevaniaseries;ChromfromFire Emblem Awakening;King K. Roolfrom theDonkey Kongseries;Isabellefrom theAnimal Crossingseries;Ken Mastersfrom theStreet Fighterseries; and Incineroar fromPokémon SunandMoon.When starting the game, players only have access to the eight starter characters of the originalSuper Smash Bros.and unlock the rest by completing the game's Classic modes, playing through World of Light, or fighting a certain amount of battles. Certain characters whose movesets are directly based on other characters are now classified as \\\"Echo Fighters\\\", possessing similar movesets and proportions to the fighters they are based on, but with unique animations and gameplay differences. On the character selection screen, these characters can either be listed individually or stacked with the fighters they are\",\n \"fighters they are based on.Select characters also have alternative skins featuring different genders or sometimes other characters, such asBowser Jr., who has the otherKoopalingsas skins, but with identical animations and abilities.Several returning characters received updates to their appearances, such asMariohaving Cappy fromSuper Mario Odysseyaccompanying him andThe Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild's incarnation ofLinkreplacing the one fromTwilight Princess. Additional fighters have been added to the game via post-releasedownloadable content(DLC). The first of these,Piranha Plantfrom theMarioseries, was released in January 2019 and made available for free to those who purchased and registered the game with aMy Nintendoaccount before the end of that month.Additional fighters, each coming with a unique stage and related music, have been released both individually and as part of two Fighters Pass bundles.The first Fighters Pass consisted of five characters:JokerfromAtlus'Persona 5, released in April\",\n \"released in April 2019;the Herofrom Square Enix'sDragon Questseries, released in July 2019;Banjo & KazooiefromRare'sBanjo-Kazooieseries, released in September 2019;Terry BogardfromSNK'sFatal Furyseries, released in November 2019;andBylethfromFire Emblem: Three Houses, released in January 2020. The second Fighters Pass, titled Fighters Pass Volume 2, consisted of six additional fighters and was the final content planned forUltimate.The first character in this collection,Min MinfromARMS, was released in June 2020.Steve,the default player avatar fromMojang Studios'Minecraft, was released in October 2020.Sephiroth, the antagonist from Square Enix'sFinal Fantasy VII, was released in December 2020, with players able to unlock him a few days early by defeating him in a limited-time boss battle known as the \\\"Sephiroth Challenge\\\".Pyra and Mythra, a dual character fromXenoblade Chronicles 2, were released in March 2021.Kazuya Mishimafrom Bandai Namco'sTekkenseries was released in June 2021.SorafromDisneyand Square\",\n \"Square Enix seriesKingdom Heartswas the final fighter to be added in October 2021. Development Super Smash Bros. Ultimatewas developed byBandai Namco StudiosandSora Ltd., the same studios that developedSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U, for theNintendo Switch, with series creatorMasahiro Sakuraireturning as game director.Unlike previousSuper Smash Bros.games, the team was not assembled from the ground up, which sped up preparation time.The project plan for the game was in the works by December 2015, when the DLC for3DSandWii Uwas in development,and finished after it was completed.Staff gathering was done soon afterward.The development period was shorter compared to previous entries in the series.Hatenaassisted with the development of some elements,andtri-Crescendocontributed to programming and design. According to Sakurai, producing aSuper Smash Bros.game for the Switch was the last request that former Nintendo presidentSatoru Iwatahad given him before his death in 2015, and he wanted to make the\",\n \"wanted to make the game the best possible product he could to respect him.Sakurai sought to include every character from previous games, as to not disappoint fans.However, he knew this would be a complex problem for both development and licensing;it would also drastically increase the cost of development. The return of Bandai and Sora made it easier for this to happen.Sakurai also wanted to adjust character abilities to speed up the game,although not to an extent that would alienate players unfamiliar with the series.Sakurai knew thatUltimatewas a core game for Nintendo and that it had a dedicated player base that he did not want to disappoint, and believed that completing this goal was necessary to satisfy them.Sakurai was also faced with the decision to either create a completely new game system or build off of pre-existing ones; he chose to build off pre-existing ones because there would only be about a third of the characters he desired in the final game.All the returning characters' abilities had to be\",\n \"abilities had to be re-balancedso they could work inUltimate.Originally, gameplay would differ between the Switch's docked and handheld modes, but Sakurai scrapped this idea since the system's screen in handheld mode was better than he thought.Sakurai believed this would be the onlySmashgame to have the full roster of returning characters, calling the effort to include the characters, music, stage settings, and other elements as \\\"unprecedented\\\", and cautioned that future games in the series would likely be smaller in scope. However, he still wanted to add as many fighters as possible through DLC. Voice lines recorded byDavid Hayterfor Snake were re-used forUltimate.Xander Mobus, who voiced Crazy Hand,Master Hand, and the announcer inSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U,also made a return with new voice clips, in addition to reprising his role asJokerfromPersona 5when he was added as DLC.The addition of Ridley fromMetroidas a playable character had been highly requested within theSuper Smash\",\n \"theSuper Smash Bros.community for some time. In 2008, Sakurai stated that he knew Ridley was a high-demand character, but thought that he was \\\"impossible\\\" to add unless they were able to sacrifice the character's size for balancing purposes.So that Ridley could be included in the game, Sakurai studied the art of the character and redesigned him so he could stand upright.All characters were chosen at the beginning of development except for Incineroar, who had not been created yet;the team instead left a space open for aSun and MoonPokémon. The Inklings' inkmechanicproved challenging to implement due to its interactions with environments. The team builtUltimatefrom scratch with new assets and content. Localization manager Nate Bihldorff stated that the game significantly upgraded lighting effects and texture rendering from thegame engineof theWii Uversion.The World of Light mode was inspired byBrawl's(2008) Subspace Emissary, and Sakurai chose to start it with a cataclysmic event because he thought it would\",\n \"he thought it would leave a greater impact on players.The team conceived the Spirits mechanic because they wanted to create an enjoyable single-player mode, but did not have enough resources to createcharacter models. While it did not let them tell stories for individual fighters or create new locations and rules, it let them use various characters and assets.One part of the team chose Spirits to include in the game and had to thoroughly research them; according to Sakurai, the Spirits mode was essential for using various franchises. Music Like previous games in the series,Ultimatefeatures several well-known video game music composers and arrangers providing a mix of original music and rearrangements of various tracks for the represented franchises, with over 1,000 tracks in total.New toUltimateis the tying of tracks to franchises instead of individual stages, as well as the ability to create custom playlists to listen to outside the game when the Switch is in handheld mode.Sakurai stated that he began\",\n \"that he began contacting composers over a year before release, providing them with a database of over a thousand suggested track ideas.In addition, he allowed them to submit their own personal favorites, with those choices being given priority for inclusion.While Sakurai oversaw the process and preferred that the music retain the spirit of the original games, the direction of them was generally handled by the composers themselves.The main theme, \\\"Lifelight\\\", composed byHideki Sakamoto, is the basis of most of the game's original music. Downloadable content As with previous entries, Nintendo planned to offer new fighters through DLC; however, unlike with the3DSandWii U,where players could request which characters they wished to see in the game, Nintendo chose which characters they would add by November 2018.Like the previous title, additional Mii costumes were released as paid DLC, with certain costumes also adding new music tracks to the game.Sakurai believed that despite characters likeJoker, the first\",\n \"the first announced DLC fighter, not being from games usually associated with Nintendo, they were added because they were \\\"emblematic\\\" of the types of characters they wanted to add toUltimate.He also stated that they \\\"bring just a whole different level of fun and enjoyment for players\\\".The Piranha Plant was chosen as a DLC character because Sakurai wanted to add diversity to the roster.Nintendo met withRarestudio head Craig Duncan at E3 2018 to discuss the possibility of including Banjo and Kazooie as downloadable content; Duncan, believing it to be \\\"a great opportunity\\\", agreed and connected the two development teams for further discussions.Sakurai noted that Banjo and Kazooie were the second most requested character forSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii Uin a Nintendo-sanctioned fan vote in 2015,and that their addition happened \\\"quite easily\\\", despite the property being owned byMicrosoftthrough its acquisition ofRare.Phil Spencer, the head ofXbox, stated that negotiating their inclusion was \\\"an easy\",\n \"was \\\"an easy deal to make\\\" thanks to Microsoft's strong partnership with Nintendo. The development of Fighters Pass Volume 2 was heavily affected by theCOVID-19 pandemicin 2020, as due tostay-at-home ordersin Japan, Sakurai and his development team had to work remotely.According to Daniel Kaplan ofMojang Studios, early discussions between Nintendo andMicrosoftincludingMinecraftcontent in theSuper Smash Bros.series had begun roughly five years prior to Steve's addition into the game.The character's inclusion required the development team to rework every stage in the game to accommodate Steve's gameplay mechanics.Sakurai had wanted to includeSorafromKingdom Heartsin the game because he was the top fighter requested forNintendo 3DSandWii Uin the 2015 fan vote.However, they initially thought that the legality surrounding the intellectual property withDisneywould be insurmountable, and originally planned for only five fighters in the second pass. However, Sakurai met a Disney representative at an award venue,\",\n \"at an award venue, which facilitated the start of negotiations for Sora's inclusion. Nintendo, Disney, andSquare Enixsaw towards including Sora in the game and overseeing all aspects related to his inclusion, with several limitations and guidelines they were required to follow.The Sora Challenger Pack featured a promotional tie-in with the 2020 rhythm gameKingdom Hearts: Melody of Memory: players withMelody of Memorysave data on their Nintendo Switch would unlock the music track \\\"Dearly Beloved (Swing Version)\\\". Release Ultimatewas teased during aNintendo Directpresentation on March 8, 2018, under theworking titleSuper Smash Bros., with the release year shown to be 2018. Nintendo formally announced the game atE3 2018, revealing that the full roster of characters from past games would be included, as well as its release date.Demoversions were playable at E3 in June and atSan Diego Comic-Conthe following month.IGNnominatedUltimatefor its Best Game of E3 2018 award; the game won Best Nintendo Switch Game from\",\n \"Switch Game from bothIGNandGamescom.Two Nintendo Direct presentations in 2018, one on August 8 and another one on November 1, were devoted to the game, revealing new characters, stages, and game modes. Nintendo releasedSuper Smash Bros. Ultimateworldwide on December 7, 2018.In addition to the standard retail version, a special edition containing aSuper Smash Bros.-themedNintendo Switch Pro Controllerand a Switch with a download code was also released.An additional special edition contained a pair ofSuper Smash Bros.-themedJoy-Conas well as a Switch console, aSuper Smash Bros.-themed dock, and a download code for the game.AGameCube controllerwith theSuper Smash Bros. Ultimatelogo was released on November 2, 2018. One of the game's new additions had the characterMr. Game & Watchassuming the appearance of a feather- and loincloth-wearingNative Americanwhen using one of his attacks—a reference toFire Attack(1982), in which players controlled acowboydefending his fort from attacking indigenous people. Some users\",\n \"people. Some users on social media saw this as racist, leading to Nintendo of America apologizing and removing the animation in an update shortly after release.Two weeks before its release, a leaked copy of the game was distributed across the internet. Nintendo took steps to issue copyright strikes on YouTube videos usingdata minedcontent, while fans worked to isolatespoilers, particularly the World of Light story mode, from those that had played the leaked version. Reception Ultimatereceived \\\"universal acclaim\\\" from critics, according to thereview aggregatorplatformMetacritic.Critics lauded the huge cast of characters and levels, new game modes, and combining of the best elements from its predecessors.French video game websiteJeuxvideo.comcalled it the best game in the series, praising its features which \\\"brilliantly mix gargantuan content with nostalgia\\\".Bleacher Reporthailed the game's colorful art style, faster gameplay, and unique stages.IGNpraised the game's decision to bring back every character from\",\n \"character from the series as \\\"ambitious and excellent\\\".The game's massive soundtrack and portable music player were praised byThe Verge. However, the game's online mode received criticism for its technical performance and matchmaking. Many players found significantlagaffecting their games, even when using wired connections over wireless, while the game's matchmaking features did not adhere to players' criteria, with players frequently playing matches with rule sets they did not choose. The matchmaking process was further criticized for making it difficult for friends to join matches over random players, and not allowing multiple local players to join in online matches.There had been so many complaints onUltimate'ssubredditthat the administrators forwarded all complaints to a separate thread.Ultimate'sWorld of Lightmode also received mixed reviews. While some found the single-player mode both accessible and challenging,others found the mode tedious and excessive. Sales In November 2018, Nintendo\",\n \"2018, Nintendo announcedUltimatewas the most pre-ordered game for the Switch and in the series.The Association for UK Interactive Entertainmentreported thatUltimatewas the fastest-selling Switch andSuper Smash Bros.game in the United Kingdom, with physical launch sales 302% higher than those forSuper Smash Bros. for Wii U, 233% higher than those for3DS, and 62.5% higher than those forBrawl.In its first three days on sale in Japan, the game sold 1.2 million copies, outsellingPokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu!andLet's Go, Eevee!andThe Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wildin the region. Within 11 days of its release,Ultimatehad sold more than three million copies within the United States, making it the fastest-selling Switch game in the country.It was similarly the fastest-selling Switch game as well as the fastest-selling game for any Nintendo console in Europe based on the first 11-day sales.It was estimated that the game sold and shipped over five million copies within its first three days of release.Within three\",\n \"three weeks,Ultimatebecame the fifth best-selling Switch game in the United Kingdom, surpassing the sales ofSplatoon 2.In January 2019,Amazonreported thatUltimatewas their highest selling video game product of 2018,with Nintendo officially announcing that the game had shipped over 12.08 million copies worldwide.Ultimatewas also Nintendo's fastest-selling game of all time until being surpassed byPokémon SwordandShieldin 2019.By September 2020, the game had sold over 21.10 million copies worldwide,making it the best-selling fighting game of all time,surpassing the record ofStreet Fighter II,and became thethird-best-selling Nintendo Switch game, only behindAnimal Crossing: New HorizonsandMario Kart 8 Deluxe. As of June 30, 2024, total sales reached34.66million. Awards The game won the award for \\\"Best Nintendo Switch Game\\\", \\\"Best Fighting Game\\\", and \\\"Best Multiplayer Game\\\" inIGN's Best of 2018 Awards, whereas its other nominations were for \\\"Game of the Year\\\" and \\\"Best Video Game Music\\\". Esports EVO 2019, held on\",\n \"EVO 2019, held on August 2–4, 2019, featuredUltimateas one of its main events. It was the largest offlineSmash Bros.tournament of all time, with 3,534 entrants signed up.It set a new record for EVO concurrent viewership, with over 279,000 viewers during Top 8.On May 8–10, 2020, topSuper Smash Bros. MeleeplayerHungryboxpartnered withNFLrunning backLe'Veon Belland esports organizationTeam Liquidto host The Box, an online tournament with a $10,000 prize pool.With over 8,000 entrants, it was the largest onlineSmash Bros.tournament of all time. In February 2020, it was announced that the Smash World Tour would feature bothSuper Smash Bros. MeleeandUltimateplayers for a grand prize pool of $250,000. The tournament would have included international qualifiers, with the grand finals' location to be in the United States.However, theCOVID-19 pandemicquickly led to several of the qualifiers getting either postponed or canceled.The Smash World Tour was successfully relaunched in 2021, featuring a mix of online and\",\n \"a mix of online and offline qualifiers and culminating in a final offline championship.In 2022, an officially licensed circuit was introduced, being the Panda Cup, featuringSuper Smash Bros. MeleeandSuper Smash Bros. Ultimate.However on November 24, 2022, Nintendo stated that the Smash World Tour 2022 could not continue, as they did not have a license from Nintendo. Accusations of Panda CEO, Alan Bunney, caused many players who had qualified for the Panda Cup to drop out. This caused both the Panda Cup and the Smash World Tour 2022 Championships to be cancelled, along with the Smash World Tour 2023. Notes References External links\",\n \"The Game Awards 2020 The Game Awards 2020was an award show that honored the bestvideo games of 2020. It was produced and hosted byGeoff Keighley, and took place on December 10, 2020. The preshow ceremony was hosted by Sydnee Goodman. Unlike previousGame Awards, the show was broadcast virtually due to theCOVID-19 pandemic; Keighley presented at a soundstage inLos Angeles, while musical performances took place virtually at stages inLondonandTokyo. The show introduced the award's first Future Class, a list of individuals from the video game industry who best represent the future of video games, Innovation in Accessibility award, an award for games that featured notableaccessibility options. The show waslive streamedacross 45 different platforms. It featured musical performances from theLondon Philharmonic OrchestraandEddie Vedder, and presentations from celebrity guests, includingReggie Fils-Aimé,Gal Gadot,Brie Larson, andKeanu Reeves. The Last of Us Part IIreceived the most nominations and wins in the show's\",\n \"wins in the show's history—eleven and seven, respectively—and was awardedGame of the Year.Neil DruckmannandHalley Grosswon Best Narrative for their work on the game, whileLaura Baileywas awarded Best Performance for her role asAbby. Several new games were announced, includingArk II,Perfect Dark, andan untitledMass Effectgame. The show was the most expensive ceremony to date. It was viewed by over 83 million streams, the most in its history to date,with 8.3 million concurrent viewers at its peak. It received a mixed reception from media publications, with praise directed at new game announcements, and criticism for not allowing developers more time to speak. Some critics and viewers shared concerns over the success ofThe Last of Us Part IIdue to its developer'scrunchpractices. Background As with previous iterations ofThe Game Awards, the 2020 show was hosted and produced by Canadian games journalistGeoff Keighley. He returned as an executive producer alongside Kimmie Kim, and Richard Preuss and LeRoy Bennett\",\n \"and LeRoy Bennett returned as director and creative director, respectively.Sydnee Goodman returned as host of the preshow.Due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, Keighley did not want to host a normal ceremony.Not wanting to take a hiatus and inspired by the success ofSummer Game Fest,he considered hosting from his home but his board urged him to attempt a larger show on par with previous years.In case of a significant surge ofCOVID-19 cases in California, the crew had several back-up plans, including broadcasting from Keighley's house.He worked with his partners to develop a virtual show;he and his team took inspiration from other shows throughout the year, including theDemocratic National Convention, in which the \\\"audience\\\" was featured on virtual screens,as well as the72nd Primetime Emmy Awards, wherein the hosts were isolated on stage and the winners accepted viavideo call. The presentation used three soundstages in Los Angeles, London, and Tokyo; each had minimal attendees, mostly related to production crew and\",\n \"production crew and presenters. Keighley said this allowed them to include additional presentation events as with past shows, as well as explore taking future shows to different venues.The 2020 show—featuring a production of more than 400 people, six of whom are full-time employees—had a budget of underUS$10 millionand was the most expensive to date, partly due to theCOVID-19 testsrequired for the crew and the worldwide remote camera set-ups.It remained profitable due to revenue from advertisers and sponsors, as well as minor earnings from streaming services.The show's theme was strength and comfort due to the impact of the pandemic. Keighley wanted to implore the theme of unity, given the release of thePlayStation 5andXbox Series X/Sin November 2020; he citedThe Game Awards 2018as an example of this theme, which had led withNintendo'sReggie Fils-Aimé, Microsoft'sPhil Spencer, and Sony'sShawn Laydensharing the stage.Keighley felt the inclusion of film and television stars was an interesting way to show a\",\n \"way to show a wider appreciation for the industry. His team wanted to includeHenry Cavillin the show, but he was busy working onThe Witcher. While developing the show, Keighley spoke to hundreds of viewers viaZoomto discuss their own interests,often alongside industry figures likeValve CorporationpresidentGabe NewellandEpic Gamescreative director Donald Mustard.As with the previous show, the presentation ran alongside the Game Festival, consisting of playable demos and additional in-game content.The show introduced the award's first Future Class, a list of individuals from across the video game industry who best represent the future of video games. The inductees included industry professionals such asKinda Funny's Blessing Adeoye Jr.,Naughty Dog'sHalley Gross, andGameSpot'sKallie Plagge.The presentation was aired on December 10, 2020,live streamedacross more than 45 online platforms.It aired on more than ten networks in China, includingBilibili,Douyin, andHuya Live, and on several networks in India\",\n \"networks in India includingDisney+ Hotstar,JioTV, andMX Player. Announcements Around April and May in 2020, Keighley was worried about a potential lack of game announcements due to theimpact of COVID-19 on the industry; however, several developers were able to submit their announcements and trailers for demonstration.Announcements on recently released and upcoming games were made for: New games announced during the ceremony included: Winners and nominees The nominees for The Game Awards 2020 were announced on November 18, 2020.Any game released on or before November 20, 2020 was eligible for consideration.The nominees were compiled by a jury panel with members from 96 media outlets globally;ballots were sent to outlets on October 29 and due back on November 6, though they had until November 13 to submit updated ballots. Outlets were required to submit three games for each category to determine the nominees.Winners were determined between the jury (90%) and public votes (10%); the latter was held via the\",\n \"was held via the official website and on social media platforms such asFacebookandTwitter, and closed on December 9.The two exceptions were the Most Anticipated Game and Player's Voice awards, which were fully nominated and voted-on by the public;the former was determined exclusively on Twitter and announced during the show,and the latter was announced on December 8 after several rounds of voting.A new Innovation in Accessibility award was added for games that featured notableaccessibility options.Around 18.3 million people participated in the public vote, doubling from the previous show. Awards Winners are listed first, highlighted inboldface, and indicated with a double dagger (‡). Video games Esports and creators Games with multiple nominations and awards Multiple nominations The Last of Us Part IIreceived eleven nominations, the most in the show's history. Other games with multiple nominations includedHadeswith nine,Ghost of Tsushimawith eight,Final Fantasy VII Remakewith six, andDoom Eternalwith\",\n \"andDoom Eternalwith five.Sony Interactive Entertainmenthad 26 total nominations, more than any other publisher, followed bySupergiant GamesandXbox Game Studioswith eight. Multiple awards The Last of Us Part IIreceived the most wins in the show's history, with seven. Four games—Among Us,Final Fantasy VII Remake,Ghost of Tsushima, andHades—won two awards. Across its two winning games, Sony Interactive Entertainment won a total of nine awards, whileInnersloth,Square Enix, Supergiant Games, and Xbox Game Studios won two. Presenters and performers Presenters The following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or introduced trailers. All other awards were presented by Keighley or Goodman. Performers The following individuals or groups performed musical numbers.A planned orchestral version ofCyberpunk 2077's music was scrapped when the game was delayed to the same day as the ceremony, rendering it ineligible for nomination. Ratings and reception Nominees Inverse's Corey Plante felt the cutoff\",\n \"felt the cutoff date led to several games getting snubbed, includingDemon's SoulsandMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales, as well asPokémon SwordandShield, which was eligible for both the2019and 2020 awards but was unrecognized in both. He feltGhost of Tsushimawas more deserving of a Best Score and Music nomination thanDoom Eternal.Den of Geek's Matthew Byrd similarly lamented the lack of recognition forDemon's SoulsandMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales.Kat Bailey ofUSgamerquestionedDoom Eternal'snomination for Game of the Year, describing it as \\\"messy, unfocused, and, well, just not as good\\\" as its predecessor.Kotaku Australia's Alex Walker similarly found the nomination misplaced and considered games likeHalf-Life: AlyxandMicrosoft Flight Simulatormore deserving. Ceremony The show received a mixed reception from media publications.VentureBeat'sDean Takahashipraised the ceremony, particularly applauding its celebration of diverse games such asThe Last of Us Part IIandTell Me Whyas well as the varied and\",\n \"as the varied and interesting new game announcements.Todd Martens ofLos Angeles Timesfelt the show should have allowed more time for the developers to speak and discuss their artistic visions behind the games, noting the presentation does little to demonstratevideo games as art.Eurogamer's Martin Robinson said the show was understandably \\\"low-key\\\" but called it a \\\"three-hour long advert\\\".Inverse's Ana Diaz criticized the rapid announcement of winners between premieres and during the preshow, preventing developers from accepting the awards, and its focus onHollywoodactors over game creators. Similar to concerns overDeath Stranding'spredominance in the nominations and ceremony for the 2019 awards due to its creatorHideo Kojima's friendship with Keighley, some viewers shared concerns related toThe Last of Us Part IIat the 2020 awards, both for its awards success and due to the developer'scrunchpractices.The Last of Us Part IIwas well-received at release but narrative elements polarized some critics and players,\",\n \"and players, and the game had been subject toreview bombing;Keighley clarified the awards were not rigged in the manner some viewers had suggested and there was no influence of Naughty Dog or its staff on the award selection, citing the game's popularity among players and media alike as proven by its runner-up placement in the Player's Voice award.Kotaku'sIan Walker criticized the game's Best Game Direction win, notingHadesshould have won due to developer Supergiant Games's less demanding work culture.TheGamer's Peter Glagowski similarly felt the game's awards were a message excusing crunch culture in game development.Keighley felt it would be difficult to incorporate criteria related to games developed under poor industry practices like crunch into the awards selection process without becoming aslippery slope, but believes discussions of these practices should be a conversation held by the larger community. Viewership Over 83 million streams were used to view the ceremony, the most in the show's history to\",\n \"show's history to date,with 8.3 million concurrent viewers at its peak.OnTwitch, the show had over 2.63 million concurrent viewers, more than double the previous year, with 9,000 creators co-streaming the ceremony. OnYouTube, live viewership increased 84 percent over the previous year. In total, live hours viewed increased by over 129 percent acrossFacebook Gaming, Twitch, and YouTube. The showtrended worldwide on Twitter, with a 31 percent increase in conversation from the previous year, while usage of thehashtag#TheGameAwards increased 107 percent.Keighley expressed his surprise by the consistent growth of the show over the years, but confessed it has led him to fear \\\"that year where it doesn't grow ... There's going to be a year where we don't have the same viewers\\\". Notes References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":379,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which two MLB teams played in the World Series just weeks after the O.J. 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J. Simpson The People of the State of California v. Orenthal James Simpsonwas acriminal trialinLos Angeles County Superior Court, in which formerNFLplayer and actorO. J. Simpsonwas tried and acquitted for the murders of his ex-wifeNicole Brown Simpsonand her friendRonald Goldman, who were stabbed to death outside Brown's condominium in Los Angeles on June 12, 1994. The trial spanned eight months, from January 24 to October 3, 1995. Though prosecutors argued that Simpson was implicated by asignificant amount of forensic evidence, he was acquitted of both murders on October 3.Commentators agree that to convince the jury to acquit Simpson, the defense capitalized on anger among the city'sAfrican-Americancommunity toward theLos Angeles Police Department(LAPD), which had a history of racial bias and had inflamed racial tensions inthe beating of Rodney Kingandsubsequent riotstwo years prior.The trial is often characterized as thetrial of the centurybecause of its international publicity and has been described as the \"most publicized\" criminal trial in history.Simpson was formally charged with the murders on June 17; when he did not turn himself in at the agreed time, he became the subject of a police pursuit.TV stations interrupted coverage of the1994 NBA Finalsto broadcast live coverage of the pursuit, which was watched by around 95 million people.The pursuit and Simpson's arrest were among the most widely publicized events in history. Simpson was represented by a high-profile defense team, referred to as the \"Dream Team\", initially led byRobert Shapiroand subsequently directed byJohnnie Cochran. The team includedF. Lee Bailey,Alan Dershowitz,Robert Kardashian,Shawn Holley,Carl E. Douglas, andGerald Uelmen. Simpson was also instrumental in his own defense. While DeputyDistrict AttorneysMarcia Clark,William Hodgman, andChristopher Dardenbelieved they had a strong case, the defense team persuaded the jury there wasreasonable doubtconcerning the DNA evidence.They contended the blood sample had been mishandled by lab scientistsand that the case had been tainted by LAPD misconduct related to racism and incompetence. The use of DNA evidence in trials was relatively new, and many laypersons did not understand how to evaluate it. The trial was considered significant for the wide division inreaction to the verdict.Observers' opinions of the verdict were largely related to their ethnicity; the media dubbed this the \"racial gap\".A poll ofLos Angeles Countyresidents showed most African Americans thought the \"not guilty\" verdict was justified while most whites thought it was a racially motivatedjury nullificationby the mostly African-American jury.Polling in later years showed the gap had narrowed since the trial; more than half of polled Black respondents expressed the belief that Simpson was guilty.In 2017, three jurors who acquitted Simpson said they would still vote to acquit, while one said he would convict. After the trial, Goldman's father filed a civil suit against Simpson. In 1997, the jury unanimously found Simpson responsible for the deaths of Goldman and Brown.The Goldman family was awarded damages totaling $34 million ($64 million adjusted for inflation), but as of 2024 have received a small portion of that. Background Simpson–Brown marriage Brown met Simpson in 1977when he was 30 and she was 18, working as a waitress at the Daisy (aBeverly Hillsprivate club).They began dating although Simpson was married; he filed for divorce from his first wife in March 1979. Simpson and Brown married on February 2, 1985.They had two children together, daughter Sydney (b. 1985) and son Justin (b. 1988).Brown signed a prenuptial agreement that prohibited her from working while married. According to psychologistLenore E. Walker, the Simpson–Brown marriage was a \"textbook example ofdomestic abuse\".In letters and other documents, Brown wrote that Simpson had beaten her in public, during sex, and even in front of family and friends.She described an incident in which Simpson broke her arm during a fight; to prevent him from being arrested, she told emergency room staff that she had fallen off her bike.Brown wrote that she felt conflicted about notifying police of the abuse because she was financially dependent on Simpson.Of the 62 incidents of abuse, the police were notified eight times, and Simpson was arrested once.On February 25, 1992, Brown filed for divorce, citing \"irreconcilable differences\". Brown said that Simpson stalked and harassed her after they divorced – an intimidation tactic meant to force the victim to return to the abuser.She said he had spied on her having sex with her new boyfriendand that she felt her life was in danger because Simpson had threatened to kill her if he ever found her with another man.She drafted awill.On June 8, 1994, a woman named Nicole (presumed to be Brown) telephoned Sojourn House, a women's shelter.She was considering staying at the shelter because she was afraid of what Simpson might do to her, as she was refusing his pleas to reconcile their marriage. Frogmen A few months before the killings, Simpson finished filming a pilot forFrogmen, an adventure series comparable to TheA-Team. Simpson played the primary character, \"Bullfrog\" Burke, who led a gang of formerUS Navy SEALs. He underwent \"a fair amount of\" military training for Frogmen, including the use of a knife, and in one scene, he holds a knife to the throat of a woman playing his daughter. Investigators discovered a 25-minute tape of the pilot, which did not feature the knife scene, and viewed it on Simpson's television while searching his home. The defense attempted to prevent its use on these grounds, but Judge Ito permitted it to be shown.\"Bullfrog\" Burke was skilled at night killings,and the \"silent kill\" technique of slashing the throat.SEALs also regularly wear knit \"watch caps\" like the one found at the scene. Murders On the evening of June 12, 1994, Brown and Simpson both attended their daughter Sydney's dance recital at Paul Revere Middle School. Afterward, Brown and her family went to eat at Mezzaluna restaurant. One of the waiters at the restaurant was Ron Goldman, who had become close friends with Brown in recent weeks,but was not assigned to the Brown family's table. Brown and her children went toBen & Jerry'sbefore returning to her condominium onBundy Drive,Brentwood.The manager of Mezzaluna recounted that Brown's mother telephoned the restaurant at 9:37 pm asking about a pair of lost eyeglasses. The manager found the glasses and put them in a white envelope, which Goldman took with him as he left the restaurant at the end of his shift at 9:50 pm; he intended to drop them off at Brown's place. Meanwhile, Simpson ate takeout food fromMcDonald'swithKato Kaelin, abit-partactor and family friend who had been given the use of a guest house on Simpson's estate. Rumors circulated that Simpson had been on drugs at the time of the murder (later dismissed as blood tests were negative for Simpson, Brown, and Goldman), and theNew York Post'sCindy Adams reported that the pair had gone to a localBurger King, where a prominent drug dealer known only as \"J. R.\" later said he had sold themcrystal meth. Brown's neighbors testified that they heard profuse barking coming from outside throughout the night, beginning around 10:15 pm. Around 10:55 pm., a dogwalker who lived a few blocks away from Brown came across Brown'sAkitadog barking in the street outside her home. The Akita, whose legs were covered in blood, followed the man home; he tried to walk the dog back to where he found it, but the dog resisted. Later, he left the Akita with a neighboring couple who offered to keep the dog overnight; as the dog was agitated, the couple decided to walk it back to where it had been found. Around midnight, as they reached the area where the Akita had been found, the dog stopped outside Brown's home and the couple saw Brown's body lying outside the house. Police were called to the scene and found Goldman's body near Brown's. The front door to Brown's condominium was open when the bodies were found, but there were no signs that anyone had entered the building, by breaking in or otherwise. Brown's body was lying face down and barefoot at the bottom of the stairs leading to the door.The walkway leading to the stairs was covered in blood, but the soles of Brown's feet were clean; based on this evidence, investigators concluded that she was the first person to be attacked and the intended target.She had been stabbed multiple times in the head and neck, but there were fewdefensive woundson her hands, implying a short struggle to investigators. The final wound inflicted ran deep into her neck, severing hercarotid artery. A large bruise in the center of her upper back with a corresponding foot print on her clothing indicated to investigators that, after killing Goldman, the assailant returned to Brown who was on the ground, pulled her head back by the hair and slit her throat.Herlarynxcould be seen through the gaping wound in her neck, andvertebra C3was incised;Brown's head barely remained attached to her body. Goldman's body lay nearby, close to a tree and the fence. He had been stabbed multiple times in the body and neck, but there were relatively few defensive wounds on his hands, signifying a short struggle to investigators.Forensic evidence from the Los Angeles Countycoroneralleged that the assailant stabbed Goldman with one hand while holding him in a chokehold. Near Goldman's body were a blue knit cap; a left-hand, extra-largeAris Isotonerlight leather glove; and the envelope containing the glasses that he was returning. Detectives determined that Goldman came to Brown's house during her murder and that the assailant killed him to remove any witnesses.A trail of the assailant's bloody shoe prints ran through the back gate. To the left of some of the prints were drops of blood from the killer, who was apparently bleeding from the left hand. Measuring the distance between the prints indicated that the assailant walked – rather than ran – away from the scene. Flight to Chicago On the night of June 12, Simpson was scheduled to board ared-eye flightfromLos Angeles International Airportto Chicago, where he was due to play golf the following day at a convention with representatives ofThe Hertz Corporation, for whom he was a spokesman.The flight was due to leave at 11:45 pm.Limousinedriver Allan Park arrived early at Simpson's Rockingham estate to pick him up at around 10:25 pm.Park drove around the estate to make sure he could navigate the area with the stretch limousine properly and to see which driveway would have the best access for the car. He began to buzz the intercom at 10:40, but got no response. He noted the house was dark, and nobody appeared to be home as he smoked a cigarette and made several calls to his boss to get Simpson's home phone number. He testified that he saw a \"shadowy african american figure\", the same size as Simpson, enter the front door from where the driveway starts, before the lights came on; he did not see what direction the figure came from.He testified that he saw Simpson's house number on the curb outside the estate, but no car was parked outside. The prosecution presented exhibits showing the position next to the house number on the curb in which Simpson'sFord Broncowas found the next morning, implying that Park would surely have noticed the Bronco if it had been there when he arrived to pick up Simpson. Around the time Park saw the \"shadowy figure\" arive at Simpson's home,Kaelin was having a telephone conversation with a friend. At approximately 10:40, something crashed into the wall of the guest house Kaelin was staying in, which he described as three \"thumps\" and which he feared was an earthquake. Kaelin hung up the phone and ventured outside to investigate the noises, but did not go directly down the dark south pathway from which the thumps had originated. Instead, he walked to the front of the property, where he saw the limousine parked outside. Kaelin let the limousine in, and Simpson finally came out through the front door a few minutes later, claiming he had overslept.Both Park and Kaelin would later testify that Simpson seemed agitated that night. Park noted that on the way to the airport, Simpson complained about how hot it was, and was sweating and rolled down the window, despite it not being a warm night.Park also testified that he loaded four luggage bags into the car that night, one of them being a knapsack that Simpson would not let him touch, insisting he load it himself. Aporterat the airport testified that Simpson checked only three bags that night,and the police determined that the missing luggage was the same knapsack the limousine driver had mentioned earlier.Another witness not heard at the trial claimed he saw Simpson at the airport discarding items from a bag into a trash can.Detectives Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter believe this is how the murder weapon, shoes and clothes that Simpson wore during the murder were disposed. Simpson was running late but caught his flight. A passenger on the plane and the pilot testified that they did not notice any cuts or wounds on Simpson's hands.A broken glass, a note with a telephone number on it, and bedsheets with blood on them were all recovered from Simpson's room at theO'HarePlaza Hotel. The manager of the hotel recalled Simpson asking for a Band-Aid for his finger at the front desk, because he had \"cut it on pieces of note paper\". Initial investigation and arrest After learning that Brown was the female victim, LAPD commander Keith Bushey ordered detectives Tom Lange, Philip Vannatter, Ron Phillips, andMark Fuhrmanto notify Simpson of her death and to escort him to the police station to pick up the former couple's children, who were asleep in Brown's condominium at the time of the murders. The detectives buzzed the intercom at Simpson's estate for over 30 minutes but received no response. They noted that Simpson's car was parked at an awkward angle, with its back end out more than the front, and that there was blood on the door, which they feared meant someone inside might be hurt. Vannatter instructed Fuhrman to scale the wall and unlock the gate to allow the other three detectives to enter. The detectives would argue they entered without a search warrant because of exigent circumstances – specifically out of fear that someone inside might be injured.Fuhrman briefly interviewed Kaelin, who told the detective that the car belonged to Simpson and that earlier that night he had heard thumps on his wall. In a walk around the premises to inspect what may have caused the thumps, Fuhrman discovered a blood-stained right-hand glove, which was determined to be the mate of the left-hand glove found next to the body of Goldman. This evidence along with the presence of blood in the driveway of the Rockingham estate and on Simpson's vehicle constitutedprobable causeand a search warrant for the location was applied for and granted. Phillips testified that when he called Simpson in Chicago to tell him of Brown's murder, Simpson sounded \"very upset\" but was oddly unconcerned about the circumstances of her death. Simpson only asked if the children had seen the murder or Brown's body, but was not concerned about whether the assailant(s) had harmed the children either.The police contacted Simpson at his home on June 13 and took him toParker Centerfor questioning. Lange noticed that Simpson had a cut on a finger on his left hand that was consistent with where the killer was bleeding from, and asked Simpson how he got the cut. At first, Simpson claimed he cut his finger accidentally while in Chicago after learning of Brown's death. Lange then informed Simpson that blood was found inside his car; at this point, Simpson admitted that he had cut his finger on June 12, but said he did not remember how. He voluntarily gave some of his own blood for comparison with evidence collected at the crime scene and was released.On June 14, Simpson hired lawyerRobert Shapiro, who began assembling Simpson's team of lawyers (referred to as the\"Dream Team\"). Shapiro noted that an increasingly distraught Simpson had begun treatment for depression. The following days, preliminary results from DNA testing came back with matches to Simpson but the District Attorney delayed filing charges until all the results had come back. Simpson spent the night between June 16 and 17 at theSan Fernando Valleyhome of friendRobert Kardashian; Shapiro asked several doctors to attend to Simpson's purported fragile mental state. On June 17, detectives recommended that Simpson be charged with two counts offirst-degree murderwith special circumstance of multiple killings after the final DNA results came back and an arrest warrant was subsequently issued.The LAPD notified Shapiro at 8:30 am that Simpson would have to turn himself in that day. At 9:30 am, Shapiro went to Kardashian's home to tell Simpson that he would have to turn himself in by 11:00 am, an hour after the murder charges were filed. Simpson told Shapiro that he wanted to turn himself in,to which the police agreed, believing that someone as famous as Simpson would not attempt to flee. The police agreed to delay Simpson's surrender until noon to allow him to be seen by a mental health specialist, as he was showing signs of suicidal depression – he had updated his will, called his mother and children, and written three sealed letters: one to his children, one to his mother, and one to the public.More than 1,000 reporters waited for Simpson'sperp walkat the police station, but he did not arrive as stipulated. The LAPD then notified Shapiro that Simpson would be arrested at Kardashian's home. Kardashian and Shapiro told Simpson this but when the police arrived an hour later, Simpson andAl Cowlingshad disappeared. The three sealed letters Simpson had written were left behind. At 1:50 pm, Commander Dave Gascon, LAPD's chief spokesman, publicly declared Simpson a fugitive; the police issued anall-points bulletinfor him and an arrest warrant for Cowlings. \"Suicide note\" At 5 pm, Kardashian and one of his defense lawyers read Simpson's public letter.In the letter, Simpson sent greetings to 24 friends and wrote, \"First everyone understand I had nothing to do with Nicole's murder\". He described the fights with Brown and their decision not to reconcile their relationship, and asked the media \"as a last wish\" not to bother his children. He wrote to his former girlfriend Paula Barbieri, who had broken up with him hours before the double murder, \"I'm sorry... we're not going to have, our chance... As I leave, you'll be in my thoughts\". It also included \"I can't go on\" and an apology to the Goldman family. The letter concluded, \"Don't feel sorry for me. I have had a great life, great friends. Please think of the real O. J. and not this lost person\".Most interpreted this as asuicide note; Simpson's mother collapsed after hearing it,and reporters joined the search for Simpson. At Kardashian's press conference, Shapiro said that he and Simpson's psychiatrists agreed with the suicide note interpretation. Through television, Shapiro appealed to Simpson to surrender. Bronco chase News helicopters searched theLos Angeles highway systemforAl Cowlings's automobile, a white 1993 Ford Bronco.At 5:51 pm, Simpson reportedly called 9-1-1; the call was traced to theSanta Ana Freeway, nearLake Forest. At around 6:20 pm, a motorist inOrange CountynotifiedCalifornia Highway Patrolafter seeing someone believed to be Simpson in a Bronco on theI-5freeway heading north. The police tracked calls placed by Simpson on his cell phone. At 6:45 pm, police officer Ruth Dixon saw the Bronco heading north onInterstate 405; when she caught up to it, Cowlings yelled out that Simpson was in the back seat of the vehicle and was pointing a gun at his own head.The officer backed off, but followed the vehicleat 35 miles per hour (56 km/h),with up to 20 police cars following her in the chase.Zoey TurofKCBS-TVwas the first to find Simpson from a news helicopter, after colleagues heard that theFBI's mobile phone tracking had located Simpson at theEl Toro Y. More than nine news helicopters eventually joined the pursuit; Tur compared the fleet toApocalypse Now, and the high degree of media participation causedcamera signals to appear on incorrect television channels.The chase was so long that one helicopter ran out of fuel, forcing its station to ask another for a camera feed. Knowing that Cowlings was listening toKNX-AM, sports announcerPete Arbogastcalled Simpson's formerUSC footballcoachJohn McKayand connected him to Simpson. As both men wept, Simpson told McKay, \"OK, Coach, I won't do anything stupid. I promise\" off the air. \"There is no doubt in my mind that McKay stopped O.J. from killing himself in the back of that Bronco\", Arbogast said.McKay,Walter Payton,Vince Evans,and others from around the country pleaded with Simpson over radio to surrender. At Parker Center, officials discussed how to persuade Simpson to surrender peacefully. Lange, who had interviewed Simpson about the murders on June 13, realized he had Simpson's cell phone number and called him repeatedly. A colleague hooked a tape recorder up to Lange's phone and captured a conversation between Lange and Simpson, in which Lange repeatedly pleaded with Simpson to \"throw the gun out the window\" for the sake of his mother and children. Simpson apologized for not turning himself in earlier that day, and responded he was \"the only one who deserved to get hurt\" and was \"just gonna go with Nicole\". Simpson asked Lange to \"just let me get to the house\" and said \"I need for me\". Cowlings's voice is overheard in the recording (after the Bronco had arrived at Simpson's home surrounded by police) pleading with Simpson to surrender and end the chase peacefully.NBC SportsbroadcasterBob Costas, who had worked with Simpson on the network'sNFL studio show, said that during the chase that Simpson had called30 Rockefeller PlazainNew York Cityasking to speak to Costas, but Costas was several blocks away atMadison Square GardencoveringGame 5 of the1994 NBA Finals. Los Angeles streets emptied and drink orders stopped at bars as people watched on television.Every television network showed the chase;ABC,NBC,CBS,CNN, and local news outlets interrupted regularly scheduled programming to cover the incident, watched by an estimated 95 million viewers nationwide;only 90 million had watchedthat year's Super Bowl.While NBC continued to air NBA Finals coverage, Bob Costas acted as a go-between forMarv Albert, who was calling the game, andTom Brokaw, who reported on the chase. Both events were carried in a split screen.The chase was covered live by ABC anchorsPeter JenningsandBarbara Walterson behalf of the network's fivenews magazines, which achieved some of their highest-ever ratings that week.The chase was also broadcast internationally, including in France and China. Thousands of spectators and onlookers packed overpasses along the route of the chase, waiting for Simpson. In a festival-like atmosphere, many held signs urging Simpson to flee,with slogans such as \"Go O.J.\" and \"Save the Juice\".Encouraging Simpson's actions outragedJim Hill, who was among those broadcasting pleas to their friend to surrender.As people watched and wondered what would happen to Simpson, one author wrote, \"the shared adventure gave millions of viewers a vested interest, a sense of participation, a feeling of being on the inside of a national drama in the making\". Simpson reportedly demanded that he be allowed to speak to his mother before he would surrender. The chase ended at 8:00 pm at his Brentwood estate, where his son, Jason, ran out of the house,and 27SWATofficers awaited.After remaining in the Bronco for about 45 minutes,Simpson exited at 8:50 pm and went inside for about an hour; a police spokesman stated that during this time Simpson talked to his mother on the phone.Shapiro then arrived, and Simpson surrendered to authorities a few minutes later. In the Bronco, police found \"$8,000 in cash, a change of clothing, a loaded.357 Magnum, a United States passport, family pictures, and a disguise kit with a fake goatee and mustache\".Simpson was booked at Parker Center and taken toMen's Central Jail; Cowlings was booked on suspicion ofharboring a fugitiveand held on $250,000 bail. The Bronco chase, the suicide note, and the items found in the Bronco were not presented as evidence in the criminal trial. Marcia Clark conceded that such evidence did imply guilt yet defended her decision, citing the public reaction to the chase and suicide note as proof the trial had been compromised by Simpson's celebrity status. Most of the public, including Simpson's friendAl Michaels,interpreted his actions as an admission of guilt yet thousands of spectators were seen expressing sympathy for Simpson and encouraging him to flee from the police. Preliminary hearing On June 20, Simpson wasarraignedand pleaded not guilty to both murders and was held without bail. The following day, agrand jurywas called to determine whether to indict him for the two murders but was dismissed on June 23, as a result of excessive media coverage that could have influenced its neutrality. Instead, authorities held a probable cause hearing to determine whether to bring Simpson to trial.California Superior CourtJudge Kathleen Kennedy-Powell ruled on July 7that there was sufficient evidence to bring Simpson to trial for the murders. At his second arraignment on July 22, when asked how he pleaded to the murders, Simpson firmly stated: \"Absolutely, one hundred percent, not guilty.\" Jill Shively testified to the grand jury that soon after the time of the murders she saw a white Ford Bronco speeding away from Bundy Drive in such a hurry that it almost collided with aNissanat the intersection of Bundy and San Vicente Boulevard,and that she recognized Simpson's voice. She talked to the television showHard Copyfor $5,000, after which prosecutors declined to use her testimony at trial.In 1995, Shively had falsely claimed actor Brian Patrick Clarke had assaulted and stalked her. Jose Camacho of Ross Cutlery provided store receipts showing Simpson had purchased a 12-inch (305 mm)stilettoknife six weeks before the murders. The knife was recovered and determined to be similar to the one the coroner said caused the stab wounds. The prosecution did not present this evidence at trial, after Camacho sold his story to theNational Enquirerfor $12,500.Tests on the knife determined that an oil used on new cutlery was still present on the knife, indicating it had never been used. FormerNFLplayer and pastorRosey Griervisited Simpson on November 13 at theLos Angeles County Jail. A jailhouse guard, Jeff Stuart, testified to Judge Ito that at one point Simpson yelled to Grier that he \"didn't mean to do it\", after which Grier had urged Simpson to come clean. Ito ruled that the evidence was inadmissible as being protected because of clergy-penitent privilege. At first, Simpson's defense sought to show that one or more hitmen hired by drug dealers had murdered Brown and Goldman – giving Brown a \"Colombian necktie\" – because they were looking for Brown's friend,Faye Resnick, a known cocaine user who had failed to pay for her drugs.She had stayed for several days at Brown's condo until entering rehab four days before the killings. Ito ruled that the drug killer theory was \"highly speculative\" with no evidence to support it.Consequently, Ito barred the jury from hearing it and prohibited Christian Reichardt from testifying about his former girlfriend Resnick's drug problems. Rose Lopez, a neighbor's Spanish-speaking housekeeper, stated on August 18 that she saw Simpson's Bronco parked outside his house at the time of the murders, supporting his claim he was home that night. During cross-examination by Clark, Lopez admitted she was not sure what time she saw Simpson's Bronco but the defense still intended to call her. However, a taped July 29 statement by Lopez did not mention seeing the Bronco but did mention another housekeeper was also there that night, Sylvia Guerra. Prosecutors then spoke with Guerra, who said Lopez was lying and claimed the defense offered both housekeepers $5,000 to say they saw the Bronco that night. When Ito warned the defense that Guerra's claim as well as the earlier statement not mentioning the Bronco and the tape where Clark claims \"that is clearly being coached on what to say\" would be shown to the jury if Lopez testified, they dropped her from the witness list. Media coverage When the trial began, all of the networks were getting these hate-mail letters because people's soap operas were being interrupted for the Simpson trial. But then what happened was the people who liked soap operas got addicted to the Simpson trial. And they got really upset when the Simpson trial was over, and people would come up to me on the street and say, 'God, I loved your show.' The murders and trial – \"the biggest story I have ever seen\", said a producer of NBC'sToday– received extensive media coverage from the very beginning; at least oneinstant bookwas proposed two hours after the bodies were found, and scheduled to publish only a few weeks later.The case was a seminal event in the history of reality television,helping to revive the genre ofcourt showslikeJudge Judy.TheLos Angeles Timescovered the case on its front page for more than 300 days after the murders. The nightly news broadcasts from theBig Three television networksgave more air time to the case than to theBosnian Warand theOklahoma City bombingcombined. They served an enthusiastic audience; one company put the loss of national productivity from employees following the case instead of working at $40 billion.The Tonight Show with Jay Lenoaired many skits on the trial, and the Dancing Itos – a troupe of dancers dressed as the judge – was a popular recurring segment.According toHoward Kurtzof theWashington Post, the acquittal was \"the most dramatic courtroom verdict in the history of Western civilization\". Participants in the case received much media coverage. Limo driver Park said the media offered him $100,000 but refused, as he would be removed as a witness.Fans approached Clark in public, and when she got a new hairstyle during the trial, the prosecutor received a standing ovation on the courthouse steps;Peopleapproved of the change, but advised her to wear \"more fitted suits and tailored skirts\". While Cochran, Bailey, and Dershowitz were already well-known, others like Kaelin became celebrities, and Paula Barbieri appeared inPlayboy. Those involved in the trial followed their own media coverage. Interest in the case was worldwide; Russian presidentBoris Yeltsin's first question to President Clinton when they met in 1995 was, \"Do you think O.J. did it?\" The issue of whether to allow any video cameras into the courtroom was among the first issues Judge Ito had to decide, ultimately ruling that live camera coverage was warranted.Ito was later criticized for this decision by other legal professionals. Dershowitz said that he believed that Ito, along with others related to the case such as Clark, Fuhrman and Kaelin, was influenced to some degree by the media presence and related publicity. The trial was covered in 2,237 news segments from 1994 through 1997.Ito was also criticized for allowing the trial to become amedia circusand not doing enough to regulate the court proceedings. Among the reporters who covered the trial daily from the courtroom, and a media-area that was dubbed \"Camp O. J.\",were Steve Futterman ofCBS News,Linda Deutschand Michael Fleeman of theAssociated Press, Dan Whitcomb ofReuters, Janet Gilmore of theLos Angeles Daily News, Andrea Ford of theLos Angeles Times, Michelle Caruso of theNew York Daily News,Dan AbramsofCourt TV,Harvey Levinof KCBS, andDavid MargolickofThe New York Times. WritersDominick Dunne,Joe McGinniss, and Joseph Bosco also had full-time seats in the courtroom. On June 27, 1994,Timepublished a cover story, \"An American Tragedy\", with a photo of Simpson on the cover.Time's cover image was darker than a typical magazine cover and darker than the original photo, as shown on aNewsweekcover released at the same time.Timeconsequently became the subject of a media scandal.Commentators found that its staff had usedphoto manipulationto darken the photo, and they speculated it was to make Simpson appear more menacing. After the publication of the photo drew widespread criticism of racist editorializing andyellow journalism,Timepublicly apologized. Charles Ogletree, a criminal defense attorney and law professor, said in a 2005 interview that the best investigative reporting regarding the murder and trial was by theNational Enquirer. Trial Simpson wanted aspeedy trial, and the defense and prosecuting attorneys worked around the clock for several months to prepare their cases. The trial began on January 24, 1995, seven months after the murders, and was televised byclosed-circuit TV camera viaCourt TV, and in part by other cable and network news outlets, for 134 days. JudgeLance Itopresided over the trial in theC.S. Foltz Criminal Courts Building. Jury District AttorneyGil Garcettielected to file charges in downtown Los Angeles, as opposed toSanta Monica, in which jurisdiction the crimes took place.The Los Angeles Superior Court then decided to hold the trial in Downtown Los Angeles instead of Santa Monica due to safety issues at the Santa Monica Court house owing to the1994 Northridge earthquake.The decision may have impacted the trials outcome as it resulted in ajury poolthat mainly consisted of African Americans.Richard Gabriel, a jury consultant noted that African Americans were far more likely than other minorities to be receptive to claims of racially motivated fraud by the police and were less likely to be familiar with and thus acceptDNA evidence. In October 1994, Judge Lance Ito started interviewing 304 prospective jurors, each of whom had to fill out a 75-page questionnaire. On November 3, twelve jurors were seated with twelve alternates. Over the course of the trial, ten were dismissed for a wide variety of reasons. Only four of the original jurors remained on the final panel. According to media reports, Clark believed women, regardless of race, would sympathize with the domestic violence aspect of the case and connect with Brown personally. On the other hand, the defense's research suggested that black women would not be sympathetic to Brown, who was white, because of tensions about interracial marriages. Both sides accepted a disproportionate number of female jurors. From an original jury pool of 40 percent white, 28 percent black, 17 percent Hispanic, and 15 percent Asian, the final jury for the trial had ten women and two men, of whom nine were black, two white, and one Hispanic. On April 5, 1995, juror Jeanette Harris was dismissed when Judge Ito learned she had failed to disclose an incident of domestic abuse.Afterwards, Harris gave an interview and accused the deputies of racism and claimed the jurors were dividing themselves along racial lines. Ito then met with the jurors, who all denied Harris's allegations of racial tension among themselves. The following day, Ito dismissed the three deputies anyway, which upset the jurors that did not complain because the dismissal appeared to lend credence to Harris's allegations, which they all denied.On April 21, thirteen of the eighteen jurors refused to come to court until they spoke with Ito about it. Ito then ordered them to court and the 13 protesters responded by wearing all black and refusing to come out to the jury box upon arrival.The media described this incident as a \"Jury Revolt\" and the protesters wearing all black as resembling a \"funeral procession\". Prosecution case The two lead prosecutors were Deputy District AttorneysMarcia ClarkandWilliam Hodgman, who was replaced as lead prosecutor byChristopher Darden. Clark was designated as the lead prosecutor and Darden became Clark's co-counsel. Prosecutors Hank Goldberg and Hodgman, who had successfully prosecuted high-profile cases in the past, assisted Clark and Darden. Two prosecutors who were DNA experts, Rockne Harmon and George \"Woody\" Clarke, were brought in to present the DNA evidence in the case and were assisted by Prosecutor Lisa Kahn. Theory The prosecution argued that the domestic violence within the Simpson-Brown marriage culminated in her murder.Simpson's history of abusing Brown resulted in their divorce and his pleading guilty to one count of domestic violence in 1989.On the night of the murders, Simpson attended a dance recital for his daughter and was reportedly angry with Brown because of a black dress that she wore, which he said was \"tight\". Simpson's then girlfriend, Paula Barbieri, wanted to attend the recital with Simpson but he did not invite her. After the recital, Simpson returned home to a voicemail from Barbieri ending their relationship. According to the prosecution, Simpson then drove over to Brown's home in his Ford Bronco to reconcile their relationship as a result and when Brown refused, Simpson killed her in a \"final act of control\". Goldman then came upon the scene and was murdered in order to silence him and remove any witnesses. Afterwards, Simpson drove home in his Bronco, and he went into his house. There, he took off his bloodstained clothes, put them in the knapsack (except his socks and the glove), put clean ones on, and left towards the limousine. At the airport, Simpson opened the knapsack, removed the clothes, Bruno Magli shoes, and the murder weapon, and threw them in the trash, before putting the knapsack in one of his suitcases and heading towards his flight. Domestic violence The prosecution opened its case by calling LAPD 911 dispatcher Sharon Gilbert and playing a 9-1-1 call from Brown on January 1, 1989, in which she expressed fear that Simpson would physically harm her; Simpson himself is even heard in the background yelling at her and possibly hitting her as well. The officer who responded to that call, Detective John Edwards, testified next that when he arrived, a severely beaten Brown ran from the bushes where she was hiding and to the detective screaming \"He's going to kill me, he's going to kill me\", referring to Simpson. Pictures of Brown's face from that night were then shown to the jury to confirm his testimony. That incident led to Simpson's arrest and eventual pleading of no contest to one count of domestic violence for which he received probation for one year. LAPD officer and long time friend of both Simpson and Brown, Ron Shipp, testified on February 1, 1995, that Simpson told him the day after the murders that he did not want to take apolygraphtest offered to him by the police, because \"I've had a lot of dreams about killing her. I really don't know about taking that thing\". The jury dismissed Shipp's claims after defense attorney Carl E. Douglas accused him of being an alcoholic, and testifying against Simpson to promote his acting career. The prosecution then called Brown's sister, Denise Brown, to the witness stand. She testified to many episodes of domestic violence in the 1980s, when she saw Simpson physically abuse Brown and throw her out of their house during an argument. She said that Simpson was agitated with Brown on June 12.Although a home videotape taken immediately after the dance recital showed a cheerful Simpson being given a kiss by Denise Brown,Kato Kaelincorroborated the claim that Simpson was \"upset\" with Brown because of the black dress she wore, which he said was \"tight\". The prosecution planned to present 62 separate incidents of domestic violence, including three previously unknown incidents Brown had documented in several letters she had written and placed in a bank safety deposit box. Judge Ito denied the defense's motion to suppress the incidents of domestic violence, but only allowed witnessed accounts to be presented to the jury because of Simpson'sSixth Amendment rights. Brown's statements to friends and family were ruled inadmissible ashearsaybecause Brown was dead and unable to be cross-examined. Despite this, the prosecution had witnesses for 44 separate incidents they planned to present to the jury. However, the prosecution dropped the domestic violence portion of their case on June 20, 1995.Marcia Clark stated it was because they believed theDNA evidenceagainst Simpson was insurmountable, but the media speculated it was because of the comments made by dismissed juror Jeanette Harris. Christopher Darden later confirmed that to be true.Harris was dismissed on April 6 because she failed to disclose that she was a victim of domestic violence from her ex-husband.Afterwards, she gave an interview in which she said the evidence of Simpson's abuse of Brown \"doesn't mean he is guilty of murder\". This dismissal of Simpson's abusive behavior from a female juror, who was also a victim of such abuse by her own husband, convinced the prosecution that the jury was not receptive to the domestic violence argument.After the verdict, the jurors called the domestic violence portion of the case a \"waste of time\".Shapiro, Dershowitz, and Uelmen later admitted they believe that race played a factor in the jurors' dismissal of Brown's abuse by Simpson. The defense retained renowned advocate for victims of domestic abuseLenore E. Walker.Cochran said that she would testify that Simpson does not fit the profile of an abuser that would murder his spouse.Walker's colleagues were appalled by her decision to defend Simpson and accused her of betraying her advocacy for a $250,000 retainer.Walker was dropped from the witness list for \"tactical reasons\" after she submitted her report on the case.In it, she opines that the statistic from Dershowitz that of the two million incidents of abuse per year, only 2,000 victims are actually murdered by their spouses as being misleading because Brown was already dead.The relevant statistic was \"of the murdered spouses who were also victims of abuse, what percentage of them were murdered by their current or ex-husband?\" When she reported that number was 80.3 percent, they dropped her from the witness list. The revelation of Simpson's abuse of Brown is credited with turning public opinion against him.The public shock at the reason why Walker was dropped from the defense witness list is credited with transforming public opinion on spousal abuse from a private familial matter to a serious public health issue. Timeline Los Angeles County Chief Medical ExaminerLakshmanan Sathyavagiswarantestified on June 14, 1995, that Brown's time of death was estimated as between 10:00 pm and 10:30 pm.Kato Kaelintestified on March 22, 1995, that he last saw Simpson at 9:36 pm that evening. A phone call was made from Simpson's Bronco to Paula Barbieri at 10:02 pm. Simpson was not seen again until 10:54 pm when he answered the intercom at the front door for the limousine driver, Allan Park.Simpson had no alibi for approximately one hour and 18 minutes during which time the murders took place.Allan Park testified on March 28 that he arrived at Simpson's home at 10:25 pm and stopped at the Rockingham entrance; Simpson's Bronco was not there.He then drove over to the Ashford entrance and rang the intercom three times, getting no answer, starting at 10:40 pm. Then he saw someone arrive at Simpson's home through the front door, the lights then turned on and Simpson answered the intercom. Park's testimony was significant because it explained the location of the glove found at Simpson's home.The blood trail from the Bronco to the front door was easily understood but the glove was found on the other side of the house. Park said the \"shadowy figure\" initially approached the front door before heading down the southern walkway which leads to where the glove was found by Fuhrman. The prosecution believed that Simpson had driven his Bronco to and from Brown's home to commit the murders, saw that Park was there and aborted his attempt to enter through the front door, entering through the back instead.He panicked and made the sounds that Kaelin heard when he realized that the security system would not let him enter through the rear entrance.He then discarded the glove, came back and went through the front door.During cross examination, Park conceded that he could not identify the figure but said he saw that person enter the front door and afterwards Simpson answered and said he was home alone. Park conceded that he did not notice any cuts on Simpson's left hand but added \"I shook his right hand, not his left\". DNA evidence and blood trail The prosecution presented a total of 108 exhibits, including 61 drops of blood,of DNA evidence to link Simpson to the murders. With no witnesses to the crime, the prosecution was dependent onDNAas the onlyphysical evidencelinking Simpson to the crime.The volume of DNA evidence in this case was unique and the prosecution believed they could reconstruct how the crime was committed with enough accuracy to resemble an eyewitness account.Marcia Clark stated in her opening statements that there was a \"trail of blood from the Bundy Crime scene through Simpson's Ford Bronco to his bedroom at Rockingham\". Hair and fiber evidence LAPD criminalist and hair fiber expert Susan Brockbank testified on June 27, 1995, and FBI Special Agent and fiber expert Doug Deedrick testified on June 29, 1995, to the following findings: Shoeprint analysis In June, FBI shoeprint expert William J. Bodziak testified that the bloody shoeprints found at the crime scene and inside Simpson's Bronco were made from a rare and expensive pair ofBruno MagliItalian shoes. He determined the shoes were a size 12, the same size that Simpson wore, and are only sold at Bloomingdales. Only 299 pairs of that size were sold in the US and one of them was sold at the same store that Simpson often buys his shoes from. Bodziak also testified that, despite two sets of footprints at the crime scene, only one attacker was present because they were all made by the same shoes. During cross-examination Bailey suggested the murderer deliberately wore shoes that were the wrong size, which Bodziak dismissed as \"ridiculous\". Simpson denied ever owning a pair of the shoes; there was onlycircumstantial evidencehe did.Bloomingdales employee Samuel Poser testified he remembered showing Simpson those shoes, but there was no store record of him purchasing them.Although the prosecution could not prove that Simpson owned a pair of those shoes, Bodziak testified that a similar bloody shoeprint was left on the floor inside Simpson's Bronco. Scheck suggested that Fuhrman broke into the Bronco and left the footprint there; he produced a photo of Fuhrman walking through a puddle of blood. Bodziak admitted that he was not able to confirm that the shoeprint in the car definitely came from a Bruno Magli shoe, but dismissed Scheck's claim because none of the shoeprints at the crime scene were made by Fuhrman's shoes, making it unlikely he could have made a bloody shoeprint in the Bronco. Defense case Simpson hired a team of high-profile defense lawyers, initially led byRobert Shapiro, who was previously a civil lawyer known for settling, and then subsequently by Johnnie Cochran, who at that point was known for police brutality and civil rights cases.The team included noted defense attorneyF. Lee Bailey,Robert Kardashian, Harvard appeals lawyerAlan Dershowitz, his student Robert Blasier, and Dean ofSanta Clara University School of LawGerald Uelmen. Assisting Cochran wereCarl E. DouglasandShawn Holley.Barry ScheckandPeter Neufeldwere also hired; they headed theInnocence Projectand specialized in DNA evidence. Simpson's defense was said to have cost between US$3-6 million; the media dubbed the talented attorneys theDream Team,while the taxpayer cost of prosecution was over US$9 million. Postulate The defense team's reasonable doubt angle was summarized as \"compromised, contaminated, corrupted\" in opening statements.They argued the DNA evidence against Simpson was compromised by mishandling by Dennis Fung and Andrea Mazzola during the collection phase of evidence gathering, and that 100% of the DNA of the real killer(s) had vanished from the evidence samples.The defense argued that evidence was then contaminated in the LAPD crime lab by criminalist Collin Yamauchi and that Simpson's DNA from his reference vial was transferred to all but three exhibits.The remaining three exhibits were planted by the police and thus corrupted by police fraud.The defense also questioned the timeline, claiming the murders happened around 11:00 pm that night when Simpson has an alibi. Timeline The physicianRobert Huizengatestified in July 1995that Simpson was not physically capable of carrying out the murders due to chronic arthritis and old football injuries. During cross-examination, the prosecution produced an exercise video that Simpson had made a few weeks before the murders titledO.J. Simpson Minimum Maintenance: Fitness for Men, which demonstrated that Simpson was anything but frail.Huizenga admitted afterwards that Simpson could have committed the murders if he was in \"the throes of an adrenaline-rush\". Michael Baden, a forensic pathologist, testified that the murdershappened closer to 11:00 pm.He stated that Brown was still conscious, standing, and took a step after her throat was cutand that after Goldman'sjugular veinwas lacerated he continued to stand and fight his assailant for ten minutes. After the trial, Baden admitted his claim of Goldman's long struggle was inaccurateand that testifying for Simpson was a mistake.Critics claimed that Baden knowingly gave false testimony in order to collect a $100,000 retainerbecause the week before he testified, John Gerdes admittedthat Goldman's blood was found in Simpson's Broncodespite Goldman never having an opportunity within his lifetime to be in the Bronco. Nicole's mother, Juditha, told police and investigators in a sworn statement that she was speaking with her daughter on the telephone at 11:00pm that evening.Those phone records were sealed. A vat of ice cream was still partially frozen sitting on the downstairs bannister when police searched the open-door house around 12:30am June 13. The local weather was reported to be around 60° F that night, implying that by that time, the ice cream should have been near-completely thawed. Compromised and contaminated Barry ScheckandPeter Neufeldargued that the results from the DNA testing were not reliable because the police were \"sloppy\" in collecting and preserving it from the crime scene.Fung and Mazzola did admit to making several mistakes during evidence collection, which included not always changing gloves between handling evidence items, packaging and storing the evidence items using plastic bags rather than paper bags as recommended, and storing evidence in the police van, which was not refrigerated, for up to seven hours after collection.This, the defense argued, would allow bacteria to degrade the DNA and thus make the samples more susceptible to cross-contamination in the LAPD crime lab. The prosecution denied that the mistakes made by Fung and Mazzola changed the validity of the results.They noted that all of the evidence samples were testable and that most of the DNA testing was done at the two consulting labs, not the LAPD crime lab where contamination supposedly happened. Since all of the samples the consulting labs received were testable, while Scheck and Neufeld's theory predicted that they should have been inconclusive after being \"100% degraded\", the claim that all the DNA was lost to bacterial degradation was not credible.The prosecution also denied that contamination happened in the LAPD crime lab because the result would have been a mixture of Simpson's DNA and the DNA of the \"real killer(s)\", but the results showed that only Simpson's DNA was present.The prosecution also noted the defense declined to challenge any of those results by testing the evidence themselves.Marcia Clark called Scheck and Neufeld's claims a \"smoke-screen\". The contamination claim was made by microbiologist John Gerdes.He testified in August 1995 thatForensic PCR DNA matchingis not reliableand that the LAPD crime lab has a \"chronic\", \"substantial contamination problem\".Gerdes testified that because of the LAPD's past history of contamination, he would not consider any of the PCR DNA matches in this case reliable. He also claimed that the consulting labs' PCR DNA matches were not reliable, as the evidence they tested went \"through the LAPD\" for packaging and shipping.Gerdes believed only three of the DNA matches to have been valid, which were the same three the defense alleged were planted by the police. During cross-examination, Gerdes admitted there was no evidence that cross-contamination had occurred and that he was only testifying to \"what might occur and not what actually did occur\". He accepted that the victims' blood was in the Bronco and Simpson's blood was at the crime scene and neither was due to contamination. He also conceded that nothing happened during \"packaging and shipping\" that would affect the validity of the results at the two consulting labs. The prosecution implied that Gerdes was not a credible witness: he had no forensic experience, had only testified for criminal defendants in the past, and always said theDNA evidenceagainst them was not reliable due to contamination. Clark also implied that it was not a coincidence that the three evidence items he initially said were valid were the same three the defense claimed were planted while the other 58 were all false positives and the 47 substrate controls, which are used to determine if contamination occurred, were all false negatives.Defense forensic DNA expertHenry Lee, testifying in August 1995, admitted that Gerdes's claim was \"highly improbable\". Barry Scheck's eight-day cross-examination of Dennis Fung was lauded in the media.However, Howard Coleman, president of Seattle-based forensic DNA laboratory GeneLex, criticized Scheck's cross-examination as \"smoke and mirrors\", stating: \"Everything we get in the lab is contaminated to some degree. What contamination and degradation will lead you to is an inconclusive result. It doesn't lead you to a false positive\". Police conspiracy allegation The defense initially only claimed that three exhibits were planted by the policebut eventually argued that virtually all of the blood evidence against Simpson was planted in a police conspiracy.They accused prison nurse Thano Peratis,criminalists Dennis Fung,Andrea Mazzola,and Colin Yamauchi,and Vannatterand Fuhrman,of participating in a plot to frame Simpson. In closing arguments, Cochran called Fuhrman and Vannatter \"twins of deception\",Vannatter \"the man who carried the blood\"and Fuhrman \"the man who found the glove\". EDTA The onlyphysical evidenceoffered by the defense that the police tried to frame Simpson was the allegation that two of the 108 DNA evidence samples tested in the case contained the preservativeEthylenediaminetetraacetic acid(EDTA). However, it was the prosecution who asked to have the samples tested for the preservative, not the defense.The defense alleged that the drop of blood on the back gate at the Bundy crime scene, which matched Simpson, and the blood found on a pair of socks in Simpson's bedroom, which matched Brown, were planted by the police. In order to support this claim, the defense pointed to the presence in the blood samples of EDTA, a preservative found in the purple-toppedcollection tubesused for police reference vials. In July 1995,Fredric Rieders, a forensic toxicologist who had analysed the FBI's results, testified that the level of EDTA in the evidence samples was higher than that which is normally found in blood: this appeared to support the defense's claim that the blood came from the reference vials.During cross-examination, Clark asked Rieders to read out loud the portion of theEPAarticle that stated what the normal levels of EDTA in blood are, which he had referenced during his testimony.This demonstrated that he had misread the article and that the levels found in the evidence samples were consistent with those found in blood that was not preserved in a police reference vial.Rieders then claimed it was a \"typo\",but the prosecution produced a direct copy from the EPA confirming the normal amounts of EDTA found in unpreserved blood.The prosecution also had Rieders admit that EDTA is found in foodand specifically the ingredients used in theMcDonald'sBig Mac and french friesthat Simpson had eaten earlier that night. FBI special agent Roger Martz was called by the defense in July 1995 to testify that EDTA was present in the evidence samples. Instead, he said he did not identify it in the blood, contradicting Rieders' testimony.Initially he conceded the blood samples were \"consistent with the presence of EDTA\", but he later clarified his response after hearing that \"everyone is saying that I found EDTA\", which he denied. The defense accused him of changing his demeanor to favor the prosecution, and he replied: \"I cannot be entirely truthful by only giving 'yes' and 'no' answers\".Martz stated that it was impossible to ascertain with certainty the presence of EDTA, as while the presumptive test for it was positive, the identification test for it was inconclusive. He also tested his own unpreserved blood and got the same results for EDTA levels as the evidence samples, which he said conclusively disproved the claim that the evidence blood came from the reference vials.He contended that the defense had jumped to conclusions from the presumptive test results, while his tests had in fact shown that \"those bloodstains did not come from preserved blood\". Back gate The defense alleged that Simpson's blood on the back gate at the Bundy crime scene was planted by the police. The blood on the back gate was collected on July 3, 1994, rather than June 13.The volume of DNA in that blood was significantly higher than the other blood evidence collected on June 13. The volume of DNA was so high that the defense conceded that it could not be explained by contamination in the lab. However, they noted that it was unusual for that blood to have more DNA in it than the other samples collected at the crime scene, especially since it had been left exposed to the elements for several weeks and was collected after the crime scene had supposedly been washed over. In March 1995, Vannatter testified that he instructed Fung to collect the blood on the gate on June 13 and Fung admitted he had not done so.The defense suggested the reason why Fung did not collect the blood is because it was not there that day; when shown a blown-up photograph taken of the back gate on June 13, he admitted he could not see the blood. The prosecution responded that a different photograph showed the blood was present on the back gate on June 13, before any blood had been taken from Simpson's arm.Robert Riske was the first officer at the crime scene and the one who pointed out the blood on the back gate to Fuhrman, who documented it in his notes that night.Multiple other officers testified that the blood was present on the back gate the night of the murders.The prosecution also pointed out that the media cameras present proved that Vannatter never returned to the crime scene (Brown's home) that evening, where Simpson's blood was allegedly planted. Bronco Barry Scheck alleged the police had twice planted the victims' blood inside Simpson's Bronco. An initial collection was made on June 13; the defense accused Vannatter of planting the victims' blood in the Bronco when he returned to Simpson's home later that evening. The prosecution responded that the Bronco had already been impounded by the time Vannatter returned and was not even at Rockingham. Socks The defense alleged that the police had planted Brown's blood on the socks found in Simpson's bedroom. The socks were collected on June 13 and had blood from both Simpson and Brown, but her blood on the socks was not identified until August 4.The socks were found by Fuhrman, but the defense suggested Vannatter planted the blood. He had received both blood reference vials from the victims earlier that day from the coroner and booked them immediately into evidence. Vannatter then drove back to Rockingham later that evening to hand-deliver the reference vial for Simpson to Fung, which the defense alleged gave him opportunity to plant the blood. Fung testified he could not see blood on the socks he collected from Simpson's bedroom,and the prosecution later demonstrated that those blood stains were only visible underneath a microscope. Vannatter denied planting Brown's blood on the socks. The video from Willie Ford indicated that the socks had already been collected and stored in the evidence van before Vannatter arrived and footage from the media cameras present appeared to prove that he never went inside the evidence van after he arrived at Rockingham. Glove The last exhibit allegedly planted was the bloody glove found at Simpson's property by Fuhrman.Unlike the sock and the back gate, the defense provided no physical or eyewitness evidence to support their claim that the prosecution could then refute.The New Yorkerpublished an article months before the trial began which cited a source in Simpson's defense team as saying that they intended to accuse Fuhrman of planting the glove, with the motive being racism. Robert Shapiro later admitted he was the magazine's source. Defense attorney F. Lee Bailey suggested that Fuhrman found the glove at the crime scene, picked it up with a stick, placed it in a plastic bag, and concealed it in his sock when he drove to Simpson's home with Lange, Vannatter, and Phillips. Bailey suggested that Fuhrman then planted the glove to frame Simpson, with the motive being either racism or a desire to become the hero in a high-profile case.Scheck suggested that Fuhrman broke into the Bronco and used the glove to plant blood onto and inside the Bronco. The prosecution denied that Fuhrman planted the glove. They noted that several officers had already combed over the crime scene for almost two hours before Fuhrman arrived and none had noticed a second glove. Lange testified that 14 other officers were there when Fuhrman arrived and all said there was only one glove at the scene.Lt. Frank Spangler also testified that he was with Fuhrman for the duration of his time there, saying he would have seen Fuhrman steal the glove. Clark added that Fuhrman did not know whether Simpson had an alibi, if there were any witnesses to the murders, whose blood was on the glove, that the Bronco belonged to Simpson, or whether Kaelin had already searched the area where the glove was found. During cross-examination by Bailey,Fuhrman denied that he had used the word \"nigger\" to describe African Americans in the ten years prior to his testimony.A few months later, the defense presented audiotapes of Fuhrman repeatedly using the word eight years before the murders. TheFuhrman tapesbecame the cornerstone of the defense's case that his testimony lacked credibility. Clark called the tapes \"the biggestred herring\" ever. After screenwriter Laura Hart McKinny handed over the tapes to the defense, Fuhrman says he asked the prosecution for a redirect to explain the context of those tapes but the prosecution and fellow officers abandoned him after Ito played the audiotapes in open court.The public reaction was explosive, comparable to the reaction to the video of the King beating.After the trial, Fuhrman said that he was not a racist and apologized for his language, claiming he was play-acting for ascreenplaywhen he made the tapes and had been asked to be as dramatic as possible.Many of hisminorityformer coworkers expressed support for him. On September 6, 1995, Fuhrman was called back to the stand by the defense after the prosecution refused to redirect him. The jury was absent but the exchange was televised. Fuhrman, facing a possible prosecution forperjury, was instructed by his attorney to invoke theFifth Amendmentto avoidself-incriminationto two consecutive questions he was asked.Defense attorney Uelmen asked Fuhrman if it was his intention to plead the Fifth to all questions, and Fuhrman's attorney instructed him to reply \"yes\". Uelmen spoke with other members of the defense and then said he had just one more question: \"Did you plant or manufacture any evidence in this case?\" Following his attorney's instruction, Fuhrman again invoked the Fifth. Cochran responded to Fuhrman's pleading the Fifth by accusing the other officers of conspiring to protect Fuhrman; he asked Judge Ito to suppress all of the evidence that Fuhrman found. Ito denied the request, stating that pleading the Fifth does not imply guilt and that there was no evidence of fraud. Cochran asked that the jury be allowed to hear Fuhrman taking the Fifth, and again Ito denied his request. Ito criticized the defense's theory of how Fuhrman allegedly planted the glove, stating it was illogical. On June 15, 1995, Darden surprised Clark by asking Simpson to try on the gloves found at the crime scene and his home. The prosecution had earlier decided against asking Simpson to try them on because the gloves had been soaked in blood from Simpson, Brown, and Goldman,and frozen and unfrozen several times. Instead they presented a witness who testified that Brown had purchased a pair of those gloves in the same size in 1990 atBloomingdalesfor Simpson, along with a receipt and a photo of Simpson earlier wearing the same type of gloves. The leather gloves appeared too tight for Simpson to put on easily, especially over the latex gloves he wore underneath. Clark claimed that Simpson was acting when he appeared to be struggling to put on the gloves. Cochran replied, \"I don't think he could act the size of his hands\".Darden then told Ito of his concerns that Simpson \"hasarthritisand we looked at the medication he takes and some of it is anti-inflammatory and we are told he has not taken the stuff for a day and it caused swelling in the joints and inflammation in his hands\".Cochran informed Ito the next day thatShawn Chapmancontacted the Los Angeles County Jail doctor, who confirmed Simpson was taking his arthritis medication every day, and that the jail's medical records verified this. In a June 28, 1995, memo to Cochran, Uelmen came up with—and Cochran later repeated—a quip he used in his closing arguments: \"If it doesn't fit, you must acquit\". In his memo to Cochran, Uelmen noted that the phrase not only applied to the gloves but to the evidence presented by the prosecutors: What the memo really tries to do is play off the jury instructions... I thought that instruction on circumstantial evidence was just incredibly good for us, so when we knew that instruction was going to be given, it just popped out at me. It says if it doesn't fit, you must acquit. What I was trying to do is not just remind the jury of that moment in the trial of trying on the glove, but the whole concept of did the evidence really fit the story that the prosecution was trying to present. The prosecution stated they believed the gloves shrank from having been soaked in the blood of the victims.This model of gloves was made out of leather, which, as confirmed by Richard Rubin, can shrink up to 15% after being exposed to moisture and can never return to its original size.Darden produced a new pair of the same type of gloves, which fit Simpson when he tried them on.Rubin was a former vice president of Aris Isotoner Inc., which makes the gloves in question. On September 12, 1995, Rubin testified he was \"100 certain\" that the gloves at the murder scene—and also the style of gloves which Simpson was seen wearing in photographs and football broadcasts between 1990 and 1994—were of the company's rare Aris Light model and that they appeared to have shrunk.Rubin also noted that another pair of similar gloves which Simpson could be seen wearing during a football broadcast were noticeably absorbing rain water. After the trial, Cochran revealed that Bailey had goaded Darden into asking Simpson to try on the glovesand that Shapiro had told Simpson in advance that they would not fit. Summation In closing arguments, Darden ridiculed the notion that police officers might have wanted to frame Simpson.He questioned why, if the LAPD was against Simpson, they went to his house eight times on domestic violence calls against Brown between 1986 and 1988 but did not arrest him; they only arrested him on charges of abuse in January 1989. Darden noted the police did not arrest Simpson for five days after the 1994 murders.During the prosecution's closing argument, Cochran and Scheck very notably objected seventy-one times in order to lessen its effect on the jury,and though Ito overruled sixty-nine of them, he did not once admonish Cochran or Scheck or threaten them with contempt of court for their behavior. During his closing argument, Cochran pointed out the many flaws of the LAPD, particularly Fuhrman, Lange, and Vannatter. He emphasized that Fuhrman was proved to have repeatedly referred to black people as \"niggers\" and also to have boasted of beating young black men in his role as a police officer. Cochran compared Fuhrman toAdolf Hitlerand referred to him as \"the personification of evil\", and claimed that Fuhrman had planted the glove in an attempt to frame Simpson for the murders, based on his dislike of interracial couples. Cochran also presented a piece of paper named \"Vannatter's Big Lies\", claiming Vannatter had returned to the crime scene with Simpson's blood to plant it there, despite Vannatter having previously testified that he had given it to Dennis Fung in order to avoid the exhibits from getting mixed up. Cochran referred to Fuhrman and Vannatter as the \"two devils of deception\", and implored the jurors to \"stop this cover-up\" and \"acquit Simpson and send the police a message\", which was interpreted by many as an appeal for ajury nullification. Following his summation, Cochran received numerous death threats, and hired bodyguards fromLouis Farrakhan. In response, Fred Goldman, who was himself Jewish, referred to Cochran himself as a racist and a \"sick man\" for comparing Fuhrman to Hitler while associating himself with Farrakhan, who was widely considered a black supremacist and anti-Semite. Robert Shapiro, also Jewish, said he was offended by Cochran comparing Fuhrman's claims to the Holocaust. In an interview regardingVincent Bugliosi's analysis on the case, Vannatter claimed that he was so infuriated at Cochran's claims about him that he felt a desire to strangle him in the courtroom. Verdict Fears grew that race riots, similar to theriots in 1992, would erupt across Los Angeles and the rest of the country if Simpson were convicted of the murders. As a result, all Los Angeles police officers were put on 12-hour shifts. The police arranged for more than 100 police officers on horseback to surround the Los Angeles County courthouse on the day the verdict was announced, in case of rioting by the crowd. PresidentBill Clintonwas briefed on security measures if rioting were to occur nationwide. The only testimony that the jury reviewed was that of limo driver Park.At 10:07 a.m. on October 3, 1995, Simpson was acquitted on both counts of murder. The jury arrived at the verdict by 3:00 pm on October 2, after four hours ofdeliberation, but it postponed the announcement.After the verdict was read, juror number nine, 44-year-old Lionel Cryer, gave Simpson aBlack Power raised fistsalute.The New York Timesreported that Cryer was a former member of the revolutionary nationalistBlack Panther Partythat prosecutors had \"inexplicably left on the panel\". An estimated 100 million people worldwide watched or listened to the verdict's announcement. Long-distance telephone call volume declined by 58 percent, and trading volume on theNew York Stock Exchangedecreased by 41 percent. Water usage decreased as people avoided using bathrooms. So much work stopped that the verdict resulted in an estimated $480 million in lost production.TheUS Supreme Courtreceived a message on the verdict duringoral arguments, with thejusticesquietly passing the note to each other while listening to the attorney's presentation. Congressmen canceled press conferences, withJoe Liebermantelling reporters, \"Not only would you not be here, but I wouldn't be here, either\". Acquittal and aftermath African-AmericanLAPDPolice ChiefWillie Williamsindicated that he had no plans to reopen the investigation, saying of the acquittals, \"It doesn't mean there's another murderer\". The LAPD has also declined to reexamine the evidence with modern methods in recent years because Simpsoncould not be tried for the same crime againunder theFifth Amendment. Fate of the Broncos Simpson's 1993 Ford Bronco was never returned to him and was destroyed by the LAPD shortly after the trial ended. Cowlings's 1993 Ford Bronco from the low-speed chase was purchased in 1994 by Simpson's former sports agentMike Gilbertand two other men, then ended up sitting in a parking garage for the next 17 years (1995–2012), where it was rarely used.As of 2017, the vehicle was on loan to theAlcatraz East Crime Museum, where it was put on display as part of an exhibit on the murder trial. Legislative changes The strong public reaction to Brown's letters and statements describing her abusespurred passage of theViolence Against Women Actin 1994, which Clark and Douglas referred to as the \"O.J. rule\".After the trial, researchers reported increased reporting, arrests, and harsher sentences for those convicted ofdomestic violence. Analysis of polling data After the verdict, polling showed that 75 percent ofWhite Americansthought Simpson was guilty while 70 percent ofBlack Americansthought he was innocent.AnNBCpoll taken in 2004 reported 87 percent of Whites believed Simpson was guilty, compared to only 27 percent of Black respondents.In the 2010s, polling showed the gap had narrowed, with a majority of both now believing he was guilty: 83 percent of White and 57 percent of Black Americans. Political impact and civil rights Scholarly consensus is that the trial damagedrace relations in Americaand point to polling which shows that belief in Simpson's guilt depended on the race of the individual and not on the evidence against him.Analysis of the \"racial gap\" in polling shows that it did not cross thepolitical spectrum.Conservativesregardless of race or gender thought Simpson was guilty. Where the gap emerged was amongliberals– with black liberals believing Simpson was innocent, while white liberals thought he was guilty.Stanford UniversityLaw ProfessorRichard Thompson Fordwrote that this made the verdict awedge issuethat divided liberals along racial lines as white liberals felt the verdict was a racially motivatedjury nullificationand resented the images of African Americans celebrating the verdict.Led byWard Connerly, opponents ofaffirmative action, seized upon the division and rebranded as advocatingrace neutrality, which appealed to white liberals now due to their perceived unjustness of the verdictand in 1996 voters inCaliforniapassedProposition 209, which ended affirmative action programs in the state.A historic drop in diversity at theUniversity of Californiasystem followedwhich resulted in a similar drop in diversity that still remainsin the state'swhite-collar job market, especially in thehigh-tech hub of Silicon Valley.A further initiative rejected by voters,Proposition 54in 2003, would have further increased the impact of Prop 209 by abolishing racial classifications so the drop in diversity couldn't be quantified.Themurder of George Floydrevived empathy forracial injusticeamong white liberalsbut the unsuccessfulattempt to repeal Proposition 209in 2020 was credited to the trial's legacy of undermining race relations. Polling shows that racial and ethnicminority groupswere divided by the verdict as well.LatinosandAfrican Americansboth believed that fraud was taking place in theLAPDbut disagreed on the cause.Simpson said he felt vindicatedby theRampart Scandalwhich proved that fraud was happening in theC.R.A.S.Hanti-gang unit. However, this fraud was not racially motivated: all the officers involved were minorities themselvesand were actually found to be affiliated with one of thegangsthey were supposed to be policing. Publications Several jurors together publishedMadame Foremanin 1995 to respond to allegations the verdict was racially motivated. They concluded that Simpson probably was guilty but the prosecution failed to prove itbeyond a reasonable doubt. In 1996, Cochran publishedJourney to Justice, in which he denied playing the \"race card\" and maintained that theLAPDtried toframeSimpson. Shapiro publishedThe Search for Justicein 1996 about the case. He concluded there wasreasonable doubtbut criticized Bailey and Cochran for bringing race into the trial. In comparison to Cochran's book, he wrote: \"I never believed that Simpson was being victimized by a racist police organization because he was black…or that he was seen as a black hero\". In 1998, Clark publishedWithout a Doubt, in which she opined that the acquittal demonstrated the legal system is still compromised by race and celebrity because the prosecution'sphysical evidenceshould have easily convicted Simpson. Darden publishedIn Contemptin 1998 about the trial. He attributed the acquittal to poor stewardship by a \"starstruck\"Judge Itoand a \"dysfunctional and uneducated\" jury. Vincent BugliosipublishedOutrage: The Five Reasons why O. J. Simpson Got Away with Murderin 1997. Bugliosi blamed the verdict on an incompetent jury, prosecution, and judge. He wrote: \"Other than when a killer is apprehended in the act, I have never seen a more obvious case of guilt. All of the evidence—not some or most of it—points irresistibly to Simpson's guilt and his guilt alone\". Henry LeepublishedBlood Evidence: How DNA Is Revolutionizing The Way We Solve Crimesin 2003, in which he noted that both the defense's forensic DNA experts had rejected Scheck's contamination claim. Fuhrman publishedMurder in Brentwoodin 1998, defending himself against fraud claims. He wrote that his taking theFifthwas to avoid prosecution forperjury. In 1997, Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter publishedEvidence Dismissed: The Inside Story of the Police Investigation of O.J. Simpson, in which they defended themselves against allegations of corruption and incompetence. Daniel M. PetrocellipublishedTriumph of Justice: The Final Judgement of the Simpson Sagain 1998, comparing the criminal and civil trials. He attributed the acquittal to bad rulings byJudge Ito, unethical behavior by the defense, and unreliable testimony from Gerdes,Rieders, Lee, andBaden. In 1999, sociologistDarnell HuntpublishedO.J. Simpson Facts and Fictions: News Rituals in the Construction of Reality. Hunt argued that the racial gap in polling was a manufactured product of selective reporting of facts by the media due to their treatment of the trial as a form of entertainment rather than a legal proceeding. If I Did It In 2006,ReganBooksannounced a bookghostwrittenbyPablo Fenjvesbased on interviews with Simpson titledIf I Did It, an account which the publisher said was ahypotheticalconfession. The book's release was planned to coincide with a Fox interview featuring Simpson. The project was cancelled due to public criticism. Later, the Goldman family was awarded the rights to the book and published it under the titleIf I Did It: Confessions of the Killer. In 2018, Fox broadcast Simpson's previously unaired interview in a special titledO.J. Simpson: The Lost Confession?The interview was widely interpreted as being a form of impliedconfessionbecause Simpson usedfirst personlanguage (\"Obviously I must have \")in explaining how he would have committed the murders. Post-trial interviews In an interview withBarbara Walters, Shapiro said he was offended by Cochran comparing Fuhrman toAdolf Hitler, and said he would never work with Bailey or Cochran again. He also said the defense played the \"race card\".Robert Kardashianadmitted that, prior to the jurors visiting Simpson's home, the defense team had switched out his photos of white women for photos of his children and switched out a picture of a nude Paula Barbieri (Simpson's white then-girlfriend) for aNorman Rockwellpainting from Cochran's office. Simpson gave two high-profile interviews regarding the case – in 1996 withRoss Beckerand in 2004 withKatie Couric.In the February 1998 issue ofEsquire, Simpson was quoted as saying, \"Let's say I committed this crime ...even if I did this, it would have to have been because I loved her very much, right?\"In 1998, during an interview withRuby Wax, Simpson pretended to stab her with a banana in an apparent joke.In 2008,Mike Gilbertreleased his bookHow I Helped O.J. Get Away with Murder, which quotes Simpson allegedly saying: \"If she hadn't opened that door with a knife in her hand ... she'd still be alive.\" In the documentaryO.J.: Made in America, juror Carrie Bess said she believed \"90% of the jury actually decided to acquit Simpson as payback forRodney King\".Juror Lionel Cryer, who notably gave Simpson aBlack Power salute, stated in 2017 that in retrospect he would render a guilty verdict.Juror Anise Aschenbach, who initially voted guilty before changing her vote, stated in 2008 that she regrets the decision and believes Simpson is guilty because he is not looking for the \"real killer\" like he promised he would. “On the evidence that they gave me to evaluate, it was crooked by the cops,\" juror David Aldana said in an interview.“The evidence given to me to look at, I could not convict. Did he do it? Maybe, maybe not.\"Juror Sheila Woods denied the jury’s decision was based on race in an interview withVulture.When asked if she believed Simpson was framed, Woods stated, “I don’t know if he was necessarily framed. I think O.J. may know something about what happened, but I just don’t think he did it. I think it was more than one person, just because of the way she was killed. I don’t know how he could have just left that bloody scene — because it was bloody — and got back into his Bronco and not have it filled with blood. And then go back home and go in the front door, up the stairs to his bedroom … That carpet was snow white in his house. He should have blood all over him or bruises becauseRon Goldmanwas definitely fighting for his life. He had defensive cuts on his shoes and on his hands. O.J. only had that little cut on his finger. If Goldman was kicking to death, you would think that the killer would have gotten some bruises on his body. They showed us photos of O.J. with just his underwear just two days after, and he had no bruises or anything on his body.”In an interview with CNN following Simpson’s death, juror Yolanda Adams said she was still comfortable with her decision to render a not guilty verdict and denied the verdict was based on payback forRodney King, citing the reasonable doubt in the case presented by the defense and the actions of the police officers involved in the case likeMark Fuhrmanpleading the fifth when he was asked if he planted or manufactured any evidence against Simpson. In 2018,Foxaired an interview Simpson gave in 2006 with publisherJudith Regan, titledO.J. Simpson: The Lost Confession?, where he gave \"hypothetical\" details about his role in the murders. Civil trial In 1996, Fred Goldman and Sharon Rufo, the parents of Ron Goldman, and Lou Brown, father of Nicole Brown filed acivil suitagainst Simpson for wrongful death.Theplaintiffswere represented byDaniel Petrocelliand Simpson by Robert Baker.Presiding Judge Hiroshi Fujisaki did not allow the trial to be televised, did notsequesterthe jury, and prohibited the defense from allegingracismby theLAPDand from condemning the crime lab.Thephysical evidencedid not change but additional evidence ofdomestic violencewas presented as well as 31 pre-1994 photos of Simpson wearingBruno Maglishoes,including one that waspublished6 months before the murders, proving it could not be aforgery.Results from apolygraphtest that Simpson denied taking showed \"extreme deception\" when he denied committing the murders. Fuhrman did not testify but Simpson did on his own behalf and lied several times. One significant difference between the two trials was the admission of Nicole Brown's diary entries in the civil case. Lead counselDaniel Petrocelliexplained, \"The least explored aspect of the case is Simpson's motive. You cannot just say this murder was a culmination of domestic-violence incidents. You need to tell the jury a story. This was about a stormy relationship.\"Timemagazine reported, \"That strategy made the difference in understanding Simpson... Nicole's diary showed that she and Simpson were having fights in those last weeks. Their hostilities had taken a cruel turn. Simpson sent Nicole a letter that was a thinly veiled threat to report her to the IRS for failing to pay capital-gains taxes. Infuriated, she started to deny him access to the children.... She began to treat him like a stranger. That, Petrocelli said, is when three weeks of retaliation began In that period, the lawyer argued, Simpson grew angrier and more obsessed with his ex-wife, developing a rage that resulted in death for her and Ron Goldman.\" The civil judge found the diary entries were admissible because they were pertinent to Nicole's state of mind, which in turn was relevant to Simpson's motive—reversing a crucial ruling from the criminal case that excluded the diary as \"inadmissible hearsay.\"The civil court's ruling was upheld on appeal.TheLos Angeles Timeswrote that this evidence \"helped the plaintiffs tell their story of domestic violence\" and show that when Nicole \"rejected for good in the spring of 1994 ... he erupted in the same uncontrollable rage that had caused him to lash out at her in the past—only this time, he was brandishing a knife. The jury found Simpsonliablefor the murders and awarded the victims' families $33.5 million in compensatory and punitive damages.The civil verdict \"very nearly upstaged the president of the United States on the occasion of his State of the Union address,\"ending the case that \"riveted America for two and a half years\"Simpson filed forbankruptcyafterwards and relocated toFloridato protect hispensionfrom seizure. His remaining assets were seized and auctioned off with most being purchased by critics of the verdict of the criminal trial to help the plaintiffs recoup the costs of litigation. Simpson'sHeisman Trophywas sold for $255,500 to an undisclosed buyer. All the proceeds went to the Goldman family, who said they have received only one percent of the money that Simpson owes from the wrongful death suit. Following Simpson's death in 2024,Simpson estate lawyer Malcolm LeVergne pledged to prevent the Brown and Goldman families from obtaining the money which was promised in the civil trial judgement, but later reversed course. Alternate theories and suspects While Bailey and several members of Simpson's family still advocated for Simpson's innocence,such theories have been rejected by prosecutors, witnesses and the families of Brown and Goldman, who have expressed the belief that Simpson committed the murders and was the sole perpetrator,with Hunt opining that these claims were attempts to tap into the public interest in the case and were never meant to be taken seriously. Alternative theories have been suggested, such as that Simpson may have had accomplices in the murders, or that he was not involved at all and wasframed. Several speculate that the murders were related to the Los Angeles drug trade and the murders ofMichael NiggandBrett Cantor. The 2000BBC TVdocumentaryO.J.: The True Untold Story,primarily rehashes the contamination and blood planting claims from the trial and asserted that Simpson's elder son Jason is a possible suspect, due to - among other reasons - Simpson hiring defense attorneys for his children first before himself, pictures of Jason's descriptive wool cap, and an alleged prior arrangement to meet with Nicole that evening.William Dearpublished his findings in the bookO.J. Is Innocent and I Can Prove It. The 2012 documentary filmMy Brother the Serial Killeralleged that convicted murdererGlen Edward Rogersconfessed to being involved in the murders and that he had been hired by Simpson. In popular culture Media adaptations Film Lost Highwaywas partially inspired by the case. In the film, a man is imprisoned for his wife's murder, which he does not remember, and is released after he transforms into a different man. DirectorDavid Lynchfound it remarkable that Simpson, who he believed committed the murders, could continue a casual lifestyle afterward. Lethal Weapon 4, which was released about two and a half years after the case, makes a reference to the success of Simpson's defense attorney Johnnie Cochran, after the character of detective Lee Butters apprehends a fleeing suspect and reads him hisMiranda rightsas follows: \"If you can't afford an attorney, we'll provide you with the dumbest fucking lawyer on earth. If you get Johnnie Cochran, I'll kill ya!\" Shrek 2references the Bronco chase, whenDonkeyis turned into a white horse by theFairy Godmother, and he and other characters are pursued by knights. TV Episodes of sitcoms such asThe Simpsons,South Park,Roseanne,New Girl,Family Guy,It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, andSeinfeldhave mocked the case, or more specifically, Simpson himself.Saturday Night LiveWeekend UpdatehostNorm Macdonaldfrequently made jokes about O. J. Simpson's trial, such as the iconic line \"Well, it is finally official: Murder is legal in the state of California\" after Simpson's acquittal. It is rumored that the constant Simpson jokes were the cause for thenNBCPresidentDon Ohlmeyerto remove Macdonald from theWeekend Updatesegment and eventually from the show altogether. Cowlings' white Ford Bronco was featured in the reality TV showPawn Stars. The then-owner of the vehicle estimated its value in excess of $1,000,000. Music The heavy-metal bandBody Countrecorded the song \"I Used to Love Her\", sung from the perspective of O. J. Simpson murdering his wife, on their 1997 albumViolent Demise: The Last Days. A 2021 article inMetal Hammerdescribed the song as \"jaw-droppingly offensive\".InGood Charlotte's song, \"Lifestyles of the Rich & Famous\", they reference the case in the second verse: \"Well did you know when you were famous you could kill you wife And there's no such thing as 25 to life As long as you've got the cash, to pay for Cochran.\" R&B groupH-Towndedicated their albumLadies Edition, Woman's World(1997) to Brown, to help victims of domestic violence.Electronic musicianJames Ferraroreferenced the police chase in the song \"White Bronco\" on his 2015 albumSkid Row. Hip hop artist Magneto Dayo released a 2013 \"diss track\" song titled \"OJ Simpson\" in which he insults his ex-girlfriend/artistV-Nastyby referencing the Simpson murder case.RapperJay-Z's song \"The Story of O.J.\" references the trial.Kendrick Lamarincluded Simpson in the music video for \"The Heart Part 5\", usingDeepfaketechnology. The infamous glove also appears on the single's cover.RapperEminemreferences the murder case in his song \"Role Model\", where he claims to have done the murder withMarcus Allen. Video games Duke Nukem 3Dhas several allusions to the Simpson trial, including a television playing the Bronco chase. Exhibits The suit Simpson wore when he was acquitted was donated by Simpson's former agentMike Gilbertto theNewseumin 2010. The Newseum has multiple trial-related items in their collection, including press passes, newspapers and the mute button that Superior Court JudgeLance Itoused when he wanted to shut off the live microphone in court so lawyers could talk privately during the trial. The museum's acquisition of the suit ended the legal battle between Gilbert and Fred Goldman, both of whom claimed the right to the clothing. Cowlings's Bronco is on display at theAlcatraz Eastcrime museum inPigeon Forge, Tennessee. In 2017, Adam Papagan curated a pop-up museum showcasing artifacts andephemerafrom the trial atCoagula Curatorialgallery in Los Angeles. See also References Bibliography Further reading External links","1995 World Series The1995 World Serieswas thechampionship seriesofMajor League Baseball's (MLB)1995 season. The 91st edition of the World Series, it was abest-of-seven playoffplayed between theNational League(NL) championAtlanta Bravesand theAmerican League(AL) championCleveland Indians. It was the first World Series after theprevious year's Serieswas canceled due to aplayers' strike. The Braves won in six games to capture their third World Series championship infranchise history(along with1914 in Bostonand1957 in Milwaukee), making them the first team to win in three different cities. This was also Cleveland's first Series appearance in 41 years. The Series was also remarkable in that five of the six games were won by one run, including the clinching sixth game, a 1–0 combined one-hitter byTom GlavineandMark Wohlers. This was the first time since the LCS changed to a best-of-seven format that a winner of a LCS via a sweep has gone on to win the World Series. It has since been repeated in 2019 by theWashington Nationals, and in 2022 by the Houston Astros. This World Series, despite being in an odd-numbered year, opened in the NL home because of the omission of the 1994 World Series. Until 2003, the World Series would begin in the AL home in even-numbered years. Background Atlanta Braves After losing the World Series in 1991 to theMinnesota Twinsand in 1992 to theToronto Blue Jays, the Atlanta Braves were making their third attempt in four years (not counting the 1994 strike) to capture Atlanta's first title. The Braves overcame some early inconsistency to win their division by 21 games. In the playoffs, which featured a new first round, the Braves overwhelmed the third-yearColorado Rockies, then swept theCincinnati Redsin theNLCS(spoiling an all-Ohio World Series in the process; notably, prior to their World Series appearancein 1948, theIndianshad spoiled an all-BostonWorld Series by beating theRed Soxin a one-game playoff). The team relied onclutch hittingand its powerful pitchingrotation, which was made up of perennialCy Young AwardwinnerGreg Maddux,Tom Glavine,John Smoltz, andSteve Avery. As the NL champion, they opened this World Series at home because there was no 1994 World Series. Cleveland Indians After decades of futility, the city of Cleveland finally had a winner in town. The Indians dominated the American League in 1995, winning 100 of their 144 games (their 100–44 record yielded a very high 0.694 winning percentage, which was, at the time, the highest regular season winning percentage in Major League Baseball since 1954, and is, as of 2015, the 12th highest regular season winning percentage in Major League Baseball history since 1900). Furthermore, in just 144 games, they won the AL Central by 30 games, and they performed the difficult feat of leading their league in both team batting average (0.291) and ERA (3.81). Thanks to their hitting and bullpen, this Indians team became known around the league for their ability to come back from many deficits, often in dramatic fashion; of their 100 regular season victories, 48 were come-back victories, 27 came in their last at-bat, eight came by way of \"walk off\" home runs, and 13 were extra-inning victories (they were 13–0 in extra-inning games). After this dominance of the AL in the regular season, the Indians, in the playoffs, swept theBoston Red Soxin the opening round, then held offKen Griffey Jr.and the red hotSeattle Marinersin theALCS, before heading into the Series against the Braves. The 1995 Cleveland Indians featured a very impressive batting line-up; one that hit for high average, good power, and had good speed. In addition to leading the AL in batting average (0.291), the Indians in 1995 also led the American League in runs scored (840; 5.83 runs per game), home runs (207), and stolen bases (132). Led byspeedstersKenny LoftonandOmar Vizquel, along withCarlos Baergaat the top of the order, the Indians offense was powered in the middle of the order byAlbert Belle,Eddie Murray,Manny Ramírez, andJim Thome; at the bottom of the line-up could be foundPaul Sorrento(orHerbert Perry) andSandy Alomar Jr.(orTony Peña). Thus, this Indians line-up had six everyday players who finished the season with a batting average of at least 0.300; and, with Herbert Perry and Tony Peña frequently filling in for Paul Sorrento and Sandy Alomar Jr., respectively, it was not uncommon for the Tribe to field a line-up with as many as eight players who finished the season with a batting average of at least 0.300. In terms of power, though the '95 season was shortened, nevertheless, the Indians' line-up still featured two players with at least 30 HR, five players with at least 20 HR, and seven with at least 10 HR. While this line-up was filled with star players (four, in fact, were named to the 1995 AL All-Star team, namely, Lofton, Baerga, Belle, and Ramirez), Albert Belle stood out among all of them in 1995. Powered by a very strong second half of the season, Belle, the Indians' clean-up hitter in 1995, finished 1995 with a 0.317 batting average, 126 RBI, and 50 home runs. Further to be noted is the fact that, in hitting 50 HR and 52 doubles in 1995, Belle became the first Major League player to hit at least 50 home runs and at least 50 doubles in the same season (an accomplishment which, again, is even more remarkable considering that he did this in a shortened, 144-game season). The Indians also led the 1995 AL in ERA (3.81). While their starting pitching—led by veteransDennis MartínezandOrel Hershiser—was respectable, it was their bullpen which gave real strength to their pitching staff. Key members of their bullpen staff included veteran right-handerEric Plunk(6–2, 2.67 ERA), veteran left-handerPaul Assenmacher(6–2, 2.82), the young right-handed set-up man,Julián Tavárez(10–1, 2.44 ERA), and right-handed closer,José Mesa(3–0, 1.12 ERA, 46 SV). Mesa, in his first year as closer, posted a league-leading 46 saves in 1995, and set a then-Major League record of 38 consecutive saves without a blown save. Two of the members of the 1995 Indians' pitching staff—Dennis Martínez (the team's ace) and José Mesa—were named to the 1995 AL All-Star team. Series build-up Thus it was that this Series presented an entertaining match-up of baseball's two best teams, each with reasons to be confident going into the Series. The Atlanta Braves were veterans to the post-season in the 1990s, having won both the 1991 and 1992 NL pennants (not to mention the 1993 NL Western Division title, having won 104 games in 1993), and they were the best team in the NL in the 1995 regular season (having posted a very solid 90–54 record). The Cleveland Indians, on the other hand, newcomers to the post-season (having not been in the post-season since 1954), in posting their 100–44 regular season mark, were the team which had posted not only the best regular season record in the AL, but had completed one of the best regular seasons in all of Major League Baseball history. Further, though the Braves' line-up was not very threatening in 1995 (their .250 team batting average was the second lowest in the NL), still, the Braves could be confident with their star-studded pitching staff—especially their starting staff—headed by the likes of Greg Maddux, Tom Glavine, John Smoltz, and Steve Avery. On the other hand, though the Indians could not boast of having as nearly a strong starting rotation as the Braves, nevertheless, they could lay claim to a very solid bullpen and one of the greatest batting line-ups that baseball has ever seen. It might also be noted that, though this was the first time that a team from Cleveland and one from Atlanta faced each other in the World Series, there were years, prior to the Braves being in Atlanta, in which the Braves faced a Cleveland team for baseball's crown. In 1948, the Boston Braves faced the Cleveland Indians (with the Indians winning that Series in six games). Even before that, in 1892, theBoston Beaneaters, a forerunner of the Braves, were also National League Champions in 1892, and faced theCleveland Spidersfor the championship.The Beaneaters beat the Spiders that year to win that baseball championship. The 1995 World Series was also noted for large-scale protests byNative Americanactivists in response to thecontroversysurrounding both clubs' usage of Native American-themed nicknames, logos and mascots, as well as the use of thetomahawk chopby Braves fans. Broadcasting NBCwas originally scheduled to televise the entire World Series; however, due to the cancellation of the 1994 World Series (which had been slated forABC, who last televised a World Series in1989), coverage ended up being split between NBC and ABC. Game 5 would be the last Major League Baseball game to be telecast by ABC (had there been a Game 7, ABC would have televised it) for 25 years. ABC was scheduled to televise up to four wild card gamesin the2020 MLB Postseason. This was the only World Series to be produced underThe Baseball Networkumbrella (arevenue sharingjoint venturebetween Major League Baseball, ABC and NBC). In July 1995, NBC and ABC announced that they would be pulling out of what was supposed to be a six-year-long venture. NBC would next cover the1997(NBC's first entirely since1988) and1999 World Seriesover the course of a five-year-long contract, in whichFoxwould cover the World Series in even numbered years (1996,1998and2000). Also during the World Series in 1995, NBC'sHannah Stormnot only became the first woman to serve as solo pre-game host of a World Series (CBS'Andrea Joyceco-hosted withPat O'Brienin1993) but also became the first woman to preside over aWorld Series Trophypresentation.Storm was infamously the recipient of a profane outburst fromAlbert Bellein his team's dugout. Later, Belle was unrepentant: \"TheIndianswanted me to issue a statement of regret when the fine was announced, but I told them to take it out. I apologize for nothing.\"John Saundersserved as pre-game host for ABC's coverage. Serving asfield reportersfor the series wereLesley Visser(ABC) andJim Gray(NBC). The six games averaged a nationalNielsen ratingof 19.5 and a share of 33. Through 2016, this remains the highest-rated World Series of the post-strike era. On the radio side,CBSwas the national broadcaster withVin ScullyandJeff Torborgon the call. Locally,WKNRaired the series in Cleveland withHerb ScoreandTom Hamiltonannouncing, whileWSBbroadcast the series in Atlanta withSkip Caray,Pete Van Wieren,Don Sutton, andJoe Simpsonannouncing. International Summary NLAtlanta Braves(4) vs. ALCleveland Indians(2) Matchups Game 1 Atlanta aceGreg Madduxpitched a two-hit complete game victory in his first World Series appearance (and just the 15th two-hitter in Series history). The Indians scored in the first inning whenKenny Loftonreached on an error, stole second and third, and scored on an RBI groundout byCarlos Baerga. In the bottom of the second,Fred McGrifflaunched atape measure home runon his first ever World Series pitch off Cleveland starterOrel Hershiserto even the score at 1–1. Both starters settled down until the seventh, when Hershiser and the Cleveland bullpen walked the first three Braves to open the inning. The Braves would take a 3–1 lead afterLuis Poloniahit into a run-scoring force play andRafael Belliardbunted a perfectsuicide squeeze. Lofton scored the Indians another run in the ninth to cut the Braves lead to a single run, (both Cleveland runs resulted from errors and were thus, unearned) but Baerga lifted a pop fly that third basemanChipper Jonesgrabbed near the visiting dugout to end the game. Game 2 Atlanta No. 2 starterTom Glavinegot the win in Game 2, aided by a big sixth-inning home run by catcherJavy López, who also pickedManny Ramirezoff first base at a crucial moment in the eighth inning to erase a potential game-tying baserunner. The Indians had taken an early 2–0 lead on anEddie Murraytwo-run home run afterAlbert Bellegot on base, but the Braves evened the score in the third with a sac fly byChipper Jonesand an RBI single by David Justice. Lopez launched his home run in the sixth inning from Cleveland starterDennis Martínez. The Atlanta bullpen held off the Indians in the later innings despite allowing a run in the seventh, andMark Wohlersearned the save, giving the Braves a 2–0 series lead. Game 3 With the World Series moving to smaller, raucous Jacobs Field in Cleveland, the Indians got their first win. The Indians offense got back on track off Atlanta starterJohn Smoltz. With the Tribe already down 1–0 in the bottom of the first,Kenny Loftonsingled to center and scored onOmar Vizquel's triple into the right field corner. Omar then scored the go-ahead run whenCarlos Baergagrounded out. In the third, the Tribe were back at it again when Lofton opened the inning by ripping a double into the right-center field gap. Omar then got a bunt single and Baerga singled to left to drive in Lofton.Albert Bellethen rolled a grounder up the middle to score Vizquel to make it 4–1. This was Smoltz's only early exit and only poor start in eight career World Series appearances. The Braves got a boost, however, when relieverBrad Clontzinduced a double play groundout byManny Ramírezto escape further damage. Home runs byFred McGriffandRyan Kleskobrought the Braves closer at 4–3. Cleveland added a run in the seventh on another RBI hit by Baerga scoring Lofton (who would reach base in all six of his plate appearances). With a 5–3 lead going into the eighth, trouble brewed for Cleveland whenCharles Nagyand the bullpen gave up the lead.Marquis Grissomled off with a double off the wall. Polonia singled through the right side to drive in Grissom, sending Nagy to the showers.Chipper Joneswalked, McGriff hit a deep fly moving the runners up a base, andDavid Justicereached when Baerga booted his groundball, subsequently allowing Polonia to score the tying run. The inning was capped off byMike Devereaux's RBI single giving the Braves a 6–5 lead. The Braves couldn't hold on to their slim lead either asSandy Alomar Jr.laced a game-tying double inside the line at first in the bottom of the eighth. The two closers,Mark WohlersandJosé Mesathen matched zeros for the next two innings. In the 11th, the Braves went toAlejandro Peña. Baerga immediately smashed a double and after an intentional walk to Belle, veteranEddie Murraysingled to center, scoring pinch runnerÁlvaro Espinozaand cutting Atlanta's World Series lead in half. A record 18 pitchers were used between the Braves and Indians in Games 2 and 3. Game 4 Braves managerBobby Coxcontroversially decided to start left-handed pitcherSteve Averyin the critical Game 4 instead of coming back withGreg Maddux. Despite Avery's uncharacteristically poor regular season showing (7-13, 4.67 ERA), Cox felt he deserved a chance after having won the NLCS clincher against Cincinnati throwing six shutout innings. Young Braves outfielderRyan Kleskohit a sixth-inning home run to give Atlanta the lead. This would be the last time a player would hit home runs in back-to-back World Series games until2016. Avery again delivered six effective innings, only giving up a sixth-inning home run to Cleveland sluggerAlbert Belle. A controversial play happened whenEddie Murrayhit a pitch over third base; left-field umpire Jim McKean called it foul while third-base umpire Harry Wendelstedt looked at Jim McKean to make the call. Murray eventually walked and reached second on a balk by Avery, but Herbert Perry struck out to end the inning. The Braves promptly broke the tie with a three-run seventh, withDavid Justicebatting in two of the runs with a single. An RBI double byJavy Lópezgave the Braves an insurance run, making it 5–1. RelieverPedro Borbón Jr.saved the 5–2 win afterMark Wohlersran into trouble, and the Braves were one victory away from a title. Game 5 It seemed the perfect situation for Atlanta with Greg Maddux pitching Game 5 with a chance to clinch the title, but Albert Belle slugged a two-run homer in the first inning, and the Braves lineup was held in check by Cleveland veteran Orel Hershiser who went eight innings, only surrendering two runs.Luis Poloniahit a solo home run into the fourth and Atlanta actually tied the game at 2–2 with a run-scoring infield single byMarquis Grissomin the fifth, but Cleveland got two more runs from Maddux making it 4–2.Jim Thomehit an insurance home run in the eighth, which proved necessary as Ryan Klesko homered in his third consecutive game, reducing the gap to 5–4. Klesko became the first person ever to homer in three consecutive World Series road games, by belting homers in Games 3, 4, and 5. The win sent the Series back to Atlanta. As previously mentioned, this game was the most recent baseball game thatABCtelevised until the2020postseason. Game 6 Controversy struck on the morning of Game 6 when Atlanta newspapers printed stories that right fielder David Justice had ripped the city's fans for not matching their motivation of past seasons. Justice, who had been struggling in the postseason, was vilified before the game, but when his sixth-inning home run off a 1–1 pitch byJim Poolebroke a scoreless tie, he became a hero.Tom Glavinepitched eight innings of one-hit ball (and five innings of no hit ball) and allowed just three walks (two toAlbert Belle, who was caught stealing second in the second inning to keep a runner from advancing into scoring position) to help earn him the Series MVP. Only one Indian advanced into scoring position in the entire game whenKenny Loftonstole second, but no one could get him in. Cleveland starterDennis Martínezlasted just 42⁄3innings due to allowing four hits and five walks, but no Braves scored. After Justice's home run, the Braves managed just one hit. The lone hit for the Indians was a bloop-single by catcherTony Peñain the sixth, breaking up Glavine's bid to become the first pitcher sinceDon Larsen in 1956to throw a no-hitter in the World Series. Closer Mark Wohlers pitched the ninth inning, preserving the 1–0 shutout and Atlanta's coveted title whenCarlos Baerga's fly ball landed in center fielder Marquis Grissom's glove, giving the Braves their first title in Atlanta and their first since1957when they were still in Milwaukee. Carlos Baerga was responsible for making the last out in three of the four Cleveland losses; Games 1, 2 and 6. To date, this is the last 1–0 World Series game won by the home team. Moments after the final out was recorded, a fan in the stands was shown holding a placard that simply said \"...Finally!\" due to the Atlanta Braves finally winning the World Series on their third try. In 1995, the Cleveland Indians batted .291 as a team, led the league in runs scored, hits, and stolen bases, and had eight .300 hitters in their starting lineup. However, the Tribe was held to a .179 batting average in the World Series. Then-Executive Committee ChairmanBud Seligpresided over theCommissioner's Trophypresentation for the first time. In the previous two World Series (1992and1993),American LeaguepresidentDr. Bobby Brownpresided over the trophy presentation. Selig would becomeCommissioner of Baseballin 1998. Composite line score 1995 World Series(4–2):Atlanta Braves(N.L.)overCleveland Indians(A.L.) Aftermath The 1995 Braves were in the midst of a streak of 14 consecutive division titles from1991through2005(excluding the1994season, which ended early due to a players strike), however this was the only World Series the Braves would win. Atlanta returned to the Seriesthe following year, but lost to theNew York Yankeesin six games. The Braves of this era made one more trip to the Series in1999, but lost to theYankeesin a four-game sweep. This was Atlanta's first championship in any of thefour major professional sports, and the last for the city and for the Braves until2021. The Indians would go on to win the AL Central five of the following six years and return to the World Series in1997, where they lost to theFlorida Marlinsin seven games. The core of the 1990s Indians teams would break up in the early 2000s.Albert Bellesigned with theChicago White Soxin free agency in the winter of 1996, whileKenny Loftonwas traded to the Braves before the start of the 1997 season (he returned in 1998 to play three years with the team only to leave and return again for his final season in 2007); after the turn of the century,Manny Ramirezjoined theBoston Red Soxin2001andJim Thomejoined thePhiladelphia Philliesin2003. Quotes Left center field,Grissomon the run. The team of the 90s has its world championship. See also Notes External links"],"string":"[\n \"Murder trial of O. J. Simpson The People of the State of California v. Orenthal James Simpsonwas acriminal trialinLos Angeles County Superior Court, in which formerNFLplayer and actorO. J. Simpsonwas tried and acquitted for the murders of his ex-wifeNicole Brown Simpsonand her friendRonald Goldman, who were stabbed to death outside Brown's condominium in Los Angeles on June 12, 1994. The trial spanned eight months, from January 24 to October 3, 1995. Though prosecutors argued that Simpson was implicated by asignificant amount of forensic evidence, he was acquitted of both murders on October 3.Commentators agree that to convince the jury to acquit Simpson, the defense capitalized on anger among the city'sAfrican-Americancommunity toward theLos Angeles Police Department(LAPD), which had a history of racial bias and had inflamed racial tensions inthe beating of Rodney Kingandsubsequent riotstwo years prior.The trial is often characterized as thetrial of the centurybecause of its international publicity and has been described as the \\\"most publicized\\\" criminal trial in history.Simpson was formally charged with the murders on June 17; when he did not turn himself in at the agreed time, he became the subject of a police pursuit.TV stations interrupted coverage of the1994 NBA Finalsto broadcast live coverage of the pursuit, which was watched by around 95 million people.The pursuit and Simpson's arrest were among the most widely publicized events in history. Simpson was represented by a high-profile defense team, referred to as the \\\"Dream Team\\\", initially led byRobert Shapiroand subsequently directed byJohnnie Cochran. The team includedF. Lee Bailey,Alan Dershowitz,Robert Kardashian,Shawn Holley,Carl E. Douglas, andGerald Uelmen. Simpson was also instrumental in his own defense. While DeputyDistrict AttorneysMarcia Clark,William Hodgman, andChristopher Dardenbelieved they had a strong case, the defense team persuaded the jury there wasreasonable doubtconcerning the DNA evidence.They contended the blood sample had been mishandled by lab scientistsand that the case had been tainted by LAPD misconduct related to racism and incompetence. The use of DNA evidence in trials was relatively new, and many laypersons did not understand how to evaluate it. The trial was considered significant for the wide division inreaction to the verdict.Observers' opinions of the verdict were largely related to their ethnicity; the media dubbed this the \\\"racial gap\\\".A poll ofLos Angeles Countyresidents showed most African Americans thought the \\\"not guilty\\\" verdict was justified while most whites thought it was a racially motivatedjury nullificationby the mostly African-American jury.Polling in later years showed the gap had narrowed since the trial; more than half of polled Black respondents expressed the belief that Simpson was guilty.In 2017, three jurors who acquitted Simpson said they would still vote to acquit, while one said he would convict. After the trial, Goldman's father filed a civil suit against Simpson. In 1997, the jury unanimously found Simpson responsible for the deaths of Goldman and Brown.The Goldman family was awarded damages totaling $34 million ($64 million adjusted for inflation), but as of 2024 have received a small portion of that. Background Simpson–Brown marriage Brown met Simpson in 1977when he was 30 and she was 18, working as a waitress at the Daisy (aBeverly Hillsprivate club).They began dating although Simpson was married; he filed for divorce from his first wife in March 1979. Simpson and Brown married on February 2, 1985.They had two children together, daughter Sydney (b. 1985) and son Justin (b. 1988).Brown signed a prenuptial agreement that prohibited her from working while married. According to psychologistLenore E. Walker, the Simpson–Brown marriage was a \\\"textbook example ofdomestic abuse\\\".In letters and other documents, Brown wrote that Simpson had beaten her in public, during sex, and even in front of family and friends.She described an incident in which Simpson broke her arm during a fight; to prevent him from being arrested, she told emergency room staff that she had fallen off her bike.Brown wrote that she felt conflicted about notifying police of the abuse because she was financially dependent on Simpson.Of the 62 incidents of abuse, the police were notified eight times, and Simpson was arrested once.On February 25, 1992, Brown filed for divorce, citing \\\"irreconcilable differences\\\". Brown said that Simpson stalked and harassed her after they divorced – an intimidation tactic meant to force the victim to return to the abuser.She said he had spied on her having sex with her new boyfriendand that she felt her life was in danger because Simpson had threatened to kill her if he ever found her with another man.She drafted awill.On June 8, 1994, a woman named Nicole (presumed to be Brown) telephoned Sojourn House, a women's shelter.She was considering staying at the shelter because she was afraid of what Simpson might do to her, as she was refusing his pleas to reconcile their marriage. Frogmen A few months before the killings, Simpson finished filming a pilot forFrogmen, an adventure series comparable to TheA-Team. Simpson played the primary character, \\\"Bullfrog\\\" Burke, who led a gang of formerUS Navy SEALs. He underwent \\\"a fair amount of\\\" military training for Frogmen, including the use of a knife, and in one scene, he holds a knife to the throat of a woman playing his daughter. Investigators discovered a 25-minute tape of the pilot, which did not feature the knife scene, and viewed it on Simpson's television while searching his home. The defense attempted to prevent its use on these grounds, but Judge Ito permitted it to be shown.\\\"Bullfrog\\\" Burke was skilled at night killings,and the \\\"silent kill\\\" technique of slashing the throat.SEALs also regularly wear knit \\\"watch caps\\\" like the one found at the scene. Murders On the evening of June 12, 1994, Brown and Simpson both attended their daughter Sydney's dance recital at Paul Revere Middle School. Afterward, Brown and her family went to eat at Mezzaluna restaurant. One of the waiters at the restaurant was Ron Goldman, who had become close friends with Brown in recent weeks,but was not assigned to the Brown family's table. Brown and her children went toBen & Jerry'sbefore returning to her condominium onBundy Drive,Brentwood.The manager of Mezzaluna recounted that Brown's mother telephoned the restaurant at 9:37 pm asking about a pair of lost eyeglasses. The manager found the glasses and put them in a white envelope, which Goldman took with him as he left the restaurant at the end of his shift at 9:50 pm; he intended to drop them off at Brown's place. Meanwhile, Simpson ate takeout food fromMcDonald'swithKato Kaelin, abit-partactor and family friend who had been given the use of a guest house on Simpson's estate. Rumors circulated that Simpson had been on drugs at the time of the murder (later dismissed as blood tests were negative for Simpson, Brown, and Goldman), and theNew York Post'sCindy Adams reported that the pair had gone to a localBurger King, where a prominent drug dealer known only as \\\"J. R.\\\" later said he had sold themcrystal meth. Brown's neighbors testified that they heard profuse barking coming from outside throughout the night, beginning around 10:15 pm. Around 10:55 pm., a dogwalker who lived a few blocks away from Brown came across Brown'sAkitadog barking in the street outside her home. The Akita, whose legs were covered in blood, followed the man home; he tried to walk the dog back to where he found it, but the dog resisted. Later, he left the Akita with a neighboring couple who offered to keep the dog overnight; as the dog was agitated, the couple decided to walk it back to where it had been found. Around midnight, as they reached the area where the Akita had been found, the dog stopped outside Brown's home and the couple saw Brown's body lying outside the house. Police were called to the scene and found Goldman's body near Brown's. The front door to Brown's condominium was open when the bodies were found, but there were no signs that anyone had entered the building, by breaking in or otherwise. Brown's body was lying face down and barefoot at the bottom of the stairs leading to the door.The walkway leading to the stairs was covered in blood, but the soles of Brown's feet were clean; based on this evidence, investigators concluded that she was the first person to be attacked and the intended target.She had been stabbed multiple times in the head and neck, but there were fewdefensive woundson her hands, implying a short struggle to investigators. The final wound inflicted ran deep into her neck, severing hercarotid artery. A large bruise in the center of her upper back with a corresponding foot print on her clothing indicated to investigators that, after killing Goldman, the assailant returned to Brown who was on the ground, pulled her head back by the hair and slit her throat.Herlarynxcould be seen through the gaping wound in her neck, andvertebra C3was incised;Brown's head barely remained attached to her body. Goldman's body lay nearby, close to a tree and the fence. He had been stabbed multiple times in the body and neck, but there were relatively few defensive wounds on his hands, signifying a short struggle to investigators.Forensic evidence from the Los Angeles Countycoroneralleged that the assailant stabbed Goldman with one hand while holding him in a chokehold. Near Goldman's body were a blue knit cap; a left-hand, extra-largeAris Isotonerlight leather glove; and the envelope containing the glasses that he was returning. Detectives determined that Goldman came to Brown's house during her murder and that the assailant killed him to remove any witnesses.A trail of the assailant's bloody shoe prints ran through the back gate. To the left of some of the prints were drops of blood from the killer, who was apparently bleeding from the left hand. Measuring the distance between the prints indicated that the assailant walked – rather than ran – away from the scene. Flight to Chicago On the night of June 12, Simpson was scheduled to board ared-eye flightfromLos Angeles International Airportto Chicago, where he was due to play golf the following day at a convention with representatives ofThe Hertz Corporation, for whom he was a spokesman.The flight was due to leave at 11:45 pm.Limousinedriver Allan Park arrived early at Simpson's Rockingham estate to pick him up at around 10:25 pm.Park drove around the estate to make sure he could navigate the area with the stretch limousine properly and to see which driveway would have the best access for the car. He began to buzz the intercom at 10:40, but got no response. He noted the house was dark, and nobody appeared to be home as he smoked a cigarette and made several calls to his boss to get Simpson's home phone number. He testified that he saw a \\\"shadowy african american figure\\\", the same size as Simpson, enter the front door from where the driveway starts, before the lights came on; he did not see what direction the figure came from.He testified that he saw Simpson's house number on the curb outside the estate, but no car was parked outside. The prosecution presented exhibits showing the position next to the house number on the curb in which Simpson'sFord Broncowas found the next morning, implying that Park would surely have noticed the Bronco if it had been there when he arrived to pick up Simpson. Around the time Park saw the \\\"shadowy figure\\\" arive at Simpson's home,Kaelin was having a telephone conversation with a friend. At approximately 10:40, something crashed into the wall of the guest house Kaelin was staying in, which he described as three \\\"thumps\\\" and which he feared was an earthquake. Kaelin hung up the phone and ventured outside to investigate the noises, but did not go directly down the dark south pathway from which the thumps had originated. Instead, he walked to the front of the property, where he saw the limousine parked outside. Kaelin let the limousine in, and Simpson finally came out through the front door a few minutes later, claiming he had overslept.Both Park and Kaelin would later testify that Simpson seemed agitated that night. Park noted that on the way to the airport, Simpson complained about how hot it was, and was sweating and rolled down the window, despite it not being a warm night.Park also testified that he loaded four luggage bags into the car that night, one of them being a knapsack that Simpson would not let him touch, insisting he load it himself. Aporterat the airport testified that Simpson checked only three bags that night,and the police determined that the missing luggage was the same knapsack the limousine driver had mentioned earlier.Another witness not heard at the trial claimed he saw Simpson at the airport discarding items from a bag into a trash can.Detectives Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter believe this is how the murder weapon, shoes and clothes that Simpson wore during the murder were disposed. Simpson was running late but caught his flight. A passenger on the plane and the pilot testified that they did not notice any cuts or wounds on Simpson's hands.A broken glass, a note with a telephone number on it, and bedsheets with blood on them were all recovered from Simpson's room at theO'HarePlaza Hotel. The manager of the hotel recalled Simpson asking for a Band-Aid for his finger at the front desk, because he had \\\"cut it on pieces of note paper\\\". Initial investigation and arrest After learning that Brown was the female victim, LAPD commander Keith Bushey ordered detectives Tom Lange, Philip Vannatter, Ron Phillips, andMark Fuhrmanto notify Simpson of her death and to escort him to the police station to pick up the former couple's children, who were asleep in Brown's condominium at the time of the murders. The detectives buzzed the intercom at Simpson's estate for over 30 minutes but received no response. They noted that Simpson's car was parked at an awkward angle, with its back end out more than the front, and that there was blood on the door, which they feared meant someone inside might be hurt. Vannatter instructed Fuhrman to scale the wall and unlock the gate to allow the other three detectives to enter. The detectives would argue they entered without a search warrant because of exigent circumstances – specifically out of fear that someone inside might be injured.Fuhrman briefly interviewed Kaelin, who told the detective that the car belonged to Simpson and that earlier that night he had heard thumps on his wall. In a walk around the premises to inspect what may have caused the thumps, Fuhrman discovered a blood-stained right-hand glove, which was determined to be the mate of the left-hand glove found next to the body of Goldman. This evidence along with the presence of blood in the driveway of the Rockingham estate and on Simpson's vehicle constitutedprobable causeand a search warrant for the location was applied for and granted. Phillips testified that when he called Simpson in Chicago to tell him of Brown's murder, Simpson sounded \\\"very upset\\\" but was oddly unconcerned about the circumstances of her death. Simpson only asked if the children had seen the murder or Brown's body, but was not concerned about whether the assailant(s) had harmed the children either.The police contacted Simpson at his home on June 13 and took him toParker Centerfor questioning. Lange noticed that Simpson had a cut on a finger on his left hand that was consistent with where the killer was bleeding from, and asked Simpson how he got the cut. At first, Simpson claimed he cut his finger accidentally while in Chicago after learning of Brown's death. Lange then informed Simpson that blood was found inside his car; at this point, Simpson admitted that he had cut his finger on June 12, but said he did not remember how. He voluntarily gave some of his own blood for comparison with evidence collected at the crime scene and was released.On June 14, Simpson hired lawyerRobert Shapiro, who began assembling Simpson's team of lawyers (referred to as the\\\"Dream Team\\\"). Shapiro noted that an increasingly distraught Simpson had begun treatment for depression. The following days, preliminary results from DNA testing came back with matches to Simpson but the District Attorney delayed filing charges until all the results had come back. Simpson spent the night between June 16 and 17 at theSan Fernando Valleyhome of friendRobert Kardashian; Shapiro asked several doctors to attend to Simpson's purported fragile mental state. On June 17, detectives recommended that Simpson be charged with two counts offirst-degree murderwith special circumstance of multiple killings after the final DNA results came back and an arrest warrant was subsequently issued.The LAPD notified Shapiro at 8:30 am that Simpson would have to turn himself in that day. At 9:30 am, Shapiro went to Kardashian's home to tell Simpson that he would have to turn himself in by 11:00 am, an hour after the murder charges were filed. Simpson told Shapiro that he wanted to turn himself in,to which the police agreed, believing that someone as famous as Simpson would not attempt to flee. The police agreed to delay Simpson's surrender until noon to allow him to be seen by a mental health specialist, as he was showing signs of suicidal depression – he had updated his will, called his mother and children, and written three sealed letters: one to his children, one to his mother, and one to the public.More than 1,000 reporters waited for Simpson'sperp walkat the police station, but he did not arrive as stipulated. The LAPD then notified Shapiro that Simpson would be arrested at Kardashian's home. Kardashian and Shapiro told Simpson this but when the police arrived an hour later, Simpson andAl Cowlingshad disappeared. The three sealed letters Simpson had written were left behind. At 1:50 pm, Commander Dave Gascon, LAPD's chief spokesman, publicly declared Simpson a fugitive; the police issued anall-points bulletinfor him and an arrest warrant for Cowlings. \\\"Suicide note\\\" At 5 pm, Kardashian and one of his defense lawyers read Simpson's public letter.In the letter, Simpson sent greetings to 24 friends and wrote, \\\"First everyone understand I had nothing to do with Nicole's murder\\\". He described the fights with Brown and their decision not to reconcile their relationship, and asked the media \\\"as a last wish\\\" not to bother his children. He wrote to his former girlfriend Paula Barbieri, who had broken up with him hours before the double murder, \\\"I'm sorry... we're not going to have, our chance... As I leave, you'll be in my thoughts\\\". It also included \\\"I can't go on\\\" and an apology to the Goldman family. The letter concluded, \\\"Don't feel sorry for me. I have had a great life, great friends. Please think of the real O. J. and not this lost person\\\".Most interpreted this as asuicide note; Simpson's mother collapsed after hearing it,and reporters joined the search for Simpson. At Kardashian's press conference, Shapiro said that he and Simpson's psychiatrists agreed with the suicide note interpretation. Through television, Shapiro appealed to Simpson to surrender. Bronco chase News helicopters searched theLos Angeles highway systemforAl Cowlings's automobile, a white 1993 Ford Bronco.At 5:51 pm, Simpson reportedly called 9-1-1; the call was traced to theSanta Ana Freeway, nearLake Forest. At around 6:20 pm, a motorist inOrange CountynotifiedCalifornia Highway Patrolafter seeing someone believed to be Simpson in a Bronco on theI-5freeway heading north. The police tracked calls placed by Simpson on his cell phone. At 6:45 pm, police officer Ruth Dixon saw the Bronco heading north onInterstate 405; when she caught up to it, Cowlings yelled out that Simpson was in the back seat of the vehicle and was pointing a gun at his own head.The officer backed off, but followed the vehicleat 35 miles per hour (56 km/h),with up to 20 police cars following her in the chase.Zoey TurofKCBS-TVwas the first to find Simpson from a news helicopter, after colleagues heard that theFBI's mobile phone tracking had located Simpson at theEl Toro Y. More than nine news helicopters eventually joined the pursuit; Tur compared the fleet toApocalypse Now, and the high degree of media participation causedcamera signals to appear on incorrect television channels.The chase was so long that one helicopter ran out of fuel, forcing its station to ask another for a camera feed. Knowing that Cowlings was listening toKNX-AM, sports announcerPete Arbogastcalled Simpson's formerUSC footballcoachJohn McKayand connected him to Simpson. As both men wept, Simpson told McKay, \\\"OK, Coach, I won't do anything stupid. I promise\\\" off the air. \\\"There is no doubt in my mind that McKay stopped O.J. from killing himself in the back of that Bronco\\\", Arbogast said.McKay,Walter Payton,Vince Evans,and others from around the country pleaded with Simpson over radio to surrender. At Parker Center, officials discussed how to persuade Simpson to surrender peacefully. Lange, who had interviewed Simpson about the murders on June 13, realized he had Simpson's cell phone number and called him repeatedly. A colleague hooked a tape recorder up to Lange's phone and captured a conversation between Lange and Simpson, in which Lange repeatedly pleaded with Simpson to \\\"throw the gun out the window\\\" for the sake of his mother and children. Simpson apologized for not turning himself in earlier that day, and responded he was \\\"the only one who deserved to get hurt\\\" and was \\\"just gonna go with Nicole\\\". Simpson asked Lange to \\\"just let me get to the house\\\" and said \\\"I need for me\\\". Cowlings's voice is overheard in the recording (after the Bronco had arrived at Simpson's home surrounded by police) pleading with Simpson to surrender and end the chase peacefully.NBC SportsbroadcasterBob Costas, who had worked with Simpson on the network'sNFL studio show, said that during the chase that Simpson had called30 Rockefeller PlazainNew York Cityasking to speak to Costas, but Costas was several blocks away atMadison Square GardencoveringGame 5 of the1994 NBA Finals. Los Angeles streets emptied and drink orders stopped at bars as people watched on television.Every television network showed the chase;ABC,NBC,CBS,CNN, and local news outlets interrupted regularly scheduled programming to cover the incident, watched by an estimated 95 million viewers nationwide;only 90 million had watchedthat year's Super Bowl.While NBC continued to air NBA Finals coverage, Bob Costas acted as a go-between forMarv Albert, who was calling the game, andTom Brokaw, who reported on the chase. Both events were carried in a split screen.The chase was covered live by ABC anchorsPeter JenningsandBarbara Walterson behalf of the network's fivenews magazines, which achieved some of their highest-ever ratings that week.The chase was also broadcast internationally, including in France and China. Thousands of spectators and onlookers packed overpasses along the route of the chase, waiting for Simpson. In a festival-like atmosphere, many held signs urging Simpson to flee,with slogans such as \\\"Go O.J.\\\" and \\\"Save the Juice\\\".Encouraging Simpson's actions outragedJim Hill, who was among those broadcasting pleas to their friend to surrender.As people watched and wondered what would happen to Simpson, one author wrote, \\\"the shared adventure gave millions of viewers a vested interest, a sense of participation, a feeling of being on the inside of a national drama in the making\\\". Simpson reportedly demanded that he be allowed to speak to his mother before he would surrender. The chase ended at 8:00 pm at his Brentwood estate, where his son, Jason, ran out of the house,and 27SWATofficers awaited.After remaining in the Bronco for about 45 minutes,Simpson exited at 8:50 pm and went inside for about an hour; a police spokesman stated that during this time Simpson talked to his mother on the phone.Shapiro then arrived, and Simpson surrendered to authorities a few minutes later. In the Bronco, police found \\\"$8,000 in cash, a change of clothing, a loaded.357 Magnum, a United States passport, family pictures, and a disguise kit with a fake goatee and mustache\\\".Simpson was booked at Parker Center and taken toMen's Central Jail; Cowlings was booked on suspicion ofharboring a fugitiveand held on $250,000 bail. The Bronco chase, the suicide note, and the items found in the Bronco were not presented as evidence in the criminal trial. Marcia Clark conceded that such evidence did imply guilt yet defended her decision, citing the public reaction to the chase and suicide note as proof the trial had been compromised by Simpson's celebrity status. Most of the public, including Simpson's friendAl Michaels,interpreted his actions as an admission of guilt yet thousands of spectators were seen expressing sympathy for Simpson and encouraging him to flee from the police. Preliminary hearing On June 20, Simpson wasarraignedand pleaded not guilty to both murders and was held without bail. The following day, agrand jurywas called to determine whether to indict him for the two murders but was dismissed on June 23, as a result of excessive media coverage that could have influenced its neutrality. Instead, authorities held a probable cause hearing to determine whether to bring Simpson to trial.California Superior CourtJudge Kathleen Kennedy-Powell ruled on July 7that there was sufficient evidence to bring Simpson to trial for the murders. At his second arraignment on July 22, when asked how he pleaded to the murders, Simpson firmly stated: \\\"Absolutely, one hundred percent, not guilty.\\\" Jill Shively testified to the grand jury that soon after the time of the murders she saw a white Ford Bronco speeding away from Bundy Drive in such a hurry that it almost collided with aNissanat the intersection of Bundy and San Vicente Boulevard,and that she recognized Simpson's voice. She talked to the television showHard Copyfor $5,000, after which prosecutors declined to use her testimony at trial.In 1995, Shively had falsely claimed actor Brian Patrick Clarke had assaulted and stalked her. Jose Camacho of Ross Cutlery provided store receipts showing Simpson had purchased a 12-inch (305 mm)stilettoknife six weeks before the murders. The knife was recovered and determined to be similar to the one the coroner said caused the stab wounds. The prosecution did not present this evidence at trial, after Camacho sold his story to theNational Enquirerfor $12,500.Tests on the knife determined that an oil used on new cutlery was still present on the knife, indicating it had never been used. FormerNFLplayer and pastorRosey Griervisited Simpson on November 13 at theLos Angeles County Jail. A jailhouse guard, Jeff Stuart, testified to Judge Ito that at one point Simpson yelled to Grier that he \\\"didn't mean to do it\\\", after which Grier had urged Simpson to come clean. Ito ruled that the evidence was inadmissible as being protected because of clergy-penitent privilege. At first, Simpson's defense sought to show that one or more hitmen hired by drug dealers had murdered Brown and Goldman – giving Brown a \\\"Colombian necktie\\\" – because they were looking for Brown's friend,Faye Resnick, a known cocaine user who had failed to pay for her drugs.She had stayed for several days at Brown's condo until entering rehab four days before the killings. Ito ruled that the drug killer theory was \\\"highly speculative\\\" with no evidence to support it.Consequently, Ito barred the jury from hearing it and prohibited Christian Reichardt from testifying about his former girlfriend Resnick's drug problems. Rose Lopez, a neighbor's Spanish-speaking housekeeper, stated on August 18 that she saw Simpson's Bronco parked outside his house at the time of the murders, supporting his claim he was home that night. During cross-examination by Clark, Lopez admitted she was not sure what time she saw Simpson's Bronco but the defense still intended to call her. However, a taped July 29 statement by Lopez did not mention seeing the Bronco but did mention another housekeeper was also there that night, Sylvia Guerra. Prosecutors then spoke with Guerra, who said Lopez was lying and claimed the defense offered both housekeepers $5,000 to say they saw the Bronco that night. When Ito warned the defense that Guerra's claim as well as the earlier statement not mentioning the Bronco and the tape where Clark claims \\\"that is clearly being coached on what to say\\\" would be shown to the jury if Lopez testified, they dropped her from the witness list. Media coverage When the trial began, all of the networks were getting these hate-mail letters because people's soap operas were being interrupted for the Simpson trial. But then what happened was the people who liked soap operas got addicted to the Simpson trial. And they got really upset when the Simpson trial was over, and people would come up to me on the street and say, 'God, I loved your show.' The murders and trial – \\\"the biggest story I have ever seen\\\", said a producer of NBC'sToday– received extensive media coverage from the very beginning; at least oneinstant bookwas proposed two hours after the bodies were found, and scheduled to publish only a few weeks later.The case was a seminal event in the history of reality television,helping to revive the genre ofcourt showslikeJudge Judy.TheLos Angeles Timescovered the case on its front page for more than 300 days after the murders. The nightly news broadcasts from theBig Three television networksgave more air time to the case than to theBosnian Warand theOklahoma City bombingcombined. They served an enthusiastic audience; one company put the loss of national productivity from employees following the case instead of working at $40 billion.The Tonight Show with Jay Lenoaired many skits on the trial, and the Dancing Itos – a troupe of dancers dressed as the judge – was a popular recurring segment.According toHoward Kurtzof theWashington Post, the acquittal was \\\"the most dramatic courtroom verdict in the history of Western civilization\\\". Participants in the case received much media coverage. Limo driver Park said the media offered him $100,000 but refused, as he would be removed as a witness.Fans approached Clark in public, and when she got a new hairstyle during the trial, the prosecutor received a standing ovation on the courthouse steps;Peopleapproved of the change, but advised her to wear \\\"more fitted suits and tailored skirts\\\". While Cochran, Bailey, and Dershowitz were already well-known, others like Kaelin became celebrities, and Paula Barbieri appeared inPlayboy. Those involved in the trial followed their own media coverage. Interest in the case was worldwide; Russian presidentBoris Yeltsin's first question to President Clinton when they met in 1995 was, \\\"Do you think O.J. did it?\\\" The issue of whether to allow any video cameras into the courtroom was among the first issues Judge Ito had to decide, ultimately ruling that live camera coverage was warranted.Ito was later criticized for this decision by other legal professionals. Dershowitz said that he believed that Ito, along with others related to the case such as Clark, Fuhrman and Kaelin, was influenced to some degree by the media presence and related publicity. The trial was covered in 2,237 news segments from 1994 through 1997.Ito was also criticized for allowing the trial to become amedia circusand not doing enough to regulate the court proceedings. Among the reporters who covered the trial daily from the courtroom, and a media-area that was dubbed \\\"Camp O. J.\\\",were Steve Futterman ofCBS News,Linda Deutschand Michael Fleeman of theAssociated Press, Dan Whitcomb ofReuters, Janet Gilmore of theLos Angeles Daily News, Andrea Ford of theLos Angeles Times, Michelle Caruso of theNew York Daily News,Dan AbramsofCourt TV,Harvey Levinof KCBS, andDavid MargolickofThe New York Times. WritersDominick Dunne,Joe McGinniss, and Joseph Bosco also had full-time seats in the courtroom. On June 27, 1994,Timepublished a cover story, \\\"An American Tragedy\\\", with a photo of Simpson on the cover.Time's cover image was darker than a typical magazine cover and darker than the original photo, as shown on aNewsweekcover released at the same time.Timeconsequently became the subject of a media scandal.Commentators found that its staff had usedphoto manipulationto darken the photo, and they speculated it was to make Simpson appear more menacing. After the publication of the photo drew widespread criticism of racist editorializing andyellow journalism,Timepublicly apologized. Charles Ogletree, a criminal defense attorney and law professor, said in a 2005 interview that the best investigative reporting regarding the murder and trial was by theNational Enquirer. Trial Simpson wanted aspeedy trial, and the defense and prosecuting attorneys worked around the clock for several months to prepare their cases. The trial began on January 24, 1995, seven months after the murders, and was televised byclosed-circuit TV camera viaCourt TV, and in part by other cable and network news outlets, for 134 days. JudgeLance Itopresided over the trial in theC.S. Foltz Criminal Courts Building. Jury District AttorneyGil Garcettielected to file charges in downtown Los Angeles, as opposed toSanta Monica, in which jurisdiction the crimes took place.The Los Angeles Superior Court then decided to hold the trial in Downtown Los Angeles instead of Santa Monica due to safety issues at the Santa Monica Court house owing to the1994 Northridge earthquake.The decision may have impacted the trials outcome as it resulted in ajury poolthat mainly consisted of African Americans.Richard Gabriel, a jury consultant noted that African Americans were far more likely than other minorities to be receptive to claims of racially motivated fraud by the police and were less likely to be familiar with and thus acceptDNA evidence. In October 1994, Judge Lance Ito started interviewing 304 prospective jurors, each of whom had to fill out a 75-page questionnaire. On November 3, twelve jurors were seated with twelve alternates. Over the course of the trial, ten were dismissed for a wide variety of reasons. Only four of the original jurors remained on the final panel. According to media reports, Clark believed women, regardless of race, would sympathize with the domestic violence aspect of the case and connect with Brown personally. On the other hand, the defense's research suggested that black women would not be sympathetic to Brown, who was white, because of tensions about interracial marriages. Both sides accepted a disproportionate number of female jurors. From an original jury pool of 40 percent white, 28 percent black, 17 percent Hispanic, and 15 percent Asian, the final jury for the trial had ten women and two men, of whom nine were black, two white, and one Hispanic. On April 5, 1995, juror Jeanette Harris was dismissed when Judge Ito learned she had failed to disclose an incident of domestic abuse.Afterwards, Harris gave an interview and accused the deputies of racism and claimed the jurors were dividing themselves along racial lines. Ito then met with the jurors, who all denied Harris's allegations of racial tension among themselves. The following day, Ito dismissed the three deputies anyway, which upset the jurors that did not complain because the dismissal appeared to lend credence to Harris's allegations, which they all denied.On April 21, thirteen of the eighteen jurors refused to come to court until they spoke with Ito about it. Ito then ordered them to court and the 13 protesters responded by wearing all black and refusing to come out to the jury box upon arrival.The media described this incident as a \\\"Jury Revolt\\\" and the protesters wearing all black as resembling a \\\"funeral procession\\\". Prosecution case The two lead prosecutors were Deputy District AttorneysMarcia ClarkandWilliam Hodgman, who was replaced as lead prosecutor byChristopher Darden. Clark was designated as the lead prosecutor and Darden became Clark's co-counsel. Prosecutors Hank Goldberg and Hodgman, who had successfully prosecuted high-profile cases in the past, assisted Clark and Darden. Two prosecutors who were DNA experts, Rockne Harmon and George \\\"Woody\\\" Clarke, were brought in to present the DNA evidence in the case and were assisted by Prosecutor Lisa Kahn. Theory The prosecution argued that the domestic violence within the Simpson-Brown marriage culminated in her murder.Simpson's history of abusing Brown resulted in their divorce and his pleading guilty to one count of domestic violence in 1989.On the night of the murders, Simpson attended a dance recital for his daughter and was reportedly angry with Brown because of a black dress that she wore, which he said was \\\"tight\\\". Simpson's then girlfriend, Paula Barbieri, wanted to attend the recital with Simpson but he did not invite her. After the recital, Simpson returned home to a voicemail from Barbieri ending their relationship. According to the prosecution, Simpson then drove over to Brown's home in his Ford Bronco to reconcile their relationship as a result and when Brown refused, Simpson killed her in a \\\"final act of control\\\". Goldman then came upon the scene and was murdered in order to silence him and remove any witnesses. Afterwards, Simpson drove home in his Bronco, and he went into his house. There, he took off his bloodstained clothes, put them in the knapsack (except his socks and the glove), put clean ones on, and left towards the limousine. At the airport, Simpson opened the knapsack, removed the clothes, Bruno Magli shoes, and the murder weapon, and threw them in the trash, before putting the knapsack in one of his suitcases and heading towards his flight. Domestic violence The prosecution opened its case by calling LAPD 911 dispatcher Sharon Gilbert and playing a 9-1-1 call from Brown on January 1, 1989, in which she expressed fear that Simpson would physically harm her; Simpson himself is even heard in the background yelling at her and possibly hitting her as well. The officer who responded to that call, Detective John Edwards, testified next that when he arrived, a severely beaten Brown ran from the bushes where she was hiding and to the detective screaming \\\"He's going to kill me, he's going to kill me\\\", referring to Simpson. Pictures of Brown's face from that night were then shown to the jury to confirm his testimony. That incident led to Simpson's arrest and eventual pleading of no contest to one count of domestic violence for which he received probation for one year. LAPD officer and long time friend of both Simpson and Brown, Ron Shipp, testified on February 1, 1995, that Simpson told him the day after the murders that he did not want to take apolygraphtest offered to him by the police, because \\\"I've had a lot of dreams about killing her. I really don't know about taking that thing\\\". The jury dismissed Shipp's claims after defense attorney Carl E. Douglas accused him of being an alcoholic, and testifying against Simpson to promote his acting career. The prosecution then called Brown's sister, Denise Brown, to the witness stand. She testified to many episodes of domestic violence in the 1980s, when she saw Simpson physically abuse Brown and throw her out of their house during an argument. She said that Simpson was agitated with Brown on June 12.Although a home videotape taken immediately after the dance recital showed a cheerful Simpson being given a kiss by Denise Brown,Kato Kaelincorroborated the claim that Simpson was \\\"upset\\\" with Brown because of the black dress she wore, which he said was \\\"tight\\\". The prosecution planned to present 62 separate incidents of domestic violence, including three previously unknown incidents Brown had documented in several letters she had written and placed in a bank safety deposit box. Judge Ito denied the defense's motion to suppress the incidents of domestic violence, but only allowed witnessed accounts to be presented to the jury because of Simpson'sSixth Amendment rights. Brown's statements to friends and family were ruled inadmissible ashearsaybecause Brown was dead and unable to be cross-examined. Despite this, the prosecution had witnesses for 44 separate incidents they planned to present to the jury. However, the prosecution dropped the domestic violence portion of their case on June 20, 1995.Marcia Clark stated it was because they believed theDNA evidenceagainst Simpson was insurmountable, but the media speculated it was because of the comments made by dismissed juror Jeanette Harris. Christopher Darden later confirmed that to be true.Harris was dismissed on April 6 because she failed to disclose that she was a victim of domestic violence from her ex-husband.Afterwards, she gave an interview in which she said the evidence of Simpson's abuse of Brown \\\"doesn't mean he is guilty of murder\\\". This dismissal of Simpson's abusive behavior from a female juror, who was also a victim of such abuse by her own husband, convinced the prosecution that the jury was not receptive to the domestic violence argument.After the verdict, the jurors called the domestic violence portion of the case a \\\"waste of time\\\".Shapiro, Dershowitz, and Uelmen later admitted they believe that race played a factor in the jurors' dismissal of Brown's abuse by Simpson. The defense retained renowned advocate for victims of domestic abuseLenore E. Walker.Cochran said that she would testify that Simpson does not fit the profile of an abuser that would murder his spouse.Walker's colleagues were appalled by her decision to defend Simpson and accused her of betraying her advocacy for a $250,000 retainer.Walker was dropped from the witness list for \\\"tactical reasons\\\" after she submitted her report on the case.In it, she opines that the statistic from Dershowitz that of the two million incidents of abuse per year, only 2,000 victims are actually murdered by their spouses as being misleading because Brown was already dead.The relevant statistic was \\\"of the murdered spouses who were also victims of abuse, what percentage of them were murdered by their current or ex-husband?\\\" When she reported that number was 80.3 percent, they dropped her from the witness list. The revelation of Simpson's abuse of Brown is credited with turning public opinion against him.The public shock at the reason why Walker was dropped from the defense witness list is credited with transforming public opinion on spousal abuse from a private familial matter to a serious public health issue. Timeline Los Angeles County Chief Medical ExaminerLakshmanan Sathyavagiswarantestified on June 14, 1995, that Brown's time of death was estimated as between 10:00 pm and 10:30 pm.Kato Kaelintestified on March 22, 1995, that he last saw Simpson at 9:36 pm that evening. A phone call was made from Simpson's Bronco to Paula Barbieri at 10:02 pm. Simpson was not seen again until 10:54 pm when he answered the intercom at the front door for the limousine driver, Allan Park.Simpson had no alibi for approximately one hour and 18 minutes during which time the murders took place.Allan Park testified on March 28 that he arrived at Simpson's home at 10:25 pm and stopped at the Rockingham entrance; Simpson's Bronco was not there.He then drove over to the Ashford entrance and rang the intercom three times, getting no answer, starting at 10:40 pm. Then he saw someone arrive at Simpson's home through the front door, the lights then turned on and Simpson answered the intercom. Park's testimony was significant because it explained the location of the glove found at Simpson's home.The blood trail from the Bronco to the front door was easily understood but the glove was found on the other side of the house. Park said the \\\"shadowy figure\\\" initially approached the front door before heading down the southern walkway which leads to where the glove was found by Fuhrman. The prosecution believed that Simpson had driven his Bronco to and from Brown's home to commit the murders, saw that Park was there and aborted his attempt to enter through the front door, entering through the back instead.He panicked and made the sounds that Kaelin heard when he realized that the security system would not let him enter through the rear entrance.He then discarded the glove, came back and went through the front door.During cross examination, Park conceded that he could not identify the figure but said he saw that person enter the front door and afterwards Simpson answered and said he was home alone. Park conceded that he did not notice any cuts on Simpson's left hand but added \\\"I shook his right hand, not his left\\\". DNA evidence and blood trail The prosecution presented a total of 108 exhibits, including 61 drops of blood,of DNA evidence to link Simpson to the murders. With no witnesses to the crime, the prosecution was dependent onDNAas the onlyphysical evidencelinking Simpson to the crime.The volume of DNA evidence in this case was unique and the prosecution believed they could reconstruct how the crime was committed with enough accuracy to resemble an eyewitness account.Marcia Clark stated in her opening statements that there was a \\\"trail of blood from the Bundy Crime scene through Simpson's Ford Bronco to his bedroom at Rockingham\\\". Hair and fiber evidence LAPD criminalist and hair fiber expert Susan Brockbank testified on June 27, 1995, and FBI Special Agent and fiber expert Doug Deedrick testified on June 29, 1995, to the following findings: Shoeprint analysis In June, FBI shoeprint expert William J. Bodziak testified that the bloody shoeprints found at the crime scene and inside Simpson's Bronco were made from a rare and expensive pair ofBruno MagliItalian shoes. He determined the shoes were a size 12, the same size that Simpson wore, and are only sold at Bloomingdales. Only 299 pairs of that size were sold in the US and one of them was sold at the same store that Simpson often buys his shoes from. Bodziak also testified that, despite two sets of footprints at the crime scene, only one attacker was present because they were all made by the same shoes. During cross-examination Bailey suggested the murderer deliberately wore shoes that were the wrong size, which Bodziak dismissed as \\\"ridiculous\\\". Simpson denied ever owning a pair of the shoes; there was onlycircumstantial evidencehe did.Bloomingdales employee Samuel Poser testified he remembered showing Simpson those shoes, but there was no store record of him purchasing them.Although the prosecution could not prove that Simpson owned a pair of those shoes, Bodziak testified that a similar bloody shoeprint was left on the floor inside Simpson's Bronco. Scheck suggested that Fuhrman broke into the Bronco and left the footprint there; he produced a photo of Fuhrman walking through a puddle of blood. Bodziak admitted that he was not able to confirm that the shoeprint in the car definitely came from a Bruno Magli shoe, but dismissed Scheck's claim because none of the shoeprints at the crime scene were made by Fuhrman's shoes, making it unlikely he could have made a bloody shoeprint in the Bronco. Defense case Simpson hired a team of high-profile defense lawyers, initially led byRobert Shapiro, who was previously a civil lawyer known for settling, and then subsequently by Johnnie Cochran, who at that point was known for police brutality and civil rights cases.The team included noted defense attorneyF. Lee Bailey,Robert Kardashian, Harvard appeals lawyerAlan Dershowitz, his student Robert Blasier, and Dean ofSanta Clara University School of LawGerald Uelmen. Assisting Cochran wereCarl E. DouglasandShawn Holley.Barry ScheckandPeter Neufeldwere also hired; they headed theInnocence Projectand specialized in DNA evidence. Simpson's defense was said to have cost between US$3-6 million; the media dubbed the talented attorneys theDream Team,while the taxpayer cost of prosecution was over US$9 million. Postulate The defense team's reasonable doubt angle was summarized as \\\"compromised, contaminated, corrupted\\\" in opening statements.They argued the DNA evidence against Simpson was compromised by mishandling by Dennis Fung and Andrea Mazzola during the collection phase of evidence gathering, and that 100% of the DNA of the real killer(s) had vanished from the evidence samples.The defense argued that evidence was then contaminated in the LAPD crime lab by criminalist Collin Yamauchi and that Simpson's DNA from his reference vial was transferred to all but three exhibits.The remaining three exhibits were planted by the police and thus corrupted by police fraud.The defense also questioned the timeline, claiming the murders happened around 11:00 pm that night when Simpson has an alibi. Timeline The physicianRobert Huizengatestified in July 1995that Simpson was not physically capable of carrying out the murders due to chronic arthritis and old football injuries. During cross-examination, the prosecution produced an exercise video that Simpson had made a few weeks before the murders titledO.J. Simpson Minimum Maintenance: Fitness for Men, which demonstrated that Simpson was anything but frail.Huizenga admitted afterwards that Simpson could have committed the murders if he was in \\\"the throes of an adrenaline-rush\\\". Michael Baden, a forensic pathologist, testified that the murdershappened closer to 11:00 pm.He stated that Brown was still conscious, standing, and took a step after her throat was cutand that after Goldman'sjugular veinwas lacerated he continued to stand and fight his assailant for ten minutes. After the trial, Baden admitted his claim of Goldman's long struggle was inaccurateand that testifying for Simpson was a mistake.Critics claimed that Baden knowingly gave false testimony in order to collect a $100,000 retainerbecause the week before he testified, John Gerdes admittedthat Goldman's blood was found in Simpson's Broncodespite Goldman never having an opportunity within his lifetime to be in the Bronco. Nicole's mother, Juditha, told police and investigators in a sworn statement that she was speaking with her daughter on the telephone at 11:00pm that evening.Those phone records were sealed. A vat of ice cream was still partially frozen sitting on the downstairs bannister when police searched the open-door house around 12:30am June 13. The local weather was reported to be around 60° F that night, implying that by that time, the ice cream should have been near-completely thawed. Compromised and contaminated Barry ScheckandPeter Neufeldargued that the results from the DNA testing were not reliable because the police were \\\"sloppy\\\" in collecting and preserving it from the crime scene.Fung and Mazzola did admit to making several mistakes during evidence collection, which included not always changing gloves between handling evidence items, packaging and storing the evidence items using plastic bags rather than paper bags as recommended, and storing evidence in the police van, which was not refrigerated, for up to seven hours after collection.This, the defense argued, would allow bacteria to degrade the DNA and thus make the samples more susceptible to cross-contamination in the LAPD crime lab. The prosecution denied that the mistakes made by Fung and Mazzola changed the validity of the results.They noted that all of the evidence samples were testable and that most of the DNA testing was done at the two consulting labs, not the LAPD crime lab where contamination supposedly happened. Since all of the samples the consulting labs received were testable, while Scheck and Neufeld's theory predicted that they should have been inconclusive after being \\\"100% degraded\\\", the claim that all the DNA was lost to bacterial degradation was not credible.The prosecution also denied that contamination happened in the LAPD crime lab because the result would have been a mixture of Simpson's DNA and the DNA of the \\\"real killer(s)\\\", but the results showed that only Simpson's DNA was present.The prosecution also noted the defense declined to challenge any of those results by testing the evidence themselves.Marcia Clark called Scheck and Neufeld's claims a \\\"smoke-screen\\\". The contamination claim was made by microbiologist John Gerdes.He testified in August 1995 thatForensic PCR DNA matchingis not reliableand that the LAPD crime lab has a \\\"chronic\\\", \\\"substantial contamination problem\\\".Gerdes testified that because of the LAPD's past history of contamination, he would not consider any of the PCR DNA matches in this case reliable. He also claimed that the consulting labs' PCR DNA matches were not reliable, as the evidence they tested went \\\"through the LAPD\\\" for packaging and shipping.Gerdes believed only three of the DNA matches to have been valid, which were the same three the defense alleged were planted by the police. During cross-examination, Gerdes admitted there was no evidence that cross-contamination had occurred and that he was only testifying to \\\"what might occur and not what actually did occur\\\". He accepted that the victims' blood was in the Bronco and Simpson's blood was at the crime scene and neither was due to contamination. He also conceded that nothing happened during \\\"packaging and shipping\\\" that would affect the validity of the results at the two consulting labs. The prosecution implied that Gerdes was not a credible witness: he had no forensic experience, had only testified for criminal defendants in the past, and always said theDNA evidenceagainst them was not reliable due to contamination. Clark also implied that it was not a coincidence that the three evidence items he initially said were valid were the same three the defense claimed were planted while the other 58 were all false positives and the 47 substrate controls, which are used to determine if contamination occurred, were all false negatives.Defense forensic DNA expertHenry Lee, testifying in August 1995, admitted that Gerdes's claim was \\\"highly improbable\\\". Barry Scheck's eight-day cross-examination of Dennis Fung was lauded in the media.However, Howard Coleman, president of Seattle-based forensic DNA laboratory GeneLex, criticized Scheck's cross-examination as \\\"smoke and mirrors\\\", stating: \\\"Everything we get in the lab is contaminated to some degree. What contamination and degradation will lead you to is an inconclusive result. It doesn't lead you to a false positive\\\". Police conspiracy allegation The defense initially only claimed that three exhibits were planted by the policebut eventually argued that virtually all of the blood evidence against Simpson was planted in a police conspiracy.They accused prison nurse Thano Peratis,criminalists Dennis Fung,Andrea Mazzola,and Colin Yamauchi,and Vannatterand Fuhrman,of participating in a plot to frame Simpson. In closing arguments, Cochran called Fuhrman and Vannatter \\\"twins of deception\\\",Vannatter \\\"the man who carried the blood\\\"and Fuhrman \\\"the man who found the glove\\\". EDTA The onlyphysical evidenceoffered by the defense that the police tried to frame Simpson was the allegation that two of the 108 DNA evidence samples tested in the case contained the preservativeEthylenediaminetetraacetic acid(EDTA). However, it was the prosecution who asked to have the samples tested for the preservative, not the defense.The defense alleged that the drop of blood on the back gate at the Bundy crime scene, which matched Simpson, and the blood found on a pair of socks in Simpson's bedroom, which matched Brown, were planted by the police. In order to support this claim, the defense pointed to the presence in the blood samples of EDTA, a preservative found in the purple-toppedcollection tubesused for police reference vials. In July 1995,Fredric Rieders, a forensic toxicologist who had analysed the FBI's results, testified that the level of EDTA in the evidence samples was higher than that which is normally found in blood: this appeared to support the defense's claim that the blood came from the reference vials.During cross-examination, Clark asked Rieders to read out loud the portion of theEPAarticle that stated what the normal levels of EDTA in blood are, which he had referenced during his testimony.This demonstrated that he had misread the article and that the levels found in the evidence samples were consistent with those found in blood that was not preserved in a police reference vial.Rieders then claimed it was a \\\"typo\\\",but the prosecution produced a direct copy from the EPA confirming the normal amounts of EDTA found in unpreserved blood.The prosecution also had Rieders admit that EDTA is found in foodand specifically the ingredients used in theMcDonald'sBig Mac and french friesthat Simpson had eaten earlier that night. FBI special agent Roger Martz was called by the defense in July 1995 to testify that EDTA was present in the evidence samples. Instead, he said he did not identify it in the blood, contradicting Rieders' testimony.Initially he conceded the blood samples were \\\"consistent with the presence of EDTA\\\", but he later clarified his response after hearing that \\\"everyone is saying that I found EDTA\\\", which he denied. The defense accused him of changing his demeanor to favor the prosecution, and he replied: \\\"I cannot be entirely truthful by only giving 'yes' and 'no' answers\\\".Martz stated that it was impossible to ascertain with certainty the presence of EDTA, as while the presumptive test for it was positive, the identification test for it was inconclusive. He also tested his own unpreserved blood and got the same results for EDTA levels as the evidence samples, which he said conclusively disproved the claim that the evidence blood came from the reference vials.He contended that the defense had jumped to conclusions from the presumptive test results, while his tests had in fact shown that \\\"those bloodstains did not come from preserved blood\\\". Back gate The defense alleged that Simpson's blood on the back gate at the Bundy crime scene was planted by the police. The blood on the back gate was collected on July 3, 1994, rather than June 13.The volume of DNA in that blood was significantly higher than the other blood evidence collected on June 13. The volume of DNA was so high that the defense conceded that it could not be explained by contamination in the lab. However, they noted that it was unusual for that blood to have more DNA in it than the other samples collected at the crime scene, especially since it had been left exposed to the elements for several weeks and was collected after the crime scene had supposedly been washed over. In March 1995, Vannatter testified that he instructed Fung to collect the blood on the gate on June 13 and Fung admitted he had not done so.The defense suggested the reason why Fung did not collect the blood is because it was not there that day; when shown a blown-up photograph taken of the back gate on June 13, he admitted he could not see the blood. The prosecution responded that a different photograph showed the blood was present on the back gate on June 13, before any blood had been taken from Simpson's arm.Robert Riske was the first officer at the crime scene and the one who pointed out the blood on the back gate to Fuhrman, who documented it in his notes that night.Multiple other officers testified that the blood was present on the back gate the night of the murders.The prosecution also pointed out that the media cameras present proved that Vannatter never returned to the crime scene (Brown's home) that evening, where Simpson's blood was allegedly planted. Bronco Barry Scheck alleged the police had twice planted the victims' blood inside Simpson's Bronco. An initial collection was made on June 13; the defense accused Vannatter of planting the victims' blood in the Bronco when he returned to Simpson's home later that evening. The prosecution responded that the Bronco had already been impounded by the time Vannatter returned and was not even at Rockingham. Socks The defense alleged that the police had planted Brown's blood on the socks found in Simpson's bedroom. The socks were collected on June 13 and had blood from both Simpson and Brown, but her blood on the socks was not identified until August 4.The socks were found by Fuhrman, but the defense suggested Vannatter planted the blood. He had received both blood reference vials from the victims earlier that day from the coroner and booked them immediately into evidence. Vannatter then drove back to Rockingham later that evening to hand-deliver the reference vial for Simpson to Fung, which the defense alleged gave him opportunity to plant the blood. Fung testified he could not see blood on the socks he collected from Simpson's bedroom,and the prosecution later demonstrated that those blood stains were only visible underneath a microscope. Vannatter denied planting Brown's blood on the socks. The video from Willie Ford indicated that the socks had already been collected and stored in the evidence van before Vannatter arrived and footage from the media cameras present appeared to prove that he never went inside the evidence van after he arrived at Rockingham. Glove The last exhibit allegedly planted was the bloody glove found at Simpson's property by Fuhrman.Unlike the sock and the back gate, the defense provided no physical or eyewitness evidence to support their claim that the prosecution could then refute.The New Yorkerpublished an article months before the trial began which cited a source in Simpson's defense team as saying that they intended to accuse Fuhrman of planting the glove, with the motive being racism. Robert Shapiro later admitted he was the magazine's source. Defense attorney F. Lee Bailey suggested that Fuhrman found the glove at the crime scene, picked it up with a stick, placed it in a plastic bag, and concealed it in his sock when he drove to Simpson's home with Lange, Vannatter, and Phillips. Bailey suggested that Fuhrman then planted the glove to frame Simpson, with the motive being either racism or a desire to become the hero in a high-profile case.Scheck suggested that Fuhrman broke into the Bronco and used the glove to plant blood onto and inside the Bronco. The prosecution denied that Fuhrman planted the glove. They noted that several officers had already combed over the crime scene for almost two hours before Fuhrman arrived and none had noticed a second glove. Lange testified that 14 other officers were there when Fuhrman arrived and all said there was only one glove at the scene.Lt. Frank Spangler also testified that he was with Fuhrman for the duration of his time there, saying he would have seen Fuhrman steal the glove. Clark added that Fuhrman did not know whether Simpson had an alibi, if there were any witnesses to the murders, whose blood was on the glove, that the Bronco belonged to Simpson, or whether Kaelin had already searched the area where the glove was found. During cross-examination by Bailey,Fuhrman denied that he had used the word \\\"nigger\\\" to describe African Americans in the ten years prior to his testimony.A few months later, the defense presented audiotapes of Fuhrman repeatedly using the word eight years before the murders. TheFuhrman tapesbecame the cornerstone of the defense's case that his testimony lacked credibility. Clark called the tapes \\\"the biggestred herring\\\" ever. After screenwriter Laura Hart McKinny handed over the tapes to the defense, Fuhrman says he asked the prosecution for a redirect to explain the context of those tapes but the prosecution and fellow officers abandoned him after Ito played the audiotapes in open court.The public reaction was explosive, comparable to the reaction to the video of the King beating.After the trial, Fuhrman said that he was not a racist and apologized for his language, claiming he was play-acting for ascreenplaywhen he made the tapes and had been asked to be as dramatic as possible.Many of hisminorityformer coworkers expressed support for him. On September 6, 1995, Fuhrman was called back to the stand by the defense after the prosecution refused to redirect him. The jury was absent but the exchange was televised. Fuhrman, facing a possible prosecution forperjury, was instructed by his attorney to invoke theFifth Amendmentto avoidself-incriminationto two consecutive questions he was asked.Defense attorney Uelmen asked Fuhrman if it was his intention to plead the Fifth to all questions, and Fuhrman's attorney instructed him to reply \\\"yes\\\". Uelmen spoke with other members of the defense and then said he had just one more question: \\\"Did you plant or manufacture any evidence in this case?\\\" Following his attorney's instruction, Fuhrman again invoked the Fifth. Cochran responded to Fuhrman's pleading the Fifth by accusing the other officers of conspiring to protect Fuhrman; he asked Judge Ito to suppress all of the evidence that Fuhrman found. Ito denied the request, stating that pleading the Fifth does not imply guilt and that there was no evidence of fraud. Cochran asked that the jury be allowed to hear Fuhrman taking the Fifth, and again Ito denied his request. Ito criticized the defense's theory of how Fuhrman allegedly planted the glove, stating it was illogical. On June 15, 1995, Darden surprised Clark by asking Simpson to try on the gloves found at the crime scene and his home. The prosecution had earlier decided against asking Simpson to try them on because the gloves had been soaked in blood from Simpson, Brown, and Goldman,and frozen and unfrozen several times. Instead they presented a witness who testified that Brown had purchased a pair of those gloves in the same size in 1990 atBloomingdalesfor Simpson, along with a receipt and a photo of Simpson earlier wearing the same type of gloves. The leather gloves appeared too tight for Simpson to put on easily, especially over the latex gloves he wore underneath. Clark claimed that Simpson was acting when he appeared to be struggling to put on the gloves. Cochran replied, \\\"I don't think he could act the size of his hands\\\".Darden then told Ito of his concerns that Simpson \\\"hasarthritisand we looked at the medication he takes and some of it is anti-inflammatory and we are told he has not taken the stuff for a day and it caused swelling in the joints and inflammation in his hands\\\".Cochran informed Ito the next day thatShawn Chapmancontacted the Los Angeles County Jail doctor, who confirmed Simpson was taking his arthritis medication every day, and that the jail's medical records verified this. In a June 28, 1995, memo to Cochran, Uelmen came up with—and Cochran later repeated—a quip he used in his closing arguments: \\\"If it doesn't fit, you must acquit\\\". In his memo to Cochran, Uelmen noted that the phrase not only applied to the gloves but to the evidence presented by the prosecutors: What the memo really tries to do is play off the jury instructions... I thought that instruction on circumstantial evidence was just incredibly good for us, so when we knew that instruction was going to be given, it just popped out at me. It says if it doesn't fit, you must acquit. What I was trying to do is not just remind the jury of that moment in the trial of trying on the glove, but the whole concept of did the evidence really fit the story that the prosecution was trying to present. The prosecution stated they believed the gloves shrank from having been soaked in the blood of the victims.This model of gloves was made out of leather, which, as confirmed by Richard Rubin, can shrink up to 15% after being exposed to moisture and can never return to its original size.Darden produced a new pair of the same type of gloves, which fit Simpson when he tried them on.Rubin was a former vice president of Aris Isotoner Inc., which makes the gloves in question. On September 12, 1995, Rubin testified he was \\\"100 certain\\\" that the gloves at the murder scene—and also the style of gloves which Simpson was seen wearing in photographs and football broadcasts between 1990 and 1994—were of the company's rare Aris Light model and that they appeared to have shrunk.Rubin also noted that another pair of similar gloves which Simpson could be seen wearing during a football broadcast were noticeably absorbing rain water. After the trial, Cochran revealed that Bailey had goaded Darden into asking Simpson to try on the glovesand that Shapiro had told Simpson in advance that they would not fit. Summation In closing arguments, Darden ridiculed the notion that police officers might have wanted to frame Simpson.He questioned why, if the LAPD was against Simpson, they went to his house eight times on domestic violence calls against Brown between 1986 and 1988 but did not arrest him; they only arrested him on charges of abuse in January 1989. Darden noted the police did not arrest Simpson for five days after the 1994 murders.During the prosecution's closing argument, Cochran and Scheck very notably objected seventy-one times in order to lessen its effect on the jury,and though Ito overruled sixty-nine of them, he did not once admonish Cochran or Scheck or threaten them with contempt of court for their behavior. During his closing argument, Cochran pointed out the many flaws of the LAPD, particularly Fuhrman, Lange, and Vannatter. He emphasized that Fuhrman was proved to have repeatedly referred to black people as \\\"niggers\\\" and also to have boasted of beating young black men in his role as a police officer. Cochran compared Fuhrman toAdolf Hitlerand referred to him as \\\"the personification of evil\\\", and claimed that Fuhrman had planted the glove in an attempt to frame Simpson for the murders, based on his dislike of interracial couples. Cochran also presented a piece of paper named \\\"Vannatter's Big Lies\\\", claiming Vannatter had returned to the crime scene with Simpson's blood to plant it there, despite Vannatter having previously testified that he had given it to Dennis Fung in order to avoid the exhibits from getting mixed up. Cochran referred to Fuhrman and Vannatter as the \\\"two devils of deception\\\", and implored the jurors to \\\"stop this cover-up\\\" and \\\"acquit Simpson and send the police a message\\\", which was interpreted by many as an appeal for ajury nullification. Following his summation, Cochran received numerous death threats, and hired bodyguards fromLouis Farrakhan. In response, Fred Goldman, who was himself Jewish, referred to Cochran himself as a racist and a \\\"sick man\\\" for comparing Fuhrman to Hitler while associating himself with Farrakhan, who was widely considered a black supremacist and anti-Semite. Robert Shapiro, also Jewish, said he was offended by Cochran comparing Fuhrman's claims to the Holocaust. In an interview regardingVincent Bugliosi's analysis on the case, Vannatter claimed that he was so infuriated at Cochran's claims about him that he felt a desire to strangle him in the courtroom. Verdict Fears grew that race riots, similar to theriots in 1992, would erupt across Los Angeles and the rest of the country if Simpson were convicted of the murders. As a result, all Los Angeles police officers were put on 12-hour shifts. The police arranged for more than 100 police officers on horseback to surround the Los Angeles County courthouse on the day the verdict was announced, in case of rioting by the crowd. PresidentBill Clintonwas briefed on security measures if rioting were to occur nationwide. The only testimony that the jury reviewed was that of limo driver Park.At 10:07 a.m. on October 3, 1995, Simpson was acquitted on both counts of murder. The jury arrived at the verdict by 3:00 pm on October 2, after four hours ofdeliberation, but it postponed the announcement.After the verdict was read, juror number nine, 44-year-old Lionel Cryer, gave Simpson aBlack Power raised fistsalute.The New York Timesreported that Cryer was a former member of the revolutionary nationalistBlack Panther Partythat prosecutors had \\\"inexplicably left on the panel\\\". An estimated 100 million people worldwide watched or listened to the verdict's announcement. Long-distance telephone call volume declined by 58 percent, and trading volume on theNew York Stock Exchangedecreased by 41 percent. Water usage decreased as people avoided using bathrooms. So much work stopped that the verdict resulted in an estimated $480 million in lost production.TheUS Supreme Courtreceived a message on the verdict duringoral arguments, with thejusticesquietly passing the note to each other while listening to the attorney's presentation. Congressmen canceled press conferences, withJoe Liebermantelling reporters, \\\"Not only would you not be here, but I wouldn't be here, either\\\". Acquittal and aftermath African-AmericanLAPDPolice ChiefWillie Williamsindicated that he had no plans to reopen the investigation, saying of the acquittals, \\\"It doesn't mean there's another murderer\\\". The LAPD has also declined to reexamine the evidence with modern methods in recent years because Simpsoncould not be tried for the same crime againunder theFifth Amendment. Fate of the Broncos Simpson's 1993 Ford Bronco was never returned to him and was destroyed by the LAPD shortly after the trial ended. Cowlings's 1993 Ford Bronco from the low-speed chase was purchased in 1994 by Simpson's former sports agentMike Gilbertand two other men, then ended up sitting in a parking garage for the next 17 years (1995–2012), where it was rarely used.As of 2017, the vehicle was on loan to theAlcatraz East Crime Museum, where it was put on display as part of an exhibit on the murder trial. Legislative changes The strong public reaction to Brown's letters and statements describing her abusespurred passage of theViolence Against Women Actin 1994, which Clark and Douglas referred to as the \\\"O.J. rule\\\".After the trial, researchers reported increased reporting, arrests, and harsher sentences for those convicted ofdomestic violence. Analysis of polling data After the verdict, polling showed that 75 percent ofWhite Americansthought Simpson was guilty while 70 percent ofBlack Americansthought he was innocent.AnNBCpoll taken in 2004 reported 87 percent of Whites believed Simpson was guilty, compared to only 27 percent of Black respondents.In the 2010s, polling showed the gap had narrowed, with a majority of both now believing he was guilty: 83 percent of White and 57 percent of Black Americans. Political impact and civil rights Scholarly consensus is that the trial damagedrace relations in Americaand point to polling which shows that belief in Simpson's guilt depended on the race of the individual and not on the evidence against him.Analysis of the \\\"racial gap\\\" in polling shows that it did not cross thepolitical spectrum.Conservativesregardless of race or gender thought Simpson was guilty. Where the gap emerged was amongliberals– with black liberals believing Simpson was innocent, while white liberals thought he was guilty.Stanford UniversityLaw ProfessorRichard Thompson Fordwrote that this made the verdict awedge issuethat divided liberals along racial lines as white liberals felt the verdict was a racially motivatedjury nullificationand resented the images of African Americans celebrating the verdict.Led byWard Connerly, opponents ofaffirmative action, seized upon the division and rebranded as advocatingrace neutrality, which appealed to white liberals now due to their perceived unjustness of the verdictand in 1996 voters inCaliforniapassedProposition 209, which ended affirmative action programs in the state.A historic drop in diversity at theUniversity of Californiasystem followedwhich resulted in a similar drop in diversity that still remainsin the state'swhite-collar job market, especially in thehigh-tech hub of Silicon Valley.A further initiative rejected by voters,Proposition 54in 2003, would have further increased the impact of Prop 209 by abolishing racial classifications so the drop in diversity couldn't be quantified.Themurder of George Floydrevived empathy forracial injusticeamong white liberalsbut the unsuccessfulattempt to repeal Proposition 209in 2020 was credited to the trial's legacy of undermining race relations. Polling shows that racial and ethnicminority groupswere divided by the verdict as well.LatinosandAfrican Americansboth believed that fraud was taking place in theLAPDbut disagreed on the cause.Simpson said he felt vindicatedby theRampart Scandalwhich proved that fraud was happening in theC.R.A.S.Hanti-gang unit. However, this fraud was not racially motivated: all the officers involved were minorities themselvesand were actually found to be affiliated with one of thegangsthey were supposed to be policing. Publications Several jurors together publishedMadame Foremanin 1995 to respond to allegations the verdict was racially motivated. They concluded that Simpson probably was guilty but the prosecution failed to prove itbeyond a reasonable doubt. In 1996, Cochran publishedJourney to Justice, in which he denied playing the \\\"race card\\\" and maintained that theLAPDtried toframeSimpson. Shapiro publishedThe Search for Justicein 1996 about the case. He concluded there wasreasonable doubtbut criticized Bailey and Cochran for bringing race into the trial. In comparison to Cochran's book, he wrote: \\\"I never believed that Simpson was being victimized by a racist police organization because he was black…or that he was seen as a black hero\\\". In 1998, Clark publishedWithout a Doubt, in which she opined that the acquittal demonstrated the legal system is still compromised by race and celebrity because the prosecution'sphysical evidenceshould have easily convicted Simpson. Darden publishedIn Contemptin 1998 about the trial. He attributed the acquittal to poor stewardship by a \\\"starstruck\\\"Judge Itoand a \\\"dysfunctional and uneducated\\\" jury. Vincent BugliosipublishedOutrage: The Five Reasons why O. J. Simpson Got Away with Murderin 1997. Bugliosi blamed the verdict on an incompetent jury, prosecution, and judge. He wrote: \\\"Other than when a killer is apprehended in the act, I have never seen a more obvious case of guilt. All of the evidence—not some or most of it—points irresistibly to Simpson's guilt and his guilt alone\\\". Henry LeepublishedBlood Evidence: How DNA Is Revolutionizing The Way We Solve Crimesin 2003, in which he noted that both the defense's forensic DNA experts had rejected Scheck's contamination claim. Fuhrman publishedMurder in Brentwoodin 1998, defending himself against fraud claims. He wrote that his taking theFifthwas to avoid prosecution forperjury. In 1997, Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter publishedEvidence Dismissed: The Inside Story of the Police Investigation of O.J. Simpson, in which they defended themselves against allegations of corruption and incompetence. Daniel M. PetrocellipublishedTriumph of Justice: The Final Judgement of the Simpson Sagain 1998, comparing the criminal and civil trials. He attributed the acquittal to bad rulings byJudge Ito, unethical behavior by the defense, and unreliable testimony from Gerdes,Rieders, Lee, andBaden. In 1999, sociologistDarnell HuntpublishedO.J. Simpson Facts and Fictions: News Rituals in the Construction of Reality. Hunt argued that the racial gap in polling was a manufactured product of selective reporting of facts by the media due to their treatment of the trial as a form of entertainment rather than a legal proceeding. If I Did It In 2006,ReganBooksannounced a bookghostwrittenbyPablo Fenjvesbased on interviews with Simpson titledIf I Did It, an account which the publisher said was ahypotheticalconfession. The book's release was planned to coincide with a Fox interview featuring Simpson. The project was cancelled due to public criticism. Later, the Goldman family was awarded the rights to the book and published it under the titleIf I Did It: Confessions of the Killer. In 2018, Fox broadcast Simpson's previously unaired interview in a special titledO.J. Simpson: The Lost Confession?The interview was widely interpreted as being a form of impliedconfessionbecause Simpson usedfirst personlanguage (\\\"Obviously I must have \\\")in explaining how he would have committed the murders. Post-trial interviews In an interview withBarbara Walters, Shapiro said he was offended by Cochran comparing Fuhrman toAdolf Hitler, and said he would never work with Bailey or Cochran again. He also said the defense played the \\\"race card\\\".Robert Kardashianadmitted that, prior to the jurors visiting Simpson's home, the defense team had switched out his photos of white women for photos of his children and switched out a picture of a nude Paula Barbieri (Simpson's white then-girlfriend) for aNorman Rockwellpainting from Cochran's office. Simpson gave two high-profile interviews regarding the case – in 1996 withRoss Beckerand in 2004 withKatie Couric.In the February 1998 issue ofEsquire, Simpson was quoted as saying, \\\"Let's say I committed this crime ...even if I did this, it would have to have been because I loved her very much, right?\\\"In 1998, during an interview withRuby Wax, Simpson pretended to stab her with a banana in an apparent joke.In 2008,Mike Gilbertreleased his bookHow I Helped O.J. Get Away with Murder, which quotes Simpson allegedly saying: \\\"If she hadn't opened that door with a knife in her hand ... she'd still be alive.\\\" In the documentaryO.J.: Made in America, juror Carrie Bess said she believed \\\"90% of the jury actually decided to acquit Simpson as payback forRodney King\\\".Juror Lionel Cryer, who notably gave Simpson aBlack Power salute, stated in 2017 that in retrospect he would render a guilty verdict.Juror Anise Aschenbach, who initially voted guilty before changing her vote, stated in 2008 that she regrets the decision and believes Simpson is guilty because he is not looking for the \\\"real killer\\\" like he promised he would. “On the evidence that they gave me to evaluate, it was crooked by the cops,\\\" juror David Aldana said in an interview.“The evidence given to me to look at, I could not convict. Did he do it? Maybe, maybe not.\\\"Juror Sheila Woods denied the jury’s decision was based on race in an interview withVulture.When asked if she believed Simpson was framed, Woods stated, “I don’t know if he was necessarily framed. I think O.J. may know something about what happened, but I just don’t think he did it. I think it was more than one person, just because of the way she was killed. I don’t know how he could have just left that bloody scene — because it was bloody — and got back into his Bronco and not have it filled with blood. And then go back home and go in the front door, up the stairs to his bedroom … That carpet was snow white in his house. He should have blood all over him or bruises becauseRon Goldmanwas definitely fighting for his life. He had defensive cuts on his shoes and on his hands. O.J. only had that little cut on his finger. If Goldman was kicking to death, you would think that the killer would have gotten some bruises on his body. They showed us photos of O.J. with just his underwear just two days after, and he had no bruises or anything on his body.”In an interview with CNN following Simpson’s death, juror Yolanda Adams said she was still comfortable with her decision to render a not guilty verdict and denied the verdict was based on payback forRodney King, citing the reasonable doubt in the case presented by the defense and the actions of the police officers involved in the case likeMark Fuhrmanpleading the fifth when he was asked if he planted or manufactured any evidence against Simpson. In 2018,Foxaired an interview Simpson gave in 2006 with publisherJudith Regan, titledO.J. Simpson: The Lost Confession?, where he gave \\\"hypothetical\\\" details about his role in the murders. Civil trial In 1996, Fred Goldman and Sharon Rufo, the parents of Ron Goldman, and Lou Brown, father of Nicole Brown filed acivil suitagainst Simpson for wrongful death.Theplaintiffswere represented byDaniel Petrocelliand Simpson by Robert Baker.Presiding Judge Hiroshi Fujisaki did not allow the trial to be televised, did notsequesterthe jury, and prohibited the defense from allegingracismby theLAPDand from condemning the crime lab.Thephysical evidencedid not change but additional evidence ofdomestic violencewas presented as well as 31 pre-1994 photos of Simpson wearingBruno Maglishoes,including one that waspublished6 months before the murders, proving it could not be aforgery.Results from apolygraphtest that Simpson denied taking showed \\\"extreme deception\\\" when he denied committing the murders. Fuhrman did not testify but Simpson did on his own behalf and lied several times. One significant difference between the two trials was the admission of Nicole Brown's diary entries in the civil case. Lead counselDaniel Petrocelliexplained, \\\"The least explored aspect of the case is Simpson's motive. You cannot just say this murder was a culmination of domestic-violence incidents. You need to tell the jury a story. This was about a stormy relationship.\\\"Timemagazine reported, \\\"That strategy made the difference in understanding Simpson... Nicole's diary showed that she and Simpson were having fights in those last weeks. Their hostilities had taken a cruel turn. Simpson sent Nicole a letter that was a thinly veiled threat to report her to the IRS for failing to pay capital-gains taxes. Infuriated, she started to deny him access to the children.... She began to treat him like a stranger. That, Petrocelli said, is when three weeks of retaliation began In that period, the lawyer argued, Simpson grew angrier and more obsessed with his ex-wife, developing a rage that resulted in death for her and Ron Goldman.\\\" The civil judge found the diary entries were admissible because they were pertinent to Nicole's state of mind, which in turn was relevant to Simpson's motive—reversing a crucial ruling from the criminal case that excluded the diary as \\\"inadmissible hearsay.\\\"The civil court's ruling was upheld on appeal.TheLos Angeles Timeswrote that this evidence \\\"helped the plaintiffs tell their story of domestic violence\\\" and show that when Nicole \\\"rejected for good in the spring of 1994 ... he erupted in the same uncontrollable rage that had caused him to lash out at her in the past—only this time, he was brandishing a knife. The jury found Simpsonliablefor the murders and awarded the victims' families $33.5 million in compensatory and punitive damages.The civil verdict \\\"very nearly upstaged the president of the United States on the occasion of his State of the Union address,\\\"ending the case that \\\"riveted America for two and a half years\\\"Simpson filed forbankruptcyafterwards and relocated toFloridato protect hispensionfrom seizure. His remaining assets were seized and auctioned off with most being purchased by critics of the verdict of the criminal trial to help the plaintiffs recoup the costs of litigation. Simpson'sHeisman Trophywas sold for $255,500 to an undisclosed buyer. All the proceeds went to the Goldman family, who said they have received only one percent of the money that Simpson owes from the wrongful death suit. Following Simpson's death in 2024,Simpson estate lawyer Malcolm LeVergne pledged to prevent the Brown and Goldman families from obtaining the money which was promised in the civil trial judgement, but later reversed course. Alternate theories and suspects While Bailey and several members of Simpson's family still advocated for Simpson's innocence,such theories have been rejected by prosecutors, witnesses and the families of Brown and Goldman, who have expressed the belief that Simpson committed the murders and was the sole perpetrator,with Hunt opining that these claims were attempts to tap into the public interest in the case and were never meant to be taken seriously. Alternative theories have been suggested, such as that Simpson may have had accomplices in the murders, or that he was not involved at all and wasframed. Several speculate that the murders were related to the Los Angeles drug trade and the murders ofMichael NiggandBrett Cantor. The 2000BBC TVdocumentaryO.J.: The True Untold Story,primarily rehashes the contamination and blood planting claims from the trial and asserted that Simpson's elder son Jason is a possible suspect, due to - among other reasons - Simpson hiring defense attorneys for his children first before himself, pictures of Jason's descriptive wool cap, and an alleged prior arrangement to meet with Nicole that evening.William Dearpublished his findings in the bookO.J. Is Innocent and I Can Prove It. The 2012 documentary filmMy Brother the Serial Killeralleged that convicted murdererGlen Edward Rogersconfessed to being involved in the murders and that he had been hired by Simpson. In popular culture Media adaptations Film Lost Highwaywas partially inspired by the case. In the film, a man is imprisoned for his wife's murder, which he does not remember, and is released after he transforms into a different man. DirectorDavid Lynchfound it remarkable that Simpson, who he believed committed the murders, could continue a casual lifestyle afterward. Lethal Weapon 4, which was released about two and a half years after the case, makes a reference to the success of Simpson's defense attorney Johnnie Cochran, after the character of detective Lee Butters apprehends a fleeing suspect and reads him hisMiranda rightsas follows: \\\"If you can't afford an attorney, we'll provide you with the dumbest fucking lawyer on earth. If you get Johnnie Cochran, I'll kill ya!\\\" Shrek 2references the Bronco chase, whenDonkeyis turned into a white horse by theFairy Godmother, and he and other characters are pursued by knights. TV Episodes of sitcoms such asThe Simpsons,South Park,Roseanne,New Girl,Family Guy,It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, andSeinfeldhave mocked the case, or more specifically, Simpson himself.Saturday Night LiveWeekend UpdatehostNorm Macdonaldfrequently made jokes about O. J. Simpson's trial, such as the iconic line \\\"Well, it is finally official: Murder is legal in the state of California\\\" after Simpson's acquittal. It is rumored that the constant Simpson jokes were the cause for thenNBCPresidentDon Ohlmeyerto remove Macdonald from theWeekend Updatesegment and eventually from the show altogether. Cowlings' white Ford Bronco was featured in the reality TV showPawn Stars. The then-owner of the vehicle estimated its value in excess of $1,000,000. Music The heavy-metal bandBody Countrecorded the song \\\"I Used to Love Her\\\", sung from the perspective of O. J. Simpson murdering his wife, on their 1997 albumViolent Demise: The Last Days. A 2021 article inMetal Hammerdescribed the song as \\\"jaw-droppingly offensive\\\".InGood Charlotte's song, \\\"Lifestyles of the Rich & Famous\\\", they reference the case in the second verse: \\\"Well did you know when you were famous you could kill you wife And there's no such thing as 25 to life As long as you've got the cash, to pay for Cochran.\\\" R&B groupH-Towndedicated their albumLadies Edition, Woman's World(1997) to Brown, to help victims of domestic violence.Electronic musicianJames Ferraroreferenced the police chase in the song \\\"White Bronco\\\" on his 2015 albumSkid Row. Hip hop artist Magneto Dayo released a 2013 \\\"diss track\\\" song titled \\\"OJ Simpson\\\" in which he insults his ex-girlfriend/artistV-Nastyby referencing the Simpson murder case.RapperJay-Z's song \\\"The Story of O.J.\\\" references the trial.Kendrick Lamarincluded Simpson in the music video for \\\"The Heart Part 5\\\", usingDeepfaketechnology. The infamous glove also appears on the single's cover.RapperEminemreferences the murder case in his song \\\"Role Model\\\", where he claims to have done the murder withMarcus Allen. Video games Duke Nukem 3Dhas several allusions to the Simpson trial, including a television playing the Bronco chase. Exhibits The suit Simpson wore when he was acquitted was donated by Simpson's former agentMike Gilbertto theNewseumin 2010. The Newseum has multiple trial-related items in their collection, including press passes, newspapers and the mute button that Superior Court JudgeLance Itoused when he wanted to shut off the live microphone in court so lawyers could talk privately during the trial. The museum's acquisition of the suit ended the legal battle between Gilbert and Fred Goldman, both of whom claimed the right to the clothing. Cowlings's Bronco is on display at theAlcatraz Eastcrime museum inPigeon Forge, Tennessee. In 2017, Adam Papagan curated a pop-up museum showcasing artifacts andephemerafrom the trial atCoagula Curatorialgallery in Los Angeles. See also References Bibliography Further reading External links\",\n \"1995 World Series The1995 World Serieswas thechampionship seriesofMajor League Baseball's (MLB)1995 season. The 91st edition of the World Series, it was abest-of-seven playoffplayed between theNational League(NL) championAtlanta Bravesand theAmerican League(AL) championCleveland Indians. It was the first World Series after theprevious year's Serieswas canceled due to aplayers' strike. The Braves won in six games to capture their third World Series championship infranchise history(along with1914 in Bostonand1957 in Milwaukee), making them the first team to win in three different cities. This was also Cleveland's first Series appearance in 41 years. The Series was also remarkable in that five of the six games were won by one run, including the clinching sixth game, a 1–0 combined one-hitter byTom GlavineandMark Wohlers. This was the first time since the LCS changed to a best-of-seven format that a winner of a LCS via a sweep has gone on to win the World Series. It has since been repeated in 2019 by theWashington Nationals, and in 2022 by the Houston Astros. This World Series, despite being in an odd-numbered year, opened in the NL home because of the omission of the 1994 World Series. Until 2003, the World Series would begin in the AL home in even-numbered years. Background Atlanta Braves After losing the World Series in 1991 to theMinnesota Twinsand in 1992 to theToronto Blue Jays, the Atlanta Braves were making their third attempt in four years (not counting the 1994 strike) to capture Atlanta's first title. The Braves overcame some early inconsistency to win their division by 21 games. In the playoffs, which featured a new first round, the Braves overwhelmed the third-yearColorado Rockies, then swept theCincinnati Redsin theNLCS(spoiling an all-Ohio World Series in the process; notably, prior to their World Series appearancein 1948, theIndianshad spoiled an all-BostonWorld Series by beating theRed Soxin a one-game playoff). The team relied onclutch hittingand its powerful pitchingrotation, which was made up of perennialCy Young AwardwinnerGreg Maddux,Tom Glavine,John Smoltz, andSteve Avery. As the NL champion, they opened this World Series at home because there was no 1994 World Series. Cleveland Indians After decades of futility, the city of Cleveland finally had a winner in town. The Indians dominated the American League in 1995, winning 100 of their 144 games (their 100–44 record yielded a very high 0.694 winning percentage, which was, at the time, the highest regular season winning percentage in Major League Baseball since 1954, and is, as of 2015, the 12th highest regular season winning percentage in Major League Baseball history since 1900). Furthermore, in just 144 games, they won the AL Central by 30 games, and they performed the difficult feat of leading their league in both team batting average (0.291) and ERA (3.81). Thanks to their hitting and bullpen, this Indians team became known around the league for their ability to come back from many deficits, often in dramatic fashion; of their 100 regular season victories, 48 were come-back victories, 27 came in their last at-bat, eight came by way of \\\"walk off\\\" home runs, and 13 were extra-inning victories (they were 13–0 in extra-inning games). After this dominance of the AL in the regular season, the Indians, in the playoffs, swept theBoston Red Soxin the opening round, then held offKen Griffey Jr.and the red hotSeattle Marinersin theALCS, before heading into the Series against the Braves. The 1995 Cleveland Indians featured a very impressive batting line-up; one that hit for high average, good power, and had good speed. In addition to leading the AL in batting average (0.291), the Indians in 1995 also led the American League in runs scored (840; 5.83 runs per game), home runs (207), and stolen bases (132). Led byspeedstersKenny LoftonandOmar Vizquel, along withCarlos Baergaat the top of the order, the Indians offense was powered in the middle of the order byAlbert Belle,Eddie Murray,Manny Ramírez, andJim Thome; at the bottom of the line-up could be foundPaul Sorrento(orHerbert Perry) andSandy Alomar Jr.(orTony Peña). Thus, this Indians line-up had six everyday players who finished the season with a batting average of at least 0.300; and, with Herbert Perry and Tony Peña frequently filling in for Paul Sorrento and Sandy Alomar Jr., respectively, it was not uncommon for the Tribe to field a line-up with as many as eight players who finished the season with a batting average of at least 0.300. In terms of power, though the '95 season was shortened, nevertheless, the Indians' line-up still featured two players with at least 30 HR, five players with at least 20 HR, and seven with at least 10 HR. While this line-up was filled with star players (four, in fact, were named to the 1995 AL All-Star team, namely, Lofton, Baerga, Belle, and Ramirez), Albert Belle stood out among all of them in 1995. Powered by a very strong second half of the season, Belle, the Indians' clean-up hitter in 1995, finished 1995 with a 0.317 batting average, 126 RBI, and 50 home runs. Further to be noted is the fact that, in hitting 50 HR and 52 doubles in 1995, Belle became the first Major League player to hit at least 50 home runs and at least 50 doubles in the same season (an accomplishment which, again, is even more remarkable considering that he did this in a shortened, 144-game season). The Indians also led the 1995 AL in ERA (3.81). While their starting pitching—led by veteransDennis MartínezandOrel Hershiser—was respectable, it was their bullpen which gave real strength to their pitching staff. Key members of their bullpen staff included veteran right-handerEric Plunk(6–2, 2.67 ERA), veteran left-handerPaul Assenmacher(6–2, 2.82), the young right-handed set-up man,Julián Tavárez(10–1, 2.44 ERA), and right-handed closer,José Mesa(3–0, 1.12 ERA, 46 SV). Mesa, in his first year as closer, posted a league-leading 46 saves in 1995, and set a then-Major League record of 38 consecutive saves without a blown save. Two of the members of the 1995 Indians' pitching staff—Dennis Martínez (the team's ace) and José Mesa—were named to the 1995 AL All-Star team. Series build-up Thus it was that this Series presented an entertaining match-up of baseball's two best teams, each with reasons to be confident going into the Series. The Atlanta Braves were veterans to the post-season in the 1990s, having won both the 1991 and 1992 NL pennants (not to mention the 1993 NL Western Division title, having won 104 games in 1993), and they were the best team in the NL in the 1995 regular season (having posted a very solid 90–54 record). The Cleveland Indians, on the other hand, newcomers to the post-season (having not been in the post-season since 1954), in posting their 100–44 regular season mark, were the team which had posted not only the best regular season record in the AL, but had completed one of the best regular seasons in all of Major League Baseball history. Further, though the Braves' line-up was not very threatening in 1995 (their .250 team batting average was the second lowest in the NL), still, the Braves could be confident with their star-studded pitching staff—especially their starting staff—headed by the likes of Greg Maddux, Tom Glavine, John Smoltz, and Steve Avery. On the other hand, though the Indians could not boast of having as nearly a strong starting rotation as the Braves, nevertheless, they could lay claim to a very solid bullpen and one of the greatest batting line-ups that baseball has ever seen. It might also be noted that, though this was the first time that a team from Cleveland and one from Atlanta faced each other in the World Series, there were years, prior to the Braves being in Atlanta, in which the Braves faced a Cleveland team for baseball's crown. In 1948, the Boston Braves faced the Cleveland Indians (with the Indians winning that Series in six games). Even before that, in 1892, theBoston Beaneaters, a forerunner of the Braves, were also National League Champions in 1892, and faced theCleveland Spidersfor the championship.The Beaneaters beat the Spiders that year to win that baseball championship. The 1995 World Series was also noted for large-scale protests byNative Americanactivists in response to thecontroversysurrounding both clubs' usage of Native American-themed nicknames, logos and mascots, as well as the use of thetomahawk chopby Braves fans. Broadcasting NBCwas originally scheduled to televise the entire World Series; however, due to the cancellation of the 1994 World Series (which had been slated forABC, who last televised a World Series in1989), coverage ended up being split between NBC and ABC. Game 5 would be the last Major League Baseball game to be telecast by ABC (had there been a Game 7, ABC would have televised it) for 25 years. ABC was scheduled to televise up to four wild card gamesin the2020 MLB Postseason. This was the only World Series to be produced underThe Baseball Networkumbrella (arevenue sharingjoint venturebetween Major League Baseball, ABC and NBC). In July 1995, NBC and ABC announced that they would be pulling out of what was supposed to be a six-year-long venture. NBC would next cover the1997(NBC's first entirely since1988) and1999 World Seriesover the course of a five-year-long contract, in whichFoxwould cover the World Series in even numbered years (1996,1998and2000). Also during the World Series in 1995, NBC'sHannah Stormnot only became the first woman to serve as solo pre-game host of a World Series (CBS'Andrea Joyceco-hosted withPat O'Brienin1993) but also became the first woman to preside over aWorld Series Trophypresentation.Storm was infamously the recipient of a profane outburst fromAlbert Bellein his team's dugout. Later, Belle was unrepentant: \\\"TheIndianswanted me to issue a statement of regret when the fine was announced, but I told them to take it out. I apologize for nothing.\\\"John Saundersserved as pre-game host for ABC's coverage. Serving asfield reportersfor the series wereLesley Visser(ABC) andJim Gray(NBC). The six games averaged a nationalNielsen ratingof 19.5 and a share of 33. Through 2016, this remains the highest-rated World Series of the post-strike era. On the radio side,CBSwas the national broadcaster withVin ScullyandJeff Torborgon the call. Locally,WKNRaired the series in Cleveland withHerb ScoreandTom Hamiltonannouncing, whileWSBbroadcast the series in Atlanta withSkip Caray,Pete Van Wieren,Don Sutton, andJoe Simpsonannouncing. International Summary NLAtlanta Braves(4) vs. ALCleveland Indians(2) Matchups Game 1 Atlanta aceGreg Madduxpitched a two-hit complete game victory in his first World Series appearance (and just the 15th two-hitter in Series history). The Indians scored in the first inning whenKenny Loftonreached on an error, stole second and third, and scored on an RBI groundout byCarlos Baerga. In the bottom of the second,Fred McGrifflaunched atape measure home runon his first ever World Series pitch off Cleveland starterOrel Hershiserto even the score at 1–1. Both starters settled down until the seventh, when Hershiser and the Cleveland bullpen walked the first three Braves to open the inning. The Braves would take a 3–1 lead afterLuis Poloniahit into a run-scoring force play andRafael Belliardbunted a perfectsuicide squeeze. Lofton scored the Indians another run in the ninth to cut the Braves lead to a single run, (both Cleveland runs resulted from errors and were thus, unearned) but Baerga lifted a pop fly that third basemanChipper Jonesgrabbed near the visiting dugout to end the game. Game 2 Atlanta No. 2 starterTom Glavinegot the win in Game 2, aided by a big sixth-inning home run by catcherJavy López, who also pickedManny Ramirezoff first base at a crucial moment in the eighth inning to erase a potential game-tying baserunner. The Indians had taken an early 2–0 lead on anEddie Murraytwo-run home run afterAlbert Bellegot on base, but the Braves evened the score in the third with a sac fly byChipper Jonesand an RBI single by David Justice. Lopez launched his home run in the sixth inning from Cleveland starterDennis Martínez. The Atlanta bullpen held off the Indians in the later innings despite allowing a run in the seventh, andMark Wohlersearned the save, giving the Braves a 2–0 series lead. Game 3 With the World Series moving to smaller, raucous Jacobs Field in Cleveland, the Indians got their first win. The Indians offense got back on track off Atlanta starterJohn Smoltz. With the Tribe already down 1–0 in the bottom of the first,Kenny Loftonsingled to center and scored onOmar Vizquel's triple into the right field corner. Omar then scored the go-ahead run whenCarlos Baergagrounded out. In the third, the Tribe were back at it again when Lofton opened the inning by ripping a double into the right-center field gap. Omar then got a bunt single and Baerga singled to left to drive in Lofton.Albert Bellethen rolled a grounder up the middle to score Vizquel to make it 4–1. This was Smoltz's only early exit and only poor start in eight career World Series appearances. The Braves got a boost, however, when relieverBrad Clontzinduced a double play groundout byManny Ramírezto escape further damage. Home runs byFred McGriffandRyan Kleskobrought the Braves closer at 4–3. Cleveland added a run in the seventh on another RBI hit by Baerga scoring Lofton (who would reach base in all six of his plate appearances). With a 5–3 lead going into the eighth, trouble brewed for Cleveland whenCharles Nagyand the bullpen gave up the lead.Marquis Grissomled off with a double off the wall. Polonia singled through the right side to drive in Grissom, sending Nagy to the showers.Chipper Joneswalked, McGriff hit a deep fly moving the runners up a base, andDavid Justicereached when Baerga booted his groundball, subsequently allowing Polonia to score the tying run. The inning was capped off byMike Devereaux's RBI single giving the Braves a 6–5 lead. The Braves couldn't hold on to their slim lead either asSandy Alomar Jr.laced a game-tying double inside the line at first in the bottom of the eighth. The two closers,Mark WohlersandJosé Mesathen matched zeros for the next two innings. In the 11th, the Braves went toAlejandro Peña. Baerga immediately smashed a double and after an intentional walk to Belle, veteranEddie Murraysingled to center, scoring pinch runnerÁlvaro Espinozaand cutting Atlanta's World Series lead in half. A record 18 pitchers were used between the Braves and Indians in Games 2 and 3. Game 4 Braves managerBobby Coxcontroversially decided to start left-handed pitcherSteve Averyin the critical Game 4 instead of coming back withGreg Maddux. Despite Avery's uncharacteristically poor regular season showing (7-13, 4.67 ERA), Cox felt he deserved a chance after having won the NLCS clincher against Cincinnati throwing six shutout innings. Young Braves outfielderRyan Kleskohit a sixth-inning home run to give Atlanta the lead. This would be the last time a player would hit home runs in back-to-back World Series games until2016. Avery again delivered six effective innings, only giving up a sixth-inning home run to Cleveland sluggerAlbert Belle. A controversial play happened whenEddie Murrayhit a pitch over third base; left-field umpire Jim McKean called it foul while third-base umpire Harry Wendelstedt looked at Jim McKean to make the call. Murray eventually walked and reached second on a balk by Avery, but Herbert Perry struck out to end the inning. The Braves promptly broke the tie with a three-run seventh, withDavid Justicebatting in two of the runs with a single. An RBI double byJavy Lópezgave the Braves an insurance run, making it 5–1. RelieverPedro Borbón Jr.saved the 5–2 win afterMark Wohlersran into trouble, and the Braves were one victory away from a title. Game 5 It seemed the perfect situation for Atlanta with Greg Maddux pitching Game 5 with a chance to clinch the title, but Albert Belle slugged a two-run homer in the first inning, and the Braves lineup was held in check by Cleveland veteran Orel Hershiser who went eight innings, only surrendering two runs.Luis Poloniahit a solo home run into the fourth and Atlanta actually tied the game at 2–2 with a run-scoring infield single byMarquis Grissomin the fifth, but Cleveland got two more runs from Maddux making it 4–2.Jim Thomehit an insurance home run in the eighth, which proved necessary as Ryan Klesko homered in his third consecutive game, reducing the gap to 5–4. Klesko became the first person ever to homer in three consecutive World Series road games, by belting homers in Games 3, 4, and 5. The win sent the Series back to Atlanta. As previously mentioned, this game was the most recent baseball game thatABCtelevised until the2020postseason. Game 6 Controversy struck on the morning of Game 6 when Atlanta newspapers printed stories that right fielder David Justice had ripped the city's fans for not matching their motivation of past seasons. Justice, who had been struggling in the postseason, was vilified before the game, but when his sixth-inning home run off a 1–1 pitch byJim Poolebroke a scoreless tie, he became a hero.Tom Glavinepitched eight innings of one-hit ball (and five innings of no hit ball) and allowed just three walks (two toAlbert Belle, who was caught stealing second in the second inning to keep a runner from advancing into scoring position) to help earn him the Series MVP. Only one Indian advanced into scoring position in the entire game whenKenny Loftonstole second, but no one could get him in. Cleveland starterDennis Martínezlasted just 42⁄3innings due to allowing four hits and five walks, but no Braves scored. After Justice's home run, the Braves managed just one hit. The lone hit for the Indians was a bloop-single by catcherTony Peñain the sixth, breaking up Glavine's bid to become the first pitcher sinceDon Larsen in 1956to throw a no-hitter in the World Series. Closer Mark Wohlers pitched the ninth inning, preserving the 1–0 shutout and Atlanta's coveted title whenCarlos Baerga's fly ball landed in center fielder Marquis Grissom's glove, giving the Braves their first title in Atlanta and their first since1957when they were still in Milwaukee. Carlos Baerga was responsible for making the last out in three of the four Cleveland losses; Games 1, 2 and 6. To date, this is the last 1–0 World Series game won by the home team. Moments after the final out was recorded, a fan in the stands was shown holding a placard that simply said \\\"...Finally!\\\" due to the Atlanta Braves finally winning the World Series on their third try. In 1995, the Cleveland Indians batted .291 as a team, led the league in runs scored, hits, and stolen bases, and had eight .300 hitters in their starting lineup. However, the Tribe was held to a .179 batting average in the World Series. Then-Executive Committee ChairmanBud Seligpresided over theCommissioner's Trophypresentation for the first time. In the previous two World Series (1992and1993),American LeaguepresidentDr. Bobby Brownpresided over the trophy presentation. Selig would becomeCommissioner of Baseballin 1998. Composite line score 1995 World Series(4–2):Atlanta Braves(N.L.)overCleveland Indians(A.L.) Aftermath The 1995 Braves were in the midst of a streak of 14 consecutive division titles from1991through2005(excluding the1994season, which ended early due to a players strike), however this was the only World Series the Braves would win. Atlanta returned to the Seriesthe following year, but lost to theNew York Yankeesin six games. The Braves of this era made one more trip to the Series in1999, but lost to theYankeesin a four-game sweep. This was Atlanta's first championship in any of thefour major professional sports, and the last for the city and for the Braves until2021. The Indians would go on to win the AL Central five of the following six years and return to the World Series in1997, where they lost to theFlorida Marlinsin seven games. The core of the 1990s Indians teams would break up in the early 2000s.Albert Bellesigned with theChicago White Soxin free agency in the winter of 1996, whileKenny Loftonwas traded to the Braves before the start of the 1997 season (he returned in 1998 to play three years with the team only to leave and return again for his final season in 2007); after the turn of the century,Manny Ramirezjoined theBoston Red Soxin2001andJim Thomejoined thePhiladelphia Philliesin2003. Quotes Left center field,Grissomon the run. The team of the 90s has its world championship. See also Notes External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Murder trial of O. J. Simpson The People of the State of California v. Orenthal James Simpsonwas acriminal trialinLos Angeles County Superior Court, in which formerNFLplayer and actorO. J. Simpsonwas tried and acquitted for the murders of his ex-wifeNicole Brown Simpsonand her friendRonald Goldman, who were stabbed to death outside Brown's condominium in Los Angeles on June 12, 1994. The trial spanned eight months, from January 24 to October 3, 1995. Though prosecutors argued that Simpson was implicated by asignificant amount of forensic evidence, he was acquitted of both murders on October 3.Commentators agree that to convince the jury to acquit Simpson, the defense capitalized on anger among the city'sAfrican-Americancommunity toward theLos Angeles Police Department(LAPD), which had a history of racial bias and had inflamed racial tensions inthe beating of Rodney Kingandsubsequent riotstwo years prior.The trial is often characterized as thetrial of the centurybecause of its international publicity and has","publicity and has been described as the \"most publicized\" criminal trial in history.Simpson was formally charged with the murders on June 17; when he did not turn himself in at the agreed time, he became the subject of a police pursuit.TV stations interrupted coverage of the1994 NBA Finalsto broadcast live coverage of the pursuit, which was watched by around 95 million people.The pursuit and Simpson's arrest were among the most widely publicized events in history. Simpson was represented by a high-profile defense team, referred to as the \"Dream Team\", initially led byRobert Shapiroand subsequently directed byJohnnie Cochran. The team includedF. Lee Bailey,Alan Dershowitz,Robert Kardashian,Shawn Holley,Carl E. Douglas, andGerald Uelmen. Simpson was also instrumental in his own defense. While DeputyDistrict AttorneysMarcia Clark,William Hodgman, andChristopher Dardenbelieved they had a strong case, the defense team persuaded the jury there wasreasonable doubtconcerning the DNA evidence.They contended the blood","contended the blood sample had been mishandled by lab scientistsand that the case had been tainted by LAPD misconduct related to racism and incompetence. The use of DNA evidence in trials was relatively new, and many laypersons did not understand how to evaluate it. The trial was considered significant for the wide division inreaction to the verdict.Observers' opinions of the verdict were largely related to their ethnicity; the media dubbed this the \"racial gap\".A poll ofLos Angeles Countyresidents showed most African Americans thought the \"not guilty\" verdict was justified while most whites thought it was a racially motivatedjury nullificationby the mostly African-American jury.Polling in later years showed the gap had narrowed since the trial; more than half of polled Black respondents expressed the belief that Simpson was guilty.In 2017, three jurors who acquitted Simpson said they would still vote to acquit, while one said he would convict. After the trial, Goldman's father filed a civil suit against","civil suit against Simpson. In 1997, the jury unanimously found Simpson responsible for the deaths of Goldman and Brown.The Goldman family was awarded damages totaling $34 million ($64 million adjusted for inflation), but as of 2024 have received a small portion of that. Background Simpson–Brown marriage Brown met Simpson in 1977when he was 30 and she was 18, working as a waitress at the Daisy (aBeverly Hillsprivate club).They began dating although Simpson was married; he filed for divorce from his first wife in March 1979. Simpson and Brown married on February 2, 1985.They had two children together, daughter Sydney (b. 1985) and son Justin (b. 1988).Brown signed a prenuptial agreement that prohibited her from working while married. According to psychologistLenore E. Walker, the Simpson–Brown marriage was a \"textbook example ofdomestic abuse\".In letters and other documents, Brown wrote that Simpson had beaten her in public, during sex, and even in front of family and friends.She described an incident in","an incident in which Simpson broke her arm during a fight; to prevent him from being arrested, she told emergency room staff that she had fallen off her bike.Brown wrote that she felt conflicted about notifying police of the abuse because she was financially dependent on Simpson.Of the 62 incidents of abuse, the police were notified eight times, and Simpson was arrested once.On February 25, 1992, Brown filed for divorce, citing \"irreconcilable differences\". Brown said that Simpson stalked and harassed her after they divorced – an intimidation tactic meant to force the victim to return to the abuser.She said he had spied on her having sex with her new boyfriendand that she felt her life was in danger because Simpson had threatened to kill her if he ever found her with another man.She drafted awill.On June 8, 1994, a woman named Nicole (presumed to be Brown) telephoned Sojourn House, a women's shelter.She was considering staying at the shelter because she was afraid of what Simpson might do to her, as she was","to her, as she was refusing his pleas to reconcile their marriage. Frogmen A few months before the killings, Simpson finished filming a pilot forFrogmen, an adventure series comparable to TheA-Team. Simpson played the primary character, \"Bullfrog\" Burke, who led a gang of formerUS Navy SEALs. He underwent \"a fair amount of\" military training for Frogmen, including the use of a knife, and in one scene, he holds a knife to the throat of a woman playing his daughter. Investigators discovered a 25-minute tape of the pilot, which did not feature the knife scene, and viewed it on Simpson's television while searching his home. The defense attempted to prevent its use on these grounds, but Judge Ito permitted it to be shown.\"Bullfrog\" Burke was skilled at night killings,and the \"silent kill\" technique of slashing the throat.SEALs also regularly wear knit \"watch caps\" like the one found at the scene. Murders On the evening of June 12, 1994, Brown and Simpson both attended their daughter Sydney's dance recital at Paul","recital at Paul Revere Middle School. Afterward, Brown and her family went to eat at Mezzaluna restaurant. One of the waiters at the restaurant was Ron Goldman, who had become close friends with Brown in recent weeks,but was not assigned to the Brown family's table. Brown and her children went toBen & Jerry'sbefore returning to her condominium onBundy Drive,Brentwood.The manager of Mezzaluna recounted that Brown's mother telephoned the restaurant at 9:37 pm asking about a pair of lost eyeglasses. The manager found the glasses and put them in a white envelope, which Goldman took with him as he left the restaurant at the end of his shift at 9:50 pm; he intended to drop them off at Brown's place. Meanwhile, Simpson ate takeout food fromMcDonald'swithKato Kaelin, abit-partactor and family friend who had been given the use of a guest house on Simpson's estate. Rumors circulated that Simpson had been on drugs at the time of the murder (later dismissed as blood tests were negative for Simpson, Brown, and Goldman),","and Goldman), and theNew York Post'sCindy Adams reported that the pair had gone to a localBurger King, where a prominent drug dealer known only as \"J. R.\" later said he had sold themcrystal meth. Brown's neighbors testified that they heard profuse barking coming from outside throughout the night, beginning around 10:15 pm. Around 10:55 pm., a dogwalker who lived a few blocks away from Brown came across Brown'sAkitadog barking in the street outside her home. The Akita, whose legs were covered in blood, followed the man home; he tried to walk the dog back to where he found it, but the dog resisted. Later, he left the Akita with a neighboring couple who offered to keep the dog overnight; as the dog was agitated, the couple decided to walk it back to where it had been found. Around midnight, as they reached the area where the Akita had been found, the dog stopped outside Brown's home and the couple saw Brown's body lying outside the house. Police were called to the scene and found Goldman's body near Brown's.","body near Brown's. The front door to Brown's condominium was open when the bodies were found, but there were no signs that anyone had entered the building, by breaking in or otherwise. Brown's body was lying face down and barefoot at the bottom of the stairs leading to the door.The walkway leading to the stairs was covered in blood, but the soles of Brown's feet were clean; based on this evidence, investigators concluded that she was the first person to be attacked and the intended target.She had been stabbed multiple times in the head and neck, but there were fewdefensive woundson her hands, implying a short struggle to investigators. The final wound inflicted ran deep into her neck, severing hercarotid artery. A large bruise in the center of her upper back with a corresponding foot print on her clothing indicated to investigators that, after killing Goldman, the assailant returned to Brown who was on the ground, pulled her head back by the hair and slit her throat.Herlarynxcould be seen through the gaping","through the gaping wound in her neck, andvertebra C3was incised;Brown's head barely remained attached to her body. Goldman's body lay nearby, close to a tree and the fence. He had been stabbed multiple times in the body and neck, but there were relatively few defensive wounds on his hands, signifying a short struggle to investigators.Forensic evidence from the Los Angeles Countycoroneralleged that the assailant stabbed Goldman with one hand while holding him in a chokehold. Near Goldman's body were a blue knit cap; a left-hand, extra-largeAris Isotonerlight leather glove; and the envelope containing the glasses that he was returning. Detectives determined that Goldman came to Brown's house during her murder and that the assailant killed him to remove any witnesses.A trail of the assailant's bloody shoe prints ran through the back gate. To the left of some of the prints were drops of blood from the killer, who was apparently bleeding from the left hand. Measuring the distance between the prints indicated that","indicated that the assailant walked – rather than ran – away from the scene. Flight to Chicago On the night of June 12, Simpson was scheduled to board ared-eye flightfromLos Angeles International Airportto Chicago, where he was due to play golf the following day at a convention with representatives ofThe Hertz Corporation, for whom he was a spokesman.The flight was due to leave at 11:45 pm.Limousinedriver Allan Park arrived early at Simpson's Rockingham estate to pick him up at around 10:25 pm.Park drove around the estate to make sure he could navigate the area with the stretch limousine properly and to see which driveway would have the best access for the car. He began to buzz the intercom at 10:40, but got no response. He noted the house was dark, and nobody appeared to be home as he smoked a cigarette and made several calls to his boss to get Simpson's home phone number. He testified that he saw a \"shadowy african american figure\", the same size as Simpson, enter the front door from where the driveway","where the driveway starts, before the lights came on; he did not see what direction the figure came from.He testified that he saw Simpson's house number on the curb outside the estate, but no car was parked outside. The prosecution presented exhibits showing the position next to the house number on the curb in which Simpson'sFord Broncowas found the next morning, implying that Park would surely have noticed the Bronco if it had been there when he arrived to pick up Simpson. Around the time Park saw the \"shadowy figure\" arive at Simpson's home,Kaelin was having a telephone conversation with a friend. At approximately 10:40, something crashed into the wall of the guest house Kaelin was staying in, which he described as three \"thumps\" and which he feared was an earthquake. Kaelin hung up the phone and ventured outside to investigate the noises, but did not go directly down the dark south pathway from which the thumps had originated. Instead, he walked to the front of the property, where he saw the limousine","saw the limousine parked outside. Kaelin let the limousine in, and Simpson finally came out through the front door a few minutes later, claiming he had overslept.Both Park and Kaelin would later testify that Simpson seemed agitated that night. Park noted that on the way to the airport, Simpson complained about how hot it was, and was sweating and rolled down the window, despite it not being a warm night.Park also testified that he loaded four luggage bags into the car that night, one of them being a knapsack that Simpson would not let him touch, insisting he load it himself. Aporterat the airport testified that Simpson checked only three bags that night,and the police determined that the missing luggage was the same knapsack the limousine driver had mentioned earlier.Another witness not heard at the trial claimed he saw Simpson at the airport discarding items from a bag into a trash can.Detectives Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter believe this is how the murder weapon, shoes and clothes that Simpson wore during","Simpson wore during the murder were disposed. Simpson was running late but caught his flight. A passenger on the plane and the pilot testified that they did not notice any cuts or wounds on Simpson's hands.A broken glass, a note with a telephone number on it, and bedsheets with blood on them were all recovered from Simpson's room at theO'HarePlaza Hotel. The manager of the hotel recalled Simpson asking for a Band-Aid for his finger at the front desk, because he had \"cut it on pieces of note paper\". Initial investigation and arrest After learning that Brown was the female victim, LAPD commander Keith Bushey ordered detectives Tom Lange, Philip Vannatter, Ron Phillips, andMark Fuhrmanto notify Simpson of her death and to escort him to the police station to pick up the former couple's children, who were asleep in Brown's condominium at the time of the murders. The detectives buzzed the intercom at Simpson's estate for over 30 minutes but received no response. They noted that Simpson's car was parked at an","was parked at an awkward angle, with its back end out more than the front, and that there was blood on the door, which they feared meant someone inside might be hurt. Vannatter instructed Fuhrman to scale the wall and unlock the gate to allow the other three detectives to enter. The detectives would argue they entered without a search warrant because of exigent circumstances – specifically out of fear that someone inside might be injured.Fuhrman briefly interviewed Kaelin, who told the detective that the car belonged to Simpson and that earlier that night he had heard thumps on his wall. In a walk around the premises to inspect what may have caused the thumps, Fuhrman discovered a blood-stained right-hand glove, which was determined to be the mate of the left-hand glove found next to the body of Goldman. This evidence along with the presence of blood in the driveway of the Rockingham estate and on Simpson's vehicle constitutedprobable causeand a search warrant for the location was applied for and granted.","for and granted. Phillips testified that when he called Simpson in Chicago to tell him of Brown's murder, Simpson sounded \"very upset\" but was oddly unconcerned about the circumstances of her death. Simpson only asked if the children had seen the murder or Brown's body, but was not concerned about whether the assailant(s) had harmed the children either.The police contacted Simpson at his home on June 13 and took him toParker Centerfor questioning. Lange noticed that Simpson had a cut on a finger on his left hand that was consistent with where the killer was bleeding from, and asked Simpson how he got the cut. At first, Simpson claimed he cut his finger accidentally while in Chicago after learning of Brown's death. Lange then informed Simpson that blood was found inside his car; at this point, Simpson admitted that he had cut his finger on June 12, but said he did not remember how. He voluntarily gave some of his own blood for comparison with evidence collected at the crime scene and was released.On June 14,","June 14, Simpson hired lawyerRobert Shapiro, who began assembling Simpson's team of lawyers (referred to as the\"Dream Team\"). Shapiro noted that an increasingly distraught Simpson had begun treatment for depression. The following days, preliminary results from DNA testing came back with matches to Simpson but the District Attorney delayed filing charges until all the results had come back. Simpson spent the night between June 16 and 17 at theSan Fernando Valleyhome of friendRobert Kardashian; Shapiro asked several doctors to attend to Simpson's purported fragile mental state. On June 17, detectives recommended that Simpson be charged with two counts offirst-degree murderwith special circumstance of multiple killings after the final DNA results came back and an arrest warrant was subsequently issued.The LAPD notified Shapiro at 8:30 am that Simpson would have to turn himself in that day. At 9:30 am, Shapiro went to Kardashian's home to tell Simpson that he would have to turn himself in by 11:00 am, an hour","11:00 am, an hour after the murder charges were filed. Simpson told Shapiro that he wanted to turn himself in,to which the police agreed, believing that someone as famous as Simpson would not attempt to flee. The police agreed to delay Simpson's surrender until noon to allow him to be seen by a mental health specialist, as he was showing signs of suicidal depression – he had updated his will, called his mother and children, and written three sealed letters: one to his children, one to his mother, and one to the public.More than 1,000 reporters waited for Simpson'sperp walkat the police station, but he did not arrive as stipulated. The LAPD then notified Shapiro that Simpson would be arrested at Kardashian's home. Kardashian and Shapiro told Simpson this but when the police arrived an hour later, Simpson andAl Cowlingshad disappeared. The three sealed letters Simpson had written were left behind. At 1:50 pm, Commander Dave Gascon, LAPD's chief spokesman, publicly declared Simpson a fugitive; the police issued","the police issued anall-points bulletinfor him and an arrest warrant for Cowlings. \"Suicide note\" At 5 pm, Kardashian and one of his defense lawyers read Simpson's public letter.In the letter, Simpson sent greetings to 24 friends and wrote, \"First everyone understand I had nothing to do with Nicole's murder\". He described the fights with Brown and their decision not to reconcile their relationship, and asked the media \"as a last wish\" not to bother his children. He wrote to his former girlfriend Paula Barbieri, who had broken up with him hours before the double murder, \"I'm sorry... we're not going to have, our chance... As I leave, you'll be in my thoughts\". It also included \"I can't go on\" and an apology to the Goldman family. The letter concluded, \"Don't feel sorry for me. I have had a great life, great friends. Please think of the real O. J. and not this lost person\".Most interpreted this as asuicide note; Simpson's mother collapsed after hearing it,and reporters joined the search for Simpson. At","for Simpson. At Kardashian's press conference, Shapiro said that he and Simpson's psychiatrists agreed with the suicide note interpretation. Through television, Shapiro appealed to Simpson to surrender. Bronco chase News helicopters searched theLos Angeles highway systemforAl Cowlings's automobile, a white 1993 Ford Bronco.At 5:51 pm, Simpson reportedly called 9-1-1; the call was traced to theSanta Ana Freeway, nearLake Forest. At around 6:20 pm, a motorist inOrange CountynotifiedCalifornia Highway Patrolafter seeing someone believed to be Simpson in a Bronco on theI-5freeway heading north. The police tracked calls placed by Simpson on his cell phone. At 6:45 pm, police officer Ruth Dixon saw the Bronco heading north onInterstate 405; when she caught up to it, Cowlings yelled out that Simpson was in the back seat of the vehicle and was pointing a gun at his own head.The officer backed off, but followed the vehicleat 35 miles per hour (56 km/h),with up to 20 police cars following her in the chase.Zoey","in the chase.Zoey TurofKCBS-TVwas the first to find Simpson from a news helicopter, after colleagues heard that theFBI's mobile phone tracking had located Simpson at theEl Toro Y. More than nine news helicopters eventually joined the pursuit; Tur compared the fleet toApocalypse Now, and the high degree of media participation causedcamera signals to appear on incorrect television channels.The chase was so long that one helicopter ran out of fuel, forcing its station to ask another for a camera feed. Knowing that Cowlings was listening toKNX-AM, sports announcerPete Arbogastcalled Simpson's formerUSC footballcoachJohn McKayand connected him to Simpson. As both men wept, Simpson told McKay, \"OK, Coach, I won't do anything stupid. I promise\" off the air. \"There is no doubt in my mind that McKay stopped O.J. from killing himself in the back of that Bronco\", Arbogast said.McKay,Walter Payton,Vince Evans,and others from around the country pleaded with Simpson over radio to surrender. At Parker Center, officials","Center, officials discussed how to persuade Simpson to surrender peacefully. Lange, who had interviewed Simpson about the murders on June 13, realized he had Simpson's cell phone number and called him repeatedly. A colleague hooked a tape recorder up to Lange's phone and captured a conversation between Lange and Simpson, in which Lange repeatedly pleaded with Simpson to \"throw the gun out the window\" for the sake of his mother and children. Simpson apologized for not turning himself in earlier that day, and responded he was \"the only one who deserved to get hurt\" and was \"just gonna go with Nicole\". Simpson asked Lange to \"just let me get to the house\" and said \"I need for me\". Cowlings's voice is overheard in the recording (after the Bronco had arrived at Simpson's home surrounded by police) pleading with Simpson to surrender and end the chase peacefully.NBC SportsbroadcasterBob Costas, who had worked with Simpson on the network'sNFL studio show, said that during the chase that Simpson had called30","had called30 Rockefeller PlazainNew York Cityasking to speak to Costas, but Costas was several blocks away atMadison Square GardencoveringGame 5 of the1994 NBA Finals. Los Angeles streets emptied and drink orders stopped at bars as people watched on television.Every television network showed the chase;ABC,NBC,CBS,CNN, and local news outlets interrupted regularly scheduled programming to cover the incident, watched by an estimated 95 million viewers nationwide;only 90 million had watchedthat year's Super Bowl.While NBC continued to air NBA Finals coverage, Bob Costas acted as a go-between forMarv Albert, who was calling the game, andTom Brokaw, who reported on the chase. Both events were carried in a split screen.The chase was covered live by ABC anchorsPeter JenningsandBarbara Walterson behalf of the network's fivenews magazines, which achieved some of their highest-ever ratings that week.The chase was also broadcast internationally, including in France and China. Thousands of spectators and onlookers packed","onlookers packed overpasses along the route of the chase, waiting for Simpson. In a festival-like atmosphere, many held signs urging Simpson to flee,with slogans such as \"Go O.J.\" and \"Save the Juice\".Encouraging Simpson's actions outragedJim Hill, who was among those broadcasting pleas to their friend to surrender.As people watched and wondered what would happen to Simpson, one author wrote, \"the shared adventure gave millions of viewers a vested interest, a sense of participation, a feeling of being on the inside of a national drama in the making\". Simpson reportedly demanded that he be allowed to speak to his mother before he would surrender. The chase ended at 8:00 pm at his Brentwood estate, where his son, Jason, ran out of the house,and 27SWATofficers awaited.After remaining in the Bronco for about 45 minutes,Simpson exited at 8:50 pm and went inside for about an hour; a police spokesman stated that during this time Simpson talked to his mother on the phone.Shapiro then arrived, and Simpson surrendered","Simpson surrendered to authorities a few minutes later. In the Bronco, police found \"$8,000 in cash, a change of clothing, a loaded.357 Magnum, a United States passport, family pictures, and a disguise kit with a fake goatee and mustache\".Simpson was booked at Parker Center and taken toMen's Central Jail; Cowlings was booked on suspicion ofharboring a fugitiveand held on $250,000 bail. The Bronco chase, the suicide note, and the items found in the Bronco were not presented as evidence in the criminal trial. Marcia Clark conceded that such evidence did imply guilt yet defended her decision, citing the public reaction to the chase and suicide note as proof the trial had been compromised by Simpson's celebrity status. Most of the public, including Simpson's friendAl Michaels,interpreted his actions as an admission of guilt yet thousands of spectators were seen expressing sympathy for Simpson and encouraging him to flee from the police. Preliminary hearing On June 20, Simpson wasarraignedand pleaded not guilty","pleaded not guilty to both murders and was held without bail. The following day, agrand jurywas called to determine whether to indict him for the two murders but was dismissed on June 23, as a result of excessive media coverage that could have influenced its neutrality. Instead, authorities held a probable cause hearing to determine whether to bring Simpson to trial.California Superior CourtJudge Kathleen Kennedy-Powell ruled on July 7that there was sufficient evidence to bring Simpson to trial for the murders. At his second arraignment on July 22, when asked how he pleaded to the murders, Simpson firmly stated: \"Absolutely, one hundred percent, not guilty.\" Jill Shively testified to the grand jury that soon after the time of the murders she saw a white Ford Bronco speeding away from Bundy Drive in such a hurry that it almost collided with aNissanat the intersection of Bundy and San Vicente Boulevard,and that she recognized Simpson's voice. She talked to the television showHard Copyfor $5,000, after which","$5,000, after which prosecutors declined to use her testimony at trial.In 1995, Shively had falsely claimed actor Brian Patrick Clarke had assaulted and stalked her. Jose Camacho of Ross Cutlery provided store receipts showing Simpson had purchased a 12-inch (305 mm)stilettoknife six weeks before the murders. The knife was recovered and determined to be similar to the one the coroner said caused the stab wounds. The prosecution did not present this evidence at trial, after Camacho sold his story to theNational Enquirerfor $12,500.Tests on the knife determined that an oil used on new cutlery was still present on the knife, indicating it had never been used. FormerNFLplayer and pastorRosey Griervisited Simpson on November 13 at theLos Angeles County Jail. A jailhouse guard, Jeff Stuart, testified to Judge Ito that at one point Simpson yelled to Grier that he \"didn't mean to do it\", after which Grier had urged Simpson to come clean. Ito ruled that the evidence was inadmissible as being protected because of","because of clergy-penitent privilege. At first, Simpson's defense sought to show that one or more hitmen hired by drug dealers had murdered Brown and Goldman – giving Brown a \"Colombian necktie\" – because they were looking for Brown's friend,Faye Resnick, a known cocaine user who had failed to pay for her drugs.She had stayed for several days at Brown's condo until entering rehab four days before the killings. Ito ruled that the drug killer theory was \"highly speculative\" with no evidence to support it.Consequently, Ito barred the jury from hearing it and prohibited Christian Reichardt from testifying about his former girlfriend Resnick's drug problems. Rose Lopez, a neighbor's Spanish-speaking housekeeper, stated on August 18 that she saw Simpson's Bronco parked outside his house at the time of the murders, supporting his claim he was home that night. During cross-examination by Clark, Lopez admitted she was not sure what time she saw Simpson's Bronco but the defense still intended to call her. However, a","her. However, a taped July 29 statement by Lopez did not mention seeing the Bronco but did mention another housekeeper was also there that night, Sylvia Guerra. Prosecutors then spoke with Guerra, who said Lopez was lying and claimed the defense offered both housekeepers $5,000 to say they saw the Bronco that night. When Ito warned the defense that Guerra's claim as well as the earlier statement not mentioning the Bronco and the tape where Clark claims \"that is clearly being coached on what to say\" would be shown to the jury if Lopez testified, they dropped her from the witness list. Media coverage When the trial began, all of the networks were getting these hate-mail letters because people's soap operas were being interrupted for the Simpson trial. But then what happened was the people who liked soap operas got addicted to the Simpson trial. And they got really upset when the Simpson trial was over, and people would come up to me on the street and say, 'God, I loved your show.' The murders and trial – \"the","and trial – \"the biggest story I have ever seen\", said a producer of NBC'sToday– received extensive media coverage from the very beginning; at least oneinstant bookwas proposed two hours after the bodies were found, and scheduled to publish only a few weeks later.The case was a seminal event in the history of reality television,helping to revive the genre ofcourt showslikeJudge Judy.TheLos Angeles Timescovered the case on its front page for more than 300 days after the murders. The nightly news broadcasts from theBig Three television networksgave more air time to the case than to theBosnian Warand theOklahoma City bombingcombined. They served an enthusiastic audience; one company put the loss of national productivity from employees following the case instead of working at $40 billion.The Tonight Show with Jay Lenoaired many skits on the trial, and the Dancing Itos – a troupe of dancers dressed as the judge – was a popular recurring segment.According toHoward Kurtzof theWashington Post, the acquittal was \"the","acquittal was \"the most dramatic courtroom verdict in the history of Western civilization\". Participants in the case received much media coverage. Limo driver Park said the media offered him $100,000 but refused, as he would be removed as a witness.Fans approached Clark in public, and when she got a new hairstyle during the trial, the prosecutor received a standing ovation on the courthouse steps;Peopleapproved of the change, but advised her to wear \"more fitted suits and tailored skirts\". While Cochran, Bailey, and Dershowitz were already well-known, others like Kaelin became celebrities, and Paula Barbieri appeared inPlayboy. Those involved in the trial followed their own media coverage. Interest in the case was worldwide; Russian presidentBoris Yeltsin's first question to President Clinton when they met in 1995 was, \"Do you think O.J. did it?\" The issue of whether to allow any video cameras into the courtroom was among the first issues Judge Ito had to decide, ultimately ruling that live camera coverage","camera coverage was warranted.Ito was later criticized for this decision by other legal professionals. Dershowitz said that he believed that Ito, along with others related to the case such as Clark, Fuhrman and Kaelin, was influenced to some degree by the media presence and related publicity. The trial was covered in 2,237 news segments from 1994 through 1997.Ito was also criticized for allowing the trial to become amedia circusand not doing enough to regulate the court proceedings. Among the reporters who covered the trial daily from the courtroom, and a media-area that was dubbed \"Camp O. J.\",were Steve Futterman ofCBS News,Linda Deutschand Michael Fleeman of theAssociated Press, Dan Whitcomb ofReuters, Janet Gilmore of theLos Angeles Daily News, Andrea Ford of theLos Angeles Times, Michelle Caruso of theNew York Daily News,Dan AbramsofCourt TV,Harvey Levinof KCBS, andDavid MargolickofThe New York Times. WritersDominick Dunne,Joe McGinniss, and Joseph Bosco also had full-time seats in the courtroom. On","the courtroom. On June 27, 1994,Timepublished a cover story, \"An American Tragedy\", with a photo of Simpson on the cover.Time's cover image was darker than a typical magazine cover and darker than the original photo, as shown on aNewsweekcover released at the same time.Timeconsequently became the subject of a media scandal.Commentators found that its staff had usedphoto manipulationto darken the photo, and they speculated it was to make Simpson appear more menacing. After the publication of the photo drew widespread criticism of racist editorializing andyellow journalism,Timepublicly apologized. Charles Ogletree, a criminal defense attorney and law professor, said in a 2005 interview that the best investigative reporting regarding the murder and trial was by theNational Enquirer. Trial Simpson wanted aspeedy trial, and the defense and prosecuting attorneys worked around the clock for several months to prepare their cases. The trial began on January 24, 1995, seven months after the murders, and was televised","and was televised byclosed-circuit TV camera viaCourt TV, and in part by other cable and network news outlets, for 134 days. JudgeLance Itopresided over the trial in theC.S. Foltz Criminal Courts Building. Jury District AttorneyGil Garcettielected to file charges in downtown Los Angeles, as opposed toSanta Monica, in which jurisdiction the crimes took place.The Los Angeles Superior Court then decided to hold the trial in Downtown Los Angeles instead of Santa Monica due to safety issues at the Santa Monica Court house owing to the1994 Northridge earthquake.The decision may have impacted the trials outcome as it resulted in ajury poolthat mainly consisted of African Americans.Richard Gabriel, a jury consultant noted that African Americans were far more likely than other minorities to be receptive to claims of racially motivated fraud by the police and were less likely to be familiar with and thus acceptDNA evidence. In October 1994, Judge Lance Ito started interviewing 304 prospective jurors, each of whom had","each of whom had to fill out a 75-page questionnaire. On November 3, twelve jurors were seated with twelve alternates. Over the course of the trial, ten were dismissed for a wide variety of reasons. Only four of the original jurors remained on the final panel. According to media reports, Clark believed women, regardless of race, would sympathize with the domestic violence aspect of the case and connect with Brown personally. On the other hand, the defense's research suggested that black women would not be sympathetic to Brown, who was white, because of tensions about interracial marriages. Both sides accepted a disproportionate number of female jurors. From an original jury pool of 40 percent white, 28 percent black, 17 percent Hispanic, and 15 percent Asian, the final jury for the trial had ten women and two men, of whom nine were black, two white, and one Hispanic. On April 5, 1995, juror Jeanette Harris was dismissed when Judge Ito learned she had failed to disclose an incident of domestic","of domestic abuse.Afterwards, Harris gave an interview and accused the deputies of racism and claimed the jurors were dividing themselves along racial lines. Ito then met with the jurors, who all denied Harris's allegations of racial tension among themselves. The following day, Ito dismissed the three deputies anyway, which upset the jurors that did not complain because the dismissal appeared to lend credence to Harris's allegations, which they all denied.On April 21, thirteen of the eighteen jurors refused to come to court until they spoke with Ito about it. Ito then ordered them to court and the 13 protesters responded by wearing all black and refusing to come out to the jury box upon arrival.The media described this incident as a \"Jury Revolt\" and the protesters wearing all black as resembling a \"funeral procession\". Prosecution case The two lead prosecutors were Deputy District AttorneysMarcia ClarkandWilliam Hodgman, who was replaced as lead prosecutor byChristopher Darden. Clark was designated as the","designated as the lead prosecutor and Darden became Clark's co-counsel. Prosecutors Hank Goldberg and Hodgman, who had successfully prosecuted high-profile cases in the past, assisted Clark and Darden. Two prosecutors who were DNA experts, Rockne Harmon and George \"Woody\" Clarke, were brought in to present the DNA evidence in the case and were assisted by Prosecutor Lisa Kahn. Theory The prosecution argued that the domestic violence within the Simpson-Brown marriage culminated in her murder.Simpson's history of abusing Brown resulted in their divorce and his pleading guilty to one count of domestic violence in 1989.On the night of the murders, Simpson attended a dance recital for his daughter and was reportedly angry with Brown because of a black dress that she wore, which he said was \"tight\". Simpson's then girlfriend, Paula Barbieri, wanted to attend the recital with Simpson but he did not invite her. After the recital, Simpson returned home to a voicemail from Barbieri ending their relationship. According","According to the prosecution, Simpson then drove over to Brown's home in his Ford Bronco to reconcile their relationship as a result and when Brown refused, Simpson killed her in a \"final act of control\". Goldman then came upon the scene and was murdered in order to silence him and remove any witnesses. Afterwards, Simpson drove home in his Bronco, and he went into his house. There, he took off his bloodstained clothes, put them in the knapsack (except his socks and the glove), put clean ones on, and left towards the limousine. At the airport, Simpson opened the knapsack, removed the clothes, Bruno Magli shoes, and the murder weapon, and threw them in the trash, before putting the knapsack in one of his suitcases and heading towards his flight. Domestic violence The prosecution opened its case by calling LAPD 911 dispatcher Sharon Gilbert and playing a 9-1-1 call from Brown on January 1, 1989, in which she expressed fear that Simpson would physically harm her; Simpson himself is even heard in the background","in the background yelling at her and possibly hitting her as well. The officer who responded to that call, Detective John Edwards, testified next that when he arrived, a severely beaten Brown ran from the bushes where she was hiding and to the detective screaming \"He's going to kill me, he's going to kill me\", referring to Simpson. Pictures of Brown's face from that night were then shown to the jury to confirm his testimony. That incident led to Simpson's arrest and eventual pleading of no contest to one count of domestic violence for which he received probation for one year. LAPD officer and long time friend of both Simpson and Brown, Ron Shipp, testified on February 1, 1995, that Simpson told him the day after the murders that he did not want to take apolygraphtest offered to him by the police, because \"I've had a lot of dreams about killing her. I really don't know about taking that thing\". The jury dismissed Shipp's claims after defense attorney Carl E. Douglas accused him of being an alcoholic, and","an alcoholic, and testifying against Simpson to promote his acting career. The prosecution then called Brown's sister, Denise Brown, to the witness stand. She testified to many episodes of domestic violence in the 1980s, when she saw Simpson physically abuse Brown and throw her out of their house during an argument. She said that Simpson was agitated with Brown on June 12.Although a home videotape taken immediately after the dance recital showed a cheerful Simpson being given a kiss by Denise Brown,Kato Kaelincorroborated the claim that Simpson was \"upset\" with Brown because of the black dress she wore, which he said was \"tight\". The prosecution planned to present 62 separate incidents of domestic violence, including three previously unknown incidents Brown had documented in several letters she had written and placed in a bank safety deposit box. Judge Ito denied the defense's motion to suppress the incidents of domestic violence, but only allowed witnessed accounts to be presented to the jury because of","the jury because of Simpson'sSixth Amendment rights. Brown's statements to friends and family were ruled inadmissible ashearsaybecause Brown was dead and unable to be cross-examined. Despite this, the prosecution had witnesses for 44 separate incidents they planned to present to the jury. However, the prosecution dropped the domestic violence portion of their case on June 20, 1995.Marcia Clark stated it was because they believed theDNA evidenceagainst Simpson was insurmountable, but the media speculated it was because of the comments made by dismissed juror Jeanette Harris. Christopher Darden later confirmed that to be true.Harris was dismissed on April 6 because she failed to disclose that she was a victim of domestic violence from her ex-husband.Afterwards, she gave an interview in which she said the evidence of Simpson's abuse of Brown \"doesn't mean he is guilty of murder\". This dismissal of Simpson's abusive behavior from a female juror, who was also a victim of such abuse by her own husband, convinced","husband, convinced the prosecution that the jury was not receptive to the domestic violence argument.After the verdict, the jurors called the domestic violence portion of the case a \"waste of time\".Shapiro, Dershowitz, and Uelmen later admitted they believe that race played a factor in the jurors' dismissal of Brown's abuse by Simpson. The defense retained renowned advocate for victims of domestic abuseLenore E. Walker.Cochran said that she would testify that Simpson does not fit the profile of an abuser that would murder his spouse.Walker's colleagues were appalled by her decision to defend Simpson and accused her of betraying her advocacy for a $250,000 retainer.Walker was dropped from the witness list for \"tactical reasons\" after she submitted her report on the case.In it, she opines that the statistic from Dershowitz that of the two million incidents of abuse per year, only 2,000 victims are actually murdered by their spouses as being misleading because Brown was already dead.The relevant statistic was","statistic was \"of the murdered spouses who were also victims of abuse, what percentage of them were murdered by their current or ex-husband?\" When she reported that number was 80.3 percent, they dropped her from the witness list. The revelation of Simpson's abuse of Brown is credited with turning public opinion against him.The public shock at the reason why Walker was dropped from the defense witness list is credited with transforming public opinion on spousal abuse from a private familial matter to a serious public health issue. Timeline Los Angeles County Chief Medical ExaminerLakshmanan Sathyavagiswarantestified on June 14, 1995, that Brown's time of death was estimated as between 10:00 pm and 10:30 pm.Kato Kaelintestified on March 22, 1995, that he last saw Simpson at 9:36 pm that evening. A phone call was made from Simpson's Bronco to Paula Barbieri at 10:02 pm. Simpson was not seen again until 10:54 pm when he answered the intercom at the front door for the limousine driver, Allan Park.Simpson had no","Park.Simpson had no alibi for approximately one hour and 18 minutes during which time the murders took place.Allan Park testified on March 28 that he arrived at Simpson's home at 10:25 pm and stopped at the Rockingham entrance; Simpson's Bronco was not there.He then drove over to the Ashford entrance and rang the intercom three times, getting no answer, starting at 10:40 pm. Then he saw someone arrive at Simpson's home through the front door, the lights then turned on and Simpson answered the intercom. Park's testimony was significant because it explained the location of the glove found at Simpson's home.The blood trail from the Bronco to the front door was easily understood but the glove was found on the other side of the house. Park said the \"shadowy figure\" initially approached the front door before heading down the southern walkway which leads to where the glove was found by Fuhrman. The prosecution believed that Simpson had driven his Bronco to and from Brown's home to commit the murders, saw that Park","saw that Park was there and aborted his attempt to enter through the front door, entering through the back instead.He panicked and made the sounds that Kaelin heard when he realized that the security system would not let him enter through the rear entrance.He then discarded the glove, came back and went through the front door.During cross examination, Park conceded that he could not identify the figure but said he saw that person enter the front door and afterwards Simpson answered and said he was home alone. Park conceded that he did not notice any cuts on Simpson's left hand but added \"I shook his right hand, not his left\". DNA evidence and blood trail The prosecution presented a total of 108 exhibits, including 61 drops of blood,of DNA evidence to link Simpson to the murders. With no witnesses to the crime, the prosecution was dependent onDNAas the onlyphysical evidencelinking Simpson to the crime.The volume of DNA evidence in this case was unique and the prosecution believed they could reconstruct how","reconstruct how the crime was committed with enough accuracy to resemble an eyewitness account.Marcia Clark stated in her opening statements that there was a \"trail of blood from the Bundy Crime scene through Simpson's Ford Bronco to his bedroom at Rockingham\". Hair and fiber evidence LAPD criminalist and hair fiber expert Susan Brockbank testified on June 27, 1995, and FBI Special Agent and fiber expert Doug Deedrick testified on June 29, 1995, to the following findings: Shoeprint analysis In June, FBI shoeprint expert William J. Bodziak testified that the bloody shoeprints found at the crime scene and inside Simpson's Bronco were made from a rare and expensive pair ofBruno MagliItalian shoes. He determined the shoes were a size 12, the same size that Simpson wore, and are only sold at Bloomingdales. Only 299 pairs of that size were sold in the US and one of them was sold at the same store that Simpson often buys his shoes from. Bodziak also testified that, despite two sets of footprints at the crime scene,","at the crime scene, only one attacker was present because they were all made by the same shoes. During cross-examination Bailey suggested the murderer deliberately wore shoes that were the wrong size, which Bodziak dismissed as \"ridiculous\". Simpson denied ever owning a pair of the shoes; there was onlycircumstantial evidencehe did.Bloomingdales employee Samuel Poser testified he remembered showing Simpson those shoes, but there was no store record of him purchasing them.Although the prosecution could not prove that Simpson owned a pair of those shoes, Bodziak testified that a similar bloody shoeprint was left on the floor inside Simpson's Bronco. Scheck suggested that Fuhrman broke into the Bronco and left the footprint there; he produced a photo of Fuhrman walking through a puddle of blood. Bodziak admitted that he was not able to confirm that the shoeprint in the car definitely came from a Bruno Magli shoe, but dismissed Scheck's claim because none of the shoeprints at the crime scene were made by","scene were made by Fuhrman's shoes, making it unlikely he could have made a bloody shoeprint in the Bronco. Defense case Simpson hired a team of high-profile defense lawyers, initially led byRobert Shapiro, who was previously a civil lawyer known for settling, and then subsequently by Johnnie Cochran, who at that point was known for police brutality and civil rights cases.The team included noted defense attorneyF. Lee Bailey,Robert Kardashian, Harvard appeals lawyerAlan Dershowitz, his student Robert Blasier, and Dean ofSanta Clara University School of LawGerald Uelmen. Assisting Cochran wereCarl E. DouglasandShawn Holley.Barry ScheckandPeter Neufeldwere also hired; they headed theInnocence Projectand specialized in DNA evidence. Simpson's defense was said to have cost between US$3-6 million; the media dubbed the talented attorneys theDream Team,while the taxpayer cost of prosecution was over US$9 million. Postulate The defense team's reasonable doubt angle was summarized as \"compromised, contaminated,","contaminated, corrupted\" in opening statements.They argued the DNA evidence against Simpson was compromised by mishandling by Dennis Fung and Andrea Mazzola during the collection phase of evidence gathering, and that 100% of the DNA of the real killer(s) had vanished from the evidence samples.The defense argued that evidence was then contaminated in the LAPD crime lab by criminalist Collin Yamauchi and that Simpson's DNA from his reference vial was transferred to all but three exhibits.The remaining three exhibits were planted by the police and thus corrupted by police fraud.The defense also questioned the timeline, claiming the murders happened around 11:00 pm that night when Simpson has an alibi. Timeline The physicianRobert Huizengatestified in July 1995that Simpson was not physically capable of carrying out the murders due to chronic arthritis and old football injuries. During cross-examination, the prosecution produced an exercise video that Simpson had made a few weeks before the murders titledO.J.","murders titledO.J. Simpson Minimum Maintenance: Fitness for Men, which demonstrated that Simpson was anything but frail.Huizenga admitted afterwards that Simpson could have committed the murders if he was in \"the throes of an adrenaline-rush\". Michael Baden, a forensic pathologist, testified that the murdershappened closer to 11:00 pm.He stated that Brown was still conscious, standing, and took a step after her throat was cutand that after Goldman'sjugular veinwas lacerated he continued to stand and fight his assailant for ten minutes. After the trial, Baden admitted his claim of Goldman's long struggle was inaccurateand that testifying for Simpson was a mistake.Critics claimed that Baden knowingly gave false testimony in order to collect a $100,000 retainerbecause the week before he testified, John Gerdes admittedthat Goldman's blood was found in Simpson's Broncodespite Goldman never having an opportunity within his lifetime to be in the Bronco. Nicole's mother, Juditha, told police and investigators in a","investigators in a sworn statement that she was speaking with her daughter on the telephone at 11:00pm that evening.Those phone records were sealed. A vat of ice cream was still partially frozen sitting on the downstairs bannister when police searched the open-door house around 12:30am June 13. The local weather was reported to be around 60° F that night, implying that by that time, the ice cream should have been near-completely thawed. Compromised and contaminated Barry ScheckandPeter Neufeldargued that the results from the DNA testing were not reliable because the police were \"sloppy\" in collecting and preserving it from the crime scene.Fung and Mazzola did admit to making several mistakes during evidence collection, which included not always changing gloves between handling evidence items, packaging and storing the evidence items using plastic bags rather than paper bags as recommended, and storing evidence in the police van, which was not refrigerated, for up to seven hours after collection.This, the","the defense argued, would allow bacteria to degrade the DNA and thus make the samples more susceptible to cross-contamination in the LAPD crime lab. The prosecution denied that the mistakes made by Fung and Mazzola changed the validity of the results.They noted that all of the evidence samples were testable and that most of the DNA testing was done at the two consulting labs, not the LAPD crime lab where contamination supposedly happened. Since all of the samples the consulting labs received were testable, while Scheck and Neufeld's theory predicted that they should have been inconclusive after being \"100% degraded\", the claim that all the DNA was lost to bacterial degradation was not credible.The prosecution also denied that contamination happened in the LAPD crime lab because the result would have been a mixture of Simpson's DNA and the DNA of the \"real killer(s)\", but the results showed that only Simpson's DNA was present.The prosecution also noted the defense declined to challenge any of those results by","of those results by testing the evidence themselves.Marcia Clark called Scheck and Neufeld's claims a \"smoke-screen\". The contamination claim was made by microbiologist John Gerdes.He testified in August 1995 thatForensic PCR DNA matchingis not reliableand that the LAPD crime lab has a \"chronic\", \"substantial contamination problem\".Gerdes testified that because of the LAPD's past history of contamination, he would not consider any of the PCR DNA matches in this case reliable. He also claimed that the consulting labs' PCR DNA matches were not reliable, as the evidence they tested went \"through the LAPD\" for packaging and shipping.Gerdes believed only three of the DNA matches to have been valid, which were the same three the defense alleged were planted by the police. During cross-examination, Gerdes admitted there was no evidence that cross-contamination had occurred and that he was only testifying to \"what might occur and not what actually did occur\". He accepted that the victims' blood was in the Bronco and","in the Bronco and Simpson's blood was at the crime scene and neither was due to contamination. He also conceded that nothing happened during \"packaging and shipping\" that would affect the validity of the results at the two consulting labs. The prosecution implied that Gerdes was not a credible witness: he had no forensic experience, had only testified for criminal defendants in the past, and always said theDNA evidenceagainst them was not reliable due to contamination. Clark also implied that it was not a coincidence that the three evidence items he initially said were valid were the same three the defense claimed were planted while the other 58 were all false positives and the 47 substrate controls, which are used to determine if contamination occurred, were all false negatives.Defense forensic DNA expertHenry Lee, testifying in August 1995, admitted that Gerdes's claim was \"highly improbable\". Barry Scheck's eight-day cross-examination of Dennis Fung was lauded in the media.However, Howard Coleman,","Howard Coleman, president of Seattle-based forensic DNA laboratory GeneLex, criticized Scheck's cross-examination as \"smoke and mirrors\", stating: \"Everything we get in the lab is contaminated to some degree. What contamination and degradation will lead you to is an inconclusive result. It doesn't lead you to a false positive\". Police conspiracy allegation The defense initially only claimed that three exhibits were planted by the policebut eventually argued that virtually all of the blood evidence against Simpson was planted in a police conspiracy.They accused prison nurse Thano Peratis,criminalists Dennis Fung,Andrea Mazzola,and Colin Yamauchi,and Vannatterand Fuhrman,of participating in a plot to frame Simpson. In closing arguments, Cochran called Fuhrman and Vannatter \"twins of deception\",Vannatter \"the man who carried the blood\"and Fuhrman \"the man who found the glove\". EDTA The onlyphysical evidenceoffered by the defense that the police tried to frame Simpson was the allegation that two of the 108 DNA","two of the 108 DNA evidence samples tested in the case contained the preservativeEthylenediaminetetraacetic acid(EDTA). However, it was the prosecution who asked to have the samples tested for the preservative, not the defense.The defense alleged that the drop of blood on the back gate at the Bundy crime scene, which matched Simpson, and the blood found on a pair of socks in Simpson's bedroom, which matched Brown, were planted by the police. In order to support this claim, the defense pointed to the presence in the blood samples of EDTA, a preservative found in the purple-toppedcollection tubesused for police reference vials. In July 1995,Fredric Rieders, a forensic toxicologist who had analysed the FBI's results, testified that the level of EDTA in the evidence samples was higher than that which is normally found in blood: this appeared to support the defense's claim that the blood came from the reference vials.During cross-examination, Clark asked Rieders to read out loud the portion of theEPAarticle that","theEPAarticle that stated what the normal levels of EDTA in blood are, which he had referenced during his testimony.This demonstrated that he had misread the article and that the levels found in the evidence samples were consistent with those found in blood that was not preserved in a police reference vial.Rieders then claimed it was a \"typo\",but the prosecution produced a direct copy from the EPA confirming the normal amounts of EDTA found in unpreserved blood.The prosecution also had Rieders admit that EDTA is found in foodand specifically the ingredients used in theMcDonald'sBig Mac and french friesthat Simpson had eaten earlier that night. FBI special agent Roger Martz was called by the defense in July 1995 to testify that EDTA was present in the evidence samples. Instead, he said he did not identify it in the blood, contradicting Rieders' testimony.Initially he conceded the blood samples were \"consistent with the presence of EDTA\", but he later clarified his response after hearing that \"everyone is","that \"everyone is saying that I found EDTA\", which he denied. The defense accused him of changing his demeanor to favor the prosecution, and he replied: \"I cannot be entirely truthful by only giving 'yes' and 'no' answers\".Martz stated that it was impossible to ascertain with certainty the presence of EDTA, as while the presumptive test for it was positive, the identification test for it was inconclusive. He also tested his own unpreserved blood and got the same results for EDTA levels as the evidence samples, which he said conclusively disproved the claim that the evidence blood came from the reference vials.He contended that the defense had jumped to conclusions from the presumptive test results, while his tests had in fact shown that \"those bloodstains did not come from preserved blood\". Back gate The defense alleged that Simpson's blood on the back gate at the Bundy crime scene was planted by the police. The blood on the back gate was collected on July 3, 1994, rather than June 13.The volume of DNA in","volume of DNA in that blood was significantly higher than the other blood evidence collected on June 13. The volume of DNA was so high that the defense conceded that it could not be explained by contamination in the lab. However, they noted that it was unusual for that blood to have more DNA in it than the other samples collected at the crime scene, especially since it had been left exposed to the elements for several weeks and was collected after the crime scene had supposedly been washed over. In March 1995, Vannatter testified that he instructed Fung to collect the blood on the gate on June 13 and Fung admitted he had not done so.The defense suggested the reason why Fung did not collect the blood is because it was not there that day; when shown a blown-up photograph taken of the back gate on June 13, he admitted he could not see the blood. The prosecution responded that a different photograph showed the blood was present on the back gate on June 13, before any blood had been taken from Simpson's","from Simpson's arm.Robert Riske was the first officer at the crime scene and the one who pointed out the blood on the back gate to Fuhrman, who documented it in his notes that night.Multiple other officers testified that the blood was present on the back gate the night of the murders.The prosecution also pointed out that the media cameras present proved that Vannatter never returned to the crime scene (Brown's home) that evening, where Simpson's blood was allegedly planted. Bronco Barry Scheck alleged the police had twice planted the victims' blood inside Simpson's Bronco. An initial collection was made on June 13; the defense accused Vannatter of planting the victims' blood in the Bronco when he returned to Simpson's home later that evening. The prosecution responded that the Bronco had already been impounded by the time Vannatter returned and was not even at Rockingham. Socks The defense alleged that the police had planted Brown's blood on the socks found in Simpson's bedroom. The socks were collected on","were collected on June 13 and had blood from both Simpson and Brown, but her blood on the socks was not identified until August 4.The socks were found by Fuhrman, but the defense suggested Vannatter planted the blood. He had received both blood reference vials from the victims earlier that day from the coroner and booked them immediately into evidence. Vannatter then drove back to Rockingham later that evening to hand-deliver the reference vial for Simpson to Fung, which the defense alleged gave him opportunity to plant the blood. Fung testified he could not see blood on the socks he collected from Simpson's bedroom,and the prosecution later demonstrated that those blood stains were only visible underneath a microscope. Vannatter denied planting Brown's blood on the socks. The video from Willie Ford indicated that the socks had already been collected and stored in the evidence van before Vannatter arrived and footage from the media cameras present appeared to prove that he never went inside the evidence van","the evidence van after he arrived at Rockingham. Glove The last exhibit allegedly planted was the bloody glove found at Simpson's property by Fuhrman.Unlike the sock and the back gate, the defense provided no physical or eyewitness evidence to support their claim that the prosecution could then refute.The New Yorkerpublished an article months before the trial began which cited a source in Simpson's defense team as saying that they intended to accuse Fuhrman of planting the glove, with the motive being racism. Robert Shapiro later admitted he was the magazine's source. Defense attorney F. Lee Bailey suggested that Fuhrman found the glove at the crime scene, picked it up with a stick, placed it in a plastic bag, and concealed it in his sock when he drove to Simpson's home with Lange, Vannatter, and Phillips. Bailey suggested that Fuhrman then planted the glove to frame Simpson, with the motive being either racism or a desire to become the hero in a high-profile case.Scheck suggested that Fuhrman broke into the","broke into the Bronco and used the glove to plant blood onto and inside the Bronco. The prosecution denied that Fuhrman planted the glove. They noted that several officers had already combed over the crime scene for almost two hours before Fuhrman arrived and none had noticed a second glove. Lange testified that 14 other officers were there when Fuhrman arrived and all said there was only one glove at the scene.Lt. Frank Spangler also testified that he was with Fuhrman for the duration of his time there, saying he would have seen Fuhrman steal the glove. Clark added that Fuhrman did not know whether Simpson had an alibi, if there were any witnesses to the murders, whose blood was on the glove, that the Bronco belonged to Simpson, or whether Kaelin had already searched the area where the glove was found. During cross-examination by Bailey,Fuhrman denied that he had used the word \"nigger\" to describe African Americans in the ten years prior to his testimony.A few months later, the defense presented audiotapes","audiotapes of Fuhrman repeatedly using the word eight years before the murders. TheFuhrman tapesbecame the cornerstone of the defense's case that his testimony lacked credibility. Clark called the tapes \"the biggestred herring\" ever. After screenwriter Laura Hart McKinny handed over the tapes to the defense, Fuhrman says he asked the prosecution for a redirect to explain the context of those tapes but the prosecution and fellow officers abandoned him after Ito played the audiotapes in open court.The public reaction was explosive, comparable to the reaction to the video of the King beating.After the trial, Fuhrman said that he was not a racist and apologized for his language, claiming he was play-acting for ascreenplaywhen he made the tapes and had been asked to be as dramatic as possible.Many of hisminorityformer coworkers expressed support for him. On September 6, 1995, Fuhrman was called back to the stand by the defense after the prosecution refused to redirect him. The jury was absent but the exchange was","the exchange was televised. Fuhrman, facing a possible prosecution forperjury, was instructed by his attorney to invoke theFifth Amendmentto avoidself-incriminationto two consecutive questions he was asked.Defense attorney Uelmen asked Fuhrman if it was his intention to plead the Fifth to all questions, and Fuhrman's attorney instructed him to reply \"yes\". Uelmen spoke with other members of the defense and then said he had just one more question: \"Did you plant or manufacture any evidence in this case?\" Following his attorney's instruction, Fuhrman again invoked the Fifth. Cochran responded to Fuhrman's pleading the Fifth by accusing the other officers of conspiring to protect Fuhrman; he asked Judge Ito to suppress all of the evidence that Fuhrman found. Ito denied the request, stating that pleading the Fifth does not imply guilt and that there was no evidence of fraud. Cochran asked that the jury be allowed to hear Fuhrman taking the Fifth, and again Ito denied his request. Ito criticized the defense's","the defense's theory of how Fuhrman allegedly planted the glove, stating it was illogical. On June 15, 1995, Darden surprised Clark by asking Simpson to try on the gloves found at the crime scene and his home. The prosecution had earlier decided against asking Simpson to try them on because the gloves had been soaked in blood from Simpson, Brown, and Goldman,and frozen and unfrozen several times. Instead they presented a witness who testified that Brown had purchased a pair of those gloves in the same size in 1990 atBloomingdalesfor Simpson, along with a receipt and a photo of Simpson earlier wearing the same type of gloves. The leather gloves appeared too tight for Simpson to put on easily, especially over the latex gloves he wore underneath. Clark claimed that Simpson was acting when he appeared to be struggling to put on the gloves. Cochran replied, \"I don't think he could act the size of his hands\".Darden then told Ito of his concerns that Simpson \"hasarthritisand we looked at the medication he takes and","he takes and some of it is anti-inflammatory and we are told he has not taken the stuff for a day and it caused swelling in the joints and inflammation in his hands\".Cochran informed Ito the next day thatShawn Chapmancontacted the Los Angeles County Jail doctor, who confirmed Simpson was taking his arthritis medication every day, and that the jail's medical records verified this. In a June 28, 1995, memo to Cochran, Uelmen came up with—and Cochran later repeated—a quip he used in his closing arguments: \"If it doesn't fit, you must acquit\". In his memo to Cochran, Uelmen noted that the phrase not only applied to the gloves but to the evidence presented by the prosecutors: What the memo really tries to do is play off the jury instructions... I thought that instruction on circumstantial evidence was just incredibly good for us, so when we knew that instruction was going to be given, it just popped out at me. It says if it doesn't fit, you must acquit. What I was trying to do is not just remind the jury of that","the jury of that moment in the trial of trying on the glove, but the whole concept of did the evidence really fit the story that the prosecution was trying to present. The prosecution stated they believed the gloves shrank from having been soaked in the blood of the victims.This model of gloves was made out of leather, which, as confirmed by Richard Rubin, can shrink up to 15% after being exposed to moisture and can never return to its original size.Darden produced a new pair of the same type of gloves, which fit Simpson when he tried them on.Rubin was a former vice president of Aris Isotoner Inc., which makes the gloves in question. On September 12, 1995, Rubin testified he was \"100 certain\" that the gloves at the murder scene—and also the style of gloves which Simpson was seen wearing in photographs and football broadcasts between 1990 and 1994—were of the company's rare Aris Light model and that they appeared to have shrunk.Rubin also noted that another pair of similar gloves which Simpson could be seen","could be seen wearing during a football broadcast were noticeably absorbing rain water. After the trial, Cochran revealed that Bailey had goaded Darden into asking Simpson to try on the glovesand that Shapiro had told Simpson in advance that they would not fit. Summation In closing arguments, Darden ridiculed the notion that police officers might have wanted to frame Simpson.He questioned why, if the LAPD was against Simpson, they went to his house eight times on domestic violence calls against Brown between 1986 and 1988 but did not arrest him; they only arrested him on charges of abuse in January 1989. Darden noted the police did not arrest Simpson for five days after the 1994 murders.During the prosecution's closing argument, Cochran and Scheck very notably objected seventy-one times in order to lessen its effect on the jury,and though Ito overruled sixty-nine of them, he did not once admonish Cochran or Scheck or threaten them with contempt of court for their behavior. During his closing argument,","closing argument, Cochran pointed out the many flaws of the LAPD, particularly Fuhrman, Lange, and Vannatter. He emphasized that Fuhrman was proved to have repeatedly referred to black people as \"niggers\" and also to have boasted of beating young black men in his role as a police officer. Cochran compared Fuhrman toAdolf Hitlerand referred to him as \"the personification of evil\", and claimed that Fuhrman had planted the glove in an attempt to frame Simpson for the murders, based on his dislike of interracial couples. Cochran also presented a piece of paper named \"Vannatter's Big Lies\", claiming Vannatter had returned to the crime scene with Simpson's blood to plant it there, despite Vannatter having previously testified that he had given it to Dennis Fung in order to avoid the exhibits from getting mixed up. Cochran referred to Fuhrman and Vannatter as the \"two devils of deception\", and implored the jurors to \"stop this cover-up\" and \"acquit Simpson and send the police a message\", which was interpreted by","was interpreted by many as an appeal for ajury nullification. Following his summation, Cochran received numerous death threats, and hired bodyguards fromLouis Farrakhan. In response, Fred Goldman, who was himself Jewish, referred to Cochran himself as a racist and a \"sick man\" for comparing Fuhrman to Hitler while associating himself with Farrakhan, who was widely considered a black supremacist and anti-Semite. Robert Shapiro, also Jewish, said he was offended by Cochran comparing Fuhrman's claims to the Holocaust. In an interview regardingVincent Bugliosi's analysis on the case, Vannatter claimed that he was so infuriated at Cochran's claims about him that he felt a desire to strangle him in the courtroom. Verdict Fears grew that race riots, similar to theriots in 1992, would erupt across Los Angeles and the rest of the country if Simpson were convicted of the murders. As a result, all Los Angeles police officers were put on 12-hour shifts. The police arranged for more than 100 police officers on horseback","on horseback to surround the Los Angeles County courthouse on the day the verdict was announced, in case of rioting by the crowd. PresidentBill Clintonwas briefed on security measures if rioting were to occur nationwide. The only testimony that the jury reviewed was that of limo driver Park.At 10:07 a.m. on October 3, 1995, Simpson was acquitted on both counts of murder. The jury arrived at the verdict by 3:00 pm on October 2, after four hours ofdeliberation, but it postponed the announcement.After the verdict was read, juror number nine, 44-year-old Lionel Cryer, gave Simpson aBlack Power raised fistsalute.The New York Timesreported that Cryer was a former member of the revolutionary nationalistBlack Panther Partythat prosecutors had \"inexplicably left on the panel\". An estimated 100 million people worldwide watched or listened to the verdict's announcement. Long-distance telephone call volume declined by 58 percent, and trading volume on theNew York Stock Exchangedecreased by 41 percent. Water usage","Water usage decreased as people avoided using bathrooms. So much work stopped that the verdict resulted in an estimated $480 million in lost production.TheUS Supreme Courtreceived a message on the verdict duringoral arguments, with thejusticesquietly passing the note to each other while listening to the attorney's presentation. Congressmen canceled press conferences, withJoe Liebermantelling reporters, \"Not only would you not be here, but I wouldn't be here, either\". Acquittal and aftermath African-AmericanLAPDPolice ChiefWillie Williamsindicated that he had no plans to reopen the investigation, saying of the acquittals, \"It doesn't mean there's another murderer\". The LAPD has also declined to reexamine the evidence with modern methods in recent years because Simpsoncould not be tried for the same crime againunder theFifth Amendment. Fate of the Broncos Simpson's 1993 Ford Bronco was never returned to him and was destroyed by the LAPD shortly after the trial ended. Cowlings's 1993 Ford Bronco from the","Bronco from the low-speed chase was purchased in 1994 by Simpson's former sports agentMike Gilbertand two other men, then ended up sitting in a parking garage for the next 17 years (1995–2012), where it was rarely used.As of 2017, the vehicle was on loan to theAlcatraz East Crime Museum, where it was put on display as part of an exhibit on the murder trial. Legislative changes The strong public reaction to Brown's letters and statements describing her abusespurred passage of theViolence Against Women Actin 1994, which Clark and Douglas referred to as the \"O.J. rule\".After the trial, researchers reported increased reporting, arrests, and harsher sentences for those convicted ofdomestic violence. Analysis of polling data After the verdict, polling showed that 75 percent ofWhite Americansthought Simpson was guilty while 70 percent ofBlack Americansthought he was innocent.AnNBCpoll taken in 2004 reported 87 percent of Whites believed Simpson was guilty, compared to only 27 percent of Black respondents.In the","respondents.In the 2010s, polling showed the gap had narrowed, with a majority of both now believing he was guilty: 83 percent of White and 57 percent of Black Americans. Political impact and civil rights Scholarly consensus is that the trial damagedrace relations in Americaand point to polling which shows that belief in Simpson's guilt depended on the race of the individual and not on the evidence against him.Analysis of the \"racial gap\" in polling shows that it did not cross thepolitical spectrum.Conservativesregardless of race or gender thought Simpson was guilty. Where the gap emerged was amongliberals– with black liberals believing Simpson was innocent, while white liberals thought he was guilty.Stanford UniversityLaw ProfessorRichard Thompson Fordwrote that this made the verdict awedge issuethat divided liberals along racial lines as white liberals felt the verdict was a racially motivatedjury nullificationand resented the images of African Americans celebrating the verdict.Led byWard Connerly,","byWard Connerly, opponents ofaffirmative action, seized upon the division and rebranded as advocatingrace neutrality, which appealed to white liberals now due to their perceived unjustness of the verdictand in 1996 voters inCaliforniapassedProposition 209, which ended affirmative action programs in the state.A historic drop in diversity at theUniversity of Californiasystem followedwhich resulted in a similar drop in diversity that still remainsin the state'swhite-collar job market, especially in thehigh-tech hub of Silicon Valley.A further initiative rejected by voters,Proposition 54in 2003, would have further increased the impact of Prop 209 by abolishing racial classifications so the drop in diversity couldn't be quantified.Themurder of George Floydrevived empathy forracial injusticeamong white liberalsbut the unsuccessfulattempt to repeal Proposition 209in 2020 was credited to the trial's legacy of undermining race relations. Polling shows that racial and ethnicminority groupswere divided by the verdict","by the verdict as well.LatinosandAfrican Americansboth believed that fraud was taking place in theLAPDbut disagreed on the cause.Simpson said he felt vindicatedby theRampart Scandalwhich proved that fraud was happening in theC.R.A.S.Hanti-gang unit. However, this fraud was not racially motivated: all the officers involved were minorities themselvesand were actually found to be affiliated with one of thegangsthey were supposed to be policing. Publications Several jurors together publishedMadame Foremanin 1995 to respond to allegations the verdict was racially motivated. They concluded that Simpson probably was guilty but the prosecution failed to prove itbeyond a reasonable doubt. In 1996, Cochran publishedJourney to Justice, in which he denied playing the \"race card\" and maintained that theLAPDtried toframeSimpson. Shapiro publishedThe Search for Justicein 1996 about the case. He concluded there wasreasonable doubtbut criticized Bailey and Cochran for bringing race into the trial. In comparison to Cochran's","to Cochran's book, he wrote: \"I never believed that Simpson was being victimized by a racist police organization because he was black…or that he was seen as a black hero\". In 1998, Clark publishedWithout a Doubt, in which she opined that the acquittal demonstrated the legal system is still compromised by race and celebrity because the prosecution'sphysical evidenceshould have easily convicted Simpson. Darden publishedIn Contemptin 1998 about the trial. He attributed the acquittal to poor stewardship by a \"starstruck\"Judge Itoand a \"dysfunctional and uneducated\" jury. Vincent BugliosipublishedOutrage: The Five Reasons why O. J. Simpson Got Away with Murderin 1997. Bugliosi blamed the verdict on an incompetent jury, prosecution, and judge. He wrote: \"Other than when a killer is apprehended in the act, I have never seen a more obvious case of guilt. All of the evidence—not some or most of it—points irresistibly to Simpson's guilt and his guilt alone\". Henry LeepublishedBlood Evidence: How DNA Is Revolutionizing","Is Revolutionizing The Way We Solve Crimesin 2003, in which he noted that both the defense's forensic DNA experts had rejected Scheck's contamination claim. Fuhrman publishedMurder in Brentwoodin 1998, defending himself against fraud claims. He wrote that his taking theFifthwas to avoid prosecution forperjury. In 1997, Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter publishedEvidence Dismissed: The Inside Story of the Police Investigation of O.J. Simpson, in which they defended themselves against allegations of corruption and incompetence. Daniel M. PetrocellipublishedTriumph of Justice: The Final Judgement of the Simpson Sagain 1998, comparing the criminal and civil trials. He attributed the acquittal to bad rulings byJudge Ito, unethical behavior by the defense, and unreliable testimony from Gerdes,Rieders, Lee, andBaden. In 1999, sociologistDarnell HuntpublishedO.J. Simpson Facts and Fictions: News Rituals in the Construction of Reality. Hunt argued that the racial gap in polling was a manufactured product of selective","of selective reporting of facts by the media due to their treatment of the trial as a form of entertainment rather than a legal proceeding. If I Did It In 2006,ReganBooksannounced a bookghostwrittenbyPablo Fenjvesbased on interviews with Simpson titledIf I Did It, an account which the publisher said was ahypotheticalconfession. The book's release was planned to coincide with a Fox interview featuring Simpson. The project was cancelled due to public criticism. Later, the Goldman family was awarded the rights to the book and published it under the titleIf I Did It: Confessions of the Killer. In 2018, Fox broadcast Simpson's previously unaired interview in a special titledO.J. Simpson: The Lost Confession?The interview was widely interpreted as being a form of impliedconfessionbecause Simpson usedfirst personlanguage (\"Obviously I must have \")in explaining how he would have committed the murders. Post-trial interviews In an interview withBarbara Walters, Shapiro said he was offended by Cochran comparing Fuhrman","comparing Fuhrman toAdolf Hitler, and said he would never work with Bailey or Cochran again. He also said the defense played the \"race card\".Robert Kardashianadmitted that, prior to the jurors visiting Simpson's home, the defense team had switched out his photos of white women for photos of his children and switched out a picture of a nude Paula Barbieri (Simpson's white then-girlfriend) for aNorman Rockwellpainting from Cochran's office. Simpson gave two high-profile interviews regarding the case – in 1996 withRoss Beckerand in 2004 withKatie Couric.In the February 1998 issue ofEsquire, Simpson was quoted as saying, \"Let's say I committed this crime ...even if I did this, it would have to have been because I loved her very much, right?\"In 1998, during an interview withRuby Wax, Simpson pretended to stab her with a banana in an apparent joke.In 2008,Mike Gilbertreleased his bookHow I Helped O.J. Get Away with Murder, which quotes Simpson allegedly saying: \"If she hadn't opened that door with a knife in her","with a knife in her hand ... she'd still be alive.\" In the documentaryO.J.: Made in America, juror Carrie Bess said she believed \"90% of the jury actually decided to acquit Simpson as payback forRodney King\".Juror Lionel Cryer, who notably gave Simpson aBlack Power salute, stated in 2017 that in retrospect he would render a guilty verdict.Juror Anise Aschenbach, who initially voted guilty before changing her vote, stated in 2008 that she regrets the decision and believes Simpson is guilty because he is not looking for the \"real killer\" like he promised he would. “On the evidence that they gave me to evaluate, it was crooked by the cops,\" juror David Aldana said in an interview.“The evidence given to me to look at, I could not convict. Did he do it? Maybe, maybe not.\"Juror Sheila Woods denied the jury’s decision was based on race in an interview withVulture.When asked if she believed Simpson was framed, Woods stated, “I don’t know if he was necessarily framed. I think O.J. may know something about what","about what happened, but I just don’t think he did it. I think it was more than one person, just because of the way she was killed. I don’t know how he could have just left that bloody scene — because it was bloody — and got back into his Bronco and not have it filled with blood. And then go back home and go in the front door, up the stairs to his bedroom … That carpet was snow white in his house. He should have blood all over him or bruises becauseRon Goldmanwas definitely fighting for his life. He had defensive cuts on his shoes and on his hands. O.J. only had that little cut on his finger. If Goldman was kicking to death, you would think that the killer would have gotten some bruises on his body. They showed us photos of O.J. with just his underwear just two days after, and he had no bruises or anything on his body.”In an interview with CNN following Simpson’s death, juror Yolanda Adams said she was still comfortable with her decision to render a not guilty verdict and denied the verdict was based on","was based on payback forRodney King, citing the reasonable doubt in the case presented by the defense and the actions of the police officers involved in the case likeMark Fuhrmanpleading the fifth when he was asked if he planted or manufactured any evidence against Simpson. In 2018,Foxaired an interview Simpson gave in 2006 with publisherJudith Regan, titledO.J. Simpson: The Lost Confession?, where he gave \"hypothetical\" details about his role in the murders. Civil trial In 1996, Fred Goldman and Sharon Rufo, the parents of Ron Goldman, and Lou Brown, father of Nicole Brown filed acivil suitagainst Simpson for wrongful death.Theplaintiffswere represented byDaniel Petrocelliand Simpson by Robert Baker.Presiding Judge Hiroshi Fujisaki did not allow the trial to be televised, did notsequesterthe jury, and prohibited the defense from allegingracismby theLAPDand from condemning the crime lab.Thephysical evidencedid not change but additional evidence ofdomestic violencewas presented as well as 31 pre-1994 photos","31 pre-1994 photos of Simpson wearingBruno Maglishoes,including one that waspublished6 months before the murders, proving it could not be aforgery.Results from apolygraphtest that Simpson denied taking showed \"extreme deception\" when he denied committing the murders. Fuhrman did not testify but Simpson did on his own behalf and lied several times. One significant difference between the two trials was the admission of Nicole Brown's diary entries in the civil case. Lead counselDaniel Petrocelliexplained, \"The least explored aspect of the case is Simpson's motive. You cannot just say this murder was a culmination of domestic-violence incidents. You need to tell the jury a story. This was about a stormy relationship.\"Timemagazine reported, \"That strategy made the difference in understanding Simpson... Nicole's diary showed that she and Simpson were having fights in those last weeks. Their hostilities had taken a cruel turn. Simpson sent Nicole a letter that was a thinly veiled threat to report her to the IRS","her to the IRS for failing to pay capital-gains taxes. Infuriated, she started to deny him access to the children.... She began to treat him like a stranger. That, Petrocelli said, is when three weeks of retaliation began In that period, the lawyer argued, Simpson grew angrier and more obsessed with his ex-wife, developing a rage that resulted in death for her and Ron Goldman.\" The civil judge found the diary entries were admissible because they were pertinent to Nicole's state of mind, which in turn was relevant to Simpson's motive—reversing a crucial ruling from the criminal case that excluded the diary as \"inadmissible hearsay.\"The civil court's ruling was upheld on appeal.TheLos Angeles Timeswrote that this evidence \"helped the plaintiffs tell their story of domestic violence\" and show that when Nicole \"rejected for good in the spring of 1994 ... he erupted in the same uncontrollable rage that had caused him to lash out at her in the past—only this time, he was brandishing a knife. The jury found","The jury found Simpsonliablefor the murders and awarded the victims' families $33.5 million in compensatory and punitive damages.The civil verdict \"very nearly upstaged the president of the United States on the occasion of his State of the Union address,\"ending the case that \"riveted America for two and a half years\"Simpson filed forbankruptcyafterwards and relocated toFloridato protect hispensionfrom seizure. His remaining assets were seized and auctioned off with most being purchased by critics of the verdict of the criminal trial to help the plaintiffs recoup the costs of litigation. Simpson'sHeisman Trophywas sold for $255,500 to an undisclosed buyer. All the proceeds went to the Goldman family, who said they have received only one percent of the money that Simpson owes from the wrongful death suit. Following Simpson's death in 2024,Simpson estate lawyer Malcolm LeVergne pledged to prevent the Brown and Goldman families from obtaining the money which was promised in the civil trial judgement, but later","but later reversed course. Alternate theories and suspects While Bailey and several members of Simpson's family still advocated for Simpson's innocence,such theories have been rejected by prosecutors, witnesses and the families of Brown and Goldman, who have expressed the belief that Simpson committed the murders and was the sole perpetrator,with Hunt opining that these claims were attempts to tap into the public interest in the case and were never meant to be taken seriously. Alternative theories have been suggested, such as that Simpson may have had accomplices in the murders, or that he was not involved at all and wasframed. Several speculate that the murders were related to the Los Angeles drug trade and the murders ofMichael NiggandBrett Cantor. The 2000BBC TVdocumentaryO.J.: The True Untold Story,primarily rehashes the contamination and blood planting claims from the trial and asserted that Simpson's elder son Jason is a possible suspect, due to - among other reasons - Simpson hiring defense attorneys","defense attorneys for his children first before himself, pictures of Jason's descriptive wool cap, and an alleged prior arrangement to meet with Nicole that evening.William Dearpublished his findings in the bookO.J. Is Innocent and I Can Prove It. The 2012 documentary filmMy Brother the Serial Killeralleged that convicted murdererGlen Edward Rogersconfessed to being involved in the murders and that he had been hired by Simpson. In popular culture Media adaptations Film Lost Highwaywas partially inspired by the case. In the film, a man is imprisoned for his wife's murder, which he does not remember, and is released after he transforms into a different man. DirectorDavid Lynchfound it remarkable that Simpson, who he believed committed the murders, could continue a casual lifestyle afterward. Lethal Weapon 4, which was released about two and a half years after the case, makes a reference to the success of Simpson's defense attorney Johnnie Cochran, after the character of detective Lee Butters apprehends a","apprehends a fleeing suspect and reads him hisMiranda rightsas follows: \"If you can't afford an attorney, we'll provide you with the dumbest fucking lawyer on earth. If you get Johnnie Cochran, I'll kill ya!\" Shrek 2references the Bronco chase, whenDonkeyis turned into a white horse by theFairy Godmother, and he and other characters are pursued by knights. TV Episodes of sitcoms such asThe Simpsons,South Park,Roseanne,New Girl,Family Guy,It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, andSeinfeldhave mocked the case, or more specifically, Simpson himself.Saturday Night LiveWeekend UpdatehostNorm Macdonaldfrequently made jokes about O. J. Simpson's trial, such as the iconic line \"Well, it is finally official: Murder is legal in the state of California\" after Simpson's acquittal. It is rumored that the constant Simpson jokes were the cause for thenNBCPresidentDon Ohlmeyerto remove Macdonald from theWeekend Updatesegment and eventually from the show altogether. Cowlings' white Ford Bronco was featured in the reality TV","in the reality TV showPawn Stars. The then-owner of the vehicle estimated its value in excess of $1,000,000. Music The heavy-metal bandBody Countrecorded the song \"I Used to Love Her\", sung from the perspective of O. J. Simpson murdering his wife, on their 1997 albumViolent Demise: The Last Days. A 2021 article inMetal Hammerdescribed the song as \"jaw-droppingly offensive\".InGood Charlotte's song, \"Lifestyles of the Rich & Famous\", they reference the case in the second verse: \"Well did you know when you were famous you could kill you wife And there's no such thing as 25 to life As long as you've got the cash, to pay for Cochran.\" R&B groupH-Towndedicated their albumLadies Edition, Woman's World(1997) to Brown, to help victims of domestic violence.Electronic musicianJames Ferraroreferenced the police chase in the song \"White Bronco\" on his 2015 albumSkid Row. Hip hop artist Magneto Dayo released a 2013 \"diss track\" song titled \"OJ Simpson\" in which he insults his ex-girlfriend/artistV-Nastyby referencing the","referencing the Simpson murder case.RapperJay-Z's song \"The Story of O.J.\" references the trial.Kendrick Lamarincluded Simpson in the music video for \"The Heart Part 5\", usingDeepfaketechnology. The infamous glove also appears on the single's cover.RapperEminemreferences the murder case in his song \"Role Model\", where he claims to have done the murder withMarcus Allen. Video games Duke Nukem 3Dhas several allusions to the Simpson trial, including a television playing the Bronco chase. Exhibits The suit Simpson wore when he was acquitted was donated by Simpson's former agentMike Gilbertto theNewseumin 2010. The Newseum has multiple trial-related items in their collection, including press passes, newspapers and the mute button that Superior Court JudgeLance Itoused when he wanted to shut off the live microphone in court so lawyers could talk privately during the trial. The museum's acquisition of the suit ended the legal battle between Gilbert and Fred Goldman, both of whom claimed the right to the clothing.","to the clothing. Cowlings's Bronco is on display at theAlcatraz Eastcrime museum inPigeon Forge, Tennessee. In 2017, Adam Papagan curated a pop-up museum showcasing artifacts andephemerafrom the trial atCoagula Curatorialgallery in Los Angeles. See also References Bibliography Further reading External links","1995 World Series The1995 World Serieswas thechampionship seriesofMajor League Baseball's (MLB)1995 season. The 91st edition of the World Series, it was abest-of-seven playoffplayed between theNational League(NL) championAtlanta Bravesand theAmerican League(AL) championCleveland Indians. It was the first World Series after theprevious year's Serieswas canceled due to aplayers' strike. The Braves won in six games to capture their third World Series championship infranchise history(along with1914 in Bostonand1957 in Milwaukee), making them the first team to win in three different cities. This was also Cleveland's first Series appearance in 41 years. The Series was also remarkable in that five of the six games were won by one run, including the clinching sixth game, a 1–0 combined one-hitter byTom GlavineandMark Wohlers. This was the first time since the LCS changed to a best-of-seven format that a winner of a LCS via a sweep has gone on to win the World Series. It has since been repeated in 2019 by","repeated in 2019 by theWashington Nationals, and in 2022 by the Houston Astros. This World Series, despite being in an odd-numbered year, opened in the NL home because of the omission of the 1994 World Series. Until 2003, the World Series would begin in the AL home in even-numbered years. Background Atlanta Braves After losing the World Series in 1991 to theMinnesota Twinsand in 1992 to theToronto Blue Jays, the Atlanta Braves were making their third attempt in four years (not counting the 1994 strike) to capture Atlanta's first title. The Braves overcame some early inconsistency to win their division by 21 games. In the playoffs, which featured a new first round, the Braves overwhelmed the third-yearColorado Rockies, then swept theCincinnati Redsin theNLCS(spoiling an all-Ohio World Series in the process; notably, prior to their World Series appearancein 1948, theIndianshad spoiled an all-BostonWorld Series by beating theRed Soxin a one-game playoff). The team relied onclutch hittingand its powerful","its powerful pitchingrotation, which was made up of perennialCy Young AwardwinnerGreg Maddux,Tom Glavine,John Smoltz, andSteve Avery. As the NL champion, they opened this World Series at home because there was no 1994 World Series. Cleveland Indians After decades of futility, the city of Cleveland finally had a winner in town. The Indians dominated the American League in 1995, winning 100 of their 144 games (their 100–44 record yielded a very high 0.694 winning percentage, which was, at the time, the highest regular season winning percentage in Major League Baseball since 1954, and is, as of 2015, the 12th highest regular season winning percentage in Major League Baseball history since 1900). Furthermore, in just 144 games, they won the AL Central by 30 games, and they performed the difficult feat of leading their league in both team batting average (0.291) and ERA (3.81). Thanks to their hitting and bullpen, this Indians team became known around the league for their ability to come back from many deficits,","from many deficits, often in dramatic fashion; of their 100 regular season victories, 48 were come-back victories, 27 came in their last at-bat, eight came by way of \"walk off\" home runs, and 13 were extra-inning victories (they were 13–0 in extra-inning games). After this dominance of the AL in the regular season, the Indians, in the playoffs, swept theBoston Red Soxin the opening round, then held offKen Griffey Jr.and the red hotSeattle Marinersin theALCS, before heading into the Series against the Braves. The 1995 Cleveland Indians featured a very impressive batting line-up; one that hit for high average, good power, and had good speed. In addition to leading the AL in batting average (0.291), the Indians in 1995 also led the American League in runs scored (840; 5.83 runs per game), home runs (207), and stolen bases (132). Led byspeedstersKenny LoftonandOmar Vizquel, along withCarlos Baergaat the top of the order, the Indians offense was powered in the middle of the order byAlbert Belle,Eddie Murray,Manny","Murray,Manny Ramírez, andJim Thome; at the bottom of the line-up could be foundPaul Sorrento(orHerbert Perry) andSandy Alomar Jr.(orTony Peña). Thus, this Indians line-up had six everyday players who finished the season with a batting average of at least 0.300; and, with Herbert Perry and Tony Peña frequently filling in for Paul Sorrento and Sandy Alomar Jr., respectively, it was not uncommon for the Tribe to field a line-up with as many as eight players who finished the season with a batting average of at least 0.300. In terms of power, though the '95 season was shortened, nevertheless, the Indians' line-up still featured two players with at least 30 HR, five players with at least 20 HR, and seven with at least 10 HR. While this line-up was filled with star players (four, in fact, were named to the 1995 AL All-Star team, namely, Lofton, Baerga, Belle, and Ramirez), Albert Belle stood out among all of them in 1995. Powered by a very strong second half of the season, Belle, the Indians' clean-up hitter in","clean-up hitter in 1995, finished 1995 with a 0.317 batting average, 126 RBI, and 50 home runs. Further to be noted is the fact that, in hitting 50 HR and 52 doubles in 1995, Belle became the first Major League player to hit at least 50 home runs and at least 50 doubles in the same season (an accomplishment which, again, is even more remarkable considering that he did this in a shortened, 144-game season). The Indians also led the 1995 AL in ERA (3.81). While their starting pitching—led by veteransDennis MartínezandOrel Hershiser—was respectable, it was their bullpen which gave real strength to their pitching staff. Key members of their bullpen staff included veteran right-handerEric Plunk(6–2, 2.67 ERA), veteran left-handerPaul Assenmacher(6–2, 2.82), the young right-handed set-up man,Julián Tavárez(10–1, 2.44 ERA), and right-handed closer,José Mesa(3–0, 1.12 ERA, 46 SV). Mesa, in his first year as closer, posted a league-leading 46 saves in 1995, and set a then-Major League record of 38 consecutive saves","consecutive saves without a blown save. Two of the members of the 1995 Indians' pitching staff—Dennis Martínez (the team's ace) and José Mesa—were named to the 1995 AL All-Star team. Series build-up Thus it was that this Series presented an entertaining match-up of baseball's two best teams, each with reasons to be confident going into the Series. The Atlanta Braves were veterans to the post-season in the 1990s, having won both the 1991 and 1992 NL pennants (not to mention the 1993 NL Western Division title, having won 104 games in 1993), and they were the best team in the NL in the 1995 regular season (having posted a very solid 90–54 record). The Cleveland Indians, on the other hand, newcomers to the post-season (having not been in the post-season since 1954), in posting their 100–44 regular season mark, were the team which had posted not only the best regular season record in the AL, but had completed one of the best regular seasons in all of Major League Baseball history. Further, though the Braves'","though the Braves' line-up was not very threatening in 1995 (their .250 team batting average was the second lowest in the NL), still, the Braves could be confident with their star-studded pitching staff—especially their starting staff—headed by the likes of Greg Maddux, Tom Glavine, John Smoltz, and Steve Avery. On the other hand, though the Indians could not boast of having as nearly a strong starting rotation as the Braves, nevertheless, they could lay claim to a very solid bullpen and one of the greatest batting line-ups that baseball has ever seen. It might also be noted that, though this was the first time that a team from Cleveland and one from Atlanta faced each other in the World Series, there were years, prior to the Braves being in Atlanta, in which the Braves faced a Cleveland team for baseball's crown. In 1948, the Boston Braves faced the Cleveland Indians (with the Indians winning that Series in six games). Even before that, in 1892, theBoston Beaneaters, a forerunner of the Braves, were also","Braves, were also National League Champions in 1892, and faced theCleveland Spidersfor the championship.The Beaneaters beat the Spiders that year to win that baseball championship. The 1995 World Series was also noted for large-scale protests byNative Americanactivists in response to thecontroversysurrounding both clubs' usage of Native American-themed nicknames, logos and mascots, as well as the use of thetomahawk chopby Braves fans. Broadcasting NBCwas originally scheduled to televise the entire World Series; however, due to the cancellation of the 1994 World Series (which had been slated forABC, who last televised a World Series in1989), coverage ended up being split between NBC and ABC. Game 5 would be the last Major League Baseball game to be telecast by ABC (had there been a Game 7, ABC would have televised it) for 25 years. ABC was scheduled to televise up to four wild card gamesin the2020 MLB Postseason. This was the only World Series to be produced underThe Baseball Networkumbrella (arevenue","(arevenue sharingjoint venturebetween Major League Baseball, ABC and NBC). In July 1995, NBC and ABC announced that they would be pulling out of what was supposed to be a six-year-long venture. NBC would next cover the1997(NBC's first entirely since1988) and1999 World Seriesover the course of a five-year-long contract, in whichFoxwould cover the World Series in even numbered years (1996,1998and2000). Also during the World Series in 1995, NBC'sHannah Stormnot only became the first woman to serve as solo pre-game host of a World Series (CBS'Andrea Joyceco-hosted withPat O'Brienin1993) but also became the first woman to preside over aWorld Series Trophypresentation.Storm was infamously the recipient of a profane outburst fromAlbert Bellein his team's dugout. Later, Belle was unrepentant: \"TheIndianswanted me to issue a statement of regret when the fine was announced, but I told them to take it out. I apologize for nothing.\"John Saundersserved as pre-game host for ABC's coverage. Serving asfield reportersfor the","reportersfor the series wereLesley Visser(ABC) andJim Gray(NBC). The six games averaged a nationalNielsen ratingof 19.5 and a share of 33. Through 2016, this remains the highest-rated World Series of the post-strike era. On the radio side,CBSwas the national broadcaster withVin ScullyandJeff Torborgon the call. Locally,WKNRaired the series in Cleveland withHerb ScoreandTom Hamiltonannouncing, whileWSBbroadcast the series in Atlanta withSkip Caray,Pete Van Wieren,Don Sutton, andJoe Simpsonannouncing. International Summary NLAtlanta Braves(4) vs. ALCleveland Indians(2) Matchups Game 1 Atlanta aceGreg Madduxpitched a two-hit complete game victory in his first World Series appearance (and just the 15th two-hitter in Series history). The Indians scored in the first inning whenKenny Loftonreached on an error, stole second and third, and scored on an RBI groundout byCarlos Baerga. In the bottom of the second,Fred McGrifflaunched atape measure home runon his first ever World Series pitch off Cleveland starterOrel","starterOrel Hershiserto even the score at 1–1. Both starters settled down until the seventh, when Hershiser and the Cleveland bullpen walked the first three Braves to open the inning. The Braves would take a 3–1 lead afterLuis Poloniahit into a run-scoring force play andRafael Belliardbunted a perfectsuicide squeeze. Lofton scored the Indians another run in the ninth to cut the Braves lead to a single run, (both Cleveland runs resulted from errors and were thus, unearned) but Baerga lifted a pop fly that third basemanChipper Jonesgrabbed near the visiting dugout to end the game. Game 2 Atlanta No. 2 starterTom Glavinegot the win in Game 2, aided by a big sixth-inning home run by catcherJavy López, who also pickedManny Ramirezoff first base at a crucial moment in the eighth inning to erase a potential game-tying baserunner. The Indians had taken an early 2–0 lead on anEddie Murraytwo-run home run afterAlbert Bellegot on base, but the Braves evened the score in the third with a sac fly byChipper Jonesand an","Jonesand an RBI single by David Justice. Lopez launched his home run in the sixth inning from Cleveland starterDennis Martínez. The Atlanta bullpen held off the Indians in the later innings despite allowing a run in the seventh, andMark Wohlersearned the save, giving the Braves a 2–0 series lead. Game 3 With the World Series moving to smaller, raucous Jacobs Field in Cleveland, the Indians got their first win. The Indians offense got back on track off Atlanta starterJohn Smoltz. With the Tribe already down 1–0 in the bottom of the first,Kenny Loftonsingled to center and scored onOmar Vizquel's triple into the right field corner. Omar then scored the go-ahead run whenCarlos Baergagrounded out. In the third, the Tribe were back at it again when Lofton opened the inning by ripping a double into the right-center field gap. Omar then got a bunt single and Baerga singled to left to drive in Lofton.Albert Bellethen rolled a grounder up the middle to score Vizquel to make it 4–1. This was Smoltz's only early exit","only early exit and only poor start in eight career World Series appearances. The Braves got a boost, however, when relieverBrad Clontzinduced a double play groundout byManny Ramírezto escape further damage. Home runs byFred McGriffandRyan Kleskobrought the Braves closer at 4–3. Cleveland added a run in the seventh on another RBI hit by Baerga scoring Lofton (who would reach base in all six of his plate appearances). With a 5–3 lead going into the eighth, trouble brewed for Cleveland whenCharles Nagyand the bullpen gave up the lead.Marquis Grissomled off with a double off the wall. Polonia singled through the right side to drive in Grissom, sending Nagy to the showers.Chipper Joneswalked, McGriff hit a deep fly moving the runners up a base, andDavid Justicereached when Baerga booted his groundball, subsequently allowing Polonia to score the tying run. The inning was capped off byMike Devereaux's RBI single giving the Braves a 6–5 lead. The Braves couldn't hold on to their slim lead either asSandy Alomar","asSandy Alomar Jr.laced a game-tying double inside the line at first in the bottom of the eighth. The two closers,Mark WohlersandJosé Mesathen matched zeros for the next two innings. In the 11th, the Braves went toAlejandro Peña. Baerga immediately smashed a double and after an intentional walk to Belle, veteranEddie Murraysingled to center, scoring pinch runnerÁlvaro Espinozaand cutting Atlanta's World Series lead in half. A record 18 pitchers were used between the Braves and Indians in Games 2 and 3. Game 4 Braves managerBobby Coxcontroversially decided to start left-handed pitcherSteve Averyin the critical Game 4 instead of coming back withGreg Maddux. Despite Avery's uncharacteristically poor regular season showing (7-13, 4.67 ERA), Cox felt he deserved a chance after having won the NLCS clincher against Cincinnati throwing six shutout innings. Young Braves outfielderRyan Kleskohit a sixth-inning home run to give Atlanta the lead. This would be the last time a player would hit home runs in back-to-back","in back-to-back World Series games until2016. Avery again delivered six effective innings, only giving up a sixth-inning home run to Cleveland sluggerAlbert Belle. A controversial play happened whenEddie Murrayhit a pitch over third base; left-field umpire Jim McKean called it foul while third-base umpire Harry Wendelstedt looked at Jim McKean to make the call. Murray eventually walked and reached second on a balk by Avery, but Herbert Perry struck out to end the inning. The Braves promptly broke the tie with a three-run seventh, withDavid Justicebatting in two of the runs with a single. An RBI double byJavy Lópezgave the Braves an insurance run, making it 5–1. RelieverPedro Borbón Jr.saved the 5–2 win afterMark Wohlersran into trouble, and the Braves were one victory away from a title. Game 5 It seemed the perfect situation for Atlanta with Greg Maddux pitching Game 5 with a chance to clinch the title, but Albert Belle slugged a two-run homer in the first inning, and the Braves lineup was held in check by","held in check by Cleveland veteran Orel Hershiser who went eight innings, only surrendering two runs.Luis Poloniahit a solo home run into the fourth and Atlanta actually tied the game at 2–2 with a run-scoring infield single byMarquis Grissomin the fifth, but Cleveland got two more runs from Maddux making it 4–2.Jim Thomehit an insurance home run in the eighth, which proved necessary as Ryan Klesko homered in his third consecutive game, reducing the gap to 5–4. Klesko became the first person ever to homer in three consecutive World Series road games, by belting homers in Games 3, 4, and 5. The win sent the Series back to Atlanta. As previously mentioned, this game was the most recent baseball game thatABCtelevised until the2020postseason. Game 6 Controversy struck on the morning of Game 6 when Atlanta newspapers printed stories that right fielder David Justice had ripped the city's fans for not matching their motivation of past seasons. Justice, who had been struggling in the postseason, was vilified before","was vilified before the game, but when his sixth-inning home run off a 1–1 pitch byJim Poolebroke a scoreless tie, he became a hero.Tom Glavinepitched eight innings of one-hit ball (and five innings of no hit ball) and allowed just three walks (two toAlbert Belle, who was caught stealing second in the second inning to keep a runner from advancing into scoring position) to help earn him the Series MVP. Only one Indian advanced into scoring position in the entire game whenKenny Loftonstole second, but no one could get him in. Cleveland starterDennis Martínezlasted just 42⁄3innings due to allowing four hits and five walks, but no Braves scored. After Justice's home run, the Braves managed just one hit. The lone hit for the Indians was a bloop-single by catcherTony Peñain the sixth, breaking up Glavine's bid to become the first pitcher sinceDon Larsen in 1956to throw a no-hitter in the World Series. Closer Mark Wohlers pitched the ninth inning, preserving the 1–0 shutout and Atlanta's coveted title whenCarlos","title whenCarlos Baerga's fly ball landed in center fielder Marquis Grissom's glove, giving the Braves their first title in Atlanta and their first since1957when they were still in Milwaukee. Carlos Baerga was responsible for making the last out in three of the four Cleveland losses; Games 1, 2 and 6. To date, this is the last 1–0 World Series game won by the home team. Moments after the final out was recorded, a fan in the stands was shown holding a placard that simply said \"...Finally!\" due to the Atlanta Braves finally winning the World Series on their third try. In 1995, the Cleveland Indians batted .291 as a team, led the league in runs scored, hits, and stolen bases, and had eight .300 hitters in their starting lineup. However, the Tribe was held to a .179 batting average in the World Series. Then-Executive Committee ChairmanBud Seligpresided over theCommissioner's Trophypresentation for the first time. In the previous two World Series (1992and1993),American LeaguepresidentDr. Bobby Brownpresided over","Brownpresided over the trophy presentation. Selig would becomeCommissioner of Baseballin 1998. Composite line score 1995 World Series(4–2):Atlanta Braves(N.L.)overCleveland Indians(A.L.) Aftermath The 1995 Braves were in the midst of a streak of 14 consecutive division titles from1991through2005(excluding the1994season, which ended early due to a players strike), however this was the only World Series the Braves would win. Atlanta returned to the Seriesthe following year, but lost to theNew York Yankeesin six games. The Braves of this era made one more trip to the Series in1999, but lost to theYankeesin a four-game sweep. This was Atlanta's first championship in any of thefour major professional sports, and the last for the city and for the Braves until2021. The Indians would go on to win the AL Central five of the following six years and return to the World Series in1997, where they lost to theFlorida Marlinsin seven games. The core of the 1990s Indians teams would break up in the early 2000s.Albert","early 2000s.Albert Bellesigned with theChicago White Soxin free agency in the winter of 1996, whileKenny Loftonwas traded to the Braves before the start of the 1997 season (he returned in 1998 to play three years with the team only to leave and return again for his final season in 2007); after the turn of the century,Manny Ramirezjoined theBoston Red Soxin2001andJim Thomejoined thePhiladelphia Philliesin2003. Quotes Left center field,Grissomon the run. The team of the 90s has its world championship. See also Notes External links"],"string":"[\n \"Murder trial of O. J. Simpson The People of the State of California v. Orenthal James Simpsonwas acriminal trialinLos Angeles County Superior Court, in which formerNFLplayer and actorO. J. Simpsonwas tried and acquitted for the murders of his ex-wifeNicole Brown Simpsonand her friendRonald Goldman, who were stabbed to death outside Brown's condominium in Los Angeles on June 12, 1994. The trial spanned eight months, from January 24 to October 3, 1995. Though prosecutors argued that Simpson was implicated by asignificant amount of forensic evidence, he was acquitted of both murders on October 3.Commentators agree that to convince the jury to acquit Simpson, the defense capitalized on anger among the city'sAfrican-Americancommunity toward theLos Angeles Police Department(LAPD), which had a history of racial bias and had inflamed racial tensions inthe beating of Rodney Kingandsubsequent riotstwo years prior.The trial is often characterized as thetrial of the centurybecause of its international publicity and has\",\n \"publicity and has been described as the \\\"most publicized\\\" criminal trial in history.Simpson was formally charged with the murders on June 17; when he did not turn himself in at the agreed time, he became the subject of a police pursuit.TV stations interrupted coverage of the1994 NBA Finalsto broadcast live coverage of the pursuit, which was watched by around 95 million people.The pursuit and Simpson's arrest were among the most widely publicized events in history. Simpson was represented by a high-profile defense team, referred to as the \\\"Dream Team\\\", initially led byRobert Shapiroand subsequently directed byJohnnie Cochran. The team includedF. Lee Bailey,Alan Dershowitz,Robert Kardashian,Shawn Holley,Carl E. Douglas, andGerald Uelmen. Simpson was also instrumental in his own defense. While DeputyDistrict AttorneysMarcia Clark,William Hodgman, andChristopher Dardenbelieved they had a strong case, the defense team persuaded the jury there wasreasonable doubtconcerning the DNA evidence.They contended the blood\",\n \"contended the blood sample had been mishandled by lab scientistsand that the case had been tainted by LAPD misconduct related to racism and incompetence. The use of DNA evidence in trials was relatively new, and many laypersons did not understand how to evaluate it. The trial was considered significant for the wide division inreaction to the verdict.Observers' opinions of the verdict were largely related to their ethnicity; the media dubbed this the \\\"racial gap\\\".A poll ofLos Angeles Countyresidents showed most African Americans thought the \\\"not guilty\\\" verdict was justified while most whites thought it was a racially motivatedjury nullificationby the mostly African-American jury.Polling in later years showed the gap had narrowed since the trial; more than half of polled Black respondents expressed the belief that Simpson was guilty.In 2017, three jurors who acquitted Simpson said they would still vote to acquit, while one said he would convict. After the trial, Goldman's father filed a civil suit against\",\n \"civil suit against Simpson. In 1997, the jury unanimously found Simpson responsible for the deaths of Goldman and Brown.The Goldman family was awarded damages totaling $34 million ($64 million adjusted for inflation), but as of 2024 have received a small portion of that. Background Simpson–Brown marriage Brown met Simpson in 1977when he was 30 and she was 18, working as a waitress at the Daisy (aBeverly Hillsprivate club).They began dating although Simpson was married; he filed for divorce from his first wife in March 1979. Simpson and Brown married on February 2, 1985.They had two children together, daughter Sydney (b. 1985) and son Justin (b. 1988).Brown signed a prenuptial agreement that prohibited her from working while married. According to psychologistLenore E. Walker, the Simpson–Brown marriage was a \\\"textbook example ofdomestic abuse\\\".In letters and other documents, Brown wrote that Simpson had beaten her in public, during sex, and even in front of family and friends.She described an incident in\",\n \"an incident in which Simpson broke her arm during a fight; to prevent him from being arrested, she told emergency room staff that she had fallen off her bike.Brown wrote that she felt conflicted about notifying police of the abuse because she was financially dependent on Simpson.Of the 62 incidents of abuse, the police were notified eight times, and Simpson was arrested once.On February 25, 1992, Brown filed for divorce, citing \\\"irreconcilable differences\\\". Brown said that Simpson stalked and harassed her after they divorced – an intimidation tactic meant to force the victim to return to the abuser.She said he had spied on her having sex with her new boyfriendand that she felt her life was in danger because Simpson had threatened to kill her if he ever found her with another man.She drafted awill.On June 8, 1994, a woman named Nicole (presumed to be Brown) telephoned Sojourn House, a women's shelter.She was considering staying at the shelter because she was afraid of what Simpson might do to her, as she was\",\n \"to her, as she was refusing his pleas to reconcile their marriage. Frogmen A few months before the killings, Simpson finished filming a pilot forFrogmen, an adventure series comparable to TheA-Team. Simpson played the primary character, \\\"Bullfrog\\\" Burke, who led a gang of formerUS Navy SEALs. He underwent \\\"a fair amount of\\\" military training for Frogmen, including the use of a knife, and in one scene, he holds a knife to the throat of a woman playing his daughter. Investigators discovered a 25-minute tape of the pilot, which did not feature the knife scene, and viewed it on Simpson's television while searching his home. The defense attempted to prevent its use on these grounds, but Judge Ito permitted it to be shown.\\\"Bullfrog\\\" Burke was skilled at night killings,and the \\\"silent kill\\\" technique of slashing the throat.SEALs also regularly wear knit \\\"watch caps\\\" like the one found at the scene. Murders On the evening of June 12, 1994, Brown and Simpson both attended their daughter Sydney's dance recital at Paul\",\n \"recital at Paul Revere Middle School. Afterward, Brown and her family went to eat at Mezzaluna restaurant. One of the waiters at the restaurant was Ron Goldman, who had become close friends with Brown in recent weeks,but was not assigned to the Brown family's table. Brown and her children went toBen & Jerry'sbefore returning to her condominium onBundy Drive,Brentwood.The manager of Mezzaluna recounted that Brown's mother telephoned the restaurant at 9:37 pm asking about a pair of lost eyeglasses. The manager found the glasses and put them in a white envelope, which Goldman took with him as he left the restaurant at the end of his shift at 9:50 pm; he intended to drop them off at Brown's place. Meanwhile, Simpson ate takeout food fromMcDonald'swithKato Kaelin, abit-partactor and family friend who had been given the use of a guest house on Simpson's estate. Rumors circulated that Simpson had been on drugs at the time of the murder (later dismissed as blood tests were negative for Simpson, Brown, and Goldman),\",\n \"and Goldman), and theNew York Post'sCindy Adams reported that the pair had gone to a localBurger King, where a prominent drug dealer known only as \\\"J. R.\\\" later said he had sold themcrystal meth. Brown's neighbors testified that they heard profuse barking coming from outside throughout the night, beginning around 10:15 pm. Around 10:55 pm., a dogwalker who lived a few blocks away from Brown came across Brown'sAkitadog barking in the street outside her home. The Akita, whose legs were covered in blood, followed the man home; he tried to walk the dog back to where he found it, but the dog resisted. Later, he left the Akita with a neighboring couple who offered to keep the dog overnight; as the dog was agitated, the couple decided to walk it back to where it had been found. Around midnight, as they reached the area where the Akita had been found, the dog stopped outside Brown's home and the couple saw Brown's body lying outside the house. Police were called to the scene and found Goldman's body near Brown's.\",\n \"body near Brown's. The front door to Brown's condominium was open when the bodies were found, but there were no signs that anyone had entered the building, by breaking in or otherwise. Brown's body was lying face down and barefoot at the bottom of the stairs leading to the door.The walkway leading to the stairs was covered in blood, but the soles of Brown's feet were clean; based on this evidence, investigators concluded that she was the first person to be attacked and the intended target.She had been stabbed multiple times in the head and neck, but there were fewdefensive woundson her hands, implying a short struggle to investigators. The final wound inflicted ran deep into her neck, severing hercarotid artery. A large bruise in the center of her upper back with a corresponding foot print on her clothing indicated to investigators that, after killing Goldman, the assailant returned to Brown who was on the ground, pulled her head back by the hair and slit her throat.Herlarynxcould be seen through the gaping\",\n \"through the gaping wound in her neck, andvertebra C3was incised;Brown's head barely remained attached to her body. Goldman's body lay nearby, close to a tree and the fence. He had been stabbed multiple times in the body and neck, but there were relatively few defensive wounds on his hands, signifying a short struggle to investigators.Forensic evidence from the Los Angeles Countycoroneralleged that the assailant stabbed Goldman with one hand while holding him in a chokehold. Near Goldman's body were a blue knit cap; a left-hand, extra-largeAris Isotonerlight leather glove; and the envelope containing the glasses that he was returning. Detectives determined that Goldman came to Brown's house during her murder and that the assailant killed him to remove any witnesses.A trail of the assailant's bloody shoe prints ran through the back gate. To the left of some of the prints were drops of blood from the killer, who was apparently bleeding from the left hand. Measuring the distance between the prints indicated that\",\n \"indicated that the assailant walked – rather than ran – away from the scene. Flight to Chicago On the night of June 12, Simpson was scheduled to board ared-eye flightfromLos Angeles International Airportto Chicago, where he was due to play golf the following day at a convention with representatives ofThe Hertz Corporation, for whom he was a spokesman.The flight was due to leave at 11:45 pm.Limousinedriver Allan Park arrived early at Simpson's Rockingham estate to pick him up at around 10:25 pm.Park drove around the estate to make sure he could navigate the area with the stretch limousine properly and to see which driveway would have the best access for the car. He began to buzz the intercom at 10:40, but got no response. He noted the house was dark, and nobody appeared to be home as he smoked a cigarette and made several calls to his boss to get Simpson's home phone number. He testified that he saw a \\\"shadowy african american figure\\\", the same size as Simpson, enter the front door from where the driveway\",\n \"where the driveway starts, before the lights came on; he did not see what direction the figure came from.He testified that he saw Simpson's house number on the curb outside the estate, but no car was parked outside. The prosecution presented exhibits showing the position next to the house number on the curb in which Simpson'sFord Broncowas found the next morning, implying that Park would surely have noticed the Bronco if it had been there when he arrived to pick up Simpson. Around the time Park saw the \\\"shadowy figure\\\" arive at Simpson's home,Kaelin was having a telephone conversation with a friend. At approximately 10:40, something crashed into the wall of the guest house Kaelin was staying in, which he described as three \\\"thumps\\\" and which he feared was an earthquake. Kaelin hung up the phone and ventured outside to investigate the noises, but did not go directly down the dark south pathway from which the thumps had originated. Instead, he walked to the front of the property, where he saw the limousine\",\n \"saw the limousine parked outside. Kaelin let the limousine in, and Simpson finally came out through the front door a few minutes later, claiming he had overslept.Both Park and Kaelin would later testify that Simpson seemed agitated that night. Park noted that on the way to the airport, Simpson complained about how hot it was, and was sweating and rolled down the window, despite it not being a warm night.Park also testified that he loaded four luggage bags into the car that night, one of them being a knapsack that Simpson would not let him touch, insisting he load it himself. Aporterat the airport testified that Simpson checked only three bags that night,and the police determined that the missing luggage was the same knapsack the limousine driver had mentioned earlier.Another witness not heard at the trial claimed he saw Simpson at the airport discarding items from a bag into a trash can.Detectives Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter believe this is how the murder weapon, shoes and clothes that Simpson wore during\",\n \"Simpson wore during the murder were disposed. Simpson was running late but caught his flight. A passenger on the plane and the pilot testified that they did not notice any cuts or wounds on Simpson's hands.A broken glass, a note with a telephone number on it, and bedsheets with blood on them were all recovered from Simpson's room at theO'HarePlaza Hotel. The manager of the hotel recalled Simpson asking for a Band-Aid for his finger at the front desk, because he had \\\"cut it on pieces of note paper\\\". Initial investigation and arrest After learning that Brown was the female victim, LAPD commander Keith Bushey ordered detectives Tom Lange, Philip Vannatter, Ron Phillips, andMark Fuhrmanto notify Simpson of her death and to escort him to the police station to pick up the former couple's children, who were asleep in Brown's condominium at the time of the murders. The detectives buzzed the intercom at Simpson's estate for over 30 minutes but received no response. They noted that Simpson's car was parked at an\",\n \"was parked at an awkward angle, with its back end out more than the front, and that there was blood on the door, which they feared meant someone inside might be hurt. Vannatter instructed Fuhrman to scale the wall and unlock the gate to allow the other three detectives to enter. The detectives would argue they entered without a search warrant because of exigent circumstances – specifically out of fear that someone inside might be injured.Fuhrman briefly interviewed Kaelin, who told the detective that the car belonged to Simpson and that earlier that night he had heard thumps on his wall. In a walk around the premises to inspect what may have caused the thumps, Fuhrman discovered a blood-stained right-hand glove, which was determined to be the mate of the left-hand glove found next to the body of Goldman. This evidence along with the presence of blood in the driveway of the Rockingham estate and on Simpson's vehicle constitutedprobable causeand a search warrant for the location was applied for and granted.\",\n \"for and granted. Phillips testified that when he called Simpson in Chicago to tell him of Brown's murder, Simpson sounded \\\"very upset\\\" but was oddly unconcerned about the circumstances of her death. Simpson only asked if the children had seen the murder or Brown's body, but was not concerned about whether the assailant(s) had harmed the children either.The police contacted Simpson at his home on June 13 and took him toParker Centerfor questioning. Lange noticed that Simpson had a cut on a finger on his left hand that was consistent with where the killer was bleeding from, and asked Simpson how he got the cut. At first, Simpson claimed he cut his finger accidentally while in Chicago after learning of Brown's death. Lange then informed Simpson that blood was found inside his car; at this point, Simpson admitted that he had cut his finger on June 12, but said he did not remember how. He voluntarily gave some of his own blood for comparison with evidence collected at the crime scene and was released.On June 14,\",\n \"June 14, Simpson hired lawyerRobert Shapiro, who began assembling Simpson's team of lawyers (referred to as the\\\"Dream Team\\\"). Shapiro noted that an increasingly distraught Simpson had begun treatment for depression. The following days, preliminary results from DNA testing came back with matches to Simpson but the District Attorney delayed filing charges until all the results had come back. Simpson spent the night between June 16 and 17 at theSan Fernando Valleyhome of friendRobert Kardashian; Shapiro asked several doctors to attend to Simpson's purported fragile mental state. On June 17, detectives recommended that Simpson be charged with two counts offirst-degree murderwith special circumstance of multiple killings after the final DNA results came back and an arrest warrant was subsequently issued.The LAPD notified Shapiro at 8:30 am that Simpson would have to turn himself in that day. At 9:30 am, Shapiro went to Kardashian's home to tell Simpson that he would have to turn himself in by 11:00 am, an hour\",\n \"11:00 am, an hour after the murder charges were filed. Simpson told Shapiro that he wanted to turn himself in,to which the police agreed, believing that someone as famous as Simpson would not attempt to flee. The police agreed to delay Simpson's surrender until noon to allow him to be seen by a mental health specialist, as he was showing signs of suicidal depression – he had updated his will, called his mother and children, and written three sealed letters: one to his children, one to his mother, and one to the public.More than 1,000 reporters waited for Simpson'sperp walkat the police station, but he did not arrive as stipulated. The LAPD then notified Shapiro that Simpson would be arrested at Kardashian's home. Kardashian and Shapiro told Simpson this but when the police arrived an hour later, Simpson andAl Cowlingshad disappeared. The three sealed letters Simpson had written were left behind. At 1:50 pm, Commander Dave Gascon, LAPD's chief spokesman, publicly declared Simpson a fugitive; the police issued\",\n \"the police issued anall-points bulletinfor him and an arrest warrant for Cowlings. \\\"Suicide note\\\" At 5 pm, Kardashian and one of his defense lawyers read Simpson's public letter.In the letter, Simpson sent greetings to 24 friends and wrote, \\\"First everyone understand I had nothing to do with Nicole's murder\\\". He described the fights with Brown and their decision not to reconcile their relationship, and asked the media \\\"as a last wish\\\" not to bother his children. He wrote to his former girlfriend Paula Barbieri, who had broken up with him hours before the double murder, \\\"I'm sorry... we're not going to have, our chance... As I leave, you'll be in my thoughts\\\". It also included \\\"I can't go on\\\" and an apology to the Goldman family. The letter concluded, \\\"Don't feel sorry for me. I have had a great life, great friends. Please think of the real O. J. and not this lost person\\\".Most interpreted this as asuicide note; Simpson's mother collapsed after hearing it,and reporters joined the search for Simpson. At\",\n \"for Simpson. At Kardashian's press conference, Shapiro said that he and Simpson's psychiatrists agreed with the suicide note interpretation. Through television, Shapiro appealed to Simpson to surrender. Bronco chase News helicopters searched theLos Angeles highway systemforAl Cowlings's automobile, a white 1993 Ford Bronco.At 5:51 pm, Simpson reportedly called 9-1-1; the call was traced to theSanta Ana Freeway, nearLake Forest. At around 6:20 pm, a motorist inOrange CountynotifiedCalifornia Highway Patrolafter seeing someone believed to be Simpson in a Bronco on theI-5freeway heading north. The police tracked calls placed by Simpson on his cell phone. At 6:45 pm, police officer Ruth Dixon saw the Bronco heading north onInterstate 405; when she caught up to it, Cowlings yelled out that Simpson was in the back seat of the vehicle and was pointing a gun at his own head.The officer backed off, but followed the vehicleat 35 miles per hour (56 km/h),with up to 20 police cars following her in the chase.Zoey\",\n \"in the chase.Zoey TurofKCBS-TVwas the first to find Simpson from a news helicopter, after colleagues heard that theFBI's mobile phone tracking had located Simpson at theEl Toro Y. More than nine news helicopters eventually joined the pursuit; Tur compared the fleet toApocalypse Now, and the high degree of media participation causedcamera signals to appear on incorrect television channels.The chase was so long that one helicopter ran out of fuel, forcing its station to ask another for a camera feed. Knowing that Cowlings was listening toKNX-AM, sports announcerPete Arbogastcalled Simpson's formerUSC footballcoachJohn McKayand connected him to Simpson. As both men wept, Simpson told McKay, \\\"OK, Coach, I won't do anything stupid. I promise\\\" off the air. \\\"There is no doubt in my mind that McKay stopped O.J. from killing himself in the back of that Bronco\\\", Arbogast said.McKay,Walter Payton,Vince Evans,and others from around the country pleaded with Simpson over radio to surrender. At Parker Center, officials\",\n \"Center, officials discussed how to persuade Simpson to surrender peacefully. Lange, who had interviewed Simpson about the murders on June 13, realized he had Simpson's cell phone number and called him repeatedly. A colleague hooked a tape recorder up to Lange's phone and captured a conversation between Lange and Simpson, in which Lange repeatedly pleaded with Simpson to \\\"throw the gun out the window\\\" for the sake of his mother and children. Simpson apologized for not turning himself in earlier that day, and responded he was \\\"the only one who deserved to get hurt\\\" and was \\\"just gonna go with Nicole\\\". Simpson asked Lange to \\\"just let me get to the house\\\" and said \\\"I need for me\\\". Cowlings's voice is overheard in the recording (after the Bronco had arrived at Simpson's home surrounded by police) pleading with Simpson to surrender and end the chase peacefully.NBC SportsbroadcasterBob Costas, who had worked with Simpson on the network'sNFL studio show, said that during the chase that Simpson had called30\",\n \"had called30 Rockefeller PlazainNew York Cityasking to speak to Costas, but Costas was several blocks away atMadison Square GardencoveringGame 5 of the1994 NBA Finals. Los Angeles streets emptied and drink orders stopped at bars as people watched on television.Every television network showed the chase;ABC,NBC,CBS,CNN, and local news outlets interrupted regularly scheduled programming to cover the incident, watched by an estimated 95 million viewers nationwide;only 90 million had watchedthat year's Super Bowl.While NBC continued to air NBA Finals coverage, Bob Costas acted as a go-between forMarv Albert, who was calling the game, andTom Brokaw, who reported on the chase. Both events were carried in a split screen.The chase was covered live by ABC anchorsPeter JenningsandBarbara Walterson behalf of the network's fivenews magazines, which achieved some of their highest-ever ratings that week.The chase was also broadcast internationally, including in France and China. Thousands of spectators and onlookers packed\",\n \"onlookers packed overpasses along the route of the chase, waiting for Simpson. In a festival-like atmosphere, many held signs urging Simpson to flee,with slogans such as \\\"Go O.J.\\\" and \\\"Save the Juice\\\".Encouraging Simpson's actions outragedJim Hill, who was among those broadcasting pleas to their friend to surrender.As people watched and wondered what would happen to Simpson, one author wrote, \\\"the shared adventure gave millions of viewers a vested interest, a sense of participation, a feeling of being on the inside of a national drama in the making\\\". Simpson reportedly demanded that he be allowed to speak to his mother before he would surrender. The chase ended at 8:00 pm at his Brentwood estate, where his son, Jason, ran out of the house,and 27SWATofficers awaited.After remaining in the Bronco for about 45 minutes,Simpson exited at 8:50 pm and went inside for about an hour; a police spokesman stated that during this time Simpson talked to his mother on the phone.Shapiro then arrived, and Simpson surrendered\",\n \"Simpson surrendered to authorities a few minutes later. In the Bronco, police found \\\"$8,000 in cash, a change of clothing, a loaded.357 Magnum, a United States passport, family pictures, and a disguise kit with a fake goatee and mustache\\\".Simpson was booked at Parker Center and taken toMen's Central Jail; Cowlings was booked on suspicion ofharboring a fugitiveand held on $250,000 bail. The Bronco chase, the suicide note, and the items found in the Bronco were not presented as evidence in the criminal trial. Marcia Clark conceded that such evidence did imply guilt yet defended her decision, citing the public reaction to the chase and suicide note as proof the trial had been compromised by Simpson's celebrity status. Most of the public, including Simpson's friendAl Michaels,interpreted his actions as an admission of guilt yet thousands of spectators were seen expressing sympathy for Simpson and encouraging him to flee from the police. Preliminary hearing On June 20, Simpson wasarraignedand pleaded not guilty\",\n \"pleaded not guilty to both murders and was held without bail. The following day, agrand jurywas called to determine whether to indict him for the two murders but was dismissed on June 23, as a result of excessive media coverage that could have influenced its neutrality. Instead, authorities held a probable cause hearing to determine whether to bring Simpson to trial.California Superior CourtJudge Kathleen Kennedy-Powell ruled on July 7that there was sufficient evidence to bring Simpson to trial for the murders. At his second arraignment on July 22, when asked how he pleaded to the murders, Simpson firmly stated: \\\"Absolutely, one hundred percent, not guilty.\\\" Jill Shively testified to the grand jury that soon after the time of the murders she saw a white Ford Bronco speeding away from Bundy Drive in such a hurry that it almost collided with aNissanat the intersection of Bundy and San Vicente Boulevard,and that she recognized Simpson's voice. She talked to the television showHard Copyfor $5,000, after which\",\n \"$5,000, after which prosecutors declined to use her testimony at trial.In 1995, Shively had falsely claimed actor Brian Patrick Clarke had assaulted and stalked her. Jose Camacho of Ross Cutlery provided store receipts showing Simpson had purchased a 12-inch (305 mm)stilettoknife six weeks before the murders. The knife was recovered and determined to be similar to the one the coroner said caused the stab wounds. The prosecution did not present this evidence at trial, after Camacho sold his story to theNational Enquirerfor $12,500.Tests on the knife determined that an oil used on new cutlery was still present on the knife, indicating it had never been used. FormerNFLplayer and pastorRosey Griervisited Simpson on November 13 at theLos Angeles County Jail. A jailhouse guard, Jeff Stuart, testified to Judge Ito that at one point Simpson yelled to Grier that he \\\"didn't mean to do it\\\", after which Grier had urged Simpson to come clean. Ito ruled that the evidence was inadmissible as being protected because of\",\n \"because of clergy-penitent privilege. At first, Simpson's defense sought to show that one or more hitmen hired by drug dealers had murdered Brown and Goldman – giving Brown a \\\"Colombian necktie\\\" – because they were looking for Brown's friend,Faye Resnick, a known cocaine user who had failed to pay for her drugs.She had stayed for several days at Brown's condo until entering rehab four days before the killings. Ito ruled that the drug killer theory was \\\"highly speculative\\\" with no evidence to support it.Consequently, Ito barred the jury from hearing it and prohibited Christian Reichardt from testifying about his former girlfriend Resnick's drug problems. Rose Lopez, a neighbor's Spanish-speaking housekeeper, stated on August 18 that she saw Simpson's Bronco parked outside his house at the time of the murders, supporting his claim he was home that night. During cross-examination by Clark, Lopez admitted she was not sure what time she saw Simpson's Bronco but the defense still intended to call her. However, a\",\n \"her. However, a taped July 29 statement by Lopez did not mention seeing the Bronco but did mention another housekeeper was also there that night, Sylvia Guerra. Prosecutors then spoke with Guerra, who said Lopez was lying and claimed the defense offered both housekeepers $5,000 to say they saw the Bronco that night. When Ito warned the defense that Guerra's claim as well as the earlier statement not mentioning the Bronco and the tape where Clark claims \\\"that is clearly being coached on what to say\\\" would be shown to the jury if Lopez testified, they dropped her from the witness list. Media coverage When the trial began, all of the networks were getting these hate-mail letters because people's soap operas were being interrupted for the Simpson trial. But then what happened was the people who liked soap operas got addicted to the Simpson trial. And they got really upset when the Simpson trial was over, and people would come up to me on the street and say, 'God, I loved your show.' The murders and trial – \\\"the\",\n \"and trial – \\\"the biggest story I have ever seen\\\", said a producer of NBC'sToday– received extensive media coverage from the very beginning; at least oneinstant bookwas proposed two hours after the bodies were found, and scheduled to publish only a few weeks later.The case was a seminal event in the history of reality television,helping to revive the genre ofcourt showslikeJudge Judy.TheLos Angeles Timescovered the case on its front page for more than 300 days after the murders. The nightly news broadcasts from theBig Three television networksgave more air time to the case than to theBosnian Warand theOklahoma City bombingcombined. They served an enthusiastic audience; one company put the loss of national productivity from employees following the case instead of working at $40 billion.The Tonight Show with Jay Lenoaired many skits on the trial, and the Dancing Itos – a troupe of dancers dressed as the judge – was a popular recurring segment.According toHoward Kurtzof theWashington Post, the acquittal was \\\"the\",\n \"acquittal was \\\"the most dramatic courtroom verdict in the history of Western civilization\\\". Participants in the case received much media coverage. Limo driver Park said the media offered him $100,000 but refused, as he would be removed as a witness.Fans approached Clark in public, and when she got a new hairstyle during the trial, the prosecutor received a standing ovation on the courthouse steps;Peopleapproved of the change, but advised her to wear \\\"more fitted suits and tailored skirts\\\". While Cochran, Bailey, and Dershowitz were already well-known, others like Kaelin became celebrities, and Paula Barbieri appeared inPlayboy. Those involved in the trial followed their own media coverage. Interest in the case was worldwide; Russian presidentBoris Yeltsin's first question to President Clinton when they met in 1995 was, \\\"Do you think O.J. did it?\\\" The issue of whether to allow any video cameras into the courtroom was among the first issues Judge Ito had to decide, ultimately ruling that live camera coverage\",\n \"camera coverage was warranted.Ito was later criticized for this decision by other legal professionals. Dershowitz said that he believed that Ito, along with others related to the case such as Clark, Fuhrman and Kaelin, was influenced to some degree by the media presence and related publicity. The trial was covered in 2,237 news segments from 1994 through 1997.Ito was also criticized for allowing the trial to become amedia circusand not doing enough to regulate the court proceedings. Among the reporters who covered the trial daily from the courtroom, and a media-area that was dubbed \\\"Camp O. J.\\\",were Steve Futterman ofCBS News,Linda Deutschand Michael Fleeman of theAssociated Press, Dan Whitcomb ofReuters, Janet Gilmore of theLos Angeles Daily News, Andrea Ford of theLos Angeles Times, Michelle Caruso of theNew York Daily News,Dan AbramsofCourt TV,Harvey Levinof KCBS, andDavid MargolickofThe New York Times. WritersDominick Dunne,Joe McGinniss, and Joseph Bosco also had full-time seats in the courtroom. On\",\n \"the courtroom. On June 27, 1994,Timepublished a cover story, \\\"An American Tragedy\\\", with a photo of Simpson on the cover.Time's cover image was darker than a typical magazine cover and darker than the original photo, as shown on aNewsweekcover released at the same time.Timeconsequently became the subject of a media scandal.Commentators found that its staff had usedphoto manipulationto darken the photo, and they speculated it was to make Simpson appear more menacing. After the publication of the photo drew widespread criticism of racist editorializing andyellow journalism,Timepublicly apologized. Charles Ogletree, a criminal defense attorney and law professor, said in a 2005 interview that the best investigative reporting regarding the murder and trial was by theNational Enquirer. Trial Simpson wanted aspeedy trial, and the defense and prosecuting attorneys worked around the clock for several months to prepare their cases. The trial began on January 24, 1995, seven months after the murders, and was televised\",\n \"and was televised byclosed-circuit TV camera viaCourt TV, and in part by other cable and network news outlets, for 134 days. JudgeLance Itopresided over the trial in theC.S. Foltz Criminal Courts Building. Jury District AttorneyGil Garcettielected to file charges in downtown Los Angeles, as opposed toSanta Monica, in which jurisdiction the crimes took place.The Los Angeles Superior Court then decided to hold the trial in Downtown Los Angeles instead of Santa Monica due to safety issues at the Santa Monica Court house owing to the1994 Northridge earthquake.The decision may have impacted the trials outcome as it resulted in ajury poolthat mainly consisted of African Americans.Richard Gabriel, a jury consultant noted that African Americans were far more likely than other minorities to be receptive to claims of racially motivated fraud by the police and were less likely to be familiar with and thus acceptDNA evidence. In October 1994, Judge Lance Ito started interviewing 304 prospective jurors, each of whom had\",\n \"each of whom had to fill out a 75-page questionnaire. On November 3, twelve jurors were seated with twelve alternates. Over the course of the trial, ten were dismissed for a wide variety of reasons. Only four of the original jurors remained on the final panel. According to media reports, Clark believed women, regardless of race, would sympathize with the domestic violence aspect of the case and connect with Brown personally. On the other hand, the defense's research suggested that black women would not be sympathetic to Brown, who was white, because of tensions about interracial marriages. Both sides accepted a disproportionate number of female jurors. From an original jury pool of 40 percent white, 28 percent black, 17 percent Hispanic, and 15 percent Asian, the final jury for the trial had ten women and two men, of whom nine were black, two white, and one Hispanic. On April 5, 1995, juror Jeanette Harris was dismissed when Judge Ito learned she had failed to disclose an incident of domestic\",\n \"of domestic abuse.Afterwards, Harris gave an interview and accused the deputies of racism and claimed the jurors were dividing themselves along racial lines. Ito then met with the jurors, who all denied Harris's allegations of racial tension among themselves. The following day, Ito dismissed the three deputies anyway, which upset the jurors that did not complain because the dismissal appeared to lend credence to Harris's allegations, which they all denied.On April 21, thirteen of the eighteen jurors refused to come to court until they spoke with Ito about it. Ito then ordered them to court and the 13 protesters responded by wearing all black and refusing to come out to the jury box upon arrival.The media described this incident as a \\\"Jury Revolt\\\" and the protesters wearing all black as resembling a \\\"funeral procession\\\". Prosecution case The two lead prosecutors were Deputy District AttorneysMarcia ClarkandWilliam Hodgman, who was replaced as lead prosecutor byChristopher Darden. Clark was designated as the\",\n \"designated as the lead prosecutor and Darden became Clark's co-counsel. Prosecutors Hank Goldberg and Hodgman, who had successfully prosecuted high-profile cases in the past, assisted Clark and Darden. Two prosecutors who were DNA experts, Rockne Harmon and George \\\"Woody\\\" Clarke, were brought in to present the DNA evidence in the case and were assisted by Prosecutor Lisa Kahn. Theory The prosecution argued that the domestic violence within the Simpson-Brown marriage culminated in her murder.Simpson's history of abusing Brown resulted in their divorce and his pleading guilty to one count of domestic violence in 1989.On the night of the murders, Simpson attended a dance recital for his daughter and was reportedly angry with Brown because of a black dress that she wore, which he said was \\\"tight\\\". Simpson's then girlfriend, Paula Barbieri, wanted to attend the recital with Simpson but he did not invite her. After the recital, Simpson returned home to a voicemail from Barbieri ending their relationship. According\",\n \"According to the prosecution, Simpson then drove over to Brown's home in his Ford Bronco to reconcile their relationship as a result and when Brown refused, Simpson killed her in a \\\"final act of control\\\". Goldman then came upon the scene and was murdered in order to silence him and remove any witnesses. Afterwards, Simpson drove home in his Bronco, and he went into his house. There, he took off his bloodstained clothes, put them in the knapsack (except his socks and the glove), put clean ones on, and left towards the limousine. At the airport, Simpson opened the knapsack, removed the clothes, Bruno Magli shoes, and the murder weapon, and threw them in the trash, before putting the knapsack in one of his suitcases and heading towards his flight. Domestic violence The prosecution opened its case by calling LAPD 911 dispatcher Sharon Gilbert and playing a 9-1-1 call from Brown on January 1, 1989, in which she expressed fear that Simpson would physically harm her; Simpson himself is even heard in the background\",\n \"in the background yelling at her and possibly hitting her as well. The officer who responded to that call, Detective John Edwards, testified next that when he arrived, a severely beaten Brown ran from the bushes where she was hiding and to the detective screaming \\\"He's going to kill me, he's going to kill me\\\", referring to Simpson. Pictures of Brown's face from that night were then shown to the jury to confirm his testimony. That incident led to Simpson's arrest and eventual pleading of no contest to one count of domestic violence for which he received probation for one year. LAPD officer and long time friend of both Simpson and Brown, Ron Shipp, testified on February 1, 1995, that Simpson told him the day after the murders that he did not want to take apolygraphtest offered to him by the police, because \\\"I've had a lot of dreams about killing her. I really don't know about taking that thing\\\". The jury dismissed Shipp's claims after defense attorney Carl E. Douglas accused him of being an alcoholic, and\",\n \"an alcoholic, and testifying against Simpson to promote his acting career. The prosecution then called Brown's sister, Denise Brown, to the witness stand. She testified to many episodes of domestic violence in the 1980s, when she saw Simpson physically abuse Brown and throw her out of their house during an argument. She said that Simpson was agitated with Brown on June 12.Although a home videotape taken immediately after the dance recital showed a cheerful Simpson being given a kiss by Denise Brown,Kato Kaelincorroborated the claim that Simpson was \\\"upset\\\" with Brown because of the black dress she wore, which he said was \\\"tight\\\". The prosecution planned to present 62 separate incidents of domestic violence, including three previously unknown incidents Brown had documented in several letters she had written and placed in a bank safety deposit box. Judge Ito denied the defense's motion to suppress the incidents of domestic violence, but only allowed witnessed accounts to be presented to the jury because of\",\n \"the jury because of Simpson'sSixth Amendment rights. Brown's statements to friends and family were ruled inadmissible ashearsaybecause Brown was dead and unable to be cross-examined. Despite this, the prosecution had witnesses for 44 separate incidents they planned to present to the jury. However, the prosecution dropped the domestic violence portion of their case on June 20, 1995.Marcia Clark stated it was because they believed theDNA evidenceagainst Simpson was insurmountable, but the media speculated it was because of the comments made by dismissed juror Jeanette Harris. Christopher Darden later confirmed that to be true.Harris was dismissed on April 6 because she failed to disclose that she was a victim of domestic violence from her ex-husband.Afterwards, she gave an interview in which she said the evidence of Simpson's abuse of Brown \\\"doesn't mean he is guilty of murder\\\". This dismissal of Simpson's abusive behavior from a female juror, who was also a victim of such abuse by her own husband, convinced\",\n \"husband, convinced the prosecution that the jury was not receptive to the domestic violence argument.After the verdict, the jurors called the domestic violence portion of the case a \\\"waste of time\\\".Shapiro, Dershowitz, and Uelmen later admitted they believe that race played a factor in the jurors' dismissal of Brown's abuse by Simpson. The defense retained renowned advocate for victims of domestic abuseLenore E. Walker.Cochran said that she would testify that Simpson does not fit the profile of an abuser that would murder his spouse.Walker's colleagues were appalled by her decision to defend Simpson and accused her of betraying her advocacy for a $250,000 retainer.Walker was dropped from the witness list for \\\"tactical reasons\\\" after she submitted her report on the case.In it, she opines that the statistic from Dershowitz that of the two million incidents of abuse per year, only 2,000 victims are actually murdered by their spouses as being misleading because Brown was already dead.The relevant statistic was\",\n \"statistic was \\\"of the murdered spouses who were also victims of abuse, what percentage of them were murdered by their current or ex-husband?\\\" When she reported that number was 80.3 percent, they dropped her from the witness list. The revelation of Simpson's abuse of Brown is credited with turning public opinion against him.The public shock at the reason why Walker was dropped from the defense witness list is credited with transforming public opinion on spousal abuse from a private familial matter to a serious public health issue. Timeline Los Angeles County Chief Medical ExaminerLakshmanan Sathyavagiswarantestified on June 14, 1995, that Brown's time of death was estimated as between 10:00 pm and 10:30 pm.Kato Kaelintestified on March 22, 1995, that he last saw Simpson at 9:36 pm that evening. A phone call was made from Simpson's Bronco to Paula Barbieri at 10:02 pm. Simpson was not seen again until 10:54 pm when he answered the intercom at the front door for the limousine driver, Allan Park.Simpson had no\",\n \"Park.Simpson had no alibi for approximately one hour and 18 minutes during which time the murders took place.Allan Park testified on March 28 that he arrived at Simpson's home at 10:25 pm and stopped at the Rockingham entrance; Simpson's Bronco was not there.He then drove over to the Ashford entrance and rang the intercom three times, getting no answer, starting at 10:40 pm. Then he saw someone arrive at Simpson's home through the front door, the lights then turned on and Simpson answered the intercom. Park's testimony was significant because it explained the location of the glove found at Simpson's home.The blood trail from the Bronco to the front door was easily understood but the glove was found on the other side of the house. Park said the \\\"shadowy figure\\\" initially approached the front door before heading down the southern walkway which leads to where the glove was found by Fuhrman. The prosecution believed that Simpson had driven his Bronco to and from Brown's home to commit the murders, saw that Park\",\n \"saw that Park was there and aborted his attempt to enter through the front door, entering through the back instead.He panicked and made the sounds that Kaelin heard when he realized that the security system would not let him enter through the rear entrance.He then discarded the glove, came back and went through the front door.During cross examination, Park conceded that he could not identify the figure but said he saw that person enter the front door and afterwards Simpson answered and said he was home alone. Park conceded that he did not notice any cuts on Simpson's left hand but added \\\"I shook his right hand, not his left\\\". DNA evidence and blood trail The prosecution presented a total of 108 exhibits, including 61 drops of blood,of DNA evidence to link Simpson to the murders. With no witnesses to the crime, the prosecution was dependent onDNAas the onlyphysical evidencelinking Simpson to the crime.The volume of DNA evidence in this case was unique and the prosecution believed they could reconstruct how\",\n \"reconstruct how the crime was committed with enough accuracy to resemble an eyewitness account.Marcia Clark stated in her opening statements that there was a \\\"trail of blood from the Bundy Crime scene through Simpson's Ford Bronco to his bedroom at Rockingham\\\". Hair and fiber evidence LAPD criminalist and hair fiber expert Susan Brockbank testified on June 27, 1995, and FBI Special Agent and fiber expert Doug Deedrick testified on June 29, 1995, to the following findings: Shoeprint analysis In June, FBI shoeprint expert William J. Bodziak testified that the bloody shoeprints found at the crime scene and inside Simpson's Bronco were made from a rare and expensive pair ofBruno MagliItalian shoes. He determined the shoes were a size 12, the same size that Simpson wore, and are only sold at Bloomingdales. Only 299 pairs of that size were sold in the US and one of them was sold at the same store that Simpson often buys his shoes from. Bodziak also testified that, despite two sets of footprints at the crime scene,\",\n \"at the crime scene, only one attacker was present because they were all made by the same shoes. During cross-examination Bailey suggested the murderer deliberately wore shoes that were the wrong size, which Bodziak dismissed as \\\"ridiculous\\\". Simpson denied ever owning a pair of the shoes; there was onlycircumstantial evidencehe did.Bloomingdales employee Samuel Poser testified he remembered showing Simpson those shoes, but there was no store record of him purchasing them.Although the prosecution could not prove that Simpson owned a pair of those shoes, Bodziak testified that a similar bloody shoeprint was left on the floor inside Simpson's Bronco. Scheck suggested that Fuhrman broke into the Bronco and left the footprint there; he produced a photo of Fuhrman walking through a puddle of blood. Bodziak admitted that he was not able to confirm that the shoeprint in the car definitely came from a Bruno Magli shoe, but dismissed Scheck's claim because none of the shoeprints at the crime scene were made by\",\n \"scene were made by Fuhrman's shoes, making it unlikely he could have made a bloody shoeprint in the Bronco. Defense case Simpson hired a team of high-profile defense lawyers, initially led byRobert Shapiro, who was previously a civil lawyer known for settling, and then subsequently by Johnnie Cochran, who at that point was known for police brutality and civil rights cases.The team included noted defense attorneyF. Lee Bailey,Robert Kardashian, Harvard appeals lawyerAlan Dershowitz, his student Robert Blasier, and Dean ofSanta Clara University School of LawGerald Uelmen. Assisting Cochran wereCarl E. DouglasandShawn Holley.Barry ScheckandPeter Neufeldwere also hired; they headed theInnocence Projectand specialized in DNA evidence. Simpson's defense was said to have cost between US$3-6 million; the media dubbed the talented attorneys theDream Team,while the taxpayer cost of prosecution was over US$9 million. Postulate The defense team's reasonable doubt angle was summarized as \\\"compromised, contaminated,\",\n \"contaminated, corrupted\\\" in opening statements.They argued the DNA evidence against Simpson was compromised by mishandling by Dennis Fung and Andrea Mazzola during the collection phase of evidence gathering, and that 100% of the DNA of the real killer(s) had vanished from the evidence samples.The defense argued that evidence was then contaminated in the LAPD crime lab by criminalist Collin Yamauchi and that Simpson's DNA from his reference vial was transferred to all but three exhibits.The remaining three exhibits were planted by the police and thus corrupted by police fraud.The defense also questioned the timeline, claiming the murders happened around 11:00 pm that night when Simpson has an alibi. Timeline The physicianRobert Huizengatestified in July 1995that Simpson was not physically capable of carrying out the murders due to chronic arthritis and old football injuries. During cross-examination, the prosecution produced an exercise video that Simpson had made a few weeks before the murders titledO.J.\",\n \"murders titledO.J. Simpson Minimum Maintenance: Fitness for Men, which demonstrated that Simpson was anything but frail.Huizenga admitted afterwards that Simpson could have committed the murders if he was in \\\"the throes of an adrenaline-rush\\\". Michael Baden, a forensic pathologist, testified that the murdershappened closer to 11:00 pm.He stated that Brown was still conscious, standing, and took a step after her throat was cutand that after Goldman'sjugular veinwas lacerated he continued to stand and fight his assailant for ten minutes. After the trial, Baden admitted his claim of Goldman's long struggle was inaccurateand that testifying for Simpson was a mistake.Critics claimed that Baden knowingly gave false testimony in order to collect a $100,000 retainerbecause the week before he testified, John Gerdes admittedthat Goldman's blood was found in Simpson's Broncodespite Goldman never having an opportunity within his lifetime to be in the Bronco. Nicole's mother, Juditha, told police and investigators in a\",\n \"investigators in a sworn statement that she was speaking with her daughter on the telephone at 11:00pm that evening.Those phone records were sealed. A vat of ice cream was still partially frozen sitting on the downstairs bannister when police searched the open-door house around 12:30am June 13. The local weather was reported to be around 60° F that night, implying that by that time, the ice cream should have been near-completely thawed. Compromised and contaminated Barry ScheckandPeter Neufeldargued that the results from the DNA testing were not reliable because the police were \\\"sloppy\\\" in collecting and preserving it from the crime scene.Fung and Mazzola did admit to making several mistakes during evidence collection, which included not always changing gloves between handling evidence items, packaging and storing the evidence items using plastic bags rather than paper bags as recommended, and storing evidence in the police van, which was not refrigerated, for up to seven hours after collection.This, the\",\n \"the defense argued, would allow bacteria to degrade the DNA and thus make the samples more susceptible to cross-contamination in the LAPD crime lab. The prosecution denied that the mistakes made by Fung and Mazzola changed the validity of the results.They noted that all of the evidence samples were testable and that most of the DNA testing was done at the two consulting labs, not the LAPD crime lab where contamination supposedly happened. Since all of the samples the consulting labs received were testable, while Scheck and Neufeld's theory predicted that they should have been inconclusive after being \\\"100% degraded\\\", the claim that all the DNA was lost to bacterial degradation was not credible.The prosecution also denied that contamination happened in the LAPD crime lab because the result would have been a mixture of Simpson's DNA and the DNA of the \\\"real killer(s)\\\", but the results showed that only Simpson's DNA was present.The prosecution also noted the defense declined to challenge any of those results by\",\n \"of those results by testing the evidence themselves.Marcia Clark called Scheck and Neufeld's claims a \\\"smoke-screen\\\". The contamination claim was made by microbiologist John Gerdes.He testified in August 1995 thatForensic PCR DNA matchingis not reliableand that the LAPD crime lab has a \\\"chronic\\\", \\\"substantial contamination problem\\\".Gerdes testified that because of the LAPD's past history of contamination, he would not consider any of the PCR DNA matches in this case reliable. He also claimed that the consulting labs' PCR DNA matches were not reliable, as the evidence they tested went \\\"through the LAPD\\\" for packaging and shipping.Gerdes believed only three of the DNA matches to have been valid, which were the same three the defense alleged were planted by the police. During cross-examination, Gerdes admitted there was no evidence that cross-contamination had occurred and that he was only testifying to \\\"what might occur and not what actually did occur\\\". He accepted that the victims' blood was in the Bronco and\",\n \"in the Bronco and Simpson's blood was at the crime scene and neither was due to contamination. He also conceded that nothing happened during \\\"packaging and shipping\\\" that would affect the validity of the results at the two consulting labs. The prosecution implied that Gerdes was not a credible witness: he had no forensic experience, had only testified for criminal defendants in the past, and always said theDNA evidenceagainst them was not reliable due to contamination. Clark also implied that it was not a coincidence that the three evidence items he initially said were valid were the same three the defense claimed were planted while the other 58 were all false positives and the 47 substrate controls, which are used to determine if contamination occurred, were all false negatives.Defense forensic DNA expertHenry Lee, testifying in August 1995, admitted that Gerdes's claim was \\\"highly improbable\\\". Barry Scheck's eight-day cross-examination of Dennis Fung was lauded in the media.However, Howard Coleman,\",\n \"Howard Coleman, president of Seattle-based forensic DNA laboratory GeneLex, criticized Scheck's cross-examination as \\\"smoke and mirrors\\\", stating: \\\"Everything we get in the lab is contaminated to some degree. What contamination and degradation will lead you to is an inconclusive result. It doesn't lead you to a false positive\\\". Police conspiracy allegation The defense initially only claimed that three exhibits were planted by the policebut eventually argued that virtually all of the blood evidence against Simpson was planted in a police conspiracy.They accused prison nurse Thano Peratis,criminalists Dennis Fung,Andrea Mazzola,and Colin Yamauchi,and Vannatterand Fuhrman,of participating in a plot to frame Simpson. In closing arguments, Cochran called Fuhrman and Vannatter \\\"twins of deception\\\",Vannatter \\\"the man who carried the blood\\\"and Fuhrman \\\"the man who found the glove\\\". EDTA The onlyphysical evidenceoffered by the defense that the police tried to frame Simpson was the allegation that two of the 108 DNA\",\n \"two of the 108 DNA evidence samples tested in the case contained the preservativeEthylenediaminetetraacetic acid(EDTA). However, it was the prosecution who asked to have the samples tested for the preservative, not the defense.The defense alleged that the drop of blood on the back gate at the Bundy crime scene, which matched Simpson, and the blood found on a pair of socks in Simpson's bedroom, which matched Brown, were planted by the police. In order to support this claim, the defense pointed to the presence in the blood samples of EDTA, a preservative found in the purple-toppedcollection tubesused for police reference vials. In July 1995,Fredric Rieders, a forensic toxicologist who had analysed the FBI's results, testified that the level of EDTA in the evidence samples was higher than that which is normally found in blood: this appeared to support the defense's claim that the blood came from the reference vials.During cross-examination, Clark asked Rieders to read out loud the portion of theEPAarticle that\",\n \"theEPAarticle that stated what the normal levels of EDTA in blood are, which he had referenced during his testimony.This demonstrated that he had misread the article and that the levels found in the evidence samples were consistent with those found in blood that was not preserved in a police reference vial.Rieders then claimed it was a \\\"typo\\\",but the prosecution produced a direct copy from the EPA confirming the normal amounts of EDTA found in unpreserved blood.The prosecution also had Rieders admit that EDTA is found in foodand specifically the ingredients used in theMcDonald'sBig Mac and french friesthat Simpson had eaten earlier that night. FBI special agent Roger Martz was called by the defense in July 1995 to testify that EDTA was present in the evidence samples. Instead, he said he did not identify it in the blood, contradicting Rieders' testimony.Initially he conceded the blood samples were \\\"consistent with the presence of EDTA\\\", but he later clarified his response after hearing that \\\"everyone is\",\n \"that \\\"everyone is saying that I found EDTA\\\", which he denied. The defense accused him of changing his demeanor to favor the prosecution, and he replied: \\\"I cannot be entirely truthful by only giving 'yes' and 'no' answers\\\".Martz stated that it was impossible to ascertain with certainty the presence of EDTA, as while the presumptive test for it was positive, the identification test for it was inconclusive. He also tested his own unpreserved blood and got the same results for EDTA levels as the evidence samples, which he said conclusively disproved the claim that the evidence blood came from the reference vials.He contended that the defense had jumped to conclusions from the presumptive test results, while his tests had in fact shown that \\\"those bloodstains did not come from preserved blood\\\". Back gate The defense alleged that Simpson's blood on the back gate at the Bundy crime scene was planted by the police. The blood on the back gate was collected on July 3, 1994, rather than June 13.The volume of DNA in\",\n \"volume of DNA in that blood was significantly higher than the other blood evidence collected on June 13. The volume of DNA was so high that the defense conceded that it could not be explained by contamination in the lab. However, they noted that it was unusual for that blood to have more DNA in it than the other samples collected at the crime scene, especially since it had been left exposed to the elements for several weeks and was collected after the crime scene had supposedly been washed over. In March 1995, Vannatter testified that he instructed Fung to collect the blood on the gate on June 13 and Fung admitted he had not done so.The defense suggested the reason why Fung did not collect the blood is because it was not there that day; when shown a blown-up photograph taken of the back gate on June 13, he admitted he could not see the blood. The prosecution responded that a different photograph showed the blood was present on the back gate on June 13, before any blood had been taken from Simpson's\",\n \"from Simpson's arm.Robert Riske was the first officer at the crime scene and the one who pointed out the blood on the back gate to Fuhrman, who documented it in his notes that night.Multiple other officers testified that the blood was present on the back gate the night of the murders.The prosecution also pointed out that the media cameras present proved that Vannatter never returned to the crime scene (Brown's home) that evening, where Simpson's blood was allegedly planted. Bronco Barry Scheck alleged the police had twice planted the victims' blood inside Simpson's Bronco. An initial collection was made on June 13; the defense accused Vannatter of planting the victims' blood in the Bronco when he returned to Simpson's home later that evening. The prosecution responded that the Bronco had already been impounded by the time Vannatter returned and was not even at Rockingham. Socks The defense alleged that the police had planted Brown's blood on the socks found in Simpson's bedroom. The socks were collected on\",\n \"were collected on June 13 and had blood from both Simpson and Brown, but her blood on the socks was not identified until August 4.The socks were found by Fuhrman, but the defense suggested Vannatter planted the blood. He had received both blood reference vials from the victims earlier that day from the coroner and booked them immediately into evidence. Vannatter then drove back to Rockingham later that evening to hand-deliver the reference vial for Simpson to Fung, which the defense alleged gave him opportunity to plant the blood. Fung testified he could not see blood on the socks he collected from Simpson's bedroom,and the prosecution later demonstrated that those blood stains were only visible underneath a microscope. Vannatter denied planting Brown's blood on the socks. The video from Willie Ford indicated that the socks had already been collected and stored in the evidence van before Vannatter arrived and footage from the media cameras present appeared to prove that he never went inside the evidence van\",\n \"the evidence van after he arrived at Rockingham. Glove The last exhibit allegedly planted was the bloody glove found at Simpson's property by Fuhrman.Unlike the sock and the back gate, the defense provided no physical or eyewitness evidence to support their claim that the prosecution could then refute.The New Yorkerpublished an article months before the trial began which cited a source in Simpson's defense team as saying that they intended to accuse Fuhrman of planting the glove, with the motive being racism. Robert Shapiro later admitted he was the magazine's source. Defense attorney F. Lee Bailey suggested that Fuhrman found the glove at the crime scene, picked it up with a stick, placed it in a plastic bag, and concealed it in his sock when he drove to Simpson's home with Lange, Vannatter, and Phillips. Bailey suggested that Fuhrman then planted the glove to frame Simpson, with the motive being either racism or a desire to become the hero in a high-profile case.Scheck suggested that Fuhrman broke into the\",\n \"broke into the Bronco and used the glove to plant blood onto and inside the Bronco. The prosecution denied that Fuhrman planted the glove. They noted that several officers had already combed over the crime scene for almost two hours before Fuhrman arrived and none had noticed a second glove. Lange testified that 14 other officers were there when Fuhrman arrived and all said there was only one glove at the scene.Lt. Frank Spangler also testified that he was with Fuhrman for the duration of his time there, saying he would have seen Fuhrman steal the glove. Clark added that Fuhrman did not know whether Simpson had an alibi, if there were any witnesses to the murders, whose blood was on the glove, that the Bronco belonged to Simpson, or whether Kaelin had already searched the area where the glove was found. During cross-examination by Bailey,Fuhrman denied that he had used the word \\\"nigger\\\" to describe African Americans in the ten years prior to his testimony.A few months later, the defense presented audiotapes\",\n \"audiotapes of Fuhrman repeatedly using the word eight years before the murders. TheFuhrman tapesbecame the cornerstone of the defense's case that his testimony lacked credibility. Clark called the tapes \\\"the biggestred herring\\\" ever. After screenwriter Laura Hart McKinny handed over the tapes to the defense, Fuhrman says he asked the prosecution for a redirect to explain the context of those tapes but the prosecution and fellow officers abandoned him after Ito played the audiotapes in open court.The public reaction was explosive, comparable to the reaction to the video of the King beating.After the trial, Fuhrman said that he was not a racist and apologized for his language, claiming he was play-acting for ascreenplaywhen he made the tapes and had been asked to be as dramatic as possible.Many of hisminorityformer coworkers expressed support for him. On September 6, 1995, Fuhrman was called back to the stand by the defense after the prosecution refused to redirect him. The jury was absent but the exchange was\",\n \"the exchange was televised. Fuhrman, facing a possible prosecution forperjury, was instructed by his attorney to invoke theFifth Amendmentto avoidself-incriminationto two consecutive questions he was asked.Defense attorney Uelmen asked Fuhrman if it was his intention to plead the Fifth to all questions, and Fuhrman's attorney instructed him to reply \\\"yes\\\". Uelmen spoke with other members of the defense and then said he had just one more question: \\\"Did you plant or manufacture any evidence in this case?\\\" Following his attorney's instruction, Fuhrman again invoked the Fifth. Cochran responded to Fuhrman's pleading the Fifth by accusing the other officers of conspiring to protect Fuhrman; he asked Judge Ito to suppress all of the evidence that Fuhrman found. Ito denied the request, stating that pleading the Fifth does not imply guilt and that there was no evidence of fraud. Cochran asked that the jury be allowed to hear Fuhrman taking the Fifth, and again Ito denied his request. Ito criticized the defense's\",\n \"the defense's theory of how Fuhrman allegedly planted the glove, stating it was illogical. On June 15, 1995, Darden surprised Clark by asking Simpson to try on the gloves found at the crime scene and his home. The prosecution had earlier decided against asking Simpson to try them on because the gloves had been soaked in blood from Simpson, Brown, and Goldman,and frozen and unfrozen several times. Instead they presented a witness who testified that Brown had purchased a pair of those gloves in the same size in 1990 atBloomingdalesfor Simpson, along with a receipt and a photo of Simpson earlier wearing the same type of gloves. The leather gloves appeared too tight for Simpson to put on easily, especially over the latex gloves he wore underneath. Clark claimed that Simpson was acting when he appeared to be struggling to put on the gloves. Cochran replied, \\\"I don't think he could act the size of his hands\\\".Darden then told Ito of his concerns that Simpson \\\"hasarthritisand we looked at the medication he takes and\",\n \"he takes and some of it is anti-inflammatory and we are told he has not taken the stuff for a day and it caused swelling in the joints and inflammation in his hands\\\".Cochran informed Ito the next day thatShawn Chapmancontacted the Los Angeles County Jail doctor, who confirmed Simpson was taking his arthritis medication every day, and that the jail's medical records verified this. In a June 28, 1995, memo to Cochran, Uelmen came up with—and Cochran later repeated—a quip he used in his closing arguments: \\\"If it doesn't fit, you must acquit\\\". In his memo to Cochran, Uelmen noted that the phrase not only applied to the gloves but to the evidence presented by the prosecutors: What the memo really tries to do is play off the jury instructions... I thought that instruction on circumstantial evidence was just incredibly good for us, so when we knew that instruction was going to be given, it just popped out at me. It says if it doesn't fit, you must acquit. What I was trying to do is not just remind the jury of that\",\n \"the jury of that moment in the trial of trying on the glove, but the whole concept of did the evidence really fit the story that the prosecution was trying to present. The prosecution stated they believed the gloves shrank from having been soaked in the blood of the victims.This model of gloves was made out of leather, which, as confirmed by Richard Rubin, can shrink up to 15% after being exposed to moisture and can never return to its original size.Darden produced a new pair of the same type of gloves, which fit Simpson when he tried them on.Rubin was a former vice president of Aris Isotoner Inc., which makes the gloves in question. On September 12, 1995, Rubin testified he was \\\"100 certain\\\" that the gloves at the murder scene—and also the style of gloves which Simpson was seen wearing in photographs and football broadcasts between 1990 and 1994—were of the company's rare Aris Light model and that they appeared to have shrunk.Rubin also noted that another pair of similar gloves which Simpson could be seen\",\n \"could be seen wearing during a football broadcast were noticeably absorbing rain water. After the trial, Cochran revealed that Bailey had goaded Darden into asking Simpson to try on the glovesand that Shapiro had told Simpson in advance that they would not fit. Summation In closing arguments, Darden ridiculed the notion that police officers might have wanted to frame Simpson.He questioned why, if the LAPD was against Simpson, they went to his house eight times on domestic violence calls against Brown between 1986 and 1988 but did not arrest him; they only arrested him on charges of abuse in January 1989. Darden noted the police did not arrest Simpson for five days after the 1994 murders.During the prosecution's closing argument, Cochran and Scheck very notably objected seventy-one times in order to lessen its effect on the jury,and though Ito overruled sixty-nine of them, he did not once admonish Cochran or Scheck or threaten them with contempt of court for their behavior. During his closing argument,\",\n \"closing argument, Cochran pointed out the many flaws of the LAPD, particularly Fuhrman, Lange, and Vannatter. He emphasized that Fuhrman was proved to have repeatedly referred to black people as \\\"niggers\\\" and also to have boasted of beating young black men in his role as a police officer. Cochran compared Fuhrman toAdolf Hitlerand referred to him as \\\"the personification of evil\\\", and claimed that Fuhrman had planted the glove in an attempt to frame Simpson for the murders, based on his dislike of interracial couples. Cochran also presented a piece of paper named \\\"Vannatter's Big Lies\\\", claiming Vannatter had returned to the crime scene with Simpson's blood to plant it there, despite Vannatter having previously testified that he had given it to Dennis Fung in order to avoid the exhibits from getting mixed up. Cochran referred to Fuhrman and Vannatter as the \\\"two devils of deception\\\", and implored the jurors to \\\"stop this cover-up\\\" and \\\"acquit Simpson and send the police a message\\\", which was interpreted by\",\n \"was interpreted by many as an appeal for ajury nullification. Following his summation, Cochran received numerous death threats, and hired bodyguards fromLouis Farrakhan. In response, Fred Goldman, who was himself Jewish, referred to Cochran himself as a racist and a \\\"sick man\\\" for comparing Fuhrman to Hitler while associating himself with Farrakhan, who was widely considered a black supremacist and anti-Semite. Robert Shapiro, also Jewish, said he was offended by Cochran comparing Fuhrman's claims to the Holocaust. In an interview regardingVincent Bugliosi's analysis on the case, Vannatter claimed that he was so infuriated at Cochran's claims about him that he felt a desire to strangle him in the courtroom. Verdict Fears grew that race riots, similar to theriots in 1992, would erupt across Los Angeles and the rest of the country if Simpson were convicted of the murders. As a result, all Los Angeles police officers were put on 12-hour shifts. The police arranged for more than 100 police officers on horseback\",\n \"on horseback to surround the Los Angeles County courthouse on the day the verdict was announced, in case of rioting by the crowd. PresidentBill Clintonwas briefed on security measures if rioting were to occur nationwide. The only testimony that the jury reviewed was that of limo driver Park.At 10:07 a.m. on October 3, 1995, Simpson was acquitted on both counts of murder. The jury arrived at the verdict by 3:00 pm on October 2, after four hours ofdeliberation, but it postponed the announcement.After the verdict was read, juror number nine, 44-year-old Lionel Cryer, gave Simpson aBlack Power raised fistsalute.The New York Timesreported that Cryer was a former member of the revolutionary nationalistBlack Panther Partythat prosecutors had \\\"inexplicably left on the panel\\\". An estimated 100 million people worldwide watched or listened to the verdict's announcement. Long-distance telephone call volume declined by 58 percent, and trading volume on theNew York Stock Exchangedecreased by 41 percent. Water usage\",\n \"Water usage decreased as people avoided using bathrooms. So much work stopped that the verdict resulted in an estimated $480 million in lost production.TheUS Supreme Courtreceived a message on the verdict duringoral arguments, with thejusticesquietly passing the note to each other while listening to the attorney's presentation. Congressmen canceled press conferences, withJoe Liebermantelling reporters, \\\"Not only would you not be here, but I wouldn't be here, either\\\". Acquittal and aftermath African-AmericanLAPDPolice ChiefWillie Williamsindicated that he had no plans to reopen the investigation, saying of the acquittals, \\\"It doesn't mean there's another murderer\\\". The LAPD has also declined to reexamine the evidence with modern methods in recent years because Simpsoncould not be tried for the same crime againunder theFifth Amendment. Fate of the Broncos Simpson's 1993 Ford Bronco was never returned to him and was destroyed by the LAPD shortly after the trial ended. Cowlings's 1993 Ford Bronco from the\",\n \"Bronco from the low-speed chase was purchased in 1994 by Simpson's former sports agentMike Gilbertand two other men, then ended up sitting in a parking garage for the next 17 years (1995–2012), where it was rarely used.As of 2017, the vehicle was on loan to theAlcatraz East Crime Museum, where it was put on display as part of an exhibit on the murder trial. Legislative changes The strong public reaction to Brown's letters and statements describing her abusespurred passage of theViolence Against Women Actin 1994, which Clark and Douglas referred to as the \\\"O.J. rule\\\".After the trial, researchers reported increased reporting, arrests, and harsher sentences for those convicted ofdomestic violence. Analysis of polling data After the verdict, polling showed that 75 percent ofWhite Americansthought Simpson was guilty while 70 percent ofBlack Americansthought he was innocent.AnNBCpoll taken in 2004 reported 87 percent of Whites believed Simpson was guilty, compared to only 27 percent of Black respondents.In the\",\n \"respondents.In the 2010s, polling showed the gap had narrowed, with a majority of both now believing he was guilty: 83 percent of White and 57 percent of Black Americans. Political impact and civil rights Scholarly consensus is that the trial damagedrace relations in Americaand point to polling which shows that belief in Simpson's guilt depended on the race of the individual and not on the evidence against him.Analysis of the \\\"racial gap\\\" in polling shows that it did not cross thepolitical spectrum.Conservativesregardless of race or gender thought Simpson was guilty. Where the gap emerged was amongliberals– with black liberals believing Simpson was innocent, while white liberals thought he was guilty.Stanford UniversityLaw ProfessorRichard Thompson Fordwrote that this made the verdict awedge issuethat divided liberals along racial lines as white liberals felt the verdict was a racially motivatedjury nullificationand resented the images of African Americans celebrating the verdict.Led byWard Connerly,\",\n \"byWard Connerly, opponents ofaffirmative action, seized upon the division and rebranded as advocatingrace neutrality, which appealed to white liberals now due to their perceived unjustness of the verdictand in 1996 voters inCaliforniapassedProposition 209, which ended affirmative action programs in the state.A historic drop in diversity at theUniversity of Californiasystem followedwhich resulted in a similar drop in diversity that still remainsin the state'swhite-collar job market, especially in thehigh-tech hub of Silicon Valley.A further initiative rejected by voters,Proposition 54in 2003, would have further increased the impact of Prop 209 by abolishing racial classifications so the drop in diversity couldn't be quantified.Themurder of George Floydrevived empathy forracial injusticeamong white liberalsbut the unsuccessfulattempt to repeal Proposition 209in 2020 was credited to the trial's legacy of undermining race relations. Polling shows that racial and ethnicminority groupswere divided by the verdict\",\n \"by the verdict as well.LatinosandAfrican Americansboth believed that fraud was taking place in theLAPDbut disagreed on the cause.Simpson said he felt vindicatedby theRampart Scandalwhich proved that fraud was happening in theC.R.A.S.Hanti-gang unit. However, this fraud was not racially motivated: all the officers involved were minorities themselvesand were actually found to be affiliated with one of thegangsthey were supposed to be policing. Publications Several jurors together publishedMadame Foremanin 1995 to respond to allegations the verdict was racially motivated. They concluded that Simpson probably was guilty but the prosecution failed to prove itbeyond a reasonable doubt. In 1996, Cochran publishedJourney to Justice, in which he denied playing the \\\"race card\\\" and maintained that theLAPDtried toframeSimpson. Shapiro publishedThe Search for Justicein 1996 about the case. He concluded there wasreasonable doubtbut criticized Bailey and Cochran for bringing race into the trial. In comparison to Cochran's\",\n \"to Cochran's book, he wrote: \\\"I never believed that Simpson was being victimized by a racist police organization because he was black…or that he was seen as a black hero\\\". In 1998, Clark publishedWithout a Doubt, in which she opined that the acquittal demonstrated the legal system is still compromised by race and celebrity because the prosecution'sphysical evidenceshould have easily convicted Simpson. Darden publishedIn Contemptin 1998 about the trial. He attributed the acquittal to poor stewardship by a \\\"starstruck\\\"Judge Itoand a \\\"dysfunctional and uneducated\\\" jury. Vincent BugliosipublishedOutrage: The Five Reasons why O. J. Simpson Got Away with Murderin 1997. Bugliosi blamed the verdict on an incompetent jury, prosecution, and judge. He wrote: \\\"Other than when a killer is apprehended in the act, I have never seen a more obvious case of guilt. All of the evidence—not some or most of it—points irresistibly to Simpson's guilt and his guilt alone\\\". Henry LeepublishedBlood Evidence: How DNA Is Revolutionizing\",\n \"Is Revolutionizing The Way We Solve Crimesin 2003, in which he noted that both the defense's forensic DNA experts had rejected Scheck's contamination claim. Fuhrman publishedMurder in Brentwoodin 1998, defending himself against fraud claims. He wrote that his taking theFifthwas to avoid prosecution forperjury. In 1997, Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter publishedEvidence Dismissed: The Inside Story of the Police Investigation of O.J. Simpson, in which they defended themselves against allegations of corruption and incompetence. Daniel M. PetrocellipublishedTriumph of Justice: The Final Judgement of the Simpson Sagain 1998, comparing the criminal and civil trials. He attributed the acquittal to bad rulings byJudge Ito, unethical behavior by the defense, and unreliable testimony from Gerdes,Rieders, Lee, andBaden. In 1999, sociologistDarnell HuntpublishedO.J. Simpson Facts and Fictions: News Rituals in the Construction of Reality. Hunt argued that the racial gap in polling was a manufactured product of selective\",\n \"of selective reporting of facts by the media due to their treatment of the trial as a form of entertainment rather than a legal proceeding. If I Did It In 2006,ReganBooksannounced a bookghostwrittenbyPablo Fenjvesbased on interviews with Simpson titledIf I Did It, an account which the publisher said was ahypotheticalconfession. The book's release was planned to coincide with a Fox interview featuring Simpson. The project was cancelled due to public criticism. Later, the Goldman family was awarded the rights to the book and published it under the titleIf I Did It: Confessions of the Killer. In 2018, Fox broadcast Simpson's previously unaired interview in a special titledO.J. Simpson: The Lost Confession?The interview was widely interpreted as being a form of impliedconfessionbecause Simpson usedfirst personlanguage (\\\"Obviously I must have \\\")in explaining how he would have committed the murders. Post-trial interviews In an interview withBarbara Walters, Shapiro said he was offended by Cochran comparing Fuhrman\",\n \"comparing Fuhrman toAdolf Hitler, and said he would never work with Bailey or Cochran again. He also said the defense played the \\\"race card\\\".Robert Kardashianadmitted that, prior to the jurors visiting Simpson's home, the defense team had switched out his photos of white women for photos of his children and switched out a picture of a nude Paula Barbieri (Simpson's white then-girlfriend) for aNorman Rockwellpainting from Cochran's office. Simpson gave two high-profile interviews regarding the case – in 1996 withRoss Beckerand in 2004 withKatie Couric.In the February 1998 issue ofEsquire, Simpson was quoted as saying, \\\"Let's say I committed this crime ...even if I did this, it would have to have been because I loved her very much, right?\\\"In 1998, during an interview withRuby Wax, Simpson pretended to stab her with a banana in an apparent joke.In 2008,Mike Gilbertreleased his bookHow I Helped O.J. Get Away with Murder, which quotes Simpson allegedly saying: \\\"If she hadn't opened that door with a knife in her\",\n \"with a knife in her hand ... she'd still be alive.\\\" In the documentaryO.J.: Made in America, juror Carrie Bess said she believed \\\"90% of the jury actually decided to acquit Simpson as payback forRodney King\\\".Juror Lionel Cryer, who notably gave Simpson aBlack Power salute, stated in 2017 that in retrospect he would render a guilty verdict.Juror Anise Aschenbach, who initially voted guilty before changing her vote, stated in 2008 that she regrets the decision and believes Simpson is guilty because he is not looking for the \\\"real killer\\\" like he promised he would. “On the evidence that they gave me to evaluate, it was crooked by the cops,\\\" juror David Aldana said in an interview.“The evidence given to me to look at, I could not convict. Did he do it? Maybe, maybe not.\\\"Juror Sheila Woods denied the jury’s decision was based on race in an interview withVulture.When asked if she believed Simpson was framed, Woods stated, “I don’t know if he was necessarily framed. I think O.J. may know something about what\",\n \"about what happened, but I just don’t think he did it. I think it was more than one person, just because of the way she was killed. I don’t know how he could have just left that bloody scene — because it was bloody — and got back into his Bronco and not have it filled with blood. And then go back home and go in the front door, up the stairs to his bedroom … That carpet was snow white in his house. He should have blood all over him or bruises becauseRon Goldmanwas definitely fighting for his life. He had defensive cuts on his shoes and on his hands. O.J. only had that little cut on his finger. If Goldman was kicking to death, you would think that the killer would have gotten some bruises on his body. They showed us photos of O.J. with just his underwear just two days after, and he had no bruises or anything on his body.”In an interview with CNN following Simpson’s death, juror Yolanda Adams said she was still comfortable with her decision to render a not guilty verdict and denied the verdict was based on\",\n \"was based on payback forRodney King, citing the reasonable doubt in the case presented by the defense and the actions of the police officers involved in the case likeMark Fuhrmanpleading the fifth when he was asked if he planted or manufactured any evidence against Simpson. In 2018,Foxaired an interview Simpson gave in 2006 with publisherJudith Regan, titledO.J. Simpson: The Lost Confession?, where he gave \\\"hypothetical\\\" details about his role in the murders. Civil trial In 1996, Fred Goldman and Sharon Rufo, the parents of Ron Goldman, and Lou Brown, father of Nicole Brown filed acivil suitagainst Simpson for wrongful death.Theplaintiffswere represented byDaniel Petrocelliand Simpson by Robert Baker.Presiding Judge Hiroshi Fujisaki did not allow the trial to be televised, did notsequesterthe jury, and prohibited the defense from allegingracismby theLAPDand from condemning the crime lab.Thephysical evidencedid not change but additional evidence ofdomestic violencewas presented as well as 31 pre-1994 photos\",\n \"31 pre-1994 photos of Simpson wearingBruno Maglishoes,including one that waspublished6 months before the murders, proving it could not be aforgery.Results from apolygraphtest that Simpson denied taking showed \\\"extreme deception\\\" when he denied committing the murders. Fuhrman did not testify but Simpson did on his own behalf and lied several times. One significant difference between the two trials was the admission of Nicole Brown's diary entries in the civil case. Lead counselDaniel Petrocelliexplained, \\\"The least explored aspect of the case is Simpson's motive. You cannot just say this murder was a culmination of domestic-violence incidents. You need to tell the jury a story. This was about a stormy relationship.\\\"Timemagazine reported, \\\"That strategy made the difference in understanding Simpson... Nicole's diary showed that she and Simpson were having fights in those last weeks. Their hostilities had taken a cruel turn. Simpson sent Nicole a letter that was a thinly veiled threat to report her to the IRS\",\n \"her to the IRS for failing to pay capital-gains taxes. Infuriated, she started to deny him access to the children.... She began to treat him like a stranger. That, Petrocelli said, is when three weeks of retaliation began In that period, the lawyer argued, Simpson grew angrier and more obsessed with his ex-wife, developing a rage that resulted in death for her and Ron Goldman.\\\" The civil judge found the diary entries were admissible because they were pertinent to Nicole's state of mind, which in turn was relevant to Simpson's motive—reversing a crucial ruling from the criminal case that excluded the diary as \\\"inadmissible hearsay.\\\"The civil court's ruling was upheld on appeal.TheLos Angeles Timeswrote that this evidence \\\"helped the plaintiffs tell their story of domestic violence\\\" and show that when Nicole \\\"rejected for good in the spring of 1994 ... he erupted in the same uncontrollable rage that had caused him to lash out at her in the past—only this time, he was brandishing a knife. The jury found\",\n \"The jury found Simpsonliablefor the murders and awarded the victims' families $33.5 million in compensatory and punitive damages.The civil verdict \\\"very nearly upstaged the president of the United States on the occasion of his State of the Union address,\\\"ending the case that \\\"riveted America for two and a half years\\\"Simpson filed forbankruptcyafterwards and relocated toFloridato protect hispensionfrom seizure. His remaining assets were seized and auctioned off with most being purchased by critics of the verdict of the criminal trial to help the plaintiffs recoup the costs of litigation. Simpson'sHeisman Trophywas sold for $255,500 to an undisclosed buyer. All the proceeds went to the Goldman family, who said they have received only one percent of the money that Simpson owes from the wrongful death suit. Following Simpson's death in 2024,Simpson estate lawyer Malcolm LeVergne pledged to prevent the Brown and Goldman families from obtaining the money which was promised in the civil trial judgement, but later\",\n \"but later reversed course. Alternate theories and suspects While Bailey and several members of Simpson's family still advocated for Simpson's innocence,such theories have been rejected by prosecutors, witnesses and the families of Brown and Goldman, who have expressed the belief that Simpson committed the murders and was the sole perpetrator,with Hunt opining that these claims were attempts to tap into the public interest in the case and were never meant to be taken seriously. Alternative theories have been suggested, such as that Simpson may have had accomplices in the murders, or that he was not involved at all and wasframed. Several speculate that the murders were related to the Los Angeles drug trade and the murders ofMichael NiggandBrett Cantor. The 2000BBC TVdocumentaryO.J.: The True Untold Story,primarily rehashes the contamination and blood planting claims from the trial and asserted that Simpson's elder son Jason is a possible suspect, due to - among other reasons - Simpson hiring defense attorneys\",\n \"defense attorneys for his children first before himself, pictures of Jason's descriptive wool cap, and an alleged prior arrangement to meet with Nicole that evening.William Dearpublished his findings in the bookO.J. Is Innocent and I Can Prove It. The 2012 documentary filmMy Brother the Serial Killeralleged that convicted murdererGlen Edward Rogersconfessed to being involved in the murders and that he had been hired by Simpson. In popular culture Media adaptations Film Lost Highwaywas partially inspired by the case. In the film, a man is imprisoned for his wife's murder, which he does not remember, and is released after he transforms into a different man. DirectorDavid Lynchfound it remarkable that Simpson, who he believed committed the murders, could continue a casual lifestyle afterward. Lethal Weapon 4, which was released about two and a half years after the case, makes a reference to the success of Simpson's defense attorney Johnnie Cochran, after the character of detective Lee Butters apprehends a\",\n \"apprehends a fleeing suspect and reads him hisMiranda rightsas follows: \\\"If you can't afford an attorney, we'll provide you with the dumbest fucking lawyer on earth. If you get Johnnie Cochran, I'll kill ya!\\\" Shrek 2references the Bronco chase, whenDonkeyis turned into a white horse by theFairy Godmother, and he and other characters are pursued by knights. TV Episodes of sitcoms such asThe Simpsons,South Park,Roseanne,New Girl,Family Guy,It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, andSeinfeldhave mocked the case, or more specifically, Simpson himself.Saturday Night LiveWeekend UpdatehostNorm Macdonaldfrequently made jokes about O. J. Simpson's trial, such as the iconic line \\\"Well, it is finally official: Murder is legal in the state of California\\\" after Simpson's acquittal. It is rumored that the constant Simpson jokes were the cause for thenNBCPresidentDon Ohlmeyerto remove Macdonald from theWeekend Updatesegment and eventually from the show altogether. Cowlings' white Ford Bronco was featured in the reality TV\",\n \"in the reality TV showPawn Stars. The then-owner of the vehicle estimated its value in excess of $1,000,000. Music The heavy-metal bandBody Countrecorded the song \\\"I Used to Love Her\\\", sung from the perspective of O. J. Simpson murdering his wife, on their 1997 albumViolent Demise: The Last Days. A 2021 article inMetal Hammerdescribed the song as \\\"jaw-droppingly offensive\\\".InGood Charlotte's song, \\\"Lifestyles of the Rich & Famous\\\", they reference the case in the second verse: \\\"Well did you know when you were famous you could kill you wife And there's no such thing as 25 to life As long as you've got the cash, to pay for Cochran.\\\" R&B groupH-Towndedicated their albumLadies Edition, Woman's World(1997) to Brown, to help victims of domestic violence.Electronic musicianJames Ferraroreferenced the police chase in the song \\\"White Bronco\\\" on his 2015 albumSkid Row. Hip hop artist Magneto Dayo released a 2013 \\\"diss track\\\" song titled \\\"OJ Simpson\\\" in which he insults his ex-girlfriend/artistV-Nastyby referencing the\",\n \"referencing the Simpson murder case.RapperJay-Z's song \\\"The Story of O.J.\\\" references the trial.Kendrick Lamarincluded Simpson in the music video for \\\"The Heart Part 5\\\", usingDeepfaketechnology. The infamous glove also appears on the single's cover.RapperEminemreferences the murder case in his song \\\"Role Model\\\", where he claims to have done the murder withMarcus Allen. Video games Duke Nukem 3Dhas several allusions to the Simpson trial, including a television playing the Bronco chase. Exhibits The suit Simpson wore when he was acquitted was donated by Simpson's former agentMike Gilbertto theNewseumin 2010. The Newseum has multiple trial-related items in their collection, including press passes, newspapers and the mute button that Superior Court JudgeLance Itoused when he wanted to shut off the live microphone in court so lawyers could talk privately during the trial. The museum's acquisition of the suit ended the legal battle between Gilbert and Fred Goldman, both of whom claimed the right to the clothing.\",\n \"to the clothing. Cowlings's Bronco is on display at theAlcatraz Eastcrime museum inPigeon Forge, Tennessee. In 2017, Adam Papagan curated a pop-up museum showcasing artifacts andephemerafrom the trial atCoagula Curatorialgallery in Los Angeles. See also References Bibliography Further reading External links\",\n \"1995 World Series The1995 World Serieswas thechampionship seriesofMajor League Baseball's (MLB)1995 season. The 91st edition of the World Series, it was abest-of-seven playoffplayed between theNational League(NL) championAtlanta Bravesand theAmerican League(AL) championCleveland Indians. It was the first World Series after theprevious year's Serieswas canceled due to aplayers' strike. The Braves won in six games to capture their third World Series championship infranchise history(along with1914 in Bostonand1957 in Milwaukee), making them the first team to win in three different cities. This was also Cleveland's first Series appearance in 41 years. The Series was also remarkable in that five of the six games were won by one run, including the clinching sixth game, a 1–0 combined one-hitter byTom GlavineandMark Wohlers. This was the first time since the LCS changed to a best-of-seven format that a winner of a LCS via a sweep has gone on to win the World Series. It has since been repeated in 2019 by\",\n \"repeated in 2019 by theWashington Nationals, and in 2022 by the Houston Astros. This World Series, despite being in an odd-numbered year, opened in the NL home because of the omission of the 1994 World Series. Until 2003, the World Series would begin in the AL home in even-numbered years. Background Atlanta Braves After losing the World Series in 1991 to theMinnesota Twinsand in 1992 to theToronto Blue Jays, the Atlanta Braves were making their third attempt in four years (not counting the 1994 strike) to capture Atlanta's first title. The Braves overcame some early inconsistency to win their division by 21 games. In the playoffs, which featured a new first round, the Braves overwhelmed the third-yearColorado Rockies, then swept theCincinnati Redsin theNLCS(spoiling an all-Ohio World Series in the process; notably, prior to their World Series appearancein 1948, theIndianshad spoiled an all-BostonWorld Series by beating theRed Soxin a one-game playoff). The team relied onclutch hittingand its powerful\",\n \"its powerful pitchingrotation, which was made up of perennialCy Young AwardwinnerGreg Maddux,Tom Glavine,John Smoltz, andSteve Avery. As the NL champion, they opened this World Series at home because there was no 1994 World Series. Cleveland Indians After decades of futility, the city of Cleveland finally had a winner in town. The Indians dominated the American League in 1995, winning 100 of their 144 games (their 100–44 record yielded a very high 0.694 winning percentage, which was, at the time, the highest regular season winning percentage in Major League Baseball since 1954, and is, as of 2015, the 12th highest regular season winning percentage in Major League Baseball history since 1900). Furthermore, in just 144 games, they won the AL Central by 30 games, and they performed the difficult feat of leading their league in both team batting average (0.291) and ERA (3.81). Thanks to their hitting and bullpen, this Indians team became known around the league for their ability to come back from many deficits,\",\n \"from many deficits, often in dramatic fashion; of their 100 regular season victories, 48 were come-back victories, 27 came in their last at-bat, eight came by way of \\\"walk off\\\" home runs, and 13 were extra-inning victories (they were 13–0 in extra-inning games). After this dominance of the AL in the regular season, the Indians, in the playoffs, swept theBoston Red Soxin the opening round, then held offKen Griffey Jr.and the red hotSeattle Marinersin theALCS, before heading into the Series against the Braves. The 1995 Cleveland Indians featured a very impressive batting line-up; one that hit for high average, good power, and had good speed. In addition to leading the AL in batting average (0.291), the Indians in 1995 also led the American League in runs scored (840; 5.83 runs per game), home runs (207), and stolen bases (132). Led byspeedstersKenny LoftonandOmar Vizquel, along withCarlos Baergaat the top of the order, the Indians offense was powered in the middle of the order byAlbert Belle,Eddie Murray,Manny\",\n \"Murray,Manny Ramírez, andJim Thome; at the bottom of the line-up could be foundPaul Sorrento(orHerbert Perry) andSandy Alomar Jr.(orTony Peña). Thus, this Indians line-up had six everyday players who finished the season with a batting average of at least 0.300; and, with Herbert Perry and Tony Peña frequently filling in for Paul Sorrento and Sandy Alomar Jr., respectively, it was not uncommon for the Tribe to field a line-up with as many as eight players who finished the season with a batting average of at least 0.300. In terms of power, though the '95 season was shortened, nevertheless, the Indians' line-up still featured two players with at least 30 HR, five players with at least 20 HR, and seven with at least 10 HR. While this line-up was filled with star players (four, in fact, were named to the 1995 AL All-Star team, namely, Lofton, Baerga, Belle, and Ramirez), Albert Belle stood out among all of them in 1995. Powered by a very strong second half of the season, Belle, the Indians' clean-up hitter in\",\n \"clean-up hitter in 1995, finished 1995 with a 0.317 batting average, 126 RBI, and 50 home runs. Further to be noted is the fact that, in hitting 50 HR and 52 doubles in 1995, Belle became the first Major League player to hit at least 50 home runs and at least 50 doubles in the same season (an accomplishment which, again, is even more remarkable considering that he did this in a shortened, 144-game season). The Indians also led the 1995 AL in ERA (3.81). While their starting pitching—led by veteransDennis MartínezandOrel Hershiser—was respectable, it was their bullpen which gave real strength to their pitching staff. Key members of their bullpen staff included veteran right-handerEric Plunk(6–2, 2.67 ERA), veteran left-handerPaul Assenmacher(6–2, 2.82), the young right-handed set-up man,Julián Tavárez(10–1, 2.44 ERA), and right-handed closer,José Mesa(3–0, 1.12 ERA, 46 SV). Mesa, in his first year as closer, posted a league-leading 46 saves in 1995, and set a then-Major League record of 38 consecutive saves\",\n \"consecutive saves without a blown save. Two of the members of the 1995 Indians' pitching staff—Dennis Martínez (the team's ace) and José Mesa—were named to the 1995 AL All-Star team. Series build-up Thus it was that this Series presented an entertaining match-up of baseball's two best teams, each with reasons to be confident going into the Series. The Atlanta Braves were veterans to the post-season in the 1990s, having won both the 1991 and 1992 NL pennants (not to mention the 1993 NL Western Division title, having won 104 games in 1993), and they were the best team in the NL in the 1995 regular season (having posted a very solid 90–54 record). The Cleveland Indians, on the other hand, newcomers to the post-season (having not been in the post-season since 1954), in posting their 100–44 regular season mark, were the team which had posted not only the best regular season record in the AL, but had completed one of the best regular seasons in all of Major League Baseball history. Further, though the Braves'\",\n \"though the Braves' line-up was not very threatening in 1995 (their .250 team batting average was the second lowest in the NL), still, the Braves could be confident with their star-studded pitching staff—especially their starting staff—headed by the likes of Greg Maddux, Tom Glavine, John Smoltz, and Steve Avery. On the other hand, though the Indians could not boast of having as nearly a strong starting rotation as the Braves, nevertheless, they could lay claim to a very solid bullpen and one of the greatest batting line-ups that baseball has ever seen. It might also be noted that, though this was the first time that a team from Cleveland and one from Atlanta faced each other in the World Series, there were years, prior to the Braves being in Atlanta, in which the Braves faced a Cleveland team for baseball's crown. In 1948, the Boston Braves faced the Cleveland Indians (with the Indians winning that Series in six games). Even before that, in 1892, theBoston Beaneaters, a forerunner of the Braves, were also\",\n \"Braves, were also National League Champions in 1892, and faced theCleveland Spidersfor the championship.The Beaneaters beat the Spiders that year to win that baseball championship. The 1995 World Series was also noted for large-scale protests byNative Americanactivists in response to thecontroversysurrounding both clubs' usage of Native American-themed nicknames, logos and mascots, as well as the use of thetomahawk chopby Braves fans. Broadcasting NBCwas originally scheduled to televise the entire World Series; however, due to the cancellation of the 1994 World Series (which had been slated forABC, who last televised a World Series in1989), coverage ended up being split between NBC and ABC. Game 5 would be the last Major League Baseball game to be telecast by ABC (had there been a Game 7, ABC would have televised it) for 25 years. ABC was scheduled to televise up to four wild card gamesin the2020 MLB Postseason. This was the only World Series to be produced underThe Baseball Networkumbrella (arevenue\",\n \"(arevenue sharingjoint venturebetween Major League Baseball, ABC and NBC). In July 1995, NBC and ABC announced that they would be pulling out of what was supposed to be a six-year-long venture. NBC would next cover the1997(NBC's first entirely since1988) and1999 World Seriesover the course of a five-year-long contract, in whichFoxwould cover the World Series in even numbered years (1996,1998and2000). Also during the World Series in 1995, NBC'sHannah Stormnot only became the first woman to serve as solo pre-game host of a World Series (CBS'Andrea Joyceco-hosted withPat O'Brienin1993) but also became the first woman to preside over aWorld Series Trophypresentation.Storm was infamously the recipient of a profane outburst fromAlbert Bellein his team's dugout. Later, Belle was unrepentant: \\\"TheIndianswanted me to issue a statement of regret when the fine was announced, but I told them to take it out. I apologize for nothing.\\\"John Saundersserved as pre-game host for ABC's coverage. Serving asfield reportersfor the\",\n \"reportersfor the series wereLesley Visser(ABC) andJim Gray(NBC). The six games averaged a nationalNielsen ratingof 19.5 and a share of 33. Through 2016, this remains the highest-rated World Series of the post-strike era. On the radio side,CBSwas the national broadcaster withVin ScullyandJeff Torborgon the call. Locally,WKNRaired the series in Cleveland withHerb ScoreandTom Hamiltonannouncing, whileWSBbroadcast the series in Atlanta withSkip Caray,Pete Van Wieren,Don Sutton, andJoe Simpsonannouncing. International Summary NLAtlanta Braves(4) vs. ALCleveland Indians(2) Matchups Game 1 Atlanta aceGreg Madduxpitched a two-hit complete game victory in his first World Series appearance (and just the 15th two-hitter in Series history). The Indians scored in the first inning whenKenny Loftonreached on an error, stole second and third, and scored on an RBI groundout byCarlos Baerga. In the bottom of the second,Fred McGrifflaunched atape measure home runon his first ever World Series pitch off Cleveland starterOrel\",\n \"starterOrel Hershiserto even the score at 1–1. Both starters settled down until the seventh, when Hershiser and the Cleveland bullpen walked the first three Braves to open the inning. The Braves would take a 3–1 lead afterLuis Poloniahit into a run-scoring force play andRafael Belliardbunted a perfectsuicide squeeze. Lofton scored the Indians another run in the ninth to cut the Braves lead to a single run, (both Cleveland runs resulted from errors and were thus, unearned) but Baerga lifted a pop fly that third basemanChipper Jonesgrabbed near the visiting dugout to end the game. Game 2 Atlanta No. 2 starterTom Glavinegot the win in Game 2, aided by a big sixth-inning home run by catcherJavy López, who also pickedManny Ramirezoff first base at a crucial moment in the eighth inning to erase a potential game-tying baserunner. The Indians had taken an early 2–0 lead on anEddie Murraytwo-run home run afterAlbert Bellegot on base, but the Braves evened the score in the third with a sac fly byChipper Jonesand an\",\n \"Jonesand an RBI single by David Justice. Lopez launched his home run in the sixth inning from Cleveland starterDennis Martínez. The Atlanta bullpen held off the Indians in the later innings despite allowing a run in the seventh, andMark Wohlersearned the save, giving the Braves a 2–0 series lead. Game 3 With the World Series moving to smaller, raucous Jacobs Field in Cleveland, the Indians got their first win. The Indians offense got back on track off Atlanta starterJohn Smoltz. With the Tribe already down 1–0 in the bottom of the first,Kenny Loftonsingled to center and scored onOmar Vizquel's triple into the right field corner. Omar then scored the go-ahead run whenCarlos Baergagrounded out. In the third, the Tribe were back at it again when Lofton opened the inning by ripping a double into the right-center field gap. Omar then got a bunt single and Baerga singled to left to drive in Lofton.Albert Bellethen rolled a grounder up the middle to score Vizquel to make it 4–1. This was Smoltz's only early exit\",\n \"only early exit and only poor start in eight career World Series appearances. The Braves got a boost, however, when relieverBrad Clontzinduced a double play groundout byManny Ramírezto escape further damage. Home runs byFred McGriffandRyan Kleskobrought the Braves closer at 4–3. Cleveland added a run in the seventh on another RBI hit by Baerga scoring Lofton (who would reach base in all six of his plate appearances). With a 5–3 lead going into the eighth, trouble brewed for Cleveland whenCharles Nagyand the bullpen gave up the lead.Marquis Grissomled off with a double off the wall. Polonia singled through the right side to drive in Grissom, sending Nagy to the showers.Chipper Joneswalked, McGriff hit a deep fly moving the runners up a base, andDavid Justicereached when Baerga booted his groundball, subsequently allowing Polonia to score the tying run. The inning was capped off byMike Devereaux's RBI single giving the Braves a 6–5 lead. The Braves couldn't hold on to their slim lead either asSandy Alomar\",\n \"asSandy Alomar Jr.laced a game-tying double inside the line at first in the bottom of the eighth. The two closers,Mark WohlersandJosé Mesathen matched zeros for the next two innings. In the 11th, the Braves went toAlejandro Peña. Baerga immediately smashed a double and after an intentional walk to Belle, veteranEddie Murraysingled to center, scoring pinch runnerÁlvaro Espinozaand cutting Atlanta's World Series lead in half. A record 18 pitchers were used between the Braves and Indians in Games 2 and 3. Game 4 Braves managerBobby Coxcontroversially decided to start left-handed pitcherSteve Averyin the critical Game 4 instead of coming back withGreg Maddux. Despite Avery's uncharacteristically poor regular season showing (7-13, 4.67 ERA), Cox felt he deserved a chance after having won the NLCS clincher against Cincinnati throwing six shutout innings. Young Braves outfielderRyan Kleskohit a sixth-inning home run to give Atlanta the lead. This would be the last time a player would hit home runs in back-to-back\",\n \"in back-to-back World Series games until2016. Avery again delivered six effective innings, only giving up a sixth-inning home run to Cleveland sluggerAlbert Belle. A controversial play happened whenEddie Murrayhit a pitch over third base; left-field umpire Jim McKean called it foul while third-base umpire Harry Wendelstedt looked at Jim McKean to make the call. Murray eventually walked and reached second on a balk by Avery, but Herbert Perry struck out to end the inning. The Braves promptly broke the tie with a three-run seventh, withDavid Justicebatting in two of the runs with a single. An RBI double byJavy Lópezgave the Braves an insurance run, making it 5–1. RelieverPedro Borbón Jr.saved the 5–2 win afterMark Wohlersran into trouble, and the Braves were one victory away from a title. Game 5 It seemed the perfect situation for Atlanta with Greg Maddux pitching Game 5 with a chance to clinch the title, but Albert Belle slugged a two-run homer in the first inning, and the Braves lineup was held in check by\",\n \"held in check by Cleveland veteran Orel Hershiser who went eight innings, only surrendering two runs.Luis Poloniahit a solo home run into the fourth and Atlanta actually tied the game at 2–2 with a run-scoring infield single byMarquis Grissomin the fifth, but Cleveland got two more runs from Maddux making it 4–2.Jim Thomehit an insurance home run in the eighth, which proved necessary as Ryan Klesko homered in his third consecutive game, reducing the gap to 5–4. Klesko became the first person ever to homer in three consecutive World Series road games, by belting homers in Games 3, 4, and 5. The win sent the Series back to Atlanta. As previously mentioned, this game was the most recent baseball game thatABCtelevised until the2020postseason. Game 6 Controversy struck on the morning of Game 6 when Atlanta newspapers printed stories that right fielder David Justice had ripped the city's fans for not matching their motivation of past seasons. Justice, who had been struggling in the postseason, was vilified before\",\n \"was vilified before the game, but when his sixth-inning home run off a 1–1 pitch byJim Poolebroke a scoreless tie, he became a hero.Tom Glavinepitched eight innings of one-hit ball (and five innings of no hit ball) and allowed just three walks (two toAlbert Belle, who was caught stealing second in the second inning to keep a runner from advancing into scoring position) to help earn him the Series MVP. Only one Indian advanced into scoring position in the entire game whenKenny Loftonstole second, but no one could get him in. Cleveland starterDennis Martínezlasted just 42⁄3innings due to allowing four hits and five walks, but no Braves scored. After Justice's home run, the Braves managed just one hit. The lone hit for the Indians was a bloop-single by catcherTony Peñain the sixth, breaking up Glavine's bid to become the first pitcher sinceDon Larsen in 1956to throw a no-hitter in the World Series. Closer Mark Wohlers pitched the ninth inning, preserving the 1–0 shutout and Atlanta's coveted title whenCarlos\",\n \"title whenCarlos Baerga's fly ball landed in center fielder Marquis Grissom's glove, giving the Braves their first title in Atlanta and their first since1957when they were still in Milwaukee. Carlos Baerga was responsible for making the last out in three of the four Cleveland losses; Games 1, 2 and 6. To date, this is the last 1–0 World Series game won by the home team. Moments after the final out was recorded, a fan in the stands was shown holding a placard that simply said \\\"...Finally!\\\" due to the Atlanta Braves finally winning the World Series on their third try. In 1995, the Cleveland Indians batted .291 as a team, led the league in runs scored, hits, and stolen bases, and had eight .300 hitters in their starting lineup. However, the Tribe was held to a .179 batting average in the World Series. Then-Executive Committee ChairmanBud Seligpresided over theCommissioner's Trophypresentation for the first time. In the previous two World Series (1992and1993),American LeaguepresidentDr. Bobby Brownpresided over\",\n \"Brownpresided over the trophy presentation. Selig would becomeCommissioner of Baseballin 1998. Composite line score 1995 World Series(4–2):Atlanta Braves(N.L.)overCleveland Indians(A.L.) Aftermath The 1995 Braves were in the midst of a streak of 14 consecutive division titles from1991through2005(excluding the1994season, which ended early due to a players strike), however this was the only World Series the Braves would win. Atlanta returned to the Seriesthe following year, but lost to theNew York Yankeesin six games. The Braves of this era made one more trip to the Series in1999, but lost to theYankeesin a four-game sweep. This was Atlanta's first championship in any of thefour major professional sports, and the last for the city and for the Braves until2021. The Indians would go on to win the AL Central five of the following six years and return to the World Series in1997, where they lost to theFlorida Marlinsin seven games. The core of the 1990s Indians teams would break up in the early 2000s.Albert\",\n \"early 2000s.Albert Bellesigned with theChicago White Soxin free agency in the winter of 1996, whileKenny Loftonwas traded to the Braves before the start of the 1997 season (he returned in 1998 to play three years with the team only to leave and return again for his final season in 2007); after the turn of the century,Manny Ramirezjoined theBoston Red Soxin2001andJim Thomejoined thePhiladelphia Philliesin2003. Quotes Left center field,Grissomon the run. The team of the 90s has its world championship. See also Notes External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":380,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What is the percentage increase of total deaths of Japanese during World War One versus World War Two? Use the largest number count found to calculate as these numbers are often ranges."},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"66409.3% increase"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I_casualties"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I_casualties', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I_casualties","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I_casualties\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["World War I casualties The total number ofmilitaryandcivilian casualtiesinWorld War Iwas about 40 million: estimates range from around 15 to 22 million deathsand about 23 million wounded military personnel, ranking it among the deadliest conflicts in human history. The total number of deaths includes from 9 to 11 millionmilitary personnel. Theciviliandeath toll was about 6 to 13 million.TheTriple Entente(also known as theAllies) lost about 6 million military personnel while theCentral Powerslost about 4 million. At least 2 million died from diseases and 6 million went missing, presumed dead. This article lists the casualties of the belligerent powers based on official published sources. About two-thirds of military deaths in World War I were in battle, unlike the conflicts that took place in the 19th century when the majority of deaths were due to disease. Nevertheless, disease, including the1918 flu pandemicand deaths while held asprisoners of war, still caused about one third of total military deaths for all belligerents. Classification of casualty statistics Casualty statistics for World War I vary to a great extent; estimates of total deaths range from 9 million to over 15 million.Military casualties reported in official sources list deaths due to all causes, including an estimated 7 to 8 million combat related deaths (killed or died of wounds) and another two to three million military deaths caused by accidents, disease and deaths whileprisoners of war. Official government reports listing casualty statistics were published by the United States and Great Britain.Thesesecondary sourcespublished during the 1920s, are the source of the statistics in reference works listing casualties in World War I.This article summarizes the casualty statistics published in the official government reports of the United States and Great Britain as well as France, Italy, Belgium, Germany, Austria and Russia. More recently the research of theCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) has revised the military casualty statistics of the UK and its allies; they include in their listing of military war dead personnel outside of combat theaters and civilians recruited from Africa, the Middle East andChinawho provided logistical and service support in combat theaters.The casualties of these support personnel recruited outside of Europe were previously not included with British war dead, however the casualties of theLabour Corpsrecruited from the British Isles were included in the rolls of British war dead published in 1921.The methodology used by each nation to record and classify casualties was not uniform, a general caveat regarding casualty figures is that they cannot be considered comparable in all cases.First World War civilian deaths are \"hazardous to estimate\" according to Micheal Clodfelter who maintains that \"the generally accepted figure ofnoncombatantdeaths is 6.5 million.\" Casualties in the borders of 1914–1918 2,101,077 The source of population data is: Haythornthwaite, Philip J.,The World War One Source Bookpp. 382–383 Casualties by post-war (1924) borders The war involved multi-ethnic empires such as Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. Many ethnic groups in these territories were conscripted for military service. The casualties listed by modern borders are also included in the above table of figures for the countries that existed in 1914. The casualty figures by 1924 post war borders are rough estimates by Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, the sources of his figures were published in the Soviet era and in post-Soviet Russia.According to the 1914–1918 Online Encyclopedia \"In addition to losses suffered by African military personnel and the laborers supporting their operations, very large, but unknown numbers of African civilians perished during the war.\" They made an estimate of civilian losses in Africa of 750,000 based on the study by the Vadim Erlikman. They noted that Erlikman's figures are based on the work of the Russian demographer Boris Urlanis, they noted that these estimates were \"imprecise\" and \"could be used to provide a frame of reference for further inquiry\".TheOxford History of World War Onenotes that \"In east and central Africa the harshness of the war resulted in acute shortages of food with famine in some areas, a weakening of populations, and epidemic diseases which killed hundreds of thousands of people and also cattle.\" The following estimates of Austrian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 175,000: including military losses 120,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 30,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 25,000. The following estimates of Belarusian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 130,000: including military losses 70,000 with the Russian forces. Civilian dead were 60,000. The following estimates of Ukrainian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 590,000: including military losses 450,000,(Erlikman did not break out military losses between Austro-Hungarian and Russian armed forces). Civilian dead were 140,000. TheBelgian Congowas part of the Kingdom of Belgium during the war. A Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia estimated a total of 155,000 deaths in the Belgian Congo during the war. Czechoslovakia was part of Austro-Hungary during the war. The estimates of Czechoslovak deaths within 1991 borders were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 185,000: including military losses 110,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 45,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 30,000.TheCzechoslovak Legionsfought with the armies of the Allies during the war. Estonia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 100,000 Estonians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed. From 1809 Finland was an autonomousGrand Duchyin theRussian Empireuntil the end of 1917. Finland's autonomous status meant that Finns were exempt from conscription into the Russian Army. Approximately 800 Finns voluntarily served during World War I.According to data regarding Finnish war casualties, 317 Finns were killed between 1914 and 1917. The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount up to 750,000. Total: 82,000 The following estimates of Georgian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Georgia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 150,000 Georgians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed. The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount up to 750,000. Total: 48,000 The following estimates of Hungarian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 385,000: including military losses 270,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 70,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 45,000. Ireland was a part of the United Kingdom during World War I. Five-sixths of the island left to form theIrish Free State, now theRepublic of Ireland, in 1922. A total of 206,000 Irishmen served in the British forces during the war.The number of Irish deaths in the British Army recorded by the registrar general was 27,405.A significant number of these casualties were from what, in 1920, becameNorthern Ireland. While 49,400 soldiers died serving in Irish divisions (the 10th, 16th and36th), although not all of the men serving in these divisions were natives of Ireland and many Irish who died in non-Irish regiments are not listed.For example, 29% of the casualties in the 16th Division were not natives of Ireland.Neither does it include Irish emigrants in Britain who enlisted there and are not categorised as Irish. Australia lists 4,731 of its first World War soldiers as having been born in Ireland and more than 19,000 Irish-born soldiers served in the Canadian Corps. According to research done by John Horne ofTrinity College Dublin, there are at least 30,986 soldiers who were born in Ireland that died; however, that's considered a \"conservative\" estimate and is very likely to raise. The losses ofPortuguese Mozambiquewere estimated by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.52,000 Poland was territory of Germany, Austria-Hungary and partially annexed by Russia, from 1795 to 1918. By late 1915, Germany had complete control over modern-day Poland. A 2005 Polish study estimated 3,376,800 Poles were conscripted into the armed forces of these countries during World War I, an additional 300,000 were conscripted for forced labor by the Germans. The Russians and Austrians forcibly resettled 1.6 to 1.8 million persons from the war zone in Poland.According to Micheal Clodfelter, Polish war dead were 1,080,000, whilst 200,000 Polish civilians were killed in the fighting on theEastern Front; 870,000 men served in the German, Austrian and Russian armies.Another estimate made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, put total Polish war dead at 640,000, including military losses of 270,000 Poles conscripted, civilian losses of 120,000 due to military operations and 250,000 caused by famine and disease.The ethnic PolishBlue Armyserved with the French Army. The ethnicPolish Legionsfought as part of the Austro-Hungarian Army on the Eastern Front. The territory ofTransylvaniawas part of Austria-Hungary during World War I. The following estimates of Romanian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 748,000, including military losses of 220,000 with the Romanian forces, 150,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 48,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 200,000, killed in military operations 120,000 and 10,000 dead in Austrian prisons. Britain recruited Indian, Chinese, nativeSouth African, Egyptian and other overseas labour to provide logistical support in the combat theatres.Included with British casualties in East Africa are the deaths of 44,911 recruited labourers.The CWGC reports that nearly 2,000 workers from the Chinese Labour Corps are buried with British war dead in France. The following estimates ofBritish Empirecolonial military deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia. Total: 18,000 The following estimates are for Yugoslavia within the 1991 borders. Slovenia,Croatia,BosniaandVojvodina(Now part of Serbia) were part of Austria-Hungary duringWorld War I.Serbia, which includedMacedonia, andMontenegrowas an independent nation. The Yugoslav historianVladimir Dedijerput the total losses of the Yugoslav lands at 1.9 million, of which 43% were from Serbia.The following estimates of Yugoslav deaths, within 1991 borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 996,000 including military losses, 260,000 with the Serbian forces, 80,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces, 13,000 with Montenegrin forces and POW deaths in captivity of 93,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 400,000, killed in military operations: 120,000 and 30,000 dead in Austrian prisons or executed. During World War I, the Nepalese army was expanded and six new regiments, totaling more than 20,000 troops—all volunteers—were sent to India, most of them to the North-West Frontier Province, to release British and Indian troops for service overseas. Simultaneously, the Nepalese government agreed to maintain recruitment at a level that would sustain the existing British Gurkha units and allow the establishment of additional ones. The battalions were increased to thirty-three with the addition of 55,000 new recruits and Gurkha units were placed at the disposal of the British high command for service on all fronts. Many volunteers were assigned to non-combat units, such as the Army Bearer Corps and the labour battalions but they also were in combat in France, Turkey, Palestine and Mesopotamia. The Rana prime ministers urged Nepalese males to fight in the war. Of the more than 200,000 Nepalese who served in the British army, there were some 20,000 Gurkha casualties included above with theBritish Indian Army. Footnotes ^aEast and Central Africa ^bAustralia ^cBelgium ^dCanada ^eFrance ^fGreece ^gIndia (British) ^hItaly ^iJapan ^kMontenegro ^lNew Zealand ^mNewfoundland ^nPortugal ^oRomania ^pRussian Empire ^qSerbia ^rSouth Africa ^sUnited Kingdom ^tUnited States ^uAustria-Hungary ^vBulgaria ^wGerman Empire ^xOttoman Empire ^yDenmark ^jLuxembourg ^zNorway ^azQajar Persia ^bzSweden ^czAlbania ^dzLiechtenstein Sources The source of population data is: See also References Further reading Other languages External links","World War II casualties World War IIwas thedeadliest military conflict in history. An estimated total of 70–85 million people perished, or about 3% of the estimated global population of 2.3 billion in 1940.Deaths directly caused by the war (including military and civilian fatalities) are estimated at 50–56 million, with an additional estimated 19–28 million deaths from war-related disease and famine.Civiliandeaths totaled 50–55 million.Military deathsfrom all causes totaled 21–25 million, including deaths in captivity of about 5 millionprisoners of war. More than half of the total number of casualties are accounted for by the dead of theRepublic of Chinaand of theSoviet Union. The following tables give a detailed country-by-country count of human losses. Statistics on the number of military wounded are included whenever available. Recent historical scholarship has shed new light on the topic of Second World Warcasualties. Research in Russia since thecollapse of the Soviet Unionhas caused a revision of estimates of Soviet World War II fatalities.According to Russian government figures, USSR losses within postwar borders now stand at 26.6 million,including 8 to 9 million due to famine and disease.In August 2009 the PolishInstitute of National Remembrance(IPN) researchers estimated Poland's dead at between 5.6 and 5.8 million.HistorianRüdiger Overmansof theMilitary History Research Office (Germany)published a study in 2000 estimating the German military dead and missing at 5.3 million, including 900,000 men conscripted from outside of Germany's 1937 borders, inAustria, and in east-centralEurope.TheRed Armyclaimed responsibility for the majority ofWehrmachtcasualties during World War II.ThePeople's Republic of Chinaputs its war dead at 20 million,while the Japanese government puts its casualties due to the war at 3.1 million.An estimated 7–10 million people died in theDutch,British,FrenchandUScolonies inSouthandSoutheast Asia, mostly from war-related famine. Classification of casualties Compiling or estimating the numbers ofdeaths and woundedcaused during wars and other violent conflicts is acontroversial subject. Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed and wounded during World War II.The authors of theOxford Companion to World War IImaintain that \"casualty statistics are notoriously unreliable\".The table below gives data on the number of dead and military wounded for each country, along with population information to show the relative impact of losses. When scholarly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers that the death toll is disputed. Since casualty statistics are sometimes disputed the footnotes to this article present the different estimates by official governmental sources as well as historians. Military figures includebattle deaths(KIA) andpersonnel missing in action(MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prisoners of war in captivity.Civilian casualtiesinclude deaths caused bystrategic bombing,Holocaust victims,German war crimes,Japanese war crimes,population transfers in the Soviet Union,Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war-related famine and disease. The sources for the casualties of the individual countries do not use the same methods, and civilian deaths due to starvation and disease make up a large proportion of the civilian deaths in China and the Soviet Union. The losses listed here are actual deaths; hypothetical losses due to a decline in births are not included with the total dead. The distinction between military and civilian casualties caused directly by warfare andcollateral damageis not always clear-cut. For states that suffered huge losses such as the Soviet Union, China, Poland, Germany, and Yugoslavia, sources can give only thetotal estimated population losscaused by the war and a rough estimate of the breakdown of deaths caused by military activity,crimes against humanityand war-related famine. The casualties listed here include 19 to 25 million war-related famine deaths in the USSR, China, Indonesia,Vietnam, the Philippines, andIndiathat are often omitted from other compilations of World War II casualties. Thefootnotesgive a detailed breakdown of the casualties and their sources, including data on the number of wounded where reliable sources are available. Human losses by country Total deaths by country Soviet Union The estimated breakdown for each Soviet republic of total war dead^AY4 The source of the figures isVadim Erlikman.Erlikman, a Russian historian, notes that these figures are his estimates. Nazi Germany United States Estimated breakdown for each US state and territory of total war dead This table displays the number of people who are believed to have died in the United States by state and territory.This list includes those who died at sea. Japanese Empire 1939 deaths Allied attacks Japanese persecution deaths % of 1939 population Holocaust deaths Included in the figures of total war dead for each country are victims of the Holocaust. Jewish deaths The Holocaustis the term generally used to describe thegenocideof approximately six million EuropeanJewsduring World War II.Martin Gilbertestimates 5.7 million (78%) of the 7.3 million Jews in German-occupied Europe were Holocaust victims.Estimates of Holocaust deaths range between 4.9 and 5.9 million Jews. The figures for the pre-war Jewish population and deaths in the table below are fromThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust.The low, high and average percentage figures for deaths of the pre-war population have been added. Non-Jews persecuted and killed by Nazi and Nazi-affiliated forces Some scholars maintain that the definition of the Holocaust should also include theother victims persecuted and killed by the Nazis. The following figures are fromThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, the authors maintain that \"statistics on Gypsy losses are especially unreliable and controversial. These figures (cited below) are based on necessarily rough estimates\". German war crimes During World War II, the German military helped fulfill Nazism's racial, political, and territorial ambitions. Long after the war, a myth persisted claiming the German military (or Wehrmacht) was not involved in the Holocaust and other crimes associated with Nazi genocidal policy. This belief is untrue. The German military participated in many aspects of the Holocaust: in supporting Hitler, in the use of forced labor, and in the mass murder of Jews and other groups targeted by the Nazis. The military's complicity extended not only to the generals and upper leadership but also to the rank and file. In addition, the war and genocidal policy were inextricably linked. The German army (or Heer) was the most complicit as a result of being on the ground in Germany's eastern campaigns, but all branches participated. —United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Nazi Germanyordered, organized and condoned a substantial number of war crimes in World War II. The most notable of these isthe Holocaustin which millions ofJews,Poles, andRomaniwere systematically murdered or died from abuse and mistreatment. Millions also died as a result of other German actions. While theNazi Party's ownSSforces (in particular theSS-Totenkopfverbände,EinsatzgruppenandWaffen-SS) of Nazi Germany was the organization most responsible for the genocidal killing of the Holocaust, the regular armed forces represented by theWehrmachtcommitted war crimes of their own, particularly on theEastern Frontin thewar against the Soviet Union. Japanese war crimes Included with total war dead are victims of Japanese war crimes. R. J. Rummel R. J. Rummelestimates the civilian victims of Japanesedemocideat 5,964,000. Detailed by country: Rummel estimates POW deaths in Japanese custody at 539,000. Detailed by country: Werner Gruhl Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian deaths at 20,365,000. Gruhl estimates POW deaths in Japanese captivity at 331,584. Out of 60,000 Indian Army POWs taken at the Fall of Singapore, 11,000 died in captivity.There were 14,657 deaths among the total 130,895western civilians interned by the Japanesedue to famine and disease. Oppression in the Soviet Union The total war dead in the USSR includes about 1 millionvictims ofStalin's regime. The number of deaths in theGulag labor campsincreased as a result of wartime overcrowding and food shortages.The Stalin regime deported the entire populations of ethnic minorities considered to be potentially disloyal.Since 1990 Russian scholars have been given access to the Soviet-era archives and have published data on the numbers of people executed and those who died in Gulag labor camps and prisons.The Russian scholarViktor Zemskovputs the death toll from 1941 to 1945 at about 1 million based on data from the Soviet archives.The Soviet-era archive figures on the Gulag labor camps has been the subject of a vigorous academic debate outside Russia since their publication in 1991.J. Arch GettyandStephen G. Wheatcroftmaintain that Soviet-era figures more accurately detail the victims of the Gulag labor camp system in the Stalin era.Robert ConquestandSteven Rosefieldehave disputed the accuracy of the data from the Soviet archives, maintaining that the demographic data and testimonials by survivors of the Gulag labor camps indicate a higher death toll.Rosefielde posits that the release of the Soviet Archive figures is disinformation generated by the modernKGB.Rosefielde maintains that the data from the Soviet archives is incomplete; for example, he pointed out that the figures do not include the 22,000 victims of theKatyn massacre.Rosefielde's demographic analysis puts the number of excess deaths due to Soviet repression at 2,183,000 in 1939–40 and 5,458,000 from 1941 to 1945.Michael Haynes and Rumy Husun accept the figures from the Soviet archives as being an accurate tally of Stalin's victims, they maintain that the demographic data depicts an underdeveloped Soviet economy and the losses in World War Two rather than indicating a higher death toll in the Gulag labor camps. In August 2009 the PolishInstitute of National Remembrance(IPN) researchers estimated 150,000 Polish citizens were killed due to Soviet repression. Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation.Andrzej Paczkowskiputs the number of Polish deaths at 90,000–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets.In 2005Tadeusz Piotrowskiestimated the death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000. The Estonian State Commission for the Examination of Repressive Policies Carried out During the Occupations put civilian deaths due to theSoviet occupationin 1940–1941 at 33,900 including (7,800 deaths) of arrested people, (6,000) deportee deaths, (5,000) evacuee deaths, (1,100) people gone missing and (14,000) conscripted for forced labor. After the reoccupation by the USSR, 5,000 Estonians died in Soviet prisons during 1944–45. The following is a summary of the data from the Soviet archives:Reported deaths for the years 1939–1945 1,187,783, including: judicial executions 46,350; deaths in Gulag labor camps 718,804; deaths in labor colonies and prisons 422,629. Deported tospecial settlements: (figures are for deportations to Special Settlements only, not including those executed, sent to Gulag labor camps or conscripted into the Soviet Army. Nor do the figures include additional deportations after the war).Deported from annexed territories 1940–41 380,000 to 390,000 persons, including: Poland 309–312,000; Lithuania 17,500; Latvia 17,000; Estonia 6,000; Moldova 22,842.In August 1941, 243,106 Poles living in the Special Settlements were amnestied and released by the Soviets.Deported during the War 1941–1945 about 2.3 million persons of Soviet ethnic minorities including:Soviet Germans1,209,000; Finns 9,000;Karachays69,000;Kalmyks92,000;ChechensandIngush479,000;Balkars37,000;Crimean Tatars191,014;Meskhetian Turks91,000; Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians from Crimea 42,000; UkrainianOUNmembers 100,000; Poles 30,000.A total of 2,230,500persons were living in the settlements in October 1945 and 309,100 deaths were reported in special settlements for the years 1941–1948. Russian sources list Axisprisoner of wardeaths of 580,589 in Soviet captivity based on data in the Soviet archives (Germany 381,067; Hungary 54,755; Romania 54,612; Italy 27,683; Finland 403, and Japan 62,069).However, some western scholars estimate the total at between 1.7 and 2.3 million. Military casualties by branch of service Commonwealth military casualties TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) Annual Report 2014–2015is the source of the military dead for theBritish Empire. The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The statistics tabulated by the CWGC are representative of the number of names commemorated for all servicemen/women of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth and former UK Dependencies, whose death was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and civilian organizations are also accorded war grave status if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For the purposes of CWGC the dates of inclusion for Commonwealth War Dead are 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947. See also Footnotes ^AAlbania ^BAustralia ^CAustria ^DBelgium ^EBrazil ^FBulgaria ^GBurma ^HCanada ^IChinaSources for total Chinese war dead are divergent and range from 10 to 20 million as detailed below. ^JCuba ^KCzechoslovakia ^LDenmark ^MDutch East Indies ^MAEgypt ^NEstonia ^OEthiopia ^PFinland ^QFrance ^RFrench Indochina ^SGermanyThe following notes summarize German casualties, the details are presented inGerman casualties in World War II. German population Total German war dead German military casualties Civilian Casualties Civilian casualties in air raids 1- The summary report of September 30, 1945 put total casualties for the entire period of the war at 305,000 killed and 780,000 wounded.2- The sectionEffects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economyof October 31, 1945 put the losses at 375,000 killed and 625,000 wounded.3- The sectionThe Effect of Bombing on Health and Medical Care in Germanyof January 1947 made a preliminary calculated estimate of air raid dead at 422,000. Regarding overall losses, they concluded that \"It was further estimated that an additional number, approximately 25% of known deaths in 1944–45, were still unrecovered and unrecorded. With an addition of this estimate of 1944–45 unrecorded deaths, the final estimation gave in round numbers a half a million German civilians killed by Allied aerial attacks.\" Civilians killed in 1945 military campaign Deaths due to Nazi political, racial and religious persecution Expulsion and flight of ethnic GermansThe following notes summarize German expulsion casualties, the details are presented in theflight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950), theforced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union' and theDemographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans. The figures for these losses are currently disputed, estimates of the total deaths range from 500,000 to 2,000,000. The death toll attributable to the flight and expulsions was estimated at 2.2 million by the West German government in 1958.German government reports which were released to the public in 1987 and 1989 have caused some historians in Germany to put the actual total at 500,000 to 600,000.English language sources put the death toll at 2 to 3 million based on the West German government statistical analysis of the 1950s. German government figures of 2.0 to 2.5 million civilian deaths due to expulsions have been disputed by scholars since the publication of the results of the German church search service survey and the report by theGerman Federal Archive. Post war increase in natural deaths ^TGreece ^TAGuam ^UHungary ^VIceland ^WIndia Bengal famine of 1943 ^YIraq ^ZIreland ^AAItaly Military war deadConfirmed deadwere 159,957 (92,767 pre-armistice, 67,090 post armistice)Missing and presumed dead(including POWs)were 131,419 (111,579 pre-armistice, 19,840 post armistice)Losses by branch of service: Army 201,405; Navy 22,034; Air Force 9,096; Colonial Forces 354;Chaplains91;Fascistmilitia10,066;Paramilitary3,252; not indicated 45,078.Military Losses by theatre of war: Italy 74,725 (37,573 post armistice); France 2,060 (1,039 post armistice);Germany 25,430 (24,020 post armistice); Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia 49,459 (10,090 post armistice);USSR 82,079 (3,522 post armistice); Africa 22,341 (1,565 post armistice), at sea 28,438 (5,526 post armistice);other and unknown 6,844 (3,695 post armistice). ^ABJapan Military dead Key:Location, Army dead,Navy dead,(Total dead)Japan Proper: 58,100,45,800,(103,900)Bonin Islands: 2,700,12,500,(15,200)Okinawa: 67,900,21,500,(89,400)Formosa (Taiwan): 28,500,10,600,(39,100)Korea: 19,600,6,900,(26,500)Sakhalin, the Aleutian, and Kuril Islands: 8,200,3,200,(11,400)Manchuria: 45,900,800,(46,700)China (inc. Hong Kong): 435,600,20,100,(455,700)Siberia: 52,300,400,(52,700)Central Pacific: 95,800,151,400,(247,200)Philippines: 377,500,121,100,(498,600)French Indochina: 7,900,4,500,(12,400)Thailand: 6,900,100,(7,000)Burma (inc. India): 163,000,1,500,(164,500)Malaya & Singapore: 8,500,2,900,(11,400)Andaman & Nicobar Islands: 900,1,500,(2,400)Sumatra: 2,700,500,(3,200)Java: 2,700,3,800,(6,500)Lesser Sundas: 51,800,1,200,(53,000)Borneo: 11,300,6,700,(18,000)Celebes: 1,500,4,000,(5,500)Moluccas: 2,600,1,800,(4,400)New Guinea: 112,400,15,200,(127,600)Bismarck Archipelago: 19,700,10,800,(30,500)Solomon Islands: 63,200,25,000,(88,200)Total: 1,647,200,473,800,(2,121,000) Overall, perhaps two thirds of all Japanese military dead came not from combat, but from starvation and disease.In some cases this figure was potentially even higher, up to 80% in the Philippinesand a staggering 97% in New Guinea. ArmyChina after Pearl Harbor202,958 killed and 88,920 wounded.vs. United States485,717 killed and 34,679 wounded.vs. U.K. and Netherlands208,026 killed and 139,225 wounded.vs. Australia199,511 killed and 15,000 wounded.French Indochina2,803 killed and 6,000 wounded.Manchuria & USSR7,483 killed and 4,641 wounded.other overseas23,388 killed and 0 wounded.Japan proper10,543 killed and 6,782 wounded.Army total1,140,429 killed and 295,247 wounded.NavySailors300,386 killed and 12,275 wounded and missing.Civilians in Navy service114,493 killed and 1,880 wounded and missing.Navy total414,879 killed and 14,155 wounded and missing. Civilian Dead 1-Summary Report (July 1946)Total civilian casualties in Japan, as a result of 9 months of air attack, including those from the atomic bombs, were approximately 806,000. Of these, approximately 330,000 were fatalities. 2-United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Medical Division (1947)The bombing of Japan killed 333,000 civilians and injured 473,000. Of this total 120,000 died and 160,000 were injured in the atomic bombings, leaving 213,000 dead and 313,000 injured by conventional bombing. 3-The effects of air attack on Japanese urban economy. Summary report (1947)Estimated that 252,769 Japanese were killed and 298,650 injured in the air war. 4-The Effects of strategic bombing on Japanese moraleBased on a survey of Japanese households the death toll was put at 900,000 dead and 1.3 million injured, the SBS noted that this figure was subject to a maximum sampling error of 30%. 5-Strategic Bombing Survey The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and NagasakiThe most striking result of the atomic bombs was the great number of casualties. The exact number of dead and injured will never be known because of the confusion after the explosions. Persons unaccounted for might have been burned beyond recognition in the falling buildings, disposed of in one of the mass cremations of the first week of recovery, or driven out of the city to die or recover without any record remaining. No sure count of even the prepaid populations existed. Because of the decline in activity in the two port cities, the constant threat of incendiary raids, and the formal evacuation programs of the Government, an unknown number of the inhabitants had either drifter away from the cities or been removed according to plan. In this uncertain situation, estimates of casualties have generally ranged between 100,000 and 180,000 for Hiroshima, and between 50,000 and 100,000 for Nagasaki. The Survey believes the dead at Hiroshima to have been between 70,000 and 80,000, with an equal number injured; at Nagasaki over 35,000 dead and somewhat more than that injured seems the most plausible estimate. ^ACKorea ^ADLatvia ^AELithuania ^AFLuxembourg ^AGMalaya and Singapore ^AHMalta1,493 civilians were killed and 3,734 wounded during theSiege of Malta (World War II)Maltese civilians killed during the siege are also included with U.K. civilian deaths by theCommonwealth War Graves Commission. ^AIMexico ^AJMongolia ^AKNauru ^ALNepal ^AMNetherlands Military deaths6,750 which included 3,900 regular Army, 2,600 Navy forces, and 250 POW in Germany.Civilian deathsof 203,250 which included 1,350 Merchant seaman, 2,800 executed, 2,500 dead in Dutch concentration camps,20,400 killed by acts of war, 104,000 Jewish Holocaust dead, 18,000 political prisoners in Germany, 27,000 workers in Germany,3,700 Dutch nationals in the German armed forces and 7,500 missing and presumed dead in Germany and 16,000 deathsin theDutch famine of 1944. Not Included in the figure of 210,000 war dead are 70,000 \"indirect war casualties\",which are attributed to an increase innatural deathsfrom 1940 to 1945 and 1,650 foreign nationals killed while serving in theDutch Merchant Marine. ^ANNewfoundland ^AONew Zealand ^APNorway Military(Norwegian & Allied Forces)2,000 (800 Army, 900 Navy and 100 Air).Civilians7,500 (3,600 Merchant seaman, 1,500 resistance fighters, 1,800 civilians killed and 600 Jews killed)In German Armed Forces700 ^AQPapua New Guinea ^ARPhilippines ^ASPoland Total Polish war dead Polish losses during the Soviet occupation (1939–1941) Polish military casualties ^ATTimor ^AURomania ^AVRuanda Urundi ^AWSouth Africa ^AXSouth Seas Mandate The following notes summarize Soviet casualties, the details are presented inWorld War II casualties of the Soviet Union. ^AZSpain ^BASweden ^BBSwitzerland ^BCThailand ^BDTurkey ^BEUnited Kingdom and Colonies Total war deadof 357,116; Navy (50,758); Army (144,079); Air Force (69,606);Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service(624);Merchant Navy(30,248);British Home Guard(1,206) and Civilians (60,595).The total still missing on 2/28/1946were 6,244; Navy (340); Army (2,267); Air Force (3,089);Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service(18);Merchant Navy(530);British Home Guard(0) and Civilians (0).These figures included the losses ofNewfoundlandandSouthern Rhodesia.Colonial forces are not included in these figures.There were an additional 31,271 military deaths due to \"natural causes\" which are not included in these figures.Deaths due to air and V-rocket attacks were 60,595 civilians and 1,206British Home Guard. ^BFUnited StatesAmerican military dead#^BF1 American civilian dead#^BF2 ^BGYugoslavia The losses of Yugoslav collaborators The reasons for the high human toll in Yugoslavia were as followsA.Military operationsbetween the occupying German military forces and their \"Quislings and collaborators\" against theYugoslav resistance.B. German forces, under express orders from Hitler, fought with a specialvengeance against the Serbs, who were consideredUntermensch.One of the worst one-day massacres during the German military occupation of Serbia was theKragujevac massacre.C. Deliberate acts of reprisal against target populations were perpetrated by all combatants. All sides practiced the shooting of hostages on a large scale. At the end of the war, manyUstašeand Slovene collaborators were killed in or as a result of theYugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators.D. The systematic extermination of large numbers of people for political, religious or racial reasons. The most numerous victims wereSerbs.According toYad Vashem, \"During their four years in power, the Ustasa carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000, expelling 250,000 and forcing another 200,000 to convert to Catholicism. The Ustasa also killed most of Croatia's Jews, 20,000 Gypsies, and many thousands of their political enemies.\"According to theUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum\"The Croat authorities murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Ustaša rule; more than 30,000 Croatian Jews were killed either in Croatia or at Auschwitz-Birkenau\".TheUSHMMreports between 77,000 and 99,000 persons were killed at theJasenovacandStara Gradiškaconcentration camps.The Jasenovac Memorial Site quotes a similar figure of between 80,000 and 100,000 victims.Stara Gradiškawas a sub-camp of Jasenovac established for women and children.The names and data for 12,790 victims at Stara Gradiška have been established.Serbian sources currently claim that 700,000 persons were murdered atJasenovac.Some 40,000Romawere murdered.Jewish victims in Yugoslavia totaled 67,122.E. Reduced food supply caused famine and disease.F. Allied bombing of German supply lines caused civilian casualties. The hardest hit localities werePodgorica,Leskovac,ZadarandBelgrade.G. The demographic losses due to the reduction of 335,000 births and emigration of about 660,000 are not included with war casualties. ^BHOther Nations References Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"World War I casualties The total number ofmilitaryandcivilian casualtiesinWorld War Iwas about 40 million: estimates range from around 15 to 22 million deathsand about 23 million wounded military personnel, ranking it among the deadliest conflicts in human history. The total number of deaths includes from 9 to 11 millionmilitary personnel. Theciviliandeath toll was about 6 to 13 million.TheTriple Entente(also known as theAllies) lost about 6 million military personnel while theCentral Powerslost about 4 million. At least 2 million died from diseases and 6 million went missing, presumed dead. This article lists the casualties of the belligerent powers based on official published sources. About two-thirds of military deaths in World War I were in battle, unlike the conflicts that took place in the 19th century when the majority of deaths were due to disease. Nevertheless, disease, including the1918 flu pandemicand deaths while held asprisoners of war, still caused about one third of total military deaths for all belligerents. Classification of casualty statistics Casualty statistics for World War I vary to a great extent; estimates of total deaths range from 9 million to over 15 million.Military casualties reported in official sources list deaths due to all causes, including an estimated 7 to 8 million combat related deaths (killed or died of wounds) and another two to three million military deaths caused by accidents, disease and deaths whileprisoners of war. Official government reports listing casualty statistics were published by the United States and Great Britain.Thesesecondary sourcespublished during the 1920s, are the source of the statistics in reference works listing casualties in World War I.This article summarizes the casualty statistics published in the official government reports of the United States and Great Britain as well as France, Italy, Belgium, Germany, Austria and Russia. More recently the research of theCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) has revised the military casualty statistics of the UK and its allies; they include in their listing of military war dead personnel outside of combat theaters and civilians recruited from Africa, the Middle East andChinawho provided logistical and service support in combat theaters.The casualties of these support personnel recruited outside of Europe were previously not included with British war dead, however the casualties of theLabour Corpsrecruited from the British Isles were included in the rolls of British war dead published in 1921.The methodology used by each nation to record and classify casualties was not uniform, a general caveat regarding casualty figures is that they cannot be considered comparable in all cases.First World War civilian deaths are \\\"hazardous to estimate\\\" according to Micheal Clodfelter who maintains that \\\"the generally accepted figure ofnoncombatantdeaths is 6.5 million.\\\" Casualties in the borders of 1914–1918 2,101,077 The source of population data is: Haythornthwaite, Philip J.,The World War One Source Bookpp. 382–383 Casualties by post-war (1924) borders The war involved multi-ethnic empires such as Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. Many ethnic groups in these territories were conscripted for military service. The casualties listed by modern borders are also included in the above table of figures for the countries that existed in 1914. The casualty figures by 1924 post war borders are rough estimates by Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, the sources of his figures were published in the Soviet era and in post-Soviet Russia.According to the 1914–1918 Online Encyclopedia \\\"In addition to losses suffered by African military personnel and the laborers supporting their operations, very large, but unknown numbers of African civilians perished during the war.\\\" They made an estimate of civilian losses in Africa of 750,000 based on the study by the Vadim Erlikman. They noted that Erlikman's figures are based on the work of the Russian demographer Boris Urlanis, they noted that these estimates were \\\"imprecise\\\" and \\\"could be used to provide a frame of reference for further inquiry\\\".TheOxford History of World War Onenotes that \\\"In east and central Africa the harshness of the war resulted in acute shortages of food with famine in some areas, a weakening of populations, and epidemic diseases which killed hundreds of thousands of people and also cattle.\\\" The following estimates of Austrian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 175,000: including military losses 120,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 30,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 25,000. The following estimates of Belarusian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 130,000: including military losses 70,000 with the Russian forces. Civilian dead were 60,000. The following estimates of Ukrainian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 590,000: including military losses 450,000,(Erlikman did not break out military losses between Austro-Hungarian and Russian armed forces). Civilian dead were 140,000. TheBelgian Congowas part of the Kingdom of Belgium during the war. A Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia estimated a total of 155,000 deaths in the Belgian Congo during the war. Czechoslovakia was part of Austro-Hungary during the war. The estimates of Czechoslovak deaths within 1991 borders were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 185,000: including military losses 110,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 45,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 30,000.TheCzechoslovak Legionsfought with the armies of the Allies during the war. Estonia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 100,000 Estonians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed. From 1809 Finland was an autonomousGrand Duchyin theRussian Empireuntil the end of 1917. Finland's autonomous status meant that Finns were exempt from conscription into the Russian Army. Approximately 800 Finns voluntarily served during World War I.According to data regarding Finnish war casualties, 317 Finns were killed between 1914 and 1917. The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount up to 750,000. Total: 82,000 The following estimates of Georgian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Georgia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 150,000 Georgians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed. The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount up to 750,000. Total: 48,000 The following estimates of Hungarian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 385,000: including military losses 270,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 70,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 45,000. Ireland was a part of the United Kingdom during World War I. Five-sixths of the island left to form theIrish Free State, now theRepublic of Ireland, in 1922. A total of 206,000 Irishmen served in the British forces during the war.The number of Irish deaths in the British Army recorded by the registrar general was 27,405.A significant number of these casualties were from what, in 1920, becameNorthern Ireland. While 49,400 soldiers died serving in Irish divisions (the 10th, 16th and36th), although not all of the men serving in these divisions were natives of Ireland and many Irish who died in non-Irish regiments are not listed.For example, 29% of the casualties in the 16th Division were not natives of Ireland.Neither does it include Irish emigrants in Britain who enlisted there and are not categorised as Irish. Australia lists 4,731 of its first World War soldiers as having been born in Ireland and more than 19,000 Irish-born soldiers served in the Canadian Corps. According to research done by John Horne ofTrinity College Dublin, there are at least 30,986 soldiers who were born in Ireland that died; however, that's considered a \\\"conservative\\\" estimate and is very likely to raise. The losses ofPortuguese Mozambiquewere estimated by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.52,000 Poland was territory of Germany, Austria-Hungary and partially annexed by Russia, from 1795 to 1918. By late 1915, Germany had complete control over modern-day Poland. A 2005 Polish study estimated 3,376,800 Poles were conscripted into the armed forces of these countries during World War I, an additional 300,000 were conscripted for forced labor by the Germans. The Russians and Austrians forcibly resettled 1.6 to 1.8 million persons from the war zone in Poland.According to Micheal Clodfelter, Polish war dead were 1,080,000, whilst 200,000 Polish civilians were killed in the fighting on theEastern Front; 870,000 men served in the German, Austrian and Russian armies.Another estimate made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, put total Polish war dead at 640,000, including military losses of 270,000 Poles conscripted, civilian losses of 120,000 due to military operations and 250,000 caused by famine and disease.The ethnic PolishBlue Armyserved with the French Army. The ethnicPolish Legionsfought as part of the Austro-Hungarian Army on the Eastern Front. The territory ofTransylvaniawas part of Austria-Hungary during World War I. The following estimates of Romanian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 748,000, including military losses of 220,000 with the Romanian forces, 150,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 48,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 200,000, killed in military operations 120,000 and 10,000 dead in Austrian prisons. Britain recruited Indian, Chinese, nativeSouth African, Egyptian and other overseas labour to provide logistical support in the combat theatres.Included with British casualties in East Africa are the deaths of 44,911 recruited labourers.The CWGC reports that nearly 2,000 workers from the Chinese Labour Corps are buried with British war dead in France. The following estimates ofBritish Empirecolonial military deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia. Total: 18,000 The following estimates are for Yugoslavia within the 1991 borders. Slovenia,Croatia,BosniaandVojvodina(Now part of Serbia) were part of Austria-Hungary duringWorld War I.Serbia, which includedMacedonia, andMontenegrowas an independent nation. The Yugoslav historianVladimir Dedijerput the total losses of the Yugoslav lands at 1.9 million, of which 43% were from Serbia.The following estimates of Yugoslav deaths, within 1991 borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 996,000 including military losses, 260,000 with the Serbian forces, 80,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces, 13,000 with Montenegrin forces and POW deaths in captivity of 93,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 400,000, killed in military operations: 120,000 and 30,000 dead in Austrian prisons or executed. During World War I, the Nepalese army was expanded and six new regiments, totaling more than 20,000 troops—all volunteers—were sent to India, most of them to the North-West Frontier Province, to release British and Indian troops for service overseas. Simultaneously, the Nepalese government agreed to maintain recruitment at a level that would sustain the existing British Gurkha units and allow the establishment of additional ones. The battalions were increased to thirty-three with the addition of 55,000 new recruits and Gurkha units were placed at the disposal of the British high command for service on all fronts. Many volunteers were assigned to non-combat units, such as the Army Bearer Corps and the labour battalions but they also were in combat in France, Turkey, Palestine and Mesopotamia. The Rana prime ministers urged Nepalese males to fight in the war. Of the more than 200,000 Nepalese who served in the British army, there were some 20,000 Gurkha casualties included above with theBritish Indian Army. Footnotes ^aEast and Central Africa ^bAustralia ^cBelgium ^dCanada ^eFrance ^fGreece ^gIndia (British) ^hItaly ^iJapan ^kMontenegro ^lNew Zealand ^mNewfoundland ^nPortugal ^oRomania ^pRussian Empire ^qSerbia ^rSouth Africa ^sUnited Kingdom ^tUnited States ^uAustria-Hungary ^vBulgaria ^wGerman Empire ^xOttoman Empire ^yDenmark ^jLuxembourg ^zNorway ^azQajar Persia ^bzSweden ^czAlbania ^dzLiechtenstein Sources The source of population data is: See also References Further reading Other languages External links\",\n \"World War II casualties World War IIwas thedeadliest military conflict in history. An estimated total of 70–85 million people perished, or about 3% of the estimated global population of 2.3 billion in 1940.Deaths directly caused by the war (including military and civilian fatalities) are estimated at 50–56 million, with an additional estimated 19–28 million deaths from war-related disease and famine.Civiliandeaths totaled 50–55 million.Military deathsfrom all causes totaled 21–25 million, including deaths in captivity of about 5 millionprisoners of war. More than half of the total number of casualties are accounted for by the dead of theRepublic of Chinaand of theSoviet Union. The following tables give a detailed country-by-country count of human losses. Statistics on the number of military wounded are included whenever available. Recent historical scholarship has shed new light on the topic of Second World Warcasualties. Research in Russia since thecollapse of the Soviet Unionhas caused a revision of estimates of Soviet World War II fatalities.According to Russian government figures, USSR losses within postwar borders now stand at 26.6 million,including 8 to 9 million due to famine and disease.In August 2009 the PolishInstitute of National Remembrance(IPN) researchers estimated Poland's dead at between 5.6 and 5.8 million.HistorianRüdiger Overmansof theMilitary History Research Office (Germany)published a study in 2000 estimating the German military dead and missing at 5.3 million, including 900,000 men conscripted from outside of Germany's 1937 borders, inAustria, and in east-centralEurope.TheRed Armyclaimed responsibility for the majority ofWehrmachtcasualties during World War II.ThePeople's Republic of Chinaputs its war dead at 20 million,while the Japanese government puts its casualties due to the war at 3.1 million.An estimated 7–10 million people died in theDutch,British,FrenchandUScolonies inSouthandSoutheast Asia, mostly from war-related famine. Classification of casualties Compiling or estimating the numbers ofdeaths and woundedcaused during wars and other violent conflicts is acontroversial subject. Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed and wounded during World War II.The authors of theOxford Companion to World War IImaintain that \\\"casualty statistics are notoriously unreliable\\\".The table below gives data on the number of dead and military wounded for each country, along with population information to show the relative impact of losses. When scholarly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers that the death toll is disputed. Since casualty statistics are sometimes disputed the footnotes to this article present the different estimates by official governmental sources as well as historians. Military figures includebattle deaths(KIA) andpersonnel missing in action(MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prisoners of war in captivity.Civilian casualtiesinclude deaths caused bystrategic bombing,Holocaust victims,German war crimes,Japanese war crimes,population transfers in the Soviet Union,Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war-related famine and disease. The sources for the casualties of the individual countries do not use the same methods, and civilian deaths due to starvation and disease make up a large proportion of the civilian deaths in China and the Soviet Union. The losses listed here are actual deaths; hypothetical losses due to a decline in births are not included with the total dead. The distinction between military and civilian casualties caused directly by warfare andcollateral damageis not always clear-cut. For states that suffered huge losses such as the Soviet Union, China, Poland, Germany, and Yugoslavia, sources can give only thetotal estimated population losscaused by the war and a rough estimate of the breakdown of deaths caused by military activity,crimes against humanityand war-related famine. The casualties listed here include 19 to 25 million war-related famine deaths in the USSR, China, Indonesia,Vietnam, the Philippines, andIndiathat are often omitted from other compilations of World War II casualties. Thefootnotesgive a detailed breakdown of the casualties and their sources, including data on the number of wounded where reliable sources are available. Human losses by country Total deaths by country Soviet Union The estimated breakdown for each Soviet republic of total war dead^AY4 The source of the figures isVadim Erlikman.Erlikman, a Russian historian, notes that these figures are his estimates. Nazi Germany United States Estimated breakdown for each US state and territory of total war dead This table displays the number of people who are believed to have died in the United States by state and territory.This list includes those who died at sea. Japanese Empire 1939 deaths Allied attacks Japanese persecution deaths % of 1939 population Holocaust deaths Included in the figures of total war dead for each country are victims of the Holocaust. Jewish deaths The Holocaustis the term generally used to describe thegenocideof approximately six million EuropeanJewsduring World War II.Martin Gilbertestimates 5.7 million (78%) of the 7.3 million Jews in German-occupied Europe were Holocaust victims.Estimates of Holocaust deaths range between 4.9 and 5.9 million Jews. The figures for the pre-war Jewish population and deaths in the table below are fromThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust.The low, high and average percentage figures for deaths of the pre-war population have been added. Non-Jews persecuted and killed by Nazi and Nazi-affiliated forces Some scholars maintain that the definition of the Holocaust should also include theother victims persecuted and killed by the Nazis. The following figures are fromThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, the authors maintain that \\\"statistics on Gypsy losses are especially unreliable and controversial. These figures (cited below) are based on necessarily rough estimates\\\". German war crimes During World War II, the German military helped fulfill Nazism's racial, political, and territorial ambitions. Long after the war, a myth persisted claiming the German military (or Wehrmacht) was not involved in the Holocaust and other crimes associated with Nazi genocidal policy. This belief is untrue. The German military participated in many aspects of the Holocaust: in supporting Hitler, in the use of forced labor, and in the mass murder of Jews and other groups targeted by the Nazis. The military's complicity extended not only to the generals and upper leadership but also to the rank and file. In addition, the war and genocidal policy were inextricably linked. The German army (or Heer) was the most complicit as a result of being on the ground in Germany's eastern campaigns, but all branches participated. —United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Nazi Germanyordered, organized and condoned a substantial number of war crimes in World War II. The most notable of these isthe Holocaustin which millions ofJews,Poles, andRomaniwere systematically murdered or died from abuse and mistreatment. Millions also died as a result of other German actions. While theNazi Party's ownSSforces (in particular theSS-Totenkopfverbände,EinsatzgruppenandWaffen-SS) of Nazi Germany was the organization most responsible for the genocidal killing of the Holocaust, the regular armed forces represented by theWehrmachtcommitted war crimes of their own, particularly on theEastern Frontin thewar against the Soviet Union. Japanese war crimes Included with total war dead are victims of Japanese war crimes. R. J. Rummel R. J. Rummelestimates the civilian victims of Japanesedemocideat 5,964,000. Detailed by country: Rummel estimates POW deaths in Japanese custody at 539,000. Detailed by country: Werner Gruhl Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian deaths at 20,365,000. Gruhl estimates POW deaths in Japanese captivity at 331,584. Out of 60,000 Indian Army POWs taken at the Fall of Singapore, 11,000 died in captivity.There were 14,657 deaths among the total 130,895western civilians interned by the Japanesedue to famine and disease. Oppression in the Soviet Union The total war dead in the USSR includes about 1 millionvictims ofStalin's regime. The number of deaths in theGulag labor campsincreased as a result of wartime overcrowding and food shortages.The Stalin regime deported the entire populations of ethnic minorities considered to be potentially disloyal.Since 1990 Russian scholars have been given access to the Soviet-era archives and have published data on the numbers of people executed and those who died in Gulag labor camps and prisons.The Russian scholarViktor Zemskovputs the death toll from 1941 to 1945 at about 1 million based on data from the Soviet archives.The Soviet-era archive figures on the Gulag labor camps has been the subject of a vigorous academic debate outside Russia since their publication in 1991.J. Arch GettyandStephen G. Wheatcroftmaintain that Soviet-era figures more accurately detail the victims of the Gulag labor camp system in the Stalin era.Robert ConquestandSteven Rosefieldehave disputed the accuracy of the data from the Soviet archives, maintaining that the demographic data and testimonials by survivors of the Gulag labor camps indicate a higher death toll.Rosefielde posits that the release of the Soviet Archive figures is disinformation generated by the modernKGB.Rosefielde maintains that the data from the Soviet archives is incomplete; for example, he pointed out that the figures do not include the 22,000 victims of theKatyn massacre.Rosefielde's demographic analysis puts the number of excess deaths due to Soviet repression at 2,183,000 in 1939–40 and 5,458,000 from 1941 to 1945.Michael Haynes and Rumy Husun accept the figures from the Soviet archives as being an accurate tally of Stalin's victims, they maintain that the demographic data depicts an underdeveloped Soviet economy and the losses in World War Two rather than indicating a higher death toll in the Gulag labor camps. In August 2009 the PolishInstitute of National Remembrance(IPN) researchers estimated 150,000 Polish citizens were killed due to Soviet repression. Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation.Andrzej Paczkowskiputs the number of Polish deaths at 90,000–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets.In 2005Tadeusz Piotrowskiestimated the death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000. The Estonian State Commission for the Examination of Repressive Policies Carried out During the Occupations put civilian deaths due to theSoviet occupationin 1940–1941 at 33,900 including (7,800 deaths) of arrested people, (6,000) deportee deaths, (5,000) evacuee deaths, (1,100) people gone missing and (14,000) conscripted for forced labor. After the reoccupation by the USSR, 5,000 Estonians died in Soviet prisons during 1944–45. The following is a summary of the data from the Soviet archives:Reported deaths for the years 1939–1945 1,187,783, including: judicial executions 46,350; deaths in Gulag labor camps 718,804; deaths in labor colonies and prisons 422,629. Deported tospecial settlements: (figures are for deportations to Special Settlements only, not including those executed, sent to Gulag labor camps or conscripted into the Soviet Army. Nor do the figures include additional deportations after the war).Deported from annexed territories 1940–41 380,000 to 390,000 persons, including: Poland 309–312,000; Lithuania 17,500; Latvia 17,000; Estonia 6,000; Moldova 22,842.In August 1941, 243,106 Poles living in the Special Settlements were amnestied and released by the Soviets.Deported during the War 1941–1945 about 2.3 million persons of Soviet ethnic minorities including:Soviet Germans1,209,000; Finns 9,000;Karachays69,000;Kalmyks92,000;ChechensandIngush479,000;Balkars37,000;Crimean Tatars191,014;Meskhetian Turks91,000; Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians from Crimea 42,000; UkrainianOUNmembers 100,000; Poles 30,000.A total of 2,230,500persons were living in the settlements in October 1945 and 309,100 deaths were reported in special settlements for the years 1941–1948. Russian sources list Axisprisoner of wardeaths of 580,589 in Soviet captivity based on data in the Soviet archives (Germany 381,067; Hungary 54,755; Romania 54,612; Italy 27,683; Finland 403, and Japan 62,069).However, some western scholars estimate the total at between 1.7 and 2.3 million. Military casualties by branch of service Commonwealth military casualties TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) Annual Report 2014–2015is the source of the military dead for theBritish Empire. The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The statistics tabulated by the CWGC are representative of the number of names commemorated for all servicemen/women of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth and former UK Dependencies, whose death was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and civilian organizations are also accorded war grave status if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For the purposes of CWGC the dates of inclusion for Commonwealth War Dead are 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947. See also Footnotes ^AAlbania ^BAustralia ^CAustria ^DBelgium ^EBrazil ^FBulgaria ^GBurma ^HCanada ^IChinaSources for total Chinese war dead are divergent and range from 10 to 20 million as detailed below. ^JCuba ^KCzechoslovakia ^LDenmark ^MDutch East Indies ^MAEgypt ^NEstonia ^OEthiopia ^PFinland ^QFrance ^RFrench Indochina ^SGermanyThe following notes summarize German casualties, the details are presented inGerman casualties in World War II. German population Total German war dead German military casualties Civilian Casualties Civilian casualties in air raids 1- The summary report of September 30, 1945 put total casualties for the entire period of the war at 305,000 killed and 780,000 wounded.2- The sectionEffects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economyof October 31, 1945 put the losses at 375,000 killed and 625,000 wounded.3- The sectionThe Effect of Bombing on Health and Medical Care in Germanyof January 1947 made a preliminary calculated estimate of air raid dead at 422,000. Regarding overall losses, they concluded that \\\"It was further estimated that an additional number, approximately 25% of known deaths in 1944–45, were still unrecovered and unrecorded. With an addition of this estimate of 1944–45 unrecorded deaths, the final estimation gave in round numbers a half a million German civilians killed by Allied aerial attacks.\\\" Civilians killed in 1945 military campaign Deaths due to Nazi political, racial and religious persecution Expulsion and flight of ethnic GermansThe following notes summarize German expulsion casualties, the details are presented in theflight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950), theforced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union' and theDemographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans. The figures for these losses are currently disputed, estimates of the total deaths range from 500,000 to 2,000,000. The death toll attributable to the flight and expulsions was estimated at 2.2 million by the West German government in 1958.German government reports which were released to the public in 1987 and 1989 have caused some historians in Germany to put the actual total at 500,000 to 600,000.English language sources put the death toll at 2 to 3 million based on the West German government statistical analysis of the 1950s. German government figures of 2.0 to 2.5 million civilian deaths due to expulsions have been disputed by scholars since the publication of the results of the German church search service survey and the report by theGerman Federal Archive. Post war increase in natural deaths ^TGreece ^TAGuam ^UHungary ^VIceland ^WIndia Bengal famine of 1943 ^YIraq ^ZIreland ^AAItaly Military war deadConfirmed deadwere 159,957 (92,767 pre-armistice, 67,090 post armistice)Missing and presumed dead(including POWs)were 131,419 (111,579 pre-armistice, 19,840 post armistice)Losses by branch of service: Army 201,405; Navy 22,034; Air Force 9,096; Colonial Forces 354;Chaplains91;Fascistmilitia10,066;Paramilitary3,252; not indicated 45,078.Military Losses by theatre of war: Italy 74,725 (37,573 post armistice); France 2,060 (1,039 post armistice);Germany 25,430 (24,020 post armistice); Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia 49,459 (10,090 post armistice);USSR 82,079 (3,522 post armistice); Africa 22,341 (1,565 post armistice), at sea 28,438 (5,526 post armistice);other and unknown 6,844 (3,695 post armistice). ^ABJapan Military dead Key:Location, Army dead,Navy dead,(Total dead)Japan Proper: 58,100,45,800,(103,900)Bonin Islands: 2,700,12,500,(15,200)Okinawa: 67,900,21,500,(89,400)Formosa (Taiwan): 28,500,10,600,(39,100)Korea: 19,600,6,900,(26,500)Sakhalin, the Aleutian, and Kuril Islands: 8,200,3,200,(11,400)Manchuria: 45,900,800,(46,700)China (inc. Hong Kong): 435,600,20,100,(455,700)Siberia: 52,300,400,(52,700)Central Pacific: 95,800,151,400,(247,200)Philippines: 377,500,121,100,(498,600)French Indochina: 7,900,4,500,(12,400)Thailand: 6,900,100,(7,000)Burma (inc. India): 163,000,1,500,(164,500)Malaya & Singapore: 8,500,2,900,(11,400)Andaman & Nicobar Islands: 900,1,500,(2,400)Sumatra: 2,700,500,(3,200)Java: 2,700,3,800,(6,500)Lesser Sundas: 51,800,1,200,(53,000)Borneo: 11,300,6,700,(18,000)Celebes: 1,500,4,000,(5,500)Moluccas: 2,600,1,800,(4,400)New Guinea: 112,400,15,200,(127,600)Bismarck Archipelago: 19,700,10,800,(30,500)Solomon Islands: 63,200,25,000,(88,200)Total: 1,647,200,473,800,(2,121,000) Overall, perhaps two thirds of all Japanese military dead came not from combat, but from starvation and disease.In some cases this figure was potentially even higher, up to 80% in the Philippinesand a staggering 97% in New Guinea. ArmyChina after Pearl Harbor202,958 killed and 88,920 wounded.vs. United States485,717 killed and 34,679 wounded.vs. U.K. and Netherlands208,026 killed and 139,225 wounded.vs. Australia199,511 killed and 15,000 wounded.French Indochina2,803 killed and 6,000 wounded.Manchuria & USSR7,483 killed and 4,641 wounded.other overseas23,388 killed and 0 wounded.Japan proper10,543 killed and 6,782 wounded.Army total1,140,429 killed and 295,247 wounded.NavySailors300,386 killed and 12,275 wounded and missing.Civilians in Navy service114,493 killed and 1,880 wounded and missing.Navy total414,879 killed and 14,155 wounded and missing. Civilian Dead 1-Summary Report (July 1946)Total civilian casualties in Japan, as a result of 9 months of air attack, including those from the atomic bombs, were approximately 806,000. Of these, approximately 330,000 were fatalities. 2-United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Medical Division (1947)The bombing of Japan killed 333,000 civilians and injured 473,000. Of this total 120,000 died and 160,000 were injured in the atomic bombings, leaving 213,000 dead and 313,000 injured by conventional bombing. 3-The effects of air attack on Japanese urban economy. Summary report (1947)Estimated that 252,769 Japanese were killed and 298,650 injured in the air war. 4-The Effects of strategic bombing on Japanese moraleBased on a survey of Japanese households the death toll was put at 900,000 dead and 1.3 million injured, the SBS noted that this figure was subject to a maximum sampling error of 30%. 5-Strategic Bombing Survey The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and NagasakiThe most striking result of the atomic bombs was the great number of casualties. The exact number of dead and injured will never be known because of the confusion after the explosions. Persons unaccounted for might have been burned beyond recognition in the falling buildings, disposed of in one of the mass cremations of the first week of recovery, or driven out of the city to die or recover without any record remaining. No sure count of even the prepaid populations existed. Because of the decline in activity in the two port cities, the constant threat of incendiary raids, and the formal evacuation programs of the Government, an unknown number of the inhabitants had either drifter away from the cities or been removed according to plan. In this uncertain situation, estimates of casualties have generally ranged between 100,000 and 180,000 for Hiroshima, and between 50,000 and 100,000 for Nagasaki. The Survey believes the dead at Hiroshima to have been between 70,000 and 80,000, with an equal number injured; at Nagasaki over 35,000 dead and somewhat more than that injured seems the most plausible estimate. ^ACKorea ^ADLatvia ^AELithuania ^AFLuxembourg ^AGMalaya and Singapore ^AHMalta1,493 civilians were killed and 3,734 wounded during theSiege of Malta (World War II)Maltese civilians killed during the siege are also included with U.K. civilian deaths by theCommonwealth War Graves Commission. ^AIMexico ^AJMongolia ^AKNauru ^ALNepal ^AMNetherlands Military deaths6,750 which included 3,900 regular Army, 2,600 Navy forces, and 250 POW in Germany.Civilian deathsof 203,250 which included 1,350 Merchant seaman, 2,800 executed, 2,500 dead in Dutch concentration camps,20,400 killed by acts of war, 104,000 Jewish Holocaust dead, 18,000 political prisoners in Germany, 27,000 workers in Germany,3,700 Dutch nationals in the German armed forces and 7,500 missing and presumed dead in Germany and 16,000 deathsin theDutch famine of 1944. Not Included in the figure of 210,000 war dead are 70,000 \\\"indirect war casualties\\\",which are attributed to an increase innatural deathsfrom 1940 to 1945 and 1,650 foreign nationals killed while serving in theDutch Merchant Marine. ^ANNewfoundland ^AONew Zealand ^APNorway Military(Norwegian & Allied Forces)2,000 (800 Army, 900 Navy and 100 Air).Civilians7,500 (3,600 Merchant seaman, 1,500 resistance fighters, 1,800 civilians killed and 600 Jews killed)In German Armed Forces700 ^AQPapua New Guinea ^ARPhilippines ^ASPoland Total Polish war dead Polish losses during the Soviet occupation (1939–1941) Polish military casualties ^ATTimor ^AURomania ^AVRuanda Urundi ^AWSouth Africa ^AXSouth Seas Mandate The following notes summarize Soviet casualties, the details are presented inWorld War II casualties of the Soviet Union. ^AZSpain ^BASweden ^BBSwitzerland ^BCThailand ^BDTurkey ^BEUnited Kingdom and Colonies Total war deadof 357,116; Navy (50,758); Army (144,079); Air Force (69,606);Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service(624);Merchant Navy(30,248);British Home Guard(1,206) and Civilians (60,595).The total still missing on 2/28/1946were 6,244; Navy (340); Army (2,267); Air Force (3,089);Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service(18);Merchant Navy(530);British Home Guard(0) and Civilians (0).These figures included the losses ofNewfoundlandandSouthern Rhodesia.Colonial forces are not included in these figures.There were an additional 31,271 military deaths due to \\\"natural causes\\\" which are not included in these figures.Deaths due to air and V-rocket attacks were 60,595 civilians and 1,206British Home Guard. ^BFUnited StatesAmerican military dead#^BF1 American civilian dead#^BF2 ^BGYugoslavia The losses of Yugoslav collaborators The reasons for the high human toll in Yugoslavia were as followsA.Military operationsbetween the occupying German military forces and their \\\"Quislings and collaborators\\\" against theYugoslav resistance.B. German forces, under express orders from Hitler, fought with a specialvengeance against the Serbs, who were consideredUntermensch.One of the worst one-day massacres during the German military occupation of Serbia was theKragujevac massacre.C. Deliberate acts of reprisal against target populations were perpetrated by all combatants. All sides practiced the shooting of hostages on a large scale. At the end of the war, manyUstašeand Slovene collaborators were killed in or as a result of theYugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators.D. The systematic extermination of large numbers of people for political, religious or racial reasons. The most numerous victims wereSerbs.According toYad Vashem, \\\"During their four years in power, the Ustasa carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000, expelling 250,000 and forcing another 200,000 to convert to Catholicism. The Ustasa also killed most of Croatia's Jews, 20,000 Gypsies, and many thousands of their political enemies.\\\"According to theUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum\\\"The Croat authorities murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Ustaša rule; more than 30,000 Croatian Jews were killed either in Croatia or at Auschwitz-Birkenau\\\".TheUSHMMreports between 77,000 and 99,000 persons were killed at theJasenovacandStara Gradiškaconcentration camps.The Jasenovac Memorial Site quotes a similar figure of between 80,000 and 100,000 victims.Stara Gradiškawas a sub-camp of Jasenovac established for women and children.The names and data for 12,790 victims at Stara Gradiška have been established.Serbian sources currently claim that 700,000 persons were murdered atJasenovac.Some 40,000Romawere murdered.Jewish victims in Yugoslavia totaled 67,122.E. Reduced food supply caused famine and disease.F. Allied bombing of German supply lines caused civilian casualties. The hardest hit localities werePodgorica,Leskovac,ZadarandBelgrade.G. The demographic losses due to the reduction of 335,000 births and emigration of about 660,000 are not included with war casualties. ^BHOther Nations References Further reading External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["World War I casualties The total number ofmilitaryandcivilian casualtiesinWorld War Iwas about 40 million: estimates range from around 15 to 22 million deathsand about 23 million wounded military personnel, ranking it among the deadliest conflicts in human history. The total number of deaths includes from 9 to 11 millionmilitary personnel. Theciviliandeath toll was about 6 to 13 million.TheTriple Entente(also known as theAllies) lost about 6 million military personnel while theCentral Powerslost about 4 million. At least 2 million died from diseases and 6 million went missing, presumed dead. This article lists the casualties of the belligerent powers based on official published sources. About two-thirds of military deaths in World War I were in battle, unlike the conflicts that took place in the 19th century when the majority of deaths were due to disease. Nevertheless, disease, including the1918 flu pandemicand deaths while held asprisoners of war, still caused about one third of total military deaths for","military deaths for all belligerents. Classification of casualty statistics Casualty statistics for World War I vary to a great extent; estimates of total deaths range from 9 million to over 15 million.Military casualties reported in official sources list deaths due to all causes, including an estimated 7 to 8 million combat related deaths (killed or died of wounds) and another two to three million military deaths caused by accidents, disease and deaths whileprisoners of war. Official government reports listing casualty statistics were published by the United States and Great Britain.Thesesecondary sourcespublished during the 1920s, are the source of the statistics in reference works listing casualties in World War I.This article summarizes the casualty statistics published in the official government reports of the United States and Great Britain as well as France, Italy, Belgium, Germany, Austria and Russia. More recently the research of theCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) has revised the military","the military casualty statistics of the UK and its allies; they include in their listing of military war dead personnel outside of combat theaters and civilians recruited from Africa, the Middle East andChinawho provided logistical and service support in combat theaters.The casualties of these support personnel recruited outside of Europe were previously not included with British war dead, however the casualties of theLabour Corpsrecruited from the British Isles were included in the rolls of British war dead published in 1921.The methodology used by each nation to record and classify casualties was not uniform, a general caveat regarding casualty figures is that they cannot be considered comparable in all cases.First World War civilian deaths are \"hazardous to estimate\" according to Micheal Clodfelter who maintains that \"the generally accepted figure ofnoncombatantdeaths is 6.5 million.\" Casualties in the borders of 1914–1918 2,101,077 The source of population data is: Haythornthwaite, Philip J.,The World","Philip J.,The World War One Source Bookpp. 382–383 Casualties by post-war (1924) borders The war involved multi-ethnic empires such as Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. Many ethnic groups in these territories were conscripted for military service. The casualties listed by modern borders are also included in the above table of figures for the countries that existed in 1914. The casualty figures by 1924 post war borders are rough estimates by Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, the sources of his figures were published in the Soviet era and in post-Soviet Russia.According to the 1914–1918 Online Encyclopedia \"In addition to losses suffered by African military personnel and the laborers supporting their operations, very large, but unknown numbers of African civilians perished during the war.\" They made an estimate of civilian losses in Africa of 750,000 based on the study by the Vadim Erlikman. They noted that Erlikman's","that Erlikman's figures are based on the work of the Russian demographer Boris Urlanis, they noted that these estimates were \"imprecise\" and \"could be used to provide a frame of reference for further inquiry\".TheOxford History of World War Onenotes that \"In east and central Africa the harshness of the war resulted in acute shortages of food with famine in some areas, a weakening of populations, and epidemic diseases which killed hundreds of thousands of people and also cattle.\" The following estimates of Austrian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 175,000: including military losses 120,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 30,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 25,000. The following estimates of Belarusian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 130,000: including","130,000: including military losses 70,000 with the Russian forces. Civilian dead were 60,000. The following estimates of Ukrainian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 590,000: including military losses 450,000,(Erlikman did not break out military losses between Austro-Hungarian and Russian armed forces). Civilian dead were 140,000. TheBelgian Congowas part of the Kingdom of Belgium during the war. A Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia estimated a total of 155,000 deaths in the Belgian Congo during the war. Czechoslovakia was part of Austro-Hungary during the war. The estimates of Czechoslovak deaths within 1991 borders were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 185,000: including military losses 110,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW","forces and POW deaths in captivity of 45,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 30,000.TheCzechoslovak Legionsfought with the armies of the Allies during the war. Estonia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 100,000 Estonians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed. From 1809 Finland was an autonomousGrand Duchyin theRussian Empireuntil the end of 1917. Finland's autonomous status meant that Finns were exempt from conscription into the Russian Army. Approximately 800 Finns voluntarily served during World War I.According to data regarding Finnish war casualties, 317 Finns were killed between 1914 and 1917. The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount","Africa could amount up to 750,000. Total: 82,000 The following estimates of Georgian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Georgia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 150,000 Georgians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed. The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount up to 750,000. Total: 48,000 The following estimates of Hungarian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 385,000: including military losses 270,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW","forces and POW deaths in captivity of 70,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 45,000. Ireland was a part of the United Kingdom during World War I. Five-sixths of the island left to form theIrish Free State, now theRepublic of Ireland, in 1922. A total of 206,000 Irishmen served in the British forces during the war.The number of Irish deaths in the British Army recorded by the registrar general was 27,405.A significant number of these casualties were from what, in 1920, becameNorthern Ireland. While 49,400 soldiers died serving in Irish divisions (the 10th, 16th and36th), although not all of the men serving in these divisions were natives of Ireland and many Irish who died in non-Irish regiments are not listed.For example, 29% of the casualties in the 16th Division were not natives of Ireland.Neither does it include Irish emigrants in Britain who enlisted there and are not categorised as Irish. Australia lists 4,731 of its first World War soldiers as having been born in Ireland and more than","and more than 19,000 Irish-born soldiers served in the Canadian Corps. According to research done by John Horne ofTrinity College Dublin, there are at least 30,986 soldiers who were born in Ireland that died; however, that's considered a \"conservative\" estimate and is very likely to raise. The losses ofPortuguese Mozambiquewere estimated by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.52,000 Poland was territory of Germany, Austria-Hungary and partially annexed by Russia, from 1795 to 1918. By late 1915, Germany had complete control over modern-day Poland. A 2005 Polish study estimated 3,376,800 Poles were conscripted into the armed forces of these countries during World War I, an additional 300,000 were conscripted for forced labor by the Germans. The Russians and Austrians forcibly resettled 1.6 to 1.8 million persons from the war zone in Poland.According to Micheal Clodfelter,","Micheal Clodfelter, Polish war dead were 1,080,000, whilst 200,000 Polish civilians were killed in the fighting on theEastern Front; 870,000 men served in the German, Austrian and Russian armies.Another estimate made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, put total Polish war dead at 640,000, including military losses of 270,000 Poles conscripted, civilian losses of 120,000 due to military operations and 250,000 caused by famine and disease.The ethnic PolishBlue Armyserved with the French Army. The ethnicPolish Legionsfought as part of the Austro-Hungarian Army on the Eastern Front. The territory ofTransylvaniawas part of Austria-Hungary during World War I. The following estimates of Romanian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 748,000, including military losses of 220,000 with the Romanian forces, 150,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW","forces and POW deaths in captivity of 48,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 200,000, killed in military operations 120,000 and 10,000 dead in Austrian prisons. Britain recruited Indian, Chinese, nativeSouth African, Egyptian and other overseas labour to provide logistical support in the combat theatres.Included with British casualties in East Africa are the deaths of 44,911 recruited labourers.The CWGC reports that nearly 2,000 workers from the Chinese Labour Corps are buried with British war dead in France. The following estimates ofBritish Empirecolonial military deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia. Total: 18,000 The following estimates are for Yugoslavia within the 1991 borders. Slovenia,Croatia,BosniaandVojvodina(Now part of Serbia) were part of Austria-Hungary duringWorld","duringWorld War I.Serbia, which includedMacedonia, andMontenegrowas an independent nation. The Yugoslav historianVladimir Dedijerput the total losses of the Yugoslav lands at 1.9 million, of which 43% were from Serbia.The following estimates of Yugoslav deaths, within 1991 borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 996,000 including military losses, 260,000 with the Serbian forces, 80,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces, 13,000 with Montenegrin forces and POW deaths in captivity of 93,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 400,000, killed in military operations: 120,000 and 30,000 dead in Austrian prisons or executed. During World War I, the Nepalese army was expanded and six new regiments, totaling more than 20,000 troops—all volunteers—were sent to India, most of them to the North-West Frontier Province, to release British and Indian troops for service overseas. Simultaneously, the Nepalese","the Nepalese government agreed to maintain recruitment at a level that would sustain the existing British Gurkha units and allow the establishment of additional ones. The battalions were increased to thirty-three with the addition of 55,000 new recruits and Gurkha units were placed at the disposal of the British high command for service on all fronts. Many volunteers were assigned to non-combat units, such as the Army Bearer Corps and the labour battalions but they also were in combat in France, Turkey, Palestine and Mesopotamia. The Rana prime ministers urged Nepalese males to fight in the war. Of the more than 200,000 Nepalese who served in the British army, there were some 20,000 Gurkha casualties included above with theBritish Indian Army. Footnotes ^aEast and Central Africa ^bAustralia ^cBelgium ^dCanada ^eFrance ^fGreece ^gIndia (British) ^hItaly ^iJapan ^kMontenegro ^lNew Zealand ^mNewfoundland ^nPortugal ^oRomania ^pRussian Empire ^qSerbia ^rSouth Africa ^sUnited Kingdom ^tUnited States","^tUnited States ^uAustria-Hungary ^vBulgaria ^wGerman Empire ^xOttoman Empire ^yDenmark ^jLuxembourg ^zNorway ^azQajar Persia ^bzSweden ^czAlbania ^dzLiechtenstein Sources The source of population data is: See also References Further reading Other languages External links","World War II casualties World War IIwas thedeadliest military conflict in history. An estimated total of 70–85 million people perished, or about 3% of the estimated global population of 2.3 billion in 1940.Deaths directly caused by the war (including military and civilian fatalities) are estimated at 50–56 million, with an additional estimated 19–28 million deaths from war-related disease and famine.Civiliandeaths totaled 50–55 million.Military deathsfrom all causes totaled 21–25 million, including deaths in captivity of about 5 millionprisoners of war. More than half of the total number of casualties are accounted for by the dead of theRepublic of Chinaand of theSoviet Union. The following tables give a detailed country-by-country count of human losses. Statistics on the number of military wounded are included whenever available. Recent historical scholarship has shed new light on the topic of Second World Warcasualties. Research in Russia since thecollapse of the Soviet Unionhas caused a revision of","a revision of estimates of Soviet World War II fatalities.According to Russian government figures, USSR losses within postwar borders now stand at 26.6 million,including 8 to 9 million due to famine and disease.In August 2009 the PolishInstitute of National Remembrance(IPN) researchers estimated Poland's dead at between 5.6 and 5.8 million.HistorianRüdiger Overmansof theMilitary History Research Office (Germany)published a study in 2000 estimating the German military dead and missing at 5.3 million, including 900,000 men conscripted from outside of Germany's 1937 borders, inAustria, and in east-centralEurope.TheRed Armyclaimed responsibility for the majority ofWehrmachtcasualties during World War II.ThePeople's Republic of Chinaputs its war dead at 20 million,while the Japanese government puts its casualties due to the war at 3.1 million.An estimated 7–10 million people died in theDutch,British,FrenchandUScolonies inSouthandSoutheast Asia, mostly from war-related famine. Classification of casualties","of casualties Compiling or estimating the numbers ofdeaths and woundedcaused during wars and other violent conflicts is acontroversial subject. Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed and wounded during World War II.The authors of theOxford Companion to World War IImaintain that \"casualty statistics are notoriously unreliable\".The table below gives data on the number of dead and military wounded for each country, along with population information to show the relative impact of losses. When scholarly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers that the death toll is disputed. Since casualty statistics are sometimes disputed the footnotes to this article present the different estimates by official governmental sources as well as historians. Military figures includebattle deaths(KIA) andpersonnel missing in action(MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prisoners of war in","prisoners of war in captivity.Civilian casualtiesinclude deaths caused bystrategic bombing,Holocaust victims,German war crimes,Japanese war crimes,population transfers in the Soviet Union,Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war-related famine and disease. The sources for the casualties of the individual countries do not use the same methods, and civilian deaths due to starvation and disease make up a large proportion of the civilian deaths in China and the Soviet Union. The losses listed here are actual deaths; hypothetical losses due to a decline in births are not included with the total dead. The distinction between military and civilian casualties caused directly by warfare andcollateral damageis not always clear-cut. For states that suffered huge losses such as the Soviet Union, China, Poland, Germany, and Yugoslavia, sources can give only thetotal estimated population losscaused by the war and a rough estimate of the breakdown of deaths caused by military activity,crimes against humanityand war-related","war-related famine. The casualties listed here include 19 to 25 million war-related famine deaths in the USSR, China, Indonesia,Vietnam, the Philippines, andIndiathat are often omitted from other compilations of World War II casualties. Thefootnotesgive a detailed breakdown of the casualties and their sources, including data on the number of wounded where reliable sources are available. Human losses by country Total deaths by country Soviet Union The estimated breakdown for each Soviet republic of total war dead^AY4 The source of the figures isVadim Erlikman.Erlikman, a Russian historian, notes that these figures are his estimates. Nazi Germany United States Estimated breakdown for each US state and territory of total war dead This table displays the number of people who are believed to have died in the United States by state and territory.This list includes those who died at sea. Japanese Empire 1939 deaths Allied attacks Japanese persecution deaths % of 1939 population Holocaust deaths Included in the","Included in the figures of total war dead for each country are victims of the Holocaust. Jewish deaths The Holocaustis the term generally used to describe thegenocideof approximately six million EuropeanJewsduring World War II.Martin Gilbertestimates 5.7 million (78%) of the 7.3 million Jews in German-occupied Europe were Holocaust victims.Estimates of Holocaust deaths range between 4.9 and 5.9 million Jews. The figures for the pre-war Jewish population and deaths in the table below are fromThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust.The low, high and average percentage figures for deaths of the pre-war population have been added. Non-Jews persecuted and killed by Nazi and Nazi-affiliated forces Some scholars maintain that the definition of the Holocaust should also include theother victims persecuted and killed by the Nazis. The following figures are fromThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, the authors maintain that \"statistics on Gypsy losses are especially unreliable and controversial. These figures (cited below)","(cited below) are based on necessarily rough estimates\". German war crimes During World War II, the German military helped fulfill Nazism's racial, political, and territorial ambitions. Long after the war, a myth persisted claiming the German military (or Wehrmacht) was not involved in the Holocaust and other crimes associated with Nazi genocidal policy. This belief is untrue. The German military participated in many aspects of the Holocaust: in supporting Hitler, in the use of forced labor, and in the mass murder of Jews and other groups targeted by the Nazis. The military's complicity extended not only to the generals and upper leadership but also to the rank and file. In addition, the war and genocidal policy were inextricably linked. The German army (or Heer) was the most complicit as a result of being on the ground in Germany's eastern campaigns, but all branches participated. —United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Nazi Germanyordered, organized and condoned a substantial number of war crimes in World","war crimes in World War II. The most notable of these isthe Holocaustin which millions ofJews,Poles, andRomaniwere systematically murdered or died from abuse and mistreatment. Millions also died as a result of other German actions. While theNazi Party's ownSSforces (in particular theSS-Totenkopfverbände,EinsatzgruppenandWaffen-SS) of Nazi Germany was the organization most responsible for the genocidal killing of the Holocaust, the regular armed forces represented by theWehrmachtcommitted war crimes of their own, particularly on theEastern Frontin thewar against the Soviet Union. Japanese war crimes Included with total war dead are victims of Japanese war crimes. R. J. Rummel R. J. Rummelestimates the civilian victims of Japanesedemocideat 5,964,000. Detailed by country: Rummel estimates POW deaths in Japanese custody at 539,000. Detailed by country: Werner Gruhl Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian deaths at 20,365,000. Gruhl estimates POW deaths in Japanese captivity at 331,584. Out of 60,000 Indian Army","60,000 Indian Army POWs taken at the Fall of Singapore, 11,000 died in captivity.There were 14,657 deaths among the total 130,895western civilians interned by the Japanesedue to famine and disease. Oppression in the Soviet Union The total war dead in the USSR includes about 1 millionvictims ofStalin's regime. The number of deaths in theGulag labor campsincreased as a result of wartime overcrowding and food shortages.The Stalin regime deported the entire populations of ethnic minorities considered to be potentially disloyal.Since 1990 Russian scholars have been given access to the Soviet-era archives and have published data on the numbers of people executed and those who died in Gulag labor camps and prisons.The Russian scholarViktor Zemskovputs the death toll from 1941 to 1945 at about 1 million based on data from the Soviet archives.The Soviet-era archive figures on the Gulag labor camps has been the subject of a vigorous academic debate outside Russia since their publication in 1991.J. Arch GettyandStephen","GettyandStephen G. Wheatcroftmaintain that Soviet-era figures more accurately detail the victims of the Gulag labor camp system in the Stalin era.Robert ConquestandSteven Rosefieldehave disputed the accuracy of the data from the Soviet archives, maintaining that the demographic data and testimonials by survivors of the Gulag labor camps indicate a higher death toll.Rosefielde posits that the release of the Soviet Archive figures is disinformation generated by the modernKGB.Rosefielde maintains that the data from the Soviet archives is incomplete; for example, he pointed out that the figures do not include the 22,000 victims of theKatyn massacre.Rosefielde's demographic analysis puts the number of excess deaths due to Soviet repression at 2,183,000 in 1939–40 and 5,458,000 from 1941 to 1945.Michael Haynes and Rumy Husun accept the figures from the Soviet archives as being an accurate tally of Stalin's victims, they maintain that the demographic data depicts an underdeveloped Soviet economy and the losses in","and the losses in World War Two rather than indicating a higher death toll in the Gulag labor camps. In August 2009 the PolishInstitute of National Remembrance(IPN) researchers estimated 150,000 Polish citizens were killed due to Soviet repression. Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation.Andrzej Paczkowskiputs the number of Polish deaths at 90,000–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets.In 2005Tadeusz Piotrowskiestimated the death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000. The Estonian State Commission for the Examination of Repressive Policies Carried out During the Occupations put civilian deaths due to theSoviet occupationin 1940–1941 at 33,900 including (7,800 deaths) of arrested people, (6,000) deportee deaths, (5,000) evacuee deaths, (1,100) people gone missing and (14,000) conscripted for forced labor. After the reoccupation by the USSR, 5,000 Estonians died in Soviet","died in Soviet prisons during 1944–45. The following is a summary of the data from the Soviet archives:Reported deaths for the years 1939–1945 1,187,783, including: judicial executions 46,350; deaths in Gulag labor camps 718,804; deaths in labor colonies and prisons 422,629. Deported tospecial settlements: (figures are for deportations to Special Settlements only, not including those executed, sent to Gulag labor camps or conscripted into the Soviet Army. Nor do the figures include additional deportations after the war).Deported from annexed territories 1940–41 380,000 to 390,000 persons, including: Poland 309–312,000; Lithuania 17,500; Latvia 17,000; Estonia 6,000; Moldova 22,842.In August 1941, 243,106 Poles living in the Special Settlements were amnestied and released by the Soviets.Deported during the War 1941–1945 about 2.3 million persons of Soviet ethnic minorities including:Soviet Germans1,209,000; Finns 9,000;Karachays69,000;Kalmyks92,000;ChechensandIngush479,000;Balkars37,000;Crimean","Tatars191,014;Meskhetian Turks91,000; Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians from Crimea 42,000; UkrainianOUNmembers 100,000; Poles 30,000.A total of 2,230,500persons were living in the settlements in October 1945 and 309,100 deaths were reported in special settlements for the years 1941–1948. Russian sources list Axisprisoner of wardeaths of 580,589 in Soviet captivity based on data in the Soviet archives (Germany 381,067; Hungary 54,755; Romania 54,612; Italy 27,683; Finland 403, and Japan 62,069).However, some western scholars estimate the total at between 1.7 and 2.3 million. Military casualties by branch of service Commonwealth military casualties TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) Annual Report 2014–2015is the source of the military dead for theBritish Empire. The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The statistics tabulated by the CWGC are representative of the number of names commemorated for all","for all servicemen/women of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth and former UK Dependencies, whose death was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and civilian organizations are also accorded war grave status if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For the purposes of CWGC the dates of inclusion for Commonwealth War Dead are 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947. See also Footnotes ^AAlbania ^BAustralia ^CAustria ^DBelgium ^EBrazil ^FBulgaria ^GBurma ^HCanada ^IChinaSources for total Chinese war dead are divergent and range from 10 to 20 million as detailed below. ^JCuba ^KCzechoslovakia ^LDenmark ^MDutch East Indies ^MAEgypt ^NEstonia ^OEthiopia ^PFinland ^QFrance ^RFrench Indochina ^SGermanyThe following notes summarize German casualties, the details are presented inGerman casualties in World War II. German population Total German war dead German military casualties Civilian Casualties Civilian casualties in air raids 1- The summary report of September 30, 1945 put total casualties","total casualties for the entire period of the war at 305,000 killed and 780,000 wounded.2- The sectionEffects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economyof October 31, 1945 put the losses at 375,000 killed and 625,000 wounded.3- The sectionThe Effect of Bombing on Health and Medical Care in Germanyof January 1947 made a preliminary calculated estimate of air raid dead at 422,000. Regarding overall losses, they concluded that \"It was further estimated that an additional number, approximately 25% of known deaths in 1944–45, were still unrecovered and unrecorded. With an addition of this estimate of 1944–45 unrecorded deaths, the final estimation gave in round numbers a half a million German civilians killed by Allied aerial attacks.\" Civilians killed in 1945 military campaign Deaths due to Nazi political, racial and religious persecution Expulsion and flight of ethnic GermansThe following notes summarize German expulsion casualties, the details are presented in theflight and expulsion of Germans","of Germans (1944–1950), theforced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union' and theDemographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans. The figures for these losses are currently disputed, estimates of the total deaths range from 500,000 to 2,000,000. The death toll attributable to the flight and expulsions was estimated at 2.2 million by the West German government in 1958.German government reports which were released to the public in 1987 and 1989 have caused some historians in Germany to put the actual total at 500,000 to 600,000.English language sources put the death toll at 2 to 3 million based on the West German government statistical analysis of the 1950s. German government figures of 2.0 to 2.5 million civilian deaths due to expulsions have been disputed by scholars since the publication of the results of the German church search service survey and the report by theGerman Federal Archive. Post war increase in natural deaths ^TGreece ^TAGuam ^UHungary ^VIceland ^WIndia Bengal famine of 1943 ^YIraq","of 1943 ^YIraq ^ZIreland ^AAItaly Military war deadConfirmed deadwere 159,957 (92,767 pre-armistice, 67,090 post armistice)Missing and presumed dead(including POWs)were 131,419 (111,579 pre-armistice, 19,840 post armistice)Losses by branch of service: Army 201,405; Navy 22,034; Air Force 9,096; Colonial Forces 354;Chaplains91;Fascistmilitia10,066;Paramilitary3,252; not indicated 45,078.Military Losses by theatre of war: Italy 74,725 (37,573 post armistice); France 2,060 (1,039 post armistice);Germany 25,430 (24,020 post armistice); Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia 49,459 (10,090 post armistice);USSR 82,079 (3,522 post armistice); Africa 22,341 (1,565 post armistice), at sea 28,438 (5,526 post armistice);other and unknown 6,844 (3,695 post armistice). ^ABJapan Military dead Key:Location, Army dead,Navy dead,(Total dead)Japan Proper: 58,100,45,800,(103,900)Bonin Islands: 2,700,12,500,(15,200)Okinawa: 67,900,21,500,(89,400)Formosa (Taiwan): 28,500,10,600,(39,100)Korea: 19,600,6,900,(26,500)Sakhalin, the","the Aleutian, and Kuril Islands: 8,200,3,200,(11,400)Manchuria: 45,900,800,(46,700)China (inc. Hong Kong): 435,600,20,100,(455,700)Siberia: 52,300,400,(52,700)Central Pacific: 95,800,151,400,(247,200)Philippines: 377,500,121,100,(498,600)French Indochina: 7,900,4,500,(12,400)Thailand: 6,900,100,(7,000)Burma (inc. India): 163,000,1,500,(164,500)Malaya & Singapore: 8,500,2,900,(11,400)Andaman & Nicobar Islands: 900,1,500,(2,400)Sumatra: 2,700,500,(3,200)Java: 2,700,3,800,(6,500)Lesser Sundas: 51,800,1,200,(53,000)Borneo: 11,300,6,700,(18,000)Celebes: 1,500,4,000,(5,500)Moluccas: 2,600,1,800,(4,400)New Guinea: 112,400,15,200,(127,600)Bismarck Archipelago: 19,700,10,800,(30,500)Solomon Islands: 63,200,25,000,(88,200)Total: 1,647,200,473,800,(2,121,000) Overall, perhaps two thirds of all Japanese military dead came not from combat, but from starvation and disease.In some cases this figure was potentially even higher, up to 80% in the Philippinesand a staggering 97% in New Guinea. ArmyChina after Pearl","after Pearl Harbor202,958 killed and 88,920 wounded.vs. United States485,717 killed and 34,679 wounded.vs. U.K. and Netherlands208,026 killed and 139,225 wounded.vs. Australia199,511 killed and 15,000 wounded.French Indochina2,803 killed and 6,000 wounded.Manchuria & USSR7,483 killed and 4,641 wounded.other overseas23,388 killed and 0 wounded.Japan proper10,543 killed and 6,782 wounded.Army total1,140,429 killed and 295,247 wounded.NavySailors300,386 killed and 12,275 wounded and missing.Civilians in Navy service114,493 killed and 1,880 wounded and missing.Navy total414,879 killed and 14,155 wounded and missing. Civilian Dead 1-Summary Report (July 1946)Total civilian casualties in Japan, as a result of 9 months of air attack, including those from the atomic bombs, were approximately 806,000. Of these, approximately 330,000 were fatalities. 2-United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Medical Division (1947)The bombing of Japan killed 333,000 civilians and injured 473,000. Of this total 120,000 died and 160,000","died and 160,000 were injured in the atomic bombings, leaving 213,000 dead and 313,000 injured by conventional bombing. 3-The effects of air attack on Japanese urban economy. Summary report (1947)Estimated that 252,769 Japanese were killed and 298,650 injured in the air war. 4-The Effects of strategic bombing on Japanese moraleBased on a survey of Japanese households the death toll was put at 900,000 dead and 1.3 million injured, the SBS noted that this figure was subject to a maximum sampling error of 30%. 5-Strategic Bombing Survey The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and NagasakiThe most striking result of the atomic bombs was the great number of casualties. The exact number of dead and injured will never be known because of the confusion after the explosions. Persons unaccounted for might have been burned beyond recognition in the falling buildings, disposed of in one of the mass cremations of the first week of recovery, or driven out of the city to die or recover without any record remaining. No","remaining. No sure count of even the prepaid populations existed. Because of the decline in activity in the two port cities, the constant threat of incendiary raids, and the formal evacuation programs of the Government, an unknown number of the inhabitants had either drifter away from the cities or been removed according to plan. In this uncertain situation, estimates of casualties have generally ranged between 100,000 and 180,000 for Hiroshima, and between 50,000 and 100,000 for Nagasaki. The Survey believes the dead at Hiroshima to have been between 70,000 and 80,000, with an equal number injured; at Nagasaki over 35,000 dead and somewhat more than that injured seems the most plausible estimate. ^ACKorea ^ADLatvia ^AELithuania ^AFLuxembourg ^AGMalaya and Singapore ^AHMalta1,493 civilians were killed and 3,734 wounded during theSiege of Malta (World War II)Maltese civilians killed during the siege are also included with U.K. civilian deaths by theCommonwealth War Graves Commission. ^AIMexico ^AJMongolia","^AJMongolia ^AKNauru ^ALNepal ^AMNetherlands Military deaths6,750 which included 3,900 regular Army, 2,600 Navy forces, and 250 POW in Germany.Civilian deathsof 203,250 which included 1,350 Merchant seaman, 2,800 executed, 2,500 dead in Dutch concentration camps,20,400 killed by acts of war, 104,000 Jewish Holocaust dead, 18,000 political prisoners in Germany, 27,000 workers in Germany,3,700 Dutch nationals in the German armed forces and 7,500 missing and presumed dead in Germany and 16,000 deathsin theDutch famine of 1944. Not Included in the figure of 210,000 war dead are 70,000 \"indirect war casualties\",which are attributed to an increase innatural deathsfrom 1940 to 1945 and 1,650 foreign nationals killed while serving in theDutch Merchant Marine. ^ANNewfoundland ^AONew Zealand ^APNorway Military(Norwegian & Allied Forces)2,000 (800 Army, 900 Navy and 100 Air).Civilians7,500 (3,600 Merchant seaman, 1,500 resistance fighters, 1,800 civilians killed and 600 Jews killed)In German Armed Forces700 ^AQPapua","Forces700 ^AQPapua New Guinea ^ARPhilippines ^ASPoland Total Polish war dead Polish losses during the Soviet occupation (1939–1941) Polish military casualties ^ATTimor ^AURomania ^AVRuanda Urundi ^AWSouth Africa ^AXSouth Seas Mandate The following notes summarize Soviet casualties, the details are presented inWorld War II casualties of the Soviet Union. ^AZSpain ^BASweden ^BBSwitzerland ^BCThailand ^BDTurkey ^BEUnited Kingdom and Colonies Total war deadof 357,116; Navy (50,758); Army (144,079); Air Force (69,606);Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service(624);Merchant Navy(30,248);British Home Guard(1,206) and Civilians (60,595).The total still missing on 2/28/1946were 6,244; Navy (340); Army (2,267); Air Force (3,089);Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service(18);Merchant Navy(530);British Home Guard(0) and Civilians (0).These figures included the losses ofNewfoundlandandSouthern Rhodesia.Colonial forces are not included in these figures.There were an additional 31,271 military deaths due to \"natural causes\" which","causes\" which are not included in these figures.Deaths due to air and V-rocket attacks were 60,595 civilians and 1,206British Home Guard. ^BFUnited StatesAmerican military dead#^BF1 American civilian dead#^BF2 ^BGYugoslavia The losses of Yugoslav collaborators The reasons for the high human toll in Yugoslavia were as followsA.Military operationsbetween the occupying German military forces and their \"Quislings and collaborators\" against theYugoslav resistance.B. German forces, under express orders from Hitler, fought with a specialvengeance against the Serbs, who were consideredUntermensch.One of the worst one-day massacres during the German military occupation of Serbia was theKragujevac massacre.C. Deliberate acts of reprisal against target populations were perpetrated by all combatants. All sides practiced the shooting of hostages on a large scale. At the end of the war, manyUstašeand Slovene collaborators were killed in or as a result of theYugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators.D. The systematic","The systematic extermination of large numbers of people for political, religious or racial reasons. The most numerous victims wereSerbs.According toYad Vashem, \"During their four years in power, the Ustasa carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000, expelling 250,000 and forcing another 200,000 to convert to Catholicism. The Ustasa also killed most of Croatia's Jews, 20,000 Gypsies, and many thousands of their political enemies.\"According to theUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum\"The Croat authorities murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Ustaša rule; more than 30,000 Croatian Jews were killed either in Croatia or at Auschwitz-Birkenau\".TheUSHMMreports between 77,000 and 99,000 persons were killed at theJasenovacandStara Gradiškaconcentration camps.The Jasenovac Memorial Site quotes a similar figure of between 80,000 and 100,000 victims.Stara Gradiškawas a sub-camp of Jasenovac established for women and children.The names and","names and data for 12,790 victims at Stara Gradiška have been established.Serbian sources currently claim that 700,000 persons were murdered atJasenovac.Some 40,000Romawere murdered.Jewish victims in Yugoslavia totaled 67,122.E. Reduced food supply caused famine and disease.F. Allied bombing of German supply lines caused civilian casualties. The hardest hit localities werePodgorica,Leskovac,ZadarandBelgrade.G. The demographic losses due to the reduction of 335,000 births and emigration of about 660,000 are not included with war casualties. ^BHOther Nations References Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"World War I casualties The total number ofmilitaryandcivilian casualtiesinWorld War Iwas about 40 million: estimates range from around 15 to 22 million deathsand about 23 million wounded military personnel, ranking it among the deadliest conflicts in human history. The total number of deaths includes from 9 to 11 millionmilitary personnel. Theciviliandeath toll was about 6 to 13 million.TheTriple Entente(also known as theAllies) lost about 6 million military personnel while theCentral Powerslost about 4 million. At least 2 million died from diseases and 6 million went missing, presumed dead. This article lists the casualties of the belligerent powers based on official published sources. About two-thirds of military deaths in World War I were in battle, unlike the conflicts that took place in the 19th century when the majority of deaths were due to disease. Nevertheless, disease, including the1918 flu pandemicand deaths while held asprisoners of war, still caused about one third of total military deaths for\",\n \"military deaths for all belligerents. Classification of casualty statistics Casualty statistics for World War I vary to a great extent; estimates of total deaths range from 9 million to over 15 million.Military casualties reported in official sources list deaths due to all causes, including an estimated 7 to 8 million combat related deaths (killed or died of wounds) and another two to three million military deaths caused by accidents, disease and deaths whileprisoners of war. Official government reports listing casualty statistics were published by the United States and Great Britain.Thesesecondary sourcespublished during the 1920s, are the source of the statistics in reference works listing casualties in World War I.This article summarizes the casualty statistics published in the official government reports of the United States and Great Britain as well as France, Italy, Belgium, Germany, Austria and Russia. More recently the research of theCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) has revised the military\",\n \"the military casualty statistics of the UK and its allies; they include in their listing of military war dead personnel outside of combat theaters and civilians recruited from Africa, the Middle East andChinawho provided logistical and service support in combat theaters.The casualties of these support personnel recruited outside of Europe were previously not included with British war dead, however the casualties of theLabour Corpsrecruited from the British Isles were included in the rolls of British war dead published in 1921.The methodology used by each nation to record and classify casualties was not uniform, a general caveat regarding casualty figures is that they cannot be considered comparable in all cases.First World War civilian deaths are \\\"hazardous to estimate\\\" according to Micheal Clodfelter who maintains that \\\"the generally accepted figure ofnoncombatantdeaths is 6.5 million.\\\" Casualties in the borders of 1914–1918 2,101,077 The source of population data is: Haythornthwaite, Philip J.,The World\",\n \"Philip J.,The World War One Source Bookpp. 382–383 Casualties by post-war (1924) borders The war involved multi-ethnic empires such as Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. Many ethnic groups in these territories were conscripted for military service. The casualties listed by modern borders are also included in the above table of figures for the countries that existed in 1914. The casualty figures by 1924 post war borders are rough estimates by Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, the sources of his figures were published in the Soviet era and in post-Soviet Russia.According to the 1914–1918 Online Encyclopedia \\\"In addition to losses suffered by African military personnel and the laborers supporting their operations, very large, but unknown numbers of African civilians perished during the war.\\\" They made an estimate of civilian losses in Africa of 750,000 based on the study by the Vadim Erlikman. They noted that Erlikman's\",\n \"that Erlikman's figures are based on the work of the Russian demographer Boris Urlanis, they noted that these estimates were \\\"imprecise\\\" and \\\"could be used to provide a frame of reference for further inquiry\\\".TheOxford History of World War Onenotes that \\\"In east and central Africa the harshness of the war resulted in acute shortages of food with famine in some areas, a weakening of populations, and epidemic diseases which killed hundreds of thousands of people and also cattle.\\\" The following estimates of Austrian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 175,000: including military losses 120,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 30,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 25,000. The following estimates of Belarusian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 130,000: including\",\n \"130,000: including military losses 70,000 with the Russian forces. Civilian dead were 60,000. The following estimates of Ukrainian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 590,000: including military losses 450,000,(Erlikman did not break out military losses between Austro-Hungarian and Russian armed forces). Civilian dead were 140,000. TheBelgian Congowas part of the Kingdom of Belgium during the war. A Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia estimated a total of 155,000 deaths in the Belgian Congo during the war. Czechoslovakia was part of Austro-Hungary during the war. The estimates of Czechoslovak deaths within 1991 borders were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 185,000: including military losses 110,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW\",\n \"forces and POW deaths in captivity of 45,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 30,000.TheCzechoslovak Legionsfought with the armies of the Allies during the war. Estonia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 100,000 Estonians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed. From 1809 Finland was an autonomousGrand Duchyin theRussian Empireuntil the end of 1917. Finland's autonomous status meant that Finns were exempt from conscription into the Russian Army. Approximately 800 Finns voluntarily served during World War I.According to data regarding Finnish war casualties, 317 Finns were killed between 1914 and 1917. The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount\",\n \"Africa could amount up to 750,000. Total: 82,000 The following estimates of Georgian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Georgia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 150,000 Georgians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed. The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount up to 750,000. Total: 48,000 The following estimates of Hungarian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 385,000: including military losses 270,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW\",\n \"forces and POW deaths in captivity of 70,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 45,000. Ireland was a part of the United Kingdom during World War I. Five-sixths of the island left to form theIrish Free State, now theRepublic of Ireland, in 1922. A total of 206,000 Irishmen served in the British forces during the war.The number of Irish deaths in the British Army recorded by the registrar general was 27,405.A significant number of these casualties were from what, in 1920, becameNorthern Ireland. While 49,400 soldiers died serving in Irish divisions (the 10th, 16th and36th), although not all of the men serving in these divisions were natives of Ireland and many Irish who died in non-Irish regiments are not listed.For example, 29% of the casualties in the 16th Division were not natives of Ireland.Neither does it include Irish emigrants in Britain who enlisted there and are not categorised as Irish. Australia lists 4,731 of its first World War soldiers as having been born in Ireland and more than\",\n \"and more than 19,000 Irish-born soldiers served in the Canadian Corps. According to research done by John Horne ofTrinity College Dublin, there are at least 30,986 soldiers who were born in Ireland that died; however, that's considered a \\\"conservative\\\" estimate and is very likely to raise. The losses ofPortuguese Mozambiquewere estimated by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.52,000 Poland was territory of Germany, Austria-Hungary and partially annexed by Russia, from 1795 to 1918. By late 1915, Germany had complete control over modern-day Poland. A 2005 Polish study estimated 3,376,800 Poles were conscripted into the armed forces of these countries during World War I, an additional 300,000 were conscripted for forced labor by the Germans. The Russians and Austrians forcibly resettled 1.6 to 1.8 million persons from the war zone in Poland.According to Micheal Clodfelter,\",\n \"Micheal Clodfelter, Polish war dead were 1,080,000, whilst 200,000 Polish civilians were killed in the fighting on theEastern Front; 870,000 men served in the German, Austrian and Russian armies.Another estimate made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, put total Polish war dead at 640,000, including military losses of 270,000 Poles conscripted, civilian losses of 120,000 due to military operations and 250,000 caused by famine and disease.The ethnic PolishBlue Armyserved with the French Army. The ethnicPolish Legionsfought as part of the Austro-Hungarian Army on the Eastern Front. The territory ofTransylvaniawas part of Austria-Hungary during World War I. The following estimates of Romanian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 748,000, including military losses of 220,000 with the Romanian forces, 150,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW\",\n \"forces and POW deaths in captivity of 48,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 200,000, killed in military operations 120,000 and 10,000 dead in Austrian prisons. Britain recruited Indian, Chinese, nativeSouth African, Egyptian and other overseas labour to provide logistical support in the combat theatres.Included with British casualties in East Africa are the deaths of 44,911 recruited labourers.The CWGC reports that nearly 2,000 workers from the Chinese Labour Corps are buried with British war dead in France. The following estimates ofBritish Empirecolonial military deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia. Total: 18,000 The following estimates are for Yugoslavia within the 1991 borders. Slovenia,Croatia,BosniaandVojvodina(Now part of Serbia) were part of Austria-Hungary duringWorld\",\n \"duringWorld War I.Serbia, which includedMacedonia, andMontenegrowas an independent nation. The Yugoslav historianVladimir Dedijerput the total losses of the Yugoslav lands at 1.9 million, of which 43% were from Serbia.The following estimates of Yugoslav deaths, within 1991 borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 996,000 including military losses, 260,000 with the Serbian forces, 80,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces, 13,000 with Montenegrin forces and POW deaths in captivity of 93,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 400,000, killed in military operations: 120,000 and 30,000 dead in Austrian prisons or executed. During World War I, the Nepalese army was expanded and six new regiments, totaling more than 20,000 troops—all volunteers—were sent to India, most of them to the North-West Frontier Province, to release British and Indian troops for service overseas. Simultaneously, the Nepalese\",\n \"the Nepalese government agreed to maintain recruitment at a level that would sustain the existing British Gurkha units and allow the establishment of additional ones. The battalions were increased to thirty-three with the addition of 55,000 new recruits and Gurkha units were placed at the disposal of the British high command for service on all fronts. Many volunteers were assigned to non-combat units, such as the Army Bearer Corps and the labour battalions but they also were in combat in France, Turkey, Palestine and Mesopotamia. The Rana prime ministers urged Nepalese males to fight in the war. Of the more than 200,000 Nepalese who served in the British army, there were some 20,000 Gurkha casualties included above with theBritish Indian Army. Footnotes ^aEast and Central Africa ^bAustralia ^cBelgium ^dCanada ^eFrance ^fGreece ^gIndia (British) ^hItaly ^iJapan ^kMontenegro ^lNew Zealand ^mNewfoundland ^nPortugal ^oRomania ^pRussian Empire ^qSerbia ^rSouth Africa ^sUnited Kingdom ^tUnited States\",\n \"^tUnited States ^uAustria-Hungary ^vBulgaria ^wGerman Empire ^xOttoman Empire ^yDenmark ^jLuxembourg ^zNorway ^azQajar Persia ^bzSweden ^czAlbania ^dzLiechtenstein Sources The source of population data is: See also References Further reading Other languages External links\",\n \"World War II casualties World War IIwas thedeadliest military conflict in history. An estimated total of 70–85 million people perished, or about 3% of the estimated global population of 2.3 billion in 1940.Deaths directly caused by the war (including military and civilian fatalities) are estimated at 50–56 million, with an additional estimated 19–28 million deaths from war-related disease and famine.Civiliandeaths totaled 50–55 million.Military deathsfrom all causes totaled 21–25 million, including deaths in captivity of about 5 millionprisoners of war. More than half of the total number of casualties are accounted for by the dead of theRepublic of Chinaand of theSoviet Union. The following tables give a detailed country-by-country count of human losses. Statistics on the number of military wounded are included whenever available. Recent historical scholarship has shed new light on the topic of Second World Warcasualties. Research in Russia since thecollapse of the Soviet Unionhas caused a revision of\",\n \"a revision of estimates of Soviet World War II fatalities.According to Russian government figures, USSR losses within postwar borders now stand at 26.6 million,including 8 to 9 million due to famine and disease.In August 2009 the PolishInstitute of National Remembrance(IPN) researchers estimated Poland's dead at between 5.6 and 5.8 million.HistorianRüdiger Overmansof theMilitary History Research Office (Germany)published a study in 2000 estimating the German military dead and missing at 5.3 million, including 900,000 men conscripted from outside of Germany's 1937 borders, inAustria, and in east-centralEurope.TheRed Armyclaimed responsibility for the majority ofWehrmachtcasualties during World War II.ThePeople's Republic of Chinaputs its war dead at 20 million,while the Japanese government puts its casualties due to the war at 3.1 million.An estimated 7–10 million people died in theDutch,British,FrenchandUScolonies inSouthandSoutheast Asia, mostly from war-related famine. Classification of casualties\",\n \"of casualties Compiling or estimating the numbers ofdeaths and woundedcaused during wars and other violent conflicts is acontroversial subject. Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed and wounded during World War II.The authors of theOxford Companion to World War IImaintain that \\\"casualty statistics are notoriously unreliable\\\".The table below gives data on the number of dead and military wounded for each country, along with population information to show the relative impact of losses. When scholarly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers that the death toll is disputed. Since casualty statistics are sometimes disputed the footnotes to this article present the different estimates by official governmental sources as well as historians. Military figures includebattle deaths(KIA) andpersonnel missing in action(MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prisoners of war in\",\n \"prisoners of war in captivity.Civilian casualtiesinclude deaths caused bystrategic bombing,Holocaust victims,German war crimes,Japanese war crimes,population transfers in the Soviet Union,Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war-related famine and disease. The sources for the casualties of the individual countries do not use the same methods, and civilian deaths due to starvation and disease make up a large proportion of the civilian deaths in China and the Soviet Union. The losses listed here are actual deaths; hypothetical losses due to a decline in births are not included with the total dead. The distinction between military and civilian casualties caused directly by warfare andcollateral damageis not always clear-cut. For states that suffered huge losses such as the Soviet Union, China, Poland, Germany, and Yugoslavia, sources can give only thetotal estimated population losscaused by the war and a rough estimate of the breakdown of deaths caused by military activity,crimes against humanityand war-related\",\n \"war-related famine. The casualties listed here include 19 to 25 million war-related famine deaths in the USSR, China, Indonesia,Vietnam, the Philippines, andIndiathat are often omitted from other compilations of World War II casualties. Thefootnotesgive a detailed breakdown of the casualties and their sources, including data on the number of wounded where reliable sources are available. Human losses by country Total deaths by country Soviet Union The estimated breakdown for each Soviet republic of total war dead^AY4 The source of the figures isVadim Erlikman.Erlikman, a Russian historian, notes that these figures are his estimates. Nazi Germany United States Estimated breakdown for each US state and territory of total war dead This table displays the number of people who are believed to have died in the United States by state and territory.This list includes those who died at sea. Japanese Empire 1939 deaths Allied attacks Japanese persecution deaths % of 1939 population Holocaust deaths Included in the\",\n \"Included in the figures of total war dead for each country are victims of the Holocaust. Jewish deaths The Holocaustis the term generally used to describe thegenocideof approximately six million EuropeanJewsduring World War II.Martin Gilbertestimates 5.7 million (78%) of the 7.3 million Jews in German-occupied Europe were Holocaust victims.Estimates of Holocaust deaths range between 4.9 and 5.9 million Jews. The figures for the pre-war Jewish population and deaths in the table below are fromThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust.The low, high and average percentage figures for deaths of the pre-war population have been added. Non-Jews persecuted and killed by Nazi and Nazi-affiliated forces Some scholars maintain that the definition of the Holocaust should also include theother victims persecuted and killed by the Nazis. The following figures are fromThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, the authors maintain that \\\"statistics on Gypsy losses are especially unreliable and controversial. These figures (cited below)\",\n \"(cited below) are based on necessarily rough estimates\\\". German war crimes During World War II, the German military helped fulfill Nazism's racial, political, and territorial ambitions. Long after the war, a myth persisted claiming the German military (or Wehrmacht) was not involved in the Holocaust and other crimes associated with Nazi genocidal policy. This belief is untrue. The German military participated in many aspects of the Holocaust: in supporting Hitler, in the use of forced labor, and in the mass murder of Jews and other groups targeted by the Nazis. The military's complicity extended not only to the generals and upper leadership but also to the rank and file. In addition, the war and genocidal policy were inextricably linked. The German army (or Heer) was the most complicit as a result of being on the ground in Germany's eastern campaigns, but all branches participated. —United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Nazi Germanyordered, organized and condoned a substantial number of war crimes in World\",\n \"war crimes in World War II. The most notable of these isthe Holocaustin which millions ofJews,Poles, andRomaniwere systematically murdered or died from abuse and mistreatment. Millions also died as a result of other German actions. While theNazi Party's ownSSforces (in particular theSS-Totenkopfverbände,EinsatzgruppenandWaffen-SS) of Nazi Germany was the organization most responsible for the genocidal killing of the Holocaust, the regular armed forces represented by theWehrmachtcommitted war crimes of their own, particularly on theEastern Frontin thewar against the Soviet Union. Japanese war crimes Included with total war dead are victims of Japanese war crimes. R. J. Rummel R. J. Rummelestimates the civilian victims of Japanesedemocideat 5,964,000. Detailed by country: Rummel estimates POW deaths in Japanese custody at 539,000. Detailed by country: Werner Gruhl Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian deaths at 20,365,000. Gruhl estimates POW deaths in Japanese captivity at 331,584. Out of 60,000 Indian Army\",\n \"60,000 Indian Army POWs taken at the Fall of Singapore, 11,000 died in captivity.There were 14,657 deaths among the total 130,895western civilians interned by the Japanesedue to famine and disease. Oppression in the Soviet Union The total war dead in the USSR includes about 1 millionvictims ofStalin's regime. The number of deaths in theGulag labor campsincreased as a result of wartime overcrowding and food shortages.The Stalin regime deported the entire populations of ethnic minorities considered to be potentially disloyal.Since 1990 Russian scholars have been given access to the Soviet-era archives and have published data on the numbers of people executed and those who died in Gulag labor camps and prisons.The Russian scholarViktor Zemskovputs the death toll from 1941 to 1945 at about 1 million based on data from the Soviet archives.The Soviet-era archive figures on the Gulag labor camps has been the subject of a vigorous academic debate outside Russia since their publication in 1991.J. Arch GettyandStephen\",\n \"GettyandStephen G. Wheatcroftmaintain that Soviet-era figures more accurately detail the victims of the Gulag labor camp system in the Stalin era.Robert ConquestandSteven Rosefieldehave disputed the accuracy of the data from the Soviet archives, maintaining that the demographic data and testimonials by survivors of the Gulag labor camps indicate a higher death toll.Rosefielde posits that the release of the Soviet Archive figures is disinformation generated by the modernKGB.Rosefielde maintains that the data from the Soviet archives is incomplete; for example, he pointed out that the figures do not include the 22,000 victims of theKatyn massacre.Rosefielde's demographic analysis puts the number of excess deaths due to Soviet repression at 2,183,000 in 1939–40 and 5,458,000 from 1941 to 1945.Michael Haynes and Rumy Husun accept the figures from the Soviet archives as being an accurate tally of Stalin's victims, they maintain that the demographic data depicts an underdeveloped Soviet economy and the losses in\",\n \"and the losses in World War Two rather than indicating a higher death toll in the Gulag labor camps. In August 2009 the PolishInstitute of National Remembrance(IPN) researchers estimated 150,000 Polish citizens were killed due to Soviet repression. Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation.Andrzej Paczkowskiputs the number of Polish deaths at 90,000–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets.In 2005Tadeusz Piotrowskiestimated the death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000. The Estonian State Commission for the Examination of Repressive Policies Carried out During the Occupations put civilian deaths due to theSoviet occupationin 1940–1941 at 33,900 including (7,800 deaths) of arrested people, (6,000) deportee deaths, (5,000) evacuee deaths, (1,100) people gone missing and (14,000) conscripted for forced labor. After the reoccupation by the USSR, 5,000 Estonians died in Soviet\",\n \"died in Soviet prisons during 1944–45. The following is a summary of the data from the Soviet archives:Reported deaths for the years 1939–1945 1,187,783, including: judicial executions 46,350; deaths in Gulag labor camps 718,804; deaths in labor colonies and prisons 422,629. Deported tospecial settlements: (figures are for deportations to Special Settlements only, not including those executed, sent to Gulag labor camps or conscripted into the Soviet Army. Nor do the figures include additional deportations after the war).Deported from annexed territories 1940–41 380,000 to 390,000 persons, including: Poland 309–312,000; Lithuania 17,500; Latvia 17,000; Estonia 6,000; Moldova 22,842.In August 1941, 243,106 Poles living in the Special Settlements were amnestied and released by the Soviets.Deported during the War 1941–1945 about 2.3 million persons of Soviet ethnic minorities including:Soviet Germans1,209,000; Finns 9,000;Karachays69,000;Kalmyks92,000;ChechensandIngush479,000;Balkars37,000;Crimean\",\n \"Tatars191,014;Meskhetian Turks91,000; Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians from Crimea 42,000; UkrainianOUNmembers 100,000; Poles 30,000.A total of 2,230,500persons were living in the settlements in October 1945 and 309,100 deaths were reported in special settlements for the years 1941–1948. Russian sources list Axisprisoner of wardeaths of 580,589 in Soviet captivity based on data in the Soviet archives (Germany 381,067; Hungary 54,755; Romania 54,612; Italy 27,683; Finland 403, and Japan 62,069).However, some western scholars estimate the total at between 1.7 and 2.3 million. Military casualties by branch of service Commonwealth military casualties TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) Annual Report 2014–2015is the source of the military dead for theBritish Empire. The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The statistics tabulated by the CWGC are representative of the number of names commemorated for all\",\n \"for all servicemen/women of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth and former UK Dependencies, whose death was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and civilian organizations are also accorded war grave status if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For the purposes of CWGC the dates of inclusion for Commonwealth War Dead are 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947. See also Footnotes ^AAlbania ^BAustralia ^CAustria ^DBelgium ^EBrazil ^FBulgaria ^GBurma ^HCanada ^IChinaSources for total Chinese war dead are divergent and range from 10 to 20 million as detailed below. ^JCuba ^KCzechoslovakia ^LDenmark ^MDutch East Indies ^MAEgypt ^NEstonia ^OEthiopia ^PFinland ^QFrance ^RFrench Indochina ^SGermanyThe following notes summarize German casualties, the details are presented inGerman casualties in World War II. German population Total German war dead German military casualties Civilian Casualties Civilian casualties in air raids 1- The summary report of September 30, 1945 put total casualties\",\n \"total casualties for the entire period of the war at 305,000 killed and 780,000 wounded.2- The sectionEffects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economyof October 31, 1945 put the losses at 375,000 killed and 625,000 wounded.3- The sectionThe Effect of Bombing on Health and Medical Care in Germanyof January 1947 made a preliminary calculated estimate of air raid dead at 422,000. Regarding overall losses, they concluded that \\\"It was further estimated that an additional number, approximately 25% of known deaths in 1944–45, were still unrecovered and unrecorded. With an addition of this estimate of 1944–45 unrecorded deaths, the final estimation gave in round numbers a half a million German civilians killed by Allied aerial attacks.\\\" Civilians killed in 1945 military campaign Deaths due to Nazi political, racial and religious persecution Expulsion and flight of ethnic GermansThe following notes summarize German expulsion casualties, the details are presented in theflight and expulsion of Germans\",\n \"of Germans (1944–1950), theforced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union' and theDemographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans. The figures for these losses are currently disputed, estimates of the total deaths range from 500,000 to 2,000,000. The death toll attributable to the flight and expulsions was estimated at 2.2 million by the West German government in 1958.German government reports which were released to the public in 1987 and 1989 have caused some historians in Germany to put the actual total at 500,000 to 600,000.English language sources put the death toll at 2 to 3 million based on the West German government statistical analysis of the 1950s. German government figures of 2.0 to 2.5 million civilian deaths due to expulsions have been disputed by scholars since the publication of the results of the German church search service survey and the report by theGerman Federal Archive. Post war increase in natural deaths ^TGreece ^TAGuam ^UHungary ^VIceland ^WIndia Bengal famine of 1943 ^YIraq\",\n \"of 1943 ^YIraq ^ZIreland ^AAItaly Military war deadConfirmed deadwere 159,957 (92,767 pre-armistice, 67,090 post armistice)Missing and presumed dead(including POWs)were 131,419 (111,579 pre-armistice, 19,840 post armistice)Losses by branch of service: Army 201,405; Navy 22,034; Air Force 9,096; Colonial Forces 354;Chaplains91;Fascistmilitia10,066;Paramilitary3,252; not indicated 45,078.Military Losses by theatre of war: Italy 74,725 (37,573 post armistice); France 2,060 (1,039 post armistice);Germany 25,430 (24,020 post armistice); Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia 49,459 (10,090 post armistice);USSR 82,079 (3,522 post armistice); Africa 22,341 (1,565 post armistice), at sea 28,438 (5,526 post armistice);other and unknown 6,844 (3,695 post armistice). ^ABJapan Military dead Key:Location, Army dead,Navy dead,(Total dead)Japan Proper: 58,100,45,800,(103,900)Bonin Islands: 2,700,12,500,(15,200)Okinawa: 67,900,21,500,(89,400)Formosa (Taiwan): 28,500,10,600,(39,100)Korea: 19,600,6,900,(26,500)Sakhalin, the\",\n \"the Aleutian, and Kuril Islands: 8,200,3,200,(11,400)Manchuria: 45,900,800,(46,700)China (inc. Hong Kong): 435,600,20,100,(455,700)Siberia: 52,300,400,(52,700)Central Pacific: 95,800,151,400,(247,200)Philippines: 377,500,121,100,(498,600)French Indochina: 7,900,4,500,(12,400)Thailand: 6,900,100,(7,000)Burma (inc. India): 163,000,1,500,(164,500)Malaya & Singapore: 8,500,2,900,(11,400)Andaman & Nicobar Islands: 900,1,500,(2,400)Sumatra: 2,700,500,(3,200)Java: 2,700,3,800,(6,500)Lesser Sundas: 51,800,1,200,(53,000)Borneo: 11,300,6,700,(18,000)Celebes: 1,500,4,000,(5,500)Moluccas: 2,600,1,800,(4,400)New Guinea: 112,400,15,200,(127,600)Bismarck Archipelago: 19,700,10,800,(30,500)Solomon Islands: 63,200,25,000,(88,200)Total: 1,647,200,473,800,(2,121,000) Overall, perhaps two thirds of all Japanese military dead came not from combat, but from starvation and disease.In some cases this figure was potentially even higher, up to 80% in the Philippinesand a staggering 97% in New Guinea. ArmyChina after Pearl\",\n \"after Pearl Harbor202,958 killed and 88,920 wounded.vs. United States485,717 killed and 34,679 wounded.vs. U.K. and Netherlands208,026 killed and 139,225 wounded.vs. Australia199,511 killed and 15,000 wounded.French Indochina2,803 killed and 6,000 wounded.Manchuria & USSR7,483 killed and 4,641 wounded.other overseas23,388 killed and 0 wounded.Japan proper10,543 killed and 6,782 wounded.Army total1,140,429 killed and 295,247 wounded.NavySailors300,386 killed and 12,275 wounded and missing.Civilians in Navy service114,493 killed and 1,880 wounded and missing.Navy total414,879 killed and 14,155 wounded and missing. Civilian Dead 1-Summary Report (July 1946)Total civilian casualties in Japan, as a result of 9 months of air attack, including those from the atomic bombs, were approximately 806,000. Of these, approximately 330,000 were fatalities. 2-United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Medical Division (1947)The bombing of Japan killed 333,000 civilians and injured 473,000. Of this total 120,000 died and 160,000\",\n \"died and 160,000 were injured in the atomic bombings, leaving 213,000 dead and 313,000 injured by conventional bombing. 3-The effects of air attack on Japanese urban economy. Summary report (1947)Estimated that 252,769 Japanese were killed and 298,650 injured in the air war. 4-The Effects of strategic bombing on Japanese moraleBased on a survey of Japanese households the death toll was put at 900,000 dead and 1.3 million injured, the SBS noted that this figure was subject to a maximum sampling error of 30%. 5-Strategic Bombing Survey The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and NagasakiThe most striking result of the atomic bombs was the great number of casualties. The exact number of dead and injured will never be known because of the confusion after the explosions. Persons unaccounted for might have been burned beyond recognition in the falling buildings, disposed of in one of the mass cremations of the first week of recovery, or driven out of the city to die or recover without any record remaining. No\",\n \"remaining. No sure count of even the prepaid populations existed. Because of the decline in activity in the two port cities, the constant threat of incendiary raids, and the formal evacuation programs of the Government, an unknown number of the inhabitants had either drifter away from the cities or been removed according to plan. In this uncertain situation, estimates of casualties have generally ranged between 100,000 and 180,000 for Hiroshima, and between 50,000 and 100,000 for Nagasaki. The Survey believes the dead at Hiroshima to have been between 70,000 and 80,000, with an equal number injured; at Nagasaki over 35,000 dead and somewhat more than that injured seems the most plausible estimate. ^ACKorea ^ADLatvia ^AELithuania ^AFLuxembourg ^AGMalaya and Singapore ^AHMalta1,493 civilians were killed and 3,734 wounded during theSiege of Malta (World War II)Maltese civilians killed during the siege are also included with U.K. civilian deaths by theCommonwealth War Graves Commission. ^AIMexico ^AJMongolia\",\n \"^AJMongolia ^AKNauru ^ALNepal ^AMNetherlands Military deaths6,750 which included 3,900 regular Army, 2,600 Navy forces, and 250 POW in Germany.Civilian deathsof 203,250 which included 1,350 Merchant seaman, 2,800 executed, 2,500 dead in Dutch concentration camps,20,400 killed by acts of war, 104,000 Jewish Holocaust dead, 18,000 political prisoners in Germany, 27,000 workers in Germany,3,700 Dutch nationals in the German armed forces and 7,500 missing and presumed dead in Germany and 16,000 deathsin theDutch famine of 1944. Not Included in the figure of 210,000 war dead are 70,000 \\\"indirect war casualties\\\",which are attributed to an increase innatural deathsfrom 1940 to 1945 and 1,650 foreign nationals killed while serving in theDutch Merchant Marine. ^ANNewfoundland ^AONew Zealand ^APNorway Military(Norwegian & Allied Forces)2,000 (800 Army, 900 Navy and 100 Air).Civilians7,500 (3,600 Merchant seaman, 1,500 resistance fighters, 1,800 civilians killed and 600 Jews killed)In German Armed Forces700 ^AQPapua\",\n \"Forces700 ^AQPapua New Guinea ^ARPhilippines ^ASPoland Total Polish war dead Polish losses during the Soviet occupation (1939–1941) Polish military casualties ^ATTimor ^AURomania ^AVRuanda Urundi ^AWSouth Africa ^AXSouth Seas Mandate The following notes summarize Soviet casualties, the details are presented inWorld War II casualties of the Soviet Union. ^AZSpain ^BASweden ^BBSwitzerland ^BCThailand ^BDTurkey ^BEUnited Kingdom and Colonies Total war deadof 357,116; Navy (50,758); Army (144,079); Air Force (69,606);Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service(624);Merchant Navy(30,248);British Home Guard(1,206) and Civilians (60,595).The total still missing on 2/28/1946were 6,244; Navy (340); Army (2,267); Air Force (3,089);Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service(18);Merchant Navy(530);British Home Guard(0) and Civilians (0).These figures included the losses ofNewfoundlandandSouthern Rhodesia.Colonial forces are not included in these figures.There were an additional 31,271 military deaths due to \\\"natural causes\\\" which\",\n \"causes\\\" which are not included in these figures.Deaths due to air and V-rocket attacks were 60,595 civilians and 1,206British Home Guard. ^BFUnited StatesAmerican military dead#^BF1 American civilian dead#^BF2 ^BGYugoslavia The losses of Yugoslav collaborators The reasons for the high human toll in Yugoslavia were as followsA.Military operationsbetween the occupying German military forces and their \\\"Quislings and collaborators\\\" against theYugoslav resistance.B. German forces, under express orders from Hitler, fought with a specialvengeance against the Serbs, who were consideredUntermensch.One of the worst one-day massacres during the German military occupation of Serbia was theKragujevac massacre.C. Deliberate acts of reprisal against target populations were perpetrated by all combatants. All sides practiced the shooting of hostages on a large scale. At the end of the war, manyUstašeand Slovene collaborators were killed in or as a result of theYugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators.D. The systematic\",\n \"The systematic extermination of large numbers of people for political, religious or racial reasons. The most numerous victims wereSerbs.According toYad Vashem, \\\"During their four years in power, the Ustasa carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000, expelling 250,000 and forcing another 200,000 to convert to Catholicism. The Ustasa also killed most of Croatia's Jews, 20,000 Gypsies, and many thousands of their political enemies.\\\"According to theUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum\\\"The Croat authorities murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Ustaša rule; more than 30,000 Croatian Jews were killed either in Croatia or at Auschwitz-Birkenau\\\".TheUSHMMreports between 77,000 and 99,000 persons were killed at theJasenovacandStara Gradiškaconcentration camps.The Jasenovac Memorial Site quotes a similar figure of between 80,000 and 100,000 victims.Stara Gradiškawas a sub-camp of Jasenovac established for women and children.The names and\",\n \"names and data for 12,790 victims at Stara Gradiška have been established.Serbian sources currently claim that 700,000 persons were murdered atJasenovac.Some 40,000Romawere murdered.Jewish victims in Yugoslavia totaled 67,122.E. Reduced food supply caused famine and disease.F. Allied bombing of German supply lines caused civilian casualties. The hardest hit localities werePodgorica,Leskovac,ZadarandBelgrade.G. The demographic losses due to the reduction of 335,000 births and emigration of about 660,000 are not included with war casualties. ^BHOther Nations References Further reading External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":381,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How many letters long is the title of the first movie composed by the composer of the first American Godzilla movie?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"17"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(franchise)"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(1998_film)"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Arnold"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(franchise)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(1998_film)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Arnold']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(franchise","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(1998_film","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Arnold"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(franchise\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(1998_film\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Arnold\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(franchise","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(1998_film","David Arnold David Arnold(born 23 January 1962) is an English film composer whose credits include scoring fiveJames Bondfilms (1997-2008), as well asStargate(1994),Independence Day(1996),Godzilla(1998),Shaft(2000),2 Fast 2 Furious(2003),Four Brothers(2005),Hot Fuzz(2007), and the television seriesLittle BritainandSherlock. ForIndependence Day, he received aGrammy Awardfor Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television, and forSherlock, he and co-composerMichael Pricewon aCreative Arts Emmyfor the score of \"His Last Vow\", the final episode in the third series. Arnold scored the BBC /Amazon PrimeseriesGood Omens(2019) adapted byNeil Gaimanfrom his bookGood Omens, written withTerry Pratchett.Arnold is a fellow of theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors. Career While attending a Sixth Form College in Luton, Arnold became friends with directorDanny Cannon.Cannon initially created short films for which Arnold was asked to write the music. The two made their respective major film debuts withThe Young Americans. \"Play Dead\", a song from the film with singerBjörk, charted No. 12 in the UK. The following year he scoredStargateandLast of the Dogmen, with excerpts from the former ranking third in the most commonly used soundtrack cues for film trailers. Arnold then composed music forStargatedirectorRoland Emmerich's next two movies,Independence DayandGodzilla, as well as four movies for directorJohn Singleton. In addition, he has scored various comedies, dramas, and nineteenth-century period pieces, as well as providing music for several British television shows including the 2000 remake ofRandall and Hopkirk (Deceased)andLittle Britain. During film production, his compositions are conducted by Nicholas Dodd. In 2010, he composed the music forCome Fly With Me, a British television series from the producers ofLittle Britain. He is a member of theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors(BASCA).On Thursday 29 November 2012, Arnold received an honorary degree fromUniversity of West London.Now a university honorary, he will work closely with the University in particularLondon College of Music, a faculty within the institute. In 2014, he appeared as himself inThe Life of Rock with Brian Pern. Film music concerts Arnold performed his debut orchestral concert, showcasing his film and television music, on Sunday 6 July 2014 at London'sRoyal Festival Hall.The line-up featured Nicholas Dodd conducting,David McAlmontas surprise guest vocalist (\"My secret weapon!\" said Arnold) and the Urban Voices Collective choir, plusMark GatissandAmanda Abbingtonintroducing the suite ofSherlockmusic, for which Arnold's collaborator on the project,Michael Price, replaced Dodd. He performed his music in a series of orchestral concerts in 2015: Dublin) in January (with theRTÉ Concert Orchestra); Manchester(with theManchester Camerata) in April; and London(with theRoyal Philharmonic Orchestra), Birminghamand Nottingham(with theCity of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra(CBSO)) in June 2015. He was also the special guest at 'The music of David Arnold', a concert in Lucerne in October 2015, with Ludwig Wicki conducting the 21st Century Symphony Orchestra and Chorus. On 5 June 2016 Film Music Prague performed a concert of his work, with Arnold in attendance (and performing) as special guest.In February 2016 the Royal Albert Hall announcedthe premiere ofIndependence DayLive on 22 September 2016. This celebrated the 20th anniversary of the film's release with a live orchestral performance. David Arnold gave a pre-show talk about his work and theRoyal Philharmonic Concert Orchestraand Maida Vale Singers (conducted by Gavin Greenaway) performed the original music while the film screened. The Upcoming magazine gave the event a five star review noting that \"with unrivalled acoustics and a ceiling filled with floating UFO-shaped objects, the Hall set the ideal scene for the audience and the musicians alike\" and that the production \"kept the audience on the edge of their seats as if the film had just been released for the first time.\" Arnold hosted another two concerts of his music in Dublin, at theBord Gáis Energy Theatreon 19 and 20 May 2017, with the RTÉ Concert Orchestra. The first concert showcased his career in writing music for film and television,the second wasIndependence DayLive with the film screened as the orchestra played the score alongside.The first James Bond film ever to be screened with a live orchestra wasCasino Royale in Concertwhich took place at the Royal Albert Hall on Saturday 30 September 2017; David Arnold held a pre-concert question and answer session. James Bond Arnold was a Bond fan from an early age and also a fan of Bond composerJohn Barry. In 1997, Arnold producedShaken and Stirred: The David Arnold James Bond Project, an album featuring new versions of the themes from various James Bond films. The album featured a variety of contemporary artists includingJarvis Cocker,Chrissie Hynde,David McAlmont,PropellerheadsandIggy Pop; a version ofYou Only Live TwicebyBjörkwas recorded but not included on the album. John Barry, the composer of many of the themes on the album, was complimentary about Arnold's interpretation of his work; \"He was very faithful to the melodic and harmonic content, but he's added a whole other rhythmic freshness and some interesting casting in terms of the artists chosen to do the songs. I think it's a terrific album. I'm very flattered.\"Barry contactedBarbara Broccoli, producer of the then-upcomingTomorrow Never Dies, to recommend Arnold as the film's composer.Arnold was hired to score the instalment and, returning the compliment to the man he refers to as \"The guvnor\",included musical references to Barry's score forFrom Russia with Love,as well as, of course, theJames Bond Themecomposed byMonty Normanwith Barry's arrangement. Arnold scored the four subsequent Bond films:The World Is Not Enough,Die Another Day(in which he included references to John Barry's score forOn Her Majesty's Secret Service),Casino RoyaleandQuantum of Solace.Arnold did not score the 23rd James Bond film,Skyfall, withThomas Newmantaking his place.Arnold commented that Newman had been selected by the film's director,Sam Mendes, because of their history of working together, rather than because of Arnold's commitment to working with directorDanny Boyleas composer for the Opening Ceremony of the2012 Summer Olympics. However, a part of Arnold's composition work onCasino Royalewas reused, with a credit, inSkyfalland again inSPECTRE. Arnold also co-wrote the main theme songs forThe World Is Not Enough(\"The World Is Not Enough\" byGarbage) andCasino Royale(\"You Know My Name\" byChris Cornell), as well as \"Surrender\" byk.d. langwhich appears during the end credits ofTomorrow Never Dieshaving been originally proposed as the opening theme. Arnold also contributed the main themes to Kevin Kiner's score for Activision'sGoldenEye 007, the remake of the 1997 game of the same name. In 2017, a part of a track entitled \"Vesper\" from Arnold's composition work on theCasino Royalesoundtrackwas reused in aSherlockepisode entitled \"The Final Problem\", the third episode of the fourth series, in a track entitled \"Pick Up\" composed by Arnold himselfandMichael Price. Other work Arnold has collaborated with such musical acts asCast,Kaiser Chiefs,Massive Attack, andPulp, and solo artistsNatasha Bedingfield,Melanie C,Björk,Chris Cornell,Shirley Manson,Mark Morriss,Nina Perssonand in 2009 producedShirley Bassey's albumThe Performance. In 2001, he provided a new arrangement ofRon Grainer'sDoctor Whotheme musicfor theEighth Doctoraudio dramas fromBig Finish Productions. His version was used as the Eighth Doctor theme starting with 2001'sStorm Warninguntil 2008, when it was replaced with a new version arranged byNicholas Briggsstarting withDead London. Arnold's theme returned to the Eighth Doctor releases with the 2012 box set,Dark Eyes. Arnold is the second cousin of Irish singer-songwriterDamien Rice, and is an ambassador for aid agencyCARE Internationalin the UK. He has made minor appearances in two different episodes ofLittle Britainas separate characters. In February 2011, it was announced that he had been appointed Musical Director for the2012 Olympic Gamesand the2012 Paralympic Gamesin London. In May 2011, he was part of the United Kingdom's jury for theEurovision Song Contest 2011. Arnold took part in a tribute toJohn Barryon 20 June 2011 at theRoyal Albert Hallin London, singing a song that was composed by Barry and playing the guitar part of the James Bond theme. In 2014, Arnold teamed up withRichard Thomas, to write the music and lyrics for the newWest EndmusicalMade in Dagenham. In October 2015 he collaborated withLethal BizzleandSinead Harnettto create a song combining orchestral,grimeand soul elements. The song, 'Come This Far', was performed liveat a special event at One Mayfair, as part ofBulmersCider's LiveColourful LIVE promotion, and made available as a free download from Bulmers' website. He andSherlockco-composerMichael Pricealso composed the music for ITV's Jekyll and Hyde television series which premiered in October 2015. In September 2016 the Royal Albert Hall hosted an orchestral performance ofIndependence Daywith the score performed live to picture, David Arnold gave a pre-show talk. In 2019, David Arnold provided additional production forSophie Ellis-Bextor's orchestral album,The Song Diaries. Later in 2020, he co-produced an orchestral cover of 'My Favourite Things' (fromThe Sound of Music) along withRichard Jones(ofThe Feeling) for Sophie's 2020 compilation albumSongs From The Kitchen Disco. In July 2023, it was announced that Arnold and Ellis-Bextor would collaborate with lyricistDon Blackfor the track toChannel 4andUniversal Picturesfilm, \"Mog's Christmas\", based uponthe children's book seriesbyJudith Kerr. The track, titled \"As Long As I Belong\", is about \"the importance of belonging\". The film is slated for a Q4 2023 release. Acting filmography Discography Films Television Video games Web series Singles in charts Awards References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(franchise\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(1998_film\",\n \"David Arnold David Arnold(born 23 January 1962) is an English film composer whose credits include scoring fiveJames Bondfilms (1997-2008), as well asStargate(1994),Independence Day(1996),Godzilla(1998),Shaft(2000),2 Fast 2 Furious(2003),Four Brothers(2005),Hot Fuzz(2007), and the television seriesLittle BritainandSherlock. ForIndependence Day, he received aGrammy Awardfor Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television, and forSherlock, he and co-composerMichael Pricewon aCreative Arts Emmyfor the score of \\\"His Last Vow\\\", the final episode in the third series. Arnold scored the BBC /Amazon PrimeseriesGood Omens(2019) adapted byNeil Gaimanfrom his bookGood Omens, written withTerry Pratchett.Arnold is a fellow of theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors. Career While attending a Sixth Form College in Luton, Arnold became friends with directorDanny Cannon.Cannon initially created short films for which Arnold was asked to write the music. The two made their respective major film debuts withThe Young Americans. \\\"Play Dead\\\", a song from the film with singerBjörk, charted No. 12 in the UK. The following year he scoredStargateandLast of the Dogmen, with excerpts from the former ranking third in the most commonly used soundtrack cues for film trailers. Arnold then composed music forStargatedirectorRoland Emmerich's next two movies,Independence DayandGodzilla, as well as four movies for directorJohn Singleton. In addition, he has scored various comedies, dramas, and nineteenth-century period pieces, as well as providing music for several British television shows including the 2000 remake ofRandall and Hopkirk (Deceased)andLittle Britain. During film production, his compositions are conducted by Nicholas Dodd. In 2010, he composed the music forCome Fly With Me, a British television series from the producers ofLittle Britain. He is a member of theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors(BASCA).On Thursday 29 November 2012, Arnold received an honorary degree fromUniversity of West London.Now a university honorary, he will work closely with the University in particularLondon College of Music, a faculty within the institute. In 2014, he appeared as himself inThe Life of Rock with Brian Pern. Film music concerts Arnold performed his debut orchestral concert, showcasing his film and television music, on Sunday 6 July 2014 at London'sRoyal Festival Hall.The line-up featured Nicholas Dodd conducting,David McAlmontas surprise guest vocalist (\\\"My secret weapon!\\\" said Arnold) and the Urban Voices Collective choir, plusMark GatissandAmanda Abbingtonintroducing the suite ofSherlockmusic, for which Arnold's collaborator on the project,Michael Price, replaced Dodd. He performed his music in a series of orchestral concerts in 2015: Dublin) in January (with theRTÉ Concert Orchestra); Manchester(with theManchester Camerata) in April; and London(with theRoyal Philharmonic Orchestra), Birminghamand Nottingham(with theCity of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra(CBSO)) in June 2015. He was also the special guest at 'The music of David Arnold', a concert in Lucerne in October 2015, with Ludwig Wicki conducting the 21st Century Symphony Orchestra and Chorus. On 5 June 2016 Film Music Prague performed a concert of his work, with Arnold in attendance (and performing) as special guest.In February 2016 the Royal Albert Hall announcedthe premiere ofIndependence DayLive on 22 September 2016. This celebrated the 20th anniversary of the film's release with a live orchestral performance. David Arnold gave a pre-show talk about his work and theRoyal Philharmonic Concert Orchestraand Maida Vale Singers (conducted by Gavin Greenaway) performed the original music while the film screened. The Upcoming magazine gave the event a five star review noting that \\\"with unrivalled acoustics and a ceiling filled with floating UFO-shaped objects, the Hall set the ideal scene for the audience and the musicians alike\\\" and that the production \\\"kept the audience on the edge of their seats as if the film had just been released for the first time.\\\" Arnold hosted another two concerts of his music in Dublin, at theBord Gáis Energy Theatreon 19 and 20 May 2017, with the RTÉ Concert Orchestra. The first concert showcased his career in writing music for film and television,the second wasIndependence DayLive with the film screened as the orchestra played the score alongside.The first James Bond film ever to be screened with a live orchestra wasCasino Royale in Concertwhich took place at the Royal Albert Hall on Saturday 30 September 2017; David Arnold held a pre-concert question and answer session. James Bond Arnold was a Bond fan from an early age and also a fan of Bond composerJohn Barry. In 1997, Arnold producedShaken and Stirred: The David Arnold James Bond Project, an album featuring new versions of the themes from various James Bond films. The album featured a variety of contemporary artists includingJarvis Cocker,Chrissie Hynde,David McAlmont,PropellerheadsandIggy Pop; a version ofYou Only Live TwicebyBjörkwas recorded but not included on the album. John Barry, the composer of many of the themes on the album, was complimentary about Arnold's interpretation of his work; \\\"He was very faithful to the melodic and harmonic content, but he's added a whole other rhythmic freshness and some interesting casting in terms of the artists chosen to do the songs. I think it's a terrific album. I'm very flattered.\\\"Barry contactedBarbara Broccoli, producer of the then-upcomingTomorrow Never Dies, to recommend Arnold as the film's composer.Arnold was hired to score the instalment and, returning the compliment to the man he refers to as \\\"The guvnor\\\",included musical references to Barry's score forFrom Russia with Love,as well as, of course, theJames Bond Themecomposed byMonty Normanwith Barry's arrangement. Arnold scored the four subsequent Bond films:The World Is Not Enough,Die Another Day(in which he included references to John Barry's score forOn Her Majesty's Secret Service),Casino RoyaleandQuantum of Solace.Arnold did not score the 23rd James Bond film,Skyfall, withThomas Newmantaking his place.Arnold commented that Newman had been selected by the film's director,Sam Mendes, because of their history of working together, rather than because of Arnold's commitment to working with directorDanny Boyleas composer for the Opening Ceremony of the2012 Summer Olympics. However, a part of Arnold's composition work onCasino Royalewas reused, with a credit, inSkyfalland again inSPECTRE. Arnold also co-wrote the main theme songs forThe World Is Not Enough(\\\"The World Is Not Enough\\\" byGarbage) andCasino Royale(\\\"You Know My Name\\\" byChris Cornell), as well as \\\"Surrender\\\" byk.d. langwhich appears during the end credits ofTomorrow Never Dieshaving been originally proposed as the opening theme. Arnold also contributed the main themes to Kevin Kiner's score for Activision'sGoldenEye 007, the remake of the 1997 game of the same name. In 2017, a part of a track entitled \\\"Vesper\\\" from Arnold's composition work on theCasino Royalesoundtrackwas reused in aSherlockepisode entitled \\\"The Final Problem\\\", the third episode of the fourth series, in a track entitled \\\"Pick Up\\\" composed by Arnold himselfandMichael Price. Other work Arnold has collaborated with such musical acts asCast,Kaiser Chiefs,Massive Attack, andPulp, and solo artistsNatasha Bedingfield,Melanie C,Björk,Chris Cornell,Shirley Manson,Mark Morriss,Nina Perssonand in 2009 producedShirley Bassey's albumThe Performance. In 2001, he provided a new arrangement ofRon Grainer'sDoctor Whotheme musicfor theEighth Doctoraudio dramas fromBig Finish Productions. His version was used as the Eighth Doctor theme starting with 2001'sStorm Warninguntil 2008, when it was replaced with a new version arranged byNicholas Briggsstarting withDead London. Arnold's theme returned to the Eighth Doctor releases with the 2012 box set,Dark Eyes. Arnold is the second cousin of Irish singer-songwriterDamien Rice, and is an ambassador for aid agencyCARE Internationalin the UK. He has made minor appearances in two different episodes ofLittle Britainas separate characters. In February 2011, it was announced that he had been appointed Musical Director for the2012 Olympic Gamesand the2012 Paralympic Gamesin London. In May 2011, he was part of the United Kingdom's jury for theEurovision Song Contest 2011. Arnold took part in a tribute toJohn Barryon 20 June 2011 at theRoyal Albert Hallin London, singing a song that was composed by Barry and playing the guitar part of the James Bond theme. In 2014, Arnold teamed up withRichard Thomas, to write the music and lyrics for the newWest EndmusicalMade in Dagenham. In October 2015 he collaborated withLethal BizzleandSinead Harnettto create a song combining orchestral,grimeand soul elements. The song, 'Come This Far', was performed liveat a special event at One Mayfair, as part ofBulmersCider's LiveColourful LIVE promotion, and made available as a free download from Bulmers' website. He andSherlockco-composerMichael Pricealso composed the music for ITV's Jekyll and Hyde television series which premiered in October 2015. In September 2016 the Royal Albert Hall hosted an orchestral performance ofIndependence Daywith the score performed live to picture, David Arnold gave a pre-show talk. In 2019, David Arnold provided additional production forSophie Ellis-Bextor's orchestral album,The Song Diaries. Later in 2020, he co-produced an orchestral cover of 'My Favourite Things' (fromThe Sound of Music) along withRichard Jones(ofThe Feeling) for Sophie's 2020 compilation albumSongs From The Kitchen Disco. In July 2023, it was announced that Arnold and Ellis-Bextor would collaborate with lyricistDon Blackfor the track toChannel 4andUniversal Picturesfilm, \\\"Mog's Christmas\\\", based uponthe children's book seriesbyJudith Kerr. The track, titled \\\"As Long As I Belong\\\", is about \\\"the importance of belonging\\\". The film is slated for a Q4 2023 release. Acting filmography Discography Films Television Video games Web series Singles in charts Awards References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(franchise","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(1998_film","David Arnold David Arnold(born 23 January 1962) is an English film composer whose credits include scoring fiveJames Bondfilms (1997-2008), as well asStargate(1994),Independence Day(1996),Godzilla(1998),Shaft(2000),2 Fast 2 Furious(2003),Four Brothers(2005),Hot Fuzz(2007), and the television seriesLittle BritainandSherlock. ForIndependence Day, he received aGrammy Awardfor Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television, and forSherlock, he and co-composerMichael Pricewon aCreative Arts Emmyfor the score of \"His Last Vow\", the final episode in the third series. Arnold scored the BBC /Amazon PrimeseriesGood Omens(2019) adapted byNeil Gaimanfrom his bookGood Omens, written withTerry Pratchett.Arnold is a fellow of theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors. Career While attending a Sixth Form College in Luton, Arnold became friends with directorDanny Cannon.Cannon initially created short films for which Arnold was asked to write the music. The two made their respective","their respective major film debuts withThe Young Americans. \"Play Dead\", a song from the film with singerBjörk, charted No. 12 in the UK. The following year he scoredStargateandLast of the Dogmen, with excerpts from the former ranking third in the most commonly used soundtrack cues for film trailers. Arnold then composed music forStargatedirectorRoland Emmerich's next two movies,Independence DayandGodzilla, as well as four movies for directorJohn Singleton. In addition, he has scored various comedies, dramas, and nineteenth-century period pieces, as well as providing music for several British television shows including the 2000 remake ofRandall and Hopkirk (Deceased)andLittle Britain. During film production, his compositions are conducted by Nicholas Dodd. In 2010, he composed the music forCome Fly With Me, a British television series from the producers ofLittle Britain. He is a member of theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors(BASCA).On Thursday 29 November 2012, Arnold received an honorary","an honorary degree fromUniversity of West London.Now a university honorary, he will work closely with the University in particularLondon College of Music, a faculty within the institute. In 2014, he appeared as himself inThe Life of Rock with Brian Pern. Film music concerts Arnold performed his debut orchestral concert, showcasing his film and television music, on Sunday 6 July 2014 at London'sRoyal Festival Hall.The line-up featured Nicholas Dodd conducting,David McAlmontas surprise guest vocalist (\"My secret weapon!\" said Arnold) and the Urban Voices Collective choir, plusMark GatissandAmanda Abbingtonintroducing the suite ofSherlockmusic, for which Arnold's collaborator on the project,Michael Price, replaced Dodd. He performed his music in a series of orchestral concerts in 2015: Dublin) in January (with theRTÉ Concert Orchestra); Manchester(with theManchester Camerata) in April; and London(with theRoyal Philharmonic Orchestra), Birminghamand Nottingham(with theCity of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra(CBSO))","Orchestra(CBSO)) in June 2015. He was also the special guest at 'The music of David Arnold', a concert in Lucerne in October 2015, with Ludwig Wicki conducting the 21st Century Symphony Orchestra and Chorus. On 5 June 2016 Film Music Prague performed a concert of his work, with Arnold in attendance (and performing) as special guest.In February 2016 the Royal Albert Hall announcedthe premiere ofIndependence DayLive on 22 September 2016. This celebrated the 20th anniversary of the film's release with a live orchestral performance. David Arnold gave a pre-show talk about his work and theRoyal Philharmonic Concert Orchestraand Maida Vale Singers (conducted by Gavin Greenaway) performed the original music while the film screened. The Upcoming magazine gave the event a five star review noting that \"with unrivalled acoustics and a ceiling filled with floating UFO-shaped objects, the Hall set the ideal scene for the audience and the musicians alike\" and that the production \"kept the audience on the edge of their","the edge of their seats as if the film had just been released for the first time.\" Arnold hosted another two concerts of his music in Dublin, at theBord Gáis Energy Theatreon 19 and 20 May 2017, with the RTÉ Concert Orchestra. The first concert showcased his career in writing music for film and television,the second wasIndependence DayLive with the film screened as the orchestra played the score alongside.The first James Bond film ever to be screened with a live orchestra wasCasino Royale in Concertwhich took place at the Royal Albert Hall on Saturday 30 September 2017; David Arnold held a pre-concert question and answer session. James Bond Arnold was a Bond fan from an early age and also a fan of Bond composerJohn Barry. In 1997, Arnold producedShaken and Stirred: The David Arnold James Bond Project, an album featuring new versions of the themes from various James Bond films. The album featured a variety of contemporary artists includingJarvis Cocker,Chrissie Hynde,David McAlmont,PropellerheadsandIggy Pop;","Pop; a version ofYou Only Live TwicebyBjörkwas recorded but not included on the album. John Barry, the composer of many of the themes on the album, was complimentary about Arnold's interpretation of his work; \"He was very faithful to the melodic and harmonic content, but he's added a whole other rhythmic freshness and some interesting casting in terms of the artists chosen to do the songs. I think it's a terrific album. I'm very flattered.\"Barry contactedBarbara Broccoli, producer of the then-upcomingTomorrow Never Dies, to recommend Arnold as the film's composer.Arnold was hired to score the instalment and, returning the compliment to the man he refers to as \"The guvnor\",included musical references to Barry's score forFrom Russia with Love,as well as, of course, theJames Bond Themecomposed byMonty Normanwith Barry's arrangement. Arnold scored the four subsequent Bond films:The World Is Not Enough,Die Another Day(in which he included references to John Barry's score forOn Her Majesty's Secret Service),Casino","Service),Casino RoyaleandQuantum of Solace.Arnold did not score the 23rd James Bond film,Skyfall, withThomas Newmantaking his place.Arnold commented that Newman had been selected by the film's director,Sam Mendes, because of their history of working together, rather than because of Arnold's commitment to working with directorDanny Boyleas composer for the Opening Ceremony of the2012 Summer Olympics. However, a part of Arnold's composition work onCasino Royalewas reused, with a credit, inSkyfalland again inSPECTRE. Arnold also co-wrote the main theme songs forThe World Is Not Enough(\"The World Is Not Enough\" byGarbage) andCasino Royale(\"You Know My Name\" byChris Cornell), as well as \"Surrender\" byk.d. langwhich appears during the end credits ofTomorrow Never Dieshaving been originally proposed as the opening theme. Arnold also contributed the main themes to Kevin Kiner's score for Activision'sGoldenEye 007, the remake of the 1997 game of the same name. In 2017, a part of a track entitled \"Vesper\" from","\"Vesper\" from Arnold's composition work on theCasino Royalesoundtrackwas reused in aSherlockepisode entitled \"The Final Problem\", the third episode of the fourth series, in a track entitled \"Pick Up\" composed by Arnold himselfandMichael Price. Other work Arnold has collaborated with such musical acts asCast,Kaiser Chiefs,Massive Attack, andPulp, and solo artistsNatasha Bedingfield,Melanie C,Björk,Chris Cornell,Shirley Manson,Mark Morriss,Nina Perssonand in 2009 producedShirley Bassey's albumThe Performance. In 2001, he provided a new arrangement ofRon Grainer'sDoctor Whotheme musicfor theEighth Doctoraudio dramas fromBig Finish Productions. His version was used as the Eighth Doctor theme starting with 2001'sStorm Warninguntil 2008, when it was replaced with a new version arranged byNicholas Briggsstarting withDead London. Arnold's theme returned to the Eighth Doctor releases with the 2012 box set,Dark Eyes. Arnold is the second cousin of Irish singer-songwriterDamien Rice, and is an ambassador for aid","ambassador for aid agencyCARE Internationalin the UK. He has made minor appearances in two different episodes ofLittle Britainas separate characters. In February 2011, it was announced that he had been appointed Musical Director for the2012 Olympic Gamesand the2012 Paralympic Gamesin London. In May 2011, he was part of the United Kingdom's jury for theEurovision Song Contest 2011. Arnold took part in a tribute toJohn Barryon 20 June 2011 at theRoyal Albert Hallin London, singing a song that was composed by Barry and playing the guitar part of the James Bond theme. In 2014, Arnold teamed up withRichard Thomas, to write the music and lyrics for the newWest EndmusicalMade in Dagenham. In October 2015 he collaborated withLethal BizzleandSinead Harnettto create a song combining orchestral,grimeand soul elements. The song, 'Come This Far', was performed liveat a special event at One Mayfair, as part ofBulmersCider's LiveColourful LIVE promotion, and made available as a free download from Bulmers' website. He","website. He andSherlockco-composerMichael Pricealso composed the music for ITV's Jekyll and Hyde television series which premiered in October 2015. In September 2016 the Royal Albert Hall hosted an orchestral performance ofIndependence Daywith the score performed live to picture, David Arnold gave a pre-show talk. In 2019, David Arnold provided additional production forSophie Ellis-Bextor's orchestral album,The Song Diaries. Later in 2020, he co-produced an orchestral cover of 'My Favourite Things' (fromThe Sound of Music) along withRichard Jones(ofThe Feeling) for Sophie's 2020 compilation albumSongs From The Kitchen Disco. In July 2023, it was announced that Arnold and Ellis-Bextor would collaborate with lyricistDon Blackfor the track toChannel 4andUniversal Picturesfilm, \"Mog's Christmas\", based uponthe children's book seriesbyJudith Kerr. The track, titled \"As Long As I Belong\", is about \"the importance of belonging\". The film is slated for a Q4 2023 release. Acting filmography Discography Films","Discography Films Television Video games Web series Singles in charts Awards References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(franchise\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(1998_film\",\n \"David Arnold David Arnold(born 23 January 1962) is an English film composer whose credits include scoring fiveJames Bondfilms (1997-2008), as well asStargate(1994),Independence Day(1996),Godzilla(1998),Shaft(2000),2 Fast 2 Furious(2003),Four Brothers(2005),Hot Fuzz(2007), and the television seriesLittle BritainandSherlock. ForIndependence Day, he received aGrammy Awardfor Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television, and forSherlock, he and co-composerMichael Pricewon aCreative Arts Emmyfor the score of \\\"His Last Vow\\\", the final episode in the third series. Arnold scored the BBC /Amazon PrimeseriesGood Omens(2019) adapted byNeil Gaimanfrom his bookGood Omens, written withTerry Pratchett.Arnold is a fellow of theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors. Career While attending a Sixth Form College in Luton, Arnold became friends with directorDanny Cannon.Cannon initially created short films for which Arnold was asked to write the music. The two made their respective\",\n \"their respective major film debuts withThe Young Americans. \\\"Play Dead\\\", a song from the film with singerBjörk, charted No. 12 in the UK. The following year he scoredStargateandLast of the Dogmen, with excerpts from the former ranking third in the most commonly used soundtrack cues for film trailers. Arnold then composed music forStargatedirectorRoland Emmerich's next two movies,Independence DayandGodzilla, as well as four movies for directorJohn Singleton. In addition, he has scored various comedies, dramas, and nineteenth-century period pieces, as well as providing music for several British television shows including the 2000 remake ofRandall and Hopkirk (Deceased)andLittle Britain. During film production, his compositions are conducted by Nicholas Dodd. In 2010, he composed the music forCome Fly With Me, a British television series from the producers ofLittle Britain. He is a member of theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors(BASCA).On Thursday 29 November 2012, Arnold received an honorary\",\n \"an honorary degree fromUniversity of West London.Now a university honorary, he will work closely with the University in particularLondon College of Music, a faculty within the institute. In 2014, he appeared as himself inThe Life of Rock with Brian Pern. Film music concerts Arnold performed his debut orchestral concert, showcasing his film and television music, on Sunday 6 July 2014 at London'sRoyal Festival Hall.The line-up featured Nicholas Dodd conducting,David McAlmontas surprise guest vocalist (\\\"My secret weapon!\\\" said Arnold) and the Urban Voices Collective choir, plusMark GatissandAmanda Abbingtonintroducing the suite ofSherlockmusic, for which Arnold's collaborator on the project,Michael Price, replaced Dodd. He performed his music in a series of orchestral concerts in 2015: Dublin) in January (with theRTÉ Concert Orchestra); Manchester(with theManchester Camerata) in April; and London(with theRoyal Philharmonic Orchestra), Birminghamand Nottingham(with theCity of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra(CBSO))\",\n \"Orchestra(CBSO)) in June 2015. He was also the special guest at 'The music of David Arnold', a concert in Lucerne in October 2015, with Ludwig Wicki conducting the 21st Century Symphony Orchestra and Chorus. On 5 June 2016 Film Music Prague performed a concert of his work, with Arnold in attendance (and performing) as special guest.In February 2016 the Royal Albert Hall announcedthe premiere ofIndependence DayLive on 22 September 2016. This celebrated the 20th anniversary of the film's release with a live orchestral performance. David Arnold gave a pre-show talk about his work and theRoyal Philharmonic Concert Orchestraand Maida Vale Singers (conducted by Gavin Greenaway) performed the original music while the film screened. The Upcoming magazine gave the event a five star review noting that \\\"with unrivalled acoustics and a ceiling filled with floating UFO-shaped objects, the Hall set the ideal scene for the audience and the musicians alike\\\" and that the production \\\"kept the audience on the edge of their\",\n \"the edge of their seats as if the film had just been released for the first time.\\\" Arnold hosted another two concerts of his music in Dublin, at theBord Gáis Energy Theatreon 19 and 20 May 2017, with the RTÉ Concert Orchestra. The first concert showcased his career in writing music for film and television,the second wasIndependence DayLive with the film screened as the orchestra played the score alongside.The first James Bond film ever to be screened with a live orchestra wasCasino Royale in Concertwhich took place at the Royal Albert Hall on Saturday 30 September 2017; David Arnold held a pre-concert question and answer session. James Bond Arnold was a Bond fan from an early age and also a fan of Bond composerJohn Barry. In 1997, Arnold producedShaken and Stirred: The David Arnold James Bond Project, an album featuring new versions of the themes from various James Bond films. The album featured a variety of contemporary artists includingJarvis Cocker,Chrissie Hynde,David McAlmont,PropellerheadsandIggy Pop;\",\n \"Pop; a version ofYou Only Live TwicebyBjörkwas recorded but not included on the album. John Barry, the composer of many of the themes on the album, was complimentary about Arnold's interpretation of his work; \\\"He was very faithful to the melodic and harmonic content, but he's added a whole other rhythmic freshness and some interesting casting in terms of the artists chosen to do the songs. I think it's a terrific album. I'm very flattered.\\\"Barry contactedBarbara Broccoli, producer of the then-upcomingTomorrow Never Dies, to recommend Arnold as the film's composer.Arnold was hired to score the instalment and, returning the compliment to the man he refers to as \\\"The guvnor\\\",included musical references to Barry's score forFrom Russia with Love,as well as, of course, theJames Bond Themecomposed byMonty Normanwith Barry's arrangement. Arnold scored the four subsequent Bond films:The World Is Not Enough,Die Another Day(in which he included references to John Barry's score forOn Her Majesty's Secret Service),Casino\",\n \"Service),Casino RoyaleandQuantum of Solace.Arnold did not score the 23rd James Bond film,Skyfall, withThomas Newmantaking his place.Arnold commented that Newman had been selected by the film's director,Sam Mendes, because of their history of working together, rather than because of Arnold's commitment to working with directorDanny Boyleas composer for the Opening Ceremony of the2012 Summer Olympics. However, a part of Arnold's composition work onCasino Royalewas reused, with a credit, inSkyfalland again inSPECTRE. Arnold also co-wrote the main theme songs forThe World Is Not Enough(\\\"The World Is Not Enough\\\" byGarbage) andCasino Royale(\\\"You Know My Name\\\" byChris Cornell), as well as \\\"Surrender\\\" byk.d. langwhich appears during the end credits ofTomorrow Never Dieshaving been originally proposed as the opening theme. Arnold also contributed the main themes to Kevin Kiner's score for Activision'sGoldenEye 007, the remake of the 1997 game of the same name. In 2017, a part of a track entitled \\\"Vesper\\\" from\",\n \"\\\"Vesper\\\" from Arnold's composition work on theCasino Royalesoundtrackwas reused in aSherlockepisode entitled \\\"The Final Problem\\\", the third episode of the fourth series, in a track entitled \\\"Pick Up\\\" composed by Arnold himselfandMichael Price. Other work Arnold has collaborated with such musical acts asCast,Kaiser Chiefs,Massive Attack, andPulp, and solo artistsNatasha Bedingfield,Melanie C,Björk,Chris Cornell,Shirley Manson,Mark Morriss,Nina Perssonand in 2009 producedShirley Bassey's albumThe Performance. In 2001, he provided a new arrangement ofRon Grainer'sDoctor Whotheme musicfor theEighth Doctoraudio dramas fromBig Finish Productions. His version was used as the Eighth Doctor theme starting with 2001'sStorm Warninguntil 2008, when it was replaced with a new version arranged byNicholas Briggsstarting withDead London. Arnold's theme returned to the Eighth Doctor releases with the 2012 box set,Dark Eyes. Arnold is the second cousin of Irish singer-songwriterDamien Rice, and is an ambassador for aid\",\n \"ambassador for aid agencyCARE Internationalin the UK. He has made minor appearances in two different episodes ofLittle Britainas separate characters. In February 2011, it was announced that he had been appointed Musical Director for the2012 Olympic Gamesand the2012 Paralympic Gamesin London. In May 2011, he was part of the United Kingdom's jury for theEurovision Song Contest 2011. Arnold took part in a tribute toJohn Barryon 20 June 2011 at theRoyal Albert Hallin London, singing a song that was composed by Barry and playing the guitar part of the James Bond theme. In 2014, Arnold teamed up withRichard Thomas, to write the music and lyrics for the newWest EndmusicalMade in Dagenham. In October 2015 he collaborated withLethal BizzleandSinead Harnettto create a song combining orchestral,grimeand soul elements. The song, 'Come This Far', was performed liveat a special event at One Mayfair, as part ofBulmersCider's LiveColourful LIVE promotion, and made available as a free download from Bulmers' website. He\",\n \"website. He andSherlockco-composerMichael Pricealso composed the music for ITV's Jekyll and Hyde television series which premiered in October 2015. In September 2016 the Royal Albert Hall hosted an orchestral performance ofIndependence Daywith the score performed live to picture, David Arnold gave a pre-show talk. In 2019, David Arnold provided additional production forSophie Ellis-Bextor's orchestral album,The Song Diaries. Later in 2020, he co-produced an orchestral cover of 'My Favourite Things' (fromThe Sound of Music) along withRichard Jones(ofThe Feeling) for Sophie's 2020 compilation albumSongs From The Kitchen Disco. In July 2023, it was announced that Arnold and Ellis-Bextor would collaborate with lyricistDon Blackfor the track toChannel 4andUniversal Picturesfilm, \\\"Mog's Christmas\\\", based uponthe children's book seriesbyJudith Kerr. The track, titled \\\"As Long As I Belong\\\", is about \\\"the importance of belonging\\\". The film is slated for a Q4 2023 release. Acting filmography Discography Films\",\n \"Discography Films Television Video games Web series Singles in charts Awards References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":382,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which horse won the Kentucky Derby during the same calendar year in which John Hinckley Jr. attempted to assassinate U.S. President Ronald Reagan?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Pleasant Colony"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Ronald_Reagan"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_Derby"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Ronald_Reagan', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_Derby']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Ronald_Reagan","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_Derby"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Ronald_Reagan\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_Derby\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan On March 30, 1981, then President of the United StatesRonald Reaganwas shot and wounded byJohn Hinckley Jr.inWashington, D.C., as he was returning to his limousine after a speaking engagement at theWashington Hilton. Hinckley believed the attack would impress actressJodie Foster, with whom he had developed anerotomanicobsession after viewing her in the 1976 filmTaxi Driver. Reagan was seriously wounded by arevolverbullet that ricocheted off the side of the presidential limousine and hit him in the left underarm, breaking a rib, puncturing a lung, and causing serious internal bleeding. He was close to death upon arrival atGeorge Washington University Hospitalbut was stabilized in the emergency room; he then underwent emergency exploratory surgery. He recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11. No formal invocation of sections 3 or 4 of the Constitution's25th amendment(concerning the vice president assuming the president's powers and duties) took place, though Secretary of StateAlexander Haigstated that he was \"in control here\" at the White House until Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushreturned to Washington fromFort Worth, Texas. Haig was fourth in the line of succession after Bush,Speaker of the HouseTip O'Neill, andpresident pro tempore of the SenateStrom Thurmond. White House press secretaryJames Brady,Secret ServiceagentTim McCarthy, and D.C. police officerThomas Delahantywere also wounded. All three survived, but Brady had brain damage and was permanently disabled. His death in 2014 was considered a homicide because it was ultimately caused by his injury. Hinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity on charges of attempting to assassinate the president. He remained confined toSt. Elizabeth's Hospital, a D.C. psychiatric facility. In January 2015, federal prosecutors announced that they would not charge Hinckley with Brady's death, despite the medical examiner's classification of his death as a homicide.Hinckley was released from institutional psychiatric care on September 10, 2016. Hinckley's motivation John Hinckley Jr.haderotomaniaand his motivation for the attack was born of his obsession with then-child actressJodie Foster. While living inHollywoodin the late 1970s, he saw the filmTaxi Driverat least 15 times, apparently identifying strongly with protagonistTravis Bickle, portrayed by actorRobert De Niro.The story involves Bickle's attempts to save a child prostitute played by Foster. Toward the end of the film, Bickle attempts to assassinate aUnited States senatorwho is running for president. Over the following years, Hinckley trailed Foster around the country, going so far as to enroll in a writing course atYale Universityin 1980 after reading inPeoplemagazine that she was a student there.He wrote numerous letters and notes to her in late 1980.He called her twice and refused to give up when she indicated that she was not interested in him. Hinckley was convinced that he would be Foster's equal if he became a national figure. He decided to emulate Bickle and began stalking PresidentJimmy Carter. He was surprised at how easy it was to get close to the president—he was only a foot away at one event—but was arrested in October 1980 atNashville International Airportand fined for illegal possession of a firearm.: 70, 251Carter had made a campaign stop there, but theFBIdid not connect this arrest to the president and did not notify theSecret Service.His parents briefly placed him under the care of a psychiatrist. Hinckley turned his attention toRonald Reagan, whose election, he told his parents, would be good for the country.He wrote three or four more notes to Foster in early March 1981. Foster gave these notes to a Yaledean, who gave them to the Yale police department, who sought but failed to track Hinckley down. Attempted assassination On March 21, 1981, new president Ronald Reagan, who took office on January 20, 1981, and his wifeNancyvisitedFord's Theatrein Washington, D.C., for a fundraising event. In his autobiographyAn American Life, Reagan recalled, I looked up at the presidential box above the stage whereAbe Lincolnhad been sittingthe night he was shotand felt a curious sensation ... I thought that even with all the Secret Service protection we now had, it was probably still possible for someone who had enough determination to get close enough to the president to shoot him. Speaking engagement at the Washington Hilton Hotel On March 28, Hinckley arrived in Washington, D.C., by busand checked into the Park Central Hotel.He originally intended to continue on to New Haven in another attempt to infatuate Foster.: 23He noticed Reagan's schedule that was published inThe Washington Starand decided it was time to act.Hinckley knew that he might be killed during the assassination attempt, and he wrote but did not mail a letter to Foster about two hours prior to his attempt on the president's life. In the letter, he said that he hoped to impress her with the magnitude of his action and that he would \"abandon the idea of getting Reagan in a second if I could only win your heart and live out the rest of my life with you.\": 58 On March 30, Reagan delivered a luncheon address toAFL–CIOrepresentatives at theWashington Hilton.The Secret Service was very familiar with the hotel, having inspected it more than 100 times for presidential visits since the early 1970s.The Hilton was considered the safest venue in Washington because of its secure, enclosed passageway called \"President's Walk\", built after the 1963assassination of John F. Kennedy. Reagan entered the building through the passagewayat about 1:45 p.m., waving to a crowd of news media and citizens. The Secret Service had required him to wear abulletproof vestfor some events, but Reagan was not wearing one for the speech, because his only public exposure would be the 30 feet (9 m) between the hotel andhis limousine,and the agency did not require vests for agents that day. No one saw Hinckley behaving in an unusual way. Witnesses who reported him as \"fidgety\" and \"agitated\" apparently confused Hinckley with another person that the Secret Service had been monitoring. Shooting At 2:27 p.m.,: 82Reagan exited the hotel through \"President's Walk\"onFlorida Avenue, where reporters waited.He left the T Street NW exit toward his waiting limousine as Hinckley waited within the crowd of admirers. The Secret Service had extensively screened those attending the president's speech, but greatly erred by allowing an unscreened group to stand within 15 ft (4.5 m) of him, behind arope line.: 80–81, 225The agency uses multiple layers of protection. Local police in the outer layer briefly check people, Secret Service agents in the middle layer check for weapons and more agents form the inner layer immediately around the president. Hinckley had penetrated the first two layers. As several hundred people applauded Reagan, the president unexpectedly passed right in front of Hinckley. Reporters standing behind a rope barricade 20 feet (6 m) away asked questions. As Mike Putzel of theAssociated Pressshouted \"Mr. President—\",Hinckley assumed acrouchposition: 81and rapidly fired aRöhm RG-14.22 LRblue steelrevolversix times in 1.7 seconds,: 82missing the president with all six shots. The first round hitWhite House press secretaryJames Bradyin the head above his left eye, passing through underneath his brain and shattering his brain cavity. The small explosive charge in the round exploded on impact.District of Columbia police officerThomas Delahantyrecognized the sound as a gunshot and turned his head sharply to the left to identify the shooter.: 82As he did so, he was struck in the back of his neck by the second shot, the bullet ricocheting off his spine. Delahanty fell on top of Brady, screaming \"I am hit!\". Hinckley now had a clear shot at the president,: 81but Alfred Antenucci, aCleveland, Ohiolabor official who was standing nearby, saw Hinckley fire the first two shots,hit him in the head and began to wrestle him to the ground.Upon hearing the shots, Special Agent in ChargeJerry Parralmost instantly grabbed Reagan by the shoulders and dived with him toward the open rear door of the limousine. Agent Ray Shaddick trailed just behind Parr to assist in throwing both men into the car.The third round overshot the president, instead hitting the window of a building across the street. Parr's actions likely saved Reagan from being hit in the head.: 224 As Parr pushed Reagan into the limousine, Secret Service agentTim McCarthysnapped his attention toward the sound of the gunfire, pivoted to his right, and placed himself in the line of fire. McCarthy spread his arms and legs, taking a wide stance directly in front of Reagan and Parr to make himself a target.McCarthy was struck in the lower abdomen by the fourth round, the bullet traversing his right lung,diaphragmand right lobe of theliver.The fifth round hit the bullet-resistant glass of the window on the open rear door of the limousine as Reagan and Parr were passing behind it. The sixth and final bullet ricocheted off the armored side of the limousine, passed between the space of the open rear door and vehicle frame and hit the president in the left underarm. The round grazed a rib and lodged in his lung, causing it to partially collapse before stopping less than an inch (25 mm) from his heart. Within moments of the first shots, Secret Service agent Dennis McCarthy (not a familial relation of agent Tim McCarthy) dove across the sidewalk and landed directly on Hinckley, as others pushed Hinckley to the ground.: 84Another Cleveland-area labor official, Frank J. McNamara, joined Antenucci and started punching Hinckley in the head, striking him so hard that he drew blood.Dennis McCarthy later reported that he had to \"strike two citizens\" to force them to release Hinckley.Secret Service agent Robert Wanko deployed anUzisubmachine gun concealed in a briefcase to cover the president's evacuation, and to deter a potential group attack. The day after the shooting, Hinckley's gun was given to theATF, which traced its origin. In just 16 minutes, agents found that the gun had been purchased at Rocky's Pawn Shop inDallas, Texas on October 13, 1980.It had been loaded with six Devastator brandcartridges, which contained small aluminum andlead azideexplosive charges designed to explode on contact, but the bullet that hit Brady was the only one that exploded. On April 2, after learning that the others could explode at any time, volunteer doctors wearing bulletproof vests removed the bullet from Delahanty's neck.: 223 George Washington University Hospital After the Secret Service first announced \"shots fired\" over its radio network at 2:27 p.m., Reagan—codename\"Rawhide\"—was removed from the scene by the agents in the limousine (\"Stagecoach\").: 66No one knew that Reagan had been shot. After Parr searched Reagan's body and found no blood, he stated that \"Rawhide is OK...we're going to Crown\" (theWhite House), as he preferred its medical facilities to those of an unsecured hospital. Reagan was in great pain from the bullet that struck his rib, and believed that his rib had cracked when Parr pushed him into the limousine. When the agent checked him for gunshot wounds, Reagan coughed up bright, frothy blood.Although the president believed that he had cut his lip,Parr assessed that the cracked rib had punctured Reagan's lung and ordered the motorcade to divert to nearbyGeorge Washington University Hospital, which the Secret Service periodically inspected for use.The limousine arrived there less than four minutes after leaving the hotel, while other agents took Hinckley to a D.C. jail, and Nancy Reagan (\"Rainbow\") left the White House for the hospital. Although Parr had requested a stretcher,none were ready at the hospital, which did not normally station a stretcher at the emergency department's entrance. Reagan exited the limousine and insisted on walking. He acted casually and smiled at onlookers as he entered the hospital. While he entered the hospital unassisted, once inside, Reagan complained of difficulty breathing, his knees buckled and he fell to one knee. Parr and others assisted him into the emergency department.Thephysician to the presidentDaniel Rugehad been near Reagan during the shooting and arrived in a separate car. Believing that the president might have experienced a heart attack, Ruge insisted that the hospital's trauma team operate on Reagan as they would any other patient.: 106–107When a hospital employee asked Reagan aideMichael Deaverfor the patient's name and address, only when Deaver stated \"1600 Pennsylvania\" did the worker realize that the president was in the emergency department.: 107–108 The medical team, led by Joseph Giordano, cut Reagan's \"thousand-dollar\" custom-made suitin order to examine him. Reagan complained about the cost of the ruined suit, which was cited by an assistant in a press briefing to reassure the public that the president was in stable health.Military officers, including the one who carried thenuclear football, unsuccessfully tried to prevent FBI agents from confiscating the suit, Reagan's wallet and other possessions as evidence. TheGold Codescard was in the wallet, and the FBI did not return it until two days later. The medical personnel found that Reagan'ssystolic blood pressurewas 60 compared to the normal 140, indicating that he was inshock, and knew that most 70-year-olds in the president's condition would not survive.: 108However, Reagan was in excellent physical health, and had been shot by a .22 (5.6 mm)-caliber bullet instead of a larger.38(9.7 mm) as was first feared.They treated him with intravenous fluids, oxygen, tetanus toxoid and chest tubesand surprised Parr—who still believed that he had cracked the president's rib—by finding the entrance of the gunshot wound. Doctors operated on Brady and the wounded agent Tim McCarthy near the president. When Nancy Reagan arrived in the emergency department, Reagan remarked to her, \"Honey, I forgot to duck\", borrowing boxerJack Dempsey's line to his wife from the night on which he was beaten byGene Tunney.While intubated, he scribbled to a nurse, \"All in all, I'd rather be in Philadelphia\", borrowing a line fromW. C. Fields.Although Reagan came close to death, the team's quick action—and Parr's decision to drive to the hospital instead of the White House—likely saved the president's life. Within 30 minutes, Reagan left the emergency department for surgery, with normal blood pressure.He then underwent emergency exploratory surgery to check for organ damage and remove the bullet.The chief of thoracic surgery, Benjamin L. Aaron, performed athoracotomylasting 105 minutesbecause the bleeding persisted. Ultimately, Reagan lost over half of his blood volume in the emergency department and during surgery,but the bullet was successfully removed. In the operating room, Reagan removed his oxygen mask to joke, \"I hope you are allRepublicans.\" The doctors and nurses laughed, and Giordano, aDemocrat, replied, \"Today, Mr. President, we areallRepublicans.\": 147Reagan's post-operative course was complicated by fever, which was treated with antibiotics.Because Reagan had entered the operating room conscious and not in shock, and the surgery was routine, his doctors and others predicted that he could leave the hospital in two weeks, return to work at theOval Officein a month and completely heal in six to eight weeks with no long-term effects. Immediate response National Security AdvisorRichard Allenwould traditionally be responsible forcrisis managementfor theexecutive branch, butSecretary of StateAlexander Haigwanted the role. Six days before the shooting,Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushreceived the assignment instead. Allen and theNational Security Councilwould assist him. Reagan persuaded an upset Haig not to resign.The secretary reportedly \"pound the table in frustration and anger.\"When news of the assassination attempt reached the White House, Haig was there. He urged the vice president—visitingTexasfor the first time sincethe inauguration—to return, but the voice connection to Bush aboardAir Force Twowas weak, and it is unknown whether they heard each other. By 2:35 p.m., Bush was notified of the shooting. He was leavingFort Worth, Texasand, relying on the initial reports that Reagan was unharmed, he flew toAustinfor a speech.At 3:14 p.m., 47 minutes after the shooting, Haig sent a codedteletypemessage to Bush: MR. VICE PRESIDENT: IN THE INCIDENT YOU WILL HAVE HEARD ABOUT BY NOW, THE PRESIDENT WAS STRUCK IN THE BACK AND IS IN SERIOUS CONDITION. MEDICAL AUTHORITIES ARE DECIDING NOW WHETHER OR NOT TO OPERATE. RECOMMEND YOU RETURN TO DC AT EARLIEST POSSIBLE MOMENT. SECRETARY ALEXANDER HAIG, JR. Air Force Two refueled in Austin before returning to Washington,at what its pilot described as the fastest speed in the plane's history.The aircraft did not havesecure voicecommunications, and Bush's discussions with the White House were intercepted and given to the press. White House counselFred Fieldingimmediately prepared for a transfer of presidential powers under the25th Amendment,andchief of staffJames A. Bakerandcounselor to the PresidentEdwin Meesewent to Reagan's hospitalstill believing that the president was unharmed. Within five minutes of the shooting, members of theCabinetbegan gathering in theWhite House Situation Room.The Cabinet and the Secret Service were initially unsure whether the shooting was part of a larger attack by terrorists, or that of a foreign intelligence service such as theKGB. Tensions with the Soviet Union were high because of theSolidarity movementincommunist Poland. The Cabinet was also concerned that the Soviets would take advantage of the unstable situation to launch a nuclear attack. After the shooting, the American military detected two Sovietballistic missile submarinespatrolling unusually close to theEast Coast of the United States, which could allow their missiles to reach Washington, D.C. two minutes faster than usual.: 175–177Defense secretaryCaspar Weinbergerresponded by placing theStrategic Air Commandon high alert.Haig, Weinberger and Allen discussed various issues, including the location of the nuclear football, the submarine presence, a possible Soviet invasion against the1981 warning strike in Polandand thepresidential line of succession. Although tape recorders are not normally allowed in the Situation Room, these meetings were recorded with the participants' knowledge by Allen, and the five hours of tapes have since been made public. The group obtained a duplicate nuclear football and Gold Codes card and kept it in the Situation Room. Reagan's football was still with the officer at the hospital, and Bush also had a card and football.: 155The participants discussed whether to raise the military's alert status and the importance of doing so without changing theDEFCONlevel.They eventually determined that the number of Soviet submarines was normal. A pair of Soviet submarines was assuming the patrol area from another pair, a relief operation that routinely occurred at the end of a month. However, one of the four submarines was patrolling unusually close to the coast. In consideration of the ongoing tensions over Poland, Weinberger ordered the Strategic Air Command be placed on alert, but he did not reveal the alert status to the public. Upon learning that Reagan was in surgery, Haig declared, the \"helm is right here. And that means right in this chair for now, constitutionally, until the vice president gets here\".However, Haig was incorrect. As the sitting Secretary of State, he was fourth behind Vice President Bush,Speaker of the HouseTip O'Neill, andPresidentpro temporeof the SenateStrom Thurmondin the line of succession. Under3 U.S.C.§ 19, O'Neill and Thurmond would have to resign their positions to become acting president. Although others in the room knew that Haig's statement was constitutionally incorrect, they did not object at the time, to avoid a confrontation.Allen later said that although Haig \"constantly, incessantly drummed on some variant of 'I am in charge, I am senior'\", he and Fielding \"didn't give a rat's ass\" as Bush would be in charge when he arrived. At the same time, a press conference was under way in theWhite House Briefing Room.CBSreporterLesley Stahlasked deputy press secretaryLarry Speakeswho was running the government, to which Speakes responded, \"I cannot answer that question at this time\". Upon hearing Speakes's remark, Haig wrote and passed a note to Speakes, ordering him to leave the dais immediately.: 171–173Moments later, Haig entered the Briefing Room, where he made the following controversial statement: Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the president, the vice president and the secretary of state, in that order, and should the president decide he wants to transfer the helm to the vice president, he will do so. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending the return of the vice president and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course. Despite his familiarity with the Briefing Room from serving asRichard Nixon's chief of staff, Stahl described Haig as \"visibly shaken\",and the Associated Press wrote that \"his voice continually choked up and quavered with emotion, and his arms trembled\".Those in the Situation Room reportedly laughed when they heard him say \"I am in control here\",and Allen later said \"I was astounded that he would say something so eminently stupid\".Haig later said, I wasn't talking about transition. I was talking about the executive branch, who is running the government. That was the question asked. It was not \"Who is in line should the President die?\" Although Haig stated in the Briefing Room that \"There are absolutely no alert measures that are necessary at this time or contemplated\", while he was speaking, Weinberger raised the military's alert level.After Haig returned to the Situation Room, he objected to Weinberger doing so, as it made him appear a liar,although as deputy commander-in-chief, only Reagan outranked Weinberger in theNational Command Authority.Weinberger and others accused Haig of exceeding his authority with his \"I am in control\" statement,while Haig defended himself by advising the others to \"read the Constitution\",saying that his comments did not involve \"succession\" and that he knew the \"pecking order\". Aboard Air Force Two, Bush watched Haig's press briefing. Meese told him that Reagan was stable after surgery to remove the bullet. The vice president arrived atAndrews Air Force Baseat 6:30 p.m. and decided to not fly by helicopter to the White House. He said to a military aide \"only the president lands on theSouth Lawn\". Bush later said in an interview that landing on the South Lawn would have \"made for great TV\", but would have sent the wrong message to the country, and pointed out that the South Lawn was situated under the president's bedroom window, where the First Lady was waiting for news of Reagan's surgery.Marine Twoinstead flew toNumber One Observatory Circle. \"Despite brief flare-ups and distractions\", Allen recalled, \"the crisis management team in the Situation Room worked well together. The congressional leadership was kept informed, and governments around the world were notified and reassured.\"Reagan's surgery ended at 6:20 p.m., although he did not regain consciousness until 7:30 p.m.,so could not invoke Section 3 of the 25th Amendment to make Bushacting president. The vice president arrived at the White House at 7:00 p.m., and did not invoke Section 4 of the 25th Amendment. Bush took charge of the Situation Room meeting, which received an update that the planned Polish national strike was cancelled. They evaluated new satellite images from Eastern Europe that showed no Soviet troop movements near Poland. They further assessed that Hinckley Jr. was likely acting alone after being informed of his October 1980 arrest record inNashville, which suggested that he had been trailing then-President Carter.Bush stated on national television at 8:20 p.m.: I can reassure this nation and a watching world that the American government is functioning fully and effectively. We've had full and complete communications throughout the day. Investigation The FBI took over the investigation on Saturday. Agents obtained a warrant and searched the shooter's hotel room. Before touching anything, the entire room was filmed and photographed. Fingerprints were then sought in case there was an accomplice. According to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \"What we found in Mr Hinckley's room was bizarre. On the desk, so that we could find him, was his entire plan. He had left a map of where he was going. He had the morning paper open with the president's diary. He publicised the fact that Reagan would be speaking to a union group in the ballroom of the Washington Hilton. Strangest of all was a statement - a letter to actress Jodie Foster proclaiming that he was committing a historic act, a presidential assassination, to impress her.\". The serial number of Hinckley's revolver was provided to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. It quickly determined where Hinckley bought the gun. The police gathered the witnesses in the auditorium where the president had given a speech. Secret Service agents who were witnesses or had other first-hand information were identified. According to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \"Our follow-up investigation, which lasted weeks, traced Mr Hinckley's history over the previous months. We determined that he had travelled the country, gone to firing ranges and, in fact, was obsessed with Ms Foster. He had planned and committed an assassination attempt on the president. He was a mentally disturbed man.\". Public reaction The assassination attempt was captured onelectronic news-gatheringvideotape by several cameras, including those belonging to theBig Three television networks.ABCbegan airing footage at 2:42 p.m. All three networks erroneously reported that Brady had died.WhenABC NewsanchormanFrank Reynolds, a friend of Brady, was later forced to retract the report, he angrily said on-air to his staff, \"C'mon, let's get it nailed down!\",as a result of the miscommunication. ABC News also initially reported that President Reagan had not been injured. A network erroneously reported that he was undergoingopen-heart surgery.: 133, 185 WhileCNNdid not have a camera of its own at the shooting, it was able to useNBC'spool feed,and by staying on the story for 48 hours, the network, less than a year old, built a reputation for thoroughness.Shocked Americans gathered around television sets in homes and shopping centers.Some cited the allegedCurse of Tippecanoe, and others recalled the assassinations of Kennedy andMartin Luther King Jr.Newspapers printed extra editionsand used gigantic headlines;theUnited States Senateadjourned, interrupting debate of Reagan's economic proposals; and churches held prayer services. Hinckley asked the arresting officers whether that night'sAcademy Awardsceremony would be postponed because of the shooting, and it was. The ceremony—for which former actor Reagan had taped a message—occurred the next evening.The president survived surgery with a good prognosis. TheNCAAchampionship basketball game that evening betweenIndianaandNorth Carolinawas not postponed, although the audience of 18,000 in Philadelphia held amoment of silencebefore the game, which Indiana won.In the immediate aftermath of the shooting, theDow Jones Industrial Averagedeclined before theNew York Stock Exchangeclosed early, but the index rose the next day as Reagan recovered.Beyond having to postpone its Academy Awards broadcast, ABC temporarily renamed the lead character ofThe Greatest American Hero, which had debuted in March, from \"Ralph Hinkley\" to \"Hanley\",and NBC postponed a forthcoming episode ofWalking Talltitled \"Hit Man\". Aftermath Jodie Foster The incident was a traumatic experience for the 18-year-old Foster, who was hounded by the media and paparazzi in its aftermath. She took a semester off atYaleand had to be escorted by abodyguardeverywhere she went. This event produced other stalkers for her, including a 22-year-old man named Edward Michael Richardson, who according to the Secret Service shared a similar obsession with Foster, and carried a loaded handgun planning to kill her, but changed his mind after watching her perform in a college play. Hinckley demanded that Foster testify at his trial. Agreement was reached between Foster's and Hinckley lawyers that she would do so in a closed session, with only herself, the judge (Barrington D. Parker), lawyers and Hinckley present. A videotape of this session could be introduced as evidence into Hinckley's trial. This session took place in March 1982. During her testimony, Foster did not look at or acknowledge Hinckley. This caused him to throw a pen at her and shout threats, before he was surrounded and removed from the room bymarshals. Since the attempted assassination, Foster has only commented on Hinckley on four occasions: a press conference a few days after the attack, an article she wrote forEsquiremagazine in 1982 after his sentencing, during an interview withCharlie Roseon60 Minutes IIin 1999, and while speaking to comedian and actorMarc Maronon his podcastWTF with Marc Maronin 2021.She has ended or canceled several interviews if the event was mentioned, or if she felt that an interviewer was going to bring Hinckley up.To Maron, Foster said that she voluntarily chose not to speak about the incident in interviews to avoid being labelled as an actress primarily remembered for that incident, and reflected on how her mother, a former publicist, helped her in overcoming the media frenzy, and the public's obsession with her involvement. Ronald Reagan Reagan's staff members were anxious for the president to appear to be recovering quickly,and the morning after his operation he saw visitors and signed a piece of legislation.Reagan left the hospital on the morning of April 11. Entering the limousine was difficult, and he joked that the first thing he would do at home was \"sit down\". Reagan's recovery speed impressed his doctors, but they advised the president not to work in the Oval Office for a week and avoid travel for several weeks. No visitors were scheduled for his first weekend.Initially, Reagan worked two hours a day in the White House's residential quarters.Reagan did not lead a Cabinet meeting until day 26, did not leave Washington until day 49, and did not hold a press conference until day 79. Ruge, the physician to the president, thought recovery was not complete until October.Reagan's plans for the month after the shooting were canceled, including a visit to theMission Control CenteratLyndon B. Johnson Space CenterinHouston, Texas, in April 1981 duringSTS-1, the first flight of theSpace Shuttle. Vice President Bush instead called the orbiting astronauts during their mission. Reagan visited Mission Control duringSTS-2that November. The events contributed to Reagan's initial popularity. Though he had enjoyed approval ratings of up to 60% until March, his ratings surged to nearly 70% in the following months.Privately, Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to fulfill a greater purposeand, although not a Catholic, meetings withMother Teresa, CardinalTerence Cooke, and fellowshooting survivor Pope John Paul IIreinforced his belief. Reagan returned to the Oval Office on April 25 and received a standing ovation from staff and Cabinet members. He referred to their teamwork in his absence and insisted, \"I should be applauding you.\"He made his first public appearance in an April 28 speech before thejoint houses of Congress. In the speech, he introduced his planned spending cuts, which had been a campaign promise. He received \"two thunderous standing ovations\", whichThe New York Timesdeemed \"a salute to his good health\" as well as his programs, which the president introduced using a medical recovery theme.Reagan installed a gym in the White House and began regularly exercising there, gaining so much muscle that he had to buy new suits. The shooting caused Nancy Reagan to fear for her husband's safety, however. She asked him to not run forreelection in 1984, and, because of her concerns, began consulting astrologerJoan Quigley.Reagan never again walked across an airport tarmac or got out of his limousine on a public sidewalk as president. Delahanty, Tim McCarthy, and Brady Thomas Delahanty recovered but developed permanent nerve damage to his left arm, and was ultimately forced to retire from the Metropolitan Police Department due to his disability. Tim McCarthy recovered fully and was the first of the wounded men to be discharged from the hospital. James Brady survived, but his wound left him with slurred speech and partial paralysis that required the full-time use of awheelchair. Brady remained press secretary for the remainder of Reagan's administration, but this was primarily atitularrole. Later, Brady and his wifeSarahbecame leading advocates ofgun controland other actions to reduce the amount ofgun violence in the United States. They became active in thelobbyingorganization Handgun Control, Inc.—which was eventually renamed theBrady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence—and founded the non-profitBrady Center to Prevent Gun Violence.TheBrady Handgun Violence Prevention Actwas passed in 1993 as a result of their work.Brady died on August 4, 2014, in Alexandria, Virginia, at the age of 73. Following Brady's death in 2014, the District of Columbia Medical Examiner ruled the death a homicide stemming from wounds caused by the Hinckley assassination attempt. This ruling raised the possibility that Hinckley could face additional future murder charges.However, prosecutors declined to do so for two reasons. First, a jury had already declared Hinckley insane at the time of the shooting, and the constitutional prohibition againstdouble jeopardywould preclude overturning this ruling on account of Brady's death. Second, in 1981 Washington, D.C., still had thecommon law\"year and a day\" rule in place. Although the year and a day rule had been abolished in the district prior to 2014, the constitutional prohibition againstex post factolawwould preclude the upgrading of charges for deaths resulting today from acts committed while the rule was in effect, and would prohibit the government from challenging Hinckley's successful insanity defense based on the current federal law. The shooting of Reagan exacerbated the debate on gun control in the U.S., that began with the December 1980 handgunmurder of John Lennon. Reagan expressed opposition to increased handgun control following Lennon's death and reiterated his opposition after his own shooting. However, in a speech at an event marking the assassination attempt's 10th anniversary,Reagan endorsed the Brady Act: \"Anniversary\" is a word we usually associate with happy events that we like to remember: birthdays, weddings, the first job. March 30, however, marks an anniversary I would just as soon forget, but cannot... four lives were changed forever, and all by a Saturday-night special – a cheaply made .22 caliber pistol – purchased in a Dallas pawnshop by a young man with a history of mental disturbance. This nightmare might never have happened if legislation that is before Congress now – the Brady bill – had been law back in 1981... If the passage of the Brady bill were to result in a reduction of only 10 or 15 percent of those numbers (and it could be a good deal greater), it would be well worth making it the law of the land. And there would be a lot fewer families facing anniversaries such as the Bradys, Delahantys, McCarthys and Reagans face every March 30. In 1994, Reagan made numerous appeals to support theFederal Assault Weapons Banin the House of Representatives. At least two representatives, RepublicanScott L. Klugand DemocratRichard Swett, credit Reagan's efforts for their decision to vote for the bill, which eventually passed by a 216–214 margin. Parr After the assassination attempt, Jerry Parr was hailed as a hero.He received Congressional commendations for his actions, and was named one of four \"Top Cops\" in the U.S. byParademagazine.He later wrote about the assassination attempt in his autobiography, calling it both the best and the worst day of his life.Parr came to believe that God had directed his life so that he could one day save the president's life, and became a pastor after retiring from the Secret Service in 1985.:224He died ofcongestive heart failureat a hospice in Washington, D.C., on October 9, 2015, aged 85. Antenucci and McNamara Antenucci and McNamara both became ill following the assassination attempt. McNamara died on September 18, 1981, six months after the attempted assassination at the age of 62.Antenucci died on May 9, 1984, aged 71. John Hinckley Hinckley was foundnot guilty by reason of insanityon June 21, 1982. The defensepsychiatricreports had found him to beinsanewhile the prosecution reports declared him legally sane.Following his lawyers' advice, he declined to take the stand in his own defense.Hinckley was confined atSt. Elizabeths Hospitalin Washington, D.C., full-time until 2006, at which point he began a program of spending gradually more time at his mother's home. On September 10, 2016, Hinckley was permitted to permanently leave the hospital to live with his mother full-time, under court supervision and with mandatory psychiatric treatment.After his trial, he wrote that the shooting was \"the greatest love offering in the history of the world\", and did not indicate any regrets at the time. The not-guilty verdict led to widespread dismay,and, as a result, theU.S. Congressand a number of states rewrote laws regarding the insanity defense.The oldModel Penal Code testwas replaced by a test that shifts theburden of proofregarding a defendant's sanity from the prosecution to the defendant. Three states have abolished the defense altogether. Portrayals in literature and popular culture Books On screen The following is the list of the movies dealing with the assassination attempt or portraying a portion of it: On stage See also Notes References External links","Kentucky Derby TheKentucky Derby(/ˈdɜːrbi/) is an AmericanGrade I stakesracerun atChurchill DownsinLouisville, Kentucky. The race is run by three-year-oldThoroughbredsat a distance of1+1⁄4miles (10 furlongs; 2,012 metres).Coltsandgeldingscarry 126 pounds (57 kilograms) andfillies121 pounds (55 kilograms). Held annually on the first Saturday in May, the Derby is the first leg of theTriple Crown. It is preceded by the two-week-longKentucky Derby Festival.The race is known as \"The Run for the Roses\", as the winning horse is draped in a blanket of roses.Lasting approximately two minutes, the Derby has been alternately called \"The Most Exciting Two Minutes in Sports\",\"The Fastest Two Minutes in Sports\",or \"The Greatest Two Minutes in Sports\", coined by Churchill Downs presidentMatt Winn.At least two of these descriptions are thought to be derived from the words of sportswriterGrantland Rice, when in 1935 he said \"Those two minutes and a second or so of derby running carry more emotional thrills, per second, than anything sport can show.\" The race was first run in 1875. Unlike the other, older races of the Triple Crown—thePreakness Stakesand theBelmont Stakes—along with theTravers Stakes(the oldest comparable stakes race in the US), the Kentucky Derby and its sibling race, theKentucky Oaks, have been run every year since inception. They were twice rescheduled within the same year, the first time due toWorld War IIin1945, and the second time due to theCOVID-19 pandemicin2020. The Derby and the Oaks are the oldest major sporting events in the US held annually since their beginning.Among thoroughbred stakes races, they are the oldest that have been held annually on the same track every year. The Derby is the most-watched andmost-attendedhorse race in the United States. The2024 Kentucky Derbymarked the 150th running of the race. History In 1872, Col.Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., grandson ofWilliam Clarkof theLewis and Clark expedition, traveled to England, visitingEpsomin Surrey whereThe Derbyhad been running annually since 1780.From there, Clark went on toParis, France, where a group of racing enthusiasts had formed theFrench Jockey Clubin 1863. They had organized theGrand Prix de ParisatLongchamp, which at the time was the greatest race in France. Returning home to Kentucky, Clark organized the Louisville Jockey Club to raise money for building quality racing facilities just outside the city. The track would soon become known asChurchill Downs, named for John and Henry Churchill, who provided the land for the racetrack.The naming went official in 1937. The Kentucky Derby was first run at1+1⁄2miles (12furlongs; 2.4 km) the same distance as theEpsom Derby, before changing lengths in 1896 to its current1+1⁄4miles (10 furlongs; 2 km). On May 17, 1875, in front of an estimated crowd of 10,000 people, a field of 15 three-year-old horses contested the first Derby. Under jockeyOliver Lewis, a colt namedAristides, who was trained by futureHall of FamerAnsel Williamson, won the inaugural Derby. Later that year, Lewis rode Aristides to a second-place finish in theBelmont Stakes. Initially a successful venue, the track ran into financial difficulties due to a protracted,gambling-relatedhorseman boycottremoving it from the upper echelons of racing that would last until just after the turn of the 20th century. In 1894 the New Louisville Jockey Club was incorporated with the new capitalization and improved facilities. Despite this, the business floundered until 1902, when a syndicate led byCol. Matt Winnof Louisville acquired the facility. Under Winn, Churchill Downs prospered, and the Kentucky Derby then became the preeminent stakes race for three-year-old thoroughbred horses in North America. Thoroughbred owners began sending their successful Derby horses to compete in two other races. These two are thePreakness Stakesat thePimlico Race Course, inBaltimore, and theBelmont StakesinElmont, New York. The three races offered large purses, and in1919,Sir Bartonbecame the first horse to win all three races. However, the term \"Triple Crown\" did not come into use for another eleven years. In1930, whenGallant Foxbecame the second horse to win all three races, sportswriterCharles Hattonbrought the phrase into American usage. Fueled by the media, public interest in the possibility of a \"superhorse\" that could win the Triple Crown began in the weeks leading up to the Derby. Two years after the term went in use, the race (until that time ran in mid-May since inception) changed the date to the first Saturday in May. This change allows for a specific schedule for the Triple Crown races. Since 1931, the order of Triple Crown races has been the Kentucky Derby first, followed by the Preakness Stakes and then the Belmont Stakes. Before 1931, eleven times the Preakness was run before the Derby. On May 12, 1917, and again on May 13, 1922, the Preakness and the Derby took place on the same day. On eleven occasions the Belmont Stakes was run before the Preakness Stakes, and in 2020, the Belmont was run first, then the Kentucky Derby, and the Preakness Stakes last. On May 16, 1925, the first live radio broadcast of the Kentucky Derby aired onWHASas well as onWGNin Chicago.On May 7, 1949, the first television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, produced byWAVE-TV, the NBC affiliate in Louisville. This coverage was aired live in the Louisville market and sent to NBC as a kinescope newsreel recording for national broadcast. On May 3, 1952, the first national television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, aired from then-CBSaffiliateWHAS-TV.In 1954, the purse exceeded US$100,000 for the first time. In 1968,Dancer's Imagebecame the first horse to win the race and then face disqualification. Aurine testrevealed traces ofphenylbutazone(ananti-inflammatorypainkiller drug) inside Dancer's Image.Forward Passwon after a protracted legal battle by the owners of Dancer's Image (which they lost). Forward Pass thus became the eighth winner forCalumet Farm. Unexpectedly, the regulations at Kentucky thoroughbred race tracks were changed some years later, allowing horses to run onphenylbutazone. In 1970,Diane Crumpbecame the first female jockey to ride in the Derby, finishing 15th aboard Fathom. The fastest time ever run in the Derby was in1973at 1:59.4 minutes, whenSecretariatbroke the record set byNorthern Dancerin1964. Also during that race, Secretariat did something unique in Triple Crown races: for each successive quarter run, his times were faster. Although the races do not record times for non-winners, in 1973 Sham finished second, two and a half lengths behind Secretariat in the same race. Using the thoroughbred racing convention of one length equaling one-fifth of a second to calculateSham's time, he also finished in under two minutes. Another sub-two-minute finish, only the third, was set in2001byMonarchosat 1:59.97, the first year the race used hundredths of seconds instead of fifths in timing. In 2005, thepurse distributionfor the Derby changed, so that horses finishing fifth would henceforth receive a share of the purse; previously only the first four finishers did so. The Kentucky Derby began offering $3 million in purse money in 2019. Churchill Downs officials have cited the success ofhistorical race wagering terminalsat their Derby City Gaming facility in Louisville as a factor behind the purse increase. The Derby first offered a $1 million purse in 1996; it was doubled to $2 million in 2005. In 2020, the Derby was postponed from May 2 to September 5 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.This was the second time in history the race had been postponed, the other being in1945.Churchill Downs used a new singular 20-stall starting gate for the2020 Kentucky Derby, replacing the previous arrangement that used a standard 14-stall gate and an auxiliary six-stall gate.The old setup contributed to congestion at the start of the race, especially in the gap between the two gates. Rich Strike, areservewho only made it into the final field after a late scratching, won therace in 2022at final odds of 80:1 andparimutuel bettingpayouts were even larger. In January 2024, the purse for the Kentucky Derby was increased to $5 million. Attendance Millions of people from around the world bet at various live tracks and online sportsbooks.In 2017, a crowd of 158,070 watched Always Dreaming win the Derby, making it the seventh biggest attendance in the history of the racetrack. The track reported a wagering total of $209.2 million from all the sources on all the races on the Kentucky Derby Day program. It was a 9 percent increase compared to the total of $192.6 million in 2016 and an increase of 8 percent over the previous record set in 2015 of $194.3 million.TwinSpires, a platform for betting online and a partner of the Kentucky Derby and the Breeders' Cup, recorded $32.8 million in handle on the Churchill Down races for the Kentucky Derby Day program. This record was a 22 percent increase over the preceding year. On the Kentucky Derby race alone, the handle of TwinSpires was $20.1 million, which is a 22 percent rise compared to the prior year. The race often draws celebrities. HMQueen Elizabeth II, on a visit to the United States, joined the racegoers at Churchill Downs in 2007. Sponsorship The 2004 Kentucky Derby marked the first time that jockeys—as a result of acourt order—were allowed to wear corporate advertisinglogoson their clothing. Norman Adams has been the designer of the Kentucky Derby Logo since 2002. On February 1, 2006, the Louisville-basedfast-foodcompanyYum! Brands, Inc.announced a corporate sponsorship deal to call the race \"The Kentucky Derby presented by Yum! Brands.\"In 2018,Woodford Reservereplaced Yum! Brands as the presenting sponsor. Traditions In addition to the race itself, several traditions play a significant role in the Derby atmosphere. Themint julep—an iced drink consisting ofbourbon,mint, andsugarsyrup—is the traditional beverage of the race. The historic beverage comes served in an ice-frosted silver julep cup. However, most Churchill Downs patrons sip theirs from souvenir glasses (first offered in 1939 and available in revised form each year since) printed with all previous Derby winners.Also,burgoo, a thick stew of beef, chicken, pork, and vegetables, is a popular Kentucky dish served at the Derby. Theinfield—a spectator area inside the track—offers general admission prices but little chance of seeing much of the race, particularly before thejumbotroninstallation in 2014.Instead, revelers show up in the infield to party with abandon. By contrast, \"Millionaire's Row\" refers to the expensive box seats that attract the rich, the famous and the well-connected. Women appear in elegant outfits lavishly accessorized with large, elaborate hats. Following theCall to the Postplayed on bugle by Steve Buttleman, as the horses start to parade before the grandstands, theUniversity of Louisville Cardinal Marching BandplaysStephen Foster's \"My Old Kentucky Home\". This song is a tradition which began in 1921.The event attracts spectators from a large area, flying in hundreds of private aircraft toLouisville International Airport. The Derby is frequently referred to as \"The Run for the Roses\", because a lush blanket of 554 redrosesis awarded to the Kentucky Derby winner each year.New York sports columnist and future Churchill Downs presidentBill Corumin 1925 began describing the race thusly,but the tradition originated in 1883 when New York City socialiteE. Berry Wallpresented roses to ladies at a post-Derby party. The Churchill Downs founder and president, Col. Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., attended that event. This gesture is believed to have led Clark to the idea of making the rose the race's official flower. However, it was not until 1896 that any recorded account referred to draping roses on the Derby winner.TheGovernor of Kentuckyand the Chairman ofChurchill Downs Incorporatedpresent the garland and theKentucky Derby Trophyto the winner. Pop vocalistDan Fogelbergcomposed the song \"Run for the Roses\", released in time for the 1980 running of the race. Riders Up! \"Riders Up!\" is the traditional command from the Paddock Judge for jockeys to mount their horses in advance of the upcoming race. Since 2012, the grand marshal recites this phrase. Grand marshals National Anthem performers Festival In the weeks preceding the race, numerous activities took place for theKentucky Derby Festival.Thunder Over Louisville—an airshow and fireworks display—generally begins the festivities in earnest two weeks before the Derby. Records Horse records Secretariatset the record for speed in 1973 with a time of 1:59.4. During its first two decades when the Derby was run at1+1⁄2miles, the record was 2:34.5, set bySpokanein 1889. The largest margin of victory is 8 lengths, a feat tied by four different horses:Old Rosebudin 1914,Johnstownin 1939,Whirlawayin 1941, andAssaultin 1946. The highest odds of a winning horse were 91 to 1 forDonerailin 1913. The second-highest odds occurred in 2022, whenRich Strikewent off at 80 to 1 and won the race. Three horses have won the Kentucky Derby without competing as a two-year-old:Apollo(1882),Justify(2018), andMage(2023). Jockey records 107jockeyshave won the Kentucky Derby, with 27 doing so multiple times.Isaac Murphy(1890–91),Jimmy Winkfield(1901–02),Ron Turcotte(1972–73),Eddie Delahoussaye(1982–83),Calvin Borel(2009–10), andVictor Espinoza(2014–15) are the only jockeys to win the Derby in back-to-back years. Borel is the only jockey with three wins in a four-year span (2007, '09, '10). Trainer records 116trainershave won the Kentucky Derby, with 19 doing so multiple times. Six trainers have won the Derby in back-to-back years:Herbert J. Thompson(1932–33),Ben Jones(1948–49),Jimmy Jones(1957–58),Lucien Laurin(1972–73),D. Wayne Lukas(1995–96), andBob Baffert(1997–98). Owner records Seventeen owners have won the Kentucky Derby multiple times with horses they fully or partially owned. * Partnered with other entities in an ownership group for one or more winning horses. \"Oaks/Derby Double\" Jockeys, trainers, and owners competing in the Kentucky Derby often will compete in theKentucky Oaks, a race for fillies held the day before the Derby. Winning both these races in the same year is referred to as an \"Oaks/Derby Double;\" 7 jockeys, 3 trainers, and 4 owners have accomplished this feat: *Until the 1950s, the Oaks was held several days or weeks after the Derby. Winners Triple Crownwinners are inboldand highlighted with gold. # Designates afilly. † Designates a horse that wonAmerican Horse of the Yearin the same year they won the Derby. ‡ Designates a horse that was inducted in subsequent years into theNational Racing Hall of Fame. Sire lines Winners of the Kentucky Derby can be connected to each other due to the practice ofarranging horse breedingbased on their previous success. All of the horses can be traced back to the three foundational sires, withGodolphin Arabianthe ancestor of 7 winners,Byerley Turkthe ancestor of 11 winners, andDarley Arabianthe ancestor of 132 winners, including all winners since 1938. Darley Arabian line TheDarley Arabian(1700c) sire line (all branched through theEclipse(1764) line)produced 132 Derby winners (124 colts, 5 geldings, 3 fillies), including all winners from 1938 to present.The main branches of this sire line are: Byerley Turk line TheByerley Turk(1680c) sire lineproduced 11 winners (8 colts, 3 geldings). The main branches of this sire (all branched through theHerod(1758) line) are: Godolphin Arabian line TheGodolphin Arabian(1724c) sire lineproduced 7 winners (6 colts, 1 gelding).The main branches of this sire (all branched through theWest Australian(1850) line) are: Kentucky Derby winners with male-line descendants including other Kentucky Derby winners See also References Further reading External links Legend– ₩ =Triple Crownwinners, ♥ = Filly"],"string":"[\n \"Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan On March 30, 1981, then President of the United StatesRonald Reaganwas shot and wounded byJohn Hinckley Jr.inWashington, D.C., as he was returning to his limousine after a speaking engagement at theWashington Hilton. Hinckley believed the attack would impress actressJodie Foster, with whom he had developed anerotomanicobsession after viewing her in the 1976 filmTaxi Driver. Reagan was seriously wounded by arevolverbullet that ricocheted off the side of the presidential limousine and hit him in the left underarm, breaking a rib, puncturing a lung, and causing serious internal bleeding. He was close to death upon arrival atGeorge Washington University Hospitalbut was stabilized in the emergency room; he then underwent emergency exploratory surgery. He recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11. No formal invocation of sections 3 or 4 of the Constitution's25th amendment(concerning the vice president assuming the president's powers and duties) took place, though Secretary of StateAlexander Haigstated that he was \\\"in control here\\\" at the White House until Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushreturned to Washington fromFort Worth, Texas. Haig was fourth in the line of succession after Bush,Speaker of the HouseTip O'Neill, andpresident pro tempore of the SenateStrom Thurmond. White House press secretaryJames Brady,Secret ServiceagentTim McCarthy, and D.C. police officerThomas Delahantywere also wounded. All three survived, but Brady had brain damage and was permanently disabled. His death in 2014 was considered a homicide because it was ultimately caused by his injury. Hinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity on charges of attempting to assassinate the president. He remained confined toSt. Elizabeth's Hospital, a D.C. psychiatric facility. In January 2015, federal prosecutors announced that they would not charge Hinckley with Brady's death, despite the medical examiner's classification of his death as a homicide.Hinckley was released from institutional psychiatric care on September 10, 2016. Hinckley's motivation John Hinckley Jr.haderotomaniaand his motivation for the attack was born of his obsession with then-child actressJodie Foster. While living inHollywoodin the late 1970s, he saw the filmTaxi Driverat least 15 times, apparently identifying strongly with protagonistTravis Bickle, portrayed by actorRobert De Niro.The story involves Bickle's attempts to save a child prostitute played by Foster. Toward the end of the film, Bickle attempts to assassinate aUnited States senatorwho is running for president. Over the following years, Hinckley trailed Foster around the country, going so far as to enroll in a writing course atYale Universityin 1980 after reading inPeoplemagazine that she was a student there.He wrote numerous letters and notes to her in late 1980.He called her twice and refused to give up when she indicated that she was not interested in him. Hinckley was convinced that he would be Foster's equal if he became a national figure. He decided to emulate Bickle and began stalking PresidentJimmy Carter. He was surprised at how easy it was to get close to the president—he was only a foot away at one event—but was arrested in October 1980 atNashville International Airportand fined for illegal possession of a firearm.: 70, 251Carter had made a campaign stop there, but theFBIdid not connect this arrest to the president and did not notify theSecret Service.His parents briefly placed him under the care of a psychiatrist. Hinckley turned his attention toRonald Reagan, whose election, he told his parents, would be good for the country.He wrote three or four more notes to Foster in early March 1981. Foster gave these notes to a Yaledean, who gave them to the Yale police department, who sought but failed to track Hinckley down. Attempted assassination On March 21, 1981, new president Ronald Reagan, who took office on January 20, 1981, and his wifeNancyvisitedFord's Theatrein Washington, D.C., for a fundraising event. In his autobiographyAn American Life, Reagan recalled, I looked up at the presidential box above the stage whereAbe Lincolnhad been sittingthe night he was shotand felt a curious sensation ... I thought that even with all the Secret Service protection we now had, it was probably still possible for someone who had enough determination to get close enough to the president to shoot him. Speaking engagement at the Washington Hilton Hotel On March 28, Hinckley arrived in Washington, D.C., by busand checked into the Park Central Hotel.He originally intended to continue on to New Haven in another attempt to infatuate Foster.: 23He noticed Reagan's schedule that was published inThe Washington Starand decided it was time to act.Hinckley knew that he might be killed during the assassination attempt, and he wrote but did not mail a letter to Foster about two hours prior to his attempt on the president's life. In the letter, he said that he hoped to impress her with the magnitude of his action and that he would \\\"abandon the idea of getting Reagan in a second if I could only win your heart and live out the rest of my life with you.\\\": 58 On March 30, Reagan delivered a luncheon address toAFL–CIOrepresentatives at theWashington Hilton.The Secret Service was very familiar with the hotel, having inspected it more than 100 times for presidential visits since the early 1970s.The Hilton was considered the safest venue in Washington because of its secure, enclosed passageway called \\\"President's Walk\\\", built after the 1963assassination of John F. Kennedy. Reagan entered the building through the passagewayat about 1:45 p.m., waving to a crowd of news media and citizens. The Secret Service had required him to wear abulletproof vestfor some events, but Reagan was not wearing one for the speech, because his only public exposure would be the 30 feet (9 m) between the hotel andhis limousine,and the agency did not require vests for agents that day. No one saw Hinckley behaving in an unusual way. Witnesses who reported him as \\\"fidgety\\\" and \\\"agitated\\\" apparently confused Hinckley with another person that the Secret Service had been monitoring. Shooting At 2:27 p.m.,: 82Reagan exited the hotel through \\\"President's Walk\\\"onFlorida Avenue, where reporters waited.He left the T Street NW exit toward his waiting limousine as Hinckley waited within the crowd of admirers. The Secret Service had extensively screened those attending the president's speech, but greatly erred by allowing an unscreened group to stand within 15 ft (4.5 m) of him, behind arope line.: 80–81, 225The agency uses multiple layers of protection. Local police in the outer layer briefly check people, Secret Service agents in the middle layer check for weapons and more agents form the inner layer immediately around the president. Hinckley had penetrated the first two layers. As several hundred people applauded Reagan, the president unexpectedly passed right in front of Hinckley. Reporters standing behind a rope barricade 20 feet (6 m) away asked questions. As Mike Putzel of theAssociated Pressshouted \\\"Mr. President—\\\",Hinckley assumed acrouchposition: 81and rapidly fired aRöhm RG-14.22 LRblue steelrevolversix times in 1.7 seconds,: 82missing the president with all six shots. The first round hitWhite House press secretaryJames Bradyin the head above his left eye, passing through underneath his brain and shattering his brain cavity. The small explosive charge in the round exploded on impact.District of Columbia police officerThomas Delahantyrecognized the sound as a gunshot and turned his head sharply to the left to identify the shooter.: 82As he did so, he was struck in the back of his neck by the second shot, the bullet ricocheting off his spine. Delahanty fell on top of Brady, screaming \\\"I am hit!\\\". Hinckley now had a clear shot at the president,: 81but Alfred Antenucci, aCleveland, Ohiolabor official who was standing nearby, saw Hinckley fire the first two shots,hit him in the head and began to wrestle him to the ground.Upon hearing the shots, Special Agent in ChargeJerry Parralmost instantly grabbed Reagan by the shoulders and dived with him toward the open rear door of the limousine. Agent Ray Shaddick trailed just behind Parr to assist in throwing both men into the car.The third round overshot the president, instead hitting the window of a building across the street. Parr's actions likely saved Reagan from being hit in the head.: 224 As Parr pushed Reagan into the limousine, Secret Service agentTim McCarthysnapped his attention toward the sound of the gunfire, pivoted to his right, and placed himself in the line of fire. McCarthy spread his arms and legs, taking a wide stance directly in front of Reagan and Parr to make himself a target.McCarthy was struck in the lower abdomen by the fourth round, the bullet traversing his right lung,diaphragmand right lobe of theliver.The fifth round hit the bullet-resistant glass of the window on the open rear door of the limousine as Reagan and Parr were passing behind it. The sixth and final bullet ricocheted off the armored side of the limousine, passed between the space of the open rear door and vehicle frame and hit the president in the left underarm. The round grazed a rib and lodged in his lung, causing it to partially collapse before stopping less than an inch (25 mm) from his heart. Within moments of the first shots, Secret Service agent Dennis McCarthy (not a familial relation of agent Tim McCarthy) dove across the sidewalk and landed directly on Hinckley, as others pushed Hinckley to the ground.: 84Another Cleveland-area labor official, Frank J. McNamara, joined Antenucci and started punching Hinckley in the head, striking him so hard that he drew blood.Dennis McCarthy later reported that he had to \\\"strike two citizens\\\" to force them to release Hinckley.Secret Service agent Robert Wanko deployed anUzisubmachine gun concealed in a briefcase to cover the president's evacuation, and to deter a potential group attack. The day after the shooting, Hinckley's gun was given to theATF, which traced its origin. In just 16 minutes, agents found that the gun had been purchased at Rocky's Pawn Shop inDallas, Texas on October 13, 1980.It had been loaded with six Devastator brandcartridges, which contained small aluminum andlead azideexplosive charges designed to explode on contact, but the bullet that hit Brady was the only one that exploded. On April 2, after learning that the others could explode at any time, volunteer doctors wearing bulletproof vests removed the bullet from Delahanty's neck.: 223 George Washington University Hospital After the Secret Service first announced \\\"shots fired\\\" over its radio network at 2:27 p.m., Reagan—codename\\\"Rawhide\\\"—was removed from the scene by the agents in the limousine (\\\"Stagecoach\\\").: 66No one knew that Reagan had been shot. After Parr searched Reagan's body and found no blood, he stated that \\\"Rawhide is OK...we're going to Crown\\\" (theWhite House), as he preferred its medical facilities to those of an unsecured hospital. Reagan was in great pain from the bullet that struck his rib, and believed that his rib had cracked when Parr pushed him into the limousine. When the agent checked him for gunshot wounds, Reagan coughed up bright, frothy blood.Although the president believed that he had cut his lip,Parr assessed that the cracked rib had punctured Reagan's lung and ordered the motorcade to divert to nearbyGeorge Washington University Hospital, which the Secret Service periodically inspected for use.The limousine arrived there less than four minutes after leaving the hotel, while other agents took Hinckley to a D.C. jail, and Nancy Reagan (\\\"Rainbow\\\") left the White House for the hospital. Although Parr had requested a stretcher,none were ready at the hospital, which did not normally station a stretcher at the emergency department's entrance. Reagan exited the limousine and insisted on walking. He acted casually and smiled at onlookers as he entered the hospital. While he entered the hospital unassisted, once inside, Reagan complained of difficulty breathing, his knees buckled and he fell to one knee. Parr and others assisted him into the emergency department.Thephysician to the presidentDaniel Rugehad been near Reagan during the shooting and arrived in a separate car. Believing that the president might have experienced a heart attack, Ruge insisted that the hospital's trauma team operate on Reagan as they would any other patient.: 106–107When a hospital employee asked Reagan aideMichael Deaverfor the patient's name and address, only when Deaver stated \\\"1600 Pennsylvania\\\" did the worker realize that the president was in the emergency department.: 107–108 The medical team, led by Joseph Giordano, cut Reagan's \\\"thousand-dollar\\\" custom-made suitin order to examine him. Reagan complained about the cost of the ruined suit, which was cited by an assistant in a press briefing to reassure the public that the president was in stable health.Military officers, including the one who carried thenuclear football, unsuccessfully tried to prevent FBI agents from confiscating the suit, Reagan's wallet and other possessions as evidence. TheGold Codescard was in the wallet, and the FBI did not return it until two days later. The medical personnel found that Reagan'ssystolic blood pressurewas 60 compared to the normal 140, indicating that he was inshock, and knew that most 70-year-olds in the president's condition would not survive.: 108However, Reagan was in excellent physical health, and had been shot by a .22 (5.6 mm)-caliber bullet instead of a larger.38(9.7 mm) as was first feared.They treated him with intravenous fluids, oxygen, tetanus toxoid and chest tubesand surprised Parr—who still believed that he had cracked the president's rib—by finding the entrance of the gunshot wound. Doctors operated on Brady and the wounded agent Tim McCarthy near the president. When Nancy Reagan arrived in the emergency department, Reagan remarked to her, \\\"Honey, I forgot to duck\\\", borrowing boxerJack Dempsey's line to his wife from the night on which he was beaten byGene Tunney.While intubated, he scribbled to a nurse, \\\"All in all, I'd rather be in Philadelphia\\\", borrowing a line fromW. C. Fields.Although Reagan came close to death, the team's quick action—and Parr's decision to drive to the hospital instead of the White House—likely saved the president's life. Within 30 minutes, Reagan left the emergency department for surgery, with normal blood pressure.He then underwent emergency exploratory surgery to check for organ damage and remove the bullet.The chief of thoracic surgery, Benjamin L. Aaron, performed athoracotomylasting 105 minutesbecause the bleeding persisted. Ultimately, Reagan lost over half of his blood volume in the emergency department and during surgery,but the bullet was successfully removed. In the operating room, Reagan removed his oxygen mask to joke, \\\"I hope you are allRepublicans.\\\" The doctors and nurses laughed, and Giordano, aDemocrat, replied, \\\"Today, Mr. President, we areallRepublicans.\\\": 147Reagan's post-operative course was complicated by fever, which was treated with antibiotics.Because Reagan had entered the operating room conscious and not in shock, and the surgery was routine, his doctors and others predicted that he could leave the hospital in two weeks, return to work at theOval Officein a month and completely heal in six to eight weeks with no long-term effects. Immediate response National Security AdvisorRichard Allenwould traditionally be responsible forcrisis managementfor theexecutive branch, butSecretary of StateAlexander Haigwanted the role. Six days before the shooting,Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushreceived the assignment instead. Allen and theNational Security Councilwould assist him. Reagan persuaded an upset Haig not to resign.The secretary reportedly \\\"pound the table in frustration and anger.\\\"When news of the assassination attempt reached the White House, Haig was there. He urged the vice president—visitingTexasfor the first time sincethe inauguration—to return, but the voice connection to Bush aboardAir Force Twowas weak, and it is unknown whether they heard each other. By 2:35 p.m., Bush was notified of the shooting. He was leavingFort Worth, Texasand, relying on the initial reports that Reagan was unharmed, he flew toAustinfor a speech.At 3:14 p.m., 47 minutes after the shooting, Haig sent a codedteletypemessage to Bush: MR. VICE PRESIDENT: IN THE INCIDENT YOU WILL HAVE HEARD ABOUT BY NOW, THE PRESIDENT WAS STRUCK IN THE BACK AND IS IN SERIOUS CONDITION. MEDICAL AUTHORITIES ARE DECIDING NOW WHETHER OR NOT TO OPERATE. RECOMMEND YOU RETURN TO DC AT EARLIEST POSSIBLE MOMENT. SECRETARY ALEXANDER HAIG, JR. Air Force Two refueled in Austin before returning to Washington,at what its pilot described as the fastest speed in the plane's history.The aircraft did not havesecure voicecommunications, and Bush's discussions with the White House were intercepted and given to the press. White House counselFred Fieldingimmediately prepared for a transfer of presidential powers under the25th Amendment,andchief of staffJames A. Bakerandcounselor to the PresidentEdwin Meesewent to Reagan's hospitalstill believing that the president was unharmed. Within five minutes of the shooting, members of theCabinetbegan gathering in theWhite House Situation Room.The Cabinet and the Secret Service were initially unsure whether the shooting was part of a larger attack by terrorists, or that of a foreign intelligence service such as theKGB. Tensions with the Soviet Union were high because of theSolidarity movementincommunist Poland. The Cabinet was also concerned that the Soviets would take advantage of the unstable situation to launch a nuclear attack. After the shooting, the American military detected two Sovietballistic missile submarinespatrolling unusually close to theEast Coast of the United States, which could allow their missiles to reach Washington, D.C. two minutes faster than usual.: 175–177Defense secretaryCaspar Weinbergerresponded by placing theStrategic Air Commandon high alert.Haig, Weinberger and Allen discussed various issues, including the location of the nuclear football, the submarine presence, a possible Soviet invasion against the1981 warning strike in Polandand thepresidential line of succession. Although tape recorders are not normally allowed in the Situation Room, these meetings were recorded with the participants' knowledge by Allen, and the five hours of tapes have since been made public. The group obtained a duplicate nuclear football and Gold Codes card and kept it in the Situation Room. Reagan's football was still with the officer at the hospital, and Bush also had a card and football.: 155The participants discussed whether to raise the military's alert status and the importance of doing so without changing theDEFCONlevel.They eventually determined that the number of Soviet submarines was normal. A pair of Soviet submarines was assuming the patrol area from another pair, a relief operation that routinely occurred at the end of a month. However, one of the four submarines was patrolling unusually close to the coast. In consideration of the ongoing tensions over Poland, Weinberger ordered the Strategic Air Command be placed on alert, but he did not reveal the alert status to the public. Upon learning that Reagan was in surgery, Haig declared, the \\\"helm is right here. And that means right in this chair for now, constitutionally, until the vice president gets here\\\".However, Haig was incorrect. As the sitting Secretary of State, he was fourth behind Vice President Bush,Speaker of the HouseTip O'Neill, andPresidentpro temporeof the SenateStrom Thurmondin the line of succession. Under3 U.S.C.§ 19, O'Neill and Thurmond would have to resign their positions to become acting president. Although others in the room knew that Haig's statement was constitutionally incorrect, they did not object at the time, to avoid a confrontation.Allen later said that although Haig \\\"constantly, incessantly drummed on some variant of 'I am in charge, I am senior'\\\", he and Fielding \\\"didn't give a rat's ass\\\" as Bush would be in charge when he arrived. At the same time, a press conference was under way in theWhite House Briefing Room.CBSreporterLesley Stahlasked deputy press secretaryLarry Speakeswho was running the government, to which Speakes responded, \\\"I cannot answer that question at this time\\\". Upon hearing Speakes's remark, Haig wrote and passed a note to Speakes, ordering him to leave the dais immediately.: 171–173Moments later, Haig entered the Briefing Room, where he made the following controversial statement: Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the president, the vice president and the secretary of state, in that order, and should the president decide he wants to transfer the helm to the vice president, he will do so. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending the return of the vice president and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course. Despite his familiarity with the Briefing Room from serving asRichard Nixon's chief of staff, Stahl described Haig as \\\"visibly shaken\\\",and the Associated Press wrote that \\\"his voice continually choked up and quavered with emotion, and his arms trembled\\\".Those in the Situation Room reportedly laughed when they heard him say \\\"I am in control here\\\",and Allen later said \\\"I was astounded that he would say something so eminently stupid\\\".Haig later said, I wasn't talking about transition. I was talking about the executive branch, who is running the government. That was the question asked. It was not \\\"Who is in line should the President die?\\\" Although Haig stated in the Briefing Room that \\\"There are absolutely no alert measures that are necessary at this time or contemplated\\\", while he was speaking, Weinberger raised the military's alert level.After Haig returned to the Situation Room, he objected to Weinberger doing so, as it made him appear a liar,although as deputy commander-in-chief, only Reagan outranked Weinberger in theNational Command Authority.Weinberger and others accused Haig of exceeding his authority with his \\\"I am in control\\\" statement,while Haig defended himself by advising the others to \\\"read the Constitution\\\",saying that his comments did not involve \\\"succession\\\" and that he knew the \\\"pecking order\\\". Aboard Air Force Two, Bush watched Haig's press briefing. Meese told him that Reagan was stable after surgery to remove the bullet. The vice president arrived atAndrews Air Force Baseat 6:30 p.m. and decided to not fly by helicopter to the White House. He said to a military aide \\\"only the president lands on theSouth Lawn\\\". Bush later said in an interview that landing on the South Lawn would have \\\"made for great TV\\\", but would have sent the wrong message to the country, and pointed out that the South Lawn was situated under the president's bedroom window, where the First Lady was waiting for news of Reagan's surgery.Marine Twoinstead flew toNumber One Observatory Circle. \\\"Despite brief flare-ups and distractions\\\", Allen recalled, \\\"the crisis management team in the Situation Room worked well together. The congressional leadership was kept informed, and governments around the world were notified and reassured.\\\"Reagan's surgery ended at 6:20 p.m., although he did not regain consciousness until 7:30 p.m.,so could not invoke Section 3 of the 25th Amendment to make Bushacting president. The vice president arrived at the White House at 7:00 p.m., and did not invoke Section 4 of the 25th Amendment. Bush took charge of the Situation Room meeting, which received an update that the planned Polish national strike was cancelled. They evaluated new satellite images from Eastern Europe that showed no Soviet troop movements near Poland. They further assessed that Hinckley Jr. was likely acting alone after being informed of his October 1980 arrest record inNashville, which suggested that he had been trailing then-President Carter.Bush stated on national television at 8:20 p.m.: I can reassure this nation and a watching world that the American government is functioning fully and effectively. We've had full and complete communications throughout the day. Investigation The FBI took over the investigation on Saturday. Agents obtained a warrant and searched the shooter's hotel room. Before touching anything, the entire room was filmed and photographed. Fingerprints were then sought in case there was an accomplice. According to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \\\"What we found in Mr Hinckley's room was bizarre. On the desk, so that we could find him, was his entire plan. He had left a map of where he was going. He had the morning paper open with the president's diary. He publicised the fact that Reagan would be speaking to a union group in the ballroom of the Washington Hilton. Strangest of all was a statement - a letter to actress Jodie Foster proclaiming that he was committing a historic act, a presidential assassination, to impress her.\\\". The serial number of Hinckley's revolver was provided to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. It quickly determined where Hinckley bought the gun. The police gathered the witnesses in the auditorium where the president had given a speech. Secret Service agents who were witnesses or had other first-hand information were identified. According to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \\\"Our follow-up investigation, which lasted weeks, traced Mr Hinckley's history over the previous months. We determined that he had travelled the country, gone to firing ranges and, in fact, was obsessed with Ms Foster. He had planned and committed an assassination attempt on the president. He was a mentally disturbed man.\\\". Public reaction The assassination attempt was captured onelectronic news-gatheringvideotape by several cameras, including those belonging to theBig Three television networks.ABCbegan airing footage at 2:42 p.m. All three networks erroneously reported that Brady had died.WhenABC NewsanchormanFrank Reynolds, a friend of Brady, was later forced to retract the report, he angrily said on-air to his staff, \\\"C'mon, let's get it nailed down!\\\",as a result of the miscommunication. ABC News also initially reported that President Reagan had not been injured. A network erroneously reported that he was undergoingopen-heart surgery.: 133, 185 WhileCNNdid not have a camera of its own at the shooting, it was able to useNBC'spool feed,and by staying on the story for 48 hours, the network, less than a year old, built a reputation for thoroughness.Shocked Americans gathered around television sets in homes and shopping centers.Some cited the allegedCurse of Tippecanoe, and others recalled the assassinations of Kennedy andMartin Luther King Jr.Newspapers printed extra editionsand used gigantic headlines;theUnited States Senateadjourned, interrupting debate of Reagan's economic proposals; and churches held prayer services. Hinckley asked the arresting officers whether that night'sAcademy Awardsceremony would be postponed because of the shooting, and it was. The ceremony—for which former actor Reagan had taped a message—occurred the next evening.The president survived surgery with a good prognosis. TheNCAAchampionship basketball game that evening betweenIndianaandNorth Carolinawas not postponed, although the audience of 18,000 in Philadelphia held amoment of silencebefore the game, which Indiana won.In the immediate aftermath of the shooting, theDow Jones Industrial Averagedeclined before theNew York Stock Exchangeclosed early, but the index rose the next day as Reagan recovered.Beyond having to postpone its Academy Awards broadcast, ABC temporarily renamed the lead character ofThe Greatest American Hero, which had debuted in March, from \\\"Ralph Hinkley\\\" to \\\"Hanley\\\",and NBC postponed a forthcoming episode ofWalking Talltitled \\\"Hit Man\\\". Aftermath Jodie Foster The incident was a traumatic experience for the 18-year-old Foster, who was hounded by the media and paparazzi in its aftermath. She took a semester off atYaleand had to be escorted by abodyguardeverywhere she went. This event produced other stalkers for her, including a 22-year-old man named Edward Michael Richardson, who according to the Secret Service shared a similar obsession with Foster, and carried a loaded handgun planning to kill her, but changed his mind after watching her perform in a college play. Hinckley demanded that Foster testify at his trial. Agreement was reached between Foster's and Hinckley lawyers that she would do so in a closed session, with only herself, the judge (Barrington D. Parker), lawyers and Hinckley present. A videotape of this session could be introduced as evidence into Hinckley's trial. This session took place in March 1982. During her testimony, Foster did not look at or acknowledge Hinckley. This caused him to throw a pen at her and shout threats, before he was surrounded and removed from the room bymarshals. Since the attempted assassination, Foster has only commented on Hinckley on four occasions: a press conference a few days after the attack, an article she wrote forEsquiremagazine in 1982 after his sentencing, during an interview withCharlie Roseon60 Minutes IIin 1999, and while speaking to comedian and actorMarc Maronon his podcastWTF with Marc Maronin 2021.She has ended or canceled several interviews if the event was mentioned, or if she felt that an interviewer was going to bring Hinckley up.To Maron, Foster said that she voluntarily chose not to speak about the incident in interviews to avoid being labelled as an actress primarily remembered for that incident, and reflected on how her mother, a former publicist, helped her in overcoming the media frenzy, and the public's obsession with her involvement. Ronald Reagan Reagan's staff members were anxious for the president to appear to be recovering quickly,and the morning after his operation he saw visitors and signed a piece of legislation.Reagan left the hospital on the morning of April 11. Entering the limousine was difficult, and he joked that the first thing he would do at home was \\\"sit down\\\". Reagan's recovery speed impressed his doctors, but they advised the president not to work in the Oval Office for a week and avoid travel for several weeks. No visitors were scheduled for his first weekend.Initially, Reagan worked two hours a day in the White House's residential quarters.Reagan did not lead a Cabinet meeting until day 26, did not leave Washington until day 49, and did not hold a press conference until day 79. Ruge, the physician to the president, thought recovery was not complete until October.Reagan's plans for the month after the shooting were canceled, including a visit to theMission Control CenteratLyndon B. Johnson Space CenterinHouston, Texas, in April 1981 duringSTS-1, the first flight of theSpace Shuttle. Vice President Bush instead called the orbiting astronauts during their mission. Reagan visited Mission Control duringSTS-2that November. The events contributed to Reagan's initial popularity. Though he had enjoyed approval ratings of up to 60% until March, his ratings surged to nearly 70% in the following months.Privately, Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to fulfill a greater purposeand, although not a Catholic, meetings withMother Teresa, CardinalTerence Cooke, and fellowshooting survivor Pope John Paul IIreinforced his belief. Reagan returned to the Oval Office on April 25 and received a standing ovation from staff and Cabinet members. He referred to their teamwork in his absence and insisted, \\\"I should be applauding you.\\\"He made his first public appearance in an April 28 speech before thejoint houses of Congress. In the speech, he introduced his planned spending cuts, which had been a campaign promise. He received \\\"two thunderous standing ovations\\\", whichThe New York Timesdeemed \\\"a salute to his good health\\\" as well as his programs, which the president introduced using a medical recovery theme.Reagan installed a gym in the White House and began regularly exercising there, gaining so much muscle that he had to buy new suits. The shooting caused Nancy Reagan to fear for her husband's safety, however. She asked him to not run forreelection in 1984, and, because of her concerns, began consulting astrologerJoan Quigley.Reagan never again walked across an airport tarmac or got out of his limousine on a public sidewalk as president. Delahanty, Tim McCarthy, and Brady Thomas Delahanty recovered but developed permanent nerve damage to his left arm, and was ultimately forced to retire from the Metropolitan Police Department due to his disability. Tim McCarthy recovered fully and was the first of the wounded men to be discharged from the hospital. James Brady survived, but his wound left him with slurred speech and partial paralysis that required the full-time use of awheelchair. Brady remained press secretary for the remainder of Reagan's administration, but this was primarily atitularrole. Later, Brady and his wifeSarahbecame leading advocates ofgun controland other actions to reduce the amount ofgun violence in the United States. They became active in thelobbyingorganization Handgun Control, Inc.—which was eventually renamed theBrady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence—and founded the non-profitBrady Center to Prevent Gun Violence.TheBrady Handgun Violence Prevention Actwas passed in 1993 as a result of their work.Brady died on August 4, 2014, in Alexandria, Virginia, at the age of 73. Following Brady's death in 2014, the District of Columbia Medical Examiner ruled the death a homicide stemming from wounds caused by the Hinckley assassination attempt. This ruling raised the possibility that Hinckley could face additional future murder charges.However, prosecutors declined to do so for two reasons. First, a jury had already declared Hinckley insane at the time of the shooting, and the constitutional prohibition againstdouble jeopardywould preclude overturning this ruling on account of Brady's death. Second, in 1981 Washington, D.C., still had thecommon law\\\"year and a day\\\" rule in place. Although the year and a day rule had been abolished in the district prior to 2014, the constitutional prohibition againstex post factolawwould preclude the upgrading of charges for deaths resulting today from acts committed while the rule was in effect, and would prohibit the government from challenging Hinckley's successful insanity defense based on the current federal law. The shooting of Reagan exacerbated the debate on gun control in the U.S., that began with the December 1980 handgunmurder of John Lennon. Reagan expressed opposition to increased handgun control following Lennon's death and reiterated his opposition after his own shooting. However, in a speech at an event marking the assassination attempt's 10th anniversary,Reagan endorsed the Brady Act: \\\"Anniversary\\\" is a word we usually associate with happy events that we like to remember: birthdays, weddings, the first job. March 30, however, marks an anniversary I would just as soon forget, but cannot... four lives were changed forever, and all by a Saturday-night special – a cheaply made .22 caliber pistol – purchased in a Dallas pawnshop by a young man with a history of mental disturbance. This nightmare might never have happened if legislation that is before Congress now – the Brady bill – had been law back in 1981... If the passage of the Brady bill were to result in a reduction of only 10 or 15 percent of those numbers (and it could be a good deal greater), it would be well worth making it the law of the land. And there would be a lot fewer families facing anniversaries such as the Bradys, Delahantys, McCarthys and Reagans face every March 30. In 1994, Reagan made numerous appeals to support theFederal Assault Weapons Banin the House of Representatives. At least two representatives, RepublicanScott L. Klugand DemocratRichard Swett, credit Reagan's efforts for their decision to vote for the bill, which eventually passed by a 216–214 margin. Parr After the assassination attempt, Jerry Parr was hailed as a hero.He received Congressional commendations for his actions, and was named one of four \\\"Top Cops\\\" in the U.S. byParademagazine.He later wrote about the assassination attempt in his autobiography, calling it both the best and the worst day of his life.Parr came to believe that God had directed his life so that he could one day save the president's life, and became a pastor after retiring from the Secret Service in 1985.:224He died ofcongestive heart failureat a hospice in Washington, D.C., on October 9, 2015, aged 85. Antenucci and McNamara Antenucci and McNamara both became ill following the assassination attempt. McNamara died on September 18, 1981, six months after the attempted assassination at the age of 62.Antenucci died on May 9, 1984, aged 71. John Hinckley Hinckley was foundnot guilty by reason of insanityon June 21, 1982. The defensepsychiatricreports had found him to beinsanewhile the prosecution reports declared him legally sane.Following his lawyers' advice, he declined to take the stand in his own defense.Hinckley was confined atSt. Elizabeths Hospitalin Washington, D.C., full-time until 2006, at which point he began a program of spending gradually more time at his mother's home. On September 10, 2016, Hinckley was permitted to permanently leave the hospital to live with his mother full-time, under court supervision and with mandatory psychiatric treatment.After his trial, he wrote that the shooting was \\\"the greatest love offering in the history of the world\\\", and did not indicate any regrets at the time. The not-guilty verdict led to widespread dismay,and, as a result, theU.S. Congressand a number of states rewrote laws regarding the insanity defense.The oldModel Penal Code testwas replaced by a test that shifts theburden of proofregarding a defendant's sanity from the prosecution to the defendant. Three states have abolished the defense altogether. Portrayals in literature and popular culture Books On screen The following is the list of the movies dealing with the assassination attempt or portraying a portion of it: On stage See also Notes References External links\",\n \"Kentucky Derby TheKentucky Derby(/ˈdɜːrbi/) is an AmericanGrade I stakesracerun atChurchill DownsinLouisville, Kentucky. The race is run by three-year-oldThoroughbredsat a distance of1+1⁄4miles (10 furlongs; 2,012 metres).Coltsandgeldingscarry 126 pounds (57 kilograms) andfillies121 pounds (55 kilograms). Held annually on the first Saturday in May, the Derby is the first leg of theTriple Crown. It is preceded by the two-week-longKentucky Derby Festival.The race is known as \\\"The Run for the Roses\\\", as the winning horse is draped in a blanket of roses.Lasting approximately two minutes, the Derby has been alternately called \\\"The Most Exciting Two Minutes in Sports\\\",\\\"The Fastest Two Minutes in Sports\\\",or \\\"The Greatest Two Minutes in Sports\\\", coined by Churchill Downs presidentMatt Winn.At least two of these descriptions are thought to be derived from the words of sportswriterGrantland Rice, when in 1935 he said \\\"Those two minutes and a second or so of derby running carry more emotional thrills, per second, than anything sport can show.\\\" The race was first run in 1875. Unlike the other, older races of the Triple Crown—thePreakness Stakesand theBelmont Stakes—along with theTravers Stakes(the oldest comparable stakes race in the US), the Kentucky Derby and its sibling race, theKentucky Oaks, have been run every year since inception. They were twice rescheduled within the same year, the first time due toWorld War IIin1945, and the second time due to theCOVID-19 pandemicin2020. The Derby and the Oaks are the oldest major sporting events in the US held annually since their beginning.Among thoroughbred stakes races, they are the oldest that have been held annually on the same track every year. The Derby is the most-watched andmost-attendedhorse race in the United States. The2024 Kentucky Derbymarked the 150th running of the race. History In 1872, Col.Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., grandson ofWilliam Clarkof theLewis and Clark expedition, traveled to England, visitingEpsomin Surrey whereThe Derbyhad been running annually since 1780.From there, Clark went on toParis, France, where a group of racing enthusiasts had formed theFrench Jockey Clubin 1863. They had organized theGrand Prix de ParisatLongchamp, which at the time was the greatest race in France. Returning home to Kentucky, Clark organized the Louisville Jockey Club to raise money for building quality racing facilities just outside the city. The track would soon become known asChurchill Downs, named for John and Henry Churchill, who provided the land for the racetrack.The naming went official in 1937. The Kentucky Derby was first run at1+1⁄2miles (12furlongs; 2.4 km) the same distance as theEpsom Derby, before changing lengths in 1896 to its current1+1⁄4miles (10 furlongs; 2 km). On May 17, 1875, in front of an estimated crowd of 10,000 people, a field of 15 three-year-old horses contested the first Derby. Under jockeyOliver Lewis, a colt namedAristides, who was trained by futureHall of FamerAnsel Williamson, won the inaugural Derby. Later that year, Lewis rode Aristides to a second-place finish in theBelmont Stakes. Initially a successful venue, the track ran into financial difficulties due to a protracted,gambling-relatedhorseman boycottremoving it from the upper echelons of racing that would last until just after the turn of the 20th century. In 1894 the New Louisville Jockey Club was incorporated with the new capitalization and improved facilities. Despite this, the business floundered until 1902, when a syndicate led byCol. Matt Winnof Louisville acquired the facility. Under Winn, Churchill Downs prospered, and the Kentucky Derby then became the preeminent stakes race for three-year-old thoroughbred horses in North America. Thoroughbred owners began sending their successful Derby horses to compete in two other races. These two are thePreakness Stakesat thePimlico Race Course, inBaltimore, and theBelmont StakesinElmont, New York. The three races offered large purses, and in1919,Sir Bartonbecame the first horse to win all three races. However, the term \\\"Triple Crown\\\" did not come into use for another eleven years. In1930, whenGallant Foxbecame the second horse to win all three races, sportswriterCharles Hattonbrought the phrase into American usage. Fueled by the media, public interest in the possibility of a \\\"superhorse\\\" that could win the Triple Crown began in the weeks leading up to the Derby. Two years after the term went in use, the race (until that time ran in mid-May since inception) changed the date to the first Saturday in May. This change allows for a specific schedule for the Triple Crown races. Since 1931, the order of Triple Crown races has been the Kentucky Derby first, followed by the Preakness Stakes and then the Belmont Stakes. Before 1931, eleven times the Preakness was run before the Derby. On May 12, 1917, and again on May 13, 1922, the Preakness and the Derby took place on the same day. On eleven occasions the Belmont Stakes was run before the Preakness Stakes, and in 2020, the Belmont was run first, then the Kentucky Derby, and the Preakness Stakes last. On May 16, 1925, the first live radio broadcast of the Kentucky Derby aired onWHASas well as onWGNin Chicago.On May 7, 1949, the first television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, produced byWAVE-TV, the NBC affiliate in Louisville. This coverage was aired live in the Louisville market and sent to NBC as a kinescope newsreel recording for national broadcast. On May 3, 1952, the first national television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, aired from then-CBSaffiliateWHAS-TV.In 1954, the purse exceeded US$100,000 for the first time. In 1968,Dancer's Imagebecame the first horse to win the race and then face disqualification. Aurine testrevealed traces ofphenylbutazone(ananti-inflammatorypainkiller drug) inside Dancer's Image.Forward Passwon after a protracted legal battle by the owners of Dancer's Image (which they lost). Forward Pass thus became the eighth winner forCalumet Farm. Unexpectedly, the regulations at Kentucky thoroughbred race tracks were changed some years later, allowing horses to run onphenylbutazone. In 1970,Diane Crumpbecame the first female jockey to ride in the Derby, finishing 15th aboard Fathom. The fastest time ever run in the Derby was in1973at 1:59.4 minutes, whenSecretariatbroke the record set byNorthern Dancerin1964. Also during that race, Secretariat did something unique in Triple Crown races: for each successive quarter run, his times were faster. Although the races do not record times for non-winners, in 1973 Sham finished second, two and a half lengths behind Secretariat in the same race. Using the thoroughbred racing convention of one length equaling one-fifth of a second to calculateSham's time, he also finished in under two minutes. Another sub-two-minute finish, only the third, was set in2001byMonarchosat 1:59.97, the first year the race used hundredths of seconds instead of fifths in timing. In 2005, thepurse distributionfor the Derby changed, so that horses finishing fifth would henceforth receive a share of the purse; previously only the first four finishers did so. The Kentucky Derby began offering $3 million in purse money in 2019. Churchill Downs officials have cited the success ofhistorical race wagering terminalsat their Derby City Gaming facility in Louisville as a factor behind the purse increase. The Derby first offered a $1 million purse in 1996; it was doubled to $2 million in 2005. In 2020, the Derby was postponed from May 2 to September 5 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.This was the second time in history the race had been postponed, the other being in1945.Churchill Downs used a new singular 20-stall starting gate for the2020 Kentucky Derby, replacing the previous arrangement that used a standard 14-stall gate and an auxiliary six-stall gate.The old setup contributed to congestion at the start of the race, especially in the gap between the two gates. Rich Strike, areservewho only made it into the final field after a late scratching, won therace in 2022at final odds of 80:1 andparimutuel bettingpayouts were even larger. In January 2024, the purse for the Kentucky Derby was increased to $5 million. Attendance Millions of people from around the world bet at various live tracks and online sportsbooks.In 2017, a crowd of 158,070 watched Always Dreaming win the Derby, making it the seventh biggest attendance in the history of the racetrack. The track reported a wagering total of $209.2 million from all the sources on all the races on the Kentucky Derby Day program. It was a 9 percent increase compared to the total of $192.6 million in 2016 and an increase of 8 percent over the previous record set in 2015 of $194.3 million.TwinSpires, a platform for betting online and a partner of the Kentucky Derby and the Breeders' Cup, recorded $32.8 million in handle on the Churchill Down races for the Kentucky Derby Day program. This record was a 22 percent increase over the preceding year. On the Kentucky Derby race alone, the handle of TwinSpires was $20.1 million, which is a 22 percent rise compared to the prior year. The race often draws celebrities. HMQueen Elizabeth II, on a visit to the United States, joined the racegoers at Churchill Downs in 2007. Sponsorship The 2004 Kentucky Derby marked the first time that jockeys—as a result of acourt order—were allowed to wear corporate advertisinglogoson their clothing. Norman Adams has been the designer of the Kentucky Derby Logo since 2002. On February 1, 2006, the Louisville-basedfast-foodcompanyYum! Brands, Inc.announced a corporate sponsorship deal to call the race \\\"The Kentucky Derby presented by Yum! Brands.\\\"In 2018,Woodford Reservereplaced Yum! Brands as the presenting sponsor. Traditions In addition to the race itself, several traditions play a significant role in the Derby atmosphere. Themint julep—an iced drink consisting ofbourbon,mint, andsugarsyrup—is the traditional beverage of the race. The historic beverage comes served in an ice-frosted silver julep cup. However, most Churchill Downs patrons sip theirs from souvenir glasses (first offered in 1939 and available in revised form each year since) printed with all previous Derby winners.Also,burgoo, a thick stew of beef, chicken, pork, and vegetables, is a popular Kentucky dish served at the Derby. Theinfield—a spectator area inside the track—offers general admission prices but little chance of seeing much of the race, particularly before thejumbotroninstallation in 2014.Instead, revelers show up in the infield to party with abandon. By contrast, \\\"Millionaire's Row\\\" refers to the expensive box seats that attract the rich, the famous and the well-connected. Women appear in elegant outfits lavishly accessorized with large, elaborate hats. Following theCall to the Postplayed on bugle by Steve Buttleman, as the horses start to parade before the grandstands, theUniversity of Louisville Cardinal Marching BandplaysStephen Foster's \\\"My Old Kentucky Home\\\". This song is a tradition which began in 1921.The event attracts spectators from a large area, flying in hundreds of private aircraft toLouisville International Airport. The Derby is frequently referred to as \\\"The Run for the Roses\\\", because a lush blanket of 554 redrosesis awarded to the Kentucky Derby winner each year.New York sports columnist and future Churchill Downs presidentBill Corumin 1925 began describing the race thusly,but the tradition originated in 1883 when New York City socialiteE. Berry Wallpresented roses to ladies at a post-Derby party. The Churchill Downs founder and president, Col. Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., attended that event. This gesture is believed to have led Clark to the idea of making the rose the race's official flower. However, it was not until 1896 that any recorded account referred to draping roses on the Derby winner.TheGovernor of Kentuckyand the Chairman ofChurchill Downs Incorporatedpresent the garland and theKentucky Derby Trophyto the winner. Pop vocalistDan Fogelbergcomposed the song \\\"Run for the Roses\\\", released in time for the 1980 running of the race. Riders Up! \\\"Riders Up!\\\" is the traditional command from the Paddock Judge for jockeys to mount their horses in advance of the upcoming race. Since 2012, the grand marshal recites this phrase. Grand marshals National Anthem performers Festival In the weeks preceding the race, numerous activities took place for theKentucky Derby Festival.Thunder Over Louisville—an airshow and fireworks display—generally begins the festivities in earnest two weeks before the Derby. Records Horse records Secretariatset the record for speed in 1973 with a time of 1:59.4. During its first two decades when the Derby was run at1+1⁄2miles, the record was 2:34.5, set bySpokanein 1889. The largest margin of victory is 8 lengths, a feat tied by four different horses:Old Rosebudin 1914,Johnstownin 1939,Whirlawayin 1941, andAssaultin 1946. The highest odds of a winning horse were 91 to 1 forDonerailin 1913. The second-highest odds occurred in 2022, whenRich Strikewent off at 80 to 1 and won the race. Three horses have won the Kentucky Derby without competing as a two-year-old:Apollo(1882),Justify(2018), andMage(2023). Jockey records 107jockeyshave won the Kentucky Derby, with 27 doing so multiple times.Isaac Murphy(1890–91),Jimmy Winkfield(1901–02),Ron Turcotte(1972–73),Eddie Delahoussaye(1982–83),Calvin Borel(2009–10), andVictor Espinoza(2014–15) are the only jockeys to win the Derby in back-to-back years. Borel is the only jockey with three wins in a four-year span (2007, '09, '10). Trainer records 116trainershave won the Kentucky Derby, with 19 doing so multiple times. Six trainers have won the Derby in back-to-back years:Herbert J. Thompson(1932–33),Ben Jones(1948–49),Jimmy Jones(1957–58),Lucien Laurin(1972–73),D. Wayne Lukas(1995–96), andBob Baffert(1997–98). Owner records Seventeen owners have won the Kentucky Derby multiple times with horses they fully or partially owned. * Partnered with other entities in an ownership group for one or more winning horses. \\\"Oaks/Derby Double\\\" Jockeys, trainers, and owners competing in the Kentucky Derby often will compete in theKentucky Oaks, a race for fillies held the day before the Derby. Winning both these races in the same year is referred to as an \\\"Oaks/Derby Double;\\\" 7 jockeys, 3 trainers, and 4 owners have accomplished this feat: *Until the 1950s, the Oaks was held several days or weeks after the Derby. Winners Triple Crownwinners are inboldand highlighted with gold. # Designates afilly. † Designates a horse that wonAmerican Horse of the Yearin the same year they won the Derby. ‡ Designates a horse that was inducted in subsequent years into theNational Racing Hall of Fame. Sire lines Winners of the Kentucky Derby can be connected to each other due to the practice ofarranging horse breedingbased on their previous success. All of the horses can be traced back to the three foundational sires, withGodolphin Arabianthe ancestor of 7 winners,Byerley Turkthe ancestor of 11 winners, andDarley Arabianthe ancestor of 132 winners, including all winners since 1938. Darley Arabian line TheDarley Arabian(1700c) sire line (all branched through theEclipse(1764) line)produced 132 Derby winners (124 colts, 5 geldings, 3 fillies), including all winners from 1938 to present.The main branches of this sire line are: Byerley Turk line TheByerley Turk(1680c) sire lineproduced 11 winners (8 colts, 3 geldings). The main branches of this sire (all branched through theHerod(1758) line) are: Godolphin Arabian line TheGodolphin Arabian(1724c) sire lineproduced 7 winners (6 colts, 1 gelding).The main branches of this sire (all branched through theWest Australian(1850) line) are: Kentucky Derby winners with male-line descendants including other Kentucky Derby winners See also References Further reading External links Legend– ₩ =Triple Crownwinners, ♥ = Filly\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan On March 30, 1981, then President of the United StatesRonald Reaganwas shot and wounded byJohn Hinckley Jr.inWashington, D.C., as he was returning to his limousine after a speaking engagement at theWashington Hilton. Hinckley believed the attack would impress actressJodie Foster, with whom he had developed anerotomanicobsession after viewing her in the 1976 filmTaxi Driver. Reagan was seriously wounded by arevolverbullet that ricocheted off the side of the presidential limousine and hit him in the left underarm, breaking a rib, puncturing a lung, and causing serious internal bleeding. He was close to death upon arrival atGeorge Washington University Hospitalbut was stabilized in the emergency room; he then underwent emergency exploratory surgery. He recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11. No formal invocation of sections 3 or 4 of the Constitution's25th amendment(concerning the vice president assuming the president's powers and duties) took place,","duties) took place, though Secretary of StateAlexander Haigstated that he was \"in control here\" at the White House until Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushreturned to Washington fromFort Worth, Texas. Haig was fourth in the line of succession after Bush,Speaker of the HouseTip O'Neill, andpresident pro tempore of the SenateStrom Thurmond. White House press secretaryJames Brady,Secret ServiceagentTim McCarthy, and D.C. police officerThomas Delahantywere also wounded. All three survived, but Brady had brain damage and was permanently disabled. His death in 2014 was considered a homicide because it was ultimately caused by his injury. Hinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity on charges of attempting to assassinate the president. He remained confined toSt. Elizabeth's Hospital, a D.C. psychiatric facility. In January 2015, federal prosecutors announced that they would not charge Hinckley with Brady's death, despite the medical examiner's classification of his death as a homicide.Hinckley was released","was released from institutional psychiatric care on September 10, 2016. Hinckley's motivation John Hinckley Jr.haderotomaniaand his motivation for the attack was born of his obsession with then-child actressJodie Foster. While living inHollywoodin the late 1970s, he saw the filmTaxi Driverat least 15 times, apparently identifying strongly with protagonistTravis Bickle, portrayed by actorRobert De Niro.The story involves Bickle's attempts to save a child prostitute played by Foster. Toward the end of the film, Bickle attempts to assassinate aUnited States senatorwho is running for president. Over the following years, Hinckley trailed Foster around the country, going so far as to enroll in a writing course atYale Universityin 1980 after reading inPeoplemagazine that she was a student there.He wrote numerous letters and notes to her in late 1980.He called her twice and refused to give up when she indicated that she was not interested in him. Hinckley was convinced that he would be Foster's equal if he became a","if he became a national figure. He decided to emulate Bickle and began stalking PresidentJimmy Carter. He was surprised at how easy it was to get close to the president—he was only a foot away at one event—but was arrested in October 1980 atNashville International Airportand fined for illegal possession of a firearm.: 70, 251Carter had made a campaign stop there, but theFBIdid not connect this arrest to the president and did not notify theSecret Service.His parents briefly placed him under the care of a psychiatrist. Hinckley turned his attention toRonald Reagan, whose election, he told his parents, would be good for the country.He wrote three or four more notes to Foster in early March 1981. Foster gave these notes to a Yaledean, who gave them to the Yale police department, who sought but failed to track Hinckley down. Attempted assassination On March 21, 1981, new president Ronald Reagan, who took office on January 20, 1981, and his wifeNancyvisitedFord's Theatrein Washington, D.C., for a fundraising","for a fundraising event. In his autobiographyAn American Life, Reagan recalled, I looked up at the presidential box above the stage whereAbe Lincolnhad been sittingthe night he was shotand felt a curious sensation ... I thought that even with all the Secret Service protection we now had, it was probably still possible for someone who had enough determination to get close enough to the president to shoot him. Speaking engagement at the Washington Hilton Hotel On March 28, Hinckley arrived in Washington, D.C., by busand checked into the Park Central Hotel.He originally intended to continue on to New Haven in another attempt to infatuate Foster.: 23He noticed Reagan's schedule that was published inThe Washington Starand decided it was time to act.Hinckley knew that he might be killed during the assassination attempt, and he wrote but did not mail a letter to Foster about two hours prior to his attempt on the president's life. In the letter, he said that he hoped to impress her with the magnitude of his action","of his action and that he would \"abandon the idea of getting Reagan in a second if I could only win your heart and live out the rest of my life with you.\": 58 On March 30, Reagan delivered a luncheon address toAFL–CIOrepresentatives at theWashington Hilton.The Secret Service was very familiar with the hotel, having inspected it more than 100 times for presidential visits since the early 1970s.The Hilton was considered the safest venue in Washington because of its secure, enclosed passageway called \"President's Walk\", built after the 1963assassination of John F. Kennedy. Reagan entered the building through the passagewayat about 1:45 p.m., waving to a crowd of news media and citizens. The Secret Service had required him to wear abulletproof vestfor some events, but Reagan was not wearing one for the speech, because his only public exposure would be the 30 feet (9 m) between the hotel andhis limousine,and the agency did not require vests for agents that day. No one saw Hinckley behaving in an unusual way.","in an unusual way. Witnesses who reported him as \"fidgety\" and \"agitated\" apparently confused Hinckley with another person that the Secret Service had been monitoring. Shooting At 2:27 p.m.,: 82Reagan exited the hotel through \"President's Walk\"onFlorida Avenue, where reporters waited.He left the T Street NW exit toward his waiting limousine as Hinckley waited within the crowd of admirers. The Secret Service had extensively screened those attending the president's speech, but greatly erred by allowing an unscreened group to stand within 15 ft (4.5 m) of him, behind arope line.: 80–81, 225The agency uses multiple layers of protection. Local police in the outer layer briefly check people, Secret Service agents in the middle layer check for weapons and more agents form the inner layer immediately around the president. Hinckley had penetrated the first two layers. As several hundred people applauded Reagan, the president unexpectedly passed right in front of Hinckley. Reporters standing behind a rope barricade 20","a rope barricade 20 feet (6 m) away asked questions. As Mike Putzel of theAssociated Pressshouted \"Mr. President—\",Hinckley assumed acrouchposition: 81and rapidly fired aRöhm RG-14.22 LRblue steelrevolversix times in 1.7 seconds,: 82missing the president with all six shots. The first round hitWhite House press secretaryJames Bradyin the head above his left eye, passing through underneath his brain and shattering his brain cavity. The small explosive charge in the round exploded on impact.District of Columbia police officerThomas Delahantyrecognized the sound as a gunshot and turned his head sharply to the left to identify the shooter.: 82As he did so, he was struck in the back of his neck by the second shot, the bullet ricocheting off his spine. Delahanty fell on top of Brady, screaming \"I am hit!\". Hinckley now had a clear shot at the president,: 81but Alfred Antenucci, aCleveland, Ohiolabor official who was standing nearby, saw Hinckley fire the first two shots,hit him in the head and began to wrestle him","to wrestle him to the ground.Upon hearing the shots, Special Agent in ChargeJerry Parralmost instantly grabbed Reagan by the shoulders and dived with him toward the open rear door of the limousine. Agent Ray Shaddick trailed just behind Parr to assist in throwing both men into the car.The third round overshot the president, instead hitting the window of a building across the street. Parr's actions likely saved Reagan from being hit in the head.: 224 As Parr pushed Reagan into the limousine, Secret Service agentTim McCarthysnapped his attention toward the sound of the gunfire, pivoted to his right, and placed himself in the line of fire. McCarthy spread his arms and legs, taking a wide stance directly in front of Reagan and Parr to make himself a target.McCarthy was struck in the lower abdomen by the fourth round, the bullet traversing his right lung,diaphragmand right lobe of theliver.The fifth round hit the bullet-resistant glass of the window on the open rear door of the limousine as Reagan and Parr were","and Parr were passing behind it. The sixth and final bullet ricocheted off the armored side of the limousine, passed between the space of the open rear door and vehicle frame and hit the president in the left underarm. The round grazed a rib and lodged in his lung, causing it to partially collapse before stopping less than an inch (25 mm) from his heart. Within moments of the first shots, Secret Service agent Dennis McCarthy (not a familial relation of agent Tim McCarthy) dove across the sidewalk and landed directly on Hinckley, as others pushed Hinckley to the ground.: 84Another Cleveland-area labor official, Frank J. McNamara, joined Antenucci and started punching Hinckley in the head, striking him so hard that he drew blood.Dennis McCarthy later reported that he had to \"strike two citizens\" to force them to release Hinckley.Secret Service agent Robert Wanko deployed anUzisubmachine gun concealed in a briefcase to cover the president's evacuation, and to deter a potential group attack. The day after the","The day after the shooting, Hinckley's gun was given to theATF, which traced its origin. In just 16 minutes, agents found that the gun had been purchased at Rocky's Pawn Shop inDallas, Texas on October 13, 1980.It had been loaded with six Devastator brandcartridges, which contained small aluminum andlead azideexplosive charges designed to explode on contact, but the bullet that hit Brady was the only one that exploded. On April 2, after learning that the others could explode at any time, volunteer doctors wearing bulletproof vests removed the bullet from Delahanty's neck.: 223 George Washington University Hospital After the Secret Service first announced \"shots fired\" over its radio network at 2:27 p.m., Reagan—codename\"Rawhide\"—was removed from the scene by the agents in the limousine (\"Stagecoach\").: 66No one knew that Reagan had been shot. After Parr searched Reagan's body and found no blood, he stated that \"Rawhide is OK...we're going to Crown\" (theWhite House), as he preferred its medical facilities to","facilities to those of an unsecured hospital. Reagan was in great pain from the bullet that struck his rib, and believed that his rib had cracked when Parr pushed him into the limousine. When the agent checked him for gunshot wounds, Reagan coughed up bright, frothy blood.Although the president believed that he had cut his lip,Parr assessed that the cracked rib had punctured Reagan's lung and ordered the motorcade to divert to nearbyGeorge Washington University Hospital, which the Secret Service periodically inspected for use.The limousine arrived there less than four minutes after leaving the hotel, while other agents took Hinckley to a D.C. jail, and Nancy Reagan (\"Rainbow\") left the White House for the hospital. Although Parr had requested a stretcher,none were ready at the hospital, which did not normally station a stretcher at the emergency department's entrance. Reagan exited the limousine and insisted on walking. He acted casually and smiled at onlookers as he entered the hospital. While he entered","While he entered the hospital unassisted, once inside, Reagan complained of difficulty breathing, his knees buckled and he fell to one knee. Parr and others assisted him into the emergency department.Thephysician to the presidentDaniel Rugehad been near Reagan during the shooting and arrived in a separate car. Believing that the president might have experienced a heart attack, Ruge insisted that the hospital's trauma team operate on Reagan as they would any other patient.: 106–107When a hospital employee asked Reagan aideMichael Deaverfor the patient's name and address, only when Deaver stated \"1600 Pennsylvania\" did the worker realize that the president was in the emergency department.: 107–108 The medical team, led by Joseph Giordano, cut Reagan's \"thousand-dollar\" custom-made suitin order to examine him. Reagan complained about the cost of the ruined suit, which was cited by an assistant in a press briefing to reassure the public that the president was in stable health.Military officers, including the one","including the one who carried thenuclear football, unsuccessfully tried to prevent FBI agents from confiscating the suit, Reagan's wallet and other possessions as evidence. TheGold Codescard was in the wallet, and the FBI did not return it until two days later. The medical personnel found that Reagan'ssystolic blood pressurewas 60 compared to the normal 140, indicating that he was inshock, and knew that most 70-year-olds in the president's condition would not survive.: 108However, Reagan was in excellent physical health, and had been shot by a .22 (5.6 mm)-caliber bullet instead of a larger.38(9.7 mm) as was first feared.They treated him with intravenous fluids, oxygen, tetanus toxoid and chest tubesand surprised Parr—who still believed that he had cracked the president's rib—by finding the entrance of the gunshot wound. Doctors operated on Brady and the wounded agent Tim McCarthy near the president. When Nancy Reagan arrived in the emergency department, Reagan remarked to her, \"Honey, I forgot to duck\",","I forgot to duck\", borrowing boxerJack Dempsey's line to his wife from the night on which he was beaten byGene Tunney.While intubated, he scribbled to a nurse, \"All in all, I'd rather be in Philadelphia\", borrowing a line fromW. C. Fields.Although Reagan came close to death, the team's quick action—and Parr's decision to drive to the hospital instead of the White House—likely saved the president's life. Within 30 minutes, Reagan left the emergency department for surgery, with normal blood pressure.He then underwent emergency exploratory surgery to check for organ damage and remove the bullet.The chief of thoracic surgery, Benjamin L. Aaron, performed athoracotomylasting 105 minutesbecause the bleeding persisted. Ultimately, Reagan lost over half of his blood volume in the emergency department and during surgery,but the bullet was successfully removed. In the operating room, Reagan removed his oxygen mask to joke, \"I hope you are allRepublicans.\" The doctors and nurses laughed, and Giordano, aDemocrat,","aDemocrat, replied, \"Today, Mr. President, we areallRepublicans.\": 147Reagan's post-operative course was complicated by fever, which was treated with antibiotics.Because Reagan had entered the operating room conscious and not in shock, and the surgery was routine, his doctors and others predicted that he could leave the hospital in two weeks, return to work at theOval Officein a month and completely heal in six to eight weeks with no long-term effects. Immediate response National Security AdvisorRichard Allenwould traditionally be responsible forcrisis managementfor theexecutive branch, butSecretary of StateAlexander Haigwanted the role. Six days before the shooting,Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushreceived the assignment instead. Allen and theNational Security Councilwould assist him. Reagan persuaded an upset Haig not to resign.The secretary reportedly \"pound the table in frustration and anger.\"When news of the assassination attempt reached the White House, Haig was there. He urged the vice","He urged the vice president—visitingTexasfor the first time sincethe inauguration—to return, but the voice connection to Bush aboardAir Force Twowas weak, and it is unknown whether they heard each other. By 2:35 p.m., Bush was notified of the shooting. He was leavingFort Worth, Texasand, relying on the initial reports that Reagan was unharmed, he flew toAustinfor a speech.At 3:14 p.m., 47 minutes after the shooting, Haig sent a codedteletypemessage to Bush: MR. VICE PRESIDENT: IN THE INCIDENT YOU WILL HAVE HEARD ABOUT BY NOW, THE PRESIDENT WAS STRUCK IN THE BACK AND IS IN SERIOUS CONDITION. MEDICAL AUTHORITIES ARE DECIDING NOW WHETHER OR NOT TO OPERATE. RECOMMEND YOU RETURN TO DC AT EARLIEST POSSIBLE MOMENT. SECRETARY ALEXANDER HAIG, JR. Air Force Two refueled in Austin before returning to Washington,at what its pilot described as the fastest speed in the plane's history.The aircraft did not havesecure voicecommunications, and Bush's discussions with the White House were intercepted and given to the press.","given to the press. White House counselFred Fieldingimmediately prepared for a transfer of presidential powers under the25th Amendment,andchief of staffJames A. Bakerandcounselor to the PresidentEdwin Meesewent to Reagan's hospitalstill believing that the president was unharmed. Within five minutes of the shooting, members of theCabinetbegan gathering in theWhite House Situation Room.The Cabinet and the Secret Service were initially unsure whether the shooting was part of a larger attack by terrorists, or that of a foreign intelligence service such as theKGB. Tensions with the Soviet Union were high because of theSolidarity movementincommunist Poland. The Cabinet was also concerned that the Soviets would take advantage of the unstable situation to launch a nuclear attack. After the shooting, the American military detected two Sovietballistic missile submarinespatrolling unusually close to theEast Coast of the United States, which could allow their missiles to reach Washington, D.C. two minutes faster than","minutes faster than usual.: 175–177Defense secretaryCaspar Weinbergerresponded by placing theStrategic Air Commandon high alert.Haig, Weinberger and Allen discussed various issues, including the location of the nuclear football, the submarine presence, a possible Soviet invasion against the1981 warning strike in Polandand thepresidential line of succession. Although tape recorders are not normally allowed in the Situation Room, these meetings were recorded with the participants' knowledge by Allen, and the five hours of tapes have since been made public. The group obtained a duplicate nuclear football and Gold Codes card and kept it in the Situation Room. Reagan's football was still with the officer at the hospital, and Bush also had a card and football.: 155The participants discussed whether to raise the military's alert status and the importance of doing so without changing theDEFCONlevel.They eventually determined that the number of Soviet submarines was normal. A pair of Soviet submarines was assuming","was assuming the patrol area from another pair, a relief operation that routinely occurred at the end of a month. However, one of the four submarines was patrolling unusually close to the coast. In consideration of the ongoing tensions over Poland, Weinberger ordered the Strategic Air Command be placed on alert, but he did not reveal the alert status to the public. Upon learning that Reagan was in surgery, Haig declared, the \"helm is right here. And that means right in this chair for now, constitutionally, until the vice president gets here\".However, Haig was incorrect. As the sitting Secretary of State, he was fourth behind Vice President Bush,Speaker of the HouseTip O'Neill, andPresidentpro temporeof the SenateStrom Thurmondin the line of succession. Under3 U.S.C.§ 19, O'Neill and Thurmond would have to resign their positions to become acting president. Although others in the room knew that Haig's statement was constitutionally incorrect, they did not object at the time, to avoid a confrontation.Allen","confrontation.Allen later said that although Haig \"constantly, incessantly drummed on some variant of 'I am in charge, I am senior'\", he and Fielding \"didn't give a rat's ass\" as Bush would be in charge when he arrived. At the same time, a press conference was under way in theWhite House Briefing Room.CBSreporterLesley Stahlasked deputy press secretaryLarry Speakeswho was running the government, to which Speakes responded, \"I cannot answer that question at this time\". Upon hearing Speakes's remark, Haig wrote and passed a note to Speakes, ordering him to leave the dais immediately.: 171–173Moments later, Haig entered the Briefing Room, where he made the following controversial statement: Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the president, the vice president and the secretary of state, in that order, and should the president decide he wants to transfer the helm to the vice president, he will do so. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending the return of the vice president and in close","and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course. Despite his familiarity with the Briefing Room from serving asRichard Nixon's chief of staff, Stahl described Haig as \"visibly shaken\",and the Associated Press wrote that \"his voice continually choked up and quavered with emotion, and his arms trembled\".Those in the Situation Room reportedly laughed when they heard him say \"I am in control here\",and Allen later said \"I was astounded that he would say something so eminently stupid\".Haig later said, I wasn't talking about transition. I was talking about the executive branch, who is running the government. That was the question asked. It was not \"Who is in line should the President die?\" Although Haig stated in the Briefing Room that \"There are absolutely no alert measures that are necessary at this time or contemplated\", while he was speaking, Weinberger raised the military's alert level.After Haig returned to the Situation Room, he objected to Weinberger doing so, as it made","so, as it made him appear a liar,although as deputy commander-in-chief, only Reagan outranked Weinberger in theNational Command Authority.Weinberger and others accused Haig of exceeding his authority with his \"I am in control\" statement,while Haig defended himself by advising the others to \"read the Constitution\",saying that his comments did not involve \"succession\" and that he knew the \"pecking order\". Aboard Air Force Two, Bush watched Haig's press briefing. Meese told him that Reagan was stable after surgery to remove the bullet. The vice president arrived atAndrews Air Force Baseat 6:30 p.m. and decided to not fly by helicopter to the White House. He said to a military aide \"only the president lands on theSouth Lawn\". Bush later said in an interview that landing on the South Lawn would have \"made for great TV\", but would have sent the wrong message to the country, and pointed out that the South Lawn was situated under the president's bedroom window, where the First Lady was waiting for news of Reagan's","news of Reagan's surgery.Marine Twoinstead flew toNumber One Observatory Circle. \"Despite brief flare-ups and distractions\", Allen recalled, \"the crisis management team in the Situation Room worked well together. The congressional leadership was kept informed, and governments around the world were notified and reassured.\"Reagan's surgery ended at 6:20 p.m., although he did not regain consciousness until 7:30 p.m.,so could not invoke Section 3 of the 25th Amendment to make Bushacting president. The vice president arrived at the White House at 7:00 p.m., and did not invoke Section 4 of the 25th Amendment. Bush took charge of the Situation Room meeting, which received an update that the planned Polish national strike was cancelled. They evaluated new satellite images from Eastern Europe that showed no Soviet troop movements near Poland. They further assessed that Hinckley Jr. was likely acting alone after being informed of his October 1980 arrest record inNashville, which suggested that he had been trailing","had been trailing then-President Carter.Bush stated on national television at 8:20 p.m.: I can reassure this nation and a watching world that the American government is functioning fully and effectively. We've had full and complete communications throughout the day. Investigation The FBI took over the investigation on Saturday. Agents obtained a warrant and searched the shooter's hotel room. Before touching anything, the entire room was filmed and photographed. Fingerprints were then sought in case there was an accomplice. According to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \"What we found in Mr Hinckley's room was bizarre. On the desk, so that we could find him, was his entire plan. He had left a map of where he was going. He had the morning paper open with the president's diary. He publicised the fact that Reagan would be speaking to a union group in the ballroom of the Washington Hilton. Strangest of all was a statement - a letter to actress Jodie Foster proclaiming that he was committing a historic act, a presidential","act, a presidential assassination, to impress her.\". The serial number of Hinckley's revolver was provided to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. It quickly determined where Hinckley bought the gun. The police gathered the witnesses in the auditorium where the president had given a speech. Secret Service agents who were witnesses or had other first-hand information were identified. According to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \"Our follow-up investigation, which lasted weeks, traced Mr Hinckley's history over the previous months. We determined that he had travelled the country, gone to firing ranges and, in fact, was obsessed with Ms Foster. He had planned and committed an assassination attempt on the president. He was a mentally disturbed man.\". Public reaction The assassination attempt was captured onelectronic news-gatheringvideotape by several cameras, including those belonging to theBig Three television networks.ABCbegan airing footage at 2:42 p.m. All three networks erroneously reported that Brady had","that Brady had died.WhenABC NewsanchormanFrank Reynolds, a friend of Brady, was later forced to retract the report, he angrily said on-air to his staff, \"C'mon, let's get it nailed down!\",as a result of the miscommunication. ABC News also initially reported that President Reagan had not been injured. A network erroneously reported that he was undergoingopen-heart surgery.: 133, 185 WhileCNNdid not have a camera of its own at the shooting, it was able to useNBC'spool feed,and by staying on the story for 48 hours, the network, less than a year old, built a reputation for thoroughness.Shocked Americans gathered around television sets in homes and shopping centers.Some cited the allegedCurse of Tippecanoe, and others recalled the assassinations of Kennedy andMartin Luther King Jr.Newspapers printed extra editionsand used gigantic headlines;theUnited States Senateadjourned, interrupting debate of Reagan's economic proposals; and churches held prayer services. Hinckley asked the arresting officers whether that","whether that night'sAcademy Awardsceremony would be postponed because of the shooting, and it was. The ceremony—for which former actor Reagan had taped a message—occurred the next evening.The president survived surgery with a good prognosis. TheNCAAchampionship basketball game that evening betweenIndianaandNorth Carolinawas not postponed, although the audience of 18,000 in Philadelphia held amoment of silencebefore the game, which Indiana won.In the immediate aftermath of the shooting, theDow Jones Industrial Averagedeclined before theNew York Stock Exchangeclosed early, but the index rose the next day as Reagan recovered.Beyond having to postpone its Academy Awards broadcast, ABC temporarily renamed the lead character ofThe Greatest American Hero, which had debuted in March, from \"Ralph Hinkley\" to \"Hanley\",and NBC postponed a forthcoming episode ofWalking Talltitled \"Hit Man\". Aftermath Jodie Foster The incident was a traumatic experience for the 18-year-old Foster, who was hounded by the media and","by the media and paparazzi in its aftermath. She took a semester off atYaleand had to be escorted by abodyguardeverywhere she went. This event produced other stalkers for her, including a 22-year-old man named Edward Michael Richardson, who according to the Secret Service shared a similar obsession with Foster, and carried a loaded handgun planning to kill her, but changed his mind after watching her perform in a college play. Hinckley demanded that Foster testify at his trial. Agreement was reached between Foster's and Hinckley lawyers that she would do so in a closed session, with only herself, the judge (Barrington D. Parker), lawyers and Hinckley present. A videotape of this session could be introduced as evidence into Hinckley's trial. This session took place in March 1982. During her testimony, Foster did not look at or acknowledge Hinckley. This caused him to throw a pen at her and shout threats, before he was surrounded and removed from the room bymarshals. Since the attempted assassination, Foster","Foster has only commented on Hinckley on four occasions: a press conference a few days after the attack, an article she wrote forEsquiremagazine in 1982 after his sentencing, during an interview withCharlie Roseon60 Minutes IIin 1999, and while speaking to comedian and actorMarc Maronon his podcastWTF with Marc Maronin 2021.She has ended or canceled several interviews if the event was mentioned, or if she felt that an interviewer was going to bring Hinckley up.To Maron, Foster said that she voluntarily chose not to speak about the incident in interviews to avoid being labelled as an actress primarily remembered for that incident, and reflected on how her mother, a former publicist, helped her in overcoming the media frenzy, and the public's obsession with her involvement. Ronald Reagan Reagan's staff members were anxious for the president to appear to be recovering quickly,and the morning after his operation he saw visitors and signed a piece of legislation.Reagan left the hospital on the morning of April","morning of April 11. Entering the limousine was difficult, and he joked that the first thing he would do at home was \"sit down\". Reagan's recovery speed impressed his doctors, but they advised the president not to work in the Oval Office for a week and avoid travel for several weeks. No visitors were scheduled for his first weekend.Initially, Reagan worked two hours a day in the White House's residential quarters.Reagan did not lead a Cabinet meeting until day 26, did not leave Washington until day 49, and did not hold a press conference until day 79. Ruge, the physician to the president, thought recovery was not complete until October.Reagan's plans for the month after the shooting were canceled, including a visit to theMission Control CenteratLyndon B. Johnson Space CenterinHouston, Texas, in April 1981 duringSTS-1, the first flight of theSpace Shuttle. Vice President Bush instead called the orbiting astronauts during their mission. Reagan visited Mission Control duringSTS-2that November. The events","The events contributed to Reagan's initial popularity. Though he had enjoyed approval ratings of up to 60% until March, his ratings surged to nearly 70% in the following months.Privately, Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to fulfill a greater purposeand, although not a Catholic, meetings withMother Teresa, CardinalTerence Cooke, and fellowshooting survivor Pope John Paul IIreinforced his belief. Reagan returned to the Oval Office on April 25 and received a standing ovation from staff and Cabinet members. He referred to their teamwork in his absence and insisted, \"I should be applauding you.\"He made his first public appearance in an April 28 speech before thejoint houses of Congress. In the speech, he introduced his planned spending cuts, which had been a campaign promise. He received \"two thunderous standing ovations\", whichThe New York Timesdeemed \"a salute to his good health\" as well as his programs, which the president introduced using a medical recovery theme.Reagan","theme.Reagan installed a gym in the White House and began regularly exercising there, gaining so much muscle that he had to buy new suits. The shooting caused Nancy Reagan to fear for her husband's safety, however. She asked him to not run forreelection in 1984, and, because of her concerns, began consulting astrologerJoan Quigley.Reagan never again walked across an airport tarmac or got out of his limousine on a public sidewalk as president. Delahanty, Tim McCarthy, and Brady Thomas Delahanty recovered but developed permanent nerve damage to his left arm, and was ultimately forced to retire from the Metropolitan Police Department due to his disability. Tim McCarthy recovered fully and was the first of the wounded men to be discharged from the hospital. James Brady survived, but his wound left him with slurred speech and partial paralysis that required the full-time use of awheelchair. Brady remained press secretary for the remainder of Reagan's administration, but this was primarily atitularrole. Later,","Later, Brady and his wifeSarahbecame leading advocates ofgun controland other actions to reduce the amount ofgun violence in the United States. They became active in thelobbyingorganization Handgun Control, Inc.—which was eventually renamed theBrady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence—and founded the non-profitBrady Center to Prevent Gun Violence.TheBrady Handgun Violence Prevention Actwas passed in 1993 as a result of their work.Brady died on August 4, 2014, in Alexandria, Virginia, at the age of 73. Following Brady's death in 2014, the District of Columbia Medical Examiner ruled the death a homicide stemming from wounds caused by the Hinckley assassination attempt. This ruling raised the possibility that Hinckley could face additional future murder charges.However, prosecutors declined to do so for two reasons. First, a jury had already declared Hinckley insane at the time of the shooting, and the constitutional prohibition againstdouble jeopardywould preclude overturning this ruling on account of Brady's","account of Brady's death. Second, in 1981 Washington, D.C., still had thecommon law\"year and a day\" rule in place. Although the year and a day rule had been abolished in the district prior to 2014, the constitutional prohibition againstex post factolawwould preclude the upgrading of charges for deaths resulting today from acts committed while the rule was in effect, and would prohibit the government from challenging Hinckley's successful insanity defense based on the current federal law. The shooting of Reagan exacerbated the debate on gun control in the U.S., that began with the December 1980 handgunmurder of John Lennon. Reagan expressed opposition to increased handgun control following Lennon's death and reiterated his opposition after his own shooting. However, in a speech at an event marking the assassination attempt's 10th anniversary,Reagan endorsed the Brady Act: \"Anniversary\" is a word we usually associate with happy events that we like to remember: birthdays, weddings, the first job. March 30,","job. March 30, however, marks an anniversary I would just as soon forget, but cannot... four lives were changed forever, and all by a Saturday-night special – a cheaply made .22 caliber pistol – purchased in a Dallas pawnshop by a young man with a history of mental disturbance. This nightmare might never have happened if legislation that is before Congress now – the Brady bill – had been law back in 1981... If the passage of the Brady bill were to result in a reduction of only 10 or 15 percent of those numbers (and it could be a good deal greater), it would be well worth making it the law of the land. And there would be a lot fewer families facing anniversaries such as the Bradys, Delahantys, McCarthys and Reagans face every March 30. In 1994, Reagan made numerous appeals to support theFederal Assault Weapons Banin the House of Representatives. At least two representatives, RepublicanScott L. Klugand DemocratRichard Swett, credit Reagan's efforts for their decision to vote for the bill, which eventually","which eventually passed by a 216–214 margin. Parr After the assassination attempt, Jerry Parr was hailed as a hero.He received Congressional commendations for his actions, and was named one of four \"Top Cops\" in the U.S. byParademagazine.He later wrote about the assassination attempt in his autobiography, calling it both the best and the worst day of his life.Parr came to believe that God had directed his life so that he could one day save the president's life, and became a pastor after retiring from the Secret Service in 1985.:224He died ofcongestive heart failureat a hospice in Washington, D.C., on October 9, 2015, aged 85. Antenucci and McNamara Antenucci and McNamara both became ill following the assassination attempt. McNamara died on September 18, 1981, six months after the attempted assassination at the age of 62.Antenucci died on May 9, 1984, aged 71. John Hinckley Hinckley was foundnot guilty by reason of insanityon June 21, 1982. The defensepsychiatricreports had found him to beinsanewhile the","beinsanewhile the prosecution reports declared him legally sane.Following his lawyers' advice, he declined to take the stand in his own defense.Hinckley was confined atSt. Elizabeths Hospitalin Washington, D.C., full-time until 2006, at which point he began a program of spending gradually more time at his mother's home. On September 10, 2016, Hinckley was permitted to permanently leave the hospital to live with his mother full-time, under court supervision and with mandatory psychiatric treatment.After his trial, he wrote that the shooting was \"the greatest love offering in the history of the world\", and did not indicate any regrets at the time. The not-guilty verdict led to widespread dismay,and, as a result, theU.S. Congressand a number of states rewrote laws regarding the insanity defense.The oldModel Penal Code testwas replaced by a test that shifts theburden of proofregarding a defendant's sanity from the prosecution to the defendant. Three states have abolished the defense altogether. Portrayals in","Portrayals in literature and popular culture Books On screen The following is the list of the movies dealing with the assassination attempt or portraying a portion of it: On stage See also Notes References External links","Kentucky Derby TheKentucky Derby(/ˈdɜːrbi/) is an AmericanGrade I stakesracerun atChurchill DownsinLouisville, Kentucky. The race is run by three-year-oldThoroughbredsat a distance of1+1⁄4miles (10 furlongs; 2,012 metres).Coltsandgeldingscarry 126 pounds (57 kilograms) andfillies121 pounds (55 kilograms). Held annually on the first Saturday in May, the Derby is the first leg of theTriple Crown. It is preceded by the two-week-longKentucky Derby Festival.The race is known as \"The Run for the Roses\", as the winning horse is draped in a blanket of roses.Lasting approximately two minutes, the Derby has been alternately called \"The Most Exciting Two Minutes in Sports\",\"The Fastest Two Minutes in Sports\",or \"The Greatest Two Minutes in Sports\", coined by Churchill Downs presidentMatt Winn.At least two of these descriptions are thought to be derived from the words of sportswriterGrantland Rice, when in 1935 he said \"Those two minutes and a second or so of derby running carry more emotional thrills, per second, than","per second, than anything sport can show.\" The race was first run in 1875. Unlike the other, older races of the Triple Crown—thePreakness Stakesand theBelmont Stakes—along with theTravers Stakes(the oldest comparable stakes race in the US), the Kentucky Derby and its sibling race, theKentucky Oaks, have been run every year since inception. They were twice rescheduled within the same year, the first time due toWorld War IIin1945, and the second time due to theCOVID-19 pandemicin2020. The Derby and the Oaks are the oldest major sporting events in the US held annually since their beginning.Among thoroughbred stakes races, they are the oldest that have been held annually on the same track every year. The Derby is the most-watched andmost-attendedhorse race in the United States. The2024 Kentucky Derbymarked the 150th running of the race. History In 1872, Col.Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., grandson ofWilliam Clarkof theLewis and Clark expedition, traveled to England, visitingEpsomin Surrey whereThe Derbyhad been","Derbyhad been running annually since 1780.From there, Clark went on toParis, France, where a group of racing enthusiasts had formed theFrench Jockey Clubin 1863. They had organized theGrand Prix de ParisatLongchamp, which at the time was the greatest race in France. Returning home to Kentucky, Clark organized the Louisville Jockey Club to raise money for building quality racing facilities just outside the city. The track would soon become known asChurchill Downs, named for John and Henry Churchill, who provided the land for the racetrack.The naming went official in 1937. The Kentucky Derby was first run at1+1⁄2miles (12furlongs; 2.4 km) the same distance as theEpsom Derby, before changing lengths in 1896 to its current1+1⁄4miles (10 furlongs; 2 km). On May 17, 1875, in front of an estimated crowd of 10,000 people, a field of 15 three-year-old horses contested the first Derby. Under jockeyOliver Lewis, a colt namedAristides, who was trained by futureHall of FamerAnsel Williamson, won the inaugural Derby.","inaugural Derby. Later that year, Lewis rode Aristides to a second-place finish in theBelmont Stakes. Initially a successful venue, the track ran into financial difficulties due to a protracted,gambling-relatedhorseman boycottremoving it from the upper echelons of racing that would last until just after the turn of the 20th century. In 1894 the New Louisville Jockey Club was incorporated with the new capitalization and improved facilities. Despite this, the business floundered until 1902, when a syndicate led byCol. Matt Winnof Louisville acquired the facility. Under Winn, Churchill Downs prospered, and the Kentucky Derby then became the preeminent stakes race for three-year-old thoroughbred horses in North America. Thoroughbred owners began sending their successful Derby horses to compete in two other races. These two are thePreakness Stakesat thePimlico Race Course, inBaltimore, and theBelmont StakesinElmont, New York. The three races offered large purses, and in1919,Sir Bartonbecame the first horse to win","first horse to win all three races. However, the term \"Triple Crown\" did not come into use for another eleven years. In1930, whenGallant Foxbecame the second horse to win all three races, sportswriterCharles Hattonbrought the phrase into American usage. Fueled by the media, public interest in the possibility of a \"superhorse\" that could win the Triple Crown began in the weeks leading up to the Derby. Two years after the term went in use, the race (until that time ran in mid-May since inception) changed the date to the first Saturday in May. This change allows for a specific schedule for the Triple Crown races. Since 1931, the order of Triple Crown races has been the Kentucky Derby first, followed by the Preakness Stakes and then the Belmont Stakes. Before 1931, eleven times the Preakness was run before the Derby. On May 12, 1917, and again on May 13, 1922, the Preakness and the Derby took place on the same day. On eleven occasions the Belmont Stakes was run before the Preakness Stakes, and in 2020, the","and in 2020, the Belmont was run first, then the Kentucky Derby, and the Preakness Stakes last. On May 16, 1925, the first live radio broadcast of the Kentucky Derby aired onWHASas well as onWGNin Chicago.On May 7, 1949, the first television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, produced byWAVE-TV, the NBC affiliate in Louisville. This coverage was aired live in the Louisville market and sent to NBC as a kinescope newsreel recording for national broadcast. On May 3, 1952, the first national television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, aired from then-CBSaffiliateWHAS-TV.In 1954, the purse exceeded US$100,000 for the first time. In 1968,Dancer's Imagebecame the first horse to win the race and then face disqualification. Aurine testrevealed traces ofphenylbutazone(ananti-inflammatorypainkiller drug) inside Dancer's Image.Forward Passwon after a protracted legal battle by the owners of Dancer's Image (which they lost). Forward Pass thus became the eighth winner forCalumet Farm. Unexpectedly, the","Unexpectedly, the regulations at Kentucky thoroughbred race tracks were changed some years later, allowing horses to run onphenylbutazone. In 1970,Diane Crumpbecame the first female jockey to ride in the Derby, finishing 15th aboard Fathom. The fastest time ever run in the Derby was in1973at 1:59.4 minutes, whenSecretariatbroke the record set byNorthern Dancerin1964. Also during that race, Secretariat did something unique in Triple Crown races: for each successive quarter run, his times were faster. Although the races do not record times for non-winners, in 1973 Sham finished second, two and a half lengths behind Secretariat in the same race. Using the thoroughbred racing convention of one length equaling one-fifth of a second to calculateSham's time, he also finished in under two minutes. Another sub-two-minute finish, only the third, was set in2001byMonarchosat 1:59.97, the first year the race used hundredths of seconds instead of fifths in timing. In 2005, thepurse distributionfor the Derby changed, so","Derby changed, so that horses finishing fifth would henceforth receive a share of the purse; previously only the first four finishers did so. The Kentucky Derby began offering $3 million in purse money in 2019. Churchill Downs officials have cited the success ofhistorical race wagering terminalsat their Derby City Gaming facility in Louisville as a factor behind the purse increase. The Derby first offered a $1 million purse in 1996; it was doubled to $2 million in 2005. In 2020, the Derby was postponed from May 2 to September 5 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.This was the second time in history the race had been postponed, the other being in1945.Churchill Downs used a new singular 20-stall starting gate for the2020 Kentucky Derby, replacing the previous arrangement that used a standard 14-stall gate and an auxiliary six-stall gate.The old setup contributed to congestion at the start of the race, especially in the gap between the two gates. Rich Strike, areservewho only made it into the final field after a late","field after a late scratching, won therace in 2022at final odds of 80:1 andparimutuel bettingpayouts were even larger. In January 2024, the purse for the Kentucky Derby was increased to $5 million. Attendance Millions of people from around the world bet at various live tracks and online sportsbooks.In 2017, a crowd of 158,070 watched Always Dreaming win the Derby, making it the seventh biggest attendance in the history of the racetrack. The track reported a wagering total of $209.2 million from all the sources on all the races on the Kentucky Derby Day program. It was a 9 percent increase compared to the total of $192.6 million in 2016 and an increase of 8 percent over the previous record set in 2015 of $194.3 million.TwinSpires, a platform for betting online and a partner of the Kentucky Derby and the Breeders' Cup, recorded $32.8 million in handle on the Churchill Down races for the Kentucky Derby Day program. This record was a 22 percent increase over the preceding year. On the Kentucky Derby race alone,","Derby race alone, the handle of TwinSpires was $20.1 million, which is a 22 percent rise compared to the prior year. The race often draws celebrities. HMQueen Elizabeth II, on a visit to the United States, joined the racegoers at Churchill Downs in 2007. Sponsorship The 2004 Kentucky Derby marked the first time that jockeys—as a result of acourt order—were allowed to wear corporate advertisinglogoson their clothing. Norman Adams has been the designer of the Kentucky Derby Logo since 2002. On February 1, 2006, the Louisville-basedfast-foodcompanyYum! Brands, Inc.announced a corporate sponsorship deal to call the race \"The Kentucky Derby presented by Yum! Brands.\"In 2018,Woodford Reservereplaced Yum! Brands as the presenting sponsor. Traditions In addition to the race itself, several traditions play a significant role in the Derby atmosphere. Themint julep—an iced drink consisting ofbourbon,mint, andsugarsyrup—is the traditional beverage of the race. The historic beverage comes served in an ice-frosted silver","ice-frosted silver julep cup. However, most Churchill Downs patrons sip theirs from souvenir glasses (first offered in 1939 and available in revised form each year since) printed with all previous Derby winners.Also,burgoo, a thick stew of beef, chicken, pork, and vegetables, is a popular Kentucky dish served at the Derby. Theinfield—a spectator area inside the track—offers general admission prices but little chance of seeing much of the race, particularly before thejumbotroninstallation in 2014.Instead, revelers show up in the infield to party with abandon. By contrast, \"Millionaire's Row\" refers to the expensive box seats that attract the rich, the famous and the well-connected. Women appear in elegant outfits lavishly accessorized with large, elaborate hats. Following theCall to the Postplayed on bugle by Steve Buttleman, as the horses start to parade before the grandstands, theUniversity of Louisville Cardinal Marching BandplaysStephen Foster's \"My Old Kentucky Home\". This song is a tradition which began","which began in 1921.The event attracts spectators from a large area, flying in hundreds of private aircraft toLouisville International Airport. The Derby is frequently referred to as \"The Run for the Roses\", because a lush blanket of 554 redrosesis awarded to the Kentucky Derby winner each year.New York sports columnist and future Churchill Downs presidentBill Corumin 1925 began describing the race thusly,but the tradition originated in 1883 when New York City socialiteE. Berry Wallpresented roses to ladies at a post-Derby party. The Churchill Downs founder and president, Col. Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., attended that event. This gesture is believed to have led Clark to the idea of making the rose the race's official flower. However, it was not until 1896 that any recorded account referred to draping roses on the Derby winner.TheGovernor of Kentuckyand the Chairman ofChurchill Downs Incorporatedpresent the garland and theKentucky Derby Trophyto the winner. Pop vocalistDan Fogelbergcomposed the song \"Run for","the song \"Run for the Roses\", released in time for the 1980 running of the race. Riders Up! \"Riders Up!\" is the traditional command from the Paddock Judge for jockeys to mount their horses in advance of the upcoming race. Since 2012, the grand marshal recites this phrase. Grand marshals National Anthem performers Festival In the weeks preceding the race, numerous activities took place for theKentucky Derby Festival.Thunder Over Louisville—an airshow and fireworks display—generally begins the festivities in earnest two weeks before the Derby. Records Horse records Secretariatset the record for speed in 1973 with a time of 1:59.4. During its first two decades when the Derby was run at1+1⁄2miles, the record was 2:34.5, set bySpokanein 1889. The largest margin of victory is 8 lengths, a feat tied by four different horses:Old Rosebudin 1914,Johnstownin 1939,Whirlawayin 1941, andAssaultin 1946. The highest odds of a winning horse were 91 to 1 forDonerailin 1913. The second-highest odds occurred in 2022, whenRich","in 2022, whenRich Strikewent off at 80 to 1 and won the race. Three horses have won the Kentucky Derby without competing as a two-year-old:Apollo(1882),Justify(2018), andMage(2023). Jockey records 107jockeyshave won the Kentucky Derby, with 27 doing so multiple times.Isaac Murphy(1890–91),Jimmy Winkfield(1901–02),Ron Turcotte(1972–73),Eddie Delahoussaye(1982–83),Calvin Borel(2009–10), andVictor Espinoza(2014–15) are the only jockeys to win the Derby in back-to-back years. Borel is the only jockey with three wins in a four-year span (2007, '09, '10). Trainer records 116trainershave won the Kentucky Derby, with 19 doing so multiple times. Six trainers have won the Derby in back-to-back years:Herbert J. Thompson(1932–33),Ben Jones(1948–49),Jimmy Jones(1957–58),Lucien Laurin(1972–73),D. Wayne Lukas(1995–96), andBob Baffert(1997–98). Owner records Seventeen owners have won the Kentucky Derby multiple times with horses they fully or partially owned. * Partnered with other entities in an ownership group for one or","group for one or more winning horses. \"Oaks/Derby Double\" Jockeys, trainers, and owners competing in the Kentucky Derby often will compete in theKentucky Oaks, a race for fillies held the day before the Derby. Winning both these races in the same year is referred to as an \"Oaks/Derby Double;\" 7 jockeys, 3 trainers, and 4 owners have accomplished this feat: *Until the 1950s, the Oaks was held several days or weeks after the Derby. Winners Triple Crownwinners are inboldand highlighted with gold. # Designates afilly. † Designates a horse that wonAmerican Horse of the Yearin the same year they won the Derby. ‡ Designates a horse that was inducted in subsequent years into theNational Racing Hall of Fame. Sire lines Winners of the Kentucky Derby can be connected to each other due to the practice ofarranging horse breedingbased on their previous success. All of the horses can be traced back to the three foundational sires, withGodolphin Arabianthe ancestor of 7 winners,Byerley Turkthe ancestor of 11 winners,","of 11 winners, andDarley Arabianthe ancestor of 132 winners, including all winners since 1938. Darley Arabian line TheDarley Arabian(1700c) sire line (all branched through theEclipse(1764) line)produced 132 Derby winners (124 colts, 5 geldings, 3 fillies), including all winners from 1938 to present.The main branches of this sire line are: Byerley Turk line TheByerley Turk(1680c) sire lineproduced 11 winners (8 colts, 3 geldings). The main branches of this sire (all branched through theHerod(1758) line) are: Godolphin Arabian line TheGodolphin Arabian(1724c) sire lineproduced 7 winners (6 colts, 1 gelding).The main branches of this sire (all branched through theWest Australian(1850) line) are: Kentucky Derby winners with male-line descendants including other Kentucky Derby winners See also References Further reading External links Legend– ₩ =Triple Crownwinners, ♥ = Filly"],"string":"[\n \"Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan On March 30, 1981, then President of the United StatesRonald Reaganwas shot and wounded byJohn Hinckley Jr.inWashington, D.C., as he was returning to his limousine after a speaking engagement at theWashington Hilton. Hinckley believed the attack would impress actressJodie Foster, with whom he had developed anerotomanicobsession after viewing her in the 1976 filmTaxi Driver. Reagan was seriously wounded by arevolverbullet that ricocheted off the side of the presidential limousine and hit him in the left underarm, breaking a rib, puncturing a lung, and causing serious internal bleeding. He was close to death upon arrival atGeorge Washington University Hospitalbut was stabilized in the emergency room; he then underwent emergency exploratory surgery. He recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11. No formal invocation of sections 3 or 4 of the Constitution's25th amendment(concerning the vice president assuming the president's powers and duties) took place,\",\n \"duties) took place, though Secretary of StateAlexander Haigstated that he was \\\"in control here\\\" at the White House until Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushreturned to Washington fromFort Worth, Texas. Haig was fourth in the line of succession after Bush,Speaker of the HouseTip O'Neill, andpresident pro tempore of the SenateStrom Thurmond. White House press secretaryJames Brady,Secret ServiceagentTim McCarthy, and D.C. police officerThomas Delahantywere also wounded. All three survived, but Brady had brain damage and was permanently disabled. His death in 2014 was considered a homicide because it was ultimately caused by his injury. Hinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity on charges of attempting to assassinate the president. He remained confined toSt. Elizabeth's Hospital, a D.C. psychiatric facility. In January 2015, federal prosecutors announced that they would not charge Hinckley with Brady's death, despite the medical examiner's classification of his death as a homicide.Hinckley was released\",\n \"was released from institutional psychiatric care on September 10, 2016. Hinckley's motivation John Hinckley Jr.haderotomaniaand his motivation for the attack was born of his obsession with then-child actressJodie Foster. While living inHollywoodin the late 1970s, he saw the filmTaxi Driverat least 15 times, apparently identifying strongly with protagonistTravis Bickle, portrayed by actorRobert De Niro.The story involves Bickle's attempts to save a child prostitute played by Foster. Toward the end of the film, Bickle attempts to assassinate aUnited States senatorwho is running for president. Over the following years, Hinckley trailed Foster around the country, going so far as to enroll in a writing course atYale Universityin 1980 after reading inPeoplemagazine that she was a student there.He wrote numerous letters and notes to her in late 1980.He called her twice and refused to give up when she indicated that she was not interested in him. Hinckley was convinced that he would be Foster's equal if he became a\",\n \"if he became a national figure. He decided to emulate Bickle and began stalking PresidentJimmy Carter. He was surprised at how easy it was to get close to the president—he was only a foot away at one event—but was arrested in October 1980 atNashville International Airportand fined for illegal possession of a firearm.: 70, 251Carter had made a campaign stop there, but theFBIdid not connect this arrest to the president and did not notify theSecret Service.His parents briefly placed him under the care of a psychiatrist. Hinckley turned his attention toRonald Reagan, whose election, he told his parents, would be good for the country.He wrote three or four more notes to Foster in early March 1981. Foster gave these notes to a Yaledean, who gave them to the Yale police department, who sought but failed to track Hinckley down. Attempted assassination On March 21, 1981, new president Ronald Reagan, who took office on January 20, 1981, and his wifeNancyvisitedFord's Theatrein Washington, D.C., for a fundraising\",\n \"for a fundraising event. In his autobiographyAn American Life, Reagan recalled, I looked up at the presidential box above the stage whereAbe Lincolnhad been sittingthe night he was shotand felt a curious sensation ... I thought that even with all the Secret Service protection we now had, it was probably still possible for someone who had enough determination to get close enough to the president to shoot him. Speaking engagement at the Washington Hilton Hotel On March 28, Hinckley arrived in Washington, D.C., by busand checked into the Park Central Hotel.He originally intended to continue on to New Haven in another attempt to infatuate Foster.: 23He noticed Reagan's schedule that was published inThe Washington Starand decided it was time to act.Hinckley knew that he might be killed during the assassination attempt, and he wrote but did not mail a letter to Foster about two hours prior to his attempt on the president's life. In the letter, he said that he hoped to impress her with the magnitude of his action\",\n \"of his action and that he would \\\"abandon the idea of getting Reagan in a second if I could only win your heart and live out the rest of my life with you.\\\": 58 On March 30, Reagan delivered a luncheon address toAFL–CIOrepresentatives at theWashington Hilton.The Secret Service was very familiar with the hotel, having inspected it more than 100 times for presidential visits since the early 1970s.The Hilton was considered the safest venue in Washington because of its secure, enclosed passageway called \\\"President's Walk\\\", built after the 1963assassination of John F. Kennedy. Reagan entered the building through the passagewayat about 1:45 p.m., waving to a crowd of news media and citizens. The Secret Service had required him to wear abulletproof vestfor some events, but Reagan was not wearing one for the speech, because his only public exposure would be the 30 feet (9 m) between the hotel andhis limousine,and the agency did not require vests for agents that day. No one saw Hinckley behaving in an unusual way.\",\n \"in an unusual way. Witnesses who reported him as \\\"fidgety\\\" and \\\"agitated\\\" apparently confused Hinckley with another person that the Secret Service had been monitoring. Shooting At 2:27 p.m.,: 82Reagan exited the hotel through \\\"President's Walk\\\"onFlorida Avenue, where reporters waited.He left the T Street NW exit toward his waiting limousine as Hinckley waited within the crowd of admirers. The Secret Service had extensively screened those attending the president's speech, but greatly erred by allowing an unscreened group to stand within 15 ft (4.5 m) of him, behind arope line.: 80–81, 225The agency uses multiple layers of protection. Local police in the outer layer briefly check people, Secret Service agents in the middle layer check for weapons and more agents form the inner layer immediately around the president. Hinckley had penetrated the first two layers. As several hundred people applauded Reagan, the president unexpectedly passed right in front of Hinckley. Reporters standing behind a rope barricade 20\",\n \"a rope barricade 20 feet (6 m) away asked questions. As Mike Putzel of theAssociated Pressshouted \\\"Mr. President—\\\",Hinckley assumed acrouchposition: 81and rapidly fired aRöhm RG-14.22 LRblue steelrevolversix times in 1.7 seconds,: 82missing the president with all six shots. The first round hitWhite House press secretaryJames Bradyin the head above his left eye, passing through underneath his brain and shattering his brain cavity. The small explosive charge in the round exploded on impact.District of Columbia police officerThomas Delahantyrecognized the sound as a gunshot and turned his head sharply to the left to identify the shooter.: 82As he did so, he was struck in the back of his neck by the second shot, the bullet ricocheting off his spine. Delahanty fell on top of Brady, screaming \\\"I am hit!\\\". Hinckley now had a clear shot at the president,: 81but Alfred Antenucci, aCleveland, Ohiolabor official who was standing nearby, saw Hinckley fire the first two shots,hit him in the head and began to wrestle him\",\n \"to wrestle him to the ground.Upon hearing the shots, Special Agent in ChargeJerry Parralmost instantly grabbed Reagan by the shoulders and dived with him toward the open rear door of the limousine. Agent Ray Shaddick trailed just behind Parr to assist in throwing both men into the car.The third round overshot the president, instead hitting the window of a building across the street. Parr's actions likely saved Reagan from being hit in the head.: 224 As Parr pushed Reagan into the limousine, Secret Service agentTim McCarthysnapped his attention toward the sound of the gunfire, pivoted to his right, and placed himself in the line of fire. McCarthy spread his arms and legs, taking a wide stance directly in front of Reagan and Parr to make himself a target.McCarthy was struck in the lower abdomen by the fourth round, the bullet traversing his right lung,diaphragmand right lobe of theliver.The fifth round hit the bullet-resistant glass of the window on the open rear door of the limousine as Reagan and Parr were\",\n \"and Parr were passing behind it. The sixth and final bullet ricocheted off the armored side of the limousine, passed between the space of the open rear door and vehicle frame and hit the president in the left underarm. The round grazed a rib and lodged in his lung, causing it to partially collapse before stopping less than an inch (25 mm) from his heart. Within moments of the first shots, Secret Service agent Dennis McCarthy (not a familial relation of agent Tim McCarthy) dove across the sidewalk and landed directly on Hinckley, as others pushed Hinckley to the ground.: 84Another Cleveland-area labor official, Frank J. McNamara, joined Antenucci and started punching Hinckley in the head, striking him so hard that he drew blood.Dennis McCarthy later reported that he had to \\\"strike two citizens\\\" to force them to release Hinckley.Secret Service agent Robert Wanko deployed anUzisubmachine gun concealed in a briefcase to cover the president's evacuation, and to deter a potential group attack. The day after the\",\n \"The day after the shooting, Hinckley's gun was given to theATF, which traced its origin. In just 16 minutes, agents found that the gun had been purchased at Rocky's Pawn Shop inDallas, Texas on October 13, 1980.It had been loaded with six Devastator brandcartridges, which contained small aluminum andlead azideexplosive charges designed to explode on contact, but the bullet that hit Brady was the only one that exploded. On April 2, after learning that the others could explode at any time, volunteer doctors wearing bulletproof vests removed the bullet from Delahanty's neck.: 223 George Washington University Hospital After the Secret Service first announced \\\"shots fired\\\" over its radio network at 2:27 p.m., Reagan—codename\\\"Rawhide\\\"—was removed from the scene by the agents in the limousine (\\\"Stagecoach\\\").: 66No one knew that Reagan had been shot. After Parr searched Reagan's body and found no blood, he stated that \\\"Rawhide is OK...we're going to Crown\\\" (theWhite House), as he preferred its medical facilities to\",\n \"facilities to those of an unsecured hospital. Reagan was in great pain from the bullet that struck his rib, and believed that his rib had cracked when Parr pushed him into the limousine. When the agent checked him for gunshot wounds, Reagan coughed up bright, frothy blood.Although the president believed that he had cut his lip,Parr assessed that the cracked rib had punctured Reagan's lung and ordered the motorcade to divert to nearbyGeorge Washington University Hospital, which the Secret Service periodically inspected for use.The limousine arrived there less than four minutes after leaving the hotel, while other agents took Hinckley to a D.C. jail, and Nancy Reagan (\\\"Rainbow\\\") left the White House for the hospital. Although Parr had requested a stretcher,none were ready at the hospital, which did not normally station a stretcher at the emergency department's entrance. Reagan exited the limousine and insisted on walking. He acted casually and smiled at onlookers as he entered the hospital. While he entered\",\n \"While he entered the hospital unassisted, once inside, Reagan complained of difficulty breathing, his knees buckled and he fell to one knee. Parr and others assisted him into the emergency department.Thephysician to the presidentDaniel Rugehad been near Reagan during the shooting and arrived in a separate car. Believing that the president might have experienced a heart attack, Ruge insisted that the hospital's trauma team operate on Reagan as they would any other patient.: 106–107When a hospital employee asked Reagan aideMichael Deaverfor the patient's name and address, only when Deaver stated \\\"1600 Pennsylvania\\\" did the worker realize that the president was in the emergency department.: 107–108 The medical team, led by Joseph Giordano, cut Reagan's \\\"thousand-dollar\\\" custom-made suitin order to examine him. Reagan complained about the cost of the ruined suit, which was cited by an assistant in a press briefing to reassure the public that the president was in stable health.Military officers, including the one\",\n \"including the one who carried thenuclear football, unsuccessfully tried to prevent FBI agents from confiscating the suit, Reagan's wallet and other possessions as evidence. TheGold Codescard was in the wallet, and the FBI did not return it until two days later. The medical personnel found that Reagan'ssystolic blood pressurewas 60 compared to the normal 140, indicating that he was inshock, and knew that most 70-year-olds in the president's condition would not survive.: 108However, Reagan was in excellent physical health, and had been shot by a .22 (5.6 mm)-caliber bullet instead of a larger.38(9.7 mm) as was first feared.They treated him with intravenous fluids, oxygen, tetanus toxoid and chest tubesand surprised Parr—who still believed that he had cracked the president's rib—by finding the entrance of the gunshot wound. Doctors operated on Brady and the wounded agent Tim McCarthy near the president. When Nancy Reagan arrived in the emergency department, Reagan remarked to her, \\\"Honey, I forgot to duck\\\",\",\n \"I forgot to duck\\\", borrowing boxerJack Dempsey's line to his wife from the night on which he was beaten byGene Tunney.While intubated, he scribbled to a nurse, \\\"All in all, I'd rather be in Philadelphia\\\", borrowing a line fromW. C. Fields.Although Reagan came close to death, the team's quick action—and Parr's decision to drive to the hospital instead of the White House—likely saved the president's life. Within 30 minutes, Reagan left the emergency department for surgery, with normal blood pressure.He then underwent emergency exploratory surgery to check for organ damage and remove the bullet.The chief of thoracic surgery, Benjamin L. Aaron, performed athoracotomylasting 105 minutesbecause the bleeding persisted. Ultimately, Reagan lost over half of his blood volume in the emergency department and during surgery,but the bullet was successfully removed. In the operating room, Reagan removed his oxygen mask to joke, \\\"I hope you are allRepublicans.\\\" The doctors and nurses laughed, and Giordano, aDemocrat,\",\n \"aDemocrat, replied, \\\"Today, Mr. President, we areallRepublicans.\\\": 147Reagan's post-operative course was complicated by fever, which was treated with antibiotics.Because Reagan had entered the operating room conscious and not in shock, and the surgery was routine, his doctors and others predicted that he could leave the hospital in two weeks, return to work at theOval Officein a month and completely heal in six to eight weeks with no long-term effects. Immediate response National Security AdvisorRichard Allenwould traditionally be responsible forcrisis managementfor theexecutive branch, butSecretary of StateAlexander Haigwanted the role. Six days before the shooting,Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushreceived the assignment instead. Allen and theNational Security Councilwould assist him. Reagan persuaded an upset Haig not to resign.The secretary reportedly \\\"pound the table in frustration and anger.\\\"When news of the assassination attempt reached the White House, Haig was there. He urged the vice\",\n \"He urged the vice president—visitingTexasfor the first time sincethe inauguration—to return, but the voice connection to Bush aboardAir Force Twowas weak, and it is unknown whether they heard each other. By 2:35 p.m., Bush was notified of the shooting. He was leavingFort Worth, Texasand, relying on the initial reports that Reagan was unharmed, he flew toAustinfor a speech.At 3:14 p.m., 47 minutes after the shooting, Haig sent a codedteletypemessage to Bush: MR. VICE PRESIDENT: IN THE INCIDENT YOU WILL HAVE HEARD ABOUT BY NOW, THE PRESIDENT WAS STRUCK IN THE BACK AND IS IN SERIOUS CONDITION. MEDICAL AUTHORITIES ARE DECIDING NOW WHETHER OR NOT TO OPERATE. RECOMMEND YOU RETURN TO DC AT EARLIEST POSSIBLE MOMENT. SECRETARY ALEXANDER HAIG, JR. Air Force Two refueled in Austin before returning to Washington,at what its pilot described as the fastest speed in the plane's history.The aircraft did not havesecure voicecommunications, and Bush's discussions with the White House were intercepted and given to the press.\",\n \"given to the press. White House counselFred Fieldingimmediately prepared for a transfer of presidential powers under the25th Amendment,andchief of staffJames A. Bakerandcounselor to the PresidentEdwin Meesewent to Reagan's hospitalstill believing that the president was unharmed. Within five minutes of the shooting, members of theCabinetbegan gathering in theWhite House Situation Room.The Cabinet and the Secret Service were initially unsure whether the shooting was part of a larger attack by terrorists, or that of a foreign intelligence service such as theKGB. Tensions with the Soviet Union were high because of theSolidarity movementincommunist Poland. The Cabinet was also concerned that the Soviets would take advantage of the unstable situation to launch a nuclear attack. After the shooting, the American military detected two Sovietballistic missile submarinespatrolling unusually close to theEast Coast of the United States, which could allow their missiles to reach Washington, D.C. two minutes faster than\",\n \"minutes faster than usual.: 175–177Defense secretaryCaspar Weinbergerresponded by placing theStrategic Air Commandon high alert.Haig, Weinberger and Allen discussed various issues, including the location of the nuclear football, the submarine presence, a possible Soviet invasion against the1981 warning strike in Polandand thepresidential line of succession. Although tape recorders are not normally allowed in the Situation Room, these meetings were recorded with the participants' knowledge by Allen, and the five hours of tapes have since been made public. The group obtained a duplicate nuclear football and Gold Codes card and kept it in the Situation Room. Reagan's football was still with the officer at the hospital, and Bush also had a card and football.: 155The participants discussed whether to raise the military's alert status and the importance of doing so without changing theDEFCONlevel.They eventually determined that the number of Soviet submarines was normal. A pair of Soviet submarines was assuming\",\n \"was assuming the patrol area from another pair, a relief operation that routinely occurred at the end of a month. However, one of the four submarines was patrolling unusually close to the coast. In consideration of the ongoing tensions over Poland, Weinberger ordered the Strategic Air Command be placed on alert, but he did not reveal the alert status to the public. Upon learning that Reagan was in surgery, Haig declared, the \\\"helm is right here. And that means right in this chair for now, constitutionally, until the vice president gets here\\\".However, Haig was incorrect. As the sitting Secretary of State, he was fourth behind Vice President Bush,Speaker of the HouseTip O'Neill, andPresidentpro temporeof the SenateStrom Thurmondin the line of succession. Under3 U.S.C.§ 19, O'Neill and Thurmond would have to resign their positions to become acting president. Although others in the room knew that Haig's statement was constitutionally incorrect, they did not object at the time, to avoid a confrontation.Allen\",\n \"confrontation.Allen later said that although Haig \\\"constantly, incessantly drummed on some variant of 'I am in charge, I am senior'\\\", he and Fielding \\\"didn't give a rat's ass\\\" as Bush would be in charge when he arrived. At the same time, a press conference was under way in theWhite House Briefing Room.CBSreporterLesley Stahlasked deputy press secretaryLarry Speakeswho was running the government, to which Speakes responded, \\\"I cannot answer that question at this time\\\". Upon hearing Speakes's remark, Haig wrote and passed a note to Speakes, ordering him to leave the dais immediately.: 171–173Moments later, Haig entered the Briefing Room, where he made the following controversial statement: Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the president, the vice president and the secretary of state, in that order, and should the president decide he wants to transfer the helm to the vice president, he will do so. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending the return of the vice president and in close\",\n \"and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course. Despite his familiarity with the Briefing Room from serving asRichard Nixon's chief of staff, Stahl described Haig as \\\"visibly shaken\\\",and the Associated Press wrote that \\\"his voice continually choked up and quavered with emotion, and his arms trembled\\\".Those in the Situation Room reportedly laughed when they heard him say \\\"I am in control here\\\",and Allen later said \\\"I was astounded that he would say something so eminently stupid\\\".Haig later said, I wasn't talking about transition. I was talking about the executive branch, who is running the government. That was the question asked. It was not \\\"Who is in line should the President die?\\\" Although Haig stated in the Briefing Room that \\\"There are absolutely no alert measures that are necessary at this time or contemplated\\\", while he was speaking, Weinberger raised the military's alert level.After Haig returned to the Situation Room, he objected to Weinberger doing so, as it made\",\n \"so, as it made him appear a liar,although as deputy commander-in-chief, only Reagan outranked Weinberger in theNational Command Authority.Weinberger and others accused Haig of exceeding his authority with his \\\"I am in control\\\" statement,while Haig defended himself by advising the others to \\\"read the Constitution\\\",saying that his comments did not involve \\\"succession\\\" and that he knew the \\\"pecking order\\\". Aboard Air Force Two, Bush watched Haig's press briefing. Meese told him that Reagan was stable after surgery to remove the bullet. The vice president arrived atAndrews Air Force Baseat 6:30 p.m. and decided to not fly by helicopter to the White House. He said to a military aide \\\"only the president lands on theSouth Lawn\\\". Bush later said in an interview that landing on the South Lawn would have \\\"made for great TV\\\", but would have sent the wrong message to the country, and pointed out that the South Lawn was situated under the president's bedroom window, where the First Lady was waiting for news of Reagan's\",\n \"news of Reagan's surgery.Marine Twoinstead flew toNumber One Observatory Circle. \\\"Despite brief flare-ups and distractions\\\", Allen recalled, \\\"the crisis management team in the Situation Room worked well together. The congressional leadership was kept informed, and governments around the world were notified and reassured.\\\"Reagan's surgery ended at 6:20 p.m., although he did not regain consciousness until 7:30 p.m.,so could not invoke Section 3 of the 25th Amendment to make Bushacting president. The vice president arrived at the White House at 7:00 p.m., and did not invoke Section 4 of the 25th Amendment. Bush took charge of the Situation Room meeting, which received an update that the planned Polish national strike was cancelled. They evaluated new satellite images from Eastern Europe that showed no Soviet troop movements near Poland. They further assessed that Hinckley Jr. was likely acting alone after being informed of his October 1980 arrest record inNashville, which suggested that he had been trailing\",\n \"had been trailing then-President Carter.Bush stated on national television at 8:20 p.m.: I can reassure this nation and a watching world that the American government is functioning fully and effectively. We've had full and complete communications throughout the day. Investigation The FBI took over the investigation on Saturday. Agents obtained a warrant and searched the shooter's hotel room. Before touching anything, the entire room was filmed and photographed. Fingerprints were then sought in case there was an accomplice. According to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \\\"What we found in Mr Hinckley's room was bizarre. On the desk, so that we could find him, was his entire plan. He had left a map of where he was going. He had the morning paper open with the president's diary. He publicised the fact that Reagan would be speaking to a union group in the ballroom of the Washington Hilton. Strangest of all was a statement - a letter to actress Jodie Foster proclaiming that he was committing a historic act, a presidential\",\n \"act, a presidential assassination, to impress her.\\\". The serial number of Hinckley's revolver was provided to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. It quickly determined where Hinckley bought the gun. The police gathered the witnesses in the auditorium where the president had given a speech. Secret Service agents who were witnesses or had other first-hand information were identified. According to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \\\"Our follow-up investigation, which lasted weeks, traced Mr Hinckley's history over the previous months. We determined that he had travelled the country, gone to firing ranges and, in fact, was obsessed with Ms Foster. He had planned and committed an assassination attempt on the president. He was a mentally disturbed man.\\\". Public reaction The assassination attempt was captured onelectronic news-gatheringvideotape by several cameras, including those belonging to theBig Three television networks.ABCbegan airing footage at 2:42 p.m. All three networks erroneously reported that Brady had\",\n \"that Brady had died.WhenABC NewsanchormanFrank Reynolds, a friend of Brady, was later forced to retract the report, he angrily said on-air to his staff, \\\"C'mon, let's get it nailed down!\\\",as a result of the miscommunication. ABC News also initially reported that President Reagan had not been injured. A network erroneously reported that he was undergoingopen-heart surgery.: 133, 185 WhileCNNdid not have a camera of its own at the shooting, it was able to useNBC'spool feed,and by staying on the story for 48 hours, the network, less than a year old, built a reputation for thoroughness.Shocked Americans gathered around television sets in homes and shopping centers.Some cited the allegedCurse of Tippecanoe, and others recalled the assassinations of Kennedy andMartin Luther King Jr.Newspapers printed extra editionsand used gigantic headlines;theUnited States Senateadjourned, interrupting debate of Reagan's economic proposals; and churches held prayer services. Hinckley asked the arresting officers whether that\",\n \"whether that night'sAcademy Awardsceremony would be postponed because of the shooting, and it was. The ceremony—for which former actor Reagan had taped a message—occurred the next evening.The president survived surgery with a good prognosis. TheNCAAchampionship basketball game that evening betweenIndianaandNorth Carolinawas not postponed, although the audience of 18,000 in Philadelphia held amoment of silencebefore the game, which Indiana won.In the immediate aftermath of the shooting, theDow Jones Industrial Averagedeclined before theNew York Stock Exchangeclosed early, but the index rose the next day as Reagan recovered.Beyond having to postpone its Academy Awards broadcast, ABC temporarily renamed the lead character ofThe Greatest American Hero, which had debuted in March, from \\\"Ralph Hinkley\\\" to \\\"Hanley\\\",and NBC postponed a forthcoming episode ofWalking Talltitled \\\"Hit Man\\\". Aftermath Jodie Foster The incident was a traumatic experience for the 18-year-old Foster, who was hounded by the media and\",\n \"by the media and paparazzi in its aftermath. She took a semester off atYaleand had to be escorted by abodyguardeverywhere she went. This event produced other stalkers for her, including a 22-year-old man named Edward Michael Richardson, who according to the Secret Service shared a similar obsession with Foster, and carried a loaded handgun planning to kill her, but changed his mind after watching her perform in a college play. Hinckley demanded that Foster testify at his trial. Agreement was reached between Foster's and Hinckley lawyers that she would do so in a closed session, with only herself, the judge (Barrington D. Parker), lawyers and Hinckley present. A videotape of this session could be introduced as evidence into Hinckley's trial. This session took place in March 1982. During her testimony, Foster did not look at or acknowledge Hinckley. This caused him to throw a pen at her and shout threats, before he was surrounded and removed from the room bymarshals. Since the attempted assassination, Foster\",\n \"Foster has only commented on Hinckley on four occasions: a press conference a few days after the attack, an article she wrote forEsquiremagazine in 1982 after his sentencing, during an interview withCharlie Roseon60 Minutes IIin 1999, and while speaking to comedian and actorMarc Maronon his podcastWTF with Marc Maronin 2021.She has ended or canceled several interviews if the event was mentioned, or if she felt that an interviewer was going to bring Hinckley up.To Maron, Foster said that she voluntarily chose not to speak about the incident in interviews to avoid being labelled as an actress primarily remembered for that incident, and reflected on how her mother, a former publicist, helped her in overcoming the media frenzy, and the public's obsession with her involvement. Ronald Reagan Reagan's staff members were anxious for the president to appear to be recovering quickly,and the morning after his operation he saw visitors and signed a piece of legislation.Reagan left the hospital on the morning of April\",\n \"morning of April 11. Entering the limousine was difficult, and he joked that the first thing he would do at home was \\\"sit down\\\". Reagan's recovery speed impressed his doctors, but they advised the president not to work in the Oval Office for a week and avoid travel for several weeks. No visitors were scheduled for his first weekend.Initially, Reagan worked two hours a day in the White House's residential quarters.Reagan did not lead a Cabinet meeting until day 26, did not leave Washington until day 49, and did not hold a press conference until day 79. Ruge, the physician to the president, thought recovery was not complete until October.Reagan's plans for the month after the shooting were canceled, including a visit to theMission Control CenteratLyndon B. Johnson Space CenterinHouston, Texas, in April 1981 duringSTS-1, the first flight of theSpace Shuttle. Vice President Bush instead called the orbiting astronauts during their mission. Reagan visited Mission Control duringSTS-2that November. The events\",\n \"The events contributed to Reagan's initial popularity. Though he had enjoyed approval ratings of up to 60% until March, his ratings surged to nearly 70% in the following months.Privately, Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to fulfill a greater purposeand, although not a Catholic, meetings withMother Teresa, CardinalTerence Cooke, and fellowshooting survivor Pope John Paul IIreinforced his belief. Reagan returned to the Oval Office on April 25 and received a standing ovation from staff and Cabinet members. He referred to their teamwork in his absence and insisted, \\\"I should be applauding you.\\\"He made his first public appearance in an April 28 speech before thejoint houses of Congress. In the speech, he introduced his planned spending cuts, which had been a campaign promise. He received \\\"two thunderous standing ovations\\\", whichThe New York Timesdeemed \\\"a salute to his good health\\\" as well as his programs, which the president introduced using a medical recovery theme.Reagan\",\n \"theme.Reagan installed a gym in the White House and began regularly exercising there, gaining so much muscle that he had to buy new suits. The shooting caused Nancy Reagan to fear for her husband's safety, however. She asked him to not run forreelection in 1984, and, because of her concerns, began consulting astrologerJoan Quigley.Reagan never again walked across an airport tarmac or got out of his limousine on a public sidewalk as president. Delahanty, Tim McCarthy, and Brady Thomas Delahanty recovered but developed permanent nerve damage to his left arm, and was ultimately forced to retire from the Metropolitan Police Department due to his disability. Tim McCarthy recovered fully and was the first of the wounded men to be discharged from the hospital. James Brady survived, but his wound left him with slurred speech and partial paralysis that required the full-time use of awheelchair. Brady remained press secretary for the remainder of Reagan's administration, but this was primarily atitularrole. Later,\",\n \"Later, Brady and his wifeSarahbecame leading advocates ofgun controland other actions to reduce the amount ofgun violence in the United States. They became active in thelobbyingorganization Handgun Control, Inc.—which was eventually renamed theBrady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence—and founded the non-profitBrady Center to Prevent Gun Violence.TheBrady Handgun Violence Prevention Actwas passed in 1993 as a result of their work.Brady died on August 4, 2014, in Alexandria, Virginia, at the age of 73. Following Brady's death in 2014, the District of Columbia Medical Examiner ruled the death a homicide stemming from wounds caused by the Hinckley assassination attempt. This ruling raised the possibility that Hinckley could face additional future murder charges.However, prosecutors declined to do so for two reasons. First, a jury had already declared Hinckley insane at the time of the shooting, and the constitutional prohibition againstdouble jeopardywould preclude overturning this ruling on account of Brady's\",\n \"account of Brady's death. Second, in 1981 Washington, D.C., still had thecommon law\\\"year and a day\\\" rule in place. Although the year and a day rule had been abolished in the district prior to 2014, the constitutional prohibition againstex post factolawwould preclude the upgrading of charges for deaths resulting today from acts committed while the rule was in effect, and would prohibit the government from challenging Hinckley's successful insanity defense based on the current federal law. The shooting of Reagan exacerbated the debate on gun control in the U.S., that began with the December 1980 handgunmurder of John Lennon. Reagan expressed opposition to increased handgun control following Lennon's death and reiterated his opposition after his own shooting. However, in a speech at an event marking the assassination attempt's 10th anniversary,Reagan endorsed the Brady Act: \\\"Anniversary\\\" is a word we usually associate with happy events that we like to remember: birthdays, weddings, the first job. March 30,\",\n \"job. March 30, however, marks an anniversary I would just as soon forget, but cannot... four lives were changed forever, and all by a Saturday-night special – a cheaply made .22 caliber pistol – purchased in a Dallas pawnshop by a young man with a history of mental disturbance. This nightmare might never have happened if legislation that is before Congress now – the Brady bill – had been law back in 1981... If the passage of the Brady bill were to result in a reduction of only 10 or 15 percent of those numbers (and it could be a good deal greater), it would be well worth making it the law of the land. And there would be a lot fewer families facing anniversaries such as the Bradys, Delahantys, McCarthys and Reagans face every March 30. In 1994, Reagan made numerous appeals to support theFederal Assault Weapons Banin the House of Representatives. At least two representatives, RepublicanScott L. Klugand DemocratRichard Swett, credit Reagan's efforts for their decision to vote for the bill, which eventually\",\n \"which eventually passed by a 216–214 margin. Parr After the assassination attempt, Jerry Parr was hailed as a hero.He received Congressional commendations for his actions, and was named one of four \\\"Top Cops\\\" in the U.S. byParademagazine.He later wrote about the assassination attempt in his autobiography, calling it both the best and the worst day of his life.Parr came to believe that God had directed his life so that he could one day save the president's life, and became a pastor after retiring from the Secret Service in 1985.:224He died ofcongestive heart failureat a hospice in Washington, D.C., on October 9, 2015, aged 85. Antenucci and McNamara Antenucci and McNamara both became ill following the assassination attempt. McNamara died on September 18, 1981, six months after the attempted assassination at the age of 62.Antenucci died on May 9, 1984, aged 71. John Hinckley Hinckley was foundnot guilty by reason of insanityon June 21, 1982. The defensepsychiatricreports had found him to beinsanewhile the\",\n \"beinsanewhile the prosecution reports declared him legally sane.Following his lawyers' advice, he declined to take the stand in his own defense.Hinckley was confined atSt. Elizabeths Hospitalin Washington, D.C., full-time until 2006, at which point he began a program of spending gradually more time at his mother's home. On September 10, 2016, Hinckley was permitted to permanently leave the hospital to live with his mother full-time, under court supervision and with mandatory psychiatric treatment.After his trial, he wrote that the shooting was \\\"the greatest love offering in the history of the world\\\", and did not indicate any regrets at the time. The not-guilty verdict led to widespread dismay,and, as a result, theU.S. Congressand a number of states rewrote laws regarding the insanity defense.The oldModel Penal Code testwas replaced by a test that shifts theburden of proofregarding a defendant's sanity from the prosecution to the defendant. Three states have abolished the defense altogether. Portrayals in\",\n \"Portrayals in literature and popular culture Books On screen The following is the list of the movies dealing with the assassination attempt or portraying a portion of it: On stage See also Notes References External links\",\n \"Kentucky Derby TheKentucky Derby(/ˈdɜːrbi/) is an AmericanGrade I stakesracerun atChurchill DownsinLouisville, Kentucky. The race is run by three-year-oldThoroughbredsat a distance of1+1⁄4miles (10 furlongs; 2,012 metres).Coltsandgeldingscarry 126 pounds (57 kilograms) andfillies121 pounds (55 kilograms). Held annually on the first Saturday in May, the Derby is the first leg of theTriple Crown. It is preceded by the two-week-longKentucky Derby Festival.The race is known as \\\"The Run for the Roses\\\", as the winning horse is draped in a blanket of roses.Lasting approximately two minutes, the Derby has been alternately called \\\"The Most Exciting Two Minutes in Sports\\\",\\\"The Fastest Two Minutes in Sports\\\",or \\\"The Greatest Two Minutes in Sports\\\", coined by Churchill Downs presidentMatt Winn.At least two of these descriptions are thought to be derived from the words of sportswriterGrantland Rice, when in 1935 he said \\\"Those two minutes and a second or so of derby running carry more emotional thrills, per second, than\",\n \"per second, than anything sport can show.\\\" The race was first run in 1875. Unlike the other, older races of the Triple Crown—thePreakness Stakesand theBelmont Stakes—along with theTravers Stakes(the oldest comparable stakes race in the US), the Kentucky Derby and its sibling race, theKentucky Oaks, have been run every year since inception. They were twice rescheduled within the same year, the first time due toWorld War IIin1945, and the second time due to theCOVID-19 pandemicin2020. The Derby and the Oaks are the oldest major sporting events in the US held annually since their beginning.Among thoroughbred stakes races, they are the oldest that have been held annually on the same track every year. The Derby is the most-watched andmost-attendedhorse race in the United States. The2024 Kentucky Derbymarked the 150th running of the race. History In 1872, Col.Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., grandson ofWilliam Clarkof theLewis and Clark expedition, traveled to England, visitingEpsomin Surrey whereThe Derbyhad been\",\n \"Derbyhad been running annually since 1780.From there, Clark went on toParis, France, where a group of racing enthusiasts had formed theFrench Jockey Clubin 1863. They had organized theGrand Prix de ParisatLongchamp, which at the time was the greatest race in France. Returning home to Kentucky, Clark organized the Louisville Jockey Club to raise money for building quality racing facilities just outside the city. The track would soon become known asChurchill Downs, named for John and Henry Churchill, who provided the land for the racetrack.The naming went official in 1937. The Kentucky Derby was first run at1+1⁄2miles (12furlongs; 2.4 km) the same distance as theEpsom Derby, before changing lengths in 1896 to its current1+1⁄4miles (10 furlongs; 2 km). On May 17, 1875, in front of an estimated crowd of 10,000 people, a field of 15 three-year-old horses contested the first Derby. Under jockeyOliver Lewis, a colt namedAristides, who was trained by futureHall of FamerAnsel Williamson, won the inaugural Derby.\",\n \"inaugural Derby. Later that year, Lewis rode Aristides to a second-place finish in theBelmont Stakes. Initially a successful venue, the track ran into financial difficulties due to a protracted,gambling-relatedhorseman boycottremoving it from the upper echelons of racing that would last until just after the turn of the 20th century. In 1894 the New Louisville Jockey Club was incorporated with the new capitalization and improved facilities. Despite this, the business floundered until 1902, when a syndicate led byCol. Matt Winnof Louisville acquired the facility. Under Winn, Churchill Downs prospered, and the Kentucky Derby then became the preeminent stakes race for three-year-old thoroughbred horses in North America. Thoroughbred owners began sending their successful Derby horses to compete in two other races. These two are thePreakness Stakesat thePimlico Race Course, inBaltimore, and theBelmont StakesinElmont, New York. The three races offered large purses, and in1919,Sir Bartonbecame the first horse to win\",\n \"first horse to win all three races. However, the term \\\"Triple Crown\\\" did not come into use for another eleven years. In1930, whenGallant Foxbecame the second horse to win all three races, sportswriterCharles Hattonbrought the phrase into American usage. Fueled by the media, public interest in the possibility of a \\\"superhorse\\\" that could win the Triple Crown began in the weeks leading up to the Derby. Two years after the term went in use, the race (until that time ran in mid-May since inception) changed the date to the first Saturday in May. This change allows for a specific schedule for the Triple Crown races. Since 1931, the order of Triple Crown races has been the Kentucky Derby first, followed by the Preakness Stakes and then the Belmont Stakes. Before 1931, eleven times the Preakness was run before the Derby. On May 12, 1917, and again on May 13, 1922, the Preakness and the Derby took place on the same day. On eleven occasions the Belmont Stakes was run before the Preakness Stakes, and in 2020, the\",\n \"and in 2020, the Belmont was run first, then the Kentucky Derby, and the Preakness Stakes last. On May 16, 1925, the first live radio broadcast of the Kentucky Derby aired onWHASas well as onWGNin Chicago.On May 7, 1949, the first television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, produced byWAVE-TV, the NBC affiliate in Louisville. This coverage was aired live in the Louisville market and sent to NBC as a kinescope newsreel recording for national broadcast. On May 3, 1952, the first national television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, aired from then-CBSaffiliateWHAS-TV.In 1954, the purse exceeded US$100,000 for the first time. In 1968,Dancer's Imagebecame the first horse to win the race and then face disqualification. Aurine testrevealed traces ofphenylbutazone(ananti-inflammatorypainkiller drug) inside Dancer's Image.Forward Passwon after a protracted legal battle by the owners of Dancer's Image (which they lost). Forward Pass thus became the eighth winner forCalumet Farm. Unexpectedly, the\",\n \"Unexpectedly, the regulations at Kentucky thoroughbred race tracks were changed some years later, allowing horses to run onphenylbutazone. In 1970,Diane Crumpbecame the first female jockey to ride in the Derby, finishing 15th aboard Fathom. The fastest time ever run in the Derby was in1973at 1:59.4 minutes, whenSecretariatbroke the record set byNorthern Dancerin1964. Also during that race, Secretariat did something unique in Triple Crown races: for each successive quarter run, his times were faster. Although the races do not record times for non-winners, in 1973 Sham finished second, two and a half lengths behind Secretariat in the same race. Using the thoroughbred racing convention of one length equaling one-fifth of a second to calculateSham's time, he also finished in under two minutes. Another sub-two-minute finish, only the third, was set in2001byMonarchosat 1:59.97, the first year the race used hundredths of seconds instead of fifths in timing. In 2005, thepurse distributionfor the Derby changed, so\",\n \"Derby changed, so that horses finishing fifth would henceforth receive a share of the purse; previously only the first four finishers did so. The Kentucky Derby began offering $3 million in purse money in 2019. Churchill Downs officials have cited the success ofhistorical race wagering terminalsat their Derby City Gaming facility in Louisville as a factor behind the purse increase. The Derby first offered a $1 million purse in 1996; it was doubled to $2 million in 2005. In 2020, the Derby was postponed from May 2 to September 5 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.This was the second time in history the race had been postponed, the other being in1945.Churchill Downs used a new singular 20-stall starting gate for the2020 Kentucky Derby, replacing the previous arrangement that used a standard 14-stall gate and an auxiliary six-stall gate.The old setup contributed to congestion at the start of the race, especially in the gap between the two gates. Rich Strike, areservewho only made it into the final field after a late\",\n \"field after a late scratching, won therace in 2022at final odds of 80:1 andparimutuel bettingpayouts were even larger. In January 2024, the purse for the Kentucky Derby was increased to $5 million. Attendance Millions of people from around the world bet at various live tracks and online sportsbooks.In 2017, a crowd of 158,070 watched Always Dreaming win the Derby, making it the seventh biggest attendance in the history of the racetrack. The track reported a wagering total of $209.2 million from all the sources on all the races on the Kentucky Derby Day program. It was a 9 percent increase compared to the total of $192.6 million in 2016 and an increase of 8 percent over the previous record set in 2015 of $194.3 million.TwinSpires, a platform for betting online and a partner of the Kentucky Derby and the Breeders' Cup, recorded $32.8 million in handle on the Churchill Down races for the Kentucky Derby Day program. This record was a 22 percent increase over the preceding year. On the Kentucky Derby race alone,\",\n \"Derby race alone, the handle of TwinSpires was $20.1 million, which is a 22 percent rise compared to the prior year. The race often draws celebrities. HMQueen Elizabeth II, on a visit to the United States, joined the racegoers at Churchill Downs in 2007. Sponsorship The 2004 Kentucky Derby marked the first time that jockeys—as a result of acourt order—were allowed to wear corporate advertisinglogoson their clothing. Norman Adams has been the designer of the Kentucky Derby Logo since 2002. On February 1, 2006, the Louisville-basedfast-foodcompanyYum! Brands, Inc.announced a corporate sponsorship deal to call the race \\\"The Kentucky Derby presented by Yum! Brands.\\\"In 2018,Woodford Reservereplaced Yum! Brands as the presenting sponsor. Traditions In addition to the race itself, several traditions play a significant role in the Derby atmosphere. Themint julep—an iced drink consisting ofbourbon,mint, andsugarsyrup—is the traditional beverage of the race. The historic beverage comes served in an ice-frosted silver\",\n \"ice-frosted silver julep cup. However, most Churchill Downs patrons sip theirs from souvenir glasses (first offered in 1939 and available in revised form each year since) printed with all previous Derby winners.Also,burgoo, a thick stew of beef, chicken, pork, and vegetables, is a popular Kentucky dish served at the Derby. Theinfield—a spectator area inside the track—offers general admission prices but little chance of seeing much of the race, particularly before thejumbotroninstallation in 2014.Instead, revelers show up in the infield to party with abandon. By contrast, \\\"Millionaire's Row\\\" refers to the expensive box seats that attract the rich, the famous and the well-connected. Women appear in elegant outfits lavishly accessorized with large, elaborate hats. Following theCall to the Postplayed on bugle by Steve Buttleman, as the horses start to parade before the grandstands, theUniversity of Louisville Cardinal Marching BandplaysStephen Foster's \\\"My Old Kentucky Home\\\". This song is a tradition which began\",\n \"which began in 1921.The event attracts spectators from a large area, flying in hundreds of private aircraft toLouisville International Airport. The Derby is frequently referred to as \\\"The Run for the Roses\\\", because a lush blanket of 554 redrosesis awarded to the Kentucky Derby winner each year.New York sports columnist and future Churchill Downs presidentBill Corumin 1925 began describing the race thusly,but the tradition originated in 1883 when New York City socialiteE. Berry Wallpresented roses to ladies at a post-Derby party. The Churchill Downs founder and president, Col. Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., attended that event. This gesture is believed to have led Clark to the idea of making the rose the race's official flower. However, it was not until 1896 that any recorded account referred to draping roses on the Derby winner.TheGovernor of Kentuckyand the Chairman ofChurchill Downs Incorporatedpresent the garland and theKentucky Derby Trophyto the winner. Pop vocalistDan Fogelbergcomposed the song \\\"Run for\",\n \"the song \\\"Run for the Roses\\\", released in time for the 1980 running of the race. Riders Up! \\\"Riders Up!\\\" is the traditional command from the Paddock Judge for jockeys to mount their horses in advance of the upcoming race. Since 2012, the grand marshal recites this phrase. Grand marshals National Anthem performers Festival In the weeks preceding the race, numerous activities took place for theKentucky Derby Festival.Thunder Over Louisville—an airshow and fireworks display—generally begins the festivities in earnest two weeks before the Derby. Records Horse records Secretariatset the record for speed in 1973 with a time of 1:59.4. During its first two decades when the Derby was run at1+1⁄2miles, the record was 2:34.5, set bySpokanein 1889. The largest margin of victory is 8 lengths, a feat tied by four different horses:Old Rosebudin 1914,Johnstownin 1939,Whirlawayin 1941, andAssaultin 1946. The highest odds of a winning horse were 91 to 1 forDonerailin 1913. The second-highest odds occurred in 2022, whenRich\",\n \"in 2022, whenRich Strikewent off at 80 to 1 and won the race. Three horses have won the Kentucky Derby without competing as a two-year-old:Apollo(1882),Justify(2018), andMage(2023). Jockey records 107jockeyshave won the Kentucky Derby, with 27 doing so multiple times.Isaac Murphy(1890–91),Jimmy Winkfield(1901–02),Ron Turcotte(1972–73),Eddie Delahoussaye(1982–83),Calvin Borel(2009–10), andVictor Espinoza(2014–15) are the only jockeys to win the Derby in back-to-back years. Borel is the only jockey with three wins in a four-year span (2007, '09, '10). Trainer records 116trainershave won the Kentucky Derby, with 19 doing so multiple times. Six trainers have won the Derby in back-to-back years:Herbert J. Thompson(1932–33),Ben Jones(1948–49),Jimmy Jones(1957–58),Lucien Laurin(1972–73),D. Wayne Lukas(1995–96), andBob Baffert(1997–98). Owner records Seventeen owners have won the Kentucky Derby multiple times with horses they fully or partially owned. * Partnered with other entities in an ownership group for one or\",\n \"group for one or more winning horses. \\\"Oaks/Derby Double\\\" Jockeys, trainers, and owners competing in the Kentucky Derby often will compete in theKentucky Oaks, a race for fillies held the day before the Derby. Winning both these races in the same year is referred to as an \\\"Oaks/Derby Double;\\\" 7 jockeys, 3 trainers, and 4 owners have accomplished this feat: *Until the 1950s, the Oaks was held several days or weeks after the Derby. Winners Triple Crownwinners are inboldand highlighted with gold. # Designates afilly. † Designates a horse that wonAmerican Horse of the Yearin the same year they won the Derby. ‡ Designates a horse that was inducted in subsequent years into theNational Racing Hall of Fame. Sire lines Winners of the Kentucky Derby can be connected to each other due to the practice ofarranging horse breedingbased on their previous success. All of the horses can be traced back to the three foundational sires, withGodolphin Arabianthe ancestor of 7 winners,Byerley Turkthe ancestor of 11 winners,\",\n \"of 11 winners, andDarley Arabianthe ancestor of 132 winners, including all winners since 1938. Darley Arabian line TheDarley Arabian(1700c) sire line (all branched through theEclipse(1764) line)produced 132 Derby winners (124 colts, 5 geldings, 3 fillies), including all winners from 1938 to present.The main branches of this sire line are: Byerley Turk line TheByerley Turk(1680c) sire lineproduced 11 winners (8 colts, 3 geldings). The main branches of this sire (all branched through theHerod(1758) line) are: Godolphin Arabian line TheGodolphin Arabian(1724c) sire lineproduced 7 winners (6 colts, 1 gelding).The main branches of this sire (all branched through theWest Australian(1850) line) are: Kentucky Derby winners with male-line descendants including other Kentucky Derby winners See also References Further reading External links Legend– ₩ =Triple Crownwinners, ♥ = Filly\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":383,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Who lived longer one of the Bronte sisters or Jane Austen?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Jane Austen"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bront%C3%AB_family"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bront%C3%AB_family', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bront%C3%AB_family","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bront%C3%AB_family\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Brontë family TheBrontës(/ˈbrɒntiz/) were a nineteenth-century literary family, born in the village ofThorntonand later associated with the village ofHaworthin theWest Riding of Yorkshire,England. The sisters,Charlotte(1816–1855),Emily(1818–1848) andAnne(1820–1849), are well-known poets and novelists. Like many contemporary female writers, they published their poems and novels under male pseudonyms: Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Their stories attracted attention for their passion and originality immediately following their publication. Charlotte'sJane Eyrewas the first to know success, while Emily'sWuthering Heights, Anne'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Halland other works were accepted as masterpieces of literature after their deaths. The first Brontë children to be born to rectorPatrick Brontëand his wifeMariawereMaria(1814–1825) andElizabeth(1815–1825), who both died at young ages due to disease. Charlotte, Emily and Anne were then born within a time period of approximately four years. These three sisters and their brother,Branwell(1817–1848), who had been born after Charlotte and before Emily, were very close to each other. As children, they developed their imaginations first through oral storytelling and play, set in an intricate imaginary world, and then through the collaborative writing of increasingly complex stories set in their fictional world. The deaths of their mother and two older sisters marked them and influenced their writing profoundly, as did their isolated upbringing. They were raised in a religious family.The Brontë birthplace inThorntonis a place of pilgrimage and their later home, theparsonageatHaworthin Yorkshire, now theBrontë Parsonage Museum, has hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. Origin of the name The Brontë family can be traced to theIrish clanÓ Pronntaigh, which literally means \"descendant of Pronntach\". They were a family of hereditary scribes and literary men inFermanagh. The versionÓ Proinntigh, which was first given by Patrick Woulfe in hisSloinnte Gaedheal is Gall(transl.Surnames of the Gael and the Foreigner)and reproduced without question byEdward MacLysaght, cannot be accepted as correct, as there were a number of well-known scribes with this name writing inIrishin the 17th and 18th centuries and all of them used the spellingÓ Pronntaigh. The name is derived from the wordpronntachorbronntach,which is related to the wordbronnadh, meaning \"giving\" or \"bestowal\" (pronnis given as anUlsterversion ofbronnin O'Reilly'sIrish English Dictionary.)Patrick Woulfe suggested that it was derived fromproinnteach(therefectoryof amonastery).Ó Pronntaighwas earlieranglicisedasPruntyand sometimesBrunty. At some point,Patrick Brontë(born Brunty), the sisters' father, decided on the alternative spelling with thediaeresisover the terminal⟨e⟩to indicate that the name has two syllables. Multiple theories exist to account for the change, including that he may have wished to hide his humble origins.As aman of letters, he would have been familiar withclassical Greekand may have chosen the name after the Greekβροντή(transl.thunder). One view, which biographerC. K. Shorterproposed in 1896, is that he adapted his name to associate himself withAdmiral Horatio Nelson, who was alsoDuke of Bronte.One might also find evidence for this theory in Patrick Brontë's desire to associate himself with theDuke of Wellingtonin his form of dress. Family tree Members of the Brontë family Patrick Brontë Patrick Brontë(17 March 1777 – 7 June 1861), the Brontë sisters' father, was born inLoughbrickland,County Down, Ireland, of a family of farm workers of moderate means.His birth name was Patrick Prunty or Brunty. His mother, Alice McClory, was of theRoman Catholicfaith, whilst his father Hugh was a Protestant, and Patrick was brought up in his father's faith. He was a bright young man and, after studying under the Rev. Thomas Tighe, won a scholarship toSt John's College, Cambridge. There, he studied divinity, ancient history and modern history.Attending Cambridge may have made him feel that his name was too Irish and he changed its spelling to Brontë (and its pronunciation accordingly), perhaps in honour ofHoratio Nelson, whom Patrick admired.It is more likely, however, that his brother William was 'on the run' from the authorities for his involvement with the radicalUnited Irishmen, leading Patrick to distance himself from the name Brunty. Having obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree, he was ordained on 10 August 1806.He is the author ofCottage Poems(1811),The Rural Minstrel(1814), numerous pamphlets, several newspaper articles and various rural poems. In 1811, Patrick was appointed minister at Hartshead-cum-Clifton. In 1812, he met and married 29 year old Maria Branwell at Guiseley. In 1813, they moved to Clough House Hightown, Liversedge, West Riding of Yorkshireand by 1820 they had moved into the parsonage at Haworth, where he took up the post ofperpetual curate. (Haworth was an ancient chapelry in the large parish ofBradford, so he could not be rector or vicar.) They had six children.On the death of his wife in 1821, his sister-in-law,Elizabeth Branwell, came fromPenzance,Cornwall, to help him bring up the children. Open, intelligent, generous and dedicated to educating his children personally, he bought all the books and toys the children desired. He also accorded them great freedom and unconditional love, although he may have alienated them from the world due to his eccentric personal habits and peculiar theories of education. After several failed attempts to remarry, Patrick accepted permanent widowerhood at the age of 47, and spent his time visiting the sick and the poor, giving sermons and administering communion.In so doing, he would often leave his children Maria, Elizabeth, Emily, Charlotte, Branwell and Anne alone with Elizabeth—Aunt Branwell and a maid, Tabitha Aykroyd (Tabby). Tabby helped relieve their possible boredom and loneliness especially by recounting local legends in her Yorkshire dialect as she tirelessly prepared the family's meals.Eventually, Patrick would survive his entire family. Six years after Charlotte's death, he died in 1861 at the age of 84.His son-in-law, the Rev.Arthur Bell Nicholls, would aid Mr Brontë at the end of his life as well. Maria, née Branwell Patrick's wifeMaria Brontë, née Branwell (15 April 1783 – 15 September 1821), was born inPenzance, Cornwall, and came from a comfortably well-off, middle-class family. Her father had a flourishing tea and grocery store and had accumulated considerable wealth.Maria died at the age of 38 ofuterine cancer.She married the same day as her younger sister Charlotte in the church atGuiseleyafter her fiancé had celebrated the union of two other couples.She was a literate and pious woman, known for her lively spirit, joyfulness and tenderness, and it was she who designed the samplers that are on display in the museumand had them embroidered by her children. She left memories with her husband and with Charlotte, the oldest surviving sibling, of a very vivacious woman. The younger ones, particularly Emily and Anne, admitted to retaining only vague images of their mother, especially of her suffering on her sickbed. Elizabeth Branwell Elizabeth Branwell (2 December 1776 – 29 October 1842) arrived from Penzance in 1821, aged 45, after her younger sister Maria's death, to help Patrick look after the children, to whom she was known as 'Aunt Branwell.' Elizabeth Branwell was a Methodist, though it seems that her denomination did not exert any influence on the children. It was Aunt Branwell who taught the children arithmetic, the alphabet, and how to sew,embroider and cross-stitch, skills appropriate for ladies. Aunt Branwell also gave them books and subscribed toFraser's Magazine, less interesting thanBlackwood's, but, nevertheless, providing plenty of material for discussion.She was a generous person who dedicated her life to her nieces and nephew, neither marrying nor returning to visit her relations in Cornwall. She probably told the children stories of events that had happened in Cornwall, such as raids by pirates in the eighteenth century, who carried off British residents to be enslaved in North Africa and Turkey; enslavement in Turkey is mentioned by Charlotte Brontë inJane Eyre.She died ofbowel obstructionin October 1842, after a brief agony during which she was comforted by her beloved nephew Branwell. In her last will, Aunt Branwell left to her three nieces the considerable sum of £900 (about £95,700 in 2017 currency), which allowed them to resign from their low-paid jobs as governesses and teachers. Children Education Cowan Bridge School In 1824, the four eldest girls (excluding Anne) entered theClergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge,which educated the children of less prosperous members of the clergy, and had been recommended to Mr Brontë. The following year, Maria and Elizabeth fell gravely ill and were removed from the school, later dying on 6 May and 15 June 1825, respectively.Charlotte and Emily were also withdrawn from the school and returned to Haworth. Charlotte expressed the traumatic impact that her sisters' deaths had on her in her future works. InJane Eyre, Cowan Bridge became Lowood, Maria inspired the young Helen Burns, the cruel mistress Miss Andrews inspired the headmistress Miss Scatcherd, and the tyrannical headmaster Rev.Carus Wilson, Mr Brocklehurst. Tuberculosis, which afflicted Maria and Elizabeth in 1825, also caused the eventual deaths of three of the surviving Brontës: Branwell in September 1848, Emily in December 1848, and, finally, Anne in May 1849. Patrick Brontë faced a challenge in arranging for the education of the girls of his family, which was barely middle class. They lacked significant connections and he could not afford the fees for them to attend an established school for young ladies. One solution was the schools where the fees were reduced to a minimum—so called \"charity schools\"—with a mission to assist families like those of the lower clergy. (Barker had read in theLeeds Intelligencerof 6 November 1823 reports of cases in the Court of Commons in Bowes: he later read of other cases, of 24 November 1824 near Richmond, in the county of Yorkshire, where pupils had been discovered gnawed by rats and suffering so badly from malnutrition that some of them had lost their sight.) Yet for Patrick, there was nothing to suggest that the Reverend Carus Wilson's Clergy Daughters' School would not provide a good education and good care for his daughters. The school was not expensive and its patrons (supporters who allowed the school to use their names) were all respected people. Among these was the daughter ofHannah More, a religious author and philanthropist who took a particular interest in education. More was a close friend of the poetWilliam Cowper, who, like her, advocated extensive, proper and well-rounded education for young girls. The pupils included the offspring of different prelates and even certain acquaintances of Patrick Brontë includingWilliam Wilberforce, young women whose fathers had also been educated at St John's College, Cambridge. Thus Brontë believed Wilson's school to have many of the necessary guarantees needed for his daughters to receive proper schooling. John Bradley In 1829–30, Patrick Brontë engagedJohn Bradley, an artist from neighbouringKeighley, as drawing-master for the children. Bradley was an artist of some local repute rather than a professional instructor, but he may well have fostered Branwell's enthusiasm for art and architecture. Miss Wooler's school In 1831, fourteen-year-old Charlotte was enrolled at the school of Miss Wooler in Roe Head,Mirfield. Patrick could have sent his daughter to a less costly school inKeighleynearer home but Miss Wooler and her sisters had a good reputation and he remembered the building, which he passed when strolling around the parishes ofKirklees,Dewsburyand Hartshead-cum-Clifton where he was vicar. Margaret Wooler showed fondness towards the sisters and she accompanied Charlotte to the altar at her marriage.Patrick's choice of school was excellent—Charlotte was happy there and studied well. She made many lifelong friends, in particularEllen Nusseyand Mary Taylor who later went to New Zealand before returning to England.Charlotte returned from Roe Head in June 1832, missing her friends, but happy to rejoin her family. Three years later, Miss Wooler offered her former pupil a position as her assistant. The family decided that Emily would accompany her to pursue studies that would otherwise have been unaffordable. Emily's fees were partly covered by Charlotte's salary. Emily was 17 and it was the first time she had left Haworth since leaving Cowan Bridge. On 29 July 1835, the sisters left for Roe Head. The same day, Branwell wrote a letter to theRoyal Academy of Artin London, to present several of his drawings as part of his candidature as a probationary student. Charlotte taught, and wrote about her students without much sympathy. Emily did not settle: after three months her health seemed to decline and she had to be taken home to the parsonage. Anne took her place and stayed until Christmas 1837. Charlotte avoided boredom by following the developments of the imaginary Empire of Angria—invented by Charlotte and Branwell—that she received in letters from her brother. During holidays at Haworth, she wrote long narratives while being reproached by her father who wanted her to become more involved in parish affairs. These were coming to a head over the imposition of the Church of England rates, a local tax levied on parishes where the majority of the population were dissenters. In the meantime, Miss Wooler moved to Heald's House, atDewsbury Moor, where Charlotte complained about the humidity that made her unwell. Upon leaving the establishment in 1838 Miss Wooler presented her with a parting gift ofThe Vision of Don Roderick and Rokeby, a collection of poems byWalter Scott. Literary evolution The children became interested in writing from an early age, initially as a game. They all displayed a talent for narrative, but for the younger ones it became a pastime to develop them.At the centre of the children's creativity were twelve wooden soldiers which Patrick Brontë gave to Branwell at the beginning of June 1826.These toy soldiers instantly fired their imaginations and they spoke of them asthe Young Men, and gave them names. However, it was not until December 1827 that their ideas took written form,and the imaginary African kingdom of Glass Town came into existence,followed by the Empire of Angria. Emily and Anne createdGondal, an island continent in the North Pacific, ruled by a woman, after the departure of Charlotte in 1831.In the beginning, these stories were written inlittle books, the size of a matchboxabout 1.5 by 2.5 inches (38 mm × 64 mm)and cursorily bound with thread. The pages were filled with close, minute writing, often in capital letters without punctuation and embellished with illustrations, detailed maps, schemes, landscapes and plans of buildings, created by the children according to their specialisations. The idea was that the books were of a size for the soldiers to read. The complexity of the stories matured as the children's imaginations developed, fed by reading the three weekly or monthly magazines to which their father had subscribed,or the newspapers that were bought daily from John Greenwood's local news and stationery store. Literary and artistic influence These fictional worlds were the product of fertile imagination fed by reading, discussion and a passion for literature. Far from suffering from the negative influences that never left them and which were reflected in the works of their later, more mature years, the Brontë children absorbed them eagerly. Press The periodicals that Patrick Brontë read were a mine of information for his children. TheLeeds IntelligencerandBlackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, conservative and well written, but better than theQuarterly Reviewthat defended the same political ideas whilst addressing a less-refined readership (the reason Mr. Brontë did not read it),were exploited in every detail.Blackwood's Magazine, in particular, was not only the source of their knowledge of world affairs, but also provided material for the Brontës' early writing. For instance, an article in the June 1826 number ofBlackwood's, provides commentary on new discoveries from the exploration ofcentral Africa.The map included with the article highlights geographical features the Brontës reference in their tales: the Jibbel Kumera (theMountains of the Moon),Ashantee, and the riversNigerandCalabar. The author also advises the British to expand into Africa from Fernando Po, where, Christine Alexander notes, the Brontë children locate the Great Glass Town.Their knowledge of geography was completed by Goldsmith'sGrammar of General Geography, which the Brontës owned and annotated heavily. Lord Byron From 1833, Charlotte and Branwell's Angrian tales begin to featureByronic heroeswho have a strong sexual magnetism and passionate spirit, and demonstrate arrogance and even black-heartedness. Again, it is in an article inBlackwood's Magazinefrom August 1825 that they discover the poet for the first time; he had died the previous year. From this moment, the name Byron became synonymous with all the prohibitions and audacities as if it had stirred up the very essence of the rise of those forbidden things.Branwell's Charlotte Zamorna, one of the heroes ofVerdopolis, tends towards increasingly ambiguous behaviour,and the same influence and evolution recur with the Brontës, especially in the characters ofHeathcliffinWuthering Heights, andMr. RochesterinJane Eyre, who display the traits of aByronic hero. Numerous other works left their mark on the Brontës—theThousand and One Nights, for example, which inspiredjinnin which they became themselves in the centre of their kingdoms, while adding a touch of exoticism. John Martin The children's imagination was also influenced by three prints of engravings inmezzotintbyJohn Martinaround 1820. Charlotte and Branwell made copies of the printsBelshazzar's Feast,Déluge, andJoshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still upon Gibeon(1816), which hung on the walls of the parsonage. Martin's fantastic architecture is reflected in theGlass Townand Angrian writings, where he appears himself among Branwell's charactersand under the name of Edward de Lisle, the greatest painter and portraitist of Verdopolis,the capital of Glass Town. One of Sir Edward de Lisle's major works,Les Quatre Genii en Conseil, is inspired by Martin's illustration forJohn Milton'sParadise Lost.Together with Byron, John Martin seems to have been one of the artistic influences essential to the Brontës' universe. Anne's morals and realism The influence revealed byAgnes GreyandThe Tenant of Wildfell Hallis much less clear. Anne's works are largely founded on her experience as a governess and on that of her brother's decline. Furthermore, they demonstrate her conviction, a legacy from her father, that books should provide moral education.This sense of moral duty and the need to record it, are more evident inThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall.The influence of the gothic novels ofAnn Radcliffe,Horace Walpole,Gregory \"Monk\" LewisandCharles Maturinis noticeable,and that of Walter Scott too, if only because the heroine, abandoned and left alone, resists importunities not only through her almost supernatural talents, but by her powerful temperament. Jane Eyre,Agnes Grey,The Tenant of Wildfell Hall,Shirley,Villetteand evenThe Professorpresent a linear structure concerning characters who advance through life after several trials and tribulations, to find a kind of happiness in love and virtue, recalling works of religious inspiration of the 17th century such asJohn Bunyan'sThe Pilgrim's Progressor hisGrace abounding to the Chief of Sinners.In a more profane manner, the hero or heroine follows apicaresqueitinerary such as inMiguel de Cervantes(1547–1616),Daniel Defoe(1660–1731),Henry Fielding(1707–1764) andTobias Smollett(1721–1771). This lively tradition continued into the 19th century with therags to richesgenre to which almost all the great Victorian romancers have contributed. The protagonist is thrown by fate into poverty and after many difficulties achieves a golden happiness. Often an artifice is employed to effect the passage from one state to another such as an unexpected inheritance, a miraculous gift, grand reunions, etc,and in a sense it is the route followed by Charlotte's and Anne's protagonists, even if the riches they win are more those of the heart than of the wallet. Apart from its Gothic elements,Wuthering Heightsmoves like a Greek tragedy and possesses its music,the cosmic dimensions of the epics ofJohn Milton, and the power of the Shakespearian theatre.One can hear the echoes ofKing Learas well as the completely different characters ofRomeo and Juliet.The Brontës were also seduced by the writings ofWalter Scott, and in 1834 Charlotte exclaimed, \"For fiction, read Walter Scott and only him—all novels after his are without value.\" Governesses and Charlotte's idea Early teaching opportunities Through their father's influence and their own intellectual curiosity, they were able to benefit from an education that placed them among knowledgeable people, but Mr Brontë's emoluments were modest. The only options open to the girls were either marriage or a choice between the professions of school mistress orgoverness. The Brontë sisters found positions in families wherein they educated often rebellious young children, or found employment as school teachers. The possibility of becoming apaid companionto a rich and solitary woman might have been a fall-back role but one that would have probably bored any of the sisters intolerably.Janet Todd'sMary Wollstonecraft, a revolutionary lifementions the predicament. Only Emily never became a governess. Her sole professional experience would be an experiment in teaching during six months of intolerable exile in Miss Patchett's school atLaw Hill(betweenHaworthandHalifax).In contrast, Charlotte had teaching positions at Miss Margaret Wooler's school and in Brussels with the Hégers. She became governess to the Sidgwicks, the Stonegappes and the Lotherdales where she worked for several months in 1839, then with Mrs White, at Upperhouse House, Rawdon, from March to September 1841.Anne became a governess and worked for Mrs Ingham,at Blake Hall, Mirfield from April to December 1839, then for Mrs Robinson at Thorp Green Hall, Little Ouseburn, near York, where she also obtained employment for her brother in a futile attempt to stabilise him. Working as governesses The family's finances did not flourish, and Aunt Branwell spent the money with caution. Emily had a visceral need of her home and the countryside that surrounded it, and to leave it would cause her to languish and wither.Charlotte and Anne, being more realistic, did not hesitate in finding work and from April 1839 to December 1841 the two sisters had several posts as governesses. Not staying long with each family, their employment would last for some months or a single season. However, Anne did stay with the Robinsons in Thorp Green where things went well, from May 1840 to June 1845. In the meantime, Charlotte had an idea that would place all the advantages on her side. On advice from her father and friends, she thought that she and her sisters had the intellectual capacity to create a school for young girls in the parsonage where theirSunday Schoolclasses took place. It was agreed to offer the future pupils the opportunity of correctly learning modern languages and that preparation for this should be done abroad, which led to a further decision. Among the possibilities, Paris and Lille were considered,but were rejected due to aversion to the French. Indeed, theFrench Revolutionand theNapoleonic warshad not been forgotten by theTory-spirited and deeply conservative girls.On the recommendation of a pastor based in Brussels,who wanted to be of help, Belgium was chosen, where they could also study German and music. Aunt Branwell provided the funds for the Brussels project. School project and study trip to Brussels Charlotte's and Emily's journey to Brussels Emily and Charlotte arrived in Brussels in February 1842 accompanied by their father.Once there, they enrolled atMonsieur and Madame Héger'sboarding school in the Rue d'Isabelle, for six months. Claire Héger was the second wife of Constantin, and it was she who founded and directed the school while Constantin had the responsibility for the higher French classes. According to Miss Wheelwright, a former pupil, he had the intellect of a genius. He was passionate about his auditorium, demanding many lectures, perspectives, and structured analyses.He was also a good-looking man with regular features, bushy hair, very black whiskers, and wore an excited expression while sounding forth on great authors about whom he invited his students to make apasticheon general or philosophical themes. The lessons, especially those of Constantin Héger, were very much appreciated by Charlotte, and the two sisters showed exceptional intelligence, although Emily hardly liked her teacher and was somewhat rebellious.Emily learned German and to play the piano with natural brilliance and very quickly the two sisters were writing literary and philosophical essays in an advanced level of French. After six months of study, Mme Héger suggested they stay at the boarding school free of charge, in return for giving some lessons. After much hesitation, the girls accepted. Neither of them felt particularly attached to their students, and only one, Mademoiselle de Bassompierre, then aged 16, later expressed any affection for her teacher Emily, which appeared to be mutual, and made her a gift of a signed, detailed drawing of a storm ravaged pine tree. Return and recall The death of their aunt in October of the same year forced them to return once more to Haworth. Aunt Branwell had left all her worldly goods in equal shares to her nieces and to Eliza Kingston, a cousin in Penzance,which had the immediate effect of purging all their debts and providing a small reserve of funds. Nevertheless, they were asked to return to the Héger's boarding school in Brussels as they were regarded as being competent and were needed. They were each offered teaching posts in the boarding school, English for Charlotte and music for Emily. However, Charlotte returned alone to Belgium in January 1843.Emily remained critical of Monsieur Héger, in spite of the excellent opinion he held of her. He later stated that she 'had the spirit of a man', and would probably become a great traveller due to her being gifted with a superior faculty of reason that allowed her to deduce ancient knowledge from new spheres of knowledge, and her unbending willpower would have triumphed over all obstacles. Charlotte returns Almost a year to the day, enamoured for some time for Monsieur Héger, Charlotte resigned and returned to Haworth. Her life at the school had not been without suffering, and on one occasion she ventured into the cathedral and entered a confessional. She may have had intention of converting to Catholicism, but it would only have been for a short time.During her absence, life at Haworth had become more difficult. Mr. Brontë had lost his sight although his cataract had been operated on with success in Manchester, and it was there in August 1846,when Charlotte arrived at his bedside that she began to writeJane Eyre. Meanwhile, her brother Branwell fell into a rapid decline punctuated by dramas, drunkenness and delirium.Due partly to Branwell's poor reputation, the school project failed and was abandoned. Charlotte wrote four long, very personal, and sometimes vague letters toMonsieur Hégerthat never received replies. The extent of Charlotte Brontë's feelings for Héger were not fully realised until 1913, when her letters to him were published for the first time. Héger had first shown them toMrs. Gaskellwhen she visited him in 1856 while researching her biographyThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, but she concealed their true significance. These letters, referred to as the \"Héger Letters\", had been ripped up at some stage by Héger, but his wife had retrieved the pieces from the wastepaper bin and meticulously glued or sewn them back together. Paul Héger, Constantin's son, and his sisters gave these letters to theBritish Museum,and they were shortly thereafter printed inThe Timesnewspaper. Brontë sisters' literary career First publication:Poems, by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell The writing that had begun so early never left the family. Charlotte had ambition like her brother, and wrote to thepoet laureateRobert Southeyto submit several poems in his style (though Branwell was kept at a distance from her project). She received a hardly encouraging reply after several months. Southey, still illustrious today although his star has somewhat waned, was one of the great figures of EnglishRomanticism, along withWilliam WordsworthandSamuel Taylor Coleridge, and he shared the prejudice of the times; literature, or more particularly poetry (for women had been publishing fiction and enjoying critical, popular and economic success for over a century by this time), was considered a man's business, and not an appropriate occupation for ladies. However, Charlotte did not allow herself to be discouraged. Furthermore, coincidence came to her aid. One day in autumn 1845 while alone in the dining room she noticed a small notebook lying open in the drawer of Emily's portable writing desk and \"of my sister Emily's handwriting\". She read it and was dazzled by the beauty of the poems that she did not know. The discovery of this treasure was what she recalled five years later, and according to Juliet Barker, she erased the excitement that she had felt\"more than surprise ..., a deep conviction that these were not common effusions, nor at all like the poetry women generally write. I thought them condensed and terse, vigorous and genuine. To my ear, they had a peculiar music—wild, melancholy, and elevating.\" In the following paragraph Charlotte describes her sister's indignant reaction at her having ventured into such an intimate realm with impunity. It took Emily hours to calm down and days to be convinced to publish the poems. Charlotte envisaged a joint publication by the three sisters. Anne was easily won over to the project, and the work was shared, compared and edited.Once the poems had been chosen, nineteen for Charlotte and twenty-one each for Anne and Emily, Charlotte went about searching for a publisher. She took advice from William and Robert Chambers of Edinburgh, directors of one of their favourite magazines,Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. It is thought, although no documents exist to support the claim, that they advised the sisters to contact Aylott & Jones, a small publishing house at 8, Paternoster Row, London, who accepted, but at the authors' own risk since they felt the commercial risk to the company was too great.The work thus appeared in 1846, published using the male pseudonyms of Currer (Charlotte), Ellis (Emily) and Acton (Anne) Bell. These were very uncommon forenames but the initials of each of the sisters were preserved and the patronym could have been inspired by that of the vicar of the parish, Arthur Bell Nicholls. It was in fact on 18 May 1845 that he took up his duties at Haworth, at the moment when the publication project was well advanced. The book attracted hardly any attention. Only three copies were sold, of which one was purchased by Fredrick Enoch, a resident of Cornmarket, Warwick, who in admiration, wrote to the publisher to request an autograph—the only extant single document carrying the three authors' signatures in their pseudonyms,and they continued creating their prose, each one producing a book a year later. Each worked in secret,unceasingly discussing their writing for hours at the dinner table, after which their father would open the door at 9 p.m. with \"Don't stay up late, girls!\", then rewinding the clock and taking the stairs up to his room. Fame 1847 Charlotte'sJane Eyre, Emily'sWuthering Heightsand Anne'sAgnes Greyappeared in 1847 after many tribulations, again for reasons of finding a publisher. The packets containing the manuscripts were often returned to the parsonage and Charlotte simply added a new address; she did this at least a dozen times during the year.The first one was finally published by Smith, Elder & Co in London. The 23-year-old owner, George Smith, had specialised in publishing scientific revues, aided by his perspicacious reader William Smith Williams. Emily and Anne's manuscripts were confided toThomas Cautley Newby, who intended to compile athree-decker; more economical for sale and for loan in the \"circulating libraries\". The two first volumes includedWuthering Heightsand the third oneAgnes Grey. Both novels attracted critical acclaim, occasionally harsh aboutWuthering Heights, praised for the originality of the subject and its narrative style, but viewed with suspicion because of its outrageous violence and immorality—surely, the critics wrote, a work of a man with a depraved mind.Critics were fairly neutral aboutAgnes Grey, but more flattering forJane Eyre, which soon became abest-seller, despite some commentators denouncing it as an affront to good morals. Jane Eyreand rising fame The pseudonymous (Currer Bell) publication in 1847 ofJane Eyre, An Autobiographyestablished a dazzling reputation for Charlotte. In July 1848, Charlotte and Anne (Emily had refused to go along with them) travelled by train to London to prove toSmith, Elder & Co.that each sister was indeed an independent author, for Thomas Cautley Newby, the publisher ofWuthering HeightsandAgnes Grey, had launched a rumour that the three novels were the work of one author, understood to be Ellis Bell (Emily).George Smithwas extremely surprised to find two gawky, ill-dressed country girls paralysed with fear, who, to identify themselves, held out the letters addressed toMessrs. Acton, Currer and Ellis Bell. Taken by such surprise, he introduced them to his mother with all the dignity their talent merited, and invited them to the opera for a performance ofRossini'sBarber of Seville. Wuthering Heights Emily Brontë'sWuthering Heightswas published in 1847 under the masculine pseudonym Ellis Bell, by Thomas Cautley Newby, in two companion volumes to that of Anne's (Acton Bell),Agnes Grey.Controversial from the start of its release, its originality, its subject, narrative style and troubled action raised intrigue. Certain critics condemned it,but sales were nevertheless considerable for an unknown author of a novel that defied all conventions. It is a work of black Romanticism, covering three generations isolated in the cold spring of the countryside with two opposing elements: the dignified manor of Thrushcross Grange and the rambling dilapidated pile of Wuthering Heights. The main characters, swept by tumults of the earth, the skies and the hearts, are strange and often possessed of unheard-of violence and deprivations. The story is told in a scholarly fashion, with two narrators, the traveller and tenant Lockwood, and the housekeeper/governess, Nelly Dean, with two sections in the first person, one direct, one cloaked, which overlap each other with digressions and sub-plots that form, from apparently scattered fragments, a coherently locked unit. 1848, Anne'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall One year before her death in May 1849, Anne published a second novel. Far more ambitious than her previous novel,The Tenant of Wildfell Hallwas a great success and rapidly outsold Emily'sWuthering Heights. However, the critical reception was mixed—praise for the novel's \"power\" and \"effect\" and sharp criticism for being \"coarse\".Charlotte Brontëherself, Anne's sister, wrote to her publisher that it \"hardly seems to me desirable topreserve ... thechoice of subject in that work is a mistake.\"After Anne's death, Charlotte prevented the novel's republication and thus condemned her sister to temporary oblivion. The master theme is the alcoholism of a man who causes the downfall of his family. Helen Graham, the central character, gets married for love to Arthur Huntingdon, whom she soon discovers to be lecherous, violent and alcoholic. She is forced to break with the conventions that would keep her in the family home that has become hell, and to leave with her child to seek secret refuge in the old house of Wildfell Hall. When the alcohol causes her husband's ultimate decline, she returns to care for him in total abnegation until his death. Today,The Tenant of Wildfell Hallis considered by most of the critics to be one of the first sustainedfeministnovels. Identities revealed In 1850, a little over a year after the deaths of Emily and Anne, Charlotte wrote a preface for the re-print of the combined edition ofWuthering HeightsandAgnes Grey, in which she publicly revealed the real identities of all three sisters. Charlotte Brontë Denunciation of boarding schools (Jane Eyre) Conditions at the school at Cowan Bridge, where Maria and Elizabeth may have contracted the tuberculosis from which they died, were probably no worse than those at many other schools of the time. (For example, several decades before the Brontë sisters' experience at Cowan Bridge,Jane Austenand her sister Cassandra contracted typhus at a similar boarding school, and Jane nearly died. The Austen sisters' education, like that of the Brontë sisters, was continued at home.)Nevertheless, Charlotte blamed Cowan Bridge for her sisters' deaths, especially its poor medical care—chiefly, repeated emetics and blood-lettings—and the negligence of the school's doctor, who was the director's brother-in-law. Charlotte's vivid memories of the privations at Cowan Bridge were poured into her depiction of Lowood School inJane Eyre: the scanty and often spoiled food, the lack of heating and adequate clothing, the periodic epidemics of illness such as \"low fever\" (probably typhus), the severity and arbitrariness of the punishments, and even the harshness of particular teachers (a Miss Andrews who taught at Cowan Bridge is thought to have been Charlotte's model for Miss Scatcherd inJane Eyre).Elizabeth Gaskell, a personal friend and the first biographer of Charlotte, confirmed that Cowan Bridge was Charlotte's model for Lowood and insisted that conditions there in Charlotte's day were egregious. More recent biographers have argued that the food, clothing, heating, medical care and discipline at Cowan Bridge were not considered sub-standard for religious schools of the time, testaments of the era's complacency about these intolerable conditions.One scholar has commended Patrick Brontë for his perspicacity in removing all his daughters from the school, a few weeks before the deaths of Maria and Elizabeth. Literary encounters Following the overwhelming success ofJane Eyre, Charlotte was pressured by George Smith, her publisher, to travel to London to meet her public. Despite the extreme timidity that paralysed her among strangers and made her almost incapable of expressing herself,Charlotte consented to be lionised, and in London was introduced to other great writers of the era, includingHarriet MartineauandWilliam Makepeace Thackeray, both of whom befriended her. Charlotte especially admired Thackeray, whose portrait, given to her by Smith, still hangs in the dining room at Haworth parsonage. On one occasion during a public gathering, Thackeray introduced Charlotte to his mother asJane Eyreand when Charlotte called on him the next day, he received an extended dressing-down, in which Smith had to intervene. During her trip to London in 1851 she visited theGreat ExhibitionandThe Crystal Palace.In 1849 she publishedShirleyand in 1853Villette. Marriage and death The Brontë sisters were highly amused by the behaviour of the curates they met.Arthur Bell Nicholls(1818–1906) had been curate of Haworth for seven and a half years, when contrary to all expectations, and to the fury of Patrick Brontë (their father), he proposed to Charlotte. Although impressed by his dignity and deep voice, as well as by his near complete emotional collapse when she rejected him, she found him rigid, conventional and rather narrow-minded \"like all the curates\"—as she wrote to Ellen Nussey.After she declined his proposal, Nicholls, pursued by the anger of Patrick Brontë, left his functions for several months.However, little by little her feelings evolved and after slowly convincing her father, she finally married Nicholls on 29 June 1854. On return from their honeymoon in Ireland where she had been introduced to Mr. Nicholls' aunt and cousins, her life completely changed. She adopted her new duties as a wife, which took up most of her time. She wrote to her friends telling them that Nicholls was a good and attentive husband, but that she nevertheless felt a kind of holy terror at her new situation. In a letter to Ellen Nussey (Nell), in 1854 she wrote \"Indeed-indeed-Nell-it is a solemn and strange and perilous thing for a woman to become a wife.\" The following year she died aged 38. The cause of death given at the time was tuberculosis, but it may have been complicated with typhoid fever (the water at Haworth being likely contaminated due to poor sanitation and the vast cemetery that surrounded the church and the parsonage) andhyperemesis gravidarumfrom her pregnancy that was in its early stage. The first biography of Charlotte was written byElizabeth Cleghorn Gaskellat the request of Patrick Brontë, and published in 1857, helping to create the myth of a family of condemned genius, living in a painful and romantic solitude. After having stayed at Haworth several times and having accommodated Charlotte in Plymouth Grove, Manchester, and having become her friend and confidant, Mrs Gaskell certainly had the advantage of knowing the family. Novels Unfinished fragments These are outlines or unedited roughcasts which with the exception ofEmmahave been recently published. Branwell Brontë Patrick Branwell Brontë(1817–1848) was considered by his father and sisters to be a genius, while the book byDaphne du Maurier(1986),The Infernal World of Branwell Brontë, contains numerous references to his addiction to alcohol andlaudanum. He was an intelligent boy with many talents and interested in many subjects, especially literature. He was often the driving force in the Brontë siblings' construction of the imaginary worlds. He was artistic and was encouraged by his father to pursue this. While trying to make a name as an artist, he left for London, but used up his father's allowance in a matter of days in cafés of ill-repute.His attempts to obtain low-paid work failed,and very quickly he foundered in alcohol and laudanum, unable to regain his stability. Anne Brontë obtained employment for him in January 1843, but nearly three years later he was dismissed.In September 1848, after several years of decline, he died from tuberculosis. On his death, his father tearfully repeated, \"My brilliant boy\", while the clearheaded and totally loyal Emily wrote that his condition had been \"hopeless\". Branwell is the author ofJuvenilia, which he wrote as a child with his sister Charlotte,Glass Town,Angria, poems, pieces of prose and verse under the pseudonym of Northangerland,such as \"Real Rest\", published by theHalifax Guardian(8 November 1846)from several articles accepted by local newspapers and from an unfinished novel probably from around 1845 entitledAnd the Weary are at Rest. Emily Brontë Emily Brontë(1818–1848) has been called the \"Sphinxof Literature\", writing without the slightest desire for fame and only for her own satisfaction. She was obsessively timid outside the family circle, to the point of turning her back on her partners in conversation without saying a word. With a single novel,Wuthering Heights(1847), and poems with an elemental power, she reached the heights of literature. Though she was almost unknown during her life, posterity classes her as \"top level\" in the literary canonof English literature.Simone de Beauvoir, inThe Second Sex(1949), chooses onlyEmily Brontë,Virginia Woolfand (\"sometimes\")Mary Webb,ColetteandMansfield, as among those who have tried to approach nature \"in its inhuman freedom\". Above all, Emily loved to wander about the wild landscape of the moors around Haworth. In September 1848 her health began to decline rapidly.Consumptive, she refused all treatment,with the exception of a visit from a London doctor, because although it was already too late, her relatives insisted.Despite popular belief, Emily did not die on the dining room sofa. There is no contemporary evidence for the story and Charlotte, in her letter to William Smith Williams, mentions Emily's dog Keeper lying at the side of her death bed.It is possible that she left an unfinished manuscript that Charlotte burned to avoid such controversy as followed the publication ofWuthering Heights. Several documents exist that allude to the possibility, although no proof corroborating this suggestion has ever been found. Emily Brontë's poems Emily's poems were probably written to be inserted in the saga ofGondal, several of whose characters she identified with right into adulthood. At the age of 28 she still acted out scenes from the little books with Anne while travelling on the train to York.\"Remembrance\" was one of the 21 of her poems that were chosen for 1846 joint publication with her siblings'. Anne Brontë Anne was not as celebrated as her other two sisters. Her second novel,The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was prevented from being republished after Anne's death by her sister Charlotte, who wrote to her publisher that \"it hardly appears to me desirable to preserve. The choice of subject in that work is a mistake, it was too little consonant with the character, tastes and ideas of the gentle, retiring inexperienced writer.\" This prevention is considered to be the main reason for Anne's being less renowned than her sisters. Anne's health began to decline rapidly, like that of her brother and sister some months earlier. On 5 April 1849, she wrote to Ellen Nussey asking her to accompany her to Scarborough on the east coast. Anne confides her thoughts to Ellen: I have no horror of death: if I thought it inevitable I think I could quietly resign myself to the prospect ... But I wish it would please God to spare me not only for Papa's and Charlotte's sakes, but because I long to do some good in the world before I leave it. I have many schemes in my head for future practise—humble and limited indeed—but still I should not like them all to come to nothing, and myself to have lived to so little purpose. But God's will be done. Anne hoped that the sea air would improve her health, as recommended by the doctor, and Charlotte agreed to go. On the Sunday morning she felt weaker and asked if she could be taken back to Haworth. The doctor confirmed that she was near to death and Anne thanked him for his candour. \"Take courage, take courage\" she murmured to Charlotte. She died at 2 pm on Monday 28 May. She is buried in the cemetery of St Mary's of Scarborough.Her gravestone inscription carried an error in her age: she died at the age of 29 and not at 28. It was noticed by Charlotte during her only visit, and she had the intention of asking the mason to correct it. Ill health did not leave him time to effect the repair and the tombstone remained in the same state until it was replaced by the Brontë Society in April 2013. Northern England at the time of the Brontës In her 1857 biographyThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, Mrs Gaskell begins with two explanatory and descriptive chapters. The first one covers the wild countryside of theWest Riding of Yorkshire, the little village of Haworth, the parsonage and the church surrounded by its vast cemetery perched on the top of a hill. The second chapter presents an overview of the social, sanitary and economic conditions of the region. Social, sanitary and economic conditions in Haworth The death toll within the Brontë family was not unusual for the area, and left little impression on the village population, who were confronted with death on a daily basis. When Patrick Brontë arrived, the parish was suffering from unemployment. The men sought work in the quarries and local handicrafts. The only businesses were the pharmacy, which supplied Branwell, and John Greenwood's stationery store where the Brontës were the best customers. Haworth's population grew rapidly during the first half of the 19th century, from hardly 1,000 to 3,365 in 50 years.The village did not have a sewage system and the well water was contaminated by faecal matter and the decomposition of bodies in the cemetery on the hilltop.Life expectancywas less than 25 years and infant mortality was around 41% for children under six months of age.Most of the population lived by working the poorly fertile land of themoorsand supplemented their incomes with work done at home, such as spinning and weaving wool from the sheep that were farmed on the moors.Conditions changedwhen the textile industry, already present since the end of the 17th century, grew with the mills being located on the banks of theRiver Worth, whose waters turned the wheels. Consequently fewer people were needed to work them. Food was scarce, often little more thanporridge, resulting in vitamin deficiencies. Public hygiene was non-existent and lavatories were basic. The facilities at the parsonage were no more than a plank across a hole in a hut at the rear, with a lower plank for the children. In her thirties, Charlotte was described as having a toothless jaw by such persons as Mrs Gaskell, who stated in a letter dated 25 August 1850 to Catherine Winkworth: \"large mouth and many teeth gone\".However, food was reasonably plentiful in the family. They ate from well filled plates of porridge in the morning and piles of potatoes were peeled each day in the kitchen while Tabby told stories about her country, or Emily revised her German grammar. Sometimes Mr Brontë would return home from his tours of the village with game donated by the parishioners. Role of the women According toRobert Southey, poet laureate, in his response to Charlotte, ladies from a good background should be content with an education and a marriage embellished with some decorative talents.Mr Patrick Brontë had one of the characters in hisThe Maid of Kilarney—without knowing whether it reflected a widespread opinion supporting or condemning it—say, \"The education of female ought, most assuredly, to be competent, in order that she might enjoy herself, and be a fit companion for man. But, believe me, lovely, delicate and sprightly woman, is not formed by nature, to pore over the musty pages of Grecian and Roman literature, or to plod through the windings of Mathematical Problems, nor has Providence assigned for her sphere of action, either the cabinet or the field. Herforteis softness, tenderness and grace.\" In any case, it seemed to contradict his attitude towards his daughters whom he encouraged, even if he was not completely aware of what they did with their time. Sisters' place in literature Due to their forced or voluntary isolation, the Brontë sisters constituted a separate literary group that neither had predecessors nor successors. There is not a 'Brontë' line such as exists among authors of realist and naturalist novels, or in poetry, the romantic and the symbolic. Their influence certainly existed, but it is difficult to define in its totality. Writers who followed them doubtlessly thought about them while they were creating their dark and tormented worlds such asThomas HardyinJude the ObscureorTess of the d'Urbervilles, orGeorge EliotwithAdam BedeandThe Mill on the Floss.There were also more conventional authors such asMatthew Arnold, who in a letter from 1853 says of Charlotte that she only pretends to heartlessness: \"nothing but hunger, rebellion and rage\".In contrast,Mrs Humphry Ward, author ofRobert Elsmereand other morality novels, only finds the didactic among the works of Charlotte, while she appreciates the happy blend of romance and realism in the works of Emily.There is however nothing that could constitute a literary vein. Pilgrimages to Haworth from 1860 By 1860 Charlotte had been dead for five years, and the only people living at the parsonage were Mr. Brontë, his son-in-law,Arthur Bell Nicholls, and two servants. In 1857 Mrs. Gaskell's biography of Charlotte was published, and though at its first reading, Mr. Brontë approved of its commissioning, several months later he expressed doubts. The portrait of Nicholls, founded partly on the confidence of Ellen Nussey, seemed to him to be unjustified. Ellen Nussey, who hated Arthur, insists that his marital claims had perverted Charlotte's writing and she had to struggle against an interruption of her career. It is true that Arthur found Nussey to be too close to his wife, and he insisted that she should destroy her letters—although this never actually happened. Mrs. Gaskell's book caused a sensation and was distributed nationwide. The polemic launched by Charlotte's father resulted in a squabble that only served to increase the family's fame. During Charlotte's lifetime friends and sponsors visited the parsonage, includingSir Jamesand Lady Kay Shuttleworth,Ellen Nussey,Elizabeth Gaskell,John Store Smith, a young writer from Manchester,Bessie Parkes, who recounted her visit to Mrs. Gaskell, andAbraham Holroyd, poet, antiquarian and historian.However, following the publication of the book and the pastor's public remonstrations, the parsonage became a place of pilgrimage for admirers wanting to see it with their own eyes. Charlotte's husband recalled that he had to protect his father-in-law, when on the short path to the church they had to push their way through the crowds of people wanting to reach out and touch the cape of the father of the Brontë girls.The hundreds of visitors became thousands, coming from all over Britain and even from across the Atlantic. Whenever he agreed to meet them, Patrick received them with utmost courtesy and recounted the story of his brilliant daughters, never omitting to express his displeasure at the opinions held about Charlotte's husband. The flow of visitors has never abated. Indeed, the parsonage at Haworth received an estimated 88,000 visitors in 2017. Brontë Society TheBrontë Parsonage Museumis managed and maintained by theBrontë Society,which organises exhibitions and takes care of the cultural heritage represented by objects and documents that belonged to the family. The society has branches in Australia, Canada, France, Ireland, theScandinaviancountries, South Africa and the USA. Haworth In 1904,Virginia Woolfvisited Haworth and published an account inThe Guardianon 21 December. She remarked on the symbiosis between the village and the Brontë sisters, and on the fact that utensils and clothes that would normally have disappeared before those who used them, have survived, enables one to better understand their singular presence. She wrote: \"Haworth expresses the Brontës; the Brontës express Haworth; they fit like a snail to its shell\". Brontë Birthplace The sisters' birthplace in Thornton has been acquired by acommunity benefit societyto preserve it, and as of 2024there are plans to restore the house for use as a \"social and educational space\". Brontë Stones In a 2018 project curated and delivered byUniversity of Huddersfieldacademic and writer Michael Stewart and theBradford Literature Festival, four specially-commissioned poems are inscribed on four stones set in the area between the sisters' birthplace and the Haworth parsonage.The Anne Stone has a poem byJackie Kayand stands in a wildflower meadow behind the Haworth Parsonage; the Charlotte Stone, with a poem byCarol Ann Duffy, is set in the wall of theBrontë Birthplacein Thornton; Emily is remembered in a poem byKate Bush, known for her 1978 song \"Wuthering Heights\", which is carved into a rock outcrop of Ogden Kirk on wild moorland aboveOgden Water; and a fourth stone, the Brontë Stone, commemorates all three sisters with a poem byJeanette Wintersonand stands in Thornton Cemetery.There are various published walks around the stones, including the 15 mi (24 km) Emily Brontë Walk which is recognised by theLong Distance Walkers Association.The Brontë Stones Project was found to have \"increased local engagement with the landscape, regenerated and preserved ancient public rights of ways, and provided an important stimulus to cultural tourism, contributing to the quality of the tourist experience\". Commemoration in Westminster Abbey A plaque to the three Brontë sisters was erected inPoets' CornerinWestminster Abbeyon 8 October 1939, although it was not marked with any ceremony, due to the outbreak of the Second World War. A formal unveiling took place in 1947 but it took until 2024 for the lack ofdiaeresisover the final e in their names to be noticed and corrected. Descendants The line of Patrick Brontë died out with his children, but Patrick's brother had notable descendants, includingJames Brontë Gatenby, whose most important work was studyingGolgi bodiesin various animals, including humans, andPeter Gatenby, formerly the medical director of the UN. In popular culture Books, comics and graphic novels Cinema Dance Music Objects in outer space Opera Sport Stage productions Television References Informational notes Citations Bibliography External links","Jane Austen Jane Austen(/ˈɒstɪn,ˈɔːstɪn/OST-in,AW-stin; 16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an English novelist known primarily for her six novels, which implicitly interpret, critique, and comment upon the Britishlanded gentryat the end of the 18th century. Austen's plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage for the pursuit of favourable social standing and economic security. Her works are implicit critiques of thenovels of sensibilityof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-centuryliterary realism.Her use of social commentary, realism, and irony have earned her acclaim amongst critics and scholars. The anonymously publishedSense and Sensibility(1811),Pride and Prejudice(1813),Mansfield Park(1814), andEmma(1816) were modest successes, but they brought her little fame in her lifetime. She wrote two other novels—Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion, both published posthumously in 1817—and began another, eventually titledSanditon, but it was left unfinished upon her death. She also left behind three volumes of juvenile writings in manuscript, the shortepistolary novelLady Susan, and the unfinished novelThe Watsons. Since her death Austen's novels have rarely been out of print. A significant transition in her reputation occurred in 1833, when they were republished inRichard Bentley's Standard Novels series (illustrated by Ferdinand Pickering and sold as a set). They gradually gained wide acclaim and popular readership. In 1869, fifty-two years after her death, her nephew's publication ofA Memoir of Jane Austenintroduced a compelling version of her writing career and her supposedly uneventful life to an eager audience. Her work has inspired a large number of critical essays and has been included in many literary anthologies. Her novels have also inspired many films, including 1940'sPride and Prejudice, 1995'sSense and Sensibility, and 2016'sLove & Friendship. Biographical sources The scant biographical information about Austen comes from her few surviving letters and sketches her family members wrote about her.Only about 160 of the approximately 3,000 letters Austen wrote have survived and been published.Cassandra Austendestroyed the bulk of the letters she received from her sister, burning or otherwise destroying them. She wanted to ensure that the \"younger nieces did not read any of Jane's sometimes acid or forthright comments on neighbours or family members\".In the interest of protecting reputations from Jane's penchant for honesty and forthrightness, Cassandra omitted details of illnesses, unhappiness and anything she considered unsavoury.Important details about the Austen family were elided by intention, such as any mention of Austen's brother George, whose undiagnosed developmental challenges led the family to send him away from home; the two brothers sent away to the navy at an early age; or wealthy Aunt Leigh-Perrot, arrested and tried on charges of larceny. The first Austen biography wasHenry Thomas Austen's 1818 \"Biographical Notice\". It appeared in a posthumous edition ofNorthanger Abbeyand included extracts from two letters, against the judgement of other family members. Details of Austen's life continued to be omitted or embellished in her nephew'sA Memoir of Jane Austen, published in 1869, and in William and Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh's biographyJane Austen: Her Life and Letters, published in 1913, all of which included additional letters.Austen's family and relatives built a legend of \"good quiet Aunt Jane\", portraying her as a woman in a happy domestic situation, whose family was the mainstay of her life. Modern biographers include details excised from the letters and family biographies, but the biographer Jan Fergus writes that the challenge is to keep the view balanced, not to present her languishing in periods of deep unhappiness as \"an embittered, disappointed woman trapped in a thoroughly unpleasant family\". Life Family Jane Austen was born inSteventon, Hampshireon 16 December 1775. Her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother \"certainly expected to have been brought to bed a month ago\". He added that the newborn infant was \"a present plaything for Cassy and a future companion\".The winter of 1775-1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the local church and christened Jane. Her father,George Austen(1731–1805), served as therectorof the Anglican parishes of Steventon andDeane.The Reverend Austen came from an old and wealthy family of wool merchants. As each generation ofeldest sonsreceived inheritances, George's branch of the family fell into poverty. He and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. In 1745, at the age of fifteen, George Austen's sisterPhiladelphiawas apprenticed to amillinerinCovent Garden.At the age of sixteen, George enteredSt John's College, Oxford,where he most likely met Cassandra Leigh (1739–1827).She came from the prominentLeigh family. Her father was rector atAll Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry. Her eldest brother James inherited a fortune and large estate from his great-aunt Perrot, with the only condition that hechange his nameto Leigh-Perrot. George Austen and Cassandra Leigh were engaged, probably around 1763, when they exchangedminiatures.He received thelivingof the Steventon parish from Thomas Knight, the wealthy husband of his second cousin.They married on 26 April 1764 atSt Swithin's ChurchinBath, bylicense, in a simple ceremony, two months after Cassandra's father died.Their income was modest, with George's smallper annumliving; Cassandra brought to the marriage the expectation of a small inheritance at the time of her mother's death. After the living at the nearby Deane rectory had been purchased for George by his wealthy uncle Francis Austen,the Austens took up temporary residence there, until Steventon rectory, a 16th-century house in disrepair, underwent necessary renovations. Cassandra gave birth to three children while living at Deane:Jamesin 1765, George in 1766, andEdwardin 1767.Her custom was to keep an infant at home for several months and then place it with Elizabeth Littlewood, a woman living nearby tonurseand raise for twelve to eighteen months. Steventon In 1768, the family finally took up residence in Steventon.Henrywas the first child to be born there, in 1771.At about this time, Cassandra could no longer ignore the signs that little George wasdevelopmentally disabled. He had seizures and may have been deaf and mute. At this time she chose to send him to be fostered.In 1773,Cassandrawas born, followed byFrancisin 1774, and Jane in 1775. According to the biographerPark Honanthe Austen home had an \"open, amused, easy intellectual atmosphere\", in which the ideas of those with whom members of the Austen family might disagree politically or socially were considered and discussed. The family relied on the patronage of their kin and hosted visits from numerous family members.Mrs Austen spent the summer of 1770 in London with George's sister, Philadelphia, and her daughterEliza, accompanied by his other sister, Mrs. Walter and her daughter Philly.Philadelphia and Eliza Hancock were, according to Le Faye, \"the bright comets flashing into an otherwise placid solar system of clerical life in ruralHampshire, and the news of their foreign travels and fashionable London life, together with their sudden descents upon the Steventon household in between times, all helped to widen Jane's youthful horizon and influence her later life and works.\" Cassandra Austen's cousin Thomas Leigh visited a number of times in the 1770s and 1780s, inviting young Cassie to visit them inBathin 1781. The first mention of Jane occurs in family documents upon her return, \"... and almost home they were when they met Jane & Charles, the two little ones of the family, who had to go as far as New Down to meet thechaise, & have the pleasure of riding home in it.\"Le Faye writes that \"Mr Austen's predictions for his younger daughter were fully justified. Never were sisters more to each other than Cassandra and Jane; while in a particularly affectionate family, there seems to have been a special link between Cassandra and Edward on the one hand, and between Henry and Jane on the other.\" From 1773 until 1796, George Austen supplemented his income by farming and by teaching three or four boys at a time, who boarded at his home.The Reverend Austen had an annual income of £200 (equivalent to £32,000 in 2023) from his two livings.This was a very modest income at the time; by comparison, a skilled worker like a blacksmith or a carpenter could make about £100 annually while the typical annual income of a gentry family was between £1,000 and £5,000.Mr. Austen also rented the 200-acre Cheesedown farm from his benefactor Thomas Knight which could make a profit of £300 (equivalent to £48,000 in 2023) a year. During this period of her life, Jane Austen attended church regularly, socialised with friends and neighbours,and read novels—often of her own composition—aloud to her family in the evenings. Socialising with the neighbours often meant dancing, either impromptu in someone's home after supper or at the balls held regularly at theassembly roomsin the town hall.Her brother Henry later said that \"Jane was fond of dancing, and excelled in it\". Education In 1783 Austen and her sister Cassandra were sent toOxfordto be educated by Ann Cawley who took them toSouthamptonlater that year. That autumn both girls were sent home after catchingtyphus, of which Jane nearly died.She was from then home-educated, until she attended boarding school with her sister from early in 1785 at theReading Abbey Girls' School, ruled by Mrs La Tournelle.The curriculum probably included French, spelling, needlework, dancing, music and drama. The sisters returned home before December 1786 because the school fees for the two girls were too high for the Austen family.After 1786 Austen \"never again lived anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment\". Her education came from reading, guided by her father and brothers James and Henry.Irene Collinssaid that Austen \"used some of the same school books as the boys\".Austen apparently had unfettered access both to her father's library and that of a family friend,Warren Hastings. Together these collections amounted to a large and varied library. Her father was also tolerant of Austen's sometimes risqué experiments in writing, and provided both sisters with expensive paper and other materials for their writing and drawing. Private theatricals were an essential part of Austen's education. From her early childhood, the family and friends staged a series of plays in therectorybarn, includingRichard Sheridan'sThe Rivals(1775) andDavid Garrick'sBon Ton. Austen's eldest brother James wrote the prologues and epilogues and she probably joined in these activities, first as a spectator and later as a participant.Most of the plays were comedies, which suggests how Austen's satirical gifts were cultivated.At the age of 12, she tried her own hand at dramatic writing; she wrote three short plays during her teenage years. Juvenilia(1787–1793) From at least the time she was aged eleven, Austen wrote poems and stories to amuse herself and her family.She exaggerated mundane details of daily life and parodied common plot devices in \"stories full of anarchic fantasies of female power, licence, illicit behaviour, and general high spirits\", according toJanet Todd.Containing work written between 1787 and 1793, the juvenilia (or childhood writings) that Austen compiledfair copiesconsisted of twenty-nine early works into three bound notebooks, now referred to as theJuvenilia.She called the three notebooks \"Volume the First\", \"Volume the Second\" and \"Volume the Third\", and they preserve 90,000 words she wrote during those years.TheJuveniliaare often, according to scholar Richard Jenkyns, \"boisterous\" and \"anarchic\"; he compares them to the work of 18th-century novelistLaurence Sterne. Among these works is a satirical novel in letters titledLove and Freindship, written when aged fourteen in 1790,in which she mocked popularnovels of sensibility.The next year, she wroteThe History of England, a manuscript of thirty-four pages accompanied by thirteen watercolour miniatures by her sister, Cassandra. Austen'sHistoryparodied popular historical writing, particularlyOliver Goldsmith'sHistory of England(1764).Honan speculates that not long after writingLove and Freindship, Austen decided to \"write for profit, to make stories her central effort\", that is, to become a professional writer. When she was around eighteen years old, Austen began to write longer, more sophisticated works. In August 1792, aged seventeen, Austen startedCatharine or the Bower, which presaged her mature work, especiallyNorthanger Abbey, but was left unfinished until picked up inLady Susan, which Todd describes as less prefiguring thanCatharine.A year later she began, but abandoned, a short play, later titledSir Charles Grandison or the happy Man, a comedy in 6 acts, which she returned to and completed around 1800. This was a short parody of various school textbook abridgements of Austen's favourite contemporary novel,The History of Sir Charles Grandison(1753), bySamuel Richardson. When Austen became an aunt for the first time aged eighteen, she sent new-born nieceFanny Catherine Austen Knight\"five short pieces of ... the Juvenilia now known collectively as 'Scraps' .., purporting to be her 'Opinions and Admonitions on the conduct of Young Women'\". For Jane-Anna-Elizabeth Austen (also born in 1793), her aunt wrote \"two more 'Miscellanious Morsels', dedicating them to on 2 June 1793, 'convinced that if you seriously attend to them, You will derive from them very important Instructions, with regard to your Conduct in Life.'\"There is manuscript evidence that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as 1811 (when she was 36), and that her niece and nephew, Anna and James Edward Austen, made further additions as late as 1814. Between 1793 and 1795 (aged eighteen to twenty), Austen wroteLady Susan, a shortepistolary novel, usually described as her most ambitious and sophisticated early work.It is unlike any of Austen's other works. Austen biographerClaire Tomalindescribes the novella's heroine as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate, betray and abuse her lovers, friends and family. Tomalin writes: Told in letters, it is as neatly plotted as a play, and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of theRestoration dramatistswho may have provided some of her inspiration ... It stands alone in Austen's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters. According to Janet Todd, the model for the title character may have beenEliza de Feuillide, who inspired Austen with stories of her glamorous life and various adventures. Eliza's French husband was guillotined in 1794; she married Jane's brother Henry Austen in 1797. Tom Lefroy When Austen was twenty,Tom Lefroy, a neighbour, visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796. He had just finished a university degree and was moving to London for training as abarrister. Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering, and it is clear from Austen's letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together: \"I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved. Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together.\" Austen wrote in her first surviving letter to her sister Cassandra that Lefroy was a \"very gentlemanlike, good-looking, pleasant young man\".Five days later in another letter, Austen wrote that she expected an \"offer\" from her \"friend\" and that \"I shall refuse him, however, unless he promises to give away his white coat\", going on to write \"I will confide myself in the future to Mr Tom Lefroy, for whom I don't give a sixpence\" and refuse all others.The next day, Austen wrote: \"The day will come on which I flirt my last with Tom Lefroy and when you receive this it will be all over. My tears flow as I write at this melancholy idea\". Halperin cautioned that Austen often satirised popular sentimental romantic fiction in her letters, and some of the statements about Lefroy may have been ironic. However, it is clear that Austen was genuinely attracted to Lefroy and subsequently none of her other suitors ever quite measured up to him.The Lefroy family intervened and sent him away at the end of January. Marriage was impractical as both Lefroy and Austen must have known. Neither had any money, and he was dependent on agreat-unclein Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career. If Tom Lefroy later visited Hampshire, he was carefully kept away from the Austens, and Jane Austen never saw him again.In November 1798, Lefroy was still on Austen's mind as she wrote to her sister she had tea with one of his relatives, wanted desperately to ask about him, but could not bring herself to raise the subject. Early manuscripts (1796–1798) After finishingLady Susan, Austen began her first full-length novelElinor and Marianne. Her sister remembered that it was read to the family \"before 1796\" and was told through a series of letters. Without surviving original manuscripts, there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published anonymously in 1811 asSense and Sensibility. Austen began a second novel,First Impressions(later published asPride and Prejudice), in 1796. She completed the initial draft in August 1797, aged 21; as with all of her novels, Austen read the work aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an \"established favourite\".At this time, her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels. In November 1797, George Austen wrote toThomas Cadell, an established publisher in London, to ask if he would consider publishingFirst Impressions. Cadell returned Mr. Austen's letter, marking it \"Declined by Return of Post\". Austen may not have known of her father's efforts.Following the completion ofFirst Impressions, Austen returned toElinor and Marianneand from November 1797 until mid-1798, revised it heavily; she eliminated theepistolaryformat in favour ofthird-person narrationand produced something close toSense and Sensibility.In 1797, Austen met her cousin (and future sister-in-law),Eliza de Feuillide, a French aristocrat whose first husband the Comte de Feuillide had been guillotined, causing her to flee to Britain, where she married Henry Austen.The description of the execution of the Comte de Feuillide related by his widow left Austen with an intense horror of theFrench Revolutionthat lasted for the rest of her life. During the middle of 1798, after finishing revisions ofElinor and Marianne, Austen began writing a third novel with the working titleSusan—laterNorthanger Abbey—a satire on the popularGothic novel.Austen completed her work about a year later. In early 1803, Henry Austen offeredSusanto Benjamin Crosby, a London publisher, who paid £10 for the copyright. Crosby promised early publication and went so far as to advertise the book publicly as being \"in the press\", but did nothing more.The manuscript remained in Crosby's hands, unpublished, until Austen repurchased the copyright from him in 1816. Bath and Southampton In December 1800, George Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry, leave Steventon, and move the family to 4,Sydney PlaceinBath, Somerset.While retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens, Jane Austen was shocked to be told she was moving 50 miles (80 km) away from the only home she had ever known.An indication of her state of mind is her lack of productivity as a writer during the time she lived in Bath. She was able to make some revisions toSusan, and she began and then abandoned a new novel,The Watsons, but there was nothing like the productivity of the years 1795–1799.Tomalin suggests this reflects a deep depression disabling her as a writer, but Honan disagrees, arguing Austen wrote or revised her manuscripts throughout her creative life, except for a few months after her father died.It is often claimed that Austen was unhappy in Bath, which caused her to lose interest in writing, but it is just as possible that Austen's social life in Bath prevented her from spending much time writing novels.The critic Robert Irvine argued that if Austen spent more time writing novels when she was in the countryside, it might just have been because she had more spare time as opposed to being more happy in the countryside as is often argued.Furthermore, Austen frequently both moved and travelled over southern England during this period, which was hardly a conducive environment for writing a long novel.Austen sold the rights to publishSusanto a publisher Crosby & Company, who paid her £10 (equivalent to £1,020 in 2023).The Crosby & Company advertisedSusan, but never published it. The years from 1801 to 1804 are something of a blank space for Austen scholars as Cassandra destroyed all of her letters from her sister in this period for unknown reasons.In December 1802, Austen received her only known proposal of marriage. She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg, old friends who lived nearBasingstoke. Their younger brother, Harris Bigg-Wither, had recently finished his education at Oxford and was also at home. Bigg-Wither proposed and Austen accepted. As described by Caroline Austen, Jane's niece, and Reginald Bigg-Wither, a descendant, Harris was not attractive—he was a large, plain-looking man who spoke little, stuttered when he did speak, was aggressive in conversation, and almost completely tactless. However, Austen had known him since both were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to Austen and her family. He was the heir to extensive family estates located in the area where the sisters had grown up. With these resources, Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age, give Cassandra a permanent home and, perhaps, assist her brothers in their careers. By the next morning, Austen realised she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance.No contemporary letters or diaries describe how Austen felt about this proposal.Irvine described Bigg-Wither as somebody who \"...seems to have been a man very hard to like, let alone love\". In 1814, Austen wrote a letter to her niece Fanny Knight, who had asked for advice about a serious relationship, telling her that \"having written so much on one side of the question, I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther, & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him. Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection\".The English scholar Douglas Bush wrote that Austen had \"had a very high ideal of the love that should unite a husband and wife ... All of her heroines ... know in proportion to their maturity, the meaning of ardent love\".A possible autobiographical element inSense and Sensibilityoccurs whenElinor Dashwoodcontemplates \"the worse and most irremediable of all evils, a connection for life\" with an unsuitable man. In 1804, while living in Bath, Austen started, but did not complete, her novelThe Watsons. The story centres on an invalid and impoverished clergyman and his four unmarried daughters. Sutherland describes the novel as \"a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women's lives\".Honan suggests, and Tomalin agrees, that Austen chose to stop work on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for her comfort. Her father's relatively sudden death left Jane, Cassandra, and their mother in a precarious financial situation. Edward, James, Henry, and Francis Austen (known as Frank) pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters.For the next four years, the family's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity. They spent part of the time in rented quarters in Bath before leaving the city in June 1805 for a family visit to Steventon andGodmersham. They moved for the autumn months to the newly fashionable seaside resort ofWorthing, on theSussex coast, where they resided at Stanford Cottage.It was here that Austen is thought to have written her fair copy ofLady Susanand added its \"Conclusion\". In 1806, the family moved toSouthampton, where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife. A large part of this time they spent visiting various branches of the family. On 5 April 1809, about three months before the family's move toChawton, Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby, offering him a new manuscript ofSusanif needed to secure the immediate publication of the novel, and requesting the return of the original so she could find another publisher. Crosby replied that he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time, or at all, and that Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the £10 he had paid her and find another publisher. She did not have the resources to buy the copyright back at that time,but was able to purchase it in 1816. Chawton Around early 1809, Austen's brother Edward offered his mother and sisters a more settled life—the use of a large cottage inChawtonvillagewhich was part of the estate around Edward's nearby propertyChawton House. Jane, Cassandra and their mother moved intoChawton cottageon 7 July 1809.Life was quieter in Chawton than it had been since the family's move to Bath in 1800. The Austens did not socialise withgentryand entertained only when family visited. Her niece Anna described the family's life in Chawton as \"a very quiet life, according to our ideas, but they were great readers, and besides the housekeeping our aunts occupied themselves in working with the poor and in teaching some girl or boy to read or write.\" Published author Like many women authors at the time, Austen published her books anonymously.At the time, the ideal roles for a woman were as wife and mother, and writing for women was regarded at best as a secondary form of activity; a woman who wished to be a full-time writer was felt to be degrading her femininity, so books by women were usually published anonymously in order to maintain the conceit that the female writer was only publishing as a sort of part-time job, and was not seeking to become a \"literary lioness\" (i.e. a celebrity).Another reason noted is that the novel was still seen as a lesser form of literature at the time compared with poetry, and many female and male authors published novels anonymously, whereas works of poetry, by both female and male writers were almost always attributed to the author. During her time at Chawton, Austen published four generally well-received novels. Through her brother Henry, the publisherThomas Egertonagreed to publishSense and Sensibility, which, like all of Austen's novels exceptPride and Prejudice, was published \"on commission\", that is, at the author's financial risk. When publishing on commission, publishers would advance the costs of publication, repay themselves as books were sold and then charge a 10% commission for each book sold, paying the rest to the author. If a novel did not recover its costs through sales, the author was responsible for them.The alternative to selling via commission was by selling the copyright, where an author received a one-time payment from the publisher for the manuscript, which occurred withPride and Prejudice.Austen's experience withSusan(the manuscript that becameNorthanger Abbey) where she sold the copyright to the publisher Crosby & Sons for £10, who did not publish the book, forcing her to buy back the copyright in order to get her work published, left Austen leery of this method of publishing.The final alternative, of selling by subscription, where a group of people would agree to buy a book in advance, was not an option for Austen as only authors who were well known or had an influential aristocratic patron who would recommend an up-coming book to their friends, could sell by subscription.Sense and Sensibilityappeared in October 1811, and was described as being written \"By a Lady\".As it was sold on commission, Egerton used expensive paper and set the price at 15 shillings (equivalent to £69 in 2023). Reviews were favourable and the novel became fashionable among young aristocratic opinion-makers;the edition sold out by mid-1813. Austen's novels were published in larger editions than was normal for this period. The small size of the novel-reading public and the large costs associated with hand production (particularly the cost of handmade paper) meant that most novels were published in editions of 500 copies or fewer to reduce the risks to the publisher and the novelist. Even some of the most successful titles during this period were issued in editions of not more than 750 or 800 copies and later reprinted if demand continued. Austen's novels were published in larger editions, ranging from about 750 copies ofSense and Sensibilityto about 2,000 copies ofEmma. It is not clear whether the decision to print more copies than usual of Austen's novels was driven by the publishers or the author. Since all but one of Austen's books were originally published \"on commission\", the risks of overproduction were largely hers (or Cassandra's after her death) and publishers may have been more willing to produce larger editions than was normal practice when their own funds were at risk. Editions of popular works of non-fiction were often much larger. Austen made £140 (equivalent to £12,800 in 2023) fromSense and Sensibility,which provided her with some financial and psychological independence.After the success ofSense and Sensibility, all of Austen's subsequent books were billed as written \"By the author ofSense and Sensibility\" and Austen's name never appeared on her books during her lifetime.Egerton then publishedPride and Prejudice, a revision ofFirst Impressions, in January 1813. Austen sold the copyright toPride and Prejudiceto Egerton for £110 (equivalent to £9,100 in 2023).To maximise profits, he used cheap paper and set the price at 18 shillings (equivalent to £74 in 2023).He advertised the book widely and it was an immediate success, garnering three favourable reviews and selling well. Had Austen soldPride and Prejudiceon commission, she would have made a profit of £475, or twice her father's annual income.By October 1813, Egerton was able to begin selling a second edition.Mansfield Parkwas published by Egerton in May 1814. WhileMansfield Parkwas ignored by reviewers, it was very popular with readers. All copies were sold within six months, and Austen's earnings on this novel were larger than for any of her other novels. Without Austen's knowledge or approval, her novels were translated into French and published in cheaply produced, pirated editions in France.: 1–2The literary critic Noel King commented in 1953 that, given the prevailing rage in France at the time for lush romantic fantasies, it was remarkable that her novels with the emphasis on everyday English life had any sort of a market in France.: 2King cautioned that Austen's chief translator in France, MadameIsabelle de Montolieu, had only the most rudimentary knowledge of English, and her translations were more of \"imitations\" than translations proper, as Montolieu depended upon assistants to provide a summary, which she then translated into an embellished French that often radically altered Austen's plots and characters.: 5–6The first of the Austen novels to be published that credited her as the author was in France, whenPersuasionwas published in 1821 asLa Famille Elliot ou L'Ancienne Inclination.: 5 Austen learned that thePrince Regentadmired her novels and kept a set at each of his residences.In November 1815, the Prince Regent's librarianJames Stanier Clarkeinvited Austen to visit the Prince's London residence and hinted Austen should dedicate the forthcomingEmmato the Prince. Though Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent, she could scarcely refuse the request.Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent on the account of his womanising, gambling, drinking, spendthrift ways, and generally disreputable behaviour.She later wrotePlan of a Novel, according to Hints from Various Quarters, a satiric outline of the \"perfect novel\" based on the librarian's many suggestions for a future Austen novel.Austen was greatly annoyed by Clarke's often pompous literary advice, and thePlan of a Novelparodying Clarke was intended as her revenge for all the unwanted letters she had received from the royal librarian. In mid-1815 Austen moved her work from Egerton toJohn Murray, a better-known publisher in London,who publishedEmmain December 1815 and a second edition ofMansfield Parkin February 1816.Emmasold well, but the new edition ofMansfield Parkdid poorly, and this failure offset most of the income fromEmma. These were the last of Austen's novels to be published during her lifetime. While Murray preparedEmmafor publication, Austen beganThe Elliots, later published asPersuasion. She completed her first draft in July 1816. In addition, shortly after the publication ofEmma, Henry Austen repurchased the copyright forSusanfrom Crosby. Austen was forced to postpone publishing either of these completed novels by family financial troubles. Henry Austen's bank failed in March 1816, depriving him of all of his assets, leaving him deeply in debt and costing Edward, James, and Frank Austen large sums. Henry and Frank could no longer afford the contributions they had made to support their mother and sisters. Illness and death Austen was feeling unwell by early 1816, but ignored the warning signs. By the middle of that year, her decline was unmistakable, and she began a slow, irregular deterioration.The majority of biographers rely onZachary Cope's 1964retrospective diagnosisand list her cause of death asAddison's disease, although her final illness has also been described as resulting fromHodgkin's lymphoma.When her uncle died and left his entire fortune to his wife, effectively disinheriting his relatives, she suffered a relapse, writing: \"I am ashamed to say that the shock of my Uncle's Will brought on a relapse ... but a weak Body must excuse weak Nerves.\" Austen continued to work in spite of her illness. Dissatisfied with the ending ofThe Elliots, she rewrote the final two chapters, which she finished on 6 August 1816.In January 1817, Austen beganThe Brothers(titledSanditonwhen published in 1925), completing twelve chapters before stopping work in mid-March 1817, probably due to illness.Todd describesSanditon's heroine, Diana Parker, as an \"energetic invalid\". In the novel Austen mockedhypochondriacs, and although she describes the heroine as \"bilious\", five days after abandoning the novel she wrote of herself that she was turning \"every wrong colour\" and living \"chiefly on the sofa\".She put down her pen on 18 March 1817, making a note of it. Austen made light of her condition, describing it as \"bile\" andrheumatism. As her illness progressed, she experienced difficulty walking and lacked energy; by mid-April she was confined to bed. In May, Cassandra and Henry brought her toWinchesterfor treatment, by which time she suffered agonising pain and welcomed death.Austen died in Winchester on 18 July 1817 at the age of 41. Henry, through his clerical connections, arranged for his sister to be buried in the north aisle of thenaveofWinchester Cathedral. The epitaph composed by her brother James praises Austen's personal qualities, expresses hope for her salvation, and mentions the \"extraordinary endowments of her mind\", but does not explicitly mention her achievements as a writer. Posthumous publication In the months after Austen's death in July 1817, Cassandra, Henry Austen and Murray arranged for the publication ofPersuasionandNorthanger Abbeyas a set.Henry Austen contributed aBiographical Notedated December 1817, which for the first time identified his sister as the author of the novels. Tomalin describes it as \"a loving and polished eulogy\".Sales were good for a year—only 321 copies remained unsold at the end of 1818. Although Austen's six novels were out of print in England in the 1820s, they were still being read through copies housed in private libraries and circulating libraries. Austen had early admirers. The first piece of fiction using her as a character (what might now be calledreal person fiction) appeared in 1823 in a letter to the editor inThe Lady's Magazine.It refers to Austen's genius and suggests that aspiring authors were envious of her powers. In 1832,Richard Bentleypurchased the remaining copyrights to all of her novels, and over the following winter published five illustrated volumes as part of hisStandard Novelsseries. In October 1833, Bentley released the first collected edition of her works. Since then, Austen's novels have been continuously in print. Genre and style Austen's works implicitly critique thesentimental novelsof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism.The earliest English novelists,Richardson,Henry Fielding, andTobias Smollett, were followed by the school of sentimentalists andromanticssuch asWalter Scott,Horace Walpole,Clara Reeve,Ann Radcliffe, andOliver Goldsmith, whose style and genre Austen repudiated, returning the novel on a \"slender thread\" to the tradition of Richardson and Fielding for a \"realistic study of manners\".In the mid-20th century the literary criticsF. R. LeavisandIan Wattplaced her in the tradition of Richardson and Fielding; both believe that she used their tradition of \"irony, realism and satire to form an author superior to both\". Walter Scott noted Austen's \"resistance to the trashysensationalismof much of modern fiction—'the ephemeral productions which supply the regular demand of watering places andcirculating libraries'\".Yet her relationship with these genres is complex, as evidenced byNorthanger AbbeyandEmma.Similar toWilliam Wordsworth, who excoriated the modern frantic novel in the \"Preface\" to hisLyrical Ballads(1800), Austen distances herself from escapist novels; the discipline and innovation she demonstrates is similar to his, and she shows \"that rhetorically less is artistically more.\"She eschewed popular Gothic fiction, stories of terror in which a heroine typically was stranded in a remote location, a castle or abbey (32 novels between 1784 and 1818 contain the word \"abbey\" in their title). Yet inNorthanger Abbeyshe alludes to the trope, with the heroine, Catherine, anticipating a move to a remote locale. Rather than full-scale rejection or parody, Austen transforms the genre, juxtaposing reality, with descriptions of elegant rooms and modern comforts, against the heroine's \"novel-fueled\" desires.Nor does she completely denigrate Gothic fiction: instead she transforms settings and situations, such that the heroine is still imprisoned, yet her imprisonment is mundane and real—regulated manners and the strict rules of the ballroom.InSense and SensibilityAusten presents characters who are more complex than in staple sentimental fiction, according to the critic Tom Keymer, who notes that although it is a parody of popular sentimental fiction, \"Mariannein her sentimental histrionics responds to the calculating world ... with a quite justifiable scream of female distress.\" The hair was curled, and the maid sent away, and Emma sat down to think and be miserable. It was a wretched business, indeed! Such an overthrow of everything she had been wishing for! Such a development of every thing most unwelcome! — example offree indirect speech, Jane Austen,Emma Richardson'sPamela, the prototype for the sentimental novel, is adidacticlove story with a happy ending, written at a time women were beginning to have the right to choose husbands and yet were restricted by social conventions.Austen attempted Richardson's epistolary style, but found the flexibility of narrative more conducive to her realism, a realism in which each conversation and gesture carries a weight of significance. The narrative style utilisesfree indirect speech—she was the first English novelist to do so extensively—through which she had the ability to present a character's thoughts directly to the reader and yet still retain narrative control. The style allows an author to vary discourse between the narrator's voice and values and those of the characters. Austen had a natural ear for speech and dialogue, according to the scholarMary Lascelles: \"Few novelists can be more scrupulous than Jane Austen as to the phrasing and thoughts of their characters.\"Techniques such as fragmentary speech suggest a character's traits and their tone; \"syntax and phrasing rather than vocabulary\" is utilised to indicate social variants.Dialogue reveals a character's mood—frustration, anger, happiness—each treated differently and often through varying patterns of sentence structures. WhenElizabeth BennetrejectsDarcy, her stilted speech and the convoluted sentence structure reveals that he has wounded her: From the very beginning, from the first moment I may almost say, of my acquaintance with you, your manners impressing me with the fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit, and your selfish disdain of the feelings of others, were such as to form that the groundwork of disapprobation, on which succeeding events have built so immovable a dislike. And I had not known you a month before I felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry. Austen's plots highlight women's traditional dependence on marriage to secure social standing and economic security.As an art form, the 18th-century novel lacked the seriousness of its equivalents from the 19th century, when novels were treated as \"the natural vehicle for discussion and ventilation of what mattered in life\".Rather than delving too deeply into the psyche of her characters, Austen enjoys them and imbues them with humour, according to critic John Bayley. He believes that the well-spring of her wit and irony is her own attitude that comedy \"is the saving grace of life\".Part of Austen's fame rests on the historical and literary significance that she was the first woman to write great comic novels.Samuel Johnson's influence is evident, in that she follows his advice to write \"a representation of life as may excite mirth\". Her humour comes from her modesty and lack of superiority, allowing her most successful characters, such as Elizabeth Bennet, to transcend the trivialities of life, which the more foolish characters are overly absorbed in.Austen used comedy to explore the individualism of women's lives and gender relations, and she appears to have used it to find the goodness in life, often fusing it with \"ethical sensibility\", creating artistic tension. Critic Robert Polhemus writes, \"To appreciate the drama and achievement of Austen, we need to realize how deep was her passion for both reverence and ridicule ... and her comic imagination reveals both the harmonies and the telling contradictions of her mind and vision as she tries to reconcile her satirical bias with her sense of the good.\" Reception Contemporaneous responses As Austen's works were published anonymously, they brought her little personal renown. They were fashionable among opinion-makers, but were rarely reviewed.Most of the reviews were short and on balance favourable, although superficial and cautious,most often focused on the moral lessons of the novels. Walter Scott, a leading novelist of the day, anonymously wrote a review ofEmmain 1815, using it to defend the then-disreputable genre of the novel and praising Austen's realism, \"the art of copying from nature as she really exists in the common walks of life, and presenting to the reader, instead of the splendid scenes from an imaginary world, a correct and striking representation of that which is daily taking place around him\".The other important early review was attributed toRichard Whatelyin 1821. However, Whately denied having authored the review, which drew favourable comparisons between Austen and such acknowledged greats asHomerandShakespeare, and praised the dramatic qualities of her narrative. Scott and Whately set the tone for almost all subsequent 19th-century Austen criticism. 19th century Because Austen's novels did not conform toRomanticandVictorianexpectations that \"powerful emotion authenticated by an egregious display of sound and colour in the writing\",some 19th-century critics preferred the works ofCharles DickensandGeorge Eliot.Notwithstanding Walter Scott's positivity, Austen's work did not win over those who preferred the prevailing aesthetic values of the elite Romantic zeitgeist.Her novels were republished in Britain from the 1830s and sold steadily.Austen's six books were included in the canon-making Standard Novels series by publisher Richard Bentley, which increased their stature. That series referred to her as \"the founder of a school of novelists\" and called her a genius. The first French critic who paid notice to Austen wasPhilarète Chaslesin an 1842 essay, dismissing her in two sentences as a boring, imitative writer with no substance.Austen was not widely appreciated in France until 1878,when the French critic Léon Boucher published the essayLe Roman Classique en Angleterre, in which he called Austen a \"genius\", the first French author to do so.The first accurate translation of Austen into French occurred in 1899 whenFélix FénéontranslatedNorthanger AbbeyasCatherine Morland. In Britain and North America, Austen gradually grew in the estimation of both the public and the literati. In the United States, Austen was being recommended as reading in schools as early as 1838, according to Professor Devoney Looser.The philosopher and literary criticGeorge Henry Lewespublished a series of enthusiastic articles in the 1840s and 1850s.Later in the century, the novelistHenry Jamesreferred to Austen several times with approval, and on one occasion ranked her with Shakespeare,Cervantes, and Henry Fielding as amongst \"the fine painters of life\". The publication of James Edward Austen-Leigh'sA Memoir of Jane Austenin 1869 introduced Austen's life story to a wider public as \"dear aunt Jane\", the respectable maiden aunt. Publication of theMemoirspurred another reissue of Austen's novels. Editions were released in 1883 and fancy illustrated editions and collectors' sets quickly followed.The author and criticLeslie Stephendescribed the popular mania that started to develop for Austen in the 1880s as \"Austenolatry\". Around the start of the 20th century, an intellectual clique ofJaneitesreacted against the popularisation of Austen, distinguishing their deeper appreciation from the vulgar enthusiasm of the masses. In response, Henry James decried \"a beguiled infatuation\" with Austen, a rising tide of public interest that exceeded Austen's \"intrinsic merit and interest\".The American literary criticA. Walton Litznoted that the \"anti-Janites\" in the 19th and 20th centuries comprised a formidable literary squad ofMark Twain, Henry James,Charlotte Brontë,D. H. Lawrence, andKingsley Amis, but in \"every case the adverse judgement merely reveals the special limitations or eccentricities of the critic, leaving Jane Austen relatively untouched\". Modern Austen's works have attracted legions of scholars. The first dissertation on Austen was published in 1883, by George Pellew, a student at Harvard University.Another early academic analysis came from a 1911 essay by the Oxford Shakespearean scholarA. C. Bradley,who grouped Austen's novels into \"early\" and \"late\" works, a distinction still used by scholars today.The first academic book devoted to Austen in France wasJane Austenby Paul and Kate Rague (1914), who set out to explain why French critics and readers should take Austen seriously.The same year, Léonie Villard publishedJane Austen, Sa Vie et Ses Oeuvres, originally her PhD thesis, the first serious academic study of Austen in France.In 1923, R.W. Chapman published the first scholarly edition of Austen's collected works, which was also the first scholarly edition of any English novelist. The Chapman text has remained the basis for all subsequent published editions of Austen's works. With the publication in 1939 of Mary Lascelles'Jane Austen and Her Art, the academic study of Austen took hold.Lascelles analysed the books Austen read and their influence on her work, and closely examined Austen's style and \"narrative art\". Concern arose that academics were obscuring the appreciation of Austen with increasingly esoteric theories, a debate that has continued since. The period since the Second World War has seen a diversity of critical approaches to Austen, includingfeminist theory, and perhaps most controversially,postcolonial theory.The divide has widened between the popular appreciation of Austen, particularly by modernJaneites, and academic judgements.In 1994 the literary criticHarold Bloomplaced Austen among thegreatest Western writers of all time. In the People's Republic of China after 1949, writings of Austen were regarded as too frivolous,and thus during the ChineseCultural Revolutionof 1966–69, Austen was banned as a \"British bourgeois imperialist\".In the late 1970s, when Austen's works were re-published in China, her popularity with readers confounded the authorities who had trouble understanding that people generally read books for enjoyment, not political edification. In a typical modern debate, the conservative American professor Gene Koppel, to the indignation of his liberal literature students, mentioned that Austen and her family were \"Tories of the deepest dye\", i.e. Conservatives in opposition to the liberal Whigs. Although several feminist authors such as Claudia Johnson and Mollie Sandock claimed Austen for their own cause, Koppel argued that different people react to a work of literature in different subjective ways, as explained by the philosopherHans-Georg Gadamer. Thus competing interpretations of Austen's work can be equally valid, provided they are grounded in textual and historical analysis: it is equally possible to see Austen as a feminist critiquingRegency-erasociety and as a conservative upholding its values. Adaptations Austen's novels have resulted in sequels, prequels and adaptations of almost every type, fromsoft-core pornographyto fantasy. From the 19th century, her family members published conclusions to her incomplete novels, and by 2000 there were over 100 printed adaptations.The first dramatic adaptation of Austen was published in 1895, Rosina Filippi'sDuologues and Scenes from the Novels of Jane Austen: Arranged and Adapted for Drawing-Room Performance, and Filippi was also responsible for the first professional stage adaptation,The Bennets(1901).The first film adaptation was the1940 MGM production ofPride and PrejudicestarringLaurence OlivierandGreer Garson.BBC television dramatisations released in the 1970s and 1980s attempted to adhere meticulously to Austen's plots, characterisations and settings.The British critic Robert Irvine noted that in American film adaptations of Austen's novels, starting with the 1940 version ofPride and Prejudice, class is subtly downplayed, and the society of Regency England depicted by Austen that is grounded in a hierarchy based upon the ownership of land and the antiquity of the family name is one that Americans cannot embrace in its entirety. From 1995, many Austen adaptations appeared, withAng Lee'sfilm ofSense and Sensibility, for which screenwriter and starEmma Thompsonwon anAcademy Award, and the BBC's immensely popular TV mini-seriesPride and Prejudice, starringJennifer EhleandColin Firth.A 2005 British production ofPride and Prejudice, directed byJoe Wrightand starringKeira KnightleyandMatthew Macfadyen,was followed in 2007 byITV'sMansfield Park,Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion,and in 2016 byLove & FriendshipstarringKate Beckinsaleas Lady Susan, a film version ofLady Susan, that borrowed the title of Austen'sLove and Freindship. Honours In 2013, Austen's works featured on aseries of UK postage stampsissued by theRoyal Mailto mark the bicentenary of the publication ofPride and Prejudice.Austen is on the£10 noteissued by the Bank of England which was introduced in 2017, replacingCharles Darwin.In July 2017 a statue of Austen was erected in Basingstoke, Hampshire on the 200th anniversary of her death. List of works Juvenilia—Volume the First(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Second(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Third(1787–1793) Family trees See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links Museums Fan sites and societies"],"string":"[\n \"Brontë family TheBrontës(/ˈbrɒntiz/) were a nineteenth-century literary family, born in the village ofThorntonand later associated with the village ofHaworthin theWest Riding of Yorkshire,England. The sisters,Charlotte(1816–1855),Emily(1818–1848) andAnne(1820–1849), are well-known poets and novelists. Like many contemporary female writers, they published their poems and novels under male pseudonyms: Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Their stories attracted attention for their passion and originality immediately following their publication. Charlotte'sJane Eyrewas the first to know success, while Emily'sWuthering Heights, Anne'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Halland other works were accepted as masterpieces of literature after their deaths. The first Brontë children to be born to rectorPatrick Brontëand his wifeMariawereMaria(1814–1825) andElizabeth(1815–1825), who both died at young ages due to disease. Charlotte, Emily and Anne were then born within a time period of approximately four years. These three sisters and their brother,Branwell(1817–1848), who had been born after Charlotte and before Emily, were very close to each other. As children, they developed their imaginations first through oral storytelling and play, set in an intricate imaginary world, and then through the collaborative writing of increasingly complex stories set in their fictional world. The deaths of their mother and two older sisters marked them and influenced their writing profoundly, as did their isolated upbringing. They were raised in a religious family.The Brontë birthplace inThorntonis a place of pilgrimage and their later home, theparsonageatHaworthin Yorkshire, now theBrontë Parsonage Museum, has hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. Origin of the name The Brontë family can be traced to theIrish clanÓ Pronntaigh, which literally means \\\"descendant of Pronntach\\\". They were a family of hereditary scribes and literary men inFermanagh. The versionÓ Proinntigh, which was first given by Patrick Woulfe in hisSloinnte Gaedheal is Gall(transl.Surnames of the Gael and the Foreigner)and reproduced without question byEdward MacLysaght, cannot be accepted as correct, as there were a number of well-known scribes with this name writing inIrishin the 17th and 18th centuries and all of them used the spellingÓ Pronntaigh. The name is derived from the wordpronntachorbronntach,which is related to the wordbronnadh, meaning \\\"giving\\\" or \\\"bestowal\\\" (pronnis given as anUlsterversion ofbronnin O'Reilly'sIrish English Dictionary.)Patrick Woulfe suggested that it was derived fromproinnteach(therefectoryof amonastery).Ó Pronntaighwas earlieranglicisedasPruntyand sometimesBrunty. At some point,Patrick Brontë(born Brunty), the sisters' father, decided on the alternative spelling with thediaeresisover the terminal⟨e⟩to indicate that the name has two syllables. Multiple theories exist to account for the change, including that he may have wished to hide his humble origins.As aman of letters, he would have been familiar withclassical Greekand may have chosen the name after the Greekβροντή(transl.thunder). One view, which biographerC. K. Shorterproposed in 1896, is that he adapted his name to associate himself withAdmiral Horatio Nelson, who was alsoDuke of Bronte.One might also find evidence for this theory in Patrick Brontë's desire to associate himself with theDuke of Wellingtonin his form of dress. Family tree Members of the Brontë family Patrick Brontë Patrick Brontë(17 March 1777 – 7 June 1861), the Brontë sisters' father, was born inLoughbrickland,County Down, Ireland, of a family of farm workers of moderate means.His birth name was Patrick Prunty or Brunty. His mother, Alice McClory, was of theRoman Catholicfaith, whilst his father Hugh was a Protestant, and Patrick was brought up in his father's faith. He was a bright young man and, after studying under the Rev. Thomas Tighe, won a scholarship toSt John's College, Cambridge. There, he studied divinity, ancient history and modern history.Attending Cambridge may have made him feel that his name was too Irish and he changed its spelling to Brontë (and its pronunciation accordingly), perhaps in honour ofHoratio Nelson, whom Patrick admired.It is more likely, however, that his brother William was 'on the run' from the authorities for his involvement with the radicalUnited Irishmen, leading Patrick to distance himself from the name Brunty. Having obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree, he was ordained on 10 August 1806.He is the author ofCottage Poems(1811),The Rural Minstrel(1814), numerous pamphlets, several newspaper articles and various rural poems. In 1811, Patrick was appointed minister at Hartshead-cum-Clifton. In 1812, he met and married 29 year old Maria Branwell at Guiseley. In 1813, they moved to Clough House Hightown, Liversedge, West Riding of Yorkshireand by 1820 they had moved into the parsonage at Haworth, where he took up the post ofperpetual curate. (Haworth was an ancient chapelry in the large parish ofBradford, so he could not be rector or vicar.) They had six children.On the death of his wife in 1821, his sister-in-law,Elizabeth Branwell, came fromPenzance,Cornwall, to help him bring up the children. Open, intelligent, generous and dedicated to educating his children personally, he bought all the books and toys the children desired. He also accorded them great freedom and unconditional love, although he may have alienated them from the world due to his eccentric personal habits and peculiar theories of education. After several failed attempts to remarry, Patrick accepted permanent widowerhood at the age of 47, and spent his time visiting the sick and the poor, giving sermons and administering communion.In so doing, he would often leave his children Maria, Elizabeth, Emily, Charlotte, Branwell and Anne alone with Elizabeth—Aunt Branwell and a maid, Tabitha Aykroyd (Tabby). Tabby helped relieve their possible boredom and loneliness especially by recounting local legends in her Yorkshire dialect as she tirelessly prepared the family's meals.Eventually, Patrick would survive his entire family. Six years after Charlotte's death, he died in 1861 at the age of 84.His son-in-law, the Rev.Arthur Bell Nicholls, would aid Mr Brontë at the end of his life as well. Maria, née Branwell Patrick's wifeMaria Brontë, née Branwell (15 April 1783 – 15 September 1821), was born inPenzance, Cornwall, and came from a comfortably well-off, middle-class family. Her father had a flourishing tea and grocery store and had accumulated considerable wealth.Maria died at the age of 38 ofuterine cancer.She married the same day as her younger sister Charlotte in the church atGuiseleyafter her fiancé had celebrated the union of two other couples.She was a literate and pious woman, known for her lively spirit, joyfulness and tenderness, and it was she who designed the samplers that are on display in the museumand had them embroidered by her children. She left memories with her husband and with Charlotte, the oldest surviving sibling, of a very vivacious woman. The younger ones, particularly Emily and Anne, admitted to retaining only vague images of their mother, especially of her suffering on her sickbed. Elizabeth Branwell Elizabeth Branwell (2 December 1776 – 29 October 1842) arrived from Penzance in 1821, aged 45, after her younger sister Maria's death, to help Patrick look after the children, to whom she was known as 'Aunt Branwell.' Elizabeth Branwell was a Methodist, though it seems that her denomination did not exert any influence on the children. It was Aunt Branwell who taught the children arithmetic, the alphabet, and how to sew,embroider and cross-stitch, skills appropriate for ladies. Aunt Branwell also gave them books and subscribed toFraser's Magazine, less interesting thanBlackwood's, but, nevertheless, providing plenty of material for discussion.She was a generous person who dedicated her life to her nieces and nephew, neither marrying nor returning to visit her relations in Cornwall. She probably told the children stories of events that had happened in Cornwall, such as raids by pirates in the eighteenth century, who carried off British residents to be enslaved in North Africa and Turkey; enslavement in Turkey is mentioned by Charlotte Brontë inJane Eyre.She died ofbowel obstructionin October 1842, after a brief agony during which she was comforted by her beloved nephew Branwell. In her last will, Aunt Branwell left to her three nieces the considerable sum of £900 (about £95,700 in 2017 currency), which allowed them to resign from their low-paid jobs as governesses and teachers. Children Education Cowan Bridge School In 1824, the four eldest girls (excluding Anne) entered theClergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge,which educated the children of less prosperous members of the clergy, and had been recommended to Mr Brontë. The following year, Maria and Elizabeth fell gravely ill and were removed from the school, later dying on 6 May and 15 June 1825, respectively.Charlotte and Emily were also withdrawn from the school and returned to Haworth. Charlotte expressed the traumatic impact that her sisters' deaths had on her in her future works. InJane Eyre, Cowan Bridge became Lowood, Maria inspired the young Helen Burns, the cruel mistress Miss Andrews inspired the headmistress Miss Scatcherd, and the tyrannical headmaster Rev.Carus Wilson, Mr Brocklehurst. Tuberculosis, which afflicted Maria and Elizabeth in 1825, also caused the eventual deaths of three of the surviving Brontës: Branwell in September 1848, Emily in December 1848, and, finally, Anne in May 1849. Patrick Brontë faced a challenge in arranging for the education of the girls of his family, which was barely middle class. They lacked significant connections and he could not afford the fees for them to attend an established school for young ladies. One solution was the schools where the fees were reduced to a minimum—so called \\\"charity schools\\\"—with a mission to assist families like those of the lower clergy. (Barker had read in theLeeds Intelligencerof 6 November 1823 reports of cases in the Court of Commons in Bowes: he later read of other cases, of 24 November 1824 near Richmond, in the county of Yorkshire, where pupils had been discovered gnawed by rats and suffering so badly from malnutrition that some of them had lost their sight.) Yet for Patrick, there was nothing to suggest that the Reverend Carus Wilson's Clergy Daughters' School would not provide a good education and good care for his daughters. The school was not expensive and its patrons (supporters who allowed the school to use their names) were all respected people. Among these was the daughter ofHannah More, a religious author and philanthropist who took a particular interest in education. More was a close friend of the poetWilliam Cowper, who, like her, advocated extensive, proper and well-rounded education for young girls. The pupils included the offspring of different prelates and even certain acquaintances of Patrick Brontë includingWilliam Wilberforce, young women whose fathers had also been educated at St John's College, Cambridge. Thus Brontë believed Wilson's school to have many of the necessary guarantees needed for his daughters to receive proper schooling. John Bradley In 1829–30, Patrick Brontë engagedJohn Bradley, an artist from neighbouringKeighley, as drawing-master for the children. Bradley was an artist of some local repute rather than a professional instructor, but he may well have fostered Branwell's enthusiasm for art and architecture. Miss Wooler's school In 1831, fourteen-year-old Charlotte was enrolled at the school of Miss Wooler in Roe Head,Mirfield. Patrick could have sent his daughter to a less costly school inKeighleynearer home but Miss Wooler and her sisters had a good reputation and he remembered the building, which he passed when strolling around the parishes ofKirklees,Dewsburyand Hartshead-cum-Clifton where he was vicar. Margaret Wooler showed fondness towards the sisters and she accompanied Charlotte to the altar at her marriage.Patrick's choice of school was excellent—Charlotte was happy there and studied well. She made many lifelong friends, in particularEllen Nusseyand Mary Taylor who later went to New Zealand before returning to England.Charlotte returned from Roe Head in June 1832, missing her friends, but happy to rejoin her family. Three years later, Miss Wooler offered her former pupil a position as her assistant. The family decided that Emily would accompany her to pursue studies that would otherwise have been unaffordable. Emily's fees were partly covered by Charlotte's salary. Emily was 17 and it was the first time she had left Haworth since leaving Cowan Bridge. On 29 July 1835, the sisters left for Roe Head. The same day, Branwell wrote a letter to theRoyal Academy of Artin London, to present several of his drawings as part of his candidature as a probationary student. Charlotte taught, and wrote about her students without much sympathy. Emily did not settle: after three months her health seemed to decline and she had to be taken home to the parsonage. Anne took her place and stayed until Christmas 1837. Charlotte avoided boredom by following the developments of the imaginary Empire of Angria—invented by Charlotte and Branwell—that she received in letters from her brother. During holidays at Haworth, she wrote long narratives while being reproached by her father who wanted her to become more involved in parish affairs. These were coming to a head over the imposition of the Church of England rates, a local tax levied on parishes where the majority of the population were dissenters. In the meantime, Miss Wooler moved to Heald's House, atDewsbury Moor, where Charlotte complained about the humidity that made her unwell. Upon leaving the establishment in 1838 Miss Wooler presented her with a parting gift ofThe Vision of Don Roderick and Rokeby, a collection of poems byWalter Scott. Literary evolution The children became interested in writing from an early age, initially as a game. They all displayed a talent for narrative, but for the younger ones it became a pastime to develop them.At the centre of the children's creativity were twelve wooden soldiers which Patrick Brontë gave to Branwell at the beginning of June 1826.These toy soldiers instantly fired their imaginations and they spoke of them asthe Young Men, and gave them names. However, it was not until December 1827 that their ideas took written form,and the imaginary African kingdom of Glass Town came into existence,followed by the Empire of Angria. Emily and Anne createdGondal, an island continent in the North Pacific, ruled by a woman, after the departure of Charlotte in 1831.In the beginning, these stories were written inlittle books, the size of a matchboxabout 1.5 by 2.5 inches (38 mm × 64 mm)and cursorily bound with thread. The pages were filled with close, minute writing, often in capital letters without punctuation and embellished with illustrations, detailed maps, schemes, landscapes and plans of buildings, created by the children according to their specialisations. The idea was that the books were of a size for the soldiers to read. The complexity of the stories matured as the children's imaginations developed, fed by reading the three weekly or monthly magazines to which their father had subscribed,or the newspapers that were bought daily from John Greenwood's local news and stationery store. Literary and artistic influence These fictional worlds were the product of fertile imagination fed by reading, discussion and a passion for literature. Far from suffering from the negative influences that never left them and which were reflected in the works of their later, more mature years, the Brontë children absorbed them eagerly. Press The periodicals that Patrick Brontë read were a mine of information for his children. TheLeeds IntelligencerandBlackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, conservative and well written, but better than theQuarterly Reviewthat defended the same political ideas whilst addressing a less-refined readership (the reason Mr. Brontë did not read it),were exploited in every detail.Blackwood's Magazine, in particular, was not only the source of their knowledge of world affairs, but also provided material for the Brontës' early writing. For instance, an article in the June 1826 number ofBlackwood's, provides commentary on new discoveries from the exploration ofcentral Africa.The map included with the article highlights geographical features the Brontës reference in their tales: the Jibbel Kumera (theMountains of the Moon),Ashantee, and the riversNigerandCalabar. The author also advises the British to expand into Africa from Fernando Po, where, Christine Alexander notes, the Brontë children locate the Great Glass Town.Their knowledge of geography was completed by Goldsmith'sGrammar of General Geography, which the Brontës owned and annotated heavily. Lord Byron From 1833, Charlotte and Branwell's Angrian tales begin to featureByronic heroeswho have a strong sexual magnetism and passionate spirit, and demonstrate arrogance and even black-heartedness. Again, it is in an article inBlackwood's Magazinefrom August 1825 that they discover the poet for the first time; he had died the previous year. From this moment, the name Byron became synonymous with all the prohibitions and audacities as if it had stirred up the very essence of the rise of those forbidden things.Branwell's Charlotte Zamorna, one of the heroes ofVerdopolis, tends towards increasingly ambiguous behaviour,and the same influence and evolution recur with the Brontës, especially in the characters ofHeathcliffinWuthering Heights, andMr. RochesterinJane Eyre, who display the traits of aByronic hero. Numerous other works left their mark on the Brontës—theThousand and One Nights, for example, which inspiredjinnin which they became themselves in the centre of their kingdoms, while adding a touch of exoticism. John Martin The children's imagination was also influenced by three prints of engravings inmezzotintbyJohn Martinaround 1820. Charlotte and Branwell made copies of the printsBelshazzar's Feast,Déluge, andJoshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still upon Gibeon(1816), which hung on the walls of the parsonage. Martin's fantastic architecture is reflected in theGlass Townand Angrian writings, where he appears himself among Branwell's charactersand under the name of Edward de Lisle, the greatest painter and portraitist of Verdopolis,the capital of Glass Town. One of Sir Edward de Lisle's major works,Les Quatre Genii en Conseil, is inspired by Martin's illustration forJohn Milton'sParadise Lost.Together with Byron, John Martin seems to have been one of the artistic influences essential to the Brontës' universe. Anne's morals and realism The influence revealed byAgnes GreyandThe Tenant of Wildfell Hallis much less clear. Anne's works are largely founded on her experience as a governess and on that of her brother's decline. Furthermore, they demonstrate her conviction, a legacy from her father, that books should provide moral education.This sense of moral duty and the need to record it, are more evident inThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall.The influence of the gothic novels ofAnn Radcliffe,Horace Walpole,Gregory \\\"Monk\\\" LewisandCharles Maturinis noticeable,and that of Walter Scott too, if only because the heroine, abandoned and left alone, resists importunities not only through her almost supernatural talents, but by her powerful temperament. Jane Eyre,Agnes Grey,The Tenant of Wildfell Hall,Shirley,Villetteand evenThe Professorpresent a linear structure concerning characters who advance through life after several trials and tribulations, to find a kind of happiness in love and virtue, recalling works of religious inspiration of the 17th century such asJohn Bunyan'sThe Pilgrim's Progressor hisGrace abounding to the Chief of Sinners.In a more profane manner, the hero or heroine follows apicaresqueitinerary such as inMiguel de Cervantes(1547–1616),Daniel Defoe(1660–1731),Henry Fielding(1707–1764) andTobias Smollett(1721–1771). This lively tradition continued into the 19th century with therags to richesgenre to which almost all the great Victorian romancers have contributed. The protagonist is thrown by fate into poverty and after many difficulties achieves a golden happiness. Often an artifice is employed to effect the passage from one state to another such as an unexpected inheritance, a miraculous gift, grand reunions, etc,and in a sense it is the route followed by Charlotte's and Anne's protagonists, even if the riches they win are more those of the heart than of the wallet. Apart from its Gothic elements,Wuthering Heightsmoves like a Greek tragedy and possesses its music,the cosmic dimensions of the epics ofJohn Milton, and the power of the Shakespearian theatre.One can hear the echoes ofKing Learas well as the completely different characters ofRomeo and Juliet.The Brontës were also seduced by the writings ofWalter Scott, and in 1834 Charlotte exclaimed, \\\"For fiction, read Walter Scott and only him—all novels after his are without value.\\\" Governesses and Charlotte's idea Early teaching opportunities Through their father's influence and their own intellectual curiosity, they were able to benefit from an education that placed them among knowledgeable people, but Mr Brontë's emoluments were modest. The only options open to the girls were either marriage or a choice between the professions of school mistress orgoverness. The Brontë sisters found positions in families wherein they educated often rebellious young children, or found employment as school teachers. The possibility of becoming apaid companionto a rich and solitary woman might have been a fall-back role but one that would have probably bored any of the sisters intolerably.Janet Todd'sMary Wollstonecraft, a revolutionary lifementions the predicament. Only Emily never became a governess. Her sole professional experience would be an experiment in teaching during six months of intolerable exile in Miss Patchett's school atLaw Hill(betweenHaworthandHalifax).In contrast, Charlotte had teaching positions at Miss Margaret Wooler's school and in Brussels with the Hégers. She became governess to the Sidgwicks, the Stonegappes and the Lotherdales where she worked for several months in 1839, then with Mrs White, at Upperhouse House, Rawdon, from March to September 1841.Anne became a governess and worked for Mrs Ingham,at Blake Hall, Mirfield from April to December 1839, then for Mrs Robinson at Thorp Green Hall, Little Ouseburn, near York, where she also obtained employment for her brother in a futile attempt to stabilise him. Working as governesses The family's finances did not flourish, and Aunt Branwell spent the money with caution. Emily had a visceral need of her home and the countryside that surrounded it, and to leave it would cause her to languish and wither.Charlotte and Anne, being more realistic, did not hesitate in finding work and from April 1839 to December 1841 the two sisters had several posts as governesses. Not staying long with each family, their employment would last for some months or a single season. However, Anne did stay with the Robinsons in Thorp Green where things went well, from May 1840 to June 1845. In the meantime, Charlotte had an idea that would place all the advantages on her side. On advice from her father and friends, she thought that she and her sisters had the intellectual capacity to create a school for young girls in the parsonage where theirSunday Schoolclasses took place. It was agreed to offer the future pupils the opportunity of correctly learning modern languages and that preparation for this should be done abroad, which led to a further decision. Among the possibilities, Paris and Lille were considered,but were rejected due to aversion to the French. Indeed, theFrench Revolutionand theNapoleonic warshad not been forgotten by theTory-spirited and deeply conservative girls.On the recommendation of a pastor based in Brussels,who wanted to be of help, Belgium was chosen, where they could also study German and music. Aunt Branwell provided the funds for the Brussels project. School project and study trip to Brussels Charlotte's and Emily's journey to Brussels Emily and Charlotte arrived in Brussels in February 1842 accompanied by their father.Once there, they enrolled atMonsieur and Madame Héger'sboarding school in the Rue d'Isabelle, for six months. Claire Héger was the second wife of Constantin, and it was she who founded and directed the school while Constantin had the responsibility for the higher French classes. According to Miss Wheelwright, a former pupil, he had the intellect of a genius. He was passionate about his auditorium, demanding many lectures, perspectives, and structured analyses.He was also a good-looking man with regular features, bushy hair, very black whiskers, and wore an excited expression while sounding forth on great authors about whom he invited his students to make apasticheon general or philosophical themes. The lessons, especially those of Constantin Héger, were very much appreciated by Charlotte, and the two sisters showed exceptional intelligence, although Emily hardly liked her teacher and was somewhat rebellious.Emily learned German and to play the piano with natural brilliance and very quickly the two sisters were writing literary and philosophical essays in an advanced level of French. After six months of study, Mme Héger suggested they stay at the boarding school free of charge, in return for giving some lessons. After much hesitation, the girls accepted. Neither of them felt particularly attached to their students, and only one, Mademoiselle de Bassompierre, then aged 16, later expressed any affection for her teacher Emily, which appeared to be mutual, and made her a gift of a signed, detailed drawing of a storm ravaged pine tree. Return and recall The death of their aunt in October of the same year forced them to return once more to Haworth. Aunt Branwell had left all her worldly goods in equal shares to her nieces and to Eliza Kingston, a cousin in Penzance,which had the immediate effect of purging all their debts and providing a small reserve of funds. Nevertheless, they were asked to return to the Héger's boarding school in Brussels as they were regarded as being competent and were needed. They were each offered teaching posts in the boarding school, English for Charlotte and music for Emily. However, Charlotte returned alone to Belgium in January 1843.Emily remained critical of Monsieur Héger, in spite of the excellent opinion he held of her. He later stated that she 'had the spirit of a man', and would probably become a great traveller due to her being gifted with a superior faculty of reason that allowed her to deduce ancient knowledge from new spheres of knowledge, and her unbending willpower would have triumphed over all obstacles. Charlotte returns Almost a year to the day, enamoured for some time for Monsieur Héger, Charlotte resigned and returned to Haworth. Her life at the school had not been without suffering, and on one occasion she ventured into the cathedral and entered a confessional. She may have had intention of converting to Catholicism, but it would only have been for a short time.During her absence, life at Haworth had become more difficult. Mr. Brontë had lost his sight although his cataract had been operated on with success in Manchester, and it was there in August 1846,when Charlotte arrived at his bedside that she began to writeJane Eyre. Meanwhile, her brother Branwell fell into a rapid decline punctuated by dramas, drunkenness and delirium.Due partly to Branwell's poor reputation, the school project failed and was abandoned. Charlotte wrote four long, very personal, and sometimes vague letters toMonsieur Hégerthat never received replies. The extent of Charlotte Brontë's feelings for Héger were not fully realised until 1913, when her letters to him were published for the first time. Héger had first shown them toMrs. Gaskellwhen she visited him in 1856 while researching her biographyThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, but she concealed their true significance. These letters, referred to as the \\\"Héger Letters\\\", had been ripped up at some stage by Héger, but his wife had retrieved the pieces from the wastepaper bin and meticulously glued or sewn them back together. Paul Héger, Constantin's son, and his sisters gave these letters to theBritish Museum,and they were shortly thereafter printed inThe Timesnewspaper. Brontë sisters' literary career First publication:Poems, by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell The writing that had begun so early never left the family. Charlotte had ambition like her brother, and wrote to thepoet laureateRobert Southeyto submit several poems in his style (though Branwell was kept at a distance from her project). She received a hardly encouraging reply after several months. Southey, still illustrious today although his star has somewhat waned, was one of the great figures of EnglishRomanticism, along withWilliam WordsworthandSamuel Taylor Coleridge, and he shared the prejudice of the times; literature, or more particularly poetry (for women had been publishing fiction and enjoying critical, popular and economic success for over a century by this time), was considered a man's business, and not an appropriate occupation for ladies. However, Charlotte did not allow herself to be discouraged. Furthermore, coincidence came to her aid. One day in autumn 1845 while alone in the dining room she noticed a small notebook lying open in the drawer of Emily's portable writing desk and \\\"of my sister Emily's handwriting\\\". She read it and was dazzled by the beauty of the poems that she did not know. The discovery of this treasure was what she recalled five years later, and according to Juliet Barker, she erased the excitement that she had felt\\\"more than surprise ..., a deep conviction that these were not common effusions, nor at all like the poetry women generally write. I thought them condensed and terse, vigorous and genuine. To my ear, they had a peculiar music—wild, melancholy, and elevating.\\\" In the following paragraph Charlotte describes her sister's indignant reaction at her having ventured into such an intimate realm with impunity. It took Emily hours to calm down and days to be convinced to publish the poems. Charlotte envisaged a joint publication by the three sisters. Anne was easily won over to the project, and the work was shared, compared and edited.Once the poems had been chosen, nineteen for Charlotte and twenty-one each for Anne and Emily, Charlotte went about searching for a publisher. She took advice from William and Robert Chambers of Edinburgh, directors of one of their favourite magazines,Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. It is thought, although no documents exist to support the claim, that they advised the sisters to contact Aylott & Jones, a small publishing house at 8, Paternoster Row, London, who accepted, but at the authors' own risk since they felt the commercial risk to the company was too great.The work thus appeared in 1846, published using the male pseudonyms of Currer (Charlotte), Ellis (Emily) and Acton (Anne) Bell. These were very uncommon forenames but the initials of each of the sisters were preserved and the patronym could have been inspired by that of the vicar of the parish, Arthur Bell Nicholls. It was in fact on 18 May 1845 that he took up his duties at Haworth, at the moment when the publication project was well advanced. The book attracted hardly any attention. Only three copies were sold, of which one was purchased by Fredrick Enoch, a resident of Cornmarket, Warwick, who in admiration, wrote to the publisher to request an autograph—the only extant single document carrying the three authors' signatures in their pseudonyms,and they continued creating their prose, each one producing a book a year later. Each worked in secret,unceasingly discussing their writing for hours at the dinner table, after which their father would open the door at 9 p.m. with \\\"Don't stay up late, girls!\\\", then rewinding the clock and taking the stairs up to his room. Fame 1847 Charlotte'sJane Eyre, Emily'sWuthering Heightsand Anne'sAgnes Greyappeared in 1847 after many tribulations, again for reasons of finding a publisher. The packets containing the manuscripts were often returned to the parsonage and Charlotte simply added a new address; she did this at least a dozen times during the year.The first one was finally published by Smith, Elder & Co in London. The 23-year-old owner, George Smith, had specialised in publishing scientific revues, aided by his perspicacious reader William Smith Williams. Emily and Anne's manuscripts were confided toThomas Cautley Newby, who intended to compile athree-decker; more economical for sale and for loan in the \\\"circulating libraries\\\". The two first volumes includedWuthering Heightsand the third oneAgnes Grey. Both novels attracted critical acclaim, occasionally harsh aboutWuthering Heights, praised for the originality of the subject and its narrative style, but viewed with suspicion because of its outrageous violence and immorality—surely, the critics wrote, a work of a man with a depraved mind.Critics were fairly neutral aboutAgnes Grey, but more flattering forJane Eyre, which soon became abest-seller, despite some commentators denouncing it as an affront to good morals. Jane Eyreand rising fame The pseudonymous (Currer Bell) publication in 1847 ofJane Eyre, An Autobiographyestablished a dazzling reputation for Charlotte. In July 1848, Charlotte and Anne (Emily had refused to go along with them) travelled by train to London to prove toSmith, Elder & Co.that each sister was indeed an independent author, for Thomas Cautley Newby, the publisher ofWuthering HeightsandAgnes Grey, had launched a rumour that the three novels were the work of one author, understood to be Ellis Bell (Emily).George Smithwas extremely surprised to find two gawky, ill-dressed country girls paralysed with fear, who, to identify themselves, held out the letters addressed toMessrs. Acton, Currer and Ellis Bell. Taken by such surprise, he introduced them to his mother with all the dignity their talent merited, and invited them to the opera for a performance ofRossini'sBarber of Seville. Wuthering Heights Emily Brontë'sWuthering Heightswas published in 1847 under the masculine pseudonym Ellis Bell, by Thomas Cautley Newby, in two companion volumes to that of Anne's (Acton Bell),Agnes Grey.Controversial from the start of its release, its originality, its subject, narrative style and troubled action raised intrigue. Certain critics condemned it,but sales were nevertheless considerable for an unknown author of a novel that defied all conventions. It is a work of black Romanticism, covering three generations isolated in the cold spring of the countryside with two opposing elements: the dignified manor of Thrushcross Grange and the rambling dilapidated pile of Wuthering Heights. The main characters, swept by tumults of the earth, the skies and the hearts, are strange and often possessed of unheard-of violence and deprivations. The story is told in a scholarly fashion, with two narrators, the traveller and tenant Lockwood, and the housekeeper/governess, Nelly Dean, with two sections in the first person, one direct, one cloaked, which overlap each other with digressions and sub-plots that form, from apparently scattered fragments, a coherently locked unit. 1848, Anne'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall One year before her death in May 1849, Anne published a second novel. Far more ambitious than her previous novel,The Tenant of Wildfell Hallwas a great success and rapidly outsold Emily'sWuthering Heights. However, the critical reception was mixed—praise for the novel's \\\"power\\\" and \\\"effect\\\" and sharp criticism for being \\\"coarse\\\".Charlotte Brontëherself, Anne's sister, wrote to her publisher that it \\\"hardly seems to me desirable topreserve ... thechoice of subject in that work is a mistake.\\\"After Anne's death, Charlotte prevented the novel's republication and thus condemned her sister to temporary oblivion. The master theme is the alcoholism of a man who causes the downfall of his family. Helen Graham, the central character, gets married for love to Arthur Huntingdon, whom she soon discovers to be lecherous, violent and alcoholic. She is forced to break with the conventions that would keep her in the family home that has become hell, and to leave with her child to seek secret refuge in the old house of Wildfell Hall. When the alcohol causes her husband's ultimate decline, she returns to care for him in total abnegation until his death. Today,The Tenant of Wildfell Hallis considered by most of the critics to be one of the first sustainedfeministnovels. Identities revealed In 1850, a little over a year after the deaths of Emily and Anne, Charlotte wrote a preface for the re-print of the combined edition ofWuthering HeightsandAgnes Grey, in which she publicly revealed the real identities of all three sisters. Charlotte Brontë Denunciation of boarding schools (Jane Eyre) Conditions at the school at Cowan Bridge, where Maria and Elizabeth may have contracted the tuberculosis from which they died, were probably no worse than those at many other schools of the time. (For example, several decades before the Brontë sisters' experience at Cowan Bridge,Jane Austenand her sister Cassandra contracted typhus at a similar boarding school, and Jane nearly died. The Austen sisters' education, like that of the Brontë sisters, was continued at home.)Nevertheless, Charlotte blamed Cowan Bridge for her sisters' deaths, especially its poor medical care—chiefly, repeated emetics and blood-lettings—and the negligence of the school's doctor, who was the director's brother-in-law. Charlotte's vivid memories of the privations at Cowan Bridge were poured into her depiction of Lowood School inJane Eyre: the scanty and often spoiled food, the lack of heating and adequate clothing, the periodic epidemics of illness such as \\\"low fever\\\" (probably typhus), the severity and arbitrariness of the punishments, and even the harshness of particular teachers (a Miss Andrews who taught at Cowan Bridge is thought to have been Charlotte's model for Miss Scatcherd inJane Eyre).Elizabeth Gaskell, a personal friend and the first biographer of Charlotte, confirmed that Cowan Bridge was Charlotte's model for Lowood and insisted that conditions there in Charlotte's day were egregious. More recent biographers have argued that the food, clothing, heating, medical care and discipline at Cowan Bridge were not considered sub-standard for religious schools of the time, testaments of the era's complacency about these intolerable conditions.One scholar has commended Patrick Brontë for his perspicacity in removing all his daughters from the school, a few weeks before the deaths of Maria and Elizabeth. Literary encounters Following the overwhelming success ofJane Eyre, Charlotte was pressured by George Smith, her publisher, to travel to London to meet her public. Despite the extreme timidity that paralysed her among strangers and made her almost incapable of expressing herself,Charlotte consented to be lionised, and in London was introduced to other great writers of the era, includingHarriet MartineauandWilliam Makepeace Thackeray, both of whom befriended her. Charlotte especially admired Thackeray, whose portrait, given to her by Smith, still hangs in the dining room at Haworth parsonage. On one occasion during a public gathering, Thackeray introduced Charlotte to his mother asJane Eyreand when Charlotte called on him the next day, he received an extended dressing-down, in which Smith had to intervene. During her trip to London in 1851 she visited theGreat ExhibitionandThe Crystal Palace.In 1849 she publishedShirleyand in 1853Villette. Marriage and death The Brontë sisters were highly amused by the behaviour of the curates they met.Arthur Bell Nicholls(1818–1906) had been curate of Haworth for seven and a half years, when contrary to all expectations, and to the fury of Patrick Brontë (their father), he proposed to Charlotte. Although impressed by his dignity and deep voice, as well as by his near complete emotional collapse when she rejected him, she found him rigid, conventional and rather narrow-minded \\\"like all the curates\\\"—as she wrote to Ellen Nussey.After she declined his proposal, Nicholls, pursued by the anger of Patrick Brontë, left his functions for several months.However, little by little her feelings evolved and after slowly convincing her father, she finally married Nicholls on 29 June 1854. On return from their honeymoon in Ireland where she had been introduced to Mr. Nicholls' aunt and cousins, her life completely changed. She adopted her new duties as a wife, which took up most of her time. She wrote to her friends telling them that Nicholls was a good and attentive husband, but that she nevertheless felt a kind of holy terror at her new situation. In a letter to Ellen Nussey (Nell), in 1854 she wrote \\\"Indeed-indeed-Nell-it is a solemn and strange and perilous thing for a woman to become a wife.\\\" The following year she died aged 38. The cause of death given at the time was tuberculosis, but it may have been complicated with typhoid fever (the water at Haworth being likely contaminated due to poor sanitation and the vast cemetery that surrounded the church and the parsonage) andhyperemesis gravidarumfrom her pregnancy that was in its early stage. The first biography of Charlotte was written byElizabeth Cleghorn Gaskellat the request of Patrick Brontë, and published in 1857, helping to create the myth of a family of condemned genius, living in a painful and romantic solitude. After having stayed at Haworth several times and having accommodated Charlotte in Plymouth Grove, Manchester, and having become her friend and confidant, Mrs Gaskell certainly had the advantage of knowing the family. Novels Unfinished fragments These are outlines or unedited roughcasts which with the exception ofEmmahave been recently published. Branwell Brontë Patrick Branwell Brontë(1817–1848) was considered by his father and sisters to be a genius, while the book byDaphne du Maurier(1986),The Infernal World of Branwell Brontë, contains numerous references to his addiction to alcohol andlaudanum. He was an intelligent boy with many talents and interested in many subjects, especially literature. He was often the driving force in the Brontë siblings' construction of the imaginary worlds. He was artistic and was encouraged by his father to pursue this. While trying to make a name as an artist, he left for London, but used up his father's allowance in a matter of days in cafés of ill-repute.His attempts to obtain low-paid work failed,and very quickly he foundered in alcohol and laudanum, unable to regain his stability. Anne Brontë obtained employment for him in January 1843, but nearly three years later he was dismissed.In September 1848, after several years of decline, he died from tuberculosis. On his death, his father tearfully repeated, \\\"My brilliant boy\\\", while the clearheaded and totally loyal Emily wrote that his condition had been \\\"hopeless\\\". Branwell is the author ofJuvenilia, which he wrote as a child with his sister Charlotte,Glass Town,Angria, poems, pieces of prose and verse under the pseudonym of Northangerland,such as \\\"Real Rest\\\", published by theHalifax Guardian(8 November 1846)from several articles accepted by local newspapers and from an unfinished novel probably from around 1845 entitledAnd the Weary are at Rest. Emily Brontë Emily Brontë(1818–1848) has been called the \\\"Sphinxof Literature\\\", writing without the slightest desire for fame and only for her own satisfaction. She was obsessively timid outside the family circle, to the point of turning her back on her partners in conversation without saying a word. With a single novel,Wuthering Heights(1847), and poems with an elemental power, she reached the heights of literature. Though she was almost unknown during her life, posterity classes her as \\\"top level\\\" in the literary canonof English literature.Simone de Beauvoir, inThe Second Sex(1949), chooses onlyEmily Brontë,Virginia Woolfand (\\\"sometimes\\\")Mary Webb,ColetteandMansfield, as among those who have tried to approach nature \\\"in its inhuman freedom\\\". Above all, Emily loved to wander about the wild landscape of the moors around Haworth. In September 1848 her health began to decline rapidly.Consumptive, she refused all treatment,with the exception of a visit from a London doctor, because although it was already too late, her relatives insisted.Despite popular belief, Emily did not die on the dining room sofa. There is no contemporary evidence for the story and Charlotte, in her letter to William Smith Williams, mentions Emily's dog Keeper lying at the side of her death bed.It is possible that she left an unfinished manuscript that Charlotte burned to avoid such controversy as followed the publication ofWuthering Heights. Several documents exist that allude to the possibility, although no proof corroborating this suggestion has ever been found. Emily Brontë's poems Emily's poems were probably written to be inserted in the saga ofGondal, several of whose characters she identified with right into adulthood. At the age of 28 she still acted out scenes from the little books with Anne while travelling on the train to York.\\\"Remembrance\\\" was one of the 21 of her poems that were chosen for 1846 joint publication with her siblings'. Anne Brontë Anne was not as celebrated as her other two sisters. Her second novel,The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was prevented from being republished after Anne's death by her sister Charlotte, who wrote to her publisher that \\\"it hardly appears to me desirable to preserve. The choice of subject in that work is a mistake, it was too little consonant with the character, tastes and ideas of the gentle, retiring inexperienced writer.\\\" This prevention is considered to be the main reason for Anne's being less renowned than her sisters. Anne's health began to decline rapidly, like that of her brother and sister some months earlier. On 5 April 1849, she wrote to Ellen Nussey asking her to accompany her to Scarborough on the east coast. Anne confides her thoughts to Ellen: I have no horror of death: if I thought it inevitable I think I could quietly resign myself to the prospect ... But I wish it would please God to spare me not only for Papa's and Charlotte's sakes, but because I long to do some good in the world before I leave it. I have many schemes in my head for future practise—humble and limited indeed—but still I should not like them all to come to nothing, and myself to have lived to so little purpose. But God's will be done. Anne hoped that the sea air would improve her health, as recommended by the doctor, and Charlotte agreed to go. On the Sunday morning she felt weaker and asked if she could be taken back to Haworth. The doctor confirmed that she was near to death and Anne thanked him for his candour. \\\"Take courage, take courage\\\" she murmured to Charlotte. She died at 2 pm on Monday 28 May. She is buried in the cemetery of St Mary's of Scarborough.Her gravestone inscription carried an error in her age: she died at the age of 29 and not at 28. It was noticed by Charlotte during her only visit, and she had the intention of asking the mason to correct it. Ill health did not leave him time to effect the repair and the tombstone remained in the same state until it was replaced by the Brontë Society in April 2013. Northern England at the time of the Brontës In her 1857 biographyThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, Mrs Gaskell begins with two explanatory and descriptive chapters. The first one covers the wild countryside of theWest Riding of Yorkshire, the little village of Haworth, the parsonage and the church surrounded by its vast cemetery perched on the top of a hill. The second chapter presents an overview of the social, sanitary and economic conditions of the region. Social, sanitary and economic conditions in Haworth The death toll within the Brontë family was not unusual for the area, and left little impression on the village population, who were confronted with death on a daily basis. When Patrick Brontë arrived, the parish was suffering from unemployment. The men sought work in the quarries and local handicrafts. The only businesses were the pharmacy, which supplied Branwell, and John Greenwood's stationery store where the Brontës were the best customers. Haworth's population grew rapidly during the first half of the 19th century, from hardly 1,000 to 3,365 in 50 years.The village did not have a sewage system and the well water was contaminated by faecal matter and the decomposition of bodies in the cemetery on the hilltop.Life expectancywas less than 25 years and infant mortality was around 41% for children under six months of age.Most of the population lived by working the poorly fertile land of themoorsand supplemented their incomes with work done at home, such as spinning and weaving wool from the sheep that were farmed on the moors.Conditions changedwhen the textile industry, already present since the end of the 17th century, grew with the mills being located on the banks of theRiver Worth, whose waters turned the wheels. Consequently fewer people were needed to work them. Food was scarce, often little more thanporridge, resulting in vitamin deficiencies. Public hygiene was non-existent and lavatories were basic. The facilities at the parsonage were no more than a plank across a hole in a hut at the rear, with a lower plank for the children. In her thirties, Charlotte was described as having a toothless jaw by such persons as Mrs Gaskell, who stated in a letter dated 25 August 1850 to Catherine Winkworth: \\\"large mouth and many teeth gone\\\".However, food was reasonably plentiful in the family. They ate from well filled plates of porridge in the morning and piles of potatoes were peeled each day in the kitchen while Tabby told stories about her country, or Emily revised her German grammar. Sometimes Mr Brontë would return home from his tours of the village with game donated by the parishioners. Role of the women According toRobert Southey, poet laureate, in his response to Charlotte, ladies from a good background should be content with an education and a marriage embellished with some decorative talents.Mr Patrick Brontë had one of the characters in hisThe Maid of Kilarney—without knowing whether it reflected a widespread opinion supporting or condemning it—say, \\\"The education of female ought, most assuredly, to be competent, in order that she might enjoy herself, and be a fit companion for man. But, believe me, lovely, delicate and sprightly woman, is not formed by nature, to pore over the musty pages of Grecian and Roman literature, or to plod through the windings of Mathematical Problems, nor has Providence assigned for her sphere of action, either the cabinet or the field. Herforteis softness, tenderness and grace.\\\" In any case, it seemed to contradict his attitude towards his daughters whom he encouraged, even if he was not completely aware of what they did with their time. Sisters' place in literature Due to their forced or voluntary isolation, the Brontë sisters constituted a separate literary group that neither had predecessors nor successors. There is not a 'Brontë' line such as exists among authors of realist and naturalist novels, or in poetry, the romantic and the symbolic. Their influence certainly existed, but it is difficult to define in its totality. Writers who followed them doubtlessly thought about them while they were creating their dark and tormented worlds such asThomas HardyinJude the ObscureorTess of the d'Urbervilles, orGeorge EliotwithAdam BedeandThe Mill on the Floss.There were also more conventional authors such asMatthew Arnold, who in a letter from 1853 says of Charlotte that she only pretends to heartlessness: \\\"nothing but hunger, rebellion and rage\\\".In contrast,Mrs Humphry Ward, author ofRobert Elsmereand other morality novels, only finds the didactic among the works of Charlotte, while she appreciates the happy blend of romance and realism in the works of Emily.There is however nothing that could constitute a literary vein. Pilgrimages to Haworth from 1860 By 1860 Charlotte had been dead for five years, and the only people living at the parsonage were Mr. Brontë, his son-in-law,Arthur Bell Nicholls, and two servants. In 1857 Mrs. Gaskell's biography of Charlotte was published, and though at its first reading, Mr. Brontë approved of its commissioning, several months later he expressed doubts. The portrait of Nicholls, founded partly on the confidence of Ellen Nussey, seemed to him to be unjustified. Ellen Nussey, who hated Arthur, insists that his marital claims had perverted Charlotte's writing and she had to struggle against an interruption of her career. It is true that Arthur found Nussey to be too close to his wife, and he insisted that she should destroy her letters—although this never actually happened. Mrs. Gaskell's book caused a sensation and was distributed nationwide. The polemic launched by Charlotte's father resulted in a squabble that only served to increase the family's fame. During Charlotte's lifetime friends and sponsors visited the parsonage, includingSir Jamesand Lady Kay Shuttleworth,Ellen Nussey,Elizabeth Gaskell,John Store Smith, a young writer from Manchester,Bessie Parkes, who recounted her visit to Mrs. Gaskell, andAbraham Holroyd, poet, antiquarian and historian.However, following the publication of the book and the pastor's public remonstrations, the parsonage became a place of pilgrimage for admirers wanting to see it with their own eyes. Charlotte's husband recalled that he had to protect his father-in-law, when on the short path to the church they had to push their way through the crowds of people wanting to reach out and touch the cape of the father of the Brontë girls.The hundreds of visitors became thousands, coming from all over Britain and even from across the Atlantic. Whenever he agreed to meet them, Patrick received them with utmost courtesy and recounted the story of his brilliant daughters, never omitting to express his displeasure at the opinions held about Charlotte's husband. The flow of visitors has never abated. Indeed, the parsonage at Haworth received an estimated 88,000 visitors in 2017. Brontë Society TheBrontë Parsonage Museumis managed and maintained by theBrontë Society,which organises exhibitions and takes care of the cultural heritage represented by objects and documents that belonged to the family. The society has branches in Australia, Canada, France, Ireland, theScandinaviancountries, South Africa and the USA. Haworth In 1904,Virginia Woolfvisited Haworth and published an account inThe Guardianon 21 December. She remarked on the symbiosis between the village and the Brontë sisters, and on the fact that utensils and clothes that would normally have disappeared before those who used them, have survived, enables one to better understand their singular presence. She wrote: \\\"Haworth expresses the Brontës; the Brontës express Haworth; they fit like a snail to its shell\\\". Brontë Birthplace The sisters' birthplace in Thornton has been acquired by acommunity benefit societyto preserve it, and as of 2024there are plans to restore the house for use as a \\\"social and educational space\\\". Brontë Stones In a 2018 project curated and delivered byUniversity of Huddersfieldacademic and writer Michael Stewart and theBradford Literature Festival, four specially-commissioned poems are inscribed on four stones set in the area between the sisters' birthplace and the Haworth parsonage.The Anne Stone has a poem byJackie Kayand stands in a wildflower meadow behind the Haworth Parsonage; the Charlotte Stone, with a poem byCarol Ann Duffy, is set in the wall of theBrontë Birthplacein Thornton; Emily is remembered in a poem byKate Bush, known for her 1978 song \\\"Wuthering Heights\\\", which is carved into a rock outcrop of Ogden Kirk on wild moorland aboveOgden Water; and a fourth stone, the Brontë Stone, commemorates all three sisters with a poem byJeanette Wintersonand stands in Thornton Cemetery.There are various published walks around the stones, including the 15 mi (24 km) Emily Brontë Walk which is recognised by theLong Distance Walkers Association.The Brontë Stones Project was found to have \\\"increased local engagement with the landscape, regenerated and preserved ancient public rights of ways, and provided an important stimulus to cultural tourism, contributing to the quality of the tourist experience\\\". Commemoration in Westminster Abbey A plaque to the three Brontë sisters was erected inPoets' CornerinWestminster Abbeyon 8 October 1939, although it was not marked with any ceremony, due to the outbreak of the Second World War. A formal unveiling took place in 1947 but it took until 2024 for the lack ofdiaeresisover the final e in their names to be noticed and corrected. Descendants The line of Patrick Brontë died out with his children, but Patrick's brother had notable descendants, includingJames Brontë Gatenby, whose most important work was studyingGolgi bodiesin various animals, including humans, andPeter Gatenby, formerly the medical director of the UN. In popular culture Books, comics and graphic novels Cinema Dance Music Objects in outer space Opera Sport Stage productions Television References Informational notes Citations Bibliography External links\",\n \"Jane Austen Jane Austen(/ˈɒstɪn,ˈɔːstɪn/OST-in,AW-stin; 16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an English novelist known primarily for her six novels, which implicitly interpret, critique, and comment upon the Britishlanded gentryat the end of the 18th century. Austen's plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage for the pursuit of favourable social standing and economic security. Her works are implicit critiques of thenovels of sensibilityof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-centuryliterary realism.Her use of social commentary, realism, and irony have earned her acclaim amongst critics and scholars. The anonymously publishedSense and Sensibility(1811),Pride and Prejudice(1813),Mansfield Park(1814), andEmma(1816) were modest successes, but they brought her little fame in her lifetime. She wrote two other novels—Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion, both published posthumously in 1817—and began another, eventually titledSanditon, but it was left unfinished upon her death. She also left behind three volumes of juvenile writings in manuscript, the shortepistolary novelLady Susan, and the unfinished novelThe Watsons. Since her death Austen's novels have rarely been out of print. A significant transition in her reputation occurred in 1833, when they were republished inRichard Bentley's Standard Novels series (illustrated by Ferdinand Pickering and sold as a set). They gradually gained wide acclaim and popular readership. In 1869, fifty-two years after her death, her nephew's publication ofA Memoir of Jane Austenintroduced a compelling version of her writing career and her supposedly uneventful life to an eager audience. Her work has inspired a large number of critical essays and has been included in many literary anthologies. Her novels have also inspired many films, including 1940'sPride and Prejudice, 1995'sSense and Sensibility, and 2016'sLove & Friendship. Biographical sources The scant biographical information about Austen comes from her few surviving letters and sketches her family members wrote about her.Only about 160 of the approximately 3,000 letters Austen wrote have survived and been published.Cassandra Austendestroyed the bulk of the letters she received from her sister, burning or otherwise destroying them. She wanted to ensure that the \\\"younger nieces did not read any of Jane's sometimes acid or forthright comments on neighbours or family members\\\".In the interest of protecting reputations from Jane's penchant for honesty and forthrightness, Cassandra omitted details of illnesses, unhappiness and anything she considered unsavoury.Important details about the Austen family were elided by intention, such as any mention of Austen's brother George, whose undiagnosed developmental challenges led the family to send him away from home; the two brothers sent away to the navy at an early age; or wealthy Aunt Leigh-Perrot, arrested and tried on charges of larceny. The first Austen biography wasHenry Thomas Austen's 1818 \\\"Biographical Notice\\\". It appeared in a posthumous edition ofNorthanger Abbeyand included extracts from two letters, against the judgement of other family members. Details of Austen's life continued to be omitted or embellished in her nephew'sA Memoir of Jane Austen, published in 1869, and in William and Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh's biographyJane Austen: Her Life and Letters, published in 1913, all of which included additional letters.Austen's family and relatives built a legend of \\\"good quiet Aunt Jane\\\", portraying her as a woman in a happy domestic situation, whose family was the mainstay of her life. Modern biographers include details excised from the letters and family biographies, but the biographer Jan Fergus writes that the challenge is to keep the view balanced, not to present her languishing in periods of deep unhappiness as \\\"an embittered, disappointed woman trapped in a thoroughly unpleasant family\\\". Life Family Jane Austen was born inSteventon, Hampshireon 16 December 1775. Her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother \\\"certainly expected to have been brought to bed a month ago\\\". He added that the newborn infant was \\\"a present plaything for Cassy and a future companion\\\".The winter of 1775-1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the local church and christened Jane. Her father,George Austen(1731–1805), served as therectorof the Anglican parishes of Steventon andDeane.The Reverend Austen came from an old and wealthy family of wool merchants. As each generation ofeldest sonsreceived inheritances, George's branch of the family fell into poverty. He and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. In 1745, at the age of fifteen, George Austen's sisterPhiladelphiawas apprenticed to amillinerinCovent Garden.At the age of sixteen, George enteredSt John's College, Oxford,where he most likely met Cassandra Leigh (1739–1827).She came from the prominentLeigh family. Her father was rector atAll Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry. Her eldest brother James inherited a fortune and large estate from his great-aunt Perrot, with the only condition that hechange his nameto Leigh-Perrot. George Austen and Cassandra Leigh were engaged, probably around 1763, when they exchangedminiatures.He received thelivingof the Steventon parish from Thomas Knight, the wealthy husband of his second cousin.They married on 26 April 1764 atSt Swithin's ChurchinBath, bylicense, in a simple ceremony, two months after Cassandra's father died.Their income was modest, with George's smallper annumliving; Cassandra brought to the marriage the expectation of a small inheritance at the time of her mother's death. After the living at the nearby Deane rectory had been purchased for George by his wealthy uncle Francis Austen,the Austens took up temporary residence there, until Steventon rectory, a 16th-century house in disrepair, underwent necessary renovations. Cassandra gave birth to three children while living at Deane:Jamesin 1765, George in 1766, andEdwardin 1767.Her custom was to keep an infant at home for several months and then place it with Elizabeth Littlewood, a woman living nearby tonurseand raise for twelve to eighteen months. Steventon In 1768, the family finally took up residence in Steventon.Henrywas the first child to be born there, in 1771.At about this time, Cassandra could no longer ignore the signs that little George wasdevelopmentally disabled. He had seizures and may have been deaf and mute. At this time she chose to send him to be fostered.In 1773,Cassandrawas born, followed byFrancisin 1774, and Jane in 1775. According to the biographerPark Honanthe Austen home had an \\\"open, amused, easy intellectual atmosphere\\\", in which the ideas of those with whom members of the Austen family might disagree politically or socially were considered and discussed. The family relied on the patronage of their kin and hosted visits from numerous family members.Mrs Austen spent the summer of 1770 in London with George's sister, Philadelphia, and her daughterEliza, accompanied by his other sister, Mrs. Walter and her daughter Philly.Philadelphia and Eliza Hancock were, according to Le Faye, \\\"the bright comets flashing into an otherwise placid solar system of clerical life in ruralHampshire, and the news of their foreign travels and fashionable London life, together with their sudden descents upon the Steventon household in between times, all helped to widen Jane's youthful horizon and influence her later life and works.\\\" Cassandra Austen's cousin Thomas Leigh visited a number of times in the 1770s and 1780s, inviting young Cassie to visit them inBathin 1781. The first mention of Jane occurs in family documents upon her return, \\\"... and almost home they were when they met Jane & Charles, the two little ones of the family, who had to go as far as New Down to meet thechaise, & have the pleasure of riding home in it.\\\"Le Faye writes that \\\"Mr Austen's predictions for his younger daughter were fully justified. Never were sisters more to each other than Cassandra and Jane; while in a particularly affectionate family, there seems to have been a special link between Cassandra and Edward on the one hand, and between Henry and Jane on the other.\\\" From 1773 until 1796, George Austen supplemented his income by farming and by teaching three or four boys at a time, who boarded at his home.The Reverend Austen had an annual income of £200 (equivalent to £32,000 in 2023) from his two livings.This was a very modest income at the time; by comparison, a skilled worker like a blacksmith or a carpenter could make about £100 annually while the typical annual income of a gentry family was between £1,000 and £5,000.Mr. Austen also rented the 200-acre Cheesedown farm from his benefactor Thomas Knight which could make a profit of £300 (equivalent to £48,000 in 2023) a year. During this period of her life, Jane Austen attended church regularly, socialised with friends and neighbours,and read novels—often of her own composition—aloud to her family in the evenings. Socialising with the neighbours often meant dancing, either impromptu in someone's home after supper or at the balls held regularly at theassembly roomsin the town hall.Her brother Henry later said that \\\"Jane was fond of dancing, and excelled in it\\\". Education In 1783 Austen and her sister Cassandra were sent toOxfordto be educated by Ann Cawley who took them toSouthamptonlater that year. That autumn both girls were sent home after catchingtyphus, of which Jane nearly died.She was from then home-educated, until she attended boarding school with her sister from early in 1785 at theReading Abbey Girls' School, ruled by Mrs La Tournelle.The curriculum probably included French, spelling, needlework, dancing, music and drama. The sisters returned home before December 1786 because the school fees for the two girls were too high for the Austen family.After 1786 Austen \\\"never again lived anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment\\\". Her education came from reading, guided by her father and brothers James and Henry.Irene Collinssaid that Austen \\\"used some of the same school books as the boys\\\".Austen apparently had unfettered access both to her father's library and that of a family friend,Warren Hastings. Together these collections amounted to a large and varied library. Her father was also tolerant of Austen's sometimes risqué experiments in writing, and provided both sisters with expensive paper and other materials for their writing and drawing. Private theatricals were an essential part of Austen's education. From her early childhood, the family and friends staged a series of plays in therectorybarn, includingRichard Sheridan'sThe Rivals(1775) andDavid Garrick'sBon Ton. Austen's eldest brother James wrote the prologues and epilogues and she probably joined in these activities, first as a spectator and later as a participant.Most of the plays were comedies, which suggests how Austen's satirical gifts were cultivated.At the age of 12, she tried her own hand at dramatic writing; she wrote three short plays during her teenage years. Juvenilia(1787–1793) From at least the time she was aged eleven, Austen wrote poems and stories to amuse herself and her family.She exaggerated mundane details of daily life and parodied common plot devices in \\\"stories full of anarchic fantasies of female power, licence, illicit behaviour, and general high spirits\\\", according toJanet Todd.Containing work written between 1787 and 1793, the juvenilia (or childhood writings) that Austen compiledfair copiesconsisted of twenty-nine early works into three bound notebooks, now referred to as theJuvenilia.She called the three notebooks \\\"Volume the First\\\", \\\"Volume the Second\\\" and \\\"Volume the Third\\\", and they preserve 90,000 words she wrote during those years.TheJuveniliaare often, according to scholar Richard Jenkyns, \\\"boisterous\\\" and \\\"anarchic\\\"; he compares them to the work of 18th-century novelistLaurence Sterne. Among these works is a satirical novel in letters titledLove and Freindship, written when aged fourteen in 1790,in which she mocked popularnovels of sensibility.The next year, she wroteThe History of England, a manuscript of thirty-four pages accompanied by thirteen watercolour miniatures by her sister, Cassandra. Austen'sHistoryparodied popular historical writing, particularlyOliver Goldsmith'sHistory of England(1764).Honan speculates that not long after writingLove and Freindship, Austen decided to \\\"write for profit, to make stories her central effort\\\", that is, to become a professional writer. When she was around eighteen years old, Austen began to write longer, more sophisticated works. In August 1792, aged seventeen, Austen startedCatharine or the Bower, which presaged her mature work, especiallyNorthanger Abbey, but was left unfinished until picked up inLady Susan, which Todd describes as less prefiguring thanCatharine.A year later she began, but abandoned, a short play, later titledSir Charles Grandison or the happy Man, a comedy in 6 acts, which she returned to and completed around 1800. This was a short parody of various school textbook abridgements of Austen's favourite contemporary novel,The History of Sir Charles Grandison(1753), bySamuel Richardson. When Austen became an aunt for the first time aged eighteen, she sent new-born nieceFanny Catherine Austen Knight\\\"five short pieces of ... the Juvenilia now known collectively as 'Scraps' .., purporting to be her 'Opinions and Admonitions on the conduct of Young Women'\\\". For Jane-Anna-Elizabeth Austen (also born in 1793), her aunt wrote \\\"two more 'Miscellanious Morsels', dedicating them to on 2 June 1793, 'convinced that if you seriously attend to them, You will derive from them very important Instructions, with regard to your Conduct in Life.'\\\"There is manuscript evidence that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as 1811 (when she was 36), and that her niece and nephew, Anna and James Edward Austen, made further additions as late as 1814. Between 1793 and 1795 (aged eighteen to twenty), Austen wroteLady Susan, a shortepistolary novel, usually described as her most ambitious and sophisticated early work.It is unlike any of Austen's other works. Austen biographerClaire Tomalindescribes the novella's heroine as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate, betray and abuse her lovers, friends and family. Tomalin writes: Told in letters, it is as neatly plotted as a play, and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of theRestoration dramatistswho may have provided some of her inspiration ... It stands alone in Austen's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters. According to Janet Todd, the model for the title character may have beenEliza de Feuillide, who inspired Austen with stories of her glamorous life and various adventures. Eliza's French husband was guillotined in 1794; she married Jane's brother Henry Austen in 1797. Tom Lefroy When Austen was twenty,Tom Lefroy, a neighbour, visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796. He had just finished a university degree and was moving to London for training as abarrister. Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering, and it is clear from Austen's letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together: \\\"I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved. Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together.\\\" Austen wrote in her first surviving letter to her sister Cassandra that Lefroy was a \\\"very gentlemanlike, good-looking, pleasant young man\\\".Five days later in another letter, Austen wrote that she expected an \\\"offer\\\" from her \\\"friend\\\" and that \\\"I shall refuse him, however, unless he promises to give away his white coat\\\", going on to write \\\"I will confide myself in the future to Mr Tom Lefroy, for whom I don't give a sixpence\\\" and refuse all others.The next day, Austen wrote: \\\"The day will come on which I flirt my last with Tom Lefroy and when you receive this it will be all over. My tears flow as I write at this melancholy idea\\\". Halperin cautioned that Austen often satirised popular sentimental romantic fiction in her letters, and some of the statements about Lefroy may have been ironic. However, it is clear that Austen was genuinely attracted to Lefroy and subsequently none of her other suitors ever quite measured up to him.The Lefroy family intervened and sent him away at the end of January. Marriage was impractical as both Lefroy and Austen must have known. Neither had any money, and he was dependent on agreat-unclein Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career. If Tom Lefroy later visited Hampshire, he was carefully kept away from the Austens, and Jane Austen never saw him again.In November 1798, Lefroy was still on Austen's mind as she wrote to her sister she had tea with one of his relatives, wanted desperately to ask about him, but could not bring herself to raise the subject. Early manuscripts (1796–1798) After finishingLady Susan, Austen began her first full-length novelElinor and Marianne. Her sister remembered that it was read to the family \\\"before 1796\\\" and was told through a series of letters. Without surviving original manuscripts, there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published anonymously in 1811 asSense and Sensibility. Austen began a second novel,First Impressions(later published asPride and Prejudice), in 1796. She completed the initial draft in August 1797, aged 21; as with all of her novels, Austen read the work aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an \\\"established favourite\\\".At this time, her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels. In November 1797, George Austen wrote toThomas Cadell, an established publisher in London, to ask if he would consider publishingFirst Impressions. Cadell returned Mr. Austen's letter, marking it \\\"Declined by Return of Post\\\". Austen may not have known of her father's efforts.Following the completion ofFirst Impressions, Austen returned toElinor and Marianneand from November 1797 until mid-1798, revised it heavily; she eliminated theepistolaryformat in favour ofthird-person narrationand produced something close toSense and Sensibility.In 1797, Austen met her cousin (and future sister-in-law),Eliza de Feuillide, a French aristocrat whose first husband the Comte de Feuillide had been guillotined, causing her to flee to Britain, where she married Henry Austen.The description of the execution of the Comte de Feuillide related by his widow left Austen with an intense horror of theFrench Revolutionthat lasted for the rest of her life. During the middle of 1798, after finishing revisions ofElinor and Marianne, Austen began writing a third novel with the working titleSusan—laterNorthanger Abbey—a satire on the popularGothic novel.Austen completed her work about a year later. In early 1803, Henry Austen offeredSusanto Benjamin Crosby, a London publisher, who paid £10 for the copyright. Crosby promised early publication and went so far as to advertise the book publicly as being \\\"in the press\\\", but did nothing more.The manuscript remained in Crosby's hands, unpublished, until Austen repurchased the copyright from him in 1816. Bath and Southampton In December 1800, George Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry, leave Steventon, and move the family to 4,Sydney PlaceinBath, Somerset.While retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens, Jane Austen was shocked to be told she was moving 50 miles (80 km) away from the only home she had ever known.An indication of her state of mind is her lack of productivity as a writer during the time she lived in Bath. She was able to make some revisions toSusan, and she began and then abandoned a new novel,The Watsons, but there was nothing like the productivity of the years 1795–1799.Tomalin suggests this reflects a deep depression disabling her as a writer, but Honan disagrees, arguing Austen wrote or revised her manuscripts throughout her creative life, except for a few months after her father died.It is often claimed that Austen was unhappy in Bath, which caused her to lose interest in writing, but it is just as possible that Austen's social life in Bath prevented her from spending much time writing novels.The critic Robert Irvine argued that if Austen spent more time writing novels when she was in the countryside, it might just have been because she had more spare time as opposed to being more happy in the countryside as is often argued.Furthermore, Austen frequently both moved and travelled over southern England during this period, which was hardly a conducive environment for writing a long novel.Austen sold the rights to publishSusanto a publisher Crosby & Company, who paid her £10 (equivalent to £1,020 in 2023).The Crosby & Company advertisedSusan, but never published it. The years from 1801 to 1804 are something of a blank space for Austen scholars as Cassandra destroyed all of her letters from her sister in this period for unknown reasons.In December 1802, Austen received her only known proposal of marriage. She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg, old friends who lived nearBasingstoke. Their younger brother, Harris Bigg-Wither, had recently finished his education at Oxford and was also at home. Bigg-Wither proposed and Austen accepted. As described by Caroline Austen, Jane's niece, and Reginald Bigg-Wither, a descendant, Harris was not attractive—he was a large, plain-looking man who spoke little, stuttered when he did speak, was aggressive in conversation, and almost completely tactless. However, Austen had known him since both were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to Austen and her family. He was the heir to extensive family estates located in the area where the sisters had grown up. With these resources, Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age, give Cassandra a permanent home and, perhaps, assist her brothers in their careers. By the next morning, Austen realised she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance.No contemporary letters or diaries describe how Austen felt about this proposal.Irvine described Bigg-Wither as somebody who \\\"...seems to have been a man very hard to like, let alone love\\\". In 1814, Austen wrote a letter to her niece Fanny Knight, who had asked for advice about a serious relationship, telling her that \\\"having written so much on one side of the question, I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther, & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him. Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection\\\".The English scholar Douglas Bush wrote that Austen had \\\"had a very high ideal of the love that should unite a husband and wife ... All of her heroines ... know in proportion to their maturity, the meaning of ardent love\\\".A possible autobiographical element inSense and Sensibilityoccurs whenElinor Dashwoodcontemplates \\\"the worse and most irremediable of all evils, a connection for life\\\" with an unsuitable man. In 1804, while living in Bath, Austen started, but did not complete, her novelThe Watsons. The story centres on an invalid and impoverished clergyman and his four unmarried daughters. Sutherland describes the novel as \\\"a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women's lives\\\".Honan suggests, and Tomalin agrees, that Austen chose to stop work on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for her comfort. Her father's relatively sudden death left Jane, Cassandra, and their mother in a precarious financial situation. Edward, James, Henry, and Francis Austen (known as Frank) pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters.For the next four years, the family's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity. They spent part of the time in rented quarters in Bath before leaving the city in June 1805 for a family visit to Steventon andGodmersham. They moved for the autumn months to the newly fashionable seaside resort ofWorthing, on theSussex coast, where they resided at Stanford Cottage.It was here that Austen is thought to have written her fair copy ofLady Susanand added its \\\"Conclusion\\\". In 1806, the family moved toSouthampton, where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife. A large part of this time they spent visiting various branches of the family. On 5 April 1809, about three months before the family's move toChawton, Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby, offering him a new manuscript ofSusanif needed to secure the immediate publication of the novel, and requesting the return of the original so she could find another publisher. Crosby replied that he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time, or at all, and that Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the £10 he had paid her and find another publisher. She did not have the resources to buy the copyright back at that time,but was able to purchase it in 1816. Chawton Around early 1809, Austen's brother Edward offered his mother and sisters a more settled life—the use of a large cottage inChawtonvillagewhich was part of the estate around Edward's nearby propertyChawton House. Jane, Cassandra and their mother moved intoChawton cottageon 7 July 1809.Life was quieter in Chawton than it had been since the family's move to Bath in 1800. The Austens did not socialise withgentryand entertained only when family visited. Her niece Anna described the family's life in Chawton as \\\"a very quiet life, according to our ideas, but they were great readers, and besides the housekeeping our aunts occupied themselves in working with the poor and in teaching some girl or boy to read or write.\\\" Published author Like many women authors at the time, Austen published her books anonymously.At the time, the ideal roles for a woman were as wife and mother, and writing for women was regarded at best as a secondary form of activity; a woman who wished to be a full-time writer was felt to be degrading her femininity, so books by women were usually published anonymously in order to maintain the conceit that the female writer was only publishing as a sort of part-time job, and was not seeking to become a \\\"literary lioness\\\" (i.e. a celebrity).Another reason noted is that the novel was still seen as a lesser form of literature at the time compared with poetry, and many female and male authors published novels anonymously, whereas works of poetry, by both female and male writers were almost always attributed to the author. During her time at Chawton, Austen published four generally well-received novels. Through her brother Henry, the publisherThomas Egertonagreed to publishSense and Sensibility, which, like all of Austen's novels exceptPride and Prejudice, was published \\\"on commission\\\", that is, at the author's financial risk. When publishing on commission, publishers would advance the costs of publication, repay themselves as books were sold and then charge a 10% commission for each book sold, paying the rest to the author. If a novel did not recover its costs through sales, the author was responsible for them.The alternative to selling via commission was by selling the copyright, where an author received a one-time payment from the publisher for the manuscript, which occurred withPride and Prejudice.Austen's experience withSusan(the manuscript that becameNorthanger Abbey) where she sold the copyright to the publisher Crosby & Sons for £10, who did not publish the book, forcing her to buy back the copyright in order to get her work published, left Austen leery of this method of publishing.The final alternative, of selling by subscription, where a group of people would agree to buy a book in advance, was not an option for Austen as only authors who were well known or had an influential aristocratic patron who would recommend an up-coming book to their friends, could sell by subscription.Sense and Sensibilityappeared in October 1811, and was described as being written \\\"By a Lady\\\".As it was sold on commission, Egerton used expensive paper and set the price at 15 shillings (equivalent to £69 in 2023). Reviews were favourable and the novel became fashionable among young aristocratic opinion-makers;the edition sold out by mid-1813. Austen's novels were published in larger editions than was normal for this period. The small size of the novel-reading public and the large costs associated with hand production (particularly the cost of handmade paper) meant that most novels were published in editions of 500 copies or fewer to reduce the risks to the publisher and the novelist. Even some of the most successful titles during this period were issued in editions of not more than 750 or 800 copies and later reprinted if demand continued. Austen's novels were published in larger editions, ranging from about 750 copies ofSense and Sensibilityto about 2,000 copies ofEmma. It is not clear whether the decision to print more copies than usual of Austen's novels was driven by the publishers or the author. Since all but one of Austen's books were originally published \\\"on commission\\\", the risks of overproduction were largely hers (or Cassandra's after her death) and publishers may have been more willing to produce larger editions than was normal practice when their own funds were at risk. Editions of popular works of non-fiction were often much larger. Austen made £140 (equivalent to £12,800 in 2023) fromSense and Sensibility,which provided her with some financial and psychological independence.After the success ofSense and Sensibility, all of Austen's subsequent books were billed as written \\\"By the author ofSense and Sensibility\\\" and Austen's name never appeared on her books during her lifetime.Egerton then publishedPride and Prejudice, a revision ofFirst Impressions, in January 1813. Austen sold the copyright toPride and Prejudiceto Egerton for £110 (equivalent to £9,100 in 2023).To maximise profits, he used cheap paper and set the price at 18 shillings (equivalent to £74 in 2023).He advertised the book widely and it was an immediate success, garnering three favourable reviews and selling well. Had Austen soldPride and Prejudiceon commission, she would have made a profit of £475, or twice her father's annual income.By October 1813, Egerton was able to begin selling a second edition.Mansfield Parkwas published by Egerton in May 1814. WhileMansfield Parkwas ignored by reviewers, it was very popular with readers. All copies were sold within six months, and Austen's earnings on this novel were larger than for any of her other novels. Without Austen's knowledge or approval, her novels were translated into French and published in cheaply produced, pirated editions in France.: 1–2The literary critic Noel King commented in 1953 that, given the prevailing rage in France at the time for lush romantic fantasies, it was remarkable that her novels with the emphasis on everyday English life had any sort of a market in France.: 2King cautioned that Austen's chief translator in France, MadameIsabelle de Montolieu, had only the most rudimentary knowledge of English, and her translations were more of \\\"imitations\\\" than translations proper, as Montolieu depended upon assistants to provide a summary, which she then translated into an embellished French that often radically altered Austen's plots and characters.: 5–6The first of the Austen novels to be published that credited her as the author was in France, whenPersuasionwas published in 1821 asLa Famille Elliot ou L'Ancienne Inclination.: 5 Austen learned that thePrince Regentadmired her novels and kept a set at each of his residences.In November 1815, the Prince Regent's librarianJames Stanier Clarkeinvited Austen to visit the Prince's London residence and hinted Austen should dedicate the forthcomingEmmato the Prince. Though Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent, she could scarcely refuse the request.Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent on the account of his womanising, gambling, drinking, spendthrift ways, and generally disreputable behaviour.She later wrotePlan of a Novel, according to Hints from Various Quarters, a satiric outline of the \\\"perfect novel\\\" based on the librarian's many suggestions for a future Austen novel.Austen was greatly annoyed by Clarke's often pompous literary advice, and thePlan of a Novelparodying Clarke was intended as her revenge for all the unwanted letters she had received from the royal librarian. In mid-1815 Austen moved her work from Egerton toJohn Murray, a better-known publisher in London,who publishedEmmain December 1815 and a second edition ofMansfield Parkin February 1816.Emmasold well, but the new edition ofMansfield Parkdid poorly, and this failure offset most of the income fromEmma. These were the last of Austen's novels to be published during her lifetime. While Murray preparedEmmafor publication, Austen beganThe Elliots, later published asPersuasion. She completed her first draft in July 1816. In addition, shortly after the publication ofEmma, Henry Austen repurchased the copyright forSusanfrom Crosby. Austen was forced to postpone publishing either of these completed novels by family financial troubles. Henry Austen's bank failed in March 1816, depriving him of all of his assets, leaving him deeply in debt and costing Edward, James, and Frank Austen large sums. Henry and Frank could no longer afford the contributions they had made to support their mother and sisters. Illness and death Austen was feeling unwell by early 1816, but ignored the warning signs. By the middle of that year, her decline was unmistakable, and she began a slow, irregular deterioration.The majority of biographers rely onZachary Cope's 1964retrospective diagnosisand list her cause of death asAddison's disease, although her final illness has also been described as resulting fromHodgkin's lymphoma.When her uncle died and left his entire fortune to his wife, effectively disinheriting his relatives, she suffered a relapse, writing: \\\"I am ashamed to say that the shock of my Uncle's Will brought on a relapse ... but a weak Body must excuse weak Nerves.\\\" Austen continued to work in spite of her illness. Dissatisfied with the ending ofThe Elliots, she rewrote the final two chapters, which she finished on 6 August 1816.In January 1817, Austen beganThe Brothers(titledSanditonwhen published in 1925), completing twelve chapters before stopping work in mid-March 1817, probably due to illness.Todd describesSanditon's heroine, Diana Parker, as an \\\"energetic invalid\\\". In the novel Austen mockedhypochondriacs, and although she describes the heroine as \\\"bilious\\\", five days after abandoning the novel she wrote of herself that she was turning \\\"every wrong colour\\\" and living \\\"chiefly on the sofa\\\".She put down her pen on 18 March 1817, making a note of it. Austen made light of her condition, describing it as \\\"bile\\\" andrheumatism. As her illness progressed, she experienced difficulty walking and lacked energy; by mid-April she was confined to bed. In May, Cassandra and Henry brought her toWinchesterfor treatment, by which time she suffered agonising pain and welcomed death.Austen died in Winchester on 18 July 1817 at the age of 41. Henry, through his clerical connections, arranged for his sister to be buried in the north aisle of thenaveofWinchester Cathedral. The epitaph composed by her brother James praises Austen's personal qualities, expresses hope for her salvation, and mentions the \\\"extraordinary endowments of her mind\\\", but does not explicitly mention her achievements as a writer. Posthumous publication In the months after Austen's death in July 1817, Cassandra, Henry Austen and Murray arranged for the publication ofPersuasionandNorthanger Abbeyas a set.Henry Austen contributed aBiographical Notedated December 1817, which for the first time identified his sister as the author of the novels. Tomalin describes it as \\\"a loving and polished eulogy\\\".Sales were good for a year—only 321 copies remained unsold at the end of 1818. Although Austen's six novels were out of print in England in the 1820s, they were still being read through copies housed in private libraries and circulating libraries. Austen had early admirers. The first piece of fiction using her as a character (what might now be calledreal person fiction) appeared in 1823 in a letter to the editor inThe Lady's Magazine.It refers to Austen's genius and suggests that aspiring authors were envious of her powers. In 1832,Richard Bentleypurchased the remaining copyrights to all of her novels, and over the following winter published five illustrated volumes as part of hisStandard Novelsseries. In October 1833, Bentley released the first collected edition of her works. Since then, Austen's novels have been continuously in print. Genre and style Austen's works implicitly critique thesentimental novelsof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism.The earliest English novelists,Richardson,Henry Fielding, andTobias Smollett, were followed by the school of sentimentalists andromanticssuch asWalter Scott,Horace Walpole,Clara Reeve,Ann Radcliffe, andOliver Goldsmith, whose style and genre Austen repudiated, returning the novel on a \\\"slender thread\\\" to the tradition of Richardson and Fielding for a \\\"realistic study of manners\\\".In the mid-20th century the literary criticsF. R. LeavisandIan Wattplaced her in the tradition of Richardson and Fielding; both believe that she used their tradition of \\\"irony, realism and satire to form an author superior to both\\\". Walter Scott noted Austen's \\\"resistance to the trashysensationalismof much of modern fiction—'the ephemeral productions which supply the regular demand of watering places andcirculating libraries'\\\".Yet her relationship with these genres is complex, as evidenced byNorthanger AbbeyandEmma.Similar toWilliam Wordsworth, who excoriated the modern frantic novel in the \\\"Preface\\\" to hisLyrical Ballads(1800), Austen distances herself from escapist novels; the discipline and innovation she demonstrates is similar to his, and she shows \\\"that rhetorically less is artistically more.\\\"She eschewed popular Gothic fiction, stories of terror in which a heroine typically was stranded in a remote location, a castle or abbey (32 novels between 1784 and 1818 contain the word \\\"abbey\\\" in their title). Yet inNorthanger Abbeyshe alludes to the trope, with the heroine, Catherine, anticipating a move to a remote locale. Rather than full-scale rejection or parody, Austen transforms the genre, juxtaposing reality, with descriptions of elegant rooms and modern comforts, against the heroine's \\\"novel-fueled\\\" desires.Nor does she completely denigrate Gothic fiction: instead she transforms settings and situations, such that the heroine is still imprisoned, yet her imprisonment is mundane and real—regulated manners and the strict rules of the ballroom.InSense and SensibilityAusten presents characters who are more complex than in staple sentimental fiction, according to the critic Tom Keymer, who notes that although it is a parody of popular sentimental fiction, \\\"Mariannein her sentimental histrionics responds to the calculating world ... with a quite justifiable scream of female distress.\\\" The hair was curled, and the maid sent away, and Emma sat down to think and be miserable. It was a wretched business, indeed! Such an overthrow of everything she had been wishing for! Such a development of every thing most unwelcome! — example offree indirect speech, Jane Austen,Emma Richardson'sPamela, the prototype for the sentimental novel, is adidacticlove story with a happy ending, written at a time women were beginning to have the right to choose husbands and yet were restricted by social conventions.Austen attempted Richardson's epistolary style, but found the flexibility of narrative more conducive to her realism, a realism in which each conversation and gesture carries a weight of significance. The narrative style utilisesfree indirect speech—she was the first English novelist to do so extensively—through which she had the ability to present a character's thoughts directly to the reader and yet still retain narrative control. The style allows an author to vary discourse between the narrator's voice and values and those of the characters. Austen had a natural ear for speech and dialogue, according to the scholarMary Lascelles: \\\"Few novelists can be more scrupulous than Jane Austen as to the phrasing and thoughts of their characters.\\\"Techniques such as fragmentary speech suggest a character's traits and their tone; \\\"syntax and phrasing rather than vocabulary\\\" is utilised to indicate social variants.Dialogue reveals a character's mood—frustration, anger, happiness—each treated differently and often through varying patterns of sentence structures. WhenElizabeth BennetrejectsDarcy, her stilted speech and the convoluted sentence structure reveals that he has wounded her: From the very beginning, from the first moment I may almost say, of my acquaintance with you, your manners impressing me with the fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit, and your selfish disdain of the feelings of others, were such as to form that the groundwork of disapprobation, on which succeeding events have built so immovable a dislike. And I had not known you a month before I felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry. Austen's plots highlight women's traditional dependence on marriage to secure social standing and economic security.As an art form, the 18th-century novel lacked the seriousness of its equivalents from the 19th century, when novels were treated as \\\"the natural vehicle for discussion and ventilation of what mattered in life\\\".Rather than delving too deeply into the psyche of her characters, Austen enjoys them and imbues them with humour, according to critic John Bayley. He believes that the well-spring of her wit and irony is her own attitude that comedy \\\"is the saving grace of life\\\".Part of Austen's fame rests on the historical and literary significance that she was the first woman to write great comic novels.Samuel Johnson's influence is evident, in that she follows his advice to write \\\"a representation of life as may excite mirth\\\". Her humour comes from her modesty and lack of superiority, allowing her most successful characters, such as Elizabeth Bennet, to transcend the trivialities of life, which the more foolish characters are overly absorbed in.Austen used comedy to explore the individualism of women's lives and gender relations, and she appears to have used it to find the goodness in life, often fusing it with \\\"ethical sensibility\\\", creating artistic tension. Critic Robert Polhemus writes, \\\"To appreciate the drama and achievement of Austen, we need to realize how deep was her passion for both reverence and ridicule ... and her comic imagination reveals both the harmonies and the telling contradictions of her mind and vision as she tries to reconcile her satirical bias with her sense of the good.\\\" Reception Contemporaneous responses As Austen's works were published anonymously, they brought her little personal renown. They were fashionable among opinion-makers, but were rarely reviewed.Most of the reviews were short and on balance favourable, although superficial and cautious,most often focused on the moral lessons of the novels. Walter Scott, a leading novelist of the day, anonymously wrote a review ofEmmain 1815, using it to defend the then-disreputable genre of the novel and praising Austen's realism, \\\"the art of copying from nature as she really exists in the common walks of life, and presenting to the reader, instead of the splendid scenes from an imaginary world, a correct and striking representation of that which is daily taking place around him\\\".The other important early review was attributed toRichard Whatelyin 1821. However, Whately denied having authored the review, which drew favourable comparisons between Austen and such acknowledged greats asHomerandShakespeare, and praised the dramatic qualities of her narrative. Scott and Whately set the tone for almost all subsequent 19th-century Austen criticism. 19th century Because Austen's novels did not conform toRomanticandVictorianexpectations that \\\"powerful emotion authenticated by an egregious display of sound and colour in the writing\\\",some 19th-century critics preferred the works ofCharles DickensandGeorge Eliot.Notwithstanding Walter Scott's positivity, Austen's work did not win over those who preferred the prevailing aesthetic values of the elite Romantic zeitgeist.Her novels were republished in Britain from the 1830s and sold steadily.Austen's six books were included in the canon-making Standard Novels series by publisher Richard Bentley, which increased their stature. That series referred to her as \\\"the founder of a school of novelists\\\" and called her a genius. The first French critic who paid notice to Austen wasPhilarète Chaslesin an 1842 essay, dismissing her in two sentences as a boring, imitative writer with no substance.Austen was not widely appreciated in France until 1878,when the French critic Léon Boucher published the essayLe Roman Classique en Angleterre, in which he called Austen a \\\"genius\\\", the first French author to do so.The first accurate translation of Austen into French occurred in 1899 whenFélix FénéontranslatedNorthanger AbbeyasCatherine Morland. In Britain and North America, Austen gradually grew in the estimation of both the public and the literati. In the United States, Austen was being recommended as reading in schools as early as 1838, according to Professor Devoney Looser.The philosopher and literary criticGeorge Henry Lewespublished a series of enthusiastic articles in the 1840s and 1850s.Later in the century, the novelistHenry Jamesreferred to Austen several times with approval, and on one occasion ranked her with Shakespeare,Cervantes, and Henry Fielding as amongst \\\"the fine painters of life\\\". The publication of James Edward Austen-Leigh'sA Memoir of Jane Austenin 1869 introduced Austen's life story to a wider public as \\\"dear aunt Jane\\\", the respectable maiden aunt. Publication of theMemoirspurred another reissue of Austen's novels. Editions were released in 1883 and fancy illustrated editions and collectors' sets quickly followed.The author and criticLeslie Stephendescribed the popular mania that started to develop for Austen in the 1880s as \\\"Austenolatry\\\". Around the start of the 20th century, an intellectual clique ofJaneitesreacted against the popularisation of Austen, distinguishing their deeper appreciation from the vulgar enthusiasm of the masses. In response, Henry James decried \\\"a beguiled infatuation\\\" with Austen, a rising tide of public interest that exceeded Austen's \\\"intrinsic merit and interest\\\".The American literary criticA. Walton Litznoted that the \\\"anti-Janites\\\" in the 19th and 20th centuries comprised a formidable literary squad ofMark Twain, Henry James,Charlotte Brontë,D. H. Lawrence, andKingsley Amis, but in \\\"every case the adverse judgement merely reveals the special limitations or eccentricities of the critic, leaving Jane Austen relatively untouched\\\". Modern Austen's works have attracted legions of scholars. The first dissertation on Austen was published in 1883, by George Pellew, a student at Harvard University.Another early academic analysis came from a 1911 essay by the Oxford Shakespearean scholarA. C. Bradley,who grouped Austen's novels into \\\"early\\\" and \\\"late\\\" works, a distinction still used by scholars today.The first academic book devoted to Austen in France wasJane Austenby Paul and Kate Rague (1914), who set out to explain why French critics and readers should take Austen seriously.The same year, Léonie Villard publishedJane Austen, Sa Vie et Ses Oeuvres, originally her PhD thesis, the first serious academic study of Austen in France.In 1923, R.W. Chapman published the first scholarly edition of Austen's collected works, which was also the first scholarly edition of any English novelist. The Chapman text has remained the basis for all subsequent published editions of Austen's works. With the publication in 1939 of Mary Lascelles'Jane Austen and Her Art, the academic study of Austen took hold.Lascelles analysed the books Austen read and their influence on her work, and closely examined Austen's style and \\\"narrative art\\\". Concern arose that academics were obscuring the appreciation of Austen with increasingly esoteric theories, a debate that has continued since. The period since the Second World War has seen a diversity of critical approaches to Austen, includingfeminist theory, and perhaps most controversially,postcolonial theory.The divide has widened between the popular appreciation of Austen, particularly by modernJaneites, and academic judgements.In 1994 the literary criticHarold Bloomplaced Austen among thegreatest Western writers of all time. In the People's Republic of China after 1949, writings of Austen were regarded as too frivolous,and thus during the ChineseCultural Revolutionof 1966–69, Austen was banned as a \\\"British bourgeois imperialist\\\".In the late 1970s, when Austen's works were re-published in China, her popularity with readers confounded the authorities who had trouble understanding that people generally read books for enjoyment, not political edification. In a typical modern debate, the conservative American professor Gene Koppel, to the indignation of his liberal literature students, mentioned that Austen and her family were \\\"Tories of the deepest dye\\\", i.e. Conservatives in opposition to the liberal Whigs. Although several feminist authors such as Claudia Johnson and Mollie Sandock claimed Austen for their own cause, Koppel argued that different people react to a work of literature in different subjective ways, as explained by the philosopherHans-Georg Gadamer. Thus competing interpretations of Austen's work can be equally valid, provided they are grounded in textual and historical analysis: it is equally possible to see Austen as a feminist critiquingRegency-erasociety and as a conservative upholding its values. Adaptations Austen's novels have resulted in sequels, prequels and adaptations of almost every type, fromsoft-core pornographyto fantasy. From the 19th century, her family members published conclusions to her incomplete novels, and by 2000 there were over 100 printed adaptations.The first dramatic adaptation of Austen was published in 1895, Rosina Filippi'sDuologues and Scenes from the Novels of Jane Austen: Arranged and Adapted for Drawing-Room Performance, and Filippi was also responsible for the first professional stage adaptation,The Bennets(1901).The first film adaptation was the1940 MGM production ofPride and PrejudicestarringLaurence OlivierandGreer Garson.BBC television dramatisations released in the 1970s and 1980s attempted to adhere meticulously to Austen's plots, characterisations and settings.The British critic Robert Irvine noted that in American film adaptations of Austen's novels, starting with the 1940 version ofPride and Prejudice, class is subtly downplayed, and the society of Regency England depicted by Austen that is grounded in a hierarchy based upon the ownership of land and the antiquity of the family name is one that Americans cannot embrace in its entirety. From 1995, many Austen adaptations appeared, withAng Lee'sfilm ofSense and Sensibility, for which screenwriter and starEmma Thompsonwon anAcademy Award, and the BBC's immensely popular TV mini-seriesPride and Prejudice, starringJennifer EhleandColin Firth.A 2005 British production ofPride and Prejudice, directed byJoe Wrightand starringKeira KnightleyandMatthew Macfadyen,was followed in 2007 byITV'sMansfield Park,Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion,and in 2016 byLove & FriendshipstarringKate Beckinsaleas Lady Susan, a film version ofLady Susan, that borrowed the title of Austen'sLove and Freindship. Honours In 2013, Austen's works featured on aseries of UK postage stampsissued by theRoyal Mailto mark the bicentenary of the publication ofPride and Prejudice.Austen is on the£10 noteissued by the Bank of England which was introduced in 2017, replacingCharles Darwin.In July 2017 a statue of Austen was erected in Basingstoke, Hampshire on the 200th anniversary of her death. List of works Juvenilia—Volume the First(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Second(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Third(1787–1793) Family trees See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links Museums Fan sites and societies\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Brontë family TheBrontës(/ˈbrɒntiz/) were a nineteenth-century literary family, born in the village ofThorntonand later associated with the village ofHaworthin theWest Riding of Yorkshire,England. The sisters,Charlotte(1816–1855),Emily(1818–1848) andAnne(1820–1849), are well-known poets and novelists. Like many contemporary female writers, they published their poems and novels under male pseudonyms: Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Their stories attracted attention for their passion and originality immediately following their publication. Charlotte'sJane Eyrewas the first to know success, while Emily'sWuthering Heights, Anne'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Halland other works were accepted as masterpieces of literature after their deaths. The first Brontë children to be born to rectorPatrick Brontëand his wifeMariawereMaria(1814–1825) andElizabeth(1815–1825), who both died at young ages due to disease. Charlotte, Emily and Anne were then born within a time period of approximately four years. These three sisters and","three sisters and their brother,Branwell(1817–1848), who had been born after Charlotte and before Emily, were very close to each other. As children, they developed their imaginations first through oral storytelling and play, set in an intricate imaginary world, and then through the collaborative writing of increasingly complex stories set in their fictional world. The deaths of their mother and two older sisters marked them and influenced their writing profoundly, as did their isolated upbringing. They were raised in a religious family.The Brontë birthplace inThorntonis a place of pilgrimage and their later home, theparsonageatHaworthin Yorkshire, now theBrontë Parsonage Museum, has hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. Origin of the name The Brontë family can be traced to theIrish clanÓ Pronntaigh, which literally means \"descendant of Pronntach\". They were a family of hereditary scribes and literary men inFermanagh. The versionÓ Proinntigh, which was first given by Patrick Woulfe in hisSloinnte","in hisSloinnte Gaedheal is Gall(transl.Surnames of the Gael and the Foreigner)and reproduced without question byEdward MacLysaght, cannot be accepted as correct, as there were a number of well-known scribes with this name writing inIrishin the 17th and 18th centuries and all of them used the spellingÓ Pronntaigh. The name is derived from the wordpronntachorbronntach,which is related to the wordbronnadh, meaning \"giving\" or \"bestowal\" (pronnis given as anUlsterversion ofbronnin O'Reilly'sIrish English Dictionary.)Patrick Woulfe suggested that it was derived fromproinnteach(therefectoryof amonastery).Ó Pronntaighwas earlieranglicisedasPruntyand sometimesBrunty. At some point,Patrick Brontë(born Brunty), the sisters' father, decided on the alternative spelling with thediaeresisover the terminal⟨e⟩to indicate that the name has two syllables. Multiple theories exist to account for the change, including that he may have wished to hide his humble origins.As aman of letters, he would have been familiar withclassical","withclassical Greekand may have chosen the name after the Greekβροντή(transl.thunder). One view, which biographerC. K. Shorterproposed in 1896, is that he adapted his name to associate himself withAdmiral Horatio Nelson, who was alsoDuke of Bronte.One might also find evidence for this theory in Patrick Brontë's desire to associate himself with theDuke of Wellingtonin his form of dress. Family tree Members of the Brontë family Patrick Brontë Patrick Brontë(17 March 1777 – 7 June 1861), the Brontë sisters' father, was born inLoughbrickland,County Down, Ireland, of a family of farm workers of moderate means.His birth name was Patrick Prunty or Brunty. His mother, Alice McClory, was of theRoman Catholicfaith, whilst his father Hugh was a Protestant, and Patrick was brought up in his father's faith. He was a bright young man and, after studying under the Rev. Thomas Tighe, won a scholarship toSt John's College, Cambridge. There, he studied divinity, ancient history and modern history.Attending Cambridge may have","Cambridge may have made him feel that his name was too Irish and he changed its spelling to Brontë (and its pronunciation accordingly), perhaps in honour ofHoratio Nelson, whom Patrick admired.It is more likely, however, that his brother William was 'on the run' from the authorities for his involvement with the radicalUnited Irishmen, leading Patrick to distance himself from the name Brunty. Having obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree, he was ordained on 10 August 1806.He is the author ofCottage Poems(1811),The Rural Minstrel(1814), numerous pamphlets, several newspaper articles and various rural poems. In 1811, Patrick was appointed minister at Hartshead-cum-Clifton. In 1812, he met and married 29 year old Maria Branwell at Guiseley. In 1813, they moved to Clough House Hightown, Liversedge, West Riding of Yorkshireand by 1820 they had moved into the parsonage at Haworth, where he took up the post ofperpetual curate. (Haworth was an ancient chapelry in the large parish ofBradford, so he could not be rector or","not be rector or vicar.) They had six children.On the death of his wife in 1821, his sister-in-law,Elizabeth Branwell, came fromPenzance,Cornwall, to help him bring up the children. Open, intelligent, generous and dedicated to educating his children personally, he bought all the books and toys the children desired. He also accorded them great freedom and unconditional love, although he may have alienated them from the world due to his eccentric personal habits and peculiar theories of education. After several failed attempts to remarry, Patrick accepted permanent widowerhood at the age of 47, and spent his time visiting the sick and the poor, giving sermons and administering communion.In so doing, he would often leave his children Maria, Elizabeth, Emily, Charlotte, Branwell and Anne alone with Elizabeth—Aunt Branwell and a maid, Tabitha Aykroyd (Tabby). Tabby helped relieve their possible boredom and loneliness especially by recounting local legends in her Yorkshire dialect as she tirelessly prepared the","prepared the family's meals.Eventually, Patrick would survive his entire family. Six years after Charlotte's death, he died in 1861 at the age of 84.His son-in-law, the Rev.Arthur Bell Nicholls, would aid Mr Brontë at the end of his life as well. Maria, née Branwell Patrick's wifeMaria Brontë, née Branwell (15 April 1783 – 15 September 1821), was born inPenzance, Cornwall, and came from a comfortably well-off, middle-class family. Her father had a flourishing tea and grocery store and had accumulated considerable wealth.Maria died at the age of 38 ofuterine cancer.She married the same day as her younger sister Charlotte in the church atGuiseleyafter her fiancé had celebrated the union of two other couples.She was a literate and pious woman, known for her lively spirit, joyfulness and tenderness, and it was she who designed the samplers that are on display in the museumand had them embroidered by her children. She left memories with her husband and with Charlotte, the oldest surviving sibling, of a very","sibling, of a very vivacious woman. The younger ones, particularly Emily and Anne, admitted to retaining only vague images of their mother, especially of her suffering on her sickbed. Elizabeth Branwell Elizabeth Branwell (2 December 1776 – 29 October 1842) arrived from Penzance in 1821, aged 45, after her younger sister Maria's death, to help Patrick look after the children, to whom she was known as 'Aunt Branwell.' Elizabeth Branwell was a Methodist, though it seems that her denomination did not exert any influence on the children. It was Aunt Branwell who taught the children arithmetic, the alphabet, and how to sew,embroider and cross-stitch, skills appropriate for ladies. Aunt Branwell also gave them books and subscribed toFraser's Magazine, less interesting thanBlackwood's, but, nevertheless, providing plenty of material for discussion.She was a generous person who dedicated her life to her nieces and nephew, neither marrying nor returning to visit her relations in Cornwall. She probably told the","probably told the children stories of events that had happened in Cornwall, such as raids by pirates in the eighteenth century, who carried off British residents to be enslaved in North Africa and Turkey; enslavement in Turkey is mentioned by Charlotte Brontë inJane Eyre.She died ofbowel obstructionin October 1842, after a brief agony during which she was comforted by her beloved nephew Branwell. In her last will, Aunt Branwell left to her three nieces the considerable sum of £900 (about £95,700 in 2017 currency), which allowed them to resign from their low-paid jobs as governesses and teachers. Children Education Cowan Bridge School In 1824, the four eldest girls (excluding Anne) entered theClergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge,which educated the children of less prosperous members of the clergy, and had been recommended to Mr Brontë. The following year, Maria and Elizabeth fell gravely ill and were removed from the school, later dying on 6 May and 15 June 1825, respectively.Charlotte and Emily were also","and Emily were also withdrawn from the school and returned to Haworth. Charlotte expressed the traumatic impact that her sisters' deaths had on her in her future works. InJane Eyre, Cowan Bridge became Lowood, Maria inspired the young Helen Burns, the cruel mistress Miss Andrews inspired the headmistress Miss Scatcherd, and the tyrannical headmaster Rev.Carus Wilson, Mr Brocklehurst. Tuberculosis, which afflicted Maria and Elizabeth in 1825, also caused the eventual deaths of three of the surviving Brontës: Branwell in September 1848, Emily in December 1848, and, finally, Anne in May 1849. Patrick Brontë faced a challenge in arranging for the education of the girls of his family, which was barely middle class. They lacked significant connections and he could not afford the fees for them to attend an established school for young ladies. One solution was the schools where the fees were reduced to a minimum—so called \"charity schools\"—with a mission to assist families like those of the lower clergy. (Barker had","clergy. (Barker had read in theLeeds Intelligencerof 6 November 1823 reports of cases in the Court of Commons in Bowes: he later read of other cases, of 24 November 1824 near Richmond, in the county of Yorkshire, where pupils had been discovered gnawed by rats and suffering so badly from malnutrition that some of them had lost their sight.) Yet for Patrick, there was nothing to suggest that the Reverend Carus Wilson's Clergy Daughters' School would not provide a good education and good care for his daughters. The school was not expensive and its patrons (supporters who allowed the school to use their names) were all respected people. Among these was the daughter ofHannah More, a religious author and philanthropist who took a particular interest in education. More was a close friend of the poetWilliam Cowper, who, like her, advocated extensive, proper and well-rounded education for young girls. The pupils included the offspring of different prelates and even certain acquaintances of Patrick Brontë","of Patrick Brontë includingWilliam Wilberforce, young women whose fathers had also been educated at St John's College, Cambridge. Thus Brontë believed Wilson's school to have many of the necessary guarantees needed for his daughters to receive proper schooling. John Bradley In 1829–30, Patrick Brontë engagedJohn Bradley, an artist from neighbouringKeighley, as drawing-master for the children. Bradley was an artist of some local repute rather than a professional instructor, but he may well have fostered Branwell's enthusiasm for art and architecture. Miss Wooler's school In 1831, fourteen-year-old Charlotte was enrolled at the school of Miss Wooler in Roe Head,Mirfield. Patrick could have sent his daughter to a less costly school inKeighleynearer home but Miss Wooler and her sisters had a good reputation and he remembered the building, which he passed when strolling around the parishes ofKirklees,Dewsburyand Hartshead-cum-Clifton where he was vicar. Margaret Wooler showed fondness towards the sisters and she","the sisters and she accompanied Charlotte to the altar at her marriage.Patrick's choice of school was excellent—Charlotte was happy there and studied well. She made many lifelong friends, in particularEllen Nusseyand Mary Taylor who later went to New Zealand before returning to England.Charlotte returned from Roe Head in June 1832, missing her friends, but happy to rejoin her family. Three years later, Miss Wooler offered her former pupil a position as her assistant. The family decided that Emily would accompany her to pursue studies that would otherwise have been unaffordable. Emily's fees were partly covered by Charlotte's salary. Emily was 17 and it was the first time she had left Haworth since leaving Cowan Bridge. On 29 July 1835, the sisters left for Roe Head. The same day, Branwell wrote a letter to theRoyal Academy of Artin London, to present several of his drawings as part of his candidature as a probationary student. Charlotte taught, and wrote about her students without much sympathy. Emily did","sympathy. Emily did not settle: after three months her health seemed to decline and she had to be taken home to the parsonage. Anne took her place and stayed until Christmas 1837. Charlotte avoided boredom by following the developments of the imaginary Empire of Angria—invented by Charlotte and Branwell—that she received in letters from her brother. During holidays at Haworth, she wrote long narratives while being reproached by her father who wanted her to become more involved in parish affairs. These were coming to a head over the imposition of the Church of England rates, a local tax levied on parishes where the majority of the population were dissenters. In the meantime, Miss Wooler moved to Heald's House, atDewsbury Moor, where Charlotte complained about the humidity that made her unwell. Upon leaving the establishment in 1838 Miss Wooler presented her with a parting gift ofThe Vision of Don Roderick and Rokeby, a collection of poems byWalter Scott. Literary evolution The children became interested in","interested in writing from an early age, initially as a game. They all displayed a talent for narrative, but for the younger ones it became a pastime to develop them.At the centre of the children's creativity were twelve wooden soldiers which Patrick Brontë gave to Branwell at the beginning of June 1826.These toy soldiers instantly fired their imaginations and they spoke of them asthe Young Men, and gave them names. However, it was not until December 1827 that their ideas took written form,and the imaginary African kingdom of Glass Town came into existence,followed by the Empire of Angria. Emily and Anne createdGondal, an island continent in the North Pacific, ruled by a woman, after the departure of Charlotte in 1831.In the beginning, these stories were written inlittle books, the size of a matchboxabout 1.5 by 2.5 inches (38 mm × 64 mm)and cursorily bound with thread. The pages were filled with close, minute writing, often in capital letters without punctuation and embellished with illustrations, detailed","detailed maps, schemes, landscapes and plans of buildings, created by the children according to their specialisations. The idea was that the books were of a size for the soldiers to read. The complexity of the stories matured as the children's imaginations developed, fed by reading the three weekly or monthly magazines to which their father had subscribed,or the newspapers that were bought daily from John Greenwood's local news and stationery store. Literary and artistic influence These fictional worlds were the product of fertile imagination fed by reading, discussion and a passion for literature. Far from suffering from the negative influences that never left them and which were reflected in the works of their later, more mature years, the Brontë children absorbed them eagerly. Press The periodicals that Patrick Brontë read were a mine of information for his children. TheLeeds IntelligencerandBlackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, conservative and well written, but better than theQuarterly Reviewthat defended the","defended the same political ideas whilst addressing a less-refined readership (the reason Mr. Brontë did not read it),were exploited in every detail.Blackwood's Magazine, in particular, was not only the source of their knowledge of world affairs, but also provided material for the Brontës' early writing. For instance, an article in the June 1826 number ofBlackwood's, provides commentary on new discoveries from the exploration ofcentral Africa.The map included with the article highlights geographical features the Brontës reference in their tales: the Jibbel Kumera (theMountains of the Moon),Ashantee, and the riversNigerandCalabar. The author also advises the British to expand into Africa from Fernando Po, where, Christine Alexander notes, the Brontë children locate the Great Glass Town.Their knowledge of geography was completed by Goldsmith'sGrammar of General Geography, which the Brontës owned and annotated heavily. Lord Byron From 1833, Charlotte and Branwell's Angrian tales begin to featureByronic","to featureByronic heroeswho have a strong sexual magnetism and passionate spirit, and demonstrate arrogance and even black-heartedness. Again, it is in an article inBlackwood's Magazinefrom August 1825 that they discover the poet for the first time; he had died the previous year. From this moment, the name Byron became synonymous with all the prohibitions and audacities as if it had stirred up the very essence of the rise of those forbidden things.Branwell's Charlotte Zamorna, one of the heroes ofVerdopolis, tends towards increasingly ambiguous behaviour,and the same influence and evolution recur with the Brontës, especially in the characters ofHeathcliffinWuthering Heights, andMr. RochesterinJane Eyre, who display the traits of aByronic hero. Numerous other works left their mark on the Brontës—theThousand and One Nights, for example, which inspiredjinnin which they became themselves in the centre of their kingdoms, while adding a touch of exoticism. John Martin The children's imagination was also influenced","was also influenced by three prints of engravings inmezzotintbyJohn Martinaround 1820. Charlotte and Branwell made copies of the printsBelshazzar's Feast,Déluge, andJoshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still upon Gibeon(1816), which hung on the walls of the parsonage. Martin's fantastic architecture is reflected in theGlass Townand Angrian writings, where he appears himself among Branwell's charactersand under the name of Edward de Lisle, the greatest painter and portraitist of Verdopolis,the capital of Glass Town. One of Sir Edward de Lisle's major works,Les Quatre Genii en Conseil, is inspired by Martin's illustration forJohn Milton'sParadise Lost.Together with Byron, John Martin seems to have been one of the artistic influences essential to the Brontës' universe. Anne's morals and realism The influence revealed byAgnes GreyandThe Tenant of Wildfell Hallis much less clear. Anne's works are largely founded on her experience as a governess and on that of her brother's decline. Furthermore, they demonstrate her","demonstrate her conviction, a legacy from her father, that books should provide moral education.This sense of moral duty and the need to record it, are more evident inThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall.The influence of the gothic novels ofAnn Radcliffe,Horace Walpole,Gregory \"Monk\" LewisandCharles Maturinis noticeable,and that of Walter Scott too, if only because the heroine, abandoned and left alone, resists importunities not only through her almost supernatural talents, but by her powerful temperament. Jane Eyre,Agnes Grey,The Tenant of Wildfell Hall,Shirley,Villetteand evenThe Professorpresent a linear structure concerning characters who advance through life after several trials and tribulations, to find a kind of happiness in love and virtue, recalling works of religious inspiration of the 17th century such asJohn Bunyan'sThe Pilgrim's Progressor hisGrace abounding to the Chief of Sinners.In a more profane manner, the hero or heroine follows apicaresqueitinerary such as inMiguel de Cervantes(1547–1616),Daniel","Defoe(1660–1731),Henry Fielding(1707–1764) andTobias Smollett(1721–1771). This lively tradition continued into the 19th century with therags to richesgenre to which almost all the great Victorian romancers have contributed. The protagonist is thrown by fate into poverty and after many difficulties achieves a golden happiness. Often an artifice is employed to effect the passage from one state to another such as an unexpected inheritance, a miraculous gift, grand reunions, etc,and in a sense it is the route followed by Charlotte's and Anne's protagonists, even if the riches they win are more those of the heart than of the wallet. Apart from its Gothic elements,Wuthering Heightsmoves like a Greek tragedy and possesses its music,the cosmic dimensions of the epics ofJohn Milton, and the power of the Shakespearian theatre.One can hear the echoes ofKing Learas well as the completely different characters ofRomeo and Juliet.The Brontës were also seduced by the writings ofWalter Scott, and in 1834 Charlotte exclaimed,","exclaimed, \"For fiction, read Walter Scott and only him—all novels after his are without value.\" Governesses and Charlotte's idea Early teaching opportunities Through their father's influence and their own intellectual curiosity, they were able to benefit from an education that placed them among knowledgeable people, but Mr Brontë's emoluments were modest. The only options open to the girls were either marriage or a choice between the professions of school mistress orgoverness. The Brontë sisters found positions in families wherein they educated often rebellious young children, or found employment as school teachers. The possibility of becoming apaid companionto a rich and solitary woman might have been a fall-back role but one that would have probably bored any of the sisters intolerably.Janet Todd'sMary Wollstonecraft, a revolutionary lifementions the predicament. Only Emily never became a governess. Her sole professional experience would be an experiment in teaching during six months of intolerable exile","intolerable exile in Miss Patchett's school atLaw Hill(betweenHaworthandHalifax).In contrast, Charlotte had teaching positions at Miss Margaret Wooler's school and in Brussels with the Hégers. She became governess to the Sidgwicks, the Stonegappes and the Lotherdales where she worked for several months in 1839, then with Mrs White, at Upperhouse House, Rawdon, from March to September 1841.Anne became a governess and worked for Mrs Ingham,at Blake Hall, Mirfield from April to December 1839, then for Mrs Robinson at Thorp Green Hall, Little Ouseburn, near York, where she also obtained employment for her brother in a futile attempt to stabilise him. Working as governesses The family's finances did not flourish, and Aunt Branwell spent the money with caution. Emily had a visceral need of her home and the countryside that surrounded it, and to leave it would cause her to languish and wither.Charlotte and Anne, being more realistic, did not hesitate in finding work and from April 1839 to December 1841 the two","1841 the two sisters had several posts as governesses. Not staying long with each family, their employment would last for some months or a single season. However, Anne did stay with the Robinsons in Thorp Green where things went well, from May 1840 to June 1845. In the meantime, Charlotte had an idea that would place all the advantages on her side. On advice from her father and friends, she thought that she and her sisters had the intellectual capacity to create a school for young girls in the parsonage where theirSunday Schoolclasses took place. It was agreed to offer the future pupils the opportunity of correctly learning modern languages and that preparation for this should be done abroad, which led to a further decision. Among the possibilities, Paris and Lille were considered,but were rejected due to aversion to the French. Indeed, theFrench Revolutionand theNapoleonic warshad not been forgotten by theTory-spirited and deeply conservative girls.On the recommendation of a pastor based in Brussels,who","in Brussels,who wanted to be of help, Belgium was chosen, where they could also study German and music. Aunt Branwell provided the funds for the Brussels project. School project and study trip to Brussels Charlotte's and Emily's journey to Brussels Emily and Charlotte arrived in Brussels in February 1842 accompanied by their father.Once there, they enrolled atMonsieur and Madame Héger'sboarding school in the Rue d'Isabelle, for six months. Claire Héger was the second wife of Constantin, and it was she who founded and directed the school while Constantin had the responsibility for the higher French classes. According to Miss Wheelwright, a former pupil, he had the intellect of a genius. He was passionate about his auditorium, demanding many lectures, perspectives, and structured analyses.He was also a good-looking man with regular features, bushy hair, very black whiskers, and wore an excited expression while sounding forth on great authors about whom he invited his students to make apasticheon general or","general or philosophical themes. The lessons, especially those of Constantin Héger, were very much appreciated by Charlotte, and the two sisters showed exceptional intelligence, although Emily hardly liked her teacher and was somewhat rebellious.Emily learned German and to play the piano with natural brilliance and very quickly the two sisters were writing literary and philosophical essays in an advanced level of French. After six months of study, Mme Héger suggested they stay at the boarding school free of charge, in return for giving some lessons. After much hesitation, the girls accepted. Neither of them felt particularly attached to their students, and only one, Mademoiselle de Bassompierre, then aged 16, later expressed any affection for her teacher Emily, which appeared to be mutual, and made her a gift of a signed, detailed drawing of a storm ravaged pine tree. Return and recall The death of their aunt in October of the same year forced them to return once more to Haworth. Aunt Branwell had left all","had left all her worldly goods in equal shares to her nieces and to Eliza Kingston, a cousin in Penzance,which had the immediate effect of purging all their debts and providing a small reserve of funds. Nevertheless, they were asked to return to the Héger's boarding school in Brussels as they were regarded as being competent and were needed. They were each offered teaching posts in the boarding school, English for Charlotte and music for Emily. However, Charlotte returned alone to Belgium in January 1843.Emily remained critical of Monsieur Héger, in spite of the excellent opinion he held of her. He later stated that she 'had the spirit of a man', and would probably become a great traveller due to her being gifted with a superior faculty of reason that allowed her to deduce ancient knowledge from new spheres of knowledge, and her unbending willpower would have triumphed over all obstacles. Charlotte returns Almost a year to the day, enamoured for some time for Monsieur Héger, Charlotte resigned and returned","and returned to Haworth. Her life at the school had not been without suffering, and on one occasion she ventured into the cathedral and entered a confessional. She may have had intention of converting to Catholicism, but it would only have been for a short time.During her absence, life at Haworth had become more difficult. Mr. Brontë had lost his sight although his cataract had been operated on with success in Manchester, and it was there in August 1846,when Charlotte arrived at his bedside that she began to writeJane Eyre. Meanwhile, her brother Branwell fell into a rapid decline punctuated by dramas, drunkenness and delirium.Due partly to Branwell's poor reputation, the school project failed and was abandoned. Charlotte wrote four long, very personal, and sometimes vague letters toMonsieur Hégerthat never received replies. The extent of Charlotte Brontë's feelings for Héger were not fully realised until 1913, when her letters to him were published for the first time. Héger had first shown them toMrs.","shown them toMrs. Gaskellwhen she visited him in 1856 while researching her biographyThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, but she concealed their true significance. These letters, referred to as the \"Héger Letters\", had been ripped up at some stage by Héger, but his wife had retrieved the pieces from the wastepaper bin and meticulously glued or sewn them back together. Paul Héger, Constantin's son, and his sisters gave these letters to theBritish Museum,and they were shortly thereafter printed inThe Timesnewspaper. Brontë sisters' literary career First publication:Poems, by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell The writing that had begun so early never left the family. Charlotte had ambition like her brother, and wrote to thepoet laureateRobert Southeyto submit several poems in his style (though Branwell was kept at a distance from her project). She received a hardly encouraging reply after several months. Southey, still illustrious today although his star has somewhat waned, was one of the great figures of","great figures of EnglishRomanticism, along withWilliam WordsworthandSamuel Taylor Coleridge, and he shared the prejudice of the times; literature, or more particularly poetry (for women had been publishing fiction and enjoying critical, popular and economic success for over a century by this time), was considered a man's business, and not an appropriate occupation for ladies. However, Charlotte did not allow herself to be discouraged. Furthermore, coincidence came to her aid. One day in autumn 1845 while alone in the dining room she noticed a small notebook lying open in the drawer of Emily's portable writing desk and \"of my sister Emily's handwriting\". She read it and was dazzled by the beauty of the poems that she did not know. The discovery of this treasure was what she recalled five years later, and according to Juliet Barker, she erased the excitement that she had felt\"more than surprise ..., a deep conviction that these were not common effusions, nor at all like the poetry women generally write. I","generally write. I thought them condensed and terse, vigorous and genuine. To my ear, they had a peculiar music—wild, melancholy, and elevating.\" In the following paragraph Charlotte describes her sister's indignant reaction at her having ventured into such an intimate realm with impunity. It took Emily hours to calm down and days to be convinced to publish the poems. Charlotte envisaged a joint publication by the three sisters. Anne was easily won over to the project, and the work was shared, compared and edited.Once the poems had been chosen, nineteen for Charlotte and twenty-one each for Anne and Emily, Charlotte went about searching for a publisher. She took advice from William and Robert Chambers of Edinburgh, directors of one of their favourite magazines,Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. It is thought, although no documents exist to support the claim, that they advised the sisters to contact Aylott & Jones, a small publishing house at 8, Paternoster Row, London, who accepted, but at the authors' own risk","authors' own risk since they felt the commercial risk to the company was too great.The work thus appeared in 1846, published using the male pseudonyms of Currer (Charlotte), Ellis (Emily) and Acton (Anne) Bell. These were very uncommon forenames but the initials of each of the sisters were preserved and the patronym could have been inspired by that of the vicar of the parish, Arthur Bell Nicholls. It was in fact on 18 May 1845 that he took up his duties at Haworth, at the moment when the publication project was well advanced. The book attracted hardly any attention. Only three copies were sold, of which one was purchased by Fredrick Enoch, a resident of Cornmarket, Warwick, who in admiration, wrote to the publisher to request an autograph—the only extant single document carrying the three authors' signatures in their pseudonyms,and they continued creating their prose, each one producing a book a year later. Each worked in secret,unceasingly discussing their writing for hours at the dinner table, after which","table, after which their father would open the door at 9 p.m. with \"Don't stay up late, girls!\", then rewinding the clock and taking the stairs up to his room. Fame 1847 Charlotte'sJane Eyre, Emily'sWuthering Heightsand Anne'sAgnes Greyappeared in 1847 after many tribulations, again for reasons of finding a publisher. The packets containing the manuscripts were often returned to the parsonage and Charlotte simply added a new address; she did this at least a dozen times during the year.The first one was finally published by Smith, Elder & Co in London. The 23-year-old owner, George Smith, had specialised in publishing scientific revues, aided by his perspicacious reader William Smith Williams. Emily and Anne's manuscripts were confided toThomas Cautley Newby, who intended to compile athree-decker; more economical for sale and for loan in the \"circulating libraries\". The two first volumes includedWuthering Heightsand the third oneAgnes Grey. Both novels attracted critical acclaim, occasionally harsh","occasionally harsh aboutWuthering Heights, praised for the originality of the subject and its narrative style, but viewed with suspicion because of its outrageous violence and immorality—surely, the critics wrote, a work of a man with a depraved mind.Critics were fairly neutral aboutAgnes Grey, but more flattering forJane Eyre, which soon became abest-seller, despite some commentators denouncing it as an affront to good morals. Jane Eyreand rising fame The pseudonymous (Currer Bell) publication in 1847 ofJane Eyre, An Autobiographyestablished a dazzling reputation for Charlotte. In July 1848, Charlotte and Anne (Emily had refused to go along with them) travelled by train to London to prove toSmith, Elder & Co.that each sister was indeed an independent author, for Thomas Cautley Newby, the publisher ofWuthering HeightsandAgnes Grey, had launched a rumour that the three novels were the work of one author, understood to be Ellis Bell (Emily).George Smithwas extremely surprised to find two gawky, ill-dressed","gawky, ill-dressed country girls paralysed with fear, who, to identify themselves, held out the letters addressed toMessrs. Acton, Currer and Ellis Bell. Taken by such surprise, he introduced them to his mother with all the dignity their talent merited, and invited them to the opera for a performance ofRossini'sBarber of Seville. Wuthering Heights Emily Brontë'sWuthering Heightswas published in 1847 under the masculine pseudonym Ellis Bell, by Thomas Cautley Newby, in two companion volumes to that of Anne's (Acton Bell),Agnes Grey.Controversial from the start of its release, its originality, its subject, narrative style and troubled action raised intrigue. Certain critics condemned it,but sales were nevertheless considerable for an unknown author of a novel that defied all conventions. It is a work of black Romanticism, covering three generations isolated in the cold spring of the countryside with two opposing elements: the dignified manor of Thrushcross Grange and the rambling dilapidated pile of Wuthering","pile of Wuthering Heights. The main characters, swept by tumults of the earth, the skies and the hearts, are strange and often possessed of unheard-of violence and deprivations. The story is told in a scholarly fashion, with two narrators, the traveller and tenant Lockwood, and the housekeeper/governess, Nelly Dean, with two sections in the first person, one direct, one cloaked, which overlap each other with digressions and sub-plots that form, from apparently scattered fragments, a coherently locked unit. 1848, Anne'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall One year before her death in May 1849, Anne published a second novel. Far more ambitious than her previous novel,The Tenant of Wildfell Hallwas a great success and rapidly outsold Emily'sWuthering Heights. However, the critical reception was mixed—praise for the novel's \"power\" and \"effect\" and sharp criticism for being \"coarse\".Charlotte Brontëherself, Anne's sister, wrote to her publisher that it \"hardly seems to me desirable topreserve ... thechoice of subject in","of subject in that work is a mistake.\"After Anne's death, Charlotte prevented the novel's republication and thus condemned her sister to temporary oblivion. The master theme is the alcoholism of a man who causes the downfall of his family. Helen Graham, the central character, gets married for love to Arthur Huntingdon, whom she soon discovers to be lecherous, violent and alcoholic. She is forced to break with the conventions that would keep her in the family home that has become hell, and to leave with her child to seek secret refuge in the old house of Wildfell Hall. When the alcohol causes her husband's ultimate decline, she returns to care for him in total abnegation until his death. Today,The Tenant of Wildfell Hallis considered by most of the critics to be one of the first sustainedfeministnovels. Identities revealed In 1850, a little over a year after the deaths of Emily and Anne, Charlotte wrote a preface for the re-print of the combined edition ofWuthering HeightsandAgnes Grey, in which she publicly","which she publicly revealed the real identities of all three sisters. Charlotte Brontë Denunciation of boarding schools (Jane Eyre) Conditions at the school at Cowan Bridge, where Maria and Elizabeth may have contracted the tuberculosis from which they died, were probably no worse than those at many other schools of the time. (For example, several decades before the Brontë sisters' experience at Cowan Bridge,Jane Austenand her sister Cassandra contracted typhus at a similar boarding school, and Jane nearly died. The Austen sisters' education, like that of the Brontë sisters, was continued at home.)Nevertheless, Charlotte blamed Cowan Bridge for her sisters' deaths, especially its poor medical care—chiefly, repeated emetics and blood-lettings—and the negligence of the school's doctor, who was the director's brother-in-law. Charlotte's vivid memories of the privations at Cowan Bridge were poured into her depiction of Lowood School inJane Eyre: the scanty and often spoiled food, the lack of heating and adequate","and adequate clothing, the periodic epidemics of illness such as \"low fever\" (probably typhus), the severity and arbitrariness of the punishments, and even the harshness of particular teachers (a Miss Andrews who taught at Cowan Bridge is thought to have been Charlotte's model for Miss Scatcherd inJane Eyre).Elizabeth Gaskell, a personal friend and the first biographer of Charlotte, confirmed that Cowan Bridge was Charlotte's model for Lowood and insisted that conditions there in Charlotte's day were egregious. More recent biographers have argued that the food, clothing, heating, medical care and discipline at Cowan Bridge were not considered sub-standard for religious schools of the time, testaments of the era's complacency about these intolerable conditions.One scholar has commended Patrick Brontë for his perspicacity in removing all his daughters from the school, a few weeks before the deaths of Maria and Elizabeth. Literary encounters Following the overwhelming success ofJane Eyre, Charlotte was","Eyre, Charlotte was pressured by George Smith, her publisher, to travel to London to meet her public. Despite the extreme timidity that paralysed her among strangers and made her almost incapable of expressing herself,Charlotte consented to be lionised, and in London was introduced to other great writers of the era, includingHarriet MartineauandWilliam Makepeace Thackeray, both of whom befriended her. Charlotte especially admired Thackeray, whose portrait, given to her by Smith, still hangs in the dining room at Haworth parsonage. On one occasion during a public gathering, Thackeray introduced Charlotte to his mother asJane Eyreand when Charlotte called on him the next day, he received an extended dressing-down, in which Smith had to intervene. During her trip to London in 1851 she visited theGreat ExhibitionandThe Crystal Palace.In 1849 she publishedShirleyand in 1853Villette. Marriage and death The Brontë sisters were highly amused by the behaviour of the curates they met.Arthur Bell Nicholls(1818–1906)","Nicholls(1818–1906) had been curate of Haworth for seven and a half years, when contrary to all expectations, and to the fury of Patrick Brontë (their father), he proposed to Charlotte. Although impressed by his dignity and deep voice, as well as by his near complete emotional collapse when she rejected him, she found him rigid, conventional and rather narrow-minded \"like all the curates\"—as she wrote to Ellen Nussey.After she declined his proposal, Nicholls, pursued by the anger of Patrick Brontë, left his functions for several months.However, little by little her feelings evolved and after slowly convincing her father, she finally married Nicholls on 29 June 1854. On return from their honeymoon in Ireland where she had been introduced to Mr. Nicholls' aunt and cousins, her life completely changed. She adopted her new duties as a wife, which took up most of her time. She wrote to her friends telling them that Nicholls was a good and attentive husband, but that she nevertheless felt a kind of holy terror at","of holy terror at her new situation. In a letter to Ellen Nussey (Nell), in 1854 she wrote \"Indeed-indeed-Nell-it is a solemn and strange and perilous thing for a woman to become a wife.\" The following year she died aged 38. The cause of death given at the time was tuberculosis, but it may have been complicated with typhoid fever (the water at Haworth being likely contaminated due to poor sanitation and the vast cemetery that surrounded the church and the parsonage) andhyperemesis gravidarumfrom her pregnancy that was in its early stage. The first biography of Charlotte was written byElizabeth Cleghorn Gaskellat the request of Patrick Brontë, and published in 1857, helping to create the myth of a family of condemned genius, living in a painful and romantic solitude. After having stayed at Haworth several times and having accommodated Charlotte in Plymouth Grove, Manchester, and having become her friend and confidant, Mrs Gaskell certainly had the advantage of knowing the family. Novels Unfinished fragments","fragments These are outlines or unedited roughcasts which with the exception ofEmmahave been recently published. Branwell Brontë Patrick Branwell Brontë(1817–1848) was considered by his father and sisters to be a genius, while the book byDaphne du Maurier(1986),The Infernal World of Branwell Brontë, contains numerous references to his addiction to alcohol andlaudanum. He was an intelligent boy with many talents and interested in many subjects, especially literature. He was often the driving force in the Brontë siblings' construction of the imaginary worlds. He was artistic and was encouraged by his father to pursue this. While trying to make a name as an artist, he left for London, but used up his father's allowance in a matter of days in cafés of ill-repute.His attempts to obtain low-paid work failed,and very quickly he foundered in alcohol and laudanum, unable to regain his stability. Anne Brontë obtained employment for him in January 1843, but nearly three years later he was dismissed.In September 1848,","September 1848, after several years of decline, he died from tuberculosis. On his death, his father tearfully repeated, \"My brilliant boy\", while the clearheaded and totally loyal Emily wrote that his condition had been \"hopeless\". Branwell is the author ofJuvenilia, which he wrote as a child with his sister Charlotte,Glass Town,Angria, poems, pieces of prose and verse under the pseudonym of Northangerland,such as \"Real Rest\", published by theHalifax Guardian(8 November 1846)from several articles accepted by local newspapers and from an unfinished novel probably from around 1845 entitledAnd the Weary are at Rest. Emily Brontë Emily Brontë(1818–1848) has been called the \"Sphinxof Literature\", writing without the slightest desire for fame and only for her own satisfaction. She was obsessively timid outside the family circle, to the point of turning her back on her partners in conversation without saying a word. With a single novel,Wuthering Heights(1847), and poems with an elemental power, she reached the","she reached the heights of literature. Though she was almost unknown during her life, posterity classes her as \"top level\" in the literary canonof English literature.Simone de Beauvoir, inThe Second Sex(1949), chooses onlyEmily Brontë,Virginia Woolfand (\"sometimes\")Mary Webb,ColetteandMansfield, as among those who have tried to approach nature \"in its inhuman freedom\". Above all, Emily loved to wander about the wild landscape of the moors around Haworth. In September 1848 her health began to decline rapidly.Consumptive, she refused all treatment,with the exception of a visit from a London doctor, because although it was already too late, her relatives insisted.Despite popular belief, Emily did not die on the dining room sofa. There is no contemporary evidence for the story and Charlotte, in her letter to William Smith Williams, mentions Emily's dog Keeper lying at the side of her death bed.It is possible that she left an unfinished manuscript that Charlotte burned to avoid such controversy as followed the","as followed the publication ofWuthering Heights. Several documents exist that allude to the possibility, although no proof corroborating this suggestion has ever been found. Emily Brontë's poems Emily's poems were probably written to be inserted in the saga ofGondal, several of whose characters she identified with right into adulthood. At the age of 28 she still acted out scenes from the little books with Anne while travelling on the train to York.\"Remembrance\" was one of the 21 of her poems that were chosen for 1846 joint publication with her siblings'. Anne Brontë Anne was not as celebrated as her other two sisters. Her second novel,The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was prevented from being republished after Anne's death by her sister Charlotte, who wrote to her publisher that \"it hardly appears to me desirable to preserve. The choice of subject in that work is a mistake, it was too little consonant with the character, tastes and ideas of the gentle, retiring inexperienced writer.\" This prevention is considered","is considered to be the main reason for Anne's being less renowned than her sisters. Anne's health began to decline rapidly, like that of her brother and sister some months earlier. On 5 April 1849, she wrote to Ellen Nussey asking her to accompany her to Scarborough on the east coast. Anne confides her thoughts to Ellen: I have no horror of death: if I thought it inevitable I think I could quietly resign myself to the prospect ... But I wish it would please God to spare me not only for Papa's and Charlotte's sakes, but because I long to do some good in the world before I leave it. I have many schemes in my head for future practise—humble and limited indeed—but still I should not like them all to come to nothing, and myself to have lived to so little purpose. But God's will be done. Anne hoped that the sea air would improve her health, as recommended by the doctor, and Charlotte agreed to go. On the Sunday morning she felt weaker and asked if she could be taken back to Haworth. The doctor confirmed that she","confirmed that she was near to death and Anne thanked him for his candour. \"Take courage, take courage\" she murmured to Charlotte. She died at 2 pm on Monday 28 May. She is buried in the cemetery of St Mary's of Scarborough.Her gravestone inscription carried an error in her age: she died at the age of 29 and not at 28. It was noticed by Charlotte during her only visit, and she had the intention of asking the mason to correct it. Ill health did not leave him time to effect the repair and the tombstone remained in the same state until it was replaced by the Brontë Society in April 2013. Northern England at the time of the Brontës In her 1857 biographyThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, Mrs Gaskell begins with two explanatory and descriptive chapters. The first one covers the wild countryside of theWest Riding of Yorkshire, the little village of Haworth, the parsonage and the church surrounded by its vast cemetery perched on the top of a hill. The second chapter presents an overview of the social, sanitary and","sanitary and economic conditions of the region. Social, sanitary and economic conditions in Haworth The death toll within the Brontë family was not unusual for the area, and left little impression on the village population, who were confronted with death on a daily basis. When Patrick Brontë arrived, the parish was suffering from unemployment. The men sought work in the quarries and local handicrafts. The only businesses were the pharmacy, which supplied Branwell, and John Greenwood's stationery store where the Brontës were the best customers. Haworth's population grew rapidly during the first half of the 19th century, from hardly 1,000 to 3,365 in 50 years.The village did not have a sewage system and the well water was contaminated by faecal matter and the decomposition of bodies in the cemetery on the hilltop.Life expectancywas less than 25 years and infant mortality was around 41% for children under six months of age.Most of the population lived by working the poorly fertile land of themoorsand","land of themoorsand supplemented their incomes with work done at home, such as spinning and weaving wool from the sheep that were farmed on the moors.Conditions changedwhen the textile industry, already present since the end of the 17th century, grew with the mills being located on the banks of theRiver Worth, whose waters turned the wheels. Consequently fewer people were needed to work them. Food was scarce, often little more thanporridge, resulting in vitamin deficiencies. Public hygiene was non-existent and lavatories were basic. The facilities at the parsonage were no more than a plank across a hole in a hut at the rear, with a lower plank for the children. In her thirties, Charlotte was described as having a toothless jaw by such persons as Mrs Gaskell, who stated in a letter dated 25 August 1850 to Catherine Winkworth: \"large mouth and many teeth gone\".However, food was reasonably plentiful in the family. They ate from well filled plates of porridge in the morning and piles of potatoes were peeled each","were peeled each day in the kitchen while Tabby told stories about her country, or Emily revised her German grammar. Sometimes Mr Brontë would return home from his tours of the village with game donated by the parishioners. Role of the women According toRobert Southey, poet laureate, in his response to Charlotte, ladies from a good background should be content with an education and a marriage embellished with some decorative talents.Mr Patrick Brontë had one of the characters in hisThe Maid of Kilarney—without knowing whether it reflected a widespread opinion supporting or condemning it—say, \"The education of female ought, most assuredly, to be competent, in order that she might enjoy herself, and be a fit companion for man. But, believe me, lovely, delicate and sprightly woman, is not formed by nature, to pore over the musty pages of Grecian and Roman literature, or to plod through the windings of Mathematical Problems, nor has Providence assigned for her sphere of action, either the cabinet or the field.","or the field. Herforteis softness, tenderness and grace.\" In any case, it seemed to contradict his attitude towards his daughters whom he encouraged, even if he was not completely aware of what they did with their time. Sisters' place in literature Due to their forced or voluntary isolation, the Brontë sisters constituted a separate literary group that neither had predecessors nor successors. There is not a 'Brontë' line such as exists among authors of realist and naturalist novels, or in poetry, the romantic and the symbolic. Their influence certainly existed, but it is difficult to define in its totality. Writers who followed them doubtlessly thought about them while they were creating their dark and tormented worlds such asThomas HardyinJude the ObscureorTess of the d'Urbervilles, orGeorge EliotwithAdam BedeandThe Mill on the Floss.There were also more conventional authors such asMatthew Arnold, who in a letter from 1853 says of Charlotte that she only pretends to heartlessness: \"nothing but hunger,","but hunger, rebellion and rage\".In contrast,Mrs Humphry Ward, author ofRobert Elsmereand other morality novels, only finds the didactic among the works of Charlotte, while she appreciates the happy blend of romance and realism in the works of Emily.There is however nothing that could constitute a literary vein. Pilgrimages to Haworth from 1860 By 1860 Charlotte had been dead for five years, and the only people living at the parsonage were Mr. Brontë, his son-in-law,Arthur Bell Nicholls, and two servants. In 1857 Mrs. Gaskell's biography of Charlotte was published, and though at its first reading, Mr. Brontë approved of its commissioning, several months later he expressed doubts. The portrait of Nicholls, founded partly on the confidence of Ellen Nussey, seemed to him to be unjustified. Ellen Nussey, who hated Arthur, insists that his marital claims had perverted Charlotte's writing and she had to struggle against an interruption of her career. It is true that Arthur found Nussey to be too close to his wife,","close to his wife, and he insisted that she should destroy her letters—although this never actually happened. Mrs. Gaskell's book caused a sensation and was distributed nationwide. The polemic launched by Charlotte's father resulted in a squabble that only served to increase the family's fame. During Charlotte's lifetime friends and sponsors visited the parsonage, includingSir Jamesand Lady Kay Shuttleworth,Ellen Nussey,Elizabeth Gaskell,John Store Smith, a young writer from Manchester,Bessie Parkes, who recounted her visit to Mrs. Gaskell, andAbraham Holroyd, poet, antiquarian and historian.However, following the publication of the book and the pastor's public remonstrations, the parsonage became a place of pilgrimage for admirers wanting to see it with their own eyes. Charlotte's husband recalled that he had to protect his father-in-law, when on the short path to the church they had to push their way through the crowds of people wanting to reach out and touch the cape of the father of the Brontë girls.The","Brontë girls.The hundreds of visitors became thousands, coming from all over Britain and even from across the Atlantic. Whenever he agreed to meet them, Patrick received them with utmost courtesy and recounted the story of his brilliant daughters, never omitting to express his displeasure at the opinions held about Charlotte's husband. The flow of visitors has never abated. Indeed, the parsonage at Haworth received an estimated 88,000 visitors in 2017. Brontë Society TheBrontë Parsonage Museumis managed and maintained by theBrontë Society,which organises exhibitions and takes care of the cultural heritage represented by objects and documents that belonged to the family. The society has branches in Australia, Canada, France, Ireland, theScandinaviancountries, South Africa and the USA. Haworth In 1904,Virginia Woolfvisited Haworth and published an account inThe Guardianon 21 December. She remarked on the symbiosis between the village and the Brontë sisters, and on the fact that utensils and clothes that would","clothes that would normally have disappeared before those who used them, have survived, enables one to better understand their singular presence. She wrote: \"Haworth expresses the Brontës; the Brontës express Haworth; they fit like a snail to its shell\". Brontë Birthplace The sisters' birthplace in Thornton has been acquired by acommunity benefit societyto preserve it, and as of 2024there are plans to restore the house for use as a \"social and educational space\". Brontë Stones In a 2018 project curated and delivered byUniversity of Huddersfieldacademic and writer Michael Stewart and theBradford Literature Festival, four specially-commissioned poems are inscribed on four stones set in the area between the sisters' birthplace and the Haworth parsonage.The Anne Stone has a poem byJackie Kayand stands in a wildflower meadow behind the Haworth Parsonage; the Charlotte Stone, with a poem byCarol Ann Duffy, is set in the wall of theBrontë Birthplacein Thornton; Emily is remembered in a poem byKate Bush, known for","Bush, known for her 1978 song \"Wuthering Heights\", which is carved into a rock outcrop of Ogden Kirk on wild moorland aboveOgden Water; and a fourth stone, the Brontë Stone, commemorates all three sisters with a poem byJeanette Wintersonand stands in Thornton Cemetery.There are various published walks around the stones, including the 15 mi (24 km) Emily Brontë Walk which is recognised by theLong Distance Walkers Association.The Brontë Stones Project was found to have \"increased local engagement with the landscape, regenerated and preserved ancient public rights of ways, and provided an important stimulus to cultural tourism, contributing to the quality of the tourist experience\". Commemoration in Westminster Abbey A plaque to the three Brontë sisters was erected inPoets' CornerinWestminster Abbeyon 8 October 1939, although it was not marked with any ceremony, due to the outbreak of the Second World War. A formal unveiling took place in 1947 but it took until 2024 for the lack ofdiaeresisover the final e in","the final e in their names to be noticed and corrected. Descendants The line of Patrick Brontë died out with his children, but Patrick's brother had notable descendants, includingJames Brontë Gatenby, whose most important work was studyingGolgi bodiesin various animals, including humans, andPeter Gatenby, formerly the medical director of the UN. In popular culture Books, comics and graphic novels Cinema Dance Music Objects in outer space Opera Sport Stage productions Television References Informational notes Citations Bibliography External links","Jane Austen Jane Austen(/ˈɒstɪn,ˈɔːstɪn/OST-in,AW-stin; 16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an English novelist known primarily for her six novels, which implicitly interpret, critique, and comment upon the Britishlanded gentryat the end of the 18th century. Austen's plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage for the pursuit of favourable social standing and economic security. Her works are implicit critiques of thenovels of sensibilityof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-centuryliterary realism.Her use of social commentary, realism, and irony have earned her acclaim amongst critics and scholars. The anonymously publishedSense and Sensibility(1811),Pride and Prejudice(1813),Mansfield Park(1814), andEmma(1816) were modest successes, but they brought her little fame in her lifetime. She wrote two other novels—Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion, both published posthumously in 1817—and began another, eventually titledSanditon, but it was left unfinished upon her","unfinished upon her death. She also left behind three volumes of juvenile writings in manuscript, the shortepistolary novelLady Susan, and the unfinished novelThe Watsons. Since her death Austen's novels have rarely been out of print. A significant transition in her reputation occurred in 1833, when they were republished inRichard Bentley's Standard Novels series (illustrated by Ferdinand Pickering and sold as a set). They gradually gained wide acclaim and popular readership. In 1869, fifty-two years after her death, her nephew's publication ofA Memoir of Jane Austenintroduced a compelling version of her writing career and her supposedly uneventful life to an eager audience. Her work has inspired a large number of critical essays and has been included in many literary anthologies. Her novels have also inspired many films, including 1940'sPride and Prejudice, 1995'sSense and Sensibility, and 2016'sLove & Friendship. Biographical sources The scant biographical information about Austen comes from her few","comes from her few surviving letters and sketches her family members wrote about her.Only about 160 of the approximately 3,000 letters Austen wrote have survived and been published.Cassandra Austendestroyed the bulk of the letters she received from her sister, burning or otherwise destroying them. She wanted to ensure that the \"younger nieces did not read any of Jane's sometimes acid or forthright comments on neighbours or family members\".In the interest of protecting reputations from Jane's penchant for honesty and forthrightness, Cassandra omitted details of illnesses, unhappiness and anything she considered unsavoury.Important details about the Austen family were elided by intention, such as any mention of Austen's brother George, whose undiagnosed developmental challenges led the family to send him away from home; the two brothers sent away to the navy at an early age; or wealthy Aunt Leigh-Perrot, arrested and tried on charges of larceny. The first Austen biography wasHenry Thomas Austen's 1818","Austen's 1818 \"Biographical Notice\". It appeared in a posthumous edition ofNorthanger Abbeyand included extracts from two letters, against the judgement of other family members. Details of Austen's life continued to be omitted or embellished in her nephew'sA Memoir of Jane Austen, published in 1869, and in William and Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh's biographyJane Austen: Her Life and Letters, published in 1913, all of which included additional letters.Austen's family and relatives built a legend of \"good quiet Aunt Jane\", portraying her as a woman in a happy domestic situation, whose family was the mainstay of her life. Modern biographers include details excised from the letters and family biographies, but the biographer Jan Fergus writes that the challenge is to keep the view balanced, not to present her languishing in periods of deep unhappiness as \"an embittered, disappointed woman trapped in a thoroughly unpleasant family\". Life Family Jane Austen was born inSteventon, Hampshireon 16 December 1775. Her","December 1775. Her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother \"certainly expected to have been brought to bed a month ago\". He added that the newborn infant was \"a present plaything for Cassy and a future companion\".The winter of 1775-1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the local church and christened Jane. Her father,George Austen(1731–1805), served as therectorof the Anglican parishes of Steventon andDeane.The Reverend Austen came from an old and wealthy family of wool merchants. As each generation ofeldest sonsreceived inheritances, George's branch of the family fell into poverty. He and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. In 1745, at the age of fifteen, George Austen's sisterPhiladelphiawas apprenticed to amillinerinCovent Garden.At the age of sixteen, George enteredSt John's College, Oxford,where he most likely met Cassandra Leigh (1739–1827).She came from the prominentLeigh family. Her father was","Her father was rector atAll Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry. Her eldest brother James inherited a fortune and large estate from his great-aunt Perrot, with the only condition that hechange his nameto Leigh-Perrot. George Austen and Cassandra Leigh were engaged, probably around 1763, when they exchangedminiatures.He received thelivingof the Steventon parish from Thomas Knight, the wealthy husband of his second cousin.They married on 26 April 1764 atSt Swithin's ChurchinBath, bylicense, in a simple ceremony, two months after Cassandra's father died.Their income was modest, with George's smallper annumliving; Cassandra brought to the marriage the expectation of a small inheritance at the time of her mother's death. After the living at the nearby Deane rectory had been purchased for George by his wealthy uncle Francis Austen,the Austens took up temporary residence there, until Steventon rectory, a 16th-century house in disrepair, underwent necessary renovations. Cassandra gave birth to","gave birth to three children while living at Deane:Jamesin 1765, George in 1766, andEdwardin 1767.Her custom was to keep an infant at home for several months and then place it with Elizabeth Littlewood, a woman living nearby tonurseand raise for twelve to eighteen months. Steventon In 1768, the family finally took up residence in Steventon.Henrywas the first child to be born there, in 1771.At about this time, Cassandra could no longer ignore the signs that little George wasdevelopmentally disabled. He had seizures and may have been deaf and mute. At this time she chose to send him to be fostered.In 1773,Cassandrawas born, followed byFrancisin 1774, and Jane in 1775. According to the biographerPark Honanthe Austen home had an \"open, amused, easy intellectual atmosphere\", in which the ideas of those with whom members of the Austen family might disagree politically or socially were considered and discussed. The family relied on the patronage of their kin and hosted visits from numerous family members.Mrs Austen","members.Mrs Austen spent the summer of 1770 in London with George's sister, Philadelphia, and her daughterEliza, accompanied by his other sister, Mrs. Walter and her daughter Philly.Philadelphia and Eliza Hancock were, according to Le Faye, \"the bright comets flashing into an otherwise placid solar system of clerical life in ruralHampshire, and the news of their foreign travels and fashionable London life, together with their sudden descents upon the Steventon household in between times, all helped to widen Jane's youthful horizon and influence her later life and works.\" Cassandra Austen's cousin Thomas Leigh visited a number of times in the 1770s and 1780s, inviting young Cassie to visit them inBathin 1781. The first mention of Jane occurs in family documents upon her return, \"... and almost home they were when they met Jane & Charles, the two little ones of the family, who had to go as far as New Down to meet thechaise, & have the pleasure of riding home in it.\"Le Faye writes that \"Mr Austen's predictions","predictions for his younger daughter were fully justified. Never were sisters more to each other than Cassandra and Jane; while in a particularly affectionate family, there seems to have been a special link between Cassandra and Edward on the one hand, and between Henry and Jane on the other.\" From 1773 until 1796, George Austen supplemented his income by farming and by teaching three or four boys at a time, who boarded at his home.The Reverend Austen had an annual income of £200 (equivalent to £32,000 in 2023) from his two livings.This was a very modest income at the time; by comparison, a skilled worker like a blacksmith or a carpenter could make about £100 annually while the typical annual income of a gentry family was between £1,000 and £5,000.Mr. Austen also rented the 200-acre Cheesedown farm from his benefactor Thomas Knight which could make a profit of £300 (equivalent to £48,000 in 2023) a year. During this period of her life, Jane Austen attended church regularly, socialised with friends and","with friends and neighbours,and read novels—often of her own composition—aloud to her family in the evenings. Socialising with the neighbours often meant dancing, either impromptu in someone's home after supper or at the balls held regularly at theassembly roomsin the town hall.Her brother Henry later said that \"Jane was fond of dancing, and excelled in it\". Education In 1783 Austen and her sister Cassandra were sent toOxfordto be educated by Ann Cawley who took them toSouthamptonlater that year. That autumn both girls were sent home after catchingtyphus, of which Jane nearly died.She was from then home-educated, until she attended boarding school with her sister from early in 1785 at theReading Abbey Girls' School, ruled by Mrs La Tournelle.The curriculum probably included French, spelling, needlework, dancing, music and drama. The sisters returned home before December 1786 because the school fees for the two girls were too high for the Austen family.After 1786 Austen \"never again lived anywhere beyond the","anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment\". Her education came from reading, guided by her father and brothers James and Henry.Irene Collinssaid that Austen \"used some of the same school books as the boys\".Austen apparently had unfettered access both to her father's library and that of a family friend,Warren Hastings. Together these collections amounted to a large and varied library. Her father was also tolerant of Austen's sometimes risqué experiments in writing, and provided both sisters with expensive paper and other materials for their writing and drawing. Private theatricals were an essential part of Austen's education. From her early childhood, the family and friends staged a series of plays in therectorybarn, includingRichard Sheridan'sThe Rivals(1775) andDavid Garrick'sBon Ton. Austen's eldest brother James wrote the prologues and epilogues and she probably joined in these activities, first as a spectator and later as a participant.Most of the plays were comedies, which suggests","which suggests how Austen's satirical gifts were cultivated.At the age of 12, she tried her own hand at dramatic writing; she wrote three short plays during her teenage years. Juvenilia(1787–1793) From at least the time she was aged eleven, Austen wrote poems and stories to amuse herself and her family.She exaggerated mundane details of daily life and parodied common plot devices in \"stories full of anarchic fantasies of female power, licence, illicit behaviour, and general high spirits\", according toJanet Todd.Containing work written between 1787 and 1793, the juvenilia (or childhood writings) that Austen compiledfair copiesconsisted of twenty-nine early works into three bound notebooks, now referred to as theJuvenilia.She called the three notebooks \"Volume the First\", \"Volume the Second\" and \"Volume the Third\", and they preserve 90,000 words she wrote during those years.TheJuveniliaare often, according to scholar Richard Jenkyns, \"boisterous\" and \"anarchic\"; he compares them to the work of 18th-century","of 18th-century novelistLaurence Sterne. Among these works is a satirical novel in letters titledLove and Freindship, written when aged fourteen in 1790,in which she mocked popularnovels of sensibility.The next year, she wroteThe History of England, a manuscript of thirty-four pages accompanied by thirteen watercolour miniatures by her sister, Cassandra. Austen'sHistoryparodied popular historical writing, particularlyOliver Goldsmith'sHistory of England(1764).Honan speculates that not long after writingLove and Freindship, Austen decided to \"write for profit, to make stories her central effort\", that is, to become a professional writer. When she was around eighteen years old, Austen began to write longer, more sophisticated works. In August 1792, aged seventeen, Austen startedCatharine or the Bower, which presaged her mature work, especiallyNorthanger Abbey, but was left unfinished until picked up inLady Susan, which Todd describes as less prefiguring thanCatharine.A year later she began, but abandoned, a","but abandoned, a short play, later titledSir Charles Grandison or the happy Man, a comedy in 6 acts, which she returned to and completed around 1800. This was a short parody of various school textbook abridgements of Austen's favourite contemporary novel,The History of Sir Charles Grandison(1753), bySamuel Richardson. When Austen became an aunt for the first time aged eighteen, she sent new-born nieceFanny Catherine Austen Knight\"five short pieces of ... the Juvenilia now known collectively as 'Scraps' .., purporting to be her 'Opinions and Admonitions on the conduct of Young Women'\". For Jane-Anna-Elizabeth Austen (also born in 1793), her aunt wrote \"two more 'Miscellanious Morsels', dedicating them to on 2 June 1793, 'convinced that if you seriously attend to them, You will derive from them very important Instructions, with regard to your Conduct in Life.'\"There is manuscript evidence that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as 1811 (when she was 36), and that her niece and nephew, Anna and","nephew, Anna and James Edward Austen, made further additions as late as 1814. Between 1793 and 1795 (aged eighteen to twenty), Austen wroteLady Susan, a shortepistolary novel, usually described as her most ambitious and sophisticated early work.It is unlike any of Austen's other works. Austen biographerClaire Tomalindescribes the novella's heroine as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate, betray and abuse her lovers, friends and family. Tomalin writes: Told in letters, it is as neatly plotted as a play, and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of theRestoration dramatistswho may have provided some of her inspiration ... It stands alone in Austen's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters. According to Janet Todd, the model for the title character may have beenEliza de Feuillide, who inspired Austen with stories of her glamorous life and various adventures. Eliza's French husband was","French husband was guillotined in 1794; she married Jane's brother Henry Austen in 1797. Tom Lefroy When Austen was twenty,Tom Lefroy, a neighbour, visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796. He had just finished a university degree and was moving to London for training as abarrister. Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering, and it is clear from Austen's letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together: \"I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved. Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together.\" Austen wrote in her first surviving letter to her sister Cassandra that Lefroy was a \"very gentlemanlike, good-looking, pleasant young man\".Five days later in another letter, Austen wrote that she expected an \"offer\" from her \"friend\" and that \"I shall refuse him, however, unless he promises to give away his white coat\", going on to write \"I will confide","\"I will confide myself in the future to Mr Tom Lefroy, for whom I don't give a sixpence\" and refuse all others.The next day, Austen wrote: \"The day will come on which I flirt my last with Tom Lefroy and when you receive this it will be all over. My tears flow as I write at this melancholy idea\". Halperin cautioned that Austen often satirised popular sentimental romantic fiction in her letters, and some of the statements about Lefroy may have been ironic. However, it is clear that Austen was genuinely attracted to Lefroy and subsequently none of her other suitors ever quite measured up to him.The Lefroy family intervened and sent him away at the end of January. Marriage was impractical as both Lefroy and Austen must have known. Neither had any money, and he was dependent on agreat-unclein Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career. If Tom Lefroy later visited Hampshire, he was carefully kept away from the Austens, and Jane Austen never saw him again.In November 1798, Lefroy was still on","Lefroy was still on Austen's mind as she wrote to her sister she had tea with one of his relatives, wanted desperately to ask about him, but could not bring herself to raise the subject. Early manuscripts (1796–1798) After finishingLady Susan, Austen began her first full-length novelElinor and Marianne. Her sister remembered that it was read to the family \"before 1796\" and was told through a series of letters. Without surviving original manuscripts, there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published anonymously in 1811 asSense and Sensibility. Austen began a second novel,First Impressions(later published asPride and Prejudice), in 1796. She completed the initial draft in August 1797, aged 21; as with all of her novels, Austen read the work aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an \"established favourite\".At this time, her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels. In November 1797, George Austen wrote toThomas Cadell, an established","an established publisher in London, to ask if he would consider publishingFirst Impressions. Cadell returned Mr. Austen's letter, marking it \"Declined by Return of Post\". Austen may not have known of her father's efforts.Following the completion ofFirst Impressions, Austen returned toElinor and Marianneand from November 1797 until mid-1798, revised it heavily; she eliminated theepistolaryformat in favour ofthird-person narrationand produced something close toSense and Sensibility.In 1797, Austen met her cousin (and future sister-in-law),Eliza de Feuillide, a French aristocrat whose first husband the Comte de Feuillide had been guillotined, causing her to flee to Britain, where she married Henry Austen.The description of the execution of the Comte de Feuillide related by his widow left Austen with an intense horror of theFrench Revolutionthat lasted for the rest of her life. During the middle of 1798, after finishing revisions ofElinor and Marianne, Austen began writing a third novel with the working","with the working titleSusan—laterNorthanger Abbey—a satire on the popularGothic novel.Austen completed her work about a year later. In early 1803, Henry Austen offeredSusanto Benjamin Crosby, a London publisher, who paid £10 for the copyright. Crosby promised early publication and went so far as to advertise the book publicly as being \"in the press\", but did nothing more.The manuscript remained in Crosby's hands, unpublished, until Austen repurchased the copyright from him in 1816. Bath and Southampton In December 1800, George Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry, leave Steventon, and move the family to 4,Sydney PlaceinBath, Somerset.While retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens, Jane Austen was shocked to be told she was moving 50 miles (80 km) away from the only home she had ever known.An indication of her state of mind is her lack of productivity as a writer during the time she lived in Bath. She was able to make some revisions toSusan, and she began and","and she began and then abandoned a new novel,The Watsons, but there was nothing like the productivity of the years 1795–1799.Tomalin suggests this reflects a deep depression disabling her as a writer, but Honan disagrees, arguing Austen wrote or revised her manuscripts throughout her creative life, except for a few months after her father died.It is often claimed that Austen was unhappy in Bath, which caused her to lose interest in writing, but it is just as possible that Austen's social life in Bath prevented her from spending much time writing novels.The critic Robert Irvine argued that if Austen spent more time writing novels when she was in the countryside, it might just have been because she had more spare time as opposed to being more happy in the countryside as is often argued.Furthermore, Austen frequently both moved and travelled over southern England during this period, which was hardly a conducive environment for writing a long novel.Austen sold the rights to publishSusanto a publisher Crosby &","publisher Crosby & Company, who paid her £10 (equivalent to £1,020 in 2023).The Crosby & Company advertisedSusan, but never published it. The years from 1801 to 1804 are something of a blank space for Austen scholars as Cassandra destroyed all of her letters from her sister in this period for unknown reasons.In December 1802, Austen received her only known proposal of marriage. She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg, old friends who lived nearBasingstoke. Their younger brother, Harris Bigg-Wither, had recently finished his education at Oxford and was also at home. Bigg-Wither proposed and Austen accepted. As described by Caroline Austen, Jane's niece, and Reginald Bigg-Wither, a descendant, Harris was not attractive—he was a large, plain-looking man who spoke little, stuttered when he did speak, was aggressive in conversation, and almost completely tactless. However, Austen had known him since both were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to Austen and her family. He was","her family. He was the heir to extensive family estates located in the area where the sisters had grown up. With these resources, Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age, give Cassandra a permanent home and, perhaps, assist her brothers in their careers. By the next morning, Austen realised she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance.No contemporary letters or diaries describe how Austen felt about this proposal.Irvine described Bigg-Wither as somebody who \"...seems to have been a man very hard to like, let alone love\". In 1814, Austen wrote a letter to her niece Fanny Knight, who had asked for advice about a serious relationship, telling her that \"having written so much on one side of the question, I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther, & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him. Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection\".The English scholar Douglas Bush wrote that Austen had \"had a very high ideal of","very high ideal of the love that should unite a husband and wife ... All of her heroines ... know in proportion to their maturity, the meaning of ardent love\".A possible autobiographical element inSense and Sensibilityoccurs whenElinor Dashwoodcontemplates \"the worse and most irremediable of all evils, a connection for life\" with an unsuitable man. In 1804, while living in Bath, Austen started, but did not complete, her novelThe Watsons. The story centres on an invalid and impoverished clergyman and his four unmarried daughters. Sutherland describes the novel as \"a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women's lives\".Honan suggests, and Tomalin agrees, that Austen chose to stop work on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for her comfort. Her father's relatively sudden death left Jane, Cassandra, and their mother in a precarious financial situation. Edward, James, Henry, and Francis Austen (known as Frank)","(known as Frank) pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters.For the next four years, the family's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity. They spent part of the time in rented quarters in Bath before leaving the city in June 1805 for a family visit to Steventon andGodmersham. They moved for the autumn months to the newly fashionable seaside resort ofWorthing, on theSussex coast, where they resided at Stanford Cottage.It was here that Austen is thought to have written her fair copy ofLady Susanand added its \"Conclusion\". In 1806, the family moved toSouthampton, where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife. A large part of this time they spent visiting various branches of the family. On 5 April 1809, about three months before the family's move toChawton, Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby, offering him a new manuscript ofSusanif needed to secure the immediate publication of the novel, and requesting the return of the original so she","the original so she could find another publisher. Crosby replied that he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time, or at all, and that Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the £10 he had paid her and find another publisher. She did not have the resources to buy the copyright back at that time,but was able to purchase it in 1816. Chawton Around early 1809, Austen's brother Edward offered his mother and sisters a more settled life—the use of a large cottage inChawtonvillagewhich was part of the estate around Edward's nearby propertyChawton House. Jane, Cassandra and their mother moved intoChawton cottageon 7 July 1809.Life was quieter in Chawton than it had been since the family's move to Bath in 1800. The Austens did not socialise withgentryand entertained only when family visited. Her niece Anna described the family's life in Chawton as \"a very quiet life, according to our ideas, but they were great readers, and besides the housekeeping our aunts occupied themselves in working with the","in working with the poor and in teaching some girl or boy to read or write.\" Published author Like many women authors at the time, Austen published her books anonymously.At the time, the ideal roles for a woman were as wife and mother, and writing for women was regarded at best as a secondary form of activity; a woman who wished to be a full-time writer was felt to be degrading her femininity, so books by women were usually published anonymously in order to maintain the conceit that the female writer was only publishing as a sort of part-time job, and was not seeking to become a \"literary lioness\" (i.e. a celebrity).Another reason noted is that the novel was still seen as a lesser form of literature at the time compared with poetry, and many female and male authors published novels anonymously, whereas works of poetry, by both female and male writers were almost always attributed to the author. During her time at Chawton, Austen published four generally well-received novels. Through her brother Henry, the","brother Henry, the publisherThomas Egertonagreed to publishSense and Sensibility, which, like all of Austen's novels exceptPride and Prejudice, was published \"on commission\", that is, at the author's financial risk. When publishing on commission, publishers would advance the costs of publication, repay themselves as books were sold and then charge a 10% commission for each book sold, paying the rest to the author. If a novel did not recover its costs through sales, the author was responsible for them.The alternative to selling via commission was by selling the copyright, where an author received a one-time payment from the publisher for the manuscript, which occurred withPride and Prejudice.Austen's experience withSusan(the manuscript that becameNorthanger Abbey) where she sold the copyright to the publisher Crosby & Sons for £10, who did not publish the book, forcing her to buy back the copyright in order to get her work published, left Austen leery of this method of publishing.The final alternative, of","alternative, of selling by subscription, where a group of people would agree to buy a book in advance, was not an option for Austen as only authors who were well known or had an influential aristocratic patron who would recommend an up-coming book to their friends, could sell by subscription.Sense and Sensibilityappeared in October 1811, and was described as being written \"By a Lady\".As it was sold on commission, Egerton used expensive paper and set the price at 15 shillings (equivalent to £69 in 2023). Reviews were favourable and the novel became fashionable among young aristocratic opinion-makers;the edition sold out by mid-1813. Austen's novels were published in larger editions than was normal for this period. The small size of the novel-reading public and the large costs associated with hand production (particularly the cost of handmade paper) meant that most novels were published in editions of 500 copies or fewer to reduce the risks to the publisher and the novelist. Even some of the most successful","the most successful titles during this period were issued in editions of not more than 750 or 800 copies and later reprinted if demand continued. Austen's novels were published in larger editions, ranging from about 750 copies ofSense and Sensibilityto about 2,000 copies ofEmma. It is not clear whether the decision to print more copies than usual of Austen's novels was driven by the publishers or the author. Since all but one of Austen's books were originally published \"on commission\", the risks of overproduction were largely hers (or Cassandra's after her death) and publishers may have been more willing to produce larger editions than was normal practice when their own funds were at risk. Editions of popular works of non-fiction were often much larger. Austen made £140 (equivalent to £12,800 in 2023) fromSense and Sensibility,which provided her with some financial and psychological independence.After the success ofSense and Sensibility, all of Austen's subsequent books were billed as written \"By the author","\"By the author ofSense and Sensibility\" and Austen's name never appeared on her books during her lifetime.Egerton then publishedPride and Prejudice, a revision ofFirst Impressions, in January 1813. Austen sold the copyright toPride and Prejudiceto Egerton for £110 (equivalent to £9,100 in 2023).To maximise profits, he used cheap paper and set the price at 18 shillings (equivalent to £74 in 2023).He advertised the book widely and it was an immediate success, garnering three favourable reviews and selling well. Had Austen soldPride and Prejudiceon commission, she would have made a profit of £475, or twice her father's annual income.By October 1813, Egerton was able to begin selling a second edition.Mansfield Parkwas published by Egerton in May 1814. WhileMansfield Parkwas ignored by reviewers, it was very popular with readers. All copies were sold within six months, and Austen's earnings on this novel were larger than for any of her other novels. Without Austen's knowledge or approval, her novels were","her novels were translated into French and published in cheaply produced, pirated editions in France.: 1–2The literary critic Noel King commented in 1953 that, given the prevailing rage in France at the time for lush romantic fantasies, it was remarkable that her novels with the emphasis on everyday English life had any sort of a market in France.: 2King cautioned that Austen's chief translator in France, MadameIsabelle de Montolieu, had only the most rudimentary knowledge of English, and her translations were more of \"imitations\" than translations proper, as Montolieu depended upon assistants to provide a summary, which she then translated into an embellished French that often radically altered Austen's plots and characters.: 5–6The first of the Austen novels to be published that credited her as the author was in France, whenPersuasionwas published in 1821 asLa Famille Elliot ou L'Ancienne Inclination.: 5 Austen learned that thePrince Regentadmired her novels and kept a set at each of his residences.In","his residences.In November 1815, the Prince Regent's librarianJames Stanier Clarkeinvited Austen to visit the Prince's London residence and hinted Austen should dedicate the forthcomingEmmato the Prince. Though Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent, she could scarcely refuse the request.Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent on the account of his womanising, gambling, drinking, spendthrift ways, and generally disreputable behaviour.She later wrotePlan of a Novel, according to Hints from Various Quarters, a satiric outline of the \"perfect novel\" based on the librarian's many suggestions for a future Austen novel.Austen was greatly annoyed by Clarke's often pompous literary advice, and thePlan of a Novelparodying Clarke was intended as her revenge for all the unwanted letters she had received from the royal librarian. In mid-1815 Austen moved her work from Egerton toJohn Murray, a better-known publisher in London,who publishedEmmain December 1815 and a second edition ofMansfield Parkin February","Parkin February 1816.Emmasold well, but the new edition ofMansfield Parkdid poorly, and this failure offset most of the income fromEmma. These were the last of Austen's novels to be published during her lifetime. While Murray preparedEmmafor publication, Austen beganThe Elliots, later published asPersuasion. She completed her first draft in July 1816. In addition, shortly after the publication ofEmma, Henry Austen repurchased the copyright forSusanfrom Crosby. Austen was forced to postpone publishing either of these completed novels by family financial troubles. Henry Austen's bank failed in March 1816, depriving him of all of his assets, leaving him deeply in debt and costing Edward, James, and Frank Austen large sums. Henry and Frank could no longer afford the contributions they had made to support their mother and sisters. Illness and death Austen was feeling unwell by early 1816, but ignored the warning signs. By the middle of that year, her decline was unmistakable, and she began a slow, irregular","a slow, irregular deterioration.The majority of biographers rely onZachary Cope's 1964retrospective diagnosisand list her cause of death asAddison's disease, although her final illness has also been described as resulting fromHodgkin's lymphoma.When her uncle died and left his entire fortune to his wife, effectively disinheriting his relatives, she suffered a relapse, writing: \"I am ashamed to say that the shock of my Uncle's Will brought on a relapse ... but a weak Body must excuse weak Nerves.\" Austen continued to work in spite of her illness. Dissatisfied with the ending ofThe Elliots, she rewrote the final two chapters, which she finished on 6 August 1816.In January 1817, Austen beganThe Brothers(titledSanditonwhen published in 1925), completing twelve chapters before stopping work in mid-March 1817, probably due to illness.Todd describesSanditon's heroine, Diana Parker, as an \"energetic invalid\". In the novel Austen mockedhypochondriacs, and although she describes the heroine as \"bilious\", five days","five days after abandoning the novel she wrote of herself that she was turning \"every wrong colour\" and living \"chiefly on the sofa\".She put down her pen on 18 March 1817, making a note of it. Austen made light of her condition, describing it as \"bile\" andrheumatism. As her illness progressed, she experienced difficulty walking and lacked energy; by mid-April she was confined to bed. In May, Cassandra and Henry brought her toWinchesterfor treatment, by which time she suffered agonising pain and welcomed death.Austen died in Winchester on 18 July 1817 at the age of 41. Henry, through his clerical connections, arranged for his sister to be buried in the north aisle of thenaveofWinchester Cathedral. The epitaph composed by her brother James praises Austen's personal qualities, expresses hope for her salvation, and mentions the \"extraordinary endowments of her mind\", but does not explicitly mention her achievements as a writer. Posthumous publication In the months after Austen's death in July 1817, Cassandra,","1817, Cassandra, Henry Austen and Murray arranged for the publication ofPersuasionandNorthanger Abbeyas a set.Henry Austen contributed aBiographical Notedated December 1817, which for the first time identified his sister as the author of the novels. Tomalin describes it as \"a loving and polished eulogy\".Sales were good for a year—only 321 copies remained unsold at the end of 1818. Although Austen's six novels were out of print in England in the 1820s, they were still being read through copies housed in private libraries and circulating libraries. Austen had early admirers. The first piece of fiction using her as a character (what might now be calledreal person fiction) appeared in 1823 in a letter to the editor inThe Lady's Magazine.It refers to Austen's genius and suggests that aspiring authors were envious of her powers. In 1832,Richard Bentleypurchased the remaining copyrights to all of her novels, and over the following winter published five illustrated volumes as part of hisStandard Novelsseries. In","Novelsseries. In October 1833, Bentley released the first collected edition of her works. Since then, Austen's novels have been continuously in print. Genre and style Austen's works implicitly critique thesentimental novelsof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism.The earliest English novelists,Richardson,Henry Fielding, andTobias Smollett, were followed by the school of sentimentalists andromanticssuch asWalter Scott,Horace Walpole,Clara Reeve,Ann Radcliffe, andOliver Goldsmith, whose style and genre Austen repudiated, returning the novel on a \"slender thread\" to the tradition of Richardson and Fielding for a \"realistic study of manners\".In the mid-20th century the literary criticsF. R. LeavisandIan Wattplaced her in the tradition of Richardson and Fielding; both believe that she used their tradition of \"irony, realism and satire to form an author superior to both\". Walter Scott noted Austen's \"resistance to the trashysensationalismof much of","much of modern fiction—'the ephemeral productions which supply the regular demand of watering places andcirculating libraries'\".Yet her relationship with these genres is complex, as evidenced byNorthanger AbbeyandEmma.Similar toWilliam Wordsworth, who excoriated the modern frantic novel in the \"Preface\" to hisLyrical Ballads(1800), Austen distances herself from escapist novels; the discipline and innovation she demonstrates is similar to his, and she shows \"that rhetorically less is artistically more.\"She eschewed popular Gothic fiction, stories of terror in which a heroine typically was stranded in a remote location, a castle or abbey (32 novels between 1784 and 1818 contain the word \"abbey\" in their title). Yet inNorthanger Abbeyshe alludes to the trope, with the heroine, Catherine, anticipating a move to a remote locale. Rather than full-scale rejection or parody, Austen transforms the genre, juxtaposing reality, with descriptions of elegant rooms and modern comforts, against the heroine's \"novel-fueled\"","\"novel-fueled\" desires.Nor does she completely denigrate Gothic fiction: instead she transforms settings and situations, such that the heroine is still imprisoned, yet her imprisonment is mundane and real—regulated manners and the strict rules of the ballroom.InSense and SensibilityAusten presents characters who are more complex than in staple sentimental fiction, according to the critic Tom Keymer, who notes that although it is a parody of popular sentimental fiction, \"Mariannein her sentimental histrionics responds to the calculating world ... with a quite justifiable scream of female distress.\" The hair was curled, and the maid sent away, and Emma sat down to think and be miserable. It was a wretched business, indeed! Such an overthrow of everything she had been wishing for! Such a development of every thing most unwelcome! — example offree indirect speech, Jane Austen,Emma Richardson'sPamela, the prototype for the sentimental novel, is adidacticlove story with a happy ending, written at a time women were","a time women were beginning to have the right to choose husbands and yet were restricted by social conventions.Austen attempted Richardson's epistolary style, but found the flexibility of narrative more conducive to her realism, a realism in which each conversation and gesture carries a weight of significance. The narrative style utilisesfree indirect speech—she was the first English novelist to do so extensively—through which she had the ability to present a character's thoughts directly to the reader and yet still retain narrative control. The style allows an author to vary discourse between the narrator's voice and values and those of the characters. Austen had a natural ear for speech and dialogue, according to the scholarMary Lascelles: \"Few novelists can be more scrupulous than Jane Austen as to the phrasing and thoughts of their characters.\"Techniques such as fragmentary speech suggest a character's traits and their tone; \"syntax and phrasing rather than vocabulary\" is utilised to indicate social","to indicate social variants.Dialogue reveals a character's mood—frustration, anger, happiness—each treated differently and often through varying patterns of sentence structures. WhenElizabeth BennetrejectsDarcy, her stilted speech and the convoluted sentence structure reveals that he has wounded her: From the very beginning, from the first moment I may almost say, of my acquaintance with you, your manners impressing me with the fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit, and your selfish disdain of the feelings of others, were such as to form that the groundwork of disapprobation, on which succeeding events have built so immovable a dislike. And I had not known you a month before I felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry. Austen's plots highlight women's traditional dependence on marriage to secure social standing and economic security.As an art form, the 18th-century novel lacked the seriousness of its equivalents from the 19th century, when novels were","when novels were treated as \"the natural vehicle for discussion and ventilation of what mattered in life\".Rather than delving too deeply into the psyche of her characters, Austen enjoys them and imbues them with humour, according to critic John Bayley. He believes that the well-spring of her wit and irony is her own attitude that comedy \"is the saving grace of life\".Part of Austen's fame rests on the historical and literary significance that she was the first woman to write great comic novels.Samuel Johnson's influence is evident, in that she follows his advice to write \"a representation of life as may excite mirth\". Her humour comes from her modesty and lack of superiority, allowing her most successful characters, such as Elizabeth Bennet, to transcend the trivialities of life, which the more foolish characters are overly absorbed in.Austen used comedy to explore the individualism of women's lives and gender relations, and she appears to have used it to find the goodness in life, often fusing it with","fusing it with \"ethical sensibility\", creating artistic tension. Critic Robert Polhemus writes, \"To appreciate the drama and achievement of Austen, we need to realize how deep was her passion for both reverence and ridicule ... and her comic imagination reveals both the harmonies and the telling contradictions of her mind and vision as she tries to reconcile her satirical bias with her sense of the good.\" Reception Contemporaneous responses As Austen's works were published anonymously, they brought her little personal renown. They were fashionable among opinion-makers, but were rarely reviewed.Most of the reviews were short and on balance favourable, although superficial and cautious,most often focused on the moral lessons of the novels. Walter Scott, a leading novelist of the day, anonymously wrote a review ofEmmain 1815, using it to defend the then-disreputable genre of the novel and praising Austen's realism, \"the art of copying from nature as she really exists in the common walks of life, and presenting","and presenting to the reader, instead of the splendid scenes from an imaginary world, a correct and striking representation of that which is daily taking place around him\".The other important early review was attributed toRichard Whatelyin 1821. However, Whately denied having authored the review, which drew favourable comparisons between Austen and such acknowledged greats asHomerandShakespeare, and praised the dramatic qualities of her narrative. Scott and Whately set the tone for almost all subsequent 19th-century Austen criticism. 19th century Because Austen's novels did not conform toRomanticandVictorianexpectations that \"powerful emotion authenticated by an egregious display of sound and colour in the writing\",some 19th-century critics preferred the works ofCharles DickensandGeorge Eliot.Notwithstanding Walter Scott's positivity, Austen's work did not win over those who preferred the prevailing aesthetic values of the elite Romantic zeitgeist.Her novels were republished in Britain from the 1830s and","from the 1830s and sold steadily.Austen's six books were included in the canon-making Standard Novels series by publisher Richard Bentley, which increased their stature. That series referred to her as \"the founder of a school of novelists\" and called her a genius. The first French critic who paid notice to Austen wasPhilarète Chaslesin an 1842 essay, dismissing her in two sentences as a boring, imitative writer with no substance.Austen was not widely appreciated in France until 1878,when the French critic Léon Boucher published the essayLe Roman Classique en Angleterre, in which he called Austen a \"genius\", the first French author to do so.The first accurate translation of Austen into French occurred in 1899 whenFélix FénéontranslatedNorthanger AbbeyasCatherine Morland. In Britain and North America, Austen gradually grew in the estimation of both the public and the literati. In the United States, Austen was being recommended as reading in schools as early as 1838, according to Professor Devoney Looser.The","Devoney Looser.The philosopher and literary criticGeorge Henry Lewespublished a series of enthusiastic articles in the 1840s and 1850s.Later in the century, the novelistHenry Jamesreferred to Austen several times with approval, and on one occasion ranked her with Shakespeare,Cervantes, and Henry Fielding as amongst \"the fine painters of life\". The publication of James Edward Austen-Leigh'sA Memoir of Jane Austenin 1869 introduced Austen's life story to a wider public as \"dear aunt Jane\", the respectable maiden aunt. Publication of theMemoirspurred another reissue of Austen's novels. Editions were released in 1883 and fancy illustrated editions and collectors' sets quickly followed.The author and criticLeslie Stephendescribed the popular mania that started to develop for Austen in the 1880s as \"Austenolatry\". Around the start of the 20th century, an intellectual clique ofJaneitesreacted against the popularisation of Austen, distinguishing their deeper appreciation from the vulgar enthusiasm of the masses. In","of the masses. In response, Henry James decried \"a beguiled infatuation\" with Austen, a rising tide of public interest that exceeded Austen's \"intrinsic merit and interest\".The American literary criticA. Walton Litznoted that the \"anti-Janites\" in the 19th and 20th centuries comprised a formidable literary squad ofMark Twain, Henry James,Charlotte Brontë,D. H. Lawrence, andKingsley Amis, but in \"every case the adverse judgement merely reveals the special limitations or eccentricities of the critic, leaving Jane Austen relatively untouched\". Modern Austen's works have attracted legions of scholars. The first dissertation on Austen was published in 1883, by George Pellew, a student at Harvard University.Another early academic analysis came from a 1911 essay by the Oxford Shakespearean scholarA. C. Bradley,who grouped Austen's novels into \"early\" and \"late\" works, a distinction still used by scholars today.The first academic book devoted to Austen in France wasJane Austenby Paul and Kate Rague (1914), who set","(1914), who set out to explain why French critics and readers should take Austen seriously.The same year, Léonie Villard publishedJane Austen, Sa Vie et Ses Oeuvres, originally her PhD thesis, the first serious academic study of Austen in France.In 1923, R.W. Chapman published the first scholarly edition of Austen's collected works, which was also the first scholarly edition of any English novelist. The Chapman text has remained the basis for all subsequent published editions of Austen's works. With the publication in 1939 of Mary Lascelles'Jane Austen and Her Art, the academic study of Austen took hold.Lascelles analysed the books Austen read and their influence on her work, and closely examined Austen's style and \"narrative art\". Concern arose that academics were obscuring the appreciation of Austen with increasingly esoteric theories, a debate that has continued since. The period since the Second World War has seen a diversity of critical approaches to Austen, includingfeminist theory, and perhaps most","and perhaps most controversially,postcolonial theory.The divide has widened between the popular appreciation of Austen, particularly by modernJaneites, and academic judgements.In 1994 the literary criticHarold Bloomplaced Austen among thegreatest Western writers of all time. In the People's Republic of China after 1949, writings of Austen were regarded as too frivolous,and thus during the ChineseCultural Revolutionof 1966–69, Austen was banned as a \"British bourgeois imperialist\".In the late 1970s, when Austen's works were re-published in China, her popularity with readers confounded the authorities who had trouble understanding that people generally read books for enjoyment, not political edification. In a typical modern debate, the conservative American professor Gene Koppel, to the indignation of his liberal literature students, mentioned that Austen and her family were \"Tories of the deepest dye\", i.e. Conservatives in opposition to the liberal Whigs. Although several feminist authors such as Claudia","such as Claudia Johnson and Mollie Sandock claimed Austen for their own cause, Koppel argued that different people react to a work of literature in different subjective ways, as explained by the philosopherHans-Georg Gadamer. Thus competing interpretations of Austen's work can be equally valid, provided they are grounded in textual and historical analysis: it is equally possible to see Austen as a feminist critiquingRegency-erasociety and as a conservative upholding its values. Adaptations Austen's novels have resulted in sequels, prequels and adaptations of almost every type, fromsoft-core pornographyto fantasy. From the 19th century, her family members published conclusions to her incomplete novels, and by 2000 there were over 100 printed adaptations.The first dramatic adaptation of Austen was published in 1895, Rosina Filippi'sDuologues and Scenes from the Novels of Jane Austen: Arranged and Adapted for Drawing-Room Performance, and Filippi was also responsible for the first professional stage","professional stage adaptation,The Bennets(1901).The first film adaptation was the1940 MGM production ofPride and PrejudicestarringLaurence OlivierandGreer Garson.BBC television dramatisations released in the 1970s and 1980s attempted to adhere meticulously to Austen's plots, characterisations and settings.The British critic Robert Irvine noted that in American film adaptations of Austen's novels, starting with the 1940 version ofPride and Prejudice, class is subtly downplayed, and the society of Regency England depicted by Austen that is grounded in a hierarchy based upon the ownership of land and the antiquity of the family name is one that Americans cannot embrace in its entirety. From 1995, many Austen adaptations appeared, withAng Lee'sfilm ofSense and Sensibility, for which screenwriter and starEmma Thompsonwon anAcademy Award, and the BBC's immensely popular TV mini-seriesPride and Prejudice, starringJennifer EhleandColin Firth.A 2005 British production ofPride and Prejudice, directed byJoe Wrightand","byJoe Wrightand starringKeira KnightleyandMatthew Macfadyen,was followed in 2007 byITV'sMansfield Park,Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion,and in 2016 byLove & FriendshipstarringKate Beckinsaleas Lady Susan, a film version ofLady Susan, that borrowed the title of Austen'sLove and Freindship. Honours In 2013, Austen's works featured on aseries of UK postage stampsissued by theRoyal Mailto mark the bicentenary of the publication ofPride and Prejudice.Austen is on the£10 noteissued by the Bank of England which was introduced in 2017, replacingCharles Darwin.In July 2017 a statue of Austen was erected in Basingstoke, Hampshire on the 200th anniversary of her death. List of works Juvenilia—Volume the First(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Second(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Third(1787–1793) Family trees See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links Museums Fan sites and societies"],"string":"[\n \"Brontë family TheBrontës(/ˈbrɒntiz/) were a nineteenth-century literary family, born in the village ofThorntonand later associated with the village ofHaworthin theWest Riding of Yorkshire,England. The sisters,Charlotte(1816–1855),Emily(1818–1848) andAnne(1820–1849), are well-known poets and novelists. Like many contemporary female writers, they published their poems and novels under male pseudonyms: Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Their stories attracted attention for their passion and originality immediately following their publication. Charlotte'sJane Eyrewas the first to know success, while Emily'sWuthering Heights, Anne'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Halland other works were accepted as masterpieces of literature after their deaths. The first Brontë children to be born to rectorPatrick Brontëand his wifeMariawereMaria(1814–1825) andElizabeth(1815–1825), who both died at young ages due to disease. Charlotte, Emily and Anne were then born within a time period of approximately four years. These three sisters and\",\n \"three sisters and their brother,Branwell(1817–1848), who had been born after Charlotte and before Emily, were very close to each other. As children, they developed their imaginations first through oral storytelling and play, set in an intricate imaginary world, and then through the collaborative writing of increasingly complex stories set in their fictional world. The deaths of their mother and two older sisters marked them and influenced their writing profoundly, as did their isolated upbringing. They were raised in a religious family.The Brontë birthplace inThorntonis a place of pilgrimage and their later home, theparsonageatHaworthin Yorkshire, now theBrontë Parsonage Museum, has hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. Origin of the name The Brontë family can be traced to theIrish clanÓ Pronntaigh, which literally means \\\"descendant of Pronntach\\\". They were a family of hereditary scribes and literary men inFermanagh. The versionÓ Proinntigh, which was first given by Patrick Woulfe in hisSloinnte\",\n \"in hisSloinnte Gaedheal is Gall(transl.Surnames of the Gael and the Foreigner)and reproduced without question byEdward MacLysaght, cannot be accepted as correct, as there were a number of well-known scribes with this name writing inIrishin the 17th and 18th centuries and all of them used the spellingÓ Pronntaigh. The name is derived from the wordpronntachorbronntach,which is related to the wordbronnadh, meaning \\\"giving\\\" or \\\"bestowal\\\" (pronnis given as anUlsterversion ofbronnin O'Reilly'sIrish English Dictionary.)Patrick Woulfe suggested that it was derived fromproinnteach(therefectoryof amonastery).Ó Pronntaighwas earlieranglicisedasPruntyand sometimesBrunty. At some point,Patrick Brontë(born Brunty), the sisters' father, decided on the alternative spelling with thediaeresisover the terminal⟨e⟩to indicate that the name has two syllables. Multiple theories exist to account for the change, including that he may have wished to hide his humble origins.As aman of letters, he would have been familiar withclassical\",\n \"withclassical Greekand may have chosen the name after the Greekβροντή(transl.thunder). One view, which biographerC. K. Shorterproposed in 1896, is that he adapted his name to associate himself withAdmiral Horatio Nelson, who was alsoDuke of Bronte.One might also find evidence for this theory in Patrick Brontë's desire to associate himself with theDuke of Wellingtonin his form of dress. Family tree Members of the Brontë family Patrick Brontë Patrick Brontë(17 March 1777 – 7 June 1861), the Brontë sisters' father, was born inLoughbrickland,County Down, Ireland, of a family of farm workers of moderate means.His birth name was Patrick Prunty or Brunty. His mother, Alice McClory, was of theRoman Catholicfaith, whilst his father Hugh was a Protestant, and Patrick was brought up in his father's faith. He was a bright young man and, after studying under the Rev. Thomas Tighe, won a scholarship toSt John's College, Cambridge. There, he studied divinity, ancient history and modern history.Attending Cambridge may have\",\n \"Cambridge may have made him feel that his name was too Irish and he changed its spelling to Brontë (and its pronunciation accordingly), perhaps in honour ofHoratio Nelson, whom Patrick admired.It is more likely, however, that his brother William was 'on the run' from the authorities for his involvement with the radicalUnited Irishmen, leading Patrick to distance himself from the name Brunty. Having obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree, he was ordained on 10 August 1806.He is the author ofCottage Poems(1811),The Rural Minstrel(1814), numerous pamphlets, several newspaper articles and various rural poems. In 1811, Patrick was appointed minister at Hartshead-cum-Clifton. In 1812, he met and married 29 year old Maria Branwell at Guiseley. In 1813, they moved to Clough House Hightown, Liversedge, West Riding of Yorkshireand by 1820 they had moved into the parsonage at Haworth, where he took up the post ofperpetual curate. (Haworth was an ancient chapelry in the large parish ofBradford, so he could not be rector or\",\n \"not be rector or vicar.) They had six children.On the death of his wife in 1821, his sister-in-law,Elizabeth Branwell, came fromPenzance,Cornwall, to help him bring up the children. Open, intelligent, generous and dedicated to educating his children personally, he bought all the books and toys the children desired. He also accorded them great freedom and unconditional love, although he may have alienated them from the world due to his eccentric personal habits and peculiar theories of education. After several failed attempts to remarry, Patrick accepted permanent widowerhood at the age of 47, and spent his time visiting the sick and the poor, giving sermons and administering communion.In so doing, he would often leave his children Maria, Elizabeth, Emily, Charlotte, Branwell and Anne alone with Elizabeth—Aunt Branwell and a maid, Tabitha Aykroyd (Tabby). Tabby helped relieve their possible boredom and loneliness especially by recounting local legends in her Yorkshire dialect as she tirelessly prepared the\",\n \"prepared the family's meals.Eventually, Patrick would survive his entire family. Six years after Charlotte's death, he died in 1861 at the age of 84.His son-in-law, the Rev.Arthur Bell Nicholls, would aid Mr Brontë at the end of his life as well. Maria, née Branwell Patrick's wifeMaria Brontë, née Branwell (15 April 1783 – 15 September 1821), was born inPenzance, Cornwall, and came from a comfortably well-off, middle-class family. Her father had a flourishing tea and grocery store and had accumulated considerable wealth.Maria died at the age of 38 ofuterine cancer.She married the same day as her younger sister Charlotte in the church atGuiseleyafter her fiancé had celebrated the union of two other couples.She was a literate and pious woman, known for her lively spirit, joyfulness and tenderness, and it was she who designed the samplers that are on display in the museumand had them embroidered by her children. She left memories with her husband and with Charlotte, the oldest surviving sibling, of a very\",\n \"sibling, of a very vivacious woman. The younger ones, particularly Emily and Anne, admitted to retaining only vague images of their mother, especially of her suffering on her sickbed. Elizabeth Branwell Elizabeth Branwell (2 December 1776 – 29 October 1842) arrived from Penzance in 1821, aged 45, after her younger sister Maria's death, to help Patrick look after the children, to whom she was known as 'Aunt Branwell.' Elizabeth Branwell was a Methodist, though it seems that her denomination did not exert any influence on the children. It was Aunt Branwell who taught the children arithmetic, the alphabet, and how to sew,embroider and cross-stitch, skills appropriate for ladies. Aunt Branwell also gave them books and subscribed toFraser's Magazine, less interesting thanBlackwood's, but, nevertheless, providing plenty of material for discussion.She was a generous person who dedicated her life to her nieces and nephew, neither marrying nor returning to visit her relations in Cornwall. She probably told the\",\n \"probably told the children stories of events that had happened in Cornwall, such as raids by pirates in the eighteenth century, who carried off British residents to be enslaved in North Africa and Turkey; enslavement in Turkey is mentioned by Charlotte Brontë inJane Eyre.She died ofbowel obstructionin October 1842, after a brief agony during which she was comforted by her beloved nephew Branwell. In her last will, Aunt Branwell left to her three nieces the considerable sum of £900 (about £95,700 in 2017 currency), which allowed them to resign from their low-paid jobs as governesses and teachers. Children Education Cowan Bridge School In 1824, the four eldest girls (excluding Anne) entered theClergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge,which educated the children of less prosperous members of the clergy, and had been recommended to Mr Brontë. The following year, Maria and Elizabeth fell gravely ill and were removed from the school, later dying on 6 May and 15 June 1825, respectively.Charlotte and Emily were also\",\n \"and Emily were also withdrawn from the school and returned to Haworth. Charlotte expressed the traumatic impact that her sisters' deaths had on her in her future works. InJane Eyre, Cowan Bridge became Lowood, Maria inspired the young Helen Burns, the cruel mistress Miss Andrews inspired the headmistress Miss Scatcherd, and the tyrannical headmaster Rev.Carus Wilson, Mr Brocklehurst. Tuberculosis, which afflicted Maria and Elizabeth in 1825, also caused the eventual deaths of three of the surviving Brontës: Branwell in September 1848, Emily in December 1848, and, finally, Anne in May 1849. Patrick Brontë faced a challenge in arranging for the education of the girls of his family, which was barely middle class. They lacked significant connections and he could not afford the fees for them to attend an established school for young ladies. One solution was the schools where the fees were reduced to a minimum—so called \\\"charity schools\\\"—with a mission to assist families like those of the lower clergy. (Barker had\",\n \"clergy. (Barker had read in theLeeds Intelligencerof 6 November 1823 reports of cases in the Court of Commons in Bowes: he later read of other cases, of 24 November 1824 near Richmond, in the county of Yorkshire, where pupils had been discovered gnawed by rats and suffering so badly from malnutrition that some of them had lost their sight.) Yet for Patrick, there was nothing to suggest that the Reverend Carus Wilson's Clergy Daughters' School would not provide a good education and good care for his daughters. The school was not expensive and its patrons (supporters who allowed the school to use their names) were all respected people. Among these was the daughter ofHannah More, a religious author and philanthropist who took a particular interest in education. More was a close friend of the poetWilliam Cowper, who, like her, advocated extensive, proper and well-rounded education for young girls. The pupils included the offspring of different prelates and even certain acquaintances of Patrick Brontë\",\n \"of Patrick Brontë includingWilliam Wilberforce, young women whose fathers had also been educated at St John's College, Cambridge. Thus Brontë believed Wilson's school to have many of the necessary guarantees needed for his daughters to receive proper schooling. John Bradley In 1829–30, Patrick Brontë engagedJohn Bradley, an artist from neighbouringKeighley, as drawing-master for the children. Bradley was an artist of some local repute rather than a professional instructor, but he may well have fostered Branwell's enthusiasm for art and architecture. Miss Wooler's school In 1831, fourteen-year-old Charlotte was enrolled at the school of Miss Wooler in Roe Head,Mirfield. Patrick could have sent his daughter to a less costly school inKeighleynearer home but Miss Wooler and her sisters had a good reputation and he remembered the building, which he passed when strolling around the parishes ofKirklees,Dewsburyand Hartshead-cum-Clifton where he was vicar. Margaret Wooler showed fondness towards the sisters and she\",\n \"the sisters and she accompanied Charlotte to the altar at her marriage.Patrick's choice of school was excellent—Charlotte was happy there and studied well. She made many lifelong friends, in particularEllen Nusseyand Mary Taylor who later went to New Zealand before returning to England.Charlotte returned from Roe Head in June 1832, missing her friends, but happy to rejoin her family. Three years later, Miss Wooler offered her former pupil a position as her assistant. The family decided that Emily would accompany her to pursue studies that would otherwise have been unaffordable. Emily's fees were partly covered by Charlotte's salary. Emily was 17 and it was the first time she had left Haworth since leaving Cowan Bridge. On 29 July 1835, the sisters left for Roe Head. The same day, Branwell wrote a letter to theRoyal Academy of Artin London, to present several of his drawings as part of his candidature as a probationary student. Charlotte taught, and wrote about her students without much sympathy. Emily did\",\n \"sympathy. Emily did not settle: after three months her health seemed to decline and she had to be taken home to the parsonage. Anne took her place and stayed until Christmas 1837. Charlotte avoided boredom by following the developments of the imaginary Empire of Angria—invented by Charlotte and Branwell—that she received in letters from her brother. During holidays at Haworth, she wrote long narratives while being reproached by her father who wanted her to become more involved in parish affairs. These were coming to a head over the imposition of the Church of England rates, a local tax levied on parishes where the majority of the population were dissenters. In the meantime, Miss Wooler moved to Heald's House, atDewsbury Moor, where Charlotte complained about the humidity that made her unwell. Upon leaving the establishment in 1838 Miss Wooler presented her with a parting gift ofThe Vision of Don Roderick and Rokeby, a collection of poems byWalter Scott. Literary evolution The children became interested in\",\n \"interested in writing from an early age, initially as a game. They all displayed a talent for narrative, but for the younger ones it became a pastime to develop them.At the centre of the children's creativity were twelve wooden soldiers which Patrick Brontë gave to Branwell at the beginning of June 1826.These toy soldiers instantly fired their imaginations and they spoke of them asthe Young Men, and gave them names. However, it was not until December 1827 that their ideas took written form,and the imaginary African kingdom of Glass Town came into existence,followed by the Empire of Angria. Emily and Anne createdGondal, an island continent in the North Pacific, ruled by a woman, after the departure of Charlotte in 1831.In the beginning, these stories were written inlittle books, the size of a matchboxabout 1.5 by 2.5 inches (38 mm × 64 mm)and cursorily bound with thread. The pages were filled with close, minute writing, often in capital letters without punctuation and embellished with illustrations, detailed\",\n \"detailed maps, schemes, landscapes and plans of buildings, created by the children according to their specialisations. The idea was that the books were of a size for the soldiers to read. The complexity of the stories matured as the children's imaginations developed, fed by reading the three weekly or monthly magazines to which their father had subscribed,or the newspapers that were bought daily from John Greenwood's local news and stationery store. Literary and artistic influence These fictional worlds were the product of fertile imagination fed by reading, discussion and a passion for literature. Far from suffering from the negative influences that never left them and which were reflected in the works of their later, more mature years, the Brontë children absorbed them eagerly. Press The periodicals that Patrick Brontë read were a mine of information for his children. TheLeeds IntelligencerandBlackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, conservative and well written, but better than theQuarterly Reviewthat defended the\",\n \"defended the same political ideas whilst addressing a less-refined readership (the reason Mr. Brontë did not read it),were exploited in every detail.Blackwood's Magazine, in particular, was not only the source of their knowledge of world affairs, but also provided material for the Brontës' early writing. For instance, an article in the June 1826 number ofBlackwood's, provides commentary on new discoveries from the exploration ofcentral Africa.The map included with the article highlights geographical features the Brontës reference in their tales: the Jibbel Kumera (theMountains of the Moon),Ashantee, and the riversNigerandCalabar. The author also advises the British to expand into Africa from Fernando Po, where, Christine Alexander notes, the Brontë children locate the Great Glass Town.Their knowledge of geography was completed by Goldsmith'sGrammar of General Geography, which the Brontës owned and annotated heavily. Lord Byron From 1833, Charlotte and Branwell's Angrian tales begin to featureByronic\",\n \"to featureByronic heroeswho have a strong sexual magnetism and passionate spirit, and demonstrate arrogance and even black-heartedness. Again, it is in an article inBlackwood's Magazinefrom August 1825 that they discover the poet for the first time; he had died the previous year. From this moment, the name Byron became synonymous with all the prohibitions and audacities as if it had stirred up the very essence of the rise of those forbidden things.Branwell's Charlotte Zamorna, one of the heroes ofVerdopolis, tends towards increasingly ambiguous behaviour,and the same influence and evolution recur with the Brontës, especially in the characters ofHeathcliffinWuthering Heights, andMr. RochesterinJane Eyre, who display the traits of aByronic hero. Numerous other works left their mark on the Brontës—theThousand and One Nights, for example, which inspiredjinnin which they became themselves in the centre of their kingdoms, while adding a touch of exoticism. John Martin The children's imagination was also influenced\",\n \"was also influenced by three prints of engravings inmezzotintbyJohn Martinaround 1820. Charlotte and Branwell made copies of the printsBelshazzar's Feast,Déluge, andJoshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still upon Gibeon(1816), which hung on the walls of the parsonage. Martin's fantastic architecture is reflected in theGlass Townand Angrian writings, where he appears himself among Branwell's charactersand under the name of Edward de Lisle, the greatest painter and portraitist of Verdopolis,the capital of Glass Town. One of Sir Edward de Lisle's major works,Les Quatre Genii en Conseil, is inspired by Martin's illustration forJohn Milton'sParadise Lost.Together with Byron, John Martin seems to have been one of the artistic influences essential to the Brontës' universe. Anne's morals and realism The influence revealed byAgnes GreyandThe Tenant of Wildfell Hallis much less clear. Anne's works are largely founded on her experience as a governess and on that of her brother's decline. Furthermore, they demonstrate her\",\n \"demonstrate her conviction, a legacy from her father, that books should provide moral education.This sense of moral duty and the need to record it, are more evident inThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall.The influence of the gothic novels ofAnn Radcliffe,Horace Walpole,Gregory \\\"Monk\\\" LewisandCharles Maturinis noticeable,and that of Walter Scott too, if only because the heroine, abandoned and left alone, resists importunities not only through her almost supernatural talents, but by her powerful temperament. Jane Eyre,Agnes Grey,The Tenant of Wildfell Hall,Shirley,Villetteand evenThe Professorpresent a linear structure concerning characters who advance through life after several trials and tribulations, to find a kind of happiness in love and virtue, recalling works of religious inspiration of the 17th century such asJohn Bunyan'sThe Pilgrim's Progressor hisGrace abounding to the Chief of Sinners.In a more profane manner, the hero or heroine follows apicaresqueitinerary such as inMiguel de Cervantes(1547–1616),Daniel\",\n \"Defoe(1660–1731),Henry Fielding(1707–1764) andTobias Smollett(1721–1771). This lively tradition continued into the 19th century with therags to richesgenre to which almost all the great Victorian romancers have contributed. The protagonist is thrown by fate into poverty and after many difficulties achieves a golden happiness. Often an artifice is employed to effect the passage from one state to another such as an unexpected inheritance, a miraculous gift, grand reunions, etc,and in a sense it is the route followed by Charlotte's and Anne's protagonists, even if the riches they win are more those of the heart than of the wallet. Apart from its Gothic elements,Wuthering Heightsmoves like a Greek tragedy and possesses its music,the cosmic dimensions of the epics ofJohn Milton, and the power of the Shakespearian theatre.One can hear the echoes ofKing Learas well as the completely different characters ofRomeo and Juliet.The Brontës were also seduced by the writings ofWalter Scott, and in 1834 Charlotte exclaimed,\",\n \"exclaimed, \\\"For fiction, read Walter Scott and only him—all novels after his are without value.\\\" Governesses and Charlotte's idea Early teaching opportunities Through their father's influence and their own intellectual curiosity, they were able to benefit from an education that placed them among knowledgeable people, but Mr Brontë's emoluments were modest. The only options open to the girls were either marriage or a choice between the professions of school mistress orgoverness. The Brontë sisters found positions in families wherein they educated often rebellious young children, or found employment as school teachers. The possibility of becoming apaid companionto a rich and solitary woman might have been a fall-back role but one that would have probably bored any of the sisters intolerably.Janet Todd'sMary Wollstonecraft, a revolutionary lifementions the predicament. Only Emily never became a governess. Her sole professional experience would be an experiment in teaching during six months of intolerable exile\",\n \"intolerable exile in Miss Patchett's school atLaw Hill(betweenHaworthandHalifax).In contrast, Charlotte had teaching positions at Miss Margaret Wooler's school and in Brussels with the Hégers. She became governess to the Sidgwicks, the Stonegappes and the Lotherdales where she worked for several months in 1839, then with Mrs White, at Upperhouse House, Rawdon, from March to September 1841.Anne became a governess and worked for Mrs Ingham,at Blake Hall, Mirfield from April to December 1839, then for Mrs Robinson at Thorp Green Hall, Little Ouseburn, near York, where she also obtained employment for her brother in a futile attempt to stabilise him. Working as governesses The family's finances did not flourish, and Aunt Branwell spent the money with caution. Emily had a visceral need of her home and the countryside that surrounded it, and to leave it would cause her to languish and wither.Charlotte and Anne, being more realistic, did not hesitate in finding work and from April 1839 to December 1841 the two\",\n \"1841 the two sisters had several posts as governesses. Not staying long with each family, their employment would last for some months or a single season. However, Anne did stay with the Robinsons in Thorp Green where things went well, from May 1840 to June 1845. In the meantime, Charlotte had an idea that would place all the advantages on her side. On advice from her father and friends, she thought that she and her sisters had the intellectual capacity to create a school for young girls in the parsonage where theirSunday Schoolclasses took place. It was agreed to offer the future pupils the opportunity of correctly learning modern languages and that preparation for this should be done abroad, which led to a further decision. Among the possibilities, Paris and Lille were considered,but were rejected due to aversion to the French. Indeed, theFrench Revolutionand theNapoleonic warshad not been forgotten by theTory-spirited and deeply conservative girls.On the recommendation of a pastor based in Brussels,who\",\n \"in Brussels,who wanted to be of help, Belgium was chosen, where they could also study German and music. Aunt Branwell provided the funds for the Brussels project. School project and study trip to Brussels Charlotte's and Emily's journey to Brussels Emily and Charlotte arrived in Brussels in February 1842 accompanied by their father.Once there, they enrolled atMonsieur and Madame Héger'sboarding school in the Rue d'Isabelle, for six months. Claire Héger was the second wife of Constantin, and it was she who founded and directed the school while Constantin had the responsibility for the higher French classes. According to Miss Wheelwright, a former pupil, he had the intellect of a genius. He was passionate about his auditorium, demanding many lectures, perspectives, and structured analyses.He was also a good-looking man with regular features, bushy hair, very black whiskers, and wore an excited expression while sounding forth on great authors about whom he invited his students to make apasticheon general or\",\n \"general or philosophical themes. The lessons, especially those of Constantin Héger, were very much appreciated by Charlotte, and the two sisters showed exceptional intelligence, although Emily hardly liked her teacher and was somewhat rebellious.Emily learned German and to play the piano with natural brilliance and very quickly the two sisters were writing literary and philosophical essays in an advanced level of French. After six months of study, Mme Héger suggested they stay at the boarding school free of charge, in return for giving some lessons. After much hesitation, the girls accepted. Neither of them felt particularly attached to their students, and only one, Mademoiselle de Bassompierre, then aged 16, later expressed any affection for her teacher Emily, which appeared to be mutual, and made her a gift of a signed, detailed drawing of a storm ravaged pine tree. Return and recall The death of their aunt in October of the same year forced them to return once more to Haworth. Aunt Branwell had left all\",\n \"had left all her worldly goods in equal shares to her nieces and to Eliza Kingston, a cousin in Penzance,which had the immediate effect of purging all their debts and providing a small reserve of funds. Nevertheless, they were asked to return to the Héger's boarding school in Brussels as they were regarded as being competent and were needed. They were each offered teaching posts in the boarding school, English for Charlotte and music for Emily. However, Charlotte returned alone to Belgium in January 1843.Emily remained critical of Monsieur Héger, in spite of the excellent opinion he held of her. He later stated that she 'had the spirit of a man', and would probably become a great traveller due to her being gifted with a superior faculty of reason that allowed her to deduce ancient knowledge from new spheres of knowledge, and her unbending willpower would have triumphed over all obstacles. Charlotte returns Almost a year to the day, enamoured for some time for Monsieur Héger, Charlotte resigned and returned\",\n \"and returned to Haworth. Her life at the school had not been without suffering, and on one occasion she ventured into the cathedral and entered a confessional. She may have had intention of converting to Catholicism, but it would only have been for a short time.During her absence, life at Haworth had become more difficult. Mr. Brontë had lost his sight although his cataract had been operated on with success in Manchester, and it was there in August 1846,when Charlotte arrived at his bedside that she began to writeJane Eyre. Meanwhile, her brother Branwell fell into a rapid decline punctuated by dramas, drunkenness and delirium.Due partly to Branwell's poor reputation, the school project failed and was abandoned. Charlotte wrote four long, very personal, and sometimes vague letters toMonsieur Hégerthat never received replies. The extent of Charlotte Brontë's feelings for Héger were not fully realised until 1913, when her letters to him were published for the first time. Héger had first shown them toMrs.\",\n \"shown them toMrs. Gaskellwhen she visited him in 1856 while researching her biographyThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, but she concealed their true significance. These letters, referred to as the \\\"Héger Letters\\\", had been ripped up at some stage by Héger, but his wife had retrieved the pieces from the wastepaper bin and meticulously glued or sewn them back together. Paul Héger, Constantin's son, and his sisters gave these letters to theBritish Museum,and they were shortly thereafter printed inThe Timesnewspaper. Brontë sisters' literary career First publication:Poems, by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell The writing that had begun so early never left the family. Charlotte had ambition like her brother, and wrote to thepoet laureateRobert Southeyto submit several poems in his style (though Branwell was kept at a distance from her project). She received a hardly encouraging reply after several months. Southey, still illustrious today although his star has somewhat waned, was one of the great figures of\",\n \"great figures of EnglishRomanticism, along withWilliam WordsworthandSamuel Taylor Coleridge, and he shared the prejudice of the times; literature, or more particularly poetry (for women had been publishing fiction and enjoying critical, popular and economic success for over a century by this time), was considered a man's business, and not an appropriate occupation for ladies. However, Charlotte did not allow herself to be discouraged. Furthermore, coincidence came to her aid. One day in autumn 1845 while alone in the dining room she noticed a small notebook lying open in the drawer of Emily's portable writing desk and \\\"of my sister Emily's handwriting\\\". She read it and was dazzled by the beauty of the poems that she did not know. The discovery of this treasure was what she recalled five years later, and according to Juliet Barker, she erased the excitement that she had felt\\\"more than surprise ..., a deep conviction that these were not common effusions, nor at all like the poetry women generally write. I\",\n \"generally write. I thought them condensed and terse, vigorous and genuine. To my ear, they had a peculiar music—wild, melancholy, and elevating.\\\" In the following paragraph Charlotte describes her sister's indignant reaction at her having ventured into such an intimate realm with impunity. It took Emily hours to calm down and days to be convinced to publish the poems. Charlotte envisaged a joint publication by the three sisters. Anne was easily won over to the project, and the work was shared, compared and edited.Once the poems had been chosen, nineteen for Charlotte and twenty-one each for Anne and Emily, Charlotte went about searching for a publisher. She took advice from William and Robert Chambers of Edinburgh, directors of one of their favourite magazines,Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. It is thought, although no documents exist to support the claim, that they advised the sisters to contact Aylott & Jones, a small publishing house at 8, Paternoster Row, London, who accepted, but at the authors' own risk\",\n \"authors' own risk since they felt the commercial risk to the company was too great.The work thus appeared in 1846, published using the male pseudonyms of Currer (Charlotte), Ellis (Emily) and Acton (Anne) Bell. These were very uncommon forenames but the initials of each of the sisters were preserved and the patronym could have been inspired by that of the vicar of the parish, Arthur Bell Nicholls. It was in fact on 18 May 1845 that he took up his duties at Haworth, at the moment when the publication project was well advanced. The book attracted hardly any attention. Only three copies were sold, of which one was purchased by Fredrick Enoch, a resident of Cornmarket, Warwick, who in admiration, wrote to the publisher to request an autograph—the only extant single document carrying the three authors' signatures in their pseudonyms,and they continued creating their prose, each one producing a book a year later. Each worked in secret,unceasingly discussing their writing for hours at the dinner table, after which\",\n \"table, after which their father would open the door at 9 p.m. with \\\"Don't stay up late, girls!\\\", then rewinding the clock and taking the stairs up to his room. Fame 1847 Charlotte'sJane Eyre, Emily'sWuthering Heightsand Anne'sAgnes Greyappeared in 1847 after many tribulations, again for reasons of finding a publisher. The packets containing the manuscripts were often returned to the parsonage and Charlotte simply added a new address; she did this at least a dozen times during the year.The first one was finally published by Smith, Elder & Co in London. The 23-year-old owner, George Smith, had specialised in publishing scientific revues, aided by his perspicacious reader William Smith Williams. Emily and Anne's manuscripts were confided toThomas Cautley Newby, who intended to compile athree-decker; more economical for sale and for loan in the \\\"circulating libraries\\\". The two first volumes includedWuthering Heightsand the third oneAgnes Grey. Both novels attracted critical acclaim, occasionally harsh\",\n \"occasionally harsh aboutWuthering Heights, praised for the originality of the subject and its narrative style, but viewed with suspicion because of its outrageous violence and immorality—surely, the critics wrote, a work of a man with a depraved mind.Critics were fairly neutral aboutAgnes Grey, but more flattering forJane Eyre, which soon became abest-seller, despite some commentators denouncing it as an affront to good morals. Jane Eyreand rising fame The pseudonymous (Currer Bell) publication in 1847 ofJane Eyre, An Autobiographyestablished a dazzling reputation for Charlotte. In July 1848, Charlotte and Anne (Emily had refused to go along with them) travelled by train to London to prove toSmith, Elder & Co.that each sister was indeed an independent author, for Thomas Cautley Newby, the publisher ofWuthering HeightsandAgnes Grey, had launched a rumour that the three novels were the work of one author, understood to be Ellis Bell (Emily).George Smithwas extremely surprised to find two gawky, ill-dressed\",\n \"gawky, ill-dressed country girls paralysed with fear, who, to identify themselves, held out the letters addressed toMessrs. Acton, Currer and Ellis Bell. Taken by such surprise, he introduced them to his mother with all the dignity their talent merited, and invited them to the opera for a performance ofRossini'sBarber of Seville. Wuthering Heights Emily Brontë'sWuthering Heightswas published in 1847 under the masculine pseudonym Ellis Bell, by Thomas Cautley Newby, in two companion volumes to that of Anne's (Acton Bell),Agnes Grey.Controversial from the start of its release, its originality, its subject, narrative style and troubled action raised intrigue. Certain critics condemned it,but sales were nevertheless considerable for an unknown author of a novel that defied all conventions. It is a work of black Romanticism, covering three generations isolated in the cold spring of the countryside with two opposing elements: the dignified manor of Thrushcross Grange and the rambling dilapidated pile of Wuthering\",\n \"pile of Wuthering Heights. The main characters, swept by tumults of the earth, the skies and the hearts, are strange and often possessed of unheard-of violence and deprivations. The story is told in a scholarly fashion, with two narrators, the traveller and tenant Lockwood, and the housekeeper/governess, Nelly Dean, with two sections in the first person, one direct, one cloaked, which overlap each other with digressions and sub-plots that form, from apparently scattered fragments, a coherently locked unit. 1848, Anne'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall One year before her death in May 1849, Anne published a second novel. Far more ambitious than her previous novel,The Tenant of Wildfell Hallwas a great success and rapidly outsold Emily'sWuthering Heights. However, the critical reception was mixed—praise for the novel's \\\"power\\\" and \\\"effect\\\" and sharp criticism for being \\\"coarse\\\".Charlotte Brontëherself, Anne's sister, wrote to her publisher that it \\\"hardly seems to me desirable topreserve ... thechoice of subject in\",\n \"of subject in that work is a mistake.\\\"After Anne's death, Charlotte prevented the novel's republication and thus condemned her sister to temporary oblivion. The master theme is the alcoholism of a man who causes the downfall of his family. Helen Graham, the central character, gets married for love to Arthur Huntingdon, whom she soon discovers to be lecherous, violent and alcoholic. She is forced to break with the conventions that would keep her in the family home that has become hell, and to leave with her child to seek secret refuge in the old house of Wildfell Hall. When the alcohol causes her husband's ultimate decline, she returns to care for him in total abnegation until his death. Today,The Tenant of Wildfell Hallis considered by most of the critics to be one of the first sustainedfeministnovels. Identities revealed In 1850, a little over a year after the deaths of Emily and Anne, Charlotte wrote a preface for the re-print of the combined edition ofWuthering HeightsandAgnes Grey, in which she publicly\",\n \"which she publicly revealed the real identities of all three sisters. Charlotte Brontë Denunciation of boarding schools (Jane Eyre) Conditions at the school at Cowan Bridge, where Maria and Elizabeth may have contracted the tuberculosis from which they died, were probably no worse than those at many other schools of the time. (For example, several decades before the Brontë sisters' experience at Cowan Bridge,Jane Austenand her sister Cassandra contracted typhus at a similar boarding school, and Jane nearly died. The Austen sisters' education, like that of the Brontë sisters, was continued at home.)Nevertheless, Charlotte blamed Cowan Bridge for her sisters' deaths, especially its poor medical care—chiefly, repeated emetics and blood-lettings—and the negligence of the school's doctor, who was the director's brother-in-law. Charlotte's vivid memories of the privations at Cowan Bridge were poured into her depiction of Lowood School inJane Eyre: the scanty and often spoiled food, the lack of heating and adequate\",\n \"and adequate clothing, the periodic epidemics of illness such as \\\"low fever\\\" (probably typhus), the severity and arbitrariness of the punishments, and even the harshness of particular teachers (a Miss Andrews who taught at Cowan Bridge is thought to have been Charlotte's model for Miss Scatcherd inJane Eyre).Elizabeth Gaskell, a personal friend and the first biographer of Charlotte, confirmed that Cowan Bridge was Charlotte's model for Lowood and insisted that conditions there in Charlotte's day were egregious. More recent biographers have argued that the food, clothing, heating, medical care and discipline at Cowan Bridge were not considered sub-standard for religious schools of the time, testaments of the era's complacency about these intolerable conditions.One scholar has commended Patrick Brontë for his perspicacity in removing all his daughters from the school, a few weeks before the deaths of Maria and Elizabeth. Literary encounters Following the overwhelming success ofJane Eyre, Charlotte was\",\n \"Eyre, Charlotte was pressured by George Smith, her publisher, to travel to London to meet her public. Despite the extreme timidity that paralysed her among strangers and made her almost incapable of expressing herself,Charlotte consented to be lionised, and in London was introduced to other great writers of the era, includingHarriet MartineauandWilliam Makepeace Thackeray, both of whom befriended her. Charlotte especially admired Thackeray, whose portrait, given to her by Smith, still hangs in the dining room at Haworth parsonage. On one occasion during a public gathering, Thackeray introduced Charlotte to his mother asJane Eyreand when Charlotte called on him the next day, he received an extended dressing-down, in which Smith had to intervene. During her trip to London in 1851 she visited theGreat ExhibitionandThe Crystal Palace.In 1849 she publishedShirleyand in 1853Villette. Marriage and death The Brontë sisters were highly amused by the behaviour of the curates they met.Arthur Bell Nicholls(1818–1906)\",\n \"Nicholls(1818–1906) had been curate of Haworth for seven and a half years, when contrary to all expectations, and to the fury of Patrick Brontë (their father), he proposed to Charlotte. Although impressed by his dignity and deep voice, as well as by his near complete emotional collapse when she rejected him, she found him rigid, conventional and rather narrow-minded \\\"like all the curates\\\"—as she wrote to Ellen Nussey.After she declined his proposal, Nicholls, pursued by the anger of Patrick Brontë, left his functions for several months.However, little by little her feelings evolved and after slowly convincing her father, she finally married Nicholls on 29 June 1854. On return from their honeymoon in Ireland where she had been introduced to Mr. Nicholls' aunt and cousins, her life completely changed. She adopted her new duties as a wife, which took up most of her time. She wrote to her friends telling them that Nicholls was a good and attentive husband, but that she nevertheless felt a kind of holy terror at\",\n \"of holy terror at her new situation. In a letter to Ellen Nussey (Nell), in 1854 she wrote \\\"Indeed-indeed-Nell-it is a solemn and strange and perilous thing for a woman to become a wife.\\\" The following year she died aged 38. The cause of death given at the time was tuberculosis, but it may have been complicated with typhoid fever (the water at Haworth being likely contaminated due to poor sanitation and the vast cemetery that surrounded the church and the parsonage) andhyperemesis gravidarumfrom her pregnancy that was in its early stage. The first biography of Charlotte was written byElizabeth Cleghorn Gaskellat the request of Patrick Brontë, and published in 1857, helping to create the myth of a family of condemned genius, living in a painful and romantic solitude. After having stayed at Haworth several times and having accommodated Charlotte in Plymouth Grove, Manchester, and having become her friend and confidant, Mrs Gaskell certainly had the advantage of knowing the family. Novels Unfinished fragments\",\n \"fragments These are outlines or unedited roughcasts which with the exception ofEmmahave been recently published. Branwell Brontë Patrick Branwell Brontë(1817–1848) was considered by his father and sisters to be a genius, while the book byDaphne du Maurier(1986),The Infernal World of Branwell Brontë, contains numerous references to his addiction to alcohol andlaudanum. He was an intelligent boy with many talents and interested in many subjects, especially literature. He was often the driving force in the Brontë siblings' construction of the imaginary worlds. He was artistic and was encouraged by his father to pursue this. While trying to make a name as an artist, he left for London, but used up his father's allowance in a matter of days in cafés of ill-repute.His attempts to obtain low-paid work failed,and very quickly he foundered in alcohol and laudanum, unable to regain his stability. Anne Brontë obtained employment for him in January 1843, but nearly three years later he was dismissed.In September 1848,\",\n \"September 1848, after several years of decline, he died from tuberculosis. On his death, his father tearfully repeated, \\\"My brilliant boy\\\", while the clearheaded and totally loyal Emily wrote that his condition had been \\\"hopeless\\\". Branwell is the author ofJuvenilia, which he wrote as a child with his sister Charlotte,Glass Town,Angria, poems, pieces of prose and verse under the pseudonym of Northangerland,such as \\\"Real Rest\\\", published by theHalifax Guardian(8 November 1846)from several articles accepted by local newspapers and from an unfinished novel probably from around 1845 entitledAnd the Weary are at Rest. Emily Brontë Emily Brontë(1818–1848) has been called the \\\"Sphinxof Literature\\\", writing without the slightest desire for fame and only for her own satisfaction. She was obsessively timid outside the family circle, to the point of turning her back on her partners in conversation without saying a word. With a single novel,Wuthering Heights(1847), and poems with an elemental power, she reached the\",\n \"she reached the heights of literature. Though she was almost unknown during her life, posterity classes her as \\\"top level\\\" in the literary canonof English literature.Simone de Beauvoir, inThe Second Sex(1949), chooses onlyEmily Brontë,Virginia Woolfand (\\\"sometimes\\\")Mary Webb,ColetteandMansfield, as among those who have tried to approach nature \\\"in its inhuman freedom\\\". Above all, Emily loved to wander about the wild landscape of the moors around Haworth. In September 1848 her health began to decline rapidly.Consumptive, she refused all treatment,with the exception of a visit from a London doctor, because although it was already too late, her relatives insisted.Despite popular belief, Emily did not die on the dining room sofa. There is no contemporary evidence for the story and Charlotte, in her letter to William Smith Williams, mentions Emily's dog Keeper lying at the side of her death bed.It is possible that she left an unfinished manuscript that Charlotte burned to avoid such controversy as followed the\",\n \"as followed the publication ofWuthering Heights. Several documents exist that allude to the possibility, although no proof corroborating this suggestion has ever been found. Emily Brontë's poems Emily's poems were probably written to be inserted in the saga ofGondal, several of whose characters she identified with right into adulthood. At the age of 28 she still acted out scenes from the little books with Anne while travelling on the train to York.\\\"Remembrance\\\" was one of the 21 of her poems that were chosen for 1846 joint publication with her siblings'. Anne Brontë Anne was not as celebrated as her other two sisters. Her second novel,The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was prevented from being republished after Anne's death by her sister Charlotte, who wrote to her publisher that \\\"it hardly appears to me desirable to preserve. The choice of subject in that work is a mistake, it was too little consonant with the character, tastes and ideas of the gentle, retiring inexperienced writer.\\\" This prevention is considered\",\n \"is considered to be the main reason for Anne's being less renowned than her sisters. Anne's health began to decline rapidly, like that of her brother and sister some months earlier. On 5 April 1849, she wrote to Ellen Nussey asking her to accompany her to Scarborough on the east coast. Anne confides her thoughts to Ellen: I have no horror of death: if I thought it inevitable I think I could quietly resign myself to the prospect ... But I wish it would please God to spare me not only for Papa's and Charlotte's sakes, but because I long to do some good in the world before I leave it. I have many schemes in my head for future practise—humble and limited indeed—but still I should not like them all to come to nothing, and myself to have lived to so little purpose. But God's will be done. Anne hoped that the sea air would improve her health, as recommended by the doctor, and Charlotte agreed to go. On the Sunday morning she felt weaker and asked if she could be taken back to Haworth. The doctor confirmed that she\",\n \"confirmed that she was near to death and Anne thanked him for his candour. \\\"Take courage, take courage\\\" she murmured to Charlotte. She died at 2 pm on Monday 28 May. She is buried in the cemetery of St Mary's of Scarborough.Her gravestone inscription carried an error in her age: she died at the age of 29 and not at 28. It was noticed by Charlotte during her only visit, and she had the intention of asking the mason to correct it. Ill health did not leave him time to effect the repair and the tombstone remained in the same state until it was replaced by the Brontë Society in April 2013. Northern England at the time of the Brontës In her 1857 biographyThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, Mrs Gaskell begins with two explanatory and descriptive chapters. The first one covers the wild countryside of theWest Riding of Yorkshire, the little village of Haworth, the parsonage and the church surrounded by its vast cemetery perched on the top of a hill. The second chapter presents an overview of the social, sanitary and\",\n \"sanitary and economic conditions of the region. Social, sanitary and economic conditions in Haworth The death toll within the Brontë family was not unusual for the area, and left little impression on the village population, who were confronted with death on a daily basis. When Patrick Brontë arrived, the parish was suffering from unemployment. The men sought work in the quarries and local handicrafts. The only businesses were the pharmacy, which supplied Branwell, and John Greenwood's stationery store where the Brontës were the best customers. Haworth's population grew rapidly during the first half of the 19th century, from hardly 1,000 to 3,365 in 50 years.The village did not have a sewage system and the well water was contaminated by faecal matter and the decomposition of bodies in the cemetery on the hilltop.Life expectancywas less than 25 years and infant mortality was around 41% for children under six months of age.Most of the population lived by working the poorly fertile land of themoorsand\",\n \"land of themoorsand supplemented their incomes with work done at home, such as spinning and weaving wool from the sheep that were farmed on the moors.Conditions changedwhen the textile industry, already present since the end of the 17th century, grew with the mills being located on the banks of theRiver Worth, whose waters turned the wheels. Consequently fewer people were needed to work them. Food was scarce, often little more thanporridge, resulting in vitamin deficiencies. Public hygiene was non-existent and lavatories were basic. The facilities at the parsonage were no more than a plank across a hole in a hut at the rear, with a lower plank for the children. In her thirties, Charlotte was described as having a toothless jaw by such persons as Mrs Gaskell, who stated in a letter dated 25 August 1850 to Catherine Winkworth: \\\"large mouth and many teeth gone\\\".However, food was reasonably plentiful in the family. They ate from well filled plates of porridge in the morning and piles of potatoes were peeled each\",\n \"were peeled each day in the kitchen while Tabby told stories about her country, or Emily revised her German grammar. Sometimes Mr Brontë would return home from his tours of the village with game donated by the parishioners. Role of the women According toRobert Southey, poet laureate, in his response to Charlotte, ladies from a good background should be content with an education and a marriage embellished with some decorative talents.Mr Patrick Brontë had one of the characters in hisThe Maid of Kilarney—without knowing whether it reflected a widespread opinion supporting or condemning it—say, \\\"The education of female ought, most assuredly, to be competent, in order that she might enjoy herself, and be a fit companion for man. But, believe me, lovely, delicate and sprightly woman, is not formed by nature, to pore over the musty pages of Grecian and Roman literature, or to plod through the windings of Mathematical Problems, nor has Providence assigned for her sphere of action, either the cabinet or the field.\",\n \"or the field. Herforteis softness, tenderness and grace.\\\" In any case, it seemed to contradict his attitude towards his daughters whom he encouraged, even if he was not completely aware of what they did with their time. Sisters' place in literature Due to their forced or voluntary isolation, the Brontë sisters constituted a separate literary group that neither had predecessors nor successors. There is not a 'Brontë' line such as exists among authors of realist and naturalist novels, or in poetry, the romantic and the symbolic. Their influence certainly existed, but it is difficult to define in its totality. Writers who followed them doubtlessly thought about them while they were creating their dark and tormented worlds such asThomas HardyinJude the ObscureorTess of the d'Urbervilles, orGeorge EliotwithAdam BedeandThe Mill on the Floss.There were also more conventional authors such asMatthew Arnold, who in a letter from 1853 says of Charlotte that she only pretends to heartlessness: \\\"nothing but hunger,\",\n \"but hunger, rebellion and rage\\\".In contrast,Mrs Humphry Ward, author ofRobert Elsmereand other morality novels, only finds the didactic among the works of Charlotte, while she appreciates the happy blend of romance and realism in the works of Emily.There is however nothing that could constitute a literary vein. Pilgrimages to Haworth from 1860 By 1860 Charlotte had been dead for five years, and the only people living at the parsonage were Mr. Brontë, his son-in-law,Arthur Bell Nicholls, and two servants. In 1857 Mrs. Gaskell's biography of Charlotte was published, and though at its first reading, Mr. Brontë approved of its commissioning, several months later he expressed doubts. The portrait of Nicholls, founded partly on the confidence of Ellen Nussey, seemed to him to be unjustified. Ellen Nussey, who hated Arthur, insists that his marital claims had perverted Charlotte's writing and she had to struggle against an interruption of her career. It is true that Arthur found Nussey to be too close to his wife,\",\n \"close to his wife, and he insisted that she should destroy her letters—although this never actually happened. Mrs. Gaskell's book caused a sensation and was distributed nationwide. The polemic launched by Charlotte's father resulted in a squabble that only served to increase the family's fame. During Charlotte's lifetime friends and sponsors visited the parsonage, includingSir Jamesand Lady Kay Shuttleworth,Ellen Nussey,Elizabeth Gaskell,John Store Smith, a young writer from Manchester,Bessie Parkes, who recounted her visit to Mrs. Gaskell, andAbraham Holroyd, poet, antiquarian and historian.However, following the publication of the book and the pastor's public remonstrations, the parsonage became a place of pilgrimage for admirers wanting to see it with their own eyes. Charlotte's husband recalled that he had to protect his father-in-law, when on the short path to the church they had to push their way through the crowds of people wanting to reach out and touch the cape of the father of the Brontë girls.The\",\n \"Brontë girls.The hundreds of visitors became thousands, coming from all over Britain and even from across the Atlantic. Whenever he agreed to meet them, Patrick received them with utmost courtesy and recounted the story of his brilliant daughters, never omitting to express his displeasure at the opinions held about Charlotte's husband. The flow of visitors has never abated. Indeed, the parsonage at Haworth received an estimated 88,000 visitors in 2017. Brontë Society TheBrontë Parsonage Museumis managed and maintained by theBrontë Society,which organises exhibitions and takes care of the cultural heritage represented by objects and documents that belonged to the family. The society has branches in Australia, Canada, France, Ireland, theScandinaviancountries, South Africa and the USA. Haworth In 1904,Virginia Woolfvisited Haworth and published an account inThe Guardianon 21 December. She remarked on the symbiosis between the village and the Brontë sisters, and on the fact that utensils and clothes that would\",\n \"clothes that would normally have disappeared before those who used them, have survived, enables one to better understand their singular presence. She wrote: \\\"Haworth expresses the Brontës; the Brontës express Haworth; they fit like a snail to its shell\\\". Brontë Birthplace The sisters' birthplace in Thornton has been acquired by acommunity benefit societyto preserve it, and as of 2024there are plans to restore the house for use as a \\\"social and educational space\\\". Brontë Stones In a 2018 project curated and delivered byUniversity of Huddersfieldacademic and writer Michael Stewart and theBradford Literature Festival, four specially-commissioned poems are inscribed on four stones set in the area between the sisters' birthplace and the Haworth parsonage.The Anne Stone has a poem byJackie Kayand stands in a wildflower meadow behind the Haworth Parsonage; the Charlotte Stone, with a poem byCarol Ann Duffy, is set in the wall of theBrontë Birthplacein Thornton; Emily is remembered in a poem byKate Bush, known for\",\n \"Bush, known for her 1978 song \\\"Wuthering Heights\\\", which is carved into a rock outcrop of Ogden Kirk on wild moorland aboveOgden Water; and a fourth stone, the Brontë Stone, commemorates all three sisters with a poem byJeanette Wintersonand stands in Thornton Cemetery.There are various published walks around the stones, including the 15 mi (24 km) Emily Brontë Walk which is recognised by theLong Distance Walkers Association.The Brontë Stones Project was found to have \\\"increased local engagement with the landscape, regenerated and preserved ancient public rights of ways, and provided an important stimulus to cultural tourism, contributing to the quality of the tourist experience\\\". Commemoration in Westminster Abbey A plaque to the three Brontë sisters was erected inPoets' CornerinWestminster Abbeyon 8 October 1939, although it was not marked with any ceremony, due to the outbreak of the Second World War. A formal unveiling took place in 1947 but it took until 2024 for the lack ofdiaeresisover the final e in\",\n \"the final e in their names to be noticed and corrected. Descendants The line of Patrick Brontë died out with his children, but Patrick's brother had notable descendants, includingJames Brontë Gatenby, whose most important work was studyingGolgi bodiesin various animals, including humans, andPeter Gatenby, formerly the medical director of the UN. In popular culture Books, comics and graphic novels Cinema Dance Music Objects in outer space Opera Sport Stage productions Television References Informational notes Citations Bibliography External links\",\n \"Jane Austen Jane Austen(/ˈɒstɪn,ˈɔːstɪn/OST-in,AW-stin; 16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an English novelist known primarily for her six novels, which implicitly interpret, critique, and comment upon the Britishlanded gentryat the end of the 18th century. Austen's plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage for the pursuit of favourable social standing and economic security. Her works are implicit critiques of thenovels of sensibilityof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-centuryliterary realism.Her use of social commentary, realism, and irony have earned her acclaim amongst critics and scholars. The anonymously publishedSense and Sensibility(1811),Pride and Prejudice(1813),Mansfield Park(1814), andEmma(1816) were modest successes, but they brought her little fame in her lifetime. She wrote two other novels—Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion, both published posthumously in 1817—and began another, eventually titledSanditon, but it was left unfinished upon her\",\n \"unfinished upon her death. She also left behind three volumes of juvenile writings in manuscript, the shortepistolary novelLady Susan, and the unfinished novelThe Watsons. Since her death Austen's novels have rarely been out of print. A significant transition in her reputation occurred in 1833, when they were republished inRichard Bentley's Standard Novels series (illustrated by Ferdinand Pickering and sold as a set). They gradually gained wide acclaim and popular readership. In 1869, fifty-two years after her death, her nephew's publication ofA Memoir of Jane Austenintroduced a compelling version of her writing career and her supposedly uneventful life to an eager audience. Her work has inspired a large number of critical essays and has been included in many literary anthologies. Her novels have also inspired many films, including 1940'sPride and Prejudice, 1995'sSense and Sensibility, and 2016'sLove & Friendship. Biographical sources The scant biographical information about Austen comes from her few\",\n \"comes from her few surviving letters and sketches her family members wrote about her.Only about 160 of the approximately 3,000 letters Austen wrote have survived and been published.Cassandra Austendestroyed the bulk of the letters she received from her sister, burning or otherwise destroying them. She wanted to ensure that the \\\"younger nieces did not read any of Jane's sometimes acid or forthright comments on neighbours or family members\\\".In the interest of protecting reputations from Jane's penchant for honesty and forthrightness, Cassandra omitted details of illnesses, unhappiness and anything she considered unsavoury.Important details about the Austen family were elided by intention, such as any mention of Austen's brother George, whose undiagnosed developmental challenges led the family to send him away from home; the two brothers sent away to the navy at an early age; or wealthy Aunt Leigh-Perrot, arrested and tried on charges of larceny. The first Austen biography wasHenry Thomas Austen's 1818\",\n \"Austen's 1818 \\\"Biographical Notice\\\". It appeared in a posthumous edition ofNorthanger Abbeyand included extracts from two letters, against the judgement of other family members. Details of Austen's life continued to be omitted or embellished in her nephew'sA Memoir of Jane Austen, published in 1869, and in William and Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh's biographyJane Austen: Her Life and Letters, published in 1913, all of which included additional letters.Austen's family and relatives built a legend of \\\"good quiet Aunt Jane\\\", portraying her as a woman in a happy domestic situation, whose family was the mainstay of her life. Modern biographers include details excised from the letters and family biographies, but the biographer Jan Fergus writes that the challenge is to keep the view balanced, not to present her languishing in periods of deep unhappiness as \\\"an embittered, disappointed woman trapped in a thoroughly unpleasant family\\\". Life Family Jane Austen was born inSteventon, Hampshireon 16 December 1775. Her\",\n \"December 1775. Her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother \\\"certainly expected to have been brought to bed a month ago\\\". He added that the newborn infant was \\\"a present plaything for Cassy and a future companion\\\".The winter of 1775-1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the local church and christened Jane. Her father,George Austen(1731–1805), served as therectorof the Anglican parishes of Steventon andDeane.The Reverend Austen came from an old and wealthy family of wool merchants. As each generation ofeldest sonsreceived inheritances, George's branch of the family fell into poverty. He and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. In 1745, at the age of fifteen, George Austen's sisterPhiladelphiawas apprenticed to amillinerinCovent Garden.At the age of sixteen, George enteredSt John's College, Oxford,where he most likely met Cassandra Leigh (1739–1827).She came from the prominentLeigh family. Her father was\",\n \"Her father was rector atAll Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry. Her eldest brother James inherited a fortune and large estate from his great-aunt Perrot, with the only condition that hechange his nameto Leigh-Perrot. George Austen and Cassandra Leigh were engaged, probably around 1763, when they exchangedminiatures.He received thelivingof the Steventon parish from Thomas Knight, the wealthy husband of his second cousin.They married on 26 April 1764 atSt Swithin's ChurchinBath, bylicense, in a simple ceremony, two months after Cassandra's father died.Their income was modest, with George's smallper annumliving; Cassandra brought to the marriage the expectation of a small inheritance at the time of her mother's death. After the living at the nearby Deane rectory had been purchased for George by his wealthy uncle Francis Austen,the Austens took up temporary residence there, until Steventon rectory, a 16th-century house in disrepair, underwent necessary renovations. Cassandra gave birth to\",\n \"gave birth to three children while living at Deane:Jamesin 1765, George in 1766, andEdwardin 1767.Her custom was to keep an infant at home for several months and then place it with Elizabeth Littlewood, a woman living nearby tonurseand raise for twelve to eighteen months. Steventon In 1768, the family finally took up residence in Steventon.Henrywas the first child to be born there, in 1771.At about this time, Cassandra could no longer ignore the signs that little George wasdevelopmentally disabled. He had seizures and may have been deaf and mute. At this time she chose to send him to be fostered.In 1773,Cassandrawas born, followed byFrancisin 1774, and Jane in 1775. According to the biographerPark Honanthe Austen home had an \\\"open, amused, easy intellectual atmosphere\\\", in which the ideas of those with whom members of the Austen family might disagree politically or socially were considered and discussed. The family relied on the patronage of their kin and hosted visits from numerous family members.Mrs Austen\",\n \"members.Mrs Austen spent the summer of 1770 in London with George's sister, Philadelphia, and her daughterEliza, accompanied by his other sister, Mrs. Walter and her daughter Philly.Philadelphia and Eliza Hancock were, according to Le Faye, \\\"the bright comets flashing into an otherwise placid solar system of clerical life in ruralHampshire, and the news of their foreign travels and fashionable London life, together with their sudden descents upon the Steventon household in between times, all helped to widen Jane's youthful horizon and influence her later life and works.\\\" Cassandra Austen's cousin Thomas Leigh visited a number of times in the 1770s and 1780s, inviting young Cassie to visit them inBathin 1781. The first mention of Jane occurs in family documents upon her return, \\\"... and almost home they were when they met Jane & Charles, the two little ones of the family, who had to go as far as New Down to meet thechaise, & have the pleasure of riding home in it.\\\"Le Faye writes that \\\"Mr Austen's predictions\",\n \"predictions for his younger daughter were fully justified. Never were sisters more to each other than Cassandra and Jane; while in a particularly affectionate family, there seems to have been a special link between Cassandra and Edward on the one hand, and between Henry and Jane on the other.\\\" From 1773 until 1796, George Austen supplemented his income by farming and by teaching three or four boys at a time, who boarded at his home.The Reverend Austen had an annual income of £200 (equivalent to £32,000 in 2023) from his two livings.This was a very modest income at the time; by comparison, a skilled worker like a blacksmith or a carpenter could make about £100 annually while the typical annual income of a gentry family was between £1,000 and £5,000.Mr. Austen also rented the 200-acre Cheesedown farm from his benefactor Thomas Knight which could make a profit of £300 (equivalent to £48,000 in 2023) a year. During this period of her life, Jane Austen attended church regularly, socialised with friends and\",\n \"with friends and neighbours,and read novels—often of her own composition—aloud to her family in the evenings. Socialising with the neighbours often meant dancing, either impromptu in someone's home after supper or at the balls held regularly at theassembly roomsin the town hall.Her brother Henry later said that \\\"Jane was fond of dancing, and excelled in it\\\". Education In 1783 Austen and her sister Cassandra were sent toOxfordto be educated by Ann Cawley who took them toSouthamptonlater that year. That autumn both girls were sent home after catchingtyphus, of which Jane nearly died.She was from then home-educated, until she attended boarding school with her sister from early in 1785 at theReading Abbey Girls' School, ruled by Mrs La Tournelle.The curriculum probably included French, spelling, needlework, dancing, music and drama. The sisters returned home before December 1786 because the school fees for the two girls were too high for the Austen family.After 1786 Austen \\\"never again lived anywhere beyond the\",\n \"anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment\\\". Her education came from reading, guided by her father and brothers James and Henry.Irene Collinssaid that Austen \\\"used some of the same school books as the boys\\\".Austen apparently had unfettered access both to her father's library and that of a family friend,Warren Hastings. Together these collections amounted to a large and varied library. Her father was also tolerant of Austen's sometimes risqué experiments in writing, and provided both sisters with expensive paper and other materials for their writing and drawing. Private theatricals were an essential part of Austen's education. From her early childhood, the family and friends staged a series of plays in therectorybarn, includingRichard Sheridan'sThe Rivals(1775) andDavid Garrick'sBon Ton. Austen's eldest brother James wrote the prologues and epilogues and she probably joined in these activities, first as a spectator and later as a participant.Most of the plays were comedies, which suggests\",\n \"which suggests how Austen's satirical gifts were cultivated.At the age of 12, she tried her own hand at dramatic writing; she wrote three short plays during her teenage years. Juvenilia(1787–1793) From at least the time she was aged eleven, Austen wrote poems and stories to amuse herself and her family.She exaggerated mundane details of daily life and parodied common plot devices in \\\"stories full of anarchic fantasies of female power, licence, illicit behaviour, and general high spirits\\\", according toJanet Todd.Containing work written between 1787 and 1793, the juvenilia (or childhood writings) that Austen compiledfair copiesconsisted of twenty-nine early works into three bound notebooks, now referred to as theJuvenilia.She called the three notebooks \\\"Volume the First\\\", \\\"Volume the Second\\\" and \\\"Volume the Third\\\", and they preserve 90,000 words she wrote during those years.TheJuveniliaare often, according to scholar Richard Jenkyns, \\\"boisterous\\\" and \\\"anarchic\\\"; he compares them to the work of 18th-century\",\n \"of 18th-century novelistLaurence Sterne. Among these works is a satirical novel in letters titledLove and Freindship, written when aged fourteen in 1790,in which she mocked popularnovels of sensibility.The next year, she wroteThe History of England, a manuscript of thirty-four pages accompanied by thirteen watercolour miniatures by her sister, Cassandra. Austen'sHistoryparodied popular historical writing, particularlyOliver Goldsmith'sHistory of England(1764).Honan speculates that not long after writingLove and Freindship, Austen decided to \\\"write for profit, to make stories her central effort\\\", that is, to become a professional writer. When she was around eighteen years old, Austen began to write longer, more sophisticated works. In August 1792, aged seventeen, Austen startedCatharine or the Bower, which presaged her mature work, especiallyNorthanger Abbey, but was left unfinished until picked up inLady Susan, which Todd describes as less prefiguring thanCatharine.A year later she began, but abandoned, a\",\n \"but abandoned, a short play, later titledSir Charles Grandison or the happy Man, a comedy in 6 acts, which she returned to and completed around 1800. This was a short parody of various school textbook abridgements of Austen's favourite contemporary novel,The History of Sir Charles Grandison(1753), bySamuel Richardson. When Austen became an aunt for the first time aged eighteen, she sent new-born nieceFanny Catherine Austen Knight\\\"five short pieces of ... the Juvenilia now known collectively as 'Scraps' .., purporting to be her 'Opinions and Admonitions on the conduct of Young Women'\\\". For Jane-Anna-Elizabeth Austen (also born in 1793), her aunt wrote \\\"two more 'Miscellanious Morsels', dedicating them to on 2 June 1793, 'convinced that if you seriously attend to them, You will derive from them very important Instructions, with regard to your Conduct in Life.'\\\"There is manuscript evidence that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as 1811 (when she was 36), and that her niece and nephew, Anna and\",\n \"nephew, Anna and James Edward Austen, made further additions as late as 1814. Between 1793 and 1795 (aged eighteen to twenty), Austen wroteLady Susan, a shortepistolary novel, usually described as her most ambitious and sophisticated early work.It is unlike any of Austen's other works. Austen biographerClaire Tomalindescribes the novella's heroine as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate, betray and abuse her lovers, friends and family. Tomalin writes: Told in letters, it is as neatly plotted as a play, and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of theRestoration dramatistswho may have provided some of her inspiration ... It stands alone in Austen's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters. According to Janet Todd, the model for the title character may have beenEliza de Feuillide, who inspired Austen with stories of her glamorous life and various adventures. Eliza's French husband was\",\n \"French husband was guillotined in 1794; she married Jane's brother Henry Austen in 1797. Tom Lefroy When Austen was twenty,Tom Lefroy, a neighbour, visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796. He had just finished a university degree and was moving to London for training as abarrister. Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering, and it is clear from Austen's letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together: \\\"I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved. Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together.\\\" Austen wrote in her first surviving letter to her sister Cassandra that Lefroy was a \\\"very gentlemanlike, good-looking, pleasant young man\\\".Five days later in another letter, Austen wrote that she expected an \\\"offer\\\" from her \\\"friend\\\" and that \\\"I shall refuse him, however, unless he promises to give away his white coat\\\", going on to write \\\"I will confide\",\n \"\\\"I will confide myself in the future to Mr Tom Lefroy, for whom I don't give a sixpence\\\" and refuse all others.The next day, Austen wrote: \\\"The day will come on which I flirt my last with Tom Lefroy and when you receive this it will be all over. My tears flow as I write at this melancholy idea\\\". Halperin cautioned that Austen often satirised popular sentimental romantic fiction in her letters, and some of the statements about Lefroy may have been ironic. However, it is clear that Austen was genuinely attracted to Lefroy and subsequently none of her other suitors ever quite measured up to him.The Lefroy family intervened and sent him away at the end of January. Marriage was impractical as both Lefroy and Austen must have known. Neither had any money, and he was dependent on agreat-unclein Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career. If Tom Lefroy later visited Hampshire, he was carefully kept away from the Austens, and Jane Austen never saw him again.In November 1798, Lefroy was still on\",\n \"Lefroy was still on Austen's mind as she wrote to her sister she had tea with one of his relatives, wanted desperately to ask about him, but could not bring herself to raise the subject. Early manuscripts (1796–1798) After finishingLady Susan, Austen began her first full-length novelElinor and Marianne. Her sister remembered that it was read to the family \\\"before 1796\\\" and was told through a series of letters. Without surviving original manuscripts, there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published anonymously in 1811 asSense and Sensibility. Austen began a second novel,First Impressions(later published asPride and Prejudice), in 1796. She completed the initial draft in August 1797, aged 21; as with all of her novels, Austen read the work aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an \\\"established favourite\\\".At this time, her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels. In November 1797, George Austen wrote toThomas Cadell, an established\",\n \"an established publisher in London, to ask if he would consider publishingFirst Impressions. Cadell returned Mr. Austen's letter, marking it \\\"Declined by Return of Post\\\". Austen may not have known of her father's efforts.Following the completion ofFirst Impressions, Austen returned toElinor and Marianneand from November 1797 until mid-1798, revised it heavily; she eliminated theepistolaryformat in favour ofthird-person narrationand produced something close toSense and Sensibility.In 1797, Austen met her cousin (and future sister-in-law),Eliza de Feuillide, a French aristocrat whose first husband the Comte de Feuillide had been guillotined, causing her to flee to Britain, where she married Henry Austen.The description of the execution of the Comte de Feuillide related by his widow left Austen with an intense horror of theFrench Revolutionthat lasted for the rest of her life. During the middle of 1798, after finishing revisions ofElinor and Marianne, Austen began writing a third novel with the working\",\n \"with the working titleSusan—laterNorthanger Abbey—a satire on the popularGothic novel.Austen completed her work about a year later. In early 1803, Henry Austen offeredSusanto Benjamin Crosby, a London publisher, who paid £10 for the copyright. Crosby promised early publication and went so far as to advertise the book publicly as being \\\"in the press\\\", but did nothing more.The manuscript remained in Crosby's hands, unpublished, until Austen repurchased the copyright from him in 1816. Bath and Southampton In December 1800, George Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry, leave Steventon, and move the family to 4,Sydney PlaceinBath, Somerset.While retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens, Jane Austen was shocked to be told she was moving 50 miles (80 km) away from the only home she had ever known.An indication of her state of mind is her lack of productivity as a writer during the time she lived in Bath. She was able to make some revisions toSusan, and she began and\",\n \"and she began and then abandoned a new novel,The Watsons, but there was nothing like the productivity of the years 1795–1799.Tomalin suggests this reflects a deep depression disabling her as a writer, but Honan disagrees, arguing Austen wrote or revised her manuscripts throughout her creative life, except for a few months after her father died.It is often claimed that Austen was unhappy in Bath, which caused her to lose interest in writing, but it is just as possible that Austen's social life in Bath prevented her from spending much time writing novels.The critic Robert Irvine argued that if Austen spent more time writing novels when she was in the countryside, it might just have been because she had more spare time as opposed to being more happy in the countryside as is often argued.Furthermore, Austen frequently both moved and travelled over southern England during this period, which was hardly a conducive environment for writing a long novel.Austen sold the rights to publishSusanto a publisher Crosby &\",\n \"publisher Crosby & Company, who paid her £10 (equivalent to £1,020 in 2023).The Crosby & Company advertisedSusan, but never published it. The years from 1801 to 1804 are something of a blank space for Austen scholars as Cassandra destroyed all of her letters from her sister in this period for unknown reasons.In December 1802, Austen received her only known proposal of marriage. She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg, old friends who lived nearBasingstoke. Their younger brother, Harris Bigg-Wither, had recently finished his education at Oxford and was also at home. Bigg-Wither proposed and Austen accepted. As described by Caroline Austen, Jane's niece, and Reginald Bigg-Wither, a descendant, Harris was not attractive—he was a large, plain-looking man who spoke little, stuttered when he did speak, was aggressive in conversation, and almost completely tactless. However, Austen had known him since both were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to Austen and her family. He was\",\n \"her family. He was the heir to extensive family estates located in the area where the sisters had grown up. With these resources, Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age, give Cassandra a permanent home and, perhaps, assist her brothers in their careers. By the next morning, Austen realised she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance.No contemporary letters or diaries describe how Austen felt about this proposal.Irvine described Bigg-Wither as somebody who \\\"...seems to have been a man very hard to like, let alone love\\\". In 1814, Austen wrote a letter to her niece Fanny Knight, who had asked for advice about a serious relationship, telling her that \\\"having written so much on one side of the question, I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther, & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him. Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection\\\".The English scholar Douglas Bush wrote that Austen had \\\"had a very high ideal of\",\n \"very high ideal of the love that should unite a husband and wife ... All of her heroines ... know in proportion to their maturity, the meaning of ardent love\\\".A possible autobiographical element inSense and Sensibilityoccurs whenElinor Dashwoodcontemplates \\\"the worse and most irremediable of all evils, a connection for life\\\" with an unsuitable man. In 1804, while living in Bath, Austen started, but did not complete, her novelThe Watsons. The story centres on an invalid and impoverished clergyman and his four unmarried daughters. Sutherland describes the novel as \\\"a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women's lives\\\".Honan suggests, and Tomalin agrees, that Austen chose to stop work on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for her comfort. Her father's relatively sudden death left Jane, Cassandra, and their mother in a precarious financial situation. Edward, James, Henry, and Francis Austen (known as Frank)\",\n \"(known as Frank) pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters.For the next four years, the family's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity. They spent part of the time in rented quarters in Bath before leaving the city in June 1805 for a family visit to Steventon andGodmersham. They moved for the autumn months to the newly fashionable seaside resort ofWorthing, on theSussex coast, where they resided at Stanford Cottage.It was here that Austen is thought to have written her fair copy ofLady Susanand added its \\\"Conclusion\\\". In 1806, the family moved toSouthampton, where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife. A large part of this time they spent visiting various branches of the family. On 5 April 1809, about three months before the family's move toChawton, Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby, offering him a new manuscript ofSusanif needed to secure the immediate publication of the novel, and requesting the return of the original so she\",\n \"the original so she could find another publisher. Crosby replied that he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time, or at all, and that Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the £10 he had paid her and find another publisher. She did not have the resources to buy the copyright back at that time,but was able to purchase it in 1816. Chawton Around early 1809, Austen's brother Edward offered his mother and sisters a more settled life—the use of a large cottage inChawtonvillagewhich was part of the estate around Edward's nearby propertyChawton House. Jane, Cassandra and their mother moved intoChawton cottageon 7 July 1809.Life was quieter in Chawton than it had been since the family's move to Bath in 1800. The Austens did not socialise withgentryand entertained only when family visited. Her niece Anna described the family's life in Chawton as \\\"a very quiet life, according to our ideas, but they were great readers, and besides the housekeeping our aunts occupied themselves in working with the\",\n \"in working with the poor and in teaching some girl or boy to read or write.\\\" Published author Like many women authors at the time, Austen published her books anonymously.At the time, the ideal roles for a woman were as wife and mother, and writing for women was regarded at best as a secondary form of activity; a woman who wished to be a full-time writer was felt to be degrading her femininity, so books by women were usually published anonymously in order to maintain the conceit that the female writer was only publishing as a sort of part-time job, and was not seeking to become a \\\"literary lioness\\\" (i.e. a celebrity).Another reason noted is that the novel was still seen as a lesser form of literature at the time compared with poetry, and many female and male authors published novels anonymously, whereas works of poetry, by both female and male writers were almost always attributed to the author. During her time at Chawton, Austen published four generally well-received novels. Through her brother Henry, the\",\n \"brother Henry, the publisherThomas Egertonagreed to publishSense and Sensibility, which, like all of Austen's novels exceptPride and Prejudice, was published \\\"on commission\\\", that is, at the author's financial risk. When publishing on commission, publishers would advance the costs of publication, repay themselves as books were sold and then charge a 10% commission for each book sold, paying the rest to the author. If a novel did not recover its costs through sales, the author was responsible for them.The alternative to selling via commission was by selling the copyright, where an author received a one-time payment from the publisher for the manuscript, which occurred withPride and Prejudice.Austen's experience withSusan(the manuscript that becameNorthanger Abbey) where she sold the copyright to the publisher Crosby & Sons for £10, who did not publish the book, forcing her to buy back the copyright in order to get her work published, left Austen leery of this method of publishing.The final alternative, of\",\n \"alternative, of selling by subscription, where a group of people would agree to buy a book in advance, was not an option for Austen as only authors who were well known or had an influential aristocratic patron who would recommend an up-coming book to their friends, could sell by subscription.Sense and Sensibilityappeared in October 1811, and was described as being written \\\"By a Lady\\\".As it was sold on commission, Egerton used expensive paper and set the price at 15 shillings (equivalent to £69 in 2023). Reviews were favourable and the novel became fashionable among young aristocratic opinion-makers;the edition sold out by mid-1813. Austen's novels were published in larger editions than was normal for this period. The small size of the novel-reading public and the large costs associated with hand production (particularly the cost of handmade paper) meant that most novels were published in editions of 500 copies or fewer to reduce the risks to the publisher and the novelist. Even some of the most successful\",\n \"the most successful titles during this period were issued in editions of not more than 750 or 800 copies and later reprinted if demand continued. Austen's novels were published in larger editions, ranging from about 750 copies ofSense and Sensibilityto about 2,000 copies ofEmma. It is not clear whether the decision to print more copies than usual of Austen's novels was driven by the publishers or the author. Since all but one of Austen's books were originally published \\\"on commission\\\", the risks of overproduction were largely hers (or Cassandra's after her death) and publishers may have been more willing to produce larger editions than was normal practice when their own funds were at risk. Editions of popular works of non-fiction were often much larger. Austen made £140 (equivalent to £12,800 in 2023) fromSense and Sensibility,which provided her with some financial and psychological independence.After the success ofSense and Sensibility, all of Austen's subsequent books were billed as written \\\"By the author\",\n \"\\\"By the author ofSense and Sensibility\\\" and Austen's name never appeared on her books during her lifetime.Egerton then publishedPride and Prejudice, a revision ofFirst Impressions, in January 1813. Austen sold the copyright toPride and Prejudiceto Egerton for £110 (equivalent to £9,100 in 2023).To maximise profits, he used cheap paper and set the price at 18 shillings (equivalent to £74 in 2023).He advertised the book widely and it was an immediate success, garnering three favourable reviews and selling well. Had Austen soldPride and Prejudiceon commission, she would have made a profit of £475, or twice her father's annual income.By October 1813, Egerton was able to begin selling a second edition.Mansfield Parkwas published by Egerton in May 1814. WhileMansfield Parkwas ignored by reviewers, it was very popular with readers. All copies were sold within six months, and Austen's earnings on this novel were larger than for any of her other novels. Without Austen's knowledge or approval, her novels were\",\n \"her novels were translated into French and published in cheaply produced, pirated editions in France.: 1–2The literary critic Noel King commented in 1953 that, given the prevailing rage in France at the time for lush romantic fantasies, it was remarkable that her novels with the emphasis on everyday English life had any sort of a market in France.: 2King cautioned that Austen's chief translator in France, MadameIsabelle de Montolieu, had only the most rudimentary knowledge of English, and her translations were more of \\\"imitations\\\" than translations proper, as Montolieu depended upon assistants to provide a summary, which she then translated into an embellished French that often radically altered Austen's plots and characters.: 5–6The first of the Austen novels to be published that credited her as the author was in France, whenPersuasionwas published in 1821 asLa Famille Elliot ou L'Ancienne Inclination.: 5 Austen learned that thePrince Regentadmired her novels and kept a set at each of his residences.In\",\n \"his residences.In November 1815, the Prince Regent's librarianJames Stanier Clarkeinvited Austen to visit the Prince's London residence and hinted Austen should dedicate the forthcomingEmmato the Prince. Though Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent, she could scarcely refuse the request.Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent on the account of his womanising, gambling, drinking, spendthrift ways, and generally disreputable behaviour.She later wrotePlan of a Novel, according to Hints from Various Quarters, a satiric outline of the \\\"perfect novel\\\" based on the librarian's many suggestions for a future Austen novel.Austen was greatly annoyed by Clarke's often pompous literary advice, and thePlan of a Novelparodying Clarke was intended as her revenge for all the unwanted letters she had received from the royal librarian. In mid-1815 Austen moved her work from Egerton toJohn Murray, a better-known publisher in London,who publishedEmmain December 1815 and a second edition ofMansfield Parkin February\",\n \"Parkin February 1816.Emmasold well, but the new edition ofMansfield Parkdid poorly, and this failure offset most of the income fromEmma. These were the last of Austen's novels to be published during her lifetime. While Murray preparedEmmafor publication, Austen beganThe Elliots, later published asPersuasion. She completed her first draft in July 1816. In addition, shortly after the publication ofEmma, Henry Austen repurchased the copyright forSusanfrom Crosby. Austen was forced to postpone publishing either of these completed novels by family financial troubles. Henry Austen's bank failed in March 1816, depriving him of all of his assets, leaving him deeply in debt and costing Edward, James, and Frank Austen large sums. Henry and Frank could no longer afford the contributions they had made to support their mother and sisters. Illness and death Austen was feeling unwell by early 1816, but ignored the warning signs. By the middle of that year, her decline was unmistakable, and she began a slow, irregular\",\n \"a slow, irregular deterioration.The majority of biographers rely onZachary Cope's 1964retrospective diagnosisand list her cause of death asAddison's disease, although her final illness has also been described as resulting fromHodgkin's lymphoma.When her uncle died and left his entire fortune to his wife, effectively disinheriting his relatives, she suffered a relapse, writing: \\\"I am ashamed to say that the shock of my Uncle's Will brought on a relapse ... but a weak Body must excuse weak Nerves.\\\" Austen continued to work in spite of her illness. Dissatisfied with the ending ofThe Elliots, she rewrote the final two chapters, which she finished on 6 August 1816.In January 1817, Austen beganThe Brothers(titledSanditonwhen published in 1925), completing twelve chapters before stopping work in mid-March 1817, probably due to illness.Todd describesSanditon's heroine, Diana Parker, as an \\\"energetic invalid\\\". In the novel Austen mockedhypochondriacs, and although she describes the heroine as \\\"bilious\\\", five days\",\n \"five days after abandoning the novel she wrote of herself that she was turning \\\"every wrong colour\\\" and living \\\"chiefly on the sofa\\\".She put down her pen on 18 March 1817, making a note of it. Austen made light of her condition, describing it as \\\"bile\\\" andrheumatism. As her illness progressed, she experienced difficulty walking and lacked energy; by mid-April she was confined to bed. In May, Cassandra and Henry brought her toWinchesterfor treatment, by which time she suffered agonising pain and welcomed death.Austen died in Winchester on 18 July 1817 at the age of 41. Henry, through his clerical connections, arranged for his sister to be buried in the north aisle of thenaveofWinchester Cathedral. The epitaph composed by her brother James praises Austen's personal qualities, expresses hope for her salvation, and mentions the \\\"extraordinary endowments of her mind\\\", but does not explicitly mention her achievements as a writer. Posthumous publication In the months after Austen's death in July 1817, Cassandra,\",\n \"1817, Cassandra, Henry Austen and Murray arranged for the publication ofPersuasionandNorthanger Abbeyas a set.Henry Austen contributed aBiographical Notedated December 1817, which for the first time identified his sister as the author of the novels. Tomalin describes it as \\\"a loving and polished eulogy\\\".Sales were good for a year—only 321 copies remained unsold at the end of 1818. Although Austen's six novels were out of print in England in the 1820s, they were still being read through copies housed in private libraries and circulating libraries. Austen had early admirers. The first piece of fiction using her as a character (what might now be calledreal person fiction) appeared in 1823 in a letter to the editor inThe Lady's Magazine.It refers to Austen's genius and suggests that aspiring authors were envious of her powers. In 1832,Richard Bentleypurchased the remaining copyrights to all of her novels, and over the following winter published five illustrated volumes as part of hisStandard Novelsseries. In\",\n \"Novelsseries. In October 1833, Bentley released the first collected edition of her works. Since then, Austen's novels have been continuously in print. Genre and style Austen's works implicitly critique thesentimental novelsof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism.The earliest English novelists,Richardson,Henry Fielding, andTobias Smollett, were followed by the school of sentimentalists andromanticssuch asWalter Scott,Horace Walpole,Clara Reeve,Ann Radcliffe, andOliver Goldsmith, whose style and genre Austen repudiated, returning the novel on a \\\"slender thread\\\" to the tradition of Richardson and Fielding for a \\\"realistic study of manners\\\".In the mid-20th century the literary criticsF. R. LeavisandIan Wattplaced her in the tradition of Richardson and Fielding; both believe that she used their tradition of \\\"irony, realism and satire to form an author superior to both\\\". Walter Scott noted Austen's \\\"resistance to the trashysensationalismof much of\",\n \"much of modern fiction—'the ephemeral productions which supply the regular demand of watering places andcirculating libraries'\\\".Yet her relationship with these genres is complex, as evidenced byNorthanger AbbeyandEmma.Similar toWilliam Wordsworth, who excoriated the modern frantic novel in the \\\"Preface\\\" to hisLyrical Ballads(1800), Austen distances herself from escapist novels; the discipline and innovation she demonstrates is similar to his, and she shows \\\"that rhetorically less is artistically more.\\\"She eschewed popular Gothic fiction, stories of terror in which a heroine typically was stranded in a remote location, a castle or abbey (32 novels between 1784 and 1818 contain the word \\\"abbey\\\" in their title). Yet inNorthanger Abbeyshe alludes to the trope, with the heroine, Catherine, anticipating a move to a remote locale. Rather than full-scale rejection or parody, Austen transforms the genre, juxtaposing reality, with descriptions of elegant rooms and modern comforts, against the heroine's \\\"novel-fueled\\\"\",\n \"\\\"novel-fueled\\\" desires.Nor does she completely denigrate Gothic fiction: instead she transforms settings and situations, such that the heroine is still imprisoned, yet her imprisonment is mundane and real—regulated manners and the strict rules of the ballroom.InSense and SensibilityAusten presents characters who are more complex than in staple sentimental fiction, according to the critic Tom Keymer, who notes that although it is a parody of popular sentimental fiction, \\\"Mariannein her sentimental histrionics responds to the calculating world ... with a quite justifiable scream of female distress.\\\" The hair was curled, and the maid sent away, and Emma sat down to think and be miserable. It was a wretched business, indeed! Such an overthrow of everything she had been wishing for! Such a development of every thing most unwelcome! — example offree indirect speech, Jane Austen,Emma Richardson'sPamela, the prototype for the sentimental novel, is adidacticlove story with a happy ending, written at a time women were\",\n \"a time women were beginning to have the right to choose husbands and yet were restricted by social conventions.Austen attempted Richardson's epistolary style, but found the flexibility of narrative more conducive to her realism, a realism in which each conversation and gesture carries a weight of significance. The narrative style utilisesfree indirect speech—she was the first English novelist to do so extensively—through which she had the ability to present a character's thoughts directly to the reader and yet still retain narrative control. The style allows an author to vary discourse between the narrator's voice and values and those of the characters. Austen had a natural ear for speech and dialogue, according to the scholarMary Lascelles: \\\"Few novelists can be more scrupulous than Jane Austen as to the phrasing and thoughts of their characters.\\\"Techniques such as fragmentary speech suggest a character's traits and their tone; \\\"syntax and phrasing rather than vocabulary\\\" is utilised to indicate social\",\n \"to indicate social variants.Dialogue reveals a character's mood—frustration, anger, happiness—each treated differently and often through varying patterns of sentence structures. WhenElizabeth BennetrejectsDarcy, her stilted speech and the convoluted sentence structure reveals that he has wounded her: From the very beginning, from the first moment I may almost say, of my acquaintance with you, your manners impressing me with the fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit, and your selfish disdain of the feelings of others, were such as to form that the groundwork of disapprobation, on which succeeding events have built so immovable a dislike. And I had not known you a month before I felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry. Austen's plots highlight women's traditional dependence on marriage to secure social standing and economic security.As an art form, the 18th-century novel lacked the seriousness of its equivalents from the 19th century, when novels were\",\n \"when novels were treated as \\\"the natural vehicle for discussion and ventilation of what mattered in life\\\".Rather than delving too deeply into the psyche of her characters, Austen enjoys them and imbues them with humour, according to critic John Bayley. He believes that the well-spring of her wit and irony is her own attitude that comedy \\\"is the saving grace of life\\\".Part of Austen's fame rests on the historical and literary significance that she was the first woman to write great comic novels.Samuel Johnson's influence is evident, in that she follows his advice to write \\\"a representation of life as may excite mirth\\\". Her humour comes from her modesty and lack of superiority, allowing her most successful characters, such as Elizabeth Bennet, to transcend the trivialities of life, which the more foolish characters are overly absorbed in.Austen used comedy to explore the individualism of women's lives and gender relations, and she appears to have used it to find the goodness in life, often fusing it with\",\n \"fusing it with \\\"ethical sensibility\\\", creating artistic tension. Critic Robert Polhemus writes, \\\"To appreciate the drama and achievement of Austen, we need to realize how deep was her passion for both reverence and ridicule ... and her comic imagination reveals both the harmonies and the telling contradictions of her mind and vision as she tries to reconcile her satirical bias with her sense of the good.\\\" Reception Contemporaneous responses As Austen's works were published anonymously, they brought her little personal renown. They were fashionable among opinion-makers, but were rarely reviewed.Most of the reviews were short and on balance favourable, although superficial and cautious,most often focused on the moral lessons of the novels. Walter Scott, a leading novelist of the day, anonymously wrote a review ofEmmain 1815, using it to defend the then-disreputable genre of the novel and praising Austen's realism, \\\"the art of copying from nature as she really exists in the common walks of life, and presenting\",\n \"and presenting to the reader, instead of the splendid scenes from an imaginary world, a correct and striking representation of that which is daily taking place around him\\\".The other important early review was attributed toRichard Whatelyin 1821. However, Whately denied having authored the review, which drew favourable comparisons between Austen and such acknowledged greats asHomerandShakespeare, and praised the dramatic qualities of her narrative. Scott and Whately set the tone for almost all subsequent 19th-century Austen criticism. 19th century Because Austen's novels did not conform toRomanticandVictorianexpectations that \\\"powerful emotion authenticated by an egregious display of sound and colour in the writing\\\",some 19th-century critics preferred the works ofCharles DickensandGeorge Eliot.Notwithstanding Walter Scott's positivity, Austen's work did not win over those who preferred the prevailing aesthetic values of the elite Romantic zeitgeist.Her novels were republished in Britain from the 1830s and\",\n \"from the 1830s and sold steadily.Austen's six books were included in the canon-making Standard Novels series by publisher Richard Bentley, which increased their stature. That series referred to her as \\\"the founder of a school of novelists\\\" and called her a genius. The first French critic who paid notice to Austen wasPhilarète Chaslesin an 1842 essay, dismissing her in two sentences as a boring, imitative writer with no substance.Austen was not widely appreciated in France until 1878,when the French critic Léon Boucher published the essayLe Roman Classique en Angleterre, in which he called Austen a \\\"genius\\\", the first French author to do so.The first accurate translation of Austen into French occurred in 1899 whenFélix FénéontranslatedNorthanger AbbeyasCatherine Morland. In Britain and North America, Austen gradually grew in the estimation of both the public and the literati. In the United States, Austen was being recommended as reading in schools as early as 1838, according to Professor Devoney Looser.The\",\n \"Devoney Looser.The philosopher and literary criticGeorge Henry Lewespublished a series of enthusiastic articles in the 1840s and 1850s.Later in the century, the novelistHenry Jamesreferred to Austen several times with approval, and on one occasion ranked her with Shakespeare,Cervantes, and Henry Fielding as amongst \\\"the fine painters of life\\\". The publication of James Edward Austen-Leigh'sA Memoir of Jane Austenin 1869 introduced Austen's life story to a wider public as \\\"dear aunt Jane\\\", the respectable maiden aunt. Publication of theMemoirspurred another reissue of Austen's novels. Editions were released in 1883 and fancy illustrated editions and collectors' sets quickly followed.The author and criticLeslie Stephendescribed the popular mania that started to develop for Austen in the 1880s as \\\"Austenolatry\\\". Around the start of the 20th century, an intellectual clique ofJaneitesreacted against the popularisation of Austen, distinguishing their deeper appreciation from the vulgar enthusiasm of the masses. In\",\n \"of the masses. In response, Henry James decried \\\"a beguiled infatuation\\\" with Austen, a rising tide of public interest that exceeded Austen's \\\"intrinsic merit and interest\\\".The American literary criticA. Walton Litznoted that the \\\"anti-Janites\\\" in the 19th and 20th centuries comprised a formidable literary squad ofMark Twain, Henry James,Charlotte Brontë,D. H. Lawrence, andKingsley Amis, but in \\\"every case the adverse judgement merely reveals the special limitations or eccentricities of the critic, leaving Jane Austen relatively untouched\\\". Modern Austen's works have attracted legions of scholars. The first dissertation on Austen was published in 1883, by George Pellew, a student at Harvard University.Another early academic analysis came from a 1911 essay by the Oxford Shakespearean scholarA. C. Bradley,who grouped Austen's novels into \\\"early\\\" and \\\"late\\\" works, a distinction still used by scholars today.The first academic book devoted to Austen in France wasJane Austenby Paul and Kate Rague (1914), who set\",\n \"(1914), who set out to explain why French critics and readers should take Austen seriously.The same year, Léonie Villard publishedJane Austen, Sa Vie et Ses Oeuvres, originally her PhD thesis, the first serious academic study of Austen in France.In 1923, R.W. Chapman published the first scholarly edition of Austen's collected works, which was also the first scholarly edition of any English novelist. The Chapman text has remained the basis for all subsequent published editions of Austen's works. With the publication in 1939 of Mary Lascelles'Jane Austen and Her Art, the academic study of Austen took hold.Lascelles analysed the books Austen read and their influence on her work, and closely examined Austen's style and \\\"narrative art\\\". Concern arose that academics were obscuring the appreciation of Austen with increasingly esoteric theories, a debate that has continued since. The period since the Second World War has seen a diversity of critical approaches to Austen, includingfeminist theory, and perhaps most\",\n \"and perhaps most controversially,postcolonial theory.The divide has widened between the popular appreciation of Austen, particularly by modernJaneites, and academic judgements.In 1994 the literary criticHarold Bloomplaced Austen among thegreatest Western writers of all time. In the People's Republic of China after 1949, writings of Austen were regarded as too frivolous,and thus during the ChineseCultural Revolutionof 1966–69, Austen was banned as a \\\"British bourgeois imperialist\\\".In the late 1970s, when Austen's works were re-published in China, her popularity with readers confounded the authorities who had trouble understanding that people generally read books for enjoyment, not political edification. In a typical modern debate, the conservative American professor Gene Koppel, to the indignation of his liberal literature students, mentioned that Austen and her family were \\\"Tories of the deepest dye\\\", i.e. Conservatives in opposition to the liberal Whigs. Although several feminist authors such as Claudia\",\n \"such as Claudia Johnson and Mollie Sandock claimed Austen for their own cause, Koppel argued that different people react to a work of literature in different subjective ways, as explained by the philosopherHans-Georg Gadamer. Thus competing interpretations of Austen's work can be equally valid, provided they are grounded in textual and historical analysis: it is equally possible to see Austen as a feminist critiquingRegency-erasociety and as a conservative upholding its values. Adaptations Austen's novels have resulted in sequels, prequels and adaptations of almost every type, fromsoft-core pornographyto fantasy. From the 19th century, her family members published conclusions to her incomplete novels, and by 2000 there were over 100 printed adaptations.The first dramatic adaptation of Austen was published in 1895, Rosina Filippi'sDuologues and Scenes from the Novels of Jane Austen: Arranged and Adapted for Drawing-Room Performance, and Filippi was also responsible for the first professional stage\",\n \"professional stage adaptation,The Bennets(1901).The first film adaptation was the1940 MGM production ofPride and PrejudicestarringLaurence OlivierandGreer Garson.BBC television dramatisations released in the 1970s and 1980s attempted to adhere meticulously to Austen's plots, characterisations and settings.The British critic Robert Irvine noted that in American film adaptations of Austen's novels, starting with the 1940 version ofPride and Prejudice, class is subtly downplayed, and the society of Regency England depicted by Austen that is grounded in a hierarchy based upon the ownership of land and the antiquity of the family name is one that Americans cannot embrace in its entirety. From 1995, many Austen adaptations appeared, withAng Lee'sfilm ofSense and Sensibility, for which screenwriter and starEmma Thompsonwon anAcademy Award, and the BBC's immensely popular TV mini-seriesPride and Prejudice, starringJennifer EhleandColin Firth.A 2005 British production ofPride and Prejudice, directed byJoe Wrightand\",\n \"byJoe Wrightand starringKeira KnightleyandMatthew Macfadyen,was followed in 2007 byITV'sMansfield Park,Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion,and in 2016 byLove & FriendshipstarringKate Beckinsaleas Lady Susan, a film version ofLady Susan, that borrowed the title of Austen'sLove and Freindship. Honours In 2013, Austen's works featured on aseries of UK postage stampsissued by theRoyal Mailto mark the bicentenary of the publication ofPride and Prejudice.Austen is on the£10 noteissued by the Bank of England which was introduced in 2017, replacingCharles Darwin.In July 2017 a statue of Austen was erected in Basingstoke, Hampshire on the 200th anniversary of her death. List of works Juvenilia—Volume the First(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Second(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Third(1787–1793) Family trees See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links Museums Fan sites and societies\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":384,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"The actor known for playing Kenny \"Shammy\" Shamberg in Magnum P.I. was born how days before the Apollo 11 moon landing?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"844 days."},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnum_P.I._(2018_TV_series)"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Thornton"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11#Mission"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnum_P.I._(2018_TV_series)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Thornton', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11#Mission']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnum_P.I._(2018_TV_series","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Thornton","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11#Mission"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnum_P.I._(2018_TV_series\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Thornton\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11#Mission\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnum_P.I._(2018_TV_series","Christopher Thornton Christopher Thornton(born March 29, 1967) is an American actor. He is known for his role as Kenny \"Shammy\" Shamberg inMagnum P.I., and has had numerous other film and television roles from 1990 to the present. Early life and education Thornton was born inNew Orleans, Louisiana. His father was an amateur opera singer who appeared in local theater.Christopher appeared in several plays while majoring in theater at theUniversity of New Orleans, but quit college after two years to relocate to Los Angeles and train at theStella Adler Conservatory. Career Thornton made his first feature film appearance in the 1990 horror sequelWatchers II, playing a young man who gets his eyes gouged out by the mutant antagonist.Only two years later, at age 25, Thornton suffered a tragic accident while rock climbing which fractured two vertebrae and left him paralyzed from the waist down. He returned to mostly theater roles for the remainder of the 1990s. In 2000, he was cast to play Hamlet at the Lillian Theater in Los Angeles. Believed to be the first actor to ever play the iconic Shakespeare character in a wheelchair, Thornton's performance won rave reviews. Thornton has gone on to appear in numerous film and television roles. He has recurred in TV series such asAny Day Now,Rules of EngagementandVice Principals, and had guest roles inCurb Your Enthusiasm,Alias,Brothers & Sisters,My Name Is Earl,Grey's AnatomyandWill & Grace. Since 2018, he has played recurring character Kenny \"Shammy\" Shamberg, a marine veteran paralyzed during a tour of duty in Iraq, on theCBSreboot ofMagnum P.I. Thornton was both writer and lead actor for the 2010 filmSympathy for Delicious, playing disc jockey \"Delicious\" Dean O'Dwyer. Filmography Film Television External links References","Apollo 11 Apollo 11was aspaceflightconducted by the United States from July 16 to July 24, 1969. It marked the first time in history that humanslandedon theMoon. CommanderNeil Armstrongand Lunar Module PilotBuzz Aldrinlanded theApollo Lunar ModuleEagleon July 20, 1969, at 20:17UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had namedTranquility Baseupon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilotMichael Collinsflew theCommand ModuleColumbiainlunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes, before lifting off to rejoinColumbia. Apollo 11 was launched by aSaturn Vrocket fromKennedy Space CenteronMerritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission ofNASA'sApollo program. The Apollospacecrafthad three parts: acommand module (CM)with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; aservice module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and alunar module (LM)that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. After beingsent to the Moonby the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved intoEagleand landed in theSea of Tranquilityon July 20. The astronauts usedEagle's ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisonedEaglebefore they performed the maneuvers that propelledColumbiaout of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth.They returned to Earth andsplashed downin the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space. Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast onlive TVto a worldwide audience. He described the event as \"one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\"Apollo 11 effectively proved U.S. victory in theSpace Raceto demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy, \"before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.\" Background In the late1950sand early1960s, the United States was engaged in theCold War, a geopolitical rivalry with theSoviet Union.On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launchedSputnik 1, the firstartificial satellite. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority.This precipitated theSputnik crisis, and triggered theSpace Raceto prove which superpower would achieve superior spaceflight capability.PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerresponded to the Sputnik challenge by creating theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA), and initiatingProject Mercury,which aimed to launch a man intoEarth orbit.But on April 12, 1961, SovietcosmonautYuri Gagarinbecame the first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth.Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961,Alan Shepardbecame the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean, he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor,John F. Kennedy. Since theSoviet Unionhad higher lift capacitylaunch vehicles, Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA, a challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpose. On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed theUnited States Congresson \"Urgent National Needs\" and declared: I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. We propose to accelerate the development of the appropriate lunar space craft. We propose to develop alternate liquid and solid fuel boosters, much larger than any now being developed, until certain which is superior. We propose additional funds for other engine development and for unmanned explorations—explorations which are particularly important for one purpose which this nation will never overlook: the survival of the man who first makes this daring flight. But in a very real sense, it will not be one man going to the Moon—if we make this judgment affirmatively, it will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to put him there. On September 12, 1962, Kennedydelivered another speechbefore a crowd of about 40,000 people in theRice University football stadiuminHouston, Texas.A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows: There is no strife, no prejudice, no national conflict in outer space as yet. Its hazards are hostile to us all. Its conquest deserves the best of all mankind, and its opportunity for peaceful cooperation may never come again. But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago,fly the Atlantic? Why doesRice play Texas? We choose to go to the Moon! We choose to go to the Moon ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win, and the others, too. In spite of that, the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a \"moondoggle\" byNorbert Wiener, a mathematician at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology.The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name:Project Apollo.When Kennedy met withNikita Khrushchev, thePremier of the Soviet Unionin June 1961, he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project, but Khrushchev did not take up the offer.Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to theUnited Nations General Assemblyon September 20, 1963.The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death. An early and crucial decision was choosinglunar orbit rendezvousover bothdirect ascentandEarth orbit rendezvous. Aspace rendezvousis anorbital maneuverin which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA headJames Webbannounced that lunar orbit rendezvous would be usedand that theApollo spacecraftwould have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.This design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a singleSaturn Vrocket that was then under development. Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed byProject Gemini.The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances insemiconductor device, includingmetal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors(MOSFETs) in theInterplanetary Monitoring Platform(IMP)andsiliconintegrated circuit(IC) chips in theApollo Guidance Computer(AGC). Project Apollo was abruptly halted by theApollo 1fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronautsGus Grissom,Ed White, andRoger B. Chaffeedied, and the subsequent investigation.In October 1968,Apollo 7evaluated the command module in Earth orbit,and in DecemberApollo 8tested it in lunar orbit.In March 1969,Apollo 9put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit,and in MayApollo 10conducted a \"dress rehearsal\" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon. The Soviet Union appeared to be winning the Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the USGemini programand Soviet failure to develop theN1 launcher, which would have been comparable to the Saturn V.The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means ofuncrewed probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launchedLuna 15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash inMare Crisiumabout two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. TheNuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratoriesradio telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11. Personnel Prime crew The initial crew assignment of CommanderNeil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP)Jim Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP)Buzz Aldrinon the backup crew for Apollo 9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967.Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew ofGemini 12. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM, Apollo 8 and Apollo 9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo 8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11. There would be one change.Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo 8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime,Fred Haisefilled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8.Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience,the first being Apollo 10.The next wasSTS-26in 1988. Deke Slaytongave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventuallyApollo 13). The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that ofApollo 12. Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal relationship.Aldrin and Collins described the crew as \"amiable strangers\".Armstrong did not agree with the assessment, and said \"... all the crews I was on worked very well together.\" Backup crew The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander,William Andersas CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo 8.In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with theNational Aeronautics and Space Councileffective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time.Ken Mattinglywas moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable. By the normal crew rotation in place during Apollo, Lovell, Mattingly, and Haise were scheduled to fly onApollo 14, but the three of them were bumped toApollo 13: there was a crew issue for Apollo 13 as none of them exceptEdgar Mitchellflew in space again.George Muellerrejected the crew and this was the first time an Apollo crew was rejected. To giveAlan Shepardmore training time, Lovell's crew were bumped to Apollo 13. Mattingly would later be replaced byJack Swigertas CMP on Apollo 13. Support crew During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured the prime and backup crews were apprised of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them.For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly,Ronald EvansandBill Pogue. Capsule communicators Thecapsule communicator(CAPCOM) was an astronaut at theMission Control CenterinHouston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew.For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were:Charles Duke, Ronald Evans,Bruce McCandless II, James Lovell, William Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise,Don L. Lind,Owen K. GarriottandHarrison Schmitt. Flight directors Theflight directorsfor this mission were: Other key personnel Other key personnel who played important roles in the Apollo 11 mission include the following. Preparations Insignia The Apollo 11mission emblemwas designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for \"peaceful lunar landing by the United States\". At Lovell's suggestion, he chose thebald eagle, thenational birdof the United States, as the symbol. Tom Wilson, a simulator instructor, suggested anolive branchin its beak to represent their peaceful mission. Collins added a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction; the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. Aldrin, Armstrong and Collins decided the Eagle and the Moon would be in their natural colors, and decided on a blue and gold border. Armstrong was concerned that \"eleven\" would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with \"Apollo 11\",and they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would \"be representative ofeveryonewho had worked toward a lunar landing\". An illustrator at theManned Spacecraft Center(MSC) did the artwork, which was then sent off to NASA officials for approval.The design was rejected.Bob Gilruth, the director of the MSC felt the talons of the eagle looked \"too warlike\".After some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the talons.When theEisenhower dollar coinwas released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side.The design was also used for the smallerSusan B. Anthony dollarunveiled in 1979. Call signs After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraftCharlie BrownandSnoopy, assistant manager for public affairsJulian Scheerwrote toGeorge Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the MSC, to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. The nameSnowconewas used for the CM andHaystackwas used for the LM in both internal and external communications during early mission planning. The LM was namedEagleafter the motif which was featured prominently on the mission insignia. At Scheer's suggestion, the CM was namedColumbiaafterColumbiad, the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from Florida) inJules Verne's 1865 novelFrom the Earth to the Moon. It also referred toColumbia, a historical name of the United States.In Collins' 1976 book, he saidColumbiawas in reference toChristopher Columbus. Mementos The astronauts hadpersonal preference kits(PPKs), small bags containing personal items of significance they wanted to take with them on the mission.Five 0.5-pound (0.23 kg) PPKs were carried on Apollo 11: three (one for each astronaut) were stowed onColumbiabefore launch, and two onEagle. Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood from theWright brothers' 1903Wright Flyer's left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing,along with a diamond-studdedastronaut pinoriginally given to Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards, but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took it with him on Apollo 11. Site selection NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years' worth of studies based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of theLunar Orbiter programand information about surface conditions provided by theSurveyor program.The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required.The landing site had to be close to the lunar equator to minimize the amount of propellant required, clear of obstacles to minimize maneuvering, and flat to simplify the task of the landing radar. Scientific value was not a consideration. Areas that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be free of craters had to be relaxed, as no such site was found.Five sites were considered: Sites 1 and 2 were in the Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis); Site 3 was in the Central Bay (Sinus Medii); and Sites 4 and 5 were in the Ocean of Storms (Oceanus Procellarum).The final site selection was based on seven criteria: The requirement for the Sun angle was particularly restrictive, limiting the launch date to one day per month.A landing just after dawn was chosen to limit the temperature extremes the astronauts would experience.The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site 2, with Sites 3 and 5 as backups in the event of the launch being delayed. In May 1969, Apollo 10's lunar module flew to within 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) of Site 2, and reported it was acceptable. First-step decision During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced, the first question was, \"Which one of you gentlemen will be the first man to step onto the lunar surface?\"Slayton told the reporter it had not been decided, and Armstrong added that it was \"not based on individual desire\". One of the first versions of the egress checklist had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft before the commander, which matched what had been done on Gemini missions,where the commander had never performed the spacewalk.Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin would be the first man to walk on the Moon, and Associate AdministratorGeorge Muellertold reporters he would be first as well. Aldrin heard that Armstrong would be the first because Armstrong was a civilian, which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots he should be first, but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign. Attempting to stem interdepartmental conflict, Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong would be first since he was the commander. The decision was announced in a press conference on April 14, 1969. For decades, Aldrin believed the final decision was largely driven by the lunar module's hatch location. Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the spacecraft was so small, maneuvering to exit the spacecraft was difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision until late spring.Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him leave the spacecraft first, if he agreed. Armstrong said, \"Yes, that's the way to do it.\" The media accused Armstrong of exercising his commander's prerogative to exit the spacecraft first.Chris Kraftrevealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting occurred between Gilruth, Slayton, Low, and himself to make sure Aldrin would not be the first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on the Moon should be likeCharles Lindbergh, a calm and quiet person. They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was the first to egress from the spacecraft. Pre-launch The ascent stage ofLM-5Eaglearrived at theKennedy Space Centeron January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, andCSM-107Columbiaon January 23.There were several differences betweenEagleand Apollo 10's LM-4Snoopy;Eaglehad a VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as theEarly Apollo Scientific Experiments Package(EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch.The CSM was mated on January 29, and moved from theOperations and Checkout Buildingto theVehicle Assembly Buildingon April 14. TheS-IVBthird stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived on January 18, followed by theS-IIsecond stage on February 6,S-ICfirst stage on February 20, and theSaturn V Instrument Uniton February 27. At 12:30 on May 20, the 5,443-tonne (5,357-long-ton; 6,000-short-ton) assembly departed the Vehicle Assembly Building atop thecrawler-transporter, bound for Launch Pad 39A, part ofLaunch Complex 39, while Apollo 10 was still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 26, and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried themobile service structureback to its parking area.In the early hours of the morning, the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled withliquid hydrogen.Fueling was completed by three hours before launch.Launch operations were partly automated, with 43 programs written in theATOLL programming language. Slayton roused the crew shortly after 04:00, and they showered, shaved, and had the traditional pre-flight breakfast of steak and eggs with Slayton and the backup crew. They then donned their space suits and began breathing pure oxygen. At 06:30, they headed out to Launch Complex 39.Haise enteredColumbiaabout three hours and ten minutes before launch time. Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left-hand couch at 06:54. Five minutes later, Collins joined him, taking up his position on the right-hand couch. Finally, Aldrin entered, taking the center couch.Haise left around two hours and ten minutes before launch.The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time.Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in thefiring room. Mission Launch and flight to lunar orbit An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries included theChief of Staff of the United States Army,GeneralWilliam Westmoreland, fourcabinet members, 19state governors, 40mayors, 60 ambassadors and 200congressmen. Vice PresidentSpiro Agnewviewed the launch with former presidentLyndon B. Johnsonand his wifeLady Bird Johnson.Around 3,500 media representatives were present.About two-thirds were from the United States; the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts.PresidentRichard Nixonviewed the launch from his office in theWhite Housewith his NASA liaison officer, Apollo astronautFrank Borman. Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00UTC(9:32:00EDT).At 13.2 seconds into the flight, the launch vehicle began torollinto itsflight azimuthof 72.058°. Full shutdown of the first-stage engines occurred about 2 minutes and 42 seconds into the mission, followed by separation of the S-IC and ignition of the S-II engines. The second stage engines then cut off and separated at about 9 minutes and 8 seconds, allowing the first ignition of the S-IVB engine a few seconds later. Apollo 11 entered anear-circular Earth orbitat an altitude of 100.4 nautical miles (185.9 km) by 98.9 nautical miles (183.2 km), twelve minutes into its flight. After one and a half orbits, a second ignition of the S-IVB engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with thetrans-lunar injection(TLI) burn at 16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, with Collins in the left seat and at the controls, thetransposition, docking, and extractionmaneuver was performed. This involved separatingColumbiafrom the spent S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking withEaglestill attached to the stage. After the LM was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon.This was done to avoid the third stage colliding with the spacecraft, the Earth, or the Moon. Aslingshot effectfrom passing around the Moon threw it into anorbit around the Sun. On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enterlunar orbit.In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of the craterSabine D. The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automatedRanger 8andSurveyor 5landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft, and because it was unlikely to present major landing or EVA challenges.It lay about 25 kilometers (16 mi) southeast of the Surveyor 5 landing site, and 68 kilometers (42 mi) southwest of Ranger 8's crash site. Lunar descent At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong enteredEagle, and began the final preparations for lunar descent.At 17:44:00Eagleseparated fromColumbia.Collins, alone aboardColumbia, inspectedEagleas it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the landing gear was correctly deployed.Armstrong exclaimed: \"TheEaglehas wings!\" As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found themselves passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were \"long\"; they would land miles west of their target point.Eaglewas traveling too fast. The problem could have beenmascons—concentrations of high mass in a region or regions of the Moon's crust that contains agravitational anomaly, potentially alteringEagle'strajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressure in the docking tunnel, or a result ofEagle's pirouette maneuver. Five minutes into the descent burn, and 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above the surface of the Moon, theLM guidance computer(LGC) distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected 1201 and 1202 program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center, computer engineerJack GarmantoldGuidance OfficerSteve Balesit was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated \"executive overflows\", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all its tasks in real-time and had to postpone some of them.Margaret Hamilton, the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at theMITCharles Stark Draper Laboratorylater recalled: To blame the computer for the Apollo 11 problems is like blaming the person who spots a fire and calls the fire department. Actually, the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software. The software's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re-establish the more important ones. The computer, rather than almost forcing an abort, prevented an abort. If the computer hadn't recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful Moon landing it was. During the mission, the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position, causing the computer to process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time.Software engineerDon Eylesconcluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was due to a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first uncrewed LM inApollo 5. Having the rendezvous radar on (so it was warmed up in case of an emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer, but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the computer as dithering back and forth between two positions, depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spuriouscycle stealing, as the rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter, caused the computer alarms. Landing When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a 300-foot-diameter (91 m) crater (later determined to beWest crater), so he took semi-automatic control.Armstrong considered landing short of the boulder field so they could collect geological samples from it, but could not since their horizontal velocity was too high. Throughout the descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy pilotingEagle. Now 107 feet (33 m) above the surface, Armstrong knew their propellant supply was dwindling and was determined to land at the first possible landing site. Armstrong found a clear patch of ground and maneuvered the spacecraft towards it. As he got closer, now 250 feet (76 m) above the surface, he discovered his new landing site had a crater in it. He cleared the crater and found another patch of level ground. They were now 100 feet (30 m) from the surface, with only 90 seconds of propellant remaining. Lunar dust kicked up by the LM's engine began to impair his ability to determine the spacecraft's motion. Some large rocks jutted out of the dust cloud, and Armstrong focused on them during his descent so he could determine the spacecraft's speed. A light informed Aldrin that at least one of the 67-inch (170 cm) probes hanging fromEagle'sfootpads had touched the surface a few moments before the landing and he said: \"Contact light!\" Armstrong was supposed to immediately shut the engine down, as the engineers suspected the pressure caused by the engine's own exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface could make it explode, but he forgot. Three seconds later,Eaglelanded and Armstrong shut the engine down.Aldrin immediately said \"Okay, engine stop. ACA—out ofdetent.\" Armstrong acknowledged: \"Out of detent. Auto.\" Aldrin continued: \"Mode control—both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm—off. 413 is in.\" ACA was theAttitude Control Assembly—the LM's control stick. Output went to the LGC to command thereaction control system(RCS) jets to fire. \"Out of Detent\" meant the stick had moved away from its centered position; it was spring-centered like the turn indicator in a car. Address 413 of theAbort Guidance System(AGS) contained the variable that indicated the LM had landed. Eaglelanded at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with 216 pounds (98 kg) of usable fuel remaining. Information available to the crew and mission controllers during the landing showed the LM had enough fuel for another 25 seconds of powered flight before an abort without touchdown would have become unsafe,but post-mission analysis showed that the real figure was probably closer to 50 seconds.Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than most subsequent missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of the propellantsloshingmore than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this. Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post-landing checklist with \"Engine arm is off\", before responding to the CAPCOM, Charles Duke, with the words, \"Houston,Tranquility Basehere. TheEaglehas landed.\" Armstrong's unrehearsed change of call sign from \"Eagle\" to \"Tranquility Base\" emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful.Duke expressed the relief at Mission Control: \"Roger, Twan—Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\" Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth: This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way. He then tookcommunionprivately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheistMadalyn Murray O'Hair(who had objected to theApollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. For this reason, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at theWebsterPresbyterian Church, and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, Dean Woodruff. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20.The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period, but they chose to begin preparations for the EVA early, thinking they would be unable to sleep. Lunar surface operations Preparations forNeil ArmstrongandBuzz Aldrinto walk on the Moon began at 23:43 UTC.These took longer than expected; three and a half hours instead of two.During training on Earth, everything required had been neatly laid out in advance, but on the Moon the cabin contained a large number of other items as well, such as checklists, food packets, and tools.Six hours and thirty-nine minutes after landing, Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, andEaglewas depressurized. Eagle's hatch was opened at 02:39:33.Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with hisportable life support system(PLSS).Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.At 02:51 Armstrong began his descent to the lunar surface. The remote control unit on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage assembly (MESA) folded againstEagle'sside and activate the TV camera. Apollo 11 usedslow-scan television(TV) incompatible with broadcast TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor (thus, a broadcast of a broadcast), significantly reducing the quality of the picture.The signal was received atGoldstonein the United States, but with better fidelity byHoneysuckle Creek Tracking StationnearCanberrain Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitiveParkes radio telescopein Australia.Despite some technical and weather difficulties, black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth.Copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, butrecordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surfacewere likely destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA. After describing the surface dust as \"very fine-grained\" and \"almost like a powder\",at 02:56:15,six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong stepped offEagle'slanding pad and declared: \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\" Armstrong intended to say \"That's one small step for a man\", but the word \"a\" is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said \"for a man\", and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the \"a\" in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words \"for a\" together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory. A more recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the \"a\" may have been spoken but obscured by static. Other analysis points to the claims of static and slurring as \"face-saving fabrication\", and that Armstrong himself later admitted to misspeaking the line. About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM.Twelve minutes after the sample was collected,he removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod.The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. Still photography was accomplished with aHasselbladcamera that could be operated hand-held or mounted on Armstrong'sApollo space suit.Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface. He described the view with the simple phrase: \"Magnificent desolation.\" Armstrong said moving in thelunar gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was \"even perhaps easier than the simulations ... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around.\"Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backward, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight intoEagle'sshadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, but the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust, which soiled the outer part of their suits. The astronauts planted theLunar Flag Assemblycontaining aflag of the United Stateson the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera. Aldrin remembered, \"Of all the jobs I had to do on the Moon the one I wanted to go the smoothest was the flag raising.\"But the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and could only insert the pole about 2 inches (5 cm) into the hard lunar surface. Aldrin was afraid it might topple in front of TV viewers, but gave \"a crisp West Point salute\".Before Aldrin could take a photo of Armstrong with the flag, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone-radio transmission, which Nixon called \"the most historic phone call ever made from the White House.\"Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief. Nixon:Hello, Neil and Buzz. I'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House. And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made from the White House. I just can't tell you how proud we all are of what you have done. For every American, this has to be the proudest day of our lives. And for people all over the world, I am sure that they too join with Americans in recognizing what an immense feat this is. Because of what you have done, the heavens have become a part of man's world. And as you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquility, it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquility to Earth. For one priceless moment in the whole history of man, all the people on this Earth are truly one: one in their pride in what you have done, and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth. Armstrong:Thank you, Mr. President. It's a great honor and privilege for us to be here, representing not only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, and with interest and a curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It's an honor for us to be able to participate here today. Nixon:Thank you very much, and I look forward, all of us look forward, to seeing you on the Hornet on Thursday. They deployed theEASEP, which included aPassive Seismic Experiment Packageused to measuremoonquakesand aretroreflectorarray used for thelunar laser ranging experiment.Then Armstrong walked 196 feet (60 m) from the LM to take photographs at the rim ofLittle West Craterwhile Aldrin collected twocore samples. He used thegeologist's hammerto pound in the tubes—the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11—but was unable to penetrate more than 6 inches (15 cm) deep. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes. Aldrin shoveled 6 kilograms (13 lb) of soil into the box of rocks to pack them in tightly.Two types of rocks were found in the geological samples:basaltandbreccia.Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts:armalcolite,tranquillityite, andpyroxferroite. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. All have subsequently been found on Earth. While on the surface, Armstrong uncovered aplaquemounted on the LM ladder, bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read: Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon July 1969, A. D. We came in peace for all mankind. At the behest of theNixon administrationto add a reference to God, NASA included the vague date as a reason to include A.D., which stands forAnno Domini(\"in the year of our Lord\"). Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong his metabolic rates were high, and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. As metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension.In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon. Lunar ascent Aldrin enteredEaglefirst. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing 21.55 kilograms (47.5 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor (LEC). This proved to be an inefficient tool, and later missions preferred to carry equipment and samples up to the LM by hand.Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his sleeve pocket, and Aldrin tossed the bag down. Armstrong then jumped onto the ladder's third rung, and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LMlife support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, an empty Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. The hatch was closed again at 05:11:13. They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep. Presidential speech writerWilliam Safirehad prepared anIn Event of Moon Disasterannouncement for Nixon to read in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon.The remarks were in a memo from Safire to Nixon'sWhite House Chief of StaffH. R. Haldeman, in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster.According to the plan, Mission Control would \"close down communications\" with the LM, and a clergyman would \"commend their souls to the deepest of the deep\" in a public ritual likened toburial at sea. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion toRupert Brooke's World War I poem \"The Soldier\".The script for the speech does not make reference to Collins; as he remained onboardColumbiain orbit around the Moon, it was expected that he would be able to return the module to Earth in the event of a mission failure. While moving inside the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged thecircuit breakerthat would arm the main engine for liftoff from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. The nonconductive tip of a Durofelt-tip penwas sufficient to activate the switch. After more than21+1⁄2hours on the lunar surface, in addition to the scientific instruments, the astronauts left behind: anApollo 1mission patch in memory of astronautsRoger Chaffee,Gus Grissom, andEdward White, who died when their command module caught fire during a test in January 1967; two memorial medals of Soviet cosmonautsVladimir KomarovandYuri Gagarin, who died in 1967 and 1968 respectively; a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace; and a silicon message disk carrying thegoodwill statementsby presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon along with messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world.The disk also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA's past and then-current top management. After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight. At that time, unknown to them, some hundred kilometers away from them the Soviet probeLuna 15was about to descend and impact. Despite having been known to be orbiting the Moon at the same time, through a ground-breaking precautious goodwill exchange of data, the mission control of Luna 15 unexpectedly hastened its roboticsample-return mission, initiating descent, in an attempt to return before Apollo 11.Just two hours before Apollo 11's launch Luna 15 crashed at 15:50 UTC, with British astronomers monitoring Luna 15 and recording the situation one commented: \"I say, this has really been drama of the highest order\",bringing theSpace Raceto a culmination. Roughly two hours later, at 17:54:00 UTC, the Apollo 11 crew on the surface safely lifted off inEagle'sascent stage to rejoin Collins aboardColumbiain lunar orbit.Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some 25 feet (8 m) from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: \"The ascent stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying theattitude indicator, but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over.\"Subsequent Apollo missions planted their flags farther from the LM. Columbiain lunar orbit During his day flying solo around the Moon, Collins never felt lonely. Although it has been said \"not sinceAdamhas any human known such solitude\",Collins felt very much a part of the mission. In his autobiography he wrote: \"this venture has been structured for three men, and I consider my third to be as necessary as either of the other two\".In the 48 minutes of each orbit when he was out of radio contact with the Earth whileColumbiapassed round the far side of the Moon, the feeling he reported was not fear or loneliness, but rather \"awareness, anticipation, satisfaction, confidence, almost exultation\". One of Collins' first tasks was to identify the lunar module on the ground. To give Collins an idea where to look, Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed about 4 miles (6.4 km) off target. Each time he passed over the suspected lunar landing site, he tried in vain to find the module. On his first orbits on the back side of the Moon, Collins performed maintenance activities such as dumping excess water produced by thefuel cellsand preparing the cabin for Armstrong and Aldrin to return. Just before he reached the dark side on the third orbit, Mission Control informed Collins there was a problem with the temperature of the coolant. If it became too cold, parts ofColumbiamight freeze. Mission Control advised him to assume manual control and implement Environmental Control System Malfunction Procedure 17. Instead, Collins flicked the switch on the system from automatic to manual and back to automatic again, and carried on with normal housekeeping chores, while keeping an eye on the temperature. WhenColumbiacame back around to the near side of the Moon again, he was able to report that the problem had been resolved. For the next couple of orbits, he described his time on the back side of the Moon as \"relaxing\". After Aldrin and Armstrong completed their EVA, Collins slept so he could be rested for the rendezvous. While the flight plan called forEagleto meet up withColumbia, Collins was prepared for a contingency in which he would flyColumbiadown to meetEagle. Return Eaglerendezvoused withColumbiaat 21:24 UTC on July 21, and the two docked at 21:35.Eagle's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit at 23:41.Just before theApollo 12flight, it was noted thatEaglewas still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned thatEagle'sorbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an \"uncertain location\" on the lunar surface.In 2021, however, some calculations show that the lander may still be in orbit. On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented: ... The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery, every piece of which worked flawlessly ... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly. All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears of a number of people ... All you see is the three of us, but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I would like to say, \"Thank you very much.\" Aldrin added: This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more, still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even, than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown ... Personally, in reflecting on the events of the past several days, a verse fromPsalmscomes to mind.\"When I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the Moon and the stars, which Thou hast ordained; What is man that Thou art mindful of him?\" Armstrong concluded: The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the giants of science who have preceded this effort; next with the American people, who have, through their will, indicated their desire; next with four administrations and their Congresses, for implementing that will; and then, with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft, the Saturn, the Columbia, the Eagle, and the littleEMU, the spacesuit and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface. We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you, and to all the other people that are listening and watching tonight, God bless you. Good night from Apollo 11. On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg was later thanked by Armstrong. Splashdown and quarantine Theaircraft carrierUSSHornet, under the command ofCaptainCarl J. Seiberlich,was selected as the primary recovery ship (PRS) for Apollo 11 on June 5, replacing its sister ship, theLPHUSSPrinceton, which had recovered Apollo 10 on May 26.Hornetwas then at her home port ofLong Beach, California.On reachingPearl Harboron July 5,HornetembarkedtheSikorsky SH-3 Sea Kinghelicopters ofHS-4, a unit which specialized in recovery of Apollo spacecraft, specialized divers ofUDTDetachment Apollo, a 35-man NASA recovery team, and about 120 media representatives. To make room, most ofHornet's air wing was left behind in Long Beach. Special recovery equipment was also loaded, including aboilerplatecommand module used for training. On July 12, with Apollo 11 still on the launch pad,Hornetdeparted Pearl Harbor for the recovery area in the central Pacific,in the vicinity of10°36′N172°24′E / 10.600°N 172.400°E /10.600; 172.400.A presidential party consisting of Nixon, Borman, Secretary of StateWilliam P. RogersandNational Security AdvisorHenry Kissingerflew toJohnston AtollonAir Force One, then to thecommand shipUSS ArlingtoninMarine One. After a night on board, they would fly toHornetin Marine One for a few hours of ceremonies. On arrival aboardHornet, the party was greeted by theCommander-in-Chief, Pacific Command (CINCPAC),AdmiralJohn S. McCain Jr., andNASA AdministratorThomas O. Paine, who flew toHornetfromPago Pagoin one ofHornet'scarrier onboard deliveryaircraft. Weather satellites were not yet common, but US Air ForceCaptainHank Brandli had access to top-secretspy satelliteimages. He realized that a storm front was headed for the Apollo recovery area. Poor visibility which could make locating the capsule difficult, and strong upper-level winds which \"would have ripped their parachutes to shreds\" according to Brandli, posed a serious threat to the safety of the mission.Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr., the commander of theFleet Weather Centerat Pearl Harbor, who had the required security clearance. On their recommendation,Rear AdmiralDonald C. Davis, commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces, Pacific, advised NASA to change the recovery area, each man risking his career. A new location was selected 215 nautical miles (398 km) northeast. This altered the flight plan. A different sequence of computer programs was used, one never before attempted. In a conventional entry, trajectory event P64 was followed by P67. For a skip-out re-entry, P65 and P66 were employed to handle the exit and entry parts of the skip. In this case, because they were extending the re-entry but not actually skipping out, P66 was not invoked and instead, P65 led directly to P67. The crew were also warned they would not be in a full-lift (heads-down) attitude when they entered P67.The first program's acceleration subjected the astronauts to 6.5 standard gravities (64 m/s2); the second, to 6.0 standard gravities (59 m/s2). Before dawn on July 24,Hornetlaunched four Sea King helicopters and threeGrumman E-1 Tracers. Two of the E-1s were designated as \"air boss\" while the third acted as a communications relay aircraft. Two of the Sea Kings carried divers and recovery equipment. The third carried photographic equipment, and the fourth carried the decontamination swimmer and the flight surgeon.At 16:44 UTC (05:44 local time)Columbia'sdrogue parachuteswere deployed. This was observed by the helicopters. Seven minutes laterColumbiastruck the water forcefully 2,660 km (1,440 nmi) east ofWake Island, 380 km (210 nmi) south of Johnston Atoll, and 24 km (13 nmi) fromHornet,at13°19′N169°9′W / 13.317°N 169.150°W /13.317; -169.150.82 °F (28 °C) with 6 feet (1.8 m) seas and winds at 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph) from the east were reported under broken clouds at 1,500 feet (460 m) with visibility of 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) at the recovery site.Reconnaissance aircraft flying to the original splashdown location reported the conditions Brandli and Houston had predicted. Duringsplashdown,Columbialanded upside down but was righted within ten minutes by flotation bags activated by the astronauts.A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached asea anchorto prevent it from drifting.More divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and positioned rafts for astronaut extraction. The divers then passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. The possibility of bringing backpathogensfrom the lunar surface was considered remote, but NASA took precautions at the recovery site. The astronauts were rubbed down with asodium hypochloritesolution andColumbiawiped withPovidone-iodineto remove any lunar dust that might be present. The astronauts were winched on board the recovery helicopter. BIGs were worn until they reached isolation facilities on boardHornet. The raft containing decontamination materials was intentionally sunk. After touchdown onHornetat 17:53 UTC, the helicopter was lowered by the elevator into the hangar bay, where the astronauts walked the 30 feet (9.1 m) to theMobile quarantine facility(MQF), where they would begin the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine.This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 andApollo 14, before the Moon was proven to be barren of life, and the quarantine process dropped.Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to Earth. He told them: \"s a result of what you've done, the world has never been closer together before.\" After Nixon departed,Hornetwas brought alongside the 5-short-ton (4.5 t)Columbia, which was lifted aboard by the ship's crane, placed on adollyand moved next to the MQF. It was then attached to the MQF with a flexible tunnel, allowing the lunar samples, film, data tapes and other items to be removed.Hornetreturned to Pearl Harbor, where the MQF was loaded onto aLockheed C-141 Starlifterand airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center. The astronauts arrived at theLunar Receiving Laboratoryat 10:00 UTC on July 28.Columbiawas taken toFord Islandfor deactivation, and its pyrotechnics made safe. It was then taken toHickham Air Force Base, from whence it was flown to Houston in aDouglas C-133 Cargomaster, reaching the Lunar Receiving Laboratory on July 30. In accordance with theExtra-Terrestrial Exposure Law, a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol,the astronauts continued in quarantine. After three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in their trailer onHornet, and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health.On August 10, 1969, the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine (NASA physicianWilliam Carpentierand MQF project engineerJohn Hirasaki),and onColumbiaitself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft remained in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study. Celebrations On August 13, the three astronauts rode inticker-tape paradesin their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an officialstate dinnerto celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors,Chief Justice of the United StatesWarren E. Burgerand his predecessor,Earl Warren, and ambassadors from 83 nations at theCentury Plaza Hotel. Nixon and Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of thePresidential Medal of Freedom. The three astronauts spoke before ajoint session of Congresson September 16, 1969. They presented two US flags, one to theHouse of Representativesand the other to theSenate, that they had carried with them to the surface of the Moon.Theflag of American Samoaon Apollo 11 is on display at theJean P. Haydon Museumin Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa. This celebration began a 38-day world tour that brought the astronauts to 22 countries and included visits with many world leaders.The crew toured from September 29 to November 5.The world tour started in Mexico City and ended in Tokyo.Stops on the tour in order were:Mexico City,Bogota, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro,Las Palmasin theCanary Islands, Madrid, Paris,Amsterdam, Brussels,Oslo,Cologne, Berlin, London,Rome, Belgrade,Ankara,Kinshasa,Tehran,Mumbai,Dhaka,Bangkok,Darwin,Sydney,Guam,Seoul, Tokyo andHonolulu. Many nations honored the first humanMoon landingwith special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins. Legacy Cultural significance Humans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth accomplished Kennedy's goal set eight years earlier. In Mission Control during the Apollo 11 landing, Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen, followed by the words \"TASK ACCOMPLISHED, July 1969\".The success of Apollo 11 demonstrated the United States' technological superiority;and with the success of Apollo 11, America had won theSpace Race. New phrases permeated into the English language. \"If they can send a man to the Moon, why can't they ...?\" became a common saying following Apollo 11.Armstrong's words on the lunar surface also spun off various parodies. While most people celebrated the accomplishment, disenfranchised Americans saw it as a symbol of the divide in America, evidenced by protesters led byRalph Abernathyoutside of Kennedy Space Center the day before Apollo 11 launched.NASA AdministratorThomas Painemet with Abernathy at the occasion, both hoping that the space program can spur progress also in other regards, such as poverty in the US.Paine was then asked, and agreed, to host protesters as spectators at the launch,and Abernathy, awestruck by the spectacle,prayed for the astronauts.Racial and financial inequalities frustrated citizens who wondered why money spent on the Apollo program was not spent taking care of humans on Earth. A poem byGil Scott-Heroncalled \"Whitey on the Moon\" (1970) illustrated theracial inequality in the United Statesthat was highlighted by the Space Race.The poem starts with: A rat done bit my sister Nell.(with Whitey on the moon)Her face and arms began to swell.(and Whitey's on the moon)I can't pay no doctor bill.(but Whitey's on the moon)Ten years from now I'll be paying still.(while Whitey's on the moon) Twenty percent of the world's population watched humans walk on the Moon for the first time.While Apollo 11 sparked the interest of the world, the follow-on Apollo missions did not hold the interest of the nation.One possible explanation was the shift in complexity. Landing someone on the Moon was an easy goal to understand; lunar geology was too abstract for the average person. Another is that Kennedy's goal of landing humans on the Moon had already been accomplished.A well-defined objective helped Project Apollo accomplish its goal, but after it was completed it was hard to justify continuing the lunar missions. While most Americans were proud of their nation's achievements in space exploration, only once during the late 1960s did theGallup Pollindicate that a majority of Americans favored \"doing more\" in space as opposed to \"doing less\". By 1973, 59 percent of those polled favored cutting spending on space exploration. The Space Race had been won, and Cold War tensions were easing as the US and Soviet Union entered the era ofdétente. This was also a time when inflation was rising, which put pressure on the government to reduce spending. What saved the space program was that it was one of the few government programs that had achieved something great. Drastic cuts, warnedCaspar Weinberger, the deputy director of theOffice of Management and Budget, might send a signal that \"our best years are behind us\". After the Apollo 11 mission, officials from the Soviet Union said landing humans on the Moon was dangerous and unnecessary. At the time the Soviet Union was attempting to retrieve lunar samples robotically. The Soviets publicly denied there was a race to the Moon, and indicated they were not making an attempt.Mstislav Keldyshsaid in July 1969, \"We are concentrating wholly on the creation of large satellite systems.\" It was revealed in 1989 that the Soviets had tried to send people to the Moon, but were unable due to technological difficulties.The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it any attention, and another portion was angered by it. The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs \"Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins\" bythe Byrdson the 1969 albumBallad of Easy Rider, \"Coon on the Moon\" byHowlin' Wolfon the 1973 albumThe Back Door Wolf, and \"One Small Step\" byAyreonon the 2000 albumUniversal Migrator Part 1: The Dream Sequencer. Spacecraft Thecommand moduleColumbiawent on a tour of the United States, visiting 49 state capitals, theDistrict of Columbia, andAnchorage, Alaska.In 1971, it was transferred to theSmithsonian Institution, and was displayed at theNational Air and Space Museum(NASM) in Washington, DC.It was in the centralMilestones of Flightexhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as theWright Flyer,Spirit of St. Louis,Bell X-1,North American X-15andFriendship 7. Columbiawas moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at theSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Centerin Chantilly, Virginia, to be readied for a four-city tour titledDestination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission. This includedSpace Center Houstonfrom October 14, 2017, to March 18, 2018, theSaint Louis Science Centerfrom April 14 to September 3, 2018, the Senator JohnHeinz History CenterinPittsburghfrom September 29, 2018, to February 18, 2019, and its last location atMuseum of FlightinSeattlefrom March 16 to September 2, 2019.Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time for an additional stop for the capsule, and it was moved to theCincinnati Museum Center. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on September 29, 2019. For 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum'sApollo to the Moonexhibit,until it permanently closed on December 3, 2018, to be replaced by a new gallery which was scheduled to open in 2022. A special display of Armstrong's suit was unveiled for the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11 in July 2019.The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar and the flotation bags are in the Smithsonian'sSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Centerannex nearWashington Dulles International Airportin Chantilly, Virginia, where they are on display along with a test lunar module. The descent stage of the LMEagleremains on the Moon. In 2009, theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts. The remains of the ascent stage are assumed to lie at an unknown location on the lunar surface. The ascent stage,Eagle, was not tracked after it was jettisoned. The lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make low Moon orbits unstable after a short time, leading the orbiting object to impact the surface.However, using a program developed by NASA, and high-resolution lunar gravity data, a paper was published, in 2021, indicating thatEaglemight still be in orbit as late as 2020. Using the orbital elements published by NASA, aMonte Carlo methodwas used to generate parameter sets that bracket the uncertainties in these elements. All simulations, of the orbit, predicted thatEaglewould never impact the lunar surface. In March 2012 a team of specialists financed byAmazonfounderJeff Bezoslocated theF-1 enginesfrom the S-IC stage that launched Apollo 11 into space. They were found on the Atlantic seabed using advanced sonar scanning.His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was from Apollo 11.The S-IVB third stage which performed Apollo 11's trans-lunar injection remains in a solar orbit near to that of Earth. Moon rocks The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is theLunar Sample Laboratory Facilityat the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center inHouston, Texas. For safekeeping, there is also a smaller collection stored atWhite Sands Test FacilitynearLas Cruces, New Mexico. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them free of moisture. They are handled only indirectly, using special tools. Over 100 research laboratories worldwide conduct studies of the samples; approximately 500 samples are prepared and sent to investigators every year. In November 1969, Nixon asked NASA to make up about 250 presentationApollo 11 lunar sample displaysfor 135 nations, the fifty states of the United States and its possessions, and the United Nations. Each display included Moon dust from Apollo 11 and flags, including one of the Soviet Union, taken along by Apollo 11. The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil weighing about 50 mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button about as big as aUnited States half-dollar coin. This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust. Nixon gave the Apollo 11 lunar sample displays as goodwill gifts in 1970. Experiment results The Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed on August 25, 1969. The downlink failed on December 14, 1969.As of 2018, theLunar Laser Ranging experimentremains operational. Moonwalk camera The Hasselblad camera used during the moonwalk was thought to be lost or left on the Moon surface. Lunar ModuleEaglememorabilia In 2015, after Armstrong died in 2012, his widow contacted theNational Air and Space Museumto inform them she had found a white cloth bag in one of Armstrong's closets. The bag contained various items, which should have been left behind in theLunar ModuleEagle, including the 16mm Data Acquisition Camera that had been used to capture images of the first Moon landing.The camera is currently on display at the National Air and Space Museum. Anniversary events 40th anniversary On July 15, 2009,Life.comreleased a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken byLifephotographerRalph Morseprior to the Apollo 11 launch.From July 16 to 24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred.It is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key moments.In July 2010, air-to-ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronized and released for the first time.TheJohn F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museumset up anAdobe Flashwebsite that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon. On July 20, 2009, Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with PresidentBarack Obamaat the White House.\"We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin\", Obama said. \"We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey.\"On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts aCongressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida SenatorBill Nelsonand Florida RepresentativeAlan Grayson. A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing: It was carried out in a technically brilliant way with risks taken ... that would be inconceivable in the risk-averse world of today ... The Apollo programme is arguably the greatest technical achievement of mankind to date ... nothing since Apollo has come close the excitement that was generated by those astronauts—Armstrong, Aldrin and the 10 others who followed them. 50th anniversary On June 10, 2015, CongressmanBill Poseyintroduced resolution H.R. 2726 to the 114th session of theUnited States House of Representativesdirecting theUnited States Mintto design and sell commemorative coins in gold, silver and clad for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. On January 24, 2019, the Mint released theApollo 11 Fiftieth Anniversary commemorative coinsto the public on its website. A documentary film,Apollo 11, with restored footage of the 1969 event, premiered inIMAXon March 1, 2019, and broadly in theaters on March 8. The Smithsonian Institute'sNational Air and Space MuseumandNASAsponsored the \"Apollo 50 Festival\" on theNational Mallin Washington DC. The three-day (July 18 to 20, 2019) outdoor festival featured hands-on exhibits and activities, live performances, and speakers such asAdam Savageand NASA scientists. As part of the festival, a projection of the 363-foot (111 m) tallSaturn Vrocket was displayed on the east face of the 555-foot (169 m) tallWashington Monumentfrom July 16 through the 20th from 9:30 pm until 11:30 pm (EDT). The program also included a 17-minute show that combined full-motion video projected on the Washington Monument to recreate the assembly and launch of theSaturn Vrocket. The projection was joined by a 40-foot (12 m) wide recreation of theKennedy Space Centercountdown clock and two large video screens showing archival footage to recreate the time leading up to the moon landing. There were three shows per night on July 19–20, with the last show on Saturday, delayed slightly so the portion where Armstrong first set foot on the Moon would happen exactly 50 years to the second after the actual event. On July 19, 2019, theGoogle Doodlepaid tribute to the Apollo 11 Moon Landing, complete with a link to an animated YouTube video with voiceover by astronautMichael Collins. Aldrin, Collins, and Armstrong's sons were hosted by PresidentDonald Trumpin the Oval Office. Films and documentaries See also References Notes Citations In some of the following sources, times are shown in the formathours:minutes:seconds(e.g. 109:24:15), referring to the mission's Ground Elapsed Time (GET),based on the official launch time of July 16, 1969, 13:32:00UTC(000:00:00 GET). Sources External links Multimedia"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnum_P.I._(2018_TV_series\",\n \"Christopher Thornton Christopher Thornton(born March 29, 1967) is an American actor. He is known for his role as Kenny \\\"Shammy\\\" Shamberg inMagnum P.I., and has had numerous other film and television roles from 1990 to the present. Early life and education Thornton was born inNew Orleans, Louisiana. His father was an amateur opera singer who appeared in local theater.Christopher appeared in several plays while majoring in theater at theUniversity of New Orleans, but quit college after two years to relocate to Los Angeles and train at theStella Adler Conservatory. Career Thornton made his first feature film appearance in the 1990 horror sequelWatchers II, playing a young man who gets his eyes gouged out by the mutant antagonist.Only two years later, at age 25, Thornton suffered a tragic accident while rock climbing which fractured two vertebrae and left him paralyzed from the waist down. He returned to mostly theater roles for the remainder of the 1990s. In 2000, he was cast to play Hamlet at the Lillian Theater in Los Angeles. Believed to be the first actor to ever play the iconic Shakespeare character in a wheelchair, Thornton's performance won rave reviews. Thornton has gone on to appear in numerous film and television roles. He has recurred in TV series such asAny Day Now,Rules of EngagementandVice Principals, and had guest roles inCurb Your Enthusiasm,Alias,Brothers & Sisters,My Name Is Earl,Grey's AnatomyandWill & Grace. Since 2018, he has played recurring character Kenny \\\"Shammy\\\" Shamberg, a marine veteran paralyzed during a tour of duty in Iraq, on theCBSreboot ofMagnum P.I. Thornton was both writer and lead actor for the 2010 filmSympathy for Delicious, playing disc jockey \\\"Delicious\\\" Dean O'Dwyer. Filmography Film Television External links References\",\n \"Apollo 11 Apollo 11was aspaceflightconducted by the United States from July 16 to July 24, 1969. It marked the first time in history that humanslandedon theMoon. CommanderNeil Armstrongand Lunar Module PilotBuzz Aldrinlanded theApollo Lunar ModuleEagleon July 20, 1969, at 20:17UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had namedTranquility Baseupon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilotMichael Collinsflew theCommand ModuleColumbiainlunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes, before lifting off to rejoinColumbia. Apollo 11 was launched by aSaturn Vrocket fromKennedy Space CenteronMerritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission ofNASA'sApollo program. The Apollospacecrafthad three parts: acommand module (CM)with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; aservice module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and alunar module (LM)that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. After beingsent to the Moonby the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved intoEagleand landed in theSea of Tranquilityon July 20. The astronauts usedEagle's ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisonedEaglebefore they performed the maneuvers that propelledColumbiaout of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth.They returned to Earth andsplashed downin the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space. Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast onlive TVto a worldwide audience. He described the event as \\\"one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\\\"Apollo 11 effectively proved U.S. victory in theSpace Raceto demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy, \\\"before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.\\\" Background In the late1950sand early1960s, the United States was engaged in theCold War, a geopolitical rivalry with theSoviet Union.On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launchedSputnik 1, the firstartificial satellite. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority.This precipitated theSputnik crisis, and triggered theSpace Raceto prove which superpower would achieve superior spaceflight capability.PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerresponded to the Sputnik challenge by creating theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA), and initiatingProject Mercury,which aimed to launch a man intoEarth orbit.But on April 12, 1961, SovietcosmonautYuri Gagarinbecame the first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth.Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961,Alan Shepardbecame the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean, he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor,John F. Kennedy. Since theSoviet Unionhad higher lift capacitylaunch vehicles, Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA, a challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpose. On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed theUnited States Congresson \\\"Urgent National Needs\\\" and declared: I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. We propose to accelerate the development of the appropriate lunar space craft. We propose to develop alternate liquid and solid fuel boosters, much larger than any now being developed, until certain which is superior. We propose additional funds for other engine development and for unmanned explorations—explorations which are particularly important for one purpose which this nation will never overlook: the survival of the man who first makes this daring flight. But in a very real sense, it will not be one man going to the Moon—if we make this judgment affirmatively, it will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to put him there. On September 12, 1962, Kennedydelivered another speechbefore a crowd of about 40,000 people in theRice University football stadiuminHouston, Texas.A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows: There is no strife, no prejudice, no national conflict in outer space as yet. Its hazards are hostile to us all. Its conquest deserves the best of all mankind, and its opportunity for peaceful cooperation may never come again. But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago,fly the Atlantic? Why doesRice play Texas? We choose to go to the Moon! We choose to go to the Moon ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win, and the others, too. In spite of that, the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a \\\"moondoggle\\\" byNorbert Wiener, a mathematician at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology.The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name:Project Apollo.When Kennedy met withNikita Khrushchev, thePremier of the Soviet Unionin June 1961, he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project, but Khrushchev did not take up the offer.Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to theUnited Nations General Assemblyon September 20, 1963.The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death. An early and crucial decision was choosinglunar orbit rendezvousover bothdirect ascentandEarth orbit rendezvous. Aspace rendezvousis anorbital maneuverin which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA headJames Webbannounced that lunar orbit rendezvous would be usedand that theApollo spacecraftwould have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.This design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a singleSaturn Vrocket that was then under development. Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed byProject Gemini.The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances insemiconductor device, includingmetal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors(MOSFETs) in theInterplanetary Monitoring Platform(IMP)andsiliconintegrated circuit(IC) chips in theApollo Guidance Computer(AGC). Project Apollo was abruptly halted by theApollo 1fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronautsGus Grissom,Ed White, andRoger B. Chaffeedied, and the subsequent investigation.In October 1968,Apollo 7evaluated the command module in Earth orbit,and in DecemberApollo 8tested it in lunar orbit.In March 1969,Apollo 9put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit,and in MayApollo 10conducted a \\\"dress rehearsal\\\" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon. The Soviet Union appeared to be winning the Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the USGemini programand Soviet failure to develop theN1 launcher, which would have been comparable to the Saturn V.The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means ofuncrewed probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launchedLuna 15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash inMare Crisiumabout two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. TheNuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratoriesradio telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11. Personnel Prime crew The initial crew assignment of CommanderNeil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP)Jim Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP)Buzz Aldrinon the backup crew for Apollo 9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967.Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew ofGemini 12. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM, Apollo 8 and Apollo 9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo 8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11. There would be one change.Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo 8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime,Fred Haisefilled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8.Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience,the first being Apollo 10.The next wasSTS-26in 1988. Deke Slaytongave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventuallyApollo 13). The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that ofApollo 12. Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal relationship.Aldrin and Collins described the crew as \\\"amiable strangers\\\".Armstrong did not agree with the assessment, and said \\\"... all the crews I was on worked very well together.\\\" Backup crew The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander,William Andersas CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo 8.In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with theNational Aeronautics and Space Councileffective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time.Ken Mattinglywas moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable. By the normal crew rotation in place during Apollo, Lovell, Mattingly, and Haise were scheduled to fly onApollo 14, but the three of them were bumped toApollo 13: there was a crew issue for Apollo 13 as none of them exceptEdgar Mitchellflew in space again.George Muellerrejected the crew and this was the first time an Apollo crew was rejected. To giveAlan Shepardmore training time, Lovell's crew were bumped to Apollo 13. Mattingly would later be replaced byJack Swigertas CMP on Apollo 13. Support crew During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured the prime and backup crews were apprised of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them.For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly,Ronald EvansandBill Pogue. Capsule communicators Thecapsule communicator(CAPCOM) was an astronaut at theMission Control CenterinHouston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew.For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were:Charles Duke, Ronald Evans,Bruce McCandless II, James Lovell, William Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise,Don L. Lind,Owen K. GarriottandHarrison Schmitt. Flight directors Theflight directorsfor this mission were: Other key personnel Other key personnel who played important roles in the Apollo 11 mission include the following. Preparations Insignia The Apollo 11mission emblemwas designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for \\\"peaceful lunar landing by the United States\\\". At Lovell's suggestion, he chose thebald eagle, thenational birdof the United States, as the symbol. Tom Wilson, a simulator instructor, suggested anolive branchin its beak to represent their peaceful mission. Collins added a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction; the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. Aldrin, Armstrong and Collins decided the Eagle and the Moon would be in their natural colors, and decided on a blue and gold border. Armstrong was concerned that \\\"eleven\\\" would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with \\\"Apollo 11\\\",and they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would \\\"be representative ofeveryonewho had worked toward a lunar landing\\\". An illustrator at theManned Spacecraft Center(MSC) did the artwork, which was then sent off to NASA officials for approval.The design was rejected.Bob Gilruth, the director of the MSC felt the talons of the eagle looked \\\"too warlike\\\".After some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the talons.When theEisenhower dollar coinwas released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side.The design was also used for the smallerSusan B. Anthony dollarunveiled in 1979. Call signs After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraftCharlie BrownandSnoopy, assistant manager for public affairsJulian Scheerwrote toGeorge Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the MSC, to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. The nameSnowconewas used for the CM andHaystackwas used for the LM in both internal and external communications during early mission planning. The LM was namedEagleafter the motif which was featured prominently on the mission insignia. At Scheer's suggestion, the CM was namedColumbiaafterColumbiad, the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from Florida) inJules Verne's 1865 novelFrom the Earth to the Moon. It also referred toColumbia, a historical name of the United States.In Collins' 1976 book, he saidColumbiawas in reference toChristopher Columbus. Mementos The astronauts hadpersonal preference kits(PPKs), small bags containing personal items of significance they wanted to take with them on the mission.Five 0.5-pound (0.23 kg) PPKs were carried on Apollo 11: three (one for each astronaut) were stowed onColumbiabefore launch, and two onEagle. Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood from theWright brothers' 1903Wright Flyer's left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing,along with a diamond-studdedastronaut pinoriginally given to Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards, but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took it with him on Apollo 11. Site selection NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years' worth of studies based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of theLunar Orbiter programand information about surface conditions provided by theSurveyor program.The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required.The landing site had to be close to the lunar equator to minimize the amount of propellant required, clear of obstacles to minimize maneuvering, and flat to simplify the task of the landing radar. Scientific value was not a consideration. Areas that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be free of craters had to be relaxed, as no such site was found.Five sites were considered: Sites 1 and 2 were in the Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis); Site 3 was in the Central Bay (Sinus Medii); and Sites 4 and 5 were in the Ocean of Storms (Oceanus Procellarum).The final site selection was based on seven criteria: The requirement for the Sun angle was particularly restrictive, limiting the launch date to one day per month.A landing just after dawn was chosen to limit the temperature extremes the astronauts would experience.The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site 2, with Sites 3 and 5 as backups in the event of the launch being delayed. In May 1969, Apollo 10's lunar module flew to within 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) of Site 2, and reported it was acceptable. First-step decision During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced, the first question was, \\\"Which one of you gentlemen will be the first man to step onto the lunar surface?\\\"Slayton told the reporter it had not been decided, and Armstrong added that it was \\\"not based on individual desire\\\". One of the first versions of the egress checklist had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft before the commander, which matched what had been done on Gemini missions,where the commander had never performed the spacewalk.Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin would be the first man to walk on the Moon, and Associate AdministratorGeorge Muellertold reporters he would be first as well. Aldrin heard that Armstrong would be the first because Armstrong was a civilian, which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots he should be first, but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign. Attempting to stem interdepartmental conflict, Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong would be first since he was the commander. The decision was announced in a press conference on April 14, 1969. For decades, Aldrin believed the final decision was largely driven by the lunar module's hatch location. Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the spacecraft was so small, maneuvering to exit the spacecraft was difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision until late spring.Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him leave the spacecraft first, if he agreed. Armstrong said, \\\"Yes, that's the way to do it.\\\" The media accused Armstrong of exercising his commander's prerogative to exit the spacecraft first.Chris Kraftrevealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting occurred between Gilruth, Slayton, Low, and himself to make sure Aldrin would not be the first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on the Moon should be likeCharles Lindbergh, a calm and quiet person. They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was the first to egress from the spacecraft. Pre-launch The ascent stage ofLM-5Eaglearrived at theKennedy Space Centeron January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, andCSM-107Columbiaon January 23.There were several differences betweenEagleand Apollo 10's LM-4Snoopy;Eaglehad a VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as theEarly Apollo Scientific Experiments Package(EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch.The CSM was mated on January 29, and moved from theOperations and Checkout Buildingto theVehicle Assembly Buildingon April 14. TheS-IVBthird stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived on January 18, followed by theS-IIsecond stage on February 6,S-ICfirst stage on February 20, and theSaturn V Instrument Uniton February 27. At 12:30 on May 20, the 5,443-tonne (5,357-long-ton; 6,000-short-ton) assembly departed the Vehicle Assembly Building atop thecrawler-transporter, bound for Launch Pad 39A, part ofLaunch Complex 39, while Apollo 10 was still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 26, and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried themobile service structureback to its parking area.In the early hours of the morning, the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled withliquid hydrogen.Fueling was completed by three hours before launch.Launch operations were partly automated, with 43 programs written in theATOLL programming language. Slayton roused the crew shortly after 04:00, and they showered, shaved, and had the traditional pre-flight breakfast of steak and eggs with Slayton and the backup crew. They then donned their space suits and began breathing pure oxygen. At 06:30, they headed out to Launch Complex 39.Haise enteredColumbiaabout three hours and ten minutes before launch time. Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left-hand couch at 06:54. Five minutes later, Collins joined him, taking up his position on the right-hand couch. Finally, Aldrin entered, taking the center couch.Haise left around two hours and ten minutes before launch.The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time.Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in thefiring room. Mission Launch and flight to lunar orbit An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries included theChief of Staff of the United States Army,GeneralWilliam Westmoreland, fourcabinet members, 19state governors, 40mayors, 60 ambassadors and 200congressmen. Vice PresidentSpiro Agnewviewed the launch with former presidentLyndon B. Johnsonand his wifeLady Bird Johnson.Around 3,500 media representatives were present.About two-thirds were from the United States; the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts.PresidentRichard Nixonviewed the launch from his office in theWhite Housewith his NASA liaison officer, Apollo astronautFrank Borman. Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00UTC(9:32:00EDT).At 13.2 seconds into the flight, the launch vehicle began torollinto itsflight azimuthof 72.058°. Full shutdown of the first-stage engines occurred about 2 minutes and 42 seconds into the mission, followed by separation of the S-IC and ignition of the S-II engines. The second stage engines then cut off and separated at about 9 minutes and 8 seconds, allowing the first ignition of the S-IVB engine a few seconds later. Apollo 11 entered anear-circular Earth orbitat an altitude of 100.4 nautical miles (185.9 km) by 98.9 nautical miles (183.2 km), twelve minutes into its flight. After one and a half orbits, a second ignition of the S-IVB engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with thetrans-lunar injection(TLI) burn at 16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, with Collins in the left seat and at the controls, thetransposition, docking, and extractionmaneuver was performed. This involved separatingColumbiafrom the spent S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking withEaglestill attached to the stage. After the LM was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon.This was done to avoid the third stage colliding with the spacecraft, the Earth, or the Moon. Aslingshot effectfrom passing around the Moon threw it into anorbit around the Sun. On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enterlunar orbit.In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of the craterSabine D. The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automatedRanger 8andSurveyor 5landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft, and because it was unlikely to present major landing or EVA challenges.It lay about 25 kilometers (16 mi) southeast of the Surveyor 5 landing site, and 68 kilometers (42 mi) southwest of Ranger 8's crash site. Lunar descent At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong enteredEagle, and began the final preparations for lunar descent.At 17:44:00Eagleseparated fromColumbia.Collins, alone aboardColumbia, inspectedEagleas it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the landing gear was correctly deployed.Armstrong exclaimed: \\\"TheEaglehas wings!\\\" As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found themselves passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were \\\"long\\\"; they would land miles west of their target point.Eaglewas traveling too fast. The problem could have beenmascons—concentrations of high mass in a region or regions of the Moon's crust that contains agravitational anomaly, potentially alteringEagle'strajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressure in the docking tunnel, or a result ofEagle's pirouette maneuver. Five minutes into the descent burn, and 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above the surface of the Moon, theLM guidance computer(LGC) distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected 1201 and 1202 program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center, computer engineerJack GarmantoldGuidance OfficerSteve Balesit was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated \\\"executive overflows\\\", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all its tasks in real-time and had to postpone some of them.Margaret Hamilton, the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at theMITCharles Stark Draper Laboratorylater recalled: To blame the computer for the Apollo 11 problems is like blaming the person who spots a fire and calls the fire department. Actually, the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software. The software's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re-establish the more important ones. The computer, rather than almost forcing an abort, prevented an abort. If the computer hadn't recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful Moon landing it was. During the mission, the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position, causing the computer to process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time.Software engineerDon Eylesconcluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was due to a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first uncrewed LM inApollo 5. Having the rendezvous radar on (so it was warmed up in case of an emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer, but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the computer as dithering back and forth between two positions, depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spuriouscycle stealing, as the rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter, caused the computer alarms. Landing When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a 300-foot-diameter (91 m) crater (later determined to beWest crater), so he took semi-automatic control.Armstrong considered landing short of the boulder field so they could collect geological samples from it, but could not since their horizontal velocity was too high. Throughout the descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy pilotingEagle. Now 107 feet (33 m) above the surface, Armstrong knew their propellant supply was dwindling and was determined to land at the first possible landing site. Armstrong found a clear patch of ground and maneuvered the spacecraft towards it. As he got closer, now 250 feet (76 m) above the surface, he discovered his new landing site had a crater in it. He cleared the crater and found another patch of level ground. They were now 100 feet (30 m) from the surface, with only 90 seconds of propellant remaining. Lunar dust kicked up by the LM's engine began to impair his ability to determine the spacecraft's motion. Some large rocks jutted out of the dust cloud, and Armstrong focused on them during his descent so he could determine the spacecraft's speed. A light informed Aldrin that at least one of the 67-inch (170 cm) probes hanging fromEagle'sfootpads had touched the surface a few moments before the landing and he said: \\\"Contact light!\\\" Armstrong was supposed to immediately shut the engine down, as the engineers suspected the pressure caused by the engine's own exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface could make it explode, but he forgot. Three seconds later,Eaglelanded and Armstrong shut the engine down.Aldrin immediately said \\\"Okay, engine stop. ACA—out ofdetent.\\\" Armstrong acknowledged: \\\"Out of detent. Auto.\\\" Aldrin continued: \\\"Mode control—both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm—off. 413 is in.\\\" ACA was theAttitude Control Assembly—the LM's control stick. Output went to the LGC to command thereaction control system(RCS) jets to fire. \\\"Out of Detent\\\" meant the stick had moved away from its centered position; it was spring-centered like the turn indicator in a car. Address 413 of theAbort Guidance System(AGS) contained the variable that indicated the LM had landed. Eaglelanded at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with 216 pounds (98 kg) of usable fuel remaining. Information available to the crew and mission controllers during the landing showed the LM had enough fuel for another 25 seconds of powered flight before an abort without touchdown would have become unsafe,but post-mission analysis showed that the real figure was probably closer to 50 seconds.Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than most subsequent missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of the propellantsloshingmore than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this. Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post-landing checklist with \\\"Engine arm is off\\\", before responding to the CAPCOM, Charles Duke, with the words, \\\"Houston,Tranquility Basehere. TheEaglehas landed.\\\" Armstrong's unrehearsed change of call sign from \\\"Eagle\\\" to \\\"Tranquility Base\\\" emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful.Duke expressed the relief at Mission Control: \\\"Roger, Twan—Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\\\" Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth: This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way. He then tookcommunionprivately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheistMadalyn Murray O'Hair(who had objected to theApollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. For this reason, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at theWebsterPresbyterian Church, and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, Dean Woodruff. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20.The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period, but they chose to begin preparations for the EVA early, thinking they would be unable to sleep. Lunar surface operations Preparations forNeil ArmstrongandBuzz Aldrinto walk on the Moon began at 23:43 UTC.These took longer than expected; three and a half hours instead of two.During training on Earth, everything required had been neatly laid out in advance, but on the Moon the cabin contained a large number of other items as well, such as checklists, food packets, and tools.Six hours and thirty-nine minutes after landing, Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, andEaglewas depressurized. Eagle's hatch was opened at 02:39:33.Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with hisportable life support system(PLSS).Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.At 02:51 Armstrong began his descent to the lunar surface. The remote control unit on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage assembly (MESA) folded againstEagle'sside and activate the TV camera. Apollo 11 usedslow-scan television(TV) incompatible with broadcast TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor (thus, a broadcast of a broadcast), significantly reducing the quality of the picture.The signal was received atGoldstonein the United States, but with better fidelity byHoneysuckle Creek Tracking StationnearCanberrain Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitiveParkes radio telescopein Australia.Despite some technical and weather difficulties, black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth.Copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, butrecordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surfacewere likely destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA. After describing the surface dust as \\\"very fine-grained\\\" and \\\"almost like a powder\\\",at 02:56:15,six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong stepped offEagle'slanding pad and declared: \\\"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\\\" Armstrong intended to say \\\"That's one small step for a man\\\", but the word \\\"a\\\" is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said \\\"for a man\\\", and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the \\\"a\\\" in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words \\\"for a\\\" together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory. A more recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the \\\"a\\\" may have been spoken but obscured by static. Other analysis points to the claims of static and slurring as \\\"face-saving fabrication\\\", and that Armstrong himself later admitted to misspeaking the line. About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM.Twelve minutes after the sample was collected,he removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod.The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. Still photography was accomplished with aHasselbladcamera that could be operated hand-held or mounted on Armstrong'sApollo space suit.Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface. He described the view with the simple phrase: \\\"Magnificent desolation.\\\" Armstrong said moving in thelunar gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was \\\"even perhaps easier than the simulations ... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around.\\\"Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backward, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight intoEagle'sshadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, but the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust, which soiled the outer part of their suits. The astronauts planted theLunar Flag Assemblycontaining aflag of the United Stateson the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera. Aldrin remembered, \\\"Of all the jobs I had to do on the Moon the one I wanted to go the smoothest was the flag raising.\\\"But the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and could only insert the pole about 2 inches (5 cm) into the hard lunar surface. Aldrin was afraid it might topple in front of TV viewers, but gave \\\"a crisp West Point salute\\\".Before Aldrin could take a photo of Armstrong with the flag, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone-radio transmission, which Nixon called \\\"the most historic phone call ever made from the White House.\\\"Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief. Nixon:Hello, Neil and Buzz. I'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House. And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made from the White House. I just can't tell you how proud we all are of what you have done. For every American, this has to be the proudest day of our lives. And for people all over the world, I am sure that they too join with Americans in recognizing what an immense feat this is. Because of what you have done, the heavens have become a part of man's world. And as you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquility, it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquility to Earth. For one priceless moment in the whole history of man, all the people on this Earth are truly one: one in their pride in what you have done, and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth. Armstrong:Thank you, Mr. President. It's a great honor and privilege for us to be here, representing not only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, and with interest and a curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It's an honor for us to be able to participate here today. Nixon:Thank you very much, and I look forward, all of us look forward, to seeing you on the Hornet on Thursday. They deployed theEASEP, which included aPassive Seismic Experiment Packageused to measuremoonquakesand aretroreflectorarray used for thelunar laser ranging experiment.Then Armstrong walked 196 feet (60 m) from the LM to take photographs at the rim ofLittle West Craterwhile Aldrin collected twocore samples. He used thegeologist's hammerto pound in the tubes—the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11—but was unable to penetrate more than 6 inches (15 cm) deep. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes. Aldrin shoveled 6 kilograms (13 lb) of soil into the box of rocks to pack them in tightly.Two types of rocks were found in the geological samples:basaltandbreccia.Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts:armalcolite,tranquillityite, andpyroxferroite. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. All have subsequently been found on Earth. While on the surface, Armstrong uncovered aplaquemounted on the LM ladder, bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read: Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon July 1969, A. D. We came in peace for all mankind. At the behest of theNixon administrationto add a reference to God, NASA included the vague date as a reason to include A.D., which stands forAnno Domini(\\\"in the year of our Lord\\\"). Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong his metabolic rates were high, and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. As metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension.In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon. Lunar ascent Aldrin enteredEaglefirst. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing 21.55 kilograms (47.5 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor (LEC). This proved to be an inefficient tool, and later missions preferred to carry equipment and samples up to the LM by hand.Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his sleeve pocket, and Aldrin tossed the bag down. Armstrong then jumped onto the ladder's third rung, and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LMlife support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, an empty Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. The hatch was closed again at 05:11:13. They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep. Presidential speech writerWilliam Safirehad prepared anIn Event of Moon Disasterannouncement for Nixon to read in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon.The remarks were in a memo from Safire to Nixon'sWhite House Chief of StaffH. R. Haldeman, in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster.According to the plan, Mission Control would \\\"close down communications\\\" with the LM, and a clergyman would \\\"commend their souls to the deepest of the deep\\\" in a public ritual likened toburial at sea. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion toRupert Brooke's World War I poem \\\"The Soldier\\\".The script for the speech does not make reference to Collins; as he remained onboardColumbiain orbit around the Moon, it was expected that he would be able to return the module to Earth in the event of a mission failure. While moving inside the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged thecircuit breakerthat would arm the main engine for liftoff from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. The nonconductive tip of a Durofelt-tip penwas sufficient to activate the switch. After more than21+1⁄2hours on the lunar surface, in addition to the scientific instruments, the astronauts left behind: anApollo 1mission patch in memory of astronautsRoger Chaffee,Gus Grissom, andEdward White, who died when their command module caught fire during a test in January 1967; two memorial medals of Soviet cosmonautsVladimir KomarovandYuri Gagarin, who died in 1967 and 1968 respectively; a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace; and a silicon message disk carrying thegoodwill statementsby presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon along with messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world.The disk also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA's past and then-current top management. After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight. At that time, unknown to them, some hundred kilometers away from them the Soviet probeLuna 15was about to descend and impact. Despite having been known to be orbiting the Moon at the same time, through a ground-breaking precautious goodwill exchange of data, the mission control of Luna 15 unexpectedly hastened its roboticsample-return mission, initiating descent, in an attempt to return before Apollo 11.Just two hours before Apollo 11's launch Luna 15 crashed at 15:50 UTC, with British astronomers monitoring Luna 15 and recording the situation one commented: \\\"I say, this has really been drama of the highest order\\\",bringing theSpace Raceto a culmination. Roughly two hours later, at 17:54:00 UTC, the Apollo 11 crew on the surface safely lifted off inEagle'sascent stage to rejoin Collins aboardColumbiain lunar orbit.Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some 25 feet (8 m) from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: \\\"The ascent stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying theattitude indicator, but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over.\\\"Subsequent Apollo missions planted their flags farther from the LM. Columbiain lunar orbit During his day flying solo around the Moon, Collins never felt lonely. Although it has been said \\\"not sinceAdamhas any human known such solitude\\\",Collins felt very much a part of the mission. In his autobiography he wrote: \\\"this venture has been structured for three men, and I consider my third to be as necessary as either of the other two\\\".In the 48 minutes of each orbit when he was out of radio contact with the Earth whileColumbiapassed round the far side of the Moon, the feeling he reported was not fear or loneliness, but rather \\\"awareness, anticipation, satisfaction, confidence, almost exultation\\\". One of Collins' first tasks was to identify the lunar module on the ground. To give Collins an idea where to look, Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed about 4 miles (6.4 km) off target. Each time he passed over the suspected lunar landing site, he tried in vain to find the module. On his first orbits on the back side of the Moon, Collins performed maintenance activities such as dumping excess water produced by thefuel cellsand preparing the cabin for Armstrong and Aldrin to return. Just before he reached the dark side on the third orbit, Mission Control informed Collins there was a problem with the temperature of the coolant. If it became too cold, parts ofColumbiamight freeze. Mission Control advised him to assume manual control and implement Environmental Control System Malfunction Procedure 17. Instead, Collins flicked the switch on the system from automatic to manual and back to automatic again, and carried on with normal housekeeping chores, while keeping an eye on the temperature. WhenColumbiacame back around to the near side of the Moon again, he was able to report that the problem had been resolved. For the next couple of orbits, he described his time on the back side of the Moon as \\\"relaxing\\\". After Aldrin and Armstrong completed their EVA, Collins slept so he could be rested for the rendezvous. While the flight plan called forEagleto meet up withColumbia, Collins was prepared for a contingency in which he would flyColumbiadown to meetEagle. Return Eaglerendezvoused withColumbiaat 21:24 UTC on July 21, and the two docked at 21:35.Eagle's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit at 23:41.Just before theApollo 12flight, it was noted thatEaglewas still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned thatEagle'sorbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an \\\"uncertain location\\\" on the lunar surface.In 2021, however, some calculations show that the lander may still be in orbit. On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented: ... The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery, every piece of which worked flawlessly ... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly. All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears of a number of people ... All you see is the three of us, but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I would like to say, \\\"Thank you very much.\\\" Aldrin added: This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more, still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even, than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown ... Personally, in reflecting on the events of the past several days, a verse fromPsalmscomes to mind.\\\"When I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the Moon and the stars, which Thou hast ordained; What is man that Thou art mindful of him?\\\" Armstrong concluded: The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the giants of science who have preceded this effort; next with the American people, who have, through their will, indicated their desire; next with four administrations and their Congresses, for implementing that will; and then, with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft, the Saturn, the Columbia, the Eagle, and the littleEMU, the spacesuit and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface. We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you, and to all the other people that are listening and watching tonight, God bless you. Good night from Apollo 11. On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg was later thanked by Armstrong. Splashdown and quarantine Theaircraft carrierUSSHornet, under the command ofCaptainCarl J. Seiberlich,was selected as the primary recovery ship (PRS) for Apollo 11 on June 5, replacing its sister ship, theLPHUSSPrinceton, which had recovered Apollo 10 on May 26.Hornetwas then at her home port ofLong Beach, California.On reachingPearl Harboron July 5,HornetembarkedtheSikorsky SH-3 Sea Kinghelicopters ofHS-4, a unit which specialized in recovery of Apollo spacecraft, specialized divers ofUDTDetachment Apollo, a 35-man NASA recovery team, and about 120 media representatives. To make room, most ofHornet's air wing was left behind in Long Beach. Special recovery equipment was also loaded, including aboilerplatecommand module used for training. On July 12, with Apollo 11 still on the launch pad,Hornetdeparted Pearl Harbor for the recovery area in the central Pacific,in the vicinity of10°36′N172°24′E / 10.600°N 172.400°E /10.600; 172.400.A presidential party consisting of Nixon, Borman, Secretary of StateWilliam P. RogersandNational Security AdvisorHenry Kissingerflew toJohnston AtollonAir Force One, then to thecommand shipUSS ArlingtoninMarine One. After a night on board, they would fly toHornetin Marine One for a few hours of ceremonies. On arrival aboardHornet, the party was greeted by theCommander-in-Chief, Pacific Command (CINCPAC),AdmiralJohn S. McCain Jr., andNASA AdministratorThomas O. Paine, who flew toHornetfromPago Pagoin one ofHornet'scarrier onboard deliveryaircraft. Weather satellites were not yet common, but US Air ForceCaptainHank Brandli had access to top-secretspy satelliteimages. He realized that a storm front was headed for the Apollo recovery area. Poor visibility which could make locating the capsule difficult, and strong upper-level winds which \\\"would have ripped their parachutes to shreds\\\" according to Brandli, posed a serious threat to the safety of the mission.Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr., the commander of theFleet Weather Centerat Pearl Harbor, who had the required security clearance. On their recommendation,Rear AdmiralDonald C. Davis, commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces, Pacific, advised NASA to change the recovery area, each man risking his career. A new location was selected 215 nautical miles (398 km) northeast. This altered the flight plan. A different sequence of computer programs was used, one never before attempted. In a conventional entry, trajectory event P64 was followed by P67. For a skip-out re-entry, P65 and P66 were employed to handle the exit and entry parts of the skip. In this case, because they were extending the re-entry but not actually skipping out, P66 was not invoked and instead, P65 led directly to P67. The crew were also warned they would not be in a full-lift (heads-down) attitude when they entered P67.The first program's acceleration subjected the astronauts to 6.5 standard gravities (64 m/s2); the second, to 6.0 standard gravities (59 m/s2). Before dawn on July 24,Hornetlaunched four Sea King helicopters and threeGrumman E-1 Tracers. Two of the E-1s were designated as \\\"air boss\\\" while the third acted as a communications relay aircraft. Two of the Sea Kings carried divers and recovery equipment. The third carried photographic equipment, and the fourth carried the decontamination swimmer and the flight surgeon.At 16:44 UTC (05:44 local time)Columbia'sdrogue parachuteswere deployed. This was observed by the helicopters. Seven minutes laterColumbiastruck the water forcefully 2,660 km (1,440 nmi) east ofWake Island, 380 km (210 nmi) south of Johnston Atoll, and 24 km (13 nmi) fromHornet,at13°19′N169°9′W / 13.317°N 169.150°W /13.317; -169.150.82 °F (28 °C) with 6 feet (1.8 m) seas and winds at 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph) from the east were reported under broken clouds at 1,500 feet (460 m) with visibility of 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) at the recovery site.Reconnaissance aircraft flying to the original splashdown location reported the conditions Brandli and Houston had predicted. Duringsplashdown,Columbialanded upside down but was righted within ten minutes by flotation bags activated by the astronauts.A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached asea anchorto prevent it from drifting.More divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and positioned rafts for astronaut extraction. The divers then passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. The possibility of bringing backpathogensfrom the lunar surface was considered remote, but NASA took precautions at the recovery site. The astronauts were rubbed down with asodium hypochloritesolution andColumbiawiped withPovidone-iodineto remove any lunar dust that might be present. The astronauts were winched on board the recovery helicopter. BIGs were worn until they reached isolation facilities on boardHornet. The raft containing decontamination materials was intentionally sunk. After touchdown onHornetat 17:53 UTC, the helicopter was lowered by the elevator into the hangar bay, where the astronauts walked the 30 feet (9.1 m) to theMobile quarantine facility(MQF), where they would begin the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine.This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 andApollo 14, before the Moon was proven to be barren of life, and the quarantine process dropped.Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to Earth. He told them: \\\"s a result of what you've done, the world has never been closer together before.\\\" After Nixon departed,Hornetwas brought alongside the 5-short-ton (4.5 t)Columbia, which was lifted aboard by the ship's crane, placed on adollyand moved next to the MQF. It was then attached to the MQF with a flexible tunnel, allowing the lunar samples, film, data tapes and other items to be removed.Hornetreturned to Pearl Harbor, where the MQF was loaded onto aLockheed C-141 Starlifterand airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center. The astronauts arrived at theLunar Receiving Laboratoryat 10:00 UTC on July 28.Columbiawas taken toFord Islandfor deactivation, and its pyrotechnics made safe. It was then taken toHickham Air Force Base, from whence it was flown to Houston in aDouglas C-133 Cargomaster, reaching the Lunar Receiving Laboratory on July 30. In accordance with theExtra-Terrestrial Exposure Law, a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol,the astronauts continued in quarantine. After three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in their trailer onHornet, and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health.On August 10, 1969, the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine (NASA physicianWilliam Carpentierand MQF project engineerJohn Hirasaki),and onColumbiaitself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft remained in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study. Celebrations On August 13, the three astronauts rode inticker-tape paradesin their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an officialstate dinnerto celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors,Chief Justice of the United StatesWarren E. Burgerand his predecessor,Earl Warren, and ambassadors from 83 nations at theCentury Plaza Hotel. Nixon and Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of thePresidential Medal of Freedom. The three astronauts spoke before ajoint session of Congresson September 16, 1969. They presented two US flags, one to theHouse of Representativesand the other to theSenate, that they had carried with them to the surface of the Moon.Theflag of American Samoaon Apollo 11 is on display at theJean P. Haydon Museumin Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa. This celebration began a 38-day world tour that brought the astronauts to 22 countries and included visits with many world leaders.The crew toured from September 29 to November 5.The world tour started in Mexico City and ended in Tokyo.Stops on the tour in order were:Mexico City,Bogota, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro,Las Palmasin theCanary Islands, Madrid, Paris,Amsterdam, Brussels,Oslo,Cologne, Berlin, London,Rome, Belgrade,Ankara,Kinshasa,Tehran,Mumbai,Dhaka,Bangkok,Darwin,Sydney,Guam,Seoul, Tokyo andHonolulu. Many nations honored the first humanMoon landingwith special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins. Legacy Cultural significance Humans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth accomplished Kennedy's goal set eight years earlier. In Mission Control during the Apollo 11 landing, Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen, followed by the words \\\"TASK ACCOMPLISHED, July 1969\\\".The success of Apollo 11 demonstrated the United States' technological superiority;and with the success of Apollo 11, America had won theSpace Race. New phrases permeated into the English language. \\\"If they can send a man to the Moon, why can't they ...?\\\" became a common saying following Apollo 11.Armstrong's words on the lunar surface also spun off various parodies. While most people celebrated the accomplishment, disenfranchised Americans saw it as a symbol of the divide in America, evidenced by protesters led byRalph Abernathyoutside of Kennedy Space Center the day before Apollo 11 launched.NASA AdministratorThomas Painemet with Abernathy at the occasion, both hoping that the space program can spur progress also in other regards, such as poverty in the US.Paine was then asked, and agreed, to host protesters as spectators at the launch,and Abernathy, awestruck by the spectacle,prayed for the astronauts.Racial and financial inequalities frustrated citizens who wondered why money spent on the Apollo program was not spent taking care of humans on Earth. A poem byGil Scott-Heroncalled \\\"Whitey on the Moon\\\" (1970) illustrated theracial inequality in the United Statesthat was highlighted by the Space Race.The poem starts with: A rat done bit my sister Nell.(with Whitey on the moon)Her face and arms began to swell.(and Whitey's on the moon)I can't pay no doctor bill.(but Whitey's on the moon)Ten years from now I'll be paying still.(while Whitey's on the moon) Twenty percent of the world's population watched humans walk on the Moon for the first time.While Apollo 11 sparked the interest of the world, the follow-on Apollo missions did not hold the interest of the nation.One possible explanation was the shift in complexity. Landing someone on the Moon was an easy goal to understand; lunar geology was too abstract for the average person. Another is that Kennedy's goal of landing humans on the Moon had already been accomplished.A well-defined objective helped Project Apollo accomplish its goal, but after it was completed it was hard to justify continuing the lunar missions. While most Americans were proud of their nation's achievements in space exploration, only once during the late 1960s did theGallup Pollindicate that a majority of Americans favored \\\"doing more\\\" in space as opposed to \\\"doing less\\\". By 1973, 59 percent of those polled favored cutting spending on space exploration. The Space Race had been won, and Cold War tensions were easing as the US and Soviet Union entered the era ofdétente. This was also a time when inflation was rising, which put pressure on the government to reduce spending. What saved the space program was that it was one of the few government programs that had achieved something great. Drastic cuts, warnedCaspar Weinberger, the deputy director of theOffice of Management and Budget, might send a signal that \\\"our best years are behind us\\\". After the Apollo 11 mission, officials from the Soviet Union said landing humans on the Moon was dangerous and unnecessary. At the time the Soviet Union was attempting to retrieve lunar samples robotically. The Soviets publicly denied there was a race to the Moon, and indicated they were not making an attempt.Mstislav Keldyshsaid in July 1969, \\\"We are concentrating wholly on the creation of large satellite systems.\\\" It was revealed in 1989 that the Soviets had tried to send people to the Moon, but were unable due to technological difficulties.The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it any attention, and another portion was angered by it. The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs \\\"Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins\\\" bythe Byrdson the 1969 albumBallad of Easy Rider, \\\"Coon on the Moon\\\" byHowlin' Wolfon the 1973 albumThe Back Door Wolf, and \\\"One Small Step\\\" byAyreonon the 2000 albumUniversal Migrator Part 1: The Dream Sequencer. Spacecraft Thecommand moduleColumbiawent on a tour of the United States, visiting 49 state capitals, theDistrict of Columbia, andAnchorage, Alaska.In 1971, it was transferred to theSmithsonian Institution, and was displayed at theNational Air and Space Museum(NASM) in Washington, DC.It was in the centralMilestones of Flightexhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as theWright Flyer,Spirit of St. Louis,Bell X-1,North American X-15andFriendship 7. Columbiawas moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at theSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Centerin Chantilly, Virginia, to be readied for a four-city tour titledDestination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission. This includedSpace Center Houstonfrom October 14, 2017, to March 18, 2018, theSaint Louis Science Centerfrom April 14 to September 3, 2018, the Senator JohnHeinz History CenterinPittsburghfrom September 29, 2018, to February 18, 2019, and its last location atMuseum of FlightinSeattlefrom March 16 to September 2, 2019.Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time for an additional stop for the capsule, and it was moved to theCincinnati Museum Center. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on September 29, 2019. For 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum'sApollo to the Moonexhibit,until it permanently closed on December 3, 2018, to be replaced by a new gallery which was scheduled to open in 2022. A special display of Armstrong's suit was unveiled for the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11 in July 2019.The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar and the flotation bags are in the Smithsonian'sSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Centerannex nearWashington Dulles International Airportin Chantilly, Virginia, where they are on display along with a test lunar module. The descent stage of the LMEagleremains on the Moon. In 2009, theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts. The remains of the ascent stage are assumed to lie at an unknown location on the lunar surface. The ascent stage,Eagle, was not tracked after it was jettisoned. The lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make low Moon orbits unstable after a short time, leading the orbiting object to impact the surface.However, using a program developed by NASA, and high-resolution lunar gravity data, a paper was published, in 2021, indicating thatEaglemight still be in orbit as late as 2020. Using the orbital elements published by NASA, aMonte Carlo methodwas used to generate parameter sets that bracket the uncertainties in these elements. All simulations, of the orbit, predicted thatEaglewould never impact the lunar surface. In March 2012 a team of specialists financed byAmazonfounderJeff Bezoslocated theF-1 enginesfrom the S-IC stage that launched Apollo 11 into space. They were found on the Atlantic seabed using advanced sonar scanning.His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was from Apollo 11.The S-IVB third stage which performed Apollo 11's trans-lunar injection remains in a solar orbit near to that of Earth. Moon rocks The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is theLunar Sample Laboratory Facilityat the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center inHouston, Texas. For safekeeping, there is also a smaller collection stored atWhite Sands Test FacilitynearLas Cruces, New Mexico. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them free of moisture. They are handled only indirectly, using special tools. Over 100 research laboratories worldwide conduct studies of the samples; approximately 500 samples are prepared and sent to investigators every year. In November 1969, Nixon asked NASA to make up about 250 presentationApollo 11 lunar sample displaysfor 135 nations, the fifty states of the United States and its possessions, and the United Nations. Each display included Moon dust from Apollo 11 and flags, including one of the Soviet Union, taken along by Apollo 11. The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil weighing about 50 mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button about as big as aUnited States half-dollar coin. This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust. Nixon gave the Apollo 11 lunar sample displays as goodwill gifts in 1970. Experiment results The Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed on August 25, 1969. The downlink failed on December 14, 1969.As of 2018, theLunar Laser Ranging experimentremains operational. Moonwalk camera The Hasselblad camera used during the moonwalk was thought to be lost or left on the Moon surface. Lunar ModuleEaglememorabilia In 2015, after Armstrong died in 2012, his widow contacted theNational Air and Space Museumto inform them she had found a white cloth bag in one of Armstrong's closets. The bag contained various items, which should have been left behind in theLunar ModuleEagle, including the 16mm Data Acquisition Camera that had been used to capture images of the first Moon landing.The camera is currently on display at the National Air and Space Museum. Anniversary events 40th anniversary On July 15, 2009,Life.comreleased a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken byLifephotographerRalph Morseprior to the Apollo 11 launch.From July 16 to 24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred.It is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key moments.In July 2010, air-to-ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronized and released for the first time.TheJohn F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museumset up anAdobe Flashwebsite that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon. On July 20, 2009, Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with PresidentBarack Obamaat the White House.\\\"We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin\\\", Obama said. \\\"We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey.\\\"On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts aCongressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida SenatorBill Nelsonand Florida RepresentativeAlan Grayson. A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing: It was carried out in a technically brilliant way with risks taken ... that would be inconceivable in the risk-averse world of today ... The Apollo programme is arguably the greatest technical achievement of mankind to date ... nothing since Apollo has come close the excitement that was generated by those astronauts—Armstrong, Aldrin and the 10 others who followed them. 50th anniversary On June 10, 2015, CongressmanBill Poseyintroduced resolution H.R. 2726 to the 114th session of theUnited States House of Representativesdirecting theUnited States Mintto design and sell commemorative coins in gold, silver and clad for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. On January 24, 2019, the Mint released theApollo 11 Fiftieth Anniversary commemorative coinsto the public on its website. A documentary film,Apollo 11, with restored footage of the 1969 event, premiered inIMAXon March 1, 2019, and broadly in theaters on March 8. The Smithsonian Institute'sNational Air and Space MuseumandNASAsponsored the \\\"Apollo 50 Festival\\\" on theNational Mallin Washington DC. The three-day (July 18 to 20, 2019) outdoor festival featured hands-on exhibits and activities, live performances, and speakers such asAdam Savageand NASA scientists. As part of the festival, a projection of the 363-foot (111 m) tallSaturn Vrocket was displayed on the east face of the 555-foot (169 m) tallWashington Monumentfrom July 16 through the 20th from 9:30 pm until 11:30 pm (EDT). The program also included a 17-minute show that combined full-motion video projected on the Washington Monument to recreate the assembly and launch of theSaturn Vrocket. The projection was joined by a 40-foot (12 m) wide recreation of theKennedy Space Centercountdown clock and two large video screens showing archival footage to recreate the time leading up to the moon landing. There were three shows per night on July 19–20, with the last show on Saturday, delayed slightly so the portion where Armstrong first set foot on the Moon would happen exactly 50 years to the second after the actual event. On July 19, 2019, theGoogle Doodlepaid tribute to the Apollo 11 Moon Landing, complete with a link to an animated YouTube video with voiceover by astronautMichael Collins. Aldrin, Collins, and Armstrong's sons were hosted by PresidentDonald Trumpin the Oval Office. Films and documentaries See also References Notes Citations In some of the following sources, times are shown in the formathours:minutes:seconds(e.g. 109:24:15), referring to the mission's Ground Elapsed Time (GET),based on the official launch time of July 16, 1969, 13:32:00UTC(000:00:00 GET). Sources External links Multimedia\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnum_P.I._(2018_TV_series","Christopher Thornton Christopher Thornton(born March 29, 1967) is an American actor. He is known for his role as Kenny \"Shammy\" Shamberg inMagnum P.I., and has had numerous other film and television roles from 1990 to the present. Early life and education Thornton was born inNew Orleans, Louisiana. His father was an amateur opera singer who appeared in local theater.Christopher appeared in several plays while majoring in theater at theUniversity of New Orleans, but quit college after two years to relocate to Los Angeles and train at theStella Adler Conservatory. Career Thornton made his first feature film appearance in the 1990 horror sequelWatchers II, playing a young man who gets his eyes gouged out by the mutant antagonist.Only two years later, at age 25, Thornton suffered a tragic accident while rock climbing which fractured two vertebrae and left him paralyzed from the waist down. He returned to mostly theater roles for the remainder of the 1990s. In 2000, he was cast to play Hamlet at the Lillian","at the Lillian Theater in Los Angeles. Believed to be the first actor to ever play the iconic Shakespeare character in a wheelchair, Thornton's performance won rave reviews. Thornton has gone on to appear in numerous film and television roles. He has recurred in TV series such asAny Day Now,Rules of EngagementandVice Principals, and had guest roles inCurb Your Enthusiasm,Alias,Brothers & Sisters,My Name Is Earl,Grey's AnatomyandWill & Grace. Since 2018, he has played recurring character Kenny \"Shammy\" Shamberg, a marine veteran paralyzed during a tour of duty in Iraq, on theCBSreboot ofMagnum P.I. Thornton was both writer and lead actor for the 2010 filmSympathy for Delicious, playing disc jockey \"Delicious\" Dean O'Dwyer. Filmography Film Television External links References","Apollo 11 Apollo 11was aspaceflightconducted by the United States from July 16 to July 24, 1969. It marked the first time in history that humanslandedon theMoon. CommanderNeil Armstrongand Lunar Module PilotBuzz Aldrinlanded theApollo Lunar ModuleEagleon July 20, 1969, at 20:17UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had namedTranquility Baseupon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilotMichael Collinsflew theCommand ModuleColumbiainlunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes, before lifting off to rejoinColumbia. Apollo 11 was launched by aSaturn Vrocket fromKennedy Space CenteronMerritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission ofNASA'sApollo program. The Apollospacecrafthad","Apollospacecrafthad three parts: acommand module (CM)with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; aservice module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and alunar module (LM)that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. After beingsent to the Moonby the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved intoEagleand landed in theSea of Tranquilityon July 20. The astronauts usedEagle's ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisonedEaglebefore they performed the maneuvers that propelledColumbiaout of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth.They returned to Earth andsplashed downin the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space.","days in space. Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast onlive TVto a worldwide audience. He described the event as \"one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\"Apollo 11 effectively proved U.S. victory in theSpace Raceto demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy, \"before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.\" Background In the late1950sand early1960s, the United States was engaged in theCold War, a geopolitical rivalry with theSoviet Union.On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launchedSputnik 1, the firstartificial satellite. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority.This precipitated theSputnik crisis, and triggered theSpace Raceto prove","Raceto prove which superpower would achieve superior spaceflight capability.PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerresponded to the Sputnik challenge by creating theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA), and initiatingProject Mercury,which aimed to launch a man intoEarth orbit.But on April 12, 1961, SovietcosmonautYuri Gagarinbecame the first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth.Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961,Alan Shepardbecame the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean, he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor,John F. Kennedy. Since theSoviet Unionhad higher lift capacitylaunch vehicles, Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA, a challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpose. On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed","Kennedy addressed theUnited States Congresson \"Urgent National Needs\" and declared: I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. We propose to accelerate the development of the appropriate lunar space craft. We propose to develop alternate liquid and solid fuel boosters, much larger than any now being developed, until certain which is superior. We propose additional funds for other engine development and for unmanned explorations—explorations which are particularly important for one purpose which this nation will never overlook: the survival of the man who first makes this daring flight. But in a very real sense, it will not be one man going to the Moon—if we make this judgment affirmatively, it will","it will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to put him there. On September 12, 1962, Kennedydelivered another speechbefore a crowd of about 40,000 people in theRice University football stadiuminHouston, Texas.A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows: There is no strife, no prejudice, no national conflict in outer space as yet. Its hazards are hostile to us all. Its conquest deserves the best of all mankind, and its opportunity for peaceful cooperation may never come again. But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago,fly the Atlantic? Why doesRice play Texas? We choose to go to the Moon! We choose to go to the Moon ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing","that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win, and the others, too. In spite of that, the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a \"moondoggle\" byNorbert Wiener, a mathematician at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology.The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name:Project Apollo.When Kennedy met withNikita Khrushchev, thePremier of the Soviet Unionin June 1961, he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project, but Khrushchev did not take up the offer.Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to theUnited Nations General Assemblyon September 20, 1963.The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death. An early and crucial decision was choosinglunar orbit rendezvousover bothdirect ascentandEarth orbit rendezvous. Aspace rendezvousis anorbital maneuverin which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA headJames Webbannounced that lunar orbit rendezvous","orbit rendezvous would be usedand that theApollo spacecraftwould have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.This design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a singleSaturn Vrocket that was then under development. Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed byProject Gemini.The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances insemiconductor device, includingmetal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors(MOSFETs) in theInterplanetary Monitoring Platform(IMP)andsiliconintegrated circuit(IC) chips in theApollo Guidance Computer(AGC). Project Apollo was abruptly halted by theApollo 1fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronautsGus","which astronautsGus Grissom,Ed White, andRoger B. Chaffeedied, and the subsequent investigation.In October 1968,Apollo 7evaluated the command module in Earth orbit,and in DecemberApollo 8tested it in lunar orbit.In March 1969,Apollo 9put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit,and in MayApollo 10conducted a \"dress rehearsal\" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon. The Soviet Union appeared to be winning the Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the USGemini programand Soviet failure to develop theN1 launcher, which would have been comparable to the Saturn V.The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means ofuncrewed probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launchedLuna 15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash inMare Crisiumabout two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off","and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. TheNuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratoriesradio telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11. Personnel Prime crew The initial crew assignment of CommanderNeil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP)Jim Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP)Buzz Aldrinon the backup crew for Apollo 9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967.Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew ofGemini 12. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM, Apollo 8 and Apollo 9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo 8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11. There would be one change.Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo 8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth","his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime,Fred Haisefilled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8.Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience,the first being Apollo 10.The next wasSTS-26in 1988. Deke Slaytongave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventuallyApollo 13). The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that ofApollo 12. Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal","a more personal relationship.Aldrin and Collins described the crew as \"amiable strangers\".Armstrong did not agree with the assessment, and said \"... all the crews I was on worked very well together.\" Backup crew The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander,William Andersas CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo 8.In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with theNational Aeronautics and Space Councileffective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time.Ken Mattinglywas moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable. By the normal crew rotation in place during Apollo, Lovell, Mattingly, and Haise were scheduled to fly onApollo 14, but the three of them were bumped toApollo 13: there was a crew issue for Apollo 13 as none of them exceptEdgar Mitchellflew in space again.George Muellerrejected the crew and this was the first","this was the first time an Apollo crew was rejected. To giveAlan Shepardmore training time, Lovell's crew were bumped to Apollo 13. Mattingly would later be replaced byJack Swigertas CMP on Apollo 13. Support crew During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured the prime and backup crews were apprised of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them.For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly,Ronald EvansandBill Pogue. Capsule communicators Thecapsule communicator(CAPCOM) was an astronaut at theMission Control CenterinHouston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew.For Apollo","crew.For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were:Charles Duke, Ronald Evans,Bruce McCandless II, James Lovell, William Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise,Don L. Lind,Owen K. GarriottandHarrison Schmitt. Flight directors Theflight directorsfor this mission were: Other key personnel Other key personnel who played important roles in the Apollo 11 mission include the following. Preparations Insignia The Apollo 11mission emblemwas designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for \"peaceful lunar landing by the United States\". At Lovell's suggestion, he chose thebald eagle, thenational birdof the United States, as the symbol. Tom Wilson, a simulator instructor, suggested anolive branchin its beak to represent their peaceful mission. Collins added a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction; the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. Aldrin, Armstrong and Collins decided the Eagle and the Moon would be in their natural colors,","natural colors, and decided on a blue and gold border. Armstrong was concerned that \"eleven\" would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with \"Apollo 11\",and they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would \"be representative ofeveryonewho had worked toward a lunar landing\". An illustrator at theManned Spacecraft Center(MSC) did the artwork, which was then sent off to NASA officials for approval.The design was rejected.Bob Gilruth, the director of the MSC felt the talons of the eagle looked \"too warlike\".After some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the talons.When theEisenhower dollar coinwas released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side.The design was also used for the smallerSusan B. Anthony dollarunveiled in 1979. Call signs After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraftCharlie BrownandSnoopy, assistant manager for public affairsJulian Scheerwrote toGeorge Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the MSC, to suggest","the MSC, to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. The nameSnowconewas used for the CM andHaystackwas used for the LM in both internal and external communications during early mission planning. The LM was namedEagleafter the motif which was featured prominently on the mission insignia. At Scheer's suggestion, the CM was namedColumbiaafterColumbiad, the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from Florida) inJules Verne's 1865 novelFrom the Earth to the Moon. It also referred toColumbia, a historical name of the United States.In Collins' 1976 book, he saidColumbiawas in reference toChristopher Columbus. Mementos The astronauts hadpersonal preference kits(PPKs), small bags containing personal items of significance they wanted to take with them on the mission.Five 0.5-pound (0.23 kg) PPKs were carried on Apollo 11: three (one for each astronaut) were stowed onColumbiabefore launch, and two onEagle. Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood from theWright brothers'","theWright brothers' 1903Wright Flyer's left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing,along with a diamond-studdedastronaut pinoriginally given to Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards, but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took it with him on Apollo 11. Site selection NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years' worth of studies based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of theLunar Orbiter programand information about surface conditions provided by theSurveyor program.The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required.The landing site had to be close to the lunar equator to minimize the amount of propellant required, clear of obstacles to minimize","to minimize maneuvering, and flat to simplify the task of the landing radar. Scientific value was not a consideration. Areas that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be free of craters had to be relaxed, as no such site was found.Five sites were considered: Sites 1 and 2 were in the Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis); Site 3 was in the Central Bay (Sinus Medii); and Sites 4 and 5 were in the Ocean of Storms (Oceanus Procellarum).The final site selection was based on seven criteria: The requirement for the Sun angle was particularly restrictive, limiting the launch date to one day per month.A landing just after dawn was chosen to limit the temperature extremes the astronauts would experience.The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site 2, with Sites 3 and 5 as backups in the event of the launch being delayed. In May 1969, Apollo 10's lunar module flew to within 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) of Site 2, and","mi) of Site 2, and reported it was acceptable. First-step decision During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced, the first question was, \"Which one of you gentlemen will be the first man to step onto the lunar surface?\"Slayton told the reporter it had not been decided, and Armstrong added that it was \"not based on individual desire\". One of the first versions of the egress checklist had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft before the commander, which matched what had been done on Gemini missions,where the commander had never performed the spacewalk.Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin would be the first man to walk on the Moon, and Associate AdministratorGeorge Muellertold reporters he would be first as well. Aldrin heard that Armstrong would be the first because Armstrong was a civilian, which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots he should be first, but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign.","lobbying campaign. Attempting to stem interdepartmental conflict, Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong would be first since he was the commander. The decision was announced in a press conference on April 14, 1969. For decades, Aldrin believed the final decision was largely driven by the lunar module's hatch location. Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the spacecraft was so small, maneuvering to exit the spacecraft was difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision until late spring.Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him leave the spacecraft first, if he agreed. Armstrong said, \"Yes, that's the way to do it.\" The media accused Armstrong of exercising his commander's prerogative to exit the spacecraft first.Chris Kraftrevealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting","that a meeting occurred between Gilruth, Slayton, Low, and himself to make sure Aldrin would not be the first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on the Moon should be likeCharles Lindbergh, a calm and quiet person. They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was the first to egress from the spacecraft. Pre-launch The ascent stage ofLM-5Eaglearrived at theKennedy Space Centeron January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, andCSM-107Columbiaon January 23.There were several differences betweenEagleand Apollo 10's LM-4Snoopy;Eaglehad a VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as theEarly Apollo Scientific Experiments Package(EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch.The CSM was mated on","CSM was mated on January 29, and moved from theOperations and Checkout Buildingto theVehicle Assembly Buildingon April 14. TheS-IVBthird stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived on January 18, followed by theS-IIsecond stage on February 6,S-ICfirst stage on February 20, and theSaturn V Instrument Uniton February 27. At 12:30 on May 20, the 5,443-tonne (5,357-long-ton; 6,000-short-ton) assembly departed the Vehicle Assembly Building atop thecrawler-transporter, bound for Launch Pad 39A, part ofLaunch Complex 39, while Apollo 10 was still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 26, and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried themobile service structureback to its parking area.In the early hours of the morning, the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled withliquid hydrogen.Fueling was completed by three hours before launch.Launch operations were partly automated, with 43 programs written in theATOLL","written in theATOLL programming language. Slayton roused the crew shortly after 04:00, and they showered, shaved, and had the traditional pre-flight breakfast of steak and eggs with Slayton and the backup crew. They then donned their space suits and began breathing pure oxygen. At 06:30, they headed out to Launch Complex 39.Haise enteredColumbiaabout three hours and ten minutes before launch time. Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left-hand couch at 06:54. Five minutes later, Collins joined him, taking up his position on the right-hand couch. Finally, Aldrin entered, taking the center couch.Haise left around two hours and ten minutes before launch.The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time.Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in thefiring room. Mission Launch and flight to lunar orbit An","to lunar orbit An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries included theChief of Staff of the United States Army,GeneralWilliam Westmoreland, fourcabinet members, 19state governors, 40mayors, 60 ambassadors and 200congressmen. Vice PresidentSpiro Agnewviewed the launch with former presidentLyndon B. Johnsonand his wifeLady Bird Johnson.Around 3,500 media representatives were present.About two-thirds were from the United States; the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts.PresidentRichard Nixonviewed the launch from his office in theWhite Housewith his NASA liaison officer, Apollo astronautFrank Borman. Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00UTC(9:32:00EDT).At 13.2 seconds into the flight, the launch vehicle began","vehicle began torollinto itsflight azimuthof 72.058°. Full shutdown of the first-stage engines occurred about 2 minutes and 42 seconds into the mission, followed by separation of the S-IC and ignition of the S-II engines. The second stage engines then cut off and separated at about 9 minutes and 8 seconds, allowing the first ignition of the S-IVB engine a few seconds later. Apollo 11 entered anear-circular Earth orbitat an altitude of 100.4 nautical miles (185.9 km) by 98.9 nautical miles (183.2 km), twelve minutes into its flight. After one and a half orbits, a second ignition of the S-IVB engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with thetrans-lunar injection(TLI) burn at 16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, with Collins in the left seat and at the controls, thetransposition, docking, and extractionmaneuver was performed. This involved separatingColumbiafrom the spent S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking withEaglestill attached to the stage. After the LM was extracted, the","was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon.This was done to avoid the third stage colliding with the spacecraft, the Earth, or the Moon. Aslingshot effectfrom passing around the Moon threw it into anorbit around the Sun. On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enterlunar orbit.In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of the craterSabine D. The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automatedRanger 8andSurveyor 5landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft, and because it was unlikely to present major landing or EVA challenges.It lay about 25 kilometers (16 mi) southeast of the Surveyor 5 landing site, and 68 kilometers (42 mi) southwest of Ranger 8's crash site. Lunar descent At 12:52:00 UTC on July","UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong enteredEagle, and began the final preparations for lunar descent.At 17:44:00Eagleseparated fromColumbia.Collins, alone aboardColumbia, inspectedEagleas it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the landing gear was correctly deployed.Armstrong exclaimed: \"TheEaglehas wings!\" As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found themselves passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were \"long\"; they would land miles west of their target point.Eaglewas traveling too fast. The problem could have beenmascons—concentrations of high mass in a region or regions of the Moon's crust that contains agravitational anomaly, potentially alteringEagle'strajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressure in the docking tunnel, or a result ofEagle's pirouette maneuver. Five minutes into the descent burn, and 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above the surface of the Moon, theLM guidance","theLM guidance computer(LGC) distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected 1201 and 1202 program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center, computer engineerJack GarmantoldGuidance OfficerSteve Balesit was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated \"executive overflows\", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all its tasks in real-time and had to postpone some of them.Margaret Hamilton, the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at theMITCharles Stark Draper Laboratorylater recalled: To blame the computer for the Apollo 11 problems is like blaming the person who spots a fire and calls the fire department. Actually, the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software. The software's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re-establish the more important ones. The computer, rather than almost forcing an abort, prevented an","abort, prevented an abort. If the computer hadn't recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful Moon landing it was. During the mission, the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position, causing the computer to process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time.Software engineerDon Eylesconcluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was due to a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first uncrewed LM inApollo 5. Having the rendezvous radar on (so it was warmed up in case of an emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer, but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the computer as dithering back and forth between two positions, depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spuriouscycle stealing, as the rendezvous radar","rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter, caused the computer alarms. Landing When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a 300-foot-diameter (91 m) crater (later determined to beWest crater), so he took semi-automatic control.Armstrong considered landing short of the boulder field so they could collect geological samples from it, but could not since their horizontal velocity was too high. Throughout the descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy pilotingEagle. Now 107 feet (33 m) above the surface, Armstrong knew their propellant supply was dwindling and was determined to land at the first possible landing site. Armstrong found a clear patch of ground and maneuvered the spacecraft towards it. As he got closer, now 250 feet (76 m) above the surface, he discovered his new landing site had a crater in it. He cleared the crater and found another patch of level ground. They were now 100 feet","were now 100 feet (30 m) from the surface, with only 90 seconds of propellant remaining. Lunar dust kicked up by the LM's engine began to impair his ability to determine the spacecraft's motion. Some large rocks jutted out of the dust cloud, and Armstrong focused on them during his descent so he could determine the spacecraft's speed. A light informed Aldrin that at least one of the 67-inch (170 cm) probes hanging fromEagle'sfootpads had touched the surface a few moments before the landing and he said: \"Contact light!\" Armstrong was supposed to immediately shut the engine down, as the engineers suspected the pressure caused by the engine's own exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface could make it explode, but he forgot. Three seconds later,Eaglelanded and Armstrong shut the engine down.Aldrin immediately said \"Okay, engine stop. ACA—out ofdetent.\" Armstrong acknowledged: \"Out of detent. Auto.\" Aldrin continued: \"Mode control—both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm—off. 413 is in.\" ACA was","413 is in.\" ACA was theAttitude Control Assembly—the LM's control stick. Output went to the LGC to command thereaction control system(RCS) jets to fire. \"Out of Detent\" meant the stick had moved away from its centered position; it was spring-centered like the turn indicator in a car. Address 413 of theAbort Guidance System(AGS) contained the variable that indicated the LM had landed. Eaglelanded at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with 216 pounds (98 kg) of usable fuel remaining. Information available to the crew and mission controllers during the landing showed the LM had enough fuel for another 25 seconds of powered flight before an abort without touchdown would have become unsafe,but post-mission analysis showed that the real figure was probably closer to 50 seconds.Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than most subsequent missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of the propellantsloshingmore than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On","a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this. Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post-landing checklist with \"Engine arm is off\", before responding to the CAPCOM, Charles Duke, with the words, \"Houston,Tranquility Basehere. TheEaglehas landed.\" Armstrong's unrehearsed change of call sign from \"Eagle\" to \"Tranquility Base\" emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful.Duke expressed the relief at Mission Control: \"Roger, Twan—Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\" Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth: This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way. He then tookcommunionprivately. At this","At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheistMadalyn Murray O'Hair(who had objected to theApollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. For this reason, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at theWebsterPresbyterian Church, and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, Dean Woodruff. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20.The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period, but they chose to begin preparations for the EVA early, thinking they would be unable to sleep. Lunar surface operations Preparations forNeil ArmstrongandBuzz Aldrinto walk on the Moon began at 23:43 UTC.These took longer than expected; three and a half hours instead of two.During training on Earth,","training on Earth, everything required had been neatly laid out in advance, but on the Moon the cabin contained a large number of other items as well, such as checklists, food packets, and tools.Six hours and thirty-nine minutes after landing, Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, andEaglewas depressurized. Eagle's hatch was opened at 02:39:33.Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with hisportable life support system(PLSS).Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.At 02:51 Armstrong began his descent to the lunar surface. The remote control unit on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage assembly (MESA) folded againstEagle'sside and activate the TV camera. Apollo 11 usedslow-scan television(TV) incompatible with broadcast TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this","camera viewed this monitor (thus, a broadcast of a broadcast), significantly reducing the quality of the picture.The signal was received atGoldstonein the United States, but with better fidelity byHoneysuckle Creek Tracking StationnearCanberrain Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitiveParkes radio telescopein Australia.Despite some technical and weather difficulties, black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth.Copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, butrecordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surfacewere likely destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA. After describing the surface dust as \"very fine-grained\" and \"almost like a powder\",at 02:56:15,six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong stepped offEagle'slanding pad and declared: \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\" Armstrong intended to say \"That's","to say \"That's one small step for a man\", but the word \"a\" is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said \"for a man\", and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the \"a\" in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words \"for a\" together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory. A more recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the \"a\" may have been spoken but obscured by static. Other analysis points to the claims of static and slurring as \"face-saving fabrication\", and that Armstrong himself later admitted to misspeaking the line. About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on","it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM.Twelve minutes after the sample was collected,he removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod.The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. Still photography was accomplished with aHasselbladcamera that could be operated hand-held or mounted on Armstrong'sApollo space suit.Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface. He described the view with the simple phrase: \"Magnificent desolation.\" Armstrong said moving in thelunar gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was \"even perhaps easier than the simulations ... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around.\"Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backward, but neither astronaut had serious","had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight intoEagle'sshadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, but the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust, which soiled the outer part of their suits. The astronauts planted theLunar Flag Assemblycontaining aflag of the United Stateson the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera. Aldrin remembered, \"Of all the jobs I had to do on the Moon the one I wanted to go the smoothest was the flag raising.\"But the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and could only insert the pole about 2 inches (5 cm) into the hard lunar surface. Aldrin was afraid it might topple in front of TV","in front of TV viewers, but gave \"a crisp West Point salute\".Before Aldrin could take a photo of Armstrong with the flag, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone-radio transmission, which Nixon called \"the most historic phone call ever made from the White House.\"Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief. Nixon:Hello, Neil and Buzz. I'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House. And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made from the White House. I just can't tell you how proud we all are of what you have done. For every American, this has to be the proudest day of our lives. And for people all over the world, I am sure that they too join with Americans in recognizing what an immense feat this is. Because of what you have done, the heavens have become a part of man's world. And as you talk to","And as you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquility, it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquility to Earth. For one priceless moment in the whole history of man, all the people on this Earth are truly one: one in their pride in what you have done, and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth. Armstrong:Thank you, Mr. President. It's a great honor and privilege for us to be here, representing not only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, and with interest and a curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It's an honor for us to be able to participate here today. Nixon:Thank you very much, and I look forward, all of us look forward, to seeing you on the Hornet on Thursday. They deployed theEASEP, which included aPassive Seismic Experiment Packageused to measuremoonquakesand aretroreflectorarray used for thelunar laser ranging experiment.Then Armstrong walked 196 feet (60 m) from the LM to take photographs at the rim ofLittle West Craterwhile Aldrin","Craterwhile Aldrin collected twocore samples. He used thegeologist's hammerto pound in the tubes—the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11—but was unable to penetrate more than 6 inches (15 cm) deep. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes. Aldrin shoveled 6 kilograms (13 lb) of soil into the box of rocks to pack them in tightly.Two types of rocks were found in the geological samples:basaltandbreccia.Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts:armalcolite,tranquillityite, andpyroxferroite. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. All have subsequently been found on Earth. While on the surface, Armstrong uncovered aplaquemounted on the LM ladder, bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the","signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read: Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon July 1969, A. D. We came in peace for all mankind. At the behest of theNixon administrationto add a reference to God, NASA included the vague date as a reason to include A.D., which stands forAnno Domini(\"in the year of our Lord\"). Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong his metabolic rates were high, and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. As metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension.In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon. Lunar ascent Aldrin enteredEaglefirst. With some","With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing 21.55 kilograms (47.5 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor (LEC). This proved to be an inefficient tool, and later missions preferred to carry equipment and samples up to the LM by hand.Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his sleeve pocket, and Aldrin tossed the bag down. Armstrong then jumped onto the ladder's third rung, and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LMlife support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, an empty Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. The hatch was closed again at 05:11:13. They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep. Presidential speech writerWilliam Safirehad prepared anIn Event of Moon Disasterannouncement for Nixon to read in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon.The remarks","Moon.The remarks were in a memo from Safire to Nixon'sWhite House Chief of StaffH. R. Haldeman, in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster.According to the plan, Mission Control would \"close down communications\" with the LM, and a clergyman would \"commend their souls to the deepest of the deep\" in a public ritual likened toburial at sea. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion toRupert Brooke's World War I poem \"The Soldier\".The script for the speech does not make reference to Collins; as he remained onboardColumbiain orbit around the Moon, it was expected that he would be able to return the module to Earth in the event of a mission failure. While moving inside the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged thecircuit breakerthat would arm the main engine for liftoff from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. The nonconductive tip of a Durofelt-tip penwas sufficient to activate the","to activate the switch. After more than21+1⁄2hours on the lunar surface, in addition to the scientific instruments, the astronauts left behind: anApollo 1mission patch in memory of astronautsRoger Chaffee,Gus Grissom, andEdward White, who died when their command module caught fire during a test in January 1967; two memorial medals of Soviet cosmonautsVladimir KomarovandYuri Gagarin, who died in 1967 and 1968 respectively; a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace; and a silicon message disk carrying thegoodwill statementsby presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon along with messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world.The disk also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA's past and then-current top management. After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the","to prepare for the return flight. At that time, unknown to them, some hundred kilometers away from them the Soviet probeLuna 15was about to descend and impact. Despite having been known to be orbiting the Moon at the same time, through a ground-breaking precautious goodwill exchange of data, the mission control of Luna 15 unexpectedly hastened its roboticsample-return mission, initiating descent, in an attempt to return before Apollo 11.Just two hours before Apollo 11's launch Luna 15 crashed at 15:50 UTC, with British astronomers monitoring Luna 15 and recording the situation one commented: \"I say, this has really been drama of the highest order\",bringing theSpace Raceto a culmination. Roughly two hours later, at 17:54:00 UTC, the Apollo 11 crew on the surface safely lifted off inEagle'sascent stage to rejoin Collins aboardColumbiain lunar orbit.Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some 25 feet (8 m) from the descent stage, whipping violently in","violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: \"The ascent stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying theattitude indicator, but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over.\"Subsequent Apollo missions planted their flags farther from the LM. Columbiain lunar orbit During his day flying solo around the Moon, Collins never felt lonely. Although it has been said \"not sinceAdamhas any human known such solitude\",Collins felt very much a part of the mission. In his autobiography he wrote: \"this venture has been structured for three men, and I consider my third to be as necessary as either of the other two\".In the 48 minutes of each orbit when he was out of radio contact with the Earth whileColumbiapassed round the far side of the Moon, the feeling he reported was not fear or loneliness, but rather \"awareness, anticipation, satisfaction, confidence, almost exultation\". One of Collins' first tasks was to","first tasks was to identify the lunar module on the ground. To give Collins an idea where to look, Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed about 4 miles (6.4 km) off target. Each time he passed over the suspected lunar landing site, he tried in vain to find the module. On his first orbits on the back side of the Moon, Collins performed maintenance activities such as dumping excess water produced by thefuel cellsand preparing the cabin for Armstrong and Aldrin to return. Just before he reached the dark side on the third orbit, Mission Control informed Collins there was a problem with the temperature of the coolant. If it became too cold, parts ofColumbiamight freeze. Mission Control advised him to assume manual control and implement Environmental Control System Malfunction Procedure 17. Instead, Collins flicked the switch on the system from automatic to manual and back to automatic again, and carried on with normal housekeeping chores, while keeping an eye on the temperature.","on the temperature. WhenColumbiacame back around to the near side of the Moon again, he was able to report that the problem had been resolved. For the next couple of orbits, he described his time on the back side of the Moon as \"relaxing\". After Aldrin and Armstrong completed their EVA, Collins slept so he could be rested for the rendezvous. While the flight plan called forEagleto meet up withColumbia, Collins was prepared for a contingency in which he would flyColumbiadown to meetEagle. Return Eaglerendezvoused withColumbiaat 21:24 UTC on July 21, and the two docked at 21:35.Eagle's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit at 23:41.Just before theApollo 12flight, it was noted thatEaglewas still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned thatEagle'sorbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an \"uncertain location\" on the lunar surface.In 2021, however, some calculations show that the lander may still be in orbit. On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts","three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented: ... The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery, every piece of which worked flawlessly ... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly. All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears of a number of people ... All you see is the three of us, but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I would like to say, \"Thank you very much.\" Aldrin added: This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more, still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even, than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown ... Personally, in reflecting on the events of the past several days, a verse fromPsalmscomes to mind.\"When I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the Moon and the stars, which Thou hast","which Thou hast ordained; What is man that Thou art mindful of him?\" Armstrong concluded: The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the giants of science who have preceded this effort; next with the American people, who have, through their will, indicated their desire; next with four administrations and their Congresses, for implementing that will; and then, with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft, the Saturn, the Columbia, the Eagle, and the littleEMU, the spacesuit and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface. We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you, and to all the other people that are listening and watching tonight, God bless you. Good night from Apollo 11. On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed,","station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg was later thanked by Armstrong. Splashdown and quarantine Theaircraft carrierUSSHornet, under the command ofCaptainCarl J. Seiberlich,was selected as the primary recovery ship (PRS) for Apollo 11 on June 5, replacing its sister ship, theLPHUSSPrinceton, which had recovered Apollo 10 on May 26.Hornetwas then at her home port ofLong Beach, California.On reachingPearl Harboron July 5,HornetembarkedtheSikorsky SH-3 Sea Kinghelicopters ofHS-4, a unit which specialized in recovery of Apollo spacecraft, specialized divers ofUDTDetachment Apollo, a 35-man NASA recovery team, and about 120 media representatives. To make room, most ofHornet's air wing was left behind in Long Beach. Special recovery equipment was also loaded,","was also loaded, including aboilerplatecommand module used for training. On July 12, with Apollo 11 still on the launch pad,Hornetdeparted Pearl Harbor for the recovery area in the central Pacific,in the vicinity of10°36′N172°24′E / 10.600°N 172.400°E /10.600; 172.400.A presidential party consisting of Nixon, Borman, Secretary of StateWilliam P. RogersandNational Security AdvisorHenry Kissingerflew toJohnston AtollonAir Force One, then to thecommand shipUSS ArlingtoninMarine One. After a night on board, they would fly toHornetin Marine One for a few hours of ceremonies. On arrival aboardHornet, the party was greeted by theCommander-in-Chief, Pacific Command (CINCPAC),AdmiralJohn S. McCain Jr., andNASA AdministratorThomas O. Paine, who flew toHornetfromPago Pagoin one ofHornet'scarrier onboard deliveryaircraft. Weather satellites were not yet common, but US Air ForceCaptainHank Brandli had access to top-secretspy satelliteimages. He realized that a storm front was headed for the Apollo recovery area. Poor","recovery area. Poor visibility which could make locating the capsule difficult, and strong upper-level winds which \"would have ripped their parachutes to shreds\" according to Brandli, posed a serious threat to the safety of the mission.Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr., the commander of theFleet Weather Centerat Pearl Harbor, who had the required security clearance. On their recommendation,Rear AdmiralDonald C. Davis, commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces, Pacific, advised NASA to change the recovery area, each man risking his career. A new location was selected 215 nautical miles (398 km) northeast. This altered the flight plan. A different sequence of computer programs was used, one never before attempted. In a conventional entry, trajectory event P64 was followed by P67. For a skip-out re-entry, P65 and P66 were employed to handle the exit and entry parts of the skip. In this case, because they were extending the re-entry but not actually skipping out, P66 was not invoked and","was not invoked and instead, P65 led directly to P67. The crew were also warned they would not be in a full-lift (heads-down) attitude when they entered P67.The first program's acceleration subjected the astronauts to 6.5 standard gravities (64 m/s2); the second, to 6.0 standard gravities (59 m/s2). Before dawn on July 24,Hornetlaunched four Sea King helicopters and threeGrumman E-1 Tracers. Two of the E-1s were designated as \"air boss\" while the third acted as a communications relay aircraft. Two of the Sea Kings carried divers and recovery equipment. The third carried photographic equipment, and the fourth carried the decontamination swimmer and the flight surgeon.At 16:44 UTC (05:44 local time)Columbia'sdrogue parachuteswere deployed. This was observed by the helicopters. Seven minutes laterColumbiastruck the water forcefully 2,660 km (1,440 nmi) east ofWake Island, 380 km (210 nmi) south of Johnston Atoll, and 24 km (13 nmi) fromHornet,at13°19′N169°9′W / 13.317°N 169.150°W /13.317; -169.150.82 °F (28","-169.150.82 °F (28 °C) with 6 feet (1.8 m) seas and winds at 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph) from the east were reported under broken clouds at 1,500 feet (460 m) with visibility of 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) at the recovery site.Reconnaissance aircraft flying to the original splashdown location reported the conditions Brandli and Houston had predicted. Duringsplashdown,Columbialanded upside down but was righted within ten minutes by flotation bags activated by the astronauts.A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached asea anchorto prevent it from drifting.More divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and positioned rafts for astronaut extraction. The divers then passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. The possibility of bringing backpathogensfrom the lunar surface was considered remote, but NASA took precautions at the recovery site. The astronauts were rubbed down with asodium hypochloritesolution andColumbiawiped","andColumbiawiped withPovidone-iodineto remove any lunar dust that might be present. The astronauts were winched on board the recovery helicopter. BIGs were worn until they reached isolation facilities on boardHornet. The raft containing decontamination materials was intentionally sunk. After touchdown onHornetat 17:53 UTC, the helicopter was lowered by the elevator into the hangar bay, where the astronauts walked the 30 feet (9.1 m) to theMobile quarantine facility(MQF), where they would begin the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine.This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 andApollo 14, before the Moon was proven to be barren of life, and the quarantine process dropped.Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to Earth. He told them: \"s a result of what you've done, the world has never been closer together before.\" After Nixon departed,Hornetwas brought alongside the 5-short-ton (4.5 t)Columbia, which was lifted aboard by the ship's crane, placed on adollyand moved next to","moved next to the MQF. It was then attached to the MQF with a flexible tunnel, allowing the lunar samples, film, data tapes and other items to be removed.Hornetreturned to Pearl Harbor, where the MQF was loaded onto aLockheed C-141 Starlifterand airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center. The astronauts arrived at theLunar Receiving Laboratoryat 10:00 UTC on July 28.Columbiawas taken toFord Islandfor deactivation, and its pyrotechnics made safe. It was then taken toHickham Air Force Base, from whence it was flown to Houston in aDouglas C-133 Cargomaster, reaching the Lunar Receiving Laboratory on July 30. In accordance with theExtra-Terrestrial Exposure Law, a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol,the astronauts continued in quarantine. After three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in their trailer onHornet, and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health.On August 10, 1969, the Interagency","the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine (NASA physicianWilliam Carpentierand MQF project engineerJohn Hirasaki),and onColumbiaitself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft remained in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study. Celebrations On August 13, the three astronauts rode inticker-tape paradesin their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an officialstate dinnerto celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors,Chief Justice of the United StatesWarren E. Burgerand his predecessor,Earl Warren, and ambassadors from 83 nations at theCentury Plaza Hotel. Nixon and Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of thePresidential Medal of Freedom. The three astronauts spoke before ajoint session of Congresson September 16, 1969. They presented two US flags, one to theHouse of","one to theHouse of Representativesand the other to theSenate, that they had carried with them to the surface of the Moon.Theflag of American Samoaon Apollo 11 is on display at theJean P. Haydon Museumin Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa. This celebration began a 38-day world tour that brought the astronauts to 22 countries and included visits with many world leaders.The crew toured from September 29 to November 5.The world tour started in Mexico City and ended in Tokyo.Stops on the tour in order were:Mexico City,Bogota, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro,Las Palmasin theCanary Islands, Madrid, Paris,Amsterdam, Brussels,Oslo,Cologne, Berlin, London,Rome, Belgrade,Ankara,Kinshasa,Tehran,Mumbai,Dhaka,Bangkok,Darwin,Sydney,Guam,Seoul, Tokyo andHonolulu. Many nations honored the first humanMoon landingwith special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins. Legacy Cultural significance Humans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth accomplished Kennedy's goal","Kennedy's goal set eight years earlier. In Mission Control during the Apollo 11 landing, Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen, followed by the words \"TASK ACCOMPLISHED, July 1969\".The success of Apollo 11 demonstrated the United States' technological superiority;and with the success of Apollo 11, America had won theSpace Race. New phrases permeated into the English language. \"If they can send a man to the Moon, why can't they ...?\" became a common saying following Apollo 11.Armstrong's words on the lunar surface also spun off various parodies. While most people celebrated the accomplishment, disenfranchised Americans saw it as a symbol of the divide in America, evidenced by protesters led byRalph Abernathyoutside of Kennedy Space Center the day before Apollo 11 launched.NASA AdministratorThomas Painemet with Abernathy at the occasion, both hoping that the space program can spur progress also in other regards, such as poverty in the US.Paine was then asked, and agreed, to host protesters as spectators at","as spectators at the launch,and Abernathy, awestruck by the spectacle,prayed for the astronauts.Racial and financial inequalities frustrated citizens who wondered why money spent on the Apollo program was not spent taking care of humans on Earth. A poem byGil Scott-Heroncalled \"Whitey on the Moon\" (1970) illustrated theracial inequality in the United Statesthat was highlighted by the Space Race.The poem starts with: A rat done bit my sister Nell.(with Whitey on the moon)Her face and arms began to swell.(and Whitey's on the moon)I can't pay no doctor bill.(but Whitey's on the moon)Ten years from now I'll be paying still.(while Whitey's on the moon) Twenty percent of the world's population watched humans walk on the Moon for the first time.While Apollo 11 sparked the interest of the world, the follow-on Apollo missions did not hold the interest of the nation.One possible explanation was the shift in complexity. Landing someone on the Moon was an easy goal to understand; lunar geology was too abstract for the","abstract for the average person. Another is that Kennedy's goal of landing humans on the Moon had already been accomplished.A well-defined objective helped Project Apollo accomplish its goal, but after it was completed it was hard to justify continuing the lunar missions. While most Americans were proud of their nation's achievements in space exploration, only once during the late 1960s did theGallup Pollindicate that a majority of Americans favored \"doing more\" in space as opposed to \"doing less\". By 1973, 59 percent of those polled favored cutting spending on space exploration. The Space Race had been won, and Cold War tensions were easing as the US and Soviet Union entered the era ofdétente. This was also a time when inflation was rising, which put pressure on the government to reduce spending. What saved the space program was that it was one of the few government programs that had achieved something great. Drastic cuts, warnedCaspar Weinberger, the deputy director of theOffice of Management and Budget,","and Budget, might send a signal that \"our best years are behind us\". After the Apollo 11 mission, officials from the Soviet Union said landing humans on the Moon was dangerous and unnecessary. At the time the Soviet Union was attempting to retrieve lunar samples robotically. The Soviets publicly denied there was a race to the Moon, and indicated they were not making an attempt.Mstislav Keldyshsaid in July 1969, \"We are concentrating wholly on the creation of large satellite systems.\" It was revealed in 1989 that the Soviets had tried to send people to the Moon, but were unable due to technological difficulties.The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it any attention, and another portion was angered by it. The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs \"Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins\" bythe Byrdson the 1969 albumBallad of Easy Rider, \"Coon on the","Rider, \"Coon on the Moon\" byHowlin' Wolfon the 1973 albumThe Back Door Wolf, and \"One Small Step\" byAyreonon the 2000 albumUniversal Migrator Part 1: The Dream Sequencer. Spacecraft Thecommand moduleColumbiawent on a tour of the United States, visiting 49 state capitals, theDistrict of Columbia, andAnchorage, Alaska.In 1971, it was transferred to theSmithsonian Institution, and was displayed at theNational Air and Space Museum(NASM) in Washington, DC.It was in the centralMilestones of Flightexhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as theWright Flyer,Spirit of St. Louis,Bell X-1,North American X-15andFriendship 7. Columbiawas moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at theSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Centerin Chantilly, Virginia, to be readied for a four-city tour titledDestination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission. This includedSpace Center Houstonfrom October 14, 2017, to March 18, 2018, theSaint Louis Science","Louis Science Centerfrom April 14 to September 3, 2018, the Senator JohnHeinz History CenterinPittsburghfrom September 29, 2018, to February 18, 2019, and its last location atMuseum of FlightinSeattlefrom March 16 to September 2, 2019.Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time for an additional stop for the capsule, and it was moved to theCincinnati Museum Center. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on September 29, 2019. For 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum'sApollo to the Moonexhibit,until it permanently closed on December 3, 2018, to be replaced by a new gallery which was scheduled to open in 2022. A special display of Armstrong's suit was unveiled for the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11 in July 2019.The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar and the flotation bags are in the Smithsonian'sSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Centerannex nearWashington Dulles International Airportin Chantilly, Virginia, where they are on display along with a test lunar module. The descent","module. The descent stage of the LMEagleremains on the Moon. In 2009, theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts. The remains of the ascent stage are assumed to lie at an unknown location on the lunar surface. The ascent stage,Eagle, was not tracked after it was jettisoned. The lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make low Moon orbits unstable after a short time, leading the orbiting object to impact the surface.However, using a program developed by NASA, and high-resolution lunar gravity data, a paper was published, in 2021, indicating thatEaglemight still be in orbit as late as 2020. Using the orbital elements published by NASA, aMonte Carlo methodwas used to generate parameter sets that bracket the uncertainties in these elements. All simulations, of the orbit, predicted","orbit, predicted thatEaglewould never impact the lunar surface. In March 2012 a team of specialists financed byAmazonfounderJeff Bezoslocated theF-1 enginesfrom the S-IC stage that launched Apollo 11 into space. They were found on the Atlantic seabed using advanced sonar scanning.His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was from Apollo 11.The S-IVB third stage which performed Apollo 11's trans-lunar injection remains in a solar orbit near to that of Earth. Moon rocks The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is theLunar Sample Laboratory Facilityat the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center inHouston, Texas. For safekeeping, there is also a smaller collection stored atWhite Sands Test FacilitynearLas Cruces, New Mexico. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them free of moisture. They are handled only indirectly, using special tools. Over","special tools. Over 100 research laboratories worldwide conduct studies of the samples; approximately 500 samples are prepared and sent to investigators every year. In November 1969, Nixon asked NASA to make up about 250 presentationApollo 11 lunar sample displaysfor 135 nations, the fifty states of the United States and its possessions, and the United Nations. Each display included Moon dust from Apollo 11 and flags, including one of the Soviet Union, taken along by Apollo 11. The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil weighing about 50 mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button about as big as aUnited States half-dollar coin. This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust. Nixon gave the Apollo 11 lunar sample displays as goodwill gifts in 1970. Experiment results The Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed on August 25, 1969. The downlink failed on December 14, 1969.As of 2018, theLunar Laser Ranging experimentremains operational. Moonwalk camera The","Moonwalk camera The Hasselblad camera used during the moonwalk was thought to be lost or left on the Moon surface. Lunar ModuleEaglememorabilia In 2015, after Armstrong died in 2012, his widow contacted theNational Air and Space Museumto inform them she had found a white cloth bag in one of Armstrong's closets. The bag contained various items, which should have been left behind in theLunar ModuleEagle, including the 16mm Data Acquisition Camera that had been used to capture images of the first Moon landing.The camera is currently on display at the National Air and Space Museum. Anniversary events 40th anniversary On July 15, 2009,Life.comreleased a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken byLifephotographerRalph Morseprior to the Apollo 11 launch.From July 16 to 24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred.It is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key","a preview of key moments.In July 2010, air-to-ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronized and released for the first time.TheJohn F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museumset up anAdobe Flashwebsite that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon. On July 20, 2009, Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with PresidentBarack Obamaat the White House.\"We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin\", Obama said. \"We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey.\"On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts aCongressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida SenatorBill Nelsonand Florida RepresentativeAlan Grayson. A group of British scientists","British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing: It was carried out in a technically brilliant way with risks taken ... that would be inconceivable in the risk-averse world of today ... The Apollo programme is arguably the greatest technical achievement of mankind to date ... nothing since Apollo has come close the excitement that was generated by those astronauts—Armstrong, Aldrin and the 10 others who followed them. 50th anniversary On June 10, 2015, CongressmanBill Poseyintroduced resolution H.R. 2726 to the 114th session of theUnited States House of Representativesdirecting theUnited States Mintto design and sell commemorative coins in gold, silver and clad for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. On January 24, 2019, the Mint released theApollo 11 Fiftieth Anniversary commemorative coinsto the public on its website. A documentary film,Apollo 11, with restored footage of the 1969 event, premiered inIMAXon March 1, 2019, and","March 1, 2019, and broadly in theaters on March 8. The Smithsonian Institute'sNational Air and Space MuseumandNASAsponsored the \"Apollo 50 Festival\" on theNational Mallin Washington DC. The three-day (July 18 to 20, 2019) outdoor festival featured hands-on exhibits and activities, live performances, and speakers such asAdam Savageand NASA scientists. As part of the festival, a projection of the 363-foot (111 m) tallSaturn Vrocket was displayed on the east face of the 555-foot (169 m) tallWashington Monumentfrom July 16 through the 20th from 9:30 pm until 11:30 pm (EDT). The program also included a 17-minute show that combined full-motion video projected on the Washington Monument to recreate the assembly and launch of theSaturn Vrocket. The projection was joined by a 40-foot (12 m) wide recreation of theKennedy Space Centercountdown clock and two large video screens showing archival footage to recreate the time leading up to the moon landing. There were three shows per night on July 19–20, with the last show","with the last show on Saturday, delayed slightly so the portion where Armstrong first set foot on the Moon would happen exactly 50 years to the second after the actual event. On July 19, 2019, theGoogle Doodlepaid tribute to the Apollo 11 Moon Landing, complete with a link to an animated YouTube video with voiceover by astronautMichael Collins. Aldrin, Collins, and Armstrong's sons were hosted by PresidentDonald Trumpin the Oval Office. Films and documentaries See also References Notes Citations In some of the following sources, times are shown in the formathours:minutes:seconds(e.g. 109:24:15), referring to the mission's Ground Elapsed Time (GET),based on the official launch time of July 16, 1969, 13:32:00UTC(000:00:00 GET). Sources External links Multimedia"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnum_P.I._(2018_TV_series\",\n \"Christopher Thornton Christopher Thornton(born March 29, 1967) is an American actor. He is known for his role as Kenny \\\"Shammy\\\" Shamberg inMagnum P.I., and has had numerous other film and television roles from 1990 to the present. Early life and education Thornton was born inNew Orleans, Louisiana. His father was an amateur opera singer who appeared in local theater.Christopher appeared in several plays while majoring in theater at theUniversity of New Orleans, but quit college after two years to relocate to Los Angeles and train at theStella Adler Conservatory. Career Thornton made his first feature film appearance in the 1990 horror sequelWatchers II, playing a young man who gets his eyes gouged out by the mutant antagonist.Only two years later, at age 25, Thornton suffered a tragic accident while rock climbing which fractured two vertebrae and left him paralyzed from the waist down. He returned to mostly theater roles for the remainder of the 1990s. In 2000, he was cast to play Hamlet at the Lillian\",\n \"at the Lillian Theater in Los Angeles. Believed to be the first actor to ever play the iconic Shakespeare character in a wheelchair, Thornton's performance won rave reviews. Thornton has gone on to appear in numerous film and television roles. He has recurred in TV series such asAny Day Now,Rules of EngagementandVice Principals, and had guest roles inCurb Your Enthusiasm,Alias,Brothers & Sisters,My Name Is Earl,Grey's AnatomyandWill & Grace. Since 2018, he has played recurring character Kenny \\\"Shammy\\\" Shamberg, a marine veteran paralyzed during a tour of duty in Iraq, on theCBSreboot ofMagnum P.I. Thornton was both writer and lead actor for the 2010 filmSympathy for Delicious, playing disc jockey \\\"Delicious\\\" Dean O'Dwyer. Filmography Film Television External links References\",\n \"Apollo 11 Apollo 11was aspaceflightconducted by the United States from July 16 to July 24, 1969. It marked the first time in history that humanslandedon theMoon. CommanderNeil Armstrongand Lunar Module PilotBuzz Aldrinlanded theApollo Lunar ModuleEagleon July 20, 1969, at 20:17UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had namedTranquility Baseupon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilotMichael Collinsflew theCommand ModuleColumbiainlunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes, before lifting off to rejoinColumbia. Apollo 11 was launched by aSaturn Vrocket fromKennedy Space CenteronMerritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission ofNASA'sApollo program. The Apollospacecrafthad\",\n \"Apollospacecrafthad three parts: acommand module (CM)with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; aservice module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and alunar module (LM)that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. After beingsent to the Moonby the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved intoEagleand landed in theSea of Tranquilityon July 20. The astronauts usedEagle's ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisonedEaglebefore they performed the maneuvers that propelledColumbiaout of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth.They returned to Earth andsplashed downin the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space.\",\n \"days in space. Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast onlive TVto a worldwide audience. He described the event as \\\"one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\\\"Apollo 11 effectively proved U.S. victory in theSpace Raceto demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy, \\\"before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.\\\" Background In the late1950sand early1960s, the United States was engaged in theCold War, a geopolitical rivalry with theSoviet Union.On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launchedSputnik 1, the firstartificial satellite. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority.This precipitated theSputnik crisis, and triggered theSpace Raceto prove\",\n \"Raceto prove which superpower would achieve superior spaceflight capability.PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerresponded to the Sputnik challenge by creating theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA), and initiatingProject Mercury,which aimed to launch a man intoEarth orbit.But on April 12, 1961, SovietcosmonautYuri Gagarinbecame the first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth.Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961,Alan Shepardbecame the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean, he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor,John F. Kennedy. Since theSoviet Unionhad higher lift capacitylaunch vehicles, Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA, a challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpose. On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed\",\n \"Kennedy addressed theUnited States Congresson \\\"Urgent National Needs\\\" and declared: I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. We propose to accelerate the development of the appropriate lunar space craft. We propose to develop alternate liquid and solid fuel boosters, much larger than any now being developed, until certain which is superior. We propose additional funds for other engine development and for unmanned explorations—explorations which are particularly important for one purpose which this nation will never overlook: the survival of the man who first makes this daring flight. But in a very real sense, it will not be one man going to the Moon—if we make this judgment affirmatively, it will\",\n \"it will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to put him there. On September 12, 1962, Kennedydelivered another speechbefore a crowd of about 40,000 people in theRice University football stadiuminHouston, Texas.A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows: There is no strife, no prejudice, no national conflict in outer space as yet. Its hazards are hostile to us all. Its conquest deserves the best of all mankind, and its opportunity for peaceful cooperation may never come again. But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago,fly the Atlantic? Why doesRice play Texas? We choose to go to the Moon! We choose to go to the Moon ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing\",\n \"that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win, and the others, too. In spite of that, the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a \\\"moondoggle\\\" byNorbert Wiener, a mathematician at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology.The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name:Project Apollo.When Kennedy met withNikita Khrushchev, thePremier of the Soviet Unionin June 1961, he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project, but Khrushchev did not take up the offer.Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to theUnited Nations General Assemblyon September 20, 1963.The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death. An early and crucial decision was choosinglunar orbit rendezvousover bothdirect ascentandEarth orbit rendezvous. Aspace rendezvousis anorbital maneuverin which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA headJames Webbannounced that lunar orbit rendezvous\",\n \"orbit rendezvous would be usedand that theApollo spacecraftwould have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.This design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a singleSaturn Vrocket that was then under development. Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed byProject Gemini.The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances insemiconductor device, includingmetal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors(MOSFETs) in theInterplanetary Monitoring Platform(IMP)andsiliconintegrated circuit(IC) chips in theApollo Guidance Computer(AGC). Project Apollo was abruptly halted by theApollo 1fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronautsGus\",\n \"which astronautsGus Grissom,Ed White, andRoger B. Chaffeedied, and the subsequent investigation.In October 1968,Apollo 7evaluated the command module in Earth orbit,and in DecemberApollo 8tested it in lunar orbit.In March 1969,Apollo 9put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit,and in MayApollo 10conducted a \\\"dress rehearsal\\\" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon. The Soviet Union appeared to be winning the Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the USGemini programand Soviet failure to develop theN1 launcher, which would have been comparable to the Saturn V.The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means ofuncrewed probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launchedLuna 15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash inMare Crisiumabout two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off\",\n \"and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. TheNuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratoriesradio telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11. Personnel Prime crew The initial crew assignment of CommanderNeil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP)Jim Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP)Buzz Aldrinon the backup crew for Apollo 9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967.Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew ofGemini 12. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM, Apollo 8 and Apollo 9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo 8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11. There would be one change.Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo 8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth\",\n \"his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime,Fred Haisefilled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8.Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience,the first being Apollo 10.The next wasSTS-26in 1988. Deke Slaytongave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventuallyApollo 13). The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that ofApollo 12. Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal\",\n \"a more personal relationship.Aldrin and Collins described the crew as \\\"amiable strangers\\\".Armstrong did not agree with the assessment, and said \\\"... all the crews I was on worked very well together.\\\" Backup crew The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander,William Andersas CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo 8.In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with theNational Aeronautics and Space Councileffective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time.Ken Mattinglywas moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable. By the normal crew rotation in place during Apollo, Lovell, Mattingly, and Haise were scheduled to fly onApollo 14, but the three of them were bumped toApollo 13: there was a crew issue for Apollo 13 as none of them exceptEdgar Mitchellflew in space again.George Muellerrejected the crew and this was the first\",\n \"this was the first time an Apollo crew was rejected. To giveAlan Shepardmore training time, Lovell's crew were bumped to Apollo 13. Mattingly would later be replaced byJack Swigertas CMP on Apollo 13. Support crew During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured the prime and backup crews were apprised of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them.For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly,Ronald EvansandBill Pogue. Capsule communicators Thecapsule communicator(CAPCOM) was an astronaut at theMission Control CenterinHouston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew.For Apollo\",\n \"crew.For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were:Charles Duke, Ronald Evans,Bruce McCandless II, James Lovell, William Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise,Don L. Lind,Owen K. GarriottandHarrison Schmitt. Flight directors Theflight directorsfor this mission were: Other key personnel Other key personnel who played important roles in the Apollo 11 mission include the following. Preparations Insignia The Apollo 11mission emblemwas designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for \\\"peaceful lunar landing by the United States\\\". At Lovell's suggestion, he chose thebald eagle, thenational birdof the United States, as the symbol. Tom Wilson, a simulator instructor, suggested anolive branchin its beak to represent their peaceful mission. Collins added a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction; the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. Aldrin, Armstrong and Collins decided the Eagle and the Moon would be in their natural colors,\",\n \"natural colors, and decided on a blue and gold border. Armstrong was concerned that \\\"eleven\\\" would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with \\\"Apollo 11\\\",and they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would \\\"be representative ofeveryonewho had worked toward a lunar landing\\\". An illustrator at theManned Spacecraft Center(MSC) did the artwork, which was then sent off to NASA officials for approval.The design was rejected.Bob Gilruth, the director of the MSC felt the talons of the eagle looked \\\"too warlike\\\".After some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the talons.When theEisenhower dollar coinwas released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side.The design was also used for the smallerSusan B. Anthony dollarunveiled in 1979. Call signs After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraftCharlie BrownandSnoopy, assistant manager for public affairsJulian Scheerwrote toGeorge Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the MSC, to suggest\",\n \"the MSC, to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. The nameSnowconewas used for the CM andHaystackwas used for the LM in both internal and external communications during early mission planning. The LM was namedEagleafter the motif which was featured prominently on the mission insignia. At Scheer's suggestion, the CM was namedColumbiaafterColumbiad, the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from Florida) inJules Verne's 1865 novelFrom the Earth to the Moon. It also referred toColumbia, a historical name of the United States.In Collins' 1976 book, he saidColumbiawas in reference toChristopher Columbus. Mementos The astronauts hadpersonal preference kits(PPKs), small bags containing personal items of significance they wanted to take with them on the mission.Five 0.5-pound (0.23 kg) PPKs were carried on Apollo 11: three (one for each astronaut) were stowed onColumbiabefore launch, and two onEagle. Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood from theWright brothers'\",\n \"theWright brothers' 1903Wright Flyer's left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing,along with a diamond-studdedastronaut pinoriginally given to Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards, but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took it with him on Apollo 11. Site selection NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years' worth of studies based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of theLunar Orbiter programand information about surface conditions provided by theSurveyor program.The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required.The landing site had to be close to the lunar equator to minimize the amount of propellant required, clear of obstacles to minimize\",\n \"to minimize maneuvering, and flat to simplify the task of the landing radar. Scientific value was not a consideration. Areas that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be free of craters had to be relaxed, as no such site was found.Five sites were considered: Sites 1 and 2 were in the Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis); Site 3 was in the Central Bay (Sinus Medii); and Sites 4 and 5 were in the Ocean of Storms (Oceanus Procellarum).The final site selection was based on seven criteria: The requirement for the Sun angle was particularly restrictive, limiting the launch date to one day per month.A landing just after dawn was chosen to limit the temperature extremes the astronauts would experience.The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site 2, with Sites 3 and 5 as backups in the event of the launch being delayed. In May 1969, Apollo 10's lunar module flew to within 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) of Site 2, and\",\n \"mi) of Site 2, and reported it was acceptable. First-step decision During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced, the first question was, \\\"Which one of you gentlemen will be the first man to step onto the lunar surface?\\\"Slayton told the reporter it had not been decided, and Armstrong added that it was \\\"not based on individual desire\\\". One of the first versions of the egress checklist had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft before the commander, which matched what had been done on Gemini missions,where the commander had never performed the spacewalk.Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin would be the first man to walk on the Moon, and Associate AdministratorGeorge Muellertold reporters he would be first as well. Aldrin heard that Armstrong would be the first because Armstrong was a civilian, which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots he should be first, but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign.\",\n \"lobbying campaign. Attempting to stem interdepartmental conflict, Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong would be first since he was the commander. The decision was announced in a press conference on April 14, 1969. For decades, Aldrin believed the final decision was largely driven by the lunar module's hatch location. Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the spacecraft was so small, maneuvering to exit the spacecraft was difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision until late spring.Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him leave the spacecraft first, if he agreed. Armstrong said, \\\"Yes, that's the way to do it.\\\" The media accused Armstrong of exercising his commander's prerogative to exit the spacecraft first.Chris Kraftrevealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting\",\n \"that a meeting occurred between Gilruth, Slayton, Low, and himself to make sure Aldrin would not be the first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on the Moon should be likeCharles Lindbergh, a calm and quiet person. They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was the first to egress from the spacecraft. Pre-launch The ascent stage ofLM-5Eaglearrived at theKennedy Space Centeron January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, andCSM-107Columbiaon January 23.There were several differences betweenEagleand Apollo 10's LM-4Snoopy;Eaglehad a VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as theEarly Apollo Scientific Experiments Package(EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch.The CSM was mated on\",\n \"CSM was mated on January 29, and moved from theOperations and Checkout Buildingto theVehicle Assembly Buildingon April 14. TheS-IVBthird stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived on January 18, followed by theS-IIsecond stage on February 6,S-ICfirst stage on February 20, and theSaturn V Instrument Uniton February 27. At 12:30 on May 20, the 5,443-tonne (5,357-long-ton; 6,000-short-ton) assembly departed the Vehicle Assembly Building atop thecrawler-transporter, bound for Launch Pad 39A, part ofLaunch Complex 39, while Apollo 10 was still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 26, and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried themobile service structureback to its parking area.In the early hours of the morning, the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled withliquid hydrogen.Fueling was completed by three hours before launch.Launch operations were partly automated, with 43 programs written in theATOLL\",\n \"written in theATOLL programming language. Slayton roused the crew shortly after 04:00, and they showered, shaved, and had the traditional pre-flight breakfast of steak and eggs with Slayton and the backup crew. They then donned their space suits and began breathing pure oxygen. At 06:30, they headed out to Launch Complex 39.Haise enteredColumbiaabout three hours and ten minutes before launch time. Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left-hand couch at 06:54. Five minutes later, Collins joined him, taking up his position on the right-hand couch. Finally, Aldrin entered, taking the center couch.Haise left around two hours and ten minutes before launch.The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time.Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in thefiring room. Mission Launch and flight to lunar orbit An\",\n \"to lunar orbit An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries included theChief of Staff of the United States Army,GeneralWilliam Westmoreland, fourcabinet members, 19state governors, 40mayors, 60 ambassadors and 200congressmen. Vice PresidentSpiro Agnewviewed the launch with former presidentLyndon B. Johnsonand his wifeLady Bird Johnson.Around 3,500 media representatives were present.About two-thirds were from the United States; the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts.PresidentRichard Nixonviewed the launch from his office in theWhite Housewith his NASA liaison officer, Apollo astronautFrank Borman. Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00UTC(9:32:00EDT).At 13.2 seconds into the flight, the launch vehicle began\",\n \"vehicle began torollinto itsflight azimuthof 72.058°. Full shutdown of the first-stage engines occurred about 2 minutes and 42 seconds into the mission, followed by separation of the S-IC and ignition of the S-II engines. The second stage engines then cut off and separated at about 9 minutes and 8 seconds, allowing the first ignition of the S-IVB engine a few seconds later. Apollo 11 entered anear-circular Earth orbitat an altitude of 100.4 nautical miles (185.9 km) by 98.9 nautical miles (183.2 km), twelve minutes into its flight. After one and a half orbits, a second ignition of the S-IVB engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with thetrans-lunar injection(TLI) burn at 16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, with Collins in the left seat and at the controls, thetransposition, docking, and extractionmaneuver was performed. This involved separatingColumbiafrom the spent S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking withEaglestill attached to the stage. After the LM was extracted, the\",\n \"was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon.This was done to avoid the third stage colliding with the spacecraft, the Earth, or the Moon. Aslingshot effectfrom passing around the Moon threw it into anorbit around the Sun. On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enterlunar orbit.In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of the craterSabine D. The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automatedRanger 8andSurveyor 5landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft, and because it was unlikely to present major landing or EVA challenges.It lay about 25 kilometers (16 mi) southeast of the Surveyor 5 landing site, and 68 kilometers (42 mi) southwest of Ranger 8's crash site. Lunar descent At 12:52:00 UTC on July\",\n \"UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong enteredEagle, and began the final preparations for lunar descent.At 17:44:00Eagleseparated fromColumbia.Collins, alone aboardColumbia, inspectedEagleas it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the landing gear was correctly deployed.Armstrong exclaimed: \\\"TheEaglehas wings!\\\" As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found themselves passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were \\\"long\\\"; they would land miles west of their target point.Eaglewas traveling too fast. The problem could have beenmascons—concentrations of high mass in a region or regions of the Moon's crust that contains agravitational anomaly, potentially alteringEagle'strajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressure in the docking tunnel, or a result ofEagle's pirouette maneuver. Five minutes into the descent burn, and 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above the surface of the Moon, theLM guidance\",\n \"theLM guidance computer(LGC) distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected 1201 and 1202 program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center, computer engineerJack GarmantoldGuidance OfficerSteve Balesit was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated \\\"executive overflows\\\", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all its tasks in real-time and had to postpone some of them.Margaret Hamilton, the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at theMITCharles Stark Draper Laboratorylater recalled: To blame the computer for the Apollo 11 problems is like blaming the person who spots a fire and calls the fire department. Actually, the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software. The software's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re-establish the more important ones. The computer, rather than almost forcing an abort, prevented an\",\n \"abort, prevented an abort. If the computer hadn't recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful Moon landing it was. During the mission, the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position, causing the computer to process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time.Software engineerDon Eylesconcluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was due to a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first uncrewed LM inApollo 5. Having the rendezvous radar on (so it was warmed up in case of an emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer, but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the computer as dithering back and forth between two positions, depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spuriouscycle stealing, as the rendezvous radar\",\n \"rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter, caused the computer alarms. Landing When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a 300-foot-diameter (91 m) crater (later determined to beWest crater), so he took semi-automatic control.Armstrong considered landing short of the boulder field so they could collect geological samples from it, but could not since their horizontal velocity was too high. Throughout the descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy pilotingEagle. Now 107 feet (33 m) above the surface, Armstrong knew their propellant supply was dwindling and was determined to land at the first possible landing site. Armstrong found a clear patch of ground and maneuvered the spacecraft towards it. As he got closer, now 250 feet (76 m) above the surface, he discovered his new landing site had a crater in it. He cleared the crater and found another patch of level ground. They were now 100 feet\",\n \"were now 100 feet (30 m) from the surface, with only 90 seconds of propellant remaining. Lunar dust kicked up by the LM's engine began to impair his ability to determine the spacecraft's motion. Some large rocks jutted out of the dust cloud, and Armstrong focused on them during his descent so he could determine the spacecraft's speed. A light informed Aldrin that at least one of the 67-inch (170 cm) probes hanging fromEagle'sfootpads had touched the surface a few moments before the landing and he said: \\\"Contact light!\\\" Armstrong was supposed to immediately shut the engine down, as the engineers suspected the pressure caused by the engine's own exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface could make it explode, but he forgot. Three seconds later,Eaglelanded and Armstrong shut the engine down.Aldrin immediately said \\\"Okay, engine stop. ACA—out ofdetent.\\\" Armstrong acknowledged: \\\"Out of detent. Auto.\\\" Aldrin continued: \\\"Mode control—both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm—off. 413 is in.\\\" ACA was\",\n \"413 is in.\\\" ACA was theAttitude Control Assembly—the LM's control stick. Output went to the LGC to command thereaction control system(RCS) jets to fire. \\\"Out of Detent\\\" meant the stick had moved away from its centered position; it was spring-centered like the turn indicator in a car. Address 413 of theAbort Guidance System(AGS) contained the variable that indicated the LM had landed. Eaglelanded at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with 216 pounds (98 kg) of usable fuel remaining. Information available to the crew and mission controllers during the landing showed the LM had enough fuel for another 25 seconds of powered flight before an abort without touchdown would have become unsafe,but post-mission analysis showed that the real figure was probably closer to 50 seconds.Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than most subsequent missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of the propellantsloshingmore than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On\",\n \"a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this. Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post-landing checklist with \\\"Engine arm is off\\\", before responding to the CAPCOM, Charles Duke, with the words, \\\"Houston,Tranquility Basehere. TheEaglehas landed.\\\" Armstrong's unrehearsed change of call sign from \\\"Eagle\\\" to \\\"Tranquility Base\\\" emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful.Duke expressed the relief at Mission Control: \\\"Roger, Twan—Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\\\" Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth: This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way. He then tookcommunionprivately. At this\",\n \"At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheistMadalyn Murray O'Hair(who had objected to theApollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. For this reason, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at theWebsterPresbyterian Church, and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, Dean Woodruff. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20.The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period, but they chose to begin preparations for the EVA early, thinking they would be unable to sleep. Lunar surface operations Preparations forNeil ArmstrongandBuzz Aldrinto walk on the Moon began at 23:43 UTC.These took longer than expected; three and a half hours instead of two.During training on Earth,\",\n \"training on Earth, everything required had been neatly laid out in advance, but on the Moon the cabin contained a large number of other items as well, such as checklists, food packets, and tools.Six hours and thirty-nine minutes after landing, Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, andEaglewas depressurized. Eagle's hatch was opened at 02:39:33.Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with hisportable life support system(PLSS).Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.At 02:51 Armstrong began his descent to the lunar surface. The remote control unit on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage assembly (MESA) folded againstEagle'sside and activate the TV camera. Apollo 11 usedslow-scan television(TV) incompatible with broadcast TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this\",\n \"camera viewed this monitor (thus, a broadcast of a broadcast), significantly reducing the quality of the picture.The signal was received atGoldstonein the United States, but with better fidelity byHoneysuckle Creek Tracking StationnearCanberrain Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitiveParkes radio telescopein Australia.Despite some technical and weather difficulties, black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth.Copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, butrecordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surfacewere likely destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA. After describing the surface dust as \\\"very fine-grained\\\" and \\\"almost like a powder\\\",at 02:56:15,six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong stepped offEagle'slanding pad and declared: \\\"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\\\" Armstrong intended to say \\\"That's\",\n \"to say \\\"That's one small step for a man\\\", but the word \\\"a\\\" is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said \\\"for a man\\\", and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the \\\"a\\\" in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words \\\"for a\\\" together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory. A more recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the \\\"a\\\" may have been spoken but obscured by static. Other analysis points to the claims of static and slurring as \\\"face-saving fabrication\\\", and that Armstrong himself later admitted to misspeaking the line. About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on\",\n \"it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM.Twelve minutes after the sample was collected,he removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod.The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. Still photography was accomplished with aHasselbladcamera that could be operated hand-held or mounted on Armstrong'sApollo space suit.Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface. He described the view with the simple phrase: \\\"Magnificent desolation.\\\" Armstrong said moving in thelunar gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was \\\"even perhaps easier than the simulations ... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around.\\\"Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backward, but neither astronaut had serious\",\n \"had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight intoEagle'sshadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, but the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust, which soiled the outer part of their suits. The astronauts planted theLunar Flag Assemblycontaining aflag of the United Stateson the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera. Aldrin remembered, \\\"Of all the jobs I had to do on the Moon the one I wanted to go the smoothest was the flag raising.\\\"But the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and could only insert the pole about 2 inches (5 cm) into the hard lunar surface. Aldrin was afraid it might topple in front of TV\",\n \"in front of TV viewers, but gave \\\"a crisp West Point salute\\\".Before Aldrin could take a photo of Armstrong with the flag, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone-radio transmission, which Nixon called \\\"the most historic phone call ever made from the White House.\\\"Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief. Nixon:Hello, Neil and Buzz. I'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House. And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made from the White House. I just can't tell you how proud we all are of what you have done. For every American, this has to be the proudest day of our lives. And for people all over the world, I am sure that they too join with Americans in recognizing what an immense feat this is. Because of what you have done, the heavens have become a part of man's world. And as you talk to\",\n \"And as you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquility, it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquility to Earth. For one priceless moment in the whole history of man, all the people on this Earth are truly one: one in their pride in what you have done, and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth. Armstrong:Thank you, Mr. President. It's a great honor and privilege for us to be here, representing not only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, and with interest and a curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It's an honor for us to be able to participate here today. Nixon:Thank you very much, and I look forward, all of us look forward, to seeing you on the Hornet on Thursday. They deployed theEASEP, which included aPassive Seismic Experiment Packageused to measuremoonquakesand aretroreflectorarray used for thelunar laser ranging experiment.Then Armstrong walked 196 feet (60 m) from the LM to take photographs at the rim ofLittle West Craterwhile Aldrin\",\n \"Craterwhile Aldrin collected twocore samples. He used thegeologist's hammerto pound in the tubes—the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11—but was unable to penetrate more than 6 inches (15 cm) deep. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes. Aldrin shoveled 6 kilograms (13 lb) of soil into the box of rocks to pack them in tightly.Two types of rocks were found in the geological samples:basaltandbreccia.Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts:armalcolite,tranquillityite, andpyroxferroite. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. All have subsequently been found on Earth. While on the surface, Armstrong uncovered aplaquemounted on the LM ladder, bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the\",\n \"signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read: Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon July 1969, A. D. We came in peace for all mankind. At the behest of theNixon administrationto add a reference to God, NASA included the vague date as a reason to include A.D., which stands forAnno Domini(\\\"in the year of our Lord\\\"). Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong his metabolic rates were high, and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. As metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension.In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon. Lunar ascent Aldrin enteredEaglefirst. With some\",\n \"With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing 21.55 kilograms (47.5 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor (LEC). This proved to be an inefficient tool, and later missions preferred to carry equipment and samples up to the LM by hand.Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his sleeve pocket, and Aldrin tossed the bag down. Armstrong then jumped onto the ladder's third rung, and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LMlife support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, an empty Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. The hatch was closed again at 05:11:13. They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep. Presidential speech writerWilliam Safirehad prepared anIn Event of Moon Disasterannouncement for Nixon to read in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon.The remarks\",\n \"Moon.The remarks were in a memo from Safire to Nixon'sWhite House Chief of StaffH. R. Haldeman, in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster.According to the plan, Mission Control would \\\"close down communications\\\" with the LM, and a clergyman would \\\"commend their souls to the deepest of the deep\\\" in a public ritual likened toburial at sea. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion toRupert Brooke's World War I poem \\\"The Soldier\\\".The script for the speech does not make reference to Collins; as he remained onboardColumbiain orbit around the Moon, it was expected that he would be able to return the module to Earth in the event of a mission failure. While moving inside the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged thecircuit breakerthat would arm the main engine for liftoff from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. The nonconductive tip of a Durofelt-tip penwas sufficient to activate the\",\n \"to activate the switch. After more than21+1⁄2hours on the lunar surface, in addition to the scientific instruments, the astronauts left behind: anApollo 1mission patch in memory of astronautsRoger Chaffee,Gus Grissom, andEdward White, who died when their command module caught fire during a test in January 1967; two memorial medals of Soviet cosmonautsVladimir KomarovandYuri Gagarin, who died in 1967 and 1968 respectively; a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace; and a silicon message disk carrying thegoodwill statementsby presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon along with messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world.The disk also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA's past and then-current top management. After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the\",\n \"to prepare for the return flight. At that time, unknown to them, some hundred kilometers away from them the Soviet probeLuna 15was about to descend and impact. Despite having been known to be orbiting the Moon at the same time, through a ground-breaking precautious goodwill exchange of data, the mission control of Luna 15 unexpectedly hastened its roboticsample-return mission, initiating descent, in an attempt to return before Apollo 11.Just two hours before Apollo 11's launch Luna 15 crashed at 15:50 UTC, with British astronomers monitoring Luna 15 and recording the situation one commented: \\\"I say, this has really been drama of the highest order\\\",bringing theSpace Raceto a culmination. Roughly two hours later, at 17:54:00 UTC, the Apollo 11 crew on the surface safely lifted off inEagle'sascent stage to rejoin Collins aboardColumbiain lunar orbit.Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some 25 feet (8 m) from the descent stage, whipping violently in\",\n \"violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: \\\"The ascent stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying theattitude indicator, but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over.\\\"Subsequent Apollo missions planted their flags farther from the LM. Columbiain lunar orbit During his day flying solo around the Moon, Collins never felt lonely. Although it has been said \\\"not sinceAdamhas any human known such solitude\\\",Collins felt very much a part of the mission. In his autobiography he wrote: \\\"this venture has been structured for three men, and I consider my third to be as necessary as either of the other two\\\".In the 48 minutes of each orbit when he was out of radio contact with the Earth whileColumbiapassed round the far side of the Moon, the feeling he reported was not fear or loneliness, but rather \\\"awareness, anticipation, satisfaction, confidence, almost exultation\\\". One of Collins' first tasks was to\",\n \"first tasks was to identify the lunar module on the ground. To give Collins an idea where to look, Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed about 4 miles (6.4 km) off target. Each time he passed over the suspected lunar landing site, he tried in vain to find the module. On his first orbits on the back side of the Moon, Collins performed maintenance activities such as dumping excess water produced by thefuel cellsand preparing the cabin for Armstrong and Aldrin to return. Just before he reached the dark side on the third orbit, Mission Control informed Collins there was a problem with the temperature of the coolant. If it became too cold, parts ofColumbiamight freeze. Mission Control advised him to assume manual control and implement Environmental Control System Malfunction Procedure 17. Instead, Collins flicked the switch on the system from automatic to manual and back to automatic again, and carried on with normal housekeeping chores, while keeping an eye on the temperature.\",\n \"on the temperature. WhenColumbiacame back around to the near side of the Moon again, he was able to report that the problem had been resolved. For the next couple of orbits, he described his time on the back side of the Moon as \\\"relaxing\\\". After Aldrin and Armstrong completed their EVA, Collins slept so he could be rested for the rendezvous. While the flight plan called forEagleto meet up withColumbia, Collins was prepared for a contingency in which he would flyColumbiadown to meetEagle. Return Eaglerendezvoused withColumbiaat 21:24 UTC on July 21, and the two docked at 21:35.Eagle's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit at 23:41.Just before theApollo 12flight, it was noted thatEaglewas still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned thatEagle'sorbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an \\\"uncertain location\\\" on the lunar surface.In 2021, however, some calculations show that the lander may still be in orbit. On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts\",\n \"three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented: ... The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery, every piece of which worked flawlessly ... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly. All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears of a number of people ... All you see is the three of us, but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I would like to say, \\\"Thank you very much.\\\" Aldrin added: This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more, still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even, than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown ... Personally, in reflecting on the events of the past several days, a verse fromPsalmscomes to mind.\\\"When I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the Moon and the stars, which Thou hast\",\n \"which Thou hast ordained; What is man that Thou art mindful of him?\\\" Armstrong concluded: The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the giants of science who have preceded this effort; next with the American people, who have, through their will, indicated their desire; next with four administrations and their Congresses, for implementing that will; and then, with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft, the Saturn, the Columbia, the Eagle, and the littleEMU, the spacesuit and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface. We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you, and to all the other people that are listening and watching tonight, God bless you. Good night from Apollo 11. On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed,\",\n \"station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg was later thanked by Armstrong. Splashdown and quarantine Theaircraft carrierUSSHornet, under the command ofCaptainCarl J. Seiberlich,was selected as the primary recovery ship (PRS) for Apollo 11 on June 5, replacing its sister ship, theLPHUSSPrinceton, which had recovered Apollo 10 on May 26.Hornetwas then at her home port ofLong Beach, California.On reachingPearl Harboron July 5,HornetembarkedtheSikorsky SH-3 Sea Kinghelicopters ofHS-4, a unit which specialized in recovery of Apollo spacecraft, specialized divers ofUDTDetachment Apollo, a 35-man NASA recovery team, and about 120 media representatives. To make room, most ofHornet's air wing was left behind in Long Beach. Special recovery equipment was also loaded,\",\n \"was also loaded, including aboilerplatecommand module used for training. On July 12, with Apollo 11 still on the launch pad,Hornetdeparted Pearl Harbor for the recovery area in the central Pacific,in the vicinity of10°36′N172°24′E / 10.600°N 172.400°E /10.600; 172.400.A presidential party consisting of Nixon, Borman, Secretary of StateWilliam P. RogersandNational Security AdvisorHenry Kissingerflew toJohnston AtollonAir Force One, then to thecommand shipUSS ArlingtoninMarine One. After a night on board, they would fly toHornetin Marine One for a few hours of ceremonies. On arrival aboardHornet, the party was greeted by theCommander-in-Chief, Pacific Command (CINCPAC),AdmiralJohn S. McCain Jr., andNASA AdministratorThomas O. Paine, who flew toHornetfromPago Pagoin one ofHornet'scarrier onboard deliveryaircraft. Weather satellites were not yet common, but US Air ForceCaptainHank Brandli had access to top-secretspy satelliteimages. He realized that a storm front was headed for the Apollo recovery area. Poor\",\n \"recovery area. Poor visibility which could make locating the capsule difficult, and strong upper-level winds which \\\"would have ripped their parachutes to shreds\\\" according to Brandli, posed a serious threat to the safety of the mission.Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr., the commander of theFleet Weather Centerat Pearl Harbor, who had the required security clearance. On their recommendation,Rear AdmiralDonald C. Davis, commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces, Pacific, advised NASA to change the recovery area, each man risking his career. A new location was selected 215 nautical miles (398 km) northeast. This altered the flight plan. A different sequence of computer programs was used, one never before attempted. In a conventional entry, trajectory event P64 was followed by P67. For a skip-out re-entry, P65 and P66 were employed to handle the exit and entry parts of the skip. In this case, because they were extending the re-entry but not actually skipping out, P66 was not invoked and\",\n \"was not invoked and instead, P65 led directly to P67. The crew were also warned they would not be in a full-lift (heads-down) attitude when they entered P67.The first program's acceleration subjected the astronauts to 6.5 standard gravities (64 m/s2); the second, to 6.0 standard gravities (59 m/s2). Before dawn on July 24,Hornetlaunched four Sea King helicopters and threeGrumman E-1 Tracers. Two of the E-1s were designated as \\\"air boss\\\" while the third acted as a communications relay aircraft. Two of the Sea Kings carried divers and recovery equipment. The third carried photographic equipment, and the fourth carried the decontamination swimmer and the flight surgeon.At 16:44 UTC (05:44 local time)Columbia'sdrogue parachuteswere deployed. This was observed by the helicopters. Seven minutes laterColumbiastruck the water forcefully 2,660 km (1,440 nmi) east ofWake Island, 380 km (210 nmi) south of Johnston Atoll, and 24 km (13 nmi) fromHornet,at13°19′N169°9′W / 13.317°N 169.150°W /13.317; -169.150.82 °F (28\",\n \"-169.150.82 °F (28 °C) with 6 feet (1.8 m) seas and winds at 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph) from the east were reported under broken clouds at 1,500 feet (460 m) with visibility of 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) at the recovery site.Reconnaissance aircraft flying to the original splashdown location reported the conditions Brandli and Houston had predicted. Duringsplashdown,Columbialanded upside down but was righted within ten minutes by flotation bags activated by the astronauts.A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached asea anchorto prevent it from drifting.More divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and positioned rafts for astronaut extraction. The divers then passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. The possibility of bringing backpathogensfrom the lunar surface was considered remote, but NASA took precautions at the recovery site. The astronauts were rubbed down with asodium hypochloritesolution andColumbiawiped\",\n \"andColumbiawiped withPovidone-iodineto remove any lunar dust that might be present. The astronauts were winched on board the recovery helicopter. BIGs were worn until they reached isolation facilities on boardHornet. The raft containing decontamination materials was intentionally sunk. After touchdown onHornetat 17:53 UTC, the helicopter was lowered by the elevator into the hangar bay, where the astronauts walked the 30 feet (9.1 m) to theMobile quarantine facility(MQF), where they would begin the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine.This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 andApollo 14, before the Moon was proven to be barren of life, and the quarantine process dropped.Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to Earth. He told them: \\\"s a result of what you've done, the world has never been closer together before.\\\" After Nixon departed,Hornetwas brought alongside the 5-short-ton (4.5 t)Columbia, which was lifted aboard by the ship's crane, placed on adollyand moved next to\",\n \"moved next to the MQF. It was then attached to the MQF with a flexible tunnel, allowing the lunar samples, film, data tapes and other items to be removed.Hornetreturned to Pearl Harbor, where the MQF was loaded onto aLockheed C-141 Starlifterand airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center. The astronauts arrived at theLunar Receiving Laboratoryat 10:00 UTC on July 28.Columbiawas taken toFord Islandfor deactivation, and its pyrotechnics made safe. It was then taken toHickham Air Force Base, from whence it was flown to Houston in aDouglas C-133 Cargomaster, reaching the Lunar Receiving Laboratory on July 30. In accordance with theExtra-Terrestrial Exposure Law, a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol,the astronauts continued in quarantine. After three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in their trailer onHornet, and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health.On August 10, 1969, the Interagency\",\n \"the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine (NASA physicianWilliam Carpentierand MQF project engineerJohn Hirasaki),and onColumbiaitself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft remained in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study. Celebrations On August 13, the three astronauts rode inticker-tape paradesin their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an officialstate dinnerto celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors,Chief Justice of the United StatesWarren E. Burgerand his predecessor,Earl Warren, and ambassadors from 83 nations at theCentury Plaza Hotel. Nixon and Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of thePresidential Medal of Freedom. The three astronauts spoke before ajoint session of Congresson September 16, 1969. They presented two US flags, one to theHouse of\",\n \"one to theHouse of Representativesand the other to theSenate, that they had carried with them to the surface of the Moon.Theflag of American Samoaon Apollo 11 is on display at theJean P. Haydon Museumin Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa. This celebration began a 38-day world tour that brought the astronauts to 22 countries and included visits with many world leaders.The crew toured from September 29 to November 5.The world tour started in Mexico City and ended in Tokyo.Stops on the tour in order were:Mexico City,Bogota, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro,Las Palmasin theCanary Islands, Madrid, Paris,Amsterdam, Brussels,Oslo,Cologne, Berlin, London,Rome, Belgrade,Ankara,Kinshasa,Tehran,Mumbai,Dhaka,Bangkok,Darwin,Sydney,Guam,Seoul, Tokyo andHonolulu. Many nations honored the first humanMoon landingwith special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins. Legacy Cultural significance Humans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth accomplished Kennedy's goal\",\n \"Kennedy's goal set eight years earlier. In Mission Control during the Apollo 11 landing, Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen, followed by the words \\\"TASK ACCOMPLISHED, July 1969\\\".The success of Apollo 11 demonstrated the United States' technological superiority;and with the success of Apollo 11, America had won theSpace Race. New phrases permeated into the English language. \\\"If they can send a man to the Moon, why can't they ...?\\\" became a common saying following Apollo 11.Armstrong's words on the lunar surface also spun off various parodies. While most people celebrated the accomplishment, disenfranchised Americans saw it as a symbol of the divide in America, evidenced by protesters led byRalph Abernathyoutside of Kennedy Space Center the day before Apollo 11 launched.NASA AdministratorThomas Painemet with Abernathy at the occasion, both hoping that the space program can spur progress also in other regards, such as poverty in the US.Paine was then asked, and agreed, to host protesters as spectators at\",\n \"as spectators at the launch,and Abernathy, awestruck by the spectacle,prayed for the astronauts.Racial and financial inequalities frustrated citizens who wondered why money spent on the Apollo program was not spent taking care of humans on Earth. A poem byGil Scott-Heroncalled \\\"Whitey on the Moon\\\" (1970) illustrated theracial inequality in the United Statesthat was highlighted by the Space Race.The poem starts with: A rat done bit my sister Nell.(with Whitey on the moon)Her face and arms began to swell.(and Whitey's on the moon)I can't pay no doctor bill.(but Whitey's on the moon)Ten years from now I'll be paying still.(while Whitey's on the moon) Twenty percent of the world's population watched humans walk on the Moon for the first time.While Apollo 11 sparked the interest of the world, the follow-on Apollo missions did not hold the interest of the nation.One possible explanation was the shift in complexity. Landing someone on the Moon was an easy goal to understand; lunar geology was too abstract for the\",\n \"abstract for the average person. Another is that Kennedy's goal of landing humans on the Moon had already been accomplished.A well-defined objective helped Project Apollo accomplish its goal, but after it was completed it was hard to justify continuing the lunar missions. While most Americans were proud of their nation's achievements in space exploration, only once during the late 1960s did theGallup Pollindicate that a majority of Americans favored \\\"doing more\\\" in space as opposed to \\\"doing less\\\". By 1973, 59 percent of those polled favored cutting spending on space exploration. The Space Race had been won, and Cold War tensions were easing as the US and Soviet Union entered the era ofdétente. This was also a time when inflation was rising, which put pressure on the government to reduce spending. What saved the space program was that it was one of the few government programs that had achieved something great. Drastic cuts, warnedCaspar Weinberger, the deputy director of theOffice of Management and Budget,\",\n \"and Budget, might send a signal that \\\"our best years are behind us\\\". After the Apollo 11 mission, officials from the Soviet Union said landing humans on the Moon was dangerous and unnecessary. At the time the Soviet Union was attempting to retrieve lunar samples robotically. The Soviets publicly denied there was a race to the Moon, and indicated they were not making an attempt.Mstislav Keldyshsaid in July 1969, \\\"We are concentrating wholly on the creation of large satellite systems.\\\" It was revealed in 1989 that the Soviets had tried to send people to the Moon, but were unable due to technological difficulties.The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it any attention, and another portion was angered by it. The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs \\\"Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins\\\" bythe Byrdson the 1969 albumBallad of Easy Rider, \\\"Coon on the\",\n \"Rider, \\\"Coon on the Moon\\\" byHowlin' Wolfon the 1973 albumThe Back Door Wolf, and \\\"One Small Step\\\" byAyreonon the 2000 albumUniversal Migrator Part 1: The Dream Sequencer. Spacecraft Thecommand moduleColumbiawent on a tour of the United States, visiting 49 state capitals, theDistrict of Columbia, andAnchorage, Alaska.In 1971, it was transferred to theSmithsonian Institution, and was displayed at theNational Air and Space Museum(NASM) in Washington, DC.It was in the centralMilestones of Flightexhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as theWright Flyer,Spirit of St. Louis,Bell X-1,North American X-15andFriendship 7. Columbiawas moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at theSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Centerin Chantilly, Virginia, to be readied for a four-city tour titledDestination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission. This includedSpace Center Houstonfrom October 14, 2017, to March 18, 2018, theSaint Louis Science\",\n \"Louis Science Centerfrom April 14 to September 3, 2018, the Senator JohnHeinz History CenterinPittsburghfrom September 29, 2018, to February 18, 2019, and its last location atMuseum of FlightinSeattlefrom March 16 to September 2, 2019.Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time for an additional stop for the capsule, and it was moved to theCincinnati Museum Center. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on September 29, 2019. For 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum'sApollo to the Moonexhibit,until it permanently closed on December 3, 2018, to be replaced by a new gallery which was scheduled to open in 2022. A special display of Armstrong's suit was unveiled for the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11 in July 2019.The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar and the flotation bags are in the Smithsonian'sSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Centerannex nearWashington Dulles International Airportin Chantilly, Virginia, where they are on display along with a test lunar module. The descent\",\n \"module. The descent stage of the LMEagleremains on the Moon. In 2009, theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts. The remains of the ascent stage are assumed to lie at an unknown location on the lunar surface. The ascent stage,Eagle, was not tracked after it was jettisoned. The lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make low Moon orbits unstable after a short time, leading the orbiting object to impact the surface.However, using a program developed by NASA, and high-resolution lunar gravity data, a paper was published, in 2021, indicating thatEaglemight still be in orbit as late as 2020. Using the orbital elements published by NASA, aMonte Carlo methodwas used to generate parameter sets that bracket the uncertainties in these elements. All simulations, of the orbit, predicted\",\n \"orbit, predicted thatEaglewould never impact the lunar surface. In March 2012 a team of specialists financed byAmazonfounderJeff Bezoslocated theF-1 enginesfrom the S-IC stage that launched Apollo 11 into space. They were found on the Atlantic seabed using advanced sonar scanning.His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was from Apollo 11.The S-IVB third stage which performed Apollo 11's trans-lunar injection remains in a solar orbit near to that of Earth. Moon rocks The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is theLunar Sample Laboratory Facilityat the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center inHouston, Texas. For safekeeping, there is also a smaller collection stored atWhite Sands Test FacilitynearLas Cruces, New Mexico. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them free of moisture. They are handled only indirectly, using special tools. Over\",\n \"special tools. Over 100 research laboratories worldwide conduct studies of the samples; approximately 500 samples are prepared and sent to investigators every year. In November 1969, Nixon asked NASA to make up about 250 presentationApollo 11 lunar sample displaysfor 135 nations, the fifty states of the United States and its possessions, and the United Nations. Each display included Moon dust from Apollo 11 and flags, including one of the Soviet Union, taken along by Apollo 11. The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil weighing about 50 mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button about as big as aUnited States half-dollar coin. This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust. Nixon gave the Apollo 11 lunar sample displays as goodwill gifts in 1970. Experiment results The Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed on August 25, 1969. The downlink failed on December 14, 1969.As of 2018, theLunar Laser Ranging experimentremains operational. Moonwalk camera The\",\n \"Moonwalk camera The Hasselblad camera used during the moonwalk was thought to be lost or left on the Moon surface. Lunar ModuleEaglememorabilia In 2015, after Armstrong died in 2012, his widow contacted theNational Air and Space Museumto inform them she had found a white cloth bag in one of Armstrong's closets. The bag contained various items, which should have been left behind in theLunar ModuleEagle, including the 16mm Data Acquisition Camera that had been used to capture images of the first Moon landing.The camera is currently on display at the National Air and Space Museum. Anniversary events 40th anniversary On July 15, 2009,Life.comreleased a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken byLifephotographerRalph Morseprior to the Apollo 11 launch.From July 16 to 24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred.It is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key\",\n \"a preview of key moments.In July 2010, air-to-ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronized and released for the first time.TheJohn F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museumset up anAdobe Flashwebsite that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon. On July 20, 2009, Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with PresidentBarack Obamaat the White House.\\\"We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin\\\", Obama said. \\\"We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey.\\\"On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts aCongressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida SenatorBill Nelsonand Florida RepresentativeAlan Grayson. A group of British scientists\",\n \"British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing: It was carried out in a technically brilliant way with risks taken ... that would be inconceivable in the risk-averse world of today ... The Apollo programme is arguably the greatest technical achievement of mankind to date ... nothing since Apollo has come close the excitement that was generated by those astronauts—Armstrong, Aldrin and the 10 others who followed them. 50th anniversary On June 10, 2015, CongressmanBill Poseyintroduced resolution H.R. 2726 to the 114th session of theUnited States House of Representativesdirecting theUnited States Mintto design and sell commemorative coins in gold, silver and clad for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. On January 24, 2019, the Mint released theApollo 11 Fiftieth Anniversary commemorative coinsto the public on its website. A documentary film,Apollo 11, with restored footage of the 1969 event, premiered inIMAXon March 1, 2019, and\",\n \"March 1, 2019, and broadly in theaters on March 8. The Smithsonian Institute'sNational Air and Space MuseumandNASAsponsored the \\\"Apollo 50 Festival\\\" on theNational Mallin Washington DC. The three-day (July 18 to 20, 2019) outdoor festival featured hands-on exhibits and activities, live performances, and speakers such asAdam Savageand NASA scientists. As part of the festival, a projection of the 363-foot (111 m) tallSaturn Vrocket was displayed on the east face of the 555-foot (169 m) tallWashington Monumentfrom July 16 through the 20th from 9:30 pm until 11:30 pm (EDT). The program also included a 17-minute show that combined full-motion video projected on the Washington Monument to recreate the assembly and launch of theSaturn Vrocket. The projection was joined by a 40-foot (12 m) wide recreation of theKennedy Space Centercountdown clock and two large video screens showing archival footage to recreate the time leading up to the moon landing. There were three shows per night on July 19–20, with the last show\",\n \"with the last show on Saturday, delayed slightly so the portion where Armstrong first set foot on the Moon would happen exactly 50 years to the second after the actual event. On July 19, 2019, theGoogle Doodlepaid tribute to the Apollo 11 Moon Landing, complete with a link to an animated YouTube video with voiceover by astronautMichael Collins. Aldrin, Collins, and Armstrong's sons were hosted by PresidentDonald Trumpin the Oval Office. Films and documentaries See also References Notes Citations In some of the following sources, times are shown in the formathours:minutes:seconds(e.g. 109:24:15), referring to the mission's Ground Elapsed Time (GET),based on the official launch time of July 16, 1969, 13:32:00UTC(000:00:00 GET). Sources External links Multimedia\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":385,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What is the name of the play written in May 2016 by a playwright who won the MacArthur Fellowship the same year as the poet who wrote \"Postcolonial Love Poem\"?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Skeleton Crew"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonial_Love_Poem"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Diaz"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacArthur_Fellows_Program#"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_Morisseau"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonial_Love_Poem', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Diaz', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacArthur_Fellows_Program#', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_Morisseau']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonial_Love_Poem","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Diaz","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacArthur_Fellows_Program#","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_Morisseau"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonial_Love_Poem\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Diaz\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacArthur_Fellows_Program#\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_Morisseau\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Postcolonial Love Poem Postcolonial Love Poemis a poem collection byNatalie Diazwhich is her second collection. Awards Finalist or Shortlist in References This article about a collection of writtenpoetryis astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.","Natalie Diaz Natalie Diaz(born September 4, 1978)is aPulitzer Prize-winningMojaveAmericanpoet,language activist, former professional basketball player, and educator. She is enrolled in theGila River Indian Communityand identifies asAkimel O'odham.She is currently an Associate Professor atArizona State University. Early life Natalie Diaz was born inNeedles,California, on September 4. 1978.She grew up in theFort MojaveIndian Village in Needles, California, on the border of California,Arizona, andNevada. She attendedOld Dominion University, where she played point guard on thewomen's basketball team, reaching theNCAA Final Fouras a freshman and the bracket of sixteen her other three years. She earned a bachelor's degree.After playing professional basketball in Europe and Asia, she returned to Old Dominion University, and completed an MFA in poetry and fiction,in 2006. Career Her work appeared inNarrative,Poetrymagazine,Drunken Boat,Prairie Schooner,Iowa Review, andCrab Orchard Review. Diaz's debut book of poetry,When My Brother Was an Aztec, \"portrays experiences rooted in Native American life with personal and mythic power.\"It was a 2012 Lannan Literary Selection,was shortlisted for the 2013PEN/Open Book Award,and was a 2013American Book Awardwinner.One important focus of the book is a sister struggling with her brother's addiction to crystal meth. In 2012, she was interviewed about her poetry and language rehabilitation work on thePBS NewsHour. In 2018, she was named as the Maxine and Jonathan Marshall Chair in Modern and Contemporary Poetry at Arizona State University. In 2019, she was faculty at theCantoMundoRetreat. In 2021, her bookPostcolonial Love Poemwon thePulitzer Prize for Poetry. It was called \"a collection of tender, heart-wrenching and defiant poems that explore what it means to love and be loved in an America beset by conflict.\"The book was also a finalist for the 2020 National Book Award, a finalist for the 2020 Los Angeles Times Book Prize, a finalist for the 2020 Forward Prize for Best Collection, and shortlisted for the 2020 T. S. Eliot Prize. Personal life Diaz currently lives inMohave Valley, Arizona, where she used to work on language revitalization atFort Mojave, her home reservation. She worked with the last Elder speakers of the Mojave language. She is enrolled as member of the Gila Indian Community. Poetry In anthology Awards and honors References External links","MacArthur Fellows Program TheMacArthur Fellows Program, also known as theMacArthur Fellowshipand colloquially called the \"Genius Grant\",is a prize awarded annually by theJohn D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundationto typically between 20 and 30 individuals working in any field who have shown \"extraordinary originality and dedication in their creative pursuits and a marked capacity for self-direction\" and are citizens or residents of theUnited States. According to the foundation's website, \"the fellowship is not a reward for past accomplishments but rather an investment in a person's originality, insight, and potential\", but it also says such potential is \"based on a track record of significant accomplishments\". The current prize is $800,000 paid over five years in quarterly installments. Previously, it was $625,000. This figure was increased from $500,000 in 2013 with the release of a reviewof the MacArthur Fellows Program. The award has been called \"one of the most significant awards that is truly 'no strings attached'\". The program does not accept applications. Anonymous and confidential nominations are invited by the foundation and reviewed by an anonymous and confidential selection committee of about a dozen people. The committee reviews all nominees and recommends recipients to the president andboard of directors. Most new fellows first learn of their nomination and award upon receiving a congratulatory phone call. MacArthur FellowJim Collinsdescribed this experience in an editorial column ofThe New York Times. Marlies Carruth is the program's current director. Recipients As of 2023, since 1981, 1131 people have been named MacArthur Fellows,ranging in age from 18 to 82. In the five broad categories defined by the foundation, the breakdown for recipient focus is as follows: Arts 336; Humanities 170; Public Issues 257;STEM335; and Social Sciences 120. Of the 965 terminal degrees earned by 928 fellows during the period 1981 through 2018, 540 (56%) are doctorates, with the Ph.D. accounting for 514 (53.3%). Ivy league schools awarded 306 (31.7%) degrees to 300 (32.3%) fellows. The award is made to individuals of varying educational background but among the 1131 fellowship awards through the class of 2023, the following ten institutions have the most alumni fellows, withHarvard Universityhaving the most overall and theCalifornia Institute of Technologyhaving the most per capita. 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 Source: Notes References External links","Dominique Morisseau Dominique Morisseau(born March 13, 1978) is an American playwright and actress fromDetroit, Michigan. She has written more than nine plays,three of which are part of a cycle titledThe Detroit Project.She received aMacArthur Fellowship(also known as the 'Genius Grant') in 2018. Early life Morisseau was born and grew up in Detroit, Michigan, with her mother and father. Her mother's family is from Mississippi and her father's family is fromHaiti.She attended theUniversity of MichiganinAnn Arbor, where she received her BFA in Acting in 2000. There she met J. Keys, who is also from Michigan. They married in 2013.Keys was born in Detroit but grew up in Southfield, Michigan, a nearby suburb of the city. He works as a music industry promoter, emcee and hip hop musician. Career Acting Morisseau began her performance career as a live poetry speaker, primarily in her hometown community of Harmonie Park in Detroit.After graduating from college, she continued acting and worked with several organizations. At theLark Play Development Center, she worked as an actor in a workshop production ofThe MountaintopbyKatori Hall, developing the role of Camae. In 2013, in a production at theActors Theatre of Louisville, she reprised the role of Camae.She continues acting but has said that she would not act in any of her plays' premieres. Writing Morisseau began writing plays in college. She has said that the lack of suitable roles at the University of Michigan drove her to write plays and create the roles she wanted to perform. She wroteThe Blackness Blues: Time to Change the Tune, A Sister's Storyat this time. After college, in 2012 and 2013, she received a Playwrights of New York (PoNY) fellowship at theLark Play Development Center.She has also worked as a Teaching Artist withCity University of New York's Creative Arts Team. Morisseau has said that music plays a huge part in her work and often informs the work that she is writing. \"It's a resource and clue to my work, and music plays a unifier among cultural barriers.\" Morisseau was on the list of Top 20 Most Produced Playwrights in America in 2015–16, with 10 productions of her plays nationwide. Morisseau is a story editor for the television seriesShamelessonShowtimeand is also credited as a co-producer. She wrote the book for thejukebox musicalAin't Too Proud—The Life and Times of the Temptations, which is directed byDes McAnuff. The musical opened on Broadway at theImperial Theatrein March 2019. It played pre-Broadway engagements at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre (2017), theAhmanson Theatrein Los Angeles (August to September 2018),and theKennedy Center(July 2018). Thisplay marked Morisseau's Broadway debut.She received a nomination for aTony Award for Best Book of a Musical, the third Black woman to do so. Work The Detroit Project Morisseau has written a three-play cycle, titledThe Detroit Project.The three plays (in order) are: Detroit '67 This play \"explores an explosive and decisive moment in a great American city.The play's compelling characters struggle with racial tension and economic instability.\"It was developed and workshopped atThe Public Theaterin New York.Detroit '67eventually was featured at theClassical Theatre of Harlemwith theNational Black Theatre. It was nominated for eightAUDELCOTheatre Awards and received the 2014 Edward M. Kennedy Prize for Drama Inspired by American History. Paradise Blue Former musician Blue decides to sell his beloved jazz club in order to live out his dreams. He is left with the moral dilemma of leaving his partner, Pumpkin, and his loyal jazz band behind. Morisseau developed this play first atWilliamstown Theatre Festival, where it eventually had its world premiere in July 2015.Paradise Bluecontinued its development at theMcCarter Theatre,New York Theatre Workshop,The Public Theater, and theSignature Theatre Company.For this play, Morisseau received the L. Arnold Weissberger Awardin 2012. Skeleton Crew The final play in the cycle revolves around a group of auto-plant workers grappling with the likely possibility of foreclosure and impending unemployment.Skeleton Crewreceived a developmental production at theLark Play Development Center.Directed byRuben Santiago-Hudson, this play had its world premiere at the Off-BroadwayLinda Gross Theaterwith theAtlantic Theater Companyin May 2016. Morisseau won the 2016Obie AwardSpecial Citation for Collaboration, along with director Santiago-Hudson and the Atlantic Theater Company forSkeleton Crew.The play won the Edgerton Foundation New Play Award in 2015.Skeleton Crewopened on Broadway in January 2022.It was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Play. Works Awards Morisseau received aMacArthur Fellowship(also known as the 'Genius Grant') fin 2018, which included a stipend of $625,000. She is one of 25 fellows in the 2018 Class. Morisseau was named an Honoree for theJane ChambersPlaywriting Award, which recognizes plays and performance texts created by women that present a feminist perspective and contain significant opportunities for female performers. She is a two-time award winner of theNAACPImage Award, which celebrates the outstanding achievements and performances of people of color in the arts, as well as those individuals or groups who promote social justice through their creative endeavors. References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Postcolonial Love Poem Postcolonial Love Poemis a poem collection byNatalie Diazwhich is her second collection. Awards Finalist or Shortlist in References This article about a collection of writtenpoetryis astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.\",\n \"Natalie Diaz Natalie Diaz(born September 4, 1978)is aPulitzer Prize-winningMojaveAmericanpoet,language activist, former professional basketball player, and educator. She is enrolled in theGila River Indian Communityand identifies asAkimel O'odham.She is currently an Associate Professor atArizona State University. Early life Natalie Diaz was born inNeedles,California, on September 4. 1978.She grew up in theFort MojaveIndian Village in Needles, California, on the border of California,Arizona, andNevada. She attendedOld Dominion University, where she played point guard on thewomen's basketball team, reaching theNCAA Final Fouras a freshman and the bracket of sixteen her other three years. She earned a bachelor's degree.After playing professional basketball in Europe and Asia, she returned to Old Dominion University, and completed an MFA in poetry and fiction,in 2006. Career Her work appeared inNarrative,Poetrymagazine,Drunken Boat,Prairie Schooner,Iowa Review, andCrab Orchard Review. Diaz's debut book of poetry,When My Brother Was an Aztec, \\\"portrays experiences rooted in Native American life with personal and mythic power.\\\"It was a 2012 Lannan Literary Selection,was shortlisted for the 2013PEN/Open Book Award,and was a 2013American Book Awardwinner.One important focus of the book is a sister struggling with her brother's addiction to crystal meth. In 2012, she was interviewed about her poetry and language rehabilitation work on thePBS NewsHour. In 2018, she was named as the Maxine and Jonathan Marshall Chair in Modern and Contemporary Poetry at Arizona State University. In 2019, she was faculty at theCantoMundoRetreat. In 2021, her bookPostcolonial Love Poemwon thePulitzer Prize for Poetry. It was called \\\"a collection of tender, heart-wrenching and defiant poems that explore what it means to love and be loved in an America beset by conflict.\\\"The book was also a finalist for the 2020 National Book Award, a finalist for the 2020 Los Angeles Times Book Prize, a finalist for the 2020 Forward Prize for Best Collection, and shortlisted for the 2020 T. S. Eliot Prize. Personal life Diaz currently lives inMohave Valley, Arizona, where she used to work on language revitalization atFort Mojave, her home reservation. She worked with the last Elder speakers of the Mojave language. She is enrolled as member of the Gila Indian Community. Poetry In anthology Awards and honors References External links\",\n \"MacArthur Fellows Program TheMacArthur Fellows Program, also known as theMacArthur Fellowshipand colloquially called the \\\"Genius Grant\\\",is a prize awarded annually by theJohn D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundationto typically between 20 and 30 individuals working in any field who have shown \\\"extraordinary originality and dedication in their creative pursuits and a marked capacity for self-direction\\\" and are citizens or residents of theUnited States. According to the foundation's website, \\\"the fellowship is not a reward for past accomplishments but rather an investment in a person's originality, insight, and potential\\\", but it also says such potential is \\\"based on a track record of significant accomplishments\\\". The current prize is $800,000 paid over five years in quarterly installments. Previously, it was $625,000. This figure was increased from $500,000 in 2013 with the release of a reviewof the MacArthur Fellows Program. The award has been called \\\"one of the most significant awards that is truly 'no strings attached'\\\". The program does not accept applications. Anonymous and confidential nominations are invited by the foundation and reviewed by an anonymous and confidential selection committee of about a dozen people. The committee reviews all nominees and recommends recipients to the president andboard of directors. Most new fellows first learn of their nomination and award upon receiving a congratulatory phone call. MacArthur FellowJim Collinsdescribed this experience in an editorial column ofThe New York Times. Marlies Carruth is the program's current director. Recipients As of 2023, since 1981, 1131 people have been named MacArthur Fellows,ranging in age from 18 to 82. In the five broad categories defined by the foundation, the breakdown for recipient focus is as follows: Arts 336; Humanities 170; Public Issues 257;STEM335; and Social Sciences 120. Of the 965 terminal degrees earned by 928 fellows during the period 1981 through 2018, 540 (56%) are doctorates, with the Ph.D. accounting for 514 (53.3%). Ivy league schools awarded 306 (31.7%) degrees to 300 (32.3%) fellows. The award is made to individuals of varying educational background but among the 1131 fellowship awards through the class of 2023, the following ten institutions have the most alumni fellows, withHarvard Universityhaving the most overall and theCalifornia Institute of Technologyhaving the most per capita. 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 Source: Notes References External links\",\n \"Dominique Morisseau Dominique Morisseau(born March 13, 1978) is an American playwright and actress fromDetroit, Michigan. She has written more than nine plays,three of which are part of a cycle titledThe Detroit Project.She received aMacArthur Fellowship(also known as the 'Genius Grant') in 2018. Early life Morisseau was born and grew up in Detroit, Michigan, with her mother and father. Her mother's family is from Mississippi and her father's family is fromHaiti.She attended theUniversity of MichiganinAnn Arbor, where she received her BFA in Acting in 2000. There she met J. Keys, who is also from Michigan. They married in 2013.Keys was born in Detroit but grew up in Southfield, Michigan, a nearby suburb of the city. He works as a music industry promoter, emcee and hip hop musician. Career Acting Morisseau began her performance career as a live poetry speaker, primarily in her hometown community of Harmonie Park in Detroit.After graduating from college, she continued acting and worked with several organizations. At theLark Play Development Center, she worked as an actor in a workshop production ofThe MountaintopbyKatori Hall, developing the role of Camae. In 2013, in a production at theActors Theatre of Louisville, she reprised the role of Camae.She continues acting but has said that she would not act in any of her plays' premieres. Writing Morisseau began writing plays in college. She has said that the lack of suitable roles at the University of Michigan drove her to write plays and create the roles she wanted to perform. She wroteThe Blackness Blues: Time to Change the Tune, A Sister's Storyat this time. After college, in 2012 and 2013, she received a Playwrights of New York (PoNY) fellowship at theLark Play Development Center.She has also worked as a Teaching Artist withCity University of New York's Creative Arts Team. Morisseau has said that music plays a huge part in her work and often informs the work that she is writing. \\\"It's a resource and clue to my work, and music plays a unifier among cultural barriers.\\\" Morisseau was on the list of Top 20 Most Produced Playwrights in America in 2015–16, with 10 productions of her plays nationwide. Morisseau is a story editor for the television seriesShamelessonShowtimeand is also credited as a co-producer. She wrote the book for thejukebox musicalAin't Too Proud—The Life and Times of the Temptations, which is directed byDes McAnuff. The musical opened on Broadway at theImperial Theatrein March 2019. It played pre-Broadway engagements at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre (2017), theAhmanson Theatrein Los Angeles (August to September 2018),and theKennedy Center(July 2018). Thisplay marked Morisseau's Broadway debut.She received a nomination for aTony Award for Best Book of a Musical, the third Black woman to do so. Work The Detroit Project Morisseau has written a three-play cycle, titledThe Detroit Project.The three plays (in order) are: Detroit '67 This play \\\"explores an explosive and decisive moment in a great American city.The play's compelling characters struggle with racial tension and economic instability.\\\"It was developed and workshopped atThe Public Theaterin New York.Detroit '67eventually was featured at theClassical Theatre of Harlemwith theNational Black Theatre. It was nominated for eightAUDELCOTheatre Awards and received the 2014 Edward M. Kennedy Prize for Drama Inspired by American History. Paradise Blue Former musician Blue decides to sell his beloved jazz club in order to live out his dreams. He is left with the moral dilemma of leaving his partner, Pumpkin, and his loyal jazz band behind. Morisseau developed this play first atWilliamstown Theatre Festival, where it eventually had its world premiere in July 2015.Paradise Bluecontinued its development at theMcCarter Theatre,New York Theatre Workshop,The Public Theater, and theSignature Theatre Company.For this play, Morisseau received the L. Arnold Weissberger Awardin 2012. Skeleton Crew The final play in the cycle revolves around a group of auto-plant workers grappling with the likely possibility of foreclosure and impending unemployment.Skeleton Crewreceived a developmental production at theLark Play Development Center.Directed byRuben Santiago-Hudson, this play had its world premiere at the Off-BroadwayLinda Gross Theaterwith theAtlantic Theater Companyin May 2016. Morisseau won the 2016Obie AwardSpecial Citation for Collaboration, along with director Santiago-Hudson and the Atlantic Theater Company forSkeleton Crew.The play won the Edgerton Foundation New Play Award in 2015.Skeleton Crewopened on Broadway in January 2022.It was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Play. Works Awards Morisseau received aMacArthur Fellowship(also known as the 'Genius Grant') fin 2018, which included a stipend of $625,000. She is one of 25 fellows in the 2018 Class. Morisseau was named an Honoree for theJane ChambersPlaywriting Award, which recognizes plays and performance texts created by women that present a feminist perspective and contain significant opportunities for female performers. She is a two-time award winner of theNAACPImage Award, which celebrates the outstanding achievements and performances of people of color in the arts, as well as those individuals or groups who promote social justice through their creative endeavors. References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Postcolonial Love Poem Postcolonial Love Poemis a poem collection byNatalie Diazwhich is her second collection. Awards Finalist or Shortlist in References This article about a collection of writtenpoetryis astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.","Natalie Diaz Natalie Diaz(born September 4, 1978)is aPulitzer Prize-winningMojaveAmericanpoet,language activist, former professional basketball player, and educator. She is enrolled in theGila River Indian Communityand identifies asAkimel O'odham.She is currently an Associate Professor atArizona State University. Early life Natalie Diaz was born inNeedles,California, on September 4. 1978.She grew up in theFort MojaveIndian Village in Needles, California, on the border of California,Arizona, andNevada. She attendedOld Dominion University, where she played point guard on thewomen's basketball team, reaching theNCAA Final Fouras a freshman and the bracket of sixteen her other three years. She earned a bachelor's degree.After playing professional basketball in Europe and Asia, she returned to Old Dominion University, and completed an MFA in poetry and fiction,in 2006. Career Her work appeared inNarrative,Poetrymagazine,Drunken Boat,Prairie Schooner,Iowa Review, andCrab Orchard Review. Diaz's debut book of","debut book of poetry,When My Brother Was an Aztec, \"portrays experiences rooted in Native American life with personal and mythic power.\"It was a 2012 Lannan Literary Selection,was shortlisted for the 2013PEN/Open Book Award,and was a 2013American Book Awardwinner.One important focus of the book is a sister struggling with her brother's addiction to crystal meth. In 2012, she was interviewed about her poetry and language rehabilitation work on thePBS NewsHour. In 2018, she was named as the Maxine and Jonathan Marshall Chair in Modern and Contemporary Poetry at Arizona State University. In 2019, she was faculty at theCantoMundoRetreat. In 2021, her bookPostcolonial Love Poemwon thePulitzer Prize for Poetry. It was called \"a collection of tender, heart-wrenching and defiant poems that explore what it means to love and be loved in an America beset by conflict.\"The book was also a finalist for the 2020 National Book Award, a finalist for the 2020 Los Angeles Times Book Prize, a finalist for the 2020 Forward Prize","2020 Forward Prize for Best Collection, and shortlisted for the 2020 T. S. Eliot Prize. Personal life Diaz currently lives inMohave Valley, Arizona, where she used to work on language revitalization atFort Mojave, her home reservation. She worked with the last Elder speakers of the Mojave language. She is enrolled as member of the Gila Indian Community. Poetry In anthology Awards and honors References External links","MacArthur Fellows Program TheMacArthur Fellows Program, also known as theMacArthur Fellowshipand colloquially called the \"Genius Grant\",is a prize awarded annually by theJohn D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundationto typically between 20 and 30 individuals working in any field who have shown \"extraordinary originality and dedication in their creative pursuits and a marked capacity for self-direction\" and are citizens or residents of theUnited States. According to the foundation's website, \"the fellowship is not a reward for past accomplishments but rather an investment in a person's originality, insight, and potential\", but it also says such potential is \"based on a track record of significant accomplishments\". The current prize is $800,000 paid over five years in quarterly installments. Previously, it was $625,000. This figure was increased from $500,000 in 2013 with the release of a reviewof the MacArthur Fellows Program. The award has been called \"one of the most significant awards that is truly 'no","that is truly 'no strings attached'\". The program does not accept applications. Anonymous and confidential nominations are invited by the foundation and reviewed by an anonymous and confidential selection committee of about a dozen people. The committee reviews all nominees and recommends recipients to the president andboard of directors. Most new fellows first learn of their nomination and award upon receiving a congratulatory phone call. MacArthur FellowJim Collinsdescribed this experience in an editorial column ofThe New York Times. Marlies Carruth is the program's current director. Recipients As of 2023, since 1981, 1131 people have been named MacArthur Fellows,ranging in age from 18 to 82. In the five broad categories defined by the foundation, the breakdown for recipient focus is as follows: Arts 336; Humanities 170; Public Issues 257;STEM335; and Social Sciences 120. Of the 965 terminal degrees earned by 928 fellows during the period 1981 through 2018, 540 (56%) are doctorates, with the Ph.D.","with the Ph.D. accounting for 514 (53.3%). Ivy league schools awarded 306 (31.7%) degrees to 300 (32.3%) fellows. The award is made to individuals of varying educational background but among the 1131 fellowship awards through the class of 2023, the following ten institutions have the most alumni fellows, withHarvard Universityhaving the most overall and theCalifornia Institute of Technologyhaving the most per capita. 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 Source: Notes References External links","Dominique Morisseau Dominique Morisseau(born March 13, 1978) is an American playwright and actress fromDetroit, Michigan. She has written more than nine plays,three of which are part of a cycle titledThe Detroit Project.She received aMacArthur Fellowship(also known as the 'Genius Grant') in 2018. Early life Morisseau was born and grew up in Detroit, Michigan, with her mother and father. Her mother's family is from Mississippi and her father's family is fromHaiti.She attended theUniversity of MichiganinAnn Arbor, where she received her BFA in Acting in 2000. There she met J. Keys, who is also from Michigan. They married in 2013.Keys was born in Detroit but grew up in Southfield, Michigan, a nearby suburb of the city. He works as a music industry promoter, emcee and hip hop musician. Career Acting Morisseau began her performance career as a live poetry speaker, primarily in her hometown community of Harmonie Park in Detroit.After graduating from college, she continued acting and worked with several","worked with several organizations. At theLark Play Development Center, she worked as an actor in a workshop production ofThe MountaintopbyKatori Hall, developing the role of Camae. In 2013, in a production at theActors Theatre of Louisville, she reprised the role of Camae.She continues acting but has said that she would not act in any of her plays' premieres. Writing Morisseau began writing plays in college. She has said that the lack of suitable roles at the University of Michigan drove her to write plays and create the roles she wanted to perform. She wroteThe Blackness Blues: Time to Change the Tune, A Sister's Storyat this time. After college, in 2012 and 2013, she received a Playwrights of New York (PoNY) fellowship at theLark Play Development Center.She has also worked as a Teaching Artist withCity University of New York's Creative Arts Team. Morisseau has said that music plays a huge part in her work and often informs the work that she is writing. \"It's a resource and clue to my work, and music plays","and music plays a unifier among cultural barriers.\" Morisseau was on the list of Top 20 Most Produced Playwrights in America in 2015–16, with 10 productions of her plays nationwide. Morisseau is a story editor for the television seriesShamelessonShowtimeand is also credited as a co-producer. She wrote the book for thejukebox musicalAin't Too Proud—The Life and Times of the Temptations, which is directed byDes McAnuff. The musical opened on Broadway at theImperial Theatrein March 2019. It played pre-Broadway engagements at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre (2017), theAhmanson Theatrein Los Angeles (August to September 2018),and theKennedy Center(July 2018). Thisplay marked Morisseau's Broadway debut.She received a nomination for aTony Award for Best Book of a Musical, the third Black woman to do so. Work The Detroit Project Morisseau has written a three-play cycle, titledThe Detroit Project.The three plays (in order) are: Detroit '67 This play \"explores an explosive and decisive moment in a great American","in a great American city.The play's compelling characters struggle with racial tension and economic instability.\"It was developed and workshopped atThe Public Theaterin New York.Detroit '67eventually was featured at theClassical Theatre of Harlemwith theNational Black Theatre. It was nominated for eightAUDELCOTheatre Awards and received the 2014 Edward M. Kennedy Prize for Drama Inspired by American History. Paradise Blue Former musician Blue decides to sell his beloved jazz club in order to live out his dreams. He is left with the moral dilemma of leaving his partner, Pumpkin, and his loyal jazz band behind. Morisseau developed this play first atWilliamstown Theatre Festival, where it eventually had its world premiere in July 2015.Paradise Bluecontinued its development at theMcCarter Theatre,New York Theatre Workshop,The Public Theater, and theSignature Theatre Company.For this play, Morisseau received the L. Arnold Weissberger Awardin 2012. Skeleton Crew The final play in the cycle revolves around a group","around a group of auto-plant workers grappling with the likely possibility of foreclosure and impending unemployment.Skeleton Crewreceived a developmental production at theLark Play Development Center.Directed byRuben Santiago-Hudson, this play had its world premiere at the Off-BroadwayLinda Gross Theaterwith theAtlantic Theater Companyin May 2016. Morisseau won the 2016Obie AwardSpecial Citation for Collaboration, along with director Santiago-Hudson and the Atlantic Theater Company forSkeleton Crew.The play won the Edgerton Foundation New Play Award in 2015.Skeleton Crewopened on Broadway in January 2022.It was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Play. Works Awards Morisseau received aMacArthur Fellowship(also known as the 'Genius Grant') fin 2018, which included a stipend of $625,000. She is one of 25 fellows in the 2018 Class. Morisseau was named an Honoree for theJane ChambersPlaywriting Award, which recognizes plays and performance texts created by women that present a feminist perspective and contain","and contain significant opportunities for female performers. She is a two-time award winner of theNAACPImage Award, which celebrates the outstanding achievements and performances of people of color in the arts, as well as those individuals or groups who promote social justice through their creative endeavors. References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Postcolonial Love Poem Postcolonial Love Poemis a poem collection byNatalie Diazwhich is her second collection. Awards Finalist or Shortlist in References This article about a collection of writtenpoetryis astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.\",\n \"Natalie Diaz Natalie Diaz(born September 4, 1978)is aPulitzer Prize-winningMojaveAmericanpoet,language activist, former professional basketball player, and educator. She is enrolled in theGila River Indian Communityand identifies asAkimel O'odham.She is currently an Associate Professor atArizona State University. Early life Natalie Diaz was born inNeedles,California, on September 4. 1978.She grew up in theFort MojaveIndian Village in Needles, California, on the border of California,Arizona, andNevada. She attendedOld Dominion University, where she played point guard on thewomen's basketball team, reaching theNCAA Final Fouras a freshman and the bracket of sixteen her other three years. She earned a bachelor's degree.After playing professional basketball in Europe and Asia, she returned to Old Dominion University, and completed an MFA in poetry and fiction,in 2006. Career Her work appeared inNarrative,Poetrymagazine,Drunken Boat,Prairie Schooner,Iowa Review, andCrab Orchard Review. Diaz's debut book of\",\n \"debut book of poetry,When My Brother Was an Aztec, \\\"portrays experiences rooted in Native American life with personal and mythic power.\\\"It was a 2012 Lannan Literary Selection,was shortlisted for the 2013PEN/Open Book Award,and was a 2013American Book Awardwinner.One important focus of the book is a sister struggling with her brother's addiction to crystal meth. In 2012, she was interviewed about her poetry and language rehabilitation work on thePBS NewsHour. In 2018, she was named as the Maxine and Jonathan Marshall Chair in Modern and Contemporary Poetry at Arizona State University. In 2019, she was faculty at theCantoMundoRetreat. In 2021, her bookPostcolonial Love Poemwon thePulitzer Prize for Poetry. It was called \\\"a collection of tender, heart-wrenching and defiant poems that explore what it means to love and be loved in an America beset by conflict.\\\"The book was also a finalist for the 2020 National Book Award, a finalist for the 2020 Los Angeles Times Book Prize, a finalist for the 2020 Forward Prize\",\n \"2020 Forward Prize for Best Collection, and shortlisted for the 2020 T. S. Eliot Prize. Personal life Diaz currently lives inMohave Valley, Arizona, where she used to work on language revitalization atFort Mojave, her home reservation. She worked with the last Elder speakers of the Mojave language. She is enrolled as member of the Gila Indian Community. Poetry In anthology Awards and honors References External links\",\n \"MacArthur Fellows Program TheMacArthur Fellows Program, also known as theMacArthur Fellowshipand colloquially called the \\\"Genius Grant\\\",is a prize awarded annually by theJohn D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundationto typically between 20 and 30 individuals working in any field who have shown \\\"extraordinary originality and dedication in their creative pursuits and a marked capacity for self-direction\\\" and are citizens or residents of theUnited States. According to the foundation's website, \\\"the fellowship is not a reward for past accomplishments but rather an investment in a person's originality, insight, and potential\\\", but it also says such potential is \\\"based on a track record of significant accomplishments\\\". The current prize is $800,000 paid over five years in quarterly installments. Previously, it was $625,000. This figure was increased from $500,000 in 2013 with the release of a reviewof the MacArthur Fellows Program. The award has been called \\\"one of the most significant awards that is truly 'no\",\n \"that is truly 'no strings attached'\\\". The program does not accept applications. Anonymous and confidential nominations are invited by the foundation and reviewed by an anonymous and confidential selection committee of about a dozen people. The committee reviews all nominees and recommends recipients to the president andboard of directors. Most new fellows first learn of their nomination and award upon receiving a congratulatory phone call. MacArthur FellowJim Collinsdescribed this experience in an editorial column ofThe New York Times. Marlies Carruth is the program's current director. Recipients As of 2023, since 1981, 1131 people have been named MacArthur Fellows,ranging in age from 18 to 82. In the five broad categories defined by the foundation, the breakdown for recipient focus is as follows: Arts 336; Humanities 170; Public Issues 257;STEM335; and Social Sciences 120. Of the 965 terminal degrees earned by 928 fellows during the period 1981 through 2018, 540 (56%) are doctorates, with the Ph.D.\",\n \"with the Ph.D. accounting for 514 (53.3%). Ivy league schools awarded 306 (31.7%) degrees to 300 (32.3%) fellows. The award is made to individuals of varying educational background but among the 1131 fellowship awards through the class of 2023, the following ten institutions have the most alumni fellows, withHarvard Universityhaving the most overall and theCalifornia Institute of Technologyhaving the most per capita. 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 Source: Notes References External links\",\n \"Dominique Morisseau Dominique Morisseau(born March 13, 1978) is an American playwright and actress fromDetroit, Michigan. She has written more than nine plays,three of which are part of a cycle titledThe Detroit Project.She received aMacArthur Fellowship(also known as the 'Genius Grant') in 2018. Early life Morisseau was born and grew up in Detroit, Michigan, with her mother and father. Her mother's family is from Mississippi and her father's family is fromHaiti.She attended theUniversity of MichiganinAnn Arbor, where she received her BFA in Acting in 2000. There she met J. Keys, who is also from Michigan. They married in 2013.Keys was born in Detroit but grew up in Southfield, Michigan, a nearby suburb of the city. He works as a music industry promoter, emcee and hip hop musician. Career Acting Morisseau began her performance career as a live poetry speaker, primarily in her hometown community of Harmonie Park in Detroit.After graduating from college, she continued acting and worked with several\",\n \"worked with several organizations. At theLark Play Development Center, she worked as an actor in a workshop production ofThe MountaintopbyKatori Hall, developing the role of Camae. In 2013, in a production at theActors Theatre of Louisville, she reprised the role of Camae.She continues acting but has said that she would not act in any of her plays' premieres. Writing Morisseau began writing plays in college. She has said that the lack of suitable roles at the University of Michigan drove her to write plays and create the roles she wanted to perform. She wroteThe Blackness Blues: Time to Change the Tune, A Sister's Storyat this time. After college, in 2012 and 2013, she received a Playwrights of New York (PoNY) fellowship at theLark Play Development Center.She has also worked as a Teaching Artist withCity University of New York's Creative Arts Team. Morisseau has said that music plays a huge part in her work and often informs the work that she is writing. \\\"It's a resource and clue to my work, and music plays\",\n \"and music plays a unifier among cultural barriers.\\\" Morisseau was on the list of Top 20 Most Produced Playwrights in America in 2015–16, with 10 productions of her plays nationwide. Morisseau is a story editor for the television seriesShamelessonShowtimeand is also credited as a co-producer. She wrote the book for thejukebox musicalAin't Too Proud—The Life and Times of the Temptations, which is directed byDes McAnuff. The musical opened on Broadway at theImperial Theatrein March 2019. It played pre-Broadway engagements at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre (2017), theAhmanson Theatrein Los Angeles (August to September 2018),and theKennedy Center(July 2018). Thisplay marked Morisseau's Broadway debut.She received a nomination for aTony Award for Best Book of a Musical, the third Black woman to do so. Work The Detroit Project Morisseau has written a three-play cycle, titledThe Detroit Project.The three plays (in order) are: Detroit '67 This play \\\"explores an explosive and decisive moment in a great American\",\n \"in a great American city.The play's compelling characters struggle with racial tension and economic instability.\\\"It was developed and workshopped atThe Public Theaterin New York.Detroit '67eventually was featured at theClassical Theatre of Harlemwith theNational Black Theatre. It was nominated for eightAUDELCOTheatre Awards and received the 2014 Edward M. Kennedy Prize for Drama Inspired by American History. Paradise Blue Former musician Blue decides to sell his beloved jazz club in order to live out his dreams. He is left with the moral dilemma of leaving his partner, Pumpkin, and his loyal jazz band behind. Morisseau developed this play first atWilliamstown Theatre Festival, where it eventually had its world premiere in July 2015.Paradise Bluecontinued its development at theMcCarter Theatre,New York Theatre Workshop,The Public Theater, and theSignature Theatre Company.For this play, Morisseau received the L. Arnold Weissberger Awardin 2012. Skeleton Crew The final play in the cycle revolves around a group\",\n \"around a group of auto-plant workers grappling with the likely possibility of foreclosure and impending unemployment.Skeleton Crewreceived a developmental production at theLark Play Development Center.Directed byRuben Santiago-Hudson, this play had its world premiere at the Off-BroadwayLinda Gross Theaterwith theAtlantic Theater Companyin May 2016. Morisseau won the 2016Obie AwardSpecial Citation for Collaboration, along with director Santiago-Hudson and the Atlantic Theater Company forSkeleton Crew.The play won the Edgerton Foundation New Play Award in 2015.Skeleton Crewopened on Broadway in January 2022.It was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Play. Works Awards Morisseau received aMacArthur Fellowship(also known as the 'Genius Grant') fin 2018, which included a stipend of $625,000. She is one of 25 fellows in the 2018 Class. Morisseau was named an Honoree for theJane ChambersPlaywriting Award, which recognizes plays and performance texts created by women that present a feminist perspective and contain\",\n \"and contain significant opportunities for female performers. She is a two-time award winner of theNAACPImage Award, which celebrates the outstanding achievements and performances of people of color in the arts, as well as those individuals or groups who promote social justice through their creative endeavors. References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":386,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What lake in Isreal supports a population of the state bird of the Indian state Haryana?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"The Sea of Galilee"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_francolin"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_francolin']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_francolin"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_francolin\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Sea of Galilee TheSea of Galilee(Hebrew:יָם כִּנֶּרֶת,Judeo-Aramaic: יַמּא דטבריא, גִּנֵּיסַר,Arabic:بحيرة طبريا), also calledLake TiberiasorKinneret, is afreshwaterlakeinIsraelandSyria(occupied by Israel). It is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-lowest lake in the world (after theDead Sea, asalt lake),at levels between 215 and 209 metres (705 and 686 ft) below sea level.It is approximately 53 km (33 mi) in circumference, about 21 km (13 mi) long, and 13 km (8.1 mi) wide. Its area is 166.7 km2(64.4 sq mi) at its fullest, and its maximum depth is approximately 43 metres (141 ft).The lake is fed partly by underground springs, but its main source is theJordan River, which flows through it from north to south and exits the lake at theDegania Dam. Geography The Sea of Galilee is situated in northeastIsrael, between theGolan Heightsand theGalileeregion, in theJordan Rift Valley,formed by the separation of theAfricanandArabianplates. Consequently, the area is subject toearthquakes, and in the past,volcanicactivity.This is evident from the abundantbasaltand otherigneousrocks that define thegeology of Galilee. Names The lake has been called by different names throughout its history, usually depending on the dominant settlement on its shores. With the changing fate of the towns, the lake's name also changed. The modern Hebrew nameKineretcomes from theHebrew Bible, where it appears as the \"sea of Kineret\" inNumbers 34:11andJoshua 13:27, and spelled כנרות \"Kinerot\" inHebrewinJoshua 11:2. This name was also found in the scripts ofUgarit, in theAqhat Epic. As the name of acity,Kinneretwas listed among the \"fenced cities\" inJoshua 19:35. A persistent, though likely erroneous, popular etymology presumes that the nameKinneretmay originate from the Hebrew wordkinnor(\"harp\" or \"lyre\"), because of the shape of the lake.The scholarly consensus, however, is that the origin of the name is derived from the importantBronzeandIron Agecity of Kinneret, excavated at Tell el-'Oreimeh.The city of Kinneret may have been named after the body of water rather than vice versa, and there is no evidence for the origin of the town's name. AllOldandNew Testamentwriters use the term \"sea\" (Hebrew יָםyam, Greek θάλασσα), with the exception ofLuke, who calls it \"the Lake of Gennesaret\" (Luke 5:1), from the Greek λίμνη Γεννησαρέτ (limnē Gennēsaret), the \"Grecized form of Chinnereth.\"TheBabylonian Talmudas well asFlavius Josephusmention the sea by the name \"Sea of Ginosar\" after the small fertileplain of Ginosarthat lies on its western side.Ginosar is yet another name derived from \"Kinneret\". The wordGalileecomes from the HebrewHaggalil(הַגָלִיל), which literally means \"The District\", a compressed form ofGelil Haggoyim\"The District of Nations\" (Isaiah 8:23). Toward the end of the 1st century CE, the Sea of Galilee became widely known as theSea of Tiberiasafter the city ofTiberiasfounded on its western shore in honour of the second Roman emperor,Tiberius. In the New Testament, the term \"sea of Galilee\" (Greek:θάλασσαν τῆς Γαλιλαίας,thalassan tēs Galilaias) is used in theGospel of Matthew4:18; 15:29, theGospel of Mark1:16; 7:31, and in theGospel of John6:1as \"the sea of Galilee, which is of Tiberias\" (θαλάσσης τῆς Γαλιλαίας τῆς Τιβεριάδος,thalassēs tēs Galilaias tēs Tiberiados), the late 1st century CE name.Sea of Tiberias is also the name mentioned in Roman texts and in theJerusalem Talmud, and it was adopted into Arabic asBuḥayret Ṭabariyyāⓘ(بحيرة طبريا), \"Lake Tiberias\". From theUmayyadthrough theMamlukperiod, the lake was known in Arabic asBahr al-Minya, the \"Sea of Minya\", after the Umayyadqasrcomplex, whose ruins are still visible atKhirbat al-Minya. This is the name used by the medievalPersianandArabscholarsAl-Baladhuri,Al-TabariandIbn Kathir. History Prehistory In 1989, remains of ahunter-gatherersite were found under the water at the southern end. Remains of mud huts were found inOhalo. Nahal Ein Gev, located about 3 km (1.9 mi) east of the lake, contains a village from the lateNatufianperiod. The site is considered one of the first permanent human settlements in the world from a time predating theNeolithic Revolution. Hellenistic and Roman periods The Sea of Galilee lies on the ancientVia Maris, which linkedEgyptwith the northern empires. TheGreeks,Hasmoneans, andRomansfounded flourishing towns and settlements on the lake includingHipposandTiberias. Contemporary Roman–Jewish historianFlavius Josephuswas so impressed by the area that he wrote, \"One may call this place the ambition of Nature\"; he also reports a thriving fishing industry at this time, with 230 boats regularly working in the lake. Archaeologists discovered one such boat, nicknamed theJesus Boat, in 1986. In the New Testament, much of theministry of Jesusoccurs on the shores of the Sea of Galilee. In those days, there was a continuous ribbon development of settlements and villages around the lake and plenty of trade and ferrying by boat. TheSynoptic GospelsofMark 1:14–20),Matthew 4:18–22), andLuke 5:1–11) describe how Jesus recruited four of hisapostlesfrom the shores of the Kinneret: the fishermenSimonand his brotherAndrewand the brothersJohnandJames. One of Jesus' famous teaching episodes, theSermon on the Mount, is supposed to have been given on a hill overlooking the Kinneret. Many of his miracles are also said to have occurred here includinghis walking on water,calming the storm, the disciples and themiraculous catch of fish, and hisfeeding five thousand people(inTabgha). In John's Gospel the sea provides the setting for Jesus' thirdpost-resurrection appearanceto his disciples (John 21). In 135 CE,Bar Kokhba's revoltwas put down which was part of theJewish–Roman wars. The Romans responded by banning all Jews fromJerusalem. The center of Jewish culture and learning shifted to the region of Galilee and the Kinneret, particularly Tiberias. It was in this region that theJerusalem Talmudwas compiled. Middle Ages The Sea of Galilee's importance declined when theByzantineslost control, and the area was conquered by theUmayyad Caliphateand subsequent Islamic empires. The palace ofMinyawas built by the lake during the reign ofal-Walid I(705–715 CE). Apart from Tiberias, the major towns and cities in the area were gradually abandoned.In 1187, SultanSaladindefeated the armies of theCrusaderKingdom of Jerusalemat theBattle of Hattin, largely because he was able to cut the Crusaders off from the valuable fresh water of the Sea of Galilee. The lake had little importance within the earlyOttoman Empire. Tiberias did see a significant revival of its Jewish community in the 16th century but had gradually declined until the city wasdestroyed in 1660. In the early 18th century, Tiberias was rebuilt byZahir al-Umar, becoming the center of his rule over Galilee, and seeing also a revival of its Jewish community. Early 20th century In 1908, Jewish pioneers established theKinneret Farmat the same time as and next to Moshavat Kinneret in the immediate vicinity of the lake. The farm trained Jewish immigrants in modern farming. One group of youth from the training farm establishedKvutzatDeganiain 1909–1910, popularly considered as the firstkibbutz, another group foundedKvutzat Kinneretin 1913, and yet another the first proper kibbutz,Ein Harod, in 1921, the same year when the firstmoshav,Nahalal, was established by a group trained at the farm. The Jewish settlements around Kinneret Farm are considered the cradle of the kibbutz culture of earlyZionism; Kvutzat Kinneret is the birthplace ofNaomi Shemer, buried at the Kinneret Cemetery next toRachel—two prominent national poets. In 1917, the British defeated Ottoman Turkish forces and took control ofPalestine, while France took control of Syria. In the carve-up of the Ottoman territories between Britain and France, it was agreed that Britain would retain control of Palestine while France would control Syria. However, the allies had to fix the border between theMandatory Palestineand theFrench Mandate of Syria.The boundary was defined in broad terms by theFranco-British Boundary Agreementof December 1920, which drew it across the middle of the lake.However, the commission established by the 1920 treaty redrew the boundary. The Zionist movement pressured the French and British to assign as many water sources as possible to Mandatory Palestine during the demarcating negotiations. The High Commissioner of Palestine,Herbert Samuel, had sought full control of the Sea of Galilee.The negotiations led to the inclusion into the Palestine territory of the whole Sea of Galilee, both sides of theRiver Jordan,Lake Hula, Dan spring, and part of theYarmouk.The final border approved in 1923 followed a 10-meter wide strip along the lake's northeastern shore,cutting the Mandatory Syria (State of Damascus) off from the lake. The British and French Agreement provided that existing rights over the use of the waters of the River Jordan by the inhabitants of Syria would be maintained; the government of Syria would have the right to erect a new pier atSemakhon Lake Tiberias or jointly use the existing pier; persons or goods passing between the landing-stage on the Lake of Tiberias and Semakh would not be subject to customs regulations, and the Syrian government would have access to the said landing-stage; the inhabitants of Syria and Lebanon would have the same fishing and navigation rights on Lakes Huleh, Tiberias and River Jordan, while the government of Palestine would be responsible for policing of lakes. State of Israel On 15 May 1948, Syria invaded the newborn state of Israel,capturing territory along the Sea of Galilee.Under the 1949armistice agreementbetween Israel and Syria, Syria occupied the northeast shoreline of the Sea of Galilee. The agreement stated that the armistice line was \"not to be interpreted as having any relation whatsoever to ultimate territorial arrangements.\" Syria remained in possession of the lake's northeast shoreline until the 1967Arab-Israeli war. In the 1950s, Israel formulated a plan to link the Kinneret with the rest of the country's water infrastructure via theNational Water Carrier, in order to supply the water demand of the growing country. The carrier was completed in 1964. The Israeli plan, to which theArab Leagueopposed its ownplan to divert the headwaters of the Jordan River, sparked political and sometimes even armedconfrontations over the Jordan basin. Geology The lake lies in the center of the Jordan Valley, in the northern part of theSyrian-African rift. Several directions oftectonic movementscharacterize the region, mirroring the patterns typical of the entire Syrian-African rift: north–south movements, which started about 20 million years ago; stretching movements in the east–west direction, which began later, at the beginning of thePleistocene(about 1.8 million years ago), and caused thesubsidenceof the lake area. As a result of horizontal shifts in the north–south direction and subsidence of the area, a lake was formed, with an asymmetrical bottom—steeper in the east and a gentler in the west. In the southern part an underwater cliff is present, covered by the lake's sediments. The cliff is distinct in the western part and less so in the east. The Sea of Galilee in its current form was preceded byLake Lisan, which extended from the northern Sea of Galilee toHatzevain the south, more than 200 km (120 mi) from the present southernmost point of the lake. Lake Lisan was preceded by Lake Ovadia, a much smaller fresh water lake. Lake Kinneret was formed in its current form less than 20,000 years ago, as a result of tectonic subsidence and the shrinking up of Lake Lisan. Archaeology In 1986 theAncient Galilee Boat, also known as the Jesus Boat, was discovered on the northwest shore during a drought when water levels receded. It is an ancient fishing boat from the 1st century AD, and although there is no evidence directly linking the boat to Jesus and his disciples, it nevertheless is an example of the kind of boat that Jesus and his disciples, some of whom were fishermen, may have used. During a routine sonar scan in 2003 (finding published in 2013),archaeologists discovered an enormous conical stone structure. The structure, which has a diameter of around 230 feet (70 m), is made of boulders and stones. The ruins are estimated to be between 2,000 and 12,000 years old and are about 10 metres (33 ft) underwater.The estimated weight of the monument is over 60,000 tons. Researchers explain that the site resembles early burial sites in Europe and was likely built in the earlyBronze Age. In February 2018, archaeologists discovered seven intact mosaics withGreekinscriptions. One inscription, at five meters one of the longest found to date in western Galilee, gives the names of donors and the names and positions of church officials, including Irenaeus, bishop ofTyrein 445. Another mosaic mentions a woman as a donor to the church's construction. This inscription is the first in the region to mention a female donor. Water level The water level is monitored and regulated. There are three levels at which the alarm is rung: Daily monitoring of the Sea of Galilee's water level began in 1969, and the lowest level recorded since then was November 2001, which today constitutes the \"black line\" of 214.87 meters below sea level (although it is believed the water level had fallen lower than the current black line, during droughts earlier in the 20th century). The Israeli government monitors water levels and publishes the results daily.Increasing water demand in Israel, Lebanon and Jordan, as well as dry winters, have resulted in stress on the lake and a decreasing water line to dangerously low levels at times. The Sea of Galilee is at risk of becoming irreversibly salinized by the salt water springs under the lake, which are held in check by the weight of the freshwater on top of them. After five years of drought up to 2018, the Sea of Galilee was expected to drop near the black line.In February 2018, the city of Tiberias requested adesalinationplant to treat the water coming from the Sea of Galilee and demanded a new water source for the city.March 2018 was the lowest point in water incometo the lake since 1927.In September 2018 theIsraeli energy and water officeannounced a project to pour desalinated water from the Mediterranean Sea into the Sea of Galilee using a tunnel. The tunnel is expected to be the largest of its kind in Israel and will transfer halfof the Mediterranean desalted water and will move 300 to 500 million cubic meters of water per year.The plan is said to cost five billion shekels. Since the beginning of the 2018–19 rainy season, the Sea of Galilee has risen considerably. From being near the ecologically dangerous black line of −214.4 m, the level has risen by April 2020 to just 16 cm (6.3 in) below the upper red line, a result of strong rains and a radical decrease in pumping.During the entire 2018–19 rainy season the water level rose by a historical record of 3.47 meters (11.4 ft), while the 2019–20 winter brought a 2.82 meters (9 ft 3 in) rise.The Water Authority dug a new canal in order to let 5 billion liters (1.1×109imp gal; 1.3×109U.S. gal) of water flow from the lake directly into the Jordan River, bypassing the existing dams system for technical and financial reasons. Water use TheNational Water Carrier of Israel, completed in 1964, transports water from the lake to the population centers of Israel, and in the past supplied most of the country's drinking water.In 2016 the lake supplied approximately 10% of Israel's drinking water needs. In 1964, Syria attempted construction of aHeadwater Diversion Planthat would have blocked the flow of water into the Sea of Galilee, sharply reducing the water flow into the lake.This project and Israel's attempt to block these efforts in 1965 were factors which played into regional tensions culminating in the 1967 Six-Day War. During the war, Israel captured theGolan Heights, which contain some of the sources of water for the Sea of Galilee. Up until the mid-2010s, about 400 million m3(14 billion cu ft) of water was pumped through the National Water Carrier each year.Under the terms of theIsrael–Jordan peace treaty, Israel also supplies 50 million m3(1.8 billion cu ft) of water annually from the lake toJordan.In recent years the Israeli government has made extensive investments inwater conservation,reclamationanddesalinationinfrastructure in the country. This has allowed it to significantly reduce the amount of water pumped from the lake annually in an effort to restore and improve its ecological environment, as well as respond to some of the most extreme drought conditions in hundreds of years affecting the lake'sintake basinsince 1998. Therefore, it was expected that in 2016 only about 25 million m3(880 million cu ft) of water would be drawn from the lake for Israeli domestic consumption, a small fraction of the amount typically drawn from the lake over the previous decades. Tourism Tourismaround the Sea of Galilee is an important economic segment. Historical and religious sites in the region draw both local and foreign tourists. The Sea of Galilee is an attraction forChristian pilgrimswho visit Israel to see the places where Jesus performed miracles according to the New Testament. Alonzo Ketcham Parker, a 19th-century American traveler, called visiting the Sea of Galilee \"a 'fifth gospel' which one read devoutly, his heart overflowing with quiet joy\". In April 2011, Israel unveiled a 40-mile (64 km) hiking trail in Galilee for Christian pilgrims, called the \"Jesus Trail\". It includes a network of footpaths, roads and bicycle paths linking sites central to the lives of Jesus and his disciples. It ends atCapernaumon the shores of the Sea of Galilee, where Jesus expounded his teachings.Another key attraction is the site where the Sea of Galilee's water flows into the Jordan River, to which thousands of pilgrims from all over the world come to be baptized every year. Israel's most well-known open water swim race, the Kinneret Crossing, is held every year in September, drawing thousands of open water swimmers to participate in competitive and noncompetitive events.Tourists also partake in the building of rafts onLavnun Beach, called Rafsodia. Here many different age groups work together to build a raft with their bare hands and then sail that raft across the sea.Other economic activities include fishing in the lake andagriculture, particularlybananas, dates, mangoes, grapes and olives in the fertile belt of land surrounding it. The Turkish Aviators Monument, erected during the Ottoman era, stands near KibbutzHa'onon the lakeshore, commemorating the Turkish pilots whose monoplanes crashed en route to Jerusalem. Ecology The warm waters of the Sea of Galilee support various flora and fauna, which have supported a significant commercial fishery for more than two millennia. Local flora include various reeds along most of the shoreline as well asphytoplankton. Fauna includezooplankton,benthosand a number of fish species such asMirogrex terraesanctae.The Fishing and Agricultural Division of the Ministry of Water and Agriculture of Israel lists 10 families of fish living in the lake, with a total of 27 species – 19 native and 8introduced species.Local fishermen talk of four types of fish: \"مشط musht\" (tilapia); sardin (the Kinneret bleak,Mirogrex terraesanctae); \"بني biny\" or Jordan barbel,Luciobarbus longiceps(barb-like); and North African sharptoothcatfish(Clarias gariepinus).The tilapia species include the Galilean tilapia (Sarotherodon galilaeus), the blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus), and the redbelly tilapia (Tilapia zillii).Fish caught commercially includeTristramella simonisand the Galilean tilapia, locally called \"St. Peter's fish\".In 2005, 300 short tons (270 t) of tilapia were caught by local fishermen. This dropped to 8 short tons (7.3 t) in 2009 because ofoverfishing.A fish species that is unique to the lake,Tristramella sacra, used tospawnin the marsh and has not been seen since the 1990s droughts.Conservationists fear this species may have becomeextinct. Low water levels in drought years have stressed thelake's ecology. This may have been aggravated by over-extraction of water for either the National Water Carrier to supply other parts of Israel or, since 1994, for the supply of water to Jordan. Droughts of the early and mid-1990s dried out the marshy northern margin of the lake.It is hoped that drastic reductions in the amount of water pumped through the National Water Carrier will help restore the lake's ecology over the span of several years. The lake, with its immediate surrounds, has been recognised as anImportant Bird AreabyBirdLife Internationalbecause it supports populations ofblack francolinsand non-breedinggriffon vulturesas well as many wintering waterbirds, includingmarbled teals,great crested grebes,grey herons,great white egrets,great cormorantsandblack-headed gulls. See also References Further reading External links","Black francolin Tetrao francolinusLinnaeus, 1766 Theblack francolin(Francolinus francolinus) is agamebirdin thepheasantfamilyPhasianidaeof the orderGalliformes. It was formerly known as the black partridge. It is the state bird ofHaryanastate,India(locally known askaala teetar, काला तीतर). Fried black francolin is eaten inAzerbaijani cuisine. Taxonomy There are six recognized subspecies: Description The black francolin has a length range around 33 to 36 cm (13 to 14 in) and weight about 453 g (16 oz). The male is black with a white patch on the cheek, a chestnut collar and white spots on the flanks. The back and wings are scalloped with shades of golden brown with sub-terminal tawny-buff bands and pale edges. The rounded tail is black with narrow white or greyish bars. The legs and neck are reddish-brown to red. The extent of the white spotting on the flanks varies substantially across the species' range and the depth of colour of the females similarly varies. The female is mainly brown, but has a chestnut hind neck. The head is curved with brown irises, brown crown and black throat. The upper plumage, wings and tail as in the male, but the black is replaced by mottled brown and the brown bars on the lower back and tail are wider. The female is duller, with no cheek patch, and the collar is replaced with a nuchal patch. The head and underparts are buff where the male shows black. The rump and upper tail coverts are light brown. Similar species: the grey francolin has a grey-brown and buff body, buff instead of black throat, and lacks the rufous collar. Voice The call of the black francolin, described as a loud ringing \"klik cheek-cheek-cheerakik\", \"kik-kik-kik\" or \"kwee-kweeeee-kwee\", can be heard in the mornings and evenings and almost all day during the breeding season. The male calls while standing on an earth mound, bund, rock or a low tree branch and is soon joined by other birds answering from all directions. Distribution and habitat Black francolins are resident breeders from south-easternTurkeyeastwards throughIranto southwestTurkmenistanand northeast India, and Kazipara,PanchagarhofBangladesh.The species' range was formerly more extensive, but over-hunting has reduced its distribution and numbers. Fragmented populations occur in the western part of its range. Black francolins wereintroducedto theCalcasieuandCameronparishes of southwesternLouisianain 1961.Additional introductions have also occurred in southFlorida.Elsewhere, black francolins have been introduced toGuamand theHawaiian Islands. The birds are found in scrubby habitats with plenty of cultivated crops tall enough to offer shelter and open beneath to provide escape routes and easy travel. They prefer areas of thick vegetation, usually near water. They are not forest birds but will frequent scrubland and forest edges associated with grassland. They appear to be more closely associated to water thanchukarsare, and in drier areas. Behaviour The black francolin only flies when disturbed. It has a pheasant's explosive flight, but prefers to creep away unseen. The flight is short and direct, punctuated by glides on rounded wings. Breeding Black francolins are monogamous. They normally nest in tall grasslands from late March to May. The male may be seen standing on a rock or low tree attracting attention with its extraordinary creaking call. It may be heard all day long in April, during nesting, and less persistently in March and May as well as the summer months. Both parents tend chicks after hatching. Young stay with parents through their first winter. The most likely breeding locations Savanna, Grasslands, Scrub vegetation areas under the cultivated crops. They have a loud call during the breeding season. Males may also become aggressive during the breeding season, make sure there is plenty of cover and escape routes for the hen and it maybe necessary to house her separate and allow limited access for breeding only. They are generally monogamous in the wild. In aviculture it is best to house only one pair per aviary. Well planted aviaries with little surrounding traffic would be best for breeding. They are fairly winter hardy, but always provide some shelter during the coldest months breeds from late March to September depending on the range. The normal clutch size lies between 10 and 14 eggs, and only the hen incubates. The eggs are white-spotted olive or pale brown. The incubation period is 18 to 19 days, the breeding season is April to June and the young appear from April to October. Feeding The birds forage on the ground for plant material and small invertebrates, including grain, grass seeds, fallen berries, shoots, tubers, termites and ants. In aviculture they eat small mealworms and wax worms, but care must be used when feeding chicks as they are prone to toe-picking. . References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Sea of Galilee TheSea of Galilee(Hebrew:יָם כִּנֶּרֶת,Judeo-Aramaic: יַמּא דטבריא, גִּנֵּיסַר,Arabic:بحيرة طبريا), also calledLake TiberiasorKinneret, is afreshwaterlakeinIsraelandSyria(occupied by Israel). It is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-lowest lake in the world (after theDead Sea, asalt lake),at levels between 215 and 209 metres (705 and 686 ft) below sea level.It is approximately 53 km (33 mi) in circumference, about 21 km (13 mi) long, and 13 km (8.1 mi) wide. Its area is 166.7 km2(64.4 sq mi) at its fullest, and its maximum depth is approximately 43 metres (141 ft).The lake is fed partly by underground springs, but its main source is theJordan River, which flows through it from north to south and exits the lake at theDegania Dam. Geography The Sea of Galilee is situated in northeastIsrael, between theGolan Heightsand theGalileeregion, in theJordan Rift Valley,formed by the separation of theAfricanandArabianplates. Consequently, the area is subject toearthquakes, and in the past,volcanicactivity.This is evident from the abundantbasaltand otherigneousrocks that define thegeology of Galilee. Names The lake has been called by different names throughout its history, usually depending on the dominant settlement on its shores. With the changing fate of the towns, the lake's name also changed. The modern Hebrew nameKineretcomes from theHebrew Bible, where it appears as the \\\"sea of Kineret\\\" inNumbers 34:11andJoshua 13:27, and spelled כנרות \\\"Kinerot\\\" inHebrewinJoshua 11:2. This name was also found in the scripts ofUgarit, in theAqhat Epic. As the name of acity,Kinneretwas listed among the \\\"fenced cities\\\" inJoshua 19:35. A persistent, though likely erroneous, popular etymology presumes that the nameKinneretmay originate from the Hebrew wordkinnor(\\\"harp\\\" or \\\"lyre\\\"), because of the shape of the lake.The scholarly consensus, however, is that the origin of the name is derived from the importantBronzeandIron Agecity of Kinneret, excavated at Tell el-'Oreimeh.The city of Kinneret may have been named after the body of water rather than vice versa, and there is no evidence for the origin of the town's name. AllOldandNew Testamentwriters use the term \\\"sea\\\" (Hebrew יָםyam, Greek θάλασσα), with the exception ofLuke, who calls it \\\"the Lake of Gennesaret\\\" (Luke 5:1), from the Greek λίμνη Γεννησαρέτ (limnē Gennēsaret), the \\\"Grecized form of Chinnereth.\\\"TheBabylonian Talmudas well asFlavius Josephusmention the sea by the name \\\"Sea of Ginosar\\\" after the small fertileplain of Ginosarthat lies on its western side.Ginosar is yet another name derived from \\\"Kinneret\\\". The wordGalileecomes from the HebrewHaggalil(הַגָלִיל), which literally means \\\"The District\\\", a compressed form ofGelil Haggoyim\\\"The District of Nations\\\" (Isaiah 8:23). Toward the end of the 1st century CE, the Sea of Galilee became widely known as theSea of Tiberiasafter the city ofTiberiasfounded on its western shore in honour of the second Roman emperor,Tiberius. In the New Testament, the term \\\"sea of Galilee\\\" (Greek:θάλασσαν τῆς Γαλιλαίας,thalassan tēs Galilaias) is used in theGospel of Matthew4:18; 15:29, theGospel of Mark1:16; 7:31, and in theGospel of John6:1as \\\"the sea of Galilee, which is of Tiberias\\\" (θαλάσσης τῆς Γαλιλαίας τῆς Τιβεριάδος,thalassēs tēs Galilaias tēs Tiberiados), the late 1st century CE name.Sea of Tiberias is also the name mentioned in Roman texts and in theJerusalem Talmud, and it was adopted into Arabic asBuḥayret Ṭabariyyāⓘ(بحيرة طبريا), \\\"Lake Tiberias\\\". From theUmayyadthrough theMamlukperiod, the lake was known in Arabic asBahr al-Minya, the \\\"Sea of Minya\\\", after the Umayyadqasrcomplex, whose ruins are still visible atKhirbat al-Minya. This is the name used by the medievalPersianandArabscholarsAl-Baladhuri,Al-TabariandIbn Kathir. History Prehistory In 1989, remains of ahunter-gatherersite were found under the water at the southern end. Remains of mud huts were found inOhalo. Nahal Ein Gev, located about 3 km (1.9 mi) east of the lake, contains a village from the lateNatufianperiod. The site is considered one of the first permanent human settlements in the world from a time predating theNeolithic Revolution. Hellenistic and Roman periods The Sea of Galilee lies on the ancientVia Maris, which linkedEgyptwith the northern empires. TheGreeks,Hasmoneans, andRomansfounded flourishing towns and settlements on the lake includingHipposandTiberias. Contemporary Roman–Jewish historianFlavius Josephuswas so impressed by the area that he wrote, \\\"One may call this place the ambition of Nature\\\"; he also reports a thriving fishing industry at this time, with 230 boats regularly working in the lake. Archaeologists discovered one such boat, nicknamed theJesus Boat, in 1986. In the New Testament, much of theministry of Jesusoccurs on the shores of the Sea of Galilee. In those days, there was a continuous ribbon development of settlements and villages around the lake and plenty of trade and ferrying by boat. TheSynoptic GospelsofMark 1:14–20),Matthew 4:18–22), andLuke 5:1–11) describe how Jesus recruited four of hisapostlesfrom the shores of the Kinneret: the fishermenSimonand his brotherAndrewand the brothersJohnandJames. One of Jesus' famous teaching episodes, theSermon on the Mount, is supposed to have been given on a hill overlooking the Kinneret. Many of his miracles are also said to have occurred here includinghis walking on water,calming the storm, the disciples and themiraculous catch of fish, and hisfeeding five thousand people(inTabgha). In John's Gospel the sea provides the setting for Jesus' thirdpost-resurrection appearanceto his disciples (John 21). In 135 CE,Bar Kokhba's revoltwas put down which was part of theJewish–Roman wars. The Romans responded by banning all Jews fromJerusalem. The center of Jewish culture and learning shifted to the region of Galilee and the Kinneret, particularly Tiberias. It was in this region that theJerusalem Talmudwas compiled. Middle Ages The Sea of Galilee's importance declined when theByzantineslost control, and the area was conquered by theUmayyad Caliphateand subsequent Islamic empires. The palace ofMinyawas built by the lake during the reign ofal-Walid I(705–715 CE). Apart from Tiberias, the major towns and cities in the area were gradually abandoned.In 1187, SultanSaladindefeated the armies of theCrusaderKingdom of Jerusalemat theBattle of Hattin, largely because he was able to cut the Crusaders off from the valuable fresh water of the Sea of Galilee. The lake had little importance within the earlyOttoman Empire. Tiberias did see a significant revival of its Jewish community in the 16th century but had gradually declined until the city wasdestroyed in 1660. In the early 18th century, Tiberias was rebuilt byZahir al-Umar, becoming the center of his rule over Galilee, and seeing also a revival of its Jewish community. Early 20th century In 1908, Jewish pioneers established theKinneret Farmat the same time as and next to Moshavat Kinneret in the immediate vicinity of the lake. The farm trained Jewish immigrants in modern farming. One group of youth from the training farm establishedKvutzatDeganiain 1909–1910, popularly considered as the firstkibbutz, another group foundedKvutzat Kinneretin 1913, and yet another the first proper kibbutz,Ein Harod, in 1921, the same year when the firstmoshav,Nahalal, was established by a group trained at the farm. The Jewish settlements around Kinneret Farm are considered the cradle of the kibbutz culture of earlyZionism; Kvutzat Kinneret is the birthplace ofNaomi Shemer, buried at the Kinneret Cemetery next toRachel—two prominent national poets. In 1917, the British defeated Ottoman Turkish forces and took control ofPalestine, while France took control of Syria. In the carve-up of the Ottoman territories between Britain and France, it was agreed that Britain would retain control of Palestine while France would control Syria. However, the allies had to fix the border between theMandatory Palestineand theFrench Mandate of Syria.The boundary was defined in broad terms by theFranco-British Boundary Agreementof December 1920, which drew it across the middle of the lake.However, the commission established by the 1920 treaty redrew the boundary. The Zionist movement pressured the French and British to assign as many water sources as possible to Mandatory Palestine during the demarcating negotiations. The High Commissioner of Palestine,Herbert Samuel, had sought full control of the Sea of Galilee.The negotiations led to the inclusion into the Palestine territory of the whole Sea of Galilee, both sides of theRiver Jordan,Lake Hula, Dan spring, and part of theYarmouk.The final border approved in 1923 followed a 10-meter wide strip along the lake's northeastern shore,cutting the Mandatory Syria (State of Damascus) off from the lake. The British and French Agreement provided that existing rights over the use of the waters of the River Jordan by the inhabitants of Syria would be maintained; the government of Syria would have the right to erect a new pier atSemakhon Lake Tiberias or jointly use the existing pier; persons or goods passing between the landing-stage on the Lake of Tiberias and Semakh would not be subject to customs regulations, and the Syrian government would have access to the said landing-stage; the inhabitants of Syria and Lebanon would have the same fishing and navigation rights on Lakes Huleh, Tiberias and River Jordan, while the government of Palestine would be responsible for policing of lakes. State of Israel On 15 May 1948, Syria invaded the newborn state of Israel,capturing territory along the Sea of Galilee.Under the 1949armistice agreementbetween Israel and Syria, Syria occupied the northeast shoreline of the Sea of Galilee. The agreement stated that the armistice line was \\\"not to be interpreted as having any relation whatsoever to ultimate territorial arrangements.\\\" Syria remained in possession of the lake's northeast shoreline until the 1967Arab-Israeli war. In the 1950s, Israel formulated a plan to link the Kinneret with the rest of the country's water infrastructure via theNational Water Carrier, in order to supply the water demand of the growing country. The carrier was completed in 1964. The Israeli plan, to which theArab Leagueopposed its ownplan to divert the headwaters of the Jordan River, sparked political and sometimes even armedconfrontations over the Jordan basin. Geology The lake lies in the center of the Jordan Valley, in the northern part of theSyrian-African rift. Several directions oftectonic movementscharacterize the region, mirroring the patterns typical of the entire Syrian-African rift: north–south movements, which started about 20 million years ago; stretching movements in the east–west direction, which began later, at the beginning of thePleistocene(about 1.8 million years ago), and caused thesubsidenceof the lake area. As a result of horizontal shifts in the north–south direction and subsidence of the area, a lake was formed, with an asymmetrical bottom—steeper in the east and a gentler in the west. In the southern part an underwater cliff is present, covered by the lake's sediments. The cliff is distinct in the western part and less so in the east. The Sea of Galilee in its current form was preceded byLake Lisan, which extended from the northern Sea of Galilee toHatzevain the south, more than 200 km (120 mi) from the present southernmost point of the lake. Lake Lisan was preceded by Lake Ovadia, a much smaller fresh water lake. Lake Kinneret was formed in its current form less than 20,000 years ago, as a result of tectonic subsidence and the shrinking up of Lake Lisan. Archaeology In 1986 theAncient Galilee Boat, also known as the Jesus Boat, was discovered on the northwest shore during a drought when water levels receded. It is an ancient fishing boat from the 1st century AD, and although there is no evidence directly linking the boat to Jesus and his disciples, it nevertheless is an example of the kind of boat that Jesus and his disciples, some of whom were fishermen, may have used. During a routine sonar scan in 2003 (finding published in 2013),archaeologists discovered an enormous conical stone structure. The structure, which has a diameter of around 230 feet (70 m), is made of boulders and stones. The ruins are estimated to be between 2,000 and 12,000 years old and are about 10 metres (33 ft) underwater.The estimated weight of the monument is over 60,000 tons. Researchers explain that the site resembles early burial sites in Europe and was likely built in the earlyBronze Age. In February 2018, archaeologists discovered seven intact mosaics withGreekinscriptions. One inscription, at five meters one of the longest found to date in western Galilee, gives the names of donors and the names and positions of church officials, including Irenaeus, bishop ofTyrein 445. Another mosaic mentions a woman as a donor to the church's construction. This inscription is the first in the region to mention a female donor. Water level The water level is monitored and regulated. There are three levels at which the alarm is rung: Daily monitoring of the Sea of Galilee's water level began in 1969, and the lowest level recorded since then was November 2001, which today constitutes the \\\"black line\\\" of 214.87 meters below sea level (although it is believed the water level had fallen lower than the current black line, during droughts earlier in the 20th century). The Israeli government monitors water levels and publishes the results daily.Increasing water demand in Israel, Lebanon and Jordan, as well as dry winters, have resulted in stress on the lake and a decreasing water line to dangerously low levels at times. The Sea of Galilee is at risk of becoming irreversibly salinized by the salt water springs under the lake, which are held in check by the weight of the freshwater on top of them. After five years of drought up to 2018, the Sea of Galilee was expected to drop near the black line.In February 2018, the city of Tiberias requested adesalinationplant to treat the water coming from the Sea of Galilee and demanded a new water source for the city.March 2018 was the lowest point in water incometo the lake since 1927.In September 2018 theIsraeli energy and water officeannounced a project to pour desalinated water from the Mediterranean Sea into the Sea of Galilee using a tunnel. The tunnel is expected to be the largest of its kind in Israel and will transfer halfof the Mediterranean desalted water and will move 300 to 500 million cubic meters of water per year.The plan is said to cost five billion shekels. Since the beginning of the 2018–19 rainy season, the Sea of Galilee has risen considerably. From being near the ecologically dangerous black line of −214.4 m, the level has risen by April 2020 to just 16 cm (6.3 in) below the upper red line, a result of strong rains and a radical decrease in pumping.During the entire 2018–19 rainy season the water level rose by a historical record of 3.47 meters (11.4 ft), while the 2019–20 winter brought a 2.82 meters (9 ft 3 in) rise.The Water Authority dug a new canal in order to let 5 billion liters (1.1×109imp gal; 1.3×109U.S. gal) of water flow from the lake directly into the Jordan River, bypassing the existing dams system for technical and financial reasons. Water use TheNational Water Carrier of Israel, completed in 1964, transports water from the lake to the population centers of Israel, and in the past supplied most of the country's drinking water.In 2016 the lake supplied approximately 10% of Israel's drinking water needs. In 1964, Syria attempted construction of aHeadwater Diversion Planthat would have blocked the flow of water into the Sea of Galilee, sharply reducing the water flow into the lake.This project and Israel's attempt to block these efforts in 1965 were factors which played into regional tensions culminating in the 1967 Six-Day War. During the war, Israel captured theGolan Heights, which contain some of the sources of water for the Sea of Galilee. Up until the mid-2010s, about 400 million m3(14 billion cu ft) of water was pumped through the National Water Carrier each year.Under the terms of theIsrael–Jordan peace treaty, Israel also supplies 50 million m3(1.8 billion cu ft) of water annually from the lake toJordan.In recent years the Israeli government has made extensive investments inwater conservation,reclamationanddesalinationinfrastructure in the country. This has allowed it to significantly reduce the amount of water pumped from the lake annually in an effort to restore and improve its ecological environment, as well as respond to some of the most extreme drought conditions in hundreds of years affecting the lake'sintake basinsince 1998. Therefore, it was expected that in 2016 only about 25 million m3(880 million cu ft) of water would be drawn from the lake for Israeli domestic consumption, a small fraction of the amount typically drawn from the lake over the previous decades. Tourism Tourismaround the Sea of Galilee is an important economic segment. Historical and religious sites in the region draw both local and foreign tourists. The Sea of Galilee is an attraction forChristian pilgrimswho visit Israel to see the places where Jesus performed miracles according to the New Testament. Alonzo Ketcham Parker, a 19th-century American traveler, called visiting the Sea of Galilee \\\"a 'fifth gospel' which one read devoutly, his heart overflowing with quiet joy\\\". In April 2011, Israel unveiled a 40-mile (64 km) hiking trail in Galilee for Christian pilgrims, called the \\\"Jesus Trail\\\". It includes a network of footpaths, roads and bicycle paths linking sites central to the lives of Jesus and his disciples. It ends atCapernaumon the shores of the Sea of Galilee, where Jesus expounded his teachings.Another key attraction is the site where the Sea of Galilee's water flows into the Jordan River, to which thousands of pilgrims from all over the world come to be baptized every year. Israel's most well-known open water swim race, the Kinneret Crossing, is held every year in September, drawing thousands of open water swimmers to participate in competitive and noncompetitive events.Tourists also partake in the building of rafts onLavnun Beach, called Rafsodia. Here many different age groups work together to build a raft with their bare hands and then sail that raft across the sea.Other economic activities include fishing in the lake andagriculture, particularlybananas, dates, mangoes, grapes and olives in the fertile belt of land surrounding it. The Turkish Aviators Monument, erected during the Ottoman era, stands near KibbutzHa'onon the lakeshore, commemorating the Turkish pilots whose monoplanes crashed en route to Jerusalem. Ecology The warm waters of the Sea of Galilee support various flora and fauna, which have supported a significant commercial fishery for more than two millennia. Local flora include various reeds along most of the shoreline as well asphytoplankton. Fauna includezooplankton,benthosand a number of fish species such asMirogrex terraesanctae.The Fishing and Agricultural Division of the Ministry of Water and Agriculture of Israel lists 10 families of fish living in the lake, with a total of 27 species – 19 native and 8introduced species.Local fishermen talk of four types of fish: \\\"مشط musht\\\" (tilapia); sardin (the Kinneret bleak,Mirogrex terraesanctae); \\\"بني biny\\\" or Jordan barbel,Luciobarbus longiceps(barb-like); and North African sharptoothcatfish(Clarias gariepinus).The tilapia species include the Galilean tilapia (Sarotherodon galilaeus), the blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus), and the redbelly tilapia (Tilapia zillii).Fish caught commercially includeTristramella simonisand the Galilean tilapia, locally called \\\"St. Peter's fish\\\".In 2005, 300 short tons (270 t) of tilapia were caught by local fishermen. This dropped to 8 short tons (7.3 t) in 2009 because ofoverfishing.A fish species that is unique to the lake,Tristramella sacra, used tospawnin the marsh and has not been seen since the 1990s droughts.Conservationists fear this species may have becomeextinct. Low water levels in drought years have stressed thelake's ecology. This may have been aggravated by over-extraction of water for either the National Water Carrier to supply other parts of Israel or, since 1994, for the supply of water to Jordan. Droughts of the early and mid-1990s dried out the marshy northern margin of the lake.It is hoped that drastic reductions in the amount of water pumped through the National Water Carrier will help restore the lake's ecology over the span of several years. The lake, with its immediate surrounds, has been recognised as anImportant Bird AreabyBirdLife Internationalbecause it supports populations ofblack francolinsand non-breedinggriffon vulturesas well as many wintering waterbirds, includingmarbled teals,great crested grebes,grey herons,great white egrets,great cormorantsandblack-headed gulls. See also References Further reading External links\",\n \"Black francolin Tetrao francolinusLinnaeus, 1766 Theblack francolin(Francolinus francolinus) is agamebirdin thepheasantfamilyPhasianidaeof the orderGalliformes. It was formerly known as the black partridge. It is the state bird ofHaryanastate,India(locally known askaala teetar, काला तीतर). Fried black francolin is eaten inAzerbaijani cuisine. Taxonomy There are six recognized subspecies: Description The black francolin has a length range around 33 to 36 cm (13 to 14 in) and weight about 453 g (16 oz). The male is black with a white patch on the cheek, a chestnut collar and white spots on the flanks. The back and wings are scalloped with shades of golden brown with sub-terminal tawny-buff bands and pale edges. The rounded tail is black with narrow white or greyish bars. The legs and neck are reddish-brown to red. The extent of the white spotting on the flanks varies substantially across the species' range and the depth of colour of the females similarly varies. The female is mainly brown, but has a chestnut hind neck. The head is curved with brown irises, brown crown and black throat. The upper plumage, wings and tail as in the male, but the black is replaced by mottled brown and the brown bars on the lower back and tail are wider. The female is duller, with no cheek patch, and the collar is replaced with a nuchal patch. The head and underparts are buff where the male shows black. The rump and upper tail coverts are light brown. Similar species: the grey francolin has a grey-brown and buff body, buff instead of black throat, and lacks the rufous collar. Voice The call of the black francolin, described as a loud ringing \\\"klik cheek-cheek-cheerakik\\\", \\\"kik-kik-kik\\\" or \\\"kwee-kweeeee-kwee\\\", can be heard in the mornings and evenings and almost all day during the breeding season. The male calls while standing on an earth mound, bund, rock or a low tree branch and is soon joined by other birds answering from all directions. Distribution and habitat Black francolins are resident breeders from south-easternTurkeyeastwards throughIranto southwestTurkmenistanand northeast India, and Kazipara,PanchagarhofBangladesh.The species' range was formerly more extensive, but over-hunting has reduced its distribution and numbers. Fragmented populations occur in the western part of its range. Black francolins wereintroducedto theCalcasieuandCameronparishes of southwesternLouisianain 1961.Additional introductions have also occurred in southFlorida.Elsewhere, black francolins have been introduced toGuamand theHawaiian Islands. The birds are found in scrubby habitats with plenty of cultivated crops tall enough to offer shelter and open beneath to provide escape routes and easy travel. They prefer areas of thick vegetation, usually near water. They are not forest birds but will frequent scrubland and forest edges associated with grassland. They appear to be more closely associated to water thanchukarsare, and in drier areas. Behaviour The black francolin only flies when disturbed. It has a pheasant's explosive flight, but prefers to creep away unseen. The flight is short and direct, punctuated by glides on rounded wings. Breeding Black francolins are monogamous. They normally nest in tall grasslands from late March to May. The male may be seen standing on a rock or low tree attracting attention with its extraordinary creaking call. It may be heard all day long in April, during nesting, and less persistently in March and May as well as the summer months. Both parents tend chicks after hatching. Young stay with parents through their first winter. The most likely breeding locations Savanna, Grasslands, Scrub vegetation areas under the cultivated crops. They have a loud call during the breeding season. Males may also become aggressive during the breeding season, make sure there is plenty of cover and escape routes for the hen and it maybe necessary to house her separate and allow limited access for breeding only. They are generally monogamous in the wild. In aviculture it is best to house only one pair per aviary. Well planted aviaries with little surrounding traffic would be best for breeding. They are fairly winter hardy, but always provide some shelter during the coldest months breeds from late March to September depending on the range. The normal clutch size lies between 10 and 14 eggs, and only the hen incubates. The eggs are white-spotted olive or pale brown. The incubation period is 18 to 19 days, the breeding season is April to June and the young appear from April to October. Feeding The birds forage on the ground for plant material and small invertebrates, including grain, grass seeds, fallen berries, shoots, tubers, termites and ants. In aviculture they eat small mealworms and wax worms, but care must be used when feeding chicks as they are prone to toe-picking. . References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Sea of Galilee TheSea of Galilee(Hebrew:יָם כִּנֶּרֶת,Judeo-Aramaic: יַמּא דטבריא, גִּנֵּיסַר,Arabic:بحيرة طبريا), also calledLake TiberiasorKinneret, is afreshwaterlakeinIsraelandSyria(occupied by Israel). It is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-lowest lake in the world (after theDead Sea, asalt lake),at levels between 215 and 209 metres (705 and 686 ft) below sea level.It is approximately 53 km (33 mi) in circumference, about 21 km (13 mi) long, and 13 km (8.1 mi) wide. Its area is 166.7 km2(64.4 sq mi) at its fullest, and its maximum depth is approximately 43 metres (141 ft).The lake is fed partly by underground springs, but its main source is theJordan River, which flows through it from north to south and exits the lake at theDegania Dam. Geography The Sea of Galilee is situated in northeastIsrael, between theGolan Heightsand theGalileeregion, in theJordan Rift Valley,formed by the separation of theAfricanandArabianplates. Consequently, the area is subject toearthquakes, and in the","and in the past,volcanicactivity.This is evident from the abundantbasaltand otherigneousrocks that define thegeology of Galilee. Names The lake has been called by different names throughout its history, usually depending on the dominant settlement on its shores. With the changing fate of the towns, the lake's name also changed. The modern Hebrew nameKineretcomes from theHebrew Bible, where it appears as the \"sea of Kineret\" inNumbers 34:11andJoshua 13:27, and spelled כנרות \"Kinerot\" inHebrewinJoshua 11:2. This name was also found in the scripts ofUgarit, in theAqhat Epic. As the name of acity,Kinneretwas listed among the \"fenced cities\" inJoshua 19:35. A persistent, though likely erroneous, popular etymology presumes that the nameKinneretmay originate from the Hebrew wordkinnor(\"harp\" or \"lyre\"), because of the shape of the lake.The scholarly consensus, however, is that the origin of the name is derived from the importantBronzeandIron Agecity of Kinneret, excavated at Tell el-'Oreimeh.The city of Kinneret","city of Kinneret may have been named after the body of water rather than vice versa, and there is no evidence for the origin of the town's name. AllOldandNew Testamentwriters use the term \"sea\" (Hebrew יָםyam, Greek θάλασσα), with the exception ofLuke, who calls it \"the Lake of Gennesaret\" (Luke 5:1), from the Greek λίμνη Γεννησαρέτ (limnē Gennēsaret), the \"Grecized form of Chinnereth.\"TheBabylonian Talmudas well asFlavius Josephusmention the sea by the name \"Sea of Ginosar\" after the small fertileplain of Ginosarthat lies on its western side.Ginosar is yet another name derived from \"Kinneret\". The wordGalileecomes from the HebrewHaggalil(הַגָלִיל), which literally means \"The District\", a compressed form ofGelil Haggoyim\"The District of Nations\" (Isaiah 8:23). Toward the end of the 1st century CE, the Sea of Galilee became widely known as theSea of Tiberiasafter the city ofTiberiasfounded on its western shore in honour of the second Roman emperor,Tiberius. In the New Testament, the term \"sea of Galilee\"","\"sea of Galilee\" (Greek:θάλασσαν τῆς Γαλιλαίας,thalassan tēs Galilaias) is used in theGospel of Matthew4:18; 15:29, theGospel of Mark1:16; 7:31, and in theGospel of John6:1as \"the sea of Galilee, which is of Tiberias\" (θαλάσσης τῆς Γαλιλαίας τῆς Τιβεριάδος,thalassēs tēs Galilaias tēs Tiberiados), the late 1st century CE name.Sea of Tiberias is also the name mentioned in Roman texts and in theJerusalem Talmud, and it was adopted into Arabic asBuḥayret Ṭabariyyāⓘ(بحيرة طبريا), \"Lake Tiberias\". From theUmayyadthrough theMamlukperiod, the lake was known in Arabic asBahr al-Minya, the \"Sea of Minya\", after the Umayyadqasrcomplex, whose ruins are still visible atKhirbat al-Minya. This is the name used by the medievalPersianandArabscholarsAl-Baladhuri,Al-TabariandIbn Kathir. History Prehistory In 1989, remains of ahunter-gatherersite were found under the water at the southern end. Remains of mud huts were found inOhalo. Nahal Ein Gev, located about 3 km (1.9 mi) east of the lake, contains a village from the","a village from the lateNatufianperiod. The site is considered one of the first permanent human settlements in the world from a time predating theNeolithic Revolution. Hellenistic and Roman periods The Sea of Galilee lies on the ancientVia Maris, which linkedEgyptwith the northern empires. TheGreeks,Hasmoneans, andRomansfounded flourishing towns and settlements on the lake includingHipposandTiberias. Contemporary Roman–Jewish historianFlavius Josephuswas so impressed by the area that he wrote, \"One may call this place the ambition of Nature\"; he also reports a thriving fishing industry at this time, with 230 boats regularly working in the lake. Archaeologists discovered one such boat, nicknamed theJesus Boat, in 1986. In the New Testament, much of theministry of Jesusoccurs on the shores of the Sea of Galilee. In those days, there was a continuous ribbon development of settlements and villages around the lake and plenty of trade and ferrying by boat. TheSynoptic GospelsofMark 1:14–20),Matthew 4:18–22),","4:18–22), andLuke 5:1–11) describe how Jesus recruited four of hisapostlesfrom the shores of the Kinneret: the fishermenSimonand his brotherAndrewand the brothersJohnandJames. One of Jesus' famous teaching episodes, theSermon on the Mount, is supposed to have been given on a hill overlooking the Kinneret. Many of his miracles are also said to have occurred here includinghis walking on water,calming the storm, the disciples and themiraculous catch of fish, and hisfeeding five thousand people(inTabgha). In John's Gospel the sea provides the setting for Jesus' thirdpost-resurrection appearanceto his disciples (John 21). In 135 CE,Bar Kokhba's revoltwas put down which was part of theJewish–Roman wars. The Romans responded by banning all Jews fromJerusalem. The center of Jewish culture and learning shifted to the region of Galilee and the Kinneret, particularly Tiberias. It was in this region that theJerusalem Talmudwas compiled. Middle Ages The Sea of Galilee's importance declined when theByzantineslost control,","control, and the area was conquered by theUmayyad Caliphateand subsequent Islamic empires. The palace ofMinyawas built by the lake during the reign ofal-Walid I(705–715 CE). Apart from Tiberias, the major towns and cities in the area were gradually abandoned.In 1187, SultanSaladindefeated the armies of theCrusaderKingdom of Jerusalemat theBattle of Hattin, largely because he was able to cut the Crusaders off from the valuable fresh water of the Sea of Galilee. The lake had little importance within the earlyOttoman Empire. Tiberias did see a significant revival of its Jewish community in the 16th century but had gradually declined until the city wasdestroyed in 1660. In the early 18th century, Tiberias was rebuilt byZahir al-Umar, becoming the center of his rule over Galilee, and seeing also a revival of its Jewish community. Early 20th century In 1908, Jewish pioneers established theKinneret Farmat the same time as and next to Moshavat Kinneret in the immediate vicinity of the lake. The farm trained Jewish","farm trained Jewish immigrants in modern farming. One group of youth from the training farm establishedKvutzatDeganiain 1909–1910, popularly considered as the firstkibbutz, another group foundedKvutzat Kinneretin 1913, and yet another the first proper kibbutz,Ein Harod, in 1921, the same year when the firstmoshav,Nahalal, was established by a group trained at the farm. The Jewish settlements around Kinneret Farm are considered the cradle of the kibbutz culture of earlyZionism; Kvutzat Kinneret is the birthplace ofNaomi Shemer, buried at the Kinneret Cemetery next toRachel—two prominent national poets. In 1917, the British defeated Ottoman Turkish forces and took control ofPalestine, while France took control of Syria. In the carve-up of the Ottoman territories between Britain and France, it was agreed that Britain would retain control of Palestine while France would control Syria. However, the allies had to fix the border between theMandatory Palestineand theFrench Mandate of Syria.The boundary was defined","was defined in broad terms by theFranco-British Boundary Agreementof December 1920, which drew it across the middle of the lake.However, the commission established by the 1920 treaty redrew the boundary. The Zionist movement pressured the French and British to assign as many water sources as possible to Mandatory Palestine during the demarcating negotiations. The High Commissioner of Palestine,Herbert Samuel, had sought full control of the Sea of Galilee.The negotiations led to the inclusion into the Palestine territory of the whole Sea of Galilee, both sides of theRiver Jordan,Lake Hula, Dan spring, and part of theYarmouk.The final border approved in 1923 followed a 10-meter wide strip along the lake's northeastern shore,cutting the Mandatory Syria (State of Damascus) off from the lake. The British and French Agreement provided that existing rights over the use of the waters of the River Jordan by the inhabitants of Syria would be maintained; the government of Syria would have the right to erect a new pier","to erect a new pier atSemakhon Lake Tiberias or jointly use the existing pier; persons or goods passing between the landing-stage on the Lake of Tiberias and Semakh would not be subject to customs regulations, and the Syrian government would have access to the said landing-stage; the inhabitants of Syria and Lebanon would have the same fishing and navigation rights on Lakes Huleh, Tiberias and River Jordan, while the government of Palestine would be responsible for policing of lakes. State of Israel On 15 May 1948, Syria invaded the newborn state of Israel,capturing territory along the Sea of Galilee.Under the 1949armistice agreementbetween Israel and Syria, Syria occupied the northeast shoreline of the Sea of Galilee. The agreement stated that the armistice line was \"not to be interpreted as having any relation whatsoever to ultimate territorial arrangements.\" Syria remained in possession of the lake's northeast shoreline until the 1967Arab-Israeli war. In the 1950s, Israel formulated a plan to link the","a plan to link the Kinneret with the rest of the country's water infrastructure via theNational Water Carrier, in order to supply the water demand of the growing country. The carrier was completed in 1964. The Israeli plan, to which theArab Leagueopposed its ownplan to divert the headwaters of the Jordan River, sparked political and sometimes even armedconfrontations over the Jordan basin. Geology The lake lies in the center of the Jordan Valley, in the northern part of theSyrian-African rift. Several directions oftectonic movementscharacterize the region, mirroring the patterns typical of the entire Syrian-African rift: north–south movements, which started about 20 million years ago; stretching movements in the east–west direction, which began later, at the beginning of thePleistocene(about 1.8 million years ago), and caused thesubsidenceof the lake area. As a result of horizontal shifts in the north–south direction and subsidence of the area, a lake was formed, with an asymmetrical bottom—steeper in the","in the east and a gentler in the west. In the southern part an underwater cliff is present, covered by the lake's sediments. The cliff is distinct in the western part and less so in the east. The Sea of Galilee in its current form was preceded byLake Lisan, which extended from the northern Sea of Galilee toHatzevain the south, more than 200 km (120 mi) from the present southernmost point of the lake. Lake Lisan was preceded by Lake Ovadia, a much smaller fresh water lake. Lake Kinneret was formed in its current form less than 20,000 years ago, as a result of tectonic subsidence and the shrinking up of Lake Lisan. Archaeology In 1986 theAncient Galilee Boat, also known as the Jesus Boat, was discovered on the northwest shore during a drought when water levels receded. It is an ancient fishing boat from the 1st century AD, and although there is no evidence directly linking the boat to Jesus and his disciples, it nevertheless is an example of the kind of boat that Jesus and his disciples, some of whom were","some of whom were fishermen, may have used. During a routine sonar scan in 2003 (finding published in 2013),archaeologists discovered an enormous conical stone structure. The structure, which has a diameter of around 230 feet (70 m), is made of boulders and stones. The ruins are estimated to be between 2,000 and 12,000 years old and are about 10 metres (33 ft) underwater.The estimated weight of the monument is over 60,000 tons. Researchers explain that the site resembles early burial sites in Europe and was likely built in the earlyBronze Age. In February 2018, archaeologists discovered seven intact mosaics withGreekinscriptions. One inscription, at five meters one of the longest found to date in western Galilee, gives the names of donors and the names and positions of church officials, including Irenaeus, bishop ofTyrein 445. Another mosaic mentions a woman as a donor to the church's construction. This inscription is the first in the region to mention a female donor. Water level The water level is monitored","level is monitored and regulated. There are three levels at which the alarm is rung: Daily monitoring of the Sea of Galilee's water level began in 1969, and the lowest level recorded since then was November 2001, which today constitutes the \"black line\" of 214.87 meters below sea level (although it is believed the water level had fallen lower than the current black line, during droughts earlier in the 20th century). The Israeli government monitors water levels and publishes the results daily.Increasing water demand in Israel, Lebanon and Jordan, as well as dry winters, have resulted in stress on the lake and a decreasing water line to dangerously low levels at times. The Sea of Galilee is at risk of becoming irreversibly salinized by the salt water springs under the lake, which are held in check by the weight of the freshwater on top of them. After five years of drought up to 2018, the Sea of Galilee was expected to drop near the black line.In February 2018, the city of Tiberias requested adesalinationplant","adesalinationplant to treat the water coming from the Sea of Galilee and demanded a new water source for the city.March 2018 was the lowest point in water incometo the lake since 1927.In September 2018 theIsraeli energy and water officeannounced a project to pour desalinated water from the Mediterranean Sea into the Sea of Galilee using a tunnel. The tunnel is expected to be the largest of its kind in Israel and will transfer halfof the Mediterranean desalted water and will move 300 to 500 million cubic meters of water per year.The plan is said to cost five billion shekels. Since the beginning of the 2018–19 rainy season, the Sea of Galilee has risen considerably. From being near the ecologically dangerous black line of −214.4 m, the level has risen by April 2020 to just 16 cm (6.3 in) below the upper red line, a result of strong rains and a radical decrease in pumping.During the entire 2018–19 rainy season the water level rose by a historical record of 3.47 meters (11.4 ft), while the 2019–20 winter brought","winter brought a 2.82 meters (9 ft 3 in) rise.The Water Authority dug a new canal in order to let 5 billion liters (1.1×109imp gal; 1.3×109U.S. gal) of water flow from the lake directly into the Jordan River, bypassing the existing dams system for technical and financial reasons. Water use TheNational Water Carrier of Israel, completed in 1964, transports water from the lake to the population centers of Israel, and in the past supplied most of the country's drinking water.In 2016 the lake supplied approximately 10% of Israel's drinking water needs. In 1964, Syria attempted construction of aHeadwater Diversion Planthat would have blocked the flow of water into the Sea of Galilee, sharply reducing the water flow into the lake.This project and Israel's attempt to block these efforts in 1965 were factors which played into regional tensions culminating in the 1967 Six-Day War. During the war, Israel captured theGolan Heights, which contain some of the sources of water for the Sea of Galilee. Up until the","Up until the mid-2010s, about 400 million m3(14 billion cu ft) of water was pumped through the National Water Carrier each year.Under the terms of theIsrael–Jordan peace treaty, Israel also supplies 50 million m3(1.8 billion cu ft) of water annually from the lake toJordan.In recent years the Israeli government has made extensive investments inwater conservation,reclamationanddesalinationinfrastructure in the country. This has allowed it to significantly reduce the amount of water pumped from the lake annually in an effort to restore and improve its ecological environment, as well as respond to some of the most extreme drought conditions in hundreds of years affecting the lake'sintake basinsince 1998. Therefore, it was expected that in 2016 only about 25 million m3(880 million cu ft) of water would be drawn from the lake for Israeli domestic consumption, a small fraction of the amount typically drawn from the lake over the previous decades. Tourism Tourismaround the Sea of Galilee is an important economic","important economic segment. Historical and religious sites in the region draw both local and foreign tourists. The Sea of Galilee is an attraction forChristian pilgrimswho visit Israel to see the places where Jesus performed miracles according to the New Testament. Alonzo Ketcham Parker, a 19th-century American traveler, called visiting the Sea of Galilee \"a 'fifth gospel' which one read devoutly, his heart overflowing with quiet joy\". In April 2011, Israel unveiled a 40-mile (64 km) hiking trail in Galilee for Christian pilgrims, called the \"Jesus Trail\". It includes a network of footpaths, roads and bicycle paths linking sites central to the lives of Jesus and his disciples. It ends atCapernaumon the shores of the Sea of Galilee, where Jesus expounded his teachings.Another key attraction is the site where the Sea of Galilee's water flows into the Jordan River, to which thousands of pilgrims from all over the world come to be baptized every year. Israel's most well-known open water swim race, the Kinneret","race, the Kinneret Crossing, is held every year in September, drawing thousands of open water swimmers to participate in competitive and noncompetitive events.Tourists also partake in the building of rafts onLavnun Beach, called Rafsodia. Here many different age groups work together to build a raft with their bare hands and then sail that raft across the sea.Other economic activities include fishing in the lake andagriculture, particularlybananas, dates, mangoes, grapes and olives in the fertile belt of land surrounding it. The Turkish Aviators Monument, erected during the Ottoman era, stands near KibbutzHa'onon the lakeshore, commemorating the Turkish pilots whose monoplanes crashed en route to Jerusalem. Ecology The warm waters of the Sea of Galilee support various flora and fauna, which have supported a significant commercial fishery for more than two millennia. Local flora include various reeds along most of the shoreline as well asphytoplankton. Fauna includezooplankton,benthosand a number of fish","a number of fish species such asMirogrex terraesanctae.The Fishing and Agricultural Division of the Ministry of Water and Agriculture of Israel lists 10 families of fish living in the lake, with a total of 27 species – 19 native and 8introduced species.Local fishermen talk of four types of fish: \"مشط musht\" (tilapia); sardin (the Kinneret bleak,Mirogrex terraesanctae); \"بني biny\" or Jordan barbel,Luciobarbus longiceps(barb-like); and North African sharptoothcatfish(Clarias gariepinus).The tilapia species include the Galilean tilapia (Sarotherodon galilaeus), the blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus), and the redbelly tilapia (Tilapia zillii).Fish caught commercially includeTristramella simonisand the Galilean tilapia, locally called \"St. Peter's fish\".In 2005, 300 short tons (270 t) of tilapia were caught by local fishermen. This dropped to 8 short tons (7.3 t) in 2009 because ofoverfishing.A fish species that is unique to the lake,Tristramella sacra, used tospawnin the marsh and has not been seen since the","been seen since the 1990s droughts.Conservationists fear this species may have becomeextinct. Low water levels in drought years have stressed thelake's ecology. This may have been aggravated by over-extraction of water for either the National Water Carrier to supply other parts of Israel or, since 1994, for the supply of water to Jordan. Droughts of the early and mid-1990s dried out the marshy northern margin of the lake.It is hoped that drastic reductions in the amount of water pumped through the National Water Carrier will help restore the lake's ecology over the span of several years. The lake, with its immediate surrounds, has been recognised as anImportant Bird AreabyBirdLife Internationalbecause it supports populations ofblack francolinsand non-breedinggriffon vulturesas well as many wintering waterbirds, includingmarbled teals,great crested grebes,grey herons,great white egrets,great cormorantsandblack-headed gulls. See also References Further reading External links","Black francolin Tetrao francolinusLinnaeus, 1766 Theblack francolin(Francolinus francolinus) is agamebirdin thepheasantfamilyPhasianidaeof the orderGalliformes. It was formerly known as the black partridge. It is the state bird ofHaryanastate,India(locally known askaala teetar, काला तीतर). Fried black francolin is eaten inAzerbaijani cuisine. Taxonomy There are six recognized subspecies: Description The black francolin has a length range around 33 to 36 cm (13 to 14 in) and weight about 453 g (16 oz). The male is black with a white patch on the cheek, a chestnut collar and white spots on the flanks. The back and wings are scalloped with shades of golden brown with sub-terminal tawny-buff bands and pale edges. The rounded tail is black with narrow white or greyish bars. The legs and neck are reddish-brown to red. The extent of the white spotting on the flanks varies substantially across the species' range and the depth of colour of the females similarly varies. The female is mainly brown, but has a chestnut","but has a chestnut hind neck. The head is curved with brown irises, brown crown and black throat. The upper plumage, wings and tail as in the male, but the black is replaced by mottled brown and the brown bars on the lower back and tail are wider. The female is duller, with no cheek patch, and the collar is replaced with a nuchal patch. The head and underparts are buff where the male shows black. The rump and upper tail coverts are light brown. Similar species: the grey francolin has a grey-brown and buff body, buff instead of black throat, and lacks the rufous collar. Voice The call of the black francolin, described as a loud ringing \"klik cheek-cheek-cheerakik\", \"kik-kik-kik\" or \"kwee-kweeeee-kwee\", can be heard in the mornings and evenings and almost all day during the breeding season. The male calls while standing on an earth mound, bund, rock or a low tree branch and is soon joined by other birds answering from all directions. Distribution and habitat Black francolins are resident breeders from","breeders from south-easternTurkeyeastwards throughIranto southwestTurkmenistanand northeast India, and Kazipara,PanchagarhofBangladesh.The species' range was formerly more extensive, but over-hunting has reduced its distribution and numbers. Fragmented populations occur in the western part of its range. Black francolins wereintroducedto theCalcasieuandCameronparishes of southwesternLouisianain 1961.Additional introductions have also occurred in southFlorida.Elsewhere, black francolins have been introduced toGuamand theHawaiian Islands. The birds are found in scrubby habitats with plenty of cultivated crops tall enough to offer shelter and open beneath to provide escape routes and easy travel. They prefer areas of thick vegetation, usually near water. They are not forest birds but will frequent scrubland and forest edges associated with grassland. They appear to be more closely associated to water thanchukarsare, and in drier areas. Behaviour The black francolin only flies when disturbed. It has a pheasant's","It has a pheasant's explosive flight, but prefers to creep away unseen. The flight is short and direct, punctuated by glides on rounded wings. Breeding Black francolins are monogamous. They normally nest in tall grasslands from late March to May. The male may be seen standing on a rock or low tree attracting attention with its extraordinary creaking call. It may be heard all day long in April, during nesting, and less persistently in March and May as well as the summer months. Both parents tend chicks after hatching. Young stay with parents through their first winter. The most likely breeding locations Savanna, Grasslands, Scrub vegetation areas under the cultivated crops. They have a loud call during the breeding season. Males may also become aggressive during the breeding season, make sure there is plenty of cover and escape routes for the hen and it maybe necessary to house her separate and allow limited access for breeding only. They are generally monogamous in the wild. In aviculture it is best to house","it is best to house only one pair per aviary. Well planted aviaries with little surrounding traffic would be best for breeding. They are fairly winter hardy, but always provide some shelter during the coldest months breeds from late March to September depending on the range. The normal clutch size lies between 10 and 14 eggs, and only the hen incubates. The eggs are white-spotted olive or pale brown. The incubation period is 18 to 19 days, the breeding season is April to June and the young appear from April to October. Feeding The birds forage on the ground for plant material and small invertebrates, including grain, grass seeds, fallen berries, shoots, tubers, termites and ants. In aviculture they eat small mealworms and wax worms, but care must be used when feeding chicks as they are prone to toe-picking. . References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Sea of Galilee TheSea of Galilee(Hebrew:יָם כִּנֶּרֶת,Judeo-Aramaic: יַמּא דטבריא, גִּנֵּיסַר,Arabic:بحيرة طبريا), also calledLake TiberiasorKinneret, is afreshwaterlakeinIsraelandSyria(occupied by Israel). It is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-lowest lake in the world (after theDead Sea, asalt lake),at levels between 215 and 209 metres (705 and 686 ft) below sea level.It is approximately 53 km (33 mi) in circumference, about 21 km (13 mi) long, and 13 km (8.1 mi) wide. Its area is 166.7 km2(64.4 sq mi) at its fullest, and its maximum depth is approximately 43 metres (141 ft).The lake is fed partly by underground springs, but its main source is theJordan River, which flows through it from north to south and exits the lake at theDegania Dam. Geography The Sea of Galilee is situated in northeastIsrael, between theGolan Heightsand theGalileeregion, in theJordan Rift Valley,formed by the separation of theAfricanandArabianplates. Consequently, the area is subject toearthquakes, and in the\",\n \"and in the past,volcanicactivity.This is evident from the abundantbasaltand otherigneousrocks that define thegeology of Galilee. Names The lake has been called by different names throughout its history, usually depending on the dominant settlement on its shores. With the changing fate of the towns, the lake's name also changed. The modern Hebrew nameKineretcomes from theHebrew Bible, where it appears as the \\\"sea of Kineret\\\" inNumbers 34:11andJoshua 13:27, and spelled כנרות \\\"Kinerot\\\" inHebrewinJoshua 11:2. This name was also found in the scripts ofUgarit, in theAqhat Epic. As the name of acity,Kinneretwas listed among the \\\"fenced cities\\\" inJoshua 19:35. A persistent, though likely erroneous, popular etymology presumes that the nameKinneretmay originate from the Hebrew wordkinnor(\\\"harp\\\" or \\\"lyre\\\"), because of the shape of the lake.The scholarly consensus, however, is that the origin of the name is derived from the importantBronzeandIron Agecity of Kinneret, excavated at Tell el-'Oreimeh.The city of Kinneret\",\n \"city of Kinneret may have been named after the body of water rather than vice versa, and there is no evidence for the origin of the town's name. AllOldandNew Testamentwriters use the term \\\"sea\\\" (Hebrew יָםyam, Greek θάλασσα), with the exception ofLuke, who calls it \\\"the Lake of Gennesaret\\\" (Luke 5:1), from the Greek λίμνη Γεννησαρέτ (limnē Gennēsaret), the \\\"Grecized form of Chinnereth.\\\"TheBabylonian Talmudas well asFlavius Josephusmention the sea by the name \\\"Sea of Ginosar\\\" after the small fertileplain of Ginosarthat lies on its western side.Ginosar is yet another name derived from \\\"Kinneret\\\". The wordGalileecomes from the HebrewHaggalil(הַגָלִיל), which literally means \\\"The District\\\", a compressed form ofGelil Haggoyim\\\"The District of Nations\\\" (Isaiah 8:23). Toward the end of the 1st century CE, the Sea of Galilee became widely known as theSea of Tiberiasafter the city ofTiberiasfounded on its western shore in honour of the second Roman emperor,Tiberius. In the New Testament, the term \\\"sea of Galilee\\\"\",\n \"\\\"sea of Galilee\\\" (Greek:θάλασσαν τῆς Γαλιλαίας,thalassan tēs Galilaias) is used in theGospel of Matthew4:18; 15:29, theGospel of Mark1:16; 7:31, and in theGospel of John6:1as \\\"the sea of Galilee, which is of Tiberias\\\" (θαλάσσης τῆς Γαλιλαίας τῆς Τιβεριάδος,thalassēs tēs Galilaias tēs Tiberiados), the late 1st century CE name.Sea of Tiberias is also the name mentioned in Roman texts and in theJerusalem Talmud, and it was adopted into Arabic asBuḥayret Ṭabariyyāⓘ(بحيرة طبريا), \\\"Lake Tiberias\\\". From theUmayyadthrough theMamlukperiod, the lake was known in Arabic asBahr al-Minya, the \\\"Sea of Minya\\\", after the Umayyadqasrcomplex, whose ruins are still visible atKhirbat al-Minya. This is the name used by the medievalPersianandArabscholarsAl-Baladhuri,Al-TabariandIbn Kathir. History Prehistory In 1989, remains of ahunter-gatherersite were found under the water at the southern end. Remains of mud huts were found inOhalo. Nahal Ein Gev, located about 3 km (1.9 mi) east of the lake, contains a village from the\",\n \"a village from the lateNatufianperiod. The site is considered one of the first permanent human settlements in the world from a time predating theNeolithic Revolution. Hellenistic and Roman periods The Sea of Galilee lies on the ancientVia Maris, which linkedEgyptwith the northern empires. TheGreeks,Hasmoneans, andRomansfounded flourishing towns and settlements on the lake includingHipposandTiberias. Contemporary Roman–Jewish historianFlavius Josephuswas so impressed by the area that he wrote, \\\"One may call this place the ambition of Nature\\\"; he also reports a thriving fishing industry at this time, with 230 boats regularly working in the lake. Archaeologists discovered one such boat, nicknamed theJesus Boat, in 1986. In the New Testament, much of theministry of Jesusoccurs on the shores of the Sea of Galilee. In those days, there was a continuous ribbon development of settlements and villages around the lake and plenty of trade and ferrying by boat. TheSynoptic GospelsofMark 1:14–20),Matthew 4:18–22),\",\n \"4:18–22), andLuke 5:1–11) describe how Jesus recruited four of hisapostlesfrom the shores of the Kinneret: the fishermenSimonand his brotherAndrewand the brothersJohnandJames. One of Jesus' famous teaching episodes, theSermon on the Mount, is supposed to have been given on a hill overlooking the Kinneret. Many of his miracles are also said to have occurred here includinghis walking on water,calming the storm, the disciples and themiraculous catch of fish, and hisfeeding five thousand people(inTabgha). In John's Gospel the sea provides the setting for Jesus' thirdpost-resurrection appearanceto his disciples (John 21). In 135 CE,Bar Kokhba's revoltwas put down which was part of theJewish–Roman wars. The Romans responded by banning all Jews fromJerusalem. The center of Jewish culture and learning shifted to the region of Galilee and the Kinneret, particularly Tiberias. It was in this region that theJerusalem Talmudwas compiled. Middle Ages The Sea of Galilee's importance declined when theByzantineslost control,\",\n \"control, and the area was conquered by theUmayyad Caliphateand subsequent Islamic empires. The palace ofMinyawas built by the lake during the reign ofal-Walid I(705–715 CE). Apart from Tiberias, the major towns and cities in the area were gradually abandoned.In 1187, SultanSaladindefeated the armies of theCrusaderKingdom of Jerusalemat theBattle of Hattin, largely because he was able to cut the Crusaders off from the valuable fresh water of the Sea of Galilee. The lake had little importance within the earlyOttoman Empire. Tiberias did see a significant revival of its Jewish community in the 16th century but had gradually declined until the city wasdestroyed in 1660. In the early 18th century, Tiberias was rebuilt byZahir al-Umar, becoming the center of his rule over Galilee, and seeing also a revival of its Jewish community. Early 20th century In 1908, Jewish pioneers established theKinneret Farmat the same time as and next to Moshavat Kinneret in the immediate vicinity of the lake. The farm trained Jewish\",\n \"farm trained Jewish immigrants in modern farming. One group of youth from the training farm establishedKvutzatDeganiain 1909–1910, popularly considered as the firstkibbutz, another group foundedKvutzat Kinneretin 1913, and yet another the first proper kibbutz,Ein Harod, in 1921, the same year when the firstmoshav,Nahalal, was established by a group trained at the farm. The Jewish settlements around Kinneret Farm are considered the cradle of the kibbutz culture of earlyZionism; Kvutzat Kinneret is the birthplace ofNaomi Shemer, buried at the Kinneret Cemetery next toRachel—two prominent national poets. In 1917, the British defeated Ottoman Turkish forces and took control ofPalestine, while France took control of Syria. In the carve-up of the Ottoman territories between Britain and France, it was agreed that Britain would retain control of Palestine while France would control Syria. However, the allies had to fix the border between theMandatory Palestineand theFrench Mandate of Syria.The boundary was defined\",\n \"was defined in broad terms by theFranco-British Boundary Agreementof December 1920, which drew it across the middle of the lake.However, the commission established by the 1920 treaty redrew the boundary. The Zionist movement pressured the French and British to assign as many water sources as possible to Mandatory Palestine during the demarcating negotiations. The High Commissioner of Palestine,Herbert Samuel, had sought full control of the Sea of Galilee.The negotiations led to the inclusion into the Palestine territory of the whole Sea of Galilee, both sides of theRiver Jordan,Lake Hula, Dan spring, and part of theYarmouk.The final border approved in 1923 followed a 10-meter wide strip along the lake's northeastern shore,cutting the Mandatory Syria (State of Damascus) off from the lake. The British and French Agreement provided that existing rights over the use of the waters of the River Jordan by the inhabitants of Syria would be maintained; the government of Syria would have the right to erect a new pier\",\n \"to erect a new pier atSemakhon Lake Tiberias or jointly use the existing pier; persons or goods passing between the landing-stage on the Lake of Tiberias and Semakh would not be subject to customs regulations, and the Syrian government would have access to the said landing-stage; the inhabitants of Syria and Lebanon would have the same fishing and navigation rights on Lakes Huleh, Tiberias and River Jordan, while the government of Palestine would be responsible for policing of lakes. State of Israel On 15 May 1948, Syria invaded the newborn state of Israel,capturing territory along the Sea of Galilee.Under the 1949armistice agreementbetween Israel and Syria, Syria occupied the northeast shoreline of the Sea of Galilee. The agreement stated that the armistice line was \\\"not to be interpreted as having any relation whatsoever to ultimate territorial arrangements.\\\" Syria remained in possession of the lake's northeast shoreline until the 1967Arab-Israeli war. In the 1950s, Israel formulated a plan to link the\",\n \"a plan to link the Kinneret with the rest of the country's water infrastructure via theNational Water Carrier, in order to supply the water demand of the growing country. The carrier was completed in 1964. The Israeli plan, to which theArab Leagueopposed its ownplan to divert the headwaters of the Jordan River, sparked political and sometimes even armedconfrontations over the Jordan basin. Geology The lake lies in the center of the Jordan Valley, in the northern part of theSyrian-African rift. Several directions oftectonic movementscharacterize the region, mirroring the patterns typical of the entire Syrian-African rift: north–south movements, which started about 20 million years ago; stretching movements in the east–west direction, which began later, at the beginning of thePleistocene(about 1.8 million years ago), and caused thesubsidenceof the lake area. As a result of horizontal shifts in the north–south direction and subsidence of the area, a lake was formed, with an asymmetrical bottom—steeper in the\",\n \"in the east and a gentler in the west. In the southern part an underwater cliff is present, covered by the lake's sediments. The cliff is distinct in the western part and less so in the east. The Sea of Galilee in its current form was preceded byLake Lisan, which extended from the northern Sea of Galilee toHatzevain the south, more than 200 km (120 mi) from the present southernmost point of the lake. Lake Lisan was preceded by Lake Ovadia, a much smaller fresh water lake. Lake Kinneret was formed in its current form less than 20,000 years ago, as a result of tectonic subsidence and the shrinking up of Lake Lisan. Archaeology In 1986 theAncient Galilee Boat, also known as the Jesus Boat, was discovered on the northwest shore during a drought when water levels receded. It is an ancient fishing boat from the 1st century AD, and although there is no evidence directly linking the boat to Jesus and his disciples, it nevertheless is an example of the kind of boat that Jesus and his disciples, some of whom were\",\n \"some of whom were fishermen, may have used. During a routine sonar scan in 2003 (finding published in 2013),archaeologists discovered an enormous conical stone structure. The structure, which has a diameter of around 230 feet (70 m), is made of boulders and stones. The ruins are estimated to be between 2,000 and 12,000 years old and are about 10 metres (33 ft) underwater.The estimated weight of the monument is over 60,000 tons. Researchers explain that the site resembles early burial sites in Europe and was likely built in the earlyBronze Age. In February 2018, archaeologists discovered seven intact mosaics withGreekinscriptions. One inscription, at five meters one of the longest found to date in western Galilee, gives the names of donors and the names and positions of church officials, including Irenaeus, bishop ofTyrein 445. Another mosaic mentions a woman as a donor to the church's construction. This inscription is the first in the region to mention a female donor. Water level The water level is monitored\",\n \"level is monitored and regulated. There are three levels at which the alarm is rung: Daily monitoring of the Sea of Galilee's water level began in 1969, and the lowest level recorded since then was November 2001, which today constitutes the \\\"black line\\\" of 214.87 meters below sea level (although it is believed the water level had fallen lower than the current black line, during droughts earlier in the 20th century). The Israeli government monitors water levels and publishes the results daily.Increasing water demand in Israel, Lebanon and Jordan, as well as dry winters, have resulted in stress on the lake and a decreasing water line to dangerously low levels at times. The Sea of Galilee is at risk of becoming irreversibly salinized by the salt water springs under the lake, which are held in check by the weight of the freshwater on top of them. After five years of drought up to 2018, the Sea of Galilee was expected to drop near the black line.In February 2018, the city of Tiberias requested adesalinationplant\",\n \"adesalinationplant to treat the water coming from the Sea of Galilee and demanded a new water source for the city.March 2018 was the lowest point in water incometo the lake since 1927.In September 2018 theIsraeli energy and water officeannounced a project to pour desalinated water from the Mediterranean Sea into the Sea of Galilee using a tunnel. The tunnel is expected to be the largest of its kind in Israel and will transfer halfof the Mediterranean desalted water and will move 300 to 500 million cubic meters of water per year.The plan is said to cost five billion shekels. Since the beginning of the 2018–19 rainy season, the Sea of Galilee has risen considerably. From being near the ecologically dangerous black line of −214.4 m, the level has risen by April 2020 to just 16 cm (6.3 in) below the upper red line, a result of strong rains and a radical decrease in pumping.During the entire 2018–19 rainy season the water level rose by a historical record of 3.47 meters (11.4 ft), while the 2019–20 winter brought\",\n \"winter brought a 2.82 meters (9 ft 3 in) rise.The Water Authority dug a new canal in order to let 5 billion liters (1.1×109imp gal; 1.3×109U.S. gal) of water flow from the lake directly into the Jordan River, bypassing the existing dams system for technical and financial reasons. Water use TheNational Water Carrier of Israel, completed in 1964, transports water from the lake to the population centers of Israel, and in the past supplied most of the country's drinking water.In 2016 the lake supplied approximately 10% of Israel's drinking water needs. In 1964, Syria attempted construction of aHeadwater Diversion Planthat would have blocked the flow of water into the Sea of Galilee, sharply reducing the water flow into the lake.This project and Israel's attempt to block these efforts in 1965 were factors which played into regional tensions culminating in the 1967 Six-Day War. During the war, Israel captured theGolan Heights, which contain some of the sources of water for the Sea of Galilee. Up until the\",\n \"Up until the mid-2010s, about 400 million m3(14 billion cu ft) of water was pumped through the National Water Carrier each year.Under the terms of theIsrael–Jordan peace treaty, Israel also supplies 50 million m3(1.8 billion cu ft) of water annually from the lake toJordan.In recent years the Israeli government has made extensive investments inwater conservation,reclamationanddesalinationinfrastructure in the country. This has allowed it to significantly reduce the amount of water pumped from the lake annually in an effort to restore and improve its ecological environment, as well as respond to some of the most extreme drought conditions in hundreds of years affecting the lake'sintake basinsince 1998. Therefore, it was expected that in 2016 only about 25 million m3(880 million cu ft) of water would be drawn from the lake for Israeli domestic consumption, a small fraction of the amount typically drawn from the lake over the previous decades. Tourism Tourismaround the Sea of Galilee is an important economic\",\n \"important economic segment. Historical and religious sites in the region draw both local and foreign tourists. The Sea of Galilee is an attraction forChristian pilgrimswho visit Israel to see the places where Jesus performed miracles according to the New Testament. Alonzo Ketcham Parker, a 19th-century American traveler, called visiting the Sea of Galilee \\\"a 'fifth gospel' which one read devoutly, his heart overflowing with quiet joy\\\". In April 2011, Israel unveiled a 40-mile (64 km) hiking trail in Galilee for Christian pilgrims, called the \\\"Jesus Trail\\\". It includes a network of footpaths, roads and bicycle paths linking sites central to the lives of Jesus and his disciples. It ends atCapernaumon the shores of the Sea of Galilee, where Jesus expounded his teachings.Another key attraction is the site where the Sea of Galilee's water flows into the Jordan River, to which thousands of pilgrims from all over the world come to be baptized every year. Israel's most well-known open water swim race, the Kinneret\",\n \"race, the Kinneret Crossing, is held every year in September, drawing thousands of open water swimmers to participate in competitive and noncompetitive events.Tourists also partake in the building of rafts onLavnun Beach, called Rafsodia. Here many different age groups work together to build a raft with their bare hands and then sail that raft across the sea.Other economic activities include fishing in the lake andagriculture, particularlybananas, dates, mangoes, grapes and olives in the fertile belt of land surrounding it. The Turkish Aviators Monument, erected during the Ottoman era, stands near KibbutzHa'onon the lakeshore, commemorating the Turkish pilots whose monoplanes crashed en route to Jerusalem. Ecology The warm waters of the Sea of Galilee support various flora and fauna, which have supported a significant commercial fishery for more than two millennia. Local flora include various reeds along most of the shoreline as well asphytoplankton. Fauna includezooplankton,benthosand a number of fish\",\n \"a number of fish species such asMirogrex terraesanctae.The Fishing and Agricultural Division of the Ministry of Water and Agriculture of Israel lists 10 families of fish living in the lake, with a total of 27 species – 19 native and 8introduced species.Local fishermen talk of four types of fish: \\\"مشط musht\\\" (tilapia); sardin (the Kinneret bleak,Mirogrex terraesanctae); \\\"بني biny\\\" or Jordan barbel,Luciobarbus longiceps(barb-like); and North African sharptoothcatfish(Clarias gariepinus).The tilapia species include the Galilean tilapia (Sarotherodon galilaeus), the blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus), and the redbelly tilapia (Tilapia zillii).Fish caught commercially includeTristramella simonisand the Galilean tilapia, locally called \\\"St. Peter's fish\\\".In 2005, 300 short tons (270 t) of tilapia were caught by local fishermen. This dropped to 8 short tons (7.3 t) in 2009 because ofoverfishing.A fish species that is unique to the lake,Tristramella sacra, used tospawnin the marsh and has not been seen since the\",\n \"been seen since the 1990s droughts.Conservationists fear this species may have becomeextinct. Low water levels in drought years have stressed thelake's ecology. This may have been aggravated by over-extraction of water for either the National Water Carrier to supply other parts of Israel or, since 1994, for the supply of water to Jordan. Droughts of the early and mid-1990s dried out the marshy northern margin of the lake.It is hoped that drastic reductions in the amount of water pumped through the National Water Carrier will help restore the lake's ecology over the span of several years. The lake, with its immediate surrounds, has been recognised as anImportant Bird AreabyBirdLife Internationalbecause it supports populations ofblack francolinsand non-breedinggriffon vulturesas well as many wintering waterbirds, includingmarbled teals,great crested grebes,grey herons,great white egrets,great cormorantsandblack-headed gulls. See also References Further reading External links\",\n \"Black francolin Tetrao francolinusLinnaeus, 1766 Theblack francolin(Francolinus francolinus) is agamebirdin thepheasantfamilyPhasianidaeof the orderGalliformes. It was formerly known as the black partridge. It is the state bird ofHaryanastate,India(locally known askaala teetar, काला तीतर). Fried black francolin is eaten inAzerbaijani cuisine. Taxonomy There are six recognized subspecies: Description The black francolin has a length range around 33 to 36 cm (13 to 14 in) and weight about 453 g (16 oz). The male is black with a white patch on the cheek, a chestnut collar and white spots on the flanks. The back and wings are scalloped with shades of golden brown with sub-terminal tawny-buff bands and pale edges. The rounded tail is black with narrow white or greyish bars. The legs and neck are reddish-brown to red. The extent of the white spotting on the flanks varies substantially across the species' range and the depth of colour of the females similarly varies. The female is mainly brown, but has a chestnut\",\n \"but has a chestnut hind neck. The head is curved with brown irises, brown crown and black throat. The upper plumage, wings and tail as in the male, but the black is replaced by mottled brown and the brown bars on the lower back and tail are wider. The female is duller, with no cheek patch, and the collar is replaced with a nuchal patch. The head and underparts are buff where the male shows black. The rump and upper tail coverts are light brown. Similar species: the grey francolin has a grey-brown and buff body, buff instead of black throat, and lacks the rufous collar. Voice The call of the black francolin, described as a loud ringing \\\"klik cheek-cheek-cheerakik\\\", \\\"kik-kik-kik\\\" or \\\"kwee-kweeeee-kwee\\\", can be heard in the mornings and evenings and almost all day during the breeding season. The male calls while standing on an earth mound, bund, rock or a low tree branch and is soon joined by other birds answering from all directions. Distribution and habitat Black francolins are resident breeders from\",\n \"breeders from south-easternTurkeyeastwards throughIranto southwestTurkmenistanand northeast India, and Kazipara,PanchagarhofBangladesh.The species' range was formerly more extensive, but over-hunting has reduced its distribution and numbers. Fragmented populations occur in the western part of its range. Black francolins wereintroducedto theCalcasieuandCameronparishes of southwesternLouisianain 1961.Additional introductions have also occurred in southFlorida.Elsewhere, black francolins have been introduced toGuamand theHawaiian Islands. The birds are found in scrubby habitats with plenty of cultivated crops tall enough to offer shelter and open beneath to provide escape routes and easy travel. They prefer areas of thick vegetation, usually near water. They are not forest birds but will frequent scrubland and forest edges associated with grassland. They appear to be more closely associated to water thanchukarsare, and in drier areas. Behaviour The black francolin only flies when disturbed. It has a pheasant's\",\n \"It has a pheasant's explosive flight, but prefers to creep away unseen. The flight is short and direct, punctuated by glides on rounded wings. Breeding Black francolins are monogamous. They normally nest in tall grasslands from late March to May. The male may be seen standing on a rock or low tree attracting attention with its extraordinary creaking call. It may be heard all day long in April, during nesting, and less persistently in March and May as well as the summer months. Both parents tend chicks after hatching. Young stay with parents through their first winter. The most likely breeding locations Savanna, Grasslands, Scrub vegetation areas under the cultivated crops. They have a loud call during the breeding season. Males may also become aggressive during the breeding season, make sure there is plenty of cover and escape routes for the hen and it maybe necessary to house her separate and allow limited access for breeding only. They are generally monogamous in the wild. In aviculture it is best to house\",\n \"it is best to house only one pair per aviary. Well planted aviaries with little surrounding traffic would be best for breeding. They are fairly winter hardy, but always provide some shelter during the coldest months breeds from late March to September depending on the range. The normal clutch size lies between 10 and 14 eggs, and only the hen incubates. The eggs are white-spotted olive or pale brown. The incubation period is 18 to 19 days, the breeding season is April to June and the young appear from April to October. Feeding The birds forage on the ground for plant material and small invertebrates, including grain, grass seeds, fallen berries, shoots, tubers, termites and ants. In aviculture they eat small mealworms and wax worms, but care must be used when feeding chicks as they are prone to toe-picking. . References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":387,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"The New Zealand author of the children's book \"Bobby the Littlest War Hero\" won a Queen's Service Medal how many years before it was renamed the King's Service Medal?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Glyn Harper won the medal 12 years before it was renamed."},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyn_Harper"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_Service_Medal"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyn_Harper', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_Service_Medal']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyn_Harper","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_Service_Medal"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyn_Harper\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_Service_Medal\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Glyn Harper Glyn John HarperQSM(born 12 March 1958) is a New Zealand historian who specialises in the military history of the 20th century. He has published several books on New Zealand's participation in the First and Second World Wars. Biography Born on 12 March 1958 inChristchurch,Harper was trained as a secondary school teacher, earning a diploma in teaching fromChristchurch Teachers' Collegein 1980. He then joined theUniversity of Canterbury, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1981. After completing a Master of Arts degree the following year with athesison theFall of Singapore, he moved to Australia, teaching at Catholic schools in New South Wales. In 1988, Harper joined theAustralian Armyin which he served for eight years before transferring to theNew Zealand Army. He earned a Doctor of Philosophy in 2001 from theUniversity of New Englandwith a thesis onHoward Kippenberger, a New Zealand general of the Second World War.Harper was the official historian for New Zealand'smilitary deployment to East Timorfrom 1999 to 2001. He retired from the New Zealand Army in 2001 with the rank oflieutenant colonel. He became a lecturer atMassey UniversityinPalmerston North, and was made an associate professor in military studies the following year. In 2003 he was appointed director of the Centre for Defence Studies.He was Professor of War Studies at Massey University until his retirement. Harper was awarded aFulbright Senior Scholarshipin 2010 and carried out five months of research at theVirginia Military Instituteand theUS Army's War Collegeon theBattle of Monte Cassino. This resulted in the publication of a book on this topic in 2013. In 2011, Harper became a project manager for the publication of theFirst World War Centenary Print Histories, a series of books on New Zealand's role in the First World War. He wrote one volume in the series,Johnny Enzed: The New Zealand Soldier in the First World War, which was published in 2015.In the2012 Queen's Birthday and Diamond Jubilee Honours, in recognition of his services to historical research, Harper was awarded theQueen's Service Medal. As well as his non-fiction historical works for adults, Harper has written several children's picture books with military themes, includingLe Quesnoy,Roly, the Anzac Donkey,andBobby the Littlest War Hero.In 2015, he won the Best Picture Book Award at theNew Zealand Book Awards for Children and Young Adultsfor his bookJim's Letters, which was illustrated by Jenny Cooper. Publications Harper's publications include: Author Editor Notes and references","King's Service Medal TheKing's Service Medal(created as theQueen's Service Medalin 1975 and renamed in 2024) is a medal awarded by the government ofNew Zealandto recognise and reward volunteer service to the community and also public service in elected or appointed public office. It was established in 1975 and is related to theQueen's Service Order.The QSM replaced theImperial Service Medalas an award of New Zealand. On 3 May 2024, the Queen's Service Medal was renamed to the King's Service Medal by Royal Warrant. Recipients of the Queen's Service Medal from 1975 until May 2024 will continue to use the 'QSM' postnominal with recipients of the King's Service Medal from June 2024 using the postnominal 'KSM'. Appearance 1975–2007 The original medal was made of sterling silver, 36 millimetres (1.4 in) in diameter. Theobversebears the same effigy ofThe Queenas the badge of the Queen's Service Order. Surrounding the effigy are the Royal styles and titles \"ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F.D.\". The reverse depicts theNew Zealand Coat of Armssurrounded by the inscription \"The Queen's Service Medal\" and the name of the sub-division either \"for Community Service\" or \"for Public Services\". The initials and name of the recipient is engraved on the rim of the Medal. The medals were made by theRoyal Mint. 2007–2023 The medal is also made of sterling silver, and is 36 mm in diameter. The obverse bears theIan Rank-Broadleydesigned effigy of The Queen. The effigy is surrounded by the Royal styles and titles \"ELIZABETH II QUEEN OF NEW ZEALAND\". The reverse bears the New Zealand Coat of Arms surrounded by the inscription \"The Queen's Service Medal\" above and \"for service – MO NGA MAHI NUI\" below. The new Badge and Medal are made byThomas Fattorini Limited, of Birmingham, United Kingdom. Since 2024 The obverse of the King's Service Medal depictsKing Charles III's portrait and his title 'CHARLES III KING OF NEW ZEALAND'. The reverse of the King's Service Medal is the same as the Q.S.M., but references to 'Queen's' has been replaced with 'King's'. Ribbon Both versions of the medal are suspended from a ribbon 36 mm wide. The edges are a narrow red ochre (kokowhai) stripe. The centre has alternating stripes of red ochre, white and black in a descending step pattern from left to right. The design is inspired by theMāoripoutama pattern used intukutukuwall panels. It is usually interpreted as the \"stairway to heaven\", but in this case it refers to \"steps of service\". See also References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Glyn Harper Glyn John HarperQSM(born 12 March 1958) is a New Zealand historian who specialises in the military history of the 20th century. He has published several books on New Zealand's participation in the First and Second World Wars. Biography Born on 12 March 1958 inChristchurch,Harper was trained as a secondary school teacher, earning a diploma in teaching fromChristchurch Teachers' Collegein 1980. He then joined theUniversity of Canterbury, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1981. After completing a Master of Arts degree the following year with athesison theFall of Singapore, he moved to Australia, teaching at Catholic schools in New South Wales. In 1988, Harper joined theAustralian Armyin which he served for eight years before transferring to theNew Zealand Army. He earned a Doctor of Philosophy in 2001 from theUniversity of New Englandwith a thesis onHoward Kippenberger, a New Zealand general of the Second World War.Harper was the official historian for New Zealand'smilitary deployment to East Timorfrom 1999 to 2001. He retired from the New Zealand Army in 2001 with the rank oflieutenant colonel. He became a lecturer atMassey UniversityinPalmerston North, and was made an associate professor in military studies the following year. In 2003 he was appointed director of the Centre for Defence Studies.He was Professor of War Studies at Massey University until his retirement. Harper was awarded aFulbright Senior Scholarshipin 2010 and carried out five months of research at theVirginia Military Instituteand theUS Army's War Collegeon theBattle of Monte Cassino. This resulted in the publication of a book on this topic in 2013. In 2011, Harper became a project manager for the publication of theFirst World War Centenary Print Histories, a series of books on New Zealand's role in the First World War. He wrote one volume in the series,Johnny Enzed: The New Zealand Soldier in the First World War, which was published in 2015.In the2012 Queen's Birthday and Diamond Jubilee Honours, in recognition of his services to historical research, Harper was awarded theQueen's Service Medal. As well as his non-fiction historical works for adults, Harper has written several children's picture books with military themes, includingLe Quesnoy,Roly, the Anzac Donkey,andBobby the Littlest War Hero.In 2015, he won the Best Picture Book Award at theNew Zealand Book Awards for Children and Young Adultsfor his bookJim's Letters, which was illustrated by Jenny Cooper. Publications Harper's publications include: Author Editor Notes and references\",\n \"King's Service Medal TheKing's Service Medal(created as theQueen's Service Medalin 1975 and renamed in 2024) is a medal awarded by the government ofNew Zealandto recognise and reward volunteer service to the community and also public service in elected or appointed public office. It was established in 1975 and is related to theQueen's Service Order.The QSM replaced theImperial Service Medalas an award of New Zealand. On 3 May 2024, the Queen's Service Medal was renamed to the King's Service Medal by Royal Warrant. Recipients of the Queen's Service Medal from 1975 until May 2024 will continue to use the 'QSM' postnominal with recipients of the King's Service Medal from June 2024 using the postnominal 'KSM'. Appearance 1975–2007 The original medal was made of sterling silver, 36 millimetres (1.4 in) in diameter. Theobversebears the same effigy ofThe Queenas the badge of the Queen's Service Order. Surrounding the effigy are the Royal styles and titles \\\"ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F.D.\\\". The reverse depicts theNew Zealand Coat of Armssurrounded by the inscription \\\"The Queen's Service Medal\\\" and the name of the sub-division either \\\"for Community Service\\\" or \\\"for Public Services\\\". The initials and name of the recipient is engraved on the rim of the Medal. The medals were made by theRoyal Mint. 2007–2023 The medal is also made of sterling silver, and is 36 mm in diameter. The obverse bears theIan Rank-Broadleydesigned effigy of The Queen. The effigy is surrounded by the Royal styles and titles \\\"ELIZABETH II QUEEN OF NEW ZEALAND\\\". The reverse bears the New Zealand Coat of Arms surrounded by the inscription \\\"The Queen's Service Medal\\\" above and \\\"for service – MO NGA MAHI NUI\\\" below. The new Badge and Medal are made byThomas Fattorini Limited, of Birmingham, United Kingdom. Since 2024 The obverse of the King's Service Medal depictsKing Charles III's portrait and his title 'CHARLES III KING OF NEW ZEALAND'. The reverse of the King's Service Medal is the same as the Q.S.M., but references to 'Queen's' has been replaced with 'King's'. Ribbon Both versions of the medal are suspended from a ribbon 36 mm wide. The edges are a narrow red ochre (kokowhai) stripe. The centre has alternating stripes of red ochre, white and black in a descending step pattern from left to right. The design is inspired by theMāoripoutama pattern used intukutukuwall panels. It is usually interpreted as the \\\"stairway to heaven\\\", but in this case it refers to \\\"steps of service\\\". See also References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Glyn Harper Glyn John HarperQSM(born 12 March 1958) is a New Zealand historian who specialises in the military history of the 20th century. He has published several books on New Zealand's participation in the First and Second World Wars. Biography Born on 12 March 1958 inChristchurch,Harper was trained as a secondary school teacher, earning a diploma in teaching fromChristchurch Teachers' Collegein 1980. He then joined theUniversity of Canterbury, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1981. After completing a Master of Arts degree the following year with athesison theFall of Singapore, he moved to Australia, teaching at Catholic schools in New South Wales. In 1988, Harper joined theAustralian Armyin which he served for eight years before transferring to theNew Zealand Army. He earned a Doctor of Philosophy in 2001 from theUniversity of New Englandwith a thesis onHoward Kippenberger, a New Zealand general of the Second World War.Harper was the official historian for New Zealand'smilitary deployment to","deployment to East Timorfrom 1999 to 2001. He retired from the New Zealand Army in 2001 with the rank oflieutenant colonel. He became a lecturer atMassey UniversityinPalmerston North, and was made an associate professor in military studies the following year. In 2003 he was appointed director of the Centre for Defence Studies.He was Professor of War Studies at Massey University until his retirement. Harper was awarded aFulbright Senior Scholarshipin 2010 and carried out five months of research at theVirginia Military Instituteand theUS Army's War Collegeon theBattle of Monte Cassino. This resulted in the publication of a book on this topic in 2013. In 2011, Harper became a project manager for the publication of theFirst World War Centenary Print Histories, a series of books on New Zealand's role in the First World War. He wrote one volume in the series,Johnny Enzed: The New Zealand Soldier in the First World War, which was published in 2015.In the2012 Queen's Birthday and Diamond Jubilee Honours, in","Jubilee Honours, in recognition of his services to historical research, Harper was awarded theQueen's Service Medal. As well as his non-fiction historical works for adults, Harper has written several children's picture books with military themes, includingLe Quesnoy,Roly, the Anzac Donkey,andBobby the Littlest War Hero.In 2015, he won the Best Picture Book Award at theNew Zealand Book Awards for Children and Young Adultsfor his bookJim's Letters, which was illustrated by Jenny Cooper. Publications Harper's publications include: Author Editor Notes and references","King's Service Medal TheKing's Service Medal(created as theQueen's Service Medalin 1975 and renamed in 2024) is a medal awarded by the government ofNew Zealandto recognise and reward volunteer service to the community and also public service in elected or appointed public office. It was established in 1975 and is related to theQueen's Service Order.The QSM replaced theImperial Service Medalas an award of New Zealand. On 3 May 2024, the Queen's Service Medal was renamed to the King's Service Medal by Royal Warrant. Recipients of the Queen's Service Medal from 1975 until May 2024 will continue to use the 'QSM' postnominal with recipients of the King's Service Medal from June 2024 using the postnominal 'KSM'. Appearance 1975–2007 The original medal was made of sterling silver, 36 millimetres (1.4 in) in diameter. Theobversebears the same effigy ofThe Queenas the badge of the Queen's Service Order. Surrounding the effigy are the Royal styles and titles \"ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F.D.\". The reverse depicts","The reverse depicts theNew Zealand Coat of Armssurrounded by the inscription \"The Queen's Service Medal\" and the name of the sub-division either \"for Community Service\" or \"for Public Services\". The initials and name of the recipient is engraved on the rim of the Medal. The medals were made by theRoyal Mint. 2007–2023 The medal is also made of sterling silver, and is 36 mm in diameter. The obverse bears theIan Rank-Broadleydesigned effigy of The Queen. The effigy is surrounded by the Royal styles and titles \"ELIZABETH II QUEEN OF NEW ZEALAND\". The reverse bears the New Zealand Coat of Arms surrounded by the inscription \"The Queen's Service Medal\" above and \"for service – MO NGA MAHI NUI\" below. The new Badge and Medal are made byThomas Fattorini Limited, of Birmingham, United Kingdom. Since 2024 The obverse of the King's Service Medal depictsKing Charles III's portrait and his title 'CHARLES III KING OF NEW ZEALAND'. The reverse of the King's Service Medal is the same as the Q.S.M., but references to","but references to 'Queen's' has been replaced with 'King's'. Ribbon Both versions of the medal are suspended from a ribbon 36 mm wide. The edges are a narrow red ochre (kokowhai) stripe. The centre has alternating stripes of red ochre, white and black in a descending step pattern from left to right. The design is inspired by theMāoripoutama pattern used intukutukuwall panels. It is usually interpreted as the \"stairway to heaven\", but in this case it refers to \"steps of service\". See also References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Glyn Harper Glyn John HarperQSM(born 12 March 1958) is a New Zealand historian who specialises in the military history of the 20th century. He has published several books on New Zealand's participation in the First and Second World Wars. Biography Born on 12 March 1958 inChristchurch,Harper was trained as a secondary school teacher, earning a diploma in teaching fromChristchurch Teachers' Collegein 1980. He then joined theUniversity of Canterbury, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1981. After completing a Master of Arts degree the following year with athesison theFall of Singapore, he moved to Australia, teaching at Catholic schools in New South Wales. In 1988, Harper joined theAustralian Armyin which he served for eight years before transferring to theNew Zealand Army. He earned a Doctor of Philosophy in 2001 from theUniversity of New Englandwith a thesis onHoward Kippenberger, a New Zealand general of the Second World War.Harper was the official historian for New Zealand'smilitary deployment to\",\n \"deployment to East Timorfrom 1999 to 2001. He retired from the New Zealand Army in 2001 with the rank oflieutenant colonel. He became a lecturer atMassey UniversityinPalmerston North, and was made an associate professor in military studies the following year. In 2003 he was appointed director of the Centre for Defence Studies.He was Professor of War Studies at Massey University until his retirement. Harper was awarded aFulbright Senior Scholarshipin 2010 and carried out five months of research at theVirginia Military Instituteand theUS Army's War Collegeon theBattle of Monte Cassino. This resulted in the publication of a book on this topic in 2013. In 2011, Harper became a project manager for the publication of theFirst World War Centenary Print Histories, a series of books on New Zealand's role in the First World War. He wrote one volume in the series,Johnny Enzed: The New Zealand Soldier in the First World War, which was published in 2015.In the2012 Queen's Birthday and Diamond Jubilee Honours, in\",\n \"Jubilee Honours, in recognition of his services to historical research, Harper was awarded theQueen's Service Medal. As well as his non-fiction historical works for adults, Harper has written several children's picture books with military themes, includingLe Quesnoy,Roly, the Anzac Donkey,andBobby the Littlest War Hero.In 2015, he won the Best Picture Book Award at theNew Zealand Book Awards for Children and Young Adultsfor his bookJim's Letters, which was illustrated by Jenny Cooper. Publications Harper's publications include: Author Editor Notes and references\",\n \"King's Service Medal TheKing's Service Medal(created as theQueen's Service Medalin 1975 and renamed in 2024) is a medal awarded by the government ofNew Zealandto recognise and reward volunteer service to the community and also public service in elected or appointed public office. It was established in 1975 and is related to theQueen's Service Order.The QSM replaced theImperial Service Medalas an award of New Zealand. On 3 May 2024, the Queen's Service Medal was renamed to the King's Service Medal by Royal Warrant. Recipients of the Queen's Service Medal from 1975 until May 2024 will continue to use the 'QSM' postnominal with recipients of the King's Service Medal from June 2024 using the postnominal 'KSM'. Appearance 1975–2007 The original medal was made of sterling silver, 36 millimetres (1.4 in) in diameter. Theobversebears the same effigy ofThe Queenas the badge of the Queen's Service Order. Surrounding the effigy are the Royal styles and titles \\\"ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F.D.\\\". The reverse depicts\",\n \"The reverse depicts theNew Zealand Coat of Armssurrounded by the inscription \\\"The Queen's Service Medal\\\" and the name of the sub-division either \\\"for Community Service\\\" or \\\"for Public Services\\\". The initials and name of the recipient is engraved on the rim of the Medal. The medals were made by theRoyal Mint. 2007–2023 The medal is also made of sterling silver, and is 36 mm in diameter. The obverse bears theIan Rank-Broadleydesigned effigy of The Queen. The effigy is surrounded by the Royal styles and titles \\\"ELIZABETH II QUEEN OF NEW ZEALAND\\\". The reverse bears the New Zealand Coat of Arms surrounded by the inscription \\\"The Queen's Service Medal\\\" above and \\\"for service – MO NGA MAHI NUI\\\" below. The new Badge and Medal are made byThomas Fattorini Limited, of Birmingham, United Kingdom. Since 2024 The obverse of the King's Service Medal depictsKing Charles III's portrait and his title 'CHARLES III KING OF NEW ZEALAND'. The reverse of the King's Service Medal is the same as the Q.S.M., but references to\",\n \"but references to 'Queen's' has been replaced with 'King's'. Ribbon Both versions of the medal are suspended from a ribbon 36 mm wide. The edges are a narrow red ochre (kokowhai) stripe. The centre has alternating stripes of red ochre, white and black in a descending step pattern from left to right. The design is inspired by theMāoripoutama pattern used intukutukuwall panels. It is usually interpreted as the \\\"stairway to heaven\\\", but in this case it refers to \\\"steps of service\\\". See also References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":388,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Was the founder of the bank that was established 42 years before the National Banking Act was expanded to include the Territory of Hawai'i still alive when it acquired Pioneer Federal Savings Bank?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"No"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._national_banks_of_Hawaii"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Hawaiian_Bank"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._national_banks_of_Hawaii', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Hawaiian_Bank']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._national_banks_of_Hawaii","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Hawaiian_Bank"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._national_banks_of_Hawaii\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Hawaiian_Bank\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/U.S._national_banks_of_Hawaii (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))","Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))","First Hawaiian Bank First Hawaiian, Inc.is a bank holding company headquartered inHonolulu, Hawaiʻi. Its principal subsidiary,First Hawaiian Bank, founded in 1858, is Hawaiʻi’s oldest and largest financial institution headquartered in Honolulu at theFirst Hawaiian Center. The bank has 57 branches throughout Hawaiʻi, three inGuamand two inSaipan. It offers banking services to consumer and commercial customers, including deposit products, lending services and wealth management, insurance, private banking and trust services. First Hawaiian was listed on theNASDAQon August 4, 2016, and made its debut at number 12 in the January 2017 publication of Forbes' America's 100 Largest Banks with $20 billion in total assets.In 2019,BNP Paribassold its stake in First Hawaiian Bank. History In 1858, local businessmen,Charles Reed Bishopand William A. Aldrich, opened Bishop & Co. This was the first successful banking partnership under the laws of the independentKingdom of Hawaiʻi. It operated from a basement room in \"Makee & Anthon's Building\" on Kaʻahumanu Street. On the day Bishop & Co. opened, it took in $4,784.25 in deposits.In 1895,Samuel M. Damonbought Bishop & Co. from Charles Bishop. In 1910, Bishop & Co. bank opened its first branch inHilo. It then opened its firstKauaʻibranch inWaimeain 1911. In 1919 Bishop & Co. incorporated as the Bank of Bishop & Co. During the 1920s the bank steadily grew, acquiring the Bank of Honolulu in 1922, opening a branch inKonain 1923, and opening yet another branch onLānaʻiin 1924. The bank's growth slowed after it merged with First National Bank of Hawaii, First American Savings Bank, Army National Bank of Schofield Barracks, and Baldwin Bank (Maui) in 1929. The bank then changed its name to Bishop First National Bank of Honolulu. In 1933, the bank's name became Bishop National Bank of Hawaii at Honolulu. The bank's name changed yet again in 1956, this time to Bishop National Bank of Hawaii. In 1966, Cooke Trust Company acquired the bank. It was then changed to First Hawaiian Bank in 1969. The next year, in 1970, the bank opened its first branch on Guam inDededo. In 1975, First Hawaiian acquired Hawaii Thrift & Loan, which had been in financial difficulty, and turned it into First Hawaiian Creditcorp. First Hawaiian Bank acquired many other banks during the 1990s. In 1991, First Hawaiian acquired First Interstate Bank of Hawaii. Then in 1992, it acquired the East West Bank, which had one branch in Honolulu and one on Maui. In 1993, the bank acquired Pioneer Federal Savings Bank, which continued to operate as a separate institution. In 1996, First Hawaiian acquired 31 branches inOregon,Washington, andIdahofromU.S. Bancorp. It then created a new subsidiary - Pacific One Bank - to hold the branches, with a charter in Oregon. During the same year, First Hawaiian also acquired ANB Financial Corporation, which was the owner of American National Bank in central Washington state. American National's branches eventually became part of Pacific One Bank. At the same time as all of these mergers, First Hawaiian built its new headquarters, theFirst Hawaiian Center.At 429 ft (131 m), it is the tallest building inHawaiʻi. In 1997, First Hawaiian merged in Pioneer Federal and the next year merged in First Hawaiian Creditcorp. In the following year, 1998, First Hawaiian merged withSan-Francisco-basedBank of the West.The surviving company, First Hawaiian, Inc., was renamed BancWest Corporation. Former First Hawaiian, Inc. shareholders owned 55% of BancWest;Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP), former owner of Bank of the West, owned 45%. In 2001, First Hawaiian Bank acquiredUnion Bank of California's branch network inGuamandSaipan. In December, BNP Paribas completed its acquisition of 100% of First Hawaiian Bank and its parent company BancWest. Bank of the West and First Hawaiian Bank, however, continued to operate as separate institutions. On December 23, 2015, First Hawaiian Bank announced that parent company BNP Paribas was considering strategic options for the subsidiary, including aninitial public offering.On August 4, 2016, shares of the company started being sold on theNASDAQ. In 2018,Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP)reduced their stake in First Hawaiian to 33.3%,and by January 2019, it had sold its remaining stake. See also References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/U.S._national_banks_of_Hawaii (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"First Hawaiian Bank First Hawaiian, Inc.is a bank holding company headquartered inHonolulu, Hawaiʻi. Its principal subsidiary,First Hawaiian Bank, founded in 1858, is Hawaiʻi’s oldest and largest financial institution headquartered in Honolulu at theFirst Hawaiian Center. The bank has 57 branches throughout Hawaiʻi, three inGuamand two inSaipan. It offers banking services to consumer and commercial customers, including deposit products, lending services and wealth management, insurance, private banking and trust services. First Hawaiian was listed on theNASDAQon August 4, 2016, and made its debut at number 12 in the January 2017 publication of Forbes' America's 100 Largest Banks with $20 billion in total assets.In 2019,BNP Paribassold its stake in First Hawaiian Bank. History In 1858, local businessmen,Charles Reed Bishopand William A. Aldrich, opened Bishop & Co. This was the first successful banking partnership under the laws of the independentKingdom of Hawaiʻi. It operated from a basement room in \\\"Makee & Anthon's Building\\\" on Kaʻahumanu Street. On the day Bishop & Co. opened, it took in $4,784.25 in deposits.In 1895,Samuel M. Damonbought Bishop & Co. from Charles Bishop. In 1910, Bishop & Co. bank opened its first branch inHilo. It then opened its firstKauaʻibranch inWaimeain 1911. In 1919 Bishop & Co. incorporated as the Bank of Bishop & Co. During the 1920s the bank steadily grew, acquiring the Bank of Honolulu in 1922, opening a branch inKonain 1923, and opening yet another branch onLānaʻiin 1924. The bank's growth slowed after it merged with First National Bank of Hawaii, First American Savings Bank, Army National Bank of Schofield Barracks, and Baldwin Bank (Maui) in 1929. The bank then changed its name to Bishop First National Bank of Honolulu. In 1933, the bank's name became Bishop National Bank of Hawaii at Honolulu. The bank's name changed yet again in 1956, this time to Bishop National Bank of Hawaii. In 1966, Cooke Trust Company acquired the bank. It was then changed to First Hawaiian Bank in 1969. The next year, in 1970, the bank opened its first branch on Guam inDededo. In 1975, First Hawaiian acquired Hawaii Thrift & Loan, which had been in financial difficulty, and turned it into First Hawaiian Creditcorp. First Hawaiian Bank acquired many other banks during the 1990s. In 1991, First Hawaiian acquired First Interstate Bank of Hawaii. Then in 1992, it acquired the East West Bank, which had one branch in Honolulu and one on Maui. In 1993, the bank acquired Pioneer Federal Savings Bank, which continued to operate as a separate institution. In 1996, First Hawaiian acquired 31 branches inOregon,Washington, andIdahofromU.S. Bancorp. It then created a new subsidiary - Pacific One Bank - to hold the branches, with a charter in Oregon. During the same year, First Hawaiian also acquired ANB Financial Corporation, which was the owner of American National Bank in central Washington state. American National's branches eventually became part of Pacific One Bank. At the same time as all of these mergers, First Hawaiian built its new headquarters, theFirst Hawaiian Center.At 429 ft (131 m), it is the tallest building inHawaiʻi. In 1997, First Hawaiian merged in Pioneer Federal and the next year merged in First Hawaiian Creditcorp. In the following year, 1998, First Hawaiian merged withSan-Francisco-basedBank of the West.The surviving company, First Hawaiian, Inc., was renamed BancWest Corporation. Former First Hawaiian, Inc. shareholders owned 55% of BancWest;Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP), former owner of Bank of the West, owned 45%. In 2001, First Hawaiian Bank acquiredUnion Bank of California's branch network inGuamandSaipan. In December, BNP Paribas completed its acquisition of 100% of First Hawaiian Bank and its parent company BancWest. Bank of the West and First Hawaiian Bank, however, continued to operate as separate institutions. On December 23, 2015, First Hawaiian Bank announced that parent company BNP Paribas was considering strategic options for the subsidiary, including aninitial public offering.On August 4, 2016, shares of the company started being sold on theNASDAQ. In 2018,Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP)reduced their stake in First Hawaiian to 33.3%,and by January 2019, it had sold its remaining stake. See also References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/U.S._national_banks_of_Hawaii (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))","Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))","First Hawaiian Bank First Hawaiian, Inc.is a bank holding company headquartered inHonolulu, Hawaiʻi. Its principal subsidiary,First Hawaiian Bank, founded in 1858, is Hawaiʻi’s oldest and largest financial institution headquartered in Honolulu at theFirst Hawaiian Center. The bank has 57 branches throughout Hawaiʻi, three inGuamand two inSaipan. It offers banking services to consumer and commercial customers, including deposit products, lending services and wealth management, insurance, private banking and trust services. First Hawaiian was listed on theNASDAQon August 4, 2016, and made its debut at number 12 in the January 2017 publication of Forbes' America's 100 Largest Banks with $20 billion in total assets.In 2019,BNP Paribassold its stake in First Hawaiian Bank. History In 1858, local businessmen,Charles Reed Bishopand William A. Aldrich, opened Bishop & Co. This was the first successful banking partnership under the laws of the independentKingdom of Hawaiʻi. It operated from a basement room in \"Makee &","room in \"Makee & Anthon's Building\" on Kaʻahumanu Street. On the day Bishop & Co. opened, it took in $4,784.25 in deposits.In 1895,Samuel M. Damonbought Bishop & Co. from Charles Bishop. In 1910, Bishop & Co. bank opened its first branch inHilo. It then opened its firstKauaʻibranch inWaimeain 1911. In 1919 Bishop & Co. incorporated as the Bank of Bishop & Co. During the 1920s the bank steadily grew, acquiring the Bank of Honolulu in 1922, opening a branch inKonain 1923, and opening yet another branch onLānaʻiin 1924. The bank's growth slowed after it merged with First National Bank of Hawaii, First American Savings Bank, Army National Bank of Schofield Barracks, and Baldwin Bank (Maui) in 1929. The bank then changed its name to Bishop First National Bank of Honolulu. In 1933, the bank's name became Bishop National Bank of Hawaii at Honolulu. The bank's name changed yet again in 1956, this time to Bishop National Bank of Hawaii. In 1966, Cooke Trust Company acquired the bank. It was then changed to First","changed to First Hawaiian Bank in 1969. The next year, in 1970, the bank opened its first branch on Guam inDededo. In 1975, First Hawaiian acquired Hawaii Thrift & Loan, which had been in financial difficulty, and turned it into First Hawaiian Creditcorp. First Hawaiian Bank acquired many other banks during the 1990s. In 1991, First Hawaiian acquired First Interstate Bank of Hawaii. Then in 1992, it acquired the East West Bank, which had one branch in Honolulu and one on Maui. In 1993, the bank acquired Pioneer Federal Savings Bank, which continued to operate as a separate institution. In 1996, First Hawaiian acquired 31 branches inOregon,Washington, andIdahofromU.S. Bancorp. It then created a new subsidiary - Pacific One Bank - to hold the branches, with a charter in Oregon. During the same year, First Hawaiian also acquired ANB Financial Corporation, which was the owner of American National Bank in central Washington state. American National's branches eventually became part of Pacific One Bank. At the","One Bank. At the same time as all of these mergers, First Hawaiian built its new headquarters, theFirst Hawaiian Center.At 429 ft (131 m), it is the tallest building inHawaiʻi. In 1997, First Hawaiian merged in Pioneer Federal and the next year merged in First Hawaiian Creditcorp. In the following year, 1998, First Hawaiian merged withSan-Francisco-basedBank of the West.The surviving company, First Hawaiian, Inc., was renamed BancWest Corporation. Former First Hawaiian, Inc. shareholders owned 55% of BancWest;Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP), former owner of Bank of the West, owned 45%. In 2001, First Hawaiian Bank acquiredUnion Bank of California's branch network inGuamandSaipan. In December, BNP Paribas completed its acquisition of 100% of First Hawaiian Bank and its parent company BancWest. Bank of the West and First Hawaiian Bank, however, continued to operate as separate institutions. On December 23, 2015, First Hawaiian Bank announced that parent company BNP Paribas was considering strategic options for","options for the subsidiary, including aninitial public offering.On August 4, 2016, shares of the company started being sold on theNASDAQ. In 2018,Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP)reduced their stake in First Hawaiian to 33.3%,and by January 2019, it had sold its remaining stake. See also References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/U.S._national_banks_of_Hawaii (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"First Hawaiian Bank First Hawaiian, Inc.is a bank holding company headquartered inHonolulu, Hawaiʻi. Its principal subsidiary,First Hawaiian Bank, founded in 1858, is Hawaiʻi’s oldest and largest financial institution headquartered in Honolulu at theFirst Hawaiian Center. The bank has 57 branches throughout Hawaiʻi, three inGuamand two inSaipan. It offers banking services to consumer and commercial customers, including deposit products, lending services and wealth management, insurance, private banking and trust services. First Hawaiian was listed on theNASDAQon August 4, 2016, and made its debut at number 12 in the January 2017 publication of Forbes' America's 100 Largest Banks with $20 billion in total assets.In 2019,BNP Paribassold its stake in First Hawaiian Bank. History In 1858, local businessmen,Charles Reed Bishopand William A. Aldrich, opened Bishop & Co. This was the first successful banking partnership under the laws of the independentKingdom of Hawaiʻi. It operated from a basement room in \\\"Makee &\",\n \"room in \\\"Makee & Anthon's Building\\\" on Kaʻahumanu Street. On the day Bishop & Co. opened, it took in $4,784.25 in deposits.In 1895,Samuel M. Damonbought Bishop & Co. from Charles Bishop. In 1910, Bishop & Co. bank opened its first branch inHilo. It then opened its firstKauaʻibranch inWaimeain 1911. In 1919 Bishop & Co. incorporated as the Bank of Bishop & Co. During the 1920s the bank steadily grew, acquiring the Bank of Honolulu in 1922, opening a branch inKonain 1923, and opening yet another branch onLānaʻiin 1924. The bank's growth slowed after it merged with First National Bank of Hawaii, First American Savings Bank, Army National Bank of Schofield Barracks, and Baldwin Bank (Maui) in 1929. The bank then changed its name to Bishop First National Bank of Honolulu. In 1933, the bank's name became Bishop National Bank of Hawaii at Honolulu. The bank's name changed yet again in 1956, this time to Bishop National Bank of Hawaii. In 1966, Cooke Trust Company acquired the bank. It was then changed to First\",\n \"changed to First Hawaiian Bank in 1969. The next year, in 1970, the bank opened its first branch on Guam inDededo. In 1975, First Hawaiian acquired Hawaii Thrift & Loan, which had been in financial difficulty, and turned it into First Hawaiian Creditcorp. First Hawaiian Bank acquired many other banks during the 1990s. In 1991, First Hawaiian acquired First Interstate Bank of Hawaii. Then in 1992, it acquired the East West Bank, which had one branch in Honolulu and one on Maui. In 1993, the bank acquired Pioneer Federal Savings Bank, which continued to operate as a separate institution. In 1996, First Hawaiian acquired 31 branches inOregon,Washington, andIdahofromU.S. Bancorp. It then created a new subsidiary - Pacific One Bank - to hold the branches, with a charter in Oregon. During the same year, First Hawaiian also acquired ANB Financial Corporation, which was the owner of American National Bank in central Washington state. American National's branches eventually became part of Pacific One Bank. At the\",\n \"One Bank. At the same time as all of these mergers, First Hawaiian built its new headquarters, theFirst Hawaiian Center.At 429 ft (131 m), it is the tallest building inHawaiʻi. In 1997, First Hawaiian merged in Pioneer Federal and the next year merged in First Hawaiian Creditcorp. In the following year, 1998, First Hawaiian merged withSan-Francisco-basedBank of the West.The surviving company, First Hawaiian, Inc., was renamed BancWest Corporation. Former First Hawaiian, Inc. shareholders owned 55% of BancWest;Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP), former owner of Bank of the West, owned 45%. In 2001, First Hawaiian Bank acquiredUnion Bank of California's branch network inGuamandSaipan. In December, BNP Paribas completed its acquisition of 100% of First Hawaiian Bank and its parent company BancWest. Bank of the West and First Hawaiian Bank, however, continued to operate as separate institutions. On December 23, 2015, First Hawaiian Bank announced that parent company BNP Paribas was considering strategic options for\",\n \"options for the subsidiary, including aninitial public offering.On August 4, 2016, shares of the company started being sold on theNASDAQ. In 2018,Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP)reduced their stake in First Hawaiian to 33.3%,and by January 2019, it had sold its remaining stake. See also References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":389,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Of the six main/principal cast of The Simpsons, who was born first?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Harry Shearer"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simpsons"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_The_Simpsons_cast_members"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Castellaneta"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Kavner"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeardley_Smith"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Azaria"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Shearer"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simpsons', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_The_Simpsons_cast_members', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Castellaneta', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Kavner', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeardley_Smith', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Azaria', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Shearer']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simpsons","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_The_Simpsons_cast_members","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Castellaneta","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Kavner","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeardley_Smith","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Azaria","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Shearer"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simpsons\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_The_Simpsons_cast_members\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Castellaneta\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Kavner\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeardley_Smith\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Azaria\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Shearer\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/The_Simpsons (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))","Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_The_Simpsons_cast_members (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))","Dan Castellaneta Daniel Louis Castellaneta(/ˌkæstələˈnɛtə/KAST-ə-lə-NET-ə; born October 29, 1957)is an American actor and writer. He is best known for voicingHomer Simpsonon the animated seriesThe Simpsons(as well as other characters on the show such asGrampa Simpson,Krusty the Clown,Groundskeeper Willie,Mayor Quimby,Sideshow Mel,Mr. Teeny,Santa's Little Helper,Itchy, andBarney Gumble). Castellaneta is also known for voicing Grandpa in Nickelodeon'sHey Arnold!, and has had voice roles in several other programs, includingFuturama,Sibs,Darkwing Duck,The Adventures of Dynamo Duck,The Batman,Back to the Future: The Animated Series,Aladdin,Earthworm Jim, andTaz-Mania. In 1999, he appeared in the Christmas specialOlive, the Other Reindeerand won anAnnie Awardfor his portrayal of the Postman. Castellaneta released a comedy albumI Am Not Homer, and wrote and starred in aone-person showtitledWhere Did Vincent van Gogh? Early life Daniel Louis Castellaneta was born on October 29, 1957, at Roseland Community Hospital on Chicago's south side and was raised inRiver ForestandOak Park, Illinois.He is ofItaliandescent, born to Elsie (néeLagorio; 1926–2008) and Louis Castellaneta (1915–2014),an amateur actor who worked for a printing company. Castellaneta became adept at impressions at a young age and his mother enrolled him in an acting class when he was 16 years old. He would listen to his father's comedy records and do impressions of the artists.He was a \"devotee\" of the works of many performers, includingAlan ArkinandBarbara Harrisand directorsMike NicholsandElaine May.He attendedOak Park and River Forest High Schooland upon graduation, started attendingNorthern Illinois University(NIU) in the fall of 1975. Castellaneta studied art education, with the goal of becoming an art teacher.He became astudent teacherand would entertain his students with his impressions.Castellaneta was a regular participant inThe Ron Petke and His Dead Uncle Show, a radio show at NIU. The show helped Castellaneta hone his skills as a voice-over actor. He recalled \"We did parodies and sketches, we would double up on, so you learned to switch between voices. I got my feet wet doing a voiceover. The show was just barely audible, but we didn't care. It was that we got a chance to do it and write our own material.\"He took a play-writing class and auditioned for an improvisational show. A classmate first thought Castellaneta would \"fall on his face with improvisation\" but soon \"was churning out material faster than could make it work.\" Career Early career Castellaneta began his acting career after his graduation fromNorthern Illinois Universityin 1979.He decided that if his career went nowhere he would still have a chance to try something else.He began takingimprovisationclasses, where he met his future wifeDeb Lacusta. He started to work atThe Second City, an improvisational theatre inChicago, in 1983 and continued to work there until 1987.During this period, he did voice-over work with his wife for various radio stations. He auditioned for a role inThe Tracey Ullman Showand his first meeting underwhelmedTracey Ullmanand the other producers. Ullman decided to fly to Chicago to watch Castellaneta perform. His performance that night was about ablindman who tries to become a comedian and Ullman later recalled that although there were flashier performances that night, Castellaneta made her cry. She was impressed and Castellaneta was hired. The Simpsons Castellaneta is most famous for his roles on the longest-running American animated television showThe Simpsons, most notably asHomer Simpson.The Tracey Ullman Showincluded a series of animated shorts about adysfunctional family. Voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask Castellaneta and fellow cast memberJulie Kavnerto voice Homer andMarge Simpsonrespectively, rather than hire more actors.Homer's voice began as a loose impression ofWalter Matthau, but Castellaneta could not \"get enough power behind that voice\" and could not sustain his Matthau impression for the nine- to ten-hour long recording sessions. He tried to find something easier, so he \"dropped the voice down\", and developed it into a more versatile and humorous voice during the second and third season of the half-hour show.To perform Homer's voice, Castellaneta lowers his chin to his chest,and is said to \"let his IQ go.\" Castellaneta likes tostay in characterduring recording sessions,and tries to visualize a scene in his mind so that he can give the proper voice to it.Despite Homer's fame, Castellaneta claims he is rarely recognized in public, \"except, maybe, by a die-hard fan.\" Castellaneta also provides the voices for numerous other characters, includingGrampa Simpson,Barney Gumble,Krusty the Clown,Groundskeeper Willie,Mayor Quimby,Hans Moleman,Sideshow Mel,Itchy,Kodos,Arnie Pye, theSqueaky Voiced TeenandGil Gunderson. Krusty's voice is based on Chicago television'sBob Bell, who had a very raspy voice and portrayedWGN-TV'sBozo the Clownfrom 1960 to 1984.During early recording sessions, he recorded a new version of Barney's loud trademark belch for every episode but discovered that it was not easy for him to belch each time a script called for it. Castellaneta chose a recording of what he believed was his best belch and told the producers to make that the standard. Groundskeeper Willie's first appearance was in theseason twoepisode \"Principal Charming\". The character was written as an angry janitor and Castellaneta was assigned to perform the voice. He did not know what voice to use andSam Simon, who was directing at the time, suggested he use an accent. Castellaneta first tried using Hispanic voicing, which Simon felt was tooclichéd. He then tried a \"big dumbSwede\", which was also rejected. For his third try, he used the voice of a grumpyScotsman, which was deemed appropriate enough and was used in the episode.The voice was based partially on Angus Crock, akilt-wearing chef from the sketch comedy showSecond City Television, who was portrayed byDave Thomas. Mayor Quimby, who first appeared in \"Bart Gets an 'F'\", is a parody of various members of theKennedy family. The episode script did not call for Quimby to be a parody of them, and Castellaneta improvised the accent.Sideshow Mel's voice is Castellaneta's impression ofKelsey Grammer, the voice ofSideshow Bob.Hapless Gil Gunderson is a spoof of actorJack Lemmon's portrayal of Shelley Levene in the 1992film adaptationof the playGlengarry Glen Ross.ShowrunnerMike Scullythought that Gil would be \"a one-shot thing\"but \"Dan Castellaneta was so funny at thetable readdoing the character, we kept making up excuses in subsequent episodes to put him in.\"TheBlue-Haired Lawyer's voice, as well as his demeanor, is based on lawyerRoy Cohn. Castellaneta has won several awards for voicing Homer, including fourPrimetime Emmy Awardsfor \"Outstanding Voice-Over Performance\" in 1992 for \"Lisa's Pony\", 1993 for \"Mr. Plow\",2004 for voicing several characters in \"Today I Am a Clown\",and 2009 for voicing Homer in \"Father Knows Worst\". In 1993, Castellaneta was given a specialAnnie Award, \"Outstanding Individual Achievement in the Field of Animation\", for his work as Homer onThe Simpsons. In 2004, Castellaneta andJulie Kavner(the voice of Marge) won aYoung Artist Awardfor \"Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series\".Homer was placed second onTV Guide's 2002 Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters,and in 2000, Homer and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Famelocated at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard. Until 1998, Castellaneta was paid $30,000 per episode.During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.The dispute was soon resolved and Castellaneta began receiving $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the cast demanded to be paid $360,000 an episode.The issue was resolved a month later,with Castellaneta starting to earn $250,000 per episode.Following salary negotiations in 2008, the cast received approximately $400,000 per episode.In 2011, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, the cast accepted a pay cut to around $300,000 per episode. In the early 1990s, Castellaneta and his wifeDeb Lacustawrote a script for an episode in which Barney becomes sober, and pitched it to showrunnerAl Jean. He liked the story but turned it down because he felt that it was too similar to \"Duffless\", an episode that the writers were already working on. The two waited for nearly a decade and offered an updated version of the script to later showrunnerMike Scully, who liked it and had them make a few changes.Their script became the episode \"Days of Wine and D'oh'ses\".Castellaneta and his wife have also written the episodes \"Gump Roast\", \"The Ziff Who Came to Dinner\", \"Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore\", and \"The Fight Before Christmas\". In2007, they were nominated for aWriters Guild of America Awardfor the episode \"Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore\".Castellaneta is also credited as a consulting producer. Further career Castellaneta has been a regular cast member in several other television series. In 1991, he played Warren Morris in the short-livedABClive-action sitcomSibs.Heide Perlman, creator ofSibs, wrote the part with Castellaneta in mind. He provided the voice of the eponymous character inThe Adventures ofDynamo Duck,MegavoltinDarkwing Duck,\"Doc\" Emmett BrowninBack to the Future: The Animated Series,the lead character inEarthworm Jimand several characters, including Grandpa Phil and the Jolly Olly Man, the mentally unstableice cream truckdriver, onNickelodeon'sHey Arnold!.He guest starred asThe Robot Devilin five episodes ofFuturama, as well as theFuturamafilmThe Beast with a Billion Backs. Castellaneta has also made guest appearances in a number of television series episodes. In 1992, he guest-starred in an episode of thelegal dramaL.A. Law, as a Homer Simpsonmeetable characterat a Californiaamusement parkwho is dismissed for inappropriate behavior while in costume.In 1996, he made a guest appearance as a Zoo Keeper in Season 2, Episode 12 “The One After the Superbowl” inFriends. In 2005, he appeared in the episode \"Sword of Destiny\" inArrested Developmentas Dr. Stein, adeadpanincompetent doctor. In 2005, Castellaneta guest-starred as Joe Spencer in theStargate SG-1season eightepisode \"Citizen Joe\".He also appeared in episodes ofALF,Campus Ladies,Castle,Entourage,Everybody Loves Raymond,Frasier,Friends,Greek,How I Met Your Mother,Mad About You,Married... with Children,Murphy Brown,NYPD Blue,Parks and Recreation,Reba,Reno 911!,That '70s Show,Veronica Mars,Hot in Cleveland,Yes, Dear,andDesperate Housewives. He appeared as theGeniein theAladdinsequelThe Return of Jafarand on the 1994Aladdintelevision series. The Genie had been voiced byRobin WilliamsinAladdin, and Castellaneta described replacing him as \"sort of like stepping intoHamletafterLaurence Olivierdid it, how can you win?\" He also provided Genie's voice in theKingdom Heartsvideo game seriesfor bothKingdom HeartsandKingdom Hearts II(with archived audio used forKingdom Hearts: Chain of Memoriesand its remake as well as for the later HD collectionsKingdom Hearts HD 1.5 RemixandKingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix). Castellaneta portrayedAaron Spellingin the 2004NBCfilmBehind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Charlie's Angels, which followed the true story of how Spelling created the show. Other films in which Castellaneta has appeared includeNothing in Common,Say Anything...,Super Mario Bros.,The Client,Space Jam,My Giant,The Simpsons Movie,Rugrats in Paris: The Movie,Recess: School's Out,Hey Arnold!: The Movie,The Cat in the HatandThe Pursuit of Happyness. In 2000, he won anAnnie Awardfor his portrayal of the Postman in the animated Christmas television specialOlive, the Other Reindeer.In 2006, he appeared inJeff Garlin's independent filmI Want Someone to Eat Cheese Withalong with several otherSecond City alumni. On February 22, 2000, his first music CDTwo Lipswas published.It was followed on April 23, 2002, by his first comedy CD,I Am Not Homer, in which he and his wife perform several comedy skits. The majority of the sketches had been written and performed before the CD was recorded, and Castellaneta thought that it would be a good idea to preserve them \"since don't perform them much anymore.\" Some came from their sketch series on a local radio station in Chicago and had to be lengthened from the \"two-minute bits\" that they were original, while several others were stage sketches performed in a comedy club inSanta Monica.Additionally, \"Citizen Kane\", a sketch in which two people discuss the filmCitizen Kanewith different meanings, was something the pair had performed at an art gallery.Castellaneta noted that \"we already knew that these skits were funny, some of them we polished and tightened.\"The skits were principally written by improvising from a basic point, transcribing the results, and then editing them to the finished scene.Castellaneta chose the titleI Am Not Homeras a parody ofLeonard Nimoy's famous first autobiographyI Am Not Spock, as well as to show that most of the comedy featured \"is not the typicalHomercomedy.\" Alongside his television and film work, Castellaneta has appeared in a number of theatrical productions. In 1992, he starred inDeb & Dan's Showalongside his wife.In 1995, Castellaneta started writingWhere Did Vincent van Gogh?, aone man playin which he portrays a dozen different characters, including artistVincent van Gogh.He first officially performed the play at theACME Comedy Theatrein Los Angeles in 1999.In 2007, he appeared inThe Bicycle MenatKing's Head Theatrein London. Castellaneta hosted the final ofNew Yorkcomedy show Thrills and Spills on December 31, 2015. The final was held inMontgomery, Alabama. Personal life In 1987, Castellaneta married writer and actressDeb Lacusta, whom he had met at animprovclass inChicago.They divide their time betweenLos AngelesandSanta Barbara, California. Castellaneta is avegetariananddoes not drink alcohol. He enjoys exercising regularlyand practicingtai chi.He isCatholic. Filmography Discography Also featured in: Awards and nominations References External links","Julie Kavner Julie Deborah Kavner(born September 7, 1950)is an American actress. Before becoming well-known for her voice role asMarge Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons, Kavner attracted notice for her role as Brenda Morgenstern, the younger sister ofValerie Harper's title character in the sitcomRhoda, for which she won aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. She also voices other characters forThe Simpsons, including Marge's mother,Jacqueline Bouvier, sistersPatty and Selma Bouvier, and half-step-great-aunt Eunice Bouvier. Known for her improvisation and distinctive \"honeyed gravel voice\",Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern inRhodain 1974. Starting in 1987, Kavner appeared onThe Tracey Ullman Show.The Tracey Ullman Showincluded a series ofanimated shortsabout a dysfunctional family. Voices were needed for the shorts, and the producers asked Kavner to voice Marge. The shorts were spun off intoThe Simpsons. Kavner has been described as \"nearly reclusive\";part of her contract says that she will never have to promoteThe Simpsonson video.For her work as Marge, Kavner received anotherPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992 and anAnnie Awardnomination for her performance as the character inThe Simpsons Movie(2007). Typically cast as a \"woman who is supportive, sympathetic or self-effacingly funny\",Kavner grew to dislike playing such roles. In 1992, she starred inThis Is My Life, her first leading role in a feature film. Kavner has also appeared in live-action roles in six films written byWoody Allenand in theAdam SandlercomedyClick. Early life Kavner was born in Los Angeles, California, on September 7, 1950,the second daughter of Rose, a family counselor, and David Kavner, a furniture manufacturer,and grew up in Southern California. She decided to pursue a career in acting because \"There was nothing else I wanted to do, ever\".She attendedBeverly Hills High School(which she later admitted she hated), where she was \"something of a loner\", and unsuccessfully tried out for several plays.John Ingle, formerly the chairman of the Beverly Hills High School art department, later commented that Kavner was \"excellent at improvisation, but she wasn't aningenue and not that castable at that age\". After graduating from high school, Kavner attendedSan Diego State Universityand majored in drama, being cast in several productions including a role asCharlotte CordayinMarat/Sade, becoming known for her improvisation and ability to do both comedy and drama. After graduating in 1971, she got a day job as a typist at theUCLA School of the Arts and Architecture. Career Early career In 1973, Kavner auditioned for a role as one ofRhoda Morgenstern's sisters inThe Mary Tyler Moore Show. David Davis, producer of the show, had convinced her to audition for the part, but decided to cast another actress instead.A year later, Rhoda Morgenstern became the leading character in a spin-off calledRhoda. Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern, sister of the eponymous character.Rhodaran on CBS from September 9, 1974, to December 1978. She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations forOutstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor playing Brenda, winning in 1978.She also received fourGolden Globe Awardnominations.In 1975, she receivedDaytime Emmy Awardnomination for her starring role in the daytime specialThe Girl Who Couldn't Lose. FollowingRhoda, Kavner had a guest appearance onTaxiand appeared in the 1985 comedyBad Medicineas well as the 1987 filmSurrender, both of which were box office failures (and also starredSteve Guttenberg).She appeared in the television moviesRevenge of the Stepford Wives,No Other LoveandA Fine Romance, and shot a television pilot.She also starred in several stage plays, including a play calledIt Had to Be Youat a dinner theater in Canada,Particular Friendshipsin New York City in 1981,andTwo for the Seesaw, directed byBurt Reynolds.Woody Allenfirst saw Kavner one night while he was watchingRhodain the 1970s. He thought that she was remarkable and later offered her a role in his 1986 filmHannah and Her Sisters.Kavner agreed, and credits Allen and the film with rejuvenating her career. Kavner was then cast as a sidekick toTracey UllmaninThe Tracey Ullman Show, which debuted on Fox in 1987. Kavner described the show as, \"like being back in school, a chance to play a wide variety of characters, some really vicious people, to not rest on laurels, to not play it safe\".Kavner commented, \"What I do is not mimicry or an impersonation, but more of an assimilation. we did a lot of looking at people to find out who to base our characters on. We did our homework on our lunch hour.\"She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations forBest Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program. The Simpsons Kavner became known for her role asMarge Simpsonon the animated television showThe Simpsons, a show that continues to the present day.The Tracey Ullman Showincludeda series of animated shortsabout the dysfunctional Simpson family. Voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask Kavner and fellow cast memberDan Castellanetato voice Marge and Homer rather than hire more actors.Kavner has what Hilary de Vries ofThe New York Timesdescribed as a \"honeyed gravel voice\".Kavner says her voice is due to \"a bump on vocal cords\".Marge's voice has aged considerably throughout the series as Kavner has gotten older, and the higher register of Marge's voice in the earliest seasons had to be adjusted as it began to strain Kavner's voice. Although Marge is her highest profile character on the show, Kavner's favorite characters to voice are Marge's sistersPatty and Selma Bouvierbecause \"they're really funny and sad at the same time\".Series creatorMatt Groeninginstructed Kavner to voice the duo as characters who \"suck the life out of everything\".Both have similar raspy voices, but Patty's voice is more masculine and has a lower register, while Selma's voice is a little sweeter.Kavner also provides the voices of every other female member of the Bouvier family, including Marge's motherJacqueline, Great-Aunt Gladys (a dead relative who was introduced on season four's \"Selma's Choice\"), and an unnamed grandmother seen on the season six episode \"Fear of Flying\". While cast members and crew have referenced Kavner as a deep fan of the series and the characters she voices, part of Kavner's contract says that she will never have to promoteThe Simpsonson video nor has she performed Marge's voice in public because she believes the publicity \"destroys the illusion. People feel these are real people.\"Kavner takes recording sessions seriously, and feels that voice acting is \"a little more limiting than live acting. And I have nothing to do with my character's movement.\"Nancy Cartwright, who voicesBart Simpson, said in her bookMy Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy(2000) that Kavner is a warm person who is \"a workhorse of an actor\" with \"extraordinary professionalism and quiet work ethic\", and notes that she is rarely late for recording sessions.Kavner had very few recorded interviews in regard to her work on the show. In behind-the-scenes footage from 1992, she describes Marge as \"a wonderful person\" with \"a great sex life\".On a 1994 appearance onLate Show with David Letterman, Kavner explains that performing the voice of Marge in a live-action setting would break the illusion of the character, and that she does not want her own likeness to overlap with that of the character. However, after being coaxed by Letterman, Kavner turns to face away from the camera and speaks briefly in the voice of Marge. Until 1998, Kavner was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing to cast new voices.However, the dispute was soon resolved and she received $125,000 per episode until 2004 when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.The issue was resolved a month later,and Kavner earned $250,000 per episode.After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Kavner and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. At the44th Primetime Emmy Awards, Kavner received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performancefor voicing Marge in theseason threeepisode \"I Married Marge\".In 2004, Kavner andDan Castellanetawon aYoung Artist Awardfor Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series.For her performance inThe Simpsons Movie, Kavner was nominated for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature at the 2007Annie Awards, butIan HolmfromRatatouillereceived the award.Kavner's emotional performance in the movie got positive reviews, and one critic said she \"gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever to find its way into a movie based on an irreverent cartoon\".Some scenes in the movie, such as Marge's emotional video message to Homer, were recorded over 100 times, leaving Kavner exhausted. Further career Many of Kavner's roles have been described byNew York Timeswriter Hilary de Vries as a \"woman who is supportive, sympathetic, or self-effacingly funny\".Kavner grew to despise playing such roles, saying \"If it smacks of Brenda Morgenstern, I won't take the job.\"She had a supporting role as Eleanor Costello, a nurse who befriendsRobin Williams' character in theAcademy Awardnominated filmAwakenings(1990).Kavner interviewed several nurses in preparation for the role, andPenny Marshall, the director of the film, described Kavner as \"a low-maintenance actor You never have to worry about giving back-story for her characters.\"In 1992, Kavner starred inThis Is My Life, her first leading role in a feature film. Kavner played Dottie Ingels, an aspiringstand-up comedianwho starts neglecting her family when her career begins to take off. Kavner described Dottie as \"really selfish\" but admitted, \"I liked the role for that very reason.\"Kavner had been asked to play a character with a smaller role in the film, butJoe Roth, at the time the chairman of20th Century Fox, suggested that they cast a lesser known actress in the lead role.Nora Ephron, the writer ofThis Is My Life, said Kavner \"has so little vanity that it is almost shocking. Not only does she have no demands as an actress – 'How big is my trailer, what's in my refrigerator?' – but she will do anything for the character if it makes sense to her.\" Kavner has frequently appeared inWoody Allenfilms, having roles inHannah and Her Sisters(1986),Radio Days(1987),New York Stories(1989),Alice(1990),Shadows and Fog(1991), the television movieDon't Drink the Water(1994)andDeconstructing Harry(1997).Allen described her as \"a naturally funny person. When she does a scene, you listen to her and look at her, and the prism through which it's all filtered is funny.\"Kavner believes he is \"a true filmmaker, one that has something to say, continually experimenting on different themes within his own film-making\", adding that \"anything ever does, I always want to do, I don't even have to read it.\" She has done voice-over work in films such asThe Lion King 1½(2004),Dr. Dolittle(1998)and an uncredited role as an announcer inA Walk on the Moon(1999).She worked with Tracey Ullman in the HBO sketch comedy seriesTracey Takes On...She was cast as the mother ofAdam Sandler's character inClick, released in 2006.She has not appeared in a non-Simpsonsrole since her appearance inClick. Personal life Kavner is Jewish.She has lived in New York City'sManhattanborough since around 1992.She leads an intensely private life, described byThe New York Timesas \"nearly reclusive\" and \"discreet and guarded beyond the usual reticent star routine\".She rarely makes public appearances and refuses to be photographed while working.She was in a relationship with producerDavid Davisfrom 1976 until his death in 2022.Neither of them confirmed being married, though reports referred to her as his wife at the time of his death. In 1983,Current Biographyreferred to Kavner as an avid athlete andpescetarian.In a 1992 interview withThe New York Times, she said she was considering retiring \"except for doing three days a year forWoody \", but had a feeling that she would receive a script she wanted \"to do more than life itself\" upon retiring. Filmography References External links","Nancy Cartwright Nancy Jean Cartwright(born October 25, 1957) is an American actress. She is the long-time voice ofBart Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons, for which she has received aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceand anAnnie Awardfor Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation. Cartwright also voices other characters for the show, includingRalph Wiggum,Todd Flanders,Nelson Muntz, andMaggie Simpson. She is also the voice ofChuckie Finsterin the Nickelodeon seriesRugratsand its spin-offAll Grown Up!, succeedingChristine Cavanaugh. Cartwright was born inDayton, Ohio. She moved to Hollywood in 1978 and trained under voice actorDaws Butler. Her first professional role was voicing Gloria in the animated seriesRichie Rich, which she followed with a starring role in the television movieMarian Rose White(1982) and her first feature film,Twilight Zone: The Movie(1983). In 1987, Cartwright auditioned for a role ina series of animated shortsabout adysfunctional familythat was to appear onThe Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright intended to audition for the role ofLisa Simpson, the middle child; when she arrived at the audition, she found the role of Bart—Lisa's brother—to be more interesting. Series creatorMatt Groeningallowed her to audition for Bart and offered her the role on the spot. She voiced Bart for three seasons onThe Tracey Ullman Show, and in 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show calledThe Simpsons. BesidesThe Simpsons, Cartwright has also voiced numerous other animated characters, including Daffney Gillfin inSnorks, Mellissa Screetch inToonsylvania,RufusinKim Possible,MindyinAnimaniacs, Pistol inGoof Troop, the Robots inCrashbox, Margo Sherman inThe Criticand Todd Daring inThe Replacements. In 2000, she published her autobiography,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy, and four years later, adapted it into aone-woman play. In 2017, she wrote and produced the filmIn Search of Fellini. Early life Nancy Jean Cartwright was born on October 25, 1957,in Dayton, Ohio,Frank and Miriam Cartwright's fourth of six children.She grew up inKettering, Ohio,and discovered her talent for voices at an early age. While in thefourth gradeat the school of St. Charles Borromeo, she won a school-wide speech competition with her performance ofRudyard Kipling'sHow the Camel Got His Hump.Cartwright attendedFairmont West High School, and participated in the school's theater and marching band. She regularly entered public speaking competitions, placing first in the \"Humorous Interpretation\" category at the National District Tournament two years running. The judges often suggested to her that she should perform cartoon voices. Cartwright graduated from high school in 1976 and accepted a scholarship fromOhio University.She continued to compete in public speaking competitions; during her sophomore year, she placed fifth in the National Speech Tournament's exposition category with her speech \"The Art of Animation\". In 1976, Cartwright landed a part-time job doing voice-overs for commercials onWINGradio in Dayton.A representative fromWarner Bros. Recordsvisited WING and later sent Cartwright a list of contacts in the animation industry.One of these wasDaws Butler, known for voicing characters such asHuckleberry Hound,Snagglepuss,Elroy Jetson,Spike the Bulldog, andYogi Bear. Cartwright called him and left a message in a Cockney accent on his answering machine.Butler immediately called her back and agreed to be her mentor. He mailed her a script and instructed her to send him a tape recording of herself reading it. Once he received the tape, Butler critiqued it and sent her notes. For the next year, they continued in this way, completing a new script every few weeks. Cartwright described Butler as \"absolutely amazing, always encouraging, always polite\". Cartwright returned toOhio Universityfor her sophomore year, but transferred to theUniversity of California, Los Angeles(UCLA) so she could be closer to Hollywood and Butler.Her mother, Miriam, died late in the summer of 1978.Cartwright nearly changed her relocation plans but, on September 17, 1978, \"joylessly\" left forWestwood, Los Angeles. Career Early career While attending UCLA, which did not have a public speaking team,Cartwright continued training as a voice actress with Butler. She recalled, \"every Sunday I'd take a 20-minute bus ride to his house inBeverly Hillsfor a one-hour lesson and be there for four hours ... They had four sons, they didn't have a daughter and I kind of fitted in as the baby of the family.\"Butler introduced her to many of the voice actors and directors atHanna-Barbera. After she met the directorGordon Hunt, he asked her to audition for a recurring role as Gloria inRichie Rich. She received the part, and later worked with Hunt on several other projects. At the end of 1980, Cartwright signed with a talent agency and landed a lead role in a pilot for asitcomcalledIn Trouble. Cartwright described the show as \"forgettable, but it jump-started my on-camera career\".She graduated from UCLA in 1981 with a degree in theater.During the summer, Cartwright worked withJonathan Wintersas part of an improvisation troupe atKenyon CollegeinGambier, Ohio. Returning to Los Angeles, Cartwright won the lead role in the television filmMarian Rose White.Janet Maslin, a critic forThe New York Times, described Cartwright as \"a chubby, lumbering, slightlycross-eyedactress whose naturalness adds greatly to the film's impact\".Cartwright replied by sending Maslin a letter insisting she was not cross-eyed, and included a photograph.Later, Cartwright auditioned for the role of Ethel, a girl who becomes trapped in a cartoon world in the third segment ofTwilight Zone: The Movie. She met with directorJoe Danteand later described him as \"a total cartoon buff, and once he took a look at my resume and noticed Daws Butler's name on it, we were off and running, sharing anecdotes about Daws and animation. After about twenty minutes, he said, 'considering your background, I don't see how I could cast anyonebutyou in this part!'\"It was her first role in a feature film.The segment was based onThe Twilight Zonetelevision series episode \"It's a Good Life\", which was later parodied inThe Simpsonsepisode \"Treehouse of Horror II\" (1991). Cartwright continued to do voice work for projects includingPound Puppies,Popeye and Son,Snorks,My Little PonyandSaturday Supercade.She joined a \"loop group\", and recorded vocals for characters in the background of films, although in most cases the sound was turned down so that very little of her voice was heard. She did minor voice-over work for several films, includingThe Clan of the Cave Bear(1986),Silverado(1985),Sixteen Candles(1984),Back to the Future Part II, andThe Color Purple(1985).Cartwright also voiced a shoe that was \"dipped\" in acid inWho Framed Roger Rabbit(1988), describing it as her first \"off-screen death scene\",and worked to correctly convey the emotion involved. Once I had graduated from UCLA, I decided that as long as I was an actress, I was going to find related work in the industry. There were plenty of opportunities. And fortunately, I am just pushy enough to find and get myself in touch with those who can provide such opportunities. —Nancy Cartwright,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy In 1985, she auditioned for a guest spot as Cynthia inCheers. The audition called for her to say her line and walk off the set. Cartwright decided to take a chance on being different and continued walking, leaving the building and returning home. The production crew was confused, but she received the part.In search of more training as an actress, Cartwright joined a class taught by Hollywood coachMilton Katselas. He recommended that Cartwright studyLa Strada, a 1956 Italian film starringGiulietta Masinaand directed byFederico Fellini. She began performing \"every imaginable scene\" fromLa Stradain her class and spent several months trying to secure the rights to produce a stage adaptation.She visited Italy with the intention of meeting Fellini and requesting his permission in person. Although they never met, Cartwright kept a journal of the trip and later wrote a one-woman play calledIn Search of Fellini, partially based on her voyage.The play was co-written by Peter Kjenaas, and Cartwright won aDrama-Logue Awardafter performing it in Los Angeles in 1995. In a 1998 interview, she stated her intention to make it into a feature film,which she succeeded in doing in 2017. The Simpsons Cartwright voices the characterBart Simpsonon the long-running animated television showThe Simpsons. On March 13, 1987, she auditioned for a series of animated shorts about a dysfunctional family that was to appear onThe Tracey Ullman Show, a sketch comedy program. Cartwright had intended to audition for the role ofLisa Simpson, the elder daughter. After arriving at the audition, she found that Lisa was simply described as the middle child and at the time did not have much personality. Cartwright became more interested in the role of Bart, described as \"devious, underachieving, school-hating, irreverent, clever\".CreatorMatt Groeninglet her try out for Bart and gave her the job on the spot.Bart's voice came naturally to Cartwright, as she had previously used elements of it inMy Little Pony,Snorks, andPound Puppies.Cartwright describes Bart's voice as easy to perform compared with other characters.The recording of the shorts was often primitive; the dialog was recorded on a portable tape deck in a makeshift studio above the bleachers on the set ofThe Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright, the only cast member to have been professionally trained in voice acting,described the sessions as \"great fun\".However, she wanted to appear in the live-action sketches and occasionally showed up for recording sessions early, hoping to be noticed by a producer. In 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show on theFox networkcalledThe Simpsons. Bart quickly became the show'sbreakout personalityand one of the most celebrated characters on television—his popularity in 1990 and 1991 was known as \"Bartmania\".Bart was described as \"television's brightest new star\" by Mike Boone ofThe Gazetteand was named 1990's \"entertainer of the year\" byEntertainment Weekly.Despite Bart's fame, however, Cartwright remained relatively unknown. During the first season ofThe Simpsons, Fox ordered Cartwright not to give interviews, because they did not want to publicize the fact that Bart was voiced by a woman.Cartwright's normal speaking voice is said to have \"no obvious traces of Bart\",and she believes her role is \"the best acting job in the world\"since she is rarely recognized in public.When she is recognized and asked to perform Bart's voice in front of children, Cartwright refuses because it \"freaks out\".Bart's catchphrase \"Eat My Shorts\" was an ad-lib by Cartwright in one of the original table readings, referring to an incident from her high school days. Once while performing, members of the Fairmont West High School marching band switched their chant from the usual \"Fairmont West! Fairmont West!\" to the irreverent \"Eat my shorts!\" Cartwright felt it appropriate for Bart, and improvised the line; it became a popular catchphrase on the show. Cartwright voices several other characters on the show, includingNelson Muntz,Ralph Wiggum,Todd Flanders,Kearney, andDatabase.She first voiced Nelson in the episode \"Bart the General\" (season one, 1990). The character was to be voiced byDana Hill, but Hill missed the recording session and Cartwright was given the role.She developed Nelson's voice on the spot and describes him as \"a throat-ripper\".Ralph Wiggum had originally been voiced byJo Ann Harris, but Cartwright was assigned to voice the character in \"Bart the Murderer\" (season three, 1991).Todd Flanders, the only voice for which Cartwright used another source, is based on Sherman (voiced byWalter Tetley), the boy fromPeabody's Improbable History, a series of shorts aired onThe Rocky and Bullwinkle Show. Cartwright received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992 for her performance as Bart in the episode \"Separate Vocations\"and anAnnie Awardin 1995 for Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation.Bart was named one of the100 most important people of the 20th centurybyTime,and in 2000, Bart and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame, located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard. Until 1998, Cartwright was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors and made preparations for casting new actors.The dispute was resolved, however, and Cartwright received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded $360,000 an episode.A compromise was reached after a month,and Cartwright's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.Salaries were re-negotiated in 2008 with the voice actors receiving approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Cartwright and the other cast members accepted a 25 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. Further career It is quite a curiosity being a celebrity that nobody knows. I ask you, how many celebrities would younotrecognize were they to walk down the street? ... I can think of no one—besides my fellow cast members and me. The anonymity factor is such a unique aspect of this job. I must admit, sometimes I wish it were different. —Nancy Cartwright,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy In addition to her work onThe Simpsons, Cartwright has voiced many other characters on several animated series, including Chuckie Finster inRugratsandAll Grown Up!, Margo Sherman inThe Critic,MindyinAnimaniacs,andRufusthenaked mole-ratinKim Possible. For the role of Rufus, Cartwright researched mole-rats extensively, and became \"a font of useless trivia\".She was nominated for aDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program in 2004 for her work on the show.In 2001, Cartwright took over theRugratsrole of Chuckie Finster whenChristine Cavanaughretired.Cartwright describes Rufus and Chuckie as her two most difficult voices: \"Rufus because my diaphragm gets a workout while trying to utilize the 18 vocal sounds a mole makes. Chuckie because ... he's an asthmatic with five personalities rolled into one—plus I have to do the voice the way did it for 10 years.\"Other television shows that have used her voice work includeGalaxy High,God, the Devil and Bob,Goof Troop,Mike, Lu & Og,The Replacements,Pinky and the BrainandTimberwolf.Cartwright has appeared on camera in numerous television shows and films, includingFame,Empty Nest,The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air,Flesh and Blood,Godzilla,and24. In 2000, Cartwright published her autobiography,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy. The book details her career (particularly her experiences as the voice of Bart) and contains stories about life behind the scenes ofThe Simpsons.Laura A. Bischoff of theDayton Daily Newscommented that the book was the \"ultimate insider's guide toThe Simpsons\".Critics complained that the book lacked interesting stories and was aimed mostly at fans ofThe Simpsonsrather than a general audience. Cartwright adaptedMy Life as a 10-Year-Old Boyinto aone-woman playin 2004. Cartwright has performed it at a variety of venues, including the August 2004Edinburgh Festival Fringein Scotland.The play received modest reviews, including criticism for a lack of inside stories aboutThe Simpsons, and its \"overweeningly upbeat\" tone.David Chatterton ofThe British Theatre Guidedescribed the show as \"interesting and entertaining, but not really a 'must see' even for Simpsons fans\". Cartwright has shown an interest instock car racingand as of 2007 was seeking aNASCARlicense.In 2001, she founded a production company called SportsBlast and created an online animated series calledThe Kellys. The series is focused on racing; Cartwright voices a seven-year-old named Chip Kelly. In 2016, Cartwright launched Spotted Cow Entertainment, her own film and television production company, with Peter Kjenaas, Monica Gil and Kevin Burke. With a focus on international audiences, Spotted Cow is seeking \"to finance, produce and acquire live action and animated films, television series, as well as entertainment for digital platforms with budgets up to $15M.\"With Spotted Cow, Cartwright made her first film as a screenwriter and producer,In Search of Fellini, which was released on September 15, 2017.Based on her own journey toItalyin 1985 in a bid to meet the famed directorFederico Fellini, the film fulfilled Cartwright's longtime vision of turning her 1995 one-woman playIn Search of Felliniinto a film. Personal life Cartwright met real-estate agent Warren Murphy, 24 years her senior, on her birthday in 1988 and married him two months later.In her book, she describes Murphy as her \"personal laugh track\".The couple had two children, Lucy and Jack, before divorcing in 2002. Cartwright was raised aRoman Catholicbut joined theChurch of Scientologyin 1991.She was awarded Scientology's Patron Laureate Award after donating $10,000,000, almost twice her annual salary, to the Church in 2007. Cartwright is a contributor toASIFA-Hollywood's Animation Archive Project.In September 2007, Cartwright received theMake-A-Wish Foundation'sWish IconAward \"for her tremendous dedication to the Foundation's fundraising and wish-fulfillment efforts.\"In 2005, Cartwright created ascholarshipat Fairmont High School \"designed to aid Fairmont who dream of following in her footsteps and studying speech, debate, drama or music\" atOhio University.In 2005, Cartwright was given the title of Honorary Mayor ofNorthridge, California(a neighborhood of Los Angeles) by the Northridge Chamber of Commerce. In 2007, Cartwright was in a romantic relationship with contractor Stephen Brackett,a fellow member of Scientology.In early 2008, the couple had made plans to marry,but Brackett died in May 2009. In 2012, Cartwright received an honorary doctorate degree in communication fromOhio University, where she was a student from 1976 to 1977 before transferring to UCLA. Cartwright is also a painter, sculptor and philanthropist. She co-founded the Know More About Drugs alliance. Filmography Live-action Film Television Voice roles Film Animation Video games Music videos Theme parks Web series Producer Other credits Awards References Bibliography External links","Yeardley Smith Martha Maria Yeardley Smith(/ˈjɑːrdli/YARD-lee;born July 3, 1964) is an American actress. She stars as the voice ofLisa Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons. Smith became an actress in 1982 after graduating from drama school. She moved to New York City in 1984, where she appeared in the Broadway production ofTom Stoppard'sThe Real Thing. She made her film debut in 1985'sHeaven Help Us, followed by roles inThe Legend of Billie JeanandMaximum Overdrive. She moved to Los Angeles in 1986 and took a recurring role in the television seriesBrothers. In 1987, Smith auditioned for theSimpsonsshorts onThe Tracey Ullman Show. Smith intended to audition for the role ofBart Simpson, but the casting director felt her voice was too high, and she was cast as Bart's sister Lisa. In 1989, the shorts werespun offinto their own half-hour show,The Simpsons. For her work onThe Simpsons, Smith received aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992. AlongsideThe Simpsons, Smith appeared in the sitcomHerman's Headas Louise, and had recurring appearances as Marlene onDharma & Gregand as Penny in two episodes ofDead Like Me. She has appeared in several films, includingCity Slickers,Just Write,Toys, andAs Good as It Gets. In 2004, Smith performed anoff-Broadwayone-woman show entitledMoreat theUnion Square Theatrein New York City. Aside fromThe Simpsons, Smith has recorded few voice-over parts, only commercials and the filmWe're Back! A Dinosaur's Story. Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedyWaiting For Ophelia, which had its world premiere at thePhoenix Film Festivalin April 2009. Early life Smith was born on July 3, 1964, inParis, France. Her father, Joseph Smith, worked forUnited Press Internationalin Paris and moved to Washington, D.C., in 1966, where he becameThe Washington Post's first official obituary editor.Her mother, Martha Mayor, was apaper conservatorfor theFreerandSackler Galleriesat theSmithsonian Institution.Smith's parents later divorced.Her maternal grandfather was art historianA. Hyatt Mayor, and among her great-grandparents were marine biologist and zoologistAlpheus Hyattand artist and sculptorHarriet Randolph Hyatt Mayor.She is also the paternal niece of political scientist, historian, andLatin American studiesspecialistPeter H. Smith.Smith has labeled her family \"upper crust and reserved\".As a child, Smith was often teased because of her unusual voice.Smith has stated: \"I've sounded pretty much the same way since I was six. Maybe a little deeper now.\"She made her acting debut in a sixth-grade play. Career Early career Smith became a professional actress in 1982.After appearances in a number of school plays, she joined the localArena Stagetheater group on an apprenticeship, featuring in their production ofPeter Pan. She went on to star in several other plays in Washington.She moved to New York City in 1984 and appeared in the Broadway production ofTom Stoppard's playThe Real ThingalongsideJeremy IronsandGlenn Close. Smith's first film role came inHeaven Help Us(1985).She then played Putter inThe Legend of Billie Jean(also 1985). The film was abox office bomband critically panned, although Smith \"thought it would be the movie that launched my career. And then it was out at the box office about 10 days before it died.\"When filming was over, she rejoinedThe Real Thingbefore being out of work for six months. Smith worried her career was over.However, the following year, she played Connie inStephen King'sMaximum Overdrive(1986), noting it was \"truly a dreadful film, but I had a great part in it.\" Smith moved to Los Angeles in 1986 on the \"semi-promise\" of a part in a TV film.After the audition, the role was given to another actress. Smith realized \"that people don't mean what they say. It's not malicious. They just don't realize how much impact they have on an impressionable actor – and all actors are impressionable.\" From then on, she decided to \"just sort of build a wall around myself\", to cope with the disappointment of not getting a part.In Los Angeles, Smith appeared in theatrical productions ofLiving on Salvation Street, for which she was paid $14 for each performance,Boys and Girls/Men and Women, andHow the Other Half Loves, and played the recurring role of Louella Waters on theShowtimeseriesBrothers.She appeared in the filmsThe Legend of Billie JeanandGinger Ale Afternoon(1989) as \"trailer-park girls\".She later spoke of her regrets of appearing in the latter in her one-woman showMore. The Simpsons It's a happy fluke. When she was cast back in 1987, I just liked the sound of her voice. She's also a great actress. In general, people who make their living doing voices on cartoons aren't always great for us. Most cartoons want things peppy and cartoony. Yeardley is able to go through moments of great emotion and wring it for all she's worth. —Matt Groeningon Smith's vocal style Smith's longest-running role is voicingLisa SimpsononThe Simpsons. She has voiced Lisa since 1987, beginning withThe Simpsons shortsonThe Tracey Ullman Show. Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Lisa's brotherBart, but casting directorBonita Pietilathought her voice was too high. Smith later recalled \"I always sounded too much like a girl, I read two lines as Bart and they said, 'Thanks for coming!'\"Smith was given the role of Lisa, instead. She denies rumors that she almost turned down the role, though admits she had never planned a career in voice-over work.Pietila stated that, having seen her inLiving on Salvation Street,Smith was always her preferred choice.Smith lifts her voice up slightly to perform the role.Lisa is the only regular character voiced by Smith, although in some earlier episodes, she provided some ofMaggie's squeaks and occasional speaking parts.Smith has only voiced characters other than Lisa on very rare occasions, with those characters usually being some derivative of Lisa, such as Lisa Bella in \"Last Tap Dance in Springfield\" and Lisa, Jr. in \"Missionary: Impossible\" (both fromseason 11in 2000).Smith spends two days a week recording the show. Until 1998, Smith was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing to cast new voices.However, the dispute was soon resolved and she received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 per episode.The issue was resolved a month later,and Smith earned $250,000 per episode.After salary renegotiations in 2008, the voice actors received about $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Smith and the other cast members accepted a 25% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. Despite her world-famous role, Smith is rarely recognized in public, which she does not mind, saying, \"it's wonderful to be in the midst of all this hype about the show, and people enjoying the show so much, and to be totally afly on the wall; people never recognise me solely from my voice.\"In a 2009 interview withThe Guardian, she commented: \"It's the best job ever. I have nothing but gratitude for the amount of freedomThe Simpsonshas bought me in my life.\" Smith received aPrimetime Emmy Awardin 1992, but felt it was not worth anything, saying \"there's part of me that feels it wasn't even a real Emmy.\" The Emmy forOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceis aCreative Artsand not handed out during the primetime telecast and, prior to 2009, was a juried award without nominations.However, Smith says \"if I had to be associated with one character in fiction, I will always be thrilled that it was Lisa Simpson.\"The show's creatorMatt Groeninghas called Smith very similar to Lisa: \"Yeardley has strong moral views about her character. There are lines that are written for Lisa that Yeardley reads and says, 'No, I wouldn't say that.'\"WriterJay Kogenpraised her performance on the show, particularly in the episode \"Lisa's Substitute\", as able \"to move past comedy to something really strong and serious and dramatic\". Further career From 1991 to 1994, alongsideThe Simpsons, Smith was one of the lead cast members in the sitcomHerman's Headas Louise.Her other television roles include recurring appearances as Marlene onDharma & Greg, and Penny in two episodes ofDead Like Me. Smith has also appeared inPhil of the FutureandTeen Angel.Her one-scene role as pregnant checkout girl Nancy in 1991'sCity Slickersearned her \"more attention than all previous roles combined\", and taught her \"that it's far better to have small parts in big movies that everyone sees.\"In 1997, she appeared as Lulu the palm reader in the independent filmJust Write.Her other roles include parts inBarry Levinson'sToysandJames L. Brooks'As Good as It Gets.Brooks, who is also executive producer ofThe Simpsons, had cast Smith in his 1994 filmI'll Do Anything(in one of the film's musical numbers), but her part was cut.Aside fromThe Simpsons, Smith has recorded few voice-over parts, only commercials and the filmWe're Back! A Dinosaur's Story. She \"had a voice-over agent for about two years, and I used to go out all the time, but it never really came to anything. Everybody said, 'Oh Yeardley, you'll clean up,' and that was definitely not the case.\" In 2004, Smith performed her own off-Broadway one-woman show entitledMoreat theUnion Square Theatrein New York City. Directed byJudith Ivey,the play is about her mixed feelings over the success ofThe Simpsons, her parents, her relationships, and her struggles withbulimia.The New York Timescritic Margo Jefferson called it an \"appealing if overlong show\", adding that \"The career narrative needed shortening. This would involve some editing and revising but wouldn't taint the best parts ofMore.It is refreshing to hear a celebrity talk cleanly about being fame-driven and about not getting the degree or the kind of fame you craved. It's fun to watch a skilled actress use her craft to the full.\"She would later perform the play for three weeks in Los Angeles the following year. Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedyWaiting for Ophelia, which was released in 2009. She funded the film, which was written by Adam Carl and based on a stage play he wrote in 2003. She said: \"I loved it. I never get to play parts like that. I always play the friend of a friend, never the lead. And the script surprised me.\" Carl stated it was very unlikely she would recoup her money, but Smith decided she \"believe in this project, and my expectations have already been fulfilled by making the movie\", and added: \"You can support art even if it's not going to make a zillion dollars.\"It premiered on April 4, 2009, at thePhoenix Film Festival. In 2011, Smith starred as Ms. Miller in the movieThe ChaperonealongsideTriple HandAriel Winter. In June 2016, theHuman Rights Campaignreleased a video in tribute to the victims of theOrlando nightclub shooting; in the video, Smith and others told the stories of the people killed there.On March 30, 2019, Smith was honored with the Human Rights Campaign's National Leadership Award in Los Angeles for her work as an advocate of theLGBT community. In 2017, Smith started a podcast,Small Town Dicks, which explores real life crime in small towns in the United States.Smith had co-hosted the podcast with actress and long-time friend Zibby Allen until March 2019 when the two filed lawsuits against one another, with Allen accusing Smith of pushing her out of ownership and profit rights from the show. Politics Smith is a lifelongDemocrat. In 2018, Smith mockedRepublicanTed Cruzafter he labeled the Democratic Party as \"the party ofLisa Simpson\".Smith recommended that people of differing political views should be able to work together ongun control, promotinggay rightsandenvironmentalism. Personal life Smith marriedEnglish-Canadianactor Christopher Grove in 1990. They were divorced in 1992, citing irreconcilable differences. In a 1997 interview withThe Daily Targum, Smith stated \"I am shy, but I have an extroverted persona which I can draw on when I need to,\" and that she is a \"private\" actress. She married Daniel Erickson in 2002; the marriage lasted for six years and Smith filed for divorce on May 21, 2008, citing irreconcilable differences. In 2009, she commented, \"People have said to me that I'm unassuming. It's true, I'm the worst celebrity ever. But I'm trying to become better.\" Smith hadbulimiawhen she was a teenager. She noted \"It would make me high, I would feelendorphinsand this great sense of victory.\" Smith enjoys writing and painting. During the first season ofHerman's Head, Smith taught herself to paint by copying other artists.The bookJust Humor Meincludes a story, \"The Race\", written by Smith.She has written a children's book,I, Lorelei, which was published byHarperCollinsin February 2009. In 2011, Smith launched a women's shoe line called Marchez Vous. In November 2021, Yeardley was noted for producing a podcast on themurder of Sheila Anderson, one of Scotland's most notorious unsolved murders. On June 11, 2022, Smith married one of the co-hosts of her podcast,Small Town Dicks, Detective (Ret) Dan Grice. She met him while he was providing personal security for her during aSimpsonsevent. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Theme park Podcasts References External links","Hank Azaria Henry Albert\"Hank\"Azaria(/əˈzɛəriə/ə-ZAIR-ee-ə; born April 25, 1964) is an American actor. He is known for voicing many characters in the long-running animated sitcomThe Simpsonssince 1989, includingMoe Szyslak,Chief Wiggum,Superintendent Chalmers,Comic Book Guy,Snake Jailbird,Professor Frink,Kirk Van Houten,Duffman,Apu Nahasapeemapetilon,Lou,Carl Carlson, among others. Azaria joined the show with little voice acting experience, but became a regular in itssecond season. For his work on the show, he has won fourPrimetime Emmy Awards. Alongside his continued voice acting onThe Simpsons, Azaria became more widely known through his live-action supporting appearances in films such asQuiz Show(1994),Heat,The Birdcage(1996) (for which he won aScreen Actors Guild Award) andGodzilla(1998). He has also appeared in numerous films includingMystery Men(1999),America's Sweethearts(2001),Shattered Glass(2003),Along Came Polly(2004),Run Fatboy Run(2007),Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian(2009) andThe Smurfs(2011) andThe Smurfs 2(2013). Further voice roles includeAnastasia(1997), for which he won anAnnie Award. His live-action television work includes recurring roles on the sitcomsMad About YouandFriends, as well as dramatic roles in the TV filmsTuesdays With Morrie(1999) as writerMitch AlbomandUprising(2001) as Jewish resistance leaderMordechai Anielewicz. For the former, Azaria received thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie. He starred in the title roles in theShowtimedrama seriesHuff(2004–2006) and theIFCsitcomBrockmire(2017–2020). His recurring role on the dramaRay Donovanearned him a sixth Primetime Emmy Award in 2016. Azaria made hisBroadwaydebut asLancelotinSpamalot, for which he was nominated for theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He returned to Broadway in 2007, playing David Sarnoff inThe Farnsworth Invention. Early life and education Henry Albert Azaria was born in theManhattanborough ofNew York Cityon April 25, 1964 to Ruth and Albert Azaria.He began going by the name \"Hank\" as a child, after a pediatrician he visited said he felt it was a more suitable name for a child than \"Henry\".His grandparents on both sides wereSephardic Jewsfrom the Greek city ofThessaloniki. His family spokeLadino, also known as Judaeo-Spanish, which he described as \"a strange, antiquated Spanish dialect written inHebrewcharacters.\"Azaria's father ran several dress-manufacturing businesses while his mother raised him and his two older sisters, Stephanie and Elise.Before marrying his father, Azaria's mother had been a publicist forColumbia Pictures, promoting films in Latin American countries as she was fluent in both English and Spanish.During his childhood, Azaria would often \"memorize and mimic\" the scripts of films, shows, and stand-up comedy routines he enjoyed. Azaria attendedThe Kew-Forest Schoolin Queens'Forest Hillsneighborhood.He decided to become an actor after performing in a school play at the age of 16, becoming \"obsessed with acting\" at the expense of his academic studies.Both of his parents loved all forms of show business, which further spurred him to become an actor.He studied drama atTufts Universityfrom 1981 to 1985,where he met and befriended actorOliver Plattand noted that Platt was a \"better actor\" than he was and inspired him.Together they starred in various college stage productions, includingThe Merchant of Venice,before Azaria went to train at theAmerican Academy of Dramatic Arts.Although he did not expect the endeavor to be successful, he decided to become a professional actor so that he would not regret not having tried later in life.His first acting job was an advertisement for Italian television when he was 17 years old.He also worked as abusboy.He originally intended to work predominantly as a theatrical actor, and he and Platt set up a company called Big Theatre, althoughHarold Pinter'sThe Dumb Waiterwas the only show they ever performed.Azaria decided that television was a better arena and offered more opportunity, and moved toLos Angelesafter being offered work with talent agent Harry Gold. Career Early career (1986–1988) Azaria got along with talent agent Harry Gold, who was lukewarm about working with him but still sent him out for auditions after a woman Azaria had worked with in New York \"got really furious with \" for breaking his promise to work with Azaria.He made his television debut with a role in the pilot episode of the 1986ABCcomedy-drama seriesJoe Bash.His part—a one-line role as the police officer Maldonado—was edited out before the show was broadcast, although the role secured him admission to theScreen Actors Guild.Azaria appeared in the TV filmNitti: The Enforcer, about the gangsterFrank Nitti, and appeared in the failed pilotMorning MaggiealongsideMatthew Perry, with whom he became good friends.He played Joe in an episode of the sitcomFamily Tiesin 1988 in which he had one line, and the following year he played Steve Stevenson in an episode ofGrowing Pains.Azaria has described his career progression as being gradual; he did not achieve overnight recognition or fame.In Los Angeles, Azaria was trained by acting coachRoy London.Between acting jobs he performed as a stand-up comedian,and worked as a bartender for a catering firm. The Simpsons(since 1989) Azaria is known for his voice work in the ongoing animated television seriesThe Simpsons. He joined the show having previously performed only one voice-over—as the titular animated dog in the failedFoxpilotHollywood Dog, a show he described as \"sort ofRoger Rabbit-esque, where the dog was animated, but everybody else was real.\"The first voice he performed onThe Simpsonswas that of town bartenderMoe Szyslak, replacingChristopher Collinswho had initially recorded the character's voice. Having known him fromHollywood Dog, casting directorBonita Pietilacalled Azaria and asked him to audition for the voice of Moe.At the time he was performing the role of a drug dealer in a play, utilizing a voice based onAl Pacino's performance in the filmDog Day Afternoon. He used the voice in his audition forThe Simpsonsand, at the request of the show's executive producersMatt GroeningandSam Simon, made the voice more \"gravelly\". Groening and Simon thought the resultant voice was ideal for Moe and took Azaria over to the Fox recording studio. Before he had even seen a script, he recorded several lines of dialogue as Moe for the episode \"Some Enchanted Evening\",dubbingCollins' voice. Azaria did not expect to hear from the show again, but they continued to call him back, first to perform the voice ofChief Wiggumand thenApu Nahasapeemapetilon.He felt that, initially, \" didn't seem too pleased with what I had done... was very exacting... was kind of impatiently directing me on the ABCs of comedy. But then, much to my surprise, he would still keep having me back every week. But each week, I thought it was going to be my last week because I really didn't think I had done that well.\"Nevertheless, by the show'ssecond seasonhe was performing multiple recurring voices and so was given a contract and made a permanent member of the main cast.Since he joined later than the rest of the cast, Groening still considered Azaria the \"new guy\".In addition to Moe, Wiggum and Apu, Azaria provides the voices ofComic Book Guy,Carl Carlson(until season 32, now voiced byAlex Désert),Cletus Spuckler,Professor Frink, Dr.Nick Riviera,Lou,Snake Jailbird,Kirk Van Houten,Bumblebee Man,the Sea Captain,Superintendent Chalmers,Disco Stu,Duffman,the Wiseguy, and numerous guest characters.His co-star inThe Simpsons,Nancy Cartwright, wrote that: \"The thing about Hank that I most remember is that he started out so unassuming and then, little by little, his abilities were revealed and his contributions to the show escalated. I realized Hank was going to be our breakaway star.\" As Moe's voice is based on Al Pacino's, likewise many of Azaria's other recurring characters are based on existing sources. He took Apu's voice from the many Indian and Pakistani convenience store workers in Los Angeles that he had interacted with when he first moved to the area, and also loosely based it onPeter Sellers' character Hrundi V. Bakshi from the filmThe Party.Originally, it was thought that Apu being Indian was too offensive and stereotyped, but after Azaria's reading of the line \"Hello, Mr. Homer\", which the show's producers thought was hilarious, the character stayed.Azaria, however, disputed this onLateNet withRay Ellin, claiming that Apu was always intended to be stereotypical.Chief Wiggum's voice was originally a parody ofDavid Brinkley, but when Azaria was told it was too slow, he switched it to that ofEdward G. Robinson.Officer Lou is based onSylvester Stallone,and Dr. Nick is \"a badRicky Ricardoimpression.\"The \"Wise Guy\" voice is \"basicallyCharles Bronson,\"while Carl is \"a silly voice always did.\"Two of the voices come from his time at college: Snake's is based on Azaria's old college roommate, while Comic Book Guy's voice is based on a student who lived in the room next door to Azaria and went by the name \"F\".Professor Frink is based onJerry Lewis' performance in the originalThe Nutty Professor, and the Sea Captain is based on English actorRobert Newton's portrayal of many pirates.Azaria based his performance for the one-time characterFrank Grimes, from the episode \"Homer's Enemy\", on actorWilliam H. Macy. He counts Grimes as the hardest, most emotional performance he has ever had to give in the history ofThe Simpsons. Azaria's work on the show has won him four Emmy Awards forOutstanding Voice-Over Performance, in 1998, 2001, 2003 and 2015. He was also nominated for the award in 2009 and 2010, but lost to co-starDan Castellanetaand guest starAnne Hathawayrespectively. He was nominated again in 2012.Azaria, with the rest of the principal cast, reprised all of his voice roles fromThe Simpsonsfor the 2007 filmThe Simpsons Movie.Azaria notes that he spends \"an embarrassingly small amount of time working onThe Simpsons.\"He works for \"an hour on Thursdays when we read through the script, then four hours on Monday when we record it, and I'll pop in again once or twice.\"He concludes it is \"the best job in the world, as far as I'm concerned.\" Up until 1998, Azaria was paid $30,000 per episode. Azaria and the five other mainThe Simpsonsvoice actors were then involved in a pay dispute in which Fox threatened to replace them with new actors and went as far as preparing for the casting of new voices. However, the issue was soon resolved and from 1998 to 2004, they received $125,000 per episode. In 2004, the voice actors intentionally skipped several scriptread-throughs, demanding they be paid $360,000 per episode.The strike was resolved a month later,with Azaria's pay increasing to something between $250,000and $360,000 per episode.In 2008, production for thetwentieth seasonwas put on hold due to new contract negotiations with the voice actors, who wanted a \"healthy bump\" in salary.The dispute was later resolved, and Azaria and the rest of the cast received their requested pay raise, approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Azaria and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. In an April 24, 2018 appearance onThe Late Show with Stephen Colbert, Azaria discussed his reaction toThe Problem with Apu, a 2017 documentary byHari Kondaboluthat examined Azaria and other white actors who had playedSouth Asianroles asstereotypes.During the interview, Azaria described how watching the documentary had changed his perspective on the issue: \"The idea that anyone, young or old, past or present, was bullied or teased based on the character of Apu, it just really makes me sad.\"Azaria also offered to stop voicing the character: \"I'm perfectly willing and happy to step aside, or help transition it into something new.\"In response, Kondabolu tweeted his appreciation for Azaria's statement: \"Thank you, @HankAzaria. I appreciate what you said & how you said it.\" In early 2020, Azaria announced that he was stepping away from the Apu character, primarily because of the stereotypes and bias it perpetuated.Later in the year he would retire from voicing Carl for similar reasons.In April 2021, Azaria formally apologized for voicing the Apu character, onDax Shepherd's podcast. Further career (since 1991) Television work With the continuing success ofThe Simpsons, Azaria began taking on other, principally live-action roles. He was a main cast member on the showHerman's Head(1991–1994) playing Jay Nichols, alongsideThe Simpsonsco-starYeardley Smith.He regularly recorded forThe Simpsonsand filmedHerman's Headduring the same day.Following the series' cancellation Azaria unsuccessfully auditioned for the role ofJoey Tribbiani, one of the lead characters in the sitcomFriends.He was instead cast in the role of the scientist David, one ofPhoebe Buffay's boyfriends in the series. He appeared in the show's tenth episode \"The One with the Monkey\", before the character left for a research trip inMinsk. He reprised the role in the show'sseventh season(2001), before making several appearances in theninth(2003). This return culminates in David proposing to Phoebe; she rejects him, and David leaves the show for good.From 1995 to 1999, Azaria had a recurring role in the sitcomMad About Youas Nat Ostertag, the dog walker.Azaria was nominated for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor his roles in bothMad About You(in 1998) andFriends(in 2003).Azaria had the lead role in the short-lived sitcomIf Not For Youin 1995, playing record producer Craig Schaeffer. Azaria produced and starred in the sitcomImagine Thatin 2002, replacingEmerilmid-season in theNBClineup. He played Josh Miller, a comedy writer, who \"transformed\" each episode into a character Miller has imagined, \"provid a humorous outlet for his frustrations at home and work\".Production closed after five episodes and it was canceled after just two aired, due to poor critical reaction and ratings.Azaria later commented on the show: \"I wanted to do something really truthful and interesting and impactful. We had a bunch of executives sitting in the room, all agreeing thatThe Larry Sanders Showwas our favorite thing on television, but we couldn't do it on NBC, and nor would we want to from a business standpoint; it simply wouldn't make enough money. By the time it aired, the writing was sort of on the wall, and I don't blame them at all. It was apparent it wasn't working.\" He starred aspsychiatristCraig \"Huff\" Huffstodt in theShowtimedrama seriesHuff, which ran for two seasons between 2004 and 2006, airing 24 episodes.Azaria served as an executive producer on the show and directed an episode of its second season.After reading the pilot script, he sent it to Platt, who took the role of Huff's friend Russell Tupper.Azaria enjoyed working on the show,but struggled with the bleak subject matter and was often in dispute with its creator Bob Lowry, noting that it \"was tough to marry our visions all the time, we both cared so much about it that neither of us were willing to let go.\"Gillian FlynnofEntertainment Weeklycalled Azaria \"impressively subtle\" in the role,whileJohn LeonardofNew York magazinesaid he was a \"shrewd bit of casting.\"The show garnered sevenEmmynominations in 2005, including a nomination for Azaria forOutstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.Despite the awards, the show continually received low ratings, and Showtime chose not to commission it for a third season. Returning to live-action television in 2011, Azaria starred in the NBC sitcomFree Agents, a remake of the Britishseries of the same name. He played Alex Taylor, a recently divorced public relations executive \"who is missing his kids and trying to keep himself together\", and ends up sleeping with a co-worker (Kathryn Hahn).Azaria also served as a producer on the show.He was apprehensive about the project, disliking the lengthy schedule required of a lead actor in a single-camera series, and favoring the \"sensibility\" of cable shows. However, he liked the script and executive producer John Enbom's previous seriesParty Downand decided to accept the part.Despite Azaria mounting a campaign on Twitter to save it,the series was canceled after four episodes due to low ratings.Between 2014 and 2016, Azaria had a recurring role in the second, third and fourth season of Showtime'sRay Donovan, playingFBIagent Ed Cochran.He won the Emmy forOutstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Seriesfor his work on the show in 2016, as well as earning a further nomination the same category the following year. Azaria starred in theIFCseriesBrockmire, which ran for four seasons from 2017-2020.He played the lead role of Jim Brockmire, a legendary baseball announcer, fired for a profanity-filled breakdown live on air after discovering his wife was having an affair. Azaria based the voice and style of Brockmire on several veteran sportscasters, includingBob MurphyandPhil Rizzuto.The character originated as part of the third episode of theFunny or Dieweb-seriesGamechangers, entitled \"A Legend in the Booth\", which Azaria also co-wrote.He subsequently appeared as Brockmire on theNFL Network'sThe Rich Eisen Podcastto discuss theNational Football League.In November 2012, Azaria sued actorCraig Bierkoover the ownership of the Brockmire voice.The case was ruled in Azaria's favor in 2014. Both actors had been using a baseball announcer voice before and since meeting at a party in 1990, but US district judgeGary Allen Feessruled that only Azaria's voice was, as Brockmire, a defined, \"tangible\" character and thus subject to copyright.In 2016, IFC confirmed development on the series, on which Azaria also served as an executive producer.Azaria received three nominations for theCritics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor his performance on the series. Film work \" appeal can best be summed up by, of all things, his hilarious cameo in the goofy comedyDodgeball. As Patches O'Houlihan, the dodgeball champion who will age into the magnificently gruffRip Torn, he delivers a pitch-perfect performance in an instructional video in which he chain-smokes, encourages a child to pick on those weaker than him, and steals the film from a cast of comedic greats. It's a wonderful, odd moment that could have failed miserably in the hands of a lesser actor, and he manages to pull it off with only seconds of dialogue. In my humble opinion, and using my limited knowledge of boxing terms: Pound for pound, Hank Azaria is the best actor working today.\" —Playwright Jenelle Riley on Azaria. Azaria made his film debut in the direct-to-video releaseCool Blue(1990), as Buzz.His first theatrically released feature film appearance came the same year inPretty Woman, as a police detective named Albertson.His next major film role was as television producerAlbert Freedmanin the 1994 filmQuiz Show, which was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.In 1996, Azaria played gay Guatemalan housekeeper Agador Spartacus in the filmThe Birdcage. For the role, which Azaria considers to be his \"big break\",he was nominated for theScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role,and critically branded \"the most hilarious performance in the film,\" by Alison Macor ofThe Austin Chronicle,whileEmpirewrote that he \" the show.\"For the role he used a Guatemalan accent, and made himself sound as effeminate as possible. He had chosen two possible voices, an effeminate one and a tougher one. After advice from a drag queen, he chose the effeminate voice. Three weeks into production, he realized he sounded exactly like his grandmother, which aided his performance.Agador was originally going to be a single scene part, with the larger role of the housekeeper being played byDavid Alan Grier. With the producers fearing the racial connotations of a black actor in such a part, Azaria inherited the full role. He appeared in numerous other films in the late 1990s, includingHeat(1995),Grosse Pointe Blank(1997),Celebrity(1998) and worked oppositeGwyneth Paltrow, as Walter Plane, in the 1998 adaptation ofGreat Expectations.He played photographer Victor \"Animal\" Palotti inGodzilla(1998).Godzillawas one of Azaria's first starring roles in ablockbusterfilm. Its five-month shoot was the longest of his career to date, but he considered it a good chance to boost his profile. He noted, \"I'm so used to melding into every character I play. Even people in the business think the guy who didBirdcage,Quiz ShowandGreat Expectationsare three different actors—which in a way makes me proud, but in another way is very frustrating. It's the curse and blessing of the character actor\".The shoot's physical challenges, and the film's critical failure, led Azaria to later describe it as \"tough to make, and very disappointing when it came out. It was one you definitely chalk up and say, 'That was part of paying your dues, better luck next time'.\"In 1999, he starred in the dramaMystery, Alaskaas Charles Danner, and the comedy superhero filmMystery Men, as the faux-British silverware throwing expert The Blue Raja.Other film roles included Hector Gorgonzolas inAmerica's Sweethearts(2001), Claude inAlong Came Polly(2004), and the young Patches O'Houlihan inDodgeBall: A True Underdog Story(2004), the latter two withBen Stiller.For his role of Claude, a French scuba instructor, inAlong Came Polly, Azaria donned a wig and worked out extensively to get into the physical shape the part required. Azaria played composerMarc BlitzsteininTim Robbins' filmCradle Will Rockin 1999.Paul Clintonwrote that Azaria was \"brilliant as the tortured (is there any other kind) artist Blitzstein.\"The same year he appeared as author and journalistMitch AlbomalongsideJack Lemmonin the television filmTuesdays with Morrie,winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Moviefor the role.Azaria described the latter as the \"best work done.\"These were two of the first dramatic roles Azaria had taken; throughout his career, Azaria has primarily worked in comedy,but tries to balance the two.Azaria commented: \"all the roles I got were in comedy at first, and I was certainly happy to get those, so I never felt the lack of being considered a dramatic actor because I was so happy to get what I got. And then I became surprised later on when I got dramatic roles. But I never went, 'OK, now it's time to get a dramatic role.'\"His next dramatic part was in the television filmUprisingin 2001. The film was based on the 1943Warsaw Ghetto Uprisingand Azaria playedMordechaj Anielewicz, one of the revolt's leaders. Azaria was confused by his casting inUprisingand frequently asked the film's producer and directorJon Avnetwhy he was selected. \"I know liked the fact I was Jewish, and he knew I could do accents well. He cast me andDavid Schwimmerin , and we were both sort of mystified. He had some instinct that he wanted people who were more known for being funny. He never explained it satisfactorily to me; I don't understand why.\"His parts inTuesdays With MorrieandUprisingaffected him, causing a depressive state which he countered with DVDs of the comedy seriesMonty Python.Azaria foundUprisingto be \"very difficult very depressing very emotionally challenging\" material.In 2003, Azaria played journalistMichael Kelly, the former editor ofThe New Republic, in the drama filmShattered Glass. Kelly died a few months before the film was released and Azaria said the film \"has become a weird kind of eulogy to him.\" SinceHuff's conclusion in 2006, Azaria has continued to make multiple film appearances. He played the smooth-talking Whit inDavid Schwimmer's directorial debutRun Fatboy Run(2007). During production he became good friends with co-starSimon Pegg, performingThe Simpsonsvoices on request, frequently distracting Pegg when he was supposed to be filming.He worked with Stiller again on 2009'sNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonianin which Azaria played the villainous pharaoh Kah Mun Rah, utilizing aBoris Karloffaccent.Although the film received mixed reviews, critics praised Azaria's performance.Perry Seibert ofTV Guidewrote that \"thanks to Azaria, a master of comic timing. His grandiose, yet slightly fey bad guy is equally funny when he's chewing out minions as he is when deliberating ifOscar the GrouchandDarth Vaderare evil enough to join his team.\"He appeared asAbrahaminYear One(2009),Dr. Knight in 2010'sLove & Other Drugs,and playedDeep ThroatdirectorGerard DamianoinLovelace(2013). Azaria playedGargamelin the animated/live-action adaptation ofThe Smurfs(2011).Azaria wore a prosthetic nose, ears,buck teeth, eyebrows and a wig, as well as shaving his head. He spent approximately 130 hours in the make-up chair over the course of the production.Azaria considered Gargamel's voice to be the most important part of his performance. The producers wanted an \"old, failed, Shakespearean actor\" voice, but Azaria felt this would lack energy and wanted something more Eastern European. He eventually selected a voice similar to that ofPaul Winchell's from the cartoon.Azaria disliked the cartoon when it first aired, and considered Gargamel too one-dimensional a character and \"just this straight villain\";he opted to make Gargamel \"more sarcastic\" than in the cartoon, but \"discovered that there's no way to play Gargamel without screaming your head off at certain points – ramping him up and getting him very upset over Smurfs\".He interpreted him as \"very lonely\", adding that \"he hates the Smurfs because they're such a happy family. He wants in really badly. I think he wants to be embraced as a Smurf\".Azaria worked with the writers to \"infuse\" the script with some of his ideas about the character, \"particularly with the 'married' relationship between Gargamel and Azreal \" which Azaria conceived. Reviewers fromThe San Francisco ChronicleandThe Boston Globecommented on Azaria's \"overacting\" in the role of Gargamel.More positive reaction came from Scott Bowles ofUSA Todaycalled Azaria the \"human standout\";Betsy Sharkey of theLos Angeles Timesfelt he suffered the \"greatest disservice\" of the film's cast due to a poor script.Azaria noted in an interview withThe A.V. ClubthatThe SmurfsandNight at the Museumwere films he agreed to do primarily for the money, but that \"I won't even do that unless I think it will at least be fun to do...I really try to throw myself into it, figure out the funniest, cleverest way to get the material over, and make it fun to do and fun to watch.\"Azaria reprised his role in the 2013 sequelThe Smurfs 2.In 2016, Azaria starred inNormanwithRichard Gere. Further voice work Azaria performed a number of voice roles in addition toThe Simpsons, although he noted in 2005: \"I started doing other voiceovers for cartoons for a couple of years, but I didn't really love it. I was spoiled byThe Simpsons.\"He voicedEddie Brock/VenominSpider-Man: The Animated Seriesbetween 1994 and 1996.In the animated featureAnastasia(1997), he voiced Bartok the bat and reprised the role in the direct-to-video prequelBartok the Magnificent(1999).For his performance inAnastasia, Azaria won theAnnie Awardfor Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Male Performer in an Animated Feature Production.He also voiced Eric in the American dub of the seriesStressed Eric,Harold Zoid in the 2001Futuramaepisode \"That's Lobstertainment!\",andAbbie HoffmanandAllen GinsberginChicago 10(2007).For the 2011 filmHop, Azaria voiced Carlos and Phil. The response to the film was mostly negative, but many reviewers praised Azaria's performance.For example, Sandie Chen ofThe Washington Postsaid \"Azaria has been honing his over-the-top Spanish accent sinceThe Birdcage, so anything he says grabs some laughs\",while Emma Simmonds ofTime Outcalled him an \"unflappable presence, voicing two characters with style\".Later in the year he voiced The Mighty Sven inHappy Feet Two.He also voiced the lead character, Texanborder agentBud Buckwald, inBordertown, which aired in 2016,as well as Shelfish Sheldon inMack & Moxythe same year. OnceThe Simpsonswas \"going steadily\" and Azaria had enough money to live on, he stopped working on commercials as he found them \"demoralizing\", feeling that he sounded sarcastic whenever he read for them. When recording the part of \"Jell-O Man\" for aJell-Ocommercial, he was told to make the voice he offered \"more likable and friendly so that children like him.\" After pointing out that \"Jell-O Man\" was a fictional character, he left and pledged to never record for an advertisement again.However, in 2012 he voiced several insects in a commercial for theChevrolet Sonic. Other work Azaria wrote and directed the 2004 short filmNobody's Perfect, which won the Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Short at theUS Comedy Arts Festival.In January 2007, he was confirmed to be directingOutsourced,a film about two American workers who journey to get their jobs back, after their factory is moved to Mexico.In 2009, Azaria toldEmpirehe was instead focusing on making a documentary about fatherhood.Two years later he told theLos Angeles Timesthat this project was \"half-complete\" and was \"forever looking for financing to finish it.\"It eventually began in 2014, airing onAOLas an online series titledFatherhood. According to AOL, the series of short episodes documents Azaria's \"touching, humorous, and often enlightening journey from a man who is not even sure he wants to have kids, to a father going through the joys, trials and tribulations of being a dad.\" He has periodically returned to theatrical work, appearing in several productions. In 2003, he appeared as Bernard in a run ofDavid Mamet's playSexual Perversity in Chicago, along withMatthew PerryandMinnie Driver, in London'sWest End.Azaria made his first appearance as SirLancelot, the French Taunter, and four other characters inSpamalot, the musical version ofMonty Python and the Holy Grail, which opened in Chicago in December 2004, before moving to theShubert TheatreonBroadway.The show met with critical acclaim and received fourteenTony Awardnominations in 2005; Azaria andTim Curryboth received nominations for theTony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical.Reuniting withThe BirdcagedirectorMike Nichols, and being a hugeMonty Pythonfan, he saw it as an opportunity he could not pass up, describing it as \"so much fun that I haven't realized how tiring it is,\"and \"the most fun that I've ever had in my entire life.\"He took a break from the show in June 2005 to work onHuff, but returned in December 2005.Alan Tudykplayed the role during Azaria's absence.In late 2007 he starred inAaron Sorkin'sThe Farnsworth Invention, playingRCAheadDavid Sarnoff.In 2016, he starred in the world premiere ofDry PowderoppositeClaire Danes,John Krasinski, andSanjit De Silva, directed byThomas Kail, at theoff-BroadwayPublic Theaterin New York City. Acting style and vocal range Azaria's friends refer to him as \"the freakish mimic\" due to his ability to copy almost anyone's voice, instantly after he has heard it. As a child, he believed that everyone could do this, but later realized that it was not a common talent.Azaria has said, \"I can remember every voice I hear, famous or otherwise ... they kind of remain in the memory banks, so I'm ready to trot them out.\"Azaria was glad to have found the \"ultimate outlet\" for this skill, inThe Simpsons.He \"didn't realize it , but it became like a lab for a character actor. had to do so many voices.\"In the early 2000s, Azaria felt he had reached the maximum number of voices he was capable of: \"For the first 10 years ofThe Simpsons, I would develop a bunch of voices. And then ... I hit a point when I was tapped out. Every noise I can make, I have made. Even characters like Gargamel, I've done. Even if it was only two or three lines, at some point I've done something similar onThe Simpsons, at least somewhere along the line.\" For many of Azaria's characters, much of their humor is derived from a \"funny voice\", such asThe BirdcageandNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian. He stated that \"being funny with a funny voice is more my comfort zone, a broader character that I try to humanize, a kind of silly or wacky persona that I try to fill in,\" although he finds it \"much easier to be someone much closer to myself,\" as it requires \"less energy ... than playing characters that are so out there and high strung.\" The SimpsonscreatorMatt Groeninghas stated that Azaria possesses the ability to turn unfunny lines into some of the best in an episode,while former writerJay Kogenstated: \"Just when I think I know bag of tricks, he's always got a new thing he does to surprise me.\"Throughout the run ofThe Simpsons, Azaria has had to sing in character several times, a task which he describes as easier than singing normally.The SmurfswriterDavid N. Weisssays Azaria \"has a beautiful treasure trove of talent,\" and \"became what you wished you were writing.\"Playwright Jenelle Riley wrote in 2005 that Azaria was \"by far\" her favorite actor, praising his \"versatility\" and \"tendency to take small roles that would normally fade into the background and to consistently create characters people care about,\" noting his roles inShattered Glass,Mystery, Alaskaand especiallyDodgeBall: A True Underdog Story. Personal life In the early 1990s, Azaria was in a relationship with actressJulie Warner.His relationship with actressHelen Huntbegan in 1994; they married in a traditional Jewish ceremony at the couple's home inSouthern Californiaon July 17, 1999.The two had appeared together inMad About Youand theSimpsonsepisode \"Dumbbell Indemnity\".After a year of marriage, Azaria moved out of the couple's home,and Hunt filed for divorce after a six-month separation, citing irreconcilable differences. The divorce was finalized on December 18, 2000. Azaria began dating former actressKatie Wrightin 2007,and the two married later that year.They have a son named Hal (b. 2009).The family has one dog, Truman, and two rescue cats, Mookie and Wilson. In 2013, the family began renting a home on80th StreetinManhattan, with plans to make a final decision on where to live in two years.They previously lived in a four-bedroom house inPacific Palisades, which Azaria bought from hisSimpsonsco-starDan Castellanetain 2011. Several weeks earlier, Azaria had sold his home inBel Air.Azaria previously owned the fifth-floorco-oploft onMercer Streetin Manhattan'sSohoneighborhood, which he bought from photographerCindy Shermanin 2005, before selling it in 2013. Azaria suffered fromalcoholismfor several years. He credited his longtime friendMatthew Perryfor encouraging him to attendAlcoholics Anonymousmeetings and has been sober since about 2006. Azaria is thegodfatherofOliver Platt's son, George.He is also a regular poker player, appearing twice onCelebrity Poker Showdownand competing at other events, finishing a few places short of thebubblein the main event of the2010 World Series of Poker.Azaria is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.He enjoys the music ofElvis Costelloand has stated that he would have been atherapistif he were not an actor.Azaria co-founded the educational support charity, \"Determined to Succeed\". On May 22, 2016, he was awarded theHonorary degreeofDoctor of Humane Letters(DHL) fromTufts University. Filmography Film Television Video games Theatre Awards and nominations References External links","Harry Shearer Harry Julius Shearer(born December 23, 1943)is an American actor, comedian, musician, radio host, writer, and producer. Born inLos Angeles,California, Shearer began his career as a child actor. From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member ofThe Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group. Following the breakup of the group, Shearer co-wrote the filmReal Life(1979) withAlbert Brooksand worked as a writer onMartin Mull's television seriesFernwood 2 Night. Shearer was a cast member onSaturday Night Livebetween 1979 and 1980, and 1984 and 1985. Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred in the filmThis Is Spinal Tap(1984), asatiricalrockumentary, which became a hit. In 1989, he joined the cast of the animated sitcomThe Simpsons; he provides voices for characters includingMr. Burns,Waylon Smithers,Ned Flanders,Reverend Lovejoy,Lenny,Scratchy,Principal Skinner,Kent Brockman,Otto Mann, and formerlyDr. Hibbert. Shearer has appeared in films includingThe Truman Show(1998) andA Mighty Wind(2003), and has directed two,Teddy Bears' Picnic(2002) andThe Big Uneasy(2010). Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music programLe Show, incorporating satire, music, andsketch comedy. He has written three books. Shearer has won aPrimetime Emmy Awardand has received several other Emmy andGrammy Awardnominations. He has been married to singer-songwriterJudith Owensince 1993. He became anartist in residenceatLoyola University, New Orleansin 2013. Early life and career Shearer was born December 23, 1943,inLos Angeles,California,the son of Dora, a bookkeeper, and Mack Shearer, a trained opera singer who ran a gas station.His parents were Jewish immigrants from Poland and Austria respectively. His parents escapedNazi-occupied Europe and met inHavana, Cuba. As a child, Shearer and his family often listened to radio programs such asBob and Rayand the weekly show for theJewish Theological Seminary of America. His father died when he was 12 and he had hisBar Mitzvahthe following year.Shearer grew up in the neighborhood ofWest Adams.Starting when Shearer was four years old, he had a piano teacher whose daughter worked as a child actress. The piano teacher later decided to make a career change and become a children's agent, since she knew people in the business through her daughter's work. The teacher asked Shearer's parents for permission to take him to an audition. Several months later, she called Shearer's parents and told them that she had gotten Shearer an audition for the radio showThe Jack Benny Program. Shearer received the role when he was seven years old.He describedJack Bennyas \"very warm and approachable ... He was a guy who dug the idea of other people on the show getting laughs, which sort of spoiled me for other people in comedy.\"Shearer has stated that one person who took him \"under his wing\" and was his mentor during his early days in show business was voice actorMel Blanc, who voiced many animated characters, includingBugs Bunny,Daffy DuckandBarney Rubble; Blanc was a regular onThe Jack Benny Show. He also befriended Blanc’s sonNoel.Shearer made his film debut in the filmAbbott and Costello Go to Mars(1953), in which he had a small part, and appeared inThe Robe(also 1953).Throughout his childhood and teenage years he worked in television, film, and radio. In 1957, Shearer played the precursor to theEddie Haskellcharacter in the pilot episode of the television seriesLeave It to Beaver. After the filming, Shearer's parents said they did not want him to be a regular in a series. Instead they wanted him to just do occasional work so that he could have a normal childhood. Shearer and his parents made the decision not to accept the role in the series if it was picked up by a television network. In 1960, Shearer volunteered as a driver for theDemocratic National Conventionwhere he was regularly assigned trips toDisneyland. Shearer graduated fromLos Angeles High Schooland attendedUCLAas a political science major in the early 1960s. He befriended future congressmenHenry WaxmanandHoward Bermanduring his time at UCLA. He decided to quit show business to become a \"serious person\".However, he says this lasted approximately a month, and he joined the staff of theDaily Bruin, UCLA's school newspaper, during his first year.He was editor of the college humor magazine (Satyr), including the June 1964 parodyPreyboy.He also worked as a newscaster atKRLA, a top 40 radio station in Pasadena, during this period. According to Shearer, after graduating, he had \"a very serious agenda going on, and it was 'Stay Out of the Draft'.\"He attended graduate school atHarvard Universityfor one year and worked at the state legislature inSacramento. From 1967 to 1968, he was a high school teacher, teaching English and social studies. He left teaching following \"disagreements with the administration\". From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member ofThe Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group that includedDavid Lander,Richard BeebeandMichael McKean.The group consisted of \"a bunch of newsmen\" atKRLA 1110, \"the number two station\" in Los Angeles.They wanted to do more than just straight news, so they hired comedians who were talented vocalists. Shearer heard about the group from a friend, so he brought over a tape to the station and nervously gave it to the receptionist. He found out he was hired that same day. The group's radio show was canceled in 1970 by KRLA and in 1971 byKPPC-FM, so they started performing in various clubs and concert venues.While at KRLA, Shearer also interviewedCreedence Clearwater Revivalfor thePop Chroniclesmusic documentary. In 1973, Shearer appeared as Jim Houseafire onHow Time Flys, an album byThe Firesign Theatre'sDavid Ossman. The Credibility Gap broke up in 1976 when Lander and McKean left to perform in the sitcomLaverne & Shirley.Shearer started working withAlbert Brooks, producing one of Brooks' albums and co-writing the filmReal Life(1979). Shearer also started writing forMartin Mull's television seriesFernwood 2 Night.In the mid-1970s, he started working withRob Reineron a pilot forABC. The show, which starredChristopher Guest,Tom Leopoldand McKean, was not picked up. Career Saturday Night Live Initial run under Lorne Michaels In August 1979, Shearer was hired as a writer and cast member onSaturday Night Live, one of the first additions to the show'soriginal 1975 cast.Recommended byAl FrankentoSaturday Night LivecreatorLorne Michaels,the acquisition of Shearer was seen as an unofficial replacement forJohn BelushiandDan Aykroyd, who were both leaving the show. Shearer describes his experience on the show as a \"living hell\" and \"not a real pleasant place to work.\"He did not get along well with the other writers and cast members and states that he was not included with the cast in the opening montage (although he was added to the montage for later episodes of the1979–80 season) and that Michaels had told the rest of the cast that he was \"just a writer\". Michaels leftSaturday Night Liveat the end of the fifth season, taking the entire cast with him.Shearer told new executive producerJean Doumanianthat he was \"not a fan of Lorne's\" and offered to stay with the show if he was given the chance to overhaul the program and bring in experienced comedians, like Christopher Guest. However, Doumanian turned him down, so he decided to leave with the rest of the cast. Return in 1984 under Dick Ebersol When I left, Dick issued a press release, saying \"creative differences.\" And the first person who called me for a comment on it read me that and I blurted out, \"Yeah, I was creative and they were different.\" —Harry Shearer In 1984, while promoting the filmThis Is Spinal Tap, Shearer, Christopher Guest and Michael McKean performed onSaturday Night Live. All three members were offered the chance to join the show in the1984–1985 season. Shearer accepted because he was treated well by the producers and he thought the backstage environment had improvedbut later stated that he \"didn't realize that guests are treated better than the regulars.\"Guest also accepted the offer while McKean rejected it, although he would join the cast in 1994. Dick Ebersol, who replaced Lorne Michaels as the show's producer, said that Shearer was \"a gifted performer but a pain in the butt. He's just so demanding on the preciseness of things and he's very, very hard on the working people. He's just a nightmare-to-deal-with person.\"In January 1985, Shearer left the show for good,partially because he felt he was not being used enough.Martin Shortsaid Shearer \"wanted to be creative and Dick wanted something else. ... I think he felt his voice wasn't getting represented on the show. When he wouldn't get that chance, it made him very upset.\" Spinal Tap Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred inRob Reiner's filmThis Is Spinal Tap(1984).Shearer, Reiner, Michael McKean and Christopher Guest received a deal to write a first draft of a screenplay for a company called Marble Arch. They decided that the film could not be written and instead filmed a 20-minute demo of what they wanted to do.It was eventually greenlighted byNorman LearandJerry PerenchioatEmbassy Pictures.The film satirizes the wild personal behavior and musical pretensions ofhard rockandheavy metalbands, as well as thehagiographictendencies ofrockumentariesof the time. The three core members of the bandSpinal Tap—David St. Hubbins,Derek SmallsandNigel Tufnel—were portrayed by McKean, Shearer and Guest respectively. The three actors play their musical instruments and speak with mock English accents throughout the film. There was no script, although there was a written breakdown of most of the scenes, and many of the lines were ad-libbed.It was filmed in 25 days. Shearer said in an interview that \"The animating impulse was to do rock 'n' roll right. The four of us had been around rock 'n' roll and we were just amazed by how relentlessly the movies got it wrong. Because we were funny people it was going to be a funny film, but we wanted to get it right.\"When they tried to sell it to various Hollywood studios, they were told that the film would not work. The group kept saying, \"No, this is a story that's pretty familiar to people. We're not introducing them to anything they don't really know,\" so Shearer thought it would at least have some resonance with the public.The film was only a modest success upon its initial release but found greater success, and developed acult following, after its video release. In 2000, the film was ranked 29th on theAmerican Film Institute'slist of the top 100 comedy movies in American cinemaand it was selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registryby theLibrary of Congressas being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Shearer, Guest and McKean have since worked on several projects as their Spinal Tap characters. They released three albums:This Is Spinal Tap(1984),Break Like the Wind(1992) andBack from the Dead(2009).In 1992, Spinal Tap appeared in an episode ofThe Simpsonscalled \"The Otto Show\".The band has played several concerts, including atLive Earthin London on July 7, 2007. In anticipation of the show, Rob Reiner directed a short film entitledSpinal Tap.In 2009, the band releasedBack from the Deadto commemorate the 25th anniversary of the release of the film.The album features re-recorded versions of songs featured inThis Is Spinal Tapand its soundtrack, and five new songs.The band performed a one-date \"world tour\" at London'sWembley Arenaon June 30, 2009.The Folksmen, a mock band featured in the filmA Mighty Windthat is also made up of characters played by Shearer, McKean and Guest, was the opening act for the show. The Simpsons Shearer is known for his work as a voice actor onThe Simpsons.Matt Groening, the creator of the show, was a fan of Shearer's work, while Shearer was a fan of a column Groening used to write.When approached by Groening to be in the series, Shearer was initially reluctant because he thought the recording sessions would be too much trouble.He felt that voice acting was \"not a lot of fun\" as, traditionally, voice actors record their parts separately.He was told that the actors would record their lines together,and after three phone calls for executive producerJames L. Brooks, Shearer was convinced to join the cast ofThe Simpsons.Shearer's first impression ofThe Simpsonswas that it was funny. He – who thought it was a \"pretty cool\" way to work – found it peculiar that his fellow cast members were adamant about not being known to the public as the people behind the voices. Shearer provides voices forPrincipal Skinner,Kent Brockman,Mr. Burns,Waylon Smithers,Ned Flanders,Reverend Lovejoy, formerlyDr. Hibbertuntil 2021,Lenny Leonard,Otto Mann,Rainier Wolfcastle,Scratchy,Kang,Dr. Marvin Monroe, andJudge Snyder, among others.He has described all of his regular characters' voices as \"easy to slip into. ... I wouldn't do them if they weren't easy.\"Shearer modeled Mr. Burns's voice on the two actorsLionel BarrymoreandRonald Reagan.Shearer says that Burns is the most difficult character for him to voice because it is rough on his vocal cords and he often needs to drink tea and honey to soothe his voice.He describes Burns as his favorite character, saying he \"like Mr. Burns because he is pure evil. A lot of evil people make the mistake of diluting it. Never adulterate your evil.\"Shearer is also the voice of Burns' assistant Smithers, and is able to perform dialogue between the two characters in one take. In the episode \"Bart's Inner Child\", Shearer said \"wow\" in the voice of Otto, which was then used when Otto was seen jumping on a trampoline.Ned Flanders had been meant to be just a neighbor thatHomer Simpsonwas jealous of, but because Shearer used \"such a sweet voice\" for him, Flanders was broadened to become aChristianand a sweet guy that someone would prefer to live next to over Homer.Dr. Marvin Monroe's voice was based on psychiatristDavid Viscott.Monroe has been largely retired since theseventh seasonbarring a few cameo appearances because voicing the character strained Shearer's throat. In 2004, Shearer criticized what he perceived asthe show's declining quality: \"I rate the last three seasons as among the worst, soseason fourlooks very good to me now.\"Shearer has also been vocal about \"The Principal and the Pauper\" (season nine, episode two, 1997), one of the most controversial episodes ofThe Simpsons. Many fans and critics reacted negatively to the revelation thatPrincipal Seymour Skinner, a recurring character since the first season, was an impostor. The episode has been criticized by both Shearer and Groening. In a 2001 interview, Shearer recalled that after reading the script, he told the writers, \"That'ssowrong. You're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason, for a story we've done before with other characters. It's so arbitrary and gratuitous, and it's disrespectful to the audience.\"In a December 2006 interview, Shearer added, \"Now, refuse to talk about it. They realize it was a horrible mistake. They never mention it. It's like they're punishing for paying attention.\" Due to scheduling and availability conflicts, Shearer decided not to participate inThe Simpsons Ride, which opened in 2008, so none of his characters have vocal parts and many do not appear in the ride at all.In a 2010 interview onThe Howard Stern Show, Shearer alluded that the reason he was not part of the ride was because he would not be getting paid for it.Similarly, Shearer was unable to appear in theFamily Guycrossover episode \"The Simpsons Guy\" due to further scheduling conflicts. Therefore, his characters are again mute. When asked about how he felt about the crossover, Shearer replied, \"Matter and anti-matter.\" Until 1998, Shearer was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.The dispute, however, was resolved and Shearer received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.The dispute was resolved a month later,and Shearer's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Shearer and the other cast members accepted a 30% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode.On May 14, 2015, Shearer announced he was leaving the show. After the other voice actors signed a contract for the same pay, Shearer refused, stating it was not enough. Al Jean made a statement from the producers saying \"the show must go on,\" but did not elaborate on what might happen to the characters Shearer voiced.On July 7, 2015, Shearer agreed to continue with the show, on the same terms as the other voice actors. Le Showand radio work Because I don't do stand-up, radio has always been my equivalent, a place to stay in connection with the public and force myself to write every week and come up with new characters. Plus it's a medium that – having grown up with it and putting myself to sleep with a radio under my pillow – I love. No matter what picture you want to create in the listener's mind, a few minutes of work gets it done. —Harry Shearer Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music programLe Show. The program is a hodgepodge of satirical news commentary, music, and sketch comedy that takes aim at the \"mega morons of the mighty media\".It is carried on manyNational Public Radioand other public radio stations throughout the United States.Since the merger ofSIRIUSandXMsatellite radio services the program is no longer available on either.The show has also been made available as apodcastoniTunesand byWWNO. On the weekly program Shearer alternates between DJing, reading and commenting on the news of the day after the manner ofMort Sahl, and performing original (mostly political) comedy sketches and songs. In 2008, Shearer released a music CD calledSongs of the Bushmen, consisting of his satirical numbers about former PresidentGeorge W. BushonLe Show.Shearer says he criticizes bothRepublicansandDemocratsequally, and also says that \"the iron law of doing comedy about politics is you make fun of whoever is running the place\"and that \"everyone else is just running around talking. They are the ones who are actually doing something, changing people's lives for better or for worse. Other people the media calls 'satirists' don't work that way.\" Since encountering satellite news feeds when he worked onSaturday Night Live, Shearer has been fascinated with the contents of the video that does not air. Shearer refers to these clips asfound objects. \"I thought, wow, there is just an unending supply of this material, and it's wonderful and fascinating and funny and sometimes haunting – but it's always good,\" said Shearer.He collects this material and uses it onLe Showand on his website.In 2008, he assembled video clips of newsmakers from this collection into an art installation titled \"The Silent Echo Chamber\" which was exhibited atThe Aldrich Contemporary Art MuseuminRidgefield, Connecticut.The exhibit was also displayed in 2009 at Institut Valencià d'Art Modern (IVAM) inValencia, Spainand in 2010 at the New OrleansContemporary Arts Center. In 2006 Shearer appeared withBrian Hayesin four episodes of theBBC Radio 4sitcomNot Today, Thank You, playing Nostrils, a man so ugly he cannot stand to be in his own presence.He was originally scheduled to appear in all six episodes but had to withdraw from recording two due to a problem with his work permit.On June 19, 2008, it was announced that Shearer would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the radio category. Further career Shearer's first feature film as director,Teddy Bears' Picnic, which he also wrote, was released in 2002. The plot is based onBohemian Grove, which hosts a three-week encampment of some of the most powerful men in the world. The film was not well received by critics. It garnered a 0% approval rating onRotten Tomatoes, with all 19 reviews being determined as negativeand received a rating of 32 out of 100 (signifying \"generally negative reviews\") onMetacriticfrom 10 reviews.In 2003, he co-wroteJ. Edgar! The MusicalwithTom Leopold, which spoofedJ. Edgar Hoover's relationship withClyde Tolson.It premiered at theU.S. Comedy Arts FestivalinAspen, Coloradoand starredKelsey GrammerandJohn Goodman. Shearer, Guest and McKean starred in thefolk musicmockumentaryA Mighty Wind(2003), portraying a band called The Folksmen. The film was written by Guest andEugene Levy, and directed by Guest.Shearer had a major role in the Guest-directed parody of Oscar politickingFor Your Considerationreleased in 2006. He played Victor Allan Miller, a veteran actor who is convinced that he is going to be nominated for anAcademy Award.He also appeared as a news anchor inGodzilla(1998) with fellowThe Simpsonscast membersHank AzariaandNancy Cartwright.His other film appearances includeThe Right Stuff(1983),The Fisher King(1991),The Truman Show(1998),Small Soldiers(also 1998), andEdTV(1999). He also directed and appeared in the television programPortrait of a White Marriage(1988), a sequel toThe History of White People in America. Shearer has also worked as a columnist for theLos Angeles Times Magazine, but decided that it \"became such a waste of time to bother with it.\"His columns have also been published inSlateandNewsweek.Since May 2005 he has been a contributing blogger atThe Huffington Post.Shearer has written three books.Man Bites Town, published in 1993, is a collection of columns that he wrote forThe Los Angeles Timesbetween 1989 and 1992.Published in 1999,It's the Stupidity, Stupidanalyzed the hatred some people had for then-PresidentBill Clinton.Shearer believes that Clinton became disliked because he had an affair with \"the least powerful, least credentialed woman cleared into his official compound.\"His most recent book isNot Enough Indians, his first novel. Published in 2006, it is a comic novel about Native Americans and gambling.Without the \"pleasures of collaboration\" and \"spontaneity and improvisation which characterize his other projects\",Not Enough Indianswas a \"struggle\" for Shearer to write. He said that \"the only fun thing about it was having written it. It was lonely, I had no deal for it and it took six years to do. It was a profoundly disturbing act of self-discipline.\" Shearer has released five solo comedy albums:It Must Have Been Something I Said(1994),Dropping Anchors(2006),Songs Pointed and Pointless(2007),Songs of the Bushmen(2008) andGreed and Fear(2010).His most recent CD,Greed and Fearis mainly aboutWall Streeteconomic issues, rather than politics like his previous albums. Shearer decided to make the album when he\"started getting amused by the language of the economic meltdown – when 'toxic assets' suddenly became 'troubled assets,' going from something poisoning the system to just a bunch of delinquent youth with dirty faces that needed not removal from the system but just ... understanding.\"In May 2006, Shearer received an honorary doctorate fromGoucher College. The Big Uneasy Shearer is the director ofThe Big Uneasy(2010), a documentary film about the impacts ofHurricane KatrinaonNew Orleans. Narrated by actorJohn Goodman, the film describesleveefailuresandcatastrophicflooding in theNew Orleansmetropolitan area, and includes extended interviews with formerLSUprofessorIvor Van Heerden, Robert Bea, an engineering professor at theUniversity of California at Berkeley, and Maria Garzino, an engineer and contract specialist for the Los Angeles district of theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The film is critical of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and its management offlood protectionprojectsin SouthernLouisiana.Shearer draws on numerous technical experts to maintain that Hurricane Katrina's \"... tragic floods creating widespread damage were caused by manmade errors in engineering and judgment.\"Onreview aggregatorRotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71% based on 24 reviews, with an average rating of 6.85/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"The Big Uneasyoffers an admittedly uneven – yet still worthy and well-intentioned – look at a horrific disaster's aftermath.\" Personal life Shearer marriedfolksingerPenelope Nicholsin 1974. They divorced in 1977.He has been married to Welsh singer-songwriterJudith Owensince 1993.In 2005, the couple launched their own record label called Courgette Records.Shearer primarily resides in theFrench QuarterofNew Orleans, Louisiana, but has homes inSanta Monica, CaliforniaandNotting Hill, London. He first went to New Orleans in 1988 and has attended everyNew Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festivalsince. Shearer often speaks and writes about thefailure of the Federal levee systemwhich floodedNew OrleansduringHurricane Katrina, blasting the coverage of it in the mainstream mediaand criticizing the role of theUnited States Army Corps of Engineers.Prior to the DVD release of his film,The Big Uneasy, Shearer would hold screenings of the film at different venues and take questions fromaudiencemembers. Filmography Film Television (Pilot for the eventual seriesLeave It to Beaver, though never aired as part of that series.) Video games Web Music video Discography Bibliography Awards Shearer was the last of the six regular voice actors fromThe Simpsonsto win thePrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Character Voice-Over Performance.His win came for theseason 25episode \"Four Regrettings and a Funeral\". References Bibliography External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/The_Simpsons (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_The_Simpsons_cast_members (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"Dan Castellaneta Daniel Louis Castellaneta(/ˌkæstələˈnɛtə/KAST-ə-lə-NET-ə; born October 29, 1957)is an American actor and writer. He is best known for voicingHomer Simpsonon the animated seriesThe Simpsons(as well as other characters on the show such asGrampa Simpson,Krusty the Clown,Groundskeeper Willie,Mayor Quimby,Sideshow Mel,Mr. Teeny,Santa's Little Helper,Itchy, andBarney Gumble). Castellaneta is also known for voicing Grandpa in Nickelodeon'sHey Arnold!, and has had voice roles in several other programs, includingFuturama,Sibs,Darkwing Duck,The Adventures of Dynamo Duck,The Batman,Back to the Future: The Animated Series,Aladdin,Earthworm Jim, andTaz-Mania. In 1999, he appeared in the Christmas specialOlive, the Other Reindeerand won anAnnie Awardfor his portrayal of the Postman. Castellaneta released a comedy albumI Am Not Homer, and wrote and starred in aone-person showtitledWhere Did Vincent van Gogh? Early life Daniel Louis Castellaneta was born on October 29, 1957, at Roseland Community Hospital on Chicago's south side and was raised inRiver ForestandOak Park, Illinois.He is ofItaliandescent, born to Elsie (néeLagorio; 1926–2008) and Louis Castellaneta (1915–2014),an amateur actor who worked for a printing company. Castellaneta became adept at impressions at a young age and his mother enrolled him in an acting class when he was 16 years old. He would listen to his father's comedy records and do impressions of the artists.He was a \\\"devotee\\\" of the works of many performers, includingAlan ArkinandBarbara Harrisand directorsMike NicholsandElaine May.He attendedOak Park and River Forest High Schooland upon graduation, started attendingNorthern Illinois University(NIU) in the fall of 1975. Castellaneta studied art education, with the goal of becoming an art teacher.He became astudent teacherand would entertain his students with his impressions.Castellaneta was a regular participant inThe Ron Petke and His Dead Uncle Show, a radio show at NIU. The show helped Castellaneta hone his skills as a voice-over actor. He recalled \\\"We did parodies and sketches, we would double up on, so you learned to switch between voices. I got my feet wet doing a voiceover. The show was just barely audible, but we didn't care. It was that we got a chance to do it and write our own material.\\\"He took a play-writing class and auditioned for an improvisational show. A classmate first thought Castellaneta would \\\"fall on his face with improvisation\\\" but soon \\\"was churning out material faster than could make it work.\\\" Career Early career Castellaneta began his acting career after his graduation fromNorthern Illinois Universityin 1979.He decided that if his career went nowhere he would still have a chance to try something else.He began takingimprovisationclasses, where he met his future wifeDeb Lacusta. He started to work atThe Second City, an improvisational theatre inChicago, in 1983 and continued to work there until 1987.During this period, he did voice-over work with his wife for various radio stations. He auditioned for a role inThe Tracey Ullman Showand his first meeting underwhelmedTracey Ullmanand the other producers. Ullman decided to fly to Chicago to watch Castellaneta perform. His performance that night was about ablindman who tries to become a comedian and Ullman later recalled that although there were flashier performances that night, Castellaneta made her cry. She was impressed and Castellaneta was hired. The Simpsons Castellaneta is most famous for his roles on the longest-running American animated television showThe Simpsons, most notably asHomer Simpson.The Tracey Ullman Showincluded a series of animated shorts about adysfunctional family. Voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask Castellaneta and fellow cast memberJulie Kavnerto voice Homer andMarge Simpsonrespectively, rather than hire more actors.Homer's voice began as a loose impression ofWalter Matthau, but Castellaneta could not \\\"get enough power behind that voice\\\" and could not sustain his Matthau impression for the nine- to ten-hour long recording sessions. He tried to find something easier, so he \\\"dropped the voice down\\\", and developed it into a more versatile and humorous voice during the second and third season of the half-hour show.To perform Homer's voice, Castellaneta lowers his chin to his chest,and is said to \\\"let his IQ go.\\\" Castellaneta likes tostay in characterduring recording sessions,and tries to visualize a scene in his mind so that he can give the proper voice to it.Despite Homer's fame, Castellaneta claims he is rarely recognized in public, \\\"except, maybe, by a die-hard fan.\\\" Castellaneta also provides the voices for numerous other characters, includingGrampa Simpson,Barney Gumble,Krusty the Clown,Groundskeeper Willie,Mayor Quimby,Hans Moleman,Sideshow Mel,Itchy,Kodos,Arnie Pye, theSqueaky Voiced TeenandGil Gunderson. Krusty's voice is based on Chicago television'sBob Bell, who had a very raspy voice and portrayedWGN-TV'sBozo the Clownfrom 1960 to 1984.During early recording sessions, he recorded a new version of Barney's loud trademark belch for every episode but discovered that it was not easy for him to belch each time a script called for it. Castellaneta chose a recording of what he believed was his best belch and told the producers to make that the standard. Groundskeeper Willie's first appearance was in theseason twoepisode \\\"Principal Charming\\\". The character was written as an angry janitor and Castellaneta was assigned to perform the voice. He did not know what voice to use andSam Simon, who was directing at the time, suggested he use an accent. Castellaneta first tried using Hispanic voicing, which Simon felt was tooclichéd. He then tried a \\\"big dumbSwede\\\", which was also rejected. For his third try, he used the voice of a grumpyScotsman, which was deemed appropriate enough and was used in the episode.The voice was based partially on Angus Crock, akilt-wearing chef from the sketch comedy showSecond City Television, who was portrayed byDave Thomas. Mayor Quimby, who first appeared in \\\"Bart Gets an 'F'\\\", is a parody of various members of theKennedy family. The episode script did not call for Quimby to be a parody of them, and Castellaneta improvised the accent.Sideshow Mel's voice is Castellaneta's impression ofKelsey Grammer, the voice ofSideshow Bob.Hapless Gil Gunderson is a spoof of actorJack Lemmon's portrayal of Shelley Levene in the 1992film adaptationof the playGlengarry Glen Ross.ShowrunnerMike Scullythought that Gil would be \\\"a one-shot thing\\\"but \\\"Dan Castellaneta was so funny at thetable readdoing the character, we kept making up excuses in subsequent episodes to put him in.\\\"TheBlue-Haired Lawyer's voice, as well as his demeanor, is based on lawyerRoy Cohn. Castellaneta has won several awards for voicing Homer, including fourPrimetime Emmy Awardsfor \\\"Outstanding Voice-Over Performance\\\" in 1992 for \\\"Lisa's Pony\\\", 1993 for \\\"Mr. Plow\\\",2004 for voicing several characters in \\\"Today I Am a Clown\\\",and 2009 for voicing Homer in \\\"Father Knows Worst\\\". In 1993, Castellaneta was given a specialAnnie Award, \\\"Outstanding Individual Achievement in the Field of Animation\\\", for his work as Homer onThe Simpsons. In 2004, Castellaneta andJulie Kavner(the voice of Marge) won aYoung Artist Awardfor \\\"Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series\\\".Homer was placed second onTV Guide's 2002 Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters,and in 2000, Homer and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Famelocated at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard. Until 1998, Castellaneta was paid $30,000 per episode.During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.The dispute was soon resolved and Castellaneta began receiving $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the cast demanded to be paid $360,000 an episode.The issue was resolved a month later,with Castellaneta starting to earn $250,000 per episode.Following salary negotiations in 2008, the cast received approximately $400,000 per episode.In 2011, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, the cast accepted a pay cut to around $300,000 per episode. In the early 1990s, Castellaneta and his wifeDeb Lacustawrote a script for an episode in which Barney becomes sober, and pitched it to showrunnerAl Jean. He liked the story but turned it down because he felt that it was too similar to \\\"Duffless\\\", an episode that the writers were already working on. The two waited for nearly a decade and offered an updated version of the script to later showrunnerMike Scully, who liked it and had them make a few changes.Their script became the episode \\\"Days of Wine and D'oh'ses\\\".Castellaneta and his wife have also written the episodes \\\"Gump Roast\\\", \\\"The Ziff Who Came to Dinner\\\", \\\"Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore\\\", and \\\"The Fight Before Christmas\\\". In2007, they were nominated for aWriters Guild of America Awardfor the episode \\\"Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore\\\".Castellaneta is also credited as a consulting producer. Further career Castellaneta has been a regular cast member in several other television series. In 1991, he played Warren Morris in the short-livedABClive-action sitcomSibs.Heide Perlman, creator ofSibs, wrote the part with Castellaneta in mind. He provided the voice of the eponymous character inThe Adventures ofDynamo Duck,MegavoltinDarkwing Duck,\\\"Doc\\\" Emmett BrowninBack to the Future: The Animated Series,the lead character inEarthworm Jimand several characters, including Grandpa Phil and the Jolly Olly Man, the mentally unstableice cream truckdriver, onNickelodeon'sHey Arnold!.He guest starred asThe Robot Devilin five episodes ofFuturama, as well as theFuturamafilmThe Beast with a Billion Backs. Castellaneta has also made guest appearances in a number of television series episodes. In 1992, he guest-starred in an episode of thelegal dramaL.A. Law, as a Homer Simpsonmeetable characterat a Californiaamusement parkwho is dismissed for inappropriate behavior while in costume.In 1996, he made a guest appearance as a Zoo Keeper in Season 2, Episode 12 “The One After the Superbowl” inFriends. In 2005, he appeared in the episode \\\"Sword of Destiny\\\" inArrested Developmentas Dr. Stein, adeadpanincompetent doctor. In 2005, Castellaneta guest-starred as Joe Spencer in theStargate SG-1season eightepisode \\\"Citizen Joe\\\".He also appeared in episodes ofALF,Campus Ladies,Castle,Entourage,Everybody Loves Raymond,Frasier,Friends,Greek,How I Met Your Mother,Mad About You,Married... with Children,Murphy Brown,NYPD Blue,Parks and Recreation,Reba,Reno 911!,That '70s Show,Veronica Mars,Hot in Cleveland,Yes, Dear,andDesperate Housewives. He appeared as theGeniein theAladdinsequelThe Return of Jafarand on the 1994Aladdintelevision series. The Genie had been voiced byRobin WilliamsinAladdin, and Castellaneta described replacing him as \\\"sort of like stepping intoHamletafterLaurence Olivierdid it, how can you win?\\\" He also provided Genie's voice in theKingdom Heartsvideo game seriesfor bothKingdom HeartsandKingdom Hearts II(with archived audio used forKingdom Hearts: Chain of Memoriesand its remake as well as for the later HD collectionsKingdom Hearts HD 1.5 RemixandKingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix). Castellaneta portrayedAaron Spellingin the 2004NBCfilmBehind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Charlie's Angels, which followed the true story of how Spelling created the show. Other films in which Castellaneta has appeared includeNothing in Common,Say Anything...,Super Mario Bros.,The Client,Space Jam,My Giant,The Simpsons Movie,Rugrats in Paris: The Movie,Recess: School's Out,Hey Arnold!: The Movie,The Cat in the HatandThe Pursuit of Happyness. In 2000, he won anAnnie Awardfor his portrayal of the Postman in the animated Christmas television specialOlive, the Other Reindeer.In 2006, he appeared inJeff Garlin's independent filmI Want Someone to Eat Cheese Withalong with several otherSecond City alumni. On February 22, 2000, his first music CDTwo Lipswas published.It was followed on April 23, 2002, by his first comedy CD,I Am Not Homer, in which he and his wife perform several comedy skits. The majority of the sketches had been written and performed before the CD was recorded, and Castellaneta thought that it would be a good idea to preserve them \\\"since don't perform them much anymore.\\\" Some came from their sketch series on a local radio station in Chicago and had to be lengthened from the \\\"two-minute bits\\\" that they were original, while several others were stage sketches performed in a comedy club inSanta Monica.Additionally, \\\"Citizen Kane\\\", a sketch in which two people discuss the filmCitizen Kanewith different meanings, was something the pair had performed at an art gallery.Castellaneta noted that \\\"we already knew that these skits were funny, some of them we polished and tightened.\\\"The skits were principally written by improvising from a basic point, transcribing the results, and then editing them to the finished scene.Castellaneta chose the titleI Am Not Homeras a parody ofLeonard Nimoy's famous first autobiographyI Am Not Spock, as well as to show that most of the comedy featured \\\"is not the typicalHomercomedy.\\\" Alongside his television and film work, Castellaneta has appeared in a number of theatrical productions. In 1992, he starred inDeb & Dan's Showalongside his wife.In 1995, Castellaneta started writingWhere Did Vincent van Gogh?, aone man playin which he portrays a dozen different characters, including artistVincent van Gogh.He first officially performed the play at theACME Comedy Theatrein Los Angeles in 1999.In 2007, he appeared inThe Bicycle MenatKing's Head Theatrein London. Castellaneta hosted the final ofNew Yorkcomedy show Thrills and Spills on December 31, 2015. The final was held inMontgomery, Alabama. Personal life In 1987, Castellaneta married writer and actressDeb Lacusta, whom he had met at animprovclass inChicago.They divide their time betweenLos AngelesandSanta Barbara, California. Castellaneta is avegetariananddoes not drink alcohol. He enjoys exercising regularlyand practicingtai chi.He isCatholic. Filmography Discography Also featured in: Awards and nominations References External links\",\n \"Julie Kavner Julie Deborah Kavner(born September 7, 1950)is an American actress. Before becoming well-known for her voice role asMarge Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons, Kavner attracted notice for her role as Brenda Morgenstern, the younger sister ofValerie Harper's title character in the sitcomRhoda, for which she won aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. She also voices other characters forThe Simpsons, including Marge's mother,Jacqueline Bouvier, sistersPatty and Selma Bouvier, and half-step-great-aunt Eunice Bouvier. Known for her improvisation and distinctive \\\"honeyed gravel voice\\\",Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern inRhodain 1974. Starting in 1987, Kavner appeared onThe Tracey Ullman Show.The Tracey Ullman Showincluded a series ofanimated shortsabout a dysfunctional family. Voices were needed for the shorts, and the producers asked Kavner to voice Marge. The shorts were spun off intoThe Simpsons. Kavner has been described as \\\"nearly reclusive\\\";part of her contract says that she will never have to promoteThe Simpsonson video.For her work as Marge, Kavner received anotherPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992 and anAnnie Awardnomination for her performance as the character inThe Simpsons Movie(2007). Typically cast as a \\\"woman who is supportive, sympathetic or self-effacingly funny\\\",Kavner grew to dislike playing such roles. In 1992, she starred inThis Is My Life, her first leading role in a feature film. Kavner has also appeared in live-action roles in six films written byWoody Allenand in theAdam SandlercomedyClick. Early life Kavner was born in Los Angeles, California, on September 7, 1950,the second daughter of Rose, a family counselor, and David Kavner, a furniture manufacturer,and grew up in Southern California. She decided to pursue a career in acting because \\\"There was nothing else I wanted to do, ever\\\".She attendedBeverly Hills High School(which she later admitted she hated), where she was \\\"something of a loner\\\", and unsuccessfully tried out for several plays.John Ingle, formerly the chairman of the Beverly Hills High School art department, later commented that Kavner was \\\"excellent at improvisation, but she wasn't aningenue and not that castable at that age\\\". After graduating from high school, Kavner attendedSan Diego State Universityand majored in drama, being cast in several productions including a role asCharlotte CordayinMarat/Sade, becoming known for her improvisation and ability to do both comedy and drama. After graduating in 1971, she got a day job as a typist at theUCLA School of the Arts and Architecture. Career Early career In 1973, Kavner auditioned for a role as one ofRhoda Morgenstern's sisters inThe Mary Tyler Moore Show. David Davis, producer of the show, had convinced her to audition for the part, but decided to cast another actress instead.A year later, Rhoda Morgenstern became the leading character in a spin-off calledRhoda. Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern, sister of the eponymous character.Rhodaran on CBS from September 9, 1974, to December 1978. She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations forOutstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor playing Brenda, winning in 1978.She also received fourGolden Globe Awardnominations.In 1975, she receivedDaytime Emmy Awardnomination for her starring role in the daytime specialThe Girl Who Couldn't Lose. FollowingRhoda, Kavner had a guest appearance onTaxiand appeared in the 1985 comedyBad Medicineas well as the 1987 filmSurrender, both of which were box office failures (and also starredSteve Guttenberg).She appeared in the television moviesRevenge of the Stepford Wives,No Other LoveandA Fine Romance, and shot a television pilot.She also starred in several stage plays, including a play calledIt Had to Be Youat a dinner theater in Canada,Particular Friendshipsin New York City in 1981,andTwo for the Seesaw, directed byBurt Reynolds.Woody Allenfirst saw Kavner one night while he was watchingRhodain the 1970s. He thought that she was remarkable and later offered her a role in his 1986 filmHannah and Her Sisters.Kavner agreed, and credits Allen and the film with rejuvenating her career. Kavner was then cast as a sidekick toTracey UllmaninThe Tracey Ullman Show, which debuted on Fox in 1987. Kavner described the show as, \\\"like being back in school, a chance to play a wide variety of characters, some really vicious people, to not rest on laurels, to not play it safe\\\".Kavner commented, \\\"What I do is not mimicry or an impersonation, but more of an assimilation. we did a lot of looking at people to find out who to base our characters on. We did our homework on our lunch hour.\\\"She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations forBest Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program. The Simpsons Kavner became known for her role asMarge Simpsonon the animated television showThe Simpsons, a show that continues to the present day.The Tracey Ullman Showincludeda series of animated shortsabout the dysfunctional Simpson family. Voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask Kavner and fellow cast memberDan Castellanetato voice Marge and Homer rather than hire more actors.Kavner has what Hilary de Vries ofThe New York Timesdescribed as a \\\"honeyed gravel voice\\\".Kavner says her voice is due to \\\"a bump on vocal cords\\\".Marge's voice has aged considerably throughout the series as Kavner has gotten older, and the higher register of Marge's voice in the earliest seasons had to be adjusted as it began to strain Kavner's voice. Although Marge is her highest profile character on the show, Kavner's favorite characters to voice are Marge's sistersPatty and Selma Bouvierbecause \\\"they're really funny and sad at the same time\\\".Series creatorMatt Groeninginstructed Kavner to voice the duo as characters who \\\"suck the life out of everything\\\".Both have similar raspy voices, but Patty's voice is more masculine and has a lower register, while Selma's voice is a little sweeter.Kavner also provides the voices of every other female member of the Bouvier family, including Marge's motherJacqueline, Great-Aunt Gladys (a dead relative who was introduced on season four's \\\"Selma's Choice\\\"), and an unnamed grandmother seen on the season six episode \\\"Fear of Flying\\\". While cast members and crew have referenced Kavner as a deep fan of the series and the characters she voices, part of Kavner's contract says that she will never have to promoteThe Simpsonson video nor has she performed Marge's voice in public because she believes the publicity \\\"destroys the illusion. People feel these are real people.\\\"Kavner takes recording sessions seriously, and feels that voice acting is \\\"a little more limiting than live acting. And I have nothing to do with my character's movement.\\\"Nancy Cartwright, who voicesBart Simpson, said in her bookMy Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy(2000) that Kavner is a warm person who is \\\"a workhorse of an actor\\\" with \\\"extraordinary professionalism and quiet work ethic\\\", and notes that she is rarely late for recording sessions.Kavner had very few recorded interviews in regard to her work on the show. In behind-the-scenes footage from 1992, she describes Marge as \\\"a wonderful person\\\" with \\\"a great sex life\\\".On a 1994 appearance onLate Show with David Letterman, Kavner explains that performing the voice of Marge in a live-action setting would break the illusion of the character, and that she does not want her own likeness to overlap with that of the character. However, after being coaxed by Letterman, Kavner turns to face away from the camera and speaks briefly in the voice of Marge. Until 1998, Kavner was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing to cast new voices.However, the dispute was soon resolved and she received $125,000 per episode until 2004 when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.The issue was resolved a month later,and Kavner earned $250,000 per episode.After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Kavner and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. At the44th Primetime Emmy Awards, Kavner received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performancefor voicing Marge in theseason threeepisode \\\"I Married Marge\\\".In 2004, Kavner andDan Castellanetawon aYoung Artist Awardfor Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series.For her performance inThe Simpsons Movie, Kavner was nominated for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature at the 2007Annie Awards, butIan HolmfromRatatouillereceived the award.Kavner's emotional performance in the movie got positive reviews, and one critic said she \\\"gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever to find its way into a movie based on an irreverent cartoon\\\".Some scenes in the movie, such as Marge's emotional video message to Homer, were recorded over 100 times, leaving Kavner exhausted. Further career Many of Kavner's roles have been described byNew York Timeswriter Hilary de Vries as a \\\"woman who is supportive, sympathetic, or self-effacingly funny\\\".Kavner grew to despise playing such roles, saying \\\"If it smacks of Brenda Morgenstern, I won't take the job.\\\"She had a supporting role as Eleanor Costello, a nurse who befriendsRobin Williams' character in theAcademy Awardnominated filmAwakenings(1990).Kavner interviewed several nurses in preparation for the role, andPenny Marshall, the director of the film, described Kavner as \\\"a low-maintenance actor You never have to worry about giving back-story for her characters.\\\"In 1992, Kavner starred inThis Is My Life, her first leading role in a feature film. Kavner played Dottie Ingels, an aspiringstand-up comedianwho starts neglecting her family when her career begins to take off. Kavner described Dottie as \\\"really selfish\\\" but admitted, \\\"I liked the role for that very reason.\\\"Kavner had been asked to play a character with a smaller role in the film, butJoe Roth, at the time the chairman of20th Century Fox, suggested that they cast a lesser known actress in the lead role.Nora Ephron, the writer ofThis Is My Life, said Kavner \\\"has so little vanity that it is almost shocking. Not only does she have no demands as an actress – 'How big is my trailer, what's in my refrigerator?' – but she will do anything for the character if it makes sense to her.\\\" Kavner has frequently appeared inWoody Allenfilms, having roles inHannah and Her Sisters(1986),Radio Days(1987),New York Stories(1989),Alice(1990),Shadows and Fog(1991), the television movieDon't Drink the Water(1994)andDeconstructing Harry(1997).Allen described her as \\\"a naturally funny person. When she does a scene, you listen to her and look at her, and the prism through which it's all filtered is funny.\\\"Kavner believes he is \\\"a true filmmaker, one that has something to say, continually experimenting on different themes within his own film-making\\\", adding that \\\"anything ever does, I always want to do, I don't even have to read it.\\\" She has done voice-over work in films such asThe Lion King 1½(2004),Dr. Dolittle(1998)and an uncredited role as an announcer inA Walk on the Moon(1999).She worked with Tracey Ullman in the HBO sketch comedy seriesTracey Takes On...She was cast as the mother ofAdam Sandler's character inClick, released in 2006.She has not appeared in a non-Simpsonsrole since her appearance inClick. Personal life Kavner is Jewish.She has lived in New York City'sManhattanborough since around 1992.She leads an intensely private life, described byThe New York Timesas \\\"nearly reclusive\\\" and \\\"discreet and guarded beyond the usual reticent star routine\\\".She rarely makes public appearances and refuses to be photographed while working.She was in a relationship with producerDavid Davisfrom 1976 until his death in 2022.Neither of them confirmed being married, though reports referred to her as his wife at the time of his death. In 1983,Current Biographyreferred to Kavner as an avid athlete andpescetarian.In a 1992 interview withThe New York Times, she said she was considering retiring \\\"except for doing three days a year forWoody \\\", but had a feeling that she would receive a script she wanted \\\"to do more than life itself\\\" upon retiring. Filmography References External links\",\n \"Nancy Cartwright Nancy Jean Cartwright(born October 25, 1957) is an American actress. She is the long-time voice ofBart Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons, for which she has received aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceand anAnnie Awardfor Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation. Cartwright also voices other characters for the show, includingRalph Wiggum,Todd Flanders,Nelson Muntz, andMaggie Simpson. She is also the voice ofChuckie Finsterin the Nickelodeon seriesRugratsand its spin-offAll Grown Up!, succeedingChristine Cavanaugh. Cartwright was born inDayton, Ohio. She moved to Hollywood in 1978 and trained under voice actorDaws Butler. Her first professional role was voicing Gloria in the animated seriesRichie Rich, which she followed with a starring role in the television movieMarian Rose White(1982) and her first feature film,Twilight Zone: The Movie(1983). In 1987, Cartwright auditioned for a role ina series of animated shortsabout adysfunctional familythat was to appear onThe Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright intended to audition for the role ofLisa Simpson, the middle child; when she arrived at the audition, she found the role of Bart—Lisa's brother—to be more interesting. Series creatorMatt Groeningallowed her to audition for Bart and offered her the role on the spot. She voiced Bart for three seasons onThe Tracey Ullman Show, and in 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show calledThe Simpsons. BesidesThe Simpsons, Cartwright has also voiced numerous other animated characters, including Daffney Gillfin inSnorks, Mellissa Screetch inToonsylvania,RufusinKim Possible,MindyinAnimaniacs, Pistol inGoof Troop, the Robots inCrashbox, Margo Sherman inThe Criticand Todd Daring inThe Replacements. In 2000, she published her autobiography,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy, and four years later, adapted it into aone-woman play. In 2017, she wrote and produced the filmIn Search of Fellini. Early life Nancy Jean Cartwright was born on October 25, 1957,in Dayton, Ohio,Frank and Miriam Cartwright's fourth of six children.She grew up inKettering, Ohio,and discovered her talent for voices at an early age. While in thefourth gradeat the school of St. Charles Borromeo, she won a school-wide speech competition with her performance ofRudyard Kipling'sHow the Camel Got His Hump.Cartwright attendedFairmont West High School, and participated in the school's theater and marching band. She regularly entered public speaking competitions, placing first in the \\\"Humorous Interpretation\\\" category at the National District Tournament two years running. The judges often suggested to her that she should perform cartoon voices. Cartwright graduated from high school in 1976 and accepted a scholarship fromOhio University.She continued to compete in public speaking competitions; during her sophomore year, she placed fifth in the National Speech Tournament's exposition category with her speech \\\"The Art of Animation\\\". In 1976, Cartwright landed a part-time job doing voice-overs for commercials onWINGradio in Dayton.A representative fromWarner Bros. Recordsvisited WING and later sent Cartwright a list of contacts in the animation industry.One of these wasDaws Butler, known for voicing characters such asHuckleberry Hound,Snagglepuss,Elroy Jetson,Spike the Bulldog, andYogi Bear. Cartwright called him and left a message in a Cockney accent on his answering machine.Butler immediately called her back and agreed to be her mentor. He mailed her a script and instructed her to send him a tape recording of herself reading it. Once he received the tape, Butler critiqued it and sent her notes. For the next year, they continued in this way, completing a new script every few weeks. Cartwright described Butler as \\\"absolutely amazing, always encouraging, always polite\\\". Cartwright returned toOhio Universityfor her sophomore year, but transferred to theUniversity of California, Los Angeles(UCLA) so she could be closer to Hollywood and Butler.Her mother, Miriam, died late in the summer of 1978.Cartwright nearly changed her relocation plans but, on September 17, 1978, \\\"joylessly\\\" left forWestwood, Los Angeles. Career Early career While attending UCLA, which did not have a public speaking team,Cartwright continued training as a voice actress with Butler. She recalled, \\\"every Sunday I'd take a 20-minute bus ride to his house inBeverly Hillsfor a one-hour lesson and be there for four hours ... They had four sons, they didn't have a daughter and I kind of fitted in as the baby of the family.\\\"Butler introduced her to many of the voice actors and directors atHanna-Barbera. After she met the directorGordon Hunt, he asked her to audition for a recurring role as Gloria inRichie Rich. She received the part, and later worked with Hunt on several other projects. At the end of 1980, Cartwright signed with a talent agency and landed a lead role in a pilot for asitcomcalledIn Trouble. Cartwright described the show as \\\"forgettable, but it jump-started my on-camera career\\\".She graduated from UCLA in 1981 with a degree in theater.During the summer, Cartwright worked withJonathan Wintersas part of an improvisation troupe atKenyon CollegeinGambier, Ohio. Returning to Los Angeles, Cartwright won the lead role in the television filmMarian Rose White.Janet Maslin, a critic forThe New York Times, described Cartwright as \\\"a chubby, lumbering, slightlycross-eyedactress whose naturalness adds greatly to the film's impact\\\".Cartwright replied by sending Maslin a letter insisting she was not cross-eyed, and included a photograph.Later, Cartwright auditioned for the role of Ethel, a girl who becomes trapped in a cartoon world in the third segment ofTwilight Zone: The Movie. She met with directorJoe Danteand later described him as \\\"a total cartoon buff, and once he took a look at my resume and noticed Daws Butler's name on it, we were off and running, sharing anecdotes about Daws and animation. After about twenty minutes, he said, 'considering your background, I don't see how I could cast anyonebutyou in this part!'\\\"It was her first role in a feature film.The segment was based onThe Twilight Zonetelevision series episode \\\"It's a Good Life\\\", which was later parodied inThe Simpsonsepisode \\\"Treehouse of Horror II\\\" (1991). Cartwright continued to do voice work for projects includingPound Puppies,Popeye and Son,Snorks,My Little PonyandSaturday Supercade.She joined a \\\"loop group\\\", and recorded vocals for characters in the background of films, although in most cases the sound was turned down so that very little of her voice was heard. She did minor voice-over work for several films, includingThe Clan of the Cave Bear(1986),Silverado(1985),Sixteen Candles(1984),Back to the Future Part II, andThe Color Purple(1985).Cartwright also voiced a shoe that was \\\"dipped\\\" in acid inWho Framed Roger Rabbit(1988), describing it as her first \\\"off-screen death scene\\\",and worked to correctly convey the emotion involved. Once I had graduated from UCLA, I decided that as long as I was an actress, I was going to find related work in the industry. There were plenty of opportunities. And fortunately, I am just pushy enough to find and get myself in touch with those who can provide such opportunities. —Nancy Cartwright,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy In 1985, she auditioned for a guest spot as Cynthia inCheers. The audition called for her to say her line and walk off the set. Cartwright decided to take a chance on being different and continued walking, leaving the building and returning home. The production crew was confused, but she received the part.In search of more training as an actress, Cartwright joined a class taught by Hollywood coachMilton Katselas. He recommended that Cartwright studyLa Strada, a 1956 Italian film starringGiulietta Masinaand directed byFederico Fellini. She began performing \\\"every imaginable scene\\\" fromLa Stradain her class and spent several months trying to secure the rights to produce a stage adaptation.She visited Italy with the intention of meeting Fellini and requesting his permission in person. Although they never met, Cartwright kept a journal of the trip and later wrote a one-woman play calledIn Search of Fellini, partially based on her voyage.The play was co-written by Peter Kjenaas, and Cartwright won aDrama-Logue Awardafter performing it in Los Angeles in 1995. In a 1998 interview, she stated her intention to make it into a feature film,which she succeeded in doing in 2017. The Simpsons Cartwright voices the characterBart Simpsonon the long-running animated television showThe Simpsons. On March 13, 1987, she auditioned for a series of animated shorts about a dysfunctional family that was to appear onThe Tracey Ullman Show, a sketch comedy program. Cartwright had intended to audition for the role ofLisa Simpson, the elder daughter. After arriving at the audition, she found that Lisa was simply described as the middle child and at the time did not have much personality. Cartwright became more interested in the role of Bart, described as \\\"devious, underachieving, school-hating, irreverent, clever\\\".CreatorMatt Groeninglet her try out for Bart and gave her the job on the spot.Bart's voice came naturally to Cartwright, as she had previously used elements of it inMy Little Pony,Snorks, andPound Puppies.Cartwright describes Bart's voice as easy to perform compared with other characters.The recording of the shorts was often primitive; the dialog was recorded on a portable tape deck in a makeshift studio above the bleachers on the set ofThe Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright, the only cast member to have been professionally trained in voice acting,described the sessions as \\\"great fun\\\".However, she wanted to appear in the live-action sketches and occasionally showed up for recording sessions early, hoping to be noticed by a producer. In 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show on theFox networkcalledThe Simpsons. Bart quickly became the show'sbreakout personalityand one of the most celebrated characters on television—his popularity in 1990 and 1991 was known as \\\"Bartmania\\\".Bart was described as \\\"television's brightest new star\\\" by Mike Boone ofThe Gazetteand was named 1990's \\\"entertainer of the year\\\" byEntertainment Weekly.Despite Bart's fame, however, Cartwright remained relatively unknown. During the first season ofThe Simpsons, Fox ordered Cartwright not to give interviews, because they did not want to publicize the fact that Bart was voiced by a woman.Cartwright's normal speaking voice is said to have \\\"no obvious traces of Bart\\\",and she believes her role is \\\"the best acting job in the world\\\"since she is rarely recognized in public.When she is recognized and asked to perform Bart's voice in front of children, Cartwright refuses because it \\\"freaks out\\\".Bart's catchphrase \\\"Eat My Shorts\\\" was an ad-lib by Cartwright in one of the original table readings, referring to an incident from her high school days. Once while performing, members of the Fairmont West High School marching band switched their chant from the usual \\\"Fairmont West! Fairmont West!\\\" to the irreverent \\\"Eat my shorts!\\\" Cartwright felt it appropriate for Bart, and improvised the line; it became a popular catchphrase on the show. Cartwright voices several other characters on the show, includingNelson Muntz,Ralph Wiggum,Todd Flanders,Kearney, andDatabase.She first voiced Nelson in the episode \\\"Bart the General\\\" (season one, 1990). The character was to be voiced byDana Hill, but Hill missed the recording session and Cartwright was given the role.She developed Nelson's voice on the spot and describes him as \\\"a throat-ripper\\\".Ralph Wiggum had originally been voiced byJo Ann Harris, but Cartwright was assigned to voice the character in \\\"Bart the Murderer\\\" (season three, 1991).Todd Flanders, the only voice for which Cartwright used another source, is based on Sherman (voiced byWalter Tetley), the boy fromPeabody's Improbable History, a series of shorts aired onThe Rocky and Bullwinkle Show. Cartwright received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992 for her performance as Bart in the episode \\\"Separate Vocations\\\"and anAnnie Awardin 1995 for Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation.Bart was named one of the100 most important people of the 20th centurybyTime,and in 2000, Bart and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame, located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard. Until 1998, Cartwright was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors and made preparations for casting new actors.The dispute was resolved, however, and Cartwright received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded $360,000 an episode.A compromise was reached after a month,and Cartwright's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.Salaries were re-negotiated in 2008 with the voice actors receiving approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Cartwright and the other cast members accepted a 25 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. Further career It is quite a curiosity being a celebrity that nobody knows. I ask you, how many celebrities would younotrecognize were they to walk down the street? ... I can think of no one—besides my fellow cast members and me. The anonymity factor is such a unique aspect of this job. I must admit, sometimes I wish it were different. —Nancy Cartwright,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy In addition to her work onThe Simpsons, Cartwright has voiced many other characters on several animated series, including Chuckie Finster inRugratsandAll Grown Up!, Margo Sherman inThe Critic,MindyinAnimaniacs,andRufusthenaked mole-ratinKim Possible. For the role of Rufus, Cartwright researched mole-rats extensively, and became \\\"a font of useless trivia\\\".She was nominated for aDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program in 2004 for her work on the show.In 2001, Cartwright took over theRugratsrole of Chuckie Finster whenChristine Cavanaughretired.Cartwright describes Rufus and Chuckie as her two most difficult voices: \\\"Rufus because my diaphragm gets a workout while trying to utilize the 18 vocal sounds a mole makes. Chuckie because ... he's an asthmatic with five personalities rolled into one—plus I have to do the voice the way did it for 10 years.\\\"Other television shows that have used her voice work includeGalaxy High,God, the Devil and Bob,Goof Troop,Mike, Lu & Og,The Replacements,Pinky and the BrainandTimberwolf.Cartwright has appeared on camera in numerous television shows and films, includingFame,Empty Nest,The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air,Flesh and Blood,Godzilla,and24. In 2000, Cartwright published her autobiography,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy. The book details her career (particularly her experiences as the voice of Bart) and contains stories about life behind the scenes ofThe Simpsons.Laura A. Bischoff of theDayton Daily Newscommented that the book was the \\\"ultimate insider's guide toThe Simpsons\\\".Critics complained that the book lacked interesting stories and was aimed mostly at fans ofThe Simpsonsrather than a general audience. Cartwright adaptedMy Life as a 10-Year-Old Boyinto aone-woman playin 2004. Cartwright has performed it at a variety of venues, including the August 2004Edinburgh Festival Fringein Scotland.The play received modest reviews, including criticism for a lack of inside stories aboutThe Simpsons, and its \\\"overweeningly upbeat\\\" tone.David Chatterton ofThe British Theatre Guidedescribed the show as \\\"interesting and entertaining, but not really a 'must see' even for Simpsons fans\\\". Cartwright has shown an interest instock car racingand as of 2007 was seeking aNASCARlicense.In 2001, she founded a production company called SportsBlast and created an online animated series calledThe Kellys. The series is focused on racing; Cartwright voices a seven-year-old named Chip Kelly. In 2016, Cartwright launched Spotted Cow Entertainment, her own film and television production company, with Peter Kjenaas, Monica Gil and Kevin Burke. With a focus on international audiences, Spotted Cow is seeking \\\"to finance, produce and acquire live action and animated films, television series, as well as entertainment for digital platforms with budgets up to $15M.\\\"With Spotted Cow, Cartwright made her first film as a screenwriter and producer,In Search of Fellini, which was released on September 15, 2017.Based on her own journey toItalyin 1985 in a bid to meet the famed directorFederico Fellini, the film fulfilled Cartwright's longtime vision of turning her 1995 one-woman playIn Search of Felliniinto a film. Personal life Cartwright met real-estate agent Warren Murphy, 24 years her senior, on her birthday in 1988 and married him two months later.In her book, she describes Murphy as her \\\"personal laugh track\\\".The couple had two children, Lucy and Jack, before divorcing in 2002. Cartwright was raised aRoman Catholicbut joined theChurch of Scientologyin 1991.She was awarded Scientology's Patron Laureate Award after donating $10,000,000, almost twice her annual salary, to the Church in 2007. Cartwright is a contributor toASIFA-Hollywood's Animation Archive Project.In September 2007, Cartwright received theMake-A-Wish Foundation'sWish IconAward \\\"for her tremendous dedication to the Foundation's fundraising and wish-fulfillment efforts.\\\"In 2005, Cartwright created ascholarshipat Fairmont High School \\\"designed to aid Fairmont who dream of following in her footsteps and studying speech, debate, drama or music\\\" atOhio University.In 2005, Cartwright was given the title of Honorary Mayor ofNorthridge, California(a neighborhood of Los Angeles) by the Northridge Chamber of Commerce. In 2007, Cartwright was in a romantic relationship with contractor Stephen Brackett,a fellow member of Scientology.In early 2008, the couple had made plans to marry,but Brackett died in May 2009. In 2012, Cartwright received an honorary doctorate degree in communication fromOhio University, where she was a student from 1976 to 1977 before transferring to UCLA. Cartwright is also a painter, sculptor and philanthropist. She co-founded the Know More About Drugs alliance. Filmography Live-action Film Television Voice roles Film Animation Video games Music videos Theme parks Web series Producer Other credits Awards References Bibliography External links\",\n \"Yeardley Smith Martha Maria Yeardley Smith(/ˈjɑːrdli/YARD-lee;born July 3, 1964) is an American actress. She stars as the voice ofLisa Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons. Smith became an actress in 1982 after graduating from drama school. She moved to New York City in 1984, where she appeared in the Broadway production ofTom Stoppard'sThe Real Thing. She made her film debut in 1985'sHeaven Help Us, followed by roles inThe Legend of Billie JeanandMaximum Overdrive. She moved to Los Angeles in 1986 and took a recurring role in the television seriesBrothers. In 1987, Smith auditioned for theSimpsonsshorts onThe Tracey Ullman Show. Smith intended to audition for the role ofBart Simpson, but the casting director felt her voice was too high, and she was cast as Bart's sister Lisa. In 1989, the shorts werespun offinto their own half-hour show,The Simpsons. For her work onThe Simpsons, Smith received aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992. AlongsideThe Simpsons, Smith appeared in the sitcomHerman's Headas Louise, and had recurring appearances as Marlene onDharma & Gregand as Penny in two episodes ofDead Like Me. She has appeared in several films, includingCity Slickers,Just Write,Toys, andAs Good as It Gets. In 2004, Smith performed anoff-Broadwayone-woman show entitledMoreat theUnion Square Theatrein New York City. Aside fromThe Simpsons, Smith has recorded few voice-over parts, only commercials and the filmWe're Back! A Dinosaur's Story. Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedyWaiting For Ophelia, which had its world premiere at thePhoenix Film Festivalin April 2009. Early life Smith was born on July 3, 1964, inParis, France. Her father, Joseph Smith, worked forUnited Press Internationalin Paris and moved to Washington, D.C., in 1966, where he becameThe Washington Post's first official obituary editor.Her mother, Martha Mayor, was apaper conservatorfor theFreerandSackler Galleriesat theSmithsonian Institution.Smith's parents later divorced.Her maternal grandfather was art historianA. Hyatt Mayor, and among her great-grandparents were marine biologist and zoologistAlpheus Hyattand artist and sculptorHarriet Randolph Hyatt Mayor.She is also the paternal niece of political scientist, historian, andLatin American studiesspecialistPeter H. Smith.Smith has labeled her family \\\"upper crust and reserved\\\".As a child, Smith was often teased because of her unusual voice.Smith has stated: \\\"I've sounded pretty much the same way since I was six. Maybe a little deeper now.\\\"She made her acting debut in a sixth-grade play. Career Early career Smith became a professional actress in 1982.After appearances in a number of school plays, she joined the localArena Stagetheater group on an apprenticeship, featuring in their production ofPeter Pan. She went on to star in several other plays in Washington.She moved to New York City in 1984 and appeared in the Broadway production ofTom Stoppard's playThe Real ThingalongsideJeremy IronsandGlenn Close. Smith's first film role came inHeaven Help Us(1985).She then played Putter inThe Legend of Billie Jean(also 1985). The film was abox office bomband critically panned, although Smith \\\"thought it would be the movie that launched my career. And then it was out at the box office about 10 days before it died.\\\"When filming was over, she rejoinedThe Real Thingbefore being out of work for six months. Smith worried her career was over.However, the following year, she played Connie inStephen King'sMaximum Overdrive(1986), noting it was \\\"truly a dreadful film, but I had a great part in it.\\\" Smith moved to Los Angeles in 1986 on the \\\"semi-promise\\\" of a part in a TV film.After the audition, the role was given to another actress. Smith realized \\\"that people don't mean what they say. It's not malicious. They just don't realize how much impact they have on an impressionable actor – and all actors are impressionable.\\\" From then on, she decided to \\\"just sort of build a wall around myself\\\", to cope with the disappointment of not getting a part.In Los Angeles, Smith appeared in theatrical productions ofLiving on Salvation Street, for which she was paid $14 for each performance,Boys and Girls/Men and Women, andHow the Other Half Loves, and played the recurring role of Louella Waters on theShowtimeseriesBrothers.She appeared in the filmsThe Legend of Billie JeanandGinger Ale Afternoon(1989) as \\\"trailer-park girls\\\".She later spoke of her regrets of appearing in the latter in her one-woman showMore. The Simpsons It's a happy fluke. When she was cast back in 1987, I just liked the sound of her voice. She's also a great actress. In general, people who make their living doing voices on cartoons aren't always great for us. Most cartoons want things peppy and cartoony. Yeardley is able to go through moments of great emotion and wring it for all she's worth. —Matt Groeningon Smith's vocal style Smith's longest-running role is voicingLisa SimpsononThe Simpsons. She has voiced Lisa since 1987, beginning withThe Simpsons shortsonThe Tracey Ullman Show. Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Lisa's brotherBart, but casting directorBonita Pietilathought her voice was too high. Smith later recalled \\\"I always sounded too much like a girl, I read two lines as Bart and they said, 'Thanks for coming!'\\\"Smith was given the role of Lisa, instead. She denies rumors that she almost turned down the role, though admits she had never planned a career in voice-over work.Pietila stated that, having seen her inLiving on Salvation Street,Smith was always her preferred choice.Smith lifts her voice up slightly to perform the role.Lisa is the only regular character voiced by Smith, although in some earlier episodes, she provided some ofMaggie's squeaks and occasional speaking parts.Smith has only voiced characters other than Lisa on very rare occasions, with those characters usually being some derivative of Lisa, such as Lisa Bella in \\\"Last Tap Dance in Springfield\\\" and Lisa, Jr. in \\\"Missionary: Impossible\\\" (both fromseason 11in 2000).Smith spends two days a week recording the show. Until 1998, Smith was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing to cast new voices.However, the dispute was soon resolved and she received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 per episode.The issue was resolved a month later,and Smith earned $250,000 per episode.After salary renegotiations in 2008, the voice actors received about $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Smith and the other cast members accepted a 25% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. Despite her world-famous role, Smith is rarely recognized in public, which she does not mind, saying, \\\"it's wonderful to be in the midst of all this hype about the show, and people enjoying the show so much, and to be totally afly on the wall; people never recognise me solely from my voice.\\\"In a 2009 interview withThe Guardian, she commented: \\\"It's the best job ever. I have nothing but gratitude for the amount of freedomThe Simpsonshas bought me in my life.\\\" Smith received aPrimetime Emmy Awardin 1992, but felt it was not worth anything, saying \\\"there's part of me that feels it wasn't even a real Emmy.\\\" The Emmy forOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceis aCreative Artsand not handed out during the primetime telecast and, prior to 2009, was a juried award without nominations.However, Smith says \\\"if I had to be associated with one character in fiction, I will always be thrilled that it was Lisa Simpson.\\\"The show's creatorMatt Groeninghas called Smith very similar to Lisa: \\\"Yeardley has strong moral views about her character. There are lines that are written for Lisa that Yeardley reads and says, 'No, I wouldn't say that.'\\\"WriterJay Kogenpraised her performance on the show, particularly in the episode \\\"Lisa's Substitute\\\", as able \\\"to move past comedy to something really strong and serious and dramatic\\\". Further career From 1991 to 1994, alongsideThe Simpsons, Smith was one of the lead cast members in the sitcomHerman's Headas Louise.Her other television roles include recurring appearances as Marlene onDharma & Greg, and Penny in two episodes ofDead Like Me. Smith has also appeared inPhil of the FutureandTeen Angel.Her one-scene role as pregnant checkout girl Nancy in 1991'sCity Slickersearned her \\\"more attention than all previous roles combined\\\", and taught her \\\"that it's far better to have small parts in big movies that everyone sees.\\\"In 1997, she appeared as Lulu the palm reader in the independent filmJust Write.Her other roles include parts inBarry Levinson'sToysandJames L. Brooks'As Good as It Gets.Brooks, who is also executive producer ofThe Simpsons, had cast Smith in his 1994 filmI'll Do Anything(in one of the film's musical numbers), but her part was cut.Aside fromThe Simpsons, Smith has recorded few voice-over parts, only commercials and the filmWe're Back! A Dinosaur's Story. She \\\"had a voice-over agent for about two years, and I used to go out all the time, but it never really came to anything. Everybody said, 'Oh Yeardley, you'll clean up,' and that was definitely not the case.\\\" In 2004, Smith performed her own off-Broadway one-woman show entitledMoreat theUnion Square Theatrein New York City. Directed byJudith Ivey,the play is about her mixed feelings over the success ofThe Simpsons, her parents, her relationships, and her struggles withbulimia.The New York Timescritic Margo Jefferson called it an \\\"appealing if overlong show\\\", adding that \\\"The career narrative needed shortening. This would involve some editing and revising but wouldn't taint the best parts ofMore.It is refreshing to hear a celebrity talk cleanly about being fame-driven and about not getting the degree or the kind of fame you craved. It's fun to watch a skilled actress use her craft to the full.\\\"She would later perform the play for three weeks in Los Angeles the following year. Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedyWaiting for Ophelia, which was released in 2009. She funded the film, which was written by Adam Carl and based on a stage play he wrote in 2003. She said: \\\"I loved it. I never get to play parts like that. I always play the friend of a friend, never the lead. And the script surprised me.\\\" Carl stated it was very unlikely she would recoup her money, but Smith decided she \\\"believe in this project, and my expectations have already been fulfilled by making the movie\\\", and added: \\\"You can support art even if it's not going to make a zillion dollars.\\\"It premiered on April 4, 2009, at thePhoenix Film Festival. In 2011, Smith starred as Ms. Miller in the movieThe ChaperonealongsideTriple HandAriel Winter. In June 2016, theHuman Rights Campaignreleased a video in tribute to the victims of theOrlando nightclub shooting; in the video, Smith and others told the stories of the people killed there.On March 30, 2019, Smith was honored with the Human Rights Campaign's National Leadership Award in Los Angeles for her work as an advocate of theLGBT community. In 2017, Smith started a podcast,Small Town Dicks, which explores real life crime in small towns in the United States.Smith had co-hosted the podcast with actress and long-time friend Zibby Allen until March 2019 when the two filed lawsuits against one another, with Allen accusing Smith of pushing her out of ownership and profit rights from the show. Politics Smith is a lifelongDemocrat. In 2018, Smith mockedRepublicanTed Cruzafter he labeled the Democratic Party as \\\"the party ofLisa Simpson\\\".Smith recommended that people of differing political views should be able to work together ongun control, promotinggay rightsandenvironmentalism. Personal life Smith marriedEnglish-Canadianactor Christopher Grove in 1990. They were divorced in 1992, citing irreconcilable differences. In a 1997 interview withThe Daily Targum, Smith stated \\\"I am shy, but I have an extroverted persona which I can draw on when I need to,\\\" and that she is a \\\"private\\\" actress. She married Daniel Erickson in 2002; the marriage lasted for six years and Smith filed for divorce on May 21, 2008, citing irreconcilable differences. In 2009, she commented, \\\"People have said to me that I'm unassuming. It's true, I'm the worst celebrity ever. But I'm trying to become better.\\\" Smith hadbulimiawhen she was a teenager. She noted \\\"It would make me high, I would feelendorphinsand this great sense of victory.\\\" Smith enjoys writing and painting. During the first season ofHerman's Head, Smith taught herself to paint by copying other artists.The bookJust Humor Meincludes a story, \\\"The Race\\\", written by Smith.She has written a children's book,I, Lorelei, which was published byHarperCollinsin February 2009. In 2011, Smith launched a women's shoe line called Marchez Vous. In November 2021, Yeardley was noted for producing a podcast on themurder of Sheila Anderson, one of Scotland's most notorious unsolved murders. On June 11, 2022, Smith married one of the co-hosts of her podcast,Small Town Dicks, Detective (Ret) Dan Grice. She met him while he was providing personal security for her during aSimpsonsevent. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Theme park Podcasts References External links\",\n \"Hank Azaria Henry Albert\\\"Hank\\\"Azaria(/əˈzɛəriə/ə-ZAIR-ee-ə; born April 25, 1964) is an American actor. He is known for voicing many characters in the long-running animated sitcomThe Simpsonssince 1989, includingMoe Szyslak,Chief Wiggum,Superintendent Chalmers,Comic Book Guy,Snake Jailbird,Professor Frink,Kirk Van Houten,Duffman,Apu Nahasapeemapetilon,Lou,Carl Carlson, among others. Azaria joined the show with little voice acting experience, but became a regular in itssecond season. For his work on the show, he has won fourPrimetime Emmy Awards. Alongside his continued voice acting onThe Simpsons, Azaria became more widely known through his live-action supporting appearances in films such asQuiz Show(1994),Heat,The Birdcage(1996) (for which he won aScreen Actors Guild Award) andGodzilla(1998). He has also appeared in numerous films includingMystery Men(1999),America's Sweethearts(2001),Shattered Glass(2003),Along Came Polly(2004),Run Fatboy Run(2007),Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian(2009) andThe Smurfs(2011) andThe Smurfs 2(2013). Further voice roles includeAnastasia(1997), for which he won anAnnie Award. His live-action television work includes recurring roles on the sitcomsMad About YouandFriends, as well as dramatic roles in the TV filmsTuesdays With Morrie(1999) as writerMitch AlbomandUprising(2001) as Jewish resistance leaderMordechai Anielewicz. For the former, Azaria received thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie. He starred in the title roles in theShowtimedrama seriesHuff(2004–2006) and theIFCsitcomBrockmire(2017–2020). His recurring role on the dramaRay Donovanearned him a sixth Primetime Emmy Award in 2016. Azaria made hisBroadwaydebut asLancelotinSpamalot, for which he was nominated for theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He returned to Broadway in 2007, playing David Sarnoff inThe Farnsworth Invention. Early life and education Henry Albert Azaria was born in theManhattanborough ofNew York Cityon April 25, 1964 to Ruth and Albert Azaria.He began going by the name \\\"Hank\\\" as a child, after a pediatrician he visited said he felt it was a more suitable name for a child than \\\"Henry\\\".His grandparents on both sides wereSephardic Jewsfrom the Greek city ofThessaloniki. His family spokeLadino, also known as Judaeo-Spanish, which he described as \\\"a strange, antiquated Spanish dialect written inHebrewcharacters.\\\"Azaria's father ran several dress-manufacturing businesses while his mother raised him and his two older sisters, Stephanie and Elise.Before marrying his father, Azaria's mother had been a publicist forColumbia Pictures, promoting films in Latin American countries as she was fluent in both English and Spanish.During his childhood, Azaria would often \\\"memorize and mimic\\\" the scripts of films, shows, and stand-up comedy routines he enjoyed. Azaria attendedThe Kew-Forest Schoolin Queens'Forest Hillsneighborhood.He decided to become an actor after performing in a school play at the age of 16, becoming \\\"obsessed with acting\\\" at the expense of his academic studies.Both of his parents loved all forms of show business, which further spurred him to become an actor.He studied drama atTufts Universityfrom 1981 to 1985,where he met and befriended actorOliver Plattand noted that Platt was a \\\"better actor\\\" than he was and inspired him.Together they starred in various college stage productions, includingThe Merchant of Venice,before Azaria went to train at theAmerican Academy of Dramatic Arts.Although he did not expect the endeavor to be successful, he decided to become a professional actor so that he would not regret not having tried later in life.His first acting job was an advertisement for Italian television when he was 17 years old.He also worked as abusboy.He originally intended to work predominantly as a theatrical actor, and he and Platt set up a company called Big Theatre, althoughHarold Pinter'sThe Dumb Waiterwas the only show they ever performed.Azaria decided that television was a better arena and offered more opportunity, and moved toLos Angelesafter being offered work with talent agent Harry Gold. Career Early career (1986–1988) Azaria got along with talent agent Harry Gold, who was lukewarm about working with him but still sent him out for auditions after a woman Azaria had worked with in New York \\\"got really furious with \\\" for breaking his promise to work with Azaria.He made his television debut with a role in the pilot episode of the 1986ABCcomedy-drama seriesJoe Bash.His part—a one-line role as the police officer Maldonado—was edited out before the show was broadcast, although the role secured him admission to theScreen Actors Guild.Azaria appeared in the TV filmNitti: The Enforcer, about the gangsterFrank Nitti, and appeared in the failed pilotMorning MaggiealongsideMatthew Perry, with whom he became good friends.He played Joe in an episode of the sitcomFamily Tiesin 1988 in which he had one line, and the following year he played Steve Stevenson in an episode ofGrowing Pains.Azaria has described his career progression as being gradual; he did not achieve overnight recognition or fame.In Los Angeles, Azaria was trained by acting coachRoy London.Between acting jobs he performed as a stand-up comedian,and worked as a bartender for a catering firm. The Simpsons(since 1989) Azaria is known for his voice work in the ongoing animated television seriesThe Simpsons. He joined the show having previously performed only one voice-over—as the titular animated dog in the failedFoxpilotHollywood Dog, a show he described as \\\"sort ofRoger Rabbit-esque, where the dog was animated, but everybody else was real.\\\"The first voice he performed onThe Simpsonswas that of town bartenderMoe Szyslak, replacingChristopher Collinswho had initially recorded the character's voice. Having known him fromHollywood Dog, casting directorBonita Pietilacalled Azaria and asked him to audition for the voice of Moe.At the time he was performing the role of a drug dealer in a play, utilizing a voice based onAl Pacino's performance in the filmDog Day Afternoon. He used the voice in his audition forThe Simpsonsand, at the request of the show's executive producersMatt GroeningandSam Simon, made the voice more \\\"gravelly\\\". Groening and Simon thought the resultant voice was ideal for Moe and took Azaria over to the Fox recording studio. Before he had even seen a script, he recorded several lines of dialogue as Moe for the episode \\\"Some Enchanted Evening\\\",dubbingCollins' voice. Azaria did not expect to hear from the show again, but they continued to call him back, first to perform the voice ofChief Wiggumand thenApu Nahasapeemapetilon.He felt that, initially, \\\" didn't seem too pleased with what I had done... was very exacting... was kind of impatiently directing me on the ABCs of comedy. But then, much to my surprise, he would still keep having me back every week. But each week, I thought it was going to be my last week because I really didn't think I had done that well.\\\"Nevertheless, by the show'ssecond seasonhe was performing multiple recurring voices and so was given a contract and made a permanent member of the main cast.Since he joined later than the rest of the cast, Groening still considered Azaria the \\\"new guy\\\".In addition to Moe, Wiggum and Apu, Azaria provides the voices ofComic Book Guy,Carl Carlson(until season 32, now voiced byAlex Désert),Cletus Spuckler,Professor Frink, Dr.Nick Riviera,Lou,Snake Jailbird,Kirk Van Houten,Bumblebee Man,the Sea Captain,Superintendent Chalmers,Disco Stu,Duffman,the Wiseguy, and numerous guest characters.His co-star inThe Simpsons,Nancy Cartwright, wrote that: \\\"The thing about Hank that I most remember is that he started out so unassuming and then, little by little, his abilities were revealed and his contributions to the show escalated. I realized Hank was going to be our breakaway star.\\\" As Moe's voice is based on Al Pacino's, likewise many of Azaria's other recurring characters are based on existing sources. He took Apu's voice from the many Indian and Pakistani convenience store workers in Los Angeles that he had interacted with when he first moved to the area, and also loosely based it onPeter Sellers' character Hrundi V. Bakshi from the filmThe Party.Originally, it was thought that Apu being Indian was too offensive and stereotyped, but after Azaria's reading of the line \\\"Hello, Mr. Homer\\\", which the show's producers thought was hilarious, the character stayed.Azaria, however, disputed this onLateNet withRay Ellin, claiming that Apu was always intended to be stereotypical.Chief Wiggum's voice was originally a parody ofDavid Brinkley, but when Azaria was told it was too slow, he switched it to that ofEdward G. Robinson.Officer Lou is based onSylvester Stallone,and Dr. Nick is \\\"a badRicky Ricardoimpression.\\\"The \\\"Wise Guy\\\" voice is \\\"basicallyCharles Bronson,\\\"while Carl is \\\"a silly voice always did.\\\"Two of the voices come from his time at college: Snake's is based on Azaria's old college roommate, while Comic Book Guy's voice is based on a student who lived in the room next door to Azaria and went by the name \\\"F\\\".Professor Frink is based onJerry Lewis' performance in the originalThe Nutty Professor, and the Sea Captain is based on English actorRobert Newton's portrayal of many pirates.Azaria based his performance for the one-time characterFrank Grimes, from the episode \\\"Homer's Enemy\\\", on actorWilliam H. Macy. He counts Grimes as the hardest, most emotional performance he has ever had to give in the history ofThe Simpsons. Azaria's work on the show has won him four Emmy Awards forOutstanding Voice-Over Performance, in 1998, 2001, 2003 and 2015. He was also nominated for the award in 2009 and 2010, but lost to co-starDan Castellanetaand guest starAnne Hathawayrespectively. He was nominated again in 2012.Azaria, with the rest of the principal cast, reprised all of his voice roles fromThe Simpsonsfor the 2007 filmThe Simpsons Movie.Azaria notes that he spends \\\"an embarrassingly small amount of time working onThe Simpsons.\\\"He works for \\\"an hour on Thursdays when we read through the script, then four hours on Monday when we record it, and I'll pop in again once or twice.\\\"He concludes it is \\\"the best job in the world, as far as I'm concerned.\\\" Up until 1998, Azaria was paid $30,000 per episode. Azaria and the five other mainThe Simpsonsvoice actors were then involved in a pay dispute in which Fox threatened to replace them with new actors and went as far as preparing for the casting of new voices. However, the issue was soon resolved and from 1998 to 2004, they received $125,000 per episode. In 2004, the voice actors intentionally skipped several scriptread-throughs, demanding they be paid $360,000 per episode.The strike was resolved a month later,with Azaria's pay increasing to something between $250,000and $360,000 per episode.In 2008, production for thetwentieth seasonwas put on hold due to new contract negotiations with the voice actors, who wanted a \\\"healthy bump\\\" in salary.The dispute was later resolved, and Azaria and the rest of the cast received their requested pay raise, approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Azaria and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. In an April 24, 2018 appearance onThe Late Show with Stephen Colbert, Azaria discussed his reaction toThe Problem with Apu, a 2017 documentary byHari Kondaboluthat examined Azaria and other white actors who had playedSouth Asianroles asstereotypes.During the interview, Azaria described how watching the documentary had changed his perspective on the issue: \\\"The idea that anyone, young or old, past or present, was bullied or teased based on the character of Apu, it just really makes me sad.\\\"Azaria also offered to stop voicing the character: \\\"I'm perfectly willing and happy to step aside, or help transition it into something new.\\\"In response, Kondabolu tweeted his appreciation for Azaria's statement: \\\"Thank you, @HankAzaria. I appreciate what you said & how you said it.\\\" In early 2020, Azaria announced that he was stepping away from the Apu character, primarily because of the stereotypes and bias it perpetuated.Later in the year he would retire from voicing Carl for similar reasons.In April 2021, Azaria formally apologized for voicing the Apu character, onDax Shepherd's podcast. Further career (since 1991) Television work With the continuing success ofThe Simpsons, Azaria began taking on other, principally live-action roles. He was a main cast member on the showHerman's Head(1991–1994) playing Jay Nichols, alongsideThe Simpsonsco-starYeardley Smith.He regularly recorded forThe Simpsonsand filmedHerman's Headduring the same day.Following the series' cancellation Azaria unsuccessfully auditioned for the role ofJoey Tribbiani, one of the lead characters in the sitcomFriends.He was instead cast in the role of the scientist David, one ofPhoebe Buffay's boyfriends in the series. He appeared in the show's tenth episode \\\"The One with the Monkey\\\", before the character left for a research trip inMinsk. He reprised the role in the show'sseventh season(2001), before making several appearances in theninth(2003). This return culminates in David proposing to Phoebe; she rejects him, and David leaves the show for good.From 1995 to 1999, Azaria had a recurring role in the sitcomMad About Youas Nat Ostertag, the dog walker.Azaria was nominated for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor his roles in bothMad About You(in 1998) andFriends(in 2003).Azaria had the lead role in the short-lived sitcomIf Not For Youin 1995, playing record producer Craig Schaeffer. Azaria produced and starred in the sitcomImagine Thatin 2002, replacingEmerilmid-season in theNBClineup. He played Josh Miller, a comedy writer, who \\\"transformed\\\" each episode into a character Miller has imagined, \\\"provid a humorous outlet for his frustrations at home and work\\\".Production closed after five episodes and it was canceled after just two aired, due to poor critical reaction and ratings.Azaria later commented on the show: \\\"I wanted to do something really truthful and interesting and impactful. We had a bunch of executives sitting in the room, all agreeing thatThe Larry Sanders Showwas our favorite thing on television, but we couldn't do it on NBC, and nor would we want to from a business standpoint; it simply wouldn't make enough money. By the time it aired, the writing was sort of on the wall, and I don't blame them at all. It was apparent it wasn't working.\\\" He starred aspsychiatristCraig \\\"Huff\\\" Huffstodt in theShowtimedrama seriesHuff, which ran for two seasons between 2004 and 2006, airing 24 episodes.Azaria served as an executive producer on the show and directed an episode of its second season.After reading the pilot script, he sent it to Platt, who took the role of Huff's friend Russell Tupper.Azaria enjoyed working on the show,but struggled with the bleak subject matter and was often in dispute with its creator Bob Lowry, noting that it \\\"was tough to marry our visions all the time, we both cared so much about it that neither of us were willing to let go.\\\"Gillian FlynnofEntertainment Weeklycalled Azaria \\\"impressively subtle\\\" in the role,whileJohn LeonardofNew York magazinesaid he was a \\\"shrewd bit of casting.\\\"The show garnered sevenEmmynominations in 2005, including a nomination for Azaria forOutstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.Despite the awards, the show continually received low ratings, and Showtime chose not to commission it for a third season. Returning to live-action television in 2011, Azaria starred in the NBC sitcomFree Agents, a remake of the Britishseries of the same name. He played Alex Taylor, a recently divorced public relations executive \\\"who is missing his kids and trying to keep himself together\\\", and ends up sleeping with a co-worker (Kathryn Hahn).Azaria also served as a producer on the show.He was apprehensive about the project, disliking the lengthy schedule required of a lead actor in a single-camera series, and favoring the \\\"sensibility\\\" of cable shows. However, he liked the script and executive producer John Enbom's previous seriesParty Downand decided to accept the part.Despite Azaria mounting a campaign on Twitter to save it,the series was canceled after four episodes due to low ratings.Between 2014 and 2016, Azaria had a recurring role in the second, third and fourth season of Showtime'sRay Donovan, playingFBIagent Ed Cochran.He won the Emmy forOutstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Seriesfor his work on the show in 2016, as well as earning a further nomination the same category the following year. Azaria starred in theIFCseriesBrockmire, which ran for four seasons from 2017-2020.He played the lead role of Jim Brockmire, a legendary baseball announcer, fired for a profanity-filled breakdown live on air after discovering his wife was having an affair. Azaria based the voice and style of Brockmire on several veteran sportscasters, includingBob MurphyandPhil Rizzuto.The character originated as part of the third episode of theFunny or Dieweb-seriesGamechangers, entitled \\\"A Legend in the Booth\\\", which Azaria also co-wrote.He subsequently appeared as Brockmire on theNFL Network'sThe Rich Eisen Podcastto discuss theNational Football League.In November 2012, Azaria sued actorCraig Bierkoover the ownership of the Brockmire voice.The case was ruled in Azaria's favor in 2014. Both actors had been using a baseball announcer voice before and since meeting at a party in 1990, but US district judgeGary Allen Feessruled that only Azaria's voice was, as Brockmire, a defined, \\\"tangible\\\" character and thus subject to copyright.In 2016, IFC confirmed development on the series, on which Azaria also served as an executive producer.Azaria received three nominations for theCritics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor his performance on the series. Film work \\\" appeal can best be summed up by, of all things, his hilarious cameo in the goofy comedyDodgeball. As Patches O'Houlihan, the dodgeball champion who will age into the magnificently gruffRip Torn, he delivers a pitch-perfect performance in an instructional video in which he chain-smokes, encourages a child to pick on those weaker than him, and steals the film from a cast of comedic greats. It's a wonderful, odd moment that could have failed miserably in the hands of a lesser actor, and he manages to pull it off with only seconds of dialogue. In my humble opinion, and using my limited knowledge of boxing terms: Pound for pound, Hank Azaria is the best actor working today.\\\" —Playwright Jenelle Riley on Azaria. Azaria made his film debut in the direct-to-video releaseCool Blue(1990), as Buzz.His first theatrically released feature film appearance came the same year inPretty Woman, as a police detective named Albertson.His next major film role was as television producerAlbert Freedmanin the 1994 filmQuiz Show, which was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.In 1996, Azaria played gay Guatemalan housekeeper Agador Spartacus in the filmThe Birdcage. For the role, which Azaria considers to be his \\\"big break\\\",he was nominated for theScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role,and critically branded \\\"the most hilarious performance in the film,\\\" by Alison Macor ofThe Austin Chronicle,whileEmpirewrote that he \\\" the show.\\\"For the role he used a Guatemalan accent, and made himself sound as effeminate as possible. He had chosen two possible voices, an effeminate one and a tougher one. After advice from a drag queen, he chose the effeminate voice. Three weeks into production, he realized he sounded exactly like his grandmother, which aided his performance.Agador was originally going to be a single scene part, with the larger role of the housekeeper being played byDavid Alan Grier. With the producers fearing the racial connotations of a black actor in such a part, Azaria inherited the full role. He appeared in numerous other films in the late 1990s, includingHeat(1995),Grosse Pointe Blank(1997),Celebrity(1998) and worked oppositeGwyneth Paltrow, as Walter Plane, in the 1998 adaptation ofGreat Expectations.He played photographer Victor \\\"Animal\\\" Palotti inGodzilla(1998).Godzillawas one of Azaria's first starring roles in ablockbusterfilm. Its five-month shoot was the longest of his career to date, but he considered it a good chance to boost his profile. He noted, \\\"I'm so used to melding into every character I play. Even people in the business think the guy who didBirdcage,Quiz ShowandGreat Expectationsare three different actors—which in a way makes me proud, but in another way is very frustrating. It's the curse and blessing of the character actor\\\".The shoot's physical challenges, and the film's critical failure, led Azaria to later describe it as \\\"tough to make, and very disappointing when it came out. It was one you definitely chalk up and say, 'That was part of paying your dues, better luck next time'.\\\"In 1999, he starred in the dramaMystery, Alaskaas Charles Danner, and the comedy superhero filmMystery Men, as the faux-British silverware throwing expert The Blue Raja.Other film roles included Hector Gorgonzolas inAmerica's Sweethearts(2001), Claude inAlong Came Polly(2004), and the young Patches O'Houlihan inDodgeBall: A True Underdog Story(2004), the latter two withBen Stiller.For his role of Claude, a French scuba instructor, inAlong Came Polly, Azaria donned a wig and worked out extensively to get into the physical shape the part required. Azaria played composerMarc BlitzsteininTim Robbins' filmCradle Will Rockin 1999.Paul Clintonwrote that Azaria was \\\"brilliant as the tortured (is there any other kind) artist Blitzstein.\\\"The same year he appeared as author and journalistMitch AlbomalongsideJack Lemmonin the television filmTuesdays with Morrie,winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Moviefor the role.Azaria described the latter as the \\\"best work done.\\\"These were two of the first dramatic roles Azaria had taken; throughout his career, Azaria has primarily worked in comedy,but tries to balance the two.Azaria commented: \\\"all the roles I got were in comedy at first, and I was certainly happy to get those, so I never felt the lack of being considered a dramatic actor because I was so happy to get what I got. And then I became surprised later on when I got dramatic roles. But I never went, 'OK, now it's time to get a dramatic role.'\\\"His next dramatic part was in the television filmUprisingin 2001. The film was based on the 1943Warsaw Ghetto Uprisingand Azaria playedMordechaj Anielewicz, one of the revolt's leaders. Azaria was confused by his casting inUprisingand frequently asked the film's producer and directorJon Avnetwhy he was selected. \\\"I know liked the fact I was Jewish, and he knew I could do accents well. He cast me andDavid Schwimmerin , and we were both sort of mystified. He had some instinct that he wanted people who were more known for being funny. He never explained it satisfactorily to me; I don't understand why.\\\"His parts inTuesdays With MorrieandUprisingaffected him, causing a depressive state which he countered with DVDs of the comedy seriesMonty Python.Azaria foundUprisingto be \\\"very difficult very depressing very emotionally challenging\\\" material.In 2003, Azaria played journalistMichael Kelly, the former editor ofThe New Republic, in the drama filmShattered Glass. Kelly died a few months before the film was released and Azaria said the film \\\"has become a weird kind of eulogy to him.\\\" SinceHuff's conclusion in 2006, Azaria has continued to make multiple film appearances. He played the smooth-talking Whit inDavid Schwimmer's directorial debutRun Fatboy Run(2007). During production he became good friends with co-starSimon Pegg, performingThe Simpsonsvoices on request, frequently distracting Pegg when he was supposed to be filming.He worked with Stiller again on 2009'sNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonianin which Azaria played the villainous pharaoh Kah Mun Rah, utilizing aBoris Karloffaccent.Although the film received mixed reviews, critics praised Azaria's performance.Perry Seibert ofTV Guidewrote that \\\"thanks to Azaria, a master of comic timing. His grandiose, yet slightly fey bad guy is equally funny when he's chewing out minions as he is when deliberating ifOscar the GrouchandDarth Vaderare evil enough to join his team.\\\"He appeared asAbrahaminYear One(2009),Dr. Knight in 2010'sLove & Other Drugs,and playedDeep ThroatdirectorGerard DamianoinLovelace(2013). Azaria playedGargamelin the animated/live-action adaptation ofThe Smurfs(2011).Azaria wore a prosthetic nose, ears,buck teeth, eyebrows and a wig, as well as shaving his head. He spent approximately 130 hours in the make-up chair over the course of the production.Azaria considered Gargamel's voice to be the most important part of his performance. The producers wanted an \\\"old, failed, Shakespearean actor\\\" voice, but Azaria felt this would lack energy and wanted something more Eastern European. He eventually selected a voice similar to that ofPaul Winchell's from the cartoon.Azaria disliked the cartoon when it first aired, and considered Gargamel too one-dimensional a character and \\\"just this straight villain\\\";he opted to make Gargamel \\\"more sarcastic\\\" than in the cartoon, but \\\"discovered that there's no way to play Gargamel without screaming your head off at certain points – ramping him up and getting him very upset over Smurfs\\\".He interpreted him as \\\"very lonely\\\", adding that \\\"he hates the Smurfs because they're such a happy family. He wants in really badly. I think he wants to be embraced as a Smurf\\\".Azaria worked with the writers to \\\"infuse\\\" the script with some of his ideas about the character, \\\"particularly with the 'married' relationship between Gargamel and Azreal \\\" which Azaria conceived. Reviewers fromThe San Francisco ChronicleandThe Boston Globecommented on Azaria's \\\"overacting\\\" in the role of Gargamel.More positive reaction came from Scott Bowles ofUSA Todaycalled Azaria the \\\"human standout\\\";Betsy Sharkey of theLos Angeles Timesfelt he suffered the \\\"greatest disservice\\\" of the film's cast due to a poor script.Azaria noted in an interview withThe A.V. ClubthatThe SmurfsandNight at the Museumwere films he agreed to do primarily for the money, but that \\\"I won't even do that unless I think it will at least be fun to do...I really try to throw myself into it, figure out the funniest, cleverest way to get the material over, and make it fun to do and fun to watch.\\\"Azaria reprised his role in the 2013 sequelThe Smurfs 2.In 2016, Azaria starred inNormanwithRichard Gere. Further voice work Azaria performed a number of voice roles in addition toThe Simpsons, although he noted in 2005: \\\"I started doing other voiceovers for cartoons for a couple of years, but I didn't really love it. I was spoiled byThe Simpsons.\\\"He voicedEddie Brock/VenominSpider-Man: The Animated Seriesbetween 1994 and 1996.In the animated featureAnastasia(1997), he voiced Bartok the bat and reprised the role in the direct-to-video prequelBartok the Magnificent(1999).For his performance inAnastasia, Azaria won theAnnie Awardfor Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Male Performer in an Animated Feature Production.He also voiced Eric in the American dub of the seriesStressed Eric,Harold Zoid in the 2001Futuramaepisode \\\"That's Lobstertainment!\\\",andAbbie HoffmanandAllen GinsberginChicago 10(2007).For the 2011 filmHop, Azaria voiced Carlos and Phil. The response to the film was mostly negative, but many reviewers praised Azaria's performance.For example, Sandie Chen ofThe Washington Postsaid \\\"Azaria has been honing his over-the-top Spanish accent sinceThe Birdcage, so anything he says grabs some laughs\\\",while Emma Simmonds ofTime Outcalled him an \\\"unflappable presence, voicing two characters with style\\\".Later in the year he voiced The Mighty Sven inHappy Feet Two.He also voiced the lead character, Texanborder agentBud Buckwald, inBordertown, which aired in 2016,as well as Shelfish Sheldon inMack & Moxythe same year. OnceThe Simpsonswas \\\"going steadily\\\" and Azaria had enough money to live on, he stopped working on commercials as he found them \\\"demoralizing\\\", feeling that he sounded sarcastic whenever he read for them. When recording the part of \\\"Jell-O Man\\\" for aJell-Ocommercial, he was told to make the voice he offered \\\"more likable and friendly so that children like him.\\\" After pointing out that \\\"Jell-O Man\\\" was a fictional character, he left and pledged to never record for an advertisement again.However, in 2012 he voiced several insects in a commercial for theChevrolet Sonic. Other work Azaria wrote and directed the 2004 short filmNobody's Perfect, which won the Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Short at theUS Comedy Arts Festival.In January 2007, he was confirmed to be directingOutsourced,a film about two American workers who journey to get their jobs back, after their factory is moved to Mexico.In 2009, Azaria toldEmpirehe was instead focusing on making a documentary about fatherhood.Two years later he told theLos Angeles Timesthat this project was \\\"half-complete\\\" and was \\\"forever looking for financing to finish it.\\\"It eventually began in 2014, airing onAOLas an online series titledFatherhood. According to AOL, the series of short episodes documents Azaria's \\\"touching, humorous, and often enlightening journey from a man who is not even sure he wants to have kids, to a father going through the joys, trials and tribulations of being a dad.\\\" He has periodically returned to theatrical work, appearing in several productions. In 2003, he appeared as Bernard in a run ofDavid Mamet's playSexual Perversity in Chicago, along withMatthew PerryandMinnie Driver, in London'sWest End.Azaria made his first appearance as SirLancelot, the French Taunter, and four other characters inSpamalot, the musical version ofMonty Python and the Holy Grail, which opened in Chicago in December 2004, before moving to theShubert TheatreonBroadway.The show met with critical acclaim and received fourteenTony Awardnominations in 2005; Azaria andTim Curryboth received nominations for theTony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical.Reuniting withThe BirdcagedirectorMike Nichols, and being a hugeMonty Pythonfan, he saw it as an opportunity he could not pass up, describing it as \\\"so much fun that I haven't realized how tiring it is,\\\"and \\\"the most fun that I've ever had in my entire life.\\\"He took a break from the show in June 2005 to work onHuff, but returned in December 2005.Alan Tudykplayed the role during Azaria's absence.In late 2007 he starred inAaron Sorkin'sThe Farnsworth Invention, playingRCAheadDavid Sarnoff.In 2016, he starred in the world premiere ofDry PowderoppositeClaire Danes,John Krasinski, andSanjit De Silva, directed byThomas Kail, at theoff-BroadwayPublic Theaterin New York City. Acting style and vocal range Azaria's friends refer to him as \\\"the freakish mimic\\\" due to his ability to copy almost anyone's voice, instantly after he has heard it. As a child, he believed that everyone could do this, but later realized that it was not a common talent.Azaria has said, \\\"I can remember every voice I hear, famous or otherwise ... they kind of remain in the memory banks, so I'm ready to trot them out.\\\"Azaria was glad to have found the \\\"ultimate outlet\\\" for this skill, inThe Simpsons.He \\\"didn't realize it , but it became like a lab for a character actor. had to do so many voices.\\\"In the early 2000s, Azaria felt he had reached the maximum number of voices he was capable of: \\\"For the first 10 years ofThe Simpsons, I would develop a bunch of voices. And then ... I hit a point when I was tapped out. Every noise I can make, I have made. Even characters like Gargamel, I've done. Even if it was only two or three lines, at some point I've done something similar onThe Simpsons, at least somewhere along the line.\\\" For many of Azaria's characters, much of their humor is derived from a \\\"funny voice\\\", such asThe BirdcageandNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian. He stated that \\\"being funny with a funny voice is more my comfort zone, a broader character that I try to humanize, a kind of silly or wacky persona that I try to fill in,\\\" although he finds it \\\"much easier to be someone much closer to myself,\\\" as it requires \\\"less energy ... than playing characters that are so out there and high strung.\\\" The SimpsonscreatorMatt Groeninghas stated that Azaria possesses the ability to turn unfunny lines into some of the best in an episode,while former writerJay Kogenstated: \\\"Just when I think I know bag of tricks, he's always got a new thing he does to surprise me.\\\"Throughout the run ofThe Simpsons, Azaria has had to sing in character several times, a task which he describes as easier than singing normally.The SmurfswriterDavid N. Weisssays Azaria \\\"has a beautiful treasure trove of talent,\\\" and \\\"became what you wished you were writing.\\\"Playwright Jenelle Riley wrote in 2005 that Azaria was \\\"by far\\\" her favorite actor, praising his \\\"versatility\\\" and \\\"tendency to take small roles that would normally fade into the background and to consistently create characters people care about,\\\" noting his roles inShattered Glass,Mystery, Alaskaand especiallyDodgeBall: A True Underdog Story. Personal life In the early 1990s, Azaria was in a relationship with actressJulie Warner.His relationship with actressHelen Huntbegan in 1994; they married in a traditional Jewish ceremony at the couple's home inSouthern Californiaon July 17, 1999.The two had appeared together inMad About Youand theSimpsonsepisode \\\"Dumbbell Indemnity\\\".After a year of marriage, Azaria moved out of the couple's home,and Hunt filed for divorce after a six-month separation, citing irreconcilable differences. The divorce was finalized on December 18, 2000. Azaria began dating former actressKatie Wrightin 2007,and the two married later that year.They have a son named Hal (b. 2009).The family has one dog, Truman, and two rescue cats, Mookie and Wilson. In 2013, the family began renting a home on80th StreetinManhattan, with plans to make a final decision on where to live in two years.They previously lived in a four-bedroom house inPacific Palisades, which Azaria bought from hisSimpsonsco-starDan Castellanetain 2011. Several weeks earlier, Azaria had sold his home inBel Air.Azaria previously owned the fifth-floorco-oploft onMercer Streetin Manhattan'sSohoneighborhood, which he bought from photographerCindy Shermanin 2005, before selling it in 2013. Azaria suffered fromalcoholismfor several years. He credited his longtime friendMatthew Perryfor encouraging him to attendAlcoholics Anonymousmeetings and has been sober since about 2006. Azaria is thegodfatherofOliver Platt's son, George.He is also a regular poker player, appearing twice onCelebrity Poker Showdownand competing at other events, finishing a few places short of thebubblein the main event of the2010 World Series of Poker.Azaria is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.He enjoys the music ofElvis Costelloand has stated that he would have been atherapistif he were not an actor.Azaria co-founded the educational support charity, \\\"Determined to Succeed\\\". On May 22, 2016, he was awarded theHonorary degreeofDoctor of Humane Letters(DHL) fromTufts University. Filmography Film Television Video games Theatre Awards and nominations References External links\",\n \"Harry Shearer Harry Julius Shearer(born December 23, 1943)is an American actor, comedian, musician, radio host, writer, and producer. Born inLos Angeles,California, Shearer began his career as a child actor. From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member ofThe Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group. Following the breakup of the group, Shearer co-wrote the filmReal Life(1979) withAlbert Brooksand worked as a writer onMartin Mull's television seriesFernwood 2 Night. Shearer was a cast member onSaturday Night Livebetween 1979 and 1980, and 1984 and 1985. Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred in the filmThis Is Spinal Tap(1984), asatiricalrockumentary, which became a hit. In 1989, he joined the cast of the animated sitcomThe Simpsons; he provides voices for characters includingMr. Burns,Waylon Smithers,Ned Flanders,Reverend Lovejoy,Lenny,Scratchy,Principal Skinner,Kent Brockman,Otto Mann, and formerlyDr. Hibbert. Shearer has appeared in films includingThe Truman Show(1998) andA Mighty Wind(2003), and has directed two,Teddy Bears' Picnic(2002) andThe Big Uneasy(2010). Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music programLe Show, incorporating satire, music, andsketch comedy. He has written three books. Shearer has won aPrimetime Emmy Awardand has received several other Emmy andGrammy Awardnominations. He has been married to singer-songwriterJudith Owensince 1993. He became anartist in residenceatLoyola University, New Orleansin 2013. Early life and career Shearer was born December 23, 1943,inLos Angeles,California,the son of Dora, a bookkeeper, and Mack Shearer, a trained opera singer who ran a gas station.His parents were Jewish immigrants from Poland and Austria respectively. His parents escapedNazi-occupied Europe and met inHavana, Cuba. As a child, Shearer and his family often listened to radio programs such asBob and Rayand the weekly show for theJewish Theological Seminary of America. His father died when he was 12 and he had hisBar Mitzvahthe following year.Shearer grew up in the neighborhood ofWest Adams.Starting when Shearer was four years old, he had a piano teacher whose daughter worked as a child actress. The piano teacher later decided to make a career change and become a children's agent, since she knew people in the business through her daughter's work. The teacher asked Shearer's parents for permission to take him to an audition. Several months later, she called Shearer's parents and told them that she had gotten Shearer an audition for the radio showThe Jack Benny Program. Shearer received the role when he was seven years old.He describedJack Bennyas \\\"very warm and approachable ... He was a guy who dug the idea of other people on the show getting laughs, which sort of spoiled me for other people in comedy.\\\"Shearer has stated that one person who took him \\\"under his wing\\\" and was his mentor during his early days in show business was voice actorMel Blanc, who voiced many animated characters, includingBugs Bunny,Daffy DuckandBarney Rubble; Blanc was a regular onThe Jack Benny Show. He also befriended Blanc’s sonNoel.Shearer made his film debut in the filmAbbott and Costello Go to Mars(1953), in which he had a small part, and appeared inThe Robe(also 1953).Throughout his childhood and teenage years he worked in television, film, and radio. In 1957, Shearer played the precursor to theEddie Haskellcharacter in the pilot episode of the television seriesLeave It to Beaver. After the filming, Shearer's parents said they did not want him to be a regular in a series. Instead they wanted him to just do occasional work so that he could have a normal childhood. Shearer and his parents made the decision not to accept the role in the series if it was picked up by a television network. In 1960, Shearer volunteered as a driver for theDemocratic National Conventionwhere he was regularly assigned trips toDisneyland. Shearer graduated fromLos Angeles High Schooland attendedUCLAas a political science major in the early 1960s. He befriended future congressmenHenry WaxmanandHoward Bermanduring his time at UCLA. He decided to quit show business to become a \\\"serious person\\\".However, he says this lasted approximately a month, and he joined the staff of theDaily Bruin, UCLA's school newspaper, during his first year.He was editor of the college humor magazine (Satyr), including the June 1964 parodyPreyboy.He also worked as a newscaster atKRLA, a top 40 radio station in Pasadena, during this period. According to Shearer, after graduating, he had \\\"a very serious agenda going on, and it was 'Stay Out of the Draft'.\\\"He attended graduate school atHarvard Universityfor one year and worked at the state legislature inSacramento. From 1967 to 1968, he was a high school teacher, teaching English and social studies. He left teaching following \\\"disagreements with the administration\\\". From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member ofThe Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group that includedDavid Lander,Richard BeebeandMichael McKean.The group consisted of \\\"a bunch of newsmen\\\" atKRLA 1110, \\\"the number two station\\\" in Los Angeles.They wanted to do more than just straight news, so they hired comedians who were talented vocalists. Shearer heard about the group from a friend, so he brought over a tape to the station and nervously gave it to the receptionist. He found out he was hired that same day. The group's radio show was canceled in 1970 by KRLA and in 1971 byKPPC-FM, so they started performing in various clubs and concert venues.While at KRLA, Shearer also interviewedCreedence Clearwater Revivalfor thePop Chroniclesmusic documentary. In 1973, Shearer appeared as Jim Houseafire onHow Time Flys, an album byThe Firesign Theatre'sDavid Ossman. The Credibility Gap broke up in 1976 when Lander and McKean left to perform in the sitcomLaverne & Shirley.Shearer started working withAlbert Brooks, producing one of Brooks' albums and co-writing the filmReal Life(1979). Shearer also started writing forMartin Mull's television seriesFernwood 2 Night.In the mid-1970s, he started working withRob Reineron a pilot forABC. The show, which starredChristopher Guest,Tom Leopoldand McKean, was not picked up. Career Saturday Night Live Initial run under Lorne Michaels In August 1979, Shearer was hired as a writer and cast member onSaturday Night Live, one of the first additions to the show'soriginal 1975 cast.Recommended byAl FrankentoSaturday Night LivecreatorLorne Michaels,the acquisition of Shearer was seen as an unofficial replacement forJohn BelushiandDan Aykroyd, who were both leaving the show. Shearer describes his experience on the show as a \\\"living hell\\\" and \\\"not a real pleasant place to work.\\\"He did not get along well with the other writers and cast members and states that he was not included with the cast in the opening montage (although he was added to the montage for later episodes of the1979–80 season) and that Michaels had told the rest of the cast that he was \\\"just a writer\\\". Michaels leftSaturday Night Liveat the end of the fifth season, taking the entire cast with him.Shearer told new executive producerJean Doumanianthat he was \\\"not a fan of Lorne's\\\" and offered to stay with the show if he was given the chance to overhaul the program and bring in experienced comedians, like Christopher Guest. However, Doumanian turned him down, so he decided to leave with the rest of the cast. Return in 1984 under Dick Ebersol When I left, Dick issued a press release, saying \\\"creative differences.\\\" And the first person who called me for a comment on it read me that and I blurted out, \\\"Yeah, I was creative and they were different.\\\" —Harry Shearer In 1984, while promoting the filmThis Is Spinal Tap, Shearer, Christopher Guest and Michael McKean performed onSaturday Night Live. All three members were offered the chance to join the show in the1984–1985 season. Shearer accepted because he was treated well by the producers and he thought the backstage environment had improvedbut later stated that he \\\"didn't realize that guests are treated better than the regulars.\\\"Guest also accepted the offer while McKean rejected it, although he would join the cast in 1994. Dick Ebersol, who replaced Lorne Michaels as the show's producer, said that Shearer was \\\"a gifted performer but a pain in the butt. He's just so demanding on the preciseness of things and he's very, very hard on the working people. He's just a nightmare-to-deal-with person.\\\"In January 1985, Shearer left the show for good,partially because he felt he was not being used enough.Martin Shortsaid Shearer \\\"wanted to be creative and Dick wanted something else. ... I think he felt his voice wasn't getting represented on the show. When he wouldn't get that chance, it made him very upset.\\\" Spinal Tap Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred inRob Reiner's filmThis Is Spinal Tap(1984).Shearer, Reiner, Michael McKean and Christopher Guest received a deal to write a first draft of a screenplay for a company called Marble Arch. They decided that the film could not be written and instead filmed a 20-minute demo of what they wanted to do.It was eventually greenlighted byNorman LearandJerry PerenchioatEmbassy Pictures.The film satirizes the wild personal behavior and musical pretensions ofhard rockandheavy metalbands, as well as thehagiographictendencies ofrockumentariesof the time. The three core members of the bandSpinal Tap—David St. Hubbins,Derek SmallsandNigel Tufnel—were portrayed by McKean, Shearer and Guest respectively. The three actors play their musical instruments and speak with mock English accents throughout the film. There was no script, although there was a written breakdown of most of the scenes, and many of the lines were ad-libbed.It was filmed in 25 days. Shearer said in an interview that \\\"The animating impulse was to do rock 'n' roll right. The four of us had been around rock 'n' roll and we were just amazed by how relentlessly the movies got it wrong. Because we were funny people it was going to be a funny film, but we wanted to get it right.\\\"When they tried to sell it to various Hollywood studios, they were told that the film would not work. The group kept saying, \\\"No, this is a story that's pretty familiar to people. We're not introducing them to anything they don't really know,\\\" so Shearer thought it would at least have some resonance with the public.The film was only a modest success upon its initial release but found greater success, and developed acult following, after its video release. In 2000, the film was ranked 29th on theAmerican Film Institute'slist of the top 100 comedy movies in American cinemaand it was selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registryby theLibrary of Congressas being \\\"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\\\". Shearer, Guest and McKean have since worked on several projects as their Spinal Tap characters. They released three albums:This Is Spinal Tap(1984),Break Like the Wind(1992) andBack from the Dead(2009).In 1992, Spinal Tap appeared in an episode ofThe Simpsonscalled \\\"The Otto Show\\\".The band has played several concerts, including atLive Earthin London on July 7, 2007. In anticipation of the show, Rob Reiner directed a short film entitledSpinal Tap.In 2009, the band releasedBack from the Deadto commemorate the 25th anniversary of the release of the film.The album features re-recorded versions of songs featured inThis Is Spinal Tapand its soundtrack, and five new songs.The band performed a one-date \\\"world tour\\\" at London'sWembley Arenaon June 30, 2009.The Folksmen, a mock band featured in the filmA Mighty Windthat is also made up of characters played by Shearer, McKean and Guest, was the opening act for the show. The Simpsons Shearer is known for his work as a voice actor onThe Simpsons.Matt Groening, the creator of the show, was a fan of Shearer's work, while Shearer was a fan of a column Groening used to write.When approached by Groening to be in the series, Shearer was initially reluctant because he thought the recording sessions would be too much trouble.He felt that voice acting was \\\"not a lot of fun\\\" as, traditionally, voice actors record their parts separately.He was told that the actors would record their lines together,and after three phone calls for executive producerJames L. Brooks, Shearer was convinced to join the cast ofThe Simpsons.Shearer's first impression ofThe Simpsonswas that it was funny. He – who thought it was a \\\"pretty cool\\\" way to work – found it peculiar that his fellow cast members were adamant about not being known to the public as the people behind the voices. Shearer provides voices forPrincipal Skinner,Kent Brockman,Mr. Burns,Waylon Smithers,Ned Flanders,Reverend Lovejoy, formerlyDr. Hibbertuntil 2021,Lenny Leonard,Otto Mann,Rainier Wolfcastle,Scratchy,Kang,Dr. Marvin Monroe, andJudge Snyder, among others.He has described all of his regular characters' voices as \\\"easy to slip into. ... I wouldn't do them if they weren't easy.\\\"Shearer modeled Mr. Burns's voice on the two actorsLionel BarrymoreandRonald Reagan.Shearer says that Burns is the most difficult character for him to voice because it is rough on his vocal cords and he often needs to drink tea and honey to soothe his voice.He describes Burns as his favorite character, saying he \\\"like Mr. Burns because he is pure evil. A lot of evil people make the mistake of diluting it. Never adulterate your evil.\\\"Shearer is also the voice of Burns' assistant Smithers, and is able to perform dialogue between the two characters in one take. In the episode \\\"Bart's Inner Child\\\", Shearer said \\\"wow\\\" in the voice of Otto, which was then used when Otto was seen jumping on a trampoline.Ned Flanders had been meant to be just a neighbor thatHomer Simpsonwas jealous of, but because Shearer used \\\"such a sweet voice\\\" for him, Flanders was broadened to become aChristianand a sweet guy that someone would prefer to live next to over Homer.Dr. Marvin Monroe's voice was based on psychiatristDavid Viscott.Monroe has been largely retired since theseventh seasonbarring a few cameo appearances because voicing the character strained Shearer's throat. In 2004, Shearer criticized what he perceived asthe show's declining quality: \\\"I rate the last three seasons as among the worst, soseason fourlooks very good to me now.\\\"Shearer has also been vocal about \\\"The Principal and the Pauper\\\" (season nine, episode two, 1997), one of the most controversial episodes ofThe Simpsons. Many fans and critics reacted negatively to the revelation thatPrincipal Seymour Skinner, a recurring character since the first season, was an impostor. The episode has been criticized by both Shearer and Groening. In a 2001 interview, Shearer recalled that after reading the script, he told the writers, \\\"That'ssowrong. You're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason, for a story we've done before with other characters. It's so arbitrary and gratuitous, and it's disrespectful to the audience.\\\"In a December 2006 interview, Shearer added, \\\"Now, refuse to talk about it. They realize it was a horrible mistake. They never mention it. It's like they're punishing for paying attention.\\\" Due to scheduling and availability conflicts, Shearer decided not to participate inThe Simpsons Ride, which opened in 2008, so none of his characters have vocal parts and many do not appear in the ride at all.In a 2010 interview onThe Howard Stern Show, Shearer alluded that the reason he was not part of the ride was because he would not be getting paid for it.Similarly, Shearer was unable to appear in theFamily Guycrossover episode \\\"The Simpsons Guy\\\" due to further scheduling conflicts. Therefore, his characters are again mute. When asked about how he felt about the crossover, Shearer replied, \\\"Matter and anti-matter.\\\" Until 1998, Shearer was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.The dispute, however, was resolved and Shearer received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.The dispute was resolved a month later,and Shearer's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Shearer and the other cast members accepted a 30% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode.On May 14, 2015, Shearer announced he was leaving the show. After the other voice actors signed a contract for the same pay, Shearer refused, stating it was not enough. Al Jean made a statement from the producers saying \\\"the show must go on,\\\" but did not elaborate on what might happen to the characters Shearer voiced.On July 7, 2015, Shearer agreed to continue with the show, on the same terms as the other voice actors. Le Showand radio work Because I don't do stand-up, radio has always been my equivalent, a place to stay in connection with the public and force myself to write every week and come up with new characters. Plus it's a medium that – having grown up with it and putting myself to sleep with a radio under my pillow – I love. No matter what picture you want to create in the listener's mind, a few minutes of work gets it done. —Harry Shearer Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music programLe Show. The program is a hodgepodge of satirical news commentary, music, and sketch comedy that takes aim at the \\\"mega morons of the mighty media\\\".It is carried on manyNational Public Radioand other public radio stations throughout the United States.Since the merger ofSIRIUSandXMsatellite radio services the program is no longer available on either.The show has also been made available as apodcastoniTunesand byWWNO. On the weekly program Shearer alternates between DJing, reading and commenting on the news of the day after the manner ofMort Sahl, and performing original (mostly political) comedy sketches and songs. In 2008, Shearer released a music CD calledSongs of the Bushmen, consisting of his satirical numbers about former PresidentGeorge W. BushonLe Show.Shearer says he criticizes bothRepublicansandDemocratsequally, and also says that \\\"the iron law of doing comedy about politics is you make fun of whoever is running the place\\\"and that \\\"everyone else is just running around talking. They are the ones who are actually doing something, changing people's lives for better or for worse. Other people the media calls 'satirists' don't work that way.\\\" Since encountering satellite news feeds when he worked onSaturday Night Live, Shearer has been fascinated with the contents of the video that does not air. Shearer refers to these clips asfound objects. \\\"I thought, wow, there is just an unending supply of this material, and it's wonderful and fascinating and funny and sometimes haunting – but it's always good,\\\" said Shearer.He collects this material and uses it onLe Showand on his website.In 2008, he assembled video clips of newsmakers from this collection into an art installation titled \\\"The Silent Echo Chamber\\\" which was exhibited atThe Aldrich Contemporary Art MuseuminRidgefield, Connecticut.The exhibit was also displayed in 2009 at Institut Valencià d'Art Modern (IVAM) inValencia, Spainand in 2010 at the New OrleansContemporary Arts Center. In 2006 Shearer appeared withBrian Hayesin four episodes of theBBC Radio 4sitcomNot Today, Thank You, playing Nostrils, a man so ugly he cannot stand to be in his own presence.He was originally scheduled to appear in all six episodes but had to withdraw from recording two due to a problem with his work permit.On June 19, 2008, it was announced that Shearer would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the radio category. Further career Shearer's first feature film as director,Teddy Bears' Picnic, which he also wrote, was released in 2002. The plot is based onBohemian Grove, which hosts a three-week encampment of some of the most powerful men in the world. The film was not well received by critics. It garnered a 0% approval rating onRotten Tomatoes, with all 19 reviews being determined as negativeand received a rating of 32 out of 100 (signifying \\\"generally negative reviews\\\") onMetacriticfrom 10 reviews.In 2003, he co-wroteJ. Edgar! The MusicalwithTom Leopold, which spoofedJ. Edgar Hoover's relationship withClyde Tolson.It premiered at theU.S. Comedy Arts FestivalinAspen, Coloradoand starredKelsey GrammerandJohn Goodman. Shearer, Guest and McKean starred in thefolk musicmockumentaryA Mighty Wind(2003), portraying a band called The Folksmen. The film was written by Guest andEugene Levy, and directed by Guest.Shearer had a major role in the Guest-directed parody of Oscar politickingFor Your Considerationreleased in 2006. He played Victor Allan Miller, a veteran actor who is convinced that he is going to be nominated for anAcademy Award.He also appeared as a news anchor inGodzilla(1998) with fellowThe Simpsonscast membersHank AzariaandNancy Cartwright.His other film appearances includeThe Right Stuff(1983),The Fisher King(1991),The Truman Show(1998),Small Soldiers(also 1998), andEdTV(1999). He also directed and appeared in the television programPortrait of a White Marriage(1988), a sequel toThe History of White People in America. Shearer has also worked as a columnist for theLos Angeles Times Magazine, but decided that it \\\"became such a waste of time to bother with it.\\\"His columns have also been published inSlateandNewsweek.Since May 2005 he has been a contributing blogger atThe Huffington Post.Shearer has written three books.Man Bites Town, published in 1993, is a collection of columns that he wrote forThe Los Angeles Timesbetween 1989 and 1992.Published in 1999,It's the Stupidity, Stupidanalyzed the hatred some people had for then-PresidentBill Clinton.Shearer believes that Clinton became disliked because he had an affair with \\\"the least powerful, least credentialed woman cleared into his official compound.\\\"His most recent book isNot Enough Indians, his first novel. Published in 2006, it is a comic novel about Native Americans and gambling.Without the \\\"pleasures of collaboration\\\" and \\\"spontaneity and improvisation which characterize his other projects\\\",Not Enough Indianswas a \\\"struggle\\\" for Shearer to write. He said that \\\"the only fun thing about it was having written it. It was lonely, I had no deal for it and it took six years to do. It was a profoundly disturbing act of self-discipline.\\\" Shearer has released five solo comedy albums:It Must Have Been Something I Said(1994),Dropping Anchors(2006),Songs Pointed and Pointless(2007),Songs of the Bushmen(2008) andGreed and Fear(2010).His most recent CD,Greed and Fearis mainly aboutWall Streeteconomic issues, rather than politics like his previous albums. Shearer decided to make the album when he\\\"started getting amused by the language of the economic meltdown – when 'toxic assets' suddenly became 'troubled assets,' going from something poisoning the system to just a bunch of delinquent youth with dirty faces that needed not removal from the system but just ... understanding.\\\"In May 2006, Shearer received an honorary doctorate fromGoucher College. The Big Uneasy Shearer is the director ofThe Big Uneasy(2010), a documentary film about the impacts ofHurricane KatrinaonNew Orleans. Narrated by actorJohn Goodman, the film describesleveefailuresandcatastrophicflooding in theNew Orleansmetropolitan area, and includes extended interviews with formerLSUprofessorIvor Van Heerden, Robert Bea, an engineering professor at theUniversity of California at Berkeley, and Maria Garzino, an engineer and contract specialist for the Los Angeles district of theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The film is critical of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and its management offlood protectionprojectsin SouthernLouisiana.Shearer draws on numerous technical experts to maintain that Hurricane Katrina's \\\"... tragic floods creating widespread damage were caused by manmade errors in engineering and judgment.\\\"Onreview aggregatorRotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71% based on 24 reviews, with an average rating of 6.85/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \\\"The Big Uneasyoffers an admittedly uneven – yet still worthy and well-intentioned – look at a horrific disaster's aftermath.\\\" Personal life Shearer marriedfolksingerPenelope Nicholsin 1974. They divorced in 1977.He has been married to Welsh singer-songwriterJudith Owensince 1993.In 2005, the couple launched their own record label called Courgette Records.Shearer primarily resides in theFrench QuarterofNew Orleans, Louisiana, but has homes inSanta Monica, CaliforniaandNotting Hill, London. He first went to New Orleans in 1988 and has attended everyNew Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festivalsince. Shearer often speaks and writes about thefailure of the Federal levee systemwhich floodedNew OrleansduringHurricane Katrina, blasting the coverage of it in the mainstream mediaand criticizing the role of theUnited States Army Corps of Engineers.Prior to the DVD release of his film,The Big Uneasy, Shearer would hold screenings of the film at different venues and take questions fromaudiencemembers. Filmography Film Television (Pilot for the eventual seriesLeave It to Beaver, though never aired as part of that series.) Video games Web Music video Discography Bibliography Awards Shearer was the last of the six regular voice actors fromThe Simpsonsto win thePrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Character Voice-Over Performance.His win came for theseason 25episode \\\"Four Regrettings and a Funeral\\\". References Bibliography External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/The_Simpsons (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))","Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_The_Simpsons_cast_members (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))","Dan Castellaneta Daniel Louis Castellaneta(/ˌkæstələˈnɛtə/KAST-ə-lə-NET-ə; born October 29, 1957)is an American actor and writer. He is best known for voicingHomer Simpsonon the animated seriesThe Simpsons(as well as other characters on the show such asGrampa Simpson,Krusty the Clown,Groundskeeper Willie,Mayor Quimby,Sideshow Mel,Mr. Teeny,Santa's Little Helper,Itchy, andBarney Gumble). Castellaneta is also known for voicing Grandpa in Nickelodeon'sHey Arnold!, and has had voice roles in several other programs, includingFuturama,Sibs,Darkwing Duck,The Adventures of Dynamo Duck,The Batman,Back to the Future: The Animated Series,Aladdin,Earthworm Jim, andTaz-Mania. In 1999, he appeared in the Christmas specialOlive, the Other Reindeerand won anAnnie Awardfor his portrayal of the Postman. Castellaneta released a comedy albumI Am Not Homer, and wrote and starred in aone-person showtitledWhere Did Vincent van Gogh? Early life Daniel Louis Castellaneta was born on October 29, 1957, at Roseland Community Hospital on","Hospital on Chicago's south side and was raised inRiver ForestandOak Park, Illinois.He is ofItaliandescent, born to Elsie (néeLagorio; 1926–2008) and Louis Castellaneta (1915–2014),an amateur actor who worked for a printing company. Castellaneta became adept at impressions at a young age and his mother enrolled him in an acting class when he was 16 years old. He would listen to his father's comedy records and do impressions of the artists.He was a \"devotee\" of the works of many performers, includingAlan ArkinandBarbara Harrisand directorsMike NicholsandElaine May.He attendedOak Park and River Forest High Schooland upon graduation, started attendingNorthern Illinois University(NIU) in the fall of 1975. Castellaneta studied art education, with the goal of becoming an art teacher.He became astudent teacherand would entertain his students with his impressions.Castellaneta was a regular participant inThe Ron Petke and His Dead Uncle Show, a radio show at NIU. The show helped Castellaneta hone his skills as a","his skills as a voice-over actor. He recalled \"We did parodies and sketches, we would double up on, so you learned to switch between voices. I got my feet wet doing a voiceover. The show was just barely audible, but we didn't care. It was that we got a chance to do it and write our own material.\"He took a play-writing class and auditioned for an improvisational show. A classmate first thought Castellaneta would \"fall on his face with improvisation\" but soon \"was churning out material faster than could make it work.\" Career Early career Castellaneta began his acting career after his graduation fromNorthern Illinois Universityin 1979.He decided that if his career went nowhere he would still have a chance to try something else.He began takingimprovisationclasses, where he met his future wifeDeb Lacusta. He started to work atThe Second City, an improvisational theatre inChicago, in 1983 and continued to work there until 1987.During this period, he did voice-over work with his wife for various radio stations. He","radio stations. He auditioned for a role inThe Tracey Ullman Showand his first meeting underwhelmedTracey Ullmanand the other producers. Ullman decided to fly to Chicago to watch Castellaneta perform. His performance that night was about ablindman who tries to become a comedian and Ullman later recalled that although there were flashier performances that night, Castellaneta made her cry. She was impressed and Castellaneta was hired. The Simpsons Castellaneta is most famous for his roles on the longest-running American animated television showThe Simpsons, most notably asHomer Simpson.The Tracey Ullman Showincluded a series of animated shorts about adysfunctional family. Voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask Castellaneta and fellow cast memberJulie Kavnerto voice Homer andMarge Simpsonrespectively, rather than hire more actors.Homer's voice began as a loose impression ofWalter Matthau, but Castellaneta could not \"get enough power behind that voice\" and could not sustain his","not sustain his Matthau impression for the nine- to ten-hour long recording sessions. He tried to find something easier, so he \"dropped the voice down\", and developed it into a more versatile and humorous voice during the second and third season of the half-hour show.To perform Homer's voice, Castellaneta lowers his chin to his chest,and is said to \"let his IQ go.\" Castellaneta likes tostay in characterduring recording sessions,and tries to visualize a scene in his mind so that he can give the proper voice to it.Despite Homer's fame, Castellaneta claims he is rarely recognized in public, \"except, maybe, by a die-hard fan.\" Castellaneta also provides the voices for numerous other characters, includingGrampa Simpson,Barney Gumble,Krusty the Clown,Groundskeeper Willie,Mayor Quimby,Hans Moleman,Sideshow Mel,Itchy,Kodos,Arnie Pye, theSqueaky Voiced TeenandGil Gunderson. Krusty's voice is based on Chicago television'sBob Bell, who had a very raspy voice and portrayedWGN-TV'sBozo the Clownfrom 1960 to 1984.During","1960 to 1984.During early recording sessions, he recorded a new version of Barney's loud trademark belch for every episode but discovered that it was not easy for him to belch each time a script called for it. Castellaneta chose a recording of what he believed was his best belch and told the producers to make that the standard. Groundskeeper Willie's first appearance was in theseason twoepisode \"Principal Charming\". The character was written as an angry janitor and Castellaneta was assigned to perform the voice. He did not know what voice to use andSam Simon, who was directing at the time, suggested he use an accent. Castellaneta first tried using Hispanic voicing, which Simon felt was tooclichéd. He then tried a \"big dumbSwede\", which was also rejected. For his third try, he used the voice of a grumpyScotsman, which was deemed appropriate enough and was used in the episode.The voice was based partially on Angus Crock, akilt-wearing chef from the sketch comedy showSecond City Television, who was portrayed","who was portrayed byDave Thomas. Mayor Quimby, who first appeared in \"Bart Gets an 'F'\", is a parody of various members of theKennedy family. The episode script did not call for Quimby to be a parody of them, and Castellaneta improvised the accent.Sideshow Mel's voice is Castellaneta's impression ofKelsey Grammer, the voice ofSideshow Bob.Hapless Gil Gunderson is a spoof of actorJack Lemmon's portrayal of Shelley Levene in the 1992film adaptationof the playGlengarry Glen Ross.ShowrunnerMike Scullythought that Gil would be \"a one-shot thing\"but \"Dan Castellaneta was so funny at thetable readdoing the character, we kept making up excuses in subsequent episodes to put him in.\"TheBlue-Haired Lawyer's voice, as well as his demeanor, is based on lawyerRoy Cohn. Castellaneta has won several awards for voicing Homer, including fourPrimetime Emmy Awardsfor \"Outstanding Voice-Over Performance\" in 1992 for \"Lisa's Pony\", 1993 for \"Mr. Plow\",2004 for voicing several characters in \"Today I Am a Clown\",and 2009 for","Clown\",and 2009 for voicing Homer in \"Father Knows Worst\". In 1993, Castellaneta was given a specialAnnie Award, \"Outstanding Individual Achievement in the Field of Animation\", for his work as Homer onThe Simpsons. In 2004, Castellaneta andJulie Kavner(the voice of Marge) won aYoung Artist Awardfor \"Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series\".Homer was placed second onTV Guide's 2002 Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters,and in 2000, Homer and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Famelocated at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard. Until 1998, Castellaneta was paid $30,000 per episode.During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.The dispute was soon resolved and Castellaneta began receiving $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the cast demanded to be paid $360,000 an episode.The issue was resolved a month later,with Castellaneta starting to earn $250,000 per episode.Following salary","salary negotiations in 2008, the cast received approximately $400,000 per episode.In 2011, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, the cast accepted a pay cut to around $300,000 per episode. In the early 1990s, Castellaneta and his wifeDeb Lacustawrote a script for an episode in which Barney becomes sober, and pitched it to showrunnerAl Jean. He liked the story but turned it down because he felt that it was too similar to \"Duffless\", an episode that the writers were already working on. The two waited for nearly a decade and offered an updated version of the script to later showrunnerMike Scully, who liked it and had them make a few changes.Their script became the episode \"Days of Wine and D'oh'ses\".Castellaneta and his wife have also written the episodes \"Gump Roast\", \"The Ziff Who Came to Dinner\", \"Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore\", and \"The Fight Before Christmas\". In2007, they were nominated for aWriters Guild of America Awardfor the episode \"Kiss Kiss, Bang","\"Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore\".Castellaneta is also credited as a consulting producer. Further career Castellaneta has been a regular cast member in several other television series. In 1991, he played Warren Morris in the short-livedABClive-action sitcomSibs.Heide Perlman, creator ofSibs, wrote the part with Castellaneta in mind. He provided the voice of the eponymous character inThe Adventures ofDynamo Duck,MegavoltinDarkwing Duck,\"Doc\" Emmett BrowninBack to the Future: The Animated Series,the lead character inEarthworm Jimand several characters, including Grandpa Phil and the Jolly Olly Man, the mentally unstableice cream truckdriver, onNickelodeon'sHey Arnold!.He guest starred asThe Robot Devilin five episodes ofFuturama, as well as theFuturamafilmThe Beast with a Billion Backs. Castellaneta has also made guest appearances in a number of television series episodes. In 1992, he guest-starred in an episode of thelegal dramaL.A. Law, as a Homer Simpsonmeetable characterat a Californiaamusement parkwho is","parkwho is dismissed for inappropriate behavior while in costume.In 1996, he made a guest appearance as a Zoo Keeper in Season 2, Episode 12 “The One After the Superbowl” inFriends. In 2005, he appeared in the episode \"Sword of Destiny\" inArrested Developmentas Dr. Stein, adeadpanincompetent doctor. In 2005, Castellaneta guest-starred as Joe Spencer in theStargate SG-1season eightepisode \"Citizen Joe\".He also appeared in episodes ofALF,Campus Ladies,Castle,Entourage,Everybody Loves Raymond,Frasier,Friends,Greek,How I Met Your Mother,Mad About You,Married... with Children,Murphy Brown,NYPD Blue,Parks and Recreation,Reba,Reno 911!,That '70s Show,Veronica Mars,Hot in Cleveland,Yes, Dear,andDesperate Housewives. He appeared as theGeniein theAladdinsequelThe Return of Jafarand on the 1994Aladdintelevision series. The Genie had been voiced byRobin WilliamsinAladdin, and Castellaneta described replacing him as \"sort of like stepping intoHamletafterLaurence Olivierdid it, how can you win?\" He also provided Genie's","provided Genie's voice in theKingdom Heartsvideo game seriesfor bothKingdom HeartsandKingdom Hearts II(with archived audio used forKingdom Hearts: Chain of Memoriesand its remake as well as for the later HD collectionsKingdom Hearts HD 1.5 RemixandKingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix). Castellaneta portrayedAaron Spellingin the 2004NBCfilmBehind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Charlie's Angels, which followed the true story of how Spelling created the show. Other films in which Castellaneta has appeared includeNothing in Common,Say Anything...,Super Mario Bros.,The Client,Space Jam,My Giant,The Simpsons Movie,Rugrats in Paris: The Movie,Recess: School's Out,Hey Arnold!: The Movie,The Cat in the HatandThe Pursuit of Happyness. In 2000, he won anAnnie Awardfor his portrayal of the Postman in the animated Christmas television specialOlive, the Other Reindeer.In 2006, he appeared inJeff Garlin's independent filmI Want Someone to Eat Cheese Withalong with several otherSecond City alumni. On February 22, 2000, his","22, 2000, his first music CDTwo Lipswas published.It was followed on April 23, 2002, by his first comedy CD,I Am Not Homer, in which he and his wife perform several comedy skits. The majority of the sketches had been written and performed before the CD was recorded, and Castellaneta thought that it would be a good idea to preserve them \"since don't perform them much anymore.\" Some came from their sketch series on a local radio station in Chicago and had to be lengthened from the \"two-minute bits\" that they were original, while several others were stage sketches performed in a comedy club inSanta Monica.Additionally, \"Citizen Kane\", a sketch in which two people discuss the filmCitizen Kanewith different meanings, was something the pair had performed at an art gallery.Castellaneta noted that \"we already knew that these skits were funny, some of them we polished and tightened.\"The skits were principally written by improvising from a basic point, transcribing the results, and then editing them to the finished","to the finished scene.Castellaneta chose the titleI Am Not Homeras a parody ofLeonard Nimoy's famous first autobiographyI Am Not Spock, as well as to show that most of the comedy featured \"is not the typicalHomercomedy.\" Alongside his television and film work, Castellaneta has appeared in a number of theatrical productions. In 1992, he starred inDeb & Dan's Showalongside his wife.In 1995, Castellaneta started writingWhere Did Vincent van Gogh?, aone man playin which he portrays a dozen different characters, including artistVincent van Gogh.He first officially performed the play at theACME Comedy Theatrein Los Angeles in 1999.In 2007, he appeared inThe Bicycle MenatKing's Head Theatrein London. Castellaneta hosted the final ofNew Yorkcomedy show Thrills and Spills on December 31, 2015. The final was held inMontgomery, Alabama. Personal life In 1987, Castellaneta married writer and actressDeb Lacusta, whom he had met at animprovclass inChicago.They divide their time betweenLos AngelesandSanta Barbara,","Barbara, California. Castellaneta is avegetariananddoes not drink alcohol. He enjoys exercising regularlyand practicingtai chi.He isCatholic. Filmography Discography Also featured in: Awards and nominations References External links","Julie Kavner Julie Deborah Kavner(born September 7, 1950)is an American actress. Before becoming well-known for her voice role asMarge Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons, Kavner attracted notice for her role as Brenda Morgenstern, the younger sister ofValerie Harper's title character in the sitcomRhoda, for which she won aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. She also voices other characters forThe Simpsons, including Marge's mother,Jacqueline Bouvier, sistersPatty and Selma Bouvier, and half-step-great-aunt Eunice Bouvier. Known for her improvisation and distinctive \"honeyed gravel voice\",Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern inRhodain 1974. Starting in 1987, Kavner appeared onThe Tracey Ullman Show.The Tracey Ullman Showincluded a series ofanimated shortsabout a dysfunctional family. Voices were needed for the shorts, and the producers asked Kavner to voice Marge. The shorts were spun off intoThe Simpsons. Kavner has","Kavner has been described as \"nearly reclusive\";part of her contract says that she will never have to promoteThe Simpsonson video.For her work as Marge, Kavner received anotherPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992 and anAnnie Awardnomination for her performance as the character inThe Simpsons Movie(2007). Typically cast as a \"woman who is supportive, sympathetic or self-effacingly funny\",Kavner grew to dislike playing such roles. In 1992, she starred inThis Is My Life, her first leading role in a feature film. Kavner has also appeared in live-action roles in six films written byWoody Allenand in theAdam SandlercomedyClick. Early life Kavner was born in Los Angeles, California, on September 7, 1950,the second daughter of Rose, a family counselor, and David Kavner, a furniture manufacturer,and grew up in Southern California. She decided to pursue a career in acting because \"There was nothing else I wanted to do, ever\".She attendedBeverly Hills High School(which she later admitted she","later admitted she hated), where she was \"something of a loner\", and unsuccessfully tried out for several plays.John Ingle, formerly the chairman of the Beverly Hills High School art department, later commented that Kavner was \"excellent at improvisation, but she wasn't aningenue and not that castable at that age\". After graduating from high school, Kavner attendedSan Diego State Universityand majored in drama, being cast in several productions including a role asCharlotte CordayinMarat/Sade, becoming known for her improvisation and ability to do both comedy and drama. After graduating in 1971, she got a day job as a typist at theUCLA School of the Arts and Architecture. Career Early career In 1973, Kavner auditioned for a role as one ofRhoda Morgenstern's sisters inThe Mary Tyler Moore Show. David Davis, producer of the show, had convinced her to audition for the part, but decided to cast another actress instead.A year later, Rhoda Morgenstern became the leading character in a spin-off calledRhoda. Kavner","calledRhoda. Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern, sister of the eponymous character.Rhodaran on CBS from September 9, 1974, to December 1978. She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations forOutstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor playing Brenda, winning in 1978.She also received fourGolden Globe Awardnominations.In 1975, she receivedDaytime Emmy Awardnomination for her starring role in the daytime specialThe Girl Who Couldn't Lose. FollowingRhoda, Kavner had a guest appearance onTaxiand appeared in the 1985 comedyBad Medicineas well as the 1987 filmSurrender, both of which were box office failures (and also starredSteve Guttenberg).She appeared in the television moviesRevenge of the Stepford Wives,No Other LoveandA Fine Romance, and shot a television pilot.She also starred in several stage plays, including a play calledIt Had to Be Youat a dinner theater in Canada,Particular Friendshipsin New York City in 1981,andTwo for","in 1981,andTwo for the Seesaw, directed byBurt Reynolds.Woody Allenfirst saw Kavner one night while he was watchingRhodain the 1970s. He thought that she was remarkable and later offered her a role in his 1986 filmHannah and Her Sisters.Kavner agreed, and credits Allen and the film with rejuvenating her career. Kavner was then cast as a sidekick toTracey UllmaninThe Tracey Ullman Show, which debuted on Fox in 1987. Kavner described the show as, \"like being back in school, a chance to play a wide variety of characters, some really vicious people, to not rest on laurels, to not play it safe\".Kavner commented, \"What I do is not mimicry or an impersonation, but more of an assimilation. we did a lot of looking at people to find out who to base our characters on. We did our homework on our lunch hour.\"She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations forBest Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program. The Simpsons Kavner became known for her role asMarge Simpsonon the animated television showThe","television showThe Simpsons, a show that continues to the present day.The Tracey Ullman Showincludeda series of animated shortsabout the dysfunctional Simpson family. Voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask Kavner and fellow cast memberDan Castellanetato voice Marge and Homer rather than hire more actors.Kavner has what Hilary de Vries ofThe New York Timesdescribed as a \"honeyed gravel voice\".Kavner says her voice is due to \"a bump on vocal cords\".Marge's voice has aged considerably throughout the series as Kavner has gotten older, and the higher register of Marge's voice in the earliest seasons had to be adjusted as it began to strain Kavner's voice. Although Marge is her highest profile character on the show, Kavner's favorite characters to voice are Marge's sistersPatty and Selma Bouvierbecause \"they're really funny and sad at the same time\".Series creatorMatt Groeninginstructed Kavner to voice the duo as characters who \"suck the life out of everything\".Both have similar raspy","have similar raspy voices, but Patty's voice is more masculine and has a lower register, while Selma's voice is a little sweeter.Kavner also provides the voices of every other female member of the Bouvier family, including Marge's motherJacqueline, Great-Aunt Gladys (a dead relative who was introduced on season four's \"Selma's Choice\"), and an unnamed grandmother seen on the season six episode \"Fear of Flying\". While cast members and crew have referenced Kavner as a deep fan of the series and the characters she voices, part of Kavner's contract says that she will never have to promoteThe Simpsonson video nor has she performed Marge's voice in public because she believes the publicity \"destroys the illusion. People feel these are real people.\"Kavner takes recording sessions seriously, and feels that voice acting is \"a little more limiting than live acting. And I have nothing to do with my character's movement.\"Nancy Cartwright, who voicesBart Simpson, said in her bookMy Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy(2000) that","Boy(2000) that Kavner is a warm person who is \"a workhorse of an actor\" with \"extraordinary professionalism and quiet work ethic\", and notes that she is rarely late for recording sessions.Kavner had very few recorded interviews in regard to her work on the show. In behind-the-scenes footage from 1992, she describes Marge as \"a wonderful person\" with \"a great sex life\".On a 1994 appearance onLate Show with David Letterman, Kavner explains that performing the voice of Marge in a live-action setting would break the illusion of the character, and that she does not want her own likeness to overlap with that of the character. However, after being coaxed by Letterman, Kavner turns to face away from the camera and speaks briefly in the voice of Marge. Until 1998, Kavner was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing to cast new voices.However, the dispute was soon resolved and she received $125,000 per episode","per episode until 2004 when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.The issue was resolved a month later,and Kavner earned $250,000 per episode.After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Kavner and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. At the44th Primetime Emmy Awards, Kavner received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performancefor voicing Marge in theseason threeepisode \"I Married Marge\".In 2004, Kavner andDan Castellanetawon aYoung Artist Awardfor Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series.For her performance inThe Simpsons Movie, Kavner was nominated for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature at the 2007Annie Awards, butIan HolmfromRatatouillereceived the award.Kavner's emotional performance in the movie got positive reviews, and one critic said she \"gave what must","she \"gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever to find its way into a movie based on an irreverent cartoon\".Some scenes in the movie, such as Marge's emotional video message to Homer, were recorded over 100 times, leaving Kavner exhausted. Further career Many of Kavner's roles have been described byNew York Timeswriter Hilary de Vries as a \"woman who is supportive, sympathetic, or self-effacingly funny\".Kavner grew to despise playing such roles, saying \"If it smacks of Brenda Morgenstern, I won't take the job.\"She had a supporting role as Eleanor Costello, a nurse who befriendsRobin Williams' character in theAcademy Awardnominated filmAwakenings(1990).Kavner interviewed several nurses in preparation for the role, andPenny Marshall, the director of the film, described Kavner as \"a low-maintenance actor You never have to worry about giving back-story for her characters.\"In 1992, Kavner starred inThis Is My Life, her first leading role in a feature film. Kavner played Dottie Ingels, an","Dottie Ingels, an aspiringstand-up comedianwho starts neglecting her family when her career begins to take off. Kavner described Dottie as \"really selfish\" but admitted, \"I liked the role for that very reason.\"Kavner had been asked to play a character with a smaller role in the film, butJoe Roth, at the time the chairman of20th Century Fox, suggested that they cast a lesser known actress in the lead role.Nora Ephron, the writer ofThis Is My Life, said Kavner \"has so little vanity that it is almost shocking. Not only does she have no demands as an actress – 'How big is my trailer, what's in my refrigerator?' – but she will do anything for the character if it makes sense to her.\" Kavner has frequently appeared inWoody Allenfilms, having roles inHannah and Her Sisters(1986),Radio Days(1987),New York Stories(1989),Alice(1990),Shadows and Fog(1991), the television movieDon't Drink the Water(1994)andDeconstructing Harry(1997).Allen described her as \"a naturally funny person. When she does a scene, you listen to","you listen to her and look at her, and the prism through which it's all filtered is funny.\"Kavner believes he is \"a true filmmaker, one that has something to say, continually experimenting on different themes within his own film-making\", adding that \"anything ever does, I always want to do, I don't even have to read it.\" She has done voice-over work in films such asThe Lion King 1½(2004),Dr. Dolittle(1998)and an uncredited role as an announcer inA Walk on the Moon(1999).She worked with Tracey Ullman in the HBO sketch comedy seriesTracey Takes On...She was cast as the mother ofAdam Sandler's character inClick, released in 2006.She has not appeared in a non-Simpsonsrole since her appearance inClick. Personal life Kavner is Jewish.She has lived in New York City'sManhattanborough since around 1992.She leads an intensely private life, described byThe New York Timesas \"nearly reclusive\" and \"discreet and guarded beyond the usual reticent star routine\".She rarely makes public appearances and refuses to be","and refuses to be photographed while working.She was in a relationship with producerDavid Davisfrom 1976 until his death in 2022.Neither of them confirmed being married, though reports referred to her as his wife at the time of his death. In 1983,Current Biographyreferred to Kavner as an avid athlete andpescetarian.In a 1992 interview withThe New York Times, she said she was considering retiring \"except for doing three days a year forWoody \", but had a feeling that she would receive a script she wanted \"to do more than life itself\" upon retiring. Filmography References External links","Nancy Cartwright Nancy Jean Cartwright(born October 25, 1957) is an American actress. She is the long-time voice ofBart Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons, for which she has received aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceand anAnnie Awardfor Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation. Cartwright also voices other characters for the show, includingRalph Wiggum,Todd Flanders,Nelson Muntz, andMaggie Simpson. She is also the voice ofChuckie Finsterin the Nickelodeon seriesRugratsand its spin-offAll Grown Up!, succeedingChristine Cavanaugh. Cartwright was born inDayton, Ohio. She moved to Hollywood in 1978 and trained under voice actorDaws Butler. Her first professional role was voicing Gloria in the animated seriesRichie Rich, which she followed with a starring role in the television movieMarian Rose White(1982) and her first feature film,Twilight Zone: The Movie(1983). In 1987, Cartwright auditioned for a role ina series of animated shortsabout adysfunctional familythat was","familythat was to appear onThe Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright intended to audition for the role ofLisa Simpson, the middle child; when she arrived at the audition, she found the role of Bart—Lisa's brother—to be more interesting. Series creatorMatt Groeningallowed her to audition for Bart and offered her the role on the spot. She voiced Bart for three seasons onThe Tracey Ullman Show, and in 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show calledThe Simpsons. BesidesThe Simpsons, Cartwright has also voiced numerous other animated characters, including Daffney Gillfin inSnorks, Mellissa Screetch inToonsylvania,RufusinKim Possible,MindyinAnimaniacs, Pistol inGoof Troop, the Robots inCrashbox, Margo Sherman inThe Criticand Todd Daring inThe Replacements. In 2000, she published her autobiography,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy, and four years later, adapted it into aone-woman play. In 2017, she wrote and produced the filmIn Search of Fellini. Early life Nancy Jean Cartwright was born on October 25, 1957,in","October 25, 1957,in Dayton, Ohio,Frank and Miriam Cartwright's fourth of six children.She grew up inKettering, Ohio,and discovered her talent for voices at an early age. While in thefourth gradeat the school of St. Charles Borromeo, she won a school-wide speech competition with her performance ofRudyard Kipling'sHow the Camel Got His Hump.Cartwright attendedFairmont West High School, and participated in the school's theater and marching band. She regularly entered public speaking competitions, placing first in the \"Humorous Interpretation\" category at the National District Tournament two years running. The judges often suggested to her that she should perform cartoon voices. Cartwright graduated from high school in 1976 and accepted a scholarship fromOhio University.She continued to compete in public speaking competitions; during her sophomore year, she placed fifth in the National Speech Tournament's exposition category with her speech \"The Art of Animation\". In 1976, Cartwright landed a part-time job doing","part-time job doing voice-overs for commercials onWINGradio in Dayton.A representative fromWarner Bros. Recordsvisited WING and later sent Cartwright a list of contacts in the animation industry.One of these wasDaws Butler, known for voicing characters such asHuckleberry Hound,Snagglepuss,Elroy Jetson,Spike the Bulldog, andYogi Bear. Cartwright called him and left a message in a Cockney accent on his answering machine.Butler immediately called her back and agreed to be her mentor. He mailed her a script and instructed her to send him a tape recording of herself reading it. Once he received the tape, Butler critiqued it and sent her notes. For the next year, they continued in this way, completing a new script every few weeks. Cartwright described Butler as \"absolutely amazing, always encouraging, always polite\". Cartwright returned toOhio Universityfor her sophomore year, but transferred to theUniversity of California, Los Angeles(UCLA) so she could be closer to Hollywood and Butler.Her mother, Miriam, died","Miriam, died late in the summer of 1978.Cartwright nearly changed her relocation plans but, on September 17, 1978, \"joylessly\" left forWestwood, Los Angeles. Career Early career While attending UCLA, which did not have a public speaking team,Cartwright continued training as a voice actress with Butler. She recalled, \"every Sunday I'd take a 20-minute bus ride to his house inBeverly Hillsfor a one-hour lesson and be there for four hours ... They had four sons, they didn't have a daughter and I kind of fitted in as the baby of the family.\"Butler introduced her to many of the voice actors and directors atHanna-Barbera. After she met the directorGordon Hunt, he asked her to audition for a recurring role as Gloria inRichie Rich. She received the part, and later worked with Hunt on several other projects. At the end of 1980, Cartwright signed with a talent agency and landed a lead role in a pilot for asitcomcalledIn Trouble. Cartwright described the show as \"forgettable, but it jump-started my on-camera","my on-camera career\".She graduated from UCLA in 1981 with a degree in theater.During the summer, Cartwright worked withJonathan Wintersas part of an improvisation troupe atKenyon CollegeinGambier, Ohio. Returning to Los Angeles, Cartwright won the lead role in the television filmMarian Rose White.Janet Maslin, a critic forThe New York Times, described Cartwright as \"a chubby, lumbering, slightlycross-eyedactress whose naturalness adds greatly to the film's impact\".Cartwright replied by sending Maslin a letter insisting she was not cross-eyed, and included a photograph.Later, Cartwright auditioned for the role of Ethel, a girl who becomes trapped in a cartoon world in the third segment ofTwilight Zone: The Movie. She met with directorJoe Danteand later described him as \"a total cartoon buff, and once he took a look at my resume and noticed Daws Butler's name on it, we were off and running, sharing anecdotes about Daws and animation. After about twenty minutes, he said, 'considering your background, I don't","background, I don't see how I could cast anyonebutyou in this part!'\"It was her first role in a feature film.The segment was based onThe Twilight Zonetelevision series episode \"It's a Good Life\", which was later parodied inThe Simpsonsepisode \"Treehouse of Horror II\" (1991). Cartwright continued to do voice work for projects includingPound Puppies,Popeye and Son,Snorks,My Little PonyandSaturday Supercade.She joined a \"loop group\", and recorded vocals for characters in the background of films, although in most cases the sound was turned down so that very little of her voice was heard. She did minor voice-over work for several films, includingThe Clan of the Cave Bear(1986),Silverado(1985),Sixteen Candles(1984),Back to the Future Part II, andThe Color Purple(1985).Cartwright also voiced a shoe that was \"dipped\" in acid inWho Framed Roger Rabbit(1988), describing it as her first \"off-screen death scene\",and worked to correctly convey the emotion involved. Once I had graduated from UCLA, I decided that as long","that as long as I was an actress, I was going to find related work in the industry. There were plenty of opportunities. And fortunately, I am just pushy enough to find and get myself in touch with those who can provide such opportunities. —Nancy Cartwright,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy In 1985, she auditioned for a guest spot as Cynthia inCheers. The audition called for her to say her line and walk off the set. Cartwright decided to take a chance on being different and continued walking, leaving the building and returning home. The production crew was confused, but she received the part.In search of more training as an actress, Cartwright joined a class taught by Hollywood coachMilton Katselas. He recommended that Cartwright studyLa Strada, a 1956 Italian film starringGiulietta Masinaand directed byFederico Fellini. She began performing \"every imaginable scene\" fromLa Stradain her class and spent several months trying to secure the rights to produce a stage adaptation.She visited Italy with the intention of","the intention of meeting Fellini and requesting his permission in person. Although they never met, Cartwright kept a journal of the trip and later wrote a one-woman play calledIn Search of Fellini, partially based on her voyage.The play was co-written by Peter Kjenaas, and Cartwright won aDrama-Logue Awardafter performing it in Los Angeles in 1995. In a 1998 interview, she stated her intention to make it into a feature film,which she succeeded in doing in 2017. The Simpsons Cartwright voices the characterBart Simpsonon the long-running animated television showThe Simpsons. On March 13, 1987, she auditioned for a series of animated shorts about a dysfunctional family that was to appear onThe Tracey Ullman Show, a sketch comedy program. Cartwright had intended to audition for the role ofLisa Simpson, the elder daughter. After arriving at the audition, she found that Lisa was simply described as the middle child and at the time did not have much personality. Cartwright became more interested in the role of","in the role of Bart, described as \"devious, underachieving, school-hating, irreverent, clever\".CreatorMatt Groeninglet her try out for Bart and gave her the job on the spot.Bart's voice came naturally to Cartwright, as she had previously used elements of it inMy Little Pony,Snorks, andPound Puppies.Cartwright describes Bart's voice as easy to perform compared with other characters.The recording of the shorts was often primitive; the dialog was recorded on a portable tape deck in a makeshift studio above the bleachers on the set ofThe Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright, the only cast member to have been professionally trained in voice acting,described the sessions as \"great fun\".However, she wanted to appear in the live-action sketches and occasionally showed up for recording sessions early, hoping to be noticed by a producer. In 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show on theFox networkcalledThe Simpsons. Bart quickly became the show'sbreakout personalityand one of the most celebrated characters on","characters on television—his popularity in 1990 and 1991 was known as \"Bartmania\".Bart was described as \"television's brightest new star\" by Mike Boone ofThe Gazetteand was named 1990's \"entertainer of the year\" byEntertainment Weekly.Despite Bart's fame, however, Cartwright remained relatively unknown. During the first season ofThe Simpsons, Fox ordered Cartwright not to give interviews, because they did not want to publicize the fact that Bart was voiced by a woman.Cartwright's normal speaking voice is said to have \"no obvious traces of Bart\",and she believes her role is \"the best acting job in the world\"since she is rarely recognized in public.When she is recognized and asked to perform Bart's voice in front of children, Cartwright refuses because it \"freaks out\".Bart's catchphrase \"Eat My Shorts\" was an ad-lib by Cartwright in one of the original table readings, referring to an incident from her high school days. Once while performing, members of the Fairmont West High School marching band switched","band switched their chant from the usual \"Fairmont West! Fairmont West!\" to the irreverent \"Eat my shorts!\" Cartwright felt it appropriate for Bart, and improvised the line; it became a popular catchphrase on the show. Cartwright voices several other characters on the show, includingNelson Muntz,Ralph Wiggum,Todd Flanders,Kearney, andDatabase.She first voiced Nelson in the episode \"Bart the General\" (season one, 1990). The character was to be voiced byDana Hill, but Hill missed the recording session and Cartwright was given the role.She developed Nelson's voice on the spot and describes him as \"a throat-ripper\".Ralph Wiggum had originally been voiced byJo Ann Harris, but Cartwright was assigned to voice the character in \"Bart the Murderer\" (season three, 1991).Todd Flanders, the only voice for which Cartwright used another source, is based on Sherman (voiced byWalter Tetley), the boy fromPeabody's Improbable History, a series of shorts aired onThe Rocky and Bullwinkle Show. Cartwright received aPrimetime","received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992 for her performance as Bart in the episode \"Separate Vocations\"and anAnnie Awardin 1995 for Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation.Bart was named one of the100 most important people of the 20th centurybyTime,and in 2000, Bart and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame, located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard. Until 1998, Cartwright was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors and made preparations for casting new actors.The dispute was resolved, however, and Cartwright received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded $360,000 an episode.A compromise was reached after a month,and Cartwright's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.Salaries were re-negotiated in 2008 with the voice actors receiving approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production","unless production costs were cut, Cartwright and the other cast members accepted a 25 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. Further career It is quite a curiosity being a celebrity that nobody knows. I ask you, how many celebrities would younotrecognize were they to walk down the street? ... I can think of no one—besides my fellow cast members and me. The anonymity factor is such a unique aspect of this job. I must admit, sometimes I wish it were different. —Nancy Cartwright,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy In addition to her work onThe Simpsons, Cartwright has voiced many other characters on several animated series, including Chuckie Finster inRugratsandAll Grown Up!, Margo Sherman inThe Critic,MindyinAnimaniacs,andRufusthenaked mole-ratinKim Possible. For the role of Rufus, Cartwright researched mole-rats extensively, and became \"a font of useless trivia\".She was nominated for aDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program in 2004 for her work on the show.In 2001,","the show.In 2001, Cartwright took over theRugratsrole of Chuckie Finster whenChristine Cavanaughretired.Cartwright describes Rufus and Chuckie as her two most difficult voices: \"Rufus because my diaphragm gets a workout while trying to utilize the 18 vocal sounds a mole makes. Chuckie because ... he's an asthmatic with five personalities rolled into one—plus I have to do the voice the way did it for 10 years.\"Other television shows that have used her voice work includeGalaxy High,God, the Devil and Bob,Goof Troop,Mike, Lu & Og,The Replacements,Pinky and the BrainandTimberwolf.Cartwright has appeared on camera in numerous television shows and films, includingFame,Empty Nest,The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air,Flesh and Blood,Godzilla,and24. In 2000, Cartwright published her autobiography,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy. The book details her career (particularly her experiences as the voice of Bart) and contains stories about life behind the scenes ofThe Simpsons.Laura A. Bischoff of theDayton Daily Newscommented that","Newscommented that the book was the \"ultimate insider's guide toThe Simpsons\".Critics complained that the book lacked interesting stories and was aimed mostly at fans ofThe Simpsonsrather than a general audience. Cartwright adaptedMy Life as a 10-Year-Old Boyinto aone-woman playin 2004. Cartwright has performed it at a variety of venues, including the August 2004Edinburgh Festival Fringein Scotland.The play received modest reviews, including criticism for a lack of inside stories aboutThe Simpsons, and its \"overweeningly upbeat\" tone.David Chatterton ofThe British Theatre Guidedescribed the show as \"interesting and entertaining, but not really a 'must see' even for Simpsons fans\". Cartwright has shown an interest instock car racingand as of 2007 was seeking aNASCARlicense.In 2001, she founded a production company called SportsBlast and created an online animated series calledThe Kellys. The series is focused on racing; Cartwright voices a seven-year-old named Chip Kelly. In 2016, Cartwright launched Spotted","launched Spotted Cow Entertainment, her own film and television production company, with Peter Kjenaas, Monica Gil and Kevin Burke. With a focus on international audiences, Spotted Cow is seeking \"to finance, produce and acquire live action and animated films, television series, as well as entertainment for digital platforms with budgets up to $15M.\"With Spotted Cow, Cartwright made her first film as a screenwriter and producer,In Search of Fellini, which was released on September 15, 2017.Based on her own journey toItalyin 1985 in a bid to meet the famed directorFederico Fellini, the film fulfilled Cartwright's longtime vision of turning her 1995 one-woman playIn Search of Felliniinto a film. Personal life Cartwright met real-estate agent Warren Murphy, 24 years her senior, on her birthday in 1988 and married him two months later.In her book, she describes Murphy as her \"personal laugh track\".The couple had two children, Lucy and Jack, before divorcing in 2002. Cartwright was raised aRoman Catholicbut","aRoman Catholicbut joined theChurch of Scientologyin 1991.She was awarded Scientology's Patron Laureate Award after donating $10,000,000, almost twice her annual salary, to the Church in 2007. Cartwright is a contributor toASIFA-Hollywood's Animation Archive Project.In September 2007, Cartwright received theMake-A-Wish Foundation'sWish IconAward \"for her tremendous dedication to the Foundation's fundraising and wish-fulfillment efforts.\"In 2005, Cartwright created ascholarshipat Fairmont High School \"designed to aid Fairmont who dream of following in her footsteps and studying speech, debate, drama or music\" atOhio University.In 2005, Cartwright was given the title of Honorary Mayor ofNorthridge, California(a neighborhood of Los Angeles) by the Northridge Chamber of Commerce. In 2007, Cartwright was in a romantic relationship with contractor Stephen Brackett,a fellow member of Scientology.In early 2008, the couple had made plans to marry,but Brackett died in May 2009. In 2012, Cartwright received an","received an honorary doctorate degree in communication fromOhio University, where she was a student from 1976 to 1977 before transferring to UCLA. Cartwright is also a painter, sculptor and philanthropist. She co-founded the Know More About Drugs alliance. Filmography Live-action Film Television Voice roles Film Animation Video games Music videos Theme parks Web series Producer Other credits Awards References Bibliography External links","Yeardley Smith Martha Maria Yeardley Smith(/ˈjɑːrdli/YARD-lee;born July 3, 1964) is an American actress. She stars as the voice ofLisa Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons. Smith became an actress in 1982 after graduating from drama school. She moved to New York City in 1984, where she appeared in the Broadway production ofTom Stoppard'sThe Real Thing. She made her film debut in 1985'sHeaven Help Us, followed by roles inThe Legend of Billie JeanandMaximum Overdrive. She moved to Los Angeles in 1986 and took a recurring role in the television seriesBrothers. In 1987, Smith auditioned for theSimpsonsshorts onThe Tracey Ullman Show. Smith intended to audition for the role ofBart Simpson, but the casting director felt her voice was too high, and she was cast as Bart's sister Lisa. In 1989, the shorts werespun offinto their own half-hour show,The Simpsons. For her work onThe Simpsons, Smith received aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992. AlongsideThe Simpsons, Smith","Simpsons, Smith appeared in the sitcomHerman's Headas Louise, and had recurring appearances as Marlene onDharma & Gregand as Penny in two episodes ofDead Like Me. She has appeared in several films, includingCity Slickers,Just Write,Toys, andAs Good as It Gets. In 2004, Smith performed anoff-Broadwayone-woman show entitledMoreat theUnion Square Theatrein New York City. Aside fromThe Simpsons, Smith has recorded few voice-over parts, only commercials and the filmWe're Back! A Dinosaur's Story. Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedyWaiting For Ophelia, which had its world premiere at thePhoenix Film Festivalin April 2009. Early life Smith was born on July 3, 1964, inParis, France. Her father, Joseph Smith, worked forUnited Press Internationalin Paris and moved to Washington, D.C., in 1966, where he becameThe Washington Post's first official obituary editor.Her mother, Martha Mayor, was apaper conservatorfor theFreerandSackler Galleriesat theSmithsonian","theSmithsonian Institution.Smith's parents later divorced.Her maternal grandfather was art historianA. Hyatt Mayor, and among her great-grandparents were marine biologist and zoologistAlpheus Hyattand artist and sculptorHarriet Randolph Hyatt Mayor.She is also the paternal niece of political scientist, historian, andLatin American studiesspecialistPeter H. Smith.Smith has labeled her family \"upper crust and reserved\".As a child, Smith was often teased because of her unusual voice.Smith has stated: \"I've sounded pretty much the same way since I was six. Maybe a little deeper now.\"She made her acting debut in a sixth-grade play. Career Early career Smith became a professional actress in 1982.After appearances in a number of school plays, she joined the localArena Stagetheater group on an apprenticeship, featuring in their production ofPeter Pan. She went on to star in several other plays in Washington.She moved to New York City in 1984 and appeared in the Broadway production ofTom Stoppard's playThe Real","playThe Real ThingalongsideJeremy IronsandGlenn Close. Smith's first film role came inHeaven Help Us(1985).She then played Putter inThe Legend of Billie Jean(also 1985). The film was abox office bomband critically panned, although Smith \"thought it would be the movie that launched my career. And then it was out at the box office about 10 days before it died.\"When filming was over, she rejoinedThe Real Thingbefore being out of work for six months. Smith worried her career was over.However, the following year, she played Connie inStephen King'sMaximum Overdrive(1986), noting it was \"truly a dreadful film, but I had a great part in it.\" Smith moved to Los Angeles in 1986 on the \"semi-promise\" of a part in a TV film.After the audition, the role was given to another actress. Smith realized \"that people don't mean what they say. It's not malicious. They just don't realize how much impact they have on an impressionable actor – and all actors are impressionable.\" From then on, she decided to \"just sort of build a","sort of build a wall around myself\", to cope with the disappointment of not getting a part.In Los Angeles, Smith appeared in theatrical productions ofLiving on Salvation Street, for which she was paid $14 for each performance,Boys and Girls/Men and Women, andHow the Other Half Loves, and played the recurring role of Louella Waters on theShowtimeseriesBrothers.She appeared in the filmsThe Legend of Billie JeanandGinger Ale Afternoon(1989) as \"trailer-park girls\".She later spoke of her regrets of appearing in the latter in her one-woman showMore. The Simpsons It's a happy fluke. When she was cast back in 1987, I just liked the sound of her voice. She's also a great actress. In general, people who make their living doing voices on cartoons aren't always great for us. Most cartoons want things peppy and cartoony. Yeardley is able to go through moments of great emotion and wring it for all she's worth. —Matt Groeningon Smith's vocal style Smith's longest-running role is voicingLisa SimpsononThe Simpsons. She has","Simpsons. She has voiced Lisa since 1987, beginning withThe Simpsons shortsonThe Tracey Ullman Show. Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Lisa's brotherBart, but casting directorBonita Pietilathought her voice was too high. Smith later recalled \"I always sounded too much like a girl, I read two lines as Bart and they said, 'Thanks for coming!'\"Smith was given the role of Lisa, instead. She denies rumors that she almost turned down the role, though admits she had never planned a career in voice-over work.Pietila stated that, having seen her inLiving on Salvation Street,Smith was always her preferred choice.Smith lifts her voice up slightly to perform the role.Lisa is the only regular character voiced by Smith, although in some earlier episodes, she provided some ofMaggie's squeaks and occasional speaking parts.Smith has only voiced characters other than Lisa on very rare occasions, with those characters usually being some derivative of Lisa, such as Lisa Bella in \"Last Tap Dance in","\"Last Tap Dance in Springfield\" and Lisa, Jr. in \"Missionary: Impossible\" (both fromseason 11in 2000).Smith spends two days a week recording the show. Until 1998, Smith was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing to cast new voices.However, the dispute was soon resolved and she received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 per episode.The issue was resolved a month later,and Smith earned $250,000 per episode.After salary renegotiations in 2008, the voice actors received about $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Smith and the other cast members accepted a 25% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. Despite her world-famous role, Smith is rarely recognized in public, which she does not mind, saying, \"it's wonderful to be in the midst of all this hype about the","this hype about the show, and people enjoying the show so much, and to be totally afly on the wall; people never recognise me solely from my voice.\"In a 2009 interview withThe Guardian, she commented: \"It's the best job ever. I have nothing but gratitude for the amount of freedomThe Simpsonshas bought me in my life.\" Smith received aPrimetime Emmy Awardin 1992, but felt it was not worth anything, saying \"there's part of me that feels it wasn't even a real Emmy.\" The Emmy forOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceis aCreative Artsand not handed out during the primetime telecast and, prior to 2009, was a juried award without nominations.However, Smith says \"if I had to be associated with one character in fiction, I will always be thrilled that it was Lisa Simpson.\"The show's creatorMatt Groeninghas called Smith very similar to Lisa: \"Yeardley has strong moral views about her character. There are lines that are written for Lisa that Yeardley reads and says, 'No, I wouldn't say that.'\"WriterJay Kogenpraised her","Kogenpraised her performance on the show, particularly in the episode \"Lisa's Substitute\", as able \"to move past comedy to something really strong and serious and dramatic\". Further career From 1991 to 1994, alongsideThe Simpsons, Smith was one of the lead cast members in the sitcomHerman's Headas Louise.Her other television roles include recurring appearances as Marlene onDharma & Greg, and Penny in two episodes ofDead Like Me. Smith has also appeared inPhil of the FutureandTeen Angel.Her one-scene role as pregnant checkout girl Nancy in 1991'sCity Slickersearned her \"more attention than all previous roles combined\", and taught her \"that it's far better to have small parts in big movies that everyone sees.\"In 1997, she appeared as Lulu the palm reader in the independent filmJust Write.Her other roles include parts inBarry Levinson'sToysandJames L. Brooks'As Good as It Gets.Brooks, who is also executive producer ofThe Simpsons, had cast Smith in his 1994 filmI'll Do Anything(in one of the film's musical","the film's musical numbers), but her part was cut.Aside fromThe Simpsons, Smith has recorded few voice-over parts, only commercials and the filmWe're Back! A Dinosaur's Story. She \"had a voice-over agent for about two years, and I used to go out all the time, but it never really came to anything. Everybody said, 'Oh Yeardley, you'll clean up,' and that was definitely not the case.\" In 2004, Smith performed her own off-Broadway one-woman show entitledMoreat theUnion Square Theatrein New York City. Directed byJudith Ivey,the play is about her mixed feelings over the success ofThe Simpsons, her parents, her relationships, and her struggles withbulimia.The New York Timescritic Margo Jefferson called it an \"appealing if overlong show\", adding that \"The career narrative needed shortening. This would involve some editing and revising but wouldn't taint the best parts ofMore.It is refreshing to hear a celebrity talk cleanly about being fame-driven and about not getting the degree or the kind of fame you craved.","of fame you craved. It's fun to watch a skilled actress use her craft to the full.\"She would later perform the play for three weeks in Los Angeles the following year. Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedyWaiting for Ophelia, which was released in 2009. She funded the film, which was written by Adam Carl and based on a stage play he wrote in 2003. She said: \"I loved it. I never get to play parts like that. I always play the friend of a friend, never the lead. And the script surprised me.\" Carl stated it was very unlikely she would recoup her money, but Smith decided she \"believe in this project, and my expectations have already been fulfilled by making the movie\", and added: \"You can support art even if it's not going to make a zillion dollars.\"It premiered on April 4, 2009, at thePhoenix Film Festival. In 2011, Smith starred as Ms. Miller in the movieThe ChaperonealongsideTriple HandAriel Winter. In June 2016, theHuman Rights Campaignreleased a video in tribute","a video in tribute to the victims of theOrlando nightclub shooting; in the video, Smith and others told the stories of the people killed there.On March 30, 2019, Smith was honored with the Human Rights Campaign's National Leadership Award in Los Angeles for her work as an advocate of theLGBT community. In 2017, Smith started a podcast,Small Town Dicks, which explores real life crime in small towns in the United States.Smith had co-hosted the podcast with actress and long-time friend Zibby Allen until March 2019 when the two filed lawsuits against one another, with Allen accusing Smith of pushing her out of ownership and profit rights from the show. Politics Smith is a lifelongDemocrat. In 2018, Smith mockedRepublicanTed Cruzafter he labeled the Democratic Party as \"the party ofLisa Simpson\".Smith recommended that people of differing political views should be able to work together ongun control, promotinggay rightsandenvironmentalism. Personal life Smith marriedEnglish-Canadianactor Christopher Grove in 1990.","Grove in 1990. They were divorced in 1992, citing irreconcilable differences. In a 1997 interview withThe Daily Targum, Smith stated \"I am shy, but I have an extroverted persona which I can draw on when I need to,\" and that she is a \"private\" actress. She married Daniel Erickson in 2002; the marriage lasted for six years and Smith filed for divorce on May 21, 2008, citing irreconcilable differences. In 2009, she commented, \"People have said to me that I'm unassuming. It's true, I'm the worst celebrity ever. But I'm trying to become better.\" Smith hadbulimiawhen she was a teenager. She noted \"It would make me high, I would feelendorphinsand this great sense of victory.\" Smith enjoys writing and painting. During the first season ofHerman's Head, Smith taught herself to paint by copying other artists.The bookJust Humor Meincludes a story, \"The Race\", written by Smith.She has written a children's book,I, Lorelei, which was published byHarperCollinsin February 2009. In 2011, Smith launched a women's shoe line","a women's shoe line called Marchez Vous. In November 2021, Yeardley was noted for producing a podcast on themurder of Sheila Anderson, one of Scotland's most notorious unsolved murders. On June 11, 2022, Smith married one of the co-hosts of her podcast,Small Town Dicks, Detective (Ret) Dan Grice. She met him while he was providing personal security for her during aSimpsonsevent. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Theme park Podcasts References External links","Hank Azaria Henry Albert\"Hank\"Azaria(/əˈzɛəriə/ə-ZAIR-ee-ə; born April 25, 1964) is an American actor. He is known for voicing many characters in the long-running animated sitcomThe Simpsonssince 1989, includingMoe Szyslak,Chief Wiggum,Superintendent Chalmers,Comic Book Guy,Snake Jailbird,Professor Frink,Kirk Van Houten,Duffman,Apu Nahasapeemapetilon,Lou,Carl Carlson, among others. Azaria joined the show with little voice acting experience, but became a regular in itssecond season. For his work on the show, he has won fourPrimetime Emmy Awards. Alongside his continued voice acting onThe Simpsons, Azaria became more widely known through his live-action supporting appearances in films such asQuiz Show(1994),Heat,The Birdcage(1996) (for which he won aScreen Actors Guild Award) andGodzilla(1998). He has also appeared in numerous films includingMystery Men(1999),America's Sweethearts(2001),Shattered Glass(2003),Along Came Polly(2004),Run Fatboy Run(2007),Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian(2009) andThe","andThe Smurfs(2011) andThe Smurfs 2(2013). Further voice roles includeAnastasia(1997), for which he won anAnnie Award. His live-action television work includes recurring roles on the sitcomsMad About YouandFriends, as well as dramatic roles in the TV filmsTuesdays With Morrie(1999) as writerMitch AlbomandUprising(2001) as Jewish resistance leaderMordechai Anielewicz. For the former, Azaria received thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie. He starred in the title roles in theShowtimedrama seriesHuff(2004–2006) and theIFCsitcomBrockmire(2017–2020). His recurring role on the dramaRay Donovanearned him a sixth Primetime Emmy Award in 2016. Azaria made hisBroadwaydebut asLancelotinSpamalot, for which he was nominated for theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He returned to Broadway in 2007, playing David Sarnoff inThe Farnsworth Invention. Early life and education Henry Albert Azaria was born in theManhattanborough ofNew York Cityon April 25, 1964 to Ruth and","1964 to Ruth and Albert Azaria.He began going by the name \"Hank\" as a child, after a pediatrician he visited said he felt it was a more suitable name for a child than \"Henry\".His grandparents on both sides wereSephardic Jewsfrom the Greek city ofThessaloniki. His family spokeLadino, also known as Judaeo-Spanish, which he described as \"a strange, antiquated Spanish dialect written inHebrewcharacters.\"Azaria's father ran several dress-manufacturing businesses while his mother raised him and his two older sisters, Stephanie and Elise.Before marrying his father, Azaria's mother had been a publicist forColumbia Pictures, promoting films in Latin American countries as she was fluent in both English and Spanish.During his childhood, Azaria would often \"memorize and mimic\" the scripts of films, shows, and stand-up comedy routines he enjoyed. Azaria attendedThe Kew-Forest Schoolin Queens'Forest Hillsneighborhood.He decided to become an actor after performing in a school play at the age of 16, becoming \"obsessed with","\"obsessed with acting\" at the expense of his academic studies.Both of his parents loved all forms of show business, which further spurred him to become an actor.He studied drama atTufts Universityfrom 1981 to 1985,where he met and befriended actorOliver Plattand noted that Platt was a \"better actor\" than he was and inspired him.Together they starred in various college stage productions, includingThe Merchant of Venice,before Azaria went to train at theAmerican Academy of Dramatic Arts.Although he did not expect the endeavor to be successful, he decided to become a professional actor so that he would not regret not having tried later in life.His first acting job was an advertisement for Italian television when he was 17 years old.He also worked as abusboy.He originally intended to work predominantly as a theatrical actor, and he and Platt set up a company called Big Theatre, althoughHarold Pinter'sThe Dumb Waiterwas the only show they ever performed.Azaria decided that television was a better arena and","a better arena and offered more opportunity, and moved toLos Angelesafter being offered work with talent agent Harry Gold. Career Early career (1986–1988) Azaria got along with talent agent Harry Gold, who was lukewarm about working with him but still sent him out for auditions after a woman Azaria had worked with in New York \"got really furious with \" for breaking his promise to work with Azaria.He made his television debut with a role in the pilot episode of the 1986ABCcomedy-drama seriesJoe Bash.His part—a one-line role as the police officer Maldonado—was edited out before the show was broadcast, although the role secured him admission to theScreen Actors Guild.Azaria appeared in the TV filmNitti: The Enforcer, about the gangsterFrank Nitti, and appeared in the failed pilotMorning MaggiealongsideMatthew Perry, with whom he became good friends.He played Joe in an episode of the sitcomFamily Tiesin 1988 in which he had one line, and the following year he played Steve Stevenson in an episode ofGrowing","episode ofGrowing Pains.Azaria has described his career progression as being gradual; he did not achieve overnight recognition or fame.In Los Angeles, Azaria was trained by acting coachRoy London.Between acting jobs he performed as a stand-up comedian,and worked as a bartender for a catering firm. The Simpsons(since 1989) Azaria is known for his voice work in the ongoing animated television seriesThe Simpsons. He joined the show having previously performed only one voice-over—as the titular animated dog in the failedFoxpilotHollywood Dog, a show he described as \"sort ofRoger Rabbit-esque, where the dog was animated, but everybody else was real.\"The first voice he performed onThe Simpsonswas that of town bartenderMoe Szyslak, replacingChristopher Collinswho had initially recorded the character's voice. Having known him fromHollywood Dog, casting directorBonita Pietilacalled Azaria and asked him to audition for the voice of Moe.At the time he was performing the role of a drug dealer in a play, utilizing a","a play, utilizing a voice based onAl Pacino's performance in the filmDog Day Afternoon. He used the voice in his audition forThe Simpsonsand, at the request of the show's executive producersMatt GroeningandSam Simon, made the voice more \"gravelly\". Groening and Simon thought the resultant voice was ideal for Moe and took Azaria over to the Fox recording studio. Before he had even seen a script, he recorded several lines of dialogue as Moe for the episode \"Some Enchanted Evening\",dubbingCollins' voice. Azaria did not expect to hear from the show again, but they continued to call him back, first to perform the voice ofChief Wiggumand thenApu Nahasapeemapetilon.He felt that, initially, \" didn't seem too pleased with what I had done... was very exacting... was kind of impatiently directing me on the ABCs of comedy. But then, much to my surprise, he would still keep having me back every week. But each week, I thought it was going to be my last week because I really didn't think I had done that well.\"Nevertheless,","well.\"Nevertheless, by the show'ssecond seasonhe was performing multiple recurring voices and so was given a contract and made a permanent member of the main cast.Since he joined later than the rest of the cast, Groening still considered Azaria the \"new guy\".In addition to Moe, Wiggum and Apu, Azaria provides the voices ofComic Book Guy,Carl Carlson(until season 32, now voiced byAlex Désert),Cletus Spuckler,Professor Frink, Dr.Nick Riviera,Lou,Snake Jailbird,Kirk Van Houten,Bumblebee Man,the Sea Captain,Superintendent Chalmers,Disco Stu,Duffman,the Wiseguy, and numerous guest characters.His co-star inThe Simpsons,Nancy Cartwright, wrote that: \"The thing about Hank that I most remember is that he started out so unassuming and then, little by little, his abilities were revealed and his contributions to the show escalated. I realized Hank was going to be our breakaway star.\" As Moe's voice is based on Al Pacino's, likewise many of Azaria's other recurring characters are based on existing sources. He took Apu's","He took Apu's voice from the many Indian and Pakistani convenience store workers in Los Angeles that he had interacted with when he first moved to the area, and also loosely based it onPeter Sellers' character Hrundi V. Bakshi from the filmThe Party.Originally, it was thought that Apu being Indian was too offensive and stereotyped, but after Azaria's reading of the line \"Hello, Mr. Homer\", which the show's producers thought was hilarious, the character stayed.Azaria, however, disputed this onLateNet withRay Ellin, claiming that Apu was always intended to be stereotypical.Chief Wiggum's voice was originally a parody ofDavid Brinkley, but when Azaria was told it was too slow, he switched it to that ofEdward G. Robinson.Officer Lou is based onSylvester Stallone,and Dr. Nick is \"a badRicky Ricardoimpression.\"The \"Wise Guy\" voice is \"basicallyCharles Bronson,\"while Carl is \"a silly voice always did.\"Two of the voices come from his time at college: Snake's is based on Azaria's old college roommate, while Comic","while Comic Book Guy's voice is based on a student who lived in the room next door to Azaria and went by the name \"F\".Professor Frink is based onJerry Lewis' performance in the originalThe Nutty Professor, and the Sea Captain is based on English actorRobert Newton's portrayal of many pirates.Azaria based his performance for the one-time characterFrank Grimes, from the episode \"Homer's Enemy\", on actorWilliam H. Macy. He counts Grimes as the hardest, most emotional performance he has ever had to give in the history ofThe Simpsons. Azaria's work on the show has won him four Emmy Awards forOutstanding Voice-Over Performance, in 1998, 2001, 2003 and 2015. He was also nominated for the award in 2009 and 2010, but lost to co-starDan Castellanetaand guest starAnne Hathawayrespectively. He was nominated again in 2012.Azaria, with the rest of the principal cast, reprised all of his voice roles fromThe Simpsonsfor the 2007 filmThe Simpsons Movie.Azaria notes that he spends \"an embarrassingly small amount of time","amount of time working onThe Simpsons.\"He works for \"an hour on Thursdays when we read through the script, then four hours on Monday when we record it, and I'll pop in again once or twice.\"He concludes it is \"the best job in the world, as far as I'm concerned.\" Up until 1998, Azaria was paid $30,000 per episode. Azaria and the five other mainThe Simpsonsvoice actors were then involved in a pay dispute in which Fox threatened to replace them with new actors and went as far as preparing for the casting of new voices. However, the issue was soon resolved and from 1998 to 2004, they received $125,000 per episode. In 2004, the voice actors intentionally skipped several scriptread-throughs, demanding they be paid $360,000 per episode.The strike was resolved a month later,with Azaria's pay increasing to something between $250,000and $360,000 per episode.In 2008, production for thetwentieth seasonwas put on hold due to new contract negotiations with the voice actors, who wanted a \"healthy bump\" in salary.The dispute","salary.The dispute was later resolved, and Azaria and the rest of the cast received their requested pay raise, approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Azaria and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. In an April 24, 2018 appearance onThe Late Show with Stephen Colbert, Azaria discussed his reaction toThe Problem with Apu, a 2017 documentary byHari Kondaboluthat examined Azaria and other white actors who had playedSouth Asianroles asstereotypes.During the interview, Azaria described how watching the documentary had changed his perspective on the issue: \"The idea that anyone, young or old, past or present, was bullied or teased based on the character of Apu, it just really makes me sad.\"Azaria also offered to stop voicing the character: \"I'm perfectly willing and happy to step aside, or help transition it into something new.\"In response, Kondabolu tweeted his","tweeted his appreciation for Azaria's statement: \"Thank you, @HankAzaria. I appreciate what you said & how you said it.\" In early 2020, Azaria announced that he was stepping away from the Apu character, primarily because of the stereotypes and bias it perpetuated.Later in the year he would retire from voicing Carl for similar reasons.In April 2021, Azaria formally apologized for voicing the Apu character, onDax Shepherd's podcast. Further career (since 1991) Television work With the continuing success ofThe Simpsons, Azaria began taking on other, principally live-action roles. He was a main cast member on the showHerman's Head(1991–1994) playing Jay Nichols, alongsideThe Simpsonsco-starYeardley Smith.He regularly recorded forThe Simpsonsand filmedHerman's Headduring the same day.Following the series' cancellation Azaria unsuccessfully auditioned for the role ofJoey Tribbiani, one of the lead characters in the sitcomFriends.He was instead cast in the role of the scientist David, one ofPhoebe Buffay's","ofPhoebe Buffay's boyfriends in the series. He appeared in the show's tenth episode \"The One with the Monkey\", before the character left for a research trip inMinsk. He reprised the role in the show'sseventh season(2001), before making several appearances in theninth(2003). This return culminates in David proposing to Phoebe; she rejects him, and David leaves the show for good.From 1995 to 1999, Azaria had a recurring role in the sitcomMad About Youas Nat Ostertag, the dog walker.Azaria was nominated for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor his roles in bothMad About You(in 1998) andFriends(in 2003).Azaria had the lead role in the short-lived sitcomIf Not For Youin 1995, playing record producer Craig Schaeffer. Azaria produced and starred in the sitcomImagine Thatin 2002, replacingEmerilmid-season in theNBClineup. He played Josh Miller, a comedy writer, who \"transformed\" each episode into a character Miller has imagined, \"provid a humorous outlet for his frustrations at","his frustrations at home and work\".Production closed after five episodes and it was canceled after just two aired, due to poor critical reaction and ratings.Azaria later commented on the show: \"I wanted to do something really truthful and interesting and impactful. We had a bunch of executives sitting in the room, all agreeing thatThe Larry Sanders Showwas our favorite thing on television, but we couldn't do it on NBC, and nor would we want to from a business standpoint; it simply wouldn't make enough money. By the time it aired, the writing was sort of on the wall, and I don't blame them at all. It was apparent it wasn't working.\" He starred aspsychiatristCraig \"Huff\" Huffstodt in theShowtimedrama seriesHuff, which ran for two seasons between 2004 and 2006, airing 24 episodes.Azaria served as an executive producer on the show and directed an episode of its second season.After reading the pilot script, he sent it to Platt, who took the role of Huff's friend Russell Tupper.Azaria enjoyed working on the","working on the show,but struggled with the bleak subject matter and was often in dispute with its creator Bob Lowry, noting that it \"was tough to marry our visions all the time, we both cared so much about it that neither of us were willing to let go.\"Gillian FlynnofEntertainment Weeklycalled Azaria \"impressively subtle\" in the role,whileJohn LeonardofNew York magazinesaid he was a \"shrewd bit of casting.\"The show garnered sevenEmmynominations in 2005, including a nomination for Azaria forOutstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.Despite the awards, the show continually received low ratings, and Showtime chose not to commission it for a third season. Returning to live-action television in 2011, Azaria starred in the NBC sitcomFree Agents, a remake of the Britishseries of the same name. He played Alex Taylor, a recently divorced public relations executive \"who is missing his kids and trying to keep himself together\", and ends up sleeping with a co-worker (Kathryn Hahn).Azaria also served as a producer on the","a producer on the show.He was apprehensive about the project, disliking the lengthy schedule required of a lead actor in a single-camera series, and favoring the \"sensibility\" of cable shows. However, he liked the script and executive producer John Enbom's previous seriesParty Downand decided to accept the part.Despite Azaria mounting a campaign on Twitter to save it,the series was canceled after four episodes due to low ratings.Between 2014 and 2016, Azaria had a recurring role in the second, third and fourth season of Showtime'sRay Donovan, playingFBIagent Ed Cochran.He won the Emmy forOutstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Seriesfor his work on the show in 2016, as well as earning a further nomination the same category the following year. Azaria starred in theIFCseriesBrockmire, which ran for four seasons from 2017-2020.He played the lead role of Jim Brockmire, a legendary baseball announcer, fired for a profanity-filled breakdown live on air after discovering his wife was having an affair. Azaria based the","Azaria based the voice and style of Brockmire on several veteran sportscasters, includingBob MurphyandPhil Rizzuto.The character originated as part of the third episode of theFunny or Dieweb-seriesGamechangers, entitled \"A Legend in the Booth\", which Azaria also co-wrote.He subsequently appeared as Brockmire on theNFL Network'sThe Rich Eisen Podcastto discuss theNational Football League.In November 2012, Azaria sued actorCraig Bierkoover the ownership of the Brockmire voice.The case was ruled in Azaria's favor in 2014. Both actors had been using a baseball announcer voice before and since meeting at a party in 1990, but US district judgeGary Allen Feessruled that only Azaria's voice was, as Brockmire, a defined, \"tangible\" character and thus subject to copyright.In 2016, IFC confirmed development on the series, on which Azaria also served as an executive producer.Azaria received three nominations for theCritics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor his performance on the series. Film","on the series. Film work \" appeal can best be summed up by, of all things, his hilarious cameo in the goofy comedyDodgeball. As Patches O'Houlihan, the dodgeball champion who will age into the magnificently gruffRip Torn, he delivers a pitch-perfect performance in an instructional video in which he chain-smokes, encourages a child to pick on those weaker than him, and steals the film from a cast of comedic greats. It's a wonderful, odd moment that could have failed miserably in the hands of a lesser actor, and he manages to pull it off with only seconds of dialogue. In my humble opinion, and using my limited knowledge of boxing terms: Pound for pound, Hank Azaria is the best actor working today.\" —Playwright Jenelle Riley on Azaria. Azaria made his film debut in the direct-to-video releaseCool Blue(1990), as Buzz.His first theatrically released feature film appearance came the same year inPretty Woman, as a police detective named Albertson.His next major film role was as television producerAlbert Freedmanin","Freedmanin the 1994 filmQuiz Show, which was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.In 1996, Azaria played gay Guatemalan housekeeper Agador Spartacus in the filmThe Birdcage. For the role, which Azaria considers to be his \"big break\",he was nominated for theScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role,and critically branded \"the most hilarious performance in the film,\" by Alison Macor ofThe Austin Chronicle,whileEmpirewrote that he \" the show.\"For the role he used a Guatemalan accent, and made himself sound as effeminate as possible. He had chosen two possible voices, an effeminate one and a tougher one. After advice from a drag queen, he chose the effeminate voice. Three weeks into production, he realized he sounded exactly like his grandmother, which aided his performance.Agador was originally going to be a single scene part, with the larger role of the housekeeper being played byDavid Alan Grier. With the producers fearing the racial connotations of","connotations of a black actor in such a part, Azaria inherited the full role. He appeared in numerous other films in the late 1990s, includingHeat(1995),Grosse Pointe Blank(1997),Celebrity(1998) and worked oppositeGwyneth Paltrow, as Walter Plane, in the 1998 adaptation ofGreat Expectations.He played photographer Victor \"Animal\" Palotti inGodzilla(1998).Godzillawas one of Azaria's first starring roles in ablockbusterfilm. Its five-month shoot was the longest of his career to date, but he considered it a good chance to boost his profile. He noted, \"I'm so used to melding into every character I play. Even people in the business think the guy who didBirdcage,Quiz ShowandGreat Expectationsare three different actors—which in a way makes me proud, but in another way is very frustrating. It's the curse and blessing of the character actor\".The shoot's physical challenges, and the film's critical failure, led Azaria to later describe it as \"tough to make, and very disappointing when it came out. It was one you","out. It was one you definitely chalk up and say, 'That was part of paying your dues, better luck next time'.\"In 1999, he starred in the dramaMystery, Alaskaas Charles Danner, and the comedy superhero filmMystery Men, as the faux-British silverware throwing expert The Blue Raja.Other film roles included Hector Gorgonzolas inAmerica's Sweethearts(2001), Claude inAlong Came Polly(2004), and the young Patches O'Houlihan inDodgeBall: A True Underdog Story(2004), the latter two withBen Stiller.For his role of Claude, a French scuba instructor, inAlong Came Polly, Azaria donned a wig and worked out extensively to get into the physical shape the part required. Azaria played composerMarc BlitzsteininTim Robbins' filmCradle Will Rockin 1999.Paul Clintonwrote that Azaria was \"brilliant as the tortured (is there any other kind) artist Blitzstein.\"The same year he appeared as author and journalistMitch AlbomalongsideJack Lemmonin the television filmTuesdays with Morrie,winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding","for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Moviefor the role.Azaria described the latter as the \"best work done.\"These were two of the first dramatic roles Azaria had taken; throughout his career, Azaria has primarily worked in comedy,but tries to balance the two.Azaria commented: \"all the roles I got were in comedy at first, and I was certainly happy to get those, so I never felt the lack of being considered a dramatic actor because I was so happy to get what I got. And then I became surprised later on when I got dramatic roles. But I never went, 'OK, now it's time to get a dramatic role.'\"His next dramatic part was in the television filmUprisingin 2001. The film was based on the 1943Warsaw Ghetto Uprisingand Azaria playedMordechaj Anielewicz, one of the revolt's leaders. Azaria was confused by his casting inUprisingand frequently asked the film's producer and directorJon Avnetwhy he was selected. \"I know liked the fact I was Jewish, and he knew I could do accents well. He cast me andDavid","He cast me andDavid Schwimmerin , and we were both sort of mystified. He had some instinct that he wanted people who were more known for being funny. He never explained it satisfactorily to me; I don't understand why.\"His parts inTuesdays With MorrieandUprisingaffected him, causing a depressive state which he countered with DVDs of the comedy seriesMonty Python.Azaria foundUprisingto be \"very difficult very depressing very emotionally challenging\" material.In 2003, Azaria played journalistMichael Kelly, the former editor ofThe New Republic, in the drama filmShattered Glass. Kelly died a few months before the film was released and Azaria said the film \"has become a weird kind of eulogy to him.\" SinceHuff's conclusion in 2006, Azaria has continued to make multiple film appearances. He played the smooth-talking Whit inDavid Schwimmer's directorial debutRun Fatboy Run(2007). During production he became good friends with co-starSimon Pegg, performingThe Simpsonsvoices on request, frequently distracting Pegg when","Pegg when he was supposed to be filming.He worked with Stiller again on 2009'sNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonianin which Azaria played the villainous pharaoh Kah Mun Rah, utilizing aBoris Karloffaccent.Although the film received mixed reviews, critics praised Azaria's performance.Perry Seibert ofTV Guidewrote that \"thanks to Azaria, a master of comic timing. His grandiose, yet slightly fey bad guy is equally funny when he's chewing out minions as he is when deliberating ifOscar the GrouchandDarth Vaderare evil enough to join his team.\"He appeared asAbrahaminYear One(2009),Dr. Knight in 2010'sLove & Other Drugs,and playedDeep ThroatdirectorGerard DamianoinLovelace(2013). Azaria playedGargamelin the animated/live-action adaptation ofThe Smurfs(2011).Azaria wore a prosthetic nose, ears,buck teeth, eyebrows and a wig, as well as shaving his head. He spent approximately 130 hours in the make-up chair over the course of the production.Azaria considered Gargamel's voice to be the most important part of","important part of his performance. The producers wanted an \"old, failed, Shakespearean actor\" voice, but Azaria felt this would lack energy and wanted something more Eastern European. He eventually selected a voice similar to that ofPaul Winchell's from the cartoon.Azaria disliked the cartoon when it first aired, and considered Gargamel too one-dimensional a character and \"just this straight villain\";he opted to make Gargamel \"more sarcastic\" than in the cartoon, but \"discovered that there's no way to play Gargamel without screaming your head off at certain points – ramping him up and getting him very upset over Smurfs\".He interpreted him as \"very lonely\", adding that \"he hates the Smurfs because they're such a happy family. He wants in really badly. I think he wants to be embraced as a Smurf\".Azaria worked with the writers to \"infuse\" the script with some of his ideas about the character, \"particularly with the 'married' relationship between Gargamel and Azreal \" which Azaria conceived. Reviewers fromThe","Reviewers fromThe San Francisco ChronicleandThe Boston Globecommented on Azaria's \"overacting\" in the role of Gargamel.More positive reaction came from Scott Bowles ofUSA Todaycalled Azaria the \"human standout\";Betsy Sharkey of theLos Angeles Timesfelt he suffered the \"greatest disservice\" of the film's cast due to a poor script.Azaria noted in an interview withThe A.V. ClubthatThe SmurfsandNight at the Museumwere films he agreed to do primarily for the money, but that \"I won't even do that unless I think it will at least be fun to do...I really try to throw myself into it, figure out the funniest, cleverest way to get the material over, and make it fun to do and fun to watch.\"Azaria reprised his role in the 2013 sequelThe Smurfs 2.In 2016, Azaria starred inNormanwithRichard Gere. Further voice work Azaria performed a number of voice roles in addition toThe Simpsons, although he noted in 2005: \"I started doing other voiceovers for cartoons for a couple of years, but I didn't really love it. I was spoiled","it. I was spoiled byThe Simpsons.\"He voicedEddie Brock/VenominSpider-Man: The Animated Seriesbetween 1994 and 1996.In the animated featureAnastasia(1997), he voiced Bartok the bat and reprised the role in the direct-to-video prequelBartok the Magnificent(1999).For his performance inAnastasia, Azaria won theAnnie Awardfor Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Male Performer in an Animated Feature Production.He also voiced Eric in the American dub of the seriesStressed Eric,Harold Zoid in the 2001Futuramaepisode \"That's Lobstertainment!\",andAbbie HoffmanandAllen GinsberginChicago 10(2007).For the 2011 filmHop, Azaria voiced Carlos and Phil. The response to the film was mostly negative, but many reviewers praised Azaria's performance.For example, Sandie Chen ofThe Washington Postsaid \"Azaria has been honing his over-the-top Spanish accent sinceThe Birdcage, so anything he says grabs some laughs\",while Emma Simmonds ofTime Outcalled him an \"unflappable presence, voicing two characters with","two characters with style\".Later in the year he voiced The Mighty Sven inHappy Feet Two.He also voiced the lead character, Texanborder agentBud Buckwald, inBordertown, which aired in 2016,as well as Shelfish Sheldon inMack & Moxythe same year. OnceThe Simpsonswas \"going steadily\" and Azaria had enough money to live on, he stopped working on commercials as he found them \"demoralizing\", feeling that he sounded sarcastic whenever he read for them. When recording the part of \"Jell-O Man\" for aJell-Ocommercial, he was told to make the voice he offered \"more likable and friendly so that children like him.\" After pointing out that \"Jell-O Man\" was a fictional character, he left and pledged to never record for an advertisement again.However, in 2012 he voiced several insects in a commercial for theChevrolet Sonic. Other work Azaria wrote and directed the 2004 short filmNobody's Perfect, which won the Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Short at theUS Comedy Arts Festival.In January 2007, he was confirmed to be","was confirmed to be directingOutsourced,a film about two American workers who journey to get their jobs back, after their factory is moved to Mexico.In 2009, Azaria toldEmpirehe was instead focusing on making a documentary about fatherhood.Two years later he told theLos Angeles Timesthat this project was \"half-complete\" and was \"forever looking for financing to finish it.\"It eventually began in 2014, airing onAOLas an online series titledFatherhood. According to AOL, the series of short episodes documents Azaria's \"touching, humorous, and often enlightening journey from a man who is not even sure he wants to have kids, to a father going through the joys, trials and tribulations of being a dad.\" He has periodically returned to theatrical work, appearing in several productions. In 2003, he appeared as Bernard in a run ofDavid Mamet's playSexual Perversity in Chicago, along withMatthew PerryandMinnie Driver, in London'sWest End.Azaria made his first appearance as SirLancelot, the French Taunter, and four other","and four other characters inSpamalot, the musical version ofMonty Python and the Holy Grail, which opened in Chicago in December 2004, before moving to theShubert TheatreonBroadway.The show met with critical acclaim and received fourteenTony Awardnominations in 2005; Azaria andTim Curryboth received nominations for theTony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical.Reuniting withThe BirdcagedirectorMike Nichols, and being a hugeMonty Pythonfan, he saw it as an opportunity he could not pass up, describing it as \"so much fun that I haven't realized how tiring it is,\"and \"the most fun that I've ever had in my entire life.\"He took a break from the show in June 2005 to work onHuff, but returned in December 2005.Alan Tudykplayed the role during Azaria's absence.In late 2007 he starred inAaron Sorkin'sThe Farnsworth Invention, playingRCAheadDavid Sarnoff.In 2016, he starred in the world premiere ofDry PowderoppositeClaire Danes,John Krasinski, andSanjit De Silva, directed byThomas Kail, at","byThomas Kail, at theoff-BroadwayPublic Theaterin New York City. Acting style and vocal range Azaria's friends refer to him as \"the freakish mimic\" due to his ability to copy almost anyone's voice, instantly after he has heard it. As a child, he believed that everyone could do this, but later realized that it was not a common talent.Azaria has said, \"I can remember every voice I hear, famous or otherwise ... they kind of remain in the memory banks, so I'm ready to trot them out.\"Azaria was glad to have found the \"ultimate outlet\" for this skill, inThe Simpsons.He \"didn't realize it , but it became like a lab for a character actor. had to do so many voices.\"In the early 2000s, Azaria felt he had reached the maximum number of voices he was capable of: \"For the first 10 years ofThe Simpsons, I would develop a bunch of voices. And then ... I hit a point when I was tapped out. Every noise I can make, I have made. Even characters like Gargamel, I've done. Even if it was only two or three lines, at some point I've","at some point I've done something similar onThe Simpsons, at least somewhere along the line.\" For many of Azaria's characters, much of their humor is derived from a \"funny voice\", such asThe BirdcageandNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian. He stated that \"being funny with a funny voice is more my comfort zone, a broader character that I try to humanize, a kind of silly or wacky persona that I try to fill in,\" although he finds it \"much easier to be someone much closer to myself,\" as it requires \"less energy ... than playing characters that are so out there and high strung.\" The SimpsonscreatorMatt Groeninghas stated that Azaria possesses the ability to turn unfunny lines into some of the best in an episode,while former writerJay Kogenstated: \"Just when I think I know bag of tricks, he's always got a new thing he does to surprise me.\"Throughout the run ofThe Simpsons, Azaria has had to sing in character several times, a task which he describes as easier than singing normally.The SmurfswriterDavid","SmurfswriterDavid N. Weisssays Azaria \"has a beautiful treasure trove of talent,\" and \"became what you wished you were writing.\"Playwright Jenelle Riley wrote in 2005 that Azaria was \"by far\" her favorite actor, praising his \"versatility\" and \"tendency to take small roles that would normally fade into the background and to consistently create characters people care about,\" noting his roles inShattered Glass,Mystery, Alaskaand especiallyDodgeBall: A True Underdog Story. Personal life In the early 1990s, Azaria was in a relationship with actressJulie Warner.His relationship with actressHelen Huntbegan in 1994; they married in a traditional Jewish ceremony at the couple's home inSouthern Californiaon July 17, 1999.The two had appeared together inMad About Youand theSimpsonsepisode \"Dumbbell Indemnity\".After a year of marriage, Azaria moved out of the couple's home,and Hunt filed for divorce after a six-month separation, citing irreconcilable differences. The divorce was finalized on December 18, 2000. Azaria","18, 2000. Azaria began dating former actressKatie Wrightin 2007,and the two married later that year.They have a son named Hal (b. 2009).The family has one dog, Truman, and two rescue cats, Mookie and Wilson. In 2013, the family began renting a home on80th StreetinManhattan, with plans to make a final decision on where to live in two years.They previously lived in a four-bedroom house inPacific Palisades, which Azaria bought from hisSimpsonsco-starDan Castellanetain 2011. Several weeks earlier, Azaria had sold his home inBel Air.Azaria previously owned the fifth-floorco-oploft onMercer Streetin Manhattan'sSohoneighborhood, which he bought from photographerCindy Shermanin 2005, before selling it in 2013. Azaria suffered fromalcoholismfor several years. He credited his longtime friendMatthew Perryfor encouraging him to attendAlcoholics Anonymousmeetings and has been sober since about 2006. Azaria is thegodfatherofOliver Platt's son, George.He is also a regular poker player, appearing twice onCelebrity Poker","onCelebrity Poker Showdownand competing at other events, finishing a few places short of thebubblein the main event of the2010 World Series of Poker.Azaria is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.He enjoys the music ofElvis Costelloand has stated that he would have been atherapistif he were not an actor.Azaria co-founded the educational support charity, \"Determined to Succeed\". On May 22, 2016, he was awarded theHonorary degreeofDoctor of Humane Letters(DHL) fromTufts University. Filmography Film Television Video games Theatre Awards and nominations References External links","Harry Shearer Harry Julius Shearer(born December 23, 1943)is an American actor, comedian, musician, radio host, writer, and producer. Born inLos Angeles,California, Shearer began his career as a child actor. From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member ofThe Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group. Following the breakup of the group, Shearer co-wrote the filmReal Life(1979) withAlbert Brooksand worked as a writer onMartin Mull's television seriesFernwood 2 Night. Shearer was a cast member onSaturday Night Livebetween 1979 and 1980, and 1984 and 1985. Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred in the filmThis Is Spinal Tap(1984), asatiricalrockumentary, which became a hit. In 1989, he joined the cast of the animated sitcomThe Simpsons; he provides voices for characters includingMr. Burns,Waylon Smithers,Ned Flanders,Reverend Lovejoy,Lenny,Scratchy,Principal Skinner,Kent Brockman,Otto Mann, and formerlyDr. Hibbert. Shearer has appeared in films includingThe Truman Show(1998) andA Mighty Wind(2003), and has directed","and has directed two,Teddy Bears' Picnic(2002) andThe Big Uneasy(2010). Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music programLe Show, incorporating satire, music, andsketch comedy. He has written three books. Shearer has won aPrimetime Emmy Awardand has received several other Emmy andGrammy Awardnominations. He has been married to singer-songwriterJudith Owensince 1993. He became anartist in residenceatLoyola University, New Orleansin 2013. Early life and career Shearer was born December 23, 1943,inLos Angeles,California,the son of Dora, a bookkeeper, and Mack Shearer, a trained opera singer who ran a gas station.His parents were Jewish immigrants from Poland and Austria respectively. His parents escapedNazi-occupied Europe and met inHavana, Cuba. As a child, Shearer and his family often listened to radio programs such asBob and Rayand the weekly show for theJewish Theological Seminary of America. His father died when he was 12 and he had hisBar Mitzvahthe following year.Shearer grew","year.Shearer grew up in the neighborhood ofWest Adams.Starting when Shearer was four years old, he had a piano teacher whose daughter worked as a child actress. The piano teacher later decided to make a career change and become a children's agent, since she knew people in the business through her daughter's work. The teacher asked Shearer's parents for permission to take him to an audition. Several months later, she called Shearer's parents and told them that she had gotten Shearer an audition for the radio showThe Jack Benny Program. Shearer received the role when he was seven years old.He describedJack Bennyas \"very warm and approachable ... He was a guy who dug the idea of other people on the show getting laughs, which sort of spoiled me for other people in comedy.\"Shearer has stated that one person who took him \"under his wing\" and was his mentor during his early days in show business was voice actorMel Blanc, who voiced many animated characters, includingBugs Bunny,Daffy DuckandBarney Rubble; Blanc was","Rubble; Blanc was a regular onThe Jack Benny Show. He also befriended Blanc’s sonNoel.Shearer made his film debut in the filmAbbott and Costello Go to Mars(1953), in which he had a small part, and appeared inThe Robe(also 1953).Throughout his childhood and teenage years he worked in television, film, and radio. In 1957, Shearer played the precursor to theEddie Haskellcharacter in the pilot episode of the television seriesLeave It to Beaver. After the filming, Shearer's parents said they did not want him to be a regular in a series. Instead they wanted him to just do occasional work so that he could have a normal childhood. Shearer and his parents made the decision not to accept the role in the series if it was picked up by a television network. In 1960, Shearer volunteered as a driver for theDemocratic National Conventionwhere he was regularly assigned trips toDisneyland. Shearer graduated fromLos Angeles High Schooland attendedUCLAas a political science major in the early 1960s. He befriended future","befriended future congressmenHenry WaxmanandHoward Bermanduring his time at UCLA. He decided to quit show business to become a \"serious person\".However, he says this lasted approximately a month, and he joined the staff of theDaily Bruin, UCLA's school newspaper, during his first year.He was editor of the college humor magazine (Satyr), including the June 1964 parodyPreyboy.He also worked as a newscaster atKRLA, a top 40 radio station in Pasadena, during this period. According to Shearer, after graduating, he had \"a very serious agenda going on, and it was 'Stay Out of the Draft'.\"He attended graduate school atHarvard Universityfor one year and worked at the state legislature inSacramento. From 1967 to 1968, he was a high school teacher, teaching English and social studies. He left teaching following \"disagreements with the administration\". From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member ofThe Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group that includedDavid Lander,Richard BeebeandMichael McKean.The group consisted of \"a","consisted of \"a bunch of newsmen\" atKRLA 1110, \"the number two station\" in Los Angeles.They wanted to do more than just straight news, so they hired comedians who were talented vocalists. Shearer heard about the group from a friend, so he brought over a tape to the station and nervously gave it to the receptionist. He found out he was hired that same day. The group's radio show was canceled in 1970 by KRLA and in 1971 byKPPC-FM, so they started performing in various clubs and concert venues.While at KRLA, Shearer also interviewedCreedence Clearwater Revivalfor thePop Chroniclesmusic documentary. In 1973, Shearer appeared as Jim Houseafire onHow Time Flys, an album byThe Firesign Theatre'sDavid Ossman. The Credibility Gap broke up in 1976 when Lander and McKean left to perform in the sitcomLaverne & Shirley.Shearer started working withAlbert Brooks, producing one of Brooks' albums and co-writing the filmReal Life(1979). Shearer also started writing forMartin Mull's television seriesFernwood 2 Night.In the","2 Night.In the mid-1970s, he started working withRob Reineron a pilot forABC. The show, which starredChristopher Guest,Tom Leopoldand McKean, was not picked up. Career Saturday Night Live Initial run under Lorne Michaels In August 1979, Shearer was hired as a writer and cast member onSaturday Night Live, one of the first additions to the show'soriginal 1975 cast.Recommended byAl FrankentoSaturday Night LivecreatorLorne Michaels,the acquisition of Shearer was seen as an unofficial replacement forJohn BelushiandDan Aykroyd, who were both leaving the show. Shearer describes his experience on the show as a \"living hell\" and \"not a real pleasant place to work.\"He did not get along well with the other writers and cast members and states that he was not included with the cast in the opening montage (although he was added to the montage for later episodes of the1979–80 season) and that Michaels had told the rest of the cast that he was \"just a writer\". Michaels leftSaturday Night Liveat the end of the fifth season,","the fifth season, taking the entire cast with him.Shearer told new executive producerJean Doumanianthat he was \"not a fan of Lorne's\" and offered to stay with the show if he was given the chance to overhaul the program and bring in experienced comedians, like Christopher Guest. However, Doumanian turned him down, so he decided to leave with the rest of the cast. Return in 1984 under Dick Ebersol When I left, Dick issued a press release, saying \"creative differences.\" And the first person who called me for a comment on it read me that and I blurted out, \"Yeah, I was creative and they were different.\" —Harry Shearer In 1984, while promoting the filmThis Is Spinal Tap, Shearer, Christopher Guest and Michael McKean performed onSaturday Night Live. All three members were offered the chance to join the show in the1984–1985 season. Shearer accepted because he was treated well by the producers and he thought the backstage environment had improvedbut later stated that he \"didn't realize that guests are treated","guests are treated better than the regulars.\"Guest also accepted the offer while McKean rejected it, although he would join the cast in 1994. Dick Ebersol, who replaced Lorne Michaels as the show's producer, said that Shearer was \"a gifted performer but a pain in the butt. He's just so demanding on the preciseness of things and he's very, very hard on the working people. He's just a nightmare-to-deal-with person.\"In January 1985, Shearer left the show for good,partially because he felt he was not being used enough.Martin Shortsaid Shearer \"wanted to be creative and Dick wanted something else. ... I think he felt his voice wasn't getting represented on the show. When he wouldn't get that chance, it made him very upset.\" Spinal Tap Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred inRob Reiner's filmThis Is Spinal Tap(1984).Shearer, Reiner, Michael McKean and Christopher Guest received a deal to write a first draft of a screenplay for a company called Marble Arch. They decided that the film could not be written and","not be written and instead filmed a 20-minute demo of what they wanted to do.It was eventually greenlighted byNorman LearandJerry PerenchioatEmbassy Pictures.The film satirizes the wild personal behavior and musical pretensions ofhard rockandheavy metalbands, as well as thehagiographictendencies ofrockumentariesof the time. The three core members of the bandSpinal Tap—David St. Hubbins,Derek SmallsandNigel Tufnel—were portrayed by McKean, Shearer and Guest respectively. The three actors play their musical instruments and speak with mock English accents throughout the film. There was no script, although there was a written breakdown of most of the scenes, and many of the lines were ad-libbed.It was filmed in 25 days. Shearer said in an interview that \"The animating impulse was to do rock 'n' roll right. The four of us had been around rock 'n' roll and we were just amazed by how relentlessly the movies got it wrong. Because we were funny people it was going to be a funny film, but we wanted to get it","we wanted to get it right.\"When they tried to sell it to various Hollywood studios, they were told that the film would not work. The group kept saying, \"No, this is a story that's pretty familiar to people. We're not introducing them to anything they don't really know,\" so Shearer thought it would at least have some resonance with the public.The film was only a modest success upon its initial release but found greater success, and developed acult following, after its video release. In 2000, the film was ranked 29th on theAmerican Film Institute'slist of the top 100 comedy movies in American cinemaand it was selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registryby theLibrary of Congressas being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Shearer, Guest and McKean have since worked on several projects as their Spinal Tap characters. They released three albums:This Is Spinal Tap(1984),Break Like the Wind(1992) andBack from the Dead(2009).In 1992, Spinal Tap appeared in an episode","in an episode ofThe Simpsonscalled \"The Otto Show\".The band has played several concerts, including atLive Earthin London on July 7, 2007. In anticipation of the show, Rob Reiner directed a short film entitledSpinal Tap.In 2009, the band releasedBack from the Deadto commemorate the 25th anniversary of the release of the film.The album features re-recorded versions of songs featured inThis Is Spinal Tapand its soundtrack, and five new songs.The band performed a one-date \"world tour\" at London'sWembley Arenaon June 30, 2009.The Folksmen, a mock band featured in the filmA Mighty Windthat is also made up of characters played by Shearer, McKean and Guest, was the opening act for the show. The Simpsons Shearer is known for his work as a voice actor onThe Simpsons.Matt Groening, the creator of the show, was a fan of Shearer's work, while Shearer was a fan of a column Groening used to write.When approached by Groening to be in the series, Shearer was initially reluctant because he thought the recording sessions would","sessions would be too much trouble.He felt that voice acting was \"not a lot of fun\" as, traditionally, voice actors record their parts separately.He was told that the actors would record their lines together,and after three phone calls for executive producerJames L. Brooks, Shearer was convinced to join the cast ofThe Simpsons.Shearer's first impression ofThe Simpsonswas that it was funny. He – who thought it was a \"pretty cool\" way to work – found it peculiar that his fellow cast members were adamant about not being known to the public as the people behind the voices. Shearer provides voices forPrincipal Skinner,Kent Brockman,Mr. Burns,Waylon Smithers,Ned Flanders,Reverend Lovejoy, formerlyDr. Hibbertuntil 2021,Lenny Leonard,Otto Mann,Rainier Wolfcastle,Scratchy,Kang,Dr. Marvin Monroe, andJudge Snyder, among others.He has described all of his regular characters' voices as \"easy to slip into. ... I wouldn't do them if they weren't easy.\"Shearer modeled Mr. Burns's voice on the two actorsLionel","two actorsLionel BarrymoreandRonald Reagan.Shearer says that Burns is the most difficult character for him to voice because it is rough on his vocal cords and he often needs to drink tea and honey to soothe his voice.He describes Burns as his favorite character, saying he \"like Mr. Burns because he is pure evil. A lot of evil people make the mistake of diluting it. Never adulterate your evil.\"Shearer is also the voice of Burns' assistant Smithers, and is able to perform dialogue between the two characters in one take. In the episode \"Bart's Inner Child\", Shearer said \"wow\" in the voice of Otto, which was then used when Otto was seen jumping on a trampoline.Ned Flanders had been meant to be just a neighbor thatHomer Simpsonwas jealous of, but because Shearer used \"such a sweet voice\" for him, Flanders was broadened to become aChristianand a sweet guy that someone would prefer to live next to over Homer.Dr. Marvin Monroe's voice was based on psychiatristDavid Viscott.Monroe has been largely retired since","retired since theseventh seasonbarring a few cameo appearances because voicing the character strained Shearer's throat. In 2004, Shearer criticized what he perceived asthe show's declining quality: \"I rate the last three seasons as among the worst, soseason fourlooks very good to me now.\"Shearer has also been vocal about \"The Principal and the Pauper\" (season nine, episode two, 1997), one of the most controversial episodes ofThe Simpsons. Many fans and critics reacted negatively to the revelation thatPrincipal Seymour Skinner, a recurring character since the first season, was an impostor. The episode has been criticized by both Shearer and Groening. In a 2001 interview, Shearer recalled that after reading the script, he told the writers, \"That'ssowrong. You're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason, for a story we've done before with other characters. It's so arbitrary and gratuitous, and it's disrespectful","it's disrespectful to the audience.\"In a December 2006 interview, Shearer added, \"Now, refuse to talk about it. They realize it was a horrible mistake. They never mention it. It's like they're punishing for paying attention.\" Due to scheduling and availability conflicts, Shearer decided not to participate inThe Simpsons Ride, which opened in 2008, so none of his characters have vocal parts and many do not appear in the ride at all.In a 2010 interview onThe Howard Stern Show, Shearer alluded that the reason he was not part of the ride was because he would not be getting paid for it.Similarly, Shearer was unable to appear in theFamily Guycrossover episode \"The Simpsons Guy\" due to further scheduling conflicts. Therefore, his characters are again mute. When asked about how he felt about the crossover, Shearer replied, \"Matter and anti-matter.\" Until 1998, Shearer was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as","going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.The dispute, however, was resolved and Shearer received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.The dispute was resolved a month later,and Shearer's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Shearer and the other cast members accepted a 30% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode.On May 14, 2015, Shearer announced he was leaving the show. After the other voice actors signed a contract for the same pay, Shearer refused, stating it was not enough. Al Jean made a statement from the producers saying \"the show must go on,\" but did not elaborate on what might happen to the characters Shearer voiced.On July 7, 2015, Shearer agreed to continue with the show, on the same terms as the other voice actors. Le Showand radio work","Showand radio work Because I don't do stand-up, radio has always been my equivalent, a place to stay in connection with the public and force myself to write every week and come up with new characters. Plus it's a medium that – having grown up with it and putting myself to sleep with a radio under my pillow – I love. No matter what picture you want to create in the listener's mind, a few minutes of work gets it done. —Harry Shearer Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music programLe Show. The program is a hodgepodge of satirical news commentary, music, and sketch comedy that takes aim at the \"mega morons of the mighty media\".It is carried on manyNational Public Radioand other public radio stations throughout the United States.Since the merger ofSIRIUSandXMsatellite radio services the program is no longer available on either.The show has also been made available as apodcastoniTunesand byWWNO. On the weekly program Shearer alternates between DJing, reading and commenting on the","commenting on the news of the day after the manner ofMort Sahl, and performing original (mostly political) comedy sketches and songs. In 2008, Shearer released a music CD calledSongs of the Bushmen, consisting of his satirical numbers about former PresidentGeorge W. BushonLe Show.Shearer says he criticizes bothRepublicansandDemocratsequally, and also says that \"the iron law of doing comedy about politics is you make fun of whoever is running the place\"and that \"everyone else is just running around talking. They are the ones who are actually doing something, changing people's lives for better or for worse. Other people the media calls 'satirists' don't work that way.\" Since encountering satellite news feeds when he worked onSaturday Night Live, Shearer has been fascinated with the contents of the video that does not air. Shearer refers to these clips asfound objects. \"I thought, wow, there is just an unending supply of this material, and it's wonderful and fascinating and funny and sometimes haunting – but","haunting – but it's always good,\" said Shearer.He collects this material and uses it onLe Showand on his website.In 2008, he assembled video clips of newsmakers from this collection into an art installation titled \"The Silent Echo Chamber\" which was exhibited atThe Aldrich Contemporary Art MuseuminRidgefield, Connecticut.The exhibit was also displayed in 2009 at Institut Valencià d'Art Modern (IVAM) inValencia, Spainand in 2010 at the New OrleansContemporary Arts Center. In 2006 Shearer appeared withBrian Hayesin four episodes of theBBC Radio 4sitcomNot Today, Thank You, playing Nostrils, a man so ugly he cannot stand to be in his own presence.He was originally scheduled to appear in all six episodes but had to withdraw from recording two due to a problem with his work permit.On June 19, 2008, it was announced that Shearer would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the radio category. Further career Shearer's first feature film as director,Teddy Bears' Picnic, which he also wrote, was released in","was released in 2002. The plot is based onBohemian Grove, which hosts a three-week encampment of some of the most powerful men in the world. The film was not well received by critics. It garnered a 0% approval rating onRotten Tomatoes, with all 19 reviews being determined as negativeand received a rating of 32 out of 100 (signifying \"generally negative reviews\") onMetacriticfrom 10 reviews.In 2003, he co-wroteJ. Edgar! The MusicalwithTom Leopold, which spoofedJ. Edgar Hoover's relationship withClyde Tolson.It premiered at theU.S. Comedy Arts FestivalinAspen, Coloradoand starredKelsey GrammerandJohn Goodman. Shearer, Guest and McKean starred in thefolk musicmockumentaryA Mighty Wind(2003), portraying a band called The Folksmen. The film was written by Guest andEugene Levy, and directed by Guest.Shearer had a major role in the Guest-directed parody of Oscar politickingFor Your Considerationreleased in 2006. He played Victor Allan Miller, a veteran actor who is convinced that he is going to be nominated for","to be nominated for anAcademy Award.He also appeared as a news anchor inGodzilla(1998) with fellowThe Simpsonscast membersHank AzariaandNancy Cartwright.His other film appearances includeThe Right Stuff(1983),The Fisher King(1991),The Truman Show(1998),Small Soldiers(also 1998), andEdTV(1999). He also directed and appeared in the television programPortrait of a White Marriage(1988), a sequel toThe History of White People in America. Shearer has also worked as a columnist for theLos Angeles Times Magazine, but decided that it \"became such a waste of time to bother with it.\"His columns have also been published inSlateandNewsweek.Since May 2005 he has been a contributing blogger atThe Huffington Post.Shearer has written three books.Man Bites Town, published in 1993, is a collection of columns that he wrote forThe Los Angeles Timesbetween 1989 and 1992.Published in 1999,It's the Stupidity, Stupidanalyzed the hatred some people had for then-PresidentBill Clinton.Shearer believes that Clinton became disliked","became disliked because he had an affair with \"the least powerful, least credentialed woman cleared into his official compound.\"His most recent book isNot Enough Indians, his first novel. Published in 2006, it is a comic novel about Native Americans and gambling.Without the \"pleasures of collaboration\" and \"spontaneity and improvisation which characterize his other projects\",Not Enough Indianswas a \"struggle\" for Shearer to write. He said that \"the only fun thing about it was having written it. It was lonely, I had no deal for it and it took six years to do. It was a profoundly disturbing act of self-discipline.\" Shearer has released five solo comedy albums:It Must Have Been Something I Said(1994),Dropping Anchors(2006),Songs Pointed and Pointless(2007),Songs of the Bushmen(2008) andGreed and Fear(2010).His most recent CD,Greed and Fearis mainly aboutWall Streeteconomic issues, rather than politics like his previous albums. Shearer decided to make the album when he\"started getting amused by the language of","by the language of the economic meltdown – when 'toxic assets' suddenly became 'troubled assets,' going from something poisoning the system to just a bunch of delinquent youth with dirty faces that needed not removal from the system but just ... understanding.\"In May 2006, Shearer received an honorary doctorate fromGoucher College. The Big Uneasy Shearer is the director ofThe Big Uneasy(2010), a documentary film about the impacts ofHurricane KatrinaonNew Orleans. Narrated by actorJohn Goodman, the film describesleveefailuresandcatastrophicflooding in theNew Orleansmetropolitan area, and includes extended interviews with formerLSUprofessorIvor Van Heerden, Robert Bea, an engineering professor at theUniversity of California at Berkeley, and Maria Garzino, an engineer and contract specialist for the Los Angeles district of theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The film is critical of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and its management offlood protectionprojectsin SouthernLouisiana.Shearer draws on numerous technical","numerous technical experts to maintain that Hurricane Katrina's \"... tragic floods creating widespread damage were caused by manmade errors in engineering and judgment.\"Onreview aggregatorRotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71% based on 24 reviews, with an average rating of 6.85/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"The Big Uneasyoffers an admittedly uneven – yet still worthy and well-intentioned – look at a horrific disaster's aftermath.\" Personal life Shearer marriedfolksingerPenelope Nicholsin 1974. They divorced in 1977.He has been married to Welsh singer-songwriterJudith Owensince 1993.In 2005, the couple launched their own record label called Courgette Records.Shearer primarily resides in theFrench QuarterofNew Orleans, Louisiana, but has homes inSanta Monica, CaliforniaandNotting Hill, London. He first went to New Orleans in 1988 and has attended everyNew Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festivalsince. Shearer often speaks and writes about thefailure of the Federal levee systemwhich","levee systemwhich floodedNew OrleansduringHurricane Katrina, blasting the coverage of it in the mainstream mediaand criticizing the role of theUnited States Army Corps of Engineers.Prior to the DVD release of his film,The Big Uneasy, Shearer would hold screenings of the film at different venues and take questions fromaudiencemembers. Filmography Film Television (Pilot for the eventual seriesLeave It to Beaver, though never aired as part of that series.) Video games Web Music video Discography Bibliography Awards Shearer was the last of the six regular voice actors fromThe Simpsonsto win thePrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Character Voice-Over Performance.His win came for theseason 25episode \"Four Regrettings and a Funeral\". References Bibliography External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/The_Simpsons (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_The_Simpsons_cast_members (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"Dan Castellaneta Daniel Louis Castellaneta(/ˌkæstələˈnɛtə/KAST-ə-lə-NET-ə; born October 29, 1957)is an American actor and writer. He is best known for voicingHomer Simpsonon the animated seriesThe Simpsons(as well as other characters on the show such asGrampa Simpson,Krusty the Clown,Groundskeeper Willie,Mayor Quimby,Sideshow Mel,Mr. Teeny,Santa's Little Helper,Itchy, andBarney Gumble). Castellaneta is also known for voicing Grandpa in Nickelodeon'sHey Arnold!, and has had voice roles in several other programs, includingFuturama,Sibs,Darkwing Duck,The Adventures of Dynamo Duck,The Batman,Back to the Future: The Animated Series,Aladdin,Earthworm Jim, andTaz-Mania. In 1999, he appeared in the Christmas specialOlive, the Other Reindeerand won anAnnie Awardfor his portrayal of the Postman. Castellaneta released a comedy albumI Am Not Homer, and wrote and starred in aone-person showtitledWhere Did Vincent van Gogh? Early life Daniel Louis Castellaneta was born on October 29, 1957, at Roseland Community Hospital on\",\n \"Hospital on Chicago's south side and was raised inRiver ForestandOak Park, Illinois.He is ofItaliandescent, born to Elsie (néeLagorio; 1926–2008) and Louis Castellaneta (1915–2014),an amateur actor who worked for a printing company. Castellaneta became adept at impressions at a young age and his mother enrolled him in an acting class when he was 16 years old. He would listen to his father's comedy records and do impressions of the artists.He was a \\\"devotee\\\" of the works of many performers, includingAlan ArkinandBarbara Harrisand directorsMike NicholsandElaine May.He attendedOak Park and River Forest High Schooland upon graduation, started attendingNorthern Illinois University(NIU) in the fall of 1975. Castellaneta studied art education, with the goal of becoming an art teacher.He became astudent teacherand would entertain his students with his impressions.Castellaneta was a regular participant inThe Ron Petke and His Dead Uncle Show, a radio show at NIU. The show helped Castellaneta hone his skills as a\",\n \"his skills as a voice-over actor. He recalled \\\"We did parodies and sketches, we would double up on, so you learned to switch between voices. I got my feet wet doing a voiceover. The show was just barely audible, but we didn't care. It was that we got a chance to do it and write our own material.\\\"He took a play-writing class and auditioned for an improvisational show. A classmate first thought Castellaneta would \\\"fall on his face with improvisation\\\" but soon \\\"was churning out material faster than could make it work.\\\" Career Early career Castellaneta began his acting career after his graduation fromNorthern Illinois Universityin 1979.He decided that if his career went nowhere he would still have a chance to try something else.He began takingimprovisationclasses, where he met his future wifeDeb Lacusta. He started to work atThe Second City, an improvisational theatre inChicago, in 1983 and continued to work there until 1987.During this period, he did voice-over work with his wife for various radio stations. He\",\n \"radio stations. He auditioned for a role inThe Tracey Ullman Showand his first meeting underwhelmedTracey Ullmanand the other producers. Ullman decided to fly to Chicago to watch Castellaneta perform. His performance that night was about ablindman who tries to become a comedian and Ullman later recalled that although there were flashier performances that night, Castellaneta made her cry. She was impressed and Castellaneta was hired. The Simpsons Castellaneta is most famous for his roles on the longest-running American animated television showThe Simpsons, most notably asHomer Simpson.The Tracey Ullman Showincluded a series of animated shorts about adysfunctional family. Voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask Castellaneta and fellow cast memberJulie Kavnerto voice Homer andMarge Simpsonrespectively, rather than hire more actors.Homer's voice began as a loose impression ofWalter Matthau, but Castellaneta could not \\\"get enough power behind that voice\\\" and could not sustain his\",\n \"not sustain his Matthau impression for the nine- to ten-hour long recording sessions. He tried to find something easier, so he \\\"dropped the voice down\\\", and developed it into a more versatile and humorous voice during the second and third season of the half-hour show.To perform Homer's voice, Castellaneta lowers his chin to his chest,and is said to \\\"let his IQ go.\\\" Castellaneta likes tostay in characterduring recording sessions,and tries to visualize a scene in his mind so that he can give the proper voice to it.Despite Homer's fame, Castellaneta claims he is rarely recognized in public, \\\"except, maybe, by a die-hard fan.\\\" Castellaneta also provides the voices for numerous other characters, includingGrampa Simpson,Barney Gumble,Krusty the Clown,Groundskeeper Willie,Mayor Quimby,Hans Moleman,Sideshow Mel,Itchy,Kodos,Arnie Pye, theSqueaky Voiced TeenandGil Gunderson. Krusty's voice is based on Chicago television'sBob Bell, who had a very raspy voice and portrayedWGN-TV'sBozo the Clownfrom 1960 to 1984.During\",\n \"1960 to 1984.During early recording sessions, he recorded a new version of Barney's loud trademark belch for every episode but discovered that it was not easy for him to belch each time a script called for it. Castellaneta chose a recording of what he believed was his best belch and told the producers to make that the standard. Groundskeeper Willie's first appearance was in theseason twoepisode \\\"Principal Charming\\\". The character was written as an angry janitor and Castellaneta was assigned to perform the voice. He did not know what voice to use andSam Simon, who was directing at the time, suggested he use an accent. Castellaneta first tried using Hispanic voicing, which Simon felt was tooclichéd. He then tried a \\\"big dumbSwede\\\", which was also rejected. For his third try, he used the voice of a grumpyScotsman, which was deemed appropriate enough and was used in the episode.The voice was based partially on Angus Crock, akilt-wearing chef from the sketch comedy showSecond City Television, who was portrayed\",\n \"who was portrayed byDave Thomas. Mayor Quimby, who first appeared in \\\"Bart Gets an 'F'\\\", is a parody of various members of theKennedy family. The episode script did not call for Quimby to be a parody of them, and Castellaneta improvised the accent.Sideshow Mel's voice is Castellaneta's impression ofKelsey Grammer, the voice ofSideshow Bob.Hapless Gil Gunderson is a spoof of actorJack Lemmon's portrayal of Shelley Levene in the 1992film adaptationof the playGlengarry Glen Ross.ShowrunnerMike Scullythought that Gil would be \\\"a one-shot thing\\\"but \\\"Dan Castellaneta was so funny at thetable readdoing the character, we kept making up excuses in subsequent episodes to put him in.\\\"TheBlue-Haired Lawyer's voice, as well as his demeanor, is based on lawyerRoy Cohn. Castellaneta has won several awards for voicing Homer, including fourPrimetime Emmy Awardsfor \\\"Outstanding Voice-Over Performance\\\" in 1992 for \\\"Lisa's Pony\\\", 1993 for \\\"Mr. Plow\\\",2004 for voicing several characters in \\\"Today I Am a Clown\\\",and 2009 for\",\n \"Clown\\\",and 2009 for voicing Homer in \\\"Father Knows Worst\\\". In 1993, Castellaneta was given a specialAnnie Award, \\\"Outstanding Individual Achievement in the Field of Animation\\\", for his work as Homer onThe Simpsons. In 2004, Castellaneta andJulie Kavner(the voice of Marge) won aYoung Artist Awardfor \\\"Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series\\\".Homer was placed second onTV Guide's 2002 Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters,and in 2000, Homer and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Famelocated at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard. Until 1998, Castellaneta was paid $30,000 per episode.During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.The dispute was soon resolved and Castellaneta began receiving $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the cast demanded to be paid $360,000 an episode.The issue was resolved a month later,with Castellaneta starting to earn $250,000 per episode.Following salary\",\n \"salary negotiations in 2008, the cast received approximately $400,000 per episode.In 2011, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, the cast accepted a pay cut to around $300,000 per episode. In the early 1990s, Castellaneta and his wifeDeb Lacustawrote a script for an episode in which Barney becomes sober, and pitched it to showrunnerAl Jean. He liked the story but turned it down because he felt that it was too similar to \\\"Duffless\\\", an episode that the writers were already working on. The two waited for nearly a decade and offered an updated version of the script to later showrunnerMike Scully, who liked it and had them make a few changes.Their script became the episode \\\"Days of Wine and D'oh'ses\\\".Castellaneta and his wife have also written the episodes \\\"Gump Roast\\\", \\\"The Ziff Who Came to Dinner\\\", \\\"Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore\\\", and \\\"The Fight Before Christmas\\\". In2007, they were nominated for aWriters Guild of America Awardfor the episode \\\"Kiss Kiss, Bang\",\n \"\\\"Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore\\\".Castellaneta is also credited as a consulting producer. Further career Castellaneta has been a regular cast member in several other television series. In 1991, he played Warren Morris in the short-livedABClive-action sitcomSibs.Heide Perlman, creator ofSibs, wrote the part with Castellaneta in mind. He provided the voice of the eponymous character inThe Adventures ofDynamo Duck,MegavoltinDarkwing Duck,\\\"Doc\\\" Emmett BrowninBack to the Future: The Animated Series,the lead character inEarthworm Jimand several characters, including Grandpa Phil and the Jolly Olly Man, the mentally unstableice cream truckdriver, onNickelodeon'sHey Arnold!.He guest starred asThe Robot Devilin five episodes ofFuturama, as well as theFuturamafilmThe Beast with a Billion Backs. Castellaneta has also made guest appearances in a number of television series episodes. In 1992, he guest-starred in an episode of thelegal dramaL.A. Law, as a Homer Simpsonmeetable characterat a Californiaamusement parkwho is\",\n \"parkwho is dismissed for inappropriate behavior while in costume.In 1996, he made a guest appearance as a Zoo Keeper in Season 2, Episode 12 “The One After the Superbowl” inFriends. In 2005, he appeared in the episode \\\"Sword of Destiny\\\" inArrested Developmentas Dr. Stein, adeadpanincompetent doctor. In 2005, Castellaneta guest-starred as Joe Spencer in theStargate SG-1season eightepisode \\\"Citizen Joe\\\".He also appeared in episodes ofALF,Campus Ladies,Castle,Entourage,Everybody Loves Raymond,Frasier,Friends,Greek,How I Met Your Mother,Mad About You,Married... with Children,Murphy Brown,NYPD Blue,Parks and Recreation,Reba,Reno 911!,That '70s Show,Veronica Mars,Hot in Cleveland,Yes, Dear,andDesperate Housewives. He appeared as theGeniein theAladdinsequelThe Return of Jafarand on the 1994Aladdintelevision series. The Genie had been voiced byRobin WilliamsinAladdin, and Castellaneta described replacing him as \\\"sort of like stepping intoHamletafterLaurence Olivierdid it, how can you win?\\\" He also provided Genie's\",\n \"provided Genie's voice in theKingdom Heartsvideo game seriesfor bothKingdom HeartsandKingdom Hearts II(with archived audio used forKingdom Hearts: Chain of Memoriesand its remake as well as for the later HD collectionsKingdom Hearts HD 1.5 RemixandKingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix). Castellaneta portrayedAaron Spellingin the 2004NBCfilmBehind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Charlie's Angels, which followed the true story of how Spelling created the show. Other films in which Castellaneta has appeared includeNothing in Common,Say Anything...,Super Mario Bros.,The Client,Space Jam,My Giant,The Simpsons Movie,Rugrats in Paris: The Movie,Recess: School's Out,Hey Arnold!: The Movie,The Cat in the HatandThe Pursuit of Happyness. In 2000, he won anAnnie Awardfor his portrayal of the Postman in the animated Christmas television specialOlive, the Other Reindeer.In 2006, he appeared inJeff Garlin's independent filmI Want Someone to Eat Cheese Withalong with several otherSecond City alumni. On February 22, 2000, his\",\n \"22, 2000, his first music CDTwo Lipswas published.It was followed on April 23, 2002, by his first comedy CD,I Am Not Homer, in which he and his wife perform several comedy skits. The majority of the sketches had been written and performed before the CD was recorded, and Castellaneta thought that it would be a good idea to preserve them \\\"since don't perform them much anymore.\\\" Some came from their sketch series on a local radio station in Chicago and had to be lengthened from the \\\"two-minute bits\\\" that they were original, while several others were stage sketches performed in a comedy club inSanta Monica.Additionally, \\\"Citizen Kane\\\", a sketch in which two people discuss the filmCitizen Kanewith different meanings, was something the pair had performed at an art gallery.Castellaneta noted that \\\"we already knew that these skits were funny, some of them we polished and tightened.\\\"The skits were principally written by improvising from a basic point, transcribing the results, and then editing them to the finished\",\n \"to the finished scene.Castellaneta chose the titleI Am Not Homeras a parody ofLeonard Nimoy's famous first autobiographyI Am Not Spock, as well as to show that most of the comedy featured \\\"is not the typicalHomercomedy.\\\" Alongside his television and film work, Castellaneta has appeared in a number of theatrical productions. In 1992, he starred inDeb & Dan's Showalongside his wife.In 1995, Castellaneta started writingWhere Did Vincent van Gogh?, aone man playin which he portrays a dozen different characters, including artistVincent van Gogh.He first officially performed the play at theACME Comedy Theatrein Los Angeles in 1999.In 2007, he appeared inThe Bicycle MenatKing's Head Theatrein London. Castellaneta hosted the final ofNew Yorkcomedy show Thrills and Spills on December 31, 2015. The final was held inMontgomery, Alabama. Personal life In 1987, Castellaneta married writer and actressDeb Lacusta, whom he had met at animprovclass inChicago.They divide their time betweenLos AngelesandSanta Barbara,\",\n \"Barbara, California. Castellaneta is avegetariananddoes not drink alcohol. He enjoys exercising regularlyand practicingtai chi.He isCatholic. Filmography Discography Also featured in: Awards and nominations References External links\",\n \"Julie Kavner Julie Deborah Kavner(born September 7, 1950)is an American actress. Before becoming well-known for her voice role asMarge Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons, Kavner attracted notice for her role as Brenda Morgenstern, the younger sister ofValerie Harper's title character in the sitcomRhoda, for which she won aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. She also voices other characters forThe Simpsons, including Marge's mother,Jacqueline Bouvier, sistersPatty and Selma Bouvier, and half-step-great-aunt Eunice Bouvier. Known for her improvisation and distinctive \\\"honeyed gravel voice\\\",Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern inRhodain 1974. Starting in 1987, Kavner appeared onThe Tracey Ullman Show.The Tracey Ullman Showincluded a series ofanimated shortsabout a dysfunctional family. Voices were needed for the shorts, and the producers asked Kavner to voice Marge. The shorts were spun off intoThe Simpsons. Kavner has\",\n \"Kavner has been described as \\\"nearly reclusive\\\";part of her contract says that she will never have to promoteThe Simpsonson video.For her work as Marge, Kavner received anotherPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992 and anAnnie Awardnomination for her performance as the character inThe Simpsons Movie(2007). Typically cast as a \\\"woman who is supportive, sympathetic or self-effacingly funny\\\",Kavner grew to dislike playing such roles. In 1992, she starred inThis Is My Life, her first leading role in a feature film. Kavner has also appeared in live-action roles in six films written byWoody Allenand in theAdam SandlercomedyClick. Early life Kavner was born in Los Angeles, California, on September 7, 1950,the second daughter of Rose, a family counselor, and David Kavner, a furniture manufacturer,and grew up in Southern California. She decided to pursue a career in acting because \\\"There was nothing else I wanted to do, ever\\\".She attendedBeverly Hills High School(which she later admitted she\",\n \"later admitted she hated), where she was \\\"something of a loner\\\", and unsuccessfully tried out for several plays.John Ingle, formerly the chairman of the Beverly Hills High School art department, later commented that Kavner was \\\"excellent at improvisation, but she wasn't aningenue and not that castable at that age\\\". After graduating from high school, Kavner attendedSan Diego State Universityand majored in drama, being cast in several productions including a role asCharlotte CordayinMarat/Sade, becoming known for her improvisation and ability to do both comedy and drama. After graduating in 1971, she got a day job as a typist at theUCLA School of the Arts and Architecture. Career Early career In 1973, Kavner auditioned for a role as one ofRhoda Morgenstern's sisters inThe Mary Tyler Moore Show. David Davis, producer of the show, had convinced her to audition for the part, but decided to cast another actress instead.A year later, Rhoda Morgenstern became the leading character in a spin-off calledRhoda. Kavner\",\n \"calledRhoda. Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern, sister of the eponymous character.Rhodaran on CBS from September 9, 1974, to December 1978. She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations forOutstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor playing Brenda, winning in 1978.She also received fourGolden Globe Awardnominations.In 1975, she receivedDaytime Emmy Awardnomination for her starring role in the daytime specialThe Girl Who Couldn't Lose. FollowingRhoda, Kavner had a guest appearance onTaxiand appeared in the 1985 comedyBad Medicineas well as the 1987 filmSurrender, both of which were box office failures (and also starredSteve Guttenberg).She appeared in the television moviesRevenge of the Stepford Wives,No Other LoveandA Fine Romance, and shot a television pilot.She also starred in several stage plays, including a play calledIt Had to Be Youat a dinner theater in Canada,Particular Friendshipsin New York City in 1981,andTwo for\",\n \"in 1981,andTwo for the Seesaw, directed byBurt Reynolds.Woody Allenfirst saw Kavner one night while he was watchingRhodain the 1970s. He thought that she was remarkable and later offered her a role in his 1986 filmHannah and Her Sisters.Kavner agreed, and credits Allen and the film with rejuvenating her career. Kavner was then cast as a sidekick toTracey UllmaninThe Tracey Ullman Show, which debuted on Fox in 1987. Kavner described the show as, \\\"like being back in school, a chance to play a wide variety of characters, some really vicious people, to not rest on laurels, to not play it safe\\\".Kavner commented, \\\"What I do is not mimicry or an impersonation, but more of an assimilation. we did a lot of looking at people to find out who to base our characters on. We did our homework on our lunch hour.\\\"She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations forBest Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program. The Simpsons Kavner became known for her role asMarge Simpsonon the animated television showThe\",\n \"television showThe Simpsons, a show that continues to the present day.The Tracey Ullman Showincludeda series of animated shortsabout the dysfunctional Simpson family. Voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask Kavner and fellow cast memberDan Castellanetato voice Marge and Homer rather than hire more actors.Kavner has what Hilary de Vries ofThe New York Timesdescribed as a \\\"honeyed gravel voice\\\".Kavner says her voice is due to \\\"a bump on vocal cords\\\".Marge's voice has aged considerably throughout the series as Kavner has gotten older, and the higher register of Marge's voice in the earliest seasons had to be adjusted as it began to strain Kavner's voice. Although Marge is her highest profile character on the show, Kavner's favorite characters to voice are Marge's sistersPatty and Selma Bouvierbecause \\\"they're really funny and sad at the same time\\\".Series creatorMatt Groeninginstructed Kavner to voice the duo as characters who \\\"suck the life out of everything\\\".Both have similar raspy\",\n \"have similar raspy voices, but Patty's voice is more masculine and has a lower register, while Selma's voice is a little sweeter.Kavner also provides the voices of every other female member of the Bouvier family, including Marge's motherJacqueline, Great-Aunt Gladys (a dead relative who was introduced on season four's \\\"Selma's Choice\\\"), and an unnamed grandmother seen on the season six episode \\\"Fear of Flying\\\". While cast members and crew have referenced Kavner as a deep fan of the series and the characters she voices, part of Kavner's contract says that she will never have to promoteThe Simpsonson video nor has she performed Marge's voice in public because she believes the publicity \\\"destroys the illusion. People feel these are real people.\\\"Kavner takes recording sessions seriously, and feels that voice acting is \\\"a little more limiting than live acting. And I have nothing to do with my character's movement.\\\"Nancy Cartwright, who voicesBart Simpson, said in her bookMy Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy(2000) that\",\n \"Boy(2000) that Kavner is a warm person who is \\\"a workhorse of an actor\\\" with \\\"extraordinary professionalism and quiet work ethic\\\", and notes that she is rarely late for recording sessions.Kavner had very few recorded interviews in regard to her work on the show. In behind-the-scenes footage from 1992, she describes Marge as \\\"a wonderful person\\\" with \\\"a great sex life\\\".On a 1994 appearance onLate Show with David Letterman, Kavner explains that performing the voice of Marge in a live-action setting would break the illusion of the character, and that she does not want her own likeness to overlap with that of the character. However, after being coaxed by Letterman, Kavner turns to face away from the camera and speaks briefly in the voice of Marge. Until 1998, Kavner was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing to cast new voices.However, the dispute was soon resolved and she received $125,000 per episode\",\n \"per episode until 2004 when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.The issue was resolved a month later,and Kavner earned $250,000 per episode.After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Kavner and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. At the44th Primetime Emmy Awards, Kavner received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performancefor voicing Marge in theseason threeepisode \\\"I Married Marge\\\".In 2004, Kavner andDan Castellanetawon aYoung Artist Awardfor Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series.For her performance inThe Simpsons Movie, Kavner was nominated for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature at the 2007Annie Awards, butIan HolmfromRatatouillereceived the award.Kavner's emotional performance in the movie got positive reviews, and one critic said she \\\"gave what must\",\n \"she \\\"gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever to find its way into a movie based on an irreverent cartoon\\\".Some scenes in the movie, such as Marge's emotional video message to Homer, were recorded over 100 times, leaving Kavner exhausted. Further career Many of Kavner's roles have been described byNew York Timeswriter Hilary de Vries as a \\\"woman who is supportive, sympathetic, or self-effacingly funny\\\".Kavner grew to despise playing such roles, saying \\\"If it smacks of Brenda Morgenstern, I won't take the job.\\\"She had a supporting role as Eleanor Costello, a nurse who befriendsRobin Williams' character in theAcademy Awardnominated filmAwakenings(1990).Kavner interviewed several nurses in preparation for the role, andPenny Marshall, the director of the film, described Kavner as \\\"a low-maintenance actor You never have to worry about giving back-story for her characters.\\\"In 1992, Kavner starred inThis Is My Life, her first leading role in a feature film. Kavner played Dottie Ingels, an\",\n \"Dottie Ingels, an aspiringstand-up comedianwho starts neglecting her family when her career begins to take off. Kavner described Dottie as \\\"really selfish\\\" but admitted, \\\"I liked the role for that very reason.\\\"Kavner had been asked to play a character with a smaller role in the film, butJoe Roth, at the time the chairman of20th Century Fox, suggested that they cast a lesser known actress in the lead role.Nora Ephron, the writer ofThis Is My Life, said Kavner \\\"has so little vanity that it is almost shocking. Not only does she have no demands as an actress – 'How big is my trailer, what's in my refrigerator?' – but she will do anything for the character if it makes sense to her.\\\" Kavner has frequently appeared inWoody Allenfilms, having roles inHannah and Her Sisters(1986),Radio Days(1987),New York Stories(1989),Alice(1990),Shadows and Fog(1991), the television movieDon't Drink the Water(1994)andDeconstructing Harry(1997).Allen described her as \\\"a naturally funny person. When she does a scene, you listen to\",\n \"you listen to her and look at her, and the prism through which it's all filtered is funny.\\\"Kavner believes he is \\\"a true filmmaker, one that has something to say, continually experimenting on different themes within his own film-making\\\", adding that \\\"anything ever does, I always want to do, I don't even have to read it.\\\" She has done voice-over work in films such asThe Lion King 1½(2004),Dr. Dolittle(1998)and an uncredited role as an announcer inA Walk on the Moon(1999).She worked with Tracey Ullman in the HBO sketch comedy seriesTracey Takes On...She was cast as the mother ofAdam Sandler's character inClick, released in 2006.She has not appeared in a non-Simpsonsrole since her appearance inClick. Personal life Kavner is Jewish.She has lived in New York City'sManhattanborough since around 1992.She leads an intensely private life, described byThe New York Timesas \\\"nearly reclusive\\\" and \\\"discreet and guarded beyond the usual reticent star routine\\\".She rarely makes public appearances and refuses to be\",\n \"and refuses to be photographed while working.She was in a relationship with producerDavid Davisfrom 1976 until his death in 2022.Neither of them confirmed being married, though reports referred to her as his wife at the time of his death. In 1983,Current Biographyreferred to Kavner as an avid athlete andpescetarian.In a 1992 interview withThe New York Times, she said she was considering retiring \\\"except for doing three days a year forWoody \\\", but had a feeling that she would receive a script she wanted \\\"to do more than life itself\\\" upon retiring. Filmography References External links\",\n \"Nancy Cartwright Nancy Jean Cartwright(born October 25, 1957) is an American actress. She is the long-time voice ofBart Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons, for which she has received aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceand anAnnie Awardfor Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation. Cartwright also voices other characters for the show, includingRalph Wiggum,Todd Flanders,Nelson Muntz, andMaggie Simpson. She is also the voice ofChuckie Finsterin the Nickelodeon seriesRugratsand its spin-offAll Grown Up!, succeedingChristine Cavanaugh. Cartwright was born inDayton, Ohio. She moved to Hollywood in 1978 and trained under voice actorDaws Butler. Her first professional role was voicing Gloria in the animated seriesRichie Rich, which she followed with a starring role in the television movieMarian Rose White(1982) and her first feature film,Twilight Zone: The Movie(1983). In 1987, Cartwright auditioned for a role ina series of animated shortsabout adysfunctional familythat was\",\n \"familythat was to appear onThe Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright intended to audition for the role ofLisa Simpson, the middle child; when she arrived at the audition, she found the role of Bart—Lisa's brother—to be more interesting. Series creatorMatt Groeningallowed her to audition for Bart and offered her the role on the spot. She voiced Bart for three seasons onThe Tracey Ullman Show, and in 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show calledThe Simpsons. BesidesThe Simpsons, Cartwright has also voiced numerous other animated characters, including Daffney Gillfin inSnorks, Mellissa Screetch inToonsylvania,RufusinKim Possible,MindyinAnimaniacs, Pistol inGoof Troop, the Robots inCrashbox, Margo Sherman inThe Criticand Todd Daring inThe Replacements. In 2000, she published her autobiography,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy, and four years later, adapted it into aone-woman play. In 2017, she wrote and produced the filmIn Search of Fellini. Early life Nancy Jean Cartwright was born on October 25, 1957,in\",\n \"October 25, 1957,in Dayton, Ohio,Frank and Miriam Cartwright's fourth of six children.She grew up inKettering, Ohio,and discovered her talent for voices at an early age. While in thefourth gradeat the school of St. Charles Borromeo, she won a school-wide speech competition with her performance ofRudyard Kipling'sHow the Camel Got His Hump.Cartwright attendedFairmont West High School, and participated in the school's theater and marching band. She regularly entered public speaking competitions, placing first in the \\\"Humorous Interpretation\\\" category at the National District Tournament two years running. The judges often suggested to her that she should perform cartoon voices. Cartwright graduated from high school in 1976 and accepted a scholarship fromOhio University.She continued to compete in public speaking competitions; during her sophomore year, she placed fifth in the National Speech Tournament's exposition category with her speech \\\"The Art of Animation\\\". In 1976, Cartwright landed a part-time job doing\",\n \"part-time job doing voice-overs for commercials onWINGradio in Dayton.A representative fromWarner Bros. Recordsvisited WING and later sent Cartwright a list of contacts in the animation industry.One of these wasDaws Butler, known for voicing characters such asHuckleberry Hound,Snagglepuss,Elroy Jetson,Spike the Bulldog, andYogi Bear. Cartwright called him and left a message in a Cockney accent on his answering machine.Butler immediately called her back and agreed to be her mentor. He mailed her a script and instructed her to send him a tape recording of herself reading it. Once he received the tape, Butler critiqued it and sent her notes. For the next year, they continued in this way, completing a new script every few weeks. Cartwright described Butler as \\\"absolutely amazing, always encouraging, always polite\\\". Cartwright returned toOhio Universityfor her sophomore year, but transferred to theUniversity of California, Los Angeles(UCLA) so she could be closer to Hollywood and Butler.Her mother, Miriam, died\",\n \"Miriam, died late in the summer of 1978.Cartwright nearly changed her relocation plans but, on September 17, 1978, \\\"joylessly\\\" left forWestwood, Los Angeles. Career Early career While attending UCLA, which did not have a public speaking team,Cartwright continued training as a voice actress with Butler. She recalled, \\\"every Sunday I'd take a 20-minute bus ride to his house inBeverly Hillsfor a one-hour lesson and be there for four hours ... They had four sons, they didn't have a daughter and I kind of fitted in as the baby of the family.\\\"Butler introduced her to many of the voice actors and directors atHanna-Barbera. After she met the directorGordon Hunt, he asked her to audition for a recurring role as Gloria inRichie Rich. She received the part, and later worked with Hunt on several other projects. At the end of 1980, Cartwright signed with a talent agency and landed a lead role in a pilot for asitcomcalledIn Trouble. Cartwright described the show as \\\"forgettable, but it jump-started my on-camera\",\n \"my on-camera career\\\".She graduated from UCLA in 1981 with a degree in theater.During the summer, Cartwright worked withJonathan Wintersas part of an improvisation troupe atKenyon CollegeinGambier, Ohio. Returning to Los Angeles, Cartwright won the lead role in the television filmMarian Rose White.Janet Maslin, a critic forThe New York Times, described Cartwright as \\\"a chubby, lumbering, slightlycross-eyedactress whose naturalness adds greatly to the film's impact\\\".Cartwright replied by sending Maslin a letter insisting she was not cross-eyed, and included a photograph.Later, Cartwright auditioned for the role of Ethel, a girl who becomes trapped in a cartoon world in the third segment ofTwilight Zone: The Movie. She met with directorJoe Danteand later described him as \\\"a total cartoon buff, and once he took a look at my resume and noticed Daws Butler's name on it, we were off and running, sharing anecdotes about Daws and animation. After about twenty minutes, he said, 'considering your background, I don't\",\n \"background, I don't see how I could cast anyonebutyou in this part!'\\\"It was her first role in a feature film.The segment was based onThe Twilight Zonetelevision series episode \\\"It's a Good Life\\\", which was later parodied inThe Simpsonsepisode \\\"Treehouse of Horror II\\\" (1991). Cartwright continued to do voice work for projects includingPound Puppies,Popeye and Son,Snorks,My Little PonyandSaturday Supercade.She joined a \\\"loop group\\\", and recorded vocals for characters in the background of films, although in most cases the sound was turned down so that very little of her voice was heard. She did minor voice-over work for several films, includingThe Clan of the Cave Bear(1986),Silverado(1985),Sixteen Candles(1984),Back to the Future Part II, andThe Color Purple(1985).Cartwright also voiced a shoe that was \\\"dipped\\\" in acid inWho Framed Roger Rabbit(1988), describing it as her first \\\"off-screen death scene\\\",and worked to correctly convey the emotion involved. Once I had graduated from UCLA, I decided that as long\",\n \"that as long as I was an actress, I was going to find related work in the industry. There were plenty of opportunities. And fortunately, I am just pushy enough to find and get myself in touch with those who can provide such opportunities. —Nancy Cartwright,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy In 1985, she auditioned for a guest spot as Cynthia inCheers. The audition called for her to say her line and walk off the set. Cartwright decided to take a chance on being different and continued walking, leaving the building and returning home. The production crew was confused, but she received the part.In search of more training as an actress, Cartwright joined a class taught by Hollywood coachMilton Katselas. He recommended that Cartwright studyLa Strada, a 1956 Italian film starringGiulietta Masinaand directed byFederico Fellini. She began performing \\\"every imaginable scene\\\" fromLa Stradain her class and spent several months trying to secure the rights to produce a stage adaptation.She visited Italy with the intention of\",\n \"the intention of meeting Fellini and requesting his permission in person. Although they never met, Cartwright kept a journal of the trip and later wrote a one-woman play calledIn Search of Fellini, partially based on her voyage.The play was co-written by Peter Kjenaas, and Cartwright won aDrama-Logue Awardafter performing it in Los Angeles in 1995. In a 1998 interview, she stated her intention to make it into a feature film,which she succeeded in doing in 2017. The Simpsons Cartwright voices the characterBart Simpsonon the long-running animated television showThe Simpsons. On March 13, 1987, she auditioned for a series of animated shorts about a dysfunctional family that was to appear onThe Tracey Ullman Show, a sketch comedy program. Cartwright had intended to audition for the role ofLisa Simpson, the elder daughter. After arriving at the audition, she found that Lisa was simply described as the middle child and at the time did not have much personality. Cartwright became more interested in the role of\",\n \"in the role of Bart, described as \\\"devious, underachieving, school-hating, irreverent, clever\\\".CreatorMatt Groeninglet her try out for Bart and gave her the job on the spot.Bart's voice came naturally to Cartwright, as she had previously used elements of it inMy Little Pony,Snorks, andPound Puppies.Cartwright describes Bart's voice as easy to perform compared with other characters.The recording of the shorts was often primitive; the dialog was recorded on a portable tape deck in a makeshift studio above the bleachers on the set ofThe Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright, the only cast member to have been professionally trained in voice acting,described the sessions as \\\"great fun\\\".However, she wanted to appear in the live-action sketches and occasionally showed up for recording sessions early, hoping to be noticed by a producer. In 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show on theFox networkcalledThe Simpsons. Bart quickly became the show'sbreakout personalityand one of the most celebrated characters on\",\n \"characters on television—his popularity in 1990 and 1991 was known as \\\"Bartmania\\\".Bart was described as \\\"television's brightest new star\\\" by Mike Boone ofThe Gazetteand was named 1990's \\\"entertainer of the year\\\" byEntertainment Weekly.Despite Bart's fame, however, Cartwright remained relatively unknown. During the first season ofThe Simpsons, Fox ordered Cartwright not to give interviews, because they did not want to publicize the fact that Bart was voiced by a woman.Cartwright's normal speaking voice is said to have \\\"no obvious traces of Bart\\\",and she believes her role is \\\"the best acting job in the world\\\"since she is rarely recognized in public.When she is recognized and asked to perform Bart's voice in front of children, Cartwright refuses because it \\\"freaks out\\\".Bart's catchphrase \\\"Eat My Shorts\\\" was an ad-lib by Cartwright in one of the original table readings, referring to an incident from her high school days. Once while performing, members of the Fairmont West High School marching band switched\",\n \"band switched their chant from the usual \\\"Fairmont West! Fairmont West!\\\" to the irreverent \\\"Eat my shorts!\\\" Cartwright felt it appropriate for Bart, and improvised the line; it became a popular catchphrase on the show. Cartwright voices several other characters on the show, includingNelson Muntz,Ralph Wiggum,Todd Flanders,Kearney, andDatabase.She first voiced Nelson in the episode \\\"Bart the General\\\" (season one, 1990). The character was to be voiced byDana Hill, but Hill missed the recording session and Cartwright was given the role.She developed Nelson's voice on the spot and describes him as \\\"a throat-ripper\\\".Ralph Wiggum had originally been voiced byJo Ann Harris, but Cartwright was assigned to voice the character in \\\"Bart the Murderer\\\" (season three, 1991).Todd Flanders, the only voice for which Cartwright used another source, is based on Sherman (voiced byWalter Tetley), the boy fromPeabody's Improbable History, a series of shorts aired onThe Rocky and Bullwinkle Show. Cartwright received aPrimetime\",\n \"received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992 for her performance as Bart in the episode \\\"Separate Vocations\\\"and anAnnie Awardin 1995 for Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation.Bart was named one of the100 most important people of the 20th centurybyTime,and in 2000, Bart and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame, located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard. Until 1998, Cartwright was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors and made preparations for casting new actors.The dispute was resolved, however, and Cartwright received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded $360,000 an episode.A compromise was reached after a month,and Cartwright's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.Salaries were re-negotiated in 2008 with the voice actors receiving approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production\",\n \"unless production costs were cut, Cartwright and the other cast members accepted a 25 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. Further career It is quite a curiosity being a celebrity that nobody knows. I ask you, how many celebrities would younotrecognize were they to walk down the street? ... I can think of no one—besides my fellow cast members and me. The anonymity factor is such a unique aspect of this job. I must admit, sometimes I wish it were different. —Nancy Cartwright,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy In addition to her work onThe Simpsons, Cartwright has voiced many other characters on several animated series, including Chuckie Finster inRugratsandAll Grown Up!, Margo Sherman inThe Critic,MindyinAnimaniacs,andRufusthenaked mole-ratinKim Possible. For the role of Rufus, Cartwright researched mole-rats extensively, and became \\\"a font of useless trivia\\\".She was nominated for aDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program in 2004 for her work on the show.In 2001,\",\n \"the show.In 2001, Cartwright took over theRugratsrole of Chuckie Finster whenChristine Cavanaughretired.Cartwright describes Rufus and Chuckie as her two most difficult voices: \\\"Rufus because my diaphragm gets a workout while trying to utilize the 18 vocal sounds a mole makes. Chuckie because ... he's an asthmatic with five personalities rolled into one—plus I have to do the voice the way did it for 10 years.\\\"Other television shows that have used her voice work includeGalaxy High,God, the Devil and Bob,Goof Troop,Mike, Lu & Og,The Replacements,Pinky and the BrainandTimberwolf.Cartwright has appeared on camera in numerous television shows and films, includingFame,Empty Nest,The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air,Flesh and Blood,Godzilla,and24. In 2000, Cartwright published her autobiography,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy. The book details her career (particularly her experiences as the voice of Bart) and contains stories about life behind the scenes ofThe Simpsons.Laura A. Bischoff of theDayton Daily Newscommented that\",\n \"Newscommented that the book was the \\\"ultimate insider's guide toThe Simpsons\\\".Critics complained that the book lacked interesting stories and was aimed mostly at fans ofThe Simpsonsrather than a general audience. Cartwright adaptedMy Life as a 10-Year-Old Boyinto aone-woman playin 2004. Cartwright has performed it at a variety of venues, including the August 2004Edinburgh Festival Fringein Scotland.The play received modest reviews, including criticism for a lack of inside stories aboutThe Simpsons, and its \\\"overweeningly upbeat\\\" tone.David Chatterton ofThe British Theatre Guidedescribed the show as \\\"interesting and entertaining, but not really a 'must see' even for Simpsons fans\\\". Cartwright has shown an interest instock car racingand as of 2007 was seeking aNASCARlicense.In 2001, she founded a production company called SportsBlast and created an online animated series calledThe Kellys. The series is focused on racing; Cartwright voices a seven-year-old named Chip Kelly. In 2016, Cartwright launched Spotted\",\n \"launched Spotted Cow Entertainment, her own film and television production company, with Peter Kjenaas, Monica Gil and Kevin Burke. With a focus on international audiences, Spotted Cow is seeking \\\"to finance, produce and acquire live action and animated films, television series, as well as entertainment for digital platforms with budgets up to $15M.\\\"With Spotted Cow, Cartwright made her first film as a screenwriter and producer,In Search of Fellini, which was released on September 15, 2017.Based on her own journey toItalyin 1985 in a bid to meet the famed directorFederico Fellini, the film fulfilled Cartwright's longtime vision of turning her 1995 one-woman playIn Search of Felliniinto a film. Personal life Cartwright met real-estate agent Warren Murphy, 24 years her senior, on her birthday in 1988 and married him two months later.In her book, she describes Murphy as her \\\"personal laugh track\\\".The couple had two children, Lucy and Jack, before divorcing in 2002. Cartwright was raised aRoman Catholicbut\",\n \"aRoman Catholicbut joined theChurch of Scientologyin 1991.She was awarded Scientology's Patron Laureate Award after donating $10,000,000, almost twice her annual salary, to the Church in 2007. Cartwright is a contributor toASIFA-Hollywood's Animation Archive Project.In September 2007, Cartwright received theMake-A-Wish Foundation'sWish IconAward \\\"for her tremendous dedication to the Foundation's fundraising and wish-fulfillment efforts.\\\"In 2005, Cartwright created ascholarshipat Fairmont High School \\\"designed to aid Fairmont who dream of following in her footsteps and studying speech, debate, drama or music\\\" atOhio University.In 2005, Cartwright was given the title of Honorary Mayor ofNorthridge, California(a neighborhood of Los Angeles) by the Northridge Chamber of Commerce. In 2007, Cartwright was in a romantic relationship with contractor Stephen Brackett,a fellow member of Scientology.In early 2008, the couple had made plans to marry,but Brackett died in May 2009. In 2012, Cartwright received an\",\n \"received an honorary doctorate degree in communication fromOhio University, where she was a student from 1976 to 1977 before transferring to UCLA. Cartwright is also a painter, sculptor and philanthropist. She co-founded the Know More About Drugs alliance. Filmography Live-action Film Television Voice roles Film Animation Video games Music videos Theme parks Web series Producer Other credits Awards References Bibliography External links\",\n \"Yeardley Smith Martha Maria Yeardley Smith(/ˈjɑːrdli/YARD-lee;born July 3, 1964) is an American actress. She stars as the voice ofLisa Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons. Smith became an actress in 1982 after graduating from drama school. She moved to New York City in 1984, where she appeared in the Broadway production ofTom Stoppard'sThe Real Thing. She made her film debut in 1985'sHeaven Help Us, followed by roles inThe Legend of Billie JeanandMaximum Overdrive. She moved to Los Angeles in 1986 and took a recurring role in the television seriesBrothers. In 1987, Smith auditioned for theSimpsonsshorts onThe Tracey Ullman Show. Smith intended to audition for the role ofBart Simpson, but the casting director felt her voice was too high, and she was cast as Bart's sister Lisa. In 1989, the shorts werespun offinto their own half-hour show,The Simpsons. For her work onThe Simpsons, Smith received aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992. AlongsideThe Simpsons, Smith\",\n \"Simpsons, Smith appeared in the sitcomHerman's Headas Louise, and had recurring appearances as Marlene onDharma & Gregand as Penny in two episodes ofDead Like Me. She has appeared in several films, includingCity Slickers,Just Write,Toys, andAs Good as It Gets. In 2004, Smith performed anoff-Broadwayone-woman show entitledMoreat theUnion Square Theatrein New York City. Aside fromThe Simpsons, Smith has recorded few voice-over parts, only commercials and the filmWe're Back! A Dinosaur's Story. Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedyWaiting For Ophelia, which had its world premiere at thePhoenix Film Festivalin April 2009. Early life Smith was born on July 3, 1964, inParis, France. Her father, Joseph Smith, worked forUnited Press Internationalin Paris and moved to Washington, D.C., in 1966, where he becameThe Washington Post's first official obituary editor.Her mother, Martha Mayor, was apaper conservatorfor theFreerandSackler Galleriesat theSmithsonian\",\n \"theSmithsonian Institution.Smith's parents later divorced.Her maternal grandfather was art historianA. Hyatt Mayor, and among her great-grandparents were marine biologist and zoologistAlpheus Hyattand artist and sculptorHarriet Randolph Hyatt Mayor.She is also the paternal niece of political scientist, historian, andLatin American studiesspecialistPeter H. Smith.Smith has labeled her family \\\"upper crust and reserved\\\".As a child, Smith was often teased because of her unusual voice.Smith has stated: \\\"I've sounded pretty much the same way since I was six. Maybe a little deeper now.\\\"She made her acting debut in a sixth-grade play. Career Early career Smith became a professional actress in 1982.After appearances in a number of school plays, she joined the localArena Stagetheater group on an apprenticeship, featuring in their production ofPeter Pan. She went on to star in several other plays in Washington.She moved to New York City in 1984 and appeared in the Broadway production ofTom Stoppard's playThe Real\",\n \"playThe Real ThingalongsideJeremy IronsandGlenn Close. Smith's first film role came inHeaven Help Us(1985).She then played Putter inThe Legend of Billie Jean(also 1985). The film was abox office bomband critically panned, although Smith \\\"thought it would be the movie that launched my career. And then it was out at the box office about 10 days before it died.\\\"When filming was over, she rejoinedThe Real Thingbefore being out of work for six months. Smith worried her career was over.However, the following year, she played Connie inStephen King'sMaximum Overdrive(1986), noting it was \\\"truly a dreadful film, but I had a great part in it.\\\" Smith moved to Los Angeles in 1986 on the \\\"semi-promise\\\" of a part in a TV film.After the audition, the role was given to another actress. Smith realized \\\"that people don't mean what they say. It's not malicious. They just don't realize how much impact they have on an impressionable actor – and all actors are impressionable.\\\" From then on, she decided to \\\"just sort of build a\",\n \"sort of build a wall around myself\\\", to cope with the disappointment of not getting a part.In Los Angeles, Smith appeared in theatrical productions ofLiving on Salvation Street, for which she was paid $14 for each performance,Boys and Girls/Men and Women, andHow the Other Half Loves, and played the recurring role of Louella Waters on theShowtimeseriesBrothers.She appeared in the filmsThe Legend of Billie JeanandGinger Ale Afternoon(1989) as \\\"trailer-park girls\\\".She later spoke of her regrets of appearing in the latter in her one-woman showMore. The Simpsons It's a happy fluke. When she was cast back in 1987, I just liked the sound of her voice. She's also a great actress. In general, people who make their living doing voices on cartoons aren't always great for us. Most cartoons want things peppy and cartoony. Yeardley is able to go through moments of great emotion and wring it for all she's worth. —Matt Groeningon Smith's vocal style Smith's longest-running role is voicingLisa SimpsononThe Simpsons. She has\",\n \"Simpsons. She has voiced Lisa since 1987, beginning withThe Simpsons shortsonThe Tracey Ullman Show. Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Lisa's brotherBart, but casting directorBonita Pietilathought her voice was too high. Smith later recalled \\\"I always sounded too much like a girl, I read two lines as Bart and they said, 'Thanks for coming!'\\\"Smith was given the role of Lisa, instead. She denies rumors that she almost turned down the role, though admits she had never planned a career in voice-over work.Pietila stated that, having seen her inLiving on Salvation Street,Smith was always her preferred choice.Smith lifts her voice up slightly to perform the role.Lisa is the only regular character voiced by Smith, although in some earlier episodes, she provided some ofMaggie's squeaks and occasional speaking parts.Smith has only voiced characters other than Lisa on very rare occasions, with those characters usually being some derivative of Lisa, such as Lisa Bella in \\\"Last Tap Dance in\",\n \"\\\"Last Tap Dance in Springfield\\\" and Lisa, Jr. in \\\"Missionary: Impossible\\\" (both fromseason 11in 2000).Smith spends two days a week recording the show. Until 1998, Smith was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing to cast new voices.However, the dispute was soon resolved and she received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 per episode.The issue was resolved a month later,and Smith earned $250,000 per episode.After salary renegotiations in 2008, the voice actors received about $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Smith and the other cast members accepted a 25% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. Despite her world-famous role, Smith is rarely recognized in public, which she does not mind, saying, \\\"it's wonderful to be in the midst of all this hype about the\",\n \"this hype about the show, and people enjoying the show so much, and to be totally afly on the wall; people never recognise me solely from my voice.\\\"In a 2009 interview withThe Guardian, she commented: \\\"It's the best job ever. I have nothing but gratitude for the amount of freedomThe Simpsonshas bought me in my life.\\\" Smith received aPrimetime Emmy Awardin 1992, but felt it was not worth anything, saying \\\"there's part of me that feels it wasn't even a real Emmy.\\\" The Emmy forOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceis aCreative Artsand not handed out during the primetime telecast and, prior to 2009, was a juried award without nominations.However, Smith says \\\"if I had to be associated with one character in fiction, I will always be thrilled that it was Lisa Simpson.\\\"The show's creatorMatt Groeninghas called Smith very similar to Lisa: \\\"Yeardley has strong moral views about her character. There are lines that are written for Lisa that Yeardley reads and says, 'No, I wouldn't say that.'\\\"WriterJay Kogenpraised her\",\n \"Kogenpraised her performance on the show, particularly in the episode \\\"Lisa's Substitute\\\", as able \\\"to move past comedy to something really strong and serious and dramatic\\\". Further career From 1991 to 1994, alongsideThe Simpsons, Smith was one of the lead cast members in the sitcomHerman's Headas Louise.Her other television roles include recurring appearances as Marlene onDharma & Greg, and Penny in two episodes ofDead Like Me. Smith has also appeared inPhil of the FutureandTeen Angel.Her one-scene role as pregnant checkout girl Nancy in 1991'sCity Slickersearned her \\\"more attention than all previous roles combined\\\", and taught her \\\"that it's far better to have small parts in big movies that everyone sees.\\\"In 1997, she appeared as Lulu the palm reader in the independent filmJust Write.Her other roles include parts inBarry Levinson'sToysandJames L. Brooks'As Good as It Gets.Brooks, who is also executive producer ofThe Simpsons, had cast Smith in his 1994 filmI'll Do Anything(in one of the film's musical\",\n \"the film's musical numbers), but her part was cut.Aside fromThe Simpsons, Smith has recorded few voice-over parts, only commercials and the filmWe're Back! A Dinosaur's Story. She \\\"had a voice-over agent for about two years, and I used to go out all the time, but it never really came to anything. Everybody said, 'Oh Yeardley, you'll clean up,' and that was definitely not the case.\\\" In 2004, Smith performed her own off-Broadway one-woman show entitledMoreat theUnion Square Theatrein New York City. Directed byJudith Ivey,the play is about her mixed feelings over the success ofThe Simpsons, her parents, her relationships, and her struggles withbulimia.The New York Timescritic Margo Jefferson called it an \\\"appealing if overlong show\\\", adding that \\\"The career narrative needed shortening. This would involve some editing and revising but wouldn't taint the best parts ofMore.It is refreshing to hear a celebrity talk cleanly about being fame-driven and about not getting the degree or the kind of fame you craved.\",\n \"of fame you craved. It's fun to watch a skilled actress use her craft to the full.\\\"She would later perform the play for three weeks in Los Angeles the following year. Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedyWaiting for Ophelia, which was released in 2009. She funded the film, which was written by Adam Carl and based on a stage play he wrote in 2003. She said: \\\"I loved it. I never get to play parts like that. I always play the friend of a friend, never the lead. And the script surprised me.\\\" Carl stated it was very unlikely she would recoup her money, but Smith decided she \\\"believe in this project, and my expectations have already been fulfilled by making the movie\\\", and added: \\\"You can support art even if it's not going to make a zillion dollars.\\\"It premiered on April 4, 2009, at thePhoenix Film Festival. In 2011, Smith starred as Ms. Miller in the movieThe ChaperonealongsideTriple HandAriel Winter. In June 2016, theHuman Rights Campaignreleased a video in tribute\",\n \"a video in tribute to the victims of theOrlando nightclub shooting; in the video, Smith and others told the stories of the people killed there.On March 30, 2019, Smith was honored with the Human Rights Campaign's National Leadership Award in Los Angeles for her work as an advocate of theLGBT community. In 2017, Smith started a podcast,Small Town Dicks, which explores real life crime in small towns in the United States.Smith had co-hosted the podcast with actress and long-time friend Zibby Allen until March 2019 when the two filed lawsuits against one another, with Allen accusing Smith of pushing her out of ownership and profit rights from the show. Politics Smith is a lifelongDemocrat. In 2018, Smith mockedRepublicanTed Cruzafter he labeled the Democratic Party as \\\"the party ofLisa Simpson\\\".Smith recommended that people of differing political views should be able to work together ongun control, promotinggay rightsandenvironmentalism. Personal life Smith marriedEnglish-Canadianactor Christopher Grove in 1990.\",\n \"Grove in 1990. They were divorced in 1992, citing irreconcilable differences. In a 1997 interview withThe Daily Targum, Smith stated \\\"I am shy, but I have an extroverted persona which I can draw on when I need to,\\\" and that she is a \\\"private\\\" actress. She married Daniel Erickson in 2002; the marriage lasted for six years and Smith filed for divorce on May 21, 2008, citing irreconcilable differences. In 2009, she commented, \\\"People have said to me that I'm unassuming. It's true, I'm the worst celebrity ever. But I'm trying to become better.\\\" Smith hadbulimiawhen she was a teenager. She noted \\\"It would make me high, I would feelendorphinsand this great sense of victory.\\\" Smith enjoys writing and painting. During the first season ofHerman's Head, Smith taught herself to paint by copying other artists.The bookJust Humor Meincludes a story, \\\"The Race\\\", written by Smith.She has written a children's book,I, Lorelei, which was published byHarperCollinsin February 2009. In 2011, Smith launched a women's shoe line\",\n \"a women's shoe line called Marchez Vous. In November 2021, Yeardley was noted for producing a podcast on themurder of Sheila Anderson, one of Scotland's most notorious unsolved murders. On June 11, 2022, Smith married one of the co-hosts of her podcast,Small Town Dicks, Detective (Ret) Dan Grice. She met him while he was providing personal security for her during aSimpsonsevent. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Theme park Podcasts References External links\",\n \"Hank Azaria Henry Albert\\\"Hank\\\"Azaria(/əˈzɛəriə/ə-ZAIR-ee-ə; born April 25, 1964) is an American actor. He is known for voicing many characters in the long-running animated sitcomThe Simpsonssince 1989, includingMoe Szyslak,Chief Wiggum,Superintendent Chalmers,Comic Book Guy,Snake Jailbird,Professor Frink,Kirk Van Houten,Duffman,Apu Nahasapeemapetilon,Lou,Carl Carlson, among others. Azaria joined the show with little voice acting experience, but became a regular in itssecond season. For his work on the show, he has won fourPrimetime Emmy Awards. Alongside his continued voice acting onThe Simpsons, Azaria became more widely known through his live-action supporting appearances in films such asQuiz Show(1994),Heat,The Birdcage(1996) (for which he won aScreen Actors Guild Award) andGodzilla(1998). He has also appeared in numerous films includingMystery Men(1999),America's Sweethearts(2001),Shattered Glass(2003),Along Came Polly(2004),Run Fatboy Run(2007),Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian(2009) andThe\",\n \"andThe Smurfs(2011) andThe Smurfs 2(2013). Further voice roles includeAnastasia(1997), for which he won anAnnie Award. His live-action television work includes recurring roles on the sitcomsMad About YouandFriends, as well as dramatic roles in the TV filmsTuesdays With Morrie(1999) as writerMitch AlbomandUprising(2001) as Jewish resistance leaderMordechai Anielewicz. For the former, Azaria received thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie. He starred in the title roles in theShowtimedrama seriesHuff(2004–2006) and theIFCsitcomBrockmire(2017–2020). His recurring role on the dramaRay Donovanearned him a sixth Primetime Emmy Award in 2016. Azaria made hisBroadwaydebut asLancelotinSpamalot, for which he was nominated for theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He returned to Broadway in 2007, playing David Sarnoff inThe Farnsworth Invention. Early life and education Henry Albert Azaria was born in theManhattanborough ofNew York Cityon April 25, 1964 to Ruth and\",\n \"1964 to Ruth and Albert Azaria.He began going by the name \\\"Hank\\\" as a child, after a pediatrician he visited said he felt it was a more suitable name for a child than \\\"Henry\\\".His grandparents on both sides wereSephardic Jewsfrom the Greek city ofThessaloniki. His family spokeLadino, also known as Judaeo-Spanish, which he described as \\\"a strange, antiquated Spanish dialect written inHebrewcharacters.\\\"Azaria's father ran several dress-manufacturing businesses while his mother raised him and his two older sisters, Stephanie and Elise.Before marrying his father, Azaria's mother had been a publicist forColumbia Pictures, promoting films in Latin American countries as she was fluent in both English and Spanish.During his childhood, Azaria would often \\\"memorize and mimic\\\" the scripts of films, shows, and stand-up comedy routines he enjoyed. Azaria attendedThe Kew-Forest Schoolin Queens'Forest Hillsneighborhood.He decided to become an actor after performing in a school play at the age of 16, becoming \\\"obsessed with\",\n \"\\\"obsessed with acting\\\" at the expense of his academic studies.Both of his parents loved all forms of show business, which further spurred him to become an actor.He studied drama atTufts Universityfrom 1981 to 1985,where he met and befriended actorOliver Plattand noted that Platt was a \\\"better actor\\\" than he was and inspired him.Together they starred in various college stage productions, includingThe Merchant of Venice,before Azaria went to train at theAmerican Academy of Dramatic Arts.Although he did not expect the endeavor to be successful, he decided to become a professional actor so that he would not regret not having tried later in life.His first acting job was an advertisement for Italian television when he was 17 years old.He also worked as abusboy.He originally intended to work predominantly as a theatrical actor, and he and Platt set up a company called Big Theatre, althoughHarold Pinter'sThe Dumb Waiterwas the only show they ever performed.Azaria decided that television was a better arena and\",\n \"a better arena and offered more opportunity, and moved toLos Angelesafter being offered work with talent agent Harry Gold. Career Early career (1986–1988) Azaria got along with talent agent Harry Gold, who was lukewarm about working with him but still sent him out for auditions after a woman Azaria had worked with in New York \\\"got really furious with \\\" for breaking his promise to work with Azaria.He made his television debut with a role in the pilot episode of the 1986ABCcomedy-drama seriesJoe Bash.His part—a one-line role as the police officer Maldonado—was edited out before the show was broadcast, although the role secured him admission to theScreen Actors Guild.Azaria appeared in the TV filmNitti: The Enforcer, about the gangsterFrank Nitti, and appeared in the failed pilotMorning MaggiealongsideMatthew Perry, with whom he became good friends.He played Joe in an episode of the sitcomFamily Tiesin 1988 in which he had one line, and the following year he played Steve Stevenson in an episode ofGrowing\",\n \"episode ofGrowing Pains.Azaria has described his career progression as being gradual; he did not achieve overnight recognition or fame.In Los Angeles, Azaria was trained by acting coachRoy London.Between acting jobs he performed as a stand-up comedian,and worked as a bartender for a catering firm. The Simpsons(since 1989) Azaria is known for his voice work in the ongoing animated television seriesThe Simpsons. He joined the show having previously performed only one voice-over—as the titular animated dog in the failedFoxpilotHollywood Dog, a show he described as \\\"sort ofRoger Rabbit-esque, where the dog was animated, but everybody else was real.\\\"The first voice he performed onThe Simpsonswas that of town bartenderMoe Szyslak, replacingChristopher Collinswho had initially recorded the character's voice. Having known him fromHollywood Dog, casting directorBonita Pietilacalled Azaria and asked him to audition for the voice of Moe.At the time he was performing the role of a drug dealer in a play, utilizing a\",\n \"a play, utilizing a voice based onAl Pacino's performance in the filmDog Day Afternoon. He used the voice in his audition forThe Simpsonsand, at the request of the show's executive producersMatt GroeningandSam Simon, made the voice more \\\"gravelly\\\". Groening and Simon thought the resultant voice was ideal for Moe and took Azaria over to the Fox recording studio. Before he had even seen a script, he recorded several lines of dialogue as Moe for the episode \\\"Some Enchanted Evening\\\",dubbingCollins' voice. Azaria did not expect to hear from the show again, but they continued to call him back, first to perform the voice ofChief Wiggumand thenApu Nahasapeemapetilon.He felt that, initially, \\\" didn't seem too pleased with what I had done... was very exacting... was kind of impatiently directing me on the ABCs of comedy. But then, much to my surprise, he would still keep having me back every week. But each week, I thought it was going to be my last week because I really didn't think I had done that well.\\\"Nevertheless,\",\n \"well.\\\"Nevertheless, by the show'ssecond seasonhe was performing multiple recurring voices and so was given a contract and made a permanent member of the main cast.Since he joined later than the rest of the cast, Groening still considered Azaria the \\\"new guy\\\".In addition to Moe, Wiggum and Apu, Azaria provides the voices ofComic Book Guy,Carl Carlson(until season 32, now voiced byAlex Désert),Cletus Spuckler,Professor Frink, Dr.Nick Riviera,Lou,Snake Jailbird,Kirk Van Houten,Bumblebee Man,the Sea Captain,Superintendent Chalmers,Disco Stu,Duffman,the Wiseguy, and numerous guest characters.His co-star inThe Simpsons,Nancy Cartwright, wrote that: \\\"The thing about Hank that I most remember is that he started out so unassuming and then, little by little, his abilities were revealed and his contributions to the show escalated. I realized Hank was going to be our breakaway star.\\\" As Moe's voice is based on Al Pacino's, likewise many of Azaria's other recurring characters are based on existing sources. He took Apu's\",\n \"He took Apu's voice from the many Indian and Pakistani convenience store workers in Los Angeles that he had interacted with when he first moved to the area, and also loosely based it onPeter Sellers' character Hrundi V. Bakshi from the filmThe Party.Originally, it was thought that Apu being Indian was too offensive and stereotyped, but after Azaria's reading of the line \\\"Hello, Mr. Homer\\\", which the show's producers thought was hilarious, the character stayed.Azaria, however, disputed this onLateNet withRay Ellin, claiming that Apu was always intended to be stereotypical.Chief Wiggum's voice was originally a parody ofDavid Brinkley, but when Azaria was told it was too slow, he switched it to that ofEdward G. Robinson.Officer Lou is based onSylvester Stallone,and Dr. Nick is \\\"a badRicky Ricardoimpression.\\\"The \\\"Wise Guy\\\" voice is \\\"basicallyCharles Bronson,\\\"while Carl is \\\"a silly voice always did.\\\"Two of the voices come from his time at college: Snake's is based on Azaria's old college roommate, while Comic\",\n \"while Comic Book Guy's voice is based on a student who lived in the room next door to Azaria and went by the name \\\"F\\\".Professor Frink is based onJerry Lewis' performance in the originalThe Nutty Professor, and the Sea Captain is based on English actorRobert Newton's portrayal of many pirates.Azaria based his performance for the one-time characterFrank Grimes, from the episode \\\"Homer's Enemy\\\", on actorWilliam H. Macy. He counts Grimes as the hardest, most emotional performance he has ever had to give in the history ofThe Simpsons. Azaria's work on the show has won him four Emmy Awards forOutstanding Voice-Over Performance, in 1998, 2001, 2003 and 2015. He was also nominated for the award in 2009 and 2010, but lost to co-starDan Castellanetaand guest starAnne Hathawayrespectively. He was nominated again in 2012.Azaria, with the rest of the principal cast, reprised all of his voice roles fromThe Simpsonsfor the 2007 filmThe Simpsons Movie.Azaria notes that he spends \\\"an embarrassingly small amount of time\",\n \"amount of time working onThe Simpsons.\\\"He works for \\\"an hour on Thursdays when we read through the script, then four hours on Monday when we record it, and I'll pop in again once or twice.\\\"He concludes it is \\\"the best job in the world, as far as I'm concerned.\\\" Up until 1998, Azaria was paid $30,000 per episode. Azaria and the five other mainThe Simpsonsvoice actors were then involved in a pay dispute in which Fox threatened to replace them with new actors and went as far as preparing for the casting of new voices. However, the issue was soon resolved and from 1998 to 2004, they received $125,000 per episode. In 2004, the voice actors intentionally skipped several scriptread-throughs, demanding they be paid $360,000 per episode.The strike was resolved a month later,with Azaria's pay increasing to something between $250,000and $360,000 per episode.In 2008, production for thetwentieth seasonwas put on hold due to new contract negotiations with the voice actors, who wanted a \\\"healthy bump\\\" in salary.The dispute\",\n \"salary.The dispute was later resolved, and Azaria and the rest of the cast received their requested pay raise, approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Azaria and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. In an April 24, 2018 appearance onThe Late Show with Stephen Colbert, Azaria discussed his reaction toThe Problem with Apu, a 2017 documentary byHari Kondaboluthat examined Azaria and other white actors who had playedSouth Asianroles asstereotypes.During the interview, Azaria described how watching the documentary had changed his perspective on the issue: \\\"The idea that anyone, young or old, past or present, was bullied or teased based on the character of Apu, it just really makes me sad.\\\"Azaria also offered to stop voicing the character: \\\"I'm perfectly willing and happy to step aside, or help transition it into something new.\\\"In response, Kondabolu tweeted his\",\n \"tweeted his appreciation for Azaria's statement: \\\"Thank you, @HankAzaria. I appreciate what you said & how you said it.\\\" In early 2020, Azaria announced that he was stepping away from the Apu character, primarily because of the stereotypes and bias it perpetuated.Later in the year he would retire from voicing Carl for similar reasons.In April 2021, Azaria formally apologized for voicing the Apu character, onDax Shepherd's podcast. Further career (since 1991) Television work With the continuing success ofThe Simpsons, Azaria began taking on other, principally live-action roles. He was a main cast member on the showHerman's Head(1991–1994) playing Jay Nichols, alongsideThe Simpsonsco-starYeardley Smith.He regularly recorded forThe Simpsonsand filmedHerman's Headduring the same day.Following the series' cancellation Azaria unsuccessfully auditioned for the role ofJoey Tribbiani, one of the lead characters in the sitcomFriends.He was instead cast in the role of the scientist David, one ofPhoebe Buffay's\",\n \"ofPhoebe Buffay's boyfriends in the series. He appeared in the show's tenth episode \\\"The One with the Monkey\\\", before the character left for a research trip inMinsk. He reprised the role in the show'sseventh season(2001), before making several appearances in theninth(2003). This return culminates in David proposing to Phoebe; she rejects him, and David leaves the show for good.From 1995 to 1999, Azaria had a recurring role in the sitcomMad About Youas Nat Ostertag, the dog walker.Azaria was nominated for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor his roles in bothMad About You(in 1998) andFriends(in 2003).Azaria had the lead role in the short-lived sitcomIf Not For Youin 1995, playing record producer Craig Schaeffer. Azaria produced and starred in the sitcomImagine Thatin 2002, replacingEmerilmid-season in theNBClineup. He played Josh Miller, a comedy writer, who \\\"transformed\\\" each episode into a character Miller has imagined, \\\"provid a humorous outlet for his frustrations at\",\n \"his frustrations at home and work\\\".Production closed after five episodes and it was canceled after just two aired, due to poor critical reaction and ratings.Azaria later commented on the show: \\\"I wanted to do something really truthful and interesting and impactful. We had a bunch of executives sitting in the room, all agreeing thatThe Larry Sanders Showwas our favorite thing on television, but we couldn't do it on NBC, and nor would we want to from a business standpoint; it simply wouldn't make enough money. By the time it aired, the writing was sort of on the wall, and I don't blame them at all. It was apparent it wasn't working.\\\" He starred aspsychiatristCraig \\\"Huff\\\" Huffstodt in theShowtimedrama seriesHuff, which ran for two seasons between 2004 and 2006, airing 24 episodes.Azaria served as an executive producer on the show and directed an episode of its second season.After reading the pilot script, he sent it to Platt, who took the role of Huff's friend Russell Tupper.Azaria enjoyed working on the\",\n \"working on the show,but struggled with the bleak subject matter and was often in dispute with its creator Bob Lowry, noting that it \\\"was tough to marry our visions all the time, we both cared so much about it that neither of us were willing to let go.\\\"Gillian FlynnofEntertainment Weeklycalled Azaria \\\"impressively subtle\\\" in the role,whileJohn LeonardofNew York magazinesaid he was a \\\"shrewd bit of casting.\\\"The show garnered sevenEmmynominations in 2005, including a nomination for Azaria forOutstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.Despite the awards, the show continually received low ratings, and Showtime chose not to commission it for a third season. Returning to live-action television in 2011, Azaria starred in the NBC sitcomFree Agents, a remake of the Britishseries of the same name. He played Alex Taylor, a recently divorced public relations executive \\\"who is missing his kids and trying to keep himself together\\\", and ends up sleeping with a co-worker (Kathryn Hahn).Azaria also served as a producer on the\",\n \"a producer on the show.He was apprehensive about the project, disliking the lengthy schedule required of a lead actor in a single-camera series, and favoring the \\\"sensibility\\\" of cable shows. However, he liked the script and executive producer John Enbom's previous seriesParty Downand decided to accept the part.Despite Azaria mounting a campaign on Twitter to save it,the series was canceled after four episodes due to low ratings.Between 2014 and 2016, Azaria had a recurring role in the second, third and fourth season of Showtime'sRay Donovan, playingFBIagent Ed Cochran.He won the Emmy forOutstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Seriesfor his work on the show in 2016, as well as earning a further nomination the same category the following year. Azaria starred in theIFCseriesBrockmire, which ran for four seasons from 2017-2020.He played the lead role of Jim Brockmire, a legendary baseball announcer, fired for a profanity-filled breakdown live on air after discovering his wife was having an affair. Azaria based the\",\n \"Azaria based the voice and style of Brockmire on several veteran sportscasters, includingBob MurphyandPhil Rizzuto.The character originated as part of the third episode of theFunny or Dieweb-seriesGamechangers, entitled \\\"A Legend in the Booth\\\", which Azaria also co-wrote.He subsequently appeared as Brockmire on theNFL Network'sThe Rich Eisen Podcastto discuss theNational Football League.In November 2012, Azaria sued actorCraig Bierkoover the ownership of the Brockmire voice.The case was ruled in Azaria's favor in 2014. Both actors had been using a baseball announcer voice before and since meeting at a party in 1990, but US district judgeGary Allen Feessruled that only Azaria's voice was, as Brockmire, a defined, \\\"tangible\\\" character and thus subject to copyright.In 2016, IFC confirmed development on the series, on which Azaria also served as an executive producer.Azaria received three nominations for theCritics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor his performance on the series. Film\",\n \"on the series. Film work \\\" appeal can best be summed up by, of all things, his hilarious cameo in the goofy comedyDodgeball. As Patches O'Houlihan, the dodgeball champion who will age into the magnificently gruffRip Torn, he delivers a pitch-perfect performance in an instructional video in which he chain-smokes, encourages a child to pick on those weaker than him, and steals the film from a cast of comedic greats. It's a wonderful, odd moment that could have failed miserably in the hands of a lesser actor, and he manages to pull it off with only seconds of dialogue. In my humble opinion, and using my limited knowledge of boxing terms: Pound for pound, Hank Azaria is the best actor working today.\\\" —Playwright Jenelle Riley on Azaria. Azaria made his film debut in the direct-to-video releaseCool Blue(1990), as Buzz.His first theatrically released feature film appearance came the same year inPretty Woman, as a police detective named Albertson.His next major film role was as television producerAlbert Freedmanin\",\n \"Freedmanin the 1994 filmQuiz Show, which was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.In 1996, Azaria played gay Guatemalan housekeeper Agador Spartacus in the filmThe Birdcage. For the role, which Azaria considers to be his \\\"big break\\\",he was nominated for theScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role,and critically branded \\\"the most hilarious performance in the film,\\\" by Alison Macor ofThe Austin Chronicle,whileEmpirewrote that he \\\" the show.\\\"For the role he used a Guatemalan accent, and made himself sound as effeminate as possible. He had chosen two possible voices, an effeminate one and a tougher one. After advice from a drag queen, he chose the effeminate voice. Three weeks into production, he realized he sounded exactly like his grandmother, which aided his performance.Agador was originally going to be a single scene part, with the larger role of the housekeeper being played byDavid Alan Grier. With the producers fearing the racial connotations of\",\n \"connotations of a black actor in such a part, Azaria inherited the full role. He appeared in numerous other films in the late 1990s, includingHeat(1995),Grosse Pointe Blank(1997),Celebrity(1998) and worked oppositeGwyneth Paltrow, as Walter Plane, in the 1998 adaptation ofGreat Expectations.He played photographer Victor \\\"Animal\\\" Palotti inGodzilla(1998).Godzillawas one of Azaria's first starring roles in ablockbusterfilm. Its five-month shoot was the longest of his career to date, but he considered it a good chance to boost his profile. He noted, \\\"I'm so used to melding into every character I play. Even people in the business think the guy who didBirdcage,Quiz ShowandGreat Expectationsare three different actors—which in a way makes me proud, but in another way is very frustrating. It's the curse and blessing of the character actor\\\".The shoot's physical challenges, and the film's critical failure, led Azaria to later describe it as \\\"tough to make, and very disappointing when it came out. It was one you\",\n \"out. It was one you definitely chalk up and say, 'That was part of paying your dues, better luck next time'.\\\"In 1999, he starred in the dramaMystery, Alaskaas Charles Danner, and the comedy superhero filmMystery Men, as the faux-British silverware throwing expert The Blue Raja.Other film roles included Hector Gorgonzolas inAmerica's Sweethearts(2001), Claude inAlong Came Polly(2004), and the young Patches O'Houlihan inDodgeBall: A True Underdog Story(2004), the latter two withBen Stiller.For his role of Claude, a French scuba instructor, inAlong Came Polly, Azaria donned a wig and worked out extensively to get into the physical shape the part required. Azaria played composerMarc BlitzsteininTim Robbins' filmCradle Will Rockin 1999.Paul Clintonwrote that Azaria was \\\"brilliant as the tortured (is there any other kind) artist Blitzstein.\\\"The same year he appeared as author and journalistMitch AlbomalongsideJack Lemmonin the television filmTuesdays with Morrie,winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding\",\n \"for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Moviefor the role.Azaria described the latter as the \\\"best work done.\\\"These were two of the first dramatic roles Azaria had taken; throughout his career, Azaria has primarily worked in comedy,but tries to balance the two.Azaria commented: \\\"all the roles I got were in comedy at first, and I was certainly happy to get those, so I never felt the lack of being considered a dramatic actor because I was so happy to get what I got. And then I became surprised later on when I got dramatic roles. But I never went, 'OK, now it's time to get a dramatic role.'\\\"His next dramatic part was in the television filmUprisingin 2001. The film was based on the 1943Warsaw Ghetto Uprisingand Azaria playedMordechaj Anielewicz, one of the revolt's leaders. Azaria was confused by his casting inUprisingand frequently asked the film's producer and directorJon Avnetwhy he was selected. \\\"I know liked the fact I was Jewish, and he knew I could do accents well. He cast me andDavid\",\n \"He cast me andDavid Schwimmerin , and we were both sort of mystified. He had some instinct that he wanted people who were more known for being funny. He never explained it satisfactorily to me; I don't understand why.\\\"His parts inTuesdays With MorrieandUprisingaffected him, causing a depressive state which he countered with DVDs of the comedy seriesMonty Python.Azaria foundUprisingto be \\\"very difficult very depressing very emotionally challenging\\\" material.In 2003, Azaria played journalistMichael Kelly, the former editor ofThe New Republic, in the drama filmShattered Glass. Kelly died a few months before the film was released and Azaria said the film \\\"has become a weird kind of eulogy to him.\\\" SinceHuff's conclusion in 2006, Azaria has continued to make multiple film appearances. He played the smooth-talking Whit inDavid Schwimmer's directorial debutRun Fatboy Run(2007). During production he became good friends with co-starSimon Pegg, performingThe Simpsonsvoices on request, frequently distracting Pegg when\",\n \"Pegg when he was supposed to be filming.He worked with Stiller again on 2009'sNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonianin which Azaria played the villainous pharaoh Kah Mun Rah, utilizing aBoris Karloffaccent.Although the film received mixed reviews, critics praised Azaria's performance.Perry Seibert ofTV Guidewrote that \\\"thanks to Azaria, a master of comic timing. His grandiose, yet slightly fey bad guy is equally funny when he's chewing out minions as he is when deliberating ifOscar the GrouchandDarth Vaderare evil enough to join his team.\\\"He appeared asAbrahaminYear One(2009),Dr. Knight in 2010'sLove & Other Drugs,and playedDeep ThroatdirectorGerard DamianoinLovelace(2013). Azaria playedGargamelin the animated/live-action adaptation ofThe Smurfs(2011).Azaria wore a prosthetic nose, ears,buck teeth, eyebrows and a wig, as well as shaving his head. He spent approximately 130 hours in the make-up chair over the course of the production.Azaria considered Gargamel's voice to be the most important part of\",\n \"important part of his performance. The producers wanted an \\\"old, failed, Shakespearean actor\\\" voice, but Azaria felt this would lack energy and wanted something more Eastern European. He eventually selected a voice similar to that ofPaul Winchell's from the cartoon.Azaria disliked the cartoon when it first aired, and considered Gargamel too one-dimensional a character and \\\"just this straight villain\\\";he opted to make Gargamel \\\"more sarcastic\\\" than in the cartoon, but \\\"discovered that there's no way to play Gargamel without screaming your head off at certain points – ramping him up and getting him very upset over Smurfs\\\".He interpreted him as \\\"very lonely\\\", adding that \\\"he hates the Smurfs because they're such a happy family. He wants in really badly. I think he wants to be embraced as a Smurf\\\".Azaria worked with the writers to \\\"infuse\\\" the script with some of his ideas about the character, \\\"particularly with the 'married' relationship between Gargamel and Azreal \\\" which Azaria conceived. Reviewers fromThe\",\n \"Reviewers fromThe San Francisco ChronicleandThe Boston Globecommented on Azaria's \\\"overacting\\\" in the role of Gargamel.More positive reaction came from Scott Bowles ofUSA Todaycalled Azaria the \\\"human standout\\\";Betsy Sharkey of theLos Angeles Timesfelt he suffered the \\\"greatest disservice\\\" of the film's cast due to a poor script.Azaria noted in an interview withThe A.V. ClubthatThe SmurfsandNight at the Museumwere films he agreed to do primarily for the money, but that \\\"I won't even do that unless I think it will at least be fun to do...I really try to throw myself into it, figure out the funniest, cleverest way to get the material over, and make it fun to do and fun to watch.\\\"Azaria reprised his role in the 2013 sequelThe Smurfs 2.In 2016, Azaria starred inNormanwithRichard Gere. Further voice work Azaria performed a number of voice roles in addition toThe Simpsons, although he noted in 2005: \\\"I started doing other voiceovers for cartoons for a couple of years, but I didn't really love it. I was spoiled\",\n \"it. I was spoiled byThe Simpsons.\\\"He voicedEddie Brock/VenominSpider-Man: The Animated Seriesbetween 1994 and 1996.In the animated featureAnastasia(1997), he voiced Bartok the bat and reprised the role in the direct-to-video prequelBartok the Magnificent(1999).For his performance inAnastasia, Azaria won theAnnie Awardfor Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Male Performer in an Animated Feature Production.He also voiced Eric in the American dub of the seriesStressed Eric,Harold Zoid in the 2001Futuramaepisode \\\"That's Lobstertainment!\\\",andAbbie HoffmanandAllen GinsberginChicago 10(2007).For the 2011 filmHop, Azaria voiced Carlos and Phil. The response to the film was mostly negative, but many reviewers praised Azaria's performance.For example, Sandie Chen ofThe Washington Postsaid \\\"Azaria has been honing his over-the-top Spanish accent sinceThe Birdcage, so anything he says grabs some laughs\\\",while Emma Simmonds ofTime Outcalled him an \\\"unflappable presence, voicing two characters with\",\n \"two characters with style\\\".Later in the year he voiced The Mighty Sven inHappy Feet Two.He also voiced the lead character, Texanborder agentBud Buckwald, inBordertown, which aired in 2016,as well as Shelfish Sheldon inMack & Moxythe same year. OnceThe Simpsonswas \\\"going steadily\\\" and Azaria had enough money to live on, he stopped working on commercials as he found them \\\"demoralizing\\\", feeling that he sounded sarcastic whenever he read for them. When recording the part of \\\"Jell-O Man\\\" for aJell-Ocommercial, he was told to make the voice he offered \\\"more likable and friendly so that children like him.\\\" After pointing out that \\\"Jell-O Man\\\" was a fictional character, he left and pledged to never record for an advertisement again.However, in 2012 he voiced several insects in a commercial for theChevrolet Sonic. Other work Azaria wrote and directed the 2004 short filmNobody's Perfect, which won the Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Short at theUS Comedy Arts Festival.In January 2007, he was confirmed to be\",\n \"was confirmed to be directingOutsourced,a film about two American workers who journey to get their jobs back, after their factory is moved to Mexico.In 2009, Azaria toldEmpirehe was instead focusing on making a documentary about fatherhood.Two years later he told theLos Angeles Timesthat this project was \\\"half-complete\\\" and was \\\"forever looking for financing to finish it.\\\"It eventually began in 2014, airing onAOLas an online series titledFatherhood. According to AOL, the series of short episodes documents Azaria's \\\"touching, humorous, and often enlightening journey from a man who is not even sure he wants to have kids, to a father going through the joys, trials and tribulations of being a dad.\\\" He has periodically returned to theatrical work, appearing in several productions. In 2003, he appeared as Bernard in a run ofDavid Mamet's playSexual Perversity in Chicago, along withMatthew PerryandMinnie Driver, in London'sWest End.Azaria made his first appearance as SirLancelot, the French Taunter, and four other\",\n \"and four other characters inSpamalot, the musical version ofMonty Python and the Holy Grail, which opened in Chicago in December 2004, before moving to theShubert TheatreonBroadway.The show met with critical acclaim and received fourteenTony Awardnominations in 2005; Azaria andTim Curryboth received nominations for theTony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical.Reuniting withThe BirdcagedirectorMike Nichols, and being a hugeMonty Pythonfan, he saw it as an opportunity he could not pass up, describing it as \\\"so much fun that I haven't realized how tiring it is,\\\"and \\\"the most fun that I've ever had in my entire life.\\\"He took a break from the show in June 2005 to work onHuff, but returned in December 2005.Alan Tudykplayed the role during Azaria's absence.In late 2007 he starred inAaron Sorkin'sThe Farnsworth Invention, playingRCAheadDavid Sarnoff.In 2016, he starred in the world premiere ofDry PowderoppositeClaire Danes,John Krasinski, andSanjit De Silva, directed byThomas Kail, at\",\n \"byThomas Kail, at theoff-BroadwayPublic Theaterin New York City. Acting style and vocal range Azaria's friends refer to him as \\\"the freakish mimic\\\" due to his ability to copy almost anyone's voice, instantly after he has heard it. As a child, he believed that everyone could do this, but later realized that it was not a common talent.Azaria has said, \\\"I can remember every voice I hear, famous or otherwise ... they kind of remain in the memory banks, so I'm ready to trot them out.\\\"Azaria was glad to have found the \\\"ultimate outlet\\\" for this skill, inThe Simpsons.He \\\"didn't realize it , but it became like a lab for a character actor. had to do so many voices.\\\"In the early 2000s, Azaria felt he had reached the maximum number of voices he was capable of: \\\"For the first 10 years ofThe Simpsons, I would develop a bunch of voices. And then ... I hit a point when I was tapped out. Every noise I can make, I have made. Even characters like Gargamel, I've done. Even if it was only two or three lines, at some point I've\",\n \"at some point I've done something similar onThe Simpsons, at least somewhere along the line.\\\" For many of Azaria's characters, much of their humor is derived from a \\\"funny voice\\\", such asThe BirdcageandNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian. He stated that \\\"being funny with a funny voice is more my comfort zone, a broader character that I try to humanize, a kind of silly or wacky persona that I try to fill in,\\\" although he finds it \\\"much easier to be someone much closer to myself,\\\" as it requires \\\"less energy ... than playing characters that are so out there and high strung.\\\" The SimpsonscreatorMatt Groeninghas stated that Azaria possesses the ability to turn unfunny lines into some of the best in an episode,while former writerJay Kogenstated: \\\"Just when I think I know bag of tricks, he's always got a new thing he does to surprise me.\\\"Throughout the run ofThe Simpsons, Azaria has had to sing in character several times, a task which he describes as easier than singing normally.The SmurfswriterDavid\",\n \"SmurfswriterDavid N. Weisssays Azaria \\\"has a beautiful treasure trove of talent,\\\" and \\\"became what you wished you were writing.\\\"Playwright Jenelle Riley wrote in 2005 that Azaria was \\\"by far\\\" her favorite actor, praising his \\\"versatility\\\" and \\\"tendency to take small roles that would normally fade into the background and to consistently create characters people care about,\\\" noting his roles inShattered Glass,Mystery, Alaskaand especiallyDodgeBall: A True Underdog Story. Personal life In the early 1990s, Azaria was in a relationship with actressJulie Warner.His relationship with actressHelen Huntbegan in 1994; they married in a traditional Jewish ceremony at the couple's home inSouthern Californiaon July 17, 1999.The two had appeared together inMad About Youand theSimpsonsepisode \\\"Dumbbell Indemnity\\\".After a year of marriage, Azaria moved out of the couple's home,and Hunt filed for divorce after a six-month separation, citing irreconcilable differences. The divorce was finalized on December 18, 2000. Azaria\",\n \"18, 2000. Azaria began dating former actressKatie Wrightin 2007,and the two married later that year.They have a son named Hal (b. 2009).The family has one dog, Truman, and two rescue cats, Mookie and Wilson. In 2013, the family began renting a home on80th StreetinManhattan, with plans to make a final decision on where to live in two years.They previously lived in a four-bedroom house inPacific Palisades, which Azaria bought from hisSimpsonsco-starDan Castellanetain 2011. Several weeks earlier, Azaria had sold his home inBel Air.Azaria previously owned the fifth-floorco-oploft onMercer Streetin Manhattan'sSohoneighborhood, which he bought from photographerCindy Shermanin 2005, before selling it in 2013. Azaria suffered fromalcoholismfor several years. He credited his longtime friendMatthew Perryfor encouraging him to attendAlcoholics Anonymousmeetings and has been sober since about 2006. Azaria is thegodfatherofOliver Platt's son, George.He is also a regular poker player, appearing twice onCelebrity Poker\",\n \"onCelebrity Poker Showdownand competing at other events, finishing a few places short of thebubblein the main event of the2010 World Series of Poker.Azaria is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.He enjoys the music ofElvis Costelloand has stated that he would have been atherapistif he were not an actor.Azaria co-founded the educational support charity, \\\"Determined to Succeed\\\". On May 22, 2016, he was awarded theHonorary degreeofDoctor of Humane Letters(DHL) fromTufts University. Filmography Film Television Video games Theatre Awards and nominations References External links\",\n \"Harry Shearer Harry Julius Shearer(born December 23, 1943)is an American actor, comedian, musician, radio host, writer, and producer. Born inLos Angeles,California, Shearer began his career as a child actor. From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member ofThe Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group. Following the breakup of the group, Shearer co-wrote the filmReal Life(1979) withAlbert Brooksand worked as a writer onMartin Mull's television seriesFernwood 2 Night. Shearer was a cast member onSaturday Night Livebetween 1979 and 1980, and 1984 and 1985. Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred in the filmThis Is Spinal Tap(1984), asatiricalrockumentary, which became a hit. In 1989, he joined the cast of the animated sitcomThe Simpsons; he provides voices for characters includingMr. Burns,Waylon Smithers,Ned Flanders,Reverend Lovejoy,Lenny,Scratchy,Principal Skinner,Kent Brockman,Otto Mann, and formerlyDr. Hibbert. Shearer has appeared in films includingThe Truman Show(1998) andA Mighty Wind(2003), and has directed\",\n \"and has directed two,Teddy Bears' Picnic(2002) andThe Big Uneasy(2010). Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music programLe Show, incorporating satire, music, andsketch comedy. He has written three books. Shearer has won aPrimetime Emmy Awardand has received several other Emmy andGrammy Awardnominations. He has been married to singer-songwriterJudith Owensince 1993. He became anartist in residenceatLoyola University, New Orleansin 2013. Early life and career Shearer was born December 23, 1943,inLos Angeles,California,the son of Dora, a bookkeeper, and Mack Shearer, a trained opera singer who ran a gas station.His parents were Jewish immigrants from Poland and Austria respectively. His parents escapedNazi-occupied Europe and met inHavana, Cuba. As a child, Shearer and his family often listened to radio programs such asBob and Rayand the weekly show for theJewish Theological Seminary of America. His father died when he was 12 and he had hisBar Mitzvahthe following year.Shearer grew\",\n \"year.Shearer grew up in the neighborhood ofWest Adams.Starting when Shearer was four years old, he had a piano teacher whose daughter worked as a child actress. The piano teacher later decided to make a career change and become a children's agent, since she knew people in the business through her daughter's work. The teacher asked Shearer's parents for permission to take him to an audition. Several months later, she called Shearer's parents and told them that she had gotten Shearer an audition for the radio showThe Jack Benny Program. Shearer received the role when he was seven years old.He describedJack Bennyas \\\"very warm and approachable ... He was a guy who dug the idea of other people on the show getting laughs, which sort of spoiled me for other people in comedy.\\\"Shearer has stated that one person who took him \\\"under his wing\\\" and was his mentor during his early days in show business was voice actorMel Blanc, who voiced many animated characters, includingBugs Bunny,Daffy DuckandBarney Rubble; Blanc was\",\n \"Rubble; Blanc was a regular onThe Jack Benny Show. He also befriended Blanc’s sonNoel.Shearer made his film debut in the filmAbbott and Costello Go to Mars(1953), in which he had a small part, and appeared inThe Robe(also 1953).Throughout his childhood and teenage years he worked in television, film, and radio. In 1957, Shearer played the precursor to theEddie Haskellcharacter in the pilot episode of the television seriesLeave It to Beaver. After the filming, Shearer's parents said they did not want him to be a regular in a series. Instead they wanted him to just do occasional work so that he could have a normal childhood. Shearer and his parents made the decision not to accept the role in the series if it was picked up by a television network. In 1960, Shearer volunteered as a driver for theDemocratic National Conventionwhere he was regularly assigned trips toDisneyland. Shearer graduated fromLos Angeles High Schooland attendedUCLAas a political science major in the early 1960s. He befriended future\",\n \"befriended future congressmenHenry WaxmanandHoward Bermanduring his time at UCLA. He decided to quit show business to become a \\\"serious person\\\".However, he says this lasted approximately a month, and he joined the staff of theDaily Bruin, UCLA's school newspaper, during his first year.He was editor of the college humor magazine (Satyr), including the June 1964 parodyPreyboy.He also worked as a newscaster atKRLA, a top 40 radio station in Pasadena, during this period. According to Shearer, after graduating, he had \\\"a very serious agenda going on, and it was 'Stay Out of the Draft'.\\\"He attended graduate school atHarvard Universityfor one year and worked at the state legislature inSacramento. From 1967 to 1968, he was a high school teacher, teaching English and social studies. He left teaching following \\\"disagreements with the administration\\\". From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member ofThe Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group that includedDavid Lander,Richard BeebeandMichael McKean.The group consisted of \\\"a\",\n \"consisted of \\\"a bunch of newsmen\\\" atKRLA 1110, \\\"the number two station\\\" in Los Angeles.They wanted to do more than just straight news, so they hired comedians who were talented vocalists. Shearer heard about the group from a friend, so he brought over a tape to the station and nervously gave it to the receptionist. He found out he was hired that same day. The group's radio show was canceled in 1970 by KRLA and in 1971 byKPPC-FM, so they started performing in various clubs and concert venues.While at KRLA, Shearer also interviewedCreedence Clearwater Revivalfor thePop Chroniclesmusic documentary. In 1973, Shearer appeared as Jim Houseafire onHow Time Flys, an album byThe Firesign Theatre'sDavid Ossman. The Credibility Gap broke up in 1976 when Lander and McKean left to perform in the sitcomLaverne & Shirley.Shearer started working withAlbert Brooks, producing one of Brooks' albums and co-writing the filmReal Life(1979). Shearer also started writing forMartin Mull's television seriesFernwood 2 Night.In the\",\n \"2 Night.In the mid-1970s, he started working withRob Reineron a pilot forABC. The show, which starredChristopher Guest,Tom Leopoldand McKean, was not picked up. Career Saturday Night Live Initial run under Lorne Michaels In August 1979, Shearer was hired as a writer and cast member onSaturday Night Live, one of the first additions to the show'soriginal 1975 cast.Recommended byAl FrankentoSaturday Night LivecreatorLorne Michaels,the acquisition of Shearer was seen as an unofficial replacement forJohn BelushiandDan Aykroyd, who were both leaving the show. Shearer describes his experience on the show as a \\\"living hell\\\" and \\\"not a real pleasant place to work.\\\"He did not get along well with the other writers and cast members and states that he was not included with the cast in the opening montage (although he was added to the montage for later episodes of the1979–80 season) and that Michaels had told the rest of the cast that he was \\\"just a writer\\\". Michaels leftSaturday Night Liveat the end of the fifth season,\",\n \"the fifth season, taking the entire cast with him.Shearer told new executive producerJean Doumanianthat he was \\\"not a fan of Lorne's\\\" and offered to stay with the show if he was given the chance to overhaul the program and bring in experienced comedians, like Christopher Guest. However, Doumanian turned him down, so he decided to leave with the rest of the cast. Return in 1984 under Dick Ebersol When I left, Dick issued a press release, saying \\\"creative differences.\\\" And the first person who called me for a comment on it read me that and I blurted out, \\\"Yeah, I was creative and they were different.\\\" —Harry Shearer In 1984, while promoting the filmThis Is Spinal Tap, Shearer, Christopher Guest and Michael McKean performed onSaturday Night Live. All three members were offered the chance to join the show in the1984–1985 season. Shearer accepted because he was treated well by the producers and he thought the backstage environment had improvedbut later stated that he \\\"didn't realize that guests are treated\",\n \"guests are treated better than the regulars.\\\"Guest also accepted the offer while McKean rejected it, although he would join the cast in 1994. Dick Ebersol, who replaced Lorne Michaels as the show's producer, said that Shearer was \\\"a gifted performer but a pain in the butt. He's just so demanding on the preciseness of things and he's very, very hard on the working people. He's just a nightmare-to-deal-with person.\\\"In January 1985, Shearer left the show for good,partially because he felt he was not being used enough.Martin Shortsaid Shearer \\\"wanted to be creative and Dick wanted something else. ... I think he felt his voice wasn't getting represented on the show. When he wouldn't get that chance, it made him very upset.\\\" Spinal Tap Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred inRob Reiner's filmThis Is Spinal Tap(1984).Shearer, Reiner, Michael McKean and Christopher Guest received a deal to write a first draft of a screenplay for a company called Marble Arch. They decided that the film could not be written and\",\n \"not be written and instead filmed a 20-minute demo of what they wanted to do.It was eventually greenlighted byNorman LearandJerry PerenchioatEmbassy Pictures.The film satirizes the wild personal behavior and musical pretensions ofhard rockandheavy metalbands, as well as thehagiographictendencies ofrockumentariesof the time. The three core members of the bandSpinal Tap—David St. Hubbins,Derek SmallsandNigel Tufnel—were portrayed by McKean, Shearer and Guest respectively. The three actors play their musical instruments and speak with mock English accents throughout the film. There was no script, although there was a written breakdown of most of the scenes, and many of the lines were ad-libbed.It was filmed in 25 days. Shearer said in an interview that \\\"The animating impulse was to do rock 'n' roll right. The four of us had been around rock 'n' roll and we were just amazed by how relentlessly the movies got it wrong. Because we were funny people it was going to be a funny film, but we wanted to get it\",\n \"we wanted to get it right.\\\"When they tried to sell it to various Hollywood studios, they were told that the film would not work. The group kept saying, \\\"No, this is a story that's pretty familiar to people. We're not introducing them to anything they don't really know,\\\" so Shearer thought it would at least have some resonance with the public.The film was only a modest success upon its initial release but found greater success, and developed acult following, after its video release. In 2000, the film was ranked 29th on theAmerican Film Institute'slist of the top 100 comedy movies in American cinemaand it was selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registryby theLibrary of Congressas being \\\"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\\\". Shearer, Guest and McKean have since worked on several projects as their Spinal Tap characters. They released three albums:This Is Spinal Tap(1984),Break Like the Wind(1992) andBack from the Dead(2009).In 1992, Spinal Tap appeared in an episode\",\n \"in an episode ofThe Simpsonscalled \\\"The Otto Show\\\".The band has played several concerts, including atLive Earthin London on July 7, 2007. In anticipation of the show, Rob Reiner directed a short film entitledSpinal Tap.In 2009, the band releasedBack from the Deadto commemorate the 25th anniversary of the release of the film.The album features re-recorded versions of songs featured inThis Is Spinal Tapand its soundtrack, and five new songs.The band performed a one-date \\\"world tour\\\" at London'sWembley Arenaon June 30, 2009.The Folksmen, a mock band featured in the filmA Mighty Windthat is also made up of characters played by Shearer, McKean and Guest, was the opening act for the show. The Simpsons Shearer is known for his work as a voice actor onThe Simpsons.Matt Groening, the creator of the show, was a fan of Shearer's work, while Shearer was a fan of a column Groening used to write.When approached by Groening to be in the series, Shearer was initially reluctant because he thought the recording sessions would\",\n \"sessions would be too much trouble.He felt that voice acting was \\\"not a lot of fun\\\" as, traditionally, voice actors record their parts separately.He was told that the actors would record their lines together,and after three phone calls for executive producerJames L. Brooks, Shearer was convinced to join the cast ofThe Simpsons.Shearer's first impression ofThe Simpsonswas that it was funny. He – who thought it was a \\\"pretty cool\\\" way to work – found it peculiar that his fellow cast members were adamant about not being known to the public as the people behind the voices. Shearer provides voices forPrincipal Skinner,Kent Brockman,Mr. Burns,Waylon Smithers,Ned Flanders,Reverend Lovejoy, formerlyDr. Hibbertuntil 2021,Lenny Leonard,Otto Mann,Rainier Wolfcastle,Scratchy,Kang,Dr. Marvin Monroe, andJudge Snyder, among others.He has described all of his regular characters' voices as \\\"easy to slip into. ... I wouldn't do them if they weren't easy.\\\"Shearer modeled Mr. Burns's voice on the two actorsLionel\",\n \"two actorsLionel BarrymoreandRonald Reagan.Shearer says that Burns is the most difficult character for him to voice because it is rough on his vocal cords and he often needs to drink tea and honey to soothe his voice.He describes Burns as his favorite character, saying he \\\"like Mr. Burns because he is pure evil. A lot of evil people make the mistake of diluting it. Never adulterate your evil.\\\"Shearer is also the voice of Burns' assistant Smithers, and is able to perform dialogue between the two characters in one take. In the episode \\\"Bart's Inner Child\\\", Shearer said \\\"wow\\\" in the voice of Otto, which was then used when Otto was seen jumping on a trampoline.Ned Flanders had been meant to be just a neighbor thatHomer Simpsonwas jealous of, but because Shearer used \\\"such a sweet voice\\\" for him, Flanders was broadened to become aChristianand a sweet guy that someone would prefer to live next to over Homer.Dr. Marvin Monroe's voice was based on psychiatristDavid Viscott.Monroe has been largely retired since\",\n \"retired since theseventh seasonbarring a few cameo appearances because voicing the character strained Shearer's throat. In 2004, Shearer criticized what he perceived asthe show's declining quality: \\\"I rate the last three seasons as among the worst, soseason fourlooks very good to me now.\\\"Shearer has also been vocal about \\\"The Principal and the Pauper\\\" (season nine, episode two, 1997), one of the most controversial episodes ofThe Simpsons. Many fans and critics reacted negatively to the revelation thatPrincipal Seymour Skinner, a recurring character since the first season, was an impostor. The episode has been criticized by both Shearer and Groening. In a 2001 interview, Shearer recalled that after reading the script, he told the writers, \\\"That'ssowrong. You're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason, for a story we've done before with other characters. It's so arbitrary and gratuitous, and it's disrespectful\",\n \"it's disrespectful to the audience.\\\"In a December 2006 interview, Shearer added, \\\"Now, refuse to talk about it. They realize it was a horrible mistake. They never mention it. It's like they're punishing for paying attention.\\\" Due to scheduling and availability conflicts, Shearer decided not to participate inThe Simpsons Ride, which opened in 2008, so none of his characters have vocal parts and many do not appear in the ride at all.In a 2010 interview onThe Howard Stern Show, Shearer alluded that the reason he was not part of the ride was because he would not be getting paid for it.Similarly, Shearer was unable to appear in theFamily Guycrossover episode \\\"The Simpsons Guy\\\" due to further scheduling conflicts. Therefore, his characters are again mute. When asked about how he felt about the crossover, Shearer replied, \\\"Matter and anti-matter.\\\" Until 1998, Shearer was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as\",\n \"going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.The dispute, however, was resolved and Shearer received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.The dispute was resolved a month later,and Shearer's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Shearer and the other cast members accepted a 30% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode.On May 14, 2015, Shearer announced he was leaving the show. After the other voice actors signed a contract for the same pay, Shearer refused, stating it was not enough. Al Jean made a statement from the producers saying \\\"the show must go on,\\\" but did not elaborate on what might happen to the characters Shearer voiced.On July 7, 2015, Shearer agreed to continue with the show, on the same terms as the other voice actors. Le Showand radio work\",\n \"Showand radio work Because I don't do stand-up, radio has always been my equivalent, a place to stay in connection with the public and force myself to write every week and come up with new characters. Plus it's a medium that – having grown up with it and putting myself to sleep with a radio under my pillow – I love. No matter what picture you want to create in the listener's mind, a few minutes of work gets it done. —Harry Shearer Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music programLe Show. The program is a hodgepodge of satirical news commentary, music, and sketch comedy that takes aim at the \\\"mega morons of the mighty media\\\".It is carried on manyNational Public Radioand other public radio stations throughout the United States.Since the merger ofSIRIUSandXMsatellite radio services the program is no longer available on either.The show has also been made available as apodcastoniTunesand byWWNO. On the weekly program Shearer alternates between DJing, reading and commenting on the\",\n \"commenting on the news of the day after the manner ofMort Sahl, and performing original (mostly political) comedy sketches and songs. In 2008, Shearer released a music CD calledSongs of the Bushmen, consisting of his satirical numbers about former PresidentGeorge W. BushonLe Show.Shearer says he criticizes bothRepublicansandDemocratsequally, and also says that \\\"the iron law of doing comedy about politics is you make fun of whoever is running the place\\\"and that \\\"everyone else is just running around talking. They are the ones who are actually doing something, changing people's lives for better or for worse. Other people the media calls 'satirists' don't work that way.\\\" Since encountering satellite news feeds when he worked onSaturday Night Live, Shearer has been fascinated with the contents of the video that does not air. Shearer refers to these clips asfound objects. \\\"I thought, wow, there is just an unending supply of this material, and it's wonderful and fascinating and funny and sometimes haunting – but\",\n \"haunting – but it's always good,\\\" said Shearer.He collects this material and uses it onLe Showand on his website.In 2008, he assembled video clips of newsmakers from this collection into an art installation titled \\\"The Silent Echo Chamber\\\" which was exhibited atThe Aldrich Contemporary Art MuseuminRidgefield, Connecticut.The exhibit was also displayed in 2009 at Institut Valencià d'Art Modern (IVAM) inValencia, Spainand in 2010 at the New OrleansContemporary Arts Center. In 2006 Shearer appeared withBrian Hayesin four episodes of theBBC Radio 4sitcomNot Today, Thank You, playing Nostrils, a man so ugly he cannot stand to be in his own presence.He was originally scheduled to appear in all six episodes but had to withdraw from recording two due to a problem with his work permit.On June 19, 2008, it was announced that Shearer would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the radio category. Further career Shearer's first feature film as director,Teddy Bears' Picnic, which he also wrote, was released in\",\n \"was released in 2002. The plot is based onBohemian Grove, which hosts a three-week encampment of some of the most powerful men in the world. The film was not well received by critics. It garnered a 0% approval rating onRotten Tomatoes, with all 19 reviews being determined as negativeand received a rating of 32 out of 100 (signifying \\\"generally negative reviews\\\") onMetacriticfrom 10 reviews.In 2003, he co-wroteJ. Edgar! The MusicalwithTom Leopold, which spoofedJ. Edgar Hoover's relationship withClyde Tolson.It premiered at theU.S. Comedy Arts FestivalinAspen, Coloradoand starredKelsey GrammerandJohn Goodman. Shearer, Guest and McKean starred in thefolk musicmockumentaryA Mighty Wind(2003), portraying a band called The Folksmen. The film was written by Guest andEugene Levy, and directed by Guest.Shearer had a major role in the Guest-directed parody of Oscar politickingFor Your Considerationreleased in 2006. He played Victor Allan Miller, a veteran actor who is convinced that he is going to be nominated for\",\n \"to be nominated for anAcademy Award.He also appeared as a news anchor inGodzilla(1998) with fellowThe Simpsonscast membersHank AzariaandNancy Cartwright.His other film appearances includeThe Right Stuff(1983),The Fisher King(1991),The Truman Show(1998),Small Soldiers(also 1998), andEdTV(1999). He also directed and appeared in the television programPortrait of a White Marriage(1988), a sequel toThe History of White People in America. Shearer has also worked as a columnist for theLos Angeles Times Magazine, but decided that it \\\"became such a waste of time to bother with it.\\\"His columns have also been published inSlateandNewsweek.Since May 2005 he has been a contributing blogger atThe Huffington Post.Shearer has written three books.Man Bites Town, published in 1993, is a collection of columns that he wrote forThe Los Angeles Timesbetween 1989 and 1992.Published in 1999,It's the Stupidity, Stupidanalyzed the hatred some people had for then-PresidentBill Clinton.Shearer believes that Clinton became disliked\",\n \"became disliked because he had an affair with \\\"the least powerful, least credentialed woman cleared into his official compound.\\\"His most recent book isNot Enough Indians, his first novel. Published in 2006, it is a comic novel about Native Americans and gambling.Without the \\\"pleasures of collaboration\\\" and \\\"spontaneity and improvisation which characterize his other projects\\\",Not Enough Indianswas a \\\"struggle\\\" for Shearer to write. He said that \\\"the only fun thing about it was having written it. It was lonely, I had no deal for it and it took six years to do. It was a profoundly disturbing act of self-discipline.\\\" Shearer has released five solo comedy albums:It Must Have Been Something I Said(1994),Dropping Anchors(2006),Songs Pointed and Pointless(2007),Songs of the Bushmen(2008) andGreed and Fear(2010).His most recent CD,Greed and Fearis mainly aboutWall Streeteconomic issues, rather than politics like his previous albums. Shearer decided to make the album when he\\\"started getting amused by the language of\",\n \"by the language of the economic meltdown – when 'toxic assets' suddenly became 'troubled assets,' going from something poisoning the system to just a bunch of delinquent youth with dirty faces that needed not removal from the system but just ... understanding.\\\"In May 2006, Shearer received an honorary doctorate fromGoucher College. The Big Uneasy Shearer is the director ofThe Big Uneasy(2010), a documentary film about the impacts ofHurricane KatrinaonNew Orleans. Narrated by actorJohn Goodman, the film describesleveefailuresandcatastrophicflooding in theNew Orleansmetropolitan area, and includes extended interviews with formerLSUprofessorIvor Van Heerden, Robert Bea, an engineering professor at theUniversity of California at Berkeley, and Maria Garzino, an engineer and contract specialist for the Los Angeles district of theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The film is critical of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and its management offlood protectionprojectsin SouthernLouisiana.Shearer draws on numerous technical\",\n \"numerous technical experts to maintain that Hurricane Katrina's \\\"... tragic floods creating widespread damage were caused by manmade errors in engineering and judgment.\\\"Onreview aggregatorRotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71% based on 24 reviews, with an average rating of 6.85/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \\\"The Big Uneasyoffers an admittedly uneven – yet still worthy and well-intentioned – look at a horrific disaster's aftermath.\\\" Personal life Shearer marriedfolksingerPenelope Nicholsin 1974. They divorced in 1977.He has been married to Welsh singer-songwriterJudith Owensince 1993.In 2005, the couple launched their own record label called Courgette Records.Shearer primarily resides in theFrench QuarterofNew Orleans, Louisiana, but has homes inSanta Monica, CaliforniaandNotting Hill, London. He first went to New Orleans in 1988 and has attended everyNew Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festivalsince. Shearer often speaks and writes about thefailure of the Federal levee systemwhich\",\n \"levee systemwhich floodedNew OrleansduringHurricane Katrina, blasting the coverage of it in the mainstream mediaand criticizing the role of theUnited States Army Corps of Engineers.Prior to the DVD release of his film,The Big Uneasy, Shearer would hold screenings of the film at different venues and take questions fromaudiencemembers. Filmography Film Television (Pilot for the eventual seriesLeave It to Beaver, though never aired as part of that series.) Video games Web Music video Discography Bibliography Awards Shearer was the last of the six regular voice actors fromThe Simpsonsto win thePrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Character Voice-Over Performance.His win came for theseason 25episode \\\"Four Regrettings and a Funeral\\\". References Bibliography External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":390,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Who won the third-place playoff at the UEFA World Cup while Donald Trump was in office as the 45th President of the United States?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Belgium"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Tabular reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links","FIFA World Cup TheFIFA World Cup, often called theWorld Cup, is an internationalassociation footballcompetition among the seniormen's national teamsof the members of theFédération Internationale de Football Association(FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The tournament has been held every four years since theinaugural tournament in 1930, with the exception of 1942 and 1946 due to theSecond World War. The reigning champions areArgentina, who won their third title at the2022 tournament. The contest starts with thequalification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase. In the tournament phase, 32 teams compete for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over the course of about a month. The host nation(s) automatically qualify for the group stage of the tournament. The competition is scheduled to expand to 48 teams, starting with the2026 tournament. As of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, 22 final tournaments have been held since the event's inception in 1930, and a total of 80 national teams have competed. Thetrophyhas been won by eight national teams. With five wins,Brazilis the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners areGermanyandItaly, with four titles each;Argentina, with three titles;Franceand inaugural winnerUruguay, each with two titles; andEnglandandSpain, with one title each. The World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed single sporting event in the world.The viewership of the2018 World Cupwas estimated to be 3.57 billion, close to half of the global population,while the engagement with the2022 World Cupwas estimated to be 5 billion, with about 1.5 billion people watchingthe final match. Seventeen countries have hosted the World Cup, most recentlyQatar, who hosted the 2022 event. The2026 tournamentwill be jointly hosted by Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to host games in three World Cups. History Previous international competitions The world's first international football match was a challenge match played inGlasgowin 1872 betweenScotlandandEngland.The first international tournament for nations, the inauguralBritish Home Championship, took place in 1884 and included games between England, Scotland,Wales, andIreland.As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as ademonstration sportwith no medals awarded at the1900and1904 Summer Olympics; however, theInternational Olympic Committeehas retroactively upgraded their status to official events, as well as the1906 Intercalated Games. AfterFIFAwas founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been unsuccessful. At the1908 Summer OlympicsinLondon, football became an official Olympic sport. Planned byThe Football Association(FA), England's football governing body, the event was foramateurplayers only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by theEngland national amateur football team) won thegold medals. They repeated the feat at the1912 Summer OlympicsinStockholm. With the Olympic event continuing to be a contest between amateur teams only,Sir Thomas Liptonorganised theSir Thomas Lipton Trophytournament inTurinin 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described asThe First World Cup,and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invitedWest Auckland, an amateur side fromCounty Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.Prior to the Lipton competition, from 1876 to 1904, games that were considered to be the \"football world championship\" were meetings between leading English and Scottish clubs, such as the1895 gamebetweenSunderland A.F.C.and theHeart of Midlothian F.C., which Sunderland won. In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise theOlympic tournamentas a \"world football championship for amateurs\", and took responsibility for managing the event.This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition for nations, at the1920 Summer Olympics, contested byEgyptand 13 European teams, and won byBelgium.Uruguaywon the next two Olympic football tournaments in1924and1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era, and is the reason whyUruguay is allowed to wear 4 stars. World Cups before World War II Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, withPresidentJules Rimetas the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress inAmsterdamdecided to stage a world championship.With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate theircentenaryofindependencein 1930, FIFA namedUruguayas the host country of theinaugural World Cup tournament. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides, especially in the midst of theGreat Depression. As such, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams fromBelgium,France,Romania, andYugoslaviato make the trip.In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won byFranceand theUnited States, who defeatedMexico4–1 andBelgium3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored byLucien Laurentof France.In thefinal,UruguaydefeatedArgentina4–2 in front of 93,000 spectators inMontevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup.After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and theIOCdisagreed over the status of amateur players; football was dropped from the1932 Summer Olympics.After the IOC and FIFA worked out their differences, Olympic football returned at the1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup. The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the1934 World Cupand all North and South American nations exceptBrazilandCubaboycotted the1938tournament. Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, whichGermanyandBrazilsought to host,were cancelled due toWorld War II. World Cups after World War II The1950 World Cup, held inBrazil, was the first to include British football associations.Scotland,England,Wales, andNorthern Irelandhad withdrawn from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football.The teams rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation.The tournament also saw the return of 1930 championsUruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called \"Maracanazo\" (Portuguese:Maracanaço). In the tournaments between 1934 and1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, whenAustriawasabsorbedintoGermanyafter qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, whenIndia,Scotland, andTurkeywithdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams.Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were:United States, semi-finalists in 1930;Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938;North Korea, quarter-finalists in1966; andMexico, quarter-finalists in1970. Expansion to 24 and 32 teams The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in1982,and then to 32 in1998,allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals:Mexico, quarter-finalists in1986;Cameroon, quarter-finalists in1990;South Korea, finishing in fourth place in2002;Senegal, along withUSA, both quarter-finalists in 2002;Ghana, quarter-finalists in 2010;Costa Rica, quarter-finalists in 2014; andMorocco, finishing in fourth place in 2022. European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far. Two hundred teams entered the2002 FIFA World Cupqualification rounds. 198 nations attempted to qualify for the2006 FIFA World Cup. A record 204 countries entered qualification for the2010 FIFA World Cup. Expansion to 48 teams In October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing theCaribbean Football Union's region a position in the World Cup.In the edition of 25 October 2013 of theFIFA WeeklyBlatter wrote that: \"From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It cannot be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup.\"Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency. Following the magazine's publication, Blatter's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency,UEFAPresidentMichel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth toUEFA, two each to theAsian Football Confederationand theConfederation of African Football, two shared betweenCONCACAFandCONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for theOceania Football Confederation.Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: \" not based on the quality of the teams because you don't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it's a good compromise. ... It's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the people of all the world. If you don't give the possibility to participate, they don't improve.\" In October 2016, FIFA presidentGianni Infantinostated his support for a 48-team World Cup in 2026.On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams. 2015 FIFA corruption case By May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games,with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Department of Justice announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December.By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016. On 4 June 2015,Chuck Blazerwhile co-operating with theFBIand the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA's then-executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups.On 10 June 2015, Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices ofSepp Blatter.The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the2026 FIFA World Cupin light of theallegations surrounding briberyin the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then-secretary generalJérôme Valckestated, \"Due to the situation, I think it's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being.\"On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media. On 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May.An additional 16 indictments by the US Department of Justice were announced on the same day. Biennial World Cup proposition A biennial World Cup plan was first proposed by theSaudi Arabian Football Federationat the 71stFIFA Congresson 21 May 2021 and prominently backed by former Arsenal managerArsène Wengerand national federations in Africa and Asia.Continental confederations such as UEFA and CONMEBOL are not on board with the planbut, in total, the idea is supported by 166 of the 210 member associations of FIFA. Other FIFA tournaments An equivalent tournament forwomen's football, theFIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in1991inChina.The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991. Men's football has been included in everySummer Olympic Gamesexcept 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men'sfootball tournament at the Olympicsis not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players.Women's football made itsOlympic debut in 1996. TheFIFA Confederations Cupwas a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country.The first edition took place in1992and the last edition was played in2017. In March 2019, FIFA confirmed that the tournament would no longer be active owing to an expansion of theFIFA Club World Cupin 2021. FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup,FIFA U-17 World Cup,FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup,FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such asfutsal(FIFA Futsal World Cup) andbeach soccer(FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women's version, although aFIFA Women's Club World Cuphas been proposed. TheFIFA U-20 Women's World Cupis held biannually, including the year before each Women's World Cup. Both tournaments were awarded in a single bidding process on three occasions, with the U-20 tournament serving as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition each time (2010,2014and2018). Trophy From 1930 to 1970, theJules Rimet Trophywas awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as theWorld CuporCoupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA presidentJules Rimetwho set up the first tournament. In1970,Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves. After 1970, a new trophy, known as theFIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designerSilvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14.2 in) high, made of solid 18carat(75%) gold and weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb). The base contains two layers of semi-preciousmalachitewhile the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since1974.The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: \"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory.\" This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards. All members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of theWorld Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runners-up' (silver), and third-place (bronze). In the2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hostsSouth Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. Since 2006, winners of the competition are also awarded the right to wear theFIFA Champions Badge, up until the time at which the winner of the next competition is decided. Format Qualification Since the second World Cup in1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament.They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa,Asia,North and Central America and Caribbean,South America,Oceania, andEurope), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams. The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinentalplay-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the2010 World Cup.From the1938 World Cuponwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the2006 FIFA World Cuponward, requiring the champions to qualify.Brazil, winners in2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches. Final tournament The final tournament format since 1998 has had 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nations. There are two stages: the group stage, followed by the knockout stage. In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on theFIFA World Rankingsor performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups.The other teams are assigned to different \"pots\", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation. Each group plays around-robin tournamentin which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams.The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since1994,three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points). Considering six matches in a group each with three possible outcomes (win, draw, loss), there are 729 (= 36) possible final table outcomes for the 40 possible combinations of the four teams' points.However, 14 of the 40 points combinations (or 207 of the 729 possible outcomes) lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined by: The knockout stage is asingle-elimination tournamentin which teams play each other in one-off matches, withextra timeandpenalty shootoutsused to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group. This is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, thethird-place match(contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final. On 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48-team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which was to consist of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026.On 14 March 2023, FIFA approved a revised format of the 2026 tournament, which features 12 groups of four teams each, with the top 8 third-placed teams joining the group winners and runners-up in a new round of 32. Hosts Selection process Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold thefirst World Cupin Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing.The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the1938 FIFA World Cup. Since the1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the1998 FIFA World Cup. The2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts.South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in2010. The2014 FIFA World Cupwas hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America sinceArgentina 1978,and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe. The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Council. This is done under anexhaustive ballotsystem. The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a \"Hosting Agreement\" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. There have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded toRussiaandQatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament. For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament was rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after thecontroversysurrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation did not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from2018.This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder. The2026 FIFA World Cupwas chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations.The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 104 matches. Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter-finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each. Summary by confederation Performances Six of the eight champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions beingBrazil, who finished as runners-up after losing thedeciding matchon home soil in 1950 and lost theirsemi-finalagainst Germany in 2014, andSpain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982.England(1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation.Uruguay(1930),Italy(1934),Argentina(1978), andFrance(1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, whileGermany(1974) won their second title on home soil. Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament.Switzerland(quarter-finals 1954),Sweden(runners-up in 1958),Chile(third place in 1962),South Korea(fourth place in 2002),Russia(quarter-finals 2018), andMexico(quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts.So far,South Africa(2010) andQatar(2022) failed to advance beyond the first round. Broadcasting and promotion The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and as of 2006is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative viewership of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion.715.1 million individuals watched the final match of the tournament, almost a ninth of the entire population of the planet. The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers.The World Cup attracts major sponsors such asCoca-Cola,McDonald'sandAdidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event. The governing body of the sport,FIFA, generated $4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament,and $6.1 billion from the 2018 tournament. Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its ownmascotor logo.World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the firstWorld Cup mascot.World Cups featureofficial match ballsspecially designed for each tournament. AfterSlazengerproduced the ball for the 1966 World Cup Adidas became the official supplier to FIFA.Each World Cup also has anofficial song, which have been performed by artists ranging fromShakiratoWill Smith.Other songs, such as “Nessun dorma”, performed byThe Three Tenorsat four World Cup concerts, have also become identified with the tournament. Forming a partnership with FIFA in 1970,Paninipublished its firststicker albumfor the 1970 World Cup.Since then, collecting and trading stickers andcardshas become part of the World Cup experience, especially for the younger generation.FIFA has licensed World Cupvideo gamessince 1986, sponsored byElectronic Arts. Results In all, 80 nations haveplayed in at least one World Cup.Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup,and they have addedstars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. Uruguay, however, chose to displayfour stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics, which are recognized by FIFA as World Championships, and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950. With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to haveplayed in every World Cup(22) to date.Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982–1990) and Brazil (1994–2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top-four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8). Teams reaching the top four Best performances by confederations To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from theUEFA(Europe) andCONMEBOL(South America) confederations. European nations have won twelve titles, while South American nations have won ten. Only three teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition:United States(North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930;South Korea(Asia) in 2002; andMorocco(Africa) in 2022. Only oneOceanianqualifier,Australiain 2006, has advanced to the second round, a feat they later reaccomplished in 2022. Brazil,Argentina,SpainandGermanyare the only teams to win a World Cup hosted outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious inEurope(1958),North America(1970and1994) andAsia(2002). Argentina won a World Cup in North America in1986and in Asia in2022. Spain won inAfricain2010. In2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas. Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent; the longest streak of tournaments won by a single confederation is four, with the2006,2010,2014, and2018tournaments all won by UEFA teams (Italy, Spain, Germany, and France, respectively). Records and statistics Six players share the record forplaying in the most World Cups;Mexico'sAntonio Carbajal(1950–1966).Rafael Márquez(2002–2018), andAndrés Guardado(2006–2022);Germany'sLothar Matthäus(1982–1998);Argentina'sLionel Messi(2006–2022); andPortugal'sCristiano Ronaldo(2006–2022) all played in five tournaments, with Ronaldo also being the first and only player to score in five tournaments.Messi has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 26 appearances.Brazil'sDjalma Santos(1954–1962), West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauer(1966–1974), and Germany'sPhilipp Lahm(2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three World CupAll-Star Teams. Miroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) is the all-time top scorer at the World Cup with 16 goals. He brokeRonaldoof Brazil's record of 15 goals (1998–2006) during the2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany'sGerd Müller(1970–1974) is third, with 14 goals.The fourth-placed goalscorer,France'sJust Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals.This made Brazil'sPeléthe only player to have won three World Cup winners' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury),with20 other players who have won two winners' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners', runner- ups', and third-place); five players were from West Germany's squad of 1966–1974:Franz Beckenbauer,Jürgen Grabowski,Horst-Dieter Höttges,Sepp Maier, andWolfgang Overath(1966–1974), Italy'sFranco Baresi(1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has beenMiroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) with four consecutive medals. Brazil'sMário Zagallo, West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauerand France'sDidier Deschampsare the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach.Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach,and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018, after having won in 1998 as captain.Italy'sVittorio Pozzois the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938).All World Cup-winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory. Among the national teams, Brazil has played the most World Cup matches (114), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), and quarter-finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (22), has the most wins (76) and has scored the most goals (237).The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the2002 finaland in the2014 semi-final. Top goalscorers Players inboldare still active. Awards At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. See also Notes Citations Cited works External links"],"string":"[\n \"List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links\",\n \"FIFA World Cup TheFIFA World Cup, often called theWorld Cup, is an internationalassociation footballcompetition among the seniormen's national teamsof the members of theFédération Internationale de Football Association(FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The tournament has been held every four years since theinaugural tournament in 1930, with the exception of 1942 and 1946 due to theSecond World War. The reigning champions areArgentina, who won their third title at the2022 tournament. The contest starts with thequalification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase. In the tournament phase, 32 teams compete for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over the course of about a month. The host nation(s) automatically qualify for the group stage of the tournament. The competition is scheduled to expand to 48 teams, starting with the2026 tournament. As of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, 22 final tournaments have been held since the event's inception in 1930, and a total of 80 national teams have competed. Thetrophyhas been won by eight national teams. With five wins,Brazilis the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners areGermanyandItaly, with four titles each;Argentina, with three titles;Franceand inaugural winnerUruguay, each with two titles; andEnglandandSpain, with one title each. The World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed single sporting event in the world.The viewership of the2018 World Cupwas estimated to be 3.57 billion, close to half of the global population,while the engagement with the2022 World Cupwas estimated to be 5 billion, with about 1.5 billion people watchingthe final match. Seventeen countries have hosted the World Cup, most recentlyQatar, who hosted the 2022 event. The2026 tournamentwill be jointly hosted by Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to host games in three World Cups. History Previous international competitions The world's first international football match was a challenge match played inGlasgowin 1872 betweenScotlandandEngland.The first international tournament for nations, the inauguralBritish Home Championship, took place in 1884 and included games between England, Scotland,Wales, andIreland.As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as ademonstration sportwith no medals awarded at the1900and1904 Summer Olympics; however, theInternational Olympic Committeehas retroactively upgraded their status to official events, as well as the1906 Intercalated Games. AfterFIFAwas founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been unsuccessful. At the1908 Summer OlympicsinLondon, football became an official Olympic sport. Planned byThe Football Association(FA), England's football governing body, the event was foramateurplayers only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by theEngland national amateur football team) won thegold medals. They repeated the feat at the1912 Summer OlympicsinStockholm. With the Olympic event continuing to be a contest between amateur teams only,Sir Thomas Liptonorganised theSir Thomas Lipton Trophytournament inTurinin 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described asThe First World Cup,and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invitedWest Auckland, an amateur side fromCounty Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.Prior to the Lipton competition, from 1876 to 1904, games that were considered to be the \\\"football world championship\\\" were meetings between leading English and Scottish clubs, such as the1895 gamebetweenSunderland A.F.C.and theHeart of Midlothian F.C., which Sunderland won. In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise theOlympic tournamentas a \\\"world football championship for amateurs\\\", and took responsibility for managing the event.This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition for nations, at the1920 Summer Olympics, contested byEgyptand 13 European teams, and won byBelgium.Uruguaywon the next two Olympic football tournaments in1924and1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era, and is the reason whyUruguay is allowed to wear 4 stars. World Cups before World War II Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, withPresidentJules Rimetas the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress inAmsterdamdecided to stage a world championship.With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate theircentenaryofindependencein 1930, FIFA namedUruguayas the host country of theinaugural World Cup tournament. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides, especially in the midst of theGreat Depression. As such, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams fromBelgium,France,Romania, andYugoslaviato make the trip.In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won byFranceand theUnited States, who defeatedMexico4–1 andBelgium3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored byLucien Laurentof France.In thefinal,UruguaydefeatedArgentina4–2 in front of 93,000 spectators inMontevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup.After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and theIOCdisagreed over the status of amateur players; football was dropped from the1932 Summer Olympics.After the IOC and FIFA worked out their differences, Olympic football returned at the1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup. The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the1934 World Cupand all North and South American nations exceptBrazilandCubaboycotted the1938tournament. Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, whichGermanyandBrazilsought to host,were cancelled due toWorld War II. World Cups after World War II The1950 World Cup, held inBrazil, was the first to include British football associations.Scotland,England,Wales, andNorthern Irelandhad withdrawn from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football.The teams rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation.The tournament also saw the return of 1930 championsUruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called \\\"Maracanazo\\\" (Portuguese:Maracanaço). In the tournaments between 1934 and1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, whenAustriawasabsorbedintoGermanyafter qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, whenIndia,Scotland, andTurkeywithdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams.Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were:United States, semi-finalists in 1930;Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938;North Korea, quarter-finalists in1966; andMexico, quarter-finalists in1970. Expansion to 24 and 32 teams The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in1982,and then to 32 in1998,allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals:Mexico, quarter-finalists in1986;Cameroon, quarter-finalists in1990;South Korea, finishing in fourth place in2002;Senegal, along withUSA, both quarter-finalists in 2002;Ghana, quarter-finalists in 2010;Costa Rica, quarter-finalists in 2014; andMorocco, finishing in fourth place in 2022. European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far. Two hundred teams entered the2002 FIFA World Cupqualification rounds. 198 nations attempted to qualify for the2006 FIFA World Cup. A record 204 countries entered qualification for the2010 FIFA World Cup. Expansion to 48 teams In October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing theCaribbean Football Union's region a position in the World Cup.In the edition of 25 October 2013 of theFIFA WeeklyBlatter wrote that: \\\"From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It cannot be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup.\\\"Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency. Following the magazine's publication, Blatter's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency,UEFAPresidentMichel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth toUEFA, two each to theAsian Football Confederationand theConfederation of African Football, two shared betweenCONCACAFandCONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for theOceania Football Confederation.Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: \\\" not based on the quality of the teams because you don't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it's a good compromise. ... It's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the people of all the world. If you don't give the possibility to participate, they don't improve.\\\" In October 2016, FIFA presidentGianni Infantinostated his support for a 48-team World Cup in 2026.On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams. 2015 FIFA corruption case By May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games,with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Department of Justice announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December.By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016. On 4 June 2015,Chuck Blazerwhile co-operating with theFBIand the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA's then-executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups.On 10 June 2015, Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices ofSepp Blatter.The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the2026 FIFA World Cupin light of theallegations surrounding briberyin the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then-secretary generalJérôme Valckestated, \\\"Due to the situation, I think it's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being.\\\"On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media. On 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May.An additional 16 indictments by the US Department of Justice were announced on the same day. Biennial World Cup proposition A biennial World Cup plan was first proposed by theSaudi Arabian Football Federationat the 71stFIFA Congresson 21 May 2021 and prominently backed by former Arsenal managerArsène Wengerand national federations in Africa and Asia.Continental confederations such as UEFA and CONMEBOL are not on board with the planbut, in total, the idea is supported by 166 of the 210 member associations of FIFA. Other FIFA tournaments An equivalent tournament forwomen's football, theFIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in1991inChina.The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991. Men's football has been included in everySummer Olympic Gamesexcept 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men'sfootball tournament at the Olympicsis not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players.Women's football made itsOlympic debut in 1996. TheFIFA Confederations Cupwas a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country.The first edition took place in1992and the last edition was played in2017. In March 2019, FIFA confirmed that the tournament would no longer be active owing to an expansion of theFIFA Club World Cupin 2021. FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup,FIFA U-17 World Cup,FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup,FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such asfutsal(FIFA Futsal World Cup) andbeach soccer(FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women's version, although aFIFA Women's Club World Cuphas been proposed. TheFIFA U-20 Women's World Cupis held biannually, including the year before each Women's World Cup. Both tournaments were awarded in a single bidding process on three occasions, with the U-20 tournament serving as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition each time (2010,2014and2018). Trophy From 1930 to 1970, theJules Rimet Trophywas awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as theWorld CuporCoupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA presidentJules Rimetwho set up the first tournament. In1970,Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves. After 1970, a new trophy, known as theFIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designerSilvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14.2 in) high, made of solid 18carat(75%) gold and weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb). The base contains two layers of semi-preciousmalachitewhile the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since1974.The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: \\\"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory.\\\" This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards. All members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of theWorld Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runners-up' (silver), and third-place (bronze). In the2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hostsSouth Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. Since 2006, winners of the competition are also awarded the right to wear theFIFA Champions Badge, up until the time at which the winner of the next competition is decided. Format Qualification Since the second World Cup in1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament.They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa,Asia,North and Central America and Caribbean,South America,Oceania, andEurope), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams. The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinentalplay-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the2010 World Cup.From the1938 World Cuponwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the2006 FIFA World Cuponward, requiring the champions to qualify.Brazil, winners in2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches. Final tournament The final tournament format since 1998 has had 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nations. There are two stages: the group stage, followed by the knockout stage. In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on theFIFA World Rankingsor performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups.The other teams are assigned to different \\\"pots\\\", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation. Each group plays around-robin tournamentin which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams.The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since1994,three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points). Considering six matches in a group each with three possible outcomes (win, draw, loss), there are 729 (= 36) possible final table outcomes for the 40 possible combinations of the four teams' points.However, 14 of the 40 points combinations (or 207 of the 729 possible outcomes) lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined by: The knockout stage is asingle-elimination tournamentin which teams play each other in one-off matches, withextra timeandpenalty shootoutsused to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group. This is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, thethird-place match(contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final. On 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48-team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which was to consist of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026.On 14 March 2023, FIFA approved a revised format of the 2026 tournament, which features 12 groups of four teams each, with the top 8 third-placed teams joining the group winners and runners-up in a new round of 32. Hosts Selection process Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold thefirst World Cupin Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing.The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the1938 FIFA World Cup. Since the1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the1998 FIFA World Cup. The2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts.South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in2010. The2014 FIFA World Cupwas hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America sinceArgentina 1978,and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe. The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Council. This is done under anexhaustive ballotsystem. The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a \\\"Hosting Agreement\\\" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. There have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded toRussiaandQatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament. For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament was rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after thecontroversysurrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation did not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from2018.This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder. The2026 FIFA World Cupwas chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations.The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 104 matches. Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter-finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each. Summary by confederation Performances Six of the eight champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions beingBrazil, who finished as runners-up after losing thedeciding matchon home soil in 1950 and lost theirsemi-finalagainst Germany in 2014, andSpain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982.England(1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation.Uruguay(1930),Italy(1934),Argentina(1978), andFrance(1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, whileGermany(1974) won their second title on home soil. Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament.Switzerland(quarter-finals 1954),Sweden(runners-up in 1958),Chile(third place in 1962),South Korea(fourth place in 2002),Russia(quarter-finals 2018), andMexico(quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts.So far,South Africa(2010) andQatar(2022) failed to advance beyond the first round. Broadcasting and promotion The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and as of 2006is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative viewership of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion.715.1 million individuals watched the final match of the tournament, almost a ninth of the entire population of the planet. The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers.The World Cup attracts major sponsors such asCoca-Cola,McDonald'sandAdidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event. The governing body of the sport,FIFA, generated $4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament,and $6.1 billion from the 2018 tournament. Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its ownmascotor logo.World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the firstWorld Cup mascot.World Cups featureofficial match ballsspecially designed for each tournament. AfterSlazengerproduced the ball for the 1966 World Cup Adidas became the official supplier to FIFA.Each World Cup also has anofficial song, which have been performed by artists ranging fromShakiratoWill Smith.Other songs, such as “Nessun dorma”, performed byThe Three Tenorsat four World Cup concerts, have also become identified with the tournament. Forming a partnership with FIFA in 1970,Paninipublished its firststicker albumfor the 1970 World Cup.Since then, collecting and trading stickers andcardshas become part of the World Cup experience, especially for the younger generation.FIFA has licensed World Cupvideo gamessince 1986, sponsored byElectronic Arts. Results In all, 80 nations haveplayed in at least one World Cup.Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup,and they have addedstars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. Uruguay, however, chose to displayfour stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics, which are recognized by FIFA as World Championships, and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950. With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to haveplayed in every World Cup(22) to date.Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982–1990) and Brazil (1994–2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top-four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8). Teams reaching the top four Best performances by confederations To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from theUEFA(Europe) andCONMEBOL(South America) confederations. European nations have won twelve titles, while South American nations have won ten. Only three teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition:United States(North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930;South Korea(Asia) in 2002; andMorocco(Africa) in 2022. Only oneOceanianqualifier,Australiain 2006, has advanced to the second round, a feat they later reaccomplished in 2022. Brazil,Argentina,SpainandGermanyare the only teams to win a World Cup hosted outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious inEurope(1958),North America(1970and1994) andAsia(2002). Argentina won a World Cup in North America in1986and in Asia in2022. Spain won inAfricain2010. In2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas. Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent; the longest streak of tournaments won by a single confederation is four, with the2006,2010,2014, and2018tournaments all won by UEFA teams (Italy, Spain, Germany, and France, respectively). Records and statistics Six players share the record forplaying in the most World Cups;Mexico'sAntonio Carbajal(1950–1966).Rafael Márquez(2002–2018), andAndrés Guardado(2006–2022);Germany'sLothar Matthäus(1982–1998);Argentina'sLionel Messi(2006–2022); andPortugal'sCristiano Ronaldo(2006–2022) all played in five tournaments, with Ronaldo also being the first and only player to score in five tournaments.Messi has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 26 appearances.Brazil'sDjalma Santos(1954–1962), West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauer(1966–1974), and Germany'sPhilipp Lahm(2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three World CupAll-Star Teams. Miroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) is the all-time top scorer at the World Cup with 16 goals. He brokeRonaldoof Brazil's record of 15 goals (1998–2006) during the2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany'sGerd Müller(1970–1974) is third, with 14 goals.The fourth-placed goalscorer,France'sJust Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals.This made Brazil'sPeléthe only player to have won three World Cup winners' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury),with20 other players who have won two winners' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners', runner- ups', and third-place); five players were from West Germany's squad of 1966–1974:Franz Beckenbauer,Jürgen Grabowski,Horst-Dieter Höttges,Sepp Maier, andWolfgang Overath(1966–1974), Italy'sFranco Baresi(1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has beenMiroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) with four consecutive medals. Brazil'sMário Zagallo, West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauerand France'sDidier Deschampsare the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach.Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach,and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018, after having won in 1998 as captain.Italy'sVittorio Pozzois the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938).All World Cup-winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory. Among the national teams, Brazil has played the most World Cup matches (114), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), and quarter-finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (22), has the most wins (76) and has scored the most goals (237).The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the2002 finaland in the2014 semi-final. Top goalscorers Players inboldare still active. Awards At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. See also Notes Citations Cited works External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more","to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no","force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links","FIFA World Cup TheFIFA World Cup, often called theWorld Cup, is an internationalassociation footballcompetition among the seniormen's national teamsof the members of theFédération Internationale de Football Association(FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The tournament has been held every four years since theinaugural tournament in 1930, with the exception of 1942 and 1946 due to theSecond World War. The reigning champions areArgentina, who won their third title at the2022 tournament. The contest starts with thequalification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase. In the tournament phase, 32 teams compete for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over the course of about a month. The host nation(s) automatically qualify for the group stage of the tournament. The competition is scheduled to expand to 48 teams, starting with the2026 tournament. As of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, 22 final tournaments have been held since the","been held since the event's inception in 1930, and a total of 80 national teams have competed. Thetrophyhas been won by eight national teams. With five wins,Brazilis the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners areGermanyandItaly, with four titles each;Argentina, with three titles;Franceand inaugural winnerUruguay, each with two titles; andEnglandandSpain, with one title each. The World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed single sporting event in the world.The viewership of the2018 World Cupwas estimated to be 3.57 billion, close to half of the global population,while the engagement with the2022 World Cupwas estimated to be 5 billion, with about 1.5 billion people watchingthe final match. Seventeen countries have hosted the World Cup, most recentlyQatar, who hosted the 2022 event. The2026 tournamentwill be jointly hosted by Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the","give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to host games in three World Cups. History Previous international competitions The world's first international football match was a challenge match played inGlasgowin 1872 betweenScotlandandEngland.The first international tournament for nations, the inauguralBritish Home Championship, took place in 1884 and included games between England, Scotland,Wales, andIreland.As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as ademonstration sportwith no medals awarded at the1900and1904 Summer Olympics; however, theInternational Olympic Committeehas retroactively upgraded their status to official events, as well as the1906 Intercalated Games. AfterFIFAwas founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition","the competition as having been unsuccessful. At the1908 Summer OlympicsinLondon, football became an official Olympic sport. Planned byThe Football Association(FA), England's football governing body, the event was foramateurplayers only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by theEngland national amateur football team) won thegold medals. They repeated the feat at the1912 Summer OlympicsinStockholm. With the Olympic event continuing to be a contest between amateur teams only,Sir Thomas Liptonorganised theSir Thomas Lipton Trophytournament inTurinin 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described asThe First World Cup,and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to","the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invitedWest Auckland, an amateur side fromCounty Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.Prior to the Lipton competition, from 1876 to 1904, games that were considered to be the \"football world championship\" were meetings between leading English and Scottish clubs, such as the1895 gamebetweenSunderland A.F.C.and theHeart of Midlothian F.C., which Sunderland won. In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise theOlympic tournamentas a \"world football championship for amateurs\", and took responsibility for managing the event.This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition for nations, at the1920 Summer Olympics, contested byEgyptand 13 European teams, and won byBelgium.Uruguaywon the next two Olympic football tournaments in1924and1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era, and is the reason","and is the reason whyUruguay is allowed to wear 4 stars. World Cups before World War II Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, withPresidentJules Rimetas the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress inAmsterdamdecided to stage a world championship.With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate theircentenaryofindependencein 1930, FIFA namedUruguayas the host country of theinaugural World Cup tournament. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides, especially in the midst of theGreat Depression. As such, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams fromBelgium,France,Romania, andYugoslaviato make the trip.In total, 13","trip.In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won byFranceand theUnited States, who defeatedMexico4–1 andBelgium3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored byLucien Laurentof France.In thefinal,UruguaydefeatedArgentina4–2 in front of 93,000 spectators inMontevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup.After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and theIOCdisagreed over the status of amateur players; football was dropped from the1932 Summer Olympics.After the IOC and FIFA worked out their differences, Olympic football returned at the1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup. The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the1934 World Cupand all North and South American","and South American nations exceptBrazilandCubaboycotted the1938tournament. Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, whichGermanyandBrazilsought to host,were cancelled due toWorld War II. World Cups after World War II The1950 World Cup, held inBrazil, was the first to include British football associations.Scotland,England,Wales, andNorthern Irelandhad withdrawn from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football.The teams rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation.The tournament also saw the return of 1930 championsUruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called \"Maracanazo\" (Portuguese:Maracanaço). In the tournaments between 1934 and1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, whenAustriawasabsorbedintoGermanyafter qualifying,","qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, whenIndia,Scotland, andTurkeywithdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams.Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were:United States, semi-finalists in 1930;Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938;North Korea, quarter-finalists in1966; andMexico, quarter-finalists in1970. Expansion to 24 and 32 teams The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in1982,and then to 32 in1998,allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals:Mexico, quarter-finalists in1986;Cameroon, quarter-finalists in1990;South Korea, finishing in fourth place in2002;Senegal, along","along withUSA, both quarter-finalists in 2002;Ghana, quarter-finalists in 2010;Costa Rica, quarter-finalists in 2014; andMorocco, finishing in fourth place in 2022. European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far. Two hundred teams entered the2002 FIFA World Cupqualification rounds. 198 nations attempted to qualify for the2006 FIFA World Cup. A record 204 countries entered qualification for the2010 FIFA World Cup. Expansion to 48 teams In October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing theCaribbean Football Union's region a position in the World Cup.In the edition of 25 October 2013 of theFIFA WeeklyBlatter wrote that: \"From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It cannot be that the European and South","European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup.\"Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency. Following the magazine's publication, Blatter's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency,UEFAPresidentMichel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth toUEFA, two each to theAsian Football Confederationand theConfederation of African Football, two shared betweenCONCACAFandCONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for theOceania Football Confederation.Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: \" not based on the quality of the teams because you don't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it's a good compromise. ... It's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the","is to bring all the people of all the world. If you don't give the possibility to participate, they don't improve.\" In October 2016, FIFA presidentGianni Infantinostated his support for a 48-team World Cup in 2026.On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams. 2015 FIFA corruption case By May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games,with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Department of Justice announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December.By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of","five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016. On 4 June 2015,Chuck Blazerwhile co-operating with theFBIand the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA's then-executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups.On 10 June 2015, Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices ofSepp Blatter.The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the2026 FIFA World Cupin light of theallegations surrounding briberyin the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then-secretary generalJérôme Valckestated, \"Due to the situation, I think it's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being.\"On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media. On 3 December 2015 two","3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May.An additional 16 indictments by the US Department of Justice were announced on the same day. Biennial World Cup proposition A biennial World Cup plan was first proposed by theSaudi Arabian Football Federationat the 71stFIFA Congresson 21 May 2021 and prominently backed by former Arsenal managerArsène Wengerand national federations in Africa and Asia.Continental confederations such as UEFA and CONMEBOL are not on board with the planbut, in total, the idea is supported by 166 of the 210 member associations of FIFA. Other FIFA tournaments An equivalent tournament forwomen's football, theFIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in1991inChina.The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991. Men's football has been included in everySummer","in everySummer Olympic Gamesexcept 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men'sfootball tournament at the Olympicsis not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players.Women's football made itsOlympic debut in 1996. TheFIFA Confederations Cupwas a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country.The first edition took place in1992and the last edition was played in2017. In March 2019, FIFA confirmed that the tournament would no longer be active owing to an expansion of theFIFA Club World Cupin 2021. FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup,FIFA U-17 World Cup,FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup,FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such","variants such asfutsal(FIFA Futsal World Cup) andbeach soccer(FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women's version, although aFIFA Women's Club World Cuphas been proposed. TheFIFA U-20 Women's World Cupis held biannually, including the year before each Women's World Cup. Both tournaments were awarded in a single bidding process on three occasions, with the U-20 tournament serving as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition each time (2010,2014and2018). Trophy From 1930 to 1970, theJules Rimet Trophywas awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as theWorld CuporCoupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA presidentJules Rimetwho set up the first tournament. In1970,Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves. After 1970, a new trophy, known as theFIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts","The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designerSilvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14.2 in) high, made of solid 18carat(75%) gold and weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb). The base contains two layers of semi-preciousmalachitewhile the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since1974.The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: \"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory.\" This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards. All members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams","the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of theWorld Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runners-up' (silver), and third-place (bronze). In the2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hostsSouth Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. Since 2006, winners of the competition are also awarded the right to wear theFIFA Champions Badge, up until the time at which the winner of the next competition is decided. Format Qualification Since the second World Cup in1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament.They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa,Asia,North and Central America and Caribbean,South America,Oceania, andEurope), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament,","each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams. The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinentalplay-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the2010 World Cup.From the1938 World Cuponwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the2006 FIFA World Cuponward, requiring the champions to qualify.Brazil, winners in2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches. Final tournament The final tournament format since 1998 has had 32","1998 has had 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nations. There are two stages: the group stage, followed by the knockout stage. In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on theFIFA World Rankingsor performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups.The other teams are assigned to different \"pots\", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation. Each group plays around-robin tournamentin which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to","at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams.The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since1994,three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points). Considering six matches in a group each with three possible outcomes (win, draw, loss), there are 729 (= 36) possible final table outcomes for the 40 possible combinations of the four teams' points.However, 14 of the 40 points combinations (or 207 of the 729 possible outcomes) lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined by: The knockout stage is asingle-elimination tournamentin which teams play each other in one-off matches, withextra timeandpenalty shootoutsused to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group. This is followed by the","is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, thethird-place match(contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final. On 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48-team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which was to consist of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026.On 14 March 2023, FIFA approved a revised format of the 2026 tournament, which features 12 groups of four teams each, with the top 8 third-placed teams joining the group winners and runners-up in a new round of 32. Hosts Selection process Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold thefirst World Cupin Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing.The next two World Cups were both held in","were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the1938 FIFA World Cup. Since the1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the1998 FIFA World Cup. The2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts.South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in2010. The2014 FIFA World Cupwas hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America sinceArgentina 1978,and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe. The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Council. This is done under anexhaustive ballotsystem. The national football association of a country desiring to host","desiring to host the event receives a \"Hosting Agreement\" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. There have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded toRussiaandQatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament. For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament was rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014)","America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after thecontroversysurrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation did not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from2018.This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder. The2026 FIFA World Cupwas chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations.The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 104 matches. Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter-finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each. Summary by confederation Performances Six of the eight champions have won","champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions beingBrazil, who finished as runners-up after losing thedeciding matchon home soil in 1950 and lost theirsemi-finalagainst Germany in 2014, andSpain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982.England(1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation.Uruguay(1930),Italy(1934),Argentina(1978), andFrance(1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, whileGermany(1974) won their second title on home soil. Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament.Switzerland(quarter-finals 1954),Sweden(runners-up in 1958),Chile(third place in 1962),South Korea(fourth place in 2002),Russia(quarter-finals 2018), andMexico(quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts.So far,South Africa(2010) andQatar(2022) failed to advance beyond the first round. Broadcasting and promotion The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and as of 2006is","and as of 2006is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative viewership of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion.715.1 million individuals watched the final match of the tournament, almost a ninth of the entire population of the planet. The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers.The World Cup attracts major sponsors such asCoca-Cola,McDonald'sandAdidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event. The governing body of the sport,FIFA, generated $4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament,and $6.1 billion from the 2018 tournament. Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its ownmascotor logo.World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the firstWorld Cup mascot.World Cups featureofficial match ballsspecially designed","designed for each tournament. AfterSlazengerproduced the ball for the 1966 World Cup Adidas became the official supplier to FIFA.Each World Cup also has anofficial song, which have been performed by artists ranging fromShakiratoWill Smith.Other songs, such as “Nessun dorma”, performed byThe Three Tenorsat four World Cup concerts, have also become identified with the tournament. Forming a partnership with FIFA in 1970,Paninipublished its firststicker albumfor the 1970 World Cup.Since then, collecting and trading stickers andcardshas become part of the World Cup experience, especially for the younger generation.FIFA has licensed World Cupvideo gamessince 1986, sponsored byElectronic Arts. Results In all, 80 nations haveplayed in at least one World Cup.Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup,and they have addedstars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. Uruguay, however, chose to displayfour stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928","the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics, which are recognized by FIFA as World Championships, and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950. With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to haveplayed in every World Cup(22) to date.Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982–1990) and Brazil (1994–2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top-four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8). Teams reaching the top four Best performances by confederations To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from theUEFA(Europe) andCONMEBOL(South America) confederations. European nations have won twelve titles, while South American nations have won ten. Only three teams from outside these two","outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition:United States(North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930;South Korea(Asia) in 2002; andMorocco(Africa) in 2022. Only oneOceanianqualifier,Australiain 2006, has advanced to the second round, a feat they later reaccomplished in 2022. Brazil,Argentina,SpainandGermanyare the only teams to win a World Cup hosted outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious inEurope(1958),North America(1970and1994) andAsia(2002). Argentina won a World Cup in North America in1986and in Asia in2022. Spain won inAfricain2010. In2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas. Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent; the longest streak of tournaments won by a single confederation is four, with the2006,2010,2014, and2018tournaments all won by UEFA teams (Italy, Spain, Germany, and France, respectively). Records and statistics Six players share the record","share the record forplaying in the most World Cups;Mexico'sAntonio Carbajal(1950–1966).Rafael Márquez(2002–2018), andAndrés Guardado(2006–2022);Germany'sLothar Matthäus(1982–1998);Argentina'sLionel Messi(2006–2022); andPortugal'sCristiano Ronaldo(2006–2022) all played in five tournaments, with Ronaldo also being the first and only player to score in five tournaments.Messi has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 26 appearances.Brazil'sDjalma Santos(1954–1962), West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauer(1966–1974), and Germany'sPhilipp Lahm(2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three World CupAll-Star Teams. Miroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) is the all-time top scorer at the World Cup with 16 goals. He brokeRonaldoof Brazil's record of 15 goals (1998–2006) during the2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany'sGerd Müller(1970–1974) is third, with 14 goals.The fourth-placed goalscorer,France'sJust Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals","all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals.This made Brazil'sPeléthe only player to have won three World Cup winners' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury),with20 other players who have won two winners' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners', runner- ups', and third-place); five players were from West Germany's squad of 1966–1974:Franz Beckenbauer,Jürgen Grabowski,Horst-Dieter Höttges,Sepp Maier, andWolfgang Overath(1966–1974), Italy'sFranco Baresi(1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has beenMiroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) with four consecutive medals. Brazil'sMário Zagallo, West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauerand France'sDidier Deschampsare the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player","1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach.Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach,and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018, after having won in 1998 as captain.Italy'sVittorio Pozzois the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938).All World Cup-winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory. Among the national teams, Brazil has played the most World Cup matches (114), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), and quarter-finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (22), has the most wins (76) and has scored the most goals (237).The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the2002 finaland in the2014 semi-final. Top goalscorers Players inboldare still active. Awards At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. See also Notes Citations Cited works External links"],"string":"[\n \"List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more\",\n \"to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no\",\n \"force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links\",\n \"FIFA World Cup TheFIFA World Cup, often called theWorld Cup, is an internationalassociation footballcompetition among the seniormen's national teamsof the members of theFédération Internationale de Football Association(FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The tournament has been held every four years since theinaugural tournament in 1930, with the exception of 1942 and 1946 due to theSecond World War. The reigning champions areArgentina, who won their third title at the2022 tournament. The contest starts with thequalification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase. In the tournament phase, 32 teams compete for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over the course of about a month. The host nation(s) automatically qualify for the group stage of the tournament. The competition is scheduled to expand to 48 teams, starting with the2026 tournament. As of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, 22 final tournaments have been held since the\",\n \"been held since the event's inception in 1930, and a total of 80 national teams have competed. Thetrophyhas been won by eight national teams. With five wins,Brazilis the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners areGermanyandItaly, with four titles each;Argentina, with three titles;Franceand inaugural winnerUruguay, each with two titles; andEnglandandSpain, with one title each. The World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed single sporting event in the world.The viewership of the2018 World Cupwas estimated to be 3.57 billion, close to half of the global population,while the engagement with the2022 World Cupwas estimated to be 5 billion, with about 1.5 billion people watchingthe final match. Seventeen countries have hosted the World Cup, most recentlyQatar, who hosted the 2022 event. The2026 tournamentwill be jointly hosted by Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the\",\n \"give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to host games in three World Cups. History Previous international competitions The world's first international football match was a challenge match played inGlasgowin 1872 betweenScotlandandEngland.The first international tournament for nations, the inauguralBritish Home Championship, took place in 1884 and included games between England, Scotland,Wales, andIreland.As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as ademonstration sportwith no medals awarded at the1900and1904 Summer Olympics; however, theInternational Olympic Committeehas retroactively upgraded their status to official events, as well as the1906 Intercalated Games. AfterFIFAwas founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition\",\n \"the competition as having been unsuccessful. At the1908 Summer OlympicsinLondon, football became an official Olympic sport. Planned byThe Football Association(FA), England's football governing body, the event was foramateurplayers only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by theEngland national amateur football team) won thegold medals. They repeated the feat at the1912 Summer OlympicsinStockholm. With the Olympic event continuing to be a contest between amateur teams only,Sir Thomas Liptonorganised theSir Thomas Lipton Trophytournament inTurinin 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described asThe First World Cup,and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to\",\n \"the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invitedWest Auckland, an amateur side fromCounty Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.Prior to the Lipton competition, from 1876 to 1904, games that were considered to be the \\\"football world championship\\\" were meetings between leading English and Scottish clubs, such as the1895 gamebetweenSunderland A.F.C.and theHeart of Midlothian F.C., which Sunderland won. In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise theOlympic tournamentas a \\\"world football championship for amateurs\\\", and took responsibility for managing the event.This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition for nations, at the1920 Summer Olympics, contested byEgyptand 13 European teams, and won byBelgium.Uruguaywon the next two Olympic football tournaments in1924and1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era, and is the reason\",\n \"and is the reason whyUruguay is allowed to wear 4 stars. World Cups before World War II Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, withPresidentJules Rimetas the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress inAmsterdamdecided to stage a world championship.With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate theircentenaryofindependencein 1930, FIFA namedUruguayas the host country of theinaugural World Cup tournament. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides, especially in the midst of theGreat Depression. As such, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams fromBelgium,France,Romania, andYugoslaviato make the trip.In total, 13\",\n \"trip.In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won byFranceand theUnited States, who defeatedMexico4–1 andBelgium3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored byLucien Laurentof France.In thefinal,UruguaydefeatedArgentina4–2 in front of 93,000 spectators inMontevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup.After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and theIOCdisagreed over the status of amateur players; football was dropped from the1932 Summer Olympics.After the IOC and FIFA worked out their differences, Olympic football returned at the1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup. The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the1934 World Cupand all North and South American\",\n \"and South American nations exceptBrazilandCubaboycotted the1938tournament. Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, whichGermanyandBrazilsought to host,were cancelled due toWorld War II. World Cups after World War II The1950 World Cup, held inBrazil, was the first to include British football associations.Scotland,England,Wales, andNorthern Irelandhad withdrawn from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football.The teams rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation.The tournament also saw the return of 1930 championsUruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called \\\"Maracanazo\\\" (Portuguese:Maracanaço). In the tournaments between 1934 and1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, whenAustriawasabsorbedintoGermanyafter qualifying,\",\n \"qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, whenIndia,Scotland, andTurkeywithdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams.Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were:United States, semi-finalists in 1930;Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938;North Korea, quarter-finalists in1966; andMexico, quarter-finalists in1970. Expansion to 24 and 32 teams The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in1982,and then to 32 in1998,allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals:Mexico, quarter-finalists in1986;Cameroon, quarter-finalists in1990;South Korea, finishing in fourth place in2002;Senegal, along\",\n \"along withUSA, both quarter-finalists in 2002;Ghana, quarter-finalists in 2010;Costa Rica, quarter-finalists in 2014; andMorocco, finishing in fourth place in 2022. European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far. Two hundred teams entered the2002 FIFA World Cupqualification rounds. 198 nations attempted to qualify for the2006 FIFA World Cup. A record 204 countries entered qualification for the2010 FIFA World Cup. Expansion to 48 teams In October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing theCaribbean Football Union's region a position in the World Cup.In the edition of 25 October 2013 of theFIFA WeeklyBlatter wrote that: \\\"From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It cannot be that the European and South\",\n \"European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup.\\\"Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency. Following the magazine's publication, Blatter's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency,UEFAPresidentMichel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth toUEFA, two each to theAsian Football Confederationand theConfederation of African Football, two shared betweenCONCACAFandCONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for theOceania Football Confederation.Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: \\\" not based on the quality of the teams because you don't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it's a good compromise. ... It's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the\",\n \"is to bring all the people of all the world. If you don't give the possibility to participate, they don't improve.\\\" In October 2016, FIFA presidentGianni Infantinostated his support for a 48-team World Cup in 2026.On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams. 2015 FIFA corruption case By May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games,with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Department of Justice announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December.By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of\",\n \"five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016. On 4 June 2015,Chuck Blazerwhile co-operating with theFBIand the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA's then-executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups.On 10 June 2015, Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices ofSepp Blatter.The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the2026 FIFA World Cupin light of theallegations surrounding briberyin the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then-secretary generalJérôme Valckestated, \\\"Due to the situation, I think it's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being.\\\"On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media. On 3 December 2015 two\",\n \"3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May.An additional 16 indictments by the US Department of Justice were announced on the same day. Biennial World Cup proposition A biennial World Cup plan was first proposed by theSaudi Arabian Football Federationat the 71stFIFA Congresson 21 May 2021 and prominently backed by former Arsenal managerArsène Wengerand national federations in Africa and Asia.Continental confederations such as UEFA and CONMEBOL are not on board with the planbut, in total, the idea is supported by 166 of the 210 member associations of FIFA. Other FIFA tournaments An equivalent tournament forwomen's football, theFIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in1991inChina.The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991. Men's football has been included in everySummer\",\n \"in everySummer Olympic Gamesexcept 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men'sfootball tournament at the Olympicsis not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players.Women's football made itsOlympic debut in 1996. TheFIFA Confederations Cupwas a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country.The first edition took place in1992and the last edition was played in2017. In March 2019, FIFA confirmed that the tournament would no longer be active owing to an expansion of theFIFA Club World Cupin 2021. FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup,FIFA U-17 World Cup,FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup,FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such\",\n \"variants such asfutsal(FIFA Futsal World Cup) andbeach soccer(FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women's version, although aFIFA Women's Club World Cuphas been proposed. TheFIFA U-20 Women's World Cupis held biannually, including the year before each Women's World Cup. Both tournaments were awarded in a single bidding process on three occasions, with the U-20 tournament serving as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition each time (2010,2014and2018). Trophy From 1930 to 1970, theJules Rimet Trophywas awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as theWorld CuporCoupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA presidentJules Rimetwho set up the first tournament. In1970,Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves. After 1970, a new trophy, known as theFIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts\",\n \"The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designerSilvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14.2 in) high, made of solid 18carat(75%) gold and weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb). The base contains two layers of semi-preciousmalachitewhile the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since1974.The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: \\\"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory.\\\" This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards. All members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams\",\n \"the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of theWorld Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runners-up' (silver), and third-place (bronze). In the2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hostsSouth Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. Since 2006, winners of the competition are also awarded the right to wear theFIFA Champions Badge, up until the time at which the winner of the next competition is decided. Format Qualification Since the second World Cup in1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament.They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa,Asia,North and Central America and Caribbean,South America,Oceania, andEurope), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament,\",\n \"each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams. The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinentalplay-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the2010 World Cup.From the1938 World Cuponwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the2006 FIFA World Cuponward, requiring the champions to qualify.Brazil, winners in2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches. Final tournament The final tournament format since 1998 has had 32\",\n \"1998 has had 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nations. There are two stages: the group stage, followed by the knockout stage. In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on theFIFA World Rankingsor performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups.The other teams are assigned to different \\\"pots\\\", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation. Each group plays around-robin tournamentin which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to\",\n \"at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams.The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since1994,three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points). Considering six matches in a group each with three possible outcomes (win, draw, loss), there are 729 (= 36) possible final table outcomes for the 40 possible combinations of the four teams' points.However, 14 of the 40 points combinations (or 207 of the 729 possible outcomes) lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined by: The knockout stage is asingle-elimination tournamentin which teams play each other in one-off matches, withextra timeandpenalty shootoutsused to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group. This is followed by the\",\n \"is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, thethird-place match(contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final. On 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48-team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which was to consist of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026.On 14 March 2023, FIFA approved a revised format of the 2026 tournament, which features 12 groups of four teams each, with the top 8 third-placed teams joining the group winners and runners-up in a new round of 32. Hosts Selection process Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold thefirst World Cupin Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing.The next two World Cups were both held in\",\n \"were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the1938 FIFA World Cup. Since the1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the1998 FIFA World Cup. The2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts.South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in2010. The2014 FIFA World Cupwas hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America sinceArgentina 1978,and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe. The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Council. This is done under anexhaustive ballotsystem. The national football association of a country desiring to host\",\n \"desiring to host the event receives a \\\"Hosting Agreement\\\" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. There have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded toRussiaandQatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament. For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament was rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014)\",\n \"America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after thecontroversysurrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation did not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from2018.This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder. The2026 FIFA World Cupwas chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations.The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 104 matches. Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter-finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each. Summary by confederation Performances Six of the eight champions have won\",\n \"champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions beingBrazil, who finished as runners-up after losing thedeciding matchon home soil in 1950 and lost theirsemi-finalagainst Germany in 2014, andSpain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982.England(1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation.Uruguay(1930),Italy(1934),Argentina(1978), andFrance(1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, whileGermany(1974) won their second title on home soil. Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament.Switzerland(quarter-finals 1954),Sweden(runners-up in 1958),Chile(third place in 1962),South Korea(fourth place in 2002),Russia(quarter-finals 2018), andMexico(quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts.So far,South Africa(2010) andQatar(2022) failed to advance beyond the first round. Broadcasting and promotion The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and as of 2006is\",\n \"and as of 2006is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative viewership of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion.715.1 million individuals watched the final match of the tournament, almost a ninth of the entire population of the planet. The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers.The World Cup attracts major sponsors such asCoca-Cola,McDonald'sandAdidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event. The governing body of the sport,FIFA, generated $4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament,and $6.1 billion from the 2018 tournament. Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its ownmascotor logo.World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the firstWorld Cup mascot.World Cups featureofficial match ballsspecially designed\",\n \"designed for each tournament. AfterSlazengerproduced the ball for the 1966 World Cup Adidas became the official supplier to FIFA.Each World Cup also has anofficial song, which have been performed by artists ranging fromShakiratoWill Smith.Other songs, such as “Nessun dorma”, performed byThe Three Tenorsat four World Cup concerts, have also become identified with the tournament. Forming a partnership with FIFA in 1970,Paninipublished its firststicker albumfor the 1970 World Cup.Since then, collecting and trading stickers andcardshas become part of the World Cup experience, especially for the younger generation.FIFA has licensed World Cupvideo gamessince 1986, sponsored byElectronic Arts. Results In all, 80 nations haveplayed in at least one World Cup.Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup,and they have addedstars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. Uruguay, however, chose to displayfour stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928\",\n \"the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics, which are recognized by FIFA as World Championships, and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950. With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to haveplayed in every World Cup(22) to date.Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982–1990) and Brazil (1994–2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top-four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8). Teams reaching the top four Best performances by confederations To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from theUEFA(Europe) andCONMEBOL(South America) confederations. European nations have won twelve titles, while South American nations have won ten. Only three teams from outside these two\",\n \"outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition:United States(North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930;South Korea(Asia) in 2002; andMorocco(Africa) in 2022. Only oneOceanianqualifier,Australiain 2006, has advanced to the second round, a feat they later reaccomplished in 2022. Brazil,Argentina,SpainandGermanyare the only teams to win a World Cup hosted outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious inEurope(1958),North America(1970and1994) andAsia(2002). Argentina won a World Cup in North America in1986and in Asia in2022. Spain won inAfricain2010. In2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas. Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent; the longest streak of tournaments won by a single confederation is four, with the2006,2010,2014, and2018tournaments all won by UEFA teams (Italy, Spain, Germany, and France, respectively). Records and statistics Six players share the record\",\n \"share the record forplaying in the most World Cups;Mexico'sAntonio Carbajal(1950–1966).Rafael Márquez(2002–2018), andAndrés Guardado(2006–2022);Germany'sLothar Matthäus(1982–1998);Argentina'sLionel Messi(2006–2022); andPortugal'sCristiano Ronaldo(2006–2022) all played in five tournaments, with Ronaldo also being the first and only player to score in five tournaments.Messi has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 26 appearances.Brazil'sDjalma Santos(1954–1962), West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauer(1966–1974), and Germany'sPhilipp Lahm(2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three World CupAll-Star Teams. Miroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) is the all-time top scorer at the World Cup with 16 goals. He brokeRonaldoof Brazil's record of 15 goals (1998–2006) during the2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany'sGerd Müller(1970–1974) is third, with 14 goals.The fourth-placed goalscorer,France'sJust Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals\",\n \"all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals.This made Brazil'sPeléthe only player to have won three World Cup winners' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury),with20 other players who have won two winners' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners', runner- ups', and third-place); five players were from West Germany's squad of 1966–1974:Franz Beckenbauer,Jürgen Grabowski,Horst-Dieter Höttges,Sepp Maier, andWolfgang Overath(1966–1974), Italy'sFranco Baresi(1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has beenMiroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) with four consecutive medals. Brazil'sMário Zagallo, West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauerand France'sDidier Deschampsare the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player\",\n \"1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach.Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach,and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018, after having won in 1998 as captain.Italy'sVittorio Pozzois the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938).All World Cup-winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory. Among the national teams, Brazil has played the most World Cup matches (114), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), and quarter-finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (22), has the most wins (76) and has scored the most goals (237).The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the2002 finaland in the2014 semi-final. Top goalscorers Players inboldare still active. Awards At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. See also Notes Citations Cited works External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":391,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Five Nights at Freddy's initial game release came one day short of the 19 year anniversary of the death of which Grateful Dead band member?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Jerry Garcia"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Nights_at_Freddy%27s"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grateful_Dead#Main_career_(1967–1995)"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Nights_at_Freddy%27s', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grateful_Dead#Main_career_(1967–1995)']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Nights_at_Freddy%27s","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grateful_Dead#Main_career_(1967–1995"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Nights_at_Freddy%27s\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grateful_Dead#Main_career_(1967–1995\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Five Nights at Freddy's Five Nights at Freddy's(FNaF) is a video game series andmedia franchisecreated byindie gamedeveloperScott Cawthon. The franchise features ten main video games, several spin-off games, novels, anda film adaptation. The video game series follows a set of night guards and other characters that try to survive from midnight to 6 a.m. for five levels, called \"nights\", while fending off attacks from homicidalanimatroniccharacters. Each game is set in a different location connected to a fictional family pizza restaurant franchise named \"Freddy Fazbear's Pizza\". The core gameplay mechanic involves using tools effectively and managing limited resources to avoid being caught by the animatronics. Cawthon conceived the idea forthe first video gameafter his family-friendly resource management game,Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., was criticized for the resemblance of its characters to frightening animatronics. Responding to this feedback, he developed a horror game that intentionally featured scary animatronics. Released in August 2014, the game's success prompted the development of sequels. Cawthon created most of the games himself usingClickteam Fusionbut partnered with Steel Wool Studios to createan open-world gameanda virtual reality anthology. The series has a mixed critical reception, with praise for its storytelling and atmosphere but criticism for its gameplay. It has achieved significant commercial success, with merchandise available internationally. The franchise has also garnered acult followingthat produces fan media inspired by it. History and development The concept forFive Nights at Freddy'sstemmed from the negative reception of Scott Cawthon's earlier game,Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., where players said that the main character resembled a \"scary animatronic animal.\"Initially discouraged by the criticism, Cawthon, who had predominantly createdChristian-oriented games, leveraged this feedback to develop something intentionally frightening.Five Nights at Freddy'swas released on August 8, 2014, viaDesura,followed by aSteamrelease after gaining approval through thecrowdsourcingplatform Greenlight.The game rapidly gained popularity after being showcased by prominent YouTubers.: 82 The success ofFive Nights at Freddy'sled to multiple sequels released between 2014 and 2023,and a spin-off game titledFNaF World, launched in January 2016.Cawthon usedClickteam Fusion 2.5for game development andAutodesk 3ds Maxfor 3D graphics,enhancing later titles with professional voice actors and original soundtracks.ForHelp WantedandSecurity Breach, Cawthon worked with game development company Steel Wool Studios.In 2015, Cawthon expanded the franchise into literature, announcing a multi-book deal with Scholastic in 2016,which began withThe Silver Eyes,released onAmazon Kindleon December 17, 2015and in paperback on September 27, 2016.This was followed by two additional novels,The Twisted OnesandThe Fourth Closet, published in 2017 and 2018, respectively. Gameplay TheFive Nights at Freddy'sseries consists of psychological horror-themed video games in which the player is usually a night-time employee at a location connected with Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, a fictional children's restaurant that takes inspiration from family pizza chains likeChuck E. CheeseandShowBiz Pizza Place.The restaurant has life-size animatronic characters resembling anthropomorphic animals that perform on a show stage, usually for children's parties, but leave their posts and wander the restaurant at night; the guard's job is to watch over them and prevent them from attacking. The animatronics' mobility is stated in the first game to be necessaary for them to continue functioning properly in the morning, though subsequent games reveal they are actually possessed by ghosts. InFive Nights at Freddy's, the player can control the two security doors connecting their office to the adjacent hallways as a barrier against animatronics in the vicinity. Each night, the player has a power supply that depletes faster when a tool is used.If the power goes out, the player can no longer use any tools and is defenseless against the animatronics unless a shift ends before main animatronic Freddy Fazbear can attack.Five Nights at Freddy's 2has different tools; there are no protective doors, and the player must instead use an empty animatronic head and flashlight to defend themself against the animatronics. The game introduced a music box which must be remotely wound up on a regular basis to prevent an attack from a particular animatronic.Eight-bitmini-gameswere introduced, which are played randomly after death and give cryptic clues into the lore. Five Nights at Freddy's 3uses a monitor panel, which contains audio, camera, and ventilation.The player must keep certain systems from malfunctioning. These malfunctions can be triggered randomly or by the hallucinations of the animatronics from the first and second games. The ability to sealventsis also added and must be used to prevent the sole tangible animatronic from entering the office. The player can use an audio-based function on the cameras, which triggers a childlike voice to lure Springtrap, the game's only physical animatronic possessed by William Afton's spirit, away from the office.The 8-bit minigames return and are playable after each night if the player completes side tasks such as clicking on a poster or inputting a code into a wall. If the player completes the minigames, they unlock a secret ending. InFive Nights at Freddy's 4, the gameplay occurs in a bedroom setting, and instead of being a nighttime security guard, the player takes the role of a small child who experiences nightmarish visions of the animatronics due to fearing their real-life counterparts.The player also no longer has access to a camera system.The player has four areas in the bedroom to monitor: two hallway doors on both sides of the room, the closet directly in front of them, and the bed behind them.At the doors, the player must listen for animatronics' breathing, which can determine whether they are near. If the player hears breathing at the side doors, they close the door and wait for the animatronics to walk away. If they open the doors too early, however, the animatronicsjump scarethe player.The player must also prevent small animatronics from accumulating on their bed, and prevent an animatronic from entering their closet.Five Nights at Freddy's 4also introduces a minigame involving a new animatronic, which offers the player a two-hour skip in the next night for completing the minigame. An elevated control pad is introduced forSister Location, which can light a room or shock the animatronics. Other mechanics include a second control pad in a breaker room, which controls power to the facility and a flashbeacon, which allows the player to see in the dark Funtime Auditorium (a party room) and avoid its animatronic.Sister Locationis the only game where the player can move between rooms. Pizzeria Simulatorhasbusiness-stylegameplay, and the player must spend in-game money to buy features for their pizzeria. A series of minigames can be played by testing the establishment's attractions.After the player has completed this portion of the game, they complete tasks in a room and fend off hostile, previously salvaged animatronics.The gameplay ofPizzeria Simulatorshares a number of elements withFive Nights at Freddy's 3, including the importance of ventilation and the ability to distract animatronics with sound. Ultimate Custom Nightis a customizable night, in which fifty animatronics are present and have a maximum AI level of twenty. The game includes many mechanics from the previous games, such as the heater, fan, music box, and power generator.The player can choose which characters they want active for a night, and how active the characters will be. Help Wantedcombines the gameplay of every other game, and turns into a virtual experience for the player.It also introduces several other minigames, in which the gameplay is variant, and also at times hasfree-roam.Special Deliveryfeatures location-based augmented reality gameplay. The player can switch on their camera, and the footage itself is the game's background. The animatronics will try to attack corresponding to the environment. The animatronics generally havecloaking, which leads them to being invisible. Security Breachholds the open-world aspect to this title allows players to experience a new level of immersion,similar to that ofFive Night's at Freddy's 4. Players will also have access to a nifty tool called the Faz-Watch, which allows them to view maps, read messages picked up from random areas on the map, check security cameras for nearby danger, and look at their current objectives.It incorporates Freddy as a helpful companion throughout the game, though he has limited power and must be charged at stations through the map. Players can distract hostile animatronics by knocking things over to get their attention, while they can crouch and hide in various structures to evade them as they follow you throughout the map. Unlike otherFive Nightsgames there are limited save points and there is only a single save station after 6 a.m. Common elements Security cameras In the first, second, third, seventh,eighth,and ninthgames, the player has asecurity-camerasystem, which observes the animatronic characters. One location can be viewed at a time, and some areas are not visible on the cameras.Most camera feeds are dull, sometimes almostblack and whitein color, and full ofvideo noise. In the third game, the cameras stop working if their associated system fails.Cameras are used in the fifth game as a mechanic in the fake ending and custom night update, but not in the main game. Lights In all games except for the third, lights are used to ward off animatronics or warn the player. Lights in the first, second, fifth, and eighthgames are activated with buttons on the walls and illuminate the player's blind spots: the doorway or vent exit, respectively.The lights are similar in the fifth game, but are mounted on a control pad and illuminate the animatronics' rooms. The fifth game also introduced a flash beacon, which is used to orient the player in the third and fifth nights' pitch-black rooms. Several games include use of a flashlight. In the second game, the flashlight has a finite battery life and cannot be recharged,while in the fourth and seventhgames, the battery life is infinite. In the eighthgame, the flashlight battery varies depending on the game segment being played. Flashlight battery life is again finite in the ninthgame, but can be recharged at various recharge stations throughout the game. Doors and vents In the first, fourth, seventh,eighth,and ninthgames, doors are a means of defense for the player, and can be closed when an animatronic is near. Vents are featured in the second, third, sixth, and eighthgames, as a medium through which animatronics can get to the player. Both doors and vents are again present in the fake ending and custom night update of the fifth game with the same function. Vents are also present in the fifth and ninthgames as means for the player to travel through, rather than the animatronics. Jump scares Every game in the main series contains jump scares, which end a game in defeat as the animatronics are implied to attack the player off-screen.In most jump scares, an animatronic character suddenly appears in the player's view, followed by a loud screaming or roaring noise. Some jump scares, including those by Golden Freddy (in the first and seventhgames), Nightmare, and Nightmarionette (in the fourth game), consist of a single screen with shrill, distorted audio; these jump scares usually crash (or restart) the game. The player must use various tools to prevent being attacked via jump scares and advance through each game. Minigames In the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, eighth,and ninthgames, the player gains access to a series of (predominantly eight-bit) minigames randomly after death, or after completing a specific task.The minigames usually relate to a story or event relevant to the game, in a cryptic manner.The minigames in the second game portray homicides mentioned by another worker of the restaurant, and the reason of the animatronics gaining life.The minigames in the third game show the story behind Springtrap's creation. Minigames in the fourth game tell the story of a character who dies in a tragic accident. There is only one minigame in the fifth game, which depicts the death of animatronic engineer William Afton's daughter. The minigames in the sixth game depict various events in the series, all connected to Afton. In the mobile version of the eighthgame, the player can access a minigame called \"Princess Quest\", which depicts the origins of a character called Vanny; a recreation of these minigames is also featured in the ninthgame, with some significant additions. Story overview TheFive Nights at Freddy'sseries mainly revolves around a chain of family restaurants under the ownership of Fazbear Entertainment, a company founded by Henry Emily and William Afton. The latter is a robotics engineer who creates a series ofanimatronicmascots to entertain customers, including Freddy Fazbear, a brown bear and the namesake of Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, Bonnie, an indigo rabbit,Chica, a yellow chicken, and Foxy, a red pirate fox. Other notable animatronics include the Puppet, the ghostlike Golden Freddy, Freddy's predecessor Fredbear, and Circus Baby,the mascot of the restaurant's sister location, Circus Baby's Pizza World. William is also anegligent fatherandchild murdererwho hides his victims' bodies inside animatronics, which their souls inhabit; he specifically designs Circus Baby to be capable of murdering children, which leads to the accidental death of his own daughter, Elizabeth. William's direct murder victims start with his co-worker Henry's daughterand expand to include five children visiting the restaurants with their families.Meanwhile, an incident involving William's youngest son being shoved into Fredbear's mouth by his older brother Michael results in the closure of Fredbear's Family Diner, a predecessor location.After accidentally murdering his brother, Michael begins seeking redemption, starting with recovering the remains of his sister.After the closure of a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza location, William dismantles the remaining animatronics in a backroom, releasing the souls that inhabit them who proceed to torment him. Seeking refuge from the ghosts, William hides inside an old yellow rabbit animatronic suit. Shortly after, the suit's mechanisms fail and snap shut, crushing William to death as his soul inhabits the animatronic, becoming abionicrevenantcalled Springtrap.Some time after, the whole restaurant chain shuts down. Thirty years later, a horror attraction based on the restaurant chain known as Fazbear's Fright is constructed and leads to Springtrap's excavation; a fire destroys the attraction before it can open to the public. The destruction frees the souls of William's first five victims and destroys the original mascots, though Springtrap escapes. Some time after the fire, Henry lures Springtrap and all animatronics that were not destroyed in Fazbear's Fright into a single pizzeria. With help from Michael, Henry sets fire to the restaurant and destroys every animatronic inside, freeing the souls of the children that inhabited them, including Elizabeth. The fire also kills Henry, Michael, and William.Afterwards, William's soul is trapped and tormented in a personalizedhellwith all animatronics he created. Years later, Fazbear Entertainment is re-founded and releases an in-universe virtual reality experience based on the past of the restaurant, in an effort to convince the public the company's previous controversies were merely fiction,while also constructing a new location, the Pizzaplex. Games Main series Five Nights at Freddy's(2014) Five Nights at Freddy'swas released forMicrosoft Windowson August 8, 2014, followed by ports forAndroidandiOSon August 27 and September 11, respectively. AWindows Phoneversion was also released,but was soon withdrawn due to its downscaled graphics.Ports for thePlayStation 4,Xbox One, andNintendo Switchwere released on November 29, 2019, alongside separate releases forFive Nights at Freddy's 2,3and4. The first game revolves around a character called Mike Schmidt, who begins working as a night security guard at Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, where the animatronics move at night and supposedly kill anyone they see by stuffing them into a spare animatronic suit. Schmidt is guided by the previous night guard, known as Phone Guy, who assists them in their defense against the animatronics through pre-recorded telephone messages until his death in the fourth night.He explains to Schmidt that the animatronics' mobility is a purposely programmed \"free-roaming\" mode to prevent the animatronics' servomotors from locking up. He also states that they see any human still in the restaurant as an animatronic endoskeleton without a suit. The player must survive from 12 a.m. to 6 am. The player cannot leave the room and must use a camera system and two doors with lights to defend themselves from the animatronics, with limited power to use their tools.Various hints and clues imply that, contrary to Phone Guy's explanation, the mobility and hostility of the animatronics results from them beingpossessedby thevengeful soulsof children who were killed at the restaurant. Mike is fired from his job after the seventh night for tampering with the animatronics, body odor, and unprofessionalism. Five Nights at Freddy's 2(2014) Shortly after the release of the first game, Cawthon confirmed rumors about a sequel.He posted ateaserof the sequel on his website one month after the original game's release and continued to post teasers until the sequel's release.A trailer was released on October 21, 2014, introducing new animatronic characters and the absence of doors.Five Nights at Freddy's 2was released for Microsoft Windows on November 10, 2014, earlier than its planned release of December 25. Ports for Android and iOS were released on November 13 and 20, 2014, respectively. A Windows Phone port was also released, but was withdrawn for substandard graphics.PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. The gameplay is largely similar to its predecessor. Players must survive a night shift at the \"new and improved\" Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant from 12 a.m. to 6 am, without being attacked by any of the animatronics that wander from room to room.In addition to the animatronics from the first game, which are depicted in a deteriorated state, the game features several new antagonists, who can be fended off using different tactics.The explanation given for the animatronics' behavior during the game is similar to the one from the firstFive Nights at Freddy's. The protagonist is a new character, Jeremy Fitzgerald, who is promoted to daytime security after the sixth night, being replaced by Fritz Smith in the seventh night. During the game, Phone Guy from the previous game calls Jeremy to give him hints on how to survive each night while talking about the restaurant's history. During these calls, it is revealed that the restaurant has become the subject of a police investigation due to various rumors. It is also possible to access hiddenAtari-styled minigames that provide further insight on the restaurant's troubled past, showing a purple figure killing multiple children. On the fifth night, the location is put on lockdown due to an unspecified event. At the end of the game, Jeremy receives a paycheck dated 1987, revealing that the events of the game take place before the firstFive Nights at Freddy's, and the restaurant is closed, with a new location set to be opened elsewhere. Five Nights at Freddy's 3(2015) On January 3, 2015, an image was uploaded to Cawthon's website teasing a third entry in the series.Other images followedbefore a trailer was released on January 26, 2015. On February 15, Cawthon posted on Steam thatFive Nights at Freddy's 3was cancelled after a hacker allegedlyleakedthe game.This was later revealed as a hoax; the \"leaked\" download linked to a humorouscloneof a previous game of Cawthon's,There is No Pause Button!, in which the main character is depicted wearing the Freddy animatronic head.Five Nights at Freddy's 3was released for Microsoft Windows on March 3, 2015, with Android and iOS ports following on March 7 and 12, respectively. PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. Set thirty years after the events of the first game, its main character works at Fazbear's Fright, a horror attraction based on the long-gone Freddy Fazbear's Pizza. The player must defend themselves from the deteriorated animatronic-costume hybrid named Springtrap. Burnt and tattered hallucinations of some of the animatronics from the previous two games appear; and although they cannot kill the player, they can hinder ventilation, sound, and camera systems. Failure to maintain the systems can create many issues for the player, including dysfunctional cameras and the inability to play audio to lure away the animatronic. The player receives guidance from a founder of the horror attraction for the first two nights and listens to old tape recordings which were found by the attraction's workers for the rest of the nights.The game has two endings: a \"good\" ending and a \"bad\" ending. The bad ending reveals that the souls of the murdered children still haunt the animatronics. The good ending is reached by completing secret minigames in which animatronic characters bring a cake to what seems to be a sorrowful child's soul. After completing the secret minigames, the souls of the children are freed. Five Nights at Freddy's 4(2015) On April 27, 2015, Cawthon began posting images on his website teasing another game in the series, which was originally titledFive Nights at Freddy's 4: The Final Chapter.A trailer was released on July 13, 2015, hinting that the game was set in the main character's house.Five Nights at Freddy's 4was announced with a release date of October 31, 2015. It was pushed forward to August 8 and again to July 23, when the game was unexpectedly released on Microsoft Windows through Steam. Android and iOS ports were released on July 25 and August 3, 2015, respectively. PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. The player character is an unknown and unnamed child who has delusions of being attacked by nightmarish versions of the first game's animatronic characters.The player must defend themselves with a flashlight and doors.The game's story is told through minigames, in which an unnamed young boy is bullied by his older brother because of his irrational fear of a restaurant with a yellow animatronic bear and rabbit called Fredbear and Spring Bonnie, respectively. He is guided by a plush version of Fredbear, whom the boy imagines can speak to him when he is alone. The child appears to be ultimately killed by Fredbear in a freak accident.The game had aHalloweenupdate with \"nightmare\" versions of animatronics fromFive Nights at Freddy's 2and Halloween-themed reskins for Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica. Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Location(2016) On April 23, 2016, Cawthon posted a teaser image on his website of a clown-likeanimatronicnamed Baby from an upcoming game titledSister Location.Several teaser images of different characters and hints at their origins followed. The trailer for the game was released on Cawthon's YouTube channel, with new animatronics and a new location. The release date was announced as October 7, 2016. Cawthon made a prank release of the game on October 5, apparently releasing a \"mature\" edition after a decision to delay the game to make it morekid-friendly. The download link led to a clone of Cawthon's previous game,Sit 'N Survive. Sister Locationwas released for Microsoft Windows on October 7, 2016, followed by ports for Android on December 22, 2016, and iOS on January 3, 2017, respectively. It was also released on Nintendo Switch in North America on June 18, 2020, and on Xbox One on July 10, 2020. The PlayStation 4 port was released in Europe and North America on July 21 and 22, 2020, respectively. The player character Michael Afton, nicknamed Mike (jokingly called Eggs Benedict),is a new employee of Circus Baby's Entertainment and Rental (a sister company of Fazbear Entertainment that rentsanimatronicsfor children's parties). The animatronics were originally intended for Circus Baby's Pizza World, which never opened due to agas leak.Mike is guided by HandUnit, an AI character similar to the Phone Guy of previous games. HandUnit instructs him about his job, often telling him to disregard safety; the animatronic Baby often gives instructions that contradicts that of HandUnit, but are vital to survival. The game also has a \"custom night\",in which the player can use mechanics reminiscent of the first game (such as interactive doors and a camera system) which were absent from the main game, except for a non-canonical ending, titled the \"Fake Ending\". New minigames are also available, describing Michael's fate after the events of the main game.Acutsceneis shown after the \"Golden Freddy\" custom-night preset, in which Michael speaks to his father, William Afton/Springtrap, in a foreboding way. Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulator(2017) In June 2017, Cawthon hinted at the development of a sixth main game in the series. On July 2, 2017, he announced his decision to cancel the game and said that he had been \"neglecting other things in life for the sake of trying to keep up with mounting expectations\".On December 4, 2017, after teasing the game several days earlier, Cawthon releasedFreddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorasfreewareon Steam.The game is a business-simulation game in which the player runs a pizzeria, but frequently shifts into the survival-horror vein of the series' other games. A mobile version foriOSandAndroidtitledFNaF 6: Pizzeria Simulatorwas released on August 13, 2019. Unlike the PC version, the mobile release, which is developed and published byClickteam LLC USA, ispay-to-play. ANintendo SwitchandXbox Oneport was released on October 31, 2020, with aPlayStation 4port released on March 31, 2021. The game's story follows the manager (implied to be Michael Afton) of a new Freddy Fazbear's restaurant run by the mysterious \"Cassette Man\". Every night, Michael, under Cassette Man's guidance, must salvage one of four decrepit animatronics that were found in the restaurant's back alley, including William / Springtrap (now referred to as \"Scraptrap\") and Elizabeth / Circus Baby (referred to as \"Scrap Baby\"). The game has multiple endings depending on how well the player runs the pizzeria and whether they salvaged all the animatronics, but thecanonending has Cassette Man reveal himself as Henry Emily, William's former business partner, and set the restaurant on fire after revealing its true purpose as a trap to lure in the remaining animatronics. The restaurant burns to the ground, seemingly killing the player character, Henry, and all the animatronics,finally releasing the spirits haunting them. Ultimate Custom Night(2018) Ultimate Custom Nightwas originally intended to be a post-launch add-on toPizzeria Simulator, but was eventually turned into a stand-alone game, releasing on June 27, 2018, asfreeware.A mobile port foriOSandAndroidwas released on April 28, 2020, and a console port for thePlayStation 4,Xbox One, andNintendo Switchwas released on April 30, 2021. The customizable night contains a total of fifty animatronics from previous games, which allows the player to determine how aggressive they are during the night (similar to the custom nights in earlier games). The player can select the office to play in, unlockcutscenes, and choose from 16 themed game modes available.Although unconfirmed, it has been heavily speculated that the game takes place in some version ofHellorPurgatory, where William Afton, following his death inPizzeria Simulator, is being continuously tortured by the vengeful spirit of one of his victims. However, the anthology novel seriesFazbear Frightsimplies that the game is actually Afton's repeating nightmare, and not hell or purgatory. This comes from the fifth book,Bunny Call, which has a story called \"The Man in Room 1280\" where a burned man is kept alive by a shadow child despite the fact that he should be dead and suffers nightmares. In the following book,Blackbird, the epilogue confirms that the man is actually William Afton. Although it was never confirmed if theFazbear Frightsseries is set in the same continuity as the games, Cawthon confirmed that it's supposed to reveal mysteries from the previous games. Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted(2019) On August 18, 2018, Cawthon confirmed on his Steam thread that the next main installment in theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries would be available as avirtual realitygame.On March 25, 2019, duringSony Interactive Entertainment's State of Play live stream announcing several new games for the PlayStation 4, a trailer announcing the game was shown.In the game, the player is a technician repairing a pizzeria's animatronics. From a first-person perspective, they fix the animatronics, solve puzzles and navigate dark hallways while avoiding malfunctioning and hostile animatronics.The game was released on May 28, 2019. A non-VR version of the game was released on December 17, 2019, for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 4. Curse of Dreadbear, a Halloween-themeddownloadable content(DLC) pack forHelp Wantedwas released in three parts, with several \"waves\" of new minigames released on October 23, October 29, and October 31, 2019, for a total of 10 new minigames.The DLC pack includes new animatronic characters, returning animatronics from previous games, and a Halloween-themed hub.Some of the new stages are re-skinned versions of existent minigames, such as a version of theFNAF 1minigames calledDanger! Keep Out!Notable new game modes include ashooting gallery, a free-roamingcorn maze, and anassembly linein which the player must construct an animatronic. Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach(2021) On August 8, 2019, on the first game's fifth anniversary, Cawthon posted a new image on his website, teasing the next installment for the series. It shows the \"Mega Pizzaplex\", a large entertainment complex containing a laser tag arena, an arcade, a cinema and a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant; in the main square, '80s-style versions of Freddy, Chica, and four completely new animatronics can be seen playing for an excited crowd. On April 21, 2020, the characters' names were leaked fromFunko's list of upcoming products, and the title was revealed asFive Nights at Freddy's: Pizza Plex. Scott Cawthon confirmed the leaks via Reddit but revealed that the title was not official. The game was initially scheduled for an early 2021 release,but was delayed to late 2021. Security Breachwas released on PlayStation 5, PlayStation 4, and Steam on December 16, 2021. The game's plot revolves around a young boy named Gregory being trapped in a large entertainment complex teeming with murderous animatronics who hunt him down by the orders of Vanny, a mysterious woman in a rabbit costume, while also evading the complex's security guard, Vanessa. Suffering a malfunction that causes him to ignore Vanny's hacking, Freddy assists Gregory in escaping the complex. A Stadia port was launched on July 1, 2022, ports for Xbox One and Series X/S were released on November 22, 2022, and a Nintendo Switch port was released on April 19, 2023. Free downloadable content titledRuinwas released for PlayStation 5, 4, and Steam on July 25, 2022, with an Xbox One and Series X/S port releasing on April 23, 2024, and a Nintendo Switch port in the works. Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted 2(2023) On May 24, 2023, during a PlayStation Showcase, Steel Wool Studios announced a direct sequel toHelp WantedtitledHelp Wanted 2, scheduled for release in December 2023.On November 20, 2023, the gameplay trailer was released on the official Steel Wool Studios YouTube channel, revealing several characters from the game along with the release date of December 14 on PlayStation 5 and Steam.AMeta Questversion of the game was released on May 9, 2024, and the game was launched physically with a flat version on June 20. Five Nights at Freddy's: Secret of the Mimic(2025) An eleventh main installment,Secret of the Mimic, was announced on August 6, 2024, as part of the series' 10th anniversary.The game will center on the Mimic, introduced inSecurity Breach'sRuinDLC.It will be the third virtual reality game of the series. Spin-offs FNaF World(2016) Cawthon announced a spin-off from his series,FNaF World, on September 15, 2015.Unlike the main series, the game is arole-playing video gameusing the first four games' animatronic characters. The game is set in a fanciful world where the characters must fight enemies and progress by unlocking perks anditems. Originally planned for release on February 2, 2016, Cawthon rescheduled the release for January 22 and released it on January 21. Players and critics criticized the game for missing key features and being unstable and unfinished, for which Cawthon apologized: \"I got too eager to show the things that were finished that I neglected to pay attention to the things that weren't.\" He decided to remove it from Steam, saying that the game would be improved and later re-released free of charge.Cawthon announced that he askedValveto refund all purchasers the price of the game. He released a free version of the game, featuring a3Doverworld and an updated character-selection screen, in February 2016. Cawthon posted a new teaser the following month, with characters such as the main series' Purple Guy and most of the characters from the Halloween update ofFive Nights at Freddy's 4. He created minigames for the game's second update, includingFoxy Fighters,FOXY.exe,Chica's Magic Rainbow, andFNaF 57: Freddy in Space. Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery(2019–2024) Anaugmented realitygame withlocation-based gameplay,Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery, was announced on September 13, 2019.The game was released for free on iOS and Android on November 25, 2019.Dark Circus: Encore!, DLC forSpecial Delivery, was released on December 13, 2021. Its story bridges the gap betweenFive Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted, andFive Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach, and is toldin epistolary format. One series of emails tells of a woman, Ness, triggering red-flag reports with her harmful and offensive search words. The emails eventually reveal that she is under the control of William Afton, and that Ness is Vanny fromFive Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted(\"Ness\" being short for Vanny's real name \"Vanessa\"), who was possessed by Afton after encountering a digital form of him while play-testing one of Fazbear's products. Another series of emails tells the story of the employees at Fazbear Entertainment scanning the circuit boards of old animatronics for \"The Freddy Fazbear Virtual Experience\". As of 2023,Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Deliveryhas been downloaded 40 million times, and has 6.7 million monthly active users. On February 1, 2024, Illumix announced the closure ofSpecial Delivery. On February 2, the game was no longer available to download on iOS and Android. The game's servers shut down on March 14. Freddy in Space 2(2019) Freddy in Space 2is aside-scrollingplatformshooter gameand a sequel to theFNaF 57: Freddy in Spacemini-game fromFNaF World. It was released for free on December 3, 2019, onGame Jolt.The game was made to promote a \"#CancelCancer\" charity livestream on YouTube, which was hosted byMatthew Patrickof Game Theorists forSt. Jude Children's Research HospitalinMemphis, Tennessee. Security Breach: Fury's Rage(2021) Security Breach: Fury's Rageis aside-scrollingbeat 'em upgame featuring the main cast ofSecurity Breach(not including Gregory or Vanessa). The game was made to compensate for the release ofSecurity Breachbeing delayed for a second time and was released for free on Game Jolt on April 28, 2021. Freddy in Space 3: Chica in Space(2023) Freddy in Space 3: Chica in Spaceis a side-scrolling platform shooter game and a sequel toFreddy in Space 2, it was released on October 18, 2023, under the titleFNAF: The Movie: The Game, which was developed by Cawthon, claimed to be aspoiler-heavytie-ingame of theFive Nights at Freddy'sfilm, which was revealed to beFreddy in Space 3in disguise. It was released for free on Game Jolt. Five Nights at Freddy's: Into the Pit(2024) On January 22, 2024, anadaptationof theFazbear Frights: Into the Pitanthology novel was leaked to be in development in an upcoming slate of new novels to be released in 2024.The following day, a trailer was leaked online.Later that day, series creator Scott Cawthon made a post on Reddit acknowledging the leaks and stating the game would release for the series' 10th anniversary on August 8.On January 25, 2024,Mega Cat Studiosconfirmed they were developing the game.The gameplay trailer for the game released June 6.It will be the first installment of the series to be fully in2Dand made withpixel art.The game was accidentally released to Japanese consoles early on August 7, which was repurposed as the new release date.PlayStationandXboxports were released on September 27. Five Laps at Freddy's(2025) Five Laps at Freddy'sis akart racing gamebased on characters fromFive Nights at Freddy'sdeveloped byClickteam. It was announced on June 19, 2024, to coincide with the series' 10th anniversary.A gameplay trailer was released August 3. A demo of the game was released August 7 and a full release of the game is expected in 2025. Five Nights at Freddy's: Survival Crew(TBA) On December 20, 2023, an officialRobloxadaptation by the name ofFive Nights at Freddy's: Survival Crewwas accidentally released in an unfinished state by its developers, Metaverse Team Frights. The game was immediately taken down after major backlash and Cawthon promised the game would be released in a functional state sometime in 2024.In the short time the game was released, players described the gameplay as similar to the cooperative horror game,Dead by Daylight. Fazbear Fanverse On August 21, 2020, Cawthon announced his plan to help fund and publishFive Nights at Freddy'sgames developed by fans, bundled with previous installments in their respective series.Games published under this initiative include theOne Night at Flumpty'sseries, theFive Nights at Candy'sseries, theJoy of Creationseries,andPopgoes Evergreen(including its prologue game). Cawthon stated that these games will come to other platforms, such as mobile and consoles, and may have merchandise created for them.The first game to be released under this initiative was a port ofOne Night at Flumpty'sfor Android and iOS on October 31 and November 18, 2020, respectively, followed by two of its sequels later in 2021 on the same platforms.Another game planned to be published under this initiative,Five Nights at Freddy's Plus, a remake of the original game, currently has an uncertain future after the firing of its main developer, Phil Morg following controversies in the games fanbase.The game has since been removed from Steam. Books Novel trilogy (2015–2018) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyes(2015) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyesis the first novel by Scott Cawthon and Kira Breed-Wrisley. It was published independently onAmazon Kindleon December 17, 2015, and a paperback release byScholasticfollowed on September 27, 2016. The novel follows a group of childhood friends who meet in their hometown and discover unnerving secrets about the once-beloved Freddy Fazbear's Pizza.According to Cawthon, the novel \"expands the mythos and reveals a human element never before seen in the games\". Although the novel inhabits theFive Nights at Freddy'suniverse, the book and the games are not \"intended to fit together like two puzzle pieces\". Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones(2017) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones, the second novel by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley,was discovered onAmazonunder Cawthon's name on January 8, 2017.Although the discovery sparked controversy about the book's legitimacy,Cawthon soon confirmed that it was an official publication.The novel, published on June 27, 2017, by Scholastic, involves Charlie, the main character fromThe Silver Eyes, who is \"drawn back into the world of her father's frightening creations\" while trying to move on. Five Nights at Freddy's: The Fourth Closet(2018) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Fourth Closet, the third novel by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley, was published on June 26, 2018, by Scholastic. The novel focuses on Charlie's friends, who are searching for the truth behind what happened to Charlie inThe Twisted Oneswhile mysterious events unfold after a new restaurant opens. Film adaptations A film adaptationbased on the game series was released for streaming onPeacockand theatrically in the United States on October 27, 2023, byUniversal Pictures.Directed by Emma Tammi, who co-wrote the screenplay with Cawthon and Seth Cuddeback, the film starsJosh HutchersonwithElizabeth Lail, Piper Rubio,Mary Stuart Masterson, andMatthew Lillardappearing in supporting roles. The film received generally negative reviews from critics but was a commercial success, becoming Blumhouse Productions' highest-grossing film worldwide with nearly $300 million.A sequel is in development. Reception The originalFive Nights at Freddy'sreceived \"generally favorable\" reviews according toreview aggregatorwebsiteMetacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 78 out of 100.Indie Game Magazinepraised the game for its simple take on the horror genre, labeling the game a \"fantastic example of how cleverness in design and subtlety can be used to make an experience terrifying\". They noted that its artistic direction and gameplay mechanics contributed to a feeling of \"brutal tension\", but criticized it for taking too long to load when launched. Omri Petitte forPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy'sa score of 80 out of 100, commenting that the game took a \"less-is-more\" approach to its design, and praising the overall atmosphere for emphasizing the fear and suspense of an approaching threat, rather than the arrival of the threat itself as in other horror-oriented games. However, the gameplay was criticized for becoming repetitive once a player masters it, noting players have \"not much more to expect beyond managing battery life and careful timing of slamming doors shut.\"Ryan Bates ofGameRevolutiongave the game a 4.5 out of 5, commending the game's minimalistic presentation (particularly its audio design and lack of music) for contributing to the terror of the game, along with its repetitive gameplay that would \" almostOCD-type levels, adding to the tense environment.\" He opined that the game was \"horror done right\", but felt it was too short. Shaun Musgrave ofTouchArcadegave a rating of 3.5 out of 5, noting the game's reliance on atmosphere to induce fear, noting that \"if the atmosphere doesn't get to you, all that's left is a very simple game of red light-green light.\"Eurogamer'sJeffrey Matulef called the game \"wonderfully creative\", and compared the animatronic animals in the game toWeeping Angelsdue to their ability to only move when they are not being observed. Five Nights at Freddy's 2received \"mixed or average\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 62 out of 100.Omri Petitte forPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy's 2a score of 70 out of 100, commenting that what he wanted in the sequel \"was more mind games and more uncertainty. I wanted the plodding animatronic suits to find me and rip my face off in new and interesting ways. I wanted working legs. What I got was a horror game dipping heavily into deception and subtlety, a wonderfully cruel cocktail of supernatural mystery and jolts of panicked adrenaline. Enjoying the good parts, though, comes with a cost of a frustratingly steep difficulty.\" Destructoidgave the game a positive review, saying that \"It's absolutely terrifying to know that you could be attacked at any moment from multiple avenues\", praising the introduction of new animatronics and mechanics, but also criticizing the jumpscares and called the game \"too hard for its own good\".In a review for theNintendo Switchversion of the game in 2019, Mitch Vogel ofNintendo Lifesaid, \"Five Nights at Freddy's 2may not necessarily reinvent the wheel, but it still does a fine job of keeping you on the edge of your seat.\" Five Nights at Freddy's 3received \"mixed or average\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 68 out of 100.Omri Petitte fromPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy's 3a score of 77 out of 100, praising the reworked camera system, but commented on how the jumpscares from the other animatronics \"felt a little stale by the third night.\"In a more critical review, Nic Rowen fromDestructoidgave the game a 6.5 out of 10, saying that even though the game is \"by far the most technically proficient and mechanically satisfying installment yet,\" he criticized Springtrap and Fazbear's Fright for lacking the \"charm of the original cast and locations.\" Five Nights at Freddy's 4received \"mixed or average\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 51 out of 100.Destructoidcriticized the gameplay as being too confusing, and gave the game a review score of 4 out of 10.The Escapistgave the game a positive review score of 4 out of 5 stars saying that they liked the reworked mechanics, darker and emotional storyline, scary jumpscares, and sad ending but noted the game's bugs and glitches.Nadia Oxford ofGamezebogave it 4 out of 5 stars in her review praising it for its intense environment, creepy sounds and graphics, and jumpscares. She criticized the game for being difficult to survive in certain environments when relying on audio cues and the Android version not containing the story-centric minigames. Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Locationreceived \"mixed or average\" reviews from critics according to Metacritic, assigning a score of 62 out of 100.Destructoidrated the game 6/10,whileGameCraterated it 7.50/10.Shelby Watson ofThe All Stategave the game a positive review, citing it to be comparable to the first game's quality, but unlike the first game, never allowing the player to operate the mechanics on muscle memory alone. She writes, \"...ach night is so different, it is impossible to get comfortable with the mechanics enough that it feels like second nature. The game changes so much, you are forced to adapt and are always on the edge of your seat, waiting for what is to come.\"TechRaptorrated the game 9/10, calling it \"genuinely terrifying\" with a \"great storytelling\" and praised the voice acting. Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorreceived mostly positive reviews.GameCratecalled it the \"best value in gaming right now\",withRock Paper Shotguncalling it \"spooky as hell\".TheBall State Daily Newsalso gave a positive review, giving the game a 7.6/10 and calling it \"an interesting evolution of theFive Nights formula\".IGNlistedFreddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorin their top 18 Best Horror Games of 2017. Ultimate Custom Nightreceived mostly positive reviews.Rock Paper Shotgundeemed the game \"an intriguing mess\",withPC Gamercalling it \"a neat, customisable take on the classic survival horror formula\". Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wantedreceived \"generally favorable\" reviews from critics for the PlayStation 4 version according to Metacritic, assigning a score of 80 out of 100;the Nintendo Switch version received \"mixed or average\" reviews, with Metacritic assigning a score of 53 out of 100.Reviewers praised the game for its effective use of virtual reality and its success in introducing new mechanics while preserving the series' feel and atmosphere while being accessible for players new to the series. However, the game's frequent use of jump scares could make it less scary and more obnoxious over time for some players. Stuart Gipp atNintendo Lifecriticized the Nintendo Switch version of the game and gave it a score of 3 out of 10. The main criticism being that the game had become pointless for having removed the VR mode making it a \"sub-par minigame collection\" with \"limited gameplay\" since previous main games were available already for the console, and speculated that the only reason for releasing it for the console were to capitalize on the console's market share.The game is listed as one ofPlayStation's \"Favorite Horror Games of 2019\" on their websiteand is one of the top 30 best selling VR games on Steam.The game was nominated for the Coney Island Dreamland Award for Best AR/VR Game at theNew York Game Awardsin 2020. Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breachreceived \"mixed or average\" reviews, according to Metacritic.Jeuxvideo.comgave a mixed review, praising the atmosphere and the originality of certain gameplay sections, but criticizing the bugs and technical issues.The Escapist'sBen \"Yahtzee\" Croshawwas more critical of the game, praising the visuals, but criticizing the bugs, design, and restrictive save system.The game was nominated and won Players' Choice December 2021 onPlayStation's official blog. Five Nights at Freddy's: Into the Pitreceived \"generally positive\" reviews, according to Metacritic.Game Rantpraised the game for its story and visuals, whileComicBook.compraised it for its faithfulness to the source material. Cultural influence Fandom Since the release of the first game, popular video creators such asPewDiePie,Markiplier, andJacksepticeyehave garnered millions of views, which helped the games receive additional attention from their playthroughs.In May 2015, YouTube reported that videos of theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries were the platform's eighth-most-watched playthroughs. The interpretive,non-linear, and cryptic narrative ofFive Nights at Freddy'sis a popular topic for fans to discuss and debate.Channels such asThe Game TheoristsfeatureFive Nights at Freddy's-related videos with the goal of discovering the lore of the franchise.With over 60 videos and 800 million views combined, Matthew Patrick of The Game Theorists has described the series as \"a delightfully incomplete and mysterious story with just enough threads to keep you guessing.\" Thousands offan gameshave been inspired by the game mechanics ofFive Nights at Freddy's.Fan games for the franchise are incredibly common to the pointGame JoltmadeFNaFgames its own genre to avoid overwhelming the site.: 74Along with fan games, multiple fan songs have been created, including some byThe Living Tombstone, each having accumulated hundreds of millions of views.The Living Tombstone'sfirstFNaFsongwas played in theclosing creditsof the film adaptation. Although theFive Nights at Freddy'sfandom has been criticized for immaturity,Cawthon defended them and criticized the broader community for what he called an unfair generalization. In September 2020, a video featuringJack Blackdancing to The Living Tombstone's firstFive Nights at Freddy'sfan songwent viralon the social media platformTikTok.Black had previously appeared on an episode ofJimmy Kimmel Live!in April 2020, wearing a mask headpiece modeled after Glitchtrap, antagonist of Help Wanted and its sequel, where he revealed that he is a fan of theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries.Black and his son Samuel had previously playedFive Nights at Freddy's 4with Markiplier to promote his own filmGoosebumps. Merchandise Five Nights at Freddy'smerchandise is primarily produced by two companies: Sanshee and Funko.Products includestuffed toys,action figures,posters, clothing,keychains, andstationery, among other things.McFarlane Toysalso has a line ofFive Nights at Freddy'smerchandise, consisting mainly ofconstruction sets;Todd McFarlanecalled the line \"the single largest-selling product, bar none, by a lot that done in 20-plus years.\"The merchandise, available internationally, has been a factor in the franchise's success. Notes References Further reading External links","Grateful Dead TheGrateful Deadwas an Americanrockband formed inPalo Alto, Californiain 1965.Known for their eclectic style that fused elements of rock,blues,jazz,folk,country,bluegrass,rock and roll,gospel,reggae, andworld musicwithpsychedelia,the band is famous forimprovisationduring theirlive performances,and for their devoted fan base, known as \"Deadheads\". According to the musician and writerLenny Kaye, the music of the Grateful Dead \"touches on ground that most other groups don't even know exists.\"For the range of their influences and the structure of their live performances, the Grateful Dead are considered \"the pioneering godfathers of thejam bandworld\". The Grateful Dead was founded in theSan Francisco Bay Areaduring the rise of thecounterculture of the 1960s.The band's founding members wereJerry Garcia(lead guitarand vocals),Bob Weir(rhythm guitar and vocals),Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan(keyboards,harmonica, and vocals),Phil Lesh(bass guitarand vocals), andBill Kreutzmann(drums).Members of the Grateful Dead, originally known asthe Warlocks, had played together in various Bay Area ensembles, including the traditionaljug bandMother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions. Lesh was the last member to join the Warlocks before they changed their name to Grateful Dead, replacing Dana Morgan Jr., who had played bass for a few gigs. DrummerMickey Hartand non-performing lyricistRobert Hunterjoined in 1967. With the exception of McKernan, who died in 1973, and Hart, who left the band from 1971 to 1974, the core of the band stayed together for its entire 30-year history.Other official members of the band includedTom Constanten(keyboards from 1968 to 1970),John Perry Barlow(non-performing lyricist from 1971 to 1995),Keith Godchaux(keyboards and occasional vocals from 1971 to 1979),Donna Godchaux(vocals from 1972 to 1979),Brent Mydland(keyboards and vocals from 1979 to 1990), andVince Welnick(keyboards and vocals from 1990 to 1995).Bruce Hornsby(accordion, piano, vocals) was atouringmember from 1990 to 1992, as well as a guest with the band on occasion before and after the tours. After Garcia's death in 1995, former members of the band, along with other musicians, toured asThe Other Onesin 1998, 2000, and 2002, and asThe Deadin 2003, 2004, and 2009. In 2015, the four surviving core members marked the band's 50th anniversary in aseries of concertsinSanta Clara, California, andChicagothat were billed as their last performances together.There have also been several spin-offs featuring one or more core members, such asDead & Company,Furthur, theRhythm Devils,Phil Lesh and Friends,RatDog, andBilly & the Kids. Despite having only one Top-40 single in their 30-year career, \"Touch of Grey(1987),\" the Grateful Dead remained among the highest-grossing American touring acts for decades. They gained a committed fanbase by word of mouth and through the free exchange of their live recordings, encouraged by the band's allowance oftaping. In 2024, they broke the record for most Top-40 albums on theBillboard200chart.Rolling Stoneranked the Grateful Dead number 57 on its 2011 list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\".The band was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994,and a recording of theirMay 8, 1977 performanceatCornell University'sBarton Hallwas added to theNational Recording Registryof theLibrary of Congressin 2012 for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".In 2024, the four living core members (Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann and Hart) were recognized as part of theKennedy Center Honors. Formation (1965–1966) The Grateful Dead began their career as the Warlocks, a group formed in early 1965 from the remnants of aPalo Alto, Californiajug bandcalledMother McCree's Uptown Jug Championsand members of The Wildwood Boys (Jerry Garcia, Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan, David Nelson, Robert Hunter, and Norm Van Maastricht).As The Wildwood Boys they played regularly at The Tangent, a folk music coffeehouse operated by Stanford Medical Center doctors Stuart \"Stu\" Goldstein and David \"Dave\" Shoenstadt on University Avenue in Palo Alto (1963).As the Warlocks, the band's first show was at Magoo's Pizza Parlor, at 639 Santa Cruz Avenue in suburbanMenlo Park, on May 5, 1965, now a Harvest furniture store. The band continued playing bar shows,like Frenchy's Bikini-A-Go-GoinHaywardand, importantly, five sets a night, five nights a week, for six weeks, at theIn RoominBelmontas the Warlocks,but quickly changed the band's name after finding out that a different band known as the Warlocks had put out a record under that name. (The Velvet Undergroundalso had to change its name from the Warlocks.) The name \"Grateful Dead\" was chosen from a dictionary. According to Lesh, Garcia \"picked up an oldBritannicaWorld Language Dictionary... ... In that silvery elf-voice he said to me, 'Hey, man, how about the Grateful Dead?'\"The definition there was \"the soul of a dead person, or his angel, showing gratitude to someone who, as an act of charity, arranged their burial.\" According to Alan Trist, director of the Grateful Dead's music publisher company Ice Nine, Garcia found the name in theFunk & WagnallsFolklore Dictionary, when his finger landed on that phrase while playing a game ofFictionary.In the Garcia biographyCaptain Trips, author Sandy Troy states that the band was smoking the psychedelicDMTat the time.The term \"grateful dead\" appears in folktales from a variety of cultures. The first show under the name Grateful Dead was inSan Joseon December 4, 1965, at one ofKen Kesey'sAcid Tests.Scholar Michael Kaler has written that the Dead's participation in the Acid Tests was crucial both to the development of their improvisational vocabulary and to their bonding as a band, with the group having set out to foster an intra-band musical telepathy.Kaler has further pointed out that the Dead's pursuit of a new improvisatory rock language in 1965 chronologically coincided with that same goal's adoption byJefferson Airplane,Pink Floydandthe Velvet Underground. Earlierdemo tapeshave survived, but the first of over 2,000 concerts known to have been recorded by the band's fans was a show at theFillmore Auditoriumin San Francisco on January 8, 1966.Later that month, the Grateful Dead played at the Trips Festival, a three-daypsychedelic rockweekend party and event produced byKen Kesey,Stewart Brand, andRamon Sender, that, in conjunction with theMerry Pranksters, brought the nascenthippiemovement together for the first time. Other supporting personnel who joined early includedRock Scully, who heard of the band from Kesey and signed on as manager after meeting them at the Big Beat Acid Test;Stewart Brand, \"with his side show of taped music and slides of Indian life, a multimedia presentation\" at the Big Beat and then, expanded, at the Trips Festival; andOwsley Stanley, the \"Acid King\" whoseLSDsupplied the Acid Tests and who, in early 1966, became the band's financial backer, renting them a house on the fringes ofWatts, Los Angeles, and buying them sound equipment. \"We were living solely off of Owsley's good graces at that time. ... trip was he wanted to design equipment for us, and we were going to have to be in sort of a lab situation for him to do it\", said Garcia. Main career (1967–1995) Pigpen era (1967–1972) One of the group's earliest major performances in 1967 was theMantra-Rock Dance, a musical event held on January 29, 1967, at theAvalon Ballroomby the San FranciscoHare Krishnatemple. The Grateful Dead performed at the event along with the Hare Krishna founderBhaktivedanta Swami, poetAllen Ginsberg, bandsMoby GrapeandBig Brother and the Holding CompanywithJanis Joplin, donating proceeds to the temple.The band's first LP,The Grateful Dead, was released on Warner Brothers in 1967. On May 3, 1968, the band played a free concert atColumbia Universityduring theanti–Vietnam War student protestsduring which students occupied several campus buildings. In order to play, the band, equipment and all, had to be “smuggled” on campus in the back of a bread delivery truck. “We were already jamming away before the security and police could stop us.” Classically trained trumpeterPhil Leshperformed onbass guitar.Bob Weir, the youngest original member of the group, playedrhythm guitar.Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernanplayedkeyboards,percussion, andharmonicauntil shortly before his death in 1973 at the age of 27. Garcia, Weir, and McKernan shared the lead vocal duties more or less equally; Lesh sang only a few leads, but his tenor was a key part of the band's three-part vocal harmonies.Bill Kreutzmannplayeddrums, and in September 1967 was joined by a second drummer, New York City nativeMickey Hart, who also played a wide variety of otherpercussion instruments. 1970 included tour dates inNew Orleans, where the band performed atThe Warehousefor two nights. On January 31, 1970, the local police raided their hotel onBourbon Streetand arrested and charged 19 people with possession of various drugs.The second night's concert was performed as scheduled after bail was posted. Eventually, the charges were dismissed, except those against sound engineerOwsley Stanley, who was already facing charges in California for manufacturing LSD. This event was later memorialized in the lyrics of “Truckin'\", a single fromAmerican Beautythat reached number 64 on the charts. Hart took time off from the band in February 1971, after his father, an accountant, absconded with much of the band's money;Kreutzmann was once again as the sole percussionist. Hart rejoined the Grateful Dead for good in October 1974.Tom \"TC\" Constantenwas added as a second keyboardist from 1968 to 1970, to help Pigpen keep up with an increasingly psychedelic sound, while Pigpen transitioned into playing various percussion instruments and vocals. After Constanten's departure, Pigpen reclaimed his position as sole keyboardist. Less than two years later, in late 1971, Pigpen was joined by another keyboardist,Keith Godchaux, who playedgrand pianoalongside Pigpen'sHammond B-3 organ. In early 1972, Keith's wife,Donna Jean Godchaux, joined the Grateful Dead as a backing vocalist. Following the Grateful Dead's \"Europe '72\" tour, Pigpen's health had deteriorated to the point that he could no longer tour with the band. His final concert appearance was June 17, 1972, at theHollywood Bowl, in Los Angeles;he died on March 8, 1973, of complications from liver damage. Godchaux era (1972–1979) Pigpen's death did not slow down the Grateful Dead. With the help of managerRon Rakow, the band soon formed its own record label,Grateful Dead Records.Later that year, it released its next studio album, the jazz-influencedWake of the Flood, whichbecame their biggest commercial success thus far.Meanwhile, capitalizing on the album's success, the band soon went back to the studio, and in June 1974 released another album,From the Mars Hotel. Not long after, the Dead decided to take a hiatus from livetouring. The band travelled to Europe for a string of shows in September 1974, before performing a series of five concerts at theWinterland Ballroomin San Francisco in October 1974, and delved into various other projects.The Winterland concerts were filmed, and Garcia compiled the footage intoThe Grateful Dead Movie, a feature-length concert film released in 1977. In September 1975, the Dead released their eighth studio album,Blues for Allah. The band resumed touring in June 1976, playing multiple dates in small theaters, rather than the stadium shows that had become common, and had exhausted them, in 1974.That same year, they signed withArista Records, and the new contract producedTerrapin Stationin July 1977. The band's tour in the spring of that year is held in high regard by its fans, and itsconcert of May 8atCornell Universityis often considered one of the best performances of its career.TheirSeptember 1977 concertatRaceway ParkinOld Bridge Township, New Jerseywas attended by 107,019 people and held the record forlargest-ticketed concertin the United States by a single act for 47 years. Keith and Donna Jean Godchaux left the band in February 1979, citing artistic differences. Mydland/Welnick era (1979–1995) Following the Godchauxs' departure,Brent Mydlandjoined as keyboardist and vocalist and was considered \"the perfect fit.\" The Godchauxs then formed theHeart of Gold Band, before Keith died in a car accident in July 1980. Mydland was the keyboardist for the Grateful Dead for 11 years until his death by narcotics overdose in July 1990,becoming the third keyboardist to die. Shortly after Mydland found his place in the early 1980s, Garcia's health began to decline. He became a frequent smoker of \"Persian,\" a type of heroin, and he gained weight at a rapid pace. He lost his liveliness on stage, his voice was strained, and Deadheads worried for his health. After he began to curtail his opiate usage gradually in 1985, Garcia slipped into adiabetic comafor several days in July 1986, leading to the cancelation of all concerts in the fall of that year. Garcia recovered, the band releasedIn the Darkin July 1987, which became its best-selling studio album and produced its only top-40 single, \"Touch of Grey,\" Also, that year, the grouptouredwithBob Dylan, as heard on the albumDylan & the Dead. Mydland died in July 1990 andVince Welnick, former keyboardist forthe Tubes, joined as a band member, whileBruce Hornsby, who had a successful career with his band the Range, joined temporarily as a bridge to help Welnick learn songs. Both performed on keyboards and vocals—Welnick until the band's end, and Hornsby mainly from 1990 to 1992. SaxophonistBranford Marsalisplayed five concerts with the band between 1990 and 1994. The Grateful Dead performed its final concert on July 9, 1995, atSoldier Fieldin Chicago. Aftermath (1995–present) Jerry Garciadied on August 9, 1995. A few months after Garcia's death, the remaining members of the Grateful Dead decided to disband.Since that time, there have been a number ofreunions by the surviving membersinvolving various combinations of musicians. Additionally, the former members have also begun or continued individual projects. In 1998, Bob Weir, Phil Lesh, and Mickey Hart, along with several other musicians, formed a band calledthe Other Ones, and performed a number of concerts that year, releasing a live album,The Strange Remain, the following year. In 2000, the Other Ones toured again, this time with Kreutzmann but without Lesh. After taking another year off, the band toured again in 2002 with Lesh. That year, the Other Ones then included all four living former Grateful Dead members who had been in the band for most or all of its history. At different times the shifting lineup of the Other Ones also included guitaristsMark Karan,Steve Kimock, andJimmy Herring, keyboardistsBruce Hornsby,Jeff Chimenti, andRob Barraco, saxophonistDave Ellis, drummerJohn Molo, bassistAlphonso Johnson, and vocalistSusan Tedeschi. In 2003, the Other Ones, still including Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann, changed their name tothe Dead.The Dead toured the United States in 2003, 2004 and 2009. The band's lineups included Jimmy Herring andWarren Hayneson guitar, Jeff Chimenti and Rob Barraco on keyboards, andJoan Osborneon vocals.In 2008, members of the Dead played two concerts, called \"Deadheads for Obama\" and \"Change Rocks\". Following the 2009 Dead tour, Lesh and Weir formed the bandFurthur, which debuted in September 2009.Joining Lesh and Weir in Furthur wereJohn Kadlecik(guitar), Jeff Chimenti (keyboards),Joe Russo(drums),Jay Lane(drums),Sunshine Becker(vocals), and Zoe Ellis (vocals). Lane and Ellis left the band in 2010, and vocalistJeff Pehrsonjoined later that year. Furthur disbanded in 2014. In 2010, Hart and Kreutzmann re-formed theRhythm Devils, and played a summer concert tour. Since 1995, the former members of the Grateful Dead have also pursued solo music careers. BothBob Weir & RatDogandPhil Lesh and Friendshave performed many concerts and released several albums. Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann have also each released a few albums. Hart has toured with hisworld musicpercussion ensemble Planet Drumas well as the Mickey Hart Band.Kreutzmann has led several different bands, includingBK3,7 Walkers(withPapa Mali),andBilly & the Kids.Donna Godchaux has returned to the music scene, with theDonna Jean Godchaux Band,andTom Constantenalso continues to write and perform music.All of these groups continue to play Grateful Dead music. In October 2014, it was announced thatMartin Scorsesewould produce a documentary film about the Grateful Dead, to be directed byAmir Bar-Lev.David Lemieuxsupervised the musical selection, and Weir, Hart, Kreutzmann, and Lesh agreed to new interviews for the film.Bar-Lev's four-hour documentary, titledLong Strange Trip, was released in 2017. \"Fare Thee Well\" In 2015, Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann, and Hart reunited for five concerts called \"Fare Thee Well: Celebrating 50 Years of the Grateful Dead\".The shows were performed on June 27 and 28 atLevi's StadiuminSanta Clara, California, and on July 3, 4 and 5 atSoldier FieldinChicago.The band stated that this would be the final time that Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann would perform together.They were joined byTrey AnastasioofPhishon guitar, Jeff Chimenti on keyboards, and Bruce Hornsby on piano.Demand for tickets was very high.The concerts were simulcast via various media.The Chicago shows have been released as a box set of CDs and DVDs. Dead & Company In the fall of 2015, Mickey Hart, Bill Kreutzmann and Bob Weir joined with guitaristJohn Mayer, keyboardistJeff Chimenti, and bassistOteil Burbridgeto tour in a band calledDead & Company. Mayer recounts that in 2011 he was listening toPandoraand happened upon the Grateful Dead song \"Althea\", and that soon Grateful Dead music was all he would listen to.The band played six tours:October–December 2015,June–July 2016,May–July 2017.,May–August 2018, and May–July 2019.On October–November 2019 they played 6 dates on the \"2019 Fall Fun Run\". On December 27 and 28, they played at The Forum in Inglewood (Los Angeles), California as part of their \"2019 New Year's Run\" tour. On December 30 and 31, they played in their hometown of San Francisco at the Chase Center, featuring a bi-plane that descended from the ceiling of the Chase Center carrying the daughters of Jerry Garcia, Trixie Garcia and her half-sister, Ken Kesey's daughter Sunshine Kesey, dropping rose petals on the audience as they toured the arena. Barlow died in 2018and Hunter in 2019. In 2022, John Mayer announced that Dead & Company's summer 2023 tour will be their last. Musical style and legacy The Grateful Dead formed during the era when bands such asthe Beatles,the Beach Boysandthe Rolling Stoneswere dominating the airwaves. \"The Beatles were why we turned from a jug band into a rock 'n' roll band\", said Bob Weir. \"What we saw them doing was impossibly attractive. I couldn't think of anything else more worth doing.\"Former folk-scene starBob Dylanhad recently put out a couple of records featuring electric instrumentation. Grateful Dead members have said that it was after attending a concert by the touring New York City bandthe Lovin' Spoonfulthat they decided to \"go electric\" and look for a \"dirtier\" sound.Jerry GarciaandBob Weir(both of whom had been immersed in theAmerican folk music revivalof the late 1950s and early 1960s), were open-minded about the use of electric guitars. The Grateful Dead's early music (in the mid-1960s) was part of the process of establishing what \"psychedelic music\" was, but theirs was essentially a \"street party\" form of it. They developed their \"psychedelic\" playing as a result of meetingKen KeseyinPalo Alto, California, and subsequently becoming the house band for theAcid Testshe staged.They did not fit their music to an established category such as pop rock, blues, folk rock, or country & western. Individual tunes within their repertoire could be identified under one of these stylistic labels, but overall their music drew on all of these genres and, more frequently, melded several of them.Bill Grahamsaid of the Grateful Dead, \"They're not the best at what they do, they're the only ones that do what they do.\"Academics Paul Hegarty and Martin Halliwell argued that the Grateful Dead were \"not merely asprecursorsofprogbut as essential developments of progressiveness in its early days\".Often (both in performance and on recording) the Dead left room for exploratory, spacey soundscapes. Their live shows, fed by an improvisational approach to music, were different from most touring bands. While rock and roll bands often rehearse a standard set, played with minor variations, the Grateful Dead did not prepare in this way. Garcia stated in a 1966 interview, \"We don't make up our sets beforehand. We'd rather work off the tops of our heads than off a piece of paper.\"They maintained this approach throughout their career. For each performance, the band drew material from an active list of a hundred or so songs. The 1969 live albumLive/Deaddid capture the band in-form, but commercial success did not come untilWorkingman's DeadandAmerican Beauty, both released in 1970. These records largely featured the band's laid-backacoustic musicianshipand more traditional song structures. With their rootsy, eclectic stylings, particularly evident on the latter two albums, the band pioneered the hybridAmericanagenre. Beginning in the early 1990s, a new generation of bands became inspired by the Grateful Dead's improvisational ethos andmarketing strategy, and began to incorporate elements of the Grateful Dead's live performances into their own shows. These include the nightly alteration ofsetlists, frequent improvisation,the blending of genres, and the allowance oftaping, which would often contribute to the development of a dedicated fanbase. Bands associated with the expansion of the\"jam scene\"includePhish,The String Cheese Incident,Widespread Panic,Blues Traveler,moe., and theDisco Biscuits. Many of these groups began to look past theAmerican roots musicthat the Grateful Dead drew inspiration from, and incorporated elements ofprogressive rock,hard rock, andelectronica. At the same time, the Internet gained popularity and provided a medium for fans to discuss these bands and their performances and downloadMP3s. The Grateful Dead, as well as Phish, were one of the first bands to have aUsenetnewsgroup. Musicianship As the band and its sound matured over thirty years of touring, playing, and recording, each member's stylistic contribution became more defined, consistent, and identifiable. Garcia's lead lines were fluid, supple and spare, owing a great deal of their character to his experience playingScruggs stylebanjo, an approach which often makes use ofnote syncopation,accenting,arpeggios,staccatochromatic runs, and the anticipation of thedownbeat. Garcia had a distinctive sense oftiming, often weaving in and out of thegrooveestablished by the rest of the band as if he were pushing the beat. His lead lines were also immensely influenced byjazz soloists: Garcia citedMiles Davis,Ornette Coleman,Bill Evans,Pat Martino,George Benson,Al Di Meola,Art Tatum,Duke Ellington, andDjango Reinhardtas primary influences, and frequently utilized techniques common tocountryandblues musicin songs that called back to those traditions. Garcia often switchedscalesin the midst of a solo depending upon thechord changesplayed underneath, though he nearly always finishedphrasesby landing on thechord-tones. Jerry most frequently played in theMixolydian mode, though his solos and phrases often incorporated notes from theDorianandmajor/minor pentatonic scales. Particularly in the late 1960s, Garcia occasionally incorporatedmelodic linesderived fromIndianragasinto the band's extended,psychedelicimprovisation, likely inspired byJohn Coltraneand other jazz artists' interest in thesitarmusic ofRavi Shankar. Lesh was originally a classically trained trumpet player with an extensive background inmusic theory, but did not tend to play traditional blues-based bass forms. He often played more melodic, symphonic and complex lines, often sounding like a second lead guitar. In contrast to most bassists inpopular music, Lesh often avoids playing therootof a chord on the downbeat, instead withholding as a means to buildtension. Lesh also rarely repeats the same bassline, even from performance to performance of the same song, and often plays off of or around the other instruments with asyncopated,staccatobounce that contributes to the Dead's unique rhythmic character. Weir, too, was not a traditionalrhythm guitarist, but tended to play uniqueinversionsat the upper end of the Dead's sound. Weir modeled his style of playing after jazz pianistMcCoy Tynerand attempted to replicate the interplay between John Coltrane and Tyner in his support, and occasional subversion, of theharmonic structureof Garcia's voice leadings. This would often influence the direction the band's improvisation would take on a given night. Weir and Garcia's respective positions as rhythm and lead guitarist were not always strictly adhered to, as Weir would often incorporate short melodic phrases into his playing to support Garcia and occasionally took solos, often played with aslide. Weir's playing is characterized by a \"spiky, staccato\" sound. The band's two drummers,Mickey HartandBill Kreutzmann, developed a unique, complex interplay, balancing Kreutzmann's steadyshufflebeat with Hart's interest in percussion styles outside the rock tradition. Kreuzmann has said, \"I like to establish a feeling and then add radical or oblique juxtapositions to that feeling.\"Hart incorporated an 11-count measure to his drumming, bringing a dimension to the band's sound that became an important part of its style. He had studiedtabladrumming and incorporated rhythms and instruments fromworld music, and laterelectronic music, into the band's live performances. The Dead's live performances featured multiple types ofimprovisationderived from a vast array of musical traditions. Not unlike many rock bands of their time, the majority of the Dead's songs feature a designated section in which aninstrumental breakoccurs over thechord changes. These sections typically feature solos by Garcia that often originate as variations on the song'smelody, but go on to create dynamic phrases that resolve by returning to the chord-tones. Not unlike traditionalimprovisational jazz, they may occasionally feature several solos by multiple instruments within an undecided number ofbars, such as a keyboardist, before returning to the melody. At the same time, Dead shows almost always feature a more collective,modalapproach to improvisation that typically occurs duringseguesbetween songs before the bandmodulatesto a newtonal center. Some of the Dead's more extended jam vehicles, such as \"The Other One\", \"Dark Star\", and \"Playing in the Band\" almost exclusively make use of modulation between modes to accompany simple two-chord progressions. Lyrical themes Following the songwriting renaissance that defined the band's early 1970s period, as reflected in the albumsWorkingman's DeadandAmerican Beauty,Robert Hunter, Jerry Garcia's primary lyrical partner, frequently made use ofmotifscommon toAmerican folkloreincluding trains, guns, elements,traditional musical instruments, gambling, murder, animals, alcohol, descriptions ofAmerican geography, andreligious symbolismto illustrate themes involving love and loss, life and death, beauty and horror, and chaos and order.Following in the footsteps of severalAmerican musical traditions, these songs are often confessional and feature narration from the perspective of anantihero. CriticRobert Christgaudescribed them as \"American myths\" that later gave way to \"the old karma-go-round\". An extremely common feature in both Robert Hunter's lyrics, as well as the band's visual iconography, is the presence ofdualisticand opposing imagery illustrating the dynamic range of thehuman experience(Heaven and hell, law and crime, dark and light, etc.). Hunter and Garcia's earlier, more directlypsychedelic-influencedcompositions often make use ofsurrealimagery,nonsense, and whimsey reflective of traditions inEnglish poetry.In a retrospective,The New Yorkerdescribed Hunter's verses as \"elliptical, by turns vivid andgnomic\", which were often \"hippie poetry about roses and bells and dew\".Grateful Dead biographer Dennis McNally has described Hunter's lyrics as creating \"a non-literal hyper-Americana\" weaving a psychedelic, kaleidoscopic tapestry in the hopes of elucidating America'snational character. At least one of Hunter and Bob Weir's collaborations, \"Jack Straw\", was inspired by the work ofJohn Steinbeck. Merchandising and representation Hal Kantwas an entertainment industry attorney who specialized in representing musical groups. He spent 35 years as principal lawyer and general counsel for the Grateful Dead, a position in the group that was so strong that his business cards with the band identified his role as \"Czar\". Kant brought the band millions of dollars in revenue through his management of the band'sintellectual propertyand merchandising rights. At Kant's recommendation, the group was one of the few rock 'n roll pioneers to retain ownership of their music masters andpublishing rights. In 2006, the Grateful Dead signed a ten-year licensing agreement withRhino Entertainmentto manage the band's business interests including the release of musical recordings, merchandising, and marketing. The band retained creative control and kept ownership of its music catalog. A Grateful Dead video game titledGrateful Dead Game – The Epic Tourwas released in April 2012 and was created by Curious Sense. In November 2022, the children's bookThe ABCs of The Grateful Deadwas released.Authorized by the group, it was written by Howie Abrams, illustrated byMichael \"Kaves\" McLeer, and published bySimon & Schuster. Sponsorship of 1992 Lithuanian Olympic basketball team AfterLithuaniagained its independence from the USSR, the country announced its withdrawal from the1992 Olympicsdue to the lack of any money to sponsor participants.But NBA starŠarūnas Marčiulionis, a native Lithuanian basketball star, wanted to help his native team to compete. His efforts resulted in a call from representatives of the Grateful Dead who set up a meeting with the band members.The band agreed to fund transportation costs for the team (about five thousand dollars) along with Grateful Dead designs for the team's jerseys and shorts. TheLithuanian basketball teamwon the bronze medal and the Lithuanian basketball/Grateful Dead T-shirts became part of pop culture, especially in Lithuania.The incident was covered by the documentaryThe Other Dream Team. Live performances The Grateful Dead toured constantly throughout their career, playing more than 2,300 concerts.They promoted a sense of community among their fans, who became known as \"Deadheads\", many of whom followed their tours for months or years on end. Around concert venues, an impromptu communal marketplace known as 'Shakedown Street' was created by Deadheads to serve as centers of activity where fans could buy and sell anything from grilled cheese sandwiches to home-made t-shirts and recordings of Grateful Dead concerts. In their early career, the band also dedicated their time and talents to their community, the Haight-Ashbury area of San Francisco, making available free food, lodging, music, and health care to all. It has been said that the band performed \"more free concerts than any band in the history of music\". With the exception of 1975, when the band was on hiatus and played only four concerts, Grateful Dead performed many concerts every year, from their formation in April 1965, until July 9, 1995.Initially all their shows were in California, principally in theSan Francisco Bay Areaand in or nearLos Angeles. They also performed, in 1965 and 1966, withKen Kesey and the Merry Pranksters, as the house band for theAcid Tests. In 1967, they toured nationally, including their first performance inNew York City. They appeared at theMonterey Pop Festivalin 1967, theWoodstock Festivalin 1969 and theFestival Expresstrain tour across Canada in 1970. They were scheduled to appear as the final act at the infamousAltamont Free Concerton December 6, 1969, after theRolling Stonesbut withdrew after security concerns. \"That's the way things went at Altamont—so badly that the Grateful Dead, prime organizers and movers of the festival, didn't even get to play\", staff atRolling Stonemagazine wrote in a detailed narrative on the event. Their first UK performance was at theHollywood Music Festivalin 1970. Their largest concert audience came in 1973 when they played, along withthe Allman Brothers Bandandthe Band, before an estimated 600,000 people at theSummer Jam at Watkins Glen.They played to an estimated total of 25 million people, more than any other band, with audiences of up to 80,000 attending a single show. Many of these concerts were preserved in the band's tape vault, and several dozen have since been released on CD and as downloads. The Dead were known for the tremendous variation in their setlists from night to night—the list of songs documented to have been played by the band exceeds 500.The band has released four concert videos under the nameView from the Vault. In 1978, they played three nights at theGreat Pyramid of GizainEgypt. In the 1990s, the Grateful Dead earned a total of $285 million in revenue from their concert tours, the second-highest during the 1990s, with the Rolling Stones earning the most.This figure is representative of tour revenue through 1995, as touring stopped after the death of Jerry Garcia. In a 1991PBSdocumentary, segment host Buck Henry attended an August 1991 concert at Shoreline Amphitheatre and gleaned some information from some band members about the Grateful Dead phenomenon and its success.At the time, Jerry Garcia stated, \"We didn't really invent the Grateful Dead, the crowd invented the Grateful Dead, you know what I mean? We were sort of standing in line, and uh, it's gone way past our expectations, way past, so it's, we've been going along with it to see what it's gonna do next.\"Mickey Hart said, \"This is one of the last places in America that you can really have this kind of fun, you know, considering the political climate and so forth.\"Hart also stated that \"the transformative power of the Grateful Dead is really the essence of it; it's what it can do to your consciousness. We're more intotransportationthan we are into music,per se, I mean, the business of the Grateful Dead is transportation.\"One of the band's largest concerts took place just months before Garcia's death — at their outdoor show with Bob Dylan inHighgate, Vermont, on June 15, 1995. The crowd was estimated to be over 90,000; overnight camping was allowed and about a third of the audience got in without having purchased a ticket. Their numerous studio albums were generally collections of new songs that they had first played in concert. The band was also famous for its extended musical improvisations, having been described as having never played the same song the same way twice. Their concert sets often blended songs, one into the next, often for more than three songs at a time. Concert sound systems TheWall of Soundwas a large sound system designed specifically for the band.The band was never satisfied with the house system anywhere they played. After the Monterey Pop Festival, the band's crew 'borrowed' some of the other performers' sound equipment and used it to host some free shows in San Francisco.In their early days, soundmanOwsley \"Bear\" Stanleydesigned apublic address(PA) and monitor system for them. Stanley was the Grateful Dead's soundman for many years; he was also one of the largest suppliers ofLSD. Stanley's sound systems were delicate and finicky, and frequently brought shows to a halt with technical breakdowns. After Stanley went to jail for manufacturing LSD in 1970, the group briefly used house PAs, but found them to be even less reliable than those built by their former soundman. On February 2, 1970, the group contactedBob Heilto use his system.In 1971, the band purchased their firstsolid-statesound system fromAlembic Studios. Because of this,Alembicwould play an integral role in the research, development, and production of the Wall of Sound. The band also welcomedDan Healyinto the fold on a permanent basis that year. Healy would mix the Grateful Dead's live sound until 1993. Following Jerry Garcia's death and the band's breakup in 1995, their current sound system was inherited byDave Matthews Band. Dave Matthews Band debuted the sound system April 30, 1996, at the first show of their 1996 tour in Richmond, Virginia. Tapes Like several other bands at the time, the Grateful Dead allowed their fans to record their shows. For many years thetapersset up their microphones wherever they could, and the eventual forest of microphones became a problem for the sound crew. Eventually, this was solved by having a dedicated taping section located behind the soundboard, which required a special \"tapers\" ticket. The band allowed sharing of their shows, as long as no profits were made on the sale of the tapes. Of the approximately 2,350 shows the Grateful Dead played, almost 2,200 were taped, and most of these are available online.The band began collecting and cataloging tapes early on andDick Latvalawas their keeper. \"Dick's Picks\" is named after Latvala. After his death in 1999,David Lemieuxgradually took the post. Concert set lists from a subset of 1,590 Grateful Dead shows were used to perform a comparative analysis between how songs were played in concert and how they are listened online byLast.fmmembers.In their bookMarketing Lessons from the Grateful Dead: What Every Business Can Learn From the Most Iconic Band in History,David Meerman ScottandBrian Halliganidentify the taper section as a crucial contributor to increasing the Grateful Dead's fan base. Iconography Over the years, a number of iconic images have come to be associated with the Grateful Dead. Many of these images originated as artwork for concert posters or album covers. Deadheads Fans and enthusiasts of the band are commonly referred to asDeadheads. While the origin of the term may be unclear,Dead Headswere made canon by the notice placed inside theSkull and Roses(1971) album by manager Jon McIntire: DEAD FREAKS UNITE: Who are you? Where are you? How are you?Send us your name and address and we'll keep you informed.Dead Heads, P.O. Box 1065, San Rafael, California 94901. As each show featured a new setlist and a great deal of improvisation, Deadheads would often follow the band from city to city, attending many shows on a given tour. Many Deadheads speak of being drawn to the culture due to the sense of community that the band's shows tended to foster. Though Deadheads came from a wide array of demographics, many attempted to reproduce the aesthetics and values of the1960s countercultureand were often stigmatized in the media.Because of the stereotyping of Deadheads ashippies, the band's shows became a common target for officials in theDEAand arrests at shows became common. As a group, the Deadheads were considered very mellow. \"I'd rather work nine Grateful Dead concerts than one Oregon football game,\" Police Det. Rick Raynor said. \"They don't get belligerent like they do at the games.\"Despite this reputation, in the mid-1990s, as the band's popularity grew, there were a series of minor scuffles occurring at shows that peaked with a large scale riot at theDeer Creek Music Centernear Indianapolis in July 1995. Thisgate crashingincident caused the band to cancel the following night's show.Deadheads who appeared on the scene after the band's 1987 hit single \"Touch of Grey\", were often disparagingly referred to by older fans as \"Touchheads\". Beginning in the 1980s, a number of definable sects of Deadheads began to appear on the scene. These included theWharf Rats, as well as the \"spinners\", named forwhirling-style of dancing and their use of the band's music to facilitatemystical experiences. Deadheads, particularly those who collectedtapes, were known for keeping close records of the band's setlists and for comparing various live versions of the band's songs, as reflected in publications such as the various editions of \"Deadbase\" and \"The Deadhead's Taping Compendium\". This practice continues into the 21st century on digital forums and websites such as theInternet Archive, which features live recordings of nearly every available Grateful Dead show and allows users to discuss and review the site's shows. The band hasa number of influential and celebrity fans, including politicians, businesspeople, journalists, and other musicians. Donation of archives to UC Santa Cruz On April 24, 2008, members Bob Weir and Mickey Hart, along with Nion McEvoy, CEO ofChronicle Books,UC Santa CruzchancellorGeorge Blumenthal, and UC Santa Cruz librarian Virginia Steel, held a press conference announcing UCSC'sMcHenry Librarywould be the permanent home of theGrateful Dead Archive, which includes a complete archival history from 1965 to the present. The archive includes correspondence, photographs, fliers, posters, and several other forms of memorabilia and records of the band. Also included are unreleased videos of interviews and TV appearances that will be installed for visitors to view, as well as stage backdrops and other props from the band's concerts. Blumenthal stated at the event, \"The Grateful Dead Archive represents one of the most significant popular cultural collections of the 20th century; UC Santa Cruz is honored to receive this invaluable gift. The Grateful Dead and UC Santa Cruz are both highly innovative institutions—born the same year—that continue to make a major, positive impact on the world.\" Guitarist Bob Weir stated \"We looked around, and UC Santa Cruz seems the best possible home. If you ever wrote the Grateful Dead a letter, you'll probably find it there!\" Professor of musicFredric Liebermanwas the key contact between the band and the university, who let the university know about the search for a home for the archive, and who had collaborated with Mickey Hart on three books in the past,Planet Drum(1990),Drumming at the Edge of Magic(1991), andSpirit into Sound(2006). The first large-scale exhibition of materials from the Grateful Dead Archive was mounted at theNew-York Historical Societyin 2010. Awards In 2004,Rolling Stoneranked the Grateful Dead No. 57 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. On February 10, 2007, the Grateful Dead received aGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award. The award was accepted on behalf of the band by Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann. In 2011, a recording of the Grateful Dead's May 8, 1977, concert at Cornell University's Barton Hall was selected for induction into the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. Twelve members of the Grateful Dead (the eleven official performing members plus Robert Hunter) were inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994, andBruce Hornsbywas their presenter. In 2024 the band was named as one of the recipients of theKennedy Center Honors. The four living core members (Weir, Lesh, Hart and Kreutzmann) will receive the award. Members Lead guitaristJerry Garciawas often viewed both by the public and the media as the leader or primary spokesperson for the Grateful Dead, but was reluctant to be perceived that way, especially since he and the other group members saw themselves asequal participantsand contributors to their collective musical and creative output.Garcia, a native of San Francisco, grew up in theExcelsior District. One of his main influences was bluegrass music, and he also performed—onbanjo, one of his other great instrumental loves, along with thepedal steel guitar—in bluegrass bands, notablyOld & In the WaywithmandolinistDavid Grisman. Ned Lagin, a youngMITstudent and friend of the band, guested with them many times from 1970 through 1975, providing a second keyboard as well as synthesizers. Upon graduating from MIT, he began touring with the band fulltime in 1974, performing sets of electronic music withPhil Lesh, occasionally with Garcia and Kreutzmann, during the band's intermission.The \"Ned and Phil\" set became a regular fixture of that era, and was featured nearly every night during their Summer '74 and Europe '74 tours, as well as their five-night residency at theWinterland Ballroomduring October 1974. Lagin is also featured inThe Grateful Dead Movie. During 1974 and 1975, he would also occasionally play entire sets with the band, usually on Garcia's side of the stage, before ending his touring relationship with the band and focusing on his solo music projects, such as his albumSeastones, which features several members of the Dead. Bruce Hornsbynever officially joined the band full-time because of his other commitments, but he did play keyboards at most Dead shows between September 1990 and March 1992, and sat in with the band over 100 times in all between 1988 and 1995. He added several Dead songs to his own live showsand Jerry Garcia referred to him as a \"floating member\" who could come and go as he pleased. Robert HunterandJohn Perry Barlowwere the band's primarylyricists, starting in 1967 and 1971, respectively, and continuing until the band's dissolution.Hunter collaborated mostly with Garcia and Barlow mostly with Weir, though each wrote with other band members as well. Both are listed as official members at Dead.net, the band's website, alongside the performing members.Barlow was the only member not inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Timeline Discography See also References Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Five Nights at Freddy's Five Nights at Freddy's(FNaF) is a video game series andmedia franchisecreated byindie gamedeveloperScott Cawthon. The franchise features ten main video games, several spin-off games, novels, anda film adaptation. The video game series follows a set of night guards and other characters that try to survive from midnight to 6 a.m. for five levels, called \\\"nights\\\", while fending off attacks from homicidalanimatroniccharacters. Each game is set in a different location connected to a fictional family pizza restaurant franchise named \\\"Freddy Fazbear's Pizza\\\". The core gameplay mechanic involves using tools effectively and managing limited resources to avoid being caught by the animatronics. Cawthon conceived the idea forthe first video gameafter his family-friendly resource management game,Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., was criticized for the resemblance of its characters to frightening animatronics. Responding to this feedback, he developed a horror game that intentionally featured scary animatronics. Released in August 2014, the game's success prompted the development of sequels. Cawthon created most of the games himself usingClickteam Fusionbut partnered with Steel Wool Studios to createan open-world gameanda virtual reality anthology. The series has a mixed critical reception, with praise for its storytelling and atmosphere but criticism for its gameplay. It has achieved significant commercial success, with merchandise available internationally. The franchise has also garnered acult followingthat produces fan media inspired by it. History and development The concept forFive Nights at Freddy'sstemmed from the negative reception of Scott Cawthon's earlier game,Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., where players said that the main character resembled a \\\"scary animatronic animal.\\\"Initially discouraged by the criticism, Cawthon, who had predominantly createdChristian-oriented games, leveraged this feedback to develop something intentionally frightening.Five Nights at Freddy'swas released on August 8, 2014, viaDesura,followed by aSteamrelease after gaining approval through thecrowdsourcingplatform Greenlight.The game rapidly gained popularity after being showcased by prominent YouTubers.: 82 The success ofFive Nights at Freddy'sled to multiple sequels released between 2014 and 2023,and a spin-off game titledFNaF World, launched in January 2016.Cawthon usedClickteam Fusion 2.5for game development andAutodesk 3ds Maxfor 3D graphics,enhancing later titles with professional voice actors and original soundtracks.ForHelp WantedandSecurity Breach, Cawthon worked with game development company Steel Wool Studios.In 2015, Cawthon expanded the franchise into literature, announcing a multi-book deal with Scholastic in 2016,which began withThe Silver Eyes,released onAmazon Kindleon December 17, 2015and in paperback on September 27, 2016.This was followed by two additional novels,The Twisted OnesandThe Fourth Closet, published in 2017 and 2018, respectively. Gameplay TheFive Nights at Freddy'sseries consists of psychological horror-themed video games in which the player is usually a night-time employee at a location connected with Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, a fictional children's restaurant that takes inspiration from family pizza chains likeChuck E. CheeseandShowBiz Pizza Place.The restaurant has life-size animatronic characters resembling anthropomorphic animals that perform on a show stage, usually for children's parties, but leave their posts and wander the restaurant at night; the guard's job is to watch over them and prevent them from attacking. The animatronics' mobility is stated in the first game to be necessaary for them to continue functioning properly in the morning, though subsequent games reveal they are actually possessed by ghosts. InFive Nights at Freddy's, the player can control the two security doors connecting their office to the adjacent hallways as a barrier against animatronics in the vicinity. Each night, the player has a power supply that depletes faster when a tool is used.If the power goes out, the player can no longer use any tools and is defenseless against the animatronics unless a shift ends before main animatronic Freddy Fazbear can attack.Five Nights at Freddy's 2has different tools; there are no protective doors, and the player must instead use an empty animatronic head and flashlight to defend themself against the animatronics. The game introduced a music box which must be remotely wound up on a regular basis to prevent an attack from a particular animatronic.Eight-bitmini-gameswere introduced, which are played randomly after death and give cryptic clues into the lore. Five Nights at Freddy's 3uses a monitor panel, which contains audio, camera, and ventilation.The player must keep certain systems from malfunctioning. These malfunctions can be triggered randomly or by the hallucinations of the animatronics from the first and second games. The ability to sealventsis also added and must be used to prevent the sole tangible animatronic from entering the office. The player can use an audio-based function on the cameras, which triggers a childlike voice to lure Springtrap, the game's only physical animatronic possessed by William Afton's spirit, away from the office.The 8-bit minigames return and are playable after each night if the player completes side tasks such as clicking on a poster or inputting a code into a wall. If the player completes the minigames, they unlock a secret ending. InFive Nights at Freddy's 4, the gameplay occurs in a bedroom setting, and instead of being a nighttime security guard, the player takes the role of a small child who experiences nightmarish visions of the animatronics due to fearing their real-life counterparts.The player also no longer has access to a camera system.The player has four areas in the bedroom to monitor: two hallway doors on both sides of the room, the closet directly in front of them, and the bed behind them.At the doors, the player must listen for animatronics' breathing, which can determine whether they are near. If the player hears breathing at the side doors, they close the door and wait for the animatronics to walk away. If they open the doors too early, however, the animatronicsjump scarethe player.The player must also prevent small animatronics from accumulating on their bed, and prevent an animatronic from entering their closet.Five Nights at Freddy's 4also introduces a minigame involving a new animatronic, which offers the player a two-hour skip in the next night for completing the minigame. An elevated control pad is introduced forSister Location, which can light a room or shock the animatronics. Other mechanics include a second control pad in a breaker room, which controls power to the facility and a flashbeacon, which allows the player to see in the dark Funtime Auditorium (a party room) and avoid its animatronic.Sister Locationis the only game where the player can move between rooms. Pizzeria Simulatorhasbusiness-stylegameplay, and the player must spend in-game money to buy features for their pizzeria. A series of minigames can be played by testing the establishment's attractions.After the player has completed this portion of the game, they complete tasks in a room and fend off hostile, previously salvaged animatronics.The gameplay ofPizzeria Simulatorshares a number of elements withFive Nights at Freddy's 3, including the importance of ventilation and the ability to distract animatronics with sound. Ultimate Custom Nightis a customizable night, in which fifty animatronics are present and have a maximum AI level of twenty. The game includes many mechanics from the previous games, such as the heater, fan, music box, and power generator.The player can choose which characters they want active for a night, and how active the characters will be. Help Wantedcombines the gameplay of every other game, and turns into a virtual experience for the player.It also introduces several other minigames, in which the gameplay is variant, and also at times hasfree-roam.Special Deliveryfeatures location-based augmented reality gameplay. The player can switch on their camera, and the footage itself is the game's background. The animatronics will try to attack corresponding to the environment. The animatronics generally havecloaking, which leads them to being invisible. Security Breachholds the open-world aspect to this title allows players to experience a new level of immersion,similar to that ofFive Night's at Freddy's 4. Players will also have access to a nifty tool called the Faz-Watch, which allows them to view maps, read messages picked up from random areas on the map, check security cameras for nearby danger, and look at their current objectives.It incorporates Freddy as a helpful companion throughout the game, though he has limited power and must be charged at stations through the map. Players can distract hostile animatronics by knocking things over to get their attention, while they can crouch and hide in various structures to evade them as they follow you throughout the map. Unlike otherFive Nightsgames there are limited save points and there is only a single save station after 6 a.m. Common elements Security cameras In the first, second, third, seventh,eighth,and ninthgames, the player has asecurity-camerasystem, which observes the animatronic characters. One location can be viewed at a time, and some areas are not visible on the cameras.Most camera feeds are dull, sometimes almostblack and whitein color, and full ofvideo noise. In the third game, the cameras stop working if their associated system fails.Cameras are used in the fifth game as a mechanic in the fake ending and custom night update, but not in the main game. Lights In all games except for the third, lights are used to ward off animatronics or warn the player. Lights in the first, second, fifth, and eighthgames are activated with buttons on the walls and illuminate the player's blind spots: the doorway or vent exit, respectively.The lights are similar in the fifth game, but are mounted on a control pad and illuminate the animatronics' rooms. The fifth game also introduced a flash beacon, which is used to orient the player in the third and fifth nights' pitch-black rooms. Several games include use of a flashlight. In the second game, the flashlight has a finite battery life and cannot be recharged,while in the fourth and seventhgames, the battery life is infinite. In the eighthgame, the flashlight battery varies depending on the game segment being played. Flashlight battery life is again finite in the ninthgame, but can be recharged at various recharge stations throughout the game. Doors and vents In the first, fourth, seventh,eighth,and ninthgames, doors are a means of defense for the player, and can be closed when an animatronic is near. Vents are featured in the second, third, sixth, and eighthgames, as a medium through which animatronics can get to the player. Both doors and vents are again present in the fake ending and custom night update of the fifth game with the same function. Vents are also present in the fifth and ninthgames as means for the player to travel through, rather than the animatronics. Jump scares Every game in the main series contains jump scares, which end a game in defeat as the animatronics are implied to attack the player off-screen.In most jump scares, an animatronic character suddenly appears in the player's view, followed by a loud screaming or roaring noise. Some jump scares, including those by Golden Freddy (in the first and seventhgames), Nightmare, and Nightmarionette (in the fourth game), consist of a single screen with shrill, distorted audio; these jump scares usually crash (or restart) the game. The player must use various tools to prevent being attacked via jump scares and advance through each game. Minigames In the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, eighth,and ninthgames, the player gains access to a series of (predominantly eight-bit) minigames randomly after death, or after completing a specific task.The minigames usually relate to a story or event relevant to the game, in a cryptic manner.The minigames in the second game portray homicides mentioned by another worker of the restaurant, and the reason of the animatronics gaining life.The minigames in the third game show the story behind Springtrap's creation. Minigames in the fourth game tell the story of a character who dies in a tragic accident. There is only one minigame in the fifth game, which depicts the death of animatronic engineer William Afton's daughter. The minigames in the sixth game depict various events in the series, all connected to Afton. In the mobile version of the eighthgame, the player can access a minigame called \\\"Princess Quest\\\", which depicts the origins of a character called Vanny; a recreation of these minigames is also featured in the ninthgame, with some significant additions. Story overview TheFive Nights at Freddy'sseries mainly revolves around a chain of family restaurants under the ownership of Fazbear Entertainment, a company founded by Henry Emily and William Afton. The latter is a robotics engineer who creates a series ofanimatronicmascots to entertain customers, including Freddy Fazbear, a brown bear and the namesake of Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, Bonnie, an indigo rabbit,Chica, a yellow chicken, and Foxy, a red pirate fox. Other notable animatronics include the Puppet, the ghostlike Golden Freddy, Freddy's predecessor Fredbear, and Circus Baby,the mascot of the restaurant's sister location, Circus Baby's Pizza World. William is also anegligent fatherandchild murdererwho hides his victims' bodies inside animatronics, which their souls inhabit; he specifically designs Circus Baby to be capable of murdering children, which leads to the accidental death of his own daughter, Elizabeth. William's direct murder victims start with his co-worker Henry's daughterand expand to include five children visiting the restaurants with their families.Meanwhile, an incident involving William's youngest son being shoved into Fredbear's mouth by his older brother Michael results in the closure of Fredbear's Family Diner, a predecessor location.After accidentally murdering his brother, Michael begins seeking redemption, starting with recovering the remains of his sister.After the closure of a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza location, William dismantles the remaining animatronics in a backroom, releasing the souls that inhabit them who proceed to torment him. Seeking refuge from the ghosts, William hides inside an old yellow rabbit animatronic suit. Shortly after, the suit's mechanisms fail and snap shut, crushing William to death as his soul inhabits the animatronic, becoming abionicrevenantcalled Springtrap.Some time after, the whole restaurant chain shuts down. Thirty years later, a horror attraction based on the restaurant chain known as Fazbear's Fright is constructed and leads to Springtrap's excavation; a fire destroys the attraction before it can open to the public. The destruction frees the souls of William's first five victims and destroys the original mascots, though Springtrap escapes. Some time after the fire, Henry lures Springtrap and all animatronics that were not destroyed in Fazbear's Fright into a single pizzeria. With help from Michael, Henry sets fire to the restaurant and destroys every animatronic inside, freeing the souls of the children that inhabited them, including Elizabeth. The fire also kills Henry, Michael, and William.Afterwards, William's soul is trapped and tormented in a personalizedhellwith all animatronics he created. Years later, Fazbear Entertainment is re-founded and releases an in-universe virtual reality experience based on the past of the restaurant, in an effort to convince the public the company's previous controversies were merely fiction,while also constructing a new location, the Pizzaplex. Games Main series Five Nights at Freddy's(2014) Five Nights at Freddy'swas released forMicrosoft Windowson August 8, 2014, followed by ports forAndroidandiOSon August 27 and September 11, respectively. AWindows Phoneversion was also released,but was soon withdrawn due to its downscaled graphics.Ports for thePlayStation 4,Xbox One, andNintendo Switchwere released on November 29, 2019, alongside separate releases forFive Nights at Freddy's 2,3and4. The first game revolves around a character called Mike Schmidt, who begins working as a night security guard at Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, where the animatronics move at night and supposedly kill anyone they see by stuffing them into a spare animatronic suit. Schmidt is guided by the previous night guard, known as Phone Guy, who assists them in their defense against the animatronics through pre-recorded telephone messages until his death in the fourth night.He explains to Schmidt that the animatronics' mobility is a purposely programmed \\\"free-roaming\\\" mode to prevent the animatronics' servomotors from locking up. He also states that they see any human still in the restaurant as an animatronic endoskeleton without a suit. The player must survive from 12 a.m. to 6 am. The player cannot leave the room and must use a camera system and two doors with lights to defend themselves from the animatronics, with limited power to use their tools.Various hints and clues imply that, contrary to Phone Guy's explanation, the mobility and hostility of the animatronics results from them beingpossessedby thevengeful soulsof children who were killed at the restaurant. Mike is fired from his job after the seventh night for tampering with the animatronics, body odor, and unprofessionalism. Five Nights at Freddy's 2(2014) Shortly after the release of the first game, Cawthon confirmed rumors about a sequel.He posted ateaserof the sequel on his website one month after the original game's release and continued to post teasers until the sequel's release.A trailer was released on October 21, 2014, introducing new animatronic characters and the absence of doors.Five Nights at Freddy's 2was released for Microsoft Windows on November 10, 2014, earlier than its planned release of December 25. Ports for Android and iOS were released on November 13 and 20, 2014, respectively. A Windows Phone port was also released, but was withdrawn for substandard graphics.PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. The gameplay is largely similar to its predecessor. Players must survive a night shift at the \\\"new and improved\\\" Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant from 12 a.m. to 6 am, without being attacked by any of the animatronics that wander from room to room.In addition to the animatronics from the first game, which are depicted in a deteriorated state, the game features several new antagonists, who can be fended off using different tactics.The explanation given for the animatronics' behavior during the game is similar to the one from the firstFive Nights at Freddy's. The protagonist is a new character, Jeremy Fitzgerald, who is promoted to daytime security after the sixth night, being replaced by Fritz Smith in the seventh night. During the game, Phone Guy from the previous game calls Jeremy to give him hints on how to survive each night while talking about the restaurant's history. During these calls, it is revealed that the restaurant has become the subject of a police investigation due to various rumors. It is also possible to access hiddenAtari-styled minigames that provide further insight on the restaurant's troubled past, showing a purple figure killing multiple children. On the fifth night, the location is put on lockdown due to an unspecified event. At the end of the game, Jeremy receives a paycheck dated 1987, revealing that the events of the game take place before the firstFive Nights at Freddy's, and the restaurant is closed, with a new location set to be opened elsewhere. Five Nights at Freddy's 3(2015) On January 3, 2015, an image was uploaded to Cawthon's website teasing a third entry in the series.Other images followedbefore a trailer was released on January 26, 2015. On February 15, Cawthon posted on Steam thatFive Nights at Freddy's 3was cancelled after a hacker allegedlyleakedthe game.This was later revealed as a hoax; the \\\"leaked\\\" download linked to a humorouscloneof a previous game of Cawthon's,There is No Pause Button!, in which the main character is depicted wearing the Freddy animatronic head.Five Nights at Freddy's 3was released for Microsoft Windows on March 3, 2015, with Android and iOS ports following on March 7 and 12, respectively. PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. Set thirty years after the events of the first game, its main character works at Fazbear's Fright, a horror attraction based on the long-gone Freddy Fazbear's Pizza. The player must defend themselves from the deteriorated animatronic-costume hybrid named Springtrap. Burnt and tattered hallucinations of some of the animatronics from the previous two games appear; and although they cannot kill the player, they can hinder ventilation, sound, and camera systems. Failure to maintain the systems can create many issues for the player, including dysfunctional cameras and the inability to play audio to lure away the animatronic. The player receives guidance from a founder of the horror attraction for the first two nights and listens to old tape recordings which were found by the attraction's workers for the rest of the nights.The game has two endings: a \\\"good\\\" ending and a \\\"bad\\\" ending. The bad ending reveals that the souls of the murdered children still haunt the animatronics. The good ending is reached by completing secret minigames in which animatronic characters bring a cake to what seems to be a sorrowful child's soul. After completing the secret minigames, the souls of the children are freed. Five Nights at Freddy's 4(2015) On April 27, 2015, Cawthon began posting images on his website teasing another game in the series, which was originally titledFive Nights at Freddy's 4: The Final Chapter.A trailer was released on July 13, 2015, hinting that the game was set in the main character's house.Five Nights at Freddy's 4was announced with a release date of October 31, 2015. It was pushed forward to August 8 and again to July 23, when the game was unexpectedly released on Microsoft Windows through Steam. Android and iOS ports were released on July 25 and August 3, 2015, respectively. PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. The player character is an unknown and unnamed child who has delusions of being attacked by nightmarish versions of the first game's animatronic characters.The player must defend themselves with a flashlight and doors.The game's story is told through minigames, in which an unnamed young boy is bullied by his older brother because of his irrational fear of a restaurant with a yellow animatronic bear and rabbit called Fredbear and Spring Bonnie, respectively. He is guided by a plush version of Fredbear, whom the boy imagines can speak to him when he is alone. The child appears to be ultimately killed by Fredbear in a freak accident.The game had aHalloweenupdate with \\\"nightmare\\\" versions of animatronics fromFive Nights at Freddy's 2and Halloween-themed reskins for Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica. Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Location(2016) On April 23, 2016, Cawthon posted a teaser image on his website of a clown-likeanimatronicnamed Baby from an upcoming game titledSister Location.Several teaser images of different characters and hints at their origins followed. The trailer for the game was released on Cawthon's YouTube channel, with new animatronics and a new location. The release date was announced as October 7, 2016. Cawthon made a prank release of the game on October 5, apparently releasing a \\\"mature\\\" edition after a decision to delay the game to make it morekid-friendly. The download link led to a clone of Cawthon's previous game,Sit 'N Survive. Sister Locationwas released for Microsoft Windows on October 7, 2016, followed by ports for Android on December 22, 2016, and iOS on January 3, 2017, respectively. It was also released on Nintendo Switch in North America on June 18, 2020, and on Xbox One on July 10, 2020. The PlayStation 4 port was released in Europe and North America on July 21 and 22, 2020, respectively. The player character Michael Afton, nicknamed Mike (jokingly called Eggs Benedict),is a new employee of Circus Baby's Entertainment and Rental (a sister company of Fazbear Entertainment that rentsanimatronicsfor children's parties). The animatronics were originally intended for Circus Baby's Pizza World, which never opened due to agas leak.Mike is guided by HandUnit, an AI character similar to the Phone Guy of previous games. HandUnit instructs him about his job, often telling him to disregard safety; the animatronic Baby often gives instructions that contradicts that of HandUnit, but are vital to survival. The game also has a \\\"custom night\\\",in which the player can use mechanics reminiscent of the first game (such as interactive doors and a camera system) which were absent from the main game, except for a non-canonical ending, titled the \\\"Fake Ending\\\". New minigames are also available, describing Michael's fate after the events of the main game.Acutsceneis shown after the \\\"Golden Freddy\\\" custom-night preset, in which Michael speaks to his father, William Afton/Springtrap, in a foreboding way. Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulator(2017) In June 2017, Cawthon hinted at the development of a sixth main game in the series. On July 2, 2017, he announced his decision to cancel the game and said that he had been \\\"neglecting other things in life for the sake of trying to keep up with mounting expectations\\\".On December 4, 2017, after teasing the game several days earlier, Cawthon releasedFreddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorasfreewareon Steam.The game is a business-simulation game in which the player runs a pizzeria, but frequently shifts into the survival-horror vein of the series' other games. A mobile version foriOSandAndroidtitledFNaF 6: Pizzeria Simulatorwas released on August 13, 2019. Unlike the PC version, the mobile release, which is developed and published byClickteam LLC USA, ispay-to-play. ANintendo SwitchandXbox Oneport was released on October 31, 2020, with aPlayStation 4port released on March 31, 2021. The game's story follows the manager (implied to be Michael Afton) of a new Freddy Fazbear's restaurant run by the mysterious \\\"Cassette Man\\\". Every night, Michael, under Cassette Man's guidance, must salvage one of four decrepit animatronics that were found in the restaurant's back alley, including William / Springtrap (now referred to as \\\"Scraptrap\\\") and Elizabeth / Circus Baby (referred to as \\\"Scrap Baby\\\"). The game has multiple endings depending on how well the player runs the pizzeria and whether they salvaged all the animatronics, but thecanonending has Cassette Man reveal himself as Henry Emily, William's former business partner, and set the restaurant on fire after revealing its true purpose as a trap to lure in the remaining animatronics. The restaurant burns to the ground, seemingly killing the player character, Henry, and all the animatronics,finally releasing the spirits haunting them. Ultimate Custom Night(2018) Ultimate Custom Nightwas originally intended to be a post-launch add-on toPizzeria Simulator, but was eventually turned into a stand-alone game, releasing on June 27, 2018, asfreeware.A mobile port foriOSandAndroidwas released on April 28, 2020, and a console port for thePlayStation 4,Xbox One, andNintendo Switchwas released on April 30, 2021. The customizable night contains a total of fifty animatronics from previous games, which allows the player to determine how aggressive they are during the night (similar to the custom nights in earlier games). The player can select the office to play in, unlockcutscenes, and choose from 16 themed game modes available.Although unconfirmed, it has been heavily speculated that the game takes place in some version ofHellorPurgatory, where William Afton, following his death inPizzeria Simulator, is being continuously tortured by the vengeful spirit of one of his victims. However, the anthology novel seriesFazbear Frightsimplies that the game is actually Afton's repeating nightmare, and not hell or purgatory. This comes from the fifth book,Bunny Call, which has a story called \\\"The Man in Room 1280\\\" where a burned man is kept alive by a shadow child despite the fact that he should be dead and suffers nightmares. In the following book,Blackbird, the epilogue confirms that the man is actually William Afton. Although it was never confirmed if theFazbear Frightsseries is set in the same continuity as the games, Cawthon confirmed that it's supposed to reveal mysteries from the previous games. Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted(2019) On August 18, 2018, Cawthon confirmed on his Steam thread that the next main installment in theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries would be available as avirtual realitygame.On March 25, 2019, duringSony Interactive Entertainment's State of Play live stream announcing several new games for the PlayStation 4, a trailer announcing the game was shown.In the game, the player is a technician repairing a pizzeria's animatronics. From a first-person perspective, they fix the animatronics, solve puzzles and navigate dark hallways while avoiding malfunctioning and hostile animatronics.The game was released on May 28, 2019. A non-VR version of the game was released on December 17, 2019, for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 4. Curse of Dreadbear, a Halloween-themeddownloadable content(DLC) pack forHelp Wantedwas released in three parts, with several \\\"waves\\\" of new minigames released on October 23, October 29, and October 31, 2019, for a total of 10 new minigames.The DLC pack includes new animatronic characters, returning animatronics from previous games, and a Halloween-themed hub.Some of the new stages are re-skinned versions of existent minigames, such as a version of theFNAF 1minigames calledDanger! Keep Out!Notable new game modes include ashooting gallery, a free-roamingcorn maze, and anassembly linein which the player must construct an animatronic. Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach(2021) On August 8, 2019, on the first game's fifth anniversary, Cawthon posted a new image on his website, teasing the next installment for the series. It shows the \\\"Mega Pizzaplex\\\", a large entertainment complex containing a laser tag arena, an arcade, a cinema and a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant; in the main square, '80s-style versions of Freddy, Chica, and four completely new animatronics can be seen playing for an excited crowd. On April 21, 2020, the characters' names were leaked fromFunko's list of upcoming products, and the title was revealed asFive Nights at Freddy's: Pizza Plex. Scott Cawthon confirmed the leaks via Reddit but revealed that the title was not official. The game was initially scheduled for an early 2021 release,but was delayed to late 2021. Security Breachwas released on PlayStation 5, PlayStation 4, and Steam on December 16, 2021. The game's plot revolves around a young boy named Gregory being trapped in a large entertainment complex teeming with murderous animatronics who hunt him down by the orders of Vanny, a mysterious woman in a rabbit costume, while also evading the complex's security guard, Vanessa. Suffering a malfunction that causes him to ignore Vanny's hacking, Freddy assists Gregory in escaping the complex. A Stadia port was launched on July 1, 2022, ports for Xbox One and Series X/S were released on November 22, 2022, and a Nintendo Switch port was released on April 19, 2023. Free downloadable content titledRuinwas released for PlayStation 5, 4, and Steam on July 25, 2022, with an Xbox One and Series X/S port releasing on April 23, 2024, and a Nintendo Switch port in the works. Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted 2(2023) On May 24, 2023, during a PlayStation Showcase, Steel Wool Studios announced a direct sequel toHelp WantedtitledHelp Wanted 2, scheduled for release in December 2023.On November 20, 2023, the gameplay trailer was released on the official Steel Wool Studios YouTube channel, revealing several characters from the game along with the release date of December 14 on PlayStation 5 and Steam.AMeta Questversion of the game was released on May 9, 2024, and the game was launched physically with a flat version on June 20. Five Nights at Freddy's: Secret of the Mimic(2025) An eleventh main installment,Secret of the Mimic, was announced on August 6, 2024, as part of the series' 10th anniversary.The game will center on the Mimic, introduced inSecurity Breach'sRuinDLC.It will be the third virtual reality game of the series. Spin-offs FNaF World(2016) Cawthon announced a spin-off from his series,FNaF World, on September 15, 2015.Unlike the main series, the game is arole-playing video gameusing the first four games' animatronic characters. The game is set in a fanciful world where the characters must fight enemies and progress by unlocking perks anditems. Originally planned for release on February 2, 2016, Cawthon rescheduled the release for January 22 and released it on January 21. Players and critics criticized the game for missing key features and being unstable and unfinished, for which Cawthon apologized: \\\"I got too eager to show the things that were finished that I neglected to pay attention to the things that weren't.\\\" He decided to remove it from Steam, saying that the game would be improved and later re-released free of charge.Cawthon announced that he askedValveto refund all purchasers the price of the game. He released a free version of the game, featuring a3Doverworld and an updated character-selection screen, in February 2016. Cawthon posted a new teaser the following month, with characters such as the main series' Purple Guy and most of the characters from the Halloween update ofFive Nights at Freddy's 4. He created minigames for the game's second update, includingFoxy Fighters,FOXY.exe,Chica's Magic Rainbow, andFNaF 57: Freddy in Space. Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery(2019–2024) Anaugmented realitygame withlocation-based gameplay,Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery, was announced on September 13, 2019.The game was released for free on iOS and Android on November 25, 2019.Dark Circus: Encore!, DLC forSpecial Delivery, was released on December 13, 2021. Its story bridges the gap betweenFive Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted, andFive Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach, and is toldin epistolary format. One series of emails tells of a woman, Ness, triggering red-flag reports with her harmful and offensive search words. The emails eventually reveal that she is under the control of William Afton, and that Ness is Vanny fromFive Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted(\\\"Ness\\\" being short for Vanny's real name \\\"Vanessa\\\"), who was possessed by Afton after encountering a digital form of him while play-testing one of Fazbear's products. Another series of emails tells the story of the employees at Fazbear Entertainment scanning the circuit boards of old animatronics for \\\"The Freddy Fazbear Virtual Experience\\\". As of 2023,Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Deliveryhas been downloaded 40 million times, and has 6.7 million monthly active users. On February 1, 2024, Illumix announced the closure ofSpecial Delivery. On February 2, the game was no longer available to download on iOS and Android. The game's servers shut down on March 14. Freddy in Space 2(2019) Freddy in Space 2is aside-scrollingplatformshooter gameand a sequel to theFNaF 57: Freddy in Spacemini-game fromFNaF World. It was released for free on December 3, 2019, onGame Jolt.The game was made to promote a \\\"#CancelCancer\\\" charity livestream on YouTube, which was hosted byMatthew Patrickof Game Theorists forSt. Jude Children's Research HospitalinMemphis, Tennessee. Security Breach: Fury's Rage(2021) Security Breach: Fury's Rageis aside-scrollingbeat 'em upgame featuring the main cast ofSecurity Breach(not including Gregory or Vanessa). The game was made to compensate for the release ofSecurity Breachbeing delayed for a second time and was released for free on Game Jolt on April 28, 2021. Freddy in Space 3: Chica in Space(2023) Freddy in Space 3: Chica in Spaceis a side-scrolling platform shooter game and a sequel toFreddy in Space 2, it was released on October 18, 2023, under the titleFNAF: The Movie: The Game, which was developed by Cawthon, claimed to be aspoiler-heavytie-ingame of theFive Nights at Freddy'sfilm, which was revealed to beFreddy in Space 3in disguise. It was released for free on Game Jolt. Five Nights at Freddy's: Into the Pit(2024) On January 22, 2024, anadaptationof theFazbear Frights: Into the Pitanthology novel was leaked to be in development in an upcoming slate of new novels to be released in 2024.The following day, a trailer was leaked online.Later that day, series creator Scott Cawthon made a post on Reddit acknowledging the leaks and stating the game would release for the series' 10th anniversary on August 8.On January 25, 2024,Mega Cat Studiosconfirmed they were developing the game.The gameplay trailer for the game released June 6.It will be the first installment of the series to be fully in2Dand made withpixel art.The game was accidentally released to Japanese consoles early on August 7, which was repurposed as the new release date.PlayStationandXboxports were released on September 27. Five Laps at Freddy's(2025) Five Laps at Freddy'sis akart racing gamebased on characters fromFive Nights at Freddy'sdeveloped byClickteam. It was announced on June 19, 2024, to coincide with the series' 10th anniversary.A gameplay trailer was released August 3. A demo of the game was released August 7 and a full release of the game is expected in 2025. Five Nights at Freddy's: Survival Crew(TBA) On December 20, 2023, an officialRobloxadaptation by the name ofFive Nights at Freddy's: Survival Crewwas accidentally released in an unfinished state by its developers, Metaverse Team Frights. The game was immediately taken down after major backlash and Cawthon promised the game would be released in a functional state sometime in 2024.In the short time the game was released, players described the gameplay as similar to the cooperative horror game,Dead by Daylight. Fazbear Fanverse On August 21, 2020, Cawthon announced his plan to help fund and publishFive Nights at Freddy'sgames developed by fans, bundled with previous installments in their respective series.Games published under this initiative include theOne Night at Flumpty'sseries, theFive Nights at Candy'sseries, theJoy of Creationseries,andPopgoes Evergreen(including its prologue game). Cawthon stated that these games will come to other platforms, such as mobile and consoles, and may have merchandise created for them.The first game to be released under this initiative was a port ofOne Night at Flumpty'sfor Android and iOS on October 31 and November 18, 2020, respectively, followed by two of its sequels later in 2021 on the same platforms.Another game planned to be published under this initiative,Five Nights at Freddy's Plus, a remake of the original game, currently has an uncertain future after the firing of its main developer, Phil Morg following controversies in the games fanbase.The game has since been removed from Steam. Books Novel trilogy (2015–2018) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyes(2015) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyesis the first novel by Scott Cawthon and Kira Breed-Wrisley. It was published independently onAmazon Kindleon December 17, 2015, and a paperback release byScholasticfollowed on September 27, 2016. The novel follows a group of childhood friends who meet in their hometown and discover unnerving secrets about the once-beloved Freddy Fazbear's Pizza.According to Cawthon, the novel \\\"expands the mythos and reveals a human element never before seen in the games\\\". Although the novel inhabits theFive Nights at Freddy'suniverse, the book and the games are not \\\"intended to fit together like two puzzle pieces\\\". Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones(2017) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones, the second novel by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley,was discovered onAmazonunder Cawthon's name on January 8, 2017.Although the discovery sparked controversy about the book's legitimacy,Cawthon soon confirmed that it was an official publication.The novel, published on June 27, 2017, by Scholastic, involves Charlie, the main character fromThe Silver Eyes, who is \\\"drawn back into the world of her father's frightening creations\\\" while trying to move on. Five Nights at Freddy's: The Fourth Closet(2018) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Fourth Closet, the third novel by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley, was published on June 26, 2018, by Scholastic. The novel focuses on Charlie's friends, who are searching for the truth behind what happened to Charlie inThe Twisted Oneswhile mysterious events unfold after a new restaurant opens. Film adaptations A film adaptationbased on the game series was released for streaming onPeacockand theatrically in the United States on October 27, 2023, byUniversal Pictures.Directed by Emma Tammi, who co-wrote the screenplay with Cawthon and Seth Cuddeback, the film starsJosh HutchersonwithElizabeth Lail, Piper Rubio,Mary Stuart Masterson, andMatthew Lillardappearing in supporting roles. The film received generally negative reviews from critics but was a commercial success, becoming Blumhouse Productions' highest-grossing film worldwide with nearly $300 million.A sequel is in development. Reception The originalFive Nights at Freddy'sreceived \\\"generally favorable\\\" reviews according toreview aggregatorwebsiteMetacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 78 out of 100.Indie Game Magazinepraised the game for its simple take on the horror genre, labeling the game a \\\"fantastic example of how cleverness in design and subtlety can be used to make an experience terrifying\\\". They noted that its artistic direction and gameplay mechanics contributed to a feeling of \\\"brutal tension\\\", but criticized it for taking too long to load when launched. Omri Petitte forPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy'sa score of 80 out of 100, commenting that the game took a \\\"less-is-more\\\" approach to its design, and praising the overall atmosphere for emphasizing the fear and suspense of an approaching threat, rather than the arrival of the threat itself as in other horror-oriented games. However, the gameplay was criticized for becoming repetitive once a player masters it, noting players have \\\"not much more to expect beyond managing battery life and careful timing of slamming doors shut.\\\"Ryan Bates ofGameRevolutiongave the game a 4.5 out of 5, commending the game's minimalistic presentation (particularly its audio design and lack of music) for contributing to the terror of the game, along with its repetitive gameplay that would \\\" almostOCD-type levels, adding to the tense environment.\\\" He opined that the game was \\\"horror done right\\\", but felt it was too short. Shaun Musgrave ofTouchArcadegave a rating of 3.5 out of 5, noting the game's reliance on atmosphere to induce fear, noting that \\\"if the atmosphere doesn't get to you, all that's left is a very simple game of red light-green light.\\\"Eurogamer'sJeffrey Matulef called the game \\\"wonderfully creative\\\", and compared the animatronic animals in the game toWeeping Angelsdue to their ability to only move when they are not being observed. Five Nights at Freddy's 2received \\\"mixed or average\\\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 62 out of 100.Omri Petitte forPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy's 2a score of 70 out of 100, commenting that what he wanted in the sequel \\\"was more mind games and more uncertainty. I wanted the plodding animatronic suits to find me and rip my face off in new and interesting ways. I wanted working legs. What I got was a horror game dipping heavily into deception and subtlety, a wonderfully cruel cocktail of supernatural mystery and jolts of panicked adrenaline. Enjoying the good parts, though, comes with a cost of a frustratingly steep difficulty.\\\" Destructoidgave the game a positive review, saying that \\\"It's absolutely terrifying to know that you could be attacked at any moment from multiple avenues\\\", praising the introduction of new animatronics and mechanics, but also criticizing the jumpscares and called the game \\\"too hard for its own good\\\".In a review for theNintendo Switchversion of the game in 2019, Mitch Vogel ofNintendo Lifesaid, \\\"Five Nights at Freddy's 2may not necessarily reinvent the wheel, but it still does a fine job of keeping you on the edge of your seat.\\\" Five Nights at Freddy's 3received \\\"mixed or average\\\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 68 out of 100.Omri Petitte fromPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy's 3a score of 77 out of 100, praising the reworked camera system, but commented on how the jumpscares from the other animatronics \\\"felt a little stale by the third night.\\\"In a more critical review, Nic Rowen fromDestructoidgave the game a 6.5 out of 10, saying that even though the game is \\\"by far the most technically proficient and mechanically satisfying installment yet,\\\" he criticized Springtrap and Fazbear's Fright for lacking the \\\"charm of the original cast and locations.\\\" Five Nights at Freddy's 4received \\\"mixed or average\\\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 51 out of 100.Destructoidcriticized the gameplay as being too confusing, and gave the game a review score of 4 out of 10.The Escapistgave the game a positive review score of 4 out of 5 stars saying that they liked the reworked mechanics, darker and emotional storyline, scary jumpscares, and sad ending but noted the game's bugs and glitches.Nadia Oxford ofGamezebogave it 4 out of 5 stars in her review praising it for its intense environment, creepy sounds and graphics, and jumpscares. She criticized the game for being difficult to survive in certain environments when relying on audio cues and the Android version not containing the story-centric minigames. Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Locationreceived \\\"mixed or average\\\" reviews from critics according to Metacritic, assigning a score of 62 out of 100.Destructoidrated the game 6/10,whileGameCraterated it 7.50/10.Shelby Watson ofThe All Stategave the game a positive review, citing it to be comparable to the first game's quality, but unlike the first game, never allowing the player to operate the mechanics on muscle memory alone. She writes, \\\"...ach night is so different, it is impossible to get comfortable with the mechanics enough that it feels like second nature. The game changes so much, you are forced to adapt and are always on the edge of your seat, waiting for what is to come.\\\"TechRaptorrated the game 9/10, calling it \\\"genuinely terrifying\\\" with a \\\"great storytelling\\\" and praised the voice acting. Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorreceived mostly positive reviews.GameCratecalled it the \\\"best value in gaming right now\\\",withRock Paper Shotguncalling it \\\"spooky as hell\\\".TheBall State Daily Newsalso gave a positive review, giving the game a 7.6/10 and calling it \\\"an interesting evolution of theFive Nights formula\\\".IGNlistedFreddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorin their top 18 Best Horror Games of 2017. Ultimate Custom Nightreceived mostly positive reviews.Rock Paper Shotgundeemed the game \\\"an intriguing mess\\\",withPC Gamercalling it \\\"a neat, customisable take on the classic survival horror formula\\\". Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wantedreceived \\\"generally favorable\\\" reviews from critics for the PlayStation 4 version according to Metacritic, assigning a score of 80 out of 100;the Nintendo Switch version received \\\"mixed or average\\\" reviews, with Metacritic assigning a score of 53 out of 100.Reviewers praised the game for its effective use of virtual reality and its success in introducing new mechanics while preserving the series' feel and atmosphere while being accessible for players new to the series. However, the game's frequent use of jump scares could make it less scary and more obnoxious over time for some players. Stuart Gipp atNintendo Lifecriticized the Nintendo Switch version of the game and gave it a score of 3 out of 10. The main criticism being that the game had become pointless for having removed the VR mode making it a \\\"sub-par minigame collection\\\" with \\\"limited gameplay\\\" since previous main games were available already for the console, and speculated that the only reason for releasing it for the console were to capitalize on the console's market share.The game is listed as one ofPlayStation's \\\"Favorite Horror Games of 2019\\\" on their websiteand is one of the top 30 best selling VR games on Steam.The game was nominated for the Coney Island Dreamland Award for Best AR/VR Game at theNew York Game Awardsin 2020. Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breachreceived \\\"mixed or average\\\" reviews, according to Metacritic.Jeuxvideo.comgave a mixed review, praising the atmosphere and the originality of certain gameplay sections, but criticizing the bugs and technical issues.The Escapist'sBen \\\"Yahtzee\\\" Croshawwas more critical of the game, praising the visuals, but criticizing the bugs, design, and restrictive save system.The game was nominated and won Players' Choice December 2021 onPlayStation's official blog. Five Nights at Freddy's: Into the Pitreceived \\\"generally positive\\\" reviews, according to Metacritic.Game Rantpraised the game for its story and visuals, whileComicBook.compraised it for its faithfulness to the source material. Cultural influence Fandom Since the release of the first game, popular video creators such asPewDiePie,Markiplier, andJacksepticeyehave garnered millions of views, which helped the games receive additional attention from their playthroughs.In May 2015, YouTube reported that videos of theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries were the platform's eighth-most-watched playthroughs. The interpretive,non-linear, and cryptic narrative ofFive Nights at Freddy'sis a popular topic for fans to discuss and debate.Channels such asThe Game TheoristsfeatureFive Nights at Freddy's-related videos with the goal of discovering the lore of the franchise.With over 60 videos and 800 million views combined, Matthew Patrick of The Game Theorists has described the series as \\\"a delightfully incomplete and mysterious story with just enough threads to keep you guessing.\\\" Thousands offan gameshave been inspired by the game mechanics ofFive Nights at Freddy's.Fan games for the franchise are incredibly common to the pointGame JoltmadeFNaFgames its own genre to avoid overwhelming the site.: 74Along with fan games, multiple fan songs have been created, including some byThe Living Tombstone, each having accumulated hundreds of millions of views.The Living Tombstone'sfirstFNaFsongwas played in theclosing creditsof the film adaptation. Although theFive Nights at Freddy'sfandom has been criticized for immaturity,Cawthon defended them and criticized the broader community for what he called an unfair generalization. In September 2020, a video featuringJack Blackdancing to The Living Tombstone's firstFive Nights at Freddy'sfan songwent viralon the social media platformTikTok.Black had previously appeared on an episode ofJimmy Kimmel Live!in April 2020, wearing a mask headpiece modeled after Glitchtrap, antagonist of Help Wanted and its sequel, where he revealed that he is a fan of theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries.Black and his son Samuel had previously playedFive Nights at Freddy's 4with Markiplier to promote his own filmGoosebumps. Merchandise Five Nights at Freddy'smerchandise is primarily produced by two companies: Sanshee and Funko.Products includestuffed toys,action figures,posters, clothing,keychains, andstationery, among other things.McFarlane Toysalso has a line ofFive Nights at Freddy'smerchandise, consisting mainly ofconstruction sets;Todd McFarlanecalled the line \\\"the single largest-selling product, bar none, by a lot that done in 20-plus years.\\\"The merchandise, available internationally, has been a factor in the franchise's success. Notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"Grateful Dead TheGrateful Deadwas an Americanrockband formed inPalo Alto, Californiain 1965.Known for their eclectic style that fused elements of rock,blues,jazz,folk,country,bluegrass,rock and roll,gospel,reggae, andworld musicwithpsychedelia,the band is famous forimprovisationduring theirlive performances,and for their devoted fan base, known as \\\"Deadheads\\\". According to the musician and writerLenny Kaye, the music of the Grateful Dead \\\"touches on ground that most other groups don't even know exists.\\\"For the range of their influences and the structure of their live performances, the Grateful Dead are considered \\\"the pioneering godfathers of thejam bandworld\\\". The Grateful Dead was founded in theSan Francisco Bay Areaduring the rise of thecounterculture of the 1960s.The band's founding members wereJerry Garcia(lead guitarand vocals),Bob Weir(rhythm guitar and vocals),Ron \\\"Pigpen\\\" McKernan(keyboards,harmonica, and vocals),Phil Lesh(bass guitarand vocals), andBill Kreutzmann(drums).Members of the Grateful Dead, originally known asthe Warlocks, had played together in various Bay Area ensembles, including the traditionaljug bandMother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions. Lesh was the last member to join the Warlocks before they changed their name to Grateful Dead, replacing Dana Morgan Jr., who had played bass for a few gigs. DrummerMickey Hartand non-performing lyricistRobert Hunterjoined in 1967. With the exception of McKernan, who died in 1973, and Hart, who left the band from 1971 to 1974, the core of the band stayed together for its entire 30-year history.Other official members of the band includedTom Constanten(keyboards from 1968 to 1970),John Perry Barlow(non-performing lyricist from 1971 to 1995),Keith Godchaux(keyboards and occasional vocals from 1971 to 1979),Donna Godchaux(vocals from 1972 to 1979),Brent Mydland(keyboards and vocals from 1979 to 1990), andVince Welnick(keyboards and vocals from 1990 to 1995).Bruce Hornsby(accordion, piano, vocals) was atouringmember from 1990 to 1992, as well as a guest with the band on occasion before and after the tours. After Garcia's death in 1995, former members of the band, along with other musicians, toured asThe Other Onesin 1998, 2000, and 2002, and asThe Deadin 2003, 2004, and 2009. In 2015, the four surviving core members marked the band's 50th anniversary in aseries of concertsinSanta Clara, California, andChicagothat were billed as their last performances together.There have also been several spin-offs featuring one or more core members, such asDead & Company,Furthur, theRhythm Devils,Phil Lesh and Friends,RatDog, andBilly & the Kids. Despite having only one Top-40 single in their 30-year career, \\\"Touch of Grey(1987),\\\" the Grateful Dead remained among the highest-grossing American touring acts for decades. They gained a committed fanbase by word of mouth and through the free exchange of their live recordings, encouraged by the band's allowance oftaping. In 2024, they broke the record for most Top-40 albums on theBillboard200chart.Rolling Stoneranked the Grateful Dead number 57 on its 2011 list of the \\\"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\\\".The band was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994,and a recording of theirMay 8, 1977 performanceatCornell University'sBarton Hallwas added to theNational Recording Registryof theLibrary of Congressin 2012 for being \\\"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\\\".In 2024, the four living core members (Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann and Hart) were recognized as part of theKennedy Center Honors. Formation (1965–1966) The Grateful Dead began their career as the Warlocks, a group formed in early 1965 from the remnants of aPalo Alto, Californiajug bandcalledMother McCree's Uptown Jug Championsand members of The Wildwood Boys (Jerry Garcia, Ron \\\"Pigpen\\\" McKernan, David Nelson, Robert Hunter, and Norm Van Maastricht).As The Wildwood Boys they played regularly at The Tangent, a folk music coffeehouse operated by Stanford Medical Center doctors Stuart \\\"Stu\\\" Goldstein and David \\\"Dave\\\" Shoenstadt on University Avenue in Palo Alto (1963).As the Warlocks, the band's first show was at Magoo's Pizza Parlor, at 639 Santa Cruz Avenue in suburbanMenlo Park, on May 5, 1965, now a Harvest furniture store. The band continued playing bar shows,like Frenchy's Bikini-A-Go-GoinHaywardand, importantly, five sets a night, five nights a week, for six weeks, at theIn RoominBelmontas the Warlocks,but quickly changed the band's name after finding out that a different band known as the Warlocks had put out a record under that name. (The Velvet Undergroundalso had to change its name from the Warlocks.) The name \\\"Grateful Dead\\\" was chosen from a dictionary. According to Lesh, Garcia \\\"picked up an oldBritannicaWorld Language Dictionary... ... In that silvery elf-voice he said to me, 'Hey, man, how about the Grateful Dead?'\\\"The definition there was \\\"the soul of a dead person, or his angel, showing gratitude to someone who, as an act of charity, arranged their burial.\\\" According to Alan Trist, director of the Grateful Dead's music publisher company Ice Nine, Garcia found the name in theFunk & WagnallsFolklore Dictionary, when his finger landed on that phrase while playing a game ofFictionary.In the Garcia biographyCaptain Trips, author Sandy Troy states that the band was smoking the psychedelicDMTat the time.The term \\\"grateful dead\\\" appears in folktales from a variety of cultures. The first show under the name Grateful Dead was inSan Joseon December 4, 1965, at one ofKen Kesey'sAcid Tests.Scholar Michael Kaler has written that the Dead's participation in the Acid Tests was crucial both to the development of their improvisational vocabulary and to their bonding as a band, with the group having set out to foster an intra-band musical telepathy.Kaler has further pointed out that the Dead's pursuit of a new improvisatory rock language in 1965 chronologically coincided with that same goal's adoption byJefferson Airplane,Pink Floydandthe Velvet Underground. Earlierdemo tapeshave survived, but the first of over 2,000 concerts known to have been recorded by the band's fans was a show at theFillmore Auditoriumin San Francisco on January 8, 1966.Later that month, the Grateful Dead played at the Trips Festival, a three-daypsychedelic rockweekend party and event produced byKen Kesey,Stewart Brand, andRamon Sender, that, in conjunction with theMerry Pranksters, brought the nascenthippiemovement together for the first time. Other supporting personnel who joined early includedRock Scully, who heard of the band from Kesey and signed on as manager after meeting them at the Big Beat Acid Test;Stewart Brand, \\\"with his side show of taped music and slides of Indian life, a multimedia presentation\\\" at the Big Beat and then, expanded, at the Trips Festival; andOwsley Stanley, the \\\"Acid King\\\" whoseLSDsupplied the Acid Tests and who, in early 1966, became the band's financial backer, renting them a house on the fringes ofWatts, Los Angeles, and buying them sound equipment. \\\"We were living solely off of Owsley's good graces at that time. ... trip was he wanted to design equipment for us, and we were going to have to be in sort of a lab situation for him to do it\\\", said Garcia. Main career (1967–1995) Pigpen era (1967–1972) One of the group's earliest major performances in 1967 was theMantra-Rock Dance, a musical event held on January 29, 1967, at theAvalon Ballroomby the San FranciscoHare Krishnatemple. The Grateful Dead performed at the event along with the Hare Krishna founderBhaktivedanta Swami, poetAllen Ginsberg, bandsMoby GrapeandBig Brother and the Holding CompanywithJanis Joplin, donating proceeds to the temple.The band's first LP,The Grateful Dead, was released on Warner Brothers in 1967. On May 3, 1968, the band played a free concert atColumbia Universityduring theanti–Vietnam War student protestsduring which students occupied several campus buildings. In order to play, the band, equipment and all, had to be “smuggled” on campus in the back of a bread delivery truck. “We were already jamming away before the security and police could stop us.” Classically trained trumpeterPhil Leshperformed onbass guitar.Bob Weir, the youngest original member of the group, playedrhythm guitar.Ron \\\"Pigpen\\\" McKernanplayedkeyboards,percussion, andharmonicauntil shortly before his death in 1973 at the age of 27. Garcia, Weir, and McKernan shared the lead vocal duties more or less equally; Lesh sang only a few leads, but his tenor was a key part of the band's three-part vocal harmonies.Bill Kreutzmannplayeddrums, and in September 1967 was joined by a second drummer, New York City nativeMickey Hart, who also played a wide variety of otherpercussion instruments. 1970 included tour dates inNew Orleans, where the band performed atThe Warehousefor two nights. On January 31, 1970, the local police raided their hotel onBourbon Streetand arrested and charged 19 people with possession of various drugs.The second night's concert was performed as scheduled after bail was posted. Eventually, the charges were dismissed, except those against sound engineerOwsley Stanley, who was already facing charges in California for manufacturing LSD. This event was later memorialized in the lyrics of “Truckin'\\\", a single fromAmerican Beautythat reached number 64 on the charts. Hart took time off from the band in February 1971, after his father, an accountant, absconded with much of the band's money;Kreutzmann was once again as the sole percussionist. Hart rejoined the Grateful Dead for good in October 1974.Tom \\\"TC\\\" Constantenwas added as a second keyboardist from 1968 to 1970, to help Pigpen keep up with an increasingly psychedelic sound, while Pigpen transitioned into playing various percussion instruments and vocals. After Constanten's departure, Pigpen reclaimed his position as sole keyboardist. Less than two years later, in late 1971, Pigpen was joined by another keyboardist,Keith Godchaux, who playedgrand pianoalongside Pigpen'sHammond B-3 organ. In early 1972, Keith's wife,Donna Jean Godchaux, joined the Grateful Dead as a backing vocalist. Following the Grateful Dead's \\\"Europe '72\\\" tour, Pigpen's health had deteriorated to the point that he could no longer tour with the band. His final concert appearance was June 17, 1972, at theHollywood Bowl, in Los Angeles;he died on March 8, 1973, of complications from liver damage. Godchaux era (1972–1979) Pigpen's death did not slow down the Grateful Dead. With the help of managerRon Rakow, the band soon formed its own record label,Grateful Dead Records.Later that year, it released its next studio album, the jazz-influencedWake of the Flood, whichbecame their biggest commercial success thus far.Meanwhile, capitalizing on the album's success, the band soon went back to the studio, and in June 1974 released another album,From the Mars Hotel. Not long after, the Dead decided to take a hiatus from livetouring. The band travelled to Europe for a string of shows in September 1974, before performing a series of five concerts at theWinterland Ballroomin San Francisco in October 1974, and delved into various other projects.The Winterland concerts were filmed, and Garcia compiled the footage intoThe Grateful Dead Movie, a feature-length concert film released in 1977. In September 1975, the Dead released their eighth studio album,Blues for Allah. The band resumed touring in June 1976, playing multiple dates in small theaters, rather than the stadium shows that had become common, and had exhausted them, in 1974.That same year, they signed withArista Records, and the new contract producedTerrapin Stationin July 1977. The band's tour in the spring of that year is held in high regard by its fans, and itsconcert of May 8atCornell Universityis often considered one of the best performances of its career.TheirSeptember 1977 concertatRaceway ParkinOld Bridge Township, New Jerseywas attended by 107,019 people and held the record forlargest-ticketed concertin the United States by a single act for 47 years. Keith and Donna Jean Godchaux left the band in February 1979, citing artistic differences. Mydland/Welnick era (1979–1995) Following the Godchauxs' departure,Brent Mydlandjoined as keyboardist and vocalist and was considered \\\"the perfect fit.\\\" The Godchauxs then formed theHeart of Gold Band, before Keith died in a car accident in July 1980. Mydland was the keyboardist for the Grateful Dead for 11 years until his death by narcotics overdose in July 1990,becoming the third keyboardist to die. Shortly after Mydland found his place in the early 1980s, Garcia's health began to decline. He became a frequent smoker of \\\"Persian,\\\" a type of heroin, and he gained weight at a rapid pace. He lost his liveliness on stage, his voice was strained, and Deadheads worried for his health. After he began to curtail his opiate usage gradually in 1985, Garcia slipped into adiabetic comafor several days in July 1986, leading to the cancelation of all concerts in the fall of that year. Garcia recovered, the band releasedIn the Darkin July 1987, which became its best-selling studio album and produced its only top-40 single, \\\"Touch of Grey,\\\" Also, that year, the grouptouredwithBob Dylan, as heard on the albumDylan & the Dead. Mydland died in July 1990 andVince Welnick, former keyboardist forthe Tubes, joined as a band member, whileBruce Hornsby, who had a successful career with his band the Range, joined temporarily as a bridge to help Welnick learn songs. Both performed on keyboards and vocals—Welnick until the band's end, and Hornsby mainly from 1990 to 1992. SaxophonistBranford Marsalisplayed five concerts with the band between 1990 and 1994. The Grateful Dead performed its final concert on July 9, 1995, atSoldier Fieldin Chicago. Aftermath (1995–present) Jerry Garciadied on August 9, 1995. A few months after Garcia's death, the remaining members of the Grateful Dead decided to disband.Since that time, there have been a number ofreunions by the surviving membersinvolving various combinations of musicians. Additionally, the former members have also begun or continued individual projects. In 1998, Bob Weir, Phil Lesh, and Mickey Hart, along with several other musicians, formed a band calledthe Other Ones, and performed a number of concerts that year, releasing a live album,The Strange Remain, the following year. In 2000, the Other Ones toured again, this time with Kreutzmann but without Lesh. After taking another year off, the band toured again in 2002 with Lesh. That year, the Other Ones then included all four living former Grateful Dead members who had been in the band for most or all of its history. At different times the shifting lineup of the Other Ones also included guitaristsMark Karan,Steve Kimock, andJimmy Herring, keyboardistsBruce Hornsby,Jeff Chimenti, andRob Barraco, saxophonistDave Ellis, drummerJohn Molo, bassistAlphonso Johnson, and vocalistSusan Tedeschi. In 2003, the Other Ones, still including Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann, changed their name tothe Dead.The Dead toured the United States in 2003, 2004 and 2009. The band's lineups included Jimmy Herring andWarren Hayneson guitar, Jeff Chimenti and Rob Barraco on keyboards, andJoan Osborneon vocals.In 2008, members of the Dead played two concerts, called \\\"Deadheads for Obama\\\" and \\\"Change Rocks\\\". Following the 2009 Dead tour, Lesh and Weir formed the bandFurthur, which debuted in September 2009.Joining Lesh and Weir in Furthur wereJohn Kadlecik(guitar), Jeff Chimenti (keyboards),Joe Russo(drums),Jay Lane(drums),Sunshine Becker(vocals), and Zoe Ellis (vocals). Lane and Ellis left the band in 2010, and vocalistJeff Pehrsonjoined later that year. Furthur disbanded in 2014. In 2010, Hart and Kreutzmann re-formed theRhythm Devils, and played a summer concert tour. Since 1995, the former members of the Grateful Dead have also pursued solo music careers. BothBob Weir & RatDogandPhil Lesh and Friendshave performed many concerts and released several albums. Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann have also each released a few albums. Hart has toured with hisworld musicpercussion ensemble Planet Drumas well as the Mickey Hart Band.Kreutzmann has led several different bands, includingBK3,7 Walkers(withPapa Mali),andBilly & the Kids.Donna Godchaux has returned to the music scene, with theDonna Jean Godchaux Band,andTom Constantenalso continues to write and perform music.All of these groups continue to play Grateful Dead music. In October 2014, it was announced thatMartin Scorsesewould produce a documentary film about the Grateful Dead, to be directed byAmir Bar-Lev.David Lemieuxsupervised the musical selection, and Weir, Hart, Kreutzmann, and Lesh agreed to new interviews for the film.Bar-Lev's four-hour documentary, titledLong Strange Trip, was released in 2017. \\\"Fare Thee Well\\\" In 2015, Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann, and Hart reunited for five concerts called \\\"Fare Thee Well: Celebrating 50 Years of the Grateful Dead\\\".The shows were performed on June 27 and 28 atLevi's StadiuminSanta Clara, California, and on July 3, 4 and 5 atSoldier FieldinChicago.The band stated that this would be the final time that Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann would perform together.They were joined byTrey AnastasioofPhishon guitar, Jeff Chimenti on keyboards, and Bruce Hornsby on piano.Demand for tickets was very high.The concerts were simulcast via various media.The Chicago shows have been released as a box set of CDs and DVDs. Dead & Company In the fall of 2015, Mickey Hart, Bill Kreutzmann and Bob Weir joined with guitaristJohn Mayer, keyboardistJeff Chimenti, and bassistOteil Burbridgeto tour in a band calledDead & Company. Mayer recounts that in 2011 he was listening toPandoraand happened upon the Grateful Dead song \\\"Althea\\\", and that soon Grateful Dead music was all he would listen to.The band played six tours:October–December 2015,June–July 2016,May–July 2017.,May–August 2018, and May–July 2019.On October–November 2019 they played 6 dates on the \\\"2019 Fall Fun Run\\\". On December 27 and 28, they played at The Forum in Inglewood (Los Angeles), California as part of their \\\"2019 New Year's Run\\\" tour. On December 30 and 31, they played in their hometown of San Francisco at the Chase Center, featuring a bi-plane that descended from the ceiling of the Chase Center carrying the daughters of Jerry Garcia, Trixie Garcia and her half-sister, Ken Kesey's daughter Sunshine Kesey, dropping rose petals on the audience as they toured the arena. Barlow died in 2018and Hunter in 2019. In 2022, John Mayer announced that Dead & Company's summer 2023 tour will be their last. Musical style and legacy The Grateful Dead formed during the era when bands such asthe Beatles,the Beach Boysandthe Rolling Stoneswere dominating the airwaves. \\\"The Beatles were why we turned from a jug band into a rock 'n' roll band\\\", said Bob Weir. \\\"What we saw them doing was impossibly attractive. I couldn't think of anything else more worth doing.\\\"Former folk-scene starBob Dylanhad recently put out a couple of records featuring electric instrumentation. Grateful Dead members have said that it was after attending a concert by the touring New York City bandthe Lovin' Spoonfulthat they decided to \\\"go electric\\\" and look for a \\\"dirtier\\\" sound.Jerry GarciaandBob Weir(both of whom had been immersed in theAmerican folk music revivalof the late 1950s and early 1960s), were open-minded about the use of electric guitars. The Grateful Dead's early music (in the mid-1960s) was part of the process of establishing what \\\"psychedelic music\\\" was, but theirs was essentially a \\\"street party\\\" form of it. They developed their \\\"psychedelic\\\" playing as a result of meetingKen KeseyinPalo Alto, California, and subsequently becoming the house band for theAcid Testshe staged.They did not fit their music to an established category such as pop rock, blues, folk rock, or country & western. Individual tunes within their repertoire could be identified under one of these stylistic labels, but overall their music drew on all of these genres and, more frequently, melded several of them.Bill Grahamsaid of the Grateful Dead, \\\"They're not the best at what they do, they're the only ones that do what they do.\\\"Academics Paul Hegarty and Martin Halliwell argued that the Grateful Dead were \\\"not merely asprecursorsofprogbut as essential developments of progressiveness in its early days\\\".Often (both in performance and on recording) the Dead left room for exploratory, spacey soundscapes. Their live shows, fed by an improvisational approach to music, were different from most touring bands. While rock and roll bands often rehearse a standard set, played with minor variations, the Grateful Dead did not prepare in this way. Garcia stated in a 1966 interview, \\\"We don't make up our sets beforehand. We'd rather work off the tops of our heads than off a piece of paper.\\\"They maintained this approach throughout their career. For each performance, the band drew material from an active list of a hundred or so songs. The 1969 live albumLive/Deaddid capture the band in-form, but commercial success did not come untilWorkingman's DeadandAmerican Beauty, both released in 1970. These records largely featured the band's laid-backacoustic musicianshipand more traditional song structures. With their rootsy, eclectic stylings, particularly evident on the latter two albums, the band pioneered the hybridAmericanagenre. Beginning in the early 1990s, a new generation of bands became inspired by the Grateful Dead's improvisational ethos andmarketing strategy, and began to incorporate elements of the Grateful Dead's live performances into their own shows. These include the nightly alteration ofsetlists, frequent improvisation,the blending of genres, and the allowance oftaping, which would often contribute to the development of a dedicated fanbase. Bands associated with the expansion of the\\\"jam scene\\\"includePhish,The String Cheese Incident,Widespread Panic,Blues Traveler,moe., and theDisco Biscuits. Many of these groups began to look past theAmerican roots musicthat the Grateful Dead drew inspiration from, and incorporated elements ofprogressive rock,hard rock, andelectronica. At the same time, the Internet gained popularity and provided a medium for fans to discuss these bands and their performances and downloadMP3s. The Grateful Dead, as well as Phish, were one of the first bands to have aUsenetnewsgroup. Musicianship As the band and its sound matured over thirty years of touring, playing, and recording, each member's stylistic contribution became more defined, consistent, and identifiable. Garcia's lead lines were fluid, supple and spare, owing a great deal of their character to his experience playingScruggs stylebanjo, an approach which often makes use ofnote syncopation,accenting,arpeggios,staccatochromatic runs, and the anticipation of thedownbeat. Garcia had a distinctive sense oftiming, often weaving in and out of thegrooveestablished by the rest of the band as if he were pushing the beat. His lead lines were also immensely influenced byjazz soloists: Garcia citedMiles Davis,Ornette Coleman,Bill Evans,Pat Martino,George Benson,Al Di Meola,Art Tatum,Duke Ellington, andDjango Reinhardtas primary influences, and frequently utilized techniques common tocountryandblues musicin songs that called back to those traditions. Garcia often switchedscalesin the midst of a solo depending upon thechord changesplayed underneath, though he nearly always finishedphrasesby landing on thechord-tones. Jerry most frequently played in theMixolydian mode, though his solos and phrases often incorporated notes from theDorianandmajor/minor pentatonic scales. Particularly in the late 1960s, Garcia occasionally incorporatedmelodic linesderived fromIndianragasinto the band's extended,psychedelicimprovisation, likely inspired byJohn Coltraneand other jazz artists' interest in thesitarmusic ofRavi Shankar. Lesh was originally a classically trained trumpet player with an extensive background inmusic theory, but did not tend to play traditional blues-based bass forms. He often played more melodic, symphonic and complex lines, often sounding like a second lead guitar. In contrast to most bassists inpopular music, Lesh often avoids playing therootof a chord on the downbeat, instead withholding as a means to buildtension. Lesh also rarely repeats the same bassline, even from performance to performance of the same song, and often plays off of or around the other instruments with asyncopated,staccatobounce that contributes to the Dead's unique rhythmic character. Weir, too, was not a traditionalrhythm guitarist, but tended to play uniqueinversionsat the upper end of the Dead's sound. Weir modeled his style of playing after jazz pianistMcCoy Tynerand attempted to replicate the interplay between John Coltrane and Tyner in his support, and occasional subversion, of theharmonic structureof Garcia's voice leadings. This would often influence the direction the band's improvisation would take on a given night. Weir and Garcia's respective positions as rhythm and lead guitarist were not always strictly adhered to, as Weir would often incorporate short melodic phrases into his playing to support Garcia and occasionally took solos, often played with aslide. Weir's playing is characterized by a \\\"spiky, staccato\\\" sound. The band's two drummers,Mickey HartandBill Kreutzmann, developed a unique, complex interplay, balancing Kreutzmann's steadyshufflebeat with Hart's interest in percussion styles outside the rock tradition. Kreuzmann has said, \\\"I like to establish a feeling and then add radical or oblique juxtapositions to that feeling.\\\"Hart incorporated an 11-count measure to his drumming, bringing a dimension to the band's sound that became an important part of its style. He had studiedtabladrumming and incorporated rhythms and instruments fromworld music, and laterelectronic music, into the band's live performances. The Dead's live performances featured multiple types ofimprovisationderived from a vast array of musical traditions. Not unlike many rock bands of their time, the majority of the Dead's songs feature a designated section in which aninstrumental breakoccurs over thechord changes. These sections typically feature solos by Garcia that often originate as variations on the song'smelody, but go on to create dynamic phrases that resolve by returning to the chord-tones. Not unlike traditionalimprovisational jazz, they may occasionally feature several solos by multiple instruments within an undecided number ofbars, such as a keyboardist, before returning to the melody. At the same time, Dead shows almost always feature a more collective,modalapproach to improvisation that typically occurs duringseguesbetween songs before the bandmodulatesto a newtonal center. Some of the Dead's more extended jam vehicles, such as \\\"The Other One\\\", \\\"Dark Star\\\", and \\\"Playing in the Band\\\" almost exclusively make use of modulation between modes to accompany simple two-chord progressions. Lyrical themes Following the songwriting renaissance that defined the band's early 1970s period, as reflected in the albumsWorkingman's DeadandAmerican Beauty,Robert Hunter, Jerry Garcia's primary lyrical partner, frequently made use ofmotifscommon toAmerican folkloreincluding trains, guns, elements,traditional musical instruments, gambling, murder, animals, alcohol, descriptions ofAmerican geography, andreligious symbolismto illustrate themes involving love and loss, life and death, beauty and horror, and chaos and order.Following in the footsteps of severalAmerican musical traditions, these songs are often confessional and feature narration from the perspective of anantihero. CriticRobert Christgaudescribed them as \\\"American myths\\\" that later gave way to \\\"the old karma-go-round\\\". An extremely common feature in both Robert Hunter's lyrics, as well as the band's visual iconography, is the presence ofdualisticand opposing imagery illustrating the dynamic range of thehuman experience(Heaven and hell, law and crime, dark and light, etc.). Hunter and Garcia's earlier, more directlypsychedelic-influencedcompositions often make use ofsurrealimagery,nonsense, and whimsey reflective of traditions inEnglish poetry.In a retrospective,The New Yorkerdescribed Hunter's verses as \\\"elliptical, by turns vivid andgnomic\\\", which were often \\\"hippie poetry about roses and bells and dew\\\".Grateful Dead biographer Dennis McNally has described Hunter's lyrics as creating \\\"a non-literal hyper-Americana\\\" weaving a psychedelic, kaleidoscopic tapestry in the hopes of elucidating America'snational character. At least one of Hunter and Bob Weir's collaborations, \\\"Jack Straw\\\", was inspired by the work ofJohn Steinbeck. Merchandising and representation Hal Kantwas an entertainment industry attorney who specialized in representing musical groups. He spent 35 years as principal lawyer and general counsel for the Grateful Dead, a position in the group that was so strong that his business cards with the band identified his role as \\\"Czar\\\". Kant brought the band millions of dollars in revenue through his management of the band'sintellectual propertyand merchandising rights. At Kant's recommendation, the group was one of the few rock 'n roll pioneers to retain ownership of their music masters andpublishing rights. In 2006, the Grateful Dead signed a ten-year licensing agreement withRhino Entertainmentto manage the band's business interests including the release of musical recordings, merchandising, and marketing. The band retained creative control and kept ownership of its music catalog. A Grateful Dead video game titledGrateful Dead Game – The Epic Tourwas released in April 2012 and was created by Curious Sense. In November 2022, the children's bookThe ABCs of The Grateful Deadwas released.Authorized by the group, it was written by Howie Abrams, illustrated byMichael \\\"Kaves\\\" McLeer, and published bySimon & Schuster. Sponsorship of 1992 Lithuanian Olympic basketball team AfterLithuaniagained its independence from the USSR, the country announced its withdrawal from the1992 Olympicsdue to the lack of any money to sponsor participants.But NBA starŠarūnas Marčiulionis, a native Lithuanian basketball star, wanted to help his native team to compete. His efforts resulted in a call from representatives of the Grateful Dead who set up a meeting with the band members.The band agreed to fund transportation costs for the team (about five thousand dollars) along with Grateful Dead designs for the team's jerseys and shorts. TheLithuanian basketball teamwon the bronze medal and the Lithuanian basketball/Grateful Dead T-shirts became part of pop culture, especially in Lithuania.The incident was covered by the documentaryThe Other Dream Team. Live performances The Grateful Dead toured constantly throughout their career, playing more than 2,300 concerts.They promoted a sense of community among their fans, who became known as \\\"Deadheads\\\", many of whom followed their tours for months or years on end. Around concert venues, an impromptu communal marketplace known as 'Shakedown Street' was created by Deadheads to serve as centers of activity where fans could buy and sell anything from grilled cheese sandwiches to home-made t-shirts and recordings of Grateful Dead concerts. In their early career, the band also dedicated their time and talents to their community, the Haight-Ashbury area of San Francisco, making available free food, lodging, music, and health care to all. It has been said that the band performed \\\"more free concerts than any band in the history of music\\\". With the exception of 1975, when the band was on hiatus and played only four concerts, Grateful Dead performed many concerts every year, from their formation in April 1965, until July 9, 1995.Initially all their shows were in California, principally in theSan Francisco Bay Areaand in or nearLos Angeles. They also performed, in 1965 and 1966, withKen Kesey and the Merry Pranksters, as the house band for theAcid Tests. In 1967, they toured nationally, including their first performance inNew York City. They appeared at theMonterey Pop Festivalin 1967, theWoodstock Festivalin 1969 and theFestival Expresstrain tour across Canada in 1970. They were scheduled to appear as the final act at the infamousAltamont Free Concerton December 6, 1969, after theRolling Stonesbut withdrew after security concerns. \\\"That's the way things went at Altamont—so badly that the Grateful Dead, prime organizers and movers of the festival, didn't even get to play\\\", staff atRolling Stonemagazine wrote in a detailed narrative on the event. Their first UK performance was at theHollywood Music Festivalin 1970. Their largest concert audience came in 1973 when they played, along withthe Allman Brothers Bandandthe Band, before an estimated 600,000 people at theSummer Jam at Watkins Glen.They played to an estimated total of 25 million people, more than any other band, with audiences of up to 80,000 attending a single show. Many of these concerts were preserved in the band's tape vault, and several dozen have since been released on CD and as downloads. The Dead were known for the tremendous variation in their setlists from night to night—the list of songs documented to have been played by the band exceeds 500.The band has released four concert videos under the nameView from the Vault. In 1978, they played three nights at theGreat Pyramid of GizainEgypt. In the 1990s, the Grateful Dead earned a total of $285 million in revenue from their concert tours, the second-highest during the 1990s, with the Rolling Stones earning the most.This figure is representative of tour revenue through 1995, as touring stopped after the death of Jerry Garcia. In a 1991PBSdocumentary, segment host Buck Henry attended an August 1991 concert at Shoreline Amphitheatre and gleaned some information from some band members about the Grateful Dead phenomenon and its success.At the time, Jerry Garcia stated, \\\"We didn't really invent the Grateful Dead, the crowd invented the Grateful Dead, you know what I mean? We were sort of standing in line, and uh, it's gone way past our expectations, way past, so it's, we've been going along with it to see what it's gonna do next.\\\"Mickey Hart said, \\\"This is one of the last places in America that you can really have this kind of fun, you know, considering the political climate and so forth.\\\"Hart also stated that \\\"the transformative power of the Grateful Dead is really the essence of it; it's what it can do to your consciousness. We're more intotransportationthan we are into music,per se, I mean, the business of the Grateful Dead is transportation.\\\"One of the band's largest concerts took place just months before Garcia's death — at their outdoor show with Bob Dylan inHighgate, Vermont, on June 15, 1995. The crowd was estimated to be over 90,000; overnight camping was allowed and about a third of the audience got in without having purchased a ticket. Their numerous studio albums were generally collections of new songs that they had first played in concert. The band was also famous for its extended musical improvisations, having been described as having never played the same song the same way twice. Their concert sets often blended songs, one into the next, often for more than three songs at a time. Concert sound systems TheWall of Soundwas a large sound system designed specifically for the band.The band was never satisfied with the house system anywhere they played. After the Monterey Pop Festival, the band's crew 'borrowed' some of the other performers' sound equipment and used it to host some free shows in San Francisco.In their early days, soundmanOwsley \\\"Bear\\\" Stanleydesigned apublic address(PA) and monitor system for them. Stanley was the Grateful Dead's soundman for many years; he was also one of the largest suppliers ofLSD. Stanley's sound systems were delicate and finicky, and frequently brought shows to a halt with technical breakdowns. After Stanley went to jail for manufacturing LSD in 1970, the group briefly used house PAs, but found them to be even less reliable than those built by their former soundman. On February 2, 1970, the group contactedBob Heilto use his system.In 1971, the band purchased their firstsolid-statesound system fromAlembic Studios. Because of this,Alembicwould play an integral role in the research, development, and production of the Wall of Sound. The band also welcomedDan Healyinto the fold on a permanent basis that year. Healy would mix the Grateful Dead's live sound until 1993. Following Jerry Garcia's death and the band's breakup in 1995, their current sound system was inherited byDave Matthews Band. Dave Matthews Band debuted the sound system April 30, 1996, at the first show of their 1996 tour in Richmond, Virginia. Tapes Like several other bands at the time, the Grateful Dead allowed their fans to record their shows. For many years thetapersset up their microphones wherever they could, and the eventual forest of microphones became a problem for the sound crew. Eventually, this was solved by having a dedicated taping section located behind the soundboard, which required a special \\\"tapers\\\" ticket. The band allowed sharing of their shows, as long as no profits were made on the sale of the tapes. Of the approximately 2,350 shows the Grateful Dead played, almost 2,200 were taped, and most of these are available online.The band began collecting and cataloging tapes early on andDick Latvalawas their keeper. \\\"Dick's Picks\\\" is named after Latvala. After his death in 1999,David Lemieuxgradually took the post. Concert set lists from a subset of 1,590 Grateful Dead shows were used to perform a comparative analysis between how songs were played in concert and how they are listened online byLast.fmmembers.In their bookMarketing Lessons from the Grateful Dead: What Every Business Can Learn From the Most Iconic Band in History,David Meerman ScottandBrian Halliganidentify the taper section as a crucial contributor to increasing the Grateful Dead's fan base. Iconography Over the years, a number of iconic images have come to be associated with the Grateful Dead. Many of these images originated as artwork for concert posters or album covers. Deadheads Fans and enthusiasts of the band are commonly referred to asDeadheads. While the origin of the term may be unclear,Dead Headswere made canon by the notice placed inside theSkull and Roses(1971) album by manager Jon McIntire: DEAD FREAKS UNITE: Who are you? Where are you? How are you?Send us your name and address and we'll keep you informed.Dead Heads, P.O. Box 1065, San Rafael, California 94901. As each show featured a new setlist and a great deal of improvisation, Deadheads would often follow the band from city to city, attending many shows on a given tour. Many Deadheads speak of being drawn to the culture due to the sense of community that the band's shows tended to foster. Though Deadheads came from a wide array of demographics, many attempted to reproduce the aesthetics and values of the1960s countercultureand were often stigmatized in the media.Because of the stereotyping of Deadheads ashippies, the band's shows became a common target for officials in theDEAand arrests at shows became common. As a group, the Deadheads were considered very mellow. \\\"I'd rather work nine Grateful Dead concerts than one Oregon football game,\\\" Police Det. Rick Raynor said. \\\"They don't get belligerent like they do at the games.\\\"Despite this reputation, in the mid-1990s, as the band's popularity grew, there were a series of minor scuffles occurring at shows that peaked with a large scale riot at theDeer Creek Music Centernear Indianapolis in July 1995. Thisgate crashingincident caused the band to cancel the following night's show.Deadheads who appeared on the scene after the band's 1987 hit single \\\"Touch of Grey\\\", were often disparagingly referred to by older fans as \\\"Touchheads\\\". Beginning in the 1980s, a number of definable sects of Deadheads began to appear on the scene. These included theWharf Rats, as well as the \\\"spinners\\\", named forwhirling-style of dancing and their use of the band's music to facilitatemystical experiences. Deadheads, particularly those who collectedtapes, were known for keeping close records of the band's setlists and for comparing various live versions of the band's songs, as reflected in publications such as the various editions of \\\"Deadbase\\\" and \\\"The Deadhead's Taping Compendium\\\". This practice continues into the 21st century on digital forums and websites such as theInternet Archive, which features live recordings of nearly every available Grateful Dead show and allows users to discuss and review the site's shows. The band hasa number of influential and celebrity fans, including politicians, businesspeople, journalists, and other musicians. Donation of archives to UC Santa Cruz On April 24, 2008, members Bob Weir and Mickey Hart, along with Nion McEvoy, CEO ofChronicle Books,UC Santa CruzchancellorGeorge Blumenthal, and UC Santa Cruz librarian Virginia Steel, held a press conference announcing UCSC'sMcHenry Librarywould be the permanent home of theGrateful Dead Archive, which includes a complete archival history from 1965 to the present. The archive includes correspondence, photographs, fliers, posters, and several other forms of memorabilia and records of the band. Also included are unreleased videos of interviews and TV appearances that will be installed for visitors to view, as well as stage backdrops and other props from the band's concerts. Blumenthal stated at the event, \\\"The Grateful Dead Archive represents one of the most significant popular cultural collections of the 20th century; UC Santa Cruz is honored to receive this invaluable gift. The Grateful Dead and UC Santa Cruz are both highly innovative institutions—born the same year—that continue to make a major, positive impact on the world.\\\" Guitarist Bob Weir stated \\\"We looked around, and UC Santa Cruz seems the best possible home. If you ever wrote the Grateful Dead a letter, you'll probably find it there!\\\" Professor of musicFredric Liebermanwas the key contact between the band and the university, who let the university know about the search for a home for the archive, and who had collaborated with Mickey Hart on three books in the past,Planet Drum(1990),Drumming at the Edge of Magic(1991), andSpirit into Sound(2006). The first large-scale exhibition of materials from the Grateful Dead Archive was mounted at theNew-York Historical Societyin 2010. Awards In 2004,Rolling Stoneranked the Grateful Dead No. 57 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. On February 10, 2007, the Grateful Dead received aGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award. The award was accepted on behalf of the band by Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann. In 2011, a recording of the Grateful Dead's May 8, 1977, concert at Cornell University's Barton Hall was selected for induction into the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. Twelve members of the Grateful Dead (the eleven official performing members plus Robert Hunter) were inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994, andBruce Hornsbywas their presenter. In 2024 the band was named as one of the recipients of theKennedy Center Honors. The four living core members (Weir, Lesh, Hart and Kreutzmann) will receive the award. Members Lead guitaristJerry Garciawas often viewed both by the public and the media as the leader or primary spokesperson for the Grateful Dead, but was reluctant to be perceived that way, especially since he and the other group members saw themselves asequal participantsand contributors to their collective musical and creative output.Garcia, a native of San Francisco, grew up in theExcelsior District. One of his main influences was bluegrass music, and he also performed—onbanjo, one of his other great instrumental loves, along with thepedal steel guitar—in bluegrass bands, notablyOld & In the WaywithmandolinistDavid Grisman. Ned Lagin, a youngMITstudent and friend of the band, guested with them many times from 1970 through 1975, providing a second keyboard as well as synthesizers. Upon graduating from MIT, he began touring with the band fulltime in 1974, performing sets of electronic music withPhil Lesh, occasionally with Garcia and Kreutzmann, during the band's intermission.The \\\"Ned and Phil\\\" set became a regular fixture of that era, and was featured nearly every night during their Summer '74 and Europe '74 tours, as well as their five-night residency at theWinterland Ballroomduring October 1974. Lagin is also featured inThe Grateful Dead Movie. During 1974 and 1975, he would also occasionally play entire sets with the band, usually on Garcia's side of the stage, before ending his touring relationship with the band and focusing on his solo music projects, such as his albumSeastones, which features several members of the Dead. Bruce Hornsbynever officially joined the band full-time because of his other commitments, but he did play keyboards at most Dead shows between September 1990 and March 1992, and sat in with the band over 100 times in all between 1988 and 1995. He added several Dead songs to his own live showsand Jerry Garcia referred to him as a \\\"floating member\\\" who could come and go as he pleased. Robert HunterandJohn Perry Barlowwere the band's primarylyricists, starting in 1967 and 1971, respectively, and continuing until the band's dissolution.Hunter collaborated mostly with Garcia and Barlow mostly with Weir, though each wrote with other band members as well. Both are listed as official members at Dead.net, the band's website, alongside the performing members.Barlow was the only member not inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Timeline Discography See also References Further reading External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Five Nights at Freddy's Five Nights at Freddy's(FNaF) is a video game series andmedia franchisecreated byindie gamedeveloperScott Cawthon. The franchise features ten main video games, several spin-off games, novels, anda film adaptation. The video game series follows a set of night guards and other characters that try to survive from midnight to 6 a.m. for five levels, called \"nights\", while fending off attacks from homicidalanimatroniccharacters. Each game is set in a different location connected to a fictional family pizza restaurant franchise named \"Freddy Fazbear's Pizza\". The core gameplay mechanic involves using tools effectively and managing limited resources to avoid being caught by the animatronics. Cawthon conceived the idea forthe first video gameafter his family-friendly resource management game,Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., was criticized for the resemblance of its characters to frightening animatronics. Responding to this feedback, he developed a horror game that intentionally featured scary","featured scary animatronics. Released in August 2014, the game's success prompted the development of sequels. Cawthon created most of the games himself usingClickteam Fusionbut partnered with Steel Wool Studios to createan open-world gameanda virtual reality anthology. The series has a mixed critical reception, with praise for its storytelling and atmosphere but criticism for its gameplay. It has achieved significant commercial success, with merchandise available internationally. The franchise has also garnered acult followingthat produces fan media inspired by it. History and development The concept forFive Nights at Freddy'sstemmed from the negative reception of Scott Cawthon's earlier game,Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., where players said that the main character resembled a \"scary animatronic animal.\"Initially discouraged by the criticism, Cawthon, who had predominantly createdChristian-oriented games, leveraged this feedback to develop something intentionally frightening.Five Nights at Freddy'swas released","released on August 8, 2014, viaDesura,followed by aSteamrelease after gaining approval through thecrowdsourcingplatform Greenlight.The game rapidly gained popularity after being showcased by prominent YouTubers.: 82 The success ofFive Nights at Freddy'sled to multiple sequels released between 2014 and 2023,and a spin-off game titledFNaF World, launched in January 2016.Cawthon usedClickteam Fusion 2.5for game development andAutodesk 3ds Maxfor 3D graphics,enhancing later titles with professional voice actors and original soundtracks.ForHelp WantedandSecurity Breach, Cawthon worked with game development company Steel Wool Studios.In 2015, Cawthon expanded the franchise into literature, announcing a multi-book deal with Scholastic in 2016,which began withThe Silver Eyes,released onAmazon Kindleon December 17, 2015and in paperback on September 27, 2016.This was followed by two additional novels,The Twisted OnesandThe Fourth Closet, published in 2017 and 2018, respectively. Gameplay TheFive Nights at","TheFive Nights at Freddy'sseries consists of psychological horror-themed video games in which the player is usually a night-time employee at a location connected with Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, a fictional children's restaurant that takes inspiration from family pizza chains likeChuck E. CheeseandShowBiz Pizza Place.The restaurant has life-size animatronic characters resembling anthropomorphic animals that perform on a show stage, usually for children's parties, but leave their posts and wander the restaurant at night; the guard's job is to watch over them and prevent them from attacking. The animatronics' mobility is stated in the first game to be necessaary for them to continue functioning properly in the morning, though subsequent games reveal they are actually possessed by ghosts. InFive Nights at Freddy's, the player can control the two security doors connecting their office to the adjacent hallways as a barrier against animatronics in the vicinity. Each night, the player has a power supply that depletes","that depletes faster when a tool is used.If the power goes out, the player can no longer use any tools and is defenseless against the animatronics unless a shift ends before main animatronic Freddy Fazbear can attack.Five Nights at Freddy's 2has different tools; there are no protective doors, and the player must instead use an empty animatronic head and flashlight to defend themself against the animatronics. The game introduced a music box which must be remotely wound up on a regular basis to prevent an attack from a particular animatronic.Eight-bitmini-gameswere introduced, which are played randomly after death and give cryptic clues into the lore. Five Nights at Freddy's 3uses a monitor panel, which contains audio, camera, and ventilation.The player must keep certain systems from malfunctioning. These malfunctions can be triggered randomly or by the hallucinations of the animatronics from the first and second games. The ability to sealventsis also added and must be used to prevent the sole tangible","the sole tangible animatronic from entering the office. The player can use an audio-based function on the cameras, which triggers a childlike voice to lure Springtrap, the game's only physical animatronic possessed by William Afton's spirit, away from the office.The 8-bit minigames return and are playable after each night if the player completes side tasks such as clicking on a poster or inputting a code into a wall. If the player completes the minigames, they unlock a secret ending. InFive Nights at Freddy's 4, the gameplay occurs in a bedroom setting, and instead of being a nighttime security guard, the player takes the role of a small child who experiences nightmarish visions of the animatronics due to fearing their real-life counterparts.The player also no longer has access to a camera system.The player has four areas in the bedroom to monitor: two hallway doors on both sides of the room, the closet directly in front of them, and the bed behind them.At the doors, the player must listen for animatronics'","for animatronics' breathing, which can determine whether they are near. If the player hears breathing at the side doors, they close the door and wait for the animatronics to walk away. If they open the doors too early, however, the animatronicsjump scarethe player.The player must also prevent small animatronics from accumulating on their bed, and prevent an animatronic from entering their closet.Five Nights at Freddy's 4also introduces a minigame involving a new animatronic, which offers the player a two-hour skip in the next night for completing the minigame. An elevated control pad is introduced forSister Location, which can light a room or shock the animatronics. Other mechanics include a second control pad in a breaker room, which controls power to the facility and a flashbeacon, which allows the player to see in the dark Funtime Auditorium (a party room) and avoid its animatronic.Sister Locationis the only game where the player can move between rooms. Pizzeria Simulatorhasbusiness-stylegameplay, and the","and the player must spend in-game money to buy features for their pizzeria. A series of minigames can be played by testing the establishment's attractions.After the player has completed this portion of the game, they complete tasks in a room and fend off hostile, previously salvaged animatronics.The gameplay ofPizzeria Simulatorshares a number of elements withFive Nights at Freddy's 3, including the importance of ventilation and the ability to distract animatronics with sound. Ultimate Custom Nightis a customizable night, in which fifty animatronics are present and have a maximum AI level of twenty. The game includes many mechanics from the previous games, such as the heater, fan, music box, and power generator.The player can choose which characters they want active for a night, and how active the characters will be. Help Wantedcombines the gameplay of every other game, and turns into a virtual experience for the player.It also introduces several other minigames, in which the gameplay is variant, and also at","and also at times hasfree-roam.Special Deliveryfeatures location-based augmented reality gameplay. The player can switch on their camera, and the footage itself is the game's background. The animatronics will try to attack corresponding to the environment. The animatronics generally havecloaking, which leads them to being invisible. Security Breachholds the open-world aspect to this title allows players to experience a new level of immersion,similar to that ofFive Night's at Freddy's 4. Players will also have access to a nifty tool called the Faz-Watch, which allows them to view maps, read messages picked up from random areas on the map, check security cameras for nearby danger, and look at their current objectives.It incorporates Freddy as a helpful companion throughout the game, though he has limited power and must be charged at stations through the map. Players can distract hostile animatronics by knocking things over to get their attention, while they can crouch and hide in various structures to evade","structures to evade them as they follow you throughout the map. Unlike otherFive Nightsgames there are limited save points and there is only a single save station after 6 a.m. Common elements Security cameras In the first, second, third, seventh,eighth,and ninthgames, the player has asecurity-camerasystem, which observes the animatronic characters. One location can be viewed at a time, and some areas are not visible on the cameras.Most camera feeds are dull, sometimes almostblack and whitein color, and full ofvideo noise. In the third game, the cameras stop working if their associated system fails.Cameras are used in the fifth game as a mechanic in the fake ending and custom night update, but not in the main game. Lights In all games except for the third, lights are used to ward off animatronics or warn the player. Lights in the first, second, fifth, and eighthgames are activated with buttons on the walls and illuminate the player's blind spots: the doorway or vent exit, respectively.The lights are similar","lights are similar in the fifth game, but are mounted on a control pad and illuminate the animatronics' rooms. The fifth game also introduced a flash beacon, which is used to orient the player in the third and fifth nights' pitch-black rooms. Several games include use of a flashlight. In the second game, the flashlight has a finite battery life and cannot be recharged,while in the fourth and seventhgames, the battery life is infinite. In the eighthgame, the flashlight battery varies depending on the game segment being played. Flashlight battery life is again finite in the ninthgame, but can be recharged at various recharge stations throughout the game. Doors and vents In the first, fourth, seventh,eighth,and ninthgames, doors are a means of defense for the player, and can be closed when an animatronic is near. Vents are featured in the second, third, sixth, and eighthgames, as a medium through which animatronics can get to the player. Both doors and vents are again present in the fake ending and custom night","and custom night update of the fifth game with the same function. Vents are also present in the fifth and ninthgames as means for the player to travel through, rather than the animatronics. Jump scares Every game in the main series contains jump scares, which end a game in defeat as the animatronics are implied to attack the player off-screen.In most jump scares, an animatronic character suddenly appears in the player's view, followed by a loud screaming or roaring noise. Some jump scares, including those by Golden Freddy (in the first and seventhgames), Nightmare, and Nightmarionette (in the fourth game), consist of a single screen with shrill, distorted audio; these jump scares usually crash (or restart) the game. The player must use various tools to prevent being attacked via jump scares and advance through each game. Minigames In the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, eighth,and ninthgames, the player gains access to a series of (predominantly eight-bit) minigames randomly after death, or after","death, or after completing a specific task.The minigames usually relate to a story or event relevant to the game, in a cryptic manner.The minigames in the second game portray homicides mentioned by another worker of the restaurant, and the reason of the animatronics gaining life.The minigames in the third game show the story behind Springtrap's creation. Minigames in the fourth game tell the story of a character who dies in a tragic accident. There is only one minigame in the fifth game, which depicts the death of animatronic engineer William Afton's daughter. The minigames in the sixth game depict various events in the series, all connected to Afton. In the mobile version of the eighthgame, the player can access a minigame called \"Princess Quest\", which depicts the origins of a character called Vanny; a recreation of these minigames is also featured in the ninthgame, with some significant additions. Story overview TheFive Nights at Freddy'sseries mainly revolves around a chain of family restaurants under","restaurants under the ownership of Fazbear Entertainment, a company founded by Henry Emily and William Afton. The latter is a robotics engineer who creates a series ofanimatronicmascots to entertain customers, including Freddy Fazbear, a brown bear and the namesake of Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, Bonnie, an indigo rabbit,Chica, a yellow chicken, and Foxy, a red pirate fox. Other notable animatronics include the Puppet, the ghostlike Golden Freddy, Freddy's predecessor Fredbear, and Circus Baby,the mascot of the restaurant's sister location, Circus Baby's Pizza World. William is also anegligent fatherandchild murdererwho hides his victims' bodies inside animatronics, which their souls inhabit; he specifically designs Circus Baby to be capable of murdering children, which leads to the accidental death of his own daughter, Elizabeth. William's direct murder victims start with his co-worker Henry's daughterand expand to include five children visiting the restaurants with their families.Meanwhile, an incident","an incident involving William's youngest son being shoved into Fredbear's mouth by his older brother Michael results in the closure of Fredbear's Family Diner, a predecessor location.After accidentally murdering his brother, Michael begins seeking redemption, starting with recovering the remains of his sister.After the closure of a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza location, William dismantles the remaining animatronics in a backroom, releasing the souls that inhabit them who proceed to torment him. Seeking refuge from the ghosts, William hides inside an old yellow rabbit animatronic suit. Shortly after, the suit's mechanisms fail and snap shut, crushing William to death as his soul inhabits the animatronic, becoming abionicrevenantcalled Springtrap.Some time after, the whole restaurant chain shuts down. Thirty years later, a horror attraction based on the restaurant chain known as Fazbear's Fright is constructed and leads to Springtrap's excavation; a fire destroys the attraction before it can open to the public. The","to the public. The destruction frees the souls of William's first five victims and destroys the original mascots, though Springtrap escapes. Some time after the fire, Henry lures Springtrap and all animatronics that were not destroyed in Fazbear's Fright into a single pizzeria. With help from Michael, Henry sets fire to the restaurant and destroys every animatronic inside, freeing the souls of the children that inhabited them, including Elizabeth. The fire also kills Henry, Michael, and William.Afterwards, William's soul is trapped and tormented in a personalizedhellwith all animatronics he created. Years later, Fazbear Entertainment is re-founded and releases an in-universe virtual reality experience based on the past of the restaurant, in an effort to convince the public the company's previous controversies were merely fiction,while also constructing a new location, the Pizzaplex. Games Main series Five Nights at Freddy's(2014) Five Nights at Freddy'swas released forMicrosoft Windowson August 8, 2014,","August 8, 2014, followed by ports forAndroidandiOSon August 27 and September 11, respectively. AWindows Phoneversion was also released,but was soon withdrawn due to its downscaled graphics.Ports for thePlayStation 4,Xbox One, andNintendo Switchwere released on November 29, 2019, alongside separate releases forFive Nights at Freddy's 2,3and4. The first game revolves around a character called Mike Schmidt, who begins working as a night security guard at Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, where the animatronics move at night and supposedly kill anyone they see by stuffing them into a spare animatronic suit. Schmidt is guided by the previous night guard, known as Phone Guy, who assists them in their defense against the animatronics through pre-recorded telephone messages until his death in the fourth night.He explains to Schmidt that the animatronics' mobility is a purposely programmed \"free-roaming\" mode to prevent the animatronics' servomotors from locking up. He also states that they see any human still in the","human still in the restaurant as an animatronic endoskeleton without a suit. The player must survive from 12 a.m. to 6 am. The player cannot leave the room and must use a camera system and two doors with lights to defend themselves from the animatronics, with limited power to use their tools.Various hints and clues imply that, contrary to Phone Guy's explanation, the mobility and hostility of the animatronics results from them beingpossessedby thevengeful soulsof children who were killed at the restaurant. Mike is fired from his job after the seventh night for tampering with the animatronics, body odor, and unprofessionalism. Five Nights at Freddy's 2(2014) Shortly after the release of the first game, Cawthon confirmed rumors about a sequel.He posted ateaserof the sequel on his website one month after the original game's release and continued to post teasers until the sequel's release.A trailer was released on October 21, 2014, introducing new animatronic characters and the absence of doors.Five Nights at","Nights at Freddy's 2was released for Microsoft Windows on November 10, 2014, earlier than its planned release of December 25. Ports for Android and iOS were released on November 13 and 20, 2014, respectively. A Windows Phone port was also released, but was withdrawn for substandard graphics.PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. The gameplay is largely similar to its predecessor. Players must survive a night shift at the \"new and improved\" Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant from 12 a.m. to 6 am, without being attacked by any of the animatronics that wander from room to room.In addition to the animatronics from the first game, which are depicted in a deteriorated state, the game features several new antagonists, who can be fended off using different tactics.The explanation given for the animatronics' behavior during the game is similar to the one from the firstFive Nights at Freddy's. The protagonist is a new character, Jeremy Fitzgerald, who is promoted","who is promoted to daytime security after the sixth night, being replaced by Fritz Smith in the seventh night. During the game, Phone Guy from the previous game calls Jeremy to give him hints on how to survive each night while talking about the restaurant's history. During these calls, it is revealed that the restaurant has become the subject of a police investigation due to various rumors. It is also possible to access hiddenAtari-styled minigames that provide further insight on the restaurant's troubled past, showing a purple figure killing multiple children. On the fifth night, the location is put on lockdown due to an unspecified event. At the end of the game, Jeremy receives a paycheck dated 1987, revealing that the events of the game take place before the firstFive Nights at Freddy's, and the restaurant is closed, with a new location set to be opened elsewhere. Five Nights at Freddy's 3(2015) On January 3, 2015, an image was uploaded to Cawthon's website teasing a third entry in the series.Other images","series.Other images followedbefore a trailer was released on January 26, 2015. On February 15, Cawthon posted on Steam thatFive Nights at Freddy's 3was cancelled after a hacker allegedlyleakedthe game.This was later revealed as a hoax; the \"leaked\" download linked to a humorouscloneof a previous game of Cawthon's,There is No Pause Button!, in which the main character is depicted wearing the Freddy animatronic head.Five Nights at Freddy's 3was released for Microsoft Windows on March 3, 2015, with Android and iOS ports following on March 7 and 12, respectively. PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. Set thirty years after the events of the first game, its main character works at Fazbear's Fright, a horror attraction based on the long-gone Freddy Fazbear's Pizza. The player must defend themselves from the deteriorated animatronic-costume hybrid named Springtrap. Burnt and tattered hallucinations of some of the animatronics from the previous two games","previous two games appear; and although they cannot kill the player, they can hinder ventilation, sound, and camera systems. Failure to maintain the systems can create many issues for the player, including dysfunctional cameras and the inability to play audio to lure away the animatronic. The player receives guidance from a founder of the horror attraction for the first two nights and listens to old tape recordings which were found by the attraction's workers for the rest of the nights.The game has two endings: a \"good\" ending and a \"bad\" ending. The bad ending reveals that the souls of the murdered children still haunt the animatronics. The good ending is reached by completing secret minigames in which animatronic characters bring a cake to what seems to be a sorrowful child's soul. After completing the secret minigames, the souls of the children are freed. Five Nights at Freddy's 4(2015) On April 27, 2015, Cawthon began posting images on his website teasing another game in the series, which was originally","was originally titledFive Nights at Freddy's 4: The Final Chapter.A trailer was released on July 13, 2015, hinting that the game was set in the main character's house.Five Nights at Freddy's 4was announced with a release date of October 31, 2015. It was pushed forward to August 8 and again to July 23, when the game was unexpectedly released on Microsoft Windows through Steam. Android and iOS ports were released on July 25 and August 3, 2015, respectively. PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. The player character is an unknown and unnamed child who has delusions of being attacked by nightmarish versions of the first game's animatronic characters.The player must defend themselves with a flashlight and doors.The game's story is told through minigames, in which an unnamed young boy is bullied by his older brother because of his irrational fear of a restaurant with a yellow animatronic bear and rabbit called Fredbear and Spring Bonnie, respectively. He is","respectively. He is guided by a plush version of Fredbear, whom the boy imagines can speak to him when he is alone. The child appears to be ultimately killed by Fredbear in a freak accident.The game had aHalloweenupdate with \"nightmare\" versions of animatronics fromFive Nights at Freddy's 2and Halloween-themed reskins for Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica. Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Location(2016) On April 23, 2016, Cawthon posted a teaser image on his website of a clown-likeanimatronicnamed Baby from an upcoming game titledSister Location.Several teaser images of different characters and hints at their origins followed. The trailer for the game was released on Cawthon's YouTube channel, with new animatronics and a new location. The release date was announced as October 7, 2016. Cawthon made a prank release of the game on October 5, apparently releasing a \"mature\" edition after a decision to delay the game to make it morekid-friendly. The download link led to a clone of Cawthon's previous game,Sit 'N","game,Sit 'N Survive. Sister Locationwas released for Microsoft Windows on October 7, 2016, followed by ports for Android on December 22, 2016, and iOS on January 3, 2017, respectively. It was also released on Nintendo Switch in North America on June 18, 2020, and on Xbox One on July 10, 2020. The PlayStation 4 port was released in Europe and North America on July 21 and 22, 2020, respectively. The player character Michael Afton, nicknamed Mike (jokingly called Eggs Benedict),is a new employee of Circus Baby's Entertainment and Rental (a sister company of Fazbear Entertainment that rentsanimatronicsfor children's parties). The animatronics were originally intended for Circus Baby's Pizza World, which never opened due to agas leak.Mike is guided by HandUnit, an AI character similar to the Phone Guy of previous games. HandUnit instructs him about his job, often telling him to disregard safety; the animatronic Baby often gives instructions that contradicts that of HandUnit, but are vital to survival. The game","survival. The game also has a \"custom night\",in which the player can use mechanics reminiscent of the first game (such as interactive doors and a camera system) which were absent from the main game, except for a non-canonical ending, titled the \"Fake Ending\". New minigames are also available, describing Michael's fate after the events of the main game.Acutsceneis shown after the \"Golden Freddy\" custom-night preset, in which Michael speaks to his father, William Afton/Springtrap, in a foreboding way. Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulator(2017) In June 2017, Cawthon hinted at the development of a sixth main game in the series. On July 2, 2017, he announced his decision to cancel the game and said that he had been \"neglecting other things in life for the sake of trying to keep up with mounting expectations\".On December 4, 2017, after teasing the game several days earlier, Cawthon releasedFreddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorasfreewareon Steam.The game is a business-simulation game in which the player runs a","the player runs a pizzeria, but frequently shifts into the survival-horror vein of the series' other games. A mobile version foriOSandAndroidtitledFNaF 6: Pizzeria Simulatorwas released on August 13, 2019. Unlike the PC version, the mobile release, which is developed and published byClickteam LLC USA, ispay-to-play. ANintendo SwitchandXbox Oneport was released on October 31, 2020, with aPlayStation 4port released on March 31, 2021. The game's story follows the manager (implied to be Michael Afton) of a new Freddy Fazbear's restaurant run by the mysterious \"Cassette Man\". Every night, Michael, under Cassette Man's guidance, must salvage one of four decrepit animatronics that were found in the restaurant's back alley, including William / Springtrap (now referred to as \"Scraptrap\") and Elizabeth / Circus Baby (referred to as \"Scrap Baby\"). The game has multiple endings depending on how well the player runs the pizzeria and whether they salvaged all the animatronics, but thecanonending has Cassette Man reveal","Cassette Man reveal himself as Henry Emily, William's former business partner, and set the restaurant on fire after revealing its true purpose as a trap to lure in the remaining animatronics. The restaurant burns to the ground, seemingly killing the player character, Henry, and all the animatronics,finally releasing the spirits haunting them. Ultimate Custom Night(2018) Ultimate Custom Nightwas originally intended to be a post-launch add-on toPizzeria Simulator, but was eventually turned into a stand-alone game, releasing on June 27, 2018, asfreeware.A mobile port foriOSandAndroidwas released on April 28, 2020, and a console port for thePlayStation 4,Xbox One, andNintendo Switchwas released on April 30, 2021. The customizable night contains a total of fifty animatronics from previous games, which allows the player to determine how aggressive they are during the night (similar to the custom nights in earlier games). The player can select the office to play in, unlockcutscenes, and choose from 16 themed game","from 16 themed game modes available.Although unconfirmed, it has been heavily speculated that the game takes place in some version ofHellorPurgatory, where William Afton, following his death inPizzeria Simulator, is being continuously tortured by the vengeful spirit of one of his victims. However, the anthology novel seriesFazbear Frightsimplies that the game is actually Afton's repeating nightmare, and not hell or purgatory. This comes from the fifth book,Bunny Call, which has a story called \"The Man in Room 1280\" where a burned man is kept alive by a shadow child despite the fact that he should be dead and suffers nightmares. In the following book,Blackbird, the epilogue confirms that the man is actually William Afton. Although it was never confirmed if theFazbear Frightsseries is set in the same continuity as the games, Cawthon confirmed that it's supposed to reveal mysteries from the previous games. Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted(2019) On August 18, 2018, Cawthon confirmed on his Steam thread that","Steam thread that the next main installment in theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries would be available as avirtual realitygame.On March 25, 2019, duringSony Interactive Entertainment's State of Play live stream announcing several new games for the PlayStation 4, a trailer announcing the game was shown.In the game, the player is a technician repairing a pizzeria's animatronics. From a first-person perspective, they fix the animatronics, solve puzzles and navigate dark hallways while avoiding malfunctioning and hostile animatronics.The game was released on May 28, 2019. A non-VR version of the game was released on December 17, 2019, for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 4. Curse of Dreadbear, a Halloween-themeddownloadable content(DLC) pack forHelp Wantedwas released in three parts, with several \"waves\" of new minigames released on October 23, October 29, and October 31, 2019, for a total of 10 new minigames.The DLC pack includes new animatronic characters, returning animatronics from previous games, and a","games, and a Halloween-themed hub.Some of the new stages are re-skinned versions of existent minigames, such as a version of theFNAF 1minigames calledDanger! Keep Out!Notable new game modes include ashooting gallery, a free-roamingcorn maze, and anassembly linein which the player must construct an animatronic. Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach(2021) On August 8, 2019, on the first game's fifth anniversary, Cawthon posted a new image on his website, teasing the next installment for the series. It shows the \"Mega Pizzaplex\", a large entertainment complex containing a laser tag arena, an arcade, a cinema and a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant; in the main square, '80s-style versions of Freddy, Chica, and four completely new animatronics can be seen playing for an excited crowd. On April 21, 2020, the characters' names were leaked fromFunko's list of upcoming products, and the title was revealed asFive Nights at Freddy's: Pizza Plex. Scott Cawthon confirmed the leaks via Reddit but revealed that the","revealed that the title was not official. The game was initially scheduled for an early 2021 release,but was delayed to late 2021. Security Breachwas released on PlayStation 5, PlayStation 4, and Steam on December 16, 2021. The game's plot revolves around a young boy named Gregory being trapped in a large entertainment complex teeming with murderous animatronics who hunt him down by the orders of Vanny, a mysterious woman in a rabbit costume, while also evading the complex's security guard, Vanessa. Suffering a malfunction that causes him to ignore Vanny's hacking, Freddy assists Gregory in escaping the complex. A Stadia port was launched on July 1, 2022, ports for Xbox One and Series X/S were released on November 22, 2022, and a Nintendo Switch port was released on April 19, 2023. Free downloadable content titledRuinwas released for PlayStation 5, 4, and Steam on July 25, 2022, with an Xbox One and Series X/S port releasing on April 23, 2024, and a Nintendo Switch port in the works. Five Nights at Freddy's:","Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted 2(2023) On May 24, 2023, during a PlayStation Showcase, Steel Wool Studios announced a direct sequel toHelp WantedtitledHelp Wanted 2, scheduled for release in December 2023.On November 20, 2023, the gameplay trailer was released on the official Steel Wool Studios YouTube channel, revealing several characters from the game along with the release date of December 14 on PlayStation 5 and Steam.AMeta Questversion of the game was released on May 9, 2024, and the game was launched physically with a flat version on June 20. Five Nights at Freddy's: Secret of the Mimic(2025) An eleventh main installment,Secret of the Mimic, was announced on August 6, 2024, as part of the series' 10th anniversary.The game will center on the Mimic, introduced inSecurity Breach'sRuinDLC.It will be the third virtual reality game of the series. Spin-offs FNaF World(2016) Cawthon announced a spin-off from his series,FNaF World, on September 15, 2015.Unlike the main series, the game is arole-playing video","arole-playing video gameusing the first four games' animatronic characters. The game is set in a fanciful world where the characters must fight enemies and progress by unlocking perks anditems. Originally planned for release on February 2, 2016, Cawthon rescheduled the release for January 22 and released it on January 21. Players and critics criticized the game for missing key features and being unstable and unfinished, for which Cawthon apologized: \"I got too eager to show the things that were finished that I neglected to pay attention to the things that weren't.\" He decided to remove it from Steam, saying that the game would be improved and later re-released free of charge.Cawthon announced that he askedValveto refund all purchasers the price of the game. He released a free version of the game, featuring a3Doverworld and an updated character-selection screen, in February 2016. Cawthon posted a new teaser the following month, with characters such as the main series' Purple Guy and most of the characters","of the characters from the Halloween update ofFive Nights at Freddy's 4. He created minigames for the game's second update, includingFoxy Fighters,FOXY.exe,Chica's Magic Rainbow, andFNaF 57: Freddy in Space. Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery(2019–2024) Anaugmented realitygame withlocation-based gameplay,Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery, was announced on September 13, 2019.The game was released for free on iOS and Android on November 25, 2019.Dark Circus: Encore!, DLC forSpecial Delivery, was released on December 13, 2021. Its story bridges the gap betweenFive Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted, andFive Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach, and is toldin epistolary format. One series of emails tells of a woman, Ness, triggering red-flag reports with her harmful and offensive search words. The emails eventually reveal that she is under the control of William Afton, and that Ness is Vanny fromFive Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted(\"Ness\" being short for Vanny's real name \"Vanessa\"), who was possessed","who was possessed by Afton after encountering a digital form of him while play-testing one of Fazbear's products. Another series of emails tells the story of the employees at Fazbear Entertainment scanning the circuit boards of old animatronics for \"The Freddy Fazbear Virtual Experience\". As of 2023,Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Deliveryhas been downloaded 40 million times, and has 6.7 million monthly active users. On February 1, 2024, Illumix announced the closure ofSpecial Delivery. On February 2, the game was no longer available to download on iOS and Android. The game's servers shut down on March 14. Freddy in Space 2(2019) Freddy in Space 2is aside-scrollingplatformshooter gameand a sequel to theFNaF 57: Freddy in Spacemini-game fromFNaF World. It was released for free on December 3, 2019, onGame Jolt.The game was made to promote a \"#CancelCancer\" charity livestream on YouTube, which was hosted byMatthew Patrickof Game Theorists forSt. Jude Children's Research HospitalinMemphis, Tennessee. Security","Tennessee. Security Breach: Fury's Rage(2021) Security Breach: Fury's Rageis aside-scrollingbeat 'em upgame featuring the main cast ofSecurity Breach(not including Gregory or Vanessa). The game was made to compensate for the release ofSecurity Breachbeing delayed for a second time and was released for free on Game Jolt on April 28, 2021. Freddy in Space 3: Chica in Space(2023) Freddy in Space 3: Chica in Spaceis a side-scrolling platform shooter game and a sequel toFreddy in Space 2, it was released on October 18, 2023, under the titleFNAF: The Movie: The Game, which was developed by Cawthon, claimed to be aspoiler-heavytie-ingame of theFive Nights at Freddy'sfilm, which was revealed to beFreddy in Space 3in disguise. It was released for free on Game Jolt. Five Nights at Freddy's: Into the Pit(2024) On January 22, 2024, anadaptationof theFazbear Frights: Into the Pitanthology novel was leaked to be in development in an upcoming slate of new novels to be released in 2024.The following day, a trailer was","day, a trailer was leaked online.Later that day, series creator Scott Cawthon made a post on Reddit acknowledging the leaks and stating the game would release for the series' 10th anniversary on August 8.On January 25, 2024,Mega Cat Studiosconfirmed they were developing the game.The gameplay trailer for the game released June 6.It will be the first installment of the series to be fully in2Dand made withpixel art.The game was accidentally released to Japanese consoles early on August 7, which was repurposed as the new release date.PlayStationandXboxports were released on September 27. Five Laps at Freddy's(2025) Five Laps at Freddy'sis akart racing gamebased on characters fromFive Nights at Freddy'sdeveloped byClickteam. It was announced on June 19, 2024, to coincide with the series' 10th anniversary.A gameplay trailer was released August 3. A demo of the game was released August 7 and a full release of the game is expected in 2025. Five Nights at Freddy's: Survival Crew(TBA) On December 20, 2023, an","20, 2023, an officialRobloxadaptation by the name ofFive Nights at Freddy's: Survival Crewwas accidentally released in an unfinished state by its developers, Metaverse Team Frights. The game was immediately taken down after major backlash and Cawthon promised the game would be released in a functional state sometime in 2024.In the short time the game was released, players described the gameplay as similar to the cooperative horror game,Dead by Daylight. Fazbear Fanverse On August 21, 2020, Cawthon announced his plan to help fund and publishFive Nights at Freddy'sgames developed by fans, bundled with previous installments in their respective series.Games published under this initiative include theOne Night at Flumpty'sseries, theFive Nights at Candy'sseries, theJoy of Creationseries,andPopgoes Evergreen(including its prologue game). Cawthon stated that these games will come to other platforms, such as mobile and consoles, and may have merchandise created for them.The first game to be released under this","released under this initiative was a port ofOne Night at Flumpty'sfor Android and iOS on October 31 and November 18, 2020, respectively, followed by two of its sequels later in 2021 on the same platforms.Another game planned to be published under this initiative,Five Nights at Freddy's Plus, a remake of the original game, currently has an uncertain future after the firing of its main developer, Phil Morg following controversies in the games fanbase.The game has since been removed from Steam. Books Novel trilogy (2015–2018) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyes(2015) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyesis the first novel by Scott Cawthon and Kira Breed-Wrisley. It was published independently onAmazon Kindleon December 17, 2015, and a paperback release byScholasticfollowed on September 27, 2016. The novel follows a group of childhood friends who meet in their hometown and discover unnerving secrets about the once-beloved Freddy Fazbear's Pizza.According to Cawthon, the novel \"expands the mythos and","the mythos and reveals a human element never before seen in the games\". Although the novel inhabits theFive Nights at Freddy'suniverse, the book and the games are not \"intended to fit together like two puzzle pieces\". Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones(2017) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones, the second novel by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley,was discovered onAmazonunder Cawthon's name on January 8, 2017.Although the discovery sparked controversy about the book's legitimacy,Cawthon soon confirmed that it was an official publication.The novel, published on June 27, 2017, by Scholastic, involves Charlie, the main character fromThe Silver Eyes, who is \"drawn back into the world of her father's frightening creations\" while trying to move on. Five Nights at Freddy's: The Fourth Closet(2018) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Fourth Closet, the third novel by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley, was published on June 26, 2018, by Scholastic. The novel focuses on Charlie's friends, who are searching for the truth behind","the truth behind what happened to Charlie inThe Twisted Oneswhile mysterious events unfold after a new restaurant opens. Film adaptations A film adaptationbased on the game series was released for streaming onPeacockand theatrically in the United States on October 27, 2023, byUniversal Pictures.Directed by Emma Tammi, who co-wrote the screenplay with Cawthon and Seth Cuddeback, the film starsJosh HutchersonwithElizabeth Lail, Piper Rubio,Mary Stuart Masterson, andMatthew Lillardappearing in supporting roles. The film received generally negative reviews from critics but was a commercial success, becoming Blumhouse Productions' highest-grossing film worldwide with nearly $300 million.A sequel is in development. Reception The originalFive Nights at Freddy'sreceived \"generally favorable\" reviews according toreview aggregatorwebsiteMetacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 78 out of 100.Indie Game Magazinepraised the game for its simple take on the horror genre, labeling the game a \"fantastic example","\"fantastic example of how cleverness in design and subtlety can be used to make an experience terrifying\". They noted that its artistic direction and gameplay mechanics contributed to a feeling of \"brutal tension\", but criticized it for taking too long to load when launched. Omri Petitte forPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy'sa score of 80 out of 100, commenting that the game took a \"less-is-more\" approach to its design, and praising the overall atmosphere for emphasizing the fear and suspense of an approaching threat, rather than the arrival of the threat itself as in other horror-oriented games. However, the gameplay was criticized for becoming repetitive once a player masters it, noting players have \"not much more to expect beyond managing battery life and careful timing of slamming doors shut.\"Ryan Bates ofGameRevolutiongave the game a 4.5 out of 5, commending the game's minimalistic presentation (particularly its audio design and lack of music) for contributing to the terror of the game, along with its","along with its repetitive gameplay that would \" almostOCD-type levels, adding to the tense environment.\" He opined that the game was \"horror done right\", but felt it was too short. Shaun Musgrave ofTouchArcadegave a rating of 3.5 out of 5, noting the game's reliance on atmosphere to induce fear, noting that \"if the atmosphere doesn't get to you, all that's left is a very simple game of red light-green light.\"Eurogamer'sJeffrey Matulef called the game \"wonderfully creative\", and compared the animatronic animals in the game toWeeping Angelsdue to their ability to only move when they are not being observed. Five Nights at Freddy's 2received \"mixed or average\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 62 out of 100.Omri Petitte forPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy's 2a score of 70 out of 100, commenting that what he wanted in the sequel \"was more mind games and more uncertainty. I wanted the plodding animatronic suits to find me and rip my face off in new and interesting ways. I","interesting ways. I wanted working legs. What I got was a horror game dipping heavily into deception and subtlety, a wonderfully cruel cocktail of supernatural mystery and jolts of panicked adrenaline. Enjoying the good parts, though, comes with a cost of a frustratingly steep difficulty.\" Destructoidgave the game a positive review, saying that \"It's absolutely terrifying to know that you could be attacked at any moment from multiple avenues\", praising the introduction of new animatronics and mechanics, but also criticizing the jumpscares and called the game \"too hard for its own good\".In a review for theNintendo Switchversion of the game in 2019, Mitch Vogel ofNintendo Lifesaid, \"Five Nights at Freddy's 2may not necessarily reinvent the wheel, but it still does a fine job of keeping you on the edge of your seat.\" Five Nights at Freddy's 3received \"mixed or average\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 68 out of 100.Omri Petitte fromPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy's 3a","at Freddy's 3a score of 77 out of 100, praising the reworked camera system, but commented on how the jumpscares from the other animatronics \"felt a little stale by the third night.\"In a more critical review, Nic Rowen fromDestructoidgave the game a 6.5 out of 10, saying that even though the game is \"by far the most technically proficient and mechanically satisfying installment yet,\" he criticized Springtrap and Fazbear's Fright for lacking the \"charm of the original cast and locations.\" Five Nights at Freddy's 4received \"mixed or average\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 51 out of 100.Destructoidcriticized the gameplay as being too confusing, and gave the game a review score of 4 out of 10.The Escapistgave the game a positive review score of 4 out of 5 stars saying that they liked the reworked mechanics, darker and emotional storyline, scary jumpscares, and sad ending but noted the game's bugs and glitches.Nadia Oxford ofGamezebogave it 4 out of 5 stars in her review","stars in her review praising it for its intense environment, creepy sounds and graphics, and jumpscares. She criticized the game for being difficult to survive in certain environments when relying on audio cues and the Android version not containing the story-centric minigames. Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Locationreceived \"mixed or average\" reviews from critics according to Metacritic, assigning a score of 62 out of 100.Destructoidrated the game 6/10,whileGameCraterated it 7.50/10.Shelby Watson ofThe All Stategave the game a positive review, citing it to be comparable to the first game's quality, but unlike the first game, never allowing the player to operate the mechanics on muscle memory alone. She writes, \"...ach night is so different, it is impossible to get comfortable with the mechanics enough that it feels like second nature. The game changes so much, you are forced to adapt and are always on the edge of your seat, waiting for what is to come.\"TechRaptorrated the game 9/10, calling it \"genuinely","it \"genuinely terrifying\" with a \"great storytelling\" and praised the voice acting. Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorreceived mostly positive reviews.GameCratecalled it the \"best value in gaming right now\",withRock Paper Shotguncalling it \"spooky as hell\".TheBall State Daily Newsalso gave a positive review, giving the game a 7.6/10 and calling it \"an interesting evolution of theFive Nights formula\".IGNlistedFreddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorin their top 18 Best Horror Games of 2017. Ultimate Custom Nightreceived mostly positive reviews.Rock Paper Shotgundeemed the game \"an intriguing mess\",withPC Gamercalling it \"a neat, customisable take on the classic survival horror formula\". Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wantedreceived \"generally favorable\" reviews from critics for the PlayStation 4 version according to Metacritic, assigning a score of 80 out of 100;the Nintendo Switch version received \"mixed or average\" reviews, with Metacritic assigning a score of 53 out of 100.Reviewers praised the game for its","the game for its effective use of virtual reality and its success in introducing new mechanics while preserving the series' feel and atmosphere while being accessible for players new to the series. However, the game's frequent use of jump scares could make it less scary and more obnoxious over time for some players. Stuart Gipp atNintendo Lifecriticized the Nintendo Switch version of the game and gave it a score of 3 out of 10. The main criticism being that the game had become pointless for having removed the VR mode making it a \"sub-par minigame collection\" with \"limited gameplay\" since previous main games were available already for the console, and speculated that the only reason for releasing it for the console were to capitalize on the console's market share.The game is listed as one ofPlayStation's \"Favorite Horror Games of 2019\" on their websiteand is one of the top 30 best selling VR games on Steam.The game was nominated for the Coney Island Dreamland Award for Best AR/VR Game at theNew York Game","at theNew York Game Awardsin 2020. Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breachreceived \"mixed or average\" reviews, according to Metacritic.Jeuxvideo.comgave a mixed review, praising the atmosphere and the originality of certain gameplay sections, but criticizing the bugs and technical issues.The Escapist'sBen \"Yahtzee\" Croshawwas more critical of the game, praising the visuals, but criticizing the bugs, design, and restrictive save system.The game was nominated and won Players' Choice December 2021 onPlayStation's official blog. Five Nights at Freddy's: Into the Pitreceived \"generally positive\" reviews, according to Metacritic.Game Rantpraised the game for its story and visuals, whileComicBook.compraised it for its faithfulness to the source material. Cultural influence Fandom Since the release of the first game, popular video creators such asPewDiePie,Markiplier, andJacksepticeyehave garnered millions of views, which helped the games receive additional attention from their playthroughs.In May 2015, YouTube","May 2015, YouTube reported that videos of theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries were the platform's eighth-most-watched playthroughs. The interpretive,non-linear, and cryptic narrative ofFive Nights at Freddy'sis a popular topic for fans to discuss and debate.Channels such asThe Game TheoristsfeatureFive Nights at Freddy's-related videos with the goal of discovering the lore of the franchise.With over 60 videos and 800 million views combined, Matthew Patrick of The Game Theorists has described the series as \"a delightfully incomplete and mysterious story with just enough threads to keep you guessing.\" Thousands offan gameshave been inspired by the game mechanics ofFive Nights at Freddy's.Fan games for the franchise are incredibly common to the pointGame JoltmadeFNaFgames its own genre to avoid overwhelming the site.: 74Along with fan games, multiple fan songs have been created, including some byThe Living Tombstone, each having accumulated hundreds of millions of views.The Living Tombstone'sfirstFNaFsongwas","played in theclosing creditsof the film adaptation. Although theFive Nights at Freddy'sfandom has been criticized for immaturity,Cawthon defended them and criticized the broader community for what he called an unfair generalization. In September 2020, a video featuringJack Blackdancing to The Living Tombstone's firstFive Nights at Freddy'sfan songwent viralon the social media platformTikTok.Black had previously appeared on an episode ofJimmy Kimmel Live!in April 2020, wearing a mask headpiece modeled after Glitchtrap, antagonist of Help Wanted and its sequel, where he revealed that he is a fan of theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries.Black and his son Samuel had previously playedFive Nights at Freddy's 4with Markiplier to promote his own filmGoosebumps. Merchandise Five Nights at Freddy'smerchandise is primarily produced by two companies: Sanshee and Funko.Products includestuffed toys,action figures,posters, clothing,keychains, andstationery, among other things.McFarlane Toysalso has a line ofFive Nights at","ofFive Nights at Freddy'smerchandise, consisting mainly ofconstruction sets;Todd McFarlanecalled the line \"the single largest-selling product, bar none, by a lot that done in 20-plus years.\"The merchandise, available internationally, has been a factor in the franchise's success. Notes References Further reading External links","Grateful Dead TheGrateful Deadwas an Americanrockband formed inPalo Alto, Californiain 1965.Known for their eclectic style that fused elements of rock,blues,jazz,folk,country,bluegrass,rock and roll,gospel,reggae, andworld musicwithpsychedelia,the band is famous forimprovisationduring theirlive performances,and for their devoted fan base, known as \"Deadheads\". According to the musician and writerLenny Kaye, the music of the Grateful Dead \"touches on ground that most other groups don't even know exists.\"For the range of their influences and the structure of their live performances, the Grateful Dead are considered \"the pioneering godfathers of thejam bandworld\". The Grateful Dead was founded in theSan Francisco Bay Areaduring the rise of thecounterculture of the 1960s.The band's founding members wereJerry Garcia(lead guitarand vocals),Bob Weir(rhythm guitar and vocals),Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan(keyboards,harmonica, and vocals),Phil Lesh(bass guitarand vocals), andBill Kreutzmann(drums).Members of the Grateful","of the Grateful Dead, originally known asthe Warlocks, had played together in various Bay Area ensembles, including the traditionaljug bandMother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions. Lesh was the last member to join the Warlocks before they changed their name to Grateful Dead, replacing Dana Morgan Jr., who had played bass for a few gigs. DrummerMickey Hartand non-performing lyricistRobert Hunterjoined in 1967. With the exception of McKernan, who died in 1973, and Hart, who left the band from 1971 to 1974, the core of the band stayed together for its entire 30-year history.Other official members of the band includedTom Constanten(keyboards from 1968 to 1970),John Perry Barlow(non-performing lyricist from 1971 to 1995),Keith Godchaux(keyboards and occasional vocals from 1971 to 1979),Donna Godchaux(vocals from 1972 to 1979),Brent Mydland(keyboards and vocals from 1979 to 1990), andVince Welnick(keyboards and vocals from 1990 to 1995).Bruce Hornsby(accordion, piano, vocals) was atouringmember from 1990 to 1992, as","1990 to 1992, as well as a guest with the band on occasion before and after the tours. After Garcia's death in 1995, former members of the band, along with other musicians, toured asThe Other Onesin 1998, 2000, and 2002, and asThe Deadin 2003, 2004, and 2009. In 2015, the four surviving core members marked the band's 50th anniversary in aseries of concertsinSanta Clara, California, andChicagothat were billed as their last performances together.There have also been several spin-offs featuring one or more core members, such asDead & Company,Furthur, theRhythm Devils,Phil Lesh and Friends,RatDog, andBilly & the Kids. Despite having only one Top-40 single in their 30-year career, \"Touch of Grey(1987),\" the Grateful Dead remained among the highest-grossing American touring acts for decades. They gained a committed fanbase by word of mouth and through the free exchange of their live recordings, encouraged by the band's allowance oftaping. In 2024, they broke the record for most Top-40 albums on","Top-40 albums on theBillboard200chart.Rolling Stoneranked the Grateful Dead number 57 on its 2011 list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\".The band was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994,and a recording of theirMay 8, 1977 performanceatCornell University'sBarton Hallwas added to theNational Recording Registryof theLibrary of Congressin 2012 for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".In 2024, the four living core members (Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann and Hart) were recognized as part of theKennedy Center Honors. Formation (1965–1966) The Grateful Dead began their career as the Warlocks, a group formed in early 1965 from the remnants of aPalo Alto, Californiajug bandcalledMother McCree's Uptown Jug Championsand members of The Wildwood Boys (Jerry Garcia, Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan, David Nelson, Robert Hunter, and Norm Van Maastricht).As The Wildwood Boys they played regularly at The Tangent, a folk music coffeehouse operated by Stanford Medical Center doctors Stuart \"Stu\"","Stuart \"Stu\" Goldstein and David \"Dave\" Shoenstadt on University Avenue in Palo Alto (1963).As the Warlocks, the band's first show was at Magoo's Pizza Parlor, at 639 Santa Cruz Avenue in suburbanMenlo Park, on May 5, 1965, now a Harvest furniture store. The band continued playing bar shows,like Frenchy's Bikini-A-Go-GoinHaywardand, importantly, five sets a night, five nights a week, for six weeks, at theIn RoominBelmontas the Warlocks,but quickly changed the band's name after finding out that a different band known as the Warlocks had put out a record under that name. (The Velvet Undergroundalso had to change its name from the Warlocks.) The name \"Grateful Dead\" was chosen from a dictionary. According to Lesh, Garcia \"picked up an oldBritannicaWorld Language Dictionary... ... In that silvery elf-voice he said to me, 'Hey, man, how about the Grateful Dead?'\"The definition there was \"the soul of a dead person, or his angel, showing gratitude to someone who, as an act of charity, arranged their burial.\"","their burial.\" According to Alan Trist, director of the Grateful Dead's music publisher company Ice Nine, Garcia found the name in theFunk & WagnallsFolklore Dictionary, when his finger landed on that phrase while playing a game ofFictionary.In the Garcia biographyCaptain Trips, author Sandy Troy states that the band was smoking the psychedelicDMTat the time.The term \"grateful dead\" appears in folktales from a variety of cultures. The first show under the name Grateful Dead was inSan Joseon December 4, 1965, at one ofKen Kesey'sAcid Tests.Scholar Michael Kaler has written that the Dead's participation in the Acid Tests was crucial both to the development of their improvisational vocabulary and to their bonding as a band, with the group having set out to foster an intra-band musical telepathy.Kaler has further pointed out that the Dead's pursuit of a new improvisatory rock language in 1965 chronologically coincided with that same goal's adoption byJefferson Airplane,Pink Floydandthe Velvet Underground.","Velvet Underground. Earlierdemo tapeshave survived, but the first of over 2,000 concerts known to have been recorded by the band's fans was a show at theFillmore Auditoriumin San Francisco on January 8, 1966.Later that month, the Grateful Dead played at the Trips Festival, a three-daypsychedelic rockweekend party and event produced byKen Kesey,Stewart Brand, andRamon Sender, that, in conjunction with theMerry Pranksters, brought the nascenthippiemovement together for the first time. Other supporting personnel who joined early includedRock Scully, who heard of the band from Kesey and signed on as manager after meeting them at the Big Beat Acid Test;Stewart Brand, \"with his side show of taped music and slides of Indian life, a multimedia presentation\" at the Big Beat and then, expanded, at the Trips Festival; andOwsley Stanley, the \"Acid King\" whoseLSDsupplied the Acid Tests and who, in early 1966, became the band's financial backer, renting them a house on the fringes ofWatts, Los Angeles, and buying them","and buying them sound equipment. \"We were living solely off of Owsley's good graces at that time. ... trip was he wanted to design equipment for us, and we were going to have to be in sort of a lab situation for him to do it\", said Garcia. Main career (1967–1995) Pigpen era (1967–1972) One of the group's earliest major performances in 1967 was theMantra-Rock Dance, a musical event held on January 29, 1967, at theAvalon Ballroomby the San FranciscoHare Krishnatemple. The Grateful Dead performed at the event along with the Hare Krishna founderBhaktivedanta Swami, poetAllen Ginsberg, bandsMoby GrapeandBig Brother and the Holding CompanywithJanis Joplin, donating proceeds to the temple.The band's first LP,The Grateful Dead, was released on Warner Brothers in 1967. On May 3, 1968, the band played a free concert atColumbia Universityduring theanti–Vietnam War student protestsduring which students occupied several campus buildings. In order to play, the band, equipment and all, had to be “smuggled” on campus in","on campus in the back of a bread delivery truck. “We were already jamming away before the security and police could stop us.” Classically trained trumpeterPhil Leshperformed onbass guitar.Bob Weir, the youngest original member of the group, playedrhythm guitar.Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernanplayedkeyboards,percussion, andharmonicauntil shortly before his death in 1973 at the age of 27. Garcia, Weir, and McKernan shared the lead vocal duties more or less equally; Lesh sang only a few leads, but his tenor was a key part of the band's three-part vocal harmonies.Bill Kreutzmannplayeddrums, and in September 1967 was joined by a second drummer, New York City nativeMickey Hart, who also played a wide variety of otherpercussion instruments. 1970 included tour dates inNew Orleans, where the band performed atThe Warehousefor two nights. On January 31, 1970, the local police raided their hotel onBourbon Streetand arrested and charged 19 people with possession of various drugs.The second night's concert was performed as scheduled","as scheduled after bail was posted. Eventually, the charges were dismissed, except those against sound engineerOwsley Stanley, who was already facing charges in California for manufacturing LSD. This event was later memorialized in the lyrics of “Truckin'\", a single fromAmerican Beautythat reached number 64 on the charts. Hart took time off from the band in February 1971, after his father, an accountant, absconded with much of the band's money;Kreutzmann was once again as the sole percussionist. Hart rejoined the Grateful Dead for good in October 1974.Tom \"TC\" Constantenwas added as a second keyboardist from 1968 to 1970, to help Pigpen keep up with an increasingly psychedelic sound, while Pigpen transitioned into playing various percussion instruments and vocals. After Constanten's departure, Pigpen reclaimed his position as sole keyboardist. Less than two years later, in late 1971, Pigpen was joined by another keyboardist,Keith Godchaux, who playedgrand pianoalongside Pigpen'sHammond B-3 organ. In early","B-3 organ. In early 1972, Keith's wife,Donna Jean Godchaux, joined the Grateful Dead as a backing vocalist. Following the Grateful Dead's \"Europe '72\" tour, Pigpen's health had deteriorated to the point that he could no longer tour with the band. His final concert appearance was June 17, 1972, at theHollywood Bowl, in Los Angeles;he died on March 8, 1973, of complications from liver damage. Godchaux era (1972–1979) Pigpen's death did not slow down the Grateful Dead. With the help of managerRon Rakow, the band soon formed its own record label,Grateful Dead Records.Later that year, it released its next studio album, the jazz-influencedWake of the Flood, whichbecame their biggest commercial success thus far.Meanwhile, capitalizing on the album's success, the band soon went back to the studio, and in June 1974 released another album,From the Mars Hotel. Not long after, the Dead decided to take a hiatus from livetouring. The band travelled to Europe for a string of shows in September 1974, before performing a","before performing a series of five concerts at theWinterland Ballroomin San Francisco in October 1974, and delved into various other projects.The Winterland concerts were filmed, and Garcia compiled the footage intoThe Grateful Dead Movie, a feature-length concert film released in 1977. In September 1975, the Dead released their eighth studio album,Blues for Allah. The band resumed touring in June 1976, playing multiple dates in small theaters, rather than the stadium shows that had become common, and had exhausted them, in 1974.That same year, they signed withArista Records, and the new contract producedTerrapin Stationin July 1977. The band's tour in the spring of that year is held in high regard by its fans, and itsconcert of May 8atCornell Universityis often considered one of the best performances of its career.TheirSeptember 1977 concertatRaceway ParkinOld Bridge Township, New Jerseywas attended by 107,019 people and held the record forlargest-ticketed concertin the United States by a single act for 47","a single act for 47 years. Keith and Donna Jean Godchaux left the band in February 1979, citing artistic differences. Mydland/Welnick era (1979–1995) Following the Godchauxs' departure,Brent Mydlandjoined as keyboardist and vocalist and was considered \"the perfect fit.\" The Godchauxs then formed theHeart of Gold Band, before Keith died in a car accident in July 1980. Mydland was the keyboardist for the Grateful Dead for 11 years until his death by narcotics overdose in July 1990,becoming the third keyboardist to die. Shortly after Mydland found his place in the early 1980s, Garcia's health began to decline. He became a frequent smoker of \"Persian,\" a type of heroin, and he gained weight at a rapid pace. He lost his liveliness on stage, his voice was strained, and Deadheads worried for his health. After he began to curtail his opiate usage gradually in 1985, Garcia slipped into adiabetic comafor several days in July 1986, leading to the cancelation of all concerts in the fall of that year. Garcia recovered,","Garcia recovered, the band releasedIn the Darkin July 1987, which became its best-selling studio album and produced its only top-40 single, \"Touch of Grey,\" Also, that year, the grouptouredwithBob Dylan, as heard on the albumDylan & the Dead. Mydland died in July 1990 andVince Welnick, former keyboardist forthe Tubes, joined as a band member, whileBruce Hornsby, who had a successful career with his band the Range, joined temporarily as a bridge to help Welnick learn songs. Both performed on keyboards and vocals—Welnick until the band's end, and Hornsby mainly from 1990 to 1992. SaxophonistBranford Marsalisplayed five concerts with the band between 1990 and 1994. The Grateful Dead performed its final concert on July 9, 1995, atSoldier Fieldin Chicago. Aftermath (1995–present) Jerry Garciadied on August 9, 1995. A few months after Garcia's death, the remaining members of the Grateful Dead decided to disband.Since that time, there have been a number ofreunions by the surviving membersinvolving various","various combinations of musicians. Additionally, the former members have also begun or continued individual projects. In 1998, Bob Weir, Phil Lesh, and Mickey Hart, along with several other musicians, formed a band calledthe Other Ones, and performed a number of concerts that year, releasing a live album,The Strange Remain, the following year. In 2000, the Other Ones toured again, this time with Kreutzmann but without Lesh. After taking another year off, the band toured again in 2002 with Lesh. That year, the Other Ones then included all four living former Grateful Dead members who had been in the band for most or all of its history. At different times the shifting lineup of the Other Ones also included guitaristsMark Karan,Steve Kimock, andJimmy Herring, keyboardistsBruce Hornsby,Jeff Chimenti, andRob Barraco, saxophonistDave Ellis, drummerJohn Molo, bassistAlphonso Johnson, and vocalistSusan Tedeschi. In 2003, the Other Ones, still including Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann, changed their name tothe","their name tothe Dead.The Dead toured the United States in 2003, 2004 and 2009. The band's lineups included Jimmy Herring andWarren Hayneson guitar, Jeff Chimenti and Rob Barraco on keyboards, andJoan Osborneon vocals.In 2008, members of the Dead played two concerts, called \"Deadheads for Obama\" and \"Change Rocks\". Following the 2009 Dead tour, Lesh and Weir formed the bandFurthur, which debuted in September 2009.Joining Lesh and Weir in Furthur wereJohn Kadlecik(guitar), Jeff Chimenti (keyboards),Joe Russo(drums),Jay Lane(drums),Sunshine Becker(vocals), and Zoe Ellis (vocals). Lane and Ellis left the band in 2010, and vocalistJeff Pehrsonjoined later that year. Furthur disbanded in 2014. In 2010, Hart and Kreutzmann re-formed theRhythm Devils, and played a summer concert tour. Since 1995, the former members of the Grateful Dead have also pursued solo music careers. BothBob Weir & RatDogandPhil Lesh and Friendshave performed many concerts and released several albums. Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann have also","have also each released a few albums. Hart has toured with hisworld musicpercussion ensemble Planet Drumas well as the Mickey Hart Band.Kreutzmann has led several different bands, includingBK3,7 Walkers(withPapa Mali),andBilly & the Kids.Donna Godchaux has returned to the music scene, with theDonna Jean Godchaux Band,andTom Constantenalso continues to write and perform music.All of these groups continue to play Grateful Dead music. In October 2014, it was announced thatMartin Scorsesewould produce a documentary film about the Grateful Dead, to be directed byAmir Bar-Lev.David Lemieuxsupervised the musical selection, and Weir, Hart, Kreutzmann, and Lesh agreed to new interviews for the film.Bar-Lev's four-hour documentary, titledLong Strange Trip, was released in 2017. \"Fare Thee Well\" In 2015, Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann, and Hart reunited for five concerts called \"Fare Thee Well: Celebrating 50 Years of the Grateful Dead\".The shows were performed on June 27 and 28 atLevi's StadiuminSanta Clara, California, and","California, and on July 3, 4 and 5 atSoldier FieldinChicago.The band stated that this would be the final time that Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann would perform together.They were joined byTrey AnastasioofPhishon guitar, Jeff Chimenti on keyboards, and Bruce Hornsby on piano.Demand for tickets was very high.The concerts were simulcast via various media.The Chicago shows have been released as a box set of CDs and DVDs. Dead & Company In the fall of 2015, Mickey Hart, Bill Kreutzmann and Bob Weir joined with guitaristJohn Mayer, keyboardistJeff Chimenti, and bassistOteil Burbridgeto tour in a band calledDead & Company. Mayer recounts that in 2011 he was listening toPandoraand happened upon the Grateful Dead song \"Althea\", and that soon Grateful Dead music was all he would listen to.The band played six tours:October–December 2015,June–July 2016,May–July 2017.,May–August 2018, and May–July 2019.On October–November 2019 they played 6 dates on the \"2019 Fall Fun Run\". On December 27 and 28, they played at The","they played at The Forum in Inglewood (Los Angeles), California as part of their \"2019 New Year's Run\" tour. On December 30 and 31, they played in their hometown of San Francisco at the Chase Center, featuring a bi-plane that descended from the ceiling of the Chase Center carrying the daughters of Jerry Garcia, Trixie Garcia and her half-sister, Ken Kesey's daughter Sunshine Kesey, dropping rose petals on the audience as they toured the arena. Barlow died in 2018and Hunter in 2019. In 2022, John Mayer announced that Dead & Company's summer 2023 tour will be their last. Musical style and legacy The Grateful Dead formed during the era when bands such asthe Beatles,the Beach Boysandthe Rolling Stoneswere dominating the airwaves. \"The Beatles were why we turned from a jug band into a rock 'n' roll band\", said Bob Weir. \"What we saw them doing was impossibly attractive. I couldn't think of anything else more worth doing.\"Former folk-scene starBob Dylanhad recently put out a couple of records featuring electric","featuring electric instrumentation. Grateful Dead members have said that it was after attending a concert by the touring New York City bandthe Lovin' Spoonfulthat they decided to \"go electric\" and look for a \"dirtier\" sound.Jerry GarciaandBob Weir(both of whom had been immersed in theAmerican folk music revivalof the late 1950s and early 1960s), were open-minded about the use of electric guitars. The Grateful Dead's early music (in the mid-1960s) was part of the process of establishing what \"psychedelic music\" was, but theirs was essentially a \"street party\" form of it. They developed their \"psychedelic\" playing as a result of meetingKen KeseyinPalo Alto, California, and subsequently becoming the house band for theAcid Testshe staged.They did not fit their music to an established category such as pop rock, blues, folk rock, or country & western. Individual tunes within their repertoire could be identified under one of these stylistic labels, but overall their music drew on all of these genres and, more","genres and, more frequently, melded several of them.Bill Grahamsaid of the Grateful Dead, \"They're not the best at what they do, they're the only ones that do what they do.\"Academics Paul Hegarty and Martin Halliwell argued that the Grateful Dead were \"not merely asprecursorsofprogbut as essential developments of progressiveness in its early days\".Often (both in performance and on recording) the Dead left room for exploratory, spacey soundscapes. Their live shows, fed by an improvisational approach to music, were different from most touring bands. While rock and roll bands often rehearse a standard set, played with minor variations, the Grateful Dead did not prepare in this way. Garcia stated in a 1966 interview, \"We don't make up our sets beforehand. We'd rather work off the tops of our heads than off a piece of paper.\"They maintained this approach throughout their career. For each performance, the band drew material from an active list of a hundred or so songs. The 1969 live albumLive/Deaddid capture the","capture the band in-form, but commercial success did not come untilWorkingman's DeadandAmerican Beauty, both released in 1970. These records largely featured the band's laid-backacoustic musicianshipand more traditional song structures. With their rootsy, eclectic stylings, particularly evident on the latter two albums, the band pioneered the hybridAmericanagenre. Beginning in the early 1990s, a new generation of bands became inspired by the Grateful Dead's improvisational ethos andmarketing strategy, and began to incorporate elements of the Grateful Dead's live performances into their own shows. These include the nightly alteration ofsetlists, frequent improvisation,the blending of genres, and the allowance oftaping, which would often contribute to the development of a dedicated fanbase. Bands associated with the expansion of the\"jam scene\"includePhish,The String Cheese Incident,Widespread Panic,Blues Traveler,moe., and theDisco Biscuits. Many of these groups began to look past theAmerican roots musicthat","roots musicthat the Grateful Dead drew inspiration from, and incorporated elements ofprogressive rock,hard rock, andelectronica. At the same time, the Internet gained popularity and provided a medium for fans to discuss these bands and their performances and downloadMP3s. The Grateful Dead, as well as Phish, were one of the first bands to have aUsenetnewsgroup. Musicianship As the band and its sound matured over thirty years of touring, playing, and recording, each member's stylistic contribution became more defined, consistent, and identifiable. Garcia's lead lines were fluid, supple and spare, owing a great deal of their character to his experience playingScruggs stylebanjo, an approach which often makes use ofnote syncopation,accenting,arpeggios,staccatochromatic runs, and the anticipation of thedownbeat. Garcia had a distinctive sense oftiming, often weaving in and out of thegrooveestablished by the rest of the band as if he were pushing the beat. His lead lines were also immensely influenced byjazz","influenced byjazz soloists: Garcia citedMiles Davis,Ornette Coleman,Bill Evans,Pat Martino,George Benson,Al Di Meola,Art Tatum,Duke Ellington, andDjango Reinhardtas primary influences, and frequently utilized techniques common tocountryandblues musicin songs that called back to those traditions. Garcia often switchedscalesin the midst of a solo depending upon thechord changesplayed underneath, though he nearly always finishedphrasesby landing on thechord-tones. Jerry most frequently played in theMixolydian mode, though his solos and phrases often incorporated notes from theDorianandmajor/minor pentatonic scales. Particularly in the late 1960s, Garcia occasionally incorporatedmelodic linesderived fromIndianragasinto the band's extended,psychedelicimprovisation, likely inspired byJohn Coltraneand other jazz artists' interest in thesitarmusic ofRavi Shankar. Lesh was originally a classically trained trumpet player with an extensive background inmusic theory, but did not tend to play traditional blues-based bass","blues-based bass forms. He often played more melodic, symphonic and complex lines, often sounding like a second lead guitar. In contrast to most bassists inpopular music, Lesh often avoids playing therootof a chord on the downbeat, instead withholding as a means to buildtension. Lesh also rarely repeats the same bassline, even from performance to performance of the same song, and often plays off of or around the other instruments with asyncopated,staccatobounce that contributes to the Dead's unique rhythmic character. Weir, too, was not a traditionalrhythm guitarist, but tended to play uniqueinversionsat the upper end of the Dead's sound. Weir modeled his style of playing after jazz pianistMcCoy Tynerand attempted to replicate the interplay between John Coltrane and Tyner in his support, and occasional subversion, of theharmonic structureof Garcia's voice leadings. This would often influence the direction the band's improvisation would take on a given night. Weir and Garcia's respective positions as rhythm","positions as rhythm and lead guitarist were not always strictly adhered to, as Weir would often incorporate short melodic phrases into his playing to support Garcia and occasionally took solos, often played with aslide. Weir's playing is characterized by a \"spiky, staccato\" sound. The band's two drummers,Mickey HartandBill Kreutzmann, developed a unique, complex interplay, balancing Kreutzmann's steadyshufflebeat with Hart's interest in percussion styles outside the rock tradition. Kreuzmann has said, \"I like to establish a feeling and then add radical or oblique juxtapositions to that feeling.\"Hart incorporated an 11-count measure to his drumming, bringing a dimension to the band's sound that became an important part of its style. He had studiedtabladrumming and incorporated rhythms and instruments fromworld music, and laterelectronic music, into the band's live performances. The Dead's live performances featured multiple types ofimprovisationderived from a vast array of musical traditions. Not unlike many","Not unlike many rock bands of their time, the majority of the Dead's songs feature a designated section in which aninstrumental breakoccurs over thechord changes. These sections typically feature solos by Garcia that often originate as variations on the song'smelody, but go on to create dynamic phrases that resolve by returning to the chord-tones. Not unlike traditionalimprovisational jazz, they may occasionally feature several solos by multiple instruments within an undecided number ofbars, such as a keyboardist, before returning to the melody. At the same time, Dead shows almost always feature a more collective,modalapproach to improvisation that typically occurs duringseguesbetween songs before the bandmodulatesto a newtonal center. Some of the Dead's more extended jam vehicles, such as \"The Other One\", \"Dark Star\", and \"Playing in the Band\" almost exclusively make use of modulation between modes to accompany simple two-chord progressions. Lyrical themes Following the songwriting renaissance that defined","that defined the band's early 1970s period, as reflected in the albumsWorkingman's DeadandAmerican Beauty,Robert Hunter, Jerry Garcia's primary lyrical partner, frequently made use ofmotifscommon toAmerican folkloreincluding trains, guns, elements,traditional musical instruments, gambling, murder, animals, alcohol, descriptions ofAmerican geography, andreligious symbolismto illustrate themes involving love and loss, life and death, beauty and horror, and chaos and order.Following in the footsteps of severalAmerican musical traditions, these songs are often confessional and feature narration from the perspective of anantihero. CriticRobert Christgaudescribed them as \"American myths\" that later gave way to \"the old karma-go-round\". An extremely common feature in both Robert Hunter's lyrics, as well as the band's visual iconography, is the presence ofdualisticand opposing imagery illustrating the dynamic range of thehuman experience(Heaven and hell, law and crime, dark and light, etc.). Hunter and Garcia's","Hunter and Garcia's earlier, more directlypsychedelic-influencedcompositions often make use ofsurrealimagery,nonsense, and whimsey reflective of traditions inEnglish poetry.In a retrospective,The New Yorkerdescribed Hunter's verses as \"elliptical, by turns vivid andgnomic\", which were often \"hippie poetry about roses and bells and dew\".Grateful Dead biographer Dennis McNally has described Hunter's lyrics as creating \"a non-literal hyper-Americana\" weaving a psychedelic, kaleidoscopic tapestry in the hopes of elucidating America'snational character. At least one of Hunter and Bob Weir's collaborations, \"Jack Straw\", was inspired by the work ofJohn Steinbeck. Merchandising and representation Hal Kantwas an entertainment industry attorney who specialized in representing musical groups. He spent 35 years as principal lawyer and general counsel for the Grateful Dead, a position in the group that was so strong that his business cards with the band identified his role as \"Czar\". Kant brought the band millions of","band millions of dollars in revenue through his management of the band'sintellectual propertyand merchandising rights. At Kant's recommendation, the group was one of the few rock 'n roll pioneers to retain ownership of their music masters andpublishing rights. In 2006, the Grateful Dead signed a ten-year licensing agreement withRhino Entertainmentto manage the band's business interests including the release of musical recordings, merchandising, and marketing. The band retained creative control and kept ownership of its music catalog. A Grateful Dead video game titledGrateful Dead Game – The Epic Tourwas released in April 2012 and was created by Curious Sense. In November 2022, the children's bookThe ABCs of The Grateful Deadwas released.Authorized by the group, it was written by Howie Abrams, illustrated byMichael \"Kaves\" McLeer, and published bySimon & Schuster. Sponsorship of 1992 Lithuanian Olympic basketball team AfterLithuaniagained its independence from the USSR, the country announced its withdrawal","its withdrawal from the1992 Olympicsdue to the lack of any money to sponsor participants.But NBA starŠarūnas Marčiulionis, a native Lithuanian basketball star, wanted to help his native team to compete. His efforts resulted in a call from representatives of the Grateful Dead who set up a meeting with the band members.The band agreed to fund transportation costs for the team (about five thousand dollars) along with Grateful Dead designs for the team's jerseys and shorts. TheLithuanian basketball teamwon the bronze medal and the Lithuanian basketball/Grateful Dead T-shirts became part of pop culture, especially in Lithuania.The incident was covered by the documentaryThe Other Dream Team. Live performances The Grateful Dead toured constantly throughout their career, playing more than 2,300 concerts.They promoted a sense of community among their fans, who became known as \"Deadheads\", many of whom followed their tours for months or years on end. Around concert venues, an impromptu communal marketplace known as","known as 'Shakedown Street' was created by Deadheads to serve as centers of activity where fans could buy and sell anything from grilled cheese sandwiches to home-made t-shirts and recordings of Grateful Dead concerts. In their early career, the band also dedicated their time and talents to their community, the Haight-Ashbury area of San Francisco, making available free food, lodging, music, and health care to all. It has been said that the band performed \"more free concerts than any band in the history of music\". With the exception of 1975, when the band was on hiatus and played only four concerts, Grateful Dead performed many concerts every year, from their formation in April 1965, until July 9, 1995.Initially all their shows were in California, principally in theSan Francisco Bay Areaand in or nearLos Angeles. They also performed, in 1965 and 1966, withKen Kesey and the Merry Pranksters, as the house band for theAcid Tests. In 1967, they toured nationally, including their first performance inNew York","inNew York City. They appeared at theMonterey Pop Festivalin 1967, theWoodstock Festivalin 1969 and theFestival Expresstrain tour across Canada in 1970. They were scheduled to appear as the final act at the infamousAltamont Free Concerton December 6, 1969, after theRolling Stonesbut withdrew after security concerns. \"That's the way things went at Altamont—so badly that the Grateful Dead, prime organizers and movers of the festival, didn't even get to play\", staff atRolling Stonemagazine wrote in a detailed narrative on the event. Their first UK performance was at theHollywood Music Festivalin 1970. Their largest concert audience came in 1973 when they played, along withthe Allman Brothers Bandandthe Band, before an estimated 600,000 people at theSummer Jam at Watkins Glen.They played to an estimated total of 25 million people, more than any other band, with audiences of up to 80,000 attending a single show. Many of these concerts were preserved in the band's tape vault, and several dozen have since been","have since been released on CD and as downloads. The Dead were known for the tremendous variation in their setlists from night to night—the list of songs documented to have been played by the band exceeds 500.The band has released four concert videos under the nameView from the Vault. In 1978, they played three nights at theGreat Pyramid of GizainEgypt. In the 1990s, the Grateful Dead earned a total of $285 million in revenue from their concert tours, the second-highest during the 1990s, with the Rolling Stones earning the most.This figure is representative of tour revenue through 1995, as touring stopped after the death of Jerry Garcia. In a 1991PBSdocumentary, segment host Buck Henry attended an August 1991 concert at Shoreline Amphitheatre and gleaned some information from some band members about the Grateful Dead phenomenon and its success.At the time, Jerry Garcia stated, \"We didn't really invent the Grateful Dead, the crowd invented the Grateful Dead, you know what I mean? We were sort of standing in","sort of standing in line, and uh, it's gone way past our expectations, way past, so it's, we've been going along with it to see what it's gonna do next.\"Mickey Hart said, \"This is one of the last places in America that you can really have this kind of fun, you know, considering the political climate and so forth.\"Hart also stated that \"the transformative power of the Grateful Dead is really the essence of it; it's what it can do to your consciousness. We're more intotransportationthan we are into music,per se, I mean, the business of the Grateful Dead is transportation.\"One of the band's largest concerts took place just months before Garcia's death — at their outdoor show with Bob Dylan inHighgate, Vermont, on June 15, 1995. The crowd was estimated to be over 90,000; overnight camping was allowed and about a third of the audience got in without having purchased a ticket. Their numerous studio albums were generally collections of new songs that they had first played in concert. The band was also famous for","was also famous for its extended musical improvisations, having been described as having never played the same song the same way twice. Their concert sets often blended songs, one into the next, often for more than three songs at a time. Concert sound systems TheWall of Soundwas a large sound system designed specifically for the band.The band was never satisfied with the house system anywhere they played. After the Monterey Pop Festival, the band's crew 'borrowed' some of the other performers' sound equipment and used it to host some free shows in San Francisco.In their early days, soundmanOwsley \"Bear\" Stanleydesigned apublic address(PA) and monitor system for them. Stanley was the Grateful Dead's soundman for many years; he was also one of the largest suppliers ofLSD. Stanley's sound systems were delicate and finicky, and frequently brought shows to a halt with technical breakdowns. After Stanley went to jail for manufacturing LSD in 1970, the group briefly used house PAs, but found them to be even less","to be even less reliable than those built by their former soundman. On February 2, 1970, the group contactedBob Heilto use his system.In 1971, the band purchased their firstsolid-statesound system fromAlembic Studios. Because of this,Alembicwould play an integral role in the research, development, and production of the Wall of Sound. The band also welcomedDan Healyinto the fold on a permanent basis that year. Healy would mix the Grateful Dead's live sound until 1993. Following Jerry Garcia's death and the band's breakup in 1995, their current sound system was inherited byDave Matthews Band. Dave Matthews Band debuted the sound system April 30, 1996, at the first show of their 1996 tour in Richmond, Virginia. Tapes Like several other bands at the time, the Grateful Dead allowed their fans to record their shows. For many years thetapersset up their microphones wherever they could, and the eventual forest of microphones became a problem for the sound crew. Eventually, this was solved by having a dedicated","having a dedicated taping section located behind the soundboard, which required a special \"tapers\" ticket. The band allowed sharing of their shows, as long as no profits were made on the sale of the tapes. Of the approximately 2,350 shows the Grateful Dead played, almost 2,200 were taped, and most of these are available online.The band began collecting and cataloging tapes early on andDick Latvalawas their keeper. \"Dick's Picks\" is named after Latvala. After his death in 1999,David Lemieuxgradually took the post. Concert set lists from a subset of 1,590 Grateful Dead shows were used to perform a comparative analysis between how songs were played in concert and how they are listened online byLast.fmmembers.In their bookMarketing Lessons from the Grateful Dead: What Every Business Can Learn From the Most Iconic Band in History,David Meerman ScottandBrian Halliganidentify the taper section as a crucial contributor to increasing the Grateful Dead's fan base. Iconography Over the years, a number of iconic images","of iconic images have come to be associated with the Grateful Dead. Many of these images originated as artwork for concert posters or album covers. Deadheads Fans and enthusiasts of the band are commonly referred to asDeadheads. While the origin of the term may be unclear,Dead Headswere made canon by the notice placed inside theSkull and Roses(1971) album by manager Jon McIntire: DEAD FREAKS UNITE: Who are you? Where are you? How are you?Send us your name and address and we'll keep you informed.Dead Heads, P.O. Box 1065, San Rafael, California 94901. As each show featured a new setlist and a great deal of improvisation, Deadheads would often follow the band from city to city, attending many shows on a given tour. Many Deadheads speak of being drawn to the culture due to the sense of community that the band's shows tended to foster. Though Deadheads came from a wide array of demographics, many attempted to reproduce the aesthetics and values of the1960s countercultureand were often stigmatized in the","stigmatized in the media.Because of the stereotyping of Deadheads ashippies, the band's shows became a common target for officials in theDEAand arrests at shows became common. As a group, the Deadheads were considered very mellow. \"I'd rather work nine Grateful Dead concerts than one Oregon football game,\" Police Det. Rick Raynor said. \"They don't get belligerent like they do at the games.\"Despite this reputation, in the mid-1990s, as the band's popularity grew, there were a series of minor scuffles occurring at shows that peaked with a large scale riot at theDeer Creek Music Centernear Indianapolis in July 1995. Thisgate crashingincident caused the band to cancel the following night's show.Deadheads who appeared on the scene after the band's 1987 hit single \"Touch of Grey\", were often disparagingly referred to by older fans as \"Touchheads\". Beginning in the 1980s, a number of definable sects of Deadheads began to appear on the scene. These included theWharf Rats, as well as the \"spinners\", named","\"spinners\", named forwhirling-style of dancing and their use of the band's music to facilitatemystical experiences. Deadheads, particularly those who collectedtapes, were known for keeping close records of the band's setlists and for comparing various live versions of the band's songs, as reflected in publications such as the various editions of \"Deadbase\" and \"The Deadhead's Taping Compendium\". This practice continues into the 21st century on digital forums and websites such as theInternet Archive, which features live recordings of nearly every available Grateful Dead show and allows users to discuss and review the site's shows. The band hasa number of influential and celebrity fans, including politicians, businesspeople, journalists, and other musicians. Donation of archives to UC Santa Cruz On April 24, 2008, members Bob Weir and Mickey Hart, along with Nion McEvoy, CEO ofChronicle Books,UC Santa CruzchancellorGeorge Blumenthal, and UC Santa Cruz librarian Virginia Steel, held a press conference","a press conference announcing UCSC'sMcHenry Librarywould be the permanent home of theGrateful Dead Archive, which includes a complete archival history from 1965 to the present. The archive includes correspondence, photographs, fliers, posters, and several other forms of memorabilia and records of the band. Also included are unreleased videos of interviews and TV appearances that will be installed for visitors to view, as well as stage backdrops and other props from the band's concerts. Blumenthal stated at the event, \"The Grateful Dead Archive represents one of the most significant popular cultural collections of the 20th century; UC Santa Cruz is honored to receive this invaluable gift. The Grateful Dead and UC Santa Cruz are both highly innovative institutions—born the same year—that continue to make a major, positive impact on the world.\" Guitarist Bob Weir stated \"We looked around, and UC Santa Cruz seems the best possible home. If you ever wrote the Grateful Dead a letter, you'll probably find it","probably find it there!\" Professor of musicFredric Liebermanwas the key contact between the band and the university, who let the university know about the search for a home for the archive, and who had collaborated with Mickey Hart on three books in the past,Planet Drum(1990),Drumming at the Edge of Magic(1991), andSpirit into Sound(2006). The first large-scale exhibition of materials from the Grateful Dead Archive was mounted at theNew-York Historical Societyin 2010. Awards In 2004,Rolling Stoneranked the Grateful Dead No. 57 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. On February 10, 2007, the Grateful Dead received aGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award. The award was accepted on behalf of the band by Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann. In 2011, a recording of the Grateful Dead's May 8, 1977, concert at Cornell University's Barton Hall was selected for induction into the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. Twelve members of the Grateful Dead (the eleven official performing members","performing members plus Robert Hunter) were inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994, andBruce Hornsbywas their presenter. In 2024 the band was named as one of the recipients of theKennedy Center Honors. The four living core members (Weir, Lesh, Hart and Kreutzmann) will receive the award. Members Lead guitaristJerry Garciawas often viewed both by the public and the media as the leader or primary spokesperson for the Grateful Dead, but was reluctant to be perceived that way, especially since he and the other group members saw themselves asequal participantsand contributors to their collective musical and creative output.Garcia, a native of San Francisco, grew up in theExcelsior District. One of his main influences was bluegrass music, and he also performed—onbanjo, one of his other great instrumental loves, along with thepedal steel guitar—in bluegrass bands, notablyOld & In the WaywithmandolinistDavid Grisman. Ned Lagin, a youngMITstudent and friend of the band, guested with them many times from","many times from 1970 through 1975, providing a second keyboard as well as synthesizers. Upon graduating from MIT, he began touring with the band fulltime in 1974, performing sets of electronic music withPhil Lesh, occasionally with Garcia and Kreutzmann, during the band's intermission.The \"Ned and Phil\" set became a regular fixture of that era, and was featured nearly every night during their Summer '74 and Europe '74 tours, as well as their five-night residency at theWinterland Ballroomduring October 1974. Lagin is also featured inThe Grateful Dead Movie. During 1974 and 1975, he would also occasionally play entire sets with the band, usually on Garcia's side of the stage, before ending his touring relationship with the band and focusing on his solo music projects, such as his albumSeastones, which features several members of the Dead. Bruce Hornsbynever officially joined the band full-time because of his other commitments, but he did play keyboards at most Dead shows between September 1990 and March 1992,","and March 1992, and sat in with the band over 100 times in all between 1988 and 1995. He added several Dead songs to his own live showsand Jerry Garcia referred to him as a \"floating member\" who could come and go as he pleased. Robert HunterandJohn Perry Barlowwere the band's primarylyricists, starting in 1967 and 1971, respectively, and continuing until the band's dissolution.Hunter collaborated mostly with Garcia and Barlow mostly with Weir, though each wrote with other band members as well. Both are listed as official members at Dead.net, the band's website, alongside the performing members.Barlow was the only member not inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Timeline Discography See also References Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Five Nights at Freddy's Five Nights at Freddy's(FNaF) is a video game series andmedia franchisecreated byindie gamedeveloperScott Cawthon. The franchise features ten main video games, several spin-off games, novels, anda film adaptation. The video game series follows a set of night guards and other characters that try to survive from midnight to 6 a.m. for five levels, called \\\"nights\\\", while fending off attacks from homicidalanimatroniccharacters. Each game is set in a different location connected to a fictional family pizza restaurant franchise named \\\"Freddy Fazbear's Pizza\\\". The core gameplay mechanic involves using tools effectively and managing limited resources to avoid being caught by the animatronics. Cawthon conceived the idea forthe first video gameafter his family-friendly resource management game,Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., was criticized for the resemblance of its characters to frightening animatronics. Responding to this feedback, he developed a horror game that intentionally featured scary\",\n \"featured scary animatronics. Released in August 2014, the game's success prompted the development of sequels. Cawthon created most of the games himself usingClickteam Fusionbut partnered with Steel Wool Studios to createan open-world gameanda virtual reality anthology. The series has a mixed critical reception, with praise for its storytelling and atmosphere but criticism for its gameplay. It has achieved significant commercial success, with merchandise available internationally. The franchise has also garnered acult followingthat produces fan media inspired by it. History and development The concept forFive Nights at Freddy'sstemmed from the negative reception of Scott Cawthon's earlier game,Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., where players said that the main character resembled a \\\"scary animatronic animal.\\\"Initially discouraged by the criticism, Cawthon, who had predominantly createdChristian-oriented games, leveraged this feedback to develop something intentionally frightening.Five Nights at Freddy'swas released\",\n \"released on August 8, 2014, viaDesura,followed by aSteamrelease after gaining approval through thecrowdsourcingplatform Greenlight.The game rapidly gained popularity after being showcased by prominent YouTubers.: 82 The success ofFive Nights at Freddy'sled to multiple sequels released between 2014 and 2023,and a spin-off game titledFNaF World, launched in January 2016.Cawthon usedClickteam Fusion 2.5for game development andAutodesk 3ds Maxfor 3D graphics,enhancing later titles with professional voice actors and original soundtracks.ForHelp WantedandSecurity Breach, Cawthon worked with game development company Steel Wool Studios.In 2015, Cawthon expanded the franchise into literature, announcing a multi-book deal with Scholastic in 2016,which began withThe Silver Eyes,released onAmazon Kindleon December 17, 2015and in paperback on September 27, 2016.This was followed by two additional novels,The Twisted OnesandThe Fourth Closet, published in 2017 and 2018, respectively. Gameplay TheFive Nights at\",\n \"TheFive Nights at Freddy'sseries consists of psychological horror-themed video games in which the player is usually a night-time employee at a location connected with Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, a fictional children's restaurant that takes inspiration from family pizza chains likeChuck E. CheeseandShowBiz Pizza Place.The restaurant has life-size animatronic characters resembling anthropomorphic animals that perform on a show stage, usually for children's parties, but leave their posts and wander the restaurant at night; the guard's job is to watch over them and prevent them from attacking. The animatronics' mobility is stated in the first game to be necessaary for them to continue functioning properly in the morning, though subsequent games reveal they are actually possessed by ghosts. InFive Nights at Freddy's, the player can control the two security doors connecting their office to the adjacent hallways as a barrier against animatronics in the vicinity. Each night, the player has a power supply that depletes\",\n \"that depletes faster when a tool is used.If the power goes out, the player can no longer use any tools and is defenseless against the animatronics unless a shift ends before main animatronic Freddy Fazbear can attack.Five Nights at Freddy's 2has different tools; there are no protective doors, and the player must instead use an empty animatronic head and flashlight to defend themself against the animatronics. The game introduced a music box which must be remotely wound up on a regular basis to prevent an attack from a particular animatronic.Eight-bitmini-gameswere introduced, which are played randomly after death and give cryptic clues into the lore. Five Nights at Freddy's 3uses a monitor panel, which contains audio, camera, and ventilation.The player must keep certain systems from malfunctioning. These malfunctions can be triggered randomly or by the hallucinations of the animatronics from the first and second games. The ability to sealventsis also added and must be used to prevent the sole tangible\",\n \"the sole tangible animatronic from entering the office. The player can use an audio-based function on the cameras, which triggers a childlike voice to lure Springtrap, the game's only physical animatronic possessed by William Afton's spirit, away from the office.The 8-bit minigames return and are playable after each night if the player completes side tasks such as clicking on a poster or inputting a code into a wall. If the player completes the minigames, they unlock a secret ending. InFive Nights at Freddy's 4, the gameplay occurs in a bedroom setting, and instead of being a nighttime security guard, the player takes the role of a small child who experiences nightmarish visions of the animatronics due to fearing their real-life counterparts.The player also no longer has access to a camera system.The player has four areas in the bedroom to monitor: two hallway doors on both sides of the room, the closet directly in front of them, and the bed behind them.At the doors, the player must listen for animatronics'\",\n \"for animatronics' breathing, which can determine whether they are near. If the player hears breathing at the side doors, they close the door and wait for the animatronics to walk away. If they open the doors too early, however, the animatronicsjump scarethe player.The player must also prevent small animatronics from accumulating on their bed, and prevent an animatronic from entering their closet.Five Nights at Freddy's 4also introduces a minigame involving a new animatronic, which offers the player a two-hour skip in the next night for completing the minigame. An elevated control pad is introduced forSister Location, which can light a room or shock the animatronics. Other mechanics include a second control pad in a breaker room, which controls power to the facility and a flashbeacon, which allows the player to see in the dark Funtime Auditorium (a party room) and avoid its animatronic.Sister Locationis the only game where the player can move between rooms. Pizzeria Simulatorhasbusiness-stylegameplay, and the\",\n \"and the player must spend in-game money to buy features for their pizzeria. A series of minigames can be played by testing the establishment's attractions.After the player has completed this portion of the game, they complete tasks in a room and fend off hostile, previously salvaged animatronics.The gameplay ofPizzeria Simulatorshares a number of elements withFive Nights at Freddy's 3, including the importance of ventilation and the ability to distract animatronics with sound. Ultimate Custom Nightis a customizable night, in which fifty animatronics are present and have a maximum AI level of twenty. The game includes many mechanics from the previous games, such as the heater, fan, music box, and power generator.The player can choose which characters they want active for a night, and how active the characters will be. Help Wantedcombines the gameplay of every other game, and turns into a virtual experience for the player.It also introduces several other minigames, in which the gameplay is variant, and also at\",\n \"and also at times hasfree-roam.Special Deliveryfeatures location-based augmented reality gameplay. The player can switch on their camera, and the footage itself is the game's background. The animatronics will try to attack corresponding to the environment. The animatronics generally havecloaking, which leads them to being invisible. Security Breachholds the open-world aspect to this title allows players to experience a new level of immersion,similar to that ofFive Night's at Freddy's 4. Players will also have access to a nifty tool called the Faz-Watch, which allows them to view maps, read messages picked up from random areas on the map, check security cameras for nearby danger, and look at their current objectives.It incorporates Freddy as a helpful companion throughout the game, though he has limited power and must be charged at stations through the map. Players can distract hostile animatronics by knocking things over to get their attention, while they can crouch and hide in various structures to evade\",\n \"structures to evade them as they follow you throughout the map. Unlike otherFive Nightsgames there are limited save points and there is only a single save station after 6 a.m. Common elements Security cameras In the first, second, third, seventh,eighth,and ninthgames, the player has asecurity-camerasystem, which observes the animatronic characters. One location can be viewed at a time, and some areas are not visible on the cameras.Most camera feeds are dull, sometimes almostblack and whitein color, and full ofvideo noise. In the third game, the cameras stop working if their associated system fails.Cameras are used in the fifth game as a mechanic in the fake ending and custom night update, but not in the main game. Lights In all games except for the third, lights are used to ward off animatronics or warn the player. Lights in the first, second, fifth, and eighthgames are activated with buttons on the walls and illuminate the player's blind spots: the doorway or vent exit, respectively.The lights are similar\",\n \"lights are similar in the fifth game, but are mounted on a control pad and illuminate the animatronics' rooms. The fifth game also introduced a flash beacon, which is used to orient the player in the third and fifth nights' pitch-black rooms. Several games include use of a flashlight. In the second game, the flashlight has a finite battery life and cannot be recharged,while in the fourth and seventhgames, the battery life is infinite. In the eighthgame, the flashlight battery varies depending on the game segment being played. Flashlight battery life is again finite in the ninthgame, but can be recharged at various recharge stations throughout the game. Doors and vents In the first, fourth, seventh,eighth,and ninthgames, doors are a means of defense for the player, and can be closed when an animatronic is near. Vents are featured in the second, third, sixth, and eighthgames, as a medium through which animatronics can get to the player. Both doors and vents are again present in the fake ending and custom night\",\n \"and custom night update of the fifth game with the same function. Vents are also present in the fifth and ninthgames as means for the player to travel through, rather than the animatronics. Jump scares Every game in the main series contains jump scares, which end a game in defeat as the animatronics are implied to attack the player off-screen.In most jump scares, an animatronic character suddenly appears in the player's view, followed by a loud screaming or roaring noise. Some jump scares, including those by Golden Freddy (in the first and seventhgames), Nightmare, and Nightmarionette (in the fourth game), consist of a single screen with shrill, distorted audio; these jump scares usually crash (or restart) the game. The player must use various tools to prevent being attacked via jump scares and advance through each game. Minigames In the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, eighth,and ninthgames, the player gains access to a series of (predominantly eight-bit) minigames randomly after death, or after\",\n \"death, or after completing a specific task.The minigames usually relate to a story or event relevant to the game, in a cryptic manner.The minigames in the second game portray homicides mentioned by another worker of the restaurant, and the reason of the animatronics gaining life.The minigames in the third game show the story behind Springtrap's creation. Minigames in the fourth game tell the story of a character who dies in a tragic accident. There is only one minigame in the fifth game, which depicts the death of animatronic engineer William Afton's daughter. The minigames in the sixth game depict various events in the series, all connected to Afton. In the mobile version of the eighthgame, the player can access a minigame called \\\"Princess Quest\\\", which depicts the origins of a character called Vanny; a recreation of these minigames is also featured in the ninthgame, with some significant additions. Story overview TheFive Nights at Freddy'sseries mainly revolves around a chain of family restaurants under\",\n \"restaurants under the ownership of Fazbear Entertainment, a company founded by Henry Emily and William Afton. The latter is a robotics engineer who creates a series ofanimatronicmascots to entertain customers, including Freddy Fazbear, a brown bear and the namesake of Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, Bonnie, an indigo rabbit,Chica, a yellow chicken, and Foxy, a red pirate fox. Other notable animatronics include the Puppet, the ghostlike Golden Freddy, Freddy's predecessor Fredbear, and Circus Baby,the mascot of the restaurant's sister location, Circus Baby's Pizza World. William is also anegligent fatherandchild murdererwho hides his victims' bodies inside animatronics, which their souls inhabit; he specifically designs Circus Baby to be capable of murdering children, which leads to the accidental death of his own daughter, Elizabeth. William's direct murder victims start with his co-worker Henry's daughterand expand to include five children visiting the restaurants with their families.Meanwhile, an incident\",\n \"an incident involving William's youngest son being shoved into Fredbear's mouth by his older brother Michael results in the closure of Fredbear's Family Diner, a predecessor location.After accidentally murdering his brother, Michael begins seeking redemption, starting with recovering the remains of his sister.After the closure of a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza location, William dismantles the remaining animatronics in a backroom, releasing the souls that inhabit them who proceed to torment him. Seeking refuge from the ghosts, William hides inside an old yellow rabbit animatronic suit. Shortly after, the suit's mechanisms fail and snap shut, crushing William to death as his soul inhabits the animatronic, becoming abionicrevenantcalled Springtrap.Some time after, the whole restaurant chain shuts down. Thirty years later, a horror attraction based on the restaurant chain known as Fazbear's Fright is constructed and leads to Springtrap's excavation; a fire destroys the attraction before it can open to the public. The\",\n \"to the public. The destruction frees the souls of William's first five victims and destroys the original mascots, though Springtrap escapes. Some time after the fire, Henry lures Springtrap and all animatronics that were not destroyed in Fazbear's Fright into a single pizzeria. With help from Michael, Henry sets fire to the restaurant and destroys every animatronic inside, freeing the souls of the children that inhabited them, including Elizabeth. The fire also kills Henry, Michael, and William.Afterwards, William's soul is trapped and tormented in a personalizedhellwith all animatronics he created. Years later, Fazbear Entertainment is re-founded and releases an in-universe virtual reality experience based on the past of the restaurant, in an effort to convince the public the company's previous controversies were merely fiction,while also constructing a new location, the Pizzaplex. Games Main series Five Nights at Freddy's(2014) Five Nights at Freddy'swas released forMicrosoft Windowson August 8, 2014,\",\n \"August 8, 2014, followed by ports forAndroidandiOSon August 27 and September 11, respectively. AWindows Phoneversion was also released,but was soon withdrawn due to its downscaled graphics.Ports for thePlayStation 4,Xbox One, andNintendo Switchwere released on November 29, 2019, alongside separate releases forFive Nights at Freddy's 2,3and4. The first game revolves around a character called Mike Schmidt, who begins working as a night security guard at Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, where the animatronics move at night and supposedly kill anyone they see by stuffing them into a spare animatronic suit. Schmidt is guided by the previous night guard, known as Phone Guy, who assists them in their defense against the animatronics through pre-recorded telephone messages until his death in the fourth night.He explains to Schmidt that the animatronics' mobility is a purposely programmed \\\"free-roaming\\\" mode to prevent the animatronics' servomotors from locking up. He also states that they see any human still in the\",\n \"human still in the restaurant as an animatronic endoskeleton without a suit. The player must survive from 12 a.m. to 6 am. The player cannot leave the room and must use a camera system and two doors with lights to defend themselves from the animatronics, with limited power to use their tools.Various hints and clues imply that, contrary to Phone Guy's explanation, the mobility and hostility of the animatronics results from them beingpossessedby thevengeful soulsof children who were killed at the restaurant. Mike is fired from his job after the seventh night for tampering with the animatronics, body odor, and unprofessionalism. Five Nights at Freddy's 2(2014) Shortly after the release of the first game, Cawthon confirmed rumors about a sequel.He posted ateaserof the sequel on his website one month after the original game's release and continued to post teasers until the sequel's release.A trailer was released on October 21, 2014, introducing new animatronic characters and the absence of doors.Five Nights at\",\n \"Nights at Freddy's 2was released for Microsoft Windows on November 10, 2014, earlier than its planned release of December 25. Ports for Android and iOS were released on November 13 and 20, 2014, respectively. A Windows Phone port was also released, but was withdrawn for substandard graphics.PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. The gameplay is largely similar to its predecessor. Players must survive a night shift at the \\\"new and improved\\\" Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant from 12 a.m. to 6 am, without being attacked by any of the animatronics that wander from room to room.In addition to the animatronics from the first game, which are depicted in a deteriorated state, the game features several new antagonists, who can be fended off using different tactics.The explanation given for the animatronics' behavior during the game is similar to the one from the firstFive Nights at Freddy's. The protagonist is a new character, Jeremy Fitzgerald, who is promoted\",\n \"who is promoted to daytime security after the sixth night, being replaced by Fritz Smith in the seventh night. During the game, Phone Guy from the previous game calls Jeremy to give him hints on how to survive each night while talking about the restaurant's history. During these calls, it is revealed that the restaurant has become the subject of a police investigation due to various rumors. It is also possible to access hiddenAtari-styled minigames that provide further insight on the restaurant's troubled past, showing a purple figure killing multiple children. On the fifth night, the location is put on lockdown due to an unspecified event. At the end of the game, Jeremy receives a paycheck dated 1987, revealing that the events of the game take place before the firstFive Nights at Freddy's, and the restaurant is closed, with a new location set to be opened elsewhere. Five Nights at Freddy's 3(2015) On January 3, 2015, an image was uploaded to Cawthon's website teasing a third entry in the series.Other images\",\n \"series.Other images followedbefore a trailer was released on January 26, 2015. On February 15, Cawthon posted on Steam thatFive Nights at Freddy's 3was cancelled after a hacker allegedlyleakedthe game.This was later revealed as a hoax; the \\\"leaked\\\" download linked to a humorouscloneof a previous game of Cawthon's,There is No Pause Button!, in which the main character is depicted wearing the Freddy animatronic head.Five Nights at Freddy's 3was released for Microsoft Windows on March 3, 2015, with Android and iOS ports following on March 7 and 12, respectively. PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. Set thirty years after the events of the first game, its main character works at Fazbear's Fright, a horror attraction based on the long-gone Freddy Fazbear's Pizza. The player must defend themselves from the deteriorated animatronic-costume hybrid named Springtrap. Burnt and tattered hallucinations of some of the animatronics from the previous two games\",\n \"previous two games appear; and although they cannot kill the player, they can hinder ventilation, sound, and camera systems. Failure to maintain the systems can create many issues for the player, including dysfunctional cameras and the inability to play audio to lure away the animatronic. The player receives guidance from a founder of the horror attraction for the first two nights and listens to old tape recordings which were found by the attraction's workers for the rest of the nights.The game has two endings: a \\\"good\\\" ending and a \\\"bad\\\" ending. The bad ending reveals that the souls of the murdered children still haunt the animatronics. The good ending is reached by completing secret minigames in which animatronic characters bring a cake to what seems to be a sorrowful child's soul. After completing the secret minigames, the souls of the children are freed. Five Nights at Freddy's 4(2015) On April 27, 2015, Cawthon began posting images on his website teasing another game in the series, which was originally\",\n \"was originally titledFive Nights at Freddy's 4: The Final Chapter.A trailer was released on July 13, 2015, hinting that the game was set in the main character's house.Five Nights at Freddy's 4was announced with a release date of October 31, 2015. It was pushed forward to August 8 and again to July 23, when the game was unexpectedly released on Microsoft Windows through Steam. Android and iOS ports were released on July 25 and August 3, 2015, respectively. PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. The player character is an unknown and unnamed child who has delusions of being attacked by nightmarish versions of the first game's animatronic characters.The player must defend themselves with a flashlight and doors.The game's story is told through minigames, in which an unnamed young boy is bullied by his older brother because of his irrational fear of a restaurant with a yellow animatronic bear and rabbit called Fredbear and Spring Bonnie, respectively. He is\",\n \"respectively. He is guided by a plush version of Fredbear, whom the boy imagines can speak to him when he is alone. The child appears to be ultimately killed by Fredbear in a freak accident.The game had aHalloweenupdate with \\\"nightmare\\\" versions of animatronics fromFive Nights at Freddy's 2and Halloween-themed reskins for Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica. Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Location(2016) On April 23, 2016, Cawthon posted a teaser image on his website of a clown-likeanimatronicnamed Baby from an upcoming game titledSister Location.Several teaser images of different characters and hints at their origins followed. The trailer for the game was released on Cawthon's YouTube channel, with new animatronics and a new location. The release date was announced as October 7, 2016. Cawthon made a prank release of the game on October 5, apparently releasing a \\\"mature\\\" edition after a decision to delay the game to make it morekid-friendly. The download link led to a clone of Cawthon's previous game,Sit 'N\",\n \"game,Sit 'N Survive. Sister Locationwas released for Microsoft Windows on October 7, 2016, followed by ports for Android on December 22, 2016, and iOS on January 3, 2017, respectively. It was also released on Nintendo Switch in North America on June 18, 2020, and on Xbox One on July 10, 2020. The PlayStation 4 port was released in Europe and North America on July 21 and 22, 2020, respectively. The player character Michael Afton, nicknamed Mike (jokingly called Eggs Benedict),is a new employee of Circus Baby's Entertainment and Rental (a sister company of Fazbear Entertainment that rentsanimatronicsfor children's parties). The animatronics were originally intended for Circus Baby's Pizza World, which never opened due to agas leak.Mike is guided by HandUnit, an AI character similar to the Phone Guy of previous games. HandUnit instructs him about his job, often telling him to disregard safety; the animatronic Baby often gives instructions that contradicts that of HandUnit, but are vital to survival. The game\",\n \"survival. The game also has a \\\"custom night\\\",in which the player can use mechanics reminiscent of the first game (such as interactive doors and a camera system) which were absent from the main game, except for a non-canonical ending, titled the \\\"Fake Ending\\\". New minigames are also available, describing Michael's fate after the events of the main game.Acutsceneis shown after the \\\"Golden Freddy\\\" custom-night preset, in which Michael speaks to his father, William Afton/Springtrap, in a foreboding way. Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulator(2017) In June 2017, Cawthon hinted at the development of a sixth main game in the series. On July 2, 2017, he announced his decision to cancel the game and said that he had been \\\"neglecting other things in life for the sake of trying to keep up with mounting expectations\\\".On December 4, 2017, after teasing the game several days earlier, Cawthon releasedFreddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorasfreewareon Steam.The game is a business-simulation game in which the player runs a\",\n \"the player runs a pizzeria, but frequently shifts into the survival-horror vein of the series' other games. A mobile version foriOSandAndroidtitledFNaF 6: Pizzeria Simulatorwas released on August 13, 2019. Unlike the PC version, the mobile release, which is developed and published byClickteam LLC USA, ispay-to-play. ANintendo SwitchandXbox Oneport was released on October 31, 2020, with aPlayStation 4port released on March 31, 2021. The game's story follows the manager (implied to be Michael Afton) of a new Freddy Fazbear's restaurant run by the mysterious \\\"Cassette Man\\\". Every night, Michael, under Cassette Man's guidance, must salvage one of four decrepit animatronics that were found in the restaurant's back alley, including William / Springtrap (now referred to as \\\"Scraptrap\\\") and Elizabeth / Circus Baby (referred to as \\\"Scrap Baby\\\"). The game has multiple endings depending on how well the player runs the pizzeria and whether they salvaged all the animatronics, but thecanonending has Cassette Man reveal\",\n \"Cassette Man reveal himself as Henry Emily, William's former business partner, and set the restaurant on fire after revealing its true purpose as a trap to lure in the remaining animatronics. The restaurant burns to the ground, seemingly killing the player character, Henry, and all the animatronics,finally releasing the spirits haunting them. Ultimate Custom Night(2018) Ultimate Custom Nightwas originally intended to be a post-launch add-on toPizzeria Simulator, but was eventually turned into a stand-alone game, releasing on June 27, 2018, asfreeware.A mobile port foriOSandAndroidwas released on April 28, 2020, and a console port for thePlayStation 4,Xbox One, andNintendo Switchwas released on April 30, 2021. The customizable night contains a total of fifty animatronics from previous games, which allows the player to determine how aggressive they are during the night (similar to the custom nights in earlier games). The player can select the office to play in, unlockcutscenes, and choose from 16 themed game\",\n \"from 16 themed game modes available.Although unconfirmed, it has been heavily speculated that the game takes place in some version ofHellorPurgatory, where William Afton, following his death inPizzeria Simulator, is being continuously tortured by the vengeful spirit of one of his victims. However, the anthology novel seriesFazbear Frightsimplies that the game is actually Afton's repeating nightmare, and not hell or purgatory. This comes from the fifth book,Bunny Call, which has a story called \\\"The Man in Room 1280\\\" where a burned man is kept alive by a shadow child despite the fact that he should be dead and suffers nightmares. In the following book,Blackbird, the epilogue confirms that the man is actually William Afton. Although it was never confirmed if theFazbear Frightsseries is set in the same continuity as the games, Cawthon confirmed that it's supposed to reveal mysteries from the previous games. Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted(2019) On August 18, 2018, Cawthon confirmed on his Steam thread that\",\n \"Steam thread that the next main installment in theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries would be available as avirtual realitygame.On March 25, 2019, duringSony Interactive Entertainment's State of Play live stream announcing several new games for the PlayStation 4, a trailer announcing the game was shown.In the game, the player is a technician repairing a pizzeria's animatronics. From a first-person perspective, they fix the animatronics, solve puzzles and navigate dark hallways while avoiding malfunctioning and hostile animatronics.The game was released on May 28, 2019. A non-VR version of the game was released on December 17, 2019, for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 4. Curse of Dreadbear, a Halloween-themeddownloadable content(DLC) pack forHelp Wantedwas released in three parts, with several \\\"waves\\\" of new minigames released on October 23, October 29, and October 31, 2019, for a total of 10 new minigames.The DLC pack includes new animatronic characters, returning animatronics from previous games, and a\",\n \"games, and a Halloween-themed hub.Some of the new stages are re-skinned versions of existent minigames, such as a version of theFNAF 1minigames calledDanger! Keep Out!Notable new game modes include ashooting gallery, a free-roamingcorn maze, and anassembly linein which the player must construct an animatronic. Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach(2021) On August 8, 2019, on the first game's fifth anniversary, Cawthon posted a new image on his website, teasing the next installment for the series. It shows the \\\"Mega Pizzaplex\\\", a large entertainment complex containing a laser tag arena, an arcade, a cinema and a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant; in the main square, '80s-style versions of Freddy, Chica, and four completely new animatronics can be seen playing for an excited crowd. On April 21, 2020, the characters' names were leaked fromFunko's list of upcoming products, and the title was revealed asFive Nights at Freddy's: Pizza Plex. Scott Cawthon confirmed the leaks via Reddit but revealed that the\",\n \"revealed that the title was not official. The game was initially scheduled for an early 2021 release,but was delayed to late 2021. Security Breachwas released on PlayStation 5, PlayStation 4, and Steam on December 16, 2021. The game's plot revolves around a young boy named Gregory being trapped in a large entertainment complex teeming with murderous animatronics who hunt him down by the orders of Vanny, a mysterious woman in a rabbit costume, while also evading the complex's security guard, Vanessa. Suffering a malfunction that causes him to ignore Vanny's hacking, Freddy assists Gregory in escaping the complex. A Stadia port was launched on July 1, 2022, ports for Xbox One and Series X/S were released on November 22, 2022, and a Nintendo Switch port was released on April 19, 2023. Free downloadable content titledRuinwas released for PlayStation 5, 4, and Steam on July 25, 2022, with an Xbox One and Series X/S port releasing on April 23, 2024, and a Nintendo Switch port in the works. Five Nights at Freddy's:\",\n \"Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted 2(2023) On May 24, 2023, during a PlayStation Showcase, Steel Wool Studios announced a direct sequel toHelp WantedtitledHelp Wanted 2, scheduled for release in December 2023.On November 20, 2023, the gameplay trailer was released on the official Steel Wool Studios YouTube channel, revealing several characters from the game along with the release date of December 14 on PlayStation 5 and Steam.AMeta Questversion of the game was released on May 9, 2024, and the game was launched physically with a flat version on June 20. Five Nights at Freddy's: Secret of the Mimic(2025) An eleventh main installment,Secret of the Mimic, was announced on August 6, 2024, as part of the series' 10th anniversary.The game will center on the Mimic, introduced inSecurity Breach'sRuinDLC.It will be the third virtual reality game of the series. Spin-offs FNaF World(2016) Cawthon announced a spin-off from his series,FNaF World, on September 15, 2015.Unlike the main series, the game is arole-playing video\",\n \"arole-playing video gameusing the first four games' animatronic characters. The game is set in a fanciful world where the characters must fight enemies and progress by unlocking perks anditems. Originally planned for release on February 2, 2016, Cawthon rescheduled the release for January 22 and released it on January 21. Players and critics criticized the game for missing key features and being unstable and unfinished, for which Cawthon apologized: \\\"I got too eager to show the things that were finished that I neglected to pay attention to the things that weren't.\\\" He decided to remove it from Steam, saying that the game would be improved and later re-released free of charge.Cawthon announced that he askedValveto refund all purchasers the price of the game. He released a free version of the game, featuring a3Doverworld and an updated character-selection screen, in February 2016. Cawthon posted a new teaser the following month, with characters such as the main series' Purple Guy and most of the characters\",\n \"of the characters from the Halloween update ofFive Nights at Freddy's 4. He created minigames for the game's second update, includingFoxy Fighters,FOXY.exe,Chica's Magic Rainbow, andFNaF 57: Freddy in Space. Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery(2019–2024) Anaugmented realitygame withlocation-based gameplay,Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery, was announced on September 13, 2019.The game was released for free on iOS and Android on November 25, 2019.Dark Circus: Encore!, DLC forSpecial Delivery, was released on December 13, 2021. Its story bridges the gap betweenFive Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted, andFive Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach, and is toldin epistolary format. One series of emails tells of a woman, Ness, triggering red-flag reports with her harmful and offensive search words. The emails eventually reveal that she is under the control of William Afton, and that Ness is Vanny fromFive Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted(\\\"Ness\\\" being short for Vanny's real name \\\"Vanessa\\\"), who was possessed\",\n \"who was possessed by Afton after encountering a digital form of him while play-testing one of Fazbear's products. Another series of emails tells the story of the employees at Fazbear Entertainment scanning the circuit boards of old animatronics for \\\"The Freddy Fazbear Virtual Experience\\\". As of 2023,Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Deliveryhas been downloaded 40 million times, and has 6.7 million monthly active users. On February 1, 2024, Illumix announced the closure ofSpecial Delivery. On February 2, the game was no longer available to download on iOS and Android. The game's servers shut down on March 14. Freddy in Space 2(2019) Freddy in Space 2is aside-scrollingplatformshooter gameand a sequel to theFNaF 57: Freddy in Spacemini-game fromFNaF World. It was released for free on December 3, 2019, onGame Jolt.The game was made to promote a \\\"#CancelCancer\\\" charity livestream on YouTube, which was hosted byMatthew Patrickof Game Theorists forSt. Jude Children's Research HospitalinMemphis, Tennessee. Security\",\n \"Tennessee. Security Breach: Fury's Rage(2021) Security Breach: Fury's Rageis aside-scrollingbeat 'em upgame featuring the main cast ofSecurity Breach(not including Gregory or Vanessa). The game was made to compensate for the release ofSecurity Breachbeing delayed for a second time and was released for free on Game Jolt on April 28, 2021. Freddy in Space 3: Chica in Space(2023) Freddy in Space 3: Chica in Spaceis a side-scrolling platform shooter game and a sequel toFreddy in Space 2, it was released on October 18, 2023, under the titleFNAF: The Movie: The Game, which was developed by Cawthon, claimed to be aspoiler-heavytie-ingame of theFive Nights at Freddy'sfilm, which was revealed to beFreddy in Space 3in disguise. It was released for free on Game Jolt. Five Nights at Freddy's: Into the Pit(2024) On January 22, 2024, anadaptationof theFazbear Frights: Into the Pitanthology novel was leaked to be in development in an upcoming slate of new novels to be released in 2024.The following day, a trailer was\",\n \"day, a trailer was leaked online.Later that day, series creator Scott Cawthon made a post on Reddit acknowledging the leaks and stating the game would release for the series' 10th anniversary on August 8.On January 25, 2024,Mega Cat Studiosconfirmed they were developing the game.The gameplay trailer for the game released June 6.It will be the first installment of the series to be fully in2Dand made withpixel art.The game was accidentally released to Japanese consoles early on August 7, which was repurposed as the new release date.PlayStationandXboxports were released on September 27. Five Laps at Freddy's(2025) Five Laps at Freddy'sis akart racing gamebased on characters fromFive Nights at Freddy'sdeveloped byClickteam. It was announced on June 19, 2024, to coincide with the series' 10th anniversary.A gameplay trailer was released August 3. A demo of the game was released August 7 and a full release of the game is expected in 2025. Five Nights at Freddy's: Survival Crew(TBA) On December 20, 2023, an\",\n \"20, 2023, an officialRobloxadaptation by the name ofFive Nights at Freddy's: Survival Crewwas accidentally released in an unfinished state by its developers, Metaverse Team Frights. The game was immediately taken down after major backlash and Cawthon promised the game would be released in a functional state sometime in 2024.In the short time the game was released, players described the gameplay as similar to the cooperative horror game,Dead by Daylight. Fazbear Fanverse On August 21, 2020, Cawthon announced his plan to help fund and publishFive Nights at Freddy'sgames developed by fans, bundled with previous installments in their respective series.Games published under this initiative include theOne Night at Flumpty'sseries, theFive Nights at Candy'sseries, theJoy of Creationseries,andPopgoes Evergreen(including its prologue game). Cawthon stated that these games will come to other platforms, such as mobile and consoles, and may have merchandise created for them.The first game to be released under this\",\n \"released under this initiative was a port ofOne Night at Flumpty'sfor Android and iOS on October 31 and November 18, 2020, respectively, followed by two of its sequels later in 2021 on the same platforms.Another game planned to be published under this initiative,Five Nights at Freddy's Plus, a remake of the original game, currently has an uncertain future after the firing of its main developer, Phil Morg following controversies in the games fanbase.The game has since been removed from Steam. Books Novel trilogy (2015–2018) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyes(2015) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyesis the first novel by Scott Cawthon and Kira Breed-Wrisley. It was published independently onAmazon Kindleon December 17, 2015, and a paperback release byScholasticfollowed on September 27, 2016. The novel follows a group of childhood friends who meet in their hometown and discover unnerving secrets about the once-beloved Freddy Fazbear's Pizza.According to Cawthon, the novel \\\"expands the mythos and\",\n \"the mythos and reveals a human element never before seen in the games\\\". Although the novel inhabits theFive Nights at Freddy'suniverse, the book and the games are not \\\"intended to fit together like two puzzle pieces\\\". Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones(2017) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones, the second novel by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley,was discovered onAmazonunder Cawthon's name on January 8, 2017.Although the discovery sparked controversy about the book's legitimacy,Cawthon soon confirmed that it was an official publication.The novel, published on June 27, 2017, by Scholastic, involves Charlie, the main character fromThe Silver Eyes, who is \\\"drawn back into the world of her father's frightening creations\\\" while trying to move on. Five Nights at Freddy's: The Fourth Closet(2018) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Fourth Closet, the third novel by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley, was published on June 26, 2018, by Scholastic. The novel focuses on Charlie's friends, who are searching for the truth behind\",\n \"the truth behind what happened to Charlie inThe Twisted Oneswhile mysterious events unfold after a new restaurant opens. Film adaptations A film adaptationbased on the game series was released for streaming onPeacockand theatrically in the United States on October 27, 2023, byUniversal Pictures.Directed by Emma Tammi, who co-wrote the screenplay with Cawthon and Seth Cuddeback, the film starsJosh HutchersonwithElizabeth Lail, Piper Rubio,Mary Stuart Masterson, andMatthew Lillardappearing in supporting roles. The film received generally negative reviews from critics but was a commercial success, becoming Blumhouse Productions' highest-grossing film worldwide with nearly $300 million.A sequel is in development. Reception The originalFive Nights at Freddy'sreceived \\\"generally favorable\\\" reviews according toreview aggregatorwebsiteMetacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 78 out of 100.Indie Game Magazinepraised the game for its simple take on the horror genre, labeling the game a \\\"fantastic example\",\n \"\\\"fantastic example of how cleverness in design and subtlety can be used to make an experience terrifying\\\". They noted that its artistic direction and gameplay mechanics contributed to a feeling of \\\"brutal tension\\\", but criticized it for taking too long to load when launched. Omri Petitte forPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy'sa score of 80 out of 100, commenting that the game took a \\\"less-is-more\\\" approach to its design, and praising the overall atmosphere for emphasizing the fear and suspense of an approaching threat, rather than the arrival of the threat itself as in other horror-oriented games. However, the gameplay was criticized for becoming repetitive once a player masters it, noting players have \\\"not much more to expect beyond managing battery life and careful timing of slamming doors shut.\\\"Ryan Bates ofGameRevolutiongave the game a 4.5 out of 5, commending the game's minimalistic presentation (particularly its audio design and lack of music) for contributing to the terror of the game, along with its\",\n \"along with its repetitive gameplay that would \\\" almostOCD-type levels, adding to the tense environment.\\\" He opined that the game was \\\"horror done right\\\", but felt it was too short. Shaun Musgrave ofTouchArcadegave a rating of 3.5 out of 5, noting the game's reliance on atmosphere to induce fear, noting that \\\"if the atmosphere doesn't get to you, all that's left is a very simple game of red light-green light.\\\"Eurogamer'sJeffrey Matulef called the game \\\"wonderfully creative\\\", and compared the animatronic animals in the game toWeeping Angelsdue to their ability to only move when they are not being observed. Five Nights at Freddy's 2received \\\"mixed or average\\\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 62 out of 100.Omri Petitte forPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy's 2a score of 70 out of 100, commenting that what he wanted in the sequel \\\"was more mind games and more uncertainty. I wanted the plodding animatronic suits to find me and rip my face off in new and interesting ways. I\",\n \"interesting ways. I wanted working legs. What I got was a horror game dipping heavily into deception and subtlety, a wonderfully cruel cocktail of supernatural mystery and jolts of panicked adrenaline. Enjoying the good parts, though, comes with a cost of a frustratingly steep difficulty.\\\" Destructoidgave the game a positive review, saying that \\\"It's absolutely terrifying to know that you could be attacked at any moment from multiple avenues\\\", praising the introduction of new animatronics and mechanics, but also criticizing the jumpscares and called the game \\\"too hard for its own good\\\".In a review for theNintendo Switchversion of the game in 2019, Mitch Vogel ofNintendo Lifesaid, \\\"Five Nights at Freddy's 2may not necessarily reinvent the wheel, but it still does a fine job of keeping you on the edge of your seat.\\\" Five Nights at Freddy's 3received \\\"mixed or average\\\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 68 out of 100.Omri Petitte fromPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy's 3a\",\n \"at Freddy's 3a score of 77 out of 100, praising the reworked camera system, but commented on how the jumpscares from the other animatronics \\\"felt a little stale by the third night.\\\"In a more critical review, Nic Rowen fromDestructoidgave the game a 6.5 out of 10, saying that even though the game is \\\"by far the most technically proficient and mechanically satisfying installment yet,\\\" he criticized Springtrap and Fazbear's Fright for lacking the \\\"charm of the original cast and locations.\\\" Five Nights at Freddy's 4received \\\"mixed or average\\\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 51 out of 100.Destructoidcriticized the gameplay as being too confusing, and gave the game a review score of 4 out of 10.The Escapistgave the game a positive review score of 4 out of 5 stars saying that they liked the reworked mechanics, darker and emotional storyline, scary jumpscares, and sad ending but noted the game's bugs and glitches.Nadia Oxford ofGamezebogave it 4 out of 5 stars in her review\",\n \"stars in her review praising it for its intense environment, creepy sounds and graphics, and jumpscares. She criticized the game for being difficult to survive in certain environments when relying on audio cues and the Android version not containing the story-centric minigames. Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Locationreceived \\\"mixed or average\\\" reviews from critics according to Metacritic, assigning a score of 62 out of 100.Destructoidrated the game 6/10,whileGameCraterated it 7.50/10.Shelby Watson ofThe All Stategave the game a positive review, citing it to be comparable to the first game's quality, but unlike the first game, never allowing the player to operate the mechanics on muscle memory alone. She writes, \\\"...ach night is so different, it is impossible to get comfortable with the mechanics enough that it feels like second nature. The game changes so much, you are forced to adapt and are always on the edge of your seat, waiting for what is to come.\\\"TechRaptorrated the game 9/10, calling it \\\"genuinely\",\n \"it \\\"genuinely terrifying\\\" with a \\\"great storytelling\\\" and praised the voice acting. Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorreceived mostly positive reviews.GameCratecalled it the \\\"best value in gaming right now\\\",withRock Paper Shotguncalling it \\\"spooky as hell\\\".TheBall State Daily Newsalso gave a positive review, giving the game a 7.6/10 and calling it \\\"an interesting evolution of theFive Nights formula\\\".IGNlistedFreddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorin their top 18 Best Horror Games of 2017. Ultimate Custom Nightreceived mostly positive reviews.Rock Paper Shotgundeemed the game \\\"an intriguing mess\\\",withPC Gamercalling it \\\"a neat, customisable take on the classic survival horror formula\\\". Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wantedreceived \\\"generally favorable\\\" reviews from critics for the PlayStation 4 version according to Metacritic, assigning a score of 80 out of 100;the Nintendo Switch version received \\\"mixed or average\\\" reviews, with Metacritic assigning a score of 53 out of 100.Reviewers praised the game for its\",\n \"the game for its effective use of virtual reality and its success in introducing new mechanics while preserving the series' feel and atmosphere while being accessible for players new to the series. However, the game's frequent use of jump scares could make it less scary and more obnoxious over time for some players. Stuart Gipp atNintendo Lifecriticized the Nintendo Switch version of the game and gave it a score of 3 out of 10. The main criticism being that the game had become pointless for having removed the VR mode making it a \\\"sub-par minigame collection\\\" with \\\"limited gameplay\\\" since previous main games were available already for the console, and speculated that the only reason for releasing it for the console were to capitalize on the console's market share.The game is listed as one ofPlayStation's \\\"Favorite Horror Games of 2019\\\" on their websiteand is one of the top 30 best selling VR games on Steam.The game was nominated for the Coney Island Dreamland Award for Best AR/VR Game at theNew York Game\",\n \"at theNew York Game Awardsin 2020. Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breachreceived \\\"mixed or average\\\" reviews, according to Metacritic.Jeuxvideo.comgave a mixed review, praising the atmosphere and the originality of certain gameplay sections, but criticizing the bugs and technical issues.The Escapist'sBen \\\"Yahtzee\\\" Croshawwas more critical of the game, praising the visuals, but criticizing the bugs, design, and restrictive save system.The game was nominated and won Players' Choice December 2021 onPlayStation's official blog. Five Nights at Freddy's: Into the Pitreceived \\\"generally positive\\\" reviews, according to Metacritic.Game Rantpraised the game for its story and visuals, whileComicBook.compraised it for its faithfulness to the source material. Cultural influence Fandom Since the release of the first game, popular video creators such asPewDiePie,Markiplier, andJacksepticeyehave garnered millions of views, which helped the games receive additional attention from their playthroughs.In May 2015, YouTube\",\n \"May 2015, YouTube reported that videos of theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries were the platform's eighth-most-watched playthroughs. The interpretive,non-linear, and cryptic narrative ofFive Nights at Freddy'sis a popular topic for fans to discuss and debate.Channels such asThe Game TheoristsfeatureFive Nights at Freddy's-related videos with the goal of discovering the lore of the franchise.With over 60 videos and 800 million views combined, Matthew Patrick of The Game Theorists has described the series as \\\"a delightfully incomplete and mysterious story with just enough threads to keep you guessing.\\\" Thousands offan gameshave been inspired by the game mechanics ofFive Nights at Freddy's.Fan games for the franchise are incredibly common to the pointGame JoltmadeFNaFgames its own genre to avoid overwhelming the site.: 74Along with fan games, multiple fan songs have been created, including some byThe Living Tombstone, each having accumulated hundreds of millions of views.The Living Tombstone'sfirstFNaFsongwas\",\n \"played in theclosing creditsof the film adaptation. Although theFive Nights at Freddy'sfandom has been criticized for immaturity,Cawthon defended them and criticized the broader community for what he called an unfair generalization. In September 2020, a video featuringJack Blackdancing to The Living Tombstone's firstFive Nights at Freddy'sfan songwent viralon the social media platformTikTok.Black had previously appeared on an episode ofJimmy Kimmel Live!in April 2020, wearing a mask headpiece modeled after Glitchtrap, antagonist of Help Wanted and its sequel, where he revealed that he is a fan of theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries.Black and his son Samuel had previously playedFive Nights at Freddy's 4with Markiplier to promote his own filmGoosebumps. Merchandise Five Nights at Freddy'smerchandise is primarily produced by two companies: Sanshee and Funko.Products includestuffed toys,action figures,posters, clothing,keychains, andstationery, among other things.McFarlane Toysalso has a line ofFive Nights at\",\n \"ofFive Nights at Freddy'smerchandise, consisting mainly ofconstruction sets;Todd McFarlanecalled the line \\\"the single largest-selling product, bar none, by a lot that done in 20-plus years.\\\"The merchandise, available internationally, has been a factor in the franchise's success. Notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"Grateful Dead TheGrateful Deadwas an Americanrockband formed inPalo Alto, Californiain 1965.Known for their eclectic style that fused elements of rock,blues,jazz,folk,country,bluegrass,rock and roll,gospel,reggae, andworld musicwithpsychedelia,the band is famous forimprovisationduring theirlive performances,and for their devoted fan base, known as \\\"Deadheads\\\". According to the musician and writerLenny Kaye, the music of the Grateful Dead \\\"touches on ground that most other groups don't even know exists.\\\"For the range of their influences and the structure of their live performances, the Grateful Dead are considered \\\"the pioneering godfathers of thejam bandworld\\\". The Grateful Dead was founded in theSan Francisco Bay Areaduring the rise of thecounterculture of the 1960s.The band's founding members wereJerry Garcia(lead guitarand vocals),Bob Weir(rhythm guitar and vocals),Ron \\\"Pigpen\\\" McKernan(keyboards,harmonica, and vocals),Phil Lesh(bass guitarand vocals), andBill Kreutzmann(drums).Members of the Grateful\",\n \"of the Grateful Dead, originally known asthe Warlocks, had played together in various Bay Area ensembles, including the traditionaljug bandMother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions. Lesh was the last member to join the Warlocks before they changed their name to Grateful Dead, replacing Dana Morgan Jr., who had played bass for a few gigs. DrummerMickey Hartand non-performing lyricistRobert Hunterjoined in 1967. With the exception of McKernan, who died in 1973, and Hart, who left the band from 1971 to 1974, the core of the band stayed together for its entire 30-year history.Other official members of the band includedTom Constanten(keyboards from 1968 to 1970),John Perry Barlow(non-performing lyricist from 1971 to 1995),Keith Godchaux(keyboards and occasional vocals from 1971 to 1979),Donna Godchaux(vocals from 1972 to 1979),Brent Mydland(keyboards and vocals from 1979 to 1990), andVince Welnick(keyboards and vocals from 1990 to 1995).Bruce Hornsby(accordion, piano, vocals) was atouringmember from 1990 to 1992, as\",\n \"1990 to 1992, as well as a guest with the band on occasion before and after the tours. After Garcia's death in 1995, former members of the band, along with other musicians, toured asThe Other Onesin 1998, 2000, and 2002, and asThe Deadin 2003, 2004, and 2009. In 2015, the four surviving core members marked the band's 50th anniversary in aseries of concertsinSanta Clara, California, andChicagothat were billed as their last performances together.There have also been several spin-offs featuring one or more core members, such asDead & Company,Furthur, theRhythm Devils,Phil Lesh and Friends,RatDog, andBilly & the Kids. Despite having only one Top-40 single in their 30-year career, \\\"Touch of Grey(1987),\\\" the Grateful Dead remained among the highest-grossing American touring acts for decades. They gained a committed fanbase by word of mouth and through the free exchange of their live recordings, encouraged by the band's allowance oftaping. In 2024, they broke the record for most Top-40 albums on\",\n \"Top-40 albums on theBillboard200chart.Rolling Stoneranked the Grateful Dead number 57 on its 2011 list of the \\\"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\\\".The band was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994,and a recording of theirMay 8, 1977 performanceatCornell University'sBarton Hallwas added to theNational Recording Registryof theLibrary of Congressin 2012 for being \\\"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\\\".In 2024, the four living core members (Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann and Hart) were recognized as part of theKennedy Center Honors. Formation (1965–1966) The Grateful Dead began their career as the Warlocks, a group formed in early 1965 from the remnants of aPalo Alto, Californiajug bandcalledMother McCree's Uptown Jug Championsand members of The Wildwood Boys (Jerry Garcia, Ron \\\"Pigpen\\\" McKernan, David Nelson, Robert Hunter, and Norm Van Maastricht).As The Wildwood Boys they played regularly at The Tangent, a folk music coffeehouse operated by Stanford Medical Center doctors Stuart \\\"Stu\\\"\",\n \"Stuart \\\"Stu\\\" Goldstein and David \\\"Dave\\\" Shoenstadt on University Avenue in Palo Alto (1963).As the Warlocks, the band's first show was at Magoo's Pizza Parlor, at 639 Santa Cruz Avenue in suburbanMenlo Park, on May 5, 1965, now a Harvest furniture store. The band continued playing bar shows,like Frenchy's Bikini-A-Go-GoinHaywardand, importantly, five sets a night, five nights a week, for six weeks, at theIn RoominBelmontas the Warlocks,but quickly changed the band's name after finding out that a different band known as the Warlocks had put out a record under that name. (The Velvet Undergroundalso had to change its name from the Warlocks.) The name \\\"Grateful Dead\\\" was chosen from a dictionary. According to Lesh, Garcia \\\"picked up an oldBritannicaWorld Language Dictionary... ... In that silvery elf-voice he said to me, 'Hey, man, how about the Grateful Dead?'\\\"The definition there was \\\"the soul of a dead person, or his angel, showing gratitude to someone who, as an act of charity, arranged their burial.\\\"\",\n \"their burial.\\\" According to Alan Trist, director of the Grateful Dead's music publisher company Ice Nine, Garcia found the name in theFunk & WagnallsFolklore Dictionary, when his finger landed on that phrase while playing a game ofFictionary.In the Garcia biographyCaptain Trips, author Sandy Troy states that the band was smoking the psychedelicDMTat the time.The term \\\"grateful dead\\\" appears in folktales from a variety of cultures. The first show under the name Grateful Dead was inSan Joseon December 4, 1965, at one ofKen Kesey'sAcid Tests.Scholar Michael Kaler has written that the Dead's participation in the Acid Tests was crucial both to the development of their improvisational vocabulary and to their bonding as a band, with the group having set out to foster an intra-band musical telepathy.Kaler has further pointed out that the Dead's pursuit of a new improvisatory rock language in 1965 chronologically coincided with that same goal's adoption byJefferson Airplane,Pink Floydandthe Velvet Underground.\",\n \"Velvet Underground. Earlierdemo tapeshave survived, but the first of over 2,000 concerts known to have been recorded by the band's fans was a show at theFillmore Auditoriumin San Francisco on January 8, 1966.Later that month, the Grateful Dead played at the Trips Festival, a three-daypsychedelic rockweekend party and event produced byKen Kesey,Stewart Brand, andRamon Sender, that, in conjunction with theMerry Pranksters, brought the nascenthippiemovement together for the first time. Other supporting personnel who joined early includedRock Scully, who heard of the band from Kesey and signed on as manager after meeting them at the Big Beat Acid Test;Stewart Brand, \\\"with his side show of taped music and slides of Indian life, a multimedia presentation\\\" at the Big Beat and then, expanded, at the Trips Festival; andOwsley Stanley, the \\\"Acid King\\\" whoseLSDsupplied the Acid Tests and who, in early 1966, became the band's financial backer, renting them a house on the fringes ofWatts, Los Angeles, and buying them\",\n \"and buying them sound equipment. \\\"We were living solely off of Owsley's good graces at that time. ... trip was he wanted to design equipment for us, and we were going to have to be in sort of a lab situation for him to do it\\\", said Garcia. Main career (1967–1995) Pigpen era (1967–1972) One of the group's earliest major performances in 1967 was theMantra-Rock Dance, a musical event held on January 29, 1967, at theAvalon Ballroomby the San FranciscoHare Krishnatemple. The Grateful Dead performed at the event along with the Hare Krishna founderBhaktivedanta Swami, poetAllen Ginsberg, bandsMoby GrapeandBig Brother and the Holding CompanywithJanis Joplin, donating proceeds to the temple.The band's first LP,The Grateful Dead, was released on Warner Brothers in 1967. On May 3, 1968, the band played a free concert atColumbia Universityduring theanti–Vietnam War student protestsduring which students occupied several campus buildings. In order to play, the band, equipment and all, had to be “smuggled” on campus in\",\n \"on campus in the back of a bread delivery truck. “We were already jamming away before the security and police could stop us.” Classically trained trumpeterPhil Leshperformed onbass guitar.Bob Weir, the youngest original member of the group, playedrhythm guitar.Ron \\\"Pigpen\\\" McKernanplayedkeyboards,percussion, andharmonicauntil shortly before his death in 1973 at the age of 27. Garcia, Weir, and McKernan shared the lead vocal duties more or less equally; Lesh sang only a few leads, but his tenor was a key part of the band's three-part vocal harmonies.Bill Kreutzmannplayeddrums, and in September 1967 was joined by a second drummer, New York City nativeMickey Hart, who also played a wide variety of otherpercussion instruments. 1970 included tour dates inNew Orleans, where the band performed atThe Warehousefor two nights. On January 31, 1970, the local police raided their hotel onBourbon Streetand arrested and charged 19 people with possession of various drugs.The second night's concert was performed as scheduled\",\n \"as scheduled after bail was posted. Eventually, the charges were dismissed, except those against sound engineerOwsley Stanley, who was already facing charges in California for manufacturing LSD. This event was later memorialized in the lyrics of “Truckin'\\\", a single fromAmerican Beautythat reached number 64 on the charts. Hart took time off from the band in February 1971, after his father, an accountant, absconded with much of the band's money;Kreutzmann was once again as the sole percussionist. Hart rejoined the Grateful Dead for good in October 1974.Tom \\\"TC\\\" Constantenwas added as a second keyboardist from 1968 to 1970, to help Pigpen keep up with an increasingly psychedelic sound, while Pigpen transitioned into playing various percussion instruments and vocals. After Constanten's departure, Pigpen reclaimed his position as sole keyboardist. Less than two years later, in late 1971, Pigpen was joined by another keyboardist,Keith Godchaux, who playedgrand pianoalongside Pigpen'sHammond B-3 organ. In early\",\n \"B-3 organ. In early 1972, Keith's wife,Donna Jean Godchaux, joined the Grateful Dead as a backing vocalist. Following the Grateful Dead's \\\"Europe '72\\\" tour, Pigpen's health had deteriorated to the point that he could no longer tour with the band. His final concert appearance was June 17, 1972, at theHollywood Bowl, in Los Angeles;he died on March 8, 1973, of complications from liver damage. Godchaux era (1972–1979) Pigpen's death did not slow down the Grateful Dead. With the help of managerRon Rakow, the band soon formed its own record label,Grateful Dead Records.Later that year, it released its next studio album, the jazz-influencedWake of the Flood, whichbecame their biggest commercial success thus far.Meanwhile, capitalizing on the album's success, the band soon went back to the studio, and in June 1974 released another album,From the Mars Hotel. Not long after, the Dead decided to take a hiatus from livetouring. The band travelled to Europe for a string of shows in September 1974, before performing a\",\n \"before performing a series of five concerts at theWinterland Ballroomin San Francisco in October 1974, and delved into various other projects.The Winterland concerts were filmed, and Garcia compiled the footage intoThe Grateful Dead Movie, a feature-length concert film released in 1977. In September 1975, the Dead released their eighth studio album,Blues for Allah. The band resumed touring in June 1976, playing multiple dates in small theaters, rather than the stadium shows that had become common, and had exhausted them, in 1974.That same year, they signed withArista Records, and the new contract producedTerrapin Stationin July 1977. The band's tour in the spring of that year is held in high regard by its fans, and itsconcert of May 8atCornell Universityis often considered one of the best performances of its career.TheirSeptember 1977 concertatRaceway ParkinOld Bridge Township, New Jerseywas attended by 107,019 people and held the record forlargest-ticketed concertin the United States by a single act for 47\",\n \"a single act for 47 years. Keith and Donna Jean Godchaux left the band in February 1979, citing artistic differences. Mydland/Welnick era (1979–1995) Following the Godchauxs' departure,Brent Mydlandjoined as keyboardist and vocalist and was considered \\\"the perfect fit.\\\" The Godchauxs then formed theHeart of Gold Band, before Keith died in a car accident in July 1980. Mydland was the keyboardist for the Grateful Dead for 11 years until his death by narcotics overdose in July 1990,becoming the third keyboardist to die. Shortly after Mydland found his place in the early 1980s, Garcia's health began to decline. He became a frequent smoker of \\\"Persian,\\\" a type of heroin, and he gained weight at a rapid pace. He lost his liveliness on stage, his voice was strained, and Deadheads worried for his health. After he began to curtail his opiate usage gradually in 1985, Garcia slipped into adiabetic comafor several days in July 1986, leading to the cancelation of all concerts in the fall of that year. Garcia recovered,\",\n \"Garcia recovered, the band releasedIn the Darkin July 1987, which became its best-selling studio album and produced its only top-40 single, \\\"Touch of Grey,\\\" Also, that year, the grouptouredwithBob Dylan, as heard on the albumDylan & the Dead. Mydland died in July 1990 andVince Welnick, former keyboardist forthe Tubes, joined as a band member, whileBruce Hornsby, who had a successful career with his band the Range, joined temporarily as a bridge to help Welnick learn songs. Both performed on keyboards and vocals—Welnick until the band's end, and Hornsby mainly from 1990 to 1992. SaxophonistBranford Marsalisplayed five concerts with the band between 1990 and 1994. The Grateful Dead performed its final concert on July 9, 1995, atSoldier Fieldin Chicago. Aftermath (1995–present) Jerry Garciadied on August 9, 1995. A few months after Garcia's death, the remaining members of the Grateful Dead decided to disband.Since that time, there have been a number ofreunions by the surviving membersinvolving various\",\n \"various combinations of musicians. Additionally, the former members have also begun or continued individual projects. In 1998, Bob Weir, Phil Lesh, and Mickey Hart, along with several other musicians, formed a band calledthe Other Ones, and performed a number of concerts that year, releasing a live album,The Strange Remain, the following year. In 2000, the Other Ones toured again, this time with Kreutzmann but without Lesh. After taking another year off, the band toured again in 2002 with Lesh. That year, the Other Ones then included all four living former Grateful Dead members who had been in the band for most or all of its history. At different times the shifting lineup of the Other Ones also included guitaristsMark Karan,Steve Kimock, andJimmy Herring, keyboardistsBruce Hornsby,Jeff Chimenti, andRob Barraco, saxophonistDave Ellis, drummerJohn Molo, bassistAlphonso Johnson, and vocalistSusan Tedeschi. In 2003, the Other Ones, still including Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann, changed their name tothe\",\n \"their name tothe Dead.The Dead toured the United States in 2003, 2004 and 2009. The band's lineups included Jimmy Herring andWarren Hayneson guitar, Jeff Chimenti and Rob Barraco on keyboards, andJoan Osborneon vocals.In 2008, members of the Dead played two concerts, called \\\"Deadheads for Obama\\\" and \\\"Change Rocks\\\". Following the 2009 Dead tour, Lesh and Weir formed the bandFurthur, which debuted in September 2009.Joining Lesh and Weir in Furthur wereJohn Kadlecik(guitar), Jeff Chimenti (keyboards),Joe Russo(drums),Jay Lane(drums),Sunshine Becker(vocals), and Zoe Ellis (vocals). Lane and Ellis left the band in 2010, and vocalistJeff Pehrsonjoined later that year. Furthur disbanded in 2014. In 2010, Hart and Kreutzmann re-formed theRhythm Devils, and played a summer concert tour. Since 1995, the former members of the Grateful Dead have also pursued solo music careers. BothBob Weir & RatDogandPhil Lesh and Friendshave performed many concerts and released several albums. Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann have also\",\n \"have also each released a few albums. Hart has toured with hisworld musicpercussion ensemble Planet Drumas well as the Mickey Hart Band.Kreutzmann has led several different bands, includingBK3,7 Walkers(withPapa Mali),andBilly & the Kids.Donna Godchaux has returned to the music scene, with theDonna Jean Godchaux Band,andTom Constantenalso continues to write and perform music.All of these groups continue to play Grateful Dead music. In October 2014, it was announced thatMartin Scorsesewould produce a documentary film about the Grateful Dead, to be directed byAmir Bar-Lev.David Lemieuxsupervised the musical selection, and Weir, Hart, Kreutzmann, and Lesh agreed to new interviews for the film.Bar-Lev's four-hour documentary, titledLong Strange Trip, was released in 2017. \\\"Fare Thee Well\\\" In 2015, Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann, and Hart reunited for five concerts called \\\"Fare Thee Well: Celebrating 50 Years of the Grateful Dead\\\".The shows were performed on June 27 and 28 atLevi's StadiuminSanta Clara, California, and\",\n \"California, and on July 3, 4 and 5 atSoldier FieldinChicago.The band stated that this would be the final time that Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann would perform together.They were joined byTrey AnastasioofPhishon guitar, Jeff Chimenti on keyboards, and Bruce Hornsby on piano.Demand for tickets was very high.The concerts were simulcast via various media.The Chicago shows have been released as a box set of CDs and DVDs. Dead & Company In the fall of 2015, Mickey Hart, Bill Kreutzmann and Bob Weir joined with guitaristJohn Mayer, keyboardistJeff Chimenti, and bassistOteil Burbridgeto tour in a band calledDead & Company. Mayer recounts that in 2011 he was listening toPandoraand happened upon the Grateful Dead song \\\"Althea\\\", and that soon Grateful Dead music was all he would listen to.The band played six tours:October–December 2015,June–July 2016,May–July 2017.,May–August 2018, and May–July 2019.On October–November 2019 they played 6 dates on the \\\"2019 Fall Fun Run\\\". On December 27 and 28, they played at The\",\n \"they played at The Forum in Inglewood (Los Angeles), California as part of their \\\"2019 New Year's Run\\\" tour. On December 30 and 31, they played in their hometown of San Francisco at the Chase Center, featuring a bi-plane that descended from the ceiling of the Chase Center carrying the daughters of Jerry Garcia, Trixie Garcia and her half-sister, Ken Kesey's daughter Sunshine Kesey, dropping rose petals on the audience as they toured the arena. Barlow died in 2018and Hunter in 2019. In 2022, John Mayer announced that Dead & Company's summer 2023 tour will be their last. Musical style and legacy The Grateful Dead formed during the era when bands such asthe Beatles,the Beach Boysandthe Rolling Stoneswere dominating the airwaves. \\\"The Beatles were why we turned from a jug band into a rock 'n' roll band\\\", said Bob Weir. \\\"What we saw them doing was impossibly attractive. I couldn't think of anything else more worth doing.\\\"Former folk-scene starBob Dylanhad recently put out a couple of records featuring electric\",\n \"featuring electric instrumentation. Grateful Dead members have said that it was after attending a concert by the touring New York City bandthe Lovin' Spoonfulthat they decided to \\\"go electric\\\" and look for a \\\"dirtier\\\" sound.Jerry GarciaandBob Weir(both of whom had been immersed in theAmerican folk music revivalof the late 1950s and early 1960s), were open-minded about the use of electric guitars. The Grateful Dead's early music (in the mid-1960s) was part of the process of establishing what \\\"psychedelic music\\\" was, but theirs was essentially a \\\"street party\\\" form of it. They developed their \\\"psychedelic\\\" playing as a result of meetingKen KeseyinPalo Alto, California, and subsequently becoming the house band for theAcid Testshe staged.They did not fit their music to an established category such as pop rock, blues, folk rock, or country & western. Individual tunes within their repertoire could be identified under one of these stylistic labels, but overall their music drew on all of these genres and, more\",\n \"genres and, more frequently, melded several of them.Bill Grahamsaid of the Grateful Dead, \\\"They're not the best at what they do, they're the only ones that do what they do.\\\"Academics Paul Hegarty and Martin Halliwell argued that the Grateful Dead were \\\"not merely asprecursorsofprogbut as essential developments of progressiveness in its early days\\\".Often (both in performance and on recording) the Dead left room for exploratory, spacey soundscapes. Their live shows, fed by an improvisational approach to music, were different from most touring bands. While rock and roll bands often rehearse a standard set, played with minor variations, the Grateful Dead did not prepare in this way. Garcia stated in a 1966 interview, \\\"We don't make up our sets beforehand. We'd rather work off the tops of our heads than off a piece of paper.\\\"They maintained this approach throughout their career. For each performance, the band drew material from an active list of a hundred or so songs. The 1969 live albumLive/Deaddid capture the\",\n \"capture the band in-form, but commercial success did not come untilWorkingman's DeadandAmerican Beauty, both released in 1970. These records largely featured the band's laid-backacoustic musicianshipand more traditional song structures. With their rootsy, eclectic stylings, particularly evident on the latter two albums, the band pioneered the hybridAmericanagenre. Beginning in the early 1990s, a new generation of bands became inspired by the Grateful Dead's improvisational ethos andmarketing strategy, and began to incorporate elements of the Grateful Dead's live performances into their own shows. These include the nightly alteration ofsetlists, frequent improvisation,the blending of genres, and the allowance oftaping, which would often contribute to the development of a dedicated fanbase. Bands associated with the expansion of the\\\"jam scene\\\"includePhish,The String Cheese Incident,Widespread Panic,Blues Traveler,moe., and theDisco Biscuits. Many of these groups began to look past theAmerican roots musicthat\",\n \"roots musicthat the Grateful Dead drew inspiration from, and incorporated elements ofprogressive rock,hard rock, andelectronica. At the same time, the Internet gained popularity and provided a medium for fans to discuss these bands and their performances and downloadMP3s. The Grateful Dead, as well as Phish, were one of the first bands to have aUsenetnewsgroup. Musicianship As the band and its sound matured over thirty years of touring, playing, and recording, each member's stylistic contribution became more defined, consistent, and identifiable. Garcia's lead lines were fluid, supple and spare, owing a great deal of their character to his experience playingScruggs stylebanjo, an approach which often makes use ofnote syncopation,accenting,arpeggios,staccatochromatic runs, and the anticipation of thedownbeat. Garcia had a distinctive sense oftiming, often weaving in and out of thegrooveestablished by the rest of the band as if he were pushing the beat. His lead lines were also immensely influenced byjazz\",\n \"influenced byjazz soloists: Garcia citedMiles Davis,Ornette Coleman,Bill Evans,Pat Martino,George Benson,Al Di Meola,Art Tatum,Duke Ellington, andDjango Reinhardtas primary influences, and frequently utilized techniques common tocountryandblues musicin songs that called back to those traditions. Garcia often switchedscalesin the midst of a solo depending upon thechord changesplayed underneath, though he nearly always finishedphrasesby landing on thechord-tones. Jerry most frequently played in theMixolydian mode, though his solos and phrases often incorporated notes from theDorianandmajor/minor pentatonic scales. Particularly in the late 1960s, Garcia occasionally incorporatedmelodic linesderived fromIndianragasinto the band's extended,psychedelicimprovisation, likely inspired byJohn Coltraneand other jazz artists' interest in thesitarmusic ofRavi Shankar. Lesh was originally a classically trained trumpet player with an extensive background inmusic theory, but did not tend to play traditional blues-based bass\",\n \"blues-based bass forms. He often played more melodic, symphonic and complex lines, often sounding like a second lead guitar. In contrast to most bassists inpopular music, Lesh often avoids playing therootof a chord on the downbeat, instead withholding as a means to buildtension. Lesh also rarely repeats the same bassline, even from performance to performance of the same song, and often plays off of or around the other instruments with asyncopated,staccatobounce that contributes to the Dead's unique rhythmic character. Weir, too, was not a traditionalrhythm guitarist, but tended to play uniqueinversionsat the upper end of the Dead's sound. Weir modeled his style of playing after jazz pianistMcCoy Tynerand attempted to replicate the interplay between John Coltrane and Tyner in his support, and occasional subversion, of theharmonic structureof Garcia's voice leadings. This would often influence the direction the band's improvisation would take on a given night. Weir and Garcia's respective positions as rhythm\",\n \"positions as rhythm and lead guitarist were not always strictly adhered to, as Weir would often incorporate short melodic phrases into his playing to support Garcia and occasionally took solos, often played with aslide. Weir's playing is characterized by a \\\"spiky, staccato\\\" sound. The band's two drummers,Mickey HartandBill Kreutzmann, developed a unique, complex interplay, balancing Kreutzmann's steadyshufflebeat with Hart's interest in percussion styles outside the rock tradition. Kreuzmann has said, \\\"I like to establish a feeling and then add radical or oblique juxtapositions to that feeling.\\\"Hart incorporated an 11-count measure to his drumming, bringing a dimension to the band's sound that became an important part of its style. He had studiedtabladrumming and incorporated rhythms and instruments fromworld music, and laterelectronic music, into the band's live performances. The Dead's live performances featured multiple types ofimprovisationderived from a vast array of musical traditions. Not unlike many\",\n \"Not unlike many rock bands of their time, the majority of the Dead's songs feature a designated section in which aninstrumental breakoccurs over thechord changes. These sections typically feature solos by Garcia that often originate as variations on the song'smelody, but go on to create dynamic phrases that resolve by returning to the chord-tones. Not unlike traditionalimprovisational jazz, they may occasionally feature several solos by multiple instruments within an undecided number ofbars, such as a keyboardist, before returning to the melody. At the same time, Dead shows almost always feature a more collective,modalapproach to improvisation that typically occurs duringseguesbetween songs before the bandmodulatesto a newtonal center. Some of the Dead's more extended jam vehicles, such as \\\"The Other One\\\", \\\"Dark Star\\\", and \\\"Playing in the Band\\\" almost exclusively make use of modulation between modes to accompany simple two-chord progressions. Lyrical themes Following the songwriting renaissance that defined\",\n \"that defined the band's early 1970s period, as reflected in the albumsWorkingman's DeadandAmerican Beauty,Robert Hunter, Jerry Garcia's primary lyrical partner, frequently made use ofmotifscommon toAmerican folkloreincluding trains, guns, elements,traditional musical instruments, gambling, murder, animals, alcohol, descriptions ofAmerican geography, andreligious symbolismto illustrate themes involving love and loss, life and death, beauty and horror, and chaos and order.Following in the footsteps of severalAmerican musical traditions, these songs are often confessional and feature narration from the perspective of anantihero. CriticRobert Christgaudescribed them as \\\"American myths\\\" that later gave way to \\\"the old karma-go-round\\\". An extremely common feature in both Robert Hunter's lyrics, as well as the band's visual iconography, is the presence ofdualisticand opposing imagery illustrating the dynamic range of thehuman experience(Heaven and hell, law and crime, dark and light, etc.). Hunter and Garcia's\",\n \"Hunter and Garcia's earlier, more directlypsychedelic-influencedcompositions often make use ofsurrealimagery,nonsense, and whimsey reflective of traditions inEnglish poetry.In a retrospective,The New Yorkerdescribed Hunter's verses as \\\"elliptical, by turns vivid andgnomic\\\", which were often \\\"hippie poetry about roses and bells and dew\\\".Grateful Dead biographer Dennis McNally has described Hunter's lyrics as creating \\\"a non-literal hyper-Americana\\\" weaving a psychedelic, kaleidoscopic tapestry in the hopes of elucidating America'snational character. At least one of Hunter and Bob Weir's collaborations, \\\"Jack Straw\\\", was inspired by the work ofJohn Steinbeck. Merchandising and representation Hal Kantwas an entertainment industry attorney who specialized in representing musical groups. He spent 35 years as principal lawyer and general counsel for the Grateful Dead, a position in the group that was so strong that his business cards with the band identified his role as \\\"Czar\\\". Kant brought the band millions of\",\n \"band millions of dollars in revenue through his management of the band'sintellectual propertyand merchandising rights. At Kant's recommendation, the group was one of the few rock 'n roll pioneers to retain ownership of their music masters andpublishing rights. In 2006, the Grateful Dead signed a ten-year licensing agreement withRhino Entertainmentto manage the band's business interests including the release of musical recordings, merchandising, and marketing. The band retained creative control and kept ownership of its music catalog. A Grateful Dead video game titledGrateful Dead Game – The Epic Tourwas released in April 2012 and was created by Curious Sense. In November 2022, the children's bookThe ABCs of The Grateful Deadwas released.Authorized by the group, it was written by Howie Abrams, illustrated byMichael \\\"Kaves\\\" McLeer, and published bySimon & Schuster. Sponsorship of 1992 Lithuanian Olympic basketball team AfterLithuaniagained its independence from the USSR, the country announced its withdrawal\",\n \"its withdrawal from the1992 Olympicsdue to the lack of any money to sponsor participants.But NBA starŠarūnas Marčiulionis, a native Lithuanian basketball star, wanted to help his native team to compete. His efforts resulted in a call from representatives of the Grateful Dead who set up a meeting with the band members.The band agreed to fund transportation costs for the team (about five thousand dollars) along with Grateful Dead designs for the team's jerseys and shorts. TheLithuanian basketball teamwon the bronze medal and the Lithuanian basketball/Grateful Dead T-shirts became part of pop culture, especially in Lithuania.The incident was covered by the documentaryThe Other Dream Team. Live performances The Grateful Dead toured constantly throughout their career, playing more than 2,300 concerts.They promoted a sense of community among their fans, who became known as \\\"Deadheads\\\", many of whom followed their tours for months or years on end. Around concert venues, an impromptu communal marketplace known as\",\n \"known as 'Shakedown Street' was created by Deadheads to serve as centers of activity where fans could buy and sell anything from grilled cheese sandwiches to home-made t-shirts and recordings of Grateful Dead concerts. In their early career, the band also dedicated their time and talents to their community, the Haight-Ashbury area of San Francisco, making available free food, lodging, music, and health care to all. It has been said that the band performed \\\"more free concerts than any band in the history of music\\\". With the exception of 1975, when the band was on hiatus and played only four concerts, Grateful Dead performed many concerts every year, from their formation in April 1965, until July 9, 1995.Initially all their shows were in California, principally in theSan Francisco Bay Areaand in or nearLos Angeles. They also performed, in 1965 and 1966, withKen Kesey and the Merry Pranksters, as the house band for theAcid Tests. In 1967, they toured nationally, including their first performance inNew York\",\n \"inNew York City. They appeared at theMonterey Pop Festivalin 1967, theWoodstock Festivalin 1969 and theFestival Expresstrain tour across Canada in 1970. They were scheduled to appear as the final act at the infamousAltamont Free Concerton December 6, 1969, after theRolling Stonesbut withdrew after security concerns. \\\"That's the way things went at Altamont—so badly that the Grateful Dead, prime organizers and movers of the festival, didn't even get to play\\\", staff atRolling Stonemagazine wrote in a detailed narrative on the event. Their first UK performance was at theHollywood Music Festivalin 1970. Their largest concert audience came in 1973 when they played, along withthe Allman Brothers Bandandthe Band, before an estimated 600,000 people at theSummer Jam at Watkins Glen.They played to an estimated total of 25 million people, more than any other band, with audiences of up to 80,000 attending a single show. Many of these concerts were preserved in the band's tape vault, and several dozen have since been\",\n \"have since been released on CD and as downloads. The Dead were known for the tremendous variation in their setlists from night to night—the list of songs documented to have been played by the band exceeds 500.The band has released four concert videos under the nameView from the Vault. In 1978, they played three nights at theGreat Pyramid of GizainEgypt. In the 1990s, the Grateful Dead earned a total of $285 million in revenue from their concert tours, the second-highest during the 1990s, with the Rolling Stones earning the most.This figure is representative of tour revenue through 1995, as touring stopped after the death of Jerry Garcia. In a 1991PBSdocumentary, segment host Buck Henry attended an August 1991 concert at Shoreline Amphitheatre and gleaned some information from some band members about the Grateful Dead phenomenon and its success.At the time, Jerry Garcia stated, \\\"We didn't really invent the Grateful Dead, the crowd invented the Grateful Dead, you know what I mean? We were sort of standing in\",\n \"sort of standing in line, and uh, it's gone way past our expectations, way past, so it's, we've been going along with it to see what it's gonna do next.\\\"Mickey Hart said, \\\"This is one of the last places in America that you can really have this kind of fun, you know, considering the political climate and so forth.\\\"Hart also stated that \\\"the transformative power of the Grateful Dead is really the essence of it; it's what it can do to your consciousness. We're more intotransportationthan we are into music,per se, I mean, the business of the Grateful Dead is transportation.\\\"One of the band's largest concerts took place just months before Garcia's death — at their outdoor show with Bob Dylan inHighgate, Vermont, on June 15, 1995. The crowd was estimated to be over 90,000; overnight camping was allowed and about a third of the audience got in without having purchased a ticket. Their numerous studio albums were generally collections of new songs that they had first played in concert. The band was also famous for\",\n \"was also famous for its extended musical improvisations, having been described as having never played the same song the same way twice. Their concert sets often blended songs, one into the next, often for more than three songs at a time. Concert sound systems TheWall of Soundwas a large sound system designed specifically for the band.The band was never satisfied with the house system anywhere they played. After the Monterey Pop Festival, the band's crew 'borrowed' some of the other performers' sound equipment and used it to host some free shows in San Francisco.In their early days, soundmanOwsley \\\"Bear\\\" Stanleydesigned apublic address(PA) and monitor system for them. Stanley was the Grateful Dead's soundman for many years; he was also one of the largest suppliers ofLSD. Stanley's sound systems were delicate and finicky, and frequently brought shows to a halt with technical breakdowns. After Stanley went to jail for manufacturing LSD in 1970, the group briefly used house PAs, but found them to be even less\",\n \"to be even less reliable than those built by their former soundman. On February 2, 1970, the group contactedBob Heilto use his system.In 1971, the band purchased their firstsolid-statesound system fromAlembic Studios. Because of this,Alembicwould play an integral role in the research, development, and production of the Wall of Sound. The band also welcomedDan Healyinto the fold on a permanent basis that year. Healy would mix the Grateful Dead's live sound until 1993. Following Jerry Garcia's death and the band's breakup in 1995, their current sound system was inherited byDave Matthews Band. Dave Matthews Band debuted the sound system April 30, 1996, at the first show of their 1996 tour in Richmond, Virginia. Tapes Like several other bands at the time, the Grateful Dead allowed their fans to record their shows. For many years thetapersset up their microphones wherever they could, and the eventual forest of microphones became a problem for the sound crew. Eventually, this was solved by having a dedicated\",\n \"having a dedicated taping section located behind the soundboard, which required a special \\\"tapers\\\" ticket. The band allowed sharing of their shows, as long as no profits were made on the sale of the tapes. Of the approximately 2,350 shows the Grateful Dead played, almost 2,200 were taped, and most of these are available online.The band began collecting and cataloging tapes early on andDick Latvalawas their keeper. \\\"Dick's Picks\\\" is named after Latvala. After his death in 1999,David Lemieuxgradually took the post. Concert set lists from a subset of 1,590 Grateful Dead shows were used to perform a comparative analysis between how songs were played in concert and how they are listened online byLast.fmmembers.In their bookMarketing Lessons from the Grateful Dead: What Every Business Can Learn From the Most Iconic Band in History,David Meerman ScottandBrian Halliganidentify the taper section as a crucial contributor to increasing the Grateful Dead's fan base. Iconography Over the years, a number of iconic images\",\n \"of iconic images have come to be associated with the Grateful Dead. Many of these images originated as artwork for concert posters or album covers. Deadheads Fans and enthusiasts of the band are commonly referred to asDeadheads. While the origin of the term may be unclear,Dead Headswere made canon by the notice placed inside theSkull and Roses(1971) album by manager Jon McIntire: DEAD FREAKS UNITE: Who are you? Where are you? How are you?Send us your name and address and we'll keep you informed.Dead Heads, P.O. Box 1065, San Rafael, California 94901. As each show featured a new setlist and a great deal of improvisation, Deadheads would often follow the band from city to city, attending many shows on a given tour. Many Deadheads speak of being drawn to the culture due to the sense of community that the band's shows tended to foster. Though Deadheads came from a wide array of demographics, many attempted to reproduce the aesthetics and values of the1960s countercultureand were often stigmatized in the\",\n \"stigmatized in the media.Because of the stereotyping of Deadheads ashippies, the band's shows became a common target for officials in theDEAand arrests at shows became common. As a group, the Deadheads were considered very mellow. \\\"I'd rather work nine Grateful Dead concerts than one Oregon football game,\\\" Police Det. Rick Raynor said. \\\"They don't get belligerent like they do at the games.\\\"Despite this reputation, in the mid-1990s, as the band's popularity grew, there were a series of minor scuffles occurring at shows that peaked with a large scale riot at theDeer Creek Music Centernear Indianapolis in July 1995. Thisgate crashingincident caused the band to cancel the following night's show.Deadheads who appeared on the scene after the band's 1987 hit single \\\"Touch of Grey\\\", were often disparagingly referred to by older fans as \\\"Touchheads\\\". Beginning in the 1980s, a number of definable sects of Deadheads began to appear on the scene. These included theWharf Rats, as well as the \\\"spinners\\\", named\",\n \"\\\"spinners\\\", named forwhirling-style of dancing and their use of the band's music to facilitatemystical experiences. Deadheads, particularly those who collectedtapes, were known for keeping close records of the band's setlists and for comparing various live versions of the band's songs, as reflected in publications such as the various editions of \\\"Deadbase\\\" and \\\"The Deadhead's Taping Compendium\\\". This practice continues into the 21st century on digital forums and websites such as theInternet Archive, which features live recordings of nearly every available Grateful Dead show and allows users to discuss and review the site's shows. The band hasa number of influential and celebrity fans, including politicians, businesspeople, journalists, and other musicians. Donation of archives to UC Santa Cruz On April 24, 2008, members Bob Weir and Mickey Hart, along with Nion McEvoy, CEO ofChronicle Books,UC Santa CruzchancellorGeorge Blumenthal, and UC Santa Cruz librarian Virginia Steel, held a press conference\",\n \"a press conference announcing UCSC'sMcHenry Librarywould be the permanent home of theGrateful Dead Archive, which includes a complete archival history from 1965 to the present. The archive includes correspondence, photographs, fliers, posters, and several other forms of memorabilia and records of the band. Also included are unreleased videos of interviews and TV appearances that will be installed for visitors to view, as well as stage backdrops and other props from the band's concerts. Blumenthal stated at the event, \\\"The Grateful Dead Archive represents one of the most significant popular cultural collections of the 20th century; UC Santa Cruz is honored to receive this invaluable gift. The Grateful Dead and UC Santa Cruz are both highly innovative institutions—born the same year—that continue to make a major, positive impact on the world.\\\" Guitarist Bob Weir stated \\\"We looked around, and UC Santa Cruz seems the best possible home. If you ever wrote the Grateful Dead a letter, you'll probably find it\",\n \"probably find it there!\\\" Professor of musicFredric Liebermanwas the key contact between the band and the university, who let the university know about the search for a home for the archive, and who had collaborated with Mickey Hart on three books in the past,Planet Drum(1990),Drumming at the Edge of Magic(1991), andSpirit into Sound(2006). The first large-scale exhibition of materials from the Grateful Dead Archive was mounted at theNew-York Historical Societyin 2010. Awards In 2004,Rolling Stoneranked the Grateful Dead No. 57 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. On February 10, 2007, the Grateful Dead received aGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award. The award was accepted on behalf of the band by Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann. In 2011, a recording of the Grateful Dead's May 8, 1977, concert at Cornell University's Barton Hall was selected for induction into the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. Twelve members of the Grateful Dead (the eleven official performing members\",\n \"performing members plus Robert Hunter) were inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994, andBruce Hornsbywas their presenter. In 2024 the band was named as one of the recipients of theKennedy Center Honors. The four living core members (Weir, Lesh, Hart and Kreutzmann) will receive the award. Members Lead guitaristJerry Garciawas often viewed both by the public and the media as the leader or primary spokesperson for the Grateful Dead, but was reluctant to be perceived that way, especially since he and the other group members saw themselves asequal participantsand contributors to their collective musical and creative output.Garcia, a native of San Francisco, grew up in theExcelsior District. One of his main influences was bluegrass music, and he also performed—onbanjo, one of his other great instrumental loves, along with thepedal steel guitar—in bluegrass bands, notablyOld & In the WaywithmandolinistDavid Grisman. Ned Lagin, a youngMITstudent and friend of the band, guested with them many times from\",\n \"many times from 1970 through 1975, providing a second keyboard as well as synthesizers. Upon graduating from MIT, he began touring with the band fulltime in 1974, performing sets of electronic music withPhil Lesh, occasionally with Garcia and Kreutzmann, during the band's intermission.The \\\"Ned and Phil\\\" set became a regular fixture of that era, and was featured nearly every night during their Summer '74 and Europe '74 tours, as well as their five-night residency at theWinterland Ballroomduring October 1974. Lagin is also featured inThe Grateful Dead Movie. During 1974 and 1975, he would also occasionally play entire sets with the band, usually on Garcia's side of the stage, before ending his touring relationship with the band and focusing on his solo music projects, such as his albumSeastones, which features several members of the Dead. Bruce Hornsbynever officially joined the band full-time because of his other commitments, but he did play keyboards at most Dead shows between September 1990 and March 1992,\",\n \"and March 1992, and sat in with the band over 100 times in all between 1988 and 1995. He added several Dead songs to his own live showsand Jerry Garcia referred to him as a \\\"floating member\\\" who could come and go as he pleased. Robert HunterandJohn Perry Barlowwere the band's primarylyricists, starting in 1967 and 1971, respectively, and continuing until the band's dissolution.Hunter collaborated mostly with Garcia and Barlow mostly with Weir, though each wrote with other band members as well. Both are listed as official members at Dead.net, the band's website, alongside the performing members.Barlow was the only member not inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Timeline Discography See also References Further reading External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":392,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which other astronaut flew the same type of aircraft during the Korean War as the first man to step on the moon?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"John Glenn"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_landing"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Armstrong"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F9F_Panther"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glenn"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_landing', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Armstrong', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F9F_Panther', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glenn']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_landing","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Armstrong","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F9F_Panther","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glenn"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_landing\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Armstrong\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F9F_Panther\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glenn\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Moon landing Clickable map of the locations of all successfulsoft landingson theMoonto date (top) AMoon landingorlunar landingis the arrival of aspacecrafton the surface of theMoon, including both crewed and robotic missions. The first human-made object to touch the Moon wasLuna 2in 1959. In 1969Apollo 11was the first crewed mission to land on the Moon.There weresix crewed landingsbetween 1969 and 1972, and numerous uncrewed landings. All crewed missions to the Moon were conducted by theApollo program, with the last departing the lunar surface in December 1972. AfterLuna 24in 1976 there were nosoft landingson the Moon untilChang'e 3in 2013. All soft landings took place on thenear side of the Moonuntil January 2019, whenChang'e 4made the first landing on thefar side of the Moon. Uncrewed landings Government landings Six government space agencies,Interkosmos,NASA,CNSA,ISRO,JAXAandESA, have reached the Moon with uncrewed missions. Three private/commercial missions,Beresheet(hard landing),Hakuto-R(hard landing), andOdysseus(soft landing) have also reached the lunar surface (see#Commercial landings). The Soviet Union (Interkosmos), the United States (NASA), China (CNSA), India (ISRO),and Japan (JAXA)are the only five nations to have successfully achieved soft landings. The Soviet Union performed the first hard Moon landing – \"hard\" meaning the spacecraft intentionally crashes into the Moon at high speeds – with theLuna 2spacecraft in 1959, a feat the U.S. duplicated in 1962 withRanger 4. Following their initial hard landings on the Moon, sixteen Soviet, U.S., Chinese and Indian spacecraft have used braking rockets (retrorockets) to makesoft landingsand perform scientific operations on the lunar surface. In 1966 the Soviet Union accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the lunar surface during theLuna 9andLuna 13missions. The U.S. followed with fiveSurveyorsoft landings. China's ongoing\"Chang'e\" programhas landed 4 times since 2013, achieving robotic soil sample return and the first landing on the far side of the Moon. On 23 August 2023, ISRO successfully landed itsChandrayaan-3module in thelunar south poleregion, making India the fourth nation to successfully complete a soft landing on the Moon.Chandrayaan-3 saw a successful soft landing of itsVikramlanderandPragyanroverat 6.04 pm IST (1234 GMT), marking the first uncrewed soft landing in the little-explored region. On 19 January 2024, JAXA successfully landed itsSLIM lander, making Japan the fifth nation to successfully complete a soft landing. Commercial landings Two organizations have attempted but failed to achieve soft landings: Israeli private space agencySpaceILwith theirBeresheetspacecraft (2019), and Japanese companyispace'sHakuto-R Mission 1(2023). On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseussuccessfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing in over 50 years. This event marked the first successful landing of aprivately owned spacecrafton the Moon. Crewed landings A total of twelveastronautshave landed on the Moon. This was accomplished with two pilot-astronauts flying aLunar Moduleon each of sixNASAmissions. The missions spanned a 41-month period starting 20 July 1969, beginning withNeil ArmstrongandBuzz AldrinonApollo 11, and ending on 14 December 1972 withGene CernanandHarrison SchmittonApollo 17. Cernan was the last man to step off the lunar surface. All Apollo lunar missions had a third crew member who remained on board thecommand module. Scientific background To get to the Moon, a spacecraft must first leave Earth'sgravity well; currently, the only practical means is arocket. Unlike airborne vehicles such asballoonsandjets, a rocket can continueacceleratingin thevacuumoutside theatmosphere. Upon approach of the target moon, a spacecraft will be drawn ever closer to its surface at increasing speeds due to gravity. In order to land intact it must decelerate to less than about 160 kilometres per hour (100 mph) and be ruggedized to withstand a \"hard landing\" impact, or it must decelerate to negligible speed at contact for a \"soft landing\" (the only option for humans). The first three attempts by the U.S. to perform a successful hard Moon landing with a ruggedizedseismometerpackage in 1962 all failed.The Soviets first achieved the milestone of a hard lunar landing with a ruggedized camera in 1966, followed only months later by the first uncrewed soft lunar landing by the U.S. The speed of a crash landing on its surface is typically between 70 and 100% of theescape velocityof the target moon, and thus this is the total velocity which must be shed from the target moon's gravitational attraction for a soft landing to occur. For Earth's Moon, the escape velocity is 2.38 kilometres per second (1.48 mi/s).The change in velocity (referred to as adelta-v) is usually provided by a landing rocket, which must be carried into space by the originallaunch vehicleas part of the overall spacecraft. An exception is the soft moon landing onTitancarried out by theHuygensprobein 2005. As the moon with the thickest atmosphere, landings on Titan may be accomplished by usingatmospheric entrytechniques that are generally lighter in weight than a rocket with equivalent capability. The Soviets succeeded in making the first crash landing on the Moon in 1959.Crash landingsmay occur because of malfunctions in a spacecraft, or they can be deliberately arranged for vehicles which do not have an onboard landing rocket. There have beenmany such Moon crashes, often with their flight path controlled to impact at precise locations on the lunar surface. For example, during the Apollo program theS-IVBthird stage of theSaturn Vrocket as well as the spent ascent stage of theLunar Modulewere deliberately crashed on the Moon several times to provide impacts registering as amoonquakeonseismometersthat had been left on the lunar surface. Such crashes were instrumental in mapping theinternal structure of the Moon. To return to Earth, the escape velocity of the Moon must be overcome for the spacecraft to escape thegravity wellof the Moon. Rockets must be used to leave the Moon and return to space. Upon reaching Earth, atmospheric entry techniques are used to absorb thekinetic energyof a returning spacecraft and reduce its speed for safe landing. These functions greatly complicate a moon landing mission and lead to many additional operational considerations. Any moon departure rocket must first be carried to the Moon's surface by a moon landing rocket, increasing the latter's required size. The Moon departure rocket, larger moon landing rocket and any Earth atmosphere entry equipment such as heat shields andparachutesmust in turn be lifted by the original launch vehicle, greatly increasing its size by a significant and almost prohibitive degree. Political background The political context of the 1960s helps to parse both the United States and Soviet Union's efforts to land spacecraft, and eventually humans, on the Moon.World War IIhad introduced many new and deadly innovations includingblitzkrieg-style surprise attacks used in theinvasion of PolandandFinland, as well as in theattack on Pearl Harbor; theV-2 rocket, aballistic missilewhich killed thousands in attacks on London andAntwerp; and theatom bomb, which killed hundreds of thousands in theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the 1950s, tensions mounted between the two ideologically opposed superpowers of the United States and theSoviet Unionthat had emerged as victors in the conflict, particularly after the development by both countries of thehydrogen bomb. On 4 October 1957, the Soviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1as the firstartificial satelliteto orbit the Earth and so initiated theSpace Race. This unexpected event was a source of pride to the Soviets and shock to the U.S., who could now potentially be surprise attacked by nuclear-tipped Soviet rockets in under 30 minutes.The craft was also barely visible to the naked eye as the steady beeping of theradio beaconaboardSputnik 1as it passed overhead every 96 minutes, which was widely viewed on both sidesas effective propaganda toThird Worldcountries demonstrating the technological superiority of the Sovietpolitical systemcompared to that of the U.S. This perception was reinforced by a string of subsequent rapid-fire Soviet space achievements. In 1959, the R-7 rocket was used to launch the first escape from Earth's gravity into asolar orbit, the first crash impact onto the surface of the Moon, and the first photography of the never-before-seenfar side of the Moon. These were theLuna 1,Luna 2, andLuna 3spacecraft. The U.S. response to these Soviet achievements was to greatly accelerate previously existing military space and missile projects and to create a civilian space agency,NASA. Military efforts were initiated to develop and produce mass quantities of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that would bridge the so-calledmissile gapand enable a policy ofdeterrencetonuclear warwith the Soviets known asmutual assured destructionor MAD. These newly developedmissileswere made available to civilians of NASA for various projects (which would have the added benefit of demonstrating the payload, guidance accuracy and reliabilities of U.S. ICBMs to the Soviets). Early Soviet uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965) After thefall of the Soviet Unionin 1991, historical records were released to allow the true accounting of Soviet lunar efforts. Unlike the U.S. tradition of assigning a particular mission name in advance of a launch, the Soviets assigned a public \"Luna\" mission number only if a launch resulted in a spacecraft going beyond Earth orbit. The policy had the effect of hiding Soviet Moon mission failures from public view. If the attempt failed in Earth orbit before departing for the Moon, it was frequently (but not always) given a \"Sputnik\" or \"Cosmos\" Earth-orbit mission number to hide its purpose. Launch explosions were not acknowledged at all. Early U.S. uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965) The U.S. was not able to reach the Moon with thePioneerandRanger programs, with fifteen consecutive U.S. uncrewed lunar missions from 1958 to 1964 failing their primary photographic missions.However, Rangers 4 and 6 successfully repeated the Soviet lunar impacts as part of their secondary missions. Three U.S. missionsin 1962 attempted to hard land small seismometer packages released by the main Ranger spacecraft. These surface packages were to useretrorocketsto survive landing, unlike the parent vehicle, which was designed to deliberately crash onto the surface. The final three Ranger probes performed successful high altitude lunarreconnaissancephotography missions during intentional crash impacts between 2.62 and 2.68 kilometres per second (9,400 and 9,600 km/h). Pioneer missions Three different designs of Pioneer lunar probes were flown on three different modified ICBMs. Those flown on theThorbooster modified with an Able upper stage carried aninfraredimage scanning television system with aresolutionof 1milliradianto study the Moon's surface, anionization chamberto measureradiationin space, a diaphragm/microphone assembly to detectmicrometeorites, amagnetometer, and temperature-variable resistors to monitor spacecraft internal thermal conditions.The first, a mission managed by theUnited States Air Force, exploded during launch;all subsequent Pioneer lunar flights had NASA as the lead management organization. The next two returned to Earth and burned up upon reentry into the atmosphere after achieved maximum altitudes of around 114,000 kilometres (71,000 mi)and 1,530 kilometres (950 mi)respectively, far short of the roughly 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) required to reach the vicinity of the Moon. NASA then collaborated with theUnited States Army'sBallistic Missile Agencyto fly two extremely small cone-shaped probes on theJunoICBM, carrying onlyphotocellswhich would be triggered by the light of the Moon and a lunar radiation environment experiment using aGeiger-Müller tubedetector.The first of these reached an altitude of only around 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), gathering data that established the presence of theVan Allen radiation beltsbefore reentering Earth's atmosphere.The second passed by the Moon at a distance of more than 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), twice as far as planned and too far away to trigger either of the on-board scientific instruments, yet still becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to reach asolar orbit. The final Pioneer lunar probe design consisted of four \"paddlewheel\"solar panelsextending from a one-meter diameter sphericalspin-stabilizedspacecraft body equipped to take images of the lunar surface with a television-like system, estimate the Moon's mass and topography of thepoles, record the distribution and velocity of micrometeorites, study radiation, measuremagnetic fields, detectlow frequency electromagnetic wavesin space and use a sophisticated integratedpropulsionsystem for maneuvering and orbit insertion as well.None of the four spacecraft built in this series of probes survived launch on itsAtlasICBM outfitted with an Able upper stage. Following the unsuccessful Atlas-Able Pioneer probes, NASA'sJet Propulsion Laboratoryembarked upon an uncrewed spacecraft development program whose modular design could be used to support both lunar and interplanetary exploration missions. The interplanetary versions were known asMariners;lunar versions wereRangers. JPL envisioned three versions of the Ranger lunar probes: Block I prototypes, which would carry various radiation detectors in test flights to a very high Earth orbit that came nowhere near the Moon;Block II, which would try to accomplish the first Moon landing by hard landing a seismometer package;and Block III, which would crash onto the lunar surface without any braking rockets while taking very high resolution wide-area photographs of the Moon during their descent. Ranger missions The Ranger 1 and 2 Block I missions were virtually identical.Spacecraft experiments included aLyman-alphatelescope, arubidium-vapormagnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium-energy-rangeparticle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic-ray integratingionization chamber,cosmic dustdetectors, andscintillation counters. The goal was to place these Block I spacecraft in a very high Earth orbit with an apogee of 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and aperigeeof 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi). From that vantage point, scientists could make direct measurements of themagnetosphereover a period of many months while engineers perfected new methods to routinely track and communicate with spacecraft over such large distances. Such practice was deemed vital to be assured of capturing high-bandwidth television transmissions from the Moon during a one-shot fifteen-minute time window in subsequent Block II and Block III lunar descents. Both Block I missions suffered failures of the new Agena upper stage and never left low Earthparking orbitafter launch; both burned up upon reentry after only a few days. The first attempts to perform a Moon landing took place in 1962 during the Rangers 3, 4 and 5 missions flown by the United States.All three Block II missions basic vehicles were 3.1 m high and consisted of a lunar capsule covered with a balsa wood impact-limiter, 650 mm in diameter, a mono-propellant mid-course motor, a retrorocket with a thrust of 5,050 pounds-force (22.5 kN),and a gold- and chrome-plated hexagonal base 1.5 m in diameter. This lander (code-namedTonto) was designed to provide impact cushioning using an exterior blanket of crushable balsa wood and an interior filled with incompressible liquidfreon. A 42-kilogram (93 lb) 30-centimetre-diameter (0.98 ft) metal payload sphere floated and was free to rotate in a liquid freon reservoir contained in the landing sphere. \"Everything that we do ought to really be tied-in to getting onto the Moon ahead of the Russians. ...We're ready to spend reasonable amounts of money, but we're talking about fantastic expenditures which wreck our budget and all these other domestic programs, and the only justification for it, in my opinion, to do it is because we hope to beat them and demonstrate that starting behind, as we did by a couple of years, by God, we passed them.\" —John F. Kennedyon the planned Moon landing, 21 November 1962 This payload sphere contained six silver-cadmiumbatteries to power a fifty-milliwatt radio transmitter, a temperature sensitive voltage controlled oscillator to measure lunar surface temperatures, and a seismometer designed with sensitivity high enough to detect the impact of a 2.3 kg (5 lb) meteorite on the opposite side of the Moon. Weight was distributed in the payload sphere so it would rotate in its liquid blanket to place the seismometer into an upright and operational position no matter what the final resting orientation of the external landing sphere. After landing, plugs were to be opened allowing the freon to evaporate and the payload sphere to settle into upright contact with the landing sphere. The batteries were sized to allow up to three months of operation for the payload sphere. Various mission constraints limited the landing site to Oceanus Procellarum on the lunar equator, which the lander ideally would reach 66 hours after launch. No cameras were carried by the Ranger landers, and no pictures were to be captured from the lunar surface during the mission. Instead, the 3.1 metres (10 ft) Ranger Block II mother ship carried a 200-scan-line television camera to capture images during the free-fall descent to the lunar surface. The camera was designed to transmit a picture every 10 seconds.Seconds before impact, at 5 and 0.6 kilometres (3.11 and 0.37 mi) above the lunar surface, the Ranger mother ships took pictures (which may be viewedhere). Other instruments gathering data before the mother ship crashed onto the Moon were a gamma ray spectrometer to measure overall lunar chemical composition and a radar altimeter. The radar altimeter was to give a signal ejecting the landing capsule and its solid-fueled braking rocket overboard from the Block II mother ship. The braking rocket was to slow and the landing sphere to a dead stop at 330 metres (1,080 ft) above the surface and separate, allowing the landing sphere to free fall once more and hit the surface. On Ranger 3, failure of the Atlas guidance system and a software error aboard the Agena upper stage combined to put the spacecraft on a course that would miss the Moon. Attempts to salvage lunar photography during a flyby of the Moon were thwarted by in-flight failure of the onboard flight computer. This was probably because of priorheat sterilizationof the spacecraft by keeping it above theboilingpoint of water for 24 hours on the ground, to protect the Moon from being contaminated by Earth organisms. Ranger 3 later began orbiting the Sun, called heliocentric orbit.Heat sterilization was also blamed for subsequent in-flight failures of the spacecraft computer on Ranger 4 and the power subsystem on Ranger 5. Only Ranger 4 reached the Moon in an uncontrolled crash impact on the far side of the Moon. Block III probes replaced the Block II landing capsule and its retrorocket with a heavier, more capable television system to support landing site selection for upcoming Apollo crewed Moon landing missions. Six cameras were designed to take thousands of high-altitude photographs in the final twenty-minute period before crashing on the lunar surface. Camera resolution was 1,132 scan lines, far higher than the 525 lines found in a typical U.S. 1964 home television. WhileRanger 6suffered a failure of this camera system and returned no photographs despite an otherwise successful flight, the subsequentRanger 7mission to Mare Cognitum was a complete success. Breaking the six-year string of failures in U.S. attempts to photograph the Moon at close range, theRanger 7mission was viewed as a national turning point and instrumental in allowing the key 1965 NASA budget appropriation to pass through theUnited States Congressintact without a reduction in funds for the Apollo crewed Moon landing program. Subsequent successes withRanger 8andRanger 9further buoyed U.S. hopes. Soviet uncrewed soft landings (1966–1976) TheLuna 9spacecraft, launched by theSoviet Union, performed the first successful soft Moon landing on 3 February 1966.Airbagsprotected its 99-kilogram (218 lb) ejectable capsule which survived an impact speed of over 15 metres per second (54 km/h; 34 mph).Luna 13duplicated this feat with a similar Moon landing on 24 December 1966. Both returned panoramic photographs that were the first views from the lunar surface. Luna 16was the firstrobotic probeto land on theMoonand safely return a sample of lunar soil back to Earth.It represented the firstlunar samplereturn mission by theSoviet Union, and was the third lunarsample return missionoverall, following theApollo 11andApollo 12missions. This mission was later successfully repeated byLuna 20(1972) andLuna 24(1976). In 1970 and 1973 twoLunokhod(\"Moonwalker\") robotic lunar rovers were delivered to the Moon, where they successfully operated for 10 and 4 months respectively, covering 10.5 km (6.5 mi) (Lunokhod 1) and 37 km (23 mi) (Lunokhod 2). These rover missions were in operation concurrently with the Zond and Luna series of Moon flyby, orbiter and landing missions. U.S. uncrewed soft landings (1966–1968) The U.S.roboticSurveyor programwas part of an effort to locate a safe site on the Moon for a human landing and test under lunar conditions theradarand landing systems required to make a true controlled touchdown. Five of Surveyor's seven missions made successful uncrewed Moon landings. Surveyor 3 was visited two years after its Moon landing by the crew of Apollo 12. They removed parts of it for examination back on Earth to determine the effects of long-term exposure to the lunar environment. Transition from direct ascent landings to lunar orbit operations Within four months of each other in early 1966 the Soviet Union and the United States had accomplished successful Moon landings with uncrewed spacecraft. To the general public both countries had demonstrated roughly equal technical capabilities by returning photographic images from the surface of the Moon. These pictures provided a key affirmative answer to the crucial question of whether or not lunar soil would support upcoming crewed landers with their much greater weight. However, the Luna 9 hard landing of a ruggedized sphere using airbags at a 50-kilometre-per-hour (31 mph) ballistic impact speed had much more in common with the failed 1962 Ranger landing attempts and their planned 160-kilometre-per-hour (99 mph) impacts than with the Surveyor 1 soft landing on three footpads using its radar-controlled, adjustable-thrust retrorocket. While Luna 9 and Surveyor 1 were both major national accomplishments, only Surveyor 1 had reached its landing site employing key technologies that would be needed for a crewed flight. Thus as of mid-1966, the United States had begun to pull ahead of the Soviet Union in the so-called Space Race to land a man on the Moon. Advances in other areas were necessary before crewed spacecraft could follow uncrewed ones to the surface of the Moon. Of particular importance was developing the expertise to perform flight operations in lunar orbit. Ranger, Surveyor and initial Luna Moon landing attempts all flew directly to the surface without a lunar orbit. Suchdirect ascentsuse a minimum amount of fuel for uncrewed spacecraft on a one-way trip. In contrast, crewed vehicles need additional fuel after a lunar landing to enable a return trip back to Earth for the crew. Leaving this massive amount of required Earth-return fuel in lunar orbit until it is used later in the mission is far more efficient than taking such fuel down to the lunar surface in a Moon landing and then hauling it all back into space yet again, working against lunar gravity both ways. Such considerations lead logically to alunar orbit rendezvousmission profile for a crewed Moon landing. Accordingly, beginning in mid-1966 both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. naturally progressed into missions featuring lunar orbit as a prerequisite to a crewed Moon landing. The primary goals of these initial uncrewed orbiters were extensive photographic mapping of the entire lunar surface for the selection of crewed landing sites and, for the Soviets, the checkout of radio communications gear that would be used in future soft landings. An unexpected major discovery from initial lunar orbiters were vast volumes of dense materials beneath the surface of the Moon'smaria. Such mass concentrations (\"mascons\") can send a crewed mission dangerously off course in the final minutes of a Moon landing when aiming for a relatively small landing zone that is smooth and safe. Mascons were also found over a longer period of time to greatly disturb the orbits of low-altitude satellites around the Moon, making their orbits unstable and forcing an inevitable crash on the lunar surface in the relatively short period of months to a few years. Controlling the location of impact for spent lunar orbiters can have scientific value. For example, in 1999 the NASALunar Prospectororbiter was deliberately targeted to impact a permanently shadowed area of Shoemaker Crater near the lunar south pole. It was hoped that energy from the impact would vaporize suspected shadowed ice deposits in the crater and liberate a water vapor plume detectable from Earth. No such plume was observed. However, a small vial of ashes from the body of pioneer lunar scientistEugene Shoemakerwas delivered by the Lunar Prospector to the crater named in his honor – the only human remains on the Moon. Soviet lunar orbit satellites (1966–1974) Luna 10became the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon on 3 April 1966. U.S. lunar orbit satellites (1966–1967) Soviet circumlunar loop flights (1967–1970) It is possible to aim a spacecraft from Earth so it will loop around the Moon and return to Earth without entering lunar orbit, following the so-calledfree return trajectory. Such circumlunar loop missions are simpler than lunar orbit missions because rockets for lunar orbit braking and Earth return are not required. However, a crewed circumlunar loop trip poses significant challenges beyond those found in a crewed low-Earth-orbit mission, offering valuable lessons in preparation for a crewed Moon landing. Foremost among these are mastering the demands of re-entering the Earth's atmosphere upon returning from the Moon. Inhabited Earth-orbiting vehicles such as the Space Shuttle return to Earth from speeds of around 7,500 m/s (27,000 km/h). Due to the effects of gravity, a vehicle returning from the Moon hits Earth's atmosphere at a much higher speed of around 11,000 m/s (40,000 km/h). Theg-loadingon astronauts during the resultingdecelerationcan be at the limits of human endurance even during a nominal reentry. Slight variations in the vehicle flight path and reentry angle during a return from the Moon can easily result in fatal levels of deceleration force. Achieving a crewed circumlunar loop flight prior to a crewed lunar landing became a primary goal of the Soviets with theirZondspacecraft program. The first three Zonds were robotic planetary probes; after that, the Zond name was transferred to a completely separate human spaceflight program. The initial focus of these later Zonds was extensive testing of required high-speed reentry techniques. This focus was not shared by the U.S., who chose instead to bypass the stepping stone of a crewed circumlunar loop mission and never developed a separate spacecraft for this purpose. Initial crewed spaceflights in the early 1960s placed a single person in low Earth orbit during the SovietVostokand U.S.Mercuryprograms. A two-flight extension of the Vostok program known asVoskhodeffectively used Vostok capsules with their ejection seats removed to achieve Soviet space firsts of multiple person crews in 1964 and spacewalks in early 1965. These capabilities were later demonstrated by the U.S. in tenGeminilow Earth orbit missions throughout 1965 and 1966, using a totally new second-generation spacecraft design that had little in common with the earlier Mercury. These Gemini missions went on to prove techniques for orbitalrendezvous and dockingcrucial to a crewed lunar landing mission profile. After the end of the Gemini program, the Soviet Union began flying their second-generation Zond crewed spacecraft in 1967 with the ultimate goal of looping a cosmonaut around the Moon and returning him or her immediately to Earth. TheZondspacecraft was launched with the simpler and already operationalProtonlaunch rocket, unlike the parallel Soviet human Moon landing effort also underway at the time based on third-generationSoyuz spacecraftrequiring development of the advancedN-1booster. The Soviets thus believed they could achieve a crewed Zond circumlunar flight years before a U.S. human lunar landing and so score a propaganda victory. However, significant development problems delayed the Zond program and the success of the U.S. Apollo lunar landing program led to the eventual termination of the Zond effort. Like Zond, Apollo flights were generally launched on a free return trajectory that would return them to Earth via a circumlunar loop if aservice modulemalfunction failed to place them in lunar orbit. This option was implemented after an explosion aboard theApollo 13mission in 1970, which is the only crewed circumlunar loop mission flown to date. Zond 5was the first spacecraft to carry life from Earth to the vicinity of the Moon and return, initiating the final lap of theSpace Racewith its payload of tortoises, insects, plants, and bacteria. Despite the failure suffered in its final moments, the Zond 6 mission was reported by Soviet media as being a success as well. Although hailed worldwide as remarkable achievements, both these Zond missions flew off-nominal reentry trajectories resulting in deceleration forces that would have been fatal to humans. As a result, the Soviets secretly planned to continue uncrewed Zond tests until their reliability to support human flight had been demonstrated. However, due to NASA's continuing problems with thelunar module, and because ofCIAreports of a potential Soviet crewed circumlunar flight in late 1968, NASA fatefully changed the flight plan ofApollo 8from an Earth-orbit lunar module test to a lunar orbit mission scheduled for late December 1968. In early December 1968 the launch window to the Moon opened for the Soviet launch site inBaikonur, giving the USSR their final chance to beat the US to the Moon.Cosmonautswent on alert and asked to fly the Zond spacecraft then in final countdown at Baikonur on the first human trip to the Moon. Ultimately, however, the SovietPolitburodecided the risk of crew death was unacceptable given the combined poor performance to that point of Zond/Proton and so scrubbed the launch of a crewed Soviet lunar mission. Their decision proved to be a wise one, since this unnumbered Zond mission was destroyed in another uncrewed test when it was finally launched several weeks later. By this time flights of the third generation U.S.Apollo spacecrafthad begun. Far more capable than the Zond, the Apollo spacecraft had the necessary rocket power to slip into and out of lunar orbit and to make course adjustments required for a safe reentry during the return to Earth. TheApollo 8mission carried out the first human trip to the Moon on 24 December 1968, certifying theSaturn Vbooster for crewed use and flying not a circumlunar loop but instead a full ten orbits around the Moon before returning safely to Earth.Apollo 10then performed a full dress rehearsal of a crewed Moon landing in May 1969. This mission orbited within 14.4 kilometres (47,400 ft) of the lunar surface, performing necessary low-altitude mapping of trajectory-altering mascons using a factory prototype lunar module too heavy to land. With the failure of the robotic Soviet sample return Moon landing attemptLuna 15in July 1969, the stage was set forApollo 11. Human Moon landings (1969–1972) US strategy Plans for human Moon exploration began during theEisenhoweradministration. In a series of mid-1950s articles inCollier'smagazine,Wernher von Braunhad popularized the idea of a crewed expedition to establish a lunar base. A human Moon landing posed several daunting technical challenges to the US and USSR. Besides guidance and weight management,atmospheric re-entrywithoutablativeoverheating was a major hurdle. After the Soviets launchedSputnik, von Braun promoted a plan for the US Army to establish a military lunar outpost by 1965. After theearly Soviet successes, especiallyYuri Gagarin's flight, US PresidentJohn F. Kennedylooked for a project that would capture the public imagination. He asked Vice PresidentLyndon Johnsonto make recommendations on a scientific endeavor that would prove US world leadership. The proposals included non-space options such as massive irrigation projects to benefit theThird World. The Soviets, at the time, had more powerful rockets than the US, which gave them an advantage in some kinds of space mission. Advances in US nuclear weapon technology had led to smaller, lighter warheads; the Soviets' were much heavier, and the powerfulR-7rocket was developed to carry them. More modest missions such as flying around the Moon, or a space lab in lunar orbit (both were proposed by Kennedy to von Braun), offered too much advantage to the Soviets;landing, however, would capture the world's imagination. Johnson had championed the US human spaceflight program ever since Sputnik, sponsoring legislation to create NASA while he was still a senator. When Kennedy asked him in 1961 to research the best achievement to counter the Soviets' lead, Johnson responded that the US had an even chance of beating them to a crewed lunar landing, but not for anything less. Kennedy seized on Apollo as the ideal focus for efforts in space. He ensured continuing funding, shielding space spending from the 1963 tax cut, but diverting money from other NASA scientific projects. These diversions dismayed NASA's leader,James E. Webb, who perceived the need for NASA's support from the scientific community. The Moon landing required development of the large Saturn Vlaunch vehicle, which achieved a perfect record: zero catastrophic failures or launch vehicle-caused mission failures in thirteen launches. For the program to succeed, its proponents would have to defeat criticism from politicians both on the left (more money for social programs) and on the right (more money for the military). By emphasizing the scientific payoff and playing on fears of Soviet space dominance, Kennedy and Johnson managed to swing public opinion: by 1965, 58 percent of Americans favored Apollo, up from 33 percent two years earlier. After Johnsonbecame president in 1963, his continuing defense of the program allowed it to succeed in 1969, as Kennedy had planned. Soviet strategy Soviet leaderNikita Khrushchevsaid in October 1963 the USSR was \"not at present planning flight by cosmonauts to the Moon,\" while insisting that the Soviets had not dropped out of the race. Only after another year did the USSR fully commit itself to a Moon-landing attempt, which ultimately failed. At the same time, Kennedy had suggested various joint programs, including a possible Moon landing by Soviet and U.S. astronauts and the development of better weather-monitoring satellites, eventually resulting in theApollo-Soyuz mission. Khrushchev, sensing an attempt by Kennedy to steal Russian space technology, rejected the idea at first: if the USSR went to the Moon, it would go alone. Though Khrushchev was eventually warming up to the idea, the realization of a joint Moon landing was choked by Kennedy's assassination. Sergey Korolev, theSoviet space program's chief designer, had started promoting hisSoyuzcraft and theN1launcher rocket that would have the capability of carrying out a human Moon landing. Khrushchev directed Korolev's design bureau to arrange further space firsts by modifying the existing Vostok technology, while a second team started building a completely new launcher and craft, the Proton booster and the Zond, for a human cislunar flight in 1966. In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all crewed projects under his direction. With Korolev's death and the failure of the first Soyuz flight in 1967, coordination of the Soviet Moon landing program quickly unraveled. The Soviets built a landing craft and selected cosmonauts for a mission that would have placedAlexei Leonovon the Moon's surface, but with the successive launch failures of the N1 booster in 1969, plans for a crewed landing suffered first delay and then cancellation. A program of automated return vehicles was begun, in the hope of being the first to return lunar rocks. This had several failures. It eventually succeeded withLuna 16in 1970.But this had little impact, because the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 lunar landings and rock returns had already taken place by then. Apollo missions In total, twenty-four U.S. astronauts have traveled to the Moon. Three have made the trip twice, and twelve have walked on its surface. Apollo 8 was a lunar-orbit-only mission, Apollo 10 included undocking and Descent Orbit Insertion (DOI), followed by LM staging to CSM redocking, while Apollo 13, originally scheduled as a landing, ended up as a lunar fly-by, by means offree return trajectory; thus, none of these missions made landings. Apollo 7 and Apollo 9 were Earth-orbit-only missions. Apart from the inherent dangers of crewed Moon expeditions as seen with Apollo 13, one reason for their cessation according to astronautAlan Beanis the cost it imposes in government subsidies. Human Moon landings Other aspects of the successful Apollo landings President Richard Nixon had speechwriterWilliam Safireprepare a condolence speech for delivery in case Armstrong and Aldrin became marooned on the Moon's surface and could not be rescued. In 1951, science fiction writerArthur C. Clarkeforecast that a man would reach the Moon by 1978. On 16 August 2006, theAssociated Pressreported that NASA ismissing the originalSlow-scan televisiontapes (which were made before the scan conversion for conventional TV) of the Apollo 11 Moon walk. Some news outlets have mistakenly reported the SSTV tapes found in Western Australia, but those tapes were only recordings of data from the Apollo 11Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package.The tapes were found in 2008 and sold at auction in 2019 for the 50th anniversary of the landing. Scientists believe the six American flags planted by astronauts have been bleached white because of more than 40 years of exposure to solar radiation.UsingLROCimages, it has been determined that five of the six American flags are still standing and casting shadows at all of the sites, except Apollo 11.Astronaut Buzz Aldrin reported that the flag was blown over by the exhaust from the ascent engine during liftoff of Apollo 11. Late 20th century–21st century uncrewed crash landings Hiten (Japan) Launched on 24 January 1990, 11:46 UTC. At the end of its mission, the Japanese lunar orbiterHitenwas commanded to crash into the lunar surface and did so on 10 April 1993 at 18:03:25.7 UT (11 April 03:03:25.7 JST). Lunar Prospector (U.S.) Lunar Prospectorwas launched on 7 January 1998. The mission ended on 31 July 1999, when the orbiter was deliberately crashed into a crater near the lunar south pole after the presence of water ice was successfully detected. SMART-1 (ESA) Launched 27 September 2003, 23:14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. At the end of its mission, theESAlunar orbiterSMART-1performed a controlled crash into the Moon, at about 2 km/s (7,200 km/h; 4,500 mph). The time of the crash was 3 September 2006, at 5:42 UTC. Chandrayaan-1 (India) TheIndian Space Research Organisation(ISRO) performed a controlled hard landing with itsMoon Impact Probe(MIP). The MIP was ejected from theChandrayaan-1lunar orbiter and performed remote sensing experiments during its descent to the lunar surface. It impacted nearShackletoncrater at the south pole of the lunar surface at 14 November 2008, 20:31 IST. Chandrayaan-1was launched on 22 October 2008, 00:52 UTC. Chang'e 1 (China) The Chinese lunar orbiterChang'e 1, executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009, 20:44 GMT, after a 16-month mission.Chang'e 1was launched on 24 October 2007, 10:05 UTC. SELENE (Japan) SELENEorKaguyaafter successfully orbiting the Moon for a year and eight months, the main orbiter was instructed to impact on the lunar surface near the craterGillat 18:25 UTC on 10 June 2009.SELENEorKaguyawas launched on 14 September 2007. LCROSS (U.S.) TheLCROSSdata collecting shepherding spacecraft was launched together with theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO) on 18 June 2009 on board anAtlas Vrocket with aCentaurupper stage. On 9 October 2009, at 11:31 UTC, the Centaur upper stage impacted the lunar surface, releasing the kineticenergy equivalentof detonating approximately 2 tons ofTNT(8.86GJ).Six minutes later at 11:37 UTC, the LCROSS shepherding spacecraft also impacted the surface. GRAIL (U.S.) TheGRAILmission consisted of two small spacecraft: GRAIL A (Ebb), and GRAIL B (Flow). They were launched on 10 September 2011 on board aDelta IIrocket. GRAIL A separated from the rocket about nine minutes after launch, and GRAIL B followed about eight minutes later.The first probe entered orbit on 31 December 2011 and the second followed on 1 January 2012.The two spacecraft impacted the Lunar surface on 17 December 2012. LADEE (U.S.) LADEEwas launched on 7 September 2013.The mission ended on 18 April 2014, when the spacecraft's controllers intentionally crashed LADEE into thefar side of the Moon,which, later, was determined to be near the eastern rim ofSundman V crater. Manfred Memorial Moon Mission (Luxembourg) TheManfred Memorial Moon Missionwas launched on 23 October 2014. It conducted a lunar flyby and operated for 19 days which was four times longer than expected. The Manfred Memorial Moon Mission remained attached to the upper stage of its launch vehicle (CZ-3C/E). The spacecraft along with its upper stage impacted the Moon on 4 March 2022. 21st century uncrewed soft landings and attempts Chang'e 3 (China) On 14 December 2013 at 13:12 UTC,Chang'e 3soft-landedaroveron the Moon. This was China's first soft landing on another celestial body and world's first lunar soft landing sinceLuna 24on 22 August 1976.The mission was launched on 1 December 2013. After successful landing, the lander release theYutu rover, which moved 114 meters before being immobilized due to system malfunction. But the rover was still operational until July 2016. Chang'e 4 (China) On 3 January 2019 at 2:26 UTC,Chang'e 4became the first spacecraft to land on thefar side of the Moon.Chang'e 4 was originally designed as the backup of Chang'e 3. It was later adjusted as a mission to the far side of the Moon after the success of Chang'e 3.After making a successful landing withinVon Kármán crater, the Chang'e 4 lander deployed the 140-kilogram (310 lb)Yutu-2 roverand began human's first close exploration of the far side of the Moon. Because the Moon blocks the communications between far side and Earth, a relay satellite,Queqiao, was launched to the Earth–Moon L2Lagrangian pointa few months prior to the landing to enable communications. Yutu-2, the second lunar rover from China, was equipped with panoramic camera,lunar penetrating radar, visible and near-infrared Imaging spectrometer and advanced small analyzer for neutrals. As of July 2022, it has survived more than 1000 days on the lunar surface and is still driving with cumulative travel distance of over 1200 meters. Beresheet(Israel/SpaceIL) On 22 February 2019, Israeli private space agencySpaceILlaunched their spacecraftBeresheeton a Falcon 9 from Cape Canaveral, Florida with the intention of achieving a soft landing. SpaceIL lost contact with the spacecraft during final descent on 11 April 2019, and it crashed as a result of a main engine failure. The mission was the first Israeli, and the first privately funded, lunar landing attempt.Despite the failure, the mission represented the closest a private entity had come to a soft lunar landing at the time. SpaceIL was originally conceived in 2011 as a venture to pursue theGoogle Lunar X Prize. TheBeresheetlunar lander's target landing destination was within Mare Serenitatis, a vast volcanic basin on the Moon's northern near side. Chandrayaan-2 (India) ISRO, the Indian National Space agency, launchedChandrayaan-2on 22 July 2019.It had three major modules: orbiter, lander and rover. Each of these modules had scientific instruments from scientific research institutes in India and the US.On 7 September 2019 contact was lost with theVikramlander at an altitude of 2.1 km (1.3 mi) after a rough braking phase.Vikramwas later confirmed to have crashed and been destroyed. Chang'e 5 (China) On 6 December 2020 at 21:42 UTC,Chang'e 5landed and collected the first lunar soil samples in over 40 years, and thenreturned the samplesto Earth. The 8.2t stack consisting of lander, ascender, orbiter and returner was launched to lunar orbit by aLong March 5rocket on 24 November. The lander-ascender combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing nearMons RümkerinOceanus Procellarum. The ascender was later launched back to lunar orbit, carrying samples collected by the lander, and completed the first-ever robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit.The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which successfully landed onInner Mongoliaon 16 December 2020, completing China's first extraterrestrial sample return mission. Luna 25 (Russia) In Russia's first attempt to reach the Moon since 1976, and since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, theLuna 25spacecraft failed during \"pre-landing\" maneuvers, and crashed into the lunar surface on 19 August 2023. Chandrayaan-3 (India) India's national space agencyISROlaunchedChandrayaan-3on 14 July 2023. Chandrayaan-3 consists of an Indigenous Lander Module (LM), Propulsion module (PM) and thePragyanrover. The lander with the rover successfully landed near the lunar south pole at 18:04 IST on 23 August 2023. Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (Japan) JAXAlaunched theSmart Lander for Investigating Moon(SLIM) mission on 6 September 2023 at 23:42 UTC (7 September 08:42 Japan Standard Time). It landed on 19 January 2024 at 15:20 UTC, making Japan the fifth country to soft-land on the Moon.Solar panel orientation issues and possible landing damage complicated the spacecraft's operation.The mission also deployed two rovers which operated successfully and independently communicated with Earth. Intuitive Machines-1Odysseuslander (U.S.) On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseussuccessfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing in over 50 years. This mission also marks the firstprivately owned spacecraftto land on the Moon and the first landing withcryogenicpropellants.Though it landed successfully, one of the lander's legs broke upon landing and it tilted up on the other side, 18°, due to landing on a slope, but the lander survived and payloads are functioning as expected.EagleCam was not ejected prior to landing. It was later ejected on 28 February but was partially a failure as it returned all types of data except post-IM-1 landing images that were the main aim of its mission. Chang'e 6 (China) China sentChang'e 6on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return fromApollo Basinon thefar side of the Moon.This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved byChang'e 5from the lunar near side four years earlier.It also carried a Chinese rover calledJinchanto conductinfrared spectroscopyof lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing on 1 June 2024 at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024.The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024 at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, and later completed another robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed onInner Mongoliaon 25 June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission. Landings on moons of other Solar System bodies 21st century progress inspace explorationhas broadened the phrasemoon landingto include other moons in theSolar System. TheHuygensprobeof theCassini–Huygensmission toSaturnperformed a successful moon landing onTitanin 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probePhobos 2came within 190 km (120 mi) of performing a landing onMars' moonPhobosin 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission calledFobos-Grunt(\"grunt\" means \"soil\" in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low Earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future landing onJupiter's moonEuropato drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface. Proposed future missions TheLunar Polar Exploration Missionis a robotic space mission concept by ISRO and Japan's space agencyJAXAthat would send alunar roverandlanderto exploresouth poleregion of theMoonin 2025.JAXA is likely to provide launch service using the futureH3rocket, along with responsibility for the rover. ISRO would be responsible for the lander. ISRO, following the success ofChandrayaan 3also has plans to launchChandrayaan 4, alunarsample return mission, which would possibly be the first to return soil from thewater richsouth polar basin, in a landing close toStatio Shiv Shakti. The mission is planned by late 2028. Both nations are also active participants in theArtemis program. On 11 December 2017, US PresidentDonald Trumpsigned Space PolicyDirective 1, which directed NASA to return to the Moon with a crewed mission, for long-term exploration and use and missions to other planets.On 26 March 2019,Vice President Mike Penceformally announced that the mission will include the first female lunar astronaut.TheArtemis programhad intended to land a crewed mission on the Moon in 2024, and to begin sustained operations by 2028, supported by a plannedLunar Gateway.The NASA lunar landing mission has since been postponed to launch no earlier than September 2026. TheChinese Lunar Exploration Programplans 3 additional Chang'e uncrewed missions between 2025 and 2028, in active preparation for theInternational Lunar Research Stationit plans to construct with Russia, Venezuela, Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates in the 2030s. In addition, theChina Manned Space Agencyintends to conduct crewed lunar landings by 2029 or 2030; in preparation for this effort, the various Chinese space agencies and contractors are currently developing a human-rated super-heavy launch vehicle (theLong March 10), a newcrewed lunar spacecraft, and acrewed lunar lander. Russia'sRoscosmoshas announced plans to launch a lunar polar orbiter asLuna 26, in 2027. See also References Further reading External links","Neil Armstrong Neil Alden Armstrong(August 5, 1930 – August 25, 2012) was an Americanastronautandaeronautical engineerwho, in 1969, became thefirst person to walk on the Moon. He was also anaval aviator,test pilot, and university professor. Armstrong was born and raised inWapakoneta, Ohio. He enteredPurdue University, studyingaeronautical engineering, with theU.S. Navypaying his tuition under theHolloway Plan. He became amidshipmanin 1949 and anaval aviatorthe following year. He saw action in theKorean War, flying theGrumman F9F Pantherfrom theaircraft carrierUSSEssex. After the war, he completed his bachelor's degree at Purdue and became a test pilot at theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA)High-Speed Flight StationatEdwards Air Force Basein California. He was the project pilot onCentury Seriesfighters and flew theNorth American X-15seven times. He was also a participant in theU.S. Air Force'sMan in Space SoonestandX-20 Dyna-Soarhuman spaceflightprograms. Armstrong joined theNASA Astronaut Corpsin thesecond group, which was selected in 1962. He made his firstspaceflightas command pilot ofGemini 8in March 1966, becomingNASA's first civilian astronaut to fly in space. During this mission with pilotDavid Scott, he performed the firstdockingof twospacecraft; the mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his re-entry control fuel to stabilize a dangerous roll caused by a stuck thruster. During training for Armstrong's second and last spaceflight as commander ofApollo 11, he had to eject from theLunar Landing Research Vehiclemoments before a crash. On July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Apollo 11Lunar Module(LM) pilotBuzz Aldrinbecame the first people toland on the Moon, and the next day they spent two and a half hours outside theLunar ModuleEaglespacecraft whileMichael Collinsremained in lunar orbit in theApollo Command ModuleColumbia. When Armstrong first stepped onto the lunar surface, he famously said: \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\"It was broadcast live to an estimated 530 million viewers worldwide. Apollo 11 was a major U.S. victory in theSpace Race, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy\"of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth\" before the end of the decade. Along with Collins and Aldrin, Armstrong was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby PresidentRichard Nixonand received the 1969Collier Trophy. PresidentJimmy Carterpresented him with theCongressional Space Medal of Honorin 1978, he was inducted into theNational Aviation Hall of Famein 1979, and with his former crewmates received theCongressional Gold Medalin 2009. After he resigned from NASA in 1971, Armstrong taught in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of Cincinnatiuntil 1979. He served on theApollo 13accident investigation and on theRogers Commission, which investigated theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster. In 2012, Armstrong died due tocomplicationsresulting fromcoronary bypass surgery, at the age of 82. Early life and education Armstrong was born nearWapakoneta, Ohio,on August 5, 1930, the son of Viola Louise (née Engel) and Stephen Koenig Armstrong. He was of German, English, Scots-Irish, and Scottish descent.He is a descendant ofClan Armstrong.He had a younger sister, June, and a younger brother, Dean. His father was anauditorfor theOhio state government,and the family moved around the state repeatedly, living in 16 towns over the next 14 years.Armstrong's love for flying grew during this time, having started at the age of two when his father took him to theCleveland Air Races. When he was five or six, he experienced his first airplane flight inWarren, Ohio, when he and his father took a ride in aFord Trimotor(also known as the \"Tin Goose\"). The family's last move was in 1944 and took them back to Wapakoneta, where Armstrong attendedBlume High Schooland took flying lessons at the Wapakoneta airfield.He earned a student flight certificate on his 16th birthday, thensoloedin August, all before he had a driver's license.He was an activeBoy Scoutand earned the rank ofEagle Scout.As an adult, he was recognized by the Scouts with theirDistinguished Eagle Scout AwardandSilver Buffalo Award.While flying toward the Moon on July 18, 1969, he sent his regards to attendees at theNational Scout jamboreein Idaho.Among the few personal items that he carried with him to the Moon and back was a World Scout Badge. At age 17, in 1947, Armstrong began studyingaeronautical engineeringatPurdue UniversityinWest Lafayette, Indiana; he was the second person in his family to attend college. Armstrong was also accepted to theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT),but he resolved to go to Purdue after watching afootballgame between thePurdue Boilermakersand theOhio State Buckeyesat theOhio Stadiumin 1945 in which quarterbackBob DeMossled the Boilermakers to a sound victory over the highly regarded Buckeyes.An uncle who attended MIT had also advised him that he could receive a good education without going all the way toCambridge, Massachusetts. His college tuition was paid for under theHolloway Plan. Successful applicants committed to two years of study, followed by two years of flight training and one year of service as an aviator in theU.S. Navy, then completion of the final two years of theirbachelor's degree.Armstrong did not take courses in naval science, nor did he join theNaval Reserve Officers Training Corps. Navy service Armstrong's call-up from the Navy arrived on January 26, 1949, requiring him to report toNaval Air Station Pensacolain Florida for flight training with class 5-49. After passing the medical examinations, he became amidshipmanon February 24, 1949.Flight training was conducted in aNorth American SNJ trainer, in which he soloed on September 9, 1949.On March 2, 1950, he made his firstaircraft carrierlanding onUSSCabot, an achievement he considered comparable to his first solo flight.He was then sent toNaval Air Station Corpus Christiin Texas for training on theGrumman F8F Bearcat, culminating in a carrier landing onUSSWright. On August 16, 1950, Armstrong was informed by letter that he was a fully qualifiednaval aviator. His mother and sister attended his graduation ceremony on August 23, 1950. Armstrong was assigned to Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron7 (FASRON 7) atNAS San Diego(now known as NAS North Island). On November 27, 1950, he was assigned toVF-51, an all-jet squadron, becoming its youngest officer, and made his first flight in a jet, aGrumman F9F Panther, on January 5, 1951. He was promoted toensignon June 5, 1951, and made his first jet carrier landing onUSSEssextwo days later. On June 28, 1951,Essexhad set sail for Korea, with VF-51 aboard to act asground-attack aircraft. VF-51 flew ahead toNaval Air Station Barbers Pointin Hawaii, where it conducted fighter-bomber training before rejoining the ship at the end of July. On August 29, 1951, Armstrong saw action in theKorean Waras an escort for a photoreconnaissanceplane overSongjin.Five days later, on September 3, he flew armed reconnaissance over the primary transportation and storage facilities south of the village of Majon-ni, west ofWonsan. According to Armstrong, he was making a low bombing run at 350 mph (560 km/h) when 6 feet (1.8 m) of his wing was torn off after it collided with a cable that was strung across the hills as a booby trap. He was flying 500 feet (150 m) above the ground when he hit it. While there was heavy anti-aircraft fire in the area, none hit Armstrong's aircraft.An initial report to the commanding officer ofEssexsaid that Armstrong's F9F Panther was hit byanti-aircraft fire. The report indicated he was trying to regain control and collided with a pole, which sliced off 2 feet (0.61 m) of the Panther's right wing. Further perversions of the story by different authors added that he was only 20 feet (6.1 m) from the ground and that 3 feet (0.91 m) of his wing was sheared off. Armstrong flew the plane back to friendly territory, but due to the loss of theaileron,ejectionwas his only safe option. He intended to eject over water and await rescue by Navy helicopters, but his parachute was blown back over land. A jeep driven by a roommate from flight school picked him up; it is unknown what happened to the wreckage of his aircraft, F9F-2 BuNo125122. In all, Armstrong flew 78missions over Korea for a total of 121hours in the air, a third of them in January 1952, with the final mission on March 5, 1952. Of 492 U.S. Navy personnel killed in the Korean War, 27 of them were fromEssexon this war cruise. Armstrong received theAir Medalfor 20 combat missions, twogold starsfor the next 40, theKorean Service Medaland Engagement Star, theNational Defense Service Medal, and theUnited Nations Korea Medal. Armstrong's regular commission was terminated on February 25, 1952, and he became an ensign in theUnited States Navy Reserve. On completion of his combat tour withEssex, he was assigned to a transport squadron, VR-32, in May 1952. He was released from active duty on August 23, 1952, but remained in the reserve, and was promoted tolieutenant (junior grade)on May 9, 1953.As a reservist, he continued to fly, with VF-724 atNaval Air Station Glenviewin Illinois, and then, after moving to California, with VF-773 atNaval Air Station Los Alamitos.He remained in the reserve for eight years, before resigning his commission on October 21, 1960. College years After his service with the Navy, Armstrong returned to Purdue. His previously earned good but not outstandinggradesnow improved, lifting his final Grade Point Average (GPA) to a respectable but not outstanding 4.8 out of 6.0. He pledged thePhi Delta Thetafraternity, and lived in its fraternity house. He wrote and co-directed two musicals as part of the all-student revue. The first was a version ofSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs, co-directed with his girlfriend Joanne Alford from theAlpha Chi Omegasorority, with songs from the1937 Walt Disney film, including \"Someday My Prince Will Come\"; the second was titledThe Land of Egelloc(\"college\" spelled backward), with music fromGilbert and Sullivanbut new lyrics. Armstrong was chairman of the Purdue Aero Flying Club, and flew the club's aircraft, anAeroncaand a couple ofPipers, which were kept at nearby Aretz Airport inLafayette, Indiana. Flying the Aeronca to Wapakoneta in 1954, he damaged it in a rough landing in a farmer's field, and it had to be hauled back to Lafayette on a trailer.He was abaritoneplayer in thePurdue All-American Marching Band.Ten years later he was made an honorary member ofKappa Kappa Psinational band honorary fraternity.Armstrong graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree inAeronautical Engineeringin January 1955.In 1970, he completed his Master of Science degree inAerospace Engineeringat theUniversity of Southern California(USC).He would eventually be awarded honorary doctorates by several universities. Armstrong met Janet Elizabeth Shearon, who was majoring inhome economics, at a party hosted by Alpha Chi Omega.According to the couple, there was no real courtship, and neither could remember the exact circumstances of their engagement. They were married on January 28, 1956, at the Congregational Church inWilmette, Illinois. When he moved toEdwards Air Force Base, he lived in the bachelor quarters of the base, while Janet lived in theWestwooddistrict of Los Angeles. After one semester, they moved into a house inAntelope Valley, near Edwards AFB. Janet did not finish her degree, a fact she regretted later in life. The couple had three children.In June 1961, their daughter Karen was diagnosed withdiffuse intrinsic pontine glioma, amalignanttumorof the middle part of herbrain stem.X-ray treatment slowed its growth, but her health deteriorated to the point where she could no longer walk or talk. She died ofpneumonia, related to her weakened health, on January 28, 1962, aged two. Test pilot Following his graduation from Purdue, Armstrong became an experimental research test pilot. He applied at theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA)High-Speed Flight Stationat Edwards Air Force Base.NACA had no open positions, and forwarded his application to theLewis Flight Propulsion LaboratoryinCleveland, where Armstrong made his first test flight on March 1, 1955.Armstrong's stint at Cleveland lasted only a couple of months before a position at the High-Speed Flight Station became available, and he reported for work there on July 11, 1955. On his first day, Armstrong was tasked with pilotingchase planesduring releases of experimental aircraft from modified bombers. He also flew the modified bombers, and on one of these missions had his first flight incident at Edwards. On March 22, 1956, he was in aBoeing B-29 Superfortress,which was to air-drop aDouglas D-558-2 Skyrocket. He sat in the right-hand co-pilot seat while pilot in command, Stan Butchart sat in the left-hand pilot seat flying the B-29. As they climbed to 30,000 feet (9 km), thenumber-four enginestopped and thepropellerbegan windmilling (rotating freely) in the airstream. Hitting the switch that would stop the propeller's spinning, Butchart watched it slow, then resume spinning even faster than the others; if it spun too fast, it would break apart. Their aircraft needed to hold an airspeed of 210 mph (338 km/h) to launch its Skyrocket payload, and the B-29 could not land with the Skyrocket attached to its belly. Armstrong and Butchart brought the aircraft into a nose-downattitudeto increase speed, then launched the Skyrocket. At the instant of launch, the number-four engine propeller disintegrated. Pieces of it damaged the number-three engine and hit the number-two engine. Butchart and Armstrong were forced to shut down the damaged number-three engine, along with the number-one engine, due to thetorqueit created. They made a slow, circling descent from 30,000 ft (9 km) using only the number-two engine, and landed safely. Armstrong served as project pilot onCentury Seriesfighters, including theNorth American F-100 Super SabreA and C variants, theMcDonnell F-101 Voodoo, theLockheed F-104 Starfighter, theRepublic F-105 Thunderchiefand theConvair F-106 Delta Dart. He also flew theDouglas DC-3,Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star,North American F-86 Sabre,McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II,Douglas F5D-1 Skylancer, Boeing B-29 Superfortress,Boeing B-47 StratojetandBoeing KC-135 Stratotanker, and was one of eight elite pilots involved in theParasevparaglider research vehicle program.Over his career, he flew more than 200 different models of aircraft.His first flight in arocket-powered aircraftwas on August 15, 1957, in theBell X-1B, to an altitude of 11.4 miles (18.3 km). On landing, the poorly designednose landing gearfailed, as had happened on about a dozen previous flights of the Bell X-1B. He flew theNorth American X-15seven times,including the first flight with the Q-ball system, the first flight of the number3 X-15 airframe, and the first flight of the MH-96 adaptive flight control system.He became an employee of theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) when it was established on October 1, 1958, absorbing NACA. Armstrong was involved in several incidents that went down in Edwards folklore or were chronicled in the memoirs of colleagues. During his sixth X-15 flight on April 20, 1962, Armstrong was testing the MH-96 control system when he flew to a height of over 207,000 feet (63 km) (the highest he flew beforeGemini 8). He held up the aircraft nose during its descent to demonstrate the MH-96's g-limiting performance, and the X-15 ballooned back up to around 140,000 feet (43 km). He flew past the landing field atMach3 at over 100,000 feet (30 km) in altitude, and ended up 40 miles (64 km) south of Edwards. After sufficient descent, he turned back toward the landing area, and landed. It was the longest X-15 flight in both flight time and length of the ground track. Fellow astronautMichael Collinswrote that of the X-15 pilots Armstrong \"had been considered one of the weaker stick-and-rudder men, but the very best when it came to understanding the machine's design and how it operated\".Many of the test pilots at Edwards praised Armstrong's engineering ability.Milt Thompsonsaid he was \"the most technically capable of the early X-15 pilots\".Bill Danasaid Armstrong \"had a mind that absorbed things like a sponge\". Those who flew for the Air Force tended to have a different opinion, especially people likeChuck YeagerandPete Knight, who did not have engineering degrees. Knight said that pilot-engineers flew in a way that was \"more mechanical than it is flying\", and gave this as the reason why some pilot-engineers got into trouble: Their flying skills did not come naturally.Armstrong made sevenflights in the X-15between November 30, 1960, and July 26, 1962.He reached a top speed of Mach 5.74 (3,989 mph, 6,420 km/h) in the X-15-1, and left the Flight Research Center with a total of 2,400 flying hours. On April 24, 1962, Armstrong flew for the only time with Yeager. Their job, flying a T-33, was to evaluate Smith Ranch Dry Lake in Nevada for use as an emergency landing site for the X-15. In his autobiography, Yeager wrote that he knew the lake bed was unsuitable for landings after recent rains, but Armstrong insisted on flying out anyway. As they attempted atouch-and-go, the wheels became stuck and they had to wait for rescue. As Armstrong told the story, Yeager never tried to talk him out of it and they made a first successful landing on the east side of the lake. Then Yeager told him to try again, this time a bit slower. On the second landing, they became stuck, provoking Yeager to fits of laughter. On May 21, 1962, Armstrong was involved in the \"Nellis Affair\". He was sent in an F-104 to inspectDelamar Dry Lakein southern Nevada, again for emergency landings. He misjudged his altitude and did not realize that the landing gear had not fully extended. As he touched down, the landing gear began to retract; Armstrong applied full power to abort the landing, but the ventral fin and landing gear door struck the ground, damaging the radio and releasinghydraulic fluid. Without radio communication, Armstrong flew south toNellis Air Force Base, past the control tower, and waggled his wings, the signal for a no-radio approach. The loss of hydraulic fluid caused thetailhookto release, and upon landing, he caught the arresting wire attached to an anchor chain, and dragged the chain along the runway. It took thirty minutes to clear the runway and rig another arresting cable. Armstrong telephoned Edwards and asked for someone to collect him. Milt Thompson was sent in an F-104B, the only two-seater available, but a plane Thompson had never flown. With great difficulty, Thompson made it to Nellis, where a strong crosswind caused a hard landing and the left main tire suffered a blowout. The runway was again closed to clear it, and Bill Dana was sent to Nellis in a T-33, but he almost landed long. The Nellis base operations office then decided that to avoid any further problems, it would be best to find the three NASA pilots ground transport back to Edwards. Astronaut career In June 1958, Armstrong was selected for the U.S. Air Force'sMan in Space Soonestprogram, but theAdvanced Research Projects Agency(ARPA) canceled its funding on August 1, 1958, and on November 5, 1958, it was superseded byProject Mercury, a civilian project run by NASA. As a NASA civilian test pilot, Armstrong was ineligible to become one of its astronauts at this time, as selection was restricted to military test pilots.In November 1960, he was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for theX-20 Dyna-Soar, a military space plane under development by Boeing for the U.S. Air Force, and on March 15, 1962, he was selected by the U.S. Air Force as one of seven pilot-engineers who would fly the X-20 when it got off the design board. In April 1962, NASA sought applications for the second group of NASA astronauts forProject Gemini, a proposed two-man spacecraft. This time, selection was open to qualified civilian test pilots.Armstrong visited theSeattle World's Fairin May 1962 and attended a conference there on space exploration that was co-sponsored by NASA. After he returned fromSeattleon June 4, he applied to become an astronaut. His application arrived about a week past the June 1, 1962, deadline, but Dick Day, a flight simulator expert with whom Armstrong had worked closely at Edwards, saw the late arrival of the application and slipped it into the pile before anyone noticed.AtBrooks Air Force Baseat the end of June, Armstrong underwent a medical exam that many of the applicants described as painful and at times seemingly pointless. NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations,Deke Slayton, called Armstrong on September 13, 1962, and asked whether he would be interested in joining theNASA Astronaut Corpsas part of what the press dubbed \"theNew Nine\"; without hesitation, Armstrong said yes. The selections were kept secret until three days later, although newspaper reports had circulated since earlier that year that he would be selected as the \"first civilian astronaut\".Armstrong was one of two civilian pilots selected for this group;the other wasElliot See, another former naval aviator.NASA selected the second group that, compared with theMercury Sevenastronauts, were younger,and had more impressive academic credentials.Collins wrote that Armstrong was by far the most experienced test pilot in the Astronaut Corps. Gemini program Gemini 5 On February 8, 1965, Armstrong and Elliot See were picked as the backup crew forGemini 5, with Armstrong as commander, supporting the prime crew ofGordon CooperandPete Conrad.The mission's purpose was to practicespace rendezvousand to develop procedures and equipment for a seven-day flight, all of which would be required for a mission to the Moon. With two other flights (Gemini 3andGemini 4) in preparation, six crews were competing for simulator time, so Gemini5 was postponed. It finally lifted off on August 21.Armstrong and See watched the launch atCape Kennedy, then flew to theManned Spacecraft Center(MSC) in Houston.The mission was generally successful, despite a problem with thefuel cellsthat prevented a rendezvous. Cooper and Conrad practiced a \"phantom rendezvous\", carrying out the maneuver without a target. Gemini 8 The crews for Gemini8 were assigned on September 20, 1965. Under the normal rotation system, the backup crew for one mission became the prime crew for the third mission after, but Slayton designatedDavid Scottas the pilot of Gemini8.Scott was the first member of thethird group of astronauts, who was selected on October 18, 1963, to receive a prime crew assignment.See was designated to commandGemini 9. Henceforth, each Gemini mission was commanded by a member of Armstrong's group, with a member of Scott's group as the pilot. Conrad would be Armstrong's backup this time, andRichard F. Gordon Jr.his pilot.Armstrong became the first American civilian in space. (Valentina Tereshkovaof theSoviet Unionhad become the first civilian—and first woman—nearly three years earlier aboardVostok 6when it launched on June 16, 1963.) Armstrong would also be the last of his group to fly in space, as See died in aT-38 crashon February 28, 1966, that also took the life of crewmateCharles Bassett. They were replaced by the backup crew ofTom StaffordandGene Cernan, whileJim Lovelland Buzz Aldrin moved up from the backup crew ofGemini 10to become the backup for Gemini 9,and would eventually flyGemini 12. Gemini 8 launched on March 16, 1966. It was the most complex mission yet, with a rendezvous and docking with anuncrewedAgena target vehicle, and the planned second Americanspacewalk(EVA) by Scott. The mission was planned to last 75hours and 55orbits. After the Agena lifted off at 10:00:00EST,theTitan IIrocket carrying Armstrong and Scott ignited at 11:41:02 EST, putting them into an orbit from which they chased the Agena.They achieved the first-ever docking between two spacecraft.Contact with the crew was intermittent due to the lack of tracking stations covering their entire orbits. While out of contact with the ground, the docked spacecraft began to roll, and Armstrong attempted to correct this with the Gemini'sOrbit Attitude and Maneuvering System(OAMS). Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but the roll increased dramatically until they were turning about once per second, indicating a problem with Gemini'sattitude control. Armstrong engaged the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turned off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft had to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring caused one of the thrusters to stick in the on position. A few people in the Astronaut Office, includingWalter Cunningham, felt that Armstrong and Scott \"had botched their first mission\".There was speculation that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings, saving the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded; no malfunction procedures had been written, and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings, not one or the other.Gene Kranzwrote, \"The crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong.\" The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft were docked, they must be considered one spacecraft. Kranz considered this the mission's most important lesson.Armstrong was depressed that the mission was cut short,canceling most mission objectives and robbing Scott of his EVA. The Agena was later reused as a docking target by Gemini 10.Armstrong and Scott received theNASA Exceptional Service Medal,and the Air Force awarded Scott theDistinguished Flying Crossas well.Scott was promoted tolieutenant colonel, and Armstrong received a $678 raise in pay to $21,653 a year (equivalent to $203,338 in 2023), making him NASA's highest-paid astronaut. Gemini 11 In Armstrong's final assignment in the Gemini program, he was the back-up Command Pilot forGemini 11. Having trained for two flights, Armstrong was quite knowledgeable about the systems and took on a teaching role for the rookie backup pilot,William Anders.The launch was on September 12, 1966,with Conrad and Gordon on board, who successfully completed the mission objectives, while Armstrong served as acapsule communicator(CAPCOM). Following the flight, PresidentLyndon B. Johnsonasked Armstrong and his wife to take part in a 24-day goodwill tour of South America.Also on the tour, which took in 11countries and 14major cities, were Dick Gordon,George Low, their wives, and other government officials. In Paraguay, Armstrong greeted dignitaries in their local language,Guarani; in Brazil he talked about the exploits of the Brazilian-born aviation pioneerAlberto Santos-Dumont. Apollo program On January 27, 1967—the day of theApollo 1 fire—Armstrong was in Washington, D.C., with Cooper, Gordon, Lovell andScott Carpenterfor the signing of the United NationsOuter Space Treaty. The astronauts chatted with the assembled dignitaries until 18:45, when Carpenter went to the airport, and the others returned to the Georgetown Inn, where they each found messages to phone the MSC. During these calls, they learned of the deaths ofGus Grissom,Ed WhiteandRoger Chaffeein the fire. Armstrong and the group spent the rest of the night drinking scotch and discussing what had happened. On April 5, 1967, the same day the Apollo1 investigation released its final report, Armstrong and 17 other astronauts gathered for a meeting with Slayton. The first thing Slayton said was, \"The guys who are going to fly the first lunar missions are the guys in this room.\"According to Cernan, only Armstrong showed no reaction to the statement. To Armstrong it came as no surprise—the room was full of veterans of Project Gemini, the only people who could fly the lunar missions. Slayton talked about the planned missions and named Armstrong to the backup crew forApollo 9, which at that stage was planned as amedium Earth orbittest of the combinedlunar moduleandcommand and service module. The crew was officially assigned on November 20, 1967.For crewmates, Armstrong was assigned Lovell and Aldrin, from Gemini 12. After design and manufacturing delays of the lunar module (LM),Apollo 8and9 swapped prime and backup crews. Based on the normal crew rotation, Armstrong would command Apollo 11,with one change: Collins on the Apollo8 crew began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.Lovell took his place on the Apollo8 crew, and, when Collins recovered, he joined Armstrong's crew. To give the astronauts practice piloting the LM on its descent, NASA commissionedBell Aircraftto build twoLunar Landing Research Vehicles(LLRV), later augmented with three Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV). Nicknamed the \"Flying Bedsteads\", they simulated the Moon's one-sixth gravity using aturbofanengine to support five-sixths of the craft's weight. On May 6, 1968, 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, Armstrong's controls started to degrade and the LLRV beganrolling.He ejected safely before the vehicle struck the ground and burst into flames. Later analysis suggested that if he had ejected half a second later, his parachute would not have opened in time. His only injury was from biting his tongue. The LLRV was completely destroyed.Even though he was nearly killed, Armstrong maintained that without the LLRV and LLTV, the lunar landings would not have been successful, as they gave commanders essential experience in piloting the lunar landing craft. In addition to the LLRV training, NASA began lunar landing simulator training after Apollo 10 was completed. Aldrin and Armstrong trained for a variety of scenarios that could develop during a real lunar landing.They also received briefings from geologists at NASA. Apollo 11 After Armstrong served as backup commander for Apollo8, Slayton offered him the post of commander of Apollo 11 on December 23, 1968, as Apollo8 orbited the Moon.According to Armstrong's 2005 biography, Slayton told him that although the planned crew was Commander Armstrong, Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin, and Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, he was offering Armstrong the chance to replace Aldrin with Jim Lovell. After thinking it over for a day, Armstrong told Slayton he would stick with Aldrin, as he had no difficulty working with him and thought Lovell deserved his own command. Replacing Aldrin with Lovell would have made Lovell the lunar module pilot, unofficially the lowest ranked member, and Armstrong could not justify placing Lovell, the commander of Gemini 12, in the number3 position of the crew.The crew of Apollo 11 was assigned on January 9, 1969, as Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin, with Lovell, Anders, andFred Haiseas the backup crew. According toChris Kraft, a March 1969 meeting among Slayton, George Low,Bob Gilruth, and Kraft determined that Armstrong would be the first person on the Moon, in part because NASA management saw him as a person who did not have a large ego. A press conference on April 14, 1969, gave the design of the LM cabin as the reason for Armstrong's being first; the hatch opened inwards and to the right, making it difficult for the LM pilot, on the right-hand side, to exit first. At the time of their meeting, the four men did not know about the hatch consideration. The first knowledge of the meeting outside the small group came when Kraft wrote his book.Methods of circumventing this difficulty existed, but it is not known if these were considered at the time. Slayton added, \"Secondly, just on a pure protocol basis, I figured the commander ought to be the first guy out... I changed it as soon as I found they had the time line that showed that. Bob Gilruth approved my decision.\" Voyage to the Moon ASaturn Vrocket launched Apollo 11 fromLaunch Complex 39Aat theKennedy Space Centeron July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00UTC(09:32:00 EDT local time).Armstrong's wife Janet and two sons watched from a yacht moored on theBanana River.During the launch, Armstrong's heart rate peaked at 110beats per minute.He found the first stage the loudest, much noisier than the Gemini8 Titan II launch. The Apollo command module was relatively roomy compared with the Gemini spacecraft. None of the Apollo 11 crew sufferedspace sickness, as some members of previous crews had. Armstrong was especially glad about this, as he had been prone tomotion sicknessas a child and could experiencenauseaafter long periods ofaerobatics. Apollo 11's objective was to land safely on the Moon, rather than to touch down at a precise location. Three minutes into the lunar descent, Armstrong noted that craters were passing about two seconds too early, which meant theLunar ModuleEaglewould probably touch down several miles (kilometres) beyond the planned landing zone.As theEagle's landingradaracquired the surface, several computer error alarms sounded. The first was a code1202alarm, and even with their extensive training, neither Armstrong nor Aldrin knew what this code meant. They promptly received word from CAPCOMCharles Dukein Houston that the alarms were not a concern; the 1202 and 1201 alarms were caused by executive overflows in thelunar module guidance computer. In 2007, Aldrin said the overflows were caused by his own counter-checklist choice of leaving the docking radar on during the landing process, causing the computer to process unnecessary radar data. When it did not have enough time to execute all tasks, the computer dropped the lower-priority ones, triggering the alarms. Aldrin said he decided to leave the radar on in case an abort was necessary when re-docking with the Apollo command module; he did not realize it would cause the processing overflows. When Armstrong noticed they were heading toward a landing area that seemed unsafe, he took manual control of the LM and attempted to find a safer area. This took longer than expected, and longer than most simulations had taken.For this reason, Mission Control was concerned that the LM was running low on fuel.On landing, Aldrin and Armstrong believed they had 40seconds of fuel left, including the 20seconds' worth which had to be saved in the event of an abort.During training, Armstrong had, on several occasions, landed with fewer than 15seconds of fuel; he was also confident the LM could survive a fall of up to 50 feet (15 m). Post-mission analysis showed that at touchdown there were 45 to 50seconds of propellant burn time left. The landing on the surface of the Moon occurred several seconds after 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969.One of three 67-inch (170 cm) probes attached to three of the LM's four legs made contact with the surface, a panel light in the LM illuminated, and Aldrin called out, \"Contact light.\" Armstrong shut the engine off and said, \"Shutdown.\" As the LM settled onto the surface, Aldrin said, \"Okay, engine stop\"; then they both called out some post-landing checklist items. After a 10-second pause, Duke acknowledged the landing with, \"We copy you down,Eagle.\" Armstrong confirmed the landing to Mission Control and the world with the words, \"Houston,Tranquility Basehere. TheEaglehas landed.\" Aldrin and Armstrong celebrated with a brisk handshake and pat on the back. They then returned to the checklist of contingency tasks, should an emergency liftoff become necessary.After Armstrong confirmed touch down, Duke re-acknowledged, adding a comment about the flight crew's relief: \"Roger, Tranquility. We copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\"During the landing, Armstrong's heart rate ranged from 100 to 150beats per minute. First Moon walk The flight plan called for a crew rest period before leaving the module, but Armstrong asked for this to be moved to earlier in the evening,Houston time. When he and Aldrin were ready to go outside,Eaglewas depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder.At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on aLunar Modulelanding pad, Armstrong said, \"I'm going to step off the LM now\". He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface at 02:56UTCJuly 21, 1969,then said, \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\"The exact time of Armstrong's first step on the Moon is unclear. Armstrong prepared his famousepigramon his own.In a post-flight press conference, he said that he chose the words \"just prior to leaving the LM.\"In a 1983 interview inEsquiremagazine, he explained toGeorge Plimpton: \"I always knew there was a good chance of being able to return to Earth, but I thought the chances of a successful touch down on the moon surface were about even money—fifty–fifty... Most people don't realize how difficult the mission was. So it didn't seem to me there was much point in thinking of something to say if we'd have to abort landing.\"In 2012, his brother Dean Armstrong said that Neil showed him a draft of the line months before the launch.HistorianAndrew Chaikin, who interviewed Armstrong in 1988 for his bookA Man on the Moon, disputed that Armstrong claimed to have conceived the line during the mission. Recordings of Armstrong's transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article \"a\" before \"man\", though NASA and Armstrong insisted for years that static obscured it. Armstrong stated he would never make such a mistake, but after repeated listenings to recordings, he eventually conceded he must have dropped the \"a\".He later said he \"would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended, even if it was not said—although it might actually have been\".There have since been claims and counter-claims about whether acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence of the missing \"a\";Peter Shann Ford, an Australian computer programmer, conducted a digital audio analysis and claims that Armstrong did say \"a man\", but the \"a\" was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time.Ford andJames R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis.Armstrong found Ford's analysis \"persuasive.\"LinguistsDavid BeaverandMark Libermanwrote of their skepticism of Ford's claims on the blogLanguage Log.A 2016 peer-reviewed study again concluded Armstrong had included the article.NASA's transcript continues to show the \"a\" in parentheses. When Armstrong made his proclamation,Voice of Americawas rebroadcast live by theBBCand many other stations worldwide. An estimated 530million people viewed the event,20 percent out of a world population of approximately 3.6billion. Q: Did you misspeak? A: There isn't any way of knowing. Q: Several sources say you did. A: I mean, there isn't any way ofmyknowing. When I listen to the tape, I can't hear the 'a', but that doesn't mean it wasn't there, because that was the fastest VOX ever built. There was no mike-switch — it was avoice-operated key or VOX. In a helmet you find you lose a lot of syllables. Sometimes a short syllable like 'a' might not be transmitted. However, when I listen to it, I can't hear it. But the 'a' is implied, so I'm happy if they just put it in parentheses. Omni, June 1982, p. 126 About 19minutes after Armstrong's first step, Aldrin joined him on the surface, becoming the second human to walk on the Moon. They began their tasks of investigating how easily a person could operate on the lunar surface. Armstrong unveiled a plaque commemorating the flight, and with Aldrin, planted theflag of the United States. Although Armstrong had wanted the flag to be draped on the flagpole,it was decided to use a metal rod to hold it horizontally.However, the rod did not fully extend, leaving the flag with a slightly wavy appearance, as if there were a breeze.Shortly after the flag planting, PresidentRichard Nixonspoke to them by telephone from his office. He spoke for about a minute, after which Armstrong responded for about thirty seconds.In the Apollo 11 photographic record, there are only five images of Armstrong partly shown or reflected. The mission was planned to the minute, with the majority of photographic tasks performed by Armstrong with the singleHasselbladcamera. After helping to set up theEarly Apollo Scientific Experiment Package, Armstrong went for a walk to what is now known as East Crater, 65 yards (59 m) east of the LM, the greatest distance traveled from the LM on the mission. His final task was to remind Aldrin to leave a small package of memorial items to SovietcosmonautsYuri GagarinandVladimir Komarov, and Apollo1 astronauts Grissom, White and Chaffee.The Apollo 11 EVA lasted two and a half hours.Each of the subsequent five landings was allotted a progressively longer EVA period; the crew ofApollo 17spent over 22hours exploring the lunar surface.In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited their Moon walk because they were unsure how thespace suitswould cope with the Moon's extremely high temperature. Return to Earth After they re-entered the LM, the hatch was closed and sealed. While preparing for liftoff, Armstrong and Aldrin discovered that, in their bulky space suits, they had broken the ignition switch for the ascent engine; using part of a pen, they pushed in the circuit breaker to start the launch sequence.TheEaglethen continued to its rendezvous in lunar orbit, where it docked withColumbia, the command and service module. The three astronauts returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, to be picked up by theUSSHornet. After being released from an 18-day quarantine to ensure that they had not picked up any infections or diseases from the Moon, the crew was feted across the United States and around the world as part of a 38-day \"Giant Leap\" tour. The tour began on August 13, when the three astronauts spoke and rode inticker-tape paradesin their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.On the same evening an officialstate dinnerwas held in Los Angeles to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44governors, theChief Justice of the United States, and ambassadors from 83nations. President Nixon and Vice President Agnew presented each astronaut with aPresidential Medal of Freedom. After the tour Armstrong took part inBob Hope's 1969USOshow, primarily to Vietnam.In May 1970, Armstrong traveled to the Soviet Union to present a talk at the 13th annual conference of the InternationalCommittee on Space Research; after arriving inLeningradfrom Poland, he traveled to Moscow where he metPremierAlexei Kosygin. Armstrong was the first westerner to see the supersonicTupolev Tu-144and was given a tour of theYuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, which he described as \"a bit Victorian in nature\".At the end of the day, he was surprised to view a delayed video of the launch ofSoyuz 9as it had not occurred to Armstrong that the mission was taking place, even though Valentina Tereshkova had been his host and her husband,Andriyan Nikolayev, was on board. Life after Apollo Teaching Shortly after Apollo 11, Armstrong stated that he did not plan to fly in space again.He was appointed Deputy Associate Administrator for Aeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research and Technology atARPA, served in the position for a year, then resigned from it and NASA in 1971.He accepted a teaching position in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of Cincinnati,having chosen Cincinnati over other universities, including hisalma materPurdue, because Cincinnati had a small aerospace department,and said he hoped the faculty there would not be annoyed that he came straight into a professorship with only a USC master's degree.He began his master's degree while stationed at Edwards years before, and completed it after Apollo 11 by presenting a report on various aspects of Apollo, instead of a thesis on the simulation of hypersonic flight. At Cincinnati, Armstrong was University Professor of Aerospace Engineering. He took a heavy teaching load, taught core classes, and created two graduate-level classes: aircraft design and experimental flight mechanics. He was considered a good teacher, and a tough grader. His research activities during this time did not involve his work at NASA, as he did not want to give the appearance of favoritism; he later regretted the decision. After teaching for eight years, Armstrong resigned in 1980. When the university changed from an independent municipal university to a state school, bureaucracy increased. He did not want to be a part of the faculty collective bargaining group, so he decided to teach half-time. According to Armstrong, he had the same amount of work but received half his salary. In 1979, less than 10% of his income came from his university salary. Employees at the university did not know why he left. NASA commissions In 1970, after an explosion aboardApollo 13aborted its lunar landing, Armstrong was part ofEdgar Cortright's investigation of the mission. He produced a detailed chronology of the flight. He determined that a 28-volt thermostat switch in an oxygen tank, which was supposed to have been replaced with a 65-volt version, led to the explosion. Cortright's report recommended the entire tank be redesigned at a cost of $40million. Many NASA managers, including Armstrong, opposed the recommendation, since only the thermostat switch had caused the problem. They lost the argument, and the tanks were redesigned. In 1986, PresidentRonald Reaganasked Armstrong to join theRogers Commissioninvestigating theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster. Armstrong was made vice chairman of the commission and held private interviews with contacts he had developed over the years to help determine the cause of the disaster. He helped limit the committee's recommendations to nine, believing that if there were too many, NASA would not act on them. Armstrong was appointed to a fourteen-member commission by President Reagan to develop a plan for American civilian spaceflight in the 21st century. The commission was chaired by former NASA administrator Dr.Thomas O. Paine, with whom Armstrong had worked during the Apollo program. The group published a book titledPioneering the Space Frontier: The Report on the National Commission on Space, recommending a permanent lunar base by 2006, and sending people to Mars by 2015. The recommendations were largely ignored, overshadowed by theChallengerdisaster. Armstrong and his wife attended the memorial service for the victims of theSpace ShuttleColumbiadisasterin 2003, at the invitation of PresidentGeorge W. Bush. Business activities After Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971, he acted as a spokesman for several businesses. The first company to successfully approach him wasChrysler, for whom he appeared in advertising starting in January 1979. Armstrong thought they had a strong engineering division, and they were in financial difficulty. He later acted as a spokesman for other American companies, including General Time Corporation and the Bankers Association of America.He acted as a spokesman for only American companies. In addition to his duties as a spokesman, he also served on the board of directors of several companies. The first company board Armstrong joined wasGates Learjet, chairing their technical committee. He flew their new and experimental jets and even set a climb and altitude record for business jets. Armstrong became a member ofCincinnati Gas & Electric Company's board in 1973. They were interested in nuclear power and wanted to increase the company's technical competence. He served on the board ofTaft Broadcasting, also based in Cincinnati. Armstrong joined the board of solid rocket boosterThiokolin 1989, after previously serving on the Rogers Commission which found that theSpace ShuttleChallengerwas destroyed due to a defect in the Thiokol-manufactured solid rocket boosters. When Armstrong left the University of Cincinnati, he became the chairman of Cardwell International Ltd., a company that manufactured drilling rigs. He served on additional aerospace boards, firstUnited Airlinesin 1978, and laterEaton Corporationin 1980. He was asked to chair the board of directors for a subsidiary of Eaton, AIL Systems. He chaired the board through the company's 2000 merger withEDO Corporation, until his retirement in 2002. North Pole expedition In 1985, professional expedition leader Mike Dunn organized a trip to take men he deemed the \"greatest explorers\" to the North Pole. The group included Armstrong,Edmund Hillary,Hillary's son Peter,Steve Fossett, andPatrick Morrow. They arrived at the Pole on April 6, 1985. Armstrong said he was curious to see what it looked like from the ground, as he had seen it only from the Moon.He did not inform the media of the trip, preferring to keep it private. Public profile Armstrong's family described him as a \"reluctant American hero\".He kept a low profile later in his life, leading to the belief that he was a recluse.Recalling Armstrong's humility,John Glenn, the first American to orbit Earth, told CNN: \" didn't feel that he should be out huckstering himself. He was a humble person, and that's the way he remained after his lunar flight, as well as before.\"Armstrong turned down most requests for interviews and public appearances. Michael Collins said in his bookCarrying the Firethat when Armstrong moved to a dairy farm to become a college professor, it was like he \"retreated to his castle and pulled up the drawbridge\". Armstrong found this amusing, and said, \"...those of us that live out in the hinterlands think that people that live inside theBeltwayare the ones that have the problems.\" Andrew Chaikin says inA Man on the Moonthat Armstrong kept a low profile but was not a recluse, citing his participation in interviews, advertisements for Chrysler, and hosting a cable television series.Between 1991 and 1993, he hostedFirst Flights with Neil Armstrong, anaviation historydocumentary series onA&E.In 2010, Armstrong voiced the character of Dr. Jack Morrow inQuantum Quest: A Cassini Space Odyssey,an animated educational sci-fi adventure film initiated by JPL/NASA through a grant from Jet Propulsion Lab. Armstrong guarded the use of his name, image, and famous quote. When it was launched in 1981,MTVwanted to use his quote in itsstation identification, with the American flag replaced with the MTV logo, but he refused the use of his voice and likeness.He suedHallmark Cardsin 1994, when they used his name, and a recording of the \"one small step\" quote, in a Christmas ornament without his permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, which Armstrong donated to Purdue. For many years, he wrote letters congratulating new Eagle Scouts on their accomplishment, but decided to quit the practice in the 1990s because he felt the letters should be written by people who knew the scout. (In 2003, he received 950congratulation requests.) This contributed to the myth of his reclusiveness.Armstrong used to autograph everything exceptfirst day covers. Around 1993, he found out his signatures were being sold online, and that most of them were forgeries, and stopped giving autographs. Personal life Some former astronauts, including Glenn andApollo 17'sHarrison Schmitt, sought political careers after leaving NASA. Armstrong was approached by groups from both theDemocraticandRepublicanparties but declined the offers. He supportedstates' rightsand opposed the U.S. acting as the \"world's policeman\". When Armstrong applied at a localMethodistchurch to lead a Boy Scout troop in the late 1950s, he gave his religious affiliation as \"deist\".His mother later said that his religious views caused her grief and distress in later life, as she was a Christian.Upon his return from the Moon, Armstrong gave a speech in front of theU.S. Congressin which he thanked them for giving him the opportunity to see some of the \"grandest views of the Creator\".In the early 1980s, he was the subject of a hoax claiming that he converted toIslamafter hearing thecall to prayerwhile walking on the Moon. Indonesian singer Suhaemi wrote a song called \"Gema Suara Adzan di Bulan\" (\"The Resonant Sound of the Call to Prayer on the Moon\") which described Armstrong's supposed conversion, and the song was widely discussed byJakartanews outlets in 1983.Similar hoax stories were seen in Egypt and Malaysia. In March 1983, theU.S. State Departmentresponded by issuing a message to embassies and consulates in Muslim countries saying that Armstrong had not converted to Islam.The hoax surfaced occasionally for the next three decades. Part of the confusion arose from the similarity between the names of the country of Lebanon, which has a majority Muslim population, and Armstrong's longtime residence inLebanon, Ohio. In 1972, Armstrong visited the Scottish town ofLangholm, the traditional seat of Clan Armstrong. He was made the firstfreemanof the burgh, and happily declared the town his home.To entertain the crowd, theJustice of the Peaceread from an unrepealed archaic 400-year-old law that required him to hang any Armstrong found in the town. Armstrong flew light aircraft for pleasure. He enjoyedglidersand before the Moon flight had earned a gold badge with two diamonds from theInternational Gliding Commission. He continued to fly engineless aircraft well into his 70s. While working on his farm in November 1978, Armstrong jumped off the back of his grain truck and caught his wedding ring in its wheel, tearing the tip off his left ring finger. He collected the severed tip, packed it in ice, and had surgeons reattach it at a nearby hospital inLouisville, Kentucky.In February 1991, he suffered a mild heart attack while skiing with friends atAspen, Colorado. Armstrong and his first wife, Janet, separated in 1990 and divorced in 1994 after 38 years of marriage.He met his second wife, Carol Held Knight, at a golf tournament in 1992, when they were seated together at breakfast. She said little to Armstrong, but he called her two weeks later to ask what she was doing. She replied that she was cutting down a cherry tree, and he arrived at her house 35 minutes later to help. They were married in Ohio on June 12, 1994, and had a second ceremony atSan Ysidro Ranchin California. They lived inIndian Hill, Ohio.Through his marriage to Carol, he was the father-in-law of futureNew York Metsgeneral managerBrodie Van Wagenen. In May 2005, Armstrong became involved in a legal dispute with Mark Sizemore, his barber of 20years. After cutting Armstrong's hair, Sizemore sold some of it to a collector for $3,000 without Armstrong's knowledge or permission.Armstrong threatened legal action against Sizemore unless he returned the hair or donated the proceeds to a charity of Armstrong's choosing. Sizemore, unable to retrieve the hair, donated the proceeds to charity. Illness and death On August 7, 2012, Armstrong underwentbypass surgeryatMercy Faith–Fairfield HospitalinFairfield, Ohio, to relievecoronary artery disease.Although he was reportedly recovering well,he developed complications and died on August 25.PresidentBarack Obamaissued a statement memorializing Armstrong as \"among the greatest of American heroes—not just of his time, but of all time\",and added that Armstrong had carried the aspirations of the United States' citizens and had delivered \"a moment of human achievement that will never be forgotten.\" Armstrong's family released a statement describing him as a \"reluctant American hero served his nation proudly, as a navy fighter pilot, test pilot, and astronaut ... While we mourn the loss of a very good man, we also celebrate his remarkable life and hope that it serves as an example to young people around the world to work hard to make their dreams come true, to be willing to explore and push the limits, and to selflessly serve a cause greater than themselves. For those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil, we have a simple request. Honor his example of service, accomplishment and modesty, and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink.\" Buzz Aldrin called Armstrong \"a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew\", and said he was disappointed that they would not be able to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing together in 2019.Michael Collins said, \"He was the best, and I will miss him terribly.\"NASA AdministratorCharles Boldensaid, \"As long as there are history books, Neil Armstrong will be included in them, remembered for taking humankind's first small step on a world beyond our own\". A tribute was held for Armstrong on September 13, atWashington National Cathedral, whose Space Window depicts the Apollo 11 mission and holds a sliver of Moon rock amid its stained-glass panels.In attendance were Armstrong's Apollo 11 crewmates, Collins and Aldrin; Gene Cernan, the Apollo 17 mission commander and last man to walk on the Moon; and former senator and astronaut John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth. In his eulogy, Charles Bolden praised Armstrong's \"courage, grace, and humility\". Cernan recalled Armstrong's low-fuel approach to the Moon: \"When the gauge says empty, we all know there's a gallon or two left in the tank!\"Diana Krallsang the song \"Fly Me to the Moon\". Collins led prayers. David Scott spoke, possibly for the first time, about an incident during their Gemini 8 mission: minutes before the hatch was to be sealed, a small chip of dried glue fell into the latch of his harness and prevented it from being buckled, threatening to abort the mission. Armstrong then called on Conrad to solve the problem, which he did, and the mission proceeded. \"That happened because Neil Armstrong was a team player—he always worked on behalf of the team.\"CongressmanBill Johnsonfrom Armstrong's home state of Ohio led calls for President Barack Obama to authorize astate funeralin Washington D.C. Throughout his lifetime, Armstrong shunned publicity and rarely gave interviews. Mindful that Armstrong would have objected to a state funeral, his family opted to have a private funeral inCincinnati.On September 14, Armstrong's cremated remains were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean from theUSSPhilippine Sea.Flags were flown athalf-staffon the day of Armstrong's funeral. In July 2019, after observations of the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing,The New York Timesreported on details of amedical malpracticesuit Armstrong's family had filed against Mercy Health–Fairfield Hospital, where he died. When Armstrong appeared to be recovering from his bypass surgery, nurses removed the wires connected to his temporarypacemaker. He began tobleed internallyand his blood pressure dropped. Doctors took him to the hospital'scatheterizationlaboratory, and only later began operating. Two of the three physicians who reviewed the medical files during the lawsuit called this a serious error, saying surgery should have begun immediately; experts theTimestalked to, while qualifying their judgement by noting that they were unable to review the specific records in the case, said that taking a patient directly to the operating room under those circumstances generally gave them the highest chance of survival. The family ultimately settled for $6 million in 2014. Letters included with the 93 pages of documents sent to theTimesby an unknown personshow that his sons intimated to the hospital, through their lawyers, that they might discuss what happened to their father publicly at the 45th anniversary observances in 2014. The hospital, fearing the bad publicity that would result from being accused of negligently causing the death of a revered figure such as Armstrong, agreed to pay as long as the family never spoke about the suit or the settlement.Armstrong's wife, Carol, was not a party to the lawsuit. She reportedly felt that her husband would have been opposed to taking legal action. Legacy When Pete Conrad ofApollo 12became the third man to walk on the Moon, on November 19, 1969, his first words referenced Armstrong. The shorter of the two, when Conrad stepped from the LM onto the surface he proclaimed \"Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.\" Armstrong received many honors and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom (with distinction) from President Nixon,theCullum Geographical Medalfrom theAmerican Geographical Society,and theCollier Trophyfrom theNational Aeronautic Association(1969);theNASA Distinguished Service Medaland theDr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy(1970);theSylvanus Thayer Awardby theUnited States Military Academy(1971);theCongressional Space Medal of Honorfrom PresidentJimmy Carter(1978);theWright Brothers Memorial Trophyfrom the National Aeronautic Association (2001);and aCongressional Gold Medal(2011). Armstrong was elected as member into theNational Academy of Engineeringin 1978 for contributions to aerospace engineering, scientific knowledge, and exploration of the universe as an experimental test pilot and astronaut.He was elected to theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 2001. Armstrong and his Apollo 11 crewmates were the 1999 recipients of theLangley Gold Medalfrom the Smithsonian Institution.On April 18, 2006, he received NASA's Ambassador of Exploration Award.TheSpace Foundationnamed Armstrong as a recipient of its 2013 General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award.Armstrong was also inducted into theAerospace Walk of Honor,theInternational Space Hall of Fame,National Aviation Hall of Fame, and theUnited States Astronaut Hall of Fame.He was awarded hisNaval Astronaut badgein a ceremony on board the aircraft carrierUSSDwight D. Eisenhoweron March 10, 2010, in a ceremony attended by Lovell and Cernan. The lunar craterArmstrong, 31 miles (50 km) from the Apollo 11 landing site, andasteroid6469 Armstrongare named in his honor.There are more than a dozen elementary, middle and high schools named for Armstrong in the United States,and many places around the world have streets, buildings, schools, and other places named for him and/or Apollo.TheArmstrong Air and Space Museum, in Armstrong's hometown of Wapakoneta,and the Neil Armstrong Airport inNew Knoxville, Ohio, are named after him.The mineralarmstrongiteis named after him,and the mineralarmalcoliteis named, in part, after him. In October 2004 Purdue University named its new engineering buildingNeil Armstrong Hall of Engineering;the building was dedicated on October 27, 2007, during a ceremony at which Armstrong was joined by fourteen other Purdue astronauts.The NASA Dryden Flight Research Center was renamed the NASA Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center in 2014.In September 2012, the U.S. Navy named the firstArmstrong-class vesselRVNeil Armstrong. Delivered to the Navy on September 23, 2015, it is a modern oceanographic research platform supporting a wide range of activities by academic groups.In 2019, the College of Engineering at Purdue University celebrated the 50th anniversary of Neil Armstrong's walk on the Moon by launching the Neil Armstrong Distinguished Visiting Fellows Program, which brings highly accomplished scholars and practitioners to the college to catalyze collaborations with faculty and students. Armstrong's authorized biography,First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong, was published in 2005. For many years, he turned down biography offers from authors such asStephen AmbroseandJames A. Michenerbut agreed to work with James R. Hansen after reading one of Hansen's other biographies.He recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission, when he had believed there was only a 50% chance of landing on the Moon. \"I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we were successful\".Afilm adaptation of the book, starringRyan Goslingand directed byDamien Chazelle, was released in October 2018. In July 2018, Armstrong's sons put his collection of memorabilia up for sale, including his Boy Scout cap, and various flags and medals flown on his space missions. A series of auctions held November 1–3, 2018, realized $5,276,320 (~$6.31 million in 2023). As of July 2019, the auction sales totaled $16.7million.Two fragments of wood from the propeller and four pieces of fabric from the wing of the 1903Wright Flyerthat Armstrong took to the Moon fetched between $112,500 and $275,000 each.Armstrong's wife, Carol, has not put any of his memorabilia up for sale. Armstrong donated his papers to Purdue. Along with posthumous donations by his widow Carol, the collection consists of over 450boxes of material. In May 2019, she donated two 25-by-24-inch (640 by 610 mm) pieces of fabric from theWright Flyer, along with his correspondence related to them. In a 2010Space Foundationsurvey, Armstrong was ranked as the number-one most popular space hero;and in 2013,Flyingmagazine ranked him number one on its list of 51 Heroes of Aviation.The press often asked Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, he said that ahuman mission to Marswould be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s. In 2010, he made a rare public criticism of the decision to cancel theAres Ilaunch vehicle and theConstellation Moon landing program.In an open letter also signed by fellow Apollo veterans Lovell and Cernan, he said, \"For The United States, the leading space faring nation for nearly half a century, to be without carriage to low Earth orbit and with no human exploration capability to go beyond Earth orbit for an indeterminate time into the future, destines our nation to become one of second or even third rate stature\".On November 18, 2010, aged 80, he said in a speech during theScience & Technology Summitinthe Hague, Netherlands, that he would offer his services as commander on a mission to Mars if he were asked. The planetarium atAltoona Area High SchoolinAltoona, Pennsylvaniais named after Armstrong and is home to aSpace Racemuseum.A campsite in Camp Sandy Beach atYawgoog Scout ReservationinRockville, Rhode Island, is named in his honor, a nod to his Scouting career. Armstrong was named theclass exemplarfor the Class of 2019 at the U.S. Air Force Academy. See also Notes References Further reading External links","Grumman F9F Panther TheGrumman F9F Pantheris an earlycarrier-basedjet fighterdesigned and produced by the American aircraft manufacturerGrumman. It was the first jet-powered fighter aircraft to see air-to-air combat with theUnited States Navyas well as being Grumman’s first jet fighter. Development of the Panther commenced in the final months ofWorld War IIto harness the recent innovation of the jet engine. Grumman designed a single-engined, straight-wingedday fighterthat was armed with four 20 mm (0.79 in)cannonsand could also carry a wide assortment of air-to-ground munitions. Production aircraft were typically powered by a singleAllison J33orPratt & Whitney J48-P-2turbojetengine. On 21 November 1947, the prototype performed itsmaiden flight, powered by an importedRolls-Royce Neneengine. During September 1949, the F9F was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers. The Panther was used extensively by the U.S. Navy andMarine Corpsin theKorean War. On 3 July 1950, a F9F-3 recorded the first U.S. Navy air victory of the conflict, having shot down a propeller-poweredYak-9. In the Korean theatre, Panther pilots cumulatively claimed the shooting down of sevenMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s. During 1956, the type was withdrawn from front-line combat service, but remained in secondary roles, such as for training and with U.S. Naval Air Reserve and U.S. Marine Air Reserve units, until 1958. The Panther was also the first jet aircraft used by theBlue Angelsaerobaticsdemonstration team, being flown in this capacity from 1949 through to late 1954. FutureastronautsNeil ArmstrongandJohn Glennboth flew the F9F extensively during the Korean War. While Australia was interested in the Panther during the late 1940s, the nation ultimately opted for theGloster Meteor F.8and theCAC Sabreinstead. The aircraft's only export customer wasArgentina, where it became the first jet aircraft to be operated by theArgentine Naval Aviation. It was operated mainly from land, as thecatapultsof the aircraft carrierARAIndependencialacked sufficient power to readily launch the F9F. Several Panthers participated in the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt, firing upon Argentine Army forces sent to quell the revolt. During 1969, it was withdrawn from Argentine service due to a lack of spare parts. Grumman would develop the F9F design in response to U.S. Navy interest, producing theswept wingGrumman F-9 Cougar. Design and development Background The origins of the Panther can be traced back to development studies performed by Grumman into jet-powered fighter aircraft near the end ofWorld War II. The company was keen to capitalise on the emergence of the first practical jet engines by integrating them into a new aircraft design. This design, which was internally designatedG-75, was submitted to aUnited States Navycompetition that sought a jet-powerednight fighterto equip itsaircraft carrierswith. However, on 3 April 1946, it was announced that theDouglas F3D Skyknight, a competing two-seat aircraft powered by fourWestinghouse J30turbojets, had been selected. On 11 April 1946, the Navy'sBureau of Aeronautics(BuAer) issued a development contract to Grumman to produce a pair of G-75 prototypes, which were given the Navy designationXF9F-1, in case development of the Skyknight encountered severe problems. Shortly thereafter, Grumman recognised that the G-75 did not have much potential for either performance or growth; the company had already undertaken work on a completely different single-engine day fighter, theG-79. In a bureaucratic maneuver, BuAer opted not to cancel the G-75 contract, but instead changed the wording to include three prototypes of the entirely different G-79. It was this design that became the Panther. At that time, the few American engines that were available for use, such as theAllison J33andWestinghouse J34, were not considered to be sufficiently reliable;thus, the Navy specified the importedRolls-Royce Neneturbojet, which was also more powerful, at 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) of thrust. Production aircraft were to also be powered by the Nene, builtunder licensebyPratt & Whitneyas the J42.Since there was insufficient space within the wings and fuselage to provide sufficient fuel for the thirsty jet engine, the design team opted to add permanently mountedwingtip fuel tanks, which had incidental advantage of improving the fighter's rate ofroll.The wings featured another innovation in the form ofleading edgeflapsthat generated additional lift while landing;speed brakeswere also present on the underside of the fuselage. Flight testing On 21 November 1947, the prototype Panther conducted itsmaiden flight, piloted by test pilot Corky Meyer.It was followed by the second prototype only five days later.Initial issues with directional and longitudinal stability were encountered, but were quickly rectified. During one early land-basedarresting geartest, the detachable rear section of the aircraft unintentionally came off; remedial changes were made to avoid any future repetition. During May 1949, carrier suitability trails commenced.In September 1949, the F9F was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers. During the development phase, Grumman decided to change the Panther's engine, selecting thePratt & Whitney J48-P-2, a license built version of theRolls-Royce RB.44 Tay. The other engine that had been tested was the Allison J33-A-16. The armament was a quartet of 20mm guns, the Navy having already switched to this caliber (as opposed to the USAAF/USAF which continued to use .50 caliberM2/M3guns). In addition, the Panther was soon armed with underwing air-to-ground rockets and up to 2,000 lb (910 kg) of bombs. From 1946, interest in developing an aircraft that harnessed the increasingly popularswept winggrew and, following concerns that the Panther was inferior to its MiG opponents over the skies of Korea, Grumman launched work on a conversion project, known as Design 93. This effort resulted in a swept-wing derivative, theF9F Cougar, which retained the Panther's designation number.Later stage development work on the Panther continued, being largely focused on engine improvements, expanding fuel capacity, and the use of alternative munitions. In 1949, the Panther was considered by theAustraliangovernment, as a possible locally-built replacement for theMustangMk 23 andDe Havilland Vampirethen operated by theRoyal Australian Air Force(RAAF).The other designs considered initially were an Australian design, theCAC CA-23(an unconventional, twin-jetall-weather fighter) and theHawker P.1081. By mid-1950, however, RAAF Mustangs were in action inKoreaand seen as highly vulnerable to theMiG-15. An immediately available stop-gap in the shape of theGloster Meteor F.8was operated by the RAAF in Korea from July 1951. (After its less-than-satisfactory performance against MiGs, the Meteor was replaced from 1954 by theCAC Sabre– an Australian-built, up-engined variant of the F-86.) Operational history US Navy The Panther was the primary jet fighter and ground-attack aircraft of both the US Navy and USMC during theKorean War. It was the widest used Navy jet fighter of the conflict, cumulatively flying 78,000 sorties. F9F-2s, F9F-3s and F9F-5s, as rugged attack aircraft, were able to sustain operations despite being frequently opposed by intense anti-aircraft fire. The pilots also appreciated the air conditioned cockpit, which made for a welcome change from the humid environment of piston-powered aircraft. On 3 July 1950,Lieutenant, junior gradeLeonard H. Plog, ofVF-51, flying an F9F-3 scored the first US Navy air victory of the war by shooting down a propeller-poweredYak-9. Despite their relatively low speed, Panther pilots also claimed sevenMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s, for the loss of two F9Fs. The first MiG-15 was downed on 9 November 1950, byLieutenant CommanderWilliam (Bill) Amen ofVF-111flying an F9F-2B, during aUN Commandattack on theSinuijubridges, near the mouth of the Yalu River.Two more MiG-15s were downed on 18 November 1950. On 18 November 1952, the American aircraft carrierUSSOriskanyand three other carriers were operating in theSea of Japanconducting air strikes against the North Korean city ofHoeryong. The group launched four F9F's for a combat patrol near the North Korean border with China. The group's leader suffered mechanical problems and returned to the carrier together with his wingman. LtRoyce WilliamsofVF-781, flying offUSSOriskanyand his wingman continued on the mission. They then identified sevenSoviet Naval AviationMigs heading towards the task force from the Russian mainland. The naval commanders therefore ordered the two F9Fs to position themselves between the Migs and the carrier group. During this maneuver, four Soviet MiG-15s opened fire, despite the fact that the countries were not at war. Williams opened fire on the tail Mig, which dropped out of formation, and was followed down by Williams' wingman. What followed was a 35-minute dogfight between Williams and six MiG-15s. The Mig 15 was a more capable plane, but Williams nevertheless succeeded in shooting down three more. He ascribed this to both sides doing as they were trained, but the Soviet pilots making mistakes. While heading back to the carriers, Williams was out of ammo, but still had one Mig on his tail. The re-appearance of his wingman on the Mig's tail then scared this one off. By that time Williams's plane was so damaged that he could not turn sideways anymore.Oriskanywas therefore aligned with the plane, so he could land. After landing, his Panther was found to have 263 hits by cannon shells or fragments and was beyond repair. It was therefore pushed overboard. The engagement is little-known for two reasons. The US feared that publication of the incident could increase tensions with the Soviet Union.Another reason was the involvement of the USNational Security Agency(NSA) – the existence of which was then top secret – in planning the mission; the MiGs were intercepted as a result of intelligence provided by the NSA.The four MiGs that were shot down were flown bySoviet Naval Aviationpilots: Russian sources confirmed Williams' claims, 40 years later, stating the pilots lost were Captains Belyakov and Vandalov, and Lieutenants Pakhomkin and Tarshinov. As the conflict progressed, Panthers became primarily tasked with ground attack missions.Attacks upon hostile anti-aircraft equipment were commonly conducted.This was a risky mission type, with numerous Panthers being damaged or even lost to fire from the same ground batteries that they were seeking to neutralize.Furthermore, the danger posed by these systems increased over time as more capable AA apparatus was supplied to the North Korean force.Panthers also routinely undertook aerial reconnaissance missions over Korea.Starting in 1952, the Panther began to be supplemented by the newer Cougar derivative in the theatre. Future astronautNeil Armstrongflew the F9F extensively during the Korean conflict,although he ejected from one of the aircraft after it was brought down by a wire strung across a valley in 1951.Future astronautJohn GlennandBoston Red Soxall-starbaseball playerTed Williamsalso flew the F9F as Marine Corps pilots. During 1956, the Panther was withdrawn from frontline combat service, having been displaced by new fighter aircraft, including its swept-wing Cougar derivative.However, the type remained active in secondary roles, such as for training and with U.S. Naval Air Reserve and U.S. Marine Air Reserve units, until 1958. The Navy'sBlue Angelsflight demonstration team used the Panther for four years, beginning in 1951. The Panther was the Blue Angels' first jet.Some Panthers continued to serve in small numbers into the 1960s.From September 1962, surviving operational Panthers were designated F-9 within the new combined US tri-service designation system. Argentine Navy The only foreign buyer of the Panther was theArgentine Naval Aviation, which purchased 28 ex-USN F9F-2B aircraft during 1957; the first 10 arrived in 1958. Only 24 aircraft were put in service, as the remainder were used as spares. The first flight of an Argentine Panther was in December 1958, and the last aircraft entered into service during January 1961. The catapult on the then only Argentine carrier,ARAIndependencia, was not powerful enough to launch the F9F,so the aircraft were land-based. However, in July 1963, a Panther (serial 0453/3-A-119) landed onIndependenciaas part of trials, the first jet to land on an Argentine aircraft carrier;it was not then catapult-launched, but off-loaded by crane when the ship returned to port. Argentine Navy F9F-2 Panthers were engaged in combat during the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt. Several rebel-controlled aircraft flew bombing and strafing runs against a column of the Army 8th Tank Regiment which was advancing on the rebellingPunta Indio Naval Air Base. The attack destroyed severalM4 Shermantanks while one F9F Panther was shot down. The Argentine Panthers were involved in the general mobilization during the1965 border clash between Argentina and Chile, but no combat occurred. The type was removed from service during 1969 due to a lack of available spare parts, the service opted to replace them withDouglas A-4Q Skyhawks. The Argentine Navy also operated the F-9 Cougar trainer version. Variants Operators Surviving aircraft Argentina United States Specifications (F9F-5 Panther) Data fromUnited States Navy Aircraft since 1911 General characteristics Performance Armament Notable appearances in media The F9F Panther was featured in the 1954 Korean War filmThe Bridges at Toko-RistarringWilliam Holden,Grace Kelly,Mickey RooneyandFredric March, and inMen of the Fighting LadystarringVan Johnson,Walter PidgeonandKeenan Wynn. Stock footageof an F9F piloted byGeorge Chamberlain Duncancrashing into the fantail of theUSSMidway(CV-41)during a 1951 test flight appears in severalHollywoodfilms. See also Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists References Citations Bibliography Online sources Further reading External links","John Glenn John Herschel Glenn Jr.(July 18, 1921 – December 8, 2016) was an AmericanMarine Corps aviator,astronaut, businessman, and politician. He was the third American in space and the first American to orbit the Earth, circling it three times in 1962.Following his retirement fromNASA, he served from 1974 to 1999 as aU.S. SenatorfromOhio; in 1998, he flew into space again at the age of 77. Before joining NASA, Glenn was a distinguishedfighter pilotinWorld War II, theChinese Civil War, and theKorean War. He shot down threeMiG-15sand was awarded sixDistinguished Flying Crossesand eighteenAir Medals. In 1957, he made the firstsupersonictranscontinental flightacross the United States. His on-board camera took the first continuous, panoramic photograph of the United States. Glenn was one of theMercury Sevenmilitarytest pilotsselected in 1959 by NASA as the nation's first astronauts. On February 20, 1962, Glenn flew theFriendship 7mission, becoming the first American to orbit the Earth. He was the third American, and the fifth person, to be in space. He received theNASA Distinguished Service Medalin 1962, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, was inducted into theU.S. Astronaut Hall of Famein 1990, and received thePresidential Medal of Freedomin 2012. Glenn resigned from NASA in January 1964. A member of the Democratic Party, Glenn was firstelected to the Senate in 1974and served for 24 years until January 1999. In 1998, at age 77, Glenn flew onSpace ShuttleDiscovery'sSTS-95mission, making him the oldest person to enter Earth orbit, the only person to fly in both the Mercury and theSpace Shuttle programs, and the first Member of Congress to visit space since CongressmanBill Nelson(D-Fla.) in 1986. Glenn, both the oldest and the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven, died at the age of 95 on December 8, 2016. Early life and education John Herschel Glenn Jr. was born on July 18, 1921, in Cambridge, Ohio, the son of John Herschel Glenn Sr. (1895–1966), who worked for a plumbing firm, and Clara Teresa Glenn (néeSproat; 1897–1971), a teacher.His parents had married shortly before John Sr., a member of theAmerican Expeditionary Force, left for theWestern FrontduringWorld War I. The family moved toNew Concord, Ohio, soon after his birth, and his father started his own business, the Glenn Plumbing Company.Glenn Jr. was only a toddler when he metAnna Margaret (Annie) Castor, whom he would later marry. The two would not be able to recall a time when they did not know each other.He first flew in an airplane with his father when he was eight years old. He became fascinated by flight and built model airplanes frombalsa woodkits.Along with his adopted sister Jean,he attended New Concord Elementary School.He washed cars and soldrhubarbto earn money to buy a bicycle, after which he took a job deliveringThe Columbus Dispatchnewspaper.He was a member of theOhio Rangers, an organization similar to theCub Scouts.His boyhood home in New Concord has beenrestoredas ahistoric house museumand education center. Glenn attendedNew Concord High School, where he played on thevarsityfootballteam as acenterandlinebacker. He also made the varsitybasketballandtennisteams and was involved with Hi-Y, a junior branch of theYMCA.After graduating in 1939, Glenn enteredMuskingum College(now Muskingum University), where he studiedchemistry,joined the Stag Club fraternity,and played on the football team.Annie majored in music with minors in secretarial studies and physical education and competed on the swimming andvolleyballteams, graduating in 1942.Glenn earned aprivate pilot licenseand a physics course credit for free through theCivilian Pilot Training Programin 1941.He did not complete his senior year in residence or take a proficiency exam, both required by the school for itsBachelor of Sciencedegree. Military career World War II When the United States entered World War II, Glenn quit college to enlist in theU.S. Army Air Corps.He was not called to duty by the Army and enlisted as aU.S. Navyaviation cadetin March 1942. Glenn attended theUniversity of IowainIowa Cityfor pre-flight training and made his first solo flight in a military aircraft atNaval Air Station OlatheinKansas, where he went for primary training. During advanced training atNaval Air Station Corpus ChristiinTexas, he accepted an offer to transfer to theU.S. Marine Corps.Having completed his flight training in March 1943, Glenn was commissioned as asecond lieutenant. Glenn married Annie in a Presbyterian ceremony at College Drive Church in New Concord on April 6, 1943.After advanced training atCamp Kearny, California, he was assigned to Marine SquadronVMJ-353, which flewR4Dtransport planes from there. ThefightersquadronVMO-155was also at Camp Kearny flying theGrumman F4F Wildcat. Glenn approached the squadron's commander,MajorJ. P. Haines, who suggested that he could put in for a transfer. This was approved, and Glenn was posted to VMO-155 on July 2, 1943, two days before the squadron moved toMarine Corps Air Station El Centroin California.The Wildcat was obsolete by this time, and VMO-155 re-equipped with theF4U Corsairin September 1943.He was promoted tofirst lieutenantin October 1943, and shipped out to Hawaii in January 1944.VMO-155 became part of the garrison onMidway Atollon February 21,then moved to theMarshall Islandsin June 1944 and flew 57 combat missions in the area.He received two Distinguished Flying Crosses and ten Air Medals. At the end of his one-year tour of duty in February 1945, Glenn was assigned toMarine Corps Air Station Cherry PointinNorth Carolina, then toNaval Air Station Patuxent Riverin Maryland. He was promoted tocaptainin July 1945 and ordered back to Cherry Point. There, he joined VMF-913, another Corsair squadron, and learned that he had qualified for a regular commission.In March 1946, he was assigned toMarine Corps Air Station El Toroin southern California. He volunteered for service with the occupation in North China, believing it would be a short tour. He joinedVMF-218(another Corsair squadron), which was based atNanyuan Fieldnear Beijing, in December 1946,and flew patrol missions until VMF-218 was transferred toGuamin March 1947. In December 1948, Glenn was re-posted to NAS Corpus Christi as a student at the Naval School of All-Weather Flight before becoming aflight instructor.In July 1951, he traveled to theAmphibious Warfare SchoolatMarine Corps Base Quanticoin northernVirginiafor a six-month course.He then joined the staff of the commandant of the Marine Corps Schools. He maintained his proficiency (and flight pay) by flying on weekends and was only allowed four hours of flying time per month.He was promoted to major in July 1952.Glenn received theWorld War II Victory Medal,American Campaign Medal,Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal(with onestar),Navy Occupation Service Medal(with Asia clasp), and theChina Service Medalfor his efforts. Korean War Glenn moved his family back to New Concord during a short period of leave, and after two and a half months of jet training at Cherry Point, was ordered toSouth Koreain October 1952, late in the Korean War.Before he set out for Korea in February 1953, he applied to fly theF-86 Sabrejetfighter-interceptorthrough an inter-service exchange position with theU.S. Air Force(USAF). In preparation, he arranged with Colonel Leon W. Gray to check out the F-86 atOtis Air Force BaseinMassachusetts.Glenn reported toK-3, an airbase in South Korea, on February 3, 1953, and was assigned to be the operations officer forVMF-311, one of two Marine fighter squadrons there while he waited for the exchange assignment to go through.VMF-311 was equipped with theF9F Pantherjetfighter-bomber. Glenn's first mission was a reconnaissance flight on February 26.He flew 63 combat missions in Korea with VMF-311and was nicknamed \"Magnet Ass\" because of the number offlakhits he took on low-levelclose air supportmissions;twice, he returned to base with over 250 holes in his plane.He flew for a time with Marine reservistTed Williams(then in the midst of aHall of Famebaseball career with theBoston Red Sox) as hiswingman.Williams later said about Glenn \"Absolutely fearless. The best I ever saw. It was an honor to fly with him.\"Glenn also flew with future major generalRalph H. Spanjer. In June 1953, Glenn reported for duty with the USAF's25th Fighter-Interceptor Squadronand flew 27 combat missions in the F-86, a much faster aircraft than the F9F Panther, patrollingMiG Alley.Combat with aMiG-15, which was faster and better armed still,was regarded as a rite of passage for a fighter pilot. On the Air Force buses that ferried the pilots out to the airfields before dawn, pilots who had engaged a MiG could sit while those who had not had to stand.Glenn later wrote, \"Since the days of theLafayette Escadrilleduring World War I, pilots have viewed air-to-air combat as the ultimate test not only of their machines but of their own personal determination and flying skills. I was no exception.\"He hoped to become the second Marine jetflying aceafterJohn F. Bolt. Glenn's USAF squadron mates painted \"MiG Mad Marine\" on his aircraft when he complained about there not being any MIGs to shoot at.He shot down his first MiG in adogfighton July 12, 1953, downed a second one on July 19, and a third on July 22 when four Sabres shot down three MiGs. These were the final air victories of the war, which ended with an armistice five days later.For his service in Korea, Glenn received two more Distinguished Flying Crosses and eight more Air Medals.Glenn also received theKorean Service Medal(with two campaign stars),United Nations Korea Medal,Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal,National Defense Service Medal(with one star), and theKorean War Service Medal. Test pilot With combat experience as a fighter pilot, Glenn applied for training as atest pilotwhile still in Korea. He reported to theU.S. Naval Test Pilot SchoolatNAS Patuxent Riverin Maryland in January 1954 and graduated in July.At Patuxent River, futureMedal of HonorrecipientJames Stockdaletutored him in physics and math.Glenn's first flight test assignment, testing theFJ-3 Fury, nearly killed him when its cockpit depressurized and its oxygen system failed.He also tested the armament of aircraft such as theVought F7U CutlassandF8U Crusader.From November 1956 to April 1959, he was assigned to the Fighter Design Branch of the NavyBureau of Aeronauticsin Washington, D.C., and attended theUniversity of Maryland. On July 16, 1957, Glenn made the firstsupersonictranscontinental flight.Disliking his Bureau of Aeronautics desk job, he devised the flight as both a way to keep flying and publicly demonstrate the F8U Crusader.At that time, the transcontinental speed record, held by an Air ForceRepublic F-84 Thunderjet, was 3 hours 45 minutes and Glenn calculated that the F8U Crusader could do it faster. Because its 586-mile-per-hour (943 km/h) air speed was faster than that of a.45 caliber bullet, Glenn called the flightProject Bullet.He flew an F8U Crusader 2,445 miles (3,935 km) fromLos Alamitos, California, toFloyd Bennett Fieldin New York City in 3 hours, 23 minutes and 8.3 seconds,averaging supersonic speed despite threein-flight refuelingswhen speeds dropped below 300 miles per hour (480 km/h). His on-board camera took the first continuous, transcontinentalpanoramic photographof the United States.He received his fifth Distinguished Flying Cross for this mission,and was promoted tolieutenant colonelon April 1, 1959.The cross-country flight made Glenn a minor celebrity. A profile appeared inThe New York Times,and he appeared on the television showName That Tune.Glenn now had nearly 9,000 hours of flying time, including about 3,000 hours in jets,but knew that at the age of 36, he was now likely too old to continue to fly. NASA career Selection On October 4, 1957, theSoviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1, the first artificialsatellite. This damaged American confidence in its technological superiority, creating a wave of anxiety known as theSputnik crisis. In response, PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerlaunched theSpace Race. TheNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) was established on October 1, 1958, as a civilian agency to develop space technology. One of its first initiatives was announced on December 17, 1958. This wasProject Mercury,which aimed to launch a man intoEarth orbit, return him safely to the Earth, and evaluate his capabilities in space. His Bureau of Aeronautics job gave Glenn access to new spaceflight news, such as theX-15rocket plane.While on duty at Patuxent and in Washington, Glenn read everything he could find about space. His office was asked to send a test pilot toLangley Air Force Basein Virginia to make runs on a spaceflight simulator, as part of research by the newly formed NASA into re-entry vehicle shapes. The pilot would also be sent to theNaval Air Development CenterinJohnsville, Pennsylvania, and would be subjected to highG-forcesin acentrifugefor comparison with data collected in the simulator. His request for the position was granted, and he spent several days at Langley and a week in Johnsville for the testing.As one of the very few pilots to have done such testing, Glenn had become an expert on the subject.NASA asked military-service members to participate in planning themockupof a spacecraft. Having participated in the research at Langley and Johnsville, he was sent to theMcDonnellplant inSt. Louisas a service adviser to NASA's spacecraft mockup board.Envisioning himself in the vehicle, Glenn stated that the passenger would have to be able to control the spacecraft. McDonnell engineers told him of the importance of lightening the vehicle as much as possible, so Glenn began exercising to lose the 30 pounds he estimated that he was overweight. Eisenhower directed NASA to recruit its first astronauts from military test pilots. Of 508 graduates of test pilot schools, 110 matched the minimum standards.Marine Corps pilots were mistakenly omitted at first; two were quickly found, including Glenn.The candidates had to be younger than 40, possess a bachelor's degree or equivalent, and be 5 feet 11 inches (1.80 m) or less. Only the height requirement was strictly enforced, owing to the size of the Project Mercury spacecraft.This was fortunate for Glenn, who barely met the requirements, as he was near the age cutoff and lacked a science-based degree,but had taken more classes since leaving college than needed for graduation. Glenn was otherwise so outstanding a candidate that Colonel Jake Dill, his commanding officer at test pilot school, visited NASA headquarters to insist that Glenn would be the perfect astronaut. For an interview with Charles Donlan, associate director of Project Mercury, Glenn brought the results from the centrifuge to show that he had done well on a test that perhaps no other candidate had taken. Donlan also noticed that Glenn stayed late at night to study schematics of the Mercury spacecraft.He was among the 32 of the first 69 candidates that passed the first step of the evaluation and were interested in continuing, sufficient for the astronaut corps NASA wanted.On February 27 a grueling series of physical and psychological tests began at theLovelace Clinicand theWright Aerospace Medical Laboratory. Because of his Bureau of Aeronautics job, Glenn was already participating in Project Mercury; while other candidates were at Wright, on March 17 he and most of those who would choose the astronauts visited the McDonnell plant building the spacecraft to inspect its progress and make changes. While Glenn had not scored the highest on all the tests, a member of the selection committee recalled how he had impressed everyone with his \"strength of personality and his dedication\". On April 6 Donlan called Glenn to offer him a position at Project Mercury,one of seven candidates chosen as astronauts.Glenn was pleased while Annie was supportive but wary of the danger; during his three years at Patuxent, 12 test pilots had died. The identities of the seven were announced at a press conference atDolley Madison Housein Washington, D.C., on April 9, 1959:Scott Carpenter,Gordon Cooper, Glenn,Gus Grissom,Wally Schirra,Alan Shepard, andDeke Slayton.InThe Right Stuff,Tom Wolfewrote that Glenn \"came out of it as tops among seven very fair-haired boys. He had the hottest record as a pilot, he was the most quotable, the most photogenic, and the lone Marine.\"The magnitude of the challenge ahead of them was made clear a few weeks later, on the night of May 18, 1959, when the seven astronauts gathered atCape Canaveralto watch their first rocket launch, of anSM-65D Atlas, which was similar to the one that was to carry them into orbit. A few minutes after liftoff, it exploded spectacularly, lighting up the night sky. The astronauts were stunned. Shepard turned to Glenn and said: \"Well, I'm glad they got that out of the way.\" Glenn remained an officer in the Marine Corps after his selection,and was assigned to the NASA Space Task Group atLangley Research CenterinHampton, Virginia.The task force moved toHouston, Texas, in 1962, and became part of the NASAManned Spacecraft Center.A portion of the astronauts' training was in the classroom, where they learned space science. The group also received hands-on training, which includedscuba divingand work in simulators.Astronauts secured an additional role in the spaceflight program: to provide pilot input in design. The astronauts divided the various tasks between them. Glenn's specialization was cockpit layout design and control functioning for the Mercury and earlyApollo programs.He pressed the other astronauts to set a moral example, living up to the squeaky-clean image of them that had been portrayed byLifemagazine, a position that was not popular with the other astronauts. Friendship 7flight Glenn was the backup pilot for Shepard and Grissom on the first two crewed Project Mercury flights, the sub-orbital missionsMercury-Redstone 3andMercury-Redstone 4.Glenn was selected for Mercury-Atlas 6, NASA's first crewed orbital flight, with Carpenter as his backup. Putting a man in orbit would achieve one of Project Mercury's most important goals.Shepard and Grissom had named their spacecraftFreedom 7andLiberty Bell 7. The numeral 7 had originally been the production number of Shepard's spacecraft, but had come to represent the Mercury 7. Glenn named his spacecraft, number 13,Friendship 7, and had the name hand-painted on the side like the one on his F-86 had been.Glenn and Carpenter completed their training for the mission in January 1962, but postponement of the launch allowed them to continue rehearsing. Glenn spent 25 hours and 25 minutes in the spacecraft performing hangar and altitude tests, and 59 hours and 45 minutes in the simulator. He flew 70 simulated missions and reacted to 189 simulated system failures. After a long series of delays,Friendship 7lifted off fromCape Canaveral Air Force Stationon February 20, 1962. During the countdown, there were eleven delays due to equipment malfunctions and improvements and the weather. During Glenn's first orbit, a failure of the automatic-control system was detected. This forced Glenn to operate in manual mode for the second and third orbits, and for re-entry. Later in the flight, telemetry indicated that theheat shieldhad loosened. If this reading had been accurate, Glenn and his spacecraft would have burned up on re-entry. After a lengthy discussion on how to deal with this problem, ground controllers decided that leaving the retrorocket pack in place might help keep the loose heat shield in place. They relayed these instructions to Glenn, but did not tell him the heat shield was possibly loose; although confused at this order, he complied. The retrorocket pack broke up into large chunks of flaming debris that flew past the window of his capsule during re-entry; Glenn thought this might have been the heat shield. He told an interviewer, \"Fortunately it was the rocket pack—or I wouldn't be answering these questions.\"After the flight, it was determined that the heat shield was not loose; the sensor was faulty. Friendship 7safelysplashed down800 miles (1,290 km) southeast of Cape Canaveral after Glenn's 4-hour, 55-minute flight.He carried a note on the flight which read, \"I am a stranger. I come in peace. Take me to your leader and there will be a massive reward for you in eternity\" in several languages, in case he landed near southern Pacific Ocean islands.The original procedure called for Glenn to exit through the top hatch, but he was uncomfortably warm and decided that egress through the side hatch would be faster.During the flight, he endured up to 7.8 g of acceleration and traveled 75,679 miles (121,794 km) at about 17,500 miles per hour (28,200 km/h).The flight took Glenn to a maximum altitude (apogee) of about 162 miles (261 km) and a minimum altitude of 100 miles (160 km) (perigee).Unlike the crewed missions ofSoviet Union'sVostok programme, Glenn remained within the spacecraft during landing.The flight made Glenn the first American toorbitthe Earth,the third American in space, and the fifth human in space.The mission, which Glenn called the \"best day of his life\", renewed U.S. confidence.His flight occurred while the U.S. and the Soviet Union were embroiled in theCold Warand competing in the Space Race. As the first American in orbit, Glenn became a national hero, met PresidentJohn F. Kennedy, and received aticker-tape paradein New York reminiscent of those honoringCharles Lindberghand other heroes. He became \"so valuable to the nation as an iconic figure\", according to NASA administratorCharles Bolden, that Kennedy would not \"risk putting him back in space again.\"Glenn's fame and political potential were noted by the Kennedys, and he became a friend of theKennedy family. On February 23, 1962, President Kennedy gave him theNASA Distinguished Service Medalfor hisFriendship 7flight.Upon receiving the award, Glenn said, \"I would like to consider I was a figurehead for this whole big, tremendous effort, and I am very proud of the medal I have on my lapel.\"Glenn also received his sixth Distinguished Flying Cross for his efforts.He was among the first group of astronauts to be awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. The award was presented to him by President Jimmy Carter in 1978. After his 1962 spaceflight, NASA proposed giving Glenn theMedal of Honor, but Glenn did not think that would be appropriate. His military and space awards were stolen from his home in 1978, and he remarked that he would keep this medal in a safe. Comments about women in space In 1962, NASA contemplated recruiting women to the astronaut corps via theMercury 13, but Glenn gave a speech before theHouse Space Committeedetailing his opposition to sending women into space, in which he said: I think this gets back to the way our social order is organized, really. It is just a fact. The men go off and fight the wars and fly the airplanes and come back and help design and build and test them. The fact that women are not in this field is a fact of our social order. In May 1965, after he left NASA, Glenn was quoted in theMiami Heraldas saying NASA \"offer a serious chance for space women\" as scientist astronauts. NASA had no official policy prohibiting women, but the requirement that astronauts had to be test pilots effectively excluded them.NASA dropped this requirement in 1965,but did not select any women as astronauts until 1978, when six women were selected, none as pilots.In June 1963, the Soviet Union launched a female cosmonaut,Valentina Tereshkova, into orbit. After Tereshkova, no women of any nationality flew in space again until August 1982, when the Soviet Union launched pilot-cosmonautSvetlana Savitskaya.During the late 1970s, Glenn reportedly supportedSpace ShuttleMission SpecialistJudith Resnikin her career. Political campaigning 1964 Senate campaign At 42, Glenn was the oldest member of the astronaut corps and would likely be close to 50 by the time the lunar landings took place. During Glenn's training, NASA psychologists determined that he was the astronaut best suited for public life.Attorney GeneralRobert F. Kennedysuggested to Glenn and his wife in December 1962 that he run for the1964 United States Senate election in Ohio, challenging aging incumbentStephen M. Young(1889–1984) in the Democratic primary election. As it seemed unlikely that he would be selected forProject Apollomissions,he resigned from NASA on January 16, 1964, and announced hisDemocratic Partycandidacy for theU.S. Senatefrom his home state of Ohio the following day,becoming the firstastronaut-politician.Glenn was still a Marine and had plenty of unused leave time. He elected to use it while he waited for his retirement papers to go through. To avoid partisanship, NASA quickly closed Glenn's agency office.The New York Timesreported that while many Ohioans were skeptical of Glenn's qualifications for the Senate, he could defeat Young in the Democratic primary; whether he could defeat RepresentativeRobert Taft Jr., the likely Republican candidate, in the general election was much less clear.In late February he was hospitalized for aconcussionsustained in a fall against a bathtub while attempting to fix a mirror in a hotel room;an inner-ear injury from the accident left him unable to campaign.Both his wife and Scott Carpenter campaigned on his behalf during February and March, but doctors gave Glenn a recovery time of one year. Glenn did not want to win solely because of his astronaut fame, so he dropped out of the race on March 30. Glenn was still on leave from the Marine Corps, and he withdrew his papers to retire so he could keep a salary and health benefits.Glenn was on the list of potential candidates to be promoted to full colonel, but he notified theCommandant of the Marine Corpsof his intention to retire so another Marine could receive the promotion. President Johnson later decided to promote Glenn to full colonel status without taking someone else's slot. He retired as acolonelon January 1, 1965. Glenn was approached byRC Colato join their public relations department, but Glenn declined it because he wanted to be involved with a business and not just the face of it. The company revised their offer and offered Glenn a vice president of corporate development position, as well as a place on the board of directors.The company later expanded Glenn's role, promoting him to president of Royal Crown International.A Senate seat was open in 1968, and Glenn was asked about his current political aspirations. He said he had no current plan, and \"Let's talk about it one of these days.\" Glenn also said that a 1970 Senate run was a possibility. In 1973, he and a friend bought aHoliday InnnearDisney World.The success of Disney World expanded to their business, and the pair built three more hotels.One of Glenn's business partners wasHenri Landwirth, aHolocaustsurvivor who became his best friend.He remembered learning about Landwirth's background: \"Henri doesn't talk about it much. It was years before he spoke about it with me and then only because of an accident. We were down in Florida during the space program. Everyone was wearing short-sleeved Ban-Lon shirts—everyone but Henri. Then one day I saw Henri at the pool and noticed thenumber on his arm. I told Henri that if it were me I'd wear that number like a medal with a spotlight on it.\" 1970 Senate campaign Glenn remained close to the Kennedy family, and campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy during his1968 presidential campaign.In 1968, Glenn was in Kennedy's hotel suite when Kennedy heard he had won California. Glenn was supposed to go with him to celebrate but decided not to as there would be many people there. Kennedy went downstairs to make his victory speech andwas assassinated. Glenn and Annie went with Kennedy to the hospital, and the next morning took Kennedy's children home to Virginia.Glenn was later a pallbearer at the funeral in New York. In 1970, Young did not seek reelection and the seat was open. BusinessmanHoward Metzenbaum, Young's former campaign manager, was backed by theOhio Democratic partyand major labor unions, which provided him a significant funding advantage over Glenn. Glenn's camp persuaded him to be thrifty during the primary so he could save money for the general election. By the end of the primary campaign, Metzenbaum was spending four times as much as Glenn.Glenn was defeated in the Democratic primary by Metzenbaum (who received 51 percent of the vote to Glenn's 49 percent). Some prominent Democrats said Glenn was a \"hapless political rube\", and one newspaper called him \"the ultimate square\". Metzenbaum lost the general election to Robert Taft Jr.Glenn remained active in the political scene following his defeat. GovernorJohn J. Gilliganappointed Glenn to be the chairman of the Citizens Task Force on Environmental Protection in 1970. The task force was created to survey environmental problems in the state and released a report in 1971 detailing the issues. The meetings and the final report of the task force were major contributors to the formation of Ohio'sEnvironmental Protection Agency. 1974 Senate campaign In 1973, President Nixon orderedAttorney GeneralElliot Richardsonto fireWatergatespecial prosecutorArchibald Cox. Richardson refused and resigned in protest, triggering theSaturday Night massacre. Ohio SenatorWilliam Saxbe, elected in 1968, was appointed attorney general. Both Glenn and Metzenbaum sought the vacated seat, which was to be filled by Governor John Gilligan. Gilligan was planning on a presidential or vice-presidential run in the near future, and offered Glenn thelieutenant governorposition, with the thought that Glenn would ascend to governor when Gilligan was elected to a higher position. The Ohio Democratic party backed this solution to avoid what was expected to be a divisive primary battle between Metzenbaum and Glenn. He declined, denouncing their attempts as \"bossism\" and \"blackmail\".Glenn's counteroffer suggested that Gilligan fill the position with someone other than Metzenbaum or Glenn so neither would have an advantage going into the 1974 election. Metzenbaum's campaign agreed to back Gilligan in his governor re-election campaign, and Metzenbaum was subsequently appointed in January 1974 to the vacated seat.At the end of Saxbe's term, Glenn challenged Metzenbaum in the primary for the Ohio Senate seat. Glenn's campaign changed their strategy after the 1970 election. In 1970, Glenn won most of the counties in Ohio but lost in those with larger populations. The campaign changed its focus, and worked primarily in the large counties.In the primary, Metzenbaum contrasted his strong business background with Glenn's military and astronaut credentials and said that his opponent had \"never held a payroll\". Glenn's reply became known as the \"Gold Star Mothers\" speech. He told Metzenbaum to go to a veterans' hospital and \"look those men with mangled bodies in the eyes and tell them they didn't hold a job. You go with me to any Gold Star mother and you look her in the eye and tell her that her son did not hold a job\".He defeated Metzenbaum 54 to 46 percent before defeatingRalph Perk(the RepublicanmayorofCleveland) in the general election, beginning a Senate career which would continue until 1999. 1976 vice presidential consideration AfterJimmy Carterbecame the presumptive Democratic nominee for president in the1976 election, Glenn was reported to bein considerationto be Carter's running mate because he was a senator in a pivotal state and for his fame and straightforwardness.Some thought he was too much like Carter, partially because they both had military backgrounds, and he did not have enough experience to become president.Barbara Jordanwas the first keynote speaker at the Democratic National Convention. Her speech electrified the crowd and was filled with applause and standing ovations. Glenn's keynote address immediately followed Jordan's, and he failed to impress the delegates. Walter Cronkite described it as \"dull\", and other delegates complained that he was hard to hear.Carter called Glenn to inform him the nomination was going to another candidate and later nominated the veteran politicianWalter Mondale. It was also reported that Carter's wife thought Annie Glenn, who had a stutter, would hurt the campaign. 1980 Senate campaign In his first reelection campaign, Glenn ran opposed in the primary for the 1980 Senate election. His opponents, engineer Francis Hunstiger and ex-teacher Frances Waterman, were not well-known and poorly funded.His opponents spent only a few thousand dollars on the campaign, while Glenn spent $700,000.Reporters noted that for a race he was likely to win, Glenn was spending a lot of time and money on the campaign. His chief strategist responded to the remarks saying, \"It's the way he does things. He takes nothing for granted.\"Glenn won the primary by a landslide, with 934,230 of the 1.09 million votes. Jim Betts, who ran unopposed in the Republican primary, challenged Glenn for his seat. Betts publicly stated that Glenn's policies were part of the reason for inflation increases and a lower standard of living.Betts' campaign also attacked Glenn's voting record, saying that he often voted for spending increases. Glenn's campaign's response was that he has been a part of over 3,000 roll calls and \"any one of them could be taken out of context\".Glenn was projected to win the race easily,and won by the largest margin ever for an Ohio Senator, defeating Betts by over 40 percent. 1984 presidential campaign Glenn was unhappy with how divided the country was, and thought labels like conservative and liberal increased the divide. He considered himself a centrist. Glenn thought a more centrist president would help unite the country. Glenn believed his experience as a senator from Ohio was ideal because of the state's diversity.Glenn thought thatTed Kennedycould win the election, but after Kennedy's announcement in late 1982 that he would not seek the presidency, Glenn thought he had a much better chance of winning. He hired a media consultant to help him with his speaking style. Glenn announced hiscandidacy for presidenton April 21, 1983, in theJohn Glenn High Schoolgymnasium.He started out the campaign out-raising the front-runner, Mondale. He also polled the highest of any Democrat against Reagan.During the fall of 1983,The Right Stuff, a film about the Mercury Seven astronauts, was released. Reviewers sawEd Harris' portrayal of Glenn as heroic and his staff began to publicize the film to the press.One reviewer said that \"Harris' depiction helped transform Glenn from a history-book figure into a likable, thoroughly adoration-worthy Hollywood hero,\" turning him into a big-screen icon.Others considered the movie to be damaging to Glenn's campaign, serving as only a reminder that Glenn's most significant achievement had occurred decades earlier.Glenn's autobiography said the film \"had a chilling effect on the campaign.\" William White managed Glenn's campaign until his replacement by Jerry Vento on January 26, 1984.Glenn's campaign decided to forgo the traditional campaigning in early caucuses and primaries and focus on building campaign offices nationwide. He opened offices in 43 states by January 1984. Glenn's campaign spent a significant amount of money on television advertising in Iowa, and Glenn chose not to attend an Iowan debate on farm issues. He finished fifth in the Iowa caucus and went on to lose New Hampshire. Glenn's campaign continued intoSuper Tuesday, and he lost there as well. He announced his withdrawal from the race on March 16, 1984.After Mondale defeated him for the nomination, Glenn carried $3 million in campaign debt for over 20 years before receiving a reprieve from theFederal Election Commission. 1986 Senate campaign Glenn's Senate seat was challenged byThomas Kindness. Kindness was unopposed in his primary, while Glenn facedLyndon LaRouchesupporter Don Scott. LaRouche supporters had been recently elected in Illinois, but the Ohio Democratic Party chairman did not think it was likely they would see the same success in Ohio.LaRouche was known for his fringe theories, such as the queen of England being a drug dealer.Kindness spoke to his supporters and warned them against LaRouche candidates. He issued a statement telling voters to reject LaRouche candidates in both Republican and Democratic primaries.Glenn won the primary contest with 88% of the vote. With the primary complete, Glenn began his campaign against Kindness. Glenn believed he and other Democrats were the targets of a negative campaign thought up by the GOP strategists in Washington. Kindness focused on Glenn's campaign debts for his failed presidential run and the fact he stopped payments on it while campaigning for the Senate seat.After winning the race with 62% of the vote, Glenn remarked, \"We proved that in 1986, they couldn't kill Glenn with Kindness.\" 1992 Senate campaign In 1992, RepublicanMike DeWinewon the Republican primary and challenged Glenn in the Senate election. Glenn ran unopposed in the primary.DeWine's campaign focused on the need for change and for term limits for senators. This would be Glenn's fourth term as senator.DeWine also criticized Glenn's campaign debts, using a bunny dressed as an astronaut beating a drum, with an announcer saying, \"He just keeps owing and owing and owing\", a play on theEnergizer Bunny.During a debate, Glenn asked DeWine to stop his negative campaign ads, saying \"This has been the most negative campaign\". DeWine responded that he would if Glenn would disclose how he spent the money he received fromCharles Keating, fallout from Glenn being named one of theKeating Five.Glenn won the Senate seat, with 2.4 million votes to DeWine's 2 million votes.It was DeWine's first-ever campaign loss. DeWine later worked on the intelligence committee with Glenn and watched his second launch into space. Senate career Committee on Governmental Affairs Glenn requested to be assigned to two committees during his first year as senator: theGovernment Operations Committee(later known as the Committee on Governmental Affairs), and theForeign Relations Committee. He was immediately assigned to the Government Operations Committee and waited for a seat on the Foreign Relations Committee.In 1977, Glenn wanted to chair the Energy, Nuclear Proliferation, and Federal Services Subcommittee of the Governmental Affairs Committee.Abraham Ribicoff, chair of the Governmental Affairs Committee, said he could chair the subcommittee if he also chaired the less popular Federal Services Subcommittee, which was in charge of theU.S. Postal Service. Previous chairs of the Federal Services Subcommittee had lost elections in part because of negative campaigns associated with the poorly regarded mail service to the chairmen, but Glenn accepted the offer and became the chair of both subcommittees.One of his goals as a new senator was developing environmental policies.Glenn introduced bills on energy policy to try to counter theenergy crisis in the 70s. Glenn also introduced legislation promoting nuclear non-proliferation and was the chief author of theNuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978,the first of six major pieces of legislation that he produced on the subject. Glenn chaired the Committee on Governmental Affairs from 1987 to 1995.It was in this role that he discovered safety and environmental problems with the nation's nuclear weapons facilities. Glenn was made aware of the problem at theFernald Feed Materials Production Centernear Cincinnati and soon found that it affected sites across the nation. Glenn requested investigations from the General Accounting Office of Congress and held several hearings on the issue. He also released a report on the potential costs of hazardous waste cleanup at former nuclear weapons manufacturing facilities, known as the Glenn Report.He spent the remainder of his Senate career acquiring funding to clean up thenuclear wasteleft at the facilities. Glenn also focused on reducing government waste. He created legislation to mandate CFOs for large governmental agencies.Glenn wrote a bill to add the office of the inspector general to federal agencies, to help find waste and fraud. He also created legislation intended to prevent the federal government from imposing regulations on local governments without funding. Glenn founded the Great Lakes Task Force, which helped protect the environment of theGreat Lakes. In 1995 Glenn became the ranking minority member of the Committee on Governmental Affairs. Glenn disputed the focus onillegal Chinese donationsto the Democrats and asserted that Republicans also had egregious fundraising issues. The committee chair,Fred ThompsonofTennessee, disagreed and continued the investigation.Thompson and Glenn continued to work together poorly for the duration of the investigation. Thompson would give Glenn only information he was legally required to. Glenn would not authorize a larger budget and tried to expand the scope of the investigation to include members of the GOP.The investigation concluded with a Republican-written report, which Thompson described as, \"... a lot of things strung together that paint a real ugly picture.\" The Democrats, led by Glenn, said the report \"... does not support the conclusion that the China plan was aimed at, or affected, the 1996 presidential election.\" Glenn was the vice chairman of thePermanent Subcommittee on Investigations, a subcommittee of the Committee on Governmental Affairs.When the Republican Party regained control of the Senate in 1996, Glenn became the ranking minority member on the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations until he was succeeded byCarl Levin. During this time, the committee investigated issues such asfraud on the Internet,mortgage fraud, andday trading of securities. Other committees and activities Glenn's father spent his retirement money battling cancer and would have lost his house if Glenn had not intervened. His father-in-law also had expensive treatments for Parkinson's disease. These health and financial issues motivated him to request a seat on theSpecial Committee on Aging. Glenn was considered an expert in matters of science and technology. He was a supporter of continuing theB-1 bomberprogram, which he considered successful. This conflicted with President Carter's desire to fund theB-2 bomberprogram. Glenn did not fully support development of the B-2 because he had doubts about the feasibility of thestealth technology. He drafted a proposal to slow down the development of the B-2, which could have potentially saved money, but the measure was rejected. Glenn joined theForeign Relations Committeein 1978. He became the chairman of the East Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommittee, for which he traveled to Japan, Korea, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China. Glenn helped to pass theTaiwan Enabling Actof 1979. The same year, Glenn's stance on theSALT II treatycaused another dispute with President Carter. Given the loss of radar listening posts in Iran, Glenn did not believe that the U.S. had the capability to monitor the Soviet Union accurately enough to verify compliance with the treaty.During the launching ceremony for theUSSOhio, he spoke about his doubts about verifying treaty compliance. First LadyRosalynn Carteralso spoke at the event, during which she criticized Glenn for speaking publicly about the issue. The Senate never ratified the treaty, in part because of theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan.Glenn served on the committee until 1985, when he traded it for theArmed Services Committee. Glenn became chairman of theManpower Subcommitteeof the Armed Services Committee in 1987.He introduced legislation such as increasing pay and benefits for American troops in the Persian Gulf during theGulf War.He served as chairman until 1993, becoming chairman of the Armed Services Subcommittee onMilitary Readiness and Defense Infrastructure. Keating Five Glenn was one of theKeating Five—the U.S. Senators involved with thesavings and loan crisis—after he accepted a $200,000 campaign contribution fromLincoln Savings and Loan Associationhead Charles Keating. During the crisis, the senators were accused of delaying the seizure of Keating's S&L, which cost taxpayers an additional $2 billion. The combination of perceived political pressure and Keating's monetary contributions to the senators led to an investigation. The Ethics Committee's outside counsel, Robert Bennett, wanted to eliminate Republican senatorJohn McCainand Glenn from the investigation. The Democrats did not want to exclude McCain, as he was the only Republican being investigated, which means they could not excuse Glenn from the investigation either.McCain and Glenn were reprimanded the least of the five, as the Senate commission found that they had exercised \"poor judgment\".The GOP focused on Glenn's \"poor judgment\" rather than what Glenn saw as complete exoneration. GOP chairmanRobert Bennettsaid, \"John Glenn misjudged Charles Keating. He also misjudged the tolerance of Ohio's taxpayers, who are left to foot the bill of nearly $2 billion.\"After the Senate's report, Glenn said, \"They so firmly put this thing to bed ... there isn't much there to fuss with. I didn't do anything wrong.\"In his autobiography, Glenn wrote, \"outside of people close to me dying, these hearings were the low point of my life.\" The case cost him $520,000 in legal fees.The association of his name with the scandal made Republicans hopeful that he could be defeated in the 1992 campaign, but Glenn defeated Lieutenant Governor Mike DeWine to retain his seat. Retirement On February 20, 1997, which was the 35th anniversary of his Friendship 7 flight, Glenn announced that his retirement from the Senate would occur at the end of his term in January 1999.Glenn retired because of his age, noting that he would have been 83 at the end of another term and quipping that \"... there is still no cure for the common birthday\". Return to space After theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisasterin 1986, Glenn criticized putting a \"lay person in space for the purpose of gaining public support ... while the shuttle is still in its embryonic stage\". He supported flying research scientists.In 1995, Glenn readSpace Physiology and Medicine, a book written by NASA doctors. He realized that many changes that occur to physical attributes during space flight, such as loss of bone and muscle mass and blood plasma,are the same as changes that result from aging. Glenn thought NASA should send an older person on a shuttle mission, and that it should be him. Starting in 1995, he began lobbying NASA director Dan Goldin for the mission.Goldin said he would consider it if there was a scientific reason, and if Glenn could pass the same physical examination the younger astronauts took. Glenn performed research on the subject and passed the physical examination. On January 16, 1998, NASA Administrator Dan Goldin announced that Glenn would be part of the STS-95 crew;this made him, at age 77, the oldest person to fly in space at that time. NASA and the National Institute of Aging (NIA) planned to use Glenn as a test subject for research, withbiometricstaken before, during, and after his flight. Some experiments (incircadian rhythms, for example) compared him with the younger crew members. In addition to these tests, he was in charge of the flight's photography and videography. Glenn returned to space on the Space Shuttle on October 29, 1998, as apayload specialistonSpace ShuttleDiscovery.Shortly before the flight, researchers disqualified Glenn from one of the flight's two major human experiments (on the effect ofmelatonin) for undisclosed medical reasons; he participated in experiments on sleep monitoring and protein use.On November 6, PresidentBill Clintonsent a congratulatory email to Glenn aboard theDiscovery. This is often cited as the first email sent by a sitting U.S. president, but records exist of emails being sent by President Clinton several years earlier. His participation in the nine-day mission was criticized by some members of the space community as a favor granted by Clinton; John Pike, director of theFederation of American Scientists' space-policy project, said: \"If he was a normal person, he would acknowledge he's a great American hero and that he should get to fly on the shuttle for free ... He's too modest for that, and so he's got to have this medical research reason. It's got nothing to do with medicine\". In a 2012 interview, Glenn said he regretted that NASA did not continue its research on aging by sending additional elderly people into space.After STS-95 returned safely, its crew received a ticker-tape parade. On October 15, 1998,NASA Road 1(the main route to the Johnson Space Center) was temporarily renamed John Glenn Parkway for several months.Glenn was awarded theNASA Space Flight Medalin 1998 for flying on STS-95.In 2001, Glenn opposed sendingDennis Tito, the world's firstspace tourist, to theInternational Space Stationbecause Tito's trip had no scientific purpose. Personal life Glenn and Annie had two children—John David and Carolyn Ann—and two grandchildren,and remained married for 73 years until his death. AFreemason, Glenn was a member of Concord Lodge No. 688 in New Concord, Ohio.He received all hisdegreesin full in aMason at Sightceremony from theGrand Masterof Ohio in 1978, 14 years after petitioning his lodge. In 1999, Glenn became a 33rd-degreeScottish RiteMason in the Valley of Cincinnati (NMJ).As an adult, he was honored as part of the DeMolay Legion of Honor byDeMolay International, a Masonic youth organization for boys. Glenn was an ordained elder of thePresbyterian Church.His religious faith began before he became an astronaut and was reinforced after he traveled in space. \"To look out at this kind of creation and not believe in God is to me impossible\", said Glenn after his second (and final) space voyage.He saw no contradiction between belief in God and the knowledge that evolution is \"a fact\" and believed evolution should be taught in schools:\"I don't see that I'm any less religious that I can appreciate the fact that science just records that we change with evolution and time, and that's a fact. It doesn't mean it's less wondrous and it doesn't mean that there can't be some power greater than any of us that has been behind and is behind whatever is going on.\" Public appearances Glenn was an honorary member of theInternational Academy of Astronauticsand a member of theSociety of Experimental Test Pilots, Marine Corps Aviation Association,Order of Daedalians, National Space Club board of trustees, National Space Society board of governors, International Association of Holiday Inns,Ohio Democratic Party, State Democratic Executive Committee, Franklin County (Ohio) Democratic Party and the 10th District (Ohio) Democratic Action Club. In 2001 he guest-starred as himself on the American television sitcomFrasier. On September 5, 2009, John and Annie Glenn dotted the \"i\" in Ohio State University'sScript Ohiomarching bandperformance during theOhio State–Navyfootball-game halftime show, which is normally reserved for veteran band members.To commemorate the 50th anniversary of theFriendship 7flight on February 20, 2012, he had an unexpected opportunity to speak with theorbiting crewof the International Space Station when he was onstage withNASA AdministratorCharlie Boldenat Ohio State University.On April 19, 2012, Glenn participated in the ceremonial transfer of the retired Space ShuttleDiscoveryfrom NASA to theSmithsonian Institutionfor permanent display at theSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. He used the occasion to criticize the \"unfortunate\" decision to end theSpace Shuttle program, saying that grounding the shuttles delayed research. Illness and death Glenn was in good health for most of his life. He retained a private pilot's license until 2011 when he was 90.In June 2014, Glenn underwent successfulheart valve replacementsurgery at theCleveland Clinic.In early December 2016, he was hospitalized atthe James Cancer HospitalofOhio State University Wexner Medical Centerin Columbus.According to a family source, Glenn had been in declining health, and his condition was grave; his wife and their children and grandchildren were at the hospital. Glenn died on December 8, 2016, at the OSU Wexner Medical Center; he was 95 years old.No cause of death was disclosed. After his death, his body lay in state at theOhio Statehouse. There was a memorial service at Mershon Auditorium at Ohio State University.Another memorial service was performed at Kennedy Space Center near the Heroes and Legends building.His body was interred atArlington National Cemeteryon April 6, 2017.At the time of his death, Glenn was the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven. TheMilitary Timesreported that William Zwicharowski, a senior mortuary official atDover Air Force Base, had offered to let visiting inspectors view Glenn's remains, sparking an official investigation.Zwicharowski has denied the remains were disrespected.At the conclusion of the investigation, officials said the remains were not disrespected as inspectors did not accept Zwicharowski's offer, and that Zwicharowski's actions were improper. No administrative action was taken as he had retired. PresidentBarack Obamasaid that Glenn, \"the first American to orbit the Earth, reminded us that with courage and a spirit of discovery there's no limit to the heights we can reach together\".Tributes were also paid by Vice PresidentJoe Biden,President-electDonald Trumpand former Secretary of StateHillary Clinton. The phrase \"Godspeed, John Glenn\", which fellow Mercury astronaut Scott Carpenter had used to hail Glenn's launch into space, became a social-mediahashtag: #GodspeedJohnGlenn. Former and current astronauts added tributes; so did NASA Administrator and former shuttle astronaut Charles Bolden, who wrote: \"John Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching.\"President Obama ordered flags to be flown athalf-staffuntil Glenn's burial.On April 5, 2017, President Donald Trump issuedpresidential proclamation9588, titled \"Honoring the Memory of John Glenn\". Awards and honors Glenn was awarded theJohn J. Montgomery Awardin 1963.Glenn received theNational Geographic Society'sHubbard Medalin 1962.Glenn, along with 37 other space race astronauts, received the Ambassador of Space Exploration Award in 2006.He was also awarded the GeneralThomas D. WhiteNational Defense Awardand thePrince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation.In 1964, Glenn received the Golden Plate Award of theAmerican Academy of Achievement.In 2004, he received theWoodrow Wilson Award for Public Servicefrom the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institutionand was awarded theNational Collegiate Athletic Association'sTheodore Roosevelt Awardfor 2008. Glenn earned theNavy's astronaut wingsand the Marine Corps' Astronaut Medal.He was awarded theCongressional Gold Medalin 2011 and was among the first group of astronauts to be granted the distinction.In 2012, President Barack Obama presented Glenn with thePresidential Medal of Freedom. Glenn was the seventh astronaut to receive this distinction. The Congressional Gold Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom are considered the two most prestigious awards that can be bestowed on a civilian.The Society of Experimental Test Pilots awarded Glenn theIven C. Kincheloeaward in 1963,and he was inducted into theInternational Air & Space Hall of Famein 1968,National Aviation Hall of Famein 1976,theInternational Space Hall of Famein 1977,and the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990.In 2000, he received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for public service by an elected or appointed official, one of the annualJefferson Awards. In 1961, Glenn received anhonoraryLL.Dfrom Muskingum University, the college he attended before joining the military in World War II.He also received honorary doctorates fromNihon Universityin Tokyo;Wagner Collegein Staten Island, New York;Ohio Northern University;Williams College;andBrown University.In 1998, he helped found the John Glenn Institute for Public Service and Public Policy atOhio State Universityto encourage public service. The institute merged with OSU's School of Public Policy and Management to become the John Glenn School of Public Affairs. He held anadjunct professorshipat the school.In February 2015, it was announced that it would become theJohn Glenn College of Public Affairsin April. TheGlenn Research Centerat Lewis Field in Cleveland is named after him, and the Senator John Glenn Highway runs along a stretch ofI-480in Ohio across from the Glenn Research Center.Colonel Glenn Highway (which passes Wright-Patterson Air Force Base andWright State UniversitynearDayton, Ohio), John Glenn High School in his hometown of New Concord,Elwood-John H. Glenn High Schoolin the hamlet ofElwood,Town of Huntington,Long Island, New York, and the former Col. John Glenn Elementary inSeven Hills, Ohio, were also named for him.Colonel Glenn Road inLittle Rock, Arkansas, was named for him in 1962.High schools inWestlandandBay City, Michigan;Walkerton, Indiana;andNorwalk, Californiabear Glenn's name.The fireboatJohn H. Glenn Jr., operated by theDistrict of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Departmentand protecting sections of thePotomacandAnacostia Riverswhich run through Washington, D.C., was named for him, as wasUSNSJohn Glenn(T-MLP-2), amobile landing platformdelivered to the U.S. Navy on March 12, 2014.In June 2016, the Port Columbus International Airport in Columbus, Ohio, was renamedJohn Glenn Columbus International Airport. Glenn and his family attended the ceremony, during which he spoke about how visiting the airport as a child had kindled his interest in flying.On September 12, 2016,Blue Originannounced theNew Glenn, a rocket.Orbital ATKnamed theCygnusspace capsule used in the NASACRS OA-7mission to the international space station \"S.S.John Glenn\" in his honor. The mission successfully lifted off on April 16, 2017. Although never a Scout himself, Glenn heavily endorsed theBoy Scouts. His son, John David, attained the coveted rank ofEagle Scoutthat many of Glenn's aviator peers also achieved. Legacy Glenn's public life and legacy began when he received his firstticker-tape paradefor breaking the transcontinental airspeed record.As a senator, he used his military background to write legislation to reduce nuclear proliferation. He also focused on reducing government waste.Buzz Aldrinwrote that Glenn'sFriendship 7flight \"... helped to galvanize the country's will and resolution to surmount significant technical challenges of human spaceflight.\" President Barack Obama said, \"With John's passing, our nation has lost an icon andMichelleand I have lost a friend. John spent his life breaking barriers, from defending our freedom as a decorated Marine Corps fighter pilot in World War II and Korea, to setting a transcontinental speed record, to becoming, at age 77, the oldest human to touch the stars.\"Obama issued a presidential proclamation on December 9, 2016, ordering the US flag to be flown at half-staff in Glenn's memory.NASA administratorCharles Boldensaid: \"Senator Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching\". References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Moon landing Clickable map of the locations of all successfulsoft landingson theMoonto date (top) AMoon landingorlunar landingis the arrival of aspacecrafton the surface of theMoon, including both crewed and robotic missions. The first human-made object to touch the Moon wasLuna 2in 1959. In 1969Apollo 11was the first crewed mission to land on the Moon.There weresix crewed landingsbetween 1969 and 1972, and numerous uncrewed landings. All crewed missions to the Moon were conducted by theApollo program, with the last departing the lunar surface in December 1972. AfterLuna 24in 1976 there were nosoft landingson the Moon untilChang'e 3in 2013. All soft landings took place on thenear side of the Moonuntil January 2019, whenChang'e 4made the first landing on thefar side of the Moon. Uncrewed landings Government landings Six government space agencies,Interkosmos,NASA,CNSA,ISRO,JAXAandESA, have reached the Moon with uncrewed missions. Three private/commercial missions,Beresheet(hard landing),Hakuto-R(hard landing), andOdysseus(soft landing) have also reached the lunar surface (see#Commercial landings). The Soviet Union (Interkosmos), the United States (NASA), China (CNSA), India (ISRO),and Japan (JAXA)are the only five nations to have successfully achieved soft landings. The Soviet Union performed the first hard Moon landing – \\\"hard\\\" meaning the spacecraft intentionally crashes into the Moon at high speeds – with theLuna 2spacecraft in 1959, a feat the U.S. duplicated in 1962 withRanger 4. Following their initial hard landings on the Moon, sixteen Soviet, U.S., Chinese and Indian spacecraft have used braking rockets (retrorockets) to makesoft landingsand perform scientific operations on the lunar surface. In 1966 the Soviet Union accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the lunar surface during theLuna 9andLuna 13missions. The U.S. followed with fiveSurveyorsoft landings. China's ongoing\\\"Chang'e\\\" programhas landed 4 times since 2013, achieving robotic soil sample return and the first landing on the far side of the Moon. On 23 August 2023, ISRO successfully landed itsChandrayaan-3module in thelunar south poleregion, making India the fourth nation to successfully complete a soft landing on the Moon.Chandrayaan-3 saw a successful soft landing of itsVikramlanderandPragyanroverat 6.04 pm IST (1234 GMT), marking the first uncrewed soft landing in the little-explored region. On 19 January 2024, JAXA successfully landed itsSLIM lander, making Japan the fifth nation to successfully complete a soft landing. Commercial landings Two organizations have attempted but failed to achieve soft landings: Israeli private space agencySpaceILwith theirBeresheetspacecraft (2019), and Japanese companyispace'sHakuto-R Mission 1(2023). On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseussuccessfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing in over 50 years. This event marked the first successful landing of aprivately owned spacecrafton the Moon. Crewed landings A total of twelveastronautshave landed on the Moon. This was accomplished with two pilot-astronauts flying aLunar Moduleon each of sixNASAmissions. The missions spanned a 41-month period starting 20 July 1969, beginning withNeil ArmstrongandBuzz AldrinonApollo 11, and ending on 14 December 1972 withGene CernanandHarrison SchmittonApollo 17. Cernan was the last man to step off the lunar surface. All Apollo lunar missions had a third crew member who remained on board thecommand module. Scientific background To get to the Moon, a spacecraft must first leave Earth'sgravity well; currently, the only practical means is arocket. Unlike airborne vehicles such asballoonsandjets, a rocket can continueacceleratingin thevacuumoutside theatmosphere. Upon approach of the target moon, a spacecraft will be drawn ever closer to its surface at increasing speeds due to gravity. In order to land intact it must decelerate to less than about 160 kilometres per hour (100 mph) and be ruggedized to withstand a \\\"hard landing\\\" impact, or it must decelerate to negligible speed at contact for a \\\"soft landing\\\" (the only option for humans). The first three attempts by the U.S. to perform a successful hard Moon landing with a ruggedizedseismometerpackage in 1962 all failed.The Soviets first achieved the milestone of a hard lunar landing with a ruggedized camera in 1966, followed only months later by the first uncrewed soft lunar landing by the U.S. The speed of a crash landing on its surface is typically between 70 and 100% of theescape velocityof the target moon, and thus this is the total velocity which must be shed from the target moon's gravitational attraction for a soft landing to occur. For Earth's Moon, the escape velocity is 2.38 kilometres per second (1.48 mi/s).The change in velocity (referred to as adelta-v) is usually provided by a landing rocket, which must be carried into space by the originallaunch vehicleas part of the overall spacecraft. An exception is the soft moon landing onTitancarried out by theHuygensprobein 2005. As the moon with the thickest atmosphere, landings on Titan may be accomplished by usingatmospheric entrytechniques that are generally lighter in weight than a rocket with equivalent capability. The Soviets succeeded in making the first crash landing on the Moon in 1959.Crash landingsmay occur because of malfunctions in a spacecraft, or they can be deliberately arranged for vehicles which do not have an onboard landing rocket. There have beenmany such Moon crashes, often with their flight path controlled to impact at precise locations on the lunar surface. For example, during the Apollo program theS-IVBthird stage of theSaturn Vrocket as well as the spent ascent stage of theLunar Modulewere deliberately crashed on the Moon several times to provide impacts registering as amoonquakeonseismometersthat had been left on the lunar surface. Such crashes were instrumental in mapping theinternal structure of the Moon. To return to Earth, the escape velocity of the Moon must be overcome for the spacecraft to escape thegravity wellof the Moon. Rockets must be used to leave the Moon and return to space. Upon reaching Earth, atmospheric entry techniques are used to absorb thekinetic energyof a returning spacecraft and reduce its speed for safe landing. These functions greatly complicate a moon landing mission and lead to many additional operational considerations. Any moon departure rocket must first be carried to the Moon's surface by a moon landing rocket, increasing the latter's required size. The Moon departure rocket, larger moon landing rocket and any Earth atmosphere entry equipment such as heat shields andparachutesmust in turn be lifted by the original launch vehicle, greatly increasing its size by a significant and almost prohibitive degree. Political background The political context of the 1960s helps to parse both the United States and Soviet Union's efforts to land spacecraft, and eventually humans, on the Moon.World War IIhad introduced many new and deadly innovations includingblitzkrieg-style surprise attacks used in theinvasion of PolandandFinland, as well as in theattack on Pearl Harbor; theV-2 rocket, aballistic missilewhich killed thousands in attacks on London andAntwerp; and theatom bomb, which killed hundreds of thousands in theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the 1950s, tensions mounted between the two ideologically opposed superpowers of the United States and theSoviet Unionthat had emerged as victors in the conflict, particularly after the development by both countries of thehydrogen bomb. On 4 October 1957, the Soviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1as the firstartificial satelliteto orbit the Earth and so initiated theSpace Race. This unexpected event was a source of pride to the Soviets and shock to the U.S., who could now potentially be surprise attacked by nuclear-tipped Soviet rockets in under 30 minutes.The craft was also barely visible to the naked eye as the steady beeping of theradio beaconaboardSputnik 1as it passed overhead every 96 minutes, which was widely viewed on both sidesas effective propaganda toThird Worldcountries demonstrating the technological superiority of the Sovietpolitical systemcompared to that of the U.S. This perception was reinforced by a string of subsequent rapid-fire Soviet space achievements. In 1959, the R-7 rocket was used to launch the first escape from Earth's gravity into asolar orbit, the first crash impact onto the surface of the Moon, and the first photography of the never-before-seenfar side of the Moon. These were theLuna 1,Luna 2, andLuna 3spacecraft. The U.S. response to these Soviet achievements was to greatly accelerate previously existing military space and missile projects and to create a civilian space agency,NASA. Military efforts were initiated to develop and produce mass quantities of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that would bridge the so-calledmissile gapand enable a policy ofdeterrencetonuclear warwith the Soviets known asmutual assured destructionor MAD. These newly developedmissileswere made available to civilians of NASA for various projects (which would have the added benefit of demonstrating the payload, guidance accuracy and reliabilities of U.S. ICBMs to the Soviets). Early Soviet uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965) After thefall of the Soviet Unionin 1991, historical records were released to allow the true accounting of Soviet lunar efforts. Unlike the U.S. tradition of assigning a particular mission name in advance of a launch, the Soviets assigned a public \\\"Luna\\\" mission number only if a launch resulted in a spacecraft going beyond Earth orbit. The policy had the effect of hiding Soviet Moon mission failures from public view. If the attempt failed in Earth orbit before departing for the Moon, it was frequently (but not always) given a \\\"Sputnik\\\" or \\\"Cosmos\\\" Earth-orbit mission number to hide its purpose. Launch explosions were not acknowledged at all. Early U.S. uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965) The U.S. was not able to reach the Moon with thePioneerandRanger programs, with fifteen consecutive U.S. uncrewed lunar missions from 1958 to 1964 failing their primary photographic missions.However, Rangers 4 and 6 successfully repeated the Soviet lunar impacts as part of their secondary missions. Three U.S. missionsin 1962 attempted to hard land small seismometer packages released by the main Ranger spacecraft. These surface packages were to useretrorocketsto survive landing, unlike the parent vehicle, which was designed to deliberately crash onto the surface. The final three Ranger probes performed successful high altitude lunarreconnaissancephotography missions during intentional crash impacts between 2.62 and 2.68 kilometres per second (9,400 and 9,600 km/h). Pioneer missions Three different designs of Pioneer lunar probes were flown on three different modified ICBMs. Those flown on theThorbooster modified with an Able upper stage carried aninfraredimage scanning television system with aresolutionof 1milliradianto study the Moon's surface, anionization chamberto measureradiationin space, a diaphragm/microphone assembly to detectmicrometeorites, amagnetometer, and temperature-variable resistors to monitor spacecraft internal thermal conditions.The first, a mission managed by theUnited States Air Force, exploded during launch;all subsequent Pioneer lunar flights had NASA as the lead management organization. The next two returned to Earth and burned up upon reentry into the atmosphere after achieved maximum altitudes of around 114,000 kilometres (71,000 mi)and 1,530 kilometres (950 mi)respectively, far short of the roughly 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) required to reach the vicinity of the Moon. NASA then collaborated with theUnited States Army'sBallistic Missile Agencyto fly two extremely small cone-shaped probes on theJunoICBM, carrying onlyphotocellswhich would be triggered by the light of the Moon and a lunar radiation environment experiment using aGeiger-Müller tubedetector.The first of these reached an altitude of only around 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), gathering data that established the presence of theVan Allen radiation beltsbefore reentering Earth's atmosphere.The second passed by the Moon at a distance of more than 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), twice as far as planned and too far away to trigger either of the on-board scientific instruments, yet still becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to reach asolar orbit. The final Pioneer lunar probe design consisted of four \\\"paddlewheel\\\"solar panelsextending from a one-meter diameter sphericalspin-stabilizedspacecraft body equipped to take images of the lunar surface with a television-like system, estimate the Moon's mass and topography of thepoles, record the distribution and velocity of micrometeorites, study radiation, measuremagnetic fields, detectlow frequency electromagnetic wavesin space and use a sophisticated integratedpropulsionsystem for maneuvering and orbit insertion as well.None of the four spacecraft built in this series of probes survived launch on itsAtlasICBM outfitted with an Able upper stage. Following the unsuccessful Atlas-Able Pioneer probes, NASA'sJet Propulsion Laboratoryembarked upon an uncrewed spacecraft development program whose modular design could be used to support both lunar and interplanetary exploration missions. The interplanetary versions were known asMariners;lunar versions wereRangers. JPL envisioned three versions of the Ranger lunar probes: Block I prototypes, which would carry various radiation detectors in test flights to a very high Earth orbit that came nowhere near the Moon;Block II, which would try to accomplish the first Moon landing by hard landing a seismometer package;and Block III, which would crash onto the lunar surface without any braking rockets while taking very high resolution wide-area photographs of the Moon during their descent. Ranger missions The Ranger 1 and 2 Block I missions were virtually identical.Spacecraft experiments included aLyman-alphatelescope, arubidium-vapormagnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium-energy-rangeparticle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic-ray integratingionization chamber,cosmic dustdetectors, andscintillation counters. The goal was to place these Block I spacecraft in a very high Earth orbit with an apogee of 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and aperigeeof 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi). From that vantage point, scientists could make direct measurements of themagnetosphereover a period of many months while engineers perfected new methods to routinely track and communicate with spacecraft over such large distances. Such practice was deemed vital to be assured of capturing high-bandwidth television transmissions from the Moon during a one-shot fifteen-minute time window in subsequent Block II and Block III lunar descents. Both Block I missions suffered failures of the new Agena upper stage and never left low Earthparking orbitafter launch; both burned up upon reentry after only a few days. The first attempts to perform a Moon landing took place in 1962 during the Rangers 3, 4 and 5 missions flown by the United States.All three Block II missions basic vehicles were 3.1 m high and consisted of a lunar capsule covered with a balsa wood impact-limiter, 650 mm in diameter, a mono-propellant mid-course motor, a retrorocket with a thrust of 5,050 pounds-force (22.5 kN),and a gold- and chrome-plated hexagonal base 1.5 m in diameter. This lander (code-namedTonto) was designed to provide impact cushioning using an exterior blanket of crushable balsa wood and an interior filled with incompressible liquidfreon. A 42-kilogram (93 lb) 30-centimetre-diameter (0.98 ft) metal payload sphere floated and was free to rotate in a liquid freon reservoir contained in the landing sphere. \\\"Everything that we do ought to really be tied-in to getting onto the Moon ahead of the Russians. ...We're ready to spend reasonable amounts of money, but we're talking about fantastic expenditures which wreck our budget and all these other domestic programs, and the only justification for it, in my opinion, to do it is because we hope to beat them and demonstrate that starting behind, as we did by a couple of years, by God, we passed them.\\\" —John F. Kennedyon the planned Moon landing, 21 November 1962 This payload sphere contained six silver-cadmiumbatteries to power a fifty-milliwatt radio transmitter, a temperature sensitive voltage controlled oscillator to measure lunar surface temperatures, and a seismometer designed with sensitivity high enough to detect the impact of a 2.3 kg (5 lb) meteorite on the opposite side of the Moon. Weight was distributed in the payload sphere so it would rotate in its liquid blanket to place the seismometer into an upright and operational position no matter what the final resting orientation of the external landing sphere. After landing, plugs were to be opened allowing the freon to evaporate and the payload sphere to settle into upright contact with the landing sphere. The batteries were sized to allow up to three months of operation for the payload sphere. Various mission constraints limited the landing site to Oceanus Procellarum on the lunar equator, which the lander ideally would reach 66 hours after launch. No cameras were carried by the Ranger landers, and no pictures were to be captured from the lunar surface during the mission. Instead, the 3.1 metres (10 ft) Ranger Block II mother ship carried a 200-scan-line television camera to capture images during the free-fall descent to the lunar surface. The camera was designed to transmit a picture every 10 seconds.Seconds before impact, at 5 and 0.6 kilometres (3.11 and 0.37 mi) above the lunar surface, the Ranger mother ships took pictures (which may be viewedhere). Other instruments gathering data before the mother ship crashed onto the Moon were a gamma ray spectrometer to measure overall lunar chemical composition and a radar altimeter. The radar altimeter was to give a signal ejecting the landing capsule and its solid-fueled braking rocket overboard from the Block II mother ship. The braking rocket was to slow and the landing sphere to a dead stop at 330 metres (1,080 ft) above the surface and separate, allowing the landing sphere to free fall once more and hit the surface. On Ranger 3, failure of the Atlas guidance system and a software error aboard the Agena upper stage combined to put the spacecraft on a course that would miss the Moon. Attempts to salvage lunar photography during a flyby of the Moon were thwarted by in-flight failure of the onboard flight computer. This was probably because of priorheat sterilizationof the spacecraft by keeping it above theboilingpoint of water for 24 hours on the ground, to protect the Moon from being contaminated by Earth organisms. Ranger 3 later began orbiting the Sun, called heliocentric orbit.Heat sterilization was also blamed for subsequent in-flight failures of the spacecraft computer on Ranger 4 and the power subsystem on Ranger 5. Only Ranger 4 reached the Moon in an uncontrolled crash impact on the far side of the Moon. Block III probes replaced the Block II landing capsule and its retrorocket with a heavier, more capable television system to support landing site selection for upcoming Apollo crewed Moon landing missions. Six cameras were designed to take thousands of high-altitude photographs in the final twenty-minute period before crashing on the lunar surface. Camera resolution was 1,132 scan lines, far higher than the 525 lines found in a typical U.S. 1964 home television. WhileRanger 6suffered a failure of this camera system and returned no photographs despite an otherwise successful flight, the subsequentRanger 7mission to Mare Cognitum was a complete success. Breaking the six-year string of failures in U.S. attempts to photograph the Moon at close range, theRanger 7mission was viewed as a national turning point and instrumental in allowing the key 1965 NASA budget appropriation to pass through theUnited States Congressintact without a reduction in funds for the Apollo crewed Moon landing program. Subsequent successes withRanger 8andRanger 9further buoyed U.S. hopes. Soviet uncrewed soft landings (1966–1976) TheLuna 9spacecraft, launched by theSoviet Union, performed the first successful soft Moon landing on 3 February 1966.Airbagsprotected its 99-kilogram (218 lb) ejectable capsule which survived an impact speed of over 15 metres per second (54 km/h; 34 mph).Luna 13duplicated this feat with a similar Moon landing on 24 December 1966. Both returned panoramic photographs that were the first views from the lunar surface. Luna 16was the firstrobotic probeto land on theMoonand safely return a sample of lunar soil back to Earth.It represented the firstlunar samplereturn mission by theSoviet Union, and was the third lunarsample return missionoverall, following theApollo 11andApollo 12missions. This mission was later successfully repeated byLuna 20(1972) andLuna 24(1976). In 1970 and 1973 twoLunokhod(\\\"Moonwalker\\\") robotic lunar rovers were delivered to the Moon, where they successfully operated for 10 and 4 months respectively, covering 10.5 km (6.5 mi) (Lunokhod 1) and 37 km (23 mi) (Lunokhod 2). These rover missions were in operation concurrently with the Zond and Luna series of Moon flyby, orbiter and landing missions. U.S. uncrewed soft landings (1966–1968) The U.S.roboticSurveyor programwas part of an effort to locate a safe site on the Moon for a human landing and test under lunar conditions theradarand landing systems required to make a true controlled touchdown. Five of Surveyor's seven missions made successful uncrewed Moon landings. Surveyor 3 was visited two years after its Moon landing by the crew of Apollo 12. They removed parts of it for examination back on Earth to determine the effects of long-term exposure to the lunar environment. Transition from direct ascent landings to lunar orbit operations Within four months of each other in early 1966 the Soviet Union and the United States had accomplished successful Moon landings with uncrewed spacecraft. To the general public both countries had demonstrated roughly equal technical capabilities by returning photographic images from the surface of the Moon. These pictures provided a key affirmative answer to the crucial question of whether or not lunar soil would support upcoming crewed landers with their much greater weight. However, the Luna 9 hard landing of a ruggedized sphere using airbags at a 50-kilometre-per-hour (31 mph) ballistic impact speed had much more in common with the failed 1962 Ranger landing attempts and their planned 160-kilometre-per-hour (99 mph) impacts than with the Surveyor 1 soft landing on three footpads using its radar-controlled, adjustable-thrust retrorocket. While Luna 9 and Surveyor 1 were both major national accomplishments, only Surveyor 1 had reached its landing site employing key technologies that would be needed for a crewed flight. Thus as of mid-1966, the United States had begun to pull ahead of the Soviet Union in the so-called Space Race to land a man on the Moon. Advances in other areas were necessary before crewed spacecraft could follow uncrewed ones to the surface of the Moon. Of particular importance was developing the expertise to perform flight operations in lunar orbit. Ranger, Surveyor and initial Luna Moon landing attempts all flew directly to the surface without a lunar orbit. Suchdirect ascentsuse a minimum amount of fuel for uncrewed spacecraft on a one-way trip. In contrast, crewed vehicles need additional fuel after a lunar landing to enable a return trip back to Earth for the crew. Leaving this massive amount of required Earth-return fuel in lunar orbit until it is used later in the mission is far more efficient than taking such fuel down to the lunar surface in a Moon landing and then hauling it all back into space yet again, working against lunar gravity both ways. Such considerations lead logically to alunar orbit rendezvousmission profile for a crewed Moon landing. Accordingly, beginning in mid-1966 both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. naturally progressed into missions featuring lunar orbit as a prerequisite to a crewed Moon landing. The primary goals of these initial uncrewed orbiters were extensive photographic mapping of the entire lunar surface for the selection of crewed landing sites and, for the Soviets, the checkout of radio communications gear that would be used in future soft landings. An unexpected major discovery from initial lunar orbiters were vast volumes of dense materials beneath the surface of the Moon'smaria. Such mass concentrations (\\\"mascons\\\") can send a crewed mission dangerously off course in the final minutes of a Moon landing when aiming for a relatively small landing zone that is smooth and safe. Mascons were also found over a longer period of time to greatly disturb the orbits of low-altitude satellites around the Moon, making their orbits unstable and forcing an inevitable crash on the lunar surface in the relatively short period of months to a few years. Controlling the location of impact for spent lunar orbiters can have scientific value. For example, in 1999 the NASALunar Prospectororbiter was deliberately targeted to impact a permanently shadowed area of Shoemaker Crater near the lunar south pole. It was hoped that energy from the impact would vaporize suspected shadowed ice deposits in the crater and liberate a water vapor plume detectable from Earth. No such plume was observed. However, a small vial of ashes from the body of pioneer lunar scientistEugene Shoemakerwas delivered by the Lunar Prospector to the crater named in his honor – the only human remains on the Moon. Soviet lunar orbit satellites (1966–1974) Luna 10became the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon on 3 April 1966. U.S. lunar orbit satellites (1966–1967) Soviet circumlunar loop flights (1967–1970) It is possible to aim a spacecraft from Earth so it will loop around the Moon and return to Earth without entering lunar orbit, following the so-calledfree return trajectory. Such circumlunar loop missions are simpler than lunar orbit missions because rockets for lunar orbit braking and Earth return are not required. However, a crewed circumlunar loop trip poses significant challenges beyond those found in a crewed low-Earth-orbit mission, offering valuable lessons in preparation for a crewed Moon landing. Foremost among these are mastering the demands of re-entering the Earth's atmosphere upon returning from the Moon. Inhabited Earth-orbiting vehicles such as the Space Shuttle return to Earth from speeds of around 7,500 m/s (27,000 km/h). Due to the effects of gravity, a vehicle returning from the Moon hits Earth's atmosphere at a much higher speed of around 11,000 m/s (40,000 km/h). Theg-loadingon astronauts during the resultingdecelerationcan be at the limits of human endurance even during a nominal reentry. Slight variations in the vehicle flight path and reentry angle during a return from the Moon can easily result in fatal levels of deceleration force. Achieving a crewed circumlunar loop flight prior to a crewed lunar landing became a primary goal of the Soviets with theirZondspacecraft program. The first three Zonds were robotic planetary probes; after that, the Zond name was transferred to a completely separate human spaceflight program. The initial focus of these later Zonds was extensive testing of required high-speed reentry techniques. This focus was not shared by the U.S., who chose instead to bypass the stepping stone of a crewed circumlunar loop mission and never developed a separate spacecraft for this purpose. Initial crewed spaceflights in the early 1960s placed a single person in low Earth orbit during the SovietVostokand U.S.Mercuryprograms. A two-flight extension of the Vostok program known asVoskhodeffectively used Vostok capsules with their ejection seats removed to achieve Soviet space firsts of multiple person crews in 1964 and spacewalks in early 1965. These capabilities were later demonstrated by the U.S. in tenGeminilow Earth orbit missions throughout 1965 and 1966, using a totally new second-generation spacecraft design that had little in common with the earlier Mercury. These Gemini missions went on to prove techniques for orbitalrendezvous and dockingcrucial to a crewed lunar landing mission profile. After the end of the Gemini program, the Soviet Union began flying their second-generation Zond crewed spacecraft in 1967 with the ultimate goal of looping a cosmonaut around the Moon and returning him or her immediately to Earth. TheZondspacecraft was launched with the simpler and already operationalProtonlaunch rocket, unlike the parallel Soviet human Moon landing effort also underway at the time based on third-generationSoyuz spacecraftrequiring development of the advancedN-1booster. The Soviets thus believed they could achieve a crewed Zond circumlunar flight years before a U.S. human lunar landing and so score a propaganda victory. However, significant development problems delayed the Zond program and the success of the U.S. Apollo lunar landing program led to the eventual termination of the Zond effort. Like Zond, Apollo flights were generally launched on a free return trajectory that would return them to Earth via a circumlunar loop if aservice modulemalfunction failed to place them in lunar orbit. This option was implemented after an explosion aboard theApollo 13mission in 1970, which is the only crewed circumlunar loop mission flown to date. Zond 5was the first spacecraft to carry life from Earth to the vicinity of the Moon and return, initiating the final lap of theSpace Racewith its payload of tortoises, insects, plants, and bacteria. Despite the failure suffered in its final moments, the Zond 6 mission was reported by Soviet media as being a success as well. Although hailed worldwide as remarkable achievements, both these Zond missions flew off-nominal reentry trajectories resulting in deceleration forces that would have been fatal to humans. As a result, the Soviets secretly planned to continue uncrewed Zond tests until their reliability to support human flight had been demonstrated. However, due to NASA's continuing problems with thelunar module, and because ofCIAreports of a potential Soviet crewed circumlunar flight in late 1968, NASA fatefully changed the flight plan ofApollo 8from an Earth-orbit lunar module test to a lunar orbit mission scheduled for late December 1968. In early December 1968 the launch window to the Moon opened for the Soviet launch site inBaikonur, giving the USSR their final chance to beat the US to the Moon.Cosmonautswent on alert and asked to fly the Zond spacecraft then in final countdown at Baikonur on the first human trip to the Moon. Ultimately, however, the SovietPolitburodecided the risk of crew death was unacceptable given the combined poor performance to that point of Zond/Proton and so scrubbed the launch of a crewed Soviet lunar mission. Their decision proved to be a wise one, since this unnumbered Zond mission was destroyed in another uncrewed test when it was finally launched several weeks later. By this time flights of the third generation U.S.Apollo spacecrafthad begun. Far more capable than the Zond, the Apollo spacecraft had the necessary rocket power to slip into and out of lunar orbit and to make course adjustments required for a safe reentry during the return to Earth. TheApollo 8mission carried out the first human trip to the Moon on 24 December 1968, certifying theSaturn Vbooster for crewed use and flying not a circumlunar loop but instead a full ten orbits around the Moon before returning safely to Earth.Apollo 10then performed a full dress rehearsal of a crewed Moon landing in May 1969. This mission orbited within 14.4 kilometres (47,400 ft) of the lunar surface, performing necessary low-altitude mapping of trajectory-altering mascons using a factory prototype lunar module too heavy to land. With the failure of the robotic Soviet sample return Moon landing attemptLuna 15in July 1969, the stage was set forApollo 11. Human Moon landings (1969–1972) US strategy Plans for human Moon exploration began during theEisenhoweradministration. In a series of mid-1950s articles inCollier'smagazine,Wernher von Braunhad popularized the idea of a crewed expedition to establish a lunar base. A human Moon landing posed several daunting technical challenges to the US and USSR. Besides guidance and weight management,atmospheric re-entrywithoutablativeoverheating was a major hurdle. After the Soviets launchedSputnik, von Braun promoted a plan for the US Army to establish a military lunar outpost by 1965. After theearly Soviet successes, especiallyYuri Gagarin's flight, US PresidentJohn F. Kennedylooked for a project that would capture the public imagination. He asked Vice PresidentLyndon Johnsonto make recommendations on a scientific endeavor that would prove US world leadership. The proposals included non-space options such as massive irrigation projects to benefit theThird World. The Soviets, at the time, had more powerful rockets than the US, which gave them an advantage in some kinds of space mission. Advances in US nuclear weapon technology had led to smaller, lighter warheads; the Soviets' were much heavier, and the powerfulR-7rocket was developed to carry them. More modest missions such as flying around the Moon, or a space lab in lunar orbit (both were proposed by Kennedy to von Braun), offered too much advantage to the Soviets;landing, however, would capture the world's imagination. Johnson had championed the US human spaceflight program ever since Sputnik, sponsoring legislation to create NASA while he was still a senator. When Kennedy asked him in 1961 to research the best achievement to counter the Soviets' lead, Johnson responded that the US had an even chance of beating them to a crewed lunar landing, but not for anything less. Kennedy seized on Apollo as the ideal focus for efforts in space. He ensured continuing funding, shielding space spending from the 1963 tax cut, but diverting money from other NASA scientific projects. These diversions dismayed NASA's leader,James E. Webb, who perceived the need for NASA's support from the scientific community. The Moon landing required development of the large Saturn Vlaunch vehicle, which achieved a perfect record: zero catastrophic failures or launch vehicle-caused mission failures in thirteen launches. For the program to succeed, its proponents would have to defeat criticism from politicians both on the left (more money for social programs) and on the right (more money for the military). By emphasizing the scientific payoff and playing on fears of Soviet space dominance, Kennedy and Johnson managed to swing public opinion: by 1965, 58 percent of Americans favored Apollo, up from 33 percent two years earlier. After Johnsonbecame president in 1963, his continuing defense of the program allowed it to succeed in 1969, as Kennedy had planned. Soviet strategy Soviet leaderNikita Khrushchevsaid in October 1963 the USSR was \\\"not at present planning flight by cosmonauts to the Moon,\\\" while insisting that the Soviets had not dropped out of the race. Only after another year did the USSR fully commit itself to a Moon-landing attempt, which ultimately failed. At the same time, Kennedy had suggested various joint programs, including a possible Moon landing by Soviet and U.S. astronauts and the development of better weather-monitoring satellites, eventually resulting in theApollo-Soyuz mission. Khrushchev, sensing an attempt by Kennedy to steal Russian space technology, rejected the idea at first: if the USSR went to the Moon, it would go alone. Though Khrushchev was eventually warming up to the idea, the realization of a joint Moon landing was choked by Kennedy's assassination. Sergey Korolev, theSoviet space program's chief designer, had started promoting hisSoyuzcraft and theN1launcher rocket that would have the capability of carrying out a human Moon landing. Khrushchev directed Korolev's design bureau to arrange further space firsts by modifying the existing Vostok technology, while a second team started building a completely new launcher and craft, the Proton booster and the Zond, for a human cislunar flight in 1966. In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all crewed projects under his direction. With Korolev's death and the failure of the first Soyuz flight in 1967, coordination of the Soviet Moon landing program quickly unraveled. The Soviets built a landing craft and selected cosmonauts for a mission that would have placedAlexei Leonovon the Moon's surface, but with the successive launch failures of the N1 booster in 1969, plans for a crewed landing suffered first delay and then cancellation. A program of automated return vehicles was begun, in the hope of being the first to return lunar rocks. This had several failures. It eventually succeeded withLuna 16in 1970.But this had little impact, because the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 lunar landings and rock returns had already taken place by then. Apollo missions In total, twenty-four U.S. astronauts have traveled to the Moon. Three have made the trip twice, and twelve have walked on its surface. Apollo 8 was a lunar-orbit-only mission, Apollo 10 included undocking and Descent Orbit Insertion (DOI), followed by LM staging to CSM redocking, while Apollo 13, originally scheduled as a landing, ended up as a lunar fly-by, by means offree return trajectory; thus, none of these missions made landings. Apollo 7 and Apollo 9 were Earth-orbit-only missions. Apart from the inherent dangers of crewed Moon expeditions as seen with Apollo 13, one reason for their cessation according to astronautAlan Beanis the cost it imposes in government subsidies. Human Moon landings Other aspects of the successful Apollo landings President Richard Nixon had speechwriterWilliam Safireprepare a condolence speech for delivery in case Armstrong and Aldrin became marooned on the Moon's surface and could not be rescued. In 1951, science fiction writerArthur C. Clarkeforecast that a man would reach the Moon by 1978. On 16 August 2006, theAssociated Pressreported that NASA ismissing the originalSlow-scan televisiontapes (which were made before the scan conversion for conventional TV) of the Apollo 11 Moon walk. Some news outlets have mistakenly reported the SSTV tapes found in Western Australia, but those tapes were only recordings of data from the Apollo 11Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package.The tapes were found in 2008 and sold at auction in 2019 for the 50th anniversary of the landing. Scientists believe the six American flags planted by astronauts have been bleached white because of more than 40 years of exposure to solar radiation.UsingLROCimages, it has been determined that five of the six American flags are still standing and casting shadows at all of the sites, except Apollo 11.Astronaut Buzz Aldrin reported that the flag was blown over by the exhaust from the ascent engine during liftoff of Apollo 11. Late 20th century–21st century uncrewed crash landings Hiten (Japan) Launched on 24 January 1990, 11:46 UTC. At the end of its mission, the Japanese lunar orbiterHitenwas commanded to crash into the lunar surface and did so on 10 April 1993 at 18:03:25.7 UT (11 April 03:03:25.7 JST). Lunar Prospector (U.S.) Lunar Prospectorwas launched on 7 January 1998. The mission ended on 31 July 1999, when the orbiter was deliberately crashed into a crater near the lunar south pole after the presence of water ice was successfully detected. SMART-1 (ESA) Launched 27 September 2003, 23:14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. At the end of its mission, theESAlunar orbiterSMART-1performed a controlled crash into the Moon, at about 2 km/s (7,200 km/h; 4,500 mph). The time of the crash was 3 September 2006, at 5:42 UTC. Chandrayaan-1 (India) TheIndian Space Research Organisation(ISRO) performed a controlled hard landing with itsMoon Impact Probe(MIP). The MIP was ejected from theChandrayaan-1lunar orbiter and performed remote sensing experiments during its descent to the lunar surface. It impacted nearShackletoncrater at the south pole of the lunar surface at 14 November 2008, 20:31 IST. Chandrayaan-1was launched on 22 October 2008, 00:52 UTC. Chang'e 1 (China) The Chinese lunar orbiterChang'e 1, executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009, 20:44 GMT, after a 16-month mission.Chang'e 1was launched on 24 October 2007, 10:05 UTC. SELENE (Japan) SELENEorKaguyaafter successfully orbiting the Moon for a year and eight months, the main orbiter was instructed to impact on the lunar surface near the craterGillat 18:25 UTC on 10 June 2009.SELENEorKaguyawas launched on 14 September 2007. LCROSS (U.S.) TheLCROSSdata collecting shepherding spacecraft was launched together with theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO) on 18 June 2009 on board anAtlas Vrocket with aCentaurupper stage. On 9 October 2009, at 11:31 UTC, the Centaur upper stage impacted the lunar surface, releasing the kineticenergy equivalentof detonating approximately 2 tons ofTNT(8.86GJ).Six minutes later at 11:37 UTC, the LCROSS shepherding spacecraft also impacted the surface. GRAIL (U.S.) TheGRAILmission consisted of two small spacecraft: GRAIL A (Ebb), and GRAIL B (Flow). They were launched on 10 September 2011 on board aDelta IIrocket. GRAIL A separated from the rocket about nine minutes after launch, and GRAIL B followed about eight minutes later.The first probe entered orbit on 31 December 2011 and the second followed on 1 January 2012.The two spacecraft impacted the Lunar surface on 17 December 2012. LADEE (U.S.) LADEEwas launched on 7 September 2013.The mission ended on 18 April 2014, when the spacecraft's controllers intentionally crashed LADEE into thefar side of the Moon,which, later, was determined to be near the eastern rim ofSundman V crater. Manfred Memorial Moon Mission (Luxembourg) TheManfred Memorial Moon Missionwas launched on 23 October 2014. It conducted a lunar flyby and operated for 19 days which was four times longer than expected. The Manfred Memorial Moon Mission remained attached to the upper stage of its launch vehicle (CZ-3C/E). The spacecraft along with its upper stage impacted the Moon on 4 March 2022. 21st century uncrewed soft landings and attempts Chang'e 3 (China) On 14 December 2013 at 13:12 UTC,Chang'e 3soft-landedaroveron the Moon. This was China's first soft landing on another celestial body and world's first lunar soft landing sinceLuna 24on 22 August 1976.The mission was launched on 1 December 2013. After successful landing, the lander release theYutu rover, which moved 114 meters before being immobilized due to system malfunction. But the rover was still operational until July 2016. Chang'e 4 (China) On 3 January 2019 at 2:26 UTC,Chang'e 4became the first spacecraft to land on thefar side of the Moon.Chang'e 4 was originally designed as the backup of Chang'e 3. It was later adjusted as a mission to the far side of the Moon after the success of Chang'e 3.After making a successful landing withinVon Kármán crater, the Chang'e 4 lander deployed the 140-kilogram (310 lb)Yutu-2 roverand began human's first close exploration of the far side of the Moon. Because the Moon blocks the communications between far side and Earth, a relay satellite,Queqiao, was launched to the Earth–Moon L2Lagrangian pointa few months prior to the landing to enable communications. Yutu-2, the second lunar rover from China, was equipped with panoramic camera,lunar penetrating radar, visible and near-infrared Imaging spectrometer and advanced small analyzer for neutrals. As of July 2022, it has survived more than 1000 days on the lunar surface and is still driving with cumulative travel distance of over 1200 meters. Beresheet(Israel/SpaceIL) On 22 February 2019, Israeli private space agencySpaceILlaunched their spacecraftBeresheeton a Falcon 9 from Cape Canaveral, Florida with the intention of achieving a soft landing. SpaceIL lost contact with the spacecraft during final descent on 11 April 2019, and it crashed as a result of a main engine failure. The mission was the first Israeli, and the first privately funded, lunar landing attempt.Despite the failure, the mission represented the closest a private entity had come to a soft lunar landing at the time. SpaceIL was originally conceived in 2011 as a venture to pursue theGoogle Lunar X Prize. TheBeresheetlunar lander's target landing destination was within Mare Serenitatis, a vast volcanic basin on the Moon's northern near side. Chandrayaan-2 (India) ISRO, the Indian National Space agency, launchedChandrayaan-2on 22 July 2019.It had three major modules: orbiter, lander and rover. Each of these modules had scientific instruments from scientific research institutes in India and the US.On 7 September 2019 contact was lost with theVikramlander at an altitude of 2.1 km (1.3 mi) after a rough braking phase.Vikramwas later confirmed to have crashed and been destroyed. Chang'e 5 (China) On 6 December 2020 at 21:42 UTC,Chang'e 5landed and collected the first lunar soil samples in over 40 years, and thenreturned the samplesto Earth. The 8.2t stack consisting of lander, ascender, orbiter and returner was launched to lunar orbit by aLong March 5rocket on 24 November. The lander-ascender combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing nearMons RümkerinOceanus Procellarum. The ascender was later launched back to lunar orbit, carrying samples collected by the lander, and completed the first-ever robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit.The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which successfully landed onInner Mongoliaon 16 December 2020, completing China's first extraterrestrial sample return mission. Luna 25 (Russia) In Russia's first attempt to reach the Moon since 1976, and since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, theLuna 25spacecraft failed during \\\"pre-landing\\\" maneuvers, and crashed into the lunar surface on 19 August 2023. Chandrayaan-3 (India) India's national space agencyISROlaunchedChandrayaan-3on 14 July 2023. Chandrayaan-3 consists of an Indigenous Lander Module (LM), Propulsion module (PM) and thePragyanrover. The lander with the rover successfully landed near the lunar south pole at 18:04 IST on 23 August 2023. Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (Japan) JAXAlaunched theSmart Lander for Investigating Moon(SLIM) mission on 6 September 2023 at 23:42 UTC (7 September 08:42 Japan Standard Time). It landed on 19 January 2024 at 15:20 UTC, making Japan the fifth country to soft-land on the Moon.Solar panel orientation issues and possible landing damage complicated the spacecraft's operation.The mission also deployed two rovers which operated successfully and independently communicated with Earth. Intuitive Machines-1Odysseuslander (U.S.) On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseussuccessfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing in over 50 years. This mission also marks the firstprivately owned spacecraftto land on the Moon and the first landing withcryogenicpropellants.Though it landed successfully, one of the lander's legs broke upon landing and it tilted up on the other side, 18°, due to landing on a slope, but the lander survived and payloads are functioning as expected.EagleCam was not ejected prior to landing. It was later ejected on 28 February but was partially a failure as it returned all types of data except post-IM-1 landing images that were the main aim of its mission. Chang'e 6 (China) China sentChang'e 6on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return fromApollo Basinon thefar side of the Moon.This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved byChang'e 5from the lunar near side four years earlier.It also carried a Chinese rover calledJinchanto conductinfrared spectroscopyof lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing on 1 June 2024 at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024.The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024 at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, and later completed another robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed onInner Mongoliaon 25 June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission. Landings on moons of other Solar System bodies 21st century progress inspace explorationhas broadened the phrasemoon landingto include other moons in theSolar System. TheHuygensprobeof theCassini–Huygensmission toSaturnperformed a successful moon landing onTitanin 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probePhobos 2came within 190 km (120 mi) of performing a landing onMars' moonPhobosin 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission calledFobos-Grunt(\\\"grunt\\\" means \\\"soil\\\" in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low Earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future landing onJupiter's moonEuropato drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface. Proposed future missions TheLunar Polar Exploration Missionis a robotic space mission concept by ISRO and Japan's space agencyJAXAthat would send alunar roverandlanderto exploresouth poleregion of theMoonin 2025.JAXA is likely to provide launch service using the futureH3rocket, along with responsibility for the rover. ISRO would be responsible for the lander. ISRO, following the success ofChandrayaan 3also has plans to launchChandrayaan 4, alunarsample return mission, which would possibly be the first to return soil from thewater richsouth polar basin, in a landing close toStatio Shiv Shakti. The mission is planned by late 2028. Both nations are also active participants in theArtemis program. On 11 December 2017, US PresidentDonald Trumpsigned Space PolicyDirective 1, which directed NASA to return to the Moon with a crewed mission, for long-term exploration and use and missions to other planets.On 26 March 2019,Vice President Mike Penceformally announced that the mission will include the first female lunar astronaut.TheArtemis programhad intended to land a crewed mission on the Moon in 2024, and to begin sustained operations by 2028, supported by a plannedLunar Gateway.The NASA lunar landing mission has since been postponed to launch no earlier than September 2026. TheChinese Lunar Exploration Programplans 3 additional Chang'e uncrewed missions between 2025 and 2028, in active preparation for theInternational Lunar Research Stationit plans to construct with Russia, Venezuela, Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates in the 2030s. In addition, theChina Manned Space Agencyintends to conduct crewed lunar landings by 2029 or 2030; in preparation for this effort, the various Chinese space agencies and contractors are currently developing a human-rated super-heavy launch vehicle (theLong March 10), a newcrewed lunar spacecraft, and acrewed lunar lander. Russia'sRoscosmoshas announced plans to launch a lunar polar orbiter asLuna 26, in 2027. See also References Further reading External links\",\n \"Neil Armstrong Neil Alden Armstrong(August 5, 1930 – August 25, 2012) was an Americanastronautandaeronautical engineerwho, in 1969, became thefirst person to walk on the Moon. He was also anaval aviator,test pilot, and university professor. Armstrong was born and raised inWapakoneta, Ohio. He enteredPurdue University, studyingaeronautical engineering, with theU.S. Navypaying his tuition under theHolloway Plan. He became amidshipmanin 1949 and anaval aviatorthe following year. He saw action in theKorean War, flying theGrumman F9F Pantherfrom theaircraft carrierUSSEssex. After the war, he completed his bachelor's degree at Purdue and became a test pilot at theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA)High-Speed Flight StationatEdwards Air Force Basein California. He was the project pilot onCentury Seriesfighters and flew theNorth American X-15seven times. He was also a participant in theU.S. Air Force'sMan in Space SoonestandX-20 Dyna-Soarhuman spaceflightprograms. Armstrong joined theNASA Astronaut Corpsin thesecond group, which was selected in 1962. He made his firstspaceflightas command pilot ofGemini 8in March 1966, becomingNASA's first civilian astronaut to fly in space. During this mission with pilotDavid Scott, he performed the firstdockingof twospacecraft; the mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his re-entry control fuel to stabilize a dangerous roll caused by a stuck thruster. During training for Armstrong's second and last spaceflight as commander ofApollo 11, he had to eject from theLunar Landing Research Vehiclemoments before a crash. On July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Apollo 11Lunar Module(LM) pilotBuzz Aldrinbecame the first people toland on the Moon, and the next day they spent two and a half hours outside theLunar ModuleEaglespacecraft whileMichael Collinsremained in lunar orbit in theApollo Command ModuleColumbia. When Armstrong first stepped onto the lunar surface, he famously said: \\\"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\\\"It was broadcast live to an estimated 530 million viewers worldwide. Apollo 11 was a major U.S. victory in theSpace Race, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy\\\"of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth\\\" before the end of the decade. Along with Collins and Aldrin, Armstrong was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby PresidentRichard Nixonand received the 1969Collier Trophy. PresidentJimmy Carterpresented him with theCongressional Space Medal of Honorin 1978, he was inducted into theNational Aviation Hall of Famein 1979, and with his former crewmates received theCongressional Gold Medalin 2009. After he resigned from NASA in 1971, Armstrong taught in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of Cincinnatiuntil 1979. He served on theApollo 13accident investigation and on theRogers Commission, which investigated theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster. In 2012, Armstrong died due tocomplicationsresulting fromcoronary bypass surgery, at the age of 82. Early life and education Armstrong was born nearWapakoneta, Ohio,on August 5, 1930, the son of Viola Louise (née Engel) and Stephen Koenig Armstrong. He was of German, English, Scots-Irish, and Scottish descent.He is a descendant ofClan Armstrong.He had a younger sister, June, and a younger brother, Dean. His father was anauditorfor theOhio state government,and the family moved around the state repeatedly, living in 16 towns over the next 14 years.Armstrong's love for flying grew during this time, having started at the age of two when his father took him to theCleveland Air Races. When he was five or six, he experienced his first airplane flight inWarren, Ohio, when he and his father took a ride in aFord Trimotor(also known as the \\\"Tin Goose\\\"). The family's last move was in 1944 and took them back to Wapakoneta, where Armstrong attendedBlume High Schooland took flying lessons at the Wapakoneta airfield.He earned a student flight certificate on his 16th birthday, thensoloedin August, all before he had a driver's license.He was an activeBoy Scoutand earned the rank ofEagle Scout.As an adult, he was recognized by the Scouts with theirDistinguished Eagle Scout AwardandSilver Buffalo Award.While flying toward the Moon on July 18, 1969, he sent his regards to attendees at theNational Scout jamboreein Idaho.Among the few personal items that he carried with him to the Moon and back was a World Scout Badge. At age 17, in 1947, Armstrong began studyingaeronautical engineeringatPurdue UniversityinWest Lafayette, Indiana; he was the second person in his family to attend college. Armstrong was also accepted to theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT),but he resolved to go to Purdue after watching afootballgame between thePurdue Boilermakersand theOhio State Buckeyesat theOhio Stadiumin 1945 in which quarterbackBob DeMossled the Boilermakers to a sound victory over the highly regarded Buckeyes.An uncle who attended MIT had also advised him that he could receive a good education without going all the way toCambridge, Massachusetts. His college tuition was paid for under theHolloway Plan. Successful applicants committed to two years of study, followed by two years of flight training and one year of service as an aviator in theU.S. Navy, then completion of the final two years of theirbachelor's degree.Armstrong did not take courses in naval science, nor did he join theNaval Reserve Officers Training Corps. Navy service Armstrong's call-up from the Navy arrived on January 26, 1949, requiring him to report toNaval Air Station Pensacolain Florida for flight training with class 5-49. After passing the medical examinations, he became amidshipmanon February 24, 1949.Flight training was conducted in aNorth American SNJ trainer, in which he soloed on September 9, 1949.On March 2, 1950, he made his firstaircraft carrierlanding onUSSCabot, an achievement he considered comparable to his first solo flight.He was then sent toNaval Air Station Corpus Christiin Texas for training on theGrumman F8F Bearcat, culminating in a carrier landing onUSSWright. On August 16, 1950, Armstrong was informed by letter that he was a fully qualifiednaval aviator. His mother and sister attended his graduation ceremony on August 23, 1950. Armstrong was assigned to Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron7 (FASRON 7) atNAS San Diego(now known as NAS North Island). On November 27, 1950, he was assigned toVF-51, an all-jet squadron, becoming its youngest officer, and made his first flight in a jet, aGrumman F9F Panther, on January 5, 1951. He was promoted toensignon June 5, 1951, and made his first jet carrier landing onUSSEssextwo days later. On June 28, 1951,Essexhad set sail for Korea, with VF-51 aboard to act asground-attack aircraft. VF-51 flew ahead toNaval Air Station Barbers Pointin Hawaii, where it conducted fighter-bomber training before rejoining the ship at the end of July. On August 29, 1951, Armstrong saw action in theKorean Waras an escort for a photoreconnaissanceplane overSongjin.Five days later, on September 3, he flew armed reconnaissance over the primary transportation and storage facilities south of the village of Majon-ni, west ofWonsan. According to Armstrong, he was making a low bombing run at 350 mph (560 km/h) when 6 feet (1.8 m) of his wing was torn off after it collided with a cable that was strung across the hills as a booby trap. He was flying 500 feet (150 m) above the ground when he hit it. While there was heavy anti-aircraft fire in the area, none hit Armstrong's aircraft.An initial report to the commanding officer ofEssexsaid that Armstrong's F9F Panther was hit byanti-aircraft fire. The report indicated he was trying to regain control and collided with a pole, which sliced off 2 feet (0.61 m) of the Panther's right wing. Further perversions of the story by different authors added that he was only 20 feet (6.1 m) from the ground and that 3 feet (0.91 m) of his wing was sheared off. Armstrong flew the plane back to friendly territory, but due to the loss of theaileron,ejectionwas his only safe option. He intended to eject over water and await rescue by Navy helicopters, but his parachute was blown back over land. A jeep driven by a roommate from flight school picked him up; it is unknown what happened to the wreckage of his aircraft, F9F-2 BuNo125122. In all, Armstrong flew 78missions over Korea for a total of 121hours in the air, a third of them in January 1952, with the final mission on March 5, 1952. Of 492 U.S. Navy personnel killed in the Korean War, 27 of them were fromEssexon this war cruise. Armstrong received theAir Medalfor 20 combat missions, twogold starsfor the next 40, theKorean Service Medaland Engagement Star, theNational Defense Service Medal, and theUnited Nations Korea Medal. Armstrong's regular commission was terminated on February 25, 1952, and he became an ensign in theUnited States Navy Reserve. On completion of his combat tour withEssex, he was assigned to a transport squadron, VR-32, in May 1952. He was released from active duty on August 23, 1952, but remained in the reserve, and was promoted tolieutenant (junior grade)on May 9, 1953.As a reservist, he continued to fly, with VF-724 atNaval Air Station Glenviewin Illinois, and then, after moving to California, with VF-773 atNaval Air Station Los Alamitos.He remained in the reserve for eight years, before resigning his commission on October 21, 1960. College years After his service with the Navy, Armstrong returned to Purdue. His previously earned good but not outstandinggradesnow improved, lifting his final Grade Point Average (GPA) to a respectable but not outstanding 4.8 out of 6.0. He pledged thePhi Delta Thetafraternity, and lived in its fraternity house. He wrote and co-directed two musicals as part of the all-student revue. The first was a version ofSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs, co-directed with his girlfriend Joanne Alford from theAlpha Chi Omegasorority, with songs from the1937 Walt Disney film, including \\\"Someday My Prince Will Come\\\"; the second was titledThe Land of Egelloc(\\\"college\\\" spelled backward), with music fromGilbert and Sullivanbut new lyrics. Armstrong was chairman of the Purdue Aero Flying Club, and flew the club's aircraft, anAeroncaand a couple ofPipers, which were kept at nearby Aretz Airport inLafayette, Indiana. Flying the Aeronca to Wapakoneta in 1954, he damaged it in a rough landing in a farmer's field, and it had to be hauled back to Lafayette on a trailer.He was abaritoneplayer in thePurdue All-American Marching Band.Ten years later he was made an honorary member ofKappa Kappa Psinational band honorary fraternity.Armstrong graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree inAeronautical Engineeringin January 1955.In 1970, he completed his Master of Science degree inAerospace Engineeringat theUniversity of Southern California(USC).He would eventually be awarded honorary doctorates by several universities. Armstrong met Janet Elizabeth Shearon, who was majoring inhome economics, at a party hosted by Alpha Chi Omega.According to the couple, there was no real courtship, and neither could remember the exact circumstances of their engagement. They were married on January 28, 1956, at the Congregational Church inWilmette, Illinois. When he moved toEdwards Air Force Base, he lived in the bachelor quarters of the base, while Janet lived in theWestwooddistrict of Los Angeles. After one semester, they moved into a house inAntelope Valley, near Edwards AFB. Janet did not finish her degree, a fact she regretted later in life. The couple had three children.In June 1961, their daughter Karen was diagnosed withdiffuse intrinsic pontine glioma, amalignanttumorof the middle part of herbrain stem.X-ray treatment slowed its growth, but her health deteriorated to the point where she could no longer walk or talk. She died ofpneumonia, related to her weakened health, on January 28, 1962, aged two. Test pilot Following his graduation from Purdue, Armstrong became an experimental research test pilot. He applied at theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA)High-Speed Flight Stationat Edwards Air Force Base.NACA had no open positions, and forwarded his application to theLewis Flight Propulsion LaboratoryinCleveland, where Armstrong made his first test flight on March 1, 1955.Armstrong's stint at Cleveland lasted only a couple of months before a position at the High-Speed Flight Station became available, and he reported for work there on July 11, 1955. On his first day, Armstrong was tasked with pilotingchase planesduring releases of experimental aircraft from modified bombers. He also flew the modified bombers, and on one of these missions had his first flight incident at Edwards. On March 22, 1956, he was in aBoeing B-29 Superfortress,which was to air-drop aDouglas D-558-2 Skyrocket. He sat in the right-hand co-pilot seat while pilot in command, Stan Butchart sat in the left-hand pilot seat flying the B-29. As they climbed to 30,000 feet (9 km), thenumber-four enginestopped and thepropellerbegan windmilling (rotating freely) in the airstream. Hitting the switch that would stop the propeller's spinning, Butchart watched it slow, then resume spinning even faster than the others; if it spun too fast, it would break apart. Their aircraft needed to hold an airspeed of 210 mph (338 km/h) to launch its Skyrocket payload, and the B-29 could not land with the Skyrocket attached to its belly. Armstrong and Butchart brought the aircraft into a nose-downattitudeto increase speed, then launched the Skyrocket. At the instant of launch, the number-four engine propeller disintegrated. Pieces of it damaged the number-three engine and hit the number-two engine. Butchart and Armstrong were forced to shut down the damaged number-three engine, along with the number-one engine, due to thetorqueit created. They made a slow, circling descent from 30,000 ft (9 km) using only the number-two engine, and landed safely. Armstrong served as project pilot onCentury Seriesfighters, including theNorth American F-100 Super SabreA and C variants, theMcDonnell F-101 Voodoo, theLockheed F-104 Starfighter, theRepublic F-105 Thunderchiefand theConvair F-106 Delta Dart. He also flew theDouglas DC-3,Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star,North American F-86 Sabre,McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II,Douglas F5D-1 Skylancer, Boeing B-29 Superfortress,Boeing B-47 StratojetandBoeing KC-135 Stratotanker, and was one of eight elite pilots involved in theParasevparaglider research vehicle program.Over his career, he flew more than 200 different models of aircraft.His first flight in arocket-powered aircraftwas on August 15, 1957, in theBell X-1B, to an altitude of 11.4 miles (18.3 km). On landing, the poorly designednose landing gearfailed, as had happened on about a dozen previous flights of the Bell X-1B. He flew theNorth American X-15seven times,including the first flight with the Q-ball system, the first flight of the number3 X-15 airframe, and the first flight of the MH-96 adaptive flight control system.He became an employee of theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) when it was established on October 1, 1958, absorbing NACA. Armstrong was involved in several incidents that went down in Edwards folklore or were chronicled in the memoirs of colleagues. During his sixth X-15 flight on April 20, 1962, Armstrong was testing the MH-96 control system when he flew to a height of over 207,000 feet (63 km) (the highest he flew beforeGemini 8). He held up the aircraft nose during its descent to demonstrate the MH-96's g-limiting performance, and the X-15 ballooned back up to around 140,000 feet (43 km). He flew past the landing field atMach3 at over 100,000 feet (30 km) in altitude, and ended up 40 miles (64 km) south of Edwards. After sufficient descent, he turned back toward the landing area, and landed. It was the longest X-15 flight in both flight time and length of the ground track. Fellow astronautMichael Collinswrote that of the X-15 pilots Armstrong \\\"had been considered one of the weaker stick-and-rudder men, but the very best when it came to understanding the machine's design and how it operated\\\".Many of the test pilots at Edwards praised Armstrong's engineering ability.Milt Thompsonsaid he was \\\"the most technically capable of the early X-15 pilots\\\".Bill Danasaid Armstrong \\\"had a mind that absorbed things like a sponge\\\". Those who flew for the Air Force tended to have a different opinion, especially people likeChuck YeagerandPete Knight, who did not have engineering degrees. Knight said that pilot-engineers flew in a way that was \\\"more mechanical than it is flying\\\", and gave this as the reason why some pilot-engineers got into trouble: Their flying skills did not come naturally.Armstrong made sevenflights in the X-15between November 30, 1960, and July 26, 1962.He reached a top speed of Mach 5.74 (3,989 mph, 6,420 km/h) in the X-15-1, and left the Flight Research Center with a total of 2,400 flying hours. On April 24, 1962, Armstrong flew for the only time with Yeager. Their job, flying a T-33, was to evaluate Smith Ranch Dry Lake in Nevada for use as an emergency landing site for the X-15. In his autobiography, Yeager wrote that he knew the lake bed was unsuitable for landings after recent rains, but Armstrong insisted on flying out anyway. As they attempted atouch-and-go, the wheels became stuck and they had to wait for rescue. As Armstrong told the story, Yeager never tried to talk him out of it and they made a first successful landing on the east side of the lake. Then Yeager told him to try again, this time a bit slower. On the second landing, they became stuck, provoking Yeager to fits of laughter. On May 21, 1962, Armstrong was involved in the \\\"Nellis Affair\\\". He was sent in an F-104 to inspectDelamar Dry Lakein southern Nevada, again for emergency landings. He misjudged his altitude and did not realize that the landing gear had not fully extended. As he touched down, the landing gear began to retract; Armstrong applied full power to abort the landing, but the ventral fin and landing gear door struck the ground, damaging the radio and releasinghydraulic fluid. Without radio communication, Armstrong flew south toNellis Air Force Base, past the control tower, and waggled his wings, the signal for a no-radio approach. The loss of hydraulic fluid caused thetailhookto release, and upon landing, he caught the arresting wire attached to an anchor chain, and dragged the chain along the runway. It took thirty minutes to clear the runway and rig another arresting cable. Armstrong telephoned Edwards and asked for someone to collect him. Milt Thompson was sent in an F-104B, the only two-seater available, but a plane Thompson had never flown. With great difficulty, Thompson made it to Nellis, where a strong crosswind caused a hard landing and the left main tire suffered a blowout. The runway was again closed to clear it, and Bill Dana was sent to Nellis in a T-33, but he almost landed long. The Nellis base operations office then decided that to avoid any further problems, it would be best to find the three NASA pilots ground transport back to Edwards. Astronaut career In June 1958, Armstrong was selected for the U.S. Air Force'sMan in Space Soonestprogram, but theAdvanced Research Projects Agency(ARPA) canceled its funding on August 1, 1958, and on November 5, 1958, it was superseded byProject Mercury, a civilian project run by NASA. As a NASA civilian test pilot, Armstrong was ineligible to become one of its astronauts at this time, as selection was restricted to military test pilots.In November 1960, he was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for theX-20 Dyna-Soar, a military space plane under development by Boeing for the U.S. Air Force, and on March 15, 1962, he was selected by the U.S. Air Force as one of seven pilot-engineers who would fly the X-20 when it got off the design board. In April 1962, NASA sought applications for the second group of NASA astronauts forProject Gemini, a proposed two-man spacecraft. This time, selection was open to qualified civilian test pilots.Armstrong visited theSeattle World's Fairin May 1962 and attended a conference there on space exploration that was co-sponsored by NASA. After he returned fromSeattleon June 4, he applied to become an astronaut. His application arrived about a week past the June 1, 1962, deadline, but Dick Day, a flight simulator expert with whom Armstrong had worked closely at Edwards, saw the late arrival of the application and slipped it into the pile before anyone noticed.AtBrooks Air Force Baseat the end of June, Armstrong underwent a medical exam that many of the applicants described as painful and at times seemingly pointless. NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations,Deke Slayton, called Armstrong on September 13, 1962, and asked whether he would be interested in joining theNASA Astronaut Corpsas part of what the press dubbed \\\"theNew Nine\\\"; without hesitation, Armstrong said yes. The selections were kept secret until three days later, although newspaper reports had circulated since earlier that year that he would be selected as the \\\"first civilian astronaut\\\".Armstrong was one of two civilian pilots selected for this group;the other wasElliot See, another former naval aviator.NASA selected the second group that, compared with theMercury Sevenastronauts, were younger,and had more impressive academic credentials.Collins wrote that Armstrong was by far the most experienced test pilot in the Astronaut Corps. Gemini program Gemini 5 On February 8, 1965, Armstrong and Elliot See were picked as the backup crew forGemini 5, with Armstrong as commander, supporting the prime crew ofGordon CooperandPete Conrad.The mission's purpose was to practicespace rendezvousand to develop procedures and equipment for a seven-day flight, all of which would be required for a mission to the Moon. With two other flights (Gemini 3andGemini 4) in preparation, six crews were competing for simulator time, so Gemini5 was postponed. It finally lifted off on August 21.Armstrong and See watched the launch atCape Kennedy, then flew to theManned Spacecraft Center(MSC) in Houston.The mission was generally successful, despite a problem with thefuel cellsthat prevented a rendezvous. Cooper and Conrad practiced a \\\"phantom rendezvous\\\", carrying out the maneuver without a target. Gemini 8 The crews for Gemini8 were assigned on September 20, 1965. Under the normal rotation system, the backup crew for one mission became the prime crew for the third mission after, but Slayton designatedDavid Scottas the pilot of Gemini8.Scott was the first member of thethird group of astronauts, who was selected on October 18, 1963, to receive a prime crew assignment.See was designated to commandGemini 9. Henceforth, each Gemini mission was commanded by a member of Armstrong's group, with a member of Scott's group as the pilot. Conrad would be Armstrong's backup this time, andRichard F. Gordon Jr.his pilot.Armstrong became the first American civilian in space. (Valentina Tereshkovaof theSoviet Unionhad become the first civilian—and first woman—nearly three years earlier aboardVostok 6when it launched on June 16, 1963.) Armstrong would also be the last of his group to fly in space, as See died in aT-38 crashon February 28, 1966, that also took the life of crewmateCharles Bassett. They were replaced by the backup crew ofTom StaffordandGene Cernan, whileJim Lovelland Buzz Aldrin moved up from the backup crew ofGemini 10to become the backup for Gemini 9,and would eventually flyGemini 12. Gemini 8 launched on March 16, 1966. It was the most complex mission yet, with a rendezvous and docking with anuncrewedAgena target vehicle, and the planned second Americanspacewalk(EVA) by Scott. The mission was planned to last 75hours and 55orbits. After the Agena lifted off at 10:00:00EST,theTitan IIrocket carrying Armstrong and Scott ignited at 11:41:02 EST, putting them into an orbit from which they chased the Agena.They achieved the first-ever docking between two spacecraft.Contact with the crew was intermittent due to the lack of tracking stations covering their entire orbits. While out of contact with the ground, the docked spacecraft began to roll, and Armstrong attempted to correct this with the Gemini'sOrbit Attitude and Maneuvering System(OAMS). Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but the roll increased dramatically until they were turning about once per second, indicating a problem with Gemini'sattitude control. Armstrong engaged the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turned off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft had to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring caused one of the thrusters to stick in the on position. A few people in the Astronaut Office, includingWalter Cunningham, felt that Armstrong and Scott \\\"had botched their first mission\\\".There was speculation that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings, saving the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded; no malfunction procedures had been written, and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings, not one or the other.Gene Kranzwrote, \\\"The crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong.\\\" The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft were docked, they must be considered one spacecraft. Kranz considered this the mission's most important lesson.Armstrong was depressed that the mission was cut short,canceling most mission objectives and robbing Scott of his EVA. The Agena was later reused as a docking target by Gemini 10.Armstrong and Scott received theNASA Exceptional Service Medal,and the Air Force awarded Scott theDistinguished Flying Crossas well.Scott was promoted tolieutenant colonel, and Armstrong received a $678 raise in pay to $21,653 a year (equivalent to $203,338 in 2023), making him NASA's highest-paid astronaut. Gemini 11 In Armstrong's final assignment in the Gemini program, he was the back-up Command Pilot forGemini 11. Having trained for two flights, Armstrong was quite knowledgeable about the systems and took on a teaching role for the rookie backup pilot,William Anders.The launch was on September 12, 1966,with Conrad and Gordon on board, who successfully completed the mission objectives, while Armstrong served as acapsule communicator(CAPCOM). Following the flight, PresidentLyndon B. Johnsonasked Armstrong and his wife to take part in a 24-day goodwill tour of South America.Also on the tour, which took in 11countries and 14major cities, were Dick Gordon,George Low, their wives, and other government officials. In Paraguay, Armstrong greeted dignitaries in their local language,Guarani; in Brazil he talked about the exploits of the Brazilian-born aviation pioneerAlberto Santos-Dumont. Apollo program On January 27, 1967—the day of theApollo 1 fire—Armstrong was in Washington, D.C., with Cooper, Gordon, Lovell andScott Carpenterfor the signing of the United NationsOuter Space Treaty. The astronauts chatted with the assembled dignitaries until 18:45, when Carpenter went to the airport, and the others returned to the Georgetown Inn, where they each found messages to phone the MSC. During these calls, they learned of the deaths ofGus Grissom,Ed WhiteandRoger Chaffeein the fire. Armstrong and the group spent the rest of the night drinking scotch and discussing what had happened. On April 5, 1967, the same day the Apollo1 investigation released its final report, Armstrong and 17 other astronauts gathered for a meeting with Slayton. The first thing Slayton said was, \\\"The guys who are going to fly the first lunar missions are the guys in this room.\\\"According to Cernan, only Armstrong showed no reaction to the statement. To Armstrong it came as no surprise—the room was full of veterans of Project Gemini, the only people who could fly the lunar missions. Slayton talked about the planned missions and named Armstrong to the backup crew forApollo 9, which at that stage was planned as amedium Earth orbittest of the combinedlunar moduleandcommand and service module. The crew was officially assigned on November 20, 1967.For crewmates, Armstrong was assigned Lovell and Aldrin, from Gemini 12. After design and manufacturing delays of the lunar module (LM),Apollo 8and9 swapped prime and backup crews. Based on the normal crew rotation, Armstrong would command Apollo 11,with one change: Collins on the Apollo8 crew began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.Lovell took his place on the Apollo8 crew, and, when Collins recovered, he joined Armstrong's crew. To give the astronauts practice piloting the LM on its descent, NASA commissionedBell Aircraftto build twoLunar Landing Research Vehicles(LLRV), later augmented with three Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV). Nicknamed the \\\"Flying Bedsteads\\\", they simulated the Moon's one-sixth gravity using aturbofanengine to support five-sixths of the craft's weight. On May 6, 1968, 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, Armstrong's controls started to degrade and the LLRV beganrolling.He ejected safely before the vehicle struck the ground and burst into flames. Later analysis suggested that if he had ejected half a second later, his parachute would not have opened in time. His only injury was from biting his tongue. The LLRV was completely destroyed.Even though he was nearly killed, Armstrong maintained that without the LLRV and LLTV, the lunar landings would not have been successful, as they gave commanders essential experience in piloting the lunar landing craft. In addition to the LLRV training, NASA began lunar landing simulator training after Apollo 10 was completed. Aldrin and Armstrong trained for a variety of scenarios that could develop during a real lunar landing.They also received briefings from geologists at NASA. Apollo 11 After Armstrong served as backup commander for Apollo8, Slayton offered him the post of commander of Apollo 11 on December 23, 1968, as Apollo8 orbited the Moon.According to Armstrong's 2005 biography, Slayton told him that although the planned crew was Commander Armstrong, Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin, and Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, he was offering Armstrong the chance to replace Aldrin with Jim Lovell. After thinking it over for a day, Armstrong told Slayton he would stick with Aldrin, as he had no difficulty working with him and thought Lovell deserved his own command. Replacing Aldrin with Lovell would have made Lovell the lunar module pilot, unofficially the lowest ranked member, and Armstrong could not justify placing Lovell, the commander of Gemini 12, in the number3 position of the crew.The crew of Apollo 11 was assigned on January 9, 1969, as Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin, with Lovell, Anders, andFred Haiseas the backup crew. According toChris Kraft, a March 1969 meeting among Slayton, George Low,Bob Gilruth, and Kraft determined that Armstrong would be the first person on the Moon, in part because NASA management saw him as a person who did not have a large ego. A press conference on April 14, 1969, gave the design of the LM cabin as the reason for Armstrong's being first; the hatch opened inwards and to the right, making it difficult for the LM pilot, on the right-hand side, to exit first. At the time of their meeting, the four men did not know about the hatch consideration. The first knowledge of the meeting outside the small group came when Kraft wrote his book.Methods of circumventing this difficulty existed, but it is not known if these were considered at the time. Slayton added, \\\"Secondly, just on a pure protocol basis, I figured the commander ought to be the first guy out... I changed it as soon as I found they had the time line that showed that. Bob Gilruth approved my decision.\\\" Voyage to the Moon ASaturn Vrocket launched Apollo 11 fromLaunch Complex 39Aat theKennedy Space Centeron July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00UTC(09:32:00 EDT local time).Armstrong's wife Janet and two sons watched from a yacht moored on theBanana River.During the launch, Armstrong's heart rate peaked at 110beats per minute.He found the first stage the loudest, much noisier than the Gemini8 Titan II launch. The Apollo command module was relatively roomy compared with the Gemini spacecraft. None of the Apollo 11 crew sufferedspace sickness, as some members of previous crews had. Armstrong was especially glad about this, as he had been prone tomotion sicknessas a child and could experiencenauseaafter long periods ofaerobatics. Apollo 11's objective was to land safely on the Moon, rather than to touch down at a precise location. Three minutes into the lunar descent, Armstrong noted that craters were passing about two seconds too early, which meant theLunar ModuleEaglewould probably touch down several miles (kilometres) beyond the planned landing zone.As theEagle's landingradaracquired the surface, several computer error alarms sounded. The first was a code1202alarm, and even with their extensive training, neither Armstrong nor Aldrin knew what this code meant. They promptly received word from CAPCOMCharles Dukein Houston that the alarms were not a concern; the 1202 and 1201 alarms were caused by executive overflows in thelunar module guidance computer. In 2007, Aldrin said the overflows were caused by his own counter-checklist choice of leaving the docking radar on during the landing process, causing the computer to process unnecessary radar data. When it did not have enough time to execute all tasks, the computer dropped the lower-priority ones, triggering the alarms. Aldrin said he decided to leave the radar on in case an abort was necessary when re-docking with the Apollo command module; he did not realize it would cause the processing overflows. When Armstrong noticed they were heading toward a landing area that seemed unsafe, he took manual control of the LM and attempted to find a safer area. This took longer than expected, and longer than most simulations had taken.For this reason, Mission Control was concerned that the LM was running low on fuel.On landing, Aldrin and Armstrong believed they had 40seconds of fuel left, including the 20seconds' worth which had to be saved in the event of an abort.During training, Armstrong had, on several occasions, landed with fewer than 15seconds of fuel; he was also confident the LM could survive a fall of up to 50 feet (15 m). Post-mission analysis showed that at touchdown there were 45 to 50seconds of propellant burn time left. The landing on the surface of the Moon occurred several seconds after 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969.One of three 67-inch (170 cm) probes attached to three of the LM's four legs made contact with the surface, a panel light in the LM illuminated, and Aldrin called out, \\\"Contact light.\\\" Armstrong shut the engine off and said, \\\"Shutdown.\\\" As the LM settled onto the surface, Aldrin said, \\\"Okay, engine stop\\\"; then they both called out some post-landing checklist items. After a 10-second pause, Duke acknowledged the landing with, \\\"We copy you down,Eagle.\\\" Armstrong confirmed the landing to Mission Control and the world with the words, \\\"Houston,Tranquility Basehere. TheEaglehas landed.\\\" Aldrin and Armstrong celebrated with a brisk handshake and pat on the back. They then returned to the checklist of contingency tasks, should an emergency liftoff become necessary.After Armstrong confirmed touch down, Duke re-acknowledged, adding a comment about the flight crew's relief: \\\"Roger, Tranquility. We copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\\\"During the landing, Armstrong's heart rate ranged from 100 to 150beats per minute. First Moon walk The flight plan called for a crew rest period before leaving the module, but Armstrong asked for this to be moved to earlier in the evening,Houston time. When he and Aldrin were ready to go outside,Eaglewas depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder.At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on aLunar Modulelanding pad, Armstrong said, \\\"I'm going to step off the LM now\\\". He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface at 02:56UTCJuly 21, 1969,then said, \\\"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\\\"The exact time of Armstrong's first step on the Moon is unclear. Armstrong prepared his famousepigramon his own.In a post-flight press conference, he said that he chose the words \\\"just prior to leaving the LM.\\\"In a 1983 interview inEsquiremagazine, he explained toGeorge Plimpton: \\\"I always knew there was a good chance of being able to return to Earth, but I thought the chances of a successful touch down on the moon surface were about even money—fifty–fifty... Most people don't realize how difficult the mission was. So it didn't seem to me there was much point in thinking of something to say if we'd have to abort landing.\\\"In 2012, his brother Dean Armstrong said that Neil showed him a draft of the line months before the launch.HistorianAndrew Chaikin, who interviewed Armstrong in 1988 for his bookA Man on the Moon, disputed that Armstrong claimed to have conceived the line during the mission. Recordings of Armstrong's transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article \\\"a\\\" before \\\"man\\\", though NASA and Armstrong insisted for years that static obscured it. Armstrong stated he would never make such a mistake, but after repeated listenings to recordings, he eventually conceded he must have dropped the \\\"a\\\".He later said he \\\"would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended, even if it was not said—although it might actually have been\\\".There have since been claims and counter-claims about whether acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence of the missing \\\"a\\\";Peter Shann Ford, an Australian computer programmer, conducted a digital audio analysis and claims that Armstrong did say \\\"a man\\\", but the \\\"a\\\" was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time.Ford andJames R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis.Armstrong found Ford's analysis \\\"persuasive.\\\"LinguistsDavid BeaverandMark Libermanwrote of their skepticism of Ford's claims on the blogLanguage Log.A 2016 peer-reviewed study again concluded Armstrong had included the article.NASA's transcript continues to show the \\\"a\\\" in parentheses. When Armstrong made his proclamation,Voice of Americawas rebroadcast live by theBBCand many other stations worldwide. An estimated 530million people viewed the event,20 percent out of a world population of approximately 3.6billion. Q: Did you misspeak? A: There isn't any way of knowing. Q: Several sources say you did. A: I mean, there isn't any way ofmyknowing. When I listen to the tape, I can't hear the 'a', but that doesn't mean it wasn't there, because that was the fastest VOX ever built. There was no mike-switch — it was avoice-operated key or VOX. In a helmet you find you lose a lot of syllables. Sometimes a short syllable like 'a' might not be transmitted. However, when I listen to it, I can't hear it. But the 'a' is implied, so I'm happy if they just put it in parentheses. Omni, June 1982, p. 126 About 19minutes after Armstrong's first step, Aldrin joined him on the surface, becoming the second human to walk on the Moon. They began their tasks of investigating how easily a person could operate on the lunar surface. Armstrong unveiled a plaque commemorating the flight, and with Aldrin, planted theflag of the United States. Although Armstrong had wanted the flag to be draped on the flagpole,it was decided to use a metal rod to hold it horizontally.However, the rod did not fully extend, leaving the flag with a slightly wavy appearance, as if there were a breeze.Shortly after the flag planting, PresidentRichard Nixonspoke to them by telephone from his office. He spoke for about a minute, after which Armstrong responded for about thirty seconds.In the Apollo 11 photographic record, there are only five images of Armstrong partly shown or reflected. The mission was planned to the minute, with the majority of photographic tasks performed by Armstrong with the singleHasselbladcamera. After helping to set up theEarly Apollo Scientific Experiment Package, Armstrong went for a walk to what is now known as East Crater, 65 yards (59 m) east of the LM, the greatest distance traveled from the LM on the mission. His final task was to remind Aldrin to leave a small package of memorial items to SovietcosmonautsYuri GagarinandVladimir Komarov, and Apollo1 astronauts Grissom, White and Chaffee.The Apollo 11 EVA lasted two and a half hours.Each of the subsequent five landings was allotted a progressively longer EVA period; the crew ofApollo 17spent over 22hours exploring the lunar surface.In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited their Moon walk because they were unsure how thespace suitswould cope with the Moon's extremely high temperature. Return to Earth After they re-entered the LM, the hatch was closed and sealed. While preparing for liftoff, Armstrong and Aldrin discovered that, in their bulky space suits, they had broken the ignition switch for the ascent engine; using part of a pen, they pushed in the circuit breaker to start the launch sequence.TheEaglethen continued to its rendezvous in lunar orbit, where it docked withColumbia, the command and service module. The three astronauts returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, to be picked up by theUSSHornet. After being released from an 18-day quarantine to ensure that they had not picked up any infections or diseases from the Moon, the crew was feted across the United States and around the world as part of a 38-day \\\"Giant Leap\\\" tour. The tour began on August 13, when the three astronauts spoke and rode inticker-tape paradesin their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.On the same evening an officialstate dinnerwas held in Los Angeles to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44governors, theChief Justice of the United States, and ambassadors from 83nations. President Nixon and Vice President Agnew presented each astronaut with aPresidential Medal of Freedom. After the tour Armstrong took part inBob Hope's 1969USOshow, primarily to Vietnam.In May 1970, Armstrong traveled to the Soviet Union to present a talk at the 13th annual conference of the InternationalCommittee on Space Research; after arriving inLeningradfrom Poland, he traveled to Moscow where he metPremierAlexei Kosygin. Armstrong was the first westerner to see the supersonicTupolev Tu-144and was given a tour of theYuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, which he described as \\\"a bit Victorian in nature\\\".At the end of the day, he was surprised to view a delayed video of the launch ofSoyuz 9as it had not occurred to Armstrong that the mission was taking place, even though Valentina Tereshkova had been his host and her husband,Andriyan Nikolayev, was on board. Life after Apollo Teaching Shortly after Apollo 11, Armstrong stated that he did not plan to fly in space again.He was appointed Deputy Associate Administrator for Aeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research and Technology atARPA, served in the position for a year, then resigned from it and NASA in 1971.He accepted a teaching position in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of Cincinnati,having chosen Cincinnati over other universities, including hisalma materPurdue, because Cincinnati had a small aerospace department,and said he hoped the faculty there would not be annoyed that he came straight into a professorship with only a USC master's degree.He began his master's degree while stationed at Edwards years before, and completed it after Apollo 11 by presenting a report on various aspects of Apollo, instead of a thesis on the simulation of hypersonic flight. At Cincinnati, Armstrong was University Professor of Aerospace Engineering. He took a heavy teaching load, taught core classes, and created two graduate-level classes: aircraft design and experimental flight mechanics. He was considered a good teacher, and a tough grader. His research activities during this time did not involve his work at NASA, as he did not want to give the appearance of favoritism; he later regretted the decision. After teaching for eight years, Armstrong resigned in 1980. When the university changed from an independent municipal university to a state school, bureaucracy increased. He did not want to be a part of the faculty collective bargaining group, so he decided to teach half-time. According to Armstrong, he had the same amount of work but received half his salary. In 1979, less than 10% of his income came from his university salary. Employees at the university did not know why he left. NASA commissions In 1970, after an explosion aboardApollo 13aborted its lunar landing, Armstrong was part ofEdgar Cortright's investigation of the mission. He produced a detailed chronology of the flight. He determined that a 28-volt thermostat switch in an oxygen tank, which was supposed to have been replaced with a 65-volt version, led to the explosion. Cortright's report recommended the entire tank be redesigned at a cost of $40million. Many NASA managers, including Armstrong, opposed the recommendation, since only the thermostat switch had caused the problem. They lost the argument, and the tanks were redesigned. In 1986, PresidentRonald Reaganasked Armstrong to join theRogers Commissioninvestigating theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster. Armstrong was made vice chairman of the commission and held private interviews with contacts he had developed over the years to help determine the cause of the disaster. He helped limit the committee's recommendations to nine, believing that if there were too many, NASA would not act on them. Armstrong was appointed to a fourteen-member commission by President Reagan to develop a plan for American civilian spaceflight in the 21st century. The commission was chaired by former NASA administrator Dr.Thomas O. Paine, with whom Armstrong had worked during the Apollo program. The group published a book titledPioneering the Space Frontier: The Report on the National Commission on Space, recommending a permanent lunar base by 2006, and sending people to Mars by 2015. The recommendations were largely ignored, overshadowed by theChallengerdisaster. Armstrong and his wife attended the memorial service for the victims of theSpace ShuttleColumbiadisasterin 2003, at the invitation of PresidentGeorge W. Bush. Business activities After Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971, he acted as a spokesman for several businesses. The first company to successfully approach him wasChrysler, for whom he appeared in advertising starting in January 1979. Armstrong thought they had a strong engineering division, and they were in financial difficulty. He later acted as a spokesman for other American companies, including General Time Corporation and the Bankers Association of America.He acted as a spokesman for only American companies. In addition to his duties as a spokesman, he also served on the board of directors of several companies. The first company board Armstrong joined wasGates Learjet, chairing their technical committee. He flew their new and experimental jets and even set a climb and altitude record for business jets. Armstrong became a member ofCincinnati Gas & Electric Company's board in 1973. They were interested in nuclear power and wanted to increase the company's technical competence. He served on the board ofTaft Broadcasting, also based in Cincinnati. Armstrong joined the board of solid rocket boosterThiokolin 1989, after previously serving on the Rogers Commission which found that theSpace ShuttleChallengerwas destroyed due to a defect in the Thiokol-manufactured solid rocket boosters. When Armstrong left the University of Cincinnati, he became the chairman of Cardwell International Ltd., a company that manufactured drilling rigs. He served on additional aerospace boards, firstUnited Airlinesin 1978, and laterEaton Corporationin 1980. He was asked to chair the board of directors for a subsidiary of Eaton, AIL Systems. He chaired the board through the company's 2000 merger withEDO Corporation, until his retirement in 2002. North Pole expedition In 1985, professional expedition leader Mike Dunn organized a trip to take men he deemed the \\\"greatest explorers\\\" to the North Pole. The group included Armstrong,Edmund Hillary,Hillary's son Peter,Steve Fossett, andPatrick Morrow. They arrived at the Pole on April 6, 1985. Armstrong said he was curious to see what it looked like from the ground, as he had seen it only from the Moon.He did not inform the media of the trip, preferring to keep it private. Public profile Armstrong's family described him as a \\\"reluctant American hero\\\".He kept a low profile later in his life, leading to the belief that he was a recluse.Recalling Armstrong's humility,John Glenn, the first American to orbit Earth, told CNN: \\\" didn't feel that he should be out huckstering himself. He was a humble person, and that's the way he remained after his lunar flight, as well as before.\\\"Armstrong turned down most requests for interviews and public appearances. Michael Collins said in his bookCarrying the Firethat when Armstrong moved to a dairy farm to become a college professor, it was like he \\\"retreated to his castle and pulled up the drawbridge\\\". Armstrong found this amusing, and said, \\\"...those of us that live out in the hinterlands think that people that live inside theBeltwayare the ones that have the problems.\\\" Andrew Chaikin says inA Man on the Moonthat Armstrong kept a low profile but was not a recluse, citing his participation in interviews, advertisements for Chrysler, and hosting a cable television series.Between 1991 and 1993, he hostedFirst Flights with Neil Armstrong, anaviation historydocumentary series onA&E.In 2010, Armstrong voiced the character of Dr. Jack Morrow inQuantum Quest: A Cassini Space Odyssey,an animated educational sci-fi adventure film initiated by JPL/NASA through a grant from Jet Propulsion Lab. Armstrong guarded the use of his name, image, and famous quote. When it was launched in 1981,MTVwanted to use his quote in itsstation identification, with the American flag replaced with the MTV logo, but he refused the use of his voice and likeness.He suedHallmark Cardsin 1994, when they used his name, and a recording of the \\\"one small step\\\" quote, in a Christmas ornament without his permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, which Armstrong donated to Purdue. For many years, he wrote letters congratulating new Eagle Scouts on their accomplishment, but decided to quit the practice in the 1990s because he felt the letters should be written by people who knew the scout. (In 2003, he received 950congratulation requests.) This contributed to the myth of his reclusiveness.Armstrong used to autograph everything exceptfirst day covers. Around 1993, he found out his signatures were being sold online, and that most of them were forgeries, and stopped giving autographs. Personal life Some former astronauts, including Glenn andApollo 17'sHarrison Schmitt, sought political careers after leaving NASA. Armstrong was approached by groups from both theDemocraticandRepublicanparties but declined the offers. He supportedstates' rightsand opposed the U.S. acting as the \\\"world's policeman\\\". When Armstrong applied at a localMethodistchurch to lead a Boy Scout troop in the late 1950s, he gave his religious affiliation as \\\"deist\\\".His mother later said that his religious views caused her grief and distress in later life, as she was a Christian.Upon his return from the Moon, Armstrong gave a speech in front of theU.S. Congressin which he thanked them for giving him the opportunity to see some of the \\\"grandest views of the Creator\\\".In the early 1980s, he was the subject of a hoax claiming that he converted toIslamafter hearing thecall to prayerwhile walking on the Moon. Indonesian singer Suhaemi wrote a song called \\\"Gema Suara Adzan di Bulan\\\" (\\\"The Resonant Sound of the Call to Prayer on the Moon\\\") which described Armstrong's supposed conversion, and the song was widely discussed byJakartanews outlets in 1983.Similar hoax stories were seen in Egypt and Malaysia. In March 1983, theU.S. State Departmentresponded by issuing a message to embassies and consulates in Muslim countries saying that Armstrong had not converted to Islam.The hoax surfaced occasionally for the next three decades. Part of the confusion arose from the similarity between the names of the country of Lebanon, which has a majority Muslim population, and Armstrong's longtime residence inLebanon, Ohio. In 1972, Armstrong visited the Scottish town ofLangholm, the traditional seat of Clan Armstrong. He was made the firstfreemanof the burgh, and happily declared the town his home.To entertain the crowd, theJustice of the Peaceread from an unrepealed archaic 400-year-old law that required him to hang any Armstrong found in the town. Armstrong flew light aircraft for pleasure. He enjoyedglidersand before the Moon flight had earned a gold badge with two diamonds from theInternational Gliding Commission. He continued to fly engineless aircraft well into his 70s. While working on his farm in November 1978, Armstrong jumped off the back of his grain truck and caught his wedding ring in its wheel, tearing the tip off his left ring finger. He collected the severed tip, packed it in ice, and had surgeons reattach it at a nearby hospital inLouisville, Kentucky.In February 1991, he suffered a mild heart attack while skiing with friends atAspen, Colorado. Armstrong and his first wife, Janet, separated in 1990 and divorced in 1994 after 38 years of marriage.He met his second wife, Carol Held Knight, at a golf tournament in 1992, when they were seated together at breakfast. She said little to Armstrong, but he called her two weeks later to ask what she was doing. She replied that she was cutting down a cherry tree, and he arrived at her house 35 minutes later to help. They were married in Ohio on June 12, 1994, and had a second ceremony atSan Ysidro Ranchin California. They lived inIndian Hill, Ohio.Through his marriage to Carol, he was the father-in-law of futureNew York Metsgeneral managerBrodie Van Wagenen. In May 2005, Armstrong became involved in a legal dispute with Mark Sizemore, his barber of 20years. After cutting Armstrong's hair, Sizemore sold some of it to a collector for $3,000 without Armstrong's knowledge or permission.Armstrong threatened legal action against Sizemore unless he returned the hair or donated the proceeds to a charity of Armstrong's choosing. Sizemore, unable to retrieve the hair, donated the proceeds to charity. Illness and death On August 7, 2012, Armstrong underwentbypass surgeryatMercy Faith–Fairfield HospitalinFairfield, Ohio, to relievecoronary artery disease.Although he was reportedly recovering well,he developed complications and died on August 25.PresidentBarack Obamaissued a statement memorializing Armstrong as \\\"among the greatest of American heroes—not just of his time, but of all time\\\",and added that Armstrong had carried the aspirations of the United States' citizens and had delivered \\\"a moment of human achievement that will never be forgotten.\\\" Armstrong's family released a statement describing him as a \\\"reluctant American hero served his nation proudly, as a navy fighter pilot, test pilot, and astronaut ... While we mourn the loss of a very good man, we also celebrate his remarkable life and hope that it serves as an example to young people around the world to work hard to make their dreams come true, to be willing to explore and push the limits, and to selflessly serve a cause greater than themselves. For those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil, we have a simple request. Honor his example of service, accomplishment and modesty, and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink.\\\" Buzz Aldrin called Armstrong \\\"a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew\\\", and said he was disappointed that they would not be able to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing together in 2019.Michael Collins said, \\\"He was the best, and I will miss him terribly.\\\"NASA AdministratorCharles Boldensaid, \\\"As long as there are history books, Neil Armstrong will be included in them, remembered for taking humankind's first small step on a world beyond our own\\\". A tribute was held for Armstrong on September 13, atWashington National Cathedral, whose Space Window depicts the Apollo 11 mission and holds a sliver of Moon rock amid its stained-glass panels.In attendance were Armstrong's Apollo 11 crewmates, Collins and Aldrin; Gene Cernan, the Apollo 17 mission commander and last man to walk on the Moon; and former senator and astronaut John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth. In his eulogy, Charles Bolden praised Armstrong's \\\"courage, grace, and humility\\\". Cernan recalled Armstrong's low-fuel approach to the Moon: \\\"When the gauge says empty, we all know there's a gallon or two left in the tank!\\\"Diana Krallsang the song \\\"Fly Me to the Moon\\\". Collins led prayers. David Scott spoke, possibly for the first time, about an incident during their Gemini 8 mission: minutes before the hatch was to be sealed, a small chip of dried glue fell into the latch of his harness and prevented it from being buckled, threatening to abort the mission. Armstrong then called on Conrad to solve the problem, which he did, and the mission proceeded. \\\"That happened because Neil Armstrong was a team player—he always worked on behalf of the team.\\\"CongressmanBill Johnsonfrom Armstrong's home state of Ohio led calls for President Barack Obama to authorize astate funeralin Washington D.C. Throughout his lifetime, Armstrong shunned publicity and rarely gave interviews. Mindful that Armstrong would have objected to a state funeral, his family opted to have a private funeral inCincinnati.On September 14, Armstrong's cremated remains were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean from theUSSPhilippine Sea.Flags were flown athalf-staffon the day of Armstrong's funeral. In July 2019, after observations of the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing,The New York Timesreported on details of amedical malpracticesuit Armstrong's family had filed against Mercy Health–Fairfield Hospital, where he died. When Armstrong appeared to be recovering from his bypass surgery, nurses removed the wires connected to his temporarypacemaker. He began tobleed internallyand his blood pressure dropped. Doctors took him to the hospital'scatheterizationlaboratory, and only later began operating. Two of the three physicians who reviewed the medical files during the lawsuit called this a serious error, saying surgery should have begun immediately; experts theTimestalked to, while qualifying their judgement by noting that they were unable to review the specific records in the case, said that taking a patient directly to the operating room under those circumstances generally gave them the highest chance of survival. The family ultimately settled for $6 million in 2014. Letters included with the 93 pages of documents sent to theTimesby an unknown personshow that his sons intimated to the hospital, through their lawyers, that they might discuss what happened to their father publicly at the 45th anniversary observances in 2014. The hospital, fearing the bad publicity that would result from being accused of negligently causing the death of a revered figure such as Armstrong, agreed to pay as long as the family never spoke about the suit or the settlement.Armstrong's wife, Carol, was not a party to the lawsuit. She reportedly felt that her husband would have been opposed to taking legal action. Legacy When Pete Conrad ofApollo 12became the third man to walk on the Moon, on November 19, 1969, his first words referenced Armstrong. The shorter of the two, when Conrad stepped from the LM onto the surface he proclaimed \\\"Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.\\\" Armstrong received many honors and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom (with distinction) from President Nixon,theCullum Geographical Medalfrom theAmerican Geographical Society,and theCollier Trophyfrom theNational Aeronautic Association(1969);theNASA Distinguished Service Medaland theDr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy(1970);theSylvanus Thayer Awardby theUnited States Military Academy(1971);theCongressional Space Medal of Honorfrom PresidentJimmy Carter(1978);theWright Brothers Memorial Trophyfrom the National Aeronautic Association (2001);and aCongressional Gold Medal(2011). Armstrong was elected as member into theNational Academy of Engineeringin 1978 for contributions to aerospace engineering, scientific knowledge, and exploration of the universe as an experimental test pilot and astronaut.He was elected to theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 2001. Armstrong and his Apollo 11 crewmates were the 1999 recipients of theLangley Gold Medalfrom the Smithsonian Institution.On April 18, 2006, he received NASA's Ambassador of Exploration Award.TheSpace Foundationnamed Armstrong as a recipient of its 2013 General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award.Armstrong was also inducted into theAerospace Walk of Honor,theInternational Space Hall of Fame,National Aviation Hall of Fame, and theUnited States Astronaut Hall of Fame.He was awarded hisNaval Astronaut badgein a ceremony on board the aircraft carrierUSSDwight D. Eisenhoweron March 10, 2010, in a ceremony attended by Lovell and Cernan. The lunar craterArmstrong, 31 miles (50 km) from the Apollo 11 landing site, andasteroid6469 Armstrongare named in his honor.There are more than a dozen elementary, middle and high schools named for Armstrong in the United States,and many places around the world have streets, buildings, schools, and other places named for him and/or Apollo.TheArmstrong Air and Space Museum, in Armstrong's hometown of Wapakoneta,and the Neil Armstrong Airport inNew Knoxville, Ohio, are named after him.The mineralarmstrongiteis named after him,and the mineralarmalcoliteis named, in part, after him. In October 2004 Purdue University named its new engineering buildingNeil Armstrong Hall of Engineering;the building was dedicated on October 27, 2007, during a ceremony at which Armstrong was joined by fourteen other Purdue astronauts.The NASA Dryden Flight Research Center was renamed the NASA Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center in 2014.In September 2012, the U.S. Navy named the firstArmstrong-class vesselRVNeil Armstrong. Delivered to the Navy on September 23, 2015, it is a modern oceanographic research platform supporting a wide range of activities by academic groups.In 2019, the College of Engineering at Purdue University celebrated the 50th anniversary of Neil Armstrong's walk on the Moon by launching the Neil Armstrong Distinguished Visiting Fellows Program, which brings highly accomplished scholars and practitioners to the college to catalyze collaborations with faculty and students. Armstrong's authorized biography,First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong, was published in 2005. For many years, he turned down biography offers from authors such asStephen AmbroseandJames A. Michenerbut agreed to work with James R. Hansen after reading one of Hansen's other biographies.He recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission, when he had believed there was only a 50% chance of landing on the Moon. \\\"I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we were successful\\\".Afilm adaptation of the book, starringRyan Goslingand directed byDamien Chazelle, was released in October 2018. In July 2018, Armstrong's sons put his collection of memorabilia up for sale, including his Boy Scout cap, and various flags and medals flown on his space missions. A series of auctions held November 1–3, 2018, realized $5,276,320 (~$6.31 million in 2023). As of July 2019, the auction sales totaled $16.7million.Two fragments of wood from the propeller and four pieces of fabric from the wing of the 1903Wright Flyerthat Armstrong took to the Moon fetched between $112,500 and $275,000 each.Armstrong's wife, Carol, has not put any of his memorabilia up for sale. Armstrong donated his papers to Purdue. Along with posthumous donations by his widow Carol, the collection consists of over 450boxes of material. In May 2019, she donated two 25-by-24-inch (640 by 610 mm) pieces of fabric from theWright Flyer, along with his correspondence related to them. In a 2010Space Foundationsurvey, Armstrong was ranked as the number-one most popular space hero;and in 2013,Flyingmagazine ranked him number one on its list of 51 Heroes of Aviation.The press often asked Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, he said that ahuman mission to Marswould be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s. In 2010, he made a rare public criticism of the decision to cancel theAres Ilaunch vehicle and theConstellation Moon landing program.In an open letter also signed by fellow Apollo veterans Lovell and Cernan, he said, \\\"For The United States, the leading space faring nation for nearly half a century, to be without carriage to low Earth orbit and with no human exploration capability to go beyond Earth orbit for an indeterminate time into the future, destines our nation to become one of second or even third rate stature\\\".On November 18, 2010, aged 80, he said in a speech during theScience & Technology Summitinthe Hague, Netherlands, that he would offer his services as commander on a mission to Mars if he were asked. The planetarium atAltoona Area High SchoolinAltoona, Pennsylvaniais named after Armstrong and is home to aSpace Racemuseum.A campsite in Camp Sandy Beach atYawgoog Scout ReservationinRockville, Rhode Island, is named in his honor, a nod to his Scouting career. Armstrong was named theclass exemplarfor the Class of 2019 at the U.S. Air Force Academy. See also Notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"Grumman F9F Panther TheGrumman F9F Pantheris an earlycarrier-basedjet fighterdesigned and produced by the American aircraft manufacturerGrumman. It was the first jet-powered fighter aircraft to see air-to-air combat with theUnited States Navyas well as being Grumman’s first jet fighter. Development of the Panther commenced in the final months ofWorld War IIto harness the recent innovation of the jet engine. Grumman designed a single-engined, straight-wingedday fighterthat was armed with four 20 mm (0.79 in)cannonsand could also carry a wide assortment of air-to-ground munitions. Production aircraft were typically powered by a singleAllison J33orPratt & Whitney J48-P-2turbojetengine. On 21 November 1947, the prototype performed itsmaiden flight, powered by an importedRolls-Royce Neneengine. During September 1949, the F9F was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers. The Panther was used extensively by the U.S. Navy andMarine Corpsin theKorean War. On 3 July 1950, a F9F-3 recorded the first U.S. Navy air victory of the conflict, having shot down a propeller-poweredYak-9. In the Korean theatre, Panther pilots cumulatively claimed the shooting down of sevenMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s. During 1956, the type was withdrawn from front-line combat service, but remained in secondary roles, such as for training and with U.S. Naval Air Reserve and U.S. Marine Air Reserve units, until 1958. The Panther was also the first jet aircraft used by theBlue Angelsaerobaticsdemonstration team, being flown in this capacity from 1949 through to late 1954. FutureastronautsNeil ArmstrongandJohn Glennboth flew the F9F extensively during the Korean War. While Australia was interested in the Panther during the late 1940s, the nation ultimately opted for theGloster Meteor F.8and theCAC Sabreinstead. The aircraft's only export customer wasArgentina, where it became the first jet aircraft to be operated by theArgentine Naval Aviation. It was operated mainly from land, as thecatapultsof the aircraft carrierARAIndependencialacked sufficient power to readily launch the F9F. Several Panthers participated in the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt, firing upon Argentine Army forces sent to quell the revolt. During 1969, it was withdrawn from Argentine service due to a lack of spare parts. Grumman would develop the F9F design in response to U.S. Navy interest, producing theswept wingGrumman F-9 Cougar. Design and development Background The origins of the Panther can be traced back to development studies performed by Grumman into jet-powered fighter aircraft near the end ofWorld War II. The company was keen to capitalise on the emergence of the first practical jet engines by integrating them into a new aircraft design. This design, which was internally designatedG-75, was submitted to aUnited States Navycompetition that sought a jet-powerednight fighterto equip itsaircraft carrierswith. However, on 3 April 1946, it was announced that theDouglas F3D Skyknight, a competing two-seat aircraft powered by fourWestinghouse J30turbojets, had been selected. On 11 April 1946, the Navy'sBureau of Aeronautics(BuAer) issued a development contract to Grumman to produce a pair of G-75 prototypes, which were given the Navy designationXF9F-1, in case development of the Skyknight encountered severe problems. Shortly thereafter, Grumman recognised that the G-75 did not have much potential for either performance or growth; the company had already undertaken work on a completely different single-engine day fighter, theG-79. In a bureaucratic maneuver, BuAer opted not to cancel the G-75 contract, but instead changed the wording to include three prototypes of the entirely different G-79. It was this design that became the Panther. At that time, the few American engines that were available for use, such as theAllison J33andWestinghouse J34, were not considered to be sufficiently reliable;thus, the Navy specified the importedRolls-Royce Neneturbojet, which was also more powerful, at 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) of thrust. Production aircraft were to also be powered by the Nene, builtunder licensebyPratt & Whitneyas the J42.Since there was insufficient space within the wings and fuselage to provide sufficient fuel for the thirsty jet engine, the design team opted to add permanently mountedwingtip fuel tanks, which had incidental advantage of improving the fighter's rate ofroll.The wings featured another innovation in the form ofleading edgeflapsthat generated additional lift while landing;speed brakeswere also present on the underside of the fuselage. Flight testing On 21 November 1947, the prototype Panther conducted itsmaiden flight, piloted by test pilot Corky Meyer.It was followed by the second prototype only five days later.Initial issues with directional and longitudinal stability were encountered, but were quickly rectified. During one early land-basedarresting geartest, the detachable rear section of the aircraft unintentionally came off; remedial changes were made to avoid any future repetition. During May 1949, carrier suitability trails commenced.In September 1949, the F9F was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers. During the development phase, Grumman decided to change the Panther's engine, selecting thePratt & Whitney J48-P-2, a license built version of theRolls-Royce RB.44 Tay. The other engine that had been tested was the Allison J33-A-16. The armament was a quartet of 20mm guns, the Navy having already switched to this caliber (as opposed to the USAAF/USAF which continued to use .50 caliberM2/M3guns). In addition, the Panther was soon armed with underwing air-to-ground rockets and up to 2,000 lb (910 kg) of bombs. From 1946, interest in developing an aircraft that harnessed the increasingly popularswept winggrew and, following concerns that the Panther was inferior to its MiG opponents over the skies of Korea, Grumman launched work on a conversion project, known as Design 93. This effort resulted in a swept-wing derivative, theF9F Cougar, which retained the Panther's designation number.Later stage development work on the Panther continued, being largely focused on engine improvements, expanding fuel capacity, and the use of alternative munitions. In 1949, the Panther was considered by theAustraliangovernment, as a possible locally-built replacement for theMustangMk 23 andDe Havilland Vampirethen operated by theRoyal Australian Air Force(RAAF).The other designs considered initially were an Australian design, theCAC CA-23(an unconventional, twin-jetall-weather fighter) and theHawker P.1081. By mid-1950, however, RAAF Mustangs were in action inKoreaand seen as highly vulnerable to theMiG-15. An immediately available stop-gap in the shape of theGloster Meteor F.8was operated by the RAAF in Korea from July 1951. (After its less-than-satisfactory performance against MiGs, the Meteor was replaced from 1954 by theCAC Sabre– an Australian-built, up-engined variant of the F-86.) Operational history US Navy The Panther was the primary jet fighter and ground-attack aircraft of both the US Navy and USMC during theKorean War. It was the widest used Navy jet fighter of the conflict, cumulatively flying 78,000 sorties. F9F-2s, F9F-3s and F9F-5s, as rugged attack aircraft, were able to sustain operations despite being frequently opposed by intense anti-aircraft fire. The pilots also appreciated the air conditioned cockpit, which made for a welcome change from the humid environment of piston-powered aircraft. On 3 July 1950,Lieutenant, junior gradeLeonard H. Plog, ofVF-51, flying an F9F-3 scored the first US Navy air victory of the war by shooting down a propeller-poweredYak-9. Despite their relatively low speed, Panther pilots also claimed sevenMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s, for the loss of two F9Fs. The first MiG-15 was downed on 9 November 1950, byLieutenant CommanderWilliam (Bill) Amen ofVF-111flying an F9F-2B, during aUN Commandattack on theSinuijubridges, near the mouth of the Yalu River.Two more MiG-15s were downed on 18 November 1950. On 18 November 1952, the American aircraft carrierUSSOriskanyand three other carriers were operating in theSea of Japanconducting air strikes against the North Korean city ofHoeryong. The group launched four F9F's for a combat patrol near the North Korean border with China. The group's leader suffered mechanical problems and returned to the carrier together with his wingman. LtRoyce WilliamsofVF-781, flying offUSSOriskanyand his wingman continued on the mission. They then identified sevenSoviet Naval AviationMigs heading towards the task force from the Russian mainland. The naval commanders therefore ordered the two F9Fs to position themselves between the Migs and the carrier group. During this maneuver, four Soviet MiG-15s opened fire, despite the fact that the countries were not at war. Williams opened fire on the tail Mig, which dropped out of formation, and was followed down by Williams' wingman. What followed was a 35-minute dogfight between Williams and six MiG-15s. The Mig 15 was a more capable plane, but Williams nevertheless succeeded in shooting down three more. He ascribed this to both sides doing as they were trained, but the Soviet pilots making mistakes. While heading back to the carriers, Williams was out of ammo, but still had one Mig on his tail. The re-appearance of his wingman on the Mig's tail then scared this one off. By that time Williams's plane was so damaged that he could not turn sideways anymore.Oriskanywas therefore aligned with the plane, so he could land. After landing, his Panther was found to have 263 hits by cannon shells or fragments and was beyond repair. It was therefore pushed overboard. The engagement is little-known for two reasons. The US feared that publication of the incident could increase tensions with the Soviet Union.Another reason was the involvement of the USNational Security Agency(NSA) – the existence of which was then top secret – in planning the mission; the MiGs were intercepted as a result of intelligence provided by the NSA.The four MiGs that were shot down were flown bySoviet Naval Aviationpilots: Russian sources confirmed Williams' claims, 40 years later, stating the pilots lost were Captains Belyakov and Vandalov, and Lieutenants Pakhomkin and Tarshinov. As the conflict progressed, Panthers became primarily tasked with ground attack missions.Attacks upon hostile anti-aircraft equipment were commonly conducted.This was a risky mission type, with numerous Panthers being damaged or even lost to fire from the same ground batteries that they were seeking to neutralize.Furthermore, the danger posed by these systems increased over time as more capable AA apparatus was supplied to the North Korean force.Panthers also routinely undertook aerial reconnaissance missions over Korea.Starting in 1952, the Panther began to be supplemented by the newer Cougar derivative in the theatre. Future astronautNeil Armstrongflew the F9F extensively during the Korean conflict,although he ejected from one of the aircraft after it was brought down by a wire strung across a valley in 1951.Future astronautJohn GlennandBoston Red Soxall-starbaseball playerTed Williamsalso flew the F9F as Marine Corps pilots. During 1956, the Panther was withdrawn from frontline combat service, having been displaced by new fighter aircraft, including its swept-wing Cougar derivative.However, the type remained active in secondary roles, such as for training and with U.S. Naval Air Reserve and U.S. Marine Air Reserve units, until 1958. The Navy'sBlue Angelsflight demonstration team used the Panther for four years, beginning in 1951. The Panther was the Blue Angels' first jet.Some Panthers continued to serve in small numbers into the 1960s.From September 1962, surviving operational Panthers were designated F-9 within the new combined US tri-service designation system. Argentine Navy The only foreign buyer of the Panther was theArgentine Naval Aviation, which purchased 28 ex-USN F9F-2B aircraft during 1957; the first 10 arrived in 1958. Only 24 aircraft were put in service, as the remainder were used as spares. The first flight of an Argentine Panther was in December 1958, and the last aircraft entered into service during January 1961. The catapult on the then only Argentine carrier,ARAIndependencia, was not powerful enough to launch the F9F,so the aircraft were land-based. However, in July 1963, a Panther (serial 0453/3-A-119) landed onIndependenciaas part of trials, the first jet to land on an Argentine aircraft carrier;it was not then catapult-launched, but off-loaded by crane when the ship returned to port. Argentine Navy F9F-2 Panthers were engaged in combat during the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt. Several rebel-controlled aircraft flew bombing and strafing runs against a column of the Army 8th Tank Regiment which was advancing on the rebellingPunta Indio Naval Air Base. The attack destroyed severalM4 Shermantanks while one F9F Panther was shot down. The Argentine Panthers were involved in the general mobilization during the1965 border clash between Argentina and Chile, but no combat occurred. The type was removed from service during 1969 due to a lack of available spare parts, the service opted to replace them withDouglas A-4Q Skyhawks. The Argentine Navy also operated the F-9 Cougar trainer version. Variants Operators Surviving aircraft Argentina United States Specifications (F9F-5 Panther) Data fromUnited States Navy Aircraft since 1911 General characteristics Performance Armament Notable appearances in media The F9F Panther was featured in the 1954 Korean War filmThe Bridges at Toko-RistarringWilliam Holden,Grace Kelly,Mickey RooneyandFredric March, and inMen of the Fighting LadystarringVan Johnson,Walter PidgeonandKeenan Wynn. Stock footageof an F9F piloted byGeorge Chamberlain Duncancrashing into the fantail of theUSSMidway(CV-41)during a 1951 test flight appears in severalHollywoodfilms. See also Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists References Citations Bibliography Online sources Further reading External links\",\n \"John Glenn John Herschel Glenn Jr.(July 18, 1921 – December 8, 2016) was an AmericanMarine Corps aviator,astronaut, businessman, and politician. He was the third American in space and the first American to orbit the Earth, circling it three times in 1962.Following his retirement fromNASA, he served from 1974 to 1999 as aU.S. SenatorfromOhio; in 1998, he flew into space again at the age of 77. Before joining NASA, Glenn was a distinguishedfighter pilotinWorld War II, theChinese Civil War, and theKorean War. He shot down threeMiG-15sand was awarded sixDistinguished Flying Crossesand eighteenAir Medals. In 1957, he made the firstsupersonictranscontinental flightacross the United States. His on-board camera took the first continuous, panoramic photograph of the United States. Glenn was one of theMercury Sevenmilitarytest pilotsselected in 1959 by NASA as the nation's first astronauts. On February 20, 1962, Glenn flew theFriendship 7mission, becoming the first American to orbit the Earth. He was the third American, and the fifth person, to be in space. He received theNASA Distinguished Service Medalin 1962, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, was inducted into theU.S. Astronaut Hall of Famein 1990, and received thePresidential Medal of Freedomin 2012. Glenn resigned from NASA in January 1964. A member of the Democratic Party, Glenn was firstelected to the Senate in 1974and served for 24 years until January 1999. In 1998, at age 77, Glenn flew onSpace ShuttleDiscovery'sSTS-95mission, making him the oldest person to enter Earth orbit, the only person to fly in both the Mercury and theSpace Shuttle programs, and the first Member of Congress to visit space since CongressmanBill Nelson(D-Fla.) in 1986. Glenn, both the oldest and the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven, died at the age of 95 on December 8, 2016. Early life and education John Herschel Glenn Jr. was born on July 18, 1921, in Cambridge, Ohio, the son of John Herschel Glenn Sr. (1895–1966), who worked for a plumbing firm, and Clara Teresa Glenn (néeSproat; 1897–1971), a teacher.His parents had married shortly before John Sr., a member of theAmerican Expeditionary Force, left for theWestern FrontduringWorld War I. The family moved toNew Concord, Ohio, soon after his birth, and his father started his own business, the Glenn Plumbing Company.Glenn Jr. was only a toddler when he metAnna Margaret (Annie) Castor, whom he would later marry. The two would not be able to recall a time when they did not know each other.He first flew in an airplane with his father when he was eight years old. He became fascinated by flight and built model airplanes frombalsa woodkits.Along with his adopted sister Jean,he attended New Concord Elementary School.He washed cars and soldrhubarbto earn money to buy a bicycle, after which he took a job deliveringThe Columbus Dispatchnewspaper.He was a member of theOhio Rangers, an organization similar to theCub Scouts.His boyhood home in New Concord has beenrestoredas ahistoric house museumand education center. Glenn attendedNew Concord High School, where he played on thevarsityfootballteam as acenterandlinebacker. He also made the varsitybasketballandtennisteams and was involved with Hi-Y, a junior branch of theYMCA.After graduating in 1939, Glenn enteredMuskingum College(now Muskingum University), where he studiedchemistry,joined the Stag Club fraternity,and played on the football team.Annie majored in music with minors in secretarial studies and physical education and competed on the swimming andvolleyballteams, graduating in 1942.Glenn earned aprivate pilot licenseand a physics course credit for free through theCivilian Pilot Training Programin 1941.He did not complete his senior year in residence or take a proficiency exam, both required by the school for itsBachelor of Sciencedegree. Military career World War II When the United States entered World War II, Glenn quit college to enlist in theU.S. Army Air Corps.He was not called to duty by the Army and enlisted as aU.S. Navyaviation cadetin March 1942. Glenn attended theUniversity of IowainIowa Cityfor pre-flight training and made his first solo flight in a military aircraft atNaval Air Station OlatheinKansas, where he went for primary training. During advanced training atNaval Air Station Corpus ChristiinTexas, he accepted an offer to transfer to theU.S. Marine Corps.Having completed his flight training in March 1943, Glenn was commissioned as asecond lieutenant. Glenn married Annie in a Presbyterian ceremony at College Drive Church in New Concord on April 6, 1943.After advanced training atCamp Kearny, California, he was assigned to Marine SquadronVMJ-353, which flewR4Dtransport planes from there. ThefightersquadronVMO-155was also at Camp Kearny flying theGrumman F4F Wildcat. Glenn approached the squadron's commander,MajorJ. P. Haines, who suggested that he could put in for a transfer. This was approved, and Glenn was posted to VMO-155 on July 2, 1943, two days before the squadron moved toMarine Corps Air Station El Centroin California.The Wildcat was obsolete by this time, and VMO-155 re-equipped with theF4U Corsairin September 1943.He was promoted tofirst lieutenantin October 1943, and shipped out to Hawaii in January 1944.VMO-155 became part of the garrison onMidway Atollon February 21,then moved to theMarshall Islandsin June 1944 and flew 57 combat missions in the area.He received two Distinguished Flying Crosses and ten Air Medals. At the end of his one-year tour of duty in February 1945, Glenn was assigned toMarine Corps Air Station Cherry PointinNorth Carolina, then toNaval Air Station Patuxent Riverin Maryland. He was promoted tocaptainin July 1945 and ordered back to Cherry Point. There, he joined VMF-913, another Corsair squadron, and learned that he had qualified for a regular commission.In March 1946, he was assigned toMarine Corps Air Station El Toroin southern California. He volunteered for service with the occupation in North China, believing it would be a short tour. He joinedVMF-218(another Corsair squadron), which was based atNanyuan Fieldnear Beijing, in December 1946,and flew patrol missions until VMF-218 was transferred toGuamin March 1947. In December 1948, Glenn was re-posted to NAS Corpus Christi as a student at the Naval School of All-Weather Flight before becoming aflight instructor.In July 1951, he traveled to theAmphibious Warfare SchoolatMarine Corps Base Quanticoin northernVirginiafor a six-month course.He then joined the staff of the commandant of the Marine Corps Schools. He maintained his proficiency (and flight pay) by flying on weekends and was only allowed four hours of flying time per month.He was promoted to major in July 1952.Glenn received theWorld War II Victory Medal,American Campaign Medal,Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal(with onestar),Navy Occupation Service Medal(with Asia clasp), and theChina Service Medalfor his efforts. Korean War Glenn moved his family back to New Concord during a short period of leave, and after two and a half months of jet training at Cherry Point, was ordered toSouth Koreain October 1952, late in the Korean War.Before he set out for Korea in February 1953, he applied to fly theF-86 Sabrejetfighter-interceptorthrough an inter-service exchange position with theU.S. Air Force(USAF). In preparation, he arranged with Colonel Leon W. Gray to check out the F-86 atOtis Air Force BaseinMassachusetts.Glenn reported toK-3, an airbase in South Korea, on February 3, 1953, and was assigned to be the operations officer forVMF-311, one of two Marine fighter squadrons there while he waited for the exchange assignment to go through.VMF-311 was equipped with theF9F Pantherjetfighter-bomber. Glenn's first mission was a reconnaissance flight on February 26.He flew 63 combat missions in Korea with VMF-311and was nicknamed \\\"Magnet Ass\\\" because of the number offlakhits he took on low-levelclose air supportmissions;twice, he returned to base with over 250 holes in his plane.He flew for a time with Marine reservistTed Williams(then in the midst of aHall of Famebaseball career with theBoston Red Sox) as hiswingman.Williams later said about Glenn \\\"Absolutely fearless. The best I ever saw. It was an honor to fly with him.\\\"Glenn also flew with future major generalRalph H. Spanjer. In June 1953, Glenn reported for duty with the USAF's25th Fighter-Interceptor Squadronand flew 27 combat missions in the F-86, a much faster aircraft than the F9F Panther, patrollingMiG Alley.Combat with aMiG-15, which was faster and better armed still,was regarded as a rite of passage for a fighter pilot. On the Air Force buses that ferried the pilots out to the airfields before dawn, pilots who had engaged a MiG could sit while those who had not had to stand.Glenn later wrote, \\\"Since the days of theLafayette Escadrilleduring World War I, pilots have viewed air-to-air combat as the ultimate test not only of their machines but of their own personal determination and flying skills. I was no exception.\\\"He hoped to become the second Marine jetflying aceafterJohn F. Bolt. Glenn's USAF squadron mates painted \\\"MiG Mad Marine\\\" on his aircraft when he complained about there not being any MIGs to shoot at.He shot down his first MiG in adogfighton July 12, 1953, downed a second one on July 19, and a third on July 22 when four Sabres shot down three MiGs. These were the final air victories of the war, which ended with an armistice five days later.For his service in Korea, Glenn received two more Distinguished Flying Crosses and eight more Air Medals.Glenn also received theKorean Service Medal(with two campaign stars),United Nations Korea Medal,Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal,National Defense Service Medal(with one star), and theKorean War Service Medal. Test pilot With combat experience as a fighter pilot, Glenn applied for training as atest pilotwhile still in Korea. He reported to theU.S. Naval Test Pilot SchoolatNAS Patuxent Riverin Maryland in January 1954 and graduated in July.At Patuxent River, futureMedal of HonorrecipientJames Stockdaletutored him in physics and math.Glenn's first flight test assignment, testing theFJ-3 Fury, nearly killed him when its cockpit depressurized and its oxygen system failed.He also tested the armament of aircraft such as theVought F7U CutlassandF8U Crusader.From November 1956 to April 1959, he was assigned to the Fighter Design Branch of the NavyBureau of Aeronauticsin Washington, D.C., and attended theUniversity of Maryland. On July 16, 1957, Glenn made the firstsupersonictranscontinental flight.Disliking his Bureau of Aeronautics desk job, he devised the flight as both a way to keep flying and publicly demonstrate the F8U Crusader.At that time, the transcontinental speed record, held by an Air ForceRepublic F-84 Thunderjet, was 3 hours 45 minutes and Glenn calculated that the F8U Crusader could do it faster. Because its 586-mile-per-hour (943 km/h) air speed was faster than that of a.45 caliber bullet, Glenn called the flightProject Bullet.He flew an F8U Crusader 2,445 miles (3,935 km) fromLos Alamitos, California, toFloyd Bennett Fieldin New York City in 3 hours, 23 minutes and 8.3 seconds,averaging supersonic speed despite threein-flight refuelingswhen speeds dropped below 300 miles per hour (480 km/h). His on-board camera took the first continuous, transcontinentalpanoramic photographof the United States.He received his fifth Distinguished Flying Cross for this mission,and was promoted tolieutenant colonelon April 1, 1959.The cross-country flight made Glenn a minor celebrity. A profile appeared inThe New York Times,and he appeared on the television showName That Tune.Glenn now had nearly 9,000 hours of flying time, including about 3,000 hours in jets,but knew that at the age of 36, he was now likely too old to continue to fly. NASA career Selection On October 4, 1957, theSoviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1, the first artificialsatellite. This damaged American confidence in its technological superiority, creating a wave of anxiety known as theSputnik crisis. In response, PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerlaunched theSpace Race. TheNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) was established on October 1, 1958, as a civilian agency to develop space technology. One of its first initiatives was announced on December 17, 1958. This wasProject Mercury,which aimed to launch a man intoEarth orbit, return him safely to the Earth, and evaluate his capabilities in space. His Bureau of Aeronautics job gave Glenn access to new spaceflight news, such as theX-15rocket plane.While on duty at Patuxent and in Washington, Glenn read everything he could find about space. His office was asked to send a test pilot toLangley Air Force Basein Virginia to make runs on a spaceflight simulator, as part of research by the newly formed NASA into re-entry vehicle shapes. The pilot would also be sent to theNaval Air Development CenterinJohnsville, Pennsylvania, and would be subjected to highG-forcesin acentrifugefor comparison with data collected in the simulator. His request for the position was granted, and he spent several days at Langley and a week in Johnsville for the testing.As one of the very few pilots to have done such testing, Glenn had become an expert on the subject.NASA asked military-service members to participate in planning themockupof a spacecraft. Having participated in the research at Langley and Johnsville, he was sent to theMcDonnellplant inSt. Louisas a service adviser to NASA's spacecraft mockup board.Envisioning himself in the vehicle, Glenn stated that the passenger would have to be able to control the spacecraft. McDonnell engineers told him of the importance of lightening the vehicle as much as possible, so Glenn began exercising to lose the 30 pounds he estimated that he was overweight. Eisenhower directed NASA to recruit its first astronauts from military test pilots. Of 508 graduates of test pilot schools, 110 matched the minimum standards.Marine Corps pilots were mistakenly omitted at first; two were quickly found, including Glenn.The candidates had to be younger than 40, possess a bachelor's degree or equivalent, and be 5 feet 11 inches (1.80 m) or less. Only the height requirement was strictly enforced, owing to the size of the Project Mercury spacecraft.This was fortunate for Glenn, who barely met the requirements, as he was near the age cutoff and lacked a science-based degree,but had taken more classes since leaving college than needed for graduation. Glenn was otherwise so outstanding a candidate that Colonel Jake Dill, his commanding officer at test pilot school, visited NASA headquarters to insist that Glenn would be the perfect astronaut. For an interview with Charles Donlan, associate director of Project Mercury, Glenn brought the results from the centrifuge to show that he had done well on a test that perhaps no other candidate had taken. Donlan also noticed that Glenn stayed late at night to study schematics of the Mercury spacecraft.He was among the 32 of the first 69 candidates that passed the first step of the evaluation and were interested in continuing, sufficient for the astronaut corps NASA wanted.On February 27 a grueling series of physical and psychological tests began at theLovelace Clinicand theWright Aerospace Medical Laboratory. Because of his Bureau of Aeronautics job, Glenn was already participating in Project Mercury; while other candidates were at Wright, on March 17 he and most of those who would choose the astronauts visited the McDonnell plant building the spacecraft to inspect its progress and make changes. While Glenn had not scored the highest on all the tests, a member of the selection committee recalled how he had impressed everyone with his \\\"strength of personality and his dedication\\\". On April 6 Donlan called Glenn to offer him a position at Project Mercury,one of seven candidates chosen as astronauts.Glenn was pleased while Annie was supportive but wary of the danger; during his three years at Patuxent, 12 test pilots had died. The identities of the seven were announced at a press conference atDolley Madison Housein Washington, D.C., on April 9, 1959:Scott Carpenter,Gordon Cooper, Glenn,Gus Grissom,Wally Schirra,Alan Shepard, andDeke Slayton.InThe Right Stuff,Tom Wolfewrote that Glenn \\\"came out of it as tops among seven very fair-haired boys. He had the hottest record as a pilot, he was the most quotable, the most photogenic, and the lone Marine.\\\"The magnitude of the challenge ahead of them was made clear a few weeks later, on the night of May 18, 1959, when the seven astronauts gathered atCape Canaveralto watch their first rocket launch, of anSM-65D Atlas, which was similar to the one that was to carry them into orbit. A few minutes after liftoff, it exploded spectacularly, lighting up the night sky. The astronauts were stunned. Shepard turned to Glenn and said: \\\"Well, I'm glad they got that out of the way.\\\" Glenn remained an officer in the Marine Corps after his selection,and was assigned to the NASA Space Task Group atLangley Research CenterinHampton, Virginia.The task force moved toHouston, Texas, in 1962, and became part of the NASAManned Spacecraft Center.A portion of the astronauts' training was in the classroom, where they learned space science. The group also received hands-on training, which includedscuba divingand work in simulators.Astronauts secured an additional role in the spaceflight program: to provide pilot input in design. The astronauts divided the various tasks between them. Glenn's specialization was cockpit layout design and control functioning for the Mercury and earlyApollo programs.He pressed the other astronauts to set a moral example, living up to the squeaky-clean image of them that had been portrayed byLifemagazine, a position that was not popular with the other astronauts. Friendship 7flight Glenn was the backup pilot for Shepard and Grissom on the first two crewed Project Mercury flights, the sub-orbital missionsMercury-Redstone 3andMercury-Redstone 4.Glenn was selected for Mercury-Atlas 6, NASA's first crewed orbital flight, with Carpenter as his backup. Putting a man in orbit would achieve one of Project Mercury's most important goals.Shepard and Grissom had named their spacecraftFreedom 7andLiberty Bell 7. The numeral 7 had originally been the production number of Shepard's spacecraft, but had come to represent the Mercury 7. Glenn named his spacecraft, number 13,Friendship 7, and had the name hand-painted on the side like the one on his F-86 had been.Glenn and Carpenter completed their training for the mission in January 1962, but postponement of the launch allowed them to continue rehearsing. Glenn spent 25 hours and 25 minutes in the spacecraft performing hangar and altitude tests, and 59 hours and 45 minutes in the simulator. He flew 70 simulated missions and reacted to 189 simulated system failures. After a long series of delays,Friendship 7lifted off fromCape Canaveral Air Force Stationon February 20, 1962. During the countdown, there were eleven delays due to equipment malfunctions and improvements and the weather. During Glenn's first orbit, a failure of the automatic-control system was detected. This forced Glenn to operate in manual mode for the second and third orbits, and for re-entry. Later in the flight, telemetry indicated that theheat shieldhad loosened. If this reading had been accurate, Glenn and his spacecraft would have burned up on re-entry. After a lengthy discussion on how to deal with this problem, ground controllers decided that leaving the retrorocket pack in place might help keep the loose heat shield in place. They relayed these instructions to Glenn, but did not tell him the heat shield was possibly loose; although confused at this order, he complied. The retrorocket pack broke up into large chunks of flaming debris that flew past the window of his capsule during re-entry; Glenn thought this might have been the heat shield. He told an interviewer, \\\"Fortunately it was the rocket pack—or I wouldn't be answering these questions.\\\"After the flight, it was determined that the heat shield was not loose; the sensor was faulty. Friendship 7safelysplashed down800 miles (1,290 km) southeast of Cape Canaveral after Glenn's 4-hour, 55-minute flight.He carried a note on the flight which read, \\\"I am a stranger. I come in peace. Take me to your leader and there will be a massive reward for you in eternity\\\" in several languages, in case he landed near southern Pacific Ocean islands.The original procedure called for Glenn to exit through the top hatch, but he was uncomfortably warm and decided that egress through the side hatch would be faster.During the flight, he endured up to 7.8 g of acceleration and traveled 75,679 miles (121,794 km) at about 17,500 miles per hour (28,200 km/h).The flight took Glenn to a maximum altitude (apogee) of about 162 miles (261 km) and a minimum altitude of 100 miles (160 km) (perigee).Unlike the crewed missions ofSoviet Union'sVostok programme, Glenn remained within the spacecraft during landing.The flight made Glenn the first American toorbitthe Earth,the third American in space, and the fifth human in space.The mission, which Glenn called the \\\"best day of his life\\\", renewed U.S. confidence.His flight occurred while the U.S. and the Soviet Union were embroiled in theCold Warand competing in the Space Race. As the first American in orbit, Glenn became a national hero, met PresidentJohn F. Kennedy, and received aticker-tape paradein New York reminiscent of those honoringCharles Lindberghand other heroes. He became \\\"so valuable to the nation as an iconic figure\\\", according to NASA administratorCharles Bolden, that Kennedy would not \\\"risk putting him back in space again.\\\"Glenn's fame and political potential were noted by the Kennedys, and he became a friend of theKennedy family. On February 23, 1962, President Kennedy gave him theNASA Distinguished Service Medalfor hisFriendship 7flight.Upon receiving the award, Glenn said, \\\"I would like to consider I was a figurehead for this whole big, tremendous effort, and I am very proud of the medal I have on my lapel.\\\"Glenn also received his sixth Distinguished Flying Cross for his efforts.He was among the first group of astronauts to be awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. The award was presented to him by President Jimmy Carter in 1978. After his 1962 spaceflight, NASA proposed giving Glenn theMedal of Honor, but Glenn did not think that would be appropriate. His military and space awards were stolen from his home in 1978, and he remarked that he would keep this medal in a safe. Comments about women in space In 1962, NASA contemplated recruiting women to the astronaut corps via theMercury 13, but Glenn gave a speech before theHouse Space Committeedetailing his opposition to sending women into space, in which he said: I think this gets back to the way our social order is organized, really. It is just a fact. The men go off and fight the wars and fly the airplanes and come back and help design and build and test them. The fact that women are not in this field is a fact of our social order. In May 1965, after he left NASA, Glenn was quoted in theMiami Heraldas saying NASA \\\"offer a serious chance for space women\\\" as scientist astronauts. NASA had no official policy prohibiting women, but the requirement that astronauts had to be test pilots effectively excluded them.NASA dropped this requirement in 1965,but did not select any women as astronauts until 1978, when six women were selected, none as pilots.In June 1963, the Soviet Union launched a female cosmonaut,Valentina Tereshkova, into orbit. After Tereshkova, no women of any nationality flew in space again until August 1982, when the Soviet Union launched pilot-cosmonautSvetlana Savitskaya.During the late 1970s, Glenn reportedly supportedSpace ShuttleMission SpecialistJudith Resnikin her career. Political campaigning 1964 Senate campaign At 42, Glenn was the oldest member of the astronaut corps and would likely be close to 50 by the time the lunar landings took place. During Glenn's training, NASA psychologists determined that he was the astronaut best suited for public life.Attorney GeneralRobert F. Kennedysuggested to Glenn and his wife in December 1962 that he run for the1964 United States Senate election in Ohio, challenging aging incumbentStephen M. Young(1889–1984) in the Democratic primary election. As it seemed unlikely that he would be selected forProject Apollomissions,he resigned from NASA on January 16, 1964, and announced hisDemocratic Partycandidacy for theU.S. Senatefrom his home state of Ohio the following day,becoming the firstastronaut-politician.Glenn was still a Marine and had plenty of unused leave time. He elected to use it while he waited for his retirement papers to go through. To avoid partisanship, NASA quickly closed Glenn's agency office.The New York Timesreported that while many Ohioans were skeptical of Glenn's qualifications for the Senate, he could defeat Young in the Democratic primary; whether he could defeat RepresentativeRobert Taft Jr., the likely Republican candidate, in the general election was much less clear.In late February he was hospitalized for aconcussionsustained in a fall against a bathtub while attempting to fix a mirror in a hotel room;an inner-ear injury from the accident left him unable to campaign.Both his wife and Scott Carpenter campaigned on his behalf during February and March, but doctors gave Glenn a recovery time of one year. Glenn did not want to win solely because of his astronaut fame, so he dropped out of the race on March 30. Glenn was still on leave from the Marine Corps, and he withdrew his papers to retire so he could keep a salary and health benefits.Glenn was on the list of potential candidates to be promoted to full colonel, but he notified theCommandant of the Marine Corpsof his intention to retire so another Marine could receive the promotion. President Johnson later decided to promote Glenn to full colonel status without taking someone else's slot. He retired as acolonelon January 1, 1965. Glenn was approached byRC Colato join their public relations department, but Glenn declined it because he wanted to be involved with a business and not just the face of it. The company revised their offer and offered Glenn a vice president of corporate development position, as well as a place on the board of directors.The company later expanded Glenn's role, promoting him to president of Royal Crown International.A Senate seat was open in 1968, and Glenn was asked about his current political aspirations. He said he had no current plan, and \\\"Let's talk about it one of these days.\\\" Glenn also said that a 1970 Senate run was a possibility. In 1973, he and a friend bought aHoliday InnnearDisney World.The success of Disney World expanded to their business, and the pair built three more hotels.One of Glenn's business partners wasHenri Landwirth, aHolocaustsurvivor who became his best friend.He remembered learning about Landwirth's background: \\\"Henri doesn't talk about it much. It was years before he spoke about it with me and then only because of an accident. We were down in Florida during the space program. Everyone was wearing short-sleeved Ban-Lon shirts—everyone but Henri. Then one day I saw Henri at the pool and noticed thenumber on his arm. I told Henri that if it were me I'd wear that number like a medal with a spotlight on it.\\\" 1970 Senate campaign Glenn remained close to the Kennedy family, and campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy during his1968 presidential campaign.In 1968, Glenn was in Kennedy's hotel suite when Kennedy heard he had won California. Glenn was supposed to go with him to celebrate but decided not to as there would be many people there. Kennedy went downstairs to make his victory speech andwas assassinated. Glenn and Annie went with Kennedy to the hospital, and the next morning took Kennedy's children home to Virginia.Glenn was later a pallbearer at the funeral in New York. In 1970, Young did not seek reelection and the seat was open. BusinessmanHoward Metzenbaum, Young's former campaign manager, was backed by theOhio Democratic partyand major labor unions, which provided him a significant funding advantage over Glenn. Glenn's camp persuaded him to be thrifty during the primary so he could save money for the general election. By the end of the primary campaign, Metzenbaum was spending four times as much as Glenn.Glenn was defeated in the Democratic primary by Metzenbaum (who received 51 percent of the vote to Glenn's 49 percent). Some prominent Democrats said Glenn was a \\\"hapless political rube\\\", and one newspaper called him \\\"the ultimate square\\\". Metzenbaum lost the general election to Robert Taft Jr.Glenn remained active in the political scene following his defeat. GovernorJohn J. Gilliganappointed Glenn to be the chairman of the Citizens Task Force on Environmental Protection in 1970. The task force was created to survey environmental problems in the state and released a report in 1971 detailing the issues. The meetings and the final report of the task force were major contributors to the formation of Ohio'sEnvironmental Protection Agency. 1974 Senate campaign In 1973, President Nixon orderedAttorney GeneralElliot Richardsonto fireWatergatespecial prosecutorArchibald Cox. Richardson refused and resigned in protest, triggering theSaturday Night massacre. Ohio SenatorWilliam Saxbe, elected in 1968, was appointed attorney general. Both Glenn and Metzenbaum sought the vacated seat, which was to be filled by Governor John Gilligan. Gilligan was planning on a presidential or vice-presidential run in the near future, and offered Glenn thelieutenant governorposition, with the thought that Glenn would ascend to governor when Gilligan was elected to a higher position. The Ohio Democratic party backed this solution to avoid what was expected to be a divisive primary battle between Metzenbaum and Glenn. He declined, denouncing their attempts as \\\"bossism\\\" and \\\"blackmail\\\".Glenn's counteroffer suggested that Gilligan fill the position with someone other than Metzenbaum or Glenn so neither would have an advantage going into the 1974 election. Metzenbaum's campaign agreed to back Gilligan in his governor re-election campaign, and Metzenbaum was subsequently appointed in January 1974 to the vacated seat.At the end of Saxbe's term, Glenn challenged Metzenbaum in the primary for the Ohio Senate seat. Glenn's campaign changed their strategy after the 1970 election. In 1970, Glenn won most of the counties in Ohio but lost in those with larger populations. The campaign changed its focus, and worked primarily in the large counties.In the primary, Metzenbaum contrasted his strong business background with Glenn's military and astronaut credentials and said that his opponent had \\\"never held a payroll\\\". Glenn's reply became known as the \\\"Gold Star Mothers\\\" speech. He told Metzenbaum to go to a veterans' hospital and \\\"look those men with mangled bodies in the eyes and tell them they didn't hold a job. You go with me to any Gold Star mother and you look her in the eye and tell her that her son did not hold a job\\\".He defeated Metzenbaum 54 to 46 percent before defeatingRalph Perk(the RepublicanmayorofCleveland) in the general election, beginning a Senate career which would continue until 1999. 1976 vice presidential consideration AfterJimmy Carterbecame the presumptive Democratic nominee for president in the1976 election, Glenn was reported to bein considerationto be Carter's running mate because he was a senator in a pivotal state and for his fame and straightforwardness.Some thought he was too much like Carter, partially because they both had military backgrounds, and he did not have enough experience to become president.Barbara Jordanwas the first keynote speaker at the Democratic National Convention. Her speech electrified the crowd and was filled with applause and standing ovations. Glenn's keynote address immediately followed Jordan's, and he failed to impress the delegates. Walter Cronkite described it as \\\"dull\\\", and other delegates complained that he was hard to hear.Carter called Glenn to inform him the nomination was going to another candidate and later nominated the veteran politicianWalter Mondale. It was also reported that Carter's wife thought Annie Glenn, who had a stutter, would hurt the campaign. 1980 Senate campaign In his first reelection campaign, Glenn ran opposed in the primary for the 1980 Senate election. His opponents, engineer Francis Hunstiger and ex-teacher Frances Waterman, were not well-known and poorly funded.His opponents spent only a few thousand dollars on the campaign, while Glenn spent $700,000.Reporters noted that for a race he was likely to win, Glenn was spending a lot of time and money on the campaign. His chief strategist responded to the remarks saying, \\\"It's the way he does things. He takes nothing for granted.\\\"Glenn won the primary by a landslide, with 934,230 of the 1.09 million votes. Jim Betts, who ran unopposed in the Republican primary, challenged Glenn for his seat. Betts publicly stated that Glenn's policies were part of the reason for inflation increases and a lower standard of living.Betts' campaign also attacked Glenn's voting record, saying that he often voted for spending increases. Glenn's campaign's response was that he has been a part of over 3,000 roll calls and \\\"any one of them could be taken out of context\\\".Glenn was projected to win the race easily,and won by the largest margin ever for an Ohio Senator, defeating Betts by over 40 percent. 1984 presidential campaign Glenn was unhappy with how divided the country was, and thought labels like conservative and liberal increased the divide. He considered himself a centrist. Glenn thought a more centrist president would help unite the country. Glenn believed his experience as a senator from Ohio was ideal because of the state's diversity.Glenn thought thatTed Kennedycould win the election, but after Kennedy's announcement in late 1982 that he would not seek the presidency, Glenn thought he had a much better chance of winning. He hired a media consultant to help him with his speaking style. Glenn announced hiscandidacy for presidenton April 21, 1983, in theJohn Glenn High Schoolgymnasium.He started out the campaign out-raising the front-runner, Mondale. He also polled the highest of any Democrat against Reagan.During the fall of 1983,The Right Stuff, a film about the Mercury Seven astronauts, was released. Reviewers sawEd Harris' portrayal of Glenn as heroic and his staff began to publicize the film to the press.One reviewer said that \\\"Harris' depiction helped transform Glenn from a history-book figure into a likable, thoroughly adoration-worthy Hollywood hero,\\\" turning him into a big-screen icon.Others considered the movie to be damaging to Glenn's campaign, serving as only a reminder that Glenn's most significant achievement had occurred decades earlier.Glenn's autobiography said the film \\\"had a chilling effect on the campaign.\\\" William White managed Glenn's campaign until his replacement by Jerry Vento on January 26, 1984.Glenn's campaign decided to forgo the traditional campaigning in early caucuses and primaries and focus on building campaign offices nationwide. He opened offices in 43 states by January 1984. Glenn's campaign spent a significant amount of money on television advertising in Iowa, and Glenn chose not to attend an Iowan debate on farm issues. He finished fifth in the Iowa caucus and went on to lose New Hampshire. Glenn's campaign continued intoSuper Tuesday, and he lost there as well. He announced his withdrawal from the race on March 16, 1984.After Mondale defeated him for the nomination, Glenn carried $3 million in campaign debt for over 20 years before receiving a reprieve from theFederal Election Commission. 1986 Senate campaign Glenn's Senate seat was challenged byThomas Kindness. Kindness was unopposed in his primary, while Glenn facedLyndon LaRouchesupporter Don Scott. LaRouche supporters had been recently elected in Illinois, but the Ohio Democratic Party chairman did not think it was likely they would see the same success in Ohio.LaRouche was known for his fringe theories, such as the queen of England being a drug dealer.Kindness spoke to his supporters and warned them against LaRouche candidates. He issued a statement telling voters to reject LaRouche candidates in both Republican and Democratic primaries.Glenn won the primary contest with 88% of the vote. With the primary complete, Glenn began his campaign against Kindness. Glenn believed he and other Democrats were the targets of a negative campaign thought up by the GOP strategists in Washington. Kindness focused on Glenn's campaign debts for his failed presidential run and the fact he stopped payments on it while campaigning for the Senate seat.After winning the race with 62% of the vote, Glenn remarked, \\\"We proved that in 1986, they couldn't kill Glenn with Kindness.\\\" 1992 Senate campaign In 1992, RepublicanMike DeWinewon the Republican primary and challenged Glenn in the Senate election. Glenn ran unopposed in the primary.DeWine's campaign focused on the need for change and for term limits for senators. This would be Glenn's fourth term as senator.DeWine also criticized Glenn's campaign debts, using a bunny dressed as an astronaut beating a drum, with an announcer saying, \\\"He just keeps owing and owing and owing\\\", a play on theEnergizer Bunny.During a debate, Glenn asked DeWine to stop his negative campaign ads, saying \\\"This has been the most negative campaign\\\". DeWine responded that he would if Glenn would disclose how he spent the money he received fromCharles Keating, fallout from Glenn being named one of theKeating Five.Glenn won the Senate seat, with 2.4 million votes to DeWine's 2 million votes.It was DeWine's first-ever campaign loss. DeWine later worked on the intelligence committee with Glenn and watched his second launch into space. Senate career Committee on Governmental Affairs Glenn requested to be assigned to two committees during his first year as senator: theGovernment Operations Committee(later known as the Committee on Governmental Affairs), and theForeign Relations Committee. He was immediately assigned to the Government Operations Committee and waited for a seat on the Foreign Relations Committee.In 1977, Glenn wanted to chair the Energy, Nuclear Proliferation, and Federal Services Subcommittee of the Governmental Affairs Committee.Abraham Ribicoff, chair of the Governmental Affairs Committee, said he could chair the subcommittee if he also chaired the less popular Federal Services Subcommittee, which was in charge of theU.S. Postal Service. Previous chairs of the Federal Services Subcommittee had lost elections in part because of negative campaigns associated with the poorly regarded mail service to the chairmen, but Glenn accepted the offer and became the chair of both subcommittees.One of his goals as a new senator was developing environmental policies.Glenn introduced bills on energy policy to try to counter theenergy crisis in the 70s. Glenn also introduced legislation promoting nuclear non-proliferation and was the chief author of theNuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978,the first of six major pieces of legislation that he produced on the subject. Glenn chaired the Committee on Governmental Affairs from 1987 to 1995.It was in this role that he discovered safety and environmental problems with the nation's nuclear weapons facilities. Glenn was made aware of the problem at theFernald Feed Materials Production Centernear Cincinnati and soon found that it affected sites across the nation. Glenn requested investigations from the General Accounting Office of Congress and held several hearings on the issue. He also released a report on the potential costs of hazardous waste cleanup at former nuclear weapons manufacturing facilities, known as the Glenn Report.He spent the remainder of his Senate career acquiring funding to clean up thenuclear wasteleft at the facilities. Glenn also focused on reducing government waste. He created legislation to mandate CFOs for large governmental agencies.Glenn wrote a bill to add the office of the inspector general to federal agencies, to help find waste and fraud. He also created legislation intended to prevent the federal government from imposing regulations on local governments without funding. Glenn founded the Great Lakes Task Force, which helped protect the environment of theGreat Lakes. In 1995 Glenn became the ranking minority member of the Committee on Governmental Affairs. Glenn disputed the focus onillegal Chinese donationsto the Democrats and asserted that Republicans also had egregious fundraising issues. The committee chair,Fred ThompsonofTennessee, disagreed and continued the investigation.Thompson and Glenn continued to work together poorly for the duration of the investigation. Thompson would give Glenn only information he was legally required to. Glenn would not authorize a larger budget and tried to expand the scope of the investigation to include members of the GOP.The investigation concluded with a Republican-written report, which Thompson described as, \\\"... a lot of things strung together that paint a real ugly picture.\\\" The Democrats, led by Glenn, said the report \\\"... does not support the conclusion that the China plan was aimed at, or affected, the 1996 presidential election.\\\" Glenn was the vice chairman of thePermanent Subcommittee on Investigations, a subcommittee of the Committee on Governmental Affairs.When the Republican Party regained control of the Senate in 1996, Glenn became the ranking minority member on the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations until he was succeeded byCarl Levin. During this time, the committee investigated issues such asfraud on the Internet,mortgage fraud, andday trading of securities. Other committees and activities Glenn's father spent his retirement money battling cancer and would have lost his house if Glenn had not intervened. His father-in-law also had expensive treatments for Parkinson's disease. These health and financial issues motivated him to request a seat on theSpecial Committee on Aging. Glenn was considered an expert in matters of science and technology. He was a supporter of continuing theB-1 bomberprogram, which he considered successful. This conflicted with President Carter's desire to fund theB-2 bomberprogram. Glenn did not fully support development of the B-2 because he had doubts about the feasibility of thestealth technology. He drafted a proposal to slow down the development of the B-2, which could have potentially saved money, but the measure was rejected. Glenn joined theForeign Relations Committeein 1978. He became the chairman of the East Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommittee, for which he traveled to Japan, Korea, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China. Glenn helped to pass theTaiwan Enabling Actof 1979. The same year, Glenn's stance on theSALT II treatycaused another dispute with President Carter. Given the loss of radar listening posts in Iran, Glenn did not believe that the U.S. had the capability to monitor the Soviet Union accurately enough to verify compliance with the treaty.During the launching ceremony for theUSSOhio, he spoke about his doubts about verifying treaty compliance. First LadyRosalynn Carteralso spoke at the event, during which she criticized Glenn for speaking publicly about the issue. The Senate never ratified the treaty, in part because of theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan.Glenn served on the committee until 1985, when he traded it for theArmed Services Committee. Glenn became chairman of theManpower Subcommitteeof the Armed Services Committee in 1987.He introduced legislation such as increasing pay and benefits for American troops in the Persian Gulf during theGulf War.He served as chairman until 1993, becoming chairman of the Armed Services Subcommittee onMilitary Readiness and Defense Infrastructure. Keating Five Glenn was one of theKeating Five—the U.S. Senators involved with thesavings and loan crisis—after he accepted a $200,000 campaign contribution fromLincoln Savings and Loan Associationhead Charles Keating. During the crisis, the senators were accused of delaying the seizure of Keating's S&L, which cost taxpayers an additional $2 billion. The combination of perceived political pressure and Keating's monetary contributions to the senators led to an investigation. The Ethics Committee's outside counsel, Robert Bennett, wanted to eliminate Republican senatorJohn McCainand Glenn from the investigation. The Democrats did not want to exclude McCain, as he was the only Republican being investigated, which means they could not excuse Glenn from the investigation either.McCain and Glenn were reprimanded the least of the five, as the Senate commission found that they had exercised \\\"poor judgment\\\".The GOP focused on Glenn's \\\"poor judgment\\\" rather than what Glenn saw as complete exoneration. GOP chairmanRobert Bennettsaid, \\\"John Glenn misjudged Charles Keating. He also misjudged the tolerance of Ohio's taxpayers, who are left to foot the bill of nearly $2 billion.\\\"After the Senate's report, Glenn said, \\\"They so firmly put this thing to bed ... there isn't much there to fuss with. I didn't do anything wrong.\\\"In his autobiography, Glenn wrote, \\\"outside of people close to me dying, these hearings were the low point of my life.\\\" The case cost him $520,000 in legal fees.The association of his name with the scandal made Republicans hopeful that he could be defeated in the 1992 campaign, but Glenn defeated Lieutenant Governor Mike DeWine to retain his seat. Retirement On February 20, 1997, which was the 35th anniversary of his Friendship 7 flight, Glenn announced that his retirement from the Senate would occur at the end of his term in January 1999.Glenn retired because of his age, noting that he would have been 83 at the end of another term and quipping that \\\"... there is still no cure for the common birthday\\\". Return to space After theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisasterin 1986, Glenn criticized putting a \\\"lay person in space for the purpose of gaining public support ... while the shuttle is still in its embryonic stage\\\". He supported flying research scientists.In 1995, Glenn readSpace Physiology and Medicine, a book written by NASA doctors. He realized that many changes that occur to physical attributes during space flight, such as loss of bone and muscle mass and blood plasma,are the same as changes that result from aging. Glenn thought NASA should send an older person on a shuttle mission, and that it should be him. Starting in 1995, he began lobbying NASA director Dan Goldin for the mission.Goldin said he would consider it if there was a scientific reason, and if Glenn could pass the same physical examination the younger astronauts took. Glenn performed research on the subject and passed the physical examination. On January 16, 1998, NASA Administrator Dan Goldin announced that Glenn would be part of the STS-95 crew;this made him, at age 77, the oldest person to fly in space at that time. NASA and the National Institute of Aging (NIA) planned to use Glenn as a test subject for research, withbiometricstaken before, during, and after his flight. Some experiments (incircadian rhythms, for example) compared him with the younger crew members. In addition to these tests, he was in charge of the flight's photography and videography. Glenn returned to space on the Space Shuttle on October 29, 1998, as apayload specialistonSpace ShuttleDiscovery.Shortly before the flight, researchers disqualified Glenn from one of the flight's two major human experiments (on the effect ofmelatonin) for undisclosed medical reasons; he participated in experiments on sleep monitoring and protein use.On November 6, PresidentBill Clintonsent a congratulatory email to Glenn aboard theDiscovery. This is often cited as the first email sent by a sitting U.S. president, but records exist of emails being sent by President Clinton several years earlier. His participation in the nine-day mission was criticized by some members of the space community as a favor granted by Clinton; John Pike, director of theFederation of American Scientists' space-policy project, said: \\\"If he was a normal person, he would acknowledge he's a great American hero and that he should get to fly on the shuttle for free ... He's too modest for that, and so he's got to have this medical research reason. It's got nothing to do with medicine\\\". In a 2012 interview, Glenn said he regretted that NASA did not continue its research on aging by sending additional elderly people into space.After STS-95 returned safely, its crew received a ticker-tape parade. On October 15, 1998,NASA Road 1(the main route to the Johnson Space Center) was temporarily renamed John Glenn Parkway for several months.Glenn was awarded theNASA Space Flight Medalin 1998 for flying on STS-95.In 2001, Glenn opposed sendingDennis Tito, the world's firstspace tourist, to theInternational Space Stationbecause Tito's trip had no scientific purpose. Personal life Glenn and Annie had two children—John David and Carolyn Ann—and two grandchildren,and remained married for 73 years until his death. AFreemason, Glenn was a member of Concord Lodge No. 688 in New Concord, Ohio.He received all hisdegreesin full in aMason at Sightceremony from theGrand Masterof Ohio in 1978, 14 years after petitioning his lodge. In 1999, Glenn became a 33rd-degreeScottish RiteMason in the Valley of Cincinnati (NMJ).As an adult, he was honored as part of the DeMolay Legion of Honor byDeMolay International, a Masonic youth organization for boys. Glenn was an ordained elder of thePresbyterian Church.His religious faith began before he became an astronaut and was reinforced after he traveled in space. \\\"To look out at this kind of creation and not believe in God is to me impossible\\\", said Glenn after his second (and final) space voyage.He saw no contradiction between belief in God and the knowledge that evolution is \\\"a fact\\\" and believed evolution should be taught in schools:\\\"I don't see that I'm any less religious that I can appreciate the fact that science just records that we change with evolution and time, and that's a fact. It doesn't mean it's less wondrous and it doesn't mean that there can't be some power greater than any of us that has been behind and is behind whatever is going on.\\\" Public appearances Glenn was an honorary member of theInternational Academy of Astronauticsand a member of theSociety of Experimental Test Pilots, Marine Corps Aviation Association,Order of Daedalians, National Space Club board of trustees, National Space Society board of governors, International Association of Holiday Inns,Ohio Democratic Party, State Democratic Executive Committee, Franklin County (Ohio) Democratic Party and the 10th District (Ohio) Democratic Action Club. In 2001 he guest-starred as himself on the American television sitcomFrasier. On September 5, 2009, John and Annie Glenn dotted the \\\"i\\\" in Ohio State University'sScript Ohiomarching bandperformance during theOhio State–Navyfootball-game halftime show, which is normally reserved for veteran band members.To commemorate the 50th anniversary of theFriendship 7flight on February 20, 2012, he had an unexpected opportunity to speak with theorbiting crewof the International Space Station when he was onstage withNASA AdministratorCharlie Boldenat Ohio State University.On April 19, 2012, Glenn participated in the ceremonial transfer of the retired Space ShuttleDiscoveryfrom NASA to theSmithsonian Institutionfor permanent display at theSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. He used the occasion to criticize the \\\"unfortunate\\\" decision to end theSpace Shuttle program, saying that grounding the shuttles delayed research. Illness and death Glenn was in good health for most of his life. He retained a private pilot's license until 2011 when he was 90.In June 2014, Glenn underwent successfulheart valve replacementsurgery at theCleveland Clinic.In early December 2016, he was hospitalized atthe James Cancer HospitalofOhio State University Wexner Medical Centerin Columbus.According to a family source, Glenn had been in declining health, and his condition was grave; his wife and their children and grandchildren were at the hospital. Glenn died on December 8, 2016, at the OSU Wexner Medical Center; he was 95 years old.No cause of death was disclosed. After his death, his body lay in state at theOhio Statehouse. There was a memorial service at Mershon Auditorium at Ohio State University.Another memorial service was performed at Kennedy Space Center near the Heroes and Legends building.His body was interred atArlington National Cemeteryon April 6, 2017.At the time of his death, Glenn was the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven. TheMilitary Timesreported that William Zwicharowski, a senior mortuary official atDover Air Force Base, had offered to let visiting inspectors view Glenn's remains, sparking an official investigation.Zwicharowski has denied the remains were disrespected.At the conclusion of the investigation, officials said the remains were not disrespected as inspectors did not accept Zwicharowski's offer, and that Zwicharowski's actions were improper. No administrative action was taken as he had retired. PresidentBarack Obamasaid that Glenn, \\\"the first American to orbit the Earth, reminded us that with courage and a spirit of discovery there's no limit to the heights we can reach together\\\".Tributes were also paid by Vice PresidentJoe Biden,President-electDonald Trumpand former Secretary of StateHillary Clinton. The phrase \\\"Godspeed, John Glenn\\\", which fellow Mercury astronaut Scott Carpenter had used to hail Glenn's launch into space, became a social-mediahashtag: #GodspeedJohnGlenn. Former and current astronauts added tributes; so did NASA Administrator and former shuttle astronaut Charles Bolden, who wrote: \\\"John Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching.\\\"President Obama ordered flags to be flown athalf-staffuntil Glenn's burial.On April 5, 2017, President Donald Trump issuedpresidential proclamation9588, titled \\\"Honoring the Memory of John Glenn\\\". Awards and honors Glenn was awarded theJohn J. Montgomery Awardin 1963.Glenn received theNational Geographic Society'sHubbard Medalin 1962.Glenn, along with 37 other space race astronauts, received the Ambassador of Space Exploration Award in 2006.He was also awarded the GeneralThomas D. WhiteNational Defense Awardand thePrince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation.In 1964, Glenn received the Golden Plate Award of theAmerican Academy of Achievement.In 2004, he received theWoodrow Wilson Award for Public Servicefrom the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institutionand was awarded theNational Collegiate Athletic Association'sTheodore Roosevelt Awardfor 2008. Glenn earned theNavy's astronaut wingsand the Marine Corps' Astronaut Medal.He was awarded theCongressional Gold Medalin 2011 and was among the first group of astronauts to be granted the distinction.In 2012, President Barack Obama presented Glenn with thePresidential Medal of Freedom. Glenn was the seventh astronaut to receive this distinction. The Congressional Gold Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom are considered the two most prestigious awards that can be bestowed on a civilian.The Society of Experimental Test Pilots awarded Glenn theIven C. Kincheloeaward in 1963,and he was inducted into theInternational Air & Space Hall of Famein 1968,National Aviation Hall of Famein 1976,theInternational Space Hall of Famein 1977,and the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990.In 2000, he received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for public service by an elected or appointed official, one of the annualJefferson Awards. In 1961, Glenn received anhonoraryLL.Dfrom Muskingum University, the college he attended before joining the military in World War II.He also received honorary doctorates fromNihon Universityin Tokyo;Wagner Collegein Staten Island, New York;Ohio Northern University;Williams College;andBrown University.In 1998, he helped found the John Glenn Institute for Public Service and Public Policy atOhio State Universityto encourage public service. The institute merged with OSU's School of Public Policy and Management to become the John Glenn School of Public Affairs. He held anadjunct professorshipat the school.In February 2015, it was announced that it would become theJohn Glenn College of Public Affairsin April. TheGlenn Research Centerat Lewis Field in Cleveland is named after him, and the Senator John Glenn Highway runs along a stretch ofI-480in Ohio across from the Glenn Research Center.Colonel Glenn Highway (which passes Wright-Patterson Air Force Base andWright State UniversitynearDayton, Ohio), John Glenn High School in his hometown of New Concord,Elwood-John H. Glenn High Schoolin the hamlet ofElwood,Town of Huntington,Long Island, New York, and the former Col. John Glenn Elementary inSeven Hills, Ohio, were also named for him.Colonel Glenn Road inLittle Rock, Arkansas, was named for him in 1962.High schools inWestlandandBay City, Michigan;Walkerton, Indiana;andNorwalk, Californiabear Glenn's name.The fireboatJohn H. Glenn Jr., operated by theDistrict of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Departmentand protecting sections of thePotomacandAnacostia Riverswhich run through Washington, D.C., was named for him, as wasUSNSJohn Glenn(T-MLP-2), amobile landing platformdelivered to the U.S. Navy on March 12, 2014.In June 2016, the Port Columbus International Airport in Columbus, Ohio, was renamedJohn Glenn Columbus International Airport. Glenn and his family attended the ceremony, during which he spoke about how visiting the airport as a child had kindled his interest in flying.On September 12, 2016,Blue Originannounced theNew Glenn, a rocket.Orbital ATKnamed theCygnusspace capsule used in the NASACRS OA-7mission to the international space station \\\"S.S.John Glenn\\\" in his honor. The mission successfully lifted off on April 16, 2017. Although never a Scout himself, Glenn heavily endorsed theBoy Scouts. His son, John David, attained the coveted rank ofEagle Scoutthat many of Glenn's aviator peers also achieved. Legacy Glenn's public life and legacy began when he received his firstticker-tape paradefor breaking the transcontinental airspeed record.As a senator, he used his military background to write legislation to reduce nuclear proliferation. He also focused on reducing government waste.Buzz Aldrinwrote that Glenn'sFriendship 7flight \\\"... helped to galvanize the country's will and resolution to surmount significant technical challenges of human spaceflight.\\\" President Barack Obama said, \\\"With John's passing, our nation has lost an icon andMichelleand I have lost a friend. John spent his life breaking barriers, from defending our freedom as a decorated Marine Corps fighter pilot in World War II and Korea, to setting a transcontinental speed record, to becoming, at age 77, the oldest human to touch the stars.\\\"Obama issued a presidential proclamation on December 9, 2016, ordering the US flag to be flown at half-staff in Glenn's memory.NASA administratorCharles Boldensaid: \\\"Senator Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching\\\". References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Moon landing Clickable map of the locations of all successfulsoft landingson theMoonto date (top) AMoon landingorlunar landingis the arrival of aspacecrafton the surface of theMoon, including both crewed and robotic missions. The first human-made object to touch the Moon wasLuna 2in 1959. In 1969Apollo 11was the first crewed mission to land on the Moon.There weresix crewed landingsbetween 1969 and 1972, and numerous uncrewed landings. All crewed missions to the Moon were conducted by theApollo program, with the last departing the lunar surface in December 1972. AfterLuna 24in 1976 there were nosoft landingson the Moon untilChang'e 3in 2013. All soft landings took place on thenear side of the Moonuntil January 2019, whenChang'e 4made the first landing on thefar side of the Moon. Uncrewed landings Government landings Six government space agencies,Interkosmos,NASA,CNSA,ISRO,JAXAandESA, have reached the Moon with uncrewed missions. Three private/commercial missions,Beresheet(hard landing),Hakuto-R(hard landing),","landing), andOdysseus(soft landing) have also reached the lunar surface (see#Commercial landings). The Soviet Union (Interkosmos), the United States (NASA), China (CNSA), India (ISRO),and Japan (JAXA)are the only five nations to have successfully achieved soft landings. The Soviet Union performed the first hard Moon landing – \"hard\" meaning the spacecraft intentionally crashes into the Moon at high speeds – with theLuna 2spacecraft in 1959, a feat the U.S. duplicated in 1962 withRanger 4. Following their initial hard landings on the Moon, sixteen Soviet, U.S., Chinese and Indian spacecraft have used braking rockets (retrorockets) to makesoft landingsand perform scientific operations on the lunar surface. In 1966 the Soviet Union accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the lunar surface during theLuna 9andLuna 13missions. The U.S. followed with fiveSurveyorsoft landings. China's ongoing\"Chang'e\" programhas landed 4 times since 2013, achieving robotic soil sample return and the","return and the first landing on the far side of the Moon. On 23 August 2023, ISRO successfully landed itsChandrayaan-3module in thelunar south poleregion, making India the fourth nation to successfully complete a soft landing on the Moon.Chandrayaan-3 saw a successful soft landing of itsVikramlanderandPragyanroverat 6.04 pm IST (1234 GMT), marking the first uncrewed soft landing in the little-explored region. On 19 January 2024, JAXA successfully landed itsSLIM lander, making Japan the fifth nation to successfully complete a soft landing. Commercial landings Two organizations have attempted but failed to achieve soft landings: Israeli private space agencySpaceILwith theirBeresheetspacecraft (2019), and Japanese companyispace'sHakuto-R Mission 1(2023). On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseussuccessfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing","Moon landing in over 50 years. This event marked the first successful landing of aprivately owned spacecrafton the Moon. Crewed landings A total of twelveastronautshave landed on the Moon. This was accomplished with two pilot-astronauts flying aLunar Moduleon each of sixNASAmissions. The missions spanned a 41-month period starting 20 July 1969, beginning withNeil ArmstrongandBuzz AldrinonApollo 11, and ending on 14 December 1972 withGene CernanandHarrison SchmittonApollo 17. Cernan was the last man to step off the lunar surface. All Apollo lunar missions had a third crew member who remained on board thecommand module. Scientific background To get to the Moon, a spacecraft must first leave Earth'sgravity well; currently, the only practical means is arocket. Unlike airborne vehicles such asballoonsandjets, a rocket can continueacceleratingin thevacuumoutside theatmosphere. Upon approach of the target moon, a spacecraft will be drawn ever closer to its surface at increasing speeds due to gravity. In order to","In order to land intact it must decelerate to less than about 160 kilometres per hour (100 mph) and be ruggedized to withstand a \"hard landing\" impact, or it must decelerate to negligible speed at contact for a \"soft landing\" (the only option for humans). The first three attempts by the U.S. to perform a successful hard Moon landing with a ruggedizedseismometerpackage in 1962 all failed.The Soviets first achieved the milestone of a hard lunar landing with a ruggedized camera in 1966, followed only months later by the first uncrewed soft lunar landing by the U.S. The speed of a crash landing on its surface is typically between 70 and 100% of theescape velocityof the target moon, and thus this is the total velocity which must be shed from the target moon's gravitational attraction for a soft landing to occur. For Earth's Moon, the escape velocity is 2.38 kilometres per second (1.48 mi/s).The change in velocity (referred to as adelta-v) is usually provided by a landing rocket, which must be carried into space","carried into space by the originallaunch vehicleas part of the overall spacecraft. An exception is the soft moon landing onTitancarried out by theHuygensprobein 2005. As the moon with the thickest atmosphere, landings on Titan may be accomplished by usingatmospheric entrytechniques that are generally lighter in weight than a rocket with equivalent capability. The Soviets succeeded in making the first crash landing on the Moon in 1959.Crash landingsmay occur because of malfunctions in a spacecraft, or they can be deliberately arranged for vehicles which do not have an onboard landing rocket. There have beenmany such Moon crashes, often with their flight path controlled to impact at precise locations on the lunar surface. For example, during the Apollo program theS-IVBthird stage of theSaturn Vrocket as well as the spent ascent stage of theLunar Modulewere deliberately crashed on the Moon several times to provide impacts registering as amoonquakeonseismometersthat had been left on the lunar surface. Such","lunar surface. Such crashes were instrumental in mapping theinternal structure of the Moon. To return to Earth, the escape velocity of the Moon must be overcome for the spacecraft to escape thegravity wellof the Moon. Rockets must be used to leave the Moon and return to space. Upon reaching Earth, atmospheric entry techniques are used to absorb thekinetic energyof a returning spacecraft and reduce its speed for safe landing. These functions greatly complicate a moon landing mission and lead to many additional operational considerations. Any moon departure rocket must first be carried to the Moon's surface by a moon landing rocket, increasing the latter's required size. The Moon departure rocket, larger moon landing rocket and any Earth atmosphere entry equipment such as heat shields andparachutesmust in turn be lifted by the original launch vehicle, greatly increasing its size by a significant and almost prohibitive degree. Political background The political context of the 1960s helps to parse both the","to parse both the United States and Soviet Union's efforts to land spacecraft, and eventually humans, on the Moon.World War IIhad introduced many new and deadly innovations includingblitzkrieg-style surprise attacks used in theinvasion of PolandandFinland, as well as in theattack on Pearl Harbor; theV-2 rocket, aballistic missilewhich killed thousands in attacks on London andAntwerp; and theatom bomb, which killed hundreds of thousands in theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the 1950s, tensions mounted between the two ideologically opposed superpowers of the United States and theSoviet Unionthat had emerged as victors in the conflict, particularly after the development by both countries of thehydrogen bomb. On 4 October 1957, the Soviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1as the firstartificial satelliteto orbit the Earth and so initiated theSpace Race. This unexpected event was a source of pride to the Soviets and shock to the U.S., who could now potentially be surprise attacked by nuclear-tipped Soviet","Soviet rockets in under 30 minutes.The craft was also barely visible to the naked eye as the steady beeping of theradio beaconaboardSputnik 1as it passed overhead every 96 minutes, which was widely viewed on both sidesas effective propaganda toThird Worldcountries demonstrating the technological superiority of the Sovietpolitical systemcompared to that of the U.S. This perception was reinforced by a string of subsequent rapid-fire Soviet space achievements. In 1959, the R-7 rocket was used to launch the first escape from Earth's gravity into asolar orbit, the first crash impact onto the surface of the Moon, and the first photography of the never-before-seenfar side of the Moon. These were theLuna 1,Luna 2, andLuna 3spacecraft. The U.S. response to these Soviet achievements was to greatly accelerate previously existing military space and missile projects and to create a civilian space agency,NASA. Military efforts were initiated to develop and produce mass quantities of intercontinental ballistic missiles","ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that would bridge the so-calledmissile gapand enable a policy ofdeterrencetonuclear warwith the Soviets known asmutual assured destructionor MAD. These newly developedmissileswere made available to civilians of NASA for various projects (which would have the added benefit of demonstrating the payload, guidance accuracy and reliabilities of U.S. ICBMs to the Soviets). Early Soviet uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965) After thefall of the Soviet Unionin 1991, historical records were released to allow the true accounting of Soviet lunar efforts. Unlike the U.S. tradition of assigning a particular mission name in advance of a launch, the Soviets assigned a public \"Luna\" mission number only if a launch resulted in a spacecraft going beyond Earth orbit. The policy had the effect of hiding Soviet Moon mission failures from public view. If the attempt failed in Earth orbit before departing for the Moon, it was frequently (but not always) given a \"Sputnik\" or \"Cosmos\" Earth-orbit mission","Earth-orbit mission number to hide its purpose. Launch explosions were not acknowledged at all. Early U.S. uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965) The U.S. was not able to reach the Moon with thePioneerandRanger programs, with fifteen consecutive U.S. uncrewed lunar missions from 1958 to 1964 failing their primary photographic missions.However, Rangers 4 and 6 successfully repeated the Soviet lunar impacts as part of their secondary missions. Three U.S. missionsin 1962 attempted to hard land small seismometer packages released by the main Ranger spacecraft. These surface packages were to useretrorocketsto survive landing, unlike the parent vehicle, which was designed to deliberately crash onto the surface. The final three Ranger probes performed successful high altitude lunarreconnaissancephotography missions during intentional crash impacts between 2.62 and 2.68 kilometres per second (9,400 and 9,600 km/h). Pioneer missions Three different designs of Pioneer lunar probes were flown on three different modified","different modified ICBMs. Those flown on theThorbooster modified with an Able upper stage carried aninfraredimage scanning television system with aresolutionof 1milliradianto study the Moon's surface, anionization chamberto measureradiationin space, a diaphragm/microphone assembly to detectmicrometeorites, amagnetometer, and temperature-variable resistors to monitor spacecraft internal thermal conditions.The first, a mission managed by theUnited States Air Force, exploded during launch;all subsequent Pioneer lunar flights had NASA as the lead management organization. The next two returned to Earth and burned up upon reentry into the atmosphere after achieved maximum altitudes of around 114,000 kilometres (71,000 mi)and 1,530 kilometres (950 mi)respectively, far short of the roughly 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) required to reach the vicinity of the Moon. NASA then collaborated with theUnited States Army'sBallistic Missile Agencyto fly two extremely small cone-shaped probes on theJunoICBM, carrying","carrying onlyphotocellswhich would be triggered by the light of the Moon and a lunar radiation environment experiment using aGeiger-Müller tubedetector.The first of these reached an altitude of only around 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), gathering data that established the presence of theVan Allen radiation beltsbefore reentering Earth's atmosphere.The second passed by the Moon at a distance of more than 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), twice as far as planned and too far away to trigger either of the on-board scientific instruments, yet still becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to reach asolar orbit. The final Pioneer lunar probe design consisted of four \"paddlewheel\"solar panelsextending from a one-meter diameter sphericalspin-stabilizedspacecraft body equipped to take images of the lunar surface with a television-like system, estimate the Moon's mass and topography of thepoles, record the distribution and velocity of micrometeorites, study radiation, measuremagnetic fields, detectlow frequency","detectlow frequency electromagnetic wavesin space and use a sophisticated integratedpropulsionsystem for maneuvering and orbit insertion as well.None of the four spacecraft built in this series of probes survived launch on itsAtlasICBM outfitted with an Able upper stage. Following the unsuccessful Atlas-Able Pioneer probes, NASA'sJet Propulsion Laboratoryembarked upon an uncrewed spacecraft development program whose modular design could be used to support both lunar and interplanetary exploration missions. The interplanetary versions were known asMariners;lunar versions wereRangers. JPL envisioned three versions of the Ranger lunar probes: Block I prototypes, which would carry various radiation detectors in test flights to a very high Earth orbit that came nowhere near the Moon;Block II, which would try to accomplish the first Moon landing by hard landing a seismometer package;and Block III, which would crash onto the lunar surface without any braking rockets while taking very high resolution wide-area","wide-area photographs of the Moon during their descent. Ranger missions The Ranger 1 and 2 Block I missions were virtually identical.Spacecraft experiments included aLyman-alphatelescope, arubidium-vapormagnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium-energy-rangeparticle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic-ray integratingionization chamber,cosmic dustdetectors, andscintillation counters. The goal was to place these Block I spacecraft in a very high Earth orbit with an apogee of 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and aperigeeof 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi). From that vantage point, scientists could make direct measurements of themagnetosphereover a period of many months while engineers perfected new methods to routinely track and communicate with spacecraft over such large distances. Such practice was deemed vital to be assured of capturing high-bandwidth television transmissions from the Moon during a one-shot fifteen-minute time window in subsequent Block II and Block III lunar descents. Both","descents. Both Block I missions suffered failures of the new Agena upper stage and never left low Earthparking orbitafter launch; both burned up upon reentry after only a few days. The first attempts to perform a Moon landing took place in 1962 during the Rangers 3, 4 and 5 missions flown by the United States.All three Block II missions basic vehicles were 3.1 m high and consisted of a lunar capsule covered with a balsa wood impact-limiter, 650 mm in diameter, a mono-propellant mid-course motor, a retrorocket with a thrust of 5,050 pounds-force (22.5 kN),and a gold- and chrome-plated hexagonal base 1.5 m in diameter. This lander (code-namedTonto) was designed to provide impact cushioning using an exterior blanket of crushable balsa wood and an interior filled with incompressible liquidfreon. A 42-kilogram (93 lb) 30-centimetre-diameter (0.98 ft) metal payload sphere floated and was free to rotate in a liquid freon reservoir contained in the landing sphere. \"Everything that we do ought to really be tied-in to","be tied-in to getting onto the Moon ahead of the Russians. ...We're ready to spend reasonable amounts of money, but we're talking about fantastic expenditures which wreck our budget and all these other domestic programs, and the only justification for it, in my opinion, to do it is because we hope to beat them and demonstrate that starting behind, as we did by a couple of years, by God, we passed them.\" —John F. Kennedyon the planned Moon landing, 21 November 1962 This payload sphere contained six silver-cadmiumbatteries to power a fifty-milliwatt radio transmitter, a temperature sensitive voltage controlled oscillator to measure lunar surface temperatures, and a seismometer designed with sensitivity high enough to detect the impact of a 2.3 kg (5 lb) meteorite on the opposite side of the Moon. Weight was distributed in the payload sphere so it would rotate in its liquid blanket to place the seismometer into an upright and operational position no matter what the final resting orientation of the external","of the external landing sphere. After landing, plugs were to be opened allowing the freon to evaporate and the payload sphere to settle into upright contact with the landing sphere. The batteries were sized to allow up to three months of operation for the payload sphere. Various mission constraints limited the landing site to Oceanus Procellarum on the lunar equator, which the lander ideally would reach 66 hours after launch. No cameras were carried by the Ranger landers, and no pictures were to be captured from the lunar surface during the mission. Instead, the 3.1 metres (10 ft) Ranger Block II mother ship carried a 200-scan-line television camera to capture images during the free-fall descent to the lunar surface. The camera was designed to transmit a picture every 10 seconds.Seconds before impact, at 5 and 0.6 kilometres (3.11 and 0.37 mi) above the lunar surface, the Ranger mother ships took pictures (which may be viewedhere). Other instruments gathering data before the mother ship crashed onto the Moon","onto the Moon were a gamma ray spectrometer to measure overall lunar chemical composition and a radar altimeter. The radar altimeter was to give a signal ejecting the landing capsule and its solid-fueled braking rocket overboard from the Block II mother ship. The braking rocket was to slow and the landing sphere to a dead stop at 330 metres (1,080 ft) above the surface and separate, allowing the landing sphere to free fall once more and hit the surface. On Ranger 3, failure of the Atlas guidance system and a software error aboard the Agena upper stage combined to put the spacecraft on a course that would miss the Moon. Attempts to salvage lunar photography during a flyby of the Moon were thwarted by in-flight failure of the onboard flight computer. This was probably because of priorheat sterilizationof the spacecraft by keeping it above theboilingpoint of water for 24 hours on the ground, to protect the Moon from being contaminated by Earth organisms. Ranger 3 later began orbiting the Sun, called","the Sun, called heliocentric orbit.Heat sterilization was also blamed for subsequent in-flight failures of the spacecraft computer on Ranger 4 and the power subsystem on Ranger 5. Only Ranger 4 reached the Moon in an uncontrolled crash impact on the far side of the Moon. Block III probes replaced the Block II landing capsule and its retrorocket with a heavier, more capable television system to support landing site selection for upcoming Apollo crewed Moon landing missions. Six cameras were designed to take thousands of high-altitude photographs in the final twenty-minute period before crashing on the lunar surface. Camera resolution was 1,132 scan lines, far higher than the 525 lines found in a typical U.S. 1964 home television. WhileRanger 6suffered a failure of this camera system and returned no photographs despite an otherwise successful flight, the subsequentRanger 7mission to Mare Cognitum was a complete success. Breaking the six-year string of failures in U.S. attempts to photograph the Moon at close","the Moon at close range, theRanger 7mission was viewed as a national turning point and instrumental in allowing the key 1965 NASA budget appropriation to pass through theUnited States Congressintact without a reduction in funds for the Apollo crewed Moon landing program. Subsequent successes withRanger 8andRanger 9further buoyed U.S. hopes. Soviet uncrewed soft landings (1966–1976) TheLuna 9spacecraft, launched by theSoviet Union, performed the first successful soft Moon landing on 3 February 1966.Airbagsprotected its 99-kilogram (218 lb) ejectable capsule which survived an impact speed of over 15 metres per second (54 km/h; 34 mph).Luna 13duplicated this feat with a similar Moon landing on 24 December 1966. Both returned panoramic photographs that were the first views from the lunar surface. Luna 16was the firstrobotic probeto land on theMoonand safely return a sample of lunar soil back to Earth.It represented the firstlunar samplereturn mission by theSoviet Union, and was the third lunarsample return","lunarsample return missionoverall, following theApollo 11andApollo 12missions. This mission was later successfully repeated byLuna 20(1972) andLuna 24(1976). In 1970 and 1973 twoLunokhod(\"Moonwalker\") robotic lunar rovers were delivered to the Moon, where they successfully operated for 10 and 4 months respectively, covering 10.5 km (6.5 mi) (Lunokhod 1) and 37 km (23 mi) (Lunokhod 2). These rover missions were in operation concurrently with the Zond and Luna series of Moon flyby, orbiter and landing missions. U.S. uncrewed soft landings (1966–1968) The U.S.roboticSurveyor programwas part of an effort to locate a safe site on the Moon for a human landing and test under lunar conditions theradarand landing systems required to make a true controlled touchdown. Five of Surveyor's seven missions made successful uncrewed Moon landings. Surveyor 3 was visited two years after its Moon landing by the crew of Apollo 12. They removed parts of it for examination back on Earth to determine the effects of long-term","of long-term exposure to the lunar environment. Transition from direct ascent landings to lunar orbit operations Within four months of each other in early 1966 the Soviet Union and the United States had accomplished successful Moon landings with uncrewed spacecraft. To the general public both countries had demonstrated roughly equal technical capabilities by returning photographic images from the surface of the Moon. These pictures provided a key affirmative answer to the crucial question of whether or not lunar soil would support upcoming crewed landers with their much greater weight. However, the Luna 9 hard landing of a ruggedized sphere using airbags at a 50-kilometre-per-hour (31 mph) ballistic impact speed had much more in common with the failed 1962 Ranger landing attempts and their planned 160-kilometre-per-hour (99 mph) impacts than with the Surveyor 1 soft landing on three footpads using its radar-controlled, adjustable-thrust retrorocket. While Luna 9 and Surveyor 1 were both major national","both major national accomplishments, only Surveyor 1 had reached its landing site employing key technologies that would be needed for a crewed flight. Thus as of mid-1966, the United States had begun to pull ahead of the Soviet Union in the so-called Space Race to land a man on the Moon. Advances in other areas were necessary before crewed spacecraft could follow uncrewed ones to the surface of the Moon. Of particular importance was developing the expertise to perform flight operations in lunar orbit. Ranger, Surveyor and initial Luna Moon landing attempts all flew directly to the surface without a lunar orbit. Suchdirect ascentsuse a minimum amount of fuel for uncrewed spacecraft on a one-way trip. In contrast, crewed vehicles need additional fuel after a lunar landing to enable a return trip back to Earth for the crew. Leaving this massive amount of required Earth-return fuel in lunar orbit until it is used later in the mission is far more efficient than taking such fuel down to the lunar surface in a Moon","surface in a Moon landing and then hauling it all back into space yet again, working against lunar gravity both ways. Such considerations lead logically to alunar orbit rendezvousmission profile for a crewed Moon landing. Accordingly, beginning in mid-1966 both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. naturally progressed into missions featuring lunar orbit as a prerequisite to a crewed Moon landing. The primary goals of these initial uncrewed orbiters were extensive photographic mapping of the entire lunar surface for the selection of crewed landing sites and, for the Soviets, the checkout of radio communications gear that would be used in future soft landings. An unexpected major discovery from initial lunar orbiters were vast volumes of dense materials beneath the surface of the Moon'smaria. Such mass concentrations (\"mascons\") can send a crewed mission dangerously off course in the final minutes of a Moon landing when aiming for a relatively small landing zone that is smooth and safe. Mascons were also found over a longer","found over a longer period of time to greatly disturb the orbits of low-altitude satellites around the Moon, making their orbits unstable and forcing an inevitable crash on the lunar surface in the relatively short period of months to a few years. Controlling the location of impact for spent lunar orbiters can have scientific value. For example, in 1999 the NASALunar Prospectororbiter was deliberately targeted to impact a permanently shadowed area of Shoemaker Crater near the lunar south pole. It was hoped that energy from the impact would vaporize suspected shadowed ice deposits in the crater and liberate a water vapor plume detectable from Earth. No such plume was observed. However, a small vial of ashes from the body of pioneer lunar scientistEugene Shoemakerwas delivered by the Lunar Prospector to the crater named in his honor – the only human remains on the Moon. Soviet lunar orbit satellites (1966–1974) Luna 10became the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon on 3 April 1966. U.S. lunar orbit satellites","orbit satellites (1966–1967) Soviet circumlunar loop flights (1967–1970) It is possible to aim a spacecraft from Earth so it will loop around the Moon and return to Earth without entering lunar orbit, following the so-calledfree return trajectory. Such circumlunar loop missions are simpler than lunar orbit missions because rockets for lunar orbit braking and Earth return are not required. However, a crewed circumlunar loop trip poses significant challenges beyond those found in a crewed low-Earth-orbit mission, offering valuable lessons in preparation for a crewed Moon landing. Foremost among these are mastering the demands of re-entering the Earth's atmosphere upon returning from the Moon. Inhabited Earth-orbiting vehicles such as the Space Shuttle return to Earth from speeds of around 7,500 m/s (27,000 km/h). Due to the effects of gravity, a vehicle returning from the Moon hits Earth's atmosphere at a much higher speed of around 11,000 m/s (40,000 km/h). Theg-loadingon astronauts during the","during the resultingdecelerationcan be at the limits of human endurance even during a nominal reentry. Slight variations in the vehicle flight path and reentry angle during a return from the Moon can easily result in fatal levels of deceleration force. Achieving a crewed circumlunar loop flight prior to a crewed lunar landing became a primary goal of the Soviets with theirZondspacecraft program. The first three Zonds were robotic planetary probes; after that, the Zond name was transferred to a completely separate human spaceflight program. The initial focus of these later Zonds was extensive testing of required high-speed reentry techniques. This focus was not shared by the U.S., who chose instead to bypass the stepping stone of a crewed circumlunar loop mission and never developed a separate spacecraft for this purpose. Initial crewed spaceflights in the early 1960s placed a single person in low Earth orbit during the SovietVostokand U.S.Mercuryprograms. A two-flight extension of the Vostok program known","program known asVoskhodeffectively used Vostok capsules with their ejection seats removed to achieve Soviet space firsts of multiple person crews in 1964 and spacewalks in early 1965. These capabilities were later demonstrated by the U.S. in tenGeminilow Earth orbit missions throughout 1965 and 1966, using a totally new second-generation spacecraft design that had little in common with the earlier Mercury. These Gemini missions went on to prove techniques for orbitalrendezvous and dockingcrucial to a crewed lunar landing mission profile. After the end of the Gemini program, the Soviet Union began flying their second-generation Zond crewed spacecraft in 1967 with the ultimate goal of looping a cosmonaut around the Moon and returning him or her immediately to Earth. TheZondspacecraft was launched with the simpler and already operationalProtonlaunch rocket, unlike the parallel Soviet human Moon landing effort also underway at the time based on third-generationSoyuz spacecraftrequiring development of the","development of the advancedN-1booster. The Soviets thus believed they could achieve a crewed Zond circumlunar flight years before a U.S. human lunar landing and so score a propaganda victory. However, significant development problems delayed the Zond program and the success of the U.S. Apollo lunar landing program led to the eventual termination of the Zond effort. Like Zond, Apollo flights were generally launched on a free return trajectory that would return them to Earth via a circumlunar loop if aservice modulemalfunction failed to place them in lunar orbit. This option was implemented after an explosion aboard theApollo 13mission in 1970, which is the only crewed circumlunar loop mission flown to date. Zond 5was the first spacecraft to carry life from Earth to the vicinity of the Moon and return, initiating the final lap of theSpace Racewith its payload of tortoises, insects, plants, and bacteria. Despite the failure suffered in its final moments, the Zond 6 mission was reported by Soviet media as being","media as being a success as well. Although hailed worldwide as remarkable achievements, both these Zond missions flew off-nominal reentry trajectories resulting in deceleration forces that would have been fatal to humans. As a result, the Soviets secretly planned to continue uncrewed Zond tests until their reliability to support human flight had been demonstrated. However, due to NASA's continuing problems with thelunar module, and because ofCIAreports of a potential Soviet crewed circumlunar flight in late 1968, NASA fatefully changed the flight plan ofApollo 8from an Earth-orbit lunar module test to a lunar orbit mission scheduled for late December 1968. In early December 1968 the launch window to the Moon opened for the Soviet launch site inBaikonur, giving the USSR their final chance to beat the US to the Moon.Cosmonautswent on alert and asked to fly the Zond spacecraft then in final countdown at Baikonur on the first human trip to the Moon. Ultimately, however, the SovietPolitburodecided the risk of","the risk of crew death was unacceptable given the combined poor performance to that point of Zond/Proton and so scrubbed the launch of a crewed Soviet lunar mission. Their decision proved to be a wise one, since this unnumbered Zond mission was destroyed in another uncrewed test when it was finally launched several weeks later. By this time flights of the third generation U.S.Apollo spacecrafthad begun. Far more capable than the Zond, the Apollo spacecraft had the necessary rocket power to slip into and out of lunar orbit and to make course adjustments required for a safe reentry during the return to Earth. TheApollo 8mission carried out the first human trip to the Moon on 24 December 1968, certifying theSaturn Vbooster for crewed use and flying not a circumlunar loop but instead a full ten orbits around the Moon before returning safely to Earth.Apollo 10then performed a full dress rehearsal of a crewed Moon landing in May 1969. This mission orbited within 14.4 kilometres (47,400 ft) of the lunar surface,","the lunar surface, performing necessary low-altitude mapping of trajectory-altering mascons using a factory prototype lunar module too heavy to land. With the failure of the robotic Soviet sample return Moon landing attemptLuna 15in July 1969, the stage was set forApollo 11. Human Moon landings (1969–1972) US strategy Plans for human Moon exploration began during theEisenhoweradministration. In a series of mid-1950s articles inCollier'smagazine,Wernher von Braunhad popularized the idea of a crewed expedition to establish a lunar base. A human Moon landing posed several daunting technical challenges to the US and USSR. Besides guidance and weight management,atmospheric re-entrywithoutablativeoverheating was a major hurdle. After the Soviets launchedSputnik, von Braun promoted a plan for the US Army to establish a military lunar outpost by 1965. After theearly Soviet successes, especiallyYuri Gagarin's flight, US PresidentJohn F. Kennedylooked for a project that would capture the public imagination. He asked","He asked Vice PresidentLyndon Johnsonto make recommendations on a scientific endeavor that would prove US world leadership. The proposals included non-space options such as massive irrigation projects to benefit theThird World. The Soviets, at the time, had more powerful rockets than the US, which gave them an advantage in some kinds of space mission. Advances in US nuclear weapon technology had led to smaller, lighter warheads; the Soviets' were much heavier, and the powerfulR-7rocket was developed to carry them. More modest missions such as flying around the Moon, or a space lab in lunar orbit (both were proposed by Kennedy to von Braun), offered too much advantage to the Soviets;landing, however, would capture the world's imagination. Johnson had championed the US human spaceflight program ever since Sputnik, sponsoring legislation to create NASA while he was still a senator. When Kennedy asked him in 1961 to research the best achievement to counter the Soviets' lead, Johnson responded that the US had an","that the US had an even chance of beating them to a crewed lunar landing, but not for anything less. Kennedy seized on Apollo as the ideal focus for efforts in space. He ensured continuing funding, shielding space spending from the 1963 tax cut, but diverting money from other NASA scientific projects. These diversions dismayed NASA's leader,James E. Webb, who perceived the need for NASA's support from the scientific community. The Moon landing required development of the large Saturn Vlaunch vehicle, which achieved a perfect record: zero catastrophic failures or launch vehicle-caused mission failures in thirteen launches. For the program to succeed, its proponents would have to defeat criticism from politicians both on the left (more money for social programs) and on the right (more money for the military). By emphasizing the scientific payoff and playing on fears of Soviet space dominance, Kennedy and Johnson managed to swing public opinion: by 1965, 58 percent of Americans favored Apollo, up from 33","Apollo, up from 33 percent two years earlier. After Johnsonbecame president in 1963, his continuing defense of the program allowed it to succeed in 1969, as Kennedy had planned. Soviet strategy Soviet leaderNikita Khrushchevsaid in October 1963 the USSR was \"not at present planning flight by cosmonauts to the Moon,\" while insisting that the Soviets had not dropped out of the race. Only after another year did the USSR fully commit itself to a Moon-landing attempt, which ultimately failed. At the same time, Kennedy had suggested various joint programs, including a possible Moon landing by Soviet and U.S. astronauts and the development of better weather-monitoring satellites, eventually resulting in theApollo-Soyuz mission. Khrushchev, sensing an attempt by Kennedy to steal Russian space technology, rejected the idea at first: if the USSR went to the Moon, it would go alone. Though Khrushchev was eventually warming up to the idea, the realization of a joint Moon landing was choked by Kennedy's assassination.","assassination. Sergey Korolev, theSoviet space program's chief designer, had started promoting hisSoyuzcraft and theN1launcher rocket that would have the capability of carrying out a human Moon landing. Khrushchev directed Korolev's design bureau to arrange further space firsts by modifying the existing Vostok technology, while a second team started building a completely new launcher and craft, the Proton booster and the Zond, for a human cislunar flight in 1966. In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all crewed projects under his direction. With Korolev's death and the failure of the first Soyuz flight in 1967, coordination of the Soviet Moon landing program quickly unraveled. The Soviets built a landing craft and selected cosmonauts for a mission that would have placedAlexei Leonovon the Moon's surface, but with the successive launch failures of the N1 booster in 1969, plans for a crewed landing suffered first delay and then cancellation. A program","A program of automated return vehicles was begun, in the hope of being the first to return lunar rocks. This had several failures. It eventually succeeded withLuna 16in 1970.But this had little impact, because the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 lunar landings and rock returns had already taken place by then. Apollo missions In total, twenty-four U.S. astronauts have traveled to the Moon. Three have made the trip twice, and twelve have walked on its surface. Apollo 8 was a lunar-orbit-only mission, Apollo 10 included undocking and Descent Orbit Insertion (DOI), followed by LM staging to CSM redocking, while Apollo 13, originally scheduled as a landing, ended up as a lunar fly-by, by means offree return trajectory; thus, none of these missions made landings. Apollo 7 and Apollo 9 were Earth-orbit-only missions. Apart from the inherent dangers of crewed Moon expeditions as seen with Apollo 13, one reason for their cessation according to astronautAlan Beanis the cost it imposes in government subsidies. Human Moon","Human Moon landings Other aspects of the successful Apollo landings President Richard Nixon had speechwriterWilliam Safireprepare a condolence speech for delivery in case Armstrong and Aldrin became marooned on the Moon's surface and could not be rescued. In 1951, science fiction writerArthur C. Clarkeforecast that a man would reach the Moon by 1978. On 16 August 2006, theAssociated Pressreported that NASA ismissing the originalSlow-scan televisiontapes (which were made before the scan conversion for conventional TV) of the Apollo 11 Moon walk. Some news outlets have mistakenly reported the SSTV tapes found in Western Australia, but those tapes were only recordings of data from the Apollo 11Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package.The tapes were found in 2008 and sold at auction in 2019 for the 50th anniversary of the landing. Scientists believe the six American flags planted by astronauts have been bleached white because of more than 40 years of exposure to solar radiation.UsingLROCimages, it has been","it has been determined that five of the six American flags are still standing and casting shadows at all of the sites, except Apollo 11.Astronaut Buzz Aldrin reported that the flag was blown over by the exhaust from the ascent engine during liftoff of Apollo 11. Late 20th century–21st century uncrewed crash landings Hiten (Japan) Launched on 24 January 1990, 11:46 UTC. At the end of its mission, the Japanese lunar orbiterHitenwas commanded to crash into the lunar surface and did so on 10 April 1993 at 18:03:25.7 UT (11 April 03:03:25.7 JST). Lunar Prospector (U.S.) Lunar Prospectorwas launched on 7 January 1998. The mission ended on 31 July 1999, when the orbiter was deliberately crashed into a crater near the lunar south pole after the presence of water ice was successfully detected. SMART-1 (ESA) Launched 27 September 2003, 23:14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. At the end of its mission, theESAlunar orbiterSMART-1performed a controlled crash into the Moon, at about 2 km/s (7,200","about 2 km/s (7,200 km/h; 4,500 mph). The time of the crash was 3 September 2006, at 5:42 UTC. Chandrayaan-1 (India) TheIndian Space Research Organisation(ISRO) performed a controlled hard landing with itsMoon Impact Probe(MIP). The MIP was ejected from theChandrayaan-1lunar orbiter and performed remote sensing experiments during its descent to the lunar surface. It impacted nearShackletoncrater at the south pole of the lunar surface at 14 November 2008, 20:31 IST. Chandrayaan-1was launched on 22 October 2008, 00:52 UTC. Chang'e 1 (China) The Chinese lunar orbiterChang'e 1, executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009, 20:44 GMT, after a 16-month mission.Chang'e 1was launched on 24 October 2007, 10:05 UTC. SELENE (Japan) SELENEorKaguyaafter successfully orbiting the Moon for a year and eight months, the main orbiter was instructed to impact on the lunar surface near the craterGillat 18:25 UTC on 10 June 2009.SELENEorKaguyawas launched on 14 September 2007. LCROSS (U.S.)","2007. LCROSS (U.S.) TheLCROSSdata collecting shepherding spacecraft was launched together with theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO) on 18 June 2009 on board anAtlas Vrocket with aCentaurupper stage. On 9 October 2009, at 11:31 UTC, the Centaur upper stage impacted the lunar surface, releasing the kineticenergy equivalentof detonating approximately 2 tons ofTNT(8.86GJ).Six minutes later at 11:37 UTC, the LCROSS shepherding spacecraft also impacted the surface. GRAIL (U.S.) TheGRAILmission consisted of two small spacecraft: GRAIL A (Ebb), and GRAIL B (Flow). They were launched on 10 September 2011 on board aDelta IIrocket. GRAIL A separated from the rocket about nine minutes after launch, and GRAIL B followed about eight minutes later.The first probe entered orbit on 31 December 2011 and the second followed on 1 January 2012.The two spacecraft impacted the Lunar surface on 17 December 2012. LADEE (U.S.) LADEEwas launched on 7 September 2013.The mission ended on 18 April 2014, when the spacecraft's controllers","controllers intentionally crashed LADEE into thefar side of the Moon,which, later, was determined to be near the eastern rim ofSundman V crater. Manfred Memorial Moon Mission (Luxembourg) TheManfred Memorial Moon Missionwas launched on 23 October 2014. It conducted a lunar flyby and operated for 19 days which was four times longer than expected. The Manfred Memorial Moon Mission remained attached to the upper stage of its launch vehicle (CZ-3C/E). The spacecraft along with its upper stage impacted the Moon on 4 March 2022. 21st century uncrewed soft landings and attempts Chang'e 3 (China) On 14 December 2013 at 13:12 UTC,Chang'e 3soft-landedaroveron the Moon. This was China's first soft landing on another celestial body and world's first lunar soft landing sinceLuna 24on 22 August 1976.The mission was launched on 1 December 2013. After successful landing, the lander release theYutu rover, which moved 114 meters before being immobilized due to system malfunction. But the rover was still operational until July","until July 2016. Chang'e 4 (China) On 3 January 2019 at 2:26 UTC,Chang'e 4became the first spacecraft to land on thefar side of the Moon.Chang'e 4 was originally designed as the backup of Chang'e 3. It was later adjusted as a mission to the far side of the Moon after the success of Chang'e 3.After making a successful landing withinVon Kármán crater, the Chang'e 4 lander deployed the 140-kilogram (310 lb)Yutu-2 roverand began human's first close exploration of the far side of the Moon. Because the Moon blocks the communications between far side and Earth, a relay satellite,Queqiao, was launched to the Earth–Moon L2Lagrangian pointa few months prior to the landing to enable communications. Yutu-2, the second lunar rover from China, was equipped with panoramic camera,lunar penetrating radar, visible and near-infrared Imaging spectrometer and advanced small analyzer for neutrals. As of July 2022, it has survived more than 1000 days on the lunar surface and is still driving with cumulative travel distance of over","distance of over 1200 meters. Beresheet(Israel/SpaceIL) On 22 February 2019, Israeli private space agencySpaceILlaunched their spacecraftBeresheeton a Falcon 9 from Cape Canaveral, Florida with the intention of achieving a soft landing. SpaceIL lost contact with the spacecraft during final descent on 11 April 2019, and it crashed as a result of a main engine failure. The mission was the first Israeli, and the first privately funded, lunar landing attempt.Despite the failure, the mission represented the closest a private entity had come to a soft lunar landing at the time. SpaceIL was originally conceived in 2011 as a venture to pursue theGoogle Lunar X Prize. TheBeresheetlunar lander's target landing destination was within Mare Serenitatis, a vast volcanic basin on the Moon's northern near side. Chandrayaan-2 (India) ISRO, the Indian National Space agency, launchedChandrayaan-2on 22 July 2019.It had three major modules: orbiter, lander and rover. Each of these modules had scientific instruments from","instruments from scientific research institutes in India and the US.On 7 September 2019 contact was lost with theVikramlander at an altitude of 2.1 km (1.3 mi) after a rough braking phase.Vikramwas later confirmed to have crashed and been destroyed. Chang'e 5 (China) On 6 December 2020 at 21:42 UTC,Chang'e 5landed and collected the first lunar soil samples in over 40 years, and thenreturned the samplesto Earth. The 8.2t stack consisting of lander, ascender, orbiter and returner was launched to lunar orbit by aLong March 5rocket on 24 November. The lander-ascender combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing nearMons RümkerinOceanus Procellarum. The ascender was later launched back to lunar orbit, carrying samples collected by the lander, and completed the first-ever robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit.The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which successfully landed onInner Mongoliaon 16 December 2020, completing China's first extraterrestrial sample","sample return mission. Luna 25 (Russia) In Russia's first attempt to reach the Moon since 1976, and since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, theLuna 25spacecraft failed during \"pre-landing\" maneuvers, and crashed into the lunar surface on 19 August 2023. Chandrayaan-3 (India) India's national space agencyISROlaunchedChandrayaan-3on 14 July 2023. Chandrayaan-3 consists of an Indigenous Lander Module (LM), Propulsion module (PM) and thePragyanrover. The lander with the rover successfully landed near the lunar south pole at 18:04 IST on 23 August 2023. Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (Japan) JAXAlaunched theSmart Lander for Investigating Moon(SLIM) mission on 6 September 2023 at 23:42 UTC (7 September 08:42 Japan Standard Time). It landed on 19 January 2024 at 15:20 UTC, making Japan the fifth country to soft-land on the Moon.Solar panel orientation issues and possible landing damage complicated the spacecraft's operation.The mission also deployed two rovers which operated successfully and independently","and independently communicated with Earth. Intuitive Machines-1Odysseuslander (U.S.) On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseussuccessfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing in over 50 years. This mission also marks the firstprivately owned spacecraftto land on the Moon and the first landing withcryogenicpropellants.Though it landed successfully, one of the lander's legs broke upon landing and it tilted up on the other side, 18°, due to landing on a slope, but the lander survived and payloads are functioning as expected.EagleCam was not ejected prior to landing. It was later ejected on 28 February but was partially a failure as it returned all types of data except post-IM-1 landing images that were the main aim of its mission. Chang'e 6 (China) China sentChang'e 6on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return fromApollo","return fromApollo Basinon thefar side of the Moon.This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved byChang'e 5from the lunar near side four years earlier.It also carried a Chinese rover calledJinchanto conductinfrared spectroscopyof lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing on 1 June 2024 at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024.The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024 at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, and later completed another robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed onInner Mongoliaon 25 June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission. Landings on moons of other Solar System bodies 21st century progress inspace explorationhas broadened the phrasemoon landingto include other moons in theSolar System.","in theSolar System. TheHuygensprobeof theCassini–Huygensmission toSaturnperformed a successful moon landing onTitanin 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probePhobos 2came within 190 km (120 mi) of performing a landing onMars' moonPhobosin 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission calledFobos-Grunt(\"grunt\" means \"soil\" in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low Earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future landing onJupiter's moonEuropato drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface. Proposed future missions TheLunar Polar Exploration Missionis a robotic space mission concept by ISRO and Japan's space agencyJAXAthat would send alunar roverandlanderto exploresouth poleregion of theMoonin 2025.JAXA is likely to provide launch service using the futureH3rocket, along with responsibility for the rover. ISRO would be responsible for the lander. ISRO, following the success ofChandrayaan 3also has","3also has plans to launchChandrayaan 4, alunarsample return mission, which would possibly be the first to return soil from thewater richsouth polar basin, in a landing close toStatio Shiv Shakti. The mission is planned by late 2028. Both nations are also active participants in theArtemis program. On 11 December 2017, US PresidentDonald Trumpsigned Space PolicyDirective 1, which directed NASA to return to the Moon with a crewed mission, for long-term exploration and use and missions to other planets.On 26 March 2019,Vice President Mike Penceformally announced that the mission will include the first female lunar astronaut.TheArtemis programhad intended to land a crewed mission on the Moon in 2024, and to begin sustained operations by 2028, supported by a plannedLunar Gateway.The NASA lunar landing mission has since been postponed to launch no earlier than September 2026. TheChinese Lunar Exploration Programplans 3 additional Chang'e uncrewed missions between 2025 and 2028, in active preparation for","preparation for theInternational Lunar Research Stationit plans to construct with Russia, Venezuela, Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates in the 2030s. In addition, theChina Manned Space Agencyintends to conduct crewed lunar landings by 2029 or 2030; in preparation for this effort, the various Chinese space agencies and contractors are currently developing a human-rated super-heavy launch vehicle (theLong March 10), a newcrewed lunar spacecraft, and acrewed lunar lander. Russia'sRoscosmoshas announced plans to launch a lunar polar orbiter asLuna 26, in 2027. See also References Further reading External links","Neil Armstrong Neil Alden Armstrong(August 5, 1930 – August 25, 2012) was an Americanastronautandaeronautical engineerwho, in 1969, became thefirst person to walk on the Moon. He was also anaval aviator,test pilot, and university professor. Armstrong was born and raised inWapakoneta, Ohio. He enteredPurdue University, studyingaeronautical engineering, with theU.S. Navypaying his tuition under theHolloway Plan. He became amidshipmanin 1949 and anaval aviatorthe following year. He saw action in theKorean War, flying theGrumman F9F Pantherfrom theaircraft carrierUSSEssex. After the war, he completed his bachelor's degree at Purdue and became a test pilot at theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA)High-Speed Flight StationatEdwards Air Force Basein California. He was the project pilot onCentury Seriesfighters and flew theNorth American X-15seven times. He was also a participant in theU.S. Air Force'sMan in Space SoonestandX-20 Dyna-Soarhuman spaceflightprograms. Armstrong joined theNASA Astronaut","theNASA Astronaut Corpsin thesecond group, which was selected in 1962. He made his firstspaceflightas command pilot ofGemini 8in March 1966, becomingNASA's first civilian astronaut to fly in space. During this mission with pilotDavid Scott, he performed the firstdockingof twospacecraft; the mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his re-entry control fuel to stabilize a dangerous roll caused by a stuck thruster. During training for Armstrong's second and last spaceflight as commander ofApollo 11, he had to eject from theLunar Landing Research Vehiclemoments before a crash. On July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Apollo 11Lunar Module(LM) pilotBuzz Aldrinbecame the first people toland on the Moon, and the next day they spent two and a half hours outside theLunar ModuleEaglespacecraft whileMichael Collinsremained in lunar orbit in theApollo Command ModuleColumbia. When Armstrong first stepped onto the lunar surface, he famously said: \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\"It was","for mankind.\"It was broadcast live to an estimated 530 million viewers worldwide. Apollo 11 was a major U.S. victory in theSpace Race, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy\"of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth\" before the end of the decade. Along with Collins and Aldrin, Armstrong was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby PresidentRichard Nixonand received the 1969Collier Trophy. PresidentJimmy Carterpresented him with theCongressional Space Medal of Honorin 1978, he was inducted into theNational Aviation Hall of Famein 1979, and with his former crewmates received theCongressional Gold Medalin 2009. After he resigned from NASA in 1971, Armstrong taught in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of Cincinnatiuntil 1979. He served on theApollo 13accident investigation and on theRogers Commission, which investigated theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster. In 2012, Armstrong died due tocomplicationsresulting fromcoronary bypass","fromcoronary bypass surgery, at the age of 82. Early life and education Armstrong was born nearWapakoneta, Ohio,on August 5, 1930, the son of Viola Louise (née Engel) and Stephen Koenig Armstrong. He was of German, English, Scots-Irish, and Scottish descent.He is a descendant ofClan Armstrong.He had a younger sister, June, and a younger brother, Dean. His father was anauditorfor theOhio state government,and the family moved around the state repeatedly, living in 16 towns over the next 14 years.Armstrong's love for flying grew during this time, having started at the age of two when his father took him to theCleveland Air Races. When he was five or six, he experienced his first airplane flight inWarren, Ohio, when he and his father took a ride in aFord Trimotor(also known as the \"Tin Goose\"). The family's last move was in 1944 and took them back to Wapakoneta, where Armstrong attendedBlume High Schooland took flying lessons at the Wapakoneta airfield.He earned a student flight certificate on his 16th birthday,","his 16th birthday, thensoloedin August, all before he had a driver's license.He was an activeBoy Scoutand earned the rank ofEagle Scout.As an adult, he was recognized by the Scouts with theirDistinguished Eagle Scout AwardandSilver Buffalo Award.While flying toward the Moon on July 18, 1969, he sent his regards to attendees at theNational Scout jamboreein Idaho.Among the few personal items that he carried with him to the Moon and back was a World Scout Badge. At age 17, in 1947, Armstrong began studyingaeronautical engineeringatPurdue UniversityinWest Lafayette, Indiana; he was the second person in his family to attend college. Armstrong was also accepted to theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT),but he resolved to go to Purdue after watching afootballgame between thePurdue Boilermakersand theOhio State Buckeyesat theOhio Stadiumin 1945 in which quarterbackBob DeMossled the Boilermakers to a sound victory over the highly regarded Buckeyes.An uncle who attended MIT had also advised him that he could","him that he could receive a good education without going all the way toCambridge, Massachusetts. His college tuition was paid for under theHolloway Plan. Successful applicants committed to two years of study, followed by two years of flight training and one year of service as an aviator in theU.S. Navy, then completion of the final two years of theirbachelor's degree.Armstrong did not take courses in naval science, nor did he join theNaval Reserve Officers Training Corps. Navy service Armstrong's call-up from the Navy arrived on January 26, 1949, requiring him to report toNaval Air Station Pensacolain Florida for flight training with class 5-49. After passing the medical examinations, he became amidshipmanon February 24, 1949.Flight training was conducted in aNorth American SNJ trainer, in which he soloed on September 9, 1949.On March 2, 1950, he made his firstaircraft carrierlanding onUSSCabot, an achievement he considered comparable to his first solo flight.He was then sent toNaval Air Station Corpus","Air Station Corpus Christiin Texas for training on theGrumman F8F Bearcat, culminating in a carrier landing onUSSWright. On August 16, 1950, Armstrong was informed by letter that he was a fully qualifiednaval aviator. His mother and sister attended his graduation ceremony on August 23, 1950. Armstrong was assigned to Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron7 (FASRON 7) atNAS San Diego(now known as NAS North Island). On November 27, 1950, he was assigned toVF-51, an all-jet squadron, becoming its youngest officer, and made his first flight in a jet, aGrumman F9F Panther, on January 5, 1951. He was promoted toensignon June 5, 1951, and made his first jet carrier landing onUSSEssextwo days later. On June 28, 1951,Essexhad set sail for Korea, with VF-51 aboard to act asground-attack aircraft. VF-51 flew ahead toNaval Air Station Barbers Pointin Hawaii, where it conducted fighter-bomber training before rejoining the ship at the end of July. On August 29, 1951, Armstrong saw action in theKorean Waras an escort for a","an escort for a photoreconnaissanceplane overSongjin.Five days later, on September 3, he flew armed reconnaissance over the primary transportation and storage facilities south of the village of Majon-ni, west ofWonsan. According to Armstrong, he was making a low bombing run at 350 mph (560 km/h) when 6 feet (1.8 m) of his wing was torn off after it collided with a cable that was strung across the hills as a booby trap. He was flying 500 feet (150 m) above the ground when he hit it. While there was heavy anti-aircraft fire in the area, none hit Armstrong's aircraft.An initial report to the commanding officer ofEssexsaid that Armstrong's F9F Panther was hit byanti-aircraft fire. The report indicated he was trying to regain control and collided with a pole, which sliced off 2 feet (0.61 m) of the Panther's right wing. Further perversions of the story by different authors added that he was only 20 feet (6.1 m) from the ground and that 3 feet (0.91 m) of his wing was sheared off. Armstrong flew the plane back to","the plane back to friendly territory, but due to the loss of theaileron,ejectionwas his only safe option. He intended to eject over water and await rescue by Navy helicopters, but his parachute was blown back over land. A jeep driven by a roommate from flight school picked him up; it is unknown what happened to the wreckage of his aircraft, F9F-2 BuNo125122. In all, Armstrong flew 78missions over Korea for a total of 121hours in the air, a third of them in January 1952, with the final mission on March 5, 1952. Of 492 U.S. Navy personnel killed in the Korean War, 27 of them were fromEssexon this war cruise. Armstrong received theAir Medalfor 20 combat missions, twogold starsfor the next 40, theKorean Service Medaland Engagement Star, theNational Defense Service Medal, and theUnited Nations Korea Medal. Armstrong's regular commission was terminated on February 25, 1952, and he became an ensign in theUnited States Navy Reserve. On completion of his combat tour withEssex, he was assigned to a transport squadron,","transport squadron, VR-32, in May 1952. He was released from active duty on August 23, 1952, but remained in the reserve, and was promoted tolieutenant (junior grade)on May 9, 1953.As a reservist, he continued to fly, with VF-724 atNaval Air Station Glenviewin Illinois, and then, after moving to California, with VF-773 atNaval Air Station Los Alamitos.He remained in the reserve for eight years, before resigning his commission on October 21, 1960. College years After his service with the Navy, Armstrong returned to Purdue. His previously earned good but not outstandinggradesnow improved, lifting his final Grade Point Average (GPA) to a respectable but not outstanding 4.8 out of 6.0. He pledged thePhi Delta Thetafraternity, and lived in its fraternity house. He wrote and co-directed two musicals as part of the all-student revue. The first was a version ofSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs, co-directed with his girlfriend Joanne Alford from theAlpha Chi Omegasorority, with songs from the1937 Walt Disney film,","Walt Disney film, including \"Someday My Prince Will Come\"; the second was titledThe Land of Egelloc(\"college\" spelled backward), with music fromGilbert and Sullivanbut new lyrics. Armstrong was chairman of the Purdue Aero Flying Club, and flew the club's aircraft, anAeroncaand a couple ofPipers, which were kept at nearby Aretz Airport inLafayette, Indiana. Flying the Aeronca to Wapakoneta in 1954, he damaged it in a rough landing in a farmer's field, and it had to be hauled back to Lafayette on a trailer.He was abaritoneplayer in thePurdue All-American Marching Band.Ten years later he was made an honorary member ofKappa Kappa Psinational band honorary fraternity.Armstrong graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree inAeronautical Engineeringin January 1955.In 1970, he completed his Master of Science degree inAerospace Engineeringat theUniversity of Southern California(USC).He would eventually be awarded honorary doctorates by several universities. Armstrong met Janet Elizabeth Shearon, who was majoring","who was majoring inhome economics, at a party hosted by Alpha Chi Omega.According to the couple, there was no real courtship, and neither could remember the exact circumstances of their engagement. They were married on January 28, 1956, at the Congregational Church inWilmette, Illinois. When he moved toEdwards Air Force Base, he lived in the bachelor quarters of the base, while Janet lived in theWestwooddistrict of Los Angeles. After one semester, they moved into a house inAntelope Valley, near Edwards AFB. Janet did not finish her degree, a fact she regretted later in life. The couple had three children.In June 1961, their daughter Karen was diagnosed withdiffuse intrinsic pontine glioma, amalignanttumorof the middle part of herbrain stem.X-ray treatment slowed its growth, but her health deteriorated to the point where she could no longer walk or talk. She died ofpneumonia, related to her weakened health, on January 28, 1962, aged two. Test pilot Following his graduation from Purdue, Armstrong became an","Armstrong became an experimental research test pilot. He applied at theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA)High-Speed Flight Stationat Edwards Air Force Base.NACA had no open positions, and forwarded his application to theLewis Flight Propulsion LaboratoryinCleveland, where Armstrong made his first test flight on March 1, 1955.Armstrong's stint at Cleveland lasted only a couple of months before a position at the High-Speed Flight Station became available, and he reported for work there on July 11, 1955. On his first day, Armstrong was tasked with pilotingchase planesduring releases of experimental aircraft from modified bombers. He also flew the modified bombers, and on one of these missions had his first flight incident at Edwards. On March 22, 1956, he was in aBoeing B-29 Superfortress,which was to air-drop aDouglas D-558-2 Skyrocket. He sat in the right-hand co-pilot seat while pilot in command, Stan Butchart sat in the left-hand pilot seat flying the B-29. As they climbed to 30,000 feet (9","to 30,000 feet (9 km), thenumber-four enginestopped and thepropellerbegan windmilling (rotating freely) in the airstream. Hitting the switch that would stop the propeller's spinning, Butchart watched it slow, then resume spinning even faster than the others; if it spun too fast, it would break apart. Their aircraft needed to hold an airspeed of 210 mph (338 km/h) to launch its Skyrocket payload, and the B-29 could not land with the Skyrocket attached to its belly. Armstrong and Butchart brought the aircraft into a nose-downattitudeto increase speed, then launched the Skyrocket. At the instant of launch, the number-four engine propeller disintegrated. Pieces of it damaged the number-three engine and hit the number-two engine. Butchart and Armstrong were forced to shut down the damaged number-three engine, along with the number-one engine, due to thetorqueit created. They made a slow, circling descent from 30,000 ft (9 km) using only the number-two engine, and landed safely. Armstrong served as project pilot","as project pilot onCentury Seriesfighters, including theNorth American F-100 Super SabreA and C variants, theMcDonnell F-101 Voodoo, theLockheed F-104 Starfighter, theRepublic F-105 Thunderchiefand theConvair F-106 Delta Dart. He also flew theDouglas DC-3,Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star,North American F-86 Sabre,McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II,Douglas F5D-1 Skylancer, Boeing B-29 Superfortress,Boeing B-47 StratojetandBoeing KC-135 Stratotanker, and was one of eight elite pilots involved in theParasevparaglider research vehicle program.Over his career, he flew more than 200 different models of aircraft.His first flight in arocket-powered aircraftwas on August 15, 1957, in theBell X-1B, to an altitude of 11.4 miles (18.3 km). On landing, the poorly designednose landing gearfailed, as had happened on about a dozen previous flights of the Bell X-1B. He flew theNorth American X-15seven times,including the first flight with the Q-ball system, the first flight of the number3 X-15 airframe, and the first flight of the","first flight of the MH-96 adaptive flight control system.He became an employee of theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) when it was established on October 1, 1958, absorbing NACA. Armstrong was involved in several incidents that went down in Edwards folklore or were chronicled in the memoirs of colleagues. During his sixth X-15 flight on April 20, 1962, Armstrong was testing the MH-96 control system when he flew to a height of over 207,000 feet (63 km) (the highest he flew beforeGemini 8). He held up the aircraft nose during its descent to demonstrate the MH-96's g-limiting performance, and the X-15 ballooned back up to around 140,000 feet (43 km). He flew past the landing field atMach3 at over 100,000 feet (30 km) in altitude, and ended up 40 miles (64 km) south of Edwards. After sufficient descent, he turned back toward the landing area, and landed. It was the longest X-15 flight in both flight time and length of the ground track. Fellow astronautMichael Collinswrote that of the X-15","that of the X-15 pilots Armstrong \"had been considered one of the weaker stick-and-rudder men, but the very best when it came to understanding the machine's design and how it operated\".Many of the test pilots at Edwards praised Armstrong's engineering ability.Milt Thompsonsaid he was \"the most technically capable of the early X-15 pilots\".Bill Danasaid Armstrong \"had a mind that absorbed things like a sponge\". Those who flew for the Air Force tended to have a different opinion, especially people likeChuck YeagerandPete Knight, who did not have engineering degrees. Knight said that pilot-engineers flew in a way that was \"more mechanical than it is flying\", and gave this as the reason why some pilot-engineers got into trouble: Their flying skills did not come naturally.Armstrong made sevenflights in the X-15between November 30, 1960, and July 26, 1962.He reached a top speed of Mach 5.74 (3,989 mph, 6,420 km/h) in the X-15-1, and left the Flight Research Center with a total of 2,400 flying hours. On April 24,","hours. On April 24, 1962, Armstrong flew for the only time with Yeager. Their job, flying a T-33, was to evaluate Smith Ranch Dry Lake in Nevada for use as an emergency landing site for the X-15. In his autobiography, Yeager wrote that he knew the lake bed was unsuitable for landings after recent rains, but Armstrong insisted on flying out anyway. As they attempted atouch-and-go, the wheels became stuck and they had to wait for rescue. As Armstrong told the story, Yeager never tried to talk him out of it and they made a first successful landing on the east side of the lake. Then Yeager told him to try again, this time a bit slower. On the second landing, they became stuck, provoking Yeager to fits of laughter. On May 21, 1962, Armstrong was involved in the \"Nellis Affair\". He was sent in an F-104 to inspectDelamar Dry Lakein southern Nevada, again for emergency landings. He misjudged his altitude and did not realize that the landing gear had not fully extended. As he touched down, the landing gear began to","gear began to retract; Armstrong applied full power to abort the landing, but the ventral fin and landing gear door struck the ground, damaging the radio and releasinghydraulic fluid. Without radio communication, Armstrong flew south toNellis Air Force Base, past the control tower, and waggled his wings, the signal for a no-radio approach. The loss of hydraulic fluid caused thetailhookto release, and upon landing, he caught the arresting wire attached to an anchor chain, and dragged the chain along the runway. It took thirty minutes to clear the runway and rig another arresting cable. Armstrong telephoned Edwards and asked for someone to collect him. Milt Thompson was sent in an F-104B, the only two-seater available, but a plane Thompson had never flown. With great difficulty, Thompson made it to Nellis, where a strong crosswind caused a hard landing and the left main tire suffered a blowout. The runway was again closed to clear it, and Bill Dana was sent to Nellis in a T-33, but he almost landed long. The","landed long. The Nellis base operations office then decided that to avoid any further problems, it would be best to find the three NASA pilots ground transport back to Edwards. Astronaut career In June 1958, Armstrong was selected for the U.S. Air Force'sMan in Space Soonestprogram, but theAdvanced Research Projects Agency(ARPA) canceled its funding on August 1, 1958, and on November 5, 1958, it was superseded byProject Mercury, a civilian project run by NASA. As a NASA civilian test pilot, Armstrong was ineligible to become one of its astronauts at this time, as selection was restricted to military test pilots.In November 1960, he was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for theX-20 Dyna-Soar, a military space plane under development by Boeing for the U.S. Air Force, and on March 15, 1962, he was selected by the U.S. Air Force as one of seven pilot-engineers who would fly the X-20 when it got off the design board. In April 1962, NASA sought applications for the second group of NASA astronauts","of NASA astronauts forProject Gemini, a proposed two-man spacecraft. This time, selection was open to qualified civilian test pilots.Armstrong visited theSeattle World's Fairin May 1962 and attended a conference there on space exploration that was co-sponsored by NASA. After he returned fromSeattleon June 4, he applied to become an astronaut. His application arrived about a week past the June 1, 1962, deadline, but Dick Day, a flight simulator expert with whom Armstrong had worked closely at Edwards, saw the late arrival of the application and slipped it into the pile before anyone noticed.AtBrooks Air Force Baseat the end of June, Armstrong underwent a medical exam that many of the applicants described as painful and at times seemingly pointless. NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations,Deke Slayton, called Armstrong on September 13, 1962, and asked whether he would be interested in joining theNASA Astronaut Corpsas part of what the press dubbed \"theNew Nine\"; without hesitation, Armstrong said yes. The","said yes. The selections were kept secret until three days later, although newspaper reports had circulated since earlier that year that he would be selected as the \"first civilian astronaut\".Armstrong was one of two civilian pilots selected for this group;the other wasElliot See, another former naval aviator.NASA selected the second group that, compared with theMercury Sevenastronauts, were younger,and had more impressive academic credentials.Collins wrote that Armstrong was by far the most experienced test pilot in the Astronaut Corps. Gemini program Gemini 5 On February 8, 1965, Armstrong and Elliot See were picked as the backup crew forGemini 5, with Armstrong as commander, supporting the prime crew ofGordon CooperandPete Conrad.The mission's purpose was to practicespace rendezvousand to develop procedures and equipment for a seven-day flight, all of which would be required for a mission to the Moon. With two other flights (Gemini 3andGemini 4) in preparation, six crews were competing for simulator time,","for simulator time, so Gemini5 was postponed. It finally lifted off on August 21.Armstrong and See watched the launch atCape Kennedy, then flew to theManned Spacecraft Center(MSC) in Houston.The mission was generally successful, despite a problem with thefuel cellsthat prevented a rendezvous. Cooper and Conrad practiced a \"phantom rendezvous\", carrying out the maneuver without a target. Gemini 8 The crews for Gemini8 were assigned on September 20, 1965. Under the normal rotation system, the backup crew for one mission became the prime crew for the third mission after, but Slayton designatedDavid Scottas the pilot of Gemini8.Scott was the first member of thethird group of astronauts, who was selected on October 18, 1963, to receive a prime crew assignment.See was designated to commandGemini 9. Henceforth, each Gemini mission was commanded by a member of Armstrong's group, with a member of Scott's group as the pilot. Conrad would be Armstrong's backup this time, andRichard F. Gordon Jr.his pilot.Armstrong","pilot.Armstrong became the first American civilian in space. (Valentina Tereshkovaof theSoviet Unionhad become the first civilian—and first woman—nearly three years earlier aboardVostok 6when it launched on June 16, 1963.) Armstrong would also be the last of his group to fly in space, as See died in aT-38 crashon February 28, 1966, that also took the life of crewmateCharles Bassett. They were replaced by the backup crew ofTom StaffordandGene Cernan, whileJim Lovelland Buzz Aldrin moved up from the backup crew ofGemini 10to become the backup for Gemini 9,and would eventually flyGemini 12. Gemini 8 launched on March 16, 1966. It was the most complex mission yet, with a rendezvous and docking with anuncrewedAgena target vehicle, and the planned second Americanspacewalk(EVA) by Scott. The mission was planned to last 75hours and 55orbits. After the Agena lifted off at 10:00:00EST,theTitan IIrocket carrying Armstrong and Scott ignited at 11:41:02 EST, putting them into an orbit from which they chased the","they chased the Agena.They achieved the first-ever docking between two spacecraft.Contact with the crew was intermittent due to the lack of tracking stations covering their entire orbits. While out of contact with the ground, the docked spacecraft began to roll, and Armstrong attempted to correct this with the Gemini'sOrbit Attitude and Maneuvering System(OAMS). Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but the roll increased dramatically until they were turning about once per second, indicating a problem with Gemini'sattitude control. Armstrong engaged the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turned off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft had to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring caused one of the thrusters to stick in the on position. A few people in the Astronaut Office, includingWalter Cunningham, felt that Armstrong and Scott \"had botched their first mission\".There was speculation that","speculation that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings, saving the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded; no malfunction procedures had been written, and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings, not one or the other.Gene Kranzwrote, \"The crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong.\" The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft were docked, they must be considered one spacecraft. Kranz considered this the mission's most important lesson.Armstrong was depressed that the mission was cut short,canceling most mission objectives and robbing Scott of his EVA. The Agena was later reused as a docking target by Gemini 10.Armstrong and Scott received theNASA Exceptional Service Medal,and the Air Force awarded Scott theDistinguished Flying Crossas well.Scott was promoted tolieutenant colonel, and Armstrong received a $678 raise in pay to $21,653 a year","to $21,653 a year (equivalent to $203,338 in 2023), making him NASA's highest-paid astronaut. Gemini 11 In Armstrong's final assignment in the Gemini program, he was the back-up Command Pilot forGemini 11. Having trained for two flights, Armstrong was quite knowledgeable about the systems and took on a teaching role for the rookie backup pilot,William Anders.The launch was on September 12, 1966,with Conrad and Gordon on board, who successfully completed the mission objectives, while Armstrong served as acapsule communicator(CAPCOM). Following the flight, PresidentLyndon B. Johnsonasked Armstrong and his wife to take part in a 24-day goodwill tour of South America.Also on the tour, which took in 11countries and 14major cities, were Dick Gordon,George Low, their wives, and other government officials. In Paraguay, Armstrong greeted dignitaries in their local language,Guarani; in Brazil he talked about the exploits of the Brazilian-born aviation pioneerAlberto Santos-Dumont. Apollo program On January 27,","On January 27, 1967—the day of theApollo 1 fire—Armstrong was in Washington, D.C., with Cooper, Gordon, Lovell andScott Carpenterfor the signing of the United NationsOuter Space Treaty. The astronauts chatted with the assembled dignitaries until 18:45, when Carpenter went to the airport, and the others returned to the Georgetown Inn, where they each found messages to phone the MSC. During these calls, they learned of the deaths ofGus Grissom,Ed WhiteandRoger Chaffeein the fire. Armstrong and the group spent the rest of the night drinking scotch and discussing what had happened. On April 5, 1967, the same day the Apollo1 investigation released its final report, Armstrong and 17 other astronauts gathered for a meeting with Slayton. The first thing Slayton said was, \"The guys who are going to fly the first lunar missions are the guys in this room.\"According to Cernan, only Armstrong showed no reaction to the statement. To Armstrong it came as no surprise—the room was full of veterans of Project Gemini, the only","Gemini, the only people who could fly the lunar missions. Slayton talked about the planned missions and named Armstrong to the backup crew forApollo 9, which at that stage was planned as amedium Earth orbittest of the combinedlunar moduleandcommand and service module. The crew was officially assigned on November 20, 1967.For crewmates, Armstrong was assigned Lovell and Aldrin, from Gemini 12. After design and manufacturing delays of the lunar module (LM),Apollo 8and9 swapped prime and backup crews. Based on the normal crew rotation, Armstrong would command Apollo 11,with one change: Collins on the Apollo8 crew began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.Lovell took his place on the Apollo8 crew, and, when Collins recovered, he joined Armstrong's crew. To give the astronauts practice piloting the LM on its descent, NASA commissionedBell Aircraftto build twoLunar Landing Research Vehicles(LLRV), later","later augmented with three Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV). Nicknamed the \"Flying Bedsteads\", they simulated the Moon's one-sixth gravity using aturbofanengine to support five-sixths of the craft's weight. On May 6, 1968, 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, Armstrong's controls started to degrade and the LLRV beganrolling.He ejected safely before the vehicle struck the ground and burst into flames. Later analysis suggested that if he had ejected half a second later, his parachute would not have opened in time. His only injury was from biting his tongue. The LLRV was completely destroyed.Even though he was nearly killed, Armstrong maintained that without the LLRV and LLTV, the lunar landings would not have been successful, as they gave commanders essential experience in piloting the lunar landing craft. In addition to the LLRV training, NASA began lunar landing simulator training after Apollo 10 was completed. Aldrin and Armstrong trained for a variety of scenarios that could develop during a real lunar","during a real lunar landing.They also received briefings from geologists at NASA. Apollo 11 After Armstrong served as backup commander for Apollo8, Slayton offered him the post of commander of Apollo 11 on December 23, 1968, as Apollo8 orbited the Moon.According to Armstrong's 2005 biography, Slayton told him that although the planned crew was Commander Armstrong, Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin, and Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, he was offering Armstrong the chance to replace Aldrin with Jim Lovell. After thinking it over for a day, Armstrong told Slayton he would stick with Aldrin, as he had no difficulty working with him and thought Lovell deserved his own command. Replacing Aldrin with Lovell would have made Lovell the lunar module pilot, unofficially the lowest ranked member, and Armstrong could not justify placing Lovell, the commander of Gemini 12, in the number3 position of the crew.The crew of Apollo 11 was assigned on January 9, 1969, as Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin, with Lovell, Anders,","Lovell, Anders, andFred Haiseas the backup crew. According toChris Kraft, a March 1969 meeting among Slayton, George Low,Bob Gilruth, and Kraft determined that Armstrong would be the first person on the Moon, in part because NASA management saw him as a person who did not have a large ego. A press conference on April 14, 1969, gave the design of the LM cabin as the reason for Armstrong's being first; the hatch opened inwards and to the right, making it difficult for the LM pilot, on the right-hand side, to exit first. At the time of their meeting, the four men did not know about the hatch consideration. The first knowledge of the meeting outside the small group came when Kraft wrote his book.Methods of circumventing this difficulty existed, but it is not known if these were considered at the time. Slayton added, \"Secondly, just on a pure protocol basis, I figured the commander ought to be the first guy out... I changed it as soon as I found they had the time line that showed that. Bob Gilruth approved my","Gilruth approved my decision.\" Voyage to the Moon ASaturn Vrocket launched Apollo 11 fromLaunch Complex 39Aat theKennedy Space Centeron July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00UTC(09:32:00 EDT local time).Armstrong's wife Janet and two sons watched from a yacht moored on theBanana River.During the launch, Armstrong's heart rate peaked at 110beats per minute.He found the first stage the loudest, much noisier than the Gemini8 Titan II launch. The Apollo command module was relatively roomy compared with the Gemini spacecraft. None of the Apollo 11 crew sufferedspace sickness, as some members of previous crews had. Armstrong was especially glad about this, as he had been prone tomotion sicknessas a child and could experiencenauseaafter long periods ofaerobatics. Apollo 11's objective was to land safely on the Moon, rather than to touch down at a precise location. Three minutes into the lunar descent, Armstrong noted that craters were passing about two seconds too early, which meant theLunar ModuleEaglewould probably touch","probably touch down several miles (kilometres) beyond the planned landing zone.As theEagle's landingradaracquired the surface, several computer error alarms sounded. The first was a code1202alarm, and even with their extensive training, neither Armstrong nor Aldrin knew what this code meant. They promptly received word from CAPCOMCharles Dukein Houston that the alarms were not a concern; the 1202 and 1201 alarms were caused by executive overflows in thelunar module guidance computer. In 2007, Aldrin said the overflows were caused by his own counter-checklist choice of leaving the docking radar on during the landing process, causing the computer to process unnecessary radar data. When it did not have enough time to execute all tasks, the computer dropped the lower-priority ones, triggering the alarms. Aldrin said he decided to leave the radar on in case an abort was necessary when re-docking with the Apollo command module; he did not realize it would cause the processing overflows. When Armstrong noticed they","noticed they were heading toward a landing area that seemed unsafe, he took manual control of the LM and attempted to find a safer area. This took longer than expected, and longer than most simulations had taken.For this reason, Mission Control was concerned that the LM was running low on fuel.On landing, Aldrin and Armstrong believed they had 40seconds of fuel left, including the 20seconds' worth which had to be saved in the event of an abort.During training, Armstrong had, on several occasions, landed with fewer than 15seconds of fuel; he was also confident the LM could survive a fall of up to 50 feet (15 m). Post-mission analysis showed that at touchdown there were 45 to 50seconds of propellant burn time left. The landing on the surface of the Moon occurred several seconds after 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969.One of three 67-inch (170 cm) probes attached to three of the LM's four legs made contact with the surface, a panel light in the LM illuminated, and Aldrin called out, \"Contact light.\" Armstrong shut","Armstrong shut the engine off and said, \"Shutdown.\" As the LM settled onto the surface, Aldrin said, \"Okay, engine stop\"; then they both called out some post-landing checklist items. After a 10-second pause, Duke acknowledged the landing with, \"We copy you down,Eagle.\" Armstrong confirmed the landing to Mission Control and the world with the words, \"Houston,Tranquility Basehere. TheEaglehas landed.\" Aldrin and Armstrong celebrated with a brisk handshake and pat on the back. They then returned to the checklist of contingency tasks, should an emergency liftoff become necessary.After Armstrong confirmed touch down, Duke re-acknowledged, adding a comment about the flight crew's relief: \"Roger, Tranquility. We copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\"During the landing, Armstrong's heart rate ranged from 100 to 150beats per minute. First Moon walk The flight plan called for a crew rest period before leaving the module, but Armstrong asked for this to","asked for this to be moved to earlier in the evening,Houston time. When he and Aldrin were ready to go outside,Eaglewas depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder.At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on aLunar Modulelanding pad, Armstrong said, \"I'm going to step off the LM now\". He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface at 02:56UTCJuly 21, 1969,then said, \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\"The exact time of Armstrong's first step on the Moon is unclear. Armstrong prepared his famousepigramon his own.In a post-flight press conference, he said that he chose the words \"just prior to leaving the LM.\"In a 1983 interview inEsquiremagazine, he explained toGeorge Plimpton: \"I always knew there was a good chance of being able to return to Earth, but I thought the chances of a successful touch down on the moon surface were about even money—fifty–fifty... Most people don't realize how difficult the mission was. So it didn't seem to me","didn't seem to me there was much point in thinking of something to say if we'd have to abort landing.\"In 2012, his brother Dean Armstrong said that Neil showed him a draft of the line months before the launch.HistorianAndrew Chaikin, who interviewed Armstrong in 1988 for his bookA Man on the Moon, disputed that Armstrong claimed to have conceived the line during the mission. Recordings of Armstrong's transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article \"a\" before \"man\", though NASA and Armstrong insisted for years that static obscured it. Armstrong stated he would never make such a mistake, but after repeated listenings to recordings, he eventually conceded he must have dropped the \"a\".He later said he \"would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended, even if it was not said—although it might actually have been\".There have since been claims and counter-claims about whether acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence","the presence of the missing \"a\";Peter Shann Ford, an Australian computer programmer, conducted a digital audio analysis and claims that Armstrong did say \"a man\", but the \"a\" was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time.Ford andJames R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis.Armstrong found Ford's analysis \"persuasive.\"LinguistsDavid BeaverandMark Libermanwrote of their skepticism of Ford's claims on the blogLanguage Log.A 2016 peer-reviewed study again concluded Armstrong had included the article.NASA's transcript continues to show the \"a\" in parentheses. When Armstrong made his proclamation,Voice of Americawas rebroadcast live by theBBCand many other stations worldwide. An estimated 530million people viewed the event,20 percent out of a world population of approximately 3.6billion. Q: Did you misspeak? A: There isn't any way of knowing. Q: Several sources say you did. A: I","say you did. A: I mean, there isn't any way ofmyknowing. When I listen to the tape, I can't hear the 'a', but that doesn't mean it wasn't there, because that was the fastest VOX ever built. There was no mike-switch — it was avoice-operated key or VOX. In a helmet you find you lose a lot of syllables. Sometimes a short syllable like 'a' might not be transmitted. However, when I listen to it, I can't hear it. But the 'a' is implied, so I'm happy if they just put it in parentheses. Omni, June 1982, p. 126 About 19minutes after Armstrong's first step, Aldrin joined him on the surface, becoming the second human to walk on the Moon. They began their tasks of investigating how easily a person could operate on the lunar surface. Armstrong unveiled a plaque commemorating the flight, and with Aldrin, planted theflag of the United States. Although Armstrong had wanted the flag to be draped on the flagpole,it was decided to use a metal rod to hold it horizontally.However, the rod did not fully extend, leaving the flag","leaving the flag with a slightly wavy appearance, as if there were a breeze.Shortly after the flag planting, PresidentRichard Nixonspoke to them by telephone from his office. He spoke for about a minute, after which Armstrong responded for about thirty seconds.In the Apollo 11 photographic record, there are only five images of Armstrong partly shown or reflected. The mission was planned to the minute, with the majority of photographic tasks performed by Armstrong with the singleHasselbladcamera. After helping to set up theEarly Apollo Scientific Experiment Package, Armstrong went for a walk to what is now known as East Crater, 65 yards (59 m) east of the LM, the greatest distance traveled from the LM on the mission. His final task was to remind Aldrin to leave a small package of memorial items to SovietcosmonautsYuri GagarinandVladimir Komarov, and Apollo1 astronauts Grissom, White and Chaffee.The Apollo 11 EVA lasted two and a half hours.Each of the subsequent five landings was allotted a progressively","a progressively longer EVA period; the crew ofApollo 17spent over 22hours exploring the lunar surface.In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited their Moon walk because they were unsure how thespace suitswould cope with the Moon's extremely high temperature. Return to Earth After they re-entered the LM, the hatch was closed and sealed. While preparing for liftoff, Armstrong and Aldrin discovered that, in their bulky space suits, they had broken the ignition switch for the ascent engine; using part of a pen, they pushed in the circuit breaker to start the launch sequence.TheEaglethen continued to its rendezvous in lunar orbit, where it docked withColumbia, the command and service module. The three astronauts returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, to be picked up by theUSSHornet. After being released from an 18-day quarantine to ensure that they had not picked up any infections or diseases from the Moon, the crew was feted across the United States and around the world as part","the world as part of a 38-day \"Giant Leap\" tour. The tour began on August 13, when the three astronauts spoke and rode inticker-tape paradesin their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.On the same evening an officialstate dinnerwas held in Los Angeles to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44governors, theChief Justice of the United States, and ambassadors from 83nations. President Nixon and Vice President Agnew presented each astronaut with aPresidential Medal of Freedom. After the tour Armstrong took part inBob Hope's 1969USOshow, primarily to Vietnam.In May 1970, Armstrong traveled to the Soviet Union to present a talk at the 13th annual conference of the InternationalCommittee on Space Research; after arriving inLeningradfrom Poland, he traveled to Moscow where he metPremierAlexei Kosygin. Armstrong was the first westerner to see the supersonicTupolev Tu-144and was given a tour of theYuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, which he described as \"a bit","described as \"a bit Victorian in nature\".At the end of the day, he was surprised to view a delayed video of the launch ofSoyuz 9as it had not occurred to Armstrong that the mission was taking place, even though Valentina Tereshkova had been his host and her husband,Andriyan Nikolayev, was on board. Life after Apollo Teaching Shortly after Apollo 11, Armstrong stated that he did not plan to fly in space again.He was appointed Deputy Associate Administrator for Aeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research and Technology atARPA, served in the position for a year, then resigned from it and NASA in 1971.He accepted a teaching position in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of Cincinnati,having chosen Cincinnati over other universities, including hisalma materPurdue, because Cincinnati had a small aerospace department,and said he hoped the faculty there would not be annoyed that he came straight into a professorship with only a USC master's degree.He began his master's degree while","degree while stationed at Edwards years before, and completed it after Apollo 11 by presenting a report on various aspects of Apollo, instead of a thesis on the simulation of hypersonic flight. At Cincinnati, Armstrong was University Professor of Aerospace Engineering. He took a heavy teaching load, taught core classes, and created two graduate-level classes: aircraft design and experimental flight mechanics. He was considered a good teacher, and a tough grader. His research activities during this time did not involve his work at NASA, as he did not want to give the appearance of favoritism; he later regretted the decision. After teaching for eight years, Armstrong resigned in 1980. When the university changed from an independent municipal university to a state school, bureaucracy increased. He did not want to be a part of the faculty collective bargaining group, so he decided to teach half-time. According to Armstrong, he had the same amount of work but received half his salary. In 1979, less than 10% of","less than 10% of his income came from his university salary. Employees at the university did not know why he left. NASA commissions In 1970, after an explosion aboardApollo 13aborted its lunar landing, Armstrong was part ofEdgar Cortright's investigation of the mission. He produced a detailed chronology of the flight. He determined that a 28-volt thermostat switch in an oxygen tank, which was supposed to have been replaced with a 65-volt version, led to the explosion. Cortright's report recommended the entire tank be redesigned at a cost of $40million. Many NASA managers, including Armstrong, opposed the recommendation, since only the thermostat switch had caused the problem. They lost the argument, and the tanks were redesigned. In 1986, PresidentRonald Reaganasked Armstrong to join theRogers Commissioninvestigating theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster. Armstrong was made vice chairman of the commission and held private interviews with contacts he had developed over the years to help determine the cause of","the cause of the disaster. He helped limit the committee's recommendations to nine, believing that if there were too many, NASA would not act on them. Armstrong was appointed to a fourteen-member commission by President Reagan to develop a plan for American civilian spaceflight in the 21st century. The commission was chaired by former NASA administrator Dr.Thomas O. Paine, with whom Armstrong had worked during the Apollo program. The group published a book titledPioneering the Space Frontier: The Report on the National Commission on Space, recommending a permanent lunar base by 2006, and sending people to Mars by 2015. The recommendations were largely ignored, overshadowed by theChallengerdisaster. Armstrong and his wife attended the memorial service for the victims of theSpace ShuttleColumbiadisasterin 2003, at the invitation of PresidentGeorge W. Bush. Business activities After Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971, he acted as a spokesman for several businesses. The first company to successfully approach","approach him wasChrysler, for whom he appeared in advertising starting in January 1979. Armstrong thought they had a strong engineering division, and they were in financial difficulty. He later acted as a spokesman for other American companies, including General Time Corporation and the Bankers Association of America.He acted as a spokesman for only American companies. In addition to his duties as a spokesman, he also served on the board of directors of several companies. The first company board Armstrong joined wasGates Learjet, chairing their technical committee. He flew their new and experimental jets and even set a climb and altitude record for business jets. Armstrong became a member ofCincinnati Gas & Electric Company's board in 1973. They were interested in nuclear power and wanted to increase the company's technical competence. He served on the board ofTaft Broadcasting, also based in Cincinnati. Armstrong joined the board of solid rocket boosterThiokolin 1989, after previously serving on the Rogers","on the Rogers Commission which found that theSpace ShuttleChallengerwas destroyed due to a defect in the Thiokol-manufactured solid rocket boosters. When Armstrong left the University of Cincinnati, he became the chairman of Cardwell International Ltd., a company that manufactured drilling rigs. He served on additional aerospace boards, firstUnited Airlinesin 1978, and laterEaton Corporationin 1980. He was asked to chair the board of directors for a subsidiary of Eaton, AIL Systems. He chaired the board through the company's 2000 merger withEDO Corporation, until his retirement in 2002. North Pole expedition In 1985, professional expedition leader Mike Dunn organized a trip to take men he deemed the \"greatest explorers\" to the North Pole. The group included Armstrong,Edmund Hillary,Hillary's son Peter,Steve Fossett, andPatrick Morrow. They arrived at the Pole on April 6, 1985. Armstrong said he was curious to see what it looked like from the ground, as he had seen it only from the Moon.He did not inform the","did not inform the media of the trip, preferring to keep it private. Public profile Armstrong's family described him as a \"reluctant American hero\".He kept a low profile later in his life, leading to the belief that he was a recluse.Recalling Armstrong's humility,John Glenn, the first American to orbit Earth, told CNN: \" didn't feel that he should be out huckstering himself. He was a humble person, and that's the way he remained after his lunar flight, as well as before.\"Armstrong turned down most requests for interviews and public appearances. Michael Collins said in his bookCarrying the Firethat when Armstrong moved to a dairy farm to become a college professor, it was like he \"retreated to his castle and pulled up the drawbridge\". Armstrong found this amusing, and said, \"...those of us that live out in the hinterlands think that people that live inside theBeltwayare the ones that have the problems.\" Andrew Chaikin says inA Man on the Moonthat Armstrong kept a low profile but was not a recluse, citing his","recluse, citing his participation in interviews, advertisements for Chrysler, and hosting a cable television series.Between 1991 and 1993, he hostedFirst Flights with Neil Armstrong, anaviation historydocumentary series onA&E.In 2010, Armstrong voiced the character of Dr. Jack Morrow inQuantum Quest: A Cassini Space Odyssey,an animated educational sci-fi adventure film initiated by JPL/NASA through a grant from Jet Propulsion Lab. Armstrong guarded the use of his name, image, and famous quote. When it was launched in 1981,MTVwanted to use his quote in itsstation identification, with the American flag replaced with the MTV logo, but he refused the use of his voice and likeness.He suedHallmark Cardsin 1994, when they used his name, and a recording of the \"one small step\" quote, in a Christmas ornament without his permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, which Armstrong donated to Purdue. For many years, he wrote letters congratulating new Eagle Scouts on their accomplishment,","accomplishment, but decided to quit the practice in the 1990s because he felt the letters should be written by people who knew the scout. (In 2003, he received 950congratulation requests.) This contributed to the myth of his reclusiveness.Armstrong used to autograph everything exceptfirst day covers. Around 1993, he found out his signatures were being sold online, and that most of them were forgeries, and stopped giving autographs. Personal life Some former astronauts, including Glenn andApollo 17'sHarrison Schmitt, sought political careers after leaving NASA. Armstrong was approached by groups from both theDemocraticandRepublicanparties but declined the offers. He supportedstates' rightsand opposed the U.S. acting as the \"world's policeman\". When Armstrong applied at a localMethodistchurch to lead a Boy Scout troop in the late 1950s, he gave his religious affiliation as \"deist\".His mother later said that his religious views caused her grief and distress in later life, as she was a Christian.Upon his return","his return from the Moon, Armstrong gave a speech in front of theU.S. Congressin which he thanked them for giving him the opportunity to see some of the \"grandest views of the Creator\".In the early 1980s, he was the subject of a hoax claiming that he converted toIslamafter hearing thecall to prayerwhile walking on the Moon. Indonesian singer Suhaemi wrote a song called \"Gema Suara Adzan di Bulan\" (\"The Resonant Sound of the Call to Prayer on the Moon\") which described Armstrong's supposed conversion, and the song was widely discussed byJakartanews outlets in 1983.Similar hoax stories were seen in Egypt and Malaysia. In March 1983, theU.S. State Departmentresponded by issuing a message to embassies and consulates in Muslim countries saying that Armstrong had not converted to Islam.The hoax surfaced occasionally for the next three decades. Part of the confusion arose from the similarity between the names of the country of Lebanon, which has a majority Muslim population, and Armstrong's longtime residence","longtime residence inLebanon, Ohio. In 1972, Armstrong visited the Scottish town ofLangholm, the traditional seat of Clan Armstrong. He was made the firstfreemanof the burgh, and happily declared the town his home.To entertain the crowd, theJustice of the Peaceread from an unrepealed archaic 400-year-old law that required him to hang any Armstrong found in the town. Armstrong flew light aircraft for pleasure. He enjoyedglidersand before the Moon flight had earned a gold badge with two diamonds from theInternational Gliding Commission. He continued to fly engineless aircraft well into his 70s. While working on his farm in November 1978, Armstrong jumped off the back of his grain truck and caught his wedding ring in its wheel, tearing the tip off his left ring finger. He collected the severed tip, packed it in ice, and had surgeons reattach it at a nearby hospital inLouisville, Kentucky.In February 1991, he suffered a mild heart attack while skiing with friends atAspen, Colorado. Armstrong and his first wife,","and his first wife, Janet, separated in 1990 and divorced in 1994 after 38 years of marriage.He met his second wife, Carol Held Knight, at a golf tournament in 1992, when they were seated together at breakfast. She said little to Armstrong, but he called her two weeks later to ask what she was doing. She replied that she was cutting down a cherry tree, and he arrived at her house 35 minutes later to help. They were married in Ohio on June 12, 1994, and had a second ceremony atSan Ysidro Ranchin California. They lived inIndian Hill, Ohio.Through his marriage to Carol, he was the father-in-law of futureNew York Metsgeneral managerBrodie Van Wagenen. In May 2005, Armstrong became involved in a legal dispute with Mark Sizemore, his barber of 20years. After cutting Armstrong's hair, Sizemore sold some of it to a collector for $3,000 without Armstrong's knowledge or permission.Armstrong threatened legal action against Sizemore unless he returned the hair or donated the proceeds to a charity of Armstrong's","of Armstrong's choosing. Sizemore, unable to retrieve the hair, donated the proceeds to charity. Illness and death On August 7, 2012, Armstrong underwentbypass surgeryatMercy Faith–Fairfield HospitalinFairfield, Ohio, to relievecoronary artery disease.Although he was reportedly recovering well,he developed complications and died on August 25.PresidentBarack Obamaissued a statement memorializing Armstrong as \"among the greatest of American heroes—not just of his time, but of all time\",and added that Armstrong had carried the aspirations of the United States' citizens and had delivered \"a moment of human achievement that will never be forgotten.\" Armstrong's family released a statement describing him as a \"reluctant American hero served his nation proudly, as a navy fighter pilot, test pilot, and astronaut ... While we mourn the loss of a very good man, we also celebrate his remarkable life and hope that it serves as an example to young people around the world to work hard to make their dreams come true, to","come true, to be willing to explore and push the limits, and to selflessly serve a cause greater than themselves. For those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil, we have a simple request. Honor his example of service, accomplishment and modesty, and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink.\" Buzz Aldrin called Armstrong \"a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew\", and said he was disappointed that they would not be able to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing together in 2019.Michael Collins said, \"He was the best, and I will miss him terribly.\"NASA AdministratorCharles Boldensaid, \"As long as there are history books, Neil Armstrong will be included in them, remembered for taking humankind's first small step on a world beyond our own\". A tribute was held for Armstrong on September 13, atWashington National Cathedral, whose Space Window depicts the Apollo 11 mission and holds a sliver of Moon","a sliver of Moon rock amid its stained-glass panels.In attendance were Armstrong's Apollo 11 crewmates, Collins and Aldrin; Gene Cernan, the Apollo 17 mission commander and last man to walk on the Moon; and former senator and astronaut John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth. In his eulogy, Charles Bolden praised Armstrong's \"courage, grace, and humility\". Cernan recalled Armstrong's low-fuel approach to the Moon: \"When the gauge says empty, we all know there's a gallon or two left in the tank!\"Diana Krallsang the song \"Fly Me to the Moon\". Collins led prayers. David Scott spoke, possibly for the first time, about an incident during their Gemini 8 mission: minutes before the hatch was to be sealed, a small chip of dried glue fell into the latch of his harness and prevented it from being buckled, threatening to abort the mission. Armstrong then called on Conrad to solve the problem, which he did, and the mission proceeded. \"That happened because Neil Armstrong was a team player—he always worked on","always worked on behalf of the team.\"CongressmanBill Johnsonfrom Armstrong's home state of Ohio led calls for President Barack Obama to authorize astate funeralin Washington D.C. Throughout his lifetime, Armstrong shunned publicity and rarely gave interviews. Mindful that Armstrong would have objected to a state funeral, his family opted to have a private funeral inCincinnati.On September 14, Armstrong's cremated remains were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean from theUSSPhilippine Sea.Flags were flown athalf-staffon the day of Armstrong's funeral. In July 2019, after observations of the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing,The New York Timesreported on details of amedical malpracticesuit Armstrong's family had filed against Mercy Health–Fairfield Hospital, where he died. When Armstrong appeared to be recovering from his bypass surgery, nurses removed the wires connected to his temporarypacemaker. He began tobleed internallyand his blood pressure dropped. Doctors took him to the","took him to the hospital'scatheterizationlaboratory, and only later began operating. Two of the three physicians who reviewed the medical files during the lawsuit called this a serious error, saying surgery should have begun immediately; experts theTimestalked to, while qualifying their judgement by noting that they were unable to review the specific records in the case, said that taking a patient directly to the operating room under those circumstances generally gave them the highest chance of survival. The family ultimately settled for $6 million in 2014. Letters included with the 93 pages of documents sent to theTimesby an unknown personshow that his sons intimated to the hospital, through their lawyers, that they might discuss what happened to their father publicly at the 45th anniversary observances in 2014. The hospital, fearing the bad publicity that would result from being accused of negligently causing the death of a revered figure such as Armstrong, agreed to pay as long as the family never spoke","family never spoke about the suit or the settlement.Armstrong's wife, Carol, was not a party to the lawsuit. She reportedly felt that her husband would have been opposed to taking legal action. Legacy When Pete Conrad ofApollo 12became the third man to walk on the Moon, on November 19, 1969, his first words referenced Armstrong. The shorter of the two, when Conrad stepped from the LM onto the surface he proclaimed \"Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.\" Armstrong received many honors and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom (with distinction) from President Nixon,theCullum Geographical Medalfrom theAmerican Geographical Society,and theCollier Trophyfrom theNational Aeronautic Association(1969);theNASA Distinguished Service Medaland theDr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy(1970);theSylvanus Thayer Awardby theUnited States Military Academy(1971);theCongressional Space Medal of Honorfrom PresidentJimmy Carter(1978);theWright Brothers Memorial","Brothers Memorial Trophyfrom the National Aeronautic Association (2001);and aCongressional Gold Medal(2011). Armstrong was elected as member into theNational Academy of Engineeringin 1978 for contributions to aerospace engineering, scientific knowledge, and exploration of the universe as an experimental test pilot and astronaut.He was elected to theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 2001. Armstrong and his Apollo 11 crewmates were the 1999 recipients of theLangley Gold Medalfrom the Smithsonian Institution.On April 18, 2006, he received NASA's Ambassador of Exploration Award.TheSpace Foundationnamed Armstrong as a recipient of its 2013 General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award.Armstrong was also inducted into theAerospace Walk of Honor,theInternational Space Hall of Fame,National Aviation Hall of Fame, and theUnited States Astronaut Hall of Fame.He was awarded hisNaval Astronaut badgein a ceremony on board the aircraft carrierUSSDwight D. Eisenhoweron March 10, 2010, in a ceremony attended by","attended by Lovell and Cernan. The lunar craterArmstrong, 31 miles (50 km) from the Apollo 11 landing site, andasteroid6469 Armstrongare named in his honor.There are more than a dozen elementary, middle and high schools named for Armstrong in the United States,and many places around the world have streets, buildings, schools, and other places named for him and/or Apollo.TheArmstrong Air and Space Museum, in Armstrong's hometown of Wapakoneta,and the Neil Armstrong Airport inNew Knoxville, Ohio, are named after him.The mineralarmstrongiteis named after him,and the mineralarmalcoliteis named, in part, after him. In October 2004 Purdue University named its new engineering buildingNeil Armstrong Hall of Engineering;the building was dedicated on October 27, 2007, during a ceremony at which Armstrong was joined by fourteen other Purdue astronauts.The NASA Dryden Flight Research Center was renamed the NASA Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center in 2014.In September 2012, the U.S. Navy named the","U.S. Navy named the firstArmstrong-class vesselRVNeil Armstrong. Delivered to the Navy on September 23, 2015, it is a modern oceanographic research platform supporting a wide range of activities by academic groups.In 2019, the College of Engineering at Purdue University celebrated the 50th anniversary of Neil Armstrong's walk on the Moon by launching the Neil Armstrong Distinguished Visiting Fellows Program, which brings highly accomplished scholars and practitioners to the college to catalyze collaborations with faculty and students. Armstrong's authorized biography,First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong, was published in 2005. For many years, he turned down biography offers from authors such asStephen AmbroseandJames A. Michenerbut agreed to work with James R. Hansen after reading one of Hansen's other biographies.He recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission, when he had believed there was only a 50% chance of landing on the Moon. \"I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we","surprised that we were successful\".Afilm adaptation of the book, starringRyan Goslingand directed byDamien Chazelle, was released in October 2018. In July 2018, Armstrong's sons put his collection of memorabilia up for sale, including his Boy Scout cap, and various flags and medals flown on his space missions. A series of auctions held November 1–3, 2018, realized $5,276,320 (~$6.31 million in 2023). As of July 2019, the auction sales totaled $16.7million.Two fragments of wood from the propeller and four pieces of fabric from the wing of the 1903Wright Flyerthat Armstrong took to the Moon fetched between $112,500 and $275,000 each.Armstrong's wife, Carol, has not put any of his memorabilia up for sale. Armstrong donated his papers to Purdue. Along with posthumous donations by his widow Carol, the collection consists of over 450boxes of material. In May 2019, she donated two 25-by-24-inch (640 by 610 mm) pieces of fabric from theWright Flyer, along with his correspondence related to them. In a 2010Space","In a 2010Space Foundationsurvey, Armstrong was ranked as the number-one most popular space hero;and in 2013,Flyingmagazine ranked him number one on its list of 51 Heroes of Aviation.The press often asked Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, he said that ahuman mission to Marswould be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s. In 2010, he made a rare public criticism of the decision to cancel theAres Ilaunch vehicle and theConstellation Moon landing program.In an open letter also signed by fellow Apollo veterans Lovell and Cernan, he said, \"For The United States, the leading space faring nation for nearly half a century, to be without carriage to low Earth orbit and with no human exploration capability to go beyond Earth orbit for an indeterminate time into the future, destines our nation to become one of second or even third rate stature\".On November 18, 2010, aged 80, he said in a speech during theScience & Technology Summitinthe Hague, Netherlands, that he would offer his","he would offer his services as commander on a mission to Mars if he were asked. The planetarium atAltoona Area High SchoolinAltoona, Pennsylvaniais named after Armstrong and is home to aSpace Racemuseum.A campsite in Camp Sandy Beach atYawgoog Scout ReservationinRockville, Rhode Island, is named in his honor, a nod to his Scouting career. Armstrong was named theclass exemplarfor the Class of 2019 at the U.S. Air Force Academy. See also Notes References Further reading External links","Grumman F9F Panther TheGrumman F9F Pantheris an earlycarrier-basedjet fighterdesigned and produced by the American aircraft manufacturerGrumman. It was the first jet-powered fighter aircraft to see air-to-air combat with theUnited States Navyas well as being Grumman’s first jet fighter. Development of the Panther commenced in the final months ofWorld War IIto harness the recent innovation of the jet engine. Grumman designed a single-engined, straight-wingedday fighterthat was armed with four 20 mm (0.79 in)cannonsand could also carry a wide assortment of air-to-ground munitions. Production aircraft were typically powered by a singleAllison J33orPratt & Whitney J48-P-2turbojetengine. On 21 November 1947, the prototype performed itsmaiden flight, powered by an importedRolls-Royce Neneengine. During September 1949, the F9F was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers. The Panther was used extensively by the U.S. Navy andMarine Corpsin theKorean War. On 3 July 1950, a F9F-3 recorded the first U.S. Navy air","first U.S. Navy air victory of the conflict, having shot down a propeller-poweredYak-9. In the Korean theatre, Panther pilots cumulatively claimed the shooting down of sevenMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s. During 1956, the type was withdrawn from front-line combat service, but remained in secondary roles, such as for training and with U.S. Naval Air Reserve and U.S. Marine Air Reserve units, until 1958. The Panther was also the first jet aircraft used by theBlue Angelsaerobaticsdemonstration team, being flown in this capacity from 1949 through to late 1954. FutureastronautsNeil ArmstrongandJohn Glennboth flew the F9F extensively during the Korean War. While Australia was interested in the Panther during the late 1940s, the nation ultimately opted for theGloster Meteor F.8and theCAC Sabreinstead. The aircraft's only export customer wasArgentina, where it became the first jet aircraft to be operated by theArgentine Naval Aviation. It was operated mainly from land, as thecatapultsof the aircraft","the aircraft carrierARAIndependencialacked sufficient power to readily launch the F9F. Several Panthers participated in the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt, firing upon Argentine Army forces sent to quell the revolt. During 1969, it was withdrawn from Argentine service due to a lack of spare parts. Grumman would develop the F9F design in response to U.S. Navy interest, producing theswept wingGrumman F-9 Cougar. Design and development Background The origins of the Panther can be traced back to development studies performed by Grumman into jet-powered fighter aircraft near the end ofWorld War II. The company was keen to capitalise on the emergence of the first practical jet engines by integrating them into a new aircraft design. This design, which was internally designatedG-75, was submitted to aUnited States Navycompetition that sought a jet-powerednight fighterto equip itsaircraft carrierswith. However, on 3 April 1946, it was announced that theDouglas F3D Skyknight, a competing two-seat aircraft powered by","aircraft powered by fourWestinghouse J30turbojets, had been selected. On 11 April 1946, the Navy'sBureau of Aeronautics(BuAer) issued a development contract to Grumman to produce a pair of G-75 prototypes, which were given the Navy designationXF9F-1, in case development of the Skyknight encountered severe problems. Shortly thereafter, Grumman recognised that the G-75 did not have much potential for either performance or growth; the company had already undertaken work on a completely different single-engine day fighter, theG-79. In a bureaucratic maneuver, BuAer opted not to cancel the G-75 contract, but instead changed the wording to include three prototypes of the entirely different G-79. It was this design that became the Panther. At that time, the few American engines that were available for use, such as theAllison J33andWestinghouse J34, were not considered to be sufficiently reliable;thus, the Navy specified the importedRolls-Royce Neneturbojet, which was also more powerful, at 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) of","lb (2,300 kg) of thrust. Production aircraft were to also be powered by the Nene, builtunder licensebyPratt & Whitneyas the J42.Since there was insufficient space within the wings and fuselage to provide sufficient fuel for the thirsty jet engine, the design team opted to add permanently mountedwingtip fuel tanks, which had incidental advantage of improving the fighter's rate ofroll.The wings featured another innovation in the form ofleading edgeflapsthat generated additional lift while landing;speed brakeswere also present on the underside of the fuselage. Flight testing On 21 November 1947, the prototype Panther conducted itsmaiden flight, piloted by test pilot Corky Meyer.It was followed by the second prototype only five days later.Initial issues with directional and longitudinal stability were encountered, but were quickly rectified. During one early land-basedarresting geartest, the detachable rear section of the aircraft unintentionally came off; remedial changes were made to avoid any future","to avoid any future repetition. During May 1949, carrier suitability trails commenced.In September 1949, the F9F was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers. During the development phase, Grumman decided to change the Panther's engine, selecting thePratt & Whitney J48-P-2, a license built version of theRolls-Royce RB.44 Tay. The other engine that had been tested was the Allison J33-A-16. The armament was a quartet of 20mm guns, the Navy having already switched to this caliber (as opposed to the USAAF/USAF which continued to use .50 caliberM2/M3guns). In addition, the Panther was soon armed with underwing air-to-ground rockets and up to 2,000 lb (910 kg) of bombs. From 1946, interest in developing an aircraft that harnessed the increasingly popularswept winggrew and, following concerns that the Panther was inferior to its MiG opponents over the skies of Korea, Grumman launched work on a conversion project, known as Design 93. This effort resulted in a swept-wing derivative, theF9F Cougar, which retained the","which retained the Panther's designation number.Later stage development work on the Panther continued, being largely focused on engine improvements, expanding fuel capacity, and the use of alternative munitions. In 1949, the Panther was considered by theAustraliangovernment, as a possible locally-built replacement for theMustangMk 23 andDe Havilland Vampirethen operated by theRoyal Australian Air Force(RAAF).The other designs considered initially were an Australian design, theCAC CA-23(an unconventional, twin-jetall-weather fighter) and theHawker P.1081. By mid-1950, however, RAAF Mustangs were in action inKoreaand seen as highly vulnerable to theMiG-15. An immediately available stop-gap in the shape of theGloster Meteor F.8was operated by the RAAF in Korea from July 1951. (After its less-than-satisfactory performance against MiGs, the Meteor was replaced from 1954 by theCAC Sabre– an Australian-built, up-engined variant of the F-86.) Operational history US Navy The Panther was the primary jet fighter and","jet fighter and ground-attack aircraft of both the US Navy and USMC during theKorean War. It was the widest used Navy jet fighter of the conflict, cumulatively flying 78,000 sorties. F9F-2s, F9F-3s and F9F-5s, as rugged attack aircraft, were able to sustain operations despite being frequently opposed by intense anti-aircraft fire. The pilots also appreciated the air conditioned cockpit, which made for a welcome change from the humid environment of piston-powered aircraft. On 3 July 1950,Lieutenant, junior gradeLeonard H. Plog, ofVF-51, flying an F9F-3 scored the first US Navy air victory of the war by shooting down a propeller-poweredYak-9. Despite their relatively low speed, Panther pilots also claimed sevenMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s, for the loss of two F9Fs. The first MiG-15 was downed on 9 November 1950, byLieutenant CommanderWilliam (Bill) Amen ofVF-111flying an F9F-2B, during aUN Commandattack on theSinuijubridges, near the mouth of the Yalu River.Two more MiG-15s were downed on 18 November 1950. On 18","1950. On 18 November 1952, the American aircraft carrierUSSOriskanyand three other carriers were operating in theSea of Japanconducting air strikes against the North Korean city ofHoeryong. The group launched four F9F's for a combat patrol near the North Korean border with China. The group's leader suffered mechanical problems and returned to the carrier together with his wingman. LtRoyce WilliamsofVF-781, flying offUSSOriskanyand his wingman continued on the mission. They then identified sevenSoviet Naval AviationMigs heading towards the task force from the Russian mainland. The naval commanders therefore ordered the two F9Fs to position themselves between the Migs and the carrier group. During this maneuver, four Soviet MiG-15s opened fire, despite the fact that the countries were not at war. Williams opened fire on the tail Mig, which dropped out of formation, and was followed down by Williams' wingman. What followed was a 35-minute dogfight between Williams and six MiG-15s. The Mig 15 was a more capable","was a more capable plane, but Williams nevertheless succeeded in shooting down three more. He ascribed this to both sides doing as they were trained, but the Soviet pilots making mistakes. While heading back to the carriers, Williams was out of ammo, but still had one Mig on his tail. The re-appearance of his wingman on the Mig's tail then scared this one off. By that time Williams's plane was so damaged that he could not turn sideways anymore.Oriskanywas therefore aligned with the plane, so he could land. After landing, his Panther was found to have 263 hits by cannon shells or fragments and was beyond repair. It was therefore pushed overboard. The engagement is little-known for two reasons. The US feared that publication of the incident could increase tensions with the Soviet Union.Another reason was the involvement of the USNational Security Agency(NSA) – the existence of which was then top secret – in planning the mission; the MiGs were intercepted as a result of intelligence provided by the NSA.The four","by the NSA.The four MiGs that were shot down were flown bySoviet Naval Aviationpilots: Russian sources confirmed Williams' claims, 40 years later, stating the pilots lost were Captains Belyakov and Vandalov, and Lieutenants Pakhomkin and Tarshinov. As the conflict progressed, Panthers became primarily tasked with ground attack missions.Attacks upon hostile anti-aircraft equipment were commonly conducted.This was a risky mission type, with numerous Panthers being damaged or even lost to fire from the same ground batteries that they were seeking to neutralize.Furthermore, the danger posed by these systems increased over time as more capable AA apparatus was supplied to the North Korean force.Panthers also routinely undertook aerial reconnaissance missions over Korea.Starting in 1952, the Panther began to be supplemented by the newer Cougar derivative in the theatre. Future astronautNeil Armstrongflew the F9F extensively during the Korean conflict,although he ejected from one of the aircraft after it was","after it was brought down by a wire strung across a valley in 1951.Future astronautJohn GlennandBoston Red Soxall-starbaseball playerTed Williamsalso flew the F9F as Marine Corps pilots. During 1956, the Panther was withdrawn from frontline combat service, having been displaced by new fighter aircraft, including its swept-wing Cougar derivative.However, the type remained active in secondary roles, such as for training and with U.S. Naval Air Reserve and U.S. Marine Air Reserve units, until 1958. The Navy'sBlue Angelsflight demonstration team used the Panther for four years, beginning in 1951. The Panther was the Blue Angels' first jet.Some Panthers continued to serve in small numbers into the 1960s.From September 1962, surviving operational Panthers were designated F-9 within the new combined US tri-service designation system. Argentine Navy The only foreign buyer of the Panther was theArgentine Naval Aviation, which purchased 28 ex-USN F9F-2B aircraft during 1957; the first 10 arrived in 1958. Only 24","in 1958. Only 24 aircraft were put in service, as the remainder were used as spares. The first flight of an Argentine Panther was in December 1958, and the last aircraft entered into service during January 1961. The catapult on the then only Argentine carrier,ARAIndependencia, was not powerful enough to launch the F9F,so the aircraft were land-based. However, in July 1963, a Panther (serial 0453/3-A-119) landed onIndependenciaas part of trials, the first jet to land on an Argentine aircraft carrier;it was not then catapult-launched, but off-loaded by crane when the ship returned to port. Argentine Navy F9F-2 Panthers were engaged in combat during the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt. Several rebel-controlled aircraft flew bombing and strafing runs against a column of the Army 8th Tank Regiment which was advancing on the rebellingPunta Indio Naval Air Base. The attack destroyed severalM4 Shermantanks while one F9F Panther was shot down. The Argentine Panthers were involved in the general mobilization during the1965","during the1965 border clash between Argentina and Chile, but no combat occurred. The type was removed from service during 1969 due to a lack of available spare parts, the service opted to replace them withDouglas A-4Q Skyhawks. The Argentine Navy also operated the F-9 Cougar trainer version. Variants Operators Surviving aircraft Argentina United States Specifications (F9F-5 Panther) Data fromUnited States Navy Aircraft since 1911 General characteristics Performance Armament Notable appearances in media The F9F Panther was featured in the 1954 Korean War filmThe Bridges at Toko-RistarringWilliam Holden,Grace Kelly,Mickey RooneyandFredric March, and inMen of the Fighting LadystarringVan Johnson,Walter PidgeonandKeenan Wynn. Stock footageof an F9F piloted byGeorge Chamberlain Duncancrashing into the fantail of theUSSMidway(CV-41)during a 1951 test flight appears in severalHollywoodfilms. See also Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists References Citations","Citations Bibliography Online sources Further reading External links","John Glenn John Herschel Glenn Jr.(July 18, 1921 – December 8, 2016) was an AmericanMarine Corps aviator,astronaut, businessman, and politician. He was the third American in space and the first American to orbit the Earth, circling it three times in 1962.Following his retirement fromNASA, he served from 1974 to 1999 as aU.S. SenatorfromOhio; in 1998, he flew into space again at the age of 77. Before joining NASA, Glenn was a distinguishedfighter pilotinWorld War II, theChinese Civil War, and theKorean War. He shot down threeMiG-15sand was awarded sixDistinguished Flying Crossesand eighteenAir Medals. In 1957, he made the firstsupersonictranscontinental flightacross the United States. His on-board camera took the first continuous, panoramic photograph of the United States. Glenn was one of theMercury Sevenmilitarytest pilotsselected in 1959 by NASA as the nation's first astronauts. On February 20, 1962, Glenn flew theFriendship 7mission, becoming the first American to orbit the Earth. He was the third","He was the third American, and the fifth person, to be in space. He received theNASA Distinguished Service Medalin 1962, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, was inducted into theU.S. Astronaut Hall of Famein 1990, and received thePresidential Medal of Freedomin 2012. Glenn resigned from NASA in January 1964. A member of the Democratic Party, Glenn was firstelected to the Senate in 1974and served for 24 years until January 1999. In 1998, at age 77, Glenn flew onSpace ShuttleDiscovery'sSTS-95mission, making him the oldest person to enter Earth orbit, the only person to fly in both the Mercury and theSpace Shuttle programs, and the first Member of Congress to visit space since CongressmanBill Nelson(D-Fla.) in 1986. Glenn, both the oldest and the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven, died at the age of 95 on December 8, 2016. Early life and education John Herschel Glenn Jr. was born on July 18, 1921, in Cambridge, Ohio, the son of John Herschel Glenn Sr. (1895–1966), who worked for a plumbing","for a plumbing firm, and Clara Teresa Glenn (néeSproat; 1897–1971), a teacher.His parents had married shortly before John Sr., a member of theAmerican Expeditionary Force, left for theWestern FrontduringWorld War I. The family moved toNew Concord, Ohio, soon after his birth, and his father started his own business, the Glenn Plumbing Company.Glenn Jr. was only a toddler when he metAnna Margaret (Annie) Castor, whom he would later marry. The two would not be able to recall a time when they did not know each other.He first flew in an airplane with his father when he was eight years old. He became fascinated by flight and built model airplanes frombalsa woodkits.Along with his adopted sister Jean,he attended New Concord Elementary School.He washed cars and soldrhubarbto earn money to buy a bicycle, after which he took a job deliveringThe Columbus Dispatchnewspaper.He was a member of theOhio Rangers, an organization similar to theCub Scouts.His boyhood home in New Concord has beenrestoredas ahistoric house","ahistoric house museumand education center. Glenn attendedNew Concord High School, where he played on thevarsityfootballteam as acenterandlinebacker. He also made the varsitybasketballandtennisteams and was involved with Hi-Y, a junior branch of theYMCA.After graduating in 1939, Glenn enteredMuskingum College(now Muskingum University), where he studiedchemistry,joined the Stag Club fraternity,and played on the football team.Annie majored in music with minors in secretarial studies and physical education and competed on the swimming andvolleyballteams, graduating in 1942.Glenn earned aprivate pilot licenseand a physics course credit for free through theCivilian Pilot Training Programin 1941.He did not complete his senior year in residence or take a proficiency exam, both required by the school for itsBachelor of Sciencedegree. Military career World War II When the United States entered World War II, Glenn quit college to enlist in theU.S. Army Air Corps.He was not called to duty by the Army and enlisted as","and enlisted as aU.S. Navyaviation cadetin March 1942. Glenn attended theUniversity of IowainIowa Cityfor pre-flight training and made his first solo flight in a military aircraft atNaval Air Station OlatheinKansas, where he went for primary training. During advanced training atNaval Air Station Corpus ChristiinTexas, he accepted an offer to transfer to theU.S. Marine Corps.Having completed his flight training in March 1943, Glenn was commissioned as asecond lieutenant. Glenn married Annie in a Presbyterian ceremony at College Drive Church in New Concord on April 6, 1943.After advanced training atCamp Kearny, California, he was assigned to Marine SquadronVMJ-353, which flewR4Dtransport planes from there. ThefightersquadronVMO-155was also at Camp Kearny flying theGrumman F4F Wildcat. Glenn approached the squadron's commander,MajorJ. P. Haines, who suggested that he could put in for a transfer. This was approved, and Glenn was posted to VMO-155 on July 2, 1943, two days before the squadron moved toMarine Corps","toMarine Corps Air Station El Centroin California.The Wildcat was obsolete by this time, and VMO-155 re-equipped with theF4U Corsairin September 1943.He was promoted tofirst lieutenantin October 1943, and shipped out to Hawaii in January 1944.VMO-155 became part of the garrison onMidway Atollon February 21,then moved to theMarshall Islandsin June 1944 and flew 57 combat missions in the area.He received two Distinguished Flying Crosses and ten Air Medals. At the end of his one-year tour of duty in February 1945, Glenn was assigned toMarine Corps Air Station Cherry PointinNorth Carolina, then toNaval Air Station Patuxent Riverin Maryland. He was promoted tocaptainin July 1945 and ordered back to Cherry Point. There, he joined VMF-913, another Corsair squadron, and learned that he had qualified for a regular commission.In March 1946, he was assigned toMarine Corps Air Station El Toroin southern California. He volunteered for service with the occupation in North China, believing it would be a short tour. He","be a short tour. He joinedVMF-218(another Corsair squadron), which was based atNanyuan Fieldnear Beijing, in December 1946,and flew patrol missions until VMF-218 was transferred toGuamin March 1947. In December 1948, Glenn was re-posted to NAS Corpus Christi as a student at the Naval School of All-Weather Flight before becoming aflight instructor.In July 1951, he traveled to theAmphibious Warfare SchoolatMarine Corps Base Quanticoin northernVirginiafor a six-month course.He then joined the staff of the commandant of the Marine Corps Schools. He maintained his proficiency (and flight pay) by flying on weekends and was only allowed four hours of flying time per month.He was promoted to major in July 1952.Glenn received theWorld War II Victory Medal,American Campaign Medal,Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal(with onestar),Navy Occupation Service Medal(with Asia clasp), and theChina Service Medalfor his efforts. Korean War Glenn moved his family back to New Concord during a short period of leave, and after two and a","and after two and a half months of jet training at Cherry Point, was ordered toSouth Koreain October 1952, late in the Korean War.Before he set out for Korea in February 1953, he applied to fly theF-86 Sabrejetfighter-interceptorthrough an inter-service exchange position with theU.S. Air Force(USAF). In preparation, he arranged with Colonel Leon W. Gray to check out the F-86 atOtis Air Force BaseinMassachusetts.Glenn reported toK-3, an airbase in South Korea, on February 3, 1953, and was assigned to be the operations officer forVMF-311, one of two Marine fighter squadrons there while he waited for the exchange assignment to go through.VMF-311 was equipped with theF9F Pantherjetfighter-bomber. Glenn's first mission was a reconnaissance flight on February 26.He flew 63 combat missions in Korea with VMF-311and was nicknamed \"Magnet Ass\" because of the number offlakhits he took on low-levelclose air supportmissions;twice, he returned to base with over 250 holes in his plane.He flew for a time with Marine","a time with Marine reservistTed Williams(then in the midst of aHall of Famebaseball career with theBoston Red Sox) as hiswingman.Williams later said about Glenn \"Absolutely fearless. The best I ever saw. It was an honor to fly with him.\"Glenn also flew with future major generalRalph H. Spanjer. In June 1953, Glenn reported for duty with the USAF's25th Fighter-Interceptor Squadronand flew 27 combat missions in the F-86, a much faster aircraft than the F9F Panther, patrollingMiG Alley.Combat with aMiG-15, which was faster and better armed still,was regarded as a rite of passage for a fighter pilot. On the Air Force buses that ferried the pilots out to the airfields before dawn, pilots who had engaged a MiG could sit while those who had not had to stand.Glenn later wrote, \"Since the days of theLafayette Escadrilleduring World War I, pilots have viewed air-to-air combat as the ultimate test not only of their machines but of their own personal determination and flying skills. I was no exception.\"He hoped to","hoped to become the second Marine jetflying aceafterJohn F. Bolt. Glenn's USAF squadron mates painted \"MiG Mad Marine\" on his aircraft when he complained about there not being any MIGs to shoot at.He shot down his first MiG in adogfighton July 12, 1953, downed a second one on July 19, and a third on July 22 when four Sabres shot down three MiGs. These were the final air victories of the war, which ended with an armistice five days later.For his service in Korea, Glenn received two more Distinguished Flying Crosses and eight more Air Medals.Glenn also received theKorean Service Medal(with two campaign stars),United Nations Korea Medal,Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal,National Defense Service Medal(with one star), and theKorean War Service Medal. Test pilot With combat experience as a fighter pilot, Glenn applied for training as atest pilotwhile still in Korea. He reported to theU.S. Naval Test Pilot SchoolatNAS Patuxent Riverin Maryland in January 1954 and graduated in July.At Patuxent River, futureMedal of","futureMedal of HonorrecipientJames Stockdaletutored him in physics and math.Glenn's first flight test assignment, testing theFJ-3 Fury, nearly killed him when its cockpit depressurized and its oxygen system failed.He also tested the armament of aircraft such as theVought F7U CutlassandF8U Crusader.From November 1956 to April 1959, he was assigned to the Fighter Design Branch of the NavyBureau of Aeronauticsin Washington, D.C., and attended theUniversity of Maryland. On July 16, 1957, Glenn made the firstsupersonictranscontinental flight.Disliking his Bureau of Aeronautics desk job, he devised the flight as both a way to keep flying and publicly demonstrate the F8U Crusader.At that time, the transcontinental speed record, held by an Air ForceRepublic F-84 Thunderjet, was 3 hours 45 minutes and Glenn calculated that the F8U Crusader could do it faster. Because its 586-mile-per-hour (943 km/h) air speed was faster than that of a.45 caliber bullet, Glenn called the flightProject Bullet.He flew an F8U Crusader","an F8U Crusader 2,445 miles (3,935 km) fromLos Alamitos, California, toFloyd Bennett Fieldin New York City in 3 hours, 23 minutes and 8.3 seconds,averaging supersonic speed despite threein-flight refuelingswhen speeds dropped below 300 miles per hour (480 km/h). His on-board camera took the first continuous, transcontinentalpanoramic photographof the United States.He received his fifth Distinguished Flying Cross for this mission,and was promoted tolieutenant colonelon April 1, 1959.The cross-country flight made Glenn a minor celebrity. A profile appeared inThe New York Times,and he appeared on the television showName That Tune.Glenn now had nearly 9,000 hours of flying time, including about 3,000 hours in jets,but knew that at the age of 36, he was now likely too old to continue to fly. NASA career Selection On October 4, 1957, theSoviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1, the first artificialsatellite. This damaged American confidence in its technological superiority, creating a wave of anxiety known as theSputnik","known as theSputnik crisis. In response, PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerlaunched theSpace Race. TheNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) was established on October 1, 1958, as a civilian agency to develop space technology. One of its first initiatives was announced on December 17, 1958. This wasProject Mercury,which aimed to launch a man intoEarth orbit, return him safely to the Earth, and evaluate his capabilities in space. His Bureau of Aeronautics job gave Glenn access to new spaceflight news, such as theX-15rocket plane.While on duty at Patuxent and in Washington, Glenn read everything he could find about space. His office was asked to send a test pilot toLangley Air Force Basein Virginia to make runs on a spaceflight simulator, as part of research by the newly formed NASA into re-entry vehicle shapes. The pilot would also be sent to theNaval Air Development CenterinJohnsville, Pennsylvania, and would be subjected to highG-forcesin acentrifugefor comparison with data collected in the","collected in the simulator. His request for the position was granted, and he spent several days at Langley and a week in Johnsville for the testing.As one of the very few pilots to have done such testing, Glenn had become an expert on the subject.NASA asked military-service members to participate in planning themockupof a spacecraft. Having participated in the research at Langley and Johnsville, he was sent to theMcDonnellplant inSt. Louisas a service adviser to NASA's spacecraft mockup board.Envisioning himself in the vehicle, Glenn stated that the passenger would have to be able to control the spacecraft. McDonnell engineers told him of the importance of lightening the vehicle as much as possible, so Glenn began exercising to lose the 30 pounds he estimated that he was overweight. Eisenhower directed NASA to recruit its first astronauts from military test pilots. Of 508 graduates of test pilot schools, 110 matched the minimum standards.Marine Corps pilots were mistakenly omitted at first; two were quickly","two were quickly found, including Glenn.The candidates had to be younger than 40, possess a bachelor's degree or equivalent, and be 5 feet 11 inches (1.80 m) or less. Only the height requirement was strictly enforced, owing to the size of the Project Mercury spacecraft.This was fortunate for Glenn, who barely met the requirements, as he was near the age cutoff and lacked a science-based degree,but had taken more classes since leaving college than needed for graduation. Glenn was otherwise so outstanding a candidate that Colonel Jake Dill, his commanding officer at test pilot school, visited NASA headquarters to insist that Glenn would be the perfect astronaut. For an interview with Charles Donlan, associate director of Project Mercury, Glenn brought the results from the centrifuge to show that he had done well on a test that perhaps no other candidate had taken. Donlan also noticed that Glenn stayed late at night to study schematics of the Mercury spacecraft.He was among the 32 of the first 69 candidates","first 69 candidates that passed the first step of the evaluation and were interested in continuing, sufficient for the astronaut corps NASA wanted.On February 27 a grueling series of physical and psychological tests began at theLovelace Clinicand theWright Aerospace Medical Laboratory. Because of his Bureau of Aeronautics job, Glenn was already participating in Project Mercury; while other candidates were at Wright, on March 17 he and most of those who would choose the astronauts visited the McDonnell plant building the spacecraft to inspect its progress and make changes. While Glenn had not scored the highest on all the tests, a member of the selection committee recalled how he had impressed everyone with his \"strength of personality and his dedication\". On April 6 Donlan called Glenn to offer him a position at Project Mercury,one of seven candidates chosen as astronauts.Glenn was pleased while Annie was supportive but wary of the danger; during his three years at Patuxent, 12 test pilots had died. The","had died. The identities of the seven were announced at a press conference atDolley Madison Housein Washington, D.C., on April 9, 1959:Scott Carpenter,Gordon Cooper, Glenn,Gus Grissom,Wally Schirra,Alan Shepard, andDeke Slayton.InThe Right Stuff,Tom Wolfewrote that Glenn \"came out of it as tops among seven very fair-haired boys. He had the hottest record as a pilot, he was the most quotable, the most photogenic, and the lone Marine.\"The magnitude of the challenge ahead of them was made clear a few weeks later, on the night of May 18, 1959, when the seven astronauts gathered atCape Canaveralto watch their first rocket launch, of anSM-65D Atlas, which was similar to the one that was to carry them into orbit. A few minutes after liftoff, it exploded spectacularly, lighting up the night sky. The astronauts were stunned. Shepard turned to Glenn and said: \"Well, I'm glad they got that out of the way.\" Glenn remained an officer in the Marine Corps after his selection,and was assigned to the NASA Space Task Group","Space Task Group atLangley Research CenterinHampton, Virginia.The task force moved toHouston, Texas, in 1962, and became part of the NASAManned Spacecraft Center.A portion of the astronauts' training was in the classroom, where they learned space science. The group also received hands-on training, which includedscuba divingand work in simulators.Astronauts secured an additional role in the spaceflight program: to provide pilot input in design. The astronauts divided the various tasks between them. Glenn's specialization was cockpit layout design and control functioning for the Mercury and earlyApollo programs.He pressed the other astronauts to set a moral example, living up to the squeaky-clean image of them that had been portrayed byLifemagazine, a position that was not popular with the other astronauts. Friendship 7flight Glenn was the backup pilot for Shepard and Grissom on the first two crewed Project Mercury flights, the sub-orbital missionsMercury-Redstone 3andMercury-Redstone 4.Glenn was selected for","was selected for Mercury-Atlas 6, NASA's first crewed orbital flight, with Carpenter as his backup. Putting a man in orbit would achieve one of Project Mercury's most important goals.Shepard and Grissom had named their spacecraftFreedom 7andLiberty Bell 7. The numeral 7 had originally been the production number of Shepard's spacecraft, but had come to represent the Mercury 7. Glenn named his spacecraft, number 13,Friendship 7, and had the name hand-painted on the side like the one on his F-86 had been.Glenn and Carpenter completed their training for the mission in January 1962, but postponement of the launch allowed them to continue rehearsing. Glenn spent 25 hours and 25 minutes in the spacecraft performing hangar and altitude tests, and 59 hours and 45 minutes in the simulator. He flew 70 simulated missions and reacted to 189 simulated system failures. After a long series of delays,Friendship 7lifted off fromCape Canaveral Air Force Stationon February 20, 1962. During the countdown, there were eleven","there were eleven delays due to equipment malfunctions and improvements and the weather. During Glenn's first orbit, a failure of the automatic-control system was detected. This forced Glenn to operate in manual mode for the second and third orbits, and for re-entry. Later in the flight, telemetry indicated that theheat shieldhad loosened. If this reading had been accurate, Glenn and his spacecraft would have burned up on re-entry. After a lengthy discussion on how to deal with this problem, ground controllers decided that leaving the retrorocket pack in place might help keep the loose heat shield in place. They relayed these instructions to Glenn, but did not tell him the heat shield was possibly loose; although confused at this order, he complied. The retrorocket pack broke up into large chunks of flaming debris that flew past the window of his capsule during re-entry; Glenn thought this might have been the heat shield. He told an interviewer, \"Fortunately it was the rocket pack—or I wouldn't be answering","be answering these questions.\"After the flight, it was determined that the heat shield was not loose; the sensor was faulty. Friendship 7safelysplashed down800 miles (1,290 km) southeast of Cape Canaveral after Glenn's 4-hour, 55-minute flight.He carried a note on the flight which read, \"I am a stranger. I come in peace. Take me to your leader and there will be a massive reward for you in eternity\" in several languages, in case he landed near southern Pacific Ocean islands.The original procedure called for Glenn to exit through the top hatch, but he was uncomfortably warm and decided that egress through the side hatch would be faster.During the flight, he endured up to 7.8 g of acceleration and traveled 75,679 miles (121,794 km) at about 17,500 miles per hour (28,200 km/h).The flight took Glenn to a maximum altitude (apogee) of about 162 miles (261 km) and a minimum altitude of 100 miles (160 km) (perigee).Unlike the crewed missions ofSoviet Union'sVostok programme, Glenn remained within the spacecraft","the spacecraft during landing.The flight made Glenn the first American toorbitthe Earth,the third American in space, and the fifth human in space.The mission, which Glenn called the \"best day of his life\", renewed U.S. confidence.His flight occurred while the U.S. and the Soviet Union were embroiled in theCold Warand competing in the Space Race. As the first American in orbit, Glenn became a national hero, met PresidentJohn F. Kennedy, and received aticker-tape paradein New York reminiscent of those honoringCharles Lindberghand other heroes. He became \"so valuable to the nation as an iconic figure\", according to NASA administratorCharles Bolden, that Kennedy would not \"risk putting him back in space again.\"Glenn's fame and political potential were noted by the Kennedys, and he became a friend of theKennedy family. On February 23, 1962, President Kennedy gave him theNASA Distinguished Service Medalfor hisFriendship 7flight.Upon receiving the award, Glenn said, \"I would like to consider I was a figurehead for","a figurehead for this whole big, tremendous effort, and I am very proud of the medal I have on my lapel.\"Glenn also received his sixth Distinguished Flying Cross for his efforts.He was among the first group of astronauts to be awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. The award was presented to him by President Jimmy Carter in 1978. After his 1962 spaceflight, NASA proposed giving Glenn theMedal of Honor, but Glenn did not think that would be appropriate. His military and space awards were stolen from his home in 1978, and he remarked that he would keep this medal in a safe. Comments about women in space In 1962, NASA contemplated recruiting women to the astronaut corps via theMercury 13, but Glenn gave a speech before theHouse Space Committeedetailing his opposition to sending women into space, in which he said: I think this gets back to the way our social order is organized, really. It is just a fact. The men go off and fight the wars and fly the airplanes and come back and help design and build and","and build and test them. The fact that women are not in this field is a fact of our social order. In May 1965, after he left NASA, Glenn was quoted in theMiami Heraldas saying NASA \"offer a serious chance for space women\" as scientist astronauts. NASA had no official policy prohibiting women, but the requirement that astronauts had to be test pilots effectively excluded them.NASA dropped this requirement in 1965,but did not select any women as astronauts until 1978, when six women were selected, none as pilots.In June 1963, the Soviet Union launched a female cosmonaut,Valentina Tereshkova, into orbit. After Tereshkova, no women of any nationality flew in space again until August 1982, when the Soviet Union launched pilot-cosmonautSvetlana Savitskaya.During the late 1970s, Glenn reportedly supportedSpace ShuttleMission SpecialistJudith Resnikin her career. Political campaigning 1964 Senate campaign At 42, Glenn was the oldest member of the astronaut corps and would likely be close to 50 by the time the lunar","the time the lunar landings took place. During Glenn's training, NASA psychologists determined that he was the astronaut best suited for public life.Attorney GeneralRobert F. Kennedysuggested to Glenn and his wife in December 1962 that he run for the1964 United States Senate election in Ohio, challenging aging incumbentStephen M. Young(1889–1984) in the Democratic primary election. As it seemed unlikely that he would be selected forProject Apollomissions,he resigned from NASA on January 16, 1964, and announced hisDemocratic Partycandidacy for theU.S. Senatefrom his home state of Ohio the following day,becoming the firstastronaut-politician.Glenn was still a Marine and had plenty of unused leave time. He elected to use it while he waited for his retirement papers to go through. To avoid partisanship, NASA quickly closed Glenn's agency office.The New York Timesreported that while many Ohioans were skeptical of Glenn's qualifications for the Senate, he could defeat Young in the Democratic primary; whether he","primary; whether he could defeat RepresentativeRobert Taft Jr., the likely Republican candidate, in the general election was much less clear.In late February he was hospitalized for aconcussionsustained in a fall against a bathtub while attempting to fix a mirror in a hotel room;an inner-ear injury from the accident left him unable to campaign.Both his wife and Scott Carpenter campaigned on his behalf during February and March, but doctors gave Glenn a recovery time of one year. Glenn did not want to win solely because of his astronaut fame, so he dropped out of the race on March 30. Glenn was still on leave from the Marine Corps, and he withdrew his papers to retire so he could keep a salary and health benefits.Glenn was on the list of potential candidates to be promoted to full colonel, but he notified theCommandant of the Marine Corpsof his intention to retire so another Marine could receive the promotion. President Johnson later decided to promote Glenn to full colonel status without taking someone","taking someone else's slot. He retired as acolonelon January 1, 1965. Glenn was approached byRC Colato join their public relations department, but Glenn declined it because he wanted to be involved with a business and not just the face of it. The company revised their offer and offered Glenn a vice president of corporate development position, as well as a place on the board of directors.The company later expanded Glenn's role, promoting him to president of Royal Crown International.A Senate seat was open in 1968, and Glenn was asked about his current political aspirations. He said he had no current plan, and \"Let's talk about it one of these days.\" Glenn also said that a 1970 Senate run was a possibility. In 1973, he and a friend bought aHoliday InnnearDisney World.The success of Disney World expanded to their business, and the pair built three more hotels.One of Glenn's business partners wasHenri Landwirth, aHolocaustsurvivor who became his best friend.He remembered learning about Landwirth's background:","background: \"Henri doesn't talk about it much. It was years before he spoke about it with me and then only because of an accident. We were down in Florida during the space program. Everyone was wearing short-sleeved Ban-Lon shirts—everyone but Henri. Then one day I saw Henri at the pool and noticed thenumber on his arm. I told Henri that if it were me I'd wear that number like a medal with a spotlight on it.\" 1970 Senate campaign Glenn remained close to the Kennedy family, and campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy during his1968 presidential campaign.In 1968, Glenn was in Kennedy's hotel suite when Kennedy heard he had won California. Glenn was supposed to go with him to celebrate but decided not to as there would be many people there. Kennedy went downstairs to make his victory speech andwas assassinated. Glenn and Annie went with Kennedy to the hospital, and the next morning took Kennedy's children home to Virginia.Glenn was later a pallbearer at the funeral in New York. In 1970, Young did not seek reelection","not seek reelection and the seat was open. BusinessmanHoward Metzenbaum, Young's former campaign manager, was backed by theOhio Democratic partyand major labor unions, which provided him a significant funding advantage over Glenn. Glenn's camp persuaded him to be thrifty during the primary so he could save money for the general election. By the end of the primary campaign, Metzenbaum was spending four times as much as Glenn.Glenn was defeated in the Democratic primary by Metzenbaum (who received 51 percent of the vote to Glenn's 49 percent). Some prominent Democrats said Glenn was a \"hapless political rube\", and one newspaper called him \"the ultimate square\". Metzenbaum lost the general election to Robert Taft Jr.Glenn remained active in the political scene following his defeat. GovernorJohn J. Gilliganappointed Glenn to be the chairman of the Citizens Task Force on Environmental Protection in 1970. The task force was created to survey environmental problems in the state and released a report in 1971","a report in 1971 detailing the issues. The meetings and the final report of the task force were major contributors to the formation of Ohio'sEnvironmental Protection Agency. 1974 Senate campaign In 1973, President Nixon orderedAttorney GeneralElliot Richardsonto fireWatergatespecial prosecutorArchibald Cox. Richardson refused and resigned in protest, triggering theSaturday Night massacre. Ohio SenatorWilliam Saxbe, elected in 1968, was appointed attorney general. Both Glenn and Metzenbaum sought the vacated seat, which was to be filled by Governor John Gilligan. Gilligan was planning on a presidential or vice-presidential run in the near future, and offered Glenn thelieutenant governorposition, with the thought that Glenn would ascend to governor when Gilligan was elected to a higher position. The Ohio Democratic party backed this solution to avoid what was expected to be a divisive primary battle between Metzenbaum and Glenn. He declined, denouncing their attempts as \"bossism\" and \"blackmail\".Glenn's","\"blackmail\".Glenn's counteroffer suggested that Gilligan fill the position with someone other than Metzenbaum or Glenn so neither would have an advantage going into the 1974 election. Metzenbaum's campaign agreed to back Gilligan in his governor re-election campaign, and Metzenbaum was subsequently appointed in January 1974 to the vacated seat.At the end of Saxbe's term, Glenn challenged Metzenbaum in the primary for the Ohio Senate seat. Glenn's campaign changed their strategy after the 1970 election. In 1970, Glenn won most of the counties in Ohio but lost in those with larger populations. The campaign changed its focus, and worked primarily in the large counties.In the primary, Metzenbaum contrasted his strong business background with Glenn's military and astronaut credentials and said that his opponent had \"never held a payroll\". Glenn's reply became known as the \"Gold Star Mothers\" speech. He told Metzenbaum to go to a veterans' hospital and \"look those men with mangled bodies in the eyes and tell them","eyes and tell them they didn't hold a job. You go with me to any Gold Star mother and you look her in the eye and tell her that her son did not hold a job\".He defeated Metzenbaum 54 to 46 percent before defeatingRalph Perk(the RepublicanmayorofCleveland) in the general election, beginning a Senate career which would continue until 1999. 1976 vice presidential consideration AfterJimmy Carterbecame the presumptive Democratic nominee for president in the1976 election, Glenn was reported to bein considerationto be Carter's running mate because he was a senator in a pivotal state and for his fame and straightforwardness.Some thought he was too much like Carter, partially because they both had military backgrounds, and he did not have enough experience to become president.Barbara Jordanwas the first keynote speaker at the Democratic National Convention. Her speech electrified the crowd and was filled with applause and standing ovations. Glenn's keynote address immediately followed Jordan's, and he failed to","and he failed to impress the delegates. Walter Cronkite described it as \"dull\", and other delegates complained that he was hard to hear.Carter called Glenn to inform him the nomination was going to another candidate and later nominated the veteran politicianWalter Mondale. It was also reported that Carter's wife thought Annie Glenn, who had a stutter, would hurt the campaign. 1980 Senate campaign In his first reelection campaign, Glenn ran opposed in the primary for the 1980 Senate election. His opponents, engineer Francis Hunstiger and ex-teacher Frances Waterman, were not well-known and poorly funded.His opponents spent only a few thousand dollars on the campaign, while Glenn spent $700,000.Reporters noted that for a race he was likely to win, Glenn was spending a lot of time and money on the campaign. His chief strategist responded to the remarks saying, \"It's the way he does things. He takes nothing for granted.\"Glenn won the primary by a landslide, with 934,230 of the 1.09 million votes. Jim Betts, who","Jim Betts, who ran unopposed in the Republican primary, challenged Glenn for his seat. Betts publicly stated that Glenn's policies were part of the reason for inflation increases and a lower standard of living.Betts' campaign also attacked Glenn's voting record, saying that he often voted for spending increases. Glenn's campaign's response was that he has been a part of over 3,000 roll calls and \"any one of them could be taken out of context\".Glenn was projected to win the race easily,and won by the largest margin ever for an Ohio Senator, defeating Betts by over 40 percent. 1984 presidential campaign Glenn was unhappy with how divided the country was, and thought labels like conservative and liberal increased the divide. He considered himself a centrist. Glenn thought a more centrist president would help unite the country. Glenn believed his experience as a senator from Ohio was ideal because of the state's diversity.Glenn thought thatTed Kennedycould win the election, but after Kennedy's announcement in","announcement in late 1982 that he would not seek the presidency, Glenn thought he had a much better chance of winning. He hired a media consultant to help him with his speaking style. Glenn announced hiscandidacy for presidenton April 21, 1983, in theJohn Glenn High Schoolgymnasium.He started out the campaign out-raising the front-runner, Mondale. He also polled the highest of any Democrat against Reagan.During the fall of 1983,The Right Stuff, a film about the Mercury Seven astronauts, was released. Reviewers sawEd Harris' portrayal of Glenn as heroic and his staff began to publicize the film to the press.One reviewer said that \"Harris' depiction helped transform Glenn from a history-book figure into a likable, thoroughly adoration-worthy Hollywood hero,\" turning him into a big-screen icon.Others considered the movie to be damaging to Glenn's campaign, serving as only a reminder that Glenn's most significant achievement had occurred decades earlier.Glenn's autobiography said the film \"had a chilling effect","a chilling effect on the campaign.\" William White managed Glenn's campaign until his replacement by Jerry Vento on January 26, 1984.Glenn's campaign decided to forgo the traditional campaigning in early caucuses and primaries and focus on building campaign offices nationwide. He opened offices in 43 states by January 1984. Glenn's campaign spent a significant amount of money on television advertising in Iowa, and Glenn chose not to attend an Iowan debate on farm issues. He finished fifth in the Iowa caucus and went on to lose New Hampshire. Glenn's campaign continued intoSuper Tuesday, and he lost there as well. He announced his withdrawal from the race on March 16, 1984.After Mondale defeated him for the nomination, Glenn carried $3 million in campaign debt for over 20 years before receiving a reprieve from theFederal Election Commission. 1986 Senate campaign Glenn's Senate seat was challenged byThomas Kindness. Kindness was unopposed in his primary, while Glenn facedLyndon LaRouchesupporter Don Scott.","Don Scott. LaRouche supporters had been recently elected in Illinois, but the Ohio Democratic Party chairman did not think it was likely they would see the same success in Ohio.LaRouche was known for his fringe theories, such as the queen of England being a drug dealer.Kindness spoke to his supporters and warned them against LaRouche candidates. He issued a statement telling voters to reject LaRouche candidates in both Republican and Democratic primaries.Glenn won the primary contest with 88% of the vote. With the primary complete, Glenn began his campaign against Kindness. Glenn believed he and other Democrats were the targets of a negative campaign thought up by the GOP strategists in Washington. Kindness focused on Glenn's campaign debts for his failed presidential run and the fact he stopped payments on it while campaigning for the Senate seat.After winning the race with 62% of the vote, Glenn remarked, \"We proved that in 1986, they couldn't kill Glenn with Kindness.\" 1992 Senate campaign In 1992,","campaign In 1992, RepublicanMike DeWinewon the Republican primary and challenged Glenn in the Senate election. Glenn ran unopposed in the primary.DeWine's campaign focused on the need for change and for term limits for senators. This would be Glenn's fourth term as senator.DeWine also criticized Glenn's campaign debts, using a bunny dressed as an astronaut beating a drum, with an announcer saying, \"He just keeps owing and owing and owing\", a play on theEnergizer Bunny.During a debate, Glenn asked DeWine to stop his negative campaign ads, saying \"This has been the most negative campaign\". DeWine responded that he would if Glenn would disclose how he spent the money he received fromCharles Keating, fallout from Glenn being named one of theKeating Five.Glenn won the Senate seat, with 2.4 million votes to DeWine's 2 million votes.It was DeWine's first-ever campaign loss. DeWine later worked on the intelligence committee with Glenn and watched his second launch into space. Senate career Committee on Governmental","on Governmental Affairs Glenn requested to be assigned to two committees during his first year as senator: theGovernment Operations Committee(later known as the Committee on Governmental Affairs), and theForeign Relations Committee. He was immediately assigned to the Government Operations Committee and waited for a seat on the Foreign Relations Committee.In 1977, Glenn wanted to chair the Energy, Nuclear Proliferation, and Federal Services Subcommittee of the Governmental Affairs Committee.Abraham Ribicoff, chair of the Governmental Affairs Committee, said he could chair the subcommittee if he also chaired the less popular Federal Services Subcommittee, which was in charge of theU.S. Postal Service. Previous chairs of the Federal Services Subcommittee had lost elections in part because of negative campaigns associated with the poorly regarded mail service to the chairmen, but Glenn accepted the offer and became the chair of both subcommittees.One of his goals as a new senator was developing environmental","environmental policies.Glenn introduced bills on energy policy to try to counter theenergy crisis in the 70s. Glenn also introduced legislation promoting nuclear non-proliferation and was the chief author of theNuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978,the first of six major pieces of legislation that he produced on the subject. Glenn chaired the Committee on Governmental Affairs from 1987 to 1995.It was in this role that he discovered safety and environmental problems with the nation's nuclear weapons facilities. Glenn was made aware of the problem at theFernald Feed Materials Production Centernear Cincinnati and soon found that it affected sites across the nation. Glenn requested investigations from the General Accounting Office of Congress and held several hearings on the issue. He also released a report on the potential costs of hazardous waste cleanup at former nuclear weapons manufacturing facilities, known as the Glenn Report.He spent the remainder of his Senate career acquiring funding to clean up","funding to clean up thenuclear wasteleft at the facilities. Glenn also focused on reducing government waste. He created legislation to mandate CFOs for large governmental agencies.Glenn wrote a bill to add the office of the inspector general to federal agencies, to help find waste and fraud. He also created legislation intended to prevent the federal government from imposing regulations on local governments without funding. Glenn founded the Great Lakes Task Force, which helped protect the environment of theGreat Lakes. In 1995 Glenn became the ranking minority member of the Committee on Governmental Affairs. Glenn disputed the focus onillegal Chinese donationsto the Democrats and asserted that Republicans also had egregious fundraising issues. The committee chair,Fred ThompsonofTennessee, disagreed and continued the investigation.Thompson and Glenn continued to work together poorly for the duration of the investigation. Thompson would give Glenn only information he was legally required to. Glenn would not","to. Glenn would not authorize a larger budget and tried to expand the scope of the investigation to include members of the GOP.The investigation concluded with a Republican-written report, which Thompson described as, \"... a lot of things strung together that paint a real ugly picture.\" The Democrats, led by Glenn, said the report \"... does not support the conclusion that the China plan was aimed at, or affected, the 1996 presidential election.\" Glenn was the vice chairman of thePermanent Subcommittee on Investigations, a subcommittee of the Committee on Governmental Affairs.When the Republican Party regained control of the Senate in 1996, Glenn became the ranking minority member on the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations until he was succeeded byCarl Levin. During this time, the committee investigated issues such asfraud on the Internet,mortgage fraud, andday trading of securities. Other committees and activities Glenn's father spent his retirement money battling cancer and would have lost his house if","lost his house if Glenn had not intervened. His father-in-law also had expensive treatments for Parkinson's disease. These health and financial issues motivated him to request a seat on theSpecial Committee on Aging. Glenn was considered an expert in matters of science and technology. He was a supporter of continuing theB-1 bomberprogram, which he considered successful. This conflicted with President Carter's desire to fund theB-2 bomberprogram. Glenn did not fully support development of the B-2 because he had doubts about the feasibility of thestealth technology. He drafted a proposal to slow down the development of the B-2, which could have potentially saved money, but the measure was rejected. Glenn joined theForeign Relations Committeein 1978. He became the chairman of the East Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommittee, for which he traveled to Japan, Korea, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China. Glenn helped to pass theTaiwan Enabling Actof 1979. The same year, Glenn's stance on theSALT","stance on theSALT II treatycaused another dispute with President Carter. Given the loss of radar listening posts in Iran, Glenn did not believe that the U.S. had the capability to monitor the Soviet Union accurately enough to verify compliance with the treaty.During the launching ceremony for theUSSOhio, he spoke about his doubts about verifying treaty compliance. First LadyRosalynn Carteralso spoke at the event, during which she criticized Glenn for speaking publicly about the issue. The Senate never ratified the treaty, in part because of theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan.Glenn served on the committee until 1985, when he traded it for theArmed Services Committee. Glenn became chairman of theManpower Subcommitteeof the Armed Services Committee in 1987.He introduced legislation such as increasing pay and benefits for American troops in the Persian Gulf during theGulf War.He served as chairman until 1993, becoming chairman of the Armed Services Subcommittee onMilitary Readiness and Defense Infrastructure.","Infrastructure. Keating Five Glenn was one of theKeating Five—the U.S. Senators involved with thesavings and loan crisis—after he accepted a $200,000 campaign contribution fromLincoln Savings and Loan Associationhead Charles Keating. During the crisis, the senators were accused of delaying the seizure of Keating's S&L, which cost taxpayers an additional $2 billion. The combination of perceived political pressure and Keating's monetary contributions to the senators led to an investigation. The Ethics Committee's outside counsel, Robert Bennett, wanted to eliminate Republican senatorJohn McCainand Glenn from the investigation. The Democrats did not want to exclude McCain, as he was the only Republican being investigated, which means they could not excuse Glenn from the investigation either.McCain and Glenn were reprimanded the least of the five, as the Senate commission found that they had exercised \"poor judgment\".The GOP focused on Glenn's \"poor judgment\" rather than what Glenn saw as complete exoneration.","exoneration. GOP chairmanRobert Bennettsaid, \"John Glenn misjudged Charles Keating. He also misjudged the tolerance of Ohio's taxpayers, who are left to foot the bill of nearly $2 billion.\"After the Senate's report, Glenn said, \"They so firmly put this thing to bed ... there isn't much there to fuss with. I didn't do anything wrong.\"In his autobiography, Glenn wrote, \"outside of people close to me dying, these hearings were the low point of my life.\" The case cost him $520,000 in legal fees.The association of his name with the scandal made Republicans hopeful that he could be defeated in the 1992 campaign, but Glenn defeated Lieutenant Governor Mike DeWine to retain his seat. Retirement On February 20, 1997, which was the 35th anniversary of his Friendship 7 flight, Glenn announced that his retirement from the Senate would occur at the end of his term in January 1999.Glenn retired because of his age, noting that he would have been 83 at the end of another term and quipping that \"... there is still no cure","is still no cure for the common birthday\". Return to space After theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisasterin 1986, Glenn criticized putting a \"lay person in space for the purpose of gaining public support ... while the shuttle is still in its embryonic stage\". He supported flying research scientists.In 1995, Glenn readSpace Physiology and Medicine, a book written by NASA doctors. He realized that many changes that occur to physical attributes during space flight, such as loss of bone and muscle mass and blood plasma,are the same as changes that result from aging. Glenn thought NASA should send an older person on a shuttle mission, and that it should be him. Starting in 1995, he began lobbying NASA director Dan Goldin for the mission.Goldin said he would consider it if there was a scientific reason, and if Glenn could pass the same physical examination the younger astronauts took. Glenn performed research on the subject and passed the physical examination. On January 16, 1998, NASA Administrator Dan Goldin announced","Goldin announced that Glenn would be part of the STS-95 crew;this made him, at age 77, the oldest person to fly in space at that time. NASA and the National Institute of Aging (NIA) planned to use Glenn as a test subject for research, withbiometricstaken before, during, and after his flight. Some experiments (incircadian rhythms, for example) compared him with the younger crew members. In addition to these tests, he was in charge of the flight's photography and videography. Glenn returned to space on the Space Shuttle on October 29, 1998, as apayload specialistonSpace ShuttleDiscovery.Shortly before the flight, researchers disqualified Glenn from one of the flight's two major human experiments (on the effect ofmelatonin) for undisclosed medical reasons; he participated in experiments on sleep monitoring and protein use.On November 6, PresidentBill Clintonsent a congratulatory email to Glenn aboard theDiscovery. This is often cited as the first email sent by a sitting U.S. president, but records exist of","records exist of emails being sent by President Clinton several years earlier. His participation in the nine-day mission was criticized by some members of the space community as a favor granted by Clinton; John Pike, director of theFederation of American Scientists' space-policy project, said: \"If he was a normal person, he would acknowledge he's a great American hero and that he should get to fly on the shuttle for free ... He's too modest for that, and so he's got to have this medical research reason. It's got nothing to do with medicine\". In a 2012 interview, Glenn said he regretted that NASA did not continue its research on aging by sending additional elderly people into space.After STS-95 returned safely, its crew received a ticker-tape parade. On October 15, 1998,NASA Road 1(the main route to the Johnson Space Center) was temporarily renamed John Glenn Parkway for several months.Glenn was awarded theNASA Space Flight Medalin 1998 for flying on STS-95.In 2001, Glenn opposed sendingDennis Tito, the","Tito, the world's firstspace tourist, to theInternational Space Stationbecause Tito's trip had no scientific purpose. Personal life Glenn and Annie had two children—John David and Carolyn Ann—and two grandchildren,and remained married for 73 years until his death. AFreemason, Glenn was a member of Concord Lodge No. 688 in New Concord, Ohio.He received all hisdegreesin full in aMason at Sightceremony from theGrand Masterof Ohio in 1978, 14 years after petitioning his lodge. In 1999, Glenn became a 33rd-degreeScottish RiteMason in the Valley of Cincinnati (NMJ).As an adult, he was honored as part of the DeMolay Legion of Honor byDeMolay International, a Masonic youth organization for boys. Glenn was an ordained elder of thePresbyterian Church.His religious faith began before he became an astronaut and was reinforced after he traveled in space. \"To look out at this kind of creation and not believe in God is to me impossible\", said Glenn after his second (and final) space voyage.He saw no contradiction between","between belief in God and the knowledge that evolution is \"a fact\" and believed evolution should be taught in schools:\"I don't see that I'm any less religious that I can appreciate the fact that science just records that we change with evolution and time, and that's a fact. It doesn't mean it's less wondrous and it doesn't mean that there can't be some power greater than any of us that has been behind and is behind whatever is going on.\" Public appearances Glenn was an honorary member of theInternational Academy of Astronauticsand a member of theSociety of Experimental Test Pilots, Marine Corps Aviation Association,Order of Daedalians, National Space Club board of trustees, National Space Society board of governors, International Association of Holiday Inns,Ohio Democratic Party, State Democratic Executive Committee, Franklin County (Ohio) Democratic Party and the 10th District (Ohio) Democratic Action Club. In 2001 he guest-starred as himself on the American television sitcomFrasier. On September 5, 2009,","September 5, 2009, John and Annie Glenn dotted the \"i\" in Ohio State University'sScript Ohiomarching bandperformance during theOhio State–Navyfootball-game halftime show, which is normally reserved for veteran band members.To commemorate the 50th anniversary of theFriendship 7flight on February 20, 2012, he had an unexpected opportunity to speak with theorbiting crewof the International Space Station when he was onstage withNASA AdministratorCharlie Boldenat Ohio State University.On April 19, 2012, Glenn participated in the ceremonial transfer of the retired Space ShuttleDiscoveryfrom NASA to theSmithsonian Institutionfor permanent display at theSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. He used the occasion to criticize the \"unfortunate\" decision to end theSpace Shuttle program, saying that grounding the shuttles delayed research. Illness and death Glenn was in good health for most of his life. He retained a private pilot's license until 2011 when he was 90.In June 2014, Glenn underwent successfulheart valve","valve replacementsurgery at theCleveland Clinic.In early December 2016, he was hospitalized atthe James Cancer HospitalofOhio State University Wexner Medical Centerin Columbus.According to a family source, Glenn had been in declining health, and his condition was grave; his wife and their children and grandchildren were at the hospital. Glenn died on December 8, 2016, at the OSU Wexner Medical Center; he was 95 years old.No cause of death was disclosed. After his death, his body lay in state at theOhio Statehouse. There was a memorial service at Mershon Auditorium at Ohio State University.Another memorial service was performed at Kennedy Space Center near the Heroes and Legends building.His body was interred atArlington National Cemeteryon April 6, 2017.At the time of his death, Glenn was the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven. TheMilitary Timesreported that William Zwicharowski, a senior mortuary official atDover Air Force Base, had offered to let visiting inspectors view Glenn's remains, sparking","remains, sparking an official investigation.Zwicharowski has denied the remains were disrespected.At the conclusion of the investigation, officials said the remains were not disrespected as inspectors did not accept Zwicharowski's offer, and that Zwicharowski's actions were improper. No administrative action was taken as he had retired. PresidentBarack Obamasaid that Glenn, \"the first American to orbit the Earth, reminded us that with courage and a spirit of discovery there's no limit to the heights we can reach together\".Tributes were also paid by Vice PresidentJoe Biden,President-electDonald Trumpand former Secretary of StateHillary Clinton. The phrase \"Godspeed, John Glenn\", which fellow Mercury astronaut Scott Carpenter had used to hail Glenn's launch into space, became a social-mediahashtag: #GodspeedJohnGlenn. Former and current astronauts added tributes; so did NASA Administrator and former shuttle astronaut Charles Bolden, who wrote: \"John Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history","of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching.\"President Obama ordered flags to be flown athalf-staffuntil Glenn's burial.On April 5, 2017, President Donald Trump issuedpresidential proclamation9588, titled \"Honoring the Memory of John Glenn\". Awards and honors Glenn was awarded theJohn J. Montgomery Awardin 1963.Glenn received theNational Geographic Society'sHubbard Medalin 1962.Glenn, along with 37 other space race astronauts, received the Ambassador of Space Exploration Award in 2006.He was also awarded the GeneralThomas D. WhiteNational Defense Awardand thePrince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation.In 1964, Glenn received the Golden Plate Award of theAmerican Academy of Achievement.In 2004, he received theWoodrow Wilson Award for Public Servicefrom the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institutionand was awarded theNational Collegiate Athletic Association'sTheodore Roosevelt Awardfor 2008. Glenn earned","2008. Glenn earned theNavy's astronaut wingsand the Marine Corps' Astronaut Medal.He was awarded theCongressional Gold Medalin 2011 and was among the first group of astronauts to be granted the distinction.In 2012, President Barack Obama presented Glenn with thePresidential Medal of Freedom. Glenn was the seventh astronaut to receive this distinction. The Congressional Gold Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom are considered the two most prestigious awards that can be bestowed on a civilian.The Society of Experimental Test Pilots awarded Glenn theIven C. Kincheloeaward in 1963,and he was inducted into theInternational Air & Space Hall of Famein 1968,National Aviation Hall of Famein 1976,theInternational Space Hall of Famein 1977,and the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990.In 2000, he received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for public service by an elected or appointed official, one of the annualJefferson Awards. In 1961, Glenn received anhonoraryLL.Dfrom Muskingum University, the college he","the college he attended before joining the military in World War II.He also received honorary doctorates fromNihon Universityin Tokyo;Wagner Collegein Staten Island, New York;Ohio Northern University;Williams College;andBrown University.In 1998, he helped found the John Glenn Institute for Public Service and Public Policy atOhio State Universityto encourage public service. The institute merged with OSU's School of Public Policy and Management to become the John Glenn School of Public Affairs. He held anadjunct professorshipat the school.In February 2015, it was announced that it would become theJohn Glenn College of Public Affairsin April. TheGlenn Research Centerat Lewis Field in Cleveland is named after him, and the Senator John Glenn Highway runs along a stretch ofI-480in Ohio across from the Glenn Research Center.Colonel Glenn Highway (which passes Wright-Patterson Air Force Base andWright State UniversitynearDayton, Ohio), John Glenn High School in his hometown of New Concord,Elwood-John H. Glenn High","H. Glenn High Schoolin the hamlet ofElwood,Town of Huntington,Long Island, New York, and the former Col. John Glenn Elementary inSeven Hills, Ohio, were also named for him.Colonel Glenn Road inLittle Rock, Arkansas, was named for him in 1962.High schools inWestlandandBay City, Michigan;Walkerton, Indiana;andNorwalk, Californiabear Glenn's name.The fireboatJohn H. Glenn Jr., operated by theDistrict of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Departmentand protecting sections of thePotomacandAnacostia Riverswhich run through Washington, D.C., was named for him, as wasUSNSJohn Glenn(T-MLP-2), amobile landing platformdelivered to the U.S. Navy on March 12, 2014.In June 2016, the Port Columbus International Airport in Columbus, Ohio, was renamedJohn Glenn Columbus International Airport. Glenn and his family attended the ceremony, during which he spoke about how visiting the airport as a child had kindled his interest in flying.On September 12, 2016,Blue Originannounced theNew Glenn, a rocket.Orbital ATKnamed","ATKnamed theCygnusspace capsule used in the NASACRS OA-7mission to the international space station \"S.S.John Glenn\" in his honor. The mission successfully lifted off on April 16, 2017. Although never a Scout himself, Glenn heavily endorsed theBoy Scouts. His son, John David, attained the coveted rank ofEagle Scoutthat many of Glenn's aviator peers also achieved. Legacy Glenn's public life and legacy began when he received his firstticker-tape paradefor breaking the transcontinental airspeed record.As a senator, he used his military background to write legislation to reduce nuclear proliferation. He also focused on reducing government waste.Buzz Aldrinwrote that Glenn'sFriendship 7flight \"... helped to galvanize the country's will and resolution to surmount significant technical challenges of human spaceflight.\" President Barack Obama said, \"With John's passing, our nation has lost an icon andMichelleand I have lost a friend. John spent his life breaking barriers, from defending our freedom as a decorated","as a decorated Marine Corps fighter pilot in World War II and Korea, to setting a transcontinental speed record, to becoming, at age 77, the oldest human to touch the stars.\"Obama issued a presidential proclamation on December 9, 2016, ordering the US flag to be flown at half-staff in Glenn's memory.NASA administratorCharles Boldensaid: \"Senator Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching\". References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Moon landing Clickable map of the locations of all successfulsoft landingson theMoonto date (top) AMoon landingorlunar landingis the arrival of aspacecrafton the surface of theMoon, including both crewed and robotic missions. The first human-made object to touch the Moon wasLuna 2in 1959. In 1969Apollo 11was the first crewed mission to land on the Moon.There weresix crewed landingsbetween 1969 and 1972, and numerous uncrewed landings. All crewed missions to the Moon were conducted by theApollo program, with the last departing the lunar surface in December 1972. AfterLuna 24in 1976 there were nosoft landingson the Moon untilChang'e 3in 2013. All soft landings took place on thenear side of the Moonuntil January 2019, whenChang'e 4made the first landing on thefar side of the Moon. Uncrewed landings Government landings Six government space agencies,Interkosmos,NASA,CNSA,ISRO,JAXAandESA, have reached the Moon with uncrewed missions. Three private/commercial missions,Beresheet(hard landing),Hakuto-R(hard landing),\",\n \"landing), andOdysseus(soft landing) have also reached the lunar surface (see#Commercial landings). The Soviet Union (Interkosmos), the United States (NASA), China (CNSA), India (ISRO),and Japan (JAXA)are the only five nations to have successfully achieved soft landings. The Soviet Union performed the first hard Moon landing – \\\"hard\\\" meaning the spacecraft intentionally crashes into the Moon at high speeds – with theLuna 2spacecraft in 1959, a feat the U.S. duplicated in 1962 withRanger 4. Following their initial hard landings on the Moon, sixteen Soviet, U.S., Chinese and Indian spacecraft have used braking rockets (retrorockets) to makesoft landingsand perform scientific operations on the lunar surface. In 1966 the Soviet Union accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the lunar surface during theLuna 9andLuna 13missions. The U.S. followed with fiveSurveyorsoft landings. China's ongoing\\\"Chang'e\\\" programhas landed 4 times since 2013, achieving robotic soil sample return and the\",\n \"return and the first landing on the far side of the Moon. On 23 August 2023, ISRO successfully landed itsChandrayaan-3module in thelunar south poleregion, making India the fourth nation to successfully complete a soft landing on the Moon.Chandrayaan-3 saw a successful soft landing of itsVikramlanderandPragyanroverat 6.04 pm IST (1234 GMT), marking the first uncrewed soft landing in the little-explored region. On 19 January 2024, JAXA successfully landed itsSLIM lander, making Japan the fifth nation to successfully complete a soft landing. Commercial landings Two organizations have attempted but failed to achieve soft landings: Israeli private space agencySpaceILwith theirBeresheetspacecraft (2019), and Japanese companyispace'sHakuto-R Mission 1(2023). On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseussuccessfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing\",\n \"Moon landing in over 50 years. This event marked the first successful landing of aprivately owned spacecrafton the Moon. Crewed landings A total of twelveastronautshave landed on the Moon. This was accomplished with two pilot-astronauts flying aLunar Moduleon each of sixNASAmissions. The missions spanned a 41-month period starting 20 July 1969, beginning withNeil ArmstrongandBuzz AldrinonApollo 11, and ending on 14 December 1972 withGene CernanandHarrison SchmittonApollo 17. Cernan was the last man to step off the lunar surface. All Apollo lunar missions had a third crew member who remained on board thecommand module. Scientific background To get to the Moon, a spacecraft must first leave Earth'sgravity well; currently, the only practical means is arocket. Unlike airborne vehicles such asballoonsandjets, a rocket can continueacceleratingin thevacuumoutside theatmosphere. Upon approach of the target moon, a spacecraft will be drawn ever closer to its surface at increasing speeds due to gravity. In order to\",\n \"In order to land intact it must decelerate to less than about 160 kilometres per hour (100 mph) and be ruggedized to withstand a \\\"hard landing\\\" impact, or it must decelerate to negligible speed at contact for a \\\"soft landing\\\" (the only option for humans). The first three attempts by the U.S. to perform a successful hard Moon landing with a ruggedizedseismometerpackage in 1962 all failed.The Soviets first achieved the milestone of a hard lunar landing with a ruggedized camera in 1966, followed only months later by the first uncrewed soft lunar landing by the U.S. The speed of a crash landing on its surface is typically between 70 and 100% of theescape velocityof the target moon, and thus this is the total velocity which must be shed from the target moon's gravitational attraction for a soft landing to occur. For Earth's Moon, the escape velocity is 2.38 kilometres per second (1.48 mi/s).The change in velocity (referred to as adelta-v) is usually provided by a landing rocket, which must be carried into space\",\n \"carried into space by the originallaunch vehicleas part of the overall spacecraft. An exception is the soft moon landing onTitancarried out by theHuygensprobein 2005. As the moon with the thickest atmosphere, landings on Titan may be accomplished by usingatmospheric entrytechniques that are generally lighter in weight than a rocket with equivalent capability. The Soviets succeeded in making the first crash landing on the Moon in 1959.Crash landingsmay occur because of malfunctions in a spacecraft, or they can be deliberately arranged for vehicles which do not have an onboard landing rocket. There have beenmany such Moon crashes, often with their flight path controlled to impact at precise locations on the lunar surface. For example, during the Apollo program theS-IVBthird stage of theSaturn Vrocket as well as the spent ascent stage of theLunar Modulewere deliberately crashed on the Moon several times to provide impacts registering as amoonquakeonseismometersthat had been left on the lunar surface. Such\",\n \"lunar surface. Such crashes were instrumental in mapping theinternal structure of the Moon. To return to Earth, the escape velocity of the Moon must be overcome for the spacecraft to escape thegravity wellof the Moon. Rockets must be used to leave the Moon and return to space. Upon reaching Earth, atmospheric entry techniques are used to absorb thekinetic energyof a returning spacecraft and reduce its speed for safe landing. These functions greatly complicate a moon landing mission and lead to many additional operational considerations. Any moon departure rocket must first be carried to the Moon's surface by a moon landing rocket, increasing the latter's required size. The Moon departure rocket, larger moon landing rocket and any Earth atmosphere entry equipment such as heat shields andparachutesmust in turn be lifted by the original launch vehicle, greatly increasing its size by a significant and almost prohibitive degree. Political background The political context of the 1960s helps to parse both the\",\n \"to parse both the United States and Soviet Union's efforts to land spacecraft, and eventually humans, on the Moon.World War IIhad introduced many new and deadly innovations includingblitzkrieg-style surprise attacks used in theinvasion of PolandandFinland, as well as in theattack on Pearl Harbor; theV-2 rocket, aballistic missilewhich killed thousands in attacks on London andAntwerp; and theatom bomb, which killed hundreds of thousands in theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the 1950s, tensions mounted between the two ideologically opposed superpowers of the United States and theSoviet Unionthat had emerged as victors in the conflict, particularly after the development by both countries of thehydrogen bomb. On 4 October 1957, the Soviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1as the firstartificial satelliteto orbit the Earth and so initiated theSpace Race. This unexpected event was a source of pride to the Soviets and shock to the U.S., who could now potentially be surprise attacked by nuclear-tipped Soviet\",\n \"Soviet rockets in under 30 minutes.The craft was also barely visible to the naked eye as the steady beeping of theradio beaconaboardSputnik 1as it passed overhead every 96 minutes, which was widely viewed on both sidesas effective propaganda toThird Worldcountries demonstrating the technological superiority of the Sovietpolitical systemcompared to that of the U.S. This perception was reinforced by a string of subsequent rapid-fire Soviet space achievements. In 1959, the R-7 rocket was used to launch the first escape from Earth's gravity into asolar orbit, the first crash impact onto the surface of the Moon, and the first photography of the never-before-seenfar side of the Moon. These were theLuna 1,Luna 2, andLuna 3spacecraft. The U.S. response to these Soviet achievements was to greatly accelerate previously existing military space and missile projects and to create a civilian space agency,NASA. Military efforts were initiated to develop and produce mass quantities of intercontinental ballistic missiles\",\n \"ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that would bridge the so-calledmissile gapand enable a policy ofdeterrencetonuclear warwith the Soviets known asmutual assured destructionor MAD. These newly developedmissileswere made available to civilians of NASA for various projects (which would have the added benefit of demonstrating the payload, guidance accuracy and reliabilities of U.S. ICBMs to the Soviets). Early Soviet uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965) After thefall of the Soviet Unionin 1991, historical records were released to allow the true accounting of Soviet lunar efforts. Unlike the U.S. tradition of assigning a particular mission name in advance of a launch, the Soviets assigned a public \\\"Luna\\\" mission number only if a launch resulted in a spacecraft going beyond Earth orbit. The policy had the effect of hiding Soviet Moon mission failures from public view. If the attempt failed in Earth orbit before departing for the Moon, it was frequently (but not always) given a \\\"Sputnik\\\" or \\\"Cosmos\\\" Earth-orbit mission\",\n \"Earth-orbit mission number to hide its purpose. Launch explosions were not acknowledged at all. Early U.S. uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965) The U.S. was not able to reach the Moon with thePioneerandRanger programs, with fifteen consecutive U.S. uncrewed lunar missions from 1958 to 1964 failing their primary photographic missions.However, Rangers 4 and 6 successfully repeated the Soviet lunar impacts as part of their secondary missions. Three U.S. missionsin 1962 attempted to hard land small seismometer packages released by the main Ranger spacecraft. These surface packages were to useretrorocketsto survive landing, unlike the parent vehicle, which was designed to deliberately crash onto the surface. The final three Ranger probes performed successful high altitude lunarreconnaissancephotography missions during intentional crash impacts between 2.62 and 2.68 kilometres per second (9,400 and 9,600 km/h). Pioneer missions Three different designs of Pioneer lunar probes were flown on three different modified\",\n \"different modified ICBMs. Those flown on theThorbooster modified with an Able upper stage carried aninfraredimage scanning television system with aresolutionof 1milliradianto study the Moon's surface, anionization chamberto measureradiationin space, a diaphragm/microphone assembly to detectmicrometeorites, amagnetometer, and temperature-variable resistors to monitor spacecraft internal thermal conditions.The first, a mission managed by theUnited States Air Force, exploded during launch;all subsequent Pioneer lunar flights had NASA as the lead management organization. The next two returned to Earth and burned up upon reentry into the atmosphere after achieved maximum altitudes of around 114,000 kilometres (71,000 mi)and 1,530 kilometres (950 mi)respectively, far short of the roughly 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) required to reach the vicinity of the Moon. NASA then collaborated with theUnited States Army'sBallistic Missile Agencyto fly two extremely small cone-shaped probes on theJunoICBM, carrying\",\n \"carrying onlyphotocellswhich would be triggered by the light of the Moon and a lunar radiation environment experiment using aGeiger-Müller tubedetector.The first of these reached an altitude of only around 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), gathering data that established the presence of theVan Allen radiation beltsbefore reentering Earth's atmosphere.The second passed by the Moon at a distance of more than 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), twice as far as planned and too far away to trigger either of the on-board scientific instruments, yet still becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to reach asolar orbit. The final Pioneer lunar probe design consisted of four \\\"paddlewheel\\\"solar panelsextending from a one-meter diameter sphericalspin-stabilizedspacecraft body equipped to take images of the lunar surface with a television-like system, estimate the Moon's mass and topography of thepoles, record the distribution and velocity of micrometeorites, study radiation, measuremagnetic fields, detectlow frequency\",\n \"detectlow frequency electromagnetic wavesin space and use a sophisticated integratedpropulsionsystem for maneuvering and orbit insertion as well.None of the four spacecraft built in this series of probes survived launch on itsAtlasICBM outfitted with an Able upper stage. Following the unsuccessful Atlas-Able Pioneer probes, NASA'sJet Propulsion Laboratoryembarked upon an uncrewed spacecraft development program whose modular design could be used to support both lunar and interplanetary exploration missions. The interplanetary versions were known asMariners;lunar versions wereRangers. JPL envisioned three versions of the Ranger lunar probes: Block I prototypes, which would carry various radiation detectors in test flights to a very high Earth orbit that came nowhere near the Moon;Block II, which would try to accomplish the first Moon landing by hard landing a seismometer package;and Block III, which would crash onto the lunar surface without any braking rockets while taking very high resolution wide-area\",\n \"wide-area photographs of the Moon during their descent. Ranger missions The Ranger 1 and 2 Block I missions were virtually identical.Spacecraft experiments included aLyman-alphatelescope, arubidium-vapormagnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium-energy-rangeparticle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic-ray integratingionization chamber,cosmic dustdetectors, andscintillation counters. The goal was to place these Block I spacecraft in a very high Earth orbit with an apogee of 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and aperigeeof 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi). From that vantage point, scientists could make direct measurements of themagnetosphereover a period of many months while engineers perfected new methods to routinely track and communicate with spacecraft over such large distances. Such practice was deemed vital to be assured of capturing high-bandwidth television transmissions from the Moon during a one-shot fifteen-minute time window in subsequent Block II and Block III lunar descents. Both\",\n \"descents. Both Block I missions suffered failures of the new Agena upper stage and never left low Earthparking orbitafter launch; both burned up upon reentry after only a few days. The first attempts to perform a Moon landing took place in 1962 during the Rangers 3, 4 and 5 missions flown by the United States.All three Block II missions basic vehicles were 3.1 m high and consisted of a lunar capsule covered with a balsa wood impact-limiter, 650 mm in diameter, a mono-propellant mid-course motor, a retrorocket with a thrust of 5,050 pounds-force (22.5 kN),and a gold- and chrome-plated hexagonal base 1.5 m in diameter. This lander (code-namedTonto) was designed to provide impact cushioning using an exterior blanket of crushable balsa wood and an interior filled with incompressible liquidfreon. A 42-kilogram (93 lb) 30-centimetre-diameter (0.98 ft) metal payload sphere floated and was free to rotate in a liquid freon reservoir contained in the landing sphere. \\\"Everything that we do ought to really be tied-in to\",\n \"be tied-in to getting onto the Moon ahead of the Russians. ...We're ready to spend reasonable amounts of money, but we're talking about fantastic expenditures which wreck our budget and all these other domestic programs, and the only justification for it, in my opinion, to do it is because we hope to beat them and demonstrate that starting behind, as we did by a couple of years, by God, we passed them.\\\" —John F. Kennedyon the planned Moon landing, 21 November 1962 This payload sphere contained six silver-cadmiumbatteries to power a fifty-milliwatt radio transmitter, a temperature sensitive voltage controlled oscillator to measure lunar surface temperatures, and a seismometer designed with sensitivity high enough to detect the impact of a 2.3 kg (5 lb) meteorite on the opposite side of the Moon. Weight was distributed in the payload sphere so it would rotate in its liquid blanket to place the seismometer into an upright and operational position no matter what the final resting orientation of the external\",\n \"of the external landing sphere. After landing, plugs were to be opened allowing the freon to evaporate and the payload sphere to settle into upright contact with the landing sphere. The batteries were sized to allow up to three months of operation for the payload sphere. Various mission constraints limited the landing site to Oceanus Procellarum on the lunar equator, which the lander ideally would reach 66 hours after launch. No cameras were carried by the Ranger landers, and no pictures were to be captured from the lunar surface during the mission. Instead, the 3.1 metres (10 ft) Ranger Block II mother ship carried a 200-scan-line television camera to capture images during the free-fall descent to the lunar surface. The camera was designed to transmit a picture every 10 seconds.Seconds before impact, at 5 and 0.6 kilometres (3.11 and 0.37 mi) above the lunar surface, the Ranger mother ships took pictures (which may be viewedhere). Other instruments gathering data before the mother ship crashed onto the Moon\",\n \"onto the Moon were a gamma ray spectrometer to measure overall lunar chemical composition and a radar altimeter. The radar altimeter was to give a signal ejecting the landing capsule and its solid-fueled braking rocket overboard from the Block II mother ship. The braking rocket was to slow and the landing sphere to a dead stop at 330 metres (1,080 ft) above the surface and separate, allowing the landing sphere to free fall once more and hit the surface. On Ranger 3, failure of the Atlas guidance system and a software error aboard the Agena upper stage combined to put the spacecraft on a course that would miss the Moon. Attempts to salvage lunar photography during a flyby of the Moon were thwarted by in-flight failure of the onboard flight computer. This was probably because of priorheat sterilizationof the spacecraft by keeping it above theboilingpoint of water for 24 hours on the ground, to protect the Moon from being contaminated by Earth organisms. Ranger 3 later began orbiting the Sun, called\",\n \"the Sun, called heliocentric orbit.Heat sterilization was also blamed for subsequent in-flight failures of the spacecraft computer on Ranger 4 and the power subsystem on Ranger 5. Only Ranger 4 reached the Moon in an uncontrolled crash impact on the far side of the Moon. Block III probes replaced the Block II landing capsule and its retrorocket with a heavier, more capable television system to support landing site selection for upcoming Apollo crewed Moon landing missions. Six cameras were designed to take thousands of high-altitude photographs in the final twenty-minute period before crashing on the lunar surface. Camera resolution was 1,132 scan lines, far higher than the 525 lines found in a typical U.S. 1964 home television. WhileRanger 6suffered a failure of this camera system and returned no photographs despite an otherwise successful flight, the subsequentRanger 7mission to Mare Cognitum was a complete success. Breaking the six-year string of failures in U.S. attempts to photograph the Moon at close\",\n \"the Moon at close range, theRanger 7mission was viewed as a national turning point and instrumental in allowing the key 1965 NASA budget appropriation to pass through theUnited States Congressintact without a reduction in funds for the Apollo crewed Moon landing program. Subsequent successes withRanger 8andRanger 9further buoyed U.S. hopes. Soviet uncrewed soft landings (1966–1976) TheLuna 9spacecraft, launched by theSoviet Union, performed the first successful soft Moon landing on 3 February 1966.Airbagsprotected its 99-kilogram (218 lb) ejectable capsule which survived an impact speed of over 15 metres per second (54 km/h; 34 mph).Luna 13duplicated this feat with a similar Moon landing on 24 December 1966. Both returned panoramic photographs that were the first views from the lunar surface. Luna 16was the firstrobotic probeto land on theMoonand safely return a sample of lunar soil back to Earth.It represented the firstlunar samplereturn mission by theSoviet Union, and was the third lunarsample return\",\n \"lunarsample return missionoverall, following theApollo 11andApollo 12missions. This mission was later successfully repeated byLuna 20(1972) andLuna 24(1976). In 1970 and 1973 twoLunokhod(\\\"Moonwalker\\\") robotic lunar rovers were delivered to the Moon, where they successfully operated for 10 and 4 months respectively, covering 10.5 km (6.5 mi) (Lunokhod 1) and 37 km (23 mi) (Lunokhod 2). These rover missions were in operation concurrently with the Zond and Luna series of Moon flyby, orbiter and landing missions. U.S. uncrewed soft landings (1966–1968) The U.S.roboticSurveyor programwas part of an effort to locate a safe site on the Moon for a human landing and test under lunar conditions theradarand landing systems required to make a true controlled touchdown. Five of Surveyor's seven missions made successful uncrewed Moon landings. Surveyor 3 was visited two years after its Moon landing by the crew of Apollo 12. They removed parts of it for examination back on Earth to determine the effects of long-term\",\n \"of long-term exposure to the lunar environment. Transition from direct ascent landings to lunar orbit operations Within four months of each other in early 1966 the Soviet Union and the United States had accomplished successful Moon landings with uncrewed spacecraft. To the general public both countries had demonstrated roughly equal technical capabilities by returning photographic images from the surface of the Moon. These pictures provided a key affirmative answer to the crucial question of whether or not lunar soil would support upcoming crewed landers with their much greater weight. However, the Luna 9 hard landing of a ruggedized sphere using airbags at a 50-kilometre-per-hour (31 mph) ballistic impact speed had much more in common with the failed 1962 Ranger landing attempts and their planned 160-kilometre-per-hour (99 mph) impacts than with the Surveyor 1 soft landing on three footpads using its radar-controlled, adjustable-thrust retrorocket. While Luna 9 and Surveyor 1 were both major national\",\n \"both major national accomplishments, only Surveyor 1 had reached its landing site employing key technologies that would be needed for a crewed flight. Thus as of mid-1966, the United States had begun to pull ahead of the Soviet Union in the so-called Space Race to land a man on the Moon. Advances in other areas were necessary before crewed spacecraft could follow uncrewed ones to the surface of the Moon. Of particular importance was developing the expertise to perform flight operations in lunar orbit. Ranger, Surveyor and initial Luna Moon landing attempts all flew directly to the surface without a lunar orbit. Suchdirect ascentsuse a minimum amount of fuel for uncrewed spacecraft on a one-way trip. In contrast, crewed vehicles need additional fuel after a lunar landing to enable a return trip back to Earth for the crew. Leaving this massive amount of required Earth-return fuel in lunar orbit until it is used later in the mission is far more efficient than taking such fuel down to the lunar surface in a Moon\",\n \"surface in a Moon landing and then hauling it all back into space yet again, working against lunar gravity both ways. Such considerations lead logically to alunar orbit rendezvousmission profile for a crewed Moon landing. Accordingly, beginning in mid-1966 both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. naturally progressed into missions featuring lunar orbit as a prerequisite to a crewed Moon landing. The primary goals of these initial uncrewed orbiters were extensive photographic mapping of the entire lunar surface for the selection of crewed landing sites and, for the Soviets, the checkout of radio communications gear that would be used in future soft landings. An unexpected major discovery from initial lunar orbiters were vast volumes of dense materials beneath the surface of the Moon'smaria. Such mass concentrations (\\\"mascons\\\") can send a crewed mission dangerously off course in the final minutes of a Moon landing when aiming for a relatively small landing zone that is smooth and safe. Mascons were also found over a longer\",\n \"found over a longer period of time to greatly disturb the orbits of low-altitude satellites around the Moon, making their orbits unstable and forcing an inevitable crash on the lunar surface in the relatively short period of months to a few years. Controlling the location of impact for spent lunar orbiters can have scientific value. For example, in 1999 the NASALunar Prospectororbiter was deliberately targeted to impact a permanently shadowed area of Shoemaker Crater near the lunar south pole. It was hoped that energy from the impact would vaporize suspected shadowed ice deposits in the crater and liberate a water vapor plume detectable from Earth. No such plume was observed. However, a small vial of ashes from the body of pioneer lunar scientistEugene Shoemakerwas delivered by the Lunar Prospector to the crater named in his honor – the only human remains on the Moon. Soviet lunar orbit satellites (1966–1974) Luna 10became the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon on 3 April 1966. U.S. lunar orbit satellites\",\n \"orbit satellites (1966–1967) Soviet circumlunar loop flights (1967–1970) It is possible to aim a spacecraft from Earth so it will loop around the Moon and return to Earth without entering lunar orbit, following the so-calledfree return trajectory. Such circumlunar loop missions are simpler than lunar orbit missions because rockets for lunar orbit braking and Earth return are not required. However, a crewed circumlunar loop trip poses significant challenges beyond those found in a crewed low-Earth-orbit mission, offering valuable lessons in preparation for a crewed Moon landing. Foremost among these are mastering the demands of re-entering the Earth's atmosphere upon returning from the Moon. Inhabited Earth-orbiting vehicles such as the Space Shuttle return to Earth from speeds of around 7,500 m/s (27,000 km/h). Due to the effects of gravity, a vehicle returning from the Moon hits Earth's atmosphere at a much higher speed of around 11,000 m/s (40,000 km/h). Theg-loadingon astronauts during the\",\n \"during the resultingdecelerationcan be at the limits of human endurance even during a nominal reentry. Slight variations in the vehicle flight path and reentry angle during a return from the Moon can easily result in fatal levels of deceleration force. Achieving a crewed circumlunar loop flight prior to a crewed lunar landing became a primary goal of the Soviets with theirZondspacecraft program. The first three Zonds were robotic planetary probes; after that, the Zond name was transferred to a completely separate human spaceflight program. The initial focus of these later Zonds was extensive testing of required high-speed reentry techniques. This focus was not shared by the U.S., who chose instead to bypass the stepping stone of a crewed circumlunar loop mission and never developed a separate spacecraft for this purpose. Initial crewed spaceflights in the early 1960s placed a single person in low Earth orbit during the SovietVostokand U.S.Mercuryprograms. A two-flight extension of the Vostok program known\",\n \"program known asVoskhodeffectively used Vostok capsules with their ejection seats removed to achieve Soviet space firsts of multiple person crews in 1964 and spacewalks in early 1965. These capabilities were later demonstrated by the U.S. in tenGeminilow Earth orbit missions throughout 1965 and 1966, using a totally new second-generation spacecraft design that had little in common with the earlier Mercury. These Gemini missions went on to prove techniques for orbitalrendezvous and dockingcrucial to a crewed lunar landing mission profile. After the end of the Gemini program, the Soviet Union began flying their second-generation Zond crewed spacecraft in 1967 with the ultimate goal of looping a cosmonaut around the Moon and returning him or her immediately to Earth. TheZondspacecraft was launched with the simpler and already operationalProtonlaunch rocket, unlike the parallel Soviet human Moon landing effort also underway at the time based on third-generationSoyuz spacecraftrequiring development of the\",\n \"development of the advancedN-1booster. The Soviets thus believed they could achieve a crewed Zond circumlunar flight years before a U.S. human lunar landing and so score a propaganda victory. However, significant development problems delayed the Zond program and the success of the U.S. Apollo lunar landing program led to the eventual termination of the Zond effort. Like Zond, Apollo flights were generally launched on a free return trajectory that would return them to Earth via a circumlunar loop if aservice modulemalfunction failed to place them in lunar orbit. This option was implemented after an explosion aboard theApollo 13mission in 1970, which is the only crewed circumlunar loop mission flown to date. Zond 5was the first spacecraft to carry life from Earth to the vicinity of the Moon and return, initiating the final lap of theSpace Racewith its payload of tortoises, insects, plants, and bacteria. Despite the failure suffered in its final moments, the Zond 6 mission was reported by Soviet media as being\",\n \"media as being a success as well. Although hailed worldwide as remarkable achievements, both these Zond missions flew off-nominal reentry trajectories resulting in deceleration forces that would have been fatal to humans. As a result, the Soviets secretly planned to continue uncrewed Zond tests until their reliability to support human flight had been demonstrated. However, due to NASA's continuing problems with thelunar module, and because ofCIAreports of a potential Soviet crewed circumlunar flight in late 1968, NASA fatefully changed the flight plan ofApollo 8from an Earth-orbit lunar module test to a lunar orbit mission scheduled for late December 1968. In early December 1968 the launch window to the Moon opened for the Soviet launch site inBaikonur, giving the USSR their final chance to beat the US to the Moon.Cosmonautswent on alert and asked to fly the Zond spacecraft then in final countdown at Baikonur on the first human trip to the Moon. Ultimately, however, the SovietPolitburodecided the risk of\",\n \"the risk of crew death was unacceptable given the combined poor performance to that point of Zond/Proton and so scrubbed the launch of a crewed Soviet lunar mission. Their decision proved to be a wise one, since this unnumbered Zond mission was destroyed in another uncrewed test when it was finally launched several weeks later. By this time flights of the third generation U.S.Apollo spacecrafthad begun. Far more capable than the Zond, the Apollo spacecraft had the necessary rocket power to slip into and out of lunar orbit and to make course adjustments required for a safe reentry during the return to Earth. TheApollo 8mission carried out the first human trip to the Moon on 24 December 1968, certifying theSaturn Vbooster for crewed use and flying not a circumlunar loop but instead a full ten orbits around the Moon before returning safely to Earth.Apollo 10then performed a full dress rehearsal of a crewed Moon landing in May 1969. This mission orbited within 14.4 kilometres (47,400 ft) of the lunar surface,\",\n \"the lunar surface, performing necessary low-altitude mapping of trajectory-altering mascons using a factory prototype lunar module too heavy to land. With the failure of the robotic Soviet sample return Moon landing attemptLuna 15in July 1969, the stage was set forApollo 11. Human Moon landings (1969–1972) US strategy Plans for human Moon exploration began during theEisenhoweradministration. In a series of mid-1950s articles inCollier'smagazine,Wernher von Braunhad popularized the idea of a crewed expedition to establish a lunar base. A human Moon landing posed several daunting technical challenges to the US and USSR. Besides guidance and weight management,atmospheric re-entrywithoutablativeoverheating was a major hurdle. After the Soviets launchedSputnik, von Braun promoted a plan for the US Army to establish a military lunar outpost by 1965. After theearly Soviet successes, especiallyYuri Gagarin's flight, US PresidentJohn F. Kennedylooked for a project that would capture the public imagination. He asked\",\n \"He asked Vice PresidentLyndon Johnsonto make recommendations on a scientific endeavor that would prove US world leadership. The proposals included non-space options such as massive irrigation projects to benefit theThird World. The Soviets, at the time, had more powerful rockets than the US, which gave them an advantage in some kinds of space mission. Advances in US nuclear weapon technology had led to smaller, lighter warheads; the Soviets' were much heavier, and the powerfulR-7rocket was developed to carry them. More modest missions such as flying around the Moon, or a space lab in lunar orbit (both were proposed by Kennedy to von Braun), offered too much advantage to the Soviets;landing, however, would capture the world's imagination. Johnson had championed the US human spaceflight program ever since Sputnik, sponsoring legislation to create NASA while he was still a senator. When Kennedy asked him in 1961 to research the best achievement to counter the Soviets' lead, Johnson responded that the US had an\",\n \"that the US had an even chance of beating them to a crewed lunar landing, but not for anything less. Kennedy seized on Apollo as the ideal focus for efforts in space. He ensured continuing funding, shielding space spending from the 1963 tax cut, but diverting money from other NASA scientific projects. These diversions dismayed NASA's leader,James E. Webb, who perceived the need for NASA's support from the scientific community. The Moon landing required development of the large Saturn Vlaunch vehicle, which achieved a perfect record: zero catastrophic failures or launch vehicle-caused mission failures in thirteen launches. For the program to succeed, its proponents would have to defeat criticism from politicians both on the left (more money for social programs) and on the right (more money for the military). By emphasizing the scientific payoff and playing on fears of Soviet space dominance, Kennedy and Johnson managed to swing public opinion: by 1965, 58 percent of Americans favored Apollo, up from 33\",\n \"Apollo, up from 33 percent two years earlier. After Johnsonbecame president in 1963, his continuing defense of the program allowed it to succeed in 1969, as Kennedy had planned. Soviet strategy Soviet leaderNikita Khrushchevsaid in October 1963 the USSR was \\\"not at present planning flight by cosmonauts to the Moon,\\\" while insisting that the Soviets had not dropped out of the race. Only after another year did the USSR fully commit itself to a Moon-landing attempt, which ultimately failed. At the same time, Kennedy had suggested various joint programs, including a possible Moon landing by Soviet and U.S. astronauts and the development of better weather-monitoring satellites, eventually resulting in theApollo-Soyuz mission. Khrushchev, sensing an attempt by Kennedy to steal Russian space technology, rejected the idea at first: if the USSR went to the Moon, it would go alone. Though Khrushchev was eventually warming up to the idea, the realization of a joint Moon landing was choked by Kennedy's assassination.\",\n \"assassination. Sergey Korolev, theSoviet space program's chief designer, had started promoting hisSoyuzcraft and theN1launcher rocket that would have the capability of carrying out a human Moon landing. Khrushchev directed Korolev's design bureau to arrange further space firsts by modifying the existing Vostok technology, while a second team started building a completely new launcher and craft, the Proton booster and the Zond, for a human cislunar flight in 1966. In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all crewed projects under his direction. With Korolev's death and the failure of the first Soyuz flight in 1967, coordination of the Soviet Moon landing program quickly unraveled. The Soviets built a landing craft and selected cosmonauts for a mission that would have placedAlexei Leonovon the Moon's surface, but with the successive launch failures of the N1 booster in 1969, plans for a crewed landing suffered first delay and then cancellation. A program\",\n \"A program of automated return vehicles was begun, in the hope of being the first to return lunar rocks. This had several failures. It eventually succeeded withLuna 16in 1970.But this had little impact, because the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 lunar landings and rock returns had already taken place by then. Apollo missions In total, twenty-four U.S. astronauts have traveled to the Moon. Three have made the trip twice, and twelve have walked on its surface. Apollo 8 was a lunar-orbit-only mission, Apollo 10 included undocking and Descent Orbit Insertion (DOI), followed by LM staging to CSM redocking, while Apollo 13, originally scheduled as a landing, ended up as a lunar fly-by, by means offree return trajectory; thus, none of these missions made landings. Apollo 7 and Apollo 9 were Earth-orbit-only missions. Apart from the inherent dangers of crewed Moon expeditions as seen with Apollo 13, one reason for their cessation according to astronautAlan Beanis the cost it imposes in government subsidies. Human Moon\",\n \"Human Moon landings Other aspects of the successful Apollo landings President Richard Nixon had speechwriterWilliam Safireprepare a condolence speech for delivery in case Armstrong and Aldrin became marooned on the Moon's surface and could not be rescued. In 1951, science fiction writerArthur C. Clarkeforecast that a man would reach the Moon by 1978. On 16 August 2006, theAssociated Pressreported that NASA ismissing the originalSlow-scan televisiontapes (which were made before the scan conversion for conventional TV) of the Apollo 11 Moon walk. Some news outlets have mistakenly reported the SSTV tapes found in Western Australia, but those tapes were only recordings of data from the Apollo 11Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package.The tapes were found in 2008 and sold at auction in 2019 for the 50th anniversary of the landing. Scientists believe the six American flags planted by astronauts have been bleached white because of more than 40 years of exposure to solar radiation.UsingLROCimages, it has been\",\n \"it has been determined that five of the six American flags are still standing and casting shadows at all of the sites, except Apollo 11.Astronaut Buzz Aldrin reported that the flag was blown over by the exhaust from the ascent engine during liftoff of Apollo 11. Late 20th century–21st century uncrewed crash landings Hiten (Japan) Launched on 24 January 1990, 11:46 UTC. At the end of its mission, the Japanese lunar orbiterHitenwas commanded to crash into the lunar surface and did so on 10 April 1993 at 18:03:25.7 UT (11 April 03:03:25.7 JST). Lunar Prospector (U.S.) Lunar Prospectorwas launched on 7 January 1998. The mission ended on 31 July 1999, when the orbiter was deliberately crashed into a crater near the lunar south pole after the presence of water ice was successfully detected. SMART-1 (ESA) Launched 27 September 2003, 23:14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. At the end of its mission, theESAlunar orbiterSMART-1performed a controlled crash into the Moon, at about 2 km/s (7,200\",\n \"about 2 km/s (7,200 km/h; 4,500 mph). The time of the crash was 3 September 2006, at 5:42 UTC. Chandrayaan-1 (India) TheIndian Space Research Organisation(ISRO) performed a controlled hard landing with itsMoon Impact Probe(MIP). The MIP was ejected from theChandrayaan-1lunar orbiter and performed remote sensing experiments during its descent to the lunar surface. It impacted nearShackletoncrater at the south pole of the lunar surface at 14 November 2008, 20:31 IST. Chandrayaan-1was launched on 22 October 2008, 00:52 UTC. Chang'e 1 (China) The Chinese lunar orbiterChang'e 1, executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009, 20:44 GMT, after a 16-month mission.Chang'e 1was launched on 24 October 2007, 10:05 UTC. SELENE (Japan) SELENEorKaguyaafter successfully orbiting the Moon for a year and eight months, the main orbiter was instructed to impact on the lunar surface near the craterGillat 18:25 UTC on 10 June 2009.SELENEorKaguyawas launched on 14 September 2007. LCROSS (U.S.)\",\n \"2007. LCROSS (U.S.) TheLCROSSdata collecting shepherding spacecraft was launched together with theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO) on 18 June 2009 on board anAtlas Vrocket with aCentaurupper stage. On 9 October 2009, at 11:31 UTC, the Centaur upper stage impacted the lunar surface, releasing the kineticenergy equivalentof detonating approximately 2 tons ofTNT(8.86GJ).Six minutes later at 11:37 UTC, the LCROSS shepherding spacecraft also impacted the surface. GRAIL (U.S.) TheGRAILmission consisted of two small spacecraft: GRAIL A (Ebb), and GRAIL B (Flow). They were launched on 10 September 2011 on board aDelta IIrocket. GRAIL A separated from the rocket about nine minutes after launch, and GRAIL B followed about eight minutes later.The first probe entered orbit on 31 December 2011 and the second followed on 1 January 2012.The two spacecraft impacted the Lunar surface on 17 December 2012. LADEE (U.S.) LADEEwas launched on 7 September 2013.The mission ended on 18 April 2014, when the spacecraft's controllers\",\n \"controllers intentionally crashed LADEE into thefar side of the Moon,which, later, was determined to be near the eastern rim ofSundman V crater. Manfred Memorial Moon Mission (Luxembourg) TheManfred Memorial Moon Missionwas launched on 23 October 2014. It conducted a lunar flyby and operated for 19 days which was four times longer than expected. The Manfred Memorial Moon Mission remained attached to the upper stage of its launch vehicle (CZ-3C/E). The spacecraft along with its upper stage impacted the Moon on 4 March 2022. 21st century uncrewed soft landings and attempts Chang'e 3 (China) On 14 December 2013 at 13:12 UTC,Chang'e 3soft-landedaroveron the Moon. This was China's first soft landing on another celestial body and world's first lunar soft landing sinceLuna 24on 22 August 1976.The mission was launched on 1 December 2013. After successful landing, the lander release theYutu rover, which moved 114 meters before being immobilized due to system malfunction. But the rover was still operational until July\",\n \"until July 2016. Chang'e 4 (China) On 3 January 2019 at 2:26 UTC,Chang'e 4became the first spacecraft to land on thefar side of the Moon.Chang'e 4 was originally designed as the backup of Chang'e 3. It was later adjusted as a mission to the far side of the Moon after the success of Chang'e 3.After making a successful landing withinVon Kármán crater, the Chang'e 4 lander deployed the 140-kilogram (310 lb)Yutu-2 roverand began human's first close exploration of the far side of the Moon. Because the Moon blocks the communications between far side and Earth, a relay satellite,Queqiao, was launched to the Earth–Moon L2Lagrangian pointa few months prior to the landing to enable communications. Yutu-2, the second lunar rover from China, was equipped with panoramic camera,lunar penetrating radar, visible and near-infrared Imaging spectrometer and advanced small analyzer for neutrals. As of July 2022, it has survived more than 1000 days on the lunar surface and is still driving with cumulative travel distance of over\",\n \"distance of over 1200 meters. Beresheet(Israel/SpaceIL) On 22 February 2019, Israeli private space agencySpaceILlaunched their spacecraftBeresheeton a Falcon 9 from Cape Canaveral, Florida with the intention of achieving a soft landing. SpaceIL lost contact with the spacecraft during final descent on 11 April 2019, and it crashed as a result of a main engine failure. The mission was the first Israeli, and the first privately funded, lunar landing attempt.Despite the failure, the mission represented the closest a private entity had come to a soft lunar landing at the time. SpaceIL was originally conceived in 2011 as a venture to pursue theGoogle Lunar X Prize. TheBeresheetlunar lander's target landing destination was within Mare Serenitatis, a vast volcanic basin on the Moon's northern near side. Chandrayaan-2 (India) ISRO, the Indian National Space agency, launchedChandrayaan-2on 22 July 2019.It had three major modules: orbiter, lander and rover. Each of these modules had scientific instruments from\",\n \"instruments from scientific research institutes in India and the US.On 7 September 2019 contact was lost with theVikramlander at an altitude of 2.1 km (1.3 mi) after a rough braking phase.Vikramwas later confirmed to have crashed and been destroyed. Chang'e 5 (China) On 6 December 2020 at 21:42 UTC,Chang'e 5landed and collected the first lunar soil samples in over 40 years, and thenreturned the samplesto Earth. The 8.2t stack consisting of lander, ascender, orbiter and returner was launched to lunar orbit by aLong March 5rocket on 24 November. The lander-ascender combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing nearMons RümkerinOceanus Procellarum. The ascender was later launched back to lunar orbit, carrying samples collected by the lander, and completed the first-ever robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit.The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which successfully landed onInner Mongoliaon 16 December 2020, completing China's first extraterrestrial sample\",\n \"sample return mission. Luna 25 (Russia) In Russia's first attempt to reach the Moon since 1976, and since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, theLuna 25spacecraft failed during \\\"pre-landing\\\" maneuvers, and crashed into the lunar surface on 19 August 2023. Chandrayaan-3 (India) India's national space agencyISROlaunchedChandrayaan-3on 14 July 2023. Chandrayaan-3 consists of an Indigenous Lander Module (LM), Propulsion module (PM) and thePragyanrover. The lander with the rover successfully landed near the lunar south pole at 18:04 IST on 23 August 2023. Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (Japan) JAXAlaunched theSmart Lander for Investigating Moon(SLIM) mission on 6 September 2023 at 23:42 UTC (7 September 08:42 Japan Standard Time). It landed on 19 January 2024 at 15:20 UTC, making Japan the fifth country to soft-land on the Moon.Solar panel orientation issues and possible landing damage complicated the spacecraft's operation.The mission also deployed two rovers which operated successfully and independently\",\n \"and independently communicated with Earth. Intuitive Machines-1Odysseuslander (U.S.) On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseussuccessfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing in over 50 years. This mission also marks the firstprivately owned spacecraftto land on the Moon and the first landing withcryogenicpropellants.Though it landed successfully, one of the lander's legs broke upon landing and it tilted up on the other side, 18°, due to landing on a slope, but the lander survived and payloads are functioning as expected.EagleCam was not ejected prior to landing. It was later ejected on 28 February but was partially a failure as it returned all types of data except post-IM-1 landing images that were the main aim of its mission. Chang'e 6 (China) China sentChang'e 6on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return fromApollo\",\n \"return fromApollo Basinon thefar side of the Moon.This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved byChang'e 5from the lunar near side four years earlier.It also carried a Chinese rover calledJinchanto conductinfrared spectroscopyof lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing on 1 June 2024 at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024.The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024 at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, and later completed another robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed onInner Mongoliaon 25 June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission. Landings on moons of other Solar System bodies 21st century progress inspace explorationhas broadened the phrasemoon landingto include other moons in theSolar System.\",\n \"in theSolar System. TheHuygensprobeof theCassini–Huygensmission toSaturnperformed a successful moon landing onTitanin 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probePhobos 2came within 190 km (120 mi) of performing a landing onMars' moonPhobosin 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission calledFobos-Grunt(\\\"grunt\\\" means \\\"soil\\\" in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low Earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future landing onJupiter's moonEuropato drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface. Proposed future missions TheLunar Polar Exploration Missionis a robotic space mission concept by ISRO and Japan's space agencyJAXAthat would send alunar roverandlanderto exploresouth poleregion of theMoonin 2025.JAXA is likely to provide launch service using the futureH3rocket, along with responsibility for the rover. ISRO would be responsible for the lander. ISRO, following the success ofChandrayaan 3also has\",\n \"3also has plans to launchChandrayaan 4, alunarsample return mission, which would possibly be the first to return soil from thewater richsouth polar basin, in a landing close toStatio Shiv Shakti. The mission is planned by late 2028. Both nations are also active participants in theArtemis program. On 11 December 2017, US PresidentDonald Trumpsigned Space PolicyDirective 1, which directed NASA to return to the Moon with a crewed mission, for long-term exploration and use and missions to other planets.On 26 March 2019,Vice President Mike Penceformally announced that the mission will include the first female lunar astronaut.TheArtemis programhad intended to land a crewed mission on the Moon in 2024, and to begin sustained operations by 2028, supported by a plannedLunar Gateway.The NASA lunar landing mission has since been postponed to launch no earlier than September 2026. TheChinese Lunar Exploration Programplans 3 additional Chang'e uncrewed missions between 2025 and 2028, in active preparation for\",\n \"preparation for theInternational Lunar Research Stationit plans to construct with Russia, Venezuela, Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates in the 2030s. In addition, theChina Manned Space Agencyintends to conduct crewed lunar landings by 2029 or 2030; in preparation for this effort, the various Chinese space agencies and contractors are currently developing a human-rated super-heavy launch vehicle (theLong March 10), a newcrewed lunar spacecraft, and acrewed lunar lander. Russia'sRoscosmoshas announced plans to launch a lunar polar orbiter asLuna 26, in 2027. See also References Further reading External links\",\n \"Neil Armstrong Neil Alden Armstrong(August 5, 1930 – August 25, 2012) was an Americanastronautandaeronautical engineerwho, in 1969, became thefirst person to walk on the Moon. He was also anaval aviator,test pilot, and university professor. Armstrong was born and raised inWapakoneta, Ohio. He enteredPurdue University, studyingaeronautical engineering, with theU.S. Navypaying his tuition under theHolloway Plan. He became amidshipmanin 1949 and anaval aviatorthe following year. He saw action in theKorean War, flying theGrumman F9F Pantherfrom theaircraft carrierUSSEssex. After the war, he completed his bachelor's degree at Purdue and became a test pilot at theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA)High-Speed Flight StationatEdwards Air Force Basein California. He was the project pilot onCentury Seriesfighters and flew theNorth American X-15seven times. He was also a participant in theU.S. Air Force'sMan in Space SoonestandX-20 Dyna-Soarhuman spaceflightprograms. Armstrong joined theNASA Astronaut\",\n \"theNASA Astronaut Corpsin thesecond group, which was selected in 1962. He made his firstspaceflightas command pilot ofGemini 8in March 1966, becomingNASA's first civilian astronaut to fly in space. During this mission with pilotDavid Scott, he performed the firstdockingof twospacecraft; the mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his re-entry control fuel to stabilize a dangerous roll caused by a stuck thruster. During training for Armstrong's second and last spaceflight as commander ofApollo 11, he had to eject from theLunar Landing Research Vehiclemoments before a crash. On July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Apollo 11Lunar Module(LM) pilotBuzz Aldrinbecame the first people toland on the Moon, and the next day they spent two and a half hours outside theLunar ModuleEaglespacecraft whileMichael Collinsremained in lunar orbit in theApollo Command ModuleColumbia. When Armstrong first stepped onto the lunar surface, he famously said: \\\"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\\\"It was\",\n \"for mankind.\\\"It was broadcast live to an estimated 530 million viewers worldwide. Apollo 11 was a major U.S. victory in theSpace Race, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy\\\"of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth\\\" before the end of the decade. Along with Collins and Aldrin, Armstrong was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby PresidentRichard Nixonand received the 1969Collier Trophy. PresidentJimmy Carterpresented him with theCongressional Space Medal of Honorin 1978, he was inducted into theNational Aviation Hall of Famein 1979, and with his former crewmates received theCongressional Gold Medalin 2009. After he resigned from NASA in 1971, Armstrong taught in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of Cincinnatiuntil 1979. He served on theApollo 13accident investigation and on theRogers Commission, which investigated theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster. In 2012, Armstrong died due tocomplicationsresulting fromcoronary bypass\",\n \"fromcoronary bypass surgery, at the age of 82. Early life and education Armstrong was born nearWapakoneta, Ohio,on August 5, 1930, the son of Viola Louise (née Engel) and Stephen Koenig Armstrong. He was of German, English, Scots-Irish, and Scottish descent.He is a descendant ofClan Armstrong.He had a younger sister, June, and a younger brother, Dean. His father was anauditorfor theOhio state government,and the family moved around the state repeatedly, living in 16 towns over the next 14 years.Armstrong's love for flying grew during this time, having started at the age of two when his father took him to theCleveland Air Races. When he was five or six, he experienced his first airplane flight inWarren, Ohio, when he and his father took a ride in aFord Trimotor(also known as the \\\"Tin Goose\\\"). The family's last move was in 1944 and took them back to Wapakoneta, where Armstrong attendedBlume High Schooland took flying lessons at the Wapakoneta airfield.He earned a student flight certificate on his 16th birthday,\",\n \"his 16th birthday, thensoloedin August, all before he had a driver's license.He was an activeBoy Scoutand earned the rank ofEagle Scout.As an adult, he was recognized by the Scouts with theirDistinguished Eagle Scout AwardandSilver Buffalo Award.While flying toward the Moon on July 18, 1969, he sent his regards to attendees at theNational Scout jamboreein Idaho.Among the few personal items that he carried with him to the Moon and back was a World Scout Badge. At age 17, in 1947, Armstrong began studyingaeronautical engineeringatPurdue UniversityinWest Lafayette, Indiana; he was the second person in his family to attend college. Armstrong was also accepted to theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT),but he resolved to go to Purdue after watching afootballgame between thePurdue Boilermakersand theOhio State Buckeyesat theOhio Stadiumin 1945 in which quarterbackBob DeMossled the Boilermakers to a sound victory over the highly regarded Buckeyes.An uncle who attended MIT had also advised him that he could\",\n \"him that he could receive a good education without going all the way toCambridge, Massachusetts. His college tuition was paid for under theHolloway Plan. Successful applicants committed to two years of study, followed by two years of flight training and one year of service as an aviator in theU.S. Navy, then completion of the final two years of theirbachelor's degree.Armstrong did not take courses in naval science, nor did he join theNaval Reserve Officers Training Corps. Navy service Armstrong's call-up from the Navy arrived on January 26, 1949, requiring him to report toNaval Air Station Pensacolain Florida for flight training with class 5-49. After passing the medical examinations, he became amidshipmanon February 24, 1949.Flight training was conducted in aNorth American SNJ trainer, in which he soloed on September 9, 1949.On March 2, 1950, he made his firstaircraft carrierlanding onUSSCabot, an achievement he considered comparable to his first solo flight.He was then sent toNaval Air Station Corpus\",\n \"Air Station Corpus Christiin Texas for training on theGrumman F8F Bearcat, culminating in a carrier landing onUSSWright. On August 16, 1950, Armstrong was informed by letter that he was a fully qualifiednaval aviator. His mother and sister attended his graduation ceremony on August 23, 1950. Armstrong was assigned to Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron7 (FASRON 7) atNAS San Diego(now known as NAS North Island). On November 27, 1950, he was assigned toVF-51, an all-jet squadron, becoming its youngest officer, and made his first flight in a jet, aGrumman F9F Panther, on January 5, 1951. He was promoted toensignon June 5, 1951, and made his first jet carrier landing onUSSEssextwo days later. On June 28, 1951,Essexhad set sail for Korea, with VF-51 aboard to act asground-attack aircraft. VF-51 flew ahead toNaval Air Station Barbers Pointin Hawaii, where it conducted fighter-bomber training before rejoining the ship at the end of July. On August 29, 1951, Armstrong saw action in theKorean Waras an escort for a\",\n \"an escort for a photoreconnaissanceplane overSongjin.Five days later, on September 3, he flew armed reconnaissance over the primary transportation and storage facilities south of the village of Majon-ni, west ofWonsan. According to Armstrong, he was making a low bombing run at 350 mph (560 km/h) when 6 feet (1.8 m) of his wing was torn off after it collided with a cable that was strung across the hills as a booby trap. He was flying 500 feet (150 m) above the ground when he hit it. While there was heavy anti-aircraft fire in the area, none hit Armstrong's aircraft.An initial report to the commanding officer ofEssexsaid that Armstrong's F9F Panther was hit byanti-aircraft fire. The report indicated he was trying to regain control and collided with a pole, which sliced off 2 feet (0.61 m) of the Panther's right wing. Further perversions of the story by different authors added that he was only 20 feet (6.1 m) from the ground and that 3 feet (0.91 m) of his wing was sheared off. Armstrong flew the plane back to\",\n \"the plane back to friendly territory, but due to the loss of theaileron,ejectionwas his only safe option. He intended to eject over water and await rescue by Navy helicopters, but his parachute was blown back over land. A jeep driven by a roommate from flight school picked him up; it is unknown what happened to the wreckage of his aircraft, F9F-2 BuNo125122. In all, Armstrong flew 78missions over Korea for a total of 121hours in the air, a third of them in January 1952, with the final mission on March 5, 1952. Of 492 U.S. Navy personnel killed in the Korean War, 27 of them were fromEssexon this war cruise. Armstrong received theAir Medalfor 20 combat missions, twogold starsfor the next 40, theKorean Service Medaland Engagement Star, theNational Defense Service Medal, and theUnited Nations Korea Medal. Armstrong's regular commission was terminated on February 25, 1952, and he became an ensign in theUnited States Navy Reserve. On completion of his combat tour withEssex, he was assigned to a transport squadron,\",\n \"transport squadron, VR-32, in May 1952. He was released from active duty on August 23, 1952, but remained in the reserve, and was promoted tolieutenant (junior grade)on May 9, 1953.As a reservist, he continued to fly, with VF-724 atNaval Air Station Glenviewin Illinois, and then, after moving to California, with VF-773 atNaval Air Station Los Alamitos.He remained in the reserve for eight years, before resigning his commission on October 21, 1960. College years After his service with the Navy, Armstrong returned to Purdue. His previously earned good but not outstandinggradesnow improved, lifting his final Grade Point Average (GPA) to a respectable but not outstanding 4.8 out of 6.0. He pledged thePhi Delta Thetafraternity, and lived in its fraternity house. He wrote and co-directed two musicals as part of the all-student revue. The first was a version ofSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs, co-directed with his girlfriend Joanne Alford from theAlpha Chi Omegasorority, with songs from the1937 Walt Disney film,\",\n \"Walt Disney film, including \\\"Someday My Prince Will Come\\\"; the second was titledThe Land of Egelloc(\\\"college\\\" spelled backward), with music fromGilbert and Sullivanbut new lyrics. Armstrong was chairman of the Purdue Aero Flying Club, and flew the club's aircraft, anAeroncaand a couple ofPipers, which were kept at nearby Aretz Airport inLafayette, Indiana. Flying the Aeronca to Wapakoneta in 1954, he damaged it in a rough landing in a farmer's field, and it had to be hauled back to Lafayette on a trailer.He was abaritoneplayer in thePurdue All-American Marching Band.Ten years later he was made an honorary member ofKappa Kappa Psinational band honorary fraternity.Armstrong graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree inAeronautical Engineeringin January 1955.In 1970, he completed his Master of Science degree inAerospace Engineeringat theUniversity of Southern California(USC).He would eventually be awarded honorary doctorates by several universities. Armstrong met Janet Elizabeth Shearon, who was majoring\",\n \"who was majoring inhome economics, at a party hosted by Alpha Chi Omega.According to the couple, there was no real courtship, and neither could remember the exact circumstances of their engagement. They were married on January 28, 1956, at the Congregational Church inWilmette, Illinois. When he moved toEdwards Air Force Base, he lived in the bachelor quarters of the base, while Janet lived in theWestwooddistrict of Los Angeles. After one semester, they moved into a house inAntelope Valley, near Edwards AFB. Janet did not finish her degree, a fact she regretted later in life. The couple had three children.In June 1961, their daughter Karen was diagnosed withdiffuse intrinsic pontine glioma, amalignanttumorof the middle part of herbrain stem.X-ray treatment slowed its growth, but her health deteriorated to the point where she could no longer walk or talk. She died ofpneumonia, related to her weakened health, on January 28, 1962, aged two. Test pilot Following his graduation from Purdue, Armstrong became an\",\n \"Armstrong became an experimental research test pilot. He applied at theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA)High-Speed Flight Stationat Edwards Air Force Base.NACA had no open positions, and forwarded his application to theLewis Flight Propulsion LaboratoryinCleveland, where Armstrong made his first test flight on March 1, 1955.Armstrong's stint at Cleveland lasted only a couple of months before a position at the High-Speed Flight Station became available, and he reported for work there on July 11, 1955. On his first day, Armstrong was tasked with pilotingchase planesduring releases of experimental aircraft from modified bombers. He also flew the modified bombers, and on one of these missions had his first flight incident at Edwards. On March 22, 1956, he was in aBoeing B-29 Superfortress,which was to air-drop aDouglas D-558-2 Skyrocket. He sat in the right-hand co-pilot seat while pilot in command, Stan Butchart sat in the left-hand pilot seat flying the B-29. As they climbed to 30,000 feet (9\",\n \"to 30,000 feet (9 km), thenumber-four enginestopped and thepropellerbegan windmilling (rotating freely) in the airstream. Hitting the switch that would stop the propeller's spinning, Butchart watched it slow, then resume spinning even faster than the others; if it spun too fast, it would break apart. Their aircraft needed to hold an airspeed of 210 mph (338 km/h) to launch its Skyrocket payload, and the B-29 could not land with the Skyrocket attached to its belly. Armstrong and Butchart brought the aircraft into a nose-downattitudeto increase speed, then launched the Skyrocket. At the instant of launch, the number-four engine propeller disintegrated. Pieces of it damaged the number-three engine and hit the number-two engine. Butchart and Armstrong were forced to shut down the damaged number-three engine, along with the number-one engine, due to thetorqueit created. They made a slow, circling descent from 30,000 ft (9 km) using only the number-two engine, and landed safely. Armstrong served as project pilot\",\n \"as project pilot onCentury Seriesfighters, including theNorth American F-100 Super SabreA and C variants, theMcDonnell F-101 Voodoo, theLockheed F-104 Starfighter, theRepublic F-105 Thunderchiefand theConvair F-106 Delta Dart. He also flew theDouglas DC-3,Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star,North American F-86 Sabre,McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II,Douglas F5D-1 Skylancer, Boeing B-29 Superfortress,Boeing B-47 StratojetandBoeing KC-135 Stratotanker, and was one of eight elite pilots involved in theParasevparaglider research vehicle program.Over his career, he flew more than 200 different models of aircraft.His first flight in arocket-powered aircraftwas on August 15, 1957, in theBell X-1B, to an altitude of 11.4 miles (18.3 km). On landing, the poorly designednose landing gearfailed, as had happened on about a dozen previous flights of the Bell X-1B. He flew theNorth American X-15seven times,including the first flight with the Q-ball system, the first flight of the number3 X-15 airframe, and the first flight of the\",\n \"first flight of the MH-96 adaptive flight control system.He became an employee of theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) when it was established on October 1, 1958, absorbing NACA. Armstrong was involved in several incidents that went down in Edwards folklore or were chronicled in the memoirs of colleagues. During his sixth X-15 flight on April 20, 1962, Armstrong was testing the MH-96 control system when he flew to a height of over 207,000 feet (63 km) (the highest he flew beforeGemini 8). He held up the aircraft nose during its descent to demonstrate the MH-96's g-limiting performance, and the X-15 ballooned back up to around 140,000 feet (43 km). He flew past the landing field atMach3 at over 100,000 feet (30 km) in altitude, and ended up 40 miles (64 km) south of Edwards. After sufficient descent, he turned back toward the landing area, and landed. It was the longest X-15 flight in both flight time and length of the ground track. Fellow astronautMichael Collinswrote that of the X-15\",\n \"that of the X-15 pilots Armstrong \\\"had been considered one of the weaker stick-and-rudder men, but the very best when it came to understanding the machine's design and how it operated\\\".Many of the test pilots at Edwards praised Armstrong's engineering ability.Milt Thompsonsaid he was \\\"the most technically capable of the early X-15 pilots\\\".Bill Danasaid Armstrong \\\"had a mind that absorbed things like a sponge\\\". Those who flew for the Air Force tended to have a different opinion, especially people likeChuck YeagerandPete Knight, who did not have engineering degrees. Knight said that pilot-engineers flew in a way that was \\\"more mechanical than it is flying\\\", and gave this as the reason why some pilot-engineers got into trouble: Their flying skills did not come naturally.Armstrong made sevenflights in the X-15between November 30, 1960, and July 26, 1962.He reached a top speed of Mach 5.74 (3,989 mph, 6,420 km/h) in the X-15-1, and left the Flight Research Center with a total of 2,400 flying hours. On April 24,\",\n \"hours. On April 24, 1962, Armstrong flew for the only time with Yeager. Their job, flying a T-33, was to evaluate Smith Ranch Dry Lake in Nevada for use as an emergency landing site for the X-15. In his autobiography, Yeager wrote that he knew the lake bed was unsuitable for landings after recent rains, but Armstrong insisted on flying out anyway. As they attempted atouch-and-go, the wheels became stuck and they had to wait for rescue. As Armstrong told the story, Yeager never tried to talk him out of it and they made a first successful landing on the east side of the lake. Then Yeager told him to try again, this time a bit slower. On the second landing, they became stuck, provoking Yeager to fits of laughter. On May 21, 1962, Armstrong was involved in the \\\"Nellis Affair\\\". He was sent in an F-104 to inspectDelamar Dry Lakein southern Nevada, again for emergency landings. He misjudged his altitude and did not realize that the landing gear had not fully extended. As he touched down, the landing gear began to\",\n \"gear began to retract; Armstrong applied full power to abort the landing, but the ventral fin and landing gear door struck the ground, damaging the radio and releasinghydraulic fluid. Without radio communication, Armstrong flew south toNellis Air Force Base, past the control tower, and waggled his wings, the signal for a no-radio approach. The loss of hydraulic fluid caused thetailhookto release, and upon landing, he caught the arresting wire attached to an anchor chain, and dragged the chain along the runway. It took thirty minutes to clear the runway and rig another arresting cable. Armstrong telephoned Edwards and asked for someone to collect him. Milt Thompson was sent in an F-104B, the only two-seater available, but a plane Thompson had never flown. With great difficulty, Thompson made it to Nellis, where a strong crosswind caused a hard landing and the left main tire suffered a blowout. The runway was again closed to clear it, and Bill Dana was sent to Nellis in a T-33, but he almost landed long. The\",\n \"landed long. The Nellis base operations office then decided that to avoid any further problems, it would be best to find the three NASA pilots ground transport back to Edwards. Astronaut career In June 1958, Armstrong was selected for the U.S. Air Force'sMan in Space Soonestprogram, but theAdvanced Research Projects Agency(ARPA) canceled its funding on August 1, 1958, and on November 5, 1958, it was superseded byProject Mercury, a civilian project run by NASA. As a NASA civilian test pilot, Armstrong was ineligible to become one of its astronauts at this time, as selection was restricted to military test pilots.In November 1960, he was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for theX-20 Dyna-Soar, a military space plane under development by Boeing for the U.S. Air Force, and on March 15, 1962, he was selected by the U.S. Air Force as one of seven pilot-engineers who would fly the X-20 when it got off the design board. In April 1962, NASA sought applications for the second group of NASA astronauts\",\n \"of NASA astronauts forProject Gemini, a proposed two-man spacecraft. This time, selection was open to qualified civilian test pilots.Armstrong visited theSeattle World's Fairin May 1962 and attended a conference there on space exploration that was co-sponsored by NASA. After he returned fromSeattleon June 4, he applied to become an astronaut. His application arrived about a week past the June 1, 1962, deadline, but Dick Day, a flight simulator expert with whom Armstrong had worked closely at Edwards, saw the late arrival of the application and slipped it into the pile before anyone noticed.AtBrooks Air Force Baseat the end of June, Armstrong underwent a medical exam that many of the applicants described as painful and at times seemingly pointless. NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations,Deke Slayton, called Armstrong on September 13, 1962, and asked whether he would be interested in joining theNASA Astronaut Corpsas part of what the press dubbed \\\"theNew Nine\\\"; without hesitation, Armstrong said yes. The\",\n \"said yes. The selections were kept secret until three days later, although newspaper reports had circulated since earlier that year that he would be selected as the \\\"first civilian astronaut\\\".Armstrong was one of two civilian pilots selected for this group;the other wasElliot See, another former naval aviator.NASA selected the second group that, compared with theMercury Sevenastronauts, were younger,and had more impressive academic credentials.Collins wrote that Armstrong was by far the most experienced test pilot in the Astronaut Corps. Gemini program Gemini 5 On February 8, 1965, Armstrong and Elliot See were picked as the backup crew forGemini 5, with Armstrong as commander, supporting the prime crew ofGordon CooperandPete Conrad.The mission's purpose was to practicespace rendezvousand to develop procedures and equipment for a seven-day flight, all of which would be required for a mission to the Moon. With two other flights (Gemini 3andGemini 4) in preparation, six crews were competing for simulator time,\",\n \"for simulator time, so Gemini5 was postponed. It finally lifted off on August 21.Armstrong and See watched the launch atCape Kennedy, then flew to theManned Spacecraft Center(MSC) in Houston.The mission was generally successful, despite a problem with thefuel cellsthat prevented a rendezvous. Cooper and Conrad practiced a \\\"phantom rendezvous\\\", carrying out the maneuver without a target. Gemini 8 The crews for Gemini8 were assigned on September 20, 1965. Under the normal rotation system, the backup crew for one mission became the prime crew for the third mission after, but Slayton designatedDavid Scottas the pilot of Gemini8.Scott was the first member of thethird group of astronauts, who was selected on October 18, 1963, to receive a prime crew assignment.See was designated to commandGemini 9. Henceforth, each Gemini mission was commanded by a member of Armstrong's group, with a member of Scott's group as the pilot. Conrad would be Armstrong's backup this time, andRichard F. Gordon Jr.his pilot.Armstrong\",\n \"pilot.Armstrong became the first American civilian in space. (Valentina Tereshkovaof theSoviet Unionhad become the first civilian—and first woman—nearly three years earlier aboardVostok 6when it launched on June 16, 1963.) Armstrong would also be the last of his group to fly in space, as See died in aT-38 crashon February 28, 1966, that also took the life of crewmateCharles Bassett. They were replaced by the backup crew ofTom StaffordandGene Cernan, whileJim Lovelland Buzz Aldrin moved up from the backup crew ofGemini 10to become the backup for Gemini 9,and would eventually flyGemini 12. Gemini 8 launched on March 16, 1966. It was the most complex mission yet, with a rendezvous and docking with anuncrewedAgena target vehicle, and the planned second Americanspacewalk(EVA) by Scott. The mission was planned to last 75hours and 55orbits. After the Agena lifted off at 10:00:00EST,theTitan IIrocket carrying Armstrong and Scott ignited at 11:41:02 EST, putting them into an orbit from which they chased the\",\n \"they chased the Agena.They achieved the first-ever docking between two spacecraft.Contact with the crew was intermittent due to the lack of tracking stations covering their entire orbits. While out of contact with the ground, the docked spacecraft began to roll, and Armstrong attempted to correct this with the Gemini'sOrbit Attitude and Maneuvering System(OAMS). Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but the roll increased dramatically until they were turning about once per second, indicating a problem with Gemini'sattitude control. Armstrong engaged the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turned off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft had to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring caused one of the thrusters to stick in the on position. A few people in the Astronaut Office, includingWalter Cunningham, felt that Armstrong and Scott \\\"had botched their first mission\\\".There was speculation that\",\n \"speculation that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings, saving the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded; no malfunction procedures had been written, and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings, not one or the other.Gene Kranzwrote, \\\"The crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong.\\\" The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft were docked, they must be considered one spacecraft. Kranz considered this the mission's most important lesson.Armstrong was depressed that the mission was cut short,canceling most mission objectives and robbing Scott of his EVA. The Agena was later reused as a docking target by Gemini 10.Armstrong and Scott received theNASA Exceptional Service Medal,and the Air Force awarded Scott theDistinguished Flying Crossas well.Scott was promoted tolieutenant colonel, and Armstrong received a $678 raise in pay to $21,653 a year\",\n \"to $21,653 a year (equivalent to $203,338 in 2023), making him NASA's highest-paid astronaut. Gemini 11 In Armstrong's final assignment in the Gemini program, he was the back-up Command Pilot forGemini 11. Having trained for two flights, Armstrong was quite knowledgeable about the systems and took on a teaching role for the rookie backup pilot,William Anders.The launch was on September 12, 1966,with Conrad and Gordon on board, who successfully completed the mission objectives, while Armstrong served as acapsule communicator(CAPCOM). Following the flight, PresidentLyndon B. Johnsonasked Armstrong and his wife to take part in a 24-day goodwill tour of South America.Also on the tour, which took in 11countries and 14major cities, were Dick Gordon,George Low, their wives, and other government officials. In Paraguay, Armstrong greeted dignitaries in their local language,Guarani; in Brazil he talked about the exploits of the Brazilian-born aviation pioneerAlberto Santos-Dumont. Apollo program On January 27,\",\n \"On January 27, 1967—the day of theApollo 1 fire—Armstrong was in Washington, D.C., with Cooper, Gordon, Lovell andScott Carpenterfor the signing of the United NationsOuter Space Treaty. The astronauts chatted with the assembled dignitaries until 18:45, when Carpenter went to the airport, and the others returned to the Georgetown Inn, where they each found messages to phone the MSC. During these calls, they learned of the deaths ofGus Grissom,Ed WhiteandRoger Chaffeein the fire. Armstrong and the group spent the rest of the night drinking scotch and discussing what had happened. On April 5, 1967, the same day the Apollo1 investigation released its final report, Armstrong and 17 other astronauts gathered for a meeting with Slayton. The first thing Slayton said was, \\\"The guys who are going to fly the first lunar missions are the guys in this room.\\\"According to Cernan, only Armstrong showed no reaction to the statement. To Armstrong it came as no surprise—the room was full of veterans of Project Gemini, the only\",\n \"Gemini, the only people who could fly the lunar missions. Slayton talked about the planned missions and named Armstrong to the backup crew forApollo 9, which at that stage was planned as amedium Earth orbittest of the combinedlunar moduleandcommand and service module. The crew was officially assigned on November 20, 1967.For crewmates, Armstrong was assigned Lovell and Aldrin, from Gemini 12. After design and manufacturing delays of the lunar module (LM),Apollo 8and9 swapped prime and backup crews. Based on the normal crew rotation, Armstrong would command Apollo 11,with one change: Collins on the Apollo8 crew began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.Lovell took his place on the Apollo8 crew, and, when Collins recovered, he joined Armstrong's crew. To give the astronauts practice piloting the LM on its descent, NASA commissionedBell Aircraftto build twoLunar Landing Research Vehicles(LLRV), later\",\n \"later augmented with three Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV). Nicknamed the \\\"Flying Bedsteads\\\", they simulated the Moon's one-sixth gravity using aturbofanengine to support five-sixths of the craft's weight. On May 6, 1968, 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, Armstrong's controls started to degrade and the LLRV beganrolling.He ejected safely before the vehicle struck the ground and burst into flames. Later analysis suggested that if he had ejected half a second later, his parachute would not have opened in time. His only injury was from biting his tongue. The LLRV was completely destroyed.Even though he was nearly killed, Armstrong maintained that without the LLRV and LLTV, the lunar landings would not have been successful, as they gave commanders essential experience in piloting the lunar landing craft. In addition to the LLRV training, NASA began lunar landing simulator training after Apollo 10 was completed. Aldrin and Armstrong trained for a variety of scenarios that could develop during a real lunar\",\n \"during a real lunar landing.They also received briefings from geologists at NASA. Apollo 11 After Armstrong served as backup commander for Apollo8, Slayton offered him the post of commander of Apollo 11 on December 23, 1968, as Apollo8 orbited the Moon.According to Armstrong's 2005 biography, Slayton told him that although the planned crew was Commander Armstrong, Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin, and Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, he was offering Armstrong the chance to replace Aldrin with Jim Lovell. After thinking it over for a day, Armstrong told Slayton he would stick with Aldrin, as he had no difficulty working with him and thought Lovell deserved his own command. Replacing Aldrin with Lovell would have made Lovell the lunar module pilot, unofficially the lowest ranked member, and Armstrong could not justify placing Lovell, the commander of Gemini 12, in the number3 position of the crew.The crew of Apollo 11 was assigned on January 9, 1969, as Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin, with Lovell, Anders,\",\n \"Lovell, Anders, andFred Haiseas the backup crew. According toChris Kraft, a March 1969 meeting among Slayton, George Low,Bob Gilruth, and Kraft determined that Armstrong would be the first person on the Moon, in part because NASA management saw him as a person who did not have a large ego. A press conference on April 14, 1969, gave the design of the LM cabin as the reason for Armstrong's being first; the hatch opened inwards and to the right, making it difficult for the LM pilot, on the right-hand side, to exit first. At the time of their meeting, the four men did not know about the hatch consideration. The first knowledge of the meeting outside the small group came when Kraft wrote his book.Methods of circumventing this difficulty existed, but it is not known if these were considered at the time. Slayton added, \\\"Secondly, just on a pure protocol basis, I figured the commander ought to be the first guy out... I changed it as soon as I found they had the time line that showed that. Bob Gilruth approved my\",\n \"Gilruth approved my decision.\\\" Voyage to the Moon ASaturn Vrocket launched Apollo 11 fromLaunch Complex 39Aat theKennedy Space Centeron July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00UTC(09:32:00 EDT local time).Armstrong's wife Janet and two sons watched from a yacht moored on theBanana River.During the launch, Armstrong's heart rate peaked at 110beats per minute.He found the first stage the loudest, much noisier than the Gemini8 Titan II launch. The Apollo command module was relatively roomy compared with the Gemini spacecraft. None of the Apollo 11 crew sufferedspace sickness, as some members of previous crews had. Armstrong was especially glad about this, as he had been prone tomotion sicknessas a child and could experiencenauseaafter long periods ofaerobatics. Apollo 11's objective was to land safely on the Moon, rather than to touch down at a precise location. Three minutes into the lunar descent, Armstrong noted that craters were passing about two seconds too early, which meant theLunar ModuleEaglewould probably touch\",\n \"probably touch down several miles (kilometres) beyond the planned landing zone.As theEagle's landingradaracquired the surface, several computer error alarms sounded. The first was a code1202alarm, and even with their extensive training, neither Armstrong nor Aldrin knew what this code meant. They promptly received word from CAPCOMCharles Dukein Houston that the alarms were not a concern; the 1202 and 1201 alarms were caused by executive overflows in thelunar module guidance computer. In 2007, Aldrin said the overflows were caused by his own counter-checklist choice of leaving the docking radar on during the landing process, causing the computer to process unnecessary radar data. When it did not have enough time to execute all tasks, the computer dropped the lower-priority ones, triggering the alarms. Aldrin said he decided to leave the radar on in case an abort was necessary when re-docking with the Apollo command module; he did not realize it would cause the processing overflows. When Armstrong noticed they\",\n \"noticed they were heading toward a landing area that seemed unsafe, he took manual control of the LM and attempted to find a safer area. This took longer than expected, and longer than most simulations had taken.For this reason, Mission Control was concerned that the LM was running low on fuel.On landing, Aldrin and Armstrong believed they had 40seconds of fuel left, including the 20seconds' worth which had to be saved in the event of an abort.During training, Armstrong had, on several occasions, landed with fewer than 15seconds of fuel; he was also confident the LM could survive a fall of up to 50 feet (15 m). Post-mission analysis showed that at touchdown there were 45 to 50seconds of propellant burn time left. The landing on the surface of the Moon occurred several seconds after 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969.One of three 67-inch (170 cm) probes attached to three of the LM's four legs made contact with the surface, a panel light in the LM illuminated, and Aldrin called out, \\\"Contact light.\\\" Armstrong shut\",\n \"Armstrong shut the engine off and said, \\\"Shutdown.\\\" As the LM settled onto the surface, Aldrin said, \\\"Okay, engine stop\\\"; then they both called out some post-landing checklist items. After a 10-second pause, Duke acknowledged the landing with, \\\"We copy you down,Eagle.\\\" Armstrong confirmed the landing to Mission Control and the world with the words, \\\"Houston,Tranquility Basehere. TheEaglehas landed.\\\" Aldrin and Armstrong celebrated with a brisk handshake and pat on the back. They then returned to the checklist of contingency tasks, should an emergency liftoff become necessary.After Armstrong confirmed touch down, Duke re-acknowledged, adding a comment about the flight crew's relief: \\\"Roger, Tranquility. We copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\\\"During the landing, Armstrong's heart rate ranged from 100 to 150beats per minute. First Moon walk The flight plan called for a crew rest period before leaving the module, but Armstrong asked for this to\",\n \"asked for this to be moved to earlier in the evening,Houston time. When he and Aldrin were ready to go outside,Eaglewas depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder.At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on aLunar Modulelanding pad, Armstrong said, \\\"I'm going to step off the LM now\\\". He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface at 02:56UTCJuly 21, 1969,then said, \\\"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\\\"The exact time of Armstrong's first step on the Moon is unclear. Armstrong prepared his famousepigramon his own.In a post-flight press conference, he said that he chose the words \\\"just prior to leaving the LM.\\\"In a 1983 interview inEsquiremagazine, he explained toGeorge Plimpton: \\\"I always knew there was a good chance of being able to return to Earth, but I thought the chances of a successful touch down on the moon surface were about even money—fifty–fifty... Most people don't realize how difficult the mission was. So it didn't seem to me\",\n \"didn't seem to me there was much point in thinking of something to say if we'd have to abort landing.\\\"In 2012, his brother Dean Armstrong said that Neil showed him a draft of the line months before the launch.HistorianAndrew Chaikin, who interviewed Armstrong in 1988 for his bookA Man on the Moon, disputed that Armstrong claimed to have conceived the line during the mission. Recordings of Armstrong's transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article \\\"a\\\" before \\\"man\\\", though NASA and Armstrong insisted for years that static obscured it. Armstrong stated he would never make such a mistake, but after repeated listenings to recordings, he eventually conceded he must have dropped the \\\"a\\\".He later said he \\\"would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended, even if it was not said—although it might actually have been\\\".There have since been claims and counter-claims about whether acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence\",\n \"the presence of the missing \\\"a\\\";Peter Shann Ford, an Australian computer programmer, conducted a digital audio analysis and claims that Armstrong did say \\\"a man\\\", but the \\\"a\\\" was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time.Ford andJames R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis.Armstrong found Ford's analysis \\\"persuasive.\\\"LinguistsDavid BeaverandMark Libermanwrote of their skepticism of Ford's claims on the blogLanguage Log.A 2016 peer-reviewed study again concluded Armstrong had included the article.NASA's transcript continues to show the \\\"a\\\" in parentheses. When Armstrong made his proclamation,Voice of Americawas rebroadcast live by theBBCand many other stations worldwide. An estimated 530million people viewed the event,20 percent out of a world population of approximately 3.6billion. Q: Did you misspeak? A: There isn't any way of knowing. Q: Several sources say you did. A: I\",\n \"say you did. A: I mean, there isn't any way ofmyknowing. When I listen to the tape, I can't hear the 'a', but that doesn't mean it wasn't there, because that was the fastest VOX ever built. There was no mike-switch — it was avoice-operated key or VOX. In a helmet you find you lose a lot of syllables. Sometimes a short syllable like 'a' might not be transmitted. However, when I listen to it, I can't hear it. But the 'a' is implied, so I'm happy if they just put it in parentheses. Omni, June 1982, p. 126 About 19minutes after Armstrong's first step, Aldrin joined him on the surface, becoming the second human to walk on the Moon. They began their tasks of investigating how easily a person could operate on the lunar surface. Armstrong unveiled a plaque commemorating the flight, and with Aldrin, planted theflag of the United States. Although Armstrong had wanted the flag to be draped on the flagpole,it was decided to use a metal rod to hold it horizontally.However, the rod did not fully extend, leaving the flag\",\n \"leaving the flag with a slightly wavy appearance, as if there were a breeze.Shortly after the flag planting, PresidentRichard Nixonspoke to them by telephone from his office. He spoke for about a minute, after which Armstrong responded for about thirty seconds.In the Apollo 11 photographic record, there are only five images of Armstrong partly shown or reflected. The mission was planned to the minute, with the majority of photographic tasks performed by Armstrong with the singleHasselbladcamera. After helping to set up theEarly Apollo Scientific Experiment Package, Armstrong went for a walk to what is now known as East Crater, 65 yards (59 m) east of the LM, the greatest distance traveled from the LM on the mission. His final task was to remind Aldrin to leave a small package of memorial items to SovietcosmonautsYuri GagarinandVladimir Komarov, and Apollo1 astronauts Grissom, White and Chaffee.The Apollo 11 EVA lasted two and a half hours.Each of the subsequent five landings was allotted a progressively\",\n \"a progressively longer EVA period; the crew ofApollo 17spent over 22hours exploring the lunar surface.In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited their Moon walk because they were unsure how thespace suitswould cope with the Moon's extremely high temperature. Return to Earth After they re-entered the LM, the hatch was closed and sealed. While preparing for liftoff, Armstrong and Aldrin discovered that, in their bulky space suits, they had broken the ignition switch for the ascent engine; using part of a pen, they pushed in the circuit breaker to start the launch sequence.TheEaglethen continued to its rendezvous in lunar orbit, where it docked withColumbia, the command and service module. The three astronauts returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, to be picked up by theUSSHornet. After being released from an 18-day quarantine to ensure that they had not picked up any infections or diseases from the Moon, the crew was feted across the United States and around the world as part\",\n \"the world as part of a 38-day \\\"Giant Leap\\\" tour. The tour began on August 13, when the three astronauts spoke and rode inticker-tape paradesin their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.On the same evening an officialstate dinnerwas held in Los Angeles to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44governors, theChief Justice of the United States, and ambassadors from 83nations. President Nixon and Vice President Agnew presented each astronaut with aPresidential Medal of Freedom. After the tour Armstrong took part inBob Hope's 1969USOshow, primarily to Vietnam.In May 1970, Armstrong traveled to the Soviet Union to present a talk at the 13th annual conference of the InternationalCommittee on Space Research; after arriving inLeningradfrom Poland, he traveled to Moscow where he metPremierAlexei Kosygin. Armstrong was the first westerner to see the supersonicTupolev Tu-144and was given a tour of theYuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, which he described as \\\"a bit\",\n \"described as \\\"a bit Victorian in nature\\\".At the end of the day, he was surprised to view a delayed video of the launch ofSoyuz 9as it had not occurred to Armstrong that the mission was taking place, even though Valentina Tereshkova had been his host and her husband,Andriyan Nikolayev, was on board. Life after Apollo Teaching Shortly after Apollo 11, Armstrong stated that he did not plan to fly in space again.He was appointed Deputy Associate Administrator for Aeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research and Technology atARPA, served in the position for a year, then resigned from it and NASA in 1971.He accepted a teaching position in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of Cincinnati,having chosen Cincinnati over other universities, including hisalma materPurdue, because Cincinnati had a small aerospace department,and said he hoped the faculty there would not be annoyed that he came straight into a professorship with only a USC master's degree.He began his master's degree while\",\n \"degree while stationed at Edwards years before, and completed it after Apollo 11 by presenting a report on various aspects of Apollo, instead of a thesis on the simulation of hypersonic flight. At Cincinnati, Armstrong was University Professor of Aerospace Engineering. He took a heavy teaching load, taught core classes, and created two graduate-level classes: aircraft design and experimental flight mechanics. He was considered a good teacher, and a tough grader. His research activities during this time did not involve his work at NASA, as he did not want to give the appearance of favoritism; he later regretted the decision. After teaching for eight years, Armstrong resigned in 1980. When the university changed from an independent municipal university to a state school, bureaucracy increased. He did not want to be a part of the faculty collective bargaining group, so he decided to teach half-time. According to Armstrong, he had the same amount of work but received half his salary. In 1979, less than 10% of\",\n \"less than 10% of his income came from his university salary. Employees at the university did not know why he left. NASA commissions In 1970, after an explosion aboardApollo 13aborted its lunar landing, Armstrong was part ofEdgar Cortright's investigation of the mission. He produced a detailed chronology of the flight. He determined that a 28-volt thermostat switch in an oxygen tank, which was supposed to have been replaced with a 65-volt version, led to the explosion. Cortright's report recommended the entire tank be redesigned at a cost of $40million. Many NASA managers, including Armstrong, opposed the recommendation, since only the thermostat switch had caused the problem. They lost the argument, and the tanks were redesigned. In 1986, PresidentRonald Reaganasked Armstrong to join theRogers Commissioninvestigating theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster. Armstrong was made vice chairman of the commission and held private interviews with contacts he had developed over the years to help determine the cause of\",\n \"the cause of the disaster. He helped limit the committee's recommendations to nine, believing that if there were too many, NASA would not act on them. Armstrong was appointed to a fourteen-member commission by President Reagan to develop a plan for American civilian spaceflight in the 21st century. The commission was chaired by former NASA administrator Dr.Thomas O. Paine, with whom Armstrong had worked during the Apollo program. The group published a book titledPioneering the Space Frontier: The Report on the National Commission on Space, recommending a permanent lunar base by 2006, and sending people to Mars by 2015. The recommendations were largely ignored, overshadowed by theChallengerdisaster. Armstrong and his wife attended the memorial service for the victims of theSpace ShuttleColumbiadisasterin 2003, at the invitation of PresidentGeorge W. Bush. Business activities After Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971, he acted as a spokesman for several businesses. The first company to successfully approach\",\n \"approach him wasChrysler, for whom he appeared in advertising starting in January 1979. Armstrong thought they had a strong engineering division, and they were in financial difficulty. He later acted as a spokesman for other American companies, including General Time Corporation and the Bankers Association of America.He acted as a spokesman for only American companies. In addition to his duties as a spokesman, he also served on the board of directors of several companies. The first company board Armstrong joined wasGates Learjet, chairing their technical committee. He flew their new and experimental jets and even set a climb and altitude record for business jets. Armstrong became a member ofCincinnati Gas & Electric Company's board in 1973. They were interested in nuclear power and wanted to increase the company's technical competence. He served on the board ofTaft Broadcasting, also based in Cincinnati. Armstrong joined the board of solid rocket boosterThiokolin 1989, after previously serving on the Rogers\",\n \"on the Rogers Commission which found that theSpace ShuttleChallengerwas destroyed due to a defect in the Thiokol-manufactured solid rocket boosters. When Armstrong left the University of Cincinnati, he became the chairman of Cardwell International Ltd., a company that manufactured drilling rigs. He served on additional aerospace boards, firstUnited Airlinesin 1978, and laterEaton Corporationin 1980. He was asked to chair the board of directors for a subsidiary of Eaton, AIL Systems. He chaired the board through the company's 2000 merger withEDO Corporation, until his retirement in 2002. North Pole expedition In 1985, professional expedition leader Mike Dunn organized a trip to take men he deemed the \\\"greatest explorers\\\" to the North Pole. The group included Armstrong,Edmund Hillary,Hillary's son Peter,Steve Fossett, andPatrick Morrow. They arrived at the Pole on April 6, 1985. Armstrong said he was curious to see what it looked like from the ground, as he had seen it only from the Moon.He did not inform the\",\n \"did not inform the media of the trip, preferring to keep it private. Public profile Armstrong's family described him as a \\\"reluctant American hero\\\".He kept a low profile later in his life, leading to the belief that he was a recluse.Recalling Armstrong's humility,John Glenn, the first American to orbit Earth, told CNN: \\\" didn't feel that he should be out huckstering himself. He was a humble person, and that's the way he remained after his lunar flight, as well as before.\\\"Armstrong turned down most requests for interviews and public appearances. Michael Collins said in his bookCarrying the Firethat when Armstrong moved to a dairy farm to become a college professor, it was like he \\\"retreated to his castle and pulled up the drawbridge\\\". Armstrong found this amusing, and said, \\\"...those of us that live out in the hinterlands think that people that live inside theBeltwayare the ones that have the problems.\\\" Andrew Chaikin says inA Man on the Moonthat Armstrong kept a low profile but was not a recluse, citing his\",\n \"recluse, citing his participation in interviews, advertisements for Chrysler, and hosting a cable television series.Between 1991 and 1993, he hostedFirst Flights with Neil Armstrong, anaviation historydocumentary series onA&E.In 2010, Armstrong voiced the character of Dr. Jack Morrow inQuantum Quest: A Cassini Space Odyssey,an animated educational sci-fi adventure film initiated by JPL/NASA through a grant from Jet Propulsion Lab. Armstrong guarded the use of his name, image, and famous quote. When it was launched in 1981,MTVwanted to use his quote in itsstation identification, with the American flag replaced with the MTV logo, but he refused the use of his voice and likeness.He suedHallmark Cardsin 1994, when they used his name, and a recording of the \\\"one small step\\\" quote, in a Christmas ornament without his permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, which Armstrong donated to Purdue. For many years, he wrote letters congratulating new Eagle Scouts on their accomplishment,\",\n \"accomplishment, but decided to quit the practice in the 1990s because he felt the letters should be written by people who knew the scout. (In 2003, he received 950congratulation requests.) This contributed to the myth of his reclusiveness.Armstrong used to autograph everything exceptfirst day covers. Around 1993, he found out his signatures were being sold online, and that most of them were forgeries, and stopped giving autographs. Personal life Some former astronauts, including Glenn andApollo 17'sHarrison Schmitt, sought political careers after leaving NASA. Armstrong was approached by groups from both theDemocraticandRepublicanparties but declined the offers. He supportedstates' rightsand opposed the U.S. acting as the \\\"world's policeman\\\". When Armstrong applied at a localMethodistchurch to lead a Boy Scout troop in the late 1950s, he gave his religious affiliation as \\\"deist\\\".His mother later said that his religious views caused her grief and distress in later life, as she was a Christian.Upon his return\",\n \"his return from the Moon, Armstrong gave a speech in front of theU.S. Congressin which he thanked them for giving him the opportunity to see some of the \\\"grandest views of the Creator\\\".In the early 1980s, he was the subject of a hoax claiming that he converted toIslamafter hearing thecall to prayerwhile walking on the Moon. Indonesian singer Suhaemi wrote a song called \\\"Gema Suara Adzan di Bulan\\\" (\\\"The Resonant Sound of the Call to Prayer on the Moon\\\") which described Armstrong's supposed conversion, and the song was widely discussed byJakartanews outlets in 1983.Similar hoax stories were seen in Egypt and Malaysia. In March 1983, theU.S. State Departmentresponded by issuing a message to embassies and consulates in Muslim countries saying that Armstrong had not converted to Islam.The hoax surfaced occasionally for the next three decades. Part of the confusion arose from the similarity between the names of the country of Lebanon, which has a majority Muslim population, and Armstrong's longtime residence\",\n \"longtime residence inLebanon, Ohio. In 1972, Armstrong visited the Scottish town ofLangholm, the traditional seat of Clan Armstrong. He was made the firstfreemanof the burgh, and happily declared the town his home.To entertain the crowd, theJustice of the Peaceread from an unrepealed archaic 400-year-old law that required him to hang any Armstrong found in the town. Armstrong flew light aircraft for pleasure. He enjoyedglidersand before the Moon flight had earned a gold badge with two diamonds from theInternational Gliding Commission. He continued to fly engineless aircraft well into his 70s. While working on his farm in November 1978, Armstrong jumped off the back of his grain truck and caught his wedding ring in its wheel, tearing the tip off his left ring finger. He collected the severed tip, packed it in ice, and had surgeons reattach it at a nearby hospital inLouisville, Kentucky.In February 1991, he suffered a mild heart attack while skiing with friends atAspen, Colorado. Armstrong and his first wife,\",\n \"and his first wife, Janet, separated in 1990 and divorced in 1994 after 38 years of marriage.He met his second wife, Carol Held Knight, at a golf tournament in 1992, when they were seated together at breakfast. She said little to Armstrong, but he called her two weeks later to ask what she was doing. She replied that she was cutting down a cherry tree, and he arrived at her house 35 minutes later to help. They were married in Ohio on June 12, 1994, and had a second ceremony atSan Ysidro Ranchin California. They lived inIndian Hill, Ohio.Through his marriage to Carol, he was the father-in-law of futureNew York Metsgeneral managerBrodie Van Wagenen. In May 2005, Armstrong became involved in a legal dispute with Mark Sizemore, his barber of 20years. After cutting Armstrong's hair, Sizemore sold some of it to a collector for $3,000 without Armstrong's knowledge or permission.Armstrong threatened legal action against Sizemore unless he returned the hair or donated the proceeds to a charity of Armstrong's\",\n \"of Armstrong's choosing. Sizemore, unable to retrieve the hair, donated the proceeds to charity. Illness and death On August 7, 2012, Armstrong underwentbypass surgeryatMercy Faith–Fairfield HospitalinFairfield, Ohio, to relievecoronary artery disease.Although he was reportedly recovering well,he developed complications and died on August 25.PresidentBarack Obamaissued a statement memorializing Armstrong as \\\"among the greatest of American heroes—not just of his time, but of all time\\\",and added that Armstrong had carried the aspirations of the United States' citizens and had delivered \\\"a moment of human achievement that will never be forgotten.\\\" Armstrong's family released a statement describing him as a \\\"reluctant American hero served his nation proudly, as a navy fighter pilot, test pilot, and astronaut ... While we mourn the loss of a very good man, we also celebrate his remarkable life and hope that it serves as an example to young people around the world to work hard to make their dreams come true, to\",\n \"come true, to be willing to explore and push the limits, and to selflessly serve a cause greater than themselves. For those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil, we have a simple request. Honor his example of service, accomplishment and modesty, and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink.\\\" Buzz Aldrin called Armstrong \\\"a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew\\\", and said he was disappointed that they would not be able to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing together in 2019.Michael Collins said, \\\"He was the best, and I will miss him terribly.\\\"NASA AdministratorCharles Boldensaid, \\\"As long as there are history books, Neil Armstrong will be included in them, remembered for taking humankind's first small step on a world beyond our own\\\". A tribute was held for Armstrong on September 13, atWashington National Cathedral, whose Space Window depicts the Apollo 11 mission and holds a sliver of Moon\",\n \"a sliver of Moon rock amid its stained-glass panels.In attendance were Armstrong's Apollo 11 crewmates, Collins and Aldrin; Gene Cernan, the Apollo 17 mission commander and last man to walk on the Moon; and former senator and astronaut John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth. In his eulogy, Charles Bolden praised Armstrong's \\\"courage, grace, and humility\\\". Cernan recalled Armstrong's low-fuel approach to the Moon: \\\"When the gauge says empty, we all know there's a gallon or two left in the tank!\\\"Diana Krallsang the song \\\"Fly Me to the Moon\\\". Collins led prayers. David Scott spoke, possibly for the first time, about an incident during their Gemini 8 mission: minutes before the hatch was to be sealed, a small chip of dried glue fell into the latch of his harness and prevented it from being buckled, threatening to abort the mission. Armstrong then called on Conrad to solve the problem, which he did, and the mission proceeded. \\\"That happened because Neil Armstrong was a team player—he always worked on\",\n \"always worked on behalf of the team.\\\"CongressmanBill Johnsonfrom Armstrong's home state of Ohio led calls for President Barack Obama to authorize astate funeralin Washington D.C. Throughout his lifetime, Armstrong shunned publicity and rarely gave interviews. Mindful that Armstrong would have objected to a state funeral, his family opted to have a private funeral inCincinnati.On September 14, Armstrong's cremated remains were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean from theUSSPhilippine Sea.Flags were flown athalf-staffon the day of Armstrong's funeral. In July 2019, after observations of the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing,The New York Timesreported on details of amedical malpracticesuit Armstrong's family had filed against Mercy Health–Fairfield Hospital, where he died. When Armstrong appeared to be recovering from his bypass surgery, nurses removed the wires connected to his temporarypacemaker. He began tobleed internallyand his blood pressure dropped. Doctors took him to the\",\n \"took him to the hospital'scatheterizationlaboratory, and only later began operating. Two of the three physicians who reviewed the medical files during the lawsuit called this a serious error, saying surgery should have begun immediately; experts theTimestalked to, while qualifying their judgement by noting that they were unable to review the specific records in the case, said that taking a patient directly to the operating room under those circumstances generally gave them the highest chance of survival. The family ultimately settled for $6 million in 2014. Letters included with the 93 pages of documents sent to theTimesby an unknown personshow that his sons intimated to the hospital, through their lawyers, that they might discuss what happened to their father publicly at the 45th anniversary observances in 2014. The hospital, fearing the bad publicity that would result from being accused of negligently causing the death of a revered figure such as Armstrong, agreed to pay as long as the family never spoke\",\n \"family never spoke about the suit or the settlement.Armstrong's wife, Carol, was not a party to the lawsuit. She reportedly felt that her husband would have been opposed to taking legal action. Legacy When Pete Conrad ofApollo 12became the third man to walk on the Moon, on November 19, 1969, his first words referenced Armstrong. The shorter of the two, when Conrad stepped from the LM onto the surface he proclaimed \\\"Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.\\\" Armstrong received many honors and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom (with distinction) from President Nixon,theCullum Geographical Medalfrom theAmerican Geographical Society,and theCollier Trophyfrom theNational Aeronautic Association(1969);theNASA Distinguished Service Medaland theDr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy(1970);theSylvanus Thayer Awardby theUnited States Military Academy(1971);theCongressional Space Medal of Honorfrom PresidentJimmy Carter(1978);theWright Brothers Memorial\",\n \"Brothers Memorial Trophyfrom the National Aeronautic Association (2001);and aCongressional Gold Medal(2011). Armstrong was elected as member into theNational Academy of Engineeringin 1978 for contributions to aerospace engineering, scientific knowledge, and exploration of the universe as an experimental test pilot and astronaut.He was elected to theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 2001. Armstrong and his Apollo 11 crewmates were the 1999 recipients of theLangley Gold Medalfrom the Smithsonian Institution.On April 18, 2006, he received NASA's Ambassador of Exploration Award.TheSpace Foundationnamed Armstrong as a recipient of its 2013 General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award.Armstrong was also inducted into theAerospace Walk of Honor,theInternational Space Hall of Fame,National Aviation Hall of Fame, and theUnited States Astronaut Hall of Fame.He was awarded hisNaval Astronaut badgein a ceremony on board the aircraft carrierUSSDwight D. Eisenhoweron March 10, 2010, in a ceremony attended by\",\n \"attended by Lovell and Cernan. The lunar craterArmstrong, 31 miles (50 km) from the Apollo 11 landing site, andasteroid6469 Armstrongare named in his honor.There are more than a dozen elementary, middle and high schools named for Armstrong in the United States,and many places around the world have streets, buildings, schools, and other places named for him and/or Apollo.TheArmstrong Air and Space Museum, in Armstrong's hometown of Wapakoneta,and the Neil Armstrong Airport inNew Knoxville, Ohio, are named after him.The mineralarmstrongiteis named after him,and the mineralarmalcoliteis named, in part, after him. In October 2004 Purdue University named its new engineering buildingNeil Armstrong Hall of Engineering;the building was dedicated on October 27, 2007, during a ceremony at which Armstrong was joined by fourteen other Purdue astronauts.The NASA Dryden Flight Research Center was renamed the NASA Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center in 2014.In September 2012, the U.S. Navy named the\",\n \"U.S. Navy named the firstArmstrong-class vesselRVNeil Armstrong. Delivered to the Navy on September 23, 2015, it is a modern oceanographic research platform supporting a wide range of activities by academic groups.In 2019, the College of Engineering at Purdue University celebrated the 50th anniversary of Neil Armstrong's walk on the Moon by launching the Neil Armstrong Distinguished Visiting Fellows Program, which brings highly accomplished scholars and practitioners to the college to catalyze collaborations with faculty and students. Armstrong's authorized biography,First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong, was published in 2005. For many years, he turned down biography offers from authors such asStephen AmbroseandJames A. Michenerbut agreed to work with James R. Hansen after reading one of Hansen's other biographies.He recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission, when he had believed there was only a 50% chance of landing on the Moon. \\\"I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we\",\n \"surprised that we were successful\\\".Afilm adaptation of the book, starringRyan Goslingand directed byDamien Chazelle, was released in October 2018. In July 2018, Armstrong's sons put his collection of memorabilia up for sale, including his Boy Scout cap, and various flags and medals flown on his space missions. A series of auctions held November 1–3, 2018, realized $5,276,320 (~$6.31 million in 2023). As of July 2019, the auction sales totaled $16.7million.Two fragments of wood from the propeller and four pieces of fabric from the wing of the 1903Wright Flyerthat Armstrong took to the Moon fetched between $112,500 and $275,000 each.Armstrong's wife, Carol, has not put any of his memorabilia up for sale. Armstrong donated his papers to Purdue. Along with posthumous donations by his widow Carol, the collection consists of over 450boxes of material. In May 2019, she donated two 25-by-24-inch (640 by 610 mm) pieces of fabric from theWright Flyer, along with his correspondence related to them. In a 2010Space\",\n \"In a 2010Space Foundationsurvey, Armstrong was ranked as the number-one most popular space hero;and in 2013,Flyingmagazine ranked him number one on its list of 51 Heroes of Aviation.The press often asked Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, he said that ahuman mission to Marswould be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s. In 2010, he made a rare public criticism of the decision to cancel theAres Ilaunch vehicle and theConstellation Moon landing program.In an open letter also signed by fellow Apollo veterans Lovell and Cernan, he said, \\\"For The United States, the leading space faring nation for nearly half a century, to be without carriage to low Earth orbit and with no human exploration capability to go beyond Earth orbit for an indeterminate time into the future, destines our nation to become one of second or even third rate stature\\\".On November 18, 2010, aged 80, he said in a speech during theScience & Technology Summitinthe Hague, Netherlands, that he would offer his\",\n \"he would offer his services as commander on a mission to Mars if he were asked. The planetarium atAltoona Area High SchoolinAltoona, Pennsylvaniais named after Armstrong and is home to aSpace Racemuseum.A campsite in Camp Sandy Beach atYawgoog Scout ReservationinRockville, Rhode Island, is named in his honor, a nod to his Scouting career. Armstrong was named theclass exemplarfor the Class of 2019 at the U.S. Air Force Academy. See also Notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"Grumman F9F Panther TheGrumman F9F Pantheris an earlycarrier-basedjet fighterdesigned and produced by the American aircraft manufacturerGrumman. It was the first jet-powered fighter aircraft to see air-to-air combat with theUnited States Navyas well as being Grumman’s first jet fighter. Development of the Panther commenced in the final months ofWorld War IIto harness the recent innovation of the jet engine. Grumman designed a single-engined, straight-wingedday fighterthat was armed with four 20 mm (0.79 in)cannonsand could also carry a wide assortment of air-to-ground munitions. Production aircraft were typically powered by a singleAllison J33orPratt & Whitney J48-P-2turbojetengine. On 21 November 1947, the prototype performed itsmaiden flight, powered by an importedRolls-Royce Neneengine. During September 1949, the F9F was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers. The Panther was used extensively by the U.S. Navy andMarine Corpsin theKorean War. On 3 July 1950, a F9F-3 recorded the first U.S. Navy air\",\n \"first U.S. Navy air victory of the conflict, having shot down a propeller-poweredYak-9. In the Korean theatre, Panther pilots cumulatively claimed the shooting down of sevenMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s. During 1956, the type was withdrawn from front-line combat service, but remained in secondary roles, such as for training and with U.S. Naval Air Reserve and U.S. Marine Air Reserve units, until 1958. The Panther was also the first jet aircraft used by theBlue Angelsaerobaticsdemonstration team, being flown in this capacity from 1949 through to late 1954. FutureastronautsNeil ArmstrongandJohn Glennboth flew the F9F extensively during the Korean War. While Australia was interested in the Panther during the late 1940s, the nation ultimately opted for theGloster Meteor F.8and theCAC Sabreinstead. The aircraft's only export customer wasArgentina, where it became the first jet aircraft to be operated by theArgentine Naval Aviation. It was operated mainly from land, as thecatapultsof the aircraft\",\n \"the aircraft carrierARAIndependencialacked sufficient power to readily launch the F9F. Several Panthers participated in the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt, firing upon Argentine Army forces sent to quell the revolt. During 1969, it was withdrawn from Argentine service due to a lack of spare parts. Grumman would develop the F9F design in response to U.S. Navy interest, producing theswept wingGrumman F-9 Cougar. Design and development Background The origins of the Panther can be traced back to development studies performed by Grumman into jet-powered fighter aircraft near the end ofWorld War II. The company was keen to capitalise on the emergence of the first practical jet engines by integrating them into a new aircraft design. This design, which was internally designatedG-75, was submitted to aUnited States Navycompetition that sought a jet-powerednight fighterto equip itsaircraft carrierswith. However, on 3 April 1946, it was announced that theDouglas F3D Skyknight, a competing two-seat aircraft powered by\",\n \"aircraft powered by fourWestinghouse J30turbojets, had been selected. On 11 April 1946, the Navy'sBureau of Aeronautics(BuAer) issued a development contract to Grumman to produce a pair of G-75 prototypes, which were given the Navy designationXF9F-1, in case development of the Skyknight encountered severe problems. Shortly thereafter, Grumman recognised that the G-75 did not have much potential for either performance or growth; the company had already undertaken work on a completely different single-engine day fighter, theG-79. In a bureaucratic maneuver, BuAer opted not to cancel the G-75 contract, but instead changed the wording to include three prototypes of the entirely different G-79. It was this design that became the Panther. At that time, the few American engines that were available for use, such as theAllison J33andWestinghouse J34, were not considered to be sufficiently reliable;thus, the Navy specified the importedRolls-Royce Neneturbojet, which was also more powerful, at 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) of\",\n \"lb (2,300 kg) of thrust. Production aircraft were to also be powered by the Nene, builtunder licensebyPratt & Whitneyas the J42.Since there was insufficient space within the wings and fuselage to provide sufficient fuel for the thirsty jet engine, the design team opted to add permanently mountedwingtip fuel tanks, which had incidental advantage of improving the fighter's rate ofroll.The wings featured another innovation in the form ofleading edgeflapsthat generated additional lift while landing;speed brakeswere also present on the underside of the fuselage. Flight testing On 21 November 1947, the prototype Panther conducted itsmaiden flight, piloted by test pilot Corky Meyer.It was followed by the second prototype only five days later.Initial issues with directional and longitudinal stability were encountered, but were quickly rectified. During one early land-basedarresting geartest, the detachable rear section of the aircraft unintentionally came off; remedial changes were made to avoid any future\",\n \"to avoid any future repetition. During May 1949, carrier suitability trails commenced.In September 1949, the F9F was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers. During the development phase, Grumman decided to change the Panther's engine, selecting thePratt & Whitney J48-P-2, a license built version of theRolls-Royce RB.44 Tay. The other engine that had been tested was the Allison J33-A-16. The armament was a quartet of 20mm guns, the Navy having already switched to this caliber (as opposed to the USAAF/USAF which continued to use .50 caliberM2/M3guns). In addition, the Panther was soon armed with underwing air-to-ground rockets and up to 2,000 lb (910 kg) of bombs. From 1946, interest in developing an aircraft that harnessed the increasingly popularswept winggrew and, following concerns that the Panther was inferior to its MiG opponents over the skies of Korea, Grumman launched work on a conversion project, known as Design 93. This effort resulted in a swept-wing derivative, theF9F Cougar, which retained the\",\n \"which retained the Panther's designation number.Later stage development work on the Panther continued, being largely focused on engine improvements, expanding fuel capacity, and the use of alternative munitions. In 1949, the Panther was considered by theAustraliangovernment, as a possible locally-built replacement for theMustangMk 23 andDe Havilland Vampirethen operated by theRoyal Australian Air Force(RAAF).The other designs considered initially were an Australian design, theCAC CA-23(an unconventional, twin-jetall-weather fighter) and theHawker P.1081. By mid-1950, however, RAAF Mustangs were in action inKoreaand seen as highly vulnerable to theMiG-15. An immediately available stop-gap in the shape of theGloster Meteor F.8was operated by the RAAF in Korea from July 1951. (After its less-than-satisfactory performance against MiGs, the Meteor was replaced from 1954 by theCAC Sabre– an Australian-built, up-engined variant of the F-86.) Operational history US Navy The Panther was the primary jet fighter and\",\n \"jet fighter and ground-attack aircraft of both the US Navy and USMC during theKorean War. It was the widest used Navy jet fighter of the conflict, cumulatively flying 78,000 sorties. F9F-2s, F9F-3s and F9F-5s, as rugged attack aircraft, were able to sustain operations despite being frequently opposed by intense anti-aircraft fire. The pilots also appreciated the air conditioned cockpit, which made for a welcome change from the humid environment of piston-powered aircraft. On 3 July 1950,Lieutenant, junior gradeLeonard H. Plog, ofVF-51, flying an F9F-3 scored the first US Navy air victory of the war by shooting down a propeller-poweredYak-9. Despite their relatively low speed, Panther pilots also claimed sevenMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s, for the loss of two F9Fs. The first MiG-15 was downed on 9 November 1950, byLieutenant CommanderWilliam (Bill) Amen ofVF-111flying an F9F-2B, during aUN Commandattack on theSinuijubridges, near the mouth of the Yalu River.Two more MiG-15s were downed on 18 November 1950. On 18\",\n \"1950. On 18 November 1952, the American aircraft carrierUSSOriskanyand three other carriers were operating in theSea of Japanconducting air strikes against the North Korean city ofHoeryong. The group launched four F9F's for a combat patrol near the North Korean border with China. The group's leader suffered mechanical problems and returned to the carrier together with his wingman. LtRoyce WilliamsofVF-781, flying offUSSOriskanyand his wingman continued on the mission. They then identified sevenSoviet Naval AviationMigs heading towards the task force from the Russian mainland. The naval commanders therefore ordered the two F9Fs to position themselves between the Migs and the carrier group. During this maneuver, four Soviet MiG-15s opened fire, despite the fact that the countries were not at war. Williams opened fire on the tail Mig, which dropped out of formation, and was followed down by Williams' wingman. What followed was a 35-minute dogfight between Williams and six MiG-15s. The Mig 15 was a more capable\",\n \"was a more capable plane, but Williams nevertheless succeeded in shooting down three more. He ascribed this to both sides doing as they were trained, but the Soviet pilots making mistakes. While heading back to the carriers, Williams was out of ammo, but still had one Mig on his tail. The re-appearance of his wingman on the Mig's tail then scared this one off. By that time Williams's plane was so damaged that he could not turn sideways anymore.Oriskanywas therefore aligned with the plane, so he could land. After landing, his Panther was found to have 263 hits by cannon shells or fragments and was beyond repair. It was therefore pushed overboard. The engagement is little-known for two reasons. The US feared that publication of the incident could increase tensions with the Soviet Union.Another reason was the involvement of the USNational Security Agency(NSA) – the existence of which was then top secret – in planning the mission; the MiGs were intercepted as a result of intelligence provided by the NSA.The four\",\n \"by the NSA.The four MiGs that were shot down were flown bySoviet Naval Aviationpilots: Russian sources confirmed Williams' claims, 40 years later, stating the pilots lost were Captains Belyakov and Vandalov, and Lieutenants Pakhomkin and Tarshinov. As the conflict progressed, Panthers became primarily tasked with ground attack missions.Attacks upon hostile anti-aircraft equipment were commonly conducted.This was a risky mission type, with numerous Panthers being damaged or even lost to fire from the same ground batteries that they were seeking to neutralize.Furthermore, the danger posed by these systems increased over time as more capable AA apparatus was supplied to the North Korean force.Panthers also routinely undertook aerial reconnaissance missions over Korea.Starting in 1952, the Panther began to be supplemented by the newer Cougar derivative in the theatre. Future astronautNeil Armstrongflew the F9F extensively during the Korean conflict,although he ejected from one of the aircraft after it was\",\n \"after it was brought down by a wire strung across a valley in 1951.Future astronautJohn GlennandBoston Red Soxall-starbaseball playerTed Williamsalso flew the F9F as Marine Corps pilots. During 1956, the Panther was withdrawn from frontline combat service, having been displaced by new fighter aircraft, including its swept-wing Cougar derivative.However, the type remained active in secondary roles, such as for training and with U.S. Naval Air Reserve and U.S. Marine Air Reserve units, until 1958. The Navy'sBlue Angelsflight demonstration team used the Panther for four years, beginning in 1951. The Panther was the Blue Angels' first jet.Some Panthers continued to serve in small numbers into the 1960s.From September 1962, surviving operational Panthers were designated F-9 within the new combined US tri-service designation system. Argentine Navy The only foreign buyer of the Panther was theArgentine Naval Aviation, which purchased 28 ex-USN F9F-2B aircraft during 1957; the first 10 arrived in 1958. Only 24\",\n \"in 1958. Only 24 aircraft were put in service, as the remainder were used as spares. The first flight of an Argentine Panther was in December 1958, and the last aircraft entered into service during January 1961. The catapult on the then only Argentine carrier,ARAIndependencia, was not powerful enough to launch the F9F,so the aircraft were land-based. However, in July 1963, a Panther (serial 0453/3-A-119) landed onIndependenciaas part of trials, the first jet to land on an Argentine aircraft carrier;it was not then catapult-launched, but off-loaded by crane when the ship returned to port. Argentine Navy F9F-2 Panthers were engaged in combat during the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt. Several rebel-controlled aircraft flew bombing and strafing runs against a column of the Army 8th Tank Regiment which was advancing on the rebellingPunta Indio Naval Air Base. The attack destroyed severalM4 Shermantanks while one F9F Panther was shot down. The Argentine Panthers were involved in the general mobilization during the1965\",\n \"during the1965 border clash between Argentina and Chile, but no combat occurred. The type was removed from service during 1969 due to a lack of available spare parts, the service opted to replace them withDouglas A-4Q Skyhawks. The Argentine Navy also operated the F-9 Cougar trainer version. Variants Operators Surviving aircraft Argentina United States Specifications (F9F-5 Panther) Data fromUnited States Navy Aircraft since 1911 General characteristics Performance Armament Notable appearances in media The F9F Panther was featured in the 1954 Korean War filmThe Bridges at Toko-RistarringWilliam Holden,Grace Kelly,Mickey RooneyandFredric March, and inMen of the Fighting LadystarringVan Johnson,Walter PidgeonandKeenan Wynn. Stock footageof an F9F piloted byGeorge Chamberlain Duncancrashing into the fantail of theUSSMidway(CV-41)during a 1951 test flight appears in severalHollywoodfilms. See also Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists References Citations\",\n \"Citations Bibliography Online sources Further reading External links\",\n \"John Glenn John Herschel Glenn Jr.(July 18, 1921 – December 8, 2016) was an AmericanMarine Corps aviator,astronaut, businessman, and politician. He was the third American in space and the first American to orbit the Earth, circling it three times in 1962.Following his retirement fromNASA, he served from 1974 to 1999 as aU.S. SenatorfromOhio; in 1998, he flew into space again at the age of 77. Before joining NASA, Glenn was a distinguishedfighter pilotinWorld War II, theChinese Civil War, and theKorean War. He shot down threeMiG-15sand was awarded sixDistinguished Flying Crossesand eighteenAir Medals. In 1957, he made the firstsupersonictranscontinental flightacross the United States. His on-board camera took the first continuous, panoramic photograph of the United States. Glenn was one of theMercury Sevenmilitarytest pilotsselected in 1959 by NASA as the nation's first astronauts. On February 20, 1962, Glenn flew theFriendship 7mission, becoming the first American to orbit the Earth. He was the third\",\n \"He was the third American, and the fifth person, to be in space. He received theNASA Distinguished Service Medalin 1962, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, was inducted into theU.S. Astronaut Hall of Famein 1990, and received thePresidential Medal of Freedomin 2012. Glenn resigned from NASA in January 1964. A member of the Democratic Party, Glenn was firstelected to the Senate in 1974and served for 24 years until January 1999. In 1998, at age 77, Glenn flew onSpace ShuttleDiscovery'sSTS-95mission, making him the oldest person to enter Earth orbit, the only person to fly in both the Mercury and theSpace Shuttle programs, and the first Member of Congress to visit space since CongressmanBill Nelson(D-Fla.) in 1986. Glenn, both the oldest and the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven, died at the age of 95 on December 8, 2016. Early life and education John Herschel Glenn Jr. was born on July 18, 1921, in Cambridge, Ohio, the son of John Herschel Glenn Sr. (1895–1966), who worked for a plumbing\",\n \"for a plumbing firm, and Clara Teresa Glenn (néeSproat; 1897–1971), a teacher.His parents had married shortly before John Sr., a member of theAmerican Expeditionary Force, left for theWestern FrontduringWorld War I. The family moved toNew Concord, Ohio, soon after his birth, and his father started his own business, the Glenn Plumbing Company.Glenn Jr. was only a toddler when he metAnna Margaret (Annie) Castor, whom he would later marry. The two would not be able to recall a time when they did not know each other.He first flew in an airplane with his father when he was eight years old. He became fascinated by flight and built model airplanes frombalsa woodkits.Along with his adopted sister Jean,he attended New Concord Elementary School.He washed cars and soldrhubarbto earn money to buy a bicycle, after which he took a job deliveringThe Columbus Dispatchnewspaper.He was a member of theOhio Rangers, an organization similar to theCub Scouts.His boyhood home in New Concord has beenrestoredas ahistoric house\",\n \"ahistoric house museumand education center. Glenn attendedNew Concord High School, where he played on thevarsityfootballteam as acenterandlinebacker. He also made the varsitybasketballandtennisteams and was involved with Hi-Y, a junior branch of theYMCA.After graduating in 1939, Glenn enteredMuskingum College(now Muskingum University), where he studiedchemistry,joined the Stag Club fraternity,and played on the football team.Annie majored in music with minors in secretarial studies and physical education and competed on the swimming andvolleyballteams, graduating in 1942.Glenn earned aprivate pilot licenseand a physics course credit for free through theCivilian Pilot Training Programin 1941.He did not complete his senior year in residence or take a proficiency exam, both required by the school for itsBachelor of Sciencedegree. Military career World War II When the United States entered World War II, Glenn quit college to enlist in theU.S. Army Air Corps.He was not called to duty by the Army and enlisted as\",\n \"and enlisted as aU.S. Navyaviation cadetin March 1942. Glenn attended theUniversity of IowainIowa Cityfor pre-flight training and made his first solo flight in a military aircraft atNaval Air Station OlatheinKansas, where he went for primary training. During advanced training atNaval Air Station Corpus ChristiinTexas, he accepted an offer to transfer to theU.S. Marine Corps.Having completed his flight training in March 1943, Glenn was commissioned as asecond lieutenant. Glenn married Annie in a Presbyterian ceremony at College Drive Church in New Concord on April 6, 1943.After advanced training atCamp Kearny, California, he was assigned to Marine SquadronVMJ-353, which flewR4Dtransport planes from there. ThefightersquadronVMO-155was also at Camp Kearny flying theGrumman F4F Wildcat. Glenn approached the squadron's commander,MajorJ. P. Haines, who suggested that he could put in for a transfer. This was approved, and Glenn was posted to VMO-155 on July 2, 1943, two days before the squadron moved toMarine Corps\",\n \"toMarine Corps Air Station El Centroin California.The Wildcat was obsolete by this time, and VMO-155 re-equipped with theF4U Corsairin September 1943.He was promoted tofirst lieutenantin October 1943, and shipped out to Hawaii in January 1944.VMO-155 became part of the garrison onMidway Atollon February 21,then moved to theMarshall Islandsin June 1944 and flew 57 combat missions in the area.He received two Distinguished Flying Crosses and ten Air Medals. At the end of his one-year tour of duty in February 1945, Glenn was assigned toMarine Corps Air Station Cherry PointinNorth Carolina, then toNaval Air Station Patuxent Riverin Maryland. He was promoted tocaptainin July 1945 and ordered back to Cherry Point. There, he joined VMF-913, another Corsair squadron, and learned that he had qualified for a regular commission.In March 1946, he was assigned toMarine Corps Air Station El Toroin southern California. He volunteered for service with the occupation in North China, believing it would be a short tour. He\",\n \"be a short tour. He joinedVMF-218(another Corsair squadron), which was based atNanyuan Fieldnear Beijing, in December 1946,and flew patrol missions until VMF-218 was transferred toGuamin March 1947. In December 1948, Glenn was re-posted to NAS Corpus Christi as a student at the Naval School of All-Weather Flight before becoming aflight instructor.In July 1951, he traveled to theAmphibious Warfare SchoolatMarine Corps Base Quanticoin northernVirginiafor a six-month course.He then joined the staff of the commandant of the Marine Corps Schools. He maintained his proficiency (and flight pay) by flying on weekends and was only allowed four hours of flying time per month.He was promoted to major in July 1952.Glenn received theWorld War II Victory Medal,American Campaign Medal,Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal(with onestar),Navy Occupation Service Medal(with Asia clasp), and theChina Service Medalfor his efforts. Korean War Glenn moved his family back to New Concord during a short period of leave, and after two and a\",\n \"and after two and a half months of jet training at Cherry Point, was ordered toSouth Koreain October 1952, late in the Korean War.Before he set out for Korea in February 1953, he applied to fly theF-86 Sabrejetfighter-interceptorthrough an inter-service exchange position with theU.S. Air Force(USAF). In preparation, he arranged with Colonel Leon W. Gray to check out the F-86 atOtis Air Force BaseinMassachusetts.Glenn reported toK-3, an airbase in South Korea, on February 3, 1953, and was assigned to be the operations officer forVMF-311, one of two Marine fighter squadrons there while he waited for the exchange assignment to go through.VMF-311 was equipped with theF9F Pantherjetfighter-bomber. Glenn's first mission was a reconnaissance flight on February 26.He flew 63 combat missions in Korea with VMF-311and was nicknamed \\\"Magnet Ass\\\" because of the number offlakhits he took on low-levelclose air supportmissions;twice, he returned to base with over 250 holes in his plane.He flew for a time with Marine\",\n \"a time with Marine reservistTed Williams(then in the midst of aHall of Famebaseball career with theBoston Red Sox) as hiswingman.Williams later said about Glenn \\\"Absolutely fearless. The best I ever saw. It was an honor to fly with him.\\\"Glenn also flew with future major generalRalph H. Spanjer. In June 1953, Glenn reported for duty with the USAF's25th Fighter-Interceptor Squadronand flew 27 combat missions in the F-86, a much faster aircraft than the F9F Panther, patrollingMiG Alley.Combat with aMiG-15, which was faster and better armed still,was regarded as a rite of passage for a fighter pilot. On the Air Force buses that ferried the pilots out to the airfields before dawn, pilots who had engaged a MiG could sit while those who had not had to stand.Glenn later wrote, \\\"Since the days of theLafayette Escadrilleduring World War I, pilots have viewed air-to-air combat as the ultimate test not only of their machines but of their own personal determination and flying skills. I was no exception.\\\"He hoped to\",\n \"hoped to become the second Marine jetflying aceafterJohn F. Bolt. Glenn's USAF squadron mates painted \\\"MiG Mad Marine\\\" on his aircraft when he complained about there not being any MIGs to shoot at.He shot down his first MiG in adogfighton July 12, 1953, downed a second one on July 19, and a third on July 22 when four Sabres shot down three MiGs. These were the final air victories of the war, which ended with an armistice five days later.For his service in Korea, Glenn received two more Distinguished Flying Crosses and eight more Air Medals.Glenn also received theKorean Service Medal(with two campaign stars),United Nations Korea Medal,Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal,National Defense Service Medal(with one star), and theKorean War Service Medal. Test pilot With combat experience as a fighter pilot, Glenn applied for training as atest pilotwhile still in Korea. He reported to theU.S. Naval Test Pilot SchoolatNAS Patuxent Riverin Maryland in January 1954 and graduated in July.At Patuxent River, futureMedal of\",\n \"futureMedal of HonorrecipientJames Stockdaletutored him in physics and math.Glenn's first flight test assignment, testing theFJ-3 Fury, nearly killed him when its cockpit depressurized and its oxygen system failed.He also tested the armament of aircraft such as theVought F7U CutlassandF8U Crusader.From November 1956 to April 1959, he was assigned to the Fighter Design Branch of the NavyBureau of Aeronauticsin Washington, D.C., and attended theUniversity of Maryland. On July 16, 1957, Glenn made the firstsupersonictranscontinental flight.Disliking his Bureau of Aeronautics desk job, he devised the flight as both a way to keep flying and publicly demonstrate the F8U Crusader.At that time, the transcontinental speed record, held by an Air ForceRepublic F-84 Thunderjet, was 3 hours 45 minutes and Glenn calculated that the F8U Crusader could do it faster. Because its 586-mile-per-hour (943 km/h) air speed was faster than that of a.45 caliber bullet, Glenn called the flightProject Bullet.He flew an F8U Crusader\",\n \"an F8U Crusader 2,445 miles (3,935 km) fromLos Alamitos, California, toFloyd Bennett Fieldin New York City in 3 hours, 23 minutes and 8.3 seconds,averaging supersonic speed despite threein-flight refuelingswhen speeds dropped below 300 miles per hour (480 km/h). His on-board camera took the first continuous, transcontinentalpanoramic photographof the United States.He received his fifth Distinguished Flying Cross for this mission,and was promoted tolieutenant colonelon April 1, 1959.The cross-country flight made Glenn a minor celebrity. A profile appeared inThe New York Times,and he appeared on the television showName That Tune.Glenn now had nearly 9,000 hours of flying time, including about 3,000 hours in jets,but knew that at the age of 36, he was now likely too old to continue to fly. NASA career Selection On October 4, 1957, theSoviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1, the first artificialsatellite. This damaged American confidence in its technological superiority, creating a wave of anxiety known as theSputnik\",\n \"known as theSputnik crisis. In response, PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerlaunched theSpace Race. TheNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) was established on October 1, 1958, as a civilian agency to develop space technology. One of its first initiatives was announced on December 17, 1958. This wasProject Mercury,which aimed to launch a man intoEarth orbit, return him safely to the Earth, and evaluate his capabilities in space. His Bureau of Aeronautics job gave Glenn access to new spaceflight news, such as theX-15rocket plane.While on duty at Patuxent and in Washington, Glenn read everything he could find about space. His office was asked to send a test pilot toLangley Air Force Basein Virginia to make runs on a spaceflight simulator, as part of research by the newly formed NASA into re-entry vehicle shapes. The pilot would also be sent to theNaval Air Development CenterinJohnsville, Pennsylvania, and would be subjected to highG-forcesin acentrifugefor comparison with data collected in the\",\n \"collected in the simulator. His request for the position was granted, and he spent several days at Langley and a week in Johnsville for the testing.As one of the very few pilots to have done such testing, Glenn had become an expert on the subject.NASA asked military-service members to participate in planning themockupof a spacecraft. Having participated in the research at Langley and Johnsville, he was sent to theMcDonnellplant inSt. Louisas a service adviser to NASA's spacecraft mockup board.Envisioning himself in the vehicle, Glenn stated that the passenger would have to be able to control the spacecraft. McDonnell engineers told him of the importance of lightening the vehicle as much as possible, so Glenn began exercising to lose the 30 pounds he estimated that he was overweight. Eisenhower directed NASA to recruit its first astronauts from military test pilots. Of 508 graduates of test pilot schools, 110 matched the minimum standards.Marine Corps pilots were mistakenly omitted at first; two were quickly\",\n \"two were quickly found, including Glenn.The candidates had to be younger than 40, possess a bachelor's degree or equivalent, and be 5 feet 11 inches (1.80 m) or less. Only the height requirement was strictly enforced, owing to the size of the Project Mercury spacecraft.This was fortunate for Glenn, who barely met the requirements, as he was near the age cutoff and lacked a science-based degree,but had taken more classes since leaving college than needed for graduation. Glenn was otherwise so outstanding a candidate that Colonel Jake Dill, his commanding officer at test pilot school, visited NASA headquarters to insist that Glenn would be the perfect astronaut. For an interview with Charles Donlan, associate director of Project Mercury, Glenn brought the results from the centrifuge to show that he had done well on a test that perhaps no other candidate had taken. Donlan also noticed that Glenn stayed late at night to study schematics of the Mercury spacecraft.He was among the 32 of the first 69 candidates\",\n \"first 69 candidates that passed the first step of the evaluation and were interested in continuing, sufficient for the astronaut corps NASA wanted.On February 27 a grueling series of physical and psychological tests began at theLovelace Clinicand theWright Aerospace Medical Laboratory. Because of his Bureau of Aeronautics job, Glenn was already participating in Project Mercury; while other candidates were at Wright, on March 17 he and most of those who would choose the astronauts visited the McDonnell plant building the spacecraft to inspect its progress and make changes. While Glenn had not scored the highest on all the tests, a member of the selection committee recalled how he had impressed everyone with his \\\"strength of personality and his dedication\\\". On April 6 Donlan called Glenn to offer him a position at Project Mercury,one of seven candidates chosen as astronauts.Glenn was pleased while Annie was supportive but wary of the danger; during his three years at Patuxent, 12 test pilots had died. The\",\n \"had died. The identities of the seven were announced at a press conference atDolley Madison Housein Washington, D.C., on April 9, 1959:Scott Carpenter,Gordon Cooper, Glenn,Gus Grissom,Wally Schirra,Alan Shepard, andDeke Slayton.InThe Right Stuff,Tom Wolfewrote that Glenn \\\"came out of it as tops among seven very fair-haired boys. He had the hottest record as a pilot, he was the most quotable, the most photogenic, and the lone Marine.\\\"The magnitude of the challenge ahead of them was made clear a few weeks later, on the night of May 18, 1959, when the seven astronauts gathered atCape Canaveralto watch their first rocket launch, of anSM-65D Atlas, which was similar to the one that was to carry them into orbit. A few minutes after liftoff, it exploded spectacularly, lighting up the night sky. The astronauts were stunned. Shepard turned to Glenn and said: \\\"Well, I'm glad they got that out of the way.\\\" Glenn remained an officer in the Marine Corps after his selection,and was assigned to the NASA Space Task Group\",\n \"Space Task Group atLangley Research CenterinHampton, Virginia.The task force moved toHouston, Texas, in 1962, and became part of the NASAManned Spacecraft Center.A portion of the astronauts' training was in the classroom, where they learned space science. The group also received hands-on training, which includedscuba divingand work in simulators.Astronauts secured an additional role in the spaceflight program: to provide pilot input in design. The astronauts divided the various tasks between them. Glenn's specialization was cockpit layout design and control functioning for the Mercury and earlyApollo programs.He pressed the other astronauts to set a moral example, living up to the squeaky-clean image of them that had been portrayed byLifemagazine, a position that was not popular with the other astronauts. Friendship 7flight Glenn was the backup pilot for Shepard and Grissom on the first two crewed Project Mercury flights, the sub-orbital missionsMercury-Redstone 3andMercury-Redstone 4.Glenn was selected for\",\n \"was selected for Mercury-Atlas 6, NASA's first crewed orbital flight, with Carpenter as his backup. Putting a man in orbit would achieve one of Project Mercury's most important goals.Shepard and Grissom had named their spacecraftFreedom 7andLiberty Bell 7. The numeral 7 had originally been the production number of Shepard's spacecraft, but had come to represent the Mercury 7. Glenn named his spacecraft, number 13,Friendship 7, and had the name hand-painted on the side like the one on his F-86 had been.Glenn and Carpenter completed their training for the mission in January 1962, but postponement of the launch allowed them to continue rehearsing. Glenn spent 25 hours and 25 minutes in the spacecraft performing hangar and altitude tests, and 59 hours and 45 minutes in the simulator. He flew 70 simulated missions and reacted to 189 simulated system failures. After a long series of delays,Friendship 7lifted off fromCape Canaveral Air Force Stationon February 20, 1962. During the countdown, there were eleven\",\n \"there were eleven delays due to equipment malfunctions and improvements and the weather. During Glenn's first orbit, a failure of the automatic-control system was detected. This forced Glenn to operate in manual mode for the second and third orbits, and for re-entry. Later in the flight, telemetry indicated that theheat shieldhad loosened. If this reading had been accurate, Glenn and his spacecraft would have burned up on re-entry. After a lengthy discussion on how to deal with this problem, ground controllers decided that leaving the retrorocket pack in place might help keep the loose heat shield in place. They relayed these instructions to Glenn, but did not tell him the heat shield was possibly loose; although confused at this order, he complied. The retrorocket pack broke up into large chunks of flaming debris that flew past the window of his capsule during re-entry; Glenn thought this might have been the heat shield. He told an interviewer, \\\"Fortunately it was the rocket pack—or I wouldn't be answering\",\n \"be answering these questions.\\\"After the flight, it was determined that the heat shield was not loose; the sensor was faulty. Friendship 7safelysplashed down800 miles (1,290 km) southeast of Cape Canaveral after Glenn's 4-hour, 55-minute flight.He carried a note on the flight which read, \\\"I am a stranger. I come in peace. Take me to your leader and there will be a massive reward for you in eternity\\\" in several languages, in case he landed near southern Pacific Ocean islands.The original procedure called for Glenn to exit through the top hatch, but he was uncomfortably warm and decided that egress through the side hatch would be faster.During the flight, he endured up to 7.8 g of acceleration and traveled 75,679 miles (121,794 km) at about 17,500 miles per hour (28,200 km/h).The flight took Glenn to a maximum altitude (apogee) of about 162 miles (261 km) and a minimum altitude of 100 miles (160 km) (perigee).Unlike the crewed missions ofSoviet Union'sVostok programme, Glenn remained within the spacecraft\",\n \"the spacecraft during landing.The flight made Glenn the first American toorbitthe Earth,the third American in space, and the fifth human in space.The mission, which Glenn called the \\\"best day of his life\\\", renewed U.S. confidence.His flight occurred while the U.S. and the Soviet Union were embroiled in theCold Warand competing in the Space Race. As the first American in orbit, Glenn became a national hero, met PresidentJohn F. Kennedy, and received aticker-tape paradein New York reminiscent of those honoringCharles Lindberghand other heroes. He became \\\"so valuable to the nation as an iconic figure\\\", according to NASA administratorCharles Bolden, that Kennedy would not \\\"risk putting him back in space again.\\\"Glenn's fame and political potential were noted by the Kennedys, and he became a friend of theKennedy family. On February 23, 1962, President Kennedy gave him theNASA Distinguished Service Medalfor hisFriendship 7flight.Upon receiving the award, Glenn said, \\\"I would like to consider I was a figurehead for\",\n \"a figurehead for this whole big, tremendous effort, and I am very proud of the medal I have on my lapel.\\\"Glenn also received his sixth Distinguished Flying Cross for his efforts.He was among the first group of astronauts to be awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. The award was presented to him by President Jimmy Carter in 1978. After his 1962 spaceflight, NASA proposed giving Glenn theMedal of Honor, but Glenn did not think that would be appropriate. His military and space awards were stolen from his home in 1978, and he remarked that he would keep this medal in a safe. Comments about women in space In 1962, NASA contemplated recruiting women to the astronaut corps via theMercury 13, but Glenn gave a speech before theHouse Space Committeedetailing his opposition to sending women into space, in which he said: I think this gets back to the way our social order is organized, really. It is just a fact. The men go off and fight the wars and fly the airplanes and come back and help design and build and\",\n \"and build and test them. The fact that women are not in this field is a fact of our social order. In May 1965, after he left NASA, Glenn was quoted in theMiami Heraldas saying NASA \\\"offer a serious chance for space women\\\" as scientist astronauts. NASA had no official policy prohibiting women, but the requirement that astronauts had to be test pilots effectively excluded them.NASA dropped this requirement in 1965,but did not select any women as astronauts until 1978, when six women were selected, none as pilots.In June 1963, the Soviet Union launched a female cosmonaut,Valentina Tereshkova, into orbit. After Tereshkova, no women of any nationality flew in space again until August 1982, when the Soviet Union launched pilot-cosmonautSvetlana Savitskaya.During the late 1970s, Glenn reportedly supportedSpace ShuttleMission SpecialistJudith Resnikin her career. Political campaigning 1964 Senate campaign At 42, Glenn was the oldest member of the astronaut corps and would likely be close to 50 by the time the lunar\",\n \"the time the lunar landings took place. During Glenn's training, NASA psychologists determined that he was the astronaut best suited for public life.Attorney GeneralRobert F. Kennedysuggested to Glenn and his wife in December 1962 that he run for the1964 United States Senate election in Ohio, challenging aging incumbentStephen M. Young(1889–1984) in the Democratic primary election. As it seemed unlikely that he would be selected forProject Apollomissions,he resigned from NASA on January 16, 1964, and announced hisDemocratic Partycandidacy for theU.S. Senatefrom his home state of Ohio the following day,becoming the firstastronaut-politician.Glenn was still a Marine and had plenty of unused leave time. He elected to use it while he waited for his retirement papers to go through. To avoid partisanship, NASA quickly closed Glenn's agency office.The New York Timesreported that while many Ohioans were skeptical of Glenn's qualifications for the Senate, he could defeat Young in the Democratic primary; whether he\",\n \"primary; whether he could defeat RepresentativeRobert Taft Jr., the likely Republican candidate, in the general election was much less clear.In late February he was hospitalized for aconcussionsustained in a fall against a bathtub while attempting to fix a mirror in a hotel room;an inner-ear injury from the accident left him unable to campaign.Both his wife and Scott Carpenter campaigned on his behalf during February and March, but doctors gave Glenn a recovery time of one year. Glenn did not want to win solely because of his astronaut fame, so he dropped out of the race on March 30. Glenn was still on leave from the Marine Corps, and he withdrew his papers to retire so he could keep a salary and health benefits.Glenn was on the list of potential candidates to be promoted to full colonel, but he notified theCommandant of the Marine Corpsof his intention to retire so another Marine could receive the promotion. President Johnson later decided to promote Glenn to full colonel status without taking someone\",\n \"taking someone else's slot. He retired as acolonelon January 1, 1965. Glenn was approached byRC Colato join their public relations department, but Glenn declined it because he wanted to be involved with a business and not just the face of it. The company revised their offer and offered Glenn a vice president of corporate development position, as well as a place on the board of directors.The company later expanded Glenn's role, promoting him to president of Royal Crown International.A Senate seat was open in 1968, and Glenn was asked about his current political aspirations. He said he had no current plan, and \\\"Let's talk about it one of these days.\\\" Glenn also said that a 1970 Senate run was a possibility. In 1973, he and a friend bought aHoliday InnnearDisney World.The success of Disney World expanded to their business, and the pair built three more hotels.One of Glenn's business partners wasHenri Landwirth, aHolocaustsurvivor who became his best friend.He remembered learning about Landwirth's background:\",\n \"background: \\\"Henri doesn't talk about it much. It was years before he spoke about it with me and then only because of an accident. We were down in Florida during the space program. Everyone was wearing short-sleeved Ban-Lon shirts—everyone but Henri. Then one day I saw Henri at the pool and noticed thenumber on his arm. I told Henri that if it were me I'd wear that number like a medal with a spotlight on it.\\\" 1970 Senate campaign Glenn remained close to the Kennedy family, and campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy during his1968 presidential campaign.In 1968, Glenn was in Kennedy's hotel suite when Kennedy heard he had won California. Glenn was supposed to go with him to celebrate but decided not to as there would be many people there. Kennedy went downstairs to make his victory speech andwas assassinated. Glenn and Annie went with Kennedy to the hospital, and the next morning took Kennedy's children home to Virginia.Glenn was later a pallbearer at the funeral in New York. In 1970, Young did not seek reelection\",\n \"not seek reelection and the seat was open. BusinessmanHoward Metzenbaum, Young's former campaign manager, was backed by theOhio Democratic partyand major labor unions, which provided him a significant funding advantage over Glenn. Glenn's camp persuaded him to be thrifty during the primary so he could save money for the general election. By the end of the primary campaign, Metzenbaum was spending four times as much as Glenn.Glenn was defeated in the Democratic primary by Metzenbaum (who received 51 percent of the vote to Glenn's 49 percent). Some prominent Democrats said Glenn was a \\\"hapless political rube\\\", and one newspaper called him \\\"the ultimate square\\\". Metzenbaum lost the general election to Robert Taft Jr.Glenn remained active in the political scene following his defeat. GovernorJohn J. Gilliganappointed Glenn to be the chairman of the Citizens Task Force on Environmental Protection in 1970. The task force was created to survey environmental problems in the state and released a report in 1971\",\n \"a report in 1971 detailing the issues. The meetings and the final report of the task force were major contributors to the formation of Ohio'sEnvironmental Protection Agency. 1974 Senate campaign In 1973, President Nixon orderedAttorney GeneralElliot Richardsonto fireWatergatespecial prosecutorArchibald Cox. Richardson refused and resigned in protest, triggering theSaturday Night massacre. Ohio SenatorWilliam Saxbe, elected in 1968, was appointed attorney general. Both Glenn and Metzenbaum sought the vacated seat, which was to be filled by Governor John Gilligan. Gilligan was planning on a presidential or vice-presidential run in the near future, and offered Glenn thelieutenant governorposition, with the thought that Glenn would ascend to governor when Gilligan was elected to a higher position. The Ohio Democratic party backed this solution to avoid what was expected to be a divisive primary battle between Metzenbaum and Glenn. He declined, denouncing their attempts as \\\"bossism\\\" and \\\"blackmail\\\".Glenn's\",\n \"\\\"blackmail\\\".Glenn's counteroffer suggested that Gilligan fill the position with someone other than Metzenbaum or Glenn so neither would have an advantage going into the 1974 election. Metzenbaum's campaign agreed to back Gilligan in his governor re-election campaign, and Metzenbaum was subsequently appointed in January 1974 to the vacated seat.At the end of Saxbe's term, Glenn challenged Metzenbaum in the primary for the Ohio Senate seat. Glenn's campaign changed their strategy after the 1970 election. In 1970, Glenn won most of the counties in Ohio but lost in those with larger populations. The campaign changed its focus, and worked primarily in the large counties.In the primary, Metzenbaum contrasted his strong business background with Glenn's military and astronaut credentials and said that his opponent had \\\"never held a payroll\\\". Glenn's reply became known as the \\\"Gold Star Mothers\\\" speech. He told Metzenbaum to go to a veterans' hospital and \\\"look those men with mangled bodies in the eyes and tell them\",\n \"eyes and tell them they didn't hold a job. You go with me to any Gold Star mother and you look her in the eye and tell her that her son did not hold a job\\\".He defeated Metzenbaum 54 to 46 percent before defeatingRalph Perk(the RepublicanmayorofCleveland) in the general election, beginning a Senate career which would continue until 1999. 1976 vice presidential consideration AfterJimmy Carterbecame the presumptive Democratic nominee for president in the1976 election, Glenn was reported to bein considerationto be Carter's running mate because he was a senator in a pivotal state and for his fame and straightforwardness.Some thought he was too much like Carter, partially because they both had military backgrounds, and he did not have enough experience to become president.Barbara Jordanwas the first keynote speaker at the Democratic National Convention. Her speech electrified the crowd and was filled with applause and standing ovations. Glenn's keynote address immediately followed Jordan's, and he failed to\",\n \"and he failed to impress the delegates. Walter Cronkite described it as \\\"dull\\\", and other delegates complained that he was hard to hear.Carter called Glenn to inform him the nomination was going to another candidate and later nominated the veteran politicianWalter Mondale. It was also reported that Carter's wife thought Annie Glenn, who had a stutter, would hurt the campaign. 1980 Senate campaign In his first reelection campaign, Glenn ran opposed in the primary for the 1980 Senate election. His opponents, engineer Francis Hunstiger and ex-teacher Frances Waterman, were not well-known and poorly funded.His opponents spent only a few thousand dollars on the campaign, while Glenn spent $700,000.Reporters noted that for a race he was likely to win, Glenn was spending a lot of time and money on the campaign. His chief strategist responded to the remarks saying, \\\"It's the way he does things. He takes nothing for granted.\\\"Glenn won the primary by a landslide, with 934,230 of the 1.09 million votes. Jim Betts, who\",\n \"Jim Betts, who ran unopposed in the Republican primary, challenged Glenn for his seat. Betts publicly stated that Glenn's policies were part of the reason for inflation increases and a lower standard of living.Betts' campaign also attacked Glenn's voting record, saying that he often voted for spending increases. Glenn's campaign's response was that he has been a part of over 3,000 roll calls and \\\"any one of them could be taken out of context\\\".Glenn was projected to win the race easily,and won by the largest margin ever for an Ohio Senator, defeating Betts by over 40 percent. 1984 presidential campaign Glenn was unhappy with how divided the country was, and thought labels like conservative and liberal increased the divide. He considered himself a centrist. Glenn thought a more centrist president would help unite the country. Glenn believed his experience as a senator from Ohio was ideal because of the state's diversity.Glenn thought thatTed Kennedycould win the election, but after Kennedy's announcement in\",\n \"announcement in late 1982 that he would not seek the presidency, Glenn thought he had a much better chance of winning. He hired a media consultant to help him with his speaking style. Glenn announced hiscandidacy for presidenton April 21, 1983, in theJohn Glenn High Schoolgymnasium.He started out the campaign out-raising the front-runner, Mondale. He also polled the highest of any Democrat against Reagan.During the fall of 1983,The Right Stuff, a film about the Mercury Seven astronauts, was released. Reviewers sawEd Harris' portrayal of Glenn as heroic and his staff began to publicize the film to the press.One reviewer said that \\\"Harris' depiction helped transform Glenn from a history-book figure into a likable, thoroughly adoration-worthy Hollywood hero,\\\" turning him into a big-screen icon.Others considered the movie to be damaging to Glenn's campaign, serving as only a reminder that Glenn's most significant achievement had occurred decades earlier.Glenn's autobiography said the film \\\"had a chilling effect\",\n \"a chilling effect on the campaign.\\\" William White managed Glenn's campaign until his replacement by Jerry Vento on January 26, 1984.Glenn's campaign decided to forgo the traditional campaigning in early caucuses and primaries and focus on building campaign offices nationwide. He opened offices in 43 states by January 1984. Glenn's campaign spent a significant amount of money on television advertising in Iowa, and Glenn chose not to attend an Iowan debate on farm issues. He finished fifth in the Iowa caucus and went on to lose New Hampshire. Glenn's campaign continued intoSuper Tuesday, and he lost there as well. He announced his withdrawal from the race on March 16, 1984.After Mondale defeated him for the nomination, Glenn carried $3 million in campaign debt for over 20 years before receiving a reprieve from theFederal Election Commission. 1986 Senate campaign Glenn's Senate seat was challenged byThomas Kindness. Kindness was unopposed in his primary, while Glenn facedLyndon LaRouchesupporter Don Scott.\",\n \"Don Scott. LaRouche supporters had been recently elected in Illinois, but the Ohio Democratic Party chairman did not think it was likely they would see the same success in Ohio.LaRouche was known for his fringe theories, such as the queen of England being a drug dealer.Kindness spoke to his supporters and warned them against LaRouche candidates. He issued a statement telling voters to reject LaRouche candidates in both Republican and Democratic primaries.Glenn won the primary contest with 88% of the vote. With the primary complete, Glenn began his campaign against Kindness. Glenn believed he and other Democrats were the targets of a negative campaign thought up by the GOP strategists in Washington. Kindness focused on Glenn's campaign debts for his failed presidential run and the fact he stopped payments on it while campaigning for the Senate seat.After winning the race with 62% of the vote, Glenn remarked, \\\"We proved that in 1986, they couldn't kill Glenn with Kindness.\\\" 1992 Senate campaign In 1992,\",\n \"campaign In 1992, RepublicanMike DeWinewon the Republican primary and challenged Glenn in the Senate election. Glenn ran unopposed in the primary.DeWine's campaign focused on the need for change and for term limits for senators. This would be Glenn's fourth term as senator.DeWine also criticized Glenn's campaign debts, using a bunny dressed as an astronaut beating a drum, with an announcer saying, \\\"He just keeps owing and owing and owing\\\", a play on theEnergizer Bunny.During a debate, Glenn asked DeWine to stop his negative campaign ads, saying \\\"This has been the most negative campaign\\\". DeWine responded that he would if Glenn would disclose how he spent the money he received fromCharles Keating, fallout from Glenn being named one of theKeating Five.Glenn won the Senate seat, with 2.4 million votes to DeWine's 2 million votes.It was DeWine's first-ever campaign loss. DeWine later worked on the intelligence committee with Glenn and watched his second launch into space. Senate career Committee on Governmental\",\n \"on Governmental Affairs Glenn requested to be assigned to two committees during his first year as senator: theGovernment Operations Committee(later known as the Committee on Governmental Affairs), and theForeign Relations Committee. He was immediately assigned to the Government Operations Committee and waited for a seat on the Foreign Relations Committee.In 1977, Glenn wanted to chair the Energy, Nuclear Proliferation, and Federal Services Subcommittee of the Governmental Affairs Committee.Abraham Ribicoff, chair of the Governmental Affairs Committee, said he could chair the subcommittee if he also chaired the less popular Federal Services Subcommittee, which was in charge of theU.S. Postal Service. Previous chairs of the Federal Services Subcommittee had lost elections in part because of negative campaigns associated with the poorly regarded mail service to the chairmen, but Glenn accepted the offer and became the chair of both subcommittees.One of his goals as a new senator was developing environmental\",\n \"environmental policies.Glenn introduced bills on energy policy to try to counter theenergy crisis in the 70s. Glenn also introduced legislation promoting nuclear non-proliferation and was the chief author of theNuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978,the first of six major pieces of legislation that he produced on the subject. Glenn chaired the Committee on Governmental Affairs from 1987 to 1995.It was in this role that he discovered safety and environmental problems with the nation's nuclear weapons facilities. Glenn was made aware of the problem at theFernald Feed Materials Production Centernear Cincinnati and soon found that it affected sites across the nation. Glenn requested investigations from the General Accounting Office of Congress and held several hearings on the issue. He also released a report on the potential costs of hazardous waste cleanup at former nuclear weapons manufacturing facilities, known as the Glenn Report.He spent the remainder of his Senate career acquiring funding to clean up\",\n \"funding to clean up thenuclear wasteleft at the facilities. Glenn also focused on reducing government waste. He created legislation to mandate CFOs for large governmental agencies.Glenn wrote a bill to add the office of the inspector general to federal agencies, to help find waste and fraud. He also created legislation intended to prevent the federal government from imposing regulations on local governments without funding. Glenn founded the Great Lakes Task Force, which helped protect the environment of theGreat Lakes. In 1995 Glenn became the ranking minority member of the Committee on Governmental Affairs. Glenn disputed the focus onillegal Chinese donationsto the Democrats and asserted that Republicans also had egregious fundraising issues. The committee chair,Fred ThompsonofTennessee, disagreed and continued the investigation.Thompson and Glenn continued to work together poorly for the duration of the investigation. Thompson would give Glenn only information he was legally required to. Glenn would not\",\n \"to. Glenn would not authorize a larger budget and tried to expand the scope of the investigation to include members of the GOP.The investigation concluded with a Republican-written report, which Thompson described as, \\\"... a lot of things strung together that paint a real ugly picture.\\\" The Democrats, led by Glenn, said the report \\\"... does not support the conclusion that the China plan was aimed at, or affected, the 1996 presidential election.\\\" Glenn was the vice chairman of thePermanent Subcommittee on Investigations, a subcommittee of the Committee on Governmental Affairs.When the Republican Party regained control of the Senate in 1996, Glenn became the ranking minority member on the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations until he was succeeded byCarl Levin. During this time, the committee investigated issues such asfraud on the Internet,mortgage fraud, andday trading of securities. Other committees and activities Glenn's father spent his retirement money battling cancer and would have lost his house if\",\n \"lost his house if Glenn had not intervened. His father-in-law also had expensive treatments for Parkinson's disease. These health and financial issues motivated him to request a seat on theSpecial Committee on Aging. Glenn was considered an expert in matters of science and technology. He was a supporter of continuing theB-1 bomberprogram, which he considered successful. This conflicted with President Carter's desire to fund theB-2 bomberprogram. Glenn did not fully support development of the B-2 because he had doubts about the feasibility of thestealth technology. He drafted a proposal to slow down the development of the B-2, which could have potentially saved money, but the measure was rejected. Glenn joined theForeign Relations Committeein 1978. He became the chairman of the East Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommittee, for which he traveled to Japan, Korea, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China. Glenn helped to pass theTaiwan Enabling Actof 1979. The same year, Glenn's stance on theSALT\",\n \"stance on theSALT II treatycaused another dispute with President Carter. Given the loss of radar listening posts in Iran, Glenn did not believe that the U.S. had the capability to monitor the Soviet Union accurately enough to verify compliance with the treaty.During the launching ceremony for theUSSOhio, he spoke about his doubts about verifying treaty compliance. First LadyRosalynn Carteralso spoke at the event, during which she criticized Glenn for speaking publicly about the issue. The Senate never ratified the treaty, in part because of theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan.Glenn served on the committee until 1985, when he traded it for theArmed Services Committee. Glenn became chairman of theManpower Subcommitteeof the Armed Services Committee in 1987.He introduced legislation such as increasing pay and benefits for American troops in the Persian Gulf during theGulf War.He served as chairman until 1993, becoming chairman of the Armed Services Subcommittee onMilitary Readiness and Defense Infrastructure.\",\n \"Infrastructure. Keating Five Glenn was one of theKeating Five—the U.S. Senators involved with thesavings and loan crisis—after he accepted a $200,000 campaign contribution fromLincoln Savings and Loan Associationhead Charles Keating. During the crisis, the senators were accused of delaying the seizure of Keating's S&L, which cost taxpayers an additional $2 billion. The combination of perceived political pressure and Keating's monetary contributions to the senators led to an investigation. The Ethics Committee's outside counsel, Robert Bennett, wanted to eliminate Republican senatorJohn McCainand Glenn from the investigation. The Democrats did not want to exclude McCain, as he was the only Republican being investigated, which means they could not excuse Glenn from the investigation either.McCain and Glenn were reprimanded the least of the five, as the Senate commission found that they had exercised \\\"poor judgment\\\".The GOP focused on Glenn's \\\"poor judgment\\\" rather than what Glenn saw as complete exoneration.\",\n \"exoneration. GOP chairmanRobert Bennettsaid, \\\"John Glenn misjudged Charles Keating. He also misjudged the tolerance of Ohio's taxpayers, who are left to foot the bill of nearly $2 billion.\\\"After the Senate's report, Glenn said, \\\"They so firmly put this thing to bed ... there isn't much there to fuss with. I didn't do anything wrong.\\\"In his autobiography, Glenn wrote, \\\"outside of people close to me dying, these hearings were the low point of my life.\\\" The case cost him $520,000 in legal fees.The association of his name with the scandal made Republicans hopeful that he could be defeated in the 1992 campaign, but Glenn defeated Lieutenant Governor Mike DeWine to retain his seat. Retirement On February 20, 1997, which was the 35th anniversary of his Friendship 7 flight, Glenn announced that his retirement from the Senate would occur at the end of his term in January 1999.Glenn retired because of his age, noting that he would have been 83 at the end of another term and quipping that \\\"... there is still no cure\",\n \"is still no cure for the common birthday\\\". Return to space After theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisasterin 1986, Glenn criticized putting a \\\"lay person in space for the purpose of gaining public support ... while the shuttle is still in its embryonic stage\\\". He supported flying research scientists.In 1995, Glenn readSpace Physiology and Medicine, a book written by NASA doctors. He realized that many changes that occur to physical attributes during space flight, such as loss of bone and muscle mass and blood plasma,are the same as changes that result from aging. Glenn thought NASA should send an older person on a shuttle mission, and that it should be him. Starting in 1995, he began lobbying NASA director Dan Goldin for the mission.Goldin said he would consider it if there was a scientific reason, and if Glenn could pass the same physical examination the younger astronauts took. Glenn performed research on the subject and passed the physical examination. On January 16, 1998, NASA Administrator Dan Goldin announced\",\n \"Goldin announced that Glenn would be part of the STS-95 crew;this made him, at age 77, the oldest person to fly in space at that time. NASA and the National Institute of Aging (NIA) planned to use Glenn as a test subject for research, withbiometricstaken before, during, and after his flight. Some experiments (incircadian rhythms, for example) compared him with the younger crew members. In addition to these tests, he was in charge of the flight's photography and videography. Glenn returned to space on the Space Shuttle on October 29, 1998, as apayload specialistonSpace ShuttleDiscovery.Shortly before the flight, researchers disqualified Glenn from one of the flight's two major human experiments (on the effect ofmelatonin) for undisclosed medical reasons; he participated in experiments on sleep monitoring and protein use.On November 6, PresidentBill Clintonsent a congratulatory email to Glenn aboard theDiscovery. This is often cited as the first email sent by a sitting U.S. president, but records exist of\",\n \"records exist of emails being sent by President Clinton several years earlier. His participation in the nine-day mission was criticized by some members of the space community as a favor granted by Clinton; John Pike, director of theFederation of American Scientists' space-policy project, said: \\\"If he was a normal person, he would acknowledge he's a great American hero and that he should get to fly on the shuttle for free ... He's too modest for that, and so he's got to have this medical research reason. It's got nothing to do with medicine\\\". In a 2012 interview, Glenn said he regretted that NASA did not continue its research on aging by sending additional elderly people into space.After STS-95 returned safely, its crew received a ticker-tape parade. On October 15, 1998,NASA Road 1(the main route to the Johnson Space Center) was temporarily renamed John Glenn Parkway for several months.Glenn was awarded theNASA Space Flight Medalin 1998 for flying on STS-95.In 2001, Glenn opposed sendingDennis Tito, the\",\n \"Tito, the world's firstspace tourist, to theInternational Space Stationbecause Tito's trip had no scientific purpose. Personal life Glenn and Annie had two children—John David and Carolyn Ann—and two grandchildren,and remained married for 73 years until his death. AFreemason, Glenn was a member of Concord Lodge No. 688 in New Concord, Ohio.He received all hisdegreesin full in aMason at Sightceremony from theGrand Masterof Ohio in 1978, 14 years after petitioning his lodge. In 1999, Glenn became a 33rd-degreeScottish RiteMason in the Valley of Cincinnati (NMJ).As an adult, he was honored as part of the DeMolay Legion of Honor byDeMolay International, a Masonic youth organization for boys. Glenn was an ordained elder of thePresbyterian Church.His religious faith began before he became an astronaut and was reinforced after he traveled in space. \\\"To look out at this kind of creation and not believe in God is to me impossible\\\", said Glenn after his second (and final) space voyage.He saw no contradiction between\",\n \"between belief in God and the knowledge that evolution is \\\"a fact\\\" and believed evolution should be taught in schools:\\\"I don't see that I'm any less religious that I can appreciate the fact that science just records that we change with evolution and time, and that's a fact. It doesn't mean it's less wondrous and it doesn't mean that there can't be some power greater than any of us that has been behind and is behind whatever is going on.\\\" Public appearances Glenn was an honorary member of theInternational Academy of Astronauticsand a member of theSociety of Experimental Test Pilots, Marine Corps Aviation Association,Order of Daedalians, National Space Club board of trustees, National Space Society board of governors, International Association of Holiday Inns,Ohio Democratic Party, State Democratic Executive Committee, Franklin County (Ohio) Democratic Party and the 10th District (Ohio) Democratic Action Club. In 2001 he guest-starred as himself on the American television sitcomFrasier. On September 5, 2009,\",\n \"September 5, 2009, John and Annie Glenn dotted the \\\"i\\\" in Ohio State University'sScript Ohiomarching bandperformance during theOhio State–Navyfootball-game halftime show, which is normally reserved for veteran band members.To commemorate the 50th anniversary of theFriendship 7flight on February 20, 2012, he had an unexpected opportunity to speak with theorbiting crewof the International Space Station when he was onstage withNASA AdministratorCharlie Boldenat Ohio State University.On April 19, 2012, Glenn participated in the ceremonial transfer of the retired Space ShuttleDiscoveryfrom NASA to theSmithsonian Institutionfor permanent display at theSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. He used the occasion to criticize the \\\"unfortunate\\\" decision to end theSpace Shuttle program, saying that grounding the shuttles delayed research. Illness and death Glenn was in good health for most of his life. He retained a private pilot's license until 2011 when he was 90.In June 2014, Glenn underwent successfulheart valve\",\n \"valve replacementsurgery at theCleveland Clinic.In early December 2016, he was hospitalized atthe James Cancer HospitalofOhio State University Wexner Medical Centerin Columbus.According to a family source, Glenn had been in declining health, and his condition was grave; his wife and their children and grandchildren were at the hospital. Glenn died on December 8, 2016, at the OSU Wexner Medical Center; he was 95 years old.No cause of death was disclosed. After his death, his body lay in state at theOhio Statehouse. There was a memorial service at Mershon Auditorium at Ohio State University.Another memorial service was performed at Kennedy Space Center near the Heroes and Legends building.His body was interred atArlington National Cemeteryon April 6, 2017.At the time of his death, Glenn was the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven. TheMilitary Timesreported that William Zwicharowski, a senior mortuary official atDover Air Force Base, had offered to let visiting inspectors view Glenn's remains, sparking\",\n \"remains, sparking an official investigation.Zwicharowski has denied the remains were disrespected.At the conclusion of the investigation, officials said the remains were not disrespected as inspectors did not accept Zwicharowski's offer, and that Zwicharowski's actions were improper. No administrative action was taken as he had retired. PresidentBarack Obamasaid that Glenn, \\\"the first American to orbit the Earth, reminded us that with courage and a spirit of discovery there's no limit to the heights we can reach together\\\".Tributes were also paid by Vice PresidentJoe Biden,President-electDonald Trumpand former Secretary of StateHillary Clinton. The phrase \\\"Godspeed, John Glenn\\\", which fellow Mercury astronaut Scott Carpenter had used to hail Glenn's launch into space, became a social-mediahashtag: #GodspeedJohnGlenn. Former and current astronauts added tributes; so did NASA Administrator and former shuttle astronaut Charles Bolden, who wrote: \\\"John Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history\",\n \"of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching.\\\"President Obama ordered flags to be flown athalf-staffuntil Glenn's burial.On April 5, 2017, President Donald Trump issuedpresidential proclamation9588, titled \\\"Honoring the Memory of John Glenn\\\". Awards and honors Glenn was awarded theJohn J. Montgomery Awardin 1963.Glenn received theNational Geographic Society'sHubbard Medalin 1962.Glenn, along with 37 other space race astronauts, received the Ambassador of Space Exploration Award in 2006.He was also awarded the GeneralThomas D. WhiteNational Defense Awardand thePrince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation.In 1964, Glenn received the Golden Plate Award of theAmerican Academy of Achievement.In 2004, he received theWoodrow Wilson Award for Public Servicefrom the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institutionand was awarded theNational Collegiate Athletic Association'sTheodore Roosevelt Awardfor 2008. Glenn earned\",\n \"2008. Glenn earned theNavy's astronaut wingsand the Marine Corps' Astronaut Medal.He was awarded theCongressional Gold Medalin 2011 and was among the first group of astronauts to be granted the distinction.In 2012, President Barack Obama presented Glenn with thePresidential Medal of Freedom. Glenn was the seventh astronaut to receive this distinction. The Congressional Gold Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom are considered the two most prestigious awards that can be bestowed on a civilian.The Society of Experimental Test Pilots awarded Glenn theIven C. Kincheloeaward in 1963,and he was inducted into theInternational Air & Space Hall of Famein 1968,National Aviation Hall of Famein 1976,theInternational Space Hall of Famein 1977,and the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990.In 2000, he received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for public service by an elected or appointed official, one of the annualJefferson Awards. In 1961, Glenn received anhonoraryLL.Dfrom Muskingum University, the college he\",\n \"the college he attended before joining the military in World War II.He also received honorary doctorates fromNihon Universityin Tokyo;Wagner Collegein Staten Island, New York;Ohio Northern University;Williams College;andBrown University.In 1998, he helped found the John Glenn Institute for Public Service and Public Policy atOhio State Universityto encourage public service. The institute merged with OSU's School of Public Policy and Management to become the John Glenn School of Public Affairs. He held anadjunct professorshipat the school.In February 2015, it was announced that it would become theJohn Glenn College of Public Affairsin April. TheGlenn Research Centerat Lewis Field in Cleveland is named after him, and the Senator John Glenn Highway runs along a stretch ofI-480in Ohio across from the Glenn Research Center.Colonel Glenn Highway (which passes Wright-Patterson Air Force Base andWright State UniversitynearDayton, Ohio), John Glenn High School in his hometown of New Concord,Elwood-John H. Glenn High\",\n \"H. Glenn High Schoolin the hamlet ofElwood,Town of Huntington,Long Island, New York, and the former Col. John Glenn Elementary inSeven Hills, Ohio, were also named for him.Colonel Glenn Road inLittle Rock, Arkansas, was named for him in 1962.High schools inWestlandandBay City, Michigan;Walkerton, Indiana;andNorwalk, Californiabear Glenn's name.The fireboatJohn H. Glenn Jr., operated by theDistrict of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Departmentand protecting sections of thePotomacandAnacostia Riverswhich run through Washington, D.C., was named for him, as wasUSNSJohn Glenn(T-MLP-2), amobile landing platformdelivered to the U.S. Navy on March 12, 2014.In June 2016, the Port Columbus International Airport in Columbus, Ohio, was renamedJohn Glenn Columbus International Airport. Glenn and his family attended the ceremony, during which he spoke about how visiting the airport as a child had kindled his interest in flying.On September 12, 2016,Blue Originannounced theNew Glenn, a rocket.Orbital ATKnamed\",\n \"ATKnamed theCygnusspace capsule used in the NASACRS OA-7mission to the international space station \\\"S.S.John Glenn\\\" in his honor. The mission successfully lifted off on April 16, 2017. Although never a Scout himself, Glenn heavily endorsed theBoy Scouts. His son, John David, attained the coveted rank ofEagle Scoutthat many of Glenn's aviator peers also achieved. Legacy Glenn's public life and legacy began when he received his firstticker-tape paradefor breaking the transcontinental airspeed record.As a senator, he used his military background to write legislation to reduce nuclear proliferation. He also focused on reducing government waste.Buzz Aldrinwrote that Glenn'sFriendship 7flight \\\"... helped to galvanize the country's will and resolution to surmount significant technical challenges of human spaceflight.\\\" President Barack Obama said, \\\"With John's passing, our nation has lost an icon andMichelleand I have lost a friend. John spent his life breaking barriers, from defending our freedom as a decorated\",\n \"as a decorated Marine Corps fighter pilot in World War II and Korea, to setting a transcontinental speed record, to becoming, at age 77, the oldest human to touch the stars.\\\"Obama issued a presidential proclamation on December 9, 2016, ordering the US flag to be flown at half-staff in Glenn's memory.NASA administratorCharles Boldensaid: \\\"Senator Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching\\\". References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":393,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which Nobel laureates in Physics between 1901 and 1920 made contributions to quantum theory, and what were their specific contributions? List the laureates and their respective contributions."},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Several Nobel laureates in Physics between 1901 and 1920 made significant contributions to quantum theory. Here are the laureates and their specific contributions: 1. **Max Planck (1918)** - Planck is considered the father of quantum theory. He introduced the idea of energy quanta and derived Planck's radiation law, which describes the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body in thermal equilibrium. 2. **Albert Einstein (1921)** - Although awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921, Einstein made crucial contributions to quantum theory with his explanation of the photoelectric effect, which demonstrated the particle nature of light. 3. **Niels Bohr (1922)** - Bohr received his Nobel Prize for his contributions to our understanding of atomic structure and radiation. His Bohr model of the atom incorporated quantum theory and explained how electrons could have stable orbits. 4. **Johannes Stark (1919)** - Stark was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields (the Stark effect), both phenomena that provided insights into atomic structure and quantum mechanics. 5. **James Franck and Gustav Hertz (1925)** - Franck and Hertz's Nobel Prize was awarded for their experiments on electron impacts in atoms, which confirmed quantum energy levels within atoms."},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Stark"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Hertz"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Stark', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Hertz', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Stark","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Hertz","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Stark\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Hertz\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Max Planck Max Karl Ernst Ludwig PlanckForMemRS(/ˈplæŋk/;German:ⓘ;23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a Germantheoretical physicistwhose discovery of energyquantawon him theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1918. Planck made many substantial contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame as a physicist rests primarily on his role as the originator ofquantum theoryand one of the founders ofmodern physics,which revolutionized understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. He is known for thePlanck constant, which is of foundational importance for quantum physics, and which he used to derive a set ofunits, today calledPlanck units, expressed only in terms of fundamentalphysical constants. Planck was twice president of the German scientific institutionKaiser Wilhelm Society. In 1948, it was renamed theMax Planck Society(Max-Planck-Gesellschaft) and nowadays includes 83 institutions representing a wide range of scientific directions. Early life and education Planck came from a traditional, intellectual family. His paternal great-grandfather and grandfather were both theology professors inGöttingen; his father was a law professor at theUniversity of KielandMunich. One of his uncles was also a judge. Planck was born in 1858 inKiel,Holstein(nowSchleswig-Holstein), to Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck and his second wife, Emma Patzig. He was baptized with the name ofKarl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck; of his given names,Marxwas indicated as the\"appellation name\".However, by the age of ten he signed with the nameMaxand used this for the rest of his life. He was the sixth child in the family, though two of his siblings were from his father's first marriage. War was common during Planck's early years and among his earliest memories was the marching ofPrussianandAustriantroops into Kiel during theSecond Schleswig Warin 1864.In 1867 the family moved toMunich, and Planck enrolled in the Maximiliansgymnasiumschool. There, his mathematical talents emerged earlyand he later came under the tutelage of Hermann Müller, a mathematician who took an interest in the youth, and taught himastronomyandmechanicsas well asmathematics. It was from Müller that Planck first learned the principle of conservation of energy. Planck graduated early, at age 17.This is how Planck first came in contact with the field of physics. Planck was gifted when it came to music. He took singing lessons and played piano, organ and cello, and composed songs and operas. However, instead of music he chose to studyphysics. Planck enrolled at theUniversity of Munichin 1874. Under professorPhilipp von Jolly's supervision, Planck performed the only experiments of his scientific career, studying thediffusionofhydrogenthrough heatedplatinum, but transferred totheoretical physics. Jolly advised Planck against going into theoretical physics. Planck recalls that in 1878, Jolly argued that physics was almost complete, being a \"highly developed, nearly fully matured science, that through the crowning achievement of the discovery of the principle of conservation of energy will arguably soon take its final stable form\". In 1877, he went to theFriedrich Wilhelms Universityin Berlin for a year of study with physicistsHermann von HelmholtzandGustav Kirchhoffand mathematicianKarl Weierstrass. He wrote that Helmholtz was never quite prepared, spoke slowly, miscalculated endlessly, and bored his listeners, while Kirchhoff spoke in carefully prepared lectures which were dry and monotonous. He soon became close friends with Helmholtz. While there he undertook a program of mostly self-study ofRudolf Clausius'swritings, which led him to choosethermodynamicsas his field. In October 1878, Planck passed his qualifying exams and in February 1879 defended his dissertationÜber den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie(On the Second Law of Mechanical Heat Theory). He briefly taught mathematics and physics at his former school in Munich. By the year 1880, Planck had obtained the two highest academic degrees offered in Europe. The first was a doctorate degree after he completed his paper detailing his research and theory of thermodynamics.He then presented his thesis calledGleichgewichtszustände isotroper Körper in verschiedenen Temperaturen(Equilibrium states of isotropic bodies at different temperatures), which earned him ahabilitation. Career With the completion of his habilitation thesis, Planck became an unpaidPrivatdozent(German academic rank comparable to lecturer/assistant professor) in Munich, waiting until he was offered an academic position. Although he was initially ignored by the academic community, he furthered his work on the field ofheat theoryand discovered one after another the samethermodynamicalformalism asGibbswithout realizing it. Clausius's ideas onentropyoccupied a central role in his work. In April 1885, theUniversity of Kielappointed Planck as associate professor oftheoretical physics. Further work on entropy and its treatment, especially as applied inphysical chemistry, followed. He published hisTreatise on Thermodynamicsin 1897.He proposed a thermodynamic basis forSvante Arrhenius's theory ofelectrolyticdissociation. In 1889, he was named the successor to Kirchhoff's position at theFriedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin– presumably thanks to Helmholtz's intercession – and by 1892 became a full professor. In 1907 Planck was offeredLudwig Boltzmann's position inVienna, but turned it down to stay in Berlin. During 1909, as a University of Berlin professor, he was invited to become theErnest Kempton Adams Lecturer in Theoretical PhysicsatColumbia UniversityinNew York City. A series of his lectures were translated and co-published by Columbia University professorA. P. Wills.He was elected to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1914.He retired from Berlin on 10 January 1926,and was succeeded byErwin Schrödinger.He was elected to the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1926 and theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1933. Professor at Berlin University As a professor at theFriedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin, Planck joined the local Physical Society. He later wrote about this time: \"In those days I was essentially the only theoretical physicist there, whence things were not so easy for me, because I started mentioning entropy, but this was not quite fashionable, since it was regarded as a mathematical spook\".Thanks to his initiative, the various local Physical Societies of Germany merged in 1898 to form the German Physical Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG); from 1905 to 1909 Planck was the president. Planck started a six-semester course of lectures on theoretical physics, \"dry, somewhat impersonal\" according toLise Meitner, \"using no notes, never making mistakes, never faltering; the best lecturer I ever heard\" according to an English participant,James R. Partington, who continues: \"There were always many standing around the room. As the lecture-room was well heated and rather close, some of the listeners would from time to time drop to the floor, but this did not disturb the lecture.\" Planck did not establish an actual \"school\"; the number of his graduate students was only about 20, among them: Entropy Thermodynamics, also known as the \"mechanical theory of heat\" at the end of the 19th century, had emerged at the beginning of this century from an attempt to understand the functioning of steam engines and to improve their efficiency. In the 1840s, several researchers independently discovered and formulated the law of conservation of energy, which is now also known as thefirst law of thermodynamics. In 1850,Rudolf Clausiusformulated the so-calledsecond law of thermodynamics, which states that a voluntary (or spontaneous) transfer of energy is only possible from a warmer to a colder body, but not vice versa. In England at this timeWilliam Thomsoncame to the same conclusion. Clausius generalized his formulation further and further and came up with a new formulation in 1865. To this end, he introduced the concept ofEntropy, which he defined as a measure of the reversible supply of heat in relation to the absolute temperature. The new formulation of the second law, which is still valid today, was: \"Entropy can be created, but never destroyed\". Clausius, whose work Planck read as a young student during his stay in Berlin, successfully applied this new law of nature to mechanical, thermoelectric and chemical processes. In his dissertation in 1879, Planck summarized Clausius' writings, pointing out contradictions and inaccuracies in their formulation and then clarifying them. In addition, he generalized the validity of the second law to all processes in nature, Clausius had limited its application to reversible processes and thermal processes. Furthermore, Planck dealt intensively with the new concept of entropy and emphasized, that entropy is not only a property of a physical system, but at the same time a measure of the irreversibility of a process: If entropy is generated in a process, it is irreversible, since entropy cannot be destroyed according to the second law. In reversible processes, the entropy remains constant. He presented this fact in detail in 1887 in a series of treatises entitled \"On the Princip of the Increase of Entropy\". In his study of the concept of entropy, Planck did not follow the molecular, probabilistic interpretation that prevailed at the time, as these do not provide absolute proof of universality. Instead, he pursued a phenomenological approach and was also skeptical of atomism. Even though he later abandoned this attitude in the course of his work on the law of radiation, his early work impressively shows the possibilites of the phenome of thermodynamics in solving concrete physicochemical problems. Planck's understanding of entropy included the realization that the maximum of entropy corresponds to the equilibrium state. The accompanying conclusion that knowledge of the Entropy allows all laws of thermodynamic equilibrium states to be derived corresponds to the modern understanding of such states. Planck therefore chose equilibrium processes as his research focus and, based on his habilitation thesis, researched the coexistence of aggregate states and the equilibrium of gas reactions, for example. This work on the frontier of chemical thermodynamics also received great attention due to the rapidly expanding chemical work at that time. Independently of Planck,Josiah Willard Gibbshad also discovered almost all the knowledge Planck gained about the properties of physicochemical equilibria and published them from 1876 onwards. Planck was unaware of these essays, and they did not appear in German until 1892. However, both scientists approached the topic in different ways, while Planck dealt with irreversible processes, Gibbs looked at equilibria. This approach was finally able to prevail because of its simplicity, but Planck's approach is attributed the greater universality. Black-body radiation In 1894, Planck turned his attention to the problem ofblack-body radiation. The problem had been stated by Kirchhoff in 1859: \"how does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by ablack body(a perfect absorber, also known as a cavity radiator) depend on thefrequencyof the radiation (i.e., the color of the light) and the temperature of the body?\". The question had been explored experimentally, but no theoretical treatment had agreed with the experimentally observed evidence.Wilhelm WienproposedWien's law, which correctly predicted the behaviour at high frequencies, but failed at low frequencies. TheRayleigh–Jeans law, another approach to the problem, agreed with experimental results at low frequencies, but created what was later known as the \"ultraviolet catastrophe\" at high frequencies, as predicted byclassical physics. However, contrary to many textbooks, this was not a motivation for Planck. Planck's first proposed solution to the problem in 1899 followed from what he called the \"principle of elementary disorder\", which allowed him to derive Wien's law from a number of assumptions about theentropyof an ideal oscillator, creating what was referred to as the Wien–Planck law. Soon, however, it was found that experimental evidence did not confirm the new law at all, to Planck's frustration. He revised his approach and now derived the first version of the famousPlanck black-body radiation law, which described clearly the experimentally observed black-body spectrum. It was first proposed in a meeting of the DPG on 19 October 1900 and published in 1901. (This first derivation did not include energy quantisation, and did not usestatistical mechanics, to which he held an aversion.) In November 1900 Planck revised this first version, now relying onBoltzmann's statistical interpretation of thesecond law of thermodynamicsas a way of gaining a more fundamental understanding of the principles behind his radiation law. Planck was deeply suspicious of the philosophical and physical implications of such an interpretation of Boltzmann's approach; thus his recourse to them was, as he later put it, \"an act of despair ... I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics\". The central assumption behind his new derivation, presented to the DPG on 14 December 1900, was the supposition, now known as thePlanck postulate, that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only inquantizedform, in other words, the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit: wherehis thePlanck constant, also known as Planck's action quantum (introduced already in 1899), andνis the frequency of the radiation. Note that the elementary units of energy discussed here are represented byhνand not simply byν. Physicists now call these quanta photons, and a photon of frequencyνwill have its own specific and unique energy. The total energy at that frequency is then equal tohνmultiplied by the number of photons at that frequency. At first Planck considered that quantisation was only \"a purely formal assumption ... actually I did not think much about it ...\"; nowadays this assumption, incompatible withclassical physics, is regarded as the birth ofquantum physicsand the greatest intellectual accomplishment of Planck's career. (Boltzmannhad been discussing in a theoretical paper in 1877 the possibility that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete). The discovery of the Planck constant enabled him to define a new universal set ofphysical units(such as the Planck length and the Planck mass), all based on fundamental physical constants, upon which much of quantum theory is based. In a discussion with his son in December 1918 Planck described his discovery as 'a discovery of the first rank, comparable perhaps only to the discoveries of Newton'.In recognition of Planck's fundamental contribution to a new branch of physics, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918; (he received the award in 1919). Subsequently, Planck tried to grasp the meaning of energy quanta, but to no avail. \"My unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble.\" Even several years later, other physicists such asRayleigh,Jeans, andLorentzset the Planck constant to zero in order to align with classical physics, but Planck knew well that this constant had a precise nonzero value. \"I am unable to understand Jeans' stubbornness – he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing, the same asHegelwas for philosophy. So much the worse for the facts if they don't fit.\" Max Bornwrote about Planck: \"He was, by nature, a conservative mind; he had nothing of the revolutionary and was thoroughly skeptical about speculations. Yet his belief in the compelling force of logical reasoning from facts was so strong that he did not flinch from announcing the most revolutionary idea which ever has shaken physics.\" Einstein and the theory of relativity In 1905, the three epochal papers byAlbert Einsteinwere published in the journalAnnalen der Physik. Planck was among the few who immediately recognized the significance of thespecial theory of relativity. Thanks to his influence, this theory was soon widely accepted in Germany. Planck also contributed considerably to extend the special theory of relativity. For example, he recast the theory in terms of classicalaction. Einstein's hypothesis of lightquanta(photons), based onHeinrich Hertz's1887 discovery (and further investigation byPhilipp Lenard) of thephotoelectric effect, was initially rejected by Planck. He was unwilling to discard completelyMaxwell's theory ofelectrodynamics. \"The theory of light would be thrown back not by decades, but by centuries, into the age whenChristiaan Huygensdared to fight against the mighty emission theory ofIsaac Newton...\" In 1910, Einstein pointed out the anomalous behavior ofspecific heatat low temperatures as another example of a phenomenon which defies explanation by classical physics. Planck andWalther Nernst, seeking to clarify the increasing number of contradictions, organized the FirstSolvay Conference(Brussels 1911). At this meeting Einstein was able to convince Planck. Meanwhile, Planck had been appointed dean of Berlin University, whereby it was possible for him to call Einstein to Berlin and establish a new professorship for him (1914). Soon the two scientists became close friends and met frequently to play music together. First World War At the onset of theFirst World WarPlanck endorsed the general excitement of the public, writing that, \"Besides much that is horrible, there is also much that is unexpectedly great and beautiful: the smooth solution of the most difficult domestic political problems by the unification of all parties (and) ... the extolling of everything good and noble.\"Planck also signed the infamous \"Manifesto of the 93 intellectuals\", a pamphlet of polemic war propaganda (while Einstein retained a strictly pacifistic attitude which almost led to his imprisonment, only being spared thanks to hisSwisscitizenship). In 1915, when Italy was still a neutral power, Planck voted successfully for a scientific paper from Italy, which received a prize from thePrussian Academy of Sciences, where Planck was one of four permanent presidents. Post-war and the Weimar Republic In the turbulent post-war years, Planck, now the highest authority of German physics, issued the slogan \"persevere and continue working\" to his colleagues. In October 1920, he andFritz Haberestablished theNotgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft(Emergency Organization of German Science), aimed at providing financial support for scientific research. A considerable portion of the money the organization would distribute was raised abroad. Planck held leading positions at Berlin University, the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the German Physical Society, and theKaiser Wilhelm Society(which became theMax Planck Societyin 1948). During this time economic conditions in Germany were such that he was hardly able to conduct research. In 1926, Planck became a foreign member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. During the interwar period, Planck became a member of the Deutsche Volks-Partei (German People's Party), the party of Nobel Peace Prize laureateGustav Stresemann, which aspired to liberal aims for domestic policy and rather revisionistic aims for politics around the world. Planck disagreed with the introduction ofuniversal suffrageand later expressed the view that the Nazi dictatorship resulted from \"the ascent of the rule of the crowds\". Quantum mechanics At the end of the 1920s,Niels Bohr,Werner Heisenberg, andWolfgang Paulihad worked out theCopenhagen interpretationof quantum mechanics, but it was rejected by Planck, and by Schrödinger, Laue, and Einstein as well. Planck expected thatwave mechanicswould soon render quantum theory – his own child – unnecessary. This was not to be the case, however. Further work only served to underscore the enduring central importance of quantum theory, even against his and Einstein's philosophical revulsions. Here Planck experienced the truth of his own earlier observation from his struggle with the older views during his younger years: \"A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it.\" Nazi dictatorship and the Second World War When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Planck was 74 years old. He witnessed many Jewish friends and colleagues expelled from their positions and humiliated, and hundreds of scientists emigrate fromNazi Germany. Again he tried to \"persevere and continue working\" and asked scientists who were considering emigration to remain in Germany. Nevertheless, he did help his nephew, the economistHermann Kranold, to emigrate toLondonafter his arrest.He hoped the crisis would abate soon and the political situation would improve. Otto Hahnasked Planck to gather well-known German professors in order to issue a public proclamation against the treatment of Jewish professors, but Planck replied, \"If you are able to gather today 30 such gentlemen, then tomorrow 150 others will come and speak against it, because they are eager to take over the positions of the others.\"Under Planck's leadership, theKaiser Wilhelm Society(KWG) avoided open conflict with the Nazi regime, except concerning the Jewish Fritz Haber. In May of 1933 Planck requested and received an interview with the recently appointed Chancellor of GermanyAdolf Hitlerto discuss the issue, telling him that the \"forced immigration of Jews would kill German science and Jews could be good Germans\", to which the chancellor replied \"but we don't have anything against the Jews, only against communists\". Planck was therefore unsuccessful, since this reply \"took from him every basis for further negotiation\",as to Hitler \"the Jews are all Communists, and these are my enemies.\" In the following year, 1934, Haber died in exile. One year later, Planck, having been the president of the KWG since 1930, organized in a somewhat provocative style an official commemorative meeting for Haber. He also succeeded in secretly enabling a number of Jewish scientists to continue working in institutes of the KWG for several years. In 1936, his term as president of the KWG ended, and the Nazi government pressured him to refrain from seeking another term. As the political climate in Germany gradually became more hostile,Johannes Stark, prominent exponent of theDeutsche Physik(\"German Physics\", also called \"Aryan Physics\") attacked Planck,Arnold Sommerfeld, and Heisenberg for continuing to teach the theories of Einstein, calling them \"white Jews\". The \"Hauptamt Wissenschaft\" (Nazi government office for science) started an investigation of Planck's ancestry, claiming that he was \"1/16 Jewish\", but Planck denied it. In 1938, Planck celebrated his 80th birthday. The DPG held a celebration, during which the Max-Planck medal (founded as the highest medal by the DPG in 1928) was awarded to French physicistLouis de Broglie. At the end of 1938, the Prussian Academy lost its remaining independence and was taken over by Nazis (Gleichschaltung). Planck protested by resigning his presidency. He continued to travel frequently, giving numerous public talks, such as his talk on Religion and Science, and five years later he was sufficiently fit to climb 3,000-metre peaks in theAlps. During theSecond World Warthe increasing number of Allied bombing missions against Berlin forced Planck and his wife to temporarily leave the city and live in the countryside. In 1942, he wrote: \"In me an ardent desire has grown to persevere this crisis and live long enough to be able to witness the turning point, the beginning of a new rise.\" In February 1944, his home in Berlin was completely destroyed by an air raid, annihilating all his scientific records and correspondence. His rural retreat was threatened by the rapid advance of the Allied armies from both sides. In 1944, Planck's sonErwinwas arrested by theGestapofollowing the attempted assassination of Hitler in the20 July plot. He was tried and sentenced to death by thePeople's Courtin October 1944. Erwin was hanged at Berlin'sPlötzensee Prisonin January 1945. The death of his son destroyed much of Planck's will to live. Personal life and death In March 1887, Planck married Marie Merck (1861–1909), sister of a school fellow, and moved with her into a sublet apartment in Kiel. They had four children: Karl (1888–1916), the twins Emma (1889–1919) and Grete (1889–1917), andErwin(1893–1945). After living in the apartment in Berlin, the Planck family lived in a villa in Berlin-Grunewald, Wangenheimstrasse 21. Several other professors fromUniversity of Berlinlived nearby, among them theologianAdolf von Harnack, who became a close friend of Planck. Soon the Planck home became a social and cultural center. Numerous well-known scientists, such asAlbert Einstein,Otto HahnandLise Meitnerwere frequent visitors. The tradition of jointly performing music had already been established in the home ofHelmholtz. After several happy years, in July 1909 Marie Planck died, possibly fromtuberculosis. In March 1911 Planck married his second wife, Marga von Hoesslin (1882–1948); in December his fifth child Hermann was born. During theFirst World WarPlanck's second son Erwin was taken prisoner by the French in 1914, while his oldest son Karl was killed in action atVerdun. Grete died in 1917 while giving birth to her first child. Her sister died the same way two years later, after having married Grete's widower. Both granddaughters survived and were named after their mothers. Planck endured these losses stoically. In January 1945,Erwin Planck, to whom he had been particularly close, was sentenced to death by theNaziVolksgerichtshofbecause of his participation in thefailed attempt to assassinate Hitlerin July 1944. Erwin was executed on 23 January 1945. After World war II ended, Planck, his second wife, and their son were brought to a relative inGöttingen, where Planck died on October 4, 1947. He was buried in the old Stadtfriedhof (City Cemetery) in Göttingen. Religious views Planck was a member of theLutheran Churchin Germany.He was very tolerant toward alternative views andreligions.In a lecture in 1937 entitled \"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\" (\"Religion and Natural Science\") he suggested the importance of these symbols and rituals related directly with a believer's ability to worship God, but that one must be mindful that the symbols provide an imperfect illustration of divinity. He criticized atheism for being focused on the derision of such symbols, while at the same time warned of the over-estimation of the importance of such symbols by believers. In \"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\", Planck expressed the view that God is present everywhere, and he held that \"the holiness of the unintelligible Godhead is conveyed by the holiness of symbols.\" Atheists, he thought, attach too much importance to what are merely symbols. He was a churchwarden from 1920 until his death, and believed in an almighty, all-knowing, beneficent God (although not necessarily a personal one). Both science and religion wage a \"tireless battle against skepticism and dogmatism, against unbelief and superstition\" with the goal \"toward God!\" Planck said in 1944, \"As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a result of my research about atoms this much: There is no matter as such. All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particle of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the atom together. We must assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent spirit . This spirit is the matrix of all matter.\" Planck argued that the concept of God is important to both religion and science, but in different ways: \"Both religion and science require a belief in God. For believers, God is in the beginning, and for physicists He is at the end of all considerations … To the former He is the foundation, to the latter, the crown of the edifice of every generalized world view\". Furthermore, Planck wrote, ...\"to believe\" means \"to recognize as a truth\", and the knowledge of nature, continually advancing on incontestably safe tracks, has made it utterly impossible for a person possessing some training in natural science to recognize as founded on truth the many reports of extraordinary occurrences contradicting the laws of nature, of miracles which are still commonly regarded as essential supports and confirmations of religious doctrines, and which formerly used to be accepted as facts pure and simple, without doubt or criticism. The belief in miracles must retreat step by step before relentlessly and reliably progressing science and we cannot doubt that sooner or later it must vanish completely. Noted historian of scienceJohn L. Heilbroncharacterized Planck's views on God asdeistic.Heilbron further relates that when asked about his religious affiliation, Planck replied that although he had always been deeply religious, he did not believe \"in a personal God, let alone a Christian God\". Publications ter Haar, D.(1967).\"On the Theory of the Energy Distribution Law of the Normal Spectrum\"(PDF).The Old Quantum Theory.Pergamon Press. p. 82.LCCN66029628. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 September 2016. Retrieved5 April2014. See also References Sources External links","Albert Einstein Albert Einstein(/ˈaɪnstaɪn/EYEN-styne;German:ⓘ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-borntheoretical physicistwho is widely held as one of the most influentialscientists. Best known for developing thetheory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions toquantum mechanics.Hismass–energy equivalenceformulaE=mc2, which arises fromspecial relativity, has been called \"the world's most famous equation\".He received the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\"for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of thephotoelectric effect\",a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. Born in theGerman Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of theKingdom of Württemberg)the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swissfederal polytechnic schoolinZürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at theSwiss Patent Officein Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to theUniversity of Zurich. In 1914, he moved toBerlinin order to join thePrussian Academy of Sciencesand theHumboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of theKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of theKingdom of Prussia.In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States,Adolf Hitler came to powerin Germany. Horrified by theNaziwar of exterminationagainst his fellow Jews,Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was grantedAmerican citizenshipin 1940.On the eve ofWorld War II, he endorseda letterto PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltalerting him to the potentialGerman nuclear weapons programand recommended that the US beginsimilar research. Einstein supported theAlliesbut generally viewed the idea ofnuclear weaponswith great dismay. Einstein's work is also known for its influence on thephilosophy of science.In 1905, he publishedfour groundbreaking papers, sometimes described as hisannus mirabilis(miracle year).These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explainedBrownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability ofclassical mechanicsto account satisfactorily for the behavior of theelectromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed ageneral theory of relativitythat extended his system of mechanics to incorporategravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of theuniverseas a whole. In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions tostatistical mechanicsand quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics ofradiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently calledphotons. With the Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork forBose-Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that \"God does not play dice\".Second, he attempted to devise aunified field theoryby generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to includeelectromagnetismtoo. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstreammodern physics. His intellectual achievements and originality madeEinsteinbroadly synonymous withgenius.In 1999, he was namedTime'sPerson of the Century.In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journalPhysics World, Einstein was ranked the greatest physicist of all time. Life and career Childhood, youth and education Albert Einstein was born inUlm,in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879.His parents, secularAshkenazi Jews, wereHermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, andPauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved toMunich's borough ofLudwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based ondirect current.He often related a formative event from his youth, when he was sick in bed and his father brought him acompass. This sparked his lifelong fascination withelectromagnetism. He realized that \"Something deeply hidden had to be behind things.\" Albert attended St. Peter'sCatholic elementary schoolin Munich from the age of five. When he was eight, he was transferred to theLuitpold Gymnasium, where he received advanced primary and then secondary school education. In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company tendered for a contract to install electric lighting in Munich, but without success—they lacked the capital that would have been required to update their technology from direct current to the more efficient,alternating currentalternative.The failure of their bid forced them to sell their Munich factory and search for new opportunities elsewhere. The Einstein family moved to Italy, first toMilanand a few months later toPavia, where they settled inPalazzo Cornazzani.Einstein, then fifteen, stayed behind in Munich in order to finish his schooling. His father wanted him to studyelectrical engineering, but he was a fractious pupil who found the Gymnasium's regimen and teaching methods far from congenial. He later wrote that the school's policy of strictrote learningwas harmful to creativity. At the end of December 1894, a letter from a doctor persuaded the Luitpold's authorities to release him from its care, and he joined his family in Pavia.While in Italy as a teenager, he wrote an essay entitled \"On the Investigation of the State of theEtherin a Magnetic Field\". Einstein excelled at physics and mathematics from an early age, and soon acquired the mathematical expertise normally only found in a child several years his senior. He began teaching himself algebra, calculus andEuclidean geometrywhen he was twelve; he made such rapid progress that he discovered an original proof of thePythagorean theorembefore his thirteenth birthday.A family tutor,Max Talmud, said that only a short time after he had given the twelve year old Einstein a geometry textbook, the boy \"had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow.\"Einstein recorded that he had \"masteredintegralanddifferential calculus\" while still just fourteen.His love of algebra and geometry was so great that at twelve, he was already confident that nature could be understood as a \"mathematical structure\". At thirteen, when his range of enthusiasms had broadened to include music and philosophy,Talmud introduced Einstein toKant'sCritique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, \"At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him.\" In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for thefederal polytechnic school(later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the test,but performed with distinction in physics and mathematics.On the advice of the polytechnic's principal, he completed his secondary education at theArgovian cantonal school(agymnasium) inAarau, Switzerland, graduating in 1896.While lodging in Aarau with the family ofJost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister,Maja, later married Winteler's son Paul.) In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced hiscitizenship of the German Kingdom of Württembergin order to avoidconscription into military service.TheMatura(graduation for the successful completion of higher secondary schooling), awarded to him in September 1896, acknowledged him to have performed well across most of the curriculum, allotting him atop grade of 6for history, physics, algebra, geometry, and descriptive geometry.At seventeen, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, a year older than him, took up a teaching post inOlsberg, Switzerland. The five other polytechnic school freshmen following the same course as Einstein included just one woman, a twenty year oldSerbian,Mileva Marić. Over the next few years, the pair spent many hours discussing their shared interests and learning about topics in physics that the polytechnic school's lectures did not cover. In his letters to Marić, Einstein confessed that exploring science with her by his side was much more enjoyable than reading a textbook in solitude. Eventually the two students became not only friends but also lovers. Historians of physics are divided on the question of the extent to which Marić contributed to the insights of Einstein'sannus mirabilispublications. There is at least some evidence that he was influenced by her scientific ideas,but there are scholars who doubt whether her impact on his thought was of any great significance at all. Marriages, relationships and children Correspondence between Einstein and Marić, discovered and published in 1987, revealed that in early 1902, while Marić was visiting her parents inNovi Sad, she gave birth to a daughter,Lieserl. When Marić returned to Switzerland it was without the child, whose fate is uncertain. A letter of Einstein's that he wrote in September 1903 suggests that the girl was either given up for adoption or died ofscarlet feverin infancy. Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their sonHans Albertwas born inBern, Switzerland. Their sonEduardwas born in Zürich in July 1910. In letters that Einstein wrote to Marie Winteler in the months before Eduard's arrival, he described his love for his wife as \"misguided\" and mourned the \"missed life\" that he imagined he would have enjoyed if he had married Winteler instead: \"I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be.\" In 1912, Einstein entered into a relationship withElsa Löwenthal, who was both his first cousin on his mother's side and his second cousin on his father's.When Marić learned of his infidelity soon after moving to Berlin with him in April 1914, she returned to Zürich, taking Hans Albert and Eduard with her.Einstein and Marić were granted a divorce on 14 February 1919 on the grounds of having lived apart for five years.As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed that if he were to win a Nobel Prize, he would give the money that he received to Marić; he won the prize two years later. Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919.In 1923, he began a relationship with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of his close friend Hans Mühsam.Löwenthal nevertheless remained loyal to him, accompanying him when he emigrated to the United States in 1933. In 1935, she was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. She died in December 1936. A volume of Einstein's letters released byHebrew University of Jerusalemin 2006added further names to the catalog of women with whom he was romantically involved. They included Margarete Lebach (a married Austrian),Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal.After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by some to be a Russian spy; her husband, the Russian sculptorSergei Konenkov, created the bronze bust of Einstein at theInstitute for Advanced Studyat Princeton. Following an episode of acute mental illness at about the age of twenty, Einstein's son Eduard was diagnosed withschizophrenia.He spent the remainder of his life either in the care of his mother or in temporary confinement in an asylum. After her death, he was committed permanently toBurghölzli, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich. 1902–1909: Assistant at the Swiss Patent Office Einstein graduated from the federal polytechnic school in 1900, duly certified as competent to teach mathematics and physics.His successful acquisition of Swiss citizenship in February 1901was not followed by the usual sequel ofconscription; the Swiss authorities deemed him medically unfit for military service. He found that Swiss schools too appeared to have no use for him, failing to offer him a teaching position despite the almost two years that he spent applying for one. Eventually it was with the help ofMarcel Grossmann's father that he secured a post inBernat theSwiss Patent Office,as anassistant examiner – level III. Patent applicationsthat landed on Einstein's desk for his evaluation included ideas for a gravel sorter and an electric typewriter.His employers were pleased enough with his work to make his position permanent in 1903, although they did not think that he should be promoted until he had \"fully mastered machine technology\".It is conceivable that his labors at the patent office had a bearing on his development of his special theory of relativity. He arrived at his revolutionary ideas about space, time and light through thought experiments about the transmission of signals and the synchronization of clocks, matters which also figured in some of the inventions submitted to him for assessment. In 1902, Einstein and some friends whom he had met in Bern formed a group that held regular meetings to discuss science and philosophy. Their choice of a name for their club, theOlympia Academy, was an ironic comment upon its far from Olympian status. Sometimes they were joined by Marić, who limited her participation in their proceedings to careful listening.The thinkers whose works they reflected upon includedHenri Poincaré,Ernst MachandDavid Hume, all of whom significantly influenced Einstein's own subsequent ideas and beliefs. 1900–1905: First scientific papers Einstein's first paper,\"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\"(\"Conclusions drawn from the phenomena of capillarity\"), in which he proposed a model of intermolecular attraction that he afterwards disavowed as worthless, was published in the journalAnnalen der Physikin 1901.His 24-page doctoral dissertation also addressed a topic in molecular physics. Titled \"Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen\" (\"A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions\") and dedicated to his friend Marcel Grossman, it was completed on 30 April 1905and approved by ProfessorAlfred Kleinerof the University of Zurich three months later. (Einstein was formally awarded his PhD on 15 January 1906.)Four other pieces of work that Einstein completed in 1905—his famous paperson thephotoelectric effect,Brownian motion, hisspecial theory of relativityand theequivalence of mass and energy—have led to the year being celebrated as anannus mirabilisfor physics akin to 1666 (the year in whichIsaac Newtonexperienced his greatest epiphanies). The publications deeply impressed Einstein's contemporaries. 1908–1933: Early academic career Einstein's sabbatical as a civil servant approached its end in 1908, when he secured a junior teaching position at theUniversity of Bern. In 1909, a lecture on relativisticelectrodynamicsthat he gave at the University of Zurich, much admired by Alfred Kleiner, led to Zürich's luring him away from Bern with a newly created associate professorship.Promotion to a full professorship followed in April 1911, when he accepted a chair at the GermanCharles-Ferdinand Universityin Prague, a move which required him to become anAustriancitizen of theAustro-Hungarian Empire.His time in Prague saw him producing eleven research papers. In July 1912, he returned to hisalma mater, theETH Zurich, to take up a chair in theoretical physics. His teaching activities there centred onthermodynamicsand analytical mechanics, and his research interests included the molecular theory of heat,continuum mechanicsand the development of a relativistic theory of gravitation. In his work on the latter topic, he was assisted by his friend, Marcel Grossmann, whose knowledge of the kind of mathematics required was greater than his own. In the spring of 1913, two German visitors,Max PlanckandWalther Nernst, called upon Einstein in Zürich in the hope of persuading him to relocate to Berlin.They offered him membership of thePrussian Academy of Sciences, the directorship of the plannedKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physicsand a chair at theHumboldt University of Berlinthat would allow him to pursue his research supported by a professorial salary but with no teaching duties to burden him.Their invitation was all the more appealing to him because Berlin happened to be the home of his latest girlfriend, Elsa Löwenthal.He duly joined the Academy on 24 July 1913,and moved into an apartment in the Berlin district ofDahlemon 1 April 1914.He was installed in his Humboldt University position shortly thereafter. The outbreak of theFirst World Warin July 1914 marked the beginning of Einstein's gradual estrangement from the nation of his birth. When the \"Manifesto of the Ninety-Three\" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German thinkers that justified Germany's belligerence—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to distance himself from it and sign the alternative, eirenic \"Manifesto to the Europeans\" instead.However, this expression of his doubts about German policy did not prevent him from being elected to a two-year term as president of theGerman Physical Societyin 1916.When the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics opened its doors the following year—its foundation delayed because of the war—Einstein was appointed its first director, just as Planck and Nernst had promised. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1920,and aForeign Member of the Royal Society in 1921. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\".At this point some physicists still regarded the general theory of relativity skeptically, and the Nobel citation displayed a degree of doubt even about the work on photoelectricity that it acknowledged: it did not assent to Einstein's notion of the particulate nature of light, which only won over the entire scientific community whenS. N. Bosederived thePlanck spectrumin 1924. That same year, Einstein was elected an International Honorary Member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences.Britain's closest equivalent of the Nobel award, theRoyal Society'sCopley Medal, was not hung around Einstein's neck until 1925.He was elected an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1930. Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving theEinstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development ofBose–Einstein statistics. 1919: Putting general relativity to the test In 1907, Einstein reached a milestone on his long journey from his special theory of relativity to a new idea of gravitation with the formulation of hisequivalence principle, which asserts that an observer in an infinitesimally small box falling freely in a gravitational field would be unable to find any evidence that the field exists. In 1911, he used the principle to estimate the amount by which a ray of light from a distant star would bebentby the gravitational pull of the Sun as it passed close to the Sun'sphotosphere(that is, the Sun's apparent surface). He reworked his calculation in 1913, having now found a way to model gravitation with theRiemann curvature tensorof a non-Euclidean four-dimensionalspacetime. By the fall of 1915, his reimagining of the mathematics of gravitation in terms of Riemannian geometry was complete, and he applied his new theory not just to the behavior of the Sun as a gravitational lens but also to another astronomical phenomenon, theprecession of the perihelion of Mercury(a slow drift in the point in Mercury's elliptical orbit at which it approaches the Sun most closely).Atotal eclipse of the Sun that took place on 29 May 1919provided an opportunity to put his theory of gravitational lensing to the test, and observations performed by SirArthur Eddingtonyielded results that were consistent with his calculations. Eddington's work was reported at length in newspapers around the world. On 7 November 1919, for example, the leading British newspaper,The Times, printed a banner headline that read: \"Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown\". 1921–1923: Coming to terms with fame With Eddington's eclipse observations widely reported not just in academic journals but by the popular press as well, Einstein became \"perhaps the world's first celebrity scientist\", a genius who had shattered a paradigm that had been basic to physicists' understanding of the universe since the seventeenth century. Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where he arrived on 2 April 1921. He was welcomed to New York City by MayorJohn Francis Hylan, and then spent three weeks giving lectures and attending receptions.He spoke several times atColumbia UniversityandPrinceton, and in Washington, he visited theWhite Housewith representatives of theNational Academy of Sciences. He returned to Europe via London, where he was the guest of the philosopher and statesmanViscount Haldane. He used his time in the British capital to meet several people prominent in British scientific, political or intellectual life, and to deliver a lecture atKing's College.In July 1921, he published an essay, \"My First Impression of the U.S.A.\", in which he sought to sketch the American character, much as hadAlexis de TocquevilleinDemocracy in America(1835).He wrote of his transatlantic hosts in highly approving terms: \"What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy.\" In 1922, Einstein's travels were to the old world rather than the new. He devoted six months to a tour of Asia that saw him speaking in Japan, Singapore and Sri Lanka (then known asCeylon). After his first public lecture in Tokyo, he metEmperor Yoshihitoand his wife at theImperial Palace, with thousands of spectators thronging the streets in the hope of catching a glimpse of him. (In a letter to his sons, he wrote that Japanese people seemed to him to be generally modest, intelligent and considerate, and to have a true appreciation of art.But his picture of them in his diary was less flattering: \" intellectual needs of this nation seem to be weaker than their artistic ones – natural disposition?\" His journal also contains views of China and India which were uncomplimentary. Of Chinese people, he wrote that \"even the children are spiritless and look obtuse... It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary\".) He was greeted with even greater enthusiasm on the last leg of his tour, in which he spent twelve days inMandatory Palestine, newly entrusted to British rule by theLeague of Nationsin the aftermath of the First World War.Sir Herbert Samuel, the British High Commissioner, welcomed him with a degree of ceremony normally only accorded to a visiting head of state, including a cannon salute. One reception held in his honor was stormed by people determined to hear him speak: he told them that he was happy that Jews were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world. Einstein's decision to tour the eastern hemisphere in 1922 meant that he was unable to go toStockholmin the December of that year to participate in the Nobel prize ceremony. His place at the traditional Nobel banquet was taken by a German diplomat, who gave a speech praising him not only as a physicist but also as a campaigner for peace.A two-week visit to Spain that he undertook in 1923 saw him collecting another award, a membership of the Spanish Academy of Sciences signified by a diploma handed to him byKing Alfonso XIII. (His Spanish trip also gave him a chance to meet a fellow Nobel laureate, the neuroanatomistSantiago Ramón y Cajal.) 1922–1932: Serving the League of Nations From 1922 until 1932, with the exception of a few months in 1923 and 1924, Einstein was a member of the Geneva-basedInternational Committee on Intellectual Cooperationof theLeague of Nations, a group set up by the League to encourage scientists, artists, scholars, teachers and other people engaged in the life of the mind to work more closely with their counterparts in other countries.He was appointed as a German delegate rather than as a representative of Switzerland because of the machinations of two Catholic activists,Oskar HaleckiandGiuseppe Motta. By persuading Secretary GeneralEric Drummondto deny Einstein the place on the committee reserved for a Swiss thinker, they created an opening forGonzague de Reynold, who used his League of Nations position as a platform from which to promote traditional Catholic doctrine.Einstein's former physics professorHendrik Lorentzand the Polish chemistMarie Curiewere also members of the committee. 1925: Touring South America In March and April 1925, Einstein and his wife visited South America, where they spent about a week in Brazil, a week in Uruguay and a month in Argentina.Their tour was suggested by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935)with the support of several Argentine scholars, includingJulio Rey Pastor,Jakob Laub, andLeopoldo Lugones. and was financed primarily by the Council of theUniversity of Buenos Airesand theAsociación Hebraica Argentina(Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution. 1930–1931: Touring the US In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer of a two month research fellowship at theCalifornia Institute of Technology. Caltech supported him in his wish that he should not be exposed to quite as much attention from the media as he had experienced when visiting the US in 1921, and he therefore declined all the invitations to receive prizes or make speeches that his admirers poured down upon him. But he remained willing to allow his fans at least some of the time with him that they requested. After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, includingChinatown, a lunch with the editors ofThe New York Times, and a performance ofCarmenat theMetropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by MayorJimmy Walkerand metNicholas Murray Butler, the president ofColumbia University, who described Einstein as \"the ruling monarch of the mind\".Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York'sRiverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance.Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people atMadison Square Gardenduring aHanukkahcelebration. Einstein next traveled to California, where he metCaltechpresident and Nobel laureateRobert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was \"awkward\", as Millikan \"had a penchant for patriotic militarism\", where Einstein was a pronouncedpacifist.During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend authorUpton Sinclairand film starCharlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism.Carl Laemmle, head ofUniversal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a \"highly emotional temperament\", from which came his \"extraordinary intellectual energy\". Chaplin's filmCity Lightswas to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests.Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as \"one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity\".Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his \"modest little flat\" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was \"possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis\". 1933: Emigration to the US In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of theNazisunder Germany's new chancellor,Adolf Hitler. While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at theCalifornia Institute of Technologyin Pasadena. In February and March 1933, theGestaporepeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed theEnabling Acton 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into ade factolegal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing inAntwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship.The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into aHitler Youthcamp. Refugee status In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passedlaws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.HistorianGerald Holtondescribes how, with \"virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues\", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed. A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by theGerman Student Unionin theNazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda ministerJoseph Goebbelsproclaiming, \"Jewish intellectualism is dead.\"One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, \"not yet hanged\", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.In a subsequent letter to physicist and friendMax Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, \"... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise.\"After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a \"spontaneous emotional outburst\" by those who \"shun popular enlightenment\", and \"more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence\". Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by theAcademic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politicianWilliam Beveridgeto help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament CommanderOliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with him in the preceding years.Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near hisCromerhome in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish ofRoughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in theDaily Heraldon 24 July 1933. Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meetWinston Churchillat his home, and later,Austen Chamberlainand former Prime MinisterLloyd George.Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historianMartin Gilbertnotes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicistFrederick Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their \"technical standards\" and putthe Allies' technology ahead of theirs. Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister,İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933, requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over \"1,000 saved individuals\". Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe.In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.In his speech he described Einstein as a \"citizen of the world\" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from theInstitute for Advanced Study, inPrinceton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar. Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at theRoyal Albert Hallin London, withThe Timesreporting he was wildly cheered throughout.Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at theInstitute for Advanced Study,noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of theirJewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s. Einstein was still undecided about his future. He had offers from several European universities, includingChrist Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933and was offered a five-year researchfellowship(called a \"studentship\" at Christ Church),but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.He was one of the four first selected (along withJohn von Neumann,Kurt Gödel, andHermann Weyl) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work.Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop aunified field theoryand to refute theaccepted interpretationofquantum physics, both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. TheAlbert Einstein Housewas made aNational Historic Landmarkin 1976. World War II and the Manhattan Project In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicistLeó Szilárdattempted to alertWashingtonto ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such asEdward TellerandEugene Wigner, \"regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win therace to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon.\"To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.He was asked to lend his support by writinga letter, with Szilárd, to PresidentRoosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. The letter is believed to be \"arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II\".In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with theBelgian royal familyand the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the \"race\" to develop the bomb, drawing on its \"immense material, financial, and scientific resources\" to initiate theManhattan Project. For Einstein, \"war was a disease ... he called for resistance to war.\" By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend,Linus Pauling, \"I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ...\"In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopherBertrand Russell, signeda manifestohighlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of theWorld Academy of Art and Science(WAAS),an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons. US citizenship Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of themeritocracyin American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the \"right of individuals to say and think what they pleased\" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education. Einstein joined theNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for thecivil rightsof African Americans. He considered racism America's \"worst disease\",seeing it as \"handed down from one generation to the next\".As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activistW. E. B. Du Boisand was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial as an alleged foreign agent in 1951.When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. In 1946, Einstein visitedLincoln Universityin Pennsylvania, ahistorically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni includeLangston HughesandThurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, \"I do not intend to be quiet about it.\"A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.Einstein has said, \"Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination\". Personal views Political views In 1918, Einstein was one of the signatories of the founding proclamation of theGerman Democratic Party, a liberal party.Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor ofsocialismand critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as \"Why Socialism?\".His opinions on theBolsheviksalso changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a \"well-regulated system of government\" and called their rule a \"regime of terror and a tragedy in human history\". He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark onVladimir Lenin: In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience. Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.He strongly advocated the idea of a democraticglobal governmentthat would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation.He wrote \"I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself.\"The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932; by the time of his death, it was 1,427 pages long. Einstein was deeply impressed byMahatma Gandhi, with whom he corresponded. He described Gandhi as \"a role model for the generations to come\".The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, whenWilfrid Israeltook his Indian guestV. A. Sundaramto meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel. Relationship with Zionism Einstein was a figurehead leader in the establishment of theHebrew University of Jerusalem,which opened in 1925.Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of theWorld Zionist Organization,Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university.He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such asmalaria, which he called an \"evil\" that was undermining a third of the country's development.He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic. Einstein was not anationalistand opposed the creation of an independent Jewish state.He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of theAliyahcould live alongside existing Arabs inPalestine. The state ofIsraelwas established without his help in 1948; Einstein was limited to a marginal role in theZionist movement.Upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime MinisterDavid Ben-Gurionoffered Einstein the largely ceremonial position ofPresident of Israelat the urging ofEzriel Carlebach.The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington,Abba Eban, who explained that the offer \"embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons\".Einstein wrote that he was \"deeply moved\", but \"at once saddened and ashamed\" that he could not accept it. Religious and philosophical views PerLee Smolin, \"I believe what allowed Einstein to achieve so much was primarily a moral quality. He simply cared far more than most of his colleagues that the laws of physics have to explain everything in nature coherently and consistently.\"Einstein expounded his spiritual outlook in a wide array of writings and interviews.He said he had sympathy for the impersonalpantheisticGod ofBaruch Spinoza's philosophy.He did not believe in apersonal godwho concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve.He clarified, however, that \"I am not an atheist\",preferring to call himself an agnostic,or a \"deeply religious nonbeliever\".He wrote that \"A spirit is manifest in the laws of the universe—a spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a religious feeling of a special sort.\" Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religioushumanistandEthical Culturegroups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of theFirst Humanist Society of New York,and was an honorary associate of theRationalist Association, which publishesNew Humanistin Britain. For the 75th anniversary of theNew York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, \"Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity.\" In a German-language letter to philosopherEric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote: The word Godis for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me theJewish religionlike all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And theJewish peopleto whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them. Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of theGerman Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund), he wrote: Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind. He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: \"So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore.\" Love of music Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music. His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate intoGerman culture. According to conductorLeon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age. When he turned 13, he discovered theviolin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored ofMozart's compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without \"ever practicing systematically\". He said that \"love is a better teacher than a sense of duty\".At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playingBeethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was \"remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'\". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein \"displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student.\" Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein playedchamber musicwere a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of theKöchel catalogof Mozart's work; that edition was prepared byAlfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation. In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some ofBeethovenand Mozart's works with members of theZoellner Quartet.Near the end of his life, when the youngJuilliard Quartetvisited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was \"impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation\". Death On 17 April 1955, Einstein experiencedinternal bleedingcaused by the rupture of anabdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically byRudolph Nissenin 1948.He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it. Einstein refused surgery, saying, \"I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.\"He died in thePrinceton Hospitalearly the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. During the autopsy, the pathologistThomas Stoltz HarveyremovedEinstein's brainfor preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that theneuroscienceof the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.Einstein's remains were cremated inTrenton, New Jersey,and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 atUNESCOheadquarters, nuclear physicistJ. Robert Oppenheimersummarized hisimpression of Einsteinas a person: \"He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn.\" Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to theHebrew University of Jerusalemin Israel. Scientific career Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including theBose–Einstein statistics, theEinstein refrigeratorand others. Statistical mechanics Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics Einstein's first papersubmitted in 1900 toAnnalen der Physikwas oncapillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title \"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\", which translates as \"Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena\". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpretatomicphenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. Theory of critical opalescence Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this toRayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. 1905 –Annus Mirabilispapers TheAnnus Mirabilispapersare four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise toquantum theory),Brownian motion, thespecial theory of relativity, andE=mc2that Einstein published in theAnnalen der Physikscientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation ofmodern physicsand changed views onspace, time, andmatter. The four papers are: Special relativity Einstein's \"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper\"(\"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts betweenMaxwell's equations(the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics.Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to thespeed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear toslow down, and the body itself wouldcontractin its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of aluminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. In his paper onmass–energy equivalence, Einstein producedE=mc2as a consequence of his special relativity equations.Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting withMax Planck. Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms ofkinematics(the study of moving bodies). In 1908,Hermann Minkowskireinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory ofspacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915general theory of relativity. General relativity General relativity and the equivalence principle General relativity(GR) is atheory of gravitationthat was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping ofspacetimeby those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modernastrophysics; it provides the foundation for the current understanding ofblack holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions withinspecial relativitywas unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled \"On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It\", he argued thatfree fallis really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called theequivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena ofgravitational time dilation,gravitational redshiftandgravitational lensing. In 1911, Einstein published another article \"On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light\" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. Gravitational waves In 1916, Einstein predictedgravitational waves,ripples in thecurvatureof spacetime which propagate aswaves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to itsLorentz invariancewhich brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in theNewtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbitingneutron stars,PSR B1913+16.The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers atLIGOpublished thefirst observation of gravitational waves,detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction. Hole argument and Entwurf theory While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about thegauge invariancein the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that thehole argumentwas mistakenand abandoned the theory in November 1915. Physical cosmology In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, thecosmological constant, into the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding ofMach's principlein these years. This model became known as the Einstein World orEinstein's static universe. Following the discovery of the recession of the galaxies byEdwin Hubblein 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, theFriedmann–Einstein universeof 1931and theEinstein–de Sitter universeof 1932.In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was \"in any case theoretically unsatisfactory\". In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his \"biggest blunder\", based on a letterGeorge Gamowclaimed to have received from him. The astrophysicistMario Liviohas cast doubt on this claim. In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicistCormac O'Raifeartaighdiscovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the galaxies, Einstein considered asteady-state modelof the universe.In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process that he associated with the cosmological constant.As he stated in the paper, \"In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's facts, and in which the density is constant over time\" ... \"If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space.\" It thus appears that Einstein considered asteady-state modelof the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea. Energy momentum pseudotensor General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum.Noether's theoremallows these quantities to be determined from aLagrangianwithtranslation invariance, butgeneral covariancemakes translation invariance into something of agauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity byNoether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized byErwin Schrödingerand others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists includingLev LandauandEvgeny Lifshitz. Wormholes In 1935, Einstein collaborated withNathan Rosento produce a model of awormhole, often calledEinstein–Rosen bridges.His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper \"Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?\". These solutions cut and pastedSchwarzschild black holesto make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable. Einstein–Cartan theory In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called thetorsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. Equations of motion In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature ofspacetime. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark byJohn Archibald Wheelerthat has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: \"Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve.\"TheEinstein field equationscover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. Thegeodesic equationcovers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies followlines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an \"independent fundamental assumption\" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of agravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed. Old quantum theory Photons and energy quanta In a 1905 paper,Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, withRobert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement ofCompton scattering. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequencyfis associated with a collection of photons with energyhfeach, wherehis thePlanck constant. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how the particles were related to the wave. But he did suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably thephotoelectric effect.Light quanta were dubbedphotonsbyGilbert N. Lewisin 1926. Quantized atomic vibrations In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics.Peter Debyerefined this model. Bose–Einstein statistics In 1924, Einstein received a description of astatisticalmodel from Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to theZeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them theBose–Einstein condensatephenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally byEric Allin CornellandCarl Wiemanusingultra-coolingequipment built at theNIST–JILAlaboratory at theUniversity of Colorado at Boulder.Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly ofbosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University. Wave–particle duality Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became aPrivatdozentat the University of Bern.In \"Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung\" (\"The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation\"), on thequantizationof light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-definedmomentaand act in some respects as independent,point-like particles. This paper introduced thephotonconcept and inspired the notion ofwave–particle dualityin quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. Zero-point energy In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea ofzero-point energyin his \"second quantum theory\". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistantOtto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy. Stimulated emission In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article inPhysikalische Zeitschriftthat proposed the possibility ofstimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible themaserand thelaser.This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Matter waves Einstein discoveredLouis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed thatde Broglie wavescould explain thequantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. Quantum mechanics Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God \"is not playing at dice\".Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete. Bohr versus Einstein The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein andNiels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to thephilosophy of science.Their debates would influence laterinterpretations of quantum mechanics. Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in 1930. Einstein suggested athought experimentin which two objects are allowed to interact and then moved apart a great distance from each other. The quantum-mechanical description of the two objects is a mathematical entity known as awavefunction. If the wavefunction that describes the two objects before their interaction is given, then theSchrödinger equationprovides the wavefunction that describes them after their interaction. But because of what would later be calledquantum entanglement, measuring one object would lead to an instantaneous change of the wavefunction describing the other object, no matter how far away it is. Moreover, the choice of which measurement to perform upon the first object would affect what wavefunction could result for the second object. Einstein reasoned that no influence could propagate from the first object to the second instantaneously fast. Indeed, he argued, physics depends on being able to tell one thing apart from another, and such instantaneous influences would call that into question. Because the true \"physical condition\" of the second object could not be immediately altered by an action done to the first, Einstein concluded, the wavefunction could not be that true physical condition, only an incomplete description of it. A more famous version of this argument came in 1935, when Einstein published a paper withBoris PodolskyandNathan Rosenthat laid out what would become known as theEPR paradox.In this thought experiment, two particles interact in such a way that the wavefunction describing them is entangled. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle. Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by thetheory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the \"EPR criterion of reality\", positing that: \"If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., withprobabilityequal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity.\" From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observablesincompatibleand thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality. In 1964,John Stewart Bellcarried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called aBell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are \"nonlocal\", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated.Bell argued that because an explanation of quantum phenomena in terms of hidden variables would require nonlocality, the EPR paradox \"is resolved in the way which Einstein would have liked least\". Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the argument in the EPR paper overly complicated,that paper became among the most influential papers published inPhysical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development ofquantum information theory. Unified field theory Encouraged by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described hisunified field theoryin aScientific Americanarticle titled \"On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation\".His attempt to find the most fundamental laws of nature won him praise but not success: a particularly conspicuous blemish of his model was that it did not accommodate thestrongandweak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although most researchers now believe that Einstein's approach to unifying physics was mistaken, his goal of atheory of everythingis one to which his successors still aspire. Other investigations Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain toforce,superconductivity, and other research. Collaboration with other scientists In addition to longtime collaboratorsLeopold Infeld,Nathan Rosen,Peter Bergmannand others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein–de Haas experiment In 1908,Owen Willans Richardsonpredicted that a change in themagnetic momentof a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of theconservation of angular momentumand is strong enough to be observable inferromagnetic materials.Einstein andWander Johannes de Haaspublished two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect.Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon ofmagnetizationis caused by the alignment (polarization) of theangular momentaof theelectronsin the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with thespinand with the orbital motion of the electrons. The Einstein-de Haas experiment is the only experiment concived, realized and published by Albert Einstein himself. A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated byGeertruida de Haas-Lorentz, wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to theAmpère Museumin Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in 2023. Einstein as an inventor In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) theEinstein refrigerator. Thisabsorption refrigeratorwas then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.On 11 November 1930,U.S. patent 1,781,541was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, but the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish companyElectrolux. Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump,sound reproduction device,and several other household devices. Non-scientific legacy While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to theHebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University'sAlbert Einstein Archives, told theBBCthat there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. Einstein'sright of publicitywas litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired,that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right.Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses theuse of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university. Mount Einsteinin theChugach MountainsofAlaskawas named in 1955. Mount Einstein in New Zealand'sPaparoa Rangewas named after him in 1970 by theDepartment of Scientific and Industrial Research. In popular culture Einstein became one of the most famousscientific celebritiesafter the confirmation of his general theory of relativity in 1919.Although most of the public had little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and admired. In the period before World War II,The New Yorkerpublished a vignette in their \"The Talk of the Town\" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain \"that theory\". Eventually he came to cope with unwanted enquirers by pretending to be someone else: \"Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein.\" Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.He is a favorite model for depictions ofabsent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated.Timemagazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was \"a cartoonist's dream come true\". Many popularquotationsare oftenmisattributedto him. Awards and honors Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set byAlfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. Einsteinium, a synthetic chemical element, was named in his honor in 1955, a few months after his death. Publications Scientific Others See also Notes References Works cited Further reading External links","Niels Bohr Niels Henrik David Bohr(Danish:; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danishphysicistwho made foundational contributions to understandingatomic structureandquantum theory, for which he received theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1922. Bohr was also aphilosopherand a promoter of scientific research. Bohr developed theBohr modelof theatom, in which he proposed that energy levels ofelectronsare discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around theatomic nucleusbut can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle ofcomplementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as awave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at theUniversity of Copenhagen, now known as theNiels Bohr Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists includingHans Kramers,Oskar Klein,George de Hevesy, andWerner Heisenberg. He predicted the properties of a newzirconium-like element, which was namedhafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered. Later, the synthetic elementbohriumwas named after him. During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees fromNazism. AfterDenmark was occupied by the Germans, he met with Heisenberg, who had become the head of theGerman nuclear weapon project. In September 1943 word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, so he fled to Sweden. From there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the BritishTube Alloysnuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to theManhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for international cooperation on nuclear energy. He was involved with the establishment ofCERNand theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commissionand became the first chairman of theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physicsin 1957. Early life Niels Henrik David Bohr was born inCopenhagen, Denmark, on 7 October 1885, the second of three children ofChristian Bohr,a professor ofphysiologyat the University of Copenhagen, and his wife EllennéeAdler, who came from a wealthy Jewish banking family.He had an elder sister, Jenny, and a younger brotherHarald.Jenny became a teacher,while Harald became amathematicianandfootballerwho played for theDanish national teamat the1908 Summer Olympicsin London. Niels was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-basedAkademisk Boldklub(Academic Football Club), with Niels asgoalkeeper. Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven.In 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate atCopenhagen University. His major was physics, which he studied under ProfessorChristian Christiansen, the university's only professor of physics at that time. He also studied astronomy and mathematics under ProfessorThorvald Thiele, and philosophy under ProfessorHarald Høffding, a friend of his father. In 1905 a gold medal competition was sponsored by theRoyal Danish Academy of Sciences and Lettersto investigate a method for measuring thesurface tensionof liquids that had been proposed byLord Rayleighin 1879. This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet. Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his father's laboratory in the university; the university itself had no physics laboratory. To complete his experiments, he had tomake his own glassware, creating test tubes with the requiredellipticalcross-sections. He went beyond the original task, incorporating improvements into both Rayleigh's theory and his method, by taking into account theviscosityof the water, and by working with finite amplitudes instead of just infinitesimal ones. His essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won the prize. He later submitted an improved version of the paper to theRoyal Societyin London for publication in thePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Harald became the first of the two Bohr brothers to earn amaster's degree, which he earned for mathematics in April 1909. Niels took another nine months to earn his on the electron theory of metals, a topic assigned by his supervisor, Christiansen. Bohr subsequently elaborated his master's thesis into his much-largerDoctor of Philosophythesis. He surveyed the literature on the subject, settling on a model postulated byPaul Drudeand elaborated byHendrik Lorentz, in which the electrons in a metal are considered to behave like a gas. Bohr extended Lorentz's model, but was still unable to account for phenomena like theHall effect, and concluded that electron theory could not fully explain the magnetic properties of metals. The thesis was accepted in April 1911,and Bohr conducted his formal defence on 13 May. Harald had received his doctorate the previous year.Bohr's thesis was groundbreaking, but attracted little interest outside Scandinavia because it was written in Danish, a Copenhagen University requirement at the time. In 1921, the Dutch physicistHendrika Johanna van Leeuwenwould independently derive a theorem in Bohr's thesis that is today known as theBohr–Van Leeuwen theorem. In 1910, Bohr metMargrethe Nørlund, the sister of the mathematicianNiels Erik Nørlund.Bohr resigned his membership in theChurch of Denmarkon 16 April 1912, and he and Margrethe were married in a civil ceremony at the town hall inSlagelseon 1 August. Years later, his brother Harald similarly left the church before getting married.Bohr and Margrethe had six sons.The oldest, Christian, died in a boating accident in 1934,and another, Harald, was severely mentally disabled. He was placed in an institution away from his family's home at the age of four and died from childhood meningitis six years later.Aage Bohrbecame a successful physicist, and in 1975 was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, like his father. A son of Aage, Vilhelm A. Bohr, is a scientist affiliated with the University of Copenhagenand theNational Institute on Agingin the U.S.Hansbecame a physician;Erik, a chemical engineer; andErnest, a lawyer.Like his uncle Harald, Ernest Bohr became an Olympic athlete, playingfield hockeyfor Denmark at the1948 Summer Olympicsin London. Physics Bohr model In September 1911, Bohr, supported by a fellowship from theCarlsberg Foundation, travelled to England, where most of the theoretical work on the structure of atoms and molecules was being done.He metJ. J. Thomsonof theCavendish LaboratoryandTrinity College, Cambridge. He attended lectures onelectromagnetismgiven byJames JeansandJoseph Larmor, and did some research oncathode rays, but failed to impress Thomson.He had more success with younger physicists like the AustralianWilliam Lawrence Bragg,and New Zealand'sErnest Rutherford, whose 1911 small central nucleusRutherford modelof theatomhad challenged Thomson's 1904plum pudding model.Bohr received an invitation from Rutherford to conduct post-doctoral work atVictoria University of Manchester,where Bohr metGeorge de HevesyandCharles Galton Darwin(whom Bohr referred to as \"the grandson of thereal Darwin\"). Bohr returned to Denmark in July 1912 for his wedding, and travelled around England and Scotland on his honeymoon. On his return, he became aprivatdocentat the University of Copenhagen, giving lectures onthermodynamics.Martin Knudsenput Bohr's name forward for adocent, which was approved in July 1913, and Bohr then began teaching medical students.His three papers, which later became famous as \"the trilogy\",were published inPhilosophical Magazinein July, September and November of that year.He adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure toMax Planck's quantum theory and so created hisBohr modelof the atom. Planetary models of atoms were not new, but Bohr's treatment was.Taking the 1912 paper by Darwin on the role of electrons in the interaction of alpha particles with a nucleus as his starting point,he advanced the theory of electrons travelling inorbitsof quantised \"stationary states\" around the atom's nucleus in order to stabilise the atom, but it wasn't until his 1921 paper that he showed that the chemical properties of each element were largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its atoms.He introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, in the process emitting aquantumof discrete energy. This became a basis for what is now known as theold quantum theory. In 1885,Johann Balmerhad come up with hisBalmer seriesto describe the visiblespectral linesof ahydrogenatom: where λ is the wavelength of the absorbed or emitted light andRHis theRydberg constant.Balmer's formula was corroborated by the discovery of additional spectral lines, but for thirty years, no one could explain why it worked. In the first paper of his trilogy, Bohr was able to derive it from his model: wheremeis the electron's mass,eis its charge,his thePlanck constantandZis the atom'satomic number(1 for hydrogen). The model's first hurdle was thePickering series, lines that did not fit Balmer's formula. When challenged on this byAlfred Fowler, Bohr replied that they were caused byionisedhelium, helium atoms with only one electron. The Bohr model was found to work for such ions.Many older physicists, like Thomson, Rayleigh andHendrik Lorentz, did not like the trilogy, but the younger generation, including Rutherford,David Hilbert,Albert Einstein,Enrico Fermi,Max BornandArnold Sommerfeldsaw it as a breakthrough.The trilogy's acceptance was entirely due to its ability to explain phenomena that stymied other models, and to predict results that were subsequently verified by experiments.Today, the Bohr model of the atom has been superseded, but is still the best known model of the atom, as it often appears in high school physics and chemistry texts. Bohr did not enjoy teaching medical students. He later admitted that he was not a good lecturer, because he needed a balance between clarity and truth, between \"Klarheit und Wahrheit\".He decided to return to Manchester, where Rutherford had offered him a job as areaderin place of Darwin, whose tenure had expired. Bohr accepted. He took a leave of absence from the University of Copenhagen, which he started by taking a holiday inTyrolwith his brother Harald and auntHanna Adler. There, he visited theUniversity of Göttingenand theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he met Sommerfeld and conducted seminars on the trilogy. The First World War broke out while they were in Tyrol, greatly complicating the trip back to Denmark and Bohr's subsequent voyage with Margrethe to England, where he arrived in October 1914. They stayed until July 1916, by which time he had been appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, a position created especially for him. His docentship was abolished at the same time, so he still had to teach physics to medical students. New professors were formally introduced to KingChristian X, who expressed his delight at meeting such a famous football player. Institute of Physics In April 1917, Bohr began a campaign to establish an Institute of Theoretical Physics. He gained the support of the Danish government and the Carlsberg Foundation, and sizeable contributions were also made by industry and private donors, many of them Jewish. Legislation establishing the institute was passed in November 1918. Now known as theNiels Bohr Institute, it opened on 3 March 1921, with Bohr as its director. His family moved into an apartment on the first floor.Bohr's institute served as a focal point for researchers intoquantum mechanicsand related subjects in the 1920s and 1930s, when most of the world's best-known theoretical physicists spent some time in his company. Early arrivals includedHans Kramersfrom the Netherlands,Oskar Kleinfrom Sweden, George de Hevesy from Hungary,Wojciech Rubinowiczfrom Poland, andSvein Rosselandfrom Norway. Bohr became widely appreciated as their congenial host and eminent colleague.Klein and Rosseland produced the institute's first publication even before it opened. The Bohr model worked well for hydrogen and ionized single-electron helium, which impressed Einsteinbut could not explain more complex elements. By 1919, Bohr was moving away from the idea that electrons orbited the nucleus and developedheuristicsto describe them. Therare-earth elementsposed a particular classification problem for chemists because they were so chemically similar. An important development came in 1924 withWolfgang Pauli's discovery of thePauli exclusion principle, which put Bohr's models on a firm theoretical footing. Bohr was then able to declare that the as-yet-undiscovered element 72 was not a rare-earth element but an element with chemical properties similar to those ofzirconium. (Elements had been predicted and discovered since 1871 by chemical properties), and Bohr was immediately challenged by the French chemistGeorges Urbain, who claimed to have discovered a rare-earth element 72, which he called \"celtium\". At the Institute in Copenhagen,Dirk Costerand George de Hevesy took up the challenge of proving Bohr right and Urbain wrong. Starting with a clear idea of the chemical properties of the unknown element greatly simplified the search process. They went through samples from Copenhagen's Museum of Mineralogy looking for a zirconium-like element and soon found it. The element, which they namedhafnium(hafniabeing the Latin name for Copenhagen), turned out to be more common than gold. In 1922, Bohr was awarded theNobel Prize in Physics\"for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them\".The award thus recognised both the trilogy and his early leading work in the emerging field of quantum mechanics. For his Nobel lecture, Bohr gave his audience a comprehensive survey of what was then known about the structure of the atom, including thecorrespondence principle, which he had formulated. This states that the behaviour of systems described by quantum theory reproducesclassical physicsin the limit of largequantum numbers. The discovery ofCompton scatteringbyArthur Holly Comptonin 1923 convinced most physicists that light was composed ofphotonsand that energy and momentum were conserved in collisions between electrons and photons. In 1924, Bohr, Kramers, andJohn C. Slater, an American physicist working at the Institute in Copenhagen, proposed theBohr–Kramers–Slater theory(BKS). It was more of a program than a full physical theory, as the ideas it developed were not worked out quantitatively. The BKS theory became the final attempt at understanding the interaction of matter and electromagnetic radiation on the basis of the old quantum theory, in which quantum phenomena were treated by imposing quantum restrictions on a classical wave description of the electromagnetic field. Modelling atomic behaviour under incident electromagnetic radiation using \"virtual oscillators\" at the absorption and emission frequencies, rather than the (different) apparent frequencies of the Bohr orbits, led Max Born,Werner Heisenbergand Kramers to explore different mathematical models. They led to the development ofmatrix mechanics, the first form of modernquantum mechanics. The BKS theory also generated discussion of, and renewed attention to, difficulties in the foundations of the old quantum theory.The most provocative element of BKS – that momentum and energy would not necessarily be conserved in each interaction, but only statistically – was soon shown to be in conflict with experiments conducted byWalther BotheandHans Geiger.In light of these results, Bohr informed Darwin that \"there is nothing else to do than to give our revolutionary efforts as honourable a funeral as possible\". Quantum mechanics The introduction ofspinbyGeorge UhlenbeckandSamuel Goudsmitin November 1925 was a milestone. The next month, Bohr travelled toLeidento attend celebrations of the 50th anniversary of Hendrick Lorentz receiving his doctorate. When his train stopped inHamburg, he was met by Wolfgang Pauli andOtto Stern, who asked for his opinion of the spin theory. Bohr pointed out that he had concerns about the interaction between electrons and magnetic fields. When he arrived in Leiden,Paul Ehrenfestand Albert Einstein informed Bohr that Einstein had resolved this problem usingrelativity. Bohr then had Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit incorporate this into their paper. Thus, when he met Werner Heisenberg andPascual JordaninGöttingenon the way back, he had become, in his own words, \"a prophet of the electron magnet gospel\". Heisenberg first came to Copenhagen in 1924, then returned to Göttingen in June 1925, shortly thereafter developing the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. When he showed his results to Max Born in Göttingen, Born realised that they could best be expressed usingmatrices. This work attracted the attention of the British physicistPaul Dirac,who came to Copenhagen for six months in September 1926. Austrian physicistErwin Schrödingeralso visited in 1926. His attempt at explaining quantum physics in classical terms using wave mechanics impressed Bohr, who believed it contributed \"so much to mathematical clarity and simplicity that it represents a gigantic advance over all previous forms of quantum mechanics\". When Kramers left the institute in 1926 to take up a chair as professor of theoretical physics at theUtrecht University, Bohr arranged for Heisenberg to return and take Kramers's place as alektorat the University of Copenhagen.Heisenberg worked in Copenhagen as a university lecturer and assistant to Bohr from 1926 to 1927. Bohr became convinced that light behaved like both waves and particles and, in 1927, experiments confirmed thede Broglie hypothesisthat matter (like electrons) also behaved like waves.He conceived the philosophical principle ofcomplementarity: that items could have apparently mutually exclusive properties, such as being a wave or a stream of particles, depending on the experimental framework.He felt that it was not fully understood by professional philosophers. In February 1927, Heisenberg developed the first version of theuncertainty principle, presenting it using athought experimentwhere an electron was observed through agamma-ray microscope. Bohr was dissatisfied with Heisenberg's argument, since it required only that a measurement disturb properties that already existed, rather than the more radical idea that the electron's properties could not be discussed at all apart from the context they were measured in. In a paper presented at theVolta ConferenceatComoin September 1927, Bohr emphasised that Heisenberg's uncertainty relations could be derived from classical considerations about the resolving power of optical instruments.Understanding the true meaning of complementarity would, Bohr believed, require \"closer investigation\".Einstein preferred the determinism of classical physics over the probabilistic new quantum physics to which he himself had contributed. Philosophical issues that arose from the novel aspects of quantum mechanics became widely celebrated subjects of discussion. Einstein and Bohr hadgood-natured argumentsover such issues throughout their lives. In 1914Carl Jacobsen, the heir toCarlsberg breweries, bequeathed his mansion (the Carlsberg Honorary Residence, currently known as Carlsberg Academy) to be used for life by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature or the arts, as an honorary residence (Danish:Æresbolig). Harald Høffding had been the first occupant, and upon his death in July 1931, the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters gave Bohr occupancy. He and his family moved there in 1932.He was elected president of the Academy on 17 March 1939. By 1929 the phenomenon ofbeta decayprompted Bohr to again suggest that thelaw of conservation of energybe abandoned, butEnrico Fermi's hypotheticalneutrinoand the subsequent 1932 discovery of theneutronprovided another explanation. This prompted Bohr to create a new theory of thecompound nucleusin 1936, which explained how neutrons could be captured by the nucleus. In this model, the nucleus could be deformed like a drop of liquid. He worked on this with a new collaborator, the Danish physicist Fritz Kalckar, who died suddenly in 1938. The discovery ofnuclear fissionbyOtto Hahnin December 1938 (and its theoretical explanation byLise Meitner) generated intense interest among physicists. Bohr brought the news to the United States where he opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics with Fermi on 26 January 1939.When Bohr toldGeorge Placzekthat this resolved all the mysteries oftransuranic elements, Placzek told him that one remained: the neutron capture energies of uranium did not match those of its decay. Bohr thought about it for a few minutes and then announced to Placzek,Léon RosenfeldandJohn Wheelerthat \"I have understood everything.\"Based on hisliquid drop modelof the nucleus, Bohr concluded that it was theuranium-235isotope and not the more abundanturanium-238that was primarily responsible for fission with thermal neutrons. In April 1940,John R. Dunningdemonstrated that Bohr was correct.In the meantime, Bohr and Wheeler developed a theoretical treatment, which they published in a September 1939 paper on \"The Mechanism of Nuclear Fission\". Philosophy Heisenberg said of Bohr that he was \"primarily a philosopher, not a physicist\".Bohr read the 19th-century DanishChristian existentialistphilosopherSøren Kierkegaard.Richard Rhodesargued inThe Making of the Atomic Bombthat Bohr was influenced by Kierkegaard through Høffding.In 1909, Bohr sent his brother Kierkegaard'sStages on Life's Wayas a birthday gift. In the enclosed letter, Bohr wrote, \"It is the only thing I have to send home; but I do not believe that it would be very easy to find anything better ... I even think it is one of the most delightful things I have ever read.\" Bohr enjoyed Kierkegaard's language and literary style, but mentioned that he had some disagreement withKierkegaard's philosophy.Some of Bohr's biographers suggested that this disagreement stemmed from Kierkegaard's advocacy of Christianity, while Bohr was anatheist. There has been some dispute over the extent to which Kierkegaard influenced Bohr's philosophy and science.David Favrholdtargued that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr's work, taking Bohr's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value,while Jan Faye argued that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure. Quantum physics There has been much subsequent debate and discussion about Bohr's views and philosophy of quantum mechanics.Regarding his ontological interpretation of the quantum world, Bohr has been seen as ananti-realist, aninstrumentalist, a phenomenological realist or some other kind of realist. Furthermore, though some have seen Bohr as being asubjectivistor apositivist, most philosophers agree that this is a misunderstanding of Bohr as he never argued forverificationismor for the idea that the subject had a direct impact on the outcome of a measurement. Bohr has often been quoted saying that there is \"no quantum world\" but only an \"abstract quantum physical description\". This was not publicly said by Bohr, but rather a private statement attributed to Bohr by Aage Petersen in a reminiscence after his death.N. David MerminrecalledVictor Weisskopfdeclaring that Bohr wouldn't have said anything of the sort and exclaiming, \"Shame on Aage Petersen for putting those ridiculous words in Bohr's mouth!\" Numerous scholars have argued that the philosophy ofImmanuel Kanthad a strong influence on Bohr. Like Kant, Bohr thought distinguishing between the subject's experience and the object was an important condition for attaining knowledge. This can only be done through the use of causal and spatial-temporal concepts to describe the subject's experience.Thus, according to Jan Faye, Bohr thought that it is because of \"classical\" concepts like \"space\", \"position\", \"time\", \"causation\", and \"momentum\" that one can talk about objects and their objective existence. Bohr held that basic concepts like \"time\" are built in to our ordinary language and that the concepts of classical physics are merely a refinement of them.Therefore, for Bohr, classical concepts need to be used to describe experiments that deal with the quantum world. Bohr writes: he account of all evidence must be expressed in classical terms. The argument is simply that by the word 'experiment' we refer to a situation where we can tell to others what we have done and what we have learned and that, therefore, the account of the experimental arrangement and of the results of the observations must be expressed in unambiguous language with suitable application of the terminology of classical physics (APHK, p. 39). According to Faye, there are various explanations for why Bohr believed that classical concepts were necessary for describing quantum phenomena. Faye groups explanations into five frameworks: empiricism (i.e.logical positivism);Kantianism(orNeo-Kantianmodels ofepistemology);Pragmatism(which focus on how human beings experientially interact with atomic systems according to their needs and interests); Darwinianism (i.e. we are adapted to use classical type concepts, whichLéon Rosenfeldsaid that we evolved to use); and Experimentalism (which focuses strictly on the function and outcome of experiments that thus must be described classically).These explanations are not mutually exclusive, and at times Bohr seems to emphasise some of these aspects while at other times he focuses on other elements. According to Faye \"Bohr thought of the atom as real. Atoms are neither heuristic nor logical constructions.\" However, according to Faye, he did not believe \"that the quantum mechanical formalism was true in the sense that it gave us a literal ('pictorial') rather than a symbolic representation of the quantum world.\"Therefore, Bohr's theory ofcomplementarity\"is first and foremost a semantic and epistemological reading of quantum mechanics that carries certain ontological implications\".As Faye explains, Bohr'sindefinability thesisis that he truth conditions of sentences ascribing a certain kinematic or dynamic value to an atomic object are dependent on the apparatus involved, in such a way that these truth conditions have to include reference to the experimental setup as well as the actual outcome of the experiment. Faye notes that Bohr's interpretation makes no reference to a \"collapse of the wave function during measurements\" (and indeed, he never mentioned this idea). Instead, Bohr \"accepted the Born statistical interpretation because he believed that theψ-functionhas only a symbolic meaning and does not represent anything real\". Since for Bohr, theψ-function is not a literal pictorial representation of reality, there can be no real collapse of the wavefunction. A much debated point in recent literature is what Bohr believed about atoms and their reality and whether they are something else than what they seem to be. Some like Henry Folse argue that Bohr saw a distinction between observed phenomena and atranscendental reality. Jan Faye disagrees with this position and holds that for Bohr, the quantum formalism and complementarity was the only thing we could say about the quantum world and that \"there is no further evidence in Bohr's writings indicating that Bohr would attribute intrinsic and measurement-independent state properties to atomic objects in addition to the classical ones being manifested in measurement.\" Second World War Assistance to refugee scholars The rise ofNazismin Germany prompted many scholars to flee their countries, either because they were Jewish or because they were political opponents of the Nazi regime. In 1933, theRockefeller Foundationcreated a fund to help support refugee academics, and Bohr discussed this programme with the President of the Rockefeller Foundation,Max Mason, in May 1933 during a visit to the United States. Bohr offered the refugees temporary jobs at the institute, provided them with financial support, arranged for them to be awarded fellowships from the Rockefeller Foundation, and ultimately found them places at institutions around the world. Those that he helped includedGuido Beck,Felix Bloch,James Franck, George de Hevesy,Otto Frisch,Hilde Levi,Lise Meitner, George Placzek,Eugene Rabinowitch,Stefan Rozental, Erich Ernst Schneider,Edward Teller,Arthur von HippelandVictor Weisskopf. In April 1940, early in the Second World War,Nazi Germanyinvaded and occupied Denmark.To prevent the Germans from discoveringMax von Laue's and James Franck'sgold Nobel medals, Bohr had de Hevesy dissolve them inaqua regia. In this form, they were stored on a shelf at the Institute until after the war, when the gold was precipitated and the medals re-struck by the Nobel Foundation. Bohr's own medal had been donated to an auction to theFinnish Relief Fund, and was auctioned off in March 1940, along with the medal ofAugust Krogh. The buyer later donated the two medals to the Danish Historical Museum inFrederiksborg Castle, where they are still kept,although Bohr's medal temporarily went to space withAndreas MogensenonISSExpedition 70in 2023-2024. Bohr kept the Institute running, but all the foreign scholars departed. Meeting with Heisenberg Bohr was aware of the possibility of using uranium-235 to construct anatomic bomb, referring to it in lectures in Britain and Denmark shortly before and after the war started, but he did not believe that it was technically feasible to extract a sufficient quantity of uranium-235.In September 1941, Heisenberg, who had become head of theGerman nuclear energy project, visited Bohr in Copenhagen. During this meeting the two men took a private moment outside, the content of which has caused much speculation, as both gave differing accounts. According to Heisenberg, he began to address nuclear energy, morality and the war, to which Bohr seems to have reacted by terminating the conversation abruptly while not giving Heisenberg hints about his own opinions.Ivan Supek, one of Heisenberg's students and friends, claimed that the main subject of the meeting wasCarl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, who had proposed trying to persuade Bohr to mediate peace between Britain and Germany. In 1957, Heisenberg wrote toRobert Jungk, who was then working on the bookBrighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists. Heisenberg explained that he had visited Copenhagen to communicate to Bohr the views of several German scientists, that production of a nuclear weapon was possible with great efforts, and this raised enormous responsibilities on the world's scientists on both sides.When Bohr saw Jungk's depiction in the Danish translation of the book, he drafted (but never sent) a letter to Heisenberg, stating that he deeply disagreed with Heisenberg's account of the meeting,that he recalled Heisenberg's visit as being to encourage cooperation with the inevitably victorious Nazisand that he was shocked that Germany was pursuing nuclear weapons under Heisenberg's leadership. Michael Frayn's 1998 playCopenhagenexplores what might have happened at the 1941 meeting between Heisenberg and Bohr.A television film versionof the play by theBBCwas first screened on 26 September 2002, withStephen Reaas Bohr. With the subsequent release of Bohr's letters, the play has been criticised by historians as being a \"grotesque oversimplification and perversion of the actual moral balance\" due to adopting a pro-Heisenberg perspective. The same meeting had previously been dramatised by the BBC'sHorizonscience documentary series in 1992, withAnthony Bateas Bohr, and Philip Anthony as Heisenberg.The meeting is also dramatised in the Norwegian/Danish/British miniseriesThe Heavy Water War. Manhattan Project In September 1943, word reached Bohr and his brother Harald that the Nazisconsidered their family to be Jewish, since their mother was Jewish, and that they were therefore in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September.The next day, Bohr persuaded KingGustaf V of Swedento make public Sweden's willingness to provide asylum to Jewish refugees. On 2 October 1943, Swedish radio broadcast that Sweden was ready to offer asylum, and the massrescue of the Danish Jewsby their countrymen followed swiftly thereafter. Some historians claim that Bohr's actions led directly to the mass rescue, while others say that, though Bohr did all that he could for his countrymen, his actions were not a decisive influence on the wider events.Eventually, over 7,000 Danish Jews escaped to Sweden. When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain,Lord Cherwellsent a telegram to Bohr asking him to come to Britain. Bohr arrived in Scotland on 6 October in ade Havilland Mosquitooperated by theBritish Overseas Airways Corporation(BOAC).The Mosquitos were unarmed high-speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small, valuable cargoes or important passengers. By flying at high speed and high altitude, they could cross German-occupied Norway, and yet avoid German fighters. Bohr, equipped with parachute, flying suit and oxygen mask, spent the three-hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft'sbomb bay.During the flight, Bohr did not wear his flying helmet as it was too small, and consequently did not hear the pilot's intercom instruction to turn on his oxygen supply when the aircraft climbed to high altitude to overfly Norway. He passed out from oxygen starvation and only revived when the aircraft descended to lower altitude over the North Sea.Bohr's son Aage followed his father to Britain on another flight a week later, and became his personal assistant. Bohr was warmly received byJames Chadwickand SirJohn Anderson, but for security reasons Bohr was kept out of sight. He was given an apartment atSt James's Palaceand an office with the BritishTube Alloysnuclear weapons development team. Bohr was astonished at the amount of progress that had been made.Chadwick arranged for Bohr to visit the United States as a Tube Alloys consultant, with Aage as his assistant.On 8 December 1943, Bohr arrived inWashington, D.C., where he met with the director of theManhattan Project, Brigadier GeneralLeslie R. Groves Jr.He visited Einstein and Pauli at theInstitute for Advanced StudyinPrinceton, New Jersey, and went toLos AlamosinNew Mexico, where the nuclear weapons were being designed.For security reasons, he went under the name of \"Nicholas Baker\" in the United States, while Aage became \"James Baker\".In May 1944 the Danish resistance newspaperDe frie Danskereported that they had learned that 'the famous son of Denmark Professor Niels Bohr' in October the previous year had fled his country via Sweden to London and from there travelled toMoscowfrom where he could be assumed to support the war effort. Bohr did not remain at Los Alamos, but paid a series of extended visits over the course of the next two years.Robert Oppenheimercredited Bohr with acting \"as a scientific father figure to the younger men\", most notablyRichard Feynman.Bohr is quoted as saying, \"They didn't need my help in making the atom bomb.\"Oppenheimer gave Bohr credit for an important contribution to the work onmodulated neutron initiators. \"This device remained a stubborn puzzle\", Oppenheimer noted, \"but in early February 1945 Niels Bohr clarified what had to be done\". Bohr recognised early that nuclear weapons would change international relations. In April 1944, he received a letter fromPeter Kapitza, written some months before when Bohr was in Sweden, inviting him to come to theSoviet Union. The letter convinced Bohr that the Soviets were aware of the Anglo-American project, and would strive to catch up. He sent Kapitza a non-committal response, which he showed to the authorities in Britain before posting.Bohr met Churchill on 16 May 1944, but found that \"we did not speak the same language\".Churchill disagreed with the idea of openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter: \"It seems to me Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes.\" Oppenheimer suggested that Bohr visit PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltto convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared with the Soviets in the hope of speeding up its results. Bohr's friend, Supreme Court JusticeFelix Frankfurter, informed President Roosevelt about Bohr's opinions, and a meeting between them took place on 26 August 1944. Roosevelt suggested that Bohr return to the United Kingdom to try to win British approval.When Churchill and Roosevelt met at Hyde Park on 19 September 1944, they rejected the idea of informing the world about the project, and theaide-mémoireof their conversation contained a rider that \"enquiries should be made regarding the activities of Professor Bohr and steps taken to ensure that he is responsible for no leakage of information, particularly to the Russians\". In June 1950, Bohr addressed an \"Open Letter\" to theUnited Nationscalling for international cooperation on nuclear energy.In the 1950s, after theSoviet Union's first nuclear weapon test, theInternational Atomic Energy Agencywas created along the lines of Bohr's suggestion.In 1957 he received the first everAtoms for Peace Award. Later years Following the ending of the war, Bohr returned to Copenhagen on 25 August 1945, and was re-elected President of the Royal Danish Academy of Arts and Sciences on 21 September.At a memorial meeting of the Academy on 17 October 1947 for KingChristian X, who had died in April, the new king,Frederik IX, announced that he was conferring theOrder of the Elephanton Bohr. This award was normally awarded only to royalty and heads of state, but the king said that it honoured not just Bohr personally, but Danish science.Bohr designed his owncoat of arms, which featured ataijitu(symbol of yin and yang) and a motto in Latin:contraria sunt complementa, \"opposites are complementary\". The Second World War demonstrated that science, and physics in particular, now required considerable financial and material resources. To avoid abrain drainto the United States, twelve European countries banded together to createCERN, a research organisation along the lines of the national laboratories in the United States, designed to undertakeBig Scienceprojects beyond the resources of any one of them alone. Questions soon arose regarding the best location for the facilities. Bohr and Kramers felt that the Institute in Copenhagen would be the ideal site.Pierre Auger, who organised the preliminary discussions, disagreed; he felt that both Bohr and his Institute were past their prime, and that Bohr's presence would overshadow others. After a long debate, Bohr pledged his support to CERN in February 1952, andGenevawas chosen as the site in October. The CERN Theory Group was based in Copenhagen until their new accommodation in Geneva was ready in 1957.Victor Weisskopf, who later became theDirector General of CERN, summed up Bohr's role, saying that \"there were other personalities who started and conceived the idea ofCERN. The enthusiasm and ideas of the other people would not have been enough, however, if a man of his stature had not supported it.\" Meanwhile, Scandinavian countries formed theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physicsin 1957, with Bohr as its chairman. He was also involved with the founding of theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission, and served as its first chairman from February 1956. Bohr died of heart failure at his home inCarlsbergon 18 November 1962.He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in the family plot in theAssistens Cemeteryin theNørrebrosection of Copenhagen, along with those of his parents, his brother Harald, and his son Christian. Years later, his wife's ashes were also interred there.On 7 October 1965, on what would have been his 80th birthday, the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen was officially renamed to what it had been called unofficially for many years: the Niels Bohr Institute. Accolades Bohr received numerous honours and accolades. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he received theHughes Medalin 1921, theMatteucci Medalin 1923, theFranklin Medalin 1926,theCopley Medalin 1938, the Order of the Elephant in 1947, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1957 and theSonning Prizein 1961. He became foreign member of theFinnish Society of Sciences an Lettersin 1922,and of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1923,an international member of theUnited States National Academy of Sciencesin 1925,a member of theRoyal Societyin 1926,an international member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1940,and an international honorary member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1945.The Bohr model's semicentennial was commemorated in Denmark on 21 November 1963 with apostage stampdepicting Bohr, the hydrogen atom and the formula for the difference of any two hydrogen energy levels:hν=ϵ2−ϵ1{\\displaystyle h\\nu =\\epsilon _{2}-\\epsilon _{1}}. Several other countries have also issued postage stamps depicting Bohr.In 1997, theDanish National Bankbegan circulating the500-krone banknotewith the portrait of Bohr smoking a pipe.On 7 October 2012, in celebration of Niels Bohr's 127th birthday, a Google Doodle depicting the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom appeared on Google's home page.An asteroid,3948 Bohr, was named after him,as was theBohr lunar craterandbohrium, the chemical element with atomic number 107. Bibliography See also Notes References Further reading External links","Johannes Stark Johannes Stark(German pronunciation:ⓘ, 15 April 1874 – 21 June 1957) was a Germanphysicistwho was awarded theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1919 \"for his discovery of the Doppler effect incanal raysand the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields\". This phenomenon is known as theStark effect. Stark received his Ph.D. in physics from theUniversity of Munichin 1897 under the supervision ofEugen von Lommel, and served as Lommel's assistant until his appointment as a lecturer at theUniversity of Göttingenin 1900. He was anextraordinary professoratLeibniz University Hannoverfrom 1906 until he became a professor atRWTH Aachen Universityin 1909. In 1917, he became professor at theUniversity of Greifswald, and he also worked at theUniversity of Würzburgfrom 1920 to 1922. A supporter ofAdolf Hitlerfrom 1924, Stark was one of the main figures, along with fellow Nobel laureatePhilipp Lenard, in the anti-SemiticDeutsche Physikmovement, which sought to remove Jewish scientists from German physics. He was appointed head of theGerman Research Foundationin 1933 and was president of theReich Physical-Technical Institutefrom 1933 to 1939. In 1947 he was found guilty as a \"Major Offender\" by adenazificationcourt. Biography Early years Born inSchickenhof,Kingdom of Bavaria(nowFreihung), Stark was educated atBayreuth Gymnasium(secondary school) and later inRegensburg. Hiscollegiateeducation began at theUniversity of Munich, where he studied physics,mathematics,chemistry, andcrystallography. His tenure at that college began in 1894; he graduated in 1897, with hisdoctoraldissertation titledUntersuchung über einige physikalische, vorzüglich optische Eigenschaften des Rußes(Investigation of some physical, in particular optical properties of soot). Career Stark worked in various positions at the Physics Institute of hisalma materuntil 1900, when he became an unsalariedlecturerat theUniversity of Göttingen. An extraordinary professor atHannoverby 1906, in 1908 he became professor atRWTH Aachen University. He worked and researched at physics departments of several universities, including theUniversity of Greifswald, until 1922. In 1919, he won theNobel Prize in Physicsfor his \"discovery of theDoppler effectincanal raysand the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields\" (the latter is known as theStark effect). From 1933 until his retirement in 1939, Stark was elected President of thePhysikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, while also President of theDeutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. It was Stark who, as the editor of theJahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, asked in 1907, then still rather unknown,Albert Einsteinto write a review article on theprinciple of relativity. Stark seemed impressed by relativity and Einstein's earlier work when he quoted \"the principle of relativity formulated by H. A. Lorentz and A. Einstein\" and \"Planck's relationshipM0=E0/c2\" in his 1907 paperinPhysikalische Zeitschrift, where he used the equatione0=m0c2to calculate an \"elementary quantum of energy\", i.e. the amount of energy related to the mass of an electron at rest. While working on his article,Einstein began a line of thought that would eventually lead to hisgeneral theory of relativity, which in turn became (after its confirmation) the start of Einstein's worldwide fame. This is ironic, given Stark's later work as an anti-Einstein andanti-relativitypropagandist in theDeutsche Physikmovement. Stark published more than 300 papers, mainly regardingelectricityand other such topics. He received various awards, including theNobel Prize, the Baumgartner Prize of theVienna Academy of Sciences(1910), the Vahlbruch Prize of theGöttingen Academy of Sciences(1914), and theMatteucci Medalof theRome Academy. Probably his best known contribution to the field ofphysicsis theStark effect, which he discovered in 1913. In 1970 theInternational Astronomical Unionhonored him with acrateron the far-side of the Moon, without knowing about his Nazi activities.The name was dropped on August 12, 2020. He marriedLuise Uepler, and they had five children. His hobbies were the cultivation of fruit trees and forestry. He worked in his private laboratory, which he set up using his Nobel prize money, on his country estate in Upper Bavaria after the second world war. There he studied the deflection of light in an electric field. Affiliation with Nazism From 1924 onwards, Stark supported Hitler.During theNaziregime, Stark attempted to become theFührerof German physics through theDeutsche Physik(\"German physics\") movement (along with fellow Nobel laureatePhilipp Lenard) against the \"Jewish physics\" ofAlbert EinsteinandWerner Heisenberg(who was not Jewish). After Werner Heisenberg defended Albert Einstein'stheory of relativity, Stark wrote an angry article in the officialSSnewspaperDas Schwarze Korps, calling Heisenberg a \"White Jew\". On August 21, 1934, Stark wrote to physicist and fellow Nobel laureateMax von Laue, telling him to toe the party line or suffer the consequences. The letter was signed off with \"Heil Hitler.\" In his 1934 bookNationalsozialismus und Wissenschaft(English: \"National Socialism and Science\") Stark maintained that the priority of the scientist was to serve the nation—thus, the important fields of research were those that could help German arms production and industry. He attacked theoretical physics as \"Jewish\" and stressed that scientific positions inNazi Germanyshould only be held by pure-blooded Germans. Writing inDas Schwarze Korps, Stark argued that even ifracial antisemitismwere to triumph, it would only be a 'partial victory' if 'Jewish' ideas were not similarly defeated: \"We also have to eradicate the Jewish spirit, whose blood can flow just as undisturbed today as before if its carriers hold beautifulAryanpasses\". In 1947, following the defeat of Germany inWorld War II, Stark was classified as a \"Major Offender\" and received a sentence of four years' imprisonment (later suspended) by adenazificationcourt. Later life and death Stark spent the last years of his life on his Gut Eppenstatt near Traunstein in Upper Bavaria, where he died in 1957 at the age of 83. He was buried inSchönau am Königsseein the mountain cemetery. See also Publications Notes References External links","James Franck James Franck(German pronunciation:ⓘ; 26 August 1882 – 21 May 1964) was a Germanphysicistwho won the 1925Nobel Prize for PhysicswithGustav Hertz\"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom\".He completed hisdoctoratein 1906 and hishabilitationin 1911 at theFrederick William Universityin Berlin, where he lectured and taught until 1918, having reached the position ofprofessor extraordinarius. He served as a volunteer in the German Army duringWorld War I. He was seriously injured in 1917 in a gas attack and was awarded theIron Cross1st Class. Franck became the Head of the Physics Division of theKaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaftfor Physical Chemistry. In 1920, Franck becameprofessor ordinariusof experimental physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics at theUniversity of Göttingen. While there he worked onquantum physicswithMax Born, who was Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics. His work included theFranck–Hertz experiment, an important confirmation of theBohr modelof theatom. He promoted the careers of women in physics, notablyLise Meitner,Hertha SponerandHilde Levi. After theNazi Partycame to power in Germany in 1933, Franck resigned his post in protest against the dismissal of fellow academics. He assistedFrederick Lindemannin helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933. After a year at theNiels Bohr InstituteinDenmark, he moved to the United States, where he worked atJohns Hopkins UniversityinBaltimoreand then theUniversity of Chicago. During this period he became interested inphotosynthesis. Franck participated in theManhattan ProjectduringWorld War IIas Director of the Chemistry Division of theMetallurgical Laboratory. He was also the chairman of the Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which is best known for the compilation of theFranck Report, which recommended that theatomic bombsnot be used on the Japanese cities without warning. Early life James Franck was born inHamburg, Germany, on 26 August 1882, into aJewishfamily, the second child and first son of Jacob Franck, a banker, and his wife Rebecca née Nachum Drucker.He had an older sister, Paula, and a younger brother, Robert Bernard.His father was a devout and religious man, while his mother came from a family of rabbis.Franck attended primary school in Hamburg. Starting in 1891 he attended theWilhelm-Gymnasium, which was then a boys-only school. Hamburg had no university then, so prospective students had to attend one of the 22 universities elsewhere in Germany. Intending to study law and economics, Franck entered theUniversity of Heidelbergin 1901, as it had a renowned law school.He attended lectures on law, but was far more interested in those on science. While there, he metMax Born, who would become a lifelong friend. With Born's help, he was able to persuade his parents to allow him to switch to studying physics and chemistry.Franck attended mathematics lectures byLeo KönigsbergerandGeorg Cantor, but Heidelberg was not strong on the physical sciences, so he decided to go to theFrederick William Universityin Berlin. At Berlin, Franck attended lectures byMax PlanckandEmil Warburg.On 28 July 1904 he saved a pair of children from drowning in theSpree River.For hisDoctor of Philosophy(Dir. Phil.) under Warburg's supervision,Warburg suggested that he studycorona discharges. Franck found this topic too complex, so he changed the focus of histhesis.EntitledÜber die Beweglichkeit der Ladungsträger der Spitzenentladung(\"On the Mobility ofIons\"),it would subsequently be published in theAnnalen der Physik. With his thesis completed, Franck had to perform his deferred military service. He was called up on 1 October 1906 and joined the 1st Telegraph Battalion. He suffered a minor horse riding accident in December and was discharged as unfit for duty. He took up an assistantship at the Physikalische Verein inFrankfurtin 1907, but did not enjoy it, and soon returned to Frederick William University.At a concert Franck met Ingrid Josephson, a Swedish pianist. They were married in a Swedish ceremony inGothenburgon 23 December 1907. They had two daughters, Dagmar (Daggie), who was born in 1909, and Elisabeth (Lisa), who was born in 1912. To pursue an academic career in Germany, having a doctorate was not enough; one needed avenia legendi, or habilitation. This could be achieved with either another major thesis or by producing a substantial body of published work. Franck chose the latter route. There were many unsolved problems in physics at the time, and by 1914 he had published 34 articles. He was the sole author of some, but generally preferred working in collaboration withEva von Bahr,Lise Meitner,Robert Pohl,Peter Pringsheim,Robert W. Wood,Arthur WehneltorWilhelm Westphal. His most fruitful collaboration was withGustav Hertz, with whom he wrote 19 articles. He received his habilitation on 20 May 1911. Franck–Hertz experiment In 1914, Franck teamed up with Hertz to perform an experiment to investigatefluorescence. They designed avacuum tubefor studying energeticelectronsthat flew through a thin vapour ofmercuryatoms. They discovered that when an electron collided with a mercury atom it could lose only a specific quantity (4.9electronvolts) of itskinetic energybefore flying away. A faster electron does not decelerate completely after a collision, but loses precisely the same amount of its kinetic energy. Slower electrons just bounce off mercury atoms without losing any significant speed or kinetic energy. These experimental results provided confirmation ofAlbert Einstein'sphotoelectric effectand Planck's relation (E=fh) linking energy (E) and frequency (f) arising from quantisation of energy with thePlanck constant(h). But they also provided evidence supporting themodel of the atomthat had been proposed the previous year byNiels Bohr. Its key feature was that an electron inside an atom occupies one of the atom's \"quantum energy levels\". Before a collision, an electron inside the mercury atom occupies its lowest available energy level. After the collision, the electron inside occupies a higher energy level with 4.9 eV more energy. This means that the electron is more loosely bound to the mercury atom. There were no intermediate levels or possibilities. In a second paper presented in May 1914, Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions. They showed that thewavelengthof thisultravioletlight corresponded exactly to the 4.9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost. The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr.Franck and Hertz completed their last paper together in December 1918. In it, they reconciled the discrepancies between their results and Bohr's theory, which they now acknowledged.In his Nobel lecture, Franck admitted that it was \"completely incomprehensible that we had failed to recognise the fundamental significance of Bohr's theory, so much so, that we never even mentioned it once\".On 10 December 1926, Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925Nobel Prize in Physics\"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom.\". World War I Franck enlisted in theGerman Armysoon after the outbreak of theFirst World Warin August 1914. In December he was sent to thePicardysector of theWestern Front. He became a deputy officer (offizierstellvertreter), and then a lieutenant (leutnant) in 1915.In early 1915 he was transferred toFritz Haber's new unit that would introduce clouds of chlorine gas as a weapon.WithOtto Hahnhe was responsible for locating sites for the attacks. He was awarded theIron Cross, Second Class, on 30 March 1915,and the city of Hamburg awarded him theHanseatic Crosson 11 January 1916.While in hospital withpleurisy, he co-wrote yet another scientific paper with Hertz, and he was appointed an assistant professor in his absence by Frederick William University on 19 September 1916. Sent to theRussian front, he came down withdysentery. He returned to Berlin, where he joined Hertz, Westphal,Hans Geiger, Otto Hahn and others at Haber'sKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, working on the development ofgas masks.He was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class, on 23 February 1918. He was discharged from the Army on 25 November 1918, soon after the war ended. With the war over, Haber's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute now returned to research, and Haber offered Franck a job. His new post came with more pay, but was not a tenured position. It did however allow Franck to pursue his research as he wished. Working with new, younger collaborators such asWalter Grotrian, Paul Knipping, Thea Krüger,Fritz ReicheandHertha Sponer, his first papers at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute examined atomic electrons in their excited state, results that would later prove important in the development of thelaser.They coined the term \"metastable\" for atoms spending an extended time in a state other thanthat of least energy.When Niels Bohr visited Berlin in 1920, Meitner and Franck arranged for him to come to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute to talk with the younger staff without the presence of thebonzen(\"bigwigs\"). Göttingen In 1920, theUniversity of Göttingenoffered Max Born its chair of theoretical physics, which had recently been vacated byPeter Debye. Göttingen was an important centre for mathematics, thanks toDavid Hilbert,Felix Klein,Hermann MinkowskiandCarl Runge, but not so much for physics. This would change. As part of his price for coming to Göttingen, Born wanted Franck to head experimental physics there. On 15 November 1920, Franck became Professor of Experimental Physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics, a fully tenuredprofessor ordinarius. He was allowed two assistants, so he broughtHertha Sponerwith him from Berlin to fill one of the positions. Pohl, a gifted teacher, headed the First Institute, and handled the lectures.Franck refurbished the laboratory with the latest equipment using funds from his own pocket. Under Born and Franck, Göttingen was one of the world's great centres for physics between 1920 and 1933.Although they published only three papers together, Born and Franck discussed every one of their papers with each other. Gaining admittance to Franck's laboratory became highly competitive. His doctoral students includedHans Kopfermann,Arthur R. von Hippel,Wilhelm Hanle,Fritz Houtermans,Heinrich Kuhn,Werner Kroebel, Walter Lochte-Holtgreven andHeinz Maier-Leibnitz.In supervising doctoral candidates, Franck had to ensure that thesis topics were well-defined, and would teach the candidate how to conduct original research, while still staying within the limits of the candidate's ability, the laboratory's equipment and the institute's budget.Under his direction, research was carried out into the structure of atoms and molecules. In his own research, Franck developed what became known as theFranck–Condon principle, a rule inspectroscopyandquantum chemistrythat explains the intensity ofvibronic transitions, simultaneous changes in electronic and vibrational energy levels of a molecule due to the absorption or emission of aphotonof the appropriate energy. The principle states that during anelectronic transition, a change from onevibrationalenergy levelto another will be more likely to happen if the two vibrationalwave functionsoverlap more significantly.The principle has since been applied to a wide variety of related phenomena. For his work during this time period, Franck was elected to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1929. Exile This period came to an end when theNazi Partywon power in Germany inan electionon 2 March 1933. The following month it enacted theLaw for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which provided for the retirement or dismissal of all Jewish civil servants, along with political opponents of the government. As a veteran of the First World War, Franck was exempt, but he submitted his resignation anyway on 17 April 1933.He once commented that science was his God and nature was his religion. He did not require his daughters to attend religious instruction classes at school,and even let them have a decorated tree at Christmas;but he was proud of his Jewish heritage all the same.He was the first academic to resign in protest over the law.Newspapers around the world reported it, but no government or university protested. Franck assistedFrederick Lindemannin helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933.After a brief visit to the United States, where he measured the absorption of light inheavy waterwith Wood atJohns Hopkins University, he took up a position at theNiels Bohr InstituteinCopenhagen.He needed a new collaborator, so he took onHilde Levi, whose recent thesis had impressed him.His original intention was to continue his research into the fluorescence of vapours and liquids, but under Bohr's influence they began to take an interest in biological aspects of these reactions, particularlyphotosynthesis, the process by which plants use light to convertcarbon dioxideand water into more organic compounds. Biological processes turned out to be far more complicated than simple reactions in atoms and molecules. He co-authored two papers with Levi on the subject, which he would return to over the following years. Franck found a position at thePolytekniske Læreanstaltin Copenhagen for Arthur von Hippel, who was now his son in law, having married his daughter Dagmar. He decided to provide financial security for his children by dividing his Nobel Prize money between them. The gold medal itself was entrusted to Niels Bohr for safekeeping.When Germanyinvaded Denmarkon 9 April 1940, the Hungarian chemistGeorge de Hevesydissolved the gold medal, along with that ofMax von Laueinaqua regiato prevent the Germans from taking them. He placed the resulting solution on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. After the war, he returned to find the solution undisturbed and precipitated the gold out of the acid. The Nobel Society then recast the Nobel Prize medals. In 1935, Franck moved to the United States, where he had accepted a professorship at Johns Hopkins University.The laboratory there was poorly equipped compared to the one in Göttingen, but he received $10,000 for equipment from theRockefeller Foundation. A more intractable problem was that the university had no money to hire skilled staff. Franck was concerned about his family members remaining in Germany, and needed money to help them emigrate. He therefore accepted an offer from theUniversity of Chicago, where his work on photosynthesis had attracted interest, in 1938. Franck's first paper there, co-authored withEdward Teller, was on photochemical processes in crystals.Hans Gaffronbecame his collaborator.They were joined by Pringsheim, who escaped from Belgium after theGerman invasion. Franck arranged a position for Pringsheim at his laboratory.Both his daughters and their families moved to the United States, and he was also able to bring out his elderly mother and aunt.He became anaturalisedUnited States citizen on 21 July 1941,so he was not anenemy alienwhen the United Statesdeclared war on Germanyon 11 December 1941. His daughters still were, though, so they were restricted from travelling, and could not take care of their mother when she fell ill and died on 10 January 1942, although they were permitted to attend her funeral. In February 1942,Arthur H. Comptonestablished itsMetallurgical Laboratoryat the University of Chicago. As part of theManhattan Project, its mission was to buildnuclear reactorsto createplutoniumthat would be used inatomic bombs.The Metallurgical Laboratory's Chemistry Division was initially headed byFrank Spedding, but he preferred hands on work to administration. Compton then turned to Franck, with some trepidation owing to his German background.Compton later wrote: How Franck welcomed an invitation to join our project! It was a vote of confidence that far exceeded his hopes, and it gave him a chance to do his part for the cause of freedom. \"It's not the German people I'm fighting\", he explained. \"It's the Nazis. They have a stranglehold over Germany. The German people are helpless until we can break the strength of their Nazi masters.\" The chemists welcomed Franck as an elder scientific statesman whose guidance they were glad to follow. In addition to heading the Chemistry Division, Franck was also the chairman of the Metallurgical Laboratory's Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which consisted of himself andDonald J. Hughes,J. J. Nickson,Eugene Rabinowitch,Glenn T. Seaborg, J. C. Stearns andLeó Szilárd.In 1945, Franck warnedHenry A. Wallaceof their fears that \"mankind has learned to unleash atomic power without being ethically and politically prepared to use it wisely.\"The committee compiled what became known as theFranck Report. Finished on 11 June 1945, it recommended that theatomic bombsnot be used on the Japanese cities without warning.In any event, theInterim Committeedecided otherwise. Later life Franck marriedHertha Sponerin a civil ceremony on 29 June 1946,his first wife, Ingrid, having died in 1942. In his post-war research, he continued to tackle the problem of explaining the mechanism of photosynthesis. Meitner saw no break between his early and later work. She recalled that Franck enjoyed talking about his problems, not so much to explain them to others as to satisfy his own mind. Once a problem had aroused his interest he was completely captivated, indeed obsessed by it. Common sense and straight logic were his main tools, together with simple apparatus. His research followed an almost straight line, from his early studies of ion mobilities to his last work on photosynthesis; it was always the energy exchange between atoms or molecules that fascinated him. In addition to the Nobel Prize. Franck was awarded theMax Planck medalof theDeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaftin 1951 and theRumford Medalof the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on photosynthesis in 1955. He became an honorary citizen of Göttingen in 1953,was elected a member of the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1944,and elected aForeign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1964.He was also an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Society. He died suddenly from a heart attack while visiting Göttingen on 21 May 1964,and was buried in Chicago with his first wife. In 1967, the University of Chicago named theJames Franck Instituteafter him.Alunar craterhas also been named in his honour.His papers are in the University of Chicago Library. See also Notes References Further reading External links","Gustav Ludwig Hertz Gustav Ludwig Hertz(/hɜːrts/;German:ⓘ; 22 July 1887 – 30 October 1975)was a Germanexperimental physicistandNobel Prize winnerfor his work on inelastic electron collisions in gases, and a nephew ofHeinrich Hertz. Biography Hertz was born inHamburg, the son of Auguste (née Arning) and a lawyer, Gustav Theodor Hertz (1858–1904),Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's brother. He attended theGelehrtenschule des Johanneumsbefore studying at theGeorg-August University of Göttingen(1906–1907), theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich(1907–1908), and theHumboldt University of Berlin(1908–1911). He received his doctorate in 1911 underHeinrich Leopold Rubens. From 1911 to 1914, Hertz was an assistant to Rubens at the University of Berlin. It was during this time that Hertz andJames Franckperformed experiments on inelastic electron collisions in gases,known as theFranck–Hertz experiments, and for which they received theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1925. During World War I, Hertz served in the military from 1914. In 1915 he joinedFritz Haber's unit that would introduce poisonous chlorine gas as a weapon.He was seriously wounded in 1915. In 1917, he returned to the University of Berlin as aPrivatdozent. In 1920, he took a job as a research physicist at the Philips Incandescent Lamp Factory inEindhoven, which he held until 1925. Career In 1925, Hertz became ordinarius professor and director of the Physics Institute of theMartin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg. In 1928 he became ordinarius professor of experimental physics and director of the Physics Institute of theTechnische HochschuleBerlin(\"THB\"), nowTechnische Universität Berlin. While there, he developed an isotope separation technique via gaseous diffusion. Since Hertz was an officer during World War I, he was temporarily protected from National Socialist policies and theLaw for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, but eventually the policies and laws became more stringent, and at the end of 1934, he was forced to resign his position at THB, as he was classified as a \"second degree part-Jew\" (his paternal grandfatherGustav Ferdinand Hertz(originally named David Gustav Hertz) (1827–1914) had been Jewish as a child, before his whole family had converted to Lutheranism in 1834).He then took a position atSiemens, as director of Research Laboratory II. While there, he continued his work onatomic physicsandultrasound, but he eventually discontinued his work on isotope separation. He held this position until he departed for the Soviet Union in 1945. In the Soviet Union \"Pact to defect\" Hertz was concerned for his safety and, like his fellow Nobel laureateJames Franck, was looking to move to the USA or any other place outside Germany. So he made a pact with three colleagues:Manfred von Ardenne, director of his private laboratoryForschungslaboratorium für Elektronenphysik,Peter Adolf Thiessen, ordinarius professor at theHumboldt University of Berlinand director of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie (KWIPC) inBerlin-Dahlem, andMax Volmer, ordinarius professor and director of the Physical Chemistry Institute at the THB.The pact was a pledge that whoever first made contact with the Soviets would speak for the rest. The objectives of their pact were threefold: (1) prevent plunder of their institutes, (2) continue their work with minimal interruption, and (3) protect themselves from prosecution for any political acts of the past.Before the end of World War II, Thiessen, a member of theNazi Party, had Communist contacts. Participation in Soviet program of nuclear weapons On 27 April 1945, Thiessen arrived at von Ardenne's institute in an armored vehicle with a major of the Soviet Army, who was also a leading Soviet chemist.All four of the pact members were taken to the Soviet Union. Hertz was made head of Institute G, in Agudseri (Agudzery), about 10 km southeast ofSukhumiand a suburb of Gul'rips (Gulrip'shi).Topics assigned to Gustav Hertz's Institute G included: (1) Separation of isotopes by diffusion in a flow of inert gases, for which Gustav Hertz was the leader, (2) Development of a condensation pump, for whichJustus Mühlenpfordtwas the leader, (3) Design and build a mass spectrometer for determining the isotopic composition of uranium, for which Werner Schütze was the leader, (4) Development of frameless (ceramic) diffusion partitions for filters, for which Reinhold Reichmann was the leader, and (5) Development of a theory of stability and control of a diffusion cascade, for whichHeinz Barwichwas the leader; Barwich had been deputy to Hertz at Siemens.Other members of Institute G wereWerner Hartmannand Karl-Franz Zühlke.Manfred von Ardenne was made head of Institute A. Goals of von Ardenne's Institute A included: (1) Electromagnetic separation of isotopes, for which von Ardenne was the leader, (2) Techniques for manufacturing porous barriers for isotope separation, for which Peter Adolf Thiessen was the leader, and (3) Molecular techniques for separation of uranium isotopes, for whichMax Steenbeckwas the leader. In his first meeting withLavrentij Beria, von Ardenne was asked to participate in building the bomb, but von Ardenne quickly realized that participation would prohibit his repatriation to Germany, so he suggested isotope enrichment as an objective, which was agreed to. Research at Sukhumi By the end of the 1940s, nearly 300 Germans were working at the institute, and they were not the total work force. Institute A was used as the basis for the Sukhumi Physical-Technical Institute in Sinop, a suburb ofSukhumi.Volmer went to the Scientific Research Institute No. 9 (NII-9)in Moscow; he was given a design bureau to work on the production ofheavy water. In Institute A, Thiessen became leader for developing techniques for manufacturing porous barriers for isotope separation. In 1949, six German scientists, including Hertz, Thiessen, and Barwich were called in for consultation atSverdlovsk-44, which was responsible for uranium enrichment. The plant, smaller than the American Oak Ridgegaseous diffusion plant, was getting only a little over half of the expected 90% or higher enrichment. After 1950, Hertz moved to Moscow. In 1951, Hertz was awarded aStalin Prize, second class, with Barwich.In that year, James Franck and Hertz were jointly awarded theMax Planck Medalby theDeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. Hertz remained in the Soviet Union until 1955. Return to the GDR Upon return from the Soviet Union, Hertz became ordinarius professor at theUniversity of Leipzig. From 1955 to 1967, he was also the chairman of the Physical Society of theDeutsche Demokratische Republik (GDR); he was honorary chairman from 1967 to 1975. Personal life Gustav Hertz was a nephew ofHeinrich Rudolf Hertzand a cousin ofMathilde Carmen Hertz. In 1919, Hertz married Ellen née Dihlmann, who died in 1941. They had two sons,Carl Helmut Hertzand Johannes Heinrich Hertz; both became physicists. He died on 30 October 1975 inEast Berlinat the age 88. Scientific memberships Hertz was a Member of the German Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Corresponding Member of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences, an Honorary Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, a Member of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences, and a Foreign Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Publications See also References Further reading External links","List of Nobel laureates in Physics TheNobel Prize in Physics(Swedish:Nobelpriset i fysik) is awarded annually by theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciencesto scientists in the various fields ofphysics. It is one of the fiveNobel Prizesestablished by the 1895willofAlfred Nobel(who died in 1896), awarded for outstanding contributions in physics.As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by theNobel Foundationand awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.The award is presented inStockholmat an annual ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death.Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award prize that has varied throughout the years. Statistics The Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to 226 individuals as of 2024.The first prize in physics was awarded in 1901 toWilhelm Conrad Röntgen, of Germany, who received 150,782SEK.John Bardeenis the only laureate to win the prize twice—in 1956 and 1972. William Lawrence Braggwas the youngest Nobel laureate in physics; he won the prize in 1915 at the age of 25. He was also the youngest laureate for any Nobel prize until 2014 (whenMalala Yousafzaiwon the Nobel Peace Prize at the age of 17).The oldest Nobel Prize laureate in physics wasArthur Ashkinwho was 96 years old when he was awarded the prize in 2018. Only five women have won the prize:Marie Curie(1903),Maria Goeppert-Mayer(1963),Donna Strickland(2018),Andrea Ghez(2020), andAnne L'Huillier(2023).Before L'Huillier, each woman only ever received a quarter share of the prize, although Marie Curie did receive anunshared Nobel prize in chemistry in 1911. In 2023, L'Huillier received a one-third share. There have been six years for which the Nobel Prize in Physics was not awarded (1916, 1931, 1934, 1940–1942). There were also nine years for which the Nobel Prize in Physics was delayed for one year: A 2020 study reported that half of the Nobel Prizes for science awarded between 1995 and 2017 are clustered in few disciplines.Particle physics(14%),atomic physics(10.9%), and 3 non-physics disciplines dominate the prize in recent decades, followed bysemiconductor physicsandmagnetics. Laureates Number of Nobel laureates in Physics by country See also Notes References External links","Quantum mechanics Quantum mechanicsis a fundamentaltheorythat describes the behavior ofnatureat and below the scale ofatoms.: 1.1It is the foundation of allquantum physics, which includesquantum chemistry,quantum field theory,quantum technology, andquantum information science. Quantum mechanics can describe many systems thatclassical physicscannot. Classical physics can describe many aspects of nature at an ordinary (macroscopicand(optical) microscopic) scale, but is not sufficient for describing them at very smallsubmicroscopic(atomic andsubatomic) scales. Most theories in classical physics can be derived from quantum mechanics as an approximation, valid at large (macroscopic/microscopic) scale. Quantum systems haveboundstates that arequantizedtodiscrete valuesofenergy,momentum,angular momentum, and other quantities, in contrast to classical systems where these quantities can be measured continuously. Measurements of quantum systems show characteristics of bothparticlesandwaves(wave–particle duality), and there are limits to how accurately the value of a physical quantity can be predicted prior to its measurement, given a complete set of initial conditions (theuncertainty principle). Quantum mechanicsarose graduallyfrom theories to explain observations that could not be reconciled with classical physics, such asMax Planck's solution in 1900 to theblack-body radiationproblem, and the correspondence between energy and frequency inAlbert Einstein's1905 paper, which explained thephotoelectric effect. These early attempts to understand microscopic phenomena, now known as the \"old quantum theory\", led to the full development of quantum mechanics in the mid-1920s byNiels Bohr,Erwin Schrödinger,Werner Heisenberg,Max Born,Paul Diracand others. The modern theory is formulated in variousspecially developed mathematical formalisms. In one of them, a mathematical entity called thewave functionprovides information, in the form ofprobability amplitudes, about what measurements of a particle's energy, momentum, and other physical properties may yield. Overview and fundamental concepts Quantum mechanics allows the calculation of properties and behaviour of physical systems. It is typically applied to microscopic systems: molecules, atoms and sub-atomic particles. It has been demonstrated to hold for complex molecules with thousands of atoms,but its application to human beings raises philosophical problems, such asWigner's friend, and its application to the universe as a whole remains speculative.Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to an extremely high degree ofaccuracy. For example, the refinement of quantum mechanics for the interaction of light and matter, known asquantum electrodynamics(QED), has beenshown to agree with experimentto within 1 part in 1012when predicting the magnetic properties of an electron. A fundamental feature of the theory is that it usually cannot predict with certainty what will happen, but only give probabilities. Mathematically, a probability is found by taking the square of the absolute value of acomplex number, known as a probability amplitude. This is known as theBorn rule, named after physicistMax Born. For example, a quantum particle like anelectroncan be described by a wave function, which associates to each point in space a probability amplitude. Applying the Born rule to these amplitudes gives aprobability density functionfor the position that the electron will be found to have when an experiment is performed to measure it. This is the best the theory can do; it cannot say for certain where the electron will be found. TheSchrödinger equationrelates the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to one moment of time to the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to another.: 67–87 One consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is a tradeoff in predictability between measurable quantities. The most famous form of thisuncertainty principlesays that no matter how a quantum particle is prepared or how carefully experiments upon it are arranged, it is impossible to have a precise prediction for a measurement of its position and also at the same time for a measurement of itsmomentum.: 427–435 Another consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is the phenomenon ofquantum interference, which is often illustrated with thedouble-slit experiment. In the basic version of this experiment, acoherent light source, such as alaserbeam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate.: 102–111: 1.1–1.8The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through the two slits tointerfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen – a result that would not be expected if light consisted of classical particles.However, the light is always found to be absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as individual particles rather than waves; the interference pattern appears via the varying density of these particle hits on the screen. Furthermore, versions of the experiment that include detectors at the slits find that each detectedphotonpasses through one slit (as would a classical particle), and not through both slits (as would a wave).: 109However,such experimentsdemonstrate that particles do not form the interference pattern if one detects which slit they pass through. This behavior is known aswave–particle duality. In addition to light,electrons,atoms, andmoleculesare all found to exhibit the same dual behavior when fired towards a double slit. Another non-classical phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics isquantum tunnelling: a particle that goes up against apotential barriercan cross it, even if its kinetic energy is smaller than the maximum of the potential.In classical mechanics this particle would be trapped. Quantum tunnelling has several important consequences, enablingradioactive decay,nuclear fusionin stars, and applications such asscanning tunnelling microscopy,tunnel diodeandtunnel field-effect transistor. When quantum systems interact, the result can be the creation ofquantum entanglement: their properties become so intertwined that a description of the whole solely in terms of the individual parts is no longer possible. Erwin Schrödinger called entanglement \"...thecharacteristic trait of quantum mechanics, the one that enforces its entire departure from classical lines of thought\".Quantum entanglement enablesquantum computingand is part of quantum communication protocols, such asquantum key distributionandsuperdense coding.Contrary to popular misconception, entanglement does not allow sending signalsfaster than light, as demonstrated by theno-communication theorem. Another possibility opened by entanglement is testing for \"hidden variables\", hypothetical properties more fundamental than the quantities addressed in quantum theory itself, knowledge of which would allow more exact predictions than quantum theory provides. A collection of results, most significantlyBell's theorem, have demonstrated that broad classes of such hidden-variable theories are in fact incompatible with quantum physics. According to Bell's theorem, if nature actually operates in accord with any theory oflocalhidden variables, then the results of aBell testwill be constrained in a particular, quantifiable way. Many Bell tests have been performed and they have shown results incompatible with the constraints imposed by local hidden variables. It is not possible to present these concepts in more than a superficial way without introducing the mathematics involved; understanding quantum mechanics requires not only manipulating complex numbers, but alsolinear algebra,differential equations,group theory, and other more advanced subjects.Accordingly, this article will present a mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics and survey its application to some useful and oft-studied examples. Mathematical formulation In the mathematically rigorous formulation of quantum mechanics, the state of a quantum mechanical system is a vectorψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }belonging to a (separable) complexHilbert spaceH{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}}. This vector is postulated to be normalized under the Hilbert space inner product, that is, it obeys⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1{\\displaystyle \\langle \\psi ,\\psi \\rangle =1}, and it is well-defined up to a complex number of modulus 1 (the global phase), that is,ψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }andeiαψ{\\displaystyle e^{i\\alpha }\\psi }represent the same physical system. In other words, the possible states are points in theprojective spaceof a Hilbert space, usually called thecomplex projective space. The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system – for example, for describing position and momentum the Hilbert space is the space of complexsquare-integrablefunctionsL2(C){\\displaystyle L^{2}(\\mathbb {C} )}, while the Hilbert space for thespinof a single proton is simply the space of two-dimensional complex vectorsC2{\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} ^{2}}with the usual inner product. Physical quantities of interest – position, momentum, energy, spin – are represented by observables, which areHermitian(more precisely,self-adjoint) linearoperatorsacting on the Hilbert space. A quantum state can be aneigenvectorof an observable, in which case it is called aneigenstate, and the associatedeigenvaluecorresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. More generally, a quantum state will be a linear combination of the eigenstates, known as aquantum superposition. When an observable is measured, the result will be one of its eigenvalues with probability given by theBorn rule: in the simplest case the eigenvalueλ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }is non-degenerate and the probability is given by|⟨λ→,ψ⟩|2{\\displaystyle |\\langle {\\vec {\\lambda }},\\psi \\rangle |^{2}}, whereλ→{\\displaystyle {\\vec {\\lambda }}}is its associated eigenvector. More generally, the eigenvalue is degenerate and the probability is given by⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩{\\displaystyle \\langle \\psi ,P_{\\lambda }\\psi \\rangle }, wherePλ{\\displaystyle P_{\\lambda }}is the projector onto its associated eigenspace. In the continuous case, these formulas give instead theprobability density. After the measurement, if resultλ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }was obtained, the quantum state is postulated tocollapsetoλ→{\\displaystyle {\\vec {\\lambda }}}, in the non-degenerate case, or toPλψ/⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩{\\textstyle P_{\\lambda }\\psi {\\big /}\\!{\\sqrt {\\langle \\psi ,P_{\\lambda }\\psi \\rangle }}}, in the general case. Theprobabilisticnature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement. This is one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the central topic in the famousBohr–Einstein debates, in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental principles by way ofthought experiments. In the decades after the formulation of quantum mechanics, the question of what constitutes a \"measurement\" has been extensively studied. Newerinterpretations of quantum mechanicshave been formulated that do away with the concept of \"wave function collapse\" (see, for example, themany-worlds interpretation). The basic idea is that when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus, their respective wave functions becomeentangledso that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity (seeMeasurement in quantum mechanics). Time evolution of a quantum state The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrödinger equation: HereH{\\displaystyle H}denotes theHamiltonian, the observable corresponding to thetotal energyof the system, andℏ{\\displaystyle \\hbar }is the reducedPlanck constant. The constantiℏ{\\displaystyle i\\hbar }is introduced so that the Hamiltonian is reduced to theclassical Hamiltonianin cases where the quantum system can be approximated by a classical system; the ability to make such an approximation in certain limits is called thecorrespondence principle. The solution of this differential equation is given by The operatorU(t)=e−iHt/ℏ{\\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\\hbar }}is known as the time-evolution operator, and has the crucial property that it isunitary. This time evolution isdeterministicin the sense that – given an initial quantum stateψ(0){\\displaystyle \\psi (0)}– it makes a definite prediction of what the quantum stateψ(t){\\displaystyle \\psi (t)}will be at any later time. Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are independent of time, such aseigenstates of the Hamiltonian.: 133–137Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such \"static\" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcitedatomis pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around theatomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics, it is described by a static wave function surrounding the nucleus. For example, the electron wave function for an unexcited hydrogen atom is a spherically symmetric function known as ansorbital(Fig. 1). Analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are known forvery few relatively simple model Hamiltoniansincluding thequantum harmonic oscillator, theparticle in a box, thedihydrogen cation, and thehydrogen atom. Even theheliumatom – which contains just two electrons – has defied all attempts at a fully analytic treatment, admitting no solution inclosed form. However, there are techniques for finding approximate solutions. One method, calledperturbation theory, uses the analytic result for a simple quantum mechanical model to create a result for a related but more complicated model by (for example) the addition of a weakpotential energy.: 793Another approximation method applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces only small deviations from classical behavior. These deviations can then be computed based on the classical motion.: 849 Uncertainty principle One consequence of the basic quantum formalism is the uncertainty principle. In its most familiar form, this states that no preparation of a quantum particle can imply simultaneously precise predictions both for a measurement of its position and for a measurement of its momentum.Both position and momentum are observables, meaning that they are represented byHermitian operators. The position operatorX^{\\displaystyle {\\hat {X}}}and momentum operatorP^{\\displaystyle {\\hat {P}}}do not commute, but rather satisfy thecanonical commutation relation: Given a quantum state, the Born rule lets us compute expectation values for bothX{\\displaystyle X}andP{\\displaystyle P}, and moreover for powers of them. Defining the uncertainty for an observable by astandard deviation, we have and likewise for the momentum: The uncertainty principle states that Either standard deviation can in principle be made arbitrarily small, but not both simultaneously.This inequality generalizes to arbitrary pairs of self-adjoint operatorsA{\\displaystyle A}andB{\\displaystyle B}. Thecommutatorof these two operators is and this provides the lower bound on the product of standard deviations: Another consequence of the canonical commutation relation is that the position and momentum operators areFourier transformsof each other, so that a description of an object according to its momentum is the Fourier transform of its description according to its position. The fact that dependence in momentum is the Fourier transform of the dependence in position means that the momentum operator is equivalent (up to ani/ℏ{\\displaystyle i/\\hbar }factor) to taking the derivative according to the position, since in Fourier analysisdifferentiation corresponds to multiplication in the dual space. This is why in quantum equations in position space, the momentumpi{\\displaystyle p_{i}}is replaced by−iℏ∂∂x{\\displaystyle -i\\hbar {\\frac {\\partial }{\\partial x}}}, and in particular in thenon-relativistic Schrödinger equation in position spacethe momentum-squared term is replaced with a Laplacian times−ℏ2{\\displaystyle -\\hbar ^{2}}. Composite systems and entanglement When two different quantum systems are considered together, the Hilbert space of the combined system is thetensor productof the Hilbert spaces of the two components. For example, letAandBbe two quantum systems, with Hilbert spacesHA{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}_{A}}andHB{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}_{B}}, respectively. The Hilbert space of the composite system is then If the state for the first system is the vectorψA{\\displaystyle \\psi _{A}}and the state for the second system isψB{\\displaystyle \\psi _{B}}, then the state of the composite system is Not all states in the joint Hilbert spaceHAB{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}_{AB}}can be written in this form, however, because the superposition principle implies that linear combinations of these \"separable\" or \"product states\" are also valid. For example, ifψA{\\displaystyle \\psi _{A}}andϕA{\\displaystyle \\phi _{A}}are both possible states for systemA{\\displaystyle A}, and likewiseψB{\\displaystyle \\psi _{B}}andϕB{\\displaystyle \\phi _{B}}are both possible states for systemB{\\displaystyle B}, then is a valid joint state that is not separable. States that are not separable are calledentangled. If the state for a composite system is entangled, it is impossible to describe either component systemAor systemBby a state vector. One can instead definereduced density matricesthat describe the statistics that can be obtained by making measurements on either component system alone. This necessarily causes a loss of information, though: knowing the reduced density matrices of the individual systems is not enough to reconstruct the state of the composite system.Just as density matrices specify the state of a subsystem of a larger system, analogously,positive operator-valued measures(POVMs) describe the effect on a subsystem of a measurement performed on a larger system. POVMs are extensively used in quantum information theory. As described above, entanglement is a key feature of models of measurement processes in which an apparatus becomes entangled with the system being measured. Systems interacting with the environment in which they reside generally become entangled with that environment, a phenomenon known asquantum decoherence. This can explain why, in practice, quantum effects are difficult to observe in systems larger than microscopic. Equivalence between formulations There are many mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most common is the \"transformation theory\" proposed byPaul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics –matrix mechanics(invented byWerner Heisenberg) and wave mechanics (invented byErwin Schrödinger).An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics isFeynman'spath integral formulation, in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over all possible classical and non-classical paths between the initial and final states. This is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of theaction principlein classical mechanics. Symmetries and conservation laws The HamiltonianH{\\displaystyle H}is known as thegeneratorof time evolution, since it defines a unitary time-evolution operatorU(t)=e−iHt/ℏ{\\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\\hbar }}for each value oft{\\displaystyle t}. From this relation betweenU(t){\\displaystyle U(t)}andH{\\displaystyle H}, it follows that any observableA{\\displaystyle A}that commutes withH{\\displaystyle H}will beconserved: its expectation value will not change over time.: 471This statement generalizes, as mathematically, any Hermitian operatorA{\\displaystyle A}can generate a family of unitary operators parameterized by a variablet{\\displaystyle t}. Under the evolution generated byA{\\displaystyle A}, any observableB{\\displaystyle B}that commutes withA{\\displaystyle A}will be conserved. Moreover, ifB{\\displaystyle B}is conserved by evolution underA{\\displaystyle A}, thenA{\\displaystyle A}is conserved under the evolution generated byB{\\displaystyle B}. This implies a quantum version of the result proven byEmmy Noetherin classical (Lagrangian) mechanics: for everydifferentiablesymmetryof a Hamiltonian, there exists a correspondingconservation law. Examples Free particle The simplest example of a quantum system with a position degree of freedom is a free particle in a single spatial dimension. A free particle is one which is not subject to external influences, so that its Hamiltonian consists only of its kinetic energy: The general solution of the Schrödinger equation is given by which is a superposition of all possibleplane wavesei(kx−ℏk22mt){\\displaystyle e^{i(kx-{\\frac {\\hbar k^{2}}{2m}}t)}}, which are eigenstates of the momentum operator with momentump=ℏk{\\displaystyle p=\\hbar k}. The coefficients of the superposition areψ^(k,0){\\displaystyle {\\hat {\\psi }}(k,0)}, which is the Fourier transform of the initial quantum stateψ(x,0){\\displaystyle \\psi (x,0)}. It is not possible for the solution to be a single momentum eigenstate, or a single position eigenstate, as these are not normalizable quantum states.Instead, we can consider a Gaussianwave packet: which has Fourier transform, and therefore momentum distribution We see that as we makea{\\displaystyle a}smaller the spread in position gets smaller, but the spread in momentum gets larger. Conversely, by makinga{\\displaystyle a}larger we make the spread in momentum smaller, but the spread in position gets larger. This illustrates the uncertainty principle. As we let the Gaussian wave packet evolve in time, we see that its center moves through space at a constant velocity (like a classical particle with no forces acting on it). However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more and more uncertain. The uncertainty in momentum, however, stays constant. Particle in a box The particle in a one-dimensional potential energy box is the most mathematically simple example where restraints lead to the quantization of energy levels. The box is defined as having zero potential energy everywhereinsidea certain region, and therefore infinite potential energy everywhereoutsidethat region.: 77–78For the one-dimensional case in thex{\\displaystyle x}direction, the time-independent Schrödinger equation may be written With the differential operator defined by with stateψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }in this case having energyE{\\displaystyle E}coincident with the kinetic energy of the particle. The general solutions of the Schrödinger equation for the particle in a box are or, fromEuler's formula, The infinite potential walls of the box determine the values ofC,D,{\\displaystyle C,D,}andk{\\displaystyle k}atx=0{\\displaystyle x=0}andx=L{\\displaystyle x=L}whereψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }must be zero. Thus, atx=0{\\displaystyle x=0}, andD=0{\\displaystyle D=0}. Atx=L{\\displaystyle x=L}, in whichC{\\displaystyle C}cannot be zero as this would conflict with the postulate thatψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }has norm 1. Therefore, sincesin(kL)=0{\\displaystyle \\sin(kL)=0},kL{\\displaystyle kL}must be an integer multiple ofπ{\\displaystyle \\pi }, This constraint onk{\\displaystyle k}implies a constraint on the energy levels, yielding Afinite potential wellis the generalization of the infinite potential well problem to potential wells having finite depth. The finite potential well problem is mathematically more complicated than the infinite particle-in-a-box problem as the wave function is not pinned to zero at the walls of the well. Instead, the wave function must satisfy more complicated mathematical boundary conditions as it is nonzero in regions outside the well. Another related problem is that of therectangular potential barrier, which furnishes a model for thequantum tunnelingeffect that plays an important role in the performance of modern technologies such asflash memoryandscanning tunneling microscopy. Harmonic oscillator As in the classical case, the potential for the quantum harmonic oscillator is given by: 234 This problem can either be treated by directly solving the Schrödinger equation, which is not trivial, or by using the more elegant \"ladder method\" first proposed by Paul Dirac. Theeigenstatesare given by whereHnare theHermite polynomials and the corresponding energy levels are This is another example illustrating the discretization of energy forbound states. Mach–Zehnder interferometer TheMach–Zehnder interferometer(MZI) illustrates the concepts of superposition and interference with linear algebra in dimension 2, rather than differential equations. It can be seen as a simplified version of the double-slit experiment, but it is of interest in its own right, for example in thedelayed choice quantum eraser, theElitzur–Vaidman bomb tester, and in studies of quantum entanglement. We can model a photon going through the interferometer by considering that at each point it can be in a superposition of only two paths: the \"lower\" path which starts from the left, goes straight through both beam splitters, and ends at the top, and the \"upper\" path which starts from the bottom, goes straight through both beam splitters, and ends at the right. The quantum state of the photon is therefore a vectorψ∈C2{\\displaystyle \\psi \\in \\mathbb {C} ^{2}}that is a superposition of the \"lower\" pathψl=(10){\\displaystyle \\psi _{l}={\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\0\\end{pmatrix}}}and the \"upper\" pathψu=(01){\\displaystyle \\psi _{u}={\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\1\\end{pmatrix}}}, that is,ψ=αψl+βψu{\\displaystyle \\psi =\\alpha \\psi _{l}+\\beta \\psi _{u}}for complexα,β{\\displaystyle \\alpha ,\\beta }. In order to respect the postulate that⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1{\\displaystyle \\langle \\psi ,\\psi \\rangle =1}we require that|α|2+|β|2=1{\\displaystyle |\\alpha |^{2}+|\\beta |^{2}=1}. Bothbeam splittersare modelled as the unitary matrixB=12(1ii1){\\displaystyle B={\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {2}}}{\\begin{pmatrix}1&i\\\\i&1\\end{pmatrix}}}, which means that when a photon meets the beam splitter it will either stay on the same path with a probability amplitude of1/2{\\displaystyle 1/{\\sqrt {2}}}, or be reflected to the other path with a probability amplitude ofi/2{\\displaystyle i/{\\sqrt {2}}}. The phase shifter on the upper arm is modelled as the unitary matrixP=(100eiΔΦ){\\displaystyle P={\\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\\\0&e^{i\\Delta \\Phi }\\end{pmatrix}}}, which means that if the photon is on the \"upper\" path it will gain a relative phase ofΔΦ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\Phi }, and it will stay unchanged if it is in the lower path. A photon that enters the interferometer from the left will then be acted upon with a beam splitterB{\\displaystyle B}, a phase shifterP{\\displaystyle P}, and another beam splitterB{\\displaystyle B}, and so end up in the state and the probabilities that it will be detected at the right or at the top are given respectively by One can therefore use the Mach–Zehnder interferometer to estimate thephase shiftby estimating these probabilities. It is interesting to consider what would happen if the photon were definitely in either the \"lower\" or \"upper\" paths between the beam splitters. This can be accomplished by blocking one of the paths, or equivalently by removing the first beam splitter (and feeding the photon from the left or the bottom, as desired). In both cases, there will be no interference between the paths anymore, and the probabilities are given byp(u)=p(l)=1/2{\\displaystyle p(u)=p(l)=1/2}, independently of the phaseΔΦ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\Phi }. From this we can conclude that the photon does not take one path or another after the first beam splitter, but rather that it is in a genuine quantum superposition of the two paths. Applications Quantum mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the features of our universe, with regard to small-scale and discrete quantities and interactions which cannot be explained byclassical methods.Quantum mechanics is often the only theory that can reveal the individual behaviors of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter (electrons,protons,neutrons,photons, and others).Solid-state physicsandmaterials scienceare dependent upon quantum mechanics. In many aspects, modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant. Important applications of quantum theory includequantum chemistry,quantum optics,quantum computing,superconducting magnets,light-emitting diodes, theoptical amplifierand the laser, thetransistorandsemiconductorssuch as themicroprocessor,medical and research imagingsuch asmagnetic resonance imagingandelectron microscopy.Explanations for many biological and physical phenomena are rooted in the nature of the chemical bond, most notably the macro-moleculeDNA. Relation to other scientific theories Classical mechanics The rules of quantum mechanics assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert space and that observables of the system are Hermitian operators acting on vectors in that space – although they do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators. These can be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system, a necessary step in making physical predictions. An important guide for making these choices is thecorrespondence principle, a heuristic which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those ofclassical mechanicsin the regime of largequantum numbers.One can also start from an established classical model of a particular system, and then try to guess the underlying quantum model that would give rise to the classical model in the correspondence limit. This approach is known asquantization.: 299 When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose correspondence limit wasnon-relativisticclassical mechanics. For instance, the well-known model of thequantum harmonic oscillatoruses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for thekinetic energyof the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of theclassical harmonic oscillator.: 234 Complications arise withchaotic systems, which do not have good quantum numbers, andquantum chaosstudies the relationship between classical and quantum descriptions in these systems.: 353 Quantum decoherenceis a mechanism through which quantum systems losecoherence, and thus become incapable of displaying many typically quantum effects:quantum superpositionsbecome simply probabilistic mixtures, and quantum entanglement becomes simply classical correlations.: 687–730Quantum coherence is not typically evident at macroscopic scales, though at temperatures approachingabsolute zeroquantum behavior may manifest macroscopically. Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct consequence of the quantum behavior of its parts. For example, the stability of bulk matter (consisting of atoms andmoleculeswhich would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), the rigidity of solids, and the mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of matter are all results of the interaction ofelectric chargesunder the rules of quantum mechanics. Special relativity and electrodynamics Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics withspecial relativityinvolved the replacement of the Schrödinger equation with a covariant equation such as theKlein–Gordon equationor theDirac equation. While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field theory, which applies quantization to a field (rather than a fixed set of particles). The first complete quantum field theory,quantum electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of theelectromagnetic interaction. Quantum electrodynamics is, along withgeneral relativity, one of the most accurate physical theories ever devised. The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. A simpler approach, one that has been used since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treatchargedparticles as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classicalelectromagnetic field. For example, the elementary quantum model of thehydrogen atomdescribes theelectric fieldof the hydrogen atom using a classical−e2/(4πϵ0r){\\displaystyle \\textstyle -e^{2}/(4\\pi \\epsilon _{_{0}}r)}Coulomb potential.: 285Likewise, in aStern–Gerlach experiment, a charged particle is modeled as a quantum system, while the background magnetic field is described classically.: 26This \"semi-classical\" approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, such as in the emission of photons bycharged particles. Quantum fieldtheories for thestrong nuclear forceand theweak nuclear forcehave also been developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is calledquantum chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of subnuclear particles such asquarksandgluons. The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory (known aselectroweak theory), by the physicistsAbdus Salam,Sheldon GlashowandSteven Weinberg. Relation to general relativity Even though the predictions of both quantum theory and general relativity have been supported by rigorous and repeatedempirical evidence, their abstract formalisms contradict each other and they have proven extremely difficult to incorporate into one consistent, cohesive model. Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those particular applications. However, the lack of a correct theory ofquantum gravityis an important issue inphysical cosmologyand the search by physicists for an elegant \"Theory of Everything\" (TOE). Consequently, resolving the inconsistencies between both theories has been a major goal of 20th- and 21st-century physics. This TOE would combine not only the models of subatomic physics but also derive the four fundamental forces of nature from a single force or phenomenon. One proposal for doing so isstring theory, which posits that thepoint-like particlesofparticle physicsare replaced byone-dimensionalobjects calledstrings. String theory describes how these strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with itsmass,charge, and other properties determined by thevibrationalstate of the string. In string theory, one of the many vibrational states of the string corresponds to thegraviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force. Another popular theory isloop quantum gravity(LQG), which describes quantum properties of gravity and is thus a theory ofquantum spacetime. LQG is an attempt to merge and adapt standard quantum mechanics and standard general relativity. This theory describes space as an extremely fine fabric \"woven\" of finite loops calledspin networks. The evolution of a spin network over time is called aspin foam. The characteristic length scale of a spin foam is thePlanck length, approximately 1.616×10−35m, and so lengths shorter than the Planck length are not physically meaningful in LQG. Philosophical implications Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive aspects and results of quantum mechanics have provoked strongphilosophicaldebates and manyinterpretations. The arguments centre on the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, the difficulties withwavefunction collapseand the relatedmeasurement problem, andquantum nonlocality. Perhaps the only consensus that exists about these issues is that there is no consensus.Richard Feynmanonce said, \"I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics.\"According toSteven Weinberg, \"There is now in my opinion no entirely satisfactory interpretation of quantum mechanics.\" The views ofNiels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and other physicists are often grouped together as the \"Copenhagen interpretation\".According to these views, the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics is not atemporaryfeature which will eventually be replaced by a deterministic theory, but is instead afinalrenunciation of the classical idea of \"causality\". Bohr in particular emphasized that any well-defined application of the quantum mechanical formalism must always make reference to the experimental arrangement, due to thecomplementarynature of evidence obtained under different experimental situations. Copenhagen-type interpretations were adopted by Nobel laureates in quantum physics, including Bohr,Heisenberg,Schrödinger,Feynman,and Zeilingeras well as 21st-century researchers in quantum foundations. Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders ofquantum theory, was troubled by its apparent failure to respect some cherished metaphysical principles, such asdeterminismandlocality. Einstein's long-running exchanges with Bohr about the meaning and status of quantum mechanics are now known as theBohr–Einstein debates. Einstein believed that underlying quantum mechanics must be a theory that explicitly forbidsaction at a distance. He argued that quantum mechanics was incomplete, a theory that was valid but not fundamental, analogous to howthermodynamicsis valid, but the fundamental theory behind it isstatistical mechanics. In 1935, Einstein and his collaboratorsBoris PodolskyandNathan Rosenpublished an argument that the principle of locality implies the incompleteness of quantum mechanics, athought experimentlater termed theEinstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox.In 1964,John Bellshowed that EPR's principle of locality, together with determinism, was actually incompatible with quantum mechanics: they implied constraints on the correlations produced by distance systems, now known asBell inequalities, that can be violated by entangled particles.Since thenseveral experimentshave been performed to obtain these correlations, with the result that they do in fact violate Bell inequalities, and thus falsify the conjunction of locality with determinism. Bohmian mechanicsshows that it is possible to reformulate quantum mechanics to make it deterministic, at the price of making it explicitly nonlocal. It attributes not only a wave function to a physical system, but in addition a real position, that evolves deterministically under a nonlocal guiding equation. The evolution of a physical system is given at all times by the Schrödinger equation together with the guiding equation; there is never a collapse of the wave function. This solves the measurement problem. Everett'smany-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds thatallthe possibilities described by quantum theorysimultaneouslyoccur in a multiverse composed of mostly independent parallel universes.This is a consequence of removing the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet. All possible states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus, together with the observer, are present in a real physical quantum superposition. While the multiverse is deterministic, we perceive non-deterministic behavior governed by probabilities, because we do not observe the multiverse as a whole, but only one parallel universe at a time. Exactly how this is supposed to work has been the subject of much debate. Several attempts have been made to make sense of this and derive the Born rule,with no consensus on whether they have been successful. Relational quantum mechanicsappeared in the late 1990s as a modern derivative of Copenhagen-type ideas,andQBismwas developed some years later. History Quantum mechanics was developed in the early decades of the 20th century, driven by the need to explain phenomena that, in some cases, had been observed in earlier times. Scientific inquiry into the wave nature of light began in the 17th and 18th centuries, when scientists such asRobert Hooke,Christiaan HuygensandLeonhard Eulerproposed a wave theory of light based on experimental observations.In 1803 EnglishpolymathThomas Youngdescribed the famousdouble-slit experiment.This experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of thewave theory of light. During the early 19th century,chemicalresearch byJohn DaltonandAmedeo Avogadrolent weight to theatomic theoryof matter, an idea thatJames Clerk Maxwell,Ludwig Boltzmannand others built upon to establish thekinetic theory of gases. The successes of kinetic theory gave further credence to the idea that matter is composed of atoms, yet the theory also had shortcomings that would only be resolved by the development of quantum mechanics.While the early conception of atoms fromGreek philosophyhad been that they were indivisible units – the word \"atom\" deriving from theGreekfor \"uncuttable\" – the 19th century saw the formulation of hypotheses about subatomic structure. One important discovery in that regard wasMichael Faraday's 1838 observation of a glow caused by an electrical discharge inside a glass tube containing gas at low pressure.Julius Plücker,Johann Wilhelm HittorfandEugen Goldsteincarried on and improved upon Faraday's work, leading to the identification ofcathode rays, whichJ. J. Thomsonfound to consist of subatomic particles that would be called electrons. Theblack-body radiationproblem was discovered byGustav Kirchhoffin 1859. In 1900, Max Planck proposed the hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete \"quanta\" (or energy packets), yielding a calculation that precisely matched the observed patterns of black-body radiation.The wordquantumderives from theLatin, meaning \"how great\" or \"how much\".According to Planck, quantities of energy could be thought of as divided into \"elements\" whose size (E) would be proportional to theirfrequency(ν): wherehis thePlanck constant. Planck cautiously insisted that this was only an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation and was not thephysical realityof the radiation.In fact, he considered his quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right answer rather than a sizable discovery.However, in 1905 Albert Einstein interpreted Planck's quantum hypothesisrealisticallyand used it to explain thephotoelectric effect, in which shining light on certain materials can eject electrons from the material. Niels Bohr then developed Planck's ideas about radiation into amodel of the hydrogen atomthat successfully predicted thespectral linesof hydrogen.Einstein further developed this idea to show that anelectromagnetic wavesuch as light could also be described as a particle (later called the photon), with a discrete amount of energy that depends on its frequency.In his paper \"On the Quantum Theory of Radiation\", Einstein expanded on the interaction between energy and matter to explain the absorption and emission of energy by atoms. Although overshadowed at the time by his general theory of relativity, this paper articulated the mechanism underlying the stimulated emission of radiation,which became the basis of the laser. This phase is known as theold quantum theory. Never complete or self-consistent, the old quantum theory was rather a set ofheuristiccorrections to classical mechanics.The theory is now understood as asemi-classical approximationto modern quantum mechanics.Notable results from this period include, in addition to the work of Planck, Einstein and Bohr mentioned above, Einstein andPeter Debye's work on thespecific heatof solids, Bohr andHendrika Johanna van Leeuwen'sproofthat classical physics cannot account fordiamagnetism, andArnold Sommerfeld's extension of the Bohr model to include special-relativistic effects. In the mid-1920s quantum mechanics was developed to become the standard formulation for atomic physics. In 1923, the French physicistLouis de Broglieput forward his theory of matter waves by stating that particles can exhibit wave characteristics and vice versa. Building on de Broglie's approach, modern quantum mechanics was born in 1925, when the German physicists Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, andPascual Jordandevelopedmatrix mechanicsand the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger inventedwave mechanics. Born introduced the probabilistic interpretation of Schrödinger's wave function in July 1926.Thus, the entire field of quantum physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the FifthSolvay Conferencein 1927. By 1930, quantum mechanics had been further unified and formalized byDavid Hilbert, Paul Dirac andJohn von Neumannwith greater emphasis onmeasurement, the statistical nature of our knowledge of reality, andphilosophical speculation about the 'observer'. It has since permeated many disciplines, including quantum chemistry,quantum electronics,quantum optics, andquantum information science. It also provides a useful framework for many features of the modernperiodic table of elements, and describes the behaviors ofatomsduringchemical bondingand the flow of electrons in computersemiconductors, and therefore plays a crucial role in many modern technologies. While quantum mechanics was constructed to describe the world of the very small, it is also needed to explain somemacroscopicphenomena such assuperconductorsandsuperfluids. See also Explanatory notes References Further reading The following titles, all by working physicists, attempt to communicate quantum theory to lay people, using a minimum of technical apparatus. More technical: External links","Photoelectric effect Thephotoelectric effectis the emission ofelectronsfrom a material caused byelectromagnetic radiationsuch asultraviolet light. Electrons emitted in this manner are called photoelectrons. The phenomenon is studied incondensed matter physics,solid state, andquantum chemistryto draw inferences about the properties of atoms, molecules and solids. The effect has found use inelectronic devicesspecialized for light detection and precisely timed electron emission. The experimental results disagree withclassical electromagnetism, which predicts that continuous light waves transferenergyto electrons, which would then be emitted when they accumulate enough energy. An alteration in theintensityof light would theoretically change thekinetic energyof the emitted electrons, with sufficiently dim light resulting in a delayed emission. The experimental results instead show that electrons are dislodged only when the light exceeds a certainfrequency—regardless of the light's intensity or duration of exposure. Because a low-frequency beam at a high intensity does not build up the energy required to produce photoelectrons, as would be the case if light's energy accumulated over time from a continuous wave,Albert Einsteinproposed that a beam of light is nota wavepropagating through space, but a swarm of discrete energy packets, known asphotons—term coined byGilbert N. Lewisin 1926. Emission of conduction electrons from typicalmetalsrequires a fewelectron-volt(eV) light quanta, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. In extreme cases, emissions are induced with photons approaching zero energy, like in systems with negative electron affinity and the emission from excited states, or a few hundred keV photons forcore electronsinelementswith a highatomic number.Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept ofwave–particle duality.Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric charges include thephotoconductiveeffect, thephotovoltaic effect, and thephotoelectrochemical effect. Emission mechanism The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy, calledphoton energy, which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, when an electron within some material absorbs the energy of a photon and acquires more energy than itsbinding energy, it is likely to be ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Moreover, the energy of the emitted electrons will not depend on the intensity of the incoming light of a given frequency, but only on the energy of the individual photons. While free electrons can absorb any energy whenirradiatedas long as this is followed by an immediate re-emission, like in theCompton effect, in quantum systems all of the energy from one photon is absorbed—if the process is allowed byquantum mechanics—or none at all. Part of the acquired energy is used to liberate the electron from its atomic binding, and the rest contributes to the electron'skinetic energyas a free particle.Because electrons in a material occupy many different quantum states with different binding energies, and because they can sustain energy losses on their way out of the material, the emitted electrons will have a range of kinetic energies. The electrons from the highest occupied states will have the highest kinetic energy. In metals, those electrons will be emitted from theFermi level. When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the terminternal photoemissionis often used, and emission into a vacuum is distinguished asexternal photoemission. Experimental observation of photoelectric emission Even though photoemission can occur from any material, it is most readily observed from metals and other conductors. This is because the process produces a charge imbalance which, if not neutralized by current flow, results in the increasing potential barrier until the emission completely ceases. The energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by nonconductive oxide layers on metal surfaces, so most practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in evacuated tubes. Vacuum also helps observing the electrons since it prevents gases from impeding their flow between the electrodes. As sunlight, due to atmosphere's absorption, does not provide much ultraviolet light, the light rich in ultraviolet rays used to be obtained by burning magnesium or from anarc lamp. At the present time,mercury-vapor lamps,noble-gas dischargeUV lamps andradio-frequency plasmasources,ultraviolet lasers,andsynchrotroninsertion devicelight sources prevail. The classical setup to observe the photoelectric effect includes a light source, a set of filters tomonochromatizethe light, avacuum tubetransparent to ultraviolet light, an emitting electrode (E) exposed to the light, and a collector (C) whose voltageVCcan be externally controlled. A positive external voltage is used to direct the photoemitted electrons onto the collector. If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the photoelectric currentIincreases with an increase in the positive voltage, as more and more electrons are directed onto the electrode. When no additional photoelectrons can be collected, the photoelectric current attains a saturation value. This current can only increase with the increase of the intensity of light. An increasing negative voltage prevents all but the highest-energy electrons from reaching the collector. When no current is observed through the tube, the negative voltage has reached the value that is high enough to slow down and stop the most energetic photoelectrons of kinetic energyKmax. This value of the retarding voltage is called thestopping potentialorcut offpotentialVo.Since the work done by the retarding potential in stopping the electron of chargeeiseVo, the following must holdeVo=Kmax. The current-voltage curve is sigmoidal, but its exact shape depends on the experimental geometry and the electrode material properties. For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incidentradiationbelow which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called thethreshold frequency. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam increases the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons, and the stopping voltage has to increase. The number of emitted electrons may also change because theprobabilitythat each photon results in an emitted electron is a function of photon energy. An increase in the intensity of the same monochromatic light (so long as the intensity is not too high), which is proportional to the number of photons impinging on the surface in a given time, increases the rate at which electrons are ejected—the photoelectric currentI—but the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and the stopping voltage remain the same. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is very small, less than 10−9second. Angular distribution of the photoelectrons is highly dependent onpolarization(the direction of the electric field) of the incident light, as well as the emitting material's quantum properties such as atomic and molecular orbital symmetries and theelectronic band structureof crystalline solids. In materials without macroscopic order, the distribution of electrons tends to peak in the direction of polarization of linearly polarized light.The experimental technique that can measure these distributions to infer the material's properties isangle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy. Theoretical explanation In 1905,Einsteinproposed a theory of the photoelectric effect using a concept that light consists of tiny packets of energy known asphotonsor light quanta. Each packet carries energyhν{\\displaystyle h\\nu }that is proportional to the frequencyν{\\displaystyle \\nu }of the corresponding electromagnetic wave. The proportionality constanth{\\displaystyle h}has become known as thePlanck constant. In the range of kinetic energies of the electrons that are removed from their varying atomic bindings by the absorption of a photon of energyhν{\\displaystyle h\\nu }, the highest kinetic energyKmax{\\displaystyle K_{\\max }}isKmax=hν−W.{\\displaystyle K_{\\max }=h\\,\\nu -W.}Here,W{\\displaystyle W}is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the material. It is called thework functionof the surface and is sometimes denotedΦ{\\displaystyle \\Phi }orφ{\\displaystyle \\varphi }.If the work function is written asW=hνo,{\\displaystyle W=h\\,\\nu _{o},}the formula for the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons becomesKmax=h(ν−νo).{\\displaystyle K_{\\max }=h\\left(\\nu -\\nu _{o}\\right).} Kinetic energy is positive, andν>νo{\\displaystyle \\nu >\\nu _{o}}is required for the photoelectric effect to occur.The frequencyνo{\\displaystyle \\nu _{o}}is the threshold frequency for the given material. Above that frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons as well as the stopping voltage in the experimentVo=he(ν−νo){\\textstyle V_{o}={\\frac {h}{e}}\\left(\\nu -\\nu _{o}\\right)}rise linearly with the frequency, and have no dependence on the number of photons and the intensity of the impinging monochromatic light. Einstein's formula, however simple, explained all the phenomenology of the photoelectric effect, and had far-reaching consequences in thedevelopment of quantum mechanics. Photoemission from atoms, molecules and solids Electrons that are bound in atoms, molecules and solids each occupy distinct states of well-definedbinding energies. When light quanta deliver more than this amount of energy to an individual electron, the electron may be emitted into free space with excess (kinetic) energy that ishν{\\displaystyle h\\nu }higher than the electron's binding energy. The distribution of kinetic energies thus reflects the distribution of the binding energies of the electrons in the atomic, molecular or crystalline system: an electron emitted from the state at binding energyEB{\\displaystyle E_{B}}is found at kinetic energyEk=hν−EB{\\displaystyle E_{k}=h\\nu -E_{B}}. This distribution is one of the main characteristics of the quantum system, and can be used for further studies in quantum chemistry and quantum physics. Models of photoemission from solids The electronic properties of ordered, crystalline solids are determined by the distribution of the electronic states with respect to energy and momentum—the electronic band structure of the solid. Theoretical models of photoemission from solids show that this distribution is, for the most part, preserved in the photoelectric effect. The phenomenologicalthree-step modelfor ultraviolet and soft X-ray excitation decomposes the effect into these steps: There are cases where the three-step model fails to explain peculiarities of the photoelectron intensity distributions. The more elaborateone-step modeltreats the effect as a coherent process of photoexcitation into the final state of a finite crystal for which the wave function is free-electron-like outside of the crystal, but has a decaying envelope inside. History 19th century In 1839,Alexandre Edmond Becquereldiscovered the relatedphotovoltaic effectwhile studying the effect of light onelectrolytic cells.Though not equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work onphotovoltaicswas instrumental in showing a strong relationship between light and electronic properties of materials. In 1873,Willoughby Smithdiscoveredphotoconductivityinseleniumwhile testing the metal for its high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables. Johann Elster(1854–1920) andHans Geitel(1855–1923), students inHeidelberg, investigated the effects produced by light on electrified bodies and developed the first practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity of light.: 458They arranged metals with respect to their power of discharging negative electricity:rubidium,potassium,alloyof potassium and sodium,sodium,lithium,magnesium,thalliumandzinc; forcopper,platinum,lead,iron,cadmium,carbon, andmercurythe effects with ordinary light were too small to be measurable. The order of the metals for this effect was the same as in Volta's series for contact-electricity, the most electropositive metals giving the largest photo-electric effect. In 1887,Heinrich Hertzobserved the photoelectric effectand reported on the production and receptionof electromagnetic waves.The receiver in his apparatus consisted of a coil with aspark gap, where a spark would be seen upon detection of electromagnetic waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. However, he noticed that the maximum spark length was reduced when inside the box. A glass panel placed between the source of electromagnetic waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he replaced the glass with quartz, asquartzdoes not absorb UV radiation. The discoveries by Hertz led to a series of investigations byWilhelm Hallwachs,Hoor,Augusto RighiandAleksander Stoletovon the effect of light, and especially of ultraviolet light, on charged bodies. Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to anelectroscope. He allowed ultraviolet light to fall on a freshly cleaned zinc plate and observed that the zinc plate became uncharged if initially negatively charged, positively charged if initially uncharged, and more positively charged if initially positively charged. From these observations he concluded that some negatively charged particles were emitted by the zinc plate when exposed to ultraviolet light. With regard to theHertz effect, the researchers from the start showed the complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric fatigue—the progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic surfaces. According to Hallwachs,ozoneplayed an important part in the phenomenon,and the emission was influenced by oxidation, humidity, and the degree of polishing of the surface. It was at the time unclear whether fatigue is absent in a vacuum. In the period from 1888 until 1891, a detailed analysis of the photoeffect was performed byAleksandr Stoletovwith results reported in six publications.Stoletov invented a new experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of the photoeffect. He discovered a direct proportionality between the intensity of light and the induced photoelectric current (the first law of photoeffect orStoletov's law). He measured the dependence of the intensity of the photo electric current on the gas pressure, where he found the existence of an optimal gas pressure corresponding to a maximumphotocurrent; this property was used for the creation ofsolar cells. Many substances besides metals discharge negative electricity under the action of ultraviolet light. G. C. Schmidtand O. Knoblauchcompiled a list of these substances. In 1897,J. J. Thomsoninvestigated ultraviolet light inCrookes tubes.Thomson deduced that the ejected particles, which he called corpuscles, were of the same nature ascathode rays. These particles later became known as the electrons. Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation.It was thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and, after reaching a certain amplitude, caused subatomic corpuscles to be emitted, and current to be detected. The amount of this current varied with the intensity and color of the radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more current. During the years 1886–1902,Wilhelm HallwachsandPhilipp Lenardinvestigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail. Lenard observed that a current flows through an evacuated glass tube enclosing twoelectrodeswhen ultraviolet radiation falls on one of them. As soon as ultraviolet radiation is stopped, the current also stops. This initiated the concept of photoelectric emission. The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultraviolet light was made by Philipp Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several centimeters of air and yielded a greater number of positive ions than negative, it was natural to interpret the phenomenon, as J. J. Thomson did, as aHertz effectupon the particles present in the gas. 20th century In 1902, Lenard observed that theenergyof individual emitted electrons was independent of the applied light intensity.This appeared to be at odds with Maxwell'swave theory of light, which predicted that the electron energy would be proportional to theintensityof the radiation. Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency using a powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in intensity. However, Lenard's results were qualitative rather than quantitative because of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the experiments needed to be done on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it oxidized in a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The current emitted by the surface was determined by the light's intensity, or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of electrons emitted from the surface. Initial investigation of the photoelectric effect in gasses by Lenardwere followed up by J. J. Thomsonand then more decisively by Frederic Palmer Jr.The gas photoemission was studied and showed very different characteristics than those at first attributed to it by Lenard. In 1900, while studyingblack-body radiation, the German physicistMax Plancksuggested in his \"On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum\"paper that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released inpacketsof energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. Einstein theorized that the energy in each quantum of light was equal to the frequency of light multiplied by a constant, later called thePlanck constant. A photon above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single electron, creating the observed effect. This was a step in the development ofquantum mechanics. In 1914,Robert A. Millikan's highly accurate measurements of the Planck constant from the photoelectric effect supported Einstein's model, even though a corpuscular theory of light was for Millikan, at the time, \"quite unthinkable\".Einstein was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physicsfor \"his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\",and Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 for \"his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect\".In quantum perturbation theory of atoms and solids acted upon by electromagnetic radiation, the photoelectric effect is still commonly analyzed in terms of waves; the two approaches are equivalent because photon or wave absorption can only happen between quantized energy levels whose energy difference is that of the energy of photon. Albert Einstein's mathematical description of how the photoelectric effect was caused by absorption ofquantaof light was in one of hisAnnus Mirabilis papers, named \"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light\".The paper proposed a simple description ofenergy quanta, and showed how they explained the blackbody radiation spectrum. His explanation in terms of absorption of discrete quanta of light agreed with experimental results. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons was not dependent on incident lightintensity. This was a theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally fromJames Clerk Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, and more generally, the assumption ofinfinite divisibilityof energy in physical systems. Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the light. The precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that the energy of photoelectrons increases with increasingfrequencyof incident light and is independent of theintensityof the light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally determined until 1914 when Millikan showed that Einstein's prediction was correct. The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept of wave–particle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of both waves and particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was impossible to understand in terms of the classical wave description of light,as the energy of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation. Classical theory predicted that the electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time, and then be emitted. Uses and effects Photomultipliers These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a coatedphotocathodeinside the envelope. The photo cathode contains combinations of materials such as cesium, rubidium, and antimony specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials, these electrons are accelerated and substantially increased in number throughsecondary emissionto provide a readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected. Image sensors Video camera tubesin the early days oftelevisionused the photoelectric effect. For example,Philo Farnsworth's \"Image dissector\" used a screen charged by the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic signal. Photoelectron spectroscopy Because the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is exactly the energy of the incident photon minus the energy of the electron's binding within an atom, molecule or solid, the binding energy can be determined by shining amonochromaticX-rayorUVlight of a known energy and measuring the kinetic energies of the photoelectrons.The distribution of electron energies is valuable for studying quantum properties of these systems. It can also be used to determine the elemental composition of the samples. For solids, the kinetic energy and emission angle distribution of the photoelectrons is measured for the complete determination of theelectronic band structurein terms of the allowed binding energies and momenta of the electrons. Modern instruments for angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy are capable of measuring these quantities with a precision better than 1 meV and 0.1°. Photoelectron spectroscopymeasurements are usually performed in a high-vacuum environment, because the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present. However, some companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in air. The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or asynchrotron radiationsource. Theconcentric hemispherical analyzeris a typical electron energy analyzer. It uses an electric field between two hemispheres to change (disperse) the trajectories of incident electrons depending on their kinetic energies. Night vision devices Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal orsemiconductormaterial such asgallium arsenidein animage intensifiertube cause the ejection of photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by anelectrostatic fieldwhere they strike aphosphorcoated screen, converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the signal is achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of electrons through secondary emissions, such as with amicro-channel plate. Sometimes a combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required to move an electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is known as theelectron affinityof the photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other than the forbidden band, explained by theband gapmodel. Some materials such as gallium arsenide have an effective electron affinity that is below the level of the conduction band. In these materials, electrons that move to the conduction band all have sufficient energy to be emitted from the material, so the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick. These materials are known as negative electron affinity materials. Spacecraft The photoelectric effect will causespacecraftexposed to sunlight to develop a positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical components. Thestatic chargecreated by the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object does not give up its electrons as easily as a lower charged object does. Moon dust Light from the Sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively charged from the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of theMoonbyelectrostatic levitation.This manifests itself almost like an \"atmosphere of dust\", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by theSurveyor programprobes in the 1960s,and most recently theChang'e 3rover observed dust deposition on lunar rocks as high as about 28 cm.It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the surface and that the particles move in \"fountains\" as they charge and discharge. Competing processes and photoemission cross section When photon energies are as high as the electron rest energy of511 keV, yet another process,Compton scattering, may occur. Above twice this energy, at1.022 MeV,pair productionis also more likely.Compton scattering and pair production are examples of two other competing mechanisms.Even if the photoelectric effect is the favoured reaction for a particular interaction of a single photon with a bound electron, the result is also subject to quantum statistics and is not guaranteed. The probability of the photoelectric effect occurring is measured by thecross sectionof the interaction, σ. This has been found to be a function of the atomic number of the target atom and photon energy. In a crude approximation, for photon energies above the highest atomic binding energy, the cross section is given by: HereZis theatomic numberandnis a number which varies between 4 and 5. The photoelectric effect rapidly decreases in significance in the gamma-ray region of the spectrum, with increasing photon energy. It is also more likely from elements with high atomic number. Consequently, high-Zmaterials make goodgamma-rayshields, which is the principal reason why lead (Z= 82) is preferred and most widely used. See also References External links Applets","Bohr model Inatomic physics, theBohr modelorRutherford–Bohr modelwas the first successful model of theatom. Developed from 1911 to 1918 byNiels Bohrand building onErnest Rutherford's nuclearmodel, it supplanted theplum pudding modelofJ J Thomsononly to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, densenucleussurrounded byorbitingelectrons. It isanalogousto the structure of theSolar System, but with attraction provided byelectrostatic forcerather thangravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values). In the history of atomic physics, it followed, and ultimately replaced, several earlier models, includingJoseph Larmor's Solar System model (1897),Jean Perrin's model (1901),thecubical model(1902),Hantaro Nagaoka'sSaturnianmodel (1904), theplum pudding model(1904),Arthur Haas's quantum model (1910), theRutherford model(1911), andJohn William Nicholson's nuclear quantum model (1912). The improvement over the 1911 Rutherford model mainly concerned the newquantum mechanicalinterpretation introduced by Haas and Nicholson, but forsaking any attempt to explain radiation according toclassical physics. The model's key success lies in explaining theRydberg formulaforhydrogen's spectral emission lines. While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical basis until the Bohr model was introduced. Not only did the Bohr model explain the reasons for the structure of the Rydberg formula, it also provided a justification for the fundamental physical constants that make up the formula's empirical results. The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of thehydrogen atom, compared to thevalence shellmodel. As a theory, it can be derived as afirst-order approximationof the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics and thus may be considered to be anobsolete scientific theory. However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students toquantum mechanicsorenergy level diagramsbefore moving on to the more accurate, but more complex, valence shell atom. A related quantum model was proposed byArthur Erich Haasin 1910 but was rejected until the 1911 Solvay Congress where it was thoroughly discussed.The quantum theory of the period betweenPlanck's discovery of the quantum(1900) and the advent of a mature quantum mechanics (1925) is often referred to as theold quantum theory. Background Until the second decade of the 20th century, atomic models were generally speculative. Even the concept of atoms, let alone atoms with internal structure, faced opposition from some scientists.: 2 Planetary models In the late 1800's speculations on the possible structure of the atom included planetary models with orbiting charged electrons.: 35These models faced a significant constraint. In 1897,Joseph Larmorshowed that an accelerating charge would radiate power according to classical electrodynamics, a result known as theLarmor formula. Since electrons forced to remain in orbit are continuously accelerating, they would be mechanically unstable. Larmor noted that electromagnetic effect of multiple electrons, suitable arranged, would cancel each other. Thus subsequent atomic models based on classical electrodynamics needed to adopt such special multi-electron arrangements.: 113 Thomson's atom model When Bohr began his work on a new atomic theory in the summer of 1912: 237the atomic model proposed byJ J Thomson, now known as thePlum pudding model, was the best available.: 37Thomson proposed a model with electrons rotating in coplanar rings within an atomic-sized, positively-charged, spherical volume. Thomson showed that this model was mechanically stable by lengthy calculations and was electrodynamically stable under his original assumption of thousands of electrons per atom. Moreover, he suggested that the particularly stable configurations of electrons in rings was connected to chemical properties of the atoms. He developed a formula for the scattering ofbeta particlesthat seemed to match experimental results.: 38However Thomson himself later showed that the atom had a factor of a thousand fewer electrons, challenging the stability argument and forcing the poorly understood positive sphere to have most of the atom's mass. Thomson was also unable to explain the many lines in atomic spectra.: 18 Rutherford nuclear model In 1908,Hans GeigerandErnest Marsdendemonstrated thatalpha particleoccasionally scatter at large angles, a result inconsistent with Thomson's model. In 1911Ernest Rutherforddeveloped a new scattering model, showing that the observed large angle scattering could be explained by a compact, highly charged mass at the center of the atom. Rutherford scattering did not involve the electrons and thus hismodel of the atomwas incomplete.Bohr begins his first paper on his atomic model by describing Rutherford's atom as consisting of a small, dense, positively chargednucleusattracting negatively chargedelectrons. Atomic spectra By the early twentieth century, it was expected that the atom would account for the many atomic spectral lines. These lines were summarized in empirical formula byJohann BalmerandJohannes Rydberg. In 1897, Lord Rayleigh showed that vibrations of electrical systems predicted spectral lines that depend on the square of the vibrational frequency, contradicting the empirical formula which depended directly on the frequency.:18In 1907Arthur W. Conwayshowed that, rather than the entire atom vibrating, vibrations of only one of the electrons in the system described by Thomson might be sufficient to account for spectral series.: II:106Although Bohr's model would also rely on just the electron to explain the spectrum, he did not assume an electrodynamical model for the atom. The other important advance in the understanding of atomic spectra was theRydberg–Ritz combination principlewhich related atomic spectral line frequencies to differences between 'terms', special frequencies characteristic of each element.:173Bohr would recognize the terms as energy levels of the atom divided by the Planck constant, leading to the modern view that the spectral lines result from energy differences.: 847 Haas atomic model In 1910,Arthur Erich Haasproposed a model of the hydrogen atom with an electron circulating on the surface of a sphere of positive charge. The model resembled Thomson's plum pudding model, but Haas added a radical new twist: he constrained the electron's potential energy,Epot{\\displaystyle E_{\\text{pot}}}, on a sphere of radiusato equal the frequency,f, of the electron's orbit on the sphere times thePlanck constant:: 197Epot=−e2a=hf{\\displaystyle E_{\\text{pot}}={\\frac {-e^{2}}{a}}=hf}whereerepresents the charge on the electron and the sphere. Haas combined this constraint with the balance-of-forces equation. The attractive force between the electron and the sphere balances thecentrifugal force:e2a2=ma(2πf)2{\\displaystyle {\\frac {e^{2}}{a^{2}}}=ma(2\\pi f)^{2}}wheremis the mass of the electron. This combination relates the radius of the sphere to the Planck constant:a=h24π2e2m{\\displaystyle a={\\frac {h^{2}}{4\\pi ^{2}e^{2}m}}}Haas solved for the Planck constant using the then-current value for the radius of the hydrogen atom. Three years later, Bohr would use similar equations with different interpretation. Bohr took the Planck constant as given value and used the equations to predict,a, the radius of the electron orbiting in the ground state of the hydrogen atom. This value is now called theBohr radius.: 197 Influence of the Solvay Conference The firstSolvay Conference, in 1911, was one of the first international physics conferences. Nine Nobel or future Nobel laureates attended, includingErnest Rutherford, Bohr's mentor.: 271Bohr did not attend but he read the Solvay reportsand discussed them with Rutherford.: 233 The subject of the conference was the theory of radiation and the energy quanta ofMax Planck's oscillators.Planck's lecture at the conference ended with comments about atoms and the discussion that followed it concerned atomic models.Hendrik Lorentzraised the question of the composition of the atom based onHaas's model, a form of Thomson's plum pudding model with a quantum modification. Lorentz explained that the size of atoms could be taken to determine the Planck constant as Haas had done or the Planck constant could be taken as determining the size of atoms.: 273Bohr would adopt the second path. The discussions outlined the need for the quantum theory to be included in the atom. Planck explicitly mentions the failings of classical mechanics.: 273While Bohr had already expressed a similar opinion in his PhD thesis, at Solvay the leading scientists of the day discussed a break with classical theories.: 244Bohr's first paper on his atomic model cites the Solvay proceedings saying: \"Whatever the alteration in the laws of motion of the electrons may be, it seems necessary to introduce in the laws in question a quantity foreign to the classical electrodynamics,i.e.Planck's constant, or as it often is called the elementary quantum of action.\"Encouraged by the Solvay discussions, Bohr would assume the atom was stable and abandon the efforts to stabilize classical models of the atom: 199 Nicholson atom theory In 1911John William Nicholsonpublished a model of the atom which would influence Bohr's model. Nicholson developed his model based on the analysis of astrophysical spectroscopy. He connected the observed spectral line frequencies with the orbits of electrons in his atoms. The connection he adopted associated the atomic electron orbital angular momentum with thePlanck constant. Whereas Planck focused on a quantum of energy, Nicholson's angular momentum quantum relates to orbital frequency. This new concept gave Planck constant an atomic meaning for the first time.: 169In his 1913 paper Bohr cites Nicholson as finding quantized angular momentum important for the atom. The other critical influence of Nicholson work was his detailed analysis of spectra. Before Nicholson's work Bohr thought the spectral data was not useful for understanding atoms. In comparing his work to Nicholson's, Bohr came to understand the spectral data and their value. When he then learned from a friend aboutBalmer's compact formulafor the spectral line data, Bohr quickly realized his model would match it in detail.: 178 Nicholson's model was based on classical electrodynamics along the lines ofJ.J. Thomson'splum pudding modelbut his negative electrons orbiting a positive nucleus rather than circulating in a sphere. To avoid immediate collapse of this system he required that electrons come in pairs so the rotational acceleration of each electron was matched across the orbit.: 163By 1913 Bohr had already shown, from the analysis of alpha particle energy loss, that hydrogen had only a single electron not a matched pair.: 195Bohr's atomic model would abandon classical electrodynamics. Nicholson's model of radiation was quantum but was attached to the orbits of the electrons.Bohr quantization would associate it with differences in energy levels of his model of hydrogen rather than the orbital frequency. Bohr's previous work Bohr completed his PhD in 1911 with a thesis 'Studies on the Electron Theory of Metals', an application of the classical electron theory ofHendrik Lorentz. Bohr noted two deficits of the classical model. The first concerned thespecific heatof metals whichJames Clerk Maxwellnoted in 1875: every additional degree of freedom in a theory of metals, like subatomic electrons, cause more disagreement with experiment. The second, the classical theory could not explain magnetism.: 194 After his PhD, Bohr worked briefly in the lab ofJJ Thomsonbefore moving to Rutherford's lab inManchesterto study radioactivity. He arrived just after Rutherford completed his proposal of a compact nuclear core for atoms.Charles Galton Darwin, also at Manchester, had just completed an analysis of alpha particle energy loss in metals, concluding the electron collisions where the dominant cause of loss. Bohr showed in a subsequent paper that Darwin's results would improve by accounting for electron binding energy. Importantly this allowed Bohr to conclude that hydrogen atoms have a single electron.: 195 Development Next, Bohr was told by his friend, Hans Hansen, that the Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, anempiricalequation discovered byJohann Balmerin 1885 that described wavelengths of some spectral lines of hydrogen.This was further generalized byJohannes Rydbergin 1888, resulting in what is now known as theRydberg formula. After this, Bohr declared, \"everything became clear\". In 1913Niels Bohrput forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model: Other points are: Bohr's condition, that the angular momentum be an integer multiple ofℏ{\\displaystyle \\hbar }, was later reinterpreted in 1924 byde Broglieas astanding wavecondition: the electron is described by a wave and a whole number of wavelengths must fit along the circumference of the electron's orbit: According to de Broglie's hypothesis, matter particles such as the electron behave aswaves. Thede Broglie wavelengthof an electron is which implies that or wheremvr{\\displaystyle mvr}is the angular momentum of the orbiting electron. Writingℓ{\\displaystyle \\ell }for this angular momentum, the previous equation becomes which is Bohr's second postulate. Bohr described angular momentum of the electron orbit as2/h{\\displaystyle 2/h}whilede Broglie's wavelengthofλ=h/p{\\displaystyle \\lambda =h/p}describedh{\\displaystyle h}divided by the electron momentum. In 1913, however, Bohr justified his rule by appealing to the correspondence principle, without providing any sort of wave interpretation. In 1913, the wave behavior of matter particles such as the electron was not suspected. In 1925, a new kind of mechanics was proposed,quantum mechanics, in which Bohr's model of electrons traveling in quantized orbits was extended into amore accurate modelof electron motion. The new theory was proposed byWerner Heisenberg.Another formof the same theory, wave mechanics, was discovered by the Austrian physicistErwin Schrödingerindependently, and by different reasoning. Schrödinger employed de Broglie's matter waves, but sought wave solutions of a three-dimensional wave equation describing electrons that were constrained to move about the nucleus of ahydrogen-like atom, by being trapped by the potential of the positive nuclear charge. Electron energy levels The Bohr model gives almost exact results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. This not only involves one-electron systems such as thehydrogen atom, singly ionizedhelium, and doubly ionizedlithium, but it includespositroniumandRydberg statesof any atom where one electron is far away from everything else. It can be used forK-lineX-ray transition calculations if other assumptions are added (seeMoseley's lawbelow). In high energy physics, it can be used to calculate the masses ofheavy quarkmesons. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions. Derivation In classical mechanics, if an electron is orbiting around an atom with period T, and if its coupling to the electromagnetic field is weak, so that the orbit doesn't decay very much in one cycle, it will emit electromagnetic radiation in a pattern repeating at every period, so that the Fourier transform of the pattern will only have frequencies which are multiples of 1/T. However, in quantum mechanics, the quantization of angular momentum leads to discrete energy levels of the orbits, and the emitted frequencies are quantized according to the energy differences between these levels. This discrete nature of energy levels introduces a fundamental departure from the classical radiation law, giving rise to distinct spectral lines in the emitted radiation. Bohr assumes that the electron is circling the nucleus in an elliptical orbit obeying the rules of classical mechanics, but with no loss of radiation due to theLarmor formula. Denoting the total energy asE, the negative electron charge ase, the positive nucleus charge asK=Z|e|, the electron mass asme, half the major axis of the ellipse asa, he starts with these equations:: 3 Eis assumed to be negative, because a positive energy is required to unbind the electron from the nucleus and put it at rest at an infinite distance. Eq. (1a) is obtained from equating the centripetal force to the Coulombian force acting between the nucleus and the electron, considering thatE=T+U{\\displaystyle E=T+U}(whereTis the average kinetic energy andUthe average electrostatic potential), and that for Kepler's second law, the average separation between the electron and the nucleus isa. Eq. (1b) is obtained from the same premises of eq. (1a) plus thevirial theorem, stating that, for an elliptical orbit, Then Bohr assumes that|E|{\\displaystyle \\vert E\\vert }is an integer multiple of the energy of a quantum of light with half the frequency of the electron's revolution frequency,: 4i.e: From eq. (1a,1b,2), it descends: He further assumes that the orbit is circular, i.e.a=r{\\displaystyle a=r}, and, denoting the angular momentum of the electron asL, introduces the equation: Eq. (4) stems from thevirial theorem, and from the classical mechanics relationships between the angular momentum, the kinetic energy and the frequency of revolution. From eq. (1c,2,4), it stems: where: that is: This results states that the angular momentum of the electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant.: 15 Substituting the expression for the velocity gives an equation forrin terms ofn: so that the allowed orbit radius at anynis The smallest possible value ofrin the hydrogen atom (Z= 1) is called theBohr radiusand is equal to: The energy of then-th level for any atom is determined by the radius and quantum number: An electron in the lowest energy level of hydrogen (n= 1) therefore has about 13.6eVless energy than a motionless electron infinitely far from the nucleus. The next energy level (n= 2) is −3.4 eV. The third (n=3) is −1.51 eV, and so on. For larger values ofn, these are also the binding energies of a highly excited atom with one electron in a large circular orbit around the rest of the atom. The hydrogen formula also coincides with theWallis product. The combination of natural constants in the energy formula is called the Rydberg energy (RE): This expression is clarified by interpreting it in combinations that form morenatural units: Since this derivation is with the assumption that the nucleus is orbited by one electron, we can generalize this result by letting the nucleus have a chargeq=Ze, whereZis the atomic number. This will now give us energy levels for hydrogenic (hydrogen-like) atoms, which can serve as a rough order-of-magnitude approximation of the actual energy levels. So for nuclei withZprotons, the energy levels are (to a rough approximation): The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (seen-body problem) because the electrons are not only affected by thenucleusbut also interact with each other via theCoulomb force. WhenZ= 1/α(Z≈ 137), the motion becomes highly relativistic, andZ2cancels theα2inR; the orbit energy begins to be comparable to rest energy. Sufficiently large nuclei, if they were stable, would reduce their charge by creating a bound electron from the vacuum, ejecting the positron to infinity. This is the theoretical phenomenon of electromagnetic charge screening which predicts a maximum nuclear charge. Emission of such positrons has been observed in the collisions of heavy ions to create temporary super-heavy nuclei. The Bohr formula properly uses thereduced massof electron and proton in all situations, instead of the mass of the electron, However, these numbers are very nearly the same, due to the much larger mass of the proton, about 1836.1 times the mass of the electron, so that the reduced mass in the system is the mass of the electron multiplied by the constant 1836.1/(1+1836.1) = 0.99946. This fact was historically important in convincing Rutherford of the importance of Bohr's model, for it explained the fact that the frequencies of lines in the spectra for singly ionized helium do not differ from those of hydrogen by a factor of exactly 4, but rather by 4 times the ratio of the reduced mass for the hydrogen vs. the helium systems, which was much closer to the experimental ratio than exactly 4. For positronium, the formula uses the reduced mass also, but in this case, it is exactly the electron mass divided by 2. For any value of the radius, the electron and the positron are each moving at half the speed around their common center of mass, and each has only one fourth the kinetic energy. The total kinetic energy is half what it would be for a single electron moving around a heavy nucleus. Rydberg formula Beginning in late 1860s,Johann Balmerand laterJohannes RydbergandWalther Ritzdeveloped increasingly accurate empirical formula matching measured atomic spectral lines. Critical for Bohr's later work, Rydberg expressed his formula in terms of wave-number, equivalent to frequency.These formula contained a constant,R{\\displaystyle R}, now known theRydberg constantand a pair of integers indexing the lines:: 247ν=R(1m2−1n2).{\\displaystyle \\nu =R\\left({\\frac {1}{m^{2}}}-{\\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\\right).}Despite many attempts, no theory of the atom could reproduce these relatively simple formula.: 169 In Bohr's theory describing the energies of transitions orquantum jumpsbetween orbital energy levels is able to explain these formula. For the hydrogen atom Bohr starts with his derived formula for the energy released as a free electron moves into a stable circular orbit indexed byτ{\\displaystyle \\tau }:Wτ=2π2me4h2τ2{\\displaystyle W_{\\tau }={\\frac {2\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}\\tau ^{2}}}}The energy difference between two such levels is then:hν=Wτ2−Wτ1=2π2me4h2(1τ22−1τ12){\\displaystyle h\\nu =W_{\\tau _{2}}-W_{\\tau _{1}}={\\frac {2\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}}}\\left({\\frac {1}{\\tau _{2}^{2}}}-{\\frac {1}{\\tau _{1}^{2}}}\\right)}Therefore Bohr's theory gives the Rydberg formula and moreover the numerical value the Rydberg constant for hydrogen in terms of more fundamental constants of nature, including the electron's charge, the electron's mass, and thePlanck constant:: 31cRH=2π2me4h3.{\\displaystyle cR_{H}={\\frac {2\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{3}}}.} Since the energy of a photon is these results can be expressed in terms of the wavelength of the photon given off: Bohr's derivation of the Rydberg constant, as well as the concomitant agreement of Bohr's formula with experimentally observed spectral lines of theLyman(nf=1),Balmer(nf=2), andPaschen(nf=3) series, and successful theoretical prediction of other lines not yet observed, was one reason that his model was immediately accepted.: 34 To apply to atoms with more than one electron, the Rydberg formula can be modified by replacingZwithZ−bornwithn−bwherebis constant representing a screening effect due to the inner-shell and other electrons (seeElectron shelland the later discussion of the \"Shell Model of the Atom\" below). This was established empirically before Bohr presented his model. Shell model (heavier atoms) Bohr's original three papers in 1913 described mainly the electron configuration in lighter elements. Bohr called his electron shells, \"rings\" in 1913. Atomic orbitals within shells did not exist at the time of his planetary model. Bohr explains in Part 3 of his famous 1913 paper that the maximum electrons in a shell is eight, writing: \"We see, further, that a ring ofnelectrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of chargeneunlessn< 8.\" For smaller atoms, the electron shells would be filled as follows: \"rings of electrons will only join together if they contain equal numbers of electrons; and that accordingly the numbers of electrons on inner rings will only be 2, 4, 8\". However, in larger atoms the innermost shell would contain eight electrons, \"on the other hand, the periodic system of the elements strongly suggests that already in neonN= 10 an inner ring of eight electrons will occur\". Bohr wrote \"From the above we are led to the following possible scheme for the arrangement of the electrons in light atoms:\" In Bohr's third 1913 paper Part III called \"Systems Containing Several Nuclei\", he says that two atoms form molecules on a symmetrical plane and he reverts to describing hydrogen.The 1913 Bohr model did not discuss higher elements in detail andJohn William Nicholsonwas one of the first to prove in 1914 that it couldn't work for lithium, but was an attractive theory for hydrogen and ionized helium. In 1921, following the work of chemists and others involved in work on theperiodic table, Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time although these properties were proposed contemporarily with the identical work of chemistCharles Rugeley Bury Bohr's partner in research during 1914 to 1916 wasWalther Kosselwho corrected Bohr's work to show that electrons interacted through the outer rings, and Kossel called the rings: \"shells\".Irving Langmuiris credited with the first viable arrangement of electrons in shells with only two in the first shell and going up to eight in the next according to theoctet ruleof 1904, although Kossel had already predicted a maximum of eight per shell in 1916.Heavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr took from these chemists the idea that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. PerKossel, after that the orbit is full, the next level would have to be used.This gives the atom ashell structuredesigned by Kossel, Langmuir, and Bury, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit. This model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon ofscreening. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit. For example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1s orbit, and these orbit atZ= 2. Each one sees the nuclear charge ofZ= 3 minus the screening effect of the other, which crudely reduces the nuclear charge by 1 unit. This means that the innermost electrons orbit at approximately 1/2 the Bohr radius. The outermost electron in lithium orbits at roughly the Bohr radius, since the two inner electrons reduce the nuclear charge by 2. This outer electron should be at nearly one Bohr radius from the nucleus. Because the electrons strongly repel each other, the effective charge description is very approximate; the effective chargeZdoesn't usually come out to be an integer. The shell model was able to qualitatively explain many of the mysterious properties of atoms which became codified in the late 19th century in theperiodic table of the elements. One property was the size of atoms, which could be determined approximately by measuring theviscosityof gases and density of pure crystalline solids. Atoms tend to get smaller toward the right in the periodic table, and become much larger at the next line of the table. Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them. Every element on the last column of the table is chemically inert (noble gas). In the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling. Successive atoms become smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing it to expand. The first Bohr orbit is filled when it has two electrons, which explains why helium is inert. The second orbit allows eight electrons, and when it is full the atom is neon, again inert. The third orbital contains eight again, except that in the more correct Sommerfeld treatment (reproduced in modern quantum mechanics) there are extra \"d\" electrons. The third orbit may hold an extra 10 d electrons, but these positions are not filled until a few more orbitals from the next level are filled (filling the n=3 d orbitals produces the 10transition elements). The irregular filling pattern is an effect of interactions between electrons, which are not taken into account in either the Bohr or Sommerfeld models and which are difficult to calculate even in the modern treatment. Moseley's law and calculation (K-alpha X-ray emission lines) Niels Bohr said in 1962: \"You see actually the Rutherford work was not taken seriously. We cannot understand today, but it was not taken seriously at all. There was no mention of it any place. The great change came from Moseley.\" In 1913,Henry Moseleyfound an empirical relationship between the strongest X-ray line emitted by atoms under electron bombardment (then known as theK-alphaline), and their atomic numberZ. Moseley's empiric formula was found to be derivable from Rydberg's formula and later Bohr's formula (Moseley actually mentions onlyErnest RutherfordandAntonius Van den Broekin terms of models as these had been published before Moseley's work and Moseley's 1913 paper was published the same month as the first Bohr model paper).The two additional assumptions thatthis X-ray line came from a transition between energy levels with quantum numbers 1 and 2, and, that the atomic numberZwhen used in the formula for atoms heavier than hydrogen, should be diminished by 1, to(Z− 1)2. Moseley wrote to Bohr, puzzled about his results, but Bohr was not able to help. At that time, he thought that the postulated innermost \"K\" shell of electrons should have at least four electrons, not the two which would have neatly explained the result. So Moseley published his results without a theoretical explanation. It wasWalther Kosselin 1914 and in 1916 who explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell. In Kossel's paper, he writes: \"This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of which ... only a certain number of electrons—namely, eight in our case—should be arranged. As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated.\"Later, chemist Langmuir realized that the effect was caused by charge screening, with an inner shell containing only 2 electrons. In his 1919 paper,Irving Langmuirpostulated the existence of \"cells\" which could each only contain two electrons each, and these were arranged in \"equidistant layers\". In the Moseley experiment, one of the innermost electrons in the atom is knocked out, leaving a vacancy in the lowest Bohr orbit, which contains a single remaining electron. This vacancy is then filled by an electron from the next orbit, which has n=2. But the n=2 electrons see an effective charge ofZ− 1, which is the value appropriate for the charge of the nucleus, when a single electron remains in the lowest Bohr orbit to screen the nuclear charge +Z, and lower it by −1 (due to the electron's negative charge screening the nuclear positive charge). The energy gained by an electron dropping from the second shell to the first gives Moseley's law for K-alpha lines, or Here,Rv=RE/his the Rydberg constant, in terms of frequency equal to 3.28 x 1015Hz. For values of Z between 11 and 31 this latter relationship had been empirically derived by Moseley, in a simple (linear) plot of the square root of X-ray frequency against atomic number (however, for silver, Z = 47, the experimentally obtained screening term should be replaced by 0.4). Notwithstanding its restricted validity,Moseley's law not only established the objective meaning of atomic number, but as Bohr noted, it also did more than the Rydberg derivation to establish the validity of the Rutherford/Van den Broek/Bohr nuclear model of the atom, with atomic number (place on the periodic table) standing for whole units of nuclear charge. Van den Broek had published his model in January 1913 showing the periodic table was arranged according to charge while Bohr's atomic model was not published until July 1913. TheK-alphaline of Moseley's time is now known to be a pair of close lines, written as (Kα1andKα2) inSiegbahn notation. Shortcomings The Bohr model gives an incorrect valueL=ħfor the ground state orbital angular momentum: The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero from experiment. Although mental pictures fail somewhat at these levels of scale, an electron in the lowest modern \"orbital\" with no orbital momentum, may be thought of as not to revolve \"around\" the nucleus at all, but merely to go tightly around it in an ellipse with zero area (this may be pictured as \"back and forth\", without striking or interacting with the nucleus). This is only reproduced in a more sophisticated semiclassical treatment like Sommerfeld's. Still, even the most sophisticated semiclassical model fails to explain the fact that the lowest energy state is spherically symmetric – it doesn't point in any particular direction. Nevertheless, in the modernfully quantum treatment in phase space, the proper deformation (careful full extension) of the semi-classical result adjusts the angular momentum value to the correct effective one.As a consequence, the physical ground state expression is obtained through a shift of the vanishing quantum angular momentum expression, which corresponds to spherical symmetry. In modern quantum mechanics, the electron in hydrogen is aspherical cloud of probabilitythat grows denser near the nucleus. The rate-constant of probability-decay in hydrogen is equal to the inverse of the Bohr radius, but since Bohr worked with circular orbits, not zero area ellipses, the fact that these two numbers exactly agree is considered a \"coincidence\". (However, many such coincidental agreements are found between the semiclassical vs. full quantum mechanical treatment of the atom; these include identical energy levels in the hydrogen atom and the derivation of a fine-structure constant, which arises from the relativistic Bohr–Sommerfeld model (see below) and which happens to be equal to an entirely different concept, in full modern quantum mechanics). The Bohr model also has difficulty with, or else fails to explain: Refinements Several enhancements to the Bohr model were proposed, most notably theSommerfeld or Bohr–Sommerfeld models, which suggested that electrons travel in elliptical orbits around a nucleus instead of the Bohr model's circular orbits.This model supplemented the quantized angular momentum condition of the Bohr model with an additional radial quantization condition, theWilson–Sommerfeldquantization condition wherepris the radial momentum canonically conjugate to the coordinateqr, which is the radial position, andTis one full orbital period. The integral is theactionofaction-angle coordinates. This condition, suggested by thecorrespondence principle, is the only one possible, since the quantum numbers areadiabatic invariants. The Bohr–Sommerfeld model was fundamentally inconsistent and led to many paradoxes. Themagnetic quantum numbermeasured the tilt of the orbital plane relative to thexyplane, and it could only take a few discrete values. This contradicted the obvious fact that an atom could have any orientation relative to the coordinates, without restriction. The Sommerfeld quantization can be performed in different canonical coordinates and sometimes gives different answers. The incorporation of radiation corrections was difficult, because it required finding action-angle coordinates for a combined radiation/atom system, which is difficult when the radiation is allowed to escape. The whole theory did not extend to non-integrable motions, which meant that many systems could not be treated even in principle. In the end, the model was replaced by the modern quantum-mechanical treatment of thehydrogen atom, which was first given byWolfgang Pauliin 1925, using Heisenberg'smatrix mechanics. The current picture of the hydrogen atom is based on theatomic orbitalsofwave mechanics, whichErwin Schrödingerdeveloped in 1926. However, this is not to say that the Bohr–Sommerfeld model was without its successes. Calculations based on the Bohr–Sommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic spectral effects. For example, up to first-orderperturbations, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in theStark effect. At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model. The prevailing theory behind this difference lies in the shapes of the orbitals of the electrons, which vary according to the energy state of the electron. The Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization conditions lead to questions in modern mathematics. Consistent semiclassical quantization condition requires a certain type of structure on the phase space, which places topological limitations on the types of symplectic manifolds which can be quantized. In particular, the symplectic form should be thecurvature formof aconnectionof aHermitianline bundle, which is called aprequantization. Bohr also updated his model in 1922, assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example, 2, 8, and 18) correspond to stable \"closed shells\". Model of the chemical bond Niels Bohr proposed a model of the atom anda model of the chemical bond. According to his model for adiatomic molecule, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei. Thedynamic equilibriumof the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei. The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account theCoulomb repulsion– the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other. Symbolism of planetary atomic models Although Bohr's atomic model was superseded by quantum models in the 1920's, the visual image of electrons orbiting a nucleus has remained the popular concept of atoms. The concept of an atom as a tinyplanetary systemhas been widely used as a symbol for atoms and even for \"atomic\" energy (even though this is more properly considered nuclear energy).:58Examples of its use over the past century include but are not limited to: See also References Footnotes Primary sources Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Max Planck Max Karl Ernst Ludwig PlanckForMemRS(/ˈplæŋk/;German:ⓘ;23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a Germantheoretical physicistwhose discovery of energyquantawon him theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1918. Planck made many substantial contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame as a physicist rests primarily on his role as the originator ofquantum theoryand one of the founders ofmodern physics,which revolutionized understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. He is known for thePlanck constant, which is of foundational importance for quantum physics, and which he used to derive a set ofunits, today calledPlanck units, expressed only in terms of fundamentalphysical constants. Planck was twice president of the German scientific institutionKaiser Wilhelm Society. In 1948, it was renamed theMax Planck Society(Max-Planck-Gesellschaft) and nowadays includes 83 institutions representing a wide range of scientific directions. Early life and education Planck came from a traditional, intellectual family. His paternal great-grandfather and grandfather were both theology professors inGöttingen; his father was a law professor at theUniversity of KielandMunich. One of his uncles was also a judge. Planck was born in 1858 inKiel,Holstein(nowSchleswig-Holstein), to Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck and his second wife, Emma Patzig. He was baptized with the name ofKarl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck; of his given names,Marxwas indicated as the\\\"appellation name\\\".However, by the age of ten he signed with the nameMaxand used this for the rest of his life. He was the sixth child in the family, though two of his siblings were from his father's first marriage. War was common during Planck's early years and among his earliest memories was the marching ofPrussianandAustriantroops into Kiel during theSecond Schleswig Warin 1864.In 1867 the family moved toMunich, and Planck enrolled in the Maximiliansgymnasiumschool. There, his mathematical talents emerged earlyand he later came under the tutelage of Hermann Müller, a mathematician who took an interest in the youth, and taught himastronomyandmechanicsas well asmathematics. It was from Müller that Planck first learned the principle of conservation of energy. Planck graduated early, at age 17.This is how Planck first came in contact with the field of physics. Planck was gifted when it came to music. He took singing lessons and played piano, organ and cello, and composed songs and operas. However, instead of music he chose to studyphysics. Planck enrolled at theUniversity of Munichin 1874. Under professorPhilipp von Jolly's supervision, Planck performed the only experiments of his scientific career, studying thediffusionofhydrogenthrough heatedplatinum, but transferred totheoretical physics. Jolly advised Planck against going into theoretical physics. Planck recalls that in 1878, Jolly argued that physics was almost complete, being a \\\"highly developed, nearly fully matured science, that through the crowning achievement of the discovery of the principle of conservation of energy will arguably soon take its final stable form\\\". In 1877, he went to theFriedrich Wilhelms Universityin Berlin for a year of study with physicistsHermann von HelmholtzandGustav Kirchhoffand mathematicianKarl Weierstrass. He wrote that Helmholtz was never quite prepared, spoke slowly, miscalculated endlessly, and bored his listeners, while Kirchhoff spoke in carefully prepared lectures which were dry and monotonous. He soon became close friends with Helmholtz. While there he undertook a program of mostly self-study ofRudolf Clausius'swritings, which led him to choosethermodynamicsas his field. In October 1878, Planck passed his qualifying exams and in February 1879 defended his dissertationÜber den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie(On the Second Law of Mechanical Heat Theory). He briefly taught mathematics and physics at his former school in Munich. By the year 1880, Planck had obtained the two highest academic degrees offered in Europe. The first was a doctorate degree after he completed his paper detailing his research and theory of thermodynamics.He then presented his thesis calledGleichgewichtszustände isotroper Körper in verschiedenen Temperaturen(Equilibrium states of isotropic bodies at different temperatures), which earned him ahabilitation. Career With the completion of his habilitation thesis, Planck became an unpaidPrivatdozent(German academic rank comparable to lecturer/assistant professor) in Munich, waiting until he was offered an academic position. Although he was initially ignored by the academic community, he furthered his work on the field ofheat theoryand discovered one after another the samethermodynamicalformalism asGibbswithout realizing it. Clausius's ideas onentropyoccupied a central role in his work. In April 1885, theUniversity of Kielappointed Planck as associate professor oftheoretical physics. Further work on entropy and its treatment, especially as applied inphysical chemistry, followed. He published hisTreatise on Thermodynamicsin 1897.He proposed a thermodynamic basis forSvante Arrhenius's theory ofelectrolyticdissociation. In 1889, he was named the successor to Kirchhoff's position at theFriedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin– presumably thanks to Helmholtz's intercession – and by 1892 became a full professor. In 1907 Planck was offeredLudwig Boltzmann's position inVienna, but turned it down to stay in Berlin. During 1909, as a University of Berlin professor, he was invited to become theErnest Kempton Adams Lecturer in Theoretical PhysicsatColumbia UniversityinNew York City. A series of his lectures were translated and co-published by Columbia University professorA. P. Wills.He was elected to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1914.He retired from Berlin on 10 January 1926,and was succeeded byErwin Schrödinger.He was elected to the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1926 and theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1933. Professor at Berlin University As a professor at theFriedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin, Planck joined the local Physical Society. He later wrote about this time: \\\"In those days I was essentially the only theoretical physicist there, whence things were not so easy for me, because I started mentioning entropy, but this was not quite fashionable, since it was regarded as a mathematical spook\\\".Thanks to his initiative, the various local Physical Societies of Germany merged in 1898 to form the German Physical Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG); from 1905 to 1909 Planck was the president. Planck started a six-semester course of lectures on theoretical physics, \\\"dry, somewhat impersonal\\\" according toLise Meitner, \\\"using no notes, never making mistakes, never faltering; the best lecturer I ever heard\\\" according to an English participant,James R. Partington, who continues: \\\"There were always many standing around the room. As the lecture-room was well heated and rather close, some of the listeners would from time to time drop to the floor, but this did not disturb the lecture.\\\" Planck did not establish an actual \\\"school\\\"; the number of his graduate students was only about 20, among them: Entropy Thermodynamics, also known as the \\\"mechanical theory of heat\\\" at the end of the 19th century, had emerged at the beginning of this century from an attempt to understand the functioning of steam engines and to improve their efficiency. In the 1840s, several researchers independently discovered and formulated the law of conservation of energy, which is now also known as thefirst law of thermodynamics. In 1850,Rudolf Clausiusformulated the so-calledsecond law of thermodynamics, which states that a voluntary (or spontaneous) transfer of energy is only possible from a warmer to a colder body, but not vice versa. In England at this timeWilliam Thomsoncame to the same conclusion. Clausius generalized his formulation further and further and came up with a new formulation in 1865. To this end, he introduced the concept ofEntropy, which he defined as a measure of the reversible supply of heat in relation to the absolute temperature. The new formulation of the second law, which is still valid today, was: \\\"Entropy can be created, but never destroyed\\\". Clausius, whose work Planck read as a young student during his stay in Berlin, successfully applied this new law of nature to mechanical, thermoelectric and chemical processes. In his dissertation in 1879, Planck summarized Clausius' writings, pointing out contradictions and inaccuracies in their formulation and then clarifying them. In addition, he generalized the validity of the second law to all processes in nature, Clausius had limited its application to reversible processes and thermal processes. Furthermore, Planck dealt intensively with the new concept of entropy and emphasized, that entropy is not only a property of a physical system, but at the same time a measure of the irreversibility of a process: If entropy is generated in a process, it is irreversible, since entropy cannot be destroyed according to the second law. In reversible processes, the entropy remains constant. He presented this fact in detail in 1887 in a series of treatises entitled \\\"On the Princip of the Increase of Entropy\\\". In his study of the concept of entropy, Planck did not follow the molecular, probabilistic interpretation that prevailed at the time, as these do not provide absolute proof of universality. Instead, he pursued a phenomenological approach and was also skeptical of atomism. Even though he later abandoned this attitude in the course of his work on the law of radiation, his early work impressively shows the possibilites of the phenome of thermodynamics in solving concrete physicochemical problems. Planck's understanding of entropy included the realization that the maximum of entropy corresponds to the equilibrium state. The accompanying conclusion that knowledge of the Entropy allows all laws of thermodynamic equilibrium states to be derived corresponds to the modern understanding of such states. Planck therefore chose equilibrium processes as his research focus and, based on his habilitation thesis, researched the coexistence of aggregate states and the equilibrium of gas reactions, for example. This work on the frontier of chemical thermodynamics also received great attention due to the rapidly expanding chemical work at that time. Independently of Planck,Josiah Willard Gibbshad also discovered almost all the knowledge Planck gained about the properties of physicochemical equilibria and published them from 1876 onwards. Planck was unaware of these essays, and they did not appear in German until 1892. However, both scientists approached the topic in different ways, while Planck dealt with irreversible processes, Gibbs looked at equilibria. This approach was finally able to prevail because of its simplicity, but Planck's approach is attributed the greater universality. Black-body radiation In 1894, Planck turned his attention to the problem ofblack-body radiation. The problem had been stated by Kirchhoff in 1859: \\\"how does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by ablack body(a perfect absorber, also known as a cavity radiator) depend on thefrequencyof the radiation (i.e., the color of the light) and the temperature of the body?\\\". The question had been explored experimentally, but no theoretical treatment had agreed with the experimentally observed evidence.Wilhelm WienproposedWien's law, which correctly predicted the behaviour at high frequencies, but failed at low frequencies. TheRayleigh–Jeans law, another approach to the problem, agreed with experimental results at low frequencies, but created what was later known as the \\\"ultraviolet catastrophe\\\" at high frequencies, as predicted byclassical physics. However, contrary to many textbooks, this was not a motivation for Planck. Planck's first proposed solution to the problem in 1899 followed from what he called the \\\"principle of elementary disorder\\\", which allowed him to derive Wien's law from a number of assumptions about theentropyof an ideal oscillator, creating what was referred to as the Wien–Planck law. Soon, however, it was found that experimental evidence did not confirm the new law at all, to Planck's frustration. He revised his approach and now derived the first version of the famousPlanck black-body radiation law, which described clearly the experimentally observed black-body spectrum. It was first proposed in a meeting of the DPG on 19 October 1900 and published in 1901. (This first derivation did not include energy quantisation, and did not usestatistical mechanics, to which he held an aversion.) In November 1900 Planck revised this first version, now relying onBoltzmann's statistical interpretation of thesecond law of thermodynamicsas a way of gaining a more fundamental understanding of the principles behind his radiation law. Planck was deeply suspicious of the philosophical and physical implications of such an interpretation of Boltzmann's approach; thus his recourse to them was, as he later put it, \\\"an act of despair ... I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics\\\". The central assumption behind his new derivation, presented to the DPG on 14 December 1900, was the supposition, now known as thePlanck postulate, that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only inquantizedform, in other words, the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit: wherehis thePlanck constant, also known as Planck's action quantum (introduced already in 1899), andνis the frequency of the radiation. Note that the elementary units of energy discussed here are represented byhνand not simply byν. Physicists now call these quanta photons, and a photon of frequencyνwill have its own specific and unique energy. The total energy at that frequency is then equal tohνmultiplied by the number of photons at that frequency. At first Planck considered that quantisation was only \\\"a purely formal assumption ... actually I did not think much about it ...\\\"; nowadays this assumption, incompatible withclassical physics, is regarded as the birth ofquantum physicsand the greatest intellectual accomplishment of Planck's career. (Boltzmannhad been discussing in a theoretical paper in 1877 the possibility that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete). The discovery of the Planck constant enabled him to define a new universal set ofphysical units(such as the Planck length and the Planck mass), all based on fundamental physical constants, upon which much of quantum theory is based. In a discussion with his son in December 1918 Planck described his discovery as 'a discovery of the first rank, comparable perhaps only to the discoveries of Newton'.In recognition of Planck's fundamental contribution to a new branch of physics, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918; (he received the award in 1919). Subsequently, Planck tried to grasp the meaning of energy quanta, but to no avail. \\\"My unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble.\\\" Even several years later, other physicists such asRayleigh,Jeans, andLorentzset the Planck constant to zero in order to align with classical physics, but Planck knew well that this constant had a precise nonzero value. \\\"I am unable to understand Jeans' stubbornness – he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing, the same asHegelwas for philosophy. So much the worse for the facts if they don't fit.\\\" Max Bornwrote about Planck: \\\"He was, by nature, a conservative mind; he had nothing of the revolutionary and was thoroughly skeptical about speculations. Yet his belief in the compelling force of logical reasoning from facts was so strong that he did not flinch from announcing the most revolutionary idea which ever has shaken physics.\\\" Einstein and the theory of relativity In 1905, the three epochal papers byAlbert Einsteinwere published in the journalAnnalen der Physik. Planck was among the few who immediately recognized the significance of thespecial theory of relativity. Thanks to his influence, this theory was soon widely accepted in Germany. Planck also contributed considerably to extend the special theory of relativity. For example, he recast the theory in terms of classicalaction. Einstein's hypothesis of lightquanta(photons), based onHeinrich Hertz's1887 discovery (and further investigation byPhilipp Lenard) of thephotoelectric effect, was initially rejected by Planck. He was unwilling to discard completelyMaxwell's theory ofelectrodynamics. \\\"The theory of light would be thrown back not by decades, but by centuries, into the age whenChristiaan Huygensdared to fight against the mighty emission theory ofIsaac Newton...\\\" In 1910, Einstein pointed out the anomalous behavior ofspecific heatat low temperatures as another example of a phenomenon which defies explanation by classical physics. Planck andWalther Nernst, seeking to clarify the increasing number of contradictions, organized the FirstSolvay Conference(Brussels 1911). At this meeting Einstein was able to convince Planck. Meanwhile, Planck had been appointed dean of Berlin University, whereby it was possible for him to call Einstein to Berlin and establish a new professorship for him (1914). Soon the two scientists became close friends and met frequently to play music together. First World War At the onset of theFirst World WarPlanck endorsed the general excitement of the public, writing that, \\\"Besides much that is horrible, there is also much that is unexpectedly great and beautiful: the smooth solution of the most difficult domestic political problems by the unification of all parties (and) ... the extolling of everything good and noble.\\\"Planck also signed the infamous \\\"Manifesto of the 93 intellectuals\\\", a pamphlet of polemic war propaganda (while Einstein retained a strictly pacifistic attitude which almost led to his imprisonment, only being spared thanks to hisSwisscitizenship). In 1915, when Italy was still a neutral power, Planck voted successfully for a scientific paper from Italy, which received a prize from thePrussian Academy of Sciences, where Planck was one of four permanent presidents. Post-war and the Weimar Republic In the turbulent post-war years, Planck, now the highest authority of German physics, issued the slogan \\\"persevere and continue working\\\" to his colleagues. In October 1920, he andFritz Haberestablished theNotgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft(Emergency Organization of German Science), aimed at providing financial support for scientific research. A considerable portion of the money the organization would distribute was raised abroad. Planck held leading positions at Berlin University, the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the German Physical Society, and theKaiser Wilhelm Society(which became theMax Planck Societyin 1948). During this time economic conditions in Germany were such that he was hardly able to conduct research. In 1926, Planck became a foreign member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. During the interwar period, Planck became a member of the Deutsche Volks-Partei (German People's Party), the party of Nobel Peace Prize laureateGustav Stresemann, which aspired to liberal aims for domestic policy and rather revisionistic aims for politics around the world. Planck disagreed with the introduction ofuniversal suffrageand later expressed the view that the Nazi dictatorship resulted from \\\"the ascent of the rule of the crowds\\\". Quantum mechanics At the end of the 1920s,Niels Bohr,Werner Heisenberg, andWolfgang Paulihad worked out theCopenhagen interpretationof quantum mechanics, but it was rejected by Planck, and by Schrödinger, Laue, and Einstein as well. Planck expected thatwave mechanicswould soon render quantum theory – his own child – unnecessary. This was not to be the case, however. Further work only served to underscore the enduring central importance of quantum theory, even against his and Einstein's philosophical revulsions. Here Planck experienced the truth of his own earlier observation from his struggle with the older views during his younger years: \\\"A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it.\\\" Nazi dictatorship and the Second World War When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Planck was 74 years old. He witnessed many Jewish friends and colleagues expelled from their positions and humiliated, and hundreds of scientists emigrate fromNazi Germany. Again he tried to \\\"persevere and continue working\\\" and asked scientists who were considering emigration to remain in Germany. Nevertheless, he did help his nephew, the economistHermann Kranold, to emigrate toLondonafter his arrest.He hoped the crisis would abate soon and the political situation would improve. Otto Hahnasked Planck to gather well-known German professors in order to issue a public proclamation against the treatment of Jewish professors, but Planck replied, \\\"If you are able to gather today 30 such gentlemen, then tomorrow 150 others will come and speak against it, because they are eager to take over the positions of the others.\\\"Under Planck's leadership, theKaiser Wilhelm Society(KWG) avoided open conflict with the Nazi regime, except concerning the Jewish Fritz Haber. In May of 1933 Planck requested and received an interview with the recently appointed Chancellor of GermanyAdolf Hitlerto discuss the issue, telling him that the \\\"forced immigration of Jews would kill German science and Jews could be good Germans\\\", to which the chancellor replied \\\"but we don't have anything against the Jews, only against communists\\\". Planck was therefore unsuccessful, since this reply \\\"took from him every basis for further negotiation\\\",as to Hitler \\\"the Jews are all Communists, and these are my enemies.\\\" In the following year, 1934, Haber died in exile. One year later, Planck, having been the president of the KWG since 1930, organized in a somewhat provocative style an official commemorative meeting for Haber. He also succeeded in secretly enabling a number of Jewish scientists to continue working in institutes of the KWG for several years. In 1936, his term as president of the KWG ended, and the Nazi government pressured him to refrain from seeking another term. As the political climate in Germany gradually became more hostile,Johannes Stark, prominent exponent of theDeutsche Physik(\\\"German Physics\\\", also called \\\"Aryan Physics\\\") attacked Planck,Arnold Sommerfeld, and Heisenberg for continuing to teach the theories of Einstein, calling them \\\"white Jews\\\". The \\\"Hauptamt Wissenschaft\\\" (Nazi government office for science) started an investigation of Planck's ancestry, claiming that he was \\\"1/16 Jewish\\\", but Planck denied it. In 1938, Planck celebrated his 80th birthday. The DPG held a celebration, during which the Max-Planck medal (founded as the highest medal by the DPG in 1928) was awarded to French physicistLouis de Broglie. At the end of 1938, the Prussian Academy lost its remaining independence and was taken over by Nazis (Gleichschaltung). Planck protested by resigning his presidency. He continued to travel frequently, giving numerous public talks, such as his talk on Religion and Science, and five years later he was sufficiently fit to climb 3,000-metre peaks in theAlps. During theSecond World Warthe increasing number of Allied bombing missions against Berlin forced Planck and his wife to temporarily leave the city and live in the countryside. In 1942, he wrote: \\\"In me an ardent desire has grown to persevere this crisis and live long enough to be able to witness the turning point, the beginning of a new rise.\\\" In February 1944, his home in Berlin was completely destroyed by an air raid, annihilating all his scientific records and correspondence. His rural retreat was threatened by the rapid advance of the Allied armies from both sides. In 1944, Planck's sonErwinwas arrested by theGestapofollowing the attempted assassination of Hitler in the20 July plot. He was tried and sentenced to death by thePeople's Courtin October 1944. Erwin was hanged at Berlin'sPlötzensee Prisonin January 1945. The death of his son destroyed much of Planck's will to live. Personal life and death In March 1887, Planck married Marie Merck (1861–1909), sister of a school fellow, and moved with her into a sublet apartment in Kiel. They had four children: Karl (1888–1916), the twins Emma (1889–1919) and Grete (1889–1917), andErwin(1893–1945). After living in the apartment in Berlin, the Planck family lived in a villa in Berlin-Grunewald, Wangenheimstrasse 21. Several other professors fromUniversity of Berlinlived nearby, among them theologianAdolf von Harnack, who became a close friend of Planck. Soon the Planck home became a social and cultural center. Numerous well-known scientists, such asAlbert Einstein,Otto HahnandLise Meitnerwere frequent visitors. The tradition of jointly performing music had already been established in the home ofHelmholtz. After several happy years, in July 1909 Marie Planck died, possibly fromtuberculosis. In March 1911 Planck married his second wife, Marga von Hoesslin (1882–1948); in December his fifth child Hermann was born. During theFirst World WarPlanck's second son Erwin was taken prisoner by the French in 1914, while his oldest son Karl was killed in action atVerdun. Grete died in 1917 while giving birth to her first child. Her sister died the same way two years later, after having married Grete's widower. Both granddaughters survived and were named after their mothers. Planck endured these losses stoically. In January 1945,Erwin Planck, to whom he had been particularly close, was sentenced to death by theNaziVolksgerichtshofbecause of his participation in thefailed attempt to assassinate Hitlerin July 1944. Erwin was executed on 23 January 1945. After World war II ended, Planck, his second wife, and their son were brought to a relative inGöttingen, where Planck died on October 4, 1947. He was buried in the old Stadtfriedhof (City Cemetery) in Göttingen. Religious views Planck was a member of theLutheran Churchin Germany.He was very tolerant toward alternative views andreligions.In a lecture in 1937 entitled \\\"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\\\" (\\\"Religion and Natural Science\\\") he suggested the importance of these symbols and rituals related directly with a believer's ability to worship God, but that one must be mindful that the symbols provide an imperfect illustration of divinity. He criticized atheism for being focused on the derision of such symbols, while at the same time warned of the over-estimation of the importance of such symbols by believers. In \\\"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\\\", Planck expressed the view that God is present everywhere, and he held that \\\"the holiness of the unintelligible Godhead is conveyed by the holiness of symbols.\\\" Atheists, he thought, attach too much importance to what are merely symbols. He was a churchwarden from 1920 until his death, and believed in an almighty, all-knowing, beneficent God (although not necessarily a personal one). Both science and religion wage a \\\"tireless battle against skepticism and dogmatism, against unbelief and superstition\\\" with the goal \\\"toward God!\\\" Planck said in 1944, \\\"As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a result of my research about atoms this much: There is no matter as such. All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particle of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the atom together. We must assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent spirit . This spirit is the matrix of all matter.\\\" Planck argued that the concept of God is important to both religion and science, but in different ways: \\\"Both religion and science require a belief in God. For believers, God is in the beginning, and for physicists He is at the end of all considerations … To the former He is the foundation, to the latter, the crown of the edifice of every generalized world view\\\". Furthermore, Planck wrote, ...\\\"to believe\\\" means \\\"to recognize as a truth\\\", and the knowledge of nature, continually advancing on incontestably safe tracks, has made it utterly impossible for a person possessing some training in natural science to recognize as founded on truth the many reports of extraordinary occurrences contradicting the laws of nature, of miracles which are still commonly regarded as essential supports and confirmations of religious doctrines, and which formerly used to be accepted as facts pure and simple, without doubt or criticism. The belief in miracles must retreat step by step before relentlessly and reliably progressing science and we cannot doubt that sooner or later it must vanish completely. Noted historian of scienceJohn L. Heilbroncharacterized Planck's views on God asdeistic.Heilbron further relates that when asked about his religious affiliation, Planck replied that although he had always been deeply religious, he did not believe \\\"in a personal God, let alone a Christian God\\\". Publications ter Haar, D.(1967).\\\"On the Theory of the Energy Distribution Law of the Normal Spectrum\\\"(PDF).The Old Quantum Theory.Pergamon Press. p. 82.LCCN66029628. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 September 2016. Retrieved5 April2014. See also References Sources External links\",\n \"Albert Einstein Albert Einstein(/ˈaɪnstaɪn/EYEN-styne;German:ⓘ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-borntheoretical physicistwho is widely held as one of the most influentialscientists. Best known for developing thetheory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions toquantum mechanics.Hismass–energy equivalenceformulaE=mc2, which arises fromspecial relativity, has been called \\\"the world's most famous equation\\\".He received the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\\\"for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of thephotoelectric effect\\\",a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. Born in theGerman Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of theKingdom of Württemberg)the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swissfederal polytechnic schoolinZürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at theSwiss Patent Officein Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to theUniversity of Zurich. In 1914, he moved toBerlinin order to join thePrussian Academy of Sciencesand theHumboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of theKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of theKingdom of Prussia.In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States,Adolf Hitler came to powerin Germany. Horrified by theNaziwar of exterminationagainst his fellow Jews,Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was grantedAmerican citizenshipin 1940.On the eve ofWorld War II, he endorseda letterto PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltalerting him to the potentialGerman nuclear weapons programand recommended that the US beginsimilar research. Einstein supported theAlliesbut generally viewed the idea ofnuclear weaponswith great dismay. Einstein's work is also known for its influence on thephilosophy of science.In 1905, he publishedfour groundbreaking papers, sometimes described as hisannus mirabilis(miracle year).These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explainedBrownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability ofclassical mechanicsto account satisfactorily for the behavior of theelectromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed ageneral theory of relativitythat extended his system of mechanics to incorporategravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of theuniverseas a whole. In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions tostatistical mechanicsand quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics ofradiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently calledphotons. With the Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork forBose-Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that \\\"God does not play dice\\\".Second, he attempted to devise aunified field theoryby generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to includeelectromagnetismtoo. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstreammodern physics. His intellectual achievements and originality madeEinsteinbroadly synonymous withgenius.In 1999, he was namedTime'sPerson of the Century.In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journalPhysics World, Einstein was ranked the greatest physicist of all time. Life and career Childhood, youth and education Albert Einstein was born inUlm,in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879.His parents, secularAshkenazi Jews, wereHermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, andPauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved toMunich's borough ofLudwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based ondirect current.He often related a formative event from his youth, when he was sick in bed and his father brought him acompass. This sparked his lifelong fascination withelectromagnetism. He realized that \\\"Something deeply hidden had to be behind things.\\\" Albert attended St. Peter'sCatholic elementary schoolin Munich from the age of five. When he was eight, he was transferred to theLuitpold Gymnasium, where he received advanced primary and then secondary school education. In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company tendered for a contract to install electric lighting in Munich, but without success—they lacked the capital that would have been required to update their technology from direct current to the more efficient,alternating currentalternative.The failure of their bid forced them to sell their Munich factory and search for new opportunities elsewhere. The Einstein family moved to Italy, first toMilanand a few months later toPavia, where they settled inPalazzo Cornazzani.Einstein, then fifteen, stayed behind in Munich in order to finish his schooling. His father wanted him to studyelectrical engineering, but he was a fractious pupil who found the Gymnasium's regimen and teaching methods far from congenial. He later wrote that the school's policy of strictrote learningwas harmful to creativity. At the end of December 1894, a letter from a doctor persuaded the Luitpold's authorities to release him from its care, and he joined his family in Pavia.While in Italy as a teenager, he wrote an essay entitled \\\"On the Investigation of the State of theEtherin a Magnetic Field\\\". Einstein excelled at physics and mathematics from an early age, and soon acquired the mathematical expertise normally only found in a child several years his senior. He began teaching himself algebra, calculus andEuclidean geometrywhen he was twelve; he made such rapid progress that he discovered an original proof of thePythagorean theorembefore his thirteenth birthday.A family tutor,Max Talmud, said that only a short time after he had given the twelve year old Einstein a geometry textbook, the boy \\\"had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow.\\\"Einstein recorded that he had \\\"masteredintegralanddifferential calculus\\\" while still just fourteen.His love of algebra and geometry was so great that at twelve, he was already confident that nature could be understood as a \\\"mathematical structure\\\". At thirteen, when his range of enthusiasms had broadened to include music and philosophy,Talmud introduced Einstein toKant'sCritique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, \\\"At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him.\\\" In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for thefederal polytechnic school(later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the test,but performed with distinction in physics and mathematics.On the advice of the polytechnic's principal, he completed his secondary education at theArgovian cantonal school(agymnasium) inAarau, Switzerland, graduating in 1896.While lodging in Aarau with the family ofJost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister,Maja, later married Winteler's son Paul.) In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced hiscitizenship of the German Kingdom of Württembergin order to avoidconscription into military service.TheMatura(graduation for the successful completion of higher secondary schooling), awarded to him in September 1896, acknowledged him to have performed well across most of the curriculum, allotting him atop grade of 6for history, physics, algebra, geometry, and descriptive geometry.At seventeen, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, a year older than him, took up a teaching post inOlsberg, Switzerland. The five other polytechnic school freshmen following the same course as Einstein included just one woman, a twenty year oldSerbian,Mileva Marić. Over the next few years, the pair spent many hours discussing their shared interests and learning about topics in physics that the polytechnic school's lectures did not cover. In his letters to Marić, Einstein confessed that exploring science with her by his side was much more enjoyable than reading a textbook in solitude. Eventually the two students became not only friends but also lovers. Historians of physics are divided on the question of the extent to which Marić contributed to the insights of Einstein'sannus mirabilispublications. There is at least some evidence that he was influenced by her scientific ideas,but there are scholars who doubt whether her impact on his thought was of any great significance at all. Marriages, relationships and children Correspondence between Einstein and Marić, discovered and published in 1987, revealed that in early 1902, while Marić was visiting her parents inNovi Sad, she gave birth to a daughter,Lieserl. When Marić returned to Switzerland it was without the child, whose fate is uncertain. A letter of Einstein's that he wrote in September 1903 suggests that the girl was either given up for adoption or died ofscarlet feverin infancy. Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their sonHans Albertwas born inBern, Switzerland. Their sonEduardwas born in Zürich in July 1910. In letters that Einstein wrote to Marie Winteler in the months before Eduard's arrival, he described his love for his wife as \\\"misguided\\\" and mourned the \\\"missed life\\\" that he imagined he would have enjoyed if he had married Winteler instead: \\\"I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be.\\\" In 1912, Einstein entered into a relationship withElsa Löwenthal, who was both his first cousin on his mother's side and his second cousin on his father's.When Marić learned of his infidelity soon after moving to Berlin with him in April 1914, she returned to Zürich, taking Hans Albert and Eduard with her.Einstein and Marić were granted a divorce on 14 February 1919 on the grounds of having lived apart for five years.As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed that if he were to win a Nobel Prize, he would give the money that he received to Marić; he won the prize two years later. Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919.In 1923, he began a relationship with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of his close friend Hans Mühsam.Löwenthal nevertheless remained loyal to him, accompanying him when he emigrated to the United States in 1933. In 1935, she was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. She died in December 1936. A volume of Einstein's letters released byHebrew University of Jerusalemin 2006added further names to the catalog of women with whom he was romantically involved. They included Margarete Lebach (a married Austrian),Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal.After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by some to be a Russian spy; her husband, the Russian sculptorSergei Konenkov, created the bronze bust of Einstein at theInstitute for Advanced Studyat Princeton. Following an episode of acute mental illness at about the age of twenty, Einstein's son Eduard was diagnosed withschizophrenia.He spent the remainder of his life either in the care of his mother or in temporary confinement in an asylum. After her death, he was committed permanently toBurghölzli, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich. 1902–1909: Assistant at the Swiss Patent Office Einstein graduated from the federal polytechnic school in 1900, duly certified as competent to teach mathematics and physics.His successful acquisition of Swiss citizenship in February 1901was not followed by the usual sequel ofconscription; the Swiss authorities deemed him medically unfit for military service. He found that Swiss schools too appeared to have no use for him, failing to offer him a teaching position despite the almost two years that he spent applying for one. Eventually it was with the help ofMarcel Grossmann's father that he secured a post inBernat theSwiss Patent Office,as anassistant examiner – level III. Patent applicationsthat landed on Einstein's desk for his evaluation included ideas for a gravel sorter and an electric typewriter.His employers were pleased enough with his work to make his position permanent in 1903, although they did not think that he should be promoted until he had \\\"fully mastered machine technology\\\".It is conceivable that his labors at the patent office had a bearing on his development of his special theory of relativity. He arrived at his revolutionary ideas about space, time and light through thought experiments about the transmission of signals and the synchronization of clocks, matters which also figured in some of the inventions submitted to him for assessment. In 1902, Einstein and some friends whom he had met in Bern formed a group that held regular meetings to discuss science and philosophy. Their choice of a name for their club, theOlympia Academy, was an ironic comment upon its far from Olympian status. Sometimes they were joined by Marić, who limited her participation in their proceedings to careful listening.The thinkers whose works they reflected upon includedHenri Poincaré,Ernst MachandDavid Hume, all of whom significantly influenced Einstein's own subsequent ideas and beliefs. 1900–1905: First scientific papers Einstein's first paper,\\\"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\\\"(\\\"Conclusions drawn from the phenomena of capillarity\\\"), in which he proposed a model of intermolecular attraction that he afterwards disavowed as worthless, was published in the journalAnnalen der Physikin 1901.His 24-page doctoral dissertation also addressed a topic in molecular physics. Titled \\\"Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen\\\" (\\\"A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions\\\") and dedicated to his friend Marcel Grossman, it was completed on 30 April 1905and approved by ProfessorAlfred Kleinerof the University of Zurich three months later. (Einstein was formally awarded his PhD on 15 January 1906.)Four other pieces of work that Einstein completed in 1905—his famous paperson thephotoelectric effect,Brownian motion, hisspecial theory of relativityand theequivalence of mass and energy—have led to the year being celebrated as anannus mirabilisfor physics akin to 1666 (the year in whichIsaac Newtonexperienced his greatest epiphanies). The publications deeply impressed Einstein's contemporaries. 1908–1933: Early academic career Einstein's sabbatical as a civil servant approached its end in 1908, when he secured a junior teaching position at theUniversity of Bern. In 1909, a lecture on relativisticelectrodynamicsthat he gave at the University of Zurich, much admired by Alfred Kleiner, led to Zürich's luring him away from Bern with a newly created associate professorship.Promotion to a full professorship followed in April 1911, when he accepted a chair at the GermanCharles-Ferdinand Universityin Prague, a move which required him to become anAustriancitizen of theAustro-Hungarian Empire.His time in Prague saw him producing eleven research papers. In July 1912, he returned to hisalma mater, theETH Zurich, to take up a chair in theoretical physics. His teaching activities there centred onthermodynamicsand analytical mechanics, and his research interests included the molecular theory of heat,continuum mechanicsand the development of a relativistic theory of gravitation. In his work on the latter topic, he was assisted by his friend, Marcel Grossmann, whose knowledge of the kind of mathematics required was greater than his own. In the spring of 1913, two German visitors,Max PlanckandWalther Nernst, called upon Einstein in Zürich in the hope of persuading him to relocate to Berlin.They offered him membership of thePrussian Academy of Sciences, the directorship of the plannedKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physicsand a chair at theHumboldt University of Berlinthat would allow him to pursue his research supported by a professorial salary but with no teaching duties to burden him.Their invitation was all the more appealing to him because Berlin happened to be the home of his latest girlfriend, Elsa Löwenthal.He duly joined the Academy on 24 July 1913,and moved into an apartment in the Berlin district ofDahlemon 1 April 1914.He was installed in his Humboldt University position shortly thereafter. The outbreak of theFirst World Warin July 1914 marked the beginning of Einstein's gradual estrangement from the nation of his birth. When the \\\"Manifesto of the Ninety-Three\\\" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German thinkers that justified Germany's belligerence—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to distance himself from it and sign the alternative, eirenic \\\"Manifesto to the Europeans\\\" instead.However, this expression of his doubts about German policy did not prevent him from being elected to a two-year term as president of theGerman Physical Societyin 1916.When the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics opened its doors the following year—its foundation delayed because of the war—Einstein was appointed its first director, just as Planck and Nernst had promised. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1920,and aForeign Member of the Royal Society in 1921. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\\\"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\\\".At this point some physicists still regarded the general theory of relativity skeptically, and the Nobel citation displayed a degree of doubt even about the work on photoelectricity that it acknowledged: it did not assent to Einstein's notion of the particulate nature of light, which only won over the entire scientific community whenS. N. Bosederived thePlanck spectrumin 1924. That same year, Einstein was elected an International Honorary Member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences.Britain's closest equivalent of the Nobel award, theRoyal Society'sCopley Medal, was not hung around Einstein's neck until 1925.He was elected an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1930. Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving theEinstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development ofBose–Einstein statistics. 1919: Putting general relativity to the test In 1907, Einstein reached a milestone on his long journey from his special theory of relativity to a new idea of gravitation with the formulation of hisequivalence principle, which asserts that an observer in an infinitesimally small box falling freely in a gravitational field would be unable to find any evidence that the field exists. In 1911, he used the principle to estimate the amount by which a ray of light from a distant star would bebentby the gravitational pull of the Sun as it passed close to the Sun'sphotosphere(that is, the Sun's apparent surface). He reworked his calculation in 1913, having now found a way to model gravitation with theRiemann curvature tensorof a non-Euclidean four-dimensionalspacetime. By the fall of 1915, his reimagining of the mathematics of gravitation in terms of Riemannian geometry was complete, and he applied his new theory not just to the behavior of the Sun as a gravitational lens but also to another astronomical phenomenon, theprecession of the perihelion of Mercury(a slow drift in the point in Mercury's elliptical orbit at which it approaches the Sun most closely).Atotal eclipse of the Sun that took place on 29 May 1919provided an opportunity to put his theory of gravitational lensing to the test, and observations performed by SirArthur Eddingtonyielded results that were consistent with his calculations. Eddington's work was reported at length in newspapers around the world. On 7 November 1919, for example, the leading British newspaper,The Times, printed a banner headline that read: \\\"Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown\\\". 1921–1923: Coming to terms with fame With Eddington's eclipse observations widely reported not just in academic journals but by the popular press as well, Einstein became \\\"perhaps the world's first celebrity scientist\\\", a genius who had shattered a paradigm that had been basic to physicists' understanding of the universe since the seventeenth century. Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where he arrived on 2 April 1921. He was welcomed to New York City by MayorJohn Francis Hylan, and then spent three weeks giving lectures and attending receptions.He spoke several times atColumbia UniversityandPrinceton, and in Washington, he visited theWhite Housewith representatives of theNational Academy of Sciences. He returned to Europe via London, where he was the guest of the philosopher and statesmanViscount Haldane. He used his time in the British capital to meet several people prominent in British scientific, political or intellectual life, and to deliver a lecture atKing's College.In July 1921, he published an essay, \\\"My First Impression of the U.S.A.\\\", in which he sought to sketch the American character, much as hadAlexis de TocquevilleinDemocracy in America(1835).He wrote of his transatlantic hosts in highly approving terms: \\\"What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy.\\\" In 1922, Einstein's travels were to the old world rather than the new. He devoted six months to a tour of Asia that saw him speaking in Japan, Singapore and Sri Lanka (then known asCeylon). After his first public lecture in Tokyo, he metEmperor Yoshihitoand his wife at theImperial Palace, with thousands of spectators thronging the streets in the hope of catching a glimpse of him. (In a letter to his sons, he wrote that Japanese people seemed to him to be generally modest, intelligent and considerate, and to have a true appreciation of art.But his picture of them in his diary was less flattering: \\\" intellectual needs of this nation seem to be weaker than their artistic ones – natural disposition?\\\" His journal also contains views of China and India which were uncomplimentary. Of Chinese people, he wrote that \\\"even the children are spiritless and look obtuse... It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary\\\".) He was greeted with even greater enthusiasm on the last leg of his tour, in which he spent twelve days inMandatory Palestine, newly entrusted to British rule by theLeague of Nationsin the aftermath of the First World War.Sir Herbert Samuel, the British High Commissioner, welcomed him with a degree of ceremony normally only accorded to a visiting head of state, including a cannon salute. One reception held in his honor was stormed by people determined to hear him speak: he told them that he was happy that Jews were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world. Einstein's decision to tour the eastern hemisphere in 1922 meant that he was unable to go toStockholmin the December of that year to participate in the Nobel prize ceremony. His place at the traditional Nobel banquet was taken by a German diplomat, who gave a speech praising him not only as a physicist but also as a campaigner for peace.A two-week visit to Spain that he undertook in 1923 saw him collecting another award, a membership of the Spanish Academy of Sciences signified by a diploma handed to him byKing Alfonso XIII. (His Spanish trip also gave him a chance to meet a fellow Nobel laureate, the neuroanatomistSantiago Ramón y Cajal.) 1922–1932: Serving the League of Nations From 1922 until 1932, with the exception of a few months in 1923 and 1924, Einstein was a member of the Geneva-basedInternational Committee on Intellectual Cooperationof theLeague of Nations, a group set up by the League to encourage scientists, artists, scholars, teachers and other people engaged in the life of the mind to work more closely with their counterparts in other countries.He was appointed as a German delegate rather than as a representative of Switzerland because of the machinations of two Catholic activists,Oskar HaleckiandGiuseppe Motta. By persuading Secretary GeneralEric Drummondto deny Einstein the place on the committee reserved for a Swiss thinker, they created an opening forGonzague de Reynold, who used his League of Nations position as a platform from which to promote traditional Catholic doctrine.Einstein's former physics professorHendrik Lorentzand the Polish chemistMarie Curiewere also members of the committee. 1925: Touring South America In March and April 1925, Einstein and his wife visited South America, where they spent about a week in Brazil, a week in Uruguay and a month in Argentina.Their tour was suggested by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935)with the support of several Argentine scholars, includingJulio Rey Pastor,Jakob Laub, andLeopoldo Lugones. and was financed primarily by the Council of theUniversity of Buenos Airesand theAsociación Hebraica Argentina(Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution. 1930–1931: Touring the US In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer of a two month research fellowship at theCalifornia Institute of Technology. Caltech supported him in his wish that he should not be exposed to quite as much attention from the media as he had experienced when visiting the US in 1921, and he therefore declined all the invitations to receive prizes or make speeches that his admirers poured down upon him. But he remained willing to allow his fans at least some of the time with him that they requested. After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, includingChinatown, a lunch with the editors ofThe New York Times, and a performance ofCarmenat theMetropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by MayorJimmy Walkerand metNicholas Murray Butler, the president ofColumbia University, who described Einstein as \\\"the ruling monarch of the mind\\\".Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York'sRiverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance.Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people atMadison Square Gardenduring aHanukkahcelebration. Einstein next traveled to California, where he metCaltechpresident and Nobel laureateRobert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was \\\"awkward\\\", as Millikan \\\"had a penchant for patriotic militarism\\\", where Einstein was a pronouncedpacifist.During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend authorUpton Sinclairand film starCharlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism.Carl Laemmle, head ofUniversal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a \\\"highly emotional temperament\\\", from which came his \\\"extraordinary intellectual energy\\\". Chaplin's filmCity Lightswas to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests.Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as \\\"one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity\\\".Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his \\\"modest little flat\\\" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was \\\"possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis\\\". 1933: Emigration to the US In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of theNazisunder Germany's new chancellor,Adolf Hitler. While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at theCalifornia Institute of Technologyin Pasadena. In February and March 1933, theGestaporepeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed theEnabling Acton 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into ade factolegal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing inAntwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship.The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into aHitler Youthcamp. Refugee status In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passedlaws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.HistorianGerald Holtondescribes how, with \\\"virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues\\\", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed. A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by theGerman Student Unionin theNazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda ministerJoseph Goebbelsproclaiming, \\\"Jewish intellectualism is dead.\\\"One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, \\\"not yet hanged\\\", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.In a subsequent letter to physicist and friendMax Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, \\\"... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise.\\\"After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a \\\"spontaneous emotional outburst\\\" by those who \\\"shun popular enlightenment\\\", and \\\"more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence\\\". Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by theAcademic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politicianWilliam Beveridgeto help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament CommanderOliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with him in the preceding years.Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near hisCromerhome in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish ofRoughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in theDaily Heraldon 24 July 1933. Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meetWinston Churchillat his home, and later,Austen Chamberlainand former Prime MinisterLloyd George.Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historianMartin Gilbertnotes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicistFrederick Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their \\\"technical standards\\\" and putthe Allies' technology ahead of theirs. Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister,İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933, requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over \\\"1,000 saved individuals\\\". Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe.In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.In his speech he described Einstein as a \\\"citizen of the world\\\" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from theInstitute for Advanced Study, inPrinceton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar. Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at theRoyal Albert Hallin London, withThe Timesreporting he was wildly cheered throughout.Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at theInstitute for Advanced Study,noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of theirJewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s. Einstein was still undecided about his future. He had offers from several European universities, includingChrist Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933and was offered a five-year researchfellowship(called a \\\"studentship\\\" at Christ Church),but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.He was one of the four first selected (along withJohn von Neumann,Kurt Gödel, andHermann Weyl) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work.Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop aunified field theoryand to refute theaccepted interpretationofquantum physics, both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. TheAlbert Einstein Housewas made aNational Historic Landmarkin 1976. World War II and the Manhattan Project In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicistLeó Szilárdattempted to alertWashingtonto ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such asEdward TellerandEugene Wigner, \\\"regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win therace to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon.\\\"To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.He was asked to lend his support by writinga letter, with Szilárd, to PresidentRoosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. The letter is believed to be \\\"arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II\\\".In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with theBelgian royal familyand the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the \\\"race\\\" to develop the bomb, drawing on its \\\"immense material, financial, and scientific resources\\\" to initiate theManhattan Project. For Einstein, \\\"war was a disease ... he called for resistance to war.\\\" By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend,Linus Pauling, \\\"I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ...\\\"In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopherBertrand Russell, signeda manifestohighlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of theWorld Academy of Art and Science(WAAS),an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons. US citizenship Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of themeritocracyin American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the \\\"right of individuals to say and think what they pleased\\\" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education. Einstein joined theNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for thecivil rightsof African Americans. He considered racism America's \\\"worst disease\\\",seeing it as \\\"handed down from one generation to the next\\\".As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activistW. E. B. Du Boisand was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial as an alleged foreign agent in 1951.When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. In 1946, Einstein visitedLincoln Universityin Pennsylvania, ahistorically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni includeLangston HughesandThurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, \\\"I do not intend to be quiet about it.\\\"A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.Einstein has said, \\\"Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination\\\". Personal views Political views In 1918, Einstein was one of the signatories of the founding proclamation of theGerman Democratic Party, a liberal party.Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor ofsocialismand critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as \\\"Why Socialism?\\\".His opinions on theBolsheviksalso changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a \\\"well-regulated system of government\\\" and called their rule a \\\"regime of terror and a tragedy in human history\\\". He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark onVladimir Lenin: In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience. Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.He strongly advocated the idea of a democraticglobal governmentthat would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation.He wrote \\\"I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself.\\\"The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932; by the time of his death, it was 1,427 pages long. Einstein was deeply impressed byMahatma Gandhi, with whom he corresponded. He described Gandhi as \\\"a role model for the generations to come\\\".The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, whenWilfrid Israeltook his Indian guestV. A. Sundaramto meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel. Relationship with Zionism Einstein was a figurehead leader in the establishment of theHebrew University of Jerusalem,which opened in 1925.Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of theWorld Zionist Organization,Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university.He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such asmalaria, which he called an \\\"evil\\\" that was undermining a third of the country's development.He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic. Einstein was not anationalistand opposed the creation of an independent Jewish state.He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of theAliyahcould live alongside existing Arabs inPalestine. The state ofIsraelwas established without his help in 1948; Einstein was limited to a marginal role in theZionist movement.Upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime MinisterDavid Ben-Gurionoffered Einstein the largely ceremonial position ofPresident of Israelat the urging ofEzriel Carlebach.The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington,Abba Eban, who explained that the offer \\\"embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons\\\".Einstein wrote that he was \\\"deeply moved\\\", but \\\"at once saddened and ashamed\\\" that he could not accept it. Religious and philosophical views PerLee Smolin, \\\"I believe what allowed Einstein to achieve so much was primarily a moral quality. He simply cared far more than most of his colleagues that the laws of physics have to explain everything in nature coherently and consistently.\\\"Einstein expounded his spiritual outlook in a wide array of writings and interviews.He said he had sympathy for the impersonalpantheisticGod ofBaruch Spinoza's philosophy.He did not believe in apersonal godwho concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve.He clarified, however, that \\\"I am not an atheist\\\",preferring to call himself an agnostic,or a \\\"deeply religious nonbeliever\\\".He wrote that \\\"A spirit is manifest in the laws of the universe—a spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a religious feeling of a special sort.\\\" Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religioushumanistandEthical Culturegroups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of theFirst Humanist Society of New York,and was an honorary associate of theRationalist Association, which publishesNew Humanistin Britain. For the 75th anniversary of theNew York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, \\\"Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity.\\\" In a German-language letter to philosopherEric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote: The word Godis for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me theJewish religionlike all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And theJewish peopleto whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them. Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of theGerman Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund), he wrote: Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind. He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: \\\"So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore.\\\" Love of music Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music. His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate intoGerman culture. According to conductorLeon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age. When he turned 13, he discovered theviolin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored ofMozart's compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without \\\"ever practicing systematically\\\". He said that \\\"love is a better teacher than a sense of duty\\\".At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playingBeethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was \\\"remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'\\\". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein \\\"displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student.\\\" Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein playedchamber musicwere a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of theKöchel catalogof Mozart's work; that edition was prepared byAlfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation. In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some ofBeethovenand Mozart's works with members of theZoellner Quartet.Near the end of his life, when the youngJuilliard Quartetvisited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was \\\"impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation\\\". Death On 17 April 1955, Einstein experiencedinternal bleedingcaused by the rupture of anabdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically byRudolph Nissenin 1948.He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it. Einstein refused surgery, saying, \\\"I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.\\\"He died in thePrinceton Hospitalearly the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. During the autopsy, the pathologistThomas Stoltz HarveyremovedEinstein's brainfor preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that theneuroscienceof the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.Einstein's remains were cremated inTrenton, New Jersey,and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 atUNESCOheadquarters, nuclear physicistJ. Robert Oppenheimersummarized hisimpression of Einsteinas a person: \\\"He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn.\\\" Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to theHebrew University of Jerusalemin Israel. Scientific career Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including theBose–Einstein statistics, theEinstein refrigeratorand others. Statistical mechanics Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics Einstein's first papersubmitted in 1900 toAnnalen der Physikwas oncapillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title \\\"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\\\", which translates as \\\"Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena\\\". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpretatomicphenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. Theory of critical opalescence Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this toRayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. 1905 –Annus Mirabilispapers TheAnnus Mirabilispapersare four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise toquantum theory),Brownian motion, thespecial theory of relativity, andE=mc2that Einstein published in theAnnalen der Physikscientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation ofmodern physicsand changed views onspace, time, andmatter. The four papers are: Special relativity Einstein's \\\"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper\\\"(\\\"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\\\") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts betweenMaxwell's equations(the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics.Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to thespeed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear toslow down, and the body itself wouldcontractin its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of aluminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. In his paper onmass–energy equivalence, Einstein producedE=mc2as a consequence of his special relativity equations.Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting withMax Planck. Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms ofkinematics(the study of moving bodies). In 1908,Hermann Minkowskireinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory ofspacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915general theory of relativity. General relativity General relativity and the equivalence principle General relativity(GR) is atheory of gravitationthat was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping ofspacetimeby those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modernastrophysics; it provides the foundation for the current understanding ofblack holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions withinspecial relativitywas unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled \\\"On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It\\\", he argued thatfree fallis really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called theequivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena ofgravitational time dilation,gravitational redshiftandgravitational lensing. In 1911, Einstein published another article \\\"On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light\\\" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. Gravitational waves In 1916, Einstein predictedgravitational waves,ripples in thecurvatureof spacetime which propagate aswaves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to itsLorentz invariancewhich brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in theNewtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbitingneutron stars,PSR B1913+16.The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers atLIGOpublished thefirst observation of gravitational waves,detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction. Hole argument and Entwurf theory While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about thegauge invariancein the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that thehole argumentwas mistakenand abandoned the theory in November 1915. Physical cosmology In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, thecosmological constant, into the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding ofMach's principlein these years. This model became known as the Einstein World orEinstein's static universe. Following the discovery of the recession of the galaxies byEdwin Hubblein 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, theFriedmann–Einstein universeof 1931and theEinstein–de Sitter universeof 1932.In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was \\\"in any case theoretically unsatisfactory\\\". In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his \\\"biggest blunder\\\", based on a letterGeorge Gamowclaimed to have received from him. The astrophysicistMario Liviohas cast doubt on this claim. In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicistCormac O'Raifeartaighdiscovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the galaxies, Einstein considered asteady-state modelof the universe.In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process that he associated with the cosmological constant.As he stated in the paper, \\\"In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's facts, and in which the density is constant over time\\\" ... \\\"If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space.\\\" It thus appears that Einstein considered asteady-state modelof the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea. Energy momentum pseudotensor General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum.Noether's theoremallows these quantities to be determined from aLagrangianwithtranslation invariance, butgeneral covariancemakes translation invariance into something of agauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity byNoether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized byErwin Schrödingerand others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists includingLev LandauandEvgeny Lifshitz. Wormholes In 1935, Einstein collaborated withNathan Rosento produce a model of awormhole, often calledEinstein–Rosen bridges.His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper \\\"Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?\\\". These solutions cut and pastedSchwarzschild black holesto make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable. Einstein–Cartan theory In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called thetorsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. Equations of motion In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature ofspacetime. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark byJohn Archibald Wheelerthat has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: \\\"Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve.\\\"TheEinstein field equationscover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. Thegeodesic equationcovers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies followlines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an \\\"independent fundamental assumption\\\" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of agravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed. Old quantum theory Photons and energy quanta In a 1905 paper,Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, withRobert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement ofCompton scattering. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequencyfis associated with a collection of photons with energyhfeach, wherehis thePlanck constant. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how the particles were related to the wave. But he did suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably thephotoelectric effect.Light quanta were dubbedphotonsbyGilbert N. Lewisin 1926. Quantized atomic vibrations In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics.Peter Debyerefined this model. Bose–Einstein statistics In 1924, Einstein received a description of astatisticalmodel from Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to theZeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them theBose–Einstein condensatephenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally byEric Allin CornellandCarl Wiemanusingultra-coolingequipment built at theNIST–JILAlaboratory at theUniversity of Colorado at Boulder.Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly ofbosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University. Wave–particle duality Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became aPrivatdozentat the University of Bern.In \\\"Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung\\\" (\\\"The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation\\\"), on thequantizationof light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-definedmomentaand act in some respects as independent,point-like particles. This paper introduced thephotonconcept and inspired the notion ofwave–particle dualityin quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. Zero-point energy In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea ofzero-point energyin his \\\"second quantum theory\\\". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistantOtto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy. Stimulated emission In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article inPhysikalische Zeitschriftthat proposed the possibility ofstimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible themaserand thelaser.This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Matter waves Einstein discoveredLouis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed thatde Broglie wavescould explain thequantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. Quantum mechanics Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God \\\"is not playing at dice\\\".Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete. Bohr versus Einstein The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein andNiels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to thephilosophy of science.Their debates would influence laterinterpretations of quantum mechanics. Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in 1930. Einstein suggested athought experimentin which two objects are allowed to interact and then moved apart a great distance from each other. The quantum-mechanical description of the two objects is a mathematical entity known as awavefunction. If the wavefunction that describes the two objects before their interaction is given, then theSchrödinger equationprovides the wavefunction that describes them after their interaction. But because of what would later be calledquantum entanglement, measuring one object would lead to an instantaneous change of the wavefunction describing the other object, no matter how far away it is. Moreover, the choice of which measurement to perform upon the first object would affect what wavefunction could result for the second object. Einstein reasoned that no influence could propagate from the first object to the second instantaneously fast. Indeed, he argued, physics depends on being able to tell one thing apart from another, and such instantaneous influences would call that into question. Because the true \\\"physical condition\\\" of the second object could not be immediately altered by an action done to the first, Einstein concluded, the wavefunction could not be that true physical condition, only an incomplete description of it. A more famous version of this argument came in 1935, when Einstein published a paper withBoris PodolskyandNathan Rosenthat laid out what would become known as theEPR paradox.In this thought experiment, two particles interact in such a way that the wavefunction describing them is entangled. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle. Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by thetheory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the \\\"EPR criterion of reality\\\", positing that: \\\"If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., withprobabilityequal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity.\\\" From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observablesincompatibleand thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality. In 1964,John Stewart Bellcarried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called aBell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are \\\"nonlocal\\\", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated.Bell argued that because an explanation of quantum phenomena in terms of hidden variables would require nonlocality, the EPR paradox \\\"is resolved in the way which Einstein would have liked least\\\". Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the argument in the EPR paper overly complicated,that paper became among the most influential papers published inPhysical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development ofquantum information theory. Unified field theory Encouraged by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described hisunified field theoryin aScientific Americanarticle titled \\\"On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation\\\".His attempt to find the most fundamental laws of nature won him praise but not success: a particularly conspicuous blemish of his model was that it did not accommodate thestrongandweak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although most researchers now believe that Einstein's approach to unifying physics was mistaken, his goal of atheory of everythingis one to which his successors still aspire. Other investigations Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain toforce,superconductivity, and other research. Collaboration with other scientists In addition to longtime collaboratorsLeopold Infeld,Nathan Rosen,Peter Bergmannand others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein–de Haas experiment In 1908,Owen Willans Richardsonpredicted that a change in themagnetic momentof a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of theconservation of angular momentumand is strong enough to be observable inferromagnetic materials.Einstein andWander Johannes de Haaspublished two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect.Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon ofmagnetizationis caused by the alignment (polarization) of theangular momentaof theelectronsin the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with thespinand with the orbital motion of the electrons. The Einstein-de Haas experiment is the only experiment concived, realized and published by Albert Einstein himself. A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated byGeertruida de Haas-Lorentz, wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to theAmpère Museumin Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in 2023. Einstein as an inventor In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) theEinstein refrigerator. Thisabsorption refrigeratorwas then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.On 11 November 1930,U.S. patent 1,781,541was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, but the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish companyElectrolux. Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump,sound reproduction device,and several other household devices. Non-scientific legacy While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to theHebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University'sAlbert Einstein Archives, told theBBCthat there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. Einstein'sright of publicitywas litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired,that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right.Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses theuse of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university. Mount Einsteinin theChugach MountainsofAlaskawas named in 1955. Mount Einstein in New Zealand'sPaparoa Rangewas named after him in 1970 by theDepartment of Scientific and Industrial Research. In popular culture Einstein became one of the most famousscientific celebritiesafter the confirmation of his general theory of relativity in 1919.Although most of the public had little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and admired. In the period before World War II,The New Yorkerpublished a vignette in their \\\"The Talk of the Town\\\" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain \\\"that theory\\\". Eventually he came to cope with unwanted enquirers by pretending to be someone else: \\\"Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein.\\\" Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.He is a favorite model for depictions ofabsent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated.Timemagazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was \\\"a cartoonist's dream come true\\\". Many popularquotationsare oftenmisattributedto him. Awards and honors Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\\\"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\\\". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set byAlfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. Einsteinium, a synthetic chemical element, was named in his honor in 1955, a few months after his death. Publications Scientific Others See also Notes References Works cited Further reading External links\",\n \"Niels Bohr Niels Henrik David Bohr(Danish:; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danishphysicistwho made foundational contributions to understandingatomic structureandquantum theory, for which he received theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1922. Bohr was also aphilosopherand a promoter of scientific research. Bohr developed theBohr modelof theatom, in which he proposed that energy levels ofelectronsare discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around theatomic nucleusbut can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle ofcomplementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as awave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at theUniversity of Copenhagen, now known as theNiels Bohr Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists includingHans Kramers,Oskar Klein,George de Hevesy, andWerner Heisenberg. He predicted the properties of a newzirconium-like element, which was namedhafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered. Later, the synthetic elementbohriumwas named after him. During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees fromNazism. AfterDenmark was occupied by the Germans, he met with Heisenberg, who had become the head of theGerman nuclear weapon project. In September 1943 word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, so he fled to Sweden. From there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the BritishTube Alloysnuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to theManhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for international cooperation on nuclear energy. He was involved with the establishment ofCERNand theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commissionand became the first chairman of theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physicsin 1957. Early life Niels Henrik David Bohr was born inCopenhagen, Denmark, on 7 October 1885, the second of three children ofChristian Bohr,a professor ofphysiologyat the University of Copenhagen, and his wife EllennéeAdler, who came from a wealthy Jewish banking family.He had an elder sister, Jenny, and a younger brotherHarald.Jenny became a teacher,while Harald became amathematicianandfootballerwho played for theDanish national teamat the1908 Summer Olympicsin London. Niels was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-basedAkademisk Boldklub(Academic Football Club), with Niels asgoalkeeper. Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven.In 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate atCopenhagen University. His major was physics, which he studied under ProfessorChristian Christiansen, the university's only professor of physics at that time. He also studied astronomy and mathematics under ProfessorThorvald Thiele, and philosophy under ProfessorHarald Høffding, a friend of his father. In 1905 a gold medal competition was sponsored by theRoyal Danish Academy of Sciences and Lettersto investigate a method for measuring thesurface tensionof liquids that had been proposed byLord Rayleighin 1879. This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet. Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his father's laboratory in the university; the university itself had no physics laboratory. To complete his experiments, he had tomake his own glassware, creating test tubes with the requiredellipticalcross-sections. He went beyond the original task, incorporating improvements into both Rayleigh's theory and his method, by taking into account theviscosityof the water, and by working with finite amplitudes instead of just infinitesimal ones. His essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won the prize. He later submitted an improved version of the paper to theRoyal Societyin London for publication in thePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Harald became the first of the two Bohr brothers to earn amaster's degree, which he earned for mathematics in April 1909. Niels took another nine months to earn his on the electron theory of metals, a topic assigned by his supervisor, Christiansen. Bohr subsequently elaborated his master's thesis into his much-largerDoctor of Philosophythesis. He surveyed the literature on the subject, settling on a model postulated byPaul Drudeand elaborated byHendrik Lorentz, in which the electrons in a metal are considered to behave like a gas. Bohr extended Lorentz's model, but was still unable to account for phenomena like theHall effect, and concluded that electron theory could not fully explain the magnetic properties of metals. The thesis was accepted in April 1911,and Bohr conducted his formal defence on 13 May. Harald had received his doctorate the previous year.Bohr's thesis was groundbreaking, but attracted little interest outside Scandinavia because it was written in Danish, a Copenhagen University requirement at the time. In 1921, the Dutch physicistHendrika Johanna van Leeuwenwould independently derive a theorem in Bohr's thesis that is today known as theBohr–Van Leeuwen theorem. In 1910, Bohr metMargrethe Nørlund, the sister of the mathematicianNiels Erik Nørlund.Bohr resigned his membership in theChurch of Denmarkon 16 April 1912, and he and Margrethe were married in a civil ceremony at the town hall inSlagelseon 1 August. Years later, his brother Harald similarly left the church before getting married.Bohr and Margrethe had six sons.The oldest, Christian, died in a boating accident in 1934,and another, Harald, was severely mentally disabled. He was placed in an institution away from his family's home at the age of four and died from childhood meningitis six years later.Aage Bohrbecame a successful physicist, and in 1975 was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, like his father. A son of Aage, Vilhelm A. Bohr, is a scientist affiliated with the University of Copenhagenand theNational Institute on Agingin the U.S.Hansbecame a physician;Erik, a chemical engineer; andErnest, a lawyer.Like his uncle Harald, Ernest Bohr became an Olympic athlete, playingfield hockeyfor Denmark at the1948 Summer Olympicsin London. Physics Bohr model In September 1911, Bohr, supported by a fellowship from theCarlsberg Foundation, travelled to England, where most of the theoretical work on the structure of atoms and molecules was being done.He metJ. J. Thomsonof theCavendish LaboratoryandTrinity College, Cambridge. He attended lectures onelectromagnetismgiven byJames JeansandJoseph Larmor, and did some research oncathode rays, but failed to impress Thomson.He had more success with younger physicists like the AustralianWilliam Lawrence Bragg,and New Zealand'sErnest Rutherford, whose 1911 small central nucleusRutherford modelof theatomhad challenged Thomson's 1904plum pudding model.Bohr received an invitation from Rutherford to conduct post-doctoral work atVictoria University of Manchester,where Bohr metGeorge de HevesyandCharles Galton Darwin(whom Bohr referred to as \\\"the grandson of thereal Darwin\\\"). Bohr returned to Denmark in July 1912 for his wedding, and travelled around England and Scotland on his honeymoon. On his return, he became aprivatdocentat the University of Copenhagen, giving lectures onthermodynamics.Martin Knudsenput Bohr's name forward for adocent, which was approved in July 1913, and Bohr then began teaching medical students.His three papers, which later became famous as \\\"the trilogy\\\",were published inPhilosophical Magazinein July, September and November of that year.He adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure toMax Planck's quantum theory and so created hisBohr modelof the atom. Planetary models of atoms were not new, but Bohr's treatment was.Taking the 1912 paper by Darwin on the role of electrons in the interaction of alpha particles with a nucleus as his starting point,he advanced the theory of electrons travelling inorbitsof quantised \\\"stationary states\\\" around the atom's nucleus in order to stabilise the atom, but it wasn't until his 1921 paper that he showed that the chemical properties of each element were largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its atoms.He introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, in the process emitting aquantumof discrete energy. This became a basis for what is now known as theold quantum theory. In 1885,Johann Balmerhad come up with hisBalmer seriesto describe the visiblespectral linesof ahydrogenatom: where λ is the wavelength of the absorbed or emitted light andRHis theRydberg constant.Balmer's formula was corroborated by the discovery of additional spectral lines, but for thirty years, no one could explain why it worked. In the first paper of his trilogy, Bohr was able to derive it from his model: wheremeis the electron's mass,eis its charge,his thePlanck constantandZis the atom'satomic number(1 for hydrogen). The model's first hurdle was thePickering series, lines that did not fit Balmer's formula. When challenged on this byAlfred Fowler, Bohr replied that they were caused byionisedhelium, helium atoms with only one electron. The Bohr model was found to work for such ions.Many older physicists, like Thomson, Rayleigh andHendrik Lorentz, did not like the trilogy, but the younger generation, including Rutherford,David Hilbert,Albert Einstein,Enrico Fermi,Max BornandArnold Sommerfeldsaw it as a breakthrough.The trilogy's acceptance was entirely due to its ability to explain phenomena that stymied other models, and to predict results that were subsequently verified by experiments.Today, the Bohr model of the atom has been superseded, but is still the best known model of the atom, as it often appears in high school physics and chemistry texts. Bohr did not enjoy teaching medical students. He later admitted that he was not a good lecturer, because he needed a balance between clarity and truth, between \\\"Klarheit und Wahrheit\\\".He decided to return to Manchester, where Rutherford had offered him a job as areaderin place of Darwin, whose tenure had expired. Bohr accepted. He took a leave of absence from the University of Copenhagen, which he started by taking a holiday inTyrolwith his brother Harald and auntHanna Adler. There, he visited theUniversity of Göttingenand theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he met Sommerfeld and conducted seminars on the trilogy. The First World War broke out while they were in Tyrol, greatly complicating the trip back to Denmark and Bohr's subsequent voyage with Margrethe to England, where he arrived in October 1914. They stayed until July 1916, by which time he had been appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, a position created especially for him. His docentship was abolished at the same time, so he still had to teach physics to medical students. New professors were formally introduced to KingChristian X, who expressed his delight at meeting such a famous football player. Institute of Physics In April 1917, Bohr began a campaign to establish an Institute of Theoretical Physics. He gained the support of the Danish government and the Carlsberg Foundation, and sizeable contributions were also made by industry and private donors, many of them Jewish. Legislation establishing the institute was passed in November 1918. Now known as theNiels Bohr Institute, it opened on 3 March 1921, with Bohr as its director. His family moved into an apartment on the first floor.Bohr's institute served as a focal point for researchers intoquantum mechanicsand related subjects in the 1920s and 1930s, when most of the world's best-known theoretical physicists spent some time in his company. Early arrivals includedHans Kramersfrom the Netherlands,Oskar Kleinfrom Sweden, George de Hevesy from Hungary,Wojciech Rubinowiczfrom Poland, andSvein Rosselandfrom Norway. Bohr became widely appreciated as their congenial host and eminent colleague.Klein and Rosseland produced the institute's first publication even before it opened. The Bohr model worked well for hydrogen and ionized single-electron helium, which impressed Einsteinbut could not explain more complex elements. By 1919, Bohr was moving away from the idea that electrons orbited the nucleus and developedheuristicsto describe them. Therare-earth elementsposed a particular classification problem for chemists because they were so chemically similar. An important development came in 1924 withWolfgang Pauli's discovery of thePauli exclusion principle, which put Bohr's models on a firm theoretical footing. Bohr was then able to declare that the as-yet-undiscovered element 72 was not a rare-earth element but an element with chemical properties similar to those ofzirconium. (Elements had been predicted and discovered since 1871 by chemical properties), and Bohr was immediately challenged by the French chemistGeorges Urbain, who claimed to have discovered a rare-earth element 72, which he called \\\"celtium\\\". At the Institute in Copenhagen,Dirk Costerand George de Hevesy took up the challenge of proving Bohr right and Urbain wrong. Starting with a clear idea of the chemical properties of the unknown element greatly simplified the search process. They went through samples from Copenhagen's Museum of Mineralogy looking for a zirconium-like element and soon found it. The element, which they namedhafnium(hafniabeing the Latin name for Copenhagen), turned out to be more common than gold. In 1922, Bohr was awarded theNobel Prize in Physics\\\"for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them\\\".The award thus recognised both the trilogy and his early leading work in the emerging field of quantum mechanics. For his Nobel lecture, Bohr gave his audience a comprehensive survey of what was then known about the structure of the atom, including thecorrespondence principle, which he had formulated. This states that the behaviour of systems described by quantum theory reproducesclassical physicsin the limit of largequantum numbers. The discovery ofCompton scatteringbyArthur Holly Comptonin 1923 convinced most physicists that light was composed ofphotonsand that energy and momentum were conserved in collisions between electrons and photons. In 1924, Bohr, Kramers, andJohn C. Slater, an American physicist working at the Institute in Copenhagen, proposed theBohr–Kramers–Slater theory(BKS). It was more of a program than a full physical theory, as the ideas it developed were not worked out quantitatively. The BKS theory became the final attempt at understanding the interaction of matter and electromagnetic radiation on the basis of the old quantum theory, in which quantum phenomena were treated by imposing quantum restrictions on a classical wave description of the electromagnetic field. Modelling atomic behaviour under incident electromagnetic radiation using \\\"virtual oscillators\\\" at the absorption and emission frequencies, rather than the (different) apparent frequencies of the Bohr orbits, led Max Born,Werner Heisenbergand Kramers to explore different mathematical models. They led to the development ofmatrix mechanics, the first form of modernquantum mechanics. The BKS theory also generated discussion of, and renewed attention to, difficulties in the foundations of the old quantum theory.The most provocative element of BKS – that momentum and energy would not necessarily be conserved in each interaction, but only statistically – was soon shown to be in conflict with experiments conducted byWalther BotheandHans Geiger.In light of these results, Bohr informed Darwin that \\\"there is nothing else to do than to give our revolutionary efforts as honourable a funeral as possible\\\". Quantum mechanics The introduction ofspinbyGeorge UhlenbeckandSamuel Goudsmitin November 1925 was a milestone. The next month, Bohr travelled toLeidento attend celebrations of the 50th anniversary of Hendrick Lorentz receiving his doctorate. When his train stopped inHamburg, he was met by Wolfgang Pauli andOtto Stern, who asked for his opinion of the spin theory. Bohr pointed out that he had concerns about the interaction between electrons and magnetic fields. When he arrived in Leiden,Paul Ehrenfestand Albert Einstein informed Bohr that Einstein had resolved this problem usingrelativity. Bohr then had Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit incorporate this into their paper. Thus, when he met Werner Heisenberg andPascual JordaninGöttingenon the way back, he had become, in his own words, \\\"a prophet of the electron magnet gospel\\\". Heisenberg first came to Copenhagen in 1924, then returned to Göttingen in June 1925, shortly thereafter developing the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. When he showed his results to Max Born in Göttingen, Born realised that they could best be expressed usingmatrices. This work attracted the attention of the British physicistPaul Dirac,who came to Copenhagen for six months in September 1926. Austrian physicistErwin Schrödingeralso visited in 1926. His attempt at explaining quantum physics in classical terms using wave mechanics impressed Bohr, who believed it contributed \\\"so much to mathematical clarity and simplicity that it represents a gigantic advance over all previous forms of quantum mechanics\\\". When Kramers left the institute in 1926 to take up a chair as professor of theoretical physics at theUtrecht University, Bohr arranged for Heisenberg to return and take Kramers's place as alektorat the University of Copenhagen.Heisenberg worked in Copenhagen as a university lecturer and assistant to Bohr from 1926 to 1927. Bohr became convinced that light behaved like both waves and particles and, in 1927, experiments confirmed thede Broglie hypothesisthat matter (like electrons) also behaved like waves.He conceived the philosophical principle ofcomplementarity: that items could have apparently mutually exclusive properties, such as being a wave or a stream of particles, depending on the experimental framework.He felt that it was not fully understood by professional philosophers. In February 1927, Heisenberg developed the first version of theuncertainty principle, presenting it using athought experimentwhere an electron was observed through agamma-ray microscope. Bohr was dissatisfied with Heisenberg's argument, since it required only that a measurement disturb properties that already existed, rather than the more radical idea that the electron's properties could not be discussed at all apart from the context they were measured in. In a paper presented at theVolta ConferenceatComoin September 1927, Bohr emphasised that Heisenberg's uncertainty relations could be derived from classical considerations about the resolving power of optical instruments.Understanding the true meaning of complementarity would, Bohr believed, require \\\"closer investigation\\\".Einstein preferred the determinism of classical physics over the probabilistic new quantum physics to which he himself had contributed. Philosophical issues that arose from the novel aspects of quantum mechanics became widely celebrated subjects of discussion. Einstein and Bohr hadgood-natured argumentsover such issues throughout their lives. In 1914Carl Jacobsen, the heir toCarlsberg breweries, bequeathed his mansion (the Carlsberg Honorary Residence, currently known as Carlsberg Academy) to be used for life by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature or the arts, as an honorary residence (Danish:Æresbolig). Harald Høffding had been the first occupant, and upon his death in July 1931, the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters gave Bohr occupancy. He and his family moved there in 1932.He was elected president of the Academy on 17 March 1939. By 1929 the phenomenon ofbeta decayprompted Bohr to again suggest that thelaw of conservation of energybe abandoned, butEnrico Fermi's hypotheticalneutrinoand the subsequent 1932 discovery of theneutronprovided another explanation. This prompted Bohr to create a new theory of thecompound nucleusin 1936, which explained how neutrons could be captured by the nucleus. In this model, the nucleus could be deformed like a drop of liquid. He worked on this with a new collaborator, the Danish physicist Fritz Kalckar, who died suddenly in 1938. The discovery ofnuclear fissionbyOtto Hahnin December 1938 (and its theoretical explanation byLise Meitner) generated intense interest among physicists. Bohr brought the news to the United States where he opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics with Fermi on 26 January 1939.When Bohr toldGeorge Placzekthat this resolved all the mysteries oftransuranic elements, Placzek told him that one remained: the neutron capture energies of uranium did not match those of its decay. Bohr thought about it for a few minutes and then announced to Placzek,Léon RosenfeldandJohn Wheelerthat \\\"I have understood everything.\\\"Based on hisliquid drop modelof the nucleus, Bohr concluded that it was theuranium-235isotope and not the more abundanturanium-238that was primarily responsible for fission with thermal neutrons. In April 1940,John R. Dunningdemonstrated that Bohr was correct.In the meantime, Bohr and Wheeler developed a theoretical treatment, which they published in a September 1939 paper on \\\"The Mechanism of Nuclear Fission\\\". Philosophy Heisenberg said of Bohr that he was \\\"primarily a philosopher, not a physicist\\\".Bohr read the 19th-century DanishChristian existentialistphilosopherSøren Kierkegaard.Richard Rhodesargued inThe Making of the Atomic Bombthat Bohr was influenced by Kierkegaard through Høffding.In 1909, Bohr sent his brother Kierkegaard'sStages on Life's Wayas a birthday gift. In the enclosed letter, Bohr wrote, \\\"It is the only thing I have to send home; but I do not believe that it would be very easy to find anything better ... I even think it is one of the most delightful things I have ever read.\\\" Bohr enjoyed Kierkegaard's language and literary style, but mentioned that he had some disagreement withKierkegaard's philosophy.Some of Bohr's biographers suggested that this disagreement stemmed from Kierkegaard's advocacy of Christianity, while Bohr was anatheist. There has been some dispute over the extent to which Kierkegaard influenced Bohr's philosophy and science.David Favrholdtargued that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr's work, taking Bohr's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value,while Jan Faye argued that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure. Quantum physics There has been much subsequent debate and discussion about Bohr's views and philosophy of quantum mechanics.Regarding his ontological interpretation of the quantum world, Bohr has been seen as ananti-realist, aninstrumentalist, a phenomenological realist or some other kind of realist. Furthermore, though some have seen Bohr as being asubjectivistor apositivist, most philosophers agree that this is a misunderstanding of Bohr as he never argued forverificationismor for the idea that the subject had a direct impact on the outcome of a measurement. Bohr has often been quoted saying that there is \\\"no quantum world\\\" but only an \\\"abstract quantum physical description\\\". This was not publicly said by Bohr, but rather a private statement attributed to Bohr by Aage Petersen in a reminiscence after his death.N. David MerminrecalledVictor Weisskopfdeclaring that Bohr wouldn't have said anything of the sort and exclaiming, \\\"Shame on Aage Petersen for putting those ridiculous words in Bohr's mouth!\\\" Numerous scholars have argued that the philosophy ofImmanuel Kanthad a strong influence on Bohr. Like Kant, Bohr thought distinguishing between the subject's experience and the object was an important condition for attaining knowledge. This can only be done through the use of causal and spatial-temporal concepts to describe the subject's experience.Thus, according to Jan Faye, Bohr thought that it is because of \\\"classical\\\" concepts like \\\"space\\\", \\\"position\\\", \\\"time\\\", \\\"causation\\\", and \\\"momentum\\\" that one can talk about objects and their objective existence. Bohr held that basic concepts like \\\"time\\\" are built in to our ordinary language and that the concepts of classical physics are merely a refinement of them.Therefore, for Bohr, classical concepts need to be used to describe experiments that deal with the quantum world. Bohr writes: he account of all evidence must be expressed in classical terms. The argument is simply that by the word 'experiment' we refer to a situation where we can tell to others what we have done and what we have learned and that, therefore, the account of the experimental arrangement and of the results of the observations must be expressed in unambiguous language with suitable application of the terminology of classical physics (APHK, p. 39). According to Faye, there are various explanations for why Bohr believed that classical concepts were necessary for describing quantum phenomena. Faye groups explanations into five frameworks: empiricism (i.e.logical positivism);Kantianism(orNeo-Kantianmodels ofepistemology);Pragmatism(which focus on how human beings experientially interact with atomic systems according to their needs and interests); Darwinianism (i.e. we are adapted to use classical type concepts, whichLéon Rosenfeldsaid that we evolved to use); and Experimentalism (which focuses strictly on the function and outcome of experiments that thus must be described classically).These explanations are not mutually exclusive, and at times Bohr seems to emphasise some of these aspects while at other times he focuses on other elements. According to Faye \\\"Bohr thought of the atom as real. Atoms are neither heuristic nor logical constructions.\\\" However, according to Faye, he did not believe \\\"that the quantum mechanical formalism was true in the sense that it gave us a literal ('pictorial') rather than a symbolic representation of the quantum world.\\\"Therefore, Bohr's theory ofcomplementarity\\\"is first and foremost a semantic and epistemological reading of quantum mechanics that carries certain ontological implications\\\".As Faye explains, Bohr'sindefinability thesisis that he truth conditions of sentences ascribing a certain kinematic or dynamic value to an atomic object are dependent on the apparatus involved, in such a way that these truth conditions have to include reference to the experimental setup as well as the actual outcome of the experiment. Faye notes that Bohr's interpretation makes no reference to a \\\"collapse of the wave function during measurements\\\" (and indeed, he never mentioned this idea). Instead, Bohr \\\"accepted the Born statistical interpretation because he believed that theψ-functionhas only a symbolic meaning and does not represent anything real\\\". Since for Bohr, theψ-function is not a literal pictorial representation of reality, there can be no real collapse of the wavefunction. A much debated point in recent literature is what Bohr believed about atoms and their reality and whether they are something else than what they seem to be. Some like Henry Folse argue that Bohr saw a distinction between observed phenomena and atranscendental reality. Jan Faye disagrees with this position and holds that for Bohr, the quantum formalism and complementarity was the only thing we could say about the quantum world and that \\\"there is no further evidence in Bohr's writings indicating that Bohr would attribute intrinsic and measurement-independent state properties to atomic objects in addition to the classical ones being manifested in measurement.\\\" Second World War Assistance to refugee scholars The rise ofNazismin Germany prompted many scholars to flee their countries, either because they were Jewish or because they were political opponents of the Nazi regime. In 1933, theRockefeller Foundationcreated a fund to help support refugee academics, and Bohr discussed this programme with the President of the Rockefeller Foundation,Max Mason, in May 1933 during a visit to the United States. Bohr offered the refugees temporary jobs at the institute, provided them with financial support, arranged for them to be awarded fellowships from the Rockefeller Foundation, and ultimately found them places at institutions around the world. Those that he helped includedGuido Beck,Felix Bloch,James Franck, George de Hevesy,Otto Frisch,Hilde Levi,Lise Meitner, George Placzek,Eugene Rabinowitch,Stefan Rozental, Erich Ernst Schneider,Edward Teller,Arthur von HippelandVictor Weisskopf. In April 1940, early in the Second World War,Nazi Germanyinvaded and occupied Denmark.To prevent the Germans from discoveringMax von Laue's and James Franck'sgold Nobel medals, Bohr had de Hevesy dissolve them inaqua regia. In this form, they were stored on a shelf at the Institute until after the war, when the gold was precipitated and the medals re-struck by the Nobel Foundation. Bohr's own medal had been donated to an auction to theFinnish Relief Fund, and was auctioned off in March 1940, along with the medal ofAugust Krogh. The buyer later donated the two medals to the Danish Historical Museum inFrederiksborg Castle, where they are still kept,although Bohr's medal temporarily went to space withAndreas MogensenonISSExpedition 70in 2023-2024. Bohr kept the Institute running, but all the foreign scholars departed. Meeting with Heisenberg Bohr was aware of the possibility of using uranium-235 to construct anatomic bomb, referring to it in lectures in Britain and Denmark shortly before and after the war started, but he did not believe that it was technically feasible to extract a sufficient quantity of uranium-235.In September 1941, Heisenberg, who had become head of theGerman nuclear energy project, visited Bohr in Copenhagen. During this meeting the two men took a private moment outside, the content of which has caused much speculation, as both gave differing accounts. According to Heisenberg, he began to address nuclear energy, morality and the war, to which Bohr seems to have reacted by terminating the conversation abruptly while not giving Heisenberg hints about his own opinions.Ivan Supek, one of Heisenberg's students and friends, claimed that the main subject of the meeting wasCarl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, who had proposed trying to persuade Bohr to mediate peace between Britain and Germany. In 1957, Heisenberg wrote toRobert Jungk, who was then working on the bookBrighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists. Heisenberg explained that he had visited Copenhagen to communicate to Bohr the views of several German scientists, that production of a nuclear weapon was possible with great efforts, and this raised enormous responsibilities on the world's scientists on both sides.When Bohr saw Jungk's depiction in the Danish translation of the book, he drafted (but never sent) a letter to Heisenberg, stating that he deeply disagreed with Heisenberg's account of the meeting,that he recalled Heisenberg's visit as being to encourage cooperation with the inevitably victorious Nazisand that he was shocked that Germany was pursuing nuclear weapons under Heisenberg's leadership. Michael Frayn's 1998 playCopenhagenexplores what might have happened at the 1941 meeting between Heisenberg and Bohr.A television film versionof the play by theBBCwas first screened on 26 September 2002, withStephen Reaas Bohr. With the subsequent release of Bohr's letters, the play has been criticised by historians as being a \\\"grotesque oversimplification and perversion of the actual moral balance\\\" due to adopting a pro-Heisenberg perspective. The same meeting had previously been dramatised by the BBC'sHorizonscience documentary series in 1992, withAnthony Bateas Bohr, and Philip Anthony as Heisenberg.The meeting is also dramatised in the Norwegian/Danish/British miniseriesThe Heavy Water War. Manhattan Project In September 1943, word reached Bohr and his brother Harald that the Nazisconsidered their family to be Jewish, since their mother was Jewish, and that they were therefore in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September.The next day, Bohr persuaded KingGustaf V of Swedento make public Sweden's willingness to provide asylum to Jewish refugees. On 2 October 1943, Swedish radio broadcast that Sweden was ready to offer asylum, and the massrescue of the Danish Jewsby their countrymen followed swiftly thereafter. Some historians claim that Bohr's actions led directly to the mass rescue, while others say that, though Bohr did all that he could for his countrymen, his actions were not a decisive influence on the wider events.Eventually, over 7,000 Danish Jews escaped to Sweden. When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain,Lord Cherwellsent a telegram to Bohr asking him to come to Britain. Bohr arrived in Scotland on 6 October in ade Havilland Mosquitooperated by theBritish Overseas Airways Corporation(BOAC).The Mosquitos were unarmed high-speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small, valuable cargoes or important passengers. By flying at high speed and high altitude, they could cross German-occupied Norway, and yet avoid German fighters. Bohr, equipped with parachute, flying suit and oxygen mask, spent the three-hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft'sbomb bay.During the flight, Bohr did not wear his flying helmet as it was too small, and consequently did not hear the pilot's intercom instruction to turn on his oxygen supply when the aircraft climbed to high altitude to overfly Norway. He passed out from oxygen starvation and only revived when the aircraft descended to lower altitude over the North Sea.Bohr's son Aage followed his father to Britain on another flight a week later, and became his personal assistant. Bohr was warmly received byJames Chadwickand SirJohn Anderson, but for security reasons Bohr was kept out of sight. He was given an apartment atSt James's Palaceand an office with the BritishTube Alloysnuclear weapons development team. Bohr was astonished at the amount of progress that had been made.Chadwick arranged for Bohr to visit the United States as a Tube Alloys consultant, with Aage as his assistant.On 8 December 1943, Bohr arrived inWashington, D.C., where he met with the director of theManhattan Project, Brigadier GeneralLeslie R. Groves Jr.He visited Einstein and Pauli at theInstitute for Advanced StudyinPrinceton, New Jersey, and went toLos AlamosinNew Mexico, where the nuclear weapons were being designed.For security reasons, he went under the name of \\\"Nicholas Baker\\\" in the United States, while Aage became \\\"James Baker\\\".In May 1944 the Danish resistance newspaperDe frie Danskereported that they had learned that 'the famous son of Denmark Professor Niels Bohr' in October the previous year had fled his country via Sweden to London and from there travelled toMoscowfrom where he could be assumed to support the war effort. Bohr did not remain at Los Alamos, but paid a series of extended visits over the course of the next two years.Robert Oppenheimercredited Bohr with acting \\\"as a scientific father figure to the younger men\\\", most notablyRichard Feynman.Bohr is quoted as saying, \\\"They didn't need my help in making the atom bomb.\\\"Oppenheimer gave Bohr credit for an important contribution to the work onmodulated neutron initiators. \\\"This device remained a stubborn puzzle\\\", Oppenheimer noted, \\\"but in early February 1945 Niels Bohr clarified what had to be done\\\". Bohr recognised early that nuclear weapons would change international relations. In April 1944, he received a letter fromPeter Kapitza, written some months before when Bohr was in Sweden, inviting him to come to theSoviet Union. The letter convinced Bohr that the Soviets were aware of the Anglo-American project, and would strive to catch up. He sent Kapitza a non-committal response, which he showed to the authorities in Britain before posting.Bohr met Churchill on 16 May 1944, but found that \\\"we did not speak the same language\\\".Churchill disagreed with the idea of openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter: \\\"It seems to me Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes.\\\" Oppenheimer suggested that Bohr visit PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltto convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared with the Soviets in the hope of speeding up its results. Bohr's friend, Supreme Court JusticeFelix Frankfurter, informed President Roosevelt about Bohr's opinions, and a meeting between them took place on 26 August 1944. Roosevelt suggested that Bohr return to the United Kingdom to try to win British approval.When Churchill and Roosevelt met at Hyde Park on 19 September 1944, they rejected the idea of informing the world about the project, and theaide-mémoireof their conversation contained a rider that \\\"enquiries should be made regarding the activities of Professor Bohr and steps taken to ensure that he is responsible for no leakage of information, particularly to the Russians\\\". In June 1950, Bohr addressed an \\\"Open Letter\\\" to theUnited Nationscalling for international cooperation on nuclear energy.In the 1950s, after theSoviet Union's first nuclear weapon test, theInternational Atomic Energy Agencywas created along the lines of Bohr's suggestion.In 1957 he received the first everAtoms for Peace Award. Later years Following the ending of the war, Bohr returned to Copenhagen on 25 August 1945, and was re-elected President of the Royal Danish Academy of Arts and Sciences on 21 September.At a memorial meeting of the Academy on 17 October 1947 for KingChristian X, who had died in April, the new king,Frederik IX, announced that he was conferring theOrder of the Elephanton Bohr. This award was normally awarded only to royalty and heads of state, but the king said that it honoured not just Bohr personally, but Danish science.Bohr designed his owncoat of arms, which featured ataijitu(symbol of yin and yang) and a motto in Latin:contraria sunt complementa, \\\"opposites are complementary\\\". The Second World War demonstrated that science, and physics in particular, now required considerable financial and material resources. To avoid abrain drainto the United States, twelve European countries banded together to createCERN, a research organisation along the lines of the national laboratories in the United States, designed to undertakeBig Scienceprojects beyond the resources of any one of them alone. Questions soon arose regarding the best location for the facilities. Bohr and Kramers felt that the Institute in Copenhagen would be the ideal site.Pierre Auger, who organised the preliminary discussions, disagreed; he felt that both Bohr and his Institute were past their prime, and that Bohr's presence would overshadow others. After a long debate, Bohr pledged his support to CERN in February 1952, andGenevawas chosen as the site in October. The CERN Theory Group was based in Copenhagen until their new accommodation in Geneva was ready in 1957.Victor Weisskopf, who later became theDirector General of CERN, summed up Bohr's role, saying that \\\"there were other personalities who started and conceived the idea ofCERN. The enthusiasm and ideas of the other people would not have been enough, however, if a man of his stature had not supported it.\\\" Meanwhile, Scandinavian countries formed theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physicsin 1957, with Bohr as its chairman. He was also involved with the founding of theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission, and served as its first chairman from February 1956. Bohr died of heart failure at his home inCarlsbergon 18 November 1962.He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in the family plot in theAssistens Cemeteryin theNørrebrosection of Copenhagen, along with those of his parents, his brother Harald, and his son Christian. Years later, his wife's ashes were also interred there.On 7 October 1965, on what would have been his 80th birthday, the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen was officially renamed to what it had been called unofficially for many years: the Niels Bohr Institute. Accolades Bohr received numerous honours and accolades. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he received theHughes Medalin 1921, theMatteucci Medalin 1923, theFranklin Medalin 1926,theCopley Medalin 1938, the Order of the Elephant in 1947, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1957 and theSonning Prizein 1961. He became foreign member of theFinnish Society of Sciences an Lettersin 1922,and of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1923,an international member of theUnited States National Academy of Sciencesin 1925,a member of theRoyal Societyin 1926,an international member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1940,and an international honorary member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1945.The Bohr model's semicentennial was commemorated in Denmark on 21 November 1963 with apostage stampdepicting Bohr, the hydrogen atom and the formula for the difference of any two hydrogen energy levels:hν=ϵ2−ϵ1{\\\\displaystyle h\\\\nu =\\\\epsilon _{2}-\\\\epsilon _{1}}. Several other countries have also issued postage stamps depicting Bohr.In 1997, theDanish National Bankbegan circulating the500-krone banknotewith the portrait of Bohr smoking a pipe.On 7 October 2012, in celebration of Niels Bohr's 127th birthday, a Google Doodle depicting the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom appeared on Google's home page.An asteroid,3948 Bohr, was named after him,as was theBohr lunar craterandbohrium, the chemical element with atomic number 107. Bibliography See also Notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"Johannes Stark Johannes Stark(German pronunciation:ⓘ, 15 April 1874 – 21 June 1957) was a Germanphysicistwho was awarded theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1919 \\\"for his discovery of the Doppler effect incanal raysand the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields\\\". This phenomenon is known as theStark effect. Stark received his Ph.D. in physics from theUniversity of Munichin 1897 under the supervision ofEugen von Lommel, and served as Lommel's assistant until his appointment as a lecturer at theUniversity of Göttingenin 1900. He was anextraordinary professoratLeibniz University Hannoverfrom 1906 until he became a professor atRWTH Aachen Universityin 1909. In 1917, he became professor at theUniversity of Greifswald, and he also worked at theUniversity of Würzburgfrom 1920 to 1922. A supporter ofAdolf Hitlerfrom 1924, Stark was one of the main figures, along with fellow Nobel laureatePhilipp Lenard, in the anti-SemiticDeutsche Physikmovement, which sought to remove Jewish scientists from German physics. He was appointed head of theGerman Research Foundationin 1933 and was president of theReich Physical-Technical Institutefrom 1933 to 1939. In 1947 he was found guilty as a \\\"Major Offender\\\" by adenazificationcourt. Biography Early years Born inSchickenhof,Kingdom of Bavaria(nowFreihung), Stark was educated atBayreuth Gymnasium(secondary school) and later inRegensburg. Hiscollegiateeducation began at theUniversity of Munich, where he studied physics,mathematics,chemistry, andcrystallography. His tenure at that college began in 1894; he graduated in 1897, with hisdoctoraldissertation titledUntersuchung über einige physikalische, vorzüglich optische Eigenschaften des Rußes(Investigation of some physical, in particular optical properties of soot). Career Stark worked in various positions at the Physics Institute of hisalma materuntil 1900, when he became an unsalariedlecturerat theUniversity of Göttingen. An extraordinary professor atHannoverby 1906, in 1908 he became professor atRWTH Aachen University. He worked and researched at physics departments of several universities, including theUniversity of Greifswald, until 1922. In 1919, he won theNobel Prize in Physicsfor his \\\"discovery of theDoppler effectincanal raysand the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields\\\" (the latter is known as theStark effect). From 1933 until his retirement in 1939, Stark was elected President of thePhysikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, while also President of theDeutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. It was Stark who, as the editor of theJahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, asked in 1907, then still rather unknown,Albert Einsteinto write a review article on theprinciple of relativity. Stark seemed impressed by relativity and Einstein's earlier work when he quoted \\\"the principle of relativity formulated by H. A. Lorentz and A. Einstein\\\" and \\\"Planck's relationshipM0=E0/c2\\\" in his 1907 paperinPhysikalische Zeitschrift, where he used the equatione0=m0c2to calculate an \\\"elementary quantum of energy\\\", i.e. the amount of energy related to the mass of an electron at rest. While working on his article,Einstein began a line of thought that would eventually lead to hisgeneral theory of relativity, which in turn became (after its confirmation) the start of Einstein's worldwide fame. This is ironic, given Stark's later work as an anti-Einstein andanti-relativitypropagandist in theDeutsche Physikmovement. Stark published more than 300 papers, mainly regardingelectricityand other such topics. He received various awards, including theNobel Prize, the Baumgartner Prize of theVienna Academy of Sciences(1910), the Vahlbruch Prize of theGöttingen Academy of Sciences(1914), and theMatteucci Medalof theRome Academy. Probably his best known contribution to the field ofphysicsis theStark effect, which he discovered in 1913. In 1970 theInternational Astronomical Unionhonored him with acrateron the far-side of the Moon, without knowing about his Nazi activities.The name was dropped on August 12, 2020. He marriedLuise Uepler, and they had five children. His hobbies were the cultivation of fruit trees and forestry. He worked in his private laboratory, which he set up using his Nobel prize money, on his country estate in Upper Bavaria after the second world war. There he studied the deflection of light in an electric field. Affiliation with Nazism From 1924 onwards, Stark supported Hitler.During theNaziregime, Stark attempted to become theFührerof German physics through theDeutsche Physik(\\\"German physics\\\") movement (along with fellow Nobel laureatePhilipp Lenard) against the \\\"Jewish physics\\\" ofAlbert EinsteinandWerner Heisenberg(who was not Jewish). After Werner Heisenberg defended Albert Einstein'stheory of relativity, Stark wrote an angry article in the officialSSnewspaperDas Schwarze Korps, calling Heisenberg a \\\"White Jew\\\". On August 21, 1934, Stark wrote to physicist and fellow Nobel laureateMax von Laue, telling him to toe the party line or suffer the consequences. The letter was signed off with \\\"Heil Hitler.\\\" In his 1934 bookNationalsozialismus und Wissenschaft(English: \\\"National Socialism and Science\\\") Stark maintained that the priority of the scientist was to serve the nation—thus, the important fields of research were those that could help German arms production and industry. He attacked theoretical physics as \\\"Jewish\\\" and stressed that scientific positions inNazi Germanyshould only be held by pure-blooded Germans. Writing inDas Schwarze Korps, Stark argued that even ifracial antisemitismwere to triumph, it would only be a 'partial victory' if 'Jewish' ideas were not similarly defeated: \\\"We also have to eradicate the Jewish spirit, whose blood can flow just as undisturbed today as before if its carriers hold beautifulAryanpasses\\\". In 1947, following the defeat of Germany inWorld War II, Stark was classified as a \\\"Major Offender\\\" and received a sentence of four years' imprisonment (later suspended) by adenazificationcourt. Later life and death Stark spent the last years of his life on his Gut Eppenstatt near Traunstein in Upper Bavaria, where he died in 1957 at the age of 83. He was buried inSchönau am Königsseein the mountain cemetery. See also Publications Notes References External links\",\n \"James Franck James Franck(German pronunciation:ⓘ; 26 August 1882 – 21 May 1964) was a Germanphysicistwho won the 1925Nobel Prize for PhysicswithGustav Hertz\\\"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom\\\".He completed hisdoctoratein 1906 and hishabilitationin 1911 at theFrederick William Universityin Berlin, where he lectured and taught until 1918, having reached the position ofprofessor extraordinarius. He served as a volunteer in the German Army duringWorld War I. He was seriously injured in 1917 in a gas attack and was awarded theIron Cross1st Class. Franck became the Head of the Physics Division of theKaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaftfor Physical Chemistry. In 1920, Franck becameprofessor ordinariusof experimental physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics at theUniversity of Göttingen. While there he worked onquantum physicswithMax Born, who was Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics. His work included theFranck–Hertz experiment, an important confirmation of theBohr modelof theatom. He promoted the careers of women in physics, notablyLise Meitner,Hertha SponerandHilde Levi. After theNazi Partycame to power in Germany in 1933, Franck resigned his post in protest against the dismissal of fellow academics. He assistedFrederick Lindemannin helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933. After a year at theNiels Bohr InstituteinDenmark, he moved to the United States, where he worked atJohns Hopkins UniversityinBaltimoreand then theUniversity of Chicago. During this period he became interested inphotosynthesis. Franck participated in theManhattan ProjectduringWorld War IIas Director of the Chemistry Division of theMetallurgical Laboratory. He was also the chairman of the Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which is best known for the compilation of theFranck Report, which recommended that theatomic bombsnot be used on the Japanese cities without warning. Early life James Franck was born inHamburg, Germany, on 26 August 1882, into aJewishfamily, the second child and first son of Jacob Franck, a banker, and his wife Rebecca née Nachum Drucker.He had an older sister, Paula, and a younger brother, Robert Bernard.His father was a devout and religious man, while his mother came from a family of rabbis.Franck attended primary school in Hamburg. Starting in 1891 he attended theWilhelm-Gymnasium, which was then a boys-only school. Hamburg had no university then, so prospective students had to attend one of the 22 universities elsewhere in Germany. Intending to study law and economics, Franck entered theUniversity of Heidelbergin 1901, as it had a renowned law school.He attended lectures on law, but was far more interested in those on science. While there, he metMax Born, who would become a lifelong friend. With Born's help, he was able to persuade his parents to allow him to switch to studying physics and chemistry.Franck attended mathematics lectures byLeo KönigsbergerandGeorg Cantor, but Heidelberg was not strong on the physical sciences, so he decided to go to theFrederick William Universityin Berlin. At Berlin, Franck attended lectures byMax PlanckandEmil Warburg.On 28 July 1904 he saved a pair of children from drowning in theSpree River.For hisDoctor of Philosophy(Dir. Phil.) under Warburg's supervision,Warburg suggested that he studycorona discharges. Franck found this topic too complex, so he changed the focus of histhesis.EntitledÜber die Beweglichkeit der Ladungsträger der Spitzenentladung(\\\"On the Mobility ofIons\\\"),it would subsequently be published in theAnnalen der Physik. With his thesis completed, Franck had to perform his deferred military service. He was called up on 1 October 1906 and joined the 1st Telegraph Battalion. He suffered a minor horse riding accident in December and was discharged as unfit for duty. He took up an assistantship at the Physikalische Verein inFrankfurtin 1907, but did not enjoy it, and soon returned to Frederick William University.At a concert Franck met Ingrid Josephson, a Swedish pianist. They were married in a Swedish ceremony inGothenburgon 23 December 1907. They had two daughters, Dagmar (Daggie), who was born in 1909, and Elisabeth (Lisa), who was born in 1912. To pursue an academic career in Germany, having a doctorate was not enough; one needed avenia legendi, or habilitation. This could be achieved with either another major thesis or by producing a substantial body of published work. Franck chose the latter route. There were many unsolved problems in physics at the time, and by 1914 he had published 34 articles. He was the sole author of some, but generally preferred working in collaboration withEva von Bahr,Lise Meitner,Robert Pohl,Peter Pringsheim,Robert W. Wood,Arthur WehneltorWilhelm Westphal. His most fruitful collaboration was withGustav Hertz, with whom he wrote 19 articles. He received his habilitation on 20 May 1911. Franck–Hertz experiment In 1914, Franck teamed up with Hertz to perform an experiment to investigatefluorescence. They designed avacuum tubefor studying energeticelectronsthat flew through a thin vapour ofmercuryatoms. They discovered that when an electron collided with a mercury atom it could lose only a specific quantity (4.9electronvolts) of itskinetic energybefore flying away. A faster electron does not decelerate completely after a collision, but loses precisely the same amount of its kinetic energy. Slower electrons just bounce off mercury atoms without losing any significant speed or kinetic energy. These experimental results provided confirmation ofAlbert Einstein'sphotoelectric effectand Planck's relation (E=fh) linking energy (E) and frequency (f) arising from quantisation of energy with thePlanck constant(h). But they also provided evidence supporting themodel of the atomthat had been proposed the previous year byNiels Bohr. Its key feature was that an electron inside an atom occupies one of the atom's \\\"quantum energy levels\\\". Before a collision, an electron inside the mercury atom occupies its lowest available energy level. After the collision, the electron inside occupies a higher energy level with 4.9 eV more energy. This means that the electron is more loosely bound to the mercury atom. There were no intermediate levels or possibilities. In a second paper presented in May 1914, Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions. They showed that thewavelengthof thisultravioletlight corresponded exactly to the 4.9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost. The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr.Franck and Hertz completed their last paper together in December 1918. In it, they reconciled the discrepancies between their results and Bohr's theory, which they now acknowledged.In his Nobel lecture, Franck admitted that it was \\\"completely incomprehensible that we had failed to recognise the fundamental significance of Bohr's theory, so much so, that we never even mentioned it once\\\".On 10 December 1926, Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925Nobel Prize in Physics\\\"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom.\\\". World War I Franck enlisted in theGerman Armysoon after the outbreak of theFirst World Warin August 1914. In December he was sent to thePicardysector of theWestern Front. He became a deputy officer (offizierstellvertreter), and then a lieutenant (leutnant) in 1915.In early 1915 he was transferred toFritz Haber's new unit that would introduce clouds of chlorine gas as a weapon.WithOtto Hahnhe was responsible for locating sites for the attacks. He was awarded theIron Cross, Second Class, on 30 March 1915,and the city of Hamburg awarded him theHanseatic Crosson 11 January 1916.While in hospital withpleurisy, he co-wrote yet another scientific paper with Hertz, and he was appointed an assistant professor in his absence by Frederick William University on 19 September 1916. Sent to theRussian front, he came down withdysentery. He returned to Berlin, where he joined Hertz, Westphal,Hans Geiger, Otto Hahn and others at Haber'sKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, working on the development ofgas masks.He was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class, on 23 February 1918. He was discharged from the Army on 25 November 1918, soon after the war ended. With the war over, Haber's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute now returned to research, and Haber offered Franck a job. His new post came with more pay, but was not a tenured position. It did however allow Franck to pursue his research as he wished. Working with new, younger collaborators such asWalter Grotrian, Paul Knipping, Thea Krüger,Fritz ReicheandHertha Sponer, his first papers at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute examined atomic electrons in their excited state, results that would later prove important in the development of thelaser.They coined the term \\\"metastable\\\" for atoms spending an extended time in a state other thanthat of least energy.When Niels Bohr visited Berlin in 1920, Meitner and Franck arranged for him to come to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute to talk with the younger staff without the presence of thebonzen(\\\"bigwigs\\\"). Göttingen In 1920, theUniversity of Göttingenoffered Max Born its chair of theoretical physics, which had recently been vacated byPeter Debye. Göttingen was an important centre for mathematics, thanks toDavid Hilbert,Felix Klein,Hermann MinkowskiandCarl Runge, but not so much for physics. This would change. As part of his price for coming to Göttingen, Born wanted Franck to head experimental physics there. On 15 November 1920, Franck became Professor of Experimental Physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics, a fully tenuredprofessor ordinarius. He was allowed two assistants, so he broughtHertha Sponerwith him from Berlin to fill one of the positions. Pohl, a gifted teacher, headed the First Institute, and handled the lectures.Franck refurbished the laboratory with the latest equipment using funds from his own pocket. Under Born and Franck, Göttingen was one of the world's great centres for physics between 1920 and 1933.Although they published only three papers together, Born and Franck discussed every one of their papers with each other. Gaining admittance to Franck's laboratory became highly competitive. His doctoral students includedHans Kopfermann,Arthur R. von Hippel,Wilhelm Hanle,Fritz Houtermans,Heinrich Kuhn,Werner Kroebel, Walter Lochte-Holtgreven andHeinz Maier-Leibnitz.In supervising doctoral candidates, Franck had to ensure that thesis topics were well-defined, and would teach the candidate how to conduct original research, while still staying within the limits of the candidate's ability, the laboratory's equipment and the institute's budget.Under his direction, research was carried out into the structure of atoms and molecules. In his own research, Franck developed what became known as theFranck–Condon principle, a rule inspectroscopyandquantum chemistrythat explains the intensity ofvibronic transitions, simultaneous changes in electronic and vibrational energy levels of a molecule due to the absorption or emission of aphotonof the appropriate energy. The principle states that during anelectronic transition, a change from onevibrationalenergy levelto another will be more likely to happen if the two vibrationalwave functionsoverlap more significantly.The principle has since been applied to a wide variety of related phenomena. For his work during this time period, Franck was elected to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1929. Exile This period came to an end when theNazi Partywon power in Germany inan electionon 2 March 1933. The following month it enacted theLaw for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which provided for the retirement or dismissal of all Jewish civil servants, along with political opponents of the government. As a veteran of the First World War, Franck was exempt, but he submitted his resignation anyway on 17 April 1933.He once commented that science was his God and nature was his religion. He did not require his daughters to attend religious instruction classes at school,and even let them have a decorated tree at Christmas;but he was proud of his Jewish heritage all the same.He was the first academic to resign in protest over the law.Newspapers around the world reported it, but no government or university protested. Franck assistedFrederick Lindemannin helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933.After a brief visit to the United States, where he measured the absorption of light inheavy waterwith Wood atJohns Hopkins University, he took up a position at theNiels Bohr InstituteinCopenhagen.He needed a new collaborator, so he took onHilde Levi, whose recent thesis had impressed him.His original intention was to continue his research into the fluorescence of vapours and liquids, but under Bohr's influence they began to take an interest in biological aspects of these reactions, particularlyphotosynthesis, the process by which plants use light to convertcarbon dioxideand water into more organic compounds. Biological processes turned out to be far more complicated than simple reactions in atoms and molecules. He co-authored two papers with Levi on the subject, which he would return to over the following years. Franck found a position at thePolytekniske Læreanstaltin Copenhagen for Arthur von Hippel, who was now his son in law, having married his daughter Dagmar. He decided to provide financial security for his children by dividing his Nobel Prize money between them. The gold medal itself was entrusted to Niels Bohr for safekeeping.When Germanyinvaded Denmarkon 9 April 1940, the Hungarian chemistGeorge de Hevesydissolved the gold medal, along with that ofMax von Laueinaqua regiato prevent the Germans from taking them. He placed the resulting solution on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. After the war, he returned to find the solution undisturbed and precipitated the gold out of the acid. The Nobel Society then recast the Nobel Prize medals. In 1935, Franck moved to the United States, where he had accepted a professorship at Johns Hopkins University.The laboratory there was poorly equipped compared to the one in Göttingen, but he received $10,000 for equipment from theRockefeller Foundation. A more intractable problem was that the university had no money to hire skilled staff. Franck was concerned about his family members remaining in Germany, and needed money to help them emigrate. He therefore accepted an offer from theUniversity of Chicago, where his work on photosynthesis had attracted interest, in 1938. Franck's first paper there, co-authored withEdward Teller, was on photochemical processes in crystals.Hans Gaffronbecame his collaborator.They were joined by Pringsheim, who escaped from Belgium after theGerman invasion. Franck arranged a position for Pringsheim at his laboratory.Both his daughters and their families moved to the United States, and he was also able to bring out his elderly mother and aunt.He became anaturalisedUnited States citizen on 21 July 1941,so he was not anenemy alienwhen the United Statesdeclared war on Germanyon 11 December 1941. His daughters still were, though, so they were restricted from travelling, and could not take care of their mother when she fell ill and died on 10 January 1942, although they were permitted to attend her funeral. In February 1942,Arthur H. Comptonestablished itsMetallurgical Laboratoryat the University of Chicago. As part of theManhattan Project, its mission was to buildnuclear reactorsto createplutoniumthat would be used inatomic bombs.The Metallurgical Laboratory's Chemistry Division was initially headed byFrank Spedding, but he preferred hands on work to administration. Compton then turned to Franck, with some trepidation owing to his German background.Compton later wrote: How Franck welcomed an invitation to join our project! It was a vote of confidence that far exceeded his hopes, and it gave him a chance to do his part for the cause of freedom. \\\"It's not the German people I'm fighting\\\", he explained. \\\"It's the Nazis. They have a stranglehold over Germany. The German people are helpless until we can break the strength of their Nazi masters.\\\" The chemists welcomed Franck as an elder scientific statesman whose guidance they were glad to follow. In addition to heading the Chemistry Division, Franck was also the chairman of the Metallurgical Laboratory's Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which consisted of himself andDonald J. Hughes,J. J. Nickson,Eugene Rabinowitch,Glenn T. Seaborg, J. C. Stearns andLeó Szilárd.In 1945, Franck warnedHenry A. Wallaceof their fears that \\\"mankind has learned to unleash atomic power without being ethically and politically prepared to use it wisely.\\\"The committee compiled what became known as theFranck Report. Finished on 11 June 1945, it recommended that theatomic bombsnot be used on the Japanese cities without warning.In any event, theInterim Committeedecided otherwise. Later life Franck marriedHertha Sponerin a civil ceremony on 29 June 1946,his first wife, Ingrid, having died in 1942. In his post-war research, he continued to tackle the problem of explaining the mechanism of photosynthesis. Meitner saw no break between his early and later work. She recalled that Franck enjoyed talking about his problems, not so much to explain them to others as to satisfy his own mind. Once a problem had aroused his interest he was completely captivated, indeed obsessed by it. Common sense and straight logic were his main tools, together with simple apparatus. His research followed an almost straight line, from his early studies of ion mobilities to his last work on photosynthesis; it was always the energy exchange between atoms or molecules that fascinated him. In addition to the Nobel Prize. Franck was awarded theMax Planck medalof theDeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaftin 1951 and theRumford Medalof the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on photosynthesis in 1955. He became an honorary citizen of Göttingen in 1953,was elected a member of the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1944,and elected aForeign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1964.He was also an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Society. He died suddenly from a heart attack while visiting Göttingen on 21 May 1964,and was buried in Chicago with his first wife. In 1967, the University of Chicago named theJames Franck Instituteafter him.Alunar craterhas also been named in his honour.His papers are in the University of Chicago Library. See also Notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"Gustav Ludwig Hertz Gustav Ludwig Hertz(/hɜːrts/;German:ⓘ; 22 July 1887 – 30 October 1975)was a Germanexperimental physicistandNobel Prize winnerfor his work on inelastic electron collisions in gases, and a nephew ofHeinrich Hertz. Biography Hertz was born inHamburg, the son of Auguste (née Arning) and a lawyer, Gustav Theodor Hertz (1858–1904),Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's brother. He attended theGelehrtenschule des Johanneumsbefore studying at theGeorg-August University of Göttingen(1906–1907), theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich(1907–1908), and theHumboldt University of Berlin(1908–1911). He received his doctorate in 1911 underHeinrich Leopold Rubens. From 1911 to 1914, Hertz was an assistant to Rubens at the University of Berlin. It was during this time that Hertz andJames Franckperformed experiments on inelastic electron collisions in gases,known as theFranck–Hertz experiments, and for which they received theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1925. During World War I, Hertz served in the military from 1914. In 1915 he joinedFritz Haber's unit that would introduce poisonous chlorine gas as a weapon.He was seriously wounded in 1915. In 1917, he returned to the University of Berlin as aPrivatdozent. In 1920, he took a job as a research physicist at the Philips Incandescent Lamp Factory inEindhoven, which he held until 1925. Career In 1925, Hertz became ordinarius professor and director of the Physics Institute of theMartin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg. In 1928 he became ordinarius professor of experimental physics and director of the Physics Institute of theTechnische HochschuleBerlin(\\\"THB\\\"), nowTechnische Universität Berlin. While there, he developed an isotope separation technique via gaseous diffusion. Since Hertz was an officer during World War I, he was temporarily protected from National Socialist policies and theLaw for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, but eventually the policies and laws became more stringent, and at the end of 1934, he was forced to resign his position at THB, as he was classified as a \\\"second degree part-Jew\\\" (his paternal grandfatherGustav Ferdinand Hertz(originally named David Gustav Hertz) (1827–1914) had been Jewish as a child, before his whole family had converted to Lutheranism in 1834).He then took a position atSiemens, as director of Research Laboratory II. While there, he continued his work onatomic physicsandultrasound, but he eventually discontinued his work on isotope separation. He held this position until he departed for the Soviet Union in 1945. In the Soviet Union \\\"Pact to defect\\\" Hertz was concerned for his safety and, like his fellow Nobel laureateJames Franck, was looking to move to the USA or any other place outside Germany. So he made a pact with three colleagues:Manfred von Ardenne, director of his private laboratoryForschungslaboratorium für Elektronenphysik,Peter Adolf Thiessen, ordinarius professor at theHumboldt University of Berlinand director of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie (KWIPC) inBerlin-Dahlem, andMax Volmer, ordinarius professor and director of the Physical Chemistry Institute at the THB.The pact was a pledge that whoever first made contact with the Soviets would speak for the rest. The objectives of their pact were threefold: (1) prevent plunder of their institutes, (2) continue their work with minimal interruption, and (3) protect themselves from prosecution for any political acts of the past.Before the end of World War II, Thiessen, a member of theNazi Party, had Communist contacts. Participation in Soviet program of nuclear weapons On 27 April 1945, Thiessen arrived at von Ardenne's institute in an armored vehicle with a major of the Soviet Army, who was also a leading Soviet chemist.All four of the pact members were taken to the Soviet Union. Hertz was made head of Institute G, in Agudseri (Agudzery), about 10 km southeast ofSukhumiand a suburb of Gul'rips (Gulrip'shi).Topics assigned to Gustav Hertz's Institute G included: (1) Separation of isotopes by diffusion in a flow of inert gases, for which Gustav Hertz was the leader, (2) Development of a condensation pump, for whichJustus Mühlenpfordtwas the leader, (3) Design and build a mass spectrometer for determining the isotopic composition of uranium, for which Werner Schütze was the leader, (4) Development of frameless (ceramic) diffusion partitions for filters, for which Reinhold Reichmann was the leader, and (5) Development of a theory of stability and control of a diffusion cascade, for whichHeinz Barwichwas the leader; Barwich had been deputy to Hertz at Siemens.Other members of Institute G wereWerner Hartmannand Karl-Franz Zühlke.Manfred von Ardenne was made head of Institute A. Goals of von Ardenne's Institute A included: (1) Electromagnetic separation of isotopes, for which von Ardenne was the leader, (2) Techniques for manufacturing porous barriers for isotope separation, for which Peter Adolf Thiessen was the leader, and (3) Molecular techniques for separation of uranium isotopes, for whichMax Steenbeckwas the leader. In his first meeting withLavrentij Beria, von Ardenne was asked to participate in building the bomb, but von Ardenne quickly realized that participation would prohibit his repatriation to Germany, so he suggested isotope enrichment as an objective, which was agreed to. Research at Sukhumi By the end of the 1940s, nearly 300 Germans were working at the institute, and they were not the total work force. Institute A was used as the basis for the Sukhumi Physical-Technical Institute in Sinop, a suburb ofSukhumi.Volmer went to the Scientific Research Institute No. 9 (NII-9)in Moscow; he was given a design bureau to work on the production ofheavy water. In Institute A, Thiessen became leader for developing techniques for manufacturing porous barriers for isotope separation. In 1949, six German scientists, including Hertz, Thiessen, and Barwich were called in for consultation atSverdlovsk-44, which was responsible for uranium enrichment. The plant, smaller than the American Oak Ridgegaseous diffusion plant, was getting only a little over half of the expected 90% or higher enrichment. After 1950, Hertz moved to Moscow. In 1951, Hertz was awarded aStalin Prize, second class, with Barwich.In that year, James Franck and Hertz were jointly awarded theMax Planck Medalby theDeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. Hertz remained in the Soviet Union until 1955. Return to the GDR Upon return from the Soviet Union, Hertz became ordinarius professor at theUniversity of Leipzig. From 1955 to 1967, he was also the chairman of the Physical Society of theDeutsche Demokratische Republik (GDR); he was honorary chairman from 1967 to 1975. Personal life Gustav Hertz was a nephew ofHeinrich Rudolf Hertzand a cousin ofMathilde Carmen Hertz. In 1919, Hertz married Ellen née Dihlmann, who died in 1941. They had two sons,Carl Helmut Hertzand Johannes Heinrich Hertz; both became physicists. He died on 30 October 1975 inEast Berlinat the age 88. Scientific memberships Hertz was a Member of the German Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Corresponding Member of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences, an Honorary Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, a Member of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences, and a Foreign Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Publications See also References Further reading External links\",\n \"List of Nobel laureates in Physics TheNobel Prize in Physics(Swedish:Nobelpriset i fysik) is awarded annually by theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciencesto scientists in the various fields ofphysics. It is one of the fiveNobel Prizesestablished by the 1895willofAlfred Nobel(who died in 1896), awarded for outstanding contributions in physics.As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by theNobel Foundationand awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.The award is presented inStockholmat an annual ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death.Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award prize that has varied throughout the years. Statistics The Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to 226 individuals as of 2024.The first prize in physics was awarded in 1901 toWilhelm Conrad Röntgen, of Germany, who received 150,782SEK.John Bardeenis the only laureate to win the prize twice—in 1956 and 1972. William Lawrence Braggwas the youngest Nobel laureate in physics; he won the prize in 1915 at the age of 25. He was also the youngest laureate for any Nobel prize until 2014 (whenMalala Yousafzaiwon the Nobel Peace Prize at the age of 17).The oldest Nobel Prize laureate in physics wasArthur Ashkinwho was 96 years old when he was awarded the prize in 2018. Only five women have won the prize:Marie Curie(1903),Maria Goeppert-Mayer(1963),Donna Strickland(2018),Andrea Ghez(2020), andAnne L'Huillier(2023).Before L'Huillier, each woman only ever received a quarter share of the prize, although Marie Curie did receive anunshared Nobel prize in chemistry in 1911. In 2023, L'Huillier received a one-third share. There have been six years for which the Nobel Prize in Physics was not awarded (1916, 1931, 1934, 1940–1942). There were also nine years for which the Nobel Prize in Physics was delayed for one year: A 2020 study reported that half of the Nobel Prizes for science awarded between 1995 and 2017 are clustered in few disciplines.Particle physics(14%),atomic physics(10.9%), and 3 non-physics disciplines dominate the prize in recent decades, followed bysemiconductor physicsandmagnetics. Laureates Number of Nobel laureates in Physics by country See also Notes References External links\",\n \"Quantum mechanics Quantum mechanicsis a fundamentaltheorythat describes the behavior ofnatureat and below the scale ofatoms.: 1.1It is the foundation of allquantum physics, which includesquantum chemistry,quantum field theory,quantum technology, andquantum information science. Quantum mechanics can describe many systems thatclassical physicscannot. Classical physics can describe many aspects of nature at an ordinary (macroscopicand(optical) microscopic) scale, but is not sufficient for describing them at very smallsubmicroscopic(atomic andsubatomic) scales. Most theories in classical physics can be derived from quantum mechanics as an approximation, valid at large (macroscopic/microscopic) scale. Quantum systems haveboundstates that arequantizedtodiscrete valuesofenergy,momentum,angular momentum, and other quantities, in contrast to classical systems where these quantities can be measured continuously. Measurements of quantum systems show characteristics of bothparticlesandwaves(wave–particle duality), and there are limits to how accurately the value of a physical quantity can be predicted prior to its measurement, given a complete set of initial conditions (theuncertainty principle). Quantum mechanicsarose graduallyfrom theories to explain observations that could not be reconciled with classical physics, such asMax Planck's solution in 1900 to theblack-body radiationproblem, and the correspondence between energy and frequency inAlbert Einstein's1905 paper, which explained thephotoelectric effect. These early attempts to understand microscopic phenomena, now known as the \\\"old quantum theory\\\", led to the full development of quantum mechanics in the mid-1920s byNiels Bohr,Erwin Schrödinger,Werner Heisenberg,Max Born,Paul Diracand others. The modern theory is formulated in variousspecially developed mathematical formalisms. In one of them, a mathematical entity called thewave functionprovides information, in the form ofprobability amplitudes, about what measurements of a particle's energy, momentum, and other physical properties may yield. Overview and fundamental concepts Quantum mechanics allows the calculation of properties and behaviour of physical systems. It is typically applied to microscopic systems: molecules, atoms and sub-atomic particles. It has been demonstrated to hold for complex molecules with thousands of atoms,but its application to human beings raises philosophical problems, such asWigner's friend, and its application to the universe as a whole remains speculative.Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to an extremely high degree ofaccuracy. For example, the refinement of quantum mechanics for the interaction of light and matter, known asquantum electrodynamics(QED), has beenshown to agree with experimentto within 1 part in 1012when predicting the magnetic properties of an electron. A fundamental feature of the theory is that it usually cannot predict with certainty what will happen, but only give probabilities. Mathematically, a probability is found by taking the square of the absolute value of acomplex number, known as a probability amplitude. This is known as theBorn rule, named after physicistMax Born. For example, a quantum particle like anelectroncan be described by a wave function, which associates to each point in space a probability amplitude. Applying the Born rule to these amplitudes gives aprobability density functionfor the position that the electron will be found to have when an experiment is performed to measure it. This is the best the theory can do; it cannot say for certain where the electron will be found. TheSchrödinger equationrelates the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to one moment of time to the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to another.: 67–87 One consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is a tradeoff in predictability between measurable quantities. The most famous form of thisuncertainty principlesays that no matter how a quantum particle is prepared or how carefully experiments upon it are arranged, it is impossible to have a precise prediction for a measurement of its position and also at the same time for a measurement of itsmomentum.: 427–435 Another consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is the phenomenon ofquantum interference, which is often illustrated with thedouble-slit experiment. In the basic version of this experiment, acoherent light source, such as alaserbeam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate.: 102–111: 1.1–1.8The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through the two slits tointerfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen – a result that would not be expected if light consisted of classical particles.However, the light is always found to be absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as individual particles rather than waves; the interference pattern appears via the varying density of these particle hits on the screen. Furthermore, versions of the experiment that include detectors at the slits find that each detectedphotonpasses through one slit (as would a classical particle), and not through both slits (as would a wave).: 109However,such experimentsdemonstrate that particles do not form the interference pattern if one detects which slit they pass through. This behavior is known aswave–particle duality. In addition to light,electrons,atoms, andmoleculesare all found to exhibit the same dual behavior when fired towards a double slit. Another non-classical phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics isquantum tunnelling: a particle that goes up against apotential barriercan cross it, even if its kinetic energy is smaller than the maximum of the potential.In classical mechanics this particle would be trapped. Quantum tunnelling has several important consequences, enablingradioactive decay,nuclear fusionin stars, and applications such asscanning tunnelling microscopy,tunnel diodeandtunnel field-effect transistor. When quantum systems interact, the result can be the creation ofquantum entanglement: their properties become so intertwined that a description of the whole solely in terms of the individual parts is no longer possible. Erwin Schrödinger called entanglement \\\"...thecharacteristic trait of quantum mechanics, the one that enforces its entire departure from classical lines of thought\\\".Quantum entanglement enablesquantum computingand is part of quantum communication protocols, such asquantum key distributionandsuperdense coding.Contrary to popular misconception, entanglement does not allow sending signalsfaster than light, as demonstrated by theno-communication theorem. Another possibility opened by entanglement is testing for \\\"hidden variables\\\", hypothetical properties more fundamental than the quantities addressed in quantum theory itself, knowledge of which would allow more exact predictions than quantum theory provides. A collection of results, most significantlyBell's theorem, have demonstrated that broad classes of such hidden-variable theories are in fact incompatible with quantum physics. According to Bell's theorem, if nature actually operates in accord with any theory oflocalhidden variables, then the results of aBell testwill be constrained in a particular, quantifiable way. Many Bell tests have been performed and they have shown results incompatible with the constraints imposed by local hidden variables. It is not possible to present these concepts in more than a superficial way without introducing the mathematics involved; understanding quantum mechanics requires not only manipulating complex numbers, but alsolinear algebra,differential equations,group theory, and other more advanced subjects.Accordingly, this article will present a mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics and survey its application to some useful and oft-studied examples. Mathematical formulation In the mathematically rigorous formulation of quantum mechanics, the state of a quantum mechanical system is a vectorψ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi }belonging to a (separable) complexHilbert spaceH{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\mathcal {H}}}. This vector is postulated to be normalized under the Hilbert space inner product, that is, it obeys⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1{\\\\displaystyle \\\\langle \\\\psi ,\\\\psi \\\\rangle =1}, and it is well-defined up to a complex number of modulus 1 (the global phase), that is,ψ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi }andeiαψ{\\\\displaystyle e^{i\\\\alpha }\\\\psi }represent the same physical system. In other words, the possible states are points in theprojective spaceof a Hilbert space, usually called thecomplex projective space. The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system – for example, for describing position and momentum the Hilbert space is the space of complexsquare-integrablefunctionsL2(C){\\\\displaystyle L^{2}(\\\\mathbb {C} )}, while the Hilbert space for thespinof a single proton is simply the space of two-dimensional complex vectorsC2{\\\\displaystyle \\\\mathbb {C} ^{2}}with the usual inner product. Physical quantities of interest – position, momentum, energy, spin – are represented by observables, which areHermitian(more precisely,self-adjoint) linearoperatorsacting on the Hilbert space. A quantum state can be aneigenvectorof an observable, in which case it is called aneigenstate, and the associatedeigenvaluecorresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. More generally, a quantum state will be a linear combination of the eigenstates, known as aquantum superposition. When an observable is measured, the result will be one of its eigenvalues with probability given by theBorn rule: in the simplest case the eigenvalueλ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\lambda }is non-degenerate and the probability is given by|⟨λ→,ψ⟩|2{\\\\displaystyle |\\\\langle {\\\\vec {\\\\lambda }},\\\\psi \\\\rangle |^{2}}, whereλ→{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\vec {\\\\lambda }}}is its associated eigenvector. More generally, the eigenvalue is degenerate and the probability is given by⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩{\\\\displaystyle \\\\langle \\\\psi ,P_{\\\\lambda }\\\\psi \\\\rangle }, wherePλ{\\\\displaystyle P_{\\\\lambda }}is the projector onto its associated eigenspace. In the continuous case, these formulas give instead theprobability density. After the measurement, if resultλ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\lambda }was obtained, the quantum state is postulated tocollapsetoλ→{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\vec {\\\\lambda }}}, in the non-degenerate case, or toPλψ/⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩{\\\\textstyle P_{\\\\lambda }\\\\psi {\\\\big /}\\\\!{\\\\sqrt {\\\\langle \\\\psi ,P_{\\\\lambda }\\\\psi \\\\rangle }}}, in the general case. Theprobabilisticnature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement. This is one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the central topic in the famousBohr–Einstein debates, in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental principles by way ofthought experiments. In the decades after the formulation of quantum mechanics, the question of what constitutes a \\\"measurement\\\" has been extensively studied. Newerinterpretations of quantum mechanicshave been formulated that do away with the concept of \\\"wave function collapse\\\" (see, for example, themany-worlds interpretation). The basic idea is that when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus, their respective wave functions becomeentangledso that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity (seeMeasurement in quantum mechanics). Time evolution of a quantum state The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrödinger equation: HereH{\\\\displaystyle H}denotes theHamiltonian, the observable corresponding to thetotal energyof the system, andℏ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\hbar }is the reducedPlanck constant. The constantiℏ{\\\\displaystyle i\\\\hbar }is introduced so that the Hamiltonian is reduced to theclassical Hamiltonianin cases where the quantum system can be approximated by a classical system; the ability to make such an approximation in certain limits is called thecorrespondence principle. The solution of this differential equation is given by The operatorU(t)=e−iHt/ℏ{\\\\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\\\\hbar }}is known as the time-evolution operator, and has the crucial property that it isunitary. This time evolution isdeterministicin the sense that – given an initial quantum stateψ(0){\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi (0)}– it makes a definite prediction of what the quantum stateψ(t){\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi (t)}will be at any later time. Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are independent of time, such aseigenstates of the Hamiltonian.: 133–137Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such \\\"static\\\" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcitedatomis pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around theatomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics, it is described by a static wave function surrounding the nucleus. For example, the electron wave function for an unexcited hydrogen atom is a spherically symmetric function known as ansorbital(Fig. 1). Analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are known forvery few relatively simple model Hamiltoniansincluding thequantum harmonic oscillator, theparticle in a box, thedihydrogen cation, and thehydrogen atom. Even theheliumatom – which contains just two electrons – has defied all attempts at a fully analytic treatment, admitting no solution inclosed form. However, there are techniques for finding approximate solutions. One method, calledperturbation theory, uses the analytic result for a simple quantum mechanical model to create a result for a related but more complicated model by (for example) the addition of a weakpotential energy.: 793Another approximation method applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces only small deviations from classical behavior. These deviations can then be computed based on the classical motion.: 849 Uncertainty principle One consequence of the basic quantum formalism is the uncertainty principle. In its most familiar form, this states that no preparation of a quantum particle can imply simultaneously precise predictions both for a measurement of its position and for a measurement of its momentum.Both position and momentum are observables, meaning that they are represented byHermitian operators. The position operatorX^{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\hat {X}}}and momentum operatorP^{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\hat {P}}}do not commute, but rather satisfy thecanonical commutation relation: Given a quantum state, the Born rule lets us compute expectation values for bothX{\\\\displaystyle X}andP{\\\\displaystyle P}, and moreover for powers of them. Defining the uncertainty for an observable by astandard deviation, we have and likewise for the momentum: The uncertainty principle states that Either standard deviation can in principle be made arbitrarily small, but not both simultaneously.This inequality generalizes to arbitrary pairs of self-adjoint operatorsA{\\\\displaystyle A}andB{\\\\displaystyle B}. Thecommutatorof these two operators is and this provides the lower bound on the product of standard deviations: Another consequence of the canonical commutation relation is that the position and momentum operators areFourier transformsof each other, so that a description of an object according to its momentum is the Fourier transform of its description according to its position. The fact that dependence in momentum is the Fourier transform of the dependence in position means that the momentum operator is equivalent (up to ani/ℏ{\\\\displaystyle i/\\\\hbar }factor) to taking the derivative according to the position, since in Fourier analysisdifferentiation corresponds to multiplication in the dual space. This is why in quantum equations in position space, the momentumpi{\\\\displaystyle p_{i}}is replaced by−iℏ∂∂x{\\\\displaystyle -i\\\\hbar {\\\\frac {\\\\partial }{\\\\partial x}}}, and in particular in thenon-relativistic Schrödinger equation in position spacethe momentum-squared term is replaced with a Laplacian times−ℏ2{\\\\displaystyle -\\\\hbar ^{2}}. Composite systems and entanglement When two different quantum systems are considered together, the Hilbert space of the combined system is thetensor productof the Hilbert spaces of the two components. For example, letAandBbe two quantum systems, with Hilbert spacesHA{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\mathcal {H}}_{A}}andHB{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\mathcal {H}}_{B}}, respectively. The Hilbert space of the composite system is then If the state for the first system is the vectorψA{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi _{A}}and the state for the second system isψB{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi _{B}}, then the state of the composite system is Not all states in the joint Hilbert spaceHAB{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\mathcal {H}}_{AB}}can be written in this form, however, because the superposition principle implies that linear combinations of these \\\"separable\\\" or \\\"product states\\\" are also valid. For example, ifψA{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi _{A}}andϕA{\\\\displaystyle \\\\phi _{A}}are both possible states for systemA{\\\\displaystyle A}, and likewiseψB{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi _{B}}andϕB{\\\\displaystyle \\\\phi _{B}}are both possible states for systemB{\\\\displaystyle B}, then is a valid joint state that is not separable. States that are not separable are calledentangled. If the state for a composite system is entangled, it is impossible to describe either component systemAor systemBby a state vector. One can instead definereduced density matricesthat describe the statistics that can be obtained by making measurements on either component system alone. This necessarily causes a loss of information, though: knowing the reduced density matrices of the individual systems is not enough to reconstruct the state of the composite system.Just as density matrices specify the state of a subsystem of a larger system, analogously,positive operator-valued measures(POVMs) describe the effect on a subsystem of a measurement performed on a larger system. POVMs are extensively used in quantum information theory. As described above, entanglement is a key feature of models of measurement processes in which an apparatus becomes entangled with the system being measured. Systems interacting with the environment in which they reside generally become entangled with that environment, a phenomenon known asquantum decoherence. This can explain why, in practice, quantum effects are difficult to observe in systems larger than microscopic. Equivalence between formulations There are many mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most common is the \\\"transformation theory\\\" proposed byPaul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics –matrix mechanics(invented byWerner Heisenberg) and wave mechanics (invented byErwin Schrödinger).An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics isFeynman'spath integral formulation, in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over all possible classical and non-classical paths between the initial and final states. This is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of theaction principlein classical mechanics. Symmetries and conservation laws The HamiltonianH{\\\\displaystyle H}is known as thegeneratorof time evolution, since it defines a unitary time-evolution operatorU(t)=e−iHt/ℏ{\\\\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\\\\hbar }}for each value oft{\\\\displaystyle t}. From this relation betweenU(t){\\\\displaystyle U(t)}andH{\\\\displaystyle H}, it follows that any observableA{\\\\displaystyle A}that commutes withH{\\\\displaystyle H}will beconserved: its expectation value will not change over time.: 471This statement generalizes, as mathematically, any Hermitian operatorA{\\\\displaystyle A}can generate a family of unitary operators parameterized by a variablet{\\\\displaystyle t}. Under the evolution generated byA{\\\\displaystyle A}, any observableB{\\\\displaystyle B}that commutes withA{\\\\displaystyle A}will be conserved. Moreover, ifB{\\\\displaystyle B}is conserved by evolution underA{\\\\displaystyle A}, thenA{\\\\displaystyle A}is conserved under the evolution generated byB{\\\\displaystyle B}. This implies a quantum version of the result proven byEmmy Noetherin classical (Lagrangian) mechanics: for everydifferentiablesymmetryof a Hamiltonian, there exists a correspondingconservation law. Examples Free particle The simplest example of a quantum system with a position degree of freedom is a free particle in a single spatial dimension. A free particle is one which is not subject to external influences, so that its Hamiltonian consists only of its kinetic energy: The general solution of the Schrödinger equation is given by which is a superposition of all possibleplane wavesei(kx−ℏk22mt){\\\\displaystyle e^{i(kx-{\\\\frac {\\\\hbar k^{2}}{2m}}t)}}, which are eigenstates of the momentum operator with momentump=ℏk{\\\\displaystyle p=\\\\hbar k}. The coefficients of the superposition areψ^(k,0){\\\\displaystyle {\\\\hat {\\\\psi }}(k,0)}, which is the Fourier transform of the initial quantum stateψ(x,0){\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi (x,0)}. It is not possible for the solution to be a single momentum eigenstate, or a single position eigenstate, as these are not normalizable quantum states.Instead, we can consider a Gaussianwave packet: which has Fourier transform, and therefore momentum distribution We see that as we makea{\\\\displaystyle a}smaller the spread in position gets smaller, but the spread in momentum gets larger. Conversely, by makinga{\\\\displaystyle a}larger we make the spread in momentum smaller, but the spread in position gets larger. This illustrates the uncertainty principle. As we let the Gaussian wave packet evolve in time, we see that its center moves through space at a constant velocity (like a classical particle with no forces acting on it). However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more and more uncertain. The uncertainty in momentum, however, stays constant. Particle in a box The particle in a one-dimensional potential energy box is the most mathematically simple example where restraints lead to the quantization of energy levels. The box is defined as having zero potential energy everywhereinsidea certain region, and therefore infinite potential energy everywhereoutsidethat region.: 77–78For the one-dimensional case in thex{\\\\displaystyle x}direction, the time-independent Schrödinger equation may be written With the differential operator defined by with stateψ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi }in this case having energyE{\\\\displaystyle E}coincident with the kinetic energy of the particle. The general solutions of the Schrödinger equation for the particle in a box are or, fromEuler's formula, The infinite potential walls of the box determine the values ofC,D,{\\\\displaystyle C,D,}andk{\\\\displaystyle k}atx=0{\\\\displaystyle x=0}andx=L{\\\\displaystyle x=L}whereψ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi }must be zero. Thus, atx=0{\\\\displaystyle x=0}, andD=0{\\\\displaystyle D=0}. Atx=L{\\\\displaystyle x=L}, in whichC{\\\\displaystyle C}cannot be zero as this would conflict with the postulate thatψ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi }has norm 1. Therefore, sincesin(kL)=0{\\\\displaystyle \\\\sin(kL)=0},kL{\\\\displaystyle kL}must be an integer multiple ofπ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\pi }, This constraint onk{\\\\displaystyle k}implies a constraint on the energy levels, yielding Afinite potential wellis the generalization of the infinite potential well problem to potential wells having finite depth. The finite potential well problem is mathematically more complicated than the infinite particle-in-a-box problem as the wave function is not pinned to zero at the walls of the well. Instead, the wave function must satisfy more complicated mathematical boundary conditions as it is nonzero in regions outside the well. Another related problem is that of therectangular potential barrier, which furnishes a model for thequantum tunnelingeffect that plays an important role in the performance of modern technologies such asflash memoryandscanning tunneling microscopy. Harmonic oscillator As in the classical case, the potential for the quantum harmonic oscillator is given by: 234 This problem can either be treated by directly solving the Schrödinger equation, which is not trivial, or by using the more elegant \\\"ladder method\\\" first proposed by Paul Dirac. Theeigenstatesare given by whereHnare theHermite polynomials and the corresponding energy levels are This is another example illustrating the discretization of energy forbound states. Mach–Zehnder interferometer TheMach–Zehnder interferometer(MZI) illustrates the concepts of superposition and interference with linear algebra in dimension 2, rather than differential equations. It can be seen as a simplified version of the double-slit experiment, but it is of interest in its own right, for example in thedelayed choice quantum eraser, theElitzur–Vaidman bomb tester, and in studies of quantum entanglement. We can model a photon going through the interferometer by considering that at each point it can be in a superposition of only two paths: the \\\"lower\\\" path which starts from the left, goes straight through both beam splitters, and ends at the top, and the \\\"upper\\\" path which starts from the bottom, goes straight through both beam splitters, and ends at the right. The quantum state of the photon is therefore a vectorψ∈C2{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi \\\\in \\\\mathbb {C} ^{2}}that is a superposition of the \\\"lower\\\" pathψl=(10){\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi _{l}={\\\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\\\\\0\\\\end{pmatrix}}}and the \\\"upper\\\" pathψu=(01){\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi _{u}={\\\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\\\\\1\\\\end{pmatrix}}}, that is,ψ=αψl+βψu{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi =\\\\alpha \\\\psi _{l}+\\\\beta \\\\psi _{u}}for complexα,β{\\\\displaystyle \\\\alpha ,\\\\beta }. In order to respect the postulate that⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1{\\\\displaystyle \\\\langle \\\\psi ,\\\\psi \\\\rangle =1}we require that|α|2+|β|2=1{\\\\displaystyle |\\\\alpha |^{2}+|\\\\beta |^{2}=1}. Bothbeam splittersare modelled as the unitary matrixB=12(1ii1){\\\\displaystyle B={\\\\frac {1}{\\\\sqrt {2}}}{\\\\begin{pmatrix}1&i\\\\\\\\i&1\\\\end{pmatrix}}}, which means that when a photon meets the beam splitter it will either stay on the same path with a probability amplitude of1/2{\\\\displaystyle 1/{\\\\sqrt {2}}}, or be reflected to the other path with a probability amplitude ofi/2{\\\\displaystyle i/{\\\\sqrt {2}}}. The phase shifter on the upper arm is modelled as the unitary matrixP=(100eiΔΦ){\\\\displaystyle P={\\\\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\\\\\\\0&e^{i\\\\Delta \\\\Phi }\\\\end{pmatrix}}}, which means that if the photon is on the \\\"upper\\\" path it will gain a relative phase ofΔΦ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta \\\\Phi }, and it will stay unchanged if it is in the lower path. A photon that enters the interferometer from the left will then be acted upon with a beam splitterB{\\\\displaystyle B}, a phase shifterP{\\\\displaystyle P}, and another beam splitterB{\\\\displaystyle B}, and so end up in the state and the probabilities that it will be detected at the right or at the top are given respectively by One can therefore use the Mach–Zehnder interferometer to estimate thephase shiftby estimating these probabilities. It is interesting to consider what would happen if the photon were definitely in either the \\\"lower\\\" or \\\"upper\\\" paths between the beam splitters. This can be accomplished by blocking one of the paths, or equivalently by removing the first beam splitter (and feeding the photon from the left or the bottom, as desired). In both cases, there will be no interference between the paths anymore, and the probabilities are given byp(u)=p(l)=1/2{\\\\displaystyle p(u)=p(l)=1/2}, independently of the phaseΔΦ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta \\\\Phi }. From this we can conclude that the photon does not take one path or another after the first beam splitter, but rather that it is in a genuine quantum superposition of the two paths. Applications Quantum mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the features of our universe, with regard to small-scale and discrete quantities and interactions which cannot be explained byclassical methods.Quantum mechanics is often the only theory that can reveal the individual behaviors of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter (electrons,protons,neutrons,photons, and others).Solid-state physicsandmaterials scienceare dependent upon quantum mechanics. In many aspects, modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant. Important applications of quantum theory includequantum chemistry,quantum optics,quantum computing,superconducting magnets,light-emitting diodes, theoptical amplifierand the laser, thetransistorandsemiconductorssuch as themicroprocessor,medical and research imagingsuch asmagnetic resonance imagingandelectron microscopy.Explanations for many biological and physical phenomena are rooted in the nature of the chemical bond, most notably the macro-moleculeDNA. Relation to other scientific theories Classical mechanics The rules of quantum mechanics assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert space and that observables of the system are Hermitian operators acting on vectors in that space – although they do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators. These can be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system, a necessary step in making physical predictions. An important guide for making these choices is thecorrespondence principle, a heuristic which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those ofclassical mechanicsin the regime of largequantum numbers.One can also start from an established classical model of a particular system, and then try to guess the underlying quantum model that would give rise to the classical model in the correspondence limit. This approach is known asquantization.: 299 When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose correspondence limit wasnon-relativisticclassical mechanics. For instance, the well-known model of thequantum harmonic oscillatoruses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for thekinetic energyof the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of theclassical harmonic oscillator.: 234 Complications arise withchaotic systems, which do not have good quantum numbers, andquantum chaosstudies the relationship between classical and quantum descriptions in these systems.: 353 Quantum decoherenceis a mechanism through which quantum systems losecoherence, and thus become incapable of displaying many typically quantum effects:quantum superpositionsbecome simply probabilistic mixtures, and quantum entanglement becomes simply classical correlations.: 687–730Quantum coherence is not typically evident at macroscopic scales, though at temperatures approachingabsolute zeroquantum behavior may manifest macroscopically. Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct consequence of the quantum behavior of its parts. For example, the stability of bulk matter (consisting of atoms andmoleculeswhich would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), the rigidity of solids, and the mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of matter are all results of the interaction ofelectric chargesunder the rules of quantum mechanics. Special relativity and electrodynamics Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics withspecial relativityinvolved the replacement of the Schrödinger equation with a covariant equation such as theKlein–Gordon equationor theDirac equation. While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field theory, which applies quantization to a field (rather than a fixed set of particles). The first complete quantum field theory,quantum electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of theelectromagnetic interaction. Quantum electrodynamics is, along withgeneral relativity, one of the most accurate physical theories ever devised. The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. A simpler approach, one that has been used since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treatchargedparticles as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classicalelectromagnetic field. For example, the elementary quantum model of thehydrogen atomdescribes theelectric fieldof the hydrogen atom using a classical−e2/(4πϵ0r){\\\\displaystyle \\\\textstyle -e^{2}/(4\\\\pi \\\\epsilon _{_{0}}r)}Coulomb potential.: 285Likewise, in aStern–Gerlach experiment, a charged particle is modeled as a quantum system, while the background magnetic field is described classically.: 26This \\\"semi-classical\\\" approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, such as in the emission of photons bycharged particles. Quantum fieldtheories for thestrong nuclear forceand theweak nuclear forcehave also been developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is calledquantum chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of subnuclear particles such asquarksandgluons. The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory (known aselectroweak theory), by the physicistsAbdus Salam,Sheldon GlashowandSteven Weinberg. Relation to general relativity Even though the predictions of both quantum theory and general relativity have been supported by rigorous and repeatedempirical evidence, their abstract formalisms contradict each other and they have proven extremely difficult to incorporate into one consistent, cohesive model. Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those particular applications. However, the lack of a correct theory ofquantum gravityis an important issue inphysical cosmologyand the search by physicists for an elegant \\\"Theory of Everything\\\" (TOE). Consequently, resolving the inconsistencies between both theories has been a major goal of 20th- and 21st-century physics. This TOE would combine not only the models of subatomic physics but also derive the four fundamental forces of nature from a single force or phenomenon. One proposal for doing so isstring theory, which posits that thepoint-like particlesofparticle physicsare replaced byone-dimensionalobjects calledstrings. String theory describes how these strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with itsmass,charge, and other properties determined by thevibrationalstate of the string. In string theory, one of the many vibrational states of the string corresponds to thegraviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force. Another popular theory isloop quantum gravity(LQG), which describes quantum properties of gravity and is thus a theory ofquantum spacetime. LQG is an attempt to merge and adapt standard quantum mechanics and standard general relativity. This theory describes space as an extremely fine fabric \\\"woven\\\" of finite loops calledspin networks. The evolution of a spin network over time is called aspin foam. The characteristic length scale of a spin foam is thePlanck length, approximately 1.616×10−35m, and so lengths shorter than the Planck length are not physically meaningful in LQG. Philosophical implications Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive aspects and results of quantum mechanics have provoked strongphilosophicaldebates and manyinterpretations. The arguments centre on the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, the difficulties withwavefunction collapseand the relatedmeasurement problem, andquantum nonlocality. Perhaps the only consensus that exists about these issues is that there is no consensus.Richard Feynmanonce said, \\\"I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics.\\\"According toSteven Weinberg, \\\"There is now in my opinion no entirely satisfactory interpretation of quantum mechanics.\\\" The views ofNiels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and other physicists are often grouped together as the \\\"Copenhagen interpretation\\\".According to these views, the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics is not atemporaryfeature which will eventually be replaced by a deterministic theory, but is instead afinalrenunciation of the classical idea of \\\"causality\\\". Bohr in particular emphasized that any well-defined application of the quantum mechanical formalism must always make reference to the experimental arrangement, due to thecomplementarynature of evidence obtained under different experimental situations. Copenhagen-type interpretations were adopted by Nobel laureates in quantum physics, including Bohr,Heisenberg,Schrödinger,Feynman,and Zeilingeras well as 21st-century researchers in quantum foundations. Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders ofquantum theory, was troubled by its apparent failure to respect some cherished metaphysical principles, such asdeterminismandlocality. Einstein's long-running exchanges with Bohr about the meaning and status of quantum mechanics are now known as theBohr–Einstein debates. Einstein believed that underlying quantum mechanics must be a theory that explicitly forbidsaction at a distance. He argued that quantum mechanics was incomplete, a theory that was valid but not fundamental, analogous to howthermodynamicsis valid, but the fundamental theory behind it isstatistical mechanics. In 1935, Einstein and his collaboratorsBoris PodolskyandNathan Rosenpublished an argument that the principle of locality implies the incompleteness of quantum mechanics, athought experimentlater termed theEinstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox.In 1964,John Bellshowed that EPR's principle of locality, together with determinism, was actually incompatible with quantum mechanics: they implied constraints on the correlations produced by distance systems, now known asBell inequalities, that can be violated by entangled particles.Since thenseveral experimentshave been performed to obtain these correlations, with the result that they do in fact violate Bell inequalities, and thus falsify the conjunction of locality with determinism. Bohmian mechanicsshows that it is possible to reformulate quantum mechanics to make it deterministic, at the price of making it explicitly nonlocal. It attributes not only a wave function to a physical system, but in addition a real position, that evolves deterministically under a nonlocal guiding equation. The evolution of a physical system is given at all times by the Schrödinger equation together with the guiding equation; there is never a collapse of the wave function. This solves the measurement problem. Everett'smany-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds thatallthe possibilities described by quantum theorysimultaneouslyoccur in a multiverse composed of mostly independent parallel universes.This is a consequence of removing the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet. All possible states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus, together with the observer, are present in a real physical quantum superposition. While the multiverse is deterministic, we perceive non-deterministic behavior governed by probabilities, because we do not observe the multiverse as a whole, but only one parallel universe at a time. Exactly how this is supposed to work has been the subject of much debate. Several attempts have been made to make sense of this and derive the Born rule,with no consensus on whether they have been successful. Relational quantum mechanicsappeared in the late 1990s as a modern derivative of Copenhagen-type ideas,andQBismwas developed some years later. History Quantum mechanics was developed in the early decades of the 20th century, driven by the need to explain phenomena that, in some cases, had been observed in earlier times. Scientific inquiry into the wave nature of light began in the 17th and 18th centuries, when scientists such asRobert Hooke,Christiaan HuygensandLeonhard Eulerproposed a wave theory of light based on experimental observations.In 1803 EnglishpolymathThomas Youngdescribed the famousdouble-slit experiment.This experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of thewave theory of light. During the early 19th century,chemicalresearch byJohn DaltonandAmedeo Avogadrolent weight to theatomic theoryof matter, an idea thatJames Clerk Maxwell,Ludwig Boltzmannand others built upon to establish thekinetic theory of gases. The successes of kinetic theory gave further credence to the idea that matter is composed of atoms, yet the theory also had shortcomings that would only be resolved by the development of quantum mechanics.While the early conception of atoms fromGreek philosophyhad been that they were indivisible units – the word \\\"atom\\\" deriving from theGreekfor \\\"uncuttable\\\" – the 19th century saw the formulation of hypotheses about subatomic structure. One important discovery in that regard wasMichael Faraday's 1838 observation of a glow caused by an electrical discharge inside a glass tube containing gas at low pressure.Julius Plücker,Johann Wilhelm HittorfandEugen Goldsteincarried on and improved upon Faraday's work, leading to the identification ofcathode rays, whichJ. J. Thomsonfound to consist of subatomic particles that would be called electrons. Theblack-body radiationproblem was discovered byGustav Kirchhoffin 1859. In 1900, Max Planck proposed the hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete \\\"quanta\\\" (or energy packets), yielding a calculation that precisely matched the observed patterns of black-body radiation.The wordquantumderives from theLatin, meaning \\\"how great\\\" or \\\"how much\\\".According to Planck, quantities of energy could be thought of as divided into \\\"elements\\\" whose size (E) would be proportional to theirfrequency(ν): wherehis thePlanck constant. Planck cautiously insisted that this was only an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation and was not thephysical realityof the radiation.In fact, he considered his quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right answer rather than a sizable discovery.However, in 1905 Albert Einstein interpreted Planck's quantum hypothesisrealisticallyand used it to explain thephotoelectric effect, in which shining light on certain materials can eject electrons from the material. Niels Bohr then developed Planck's ideas about radiation into amodel of the hydrogen atomthat successfully predicted thespectral linesof hydrogen.Einstein further developed this idea to show that anelectromagnetic wavesuch as light could also be described as a particle (later called the photon), with a discrete amount of energy that depends on its frequency.In his paper \\\"On the Quantum Theory of Radiation\\\", Einstein expanded on the interaction between energy and matter to explain the absorption and emission of energy by atoms. Although overshadowed at the time by his general theory of relativity, this paper articulated the mechanism underlying the stimulated emission of radiation,which became the basis of the laser. This phase is known as theold quantum theory. Never complete or self-consistent, the old quantum theory was rather a set ofheuristiccorrections to classical mechanics.The theory is now understood as asemi-classical approximationto modern quantum mechanics.Notable results from this period include, in addition to the work of Planck, Einstein and Bohr mentioned above, Einstein andPeter Debye's work on thespecific heatof solids, Bohr andHendrika Johanna van Leeuwen'sproofthat classical physics cannot account fordiamagnetism, andArnold Sommerfeld's extension of the Bohr model to include special-relativistic effects. In the mid-1920s quantum mechanics was developed to become the standard formulation for atomic physics. In 1923, the French physicistLouis de Broglieput forward his theory of matter waves by stating that particles can exhibit wave characteristics and vice versa. Building on de Broglie's approach, modern quantum mechanics was born in 1925, when the German physicists Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, andPascual Jordandevelopedmatrix mechanicsand the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger inventedwave mechanics. Born introduced the probabilistic interpretation of Schrödinger's wave function in July 1926.Thus, the entire field of quantum physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the FifthSolvay Conferencein 1927. By 1930, quantum mechanics had been further unified and formalized byDavid Hilbert, Paul Dirac andJohn von Neumannwith greater emphasis onmeasurement, the statistical nature of our knowledge of reality, andphilosophical speculation about the 'observer'. It has since permeated many disciplines, including quantum chemistry,quantum electronics,quantum optics, andquantum information science. It also provides a useful framework for many features of the modernperiodic table of elements, and describes the behaviors ofatomsduringchemical bondingand the flow of electrons in computersemiconductors, and therefore plays a crucial role in many modern technologies. While quantum mechanics was constructed to describe the world of the very small, it is also needed to explain somemacroscopicphenomena such assuperconductorsandsuperfluids. See also Explanatory notes References Further reading The following titles, all by working physicists, attempt to communicate quantum theory to lay people, using a minimum of technical apparatus. More technical: External links\",\n \"Photoelectric effect Thephotoelectric effectis the emission ofelectronsfrom a material caused byelectromagnetic radiationsuch asultraviolet light. Electrons emitted in this manner are called photoelectrons. The phenomenon is studied incondensed matter physics,solid state, andquantum chemistryto draw inferences about the properties of atoms, molecules and solids. The effect has found use inelectronic devicesspecialized for light detection and precisely timed electron emission. The experimental results disagree withclassical electromagnetism, which predicts that continuous light waves transferenergyto electrons, which would then be emitted when they accumulate enough energy. An alteration in theintensityof light would theoretically change thekinetic energyof the emitted electrons, with sufficiently dim light resulting in a delayed emission. The experimental results instead show that electrons are dislodged only when the light exceeds a certainfrequency—regardless of the light's intensity or duration of exposure. Because a low-frequency beam at a high intensity does not build up the energy required to produce photoelectrons, as would be the case if light's energy accumulated over time from a continuous wave,Albert Einsteinproposed that a beam of light is nota wavepropagating through space, but a swarm of discrete energy packets, known asphotons—term coined byGilbert N. Lewisin 1926. Emission of conduction electrons from typicalmetalsrequires a fewelectron-volt(eV) light quanta, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. In extreme cases, emissions are induced with photons approaching zero energy, like in systems with negative electron affinity and the emission from excited states, or a few hundred keV photons forcore electronsinelementswith a highatomic number.Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept ofwave–particle duality.Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric charges include thephotoconductiveeffect, thephotovoltaic effect, and thephotoelectrochemical effect. Emission mechanism The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy, calledphoton energy, which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, when an electron within some material absorbs the energy of a photon and acquires more energy than itsbinding energy, it is likely to be ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Moreover, the energy of the emitted electrons will not depend on the intensity of the incoming light of a given frequency, but only on the energy of the individual photons. While free electrons can absorb any energy whenirradiatedas long as this is followed by an immediate re-emission, like in theCompton effect, in quantum systems all of the energy from one photon is absorbed—if the process is allowed byquantum mechanics—or none at all. Part of the acquired energy is used to liberate the electron from its atomic binding, and the rest contributes to the electron'skinetic energyas a free particle.Because electrons in a material occupy many different quantum states with different binding energies, and because they can sustain energy losses on their way out of the material, the emitted electrons will have a range of kinetic energies. The electrons from the highest occupied states will have the highest kinetic energy. In metals, those electrons will be emitted from theFermi level. When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the terminternal photoemissionis often used, and emission into a vacuum is distinguished asexternal photoemission. Experimental observation of photoelectric emission Even though photoemission can occur from any material, it is most readily observed from metals and other conductors. This is because the process produces a charge imbalance which, if not neutralized by current flow, results in the increasing potential barrier until the emission completely ceases. The energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by nonconductive oxide layers on metal surfaces, so most practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in evacuated tubes. Vacuum also helps observing the electrons since it prevents gases from impeding their flow between the electrodes. As sunlight, due to atmosphere's absorption, does not provide much ultraviolet light, the light rich in ultraviolet rays used to be obtained by burning magnesium or from anarc lamp. At the present time,mercury-vapor lamps,noble-gas dischargeUV lamps andradio-frequency plasmasources,ultraviolet lasers,andsynchrotroninsertion devicelight sources prevail. The classical setup to observe the photoelectric effect includes a light source, a set of filters tomonochromatizethe light, avacuum tubetransparent to ultraviolet light, an emitting electrode (E) exposed to the light, and a collector (C) whose voltageVCcan be externally controlled. A positive external voltage is used to direct the photoemitted electrons onto the collector. If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the photoelectric currentIincreases with an increase in the positive voltage, as more and more electrons are directed onto the electrode. When no additional photoelectrons can be collected, the photoelectric current attains a saturation value. This current can only increase with the increase of the intensity of light. An increasing negative voltage prevents all but the highest-energy electrons from reaching the collector. When no current is observed through the tube, the negative voltage has reached the value that is high enough to slow down and stop the most energetic photoelectrons of kinetic energyKmax. This value of the retarding voltage is called thestopping potentialorcut offpotentialVo.Since the work done by the retarding potential in stopping the electron of chargeeiseVo, the following must holdeVo=Kmax. The current-voltage curve is sigmoidal, but its exact shape depends on the experimental geometry and the electrode material properties. For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incidentradiationbelow which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called thethreshold frequency. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam increases the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons, and the stopping voltage has to increase. The number of emitted electrons may also change because theprobabilitythat each photon results in an emitted electron is a function of photon energy. An increase in the intensity of the same monochromatic light (so long as the intensity is not too high), which is proportional to the number of photons impinging on the surface in a given time, increases the rate at which electrons are ejected—the photoelectric currentI—but the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and the stopping voltage remain the same. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is very small, less than 10−9second. Angular distribution of the photoelectrons is highly dependent onpolarization(the direction of the electric field) of the incident light, as well as the emitting material's quantum properties such as atomic and molecular orbital symmetries and theelectronic band structureof crystalline solids. In materials without macroscopic order, the distribution of electrons tends to peak in the direction of polarization of linearly polarized light.The experimental technique that can measure these distributions to infer the material's properties isangle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy. Theoretical explanation In 1905,Einsteinproposed a theory of the photoelectric effect using a concept that light consists of tiny packets of energy known asphotonsor light quanta. Each packet carries energyhν{\\\\displaystyle h\\\\nu }that is proportional to the frequencyν{\\\\displaystyle \\\\nu }of the corresponding electromagnetic wave. The proportionality constanth{\\\\displaystyle h}has become known as thePlanck constant. In the range of kinetic energies of the electrons that are removed from their varying atomic bindings by the absorption of a photon of energyhν{\\\\displaystyle h\\\\nu }, the highest kinetic energyKmax{\\\\displaystyle K_{\\\\max }}isKmax=hν−W.{\\\\displaystyle K_{\\\\max }=h\\\\,\\\\nu -W.}Here,W{\\\\displaystyle W}is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the material. It is called thework functionof the surface and is sometimes denotedΦ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Phi }orφ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\varphi }.If the work function is written asW=hνo,{\\\\displaystyle W=h\\\\,\\\\nu _{o},}the formula for the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons becomesKmax=h(ν−νo).{\\\\displaystyle K_{\\\\max }=h\\\\left(\\\\nu -\\\\nu _{o}\\\\right).} Kinetic energy is positive, andν>νo{\\\\displaystyle \\\\nu >\\\\nu _{o}}is required for the photoelectric effect to occur.The frequencyνo{\\\\displaystyle \\\\nu _{o}}is the threshold frequency for the given material. Above that frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons as well as the stopping voltage in the experimentVo=he(ν−νo){\\\\textstyle V_{o}={\\\\frac {h}{e}}\\\\left(\\\\nu -\\\\nu _{o}\\\\right)}rise linearly with the frequency, and have no dependence on the number of photons and the intensity of the impinging monochromatic light. Einstein's formula, however simple, explained all the phenomenology of the photoelectric effect, and had far-reaching consequences in thedevelopment of quantum mechanics. Photoemission from atoms, molecules and solids Electrons that are bound in atoms, molecules and solids each occupy distinct states of well-definedbinding energies. When light quanta deliver more than this amount of energy to an individual electron, the electron may be emitted into free space with excess (kinetic) energy that ishν{\\\\displaystyle h\\\\nu }higher than the electron's binding energy. The distribution of kinetic energies thus reflects the distribution of the binding energies of the electrons in the atomic, molecular or crystalline system: an electron emitted from the state at binding energyEB{\\\\displaystyle E_{B}}is found at kinetic energyEk=hν−EB{\\\\displaystyle E_{k}=h\\\\nu -E_{B}}. This distribution is one of the main characteristics of the quantum system, and can be used for further studies in quantum chemistry and quantum physics. Models of photoemission from solids The electronic properties of ordered, crystalline solids are determined by the distribution of the electronic states with respect to energy and momentum—the electronic band structure of the solid. Theoretical models of photoemission from solids show that this distribution is, for the most part, preserved in the photoelectric effect. The phenomenologicalthree-step modelfor ultraviolet and soft X-ray excitation decomposes the effect into these steps: There are cases where the three-step model fails to explain peculiarities of the photoelectron intensity distributions. The more elaborateone-step modeltreats the effect as a coherent process of photoexcitation into the final state of a finite crystal for which the wave function is free-electron-like outside of the crystal, but has a decaying envelope inside. History 19th century In 1839,Alexandre Edmond Becquereldiscovered the relatedphotovoltaic effectwhile studying the effect of light onelectrolytic cells.Though not equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work onphotovoltaicswas instrumental in showing a strong relationship between light and electronic properties of materials. In 1873,Willoughby Smithdiscoveredphotoconductivityinseleniumwhile testing the metal for its high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables. Johann Elster(1854–1920) andHans Geitel(1855–1923), students inHeidelberg, investigated the effects produced by light on electrified bodies and developed the first practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity of light.: 458They arranged metals with respect to their power of discharging negative electricity:rubidium,potassium,alloyof potassium and sodium,sodium,lithium,magnesium,thalliumandzinc; forcopper,platinum,lead,iron,cadmium,carbon, andmercurythe effects with ordinary light were too small to be measurable. The order of the metals for this effect was the same as in Volta's series for contact-electricity, the most electropositive metals giving the largest photo-electric effect. In 1887,Heinrich Hertzobserved the photoelectric effectand reported on the production and receptionof electromagnetic waves.The receiver in his apparatus consisted of a coil with aspark gap, where a spark would be seen upon detection of electromagnetic waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. However, he noticed that the maximum spark length was reduced when inside the box. A glass panel placed between the source of electromagnetic waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he replaced the glass with quartz, asquartzdoes not absorb UV radiation. The discoveries by Hertz led to a series of investigations byWilhelm Hallwachs,Hoor,Augusto RighiandAleksander Stoletovon the effect of light, and especially of ultraviolet light, on charged bodies. Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to anelectroscope. He allowed ultraviolet light to fall on a freshly cleaned zinc plate and observed that the zinc plate became uncharged if initially negatively charged, positively charged if initially uncharged, and more positively charged if initially positively charged. From these observations he concluded that some negatively charged particles were emitted by the zinc plate when exposed to ultraviolet light. With regard to theHertz effect, the researchers from the start showed the complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric fatigue—the progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic surfaces. According to Hallwachs,ozoneplayed an important part in the phenomenon,and the emission was influenced by oxidation, humidity, and the degree of polishing of the surface. It was at the time unclear whether fatigue is absent in a vacuum. In the period from 1888 until 1891, a detailed analysis of the photoeffect was performed byAleksandr Stoletovwith results reported in six publications.Stoletov invented a new experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of the photoeffect. He discovered a direct proportionality between the intensity of light and the induced photoelectric current (the first law of photoeffect orStoletov's law). He measured the dependence of the intensity of the photo electric current on the gas pressure, where he found the existence of an optimal gas pressure corresponding to a maximumphotocurrent; this property was used for the creation ofsolar cells. Many substances besides metals discharge negative electricity under the action of ultraviolet light. G. C. Schmidtand O. Knoblauchcompiled a list of these substances. In 1897,J. J. Thomsoninvestigated ultraviolet light inCrookes tubes.Thomson deduced that the ejected particles, which he called corpuscles, were of the same nature ascathode rays. These particles later became known as the electrons. Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation.It was thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and, after reaching a certain amplitude, caused subatomic corpuscles to be emitted, and current to be detected. The amount of this current varied with the intensity and color of the radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more current. During the years 1886–1902,Wilhelm HallwachsandPhilipp Lenardinvestigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail. Lenard observed that a current flows through an evacuated glass tube enclosing twoelectrodeswhen ultraviolet radiation falls on one of them. As soon as ultraviolet radiation is stopped, the current also stops. This initiated the concept of photoelectric emission. The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultraviolet light was made by Philipp Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several centimeters of air and yielded a greater number of positive ions than negative, it was natural to interpret the phenomenon, as J. J. Thomson did, as aHertz effectupon the particles present in the gas. 20th century In 1902, Lenard observed that theenergyof individual emitted electrons was independent of the applied light intensity.This appeared to be at odds with Maxwell'swave theory of light, which predicted that the electron energy would be proportional to theintensityof the radiation. Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency using a powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in intensity. However, Lenard's results were qualitative rather than quantitative because of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the experiments needed to be done on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it oxidized in a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The current emitted by the surface was determined by the light's intensity, or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of electrons emitted from the surface. Initial investigation of the photoelectric effect in gasses by Lenardwere followed up by J. J. Thomsonand then more decisively by Frederic Palmer Jr.The gas photoemission was studied and showed very different characteristics than those at first attributed to it by Lenard. In 1900, while studyingblack-body radiation, the German physicistMax Plancksuggested in his \\\"On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum\\\"paper that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released inpacketsof energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. Einstein theorized that the energy in each quantum of light was equal to the frequency of light multiplied by a constant, later called thePlanck constant. A photon above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single electron, creating the observed effect. This was a step in the development ofquantum mechanics. In 1914,Robert A. Millikan's highly accurate measurements of the Planck constant from the photoelectric effect supported Einstein's model, even though a corpuscular theory of light was for Millikan, at the time, \\\"quite unthinkable\\\".Einstein was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physicsfor \\\"his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\\\",and Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 for \\\"his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect\\\".In quantum perturbation theory of atoms and solids acted upon by electromagnetic radiation, the photoelectric effect is still commonly analyzed in terms of waves; the two approaches are equivalent because photon or wave absorption can only happen between quantized energy levels whose energy difference is that of the energy of photon. Albert Einstein's mathematical description of how the photoelectric effect was caused by absorption ofquantaof light was in one of hisAnnus Mirabilis papers, named \\\"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light\\\".The paper proposed a simple description ofenergy quanta, and showed how they explained the blackbody radiation spectrum. His explanation in terms of absorption of discrete quanta of light agreed with experimental results. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons was not dependent on incident lightintensity. This was a theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally fromJames Clerk Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, and more generally, the assumption ofinfinite divisibilityof energy in physical systems. Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the light. The precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that the energy of photoelectrons increases with increasingfrequencyof incident light and is independent of theintensityof the light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally determined until 1914 when Millikan showed that Einstein's prediction was correct. The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept of wave–particle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of both waves and particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was impossible to understand in terms of the classical wave description of light,as the energy of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation. Classical theory predicted that the electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time, and then be emitted. Uses and effects Photomultipliers These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a coatedphotocathodeinside the envelope. The photo cathode contains combinations of materials such as cesium, rubidium, and antimony specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials, these electrons are accelerated and substantially increased in number throughsecondary emissionto provide a readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected. Image sensors Video camera tubesin the early days oftelevisionused the photoelectric effect. For example,Philo Farnsworth's \\\"Image dissector\\\" used a screen charged by the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic signal. Photoelectron spectroscopy Because the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is exactly the energy of the incident photon minus the energy of the electron's binding within an atom, molecule or solid, the binding energy can be determined by shining amonochromaticX-rayorUVlight of a known energy and measuring the kinetic energies of the photoelectrons.The distribution of electron energies is valuable for studying quantum properties of these systems. It can also be used to determine the elemental composition of the samples. For solids, the kinetic energy and emission angle distribution of the photoelectrons is measured for the complete determination of theelectronic band structurein terms of the allowed binding energies and momenta of the electrons. Modern instruments for angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy are capable of measuring these quantities with a precision better than 1 meV and 0.1°. Photoelectron spectroscopymeasurements are usually performed in a high-vacuum environment, because the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present. However, some companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in air. The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or asynchrotron radiationsource. Theconcentric hemispherical analyzeris a typical electron energy analyzer. It uses an electric field between two hemispheres to change (disperse) the trajectories of incident electrons depending on their kinetic energies. Night vision devices Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal orsemiconductormaterial such asgallium arsenidein animage intensifiertube cause the ejection of photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by anelectrostatic fieldwhere they strike aphosphorcoated screen, converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the signal is achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of electrons through secondary emissions, such as with amicro-channel plate. Sometimes a combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required to move an electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is known as theelectron affinityof the photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other than the forbidden band, explained by theband gapmodel. Some materials such as gallium arsenide have an effective electron affinity that is below the level of the conduction band. In these materials, electrons that move to the conduction band all have sufficient energy to be emitted from the material, so the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick. These materials are known as negative electron affinity materials. Spacecraft The photoelectric effect will causespacecraftexposed to sunlight to develop a positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical components. Thestatic chargecreated by the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object does not give up its electrons as easily as a lower charged object does. Moon dust Light from the Sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively charged from the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of theMoonbyelectrostatic levitation.This manifests itself almost like an \\\"atmosphere of dust\\\", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by theSurveyor programprobes in the 1960s,and most recently theChang'e 3rover observed dust deposition on lunar rocks as high as about 28 cm.It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the surface and that the particles move in \\\"fountains\\\" as they charge and discharge. Competing processes and photoemission cross section When photon energies are as high as the electron rest energy of511 keV, yet another process,Compton scattering, may occur. Above twice this energy, at1.022 MeV,pair productionis also more likely.Compton scattering and pair production are examples of two other competing mechanisms.Even if the photoelectric effect is the favoured reaction for a particular interaction of a single photon with a bound electron, the result is also subject to quantum statistics and is not guaranteed. The probability of the photoelectric effect occurring is measured by thecross sectionof the interaction, σ. This has been found to be a function of the atomic number of the target atom and photon energy. In a crude approximation, for photon energies above the highest atomic binding energy, the cross section is given by: HereZis theatomic numberandnis a number which varies between 4 and 5. The photoelectric effect rapidly decreases in significance in the gamma-ray region of the spectrum, with increasing photon energy. It is also more likely from elements with high atomic number. Consequently, high-Zmaterials make goodgamma-rayshields, which is the principal reason why lead (Z= 82) is preferred and most widely used. See also References External links Applets\",\n \"Bohr model Inatomic physics, theBohr modelorRutherford–Bohr modelwas the first successful model of theatom. Developed from 1911 to 1918 byNiels Bohrand building onErnest Rutherford's nuclearmodel, it supplanted theplum pudding modelofJ J Thomsononly to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, densenucleussurrounded byorbitingelectrons. It isanalogousto the structure of theSolar System, but with attraction provided byelectrostatic forcerather thangravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values). In the history of atomic physics, it followed, and ultimately replaced, several earlier models, includingJoseph Larmor's Solar System model (1897),Jean Perrin's model (1901),thecubical model(1902),Hantaro Nagaoka'sSaturnianmodel (1904), theplum pudding model(1904),Arthur Haas's quantum model (1910), theRutherford model(1911), andJohn William Nicholson's nuclear quantum model (1912). The improvement over the 1911 Rutherford model mainly concerned the newquantum mechanicalinterpretation introduced by Haas and Nicholson, but forsaking any attempt to explain radiation according toclassical physics. The model's key success lies in explaining theRydberg formulaforhydrogen's spectral emission lines. While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical basis until the Bohr model was introduced. Not only did the Bohr model explain the reasons for the structure of the Rydberg formula, it also provided a justification for the fundamental physical constants that make up the formula's empirical results. The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of thehydrogen atom, compared to thevalence shellmodel. As a theory, it can be derived as afirst-order approximationof the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics and thus may be considered to be anobsolete scientific theory. However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students toquantum mechanicsorenergy level diagramsbefore moving on to the more accurate, but more complex, valence shell atom. A related quantum model was proposed byArthur Erich Haasin 1910 but was rejected until the 1911 Solvay Congress where it was thoroughly discussed.The quantum theory of the period betweenPlanck's discovery of the quantum(1900) and the advent of a mature quantum mechanics (1925) is often referred to as theold quantum theory. Background Until the second decade of the 20th century, atomic models were generally speculative. Even the concept of atoms, let alone atoms with internal structure, faced opposition from some scientists.: 2 Planetary models In the late 1800's speculations on the possible structure of the atom included planetary models with orbiting charged electrons.: 35These models faced a significant constraint. In 1897,Joseph Larmorshowed that an accelerating charge would radiate power according to classical electrodynamics, a result known as theLarmor formula. Since electrons forced to remain in orbit are continuously accelerating, they would be mechanically unstable. Larmor noted that electromagnetic effect of multiple electrons, suitable arranged, would cancel each other. Thus subsequent atomic models based on classical electrodynamics needed to adopt such special multi-electron arrangements.: 113 Thomson's atom model When Bohr began his work on a new atomic theory in the summer of 1912: 237the atomic model proposed byJ J Thomson, now known as thePlum pudding model, was the best available.: 37Thomson proposed a model with electrons rotating in coplanar rings within an atomic-sized, positively-charged, spherical volume. Thomson showed that this model was mechanically stable by lengthy calculations and was electrodynamically stable under his original assumption of thousands of electrons per atom. Moreover, he suggested that the particularly stable configurations of electrons in rings was connected to chemical properties of the atoms. He developed a formula for the scattering ofbeta particlesthat seemed to match experimental results.: 38However Thomson himself later showed that the atom had a factor of a thousand fewer electrons, challenging the stability argument and forcing the poorly understood positive sphere to have most of the atom's mass. Thomson was also unable to explain the many lines in atomic spectra.: 18 Rutherford nuclear model In 1908,Hans GeigerandErnest Marsdendemonstrated thatalpha particleoccasionally scatter at large angles, a result inconsistent with Thomson's model. In 1911Ernest Rutherforddeveloped a new scattering model, showing that the observed large angle scattering could be explained by a compact, highly charged mass at the center of the atom. Rutherford scattering did not involve the electrons and thus hismodel of the atomwas incomplete.Bohr begins his first paper on his atomic model by describing Rutherford's atom as consisting of a small, dense, positively chargednucleusattracting negatively chargedelectrons. Atomic spectra By the early twentieth century, it was expected that the atom would account for the many atomic spectral lines. These lines were summarized in empirical formula byJohann BalmerandJohannes Rydberg. In 1897, Lord Rayleigh showed that vibrations of electrical systems predicted spectral lines that depend on the square of the vibrational frequency, contradicting the empirical formula which depended directly on the frequency.:18In 1907Arthur W. Conwayshowed that, rather than the entire atom vibrating, vibrations of only one of the electrons in the system described by Thomson might be sufficient to account for spectral series.: II:106Although Bohr's model would also rely on just the electron to explain the spectrum, he did not assume an electrodynamical model for the atom. The other important advance in the understanding of atomic spectra was theRydberg–Ritz combination principlewhich related atomic spectral line frequencies to differences between 'terms', special frequencies characteristic of each element.:173Bohr would recognize the terms as energy levels of the atom divided by the Planck constant, leading to the modern view that the spectral lines result from energy differences.: 847 Haas atomic model In 1910,Arthur Erich Haasproposed a model of the hydrogen atom with an electron circulating on the surface of a sphere of positive charge. The model resembled Thomson's plum pudding model, but Haas added a radical new twist: he constrained the electron's potential energy,Epot{\\\\displaystyle E_{\\\\text{pot}}}, on a sphere of radiusato equal the frequency,f, of the electron's orbit on the sphere times thePlanck constant:: 197Epot=−e2a=hf{\\\\displaystyle E_{\\\\text{pot}}={\\\\frac {-e^{2}}{a}}=hf}whereerepresents the charge on the electron and the sphere. Haas combined this constraint with the balance-of-forces equation. The attractive force between the electron and the sphere balances thecentrifugal force:e2a2=ma(2πf)2{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\frac {e^{2}}{a^{2}}}=ma(2\\\\pi f)^{2}}wheremis the mass of the electron. This combination relates the radius of the sphere to the Planck constant:a=h24π2e2m{\\\\displaystyle a={\\\\frac {h^{2}}{4\\\\pi ^{2}e^{2}m}}}Haas solved for the Planck constant using the then-current value for the radius of the hydrogen atom. Three years later, Bohr would use similar equations with different interpretation. Bohr took the Planck constant as given value and used the equations to predict,a, the radius of the electron orbiting in the ground state of the hydrogen atom. This value is now called theBohr radius.: 197 Influence of the Solvay Conference The firstSolvay Conference, in 1911, was one of the first international physics conferences. Nine Nobel or future Nobel laureates attended, includingErnest Rutherford, Bohr's mentor.: 271Bohr did not attend but he read the Solvay reportsand discussed them with Rutherford.: 233 The subject of the conference was the theory of radiation and the energy quanta ofMax Planck's oscillators.Planck's lecture at the conference ended with comments about atoms and the discussion that followed it concerned atomic models.Hendrik Lorentzraised the question of the composition of the atom based onHaas's model, a form of Thomson's plum pudding model with a quantum modification. Lorentz explained that the size of atoms could be taken to determine the Planck constant as Haas had done or the Planck constant could be taken as determining the size of atoms.: 273Bohr would adopt the second path. The discussions outlined the need for the quantum theory to be included in the atom. Planck explicitly mentions the failings of classical mechanics.: 273While Bohr had already expressed a similar opinion in his PhD thesis, at Solvay the leading scientists of the day discussed a break with classical theories.: 244Bohr's first paper on his atomic model cites the Solvay proceedings saying: \\\"Whatever the alteration in the laws of motion of the electrons may be, it seems necessary to introduce in the laws in question a quantity foreign to the classical electrodynamics,i.e.Planck's constant, or as it often is called the elementary quantum of action.\\\"Encouraged by the Solvay discussions, Bohr would assume the atom was stable and abandon the efforts to stabilize classical models of the atom: 199 Nicholson atom theory In 1911John William Nicholsonpublished a model of the atom which would influence Bohr's model. Nicholson developed his model based on the analysis of astrophysical spectroscopy. He connected the observed spectral line frequencies with the orbits of electrons in his atoms. The connection he adopted associated the atomic electron orbital angular momentum with thePlanck constant. Whereas Planck focused on a quantum of energy, Nicholson's angular momentum quantum relates to orbital frequency. This new concept gave Planck constant an atomic meaning for the first time.: 169In his 1913 paper Bohr cites Nicholson as finding quantized angular momentum important for the atom. The other critical influence of Nicholson work was his detailed analysis of spectra. Before Nicholson's work Bohr thought the spectral data was not useful for understanding atoms. In comparing his work to Nicholson's, Bohr came to understand the spectral data and their value. When he then learned from a friend aboutBalmer's compact formulafor the spectral line data, Bohr quickly realized his model would match it in detail.: 178 Nicholson's model was based on classical electrodynamics along the lines ofJ.J. Thomson'splum pudding modelbut his negative electrons orbiting a positive nucleus rather than circulating in a sphere. To avoid immediate collapse of this system he required that electrons come in pairs so the rotational acceleration of each electron was matched across the orbit.: 163By 1913 Bohr had already shown, from the analysis of alpha particle energy loss, that hydrogen had only a single electron not a matched pair.: 195Bohr's atomic model would abandon classical electrodynamics. Nicholson's model of radiation was quantum but was attached to the orbits of the electrons.Bohr quantization would associate it with differences in energy levels of his model of hydrogen rather than the orbital frequency. Bohr's previous work Bohr completed his PhD in 1911 with a thesis 'Studies on the Electron Theory of Metals', an application of the classical electron theory ofHendrik Lorentz. Bohr noted two deficits of the classical model. The first concerned thespecific heatof metals whichJames Clerk Maxwellnoted in 1875: every additional degree of freedom in a theory of metals, like subatomic electrons, cause more disagreement with experiment. The second, the classical theory could not explain magnetism.: 194 After his PhD, Bohr worked briefly in the lab ofJJ Thomsonbefore moving to Rutherford's lab inManchesterto study radioactivity. He arrived just after Rutherford completed his proposal of a compact nuclear core for atoms.Charles Galton Darwin, also at Manchester, had just completed an analysis of alpha particle energy loss in metals, concluding the electron collisions where the dominant cause of loss. Bohr showed in a subsequent paper that Darwin's results would improve by accounting for electron binding energy. Importantly this allowed Bohr to conclude that hydrogen atoms have a single electron.: 195 Development Next, Bohr was told by his friend, Hans Hansen, that the Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, anempiricalequation discovered byJohann Balmerin 1885 that described wavelengths of some spectral lines of hydrogen.This was further generalized byJohannes Rydbergin 1888, resulting in what is now known as theRydberg formula. After this, Bohr declared, \\\"everything became clear\\\". In 1913Niels Bohrput forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model: Other points are: Bohr's condition, that the angular momentum be an integer multiple ofℏ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\hbar }, was later reinterpreted in 1924 byde Broglieas astanding wavecondition: the electron is described by a wave and a whole number of wavelengths must fit along the circumference of the electron's orbit: According to de Broglie's hypothesis, matter particles such as the electron behave aswaves. Thede Broglie wavelengthof an electron is which implies that or wheremvr{\\\\displaystyle mvr}is the angular momentum of the orbiting electron. Writingℓ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\ell }for this angular momentum, the previous equation becomes which is Bohr's second postulate. Bohr described angular momentum of the electron orbit as2/h{\\\\displaystyle 2/h}whilede Broglie's wavelengthofλ=h/p{\\\\displaystyle \\\\lambda =h/p}describedh{\\\\displaystyle h}divided by the electron momentum. In 1913, however, Bohr justified his rule by appealing to the correspondence principle, without providing any sort of wave interpretation. In 1913, the wave behavior of matter particles such as the electron was not suspected. In 1925, a new kind of mechanics was proposed,quantum mechanics, in which Bohr's model of electrons traveling in quantized orbits was extended into amore accurate modelof electron motion. The new theory was proposed byWerner Heisenberg.Another formof the same theory, wave mechanics, was discovered by the Austrian physicistErwin Schrödingerindependently, and by different reasoning. Schrödinger employed de Broglie's matter waves, but sought wave solutions of a three-dimensional wave equation describing electrons that were constrained to move about the nucleus of ahydrogen-like atom, by being trapped by the potential of the positive nuclear charge. Electron energy levels The Bohr model gives almost exact results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. This not only involves one-electron systems such as thehydrogen atom, singly ionizedhelium, and doubly ionizedlithium, but it includespositroniumandRydberg statesof any atom where one electron is far away from everything else. It can be used forK-lineX-ray transition calculations if other assumptions are added (seeMoseley's lawbelow). In high energy physics, it can be used to calculate the masses ofheavy quarkmesons. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions. Derivation In classical mechanics, if an electron is orbiting around an atom with period T, and if its coupling to the electromagnetic field is weak, so that the orbit doesn't decay very much in one cycle, it will emit electromagnetic radiation in a pattern repeating at every period, so that the Fourier transform of the pattern will only have frequencies which are multiples of 1/T. However, in quantum mechanics, the quantization of angular momentum leads to discrete energy levels of the orbits, and the emitted frequencies are quantized according to the energy differences between these levels. This discrete nature of energy levels introduces a fundamental departure from the classical radiation law, giving rise to distinct spectral lines in the emitted radiation. Bohr assumes that the electron is circling the nucleus in an elliptical orbit obeying the rules of classical mechanics, but with no loss of radiation due to theLarmor formula. Denoting the total energy asE, the negative electron charge ase, the positive nucleus charge asK=Z|e|, the electron mass asme, half the major axis of the ellipse asa, he starts with these equations:: 3 Eis assumed to be negative, because a positive energy is required to unbind the electron from the nucleus and put it at rest at an infinite distance. Eq. (1a) is obtained from equating the centripetal force to the Coulombian force acting between the nucleus and the electron, considering thatE=T+U{\\\\displaystyle E=T+U}(whereTis the average kinetic energy andUthe average electrostatic potential), and that for Kepler's second law, the average separation between the electron and the nucleus isa. Eq. (1b) is obtained from the same premises of eq. (1a) plus thevirial theorem, stating that, for an elliptical orbit, Then Bohr assumes that|E|{\\\\displaystyle \\\\vert E\\\\vert }is an integer multiple of the energy of a quantum of light with half the frequency of the electron's revolution frequency,: 4i.e: From eq. (1a,1b,2), it descends: He further assumes that the orbit is circular, i.e.a=r{\\\\displaystyle a=r}, and, denoting the angular momentum of the electron asL, introduces the equation: Eq. (4) stems from thevirial theorem, and from the classical mechanics relationships between the angular momentum, the kinetic energy and the frequency of revolution. From eq. (1c,2,4), it stems: where: that is: This results states that the angular momentum of the electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant.: 15 Substituting the expression for the velocity gives an equation forrin terms ofn: so that the allowed orbit radius at anynis The smallest possible value ofrin the hydrogen atom (Z= 1) is called theBohr radiusand is equal to: The energy of then-th level for any atom is determined by the radius and quantum number: An electron in the lowest energy level of hydrogen (n= 1) therefore has about 13.6eVless energy than a motionless electron infinitely far from the nucleus. The next energy level (n= 2) is −3.4 eV. The third (n=3) is −1.51 eV, and so on. For larger values ofn, these are also the binding energies of a highly excited atom with one electron in a large circular orbit around the rest of the atom. The hydrogen formula also coincides with theWallis product. The combination of natural constants in the energy formula is called the Rydberg energy (RE): This expression is clarified by interpreting it in combinations that form morenatural units: Since this derivation is with the assumption that the nucleus is orbited by one electron, we can generalize this result by letting the nucleus have a chargeq=Ze, whereZis the atomic number. This will now give us energy levels for hydrogenic (hydrogen-like) atoms, which can serve as a rough order-of-magnitude approximation of the actual energy levels. So for nuclei withZprotons, the energy levels are (to a rough approximation): The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (seen-body problem) because the electrons are not only affected by thenucleusbut also interact with each other via theCoulomb force. WhenZ= 1/α(Z≈ 137), the motion becomes highly relativistic, andZ2cancels theα2inR; the orbit energy begins to be comparable to rest energy. Sufficiently large nuclei, if they were stable, would reduce their charge by creating a bound electron from the vacuum, ejecting the positron to infinity. This is the theoretical phenomenon of electromagnetic charge screening which predicts a maximum nuclear charge. Emission of such positrons has been observed in the collisions of heavy ions to create temporary super-heavy nuclei. The Bohr formula properly uses thereduced massof electron and proton in all situations, instead of the mass of the electron, However, these numbers are very nearly the same, due to the much larger mass of the proton, about 1836.1 times the mass of the electron, so that the reduced mass in the system is the mass of the electron multiplied by the constant 1836.1/(1+1836.1) = 0.99946. This fact was historically important in convincing Rutherford of the importance of Bohr's model, for it explained the fact that the frequencies of lines in the spectra for singly ionized helium do not differ from those of hydrogen by a factor of exactly 4, but rather by 4 times the ratio of the reduced mass for the hydrogen vs. the helium systems, which was much closer to the experimental ratio than exactly 4. For positronium, the formula uses the reduced mass also, but in this case, it is exactly the electron mass divided by 2. For any value of the radius, the electron and the positron are each moving at half the speed around their common center of mass, and each has only one fourth the kinetic energy. The total kinetic energy is half what it would be for a single electron moving around a heavy nucleus. Rydberg formula Beginning in late 1860s,Johann Balmerand laterJohannes RydbergandWalther Ritzdeveloped increasingly accurate empirical formula matching measured atomic spectral lines. Critical for Bohr's later work, Rydberg expressed his formula in terms of wave-number, equivalent to frequency.These formula contained a constant,R{\\\\displaystyle R}, now known theRydberg constantand a pair of integers indexing the lines:: 247ν=R(1m2−1n2).{\\\\displaystyle \\\\nu =R\\\\left({\\\\frac {1}{m^{2}}}-{\\\\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\\\\right).}Despite many attempts, no theory of the atom could reproduce these relatively simple formula.: 169 In Bohr's theory describing the energies of transitions orquantum jumpsbetween orbital energy levels is able to explain these formula. For the hydrogen atom Bohr starts with his derived formula for the energy released as a free electron moves into a stable circular orbit indexed byτ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\tau }:Wτ=2π2me4h2τ2{\\\\displaystyle W_{\\\\tau }={\\\\frac {2\\\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}\\\\tau ^{2}}}}The energy difference between two such levels is then:hν=Wτ2−Wτ1=2π2me4h2(1τ22−1τ12){\\\\displaystyle h\\\\nu =W_{\\\\tau _{2}}-W_{\\\\tau _{1}}={\\\\frac {2\\\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}}}\\\\left({\\\\frac {1}{\\\\tau _{2}^{2}}}-{\\\\frac {1}{\\\\tau _{1}^{2}}}\\\\right)}Therefore Bohr's theory gives the Rydberg formula and moreover the numerical value the Rydberg constant for hydrogen in terms of more fundamental constants of nature, including the electron's charge, the electron's mass, and thePlanck constant:: 31cRH=2π2me4h3.{\\\\displaystyle cR_{H}={\\\\frac {2\\\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{3}}}.} Since the energy of a photon is these results can be expressed in terms of the wavelength of the photon given off: Bohr's derivation of the Rydberg constant, as well as the concomitant agreement of Bohr's formula with experimentally observed spectral lines of theLyman(nf=1),Balmer(nf=2), andPaschen(nf=3) series, and successful theoretical prediction of other lines not yet observed, was one reason that his model was immediately accepted.: 34 To apply to atoms with more than one electron, the Rydberg formula can be modified by replacingZwithZ−bornwithn−bwherebis constant representing a screening effect due to the inner-shell and other electrons (seeElectron shelland the later discussion of the \\\"Shell Model of the Atom\\\" below). This was established empirically before Bohr presented his model. Shell model (heavier atoms) Bohr's original three papers in 1913 described mainly the electron configuration in lighter elements. Bohr called his electron shells, \\\"rings\\\" in 1913. Atomic orbitals within shells did not exist at the time of his planetary model. Bohr explains in Part 3 of his famous 1913 paper that the maximum electrons in a shell is eight, writing: \\\"We see, further, that a ring ofnelectrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of chargeneunlessn< 8.\\\" For smaller atoms, the electron shells would be filled as follows: \\\"rings of electrons will only join together if they contain equal numbers of electrons; and that accordingly the numbers of electrons on inner rings will only be 2, 4, 8\\\". However, in larger atoms the innermost shell would contain eight electrons, \\\"on the other hand, the periodic system of the elements strongly suggests that already in neonN= 10 an inner ring of eight electrons will occur\\\". Bohr wrote \\\"From the above we are led to the following possible scheme for the arrangement of the electrons in light atoms:\\\" In Bohr's third 1913 paper Part III called \\\"Systems Containing Several Nuclei\\\", he says that two atoms form molecules on a symmetrical plane and he reverts to describing hydrogen.The 1913 Bohr model did not discuss higher elements in detail andJohn William Nicholsonwas one of the first to prove in 1914 that it couldn't work for lithium, but was an attractive theory for hydrogen and ionized helium. In 1921, following the work of chemists and others involved in work on theperiodic table, Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time although these properties were proposed contemporarily with the identical work of chemistCharles Rugeley Bury Bohr's partner in research during 1914 to 1916 wasWalther Kosselwho corrected Bohr's work to show that electrons interacted through the outer rings, and Kossel called the rings: \\\"shells\\\".Irving Langmuiris credited with the first viable arrangement of electrons in shells with only two in the first shell and going up to eight in the next according to theoctet ruleof 1904, although Kossel had already predicted a maximum of eight per shell in 1916.Heavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr took from these chemists the idea that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. PerKossel, after that the orbit is full, the next level would have to be used.This gives the atom ashell structuredesigned by Kossel, Langmuir, and Bury, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit. This model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon ofscreening. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit. For example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1s orbit, and these orbit atZ= 2. Each one sees the nuclear charge ofZ= 3 minus the screening effect of the other, which crudely reduces the nuclear charge by 1 unit. This means that the innermost electrons orbit at approximately 1/2 the Bohr radius. The outermost electron in lithium orbits at roughly the Bohr radius, since the two inner electrons reduce the nuclear charge by 2. This outer electron should be at nearly one Bohr radius from the nucleus. Because the electrons strongly repel each other, the effective charge description is very approximate; the effective chargeZdoesn't usually come out to be an integer. The shell model was able to qualitatively explain many of the mysterious properties of atoms which became codified in the late 19th century in theperiodic table of the elements. One property was the size of atoms, which could be determined approximately by measuring theviscosityof gases and density of pure crystalline solids. Atoms tend to get smaller toward the right in the periodic table, and become much larger at the next line of the table. Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them. Every element on the last column of the table is chemically inert (noble gas). In the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling. Successive atoms become smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing it to expand. The first Bohr orbit is filled when it has two electrons, which explains why helium is inert. The second orbit allows eight electrons, and when it is full the atom is neon, again inert. The third orbital contains eight again, except that in the more correct Sommerfeld treatment (reproduced in modern quantum mechanics) there are extra \\\"d\\\" electrons. The third orbit may hold an extra 10 d electrons, but these positions are not filled until a few more orbitals from the next level are filled (filling the n=3 d orbitals produces the 10transition elements). The irregular filling pattern is an effect of interactions between electrons, which are not taken into account in either the Bohr or Sommerfeld models and which are difficult to calculate even in the modern treatment. Moseley's law and calculation (K-alpha X-ray emission lines) Niels Bohr said in 1962: \\\"You see actually the Rutherford work was not taken seriously. We cannot understand today, but it was not taken seriously at all. There was no mention of it any place. The great change came from Moseley.\\\" In 1913,Henry Moseleyfound an empirical relationship between the strongest X-ray line emitted by atoms under electron bombardment (then known as theK-alphaline), and their atomic numberZ. Moseley's empiric formula was found to be derivable from Rydberg's formula and later Bohr's formula (Moseley actually mentions onlyErnest RutherfordandAntonius Van den Broekin terms of models as these had been published before Moseley's work and Moseley's 1913 paper was published the same month as the first Bohr model paper).The two additional assumptions thatthis X-ray line came from a transition between energy levels with quantum numbers 1 and 2, and, that the atomic numberZwhen used in the formula for atoms heavier than hydrogen, should be diminished by 1, to(Z− 1)2. Moseley wrote to Bohr, puzzled about his results, but Bohr was not able to help. At that time, he thought that the postulated innermost \\\"K\\\" shell of electrons should have at least four electrons, not the two which would have neatly explained the result. So Moseley published his results without a theoretical explanation. It wasWalther Kosselin 1914 and in 1916 who explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell. In Kossel's paper, he writes: \\\"This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of which ... only a certain number of electrons—namely, eight in our case—should be arranged. As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated.\\\"Later, chemist Langmuir realized that the effect was caused by charge screening, with an inner shell containing only 2 electrons. In his 1919 paper,Irving Langmuirpostulated the existence of \\\"cells\\\" which could each only contain two electrons each, and these were arranged in \\\"equidistant layers\\\". In the Moseley experiment, one of the innermost electrons in the atom is knocked out, leaving a vacancy in the lowest Bohr orbit, which contains a single remaining electron. This vacancy is then filled by an electron from the next orbit, which has n=2. But the n=2 electrons see an effective charge ofZ− 1, which is the value appropriate for the charge of the nucleus, when a single electron remains in the lowest Bohr orbit to screen the nuclear charge +Z, and lower it by −1 (due to the electron's negative charge screening the nuclear positive charge). The energy gained by an electron dropping from the second shell to the first gives Moseley's law for K-alpha lines, or Here,Rv=RE/his the Rydberg constant, in terms of frequency equal to 3.28 x 1015Hz. For values of Z between 11 and 31 this latter relationship had been empirically derived by Moseley, in a simple (linear) plot of the square root of X-ray frequency against atomic number (however, for silver, Z = 47, the experimentally obtained screening term should be replaced by 0.4). Notwithstanding its restricted validity,Moseley's law not only established the objective meaning of atomic number, but as Bohr noted, it also did more than the Rydberg derivation to establish the validity of the Rutherford/Van den Broek/Bohr nuclear model of the atom, with atomic number (place on the periodic table) standing for whole units of nuclear charge. Van den Broek had published his model in January 1913 showing the periodic table was arranged according to charge while Bohr's atomic model was not published until July 1913. TheK-alphaline of Moseley's time is now known to be a pair of close lines, written as (Kα1andKα2) inSiegbahn notation. Shortcomings The Bohr model gives an incorrect valueL=ħfor the ground state orbital angular momentum: The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero from experiment. Although mental pictures fail somewhat at these levels of scale, an electron in the lowest modern \\\"orbital\\\" with no orbital momentum, may be thought of as not to revolve \\\"around\\\" the nucleus at all, but merely to go tightly around it in an ellipse with zero area (this may be pictured as \\\"back and forth\\\", without striking or interacting with the nucleus). This is only reproduced in a more sophisticated semiclassical treatment like Sommerfeld's. Still, even the most sophisticated semiclassical model fails to explain the fact that the lowest energy state is spherically symmetric – it doesn't point in any particular direction. Nevertheless, in the modernfully quantum treatment in phase space, the proper deformation (careful full extension) of the semi-classical result adjusts the angular momentum value to the correct effective one.As a consequence, the physical ground state expression is obtained through a shift of the vanishing quantum angular momentum expression, which corresponds to spherical symmetry. In modern quantum mechanics, the electron in hydrogen is aspherical cloud of probabilitythat grows denser near the nucleus. The rate-constant of probability-decay in hydrogen is equal to the inverse of the Bohr radius, but since Bohr worked with circular orbits, not zero area ellipses, the fact that these two numbers exactly agree is considered a \\\"coincidence\\\". (However, many such coincidental agreements are found between the semiclassical vs. full quantum mechanical treatment of the atom; these include identical energy levels in the hydrogen atom and the derivation of a fine-structure constant, which arises from the relativistic Bohr–Sommerfeld model (see below) and which happens to be equal to an entirely different concept, in full modern quantum mechanics). The Bohr model also has difficulty with, or else fails to explain: Refinements Several enhancements to the Bohr model were proposed, most notably theSommerfeld or Bohr–Sommerfeld models, which suggested that electrons travel in elliptical orbits around a nucleus instead of the Bohr model's circular orbits.This model supplemented the quantized angular momentum condition of the Bohr model with an additional radial quantization condition, theWilson–Sommerfeldquantization condition wherepris the radial momentum canonically conjugate to the coordinateqr, which is the radial position, andTis one full orbital period. The integral is theactionofaction-angle coordinates. This condition, suggested by thecorrespondence principle, is the only one possible, since the quantum numbers areadiabatic invariants. The Bohr–Sommerfeld model was fundamentally inconsistent and led to many paradoxes. Themagnetic quantum numbermeasured the tilt of the orbital plane relative to thexyplane, and it could only take a few discrete values. This contradicted the obvious fact that an atom could have any orientation relative to the coordinates, without restriction. The Sommerfeld quantization can be performed in different canonical coordinates and sometimes gives different answers. The incorporation of radiation corrections was difficult, because it required finding action-angle coordinates for a combined radiation/atom system, which is difficult when the radiation is allowed to escape. The whole theory did not extend to non-integrable motions, which meant that many systems could not be treated even in principle. In the end, the model was replaced by the modern quantum-mechanical treatment of thehydrogen atom, which was first given byWolfgang Pauliin 1925, using Heisenberg'smatrix mechanics. The current picture of the hydrogen atom is based on theatomic orbitalsofwave mechanics, whichErwin Schrödingerdeveloped in 1926. However, this is not to say that the Bohr–Sommerfeld model was without its successes. Calculations based on the Bohr–Sommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic spectral effects. For example, up to first-orderperturbations, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in theStark effect. At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model. The prevailing theory behind this difference lies in the shapes of the orbitals of the electrons, which vary according to the energy state of the electron. The Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization conditions lead to questions in modern mathematics. Consistent semiclassical quantization condition requires a certain type of structure on the phase space, which places topological limitations on the types of symplectic manifolds which can be quantized. In particular, the symplectic form should be thecurvature formof aconnectionof aHermitianline bundle, which is called aprequantization. Bohr also updated his model in 1922, assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example, 2, 8, and 18) correspond to stable \\\"closed shells\\\". Model of the chemical bond Niels Bohr proposed a model of the atom anda model of the chemical bond. According to his model for adiatomic molecule, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei. Thedynamic equilibriumof the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei. The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account theCoulomb repulsion– the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other. Symbolism of planetary atomic models Although Bohr's atomic model was superseded by quantum models in the 1920's, the visual image of electrons orbiting a nucleus has remained the popular concept of atoms. The concept of an atom as a tinyplanetary systemhas been widely used as a symbol for atoms and even for \\\"atomic\\\" energy (even though this is more properly considered nuclear energy).:58Examples of its use over the past century include but are not limited to: See also References Footnotes Primary sources Further reading External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Max Planck Max Karl Ernst Ludwig PlanckForMemRS(/ˈplæŋk/;German:ⓘ;23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a Germantheoretical physicistwhose discovery of energyquantawon him theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1918. Planck made many substantial contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame as a physicist rests primarily on his role as the originator ofquantum theoryand one of the founders ofmodern physics,which revolutionized understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. He is known for thePlanck constant, which is of foundational importance for quantum physics, and which he used to derive a set ofunits, today calledPlanck units, expressed only in terms of fundamentalphysical constants. Planck was twice president of the German scientific institutionKaiser Wilhelm Society. In 1948, it was renamed theMax Planck Society(Max-Planck-Gesellschaft) and nowadays includes 83 institutions representing a wide range of scientific directions. Early life and education Planck came from a traditional, intellectual family. His","family. His paternal great-grandfather and grandfather were both theology professors inGöttingen; his father was a law professor at theUniversity of KielandMunich. One of his uncles was also a judge. Planck was born in 1858 inKiel,Holstein(nowSchleswig-Holstein), to Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck and his second wife, Emma Patzig. He was baptized with the name ofKarl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck; of his given names,Marxwas indicated as the\"appellation name\".However, by the age of ten he signed with the nameMaxand used this for the rest of his life. He was the sixth child in the family, though two of his siblings were from his father's first marriage. War was common during Planck's early years and among his earliest memories was the marching ofPrussianandAustriantroops into Kiel during theSecond Schleswig Warin 1864.In 1867 the family moved toMunich, and Planck enrolled in the Maximiliansgymnasiumschool. There, his mathematical talents emerged earlyand he later came under the tutelage of Hermann Müller, a","Hermann Müller, a mathematician who took an interest in the youth, and taught himastronomyandmechanicsas well asmathematics. It was from Müller that Planck first learned the principle of conservation of energy. Planck graduated early, at age 17.This is how Planck first came in contact with the field of physics. Planck was gifted when it came to music. He took singing lessons and played piano, organ and cello, and composed songs and operas. However, instead of music he chose to studyphysics. Planck enrolled at theUniversity of Munichin 1874. Under professorPhilipp von Jolly's supervision, Planck performed the only experiments of his scientific career, studying thediffusionofhydrogenthrough heatedplatinum, but transferred totheoretical physics. Jolly advised Planck against going into theoretical physics. Planck recalls that in 1878, Jolly argued that physics was almost complete, being a \"highly developed, nearly fully matured science, that through the crowning achievement of the discovery of the principle of","of the principle of conservation of energy will arguably soon take its final stable form\". In 1877, he went to theFriedrich Wilhelms Universityin Berlin for a year of study with physicistsHermann von HelmholtzandGustav Kirchhoffand mathematicianKarl Weierstrass. He wrote that Helmholtz was never quite prepared, spoke slowly, miscalculated endlessly, and bored his listeners, while Kirchhoff spoke in carefully prepared lectures which were dry and monotonous. He soon became close friends with Helmholtz. While there he undertook a program of mostly self-study ofRudolf Clausius'swritings, which led him to choosethermodynamicsas his field. In October 1878, Planck passed his qualifying exams and in February 1879 defended his dissertationÜber den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie(On the Second Law of Mechanical Heat Theory). He briefly taught mathematics and physics at his former school in Munich. By the year 1880, Planck had obtained the two highest academic degrees offered in Europe. The first was a","The first was a doctorate degree after he completed his paper detailing his research and theory of thermodynamics.He then presented his thesis calledGleichgewichtszustände isotroper Körper in verschiedenen Temperaturen(Equilibrium states of isotropic bodies at different temperatures), which earned him ahabilitation. Career With the completion of his habilitation thesis, Planck became an unpaidPrivatdozent(German academic rank comparable to lecturer/assistant professor) in Munich, waiting until he was offered an academic position. Although he was initially ignored by the academic community, he furthered his work on the field ofheat theoryand discovered one after another the samethermodynamicalformalism asGibbswithout realizing it. Clausius's ideas onentropyoccupied a central role in his work. In April 1885, theUniversity of Kielappointed Planck as associate professor oftheoretical physics. Further work on entropy and its treatment, especially as applied inphysical chemistry, followed. He published hisTreatise","hisTreatise on Thermodynamicsin 1897.He proposed a thermodynamic basis forSvante Arrhenius's theory ofelectrolyticdissociation. In 1889, he was named the successor to Kirchhoff's position at theFriedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin– presumably thanks to Helmholtz's intercession – and by 1892 became a full professor. In 1907 Planck was offeredLudwig Boltzmann's position inVienna, but turned it down to stay in Berlin. During 1909, as a University of Berlin professor, he was invited to become theErnest Kempton Adams Lecturer in Theoretical PhysicsatColumbia UniversityinNew York City. A series of his lectures were translated and co-published by Columbia University professorA. P. Wills.He was elected to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1914.He retired from Berlin on 10 January 1926,and was succeeded byErwin Schrödinger.He was elected to the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1926 and theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1933. Professor at Berlin University As a professor at","As a professor at theFriedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin, Planck joined the local Physical Society. He later wrote about this time: \"In those days I was essentially the only theoretical physicist there, whence things were not so easy for me, because I started mentioning entropy, but this was not quite fashionable, since it was regarded as a mathematical spook\".Thanks to his initiative, the various local Physical Societies of Germany merged in 1898 to form the German Physical Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG); from 1905 to 1909 Planck was the president. Planck started a six-semester course of lectures on theoretical physics, \"dry, somewhat impersonal\" according toLise Meitner, \"using no notes, never making mistakes, never faltering; the best lecturer I ever heard\" according to an English participant,James R. Partington, who continues: \"There were always many standing around the room. As the lecture-room was well heated and rather close, some of the listeners would from time to time drop","time to time drop to the floor, but this did not disturb the lecture.\" Planck did not establish an actual \"school\"; the number of his graduate students was only about 20, among them: Entropy Thermodynamics, also known as the \"mechanical theory of heat\" at the end of the 19th century, had emerged at the beginning of this century from an attempt to understand the functioning of steam engines and to improve their efficiency. In the 1840s, several researchers independently discovered and formulated the law of conservation of energy, which is now also known as thefirst law of thermodynamics. In 1850,Rudolf Clausiusformulated the so-calledsecond law of thermodynamics, which states that a voluntary (or spontaneous) transfer of energy is only possible from a warmer to a colder body, but not vice versa. In England at this timeWilliam Thomsoncame to the same conclusion. Clausius generalized his formulation further and further and came up with a new formulation in 1865. To this end, he introduced the concept ofEntropy,","concept ofEntropy, which he defined as a measure of the reversible supply of heat in relation to the absolute temperature. The new formulation of the second law, which is still valid today, was: \"Entropy can be created, but never destroyed\". Clausius, whose work Planck read as a young student during his stay in Berlin, successfully applied this new law of nature to mechanical, thermoelectric and chemical processes. In his dissertation in 1879, Planck summarized Clausius' writings, pointing out contradictions and inaccuracies in their formulation and then clarifying them. In addition, he generalized the validity of the second law to all processes in nature, Clausius had limited its application to reversible processes and thermal processes. Furthermore, Planck dealt intensively with the new concept of entropy and emphasized, that entropy is not only a property of a physical system, but at the same time a measure of the irreversibility of a process: If entropy is generated in a process, it is irreversible,","it is irreversible, since entropy cannot be destroyed according to the second law. In reversible processes, the entropy remains constant. He presented this fact in detail in 1887 in a series of treatises entitled \"On the Princip of the Increase of Entropy\". In his study of the concept of entropy, Planck did not follow the molecular, probabilistic interpretation that prevailed at the time, as these do not provide absolute proof of universality. Instead, he pursued a phenomenological approach and was also skeptical of atomism. Even though he later abandoned this attitude in the course of his work on the law of radiation, his early work impressively shows the possibilites of the phenome of thermodynamics in solving concrete physicochemical problems. Planck's understanding of entropy included the realization that the maximum of entropy corresponds to the equilibrium state. The accompanying conclusion that knowledge of the Entropy allows all laws of thermodynamic equilibrium states to be derived corresponds to","corresponds to the modern understanding of such states. Planck therefore chose equilibrium processes as his research focus and, based on his habilitation thesis, researched the coexistence of aggregate states and the equilibrium of gas reactions, for example. This work on the frontier of chemical thermodynamics also received great attention due to the rapidly expanding chemical work at that time. Independently of Planck,Josiah Willard Gibbshad also discovered almost all the knowledge Planck gained about the properties of physicochemical equilibria and published them from 1876 onwards. Planck was unaware of these essays, and they did not appear in German until 1892. However, both scientists approached the topic in different ways, while Planck dealt with irreversible processes, Gibbs looked at equilibria. This approach was finally able to prevail because of its simplicity, but Planck's approach is attributed the greater universality. Black-body radiation In 1894, Planck turned his attention to the problem","to the problem ofblack-body radiation. The problem had been stated by Kirchhoff in 1859: \"how does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by ablack body(a perfect absorber, also known as a cavity radiator) depend on thefrequencyof the radiation (i.e., the color of the light) and the temperature of the body?\". The question had been explored experimentally, but no theoretical treatment had agreed with the experimentally observed evidence.Wilhelm WienproposedWien's law, which correctly predicted the behaviour at high frequencies, but failed at low frequencies. TheRayleigh–Jeans law, another approach to the problem, agreed with experimental results at low frequencies, but created what was later known as the \"ultraviolet catastrophe\" at high frequencies, as predicted byclassical physics. However, contrary to many textbooks, this was not a motivation for Planck. Planck's first proposed solution to the problem in 1899 followed from what he called the \"principle of elementary disorder\", which allowed","which allowed him to derive Wien's law from a number of assumptions about theentropyof an ideal oscillator, creating what was referred to as the Wien–Planck law. Soon, however, it was found that experimental evidence did not confirm the new law at all, to Planck's frustration. He revised his approach and now derived the first version of the famousPlanck black-body radiation law, which described clearly the experimentally observed black-body spectrum. It was first proposed in a meeting of the DPG on 19 October 1900 and published in 1901. (This first derivation did not include energy quantisation, and did not usestatistical mechanics, to which he held an aversion.) In November 1900 Planck revised this first version, now relying onBoltzmann's statistical interpretation of thesecond law of thermodynamicsas a way of gaining a more fundamental understanding of the principles behind his radiation law. Planck was deeply suspicious of the philosophical and physical implications of such an interpretation of","interpretation of Boltzmann's approach; thus his recourse to them was, as he later put it, \"an act of despair ... I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics\". The central assumption behind his new derivation, presented to the DPG on 14 December 1900, was the supposition, now known as thePlanck postulate, that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only inquantizedform, in other words, the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit: wherehis thePlanck constant, also known as Planck's action quantum (introduced already in 1899), andνis the frequency of the radiation. Note that the elementary units of energy discussed here are represented byhνand not simply byν. Physicists now call these quanta photons, and a photon of frequencyνwill have its own specific and unique energy. The total energy at that frequency is then equal tohνmultiplied by the number of photons at that frequency. At first Planck considered that quantisation was only \"a purely formal assumption ... actually","... actually I did not think much about it ...\"; nowadays this assumption, incompatible withclassical physics, is regarded as the birth ofquantum physicsand the greatest intellectual accomplishment of Planck's career. (Boltzmannhad been discussing in a theoretical paper in 1877 the possibility that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete). The discovery of the Planck constant enabled him to define a new universal set ofphysical units(such as the Planck length and the Planck mass), all based on fundamental physical constants, upon which much of quantum theory is based. In a discussion with his son in December 1918 Planck described his discovery as 'a discovery of the first rank, comparable perhaps only to the discoveries of Newton'.In recognition of Planck's fundamental contribution to a new branch of physics, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918; (he received the award in 1919). Subsequently, Planck tried to grasp the meaning of energy quanta, but to no avail. \"My unavailing","\"My unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble.\" Even several years later, other physicists such asRayleigh,Jeans, andLorentzset the Planck constant to zero in order to align with classical physics, but Planck knew well that this constant had a precise nonzero value. \"I am unable to understand Jeans' stubbornness – he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing, the same asHegelwas for philosophy. So much the worse for the facts if they don't fit.\" Max Bornwrote about Planck: \"He was, by nature, a conservative mind; he had nothing of the revolutionary and was thoroughly skeptical about speculations. Yet his belief in the compelling force of logical reasoning from facts was so strong that he did not flinch from announcing the most revolutionary idea which ever has shaken physics.\" Einstein and the theory of relativity In 1905, the three epochal papers byAlbert Einsteinwere published in the","published in the journalAnnalen der Physik. Planck was among the few who immediately recognized the significance of thespecial theory of relativity. Thanks to his influence, this theory was soon widely accepted in Germany. Planck also contributed considerably to extend the special theory of relativity. For example, he recast the theory in terms of classicalaction. Einstein's hypothesis of lightquanta(photons), based onHeinrich Hertz's1887 discovery (and further investigation byPhilipp Lenard) of thephotoelectric effect, was initially rejected by Planck. He was unwilling to discard completelyMaxwell's theory ofelectrodynamics. \"The theory of light would be thrown back not by decades, but by centuries, into the age whenChristiaan Huygensdared to fight against the mighty emission theory ofIsaac Newton...\" In 1910, Einstein pointed out the anomalous behavior ofspecific heatat low temperatures as another example of a phenomenon which defies explanation by classical physics. Planck andWalther Nernst, seeking to","Nernst, seeking to clarify the increasing number of contradictions, organized the FirstSolvay Conference(Brussels 1911). At this meeting Einstein was able to convince Planck. Meanwhile, Planck had been appointed dean of Berlin University, whereby it was possible for him to call Einstein to Berlin and establish a new professorship for him (1914). Soon the two scientists became close friends and met frequently to play music together. First World War At the onset of theFirst World WarPlanck endorsed the general excitement of the public, writing that, \"Besides much that is horrible, there is also much that is unexpectedly great and beautiful: the smooth solution of the most difficult domestic political problems by the unification of all parties (and) ... the extolling of everything good and noble.\"Planck also signed the infamous \"Manifesto of the 93 intellectuals\", a pamphlet of polemic war propaganda (while Einstein retained a strictly pacifistic attitude which almost led to his imprisonment, only being spared","only being spared thanks to hisSwisscitizenship). In 1915, when Italy was still a neutral power, Planck voted successfully for a scientific paper from Italy, which received a prize from thePrussian Academy of Sciences, where Planck was one of four permanent presidents. Post-war and the Weimar Republic In the turbulent post-war years, Planck, now the highest authority of German physics, issued the slogan \"persevere and continue working\" to his colleagues. In October 1920, he andFritz Haberestablished theNotgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft(Emergency Organization of German Science), aimed at providing financial support for scientific research. A considerable portion of the money the organization would distribute was raised abroad. Planck held leading positions at Berlin University, the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the German Physical Society, and theKaiser Wilhelm Society(which became theMax Planck Societyin 1948). During this time economic conditions in Germany were such that he was hardly able to","was hardly able to conduct research. In 1926, Planck became a foreign member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. During the interwar period, Planck became a member of the Deutsche Volks-Partei (German People's Party), the party of Nobel Peace Prize laureateGustav Stresemann, which aspired to liberal aims for domestic policy and rather revisionistic aims for politics around the world. Planck disagreed with the introduction ofuniversal suffrageand later expressed the view that the Nazi dictatorship resulted from \"the ascent of the rule of the crowds\". Quantum mechanics At the end of the 1920s,Niels Bohr,Werner Heisenberg, andWolfgang Paulihad worked out theCopenhagen interpretationof quantum mechanics, but it was rejected by Planck, and by Schrödinger, Laue, and Einstein as well. Planck expected thatwave mechanicswould soon render quantum theory – his own child – unnecessary. This was not to be the case, however. Further work only served to underscore the enduring central importance of","importance of quantum theory, even against his and Einstein's philosophical revulsions. Here Planck experienced the truth of his own earlier observation from his struggle with the older views during his younger years: \"A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it.\" Nazi dictatorship and the Second World War When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Planck was 74 years old. He witnessed many Jewish friends and colleagues expelled from their positions and humiliated, and hundreds of scientists emigrate fromNazi Germany. Again he tried to \"persevere and continue working\" and asked scientists who were considering emigration to remain in Germany. Nevertheless, he did help his nephew, the economistHermann Kranold, to emigrate toLondonafter his arrest.He hoped the crisis would abate soon and the political situation would improve. Otto Hahnasked Planck to gather","Planck to gather well-known German professors in order to issue a public proclamation against the treatment of Jewish professors, but Planck replied, \"If you are able to gather today 30 such gentlemen, then tomorrow 150 others will come and speak against it, because they are eager to take over the positions of the others.\"Under Planck's leadership, theKaiser Wilhelm Society(KWG) avoided open conflict with the Nazi regime, except concerning the Jewish Fritz Haber. In May of 1933 Planck requested and received an interview with the recently appointed Chancellor of GermanyAdolf Hitlerto discuss the issue, telling him that the \"forced immigration of Jews would kill German science and Jews could be good Germans\", to which the chancellor replied \"but we don't have anything against the Jews, only against communists\". Planck was therefore unsuccessful, since this reply \"took from him every basis for further negotiation\",as to Hitler \"the Jews are all Communists, and these are my enemies.\" In the following year, 1934,","year, 1934, Haber died in exile. One year later, Planck, having been the president of the KWG since 1930, organized in a somewhat provocative style an official commemorative meeting for Haber. He also succeeded in secretly enabling a number of Jewish scientists to continue working in institutes of the KWG for several years. In 1936, his term as president of the KWG ended, and the Nazi government pressured him to refrain from seeking another term. As the political climate in Germany gradually became more hostile,Johannes Stark, prominent exponent of theDeutsche Physik(\"German Physics\", also called \"Aryan Physics\") attacked Planck,Arnold Sommerfeld, and Heisenberg for continuing to teach the theories of Einstein, calling them \"white Jews\". The \"Hauptamt Wissenschaft\" (Nazi government office for science) started an investigation of Planck's ancestry, claiming that he was \"1/16 Jewish\", but Planck denied it. In 1938, Planck celebrated his 80th birthday. The DPG held a celebration, during which the Max-Planck","the Max-Planck medal (founded as the highest medal by the DPG in 1928) was awarded to French physicistLouis de Broglie. At the end of 1938, the Prussian Academy lost its remaining independence and was taken over by Nazis (Gleichschaltung). Planck protested by resigning his presidency. He continued to travel frequently, giving numerous public talks, such as his talk on Religion and Science, and five years later he was sufficiently fit to climb 3,000-metre peaks in theAlps. During theSecond World Warthe increasing number of Allied bombing missions against Berlin forced Planck and his wife to temporarily leave the city and live in the countryside. In 1942, he wrote: \"In me an ardent desire has grown to persevere this crisis and live long enough to be able to witness the turning point, the beginning of a new rise.\" In February 1944, his home in Berlin was completely destroyed by an air raid, annihilating all his scientific records and correspondence. His rural retreat was threatened by the rapid advance of the","advance of the Allied armies from both sides. In 1944, Planck's sonErwinwas arrested by theGestapofollowing the attempted assassination of Hitler in the20 July plot. He was tried and sentenced to death by thePeople's Courtin October 1944. Erwin was hanged at Berlin'sPlötzensee Prisonin January 1945. The death of his son destroyed much of Planck's will to live. Personal life and death In March 1887, Planck married Marie Merck (1861–1909), sister of a school fellow, and moved with her into a sublet apartment in Kiel. They had four children: Karl (1888–1916), the twins Emma (1889–1919) and Grete (1889–1917), andErwin(1893–1945). After living in the apartment in Berlin, the Planck family lived in a villa in Berlin-Grunewald, Wangenheimstrasse 21. Several other professors fromUniversity of Berlinlived nearby, among them theologianAdolf von Harnack, who became a close friend of Planck. Soon the Planck home became a social and cultural center. Numerous well-known scientists, such asAlbert Einstein,Otto HahnandLise","HahnandLise Meitnerwere frequent visitors. The tradition of jointly performing music had already been established in the home ofHelmholtz. After several happy years, in July 1909 Marie Planck died, possibly fromtuberculosis. In March 1911 Planck married his second wife, Marga von Hoesslin (1882–1948); in December his fifth child Hermann was born. During theFirst World WarPlanck's second son Erwin was taken prisoner by the French in 1914, while his oldest son Karl was killed in action atVerdun. Grete died in 1917 while giving birth to her first child. Her sister died the same way two years later, after having married Grete's widower. Both granddaughters survived and were named after their mothers. Planck endured these losses stoically. In January 1945,Erwin Planck, to whom he had been particularly close, was sentenced to death by theNaziVolksgerichtshofbecause of his participation in thefailed attempt to assassinate Hitlerin July 1944. Erwin was executed on 23 January 1945. After World war II ended, Planck,","II ended, Planck, his second wife, and their son were brought to a relative inGöttingen, where Planck died on October 4, 1947. He was buried in the old Stadtfriedhof (City Cemetery) in Göttingen. Religious views Planck was a member of theLutheran Churchin Germany.He was very tolerant toward alternative views andreligions.In a lecture in 1937 entitled \"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\" (\"Religion and Natural Science\") he suggested the importance of these symbols and rituals related directly with a believer's ability to worship God, but that one must be mindful that the symbols provide an imperfect illustration of divinity. He criticized atheism for being focused on the derision of such symbols, while at the same time warned of the over-estimation of the importance of such symbols by believers. In \"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\", Planck expressed the view that God is present everywhere, and he held that \"the holiness of the unintelligible Godhead is conveyed by the holiness of symbols.\" Atheists, he thought,","he thought, attach too much importance to what are merely symbols. He was a churchwarden from 1920 until his death, and believed in an almighty, all-knowing, beneficent God (although not necessarily a personal one). Both science and religion wage a \"tireless battle against skepticism and dogmatism, against unbelief and superstition\" with the goal \"toward God!\" Planck said in 1944, \"As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a result of my research about atoms this much: There is no matter as such. All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particle of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the atom together. We must assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent spirit . This spirit is the matrix of all matter.\" Planck argued that the concept of God is important to both religion and science, but in different ways: \"Both religion and science require a belief","require a belief in God. For believers, God is in the beginning, and for physicists He is at the end of all considerations … To the former He is the foundation, to the latter, the crown of the edifice of every generalized world view\". Furthermore, Planck wrote, ...\"to believe\" means \"to recognize as a truth\", and the knowledge of nature, continually advancing on incontestably safe tracks, has made it utterly impossible for a person possessing some training in natural science to recognize as founded on truth the many reports of extraordinary occurrences contradicting the laws of nature, of miracles which are still commonly regarded as essential supports and confirmations of religious doctrines, and which formerly used to be accepted as facts pure and simple, without doubt or criticism. The belief in miracles must retreat step by step before relentlessly and reliably progressing science and we cannot doubt that sooner or later it must vanish completely. Noted historian of scienceJohn L. Heilbroncharacterized","Planck's views on God asdeistic.Heilbron further relates that when asked about his religious affiliation, Planck replied that although he had always been deeply religious, he did not believe \"in a personal God, let alone a Christian God\". Publications ter Haar, D.(1967).\"On the Theory of the Energy Distribution Law of the Normal Spectrum\"(PDF).The Old Quantum Theory.Pergamon Press. p. 82.LCCN66029628. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 September 2016. Retrieved5 April2014. See also References Sources External links","Albert Einstein Albert Einstein(/ˈaɪnstaɪn/EYEN-styne;German:ⓘ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-borntheoretical physicistwho is widely held as one of the most influentialscientists. Best known for developing thetheory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions toquantum mechanics.Hismass–energy equivalenceformulaE=mc2, which arises fromspecial relativity, has been called \"the world's most famous equation\".He received the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\"for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of thephotoelectric effect\",a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. Born in theGerman Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of theKingdom of Württemberg)the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swissfederal polytechnic schoolinZürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he","which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at theSwiss Patent Officein Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to theUniversity of Zurich. In 1914, he moved toBerlinin order to join thePrussian Academy of Sciencesand theHumboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of theKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of theKingdom of Prussia.In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States,Adolf Hitler came to powerin Germany. Horrified by theNaziwar of exterminationagainst his fellow Jews,Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was grantedAmerican citizenshipin 1940.On the eve ofWorld War II, he endorseda letterto PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltalerting him to the potentialGerman nuclear weapons programand recommended that the US beginsimilar research. Einstein supported theAlliesbut generally viewed the idea ofnuclear weaponswith great dismay. Einstein's work is also known for","is also known for its influence on thephilosophy of science.In 1905, he publishedfour groundbreaking papers, sometimes described as hisannus mirabilis(miracle year).These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explainedBrownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability ofclassical mechanicsto account satisfactorily for the behavior of theelectromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed ageneral theory of relativitythat extended his system of mechanics to incorporategravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of theuniverseas a whole. In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions tostatistical mechanicsand quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics ofradiation, in which light","in which light consists of particles, subsequently calledphotons. With the Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork forBose-Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that \"God does not play dice\".Second, he attempted to devise aunified field theoryby generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to includeelectromagnetismtoo. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstreammodern physics. His intellectual achievements and originality madeEinsteinbroadly synonymous withgenius.In 1999, he was namedTime'sPerson of the Century.In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journalPhysics World, Einstein was ranked the greatest physicist of all time. Life and career Childhood, youth and education Albert Einstein was born inUlm,in","was born inUlm,in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879.His parents, secularAshkenazi Jews, wereHermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, andPauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved toMunich's borough ofLudwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based ondirect current.He often related a formative event from his youth, when he was sick in bed and his father brought him acompass. This sparked his lifelong fascination withelectromagnetism. He realized that \"Something deeply hidden had to be behind things.\" Albert attended St. Peter'sCatholic elementary schoolin Munich from the age of five. When he was eight, he was transferred to theLuitpold Gymnasium, where he received advanced primary and then secondary school education. In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company tendered for a contract to install electric lighting in Munich, but without success—they lacked","success—they lacked the capital that would have been required to update their technology from direct current to the more efficient,alternating currentalternative.The failure of their bid forced them to sell their Munich factory and search for new opportunities elsewhere. The Einstein family moved to Italy, first toMilanand a few months later toPavia, where they settled inPalazzo Cornazzani.Einstein, then fifteen, stayed behind in Munich in order to finish his schooling. His father wanted him to studyelectrical engineering, but he was a fractious pupil who found the Gymnasium's regimen and teaching methods far from congenial. He later wrote that the school's policy of strictrote learningwas harmful to creativity. At the end of December 1894, a letter from a doctor persuaded the Luitpold's authorities to release him from its care, and he joined his family in Pavia.While in Italy as a teenager, he wrote an essay entitled \"On the Investigation of the State of theEtherin a Magnetic Field\". Einstein excelled at","excelled at physics and mathematics from an early age, and soon acquired the mathematical expertise normally only found in a child several years his senior. He began teaching himself algebra, calculus andEuclidean geometrywhen he was twelve; he made such rapid progress that he discovered an original proof of thePythagorean theorembefore his thirteenth birthday.A family tutor,Max Talmud, said that only a short time after he had given the twelve year old Einstein a geometry textbook, the boy \"had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow.\"Einstein recorded that he had \"masteredintegralanddifferential calculus\" while still just fourteen.His love of algebra and geometry was so great that at twelve, he was already confident that nature could be understood as a \"mathematical structure\". At thirteen, when his range of enthusiasms had broadened to include music and philosophy,Talmud introduced","introduced Einstein toKant'sCritique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, \"At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him.\" In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for thefederal polytechnic school(later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the test,but performed with distinction in physics and mathematics.On the advice of the polytechnic's principal, he completed his secondary education at theArgovian cantonal school(agymnasium) inAarau, Switzerland, graduating in 1896.While lodging in Aarau with the family ofJost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister,Maja, later married Winteler's son Paul.) In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced hiscitizenship of the German Kingdom of Württembergin order to","order to avoidconscription into military service.TheMatura(graduation for the successful completion of higher secondary schooling), awarded to him in September 1896, acknowledged him to have performed well across most of the curriculum, allotting him atop grade of 6for history, physics, algebra, geometry, and descriptive geometry.At seventeen, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, a year older than him, took up a teaching post inOlsberg, Switzerland. The five other polytechnic school freshmen following the same course as Einstein included just one woman, a twenty year oldSerbian,Mileva Marić. Over the next few years, the pair spent many hours discussing their shared interests and learning about topics in physics that the polytechnic school's lectures did not cover. In his letters to Marić, Einstein confessed that exploring science with her by his side was much more enjoyable than reading a textbook in solitude.","in solitude. Eventually the two students became not only friends but also lovers. Historians of physics are divided on the question of the extent to which Marić contributed to the insights of Einstein'sannus mirabilispublications. There is at least some evidence that he was influenced by her scientific ideas,but there are scholars who doubt whether her impact on his thought was of any great significance at all. Marriages, relationships and children Correspondence between Einstein and Marić, discovered and published in 1987, revealed that in early 1902, while Marić was visiting her parents inNovi Sad, she gave birth to a daughter,Lieserl. When Marić returned to Switzerland it was without the child, whose fate is uncertain. A letter of Einstein's that he wrote in September 1903 suggests that the girl was either given up for adoption or died ofscarlet feverin infancy. Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their sonHans Albertwas born inBern, Switzerland. Their sonEduardwas born in Zürich in","born in Zürich in July 1910. In letters that Einstein wrote to Marie Winteler in the months before Eduard's arrival, he described his love for his wife as \"misguided\" and mourned the \"missed life\" that he imagined he would have enjoyed if he had married Winteler instead: \"I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be.\" In 1912, Einstein entered into a relationship withElsa Löwenthal, who was both his first cousin on his mother's side and his second cousin on his father's.When Marić learned of his infidelity soon after moving to Berlin with him in April 1914, she returned to Zürich, taking Hans Albert and Eduard with her.Einstein and Marić were granted a divorce on 14 February 1919 on the grounds of having lived apart for five years.As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed that if he were to win a Nobel Prize, he would give the money that he received to Marić; he won the prize two years later. Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919.In 1923, he began a","1923, he began a relationship with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of his close friend Hans Mühsam.Löwenthal nevertheless remained loyal to him, accompanying him when he emigrated to the United States in 1933. In 1935, she was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. She died in December 1936. A volume of Einstein's letters released byHebrew University of Jerusalemin 2006added further names to the catalog of women with whom he was romantically involved. They included Margarete Lebach (a married Austrian),Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal.After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by some to be a Russian spy; her husband, the Russian sculptorSergei Konenkov, created the bronze bust of Einstein at theInstitute for Advanced Studyat Princeton. Following an","Following an episode of acute mental illness at about the age of twenty, Einstein's son Eduard was diagnosed withschizophrenia.He spent the remainder of his life either in the care of his mother or in temporary confinement in an asylum. After her death, he was committed permanently toBurghölzli, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich. 1902–1909: Assistant at the Swiss Patent Office Einstein graduated from the federal polytechnic school in 1900, duly certified as competent to teach mathematics and physics.His successful acquisition of Swiss citizenship in February 1901was not followed by the usual sequel ofconscription; the Swiss authorities deemed him medically unfit for military service. He found that Swiss schools too appeared to have no use for him, failing to offer him a teaching position despite the almost two years that he spent applying for one. Eventually it was with the help ofMarcel Grossmann's father that he secured a post inBernat theSwiss Patent Office,as anassistant examiner – level III.","– level III. Patent applicationsthat landed on Einstein's desk for his evaluation included ideas for a gravel sorter and an electric typewriter.His employers were pleased enough with his work to make his position permanent in 1903, although they did not think that he should be promoted until he had \"fully mastered machine technology\".It is conceivable that his labors at the patent office had a bearing on his development of his special theory of relativity. He arrived at his revolutionary ideas about space, time and light through thought experiments about the transmission of signals and the synchronization of clocks, matters which also figured in some of the inventions submitted to him for assessment. In 1902, Einstein and some friends whom he had met in Bern formed a group that held regular meetings to discuss science and philosophy. Their choice of a name for their club, theOlympia Academy, was an ironic comment upon its far from Olympian status. Sometimes they were joined by Marić, who limited her","who limited her participation in their proceedings to careful listening.The thinkers whose works they reflected upon includedHenri Poincaré,Ernst MachandDavid Hume, all of whom significantly influenced Einstein's own subsequent ideas and beliefs. 1900–1905: First scientific papers Einstein's first paper,\"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\"(\"Conclusions drawn from the phenomena of capillarity\"), in which he proposed a model of intermolecular attraction that he afterwards disavowed as worthless, was published in the journalAnnalen der Physikin 1901.His 24-page doctoral dissertation also addressed a topic in molecular physics. Titled \"Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen\" (\"A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions\") and dedicated to his friend Marcel Grossman, it was completed on 30 April 1905and approved by ProfessorAlfred Kleinerof the University of Zurich three months later. (Einstein was formally awarded his PhD on 15 January 1906.)Four other pieces of work that Einstein completed in","completed in 1905—his famous paperson thephotoelectric effect,Brownian motion, hisspecial theory of relativityand theequivalence of mass and energy—have led to the year being celebrated as anannus mirabilisfor physics akin to 1666 (the year in whichIsaac Newtonexperienced his greatest epiphanies). The publications deeply impressed Einstein's contemporaries. 1908–1933: Early academic career Einstein's sabbatical as a civil servant approached its end in 1908, when he secured a junior teaching position at theUniversity of Bern. In 1909, a lecture on relativisticelectrodynamicsthat he gave at the University of Zurich, much admired by Alfred Kleiner, led to Zürich's luring him away from Bern with a newly created associate professorship.Promotion to a full professorship followed in April 1911, when he accepted a chair at the GermanCharles-Ferdinand Universityin Prague, a move which required him to become anAustriancitizen of theAustro-Hungarian Empire.His time in Prague saw him producing eleven research papers. In","research papers. In July 1912, he returned to hisalma mater, theETH Zurich, to take up a chair in theoretical physics. His teaching activities there centred onthermodynamicsand analytical mechanics, and his research interests included the molecular theory of heat,continuum mechanicsand the development of a relativistic theory of gravitation. In his work on the latter topic, he was assisted by his friend, Marcel Grossmann, whose knowledge of the kind of mathematics required was greater than his own. In the spring of 1913, two German visitors,Max PlanckandWalther Nernst, called upon Einstein in Zürich in the hope of persuading him to relocate to Berlin.They offered him membership of thePrussian Academy of Sciences, the directorship of the plannedKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physicsand a chair at theHumboldt University of Berlinthat would allow him to pursue his research supported by a professorial salary but with no teaching duties to burden him.Their invitation was all the more appealing to him because Berlin","him because Berlin happened to be the home of his latest girlfriend, Elsa Löwenthal.He duly joined the Academy on 24 July 1913,and moved into an apartment in the Berlin district ofDahlemon 1 April 1914.He was installed in his Humboldt University position shortly thereafter. The outbreak of theFirst World Warin July 1914 marked the beginning of Einstein's gradual estrangement from the nation of his birth. When the \"Manifesto of the Ninety-Three\" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German thinkers that justified Germany's belligerence—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to distance himself from it and sign the alternative, eirenic \"Manifesto to the Europeans\" instead.However, this expression of his doubts about German policy did not prevent him from being elected to a two-year term as president of theGerman Physical Societyin 1916.When the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics opened its doors the following year—its foundation delayed because of the war—Einstein","of the war—Einstein was appointed its first director, just as Planck and Nernst had promised. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1920,and aForeign Member of the Royal Society in 1921. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\".At this point some physicists still regarded the general theory of relativity skeptically, and the Nobel citation displayed a degree of doubt even about the work on photoelectricity that it acknowledged: it did not assent to Einstein's notion of the particulate nature of light, which only won over the entire scientific community whenS. N. Bosederived thePlanck spectrumin 1924. That same year, Einstein was elected an International Honorary Member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences.Britain's closest equivalent of the Nobel award, theRoyal Society'sCopley Medal, was not hung around Einstein's neck","Einstein's neck until 1925.He was elected an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1930. Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving theEinstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development ofBose–Einstein statistics. 1919: Putting general relativity to the test In 1907, Einstein reached a milestone on his long journey from his special theory of relativity to a new idea of gravitation with the formulation of hisequivalence principle, which asserts that an observer in an infinitesimally small box falling freely in a gravitational field would be unable to find any evidence that the field exists. In 1911, he used the principle to estimate the amount by which a ray of light from a distant star would bebentby the gravitational pull of the Sun as it passed close to the Sun'sphotosphere(that is, the Sun's apparent surface). He reworked","He reworked his calculation in 1913, having now found a way to model gravitation with theRiemann curvature tensorof a non-Euclidean four-dimensionalspacetime. By the fall of 1915, his reimagining of the mathematics of gravitation in terms of Riemannian geometry was complete, and he applied his new theory not just to the behavior of the Sun as a gravitational lens but also to another astronomical phenomenon, theprecession of the perihelion of Mercury(a slow drift in the point in Mercury's elliptical orbit at which it approaches the Sun most closely).Atotal eclipse of the Sun that took place on 29 May 1919provided an opportunity to put his theory of gravitational lensing to the test, and observations performed by SirArthur Eddingtonyielded results that were consistent with his calculations. Eddington's work was reported at length in newspapers around the world. On 7 November 1919, for example, the leading British newspaper,The Times, printed a banner headline that read: \"Revolution in Science – New Theory of","– New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown\". 1921–1923: Coming to terms with fame With Eddington's eclipse observations widely reported not just in academic journals but by the popular press as well, Einstein became \"perhaps the world's first celebrity scientist\", a genius who had shattered a paradigm that had been basic to physicists' understanding of the universe since the seventeenth century. Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where he arrived on 2 April 1921. He was welcomed to New York City by MayorJohn Francis Hylan, and then spent three weeks giving lectures and attending receptions.He spoke several times atColumbia UniversityandPrinceton, and in Washington, he visited theWhite Housewith representatives of theNational Academy of Sciences. He returned to Europe via London, where he was the guest of the philosopher and statesmanViscount Haldane. He used his time in the British capital to meet several people prominent in British scientific, political or","political or intellectual life, and to deliver a lecture atKing's College.In July 1921, he published an essay, \"My First Impression of the U.S.A.\", in which he sought to sketch the American character, much as hadAlexis de TocquevilleinDemocracy in America(1835).He wrote of his transatlantic hosts in highly approving terms: \"What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy.\" In 1922, Einstein's travels were to the old world rather than the new. He devoted six months to a tour of Asia that saw him speaking in Japan, Singapore and Sri Lanka (then known asCeylon). After his first public lecture in Tokyo, he metEmperor Yoshihitoand his wife at theImperial Palace, with thousands of spectators thronging the streets in the hope of catching a glimpse of him. (In a letter to his sons, he wrote that Japanese people seemed to him to be generally modest, intelligent and considerate, and to have a true appreciation of art.But his","of art.But his picture of them in his diary was less flattering: \" intellectual needs of this nation seem to be weaker than their artistic ones – natural disposition?\" His journal also contains views of China and India which were uncomplimentary. Of Chinese people, he wrote that \"even the children are spiritless and look obtuse... It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary\".) He was greeted with even greater enthusiasm on the last leg of his tour, in which he spent twelve days inMandatory Palestine, newly entrusted to British rule by theLeague of Nationsin the aftermath of the First World War.Sir Herbert Samuel, the British High Commissioner, welcomed him with a degree of ceremony normally only accorded to a visiting head of state, including a cannon salute. One reception held in his honor was stormed by people determined to hear him speak: he told them that he was happy that Jews were beginning to be recognized as a force in the","as a force in the world. Einstein's decision to tour the eastern hemisphere in 1922 meant that he was unable to go toStockholmin the December of that year to participate in the Nobel prize ceremony. His place at the traditional Nobel banquet was taken by a German diplomat, who gave a speech praising him not only as a physicist but also as a campaigner for peace.A two-week visit to Spain that he undertook in 1923 saw him collecting another award, a membership of the Spanish Academy of Sciences signified by a diploma handed to him byKing Alfonso XIII. (His Spanish trip also gave him a chance to meet a fellow Nobel laureate, the neuroanatomistSantiago Ramón y Cajal.) 1922–1932: Serving the League of Nations From 1922 until 1932, with the exception of a few months in 1923 and 1924, Einstein was a member of the Geneva-basedInternational Committee on Intellectual Cooperationof theLeague of Nations, a group set up by the League to encourage scientists, artists, scholars, teachers and other people engaged in the","engaged in the life of the mind to work more closely with their counterparts in other countries.He was appointed as a German delegate rather than as a representative of Switzerland because of the machinations of two Catholic activists,Oskar HaleckiandGiuseppe Motta. By persuading Secretary GeneralEric Drummondto deny Einstein the place on the committee reserved for a Swiss thinker, they created an opening forGonzague de Reynold, who used his League of Nations position as a platform from which to promote traditional Catholic doctrine.Einstein's former physics professorHendrik Lorentzand the Polish chemistMarie Curiewere also members of the committee. 1925: Touring South America In March and April 1925, Einstein and his wife visited South America, where they spent about a week in Brazil, a week in Uruguay and a month in Argentina.Their tour was suggested by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935)with the support of several Argentine scholars, includingJulio Rey Pastor,Jakob Laub,","Pastor,Jakob Laub, andLeopoldo Lugones. and was financed primarily by the Council of theUniversity of Buenos Airesand theAsociación Hebraica Argentina(Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution. 1930–1931: Touring the US In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer of a two month research fellowship at theCalifornia Institute of Technology. Caltech supported him in his wish that he should not be exposed to quite as much attention from the media as he had experienced when visiting the US in 1921, and he therefore declined all the invitations to receive prizes or make speeches that his admirers poured down upon him. But he remained willing to allow his fans at least some of the time with him that they requested. After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, includingChinatown, a lunch with the editors ofThe New York Times, and a performance","and a performance ofCarmenat theMetropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by MayorJimmy Walkerand metNicholas Murray Butler, the president ofColumbia University, who described Einstein as \"the ruling monarch of the mind\".Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York'sRiverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance.Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people atMadison Square Gardenduring aHanukkahcelebration. Einstein next traveled to California, where he metCaltechpresident and Nobel laureateRobert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was \"awkward\", as Millikan \"had a penchant for patriotic militarism\", where Einstein was a pronouncedpacifist.During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. This aversion to war also led Einstein to","led Einstein to befriend authorUpton Sinclairand film starCharlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism.Carl Laemmle, head ofUniversal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a \"highly emotional temperament\", from which came his \"extraordinary intellectual energy\". Chaplin's filmCity Lightswas to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests.Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as \"one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity\".Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his \"modest little flat\" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was \"possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis\". 1933: Emigration to the US In February","the US In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of theNazisunder Germany's new chancellor,Adolf Hitler. While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at theCalifornia Institute of Technologyin Pasadena. In February and March 1933, theGestaporepeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed theEnabling Acton 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into ade factolegal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing inAntwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship.The Nazis later sold his boat and","sold his boat and converted his cottage into aHitler Youthcamp. Refugee status In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passedlaws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.HistorianGerald Holtondescribes how, with \"virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues\", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed. A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by theGerman Student Unionin theNazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda ministerJoseph Goebbelsproclaiming, \"Jewish intellectualism is dead.\"One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, \"not yet hanged\", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.In a subsequent letter to physicist and friendMax Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, \"... I must confess that","I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise.\"After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a \"spontaneous emotional outburst\" by those who \"shun popular enlightenment\", and \"more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence\". Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by theAcademic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politicianWilliam Beveridgeto help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament CommanderOliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with him in the preceding years.Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near hisCromerhome in a secluded","in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish ofRoughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in theDaily Heraldon 24 July 1933. Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meetWinston Churchillat his home, and later,Austen Chamberlainand former Prime MinisterLloyd George.Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historianMartin Gilbertnotes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicistFrederick Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their \"technical standards\" and putthe Allies' technology ahead of theirs. Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister,İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933, requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish","German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over \"1,000 saved individuals\". Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe.In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.In his speech he described Einstein as a \"citizen of the world\" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from theInstitute for Advanced Study, inPrinceton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar. Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at theRoyal Albert Hallin London,","Hallin London, withThe Timesreporting he was wildly cheered throughout.Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at theInstitute for Advanced Study,noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of theirJewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s. Einstein was still undecided about his future. He had offers from several European universities, includingChrist Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933and was offered a five-year researchfellowship(called a \"studentship\" at Christ Church),but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.He was one of the four first selected (along withJohn von Neumann,Kurt Gödel, andHermann Weyl) at","andHermann Weyl) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work.Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop aunified field theoryand to refute theaccepted interpretationofquantum physics, both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. TheAlbert Einstein Housewas made aNational Historic Landmarkin 1976. World War II and the Manhattan Project In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicistLeó Szilárdattempted to alertWashingtonto ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such asEdward TellerandEugene Wigner, \"regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win therace to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon.\"To make certain","make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.He was asked to lend his support by writinga letter, with Szilárd, to PresidentRoosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. The letter is believed to be \"arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II\".In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with theBelgian royal familyand the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the \"race\" to develop the bomb, drawing on its \"immense material, financial, and scientific resources\" to initiate theManhattan Project. For","Project. For Einstein, \"war was a disease ... he called for resistance to war.\" By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend,Linus Pauling, \"I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ...\"In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopherBertrand Russell, signeda manifestohighlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of theWorld Academy of Art and Science(WAAS),an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons. US citizenship Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling","long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of themeritocracyin American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the \"right of individuals to say and think what they pleased\" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education. Einstein joined theNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for thecivil rightsof African Americans. He considered racism America's \"worst disease\",seeing it as \"handed down from one generation to the next\".As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activistW. E. B. Du Boisand was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial as an alleged foreign agent in 1951.When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. In 1946, Einstein visitedLincoln Universityin Pennsylvania, ahistorically","ahistorically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni includeLangston HughesandThurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, \"I do not intend to be quiet about it.\"A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.Einstein has said, \"Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination\". Personal views Political views In 1918, Einstein was one of the signatories of the founding proclamation of theGerman Democratic Party, a liberal party.Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor ofsocialismand critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as \"Why Socialism?\".His opinions on theBolsheviksalso changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a \"well-regulated system of government\" and called their rule a","called their rule a \"regime of terror and a tragedy in human history\". He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark onVladimir Lenin: In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience. Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.He strongly advocated the idea of a democraticglobal governmentthat would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation.He wrote \"I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself.\"The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932; by the time of his death, it was 1,427 pages","it was 1,427 pages long. Einstein was deeply impressed byMahatma Gandhi, with whom he corresponded. He described Gandhi as \"a role model for the generations to come\".The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, whenWilfrid Israeltook his Indian guestV. A. Sundaramto meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel. Relationship with Zionism Einstein was a figurehead leader in the establishment of theHebrew University of Jerusalem,which opened in 1925.Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of theWorld Zionist","of theWorld Zionist Organization,Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university.He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such asmalaria, which he called an \"evil\" that was undermining a third of the country's development.He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic. Einstein was not anationalistand opposed the creation of an independent Jewish state.He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of theAliyahcould live alongside existing Arabs inPalestine. The state ofIsraelwas established without his help in 1948; Einstein was limited to a marginal role in theZionist movement.Upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime MinisterDavid Ben-Gurionoffered Einstein the largely ceremonial position ofPresident of Israelat the urging ofEzriel Carlebach.The offer was","offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington,Abba Eban, who explained that the offer \"embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons\".Einstein wrote that he was \"deeply moved\", but \"at once saddened and ashamed\" that he could not accept it. Religious and philosophical views PerLee Smolin, \"I believe what allowed Einstein to achieve so much was primarily a moral quality. He simply cared far more than most of his colleagues that the laws of physics have to explain everything in nature coherently and consistently.\"Einstein expounded his spiritual outlook in a wide array of writings and interviews.He said he had sympathy for the impersonalpantheisticGod ofBaruch Spinoza's philosophy.He did not believe in apersonal godwho concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve.He clarified, however, that \"I am not an atheist\",preferring to call himself an agnostic,or a \"deeply religious nonbeliever\".He wrote that \"A spirit is","that \"A spirit is manifest in the laws of the universe—a spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a religious feeling of a special sort.\" Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religioushumanistandEthical Culturegroups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of theFirst Humanist Society of New York,and was an honorary associate of theRationalist Association, which publishesNew Humanistin Britain. For the 75th anniversary of theNew York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, \"Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity.\" In a German-language letter to philosopherEric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote: The word Godis for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection","Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me theJewish religionlike all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And theJewish peopleto whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them. Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of theGerman Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund), he wrote: Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most","would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind. He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: \"So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore.\" Love of music Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music. His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate intoGerman culture. According to conductorLeon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age. When he turned 13, he discovered theviolin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored ofMozart's compositions","compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without \"ever practicing systematically\". He said that \"love is a better teacher than a sense of duty\".At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playingBeethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was \"remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'\". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein \"displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student.\" Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein playedchamber musicwere a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin,","Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of theKöchel catalogof Mozart's work; that edition was prepared byAlfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation. In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some ofBeethovenand Mozart's works with members of theZoellner Quartet.Near the end of his life, when the youngJuilliard Quartetvisited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was \"impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation\". Death On 17 April 1955, Einstein experiencedinternal bleedingcaused by the rupture of anabdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically byRudolph Nissenin 1948.He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him","with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it. Einstein refused surgery, saying, \"I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.\"He died in thePrinceton Hospitalearly the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. During the autopsy, the pathologistThomas Stoltz HarveyremovedEinstein's brainfor preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that theneuroscienceof the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.Einstein's remains were cremated inTrenton, New Jersey,and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 atUNESCOheadquarters, nuclear physicistJ. Robert Oppenheimersummarized hisimpression of Einsteinas a person: \"He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly","and profoundly stubborn.\" Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to theHebrew University of Jerusalemin Israel. Scientific career Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including theBose–Einstein statistics, theEinstein refrigeratorand others. Statistical mechanics Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics Einstein's first papersubmitted in 1900 toAnnalen der Physikwas oncapillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title \"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\", which translates as \"Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena\". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to","attempted to interpretatomicphenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. Theory of critical opalescence Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this toRayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.Einstein","is blue.Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. 1905 –Annus Mirabilispapers TheAnnus Mirabilispapersare four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise toquantum theory),Brownian motion, thespecial theory of relativity, andE=mc2that Einstein published in theAnnalen der Physikscientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation ofmodern physicsand changed views onspace, time, andmatter. The four papers are: Special relativity Einstein's \"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper\"(\"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts betweenMaxwell's equations(the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics.Observationally, the","the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to thespeed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear toslow down, and the body itself wouldcontractin its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of aluminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. In his paper onmass–energy equivalence, Einstein producedE=mc2as a consequence of his special relativity equations.Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting withMax Planck. Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms ofkinematics(the study of moving bodies). In 1908,Hermann Minkowskireinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory","terms as a theory ofspacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915general theory of relativity. General relativity General relativity and the equivalence principle General relativity(GR) is atheory of gravitationthat was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping ofspacetimeby those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modernastrophysics; it provides the foundation for the current understanding ofblack holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions withinspecial relativitywas unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In","relativity. In that article titled \"On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It\", he argued thatfree fallis really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called theequivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena ofgravitational time dilation,gravitational redshiftandgravitational lensing. In 1911, Einstein published another article \"On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light\" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. Gravitational waves In 1916, Einstein predictedgravitational waves,ripples in thecurvatureof spacetime which propagate aswaves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity","general relativity due to itsLorentz invariancewhich brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in theNewtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbitingneutron stars,PSR B1913+16.The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers atLIGOpublished thefirst observation of gravitational waves,detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction. Hole argument and Entwurf theory While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about thegauge invariancein the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field","relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that thehole argumentwas mistakenand abandoned the theory in November 1915. Physical cosmology In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, thecosmological constant, into the field equations, in order to","in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding ofMach's principlein these years. This model became known as the Einstein World orEinstein's static universe. Following the discovery of the recession of the galaxies byEdwin Hubblein 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, theFriedmann–Einstein universeof 1931and theEinstein–de Sitter universeof 1932.In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was \"in any case theoretically unsatisfactory\". In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his \"biggest blunder\", based on a letterGeorge Gamowclaimed to have received from him. The astrophysicistMario Liviohas cast doubt on this claim. In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicistCormac","physicistCormac O'Raifeartaighdiscovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the galaxies, Einstein considered asteady-state modelof the universe.In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process that he associated with the cosmological constant.As he stated in the paper, \"In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's facts, and in which the density is constant over time\" ... \"If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space.\" It thus appears that Einstein considered asteady-state modelof the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.However, Einstein's","Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea. Energy momentum pseudotensor General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum.Noether's theoremallows these quantities to be determined from aLagrangianwithtranslation invariance, butgeneral covariancemakes translation invariance into something of agauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity byNoether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized byErwin Schrödingerand others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists","by physicists includingLev LandauandEvgeny Lifshitz. Wormholes In 1935, Einstein collaborated withNathan Rosento produce a model of awormhole, often calledEinstein–Rosen bridges.His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper \"Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?\". These solutions cut and pastedSchwarzschild black holesto make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable. Einstein–Cartan theory In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called thetorsion. This","thetorsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. Equations of motion In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature ofspacetime. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark byJohn Archibald Wheelerthat has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: \"Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve.\"TheEinstein field equationscover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. Thegeodesic equationcovers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies followlines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an \"independent fundamental assumption\" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete","order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of agravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed. Old quantum theory Photons and energy quanta In a 1905 paper,Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck","Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, withRobert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement ofCompton scattering. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequencyfis associated with a collection of photons with energyhfeach, wherehis thePlanck constant. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how the particles were related to the wave. But he did suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably thephotoelectric effect.Light quanta were dubbedphotonsbyGilbert N. Lewisin 1926. Quantized atomic vibrations In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a","because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics.Peter Debyerefined this model. Bose–Einstein statistics In 1924, Einstein received a description of astatisticalmodel from Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to theZeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them theBose–Einstein condensatephenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally byEric Allin CornellandCarl Wiemanusingultra-coolingequipment built at theNIST–JILAlaboratory at theUniversity of Colorado at Boulder.Bose–Einstein statistics","statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly ofbosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University. Wave–particle duality Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became aPrivatdozentat the University of Bern.In \"Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung\" (\"The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation\"), on thequantizationof light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-definedmomentaand act in some respects as independent,point-like particles. This paper introduced thephotonconcept and inspired the notion ofwave–particle dualityin quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. Zero-point","Zero-point energy In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea ofzero-point energyin his \"second quantum theory\". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistantOtto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy. Stimulated emission In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article inPhysikalische Zeitschriftthat proposed the possibility ofstimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible themaserand thelaser.This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the","law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Matter waves Einstein discoveredLouis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed thatde Broglie wavescould explain thequantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. Quantum mechanics Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental","was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God \"is not playing at dice\".Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete. Bohr versus Einstein The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein andNiels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to thephilosophy of science.Their debates would influence laterinterpretations of quantum mechanics. Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in 1930. Einstein suggested athought experimentin which two objects are allowed to interact and then moved apart a great distance from each other. The quantum-mechanical description of","description of the two objects is a mathematical entity known as awavefunction. If the wavefunction that describes the two objects before their interaction is given, then theSchrödinger equationprovides the wavefunction that describes them after their interaction. But because of what would later be calledquantum entanglement, measuring one object would lead to an instantaneous change of the wavefunction describing the other object, no matter how far away it is. Moreover, the choice of which measurement to perform upon the first object would affect what wavefunction could result for the second object. Einstein reasoned that no influence could propagate from the first object to the second instantaneously fast. Indeed, he argued, physics depends on being able to tell one thing apart from another, and such instantaneous influences would call that into question. Because the true \"physical condition\" of the second object could not be immediately altered by an action done to the first, Einstein concluded, the","concluded, the wavefunction could not be that true physical condition, only an incomplete description of it. A more famous version of this argument came in 1935, when Einstein published a paper withBoris PodolskyandNathan Rosenthat laid out what would become known as theEPR paradox.In this thought experiment, two particles interact in such a way that the wavefunction describing them is entangled. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle. Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by thetheory of","by thetheory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the \"EPR criterion of reality\", positing that: \"If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., withprobabilityequal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity.\" From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observablesincompatibleand thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality. In 1964,John Stewart Bellcarried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each","within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called aBell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are \"nonlocal\", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated.Bell argued that because an explanation of quantum phenomena in terms of hidden variables would require nonlocality, the EPR paradox \"is resolved in the way which Einstein would have liked least\". Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the argument in the EPR paper overly complicated,that paper became among the most influential papers published inPhysical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development ofquantum information theory. Unified field theory Encouraged by his success","by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described hisunified field theoryin aScientific Americanarticle titled \"On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation\".His attempt to find the most fundamental laws of nature won him praise but not success: a particularly conspicuous blemish of his model was that it did not accommodate thestrongandweak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although most researchers now believe that Einstein's approach to unifying physics was mistaken, his goal of atheory of everythingis one to which his successors still aspire. Other investigations Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain toforce,superconductivity, and other research. Collaboration with other scientists In addition to longtime collaboratorsLeopold Infeld,Nathan Rosen,Peter","Rosen,Peter Bergmannand others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein–de Haas experiment In 1908,Owen Willans Richardsonpredicted that a change in themagnetic momentof a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of theconservation of angular momentumand is strong enough to be observable inferromagnetic materials.Einstein andWander Johannes de Haaspublished two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect.Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon ofmagnetizationis caused by the alignment (polarization) of theangular momentaof theelectronsin the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with thespinand with the orbital motion of the electrons. The Einstein-de Haas experiment is the only experiment concived, realized and published by Albert Einstein himself. A complete original","A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated byGeertruida de Haas-Lorentz, wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to theAmpère Museumin Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in 2023. Einstein as an inventor In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) theEinstein refrigerator. Thisabsorption refrigeratorwas then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.On 11 November 1930,U.S. patent 1,781,541was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, but the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish companyElectrolux. Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump,sound reproduction device,and several other household devices. Non-scientific legacy While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters","stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to theHebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University'sAlbert Einstein Archives, told theBBCthat there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. Einstein'sright of publicitywas litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired,that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right.Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses theuse of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the","as agent for the university. Mount Einsteinin theChugach MountainsofAlaskawas named in 1955. Mount Einstein in New Zealand'sPaparoa Rangewas named after him in 1970 by theDepartment of Scientific and Industrial Research. In popular culture Einstein became one of the most famousscientific celebritiesafter the confirmation of his general theory of relativity in 1919.Although most of the public had little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and admired. In the period before World War II,The New Yorkerpublished a vignette in their \"The Talk of the Town\" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain \"that theory\". Eventually he came to cope with unwanted enquirers by pretending to be someone else: \"Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein.\" Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.He is a favorite model for depictions ofabsent-minded","ofabsent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated.Timemagazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was \"a cartoonist's dream come true\". Many popularquotationsare oftenmisattributedto him. Awards and honors Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set byAlfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. Einsteinium, a synthetic chemical element, was named in his honor in 1955, a few months after his death. Publications Scientific Others See also Notes References Works cited Further reading External links","Niels Bohr Niels Henrik David Bohr(Danish:; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danishphysicistwho made foundational contributions to understandingatomic structureandquantum theory, for which he received theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1922. Bohr was also aphilosopherand a promoter of scientific research. Bohr developed theBohr modelof theatom, in which he proposed that energy levels ofelectronsare discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around theatomic nucleusbut can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle ofcomplementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as awave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at theUniversity of Copenhagen, now known as theNiels Bohr Institute,","Bohr Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists includingHans Kramers,Oskar Klein,George de Hevesy, andWerner Heisenberg. He predicted the properties of a newzirconium-like element, which was namedhafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered. Later, the synthetic elementbohriumwas named after him. During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees fromNazism. AfterDenmark was occupied by the Germans, he met with Heisenberg, who had become the head of theGerman nuclear weapon project. In September 1943 word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, so he fled to Sweden. From there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the BritishTube Alloysnuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to theManhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for international cooperation on nuclear energy. He was involved with the establishment ofCERNand theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commissionand became the first","became the first chairman of theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physicsin 1957. Early life Niels Henrik David Bohr was born inCopenhagen, Denmark, on 7 October 1885, the second of three children ofChristian Bohr,a professor ofphysiologyat the University of Copenhagen, and his wife EllennéeAdler, who came from a wealthy Jewish banking family.He had an elder sister, Jenny, and a younger brotherHarald.Jenny became a teacher,while Harald became amathematicianandfootballerwho played for theDanish national teamat the1908 Summer Olympicsin London. Niels was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-basedAkademisk Boldklub(Academic Football Club), with Niels asgoalkeeper. Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven.In 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate atCopenhagen University. His major was physics, which he studied under ProfessorChristian Christiansen, the university's only professor of physics at that time. He also studied","He also studied astronomy and mathematics under ProfessorThorvald Thiele, and philosophy under ProfessorHarald Høffding, a friend of his father. In 1905 a gold medal competition was sponsored by theRoyal Danish Academy of Sciences and Lettersto investigate a method for measuring thesurface tensionof liquids that had been proposed byLord Rayleighin 1879. This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet. Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his father's laboratory in the university; the university itself had no physics laboratory. To complete his experiments, he had tomake his own glassware, creating test tubes with the requiredellipticalcross-sections. He went beyond the original task, incorporating improvements into both Rayleigh's theory and his method, by taking into account theviscosityof the water, and by working with finite amplitudes instead of just infinitesimal ones. His essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won the prize. He later submitted an","later submitted an improved version of the paper to theRoyal Societyin London for publication in thePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Harald became the first of the two Bohr brothers to earn amaster's degree, which he earned for mathematics in April 1909. Niels took another nine months to earn his on the electron theory of metals, a topic assigned by his supervisor, Christiansen. Bohr subsequently elaborated his master's thesis into his much-largerDoctor of Philosophythesis. He surveyed the literature on the subject, settling on a model postulated byPaul Drudeand elaborated byHendrik Lorentz, in which the electrons in a metal are considered to behave like a gas. Bohr extended Lorentz's model, but was still unable to account for phenomena like theHall effect, and concluded that electron theory could not fully explain the magnetic properties of metals. The thesis was accepted in April 1911,and Bohr conducted his formal defence on 13 May. Harald had received his doctorate the previous year.Bohr's","year.Bohr's thesis was groundbreaking, but attracted little interest outside Scandinavia because it was written in Danish, a Copenhagen University requirement at the time. In 1921, the Dutch physicistHendrika Johanna van Leeuwenwould independently derive a theorem in Bohr's thesis that is today known as theBohr–Van Leeuwen theorem. In 1910, Bohr metMargrethe Nørlund, the sister of the mathematicianNiels Erik Nørlund.Bohr resigned his membership in theChurch of Denmarkon 16 April 1912, and he and Margrethe were married in a civil ceremony at the town hall inSlagelseon 1 August. Years later, his brother Harald similarly left the church before getting married.Bohr and Margrethe had six sons.The oldest, Christian, died in a boating accident in 1934,and another, Harald, was severely mentally disabled. He was placed in an institution away from his family's home at the age of four and died from childhood meningitis six years later.Aage Bohrbecame a successful physicist, and in 1975 was awarded the Nobel Prize in","the Nobel Prize in physics, like his father. A son of Aage, Vilhelm A. Bohr, is a scientist affiliated with the University of Copenhagenand theNational Institute on Agingin the U.S.Hansbecame a physician;Erik, a chemical engineer; andErnest, a lawyer.Like his uncle Harald, Ernest Bohr became an Olympic athlete, playingfield hockeyfor Denmark at the1948 Summer Olympicsin London. Physics Bohr model In September 1911, Bohr, supported by a fellowship from theCarlsberg Foundation, travelled to England, where most of the theoretical work on the structure of atoms and molecules was being done.He metJ. J. Thomsonof theCavendish LaboratoryandTrinity College, Cambridge. He attended lectures onelectromagnetismgiven byJames JeansandJoseph Larmor, and did some research oncathode rays, but failed to impress Thomson.He had more success with younger physicists like the AustralianWilliam Lawrence Bragg,and New Zealand'sErnest Rutherford, whose 1911 small central nucleusRutherford modelof theatomhad challenged Thomson's","Thomson's 1904plum pudding model.Bohr received an invitation from Rutherford to conduct post-doctoral work atVictoria University of Manchester,where Bohr metGeorge de HevesyandCharles Galton Darwin(whom Bohr referred to as \"the grandson of thereal Darwin\"). Bohr returned to Denmark in July 1912 for his wedding, and travelled around England and Scotland on his honeymoon. On his return, he became aprivatdocentat the University of Copenhagen, giving lectures onthermodynamics.Martin Knudsenput Bohr's name forward for adocent, which was approved in July 1913, and Bohr then began teaching medical students.His three papers, which later became famous as \"the trilogy\",were published inPhilosophical Magazinein July, September and November of that year.He adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure toMax Planck's quantum theory and so created hisBohr modelof the atom. Planetary models of atoms were not new, but Bohr's treatment was.Taking the 1912 paper by Darwin on the role of electrons in the interaction of alpha","of alpha particles with a nucleus as his starting point,he advanced the theory of electrons travelling inorbitsof quantised \"stationary states\" around the atom's nucleus in order to stabilise the atom, but it wasn't until his 1921 paper that he showed that the chemical properties of each element were largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its atoms.He introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, in the process emitting aquantumof discrete energy. This became a basis for what is now known as theold quantum theory. In 1885,Johann Balmerhad come up with hisBalmer seriesto describe the visiblespectral linesof ahydrogenatom: where λ is the wavelength of the absorbed or emitted light andRHis theRydberg constant.Balmer's formula was corroborated by the discovery of additional spectral lines, but for thirty years, no one could explain why it worked. In the first paper of his trilogy, Bohr was able to derive it from his model: wheremeis the","wheremeis the electron's mass,eis its charge,his thePlanck constantandZis the atom'satomic number(1 for hydrogen). The model's first hurdle was thePickering series, lines that did not fit Balmer's formula. When challenged on this byAlfred Fowler, Bohr replied that they were caused byionisedhelium, helium atoms with only one electron. The Bohr model was found to work for such ions.Many older physicists, like Thomson, Rayleigh andHendrik Lorentz, did not like the trilogy, but the younger generation, including Rutherford,David Hilbert,Albert Einstein,Enrico Fermi,Max BornandArnold Sommerfeldsaw it as a breakthrough.The trilogy's acceptance was entirely due to its ability to explain phenomena that stymied other models, and to predict results that were subsequently verified by experiments.Today, the Bohr model of the atom has been superseded, but is still the best known model of the atom, as it often appears in high school physics and chemistry texts. Bohr did not enjoy teaching medical students. He later","students. He later admitted that he was not a good lecturer, because he needed a balance between clarity and truth, between \"Klarheit und Wahrheit\".He decided to return to Manchester, where Rutherford had offered him a job as areaderin place of Darwin, whose tenure had expired. Bohr accepted. He took a leave of absence from the University of Copenhagen, which he started by taking a holiday inTyrolwith his brother Harald and auntHanna Adler. There, he visited theUniversity of Göttingenand theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he met Sommerfeld and conducted seminars on the trilogy. The First World War broke out while they were in Tyrol, greatly complicating the trip back to Denmark and Bohr's subsequent voyage with Margrethe to England, where he arrived in October 1914. They stayed until July 1916, by which time he had been appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, a position created especially for him. His docentship was abolished at the same time, so he still","time, so he still had to teach physics to medical students. New professors were formally introduced to KingChristian X, who expressed his delight at meeting such a famous football player. Institute of Physics In April 1917, Bohr began a campaign to establish an Institute of Theoretical Physics. He gained the support of the Danish government and the Carlsberg Foundation, and sizeable contributions were also made by industry and private donors, many of them Jewish. Legislation establishing the institute was passed in November 1918. Now known as theNiels Bohr Institute, it opened on 3 March 1921, with Bohr as its director. His family moved into an apartment on the first floor.Bohr's institute served as a focal point for researchers intoquantum mechanicsand related subjects in the 1920s and 1930s, when most of the world's best-known theoretical physicists spent some time in his company. Early arrivals includedHans Kramersfrom the Netherlands,Oskar Kleinfrom Sweden, George de Hevesy from Hungary,Wojciech","Hungary,Wojciech Rubinowiczfrom Poland, andSvein Rosselandfrom Norway. Bohr became widely appreciated as their congenial host and eminent colleague.Klein and Rosseland produced the institute's first publication even before it opened. The Bohr model worked well for hydrogen and ionized single-electron helium, which impressed Einsteinbut could not explain more complex elements. By 1919, Bohr was moving away from the idea that electrons orbited the nucleus and developedheuristicsto describe them. Therare-earth elementsposed a particular classification problem for chemists because they were so chemically similar. An important development came in 1924 withWolfgang Pauli's discovery of thePauli exclusion principle, which put Bohr's models on a firm theoretical footing. Bohr was then able to declare that the as-yet-undiscovered element 72 was not a rare-earth element but an element with chemical properties similar to those ofzirconium. (Elements had been predicted and discovered since 1871 by chemical properties),","properties), and Bohr was immediately challenged by the French chemistGeorges Urbain, who claimed to have discovered a rare-earth element 72, which he called \"celtium\". At the Institute in Copenhagen,Dirk Costerand George de Hevesy took up the challenge of proving Bohr right and Urbain wrong. Starting with a clear idea of the chemical properties of the unknown element greatly simplified the search process. They went through samples from Copenhagen's Museum of Mineralogy looking for a zirconium-like element and soon found it. The element, which they namedhafnium(hafniabeing the Latin name for Copenhagen), turned out to be more common than gold. In 1922, Bohr was awarded theNobel Prize in Physics\"for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them\".The award thus recognised both the trilogy and his early leading work in the emerging field of quantum mechanics. For his Nobel lecture, Bohr gave his audience a comprehensive survey of what was then known about","then known about the structure of the atom, including thecorrespondence principle, which he had formulated. This states that the behaviour of systems described by quantum theory reproducesclassical physicsin the limit of largequantum numbers. The discovery ofCompton scatteringbyArthur Holly Comptonin 1923 convinced most physicists that light was composed ofphotonsand that energy and momentum were conserved in collisions between electrons and photons. In 1924, Bohr, Kramers, andJohn C. Slater, an American physicist working at the Institute in Copenhagen, proposed theBohr–Kramers–Slater theory(BKS). It was more of a program than a full physical theory, as the ideas it developed were not worked out quantitatively. The BKS theory became the final attempt at understanding the interaction of matter and electromagnetic radiation on the basis of the old quantum theory, in which quantum phenomena were treated by imposing quantum restrictions on a classical wave description of the electromagnetic field. Modelling","field. Modelling atomic behaviour under incident electromagnetic radiation using \"virtual oscillators\" at the absorption and emission frequencies, rather than the (different) apparent frequencies of the Bohr orbits, led Max Born,Werner Heisenbergand Kramers to explore different mathematical models. They led to the development ofmatrix mechanics, the first form of modernquantum mechanics. The BKS theory also generated discussion of, and renewed attention to, difficulties in the foundations of the old quantum theory.The most provocative element of BKS – that momentum and energy would not necessarily be conserved in each interaction, but only statistically – was soon shown to be in conflict with experiments conducted byWalther BotheandHans Geiger.In light of these results, Bohr informed Darwin that \"there is nothing else to do than to give our revolutionary efforts as honourable a funeral as possible\". Quantum mechanics The introduction ofspinbyGeorge UhlenbeckandSamuel Goudsmitin November 1925 was a milestone.","was a milestone. The next month, Bohr travelled toLeidento attend celebrations of the 50th anniversary of Hendrick Lorentz receiving his doctorate. When his train stopped inHamburg, he was met by Wolfgang Pauli andOtto Stern, who asked for his opinion of the spin theory. Bohr pointed out that he had concerns about the interaction between electrons and magnetic fields. When he arrived in Leiden,Paul Ehrenfestand Albert Einstein informed Bohr that Einstein had resolved this problem usingrelativity. Bohr then had Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit incorporate this into their paper. Thus, when he met Werner Heisenberg andPascual JordaninGöttingenon the way back, he had become, in his own words, \"a prophet of the electron magnet gospel\". Heisenberg first came to Copenhagen in 1924, then returned to Göttingen in June 1925, shortly thereafter developing the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. When he showed his results to Max Born in Göttingen, Born realised that they could best be expressed usingmatrices. This work","This work attracted the attention of the British physicistPaul Dirac,who came to Copenhagen for six months in September 1926. Austrian physicistErwin Schrödingeralso visited in 1926. His attempt at explaining quantum physics in classical terms using wave mechanics impressed Bohr, who believed it contributed \"so much to mathematical clarity and simplicity that it represents a gigantic advance over all previous forms of quantum mechanics\". When Kramers left the institute in 1926 to take up a chair as professor of theoretical physics at theUtrecht University, Bohr arranged for Heisenberg to return and take Kramers's place as alektorat the University of Copenhagen.Heisenberg worked in Copenhagen as a university lecturer and assistant to Bohr from 1926 to 1927. Bohr became convinced that light behaved like both waves and particles and, in 1927, experiments confirmed thede Broglie hypothesisthat matter (like electrons) also behaved like waves.He conceived the philosophical principle ofcomplementarity: that items","that items could have apparently mutually exclusive properties, such as being a wave or a stream of particles, depending on the experimental framework.He felt that it was not fully understood by professional philosophers. In February 1927, Heisenberg developed the first version of theuncertainty principle, presenting it using athought experimentwhere an electron was observed through agamma-ray microscope. Bohr was dissatisfied with Heisenberg's argument, since it required only that a measurement disturb properties that already existed, rather than the more radical idea that the electron's properties could not be discussed at all apart from the context they were measured in. In a paper presented at theVolta ConferenceatComoin September 1927, Bohr emphasised that Heisenberg's uncertainty relations could be derived from classical considerations about the resolving power of optical instruments.Understanding the true meaning of complementarity would, Bohr believed, require \"closer investigation\".Einstein","preferred the determinism of classical physics over the probabilistic new quantum physics to which he himself had contributed. Philosophical issues that arose from the novel aspects of quantum mechanics became widely celebrated subjects of discussion. Einstein and Bohr hadgood-natured argumentsover such issues throughout their lives. In 1914Carl Jacobsen, the heir toCarlsberg breweries, bequeathed his mansion (the Carlsberg Honorary Residence, currently known as Carlsberg Academy) to be used for life by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature or the arts, as an honorary residence (Danish:Æresbolig). Harald Høffding had been the first occupant, and upon his death in July 1931, the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters gave Bohr occupancy. He and his family moved there in 1932.He was elected president of the Academy on 17 March 1939. By 1929 the phenomenon ofbeta decayprompted Bohr to again suggest that thelaw of conservation of energybe abandoned, butEnrico Fermi's","butEnrico Fermi's hypotheticalneutrinoand the subsequent 1932 discovery of theneutronprovided another explanation. This prompted Bohr to create a new theory of thecompound nucleusin 1936, which explained how neutrons could be captured by the nucleus. In this model, the nucleus could be deformed like a drop of liquid. He worked on this with a new collaborator, the Danish physicist Fritz Kalckar, who died suddenly in 1938. The discovery ofnuclear fissionbyOtto Hahnin December 1938 (and its theoretical explanation byLise Meitner) generated intense interest among physicists. Bohr brought the news to the United States where he opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics with Fermi on 26 January 1939.When Bohr toldGeorge Placzekthat this resolved all the mysteries oftransuranic elements, Placzek told him that one remained: the neutron capture energies of uranium did not match those of its decay. Bohr thought about it for a few minutes and then announced to Placzek,Léon RosenfeldandJohn","RosenfeldandJohn Wheelerthat \"I have understood everything.\"Based on hisliquid drop modelof the nucleus, Bohr concluded that it was theuranium-235isotope and not the more abundanturanium-238that was primarily responsible for fission with thermal neutrons. In April 1940,John R. Dunningdemonstrated that Bohr was correct.In the meantime, Bohr and Wheeler developed a theoretical treatment, which they published in a September 1939 paper on \"The Mechanism of Nuclear Fission\". Philosophy Heisenberg said of Bohr that he was \"primarily a philosopher, not a physicist\".Bohr read the 19th-century DanishChristian existentialistphilosopherSøren Kierkegaard.Richard Rhodesargued inThe Making of the Atomic Bombthat Bohr was influenced by Kierkegaard through Høffding.In 1909, Bohr sent his brother Kierkegaard'sStages on Life's Wayas a birthday gift. In the enclosed letter, Bohr wrote, \"It is the only thing I have to send home; but I do not believe that it would be very easy to find anything better ... I even think it is one","think it is one of the most delightful things I have ever read.\" Bohr enjoyed Kierkegaard's language and literary style, but mentioned that he had some disagreement withKierkegaard's philosophy.Some of Bohr's biographers suggested that this disagreement stemmed from Kierkegaard's advocacy of Christianity, while Bohr was anatheist. There has been some dispute over the extent to which Kierkegaard influenced Bohr's philosophy and science.David Favrholdtargued that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr's work, taking Bohr's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value,while Jan Faye argued that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure. Quantum physics There has been much subsequent debate and discussion about Bohr's views and philosophy of quantum mechanics.Regarding his ontological interpretation of the quantum world, Bohr has been seen as ananti-realist, aninstrumentalist, a phenomenological realist or some other kind of realist.","kind of realist. Furthermore, though some have seen Bohr as being asubjectivistor apositivist, most philosophers agree that this is a misunderstanding of Bohr as he never argued forverificationismor for the idea that the subject had a direct impact on the outcome of a measurement. Bohr has often been quoted saying that there is \"no quantum world\" but only an \"abstract quantum physical description\". This was not publicly said by Bohr, but rather a private statement attributed to Bohr by Aage Petersen in a reminiscence after his death.N. David MerminrecalledVictor Weisskopfdeclaring that Bohr wouldn't have said anything of the sort and exclaiming, \"Shame on Aage Petersen for putting those ridiculous words in Bohr's mouth!\" Numerous scholars have argued that the philosophy ofImmanuel Kanthad a strong influence on Bohr. Like Kant, Bohr thought distinguishing between the subject's experience and the object was an important condition for attaining knowledge. This can only be done through the use of causal and","use of causal and spatial-temporal concepts to describe the subject's experience.Thus, according to Jan Faye, Bohr thought that it is because of \"classical\" concepts like \"space\", \"position\", \"time\", \"causation\", and \"momentum\" that one can talk about objects and their objective existence. Bohr held that basic concepts like \"time\" are built in to our ordinary language and that the concepts of classical physics are merely a refinement of them.Therefore, for Bohr, classical concepts need to be used to describe experiments that deal with the quantum world. Bohr writes: he account of all evidence must be expressed in classical terms. The argument is simply that by the word 'experiment' we refer to a situation where we can tell to others what we have done and what we have learned and that, therefore, the account of the experimental arrangement and of the results of the observations must be expressed in unambiguous language with suitable application of the terminology of classical physics (APHK, p. 39). According","p. 39). According to Faye, there are various explanations for why Bohr believed that classical concepts were necessary for describing quantum phenomena. Faye groups explanations into five frameworks: empiricism (i.e.logical positivism);Kantianism(orNeo-Kantianmodels ofepistemology);Pragmatism(which focus on how human beings experientially interact with atomic systems according to their needs and interests); Darwinianism (i.e. we are adapted to use classical type concepts, whichLéon Rosenfeldsaid that we evolved to use); and Experimentalism (which focuses strictly on the function and outcome of experiments that thus must be described classically).These explanations are not mutually exclusive, and at times Bohr seems to emphasise some of these aspects while at other times he focuses on other elements. According to Faye \"Bohr thought of the atom as real. Atoms are neither heuristic nor logical constructions.\" However, according to Faye, he did not believe \"that the quantum mechanical formalism was true in the","was true in the sense that it gave us a literal ('pictorial') rather than a symbolic representation of the quantum world.\"Therefore, Bohr's theory ofcomplementarity\"is first and foremost a semantic and epistemological reading of quantum mechanics that carries certain ontological implications\".As Faye explains, Bohr'sindefinability thesisis that he truth conditions of sentences ascribing a certain kinematic or dynamic value to an atomic object are dependent on the apparatus involved, in such a way that these truth conditions have to include reference to the experimental setup as well as the actual outcome of the experiment. Faye notes that Bohr's interpretation makes no reference to a \"collapse of the wave function during measurements\" (and indeed, he never mentioned this idea). Instead, Bohr \"accepted the Born statistical interpretation because he believed that theψ-functionhas only a symbolic meaning and does not represent anything real\". Since for Bohr, theψ-function is not a literal pictorial","a literal pictorial representation of reality, there can be no real collapse of the wavefunction. A much debated point in recent literature is what Bohr believed about atoms and their reality and whether they are something else than what they seem to be. Some like Henry Folse argue that Bohr saw a distinction between observed phenomena and atranscendental reality. Jan Faye disagrees with this position and holds that for Bohr, the quantum formalism and complementarity was the only thing we could say about the quantum world and that \"there is no further evidence in Bohr's writings indicating that Bohr would attribute intrinsic and measurement-independent state properties to atomic objects in addition to the classical ones being manifested in measurement.\" Second World War Assistance to refugee scholars The rise ofNazismin Germany prompted many scholars to flee their countries, either because they were Jewish or because they were political opponents of the Nazi regime. In 1933, theRockefeller Foundationcreated","Foundationcreated a fund to help support refugee academics, and Bohr discussed this programme with the President of the Rockefeller Foundation,Max Mason, in May 1933 during a visit to the United States. Bohr offered the refugees temporary jobs at the institute, provided them with financial support, arranged for them to be awarded fellowships from the Rockefeller Foundation, and ultimately found them places at institutions around the world. Those that he helped includedGuido Beck,Felix Bloch,James Franck, George de Hevesy,Otto Frisch,Hilde Levi,Lise Meitner, George Placzek,Eugene Rabinowitch,Stefan Rozental, Erich Ernst Schneider,Edward Teller,Arthur von HippelandVictor Weisskopf. In April 1940, early in the Second World War,Nazi Germanyinvaded and occupied Denmark.To prevent the Germans from discoveringMax von Laue's and James Franck'sgold Nobel medals, Bohr had de Hevesy dissolve them inaqua regia. In this form, they were stored on a shelf at the Institute until after the war, when the gold was precipitated","was precipitated and the medals re-struck by the Nobel Foundation. Bohr's own medal had been donated to an auction to theFinnish Relief Fund, and was auctioned off in March 1940, along with the medal ofAugust Krogh. The buyer later donated the two medals to the Danish Historical Museum inFrederiksborg Castle, where they are still kept,although Bohr's medal temporarily went to space withAndreas MogensenonISSExpedition 70in 2023-2024. Bohr kept the Institute running, but all the foreign scholars departed. Meeting with Heisenberg Bohr was aware of the possibility of using uranium-235 to construct anatomic bomb, referring to it in lectures in Britain and Denmark shortly before and after the war started, but he did not believe that it was technically feasible to extract a sufficient quantity of uranium-235.In September 1941, Heisenberg, who had become head of theGerman nuclear energy project, visited Bohr in Copenhagen. During this meeting the two men took a private moment outside, the content of which has caused","of which has caused much speculation, as both gave differing accounts. According to Heisenberg, he began to address nuclear energy, morality and the war, to which Bohr seems to have reacted by terminating the conversation abruptly while not giving Heisenberg hints about his own opinions.Ivan Supek, one of Heisenberg's students and friends, claimed that the main subject of the meeting wasCarl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, who had proposed trying to persuade Bohr to mediate peace between Britain and Germany. In 1957, Heisenberg wrote toRobert Jungk, who was then working on the bookBrighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists. Heisenberg explained that he had visited Copenhagen to communicate to Bohr the views of several German scientists, that production of a nuclear weapon was possible with great efforts, and this raised enormous responsibilities on the world's scientists on both sides.When Bohr saw Jungk's depiction in the Danish translation of the book, he drafted (but never sent)","(but never sent) a letter to Heisenberg, stating that he deeply disagreed with Heisenberg's account of the meeting,that he recalled Heisenberg's visit as being to encourage cooperation with the inevitably victorious Nazisand that he was shocked that Germany was pursuing nuclear weapons under Heisenberg's leadership. Michael Frayn's 1998 playCopenhagenexplores what might have happened at the 1941 meeting between Heisenberg and Bohr.A television film versionof the play by theBBCwas first screened on 26 September 2002, withStephen Reaas Bohr. With the subsequent release of Bohr's letters, the play has been criticised by historians as being a \"grotesque oversimplification and perversion of the actual moral balance\" due to adopting a pro-Heisenberg perspective. The same meeting had previously been dramatised by the BBC'sHorizonscience documentary series in 1992, withAnthony Bateas Bohr, and Philip Anthony as Heisenberg.The meeting is also dramatised in the Norwegian/Danish/British miniseriesThe Heavy Water War.","Heavy Water War. Manhattan Project In September 1943, word reached Bohr and his brother Harald that the Nazisconsidered their family to be Jewish, since their mother was Jewish, and that they were therefore in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September.The next day, Bohr persuaded KingGustaf V of Swedento make public Sweden's willingness to provide asylum to Jewish refugees. On 2 October 1943, Swedish radio broadcast that Sweden was ready to offer asylum, and the massrescue of the Danish Jewsby their countrymen followed swiftly thereafter. Some historians claim that Bohr's actions led directly to the mass rescue, while others say that, though Bohr did all that he could for his countrymen, his actions were not a decisive influence on the wider events.Eventually, over 7,000 Danish Jews escaped to Sweden. When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain,Lord Cherwellsent a telegram to Bohr asking him to come to Britain. Bohr arrived in Scotland","arrived in Scotland on 6 October in ade Havilland Mosquitooperated by theBritish Overseas Airways Corporation(BOAC).The Mosquitos were unarmed high-speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small, valuable cargoes or important passengers. By flying at high speed and high altitude, they could cross German-occupied Norway, and yet avoid German fighters. Bohr, equipped with parachute, flying suit and oxygen mask, spent the three-hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft'sbomb bay.During the flight, Bohr did not wear his flying helmet as it was too small, and consequently did not hear the pilot's intercom instruction to turn on his oxygen supply when the aircraft climbed to high altitude to overfly Norway. He passed out from oxygen starvation and only revived when the aircraft descended to lower altitude over the North Sea.Bohr's son Aage followed his father to Britain on another flight a week later, and became his personal assistant. Bohr was warmly received byJames Chadwickand SirJohn","Chadwickand SirJohn Anderson, but for security reasons Bohr was kept out of sight. He was given an apartment atSt James's Palaceand an office with the BritishTube Alloysnuclear weapons development team. Bohr was astonished at the amount of progress that had been made.Chadwick arranged for Bohr to visit the United States as a Tube Alloys consultant, with Aage as his assistant.On 8 December 1943, Bohr arrived inWashington, D.C., where he met with the director of theManhattan Project, Brigadier GeneralLeslie R. Groves Jr.He visited Einstein and Pauli at theInstitute for Advanced StudyinPrinceton, New Jersey, and went toLos AlamosinNew Mexico, where the nuclear weapons were being designed.For security reasons, he went under the name of \"Nicholas Baker\" in the United States, while Aage became \"James Baker\".In May 1944 the Danish resistance newspaperDe frie Danskereported that they had learned that 'the famous son of Denmark Professor Niels Bohr' in October the previous year had fled his country via Sweden to","via Sweden to London and from there travelled toMoscowfrom where he could be assumed to support the war effort. Bohr did not remain at Los Alamos, but paid a series of extended visits over the course of the next two years.Robert Oppenheimercredited Bohr with acting \"as a scientific father figure to the younger men\", most notablyRichard Feynman.Bohr is quoted as saying, \"They didn't need my help in making the atom bomb.\"Oppenheimer gave Bohr credit for an important contribution to the work onmodulated neutron initiators. \"This device remained a stubborn puzzle\", Oppenheimer noted, \"but in early February 1945 Niels Bohr clarified what had to be done\". Bohr recognised early that nuclear weapons would change international relations. In April 1944, he received a letter fromPeter Kapitza, written some months before when Bohr was in Sweden, inviting him to come to theSoviet Union. The letter convinced Bohr that the Soviets were aware of the Anglo-American project, and would strive to catch up. He sent Kapitza a","He sent Kapitza a non-committal response, which he showed to the authorities in Britain before posting.Bohr met Churchill on 16 May 1944, but found that \"we did not speak the same language\".Churchill disagreed with the idea of openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter: \"It seems to me Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes.\" Oppenheimer suggested that Bohr visit PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltto convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared with the Soviets in the hope of speeding up its results. Bohr's friend, Supreme Court JusticeFelix Frankfurter, informed President Roosevelt about Bohr's opinions, and a meeting between them took place on 26 August 1944. Roosevelt suggested that Bohr return to the United Kingdom to try to win British approval.When Churchill and Roosevelt met at Hyde Park on 19 September 1944, they rejected the idea of informing the world about the project, and theaide-mémoireof their","their conversation contained a rider that \"enquiries should be made regarding the activities of Professor Bohr and steps taken to ensure that he is responsible for no leakage of information, particularly to the Russians\". In June 1950, Bohr addressed an \"Open Letter\" to theUnited Nationscalling for international cooperation on nuclear energy.In the 1950s, after theSoviet Union's first nuclear weapon test, theInternational Atomic Energy Agencywas created along the lines of Bohr's suggestion.In 1957 he received the first everAtoms for Peace Award. Later years Following the ending of the war, Bohr returned to Copenhagen on 25 August 1945, and was re-elected President of the Royal Danish Academy of Arts and Sciences on 21 September.At a memorial meeting of the Academy on 17 October 1947 for KingChristian X, who had died in April, the new king,Frederik IX, announced that he was conferring theOrder of the Elephanton Bohr. This award was normally awarded only to royalty and heads of state, but the king said that it","king said that it honoured not just Bohr personally, but Danish science.Bohr designed his owncoat of arms, which featured ataijitu(symbol of yin and yang) and a motto in Latin:contraria sunt complementa, \"opposites are complementary\". The Second World War demonstrated that science, and physics in particular, now required considerable financial and material resources. To avoid abrain drainto the United States, twelve European countries banded together to createCERN, a research organisation along the lines of the national laboratories in the United States, designed to undertakeBig Scienceprojects beyond the resources of any one of them alone. Questions soon arose regarding the best location for the facilities. Bohr and Kramers felt that the Institute in Copenhagen would be the ideal site.Pierre Auger, who organised the preliminary discussions, disagreed; he felt that both Bohr and his Institute were past their prime, and that Bohr's presence would overshadow others. After a long debate, Bohr pledged his","Bohr pledged his support to CERN in February 1952, andGenevawas chosen as the site in October. The CERN Theory Group was based in Copenhagen until their new accommodation in Geneva was ready in 1957.Victor Weisskopf, who later became theDirector General of CERN, summed up Bohr's role, saying that \"there were other personalities who started and conceived the idea ofCERN. The enthusiasm and ideas of the other people would not have been enough, however, if a man of his stature had not supported it.\" Meanwhile, Scandinavian countries formed theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physicsin 1957, with Bohr as its chairman. He was also involved with the founding of theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission, and served as its first chairman from February 1956. Bohr died of heart failure at his home inCarlsbergon 18 November 1962.He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in the family plot in theAssistens Cemeteryin theNørrebrosection of Copenhagen, along with those of his parents, his","of his parents, his brother Harald, and his son Christian. Years later, his wife's ashes were also interred there.On 7 October 1965, on what would have been his 80th birthday, the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen was officially renamed to what it had been called unofficially for many years: the Niels Bohr Institute. Accolades Bohr received numerous honours and accolades. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he received theHughes Medalin 1921, theMatteucci Medalin 1923, theFranklin Medalin 1926,theCopley Medalin 1938, the Order of the Elephant in 1947, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1957 and theSonning Prizein 1961. He became foreign member of theFinnish Society of Sciences an Lettersin 1922,and of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1923,an international member of theUnited States National Academy of Sciencesin 1925,a member of theRoyal Societyin 1926,an international member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1940,and an international honorary member of","honorary member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1945.The Bohr model's semicentennial was commemorated in Denmark on 21 November 1963 with apostage stampdepicting Bohr, the hydrogen atom and the formula for the difference of any two hydrogen energy levels:hν=ϵ2−ϵ1{\\displaystyle h\\nu =\\epsilon _{2}-\\epsilon _{1}}. Several other countries have also issued postage stamps depicting Bohr.In 1997, theDanish National Bankbegan circulating the500-krone banknotewith the portrait of Bohr smoking a pipe.On 7 October 2012, in celebration of Niels Bohr's 127th birthday, a Google Doodle depicting the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom appeared on Google's home page.An asteroid,3948 Bohr, was named after him,as was theBohr lunar craterandbohrium, the chemical element with atomic number 107. Bibliography See also Notes References Further reading External links","Johannes Stark Johannes Stark(German pronunciation:ⓘ, 15 April 1874 – 21 June 1957) was a Germanphysicistwho was awarded theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1919 \"for his discovery of the Doppler effect incanal raysand the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields\". This phenomenon is known as theStark effect. Stark received his Ph.D. in physics from theUniversity of Munichin 1897 under the supervision ofEugen von Lommel, and served as Lommel's assistant until his appointment as a lecturer at theUniversity of Göttingenin 1900. He was anextraordinary professoratLeibniz University Hannoverfrom 1906 until he became a professor atRWTH Aachen Universityin 1909. In 1917, he became professor at theUniversity of Greifswald, and he also worked at theUniversity of Würzburgfrom 1920 to 1922. A supporter ofAdolf Hitlerfrom 1924, Stark was one of the main figures, along with fellow Nobel laureatePhilipp Lenard, in the anti-SemiticDeutsche Physikmovement, which sought to remove Jewish scientists from German physics. He was","physics. He was appointed head of theGerman Research Foundationin 1933 and was president of theReich Physical-Technical Institutefrom 1933 to 1939. In 1947 he was found guilty as a \"Major Offender\" by adenazificationcourt. Biography Early years Born inSchickenhof,Kingdom of Bavaria(nowFreihung), Stark was educated atBayreuth Gymnasium(secondary school) and later inRegensburg. Hiscollegiateeducation began at theUniversity of Munich, where he studied physics,mathematics,chemistry, andcrystallography. His tenure at that college began in 1894; he graduated in 1897, with hisdoctoraldissertation titledUntersuchung über einige physikalische, vorzüglich optische Eigenschaften des Rußes(Investigation of some physical, in particular optical properties of soot). Career Stark worked in various positions at the Physics Institute of hisalma materuntil 1900, when he became an unsalariedlecturerat theUniversity of Göttingen. An extraordinary professor atHannoverby 1906, in 1908 he became professor atRWTH Aachen University.","Aachen University. He worked and researched at physics departments of several universities, including theUniversity of Greifswald, until 1922. In 1919, he won theNobel Prize in Physicsfor his \"discovery of theDoppler effectincanal raysand the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields\" (the latter is known as theStark effect). From 1933 until his retirement in 1939, Stark was elected President of thePhysikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, while also President of theDeutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. It was Stark who, as the editor of theJahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, asked in 1907, then still rather unknown,Albert Einsteinto write a review article on theprinciple of relativity. Stark seemed impressed by relativity and Einstein's earlier work when he quoted \"the principle of relativity formulated by H. A. Lorentz and A. Einstein\" and \"Planck's relationshipM0=E0/c2\" in his 1907 paperinPhysikalische Zeitschrift, where he used the equatione0=m0c2to calculate an \"elementary quantum of energy\", i.e.","of energy\", i.e. the amount of energy related to the mass of an electron at rest. While working on his article,Einstein began a line of thought that would eventually lead to hisgeneral theory of relativity, which in turn became (after its confirmation) the start of Einstein's worldwide fame. This is ironic, given Stark's later work as an anti-Einstein andanti-relativitypropagandist in theDeutsche Physikmovement. Stark published more than 300 papers, mainly regardingelectricityand other such topics. He received various awards, including theNobel Prize, the Baumgartner Prize of theVienna Academy of Sciences(1910), the Vahlbruch Prize of theGöttingen Academy of Sciences(1914), and theMatteucci Medalof theRome Academy. Probably his best known contribution to the field ofphysicsis theStark effect, which he discovered in 1913. In 1970 theInternational Astronomical Unionhonored him with acrateron the far-side of the Moon, without knowing about his Nazi activities.The name was dropped on August 12, 2020. He","August 12, 2020. He marriedLuise Uepler, and they had five children. His hobbies were the cultivation of fruit trees and forestry. He worked in his private laboratory, which he set up using his Nobel prize money, on his country estate in Upper Bavaria after the second world war. There he studied the deflection of light in an electric field. Affiliation with Nazism From 1924 onwards, Stark supported Hitler.During theNaziregime, Stark attempted to become theFührerof German physics through theDeutsche Physik(\"German physics\") movement (along with fellow Nobel laureatePhilipp Lenard) against the \"Jewish physics\" ofAlbert EinsteinandWerner Heisenberg(who was not Jewish). After Werner Heisenberg defended Albert Einstein'stheory of relativity, Stark wrote an angry article in the officialSSnewspaperDas Schwarze Korps, calling Heisenberg a \"White Jew\". On August 21, 1934, Stark wrote to physicist and fellow Nobel laureateMax von Laue, telling him to toe the party line or suffer the consequences. The letter was signed","letter was signed off with \"Heil Hitler.\" In his 1934 bookNationalsozialismus und Wissenschaft(English: \"National Socialism and Science\") Stark maintained that the priority of the scientist was to serve the nation—thus, the important fields of research were those that could help German arms production and industry. He attacked theoretical physics as \"Jewish\" and stressed that scientific positions inNazi Germanyshould only be held by pure-blooded Germans. Writing inDas Schwarze Korps, Stark argued that even ifracial antisemitismwere to triumph, it would only be a 'partial victory' if 'Jewish' ideas were not similarly defeated: \"We also have to eradicate the Jewish spirit, whose blood can flow just as undisturbed today as before if its carriers hold beautifulAryanpasses\". In 1947, following the defeat of Germany inWorld War II, Stark was classified as a \"Major Offender\" and received a sentence of four years' imprisonment (later suspended) by adenazificationcourt. Later life and death Stark spent the last years","the last years of his life on his Gut Eppenstatt near Traunstein in Upper Bavaria, where he died in 1957 at the age of 83. He was buried inSchönau am Königsseein the mountain cemetery. See also Publications Notes References External links","James Franck James Franck(German pronunciation:ⓘ; 26 August 1882 – 21 May 1964) was a Germanphysicistwho won the 1925Nobel Prize for PhysicswithGustav Hertz\"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom\".He completed hisdoctoratein 1906 and hishabilitationin 1911 at theFrederick William Universityin Berlin, where he lectured and taught until 1918, having reached the position ofprofessor extraordinarius. He served as a volunteer in the German Army duringWorld War I. He was seriously injured in 1917 in a gas attack and was awarded theIron Cross1st Class. Franck became the Head of the Physics Division of theKaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaftfor Physical Chemistry. In 1920, Franck becameprofessor ordinariusof experimental physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics at theUniversity of Göttingen. While there he worked onquantum physicswithMax Born, who was Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics. His work included theFranck–Hertz experiment, an","experiment, an important confirmation of theBohr modelof theatom. He promoted the careers of women in physics, notablyLise Meitner,Hertha SponerandHilde Levi. After theNazi Partycame to power in Germany in 1933, Franck resigned his post in protest against the dismissal of fellow academics. He assistedFrederick Lindemannin helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933. After a year at theNiels Bohr InstituteinDenmark, he moved to the United States, where he worked atJohns Hopkins UniversityinBaltimoreand then theUniversity of Chicago. During this period he became interested inphotosynthesis. Franck participated in theManhattan ProjectduringWorld War IIas Director of the Chemistry Division of theMetallurgical Laboratory. He was also the chairman of the Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which is best known for the compilation of theFranck Report, which recommended that theatomic bombsnot be used on the Japanese cities without","cities without warning. Early life James Franck was born inHamburg, Germany, on 26 August 1882, into aJewishfamily, the second child and first son of Jacob Franck, a banker, and his wife Rebecca née Nachum Drucker.He had an older sister, Paula, and a younger brother, Robert Bernard.His father was a devout and religious man, while his mother came from a family of rabbis.Franck attended primary school in Hamburg. Starting in 1891 he attended theWilhelm-Gymnasium, which was then a boys-only school. Hamburg had no university then, so prospective students had to attend one of the 22 universities elsewhere in Germany. Intending to study law and economics, Franck entered theUniversity of Heidelbergin 1901, as it had a renowned law school.He attended lectures on law, but was far more interested in those on science. While there, he metMax Born, who would become a lifelong friend. With Born's help, he was able to persuade his parents to allow him to switch to studying physics and chemistry.Franck attended mathematics","mathematics lectures byLeo KönigsbergerandGeorg Cantor, but Heidelberg was not strong on the physical sciences, so he decided to go to theFrederick William Universityin Berlin. At Berlin, Franck attended lectures byMax PlanckandEmil Warburg.On 28 July 1904 he saved a pair of children from drowning in theSpree River.For hisDoctor of Philosophy(Dir. Phil.) under Warburg's supervision,Warburg suggested that he studycorona discharges. Franck found this topic too complex, so he changed the focus of histhesis.EntitledÜber die Beweglichkeit der Ladungsträger der Spitzenentladung(\"On the Mobility ofIons\"),it would subsequently be published in theAnnalen der Physik. With his thesis completed, Franck had to perform his deferred military service. He was called up on 1 October 1906 and joined the 1st Telegraph Battalion. He suffered a minor horse riding accident in December and was discharged as unfit for duty. He took up an assistantship at the Physikalische Verein inFrankfurtin 1907, but did not enjoy it, and soon","enjoy it, and soon returned to Frederick William University.At a concert Franck met Ingrid Josephson, a Swedish pianist. They were married in a Swedish ceremony inGothenburgon 23 December 1907. They had two daughters, Dagmar (Daggie), who was born in 1909, and Elisabeth (Lisa), who was born in 1912. To pursue an academic career in Germany, having a doctorate was not enough; one needed avenia legendi, or habilitation. This could be achieved with either another major thesis or by producing a substantial body of published work. Franck chose the latter route. There were many unsolved problems in physics at the time, and by 1914 he had published 34 articles. He was the sole author of some, but generally preferred working in collaboration withEva von Bahr,Lise Meitner,Robert Pohl,Peter Pringsheim,Robert W. Wood,Arthur WehneltorWilhelm Westphal. His most fruitful collaboration was withGustav Hertz, with whom he wrote 19 articles. He received his habilitation on 20 May 1911. Franck–Hertz experiment In 1914, Franck","In 1914, Franck teamed up with Hertz to perform an experiment to investigatefluorescence. They designed avacuum tubefor studying energeticelectronsthat flew through a thin vapour ofmercuryatoms. They discovered that when an electron collided with a mercury atom it could lose only a specific quantity (4.9electronvolts) of itskinetic energybefore flying away. A faster electron does not decelerate completely after a collision, but loses precisely the same amount of its kinetic energy. Slower electrons just bounce off mercury atoms without losing any significant speed or kinetic energy. These experimental results provided confirmation ofAlbert Einstein'sphotoelectric effectand Planck's relation (E=fh) linking energy (E) and frequency (f) arising from quantisation of energy with thePlanck constant(h). But they also provided evidence supporting themodel of the atomthat had been proposed the previous year byNiels Bohr. Its key feature was that an electron inside an atom occupies one of the atom's \"quantum energy","\"quantum energy levels\". Before a collision, an electron inside the mercury atom occupies its lowest available energy level. After the collision, the electron inside occupies a higher energy level with 4.9 eV more energy. This means that the electron is more loosely bound to the mercury atom. There were no intermediate levels or possibilities. In a second paper presented in May 1914, Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions. They showed that thewavelengthof thisultravioletlight corresponded exactly to the 4.9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost. The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr.Franck and Hertz completed their last paper together in December 1918. In it, they reconciled the discrepancies between their results and Bohr's theory, which they now acknowledged.In his Nobel lecture, Franck admitted that it was \"completely incomprehensible that we had failed to recognise the fundamental","the fundamental significance of Bohr's theory, so much so, that we never even mentioned it once\".On 10 December 1926, Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925Nobel Prize in Physics\"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom.\". World War I Franck enlisted in theGerman Armysoon after the outbreak of theFirst World Warin August 1914. In December he was sent to thePicardysector of theWestern Front. He became a deputy officer (offizierstellvertreter), and then a lieutenant (leutnant) in 1915.In early 1915 he was transferred toFritz Haber's new unit that would introduce clouds of chlorine gas as a weapon.WithOtto Hahnhe was responsible for locating sites for the attacks. He was awarded theIron Cross, Second Class, on 30 March 1915,and the city of Hamburg awarded him theHanseatic Crosson 11 January 1916.While in hospital withpleurisy, he co-wrote yet another scientific paper with Hertz, and he was appointed an assistant professor in his absence by Frederick William University on","University on 19 September 1916. Sent to theRussian front, he came down withdysentery. He returned to Berlin, where he joined Hertz, Westphal,Hans Geiger, Otto Hahn and others at Haber'sKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, working on the development ofgas masks.He was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class, on 23 February 1918. He was discharged from the Army on 25 November 1918, soon after the war ended. With the war over, Haber's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute now returned to research, and Haber offered Franck a job. His new post came with more pay, but was not a tenured position. It did however allow Franck to pursue his research as he wished. Working with new, younger collaborators such asWalter Grotrian, Paul Knipping, Thea Krüger,Fritz ReicheandHertha Sponer, his first papers at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute examined atomic electrons in their excited state, results that would later prove important in the development of thelaser.They coined the term \"metastable\" for atoms spending","for atoms spending an extended time in a state other thanthat of least energy.When Niels Bohr visited Berlin in 1920, Meitner and Franck arranged for him to come to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute to talk with the younger staff without the presence of thebonzen(\"bigwigs\"). Göttingen In 1920, theUniversity of Göttingenoffered Max Born its chair of theoretical physics, which had recently been vacated byPeter Debye. Göttingen was an important centre for mathematics, thanks toDavid Hilbert,Felix Klein,Hermann MinkowskiandCarl Runge, but not so much for physics. This would change. As part of his price for coming to Göttingen, Born wanted Franck to head experimental physics there. On 15 November 1920, Franck became Professor of Experimental Physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics, a fully tenuredprofessor ordinarius. He was allowed two assistants, so he broughtHertha Sponerwith him from Berlin to fill one of the positions. Pohl, a gifted teacher, headed the First Institute, and handled","and handled the lectures.Franck refurbished the laboratory with the latest equipment using funds from his own pocket. Under Born and Franck, Göttingen was one of the world's great centres for physics between 1920 and 1933.Although they published only three papers together, Born and Franck discussed every one of their papers with each other. Gaining admittance to Franck's laboratory became highly competitive. His doctoral students includedHans Kopfermann,Arthur R. von Hippel,Wilhelm Hanle,Fritz Houtermans,Heinrich Kuhn,Werner Kroebel, Walter Lochte-Holtgreven andHeinz Maier-Leibnitz.In supervising doctoral candidates, Franck had to ensure that thesis topics were well-defined, and would teach the candidate how to conduct original research, while still staying within the limits of the candidate's ability, the laboratory's equipment and the institute's budget.Under his direction, research was carried out into the structure of atoms and molecules. In his own research, Franck developed what became known as","became known as theFranck–Condon principle, a rule inspectroscopyandquantum chemistrythat explains the intensity ofvibronic transitions, simultaneous changes in electronic and vibrational energy levels of a molecule due to the absorption or emission of aphotonof the appropriate energy. The principle states that during anelectronic transition, a change from onevibrationalenergy levelto another will be more likely to happen if the two vibrationalwave functionsoverlap more significantly.The principle has since been applied to a wide variety of related phenomena. For his work during this time period, Franck was elected to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1929. Exile This period came to an end when theNazi Partywon power in Germany inan electionon 2 March 1933. The following month it enacted theLaw for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which provided for the retirement or dismissal of all Jewish civil servants, along with political opponents of the government. As a veteran of the First","of the First World War, Franck was exempt, but he submitted his resignation anyway on 17 April 1933.He once commented that science was his God and nature was his religion. He did not require his daughters to attend religious instruction classes at school,and even let them have a decorated tree at Christmas;but he was proud of his Jewish heritage all the same.He was the first academic to resign in protest over the law.Newspapers around the world reported it, but no government or university protested. Franck assistedFrederick Lindemannin helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933.After a brief visit to the United States, where he measured the absorption of light inheavy waterwith Wood atJohns Hopkins University, he took up a position at theNiels Bohr InstituteinCopenhagen.He needed a new collaborator, so he took onHilde Levi, whose recent thesis had impressed him.His original intention was to continue his research into the fluorescence of vapours and","of vapours and liquids, but under Bohr's influence they began to take an interest in biological aspects of these reactions, particularlyphotosynthesis, the process by which plants use light to convertcarbon dioxideand water into more organic compounds. Biological processes turned out to be far more complicated than simple reactions in atoms and molecules. He co-authored two papers with Levi on the subject, which he would return to over the following years. Franck found a position at thePolytekniske Læreanstaltin Copenhagen for Arthur von Hippel, who was now his son in law, having married his daughter Dagmar. He decided to provide financial security for his children by dividing his Nobel Prize money between them. The gold medal itself was entrusted to Niels Bohr for safekeeping.When Germanyinvaded Denmarkon 9 April 1940, the Hungarian chemistGeorge de Hevesydissolved the gold medal, along with that ofMax von Laueinaqua regiato prevent the Germans from taking them. He placed the resulting solution on a shelf","solution on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. After the war, he returned to find the solution undisturbed and precipitated the gold out of the acid. The Nobel Society then recast the Nobel Prize medals. In 1935, Franck moved to the United States, where he had accepted a professorship at Johns Hopkins University.The laboratory there was poorly equipped compared to the one in Göttingen, but he received $10,000 for equipment from theRockefeller Foundation. A more intractable problem was that the university had no money to hire skilled staff. Franck was concerned about his family members remaining in Germany, and needed money to help them emigrate. He therefore accepted an offer from theUniversity of Chicago, where his work on photosynthesis had attracted interest, in 1938. Franck's first paper there, co-authored withEdward Teller, was on photochemical processes in crystals.Hans Gaffronbecame his collaborator.They were joined by Pringsheim, who escaped from Belgium after theGerman invasion.","theGerman invasion. Franck arranged a position for Pringsheim at his laboratory.Both his daughters and their families moved to the United States, and he was also able to bring out his elderly mother and aunt.He became anaturalisedUnited States citizen on 21 July 1941,so he was not anenemy alienwhen the United Statesdeclared war on Germanyon 11 December 1941. His daughters still were, though, so they were restricted from travelling, and could not take care of their mother when she fell ill and died on 10 January 1942, although they were permitted to attend her funeral. In February 1942,Arthur H. Comptonestablished itsMetallurgical Laboratoryat the University of Chicago. As part of theManhattan Project, its mission was to buildnuclear reactorsto createplutoniumthat would be used inatomic bombs.The Metallurgical Laboratory's Chemistry Division was initially headed byFrank Spedding, but he preferred hands on work to administration. Compton then turned to Franck, with some trepidation owing to his German","owing to his German background.Compton later wrote: How Franck welcomed an invitation to join our project! It was a vote of confidence that far exceeded his hopes, and it gave him a chance to do his part for the cause of freedom. \"It's not the German people I'm fighting\", he explained. \"It's the Nazis. They have a stranglehold over Germany. The German people are helpless until we can break the strength of their Nazi masters.\" The chemists welcomed Franck as an elder scientific statesman whose guidance they were glad to follow. In addition to heading the Chemistry Division, Franck was also the chairman of the Metallurgical Laboratory's Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which consisted of himself andDonald J. Hughes,J. J. Nickson,Eugene Rabinowitch,Glenn T. Seaborg, J. C. Stearns andLeó Szilárd.In 1945, Franck warnedHenry A. Wallaceof their fears that \"mankind has learned to unleash atomic power without being ethically and politically prepared to use it wisely.\"The committee","committee compiled what became known as theFranck Report. Finished on 11 June 1945, it recommended that theatomic bombsnot be used on the Japanese cities without warning.In any event, theInterim Committeedecided otherwise. Later life Franck marriedHertha Sponerin a civil ceremony on 29 June 1946,his first wife, Ingrid, having died in 1942. In his post-war research, he continued to tackle the problem of explaining the mechanism of photosynthesis. Meitner saw no break between his early and later work. She recalled that Franck enjoyed talking about his problems, not so much to explain them to others as to satisfy his own mind. Once a problem had aroused his interest he was completely captivated, indeed obsessed by it. Common sense and straight logic were his main tools, together with simple apparatus. His research followed an almost straight line, from his early studies of ion mobilities to his last work on photosynthesis; it was always the energy exchange between atoms or molecules that fascinated him. In","fascinated him. In addition to the Nobel Prize. Franck was awarded theMax Planck medalof theDeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaftin 1951 and theRumford Medalof the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on photosynthesis in 1955. He became an honorary citizen of Göttingen in 1953,was elected a member of the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1944,and elected aForeign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1964.He was also an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Society. He died suddenly from a heart attack while visiting Göttingen on 21 May 1964,and was buried in Chicago with his first wife. In 1967, the University of Chicago named theJames Franck Instituteafter him.Alunar craterhas also been named in his honour.His papers are in the University of Chicago Library. See also Notes References Further reading External links","Gustav Ludwig Hertz Gustav Ludwig Hertz(/hɜːrts/;German:ⓘ; 22 July 1887 – 30 October 1975)was a Germanexperimental physicistandNobel Prize winnerfor his work on inelastic electron collisions in gases, and a nephew ofHeinrich Hertz. Biography Hertz was born inHamburg, the son of Auguste (née Arning) and a lawyer, Gustav Theodor Hertz (1858–1904),Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's brother. He attended theGelehrtenschule des Johanneumsbefore studying at theGeorg-August University of Göttingen(1906–1907), theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich(1907–1908), and theHumboldt University of Berlin(1908–1911). He received his doctorate in 1911 underHeinrich Leopold Rubens. From 1911 to 1914, Hertz was an assistant to Rubens at the University of Berlin. It was during this time that Hertz andJames Franckperformed experiments on inelastic electron collisions in gases,known as theFranck–Hertz experiments, and for which they received theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1925. During World War I, Hertz served in the military from 1914. In","from 1914. In 1915 he joinedFritz Haber's unit that would introduce poisonous chlorine gas as a weapon.He was seriously wounded in 1915. In 1917, he returned to the University of Berlin as aPrivatdozent. In 1920, he took a job as a research physicist at the Philips Incandescent Lamp Factory inEindhoven, which he held until 1925. Career In 1925, Hertz became ordinarius professor and director of the Physics Institute of theMartin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg. In 1928 he became ordinarius professor of experimental physics and director of the Physics Institute of theTechnische HochschuleBerlin(\"THB\"), nowTechnische Universität Berlin. While there, he developed an isotope separation technique via gaseous diffusion. Since Hertz was an officer during World War I, he was temporarily protected from National Socialist policies and theLaw for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, but eventually the policies and laws became more stringent, and at the end of 1934, he was forced to resign his","to resign his position at THB, as he was classified as a \"second degree part-Jew\" (his paternal grandfatherGustav Ferdinand Hertz(originally named David Gustav Hertz) (1827–1914) had been Jewish as a child, before his whole family had converted to Lutheranism in 1834).He then took a position atSiemens, as director of Research Laboratory II. While there, he continued his work onatomic physicsandultrasound, but he eventually discontinued his work on isotope separation. He held this position until he departed for the Soviet Union in 1945. In the Soviet Union \"Pact to defect\" Hertz was concerned for his safety and, like his fellow Nobel laureateJames Franck, was looking to move to the USA or any other place outside Germany. So he made a pact with three colleagues:Manfred von Ardenne, director of his private laboratoryForschungslaboratorium für Elektronenphysik,Peter Adolf Thiessen, ordinarius professor at theHumboldt University of Berlinand director of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für physikalische Chemie und","Chemie und Elektrochemie (KWIPC) inBerlin-Dahlem, andMax Volmer, ordinarius professor and director of the Physical Chemistry Institute at the THB.The pact was a pledge that whoever first made contact with the Soviets would speak for the rest. The objectives of their pact were threefold: (1) prevent plunder of their institutes, (2) continue their work with minimal interruption, and (3) protect themselves from prosecution for any political acts of the past.Before the end of World War II, Thiessen, a member of theNazi Party, had Communist contacts. Participation in Soviet program of nuclear weapons On 27 April 1945, Thiessen arrived at von Ardenne's institute in an armored vehicle with a major of the Soviet Army, who was also a leading Soviet chemist.All four of the pact members were taken to the Soviet Union. Hertz was made head of Institute G, in Agudseri (Agudzery), about 10 km southeast ofSukhumiand a suburb of Gul'rips (Gulrip'shi).Topics assigned to Gustav Hertz's Institute G included: (1) Separation of","(1) Separation of isotopes by diffusion in a flow of inert gases, for which Gustav Hertz was the leader, (2) Development of a condensation pump, for whichJustus Mühlenpfordtwas the leader, (3) Design and build a mass spectrometer for determining the isotopic composition of uranium, for which Werner Schütze was the leader, (4) Development of frameless (ceramic) diffusion partitions for filters, for which Reinhold Reichmann was the leader, and (5) Development of a theory of stability and control of a diffusion cascade, for whichHeinz Barwichwas the leader; Barwich had been deputy to Hertz at Siemens.Other members of Institute G wereWerner Hartmannand Karl-Franz Zühlke.Manfred von Ardenne was made head of Institute A. Goals of von Ardenne's Institute A included: (1) Electromagnetic separation of isotopes, for which von Ardenne was the leader, (2) Techniques for manufacturing porous barriers for isotope separation, for which Peter Adolf Thiessen was the leader, and (3) Molecular techniques for separation of","for separation of uranium isotopes, for whichMax Steenbeckwas the leader. In his first meeting withLavrentij Beria, von Ardenne was asked to participate in building the bomb, but von Ardenne quickly realized that participation would prohibit his repatriation to Germany, so he suggested isotope enrichment as an objective, which was agreed to. Research at Sukhumi By the end of the 1940s, nearly 300 Germans were working at the institute, and they were not the total work force. Institute A was used as the basis for the Sukhumi Physical-Technical Institute in Sinop, a suburb ofSukhumi.Volmer went to the Scientific Research Institute No. 9 (NII-9)in Moscow; he was given a design bureau to work on the production ofheavy water. In Institute A, Thiessen became leader for developing techniques for manufacturing porous barriers for isotope separation. In 1949, six German scientists, including Hertz, Thiessen, and Barwich were called in for consultation atSverdlovsk-44, which was responsible for uranium enrichment. The","enrichment. The plant, smaller than the American Oak Ridgegaseous diffusion plant, was getting only a little over half of the expected 90% or higher enrichment. After 1950, Hertz moved to Moscow. In 1951, Hertz was awarded aStalin Prize, second class, with Barwich.In that year, James Franck and Hertz were jointly awarded theMax Planck Medalby theDeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. Hertz remained in the Soviet Union until 1955. Return to the GDR Upon return from the Soviet Union, Hertz became ordinarius professor at theUniversity of Leipzig. From 1955 to 1967, he was also the chairman of the Physical Society of theDeutsche Demokratische Republik (GDR); he was honorary chairman from 1967 to 1975. Personal life Gustav Hertz was a nephew ofHeinrich Rudolf Hertzand a cousin ofMathilde Carmen Hertz. In 1919, Hertz married Ellen née Dihlmann, who died in 1941. They had two sons,Carl Helmut Hertzand Johannes Heinrich Hertz; both became physicists. He died on 30 October 1975 inEast Berlinat the age 88. Scientific","age 88. Scientific memberships Hertz was a Member of the German Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Corresponding Member of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences, an Honorary Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, a Member of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences, and a Foreign Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Publications See also References Further reading External links","List of Nobel laureates in Physics TheNobel Prize in Physics(Swedish:Nobelpriset i fysik) is awarded annually by theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciencesto scientists in the various fields ofphysics. It is one of the fiveNobel Prizesestablished by the 1895willofAlfred Nobel(who died in 1896), awarded for outstanding contributions in physics.As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by theNobel Foundationand awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.The award is presented inStockholmat an annual ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death.Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award prize that has varied throughout the years. Statistics The Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to 226 individuals as of 2024.The first prize in physics was awarded in 1901 toWilhelm Conrad Röntgen, of Germany, who received 150,782SEK.John Bardeenis the only laureate to win the prize twice—in 1956 and 1972. William Lawrence Braggwas the youngest Nobel laureate in physics; he won","in physics; he won the prize in 1915 at the age of 25. He was also the youngest laureate for any Nobel prize until 2014 (whenMalala Yousafzaiwon the Nobel Peace Prize at the age of 17).The oldest Nobel Prize laureate in physics wasArthur Ashkinwho was 96 years old when he was awarded the prize in 2018. Only five women have won the prize:Marie Curie(1903),Maria Goeppert-Mayer(1963),Donna Strickland(2018),Andrea Ghez(2020), andAnne L'Huillier(2023).Before L'Huillier, each woman only ever received a quarter share of the prize, although Marie Curie did receive anunshared Nobel prize in chemistry in 1911. In 2023, L'Huillier received a one-third share. There have been six years for which the Nobel Prize in Physics was not awarded (1916, 1931, 1934, 1940–1942). There were also nine years for which the Nobel Prize in Physics was delayed for one year: A 2020 study reported that half of the Nobel Prizes for science awarded between 1995 and 2017 are clustered in few disciplines.Particle physics(14%),atomic","physics(14%),atomic physics(10.9%), and 3 non-physics disciplines dominate the prize in recent decades, followed bysemiconductor physicsandmagnetics. Laureates Number of Nobel laureates in Physics by country See also Notes References External links","Quantum mechanics Quantum mechanicsis a fundamentaltheorythat describes the behavior ofnatureat and below the scale ofatoms.: 1.1It is the foundation of allquantum physics, which includesquantum chemistry,quantum field theory,quantum technology, andquantum information science. Quantum mechanics can describe many systems thatclassical physicscannot. Classical physics can describe many aspects of nature at an ordinary (macroscopicand(optical) microscopic) scale, but is not sufficient for describing them at very smallsubmicroscopic(atomic andsubatomic) scales. Most theories in classical physics can be derived from quantum mechanics as an approximation, valid at large (macroscopic/microscopic) scale. Quantum systems haveboundstates that arequantizedtodiscrete valuesofenergy,momentum,angular momentum, and other quantities, in contrast to classical systems where these quantities can be measured continuously. Measurements of quantum systems show characteristics of bothparticlesandwaves(wave–particle duality), and","duality), and there are limits to how accurately the value of a physical quantity can be predicted prior to its measurement, given a complete set of initial conditions (theuncertainty principle). Quantum mechanicsarose graduallyfrom theories to explain observations that could not be reconciled with classical physics, such asMax Planck's solution in 1900 to theblack-body radiationproblem, and the correspondence between energy and frequency inAlbert Einstein's1905 paper, which explained thephotoelectric effect. These early attempts to understand microscopic phenomena, now known as the \"old quantum theory\", led to the full development of quantum mechanics in the mid-1920s byNiels Bohr,Erwin Schrödinger,Werner Heisenberg,Max Born,Paul Diracand others. The modern theory is formulated in variousspecially developed mathematical formalisms. In one of them, a mathematical entity called thewave functionprovides information, in the form ofprobability amplitudes, about what measurements of a particle's energy, momentum,","energy, momentum, and other physical properties may yield. Overview and fundamental concepts Quantum mechanics allows the calculation of properties and behaviour of physical systems. It is typically applied to microscopic systems: molecules, atoms and sub-atomic particles. It has been demonstrated to hold for complex molecules with thousands of atoms,but its application to human beings raises philosophical problems, such asWigner's friend, and its application to the universe as a whole remains speculative.Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to an extremely high degree ofaccuracy. For example, the refinement of quantum mechanics for the interaction of light and matter, known asquantum electrodynamics(QED), has beenshown to agree with experimentto within 1 part in 1012when predicting the magnetic properties of an electron. A fundamental feature of the theory is that it usually cannot predict with certainty what will happen, but only give probabilities. Mathematically, a","Mathematically, a probability is found by taking the square of the absolute value of acomplex number, known as a probability amplitude. This is known as theBorn rule, named after physicistMax Born. For example, a quantum particle like anelectroncan be described by a wave function, which associates to each point in space a probability amplitude. Applying the Born rule to these amplitudes gives aprobability density functionfor the position that the electron will be found to have when an experiment is performed to measure it. This is the best the theory can do; it cannot say for certain where the electron will be found. TheSchrödinger equationrelates the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to one moment of time to the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to another.: 67–87 One consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is a tradeoff in predictability between measurable quantities. The most famous form of thisuncertainty principlesays that no matter how a quantum","how a quantum particle is prepared or how carefully experiments upon it are arranged, it is impossible to have a precise prediction for a measurement of its position and also at the same time for a measurement of itsmomentum.: 427–435 Another consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is the phenomenon ofquantum interference, which is often illustrated with thedouble-slit experiment. In the basic version of this experiment, acoherent light source, such as alaserbeam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate.: 102–111: 1.1–1.8The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through the two slits tointerfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen – a result that would not be expected if light consisted of classical particles.However, the light is always found to be absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as individual particles rather than waves; the interference pattern appears via the","appears via the varying density of these particle hits on the screen. Furthermore, versions of the experiment that include detectors at the slits find that each detectedphotonpasses through one slit (as would a classical particle), and not through both slits (as would a wave).: 109However,such experimentsdemonstrate that particles do not form the interference pattern if one detects which slit they pass through. This behavior is known aswave–particle duality. In addition to light,electrons,atoms, andmoleculesare all found to exhibit the same dual behavior when fired towards a double slit. Another non-classical phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics isquantum tunnelling: a particle that goes up against apotential barriercan cross it, even if its kinetic energy is smaller than the maximum of the potential.In classical mechanics this particle would be trapped. Quantum tunnelling has several important consequences, enablingradioactive decay,nuclear fusionin stars, and applications such asscanning tunnelling","tunnelling microscopy,tunnel diodeandtunnel field-effect transistor. When quantum systems interact, the result can be the creation ofquantum entanglement: their properties become so intertwined that a description of the whole solely in terms of the individual parts is no longer possible. Erwin Schrödinger called entanglement \"...thecharacteristic trait of quantum mechanics, the one that enforces its entire departure from classical lines of thought\".Quantum entanglement enablesquantum computingand is part of quantum communication protocols, such asquantum key distributionandsuperdense coding.Contrary to popular misconception, entanglement does not allow sending signalsfaster than light, as demonstrated by theno-communication theorem. Another possibility opened by entanglement is testing for \"hidden variables\", hypothetical properties more fundamental than the quantities addressed in quantum theory itself, knowledge of which would allow more exact predictions than quantum theory provides. A collection of","A collection of results, most significantlyBell's theorem, have demonstrated that broad classes of such hidden-variable theories are in fact incompatible with quantum physics. According to Bell's theorem, if nature actually operates in accord with any theory oflocalhidden variables, then the results of aBell testwill be constrained in a particular, quantifiable way. Many Bell tests have been performed and they have shown results incompatible with the constraints imposed by local hidden variables. It is not possible to present these concepts in more than a superficial way without introducing the mathematics involved; understanding quantum mechanics requires not only manipulating complex numbers, but alsolinear algebra,differential equations,group theory, and other more advanced subjects.Accordingly, this article will present a mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics and survey its application to some useful and oft-studied examples. Mathematical formulation In the mathematically rigorous formulation of","formulation of quantum mechanics, the state of a quantum mechanical system is a vectorψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }belonging to a (separable) complexHilbert spaceH{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}}. This vector is postulated to be normalized under the Hilbert space inner product, that is, it obeys⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1{\\displaystyle \\langle \\psi ,\\psi \\rangle =1}, and it is well-defined up to a complex number of modulus 1 (the global phase), that is,ψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }andeiαψ{\\displaystyle e^{i\\alpha }\\psi }represent the same physical system. In other words, the possible states are points in theprojective spaceof a Hilbert space, usually called thecomplex projective space. The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system – for example, for describing position and momentum the Hilbert space is the space of complexsquare-integrablefunctionsL2(C){\\displaystyle L^{2}(\\mathbb {C} )}, while the Hilbert space for thespinof a single proton is simply the space of two-dimensional complex vectorsC2{\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C}","\\mathbb {C} ^{2}}with the usual inner product. Physical quantities of interest – position, momentum, energy, spin – are represented by observables, which areHermitian(more precisely,self-adjoint) linearoperatorsacting on the Hilbert space. A quantum state can be aneigenvectorof an observable, in which case it is called aneigenstate, and the associatedeigenvaluecorresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. More generally, a quantum state will be a linear combination of the eigenstates, known as aquantum superposition. When an observable is measured, the result will be one of its eigenvalues with probability given by theBorn rule: in the simplest case the eigenvalueλ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }is non-degenerate and the probability is given by|⟨λ→,ψ⟩|2{\\displaystyle |\\langle {\\vec {\\lambda }},\\psi \\rangle |^{2}}, whereλ→{\\displaystyle {\\vec {\\lambda }}}is its associated eigenvector. More generally, the eigenvalue is degenerate and the probability is given by⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩{\\displaystyle \\langle \\psi","\\langle \\psi ,P_{\\lambda }\\psi \\rangle }, wherePλ{\\displaystyle P_{\\lambda }}is the projector onto its associated eigenspace. In the continuous case, these formulas give instead theprobability density. After the measurement, if resultλ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }was obtained, the quantum state is postulated tocollapsetoλ→{\\displaystyle {\\vec {\\lambda }}}, in the non-degenerate case, or toPλψ/⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩{\\textstyle P_{\\lambda }\\psi {\\big /}\\!{\\sqrt {\\langle \\psi ,P_{\\lambda }\\psi \\rangle }}}, in the general case. Theprobabilisticnature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement. This is one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the central topic in the famousBohr–Einstein debates, in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental principles by way ofthought experiments. In the decades after the formulation of quantum mechanics, the question of what constitutes a \"measurement\" has been extensively studied. Newerinterpretations of quantum mechanicshave","mechanicshave been formulated that do away with the concept of \"wave function collapse\" (see, for example, themany-worlds interpretation). The basic idea is that when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus, their respective wave functions becomeentangledso that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity (seeMeasurement in quantum mechanics). Time evolution of a quantum state The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrödinger equation: HereH{\\displaystyle H}denotes theHamiltonian, the observable corresponding to thetotal energyof the system, andℏ{\\displaystyle \\hbar }is the reducedPlanck constant. The constantiℏ{\\displaystyle i\\hbar }is introduced so that the Hamiltonian is reduced to theclassical Hamiltonianin cases where the quantum system can be approximated by a classical system; the ability to make such an approximation in certain limits is called thecorrespondence principle. The solution of this differential equation is given by The","is given by The operatorU(t)=e−iHt/ℏ{\\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\\hbar }}is known as the time-evolution operator, and has the crucial property that it isunitary. This time evolution isdeterministicin the sense that – given an initial quantum stateψ(0){\\displaystyle \\psi (0)}– it makes a definite prediction of what the quantum stateψ(t){\\displaystyle \\psi (t)}will be at any later time. Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are independent of time, such aseigenstates of the Hamiltonian.: 133–137Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such \"static\" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcitedatomis pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around theatomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics, it is described by a static wave function surrounding the nucleus. For example, the electron wave function for an unexcited hydrogen atom is a spherically symmetric function known as ansorbital(Fig. 1). Analytic","1). Analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are known forvery few relatively simple model Hamiltoniansincluding thequantum harmonic oscillator, theparticle in a box, thedihydrogen cation, and thehydrogen atom. Even theheliumatom – which contains just two electrons – has defied all attempts at a fully analytic treatment, admitting no solution inclosed form. However, there are techniques for finding approximate solutions. One method, calledperturbation theory, uses the analytic result for a simple quantum mechanical model to create a result for a related but more complicated model by (for example) the addition of a weakpotential energy.: 793Another approximation method applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces only small deviations from classical behavior. These deviations can then be computed based on the classical motion.: 849 Uncertainty principle One consequence of the basic quantum formalism is the uncertainty principle. In its most familiar form, this states that no preparation of a","no preparation of a quantum particle can imply simultaneously precise predictions both for a measurement of its position and for a measurement of its momentum.Both position and momentum are observables, meaning that they are represented byHermitian operators. The position operatorX^{\\displaystyle {\\hat {X}}}and momentum operatorP^{\\displaystyle {\\hat {P}}}do not commute, but rather satisfy thecanonical commutation relation: Given a quantum state, the Born rule lets us compute expectation values for bothX{\\displaystyle X}andP{\\displaystyle P}, and moreover for powers of them. Defining the uncertainty for an observable by astandard deviation, we have and likewise for the momentum: The uncertainty principle states that Either standard deviation can in principle be made arbitrarily small, but not both simultaneously.This inequality generalizes to arbitrary pairs of self-adjoint operatorsA{\\displaystyle A}andB{\\displaystyle B}. Thecommutatorof these two operators is and this provides the lower bound on the","lower bound on the product of standard deviations: Another consequence of the canonical commutation relation is that the position and momentum operators areFourier transformsof each other, so that a description of an object according to its momentum is the Fourier transform of its description according to its position. The fact that dependence in momentum is the Fourier transform of the dependence in position means that the momentum operator is equivalent (up to ani/ℏ{\\displaystyle i/\\hbar }factor) to taking the derivative according to the position, since in Fourier analysisdifferentiation corresponds to multiplication in the dual space. This is why in quantum equations in position space, the momentumpi{\\displaystyle p_{i}}is replaced by−iℏ∂∂x{\\displaystyle -i\\hbar {\\frac {\\partial }{\\partial x}}}, and in particular in thenon-relativistic Schrödinger equation in position spacethe momentum-squared term is replaced with a Laplacian times−ℏ2{\\displaystyle -\\hbar ^{2}}. Composite systems and entanglement When","entanglement When two different quantum systems are considered together, the Hilbert space of the combined system is thetensor productof the Hilbert spaces of the two components. For example, letAandBbe two quantum systems, with Hilbert spacesHA{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}_{A}}andHB{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}_{B}}, respectively. The Hilbert space of the composite system is then If the state for the first system is the vectorψA{\\displaystyle \\psi _{A}}and the state for the second system isψB{\\displaystyle \\psi _{B}}, then the state of the composite system is Not all states in the joint Hilbert spaceHAB{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}_{AB}}can be written in this form, however, because the superposition principle implies that linear combinations of these \"separable\" or \"product states\" are also valid. For example, ifψA{\\displaystyle \\psi _{A}}andϕA{\\displaystyle \\phi _{A}}are both possible states for systemA{\\displaystyle A}, and likewiseψB{\\displaystyle \\psi _{B}}andϕB{\\displaystyle \\phi _{B}}are both possible","both possible states for systemB{\\displaystyle B}, then is a valid joint state that is not separable. States that are not separable are calledentangled. If the state for a composite system is entangled, it is impossible to describe either component systemAor systemBby a state vector. One can instead definereduced density matricesthat describe the statistics that can be obtained by making measurements on either component system alone. This necessarily causes a loss of information, though: knowing the reduced density matrices of the individual systems is not enough to reconstruct the state of the composite system.Just as density matrices specify the state of a subsystem of a larger system, analogously,positive operator-valued measures(POVMs) describe the effect on a subsystem of a measurement performed on a larger system. POVMs are extensively used in quantum information theory. As described above, entanglement is a key feature of models of measurement processes in which an apparatus becomes entangled with the","entangled with the system being measured. Systems interacting with the environment in which they reside generally become entangled with that environment, a phenomenon known asquantum decoherence. This can explain why, in practice, quantum effects are difficult to observe in systems larger than microscopic. Equivalence between formulations There are many mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most common is the \"transformation theory\" proposed byPaul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics –matrix mechanics(invented byWerner Heisenberg) and wave mechanics (invented byErwin Schrödinger).An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics isFeynman'spath integral formulation, in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over all possible classical and non-classical paths between the initial and final states. This is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of theaction principlein classical mechanics. Symmetries","Symmetries and conservation laws The HamiltonianH{\\displaystyle H}is known as thegeneratorof time evolution, since it defines a unitary time-evolution operatorU(t)=e−iHt/ℏ{\\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\\hbar }}for each value oft{\\displaystyle t}. From this relation betweenU(t){\\displaystyle U(t)}andH{\\displaystyle H}, it follows that any observableA{\\displaystyle A}that commutes withH{\\displaystyle H}will beconserved: its expectation value will not change over time.: 471This statement generalizes, as mathematically, any Hermitian operatorA{\\displaystyle A}can generate a family of unitary operators parameterized by a variablet{\\displaystyle t}. Under the evolution generated byA{\\displaystyle A}, any observableB{\\displaystyle B}that commutes withA{\\displaystyle A}will be conserved. Moreover, ifB{\\displaystyle B}is conserved by evolution underA{\\displaystyle A}, thenA{\\displaystyle A}is conserved under the evolution generated byB{\\displaystyle B}. This implies a quantum version of the result proven byEmmy","proven byEmmy Noetherin classical (Lagrangian) mechanics: for everydifferentiablesymmetryof a Hamiltonian, there exists a correspondingconservation law. Examples Free particle The simplest example of a quantum system with a position degree of freedom is a free particle in a single spatial dimension. A free particle is one which is not subject to external influences, so that its Hamiltonian consists only of its kinetic energy: The general solution of the Schrödinger equation is given by which is a superposition of all possibleplane wavesei(kx−ℏk22mt){\\displaystyle e^{i(kx-{\\frac {\\hbar k^{2}}{2m}}t)}}, which are eigenstates of the momentum operator with momentump=ℏk{\\displaystyle p=\\hbar k}. The coefficients of the superposition areψ^(k,0){\\displaystyle {\\hat {\\psi }}(k,0)}, which is the Fourier transform of the initial quantum stateψ(x,0){\\displaystyle \\psi (x,0)}. It is not possible for the solution to be a single momentum eigenstate, or a single position eigenstate, as these are not normalizable quantum","quantum states.Instead, we can consider a Gaussianwave packet: which has Fourier transform, and therefore momentum distribution We see that as we makea{\\displaystyle a}smaller the spread in position gets smaller, but the spread in momentum gets larger. Conversely, by makinga{\\displaystyle a}larger we make the spread in momentum smaller, but the spread in position gets larger. This illustrates the uncertainty principle. As we let the Gaussian wave packet evolve in time, we see that its center moves through space at a constant velocity (like a classical particle with no forces acting on it). However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more and more uncertain. The uncertainty in momentum, however, stays constant. Particle in a box The particle in a one-dimensional potential energy box is the most mathematically simple example where restraints lead to the quantization of energy levels. The box is defined as having zero potential energy everywhereinsidea","everywhereinsidea certain region, and therefore infinite potential energy everywhereoutsidethat region.: 77–78For the one-dimensional case in thex{\\displaystyle x}direction, the time-independent Schrödinger equation may be written With the differential operator defined by with stateψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }in this case having energyE{\\displaystyle E}coincident with the kinetic energy of the particle. The general solutions of the Schrödinger equation for the particle in a box are or, fromEuler's formula, The infinite potential walls of the box determine the values ofC,D,{\\displaystyle C,D,}andk{\\displaystyle k}atx=0{\\displaystyle x=0}andx=L{\\displaystyle x=L}whereψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }must be zero. Thus, atx=0{\\displaystyle x=0}, andD=0{\\displaystyle D=0}. Atx=L{\\displaystyle x=L}, in whichC{\\displaystyle C}cannot be zero as this would conflict with the postulate thatψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }has norm 1. Therefore, sincesin(kL)=0{\\displaystyle \\sin(kL)=0},kL{\\displaystyle kL}must be an integer multiple","an integer multiple ofπ{\\displaystyle \\pi }, This constraint onk{\\displaystyle k}implies a constraint on the energy levels, yielding Afinite potential wellis the generalization of the infinite potential well problem to potential wells having finite depth. The finite potential well problem is mathematically more complicated than the infinite particle-in-a-box problem as the wave function is not pinned to zero at the walls of the well. Instead, the wave function must satisfy more complicated mathematical boundary conditions as it is nonzero in regions outside the well. Another related problem is that of therectangular potential barrier, which furnishes a model for thequantum tunnelingeffect that plays an important role in the performance of modern technologies such asflash memoryandscanning tunneling microscopy. Harmonic oscillator As in the classical case, the potential for the quantum harmonic oscillator is given by: 234 This problem can either be treated by directly solving the Schrödinger equation, which","equation, which is not trivial, or by using the more elegant \"ladder method\" first proposed by Paul Dirac. Theeigenstatesare given by whereHnare theHermite polynomials and the corresponding energy levels are This is another example illustrating the discretization of energy forbound states. Mach–Zehnder interferometer TheMach–Zehnder interferometer(MZI) illustrates the concepts of superposition and interference with linear algebra in dimension 2, rather than differential equations. It can be seen as a simplified version of the double-slit experiment, but it is of interest in its own right, for example in thedelayed choice quantum eraser, theElitzur–Vaidman bomb tester, and in studies of quantum entanglement. We can model a photon going through the interferometer by considering that at each point it can be in a superposition of only two paths: the \"lower\" path which starts from the left, goes straight through both beam splitters, and ends at the top, and the \"upper\" path which starts from the bottom, goes","the bottom, goes straight through both beam splitters, and ends at the right. The quantum state of the photon is therefore a vectorψ∈C2{\\displaystyle \\psi \\in \\mathbb {C} ^{2}}that is a superposition of the \"lower\" pathψl=(10){\\displaystyle \\psi _{l}={\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\0\\end{pmatrix}}}and the \"upper\" pathψu=(01){\\displaystyle \\psi _{u}={\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\1\\end{pmatrix}}}, that is,ψ=αψl+βψu{\\displaystyle \\psi =\\alpha \\psi _{l}+\\beta \\psi _{u}}for complexα,β{\\displaystyle \\alpha ,\\beta }. In order to respect the postulate that⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1{\\displaystyle \\langle \\psi ,\\psi \\rangle =1}we require that|α|2+|β|2=1{\\displaystyle |\\alpha |^{2}+|\\beta |^{2}=1}. Bothbeam splittersare modelled as the unitary matrixB=12(1ii1){\\displaystyle B={\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {2}}}{\\begin{pmatrix}1&i\\\\i&1\\end{pmatrix}}}, which means that when a photon meets the beam splitter it will either stay on the same path with a probability amplitude of1/2{\\displaystyle 1/{\\sqrt {2}}}, or be reflected to the other path with a probability amplitude","amplitude ofi/2{\\displaystyle i/{\\sqrt {2}}}. The phase shifter on the upper arm is modelled as the unitary matrixP=(100eiΔΦ){\\displaystyle P={\\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\\\0&e^{i\\Delta \\Phi }\\end{pmatrix}}}, which means that if the photon is on the \"upper\" path it will gain a relative phase ofΔΦ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\Phi }, and it will stay unchanged if it is in the lower path. A photon that enters the interferometer from the left will then be acted upon with a beam splitterB{\\displaystyle B}, a phase shifterP{\\displaystyle P}, and another beam splitterB{\\displaystyle B}, and so end up in the state and the probabilities that it will be detected at the right or at the top are given respectively by One can therefore use the Mach–Zehnder interferometer to estimate thephase shiftby estimating these probabilities. It is interesting to consider what would happen if the photon were definitely in either the \"lower\" or \"upper\" paths between the beam splitters. This can be accomplished by blocking one of the paths, or","of the paths, or equivalently by removing the first beam splitter (and feeding the photon from the left or the bottom, as desired). In both cases, there will be no interference between the paths anymore, and the probabilities are given byp(u)=p(l)=1/2{\\displaystyle p(u)=p(l)=1/2}, independently of the phaseΔΦ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\Phi }. From this we can conclude that the photon does not take one path or another after the first beam splitter, but rather that it is in a genuine quantum superposition of the two paths. Applications Quantum mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the features of our universe, with regard to small-scale and discrete quantities and interactions which cannot be explained byclassical methods.Quantum mechanics is often the only theory that can reveal the individual behaviors of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter (electrons,protons,neutrons,photons, and others).Solid-state physicsandmaterials scienceare dependent upon quantum mechanics. In many","mechanics. In many aspects, modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant. Important applications of quantum theory includequantum chemistry,quantum optics,quantum computing,superconducting magnets,light-emitting diodes, theoptical amplifierand the laser, thetransistorandsemiconductorssuch as themicroprocessor,medical and research imagingsuch asmagnetic resonance imagingandelectron microscopy.Explanations for many biological and physical phenomena are rooted in the nature of the chemical bond, most notably the macro-moleculeDNA. Relation to other scientific theories Classical mechanics The rules of quantum mechanics assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert space and that observables of the system are Hermitian operators acting on vectors in that space – although they do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators. These can be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system, a necessary step in making physical","in making physical predictions. An important guide for making these choices is thecorrespondence principle, a heuristic which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those ofclassical mechanicsin the regime of largequantum numbers.One can also start from an established classical model of a particular system, and then try to guess the underlying quantum model that would give rise to the classical model in the correspondence limit. This approach is known asquantization.: 299 When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose correspondence limit wasnon-relativisticclassical mechanics. For instance, the well-known model of thequantum harmonic oscillatoruses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for thekinetic energyof the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of theclassical harmonic oscillator.: 234 Complications arise withchaotic systems, which do not have good quantum numbers, andquantum chaosstudies the relationship between classical and quantum","and quantum descriptions in these systems.: 353 Quantum decoherenceis a mechanism through which quantum systems losecoherence, and thus become incapable of displaying many typically quantum effects:quantum superpositionsbecome simply probabilistic mixtures, and quantum entanglement becomes simply classical correlations.: 687–730Quantum coherence is not typically evident at macroscopic scales, though at temperatures approachingabsolute zeroquantum behavior may manifest macroscopically. Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct consequence of the quantum behavior of its parts. For example, the stability of bulk matter (consisting of atoms andmoleculeswhich would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), the rigidity of solids, and the mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of matter are all results of the interaction ofelectric chargesunder the rules of quantum mechanics. Special relativity and electrodynamics Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics","quantum mechanics withspecial relativityinvolved the replacement of the Schrödinger equation with a covariant equation such as theKlein–Gordon equationor theDirac equation. While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field theory, which applies quantization to a field (rather than a fixed set of particles). The first complete quantum field theory,quantum electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of theelectromagnetic interaction. Quantum electrodynamics is, along withgeneral relativity, one of the most accurate physical theories ever devised. The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. A simpler approach, one that has been used since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treatchargedparticles as quantum","as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classicalelectromagnetic field. For example, the elementary quantum model of thehydrogen atomdescribes theelectric fieldof the hydrogen atom using a classical−e2/(4πϵ0r){\\displaystyle \\textstyle -e^{2}/(4\\pi \\epsilon _{_{0}}r)}Coulomb potential.: 285Likewise, in aStern–Gerlach experiment, a charged particle is modeled as a quantum system, while the background magnetic field is described classically.: 26This \"semi-classical\" approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, such as in the emission of photons bycharged particles. Quantum fieldtheories for thestrong nuclear forceand theweak nuclear forcehave also been developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is calledquantum chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of subnuclear particles such asquarksandgluons. The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory","field theory (known aselectroweak theory), by the physicistsAbdus Salam,Sheldon GlashowandSteven Weinberg. Relation to general relativity Even though the predictions of both quantum theory and general relativity have been supported by rigorous and repeatedempirical evidence, their abstract formalisms contradict each other and they have proven extremely difficult to incorporate into one consistent, cohesive model. Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those particular applications. However, the lack of a correct theory ofquantum gravityis an important issue inphysical cosmologyand the search by physicists for an elegant \"Theory of Everything\" (TOE). Consequently, resolving the inconsistencies between both theories has been a major goal of 20th- and 21st-century physics. This TOE would combine not only the models of subatomic physics but also derive the four fundamental forces of nature from a","of nature from a single force or phenomenon. One proposal for doing so isstring theory, which posits that thepoint-like particlesofparticle physicsare replaced byone-dimensionalobjects calledstrings. String theory describes how these strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with itsmass,charge, and other properties determined by thevibrationalstate of the string. In string theory, one of the many vibrational states of the string corresponds to thegraviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force. Another popular theory isloop quantum gravity(LQG), which describes quantum properties of gravity and is thus a theory ofquantum spacetime. LQG is an attempt to merge and adapt standard quantum mechanics and standard general relativity. This theory describes space as an extremely fine fabric \"woven\" of finite loops calledspin networks. The evolution of a spin network over time","network over time is called aspin foam. The characteristic length scale of a spin foam is thePlanck length, approximately 1.616×10−35m, and so lengths shorter than the Planck length are not physically meaningful in LQG. Philosophical implications Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive aspects and results of quantum mechanics have provoked strongphilosophicaldebates and manyinterpretations. The arguments centre on the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, the difficulties withwavefunction collapseand the relatedmeasurement problem, andquantum nonlocality. Perhaps the only consensus that exists about these issues is that there is no consensus.Richard Feynmanonce said, \"I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics.\"According toSteven Weinberg, \"There is now in my opinion no entirely satisfactory interpretation of quantum mechanics.\" The views ofNiels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and other physicists are often grouped together as the \"Copenhagen interpretation\".According to these","to these views, the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics is not atemporaryfeature which will eventually be replaced by a deterministic theory, but is instead afinalrenunciation of the classical idea of \"causality\". Bohr in particular emphasized that any well-defined application of the quantum mechanical formalism must always make reference to the experimental arrangement, due to thecomplementarynature of evidence obtained under different experimental situations. Copenhagen-type interpretations were adopted by Nobel laureates in quantum physics, including Bohr,Heisenberg,Schrödinger,Feynman,and Zeilingeras well as 21st-century researchers in quantum foundations. Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders ofquantum theory, was troubled by its apparent failure to respect some cherished metaphysical principles, such asdeterminismandlocality. Einstein's long-running exchanges with Bohr about the meaning and status of quantum mechanics are now known as theBohr–Einstein debates. Einstein believed that","believed that underlying quantum mechanics must be a theory that explicitly forbidsaction at a distance. He argued that quantum mechanics was incomplete, a theory that was valid but not fundamental, analogous to howthermodynamicsis valid, but the fundamental theory behind it isstatistical mechanics. In 1935, Einstein and his collaboratorsBoris PodolskyandNathan Rosenpublished an argument that the principle of locality implies the incompleteness of quantum mechanics, athought experimentlater termed theEinstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox.In 1964,John Bellshowed that EPR's principle of locality, together with determinism, was actually incompatible with quantum mechanics: they implied constraints on the correlations produced by distance systems, now known asBell inequalities, that can be violated by entangled particles.Since thenseveral experimentshave been performed to obtain these correlations, with the result that they do in fact violate Bell inequalities, and thus falsify the conjunction of locality with","of locality with determinism. Bohmian mechanicsshows that it is possible to reformulate quantum mechanics to make it deterministic, at the price of making it explicitly nonlocal. It attributes not only a wave function to a physical system, but in addition a real position, that evolves deterministically under a nonlocal guiding equation. The evolution of a physical system is given at all times by the Schrödinger equation together with the guiding equation; there is never a collapse of the wave function. This solves the measurement problem. Everett'smany-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds thatallthe possibilities described by quantum theorysimultaneouslyoccur in a multiverse composed of mostly independent parallel universes.This is a consequence of removing the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet. All possible states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus, together with the observer, are present in a real physical quantum superposition. While the multiverse is deterministic, we","deterministic, we perceive non-deterministic behavior governed by probabilities, because we do not observe the multiverse as a whole, but only one parallel universe at a time. Exactly how this is supposed to work has been the subject of much debate. Several attempts have been made to make sense of this and derive the Born rule,with no consensus on whether they have been successful. Relational quantum mechanicsappeared in the late 1990s as a modern derivative of Copenhagen-type ideas,andQBismwas developed some years later. History Quantum mechanics was developed in the early decades of the 20th century, driven by the need to explain phenomena that, in some cases, had been observed in earlier times. Scientific inquiry into the wave nature of light began in the 17th and 18th centuries, when scientists such asRobert Hooke,Christiaan HuygensandLeonhard Eulerproposed a wave theory of light based on experimental observations.In 1803 EnglishpolymathThomas Youngdescribed the famousdouble-slit experiment.This","experiment.This experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of thewave theory of light. During the early 19th century,chemicalresearch byJohn DaltonandAmedeo Avogadrolent weight to theatomic theoryof matter, an idea thatJames Clerk Maxwell,Ludwig Boltzmannand others built upon to establish thekinetic theory of gases. The successes of kinetic theory gave further credence to the idea that matter is composed of atoms, yet the theory also had shortcomings that would only be resolved by the development of quantum mechanics.While the early conception of atoms fromGreek philosophyhad been that they were indivisible units – the word \"atom\" deriving from theGreekfor \"uncuttable\" – the 19th century saw the formulation of hypotheses about subatomic structure. One important discovery in that regard wasMichael Faraday's 1838 observation of a glow caused by an electrical discharge inside a glass tube containing gas at low pressure.Julius Plücker,Johann Wilhelm HittorfandEugen Goldsteincarried on and improved","on and improved upon Faraday's work, leading to the identification ofcathode rays, whichJ. J. Thomsonfound to consist of subatomic particles that would be called electrons. Theblack-body radiationproblem was discovered byGustav Kirchhoffin 1859. In 1900, Max Planck proposed the hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete \"quanta\" (or energy packets), yielding a calculation that precisely matched the observed patterns of black-body radiation.The wordquantumderives from theLatin, meaning \"how great\" or \"how much\".According to Planck, quantities of energy could be thought of as divided into \"elements\" whose size (E) would be proportional to theirfrequency(ν): wherehis thePlanck constant. Planck cautiously insisted that this was only an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation and was not thephysical realityof the radiation.In fact, he considered his quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right answer rather than a sizable discovery.However, in 1905 Albert","in 1905 Albert Einstein interpreted Planck's quantum hypothesisrealisticallyand used it to explain thephotoelectric effect, in which shining light on certain materials can eject electrons from the material. Niels Bohr then developed Planck's ideas about radiation into amodel of the hydrogen atomthat successfully predicted thespectral linesof hydrogen.Einstein further developed this idea to show that anelectromagnetic wavesuch as light could also be described as a particle (later called the photon), with a discrete amount of energy that depends on its frequency.In his paper \"On the Quantum Theory of Radiation\", Einstein expanded on the interaction between energy and matter to explain the absorption and emission of energy by atoms. Although overshadowed at the time by his general theory of relativity, this paper articulated the mechanism underlying the stimulated emission of radiation,which became the basis of the laser. This phase is known as theold quantum theory. Never complete or self-consistent, the old","the old quantum theory was rather a set ofheuristiccorrections to classical mechanics.The theory is now understood as asemi-classical approximationto modern quantum mechanics.Notable results from this period include, in addition to the work of Planck, Einstein and Bohr mentioned above, Einstein andPeter Debye's work on thespecific heatof solids, Bohr andHendrika Johanna van Leeuwen'sproofthat classical physics cannot account fordiamagnetism, andArnold Sommerfeld's extension of the Bohr model to include special-relativistic effects. In the mid-1920s quantum mechanics was developed to become the standard formulation for atomic physics. In 1923, the French physicistLouis de Broglieput forward his theory of matter waves by stating that particles can exhibit wave characteristics and vice versa. Building on de Broglie's approach, modern quantum mechanics was born in 1925, when the German physicists Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, andPascual Jordandevelopedmatrix mechanicsand the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger","Erwin Schrödinger inventedwave mechanics. Born introduced the probabilistic interpretation of Schrödinger's wave function in July 1926.Thus, the entire field of quantum physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the FifthSolvay Conferencein 1927. By 1930, quantum mechanics had been further unified and formalized byDavid Hilbert, Paul Dirac andJohn von Neumannwith greater emphasis onmeasurement, the statistical nature of our knowledge of reality, andphilosophical speculation about the 'observer'. It has since permeated many disciplines, including quantum chemistry,quantum electronics,quantum optics, andquantum information science. It also provides a useful framework for many features of the modernperiodic table of elements, and describes the behaviors ofatomsduringchemical bondingand the flow of electrons in computersemiconductors, and therefore plays a crucial role in many modern technologies. While quantum mechanics was constructed to describe the world of the very small, it is also needed to","is also needed to explain somemacroscopicphenomena such assuperconductorsandsuperfluids. See also Explanatory notes References Further reading The following titles, all by working physicists, attempt to communicate quantum theory to lay people, using a minimum of technical apparatus. More technical: External links","Photoelectric effect Thephotoelectric effectis the emission ofelectronsfrom a material caused byelectromagnetic radiationsuch asultraviolet light. Electrons emitted in this manner are called photoelectrons. The phenomenon is studied incondensed matter physics,solid state, andquantum chemistryto draw inferences about the properties of atoms, molecules and solids. The effect has found use inelectronic devicesspecialized for light detection and precisely timed electron emission. The experimental results disagree withclassical electromagnetism, which predicts that continuous light waves transferenergyto electrons, which would then be emitted when they accumulate enough energy. An alteration in theintensityof light would theoretically change thekinetic energyof the emitted electrons, with sufficiently dim light resulting in a delayed emission. The experimental results instead show that electrons are dislodged only when the light exceeds a certainfrequency—regardless of the light's intensity or duration of","or duration of exposure. Because a low-frequency beam at a high intensity does not build up the energy required to produce photoelectrons, as would be the case if light's energy accumulated over time from a continuous wave,Albert Einsteinproposed that a beam of light is nota wavepropagating through space, but a swarm of discrete energy packets, known asphotons—term coined byGilbert N. Lewisin 1926. Emission of conduction electrons from typicalmetalsrequires a fewelectron-volt(eV) light quanta, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. In extreme cases, emissions are induced with photons approaching zero energy, like in systems with negative electron affinity and the emission from excited states, or a few hundred keV photons forcore electronsinelementswith a highatomic number.Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept ofwave–particle duality.Other phenomena where light","where light affects the movement of electric charges include thephotoconductiveeffect, thephotovoltaic effect, and thephotoelectrochemical effect. Emission mechanism The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy, calledphoton energy, which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, when an electron within some material absorbs the energy of a photon and acquires more energy than itsbinding energy, it is likely to be ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Moreover, the energy of the emitted electrons will not depend on the intensity of the incoming light of a given frequency, but only on the energy of the individual photons. While free electrons can absorb any energy whenirradiatedas long as this is","long as this is followed by an immediate re-emission, like in theCompton effect, in quantum systems all of the energy from one photon is absorbed—if the process is allowed byquantum mechanics—or none at all. Part of the acquired energy is used to liberate the electron from its atomic binding, and the rest contributes to the electron'skinetic energyas a free particle.Because electrons in a material occupy many different quantum states with different binding energies, and because they can sustain energy losses on their way out of the material, the emitted electrons will have a range of kinetic energies. The electrons from the highest occupied states will have the highest kinetic energy. In metals, those electrons will be emitted from theFermi level. When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the terminternal photoemissionis often used, and emission into a vacuum is distinguished asexternal photoemission. Experimental observation of photoelectric emission Even though photoemission","photoemission can occur from any material, it is most readily observed from metals and other conductors. This is because the process produces a charge imbalance which, if not neutralized by current flow, results in the increasing potential barrier until the emission completely ceases. The energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by nonconductive oxide layers on metal surfaces, so most practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in evacuated tubes. Vacuum also helps observing the electrons since it prevents gases from impeding their flow between the electrodes. As sunlight, due to atmosphere's absorption, does not provide much ultraviolet light, the light rich in ultraviolet rays used to be obtained by burning magnesium or from anarc lamp. At the present time,mercury-vapor lamps,noble-gas dischargeUV lamps andradio-frequency plasmasources,ultraviolet lasers,andsynchrotroninsertion devicelight sources prevail. The classical setup to observe the","to observe the photoelectric effect includes a light source, a set of filters tomonochromatizethe light, avacuum tubetransparent to ultraviolet light, an emitting electrode (E) exposed to the light, and a collector (C) whose voltageVCcan be externally controlled. A positive external voltage is used to direct the photoemitted electrons onto the collector. If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the photoelectric currentIincreases with an increase in the positive voltage, as more and more electrons are directed onto the electrode. When no additional photoelectrons can be collected, the photoelectric current attains a saturation value. This current can only increase with the increase of the intensity of light. An increasing negative voltage prevents all but the highest-energy electrons from reaching the collector. When no current is observed through the tube, the negative voltage has reached the value that is high enough to slow down and stop the most energetic photoelectrons of","photoelectrons of kinetic energyKmax. This value of the retarding voltage is called thestopping potentialorcut offpotentialVo.Since the work done by the retarding potential in stopping the electron of chargeeiseVo, the following must holdeVo=Kmax. The current-voltage curve is sigmoidal, but its exact shape depends on the experimental geometry and the electrode material properties. For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incidentradiationbelow which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called thethreshold frequency. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam increases the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons, and the stopping voltage has to increase. The number of emitted electrons may also change because theprobabilitythat each photon results in an emitted electron is a function of photon energy. An increase in the intensity of the same monochromatic light (so long as the intensity is not too high), which is proportional to the number of photons","number of photons impinging on the surface in a given time, increases the rate at which electrons are ejected—the photoelectric currentI—but the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and the stopping voltage remain the same. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is very small, less than 10−9second. Angular distribution of the photoelectrons is highly dependent onpolarization(the direction of the electric field) of the incident light, as well as the emitting material's quantum properties such as atomic and molecular orbital symmetries and theelectronic band structureof crystalline solids. In materials without macroscopic order, the distribution of electrons tends to peak in the direction of polarization of linearly polarized light.The experimental technique that can measure these distributions to infer","to infer the material's properties isangle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy. Theoretical explanation In 1905,Einsteinproposed a theory of the photoelectric effect using a concept that light consists of tiny packets of energy known asphotonsor light quanta. Each packet carries energyhν{\\displaystyle h\\nu }that is proportional to the frequencyν{\\displaystyle \\nu }of the corresponding electromagnetic wave. The proportionality constanth{\\displaystyle h}has become known as thePlanck constant. In the range of kinetic energies of the electrons that are removed from their varying atomic bindings by the absorption of a photon of energyhν{\\displaystyle h\\nu }, the highest kinetic energyKmax{\\displaystyle K_{\\max }}isKmax=hν−W.{\\displaystyle K_{\\max }=h\\,\\nu -W.}Here,W{\\displaystyle W}is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the material. It is called thework functionof the surface and is sometimes denotedΦ{\\displaystyle \\Phi }orφ{\\displaystyle \\varphi }.If the work function is","work function is written asW=hνo,{\\displaystyle W=h\\,\\nu _{o},}the formula for the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons becomesKmax=h(ν−νo).{\\displaystyle K_{\\max }=h\\left(\\nu -\\nu _{o}\\right).} Kinetic energy is positive, andν>νo{\\displaystyle \\nu >\\nu _{o}}is required for the photoelectric effect to occur.The frequencyνo{\\displaystyle \\nu _{o}}is the threshold frequency for the given material. Above that frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons as well as the stopping voltage in the experimentVo=he(ν−νo){\\textstyle V_{o}={\\frac {h}{e}}\\left(\\nu -\\nu _{o}\\right)}rise linearly with the frequency, and have no dependence on the number of photons and the intensity of the impinging monochromatic light. Einstein's formula, however simple, explained all the phenomenology of the photoelectric effect, and had far-reaching consequences in thedevelopment of quantum mechanics. Photoemission from atoms, molecules and solids Electrons that are bound in atoms, molecules and solids each occupy","solids each occupy distinct states of well-definedbinding energies. When light quanta deliver more than this amount of energy to an individual electron, the electron may be emitted into free space with excess (kinetic) energy that ishν{\\displaystyle h\\nu }higher than the electron's binding energy. The distribution of kinetic energies thus reflects the distribution of the binding energies of the electrons in the atomic, molecular or crystalline system: an electron emitted from the state at binding energyEB{\\displaystyle E_{B}}is found at kinetic energyEk=hν−EB{\\displaystyle E_{k}=h\\nu -E_{B}}. This distribution is one of the main characteristics of the quantum system, and can be used for further studies in quantum chemistry and quantum physics. Models of photoemission from solids The electronic properties of ordered, crystalline solids are determined by the distribution of the electronic states with respect to energy and momentum—the electronic band structure of the solid. Theoretical models of photoemission","of photoemission from solids show that this distribution is, for the most part, preserved in the photoelectric effect. The phenomenologicalthree-step modelfor ultraviolet and soft X-ray excitation decomposes the effect into these steps: There are cases where the three-step model fails to explain peculiarities of the photoelectron intensity distributions. The more elaborateone-step modeltreats the effect as a coherent process of photoexcitation into the final state of a finite crystal for which the wave function is free-electron-like outside of the crystal, but has a decaying envelope inside. History 19th century In 1839,Alexandre Edmond Becquereldiscovered the relatedphotovoltaic effectwhile studying the effect of light onelectrolytic cells.Though not equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work onphotovoltaicswas instrumental in showing a strong relationship between light and electronic properties of materials. In 1873,Willoughby Smithdiscoveredphotoconductivityinseleniumwhile testing the metal for its","the metal for its high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables. Johann Elster(1854–1920) andHans Geitel(1855–1923), students inHeidelberg, investigated the effects produced by light on electrified bodies and developed the first practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity of light.: 458They arranged metals with respect to their power of discharging negative electricity:rubidium,potassium,alloyof potassium and sodium,sodium,lithium,magnesium,thalliumandzinc; forcopper,platinum,lead,iron,cadmium,carbon, andmercurythe effects with ordinary light were too small to be measurable. The order of the metals for this effect was the same as in Volta's series for contact-electricity, the most electropositive metals giving the largest photo-electric effect. In 1887,Heinrich Hertzobserved the photoelectric effectand reported on the production and receptionof electromagnetic waves.The receiver in his apparatus consisted of a coil with aspark gap,","with aspark gap, where a spark would be seen upon detection of electromagnetic waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. However, he noticed that the maximum spark length was reduced when inside the box. A glass panel placed between the source of electromagnetic waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he replaced the glass with quartz, asquartzdoes not absorb UV radiation. The discoveries by Hertz led to a series of investigations byWilhelm Hallwachs,Hoor,Augusto RighiandAleksander Stoletovon the effect of light, and especially of ultraviolet light, on charged bodies. Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to anelectroscope. He allowed ultraviolet light to fall on a freshly cleaned zinc plate and observed that the zinc plate became uncharged if initially negatively charged, positively charged if initially uncharged, and more","uncharged, and more positively charged if initially positively charged. From these observations he concluded that some negatively charged particles were emitted by the zinc plate when exposed to ultraviolet light. With regard to theHertz effect, the researchers from the start showed the complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric fatigue—the progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic surfaces. According to Hallwachs,ozoneplayed an important part in the phenomenon,and the emission was influenced by oxidation, humidity, and the degree of polishing of the surface. It was at the time unclear whether fatigue is absent in a vacuum. In the period from 1888 until 1891, a detailed analysis of the photoeffect was performed byAleksandr Stoletovwith results reported in six publications.Stoletov invented a new experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of the photoeffect. He discovered a direct proportionality between the intensity of light and the induced","and the induced photoelectric current (the first law of photoeffect orStoletov's law). He measured the dependence of the intensity of the photo electric current on the gas pressure, where he found the existence of an optimal gas pressure corresponding to a maximumphotocurrent; this property was used for the creation ofsolar cells. Many substances besides metals discharge negative electricity under the action of ultraviolet light. G. C. Schmidtand O. Knoblauchcompiled a list of these substances. In 1897,J. J. Thomsoninvestigated ultraviolet light inCrookes tubes.Thomson deduced that the ejected particles, which he called corpuscles, were of the same nature ascathode rays. These particles later became known as the electrons. Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation.It was thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and, after reaching a certain amplitude, caused subatomic corpuscles to be emitted, and","to be emitted, and current to be detected. The amount of this current varied with the intensity and color of the radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more current. During the years 1886–1902,Wilhelm HallwachsandPhilipp Lenardinvestigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail. Lenard observed that a current flows through an evacuated glass tube enclosing twoelectrodeswhen ultraviolet radiation falls on one of them. As soon as ultraviolet radiation is stopped, the current also stops. This initiated the concept of photoelectric emission. The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultraviolet light was made by Philipp Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several centimeters of air and yielded a greater number of positive ions than negative, it was natural to interpret the phenomenon, as J. J. Thomson did, as aHertz effectupon the particles present in the gas. 20th century In 1902, Lenard observed that theenergyof individual emitted electrons was independent","was independent of the applied light intensity.This appeared to be at odds with Maxwell'swave theory of light, which predicted that the electron energy would be proportional to theintensityof the radiation. Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency using a powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in intensity. However, Lenard's results were qualitative rather than quantitative because of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the experiments needed to be done on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it oxidized in a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The current emitted by the surface was determined by the light's intensity, or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of electrons emitted from the surface. Initial investigation of the photoelectric effect in gasses by Lenardwere followed up by J. J. Thomsonand then more decisively by Frederic Palmer Jr.The gas photoemission","gas photoemission was studied and showed very different characteristics than those at first attributed to it by Lenard. In 1900, while studyingblack-body radiation, the German physicistMax Plancksuggested in his \"On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum\"paper that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released inpacketsof energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. Einstein theorized that the energy in each quantum of light was equal to the frequency of light multiplied by a constant, later called thePlanck constant. A photon above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single electron, creating the observed effect. This was a step in the development ofquantum mechanics. In 1914,Robert A. Millikan's highly accurate measurements of the Planck constant from the photoelectric effect supported Einstein's","Einstein's model, even though a corpuscular theory of light was for Millikan, at the time, \"quite unthinkable\".Einstein was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physicsfor \"his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\",and Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 for \"his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect\".In quantum perturbation theory of atoms and solids acted upon by electromagnetic radiation, the photoelectric effect is still commonly analyzed in terms of waves; the two approaches are equivalent because photon or wave absorption can only happen between quantized energy levels whose energy difference is that of the energy of photon. Albert Einstein's mathematical description of how the photoelectric effect was caused by absorption ofquantaof light was in one of hisAnnus Mirabilis papers, named \"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light\".The paper proposed a simple description ofenergy quanta, and showed how they","and showed how they explained the blackbody radiation spectrum. His explanation in terms of absorption of discrete quanta of light agreed with experimental results. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons was not dependent on incident lightintensity. This was a theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally fromJames Clerk Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, and more generally, the assumption ofinfinite divisibilityof energy in physical systems. Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the light. The precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that the energy of photoelectrons increases with increasingfrequencyof incident light and is independent of theintensityof the light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally determined until 1914 when Millikan showed that Einstein's prediction","prediction was correct. The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept of wave–particle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of both waves and particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was impossible to understand in terms of the classical wave description of light,as the energy of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation. Classical theory predicted that the electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time, and then be emitted. Uses and effects Photomultipliers These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a coatedphotocathodeinside the envelope. The photo cathode contains combinations of materials such as cesium, rubidium, and antimony specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials,","potentials, these electrons are accelerated and substantially increased in number throughsecondary emissionto provide a readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected. Image sensors Video camera tubesin the early days oftelevisionused the photoelectric effect. For example,Philo Farnsworth's \"Image dissector\" used a screen charged by the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic signal. Photoelectron spectroscopy Because the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is exactly the energy of the incident photon minus the energy of the electron's binding within an atom, molecule or solid, the binding energy can be determined by shining amonochromaticX-rayorUVlight of a known energy and measuring the kinetic energies of the photoelectrons.The distribution of electron energies is valuable for studying quantum properties of these systems. It can also be used to determine the elemental composition of the","composition of the samples. For solids, the kinetic energy and emission angle distribution of the photoelectrons is measured for the complete determination of theelectronic band structurein terms of the allowed binding energies and momenta of the electrons. Modern instruments for angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy are capable of measuring these quantities with a precision better than 1 meV and 0.1°. Photoelectron spectroscopymeasurements are usually performed in a high-vacuum environment, because the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present. However, some companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in air. The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or asynchrotron radiationsource. Theconcentric hemispherical analyzeris a typical electron energy analyzer. It uses an electric field between two hemispheres to change (disperse) the trajectories of incident electrons depending on their kinetic energies. Night vision devices Photons hitting a thin film of","a thin film of alkali metal orsemiconductormaterial such asgallium arsenidein animage intensifiertube cause the ejection of photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by anelectrostatic fieldwhere they strike aphosphorcoated screen, converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the signal is achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of electrons through secondary emissions, such as with amicro-channel plate. Sometimes a combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required to move an electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is known as theelectron affinityof the photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other than the forbidden band, explained by theband gapmodel. Some materials such as gallium arsenide have an effective electron affinity that is below the level of the conduction band. In these materials, electrons that move to the conduction band all have sufficient","all have sufficient energy to be emitted from the material, so the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick. These materials are known as negative electron affinity materials. Spacecraft The photoelectric effect will causespacecraftexposed to sunlight to develop a positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical components. Thestatic chargecreated by the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object does not give up its electrons as easily as a lower charged object does. Moon dust Light from the Sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively charged from the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of theMoonbyelectrostatic levitation.This manifests itself almost like an \"atmosphere of dust\", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features,","distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by theSurveyor programprobes in the 1960s,and most recently theChang'e 3rover observed dust deposition on lunar rocks as high as about 28 cm.It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the surface and that the particles move in \"fountains\" as they charge and discharge. Competing processes and photoemission cross section When photon energies are as high as the electron rest energy of511 keV, yet another process,Compton scattering, may occur. Above twice this energy, at1.022 MeV,pair productionis also more likely.Compton scattering and pair production are examples of two other competing mechanisms.Even if the photoelectric effect is the favoured reaction for a particular interaction of a single photon with a bound electron, the result is also subject to quantum statistics and is not guaranteed. The probability of the photoelectric effect occurring is measured by thecross sectionof the","sectionof the interaction, σ. This has been found to be a function of the atomic number of the target atom and photon energy. In a crude approximation, for photon energies above the highest atomic binding energy, the cross section is given by: HereZis theatomic numberandnis a number which varies between 4 and 5. The photoelectric effect rapidly decreases in significance in the gamma-ray region of the spectrum, with increasing photon energy. It is also more likely from elements with high atomic number. Consequently, high-Zmaterials make goodgamma-rayshields, which is the principal reason why lead (Z= 82) is preferred and most widely used. See also References External links Applets","Bohr model Inatomic physics, theBohr modelorRutherford–Bohr modelwas the first successful model of theatom. Developed from 1911 to 1918 byNiels Bohrand building onErnest Rutherford's nuclearmodel, it supplanted theplum pudding modelofJ J Thomsononly to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, densenucleussurrounded byorbitingelectrons. It isanalogousto the structure of theSolar System, but with attraction provided byelectrostatic forcerather thangravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values). In the history of atomic physics, it followed, and ultimately replaced, several earlier models, includingJoseph Larmor's Solar System model (1897),Jean Perrin's model (1901),thecubical model(1902),Hantaro Nagaoka'sSaturnianmodel (1904), theplum pudding model(1904),Arthur Haas's quantum model (1910), theRutherford model(1911), andJohn William Nicholson's nuclear quantum model (1912). The improvement over the 1911 Rutherford model mainly concerned the","concerned the newquantum mechanicalinterpretation introduced by Haas and Nicholson, but forsaking any attempt to explain radiation according toclassical physics. The model's key success lies in explaining theRydberg formulaforhydrogen's spectral emission lines. While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical basis until the Bohr model was introduced. Not only did the Bohr model explain the reasons for the structure of the Rydberg formula, it also provided a justification for the fundamental physical constants that make up the formula's empirical results. The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of thehydrogen atom, compared to thevalence shellmodel. As a theory, it can be derived as afirst-order approximationof the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics and thus may be considered to be anobsolete scientific theory. However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the","application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students toquantum mechanicsorenergy level diagramsbefore moving on to the more accurate, but more complex, valence shell atom. A related quantum model was proposed byArthur Erich Haasin 1910 but was rejected until the 1911 Solvay Congress where it was thoroughly discussed.The quantum theory of the period betweenPlanck's discovery of the quantum(1900) and the advent of a mature quantum mechanics (1925) is often referred to as theold quantum theory. Background Until the second decade of the 20th century, atomic models were generally speculative. Even the concept of atoms, let alone atoms with internal structure, faced opposition from some scientists.: 2 Planetary models In the late 1800's speculations on the possible structure of the atom included planetary models with orbiting charged electrons.: 35These models faced a significant constraint. In 1897,Joseph Larmorshowed that an accelerating charge would radiate power according to classical","to classical electrodynamics, a result known as theLarmor formula. Since electrons forced to remain in orbit are continuously accelerating, they would be mechanically unstable. Larmor noted that electromagnetic effect of multiple electrons, suitable arranged, would cancel each other. Thus subsequent atomic models based on classical electrodynamics needed to adopt such special multi-electron arrangements.: 113 Thomson's atom model When Bohr began his work on a new atomic theory in the summer of 1912: 237the atomic model proposed byJ J Thomson, now known as thePlum pudding model, was the best available.: 37Thomson proposed a model with electrons rotating in coplanar rings within an atomic-sized, positively-charged, spherical volume. Thomson showed that this model was mechanically stable by lengthy calculations and was electrodynamically stable under his original assumption of thousands of electrons per atom. Moreover, he suggested that the particularly stable configurations of electrons in rings was connected","rings was connected to chemical properties of the atoms. He developed a formula for the scattering ofbeta particlesthat seemed to match experimental results.: 38However Thomson himself later showed that the atom had a factor of a thousand fewer electrons, challenging the stability argument and forcing the poorly understood positive sphere to have most of the atom's mass. Thomson was also unable to explain the many lines in atomic spectra.: 18 Rutherford nuclear model In 1908,Hans GeigerandErnest Marsdendemonstrated thatalpha particleoccasionally scatter at large angles, a result inconsistent with Thomson's model. In 1911Ernest Rutherforddeveloped a new scattering model, showing that the observed large angle scattering could be explained by a compact, highly charged mass at the center of the atom. Rutherford scattering did not involve the electrons and thus hismodel of the atomwas incomplete.Bohr begins his first paper on his atomic model by describing Rutherford's atom as consisting of a small, dense,","of a small, dense, positively chargednucleusattracting negatively chargedelectrons. Atomic spectra By the early twentieth century, it was expected that the atom would account for the many atomic spectral lines. These lines were summarized in empirical formula byJohann BalmerandJohannes Rydberg. In 1897, Lord Rayleigh showed that vibrations of electrical systems predicted spectral lines that depend on the square of the vibrational frequency, contradicting the empirical formula which depended directly on the frequency.:18In 1907Arthur W. Conwayshowed that, rather than the entire atom vibrating, vibrations of only one of the electrons in the system described by Thomson might be sufficient to account for spectral series.: II:106Although Bohr's model would also rely on just the electron to explain the spectrum, he did not assume an electrodynamical model for the atom. The other important advance in the understanding of atomic spectra was theRydberg–Ritz combination principlewhich related atomic spectral line","spectral line frequencies to differences between 'terms', special frequencies characteristic of each element.:173Bohr would recognize the terms as energy levels of the atom divided by the Planck constant, leading to the modern view that the spectral lines result from energy differences.: 847 Haas atomic model In 1910,Arthur Erich Haasproposed a model of the hydrogen atom with an electron circulating on the surface of a sphere of positive charge. The model resembled Thomson's plum pudding model, but Haas added a radical new twist: he constrained the electron's potential energy,Epot{\\displaystyle E_{\\text{pot}}}, on a sphere of radiusato equal the frequency,f, of the electron's orbit on the sphere times thePlanck constant:: 197Epot=−e2a=hf{\\displaystyle E_{\\text{pot}}={\\frac {-e^{2}}{a}}=hf}whereerepresents the charge on the electron and the sphere. Haas combined this constraint with the balance-of-forces equation. The attractive force between the electron and the sphere balances thecentrifugal","thecentrifugal force:e2a2=ma(2πf)2{\\displaystyle {\\frac {e^{2}}{a^{2}}}=ma(2\\pi f)^{2}}wheremis the mass of the electron. This combination relates the radius of the sphere to the Planck constant:a=h24π2e2m{\\displaystyle a={\\frac {h^{2}}{4\\pi ^{2}e^{2}m}}}Haas solved for the Planck constant using the then-current value for the radius of the hydrogen atom. Three years later, Bohr would use similar equations with different interpretation. Bohr took the Planck constant as given value and used the equations to predict,a, the radius of the electron orbiting in the ground state of the hydrogen atom. This value is now called theBohr radius.: 197 Influence of the Solvay Conference The firstSolvay Conference, in 1911, was one of the first international physics conferences. Nine Nobel or future Nobel laureates attended, includingErnest Rutherford, Bohr's mentor.: 271Bohr did not attend but he read the Solvay reportsand discussed them with Rutherford.: 233 The subject of the conference was the theory of radiation and","of radiation and the energy quanta ofMax Planck's oscillators.Planck's lecture at the conference ended with comments about atoms and the discussion that followed it concerned atomic models.Hendrik Lorentzraised the question of the composition of the atom based onHaas's model, a form of Thomson's plum pudding model with a quantum modification. Lorentz explained that the size of atoms could be taken to determine the Planck constant as Haas had done or the Planck constant could be taken as determining the size of atoms.: 273Bohr would adopt the second path. The discussions outlined the need for the quantum theory to be included in the atom. Planck explicitly mentions the failings of classical mechanics.: 273While Bohr had already expressed a similar opinion in his PhD thesis, at Solvay the leading scientists of the day discussed a break with classical theories.: 244Bohr's first paper on his atomic model cites the Solvay proceedings saying: \"Whatever the alteration in the laws of motion of the electrons may be,","electrons may be, it seems necessary to introduce in the laws in question a quantity foreign to the classical electrodynamics,i.e.Planck's constant, or as it often is called the elementary quantum of action.\"Encouraged by the Solvay discussions, Bohr would assume the atom was stable and abandon the efforts to stabilize classical models of the atom: 199 Nicholson atom theory In 1911John William Nicholsonpublished a model of the atom which would influence Bohr's model. Nicholson developed his model based on the analysis of astrophysical spectroscopy. He connected the observed spectral line frequencies with the orbits of electrons in his atoms. The connection he adopted associated the atomic electron orbital angular momentum with thePlanck constant. Whereas Planck focused on a quantum of energy, Nicholson's angular momentum quantum relates to orbital frequency. This new concept gave Planck constant an atomic meaning for the first time.: 169In his 1913 paper Bohr cites Nicholson as finding quantized angular","quantized angular momentum important for the atom. The other critical influence of Nicholson work was his detailed analysis of spectra. Before Nicholson's work Bohr thought the spectral data was not useful for understanding atoms. In comparing his work to Nicholson's, Bohr came to understand the spectral data and their value. When he then learned from a friend aboutBalmer's compact formulafor the spectral line data, Bohr quickly realized his model would match it in detail.: 178 Nicholson's model was based on classical electrodynamics along the lines ofJ.J. Thomson'splum pudding modelbut his negative electrons orbiting a positive nucleus rather than circulating in a sphere. To avoid immediate collapse of this system he required that electrons come in pairs so the rotational acceleration of each electron was matched across the orbit.: 163By 1913 Bohr had already shown, from the analysis of alpha particle energy loss, that hydrogen had only a single electron not a matched pair.: 195Bohr's atomic model would","atomic model would abandon classical electrodynamics. Nicholson's model of radiation was quantum but was attached to the orbits of the electrons.Bohr quantization would associate it with differences in energy levels of his model of hydrogen rather than the orbital frequency. Bohr's previous work Bohr completed his PhD in 1911 with a thesis 'Studies on the Electron Theory of Metals', an application of the classical electron theory ofHendrik Lorentz. Bohr noted two deficits of the classical model. The first concerned thespecific heatof metals whichJames Clerk Maxwellnoted in 1875: every additional degree of freedom in a theory of metals, like subatomic electrons, cause more disagreement with experiment. The second, the classical theory could not explain magnetism.: 194 After his PhD, Bohr worked briefly in the lab ofJJ Thomsonbefore moving to Rutherford's lab inManchesterto study radioactivity. He arrived just after Rutherford completed his proposal of a compact nuclear core for atoms.Charles Galton Darwin,","Galton Darwin, also at Manchester, had just completed an analysis of alpha particle energy loss in metals, concluding the electron collisions where the dominant cause of loss. Bohr showed in a subsequent paper that Darwin's results would improve by accounting for electron binding energy. Importantly this allowed Bohr to conclude that hydrogen atoms have a single electron.: 195 Development Next, Bohr was told by his friend, Hans Hansen, that the Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, anempiricalequation discovered byJohann Balmerin 1885 that described wavelengths of some spectral lines of hydrogen.This was further generalized byJohannes Rydbergin 1888, resulting in what is now known as theRydberg formula. After this, Bohr declared, \"everything became clear\". In 1913Niels Bohrput forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model: Other points are: Bohr's condition, that the angular momentum be an integer multiple ofℏ{\\displaystyle \\hbar }, was later","\\hbar }, was later reinterpreted in 1924 byde Broglieas astanding wavecondition: the electron is described by a wave and a whole number of wavelengths must fit along the circumference of the electron's orbit: According to de Broglie's hypothesis, matter particles such as the electron behave aswaves. Thede Broglie wavelengthof an electron is which implies that or wheremvr{\\displaystyle mvr}is the angular momentum of the orbiting electron. Writingℓ{\\displaystyle \\ell }for this angular momentum, the previous equation becomes which is Bohr's second postulate. Bohr described angular momentum of the electron orbit as2/h{\\displaystyle 2/h}whilede Broglie's wavelengthofλ=h/p{\\displaystyle \\lambda =h/p}describedh{\\displaystyle h}divided by the electron momentum. In 1913, however, Bohr justified his rule by appealing to the correspondence principle, without providing any sort of wave interpretation. In 1913, the wave behavior of matter particles such as the electron was not suspected. In 1925, a new kind of mechanics","kind of mechanics was proposed,quantum mechanics, in which Bohr's model of electrons traveling in quantized orbits was extended into amore accurate modelof electron motion. The new theory was proposed byWerner Heisenberg.Another formof the same theory, wave mechanics, was discovered by the Austrian physicistErwin Schrödingerindependently, and by different reasoning. Schrödinger employed de Broglie's matter waves, but sought wave solutions of a three-dimensional wave equation describing electrons that were constrained to move about the nucleus of ahydrogen-like atom, by being trapped by the potential of the positive nuclear charge. Electron energy levels The Bohr model gives almost exact results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. This not only involves one-electron systems such as thehydrogen atom, singly ionizedhelium, and doubly ionizedlithium, but it includespositroniumandRydberg statesof any atom where one electron is far away from","is far away from everything else. It can be used forK-lineX-ray transition calculations if other assumptions are added (seeMoseley's lawbelow). In high energy physics, it can be used to calculate the masses ofheavy quarkmesons. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions. Derivation In classical mechanics, if an electron is orbiting around an atom with period T, and if its coupling to the electromagnetic field is weak, so that the orbit doesn't decay very much in one cycle, it will emit electromagnetic radiation in a pattern repeating at every period, so that the Fourier transform of the pattern will only have frequencies which are multiples of 1/T. However, in quantum mechanics, the quantization of angular momentum leads to discrete energy levels of the orbits, and the emitted frequencies are quantized according to the energy differences between these levels. This discrete nature of energy levels introduces a fundamental departure from the classical radiation law, giving rise to distinct spectral","distinct spectral lines in the emitted radiation. Bohr assumes that the electron is circling the nucleus in an elliptical orbit obeying the rules of classical mechanics, but with no loss of radiation due to theLarmor formula. Denoting the total energy asE, the negative electron charge ase, the positive nucleus charge asK=Z|e|, the electron mass asme, half the major axis of the ellipse asa, he starts with these equations:: 3 Eis assumed to be negative, because a positive energy is required to unbind the electron from the nucleus and put it at rest at an infinite distance. Eq. (1a) is obtained from equating the centripetal force to the Coulombian force acting between the nucleus and the electron, considering thatE=T+U{\\displaystyle E=T+U}(whereTis the average kinetic energy andUthe average electrostatic potential), and that for Kepler's second law, the average separation between the electron and the nucleus isa. Eq. (1b) is obtained from the same premises of eq. (1a) plus thevirial theorem, stating that, for","stating that, for an elliptical orbit, Then Bohr assumes that|E|{\\displaystyle \\vert E\\vert }is an integer multiple of the energy of a quantum of light with half the frequency of the electron's revolution frequency,: 4i.e: From eq. (1a,1b,2), it descends: He further assumes that the orbit is circular, i.e.a=r{\\displaystyle a=r}, and, denoting the angular momentum of the electron asL, introduces the equation: Eq. (4) stems from thevirial theorem, and from the classical mechanics relationships between the angular momentum, the kinetic energy and the frequency of revolution. From eq. (1c,2,4), it stems: where: that is: This results states that the angular momentum of the electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant.: 15 Substituting the expression for the velocity gives an equation forrin terms ofn: so that the allowed orbit radius at anynis The smallest possible value ofrin the hydrogen atom (Z= 1) is called theBohr radiusand is equal to: The energy of then-th level for any atom is determined","atom is determined by the radius and quantum number: An electron in the lowest energy level of hydrogen (n= 1) therefore has about 13.6eVless energy than a motionless electron infinitely far from the nucleus. The next energy level (n= 2) is −3.4 eV. The third (n=3) is −1.51 eV, and so on. For larger values ofn, these are also the binding energies of a highly excited atom with one electron in a large circular orbit around the rest of the atom. The hydrogen formula also coincides with theWallis product. The combination of natural constants in the energy formula is called the Rydberg energy (RE): This expression is clarified by interpreting it in combinations that form morenatural units: Since this derivation is with the assumption that the nucleus is orbited by one electron, we can generalize this result by letting the nucleus have a chargeq=Ze, whereZis the atomic number. This will now give us energy levels for hydrogenic (hydrogen-like) atoms, which can serve as a rough order-of-magnitude approximation of","approximation of the actual energy levels. So for nuclei withZprotons, the energy levels are (to a rough approximation): The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (seen-body problem) because the electrons are not only affected by thenucleusbut also interact with each other via theCoulomb force. WhenZ= 1/α(Z≈ 137), the motion becomes highly relativistic, andZ2cancels theα2inR; the orbit energy begins to be comparable to rest energy. Sufficiently large nuclei, if they were stable, would reduce their charge by creating a bound electron from the vacuum, ejecting the positron to infinity. This is the theoretical phenomenon of electromagnetic charge screening which predicts a maximum nuclear charge. Emission of such positrons has been observed in the collisions of heavy ions to create temporary super-heavy nuclei. The Bohr formula properly uses thereduced massof electron and proton in all situations, instead of the mass of the electron, However, these numbers are very nearly","are very nearly the same, due to the much larger mass of the proton, about 1836.1 times the mass of the electron, so that the reduced mass in the system is the mass of the electron multiplied by the constant 1836.1/(1+1836.1) = 0.99946. This fact was historically important in convincing Rutherford of the importance of Bohr's model, for it explained the fact that the frequencies of lines in the spectra for singly ionized helium do not differ from those of hydrogen by a factor of exactly 4, but rather by 4 times the ratio of the reduced mass for the hydrogen vs. the helium systems, which was much closer to the experimental ratio than exactly 4. For positronium, the formula uses the reduced mass also, but in this case, it is exactly the electron mass divided by 2. For any value of the radius, the electron and the positron are each moving at half the speed around their common center of mass, and each has only one fourth the kinetic energy. The total kinetic energy is half what it would be for a single electron","a single electron moving around a heavy nucleus. Rydberg formula Beginning in late 1860s,Johann Balmerand laterJohannes RydbergandWalther Ritzdeveloped increasingly accurate empirical formula matching measured atomic spectral lines. Critical for Bohr's later work, Rydberg expressed his formula in terms of wave-number, equivalent to frequency.These formula contained a constant,R{\\displaystyle R}, now known theRydberg constantand a pair of integers indexing the lines:: 247ν=R(1m2−1n2).{\\displaystyle \\nu =R\\left({\\frac {1}{m^{2}}}-{\\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\\right).}Despite many attempts, no theory of the atom could reproduce these relatively simple formula.: 169 In Bohr's theory describing the energies of transitions orquantum jumpsbetween orbital energy levels is able to explain these formula. For the hydrogen atom Bohr starts with his derived formula for the energy released as a free electron moves into a stable circular orbit indexed byτ{\\displaystyle \\tau }:Wτ=2π2me4h2τ2{\\displaystyle W_{\\tau }={\\frac {2\\pi","}={\\frac {2\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}\\tau ^{2}}}}The energy difference between two such levels is then:hν=Wτ2−Wτ1=2π2me4h2(1τ22−1τ12){\\displaystyle h\\nu =W_{\\tau _{2}}-W_{\\tau _{1}}={\\frac {2\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}}}\\left({\\frac {1}{\\tau _{2}^{2}}}-{\\frac {1}{\\tau _{1}^{2}}}\\right)}Therefore Bohr's theory gives the Rydberg formula and moreover the numerical value the Rydberg constant for hydrogen in terms of more fundamental constants of nature, including the electron's charge, the electron's mass, and thePlanck constant:: 31cRH=2π2me4h3.{\\displaystyle cR_{H}={\\frac {2\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{3}}}.} Since the energy of a photon is these results can be expressed in terms of the wavelength of the photon given off: Bohr's derivation of the Rydberg constant, as well as the concomitant agreement of Bohr's formula with experimentally observed spectral lines of theLyman(nf=1),Balmer(nf=2), andPaschen(nf=3) series, and successful theoretical prediction of other lines not yet observed, was one reason that his model was","that his model was immediately accepted.: 34 To apply to atoms with more than one electron, the Rydberg formula can be modified by replacingZwithZ−bornwithn−bwherebis constant representing a screening effect due to the inner-shell and other electrons (seeElectron shelland the later discussion of the \"Shell Model of the Atom\" below). This was established empirically before Bohr presented his model. Shell model (heavier atoms) Bohr's original three papers in 1913 described mainly the electron configuration in lighter elements. Bohr called his electron shells, \"rings\" in 1913. Atomic orbitals within shells did not exist at the time of his planetary model. Bohr explains in Part 3 of his famous 1913 paper that the maximum electrons in a shell is eight, writing: \"We see, further, that a ring ofnelectrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of chargeneunlessn< 8.\" For smaller atoms, the electron shells would be filled as follows: \"rings of electrons will only join together if they contain equal numbers","equal numbers of electrons; and that accordingly the numbers of electrons on inner rings will only be 2, 4, 8\". However, in larger atoms the innermost shell would contain eight electrons, \"on the other hand, the periodic system of the elements strongly suggests that already in neonN= 10 an inner ring of eight electrons will occur\". Bohr wrote \"From the above we are led to the following possible scheme for the arrangement of the electrons in light atoms:\" In Bohr's third 1913 paper Part III called \"Systems Containing Several Nuclei\", he says that two atoms form molecules on a symmetrical plane and he reverts to describing hydrogen.The 1913 Bohr model did not discuss higher elements in detail andJohn William Nicholsonwas one of the first to prove in 1914 that it couldn't work for lithium, but was an attractive theory for hydrogen and ionized helium. In 1921, following the work of chemists and others involved in work on theperiodic table, Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for","model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time although these properties were proposed contemporarily with the identical work of chemistCharles Rugeley Bury Bohr's partner in research during 1914 to 1916 wasWalther Kosselwho corrected Bohr's work to show that electrons interacted through the outer rings, and Kossel called the rings: \"shells\".Irving Langmuiris credited with the first viable arrangement of electrons in shells with only two in the first shell and going up to eight in the next according to theoctet ruleof 1904, although Kossel had already predicted a maximum of eight per shell in 1916.Heavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr took from these chemists the idea that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. PerKossel, after that the orbit is full, the next level would have to be used.This gives the atom ashell structuredesigned by Kossel, Langmuir, and","Langmuir, and Bury, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit. This model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon ofscreening. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit. For example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1s orbit, and these orbit atZ= 2. Each one sees the nuclear charge ofZ= 3 minus the screening effect of the other, which crudely reduces the nuclear charge by 1 unit. This means that the innermost electrons orbit at approximately 1/2 the Bohr radius. The outermost electron in lithium orbits at roughly the Bohr radius, since the two inner electrons reduce the nuclear charge by 2. This outer electron should be at nearly one Bohr radius from the nucleus.","from the nucleus. Because the electrons strongly repel each other, the effective charge description is very approximate; the effective chargeZdoesn't usually come out to be an integer. The shell model was able to qualitatively explain many of the mysterious properties of atoms which became codified in the late 19th century in theperiodic table of the elements. One property was the size of atoms, which could be determined approximately by measuring theviscosityof gases and density of pure crystalline solids. Atoms tend to get smaller toward the right in the periodic table, and become much larger at the next line of the table. Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them. Every element on the last column of the table is chemically inert (noble gas). In the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling. Successive atoms become smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the","next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing it to expand. The first Bohr orbit is filled when it has two electrons, which explains why helium is inert. The second orbit allows eight electrons, and when it is full the atom is neon, again inert. The third orbital contains eight again, except that in the more correct Sommerfeld treatment (reproduced in modern quantum mechanics) there are extra \"d\" electrons. The third orbit may hold an extra 10 d electrons, but these positions are not filled until a few more orbitals from the next level are filled (filling the n=3 d orbitals produces the 10transition elements). The irregular filling pattern is an effect of interactions between electrons, which are not taken into account in either the Bohr or Sommerfeld models and which are difficult to calculate even in the modern treatment. Moseley's law and calculation (K-alpha X-ray emission lines) Niels Bohr said in 1962: \"You see actually the Rutherford work was not taken seriously. We cannot","We cannot understand today, but it was not taken seriously at all. There was no mention of it any place. The great change came from Moseley.\" In 1913,Henry Moseleyfound an empirical relationship between the strongest X-ray line emitted by atoms under electron bombardment (then known as theK-alphaline), and their atomic numberZ. Moseley's empiric formula was found to be derivable from Rydberg's formula and later Bohr's formula (Moseley actually mentions onlyErnest RutherfordandAntonius Van den Broekin terms of models as these had been published before Moseley's work and Moseley's 1913 paper was published the same month as the first Bohr model paper).The two additional assumptions thatthis X-ray line came from a transition between energy levels with quantum numbers 1 and 2, and, that the atomic numberZwhen used in the formula for atoms heavier than hydrogen, should be diminished by 1, to(Z− 1)2. Moseley wrote to Bohr, puzzled about his results, but Bohr was not able to help. At that time, he thought that the","he thought that the postulated innermost \"K\" shell of electrons should have at least four electrons, not the two which would have neatly explained the result. So Moseley published his results without a theoretical explanation. It wasWalther Kosselin 1914 and in 1916 who explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell. In Kossel's paper, he writes: \"This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of which ... only a certain number of electrons—namely, eight in our case—should be arranged. As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated.\"Later, chemist Langmuir realized that the effect was caused by charge","caused by charge screening, with an inner shell containing only 2 electrons. In his 1919 paper,Irving Langmuirpostulated the existence of \"cells\" which could each only contain two electrons each, and these were arranged in \"equidistant layers\". In the Moseley experiment, one of the innermost electrons in the atom is knocked out, leaving a vacancy in the lowest Bohr orbit, which contains a single remaining electron. This vacancy is then filled by an electron from the next orbit, which has n=2. But the n=2 electrons see an effective charge ofZ− 1, which is the value appropriate for the charge of the nucleus, when a single electron remains in the lowest Bohr orbit to screen the nuclear charge +Z, and lower it by −1 (due to the electron's negative charge screening the nuclear positive charge). The energy gained by an electron dropping from the second shell to the first gives Moseley's law for K-alpha lines, or Here,Rv=RE/his the Rydberg constant, in terms of frequency equal to 3.28 x 1015Hz. For values of Z","For values of Z between 11 and 31 this latter relationship had been empirically derived by Moseley, in a simple (linear) plot of the square root of X-ray frequency against atomic number (however, for silver, Z = 47, the experimentally obtained screening term should be replaced by 0.4). Notwithstanding its restricted validity,Moseley's law not only established the objective meaning of atomic number, but as Bohr noted, it also did more than the Rydberg derivation to establish the validity of the Rutherford/Van den Broek/Bohr nuclear model of the atom, with atomic number (place on the periodic table) standing for whole units of nuclear charge. Van den Broek had published his model in January 1913 showing the periodic table was arranged according to charge while Bohr's atomic model was not published until July 1913. TheK-alphaline of Moseley's time is now known to be a pair of close lines, written as (Kα1andKα2) inSiegbahn notation. Shortcomings The Bohr model gives an incorrect valueL=ħfor the ground state","the ground state orbital angular momentum: The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero from experiment. Although mental pictures fail somewhat at these levels of scale, an electron in the lowest modern \"orbital\" with no orbital momentum, may be thought of as not to revolve \"around\" the nucleus at all, but merely to go tightly around it in an ellipse with zero area (this may be pictured as \"back and forth\", without striking or interacting with the nucleus). This is only reproduced in a more sophisticated semiclassical treatment like Sommerfeld's. Still, even the most sophisticated semiclassical model fails to explain the fact that the lowest energy state is spherically symmetric – it doesn't point in any particular direction. Nevertheless, in the modernfully quantum treatment in phase space, the proper deformation (careful full extension) of the semi-classical result adjusts the angular momentum value to the correct effective one.As a consequence, the physical ground state expression is","state expression is obtained through a shift of the vanishing quantum angular momentum expression, which corresponds to spherical symmetry. In modern quantum mechanics, the electron in hydrogen is aspherical cloud of probabilitythat grows denser near the nucleus. The rate-constant of probability-decay in hydrogen is equal to the inverse of the Bohr radius, but since Bohr worked with circular orbits, not zero area ellipses, the fact that these two numbers exactly agree is considered a \"coincidence\". (However, many such coincidental agreements are found between the semiclassical vs. full quantum mechanical treatment of the atom; these include identical energy levels in the hydrogen atom and the derivation of a fine-structure constant, which arises from the relativistic Bohr–Sommerfeld model (see below) and which happens to be equal to an entirely different concept, in full modern quantum mechanics). The Bohr model also has difficulty with, or else fails to explain: Refinements Several enhancements to the Bohr","to the Bohr model were proposed, most notably theSommerfeld or Bohr–Sommerfeld models, which suggested that electrons travel in elliptical orbits around a nucleus instead of the Bohr model's circular orbits.This model supplemented the quantized angular momentum condition of the Bohr model with an additional radial quantization condition, theWilson–Sommerfeldquantization condition wherepris the radial momentum canonically conjugate to the coordinateqr, which is the radial position, andTis one full orbital period. The integral is theactionofaction-angle coordinates. This condition, suggested by thecorrespondence principle, is the only one possible, since the quantum numbers areadiabatic invariants. The Bohr–Sommerfeld model was fundamentally inconsistent and led to many paradoxes. Themagnetic quantum numbermeasured the tilt of the orbital plane relative to thexyplane, and it could only take a few discrete values. This contradicted the obvious fact that an atom could have any orientation relative to the","relative to the coordinates, without restriction. The Sommerfeld quantization can be performed in different canonical coordinates and sometimes gives different answers. The incorporation of radiation corrections was difficult, because it required finding action-angle coordinates for a combined radiation/atom system, which is difficult when the radiation is allowed to escape. The whole theory did not extend to non-integrable motions, which meant that many systems could not be treated even in principle. In the end, the model was replaced by the modern quantum-mechanical treatment of thehydrogen atom, which was first given byWolfgang Pauliin 1925, using Heisenberg'smatrix mechanics. The current picture of the hydrogen atom is based on theatomic orbitalsofwave mechanics, whichErwin Schrödingerdeveloped in 1926. However, this is not to say that the Bohr–Sommerfeld model was without its successes. Calculations based on the Bohr–Sommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic","more complex atomic spectral effects. For example, up to first-orderperturbations, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in theStark effect. At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model. The prevailing theory behind this difference lies in the shapes of the orbitals of the electrons, which vary according to the energy state of the electron. The Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization conditions lead to questions in modern mathematics. Consistent semiclassical quantization condition requires a certain type of structure on the phase space, which places topological limitations on the types of symplectic manifolds which can be quantized. In particular, the symplectic form should be thecurvature formof aconnectionof aHermitianline bundle, which is called aprequantization. Bohr also updated his","also updated his model in 1922, assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example, 2, 8, and 18) correspond to stable \"closed shells\". Model of the chemical bond Niels Bohr proposed a model of the atom anda model of the chemical bond. According to his model for adiatomic molecule, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei. Thedynamic equilibriumof the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei. The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account theCoulomb repulsion– the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other. Symbolism of planetary atomic models Although Bohr's atomic model was superseded by quantum models in the 1920's, the visual image of electrons orbiting a nucleus has remained the popular concept of atoms.","concept of atoms. The concept of an atom as a tinyplanetary systemhas been widely used as a symbol for atoms and even for \"atomic\" energy (even though this is more properly considered nuclear energy).:58Examples of its use over the past century include but are not limited to: See also References Footnotes Primary sources Further reading External links"],"string":"[\n \"Max Planck Max Karl Ernst Ludwig PlanckForMemRS(/ˈplæŋk/;German:ⓘ;23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a Germantheoretical physicistwhose discovery of energyquantawon him theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1918. Planck made many substantial contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame as a physicist rests primarily on his role as the originator ofquantum theoryand one of the founders ofmodern physics,which revolutionized understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. He is known for thePlanck constant, which is of foundational importance for quantum physics, and which he used to derive a set ofunits, today calledPlanck units, expressed only in terms of fundamentalphysical constants. Planck was twice president of the German scientific institutionKaiser Wilhelm Society. In 1948, it was renamed theMax Planck Society(Max-Planck-Gesellschaft) and nowadays includes 83 institutions representing a wide range of scientific directions. Early life and education Planck came from a traditional, intellectual family. His\",\n \"family. His paternal great-grandfather and grandfather were both theology professors inGöttingen; his father was a law professor at theUniversity of KielandMunich. One of his uncles was also a judge. Planck was born in 1858 inKiel,Holstein(nowSchleswig-Holstein), to Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck and his second wife, Emma Patzig. He was baptized with the name ofKarl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck; of his given names,Marxwas indicated as the\\\"appellation name\\\".However, by the age of ten he signed with the nameMaxand used this for the rest of his life. He was the sixth child in the family, though two of his siblings were from his father's first marriage. War was common during Planck's early years and among his earliest memories was the marching ofPrussianandAustriantroops into Kiel during theSecond Schleswig Warin 1864.In 1867 the family moved toMunich, and Planck enrolled in the Maximiliansgymnasiumschool. There, his mathematical talents emerged earlyand he later came under the tutelage of Hermann Müller, a\",\n \"Hermann Müller, a mathematician who took an interest in the youth, and taught himastronomyandmechanicsas well asmathematics. It was from Müller that Planck first learned the principle of conservation of energy. Planck graduated early, at age 17.This is how Planck first came in contact with the field of physics. Planck was gifted when it came to music. He took singing lessons and played piano, organ and cello, and composed songs and operas. However, instead of music he chose to studyphysics. Planck enrolled at theUniversity of Munichin 1874. Under professorPhilipp von Jolly's supervision, Planck performed the only experiments of his scientific career, studying thediffusionofhydrogenthrough heatedplatinum, but transferred totheoretical physics. Jolly advised Planck against going into theoretical physics. Planck recalls that in 1878, Jolly argued that physics was almost complete, being a \\\"highly developed, nearly fully matured science, that through the crowning achievement of the discovery of the principle of\",\n \"of the principle of conservation of energy will arguably soon take its final stable form\\\". In 1877, he went to theFriedrich Wilhelms Universityin Berlin for a year of study with physicistsHermann von HelmholtzandGustav Kirchhoffand mathematicianKarl Weierstrass. He wrote that Helmholtz was never quite prepared, spoke slowly, miscalculated endlessly, and bored his listeners, while Kirchhoff spoke in carefully prepared lectures which were dry and monotonous. He soon became close friends with Helmholtz. While there he undertook a program of mostly self-study ofRudolf Clausius'swritings, which led him to choosethermodynamicsas his field. In October 1878, Planck passed his qualifying exams and in February 1879 defended his dissertationÜber den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie(On the Second Law of Mechanical Heat Theory). He briefly taught mathematics and physics at his former school in Munich. By the year 1880, Planck had obtained the two highest academic degrees offered in Europe. The first was a\",\n \"The first was a doctorate degree after he completed his paper detailing his research and theory of thermodynamics.He then presented his thesis calledGleichgewichtszustände isotroper Körper in verschiedenen Temperaturen(Equilibrium states of isotropic bodies at different temperatures), which earned him ahabilitation. Career With the completion of his habilitation thesis, Planck became an unpaidPrivatdozent(German academic rank comparable to lecturer/assistant professor) in Munich, waiting until he was offered an academic position. Although he was initially ignored by the academic community, he furthered his work on the field ofheat theoryand discovered one after another the samethermodynamicalformalism asGibbswithout realizing it. Clausius's ideas onentropyoccupied a central role in his work. In April 1885, theUniversity of Kielappointed Planck as associate professor oftheoretical physics. Further work on entropy and its treatment, especially as applied inphysical chemistry, followed. He published hisTreatise\",\n \"hisTreatise on Thermodynamicsin 1897.He proposed a thermodynamic basis forSvante Arrhenius's theory ofelectrolyticdissociation. In 1889, he was named the successor to Kirchhoff's position at theFriedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin– presumably thanks to Helmholtz's intercession – and by 1892 became a full professor. In 1907 Planck was offeredLudwig Boltzmann's position inVienna, but turned it down to stay in Berlin. During 1909, as a University of Berlin professor, he was invited to become theErnest Kempton Adams Lecturer in Theoretical PhysicsatColumbia UniversityinNew York City. A series of his lectures were translated and co-published by Columbia University professorA. P. Wills.He was elected to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1914.He retired from Berlin on 10 January 1926,and was succeeded byErwin Schrödinger.He was elected to the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1926 and theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1933. Professor at Berlin University As a professor at\",\n \"As a professor at theFriedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin, Planck joined the local Physical Society. He later wrote about this time: \\\"In those days I was essentially the only theoretical physicist there, whence things were not so easy for me, because I started mentioning entropy, but this was not quite fashionable, since it was regarded as a mathematical spook\\\".Thanks to his initiative, the various local Physical Societies of Germany merged in 1898 to form the German Physical Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG); from 1905 to 1909 Planck was the president. Planck started a six-semester course of lectures on theoretical physics, \\\"dry, somewhat impersonal\\\" according toLise Meitner, \\\"using no notes, never making mistakes, never faltering; the best lecturer I ever heard\\\" according to an English participant,James R. Partington, who continues: \\\"There were always many standing around the room. As the lecture-room was well heated and rather close, some of the listeners would from time to time drop\",\n \"time to time drop to the floor, but this did not disturb the lecture.\\\" Planck did not establish an actual \\\"school\\\"; the number of his graduate students was only about 20, among them: Entropy Thermodynamics, also known as the \\\"mechanical theory of heat\\\" at the end of the 19th century, had emerged at the beginning of this century from an attempt to understand the functioning of steam engines and to improve their efficiency. In the 1840s, several researchers independently discovered and formulated the law of conservation of energy, which is now also known as thefirst law of thermodynamics. In 1850,Rudolf Clausiusformulated the so-calledsecond law of thermodynamics, which states that a voluntary (or spontaneous) transfer of energy is only possible from a warmer to a colder body, but not vice versa. In England at this timeWilliam Thomsoncame to the same conclusion. Clausius generalized his formulation further and further and came up with a new formulation in 1865. To this end, he introduced the concept ofEntropy,\",\n \"concept ofEntropy, which he defined as a measure of the reversible supply of heat in relation to the absolute temperature. The new formulation of the second law, which is still valid today, was: \\\"Entropy can be created, but never destroyed\\\". Clausius, whose work Planck read as a young student during his stay in Berlin, successfully applied this new law of nature to mechanical, thermoelectric and chemical processes. In his dissertation in 1879, Planck summarized Clausius' writings, pointing out contradictions and inaccuracies in their formulation and then clarifying them. In addition, he generalized the validity of the second law to all processes in nature, Clausius had limited its application to reversible processes and thermal processes. Furthermore, Planck dealt intensively with the new concept of entropy and emphasized, that entropy is not only a property of a physical system, but at the same time a measure of the irreversibility of a process: If entropy is generated in a process, it is irreversible,\",\n \"it is irreversible, since entropy cannot be destroyed according to the second law. In reversible processes, the entropy remains constant. He presented this fact in detail in 1887 in a series of treatises entitled \\\"On the Princip of the Increase of Entropy\\\". In his study of the concept of entropy, Planck did not follow the molecular, probabilistic interpretation that prevailed at the time, as these do not provide absolute proof of universality. Instead, he pursued a phenomenological approach and was also skeptical of atomism. Even though he later abandoned this attitude in the course of his work on the law of radiation, his early work impressively shows the possibilites of the phenome of thermodynamics in solving concrete physicochemical problems. Planck's understanding of entropy included the realization that the maximum of entropy corresponds to the equilibrium state. The accompanying conclusion that knowledge of the Entropy allows all laws of thermodynamic equilibrium states to be derived corresponds to\",\n \"corresponds to the modern understanding of such states. Planck therefore chose equilibrium processes as his research focus and, based on his habilitation thesis, researched the coexistence of aggregate states and the equilibrium of gas reactions, for example. This work on the frontier of chemical thermodynamics also received great attention due to the rapidly expanding chemical work at that time. Independently of Planck,Josiah Willard Gibbshad also discovered almost all the knowledge Planck gained about the properties of physicochemical equilibria and published them from 1876 onwards. Planck was unaware of these essays, and they did not appear in German until 1892. However, both scientists approached the topic in different ways, while Planck dealt with irreversible processes, Gibbs looked at equilibria. This approach was finally able to prevail because of its simplicity, but Planck's approach is attributed the greater universality. Black-body radiation In 1894, Planck turned his attention to the problem\",\n \"to the problem ofblack-body radiation. The problem had been stated by Kirchhoff in 1859: \\\"how does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by ablack body(a perfect absorber, also known as a cavity radiator) depend on thefrequencyof the radiation (i.e., the color of the light) and the temperature of the body?\\\". The question had been explored experimentally, but no theoretical treatment had agreed with the experimentally observed evidence.Wilhelm WienproposedWien's law, which correctly predicted the behaviour at high frequencies, but failed at low frequencies. TheRayleigh–Jeans law, another approach to the problem, agreed with experimental results at low frequencies, but created what was later known as the \\\"ultraviolet catastrophe\\\" at high frequencies, as predicted byclassical physics. However, contrary to many textbooks, this was not a motivation for Planck. Planck's first proposed solution to the problem in 1899 followed from what he called the \\\"principle of elementary disorder\\\", which allowed\",\n \"which allowed him to derive Wien's law from a number of assumptions about theentropyof an ideal oscillator, creating what was referred to as the Wien–Planck law. Soon, however, it was found that experimental evidence did not confirm the new law at all, to Planck's frustration. He revised his approach and now derived the first version of the famousPlanck black-body radiation law, which described clearly the experimentally observed black-body spectrum. It was first proposed in a meeting of the DPG on 19 October 1900 and published in 1901. (This first derivation did not include energy quantisation, and did not usestatistical mechanics, to which he held an aversion.) In November 1900 Planck revised this first version, now relying onBoltzmann's statistical interpretation of thesecond law of thermodynamicsas a way of gaining a more fundamental understanding of the principles behind his radiation law. Planck was deeply suspicious of the philosophical and physical implications of such an interpretation of\",\n \"interpretation of Boltzmann's approach; thus his recourse to them was, as he later put it, \\\"an act of despair ... I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics\\\". The central assumption behind his new derivation, presented to the DPG on 14 December 1900, was the supposition, now known as thePlanck postulate, that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only inquantizedform, in other words, the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit: wherehis thePlanck constant, also known as Planck's action quantum (introduced already in 1899), andνis the frequency of the radiation. Note that the elementary units of energy discussed here are represented byhνand not simply byν. Physicists now call these quanta photons, and a photon of frequencyνwill have its own specific and unique energy. The total energy at that frequency is then equal tohνmultiplied by the number of photons at that frequency. At first Planck considered that quantisation was only \\\"a purely formal assumption ... actually\",\n \"... actually I did not think much about it ...\\\"; nowadays this assumption, incompatible withclassical physics, is regarded as the birth ofquantum physicsand the greatest intellectual accomplishment of Planck's career. (Boltzmannhad been discussing in a theoretical paper in 1877 the possibility that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete). The discovery of the Planck constant enabled him to define a new universal set ofphysical units(such as the Planck length and the Planck mass), all based on fundamental physical constants, upon which much of quantum theory is based. In a discussion with his son in December 1918 Planck described his discovery as 'a discovery of the first rank, comparable perhaps only to the discoveries of Newton'.In recognition of Planck's fundamental contribution to a new branch of physics, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918; (he received the award in 1919). Subsequently, Planck tried to grasp the meaning of energy quanta, but to no avail. \\\"My unavailing\",\n \"\\\"My unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble.\\\" Even several years later, other physicists such asRayleigh,Jeans, andLorentzset the Planck constant to zero in order to align with classical physics, but Planck knew well that this constant had a precise nonzero value. \\\"I am unable to understand Jeans' stubbornness – he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing, the same asHegelwas for philosophy. So much the worse for the facts if they don't fit.\\\" Max Bornwrote about Planck: \\\"He was, by nature, a conservative mind; he had nothing of the revolutionary and was thoroughly skeptical about speculations. Yet his belief in the compelling force of logical reasoning from facts was so strong that he did not flinch from announcing the most revolutionary idea which ever has shaken physics.\\\" Einstein and the theory of relativity In 1905, the three epochal papers byAlbert Einsteinwere published in the\",\n \"published in the journalAnnalen der Physik. Planck was among the few who immediately recognized the significance of thespecial theory of relativity. Thanks to his influence, this theory was soon widely accepted in Germany. Planck also contributed considerably to extend the special theory of relativity. For example, he recast the theory in terms of classicalaction. Einstein's hypothesis of lightquanta(photons), based onHeinrich Hertz's1887 discovery (and further investigation byPhilipp Lenard) of thephotoelectric effect, was initially rejected by Planck. He was unwilling to discard completelyMaxwell's theory ofelectrodynamics. \\\"The theory of light would be thrown back not by decades, but by centuries, into the age whenChristiaan Huygensdared to fight against the mighty emission theory ofIsaac Newton...\\\" In 1910, Einstein pointed out the anomalous behavior ofspecific heatat low temperatures as another example of a phenomenon which defies explanation by classical physics. Planck andWalther Nernst, seeking to\",\n \"Nernst, seeking to clarify the increasing number of contradictions, organized the FirstSolvay Conference(Brussels 1911). At this meeting Einstein was able to convince Planck. Meanwhile, Planck had been appointed dean of Berlin University, whereby it was possible for him to call Einstein to Berlin and establish a new professorship for him (1914). Soon the two scientists became close friends and met frequently to play music together. First World War At the onset of theFirst World WarPlanck endorsed the general excitement of the public, writing that, \\\"Besides much that is horrible, there is also much that is unexpectedly great and beautiful: the smooth solution of the most difficult domestic political problems by the unification of all parties (and) ... the extolling of everything good and noble.\\\"Planck also signed the infamous \\\"Manifesto of the 93 intellectuals\\\", a pamphlet of polemic war propaganda (while Einstein retained a strictly pacifistic attitude which almost led to his imprisonment, only being spared\",\n \"only being spared thanks to hisSwisscitizenship). In 1915, when Italy was still a neutral power, Planck voted successfully for a scientific paper from Italy, which received a prize from thePrussian Academy of Sciences, where Planck was one of four permanent presidents. Post-war and the Weimar Republic In the turbulent post-war years, Planck, now the highest authority of German physics, issued the slogan \\\"persevere and continue working\\\" to his colleagues. In October 1920, he andFritz Haberestablished theNotgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft(Emergency Organization of German Science), aimed at providing financial support for scientific research. A considerable portion of the money the organization would distribute was raised abroad. Planck held leading positions at Berlin University, the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the German Physical Society, and theKaiser Wilhelm Society(which became theMax Planck Societyin 1948). During this time economic conditions in Germany were such that he was hardly able to\",\n \"was hardly able to conduct research. In 1926, Planck became a foreign member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. During the interwar period, Planck became a member of the Deutsche Volks-Partei (German People's Party), the party of Nobel Peace Prize laureateGustav Stresemann, which aspired to liberal aims for domestic policy and rather revisionistic aims for politics around the world. Planck disagreed with the introduction ofuniversal suffrageand later expressed the view that the Nazi dictatorship resulted from \\\"the ascent of the rule of the crowds\\\". Quantum mechanics At the end of the 1920s,Niels Bohr,Werner Heisenberg, andWolfgang Paulihad worked out theCopenhagen interpretationof quantum mechanics, but it was rejected by Planck, and by Schrödinger, Laue, and Einstein as well. Planck expected thatwave mechanicswould soon render quantum theory – his own child – unnecessary. This was not to be the case, however. Further work only served to underscore the enduring central importance of\",\n \"importance of quantum theory, even against his and Einstein's philosophical revulsions. Here Planck experienced the truth of his own earlier observation from his struggle with the older views during his younger years: \\\"A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it.\\\" Nazi dictatorship and the Second World War When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Planck was 74 years old. He witnessed many Jewish friends and colleagues expelled from their positions and humiliated, and hundreds of scientists emigrate fromNazi Germany. Again he tried to \\\"persevere and continue working\\\" and asked scientists who were considering emigration to remain in Germany. Nevertheless, he did help his nephew, the economistHermann Kranold, to emigrate toLondonafter his arrest.He hoped the crisis would abate soon and the political situation would improve. Otto Hahnasked Planck to gather\",\n \"Planck to gather well-known German professors in order to issue a public proclamation against the treatment of Jewish professors, but Planck replied, \\\"If you are able to gather today 30 such gentlemen, then tomorrow 150 others will come and speak against it, because they are eager to take over the positions of the others.\\\"Under Planck's leadership, theKaiser Wilhelm Society(KWG) avoided open conflict with the Nazi regime, except concerning the Jewish Fritz Haber. In May of 1933 Planck requested and received an interview with the recently appointed Chancellor of GermanyAdolf Hitlerto discuss the issue, telling him that the \\\"forced immigration of Jews would kill German science and Jews could be good Germans\\\", to which the chancellor replied \\\"but we don't have anything against the Jews, only against communists\\\". Planck was therefore unsuccessful, since this reply \\\"took from him every basis for further negotiation\\\",as to Hitler \\\"the Jews are all Communists, and these are my enemies.\\\" In the following year, 1934,\",\n \"year, 1934, Haber died in exile. One year later, Planck, having been the president of the KWG since 1930, organized in a somewhat provocative style an official commemorative meeting for Haber. He also succeeded in secretly enabling a number of Jewish scientists to continue working in institutes of the KWG for several years. In 1936, his term as president of the KWG ended, and the Nazi government pressured him to refrain from seeking another term. As the political climate in Germany gradually became more hostile,Johannes Stark, prominent exponent of theDeutsche Physik(\\\"German Physics\\\", also called \\\"Aryan Physics\\\") attacked Planck,Arnold Sommerfeld, and Heisenberg for continuing to teach the theories of Einstein, calling them \\\"white Jews\\\". The \\\"Hauptamt Wissenschaft\\\" (Nazi government office for science) started an investigation of Planck's ancestry, claiming that he was \\\"1/16 Jewish\\\", but Planck denied it. In 1938, Planck celebrated his 80th birthday. The DPG held a celebration, during which the Max-Planck\",\n \"the Max-Planck medal (founded as the highest medal by the DPG in 1928) was awarded to French physicistLouis de Broglie. At the end of 1938, the Prussian Academy lost its remaining independence and was taken over by Nazis (Gleichschaltung). Planck protested by resigning his presidency. He continued to travel frequently, giving numerous public talks, such as his talk on Religion and Science, and five years later he was sufficiently fit to climb 3,000-metre peaks in theAlps. During theSecond World Warthe increasing number of Allied bombing missions against Berlin forced Planck and his wife to temporarily leave the city and live in the countryside. In 1942, he wrote: \\\"In me an ardent desire has grown to persevere this crisis and live long enough to be able to witness the turning point, the beginning of a new rise.\\\" In February 1944, his home in Berlin was completely destroyed by an air raid, annihilating all his scientific records and correspondence. His rural retreat was threatened by the rapid advance of the\",\n \"advance of the Allied armies from both sides. In 1944, Planck's sonErwinwas arrested by theGestapofollowing the attempted assassination of Hitler in the20 July plot. He was tried and sentenced to death by thePeople's Courtin October 1944. Erwin was hanged at Berlin'sPlötzensee Prisonin January 1945. The death of his son destroyed much of Planck's will to live. Personal life and death In March 1887, Planck married Marie Merck (1861–1909), sister of a school fellow, and moved with her into a sublet apartment in Kiel. They had four children: Karl (1888–1916), the twins Emma (1889–1919) and Grete (1889–1917), andErwin(1893–1945). After living in the apartment in Berlin, the Planck family lived in a villa in Berlin-Grunewald, Wangenheimstrasse 21. Several other professors fromUniversity of Berlinlived nearby, among them theologianAdolf von Harnack, who became a close friend of Planck. Soon the Planck home became a social and cultural center. Numerous well-known scientists, such asAlbert Einstein,Otto HahnandLise\",\n \"HahnandLise Meitnerwere frequent visitors. The tradition of jointly performing music had already been established in the home ofHelmholtz. After several happy years, in July 1909 Marie Planck died, possibly fromtuberculosis. In March 1911 Planck married his second wife, Marga von Hoesslin (1882–1948); in December his fifth child Hermann was born. During theFirst World WarPlanck's second son Erwin was taken prisoner by the French in 1914, while his oldest son Karl was killed in action atVerdun. Grete died in 1917 while giving birth to her first child. Her sister died the same way two years later, after having married Grete's widower. Both granddaughters survived and were named after their mothers. Planck endured these losses stoically. In January 1945,Erwin Planck, to whom he had been particularly close, was sentenced to death by theNaziVolksgerichtshofbecause of his participation in thefailed attempt to assassinate Hitlerin July 1944. Erwin was executed on 23 January 1945. After World war II ended, Planck,\",\n \"II ended, Planck, his second wife, and their son were brought to a relative inGöttingen, where Planck died on October 4, 1947. He was buried in the old Stadtfriedhof (City Cemetery) in Göttingen. Religious views Planck was a member of theLutheran Churchin Germany.He was very tolerant toward alternative views andreligions.In a lecture in 1937 entitled \\\"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\\\" (\\\"Religion and Natural Science\\\") he suggested the importance of these symbols and rituals related directly with a believer's ability to worship God, but that one must be mindful that the symbols provide an imperfect illustration of divinity. He criticized atheism for being focused on the derision of such symbols, while at the same time warned of the over-estimation of the importance of such symbols by believers. In \\\"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\\\", Planck expressed the view that God is present everywhere, and he held that \\\"the holiness of the unintelligible Godhead is conveyed by the holiness of symbols.\\\" Atheists, he thought,\",\n \"he thought, attach too much importance to what are merely symbols. He was a churchwarden from 1920 until his death, and believed in an almighty, all-knowing, beneficent God (although not necessarily a personal one). Both science and religion wage a \\\"tireless battle against skepticism and dogmatism, against unbelief and superstition\\\" with the goal \\\"toward God!\\\" Planck said in 1944, \\\"As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a result of my research about atoms this much: There is no matter as such. All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particle of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the atom together. We must assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent spirit . This spirit is the matrix of all matter.\\\" Planck argued that the concept of God is important to both religion and science, but in different ways: \\\"Both religion and science require a belief\",\n \"require a belief in God. For believers, God is in the beginning, and for physicists He is at the end of all considerations … To the former He is the foundation, to the latter, the crown of the edifice of every generalized world view\\\". Furthermore, Planck wrote, ...\\\"to believe\\\" means \\\"to recognize as a truth\\\", and the knowledge of nature, continually advancing on incontestably safe tracks, has made it utterly impossible for a person possessing some training in natural science to recognize as founded on truth the many reports of extraordinary occurrences contradicting the laws of nature, of miracles which are still commonly regarded as essential supports and confirmations of religious doctrines, and which formerly used to be accepted as facts pure and simple, without doubt or criticism. The belief in miracles must retreat step by step before relentlessly and reliably progressing science and we cannot doubt that sooner or later it must vanish completely. Noted historian of scienceJohn L. Heilbroncharacterized\",\n \"Planck's views on God asdeistic.Heilbron further relates that when asked about his religious affiliation, Planck replied that although he had always been deeply religious, he did not believe \\\"in a personal God, let alone a Christian God\\\". Publications ter Haar, D.(1967).\\\"On the Theory of the Energy Distribution Law of the Normal Spectrum\\\"(PDF).The Old Quantum Theory.Pergamon Press. p. 82.LCCN66029628. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 September 2016. Retrieved5 April2014. See also References Sources External links\",\n \"Albert Einstein Albert Einstein(/ˈaɪnstaɪn/EYEN-styne;German:ⓘ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-borntheoretical physicistwho is widely held as one of the most influentialscientists. Best known for developing thetheory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions toquantum mechanics.Hismass–energy equivalenceformulaE=mc2, which arises fromspecial relativity, has been called \\\"the world's most famous equation\\\".He received the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\\\"for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of thephotoelectric effect\\\",a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. Born in theGerman Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of theKingdom of Württemberg)the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swissfederal polytechnic schoolinZürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he\",\n \"which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at theSwiss Patent Officein Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to theUniversity of Zurich. In 1914, he moved toBerlinin order to join thePrussian Academy of Sciencesand theHumboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of theKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of theKingdom of Prussia.In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States,Adolf Hitler came to powerin Germany. Horrified by theNaziwar of exterminationagainst his fellow Jews,Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was grantedAmerican citizenshipin 1940.On the eve ofWorld War II, he endorseda letterto PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltalerting him to the potentialGerman nuclear weapons programand recommended that the US beginsimilar research. Einstein supported theAlliesbut generally viewed the idea ofnuclear weaponswith great dismay. Einstein's work is also known for\",\n \"is also known for its influence on thephilosophy of science.In 1905, he publishedfour groundbreaking papers, sometimes described as hisannus mirabilis(miracle year).These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explainedBrownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability ofclassical mechanicsto account satisfactorily for the behavior of theelectromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed ageneral theory of relativitythat extended his system of mechanics to incorporategravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of theuniverseas a whole. In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions tostatistical mechanicsand quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics ofradiation, in which light\",\n \"in which light consists of particles, subsequently calledphotons. With the Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork forBose-Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that \\\"God does not play dice\\\".Second, he attempted to devise aunified field theoryby generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to includeelectromagnetismtoo. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstreammodern physics. His intellectual achievements and originality madeEinsteinbroadly synonymous withgenius.In 1999, he was namedTime'sPerson of the Century.In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journalPhysics World, Einstein was ranked the greatest physicist of all time. Life and career Childhood, youth and education Albert Einstein was born inUlm,in\",\n \"was born inUlm,in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879.His parents, secularAshkenazi Jews, wereHermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, andPauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved toMunich's borough ofLudwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based ondirect current.He often related a formative event from his youth, when he was sick in bed and his father brought him acompass. This sparked his lifelong fascination withelectromagnetism. He realized that \\\"Something deeply hidden had to be behind things.\\\" Albert attended St. Peter'sCatholic elementary schoolin Munich from the age of five. When he was eight, he was transferred to theLuitpold Gymnasium, where he received advanced primary and then secondary school education. In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company tendered for a contract to install electric lighting in Munich, but without success—they lacked\",\n \"success—they lacked the capital that would have been required to update their technology from direct current to the more efficient,alternating currentalternative.The failure of their bid forced them to sell their Munich factory and search for new opportunities elsewhere. The Einstein family moved to Italy, first toMilanand a few months later toPavia, where they settled inPalazzo Cornazzani.Einstein, then fifteen, stayed behind in Munich in order to finish his schooling. His father wanted him to studyelectrical engineering, but he was a fractious pupil who found the Gymnasium's regimen and teaching methods far from congenial. He later wrote that the school's policy of strictrote learningwas harmful to creativity. At the end of December 1894, a letter from a doctor persuaded the Luitpold's authorities to release him from its care, and he joined his family in Pavia.While in Italy as a teenager, he wrote an essay entitled \\\"On the Investigation of the State of theEtherin a Magnetic Field\\\". Einstein excelled at\",\n \"excelled at physics and mathematics from an early age, and soon acquired the mathematical expertise normally only found in a child several years his senior. He began teaching himself algebra, calculus andEuclidean geometrywhen he was twelve; he made such rapid progress that he discovered an original proof of thePythagorean theorembefore his thirteenth birthday.A family tutor,Max Talmud, said that only a short time after he had given the twelve year old Einstein a geometry textbook, the boy \\\"had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow.\\\"Einstein recorded that he had \\\"masteredintegralanddifferential calculus\\\" while still just fourteen.His love of algebra and geometry was so great that at twelve, he was already confident that nature could be understood as a \\\"mathematical structure\\\". At thirteen, when his range of enthusiasms had broadened to include music and philosophy,Talmud introduced\",\n \"introduced Einstein toKant'sCritique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, \\\"At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him.\\\" In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for thefederal polytechnic school(later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the test,but performed with distinction in physics and mathematics.On the advice of the polytechnic's principal, he completed his secondary education at theArgovian cantonal school(agymnasium) inAarau, Switzerland, graduating in 1896.While lodging in Aarau with the family ofJost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister,Maja, later married Winteler's son Paul.) In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced hiscitizenship of the German Kingdom of Württembergin order to\",\n \"order to avoidconscription into military service.TheMatura(graduation for the successful completion of higher secondary schooling), awarded to him in September 1896, acknowledged him to have performed well across most of the curriculum, allotting him atop grade of 6for history, physics, algebra, geometry, and descriptive geometry.At seventeen, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, a year older than him, took up a teaching post inOlsberg, Switzerland. The five other polytechnic school freshmen following the same course as Einstein included just one woman, a twenty year oldSerbian,Mileva Marić. Over the next few years, the pair spent many hours discussing their shared interests and learning about topics in physics that the polytechnic school's lectures did not cover. In his letters to Marić, Einstein confessed that exploring science with her by his side was much more enjoyable than reading a textbook in solitude.\",\n \"in solitude. Eventually the two students became not only friends but also lovers. Historians of physics are divided on the question of the extent to which Marić contributed to the insights of Einstein'sannus mirabilispublications. There is at least some evidence that he was influenced by her scientific ideas,but there are scholars who doubt whether her impact on his thought was of any great significance at all. Marriages, relationships and children Correspondence between Einstein and Marić, discovered and published in 1987, revealed that in early 1902, while Marić was visiting her parents inNovi Sad, she gave birth to a daughter,Lieserl. When Marić returned to Switzerland it was without the child, whose fate is uncertain. A letter of Einstein's that he wrote in September 1903 suggests that the girl was either given up for adoption or died ofscarlet feverin infancy. Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their sonHans Albertwas born inBern, Switzerland. Their sonEduardwas born in Zürich in\",\n \"born in Zürich in July 1910. In letters that Einstein wrote to Marie Winteler in the months before Eduard's arrival, he described his love for his wife as \\\"misguided\\\" and mourned the \\\"missed life\\\" that he imagined he would have enjoyed if he had married Winteler instead: \\\"I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be.\\\" In 1912, Einstein entered into a relationship withElsa Löwenthal, who was both his first cousin on his mother's side and his second cousin on his father's.When Marić learned of his infidelity soon after moving to Berlin with him in April 1914, she returned to Zürich, taking Hans Albert and Eduard with her.Einstein and Marić were granted a divorce on 14 February 1919 on the grounds of having lived apart for five years.As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed that if he were to win a Nobel Prize, he would give the money that he received to Marić; he won the prize two years later. Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919.In 1923, he began a\",\n \"1923, he began a relationship with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of his close friend Hans Mühsam.Löwenthal nevertheless remained loyal to him, accompanying him when he emigrated to the United States in 1933. In 1935, she was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. She died in December 1936. A volume of Einstein's letters released byHebrew University of Jerusalemin 2006added further names to the catalog of women with whom he was romantically involved. They included Margarete Lebach (a married Austrian),Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal.After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by some to be a Russian spy; her husband, the Russian sculptorSergei Konenkov, created the bronze bust of Einstein at theInstitute for Advanced Studyat Princeton. Following an\",\n \"Following an episode of acute mental illness at about the age of twenty, Einstein's son Eduard was diagnosed withschizophrenia.He spent the remainder of his life either in the care of his mother or in temporary confinement in an asylum. After her death, he was committed permanently toBurghölzli, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich. 1902–1909: Assistant at the Swiss Patent Office Einstein graduated from the federal polytechnic school in 1900, duly certified as competent to teach mathematics and physics.His successful acquisition of Swiss citizenship in February 1901was not followed by the usual sequel ofconscription; the Swiss authorities deemed him medically unfit for military service. He found that Swiss schools too appeared to have no use for him, failing to offer him a teaching position despite the almost two years that he spent applying for one. Eventually it was with the help ofMarcel Grossmann's father that he secured a post inBernat theSwiss Patent Office,as anassistant examiner – level III.\",\n \"– level III. Patent applicationsthat landed on Einstein's desk for his evaluation included ideas for a gravel sorter and an electric typewriter.His employers were pleased enough with his work to make his position permanent in 1903, although they did not think that he should be promoted until he had \\\"fully mastered machine technology\\\".It is conceivable that his labors at the patent office had a bearing on his development of his special theory of relativity. He arrived at his revolutionary ideas about space, time and light through thought experiments about the transmission of signals and the synchronization of clocks, matters which also figured in some of the inventions submitted to him for assessment. In 1902, Einstein and some friends whom he had met in Bern formed a group that held regular meetings to discuss science and philosophy. Their choice of a name for their club, theOlympia Academy, was an ironic comment upon its far from Olympian status. Sometimes they were joined by Marić, who limited her\",\n \"who limited her participation in their proceedings to careful listening.The thinkers whose works they reflected upon includedHenri Poincaré,Ernst MachandDavid Hume, all of whom significantly influenced Einstein's own subsequent ideas and beliefs. 1900–1905: First scientific papers Einstein's first paper,\\\"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\\\"(\\\"Conclusions drawn from the phenomena of capillarity\\\"), in which he proposed a model of intermolecular attraction that he afterwards disavowed as worthless, was published in the journalAnnalen der Physikin 1901.His 24-page doctoral dissertation also addressed a topic in molecular physics. Titled \\\"Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen\\\" (\\\"A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions\\\") and dedicated to his friend Marcel Grossman, it was completed on 30 April 1905and approved by ProfessorAlfred Kleinerof the University of Zurich three months later. (Einstein was formally awarded his PhD on 15 January 1906.)Four other pieces of work that Einstein completed in\",\n \"completed in 1905—his famous paperson thephotoelectric effect,Brownian motion, hisspecial theory of relativityand theequivalence of mass and energy—have led to the year being celebrated as anannus mirabilisfor physics akin to 1666 (the year in whichIsaac Newtonexperienced his greatest epiphanies). The publications deeply impressed Einstein's contemporaries. 1908–1933: Early academic career Einstein's sabbatical as a civil servant approached its end in 1908, when he secured a junior teaching position at theUniversity of Bern. In 1909, a lecture on relativisticelectrodynamicsthat he gave at the University of Zurich, much admired by Alfred Kleiner, led to Zürich's luring him away from Bern with a newly created associate professorship.Promotion to a full professorship followed in April 1911, when he accepted a chair at the GermanCharles-Ferdinand Universityin Prague, a move which required him to become anAustriancitizen of theAustro-Hungarian Empire.His time in Prague saw him producing eleven research papers. In\",\n \"research papers. In July 1912, he returned to hisalma mater, theETH Zurich, to take up a chair in theoretical physics. His teaching activities there centred onthermodynamicsand analytical mechanics, and his research interests included the molecular theory of heat,continuum mechanicsand the development of a relativistic theory of gravitation. In his work on the latter topic, he was assisted by his friend, Marcel Grossmann, whose knowledge of the kind of mathematics required was greater than his own. In the spring of 1913, two German visitors,Max PlanckandWalther Nernst, called upon Einstein in Zürich in the hope of persuading him to relocate to Berlin.They offered him membership of thePrussian Academy of Sciences, the directorship of the plannedKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physicsand a chair at theHumboldt University of Berlinthat would allow him to pursue his research supported by a professorial salary but with no teaching duties to burden him.Their invitation was all the more appealing to him because Berlin\",\n \"him because Berlin happened to be the home of his latest girlfriend, Elsa Löwenthal.He duly joined the Academy on 24 July 1913,and moved into an apartment in the Berlin district ofDahlemon 1 April 1914.He was installed in his Humboldt University position shortly thereafter. The outbreak of theFirst World Warin July 1914 marked the beginning of Einstein's gradual estrangement from the nation of his birth. When the \\\"Manifesto of the Ninety-Three\\\" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German thinkers that justified Germany's belligerence—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to distance himself from it and sign the alternative, eirenic \\\"Manifesto to the Europeans\\\" instead.However, this expression of his doubts about German policy did not prevent him from being elected to a two-year term as president of theGerman Physical Societyin 1916.When the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics opened its doors the following year—its foundation delayed because of the war—Einstein\",\n \"of the war—Einstein was appointed its first director, just as Planck and Nernst had promised. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1920,and aForeign Member of the Royal Society in 1921. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\\\"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\\\".At this point some physicists still regarded the general theory of relativity skeptically, and the Nobel citation displayed a degree of doubt even about the work on photoelectricity that it acknowledged: it did not assent to Einstein's notion of the particulate nature of light, which only won over the entire scientific community whenS. N. Bosederived thePlanck spectrumin 1924. That same year, Einstein was elected an International Honorary Member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences.Britain's closest equivalent of the Nobel award, theRoyal Society'sCopley Medal, was not hung around Einstein's neck\",\n \"Einstein's neck until 1925.He was elected an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1930. Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving theEinstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development ofBose–Einstein statistics. 1919: Putting general relativity to the test In 1907, Einstein reached a milestone on his long journey from his special theory of relativity to a new idea of gravitation with the formulation of hisequivalence principle, which asserts that an observer in an infinitesimally small box falling freely in a gravitational field would be unable to find any evidence that the field exists. In 1911, he used the principle to estimate the amount by which a ray of light from a distant star would bebentby the gravitational pull of the Sun as it passed close to the Sun'sphotosphere(that is, the Sun's apparent surface). He reworked\",\n \"He reworked his calculation in 1913, having now found a way to model gravitation with theRiemann curvature tensorof a non-Euclidean four-dimensionalspacetime. By the fall of 1915, his reimagining of the mathematics of gravitation in terms of Riemannian geometry was complete, and he applied his new theory not just to the behavior of the Sun as a gravitational lens but also to another astronomical phenomenon, theprecession of the perihelion of Mercury(a slow drift in the point in Mercury's elliptical orbit at which it approaches the Sun most closely).Atotal eclipse of the Sun that took place on 29 May 1919provided an opportunity to put his theory of gravitational lensing to the test, and observations performed by SirArthur Eddingtonyielded results that were consistent with his calculations. Eddington's work was reported at length in newspapers around the world. On 7 November 1919, for example, the leading British newspaper,The Times, printed a banner headline that read: \\\"Revolution in Science – New Theory of\",\n \"– New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown\\\". 1921–1923: Coming to terms with fame With Eddington's eclipse observations widely reported not just in academic journals but by the popular press as well, Einstein became \\\"perhaps the world's first celebrity scientist\\\", a genius who had shattered a paradigm that had been basic to physicists' understanding of the universe since the seventeenth century. Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where he arrived on 2 April 1921. He was welcomed to New York City by MayorJohn Francis Hylan, and then spent three weeks giving lectures and attending receptions.He spoke several times atColumbia UniversityandPrinceton, and in Washington, he visited theWhite Housewith representatives of theNational Academy of Sciences. He returned to Europe via London, where he was the guest of the philosopher and statesmanViscount Haldane. He used his time in the British capital to meet several people prominent in British scientific, political or\",\n \"political or intellectual life, and to deliver a lecture atKing's College.In July 1921, he published an essay, \\\"My First Impression of the U.S.A.\\\", in which he sought to sketch the American character, much as hadAlexis de TocquevilleinDemocracy in America(1835).He wrote of his transatlantic hosts in highly approving terms: \\\"What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy.\\\" In 1922, Einstein's travels were to the old world rather than the new. He devoted six months to a tour of Asia that saw him speaking in Japan, Singapore and Sri Lanka (then known asCeylon). After his first public lecture in Tokyo, he metEmperor Yoshihitoand his wife at theImperial Palace, with thousands of spectators thronging the streets in the hope of catching a glimpse of him. (In a letter to his sons, he wrote that Japanese people seemed to him to be generally modest, intelligent and considerate, and to have a true appreciation of art.But his\",\n \"of art.But his picture of them in his diary was less flattering: \\\" intellectual needs of this nation seem to be weaker than their artistic ones – natural disposition?\\\" His journal also contains views of China and India which were uncomplimentary. Of Chinese people, he wrote that \\\"even the children are spiritless and look obtuse... It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary\\\".) He was greeted with even greater enthusiasm on the last leg of his tour, in which he spent twelve days inMandatory Palestine, newly entrusted to British rule by theLeague of Nationsin the aftermath of the First World War.Sir Herbert Samuel, the British High Commissioner, welcomed him with a degree of ceremony normally only accorded to a visiting head of state, including a cannon salute. One reception held in his honor was stormed by people determined to hear him speak: he told them that he was happy that Jews were beginning to be recognized as a force in the\",\n \"as a force in the world. Einstein's decision to tour the eastern hemisphere in 1922 meant that he was unable to go toStockholmin the December of that year to participate in the Nobel prize ceremony. His place at the traditional Nobel banquet was taken by a German diplomat, who gave a speech praising him not only as a physicist but also as a campaigner for peace.A two-week visit to Spain that he undertook in 1923 saw him collecting another award, a membership of the Spanish Academy of Sciences signified by a diploma handed to him byKing Alfonso XIII. (His Spanish trip also gave him a chance to meet a fellow Nobel laureate, the neuroanatomistSantiago Ramón y Cajal.) 1922–1932: Serving the League of Nations From 1922 until 1932, with the exception of a few months in 1923 and 1924, Einstein was a member of the Geneva-basedInternational Committee on Intellectual Cooperationof theLeague of Nations, a group set up by the League to encourage scientists, artists, scholars, teachers and other people engaged in the\",\n \"engaged in the life of the mind to work more closely with their counterparts in other countries.He was appointed as a German delegate rather than as a representative of Switzerland because of the machinations of two Catholic activists,Oskar HaleckiandGiuseppe Motta. By persuading Secretary GeneralEric Drummondto deny Einstein the place on the committee reserved for a Swiss thinker, they created an opening forGonzague de Reynold, who used his League of Nations position as a platform from which to promote traditional Catholic doctrine.Einstein's former physics professorHendrik Lorentzand the Polish chemistMarie Curiewere also members of the committee. 1925: Touring South America In March and April 1925, Einstein and his wife visited South America, where they spent about a week in Brazil, a week in Uruguay and a month in Argentina.Their tour was suggested by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935)with the support of several Argentine scholars, includingJulio Rey Pastor,Jakob Laub,\",\n \"Pastor,Jakob Laub, andLeopoldo Lugones. and was financed primarily by the Council of theUniversity of Buenos Airesand theAsociación Hebraica Argentina(Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution. 1930–1931: Touring the US In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer of a two month research fellowship at theCalifornia Institute of Technology. Caltech supported him in his wish that he should not be exposed to quite as much attention from the media as he had experienced when visiting the US in 1921, and he therefore declined all the invitations to receive prizes or make speeches that his admirers poured down upon him. But he remained willing to allow his fans at least some of the time with him that they requested. After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, includingChinatown, a lunch with the editors ofThe New York Times, and a performance\",\n \"and a performance ofCarmenat theMetropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by MayorJimmy Walkerand metNicholas Murray Butler, the president ofColumbia University, who described Einstein as \\\"the ruling monarch of the mind\\\".Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York'sRiverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance.Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people atMadison Square Gardenduring aHanukkahcelebration. Einstein next traveled to California, where he metCaltechpresident and Nobel laureateRobert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was \\\"awkward\\\", as Millikan \\\"had a penchant for patriotic militarism\\\", where Einstein was a pronouncedpacifist.During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. This aversion to war also led Einstein to\",\n \"led Einstein to befriend authorUpton Sinclairand film starCharlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism.Carl Laemmle, head ofUniversal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a \\\"highly emotional temperament\\\", from which came his \\\"extraordinary intellectual energy\\\". Chaplin's filmCity Lightswas to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests.Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as \\\"one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity\\\".Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his \\\"modest little flat\\\" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was \\\"possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis\\\". 1933: Emigration to the US In February\",\n \"the US In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of theNazisunder Germany's new chancellor,Adolf Hitler. While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at theCalifornia Institute of Technologyin Pasadena. In February and March 1933, theGestaporepeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed theEnabling Acton 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into ade factolegal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing inAntwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship.The Nazis later sold his boat and\",\n \"sold his boat and converted his cottage into aHitler Youthcamp. Refugee status In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passedlaws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.HistorianGerald Holtondescribes how, with \\\"virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues\\\", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed. A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by theGerman Student Unionin theNazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda ministerJoseph Goebbelsproclaiming, \\\"Jewish intellectualism is dead.\\\"One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, \\\"not yet hanged\\\", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.In a subsequent letter to physicist and friendMax Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, \\\"... I must confess that\",\n \"I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise.\\\"After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a \\\"spontaneous emotional outburst\\\" by those who \\\"shun popular enlightenment\\\", and \\\"more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence\\\". Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by theAcademic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politicianWilliam Beveridgeto help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament CommanderOliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with him in the preceding years.Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near hisCromerhome in a secluded\",\n \"in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish ofRoughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in theDaily Heraldon 24 July 1933. Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meetWinston Churchillat his home, and later,Austen Chamberlainand former Prime MinisterLloyd George.Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historianMartin Gilbertnotes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicistFrederick Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their \\\"technical standards\\\" and putthe Allies' technology ahead of theirs. Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister,İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933, requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish\",\n \"German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over \\\"1,000 saved individuals\\\". Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe.In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.In his speech he described Einstein as a \\\"citizen of the world\\\" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from theInstitute for Advanced Study, inPrinceton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar. Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at theRoyal Albert Hallin London,\",\n \"Hallin London, withThe Timesreporting he was wildly cheered throughout.Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at theInstitute for Advanced Study,noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of theirJewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s. Einstein was still undecided about his future. He had offers from several European universities, includingChrist Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933and was offered a five-year researchfellowship(called a \\\"studentship\\\" at Christ Church),but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.He was one of the four first selected (along withJohn von Neumann,Kurt Gödel, andHermann Weyl) at\",\n \"andHermann Weyl) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work.Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop aunified field theoryand to refute theaccepted interpretationofquantum physics, both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. TheAlbert Einstein Housewas made aNational Historic Landmarkin 1976. World War II and the Manhattan Project In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicistLeó Szilárdattempted to alertWashingtonto ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such asEdward TellerandEugene Wigner, \\\"regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win therace to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon.\\\"To make certain\",\n \"make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.He was asked to lend his support by writinga letter, with Szilárd, to PresidentRoosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. The letter is believed to be \\\"arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II\\\".In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with theBelgian royal familyand the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the \\\"race\\\" to develop the bomb, drawing on its \\\"immense material, financial, and scientific resources\\\" to initiate theManhattan Project. For\",\n \"Project. For Einstein, \\\"war was a disease ... he called for resistance to war.\\\" By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend,Linus Pauling, \\\"I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ...\\\"In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopherBertrand Russell, signeda manifestohighlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of theWorld Academy of Art and Science(WAAS),an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons. US citizenship Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling\",\n \"long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of themeritocracyin American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the \\\"right of individuals to say and think what they pleased\\\" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education. Einstein joined theNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for thecivil rightsof African Americans. He considered racism America's \\\"worst disease\\\",seeing it as \\\"handed down from one generation to the next\\\".As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activistW. E. B. Du Boisand was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial as an alleged foreign agent in 1951.When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. In 1946, Einstein visitedLincoln Universityin Pennsylvania, ahistorically\",\n \"ahistorically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni includeLangston HughesandThurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, \\\"I do not intend to be quiet about it.\\\"A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.Einstein has said, \\\"Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination\\\". Personal views Political views In 1918, Einstein was one of the signatories of the founding proclamation of theGerman Democratic Party, a liberal party.Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor ofsocialismand critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as \\\"Why Socialism?\\\".His opinions on theBolsheviksalso changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a \\\"well-regulated system of government\\\" and called their rule a\",\n \"called their rule a \\\"regime of terror and a tragedy in human history\\\". He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark onVladimir Lenin: In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience. Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.He strongly advocated the idea of a democraticglobal governmentthat would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation.He wrote \\\"I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself.\\\"The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932; by the time of his death, it was 1,427 pages\",\n \"it was 1,427 pages long. Einstein was deeply impressed byMahatma Gandhi, with whom he corresponded. He described Gandhi as \\\"a role model for the generations to come\\\".The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, whenWilfrid Israeltook his Indian guestV. A. Sundaramto meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel. Relationship with Zionism Einstein was a figurehead leader in the establishment of theHebrew University of Jerusalem,which opened in 1925.Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of theWorld Zionist\",\n \"of theWorld Zionist Organization,Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university.He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such asmalaria, which he called an \\\"evil\\\" that was undermining a third of the country's development.He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic. Einstein was not anationalistand opposed the creation of an independent Jewish state.He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of theAliyahcould live alongside existing Arabs inPalestine. The state ofIsraelwas established without his help in 1948; Einstein was limited to a marginal role in theZionist movement.Upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime MinisterDavid Ben-Gurionoffered Einstein the largely ceremonial position ofPresident of Israelat the urging ofEzriel Carlebach.The offer was\",\n \"offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington,Abba Eban, who explained that the offer \\\"embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons\\\".Einstein wrote that he was \\\"deeply moved\\\", but \\\"at once saddened and ashamed\\\" that he could not accept it. Religious and philosophical views PerLee Smolin, \\\"I believe what allowed Einstein to achieve so much was primarily a moral quality. He simply cared far more than most of his colleagues that the laws of physics have to explain everything in nature coherently and consistently.\\\"Einstein expounded his spiritual outlook in a wide array of writings and interviews.He said he had sympathy for the impersonalpantheisticGod ofBaruch Spinoza's philosophy.He did not believe in apersonal godwho concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve.He clarified, however, that \\\"I am not an atheist\\\",preferring to call himself an agnostic,or a \\\"deeply religious nonbeliever\\\".He wrote that \\\"A spirit is\",\n \"that \\\"A spirit is manifest in the laws of the universe—a spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a religious feeling of a special sort.\\\" Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religioushumanistandEthical Culturegroups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of theFirst Humanist Society of New York,and was an honorary associate of theRationalist Association, which publishesNew Humanistin Britain. For the 75th anniversary of theNew York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, \\\"Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity.\\\" In a German-language letter to philosopherEric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote: The word Godis for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection\",\n \"Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me theJewish religionlike all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And theJewish peopleto whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them. Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of theGerman Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund), he wrote: Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most\",\n \"would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind. He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: \\\"So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore.\\\" Love of music Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music. His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate intoGerman culture. According to conductorLeon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age. When he turned 13, he discovered theviolin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored ofMozart's compositions\",\n \"compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without \\\"ever practicing systematically\\\". He said that \\\"love is a better teacher than a sense of duty\\\".At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playingBeethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was \\\"remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'\\\". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein \\\"displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student.\\\" Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein playedchamber musicwere a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin,\",\n \"Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of theKöchel catalogof Mozart's work; that edition was prepared byAlfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation. In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some ofBeethovenand Mozart's works with members of theZoellner Quartet.Near the end of his life, when the youngJuilliard Quartetvisited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was \\\"impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation\\\". Death On 17 April 1955, Einstein experiencedinternal bleedingcaused by the rupture of anabdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically byRudolph Nissenin 1948.He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him\",\n \"with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it. Einstein refused surgery, saying, \\\"I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.\\\"He died in thePrinceton Hospitalearly the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. During the autopsy, the pathologistThomas Stoltz HarveyremovedEinstein's brainfor preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that theneuroscienceof the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.Einstein's remains were cremated inTrenton, New Jersey,and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 atUNESCOheadquarters, nuclear physicistJ. Robert Oppenheimersummarized hisimpression of Einsteinas a person: \\\"He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly\",\n \"and profoundly stubborn.\\\" Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to theHebrew University of Jerusalemin Israel. Scientific career Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including theBose–Einstein statistics, theEinstein refrigeratorand others. Statistical mechanics Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics Einstein's first papersubmitted in 1900 toAnnalen der Physikwas oncapillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title \\\"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\\\", which translates as \\\"Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena\\\". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to\",\n \"attempted to interpretatomicphenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. Theory of critical opalescence Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this toRayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.Einstein\",\n \"is blue.Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. 1905 –Annus Mirabilispapers TheAnnus Mirabilispapersare four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise toquantum theory),Brownian motion, thespecial theory of relativity, andE=mc2that Einstein published in theAnnalen der Physikscientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation ofmodern physicsand changed views onspace, time, andmatter. The four papers are: Special relativity Einstein's \\\"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper\\\"(\\\"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\\\") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts betweenMaxwell's equations(the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics.Observationally, the\",\n \"the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to thespeed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear toslow down, and the body itself wouldcontractin its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of aluminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. In his paper onmass–energy equivalence, Einstein producedE=mc2as a consequence of his special relativity equations.Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting withMax Planck. Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms ofkinematics(the study of moving bodies). In 1908,Hermann Minkowskireinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory\",\n \"terms as a theory ofspacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915general theory of relativity. General relativity General relativity and the equivalence principle General relativity(GR) is atheory of gravitationthat was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping ofspacetimeby those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modernastrophysics; it provides the foundation for the current understanding ofblack holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions withinspecial relativitywas unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In\",\n \"relativity. In that article titled \\\"On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It\\\", he argued thatfree fallis really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called theequivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena ofgravitational time dilation,gravitational redshiftandgravitational lensing. In 1911, Einstein published another article \\\"On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light\\\" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. Gravitational waves In 1916, Einstein predictedgravitational waves,ripples in thecurvatureof spacetime which propagate aswaves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity\",\n \"general relativity due to itsLorentz invariancewhich brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in theNewtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbitingneutron stars,PSR B1913+16.The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers atLIGOpublished thefirst observation of gravitational waves,detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction. Hole argument and Entwurf theory While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about thegauge invariancein the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field\",\n \"relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that thehole argumentwas mistakenand abandoned the theory in November 1915. Physical cosmology In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, thecosmological constant, into the field equations, in order to\",\n \"in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding ofMach's principlein these years. This model became known as the Einstein World orEinstein's static universe. Following the discovery of the recession of the galaxies byEdwin Hubblein 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, theFriedmann–Einstein universeof 1931and theEinstein–de Sitter universeof 1932.In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was \\\"in any case theoretically unsatisfactory\\\". In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his \\\"biggest blunder\\\", based on a letterGeorge Gamowclaimed to have received from him. The astrophysicistMario Liviohas cast doubt on this claim. In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicistCormac\",\n \"physicistCormac O'Raifeartaighdiscovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the galaxies, Einstein considered asteady-state modelof the universe.In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process that he associated with the cosmological constant.As he stated in the paper, \\\"In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's facts, and in which the density is constant over time\\\" ... \\\"If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space.\\\" It thus appears that Einstein considered asteady-state modelof the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.However, Einstein's\",\n \"Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea. Energy momentum pseudotensor General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum.Noether's theoremallows these quantities to be determined from aLagrangianwithtranslation invariance, butgeneral covariancemakes translation invariance into something of agauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity byNoether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized byErwin Schrödingerand others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists\",\n \"by physicists includingLev LandauandEvgeny Lifshitz. Wormholes In 1935, Einstein collaborated withNathan Rosento produce a model of awormhole, often calledEinstein–Rosen bridges.His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper \\\"Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?\\\". These solutions cut and pastedSchwarzschild black holesto make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable. Einstein–Cartan theory In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called thetorsion. This\",\n \"thetorsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. Equations of motion In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature ofspacetime. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark byJohn Archibald Wheelerthat has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: \\\"Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve.\\\"TheEinstein field equationscover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. Thegeodesic equationcovers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies followlines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an \\\"independent fundamental assumption\\\" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete\",\n \"order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of agravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed. Old quantum theory Photons and energy quanta In a 1905 paper,Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck\",\n \"Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, withRobert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement ofCompton scattering. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequencyfis associated with a collection of photons with energyhfeach, wherehis thePlanck constant. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how the particles were related to the wave. But he did suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably thephotoelectric effect.Light quanta were dubbedphotonsbyGilbert N. Lewisin 1926. Quantized atomic vibrations In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a\",\n \"because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics.Peter Debyerefined this model. Bose–Einstein statistics In 1924, Einstein received a description of astatisticalmodel from Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to theZeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them theBose–Einstein condensatephenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally byEric Allin CornellandCarl Wiemanusingultra-coolingequipment built at theNIST–JILAlaboratory at theUniversity of Colorado at Boulder.Bose–Einstein statistics\",\n \"statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly ofbosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University. Wave–particle duality Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became aPrivatdozentat the University of Bern.In \\\"Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung\\\" (\\\"The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation\\\"), on thequantizationof light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-definedmomentaand act in some respects as independent,point-like particles. This paper introduced thephotonconcept and inspired the notion ofwave–particle dualityin quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. Zero-point\",\n \"Zero-point energy In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea ofzero-point energyin his \\\"second quantum theory\\\". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistantOtto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy. Stimulated emission In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article inPhysikalische Zeitschriftthat proposed the possibility ofstimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible themaserand thelaser.This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the\",\n \"law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Matter waves Einstein discoveredLouis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed thatde Broglie wavescould explain thequantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. Quantum mechanics Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental\",\n \"was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God \\\"is not playing at dice\\\".Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete. Bohr versus Einstein The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein andNiels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to thephilosophy of science.Their debates would influence laterinterpretations of quantum mechanics. Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in 1930. Einstein suggested athought experimentin which two objects are allowed to interact and then moved apart a great distance from each other. The quantum-mechanical description of\",\n \"description of the two objects is a mathematical entity known as awavefunction. If the wavefunction that describes the two objects before their interaction is given, then theSchrödinger equationprovides the wavefunction that describes them after their interaction. But because of what would later be calledquantum entanglement, measuring one object would lead to an instantaneous change of the wavefunction describing the other object, no matter how far away it is. Moreover, the choice of which measurement to perform upon the first object would affect what wavefunction could result for the second object. Einstein reasoned that no influence could propagate from the first object to the second instantaneously fast. Indeed, he argued, physics depends on being able to tell one thing apart from another, and such instantaneous influences would call that into question. Because the true \\\"physical condition\\\" of the second object could not be immediately altered by an action done to the first, Einstein concluded, the\",\n \"concluded, the wavefunction could not be that true physical condition, only an incomplete description of it. A more famous version of this argument came in 1935, when Einstein published a paper withBoris PodolskyandNathan Rosenthat laid out what would become known as theEPR paradox.In this thought experiment, two particles interact in such a way that the wavefunction describing them is entangled. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle. Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by thetheory of\",\n \"by thetheory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the \\\"EPR criterion of reality\\\", positing that: \\\"If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., withprobabilityequal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity.\\\" From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observablesincompatibleand thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality. In 1964,John Stewart Bellcarried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each\",\n \"within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called aBell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are \\\"nonlocal\\\", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated.Bell argued that because an explanation of quantum phenomena in terms of hidden variables would require nonlocality, the EPR paradox \\\"is resolved in the way which Einstein would have liked least\\\". Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the argument in the EPR paper overly complicated,that paper became among the most influential papers published inPhysical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development ofquantum information theory. Unified field theory Encouraged by his success\",\n \"by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described hisunified field theoryin aScientific Americanarticle titled \\\"On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation\\\".His attempt to find the most fundamental laws of nature won him praise but not success: a particularly conspicuous blemish of his model was that it did not accommodate thestrongandweak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although most researchers now believe that Einstein's approach to unifying physics was mistaken, his goal of atheory of everythingis one to which his successors still aspire. Other investigations Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain toforce,superconductivity, and other research. Collaboration with other scientists In addition to longtime collaboratorsLeopold Infeld,Nathan Rosen,Peter\",\n \"Rosen,Peter Bergmannand others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein–de Haas experiment In 1908,Owen Willans Richardsonpredicted that a change in themagnetic momentof a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of theconservation of angular momentumand is strong enough to be observable inferromagnetic materials.Einstein andWander Johannes de Haaspublished two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect.Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon ofmagnetizationis caused by the alignment (polarization) of theangular momentaof theelectronsin the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with thespinand with the orbital motion of the electrons. The Einstein-de Haas experiment is the only experiment concived, realized and published by Albert Einstein himself. A complete original\",\n \"A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated byGeertruida de Haas-Lorentz, wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to theAmpère Museumin Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in 2023. Einstein as an inventor In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) theEinstein refrigerator. Thisabsorption refrigeratorwas then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.On 11 November 1930,U.S. patent 1,781,541was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, but the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish companyElectrolux. Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump,sound reproduction device,and several other household devices. Non-scientific legacy While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters\",\n \"stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to theHebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University'sAlbert Einstein Archives, told theBBCthat there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. Einstein'sright of publicitywas litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired,that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right.Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses theuse of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the\",\n \"as agent for the university. Mount Einsteinin theChugach MountainsofAlaskawas named in 1955. Mount Einstein in New Zealand'sPaparoa Rangewas named after him in 1970 by theDepartment of Scientific and Industrial Research. In popular culture Einstein became one of the most famousscientific celebritiesafter the confirmation of his general theory of relativity in 1919.Although most of the public had little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and admired. In the period before World War II,The New Yorkerpublished a vignette in their \\\"The Talk of the Town\\\" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain \\\"that theory\\\". Eventually he came to cope with unwanted enquirers by pretending to be someone else: \\\"Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein.\\\" Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.He is a favorite model for depictions ofabsent-minded\",\n \"ofabsent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated.Timemagazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was \\\"a cartoonist's dream come true\\\". Many popularquotationsare oftenmisattributedto him. Awards and honors Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\\\"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\\\". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set byAlfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. Einsteinium, a synthetic chemical element, was named in his honor in 1955, a few months after his death. Publications Scientific Others See also Notes References Works cited Further reading External links\",\n \"Niels Bohr Niels Henrik David Bohr(Danish:; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danishphysicistwho made foundational contributions to understandingatomic structureandquantum theory, for which he received theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1922. Bohr was also aphilosopherand a promoter of scientific research. Bohr developed theBohr modelof theatom, in which he proposed that energy levels ofelectronsare discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around theatomic nucleusbut can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle ofcomplementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as awave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at theUniversity of Copenhagen, now known as theNiels Bohr Institute,\",\n \"Bohr Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists includingHans Kramers,Oskar Klein,George de Hevesy, andWerner Heisenberg. He predicted the properties of a newzirconium-like element, which was namedhafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered. Later, the synthetic elementbohriumwas named after him. During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees fromNazism. AfterDenmark was occupied by the Germans, he met with Heisenberg, who had become the head of theGerman nuclear weapon project. In September 1943 word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, so he fled to Sweden. From there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the BritishTube Alloysnuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to theManhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for international cooperation on nuclear energy. He was involved with the establishment ofCERNand theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commissionand became the first\",\n \"became the first chairman of theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physicsin 1957. Early life Niels Henrik David Bohr was born inCopenhagen, Denmark, on 7 October 1885, the second of three children ofChristian Bohr,a professor ofphysiologyat the University of Copenhagen, and his wife EllennéeAdler, who came from a wealthy Jewish banking family.He had an elder sister, Jenny, and a younger brotherHarald.Jenny became a teacher,while Harald became amathematicianandfootballerwho played for theDanish national teamat the1908 Summer Olympicsin London. Niels was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-basedAkademisk Boldklub(Academic Football Club), with Niels asgoalkeeper. Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven.In 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate atCopenhagen University. His major was physics, which he studied under ProfessorChristian Christiansen, the university's only professor of physics at that time. He also studied\",\n \"He also studied astronomy and mathematics under ProfessorThorvald Thiele, and philosophy under ProfessorHarald Høffding, a friend of his father. In 1905 a gold medal competition was sponsored by theRoyal Danish Academy of Sciences and Lettersto investigate a method for measuring thesurface tensionof liquids that had been proposed byLord Rayleighin 1879. This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet. Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his father's laboratory in the university; the university itself had no physics laboratory. To complete his experiments, he had tomake his own glassware, creating test tubes with the requiredellipticalcross-sections. He went beyond the original task, incorporating improvements into both Rayleigh's theory and his method, by taking into account theviscosityof the water, and by working with finite amplitudes instead of just infinitesimal ones. His essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won the prize. He later submitted an\",\n \"later submitted an improved version of the paper to theRoyal Societyin London for publication in thePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Harald became the first of the two Bohr brothers to earn amaster's degree, which he earned for mathematics in April 1909. Niels took another nine months to earn his on the electron theory of metals, a topic assigned by his supervisor, Christiansen. Bohr subsequently elaborated his master's thesis into his much-largerDoctor of Philosophythesis. He surveyed the literature on the subject, settling on a model postulated byPaul Drudeand elaborated byHendrik Lorentz, in which the electrons in a metal are considered to behave like a gas. Bohr extended Lorentz's model, but was still unable to account for phenomena like theHall effect, and concluded that electron theory could not fully explain the magnetic properties of metals. The thesis was accepted in April 1911,and Bohr conducted his formal defence on 13 May. Harald had received his doctorate the previous year.Bohr's\",\n \"year.Bohr's thesis was groundbreaking, but attracted little interest outside Scandinavia because it was written in Danish, a Copenhagen University requirement at the time. In 1921, the Dutch physicistHendrika Johanna van Leeuwenwould independently derive a theorem in Bohr's thesis that is today known as theBohr–Van Leeuwen theorem. In 1910, Bohr metMargrethe Nørlund, the sister of the mathematicianNiels Erik Nørlund.Bohr resigned his membership in theChurch of Denmarkon 16 April 1912, and he and Margrethe were married in a civil ceremony at the town hall inSlagelseon 1 August. Years later, his brother Harald similarly left the church before getting married.Bohr and Margrethe had six sons.The oldest, Christian, died in a boating accident in 1934,and another, Harald, was severely mentally disabled. He was placed in an institution away from his family's home at the age of four and died from childhood meningitis six years later.Aage Bohrbecame a successful physicist, and in 1975 was awarded the Nobel Prize in\",\n \"the Nobel Prize in physics, like his father. A son of Aage, Vilhelm A. Bohr, is a scientist affiliated with the University of Copenhagenand theNational Institute on Agingin the U.S.Hansbecame a physician;Erik, a chemical engineer; andErnest, a lawyer.Like his uncle Harald, Ernest Bohr became an Olympic athlete, playingfield hockeyfor Denmark at the1948 Summer Olympicsin London. Physics Bohr model In September 1911, Bohr, supported by a fellowship from theCarlsberg Foundation, travelled to England, where most of the theoretical work on the structure of atoms and molecules was being done.He metJ. J. Thomsonof theCavendish LaboratoryandTrinity College, Cambridge. He attended lectures onelectromagnetismgiven byJames JeansandJoseph Larmor, and did some research oncathode rays, but failed to impress Thomson.He had more success with younger physicists like the AustralianWilliam Lawrence Bragg,and New Zealand'sErnest Rutherford, whose 1911 small central nucleusRutherford modelof theatomhad challenged Thomson's\",\n \"Thomson's 1904plum pudding model.Bohr received an invitation from Rutherford to conduct post-doctoral work atVictoria University of Manchester,where Bohr metGeorge de HevesyandCharles Galton Darwin(whom Bohr referred to as \\\"the grandson of thereal Darwin\\\"). Bohr returned to Denmark in July 1912 for his wedding, and travelled around England and Scotland on his honeymoon. On his return, he became aprivatdocentat the University of Copenhagen, giving lectures onthermodynamics.Martin Knudsenput Bohr's name forward for adocent, which was approved in July 1913, and Bohr then began teaching medical students.His three papers, which later became famous as \\\"the trilogy\\\",were published inPhilosophical Magazinein July, September and November of that year.He adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure toMax Planck's quantum theory and so created hisBohr modelof the atom. Planetary models of atoms were not new, but Bohr's treatment was.Taking the 1912 paper by Darwin on the role of electrons in the interaction of alpha\",\n \"of alpha particles with a nucleus as his starting point,he advanced the theory of electrons travelling inorbitsof quantised \\\"stationary states\\\" around the atom's nucleus in order to stabilise the atom, but it wasn't until his 1921 paper that he showed that the chemical properties of each element were largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its atoms.He introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, in the process emitting aquantumof discrete energy. This became a basis for what is now known as theold quantum theory. In 1885,Johann Balmerhad come up with hisBalmer seriesto describe the visiblespectral linesof ahydrogenatom: where λ is the wavelength of the absorbed or emitted light andRHis theRydberg constant.Balmer's formula was corroborated by the discovery of additional spectral lines, but for thirty years, no one could explain why it worked. In the first paper of his trilogy, Bohr was able to derive it from his model: wheremeis the\",\n \"wheremeis the electron's mass,eis its charge,his thePlanck constantandZis the atom'satomic number(1 for hydrogen). The model's first hurdle was thePickering series, lines that did not fit Balmer's formula. When challenged on this byAlfred Fowler, Bohr replied that they were caused byionisedhelium, helium atoms with only one electron. The Bohr model was found to work for such ions.Many older physicists, like Thomson, Rayleigh andHendrik Lorentz, did not like the trilogy, but the younger generation, including Rutherford,David Hilbert,Albert Einstein,Enrico Fermi,Max BornandArnold Sommerfeldsaw it as a breakthrough.The trilogy's acceptance was entirely due to its ability to explain phenomena that stymied other models, and to predict results that were subsequently verified by experiments.Today, the Bohr model of the atom has been superseded, but is still the best known model of the atom, as it often appears in high school physics and chemistry texts. Bohr did not enjoy teaching medical students. He later\",\n \"students. He later admitted that he was not a good lecturer, because he needed a balance between clarity and truth, between \\\"Klarheit und Wahrheit\\\".He decided to return to Manchester, where Rutherford had offered him a job as areaderin place of Darwin, whose tenure had expired. Bohr accepted. He took a leave of absence from the University of Copenhagen, which he started by taking a holiday inTyrolwith his brother Harald and auntHanna Adler. There, he visited theUniversity of Göttingenand theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he met Sommerfeld and conducted seminars on the trilogy. The First World War broke out while they were in Tyrol, greatly complicating the trip back to Denmark and Bohr's subsequent voyage with Margrethe to England, where he arrived in October 1914. They stayed until July 1916, by which time he had been appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, a position created especially for him. His docentship was abolished at the same time, so he still\",\n \"time, so he still had to teach physics to medical students. New professors were formally introduced to KingChristian X, who expressed his delight at meeting such a famous football player. Institute of Physics In April 1917, Bohr began a campaign to establish an Institute of Theoretical Physics. He gained the support of the Danish government and the Carlsberg Foundation, and sizeable contributions were also made by industry and private donors, many of them Jewish. Legislation establishing the institute was passed in November 1918. Now known as theNiels Bohr Institute, it opened on 3 March 1921, with Bohr as its director. His family moved into an apartment on the first floor.Bohr's institute served as a focal point for researchers intoquantum mechanicsand related subjects in the 1920s and 1930s, when most of the world's best-known theoretical physicists spent some time in his company. Early arrivals includedHans Kramersfrom the Netherlands,Oskar Kleinfrom Sweden, George de Hevesy from Hungary,Wojciech\",\n \"Hungary,Wojciech Rubinowiczfrom Poland, andSvein Rosselandfrom Norway. Bohr became widely appreciated as their congenial host and eminent colleague.Klein and Rosseland produced the institute's first publication even before it opened. The Bohr model worked well for hydrogen and ionized single-electron helium, which impressed Einsteinbut could not explain more complex elements. By 1919, Bohr was moving away from the idea that electrons orbited the nucleus and developedheuristicsto describe them. Therare-earth elementsposed a particular classification problem for chemists because they were so chemically similar. An important development came in 1924 withWolfgang Pauli's discovery of thePauli exclusion principle, which put Bohr's models on a firm theoretical footing. Bohr was then able to declare that the as-yet-undiscovered element 72 was not a rare-earth element but an element with chemical properties similar to those ofzirconium. (Elements had been predicted and discovered since 1871 by chemical properties),\",\n \"properties), and Bohr was immediately challenged by the French chemistGeorges Urbain, who claimed to have discovered a rare-earth element 72, which he called \\\"celtium\\\". At the Institute in Copenhagen,Dirk Costerand George de Hevesy took up the challenge of proving Bohr right and Urbain wrong. Starting with a clear idea of the chemical properties of the unknown element greatly simplified the search process. They went through samples from Copenhagen's Museum of Mineralogy looking for a zirconium-like element and soon found it. The element, which they namedhafnium(hafniabeing the Latin name for Copenhagen), turned out to be more common than gold. In 1922, Bohr was awarded theNobel Prize in Physics\\\"for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them\\\".The award thus recognised both the trilogy and his early leading work in the emerging field of quantum mechanics. For his Nobel lecture, Bohr gave his audience a comprehensive survey of what was then known about\",\n \"then known about the structure of the atom, including thecorrespondence principle, which he had formulated. This states that the behaviour of systems described by quantum theory reproducesclassical physicsin the limit of largequantum numbers. The discovery ofCompton scatteringbyArthur Holly Comptonin 1923 convinced most physicists that light was composed ofphotonsand that energy and momentum were conserved in collisions between electrons and photons. In 1924, Bohr, Kramers, andJohn C. Slater, an American physicist working at the Institute in Copenhagen, proposed theBohr–Kramers–Slater theory(BKS). It was more of a program than a full physical theory, as the ideas it developed were not worked out quantitatively. The BKS theory became the final attempt at understanding the interaction of matter and electromagnetic radiation on the basis of the old quantum theory, in which quantum phenomena were treated by imposing quantum restrictions on a classical wave description of the electromagnetic field. Modelling\",\n \"field. Modelling atomic behaviour under incident electromagnetic radiation using \\\"virtual oscillators\\\" at the absorption and emission frequencies, rather than the (different) apparent frequencies of the Bohr orbits, led Max Born,Werner Heisenbergand Kramers to explore different mathematical models. They led to the development ofmatrix mechanics, the first form of modernquantum mechanics. The BKS theory also generated discussion of, and renewed attention to, difficulties in the foundations of the old quantum theory.The most provocative element of BKS – that momentum and energy would not necessarily be conserved in each interaction, but only statistically – was soon shown to be in conflict with experiments conducted byWalther BotheandHans Geiger.In light of these results, Bohr informed Darwin that \\\"there is nothing else to do than to give our revolutionary efforts as honourable a funeral as possible\\\". Quantum mechanics The introduction ofspinbyGeorge UhlenbeckandSamuel Goudsmitin November 1925 was a milestone.\",\n \"was a milestone. The next month, Bohr travelled toLeidento attend celebrations of the 50th anniversary of Hendrick Lorentz receiving his doctorate. When his train stopped inHamburg, he was met by Wolfgang Pauli andOtto Stern, who asked for his opinion of the spin theory. Bohr pointed out that he had concerns about the interaction between electrons and magnetic fields. When he arrived in Leiden,Paul Ehrenfestand Albert Einstein informed Bohr that Einstein had resolved this problem usingrelativity. Bohr then had Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit incorporate this into their paper. Thus, when he met Werner Heisenberg andPascual JordaninGöttingenon the way back, he had become, in his own words, \\\"a prophet of the electron magnet gospel\\\". Heisenberg first came to Copenhagen in 1924, then returned to Göttingen in June 1925, shortly thereafter developing the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. When he showed his results to Max Born in Göttingen, Born realised that they could best be expressed usingmatrices. This work\",\n \"This work attracted the attention of the British physicistPaul Dirac,who came to Copenhagen for six months in September 1926. Austrian physicistErwin Schrödingeralso visited in 1926. His attempt at explaining quantum physics in classical terms using wave mechanics impressed Bohr, who believed it contributed \\\"so much to mathematical clarity and simplicity that it represents a gigantic advance over all previous forms of quantum mechanics\\\". When Kramers left the institute in 1926 to take up a chair as professor of theoretical physics at theUtrecht University, Bohr arranged for Heisenberg to return and take Kramers's place as alektorat the University of Copenhagen.Heisenberg worked in Copenhagen as a university lecturer and assistant to Bohr from 1926 to 1927. Bohr became convinced that light behaved like both waves and particles and, in 1927, experiments confirmed thede Broglie hypothesisthat matter (like electrons) also behaved like waves.He conceived the philosophical principle ofcomplementarity: that items\",\n \"that items could have apparently mutually exclusive properties, such as being a wave or a stream of particles, depending on the experimental framework.He felt that it was not fully understood by professional philosophers. In February 1927, Heisenberg developed the first version of theuncertainty principle, presenting it using athought experimentwhere an electron was observed through agamma-ray microscope. Bohr was dissatisfied with Heisenberg's argument, since it required only that a measurement disturb properties that already existed, rather than the more radical idea that the electron's properties could not be discussed at all apart from the context they were measured in. In a paper presented at theVolta ConferenceatComoin September 1927, Bohr emphasised that Heisenberg's uncertainty relations could be derived from classical considerations about the resolving power of optical instruments.Understanding the true meaning of complementarity would, Bohr believed, require \\\"closer investigation\\\".Einstein\",\n \"preferred the determinism of classical physics over the probabilistic new quantum physics to which he himself had contributed. Philosophical issues that arose from the novel aspects of quantum mechanics became widely celebrated subjects of discussion. Einstein and Bohr hadgood-natured argumentsover such issues throughout their lives. In 1914Carl Jacobsen, the heir toCarlsberg breweries, bequeathed his mansion (the Carlsberg Honorary Residence, currently known as Carlsberg Academy) to be used for life by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature or the arts, as an honorary residence (Danish:Æresbolig). Harald Høffding had been the first occupant, and upon his death in July 1931, the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters gave Bohr occupancy. He and his family moved there in 1932.He was elected president of the Academy on 17 March 1939. By 1929 the phenomenon ofbeta decayprompted Bohr to again suggest that thelaw of conservation of energybe abandoned, butEnrico Fermi's\",\n \"butEnrico Fermi's hypotheticalneutrinoand the subsequent 1932 discovery of theneutronprovided another explanation. This prompted Bohr to create a new theory of thecompound nucleusin 1936, which explained how neutrons could be captured by the nucleus. In this model, the nucleus could be deformed like a drop of liquid. He worked on this with a new collaborator, the Danish physicist Fritz Kalckar, who died suddenly in 1938. The discovery ofnuclear fissionbyOtto Hahnin December 1938 (and its theoretical explanation byLise Meitner) generated intense interest among physicists. Bohr brought the news to the United States where he opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics with Fermi on 26 January 1939.When Bohr toldGeorge Placzekthat this resolved all the mysteries oftransuranic elements, Placzek told him that one remained: the neutron capture energies of uranium did not match those of its decay. Bohr thought about it for a few minutes and then announced to Placzek,Léon RosenfeldandJohn\",\n \"RosenfeldandJohn Wheelerthat \\\"I have understood everything.\\\"Based on hisliquid drop modelof the nucleus, Bohr concluded that it was theuranium-235isotope and not the more abundanturanium-238that was primarily responsible for fission with thermal neutrons. In April 1940,John R. Dunningdemonstrated that Bohr was correct.In the meantime, Bohr and Wheeler developed a theoretical treatment, which they published in a September 1939 paper on \\\"The Mechanism of Nuclear Fission\\\". Philosophy Heisenberg said of Bohr that he was \\\"primarily a philosopher, not a physicist\\\".Bohr read the 19th-century DanishChristian existentialistphilosopherSøren Kierkegaard.Richard Rhodesargued inThe Making of the Atomic Bombthat Bohr was influenced by Kierkegaard through Høffding.In 1909, Bohr sent his brother Kierkegaard'sStages on Life's Wayas a birthday gift. In the enclosed letter, Bohr wrote, \\\"It is the only thing I have to send home; but I do not believe that it would be very easy to find anything better ... I even think it is one\",\n \"think it is one of the most delightful things I have ever read.\\\" Bohr enjoyed Kierkegaard's language and literary style, but mentioned that he had some disagreement withKierkegaard's philosophy.Some of Bohr's biographers suggested that this disagreement stemmed from Kierkegaard's advocacy of Christianity, while Bohr was anatheist. There has been some dispute over the extent to which Kierkegaard influenced Bohr's philosophy and science.David Favrholdtargued that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr's work, taking Bohr's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value,while Jan Faye argued that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure. Quantum physics There has been much subsequent debate and discussion about Bohr's views and philosophy of quantum mechanics.Regarding his ontological interpretation of the quantum world, Bohr has been seen as ananti-realist, aninstrumentalist, a phenomenological realist or some other kind of realist.\",\n \"kind of realist. Furthermore, though some have seen Bohr as being asubjectivistor apositivist, most philosophers agree that this is a misunderstanding of Bohr as he never argued forverificationismor for the idea that the subject had a direct impact on the outcome of a measurement. Bohr has often been quoted saying that there is \\\"no quantum world\\\" but only an \\\"abstract quantum physical description\\\". This was not publicly said by Bohr, but rather a private statement attributed to Bohr by Aage Petersen in a reminiscence after his death.N. David MerminrecalledVictor Weisskopfdeclaring that Bohr wouldn't have said anything of the sort and exclaiming, \\\"Shame on Aage Petersen for putting those ridiculous words in Bohr's mouth!\\\" Numerous scholars have argued that the philosophy ofImmanuel Kanthad a strong influence on Bohr. Like Kant, Bohr thought distinguishing between the subject's experience and the object was an important condition for attaining knowledge. This can only be done through the use of causal and\",\n \"use of causal and spatial-temporal concepts to describe the subject's experience.Thus, according to Jan Faye, Bohr thought that it is because of \\\"classical\\\" concepts like \\\"space\\\", \\\"position\\\", \\\"time\\\", \\\"causation\\\", and \\\"momentum\\\" that one can talk about objects and their objective existence. Bohr held that basic concepts like \\\"time\\\" are built in to our ordinary language and that the concepts of classical physics are merely a refinement of them.Therefore, for Bohr, classical concepts need to be used to describe experiments that deal with the quantum world. Bohr writes: he account of all evidence must be expressed in classical terms. The argument is simply that by the word 'experiment' we refer to a situation where we can tell to others what we have done and what we have learned and that, therefore, the account of the experimental arrangement and of the results of the observations must be expressed in unambiguous language with suitable application of the terminology of classical physics (APHK, p. 39). According\",\n \"p. 39). According to Faye, there are various explanations for why Bohr believed that classical concepts were necessary for describing quantum phenomena. Faye groups explanations into five frameworks: empiricism (i.e.logical positivism);Kantianism(orNeo-Kantianmodels ofepistemology);Pragmatism(which focus on how human beings experientially interact with atomic systems according to their needs and interests); Darwinianism (i.e. we are adapted to use classical type concepts, whichLéon Rosenfeldsaid that we evolved to use); and Experimentalism (which focuses strictly on the function and outcome of experiments that thus must be described classically).These explanations are not mutually exclusive, and at times Bohr seems to emphasise some of these aspects while at other times he focuses on other elements. According to Faye \\\"Bohr thought of the atom as real. Atoms are neither heuristic nor logical constructions.\\\" However, according to Faye, he did not believe \\\"that the quantum mechanical formalism was true in the\",\n \"was true in the sense that it gave us a literal ('pictorial') rather than a symbolic representation of the quantum world.\\\"Therefore, Bohr's theory ofcomplementarity\\\"is first and foremost a semantic and epistemological reading of quantum mechanics that carries certain ontological implications\\\".As Faye explains, Bohr'sindefinability thesisis that he truth conditions of sentences ascribing a certain kinematic or dynamic value to an atomic object are dependent on the apparatus involved, in such a way that these truth conditions have to include reference to the experimental setup as well as the actual outcome of the experiment. Faye notes that Bohr's interpretation makes no reference to a \\\"collapse of the wave function during measurements\\\" (and indeed, he never mentioned this idea). Instead, Bohr \\\"accepted the Born statistical interpretation because he believed that theψ-functionhas only a symbolic meaning and does not represent anything real\\\". Since for Bohr, theψ-function is not a literal pictorial\",\n \"a literal pictorial representation of reality, there can be no real collapse of the wavefunction. A much debated point in recent literature is what Bohr believed about atoms and their reality and whether they are something else than what they seem to be. Some like Henry Folse argue that Bohr saw a distinction between observed phenomena and atranscendental reality. Jan Faye disagrees with this position and holds that for Bohr, the quantum formalism and complementarity was the only thing we could say about the quantum world and that \\\"there is no further evidence in Bohr's writings indicating that Bohr would attribute intrinsic and measurement-independent state properties to atomic objects in addition to the classical ones being manifested in measurement.\\\" Second World War Assistance to refugee scholars The rise ofNazismin Germany prompted many scholars to flee their countries, either because they were Jewish or because they were political opponents of the Nazi regime. In 1933, theRockefeller Foundationcreated\",\n \"Foundationcreated a fund to help support refugee academics, and Bohr discussed this programme with the President of the Rockefeller Foundation,Max Mason, in May 1933 during a visit to the United States. Bohr offered the refugees temporary jobs at the institute, provided them with financial support, arranged for them to be awarded fellowships from the Rockefeller Foundation, and ultimately found them places at institutions around the world. Those that he helped includedGuido Beck,Felix Bloch,James Franck, George de Hevesy,Otto Frisch,Hilde Levi,Lise Meitner, George Placzek,Eugene Rabinowitch,Stefan Rozental, Erich Ernst Schneider,Edward Teller,Arthur von HippelandVictor Weisskopf. In April 1940, early in the Second World War,Nazi Germanyinvaded and occupied Denmark.To prevent the Germans from discoveringMax von Laue's and James Franck'sgold Nobel medals, Bohr had de Hevesy dissolve them inaqua regia. In this form, they were stored on a shelf at the Institute until after the war, when the gold was precipitated\",\n \"was precipitated and the medals re-struck by the Nobel Foundation. Bohr's own medal had been donated to an auction to theFinnish Relief Fund, and was auctioned off in March 1940, along with the medal ofAugust Krogh. The buyer later donated the two medals to the Danish Historical Museum inFrederiksborg Castle, where they are still kept,although Bohr's medal temporarily went to space withAndreas MogensenonISSExpedition 70in 2023-2024. Bohr kept the Institute running, but all the foreign scholars departed. Meeting with Heisenberg Bohr was aware of the possibility of using uranium-235 to construct anatomic bomb, referring to it in lectures in Britain and Denmark shortly before and after the war started, but he did not believe that it was technically feasible to extract a sufficient quantity of uranium-235.In September 1941, Heisenberg, who had become head of theGerman nuclear energy project, visited Bohr in Copenhagen. During this meeting the two men took a private moment outside, the content of which has caused\",\n \"of which has caused much speculation, as both gave differing accounts. According to Heisenberg, he began to address nuclear energy, morality and the war, to which Bohr seems to have reacted by terminating the conversation abruptly while not giving Heisenberg hints about his own opinions.Ivan Supek, one of Heisenberg's students and friends, claimed that the main subject of the meeting wasCarl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, who had proposed trying to persuade Bohr to mediate peace between Britain and Germany. In 1957, Heisenberg wrote toRobert Jungk, who was then working on the bookBrighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists. Heisenberg explained that he had visited Copenhagen to communicate to Bohr the views of several German scientists, that production of a nuclear weapon was possible with great efforts, and this raised enormous responsibilities on the world's scientists on both sides.When Bohr saw Jungk's depiction in the Danish translation of the book, he drafted (but never sent)\",\n \"(but never sent) a letter to Heisenberg, stating that he deeply disagreed with Heisenberg's account of the meeting,that he recalled Heisenberg's visit as being to encourage cooperation with the inevitably victorious Nazisand that he was shocked that Germany was pursuing nuclear weapons under Heisenberg's leadership. Michael Frayn's 1998 playCopenhagenexplores what might have happened at the 1941 meeting between Heisenberg and Bohr.A television film versionof the play by theBBCwas first screened on 26 September 2002, withStephen Reaas Bohr. With the subsequent release of Bohr's letters, the play has been criticised by historians as being a \\\"grotesque oversimplification and perversion of the actual moral balance\\\" due to adopting a pro-Heisenberg perspective. The same meeting had previously been dramatised by the BBC'sHorizonscience documentary series in 1992, withAnthony Bateas Bohr, and Philip Anthony as Heisenberg.The meeting is also dramatised in the Norwegian/Danish/British miniseriesThe Heavy Water War.\",\n \"Heavy Water War. Manhattan Project In September 1943, word reached Bohr and his brother Harald that the Nazisconsidered their family to be Jewish, since their mother was Jewish, and that they were therefore in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September.The next day, Bohr persuaded KingGustaf V of Swedento make public Sweden's willingness to provide asylum to Jewish refugees. On 2 October 1943, Swedish radio broadcast that Sweden was ready to offer asylum, and the massrescue of the Danish Jewsby their countrymen followed swiftly thereafter. Some historians claim that Bohr's actions led directly to the mass rescue, while others say that, though Bohr did all that he could for his countrymen, his actions were not a decisive influence on the wider events.Eventually, over 7,000 Danish Jews escaped to Sweden. When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain,Lord Cherwellsent a telegram to Bohr asking him to come to Britain. Bohr arrived in Scotland\",\n \"arrived in Scotland on 6 October in ade Havilland Mosquitooperated by theBritish Overseas Airways Corporation(BOAC).The Mosquitos were unarmed high-speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small, valuable cargoes or important passengers. By flying at high speed and high altitude, they could cross German-occupied Norway, and yet avoid German fighters. Bohr, equipped with parachute, flying suit and oxygen mask, spent the three-hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft'sbomb bay.During the flight, Bohr did not wear his flying helmet as it was too small, and consequently did not hear the pilot's intercom instruction to turn on his oxygen supply when the aircraft climbed to high altitude to overfly Norway. He passed out from oxygen starvation and only revived when the aircraft descended to lower altitude over the North Sea.Bohr's son Aage followed his father to Britain on another flight a week later, and became his personal assistant. Bohr was warmly received byJames Chadwickand SirJohn\",\n \"Chadwickand SirJohn Anderson, but for security reasons Bohr was kept out of sight. He was given an apartment atSt James's Palaceand an office with the BritishTube Alloysnuclear weapons development team. Bohr was astonished at the amount of progress that had been made.Chadwick arranged for Bohr to visit the United States as a Tube Alloys consultant, with Aage as his assistant.On 8 December 1943, Bohr arrived inWashington, D.C., where he met with the director of theManhattan Project, Brigadier GeneralLeslie R. Groves Jr.He visited Einstein and Pauli at theInstitute for Advanced StudyinPrinceton, New Jersey, and went toLos AlamosinNew Mexico, where the nuclear weapons were being designed.For security reasons, he went under the name of \\\"Nicholas Baker\\\" in the United States, while Aage became \\\"James Baker\\\".In May 1944 the Danish resistance newspaperDe frie Danskereported that they had learned that 'the famous son of Denmark Professor Niels Bohr' in October the previous year had fled his country via Sweden to\",\n \"via Sweden to London and from there travelled toMoscowfrom where he could be assumed to support the war effort. Bohr did not remain at Los Alamos, but paid a series of extended visits over the course of the next two years.Robert Oppenheimercredited Bohr with acting \\\"as a scientific father figure to the younger men\\\", most notablyRichard Feynman.Bohr is quoted as saying, \\\"They didn't need my help in making the atom bomb.\\\"Oppenheimer gave Bohr credit for an important contribution to the work onmodulated neutron initiators. \\\"This device remained a stubborn puzzle\\\", Oppenheimer noted, \\\"but in early February 1945 Niels Bohr clarified what had to be done\\\". Bohr recognised early that nuclear weapons would change international relations. In April 1944, he received a letter fromPeter Kapitza, written some months before when Bohr was in Sweden, inviting him to come to theSoviet Union. The letter convinced Bohr that the Soviets were aware of the Anglo-American project, and would strive to catch up. He sent Kapitza a\",\n \"He sent Kapitza a non-committal response, which he showed to the authorities in Britain before posting.Bohr met Churchill on 16 May 1944, but found that \\\"we did not speak the same language\\\".Churchill disagreed with the idea of openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter: \\\"It seems to me Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes.\\\" Oppenheimer suggested that Bohr visit PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltto convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared with the Soviets in the hope of speeding up its results. Bohr's friend, Supreme Court JusticeFelix Frankfurter, informed President Roosevelt about Bohr's opinions, and a meeting between them took place on 26 August 1944. Roosevelt suggested that Bohr return to the United Kingdom to try to win British approval.When Churchill and Roosevelt met at Hyde Park on 19 September 1944, they rejected the idea of informing the world about the project, and theaide-mémoireof their\",\n \"their conversation contained a rider that \\\"enquiries should be made regarding the activities of Professor Bohr and steps taken to ensure that he is responsible for no leakage of information, particularly to the Russians\\\". In June 1950, Bohr addressed an \\\"Open Letter\\\" to theUnited Nationscalling for international cooperation on nuclear energy.In the 1950s, after theSoviet Union's first nuclear weapon test, theInternational Atomic Energy Agencywas created along the lines of Bohr's suggestion.In 1957 he received the first everAtoms for Peace Award. Later years Following the ending of the war, Bohr returned to Copenhagen on 25 August 1945, and was re-elected President of the Royal Danish Academy of Arts and Sciences on 21 September.At a memorial meeting of the Academy on 17 October 1947 for KingChristian X, who had died in April, the new king,Frederik IX, announced that he was conferring theOrder of the Elephanton Bohr. This award was normally awarded only to royalty and heads of state, but the king said that it\",\n \"king said that it honoured not just Bohr personally, but Danish science.Bohr designed his owncoat of arms, which featured ataijitu(symbol of yin and yang) and a motto in Latin:contraria sunt complementa, \\\"opposites are complementary\\\". The Second World War demonstrated that science, and physics in particular, now required considerable financial and material resources. To avoid abrain drainto the United States, twelve European countries banded together to createCERN, a research organisation along the lines of the national laboratories in the United States, designed to undertakeBig Scienceprojects beyond the resources of any one of them alone. Questions soon arose regarding the best location for the facilities. Bohr and Kramers felt that the Institute in Copenhagen would be the ideal site.Pierre Auger, who organised the preliminary discussions, disagreed; he felt that both Bohr and his Institute were past their prime, and that Bohr's presence would overshadow others. After a long debate, Bohr pledged his\",\n \"Bohr pledged his support to CERN in February 1952, andGenevawas chosen as the site in October. The CERN Theory Group was based in Copenhagen until their new accommodation in Geneva was ready in 1957.Victor Weisskopf, who later became theDirector General of CERN, summed up Bohr's role, saying that \\\"there were other personalities who started and conceived the idea ofCERN. The enthusiasm and ideas of the other people would not have been enough, however, if a man of his stature had not supported it.\\\" Meanwhile, Scandinavian countries formed theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physicsin 1957, with Bohr as its chairman. He was also involved with the founding of theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission, and served as its first chairman from February 1956. Bohr died of heart failure at his home inCarlsbergon 18 November 1962.He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in the family plot in theAssistens Cemeteryin theNørrebrosection of Copenhagen, along with those of his parents, his\",\n \"of his parents, his brother Harald, and his son Christian. Years later, his wife's ashes were also interred there.On 7 October 1965, on what would have been his 80th birthday, the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen was officially renamed to what it had been called unofficially for many years: the Niels Bohr Institute. Accolades Bohr received numerous honours and accolades. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he received theHughes Medalin 1921, theMatteucci Medalin 1923, theFranklin Medalin 1926,theCopley Medalin 1938, the Order of the Elephant in 1947, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1957 and theSonning Prizein 1961. He became foreign member of theFinnish Society of Sciences an Lettersin 1922,and of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1923,an international member of theUnited States National Academy of Sciencesin 1925,a member of theRoyal Societyin 1926,an international member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1940,and an international honorary member of\",\n \"honorary member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1945.The Bohr model's semicentennial was commemorated in Denmark on 21 November 1963 with apostage stampdepicting Bohr, the hydrogen atom and the formula for the difference of any two hydrogen energy levels:hν=ϵ2−ϵ1{\\\\displaystyle h\\\\nu =\\\\epsilon _{2}-\\\\epsilon _{1}}. Several other countries have also issued postage stamps depicting Bohr.In 1997, theDanish National Bankbegan circulating the500-krone banknotewith the portrait of Bohr smoking a pipe.On 7 October 2012, in celebration of Niels Bohr's 127th birthday, a Google Doodle depicting the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom appeared on Google's home page.An asteroid,3948 Bohr, was named after him,as was theBohr lunar craterandbohrium, the chemical element with atomic number 107. Bibliography See also Notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"Johannes Stark Johannes Stark(German pronunciation:ⓘ, 15 April 1874 – 21 June 1957) was a Germanphysicistwho was awarded theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1919 \\\"for his discovery of the Doppler effect incanal raysand the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields\\\". This phenomenon is known as theStark effect. Stark received his Ph.D. in physics from theUniversity of Munichin 1897 under the supervision ofEugen von Lommel, and served as Lommel's assistant until his appointment as a lecturer at theUniversity of Göttingenin 1900. He was anextraordinary professoratLeibniz University Hannoverfrom 1906 until he became a professor atRWTH Aachen Universityin 1909. In 1917, he became professor at theUniversity of Greifswald, and he also worked at theUniversity of Würzburgfrom 1920 to 1922. A supporter ofAdolf Hitlerfrom 1924, Stark was one of the main figures, along with fellow Nobel laureatePhilipp Lenard, in the anti-SemiticDeutsche Physikmovement, which sought to remove Jewish scientists from German physics. He was\",\n \"physics. He was appointed head of theGerman Research Foundationin 1933 and was president of theReich Physical-Technical Institutefrom 1933 to 1939. In 1947 he was found guilty as a \\\"Major Offender\\\" by adenazificationcourt. Biography Early years Born inSchickenhof,Kingdom of Bavaria(nowFreihung), Stark was educated atBayreuth Gymnasium(secondary school) and later inRegensburg. Hiscollegiateeducation began at theUniversity of Munich, where he studied physics,mathematics,chemistry, andcrystallography. His tenure at that college began in 1894; he graduated in 1897, with hisdoctoraldissertation titledUntersuchung über einige physikalische, vorzüglich optische Eigenschaften des Rußes(Investigation of some physical, in particular optical properties of soot). Career Stark worked in various positions at the Physics Institute of hisalma materuntil 1900, when he became an unsalariedlecturerat theUniversity of Göttingen. An extraordinary professor atHannoverby 1906, in 1908 he became professor atRWTH Aachen University.\",\n \"Aachen University. He worked and researched at physics departments of several universities, including theUniversity of Greifswald, until 1922. In 1919, he won theNobel Prize in Physicsfor his \\\"discovery of theDoppler effectincanal raysand the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields\\\" (the latter is known as theStark effect). From 1933 until his retirement in 1939, Stark was elected President of thePhysikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, while also President of theDeutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. It was Stark who, as the editor of theJahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, asked in 1907, then still rather unknown,Albert Einsteinto write a review article on theprinciple of relativity. Stark seemed impressed by relativity and Einstein's earlier work when he quoted \\\"the principle of relativity formulated by H. A. Lorentz and A. Einstein\\\" and \\\"Planck's relationshipM0=E0/c2\\\" in his 1907 paperinPhysikalische Zeitschrift, where he used the equatione0=m0c2to calculate an \\\"elementary quantum of energy\\\", i.e.\",\n \"of energy\\\", i.e. the amount of energy related to the mass of an electron at rest. While working on his article,Einstein began a line of thought that would eventually lead to hisgeneral theory of relativity, which in turn became (after its confirmation) the start of Einstein's worldwide fame. This is ironic, given Stark's later work as an anti-Einstein andanti-relativitypropagandist in theDeutsche Physikmovement. Stark published more than 300 papers, mainly regardingelectricityand other such topics. He received various awards, including theNobel Prize, the Baumgartner Prize of theVienna Academy of Sciences(1910), the Vahlbruch Prize of theGöttingen Academy of Sciences(1914), and theMatteucci Medalof theRome Academy. Probably his best known contribution to the field ofphysicsis theStark effect, which he discovered in 1913. In 1970 theInternational Astronomical Unionhonored him with acrateron the far-side of the Moon, without knowing about his Nazi activities.The name was dropped on August 12, 2020. He\",\n \"August 12, 2020. He marriedLuise Uepler, and they had five children. His hobbies were the cultivation of fruit trees and forestry. He worked in his private laboratory, which he set up using his Nobel prize money, on his country estate in Upper Bavaria after the second world war. There he studied the deflection of light in an electric field. Affiliation with Nazism From 1924 onwards, Stark supported Hitler.During theNaziregime, Stark attempted to become theFührerof German physics through theDeutsche Physik(\\\"German physics\\\") movement (along with fellow Nobel laureatePhilipp Lenard) against the \\\"Jewish physics\\\" ofAlbert EinsteinandWerner Heisenberg(who was not Jewish). After Werner Heisenberg defended Albert Einstein'stheory of relativity, Stark wrote an angry article in the officialSSnewspaperDas Schwarze Korps, calling Heisenberg a \\\"White Jew\\\". On August 21, 1934, Stark wrote to physicist and fellow Nobel laureateMax von Laue, telling him to toe the party line or suffer the consequences. The letter was signed\",\n \"letter was signed off with \\\"Heil Hitler.\\\" In his 1934 bookNationalsozialismus und Wissenschaft(English: \\\"National Socialism and Science\\\") Stark maintained that the priority of the scientist was to serve the nation—thus, the important fields of research were those that could help German arms production and industry. He attacked theoretical physics as \\\"Jewish\\\" and stressed that scientific positions inNazi Germanyshould only be held by pure-blooded Germans. Writing inDas Schwarze Korps, Stark argued that even ifracial antisemitismwere to triumph, it would only be a 'partial victory' if 'Jewish' ideas were not similarly defeated: \\\"We also have to eradicate the Jewish spirit, whose blood can flow just as undisturbed today as before if its carriers hold beautifulAryanpasses\\\". In 1947, following the defeat of Germany inWorld War II, Stark was classified as a \\\"Major Offender\\\" and received a sentence of four years' imprisonment (later suspended) by adenazificationcourt. Later life and death Stark spent the last years\",\n \"the last years of his life on his Gut Eppenstatt near Traunstein in Upper Bavaria, where he died in 1957 at the age of 83. He was buried inSchönau am Königsseein the mountain cemetery. See also Publications Notes References External links\",\n \"James Franck James Franck(German pronunciation:ⓘ; 26 August 1882 – 21 May 1964) was a Germanphysicistwho won the 1925Nobel Prize for PhysicswithGustav Hertz\\\"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom\\\".He completed hisdoctoratein 1906 and hishabilitationin 1911 at theFrederick William Universityin Berlin, where he lectured and taught until 1918, having reached the position ofprofessor extraordinarius. He served as a volunteer in the German Army duringWorld War I. He was seriously injured in 1917 in a gas attack and was awarded theIron Cross1st Class. Franck became the Head of the Physics Division of theKaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaftfor Physical Chemistry. In 1920, Franck becameprofessor ordinariusof experimental physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics at theUniversity of Göttingen. While there he worked onquantum physicswithMax Born, who was Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics. His work included theFranck–Hertz experiment, an\",\n \"experiment, an important confirmation of theBohr modelof theatom. He promoted the careers of women in physics, notablyLise Meitner,Hertha SponerandHilde Levi. After theNazi Partycame to power in Germany in 1933, Franck resigned his post in protest against the dismissal of fellow academics. He assistedFrederick Lindemannin helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933. After a year at theNiels Bohr InstituteinDenmark, he moved to the United States, where he worked atJohns Hopkins UniversityinBaltimoreand then theUniversity of Chicago. During this period he became interested inphotosynthesis. Franck participated in theManhattan ProjectduringWorld War IIas Director of the Chemistry Division of theMetallurgical Laboratory. He was also the chairman of the Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which is best known for the compilation of theFranck Report, which recommended that theatomic bombsnot be used on the Japanese cities without\",\n \"cities without warning. Early life James Franck was born inHamburg, Germany, on 26 August 1882, into aJewishfamily, the second child and first son of Jacob Franck, a banker, and his wife Rebecca née Nachum Drucker.He had an older sister, Paula, and a younger brother, Robert Bernard.His father was a devout and religious man, while his mother came from a family of rabbis.Franck attended primary school in Hamburg. Starting in 1891 he attended theWilhelm-Gymnasium, which was then a boys-only school. Hamburg had no university then, so prospective students had to attend one of the 22 universities elsewhere in Germany. Intending to study law and economics, Franck entered theUniversity of Heidelbergin 1901, as it had a renowned law school.He attended lectures on law, but was far more interested in those on science. While there, he metMax Born, who would become a lifelong friend. With Born's help, he was able to persuade his parents to allow him to switch to studying physics and chemistry.Franck attended mathematics\",\n \"mathematics lectures byLeo KönigsbergerandGeorg Cantor, but Heidelberg was not strong on the physical sciences, so he decided to go to theFrederick William Universityin Berlin. At Berlin, Franck attended lectures byMax PlanckandEmil Warburg.On 28 July 1904 he saved a pair of children from drowning in theSpree River.For hisDoctor of Philosophy(Dir. Phil.) under Warburg's supervision,Warburg suggested that he studycorona discharges. Franck found this topic too complex, so he changed the focus of histhesis.EntitledÜber die Beweglichkeit der Ladungsträger der Spitzenentladung(\\\"On the Mobility ofIons\\\"),it would subsequently be published in theAnnalen der Physik. With his thesis completed, Franck had to perform his deferred military service. He was called up on 1 October 1906 and joined the 1st Telegraph Battalion. He suffered a minor horse riding accident in December and was discharged as unfit for duty. He took up an assistantship at the Physikalische Verein inFrankfurtin 1907, but did not enjoy it, and soon\",\n \"enjoy it, and soon returned to Frederick William University.At a concert Franck met Ingrid Josephson, a Swedish pianist. They were married in a Swedish ceremony inGothenburgon 23 December 1907. They had two daughters, Dagmar (Daggie), who was born in 1909, and Elisabeth (Lisa), who was born in 1912. To pursue an academic career in Germany, having a doctorate was not enough; one needed avenia legendi, or habilitation. This could be achieved with either another major thesis or by producing a substantial body of published work. Franck chose the latter route. There were many unsolved problems in physics at the time, and by 1914 he had published 34 articles. He was the sole author of some, but generally preferred working in collaboration withEva von Bahr,Lise Meitner,Robert Pohl,Peter Pringsheim,Robert W. Wood,Arthur WehneltorWilhelm Westphal. His most fruitful collaboration was withGustav Hertz, with whom he wrote 19 articles. He received his habilitation on 20 May 1911. Franck–Hertz experiment In 1914, Franck\",\n \"In 1914, Franck teamed up with Hertz to perform an experiment to investigatefluorescence. They designed avacuum tubefor studying energeticelectronsthat flew through a thin vapour ofmercuryatoms. They discovered that when an electron collided with a mercury atom it could lose only a specific quantity (4.9electronvolts) of itskinetic energybefore flying away. A faster electron does not decelerate completely after a collision, but loses precisely the same amount of its kinetic energy. Slower electrons just bounce off mercury atoms without losing any significant speed or kinetic energy. These experimental results provided confirmation ofAlbert Einstein'sphotoelectric effectand Planck's relation (E=fh) linking energy (E) and frequency (f) arising from quantisation of energy with thePlanck constant(h). But they also provided evidence supporting themodel of the atomthat had been proposed the previous year byNiels Bohr. Its key feature was that an electron inside an atom occupies one of the atom's \\\"quantum energy\",\n \"\\\"quantum energy levels\\\". Before a collision, an electron inside the mercury atom occupies its lowest available energy level. After the collision, the electron inside occupies a higher energy level with 4.9 eV more energy. This means that the electron is more loosely bound to the mercury atom. There were no intermediate levels or possibilities. In a second paper presented in May 1914, Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions. They showed that thewavelengthof thisultravioletlight corresponded exactly to the 4.9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost. The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr.Franck and Hertz completed their last paper together in December 1918. In it, they reconciled the discrepancies between their results and Bohr's theory, which they now acknowledged.In his Nobel lecture, Franck admitted that it was \\\"completely incomprehensible that we had failed to recognise the fundamental\",\n \"the fundamental significance of Bohr's theory, so much so, that we never even mentioned it once\\\".On 10 December 1926, Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925Nobel Prize in Physics\\\"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom.\\\". World War I Franck enlisted in theGerman Armysoon after the outbreak of theFirst World Warin August 1914. In December he was sent to thePicardysector of theWestern Front. He became a deputy officer (offizierstellvertreter), and then a lieutenant (leutnant) in 1915.In early 1915 he was transferred toFritz Haber's new unit that would introduce clouds of chlorine gas as a weapon.WithOtto Hahnhe was responsible for locating sites for the attacks. He was awarded theIron Cross, Second Class, on 30 March 1915,and the city of Hamburg awarded him theHanseatic Crosson 11 January 1916.While in hospital withpleurisy, he co-wrote yet another scientific paper with Hertz, and he was appointed an assistant professor in his absence by Frederick William University on\",\n \"University on 19 September 1916. Sent to theRussian front, he came down withdysentery. He returned to Berlin, where he joined Hertz, Westphal,Hans Geiger, Otto Hahn and others at Haber'sKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, working on the development ofgas masks.He was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class, on 23 February 1918. He was discharged from the Army on 25 November 1918, soon after the war ended. With the war over, Haber's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute now returned to research, and Haber offered Franck a job. His new post came with more pay, but was not a tenured position. It did however allow Franck to pursue his research as he wished. Working with new, younger collaborators such asWalter Grotrian, Paul Knipping, Thea Krüger,Fritz ReicheandHertha Sponer, his first papers at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute examined atomic electrons in their excited state, results that would later prove important in the development of thelaser.They coined the term \\\"metastable\\\" for atoms spending\",\n \"for atoms spending an extended time in a state other thanthat of least energy.When Niels Bohr visited Berlin in 1920, Meitner and Franck arranged for him to come to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute to talk with the younger staff without the presence of thebonzen(\\\"bigwigs\\\"). Göttingen In 1920, theUniversity of Göttingenoffered Max Born its chair of theoretical physics, which had recently been vacated byPeter Debye. Göttingen was an important centre for mathematics, thanks toDavid Hilbert,Felix Klein,Hermann MinkowskiandCarl Runge, but not so much for physics. This would change. As part of his price for coming to Göttingen, Born wanted Franck to head experimental physics there. On 15 November 1920, Franck became Professor of Experimental Physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics, a fully tenuredprofessor ordinarius. He was allowed two assistants, so he broughtHertha Sponerwith him from Berlin to fill one of the positions. Pohl, a gifted teacher, headed the First Institute, and handled\",\n \"and handled the lectures.Franck refurbished the laboratory with the latest equipment using funds from his own pocket. Under Born and Franck, Göttingen was one of the world's great centres for physics between 1920 and 1933.Although they published only three papers together, Born and Franck discussed every one of their papers with each other. Gaining admittance to Franck's laboratory became highly competitive. His doctoral students includedHans Kopfermann,Arthur R. von Hippel,Wilhelm Hanle,Fritz Houtermans,Heinrich Kuhn,Werner Kroebel, Walter Lochte-Holtgreven andHeinz Maier-Leibnitz.In supervising doctoral candidates, Franck had to ensure that thesis topics were well-defined, and would teach the candidate how to conduct original research, while still staying within the limits of the candidate's ability, the laboratory's equipment and the institute's budget.Under his direction, research was carried out into the structure of atoms and molecules. In his own research, Franck developed what became known as\",\n \"became known as theFranck–Condon principle, a rule inspectroscopyandquantum chemistrythat explains the intensity ofvibronic transitions, simultaneous changes in electronic and vibrational energy levels of a molecule due to the absorption or emission of aphotonof the appropriate energy. The principle states that during anelectronic transition, a change from onevibrationalenergy levelto another will be more likely to happen if the two vibrationalwave functionsoverlap more significantly.The principle has since been applied to a wide variety of related phenomena. For his work during this time period, Franck was elected to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1929. Exile This period came to an end when theNazi Partywon power in Germany inan electionon 2 March 1933. The following month it enacted theLaw for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which provided for the retirement or dismissal of all Jewish civil servants, along with political opponents of the government. As a veteran of the First\",\n \"of the First World War, Franck was exempt, but he submitted his resignation anyway on 17 April 1933.He once commented that science was his God and nature was his religion. He did not require his daughters to attend religious instruction classes at school,and even let them have a decorated tree at Christmas;but he was proud of his Jewish heritage all the same.He was the first academic to resign in protest over the law.Newspapers around the world reported it, but no government or university protested. Franck assistedFrederick Lindemannin helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933.After a brief visit to the United States, where he measured the absorption of light inheavy waterwith Wood atJohns Hopkins University, he took up a position at theNiels Bohr InstituteinCopenhagen.He needed a new collaborator, so he took onHilde Levi, whose recent thesis had impressed him.His original intention was to continue his research into the fluorescence of vapours and\",\n \"of vapours and liquids, but under Bohr's influence they began to take an interest in biological aspects of these reactions, particularlyphotosynthesis, the process by which plants use light to convertcarbon dioxideand water into more organic compounds. Biological processes turned out to be far more complicated than simple reactions in atoms and molecules. He co-authored two papers with Levi on the subject, which he would return to over the following years. Franck found a position at thePolytekniske Læreanstaltin Copenhagen for Arthur von Hippel, who was now his son in law, having married his daughter Dagmar. He decided to provide financial security for his children by dividing his Nobel Prize money between them. The gold medal itself was entrusted to Niels Bohr for safekeeping.When Germanyinvaded Denmarkon 9 April 1940, the Hungarian chemistGeorge de Hevesydissolved the gold medal, along with that ofMax von Laueinaqua regiato prevent the Germans from taking them. He placed the resulting solution on a shelf\",\n \"solution on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. After the war, he returned to find the solution undisturbed and precipitated the gold out of the acid. The Nobel Society then recast the Nobel Prize medals. In 1935, Franck moved to the United States, where he had accepted a professorship at Johns Hopkins University.The laboratory there was poorly equipped compared to the one in Göttingen, but he received $10,000 for equipment from theRockefeller Foundation. A more intractable problem was that the university had no money to hire skilled staff. Franck was concerned about his family members remaining in Germany, and needed money to help them emigrate. He therefore accepted an offer from theUniversity of Chicago, where his work on photosynthesis had attracted interest, in 1938. Franck's first paper there, co-authored withEdward Teller, was on photochemical processes in crystals.Hans Gaffronbecame his collaborator.They were joined by Pringsheim, who escaped from Belgium after theGerman invasion.\",\n \"theGerman invasion. Franck arranged a position for Pringsheim at his laboratory.Both his daughters and their families moved to the United States, and he was also able to bring out his elderly mother and aunt.He became anaturalisedUnited States citizen on 21 July 1941,so he was not anenemy alienwhen the United Statesdeclared war on Germanyon 11 December 1941. His daughters still were, though, so they were restricted from travelling, and could not take care of their mother when she fell ill and died on 10 January 1942, although they were permitted to attend her funeral. In February 1942,Arthur H. Comptonestablished itsMetallurgical Laboratoryat the University of Chicago. As part of theManhattan Project, its mission was to buildnuclear reactorsto createplutoniumthat would be used inatomic bombs.The Metallurgical Laboratory's Chemistry Division was initially headed byFrank Spedding, but he preferred hands on work to administration. Compton then turned to Franck, with some trepidation owing to his German\",\n \"owing to his German background.Compton later wrote: How Franck welcomed an invitation to join our project! It was a vote of confidence that far exceeded his hopes, and it gave him a chance to do his part for the cause of freedom. \\\"It's not the German people I'm fighting\\\", he explained. \\\"It's the Nazis. They have a stranglehold over Germany. The German people are helpless until we can break the strength of their Nazi masters.\\\" The chemists welcomed Franck as an elder scientific statesman whose guidance they were glad to follow. In addition to heading the Chemistry Division, Franck was also the chairman of the Metallurgical Laboratory's Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which consisted of himself andDonald J. Hughes,J. J. Nickson,Eugene Rabinowitch,Glenn T. Seaborg, J. C. Stearns andLeó Szilárd.In 1945, Franck warnedHenry A. Wallaceof their fears that \\\"mankind has learned to unleash atomic power without being ethically and politically prepared to use it wisely.\\\"The committee\",\n \"committee compiled what became known as theFranck Report. Finished on 11 June 1945, it recommended that theatomic bombsnot be used on the Japanese cities without warning.In any event, theInterim Committeedecided otherwise. Later life Franck marriedHertha Sponerin a civil ceremony on 29 June 1946,his first wife, Ingrid, having died in 1942. In his post-war research, he continued to tackle the problem of explaining the mechanism of photosynthesis. Meitner saw no break between his early and later work. She recalled that Franck enjoyed talking about his problems, not so much to explain them to others as to satisfy his own mind. Once a problem had aroused his interest he was completely captivated, indeed obsessed by it. Common sense and straight logic were his main tools, together with simple apparatus. His research followed an almost straight line, from his early studies of ion mobilities to his last work on photosynthesis; it was always the energy exchange between atoms or molecules that fascinated him. In\",\n \"fascinated him. In addition to the Nobel Prize. Franck was awarded theMax Planck medalof theDeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaftin 1951 and theRumford Medalof the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on photosynthesis in 1955. He became an honorary citizen of Göttingen in 1953,was elected a member of the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1944,and elected aForeign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1964.He was also an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Society. He died suddenly from a heart attack while visiting Göttingen on 21 May 1964,and was buried in Chicago with his first wife. In 1967, the University of Chicago named theJames Franck Instituteafter him.Alunar craterhas also been named in his honour.His papers are in the University of Chicago Library. See also Notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"Gustav Ludwig Hertz Gustav Ludwig Hertz(/hɜːrts/;German:ⓘ; 22 July 1887 – 30 October 1975)was a Germanexperimental physicistandNobel Prize winnerfor his work on inelastic electron collisions in gases, and a nephew ofHeinrich Hertz. Biography Hertz was born inHamburg, the son of Auguste (née Arning) and a lawyer, Gustav Theodor Hertz (1858–1904),Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's brother. He attended theGelehrtenschule des Johanneumsbefore studying at theGeorg-August University of Göttingen(1906–1907), theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich(1907–1908), and theHumboldt University of Berlin(1908–1911). He received his doctorate in 1911 underHeinrich Leopold Rubens. From 1911 to 1914, Hertz was an assistant to Rubens at the University of Berlin. It was during this time that Hertz andJames Franckperformed experiments on inelastic electron collisions in gases,known as theFranck–Hertz experiments, and for which they received theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1925. During World War I, Hertz served in the military from 1914. In\",\n \"from 1914. In 1915 he joinedFritz Haber's unit that would introduce poisonous chlorine gas as a weapon.He was seriously wounded in 1915. In 1917, he returned to the University of Berlin as aPrivatdozent. In 1920, he took a job as a research physicist at the Philips Incandescent Lamp Factory inEindhoven, which he held until 1925. Career In 1925, Hertz became ordinarius professor and director of the Physics Institute of theMartin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg. In 1928 he became ordinarius professor of experimental physics and director of the Physics Institute of theTechnische HochschuleBerlin(\\\"THB\\\"), nowTechnische Universität Berlin. While there, he developed an isotope separation technique via gaseous diffusion. Since Hertz was an officer during World War I, he was temporarily protected from National Socialist policies and theLaw for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, but eventually the policies and laws became more stringent, and at the end of 1934, he was forced to resign his\",\n \"to resign his position at THB, as he was classified as a \\\"second degree part-Jew\\\" (his paternal grandfatherGustav Ferdinand Hertz(originally named David Gustav Hertz) (1827–1914) had been Jewish as a child, before his whole family had converted to Lutheranism in 1834).He then took a position atSiemens, as director of Research Laboratory II. While there, he continued his work onatomic physicsandultrasound, but he eventually discontinued his work on isotope separation. He held this position until he departed for the Soviet Union in 1945. In the Soviet Union \\\"Pact to defect\\\" Hertz was concerned for his safety and, like his fellow Nobel laureateJames Franck, was looking to move to the USA or any other place outside Germany. So he made a pact with three colleagues:Manfred von Ardenne, director of his private laboratoryForschungslaboratorium für Elektronenphysik,Peter Adolf Thiessen, ordinarius professor at theHumboldt University of Berlinand director of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für physikalische Chemie und\",\n \"Chemie und Elektrochemie (KWIPC) inBerlin-Dahlem, andMax Volmer, ordinarius professor and director of the Physical Chemistry Institute at the THB.The pact was a pledge that whoever first made contact with the Soviets would speak for the rest. The objectives of their pact were threefold: (1) prevent plunder of their institutes, (2) continue their work with minimal interruption, and (3) protect themselves from prosecution for any political acts of the past.Before the end of World War II, Thiessen, a member of theNazi Party, had Communist contacts. Participation in Soviet program of nuclear weapons On 27 April 1945, Thiessen arrived at von Ardenne's institute in an armored vehicle with a major of the Soviet Army, who was also a leading Soviet chemist.All four of the pact members were taken to the Soviet Union. Hertz was made head of Institute G, in Agudseri (Agudzery), about 10 km southeast ofSukhumiand a suburb of Gul'rips (Gulrip'shi).Topics assigned to Gustav Hertz's Institute G included: (1) Separation of\",\n \"(1) Separation of isotopes by diffusion in a flow of inert gases, for which Gustav Hertz was the leader, (2) Development of a condensation pump, for whichJustus Mühlenpfordtwas the leader, (3) Design and build a mass spectrometer for determining the isotopic composition of uranium, for which Werner Schütze was the leader, (4) Development of frameless (ceramic) diffusion partitions for filters, for which Reinhold Reichmann was the leader, and (5) Development of a theory of stability and control of a diffusion cascade, for whichHeinz Barwichwas the leader; Barwich had been deputy to Hertz at Siemens.Other members of Institute G wereWerner Hartmannand Karl-Franz Zühlke.Manfred von Ardenne was made head of Institute A. Goals of von Ardenne's Institute A included: (1) Electromagnetic separation of isotopes, for which von Ardenne was the leader, (2) Techniques for manufacturing porous barriers for isotope separation, for which Peter Adolf Thiessen was the leader, and (3) Molecular techniques for separation of\",\n \"for separation of uranium isotopes, for whichMax Steenbeckwas the leader. In his first meeting withLavrentij Beria, von Ardenne was asked to participate in building the bomb, but von Ardenne quickly realized that participation would prohibit his repatriation to Germany, so he suggested isotope enrichment as an objective, which was agreed to. Research at Sukhumi By the end of the 1940s, nearly 300 Germans were working at the institute, and they were not the total work force. Institute A was used as the basis for the Sukhumi Physical-Technical Institute in Sinop, a suburb ofSukhumi.Volmer went to the Scientific Research Institute No. 9 (NII-9)in Moscow; he was given a design bureau to work on the production ofheavy water. In Institute A, Thiessen became leader for developing techniques for manufacturing porous barriers for isotope separation. In 1949, six German scientists, including Hertz, Thiessen, and Barwich were called in for consultation atSverdlovsk-44, which was responsible for uranium enrichment. The\",\n \"enrichment. The plant, smaller than the American Oak Ridgegaseous diffusion plant, was getting only a little over half of the expected 90% or higher enrichment. After 1950, Hertz moved to Moscow. In 1951, Hertz was awarded aStalin Prize, second class, with Barwich.In that year, James Franck and Hertz were jointly awarded theMax Planck Medalby theDeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. Hertz remained in the Soviet Union until 1955. Return to the GDR Upon return from the Soviet Union, Hertz became ordinarius professor at theUniversity of Leipzig. From 1955 to 1967, he was also the chairman of the Physical Society of theDeutsche Demokratische Republik (GDR); he was honorary chairman from 1967 to 1975. Personal life Gustav Hertz was a nephew ofHeinrich Rudolf Hertzand a cousin ofMathilde Carmen Hertz. In 1919, Hertz married Ellen née Dihlmann, who died in 1941. They had two sons,Carl Helmut Hertzand Johannes Heinrich Hertz; both became physicists. He died on 30 October 1975 inEast Berlinat the age 88. Scientific\",\n \"age 88. Scientific memberships Hertz was a Member of the German Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Corresponding Member of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences, an Honorary Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, a Member of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences, and a Foreign Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Publications See also References Further reading External links\",\n \"List of Nobel laureates in Physics TheNobel Prize in Physics(Swedish:Nobelpriset i fysik) is awarded annually by theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciencesto scientists in the various fields ofphysics. It is one of the fiveNobel Prizesestablished by the 1895willofAlfred Nobel(who died in 1896), awarded for outstanding contributions in physics.As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by theNobel Foundationand awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.The award is presented inStockholmat an annual ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death.Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award prize that has varied throughout the years. Statistics The Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to 226 individuals as of 2024.The first prize in physics was awarded in 1901 toWilhelm Conrad Röntgen, of Germany, who received 150,782SEK.John Bardeenis the only laureate to win the prize twice—in 1956 and 1972. William Lawrence Braggwas the youngest Nobel laureate in physics; he won\",\n \"in physics; he won the prize in 1915 at the age of 25. He was also the youngest laureate for any Nobel prize until 2014 (whenMalala Yousafzaiwon the Nobel Peace Prize at the age of 17).The oldest Nobel Prize laureate in physics wasArthur Ashkinwho was 96 years old when he was awarded the prize in 2018. Only five women have won the prize:Marie Curie(1903),Maria Goeppert-Mayer(1963),Donna Strickland(2018),Andrea Ghez(2020), andAnne L'Huillier(2023).Before L'Huillier, each woman only ever received a quarter share of the prize, although Marie Curie did receive anunshared Nobel prize in chemistry in 1911. In 2023, L'Huillier received a one-third share. There have been six years for which the Nobel Prize in Physics was not awarded (1916, 1931, 1934, 1940–1942). There were also nine years for which the Nobel Prize in Physics was delayed for one year: A 2020 study reported that half of the Nobel Prizes for science awarded between 1995 and 2017 are clustered in few disciplines.Particle physics(14%),atomic\",\n \"physics(14%),atomic physics(10.9%), and 3 non-physics disciplines dominate the prize in recent decades, followed bysemiconductor physicsandmagnetics. Laureates Number of Nobel laureates in Physics by country See also Notes References External links\",\n \"Quantum mechanics Quantum mechanicsis a fundamentaltheorythat describes the behavior ofnatureat and below the scale ofatoms.: 1.1It is the foundation of allquantum physics, which includesquantum chemistry,quantum field theory,quantum technology, andquantum information science. Quantum mechanics can describe many systems thatclassical physicscannot. Classical physics can describe many aspects of nature at an ordinary (macroscopicand(optical) microscopic) scale, but is not sufficient for describing them at very smallsubmicroscopic(atomic andsubatomic) scales. Most theories in classical physics can be derived from quantum mechanics as an approximation, valid at large (macroscopic/microscopic) scale. Quantum systems haveboundstates that arequantizedtodiscrete valuesofenergy,momentum,angular momentum, and other quantities, in contrast to classical systems where these quantities can be measured continuously. Measurements of quantum systems show characteristics of bothparticlesandwaves(wave–particle duality), and\",\n \"duality), and there are limits to how accurately the value of a physical quantity can be predicted prior to its measurement, given a complete set of initial conditions (theuncertainty principle). Quantum mechanicsarose graduallyfrom theories to explain observations that could not be reconciled with classical physics, such asMax Planck's solution in 1900 to theblack-body radiationproblem, and the correspondence between energy and frequency inAlbert Einstein's1905 paper, which explained thephotoelectric effect. These early attempts to understand microscopic phenomena, now known as the \\\"old quantum theory\\\", led to the full development of quantum mechanics in the mid-1920s byNiels Bohr,Erwin Schrödinger,Werner Heisenberg,Max Born,Paul Diracand others. The modern theory is formulated in variousspecially developed mathematical formalisms. In one of them, a mathematical entity called thewave functionprovides information, in the form ofprobability amplitudes, about what measurements of a particle's energy, momentum,\",\n \"energy, momentum, and other physical properties may yield. Overview and fundamental concepts Quantum mechanics allows the calculation of properties and behaviour of physical systems. It is typically applied to microscopic systems: molecules, atoms and sub-atomic particles. It has been demonstrated to hold for complex molecules with thousands of atoms,but its application to human beings raises philosophical problems, such asWigner's friend, and its application to the universe as a whole remains speculative.Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to an extremely high degree ofaccuracy. For example, the refinement of quantum mechanics for the interaction of light and matter, known asquantum electrodynamics(QED), has beenshown to agree with experimentto within 1 part in 1012when predicting the magnetic properties of an electron. A fundamental feature of the theory is that it usually cannot predict with certainty what will happen, but only give probabilities. Mathematically, a\",\n \"Mathematically, a probability is found by taking the square of the absolute value of acomplex number, known as a probability amplitude. This is known as theBorn rule, named after physicistMax Born. For example, a quantum particle like anelectroncan be described by a wave function, which associates to each point in space a probability amplitude. Applying the Born rule to these amplitudes gives aprobability density functionfor the position that the electron will be found to have when an experiment is performed to measure it. This is the best the theory can do; it cannot say for certain where the electron will be found. TheSchrödinger equationrelates the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to one moment of time to the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to another.: 67–87 One consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is a tradeoff in predictability between measurable quantities. The most famous form of thisuncertainty principlesays that no matter how a quantum\",\n \"how a quantum particle is prepared or how carefully experiments upon it are arranged, it is impossible to have a precise prediction for a measurement of its position and also at the same time for a measurement of itsmomentum.: 427–435 Another consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is the phenomenon ofquantum interference, which is often illustrated with thedouble-slit experiment. In the basic version of this experiment, acoherent light source, such as alaserbeam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate.: 102–111: 1.1–1.8The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through the two slits tointerfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen – a result that would not be expected if light consisted of classical particles.However, the light is always found to be absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as individual particles rather than waves; the interference pattern appears via the\",\n \"appears via the varying density of these particle hits on the screen. Furthermore, versions of the experiment that include detectors at the slits find that each detectedphotonpasses through one slit (as would a classical particle), and not through both slits (as would a wave).: 109However,such experimentsdemonstrate that particles do not form the interference pattern if one detects which slit they pass through. This behavior is known aswave–particle duality. In addition to light,electrons,atoms, andmoleculesare all found to exhibit the same dual behavior when fired towards a double slit. Another non-classical phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics isquantum tunnelling: a particle that goes up against apotential barriercan cross it, even if its kinetic energy is smaller than the maximum of the potential.In classical mechanics this particle would be trapped. Quantum tunnelling has several important consequences, enablingradioactive decay,nuclear fusionin stars, and applications such asscanning tunnelling\",\n \"tunnelling microscopy,tunnel diodeandtunnel field-effect transistor. When quantum systems interact, the result can be the creation ofquantum entanglement: their properties become so intertwined that a description of the whole solely in terms of the individual parts is no longer possible. Erwin Schrödinger called entanglement \\\"...thecharacteristic trait of quantum mechanics, the one that enforces its entire departure from classical lines of thought\\\".Quantum entanglement enablesquantum computingand is part of quantum communication protocols, such asquantum key distributionandsuperdense coding.Contrary to popular misconception, entanglement does not allow sending signalsfaster than light, as demonstrated by theno-communication theorem. Another possibility opened by entanglement is testing for \\\"hidden variables\\\", hypothetical properties more fundamental than the quantities addressed in quantum theory itself, knowledge of which would allow more exact predictions than quantum theory provides. A collection of\",\n \"A collection of results, most significantlyBell's theorem, have demonstrated that broad classes of such hidden-variable theories are in fact incompatible with quantum physics. According to Bell's theorem, if nature actually operates in accord with any theory oflocalhidden variables, then the results of aBell testwill be constrained in a particular, quantifiable way. Many Bell tests have been performed and they have shown results incompatible with the constraints imposed by local hidden variables. It is not possible to present these concepts in more than a superficial way without introducing the mathematics involved; understanding quantum mechanics requires not only manipulating complex numbers, but alsolinear algebra,differential equations,group theory, and other more advanced subjects.Accordingly, this article will present a mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics and survey its application to some useful and oft-studied examples. Mathematical formulation In the mathematically rigorous formulation of\",\n \"formulation of quantum mechanics, the state of a quantum mechanical system is a vectorψ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi }belonging to a (separable) complexHilbert spaceH{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\mathcal {H}}}. This vector is postulated to be normalized under the Hilbert space inner product, that is, it obeys⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1{\\\\displaystyle \\\\langle \\\\psi ,\\\\psi \\\\rangle =1}, and it is well-defined up to a complex number of modulus 1 (the global phase), that is,ψ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi }andeiαψ{\\\\displaystyle e^{i\\\\alpha }\\\\psi }represent the same physical system. In other words, the possible states are points in theprojective spaceof a Hilbert space, usually called thecomplex projective space. The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system – for example, for describing position and momentum the Hilbert space is the space of complexsquare-integrablefunctionsL2(C){\\\\displaystyle L^{2}(\\\\mathbb {C} )}, while the Hilbert space for thespinof a single proton is simply the space of two-dimensional complex vectorsC2{\\\\displaystyle \\\\mathbb {C}\",\n \"\\\\mathbb {C} ^{2}}with the usual inner product. Physical quantities of interest – position, momentum, energy, spin – are represented by observables, which areHermitian(more precisely,self-adjoint) linearoperatorsacting on the Hilbert space. A quantum state can be aneigenvectorof an observable, in which case it is called aneigenstate, and the associatedeigenvaluecorresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. More generally, a quantum state will be a linear combination of the eigenstates, known as aquantum superposition. When an observable is measured, the result will be one of its eigenvalues with probability given by theBorn rule: in the simplest case the eigenvalueλ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\lambda }is non-degenerate and the probability is given by|⟨λ→,ψ⟩|2{\\\\displaystyle |\\\\langle {\\\\vec {\\\\lambda }},\\\\psi \\\\rangle |^{2}}, whereλ→{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\vec {\\\\lambda }}}is its associated eigenvector. More generally, the eigenvalue is degenerate and the probability is given by⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩{\\\\displaystyle \\\\langle \\\\psi\",\n \"\\\\langle \\\\psi ,P_{\\\\lambda }\\\\psi \\\\rangle }, wherePλ{\\\\displaystyle P_{\\\\lambda }}is the projector onto its associated eigenspace. In the continuous case, these formulas give instead theprobability density. After the measurement, if resultλ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\lambda }was obtained, the quantum state is postulated tocollapsetoλ→{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\vec {\\\\lambda }}}, in the non-degenerate case, or toPλψ/⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩{\\\\textstyle P_{\\\\lambda }\\\\psi {\\\\big /}\\\\!{\\\\sqrt {\\\\langle \\\\psi ,P_{\\\\lambda }\\\\psi \\\\rangle }}}, in the general case. Theprobabilisticnature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement. This is one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the central topic in the famousBohr–Einstein debates, in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental principles by way ofthought experiments. In the decades after the formulation of quantum mechanics, the question of what constitutes a \\\"measurement\\\" has been extensively studied. Newerinterpretations of quantum mechanicshave\",\n \"mechanicshave been formulated that do away with the concept of \\\"wave function collapse\\\" (see, for example, themany-worlds interpretation). The basic idea is that when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus, their respective wave functions becomeentangledso that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity (seeMeasurement in quantum mechanics). Time evolution of a quantum state The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrödinger equation: HereH{\\\\displaystyle H}denotes theHamiltonian, the observable corresponding to thetotal energyof the system, andℏ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\hbar }is the reducedPlanck constant. The constantiℏ{\\\\displaystyle i\\\\hbar }is introduced so that the Hamiltonian is reduced to theclassical Hamiltonianin cases where the quantum system can be approximated by a classical system; the ability to make such an approximation in certain limits is called thecorrespondence principle. The solution of this differential equation is given by The\",\n \"is given by The operatorU(t)=e−iHt/ℏ{\\\\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\\\\hbar }}is known as the time-evolution operator, and has the crucial property that it isunitary. This time evolution isdeterministicin the sense that – given an initial quantum stateψ(0){\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi (0)}– it makes a definite prediction of what the quantum stateψ(t){\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi (t)}will be at any later time. Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are independent of time, such aseigenstates of the Hamiltonian.: 133–137Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such \\\"static\\\" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcitedatomis pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around theatomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics, it is described by a static wave function surrounding the nucleus. For example, the electron wave function for an unexcited hydrogen atom is a spherically symmetric function known as ansorbital(Fig. 1). Analytic\",\n \"1). Analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are known forvery few relatively simple model Hamiltoniansincluding thequantum harmonic oscillator, theparticle in a box, thedihydrogen cation, and thehydrogen atom. Even theheliumatom – which contains just two electrons – has defied all attempts at a fully analytic treatment, admitting no solution inclosed form. However, there are techniques for finding approximate solutions. One method, calledperturbation theory, uses the analytic result for a simple quantum mechanical model to create a result for a related but more complicated model by (for example) the addition of a weakpotential energy.: 793Another approximation method applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces only small deviations from classical behavior. These deviations can then be computed based on the classical motion.: 849 Uncertainty principle One consequence of the basic quantum formalism is the uncertainty principle. In its most familiar form, this states that no preparation of a\",\n \"no preparation of a quantum particle can imply simultaneously precise predictions both for a measurement of its position and for a measurement of its momentum.Both position and momentum are observables, meaning that they are represented byHermitian operators. The position operatorX^{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\hat {X}}}and momentum operatorP^{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\hat {P}}}do not commute, but rather satisfy thecanonical commutation relation: Given a quantum state, the Born rule lets us compute expectation values for bothX{\\\\displaystyle X}andP{\\\\displaystyle P}, and moreover for powers of them. Defining the uncertainty for an observable by astandard deviation, we have and likewise for the momentum: The uncertainty principle states that Either standard deviation can in principle be made arbitrarily small, but not both simultaneously.This inequality generalizes to arbitrary pairs of self-adjoint operatorsA{\\\\displaystyle A}andB{\\\\displaystyle B}. Thecommutatorof these two operators is and this provides the lower bound on the\",\n \"lower bound on the product of standard deviations: Another consequence of the canonical commutation relation is that the position and momentum operators areFourier transformsof each other, so that a description of an object according to its momentum is the Fourier transform of its description according to its position. The fact that dependence in momentum is the Fourier transform of the dependence in position means that the momentum operator is equivalent (up to ani/ℏ{\\\\displaystyle i/\\\\hbar }factor) to taking the derivative according to the position, since in Fourier analysisdifferentiation corresponds to multiplication in the dual space. This is why in quantum equations in position space, the momentumpi{\\\\displaystyle p_{i}}is replaced by−iℏ∂∂x{\\\\displaystyle -i\\\\hbar {\\\\frac {\\\\partial }{\\\\partial x}}}, and in particular in thenon-relativistic Schrödinger equation in position spacethe momentum-squared term is replaced with a Laplacian times−ℏ2{\\\\displaystyle -\\\\hbar ^{2}}. Composite systems and entanglement When\",\n \"entanglement When two different quantum systems are considered together, the Hilbert space of the combined system is thetensor productof the Hilbert spaces of the two components. For example, letAandBbe two quantum systems, with Hilbert spacesHA{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\mathcal {H}}_{A}}andHB{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\mathcal {H}}_{B}}, respectively. The Hilbert space of the composite system is then If the state for the first system is the vectorψA{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi _{A}}and the state for the second system isψB{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi _{B}}, then the state of the composite system is Not all states in the joint Hilbert spaceHAB{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\mathcal {H}}_{AB}}can be written in this form, however, because the superposition principle implies that linear combinations of these \\\"separable\\\" or \\\"product states\\\" are also valid. For example, ifψA{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi _{A}}andϕA{\\\\displaystyle \\\\phi _{A}}are both possible states for systemA{\\\\displaystyle A}, and likewiseψB{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi _{B}}andϕB{\\\\displaystyle \\\\phi _{B}}are both possible\",\n \"both possible states for systemB{\\\\displaystyle B}, then is a valid joint state that is not separable. States that are not separable are calledentangled. If the state for a composite system is entangled, it is impossible to describe either component systemAor systemBby a state vector. One can instead definereduced density matricesthat describe the statistics that can be obtained by making measurements on either component system alone. This necessarily causes a loss of information, though: knowing the reduced density matrices of the individual systems is not enough to reconstruct the state of the composite system.Just as density matrices specify the state of a subsystem of a larger system, analogously,positive operator-valued measures(POVMs) describe the effect on a subsystem of a measurement performed on a larger system. POVMs are extensively used in quantum information theory. As described above, entanglement is a key feature of models of measurement processes in which an apparatus becomes entangled with the\",\n \"entangled with the system being measured. Systems interacting with the environment in which they reside generally become entangled with that environment, a phenomenon known asquantum decoherence. This can explain why, in practice, quantum effects are difficult to observe in systems larger than microscopic. Equivalence between formulations There are many mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most common is the \\\"transformation theory\\\" proposed byPaul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics –matrix mechanics(invented byWerner Heisenberg) and wave mechanics (invented byErwin Schrödinger).An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics isFeynman'spath integral formulation, in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over all possible classical and non-classical paths between the initial and final states. This is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of theaction principlein classical mechanics. Symmetries\",\n \"Symmetries and conservation laws The HamiltonianH{\\\\displaystyle H}is known as thegeneratorof time evolution, since it defines a unitary time-evolution operatorU(t)=e−iHt/ℏ{\\\\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\\\\hbar }}for each value oft{\\\\displaystyle t}. From this relation betweenU(t){\\\\displaystyle U(t)}andH{\\\\displaystyle H}, it follows that any observableA{\\\\displaystyle A}that commutes withH{\\\\displaystyle H}will beconserved: its expectation value will not change over time.: 471This statement generalizes, as mathematically, any Hermitian operatorA{\\\\displaystyle A}can generate a family of unitary operators parameterized by a variablet{\\\\displaystyle t}. Under the evolution generated byA{\\\\displaystyle A}, any observableB{\\\\displaystyle B}that commutes withA{\\\\displaystyle A}will be conserved. Moreover, ifB{\\\\displaystyle B}is conserved by evolution underA{\\\\displaystyle A}, thenA{\\\\displaystyle A}is conserved under the evolution generated byB{\\\\displaystyle B}. This implies a quantum version of the result proven byEmmy\",\n \"proven byEmmy Noetherin classical (Lagrangian) mechanics: for everydifferentiablesymmetryof a Hamiltonian, there exists a correspondingconservation law. Examples Free particle The simplest example of a quantum system with a position degree of freedom is a free particle in a single spatial dimension. A free particle is one which is not subject to external influences, so that its Hamiltonian consists only of its kinetic energy: The general solution of the Schrödinger equation is given by which is a superposition of all possibleplane wavesei(kx−ℏk22mt){\\\\displaystyle e^{i(kx-{\\\\frac {\\\\hbar k^{2}}{2m}}t)}}, which are eigenstates of the momentum operator with momentump=ℏk{\\\\displaystyle p=\\\\hbar k}. The coefficients of the superposition areψ^(k,0){\\\\displaystyle {\\\\hat {\\\\psi }}(k,0)}, which is the Fourier transform of the initial quantum stateψ(x,0){\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi (x,0)}. It is not possible for the solution to be a single momentum eigenstate, or a single position eigenstate, as these are not normalizable quantum\",\n \"quantum states.Instead, we can consider a Gaussianwave packet: which has Fourier transform, and therefore momentum distribution We see that as we makea{\\\\displaystyle a}smaller the spread in position gets smaller, but the spread in momentum gets larger. Conversely, by makinga{\\\\displaystyle a}larger we make the spread in momentum smaller, but the spread in position gets larger. This illustrates the uncertainty principle. As we let the Gaussian wave packet evolve in time, we see that its center moves through space at a constant velocity (like a classical particle with no forces acting on it). However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more and more uncertain. The uncertainty in momentum, however, stays constant. Particle in a box The particle in a one-dimensional potential energy box is the most mathematically simple example where restraints lead to the quantization of energy levels. The box is defined as having zero potential energy everywhereinsidea\",\n \"everywhereinsidea certain region, and therefore infinite potential energy everywhereoutsidethat region.: 77–78For the one-dimensional case in thex{\\\\displaystyle x}direction, the time-independent Schrödinger equation may be written With the differential operator defined by with stateψ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi }in this case having energyE{\\\\displaystyle E}coincident with the kinetic energy of the particle. The general solutions of the Schrödinger equation for the particle in a box are or, fromEuler's formula, The infinite potential walls of the box determine the values ofC,D,{\\\\displaystyle C,D,}andk{\\\\displaystyle k}atx=0{\\\\displaystyle x=0}andx=L{\\\\displaystyle x=L}whereψ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi }must be zero. Thus, atx=0{\\\\displaystyle x=0}, andD=0{\\\\displaystyle D=0}. Atx=L{\\\\displaystyle x=L}, in whichC{\\\\displaystyle C}cannot be zero as this would conflict with the postulate thatψ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi }has norm 1. Therefore, sincesin(kL)=0{\\\\displaystyle \\\\sin(kL)=0},kL{\\\\displaystyle kL}must be an integer multiple\",\n \"an integer multiple ofπ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\pi }, This constraint onk{\\\\displaystyle k}implies a constraint on the energy levels, yielding Afinite potential wellis the generalization of the infinite potential well problem to potential wells having finite depth. The finite potential well problem is mathematically more complicated than the infinite particle-in-a-box problem as the wave function is not pinned to zero at the walls of the well. Instead, the wave function must satisfy more complicated mathematical boundary conditions as it is nonzero in regions outside the well. Another related problem is that of therectangular potential barrier, which furnishes a model for thequantum tunnelingeffect that plays an important role in the performance of modern technologies such asflash memoryandscanning tunneling microscopy. Harmonic oscillator As in the classical case, the potential for the quantum harmonic oscillator is given by: 234 This problem can either be treated by directly solving the Schrödinger equation, which\",\n \"equation, which is not trivial, or by using the more elegant \\\"ladder method\\\" first proposed by Paul Dirac. Theeigenstatesare given by whereHnare theHermite polynomials and the corresponding energy levels are This is another example illustrating the discretization of energy forbound states. Mach–Zehnder interferometer TheMach–Zehnder interferometer(MZI) illustrates the concepts of superposition and interference with linear algebra in dimension 2, rather than differential equations. It can be seen as a simplified version of the double-slit experiment, but it is of interest in its own right, for example in thedelayed choice quantum eraser, theElitzur–Vaidman bomb tester, and in studies of quantum entanglement. We can model a photon going through the interferometer by considering that at each point it can be in a superposition of only two paths: the \\\"lower\\\" path which starts from the left, goes straight through both beam splitters, and ends at the top, and the \\\"upper\\\" path which starts from the bottom, goes\",\n \"the bottom, goes straight through both beam splitters, and ends at the right. The quantum state of the photon is therefore a vectorψ∈C2{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi \\\\in \\\\mathbb {C} ^{2}}that is a superposition of the \\\"lower\\\" pathψl=(10){\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi _{l}={\\\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\\\\\0\\\\end{pmatrix}}}and the \\\"upper\\\" pathψu=(01){\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi _{u}={\\\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\\\\\1\\\\end{pmatrix}}}, that is,ψ=αψl+βψu{\\\\displaystyle \\\\psi =\\\\alpha \\\\psi _{l}+\\\\beta \\\\psi _{u}}for complexα,β{\\\\displaystyle \\\\alpha ,\\\\beta }. In order to respect the postulate that⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1{\\\\displaystyle \\\\langle \\\\psi ,\\\\psi \\\\rangle =1}we require that|α|2+|β|2=1{\\\\displaystyle |\\\\alpha |^{2}+|\\\\beta |^{2}=1}. Bothbeam splittersare modelled as the unitary matrixB=12(1ii1){\\\\displaystyle B={\\\\frac {1}{\\\\sqrt {2}}}{\\\\begin{pmatrix}1&i\\\\\\\\i&1\\\\end{pmatrix}}}, which means that when a photon meets the beam splitter it will either stay on the same path with a probability amplitude of1/2{\\\\displaystyle 1/{\\\\sqrt {2}}}, or be reflected to the other path with a probability amplitude\",\n \"amplitude ofi/2{\\\\displaystyle i/{\\\\sqrt {2}}}. The phase shifter on the upper arm is modelled as the unitary matrixP=(100eiΔΦ){\\\\displaystyle P={\\\\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\\\\\\\0&e^{i\\\\Delta \\\\Phi }\\\\end{pmatrix}}}, which means that if the photon is on the \\\"upper\\\" path it will gain a relative phase ofΔΦ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta \\\\Phi }, and it will stay unchanged if it is in the lower path. A photon that enters the interferometer from the left will then be acted upon with a beam splitterB{\\\\displaystyle B}, a phase shifterP{\\\\displaystyle P}, and another beam splitterB{\\\\displaystyle B}, and so end up in the state and the probabilities that it will be detected at the right or at the top are given respectively by One can therefore use the Mach–Zehnder interferometer to estimate thephase shiftby estimating these probabilities. It is interesting to consider what would happen if the photon were definitely in either the \\\"lower\\\" or \\\"upper\\\" paths between the beam splitters. This can be accomplished by blocking one of the paths, or\",\n \"of the paths, or equivalently by removing the first beam splitter (and feeding the photon from the left or the bottom, as desired). In both cases, there will be no interference between the paths anymore, and the probabilities are given byp(u)=p(l)=1/2{\\\\displaystyle p(u)=p(l)=1/2}, independently of the phaseΔΦ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Delta \\\\Phi }. From this we can conclude that the photon does not take one path or another after the first beam splitter, but rather that it is in a genuine quantum superposition of the two paths. Applications Quantum mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the features of our universe, with regard to small-scale and discrete quantities and interactions which cannot be explained byclassical methods.Quantum mechanics is often the only theory that can reveal the individual behaviors of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter (electrons,protons,neutrons,photons, and others).Solid-state physicsandmaterials scienceare dependent upon quantum mechanics. In many\",\n \"mechanics. In many aspects, modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant. Important applications of quantum theory includequantum chemistry,quantum optics,quantum computing,superconducting magnets,light-emitting diodes, theoptical amplifierand the laser, thetransistorandsemiconductorssuch as themicroprocessor,medical and research imagingsuch asmagnetic resonance imagingandelectron microscopy.Explanations for many biological and physical phenomena are rooted in the nature of the chemical bond, most notably the macro-moleculeDNA. Relation to other scientific theories Classical mechanics The rules of quantum mechanics assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert space and that observables of the system are Hermitian operators acting on vectors in that space – although they do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators. These can be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system, a necessary step in making physical\",\n \"in making physical predictions. An important guide for making these choices is thecorrespondence principle, a heuristic which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those ofclassical mechanicsin the regime of largequantum numbers.One can also start from an established classical model of a particular system, and then try to guess the underlying quantum model that would give rise to the classical model in the correspondence limit. This approach is known asquantization.: 299 When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose correspondence limit wasnon-relativisticclassical mechanics. For instance, the well-known model of thequantum harmonic oscillatoruses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for thekinetic energyof the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of theclassical harmonic oscillator.: 234 Complications arise withchaotic systems, which do not have good quantum numbers, andquantum chaosstudies the relationship between classical and quantum\",\n \"and quantum descriptions in these systems.: 353 Quantum decoherenceis a mechanism through which quantum systems losecoherence, and thus become incapable of displaying many typically quantum effects:quantum superpositionsbecome simply probabilistic mixtures, and quantum entanglement becomes simply classical correlations.: 687–730Quantum coherence is not typically evident at macroscopic scales, though at temperatures approachingabsolute zeroquantum behavior may manifest macroscopically. Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct consequence of the quantum behavior of its parts. For example, the stability of bulk matter (consisting of atoms andmoleculeswhich would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), the rigidity of solids, and the mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of matter are all results of the interaction ofelectric chargesunder the rules of quantum mechanics. Special relativity and electrodynamics Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics\",\n \"quantum mechanics withspecial relativityinvolved the replacement of the Schrödinger equation with a covariant equation such as theKlein–Gordon equationor theDirac equation. While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field theory, which applies quantization to a field (rather than a fixed set of particles). The first complete quantum field theory,quantum electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of theelectromagnetic interaction. Quantum electrodynamics is, along withgeneral relativity, one of the most accurate physical theories ever devised. The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. A simpler approach, one that has been used since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treatchargedparticles as quantum\",\n \"as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classicalelectromagnetic field. For example, the elementary quantum model of thehydrogen atomdescribes theelectric fieldof the hydrogen atom using a classical−e2/(4πϵ0r){\\\\displaystyle \\\\textstyle -e^{2}/(4\\\\pi \\\\epsilon _{_{0}}r)}Coulomb potential.: 285Likewise, in aStern–Gerlach experiment, a charged particle is modeled as a quantum system, while the background magnetic field is described classically.: 26This \\\"semi-classical\\\" approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, such as in the emission of photons bycharged particles. Quantum fieldtheories for thestrong nuclear forceand theweak nuclear forcehave also been developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is calledquantum chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of subnuclear particles such asquarksandgluons. The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory\",\n \"field theory (known aselectroweak theory), by the physicistsAbdus Salam,Sheldon GlashowandSteven Weinberg. Relation to general relativity Even though the predictions of both quantum theory and general relativity have been supported by rigorous and repeatedempirical evidence, their abstract formalisms contradict each other and they have proven extremely difficult to incorporate into one consistent, cohesive model. Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those particular applications. However, the lack of a correct theory ofquantum gravityis an important issue inphysical cosmologyand the search by physicists for an elegant \\\"Theory of Everything\\\" (TOE). Consequently, resolving the inconsistencies between both theories has been a major goal of 20th- and 21st-century physics. This TOE would combine not only the models of subatomic physics but also derive the four fundamental forces of nature from a\",\n \"of nature from a single force or phenomenon. One proposal for doing so isstring theory, which posits that thepoint-like particlesofparticle physicsare replaced byone-dimensionalobjects calledstrings. String theory describes how these strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with itsmass,charge, and other properties determined by thevibrationalstate of the string. In string theory, one of the many vibrational states of the string corresponds to thegraviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force. Another popular theory isloop quantum gravity(LQG), which describes quantum properties of gravity and is thus a theory ofquantum spacetime. LQG is an attempt to merge and adapt standard quantum mechanics and standard general relativity. This theory describes space as an extremely fine fabric \\\"woven\\\" of finite loops calledspin networks. The evolution of a spin network over time\",\n \"network over time is called aspin foam. The characteristic length scale of a spin foam is thePlanck length, approximately 1.616×10−35m, and so lengths shorter than the Planck length are not physically meaningful in LQG. Philosophical implications Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive aspects and results of quantum mechanics have provoked strongphilosophicaldebates and manyinterpretations. The arguments centre on the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, the difficulties withwavefunction collapseand the relatedmeasurement problem, andquantum nonlocality. Perhaps the only consensus that exists about these issues is that there is no consensus.Richard Feynmanonce said, \\\"I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics.\\\"According toSteven Weinberg, \\\"There is now in my opinion no entirely satisfactory interpretation of quantum mechanics.\\\" The views ofNiels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and other physicists are often grouped together as the \\\"Copenhagen interpretation\\\".According to these\",\n \"to these views, the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics is not atemporaryfeature which will eventually be replaced by a deterministic theory, but is instead afinalrenunciation of the classical idea of \\\"causality\\\". Bohr in particular emphasized that any well-defined application of the quantum mechanical formalism must always make reference to the experimental arrangement, due to thecomplementarynature of evidence obtained under different experimental situations. Copenhagen-type interpretations were adopted by Nobel laureates in quantum physics, including Bohr,Heisenberg,Schrödinger,Feynman,and Zeilingeras well as 21st-century researchers in quantum foundations. Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders ofquantum theory, was troubled by its apparent failure to respect some cherished metaphysical principles, such asdeterminismandlocality. Einstein's long-running exchanges with Bohr about the meaning and status of quantum mechanics are now known as theBohr–Einstein debates. Einstein believed that\",\n \"believed that underlying quantum mechanics must be a theory that explicitly forbidsaction at a distance. He argued that quantum mechanics was incomplete, a theory that was valid but not fundamental, analogous to howthermodynamicsis valid, but the fundamental theory behind it isstatistical mechanics. In 1935, Einstein and his collaboratorsBoris PodolskyandNathan Rosenpublished an argument that the principle of locality implies the incompleteness of quantum mechanics, athought experimentlater termed theEinstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox.In 1964,John Bellshowed that EPR's principle of locality, together with determinism, was actually incompatible with quantum mechanics: they implied constraints on the correlations produced by distance systems, now known asBell inequalities, that can be violated by entangled particles.Since thenseveral experimentshave been performed to obtain these correlations, with the result that they do in fact violate Bell inequalities, and thus falsify the conjunction of locality with\",\n \"of locality with determinism. Bohmian mechanicsshows that it is possible to reformulate quantum mechanics to make it deterministic, at the price of making it explicitly nonlocal. It attributes not only a wave function to a physical system, but in addition a real position, that evolves deterministically under a nonlocal guiding equation. The evolution of a physical system is given at all times by the Schrödinger equation together with the guiding equation; there is never a collapse of the wave function. This solves the measurement problem. Everett'smany-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds thatallthe possibilities described by quantum theorysimultaneouslyoccur in a multiverse composed of mostly independent parallel universes.This is a consequence of removing the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet. All possible states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus, together with the observer, are present in a real physical quantum superposition. While the multiverse is deterministic, we\",\n \"deterministic, we perceive non-deterministic behavior governed by probabilities, because we do not observe the multiverse as a whole, but only one parallel universe at a time. Exactly how this is supposed to work has been the subject of much debate. Several attempts have been made to make sense of this and derive the Born rule,with no consensus on whether they have been successful. Relational quantum mechanicsappeared in the late 1990s as a modern derivative of Copenhagen-type ideas,andQBismwas developed some years later. History Quantum mechanics was developed in the early decades of the 20th century, driven by the need to explain phenomena that, in some cases, had been observed in earlier times. Scientific inquiry into the wave nature of light began in the 17th and 18th centuries, when scientists such asRobert Hooke,Christiaan HuygensandLeonhard Eulerproposed a wave theory of light based on experimental observations.In 1803 EnglishpolymathThomas Youngdescribed the famousdouble-slit experiment.This\",\n \"experiment.This experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of thewave theory of light. During the early 19th century,chemicalresearch byJohn DaltonandAmedeo Avogadrolent weight to theatomic theoryof matter, an idea thatJames Clerk Maxwell,Ludwig Boltzmannand others built upon to establish thekinetic theory of gases. The successes of kinetic theory gave further credence to the idea that matter is composed of atoms, yet the theory also had shortcomings that would only be resolved by the development of quantum mechanics.While the early conception of atoms fromGreek philosophyhad been that they were indivisible units – the word \\\"atom\\\" deriving from theGreekfor \\\"uncuttable\\\" – the 19th century saw the formulation of hypotheses about subatomic structure. One important discovery in that regard wasMichael Faraday's 1838 observation of a glow caused by an electrical discharge inside a glass tube containing gas at low pressure.Julius Plücker,Johann Wilhelm HittorfandEugen Goldsteincarried on and improved\",\n \"on and improved upon Faraday's work, leading to the identification ofcathode rays, whichJ. J. Thomsonfound to consist of subatomic particles that would be called electrons. Theblack-body radiationproblem was discovered byGustav Kirchhoffin 1859. In 1900, Max Planck proposed the hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete \\\"quanta\\\" (or energy packets), yielding a calculation that precisely matched the observed patterns of black-body radiation.The wordquantumderives from theLatin, meaning \\\"how great\\\" or \\\"how much\\\".According to Planck, quantities of energy could be thought of as divided into \\\"elements\\\" whose size (E) would be proportional to theirfrequency(ν): wherehis thePlanck constant. Planck cautiously insisted that this was only an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation and was not thephysical realityof the radiation.In fact, he considered his quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right answer rather than a sizable discovery.However, in 1905 Albert\",\n \"in 1905 Albert Einstein interpreted Planck's quantum hypothesisrealisticallyand used it to explain thephotoelectric effect, in which shining light on certain materials can eject electrons from the material. Niels Bohr then developed Planck's ideas about radiation into amodel of the hydrogen atomthat successfully predicted thespectral linesof hydrogen.Einstein further developed this idea to show that anelectromagnetic wavesuch as light could also be described as a particle (later called the photon), with a discrete amount of energy that depends on its frequency.In his paper \\\"On the Quantum Theory of Radiation\\\", Einstein expanded on the interaction between energy and matter to explain the absorption and emission of energy by atoms. Although overshadowed at the time by his general theory of relativity, this paper articulated the mechanism underlying the stimulated emission of radiation,which became the basis of the laser. This phase is known as theold quantum theory. Never complete or self-consistent, the old\",\n \"the old quantum theory was rather a set ofheuristiccorrections to classical mechanics.The theory is now understood as asemi-classical approximationto modern quantum mechanics.Notable results from this period include, in addition to the work of Planck, Einstein and Bohr mentioned above, Einstein andPeter Debye's work on thespecific heatof solids, Bohr andHendrika Johanna van Leeuwen'sproofthat classical physics cannot account fordiamagnetism, andArnold Sommerfeld's extension of the Bohr model to include special-relativistic effects. In the mid-1920s quantum mechanics was developed to become the standard formulation for atomic physics. In 1923, the French physicistLouis de Broglieput forward his theory of matter waves by stating that particles can exhibit wave characteristics and vice versa. Building on de Broglie's approach, modern quantum mechanics was born in 1925, when the German physicists Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, andPascual Jordandevelopedmatrix mechanicsand the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger\",\n \"Erwin Schrödinger inventedwave mechanics. Born introduced the probabilistic interpretation of Schrödinger's wave function in July 1926.Thus, the entire field of quantum physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the FifthSolvay Conferencein 1927. By 1930, quantum mechanics had been further unified and formalized byDavid Hilbert, Paul Dirac andJohn von Neumannwith greater emphasis onmeasurement, the statistical nature of our knowledge of reality, andphilosophical speculation about the 'observer'. It has since permeated many disciplines, including quantum chemistry,quantum electronics,quantum optics, andquantum information science. It also provides a useful framework for many features of the modernperiodic table of elements, and describes the behaviors ofatomsduringchemical bondingand the flow of electrons in computersemiconductors, and therefore plays a crucial role in many modern technologies. While quantum mechanics was constructed to describe the world of the very small, it is also needed to\",\n \"is also needed to explain somemacroscopicphenomena such assuperconductorsandsuperfluids. See also Explanatory notes References Further reading The following titles, all by working physicists, attempt to communicate quantum theory to lay people, using a minimum of technical apparatus. More technical: External links\",\n \"Photoelectric effect Thephotoelectric effectis the emission ofelectronsfrom a material caused byelectromagnetic radiationsuch asultraviolet light. Electrons emitted in this manner are called photoelectrons. The phenomenon is studied incondensed matter physics,solid state, andquantum chemistryto draw inferences about the properties of atoms, molecules and solids. The effect has found use inelectronic devicesspecialized for light detection and precisely timed electron emission. The experimental results disagree withclassical electromagnetism, which predicts that continuous light waves transferenergyto electrons, which would then be emitted when they accumulate enough energy. An alteration in theintensityof light would theoretically change thekinetic energyof the emitted electrons, with sufficiently dim light resulting in a delayed emission. The experimental results instead show that electrons are dislodged only when the light exceeds a certainfrequency—regardless of the light's intensity or duration of\",\n \"or duration of exposure. Because a low-frequency beam at a high intensity does not build up the energy required to produce photoelectrons, as would be the case if light's energy accumulated over time from a continuous wave,Albert Einsteinproposed that a beam of light is nota wavepropagating through space, but a swarm of discrete energy packets, known asphotons—term coined byGilbert N. Lewisin 1926. Emission of conduction electrons from typicalmetalsrequires a fewelectron-volt(eV) light quanta, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. In extreme cases, emissions are induced with photons approaching zero energy, like in systems with negative electron affinity and the emission from excited states, or a few hundred keV photons forcore electronsinelementswith a highatomic number.Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept ofwave–particle duality.Other phenomena where light\",\n \"where light affects the movement of electric charges include thephotoconductiveeffect, thephotovoltaic effect, and thephotoelectrochemical effect. Emission mechanism The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy, calledphoton energy, which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, when an electron within some material absorbs the energy of a photon and acquires more energy than itsbinding energy, it is likely to be ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Moreover, the energy of the emitted electrons will not depend on the intensity of the incoming light of a given frequency, but only on the energy of the individual photons. While free electrons can absorb any energy whenirradiatedas long as this is\",\n \"long as this is followed by an immediate re-emission, like in theCompton effect, in quantum systems all of the energy from one photon is absorbed—if the process is allowed byquantum mechanics—or none at all. Part of the acquired energy is used to liberate the electron from its atomic binding, and the rest contributes to the electron'skinetic energyas a free particle.Because electrons in a material occupy many different quantum states with different binding energies, and because they can sustain energy losses on their way out of the material, the emitted electrons will have a range of kinetic energies. The electrons from the highest occupied states will have the highest kinetic energy. In metals, those electrons will be emitted from theFermi level. When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the terminternal photoemissionis often used, and emission into a vacuum is distinguished asexternal photoemission. Experimental observation of photoelectric emission Even though photoemission\",\n \"photoemission can occur from any material, it is most readily observed from metals and other conductors. This is because the process produces a charge imbalance which, if not neutralized by current flow, results in the increasing potential barrier until the emission completely ceases. The energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by nonconductive oxide layers on metal surfaces, so most practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in evacuated tubes. Vacuum also helps observing the electrons since it prevents gases from impeding their flow between the electrodes. As sunlight, due to atmosphere's absorption, does not provide much ultraviolet light, the light rich in ultraviolet rays used to be obtained by burning magnesium or from anarc lamp. At the present time,mercury-vapor lamps,noble-gas dischargeUV lamps andradio-frequency plasmasources,ultraviolet lasers,andsynchrotroninsertion devicelight sources prevail. The classical setup to observe the\",\n \"to observe the photoelectric effect includes a light source, a set of filters tomonochromatizethe light, avacuum tubetransparent to ultraviolet light, an emitting electrode (E) exposed to the light, and a collector (C) whose voltageVCcan be externally controlled. A positive external voltage is used to direct the photoemitted electrons onto the collector. If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the photoelectric currentIincreases with an increase in the positive voltage, as more and more electrons are directed onto the electrode. When no additional photoelectrons can be collected, the photoelectric current attains a saturation value. This current can only increase with the increase of the intensity of light. An increasing negative voltage prevents all but the highest-energy electrons from reaching the collector. When no current is observed through the tube, the negative voltage has reached the value that is high enough to slow down and stop the most energetic photoelectrons of\",\n \"photoelectrons of kinetic energyKmax. This value of the retarding voltage is called thestopping potentialorcut offpotentialVo.Since the work done by the retarding potential in stopping the electron of chargeeiseVo, the following must holdeVo=Kmax. The current-voltage curve is sigmoidal, but its exact shape depends on the experimental geometry and the electrode material properties. For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incidentradiationbelow which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called thethreshold frequency. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam increases the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons, and the stopping voltage has to increase. The number of emitted electrons may also change because theprobabilitythat each photon results in an emitted electron is a function of photon energy. An increase in the intensity of the same monochromatic light (so long as the intensity is not too high), which is proportional to the number of photons\",\n \"number of photons impinging on the surface in a given time, increases the rate at which electrons are ejected—the photoelectric currentI—but the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and the stopping voltage remain the same. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is very small, less than 10−9second. Angular distribution of the photoelectrons is highly dependent onpolarization(the direction of the electric field) of the incident light, as well as the emitting material's quantum properties such as atomic and molecular orbital symmetries and theelectronic band structureof crystalline solids. In materials without macroscopic order, the distribution of electrons tends to peak in the direction of polarization of linearly polarized light.The experimental technique that can measure these distributions to infer\",\n \"to infer the material's properties isangle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy. Theoretical explanation In 1905,Einsteinproposed a theory of the photoelectric effect using a concept that light consists of tiny packets of energy known asphotonsor light quanta. Each packet carries energyhν{\\\\displaystyle h\\\\nu }that is proportional to the frequencyν{\\\\displaystyle \\\\nu }of the corresponding electromagnetic wave. The proportionality constanth{\\\\displaystyle h}has become known as thePlanck constant. In the range of kinetic energies of the electrons that are removed from their varying atomic bindings by the absorption of a photon of energyhν{\\\\displaystyle h\\\\nu }, the highest kinetic energyKmax{\\\\displaystyle K_{\\\\max }}isKmax=hν−W.{\\\\displaystyle K_{\\\\max }=h\\\\,\\\\nu -W.}Here,W{\\\\displaystyle W}is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the material. It is called thework functionof the surface and is sometimes denotedΦ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\Phi }orφ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\varphi }.If the work function is\",\n \"work function is written asW=hνo,{\\\\displaystyle W=h\\\\,\\\\nu _{o},}the formula for the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons becomesKmax=h(ν−νo).{\\\\displaystyle K_{\\\\max }=h\\\\left(\\\\nu -\\\\nu _{o}\\\\right).} Kinetic energy is positive, andν>νo{\\\\displaystyle \\\\nu >\\\\nu _{o}}is required for the photoelectric effect to occur.The frequencyνo{\\\\displaystyle \\\\nu _{o}}is the threshold frequency for the given material. Above that frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons as well as the stopping voltage in the experimentVo=he(ν−νo){\\\\textstyle V_{o}={\\\\frac {h}{e}}\\\\left(\\\\nu -\\\\nu _{o}\\\\right)}rise linearly with the frequency, and have no dependence on the number of photons and the intensity of the impinging monochromatic light. Einstein's formula, however simple, explained all the phenomenology of the photoelectric effect, and had far-reaching consequences in thedevelopment of quantum mechanics. Photoemission from atoms, molecules and solids Electrons that are bound in atoms, molecules and solids each occupy\",\n \"solids each occupy distinct states of well-definedbinding energies. When light quanta deliver more than this amount of energy to an individual electron, the electron may be emitted into free space with excess (kinetic) energy that ishν{\\\\displaystyle h\\\\nu }higher than the electron's binding energy. The distribution of kinetic energies thus reflects the distribution of the binding energies of the electrons in the atomic, molecular or crystalline system: an electron emitted from the state at binding energyEB{\\\\displaystyle E_{B}}is found at kinetic energyEk=hν−EB{\\\\displaystyle E_{k}=h\\\\nu -E_{B}}. This distribution is one of the main characteristics of the quantum system, and can be used for further studies in quantum chemistry and quantum physics. Models of photoemission from solids The electronic properties of ordered, crystalline solids are determined by the distribution of the electronic states with respect to energy and momentum—the electronic band structure of the solid. Theoretical models of photoemission\",\n \"of photoemission from solids show that this distribution is, for the most part, preserved in the photoelectric effect. The phenomenologicalthree-step modelfor ultraviolet and soft X-ray excitation decomposes the effect into these steps: There are cases where the three-step model fails to explain peculiarities of the photoelectron intensity distributions. The more elaborateone-step modeltreats the effect as a coherent process of photoexcitation into the final state of a finite crystal for which the wave function is free-electron-like outside of the crystal, but has a decaying envelope inside. History 19th century In 1839,Alexandre Edmond Becquereldiscovered the relatedphotovoltaic effectwhile studying the effect of light onelectrolytic cells.Though not equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work onphotovoltaicswas instrumental in showing a strong relationship between light and electronic properties of materials. In 1873,Willoughby Smithdiscoveredphotoconductivityinseleniumwhile testing the metal for its\",\n \"the metal for its high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables. Johann Elster(1854–1920) andHans Geitel(1855–1923), students inHeidelberg, investigated the effects produced by light on electrified bodies and developed the first practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity of light.: 458They arranged metals with respect to their power of discharging negative electricity:rubidium,potassium,alloyof potassium and sodium,sodium,lithium,magnesium,thalliumandzinc; forcopper,platinum,lead,iron,cadmium,carbon, andmercurythe effects with ordinary light were too small to be measurable. The order of the metals for this effect was the same as in Volta's series for contact-electricity, the most electropositive metals giving the largest photo-electric effect. In 1887,Heinrich Hertzobserved the photoelectric effectand reported on the production and receptionof electromagnetic waves.The receiver in his apparatus consisted of a coil with aspark gap,\",\n \"with aspark gap, where a spark would be seen upon detection of electromagnetic waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. However, he noticed that the maximum spark length was reduced when inside the box. A glass panel placed between the source of electromagnetic waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he replaced the glass with quartz, asquartzdoes not absorb UV radiation. The discoveries by Hertz led to a series of investigations byWilhelm Hallwachs,Hoor,Augusto RighiandAleksander Stoletovon the effect of light, and especially of ultraviolet light, on charged bodies. Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to anelectroscope. He allowed ultraviolet light to fall on a freshly cleaned zinc plate and observed that the zinc plate became uncharged if initially negatively charged, positively charged if initially uncharged, and more\",\n \"uncharged, and more positively charged if initially positively charged. From these observations he concluded that some negatively charged particles were emitted by the zinc plate when exposed to ultraviolet light. With regard to theHertz effect, the researchers from the start showed the complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric fatigue—the progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic surfaces. According to Hallwachs,ozoneplayed an important part in the phenomenon,and the emission was influenced by oxidation, humidity, and the degree of polishing of the surface. It was at the time unclear whether fatigue is absent in a vacuum. In the period from 1888 until 1891, a detailed analysis of the photoeffect was performed byAleksandr Stoletovwith results reported in six publications.Stoletov invented a new experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of the photoeffect. He discovered a direct proportionality between the intensity of light and the induced\",\n \"and the induced photoelectric current (the first law of photoeffect orStoletov's law). He measured the dependence of the intensity of the photo electric current on the gas pressure, where he found the existence of an optimal gas pressure corresponding to a maximumphotocurrent; this property was used for the creation ofsolar cells. Many substances besides metals discharge negative electricity under the action of ultraviolet light. G. C. Schmidtand O. Knoblauchcompiled a list of these substances. In 1897,J. J. Thomsoninvestigated ultraviolet light inCrookes tubes.Thomson deduced that the ejected particles, which he called corpuscles, were of the same nature ascathode rays. These particles later became known as the electrons. Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation.It was thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and, after reaching a certain amplitude, caused subatomic corpuscles to be emitted, and\",\n \"to be emitted, and current to be detected. The amount of this current varied with the intensity and color of the radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more current. During the years 1886–1902,Wilhelm HallwachsandPhilipp Lenardinvestigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail. Lenard observed that a current flows through an evacuated glass tube enclosing twoelectrodeswhen ultraviolet radiation falls on one of them. As soon as ultraviolet radiation is stopped, the current also stops. This initiated the concept of photoelectric emission. The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultraviolet light was made by Philipp Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several centimeters of air and yielded a greater number of positive ions than negative, it was natural to interpret the phenomenon, as J. J. Thomson did, as aHertz effectupon the particles present in the gas. 20th century In 1902, Lenard observed that theenergyof individual emitted electrons was independent\",\n \"was independent of the applied light intensity.This appeared to be at odds with Maxwell'swave theory of light, which predicted that the electron energy would be proportional to theintensityof the radiation. Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency using a powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in intensity. However, Lenard's results were qualitative rather than quantitative because of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the experiments needed to be done on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it oxidized in a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The current emitted by the surface was determined by the light's intensity, or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of electrons emitted from the surface. Initial investigation of the photoelectric effect in gasses by Lenardwere followed up by J. J. Thomsonand then more decisively by Frederic Palmer Jr.The gas photoemission\",\n \"gas photoemission was studied and showed very different characteristics than those at first attributed to it by Lenard. In 1900, while studyingblack-body radiation, the German physicistMax Plancksuggested in his \\\"On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum\\\"paper that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released inpacketsof energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. Einstein theorized that the energy in each quantum of light was equal to the frequency of light multiplied by a constant, later called thePlanck constant. A photon above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single electron, creating the observed effect. This was a step in the development ofquantum mechanics. In 1914,Robert A. Millikan's highly accurate measurements of the Planck constant from the photoelectric effect supported Einstein's\",\n \"Einstein's model, even though a corpuscular theory of light was for Millikan, at the time, \\\"quite unthinkable\\\".Einstein was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physicsfor \\\"his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\\\",and Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 for \\\"his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect\\\".In quantum perturbation theory of atoms and solids acted upon by electromagnetic radiation, the photoelectric effect is still commonly analyzed in terms of waves; the two approaches are equivalent because photon or wave absorption can only happen between quantized energy levels whose energy difference is that of the energy of photon. Albert Einstein's mathematical description of how the photoelectric effect was caused by absorption ofquantaof light was in one of hisAnnus Mirabilis papers, named \\\"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light\\\".The paper proposed a simple description ofenergy quanta, and showed how they\",\n \"and showed how they explained the blackbody radiation spectrum. His explanation in terms of absorption of discrete quanta of light agreed with experimental results. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons was not dependent on incident lightintensity. This was a theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally fromJames Clerk Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, and more generally, the assumption ofinfinite divisibilityof energy in physical systems. Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the light. The precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that the energy of photoelectrons increases with increasingfrequencyof incident light and is independent of theintensityof the light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally determined until 1914 when Millikan showed that Einstein's prediction\",\n \"prediction was correct. The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept of wave–particle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of both waves and particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was impossible to understand in terms of the classical wave description of light,as the energy of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation. Classical theory predicted that the electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time, and then be emitted. Uses and effects Photomultipliers These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a coatedphotocathodeinside the envelope. The photo cathode contains combinations of materials such as cesium, rubidium, and antimony specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials,\",\n \"potentials, these electrons are accelerated and substantially increased in number throughsecondary emissionto provide a readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected. Image sensors Video camera tubesin the early days oftelevisionused the photoelectric effect. For example,Philo Farnsworth's \\\"Image dissector\\\" used a screen charged by the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic signal. Photoelectron spectroscopy Because the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is exactly the energy of the incident photon minus the energy of the electron's binding within an atom, molecule or solid, the binding energy can be determined by shining amonochromaticX-rayorUVlight of a known energy and measuring the kinetic energies of the photoelectrons.The distribution of electron energies is valuable for studying quantum properties of these systems. It can also be used to determine the elemental composition of the\",\n \"composition of the samples. For solids, the kinetic energy and emission angle distribution of the photoelectrons is measured for the complete determination of theelectronic band structurein terms of the allowed binding energies and momenta of the electrons. Modern instruments for angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy are capable of measuring these quantities with a precision better than 1 meV and 0.1°. Photoelectron spectroscopymeasurements are usually performed in a high-vacuum environment, because the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present. However, some companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in air. The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or asynchrotron radiationsource. Theconcentric hemispherical analyzeris a typical electron energy analyzer. It uses an electric field between two hemispheres to change (disperse) the trajectories of incident electrons depending on their kinetic energies. Night vision devices Photons hitting a thin film of\",\n \"a thin film of alkali metal orsemiconductormaterial such asgallium arsenidein animage intensifiertube cause the ejection of photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by anelectrostatic fieldwhere they strike aphosphorcoated screen, converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the signal is achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of electrons through secondary emissions, such as with amicro-channel plate. Sometimes a combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required to move an electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is known as theelectron affinityof the photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other than the forbidden band, explained by theband gapmodel. Some materials such as gallium arsenide have an effective electron affinity that is below the level of the conduction band. In these materials, electrons that move to the conduction band all have sufficient\",\n \"all have sufficient energy to be emitted from the material, so the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick. These materials are known as negative electron affinity materials. Spacecraft The photoelectric effect will causespacecraftexposed to sunlight to develop a positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical components. Thestatic chargecreated by the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object does not give up its electrons as easily as a lower charged object does. Moon dust Light from the Sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively charged from the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of theMoonbyelectrostatic levitation.This manifests itself almost like an \\\"atmosphere of dust\\\", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features,\",\n \"distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by theSurveyor programprobes in the 1960s,and most recently theChang'e 3rover observed dust deposition on lunar rocks as high as about 28 cm.It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the surface and that the particles move in \\\"fountains\\\" as they charge and discharge. Competing processes and photoemission cross section When photon energies are as high as the electron rest energy of511 keV, yet another process,Compton scattering, may occur. Above twice this energy, at1.022 MeV,pair productionis also more likely.Compton scattering and pair production are examples of two other competing mechanisms.Even if the photoelectric effect is the favoured reaction for a particular interaction of a single photon with a bound electron, the result is also subject to quantum statistics and is not guaranteed. The probability of the photoelectric effect occurring is measured by thecross sectionof the\",\n \"sectionof the interaction, σ. This has been found to be a function of the atomic number of the target atom and photon energy. In a crude approximation, for photon energies above the highest atomic binding energy, the cross section is given by: HereZis theatomic numberandnis a number which varies between 4 and 5. The photoelectric effect rapidly decreases in significance in the gamma-ray region of the spectrum, with increasing photon energy. It is also more likely from elements with high atomic number. Consequently, high-Zmaterials make goodgamma-rayshields, which is the principal reason why lead (Z= 82) is preferred and most widely used. See also References External links Applets\",\n \"Bohr model Inatomic physics, theBohr modelorRutherford–Bohr modelwas the first successful model of theatom. Developed from 1911 to 1918 byNiels Bohrand building onErnest Rutherford's nuclearmodel, it supplanted theplum pudding modelofJ J Thomsononly to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, densenucleussurrounded byorbitingelectrons. It isanalogousto the structure of theSolar System, but with attraction provided byelectrostatic forcerather thangravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values). In the history of atomic physics, it followed, and ultimately replaced, several earlier models, includingJoseph Larmor's Solar System model (1897),Jean Perrin's model (1901),thecubical model(1902),Hantaro Nagaoka'sSaturnianmodel (1904), theplum pudding model(1904),Arthur Haas's quantum model (1910), theRutherford model(1911), andJohn William Nicholson's nuclear quantum model (1912). The improvement over the 1911 Rutherford model mainly concerned the\",\n \"concerned the newquantum mechanicalinterpretation introduced by Haas and Nicholson, but forsaking any attempt to explain radiation according toclassical physics. The model's key success lies in explaining theRydberg formulaforhydrogen's spectral emission lines. While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical basis until the Bohr model was introduced. Not only did the Bohr model explain the reasons for the structure of the Rydberg formula, it also provided a justification for the fundamental physical constants that make up the formula's empirical results. The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of thehydrogen atom, compared to thevalence shellmodel. As a theory, it can be derived as afirst-order approximationof the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics and thus may be considered to be anobsolete scientific theory. However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the\",\n \"application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students toquantum mechanicsorenergy level diagramsbefore moving on to the more accurate, but more complex, valence shell atom. A related quantum model was proposed byArthur Erich Haasin 1910 but was rejected until the 1911 Solvay Congress where it was thoroughly discussed.The quantum theory of the period betweenPlanck's discovery of the quantum(1900) and the advent of a mature quantum mechanics (1925) is often referred to as theold quantum theory. Background Until the second decade of the 20th century, atomic models were generally speculative. Even the concept of atoms, let alone atoms with internal structure, faced opposition from some scientists.: 2 Planetary models In the late 1800's speculations on the possible structure of the atom included planetary models with orbiting charged electrons.: 35These models faced a significant constraint. In 1897,Joseph Larmorshowed that an accelerating charge would radiate power according to classical\",\n \"to classical electrodynamics, a result known as theLarmor formula. Since electrons forced to remain in orbit are continuously accelerating, they would be mechanically unstable. Larmor noted that electromagnetic effect of multiple electrons, suitable arranged, would cancel each other. Thus subsequent atomic models based on classical electrodynamics needed to adopt such special multi-electron arrangements.: 113 Thomson's atom model When Bohr began his work on a new atomic theory in the summer of 1912: 237the atomic model proposed byJ J Thomson, now known as thePlum pudding model, was the best available.: 37Thomson proposed a model with electrons rotating in coplanar rings within an atomic-sized, positively-charged, spherical volume. Thomson showed that this model was mechanically stable by lengthy calculations and was electrodynamically stable under his original assumption of thousands of electrons per atom. Moreover, he suggested that the particularly stable configurations of electrons in rings was connected\",\n \"rings was connected to chemical properties of the atoms. He developed a formula for the scattering ofbeta particlesthat seemed to match experimental results.: 38However Thomson himself later showed that the atom had a factor of a thousand fewer electrons, challenging the stability argument and forcing the poorly understood positive sphere to have most of the atom's mass. Thomson was also unable to explain the many lines in atomic spectra.: 18 Rutherford nuclear model In 1908,Hans GeigerandErnest Marsdendemonstrated thatalpha particleoccasionally scatter at large angles, a result inconsistent with Thomson's model. In 1911Ernest Rutherforddeveloped a new scattering model, showing that the observed large angle scattering could be explained by a compact, highly charged mass at the center of the atom. Rutherford scattering did not involve the electrons and thus hismodel of the atomwas incomplete.Bohr begins his first paper on his atomic model by describing Rutherford's atom as consisting of a small, dense,\",\n \"of a small, dense, positively chargednucleusattracting negatively chargedelectrons. Atomic spectra By the early twentieth century, it was expected that the atom would account for the many atomic spectral lines. These lines were summarized in empirical formula byJohann BalmerandJohannes Rydberg. In 1897, Lord Rayleigh showed that vibrations of electrical systems predicted spectral lines that depend on the square of the vibrational frequency, contradicting the empirical formula which depended directly on the frequency.:18In 1907Arthur W. Conwayshowed that, rather than the entire atom vibrating, vibrations of only one of the electrons in the system described by Thomson might be sufficient to account for spectral series.: II:106Although Bohr's model would also rely on just the electron to explain the spectrum, he did not assume an electrodynamical model for the atom. The other important advance in the understanding of atomic spectra was theRydberg–Ritz combination principlewhich related atomic spectral line\",\n \"spectral line frequencies to differences between 'terms', special frequencies characteristic of each element.:173Bohr would recognize the terms as energy levels of the atom divided by the Planck constant, leading to the modern view that the spectral lines result from energy differences.: 847 Haas atomic model In 1910,Arthur Erich Haasproposed a model of the hydrogen atom with an electron circulating on the surface of a sphere of positive charge. The model resembled Thomson's plum pudding model, but Haas added a radical new twist: he constrained the electron's potential energy,Epot{\\\\displaystyle E_{\\\\text{pot}}}, on a sphere of radiusato equal the frequency,f, of the electron's orbit on the sphere times thePlanck constant:: 197Epot=−e2a=hf{\\\\displaystyle E_{\\\\text{pot}}={\\\\frac {-e^{2}}{a}}=hf}whereerepresents the charge on the electron and the sphere. Haas combined this constraint with the balance-of-forces equation. The attractive force between the electron and the sphere balances thecentrifugal\",\n \"thecentrifugal force:e2a2=ma(2πf)2{\\\\displaystyle {\\\\frac {e^{2}}{a^{2}}}=ma(2\\\\pi f)^{2}}wheremis the mass of the electron. This combination relates the radius of the sphere to the Planck constant:a=h24π2e2m{\\\\displaystyle a={\\\\frac {h^{2}}{4\\\\pi ^{2}e^{2}m}}}Haas solved for the Planck constant using the then-current value for the radius of the hydrogen atom. Three years later, Bohr would use similar equations with different interpretation. Bohr took the Planck constant as given value and used the equations to predict,a, the radius of the electron orbiting in the ground state of the hydrogen atom. This value is now called theBohr radius.: 197 Influence of the Solvay Conference The firstSolvay Conference, in 1911, was one of the first international physics conferences. Nine Nobel or future Nobel laureates attended, includingErnest Rutherford, Bohr's mentor.: 271Bohr did not attend but he read the Solvay reportsand discussed them with Rutherford.: 233 The subject of the conference was the theory of radiation and\",\n \"of radiation and the energy quanta ofMax Planck's oscillators.Planck's lecture at the conference ended with comments about atoms and the discussion that followed it concerned atomic models.Hendrik Lorentzraised the question of the composition of the atom based onHaas's model, a form of Thomson's plum pudding model with a quantum modification. Lorentz explained that the size of atoms could be taken to determine the Planck constant as Haas had done or the Planck constant could be taken as determining the size of atoms.: 273Bohr would adopt the second path. The discussions outlined the need for the quantum theory to be included in the atom. Planck explicitly mentions the failings of classical mechanics.: 273While Bohr had already expressed a similar opinion in his PhD thesis, at Solvay the leading scientists of the day discussed a break with classical theories.: 244Bohr's first paper on his atomic model cites the Solvay proceedings saying: \\\"Whatever the alteration in the laws of motion of the electrons may be,\",\n \"electrons may be, it seems necessary to introduce in the laws in question a quantity foreign to the classical electrodynamics,i.e.Planck's constant, or as it often is called the elementary quantum of action.\\\"Encouraged by the Solvay discussions, Bohr would assume the atom was stable and abandon the efforts to stabilize classical models of the atom: 199 Nicholson atom theory In 1911John William Nicholsonpublished a model of the atom which would influence Bohr's model. Nicholson developed his model based on the analysis of astrophysical spectroscopy. He connected the observed spectral line frequencies with the orbits of electrons in his atoms. The connection he adopted associated the atomic electron orbital angular momentum with thePlanck constant. Whereas Planck focused on a quantum of energy, Nicholson's angular momentum quantum relates to orbital frequency. This new concept gave Planck constant an atomic meaning for the first time.: 169In his 1913 paper Bohr cites Nicholson as finding quantized angular\",\n \"quantized angular momentum important for the atom. The other critical influence of Nicholson work was his detailed analysis of spectra. Before Nicholson's work Bohr thought the spectral data was not useful for understanding atoms. In comparing his work to Nicholson's, Bohr came to understand the spectral data and their value. When he then learned from a friend aboutBalmer's compact formulafor the spectral line data, Bohr quickly realized his model would match it in detail.: 178 Nicholson's model was based on classical electrodynamics along the lines ofJ.J. Thomson'splum pudding modelbut his negative electrons orbiting a positive nucleus rather than circulating in a sphere. To avoid immediate collapse of this system he required that electrons come in pairs so the rotational acceleration of each electron was matched across the orbit.: 163By 1913 Bohr had already shown, from the analysis of alpha particle energy loss, that hydrogen had only a single electron not a matched pair.: 195Bohr's atomic model would\",\n \"atomic model would abandon classical electrodynamics. Nicholson's model of radiation was quantum but was attached to the orbits of the electrons.Bohr quantization would associate it with differences in energy levels of his model of hydrogen rather than the orbital frequency. Bohr's previous work Bohr completed his PhD in 1911 with a thesis 'Studies on the Electron Theory of Metals', an application of the classical electron theory ofHendrik Lorentz. Bohr noted two deficits of the classical model. The first concerned thespecific heatof metals whichJames Clerk Maxwellnoted in 1875: every additional degree of freedom in a theory of metals, like subatomic electrons, cause more disagreement with experiment. The second, the classical theory could not explain magnetism.: 194 After his PhD, Bohr worked briefly in the lab ofJJ Thomsonbefore moving to Rutherford's lab inManchesterto study radioactivity. He arrived just after Rutherford completed his proposal of a compact nuclear core for atoms.Charles Galton Darwin,\",\n \"Galton Darwin, also at Manchester, had just completed an analysis of alpha particle energy loss in metals, concluding the electron collisions where the dominant cause of loss. Bohr showed in a subsequent paper that Darwin's results would improve by accounting for electron binding energy. Importantly this allowed Bohr to conclude that hydrogen atoms have a single electron.: 195 Development Next, Bohr was told by his friend, Hans Hansen, that the Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, anempiricalequation discovered byJohann Balmerin 1885 that described wavelengths of some spectral lines of hydrogen.This was further generalized byJohannes Rydbergin 1888, resulting in what is now known as theRydberg formula. After this, Bohr declared, \\\"everything became clear\\\". In 1913Niels Bohrput forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model: Other points are: Bohr's condition, that the angular momentum be an integer multiple ofℏ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\hbar }, was later\",\n \"\\\\hbar }, was later reinterpreted in 1924 byde Broglieas astanding wavecondition: the electron is described by a wave and a whole number of wavelengths must fit along the circumference of the electron's orbit: According to de Broglie's hypothesis, matter particles such as the electron behave aswaves. Thede Broglie wavelengthof an electron is which implies that or wheremvr{\\\\displaystyle mvr}is the angular momentum of the orbiting electron. Writingℓ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\ell }for this angular momentum, the previous equation becomes which is Bohr's second postulate. Bohr described angular momentum of the electron orbit as2/h{\\\\displaystyle 2/h}whilede Broglie's wavelengthofλ=h/p{\\\\displaystyle \\\\lambda =h/p}describedh{\\\\displaystyle h}divided by the electron momentum. In 1913, however, Bohr justified his rule by appealing to the correspondence principle, without providing any sort of wave interpretation. In 1913, the wave behavior of matter particles such as the electron was not suspected. In 1925, a new kind of mechanics\",\n \"kind of mechanics was proposed,quantum mechanics, in which Bohr's model of electrons traveling in quantized orbits was extended into amore accurate modelof electron motion. The new theory was proposed byWerner Heisenberg.Another formof the same theory, wave mechanics, was discovered by the Austrian physicistErwin Schrödingerindependently, and by different reasoning. Schrödinger employed de Broglie's matter waves, but sought wave solutions of a three-dimensional wave equation describing electrons that were constrained to move about the nucleus of ahydrogen-like atom, by being trapped by the potential of the positive nuclear charge. Electron energy levels The Bohr model gives almost exact results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. This not only involves one-electron systems such as thehydrogen atom, singly ionizedhelium, and doubly ionizedlithium, but it includespositroniumandRydberg statesof any atom where one electron is far away from\",\n \"is far away from everything else. It can be used forK-lineX-ray transition calculations if other assumptions are added (seeMoseley's lawbelow). In high energy physics, it can be used to calculate the masses ofheavy quarkmesons. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions. Derivation In classical mechanics, if an electron is orbiting around an atom with period T, and if its coupling to the electromagnetic field is weak, so that the orbit doesn't decay very much in one cycle, it will emit electromagnetic radiation in a pattern repeating at every period, so that the Fourier transform of the pattern will only have frequencies which are multiples of 1/T. However, in quantum mechanics, the quantization of angular momentum leads to discrete energy levels of the orbits, and the emitted frequencies are quantized according to the energy differences between these levels. This discrete nature of energy levels introduces a fundamental departure from the classical radiation law, giving rise to distinct spectral\",\n \"distinct spectral lines in the emitted radiation. Bohr assumes that the electron is circling the nucleus in an elliptical orbit obeying the rules of classical mechanics, but with no loss of radiation due to theLarmor formula. Denoting the total energy asE, the negative electron charge ase, the positive nucleus charge asK=Z|e|, the electron mass asme, half the major axis of the ellipse asa, he starts with these equations:: 3 Eis assumed to be negative, because a positive energy is required to unbind the electron from the nucleus and put it at rest at an infinite distance. Eq. (1a) is obtained from equating the centripetal force to the Coulombian force acting between the nucleus and the electron, considering thatE=T+U{\\\\displaystyle E=T+U}(whereTis the average kinetic energy andUthe average electrostatic potential), and that for Kepler's second law, the average separation between the electron and the nucleus isa. Eq. (1b) is obtained from the same premises of eq. (1a) plus thevirial theorem, stating that, for\",\n \"stating that, for an elliptical orbit, Then Bohr assumes that|E|{\\\\displaystyle \\\\vert E\\\\vert }is an integer multiple of the energy of a quantum of light with half the frequency of the electron's revolution frequency,: 4i.e: From eq. (1a,1b,2), it descends: He further assumes that the orbit is circular, i.e.a=r{\\\\displaystyle a=r}, and, denoting the angular momentum of the electron asL, introduces the equation: Eq. (4) stems from thevirial theorem, and from the classical mechanics relationships between the angular momentum, the kinetic energy and the frequency of revolution. From eq. (1c,2,4), it stems: where: that is: This results states that the angular momentum of the electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant.: 15 Substituting the expression for the velocity gives an equation forrin terms ofn: so that the allowed orbit radius at anynis The smallest possible value ofrin the hydrogen atom (Z= 1) is called theBohr radiusand is equal to: The energy of then-th level for any atom is determined\",\n \"atom is determined by the radius and quantum number: An electron in the lowest energy level of hydrogen (n= 1) therefore has about 13.6eVless energy than a motionless electron infinitely far from the nucleus. The next energy level (n= 2) is −3.4 eV. The third (n=3) is −1.51 eV, and so on. For larger values ofn, these are also the binding energies of a highly excited atom with one electron in a large circular orbit around the rest of the atom. The hydrogen formula also coincides with theWallis product. The combination of natural constants in the energy formula is called the Rydberg energy (RE): This expression is clarified by interpreting it in combinations that form morenatural units: Since this derivation is with the assumption that the nucleus is orbited by one electron, we can generalize this result by letting the nucleus have a chargeq=Ze, whereZis the atomic number. This will now give us energy levels for hydrogenic (hydrogen-like) atoms, which can serve as a rough order-of-magnitude approximation of\",\n \"approximation of the actual energy levels. So for nuclei withZprotons, the energy levels are (to a rough approximation): The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (seen-body problem) because the electrons are not only affected by thenucleusbut also interact with each other via theCoulomb force. WhenZ= 1/α(Z≈ 137), the motion becomes highly relativistic, andZ2cancels theα2inR; the orbit energy begins to be comparable to rest energy. Sufficiently large nuclei, if they were stable, would reduce their charge by creating a bound electron from the vacuum, ejecting the positron to infinity. This is the theoretical phenomenon of electromagnetic charge screening which predicts a maximum nuclear charge. Emission of such positrons has been observed in the collisions of heavy ions to create temporary super-heavy nuclei. The Bohr formula properly uses thereduced massof electron and proton in all situations, instead of the mass of the electron, However, these numbers are very nearly\",\n \"are very nearly the same, due to the much larger mass of the proton, about 1836.1 times the mass of the electron, so that the reduced mass in the system is the mass of the electron multiplied by the constant 1836.1/(1+1836.1) = 0.99946. This fact was historically important in convincing Rutherford of the importance of Bohr's model, for it explained the fact that the frequencies of lines in the spectra for singly ionized helium do not differ from those of hydrogen by a factor of exactly 4, but rather by 4 times the ratio of the reduced mass for the hydrogen vs. the helium systems, which was much closer to the experimental ratio than exactly 4. For positronium, the formula uses the reduced mass also, but in this case, it is exactly the electron mass divided by 2. For any value of the radius, the electron and the positron are each moving at half the speed around their common center of mass, and each has only one fourth the kinetic energy. The total kinetic energy is half what it would be for a single electron\",\n \"a single electron moving around a heavy nucleus. Rydberg formula Beginning in late 1860s,Johann Balmerand laterJohannes RydbergandWalther Ritzdeveloped increasingly accurate empirical formula matching measured atomic spectral lines. Critical for Bohr's later work, Rydberg expressed his formula in terms of wave-number, equivalent to frequency.These formula contained a constant,R{\\\\displaystyle R}, now known theRydberg constantand a pair of integers indexing the lines:: 247ν=R(1m2−1n2).{\\\\displaystyle \\\\nu =R\\\\left({\\\\frac {1}{m^{2}}}-{\\\\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\\\\right).}Despite many attempts, no theory of the atom could reproduce these relatively simple formula.: 169 In Bohr's theory describing the energies of transitions orquantum jumpsbetween orbital energy levels is able to explain these formula. For the hydrogen atom Bohr starts with his derived formula for the energy released as a free electron moves into a stable circular orbit indexed byτ{\\\\displaystyle \\\\tau }:Wτ=2π2me4h2τ2{\\\\displaystyle W_{\\\\tau }={\\\\frac {2\\\\pi\",\n \"}={\\\\frac {2\\\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}\\\\tau ^{2}}}}The energy difference between two such levels is then:hν=Wτ2−Wτ1=2π2me4h2(1τ22−1τ12){\\\\displaystyle h\\\\nu =W_{\\\\tau _{2}}-W_{\\\\tau _{1}}={\\\\frac {2\\\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}}}\\\\left({\\\\frac {1}{\\\\tau _{2}^{2}}}-{\\\\frac {1}{\\\\tau _{1}^{2}}}\\\\right)}Therefore Bohr's theory gives the Rydberg formula and moreover the numerical value the Rydberg constant for hydrogen in terms of more fundamental constants of nature, including the electron's charge, the electron's mass, and thePlanck constant:: 31cRH=2π2me4h3.{\\\\displaystyle cR_{H}={\\\\frac {2\\\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{3}}}.} Since the energy of a photon is these results can be expressed in terms of the wavelength of the photon given off: Bohr's derivation of the Rydberg constant, as well as the concomitant agreement of Bohr's formula with experimentally observed spectral lines of theLyman(nf=1),Balmer(nf=2), andPaschen(nf=3) series, and successful theoretical prediction of other lines not yet observed, was one reason that his model was\",\n \"that his model was immediately accepted.: 34 To apply to atoms with more than one electron, the Rydberg formula can be modified by replacingZwithZ−bornwithn−bwherebis constant representing a screening effect due to the inner-shell and other electrons (seeElectron shelland the later discussion of the \\\"Shell Model of the Atom\\\" below). This was established empirically before Bohr presented his model. Shell model (heavier atoms) Bohr's original three papers in 1913 described mainly the electron configuration in lighter elements. Bohr called his electron shells, \\\"rings\\\" in 1913. Atomic orbitals within shells did not exist at the time of his planetary model. Bohr explains in Part 3 of his famous 1913 paper that the maximum electrons in a shell is eight, writing: \\\"We see, further, that a ring ofnelectrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of chargeneunlessn< 8.\\\" For smaller atoms, the electron shells would be filled as follows: \\\"rings of electrons will only join together if they contain equal numbers\",\n \"equal numbers of electrons; and that accordingly the numbers of electrons on inner rings will only be 2, 4, 8\\\". However, in larger atoms the innermost shell would contain eight electrons, \\\"on the other hand, the periodic system of the elements strongly suggests that already in neonN= 10 an inner ring of eight electrons will occur\\\". Bohr wrote \\\"From the above we are led to the following possible scheme for the arrangement of the electrons in light atoms:\\\" In Bohr's third 1913 paper Part III called \\\"Systems Containing Several Nuclei\\\", he says that two atoms form molecules on a symmetrical plane and he reverts to describing hydrogen.The 1913 Bohr model did not discuss higher elements in detail andJohn William Nicholsonwas one of the first to prove in 1914 that it couldn't work for lithium, but was an attractive theory for hydrogen and ionized helium. In 1921, following the work of chemists and others involved in work on theperiodic table, Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for\",\n \"model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time although these properties were proposed contemporarily with the identical work of chemistCharles Rugeley Bury Bohr's partner in research during 1914 to 1916 wasWalther Kosselwho corrected Bohr's work to show that electrons interacted through the outer rings, and Kossel called the rings: \\\"shells\\\".Irving Langmuiris credited with the first viable arrangement of electrons in shells with only two in the first shell and going up to eight in the next according to theoctet ruleof 1904, although Kossel had already predicted a maximum of eight per shell in 1916.Heavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr took from these chemists the idea that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. PerKossel, after that the orbit is full, the next level would have to be used.This gives the atom ashell structuredesigned by Kossel, Langmuir, and\",\n \"Langmuir, and Bury, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit. This model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon ofscreening. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit. For example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1s orbit, and these orbit atZ= 2. Each one sees the nuclear charge ofZ= 3 minus the screening effect of the other, which crudely reduces the nuclear charge by 1 unit. This means that the innermost electrons orbit at approximately 1/2 the Bohr radius. The outermost electron in lithium orbits at roughly the Bohr radius, since the two inner electrons reduce the nuclear charge by 2. This outer electron should be at nearly one Bohr radius from the nucleus.\",\n \"from the nucleus. Because the electrons strongly repel each other, the effective charge description is very approximate; the effective chargeZdoesn't usually come out to be an integer. The shell model was able to qualitatively explain many of the mysterious properties of atoms which became codified in the late 19th century in theperiodic table of the elements. One property was the size of atoms, which could be determined approximately by measuring theviscosityof gases and density of pure crystalline solids. Atoms tend to get smaller toward the right in the periodic table, and become much larger at the next line of the table. Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them. Every element on the last column of the table is chemically inert (noble gas). In the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling. Successive atoms become smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the\",\n \"next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing it to expand. The first Bohr orbit is filled when it has two electrons, which explains why helium is inert. The second orbit allows eight electrons, and when it is full the atom is neon, again inert. The third orbital contains eight again, except that in the more correct Sommerfeld treatment (reproduced in modern quantum mechanics) there are extra \\\"d\\\" electrons. The third orbit may hold an extra 10 d electrons, but these positions are not filled until a few more orbitals from the next level are filled (filling the n=3 d orbitals produces the 10transition elements). The irregular filling pattern is an effect of interactions between electrons, which are not taken into account in either the Bohr or Sommerfeld models and which are difficult to calculate even in the modern treatment. Moseley's law and calculation (K-alpha X-ray emission lines) Niels Bohr said in 1962: \\\"You see actually the Rutherford work was not taken seriously. We cannot\",\n \"We cannot understand today, but it was not taken seriously at all. There was no mention of it any place. The great change came from Moseley.\\\" In 1913,Henry Moseleyfound an empirical relationship between the strongest X-ray line emitted by atoms under electron bombardment (then known as theK-alphaline), and their atomic numberZ. Moseley's empiric formula was found to be derivable from Rydberg's formula and later Bohr's formula (Moseley actually mentions onlyErnest RutherfordandAntonius Van den Broekin terms of models as these had been published before Moseley's work and Moseley's 1913 paper was published the same month as the first Bohr model paper).The two additional assumptions thatthis X-ray line came from a transition between energy levels with quantum numbers 1 and 2, and, that the atomic numberZwhen used in the formula for atoms heavier than hydrogen, should be diminished by 1, to(Z− 1)2. Moseley wrote to Bohr, puzzled about his results, but Bohr was not able to help. At that time, he thought that the\",\n \"he thought that the postulated innermost \\\"K\\\" shell of electrons should have at least four electrons, not the two which would have neatly explained the result. So Moseley published his results without a theoretical explanation. It wasWalther Kosselin 1914 and in 1916 who explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell. In Kossel's paper, he writes: \\\"This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of which ... only a certain number of electrons—namely, eight in our case—should be arranged. As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated.\\\"Later, chemist Langmuir realized that the effect was caused by charge\",\n \"caused by charge screening, with an inner shell containing only 2 electrons. In his 1919 paper,Irving Langmuirpostulated the existence of \\\"cells\\\" which could each only contain two electrons each, and these were arranged in \\\"equidistant layers\\\". In the Moseley experiment, one of the innermost electrons in the atom is knocked out, leaving a vacancy in the lowest Bohr orbit, which contains a single remaining electron. This vacancy is then filled by an electron from the next orbit, which has n=2. But the n=2 electrons see an effective charge ofZ− 1, which is the value appropriate for the charge of the nucleus, when a single electron remains in the lowest Bohr orbit to screen the nuclear charge +Z, and lower it by −1 (due to the electron's negative charge screening the nuclear positive charge). The energy gained by an electron dropping from the second shell to the first gives Moseley's law for K-alpha lines, or Here,Rv=RE/his the Rydberg constant, in terms of frequency equal to 3.28 x 1015Hz. For values of Z\",\n \"For values of Z between 11 and 31 this latter relationship had been empirically derived by Moseley, in a simple (linear) plot of the square root of X-ray frequency against atomic number (however, for silver, Z = 47, the experimentally obtained screening term should be replaced by 0.4). Notwithstanding its restricted validity,Moseley's law not only established the objective meaning of atomic number, but as Bohr noted, it also did more than the Rydberg derivation to establish the validity of the Rutherford/Van den Broek/Bohr nuclear model of the atom, with atomic number (place on the periodic table) standing for whole units of nuclear charge. Van den Broek had published his model in January 1913 showing the periodic table was arranged according to charge while Bohr's atomic model was not published until July 1913. TheK-alphaline of Moseley's time is now known to be a pair of close lines, written as (Kα1andKα2) inSiegbahn notation. Shortcomings The Bohr model gives an incorrect valueL=ħfor the ground state\",\n \"the ground state orbital angular momentum: The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero from experiment. Although mental pictures fail somewhat at these levels of scale, an electron in the lowest modern \\\"orbital\\\" with no orbital momentum, may be thought of as not to revolve \\\"around\\\" the nucleus at all, but merely to go tightly around it in an ellipse with zero area (this may be pictured as \\\"back and forth\\\", without striking or interacting with the nucleus). This is only reproduced in a more sophisticated semiclassical treatment like Sommerfeld's. Still, even the most sophisticated semiclassical model fails to explain the fact that the lowest energy state is spherically symmetric – it doesn't point in any particular direction. Nevertheless, in the modernfully quantum treatment in phase space, the proper deformation (careful full extension) of the semi-classical result adjusts the angular momentum value to the correct effective one.As a consequence, the physical ground state expression is\",\n \"state expression is obtained through a shift of the vanishing quantum angular momentum expression, which corresponds to spherical symmetry. In modern quantum mechanics, the electron in hydrogen is aspherical cloud of probabilitythat grows denser near the nucleus. The rate-constant of probability-decay in hydrogen is equal to the inverse of the Bohr radius, but since Bohr worked with circular orbits, not zero area ellipses, the fact that these two numbers exactly agree is considered a \\\"coincidence\\\". (However, many such coincidental agreements are found between the semiclassical vs. full quantum mechanical treatment of the atom; these include identical energy levels in the hydrogen atom and the derivation of a fine-structure constant, which arises from the relativistic Bohr–Sommerfeld model (see below) and which happens to be equal to an entirely different concept, in full modern quantum mechanics). The Bohr model also has difficulty with, or else fails to explain: Refinements Several enhancements to the Bohr\",\n \"to the Bohr model were proposed, most notably theSommerfeld or Bohr–Sommerfeld models, which suggested that electrons travel in elliptical orbits around a nucleus instead of the Bohr model's circular orbits.This model supplemented the quantized angular momentum condition of the Bohr model with an additional radial quantization condition, theWilson–Sommerfeldquantization condition wherepris the radial momentum canonically conjugate to the coordinateqr, which is the radial position, andTis one full orbital period. The integral is theactionofaction-angle coordinates. This condition, suggested by thecorrespondence principle, is the only one possible, since the quantum numbers areadiabatic invariants. The Bohr–Sommerfeld model was fundamentally inconsistent and led to many paradoxes. Themagnetic quantum numbermeasured the tilt of the orbital plane relative to thexyplane, and it could only take a few discrete values. This contradicted the obvious fact that an atom could have any orientation relative to the\",\n \"relative to the coordinates, without restriction. The Sommerfeld quantization can be performed in different canonical coordinates and sometimes gives different answers. The incorporation of radiation corrections was difficult, because it required finding action-angle coordinates for a combined radiation/atom system, which is difficult when the radiation is allowed to escape. The whole theory did not extend to non-integrable motions, which meant that many systems could not be treated even in principle. In the end, the model was replaced by the modern quantum-mechanical treatment of thehydrogen atom, which was first given byWolfgang Pauliin 1925, using Heisenberg'smatrix mechanics. The current picture of the hydrogen atom is based on theatomic orbitalsofwave mechanics, whichErwin Schrödingerdeveloped in 1926. However, this is not to say that the Bohr–Sommerfeld model was without its successes. Calculations based on the Bohr–Sommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic\",\n \"more complex atomic spectral effects. For example, up to first-orderperturbations, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in theStark effect. At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model. The prevailing theory behind this difference lies in the shapes of the orbitals of the electrons, which vary according to the energy state of the electron. The Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization conditions lead to questions in modern mathematics. Consistent semiclassical quantization condition requires a certain type of structure on the phase space, which places topological limitations on the types of symplectic manifolds which can be quantized. In particular, the symplectic form should be thecurvature formof aconnectionof aHermitianline bundle, which is called aprequantization. Bohr also updated his\",\n \"also updated his model in 1922, assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example, 2, 8, and 18) correspond to stable \\\"closed shells\\\". Model of the chemical bond Niels Bohr proposed a model of the atom anda model of the chemical bond. According to his model for adiatomic molecule, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei. Thedynamic equilibriumof the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei. The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account theCoulomb repulsion– the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other. Symbolism of planetary atomic models Although Bohr's atomic model was superseded by quantum models in the 1920's, the visual image of electrons orbiting a nucleus has remained the popular concept of atoms.\",\n \"concept of atoms. The concept of an atom as a tinyplanetary systemhas been widely used as a symbol for atoms and even for \\\"atomic\\\" energy (even though this is more properly considered nuclear energy).:58Examples of its use over the past century include but are not limited to: See also References Footnotes Primary sources Further reading External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":394,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"How many of Mark Calaway's consecutive Wrestlemania wins occurred in matches that were longer than the final match result in the same year's competition, not including years where Calaway was part of the final 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_X8#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XIX#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XX#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_21#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_22#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_23#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXIV#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_25#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVI#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVII#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVIII#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_29#Results"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Undertaker', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Streak_(professional_wrestling)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_VII#Results', 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\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XII#Results\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_13#Results\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XIV#Results\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XV#Results\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_X-Seven#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_X8#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XIX#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XX#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_21#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_22#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_23#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXIV#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_25#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVI#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVII#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVIII#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_29#Results\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["The Undertaker Mark William Calaway(born March 24, 1965), better known by hisring nameThe Undertaker, is an American retiredprofessional wrestler. Widely regarded as one of the greatest professional wrestlers of all time,Calaway spent the vast majority of his career wrestling forWWEand in 2022 was inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame. Calaway began his career in 1987, working under variousgimmicksforWorld Class Championship Wrestling(WCCW) and other affiliate promotions. He signed withWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) in 1989 for a brief stint, and then joined the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1990. Calaway rebranded himself as \"The Undertaker\" when he joined the WWF. As one of WWE's most high-profile and enduring characters,The Undertaker is famed for hisundead,funereal,macabre\"Deadman\" persona, which gained significant mainstream popularity and won him theWrestling Observer Newsletterawardfor Best Gimmicka record-setting 5 years in a row.He is the longest-tenured wrestler in company history at 30 years. In 2000, the Undertaker adopted a biker identity nicknamed \"American Badass\". Calaway resurrected the Deadman gimmick in 2004, with residual elements of the \"American Badass\" remaining. For the better part of his career, the Undertaker was observed as a focal point of WWE's flagship annual event,WrestleMania, where he became esteemed forThe Streak— a series of 21 straight victories, and headlined the event five times (13,24,26,33and36). He is also known for pairing with hisin-storylinehalf-brotherKane, with whom he alternativelyfeudedandteamed(as theBrothers of Destruction) from 1997 through 2020. During his wrestling career under the Undertaker gimmick, Calaway won theWWF/E Championshipfour times, theWorld Heavyweight Championshipthree times, theHardcore Championshiponce and theWorld Tag Team Championshipsix times. He also won theRoyal Rumble matchin 2007. Early life Mark William Calaway was born inHouston,Texas, on March 24, 1965,the son of Frank Compton Calaway (died July 2003) and Betty Catherine Truby.He has four older brothers named David, Michael, Paul, and Timothy (died March 2020, age 63).He attendedWaltrip High School, where he was a member of thefootballandbasketballteams. He graduated in 1983 and began studying on a basketball scholarship atAngelina CollegeinLufkin, Texas. In 1985, he enrolled inTexas Wesleyan UniversityinFort Worth, Texas, where hemajoredinsport managementand played as acenterfor theRamsin the 1985–1986 season. In 1986, Calaway dropped out of university to focus on a career in sports and briefly considered playing professional basketball in Europe, before deciding to focus on professional wrestling. Professional wrestling career Early career (1987–1989) Calaway began training underBuzz Sawyerin late 1986;he disliked Sawyer, who reportedly lacked commitment and provided a limited education.Calaway learned \"on the job\" thereafter.Performing under a mask as Texas Red,Calaway wrestled his first match on June 26, 1987, forWorld Class Championship Wrestling(WCCW), losing toBruiser Brodyat theDallas Sportatorium.He was accompanied to the ring by Percival \"Percy\" Pringle III, who would later serve as his manager in the WWF asPaul Bearer.Two myths have circulated regarding Calaway's beginnings in the industry, the first being that he made his in-ring debut in 1984,and the second being that he was trained by former WCCW colleague Don Jardine (akaThe Spoiler).While never trained by Jardine, Calaway was an admirer of his work and would emulate Jardine's top rope walk.PWInsider's Mike Johnson stated, \"Undertaker using some of Jardine's style eventually morphed into this story that he was trained by Jardine.\" He wrestled inDurban, South Africa on August 22, 1987, as \"Texas Red Jack\", losing to Tiger Singh.He would also wrestle in prison shows under the name Boris Dragu, a Russian grave digger. In 1988, Calaway developed a military gimmick named The Commando. Under this persona, he mainly wrestled in the Chicago area for Central Illinois Wrestling. He would also have a brief stint in Georgia forSouthern Championship Wrestling. By the end of 1988, Calaway joined theContinental Wrestling Association, wrestling under several gimmicks. On February 2, 1989, managed byDutch Mantel, he was reintroduced as The Master of Pain, a former murderer.On April 1, The Master of Pain won his firstprofessional wrestling championshipby defeatingJerry Lawlerfor the USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion. Just over three weeks had passed when Lawler became the first man to pin him, giving it back to him. While performing as The Punisher upon returning to Dallas, Calaway won the USWA Texas Heavyweight Championship on October 5, 1989, whenEric Embryforfeited the title. World Championship Wrestling (1989–1990) By the end of 1989, Calaway joined World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as avillainand adopted the ring name \"Mean Mark\" Callous, a name devised for him byTerry Funk.He was portrayed as a sinister force, wearing predominantly black ring attire and was described by commentatorJim Rossas having a fondness for pet snakes and the music ofOzzy Osbourne.Callous was promptly drafted intoThe Skyscraperstag teamto replace alegitimatelyinjuredSid Vicious, and made his debut on January 3, 1990, in a match later televised against Agent Steel and Randy Harris.The new team gained some notoriety atClash of the Champions Xwhen they beat downThe Road Warriorsafter their match.However, Callous's partnerDan Spiveyleft WCW days before theirChicago Street Fightagainst the Road Warriors atWrestleWar. Callous anda replacement masked Skyscraperwere defeated in thestreet fightand the team broke up soon afterwards.Now a singles wrestler, Callous took on the guidance ofPaul E. Dangerously(Paul Heyman). Calaway later began to question his future in WCW after being told bycompany booker,Ole Anderson, during contract renewal discussions that nobody would ever pay money to watch him perform.It was in response to this that Calaway made numerous efforts to join the World Wrestling Federation, going to many lengths to land a meeting withVince McMahon. However, accessing and securing an interview with McMahon was described by Calaway as a despairing task. Among routes Calaway took to land a meeting with McMahon was trying to convince individuals acquainted with McMahon or already existing WWF talent to recommend him into the WWF, such asHulk Hogan, Paul Heyman, andBruce Prichard, crediting the latter two for arranging the meeting at McMahon's mansion. Calaway immediately gavenoticeto WCW before the interview took place. McMahon initially declined to hire Calaway; however, several days later the owner pitched the idea an \"Old West Undertaker,\" a concept he had intended to create for several years but had never found an appropriate wrestler to play the part. Calaway's final WCW match was on September 7 at aWorldWidetaping inAmarillo, Texasin which he defeated Dave Johnson.During his time in WCW, Calaway briefly wrestled inNew Japan Pro-Wrestling(NJPW) as \"Punisher\" Dice Morgan.After leaving WCW, he briefly returned to the USWA to participate in a tournament to determine the new USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion; Calaway defeatedBill Dundeein the first round, but lost to Jerry Lawler in the quarterfinals. World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment/WWE Debut of The Undertaker (1990–1991) In October 1990, Calaway signed with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), set to portray the \"brainchild\" of McMahon that he had assigned to him, originally entitledKane the Undertaker(\"Kane\" later added on to \"the Undertaker\" moniker by the time of his arrival at the urgings of Bruce Prichard, who had always desired aCain and Abeleffect for his character).Despite Calaway's perplexed, pessimistic feelings about McMahon's gimmick idea, he was readily accepting of the role, feeling anything better than the laughingstock gimmicks of that time, such asThe Gobbledy Gooker.Kane the Undertaker was characterized as a menacing derivative of theWild Westundertakersdepicted intelevision westerns. Resulting from that, this first edition of the Undertaker's series ofDeadmanincarnationshas been distinguished in external media as \"The Old West Mortician\".He made his overall WWF debut on a November 19, 1990, taping ofWWF Superstarsquickly defeating his first opponent,Mario Mancini, in a singles match(this match was filmed three days prior to the Undertaker's televised debut atSurvivor Serieson November 22, but did not air on television until December 15, 1990). Also prior to his Survivor Series appearance, Kane the Undertaker had a match on November 20 against Rick Sampson, which later aired on the December 9, 1990 episode ofWWF Wrestling Challenge. Calaway's official televised debut was at Survivor Series in which he was presented as theheelmystery partner of Ted DiBiase's \"Million Dollar Team\".Approximately one minute into the match, the Undertaker eliminatedKoko B. Warewith his finisher, theTombstone Piledriver.(In 2018, Koko B. Ware shared that directly following this match that night, he confronted the Undertaker with serious objections to what he felt was a botched Tombstone. Though Ware also shared that he always admired Mark Calaway and perceived him as a great performer).During the match, the Undertaker also eliminatedDusty Rhodesbefore beingcounted out; however, his team won the match with DiBiase being the sole survivor.During the match, Calaway was referred to as simply the Undertaker, omitting the portion \"Kane\", which was dropped shortly after the event (and seven years later at the urgings of Prichard, given to another wrestler once he took on the role of the Undertaker'syounger brother).Throughout the end of 1990, the Undertaker mostly picked upsquashvictories against jobbers on Superstars of Wrestling and Wrestling Challenge tapings.He was a participant in the1991Royal Rumble matchwhich was won by Hulk Hogan. In February 1991,Brother Lovedelegated his short-livedmanagementrole of the Undertaker over to Paul Bearer (real-life funeral director), Love communicating the need for someone who better aligned with the Undertaker's \"deadman\" themes.Histrionic, wailing and ghostly in character, Bearer complemented the Undertaker and was almost always seen bearing anurnwhich he raised in the air to transmit supernatural healing powers to the Undertaker; this typically resulted in the Undertaker recovering from attacks and counterattacking his adversaries.During his early years, the Undertaker took to a post-match ritual of placing his defeated opponents (almost alwaysjobbers) in abody bagand carrying them backstage.He continued picking up victories in squash matches leading up to his firstfeudin the WWF with\"Superfly\" Jimmy Snuka. WWF Champion and beginning of The Streak (1991–1994) The Undertaker made his WrestleMania debut atWrestleMania VIIon March 24, 1991, quickly defeating \"Superfly\" Jimmy Snuka.He began his first major feud shortly thereafter, which was withThe Ultimate Warriorwhen The Undertaker attacked him and locked him in an airtight casket on the set of Paul Bearer'sFuneral Parlorsegment.Resulting from this, the Warrior enlisted the assistance ofJake \"The Snake\" Robertsto get him mentally psyched for The Undertaker's morbid alarmist tactics: Roberts would drill the Warrior with \"know your enemy\" training, setting up the Warrior in a series of creepy, terrorizing circumstances, such as by locking him in caskets and in rooms with snakes.This culminated in a final stage of Roberts's training in which Roberts proved to be stringing Warrior along the entire time by assisting The Undertaker in an ambush.The Undertaker would later suffer his first losses in the WWF to The Ultimate Warrior, including in a first ever body bag challenge, a casket match, and (athouse show) standard pin-fall match.The feud was, however, cut short after the Warrior's suspension and ongoing issues with Vince McMahon.In the1991 King of the Ring, Undertaker defeatedAnimalin a qualifying match before fightingSid Viciousto a doubledisqualificationin the semifinal, which saw both men eliminated from theKing of the Ring tournament.The Undertaker defeated Hulk Hogan to win his firstWWF ChampionshipatSurvivor Serieswith the help ofRic Flairand thus became the youngest WWF Champion in history to that point, 26 years of age—this record was later broken byYokozunain April 1993 atWrestleMania IX.The Undertaker's Tombstone of Hogan to win the WWF Championship at the 1991 Survivor Series created real-life, offscreen discord between the two, which Undertaker attributes his short title reign, lack of title runs during his early career and distrust of Hogan.In storyline, however, WWF PresidentJack Tunneyordered a rematch between the two atThis Tuesday in Texassix days later, where The Undertaker lost the title back to Hogan.However, due to the controversial endings of the two title matches between The Undertaker and Hogan, the title wasvacatedfrom Hogan the next night by Tunney. The company was without a WWF Champion until Ric Flair earned it by winning the1992Royal Rumble match. In February 1992, The Undertaker's ally Jake \"The Snake\" Roberts tried to attack\"Macho Man\" Randy Savage's manager/wifeMiss Elizabethwith a steel chair when Undertaker stopped him, turning him (and Paul Bearer)facefor the first time. Their face turn was solidified on the February 29 episode ofSuperstarswhen Roberts confronted The Undertaker on theFuneral Parlorset over the matter (aired onSaturday Night's Main Event XXX). After demanding to know whose side The Undertaker was on and getting the reply, \"Not yours\", Roberts attacked both Bearer and The Undertaker, only for The Undertaker to stand his ground and run Roberts off. The Undertaker defeated Roberts atWrestleMania VIII.He then feuded extensively with wrestlers managed byHarvey Wipplemanthroughout 1992 and 1993, such asKamalaandGiant González. Also during this time, The Undertaker headlined thedebut episodeofMonday Night Rawon January 11, 1993, with a victory overDamien Demento.According to Calaway, working with González \"...was survival every night trying to figure out what he could do\" and \"took years off my career\".He faced González at WrestleMania IX, which is notable asThe Undertaker's only disqualification win at WrestleManiaafter the use ofchloroform.The Undertaker's next rivalry initiated atSurvivor Serieswith Yokozuna when a clash between the two lost control, causing them to be counted out in an elimination tag match.In the weeks following, The Undertaker and Bearer spooked Yokozuna with multiple segments from their wintery and remoterural areaworkshop. There, Bearer presented The Undertaker hard at workcarpenteringYokozuna what would eventually become a \"double wide, double deep casket\" custom-built for Yokozuna's immensely overweight size.The feud culminated in a WWF Championshipcasket matchat theRoyal Rumblein January 1994. During the match, Yokozuna sealed The Undertaker in the casket with the assistance of a multitude of heel wrestlers (some of themWhippleman-managed) hired by Yokozuna's vindictive managersJim CornetteandMr. Fuji, which was in retaliation for Bearer's casket match stipulation that he snuck into their Royal Rumble match contract. After being trapped inside the casket by the pack, green vapor emitted from the casket and the arena lights went out. Undertaker then appeared from inside the casket on the video screen, representing the spirit of his dead corpse, warning that he would produce a future \"rebirth\" of himself, explaining to his antagonists that he cannot and will not Rest in Peace.The Undertaker did not appear in the WWF for seven months after his loss to Yokozuna. In reality, he was given time off to allow a back injury to heal. Rebirthed Deadman (1994–1996) Following the death angle at the Royal Rumble during The Undertaker's absence, the WWF promoted reported sightings of him through video clips of random people claiming to have seen him. AfterWrestleMania X,Ted DiBiaseintroduced an Undertaker back to the WWF. This Undertaker, however, played byBrian Lee(one of Calaway's real-life best friends)was an impostor Undertaker (dubbed \"The Underfaker\" by fans)rejuvenated by Dibiase's money rather than Bearer's urn. His actions led to the return of the real Undertaker atSummerSlam, defeating the impostor and appearing as a reincarnation of his Deadman gimmick, one of a more shadowy, mysterious and secret presence.Represented now by cool colors, The Undertaker replaced details of his wrestling gear that were previously colored gray with purple, and effected scenes with blue/purple semidarkness.Many details that would become associated with The Undertaker for the remainder of his career were produced during this rebirth incarnation, such as the addition ofsleeve tattoosandGodlikesupernatural elements (thunder, lightning and windy weather-like effects used to indicate The Undertaker's presence and wrath). Seeking retribution, The Undertaker revisited his feud with Yokozuna and eventually faced him in a casket rematch atSurvivor Series.Chuck Norris(portraying hisWalker, Texas Rangerpersona) was involved in the match as special guest enforcer, preventing interference from wrestlers that Yokozuna, Jim Cornette and Mr. Fuji had again enlisted for help.Unable to rely on much as far as interference this time around (onlyIrwin R. Schysterable to get in a brief ambush) due to Norris averting the attempts of several heel wrestlers, Yokozuna was defeated by The Undertaker and sealed in the casket.Throughout most of 1995, Undertaker feuded with members of Ted DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation. The chain of wrestlers DiBiase enlisted to do away with The Undertaker started with Irwin R. Schyster at theRoyal Rumblefor which The Undertaker was victorious, but assaulted by another member of the Million Dollar Team,King Kong Bundy. While being assaulted, Bearer was deprived of his urn by the Corporation.AtWrestleMania XI, The Undertaker made short work of Bundy in a singles match. This edition of WrestleMania included the first mention of The Undertaker's historicWrestleMania-winning Streak, acknowledged on commentary by Vince McMahon as Undertaker made his entrance: \"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania.\"During The Undertaker's WrestleMania encounter, DiBiase issued him with yet another antagonist in \"The Supreme Fighting Machine\"Kama, who had stolen the briefly recaptured urn from Bearer during the match. Kama followed this up with a series of malicious acts, including destroying the stolen urn and recycling it intobling.While sporting the flashy bling around his neck, he repeatedly cost The Undertaker matches and attacked diehard Undertaker fans, dubbed \"Creatures of the Night\".In August, Undertaker settled the score with Kama, defeating him in a casket match atSummerSlam.Several weeks later, Undertaker suffered a seriousorbital boneinjury whenKing Mabelunintentionally struck him in the eye with his fist during ahouse show, forcing The Undertaker into a period of absence for surgery. Due to the incident happening at a house show, Vince McMahon had it presented to the audience as though it had occurred from Mabel and Yokozuna's exchange ofleg dropsandsplasheson The Undertaker on theMonday Night Rawthat had aired 2 days prior.The Undertaker returned a couple months later atSurvivor Series, in which he single-handedly eliminated an entire team of wrestlers led by King Mabel, The Undertaker leading his own team to victory.It was at that Survivor Series return in which he began wearing aPhantom of the Opera-like, gray upper-face mask to safeguard his orbital injury while it healed.The following month in December, The Undertaker defeated Mabel in a casket match atIn Your House, retrieving the urn, which had been traded between several of The Undertaker's antagonists over the course of the year. In the main event of theRoyal Rumblein January 1996, The Undertaker was unmasked of his Phantom of the Opera-like facial covering in a WWF Championship match againstBret Hart. The Undertaker was eventually able to hit theTombstone Piledriveron Hart, butDieselinterfered, costing The Undertaker the championship.A rematch for the title on the February 5 episode ofRawsaw similar interference.At that month'sIn Your House: Rage in the Cage, while Diesel was facing Hart in asteel cage matchfor the WWF Championship, The Undertaker delivered a surprise attack, emerging from a hole he had ripped through the ring canvas and dragging Diesel with him down under amid a cloud of smoke, allowing Hart the victory.After several weeks of more retaliatoryone-upmanshipbetween Diesel and The Undertaker, their feud culminated in asingles matchatWrestleMania XII, where Undertaker was victorious. The Undertaker's next feud commenced the next night onRawwhenMankind, a twisted and tortured soul, made his debut and randomly interfered in Undertaker's match againstJustin \"Hawk\" Bradshaw. For the next few months, Mankind viciously ambushed The Undertaker and cost him multiple matches.Among them, Mankind cost The Undertaker theWWF Intercontinental Championshipby interfering in his casket match againstGoldustatIn Your House 8: Beware of Dog. In interfering in this match, Mankind proved to have mystifying horror tactic capabilities that matched The Undertaker's, mysteriously appearing from inside the casket and sealing The Undertaker inside. The Undertaker, however, had vanished amid a cloud of smoke once the casket lid was opened.As a result of the interference and repeated ambushes from Mankind on The Undertaker throughout the ensuing weeks, The Undertaker and Mankind competed in their first on-screen bout at the1996 King of the Ring, a heated encounter in which The Undertaker presented as uncharacteristically intense.During the match, Bearer inadvertently hit The Undertaker with the urn, allowing Mankind to incapacitate The Undertaker with his finisher, theMandible Claw, and score the win.With Mankind insatiably continuing to cost The Undertaker matches even following their King of the Ring encounter, The Undertaker began firing back with rage and the feud spiraled out of control: the two routinely interrupted other matches already in progress, battling each other at random intervals outside of having arranged matches—their chaos also spilling into audiences, arena backstage communal areas, and arenaboiler rooms, all of this unprecedented at the time.As a result, the first everBoiler Room Brawl(Mankind's specialty match) was booked between the two atSummerSlam.After more than 20 minutes of brawling with Mankind in the ClevelandGund Arena's boiler room, the arena corridors, the SummerSlam entrance area and aisleway to the ring, The Undertaker reached for Paul Bearer's urn in an attempt to win the match, but Bearer struck him with it, betraying The Undertaker. This followed with Bearer allowing Mankind to take hold of the urn, thus winning this match. According to Paul Bearer in shoot interviews the WWF wanted Bearer to betray him during that match because it was a storyline thatKanewas coming and they wanted The Undertaker to get ready for the angle with Kane the following year by having Bearer turn on him.After Bearer's betrayal, The Undertaker grew more aggressive, resolving his feud against Goldust (Mankind's comrade in tormenting The Undertaker) atIn Your House 10: Mind Games. The Undertaker then took his rivalry with Mankind to new lengths in a specialty match of his own, and at that time unprecedentedBuried Alive matchto take place in the main event ofIn Your House 11: Buried Alive. The Undertaker won the match afterchokeslammingMankind into the open grave and subsequently shoveling enough dirt on him so that he was covered. However, after interference from the debutingExecutioner, as well as the help of several other heel wrestlers apparently enlisted by Bearer, Mankind escaped the grave and together the mob all shoveled dirt onto The Undertaker to the point that the grave was completely filled, resulting in The Undertaker fully buried alive. Not without a parting message for the pack, however, The Undertaker's purple glove fit hand emerged from his burying place amid a bolt of lightning that had erupted over the gravesite. The scene sent all of his antagonists fleeing. Lord of Darkness (1996–1998) After being buried alive and a following month-long hiatus, The Undertaker returned at theSurvivor Seriesagain pitting him against Mankind, but with a unique stipulation: Hanging 6.1 m (20 ft) above the ring would be Paul Bearer, enclosed in a steel cage. And if The Undertaker were to win the match, he would be rewarded the opportunity to assault Bearer however he pleased. Even though The Undertaker won this match, interference from The Executioner enabled Bearer to escape Undertaker's clutches.It was also at this event that The Undertaker had developed a comparatively more humanized and more informal yet still superhuman \"Deadman\" incarnation. In this then new form, he took on aGothappearance and persona, with a brash, rebelling, Championship-driven mean streak (perhaps to better fit in with the then-budding, more adult-orientedAttitude Era).This delivering, dubbed \"The Lord of Darkness\", was the 3rd incarnation of his Deadman persona.Following Survivor Series, The Undertaker briefly turned his attention to The Executioner, who had been interfering in his matches since his arrival. AtIn Your House 12: It's Time, The Undertaker defeated The Executioner in anArmageddon Rulesmatch even with Mankind heavily involved throughout the entire encounter.The Undertaker then moved on to feud withVader, whom he faced in January 1997 at theRoyal Rumblein a singles match, which The Undertaker lost after Bearer interfered on behalf of his new protégé.The two then clashed in the Royal Rumble match itself as they made it to the final moments of the match, but both were eliminated byStone Cold Steve Austin, who had crept back into the match after his elimination was unseen. He faced both Vader and Austin in afour-corners elimination matchfor the vacant WWF Championship atIn Your House 13: Final Four, but Bret Hart won.However, the following month, The Undertaker managed to win the WWF Championship for the second time by defeatingSycho SidatWrestleMania 13.Reviving his first Deadman incarnation for that night only, The Undertaker appeared as the \"Old West Mortician\", donning the trademarked gray wrestling gear accessories (boot spats, tie, gloves), along with a pitch-black entrance with only a white spotlight shined over him, contrasted from the purple/blue semidarkness associated with the rest of his Deadman incarnations. Following his WWF Championship win at WrestleMania 13, Paul Bearer attempted to rejoin The Undertaker as his manager. After The Undertaker refused and attacked Bearer, Bearer had Mankind set a fireball to the Undertaker's face, leading up to a match atIn Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Taker, for which The Undertaker was victorious.Evening the score at \"Revenge of the 'Taker\", The Undertaker set a fireball to Bearer's face directly following the match.Following the event, Bearer bandaged up from fire burns, likened The Undertaker's assault to a past incident he described as The Undertaker's \"deepest, darkest secret\". Through giving The Undertaker theultimatumof revealing his deepest, darkest secret to the world, Bearer was able to reunite with him as manager and protégé. After only a few months of abrasive behaviors from Bearer, however, The Undertaker lost his patience and rejected Bearer as his manager. In retaliation, Bearer disclosed that The Undertaker had intentionally killed his family by burning down his parents' family funeral home for which they raised him and his younger brother.(Note that the younger brother, Kane, was not revealed to be The Undertaker's half-brother until the following year, April 1998, when Bearer disclosed to the world that he is Kane's father, The Undertaker's mother having had an affair with him. Bearer later verified this with DNA test results).At this point in his career, The Undertaker denied the charges of committing the arson murder that killed his family; however, Bearer claimed to have proof in the form of The Undertaker's alive and well younger brother, Kane, who had survived though scarred and burned. Bearer raised Kane after the fire, having him institutionalized from the date of the fire into adulthood. Ever since the fire, Kane had been awaiting to exact vengeance on his older half-brother. In defense, Undertaker responded that Kane, a \"pyromaniac\", had been the one to set the fire and, as a result, could not have possibly even survived.(Note that it would not be until a year and a half later from this point, in latter 1998, in which The Undertaker would shamelessly confess to intentional acts of arson to the funeral home that killed his parents and scarred his brother). In spite of Bearer projecting himself as a constant source of mental distress to The Undertaker during his Championship title reign, The Undertaker managed to secure successful title defenses against Stone Cold Steve Austin (A Cold Day In Hell: In Your House),Faarooq(King of the Ring)and Vader (Canadian Stampede: In Your House, revisiting and settling their Royal Rumble feud from earlier on in the year),respectively. Concurrent to the \"deep, dark secret\" storyline directed by Bearer, Undertaker began a then new rivalry atSummerSlamwhenspecial guest refereeShawn Michaelsaccidentally hit him with a steel chair shot intended for his archnemesis Bret Hart, in effect, costing The Undertaker the WWF Championship.The accidental chair shot led to Michaels feeling betrayed by the now booing WWF fans, and quickly becoming heel. Thus, a severely violent storyline with The Undertaker followed, one revolving around repeated intentional chair shots by Michaels on the Undertaker, Michaels taunting The Undertaker throughout.After the duo's first match, which was a chaotic and uncontrolled encounter that resulted in a double count-out draw atGround Zero: In Your House, Undertaker challenged Michaels to the first everHell in a Cell matchto take place atBadd Blood: In Your House. Despite the inclusion of the cell for more order and to prevent Michaels from receiving help from hisD-Generation Xstable, the encounter ended up even more uncontrolled and savage than their first and is considered one of The Undertaker's best matches of his career.Seemingly about to emerge the victor after striking Michaels with a chair shot of his own, The Undertaker was interrupted by his storyline half-brother Kane, finally making his debut. Under the control of Paul Bearer, Kane stormed the arena, ripped off the cell door, and laid out a nonplussed Undertaker with his own trademarked finisher,The Tombstone Piledriver, allowing Michaels to pin him for the victory.As the storyline progressed through Bearer having Kane mow down much of the WWF roster, Kane repeatedly challenged The Undertaker, going to lengths of tormenting and humiliating him. However, The Undertaker consistently refused to fight his half-brother, claiming he had made a vow to his parents never to do harm to his own \"flesh and blood\".The Undertaker's final encounter with Michaels during this chapter of his career was in a casket match for the WWF Championship at theRoyal Rumble. The week before onRaw, Kane had duplicitously presented as allying with his brother against Michaels's D-Generation X stable; however, at the Royal Rumble, Kane trapped The Undertaker in the coffin, padlocked the lid shut, and set the casket ablaze, allowing Michaels another victory.After a two-month hiatus in which Kane wreaked havoc over the WWF, The Undertaker returned on the March 2, 1998 episode ofRawin a most notable resurrection—his druids interrupting Kane and Bearer by presenting them with a coffin on the entrance stage amid a large number of bell tolls. The coffin was struck and dismantled by a lightning bolt, revealing a lied out Undertaker who sat up in a fury state and challenged Kane to do battle with him.AtWrestleMania XIVin their first match, The Undertaker defeated Kane.Kane challenged Undertaker to a rematch—Kane's specialty and first everInferno match—that occurred one month later atUnforgiven: In Your House. The Undertaker won the encounter by setting Kane's right arm on fire. The Undertaker and Mankind's wildly violent, outlandish feud from over a year previous to this point was revitalized over the next month, ultimately taken to a new graphic height and decisively resolved whenthey faced each other in a Hell in a Cell matchatKing of the Ring. The match became one of the most famous matches in professional wrestling history. During the match, the Undertaker threw Mankind off the roof of the 4.9 m (16 ft) cell onto a broadcast table below, in what was a preplanned move. He later performed a chokeslam on Mankind through the roof of the cell into the ring, which was not preplanned and legitimately knocked Mankind unconscious. In jumping from the top of the cell to the ring canvas, The Undertaker suffered a broken ankle. Escalating as things progressed, blood flowed from both wrestlers as they attacked each other with steel steps, chairs, the cell wall, etc. Topping that off, Mankind introduced multitudes of thumbtacks scattered across the ring canvas but wasback body droppedon them, and subsequently chokeslammed onto them before The Undertaker won the match with hisTombstone Piledriver.AtFully Loaded: In Your House, the Undertaker and Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated Kane and Mankind to win theWWF Tag Team Championship.The Undertaker and Austin's reign astag team championslasted only two weeks, as Kane and Mankind regained the titles from them in afatal four-way tag-team matchon the August 10 episode ofRaw.The Undertaker then became the number one contender for the WWF Championship, held by Austin at that point, for a match atSummerSlam. Shortly before SummerSlam and after much speculation, The Undertaker finally disclosed that he and his half-brother were working together. Despite this revelation, The Undertaker told Kane before his SummerSlam bout that he did not want him interfering, even sending Kane away during the match itself when he appeared. Even though The Undertaker lost the match at SummerSlam, he handed Austin his championship belt back after the match with a show of respect and sportsmanship. In September as the storyline matured however, The Undertaker subtly began showing some heel characteristics, becoming atweener. This began when he and Kane revealed the fact that they were in cahoots to rid Austin of his title for villainous company owner Mr. McMahon—Austin and McMahon immersed in a bitter rivalry during this era. AtBreakdown: In Your House, The Undertaker and Kane were booked in atriple threat matchwith Austin for the WWF Championship, in which McMahon stated that the brothers were not allowed to pin each other. The Undertaker and Kane pinned Austin simultaneously after adouble chokeslam, ending the match in ano contest, so the title was vacated by McMahon.This event led to a match atJudgment Day: In Your Housebetween The Undertaker and Kane for the title, with Austin as the special guest referee. Near the end of the match, Paul Bearer seemed about to assist Kane by handing him a steel chair to hit The Undertaker with, but as Kane had his back turned, both Bearer and The Undertaker hit Kane with chair shots. The Undertaker went for the pin, but Austin refused to count the fall, attacked The Undertaker and counted out both of them.Finally the next night onRaw, The Undertaker reconciled with Bearer and claimed that he and Bearer would unleash their \"Ministry of Darkness\" on the WWF, turning heel for the first time since 1992. As part of the then new storyline angle, The Undertaker admitted that he had indeed intentionally set the fire that killed his parents and scarred Kane, for which he had previously blamed on Kane. Ministry of Darkness Deadman (1998–1999) AfterSurvivor Series, The Undertaker returned his attention to his previous feud with Austin for costing him the title at Judgment Day, hitting Austin in the head with a shovel during a title match withThe Rockon the November 16 episode ofRaw, returning the favor for what happened a month earlier. With this twist in the storyline, Mr. McMahon scheduled a Buried Alive match between The Undertaker and Austin atRock Bottom: In Your House. In the weeks leading up to Rock Bottom, The Undertaker attempted toembalmAustin alive, tried to have Kane committed to a mental asylum, and had his druids chain Austin to an immense structure of his Undertaker crucifix-like logo (which took the appearance of a capital T combined X) before having that structure lifted up on high into the air.However, The Undertaker lost the Buried Alive match to Austin at Rock Bottom after Kane interfered. After the buildup to his second heel run in the latter part of 1998, The Undertaker introduced an updated version of his Deadman identity by January 1999—a dark priest-like character who in the initial period of this persona reigned over a stable known as The Ministry of Darkness. In this form, he took on a wicked, demonic presence, much more so than ever before. He often proclaimed to be invoking and taking orders from a \"Higher Power\". Moreover, he often appeared in a hooded black robe and sat on a throne with a towering backrest specially designed into his crucifix-like logo. With the help of his minions, he often performed sacrifices on select WWF wrestlers, using variousincantationsandmagic wordswith intent to extract out the dark side of the wrestlers in question to recruit them into his Ministry. The completed Ministry of Darkness consisted ofThe Brood(Christian,EdgeandGangrel),The Acolytes(Bradshaw and Faarooq),MideonandViscera. Calaway himself did not wrestle for a period, having undergone a hip replacement. As part of theangle, The Undertaker had his Ministry members fight his battles, carry out his evil wishes and do all his dirty deeds. In this manner, he expressed his desires to take over the World Wrestling Federation, displacing its owner, Mr. McMahon. These ambitions culminated into a rivalry between The Ministry andThe Corporation, ultimately resulting in a match between The Undertaker and Corporation enforcer,Big Boss Man. The two faced off in a Hell in a Cell match atWrestleMania XV, which The Undertaker won.AtBacklash: In Your House, The Undertaker defeated Corporation memberKen Shamrockafter interference from Ministry member Bradshaw. Thereafter, The Undertaker kidnappedStephanie McMahon, forcing Mr. McMahon to enter into a reluctant alliance with his longtime nemesis Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Undertaker attempted to marry Stephanie before sacrificing her in aneldritchceremony conducted by Paul Bearer, but Austin was able to rescue her.At theOver the Edgepay-per-view, The Undertaker defeated Austin for his third WWF Championship with help fromShane McMahon, the special guest referee.The Ministry eventually merged with Shane McMahon's Corporation alliance to formThe Corporate Ministry. The Undertaker later revealed that Mr. McMahon had been his \"Higher Power\" all along as a scheme against Austin.After The Undertakerlostthe WWF Championship back to Austin on theRawfollowingKing of the Ringand lost to him in aFirst Blood matchatFully Loaded, his relationship with the McMahons dissolved and The Corporate Ministry disbanded. The Undertaker then began a storyline where he teamed withBig Showin a tag team known as \"The Unholy Alliance\", which held the WWF Tag Team Championship twice. After their victory atSummerSlam, The Undertaker suffered a groin tear and was seen limping in several matches. He avoided competing in wrestling matches in the following weeks, instead overbearingly ordering Big Show to fight his battles and do all his dirty deeds. Developing a comedy horror smart mouth during this time, elements of The Undertaker's trash-talking biker identity (that he would eventually introduce in 2000) began peeping out during this phase of his career. According to an interview with Kevin Nash, this was a move to allow Calaway to return to WCW with a non-trademarked persona; had he entered WCW, it would have been as Mark Calaway. According to Nash, although negotiations were described as close, Calaway ultimately re-signed with the WWF. Conversely, while on Steve Austin'sBroken Skull Sessionspodcast on November 22, 2020, Calaway revealed that there was no way he was ever going to rejoin WCW, that the gimmick's biker transition was just a matter of him mixing things up because he didn't feel the character's Deadman side properly fit with the then ongoing Attitude Era. To compensate for his lack of physical activity, The Undertaker became increasingly overbearing and vocal, often mouthing off with a weirdness and making sinisterlysmart-aleckremarks in promos and on commentary. On the September 23, 1999, episode ofSmackDown!, Mr. McMahon threatened that he would remove The Undertaker from theUnforgivenmain event if he refused to participate in a casket match againstTriple H. The Undertaker retorted that he did not care and maybe he would not be participating in anything WWF any longer, from there walking out on the WWF.In reality, Calaway went on a hiatus from the WWF in order to treat his groin injury. He made his return to action on December 14, teaming with Viscera in a losing effort against Kane and The Godfather at a house show inCoamo, Puerto Rico.The Undertaker was advertised on theArmageddonpromotional poster to return, but meanwhile also tore his pectoral muscle, taking him out of action for almost eight months. American Badass (2000–2001) In May 2000, Calaway expanded on The Undertaker gimmick, returning under a human alter ego of the gimmick—a smack-talking, redneck biker, dubbed \"The American Badass\", known for motorcycle-riding, tobacco chewing/spitting, and donning a sporty appearance and manner.In stark contrast to his horror-themed and fully fictional Deadman persona, Calaway's Badass persona was only semifictional with traits and features adopted from who he is out of character—hence, why he desired to transform The Undertaker.While explained off screen years later for the above reasons, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it. When The Undertaker returned near the end of theiron man matchfor the WWF Championship between Triple H and The Rock atJudgment Dayon May 21, 2000, he took out all the members of the McMahon-Helmsley Faction, which created for afaceturn after having left things off as a heel before his hiatus.He also targeted their leader, then WWF Champion Triple H. At theKing of the Ringpay-per-view on June 25, The Undertaker teamed with The Rock and Kane to defeat the team of Triple H, Shane McMahon and Vince McMahon.Afterward, he was booked to team with Kane to contend for the WWF Tag Team Championship. They defeatedEdge and Christian, earning the right to face them the following week for the championship, which Edge and Christian retained. During an August 14Raw is Warbout againstChris Benoit, Kane became involved and betrayed The Undertaker by hitting him with two chokeslams, the second one causing the ring apron to cave in underneath The Undertaker.This incident led to another match between the two atSummerSlamon August 27, which ended in a no contest as Kane fled from the ring area after The Undertaker removed Kane's mask. The Undertaker then challengedKurt Anglefor the WWF Championship atSurvivor Serieson November 19.Angle, however, defeated The Undertaker after he switched places with his real-life brother,Eric Angle. The Undertaker demanded and was awarded a spot in the six-man Hell in a Cell match for the WWF Championship atArmageddonon December 10. The Undertaker promised to make someone famous and did so when he performed a chokeslam onRikishifrom the roof of the cell into hay-filled cargo bed of a truck. The Undertaker reunited with Kane as the Brothers of Destruction, issuing a challenge for the WWF Tag Team Championship once again. They received a title shot atNo Way Outon February 25, 2001, facing Edge and Christian and then championsThe Dudley Boyzin atables matchbut were unsuccessful.The Undertaker then went on to defeat Triple H atWrestleMania X-Sevenon April 1.He and Kane continued a storyline that focused on Triple H, who formed a \"surprise alliance\" with then WWF Champion Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Brothers of Destruction were granted an opportunity to face Triple H and Austin for their titles (Triple H was the WWF Intercontinental Champion). After The Undertaker and Kane won the WWF Tag Team Championship from Edge and Christian on the April 19 episode ofSmackDown!,Triple H pinned Kane after attacking him with a sledgehammer atBacklashon April 29, where the Brothers of Destruction lost their championships.With Kane injured, The Undertaker feuded briefly with Austin for his WWF Championship, but he failed to win the title atJudgment Dayon May 20. As part of \"The Invasion\" storyline, The Undertaker's next nemesis wasDiamond Dallas Page, who was obsessively stalking The Undertaker's wife, Sara.AtSummerSlamon August 19,WCW Tag Team ChampionsThe Undertaker and Kane defeated Page and his partnerKanyonin a steel cage match to win the WWF Tag Team Championship.AtSurvivor Serieson November 18, The Undertaker teamed with Kane, The Rock,Chris Jerichoand Big Show to take on The Alliance's Stone Cold Steve Austin,Booker T,Rob Van Dam, Shane McMahon and Kurt Angle (this was the last time The Undertaker and Kane teamed until 2006). Angle pinned The Undertaker due to interference by Austin. Despite this, Team WWF won the match. Big Evil (2001–2003) AfterThe Alliancewas defeated, The Undertaker inducted commentatorJim Rossinto theMr. McMahon: Kiss My Ass Clubon the November 26 episode ofRaw, which involved The Undertaker pressing the lips of Ross against McMahon's exposed buttocks, turning heel in the process.In transitioning his \"American Badass\" biker identity into a heel, The Undertaker eventually cut his long hair short and went by the nickname \"Big Evil\". AtVengeanceon December 9, The Undertaker defeated Rob Van Dam to win theWWF Hardcore Championship. The Undertaker's next storyline began at theRoyal Rumbleon January 20, 2002, whenMaveneliminated him from theRoyal Rumble matchby hitting him with adropkickfrom behind. Subsequently, The Undertaker eliminated Maven in return and brutally assaulted him backstage.Thereafter, on an episode ofSmackDown!, The Rock angered The Undertaker by mentioning his elimination at the Royal Rumble. He responded by costing The Rock the number one contendership for theUndisputed WWF Championship.The storyline continued when The Rock cost The Undertaker the WWF Hardcore Championship against Maven on the February 7 episode ofSmackDown!.The two faced off atNo Way Outon February 17, where The Undertaker lost due to interference from Ric Flair.This interference began a storyline with Flair, who declined a challenge to wrestle The Undertaker atWrestleMania X8on March 17.As a result, The Undertaker assaulted his sonDavid Flair.Flair eventually accepted the match after The Undertaker threatened to inflict the same punishment on Flair'sdaughter.A no-disqualification stipulation was added to the match and The Undertaker defeated Flair at WrestleMania. After the storyline with Flair, The Undertaker was drafted to theRaw brandafter the WWF split its roster into twobrandsand defeated Stone Cold Steve Austin atBacklashon April 21 to become the number one contender for the Undisputed WWF Championship. Later that night, he helped Hollywood Hulk Hogan win the title against then champion Triple H.The Undertaker then defeated Hogan for the renamed WWE Undisputed Championship atJudgment Dayon May 19. The next night onRaw, The Undertaker seemingly lost the WWE Undisputed Championship to Rob Van Dam; however, Raw owner Ric Flair restarted the match (Van Dam pinned The Undertaker when his foot was on the rope, thus invalidating the pin attempt) and The Undertaker defeated Van Dam to retain the championship.On the July 1 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker defeatedJeff Hardyin aladder matchto retain the WWE Undisputed Championship and raised Hardy's hand as a show of respect, turning face once again. The Undertaker, however, lost the title atVengeanceon July 21 to The Rock in a triple threat match that also involved Kurt Angle.On the August 29 episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker moved to theSmackDown! brand(where he remained until the first brand extension ended in 2011), and defeated Chris Benoit and Kurt Angle in a triple threat match to become the number-one contender for the renamed WWE Championship and challengedBrock Lesnarfor the title atUnforgivenon September 22 that ended in a double disqualification.Their feud carried over toNo Mercyon October 20 in a Hell in a Cell match, which The Undertaker performed with a legitimately broken hand and ultimately lost to Lesnar. The Undertaker took a break after Big Show threw him off the stage on the October 24 episode ofSmackDown!, sparking a feud.The Undertaker returned at theRoyal Rumbleon January 19, 2003.He immediately continued his feud with Big Show and defeated him bysubmissionatNo Way Outon February 23 with atriangle choke.A-Trainentered the storyline by attempting to attack The Undertaker after the match, butNathan Jonescame to his aid.The storyline resumed as The Undertaker began to train Jones to wrestle and the two were scheduled to fight Big Show and A-Train in atag team matchatWrestleMania XIXon March 30.However, Jones was removed before the match, making it ahandicap match, which The Undertaker won with the help of Jones. Over the remainder of the year, The Undertaker entered a brief feud withJohn Cena(defeating him atVengeanceon July 27) and was booked to have two WWE Championship opportunities. The first, on the September 4SmackDown!, against Kurt Angle, ended in a no contest, due to interference from Brock Lesnar.The second, atNo Mercyon October 19, was aBiker Chain matchbetween The Undertaker and Lesnar, which Lesnar won with the help of Vince McMahon.This match resulted in a feud with McMahon, culminating atSurvivor Serieson November 16 where The Undertaker lost a Buried Alive match against McMahon when Kane interfered.The Undertaker disappeared for some time following this match, with Kane claiming that he was \"dead and buried forever\". Return of the Deadman (2004–2007) In the storyline leading up toWrestleMania XX, Kane was tormented by horror-themed mind games, paranormal activities, and spooking vignettes proclaiming The Undertaker's Deadman return. The first was during theRoyal Rumblewhen The Undertaker's bells tolled, distracting Kane and allowing Booker T to eliminate him.Accompanied by Paul Bearer at WrestleMania XX, The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity, defeating Kane in a singles match.Introduced was a more dramatic, theatrical and supernatural Deadman than in years past, his presence, mannerisms, and entrances significantly elaborated on as well, such as with more intensity, special effects and rising and falling flames.At the same time, The Undertaker maintained elements of his American Badass identity, thus a composite character more humanized than all of his previous Deadman incarnations(The Undertaker would present in this particular hybrid Deadman form untilNo Mercy 2005whenRandy Ortonsealed him in a casket and set it on fire).AtJudgment Day, The Undertaker defeated Booker T. One week later,Paul Heymanordered TheDudley Boyzto kidnap Bearer.Thus, Heyman \"took control\" of Undertaker.AtThe Great American Bash, The Undertaker fought a handicap match against The Dudley Boyz, with the stipulation that if he did not lay down and purposely lose, Heyman would bury Paul Bearer in cement. The Undertaker won and stopped Heyman from burying Bearer, but after claiming Bearer was merely a liability he had no use for, buried him himself. The Undertaker began a feud with then WWE Champion John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) by challenging him to a title match atSummerSlam, which The Undertaker lost by disqualification.AtNo Mercy, The Undertaker and JBL competed in the first-everLast Ride match, although The Undertaker lost afterHeidenreichinterfered.After defeating Heidenreich in a match atSurvivor Series,The Undertaker turned his focus to the WWE Championship once again. Along withEddie Guerreroand Booker T, he challenged JBL to a championship rematch atArmageddonin a fatal four-way match, in which The Undertaker was unsuccessful, again due to Heidenreich's interference.The feud culminated in a casket match between The Undertaker and Heidenreich at theRoyal Rumble, where The Undertaker sealed Heidenreich in a casket for the victory. Soon after, Randy Orton challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 21, uppishly proclaiming that he would end his WrestleMania winning Streak.Even with help fromhis father, Orton lost as The Undertaker improved his WrestleMania record to 13–0.After a two-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned on the June 16 episode ofSmackDown!, but lost to JBL due to interference from Randy Orton, who was drafted toSmackDown!as part of thedraft lottery.Despite his interference, the Randy Orton/Undertaker feud was put on the back burner until late summer of that year, resulting from Orton on the injured list. In the meantime and in one of the most controversial moments in WWE history on an episode ofSmackDown!taped on July 4, 2005 (aired on July 7),SmackDown!General ManagerTheodore LongscheduledMuhammad Hassanin a match against The Undertaker atThe Great American Bash, and placedDaivariin a match that night against Undertaker: Undertaker quickly defeated Daivari. After the match, however, Hassan began to \"pray\" on the ramp, summoning five masked men, dressed in black shirts, ski-masks and camouflage pants. Armed with clubs and a piano wire, the masked men assaulted and choked out The Undertaker before Hassan then placed The Undertaker in acamel clutch. Afterward, the masked men lifted Daivari above their heads and carried him away. Three days later, theLondon bombingstook place. The footage aired unedited onUPNin the United States and onThe Scorein Canada with an advisory warning shown several times during the broadcast. It was removed from the Australian and European (including in the United Kingdom) broadcasts. The angle elicited national attention in theNew York Post,TV Guide,Varietyand other major media outlets. In response to the criticism, UPN decided that it would monitor the storyline closely and that it did not want the Hassan character on its network that week.In apromohosted on WWE's website - UPN had edited it from the July 14, 2005 episode ofSmackDown!- Hassan reiterated that he was anArab Americanand that the American people automatically and unfairly assumed that he was a terrorist. Despite being in character, he referred to the real-world media coverage of the storyline, singling out theNew York Post'sDon Kaplan by name and denouncing his description of the events onSmackDown!, such as Kaplan's comment of the masked men being \"Arabs in ski masks\". On the July 14, 2005 episode ofSmackDown!, Hassan's absence was explained by a statement delivered by his attorney,Thomas Whitney, that Hassan refused to appear on the show untilThe Great American Bashdue to the way he was treated by the American media and WWE fans. It was revealed in late July 2005 that UPN had pressured WWE to keep Hassan off their network, effectively removing him fromSmackDown!.Undertaker defeated Hassan at The Great American Bash to become the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship. After the match, The Undertaker delivered aLast Ridethrough an open stage ramp onto a concrete floor to Hassan. It was reported that Hassan sustained serious injuries and had to be rushed to a nearby medical facility, writing Hassan off television.Several days later, Long (kayfabe) banned Hassan fromSmackDown!. It was revealed years later that Hassan was about to receive a majorpushby winning the World Heavyweight Championship fromBatistaatSummerSlamand thus breaking Randy Orton's record for being the youngest World Heavyweight Champion in WWE history. On the following episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker lost to JBL in a number-one contender's match, once again due to interference from Orton, reviving their feud that was put on hiatus.AtSummerSlam, Orton defeated The Undertaker in a WrestleMania rematch. The storyline intensified as the two tried to get into the head of one another with dark mind game tactics and use of caskets, leading to a handicap casket match atNo Mercy, in which The Undertaker lost to Randy and his father \"Cowboy\" Bob Orton.After the match, the Ortons poured gasoline on the casket and set it on fire (a throwback moment to one of The Undertaker's most infamous attacks received and done by Kane doing the same to him at the 1998 Royal Rumble). When the charred casket was opened, however, The Undertaker was absent, presented as having vanished. The Undertaker resurrected at theSurvivor Serieswhen the druids delivered a casket that was struck by lightning and went up in flames. The Undertaker then burst from the flaming casket in rage, battering and brutalizing an entire ring full of wrestlers as a message to Orton. Here, he reappeared still in hybrid form but with lessened Badass characteristics, eliminating several elements of his biker identity so that his Deadman side projected, most notably, replacing loose-fitting cargo pants with his Deadman spandex, and less use of theLast Ridefinisher.The Undertaker returned onSmackDown!in early December to haunt Orton and set up a Hell in a Cell match atArmageddon.After The Undertaker won their brutal Hell in a Cell encounter, in effect, settling his 9 month long feud with Orton,Calaway took a brief hiatus from professional wrestling. In January 2006 at theRoyal Rumble, The Undertaker returned on a horse-drawn cart during Kurt Angle's celebration of his World Heavyweight Championship defense againstMark Henry. In this appearance, The Undertaker signaled for a title shot by using his supernatural powers to collapse the wrestling ring that Angle stood in as a means to spook him. As part of their storyline angle, The Undertaker lost his match with Angle atNo Way Outafter a 30-minute bout—described as underrated and among Undertaker's top matches, in which he versatilely took to a more ground-based submission style to combat Angle's trademarkedfreestyle wrestling.The Undertaker cornered Angle after the match and told him he was not finished with him.In a rematch with Angle (similarly described as underrated and among The Undertaker's top matches that utilized the wrestling styles of their previous encounter on the March 3 episode ofSmackDown!) Henry attacked The Undertaker from behind, costing him the title.This led to The Undertaker challenging Henry to a casket match atWrestleMania 22and Henry vowing to end The Undertaker's WrestleMania winning Streak. The match resulted in The Undertaker sealing Henry in the casket, winning the match and extending his streak to 14–0 at WrestleMania.During a rematch on the next episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker was assaulted by the debutingGreat Khali. The Undertaker was not heard from until the May 5 episode ofSmackDown!when Theodore Long delivered a challenge from The Undertaker to Khali for a match atJudgment Day. The Undertaker lost to Khali at Judgment Day,and he did not appear again until the July 7 episode ofSmackDown!when he accepted Khali's challenge to aPunjabi Prison matchatThe Great American Bash. However, Khali was removed from the match due to not being medically cleared. He was thus replaced by thenECW World ChampionBig Show, over whom The Undertaker gained the victory.In storyline, Theodore Long replaced Khali with Big Show as punishment for an attack on The Undertaker shortly before the match.Khali was then challenged by The Undertaker to aLast Man Standing MatchforSummerSlamafter interfering in The Undertaker's match with then World Heavyweight Champion King Booker. Khali refused the challenge but Long scheduled the Last Man Standing Match ahead of time, for the August 18 episode ofSmackDown!instead. The Undertaker won the match by striking Khali with steel stairs and finishing him with a chokeslam. It was Khali's first defeat and effectively ended his feud with The Undertaker. The Undertaker's next match was with then United States ChampionMr. KennedyatNo Mercy, but was disqualified in the match after he hit Kennedy with the championship belt.On the November 3 episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker reunited with Kane to reform the Brothers of Destruction for the first time in five years, defeating reluctant opposition in the form of Mr. Kennedy andMontel Vontavious Porter(MVP), with whom Kane was feuding with at the time.As part of the storyline, Kennedy defeated The Undertaker in a First Blood match atSurvivor Seriesafter interference from MVP,but finally defeated Kennedy in a Last Ride match atArmageddon.The two continued to feud into 2007 as Kennedy cost The Undertaker two World Heavyweight Championship opportunities for a championship match at theRoyal Rumble.However, The Undertaker eventually qualified for the 2007 Royal Rumble match, by winning abattle royalon the January 26 episode ofSmackDown!. World Heavyweight Champion (2007–2010) The Undertaker won his firstRoyal Rumblematch on January 28, in doing so becoming the first man to enter the Rumble at number 30 and win the match, after lastly eliminating Shawn Michaels.On the February 5 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker elected to face World Heavyweight Champion Batista atWrestleMania 23on April 1, before attacking him with the chokeslam.AtNo Way Outon February 18, The Undertaker and Batista reluctantly teamed together to face John Cena and Shawn Michaels, but lost after Batista gained revenge on The Undertaker by hitting him with aspinebuster, allowing Cena to pin him.At WrestleMania 23, The Undertaker defeated Batista to win his first World Heavyweight Championship and extend his Streak to 15–0.The Undertaker faced Batista in a rematch atBacklashon April 29, this time in a Last Man Standing match. The match ended in a draw after neither man got to their feet by the referee's count of ten, meaning The Undertaker retained the championship.The Undertaker and Batista then fought once again in a steel cage match on the May 11 episode ofSmackDown!that also ended in a draw when both men's feet touched the floor at the same time. After the match, Mark Henry made his return by assaulting an already battered The Undertaker, after which Edge ran to the ring and cashed in hisMoney in the Bankbriefcase, forcing The Undertaker into a second title defense. Although he kicked out of two quick pin attempts, The Undertaker was pinned by Edge after twospearsand lost the World Heavyweight Championship.After this match, The Undertaker took time off due to a torn right biceps. During his rehabilitation, Henry bragged about his assault on The Undertaker, until vignettes began playing that promoted The Undertaker's return. The Undertaker returned atUnforgivenon September 16, defeating Henry.Batista and The Undertaker reignited their feud atCyber Sundayon October 28 with the fans choosing the special guest referee to be Stone Cold Steve Austin, however, Batista retained the World Heavyweight Championship.They battled again in a Hell in a Cell match atSurvivor Serieson November 18, where Edge returned and interfered to help Batista retain the World Heavyweight Championship.In response to this, The Undertaker delivered aTombstone Piledriverto General ManagerVickie Guerreroon the November 23 episode ofSmackDown!, sending her to the hospital. Returning assistant-General Manager Theodore Long declared a triple threat match for the title between the three men atArmageddonon December 16, which Edge won after interference fromThe Major Brothers. At theRoyal Rumbleon January 27, 2008, The Undertaker competed in the Royal Rumble match itself, entering at number 1, but eliminated by Shawn Michaels after lasting for most of the bout.AtNo Way Outon February 17, The Undertaker defeated Batista,Finlay, The Great Khali, MVP and Big Daddy V in the SmackDownElimination Chamber matchto become the number one contender for Edge's World Heavyweight Championship atWrestleMania XXIVon March 30.At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Edge with theHell's Gatesubmission hold to win his second World Heavyweight Championship in what was his 16th WrestleMania win.In a WrestleMania rematch, The Undertaker defeated Edge once again atBacklashon April 27 to retain the World Heavyweight Championship.Vickie Guerrero then banned The Undertaker'sHell's Gatesubmission hold and stripped him of the World Heavyweight Championship on the May 2 episode ofSmackDown.The Undertaker battled Edge for the vacant title atJudgment Dayon May 18, which he won by countout. Guerrero ordered that the title remain vacant, because titles could not change hands in this way.Edge and The Undertaker faced each other again for the vacant championship atOne Night Standon June 1 in aTables, Ladders, and Chairs match, which The Undertaker lost after interference fromLa Familia. As a result of the stipulation, The Undertaker was forced to leave WWE. On the July 25 episode ofSmackDown, Vickie Guerrero reinstated The Undertaker and scheduled Edge to face him atSummerSlamon August 17 in a Hell in a Cell match,which The Undertaker won. After the match, The Undertaker chokeslammed Edge from the top of a ladder and through the ring canvas.Following this match, Guerrero tried making a peace offering with The Undertaker onSmackDownby apologizing, but The Undertaker told her that he was not the forgiving kind. AtUnforgivenon September 7, as The Undertaker approached the ring to \"take Guerrero's soul\" and seal her in a casket,Big Show, who appeared at first to be aiding The Undertaker ended up assaulting him.Resulting from that, The Undertaker and Big Show faced each other in a match atNo Mercyon October 5, where Big Show won byknockout.AtCyber Sundayon October 26, The Undertaker defeated Big Show in a Last Man Standing match after choking him out withHell's Gate.At the same time, The Undertaker was engaged in a short feud with Jeff Hardy, who interfered during his match withVladimir Kozlovon the November 7 episode ofSmackDown. Hardy defeated The Undertaker in anExtreme Rules matchthe following week onSmackDowndue to interference from Big Show. The Undertaker then went on to defeat Big Show in a casket match atSurvivor Serieson November 23 and again in a steel cage match by submission on the December 5 episode ofSmackDownto end their feud.AtNo Way Outon February 15, 2009, The Undertaker was part of the WWE Championship Elimination Chamber match along with Triple H, Jeff Hardy, Big Show, Vladimir Kozlov and Edge; however, he was unsuccessful at winning the match as he was the runner-up behind Triple H. In early 2009, The Undertaker began a second chapter to his unresolved feud with Shawn Michaels from the late 1990s, over a decade prior to this point (their tensions gradually increasing in the years immediately preceding this from heated run-ins at the 2007 and 2008 Royal Rumble matches). Their renewed feud by this point was two-dimensional, in part focusing on the wonder of The Undertaker's undefeated WrestleMania Streak in relation to, however, the fact that he had never before defeated Michaels in a singles match, only vice versa.Michaels also made the buildup to their WrestleMania encounter personal, repeatedly demonstrating his Christian objections to the demonic dark side nature of The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick, even creating his own heaven-esque bright side spin-off of what he felt The Undertaker's gimmick should be (Michaels having become a real-life born again Christian by this point in his career).The feud culminated in a singles match between the two atWrestleMania 25on April 5 in which Michaels made a heaven-sent entrance descending from up on high portraying his bright side anti-Deadman, while The Undertaker made a grave-risen entrance emerging from the ground.After what was widely described as a suspenseful, competitive match, The Undertaker defeated Michaels, thus extending hisWrestleMania winning streak to 17–0.Their encounter was highly acclaimed by critics and audiences alike and is considered by many to be one of the greatest WrestleMania matches of all time.On the April 24 episode ofSmackDown, after losing a match against Big Show by knockout with Big Show taking advantage of The Undertaker's battered neck state from his previous WrestleMania encounter, The Undertaker attacked Big Show. Following this, The Undertaker took another hiatus from the WWE. After a four-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned atSummerSlamon August 23 by attackingCM Punk, who had just won the World Heavyweight Championship from Jeff Hardy in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match.AtBreaking Pointon September 13, The Undertaker faced Punk in a submission match for the World Heavyweight Championship. The Undertaker had originally won the match with hisHell's Gatesubmission hold, but the match was restarted by SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long, who ruled that the ban placed on the move by Vickie Guerrero was still in effect. Punk went on to win the match with hisanaconda visewhen refereeScott Armstrongcalled for the bell, despite The Undertaker never submitting—a recreation of theMontreal Screwjob, which took place in the same venue in1997.On the September 25 episode ofSmackDown, Theodore Long officially lifted the ban after being released from a casket that The Undertaker had him placed inside of, among a series of other horror-themed mind game tactics.With Long out of the way, the feud between The Undertaker and Punk pressed on and atHell in a Cellon October 4, The Undertaker won the World Heavyweight Championship from him in a Hell in a Cell match.The Undertaker successfully defended the title against CM Punk on the October 23 episode ofSmackDown, in a fatal four-way match atBragging Rightson October 25 against Punk, Batista andRey Mysterioand in a triple threat match against Chris Jericho and Big Show atSurvivor Serieson November 22.He faced Batista atTLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairson December 13 in a chairs match for the championship and won when the match was restarted by Long, after Batista had originally won after utilizing alow blow. The next night onRaw, The Undertaker competed in a tournament to crown the2009 Superstar of the Year, losing to Randy Orton by countout in the first round after a distraction by Orton's protegèsCody RhodesandTed DiBiase. After successfully defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Rey Mysterio at theRoyal Rumbleon January 31, 2010,The Undertaker lost the championship at theElimination Chamberpay-per-view on February 21. It was also at this event that a notoriousshoot incident(non-kayfabe) befell The Undertaker: apyrotechnicsmalfunction momentarily engulfed him in flames up to three times during his ring entrance. He was, however, able to continue with his scheduled match that night despite suffering first and second-degree burns on his chest and neck. According to a WWE spokesman, it \"looked like a bad sunburn\".The Undertaker lost the title to Chris Jericho after interference from Shawn Michaels that night;Jericho has said on multiple occasions that the pyrotechnician responsible for the accident was immediately escorted from the arena and relieved of his employment with WWE, following a threat of violence from Calaway.Calaway himself explained that he had previously expressed concerns to the technician regarding the pyro arrangement, but was ignored. He feels he was saved from severe injury by applying water to his hair, and altering his attire from a sleeveless to a sleeved jacket, just minutes before the accident. The Undertaker then accepted Michaels's rematch offer, after initially declining, atWrestleMania XXVIon March 28 in aStreak vs. Career match, where The Undertaker was victorious and Shawn Michaels was forced to retire. This match also made both The Undertaker and Michaels the first men in WWE history to main event WrestleMania in three different decades (Undertaker main evented WrestleMania 13 and XXIV in 1997 and 2008 and Michaels main evented WrestleMania XII and XIV in 1996 and 1998 and XX and 23 in 2004 and 2007, respectively). After a hiatus (which included wrestling two matches onRaw), he returned toSmackDownon May 28, defeating Rey Mysterio to qualify for a spot at theFatal 4-Waypay-per-view on June 20 to compete for the World Heavyweight title.During the Rey Mysterio match, The Undertaker suffered a concussion, broken orbital bone and broken nose; he was visibly bleeding profusely on camera by the end of this match.To cover for the injury, Kane revealed that The Undertaker had been found in a vegetative state on the June 4 episode ofSmackDown;Mysterio took his place in the match and won the World Heavyweight Championship. While attempting to learn which wrestler had attacked The Undertaker, Kane defeated Mysterio to win the World Heavyweight Championship atMoney in the Bank. Kane and Mysterio continued to clash as they accused one another of being the assailant behind the mysterious ambush of The Undertaker. AtSummerSlamon August 15, The Undertaker returned to confront Kane and Rey Mysterio, only to be attacked with aTombstone Piledriverby Kane. With Kane revealed as his attacker, the two feuded for the next few months over the World Heavyweight Championship. After losing to Kane in a No Holds Barred match atNight of Championson September 19, Paul Bearer returned as The Undertaker's manager on the September 24 episode ofSmackDown.However, Bearer turned on him atHell in a Cellon October 3 to help Kane win once again in a Hell in a Cell match. The feud ended atBragging Rightson October 24 whenThe Nexushelped Kane defeat The Undertaker in a Buried Alive match (the half-brothers' final singles match against one another). The Undertaker needed surgery for a torn rotator cuff, causing him to be written off. Final years of The Streak (2011–2014) After the2011 Royal Rumble, promotional videos began airing, showing The Undertaker entering and standing within a Western-style, dilapidated shack on a rainy desert inDeath Valley, The birthplace. Each promo ended with the date 2–21–11 being \"burned into\" the screen. On the February 21 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker returned, but before he could speak, Triple H also returned and confronted him. The two challenged each other to a match atWrestleMania XXVII, which was later made aNo Holds Barredmatch and which The Undertaker won by submission. However, he had to be carried away from the ring on a stretcher.Following WrestleMania XXVII in 2011, The Undertaker would take on a more part-time role within the company; he would not have another match onRaworSmackDownuntil 2013. On the January 30, 2012 episode ofRaw SuperShow, The Undertaker returned after a nine-month hiatus to confront Triple H.On the February 13 episode ofRaw SuperShow, Triple H refused The Undertaker's challenge for a WrestleMania rematch.After The Undertaker accused Triple H of living in the shadow of Shawn Michaels on the February 20 episode ofRaw SuperShow, Triple H accepted the challenge on the condition that it would be a Hell in a Cell match; Michaels was later inserted as guest referee in the match. AtWrestleMania XXVIII, The Undertaker, while debuting his new look, a mohawk, defeated Triple H to extend his Streak to 20–0. After the match, The Undertaker and Michaels carried Triple H to the entrance stage, where the three embraced.Later in 2012, The Undertaker appeared on the1000th episode ofRawon July 23 to help Kane, who had been confronted byJinder Mahal, Curt Hawkins,Tyler Reks,Hunico,CamachoandDrew McIntyre. The Brothers of Destruction overcame and dominated the six other wrestlers. The Undertaker's next television appearance was onOld School Rawon March 4, 2013, where he opened the show by performing his signature entrance. CM Punk, Randy Orton, Big Show andSheamusfought in a fatal four-way match to determine who would face him atWrestleMania 29, which Punk won.After the real-life death of Paul Bearer on March 5, 2013, a storyline involving Punk regularlyspitingThe Undertaker through displays of flippancy and disrespect towards Bearer's death began.Punk interrupted The Undertaker's ceremony to honor Bearer onRaw, stealing the trademark urn and later using it to attack Kane, humiliate The Brothers of Destruction and mock Bearer.The Undertaker defeated Punk at WrestleMania 29 to extend his Streak to 21–0 and then took back the urn.The following night onRaw, The Undertaker came out to pay his respects to Bearer, but was interrupted byThe Shield, who attempted to attack Undertaker beforeTeam Hell No(Kane andDaniel Bryan) made the save.The Undertaker would wrestle his finalRawmatch (his first since 2010) on the April 22 episode, teaming with Kane and Bryan against The Shield in a losing effort.Four days later, he wrestled his finalSmackDownmatch (also his first since 2010), defeating Shield memberDean Ambroseby submission. Afterward, The Undertaker was attacked by Ambrose and the rest of The Shield, who performed a triple powerbomb through the broadcast table on him. On the February 24, 2014, episode ofRaw, The Undertaker returned to confront Brock Lesnar and accepted his challenge for a match atWrestleMania XXX.After 25 minutes and threeF-5s, Lesnar won the match at WrestleMania bypinfall, ending The Undertaker's Streak in what was described as \"the most shocking result in WWE history\".Following the match, The Undertaker was hospitalized with a severe concussion which he suffered in the first minutes of the match.In a December 2014 interview, Vince McMahon confirmed that it was his final decision to have Lesnar end The Streak and that The Undertaker was initially shocked at the decision. McMahon justified his decision that it would significantly enhance Lesnar's formidability to set up the next WrestleMania event and that there were no other viable candidates to fill Lesnar's role.In 2014, The Undertaker was also offered to be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame, but he declined the offer, feeling it wasn't time yet. Final feuds (2015–2020) In February 2015,Bray Wyattbegan a series of cryptic promos which led toFastlane, where Wyatt challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 31, which The Undertaker accepted.At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Wyatt after twoTombstone Piledrivers. AtBattlegroundin July, The Undertaker made his return by attacking Lesnar as he was on the verge of defeatingSeth Rollinsduring his WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, causing the match to end in a disqualification win for Lesnar.The next night onRaw, The Undertaker explained his actions as revenge, not against Lesnar breaking The Streak, but rather the constant taunting he allowed Paul Heyman to engage in. Later that night, after The Undertaker and Lesnar brawled throughout the arena and had to be separated, a rematch was scheduled forSummerSlamin August, where The Undertaker controversially defeated Lesnar. Lesnar put The Undertaker in akimura lockand the timekeeper rang the bell after seeing The Undertaker supposedly indicating submission, but since the referee had not seen a submission and never stopped the match, the match continued. The confusion allowed The Undertaker to surprise Lesnar with a low blow and applyHell's Gate, in which Lesnar passed out.AtHell in a Cell, The Undertaker was defeated by Lesnar in a Hell in a Cell match after Lesnar hit him with his own low blow, returning the favor, and executing what was his thirdF-5of the match. While the crowd gave The Undertaker an ovation after his loss to Lesnar, he was attacked and captured byThe Wyatt Family(Bray Wyatt,Luke Harper,Erick RowanandBraun Strowman), who carried him away from the ring.After ambushing and capturing Kane the next night onRaw, Wyatt explained that he had claimed their souls and stole their demonic powers.The Brothers of Destruction returned on the November 9 episode ofRawand attacked The Wyatt Family, setting up a tag team match atSurvivor Series, which honored The Undertaker's 25 years in WWE.At Survivor Series on November 22, the Brothers of Destruction defeated Wyatt and Harper. On the February 22, 2016, episode ofRaw, Vince McMahon placed his son Shane McMahon, who returned to WWE for the first time since 2009, in a Hell in a Cell match atWrestleMania 32against The Undertaker with the stipulation that if Shane won, he would gain control ofRaw.Vince later decided that should Undertaker lose the match against Shane, it would be his final match at WrestleMania.After weeks of random physical confrontations and mind games exchanged between the pair, The Undertaker defeated Shane McMahon at WrestleMania 32.The Undertaker would not appear again until the900th episode ofSmackDownon November 15, issuing a threat to Team SmackDown if they failed to defeat Team Raw at the upcomingSurvivor Seriespay-per-view. The Undertaker appeared on the January 23 episode ofRaw, confronting Brock Lesnar andGoldberg.During theRoyal Rumbleon January 29, The Undertaker entered at number 29, eliminating Goldberg,The Miz,Baron CorbinandSami Zayn, before being eliminated by the number 30 entrant,Roman Reigns.The Undertaker returned on the March 6 episode ofRawand performed a chokeslam on Reigns.This led to a No Holds Barred match between The Undertaker and Reigns atWrestleMania 33,in which The Undertaker lost to Reigns after five spears in his fourth WrestleMania main event.After the match, The Undertaker left his gloves, coat and hat in the center of the ring before slowly making his exit. The Undertaker took part in theRaw 25 Yearsbroadcast on January 22, 2018, his first post-WrestleMania 33 appearance.In the months prior toWrestleMania 34, John Cena challenged The Undertaker to a singles match. At WrestleMania, afterEliasconfronted Cena and was beaten down, The Undertaker's hat and coat appeared in the center of the ring and were struck by lightning. The Undertaker then appeared and beat Cena in a three-minute squash match.Three weeks later, The Undertaker defeatedRusevat WWE'sGreatest Royal Rumbleevent in a casket match.AtSuper Show-Downin Australia on October 6, The Undertaker faced Triple H in ano disqualification matchbilled as the \"Last Time Ever\"; they were accompanied by Kane and Shawn Michaels, respectively. The Undertaker lost the match after interference from Michaels. After the match, the four men shook hands as a sign of respect, however, The Undertaker and Kane would follow this by attacking them.As a result, the duos reunited their respective tag teams—the Brothers of Destruction and D-Generation X—and faced each other atCrown Jewelon November 2, where The Undertaker and Kane lost their final match as a tag team. On the April 8, 2019 episode ofRaw, the night afterWrestleMania 35—the first WrestleMania in 19 years without his involvement—The Undertaker appeared to interrupt and attack Elias during a musical performance.The Undertaker made his return to the ring to face Goldberg atSuper ShowDownin Saudi Arabia on June 7, defeating him in the main event of the night in their first match against each other.On the June 24, 2019 episode ofRaw, during a handicap match in which Roman Reigns was dominated by Shane McMahon and Drew McIntyre, The Undertaker suddenly appeared and attacked McMahon and McIntyre. The Undertaker and Reigns were later scheduled to face McMahon and McIntyre in a No Holds Barred tag team match atExtreme Rules. At Extreme Rules, The Undertaker and Reigns won. This turned out to be The Undertaker's final match in front of a live audience in the United States. The Undertaker returned atSuper ShowDownin Saudi Arabia on February 27, 2020, as a surprise replacement in agauntlet match. He entered the match last, replacing Rey Mysterio and defeatingAJ Stylesto win theTuwaiq Mountain Trophy.AtElimination Chamberduring a match between Styles andAleister Black, The Undertaker made another surprise appearance with an attack on Styles.The following night onRaw, Styles challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 36.Over the following weeks that led up to WrestleMania, a resentful Styles made unprecedented efforts to expose The Undertaker, going so far as departing from bashing his Deadman gimmick, instead taking to ametafictionform of bashing Calaway himself. The feud saw Styles solely referring to The Undertaker by his real name, Mark Calaway, referencing his age and his wife,Michelle McCool. In response, The Undertaker cut promos of ominous warning against Styles in which for the first time in years, hebroke from the Deadman gimmickby presenting as himself out of character. In doing so, elements of his American Badass gimmick were reflected with Calaway making appearances in his biker gear. At WrestleMania 36, The Undertaker presented his third and final identity, \"The Unholy Trinity,\" a combination of The Deadman, American Badass, and himself as Mark Calaway, this blend allowing him to trash talk Styles over real life matters during their encounter, while also able to maintain his superhuman horror capabilities.In what was subsequently learned to be The Undertaker's final match, he and Styles fought in a cemetery at a secluded rural locale, competing in what was a cinematic, narrative-heavy brawl similar to \"Buried Alive matches\",named the \"Boneyard match\". Despite the assistance ofGallows and Anderson, The Undertaker buried Styles in the grave to win this match and ride off on motorcycle into the sunset,scoring his 25th WrestleMania victory to complete his professional wrestling career. Retirement and Hall of Fame (2020–2022) On June 21, 2020, in the final episode of theUndertaker: The Last Ridedocumentary, Callaway retired from the professional wrestling industry.Later on that November, he confirmed that he was \"officially retired\" in an interview.Many wrestlers and other public figures paid tribute to him on their social media pages.Madison Square Garden, regarded as the most famous venue in professional wrestling, also paid tribute to him. Undertaker, wearing his trademark mortician trench coat and stetson hat, made an appearance at the conclusion of theSurvivor Seriesevent on November 22, 2020. The event is dedicated to him, commemorating thirty years from that time since his WWE debut. There, he reiterated that his career had been completed, giving an emotional farewell speech which ended in typical Undertaker fashion: \"My time has come to let The UndertakerRest in Peace.\"Aten-bell salutewas also given for The Undertaker character as he did his traditional take-the-knee pose, and a holographic image of Paul Bearer, Undertaker's former manager, was projected in the ring. News that the Undertaker would be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fameclass of 2022were responded to with extensive praise from WWE fans, the professional wrestling community and media outlets alike.On March 3, 2022, onThe Pat McAfee Show, WWE Chairman Vince McMahon stated that he would be Undertaker's WWE Hall of Fame inductor. In praising Undertaker both inside and outside of character in a heartfelt message, McMahon said that the induction would be one of the most difficult endeavors of his life because of his longtime history with Undertaker, and how close they were behind the scenes.Undertaker issued aTwitterresponse later on that same day, which read: After over 30 years of long roads traveled, countless hours of TV, and one hell of a ride together… couldn't think of anyone better to put me in the #WWEHOF than @VinceMcMahon. One final ride together,old-timer!!! On April 1, 2022, The Undertaker was formally inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame at theAmerican Airlines Center.At his induction, Calaway made a 137-minute speech that opened with a 10-minute, emotional standing ovation from the live audience, bringing Calaway to tears. Calaway's acceptance speech, hailed by media outlets as matchless and beyond compare, was motivational and shared his collection of self-reflections and life philosophies for success. In making his speech, he stood before several genres of his Deadman character, through the varying costumes displayed on mannequins.Later that same weekend, Calaway made appearances on the entrance stage on both nights ofWrestleMania. Sporadic appearances (2023–present) On January 23, 2023, The Undertaker made an appearance at the Monday Night Raw 30th Anniversary special,Raw is XXX. He appeared under his American Badass gimmick, confrontingLA Knightand seemingly giving his approval toBray Wyatt.On October 10, 2023, The Undertaker made his first appearance onWWE NXTchokeslammingBron Breakker. On April 5, 2024, The Undertaker inductedMuhammad Aliinto the 2024WWE Hall of Fame.On April 7, 2024, The Undertaker appeared briefly during the Night 2 main event ofWrestleMania XLbetween Roman Reigns and Cody Rhodes where he aided Cody Rhodes and chokeslammed The Rock. Undertaker gimmick, identities and character evolution The Deadman identity Under his undead,funereal, and macabre horror-themed gimmick, in which The Undertaker is subtitled \"The Deadman\", he routinely took to alarmist tactics to disrupt the focus and confidence of his rivals.Often, these alarmist tactics were morbid and applied the use of props that reflected demise as the consequence of a wrestling match against him: caskets (sometimes personalizing casket designs to represent his opponents),body bags,corpse-likeeffigies,cemeteries,hearses.To that end, the gimmick evoked funerals and death down to finer details, such as in the character's birthplace ofDeath Valley, catchphrase of \"Rest in Peace\", signature finishing maneuver of theTombstone Piledriver, awrestling pinthat had the opponent resemble a corpse with their arms crossed over their chest, etc.Adding to his many effects of treating his wrestling matches as funeral services, The Undertaker frequently served a list of specialized matches that were personalized to his Deadman gimmick:Casket Match, Body Bag Match,Buried Alive Match,Last Ride Match,Hell in a Cell, Boneyard Match, etc. Filled withbells and whistles, The Undertaker's godlike superhuman presence and indignation were signaled byfuneral tolls, settings of pitch-black darkness and blue/purple semidarkness, flickering lights, hazy fog, thunder, lightning strikes, and other bone-chilling scenes and sound activity.Portrayed as miraculously resilient to destruction,The Undertaker yielded numerous resurrections,which sometimes gave way to reincarnations of his Deadman gimmick. While maintaining his general character premise as death personified with accompanying alarmist tactics throughout all sagas of the Deadman,each incarnation took on its own distinct appearance and characterization. For example, some Deadman incarnations wereunearthly and zombie-likewhile others wereGoth and comparatively more human. The earliest of The Undertaker's Deadman incarnations (nicknamed in external media as \"The Old West Mortician\" to distinguish from his other Deadman incarnations) depicted him as a menacing derivative of the Wild West undertakers in television westerns.In his own rendition, he was garbed in a black trench coat; gray-striped tie; black-ribboned, blackstetson; grayboot spats; and gray gloves(black gloves for first few appearances before gray).However, most of The Undertaker's Deadman character development (sleeve tattoos, longer/straightened/black hair, purple/blue color representation, elements of thunder and lightning, etc.) would not surface until his first reincarnation into what was hisrebirthed Deadmanvariation, lasting fromSummerSlam 94'(resurrection from adeath angle with Yokozuna) throughBuried Alive: In Your House(The Undertaker buried alive by Mankind and numerous other WWF heel wrestlers).In these initial zombie-like incarnations of his gimmick, he was portrayed as impervious to pain, something accomplished by Calawaynot sellinghis opponents' attacks. Among the many ways this was showcased was The Undertaker's maneuver of raising up from ataken downsupine positioninto ahigh Fowler's position, dubbed \"the sit-up\" (often accompanied by his sharp hissing sound). Beginning early on, The Undertaker's persona was complemented with histrionically spooky, wailing managerPaul Bearer, introduced to represent and guide The Deadman.Playing a key role, Bearer used an urn to transmit mysterious powers to The Undertaker that had supernatural healing effects on him during combat.Also linked to The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick were the druids–a team of mysterious, incognito cult-like members, completely disguised in black hooded clergy robes.A mysterious choir chantingsounded whenever the druids presented.The druids typically appeared for the purposes of removing The Undertaker where he had seemingly been extinguished by his enemies (as opposed toEMTsor medical personnel used for the rest of WWF/E talent). The druids were also seen reproducing The Undertaker in recovered, wrathful states to those same enemies who were thought to have extinguished him. The Undertaker took to many trademarked idiosyncrasies and themes, including a stylized throat-slashing gesture,grimacing facial expressions fit with eyeballs rolled back so that only the whites of his eyes displayed,backwards hair-whips so as to expose his ominous facial expressions,fixed stares on adversaries,protruding tongue displays, jolting of his head with a fury so that it faced the direction of his antagonists,his celebratory take-the-knee pose,sonorous vocalizations,collectively labeling his fanbase as \"Creatures of the Night\",voice of God-like promos in which things were interrupted with dimmed lights and thunder while The Undertaker's communications were heard booming throughout the arena with no physical trace of him;messages filled with death threats of a deeply posthumous insight into impending corpse decomposition, maggot feasting, unsouling and so on.A main attraction of the Deadman gimmick, The Undertaker mesmerized his opponents and viewers alike through elaborately \"bone-chilling\" entrances.The character's godlike powers were routinely put on display in these moments, triggering lights back to the arena either gradually or suddenly dependent on his either slowly or abruptly raised arms.During the vast majority of his wrestling career as the Deadman, The Undertaker used an extended remix ofFrédéric Chopin'sFuneral Marchas histheme music.WWF ComposerJim Johnstonembellished on the Chopin march, using the historic melody as a pre- and post-chorus to a main chorus of bell tolls, along with an original transition section to the song of a slow,lugubriousinstrumental feel.Of his entrances, Calaway has stated, \"When that gong went off, that was go time. The music fit the character. That's the key element of it: the end is at hand for whoever's going to be standing in that ring waiting for me to come down. That was the mindset behind the gong. And the music was just doom and gloom, you knew what was coming.\" Alternate identities of The Undertaker gimmick After a hiatus, Calaway returned in 2000 adopting a human form of the Undertaker gimmick. Under the character's alter ego, he is a semifictional smack-talking,redneckbiker, thoroughly absent of his fully fictional Deadman zombie-like traits and wizardry.In performing this alternate identity, he rode to the ring on motorcycles, chewed tobacco, donned cargo garments and/or denim, printed shirts, and sporty fashion accessories (sunglasses, necklaces, bandanas).His theme music was replaced with popular rock songs of the time, initiallyKid Rock's \"American Bad Ass\" (from which The Undertaker's subtitle used to refer to this second identity derived), and eventuallyLimp Bizkit's \"Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)\".His American Badass catch phrases, such as threats of “I'll make you famous” or references to the wrestling ring as his “yard”, became popular during this era. According toBruce Prichard, Calaway requested this metamorphosis of character since he wanted to be \"the biker–he wanted to be the guy that he is in everyday life\". While explained off-screen for the above reason years later, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it.This transition lasted3+1⁄2years until 2004 when The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity in hybrid form—residual features of his American Badass identity remaining. Among subtle details left over from his biker identity were his in-ringMMAstyle between his stances, strikes, and submissions; penchant to sporadically lower his tank top for a barechested appearance; celebrating victories with an arm-raised fist; etc.This hybrid Deadman (Deadman incarnation most closely based on Calaway himself) would last many years and for the remainder of The Undertaker's professional wrestling career, excluding his final wrestling match. For The Undertaker's final encounter, a Boneyard Match atWrestleMania 36in 2020, he introduced a three-dimensional identity that brought all of his identities into one, dubbed \"The Unholy Trinity:\" a mix of his Deadman identity, American Badass identity, and his natural and genuine identity as Mark Calaway. Gimmick reflective nicknames The Undertaker generated many nicknames from commentators throughout the course of his active wrestling career, some of those names more associated with his Deadman Undertaker identity, including \"The Grim Reaper\" (variants of this used were \"The Reaper\" and \"The Reaper of Wayward Souls\"),\"The Demon of Death Valley\",\"The Man from the Dark Side\",\"The Prince of Darkness\",\"The Lord of Darkness\".He also generated nicknames associated with his American Badass Undertaker identity, including \"Big Evil\" (used in reference to his American Badassheelside),\"Booger Red\".Some of his nicknames were not identity specific but used for the character in general, such as \"The Phenom\". Domestic backstory, parents and brother The Undertaker's gimmick has adark and disturbed family backstorywhich involves him intentionallyburning down his family funeral homeas a teenager, resulting in the deaths of his parents and purportedly a brother of his as well. Undertaker initially denied his then ex-manager Paul Bearer's charges of him committing the arson murder of his family, (though later confessed in late 1998). Instead, Undertaker blamed his younger brother of whom he thought long dead from the incident, describing him as a \"pyromaniac\". This led to Bearer's shocking warnings to proof in the form of the brother, \"Kane\", as alive and well.In late 1997 atIn Your House Badd Blood, Bearer unleashed a vengeful Kane: the fire-personified, juggernaut half-brother of Undertaker, who was fit with a mask to conceal the scarring from Undertaker's arson.In what became a fickle sibling relationship with Bearer (later revealed to be Kane's father) only adding to the pendulum and complexities, Undertaker and Kane went back and forth from one extreme to the other, feuding barbarically at points and yet teami...","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Streak_(professional_wrestling","WrestleMania VII WrestleMania VIIwas the seventh annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 24, 1991, at theLos Angeles Memorial Sports Arenain Los Angeles. Fourteen matches were shown during thelivebroadcast, with onedark matchheld before the event. The main event sawHulk HogandefeatSgt. Slaughterfor theWWF Championshipas part of astorylinein which Sgt. Slaughter portrayed an Iraqi sympathizer during the United States' involvement in theGulf War. Significant events on the undercard includedThe Undertaker's WrestleMania debut and the beginning ofhis renowned winning streak, a retirement match betweenRandy SavageandThe Ultimate Warriorleading to the former's reunion with estranged loveMiss Elizabeth, as well as the final televised match of the originalHart Foundation, after whichBret Hartbecame primarily a singles wrestler. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\".WrestleMania VII was originally scheduled to be held on March 24, 1991, inLos Angeles, Californiaat theLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum, but the WWF decided to move the event to the adjacentLos Angeles Memorial Sports Arena. The WWF's stated reason for the venue change was that it had security concerns in the wake ofSgt. Slaughter's portrayal of an Iraqi sympathizer during theGulf War.This was dismissed by outlets such as SLAM! Sports of Canada, who chalked up the venue change to poor advanced ticket sales, and the company having difficulty filling the estimated 100,000 seats available.According to former WWF executiveBruce Prichard, both were accurate statements. In hisSomething to Wrestle Withpodcast, Prichard said that even if the WWF had sold out the Coliseum, the scope of the event was too large for police to ensure its security.Prichard explained further in an interview with Kayfabe Commentaries that the WWF would have had to foot the entire bill for the amount of security necessary to keep the wrestlers and fans safe from all potential issues, citing both the possibility of an outside attack and the crime rate of the surrounding neighborhood.Dave Meltzerin theWrestling Observer Newsletterwrote that between 11,900 and 15,000 tickets were sold before the move. He also reported that no tickets had to be refunded, indicating that sales were under 15,500. Comp tickets were believed to help fill the show's crowd. The tagline for the event was\"Superstars and Stripes Forever,\" and is remembered for its theme of American patriotism in the wake of the Gulf War. American flags were hung all over the arena and the ring apron and banners were colored red, white, and blue, which was the basis for the main event betweenHulk HoganandSgt. Slaughterfor theWWF World Heavyweight Championship. This was the first WrestleMania not to featureJesse \"The Body\" Venturaas a color commentator.Gorilla Monsoonhosted the event withBobby Heenan. When Heenan had to manage at ringside in the opening match and again duringMr. Perfect'sIntercontinental Heavyweight Championshipdefense, Monsoon was joined on the commentary byJim Dugganand \"Lord\"Alfred Hayesrespectively. In addition,Regis Philbinhelped with commentary on the main event whileJeopardy!hostAlex Trebekserved as the ring announcer. Willie Nelsonsang a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\" before the show. Other celebrity guests in attendance for WrestleMania VII included Philbin, Trebek, andMarla Maplesas backstage announcers.George Steinbrenner,Paul Maguire,Macaulay Culkin,Donald Trump,Lou Ferrigno,Chuck Norris,Beverly D'AngeloandHenry Winklerappeared as spectators.Bob Costaswas scheduled to make an appearance, but he canceled weeks before the event due to his objection to the main event angle. Theartistfor the promotionalposteris renowned illustrative painterJoe Juskoknown mainly for his work within the comic book industry. Randy Savage required surgery on a broken thumb in late January before the event. The injury required him to miss several matches leading up to WrestleMania. Storylines The two main feuds entering WrestleMania in 1991 were betweenHulk Hoganand WWF ChampionSgt. SlaughterandThe Ultimate Warriorand\"Macho King\" Randy Savage, and in a way, both were intertwined. Warrior had defeated Hogan for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania a year earlier and entered 1991 as the champion. In the meantime, Sgt. Slaughter had returned to the WWF near the end of 1990 after spending five years wrestling in theAmerican Wrestling Association. When he returned, Slaughter announced that he had turned his back on his country and had become anIraqisympathizer and follower ofSaddam Hussein. He had also revealed an alliance with an Iraqi military leader,General Adnan, who became his advisor (Adnan having followed Slaughter from the AWA to participate in the angle). This coincided with the increasing tension in the Middle East that was going on at that time, which eventually would lead toOperation Desert Stormand American involvement in the conflict. Slaughter would eventually set his sights on the Warrior, and the two agreed to a match at theRoyal Rumblein January 1991. Savage, meanwhile, was trying to regain the WWF Championship that he had lost atWrestleMania Vto Hogan and challenged Warrior repeatedly to give him a shot. Warrior defeated Savage to successfully defend the title numerous times and subsequently refused to grant any more title shots, so Savage decided to seek another remedy. During the match between Warrior and Slaughter, Savage and his managerQueen Sherricame to ringside and got involved in the match. Warrior picked up an interfering Sherri and tossed her from the ring onto Savage. Slaughter capitalized by driving Warrior down, leaving him hanging over the second rope. Savage then struck Warrior with his royalscepteras Slaughter kept the referee's attention, knocking the champion unconscious. Slaughter then hit an elbow drop on the Warrior and pinned him to become the new champion. After he came to and realized what Savage had done, Warrior charged to the back looking for Savage. He then issued a challenge for a retirement match for the two at WrestleMania, which Savage accepted. Hogan, having no connection with the ongoing story to this point, entered the Royal Rumble match as its defending champion. He won the match by eliminating his old rivalEarthquakelast, then went backstage to be interviewed byGene Okerlund. During the course of the interview, the word was relayed to the two that Slaughter and Adnan were celebrating their triumph by defacing an American flag. Hogan then promised to stand up for his country and take the title from Slaughter as soon as possible, and was later named the leading contender for the WWF Championship, which he had not contended for since losing the title to the Warrior atWrestleMania VI. Leading up to the show, Hogan continued to cite the ongoing real-life war in their feud. On one episode ofWWF Prime Time Wrestling, Hogan stated that Iraq would surrender in the war at the moment he defeated Slaughter. Event The opening bout was asingles matchpitting theBrooklyn BrawleragainstKoko B. Ware. Ware defeated the Brooklyn Brawler by pinfall. This was adark matchthat did not air on thepay-per-viewbroadcast. The pay-per-view broadcast began with a performance of \"America the Beautiful\" byWillie Nelson. The second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was a tag team match pittingthe BarbarianandHakuagainstthe Rockers. In the end,Shawn Michaelshit Haku with aflying bodypressand pinned him for the three count. After that,Dino Bravoand theTexas Tornadofaced off in the ring. In the end, The Texas Tornado won the bout by pinfall following adiscus punch. Next,the British Bulldogtook on theWarlord. In the end, The British Bulldog performed arunning powerslamon Warlord to win the match. After that, theWWF Tag Team Championswere on the line withthe Hart Foundationdefended their titles againstthe Nasty Boys. In the end,Jerry SagsstruckJim Neidhartwith a motorcycle helmet, enablingBrian Knobbsto pin him, earning The Nasty Boys their first tag team championship in WWF. Next,Jake RobertsandRick Martelcompeted in ablindfold match. In the end, Roberts struck Martel with aDDTand pinned him, winning the match. After that,Jimmy Snukafaced off againstThe Undertaker. Although Snuka attempted to bring Undertaker off his feet, he was unable too. In the end, Snuka attempted aSpringboard crossbodymaneuver on Undertaker but Undertaker caught him and hit Snuka withTombstone Piledriverfor the victory. This marked the beginning of the Undertaker'sstreak. Next, was theretirement matchbetweenRandy Savageandthe Ultimate Warrior. Before both men came out,Bobby Heenanspotted Savage's formervaletMiss Elizabethin the crowd. Savage and Queen Sherri came to the ring carried on a throne and Warrior walked out instead of his trademark running. The match started slow, both men initially insisted on chain wrestling until Savage started usingstrikeson Warrior. Savage went to the top rope and attempted a crossbody on Warrior but he caught him but put Savage on his feet and slapped him. Savage retreated from the ring and grabbed a chair at ringside and threw it at Warrior but it missed. Savage snuck back into the ring after being distracted by the referee picking up the chair and attacked Warrior. Warrior irish whipped Savage into the corner and attempted a splash but Savage got out of the way and Warrior fell to the outside. Sherri picked up Warrior and struck his throat when the referee wasn't looking and Savage performed a diving axe handle from the top turnbuckle to outside the ring. Savage got back into the ring but Sherri picked up Warrior again and began hitting him but Warrior pushed her over. Savage then came out of the ring and attacked Warrior from behind. Eventually, Warrior got back in the ring and Savage hit Warrior with a body slam for a two count. After a brief back and fourth, Savage attempted to wear Warrior down with a sleeper hold but Warrior got out of it and ran on the ropes but both men collided with each other in the center of the ring. Savage got Warrior up but Warrior countered with a small package but Sherri distracted the referee and when the referee turned around he counted but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior began arguing with the referee and Savage took advantage by delivering a running knee lift which propelled Warrior into the referee, taking him out. Savage then held Warrior in place and Sherri took her shoe off so she could hit Warrior with it. She climbed to the top turnbuckle and attempted and axe handle with the shoe but Warrior got out of the way and she struck Savage with it instead. Warrior chased Sherri around ringside until Savage intervened and rolled up Warrior for a two count. Savage performed a stun gun on Warrior and performed a clothesline to the back of the head. After body slamming Warrior, Savage climbed to the top rope and performed five diving elbow drops on Warrior and pinned him but Warrior kicked out. Warrior then got a surge of energy and fought back against Savage and delivered a gorilla press slam and splash to the back and pinned him but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior then began talking to his hands and asking his gods if he should step aside and lose the match and questioning whether his destiny is to lose to Savage. Warrior stepped out of the ring to give Savage a count out win after apparently receiving an answer from above. Before Warrior could do that though, Savage attacked him while he was on the apron. Savage then attempted an axe handle to the outside but Warrior moved out the way and Savage hit the barricade instead. Warrior got Savage in the ring and performed three shoulder tackles on Savage and pinned him for the three count. After winning, Warrior put on his entrance coat and celebrated in the ring before leaving. After he had left, Sherri berated Savage who was still lying on the ring canvas trying to recover from his match. Sherri began attacking Savage in the ring but Elizabeth hopped over the barricade and got into the ring and grabbed Sherri and threw her to the outside. Elizabeth began crying and both Savage and Elizabeth embraced in the ring. The two then left the ring. After that,Demolitiontook onGenichiro TenryuandKōji Kitao. In the end, Tenryu performed apowerbombonSmashand stacked him up for the win. Next, was a singles match betweenWWF Intercontinental ChampionMr. PerfectagainstBig Boss Manwith Perfect's title on the line. In the end, Big Boss Man was attacked by The Barbarian and Haku causing adisqualificationvictory for Big Boss Man. After that,EarthquakeandGreg Valentinefaced off and Earthquake took an advantage early on and performed anEarthquake Splashfor the three count. Next,Legion of Doomtook onPower and Glory. In the end, The Legion of Doom performed a 'doomsday deviceonPaul RomaandAnimalpinned him for the victory. After that, was a match betweenTed DiBiaseandVirgil. In the end,Roddy Pipercame out and distracted DiBiase. When Virgil threw DiBiase to the outside Piper continued distracting him and was unable to enter the ring thus Virgil won bycountout. In the penultimate match,The Mountiefaced off againstTito Santana. In the end,Jimmy Hartdistracted the referee and The Mountie zapped Santana with hiscattle prodand pinned him for a quick victory. In the main event the reigningWWF ChampionSgt. Slaughterdefend his title againstHulk Hogan. Slaughter entered withGeneral Adnanwho was waiving theFlag of Iraq. Hogan entered waiving theFlag of the United Statesto a thunderousovation. Both men started the match circling one another. They began chain wrestling and Slaughter pinned Hogan in the corner and the referee had to separate them. Slaughter once again pinned Hogan in the corner but Hogan shoved Slaughter who was sent to the other side of the ring. Hogan then knocked down Slaughter who retreated to the outside. Hogan went to the outside to get Slaughter but Adnan hit him from behind but Hogan wasn't phased and began chasing Adnan and Slaughter hit Hogan in the back with a steel chair but Hogan still wasn't phased. Hogan grabbed Slaughter and sent him into the ring. Slaughter begged for mercy and then poked Hogan in the eye. Slaughter then began wearing down Hogan. Hogan then knocked Slaughter down and Adnan got on the apron to taunt Hogan but Hogan hit him which sent him down on the floor. Hogan then took control and began beating Slaughter. Hogan then went to the top rope but Adnan grabbed Hogan's foot and Slaughter grabbed Hogan and threw him into the middle of the ring. Slaughter then clotheslined Hogan out of the ring and began hitting him with a steel chair. Slaughter then grabbed some TV cables and began choking Hogan with them. Slaughter took Hogan inside the ring and delivered a backbreaker for a two count. Slaughter began arguing with the referee and continued to beat Hogan and then put him in aBoston Crabsubmission. Hogan grabbed the ropes to break the hold but Slaughter thought he had won but the referee told him he hadn't. Slaughter began giving knees to Hogan's back and went to the top rope and delivered a foot stomp to Hogan's back and pinned him but Adnan accidentally distracted the referee. When the referee turned around and began counting Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter went to the outside and grabbed a steel chair. Hogan, who was leaning on the ropes facing the outside was hit in the hide by Slaughter with the steel chair. Slaughter then pinned Hogan but Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter then began hitting Hogan in the head, causing him to bleed. Hogan attempted a comeback but was not able too. Slaughter then put Hogan in theCamel clutchbut would release the hold to stomp a few times on Hogan's back, only to put the hold on again. Hogan got up while Slaughter still had the hold applied and attempted to ram Slaughter into the turnbuckle but Slaughter released the hold and shoved Hogan into the turnbuckle. Slaughter then asked Adnan for the flag of Iraq and Adnan handed him it. Slaughter then placed the flag of Iraq on Hogan and pinned him but Hogan kicked out at two and Hogan grabbed the flag and tore it in front of Slaughter. Hogan then hulked up and even though Slaughter began hitting him, his punches had no effect. Hogan then irish whipped Slaughter off the ropes and delivered a big boot. Hogan then peformed a leg drop on Slaughter for the three count and thus became a record three-time WWF World Heavyweight Champion. Hogan then waived the Flag of the United States and celebrated in the ring. Reception The official attendance of WrestleMania VII held at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena was 16,158.JournalistDave Meltzerreported that the paid attendance was approximately 10,500. Aftermath The Undertaker's victory debut at the event marked the beginning of hisWrestleMania streak. Backstage as Hogan was being interviewed on his victory over Sgt. Slaughter, Slaughter attacked Hogan by throwing a fireball in his face. Hogan quickly recovered from the attack and defended the belt primarily against Slaughter, largely in \"Desert Storm\" (i.e., no-disqualification) matches. He also had to deal with the returningIron Sheik, who was now competing as Colonel Mustafa. Hogan and the Ultimate Warrior eventually teamed up atSummerSlam 1991, defeating Slaughter, Mustafa, and their manager, General Adnan, in a two-vs.-three handicap match. Savage returned to television in a non-wrestling role as a color commentator for the WWF's flagship syndicated program,Superstars; although a fan favorite to the crowd, much of his commentary was heel-leaning. Meanwhile, the storyline with Miss Elizabeth continued, culminating with Savage proposing to her in the ring leading to an on-air wedding at SummerSlam 1991 dubbedThe Match Made in Heaven. (The wedding was kayfabe, as Savage and Elizabeth were already legally married.) VirgilandTed DiBiasefeuded with each other until November 1991, including facing off at SummerSlam 1991 when DiBiase lost his Million Dollar Belt to Virgil. After DiBiase won his belt back in November with the help ofThe Repo Man(formerly Smash of Demolition), their feud ended at theThis Tuesday in TexasPPV when DiBiase and Repo Man defeated Virgil andTito Santanain a tag team match. Genichiro TenryuandKōji Kitaowere on loan from the Japanese promotionSuper World of Sports. The WWF co-promoted several cards in Japan with the group, including twoTokyo Domeshows on March 30 and December 12, 1991. Although SWS folded in June 1992, Tenryu's follow-up promotion,WAR, co-promoted the WWF's first Japanese tour in 1994. After WrestleMania VII,The Hart Foundationdisbanded.Bret HartandJim Neidhartwent into singles competition. Bret Hart went on to singles success, defeatingMr. Perfectfor the WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam 1991, and later in 1992 would win the WWF Championship when he defeatedRic Flairin hisfather's home town ofSaskatooninSaskatchewan, Canada. Neidhart would later in 1991 form a tag team called \"The New Foundation\" with Hart's younger brotherOwen. This would be the final WrestleMania appearance forAndré the Giant. André would appear at ringside during the Intercontinental Championship match and assist theBig Boss Manin fending off the Heenan Family. He would make sporadic appearances for the rest of the year before his passing in 1993. Results References External links","WrestleMania VIII WrestleMania VIIIwas the eighth annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 5, 1992, at theHoosier DomeinIndianapolis, Indianain the United States. Nine matches were shown during thelivebroadcast, with onedark matchoccurring before the event. Matches held at WrestleMania VIII includedWWF Intercontinental ChampionRoddy Piperdefending his title against former championBret Hart,WWF ChampionRic Flairdefending his title againstRandy Savage,Hulk Hoganfacing his rivalSid Justice. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\".WrestleMania VIII was scheduled to be held on April 5, 1992, at theHoosier DomeinIndianapolis, Indiana. Storylines The original plan for the main event was the long-awaited bout between Ric Flair and Hulk Hogan for the WWF Championship, the meeting between the two legends was even promoted on television in a mock press conference where WWF PresidentJack Tunneyhad announced Hogan as the number one contender to Flair's WWF Championship. Both Flair and Hogan had wrestled against each other in several house show matches and a televised tag match, but not in a televised main event singles match. WrestleMania VIII was changed to a double main event with Hogan wrestling Sid Justice, while Flair wrestled Randy Savage. For storyline purposes, Sid Justice lobbied to wrestle Hulk Hogan due to tensions starting between the two at that year's Royal Rumble, where Hogan was eliminated by Sid Justice. This maneuver on Sid's part led Hogan to helping rival Ric Flair eliminate Justice and then win not only the Royal Rumble but the WWF Championship in the process. This would make Ric Flair only the second man to win both the WWF and NWA World Heavyweight Titles, the first being the original \"Nature Boy\",Buddy Rogers. Event A scheduled match betweenthe British BulldogandThe Berzerkerwas cut due to time constraints. The opening bout was atag team matchpittingthe Beverly Brothersagainstthe Bushwhackers. The Bushwhackers won the match by pinfall. This was adark matchthat did not air on the pay-per-view broadcast. The pay-per-view broadcast opened withcountry musicsingerReba McEntireperforming \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". The second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was aSingles matchbetweenShawn MichaelsandTito Santana. Michaels won the match by pinfall after reversing abody slamattempt into abody press. Following the second bout,the Legion of Doomand their managerPaul Elleringwere interviewed byGene Okerlund. The Legion of Doom were originally supposed to challengeMoney Incfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipat WrestleMania VIII but due toHawkbeing under suspension until after WrestleMania they were replaced in the match bythe Natural Disasters. The third bout was a singles match betweenJake Robertsandthe Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall after giving Roberts aTombstone Piledriveroutside of the ring. The fourth bout was a singles match in whichWWF Intercontinental ChampionRoddy Piperdefended his title againstBret Hart. Hart defeated Piper by pinfall after reversing Piper'ssleeper holdinto a pin, thus winning the WWF Intercontinental Championship. Following the fourth bout, a pre-recorded interview withLex Lugeraired in which he promoted theWorld Bodybuilding Federation. The fifth bout was aneight-man tag team matchpittingBig Boss Man,Jim Duggan,Sgt. Slaughter, andVirgilagainstThe Mountie,The Nasty Boys, andRepo Man.Family FeudhostRay Combswas a guestring announcerfor the eight-man tag match. Big Boss Man, Duggan, Slaughter, and Virgil won the match by pinfall whenJerry SagsaccidentallypunchedBrian Knobbs, enabling Virgil to pin Knobbs. The sixth bout was a singles match in whichWWF ChampionRic Flairdefended his title againstRandy Savage. Savage defeated Flair by pinfall using aroll-upto win the title. At the time the company had a \"no blood\" policy. Nonetheless, Ric Flair was caughtbladingdirectly on camera and was fined several thousand dollars.In one of his first appearances in the WWF,Shane McMahonwas one of the backstage officials who attempted to keepMiss Elizabethaway from ringside during the Flair/Savage match. He then restrained Savage in the ensuing brawl after the contest. The seventh bout was a singles match betweenRick MartelandTatanka. Tatanka won the match by pinfall using across body block. The eighth bout was a tag team match in whichWWF Tag Team ChampionsMoney Inc.defended their titles againstthe Natural Disasters. The Natural Disasters won the bout bycountoutafter Money Inc abandoned the match. The ninth bout was a singles match betweenOwen HartandSkinner. Hart won the match by pinfall using aroll-up. The main event bout was a singles match betweenHulk HoganandSid Justice. Hogan won the match bydisqualificationafter Justice's managerHarvey Whipplemaninterfered. The finish to the Justice-Hogan match actually did not occur as planned - the original plan was for Hogan to hit the leg drop on Justice and forPapa Shangoto do a run in and break up the pin causing a disqualification; however, Papa Shango either missed or misjudged his cue and was late in getting down to the ring, causing Justice to have to improvise by kicking out of the leg drop. Following the match, Justice and Shango attacked Hogan untilthe Ultimate Warriormade a surprise return, helping Hogan drive Justice and Shango away. Reception Critics praised the Intercontinental Championship match between Piper and Hart. Thomas Golianopoulos ofComplex Sportsranked it at number 15 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, describing it as \"A stiff match that veers from amateur wrestling to all-out street fight with a great finish.\"Golianopoulos also ranked the Flair vs. Savage match at number 19 on the same list, praising the in-ring psychology despite an abrupt finish.On the other hand, Dave Meltzer of theWrestling Observer Newslettergave the Hogan/Justice main event negative two stars, citing their lackluster performance and the late entry of Papa Shango, which necessitated a hastily rewritten ending. The main event was also ranked by YouTube wrestling channel Cultaholic as the worst WrestleMania main event of all time in their 2019 ranking of every WrestleMania Main Event,while saying that the WWF Championship Match between Flair and Savage should've been the main event in their 2020 list of 10 WrestleMania Matches That Closed The Show. Aftermath Savage's primary opponent during the spring and summer of 1992 was Ric Flair, with the storyline over Flair's alleged past relationship with Elizabeth continuing to play a major factor. It was revealed later inWWF Magazinethat the photos that Flair had shown of himself with Elizabeth were fakes, and that they were actually of Savage and Elizabeth. In real life, Savage and Elizabeth were about toseparate, and did, with Elizabeth making her final WWF appearance on April 19, 1992 at theUK Rampagepay-per-view. WrestleMania VIII marked Elizabeth's last major pay-per-view appearance in the United States for the WWF. Although Savage and Flair continued feuding, the Elizabeth aspect was dropped from the storyline, and the former couple's divorce was finalized in September 1992. Savage briefly addressed the divorce in an issue ofWWF Magazine, but it was otherwise not mentioned in kayfabe. Shawn Michaels began receiving his first major push as a main-event singles competitor, as he would challenge Randy Savage for the WWF Championship in Europe, while challenging Bret Hart for the WWF Intercontinental Championship in the United States, while occasionally teaming with Ric Flair in tag team matches against Hart and Savage. Michaels eventually won the WWF Intercontinental Championship from The British Bulldog (who had won the title from Hart at theSummerSlamevent inLondon,Englandin August) in October. The Hulk Hogan-Sid Justice match was billed as Hogan's \"last match\", when in actuality, Hogan took a hiatus, due to the steroid scandal which was beginning to emerge in the news media.Piper also took a hiatus from the ring following WrestleMania VIII. Roberts left the company and would return four years later, using a \"born-again Christian\" gimmick. Sid Justice was largely unsuccessful in post-WrestleMania matches against the Ultimate Warrior and The Undertaker and eventually left the company, returning in 1995. Results References External links","WrestleMania IX WrestleMania IXwas the ninth annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). The event took place on April 4, 1993, atCaesars Palacein theLas Vegassuburb ofParadise,Nevada. It was the first WrestleMania event held outdoors. WrestleMania IX was built around two main storylines. The first was the seemingly unstoppableYokozunachallengingBret Hartfor theWWF Championshipin the main event, a right he earned by winning the1993 Royal Rumble. The other major storyline was the return ofHulk Hogan, who had departed the WWF followingWrestleMania VIIIbut returned to team withBrutus Beefcakeagainst theWWF Tag Team Champions,Money Inc.(Ted DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schyster). Hogan and Beefcake lost the tag team match, but Hogan later faced Yokozuna for the title in an impromptu, unadvertised 22-second match after Yokozuna defeated Hart to win the championship. In addition,Shawn Michaelsretained theIntercontinental Championship, though he lost his match againstTatanka. The event has been panned by critics and fans alike. The most frequent criticism has been related to the match betweenThe UndertakerandGiant Gonzalez, Hulk Hogan's title win, and the Romantogasworn by announcers. Both the pay-per-view buyrate and the attendance for the event dropped from the previous year's WrestleMania. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\".WrestleMania IX was scheduled to be held on April 4, 1993, atCaesars Palacein theLas Vegassuburb ofParadise,Nevada. Early TV promos for WrestleMania IX ticket sales, airing in December 1992, focused on shots of Hulk Hogan and Bret Hart, with quick shots of Doink the Clown, Razor Ramon, Crush, Shawn Michaels, Ric Flair, and Randy Savage also shown. Hogan had notably not appeared on WWF TV since April of that year. Flair would not be on the roster at the time of the event. This was the first WrestleMania held entirely outdoors, a concept the company did not use again untilWrestleMania XXIVin 2008.Because WrestleMania IX was held in Caesars Palace, the WWF promoted the event as the \"World's Largest Toga Party\".The arena was made to look like a Roman coliseum, and the event featured guards, trumpeters, and several live animals.The company built on this theme by having the commentators, including debuting announcerJim Ross, wear togas. Ring announcerHoward Finkelwas also renamed \"Finkus Maximus\" for the day.Randy Savagecame to the broadcast booth accompanied by women throwing flower petals and feeding him grapes while he rode on a couch carried by guards.Bobby Heenanmade his entrance wearing a toga and riding a camel backwards. Hulk Hogan's visibly damaged eye was explained in the storyline as the result of Ted DiBiase hiring a group of men to attack Hogan before the match. In reality, the cause of injury has been open to debate. One theory is that Randy Savage punched Hogan because he believed that his ex-wifeElizabeth Hulettehad an affair with Hogan while Savage and Hulette were married (the couple divorced in September 1992).WWF officials claimed that the injury was the result of ajet skiaccident. A match was scheduled betweenBam Bam BigelowandKamala, but it was canceled due to time constraints before the event began. Storylines One of the feuds heading into the event was betweenTatankaandIntercontinental ChampionShawn Michaels. Tatanka was in the midst of an undefeated streak and had wrestled Michaels twice in the months leading up to WrestleMania IX.TatankapinnedMichaels in a singles match on the February 13, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestlingand later teamed withThe Nasty Boysin asix-manmatch against Michaels and theBeverly Brothers; Tatanka pinned Michaels to win this match as well.Michaels was also feuding withSensational Sherri, who stood in Tatanka's corner during the match. Sherri had been Michaels'valet. WhenMarty Jannettytried to hit Michaels with a mirror, however, Michaels pulled Sherri in front of him to protect himself.Sherri's anger at getting hit over the head with a mirror caused her toturnon him atRoyal Rumble 1993. The match betweenThe Steiner Brothers(Rick SteinerandScott Steiner) andThe Headshrinkers(SamuandFatu) had little background, althoughAfa, who managed The Headshrinkers, claimed that his team would \"tear heads off\".Doink the ClownandCrushhad been feuding since the January 2, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling. After Crush's match on that show, he confronted Doink, who had thrown a ball at a child in the audience. Crush grabbed Doink by the arm and warned him not to play any more pranks on children.Doink, wearing a cast on the arm that Crush had supposedly injured by grabbing, came to ringside during Crush's match on the January 18 episode ofWWF Monday Night Raw. He apologized to Crush and gave him a flower; when Crush walked away, Doink removed aprosthetic armfrom his cast and attacked Crush, who was later taken away in an ambulance due tokayfabe(storyline) injuries.For storyline purposes, Crush was said to be too injured to compete in the 1993 Royal Rumble match.Doink continued his pranks by squirting Crush with a water pistol and recordingvideo messagesto Crush, which showed two Doinks on the screen. The feud betweenThe Mega-Maniacs(Brutus BeefcakeandHulk Hogan) andWWF Tag Team ChampionsMoney Inc.(Ted DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schyster)stemmed from alegitimateparasailing accident in 1990 that forced Beefcake to undergo reconstructive surgery to his face.He was unable to wrestle again until the February 15, 1993, episode ofRaw. He faced DiBiase in his return match, after which DiBiase and Schyster attacked him. DiBiase held Beefcake for Schyster to hit him in the face with a briefcase, butJimmy Hart, whomanagedMoney Inc., repeatedly got in the way before Schyster shoved him out of the ring. Schyster then hit Beefcake in the face with the briefcase.Hart later claimed that he felt the need to \"step up and do the right thing\" and that he \"had a change of heart\", and his intervention led to him becoming ababyface, or crowd favorite.Shortly thereafter,Hulk Hoganmade his return to the WWF and joined with Beefcake, and manager Jimmy Hart, to formThe Mega-Maniacsand challenge Money Inc. for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Mr. Perfect's rivalry withBobby Heenandated back toSurvivor Series (1992). Perfect andRic Flairwere managed by Heenan, but Perfect turned on Flair and Heenan by agreeing to face them as part of a tag team match at Survivor Series.Flair feuded briefly with Perfect but left the company to return toWorld Championship Wrestling.Lex Lugerhad joinedVince McMahon'sWorld Bodybuilding Federation, but he signed with McMahon's WWF when the bodybuilding company failed.He made his debut at Royal Rumble 1993, where he was unveiled as Heenan's latest wrestler, Narcissus (although thering namewas changed to \"The Narcissist\" Lex Luger). The Undertaker's feud withGiant Gonzalezwas an offshoot of The Undertaker's feud with managerHarvey Wippleman. The Undertaker defeatedKamala, who was managed by Wippleman, atSummerSlam 1992.A rematch was held at Survivor Series 1992, and The Undertaker beat Kamala in acoffin match.Wippleman vowed revenge, and he introduced Gonzalez at Royal Rumble 1993 and instructed him to attack The Undertaker. The Undertaker was eliminated from the Royal Rumble match as a result of the interference, and a match was scheduled between The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez for WrestleMania IX. Beginning with his debut with the company in 1992,Yokozunawaspushedby the WWF as an unstoppable monster heel. Weighing over 500 pounds, he used theBanzai Drop, a move in which he jumped from the second rope and sat on his opponent's chest, to defeat several of the WWF's biggest stars.In a notable match on the February 6, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling, Yokozuna attacked \"Hacksaw\"Jim Dugganand performed the Banzai Drop four times. Due to the kayfabe injuries from the attack, Duggan was unable to wrestle for over two months.Yokozuna earned a title shot againstWWF ChampionBret Hartby winning the 1993 Royal Rumble match.During the contract signing, Yokozuna attacked Hart and performed the Banzai Drop on him. Event Before the televised broadcast began,Tito SantanadefeatedPapa Shangoin adark match,which became available for viewing on April 4, 2019 in the Hidden Gems section on WWE Network and is also notable as the WWE debut of Jim Ross on commentary. In the first match of the pay-per-view event, WWF Intercontinental Champion Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring by a new valet,Luna Vachon. Sensational Sherri followed Tatanka to the ring to prevent Vachon from getting involved in the match. During the match, Vachon approached Tatanka twice outside the ring, but Sherri was able to intervene and stop Vachon from interfering. Tatanka spent much of the match trying to injure Michaels with anarmbarhold. Michaels gained the advantage and almost pinned Tatanka with avictory roll, but Tatanka escaped the pin attempt and performed a war dance to channel his energy. Michaels threw Tatanka out of the ring and tried to jump at him to attack, but Tatanka moved. Michaels was unable to return to the ring within ten seconds; he pulled therefereeout of the ring. Tatanka was awarded the victory bycountoutbut did not win the championship because titles can only change hands as a result of pinfall orsubmission.Vachon attacked Sherri after the match by pulling her off the ring apron and delivery a devastatingclothesline, body slam and kicks to the ribs. Tatanka had to help Sherri make it back to the dressing rooms; however, she would be attacked again at the first aid station by Vachon, who choked her, hit her head against a wall, and dropped a machine on top of her and then Vachon was arrested by security. In the next match, The Steiner Brothers (Rick Steiner and Scott Steiner) faced The Headshrinkers (Samu and Fatu). The advantage switched back and forth several times, as the Steiners threw The Headshrinkers with severalsuplexvariations and used their aerial abilities to attack their opponents from the ring ropes. The Headshrinkers relied mainly on using their power to wear down the Steiners. At one point, Fatu picked Rick Steiner upon his shoulders so that Samu could attack Rick from the top rope. Rick caught Samu instead and performed abodyslamon Samu from Fatu's shoulders. The match ended when Scott Steiner performed aFrankensteinerto pin Samu and win the match. Crush attacked Doink the Clown outside the ring prior to the next match. After getting Doink inside the ring, Crush used his strength advantage to overpower Doink. Doink gained the advantage but missed two attacks from the top rope. Crush used more power moves to wear down Doink, and Doink tried to crawl under the ring. Crush forced Doink back into the ring and performed theCranium Crunch, a head vice submission hold, on Doink. Doink pulled himself to the ropes and broke the hold. Doink hit the referee and knocked him unconscious; as a result of this stagedref bump, a second Doink the Clown (portrayed bySteve Keirn) was able to interfere. He hit Crush with a prosthetic arm, which enabled the first Doink to win by pinfall when the referee regained consciousness. Razor RamonfacedBob Backlundnext. Ramon used his power to dominate the majority of the match, but Backlund usedhip tossesto attempt a comeback. Ramon won the match in under four minutes by pinning Backlund with asmall package. In the following match, Money Inc. (Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster) defended their WWF Tag Team Championship againstThe Mega-Maniacs(Hulk Hogan and Brutus Beefcake). Beefcake wore a protective titanium facemask because of his injured face, and Hulk Hogan came to the ring with a black eye, which led the announcers to speculate about the cause. Money Inc. gained the early advantage, but DiBiase soon injured himself by hitting Beefcake's mask. Hogan and Beefcake brawled with their enemies and controlled the match until Money Inc. was counted out. RefereeEarl Hebnerannounced, however, that he would strip them of their title if they did not return to the ring and continue the match. DiBiase returned to the ring and rendered Hogan unconscious with theMillion Dollar Dreamchokehold. Beefcake attacked DiBiase by applying asleeper holdand then turned his attention to Schyster, but DiBiase hit him in the back with Schyster's briefcase. Money Inc. attacked Beefcake and removed his facemask, but Beefcake fought back and applied a sleeper hold to Schyster. The referee was accidentally knocked unconscious, and Hogan recovered and attacked both members of Money Inc. with Beefcake's facemask. He tried to make the cover for a pinfall, but the referee was still unconscious. Manager Jimmy Hart turned his jacket inside-out to reveal a striped referee jacket; he made thethree-countand declared The Mega-Maniacs the winners of the match. RefereeDanny Daviscame to the ring and disqualified Hogan for using the facemask as a weapon. Money Inc. won the match and retained their championship, but The Mega-Maniacs threw them out of the ring and opened Schyster's briefcase to reveal stacks of cash. They celebrated in the ring and threw the money into the crowd. Lex Luger was accompanied to the ring by four women dressed in bikinis as he prepared to face Mr. Perfect. The match began with technical wrestling, and Perfect tried to injure Luger's knee while Luger worked on Perfect's back. Perfect took control of the match with a powerslam and tried to pin Luger after performing adropkick from the top rope. Luger's foot was on the ropes, however, so the referee halted the three-count and continued the match. Luger gained momentum and pinned Perfect; Perfect's feet were on the rope, but the referee did not see them. Luger continued to attack Perfect after the match and hit him with his forearm, which contains a steel plate as the result of a legitimate motorcycle accident. When Perfect got up, he chased Luger but was attacked by Shawn Michaels backstage. In the next match, The Undertaker faced Giant Gonzalez. Both men tried to use their size and power to control the match. Gonzalez used areverse chinlockto wear The Undertaker down and attacked him outside the ring. The Undertaker regained control of the match and knocked Gonzalez onto his knees. Harvey Wippleman threw Gonzalez a rag soaked withchloroform, which Gonzalez used to knock The Undertaker unconscious. The referee disqualified Gonzalez for using a foreign object and awarded the match to The Undertaker.After the match, The Undertaker recovered and attacked Giant Gonzalez. In the main event and final scheduled match on the card, Bret Hart defended the WWF Championship against Yokozuna. Hart tried to use his technical wrestling abilities against Yokozuna, while Yokozuna relied on his size advantage in the match. Hart gained control at the beginning, but Yokozuna came back with aclothesline,leg drop, andnerve hold. Hart regained the advantage when Yokozuna missed arunning splash. Yokozuna applied another nerve hold but missed a running splash again. He recovered and carried Hart to the middle of the ring, but Hart removed the protective padding on theturnbucklein the corner of the ring. He threw Yokozuna's head into the turnbuckle and applied theSharpshooter, his signature submission hold that stretches the opponent's legs and back.Mr. Fuji, Yokozuna's manager, threw salt in Hart's eyes, which enabled Yokozuna to pin Hart and win the WWF Championship. In an impromptu main event and the final match on the card, Hulk Hogan came to ring to check on Hart's condition. Hogan had stated during an interview earlier in the broadcast that he wanted to face the winner of the match, and Fuji challenged Hogan to face Yokozuna immediately in an impromptu bout. Hogan agreed and entered the ring. Fuji tried to throw salt in Hogan's eyes, but he missed and the salt hit Yokozuna. Hogan performed a leg drop and pinned Yokozuna to win the title in 22 seconds. Reception The event was attended by 16,891 fans, who paid a total of $1,100,000 in admission fees.This represents less than one-third of the number of fans atWrestleMania VIII, which had an attendance of 62,167.The pay-per-view drew a 2.3 buyrate, which was lower than the previous year's 2.8 buyrate. It was higher, however, than the buyrates for any of the following four WrestleManias. WrestleMania IX received overwhelmingly negative reviews. The event has received criticism for what some reviewers have perceived as a poorly booked event. Writing forSLAM! Wrestling, John Powell states that, aside from the Intercontinental and Tag Team Championship matches and the scantily-clad women that accompanied Lex Luger to the ring, the rest of the broadcast was poor. He is also critical of some of the outfits worn for the event, notably Jim Ross's toga and Giant Gonzalez's spray-painted suit.Reviewing the event for Online Onslaught, Adam Gutschmidt claims that several of the matches flowed poorly and had ill-conceived conclusions. He also claims that the match between Giant Gonzalez and The Undertaker was a \"dud\" and that Hulk Hogan's ego made the conclusion the \"worst WrestleMania ending ever\".RD Reynolds, owner of the websiteWrestleCrap, has inducted the event into the site's list of \"the very worst in pro wrestling\". He cites Giant Gonzalez, Papa Shango, Luger's \"narcissist\" gimmick, and Jim Ross wearing a toga as his reasons for including the event in the list. WWE places two events from WrestleMania IX in its top 50 WrestleMania moments: Bobby Heenan's entrance on the camel, which the company calls \"one of the most hilarious moments in WWE history\", and Hulk Hogan's title victory.Matt Anoa'i, who wrestled for WWE as Rosey, and was the brother ofRoman Reigns, cousin of Yokozuna, Samu and Fatu, has identified The Headshrinkers performing a double splash on Scott Steiner at this event as his favorite moment at WrestleMania. WrestleMania IX was released onVHSbyColiseum Video. It was then released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Collection (1985–1997) box set in 1997.The video was re-released six years later in March 1999.That month, it was also released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Legacy box set.It was also released on DVD for WWE's History of WrestleMania I-IX box set on September 14, 2004. In theUnited Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 5, 1993.Packaged together withWrestleMania X, it was released on DVD for theWWE Tagged Classicsseries on May 8, 2006. Aftermath A feud began between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect after WrestleMania IX as a result of Michaels attacking Perfect. They faced each other atSummerSlam 1993, and Michaels won by countout after his new bodyguard,Dieselattacked Perfect.Perfect then feuded with Diesel until leaving the WWF. Money Inc. lost the WWF Tag Team Championship to the Steiner Brothers on June 14, 1993.Money Inc. won the belts back in a rematch on June 16,but the Steiners won them again three days later.Money Inc. received several rematches but were unable to regain the title; they soon focused on singles competition, and DiBiase retired at the end of August. The Undertaker continued to feud with Harvey Wippleman. On the June 12, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling, Wippleman, Giant Gonzalez, andMr. Hughesattacked The Undertaker, and his managerPaul Bearer, and stole the urn that was said to be the source of his power.The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez faced each other one final time at SummerSlam 1993 in aRest in Peace match, in which neither wrestler could be disqualified. The Undertaker won the match to end the feud. After the match, a frustrated Gonzalez choke slammed Wippleman to the delight of the fans andturned facein the process. Bret Hart later claimed that during a conversation with Vince McMahon, he was told that Hulk Hogan refused to drop the WWF Championship to him.However, Hulk Hogan stated that, during a conversation with Vince McMahon, a deal was made for Hogan to drop the belt to the top heel at the time, Yokozuna, at the following King of The Ring.All three men eventually wound up in a meeting, where McMahon outlined the plan to have Hogan drop the belt to Yokozuna and denied telling Bret that Hogan refused to drop the championship to him. After regaining the title, Yokozuna challenged any American athlete to bodyslam him on the deck of theUSS Intrepidon July 4, 1993. After many challengers failed, Lex Luger arrived by helicopter and bodyslammed Yokozuna. Luger became a fan favorite and changed hisgimmickto an American patriot. He faced Yokozuna for the WWF Championship at SummerSlam 1993; he won the match by count-out but did not win the title.Lex Luger and Bret Hart each earned a title match against Yokozuna the following year at WrestleMania X. Luger was disqualified in his match, but Hart won the championship later that night. 32 years after WrestleMania IX, the event will once again be held in the city, with the41st editiontaking place at theAllegiant Stadiumon April 19 and 20, 2025. Results References External links","WrestleMania XI WrestleMania XIwas the 11th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 2, 1995, at theHartford Civic CenterinHartford, Connecticut. Seven matches were contested at the event. The main event featured formerNFLlinebackerLawrence TayloragainstBam Bam Bigelow, a match which came as the result of an argument that took place between the two at the1995 Royal Rumble. Taylor won the match, which led to Bigelow being kicked out ofTed DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation.Shawn MichaelsfacedWWF ChampionDieselin a title match but was unable to win the championship.Jeff Jarrettretained hisWWF Intercontinental ChampionshipagainstRazor Ramon.Owen Hartand his mystery partner,Yokozuna, challengedThe Smoking Gunnsfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipand won the title belts. The match between Taylor and Bigelow brought the WWF mainstream press coverage. The reactions to the match were mixed; some people thought that Taylor performed surprisingly well for a non-wrestler. Others thought that the WWF pushing a football player to defeat a wrestler made professional wrestling look bad. Reviews of the event as a whole were mixed, with the event called both the worst WrestleMania of all time and the event that saved the WWF. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XI was scheduled to be held on April 2, 1995, at theHartford Civic CenterinHartford, Connecticut. Special OlympianKathy Huey sang a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\" during the event, replacing the previously advertised band,Fishbone.Prior toLawrence Taylor's match againstBam Bam Bigelow,Salt-n-PepasangWhatta Man. Several other celebrities also had roles at WrestleMania.Nicholas Turturro, one of the stars ofNYPD Blue, conducted interviews and served as a guest ring announcer.Jonathan Taylor ThomasofHome Improvementwas a guest timekeeper for the match betweenDieselandShawn Michaels.WrestleMania XI marked the first time that the WWF featured an interview on theInternetas Diesel and Shawn Michaels were interviewed byBob Ryder. On September 30, 1995, a one-hour special including the Diesel vs. Shawn Michaels match and the Lawrence Taylor vs. Bam Bam Bigelow match was broadcast on theFOX Network.At the WrestleMania weekend, the WWF also held its Fan Fest, a promotional event during which wrestlers interacted with fans and signed autographs. Storylines The most heavily promoted feud going into the event was betweenBam Bam BigelowandLawrence Taylor. At the1995 Royal Rumble, Bigelow teamed withTatankain the final round of a tournament for theWWF Tag Team Championship. Bigelow waspinnedat the end of the match, which led to the crowd heckling him. He responded by pushingNFLplayer Lawrence Taylor, who was sitting at ringside. Bigelow refused to apologize and instead challenged Taylor to a wrestling match.Taylor agreed and trained withWWF ChampionDiesel to prepare for the match.The storyline between Bigelow and Taylor brought the WWF much mainstream exposure, as the match was discussed by several news outlets. The other main event at WrestleMania was a match for the WWF Championship between Diesel andShawn Michaels. Diesel had originally entered the WWF as Michaels's bodyguard but later began wrestling and forming atag teamwith Michaels. The pair held the WWF Tag Team Championship together in 1994. AtSurvivor Series 1994, however, Michaels accidentally kicked Diesel in the face. This led to an argument during which Diesel dissolved the tag team and vacated the championship.Three days later, Diesel defeatedBob Backlundto become the new WWF Champion.At the Royal Rumble, Michaels won the titular match, which earned him a match against Diesel for the title belt at WrestleMania. TheWWF Intercontinental Championshipwas also defended at WrestleMania.Jeff Jarrett, the champion, had been feuding withRazor Ramon, the challenger, for several months. At the Royal Rumble, Jarrett was accompanied byThe Roadie, who interfered on Jarrett's behalf and helped Jarrett win the championship.To even the sides in the rematch at WrestleMania, Ramon was accompanied by his friend, the1–2–3 Kid. In a match for the WWF Tag Team Championship,The Smoking Gunnsdefended their title. Their opponents wereOwen Hartand a mystery partner. Hart refused to tell anyone the name of his partner, which left the Gunns uncertain who they would be facing and led to much speculation about the identity of the mystery partner. Bret Hartfaced Bob Backlund in an\"I Quit\" matchat WrestleMania. The feud began the previous summer, when Hart defended the WWF Championship against Backlund. Backlund mistakenly thought he won the match and began celebrating, but Hart pinned him to retain the title. After the match, Backlundturnedheelby attacking Hart.This led to a title match at Survivor Series 1994, in which Backlund won the title from Hart.Although Backlund soon lost the belt,the feud continued and Backlund attacked Hart during Hart's match at the Royal Rumble. Also at the Royal Rumble,The UndertakerfacedIrwin R. Schysteras part of The Undertaker's feud withTed DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation. During the match,King Kong Bundy, another Corporation member, interfered and enabled the Corporation to steal The Undertaker's urn, which was said to be the source of his power. Event In the opening match,The Allied Powers(Davey Boy SmithandLex Luger) faced theBlu Brothers(Eli Blu and Jacob Blu). Smith started out on the offensive, but Jacob gained control with arunning bulldogthrow. The Blus capitalized on the fact that they are identical twins by switching places without tagging while the referee was not looking. Luger came into the match near the end and performed arunning forearm smashon Eli. Jacob tried to throw Luger with apowerbomb, but Luger tagged in Smith, who performed asunset flipto pin Jacob and win the match. The second match pitted Razor Ramon, with the 1–2–3 Kid in his corner, against WWF Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett, who had The Roadie in his corner. Ramon took control at the beginning of the match by using power moves against Jarrett. Jarrett tried to leave the match, but the 1–2–3 Kid forced him back into the ring. Jarrett took advantage of one of Ramon's mistakes to gain the advantage. He applied asleeper holdon Ramon, who used his strength advantage to escape the move. After Ramon threw Jarrett, the Kid attempted to interfere but was kicked by Jarrett. Ramon jumped off the ropes to attack Jarrett, but Jarrett avoided the move and applied afigure four leglockon Ramon. Ramon reversed the move to place the pressure on Jarrett's legs. He then threw Jarrett to the mat with asuplex from the second ropeand prepared to execute theRazor's Edge, his finishing move. The Roadie entered the ring and attacked Ramon, prompting the referee to disqualify Jarrett; because titles cannot change hands on a disqualification, Jarrett retained his championship. In the next match, The Undertaker faced King Kong Bundy. Ted DiBiase was at ringside holding the urn that his wrestlers had stolen from The Undertaker.Larry Young, a legit American League umpire, was the special referee for the match. Young's storyline was as an out-of-work sports official because of therecently ended MLB Players Association strikeand a lockout of the Major League Umpires Association umpires (which led to the eventual dissolution of the MLUA in 2000; prior to the new union, umpires were split by league).The Undertaker took control at the beginning of the match byjumping off the top rope and hitting Bundy. He then performed severalclotheslineattacks on Bundy. Bundy responded with a clothesline that knocked The Undertaker out of the ring. Seeing DiBiase close, The Undertaker took back his urn. After The Undertaker returned to the ring, DiBiase calledKama, another Corporation member, to the ring. Kama stole the urn, and Bundy attacked The Undertaker in order to let Kama escape backstage. Bundy picked The Undertaker up andpowerslammedhim to the mat. He then performed anAvalanche Splashto crush The Undertaker against the corner of the ring. The Undertaker was unharmed, however, and performed a powerslam and a clothesline on Bundy before pinning him to win the match. The Smoking Gunns defended their WWF Tag Team Championship in the next match against Owen Hart and his mystery partner, who was revealed to beYokozuna. The Gunns worked together to control the match at the beginning, but Yokozuna gained control by performing aleg dropon Billy Gunn. Hart attempted to perform adropkick from the top ropebut accidentally hit Yokozuna. The Gunns briefly took control until Yokozuna performed abelly to belly suplexand landed on Billy. He then performed aBanzai Drop, jumping from the second rope and sitting on Billy's chest. Hart tagged in and considered performing theSharpshootersubmission hold; instead, he pinned Billy Gunn to win the title belts for his team. The next match, an \"I Quit\" match, took place between Bret Hart and Bob Backlund, withRoddy Piperas the guest referee. It was explained that, in order to win the match, a wrestler must force his opponent to say \"I quit\" into a microphone held by Piper. Hart attempted to perform the Sharpshooter early in the match; when Backlund blocked it, Hart executed afigure four leglockinstead. Backlund escaped the hold and began trying to injure Hart's arm with anarmbarhold. Hart then tried to attack Backlund in the corner of the ring, but Backlund moved and Hart hit his shoulder against the ring post. Backlund tried to perform thecrossface chickenwing, his signature submission hold. Hart blocked him and performed the same hold on Backlund instead. Backlund made an unintelligible sound into the microphone, and Piper determined that he had submitted. As a result, the win was awarded to Bret Hart. In the next match, which was for the WWF Championship, challenger Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring byJenny McCarthyand Diesel, the champion, was escorted byPamela Anderson. Michaels relied on his quickness in the opening stages, while Diesel used his strength advantage against Michaels. Diesel threw Michaels out of the ring and onto the arena floor, but Michaels later performed a clothesline that knocked Diesel out of the ring. Michaels capitalized on his advantage by performing several aerial moves, including aflying crossbody,flying bulldogthrow, and adiving elbow drop. He was unable to pin Diesel, however, so he performed a sleeper hold to wear Diesel down. They brawled outside the ring, after which Michaels performedSweet Chin Music, his finishing move, butSid, Michaels's bodyguard, had the referee distracted and unable to count the pinfall. Diesel recovered and controlled the remainder of the match with power moves before throwing Michaels to the mat with a botchedJackknifeand getting the pinfall victory. The final bout of the event was the main event match between Bam Bam Bigelow and Lawrence Taylor. Bigelow was accompanied by the members of DiBiase's Million Dollar Corporation: King Kong Bundy, Tatanka, Irwin R. Schyster, Kama, andNikolai Volkoff. To prevent the Corporation members from interfering, Taylor brought several football players:Ken Norton Jr.,Chris Spielman,Rickey Jackson,Carl Banks,Reggie White, andSteve McMichael. Taylor gained the advantage early and performed a clothesline that knocked Bigelow out of the ring. Once he returned to the ring, Bigelow took control of the match by kicking Taylor repeatedly and performing aBoston crabsubmission hold to hurt Taylor's back. Taylor got out of the hold and threw Bigelow with asuplex. Bigelow recovered and performed several headbutts on Taylor before executing amoonsaultflip to knock Taylor down to the mat. Taylor began to take control of the match again, but Bigelow kicked him in the back of the head and then performed aheadbutt from the top rope. Bigelow was unable to pin Taylor, however. Taylor climbed to the second rope, jumped off, and used his forearm to hit Bigelow. He then covered Bigelow to win the match. Reception The event was attended by 15,000 fans, who paid a total of $750,000 in admission fees. This was down from the previous year's attendance of 18,065,but the decline could be attributed to the smaller size of the venue for WrestleMania XI.The attendance figure was also lower than the following year's figure of 18,852 fans atWrestleMania XII. The pay-per-view buyrate for WrestleMania XI was 1.3, which was lower than the 1.68 buyrate for WrestleMania X but higher than the 1.2 buyrate for WrestleMania XII. Writing for411mania, columnist Dustin James rated the event as the seventeenth best of the first twenty-three WrestleManias. He stated that the event did not have any truly amazing matches but that Lawrence Taylor put on a solid performance.John Powell ofSLAM! Wrestlingrated the event as the worst WrestleMania of all time. The specific concerns he mentioned in his review are Diesel's championship reign and WWF allowing a football player to defeat a wrestler in what he describes as a \"sham of a match\".In contrast,Pro Wrestling Illustratedcolumnist Dave Rosenbaum stated that WrestleMania \"saved\" the WWF in its feud with rivalWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW). He argued that Taylor \"looked like a pro\" and contributed to an \"incredible\" match. He also observed that the tag team matches helped rejuvenate an area of wrestling that had been suffering in the WWF and that the match between Michaels and Diesel was a candidate for match of the year.Bret Hart was critical about his match against Bob Backlund, claiming it was \"probably my worst pay-per-view match I ever had\". Aftermath Shortly after WrestleMania, Diesel offered Shawn Michaels a rematch. Michaels blamed Sid for the loss and informed him that he would not be needed during the match. Sid got angry and attacked Michaels until Diesel saved him.Diesel and Michaels became allies once again, and they teamed up to win the WWF Tag Team Championship later that year.Diesel feuded with Sid and defeated him at theIn Your House 1andIn Your House 2pay-per-view events.The animosity lingered between Michaels and Sid, but they did not face each other to settle the feud until the September 11, 1995 episode ofMonday Night Raw. Bam Bam Bigelow was embarrassed after losing to Lawrence Taylor. To redeem himself, he challenged Diesel to a match for the WWF Championship. During the match, Tatanka turned on Bigelow and caused him to get pinned. Bigelow was kicked out of the Million Dollar Corporation and attacked by DiBiase's wrestlers. Diesel saved Bigelow from the attack, which led to a friendship being formed between the two.Bigelow defeated Tatanka in adark matchat In Your House 2.At King of the Ring 1995, Sid, DiBiase's latest addition to the Corporation, teamed with Tatanka in a loss to the team of Diesel and Bigelow. Razor Ramon and the 1–2–3 Kid was scheduled to face Jeff Jarrett and The Roadie at In Your House 1 the month after WrestleMania. The Kid sustained alegitinjury, however, and was unable to compete. As a result, Ramon wrestled a two-on-onehandicap matchagainst Jarrett and The Roadie instead.Ramon won the bout, but the feud continued. At In Your House 2, The Roadie faced the 1–2–3 Kid and defeated him.Ramon and Jarrett wrestled several times, and Ramon regained the Intercontinental Championship on May 19, 1995.He held the belt for three days beforedroppingit back to Jarrett. After WrestleMania, Kama melted down The Undertaker's urn and made it into a necklace.The Undertaker defeated Kama in a dark match at In Your House 1, and again in acasket matchat In Your House 2.He then won another casket match against Kama atSummerSlam 1995to end the feud. The Undertaker was not able to recapture the remnants of the urn until he ended his feud with King Mabel in another Casket match.TheUndertaker's streakof 21 consecutive WrestleMania victories was first acknowledged during his entrance for his encounter withKing Kong Bundyby play-by-play commentatorVince McMahon, who stated, \"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania\". The Smoking Gunns were given a rematch for the WWF Tag Team Championship at In Your House 1. Hart pinned Bart Gunn to retain the championship for his team.Hart and Yokozuna then moved on to face other competition, and the Gunns did not become serious contenders for the title again until late in 1995 when they defeated Hart and Yokozuna to regain the championship. Steve McMichael, who accompanied Lawrence Taylor, joinedWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) later in 1995 as a color commentator then eventually as an in-ring performer, joining the famousFour Horsemanwhen he turned on and betrayed his tag team partner and former NFL starKevin GreeneatThe Great American Bash '96near the end of their tag team match againstRic FlairandArn Anderson. Going by the name \"Mongo\" McMichael, he eventually went on to win theWCW United States Heavyweight Championship. The WWF released the event onVHSin North America in 1995. The VHS version was then re-released on March 2, 1999.The event was also released onDVDin North America as part of the WrestleMania Complete Anthology boxed set on November 1, 2005.In the United Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 10, 1995.Packaged together withWrestleMania XII, it was then released on DVD in the United Kingdom as part of theWWE Tagged Classicsline on August 7, 2006. Results References External links","WrestleMania XII WrestleMania XIIwas the 12th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 31, 1996, at theArrowhead Pond of AnaheiminAnaheim, Californiain the United States. Eight matches were held at the event, including two on theFree for Allpre-show. In the main event,Bret Hartlost theWWF ChampionshiptoShawn Michaelsin the first televisedIron Man matchin company history, lasting over 60 minutes. In his return to the company after a four-year hiatus,The Ultimate WarriordefeatedHunter Hearst Helmsley.Roddy Piperhad his first match since 1994. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XII was scheduled to be held on March 31, 1996, at theArrowhead Pond of AnaheiminAnaheim, California. Storylines The main attraction of this WrestleMania was theWWF Championshipcontested in anIron Man match; whereby the winner would be the man to win mostfallsover sixty minutes. Michaels had earned the opportunity to face reigning championBret Hartby winning the1996 Royal Rumble, and had also defeatedOwen HartatIn Your House 6for the right to keep the WrestleMania title shot. Themain eventwas built on Bret Hart wanting to retain the WWF Championship against Shawn Michaels, who had suffered a number of setbacks over the course of the previous year, including failing to winDiesel'sWWF Championship the previous year atWrestleMania XIin April 1995, being accosted at aSyracuse, New Yorknightclub in October 1995 (and subsequently forfeiting theWWF Intercontinental ChampionshiptoDean DouglasatIn Your House 4), and suffering astorylineconcussionat the hands of Owen Hart in November 1995. Hunter Hearst Helmsleymade his debut in the WWF in May 1995, with hiswrestling gimmickbeing in that he was a rich snob born with a silver spoon in his mouth. He went on an undefeated winning streak throughout the year until theRoyal Rumble.The Ultimate Warriormeanwhile had left the WWF in 1992 after failing a drug test. His last match was on the November 14, 1992 edition ofSaturday Night's Main Event XXXI, where he and\"Macho Man\" Randy SavagedefeatedTed DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schysterin a tag team match. WWF officials later signed on a match between Ultimate Warrior, who re-signed to the WWF in an attempt to increase ratings, and Helmsley for WrestleMania XII. Diesel began feuding withThe Undertakerafter interfering in a bout between The Undertaker and Bret Hart at the 1996 Royal Rumble. In an episode ofMonday Night Rawthat aired on March 18, 1996, Diesel was battlingBarry Horowitzwhen he caught a glimpse ofPaul Bearerpushing acasketup the entrance ramp. Believing it to be The Undertaker's casket, Diesel armed himself with a wrench before opening the casket's lid and seeing his own \"corpse\" lying in repose inside (which was actually an illusion made possible by having live footage cut to a pre-recorded close-up footage of Diesel himself in the same casket, lying in a relaxed position with his eyes closed, filmed at some time before the episode, thus avoiding showing the mannequin in the casket up-close); seeing \"himself\" in the casket terrified him, as it foreshadowed The Undertaker's upcoming match against Diesel in WrestleMania XII. Event The opening bout, which aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was atag team matchfor the vacantWWF Tag Team Championshipbetween theBodydonnas(SkipandZip) andthe Godwinns(Henry O. GodwinnandPhineas I. Godwinn). This match was the final bout of a tournament held to determine the new champions after the titles were vacated in February 1996. The match ended when Skip pinned Phineas I. Godwinn using aroll-up, making the Bodydonnas the new WWF Tag Team Champions. The second bout, which also aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was asingles match(billed as a \"geriatric match\") between \"The Huckster\" and \"Nacho Man\", two characters created to parodyHulk Hoganand\"Macho Man\" Randy Savage(former WWF performers who had joined its competitorWorld Championship Wrestling). The referee for the match was \"Billionaire Ted\", a parody ofTed Turner, the owner of World Championship Wrestling's parent companyTurner Broadcasting System. This bout marked the culmination of a series of skits the WWF had aired featuring the three characters. This match did not take place in the Arrowhead Pond, having been pre-recorded elsewhere. The match ended in a no contest when both competitors, along with Billionaire Ted, seemingly expired in the ring. The third bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast proper, was asix-man tag team matchpittingThe British Bulldog,Owen Hart, andVader(Camp Cornette) againstAhmed Johnson,Jake Roberts, andYokozuna, with the stipulation that if Yokozuna's team won he would receive five minutes in the ring withJim Cornette, the manager of Camp Cornette. The match ended when Roberts attempted to give Cornette aDDT, only for Vader to knock Roberts down and pin him following aVader Bomb. The fourth bout was a \"Hollywood Backlot Brawl\" betweenGoldustandRoddy Piper. The match began in a parking lot, with the men brawling and using weapons. After Goldust fled in a goldenCadillac, Piper pursued him in a whiteFord Bronco. The fifth bout was a singles match betweenSavio VegaandStone Cold Steve Austin. Austin won the bout by technical knockout after hitting Vega with theMillion Dollar Championshipthen applying theMillion Dollar Dreamto Vega until he passed out. During and after the fifth bout, footage aired of what was purportedly Piper pursuing Goldust (the actual footage aired was from theLos Angeles Police Department's pursuit ofO.J. Simpsonin 1994). The sixth bout was a singles match betweenHunter Hearst HelmsleyandThe Ultimate Warrior. Early in the match, Helmsley performed his finishing move,The Pedigree, on The Ultimate Warrior. However, The Ultimate Warriorno-soldthe move and went on to pin Helmsley following aflying shoulder tackle,gorilla press slam, andWarrior Splash. Following the sixth bout,Todd Pettengillinterviewed the debutingMarc Merobackstage. The interview was interrupted by Hunter Hearst Helmsley, resulting in a brawl between Helmsley and Mero. The seventh bout was a singles match betweenDieselandThe Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall following achokeslamandTombstone Piledriver, marking his fifth consecutive win at WrestleMania. Following the seventh bout, Goldust and Piper arrived at the Arrowhead Pond, with Piper crashing his car into Goldust's car. Piper then chased Goldust to the ring, where the match continued. The match ended when Piper tore off Goldust's bodysuit - revealing him to be wearing woman's lingerie - and gave him alow blow, after which Goldust fled from the ring, leaving Piper the winner. The main event sawWWF ChampionBret Hartdefend his title againstShawn Michaelsin anIron Man match, with the stipulation that whichever wrestler won the most falls in 60 minutes would win the match. Towards the end of the match, with neither men having won any falls, Hart applied hisSharpshooterhold to Michaels, but time expired without Michaels submitting. As Hart began to leave with his title, WWF PresidentGorilla Monsooninstructed refereeEarl Hebnerto continue the match under \"sudden death\" rules, with ring announcerHoward Finkelannouncing that \"there must be a winner!\" The match ended shortly thereafter when Michaels pinned Hart after giving himSweet Chin Musictwice, thus becoming the new WWF Champion. Reception WrestleMania XII received generally positive reviews from critics, who aimed praise, particularly at the main event. Rob McNew of 411mania called the opening match \"really good,\" and gave it 3 and 1/4 stars (out of 5 stars). However, he called the match between Helmsley and The Ultimate Warrior the worst of the night, going on to call it the \"funniest squash ever, considering that HHH is now arguably a bigger star than Warrior was.\" He gave the main event the highest score of the night, with 4 stars. However, he says the match \"isn't for everyone.\" Continuing, he says, \"It's about a three-star match for the first 40 minutes, the last 20+ are an easy five stars.\" He gave the entire event a score of 7 out of 10.In 2015, Ryan Dilbert of Bleacher Report called it the 16th greatest of the first 30 WrestleMania events. While the Iron Man match got positive reviews, PWInsider's Mike Johnson pointed that in the match both wrestlers \"were working in spite of each other, not together\". Results WWF Tag Team Championship tournament In February 1996,WWF Tag Team ChampionsThe Smoking Gunnswere forced to vacate the titles afterBilly Gunnsustained a neck injury. As a result, a tournament was staged in February and March 1996 to determine the new champions, with the matches airing on tape delaySuperstarsthroughout March. The tournament final was held at WrestleMania XII, withThe BodydonnasdefeatingThe Godwinnsto be crowned the new champions. Other on-screen personnel References External links","WrestleMania 13 WrestleMania 13was the 13th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). The event waspresentedbyPlayStationand held on March 23, 1997, at theRosemont Horizonin theChicagosuburb ofRosemont, Illinois. Eight matches were held at the event, including one on theFree for Allpre-show. Themain eventwas ano disqualification matchbetweenThe UndertakerandSycho Sidfor theWWF Championship, which Undertaker won following interference fromBret Hart. The main matches on theundercardwereBret HartversusStone Cold Steve Austinin aNo Disqualification Submission match,Legion of DoomandAhmed JohnsonversusNation of Dominationin aChicago Street Fight, and Rocky Maivia versus The Sultan for theWWF Intercontinental Championship. WrestleMania 13 was the second WrestleMania to take place in theChicago metropolitan area, followingWrestleMania 2. The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees, and drew a 0.77 buy rate. The event as a whole received mixed to negative reviews. However, the submission match between Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin was highly praised, being called one of the greatest matches in wrestling history, and has been cited as the beginning of theAttitude Era. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania 13 was scheduled to be held on March 23, 1997, at theRosemont Horizonin theChicagosuburb ofRosemont, Illinois. The event waspresentedbyPlayStation. Storylines The mainfeudheading into WrestleMania 13 was betweenThe UndertakerandSycho Sid, with the two battling over theWWF Championship. AtIn Your House 13in February,Bret Hartlast eliminated The Undertaker in theFinal Four matchto win the vacant WWF Championship.Hart's reign, however, lasted only one day as he lost the title the next night onMonday Night Rawto Sycho Sid after interference byStone Cold Steve Austin, one of the other participants in the Final Four match (the other wasVader, who had no further involvement in the ongoing storyline).Due to being the runner-up to the title at Final Four, Undertaker was made the number one contender and wasbookedto challenge Sycho Sid for the title at WrestleMania. However, on the March 17 edition ofRaw Is War, Sid defended the title against Hart in asteel cage match, with the winner defending his title at WrestleMania. During the match, both Undertaker and Austin interfered. Undertaker came out to help Sid because he wanted to wrestle Sid for the title while Austin helped Hart because he wanted to make his scheduledsubmission matchwith Hart a title match. Sid won the match and retained his title and as a result, Sid vs. Undertaker remained themain eventof WrestleMania. The second main match on the card wasBret HartversusStone Cold Steve Austinin aSubmission match. Hart and Austin's rivalry began after Austin won the1996 King of the Ring tournamentand began taunting Hart, who was inactive at the time. Austin insulted Hart in his speeches so Hart would accept his challenge to a match. Hart returned in October and accepted Austin's challenge, with the two facing each other atSurvivor Series 1996where Hart defeated Austin.Their rivalry continued as Hart and Austin were the final two participants in the1997 Royal Rumble match. Hart had originally eliminated Austin from the match but Austin's elimination was considered unofficial because theofficialsdid not see it as they were busy attending to a brawl between eliminated wrestlersMankindandTerry Funk.They were participants in aFour Corners Elimination matchfor the vacantWWF ChampionshipatFinal Four, which Hart won.The next night onMonday Night Raw, Austin cost Hart the WWF Championship against Sycho Sid when Hart had applied theSharpshooteron Sid, Austin nailed Hart with asteel chairfollowed by SidpowerbombingHart for the win.Hart and Austin were booked to wrestle in a submission match at WrestleMania, but Hart got a shot at the WWF Championship in asteel cage matchon the March 17 edition ofRaw Is War, with the winner defending the title againstThe Undertakerat WrestleMania 13. Hart almost had the match won, until Undertaker interfered and helped Sid in getting the victory. One of the mainundercardmatches was aChicago Street FightfeaturingAhmed JohnsonandLegion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) againstNation of Domination(Faarooq,CrushandSavio Vega). Johnson was attacked by a newcomerFaarooq Asad, aRomangladiator on the July 22, 1996 edition ofMonday Night Rawduring a match for theWWF Tag Team Championship.Ahmed was scheduled to defend hisIntercontinental Championshipagainst Faarooq atSummerSlam 1996butlegitimatekidney problems forced him to vacate the Intercontinental Championship. In thestoryline, it was explained that Faarooq had caused Ahmed's kidney problem.Ahmed returned from his injury in early 1997 and continued with Faarooq, who had formed TheNation of Dominationduring Ahmed's absence. Ahmed joined forces with the Legion of Doom and the trio were scheduled to wrestle the Nation of Domination in a Chicago Street Fight at WrestleMania 13. Event Before the event aired live onpay-per-view(PPV),Billy GunnfacedFlash FunkatFree for All.Gunn defeated Funk by pinning him following atornado DDT. The first match that aired on television was aFour-Way Tag Team Elimination Match. The match featuredThe Headbangers(MoshandThrasher),The Godwinns(Henry O. GodwinnandPhineas I. Godwinn),The New Blackjacks(Blackjack WindhamandBlackjack Bradshaw) and the team ofDoug Furnas and Phil LaFon. All the teams wrestled each other and sometimes in the match, teammates also fought against each other. Barry Windham and Phil LaFon brawled to the outside the ring. Bradshaw attacked the referee and gotdisqualified, which led to the first elimination of the match while Furnas was counted-out. Headbangers and Godwinns were the remaining teams and they battled for five minutes and 39 seconds before Thrasher hit Phineas with aCannonball Sentonand won the match via pinfall. As a result of winning the match, Headbangers earned a shot at theWWF Tag Team Championship. The second match was betweenRocky MaiviaandThe Sultanfor Maivia'sWWF Intercontinental Championship.The Honky Tonk Manprovided commentary for the match. Sultan had an early advantage in the match due to his size and power but Maivia used his quicker moves to push the big man outside the ring. Sultan overpowered Maivia withslamsandpunchesbut was unable to pin him. Maivia gained advantage on Sultan by nailing him with abelly to belly suplex,Maivia Hurricaneand aflying crossbodybeforepinningSultan with aroll-upto win the match and retain the title. After the match, Sultan and hismanagers,Bob BacklundandThe Iron Sheikattacked Maivia before his father,Rocky Johnson, came out to help his son. The third match was betweenHunter Hearst HelmsleyandGoldust. Goldust dominated the early portion of the match. Helmsley had brief flurries of offense but Goldust had still the advantage. Helmsley began usingsubmission maneuversto keep the advantages for himself. Goldust was going to hit his maneuver until Helmsley'sbodyguardChynamanhandled Goldust's wifeMarlenato distract him. Helmsley took advantage and hit Goldust with aPedigree, enabling him to pin Goldust for the win. The fourth match was atag teammatch for theWWF Tag Team Championship, asOwen Hart and The British Bulldogdefended the titles againstMankindandVader. The big Vader made easy work of Owen in the beginning of the match. Vader tagged in with Mankind while Owen tagged in with Bulldog. Bulldog and Mankind punched each other but Bulldog had more advantage. He applied asleeper holdon Mankind which caused both of them to fall to the outside. They continued to brawl outside. Therefereewas distracted due to the brawl. Vader took advantage and hit Bulldog withPaul Bearer's urn and dragged him into the ring. Vader and Mankind both took turns and continued to attack Bulldog. Owen tried to save his partner, but Vader used his strength while Mankind used his cheating tactics to overwhelm Owen. Mankind trapped Bulldog to the outside and applied the mandible claw on him. Both men werecounted outas the match resulted in a draw. As a result, Hart and Bulldog retained the championship. The fifth match was aNo Disqualification Submission matchbetween Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin.UFCfighterKen Shamrockwas thespecial guest refereefor this match. Austin attacked Hart, who was still in his entrance attire. The two first beat each other in the ring before the action spilled outside the ring. Hart tossed Austin into the steel ring post while Austin drove him onto the steel barrier. The two men began fighting in the crowd, where both men hit each other with severalforeign objects. They moved up the steps high into the crowd. Shamrock followed them and brought them back towards the ring where Austin attempted to use steel steps on Hart, but Hart stopped him with a kick to the midsection. As the action began in the ring, Hart focused on Austin's leg. He busted Austin open with an Irish whip into the steel barricade and Austin's head began to bleed profusely. Hart tried to use a steel chair on Austin's leg, but Austin choked Hart with a television cable. Hart hit Austin in the head with the ring bell. He applied aSharpshooteron Austin who did not submit and tried to resist but passed out from the pain and loss of blood. Shamrock awarded the match to Hart, but Hart continued to attack Austin which led to a double-turn as the fans turned on Hart and began cheering for Austin. Shamrock pulled Hart off of Austin and executed a waistlock takedown and physically challenged him to a fight. Hart declined to fight Shamrock and left the ring to a chorus of boos.Austin, meanwhile, after regaining consciousness, hit aStunneron a referee when he tried to help Austin out, then slowly limped away to backstage, while the crowd chanted his name. The sixth match of the event was aChicago Street Fightbetween theLegion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) andAhmed JohnsonandNation of Domination(Faarooq,CrushandSavio Vega). All the two teams hit each other with many foreign objects. The match continued inside the ring and outside the ring in the same fashion. Finally, Animal hit Crush with a2x4and then pinned him to win the match. Main Event Themain eventwas aNo Disqualification MatchbetweenThe Undertakerand reigning championSycho Sidfor theWWF Championship.Shawn Michaelsprovided commentary for the match. The then-heel superstar,Bret Hart, came out during the match and insulted Undertaker, Michaels and particularly Sid because he claimed that Sid had screwed him out of the title. SidpowerbombedHart while Undertaker took advantage and began attacking the champion from behind. Undertaker went for anOld Schoolbut Sid took him in abearhug. Sid attacked Undertaker with various moves and attacked him with television monitors, and applied acamel clutchon Undertaker. Sid had the advantage in the match until Hart came back and attacked Sid with a steel chair. He recovered and got Undertaker in the powerbomb but Hart returned again and distracted Sid which allowed Undertaker to hit Sid with theTombstoneand pin him to win the match. Reception The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees and drew a 0.77 buy-rate. In 2011, Marc Elusive of 411mania gave the event an overall score of 7.0 out of 10.0 and noted that \"The Attitude Era began here...\" and that the main event was \"a very boring match\".John Canton ofThe John Reportgave the event an overall score of 4 out of 10 and said that the show was \"poor\" and noted that the main event \"sucked for the first 15 minutes, but the ending was okay\". Despite the lackluster reviews towards the event, the submission match between Hart and Austin was highly praised. In 2007, it was placed #1 onIGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History, and described as a match that \"launched an era.\"Thomas Golianopoulos ofComplex Sportsalso ranked it at number 1 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, citing the match's six factors of storyline, innovation, psychology, finish, post-match angle, and fallout.Elusive of 411mania described the match as \"outstanding\" and \"that helped propel Steve Austin into the stratosphere and become the star of the late 90s and the early 00s\", while also noting the double-turn after the match. John Canton called the match a \"wrestling perfection\". It received afive-star ratingfromDave Meltzerand was also voted Match of the Year (1997) by readers of hisWrestling Observer Newsletterpublication.Pro Wrestling Illustratedreaders named it Match of the Year (1997). The submission match would also be the last time a WrestleMania match would receive a five-star rating untilWrestleMania 39in 2023 whenKevin OwensandSami ZaynvsJimmyandJey Usoon Night 1 andGunthervsSheamusvsDrew McIntyreon Night 2 both received the five-star rating. Hart would call it his favourite match, labeling it \"a real masterpiece.\"Ken Shamrockwould call it \"one of the greatest matches in wrestling history\",andJim Rosscalled it the greatest match he'd called at WrestleMania and the most \"well-executed\" match he'd seen. Aftermath Stone Cold Steve AustinandBret Hartcontinued their rivalry after WrestleMania, but Austin was now ababyfaceand his popularity would start to increase considerably while Hart was aheel. Hart recruitedBritish Bulldog,Owen Hart,Brian Pillmanand formertag teampartnerJim Neidhartto reformThe Hart Foundation.AtIn Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Takerin April, Hart and Austin had a match which Austin won bydisqualification.Theirfeudcontinued untilIn Your House 16: Canadian Stampedein July, where theHart Foundation(working as faces in Canada) defeated the American team of Austin,Ken Shamrock,Legion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) andGoldust. The Undertakerreceived apushafter he won his second WWF Championship at WrestleMania 13.He spent a reign of133 dayswhich included battles withMankind,Steve Austin,FaarooqandVader.AtSummerSlam 1997, Undertaker's long reign finally ended when he lost the title toBret Hartwhenspecial guest refereeShawn Michaelsaccidentally struck Undertaker with a steel chair, which was intended for Hart. After losing the WWF Championship to The Undertaker at WrestleMania, Sycho Sid's push began to diminish and afterKing of the Ring, he began to disappear from WWF programming. In actuality, Sid quietly left WWF to focus on recovering from a neck injury. Sid eventually returned to rival promotionWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) in 1999 and continued to wrestle as Sid Vicious until he suffered a near career-ending leg injury atWCW Sinon January 14, 2001. Results Other on-screen personnel References External links","WrestleMania XIV WrestleMania XIV(marketed asWrestleMania dX raided) was the 14th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF; WWE as of 2002). It took place on March 29, 1998, at theFleetCenterinBoston, Massachusetts. A total of eight matches were held at the event. This pay-per-view event was notable for the involvement of boxerMike Tyson, who acted as a ring enforcer for the main event. In the main event,Stone Cold Steve AustindefeatedShawn Michaelsto win theWWF Championshipfor the first time; Michaels performed despite a severe injury sustained during a match at theRoyal Rumbleand would not compete again untilSummerSlam in 2002. This was the first WrestleMania ofThe Attitude Eraand also the first WrestleMania event since1985not to featureBret Hart, who jumped to the rivalWorld Championship Wrestlingthe previous year. Production Background WrestleManiais theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XIV was scheduled to be held on March 29, 1998, at theFleetCenterinBoston, Massachusetts. In print advertisements, the event was billed as \"WrestleMania: dX raided\". Storylines After theLegion of Doomlost theirWWF Tag Team ChampionshiptoThe New Age Outlaws, they were then assaulted by the Outlaws andD-Generation X. At theRoyal Rumble, the LOD lost a championship match, thanks in large part toRoad DogghandcuffingHawkoutside of the ring.Following this, they suffered two defeats at the hands ofNWAmembersJeff JarrettandBarry Windham. Finally, on the February 23 episode ofRaw Is War, the LOD once again lost to The New Age Outlaws when, despite having the match all but won following aDoomsday Device, the non-legal Hawk did not leave the ring as Animal was making the cover; while the referee was busy removing Hawk, Animal was struck by the title belts, causing them to lose the match.Following the match, the two men brawled all the way to the back and announced their dissolution, not appearing again until WrestleMania. After theMontreal Screwjob,Owen Hartwas left as the only member of theHart familyto remain with the company; and after a temporary absence, Owen returned during the closing moments ofD-Generation X: In Your Houseto attackShawn Michaels.Following this, he turned his attention to Hunter Hearst Helmsley (who would later be known simply asTriple H) and theEuropean Championshipthat Michaels had given to Helmsley as a Christmas present. After weeks of deterring a championship match by way of a fractured kneecap (which was, in fact, legitimate), Triple H finally acquiesced to a match on the January 26 edition ofRaw Is War, only forThe Artist Formerly Known as Goldust(who was dressing up from week-to-week in a bid for attention) to appear in Helmsley's place. After Hart won the match, WWF CommissionerSgt. Slaughterdeclared the disguise to be so convincing that he upheld the decision and awarded the championship to Hart.On the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Owen defended the title againstMark Henry. During the match,Chynacame to the ring and pushed Hart off the turnbuckle allowing Henry to lock on abearhug, but before Owen could submit, Chyna delivered a blatantlow blowto Henry, resulting in a disqualification in favor of Hart. The following week in a match againstBarry Windham, Hart landed awkwardly on his ankle, suffering asprained anklewith ligament damage as a result. On a special Tuesday edition ofRaw Is Waron March 17, Hart joined the commentary team with a supportive cast on his leg. This would bring Triple H to ringside, where he goaded Owen into an impromptu title defense despite his cast. During the match, Chyna appeared and struck Owen's ankle with a baseball bat, allowing Helmsley to capitalize and win the title back. Due to his jealousy over the attention hiswife and valet,Sable, was garnering from the crowd,Marc Merowould try to intentionally cover up Sable's provocative clothing and eventually send her to the back during his matches, replacing her withThe Artist Formerly Known as Goldust, who at the time was dressing up from week-to-week in his own bid of self-attention. Although the two initially worked well together, Goldust's valetLuna Vachongrew vocally disdainful of Sable, who was also being mocked by Mero and Goldust, causing Sable to eventually grow tired of the disrespect and fight back. As the two women brawled, their partners tried to separate them; but when Goldust grabbed Sable in order to restrain her, Mero's jealousy took over and he attacked him. The two men then had a match on Raw, where both women were handcuffed to the ring posts in an effort to prevent their brawling. But after the referee was knocked down, Goldust stole the key and unchained Luna who attacked Sable withmake up, painting her face before also throwing water on her. Goldust then challenged Mero and Sable to a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania XIV. After successively beating members of theNation of Dominationweek after week,Ken Shamrockinitially defeated theIntercontinental ChampionRocky Maivia(later known as The Rock) at theRoyal Rumbledespite being hit with aforeign object, seemingly winning the title.However, The Rock convinced the referee that it was, in fact, he who suffered an illegal attack and the referee reversed his decision (Maivia had placed the foreign object in Shamrock's trunks after hitting him with it).The following month atNo Way Out of Texas: In Your House, Shamrock capitalized on the in-fighting of the Nation, due to leadership disputes betweenFaarooqand The Rock, by making the champion tap out in a ten-man tag team match. At the end of the inauguralHell in a Cellmatch atBadd Blood: In Your House, just asThe Undertakerlooked to win the match against Shawn Michaels, the lights went out and a huge masked man came to the ring and delivered atombstone piledriverto the shocked Undertaker.The masked man was revealed to beKane, Undertaker's (kayfabe) half-brother and, despite the animosity and the presence ofPaul Bearer, Undertaker vowed never to fight his little brother. Before Undertaker'scasket matchwith Michaels at the Royal Rumble, D-Generation X claimed Kane had joined them, but in fact, he came to the ring to assist Undertaker. The alliance was short-lived, however, as during theRoyal Rumble, Kane came to the ring and turned on his brother, allowing Michaels to win the match before locking Undertaker in the casket and setting it ablaze, presuming his brother dead.On the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Kane's scheduled opponent,Stone Cold Steve Austin, was taken out by D-Generation X before the match could begin. With nothing else to do, Bearer ordered the timekeeper to deliver aten-bell salutefor The Undertaker's passing, before then telling Kane to tombstone him. After he did, more bells were heard ringing, this time signaling Undertaker's arrival. The ringing continued much longer than normal, with Bearer vehemently denying the possibility of it being Undertaker. Eventually, asarcophagusappeared on the top of the ramp. After the sarcophagus was struck by a bolt of lightning, The Undertaker sat up before revealing that he had been to Hell and talked with his parents, telling them that he would have to go back on his vow before finally challenging Kane to a match at WrestleMania. The week before WrestleMania, Kane came to the ring and began to display similar supernatural powers as his brother, striking theTitanTronwith lightning, as well as the announce table, before finally striking a crew worker with lightning, setting him on fire; Undertaker was shown on the same episode speaking to his parents' gravestones, revealing it may have to take thedamnationof his soul to reunite the troubled family. In January, Stone Cold Steve Austin won theRoyal Rumble matchwhile Shawn Michaels retained hisWWF Championship, all whileMike Tysonlooked on from the director's box.The following night onRaw Is War,Vince McMahonwas set to reveal that Tyson would be thespecial guest refereefor WrestleMania's main event; however, Austin appeared and gave thefingerto Tyson, offering him a fight and proclaiming the wrestling ring to be his, not Tyson's. Austin and Tyson then engaged in a massive brawl that garnered headlines all around the world.At the ensuing press conference, McMahon officially announced that due to the explosive situation, Tyson's role was being changed to that ofring enforcer. On the February 2 episode ofRaw Is War, in a scheduled match against Road Dogg, D-Generation X stormed the match and tied Austin in the ropes, allowing Shawn Michaels to hurl insults at Austin and rub the championship belt in his face, taunting him with it untilCactus JackandChainsaw Charliecame to his aid. The following week, Austin stole the championship belt from Michaels in the hope of baiting him into a singles match, but the partnership of D-Generation X and The New Age Outlaws continued, allowing Michaels to retrieve the belt back. This all led to a \"non-sanctioned\" eight-man tag match atNo Way Out of Texas: In Your House, which Michaels was unable to participate in due to a back injury; Austin won the match for his team by pinning Road Dogg.With WrestleMania drawing closer, on the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Mike Tyson appeared once again to be interviewed by Vince McMahon, only for DX to interrupt; Shawn Michaels then challenged Tyson to a fight. After both men's entourages left the ring, the two taunted each other for a bit until Michaels would rip off Tyson's shirt, revealing a DX T-shirt underneath, showing the enforcer's degenerate alliance; Later in the evening, as Austin came out to take place in a match against Kane, Triple H appeared on the ramp and lured Austin to him. Austin fell for the trap, and promptly turned around into aSweet Chin Musicby Michaels which knocked him out, a trap which occurred again the following week. Also that week, during a St. Patrick's Day Tuesday broadcast ofRaw Is Waron March 17, Austin called out Vince McMahon and verbally berated him for describing Mike Tyson as \"the baddest man on the planet\", but McMahon would not be goaded into a fight, as he instead forced Austin to fight Rocky Maivia the following episode, just before WrestleMania. Event Chris Warrenand The DX Band opened the show by performing hard rock versions of \"America the Beautiful\" and \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". The audience did not react well to the performance, booing the band during and after their songs. This segment was edited off all subsequent home video releases, as well as the WWE Network and Peacock. Preliminary matches The night began with the mystery entrants in the tag team battle royal being revealed as the reunitedLegion of Doom, now known as LOD 2000, withSunnyas their new valet.Savio Vegawas first eliminated byChainzmeaning his tag team partner,Miguel Perez, had to leave too.Kurrganillegally entered the ring to enact revenge onSniperandReconby eliminating them on behalf ofThe Jackyl.Barry Windhamalso illegally entered to eliminate Chainz, and so left his partnerBradshaw. The final four teams lasted a while untilSkullwould be eliminated byHenry Godwinn, which meantThe Disciples of Apocalypsewere eliminated.8-Ballthen eliminatedPhineas Godwinn, which meantThe Godwinnswere then eliminated. Afterwards, The Godwinns attacked LOD 2000 with slop buckets before leaving.The Midnight Expresstried to keepAnimalout of the ring while double-teamingHawk, but once Animal re-entered the ring, LOD 2000 simultaneously eliminated bothBobandBart, leaving LOD 2000 the last team standing and the winners of the battle royal. The second match was aLight Heavyweight Championshipmatch, withTaka Michinokudefending his title againstÁguila; this would be the first and only time the championship was defended at WrestleMania, though its successor, theCruiserweight Championshipwould be defended at the event more than once. After throwing Taka out the ring andbaseball slidinginto him, Águila hit anasai moonsaultoutside the ring, but was soon the victim of aspringboard crossbodyafter Taka reversed asuplexfrom the apron. Águila almost won the match with a moonsault crossbody into a pin, but remained on the offensive with afrankensteiner. Taka tried to land theMichinoku Driver, but as Aguila flipped out and attempted a hurricanrana, Taka managed apowerbombreversal. Taka then stopped a high flying dive attempt by Aguila with a dropkick, before successfully executing a Michinoku Driver and picking up the win. After the match, both contestants shook each other's hand and celebrated together.Also, partway into the matchup,Jim Rossmade a fleeting comment about the date of Taka's title win, December 7, the date of the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, calling it \"ironic enough\". This incident went largely unnoticed, only causing a slight stir in the wrestling community. Triple Hmade his way to the ring with his theme being played by the DX Band. BeforeOwen Hartcame to the ring, CommissionerSgt. Slaughterhandcuffed himself toChynaso that she would not interfere, despite her protestations. The match began with Hart pummeling Helmsley with fists before sliding out of the ring. Triple H tried to jump from the apron onto Hart, but made contact with the crowd barrier instead. After executing a powerbomb, Hart attempted to lock in thesharpshooter, but Helmsley reversed it and started some offensive maneuvers of his own, kicking Hart in the turnbuckle and delivering a suplex. Hart then suffered a cut to the bridge of his nose from a boot to the face, after which Triple H began to work on Hart's damaged ankle, dropping his knee onto it and stretching it. After avoiding another kick to the face and crouching Helmsley onto the ring post, Owen managed to take advantage, reversing a Pedigree attempt into the sharpshooter. Chyna, having to pull Slaughter, pulled Triple H to the rope for the break. As Slaughter was distracted, Chyna then threw white powder into Slaughter's face, causing the referee a worried Hart to check on him. While the referee was distracted and as Owen turned around to confront Triple H, Chyna low-blowed him from outside, allowing Triple H to successfully nail the Pedigree and retain the title. After she was freed from the handcuffs, Chyna nailed Slaughter with a forearm and shoved him over the barricade into the crowd. Next up was the mixed tag team match.Marc MeroandGoldustbegan the match, but Goldust soon tagged inLuna Vachon, requiringSableto be tagged in too, as per the rules. However, Vachon simply ran around the outside of the ring with Sable chasing her, before tagging Goldust back in. Wanting to get her hands on Vachon, Sable double-teamed Goldust with a boot to the face after an Irish whip from Mero, but could not get Vachon to enter the ring. A near-pinfall came from a running crossbody from Mero and following this, the two ran into each other, causing both men to crawl and tag in the women. Sable then took Luna down and punched her around the face before kicking her in the midsection and face in the turnbuckle and attacking Goldust, before running back to clothesline Vachon over the ropes. Vachon tagged Goldust in, but before Sable would do the same, she struck him in the face, then let Mero take over who had hisTKOreversed into aDDT. Mero would then reverse the Curtain Call, allowing him the chance to try a moonsault pin to a standing Goldust. After Vachon struck a running Mero with her knee, Mero went to punch her, but ducked out of the way as Goldust ran to her rescue, causing him to inadvertently knock her off the apron. Mero then executed the TKO, but Luna interrupted the pin count, jumping on Mero's back resulting in Sable tagging in as Mero wandered around the ring with Vachon on his back. Sable tried pinning Goldust, but the referee was distracted and as he finally began to count, Sable leapt off Goldust so the interfering Vachon would inadvertently bodysplash Goldust. Sable then performed a powerbomb and Mero's TKO to win the bout. Gennifer Flowers, who was accompanied byJeff JarrettandTennessee Lee, then came to the ring as the special guest ring announcer for the upcomingIntercontinental Championshipmatch betweenKen ShamrockandRocky Maivia. The fight began in the aisleway with a brawl that saw Shamrock get whipped into the steel steps before both men entered the ring. Maivia then delivered his People's Elbow, but could not secure a three-count. Shamrock then rolled out of the ring and grabbed a steel chair; when the referee tried to take it off him, he threw the referee into the corner; Maivia quickly grabbed the chair and hit Shamrock with it as the referee recovered. Shamrock kicked out and quickly re-gained the advantage, delivering abelly-to-belly suplexoff an Irish whip and then securing his ankle lock submission in the center of the ring, making Maivia tap to win the match and the title. The surrounding members of the Nation quickly jumped into the ring, but Shamrock dispatched them all with suplexes, including the four hundred pound Mark Henry, before then reapplying the ankle lock to a bloody Maivia.Faarooqthen ran down from the back and jumped onto the apron, only to look on at Maivia with a smile, before walking away. A number of referees (the ones Shamrock attacked were actually independent wrestlers, or stuntmen put in referee uniforms) and officials would appear, trying to subdue Shamrock. After being surrounded, Shamrock suplexed a referee and then an official before calming down as Maivia was wheeled away on a gurney.Howard Finkelthen announced Shamrock had been disqualified for not breaking his ankle lock submission, meaning The Rock would retain the Intercontinental championship. This would cause Shamrock to become enraged and chase Rocky, and dump him off of the gurney and fighting him on the Chris Warren band stage. TheWWF Tag Team Championshipmatch was a \"Dumpster match\", the objective being the first tag team to put their opponents into a dumpster with the lids being closed shut would be the winners. The match began withBilly GunnfacingChainsaw CharlieandRoad Doggexchanging blows withCactus Jack. Trying acannonballon Road Dogg from the apron, Cactus missed and slammed himself into the dumpster instead. The Outlaws then focused on Charlie, using a back drop to deposit him into the dumpster and, as he attempted to climb out, they simultaneously slammed the lid shut on the hardcore legends' heads. With Cactus and Charlie both in the dumpster, the Outlaws shut the lid down on them, but Cactus managed to get back up while the Outlaws were celebrating and pushed Road Dogg down to the ground with a mandible claw, pulling him into the dumpster. Both teams took time to recover and began to brawl with weapons in the ring, Cactus Jack pulling out a ladder and climbing it opposite Billy Gunn, only for both men to be pushed off straight into the dumpster outside the ring, thanks to a dazed Chainsaw Charlie. Road Dogg pulled his partner out and the two then focused their efforts on Charlie, powerbombing him into the dumpster, but Cactus had managed to escape in the meantime. The fight eventually found its way to the backstage area, with both Outlaws throwing Cactus into boxes and promotional displays, but Jack replied with a chair shot to both of them and planted Billy Gunn onto a wooden pallet with adouble-arm DDT. Charlie then reappeared on aforkliftand elevated the wooden pallet as Jack dragged Road Dogg onto it too. Charlie then drove the forklift above a backstage dumpster and dropped both opponents inside as Cactus Jack closed the lid to win the WWF Tag Team Championship. Main event matches BeforeThe Undertaker's match withKane, baseball record-holderPete Rosecame to the ring as the special ring announcer. However, after insulting the hometown team and introducing Kane, he received atombstone piledriver, starting atri-year tradition.The Undertaker was preceded by a league oftorch-bearingdruids to the tune of \"O Fortuna\". As the match began, The Undertaker cornered Kane and threw a flurry of punches into him, ducking and reversing Kane's attempts until Kane hit him with aclotheslinethat he instantly sat up from. Kane then set Undertaker up in atree of woeto begin his assault of punches and Irish whips, before suplexing Undertaker onto the ropes and delivering a flying club to the neck from the turnbuckle. As The Undertaker began to fight back, Kane threw him into the ropes, but Undertaker retaliated by jumping onto his back, which was met aface-first electric chair.Paul Bearerkept the referee distracted while Kane landed the steel steps onto Undertaker, and repeated the effort a second time while Undertaker was lying on the steps, crushing him in-between them. As the referee tried to keep Kane in check, Bearer slapped Undertaker while walking past him. Kane caught his brother running and delivered achokeslam, but Undetaker lifted his shoulders off the mat before the three-count could be made. Kane put The Undertaker into a sleeper hold that he eventually fought out of with a flurry of punches. Undertaker then dropped Kane on top of the ropes and punched him off the apron; he followed this with anover the top rope suicide divethat Kane managed to sidestep, sending Undertaker crashing through the Spanish announce table. As Undertaker made it back into the ring, Kane hit him with aflying lariat. Undertaker then attempted to give Kane the Tombstone Piledriver, but Kane managed to shift his weight, reversing the positions and allowing Kane to deliver the tombstone to Undertaker instead. Undertaker kicked out and after landing a running clothesline, Undertaker choke slammed Kane and then delivered a tombstone piledriver of his own; but Kane kicked out. This would mark the first time anyone had ever kicked out of Undertaker's tombstone piledriver. It would take three tombstones with a guillotine leg drop and flying clothesline in between to stop Kane. But in the end, Undertaker scored the pin and was victorious. As soon as the match was over, Bearer attacked Undertaker and ordered Kane to attack him, which he did with a chair shot to the head and then a tombstone piledriver onto the chair. After Kane and Bearer left, Undertaker sat up and left the ring. WithMike Tysonenforcing from ringside, theWWF Championshipmatch began with both wrestlers taunting each other, engaging in a few light punches beforeShawn Michaelsescaped the ring and ran back in to take advantage ofStone Cold Steve Austin, but was met with a standing clothesline. Austin followed up by pulling down Michaels' tights, exposing Michaels' backside. Michaels then tried to run at Austin, but was back dropped over the top rope onto Triple H. As Triple H threw Austin into the crowd barrier, the referee ordered he and Chyna to leave ringside. As they were leaving Austin followed and fought with Triple H up to the entrance gate. Michaels caught up and hit Austin with a cymbal from the DX Band's stage, before Irish whipping Austin into the dumpster. As the match resumed in the ring, Austin met Michaels's high-risk maneuver with a clothesline and then ran him into the turnbuckle before picking him up for an inverted atomic drop. Michaels' attempt to pick up some momentum saw him picked up and dropped onto the ropes, but Michaels managed to push Austin away as he attempted a stunner. When Michaels tried to escape the ring though, Austin delivered a right hand, forcing the champion to fall upon the announce table. After Austin slowed the match down with a sleeper hold, Michaels tried to pull his knee into the ring post but was instead pulled into it himself. Austin then tried to rush at Michaels, but was back dropped into the crowd and struck with the ring bell. Michaels used the momentum to take advantage inside the ring, delivering a snapmare and then a low kick to the grounded Austin, while also taking time totaunt the audience. Austin briefly picked up some speed throwing Michaels out of the ring, but just as quickly lost ground as Michaels repeatedly worked on Austin's left knee, throwing it into the ring post before kicking and dropping onto it back inside the ring. When Austin tried to recover outside of the ring, he was met with a baseball slide that launched him over the announce table. Austin was then thrown back into the ring by Miks Tyson, where he soon suffered a figure-four leglock that Michaels illegally elevated using the second and third ring rope. Austin's eventual counter was stopped by a rope break. Austin then tried to reverse a standing sleeper hold by throwing Michaels back into the turnbuckle, but unwittingly trapped refereeMike Chiodawho fell unconscious. With both men on the floor, Michaels recovered with a kip-up and landed a high-flying elbow drop, getting in position forSweet Chin Music. As Austin eventually stood up, he ducked the superkick, attempting a stunner on Michaels. Michaels responded by throwing Austin into the ropes before once again attempting Sweet Chin Music. However, Austin grabbed Michaels' foot, spun him around and nailed him with a Stone Cold Stunner. Mike Tyson jumped into the ring to make a quick three count and the new champion celebrated by tossing the enforcer an \"Austin 3:16\" t-shirt. When Shawn Michaels stood up, he confronted Tyson about his turn, but was met with a punch that instantly floored him, before Tyson then draped Michaels with Austin's t-shirt. Aftermath The result of the main event heralded a changing of the guard in the World Wrestling Federation. Shawn Michaels, who had been a major superstar in the company for many years, having won his first WWF Championship at WrestleManiatwo years previously, took a four-year hiatus from wrestling due to a severe back injury sustained during the casket match against Undertaker at the Royal Rumble. During his retirement, Shawn made several ostensible one-off appearances as a guest commentator during episodes ofRaw Is Warin the summer of 1998, and eventually replacing Sgt. Slaughter as the WWF commissioner at the end of the year, holding onto the position for a year and a half. After what was supposed to be a one-time match four years later atSummerSlam, Michaels and the now renamed World Wrestling Entertainment realized that his injuries had healed, and he made a full-time return to wrestling, eventually retiring permanently in 2010 atWrestleMania XXVI, 12 years after this event. With Stone Cold Steve Austin as the new WWF Champion, the \"Attitude Era\" was fully ushered in. The company's iconic scratch logo had started to replace the \"New Generation\" logo and began to appear on ring aprons and promotional material during and after this event. The next night onRaw Is Warafter WrestleMania, the old WWF \"winged eagle\" world championship belt was retired, and a new belt design with a larger eagle and blue globe debuted (eventually being retired in 2002). The Attitude Era saw Austin's feud with Vince McMahon escalate and two weeks later,Raw Is WardefeatedWorld Championship Wrestling'sMonday Nitroin theratings warfor the first time in eighty-four weeks. Shawn Michaels' loss was criticized by Triple H the following night onRaw Is War, with Triple H blaming Michaels for overlooking Tyson's potential double-cross. Helmsley delivered a promo saying that he would now lead D-Generation X and turn it into an army, saying \"the first thing you do is look to your blood. You look to your buddies. You look to your friends. You look...tothe Kliq\",before introducing a returningSean Waltman, now under the \"X-Pac\" persona, who had re-signed with the company after being fired from World Championship Wrestling (WCW). Later in the evening, it was revealed thatRoad DoggandBilly Gunnwere also part of theDX Army. The ongoing saga between The Undertaker and Kane continued to escalate even further. The following night, Paul Bearer challenged Undertaker on behalf of Kane to a match atUnforgiven: In Your House, where the ring would be surrounded by fire. The first man to be set ablaze would lose, thus giving birth to theInferno Match. By winning the fifteen-team battle royal, LOD 2000 won the right to face the WWF Tag Team Champions at Unforgiven. The champions by rights were Cactus Jack and Chainsaw Charlie, but some legal wrangling from The New Age Outlaws saw the match held up on account of the wrong dumpster being used. The vacant titles were then decided in a steel cage match between the two teams the following night, which the Outlaws won after interference from the newly formed DX Army, concreting their ties, and by handcuffing Charlie to the cage by his neck. Charlie returned to his Terry Funk persona, whilst Cactus Jack became Dude Love again. Meanwhile, the New Age Outlaws became part of the DX Army, achieving further success. In a tag team match against Ken Shamrock and Steve Blackman, Rocky Maivia promised to show Faarooq that the Nation was stronger and more connected than ever before. The promise was a sour one as, during the match, Rocky left Faarooq to suffer the wrath of Shamrock and Blackman. Afterwards, Faarooq demanded that Rocky come back out so the two could fight. When Rocky returned and squared up to Faarooq, the other members of the Nation turned on him, and Maivia proclaimed himself as the new \"ruler\" of the faction. Before Marc Mero's match with Taka Michinoku the next night, Luna Vachon appeared and challenged Sable to a singles match, which Sable promptly accepted. Vachon also announced that it was not to be a traditional wrestling match, because she wanted to humiliate Sable, and so it would be an evening gown match to be held at Unforgiven. Results References External links","WrestleMania XV WrestleMania XVwas the 15th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 28, 1999, at theFirst Union CenterinPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania. Tenprofessional wrestling matcheswere scheduled on the event'scard. The ticket sales of 20,276 drew a gross of $1,437,050. The main event saw the challengerStone Cold Steve AustinfaceThe Rockin ano disqualification matchfor theWWF Championship. The penultimate match sawThe UndertakerwrestleBig Boss Manin aHell in a Cellmatch. Lower on the card, six of the promotion's seven activechampionshipswere defended, including the first WrestleMania defense of theHardcore Championship. Also on the undercard was aBrawl for Allmatch, an unscripted type of shootfight between wrestlerBart Gunnand boxer/mixed martial artistButterbean. This event also marked the final WWF appearance forGorilla Monsoon,who died in October that year. Production Background WrestleManiais theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" pay-per-views, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XV was scheduled on March 28, 1999, at theFirst Union CenterinPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania. Storylines WhenRoad Dogg Jesse Jamesand \"Bad Ass\"Billy Gunnlost theWWF Tag Team ChampionshiptoThe Corporation,they tried their hand at singles wrestling for some time. Gunn failed in his attempts to win theWWF Intercontinental Championship, but Road Dogg becomingHardcore Championuntil an injury prevented him from honoring a championship match withAl Snow. Snow ended up fighting himself and thenBob Hollyfor the vacant belt atSt. Valentine's Day Massacre: In Your House, with Holly winning the title at the banks of theMississippi River.When Road Dogg won the Intercontinental Championship onRaw Is WarGunn fought Holly (now Hardcore Holly) and won when Holly crashed into an ad-hoc announcers tableJim Rosshad constructed for his pirate broadcast of the show.Holly felt enraged that circumstances had conspired against him, while Snow still wanted another chance at the belt. In the previous year, due to the suddenly enlarged roster, ashootfighting(unscripted) knockout tournament titledBrawl for Allwas organized on a voluntary basis, with Bart Gunn winning the tournament on August 24after defeating every opponent by knockout aside from his opening-round opponent Bob Holly. When Holly rechristened himself Hardcore Holly on February 15, decrying poor gimmicks and tag-team partners he had been given in the past, Gunn made his first appearance since winning the tournament, to remind Holly that not all his partners were of a poor caliber.After a hardcore match between the two, which Gunn dominated until a masked assailant, revealed to be\"Dr. Death\" Steve Williams, threw him off the stage. Williams did this out of revenge for losing to Gunn in the Brawl for All. The week after on Raw Is War, Williams' managerJim Rossannounced to Gunn he would be facing notedmixed martial artistandboxerEric \"Butterbean\" Esch, who held a 43–1–1 record at the time, who challenged him to a Brawl for All fight. From November'sSurvivor Seriesuntil the night after St. Valentine's Day Massacre,The Rockand Mankind (Mick Foley) traded theWWF Championshipnumerous times as Mr. McMahonscrewedMankind time and time again on his quest to headline WrestleMania. In their final match, aRaw Is Warladder match,Paul Wightdelivered theShowstopperto Mankind as he was about to win the match,removing his chances of appearing the main event. However, as Mr. McMahon's conspiracy of appointing Big Show as special guest referee to secure The Rock as champion began to fall apart, Mankind constantly offered his services as a second official. With The Rock and Big Show causing infighting in the Corporation, Mankind successfully canvassed for a chance to referee; rather than have two conflicting referees, a match was booked to give the winner the right to officiate. When Ryan Shamrock (Alicia Webb) appeared front row onRaw Is Waron January 11, she gained attention not only from her brother but alsoVal Venis, who performed a flirtatious dance for her, and \"Badd Ass\" Billy Gunn, who lived up to his moniker by mooning her. Enraged,Ken Shamrockfought Gunn at theRoyal Rumble,then Venis at St. Valentine's Day Massacre, with Venis winning the Intercontinental Championship thanks to help from Ryan.Venis soon dumped Ryan,and she began a relationship with Goldust (Dustin Rhodes). Venis also unwittingly lost his championship to Road Dogg onRaw Is Warand found himself defending his championship against the important men in Ryan Shamrock's life in a four-corners elimination match. After The Rock won his\"I Quit\" matchagainst Mankind at the Royal Rumble by playing a recording of his voice,Triple Hdemanded an I Quit match of his own, but as he was about to put Rock through the announcers table, The Corporation came to the ring andKaneheld his manager/girlfriendChynahostage, demanding that he quit the match. As soon as the match was over, Chynalow blowedTriple H and revealed her alliances with The Corporation, promising aValentine's Daypresent at the subsequent pay-per-view. Despite almost having the match won, Triple H suffered at the hands of an interferingShane McMahonand illegal man Kane's chokeslam.Triple H took revenge on the February 22Raw Is Warby interfering in X-Pac's (Sean Waltman) match with Chyna, causing her to lose. Chyna called Triple H out on March 8, but before they could fight, Kane came to the ring. Chyna held up Triple H as Kane shot afireballat him, though he would duck out of the way causing (kayfabe) severe retinal damage to Chyna. Despite not receiving any damage, Triple H maintained that the fireball was meant for him, an insult he took personally and an intended injury he wanted to return at WrestleMania. On March 22, Kane prepared to have a match against Goldust, but as he threw off his entrance robes and wig, it turned out he was Triple H holding a flamethrower, shooting flames in Kane's face.Meanwhile, X-Pac, who had altercations with Shane McMahon prior to the February event, was frustrated with Shane's interference in the match and goaded into putting hisEuropean Championshipon the line in a tag-team match with Triple H against Kane and Shane, which Shane won thanks to Triple H being distracted by Chyna.With Shane claiming himself to be a fighting champion, he agreed to a rematch at WrestleMania, but regularly interfered in X-Pac's matches up until that point, culminating in a Greenwich Street Fight on March 22 that ended in a no-contest when theMean Street Posseambushed X-Pac and drove off with Shane in their car. Toriwas sitting front row as aplantas early as September 14'sRaw Is War, but it was not until late December that she began to act with stalker tendencies, sending flowers and notes to Sable, theWomen's Championand even helping her to defend her title againstLuna Vachonat the Royal Rumble.OnRaw Is Warthe night after the previous pay-per-view, Tori invaded the ring again and was publicly shouted at and humiliated by Sable. Vachon then brought Tori to the ring a fortnight after, reprimanding Sable for her ego, but a still-obsessed Tori helped attack Vachon. The following week on March 8'sRaw Is War, Tori fought Vachon with Sable in her corner but after receiving asquashfrom Vachon, Sable also gave Tori aSable Bomb, leading to Tori interrupting Sable'sPlayboyinterview by demanding a championship match at WrestleMania. Having beenburied alivein a Royal Rumble qualification match atRock Bottom: In Your House,The Undertakerdisappeared from television whileThe Acolytes, Faarooq (Ron Simmons) and Bradshaw (John Layfield), began to act strangely, eventually abductingDennis Knightand leaving him tied up in a darkened room. On January 11, The Undertaker returned in slightly new attire, taking a seat in a ceremonial throne on theRaw Is Warstage whilePaul Bearerstood beside him and The Acolytes brought Knight out and tied him to a table. There, Undertaker performed a ritualistic ceremony, rechristening him Mideon.Undertaker began delivering ambiguous apocalyptic messages, but after recruiting Mabel, now Viscera (Nelson Frazier, Jr.) andThe Brood, he began to be more direct, revealing his plan to attack Mr. McMahon and take over the World Wrestling Federation. The security of Mr. McMahon's Corporation,Big Boss Man, challenged the Ministry to a six-man tag team match, which ended in a no-contest when the Ministry abducted Shane McMahon and took him to Undertaker, who threatened him while choking him then gave him a letter to give to his father. McMahon replied the following week on February 22 by booking The Undertaker in anInferno matchwith Kane onRaw Is War, the first network television airing of that type of match. During the match, McMahon provided commentary, nonchalantly revealing he had placed Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match against Big Boss Man for WrestleMania. During the match, Paul Bearer gave an ominous gift to McMahon, a teddy bear. After Undertaker set Kane on fire, he turned to the enraged McMahon, taking the teddy bear (later revealed to belong toStephanie McMahon) and setting it alight, reducing Vince to his knees.Trying to defeat either of his problems, McMahon declared he'd never show such weakness again and put Mankind against Undertaker, which ended with Undertaker almost chokeslamming McMahon through the announcers table until Boss Man saved him.Undertaker continued with his mind games on March 8, ordering his Ministry to look for Boss Man all night and attacking any innocents in his way, eventually capturing Boss Man and crucifying him. Boss Man managed to escape while police were being beaten off by Undertaker's minions until he offered himself to the police while being derided by McMahon. The following week he continued his assault, with videos playing throughout the evening of the Ministry at McMahon's mansion ending in McMahon coming to the ring while Triple H brawled with Kane, begging Kane to help him. Kane ripped off his mask to reveal it was actually The Undertaker who grabbed McMahon by the throat as the lights turned off in the arena and when they came up, he was gone with McMahon alone in the ring. The main event of the evening was another chapter in the ongoing rivalry betweenStone Cold Steve Austinand McMahon, which dated back to when Austin won the Royal Rumble in 1998.After Austin won the WWF Championship atWrestleMania XIV,McMahon set on a six-month-long quest to take the championship from him. With the exception of a one day reign by Kane, who won the championship in a First Blood Match atKing of the Ringwhen his (kayfabe) brother The Undertaker caused Austin to bleed first, Austin thwarted each attempt by McMahon untilBreakdown: In Your Housein September 1998. There, Austin defended the championship against Undertaker and Kane in what was billed as a triple threat match. McMahon added a stipulation, however, that neither brother could pin the other to win the match;this led to both men simultaneously pinning Austin, causing him to lose the match and the championship. This had been part of a deal McMahon had made with the two men to protect him from Austin, with the reward of the championship if they were successful. However, McMahon went back on his word after Austin attacked him on the next night’sRawand announced he was forcing Undertaker and Kane to wrestle for the vacant championship atJudgment Day: In Your House. He also named Austin the special guest referee, hoping to humiliate him by forcing him to declare a new champion. Austin, however, had other ideas and counted both men out, declaring himself the winner of the match and leaving the championship vacant. ADeadly Gamestournament was scheduled forSurvivor Seriesin November, in which it turned out that The Rock, not Mankind, was McMahon's choice for winner and had the tournament manipulated to his advantage, while Austin lost in a match when McMahon's son Shane, acting as referee, refused to count a pinfall to go to the finals.Knowing Rock would be busy feuding with Mankind, McMahon realized Austin was likely to use the 1999 Royal Rumble, rather than a personal attack, to attempt to reclaim the belt and laid down the stipulation that he must win a Buried Alive match against The Undertaker to be in the Rumble. When he did, with some help from Kane,McMahon further tried to prevent Austin winning back the championship by \"randomly\" drawing him as the first entrant in the Rumble and drawing himself as the 30th. Having annoyed commissionerShawn Michaels, McMahon was placed into the match as the second entrant. McMahon would later try to incentivize other wrestlers to eliminate Austin by putting a $100,000 bounty on him during the Royal Rumble match. Despite this, Austin (and, for that matter, McMahon) managed to stay in the match to the very end, although this was mostly due to he and McMahon leaving the ring at various points to brawl around the arena. Late in the match The Rock, who earlier in the evening had regained the WWF Championship, came to the ring and started arguing with Austin. McMahon took advantage of the distraction and threw Austin over the top rope, thus winning the match. Since he was officially now the winner of the Royal Rumble, McMahon was entitled to face whoever the WWF Champion was at WrestleMania. On the following night's episode ofRaw, however, he announced that, since he was only a part-timer and the champion was a fellow Corporation member in The Rock, that he had filed paperwork relinquishing his WrestleMania championship opportunity and that he would be naming a replacement later in the evening. To his chagrin, Austin and Michaels informed him shortly thereafter that, according to the rules, his actions resulted in Austin, as the runner-up in the Royal Rumble, taking his place. With McMahon irate, Austin revealed he was willing to put his place on the line and not headline WrestleMania if McMahon would give him the opportunity to fight him one on one with no interference from The Corporation; if McMahon could beat him, Austin would not go to WrestleMania. Their steel-cage match at St. Valentine's Day Massacre mostly consisted of McMahon running away, but eventually the two fought with Austin winning the match under unusual circumstances whenBig Showmade his debut, coming from under the ring and throwing Austin into the cage with the walls of it coming open, meaning that Austin had inadvertently won. Event (Brawl For All) Pre-show The event was marked with aRage Partythe preceding evening at thePennsylvania Convention Center, playing on the tagline of the event, much likeFan Axessthat would come in later years. It included music fromIsaac Hayes,Big Pun, and theCherry Poppin' Daddies. During theSunday Night Heatpre-show, Jacqueline (Jacqueline Moore) pinned Ivory (Lisa Moretti) after a back suplex.After the match,Terri Runnelsburned her cigar into Ivory's cheek. The secondHeatmatch saw a 21-man battle royal match with the last two competitors becoming a tag team for the evening to face the Tag Team Championship holders. In the event,D'Lo Brownand Test (Andrew Martin) were the last two, still fighting without realizing the match was over when Droz (Darren Drozdov) and The Godfather (Charles Wright) eliminated each other.The show officially began withBoyz II Mensinging \"America the Beautiful\" in the ring before the opening video. Preliminary matches The inaugural WrestleMania Hardcore Championship match began with Al Snow striking Billy Gunn as he tried to make apre-match speech. With Gunn in the corner, Snow fought with Hardcore Holly outside the ring, wrapping his neck in cable but, after some fighting from Gunn, Holly was able tosuplexSnow. After Gunn again interjected himself, Snow was able to go underneath the mat to find some weapons including aPhiladelphia Flyershockey stick much to the delight of the crowd. The match ended when Gunn put Snow through a table in the corner, originally intended for Gunn and then used theFameasseron Snow, driving him into a chair on the mat. As the referee counted, Holly struck Gunn with a weapon, quickly covering Snow to steal his second championship reign. TheWWF Tag Team Championshipmatch began withJeff Jarrettand D'Lo Brown exchanging running maneuvers before both tagging in their respective partners, at which point Test used apumphandle slamonOwen Hart, but tried again after a failed pin attempt only to be met with anenziguiriand then theSharpshooter. Brown came in illegally to break it up but was tagged in straight afterward, dominating both Hart and Jarrett with power slams and dropkicks, almost winning the match after aSky Highthat was broken up by Jarrett. RefereeJimmy Korderaswas distracted when Debra (Debra Marshall) came to the apron to distract Brown only to be pulled down by Ivory (Lisa Moretti), at which pointPMS(Terri RunnelsandJacqueline Moore) arrived and all of them began to fight while Test tried to pull them apart. With everyone distracted, Hartmissile dropkickedBrown allowing Jarrett to roll Brown up and sit on him, securing a pin count. The Brawl For All match began with the two meetings in the middle, Gunn running into some blows from Butterbean. The two traded punches, neither man managing to contact properly until Butterbean shook Gunn with a left-hand jab followed by a right hook which stunned Gunn allowing Bean to corner him, giving him another right hook which knocked him down. Gunn immediately came back upon his knees but took advantage of the eight seconds before standing up fully. As the fight resumed, Butterbean jabbed Gunn to the body and followed with a clean overhand right which sent Gunn back to the canvas, giving Butterbean a victory via knockout.The match lasted a total of 34 seconds.This was followed with an appearance fromthe San Diego Chicken, who mocked special refereeVinny Pazienzaand was punched to the floor for it. On the WWF WrestleMania special onHSNlater during the pay per view, after the Shane McMahon match\"Dr. Death\" Steve Williamscut a promo on Bart Gunn in a backstage interview withJim Rossby his side, saying the Butterbean's punch \"wasn't lucky\" and that \"Bart deserved what he got\", telling the viewer to keep watching WWF because \"the Doctor hasn't finished his job yet\".This was in hopes of setting up an angle between Williams and Gunn, and to continue building Williams as a credible midcarder. However, because of Gunn being released, their feud instead carried over toAll Japan Pro Wrestlingin the early 2000s, where in Japan the Brawl For All was better received. When Mankind entered the ring he was immediatelyheadbuttedout, but as Big Show followed him out, Mankind slammed Show's head into the steel steps. He then tried adouble-armed DDTinto the steps but was shoved over the steps falling backward. Show dominated Mankind in the ring afterward, using his sheer size to punch and throw Mankind, with Mankind eventually being tied up in the ropes, which allowed him to back body drop Show out of the ring. Mankind then took out Mr. Socko, a smelly gym sock, and stuffed the foul-smelling sock into the Big Show’s mouth with themandible clawthree times. The third claw came with alow blow, for which Mankind was not disqualified. When Show stood back up, he had Mankind on his back with the sock in his mouth and jumped backward so that his entire body landed on Mankind, breaking up the hold. As the two recovered, Show kicked his opponent out of the ring, grabbing a steel chair and thrusting it into Mankind's chest then hitting it over his back. Big Show threw that chair and another in the ring, setting them both in seated positions andShow StoppingMankind through the middle of them. At this pointEarl Hebnerfinally decided to disqualify Big Show, with Show taking out his anger by attacking Mankind more with the chair. Mr. McMahon made his way to the ring afterward, berating Big Show for risking the WWF Championship match at which point Show grabbed him by the throat. He then thought better of it and released him, only to be met with another tirade from McMahon and a slap, causing Show to punch McMahon and knock him out. The four corners Intercontinental match began with Ken Shamrock and Road Dogg in the ring, with the latter being thrown from corner to corner until Goldust tagged his way in, with runningshoulder bargesthat floored Shamrock. Shamrock tagged in Venis who came in and instantly attacked Shamrock until Goldustbackdroppedhim. Goldust tried theCurtain Callbut Venis flipped over Goldust's back only to be knocked down again by aclotheslinefrom Goldust who then put Venis on the turnbuckle and attempted asuperplexbut Venis fought back and replied with adiving bulldogfollowing with afisherman suplex pinwhich would only make a two count. The two then collided in the turnbuckle, causing Goldust to fall down and Venis to fall on him, headbutting his crotch. Shamrock took a blind tag from Road Dogg, after he replaced Goldust, immediately putting anankle lockuntil Venis grabbed the bottom rope. As Venis grabbed the ropes to stand up again Shamrock charged him but was tossed over the ropes as Ryan Shamrock insulted him. Venis went after Ken Shamrock and the two fought up the walkway with Shamrock running back to the ring but not fast enough to avoid a double count-out. Shamrock, not accepting the decisionbelly to belly suplex slammedboth competitors before leaving. When they recovered Goldust Irish whipped Road Dogg but had it reversed and as Goldust ran into the ropes he had his leg caught by Ryan Shamrock, seemingly trying to grab Road Dogg's leg. Road Dogg charged Goldust and was picked up for apowerslambut managed to roll Goldust round, crashing him into the floor and covering him for a successful pin count. Before Kane's match with Triple H, Kane entered the ring only to be attacked while he was performing his signature entrance by the San Diego Chicken. Kane fought back and unmasked the chicken, revealing it to bePete Rose, trying to gain revenge for theprevious year's incidentbut receiving aTombstone piledriver.Triple H also tried to ambush Kane by coming through the crowd while all eyes were on the stage entrance, hitting Kane out of the ring and then hitting him into the ring post and whipping him into the steel steps. Kane then picked Triple H up and straddled him on the crowd barrier, pushing him into theMean Street Possewho were at ringside, picking him up again to ram his back into the steel post three times. Back inside the ring, Kane dominated Helmsley with his rough fighting style, using his foot to choke Triple H and knocking him down with clotheslines and punches until Triple H gained momentum from a reversal, smashing Kane's face into his knee. Kane was allowed time to recover when Triple H was distracted by Chyna coming to ringside. Triple H tried toPedigreeKane as he stood up but failed while Chyna pushed the steel steps into the ring. Kane picked them up and ran into Triple H, who used the turnbuckle to swing his feet up and kicked them back into Kane causing Kane to stagger backward and drop them before smashing his face into the steps from adrop toe-hold. Triple H then clotheslined Kane out of the ring, following himself and attempting to Pedigree Kane on the steps but wasbackbody dropped. When they made it back into the ring Kane chokeslammed Triple H while Chyna entered the ring with a steel chair, telling Kane she wanted to attack Triple H, but as Kane turned, Chyna hit him with the chair, causing him to corner her but again was hit with the chair, this time by Triple H, who followed it up with a Pedigree onto the chair. Chyna and Triple H celebrated the reunion of D-Generation X afterwards. The Women's Championship match began with Tori taking her time to enter the ring, Sable grabbing her hair when she finally did and tossing her back out. Tori regrouped outside and pulled Sable out by her legs, ramming her face into the apron and the barricade. She was whipped into the barrier herself and as she recovered, Sable performed acrossbodyfrom the outside apron. Sable continuously assaulted Tori while down on the mat, but Tori delivered two vicious clotheslines to the corner on Sable, then attempted asunset flip pinwhich began a series of pinning reversals ending in a stalemate. Afterward Tori tried a running attack on Sable but took out referee Jimmy Korderas unwittingly. Sable then tried to perform herSable Bombbut Tori jumped out of it. As she tried to perform her own powerbomb, a muscled woman, later identified asNicole Bass, came into the ring togorilla press slamTori. This allowed Sable to Sable Bomb Tori and pin her to retain the championship. Before X-Pac could make his way to the ringPat PattersonandGerald Briscoattacked him from behind but caused the little problem to X-Pac who beat them then ran into the ring, with Shane McMahon fleeing. Shane eventually made his way to the ring and was punched into the corner, escaping aBronco Busterwhen Test pulled him out of the ring. Shane tried to escape once again but X-Pac chased him and threw him back into the ring, only to be struck down by Test and then have his crotch rammed into the ring post. When he returned to the ring Shanescoop slammedhim and attempted aCorporate Elbow, with X-Pac sitting up just before the end but he was brought back down with a low blow as refereeMike Chiodawas distracted by Test. Shane continued to push the disqualification boundaries by whipping X-Pac with his belt several times before being back body dropped out of the ring, recovering only to be met with a flying crossbody. The Mean Street Posse tried to restrain X-Pac but he fought back, only to be floored by Test. After a superplex, the pin-count was broken up by Test but he was soon kicked out of the ring then X-Pac whipped McMahon with the belt before round house kicking him into the corner and performing the Bronco Buster. When Chioda checked on McMahon afterward, Test struck X-Pac with the championship belt but by the time McMahon covered him he managed to kick out. Test tried to interfere but took a Bronco Buster too. Triple H and Chyna came to the ring to pull Test out but when McMahon was floored by anX Factor, Chyna distracted the referee to allow Triple H to Pedigree X-Pac and cover him with Shane, turningheeland allowing him to retain the title. The New Age Outlaws ran to the ring and brawled with Triple H and Test until the lights went out and Kane's music began to play but by the time the lights came up The Corporation were clear of the ring and had fled. Main event matches The Hell in a Cell match began with Big Boss Man punching The Undertaker into the corner until he ducked out and returned the same. Although Boss Man was able to deliver aswinging neckbreaker, Undertaker took control again throwing Boss Man into the cell. Boss Man reversed an Irish whip and threw Undertaker into the cell too, handcuffing one hand to the chain fence. Boss Man taunted Undertaker's lack of control before striking him repeatedly with hisnight stickcausing Undertaker to fall to the floor and rip the handcuffs, though Boss Man carried on using the nightstick andcut Undertaker open. Undertaker fought back by grabbing Boss Man at the throat and throwing him back into the fence again, striking him with a chair and running Boss Man face-first into the chain fence with afireman's carry. As the two returned to the ring Boss Man tried to clothesline Undertaker but he ducked and performed aleaping flying clotheslineof his own before goingOld School, ultimately falling into the ropes. The two began a fistfight in the middle of the ring with Undertaker failing a tombstone piledriver attempt, but successfully performing it seconds later and pinned him afterwards.Undertaker stood up and looked to the heavens with his hands upwards, signalingThe Broodto descend onto the roof of the cell. They cut open the roof of the cell and passed through a noose, securing the other end to the top of the cell. The Brood then ascended back into the rafters as Undertaker put the noose around Boss Man's neck, with Paul Bearer causing the Cell to rise and take a hanging Boss Man with it.After the match a video package of theRage Partywas shown while Boss Man was taken down and carried off on a stretcher. Before the main event,Michael ColeannouncedJim Rossreturning to call the match. Mr. McMahon then came to the ring as the special guest referee but was confronted by CommissionerShawn Michaels, who explained that only the commissioner is entitled to appoint a referee for WrestleMania, ordering McMahon to the back and barring all members of The Corporation from ringside. The main event began with the two wrestlers insulting each other before Austin threw the first punch, The Rock instantly returning. The majority of the early part of the match took place outside the ring, with Austin being choked with a T-shirt then taking Rock through the crowd before returning into the secure area and into the crowd the opposite end. When Rock threw Austin back into the secure area he choked him on some cable and took him up the walkway, but Austin fought out of his grasp and threw him into the steel barriers, trying to piledrive him but being backbody dropped so that his knee landed onto light support girders. Rock picked up Austin and threw him into the WrestleMania XV sign but Austin circled round and threw Rock into them instead, then dragged him back towards the ring having a suplex reversed on the concrete walkway. Rock then tried to throw Austin back through the crowd at ringside, spitting water in his face but Austin took control and put him onto the Spanish announce table, performing two elbow drops to break the table and then spat water into Rock's face. Austin threw his opponent into the ring, celebrating to the crowd but when he entered the ring Rock sprang up and drove Austin into the floor with aRock Bottom, following with an unsuccessful pin cover. The Rock grabbed a chair but Austin took it from him, Rock blocked the oncoming chair shot by pulling referee Mike Chioda in front of him, who took the chair shot. Rock then caught Austin by surprise with a swinging neckbreaker, taking the chair and driving it into Austin's back several times. After another pin attempt, withTim Whitenow officiating, Austin still kicked out and Rock used asitting chin holdto subdue him. After holding him for some time, Austin slowly stood up, elbowing Rock and attempting a running attack but was taken out with aSamoan drop, which Austin again kicked out of. The Rock took his frustration out on White, Rock Bottoming him,which gave Austin the time to recover and attack the champion with aStone Cold Stunner, withEarl Hebnereventually coming in to officiate but only counting to two before Rock kicked out. Mr. McMahon came to the ring, distracting Austin while The Rock low-blowed him; the two men kicking away at Austin in the corner and punching Hebner when he tried to stop them. As the two double-teamed Austin, Mankind came running to the ring in his referee's uniform,throwing McMahon straight out the ring and taking over as referee. Austin tried a roll-up pin, following up with aLou Thesz Pressbut Rock soon took the advantage with another Rock Bottom. With Austin in the middle of the ring, The Rock tried theCorporate Elbowbut Austin moved out of the way at the last second. Rock caught Austin's foot and spun him around, trying to Rock Bottom him again but Austin elbowed him away and delivered a stunner, finally securing a pinfall and winning the WWF Championship. Reception The event was met with mixed critical response.Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event five out of 10 stars. The main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin for the WWF Championship was rated eight out of 10 stars; the Hell in a Cell match between The Undertaker and Big Boss Man was rated five out of 10 stars; the match between Shane McMahon and X-Pac for the WWF European Championship was rated seven out of 10 stars; the match between Sable and Tori for the WWF Women's Championship was rated one out of 10 stars; the match between Triple H and Kane was rated four out of 10 stars; the referee match between Mankind and Big Show was rated four out of 10; the four-corners elimination match for the WWF Intercontinental Championship between Road Dogg Jesse James, Ken Shamrock, Goldust, and Val Venis was rated five out of 10 stars; the tag team match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between D'Lo Brown and Test against Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett was rated three out of 10 stars; and the triple threat match for the WWF Hardcore Championship between Hardcore Holly, Billy Gunn, and Al Snow was rated six out of 10 stars. Writing for 411Mania in 2009, Rob McNew gave the event a rating of 5.5/10, stating, \"Like mostAttitude Erashows this one doesn’t hold up very well ten years later\" though he praised the main event bout between Rock and Austin.Similarly, Scott Keith gave the event an overall negative rating, while calling the Rock vs. Austin match \"solid by default\" and complimenting Shane McMahon's performance given his lack of wrestling experience.In 2012,Bleacher Reportranked the event 25th out of the 27 Wrestlemanias to that point, calling the event \"underwhelming\" and criticizing theHell in a Cellmatch. Aftermath Stone Cold Steve Austin's feud with The Corporation continued after WrestleMania with Austin demanding the return of his customized smoking skull belt that was taken from him after losing the WWF Championship atBreakdown: In Your Housein 1998. WithThe Ministry of Darknesscontinuing to threaten his family, Mr. McMahon was forced to comply with his nemesis' demands and requested his son Shane to deliver the belt to Austin. Shane, however, refused and took matters with Austin into his own hands by giving the smoking skull belt to The Rock. This culminated in a rematch between Austin and The Rock atBacklash 1999while McMahon served as a special guest referee. Austin defeated The Rock to retain the WWF Championship after Mr. McMahon prevented Shane from screwing him and handed the smoking skull belt back to Austin. The Ministry of Darkness continued their ongoing war with The Corporation with The Undertaker going after Mr. McMahon's daughterStephanie. The Undertaker continued to make sacrifices includingRyan Shamrockleading to a feud between Undertaker and Ken Shamrock who wanted revenge for Undertaker's actions to his family with Undertaker defeating Shamrock at Backlash: In Your House. When The Undertaker did successfully find Stephanie, Shamrock, in his quest to get revenge on Undertaker, continued to beat down and interrogate members of The Ministry of Darkness for McMahon's whereabouts. AfterChristiantold Shamrock McMahon's whereabouts, Undertaker punished Christian by whipping him and have him face Crucifixion.EdgeandGangrel, who along with Christian were members of their own stableThe Broodand were loyal to Christian decided to rescue him, betraying The Ministry. The Ministry got revenge by defeating The Brood in a Six-Man Tag Team Match at Backlash. Bart Gunn would leave the WWF after his match against Butterbean. On theDark Side of the Ringepisode on theBrawl for All, Gunn said he felt his match against Butterbean was \"punishment\" for winning the Brawl and knocking out Steve \"Dr. Death\" Williams during the event (Williams suffered other injuries during the match) which was not what the bookers wanted (they wanted Williams to win to give him a push against \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin). Gunn would not return to WWF TV until 2007. Nicole Bass continued to accompany Sable to the ring and destroyed all competition for Sable's WWF Women's Championship. After HHH washed his hands of D-Generation X and joined Chyna in the Corporation, X-Pac teamed up with Kane to form an unlikely tag team, and captured the WWF Tag Team titles from Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett. The City of Philadelphia would later host the event again in2024with this time being held at the nearbyLincoln Financial Fieldin commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the event held in the city and the 40th anniversary of the WrestleMania. Results References External links","WrestleMania X-Seven WrestleMania X-Seven(also known asWrestleMania 17) was the 17th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF). It took place on April 1, 2001, at theReliant AstrodomeinHouston, Texas. It was the first WrestleMania held in thestateofTexas. Twelve matches were contested at the event, including one broadcast exclusively on theSunday Night Heatpre-show. Themain eventwas aNo Disqualification matchbetweenThe Rockand\"Stone Cold\" Steve Austinfor theWWF Championship. TheundercardincludedTriple HversusThe Undertaker, the secondTables, Ladders, and Chairs matchfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipand aStreet FightbetweenVince McMahonandShane McMahonwithMick Foleyas special guest referee. A record-breaking attendance for the Reliant Astrodome of 67,925 grossedUS$3.5 million.Many in professional wrestling considered WrestleMania X-Seven to be the pinnacle of the company's famousAttitude Era, similar to howWrestleMania IIIwas the pinnacle of the 80's wrestling boom. The WWF bought out rival competitionWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) the week prior. In addition to its commercial success, the event has received acclaim from critics and fans, and is often regarded as the greatest WrestleMania of all time, and the greatest professional wrestling pay-per-view event ever produced. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) first flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania 17, stylized as WrestleMania X-Seven, was scheduled to be held on April 1, 2001, at theReliant AstrodomeinHouston, Texas, the first WrestleMania held in thestateofTexas. Storylines The main feud leading into WrestleMania X-Seven involved\"Stone Cold\" Steve AustinchallengingThe Rockfor theWWF Championship.The Rock and \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin had fought for the WWF Championship atWrestleMania XVandBacklashin 1999. Stone Cold Steve Austin earned his opportunity to compete for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania X-Seven by winning the2001 Royal Rumblematch when he last eliminatedKane, while The Rock became the first ever six-time WWF Champion when he defeatedKurt AngleatNo Way Out.During their feud, Austin's wifeDebra, who was trying to get back into managing, was ordered by WWF chairman,Vince McMahon, to be The Rock's manager against her wishes as well as both Rock and Austin's. As a result, Austin would hold The Rock and McMahon responsible if any harm came to her. On the March 12 episode ofRaw is War, The Rock was placed in an overlongAnkle Lockhold during his rematch with Kurt Angle. When Debra went to check on The Rock, Angle also placed her into an Ankle Lock hold. Austin soon ran in to save her and knocked Angle out of the ring. Keeping to his word, he immediately gave The Rock aStone Cold Stunneras punishment. The following week on Raw is War, during a handicap tag team match involving The Rock,Chris Jericho,Kurt Angle,Chris Benoit, andWilliam Regal, Austin made his way down to the ring and ended up getting a Rock Bottom from The Rock in response to the stunner from the previous week. On the March 29 episode ofSmackDown!, Debra was relieved from her managerial role by Mr. McMahon after failing to prevent a brawl between Rock and Austin. The secondary feud leading into the event pittedThe Brothers of Destruction(The UndertakerandKane) againstTriple HandThe Big Show. After defeating \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin in aThree Stages of Hellmatch at No Way Out, Triple H felt that he deserved to be in the WrestleMania main event having defeated everyone in the WWF, including The Rock and Austin.The Undertaker took exception to that and told him that Triple H had never defeated him. Before WrestleMania X-Seven, the two had never faced each other in a one-on-one match on a pay-per-view event.During his entrance for aHardcore Championshipmatch against The Big Show, Triple H ambushed Undertaker. Kane ran in and saved the Undertaker from a further attack but was met with his own ambush by The Big Show. On the following episode ofSmackDown!, Undertaker tried to break into the limousine of Triple H and his wife,Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, on arrival but ended up being arrested by the police. As a result, Kane requested a match against Triple H later that night but lost when The Big Show interfered on behalf of Triple H. In retaliation, Kane interfered in The Big Show's Hardcore Championship match againstRavenonRaw is War, helping Raven pin Big Show to become the new Hardcore Champion. Undertaker's arrest led to a restraining order from Stephanie. To circumvent this, the Brothers of Destruction interfered in Triple H's match againstTest, with Kane ordered to run after Stephanie. With Stephanie held at ransom by Kane on a balcony in the arena, WWF commissionerWilliam Regalgave Undertaker and Kane matches at WrestleMania against Triple H and The Big Show respectively and the Undertaker told Kane to put her down. After being attacked during a Hardcore Championship title defense, Regal would later include Raven into Kane and Big Show's match, making it a Triple Threat Hardcore match for the Hardcore Championship. Another major feud that was built up in the lead to WrestleMania was the one involving Vince McMahon and his sonShane McMahon. The feud started with Vince's disapproval ofMick Foley's job as then-WWF commissioner as well as Foley's decision of holding a six-manHell in a Cellmatch atArmageddon 2000, taking into consideration about the well-being of the wrestlers involved in the match. Despite his attempts Foley was given full support byLinda McMahon, Vince's wife and the WWF's CEO. Not pleased with this result, Vince immediately demanded a divorce from Linda. Shortly after Armageddon, secretly to Vince's delight, it was revealed Linda was rushed to hospital suffering with a nervous breakdown. With Linda hospitalized, the Board of Directors appointed Vince as the new CEO of the WWF, allowing him to fire Foley as commissioner. With Linda in acoma-like state, Vince started to have a public affair withTrish Stratus. Vince's daughter, Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, was at first far from pleased about the turn of events. AtNo Way Out, Stephanie and Trish squared off, with Stephanie scoring the victory after arun-inby William Regal. On the February 26 episode ofRaw is War, however, during a match that placed Vince and Trish against Stephanie and William Regal, Stratus was turned on by the other participants in the match and had sewage dumped over her. In the following shows, Vince continued to demean Trish by having her do such actions as bark like a dog around the ring and stripping down to her lingerie. Despite this, Trish remained loyal to Vince and begged for his forgiveness. On the March 12 episode ofRaw is War, Shane McMahon made his return to the WWF. Angry with his father's actions, Shane started to throw punches at Vince only to be stopped by William Regal. Shane explained his actions on the following episode ofSmackDown!as a result of frustrations over the manipulation of his sister, his mother's state and Vince's treatment of Trish. On March 23, World Wrestling Federation Entertainment, Inc. purchased the assets of their longtime rival promotion,World Championship Wrestling(WCW) fromAOL Time Warner.With it, the purchase brought in an extra twist to the storyline. On the March 26 episode ofRaw is War(which was held atGund ArenainCleveland, Ohio), Vince McMahon made a live speech that was alsosimulcaston the final episode ofWCW Monday Nitro(which was held inPanama City Beach, Florida). In the speech, Vince announced that the signing was not final and that he wantedTed Turnerto come to WrestleMania to hand-deliver the contract for signing. He then promised that with the purchase he was going to bury his rival forever. However, Shane, who was at the venue forNitro, interrupted the speech and said: Because, dad, the deal is finalized... with WCW, and the name on the contract does say \"McMahon\". However, the contract reads \"Shane McMahon\". That's right! I now own WCW! And, dad, just likeWCW did in the past, how it kicked your ass in the pastand it will again, that's exactly what's going to happen to you this Sunday at WrestleMania! Oh my god! I don't believe it! I do not believe what we heard.Shane McMahon has bought WCW, and Mr. McMahon is in absolute shock! -Jim Ross,play-by-play commentatorfor theRaw is Warepisode before the event. To make matters worse for Vince, Mick Foley appeared shortly afterward that night and revealed that prior to his firing, Linda had made multiple contracts for him to sign, one of them was for Foley to referee a match of his choice at WrestleMania. Foley then chose the match between Vince and Shane, which was designated astreet fight. At theRoyal Rumble, Chyna (kayfabe) injured her neck during a match with Ivory, causing her to lose the match and fail to capture the Women's Championship. In order for Chyna to again challenge for the title, Ivory required the match contract to include a \"hold harmless\" clause, stating that if Ivory injures Chyna's neck again, there could be no legal recourse against Ivory. In doing so, the contract also included a provision to ban Ivory'sRight To Censor(RTC) stablemates from ringside. Event Before the event airedliveon pay-per-view, aSunday Night Heatmatch was aired withSteve BlackmanandGrand Master Sexaysquaring off againstX-FactormembersX-PacandJustin Credible. Near the end of the match, fellow X-Factor memberAlbertinterfered by pulling Sexay out of the ring, allowing X-Pac and Credible to hit theirX Marks the Spotfinisher on Blackman for the win. The first match of the event was theWWF Intercontinental Championshipmatch betweenChris Jerichoand WWF commissionerWilliam Regal. During the match, Regal exposed one of the top turnbuckles to throw Jericho's shoulder into it before giving him adouble underhooksuperplex. Jericho attempted theWalls of Jerichosubmission hold but had it reversed into aRegal Stretch. After Jericho managed to grab a ring rope to break the hold, he retaliated with numerouschopsbefore throwing Regal into the exposed turnbuckle and finishing him off with aLionsaultto retain the Intercontinental Championship. TazzandThe APA(BradshawandFaarooq) took onRight to Censor(The Goodfather,Val Venis, andBull Buchanan) next in a short match that ended with Bradshaw pinning the Goodfather after aClothesline from Hell. The third match was thetriple threathardcore matchbetweenRaven,KaneandThe Big Showfor theWWF Hardcore Championship. Raven came out with a shopping cart full of weapons. Kane and Raven began fighting before Big Show made his entrance. During the match, the three wrestlers fought their way out of the ring and through the crowd into the backstage area. Big Show tried to lock himself, Raven and the referee in a security cage but Kane broke the padlock and afterward threw Raven through a glass window. Big Show and Kane continued to brawl ending with the two throwing each other through a wall. Raven tried to escape by driving off in agolf cart, but Big Show stopped him and caused him to crash. The golf cart also ran over some cords that allegedly almost knocked the power out of the building. Kane shortly followed with another golf cart, accompanied by the referee, and ran into Raven. The fight headed back into the stadium with Big Show attempting to press slam Raven off the entrance stage but both were kicked off it by Kane. Kane followed this with a divingleg dropoff the stage onto Big Show, pinning him to become the new Hardcore Champion. The fourth match was theWWF European Championshipmatch betweenTestandEddie Guerrero. During the match, Test went over the top rope but got his foot caught between the top two ropes, forcing the referee and Guerrero to have to untangle him. With the help of his fellowRadicalzmembersDean MalenkoandPerry Saturn, Guerrero hit Test in the face with the European Championship belt while the referee was distracted and pinned him to become the new champion. The fifth match pittedKurt AngleagainstChris Benoit. The match started with mat wrestling between the two but Angle soon punched Benoit out of frustration and threw him out of the ring, so he could throw him into the broadcast table and the steel steps. Back in the ring, both men tried to submit their opponent using the other's signature hold with Benoit using theankle lockon Angle, and Angle using theCrippler Crossfaceon Benoit. Benoit eventually succeeded in forcing Angle to tap out to the Crippler Crossface but the referee was knocked down and didn't see it. Near the end of the match, Benoit tried to pin Angle after adiving headbuttbut was met with a two-count. Angle then quicklyrolled-upBenoit, using the tights for leverage to win the match. The following match sawChynachallenge theWWF Women's ChampionIvory. After an early bit of offense from Ivory, Chyna performed aChynabomband looked to have the pinfall, but picked Ivory up after the 2-count. Chyna then performed agorilla press dropand nonchalantly pinned Ivory to win the Women's Championship. The seventh match was thestreet fightbetweenShane McMahonandVince McMahonwithMick Foleyas the special guest referee. Shane dominated his father during the earlier part of the match by attacking him with various weapons such as a kendo stick and monitors from the Spanish broadcast table. Shane laid Vince on said table and performed adiving elbow dropoff the top rope but his sister,Stephanie, pulled Vince out of the way, causing Shane to crash through it.Trish Stratuscame towards the ring, pushingLinda McMahonout in a wheelchair, and then slapped Vince, causing her and Stephanie to get into a fight that led them out of the stadium. As referee Foley tried to wheel Linda out to safety, Vince hit him with a steel chair, and then pulled Linda into the ring to make her watch as he beat down Shane with a garbage can. However, Linda stood up and low-blowed Vince, allowing Foley to recover and attack him. With Vince prone in the corner, Shane placed a garbage can in front of Vince's face and hit aCoast-to-Coastdropkick, pinning his father to win the match. The eighth match, dubbed \"TLC II\",was theTables, Ladders, and Chairs matchfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipbetween theHardy Boyz,Edge and Christianand theDudley Boyz, the defending champions. Respective associates of each tag team,Spike Dudleyfor the Dudley Boyz,Rhynofor Edge and Christian, andLitafor the Hardy Boyz, interfered during the match. With Spike (who had just taken a chair shot to the head from Lita) and Rhyno (who had already been dispatched by Jeff Hardy) both laying on two tables outside the ring,Jeff Hardyset up a huge ladder beside them and performed aSwanton Bombonto them through the tables with most of his body landing on Spike, taking him out of the match. Lita was taken out of the match whenBubba RayandD-Von Dudleyperformed a 3-D on her. Jeff tried to unhook the belts but had the ladder beneath him pulled away by Bubba Ray, leaving him hanging in the air, and allowingEdgeto jump off another ladder andspearJeff to the ground at a height of 12 feet. Bubba Ray andMatt Hardyclimbed the same ladder but Rhyno tipped the ladder over, sending Bubba Ray and Matt through four stacked tables at ringside and taking them out of the match. D-Von then set the ladder up again and attempted to grab the titles, but was held back by Edge. With Edge holding onto D-Von's legs,Christiansat on Rhyno's shoulders as he climbed up the ladder and unhooked the belts, making him and Edge the new Tag Team Champions. A total of 9 tables were destroyed in this match, and every performer involved except D-Von and Lita went through at least one table. The ninth match was agimmick battle royal, involving nineteen WWF alumni famous for their outlandishgimmicks. To further increase the nostalgia, former announcers\"Mean Gene\" OkerlundandBobby \"The Brain\" Heenanhandled commentary for the match.The Iron Sheikwon the match by throwingHillbilly Jimout of the ring. In revenge for being eliminated,Sgt. Slaughterreentered the ring and put him in theCobra Clutch. The penultimate match was betweenThe UndertakerandTriple H. For his entrance, Triple H had Britishheavy metalbandMotörheadperform his theme song,\"The Game\", live. The match started with the two fighting outside of the ring with Triple H quickly being put through the replacement Spanish announcers' table. Later on, refereeMike Chiodaaccidentally had Triple Hcatapultedinto him and was then attacked by Undertaker due to his dissatisfaction over a two-count. With Chioda knocked out, the two brawled outside the ring, through the crowd, and into the technical area. On top of scaffolding, Triple H used a steel chair to attack Undertaker's legs, but Undertaker retaliated with achokeslamoff the scaffolding, followed by a diving elbow drop. Back in the ring, Undertaker hit Triple H with aTombstone piledriverand went for the pin but Chioda was still unconscious. Later in the match, Triple H tried to pin Undertaker after hitting him in the head with asledgehammerwhile in theLast Rideposition but only gained a two-count. Triple H sent Undertaker into the corner and stood on the second rope to hit him with more punches, but Undertaker countered with a Last Ride, allowing him to pin Triple H and increase his WrestleMania winning streak to 9–0. The final contest of the night was theWWF Championshipmatch betweenThe RockandStone Cold Steve Austin, which had a surpriseno disqualificationstipulation added just before the superstars were introduced. During the match, the two brawled inside and outside of the ring, with both men bleeding after hitting each other with the ring bell. The Rock attempted to place Austin in aSharpshooterhold, but Austin reversed it into a Sharpshooter of his own. After Rock reached the ropes to force a break, Austin applied theMillion Dollar Dream, a submission hold best known from his former gimmick, The Ringmaster. Shortly after, Rock used Austin's own finishing maneuver on Austin by executing aStunner. Vince McMahon then came to ringside to observe the match. When Rock tried to pin Austin after thePeople's Elbow, McMahon seized Rock's leg and pulled him off Austin, breaking the pin attempt. After chasing McMahon around the ring, Austin responded by using Rock's signature move, theRock Bottom. Later, Rock executed a Rock Bottom for a near fall. After Rock attacked McMahon, he was given a Stunner by Austin for a near fall. After Rock kicked out of the Stunner, McMahon handed Austin a steel chair to hit Rock with at Austin's request, revealing that Austin had sided with McMahon, a man he once considered hisnemesis. With this, Austin turnedheel.Austin attacked him with the steel chair, hitting him sixteen times, before pinning him and becoming the new WWF Champion. The show ended with Austin and McMahon shaking hands and sharing beers. Reception and legacy The event was met with universal acclaim from fans and critics alike. John Powell ofCanadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section rated the event a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, with the main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin in a No Disqualification Match for the WWF Championship rated 10 out of 10 stars. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boyz, Edge and Christian, and The Dudley Boyz also received a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, the Street Fight between Vince and Shane McMahon rated 7 out of 10 stars, the match between Triple H and The Undertaker rated 6 out of 10 stars and the match between Kurt Angle and Chris Benoit rated 8 out of 10 stars. X-Seven was also awardedBest Major Showfor 2001 byDave Meltzer's Wrestling Observer Newsletter. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boys, Edge and Christian and The Dudley Boyz was also placed #5 onIGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History and noted that the match included \"some of the most memorable bumps wrestling fans have ever witnessed.\"D-Von Dudleyexpressed his belief that the match should be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame, stating: \"In my opinion, I think that we should — you know, then.W.ogot inducted into the Hall of Fame and those guys were already in it. How about a TLC induction? How about recognizing how special that match was? Because think about it, not only was the match special, but they actually nameda pay-per-viewafter it. So, you know, it has some relevance to it to be special, so why not put that match in the Hall of Fame?\"Matt Hardysaid it was his favorite career TLC match. In 2013, WWE released a list of their \"15 best pay-per-views ever\", with WrestleMania X-Seven ranked at number one.In 2019, Troy L. Smith ofcleveland.comreleased a list of the \"50 greatest wrestling pay-per-views of all time\" from every professional wrestling promotion in the world, with WrestleMania X-Seven again ranked at number one. The promotional match preview video package for the main event, set toLimp Bizkit's \"My Way\", is widely considered one of the greatest wrestling video packages of all time. Aftermath The following night onRaw, Austin and The Rock faced each other in a rematch held in asteel cagewhich Triple H entered the cage and teased a fight with Austin before turning on The Rock. For several minutes Austin, Triple H, and Vince McMahon triple-teamed the outnumbered Rock forging an alliance with Triple H and Austin calledThe Two-Man Power Trip.The Rock was written out of the WWF's storylines with McMahon giving him asuspension. This allowed The Rock time off to begin filmingThe Scorpion King.The Rock returned on the edition of July 30 ofRawand chose to fight for Team WWF overTeam WCW/ECW. Three weeks later atSummerSlam, The Rock won his firstWCW Championshipby defeatingBooker T. The Rock and Austin would face each other again atWrestleMania XIXin a rematch with The Rock winning. Following The Rock's suspension, Triple H's feud with the Brothers of Destruction continued with Austin now on his side. On the edition of April 5, 2001, ofSmackDown!, Triple H challengedIntercontinental ChampionChris Jericho for his title and after interference from CommissionerWilliam Regaland his wife Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley defeated Jericho to win his third Intercontinental Championship.The feud with Undertaker and Kane was temporarily put on hold after Triple H and Austin entered a brief rivalry with the Hardy Boyz, which resulted in Jeff Hardy beating Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship the following week and Triple H promptly regaining the title the next Monday onRaw. Meanwhile, the Brothers of Destruction defeated Edge and Christian to become the newWWF Tag Team Championson the edition of April 19, 2001, ofSmackDown!in a no-disqualification match. Austin and Triple H decided to challenge Undertaker and Kane for their newly won titles, but due to some wrangling by Linda McMahon the match between the teams signed forBacklashforced the two to put up their singles titles against the tag team titles in a \"winner-take-all\" match. Triple H scored the pin after attacking Kane with his sledgehammer and the Power Trip became the second team in WWF history to hold both major singles titles and the tag team titles at the same time.The feud came to a climax atJudgment Daywhen Austin defeated Undertaker to retain the WWF Championship while Kane defeated Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship.The next night Austin and Triple H lost the tag team titles to Chris Jericho and Chris Benoit; during the course of the match Triple H tore his quadriceps tendon and would miss the remainder of the year, leaving Austin to feud with the tag team champions alone.The feud culminated in a Triple Threat Match atKing of the Ring, where Austin pinned Benoit to retain the WWF Championship. Ten years later in 2011, Undertaker and Triple H would once again renew their rivalry, went on to face each other in a rematch atWrestleMania XXVIIwith The Undertaker defeating HHH via submission, to set his WrestleMania winning streak to 19–0. A year later, they faced each other a third time atWrestleMania XXVIIIin a Hell in a Cell match withShawn Michaelsas the special guest referee. The Undertaker once again won the match to extend his WrestleMania winning streak to 20–0. Due to the acquisition of WCW, Vince's feud with Shane would later spiral intoThe Invasionstoryline that dominated the WWF in the latter half of the year. It consisted of WCW wrestlers \"invading\" the WWF's televised shows in an attempt to \"take over\" the WWF. TheExtreme Championship Wrestling(ECW) promotion would also be involved with Stephanie as its new owner, merging WCW and ECW intoThe Alliance. Despite giving her own demands for a divorce shortly after WrestleMania, Linda would eventually reconcile with Vince in the wake of the Alliance's threat to the WWF. Shane McMahon's next feud would involveKurt Angleas he would crash Angle's Olympic Gold Medal Ceremony reenactment on the May 21 edition ofRaw. Angle was celebrating the return of his Gold Medal from Chris Benoit which he won back the previous night atJudgment Day. Shane mocked him while declaring the return of WCW, and he got an Angle slam for his efforts. Shane would return the favor on the June 11 edition ofRawwith an assist from The Undertaker. The two would eventually meet in astreetfightat King of the Ring, which was the third of three matches for Kurt Angle on the night. The other two matches were the Semifinals and Final of the King of the Ring tournament which Angle was the defending champion. He would lose to Edge thanks to interference from Shane. Following King of the Ring, Edge let success go to his head and this led to Christian becoming jealous of Edge's success. They would break up on the September 3, 2001, edition ofRawfollowing Christian's loss to The Rock in a WCW title match. After a brief feud for the WWF Intercontinental Championship, both would go on to become successful singles wrestlers in their own right with Edge being best known as the \"Rated R Superstar.\" This would be the only WrestleMania forPaul Heymanas a commentator. However he has served in a variety of roles for the WWE for the better part of the time since, including creative team member and manager of his longtime friend and clientBrock Lesnar. Results References External links"],"string":"[\n \"The Undertaker Mark William Calaway(born March 24, 1965), better known by hisring nameThe Undertaker, is an American retiredprofessional wrestler. Widely regarded as one of the greatest professional wrestlers of all time,Calaway spent the vast majority of his career wrestling forWWEand in 2022 was inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame. Calaway began his career in 1987, working under variousgimmicksforWorld Class Championship Wrestling(WCCW) and other affiliate promotions. He signed withWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) in 1989 for a brief stint, and then joined the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1990. Calaway rebranded himself as \\\"The Undertaker\\\" when he joined the WWF. As one of WWE's most high-profile and enduring characters,The Undertaker is famed for hisundead,funereal,macabre\\\"Deadman\\\" persona, which gained significant mainstream popularity and won him theWrestling Observer Newsletterawardfor Best Gimmicka record-setting 5 years in a row.He is the longest-tenured wrestler in company history at 30 years. In 2000, the Undertaker adopted a biker identity nicknamed \\\"American Badass\\\". Calaway resurrected the Deadman gimmick in 2004, with residual elements of the \\\"American Badass\\\" remaining. For the better part of his career, the Undertaker was observed as a focal point of WWE's flagship annual event,WrestleMania, where he became esteemed forThe Streak— a series of 21 straight victories, and headlined the event five times (13,24,26,33and36). He is also known for pairing with hisin-storylinehalf-brotherKane, with whom he alternativelyfeudedandteamed(as theBrothers of Destruction) from 1997 through 2020. During his wrestling career under the Undertaker gimmick, Calaway won theWWF/E Championshipfour times, theWorld Heavyweight Championshipthree times, theHardcore Championshiponce and theWorld Tag Team Championshipsix times. He also won theRoyal Rumble matchin 2007. Early life Mark William Calaway was born inHouston,Texas, on March 24, 1965,the son of Frank Compton Calaway (died July 2003) and Betty Catherine Truby.He has four older brothers named David, Michael, Paul, and Timothy (died March 2020, age 63).He attendedWaltrip High School, where he was a member of thefootballandbasketballteams. He graduated in 1983 and began studying on a basketball scholarship atAngelina CollegeinLufkin, Texas. In 1985, he enrolled inTexas Wesleyan UniversityinFort Worth, Texas, where hemajoredinsport managementand played as acenterfor theRamsin the 1985–1986 season. In 1986, Calaway dropped out of university to focus on a career in sports and briefly considered playing professional basketball in Europe, before deciding to focus on professional wrestling. Professional wrestling career Early career (1987–1989) Calaway began training underBuzz Sawyerin late 1986;he disliked Sawyer, who reportedly lacked commitment and provided a limited education.Calaway learned \\\"on the job\\\" thereafter.Performing under a mask as Texas Red,Calaway wrestled his first match on June 26, 1987, forWorld Class Championship Wrestling(WCCW), losing toBruiser Brodyat theDallas Sportatorium.He was accompanied to the ring by Percival \\\"Percy\\\" Pringle III, who would later serve as his manager in the WWF asPaul Bearer.Two myths have circulated regarding Calaway's beginnings in the industry, the first being that he made his in-ring debut in 1984,and the second being that he was trained by former WCCW colleague Don Jardine (akaThe Spoiler).While never trained by Jardine, Calaway was an admirer of his work and would emulate Jardine's top rope walk.PWInsider's Mike Johnson stated, \\\"Undertaker using some of Jardine's style eventually morphed into this story that he was trained by Jardine.\\\" He wrestled inDurban, South Africa on August 22, 1987, as \\\"Texas Red Jack\\\", losing to Tiger Singh.He would also wrestle in prison shows under the name Boris Dragu, a Russian grave digger. In 1988, Calaway developed a military gimmick named The Commando. Under this persona, he mainly wrestled in the Chicago area for Central Illinois Wrestling. He would also have a brief stint in Georgia forSouthern Championship Wrestling. By the end of 1988, Calaway joined theContinental Wrestling Association, wrestling under several gimmicks. On February 2, 1989, managed byDutch Mantel, he was reintroduced as The Master of Pain, a former murderer.On April 1, The Master of Pain won his firstprofessional wrestling championshipby defeatingJerry Lawlerfor the USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion. Just over three weeks had passed when Lawler became the first man to pin him, giving it back to him. While performing as The Punisher upon returning to Dallas, Calaway won the USWA Texas Heavyweight Championship on October 5, 1989, whenEric Embryforfeited the title. World Championship Wrestling (1989–1990) By the end of 1989, Calaway joined World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as avillainand adopted the ring name \\\"Mean Mark\\\" Callous, a name devised for him byTerry Funk.He was portrayed as a sinister force, wearing predominantly black ring attire and was described by commentatorJim Rossas having a fondness for pet snakes and the music ofOzzy Osbourne.Callous was promptly drafted intoThe Skyscraperstag teamto replace alegitimatelyinjuredSid Vicious, and made his debut on January 3, 1990, in a match later televised against Agent Steel and Randy Harris.The new team gained some notoriety atClash of the Champions Xwhen they beat downThe Road Warriorsafter their match.However, Callous's partnerDan Spiveyleft WCW days before theirChicago Street Fightagainst the Road Warriors atWrestleWar. Callous anda replacement masked Skyscraperwere defeated in thestreet fightand the team broke up soon afterwards.Now a singles wrestler, Callous took on the guidance ofPaul E. Dangerously(Paul Heyman). Calaway later began to question his future in WCW after being told bycompany booker,Ole Anderson, during contract renewal discussions that nobody would ever pay money to watch him perform.It was in response to this that Calaway made numerous efforts to join the World Wrestling Federation, going to many lengths to land a meeting withVince McMahon. However, accessing and securing an interview with McMahon was described by Calaway as a despairing task. Among routes Calaway took to land a meeting with McMahon was trying to convince individuals acquainted with McMahon or already existing WWF talent to recommend him into the WWF, such asHulk Hogan, Paul Heyman, andBruce Prichard, crediting the latter two for arranging the meeting at McMahon's mansion. Calaway immediately gavenoticeto WCW before the interview took place. McMahon initially declined to hire Calaway; however, several days later the owner pitched the idea an \\\"Old West Undertaker,\\\" a concept he had intended to create for several years but had never found an appropriate wrestler to play the part. Calaway's final WCW match was on September 7 at aWorldWidetaping inAmarillo, Texasin which he defeated Dave Johnson.During his time in WCW, Calaway briefly wrestled inNew Japan Pro-Wrestling(NJPW) as \\\"Punisher\\\" Dice Morgan.After leaving WCW, he briefly returned to the USWA to participate in a tournament to determine the new USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion; Calaway defeatedBill Dundeein the first round, but lost to Jerry Lawler in the quarterfinals. World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment/WWE Debut of The Undertaker (1990–1991) In October 1990, Calaway signed with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), set to portray the \\\"brainchild\\\" of McMahon that he had assigned to him, originally entitledKane the Undertaker(\\\"Kane\\\" later added on to \\\"the Undertaker\\\" moniker by the time of his arrival at the urgings of Bruce Prichard, who had always desired aCain and Abeleffect for his character).Despite Calaway's perplexed, pessimistic feelings about McMahon's gimmick idea, he was readily accepting of the role, feeling anything better than the laughingstock gimmicks of that time, such asThe Gobbledy Gooker.Kane the Undertaker was characterized as a menacing derivative of theWild Westundertakersdepicted intelevision westerns. Resulting from that, this first edition of the Undertaker's series ofDeadmanincarnationshas been distinguished in external media as \\\"The Old West Mortician\\\".He made his overall WWF debut on a November 19, 1990, taping ofWWF Superstarsquickly defeating his first opponent,Mario Mancini, in a singles match(this match was filmed three days prior to the Undertaker's televised debut atSurvivor Serieson November 22, but did not air on television until December 15, 1990). Also prior to his Survivor Series appearance, Kane the Undertaker had a match on November 20 against Rick Sampson, which later aired on the December 9, 1990 episode ofWWF Wrestling Challenge. Calaway's official televised debut was at Survivor Series in which he was presented as theheelmystery partner of Ted DiBiase's \\\"Million Dollar Team\\\".Approximately one minute into the match, the Undertaker eliminatedKoko B. Warewith his finisher, theTombstone Piledriver.(In 2018, Koko B. Ware shared that directly following this match that night, he confronted the Undertaker with serious objections to what he felt was a botched Tombstone. Though Ware also shared that he always admired Mark Calaway and perceived him as a great performer).During the match, the Undertaker also eliminatedDusty Rhodesbefore beingcounted out; however, his team won the match with DiBiase being the sole survivor.During the match, Calaway was referred to as simply the Undertaker, omitting the portion \\\"Kane\\\", which was dropped shortly after the event (and seven years later at the urgings of Prichard, given to another wrestler once he took on the role of the Undertaker'syounger brother).Throughout the end of 1990, the Undertaker mostly picked upsquashvictories against jobbers on Superstars of Wrestling and Wrestling Challenge tapings.He was a participant in the1991Royal Rumble matchwhich was won by Hulk Hogan. In February 1991,Brother Lovedelegated his short-livedmanagementrole of the Undertaker over to Paul Bearer (real-life funeral director), Love communicating the need for someone who better aligned with the Undertaker's \\\"deadman\\\" themes.Histrionic, wailing and ghostly in character, Bearer complemented the Undertaker and was almost always seen bearing anurnwhich he raised in the air to transmit supernatural healing powers to the Undertaker; this typically resulted in the Undertaker recovering from attacks and counterattacking his adversaries.During his early years, the Undertaker took to a post-match ritual of placing his defeated opponents (almost alwaysjobbers) in abody bagand carrying them backstage.He continued picking up victories in squash matches leading up to his firstfeudin the WWF with\\\"Superfly\\\" Jimmy Snuka. WWF Champion and beginning of The Streak (1991–1994) The Undertaker made his WrestleMania debut atWrestleMania VIIon March 24, 1991, quickly defeating \\\"Superfly\\\" Jimmy Snuka.He began his first major feud shortly thereafter, which was withThe Ultimate Warriorwhen The Undertaker attacked him and locked him in an airtight casket on the set of Paul Bearer'sFuneral Parlorsegment.Resulting from this, the Warrior enlisted the assistance ofJake \\\"The Snake\\\" Robertsto get him mentally psyched for The Undertaker's morbid alarmist tactics: Roberts would drill the Warrior with \\\"know your enemy\\\" training, setting up the Warrior in a series of creepy, terrorizing circumstances, such as by locking him in caskets and in rooms with snakes.This culminated in a final stage of Roberts's training in which Roberts proved to be stringing Warrior along the entire time by assisting The Undertaker in an ambush.The Undertaker would later suffer his first losses in the WWF to The Ultimate Warrior, including in a first ever body bag challenge, a casket match, and (athouse show) standard pin-fall match.The feud was, however, cut short after the Warrior's suspension and ongoing issues with Vince McMahon.In the1991 King of the Ring, Undertaker defeatedAnimalin a qualifying match before fightingSid Viciousto a doubledisqualificationin the semifinal, which saw both men eliminated from theKing of the Ring tournament.The Undertaker defeated Hulk Hogan to win his firstWWF ChampionshipatSurvivor Serieswith the help ofRic Flairand thus became the youngest WWF Champion in history to that point, 26 years of age—this record was later broken byYokozunain April 1993 atWrestleMania IX.The Undertaker's Tombstone of Hogan to win the WWF Championship at the 1991 Survivor Series created real-life, offscreen discord between the two, which Undertaker attributes his short title reign, lack of title runs during his early career and distrust of Hogan.In storyline, however, WWF PresidentJack Tunneyordered a rematch between the two atThis Tuesday in Texassix days later, where The Undertaker lost the title back to Hogan.However, due to the controversial endings of the two title matches between The Undertaker and Hogan, the title wasvacatedfrom Hogan the next night by Tunney. The company was without a WWF Champion until Ric Flair earned it by winning the1992Royal Rumble match. In February 1992, The Undertaker's ally Jake \\\"The Snake\\\" Roberts tried to attack\\\"Macho Man\\\" Randy Savage's manager/wifeMiss Elizabethwith a steel chair when Undertaker stopped him, turning him (and Paul Bearer)facefor the first time. Their face turn was solidified on the February 29 episode ofSuperstarswhen Roberts confronted The Undertaker on theFuneral Parlorset over the matter (aired onSaturday Night's Main Event XXX). After demanding to know whose side The Undertaker was on and getting the reply, \\\"Not yours\\\", Roberts attacked both Bearer and The Undertaker, only for The Undertaker to stand his ground and run Roberts off. The Undertaker defeated Roberts atWrestleMania VIII.He then feuded extensively with wrestlers managed byHarvey Wipplemanthroughout 1992 and 1993, such asKamalaandGiant González. Also during this time, The Undertaker headlined thedebut episodeofMonday Night Rawon January 11, 1993, with a victory overDamien Demento.According to Calaway, working with González \\\"...was survival every night trying to figure out what he could do\\\" and \\\"took years off my career\\\".He faced González at WrestleMania IX, which is notable asThe Undertaker's only disqualification win at WrestleManiaafter the use ofchloroform.The Undertaker's next rivalry initiated atSurvivor Serieswith Yokozuna when a clash between the two lost control, causing them to be counted out in an elimination tag match.In the weeks following, The Undertaker and Bearer spooked Yokozuna with multiple segments from their wintery and remoterural areaworkshop. There, Bearer presented The Undertaker hard at workcarpenteringYokozuna what would eventually become a \\\"double wide, double deep casket\\\" custom-built for Yokozuna's immensely overweight size.The feud culminated in a WWF Championshipcasket matchat theRoyal Rumblein January 1994. During the match, Yokozuna sealed The Undertaker in the casket with the assistance of a multitude of heel wrestlers (some of themWhippleman-managed) hired by Yokozuna's vindictive managersJim CornetteandMr. Fuji, which was in retaliation for Bearer's casket match stipulation that he snuck into their Royal Rumble match contract. After being trapped inside the casket by the pack, green vapor emitted from the casket and the arena lights went out. Undertaker then appeared from inside the casket on the video screen, representing the spirit of his dead corpse, warning that he would produce a future \\\"rebirth\\\" of himself, explaining to his antagonists that he cannot and will not Rest in Peace.The Undertaker did not appear in the WWF for seven months after his loss to Yokozuna. In reality, he was given time off to allow a back injury to heal. Rebirthed Deadman (1994–1996) Following the death angle at the Royal Rumble during The Undertaker's absence, the WWF promoted reported sightings of him through video clips of random people claiming to have seen him. AfterWrestleMania X,Ted DiBiaseintroduced an Undertaker back to the WWF. This Undertaker, however, played byBrian Lee(one of Calaway's real-life best friends)was an impostor Undertaker (dubbed \\\"The Underfaker\\\" by fans)rejuvenated by Dibiase's money rather than Bearer's urn. His actions led to the return of the real Undertaker atSummerSlam, defeating the impostor and appearing as a reincarnation of his Deadman gimmick, one of a more shadowy, mysterious and secret presence.Represented now by cool colors, The Undertaker replaced details of his wrestling gear that were previously colored gray with purple, and effected scenes with blue/purple semidarkness.Many details that would become associated with The Undertaker for the remainder of his career were produced during this rebirth incarnation, such as the addition ofsleeve tattoosandGodlikesupernatural elements (thunder, lightning and windy weather-like effects used to indicate The Undertaker's presence and wrath). Seeking retribution, The Undertaker revisited his feud with Yokozuna and eventually faced him in a casket rematch atSurvivor Series.Chuck Norris(portraying hisWalker, Texas Rangerpersona) was involved in the match as special guest enforcer, preventing interference from wrestlers that Yokozuna, Jim Cornette and Mr. Fuji had again enlisted for help.Unable to rely on much as far as interference this time around (onlyIrwin R. Schysterable to get in a brief ambush) due to Norris averting the attempts of several heel wrestlers, Yokozuna was defeated by The Undertaker and sealed in the casket.Throughout most of 1995, Undertaker feuded with members of Ted DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation. The chain of wrestlers DiBiase enlisted to do away with The Undertaker started with Irwin R. Schyster at theRoyal Rumblefor which The Undertaker was victorious, but assaulted by another member of the Million Dollar Team,King Kong Bundy. While being assaulted, Bearer was deprived of his urn by the Corporation.AtWrestleMania XI, The Undertaker made short work of Bundy in a singles match. This edition of WrestleMania included the first mention of The Undertaker's historicWrestleMania-winning Streak, acknowledged on commentary by Vince McMahon as Undertaker made his entrance: \\\"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania.\\\"During The Undertaker's WrestleMania encounter, DiBiase issued him with yet another antagonist in \\\"The Supreme Fighting Machine\\\"Kama, who had stolen the briefly recaptured urn from Bearer during the match. Kama followed this up with a series of malicious acts, including destroying the stolen urn and recycling it intobling.While sporting the flashy bling around his neck, he repeatedly cost The Undertaker matches and attacked diehard Undertaker fans, dubbed \\\"Creatures of the Night\\\".In August, Undertaker settled the score with Kama, defeating him in a casket match atSummerSlam.Several weeks later, Undertaker suffered a seriousorbital boneinjury whenKing Mabelunintentionally struck him in the eye with his fist during ahouse show, forcing The Undertaker into a period of absence for surgery. Due to the incident happening at a house show, Vince McMahon had it presented to the audience as though it had occurred from Mabel and Yokozuna's exchange ofleg dropsandsplasheson The Undertaker on theMonday Night Rawthat had aired 2 days prior.The Undertaker returned a couple months later atSurvivor Series, in which he single-handedly eliminated an entire team of wrestlers led by King Mabel, The Undertaker leading his own team to victory.It was at that Survivor Series return in which he began wearing aPhantom of the Opera-like, gray upper-face mask to safeguard his orbital injury while it healed.The following month in December, The Undertaker defeated Mabel in a casket match atIn Your House, retrieving the urn, which had been traded between several of The Undertaker's antagonists over the course of the year. In the main event of theRoyal Rumblein January 1996, The Undertaker was unmasked of his Phantom of the Opera-like facial covering in a WWF Championship match againstBret Hart. The Undertaker was eventually able to hit theTombstone Piledriveron Hart, butDieselinterfered, costing The Undertaker the championship.A rematch for the title on the February 5 episode ofRawsaw similar interference.At that month'sIn Your House: Rage in the Cage, while Diesel was facing Hart in asteel cage matchfor the WWF Championship, The Undertaker delivered a surprise attack, emerging from a hole he had ripped through the ring canvas and dragging Diesel with him down under amid a cloud of smoke, allowing Hart the victory.After several weeks of more retaliatoryone-upmanshipbetween Diesel and The Undertaker, their feud culminated in asingles matchatWrestleMania XII, where Undertaker was victorious. The Undertaker's next feud commenced the next night onRawwhenMankind, a twisted and tortured soul, made his debut and randomly interfered in Undertaker's match againstJustin \\\"Hawk\\\" Bradshaw. For the next few months, Mankind viciously ambushed The Undertaker and cost him multiple matches.Among them, Mankind cost The Undertaker theWWF Intercontinental Championshipby interfering in his casket match againstGoldustatIn Your House 8: Beware of Dog. In interfering in this match, Mankind proved to have mystifying horror tactic capabilities that matched The Undertaker's, mysteriously appearing from inside the casket and sealing The Undertaker inside. The Undertaker, however, had vanished amid a cloud of smoke once the casket lid was opened.As a result of the interference and repeated ambushes from Mankind on The Undertaker throughout the ensuing weeks, The Undertaker and Mankind competed in their first on-screen bout at the1996 King of the Ring, a heated encounter in which The Undertaker presented as uncharacteristically intense.During the match, Bearer inadvertently hit The Undertaker with the urn, allowing Mankind to incapacitate The Undertaker with his finisher, theMandible Claw, and score the win.With Mankind insatiably continuing to cost The Undertaker matches even following their King of the Ring encounter, The Undertaker began firing back with rage and the feud spiraled out of control: the two routinely interrupted other matches already in progress, battling each other at random intervals outside of having arranged matches—their chaos also spilling into audiences, arena backstage communal areas, and arenaboiler rooms, all of this unprecedented at the time.As a result, the first everBoiler Room Brawl(Mankind's specialty match) was booked between the two atSummerSlam.After more than 20 minutes of brawling with Mankind in the ClevelandGund Arena's boiler room, the arena corridors, the SummerSlam entrance area and aisleway to the ring, The Undertaker reached for Paul Bearer's urn in an attempt to win the match, but Bearer struck him with it, betraying The Undertaker. This followed with Bearer allowing Mankind to take hold of the urn, thus winning this match. According to Paul Bearer in shoot interviews the WWF wanted Bearer to betray him during that match because it was a storyline thatKanewas coming and they wanted The Undertaker to get ready for the angle with Kane the following year by having Bearer turn on him.After Bearer's betrayal, The Undertaker grew more aggressive, resolving his feud against Goldust (Mankind's comrade in tormenting The Undertaker) atIn Your House 10: Mind Games. The Undertaker then took his rivalry with Mankind to new lengths in a specialty match of his own, and at that time unprecedentedBuried Alive matchto take place in the main event ofIn Your House 11: Buried Alive. The Undertaker won the match afterchokeslammingMankind into the open grave and subsequently shoveling enough dirt on him so that he was covered. However, after interference from the debutingExecutioner, as well as the help of several other heel wrestlers apparently enlisted by Bearer, Mankind escaped the grave and together the mob all shoveled dirt onto The Undertaker to the point that the grave was completely filled, resulting in The Undertaker fully buried alive. Not without a parting message for the pack, however, The Undertaker's purple glove fit hand emerged from his burying place amid a bolt of lightning that had erupted over the gravesite. The scene sent all of his antagonists fleeing. Lord of Darkness (1996–1998) After being buried alive and a following month-long hiatus, The Undertaker returned at theSurvivor Seriesagain pitting him against Mankind, but with a unique stipulation: Hanging 6.1 m (20 ft) above the ring would be Paul Bearer, enclosed in a steel cage. And if The Undertaker were to win the match, he would be rewarded the opportunity to assault Bearer however he pleased. Even though The Undertaker won this match, interference from The Executioner enabled Bearer to escape Undertaker's clutches.It was also at this event that The Undertaker had developed a comparatively more humanized and more informal yet still superhuman \\\"Deadman\\\" incarnation. In this then new form, he took on aGothappearance and persona, with a brash, rebelling, Championship-driven mean streak (perhaps to better fit in with the then-budding, more adult-orientedAttitude Era).This delivering, dubbed \\\"The Lord of Darkness\\\", was the 3rd incarnation of his Deadman persona.Following Survivor Series, The Undertaker briefly turned his attention to The Executioner, who had been interfering in his matches since his arrival. AtIn Your House 12: It's Time, The Undertaker defeated The Executioner in anArmageddon Rulesmatch even with Mankind heavily involved throughout the entire encounter.The Undertaker then moved on to feud withVader, whom he faced in January 1997 at theRoyal Rumblein a singles match, which The Undertaker lost after Bearer interfered on behalf of his new protégé.The two then clashed in the Royal Rumble match itself as they made it to the final moments of the match, but both were eliminated byStone Cold Steve Austin, who had crept back into the match after his elimination was unseen. He faced both Vader and Austin in afour-corners elimination matchfor the vacant WWF Championship atIn Your House 13: Final Four, but Bret Hart won.However, the following month, The Undertaker managed to win the WWF Championship for the second time by defeatingSycho SidatWrestleMania 13.Reviving his first Deadman incarnation for that night only, The Undertaker appeared as the \\\"Old West Mortician\\\", donning the trademarked gray wrestling gear accessories (boot spats, tie, gloves), along with a pitch-black entrance with only a white spotlight shined over him, contrasted from the purple/blue semidarkness associated with the rest of his Deadman incarnations. Following his WWF Championship win at WrestleMania 13, Paul Bearer attempted to rejoin The Undertaker as his manager. After The Undertaker refused and attacked Bearer, Bearer had Mankind set a fireball to the Undertaker's face, leading up to a match atIn Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Taker, for which The Undertaker was victorious.Evening the score at \\\"Revenge of the 'Taker\\\", The Undertaker set a fireball to Bearer's face directly following the match.Following the event, Bearer bandaged up from fire burns, likened The Undertaker's assault to a past incident he described as The Undertaker's \\\"deepest, darkest secret\\\". Through giving The Undertaker theultimatumof revealing his deepest, darkest secret to the world, Bearer was able to reunite with him as manager and protégé. After only a few months of abrasive behaviors from Bearer, however, The Undertaker lost his patience and rejected Bearer as his manager. In retaliation, Bearer disclosed that The Undertaker had intentionally killed his family by burning down his parents' family funeral home for which they raised him and his younger brother.(Note that the younger brother, Kane, was not revealed to be The Undertaker's half-brother until the following year, April 1998, when Bearer disclosed to the world that he is Kane's father, The Undertaker's mother having had an affair with him. Bearer later verified this with DNA test results).At this point in his career, The Undertaker denied the charges of committing the arson murder that killed his family; however, Bearer claimed to have proof in the form of The Undertaker's alive and well younger brother, Kane, who had survived though scarred and burned. Bearer raised Kane after the fire, having him institutionalized from the date of the fire into adulthood. Ever since the fire, Kane had been awaiting to exact vengeance on his older half-brother. In defense, Undertaker responded that Kane, a \\\"pyromaniac\\\", had been the one to set the fire and, as a result, could not have possibly even survived.(Note that it would not be until a year and a half later from this point, in latter 1998, in which The Undertaker would shamelessly confess to intentional acts of arson to the funeral home that killed his parents and scarred his brother). In spite of Bearer projecting himself as a constant source of mental distress to The Undertaker during his Championship title reign, The Undertaker managed to secure successful title defenses against Stone Cold Steve Austin (A Cold Day In Hell: In Your House),Faarooq(King of the Ring)and Vader (Canadian Stampede: In Your House, revisiting and settling their Royal Rumble feud from earlier on in the year),respectively. Concurrent to the \\\"deep, dark secret\\\" storyline directed by Bearer, Undertaker began a then new rivalry atSummerSlamwhenspecial guest refereeShawn Michaelsaccidentally hit him with a steel chair shot intended for his archnemesis Bret Hart, in effect, costing The Undertaker the WWF Championship.The accidental chair shot led to Michaels feeling betrayed by the now booing WWF fans, and quickly becoming heel. Thus, a severely violent storyline with The Undertaker followed, one revolving around repeated intentional chair shots by Michaels on the Undertaker, Michaels taunting The Undertaker throughout.After the duo's first match, which was a chaotic and uncontrolled encounter that resulted in a double count-out draw atGround Zero: In Your House, Undertaker challenged Michaels to the first everHell in a Cell matchto take place atBadd Blood: In Your House. Despite the inclusion of the cell for more order and to prevent Michaels from receiving help from hisD-Generation Xstable, the encounter ended up even more uncontrolled and savage than their first and is considered one of The Undertaker's best matches of his career.Seemingly about to emerge the victor after striking Michaels with a chair shot of his own, The Undertaker was interrupted by his storyline half-brother Kane, finally making his debut. Under the control of Paul Bearer, Kane stormed the arena, ripped off the cell door, and laid out a nonplussed Undertaker with his own trademarked finisher,The Tombstone Piledriver, allowing Michaels to pin him for the victory.As the storyline progressed through Bearer having Kane mow down much of the WWF roster, Kane repeatedly challenged The Undertaker, going to lengths of tormenting and humiliating him. However, The Undertaker consistently refused to fight his half-brother, claiming he had made a vow to his parents never to do harm to his own \\\"flesh and blood\\\".The Undertaker's final encounter with Michaels during this chapter of his career was in a casket match for the WWF Championship at theRoyal Rumble. The week before onRaw, Kane had duplicitously presented as allying with his brother against Michaels's D-Generation X stable; however, at the Royal Rumble, Kane trapped The Undertaker in the coffin, padlocked the lid shut, and set the casket ablaze, allowing Michaels another victory.After a two-month hiatus in which Kane wreaked havoc over the WWF, The Undertaker returned on the March 2, 1998 episode ofRawin a most notable resurrection—his druids interrupting Kane and Bearer by presenting them with a coffin on the entrance stage amid a large number of bell tolls. The coffin was struck and dismantled by a lightning bolt, revealing a lied out Undertaker who sat up in a fury state and challenged Kane to do battle with him.AtWrestleMania XIVin their first match, The Undertaker defeated Kane.Kane challenged Undertaker to a rematch—Kane's specialty and first everInferno match—that occurred one month later atUnforgiven: In Your House. The Undertaker won the encounter by setting Kane's right arm on fire. The Undertaker and Mankind's wildly violent, outlandish feud from over a year previous to this point was revitalized over the next month, ultimately taken to a new graphic height and decisively resolved whenthey faced each other in a Hell in a Cell matchatKing of the Ring. The match became one of the most famous matches in professional wrestling history. During the match, the Undertaker threw Mankind off the roof of the 4.9 m (16 ft) cell onto a broadcast table below, in what was a preplanned move. He later performed a chokeslam on Mankind through the roof of the cell into the ring, which was not preplanned and legitimately knocked Mankind unconscious. In jumping from the top of the cell to the ring canvas, The Undertaker suffered a broken ankle. Escalating as things progressed, blood flowed from both wrestlers as they attacked each other with steel steps, chairs, the cell wall, etc. Topping that off, Mankind introduced multitudes of thumbtacks scattered across the ring canvas but wasback body droppedon them, and subsequently chokeslammed onto them before The Undertaker won the match with hisTombstone Piledriver.AtFully Loaded: In Your House, the Undertaker and Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated Kane and Mankind to win theWWF Tag Team Championship.The Undertaker and Austin's reign astag team championslasted only two weeks, as Kane and Mankind regained the titles from them in afatal four-way tag-team matchon the August 10 episode ofRaw.The Undertaker then became the number one contender for the WWF Championship, held by Austin at that point, for a match atSummerSlam. Shortly before SummerSlam and after much speculation, The Undertaker finally disclosed that he and his half-brother were working together. Despite this revelation, The Undertaker told Kane before his SummerSlam bout that he did not want him interfering, even sending Kane away during the match itself when he appeared. Even though The Undertaker lost the match at SummerSlam, he handed Austin his championship belt back after the match with a show of respect and sportsmanship. In September as the storyline matured however, The Undertaker subtly began showing some heel characteristics, becoming atweener. This began when he and Kane revealed the fact that they were in cahoots to rid Austin of his title for villainous company owner Mr. McMahon—Austin and McMahon immersed in a bitter rivalry during this era. AtBreakdown: In Your House, The Undertaker and Kane were booked in atriple threat matchwith Austin for the WWF Championship, in which McMahon stated that the brothers were not allowed to pin each other. The Undertaker and Kane pinned Austin simultaneously after adouble chokeslam, ending the match in ano contest, so the title was vacated by McMahon.This event led to a match atJudgment Day: In Your Housebetween The Undertaker and Kane for the title, with Austin as the special guest referee. Near the end of the match, Paul Bearer seemed about to assist Kane by handing him a steel chair to hit The Undertaker with, but as Kane had his back turned, both Bearer and The Undertaker hit Kane with chair shots. The Undertaker went for the pin, but Austin refused to count the fall, attacked The Undertaker and counted out both of them.Finally the next night onRaw, The Undertaker reconciled with Bearer and claimed that he and Bearer would unleash their \\\"Ministry of Darkness\\\" on the WWF, turning heel for the first time since 1992. As part of the then new storyline angle, The Undertaker admitted that he had indeed intentionally set the fire that killed his parents and scarred Kane, for which he had previously blamed on Kane. Ministry of Darkness Deadman (1998–1999) AfterSurvivor Series, The Undertaker returned his attention to his previous feud with Austin for costing him the title at Judgment Day, hitting Austin in the head with a shovel during a title match withThe Rockon the November 16 episode ofRaw, returning the favor for what happened a month earlier. With this twist in the storyline, Mr. McMahon scheduled a Buried Alive match between The Undertaker and Austin atRock Bottom: In Your House. In the weeks leading up to Rock Bottom, The Undertaker attempted toembalmAustin alive, tried to have Kane committed to a mental asylum, and had his druids chain Austin to an immense structure of his Undertaker crucifix-like logo (which took the appearance of a capital T combined X) before having that structure lifted up on high into the air.However, The Undertaker lost the Buried Alive match to Austin at Rock Bottom after Kane interfered. After the buildup to his second heel run in the latter part of 1998, The Undertaker introduced an updated version of his Deadman identity by January 1999—a dark priest-like character who in the initial period of this persona reigned over a stable known as The Ministry of Darkness. In this form, he took on a wicked, demonic presence, much more so than ever before. He often proclaimed to be invoking and taking orders from a \\\"Higher Power\\\". Moreover, he often appeared in a hooded black robe and sat on a throne with a towering backrest specially designed into his crucifix-like logo. With the help of his minions, he often performed sacrifices on select WWF wrestlers, using variousincantationsandmagic wordswith intent to extract out the dark side of the wrestlers in question to recruit them into his Ministry. The completed Ministry of Darkness consisted ofThe Brood(Christian,EdgeandGangrel),The Acolytes(Bradshaw and Faarooq),MideonandViscera. Calaway himself did not wrestle for a period, having undergone a hip replacement. As part of theangle, The Undertaker had his Ministry members fight his battles, carry out his evil wishes and do all his dirty deeds. In this manner, he expressed his desires to take over the World Wrestling Federation, displacing its owner, Mr. McMahon. These ambitions culminated into a rivalry between The Ministry andThe Corporation, ultimately resulting in a match between The Undertaker and Corporation enforcer,Big Boss Man. The two faced off in a Hell in a Cell match atWrestleMania XV, which The Undertaker won.AtBacklash: In Your House, The Undertaker defeated Corporation memberKen Shamrockafter interference from Ministry member Bradshaw. Thereafter, The Undertaker kidnappedStephanie McMahon, forcing Mr. McMahon to enter into a reluctant alliance with his longtime nemesis Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Undertaker attempted to marry Stephanie before sacrificing her in aneldritchceremony conducted by Paul Bearer, but Austin was able to rescue her.At theOver the Edgepay-per-view, The Undertaker defeated Austin for his third WWF Championship with help fromShane McMahon, the special guest referee.The Ministry eventually merged with Shane McMahon's Corporation alliance to formThe Corporate Ministry. The Undertaker later revealed that Mr. McMahon had been his \\\"Higher Power\\\" all along as a scheme against Austin.After The Undertakerlostthe WWF Championship back to Austin on theRawfollowingKing of the Ringand lost to him in aFirst Blood matchatFully Loaded, his relationship with the McMahons dissolved and The Corporate Ministry disbanded. The Undertaker then began a storyline where he teamed withBig Showin a tag team known as \\\"The Unholy Alliance\\\", which held the WWF Tag Team Championship twice. After their victory atSummerSlam, The Undertaker suffered a groin tear and was seen limping in several matches. He avoided competing in wrestling matches in the following weeks, instead overbearingly ordering Big Show to fight his battles and do all his dirty deeds. Developing a comedy horror smart mouth during this time, elements of The Undertaker's trash-talking biker identity (that he would eventually introduce in 2000) began peeping out during this phase of his career. According to an interview with Kevin Nash, this was a move to allow Calaway to return to WCW with a non-trademarked persona; had he entered WCW, it would have been as Mark Calaway. According to Nash, although negotiations were described as close, Calaway ultimately re-signed with the WWF. Conversely, while on Steve Austin'sBroken Skull Sessionspodcast on November 22, 2020, Calaway revealed that there was no way he was ever going to rejoin WCW, that the gimmick's biker transition was just a matter of him mixing things up because he didn't feel the character's Deadman side properly fit with the then ongoing Attitude Era. To compensate for his lack of physical activity, The Undertaker became increasingly overbearing and vocal, often mouthing off with a weirdness and making sinisterlysmart-aleckremarks in promos and on commentary. On the September 23, 1999, episode ofSmackDown!, Mr. McMahon threatened that he would remove The Undertaker from theUnforgivenmain event if he refused to participate in a casket match againstTriple H. The Undertaker retorted that he did not care and maybe he would not be participating in anything WWF any longer, from there walking out on the WWF.In reality, Calaway went on a hiatus from the WWF in order to treat his groin injury. He made his return to action on December 14, teaming with Viscera in a losing effort against Kane and The Godfather at a house show inCoamo, Puerto Rico.The Undertaker was advertised on theArmageddonpromotional poster to return, but meanwhile also tore his pectoral muscle, taking him out of action for almost eight months. American Badass (2000–2001) In May 2000, Calaway expanded on The Undertaker gimmick, returning under a human alter ego of the gimmick—a smack-talking, redneck biker, dubbed \\\"The American Badass\\\", known for motorcycle-riding, tobacco chewing/spitting, and donning a sporty appearance and manner.In stark contrast to his horror-themed and fully fictional Deadman persona, Calaway's Badass persona was only semifictional with traits and features adopted from who he is out of character—hence, why he desired to transform The Undertaker.While explained off screen years later for the above reasons, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it. When The Undertaker returned near the end of theiron man matchfor the WWF Championship between Triple H and The Rock atJudgment Dayon May 21, 2000, he took out all the members of the McMahon-Helmsley Faction, which created for afaceturn after having left things off as a heel before his hiatus.He also targeted their leader, then WWF Champion Triple H. At theKing of the Ringpay-per-view on June 25, The Undertaker teamed with The Rock and Kane to defeat the team of Triple H, Shane McMahon and Vince McMahon.Afterward, he was booked to team with Kane to contend for the WWF Tag Team Championship. They defeatedEdge and Christian, earning the right to face them the following week for the championship, which Edge and Christian retained. During an August 14Raw is Warbout againstChris Benoit, Kane became involved and betrayed The Undertaker by hitting him with two chokeslams, the second one causing the ring apron to cave in underneath The Undertaker.This incident led to another match between the two atSummerSlamon August 27, which ended in a no contest as Kane fled from the ring area after The Undertaker removed Kane's mask. The Undertaker then challengedKurt Anglefor the WWF Championship atSurvivor Serieson November 19.Angle, however, defeated The Undertaker after he switched places with his real-life brother,Eric Angle. The Undertaker demanded and was awarded a spot in the six-man Hell in a Cell match for the WWF Championship atArmageddonon December 10. The Undertaker promised to make someone famous and did so when he performed a chokeslam onRikishifrom the roof of the cell into hay-filled cargo bed of a truck. The Undertaker reunited with Kane as the Brothers of Destruction, issuing a challenge for the WWF Tag Team Championship once again. They received a title shot atNo Way Outon February 25, 2001, facing Edge and Christian and then championsThe Dudley Boyzin atables matchbut were unsuccessful.The Undertaker then went on to defeat Triple H atWrestleMania X-Sevenon April 1.He and Kane continued a storyline that focused on Triple H, who formed a \\\"surprise alliance\\\" with then WWF Champion Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Brothers of Destruction were granted an opportunity to face Triple H and Austin for their titles (Triple H was the WWF Intercontinental Champion). After The Undertaker and Kane won the WWF Tag Team Championship from Edge and Christian on the April 19 episode ofSmackDown!,Triple H pinned Kane after attacking him with a sledgehammer atBacklashon April 29, where the Brothers of Destruction lost their championships.With Kane injured, The Undertaker feuded briefly with Austin for his WWF Championship, but he failed to win the title atJudgment Dayon May 20. As part of \\\"The Invasion\\\" storyline, The Undertaker's next nemesis wasDiamond Dallas Page, who was obsessively stalking The Undertaker's wife, Sara.AtSummerSlamon August 19,WCW Tag Team ChampionsThe Undertaker and Kane defeated Page and his partnerKanyonin a steel cage match to win the WWF Tag Team Championship.AtSurvivor Serieson November 18, The Undertaker teamed with Kane, The Rock,Chris Jerichoand Big Show to take on The Alliance's Stone Cold Steve Austin,Booker T,Rob Van Dam, Shane McMahon and Kurt Angle (this was the last time The Undertaker and Kane teamed until 2006). Angle pinned The Undertaker due to interference by Austin. Despite this, Team WWF won the match. Big Evil (2001–2003) AfterThe Alliancewas defeated, The Undertaker inducted commentatorJim Rossinto theMr. McMahon: Kiss My Ass Clubon the November 26 episode ofRaw, which involved The Undertaker pressing the lips of Ross against McMahon's exposed buttocks, turning heel in the process.In transitioning his \\\"American Badass\\\" biker identity into a heel, The Undertaker eventually cut his long hair short and went by the nickname \\\"Big Evil\\\". AtVengeanceon December 9, The Undertaker defeated Rob Van Dam to win theWWF Hardcore Championship. The Undertaker's next storyline began at theRoyal Rumbleon January 20, 2002, whenMaveneliminated him from theRoyal Rumble matchby hitting him with adropkickfrom behind. Subsequently, The Undertaker eliminated Maven in return and brutally assaulted him backstage.Thereafter, on an episode ofSmackDown!, The Rock angered The Undertaker by mentioning his elimination at the Royal Rumble. He responded by costing The Rock the number one contendership for theUndisputed WWF Championship.The storyline continued when The Rock cost The Undertaker the WWF Hardcore Championship against Maven on the February 7 episode ofSmackDown!.The two faced off atNo Way Outon February 17, where The Undertaker lost due to interference from Ric Flair.This interference began a storyline with Flair, who declined a challenge to wrestle The Undertaker atWrestleMania X8on March 17.As a result, The Undertaker assaulted his sonDavid Flair.Flair eventually accepted the match after The Undertaker threatened to inflict the same punishment on Flair'sdaughter.A no-disqualification stipulation was added to the match and The Undertaker defeated Flair at WrestleMania. After the storyline with Flair, The Undertaker was drafted to theRaw brandafter the WWF split its roster into twobrandsand defeated Stone Cold Steve Austin atBacklashon April 21 to become the number one contender for the Undisputed WWF Championship. Later that night, he helped Hollywood Hulk Hogan win the title against then champion Triple H.The Undertaker then defeated Hogan for the renamed WWE Undisputed Championship atJudgment Dayon May 19. The next night onRaw, The Undertaker seemingly lost the WWE Undisputed Championship to Rob Van Dam; however, Raw owner Ric Flair restarted the match (Van Dam pinned The Undertaker when his foot was on the rope, thus invalidating the pin attempt) and The Undertaker defeated Van Dam to retain the championship.On the July 1 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker defeatedJeff Hardyin aladder matchto retain the WWE Undisputed Championship and raised Hardy's hand as a show of respect, turning face once again. The Undertaker, however, lost the title atVengeanceon July 21 to The Rock in a triple threat match that also involved Kurt Angle.On the August 29 episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker moved to theSmackDown! brand(where he remained until the first brand extension ended in 2011), and defeated Chris Benoit and Kurt Angle in a triple threat match to become the number-one contender for the renamed WWE Championship and challengedBrock Lesnarfor the title atUnforgivenon September 22 that ended in a double disqualification.Their feud carried over toNo Mercyon October 20 in a Hell in a Cell match, which The Undertaker performed with a legitimately broken hand and ultimately lost to Lesnar. The Undertaker took a break after Big Show threw him off the stage on the October 24 episode ofSmackDown!, sparking a feud.The Undertaker returned at theRoyal Rumbleon January 19, 2003.He immediately continued his feud with Big Show and defeated him bysubmissionatNo Way Outon February 23 with atriangle choke.A-Trainentered the storyline by attempting to attack The Undertaker after the match, butNathan Jonescame to his aid.The storyline resumed as The Undertaker began to train Jones to wrestle and the two were scheduled to fight Big Show and A-Train in atag team matchatWrestleMania XIXon March 30.However, Jones was removed before the match, making it ahandicap match, which The Undertaker won with the help of Jones. Over the remainder of the year, The Undertaker entered a brief feud withJohn Cena(defeating him atVengeanceon July 27) and was booked to have two WWE Championship opportunities. The first, on the September 4SmackDown!, against Kurt Angle, ended in a no contest, due to interference from Brock Lesnar.The second, atNo Mercyon October 19, was aBiker Chain matchbetween The Undertaker and Lesnar, which Lesnar won with the help of Vince McMahon.This match resulted in a feud with McMahon, culminating atSurvivor Serieson November 16 where The Undertaker lost a Buried Alive match against McMahon when Kane interfered.The Undertaker disappeared for some time following this match, with Kane claiming that he was \\\"dead and buried forever\\\". Return of the Deadman (2004–2007) In the storyline leading up toWrestleMania XX, Kane was tormented by horror-themed mind games, paranormal activities, and spooking vignettes proclaiming The Undertaker's Deadman return. The first was during theRoyal Rumblewhen The Undertaker's bells tolled, distracting Kane and allowing Booker T to eliminate him.Accompanied by Paul Bearer at WrestleMania XX, The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity, defeating Kane in a singles match.Introduced was a more dramatic, theatrical and supernatural Deadman than in years past, his presence, mannerisms, and entrances significantly elaborated on as well, such as with more intensity, special effects and rising and falling flames.At the same time, The Undertaker maintained elements of his American Badass identity, thus a composite character more humanized than all of his previous Deadman incarnations(The Undertaker would present in this particular hybrid Deadman form untilNo Mercy 2005whenRandy Ortonsealed him in a casket and set it on fire).AtJudgment Day, The Undertaker defeated Booker T. One week later,Paul Heymanordered TheDudley Boyzto kidnap Bearer.Thus, Heyman \\\"took control\\\" of Undertaker.AtThe Great American Bash, The Undertaker fought a handicap match against The Dudley Boyz, with the stipulation that if he did not lay down and purposely lose, Heyman would bury Paul Bearer in cement. The Undertaker won and stopped Heyman from burying Bearer, but after claiming Bearer was merely a liability he had no use for, buried him himself. The Undertaker began a feud with then WWE Champion John \\\"Bradshaw\\\" Layfield (JBL) by challenging him to a title match atSummerSlam, which The Undertaker lost by disqualification.AtNo Mercy, The Undertaker and JBL competed in the first-everLast Ride match, although The Undertaker lost afterHeidenreichinterfered.After defeating Heidenreich in a match atSurvivor Series,The Undertaker turned his focus to the WWE Championship once again. Along withEddie Guerreroand Booker T, he challenged JBL to a championship rematch atArmageddonin a fatal four-way match, in which The Undertaker was unsuccessful, again due to Heidenreich's interference.The feud culminated in a casket match between The Undertaker and Heidenreich at theRoyal Rumble, where The Undertaker sealed Heidenreich in a casket for the victory. Soon after, Randy Orton challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 21, uppishly proclaiming that he would end his WrestleMania winning Streak.Even with help fromhis father, Orton lost as The Undertaker improved his WrestleMania record to 13–0.After a two-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned on the June 16 episode ofSmackDown!, but lost to JBL due to interference from Randy Orton, who was drafted toSmackDown!as part of thedraft lottery.Despite his interference, the Randy Orton/Undertaker feud was put on the back burner until late summer of that year, resulting from Orton on the injured list. In the meantime and in one of the most controversial moments in WWE history on an episode ofSmackDown!taped on July 4, 2005 (aired on July 7),SmackDown!General ManagerTheodore LongscheduledMuhammad Hassanin a match against The Undertaker atThe Great American Bash, and placedDaivariin a match that night against Undertaker: Undertaker quickly defeated Daivari. After the match, however, Hassan began to \\\"pray\\\" on the ramp, summoning five masked men, dressed in black shirts, ski-masks and camouflage pants. Armed with clubs and a piano wire, the masked men assaulted and choked out The Undertaker before Hassan then placed The Undertaker in acamel clutch. Afterward, the masked men lifted Daivari above their heads and carried him away. Three days later, theLondon bombingstook place. The footage aired unedited onUPNin the United States and onThe Scorein Canada with an advisory warning shown several times during the broadcast. It was removed from the Australian and European (including in the United Kingdom) broadcasts. The angle elicited national attention in theNew York Post,TV Guide,Varietyand other major media outlets. In response to the criticism, UPN decided that it would monitor the storyline closely and that it did not want the Hassan character on its network that week.In apromohosted on WWE's website - UPN had edited it from the July 14, 2005 episode ofSmackDown!- Hassan reiterated that he was anArab Americanand that the American people automatically and unfairly assumed that he was a terrorist. Despite being in character, he referred to the real-world media coverage of the storyline, singling out theNew York Post'sDon Kaplan by name and denouncing his description of the events onSmackDown!, such as Kaplan's comment of the masked men being \\\"Arabs in ski masks\\\". On the July 14, 2005 episode ofSmackDown!, Hassan's absence was explained by a statement delivered by his attorney,Thomas Whitney, that Hassan refused to appear on the show untilThe Great American Bashdue to the way he was treated by the American media and WWE fans. It was revealed in late July 2005 that UPN had pressured WWE to keep Hassan off their network, effectively removing him fromSmackDown!.Undertaker defeated Hassan at The Great American Bash to become the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship. After the match, The Undertaker delivered aLast Ridethrough an open stage ramp onto a concrete floor to Hassan. It was reported that Hassan sustained serious injuries and had to be rushed to a nearby medical facility, writing Hassan off television.Several days later, Long (kayfabe) banned Hassan fromSmackDown!. It was revealed years later that Hassan was about to receive a majorpushby winning the World Heavyweight Championship fromBatistaatSummerSlamand thus breaking Randy Orton's record for being the youngest World Heavyweight Champion in WWE history. On the following episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker lost to JBL in a number-one contender's match, once again due to interference from Orton, reviving their feud that was put on hiatus.AtSummerSlam, Orton defeated The Undertaker in a WrestleMania rematch. The storyline intensified as the two tried to get into the head of one another with dark mind game tactics and use of caskets, leading to a handicap casket match atNo Mercy, in which The Undertaker lost to Randy and his father \\\"Cowboy\\\" Bob Orton.After the match, the Ortons poured gasoline on the casket and set it on fire (a throwback moment to one of The Undertaker's most infamous attacks received and done by Kane doing the same to him at the 1998 Royal Rumble). When the charred casket was opened, however, The Undertaker was absent, presented as having vanished. The Undertaker resurrected at theSurvivor Serieswhen the druids delivered a casket that was struck by lightning and went up in flames. The Undertaker then burst from the flaming casket in rage, battering and brutalizing an entire ring full of wrestlers as a message to Orton. Here, he reappeared still in hybrid form but with lessened Badass characteristics, eliminating several elements of his biker identity so that his Deadman side projected, most notably, replacing loose-fitting cargo pants with his Deadman spandex, and less use of theLast Ridefinisher.The Undertaker returned onSmackDown!in early December to haunt Orton and set up a Hell in a Cell match atArmageddon.After The Undertaker won their brutal Hell in a Cell encounter, in effect, settling his 9 month long feud with Orton,Calaway took a brief hiatus from professional wrestling. In January 2006 at theRoyal Rumble, The Undertaker returned on a horse-drawn cart during Kurt Angle's celebration of his World Heavyweight Championship defense againstMark Henry. In this appearance, The Undertaker signaled for a title shot by using his supernatural powers to collapse the wrestling ring that Angle stood in as a means to spook him. As part of their storyline angle, The Undertaker lost his match with Angle atNo Way Outafter a 30-minute bout—described as underrated and among Undertaker's top matches, in which he versatilely took to a more ground-based submission style to combat Angle's trademarkedfreestyle wrestling.The Undertaker cornered Angle after the match and told him he was not finished with him.In a rematch with Angle (similarly described as underrated and among The Undertaker's top matches that utilized the wrestling styles of their previous encounter on the March 3 episode ofSmackDown!) Henry attacked The Undertaker from behind, costing him the title.This led to The Undertaker challenging Henry to a casket match atWrestleMania 22and Henry vowing to end The Undertaker's WrestleMania winning Streak. The match resulted in The Undertaker sealing Henry in the casket, winning the match and extending his streak to 14–0 at WrestleMania.During a rematch on the next episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker was assaulted by the debutingGreat Khali. The Undertaker was not heard from until the May 5 episode ofSmackDown!when Theodore Long delivered a challenge from The Undertaker to Khali for a match atJudgment Day. The Undertaker lost to Khali at Judgment Day,and he did not appear again until the July 7 episode ofSmackDown!when he accepted Khali's challenge to aPunjabi Prison matchatThe Great American Bash. However, Khali was removed from the match due to not being medically cleared. He was thus replaced by thenECW World ChampionBig Show, over whom The Undertaker gained the victory.In storyline, Theodore Long replaced Khali with Big Show as punishment for an attack on The Undertaker shortly before the match.Khali was then challenged by The Undertaker to aLast Man Standing MatchforSummerSlamafter interfering in The Undertaker's match with then World Heavyweight Champion King Booker. Khali refused the challenge but Long scheduled the Last Man Standing Match ahead of time, for the August 18 episode ofSmackDown!instead. The Undertaker won the match by striking Khali with steel stairs and finishing him with a chokeslam. It was Khali's first defeat and effectively ended his feud with The Undertaker. The Undertaker's next match was with then United States ChampionMr. KennedyatNo Mercy, but was disqualified in the match after he hit Kennedy with the championship belt.On the November 3 episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker reunited with Kane to reform the Brothers of Destruction for the first time in five years, defeating reluctant opposition in the form of Mr. Kennedy andMontel Vontavious Porter(MVP), with whom Kane was feuding with at the time.As part of the storyline, Kennedy defeated The Undertaker in a First Blood match atSurvivor Seriesafter interference from MVP,but finally defeated Kennedy in a Last Ride match atArmageddon.The two continued to feud into 2007 as Kennedy cost The Undertaker two World Heavyweight Championship opportunities for a championship match at theRoyal Rumble.However, The Undertaker eventually qualified for the 2007 Royal Rumble match, by winning abattle royalon the January 26 episode ofSmackDown!. World Heavyweight Champion (2007–2010) The Undertaker won his firstRoyal Rumblematch on January 28, in doing so becoming the first man to enter the Rumble at number 30 and win the match, after lastly eliminating Shawn Michaels.On the February 5 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker elected to face World Heavyweight Champion Batista atWrestleMania 23on April 1, before attacking him with the chokeslam.AtNo Way Outon February 18, The Undertaker and Batista reluctantly teamed together to face John Cena and Shawn Michaels, but lost after Batista gained revenge on The Undertaker by hitting him with aspinebuster, allowing Cena to pin him.At WrestleMania 23, The Undertaker defeated Batista to win his first World Heavyweight Championship and extend his Streak to 15–0.The Undertaker faced Batista in a rematch atBacklashon April 29, this time in a Last Man Standing match. The match ended in a draw after neither man got to their feet by the referee's count of ten, meaning The Undertaker retained the championship.The Undertaker and Batista then fought once again in a steel cage match on the May 11 episode ofSmackDown!that also ended in a draw when both men's feet touched the floor at the same time. After the match, Mark Henry made his return by assaulting an already battered The Undertaker, after which Edge ran to the ring and cashed in hisMoney in the Bankbriefcase, forcing The Undertaker into a second title defense. Although he kicked out of two quick pin attempts, The Undertaker was pinned by Edge after twospearsand lost the World Heavyweight Championship.After this match, The Undertaker took time off due to a torn right biceps. During his rehabilitation, Henry bragged about his assault on The Undertaker, until vignettes began playing that promoted The Undertaker's return. The Undertaker returned atUnforgivenon September 16, defeating Henry.Batista and The Undertaker reignited their feud atCyber Sundayon October 28 with the fans choosing the special guest referee to be Stone Cold Steve Austin, however, Batista retained the World Heavyweight Championship.They battled again in a Hell in a Cell match atSurvivor Serieson November 18, where Edge returned and interfered to help Batista retain the World Heavyweight Championship.In response to this, The Undertaker delivered aTombstone Piledriverto General ManagerVickie Guerreroon the November 23 episode ofSmackDown!, sending her to the hospital. Returning assistant-General Manager Theodore Long declared a triple threat match for the title between the three men atArmageddonon December 16, which Edge won after interference fromThe Major Brothers. At theRoyal Rumbleon January 27, 2008, The Undertaker competed in the Royal Rumble match itself, entering at number 1, but eliminated by Shawn Michaels after lasting for most of the bout.AtNo Way Outon February 17, The Undertaker defeated Batista,Finlay, The Great Khali, MVP and Big Daddy V in the SmackDownElimination Chamber matchto become the number one contender for Edge's World Heavyweight Championship atWrestleMania XXIVon March 30.At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Edge with theHell's Gatesubmission hold to win his second World Heavyweight Championship in what was his 16th WrestleMania win.In a WrestleMania rematch, The Undertaker defeated Edge once again atBacklashon April 27 to retain the World Heavyweight Championship.Vickie Guerrero then banned The Undertaker'sHell's Gatesubmission hold and stripped him of the World Heavyweight Championship on the May 2 episode ofSmackDown.The Undertaker battled Edge for the vacant title atJudgment Dayon May 18, which he won by countout. Guerrero ordered that the title remain vacant, because titles could not change hands in this way.Edge and The Undertaker faced each other again for the vacant championship atOne Night Standon June 1 in aTables, Ladders, and Chairs match, which The Undertaker lost after interference fromLa Familia. As a result of the stipulation, The Undertaker was forced to leave WWE. On the July 25 episode ofSmackDown, Vickie Guerrero reinstated The Undertaker and scheduled Edge to face him atSummerSlamon August 17 in a Hell in a Cell match,which The Undertaker won. After the match, The Undertaker chokeslammed Edge from the top of a ladder and through the ring canvas.Following this match, Guerrero tried making a peace offering with The Undertaker onSmackDownby apologizing, but The Undertaker told her that he was not the forgiving kind. AtUnforgivenon September 7, as The Undertaker approached the ring to \\\"take Guerrero's soul\\\" and seal her in a casket,Big Show, who appeared at first to be aiding The Undertaker ended up assaulting him.Resulting from that, The Undertaker and Big Show faced each other in a match atNo Mercyon October 5, where Big Show won byknockout.AtCyber Sundayon October 26, The Undertaker defeated Big Show in a Last Man Standing match after choking him out withHell's Gate.At the same time, The Undertaker was engaged in a short feud with Jeff Hardy, who interfered during his match withVladimir Kozlovon the November 7 episode ofSmackDown. Hardy defeated The Undertaker in anExtreme Rules matchthe following week onSmackDowndue to interference from Big Show. The Undertaker then went on to defeat Big Show in a casket match atSurvivor Serieson November 23 and again in a steel cage match by submission on the December 5 episode ofSmackDownto end their feud.AtNo Way Outon February 15, 2009, The Undertaker was part of the WWE Championship Elimination Chamber match along with Triple H, Jeff Hardy, Big Show, Vladimir Kozlov and Edge; however, he was unsuccessful at winning the match as he was the runner-up behind Triple H. In early 2009, The Undertaker began a second chapter to his unresolved feud with Shawn Michaels from the late 1990s, over a decade prior to this point (their tensions gradually increasing in the years immediately preceding this from heated run-ins at the 2007 and 2008 Royal Rumble matches). Their renewed feud by this point was two-dimensional, in part focusing on the wonder of The Undertaker's undefeated WrestleMania Streak in relation to, however, the fact that he had never before defeated Michaels in a singles match, only vice versa.Michaels also made the buildup to their WrestleMania encounter personal, repeatedly demonstrating his Christian objections to the demonic dark side nature of The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick, even creating his own heaven-esque bright side spin-off of what he felt The Undertaker's gimmick should be (Michaels having become a real-life born again Christian by this point in his career).The feud culminated in a singles match between the two atWrestleMania 25on April 5 in which Michaels made a heaven-sent entrance descending from up on high portraying his bright side anti-Deadman, while The Undertaker made a grave-risen entrance emerging from the ground.After what was widely described as a suspenseful, competitive match, The Undertaker defeated Michaels, thus extending hisWrestleMania winning streak to 17–0.Their encounter was highly acclaimed by critics and audiences alike and is considered by many to be one of the greatest WrestleMania matches of all time.On the April 24 episode ofSmackDown, after losing a match against Big Show by knockout with Big Show taking advantage of The Undertaker's battered neck state from his previous WrestleMania encounter, The Undertaker attacked Big Show. Following this, The Undertaker took another hiatus from the WWE. After a four-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned atSummerSlamon August 23 by attackingCM Punk, who had just won the World Heavyweight Championship from Jeff Hardy in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match.AtBreaking Pointon September 13, The Undertaker faced Punk in a submission match for the World Heavyweight Championship. The Undertaker had originally won the match with hisHell's Gatesubmission hold, but the match was restarted by SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long, who ruled that the ban placed on the move by Vickie Guerrero was still in effect. Punk went on to win the match with hisanaconda visewhen refereeScott Armstrongcalled for the bell, despite The Undertaker never submitting—a recreation of theMontreal Screwjob, which took place in the same venue in1997.On the September 25 episode ofSmackDown, Theodore Long officially lifted the ban after being released from a casket that The Undertaker had him placed inside of, among a series of other horror-themed mind game tactics.With Long out of the way, the feud between The Undertaker and Punk pressed on and atHell in a Cellon October 4, The Undertaker won the World Heavyweight Championship from him in a Hell in a Cell match.The Undertaker successfully defended the title against CM Punk on the October 23 episode ofSmackDown, in a fatal four-way match atBragging Rightson October 25 against Punk, Batista andRey Mysterioand in a triple threat match against Chris Jericho and Big Show atSurvivor Serieson November 22.He faced Batista atTLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairson December 13 in a chairs match for the championship and won when the match was restarted by Long, after Batista had originally won after utilizing alow blow. The next night onRaw, The Undertaker competed in a tournament to crown the2009 Superstar of the Year, losing to Randy Orton by countout in the first round after a distraction by Orton's protegèsCody RhodesandTed DiBiase. After successfully defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Rey Mysterio at theRoyal Rumbleon January 31, 2010,The Undertaker lost the championship at theElimination Chamberpay-per-view on February 21. It was also at this event that a notoriousshoot incident(non-kayfabe) befell The Undertaker: apyrotechnicsmalfunction momentarily engulfed him in flames up to three times during his ring entrance. He was, however, able to continue with his scheduled match that night despite suffering first and second-degree burns on his chest and neck. According to a WWE spokesman, it \\\"looked like a bad sunburn\\\".The Undertaker lost the title to Chris Jericho after interference from Shawn Michaels that night;Jericho has said on multiple occasions that the pyrotechnician responsible for the accident was immediately escorted from the arena and relieved of his employment with WWE, following a threat of violence from Calaway.Calaway himself explained that he had previously expressed concerns to the technician regarding the pyro arrangement, but was ignored. He feels he was saved from severe injury by applying water to his hair, and altering his attire from a sleeveless to a sleeved jacket, just minutes before the accident. The Undertaker then accepted Michaels's rematch offer, after initially declining, atWrestleMania XXVIon March 28 in aStreak vs. Career match, where The Undertaker was victorious and Shawn Michaels was forced to retire. This match also made both The Undertaker and Michaels the first men in WWE history to main event WrestleMania in three different decades (Undertaker main evented WrestleMania 13 and XXIV in 1997 and 2008 and Michaels main evented WrestleMania XII and XIV in 1996 and 1998 and XX and 23 in 2004 and 2007, respectively). After a hiatus (which included wrestling two matches onRaw), he returned toSmackDownon May 28, defeating Rey Mysterio to qualify for a spot at theFatal 4-Waypay-per-view on June 20 to compete for the World Heavyweight title.During the Rey Mysterio match, The Undertaker suffered a concussion, broken orbital bone and broken nose; he was visibly bleeding profusely on camera by the end of this match.To cover for the injury, Kane revealed that The Undertaker had been found in a vegetative state on the June 4 episode ofSmackDown;Mysterio took his place in the match and won the World Heavyweight Championship. While attempting to learn which wrestler had attacked The Undertaker, Kane defeated Mysterio to win the World Heavyweight Championship atMoney in the Bank. Kane and Mysterio continued to clash as they accused one another of being the assailant behind the mysterious ambush of The Undertaker. AtSummerSlamon August 15, The Undertaker returned to confront Kane and Rey Mysterio, only to be attacked with aTombstone Piledriverby Kane. With Kane revealed as his attacker, the two feuded for the next few months over the World Heavyweight Championship. After losing to Kane in a No Holds Barred match atNight of Championson September 19, Paul Bearer returned as The Undertaker's manager on the September 24 episode ofSmackDown.However, Bearer turned on him atHell in a Cellon October 3 to help Kane win once again in a Hell in a Cell match. The feud ended atBragging Rightson October 24 whenThe Nexushelped Kane defeat The Undertaker in a Buried Alive match (the half-brothers' final singles match against one another). The Undertaker needed surgery for a torn rotator cuff, causing him to be written off. Final years of The Streak (2011–2014) After the2011 Royal Rumble, promotional videos began airing, showing The Undertaker entering and standing within a Western-style, dilapidated shack on a rainy desert inDeath Valley, The birthplace. Each promo ended with the date 2–21–11 being \\\"burned into\\\" the screen. On the February 21 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker returned, but before he could speak, Triple H also returned and confronted him. The two challenged each other to a match atWrestleMania XXVII, which was later made aNo Holds Barredmatch and which The Undertaker won by submission. However, he had to be carried away from the ring on a stretcher.Following WrestleMania XXVII in 2011, The Undertaker would take on a more part-time role within the company; he would not have another match onRaworSmackDownuntil 2013. On the January 30, 2012 episode ofRaw SuperShow, The Undertaker returned after a nine-month hiatus to confront Triple H.On the February 13 episode ofRaw SuperShow, Triple H refused The Undertaker's challenge for a WrestleMania rematch.After The Undertaker accused Triple H of living in the shadow of Shawn Michaels on the February 20 episode ofRaw SuperShow, Triple H accepted the challenge on the condition that it would be a Hell in a Cell match; Michaels was later inserted as guest referee in the match. AtWrestleMania XXVIII, The Undertaker, while debuting his new look, a mohawk, defeated Triple H to extend his Streak to 20–0. After the match, The Undertaker and Michaels carried Triple H to the entrance stage, where the three embraced.Later in 2012, The Undertaker appeared on the1000th episode ofRawon July 23 to help Kane, who had been confronted byJinder Mahal, Curt Hawkins,Tyler Reks,Hunico,CamachoandDrew McIntyre. The Brothers of Destruction overcame and dominated the six other wrestlers. The Undertaker's next television appearance was onOld School Rawon March 4, 2013, where he opened the show by performing his signature entrance. CM Punk, Randy Orton, Big Show andSheamusfought in a fatal four-way match to determine who would face him atWrestleMania 29, which Punk won.After the real-life death of Paul Bearer on March 5, 2013, a storyline involving Punk regularlyspitingThe Undertaker through displays of flippancy and disrespect towards Bearer's death began.Punk interrupted The Undertaker's ceremony to honor Bearer onRaw, stealing the trademark urn and later using it to attack Kane, humiliate The Brothers of Destruction and mock Bearer.The Undertaker defeated Punk at WrestleMania 29 to extend his Streak to 21–0 and then took back the urn.The following night onRaw, The Undertaker came out to pay his respects to Bearer, but was interrupted byThe Shield, who attempted to attack Undertaker beforeTeam Hell No(Kane andDaniel Bryan) made the save.The Undertaker would wrestle his finalRawmatch (his first since 2010) on the April 22 episode, teaming with Kane and Bryan against The Shield in a losing effort.Four days later, he wrestled his finalSmackDownmatch (also his first since 2010), defeating Shield memberDean Ambroseby submission. Afterward, The Undertaker was attacked by Ambrose and the rest of The Shield, who performed a triple powerbomb through the broadcast table on him. On the February 24, 2014, episode ofRaw, The Undertaker returned to confront Brock Lesnar and accepted his challenge for a match atWrestleMania XXX.After 25 minutes and threeF-5s, Lesnar won the match at WrestleMania bypinfall, ending The Undertaker's Streak in what was described as \\\"the most shocking result in WWE history\\\".Following the match, The Undertaker was hospitalized with a severe concussion which he suffered in the first minutes of the match.In a December 2014 interview, Vince McMahon confirmed that it was his final decision to have Lesnar end The Streak and that The Undertaker was initially shocked at the decision. McMahon justified his decision that it would significantly enhance Lesnar's formidability to set up the next WrestleMania event and that there were no other viable candidates to fill Lesnar's role.In 2014, The Undertaker was also offered to be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame, but he declined the offer, feeling it wasn't time yet. Final feuds (2015–2020) In February 2015,Bray Wyattbegan a series of cryptic promos which led toFastlane, where Wyatt challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 31, which The Undertaker accepted.At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Wyatt after twoTombstone Piledrivers. AtBattlegroundin July, The Undertaker made his return by attacking Lesnar as he was on the verge of defeatingSeth Rollinsduring his WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, causing the match to end in a disqualification win for Lesnar.The next night onRaw, The Undertaker explained his actions as revenge, not against Lesnar breaking The Streak, but rather the constant taunting he allowed Paul Heyman to engage in. Later that night, after The Undertaker and Lesnar brawled throughout the arena and had to be separated, a rematch was scheduled forSummerSlamin August, where The Undertaker controversially defeated Lesnar. Lesnar put The Undertaker in akimura lockand the timekeeper rang the bell after seeing The Undertaker supposedly indicating submission, but since the referee had not seen a submission and never stopped the match, the match continued. The confusion allowed The Undertaker to surprise Lesnar with a low blow and applyHell's Gate, in which Lesnar passed out.AtHell in a Cell, The Undertaker was defeated by Lesnar in a Hell in a Cell match after Lesnar hit him with his own low blow, returning the favor, and executing what was his thirdF-5of the match. While the crowd gave The Undertaker an ovation after his loss to Lesnar, he was attacked and captured byThe Wyatt Family(Bray Wyatt,Luke Harper,Erick RowanandBraun Strowman), who carried him away from the ring.After ambushing and capturing Kane the next night onRaw, Wyatt explained that he had claimed their souls and stole their demonic powers.The Brothers of Destruction returned on the November 9 episode ofRawand attacked The Wyatt Family, setting up a tag team match atSurvivor Series, which honored The Undertaker's 25 years in WWE.At Survivor Series on November 22, the Brothers of Destruction defeated Wyatt and Harper. On the February 22, 2016, episode ofRaw, Vince McMahon placed his son Shane McMahon, who returned to WWE for the first time since 2009, in a Hell in a Cell match atWrestleMania 32against The Undertaker with the stipulation that if Shane won, he would gain control ofRaw.Vince later decided that should Undertaker lose the match against Shane, it would be his final match at WrestleMania.After weeks of random physical confrontations and mind games exchanged between the pair, The Undertaker defeated Shane McMahon at WrestleMania 32.The Undertaker would not appear again until the900th episode ofSmackDownon November 15, issuing a threat to Team SmackDown if they failed to defeat Team Raw at the upcomingSurvivor Seriespay-per-view. The Undertaker appeared on the January 23 episode ofRaw, confronting Brock Lesnar andGoldberg.During theRoyal Rumbleon January 29, The Undertaker entered at number 29, eliminating Goldberg,The Miz,Baron CorbinandSami Zayn, before being eliminated by the number 30 entrant,Roman Reigns.The Undertaker returned on the March 6 episode ofRawand performed a chokeslam on Reigns.This led to a No Holds Barred match between The Undertaker and Reigns atWrestleMania 33,in which The Undertaker lost to Reigns after five spears in his fourth WrestleMania main event.After the match, The Undertaker left his gloves, coat and hat in the center of the ring before slowly making his exit. The Undertaker took part in theRaw 25 Yearsbroadcast on January 22, 2018, his first post-WrestleMania 33 appearance.In the months prior toWrestleMania 34, John Cena challenged The Undertaker to a singles match. At WrestleMania, afterEliasconfronted Cena and was beaten down, The Undertaker's hat and coat appeared in the center of the ring and were struck by lightning. The Undertaker then appeared and beat Cena in a three-minute squash match.Three weeks later, The Undertaker defeatedRusevat WWE'sGreatest Royal Rumbleevent in a casket match.AtSuper Show-Downin Australia on October 6, The Undertaker faced Triple H in ano disqualification matchbilled as the \\\"Last Time Ever\\\"; they were accompanied by Kane and Shawn Michaels, respectively. The Undertaker lost the match after interference from Michaels. After the match, the four men shook hands as a sign of respect, however, The Undertaker and Kane would follow this by attacking them.As a result, the duos reunited their respective tag teams—the Brothers of Destruction and D-Generation X—and faced each other atCrown Jewelon November 2, where The Undertaker and Kane lost their final match as a tag team. On the April 8, 2019 episode ofRaw, the night afterWrestleMania 35—the first WrestleMania in 19 years without his involvement—The Undertaker appeared to interrupt and attack Elias during a musical performance.The Undertaker made his return to the ring to face Goldberg atSuper ShowDownin Saudi Arabia on June 7, defeating him in the main event of the night in their first match against each other.On the June 24, 2019 episode ofRaw, during a handicap match in which Roman Reigns was dominated by Shane McMahon and Drew McIntyre, The Undertaker suddenly appeared and attacked McMahon and McIntyre. The Undertaker and Reigns were later scheduled to face McMahon and McIntyre in a No Holds Barred tag team match atExtreme Rules. At Extreme Rules, The Undertaker and Reigns won. This turned out to be The Undertaker's final match in front of a live audience in the United States. The Undertaker returned atSuper ShowDownin Saudi Arabia on February 27, 2020, as a surprise replacement in agauntlet match. He entered the match last, replacing Rey Mysterio and defeatingAJ Stylesto win theTuwaiq Mountain Trophy.AtElimination Chamberduring a match between Styles andAleister Black, The Undertaker made another surprise appearance with an attack on Styles.The following night onRaw, Styles challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 36.Over the following weeks that led up to WrestleMania, a resentful Styles made unprecedented efforts to expose The Undertaker, going so far as departing from bashing his Deadman gimmick, instead taking to ametafictionform of bashing Calaway himself. The feud saw Styles solely referring to The Undertaker by his real name, Mark Calaway, referencing his age and his wife,Michelle McCool. In response, The Undertaker cut promos of ominous warning against Styles in which for the first time in years, hebroke from the Deadman gimmickby presenting as himself out of character. In doing so, elements of his American Badass gimmick were reflected with Calaway making appearances in his biker gear. At WrestleMania 36, The Undertaker presented his third and final identity, \\\"The Unholy Trinity,\\\" a combination of The Deadman, American Badass, and himself as Mark Calaway, this blend allowing him to trash talk Styles over real life matters during their encounter, while also able to maintain his superhuman horror capabilities.In what was subsequently learned to be The Undertaker's final match, he and Styles fought in a cemetery at a secluded rural locale, competing in what was a cinematic, narrative-heavy brawl similar to \\\"Buried Alive matches\\\",named the \\\"Boneyard match\\\". Despite the assistance ofGallows and Anderson, The Undertaker buried Styles in the grave to win this match and ride off on motorcycle into the sunset,scoring his 25th WrestleMania victory to complete his professional wrestling career. Retirement and Hall of Fame (2020–2022) On June 21, 2020, in the final episode of theUndertaker: The Last Ridedocumentary, Callaway retired from the professional wrestling industry.Later on that November, he confirmed that he was \\\"officially retired\\\" in an interview.Many wrestlers and other public figures paid tribute to him on their social media pages.Madison Square Garden, regarded as the most famous venue in professional wrestling, also paid tribute to him. Undertaker, wearing his trademark mortician trench coat and stetson hat, made an appearance at the conclusion of theSurvivor Seriesevent on November 22, 2020. The event is dedicated to him, commemorating thirty years from that time since his WWE debut. There, he reiterated that his career had been completed, giving an emotional farewell speech which ended in typical Undertaker fashion: \\\"My time has come to let The UndertakerRest in Peace.\\\"Aten-bell salutewas also given for The Undertaker character as he did his traditional take-the-knee pose, and a holographic image of Paul Bearer, Undertaker's former manager, was projected in the ring. News that the Undertaker would be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fameclass of 2022were responded to with extensive praise from WWE fans, the professional wrestling community and media outlets alike.On March 3, 2022, onThe Pat McAfee Show, WWE Chairman Vince McMahon stated that he would be Undertaker's WWE Hall of Fame inductor. In praising Undertaker both inside and outside of character in a heartfelt message, McMahon said that the induction would be one of the most difficult endeavors of his life because of his longtime history with Undertaker, and how close they were behind the scenes.Undertaker issued aTwitterresponse later on that same day, which read: After over 30 years of long roads traveled, countless hours of TV, and one hell of a ride together… couldn't think of anyone better to put me in the #WWEHOF than @VinceMcMahon. One final ride together,old-timer!!! On April 1, 2022, The Undertaker was formally inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame at theAmerican Airlines Center.At his induction, Calaway made a 137-minute speech that opened with a 10-minute, emotional standing ovation from the live audience, bringing Calaway to tears. Calaway's acceptance speech, hailed by media outlets as matchless and beyond compare, was motivational and shared his collection of self-reflections and life philosophies for success. In making his speech, he stood before several genres of his Deadman character, through the varying costumes displayed on mannequins.Later that same weekend, Calaway made appearances on the entrance stage on both nights ofWrestleMania. Sporadic appearances (2023–present) On January 23, 2023, The Undertaker made an appearance at the Monday Night Raw 30th Anniversary special,Raw is XXX. He appeared under his American Badass gimmick, confrontingLA Knightand seemingly giving his approval toBray Wyatt.On October 10, 2023, The Undertaker made his first appearance onWWE NXTchokeslammingBron Breakker. On April 5, 2024, The Undertaker inductedMuhammad Aliinto the 2024WWE Hall of Fame.On April 7, 2024, The Undertaker appeared briefly during the Night 2 main event ofWrestleMania XLbetween Roman Reigns and Cody Rhodes where he aided Cody Rhodes and chokeslammed The Rock. Undertaker gimmick, identities and character evolution The Deadman identity Under his undead,funereal, and macabre horror-themed gimmick, in which The Undertaker is subtitled \\\"The Deadman\\\", he routinely took to alarmist tactics to disrupt the focus and confidence of his rivals.Often, these alarmist tactics were morbid and applied the use of props that reflected demise as the consequence of a wrestling match against him: caskets (sometimes personalizing casket designs to represent his opponents),body bags,corpse-likeeffigies,cemeteries,hearses.To that end, the gimmick evoked funerals and death down to finer details, such as in the character's birthplace ofDeath Valley, catchphrase of \\\"Rest in Peace\\\", signature finishing maneuver of theTombstone Piledriver, awrestling pinthat had the opponent resemble a corpse with their arms crossed over their chest, etc.Adding to his many effects of treating his wrestling matches as funeral services, The Undertaker frequently served a list of specialized matches that were personalized to his Deadman gimmick:Casket Match, Body Bag Match,Buried Alive Match,Last Ride Match,Hell in a Cell, Boneyard Match, etc. Filled withbells and whistles, The Undertaker's godlike superhuman presence and indignation were signaled byfuneral tolls, settings of pitch-black darkness and blue/purple semidarkness, flickering lights, hazy fog, thunder, lightning strikes, and other bone-chilling scenes and sound activity.Portrayed as miraculously resilient to destruction,The Undertaker yielded numerous resurrections,which sometimes gave way to reincarnations of his Deadman gimmick. While maintaining his general character premise as death personified with accompanying alarmist tactics throughout all sagas of the Deadman,each incarnation took on its own distinct appearance and characterization. For example, some Deadman incarnations wereunearthly and zombie-likewhile others wereGoth and comparatively more human. The earliest of The Undertaker's Deadman incarnations (nicknamed in external media as \\\"The Old West Mortician\\\" to distinguish from his other Deadman incarnations) depicted him as a menacing derivative of the Wild West undertakers in television westerns.In his own rendition, he was garbed in a black trench coat; gray-striped tie; black-ribboned, blackstetson; grayboot spats; and gray gloves(black gloves for first few appearances before gray).However, most of The Undertaker's Deadman character development (sleeve tattoos, longer/straightened/black hair, purple/blue color representation, elements of thunder and lightning, etc.) would not surface until his first reincarnation into what was hisrebirthed Deadmanvariation, lasting fromSummerSlam 94'(resurrection from adeath angle with Yokozuna) throughBuried Alive: In Your House(The Undertaker buried alive by Mankind and numerous other WWF heel wrestlers).In these initial zombie-like incarnations of his gimmick, he was portrayed as impervious to pain, something accomplished by Calawaynot sellinghis opponents' attacks. Among the many ways this was showcased was The Undertaker's maneuver of raising up from ataken downsupine positioninto ahigh Fowler's position, dubbed \\\"the sit-up\\\" (often accompanied by his sharp hissing sound). Beginning early on, The Undertaker's persona was complemented with histrionically spooky, wailing managerPaul Bearer, introduced to represent and guide The Deadman.Playing a key role, Bearer used an urn to transmit mysterious powers to The Undertaker that had supernatural healing effects on him during combat.Also linked to The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick were the druids–a team of mysterious, incognito cult-like members, completely disguised in black hooded clergy robes.A mysterious choir chantingsounded whenever the druids presented.The druids typically appeared for the purposes of removing The Undertaker where he had seemingly been extinguished by his enemies (as opposed toEMTsor medical personnel used for the rest of WWF/E talent). The druids were also seen reproducing The Undertaker in recovered, wrathful states to those same enemies who were thought to have extinguished him. The Undertaker took to many trademarked idiosyncrasies and themes, including a stylized throat-slashing gesture,grimacing facial expressions fit with eyeballs rolled back so that only the whites of his eyes displayed,backwards hair-whips so as to expose his ominous facial expressions,fixed stares on adversaries,protruding tongue displays, jolting of his head with a fury so that it faced the direction of his antagonists,his celebratory take-the-knee pose,sonorous vocalizations,collectively labeling his fanbase as \\\"Creatures of the Night\\\",voice of God-like promos in which things were interrupted with dimmed lights and thunder while The Undertaker's communications were heard booming throughout the arena with no physical trace of him;messages filled with death threats of a deeply posthumous insight into impending corpse decomposition, maggot feasting, unsouling and so on.A main attraction of the Deadman gimmick, The Undertaker mesmerized his opponents and viewers alike through elaborately \\\"bone-chilling\\\" entrances.The character's godlike powers were routinely put on display in these moments, triggering lights back to the arena either gradually or suddenly dependent on his either slowly or abruptly raised arms.During the vast majority of his wrestling career as the Deadman, The Undertaker used an extended remix ofFrédéric Chopin'sFuneral Marchas histheme music.WWF ComposerJim Johnstonembellished on the Chopin march, using the historic melody as a pre- and post-chorus to a main chorus of bell tolls, along with an original transition section to the song of a slow,lugubriousinstrumental feel.Of his entrances, Calaway has stated, \\\"When that gong went off, that was go time. The music fit the character. That's the key element of it: the end is at hand for whoever's going to be standing in that ring waiting for me to come down. That was the mindset behind the gong. And the music was just doom and gloom, you knew what was coming.\\\" Alternate identities of The Undertaker gimmick After a hiatus, Calaway returned in 2000 adopting a human form of the Undertaker gimmick. Under the character's alter ego, he is a semifictional smack-talking,redneckbiker, thoroughly absent of his fully fictional Deadman zombie-like traits and wizardry.In performing this alternate identity, he rode to the ring on motorcycles, chewed tobacco, donned cargo garments and/or denim, printed shirts, and sporty fashion accessories (sunglasses, necklaces, bandanas).His theme music was replaced with popular rock songs of the time, initiallyKid Rock's \\\"American Bad Ass\\\" (from which The Undertaker's subtitle used to refer to this second identity derived), and eventuallyLimp Bizkit's \\\"Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)\\\".His American Badass catch phrases, such as threats of “I'll make you famous” or references to the wrestling ring as his “yard”, became popular during this era. According toBruce Prichard, Calaway requested this metamorphosis of character since he wanted to be \\\"the biker–he wanted to be the guy that he is in everyday life\\\". While explained off-screen for the above reason years later, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it.This transition lasted3+1⁄2years until 2004 when The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity in hybrid form—residual features of his American Badass identity remaining. Among subtle details left over from his biker identity were his in-ringMMAstyle between his stances, strikes, and submissions; penchant to sporadically lower his tank top for a barechested appearance; celebrating victories with an arm-raised fist; etc.This hybrid Deadman (Deadman incarnation most closely based on Calaway himself) would last many years and for the remainder of The Undertaker's professional wrestling career, excluding his final wrestling match. For The Undertaker's final encounter, a Boneyard Match atWrestleMania 36in 2020, he introduced a three-dimensional identity that brought all of his identities into one, dubbed \\\"The Unholy Trinity:\\\" a mix of his Deadman identity, American Badass identity, and his natural and genuine identity as Mark Calaway. Gimmick reflective nicknames The Undertaker generated many nicknames from commentators throughout the course of his active wrestling career, some of those names more associated with his Deadman Undertaker identity, including \\\"The Grim Reaper\\\" (variants of this used were \\\"The Reaper\\\" and \\\"The Reaper of Wayward Souls\\\"),\\\"The Demon of Death Valley\\\",\\\"The Man from the Dark Side\\\",\\\"The Prince of Darkness\\\",\\\"The Lord of Darkness\\\".He also generated nicknames associated with his American Badass Undertaker identity, including \\\"Big Evil\\\" (used in reference to his American Badassheelside),\\\"Booger Red\\\".Some of his nicknames were not identity specific but used for the character in general, such as \\\"The Phenom\\\". Domestic backstory, parents and brother The Undertaker's gimmick has adark and disturbed family backstorywhich involves him intentionallyburning down his family funeral homeas a teenager, resulting in the deaths of his parents and purportedly a brother of his as well. Undertaker initially denied his then ex-manager Paul Bearer's charges of him committing the arson murder of his family, (though later confessed in late 1998). Instead, Undertaker blamed his younger brother of whom he thought long dead from the incident, describing him as a \\\"pyromaniac\\\". This led to Bearer's shocking warnings to proof in the form of the brother, \\\"Kane\\\", as alive and well.In late 1997 atIn Your House Badd Blood, Bearer unleashed a vengeful Kane: the fire-personified, juggernaut half-brother of Undertaker, who was fit with a mask to conceal the scarring from Undertaker's arson.In what became a fickle sibling relationship with Bearer (later revealed to be Kane's father) only adding to the pendulum and complexities, Undertaker and Kane went back and forth from one extreme to the other, feuding barbarically at points and yet teami...\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Streak_(professional_wrestling\",\n \"WrestleMania VII WrestleMania VIIwas the seventh annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 24, 1991, at theLos Angeles Memorial Sports Arenain Los Angeles. Fourteen matches were shown during thelivebroadcast, with onedark matchheld before the event. The main event sawHulk HogandefeatSgt. Slaughterfor theWWF Championshipas part of astorylinein which Sgt. Slaughter portrayed an Iraqi sympathizer during the United States' involvement in theGulf War. Significant events on the undercard includedThe Undertaker's WrestleMania debut and the beginning ofhis renowned winning streak, a retirement match betweenRandy SavageandThe Ultimate Warriorleading to the former's reunion with estranged loveMiss Elizabeth, as well as the final televised match of the originalHart Foundation, after whichBret Hartbecame primarily a singles wrestler. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\".WrestleMania VII was originally scheduled to be held on March 24, 1991, inLos Angeles, Californiaat theLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum, but the WWF decided to move the event to the adjacentLos Angeles Memorial Sports Arena. The WWF's stated reason for the venue change was that it had security concerns in the wake ofSgt. Slaughter's portrayal of an Iraqi sympathizer during theGulf War.This was dismissed by outlets such as SLAM! Sports of Canada, who chalked up the venue change to poor advanced ticket sales, and the company having difficulty filling the estimated 100,000 seats available.According to former WWF executiveBruce Prichard, both were accurate statements. In hisSomething to Wrestle Withpodcast, Prichard said that even if the WWF had sold out the Coliseum, the scope of the event was too large for police to ensure its security.Prichard explained further in an interview with Kayfabe Commentaries that the WWF would have had to foot the entire bill for the amount of security necessary to keep the wrestlers and fans safe from all potential issues, citing both the possibility of an outside attack and the crime rate of the surrounding neighborhood.Dave Meltzerin theWrestling Observer Newsletterwrote that between 11,900 and 15,000 tickets were sold before the move. He also reported that no tickets had to be refunded, indicating that sales were under 15,500. Comp tickets were believed to help fill the show's crowd. The tagline for the event was\\\"Superstars and Stripes Forever,\\\" and is remembered for its theme of American patriotism in the wake of the Gulf War. American flags were hung all over the arena and the ring apron and banners were colored red, white, and blue, which was the basis for the main event betweenHulk HoganandSgt. Slaughterfor theWWF World Heavyweight Championship. This was the first WrestleMania not to featureJesse \\\"The Body\\\" Venturaas a color commentator.Gorilla Monsoonhosted the event withBobby Heenan. When Heenan had to manage at ringside in the opening match and again duringMr. Perfect'sIntercontinental Heavyweight Championshipdefense, Monsoon was joined on the commentary byJim Dugganand \\\"Lord\\\"Alfred Hayesrespectively. In addition,Regis Philbinhelped with commentary on the main event whileJeopardy!hostAlex Trebekserved as the ring announcer. Willie Nelsonsang a rendition of \\\"America the Beautiful\\\" before the show. Other celebrity guests in attendance for WrestleMania VII included Philbin, Trebek, andMarla Maplesas backstage announcers.George Steinbrenner,Paul Maguire,Macaulay Culkin,Donald Trump,Lou Ferrigno,Chuck Norris,Beverly D'AngeloandHenry Winklerappeared as spectators.Bob Costaswas scheduled to make an appearance, but he canceled weeks before the event due to his objection to the main event angle. Theartistfor the promotionalposteris renowned illustrative painterJoe Juskoknown mainly for his work within the comic book industry. Randy Savage required surgery on a broken thumb in late January before the event. The injury required him to miss several matches leading up to WrestleMania. Storylines The two main feuds entering WrestleMania in 1991 were betweenHulk Hoganand WWF ChampionSgt. SlaughterandThe Ultimate Warriorand\\\"Macho King\\\" Randy Savage, and in a way, both were intertwined. Warrior had defeated Hogan for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania a year earlier and entered 1991 as the champion. In the meantime, Sgt. Slaughter had returned to the WWF near the end of 1990 after spending five years wrestling in theAmerican Wrestling Association. When he returned, Slaughter announced that he had turned his back on his country and had become anIraqisympathizer and follower ofSaddam Hussein. He had also revealed an alliance with an Iraqi military leader,General Adnan, who became his advisor (Adnan having followed Slaughter from the AWA to participate in the angle). This coincided with the increasing tension in the Middle East that was going on at that time, which eventually would lead toOperation Desert Stormand American involvement in the conflict. Slaughter would eventually set his sights on the Warrior, and the two agreed to a match at theRoyal Rumblein January 1991. Savage, meanwhile, was trying to regain the WWF Championship that he had lost atWrestleMania Vto Hogan and challenged Warrior repeatedly to give him a shot. Warrior defeated Savage to successfully defend the title numerous times and subsequently refused to grant any more title shots, so Savage decided to seek another remedy. During the match between Warrior and Slaughter, Savage and his managerQueen Sherricame to ringside and got involved in the match. Warrior picked up an interfering Sherri and tossed her from the ring onto Savage. Slaughter capitalized by driving Warrior down, leaving him hanging over the second rope. Savage then struck Warrior with his royalscepteras Slaughter kept the referee's attention, knocking the champion unconscious. Slaughter then hit an elbow drop on the Warrior and pinned him to become the new champion. After he came to and realized what Savage had done, Warrior charged to the back looking for Savage. He then issued a challenge for a retirement match for the two at WrestleMania, which Savage accepted. Hogan, having no connection with the ongoing story to this point, entered the Royal Rumble match as its defending champion. He won the match by eliminating his old rivalEarthquakelast, then went backstage to be interviewed byGene Okerlund. During the course of the interview, the word was relayed to the two that Slaughter and Adnan were celebrating their triumph by defacing an American flag. Hogan then promised to stand up for his country and take the title from Slaughter as soon as possible, and was later named the leading contender for the WWF Championship, which he had not contended for since losing the title to the Warrior atWrestleMania VI. Leading up to the show, Hogan continued to cite the ongoing real-life war in their feud. On one episode ofWWF Prime Time Wrestling, Hogan stated that Iraq would surrender in the war at the moment he defeated Slaughter. Event The opening bout was asingles matchpitting theBrooklyn BrawleragainstKoko B. Ware. Ware defeated the Brooklyn Brawler by pinfall. This was adark matchthat did not air on thepay-per-viewbroadcast. The pay-per-view broadcast began with a performance of \\\"America the Beautiful\\\" byWillie Nelson. The second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was a tag team match pittingthe BarbarianandHakuagainstthe Rockers. In the end,Shawn Michaelshit Haku with aflying bodypressand pinned him for the three count. After that,Dino Bravoand theTexas Tornadofaced off in the ring. In the end, The Texas Tornado won the bout by pinfall following adiscus punch. Next,the British Bulldogtook on theWarlord. In the end, The British Bulldog performed arunning powerslamon Warlord to win the match. After that, theWWF Tag Team Championswere on the line withthe Hart Foundationdefended their titles againstthe Nasty Boys. In the end,Jerry SagsstruckJim Neidhartwith a motorcycle helmet, enablingBrian Knobbsto pin him, earning The Nasty Boys their first tag team championship in WWF. Next,Jake RobertsandRick Martelcompeted in ablindfold match. In the end, Roberts struck Martel with aDDTand pinned him, winning the match. After that,Jimmy Snukafaced off againstThe Undertaker. Although Snuka attempted to bring Undertaker off his feet, he was unable too. In the end, Snuka attempted aSpringboard crossbodymaneuver on Undertaker but Undertaker caught him and hit Snuka withTombstone Piledriverfor the victory. This marked the beginning of the Undertaker'sstreak. Next, was theretirement matchbetweenRandy Savageandthe Ultimate Warrior. Before both men came out,Bobby Heenanspotted Savage's formervaletMiss Elizabethin the crowd. Savage and Queen Sherri came to the ring carried on a throne and Warrior walked out instead of his trademark running. The match started slow, both men initially insisted on chain wrestling until Savage started usingstrikeson Warrior. Savage went to the top rope and attempted a crossbody on Warrior but he caught him but put Savage on his feet and slapped him. Savage retreated from the ring and grabbed a chair at ringside and threw it at Warrior but it missed. Savage snuck back into the ring after being distracted by the referee picking up the chair and attacked Warrior. Warrior irish whipped Savage into the corner and attempted a splash but Savage got out of the way and Warrior fell to the outside. Sherri picked up Warrior and struck his throat when the referee wasn't looking and Savage performed a diving axe handle from the top turnbuckle to outside the ring. Savage got back into the ring but Sherri picked up Warrior again and began hitting him but Warrior pushed her over. Savage then came out of the ring and attacked Warrior from behind. Eventually, Warrior got back in the ring and Savage hit Warrior with a body slam for a two count. After a brief back and fourth, Savage attempted to wear Warrior down with a sleeper hold but Warrior got out of it and ran on the ropes but both men collided with each other in the center of the ring. Savage got Warrior up but Warrior countered with a small package but Sherri distracted the referee and when the referee turned around he counted but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior began arguing with the referee and Savage took advantage by delivering a running knee lift which propelled Warrior into the referee, taking him out. Savage then held Warrior in place and Sherri took her shoe off so she could hit Warrior with it. She climbed to the top turnbuckle and attempted and axe handle with the shoe but Warrior got out of the way and she struck Savage with it instead. Warrior chased Sherri around ringside until Savage intervened and rolled up Warrior for a two count. Savage performed a stun gun on Warrior and performed a clothesline to the back of the head. After body slamming Warrior, Savage climbed to the top rope and performed five diving elbow drops on Warrior and pinned him but Warrior kicked out. Warrior then got a surge of energy and fought back against Savage and delivered a gorilla press slam and splash to the back and pinned him but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior then began talking to his hands and asking his gods if he should step aside and lose the match and questioning whether his destiny is to lose to Savage. Warrior stepped out of the ring to give Savage a count out win after apparently receiving an answer from above. Before Warrior could do that though, Savage attacked him while he was on the apron. Savage then attempted an axe handle to the outside but Warrior moved out the way and Savage hit the barricade instead. Warrior got Savage in the ring and performed three shoulder tackles on Savage and pinned him for the three count. After winning, Warrior put on his entrance coat and celebrated in the ring before leaving. After he had left, Sherri berated Savage who was still lying on the ring canvas trying to recover from his match. Sherri began attacking Savage in the ring but Elizabeth hopped over the barricade and got into the ring and grabbed Sherri and threw her to the outside. Elizabeth began crying and both Savage and Elizabeth embraced in the ring. The two then left the ring. After that,Demolitiontook onGenichiro TenryuandKōji Kitao. In the end, Tenryu performed apowerbombonSmashand stacked him up for the win. Next, was a singles match betweenWWF Intercontinental ChampionMr. PerfectagainstBig Boss Manwith Perfect's title on the line. In the end, Big Boss Man was attacked by The Barbarian and Haku causing adisqualificationvictory for Big Boss Man. After that,EarthquakeandGreg Valentinefaced off and Earthquake took an advantage early on and performed anEarthquake Splashfor the three count. Next,Legion of Doomtook onPower and Glory. In the end, The Legion of Doom performed a 'doomsday deviceonPaul RomaandAnimalpinned him for the victory. After that, was a match betweenTed DiBiaseandVirgil. In the end,Roddy Pipercame out and distracted DiBiase. When Virgil threw DiBiase to the outside Piper continued distracting him and was unable to enter the ring thus Virgil won bycountout. In the penultimate match,The Mountiefaced off againstTito Santana. In the end,Jimmy Hartdistracted the referee and The Mountie zapped Santana with hiscattle prodand pinned him for a quick victory. In the main event the reigningWWF ChampionSgt. Slaughterdefend his title againstHulk Hogan. Slaughter entered withGeneral Adnanwho was waiving theFlag of Iraq. Hogan entered waiving theFlag of the United Statesto a thunderousovation. Both men started the match circling one another. They began chain wrestling and Slaughter pinned Hogan in the corner and the referee had to separate them. Slaughter once again pinned Hogan in the corner but Hogan shoved Slaughter who was sent to the other side of the ring. Hogan then knocked down Slaughter who retreated to the outside. Hogan went to the outside to get Slaughter but Adnan hit him from behind but Hogan wasn't phased and began chasing Adnan and Slaughter hit Hogan in the back with a steel chair but Hogan still wasn't phased. Hogan grabbed Slaughter and sent him into the ring. Slaughter begged for mercy and then poked Hogan in the eye. Slaughter then began wearing down Hogan. Hogan then knocked Slaughter down and Adnan got on the apron to taunt Hogan but Hogan hit him which sent him down on the floor. Hogan then took control and began beating Slaughter. Hogan then went to the top rope but Adnan grabbed Hogan's foot and Slaughter grabbed Hogan and threw him into the middle of the ring. Slaughter then clotheslined Hogan out of the ring and began hitting him with a steel chair. Slaughter then grabbed some TV cables and began choking Hogan with them. Slaughter took Hogan inside the ring and delivered a backbreaker for a two count. Slaughter began arguing with the referee and continued to beat Hogan and then put him in aBoston Crabsubmission. Hogan grabbed the ropes to break the hold but Slaughter thought he had won but the referee told him he hadn't. Slaughter began giving knees to Hogan's back and went to the top rope and delivered a foot stomp to Hogan's back and pinned him but Adnan accidentally distracted the referee. When the referee turned around and began counting Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter went to the outside and grabbed a steel chair. Hogan, who was leaning on the ropes facing the outside was hit in the hide by Slaughter with the steel chair. Slaughter then pinned Hogan but Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter then began hitting Hogan in the head, causing him to bleed. Hogan attempted a comeback but was not able too. Slaughter then put Hogan in theCamel clutchbut would release the hold to stomp a few times on Hogan's back, only to put the hold on again. Hogan got up while Slaughter still had the hold applied and attempted to ram Slaughter into the turnbuckle but Slaughter released the hold and shoved Hogan into the turnbuckle. Slaughter then asked Adnan for the flag of Iraq and Adnan handed him it. Slaughter then placed the flag of Iraq on Hogan and pinned him but Hogan kicked out at two and Hogan grabbed the flag and tore it in front of Slaughter. Hogan then hulked up and even though Slaughter began hitting him, his punches had no effect. Hogan then irish whipped Slaughter off the ropes and delivered a big boot. Hogan then peformed a leg drop on Slaughter for the three count and thus became a record three-time WWF World Heavyweight Champion. Hogan then waived the Flag of the United States and celebrated in the ring. Reception The official attendance of WrestleMania VII held at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena was 16,158.JournalistDave Meltzerreported that the paid attendance was approximately 10,500. Aftermath The Undertaker's victory debut at the event marked the beginning of hisWrestleMania streak. Backstage as Hogan was being interviewed on his victory over Sgt. Slaughter, Slaughter attacked Hogan by throwing a fireball in his face. Hogan quickly recovered from the attack and defended the belt primarily against Slaughter, largely in \\\"Desert Storm\\\" (i.e., no-disqualification) matches. He also had to deal with the returningIron Sheik, who was now competing as Colonel Mustafa. Hogan and the Ultimate Warrior eventually teamed up atSummerSlam 1991, defeating Slaughter, Mustafa, and their manager, General Adnan, in a two-vs.-three handicap match. Savage returned to television in a non-wrestling role as a color commentator for the WWF's flagship syndicated program,Superstars; although a fan favorite to the crowd, much of his commentary was heel-leaning. Meanwhile, the storyline with Miss Elizabeth continued, culminating with Savage proposing to her in the ring leading to an on-air wedding at SummerSlam 1991 dubbedThe Match Made in Heaven. (The wedding was kayfabe, as Savage and Elizabeth were already legally married.) VirgilandTed DiBiasefeuded with each other until November 1991, including facing off at SummerSlam 1991 when DiBiase lost his Million Dollar Belt to Virgil. After DiBiase won his belt back in November with the help ofThe Repo Man(formerly Smash of Demolition), their feud ended at theThis Tuesday in TexasPPV when DiBiase and Repo Man defeated Virgil andTito Santanain a tag team match. Genichiro TenryuandKōji Kitaowere on loan from the Japanese promotionSuper World of Sports. The WWF co-promoted several cards in Japan with the group, including twoTokyo Domeshows on March 30 and December 12, 1991. Although SWS folded in June 1992, Tenryu's follow-up promotion,WAR, co-promoted the WWF's first Japanese tour in 1994. After WrestleMania VII,The Hart Foundationdisbanded.Bret HartandJim Neidhartwent into singles competition. Bret Hart went on to singles success, defeatingMr. Perfectfor the WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam 1991, and later in 1992 would win the WWF Championship when he defeatedRic Flairin hisfather's home town ofSaskatooninSaskatchewan, Canada. Neidhart would later in 1991 form a tag team called \\\"The New Foundation\\\" with Hart's younger brotherOwen. This would be the final WrestleMania appearance forAndré the Giant. André would appear at ringside during the Intercontinental Championship match and assist theBig Boss Manin fending off the Heenan Family. He would make sporadic appearances for the rest of the year before his passing in 1993. Results References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania VIII WrestleMania VIIIwas the eighth annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 5, 1992, at theHoosier DomeinIndianapolis, Indianain the United States. Nine matches were shown during thelivebroadcast, with onedark matchoccurring before the event. Matches held at WrestleMania VIII includedWWF Intercontinental ChampionRoddy Piperdefending his title against former championBret Hart,WWF ChampionRic Flairdefending his title againstRandy Savage,Hulk Hoganfacing his rivalSid Justice. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\".WrestleMania VIII was scheduled to be held on April 5, 1992, at theHoosier DomeinIndianapolis, Indiana. Storylines The original plan for the main event was the long-awaited bout between Ric Flair and Hulk Hogan for the WWF Championship, the meeting between the two legends was even promoted on television in a mock press conference where WWF PresidentJack Tunneyhad announced Hogan as the number one contender to Flair's WWF Championship. Both Flair and Hogan had wrestled against each other in several house show matches and a televised tag match, but not in a televised main event singles match. WrestleMania VIII was changed to a double main event with Hogan wrestling Sid Justice, while Flair wrestled Randy Savage. For storyline purposes, Sid Justice lobbied to wrestle Hulk Hogan due to tensions starting between the two at that year's Royal Rumble, where Hogan was eliminated by Sid Justice. This maneuver on Sid's part led Hogan to helping rival Ric Flair eliminate Justice and then win not only the Royal Rumble but the WWF Championship in the process. This would make Ric Flair only the second man to win both the WWF and NWA World Heavyweight Titles, the first being the original \\\"Nature Boy\\\",Buddy Rogers. Event A scheduled match betweenthe British BulldogandThe Berzerkerwas cut due to time constraints. The opening bout was atag team matchpittingthe Beverly Brothersagainstthe Bushwhackers. The Bushwhackers won the match by pinfall. This was adark matchthat did not air on the pay-per-view broadcast. The pay-per-view broadcast opened withcountry musicsingerReba McEntireperforming \\\"The Star-Spangled Banner\\\". The second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was aSingles matchbetweenShawn MichaelsandTito Santana. Michaels won the match by pinfall after reversing abody slamattempt into abody press. Following the second bout,the Legion of Doomand their managerPaul Elleringwere interviewed byGene Okerlund. The Legion of Doom were originally supposed to challengeMoney Incfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipat WrestleMania VIII but due toHawkbeing under suspension until after WrestleMania they were replaced in the match bythe Natural Disasters. The third bout was a singles match betweenJake Robertsandthe Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall after giving Roberts aTombstone Piledriveroutside of the ring. The fourth bout was a singles match in whichWWF Intercontinental ChampionRoddy Piperdefended his title againstBret Hart. Hart defeated Piper by pinfall after reversing Piper'ssleeper holdinto a pin, thus winning the WWF Intercontinental Championship. Following the fourth bout, a pre-recorded interview withLex Lugeraired in which he promoted theWorld Bodybuilding Federation. The fifth bout was aneight-man tag team matchpittingBig Boss Man,Jim Duggan,Sgt. Slaughter, andVirgilagainstThe Mountie,The Nasty Boys, andRepo Man.Family FeudhostRay Combswas a guestring announcerfor the eight-man tag match. Big Boss Man, Duggan, Slaughter, and Virgil won the match by pinfall whenJerry SagsaccidentallypunchedBrian Knobbs, enabling Virgil to pin Knobbs. The sixth bout was a singles match in whichWWF ChampionRic Flairdefended his title againstRandy Savage. Savage defeated Flair by pinfall using aroll-upto win the title. At the time the company had a \\\"no blood\\\" policy. Nonetheless, Ric Flair was caughtbladingdirectly on camera and was fined several thousand dollars.In one of his first appearances in the WWF,Shane McMahonwas one of the backstage officials who attempted to keepMiss Elizabethaway from ringside during the Flair/Savage match. He then restrained Savage in the ensuing brawl after the contest. The seventh bout was a singles match betweenRick MartelandTatanka. Tatanka won the match by pinfall using across body block. The eighth bout was a tag team match in whichWWF Tag Team ChampionsMoney Inc.defended their titles againstthe Natural Disasters. The Natural Disasters won the bout bycountoutafter Money Inc abandoned the match. The ninth bout was a singles match betweenOwen HartandSkinner. Hart won the match by pinfall using aroll-up. The main event bout was a singles match betweenHulk HoganandSid Justice. Hogan won the match bydisqualificationafter Justice's managerHarvey Whipplemaninterfered. The finish to the Justice-Hogan match actually did not occur as planned - the original plan was for Hogan to hit the leg drop on Justice and forPapa Shangoto do a run in and break up the pin causing a disqualification; however, Papa Shango either missed or misjudged his cue and was late in getting down to the ring, causing Justice to have to improvise by kicking out of the leg drop. Following the match, Justice and Shango attacked Hogan untilthe Ultimate Warriormade a surprise return, helping Hogan drive Justice and Shango away. Reception Critics praised the Intercontinental Championship match between Piper and Hart. Thomas Golianopoulos ofComplex Sportsranked it at number 15 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, describing it as \\\"A stiff match that veers from amateur wrestling to all-out street fight with a great finish.\\\"Golianopoulos also ranked the Flair vs. Savage match at number 19 on the same list, praising the in-ring psychology despite an abrupt finish.On the other hand, Dave Meltzer of theWrestling Observer Newslettergave the Hogan/Justice main event negative two stars, citing their lackluster performance and the late entry of Papa Shango, which necessitated a hastily rewritten ending. The main event was also ranked by YouTube wrestling channel Cultaholic as the worst WrestleMania main event of all time in their 2019 ranking of every WrestleMania Main Event,while saying that the WWF Championship Match between Flair and Savage should've been the main event in their 2020 list of 10 WrestleMania Matches That Closed The Show. Aftermath Savage's primary opponent during the spring and summer of 1992 was Ric Flair, with the storyline over Flair's alleged past relationship with Elizabeth continuing to play a major factor. It was revealed later inWWF Magazinethat the photos that Flair had shown of himself with Elizabeth were fakes, and that they were actually of Savage and Elizabeth. In real life, Savage and Elizabeth were about toseparate, and did, with Elizabeth making her final WWF appearance on April 19, 1992 at theUK Rampagepay-per-view. WrestleMania VIII marked Elizabeth's last major pay-per-view appearance in the United States for the WWF. Although Savage and Flair continued feuding, the Elizabeth aspect was dropped from the storyline, and the former couple's divorce was finalized in September 1992. Savage briefly addressed the divorce in an issue ofWWF Magazine, but it was otherwise not mentioned in kayfabe. Shawn Michaels began receiving his first major push as a main-event singles competitor, as he would challenge Randy Savage for the WWF Championship in Europe, while challenging Bret Hart for the WWF Intercontinental Championship in the United States, while occasionally teaming with Ric Flair in tag team matches against Hart and Savage. Michaels eventually won the WWF Intercontinental Championship from The British Bulldog (who had won the title from Hart at theSummerSlamevent inLondon,Englandin August) in October. The Hulk Hogan-Sid Justice match was billed as Hogan's \\\"last match\\\", when in actuality, Hogan took a hiatus, due to the steroid scandal which was beginning to emerge in the news media.Piper also took a hiatus from the ring following WrestleMania VIII. Roberts left the company and would return four years later, using a \\\"born-again Christian\\\" gimmick. Sid Justice was largely unsuccessful in post-WrestleMania matches against the Ultimate Warrior and The Undertaker and eventually left the company, returning in 1995. Results References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania IX WrestleMania IXwas the ninth annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). The event took place on April 4, 1993, atCaesars Palacein theLas Vegassuburb ofParadise,Nevada. It was the first WrestleMania event held outdoors. WrestleMania IX was built around two main storylines. The first was the seemingly unstoppableYokozunachallengingBret Hartfor theWWF Championshipin the main event, a right he earned by winning the1993 Royal Rumble. The other major storyline was the return ofHulk Hogan, who had departed the WWF followingWrestleMania VIIIbut returned to team withBrutus Beefcakeagainst theWWF Tag Team Champions,Money Inc.(Ted DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schyster). Hogan and Beefcake lost the tag team match, but Hogan later faced Yokozuna for the title in an impromptu, unadvertised 22-second match after Yokozuna defeated Hart to win the championship. In addition,Shawn Michaelsretained theIntercontinental Championship, though he lost his match againstTatanka. The event has been panned by critics and fans alike. The most frequent criticism has been related to the match betweenThe UndertakerandGiant Gonzalez, Hulk Hogan's title win, and the Romantogasworn by announcers. Both the pay-per-view buyrate and the attendance for the event dropped from the previous year's WrestleMania. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\".WrestleMania IX was scheduled to be held on April 4, 1993, atCaesars Palacein theLas Vegassuburb ofParadise,Nevada. Early TV promos for WrestleMania IX ticket sales, airing in December 1992, focused on shots of Hulk Hogan and Bret Hart, with quick shots of Doink the Clown, Razor Ramon, Crush, Shawn Michaels, Ric Flair, and Randy Savage also shown. Hogan had notably not appeared on WWF TV since April of that year. Flair would not be on the roster at the time of the event. This was the first WrestleMania held entirely outdoors, a concept the company did not use again untilWrestleMania XXIVin 2008.Because WrestleMania IX was held in Caesars Palace, the WWF promoted the event as the \\\"World's Largest Toga Party\\\".The arena was made to look like a Roman coliseum, and the event featured guards, trumpeters, and several live animals.The company built on this theme by having the commentators, including debuting announcerJim Ross, wear togas. Ring announcerHoward Finkelwas also renamed \\\"Finkus Maximus\\\" for the day.Randy Savagecame to the broadcast booth accompanied by women throwing flower petals and feeding him grapes while he rode on a couch carried by guards.Bobby Heenanmade his entrance wearing a toga and riding a camel backwards. Hulk Hogan's visibly damaged eye was explained in the storyline as the result of Ted DiBiase hiring a group of men to attack Hogan before the match. In reality, the cause of injury has been open to debate. One theory is that Randy Savage punched Hogan because he believed that his ex-wifeElizabeth Hulettehad an affair with Hogan while Savage and Hulette were married (the couple divorced in September 1992).WWF officials claimed that the injury was the result of ajet skiaccident. A match was scheduled betweenBam Bam BigelowandKamala, but it was canceled due to time constraints before the event began. Storylines One of the feuds heading into the event was betweenTatankaandIntercontinental ChampionShawn Michaels. Tatanka was in the midst of an undefeated streak and had wrestled Michaels twice in the months leading up to WrestleMania IX.TatankapinnedMichaels in a singles match on the February 13, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestlingand later teamed withThe Nasty Boysin asix-manmatch against Michaels and theBeverly Brothers; Tatanka pinned Michaels to win this match as well.Michaels was also feuding withSensational Sherri, who stood in Tatanka's corner during the match. Sherri had been Michaels'valet. WhenMarty Jannettytried to hit Michaels with a mirror, however, Michaels pulled Sherri in front of him to protect himself.Sherri's anger at getting hit over the head with a mirror caused her toturnon him atRoyal Rumble 1993. The match betweenThe Steiner Brothers(Rick SteinerandScott Steiner) andThe Headshrinkers(SamuandFatu) had little background, althoughAfa, who managed The Headshrinkers, claimed that his team would \\\"tear heads off\\\".Doink the ClownandCrushhad been feuding since the January 2, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling. After Crush's match on that show, he confronted Doink, who had thrown a ball at a child in the audience. Crush grabbed Doink by the arm and warned him not to play any more pranks on children.Doink, wearing a cast on the arm that Crush had supposedly injured by grabbing, came to ringside during Crush's match on the January 18 episode ofWWF Monday Night Raw. He apologized to Crush and gave him a flower; when Crush walked away, Doink removed aprosthetic armfrom his cast and attacked Crush, who was later taken away in an ambulance due tokayfabe(storyline) injuries.For storyline purposes, Crush was said to be too injured to compete in the 1993 Royal Rumble match.Doink continued his pranks by squirting Crush with a water pistol and recordingvideo messagesto Crush, which showed two Doinks on the screen. The feud betweenThe Mega-Maniacs(Brutus BeefcakeandHulk Hogan) andWWF Tag Team ChampionsMoney Inc.(Ted DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schyster)stemmed from alegitimateparasailing accident in 1990 that forced Beefcake to undergo reconstructive surgery to his face.He was unable to wrestle again until the February 15, 1993, episode ofRaw. He faced DiBiase in his return match, after which DiBiase and Schyster attacked him. DiBiase held Beefcake for Schyster to hit him in the face with a briefcase, butJimmy Hart, whomanagedMoney Inc., repeatedly got in the way before Schyster shoved him out of the ring. Schyster then hit Beefcake in the face with the briefcase.Hart later claimed that he felt the need to \\\"step up and do the right thing\\\" and that he \\\"had a change of heart\\\", and his intervention led to him becoming ababyface, or crowd favorite.Shortly thereafter,Hulk Hoganmade his return to the WWF and joined with Beefcake, and manager Jimmy Hart, to formThe Mega-Maniacsand challenge Money Inc. for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Mr. Perfect's rivalry withBobby Heenandated back toSurvivor Series (1992). Perfect andRic Flairwere managed by Heenan, but Perfect turned on Flair and Heenan by agreeing to face them as part of a tag team match at Survivor Series.Flair feuded briefly with Perfect but left the company to return toWorld Championship Wrestling.Lex Lugerhad joinedVince McMahon'sWorld Bodybuilding Federation, but he signed with McMahon's WWF when the bodybuilding company failed.He made his debut at Royal Rumble 1993, where he was unveiled as Heenan's latest wrestler, Narcissus (although thering namewas changed to \\\"The Narcissist\\\" Lex Luger). The Undertaker's feud withGiant Gonzalezwas an offshoot of The Undertaker's feud with managerHarvey Wippleman. The Undertaker defeatedKamala, who was managed by Wippleman, atSummerSlam 1992.A rematch was held at Survivor Series 1992, and The Undertaker beat Kamala in acoffin match.Wippleman vowed revenge, and he introduced Gonzalez at Royal Rumble 1993 and instructed him to attack The Undertaker. The Undertaker was eliminated from the Royal Rumble match as a result of the interference, and a match was scheduled between The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez for WrestleMania IX. Beginning with his debut with the company in 1992,Yokozunawaspushedby the WWF as an unstoppable monster heel. Weighing over 500 pounds, he used theBanzai Drop, a move in which he jumped from the second rope and sat on his opponent's chest, to defeat several of the WWF's biggest stars.In a notable match on the February 6, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling, Yokozuna attacked \\\"Hacksaw\\\"Jim Dugganand performed the Banzai Drop four times. Due to the kayfabe injuries from the attack, Duggan was unable to wrestle for over two months.Yokozuna earned a title shot againstWWF ChampionBret Hartby winning the 1993 Royal Rumble match.During the contract signing, Yokozuna attacked Hart and performed the Banzai Drop on him. Event Before the televised broadcast began,Tito SantanadefeatedPapa Shangoin adark match,which became available for viewing on April 4, 2019 in the Hidden Gems section on WWE Network and is also notable as the WWE debut of Jim Ross on commentary. In the first match of the pay-per-view event, WWF Intercontinental Champion Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring by a new valet,Luna Vachon. Sensational Sherri followed Tatanka to the ring to prevent Vachon from getting involved in the match. During the match, Vachon approached Tatanka twice outside the ring, but Sherri was able to intervene and stop Vachon from interfering. Tatanka spent much of the match trying to injure Michaels with anarmbarhold. Michaels gained the advantage and almost pinned Tatanka with avictory roll, but Tatanka escaped the pin attempt and performed a war dance to channel his energy. Michaels threw Tatanka out of the ring and tried to jump at him to attack, but Tatanka moved. Michaels was unable to return to the ring within ten seconds; he pulled therefereeout of the ring. Tatanka was awarded the victory bycountoutbut did not win the championship because titles can only change hands as a result of pinfall orsubmission.Vachon attacked Sherri after the match by pulling her off the ring apron and delivery a devastatingclothesline, body slam and kicks to the ribs. Tatanka had to help Sherri make it back to the dressing rooms; however, she would be attacked again at the first aid station by Vachon, who choked her, hit her head against a wall, and dropped a machine on top of her and then Vachon was arrested by security. In the next match, The Steiner Brothers (Rick Steiner and Scott Steiner) faced The Headshrinkers (Samu and Fatu). The advantage switched back and forth several times, as the Steiners threw The Headshrinkers with severalsuplexvariations and used their aerial abilities to attack their opponents from the ring ropes. The Headshrinkers relied mainly on using their power to wear down the Steiners. At one point, Fatu picked Rick Steiner upon his shoulders so that Samu could attack Rick from the top rope. Rick caught Samu instead and performed abodyslamon Samu from Fatu's shoulders. The match ended when Scott Steiner performed aFrankensteinerto pin Samu and win the match. Crush attacked Doink the Clown outside the ring prior to the next match. After getting Doink inside the ring, Crush used his strength advantage to overpower Doink. Doink gained the advantage but missed two attacks from the top rope. Crush used more power moves to wear down Doink, and Doink tried to crawl under the ring. Crush forced Doink back into the ring and performed theCranium Crunch, a head vice submission hold, on Doink. Doink pulled himself to the ropes and broke the hold. Doink hit the referee and knocked him unconscious; as a result of this stagedref bump, a second Doink the Clown (portrayed bySteve Keirn) was able to interfere. He hit Crush with a prosthetic arm, which enabled the first Doink to win by pinfall when the referee regained consciousness. Razor RamonfacedBob Backlundnext. Ramon used his power to dominate the majority of the match, but Backlund usedhip tossesto attempt a comeback. Ramon won the match in under four minutes by pinning Backlund with asmall package. In the following match, Money Inc. (Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster) defended their WWF Tag Team Championship againstThe Mega-Maniacs(Hulk Hogan and Brutus Beefcake). Beefcake wore a protective titanium facemask because of his injured face, and Hulk Hogan came to the ring with a black eye, which led the announcers to speculate about the cause. Money Inc. gained the early advantage, but DiBiase soon injured himself by hitting Beefcake's mask. Hogan and Beefcake brawled with their enemies and controlled the match until Money Inc. was counted out. RefereeEarl Hebnerannounced, however, that he would strip them of their title if they did not return to the ring and continue the match. DiBiase returned to the ring and rendered Hogan unconscious with theMillion Dollar Dreamchokehold. Beefcake attacked DiBiase by applying asleeper holdand then turned his attention to Schyster, but DiBiase hit him in the back with Schyster's briefcase. Money Inc. attacked Beefcake and removed his facemask, but Beefcake fought back and applied a sleeper hold to Schyster. The referee was accidentally knocked unconscious, and Hogan recovered and attacked both members of Money Inc. with Beefcake's facemask. He tried to make the cover for a pinfall, but the referee was still unconscious. Manager Jimmy Hart turned his jacket inside-out to reveal a striped referee jacket; he made thethree-countand declared The Mega-Maniacs the winners of the match. RefereeDanny Daviscame to the ring and disqualified Hogan for using the facemask as a weapon. Money Inc. won the match and retained their championship, but The Mega-Maniacs threw them out of the ring and opened Schyster's briefcase to reveal stacks of cash. They celebrated in the ring and threw the money into the crowd. Lex Luger was accompanied to the ring by four women dressed in bikinis as he prepared to face Mr. Perfect. The match began with technical wrestling, and Perfect tried to injure Luger's knee while Luger worked on Perfect's back. Perfect took control of the match with a powerslam and tried to pin Luger after performing adropkick from the top rope. Luger's foot was on the ropes, however, so the referee halted the three-count and continued the match. Luger gained momentum and pinned Perfect; Perfect's feet were on the rope, but the referee did not see them. Luger continued to attack Perfect after the match and hit him with his forearm, which contains a steel plate as the result of a legitimate motorcycle accident. When Perfect got up, he chased Luger but was attacked by Shawn Michaels backstage. In the next match, The Undertaker faced Giant Gonzalez. Both men tried to use their size and power to control the match. Gonzalez used areverse chinlockto wear The Undertaker down and attacked him outside the ring. The Undertaker regained control of the match and knocked Gonzalez onto his knees. Harvey Wippleman threw Gonzalez a rag soaked withchloroform, which Gonzalez used to knock The Undertaker unconscious. The referee disqualified Gonzalez for using a foreign object and awarded the match to The Undertaker.After the match, The Undertaker recovered and attacked Giant Gonzalez. In the main event and final scheduled match on the card, Bret Hart defended the WWF Championship against Yokozuna. Hart tried to use his technical wrestling abilities against Yokozuna, while Yokozuna relied on his size advantage in the match. Hart gained control at the beginning, but Yokozuna came back with aclothesline,leg drop, andnerve hold. Hart regained the advantage when Yokozuna missed arunning splash. Yokozuna applied another nerve hold but missed a running splash again. He recovered and carried Hart to the middle of the ring, but Hart removed the protective padding on theturnbucklein the corner of the ring. He threw Yokozuna's head into the turnbuckle and applied theSharpshooter, his signature submission hold that stretches the opponent's legs and back.Mr. Fuji, Yokozuna's manager, threw salt in Hart's eyes, which enabled Yokozuna to pin Hart and win the WWF Championship. In an impromptu main event and the final match on the card, Hulk Hogan came to ring to check on Hart's condition. Hogan had stated during an interview earlier in the broadcast that he wanted to face the winner of the match, and Fuji challenged Hogan to face Yokozuna immediately in an impromptu bout. Hogan agreed and entered the ring. Fuji tried to throw salt in Hogan's eyes, but he missed and the salt hit Yokozuna. Hogan performed a leg drop and pinned Yokozuna to win the title in 22 seconds. Reception The event was attended by 16,891 fans, who paid a total of $1,100,000 in admission fees.This represents less than one-third of the number of fans atWrestleMania VIII, which had an attendance of 62,167.The pay-per-view drew a 2.3 buyrate, which was lower than the previous year's 2.8 buyrate. It was higher, however, than the buyrates for any of the following four WrestleManias. WrestleMania IX received overwhelmingly negative reviews. The event has received criticism for what some reviewers have perceived as a poorly booked event. Writing forSLAM! Wrestling, John Powell states that, aside from the Intercontinental and Tag Team Championship matches and the scantily-clad women that accompanied Lex Luger to the ring, the rest of the broadcast was poor. He is also critical of some of the outfits worn for the event, notably Jim Ross's toga and Giant Gonzalez's spray-painted suit.Reviewing the event for Online Onslaught, Adam Gutschmidt claims that several of the matches flowed poorly and had ill-conceived conclusions. He also claims that the match between Giant Gonzalez and The Undertaker was a \\\"dud\\\" and that Hulk Hogan's ego made the conclusion the \\\"worst WrestleMania ending ever\\\".RD Reynolds, owner of the websiteWrestleCrap, has inducted the event into the site's list of \\\"the very worst in pro wrestling\\\". He cites Giant Gonzalez, Papa Shango, Luger's \\\"narcissist\\\" gimmick, and Jim Ross wearing a toga as his reasons for including the event in the list. WWE places two events from WrestleMania IX in its top 50 WrestleMania moments: Bobby Heenan's entrance on the camel, which the company calls \\\"one of the most hilarious moments in WWE history\\\", and Hulk Hogan's title victory.Matt Anoa'i, who wrestled for WWE as Rosey, and was the brother ofRoman Reigns, cousin of Yokozuna, Samu and Fatu, has identified The Headshrinkers performing a double splash on Scott Steiner at this event as his favorite moment at WrestleMania. WrestleMania IX was released onVHSbyColiseum Video. It was then released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Collection (1985–1997) box set in 1997.The video was re-released six years later in March 1999.That month, it was also released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Legacy box set.It was also released on DVD for WWE's History of WrestleMania I-IX box set on September 14, 2004. In theUnited Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 5, 1993.Packaged together withWrestleMania X, it was released on DVD for theWWE Tagged Classicsseries on May 8, 2006. Aftermath A feud began between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect after WrestleMania IX as a result of Michaels attacking Perfect. They faced each other atSummerSlam 1993, and Michaels won by countout after his new bodyguard,Dieselattacked Perfect.Perfect then feuded with Diesel until leaving the WWF. Money Inc. lost the WWF Tag Team Championship to the Steiner Brothers on June 14, 1993.Money Inc. won the belts back in a rematch on June 16,but the Steiners won them again three days later.Money Inc. received several rematches but were unable to regain the title; they soon focused on singles competition, and DiBiase retired at the end of August. The Undertaker continued to feud with Harvey Wippleman. On the June 12, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling, Wippleman, Giant Gonzalez, andMr. Hughesattacked The Undertaker, and his managerPaul Bearer, and stole the urn that was said to be the source of his power.The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez faced each other one final time at SummerSlam 1993 in aRest in Peace match, in which neither wrestler could be disqualified. The Undertaker won the match to end the feud. After the match, a frustrated Gonzalez choke slammed Wippleman to the delight of the fans andturned facein the process. Bret Hart later claimed that during a conversation with Vince McMahon, he was told that Hulk Hogan refused to drop the WWF Championship to him.However, Hulk Hogan stated that, during a conversation with Vince McMahon, a deal was made for Hogan to drop the belt to the top heel at the time, Yokozuna, at the following King of The Ring.All three men eventually wound up in a meeting, where McMahon outlined the plan to have Hogan drop the belt to Yokozuna and denied telling Bret that Hogan refused to drop the championship to him. After regaining the title, Yokozuna challenged any American athlete to bodyslam him on the deck of theUSS Intrepidon July 4, 1993. After many challengers failed, Lex Luger arrived by helicopter and bodyslammed Yokozuna. Luger became a fan favorite and changed hisgimmickto an American patriot. He faced Yokozuna for the WWF Championship at SummerSlam 1993; he won the match by count-out but did not win the title.Lex Luger and Bret Hart each earned a title match against Yokozuna the following year at WrestleMania X. Luger was disqualified in his match, but Hart won the championship later that night. 32 years after WrestleMania IX, the event will once again be held in the city, with the41st editiontaking place at theAllegiant Stadiumon April 19 and 20, 2025. Results References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania XI WrestleMania XIwas the 11th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 2, 1995, at theHartford Civic CenterinHartford, Connecticut. Seven matches were contested at the event. The main event featured formerNFLlinebackerLawrence TayloragainstBam Bam Bigelow, a match which came as the result of an argument that took place between the two at the1995 Royal Rumble. Taylor won the match, which led to Bigelow being kicked out ofTed DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation.Shawn MichaelsfacedWWF ChampionDieselin a title match but was unable to win the championship.Jeff Jarrettretained hisWWF Intercontinental ChampionshipagainstRazor Ramon.Owen Hartand his mystery partner,Yokozuna, challengedThe Smoking Gunnsfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipand won the title belts. The match between Taylor and Bigelow brought the WWF mainstream press coverage. The reactions to the match were mixed; some people thought that Taylor performed surprisingly well for a non-wrestler. Others thought that the WWF pushing a football player to defeat a wrestler made professional wrestling look bad. Reviews of the event as a whole were mixed, with the event called both the worst WrestleMania of all time and the event that saved the WWF. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\",and was considered one of the \\\"Big Five\\\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XI was scheduled to be held on April 2, 1995, at theHartford Civic CenterinHartford, Connecticut. Special OlympianKathy Huey sang a rendition of \\\"America the Beautiful\\\" during the event, replacing the previously advertised band,Fishbone.Prior toLawrence Taylor's match againstBam Bam Bigelow,Salt-n-PepasangWhatta Man. Several other celebrities also had roles at WrestleMania.Nicholas Turturro, one of the stars ofNYPD Blue, conducted interviews and served as a guest ring announcer.Jonathan Taylor ThomasofHome Improvementwas a guest timekeeper for the match betweenDieselandShawn Michaels.WrestleMania XI marked the first time that the WWF featured an interview on theInternetas Diesel and Shawn Michaels were interviewed byBob Ryder. On September 30, 1995, a one-hour special including the Diesel vs. Shawn Michaels match and the Lawrence Taylor vs. Bam Bam Bigelow match was broadcast on theFOX Network.At the WrestleMania weekend, the WWF also held its Fan Fest, a promotional event during which wrestlers interacted with fans and signed autographs. Storylines The most heavily promoted feud going into the event was betweenBam Bam BigelowandLawrence Taylor. At the1995 Royal Rumble, Bigelow teamed withTatankain the final round of a tournament for theWWF Tag Team Championship. Bigelow waspinnedat the end of the match, which led to the crowd heckling him. He responded by pushingNFLplayer Lawrence Taylor, who was sitting at ringside. Bigelow refused to apologize and instead challenged Taylor to a wrestling match.Taylor agreed and trained withWWF ChampionDiesel to prepare for the match.The storyline between Bigelow and Taylor brought the WWF much mainstream exposure, as the match was discussed by several news outlets. The other main event at WrestleMania was a match for the WWF Championship between Diesel andShawn Michaels. Diesel had originally entered the WWF as Michaels's bodyguard but later began wrestling and forming atag teamwith Michaels. The pair held the WWF Tag Team Championship together in 1994. AtSurvivor Series 1994, however, Michaels accidentally kicked Diesel in the face. This led to an argument during which Diesel dissolved the tag team and vacated the championship.Three days later, Diesel defeatedBob Backlundto become the new WWF Champion.At the Royal Rumble, Michaels won the titular match, which earned him a match against Diesel for the title belt at WrestleMania. TheWWF Intercontinental Championshipwas also defended at WrestleMania.Jeff Jarrett, the champion, had been feuding withRazor Ramon, the challenger, for several months. At the Royal Rumble, Jarrett was accompanied byThe Roadie, who interfered on Jarrett's behalf and helped Jarrett win the championship.To even the sides in the rematch at WrestleMania, Ramon was accompanied by his friend, the1–2–3 Kid. In a match for the WWF Tag Team Championship,The Smoking Gunnsdefended their title. Their opponents wereOwen Hartand a mystery partner. Hart refused to tell anyone the name of his partner, which left the Gunns uncertain who they would be facing and led to much speculation about the identity of the mystery partner. Bret Hartfaced Bob Backlund in an\\\"I Quit\\\" matchat WrestleMania. The feud began the previous summer, when Hart defended the WWF Championship against Backlund. Backlund mistakenly thought he won the match and began celebrating, but Hart pinned him to retain the title. After the match, Backlundturnedheelby attacking Hart.This led to a title match at Survivor Series 1994, in which Backlund won the title from Hart.Although Backlund soon lost the belt,the feud continued and Backlund attacked Hart during Hart's match at the Royal Rumble. Also at the Royal Rumble,The UndertakerfacedIrwin R. Schysteras part of The Undertaker's feud withTed DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation. During the match,King Kong Bundy, another Corporation member, interfered and enabled the Corporation to steal The Undertaker's urn, which was said to be the source of his power. Event In the opening match,The Allied Powers(Davey Boy SmithandLex Luger) faced theBlu Brothers(Eli Blu and Jacob Blu). Smith started out on the offensive, but Jacob gained control with arunning bulldogthrow. The Blus capitalized on the fact that they are identical twins by switching places without tagging while the referee was not looking. Luger came into the match near the end and performed arunning forearm smashon Eli. Jacob tried to throw Luger with apowerbomb, but Luger tagged in Smith, who performed asunset flipto pin Jacob and win the match. The second match pitted Razor Ramon, with the 1–2–3 Kid in his corner, against WWF Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett, who had The Roadie in his corner. Ramon took control at the beginning of the match by using power moves against Jarrett. Jarrett tried to leave the match, but the 1–2–3 Kid forced him back into the ring. Jarrett took advantage of one of Ramon's mistakes to gain the advantage. He applied asleeper holdon Ramon, who used his strength advantage to escape the move. After Ramon threw Jarrett, the Kid attempted to interfere but was kicked by Jarrett. Ramon jumped off the ropes to attack Jarrett, but Jarrett avoided the move and applied afigure four leglockon Ramon. Ramon reversed the move to place the pressure on Jarrett's legs. He then threw Jarrett to the mat with asuplex from the second ropeand prepared to execute theRazor's Edge, his finishing move. The Roadie entered the ring and attacked Ramon, prompting the referee to disqualify Jarrett; because titles cannot change hands on a disqualification, Jarrett retained his championship. In the next match, The Undertaker faced King Kong Bundy. Ted DiBiase was at ringside holding the urn that his wrestlers had stolen from The Undertaker.Larry Young, a legit American League umpire, was the special referee for the match. Young's storyline was as an out-of-work sports official because of therecently ended MLB Players Association strikeand a lockout of the Major League Umpires Association umpires (which led to the eventual dissolution of the MLUA in 2000; prior to the new union, umpires were split by league).The Undertaker took control at the beginning of the match byjumping off the top rope and hitting Bundy. He then performed severalclotheslineattacks on Bundy. Bundy responded with a clothesline that knocked The Undertaker out of the ring. Seeing DiBiase close, The Undertaker took back his urn. After The Undertaker returned to the ring, DiBiase calledKama, another Corporation member, to the ring. Kama stole the urn, and Bundy attacked The Undertaker in order to let Kama escape backstage. Bundy picked The Undertaker up andpowerslammedhim to the mat. He then performed anAvalanche Splashto crush The Undertaker against the corner of the ring. The Undertaker was unharmed, however, and performed a powerslam and a clothesline on Bundy before pinning him to win the match. The Smoking Gunns defended their WWF Tag Team Championship in the next match against Owen Hart and his mystery partner, who was revealed to beYokozuna. The Gunns worked together to control the match at the beginning, but Yokozuna gained control by performing aleg dropon Billy Gunn. Hart attempted to perform adropkick from the top ropebut accidentally hit Yokozuna. The Gunns briefly took control until Yokozuna performed abelly to belly suplexand landed on Billy. He then performed aBanzai Drop, jumping from the second rope and sitting on Billy's chest. Hart tagged in and considered performing theSharpshootersubmission hold; instead, he pinned Billy Gunn to win the title belts for his team. The next match, an \\\"I Quit\\\" match, took place between Bret Hart and Bob Backlund, withRoddy Piperas the guest referee. It was explained that, in order to win the match, a wrestler must force his opponent to say \\\"I quit\\\" into a microphone held by Piper. Hart attempted to perform the Sharpshooter early in the match; when Backlund blocked it, Hart executed afigure four leglockinstead. Backlund escaped the hold and began trying to injure Hart's arm with anarmbarhold. Hart then tried to attack Backlund in the corner of the ring, but Backlund moved and Hart hit his shoulder against the ring post. Backlund tried to perform thecrossface chickenwing, his signature submission hold. Hart blocked him and performed the same hold on Backlund instead. Backlund made an unintelligible sound into the microphone, and Piper determined that he had submitted. As a result, the win was awarded to Bret Hart. In the next match, which was for the WWF Championship, challenger Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring byJenny McCarthyand Diesel, the champion, was escorted byPamela Anderson. Michaels relied on his quickness in the opening stages, while Diesel used his strength advantage against Michaels. Diesel threw Michaels out of the ring and onto the arena floor, but Michaels later performed a clothesline that knocked Diesel out of the ring. Michaels capitalized on his advantage by performing several aerial moves, including aflying crossbody,flying bulldogthrow, and adiving elbow drop. He was unable to pin Diesel, however, so he performed a sleeper hold to wear Diesel down. They brawled outside the ring, after which Michaels performedSweet Chin Music, his finishing move, butSid, Michaels's bodyguard, had the referee distracted and unable to count the pinfall. Diesel recovered and controlled the remainder of the match with power moves before throwing Michaels to the mat with a botchedJackknifeand getting the pinfall victory. The final bout of the event was the main event match between Bam Bam Bigelow and Lawrence Taylor. Bigelow was accompanied by the members of DiBiase's Million Dollar Corporation: King Kong Bundy, Tatanka, Irwin R. Schyster, Kama, andNikolai Volkoff. To prevent the Corporation members from interfering, Taylor brought several football players:Ken Norton Jr.,Chris Spielman,Rickey Jackson,Carl Banks,Reggie White, andSteve McMichael. Taylor gained the advantage early and performed a clothesline that knocked Bigelow out of the ring. Once he returned to the ring, Bigelow took control of the match by kicking Taylor repeatedly and performing aBoston crabsubmission hold to hurt Taylor's back. Taylor got out of the hold and threw Bigelow with asuplex. Bigelow recovered and performed several headbutts on Taylor before executing amoonsaultflip to knock Taylor down to the mat. Taylor began to take control of the match again, but Bigelow kicked him in the back of the head and then performed aheadbutt from the top rope. Bigelow was unable to pin Taylor, however. Taylor climbed to the second rope, jumped off, and used his forearm to hit Bigelow. He then covered Bigelow to win the match. Reception The event was attended by 15,000 fans, who paid a total of $750,000 in admission fees. This was down from the previous year's attendance of 18,065,but the decline could be attributed to the smaller size of the venue for WrestleMania XI.The attendance figure was also lower than the following year's figure of 18,852 fans atWrestleMania XII. The pay-per-view buyrate for WrestleMania XI was 1.3, which was lower than the 1.68 buyrate for WrestleMania X but higher than the 1.2 buyrate for WrestleMania XII. Writing for411mania, columnist Dustin James rated the event as the seventeenth best of the first twenty-three WrestleManias. He stated that the event did not have any truly amazing matches but that Lawrence Taylor put on a solid performance.John Powell ofSLAM! Wrestlingrated the event as the worst WrestleMania of all time. The specific concerns he mentioned in his review are Diesel's championship reign and WWF allowing a football player to defeat a wrestler in what he describes as a \\\"sham of a match\\\".In contrast,Pro Wrestling Illustratedcolumnist Dave Rosenbaum stated that WrestleMania \\\"saved\\\" the WWF in its feud with rivalWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW). He argued that Taylor \\\"looked like a pro\\\" and contributed to an \\\"incredible\\\" match. He also observed that the tag team matches helped rejuvenate an area of wrestling that had been suffering in the WWF and that the match between Michaels and Diesel was a candidate for match of the year.Bret Hart was critical about his match against Bob Backlund, claiming it was \\\"probably my worst pay-per-view match I ever had\\\". Aftermath Shortly after WrestleMania, Diesel offered Shawn Michaels a rematch. Michaels blamed Sid for the loss and informed him that he would not be needed during the match. Sid got angry and attacked Michaels until Diesel saved him.Diesel and Michaels became allies once again, and they teamed up to win the WWF Tag Team Championship later that year.Diesel feuded with Sid and defeated him at theIn Your House 1andIn Your House 2pay-per-view events.The animosity lingered between Michaels and Sid, but they did not face each other to settle the feud until the September 11, 1995 episode ofMonday Night Raw. Bam Bam Bigelow was embarrassed after losing to Lawrence Taylor. To redeem himself, he challenged Diesel to a match for the WWF Championship. During the match, Tatanka turned on Bigelow and caused him to get pinned. Bigelow was kicked out of the Million Dollar Corporation and attacked by DiBiase's wrestlers. Diesel saved Bigelow from the attack, which led to a friendship being formed between the two.Bigelow defeated Tatanka in adark matchat In Your House 2.At King of the Ring 1995, Sid, DiBiase's latest addition to the Corporation, teamed with Tatanka in a loss to the team of Diesel and Bigelow. Razor Ramon and the 1–2–3 Kid was scheduled to face Jeff Jarrett and The Roadie at In Your House 1 the month after WrestleMania. The Kid sustained alegitinjury, however, and was unable to compete. As a result, Ramon wrestled a two-on-onehandicap matchagainst Jarrett and The Roadie instead.Ramon won the bout, but the feud continued. At In Your House 2, The Roadie faced the 1–2–3 Kid and defeated him.Ramon and Jarrett wrestled several times, and Ramon regained the Intercontinental Championship on May 19, 1995.He held the belt for three days beforedroppingit back to Jarrett. After WrestleMania, Kama melted down The Undertaker's urn and made it into a necklace.The Undertaker defeated Kama in a dark match at In Your House 1, and again in acasket matchat In Your House 2.He then won another casket match against Kama atSummerSlam 1995to end the feud. The Undertaker was not able to recapture the remnants of the urn until he ended his feud with King Mabel in another Casket match.TheUndertaker's streakof 21 consecutive WrestleMania victories was first acknowledged during his entrance for his encounter withKing Kong Bundyby play-by-play commentatorVince McMahon, who stated, \\\"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania\\\". The Smoking Gunns were given a rematch for the WWF Tag Team Championship at In Your House 1. Hart pinned Bart Gunn to retain the championship for his team.Hart and Yokozuna then moved on to face other competition, and the Gunns did not become serious contenders for the title again until late in 1995 when they defeated Hart and Yokozuna to regain the championship. Steve McMichael, who accompanied Lawrence Taylor, joinedWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) later in 1995 as a color commentator then eventually as an in-ring performer, joining the famousFour Horsemanwhen he turned on and betrayed his tag team partner and former NFL starKevin GreeneatThe Great American Bash '96near the end of their tag team match againstRic FlairandArn Anderson. Going by the name \\\"Mongo\\\" McMichael, he eventually went on to win theWCW United States Heavyweight Championship. The WWF released the event onVHSin North America in 1995. The VHS version was then re-released on March 2, 1999.The event was also released onDVDin North America as part of the WrestleMania Complete Anthology boxed set on November 1, 2005.In the United Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 10, 1995.Packaged together withWrestleMania XII, it was then released on DVD in the United Kingdom as part of theWWE Tagged Classicsline on August 7, 2006. Results References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania XII WrestleMania XIIwas the 12th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 31, 1996, at theArrowhead Pond of AnaheiminAnaheim, Californiain the United States. Eight matches were held at the event, including two on theFree for Allpre-show. In the main event,Bret Hartlost theWWF ChampionshiptoShawn Michaelsin the first televisedIron Man matchin company history, lasting over 60 minutes. In his return to the company after a four-year hiatus,The Ultimate WarriordefeatedHunter Hearst Helmsley.Roddy Piperhad his first match since 1994. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\",and was considered one of the \\\"Big Five\\\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XII was scheduled to be held on March 31, 1996, at theArrowhead Pond of AnaheiminAnaheim, California. Storylines The main attraction of this WrestleMania was theWWF Championshipcontested in anIron Man match; whereby the winner would be the man to win mostfallsover sixty minutes. Michaels had earned the opportunity to face reigning championBret Hartby winning the1996 Royal Rumble, and had also defeatedOwen HartatIn Your House 6for the right to keep the WrestleMania title shot. Themain eventwas built on Bret Hart wanting to retain the WWF Championship against Shawn Michaels, who had suffered a number of setbacks over the course of the previous year, including failing to winDiesel'sWWF Championship the previous year atWrestleMania XIin April 1995, being accosted at aSyracuse, New Yorknightclub in October 1995 (and subsequently forfeiting theWWF Intercontinental ChampionshiptoDean DouglasatIn Your House 4), and suffering astorylineconcussionat the hands of Owen Hart in November 1995. Hunter Hearst Helmsleymade his debut in the WWF in May 1995, with hiswrestling gimmickbeing in that he was a rich snob born with a silver spoon in his mouth. He went on an undefeated winning streak throughout the year until theRoyal Rumble.The Ultimate Warriormeanwhile had left the WWF in 1992 after failing a drug test. His last match was on the November 14, 1992 edition ofSaturday Night's Main Event XXXI, where he and\\\"Macho Man\\\" Randy SavagedefeatedTed DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schysterin a tag team match. WWF officials later signed on a match between Ultimate Warrior, who re-signed to the WWF in an attempt to increase ratings, and Helmsley for WrestleMania XII. Diesel began feuding withThe Undertakerafter interfering in a bout between The Undertaker and Bret Hart at the 1996 Royal Rumble. In an episode ofMonday Night Rawthat aired on March 18, 1996, Diesel was battlingBarry Horowitzwhen he caught a glimpse ofPaul Bearerpushing acasketup the entrance ramp. Believing it to be The Undertaker's casket, Diesel armed himself with a wrench before opening the casket's lid and seeing his own \\\"corpse\\\" lying in repose inside (which was actually an illusion made possible by having live footage cut to a pre-recorded close-up footage of Diesel himself in the same casket, lying in a relaxed position with his eyes closed, filmed at some time before the episode, thus avoiding showing the mannequin in the casket up-close); seeing \\\"himself\\\" in the casket terrified him, as it foreshadowed The Undertaker's upcoming match against Diesel in WrestleMania XII. Event The opening bout, which aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was atag team matchfor the vacantWWF Tag Team Championshipbetween theBodydonnas(SkipandZip) andthe Godwinns(Henry O. GodwinnandPhineas I. Godwinn). This match was the final bout of a tournament held to determine the new champions after the titles were vacated in February 1996. The match ended when Skip pinned Phineas I. Godwinn using aroll-up, making the Bodydonnas the new WWF Tag Team Champions. The second bout, which also aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was asingles match(billed as a \\\"geriatric match\\\") between \\\"The Huckster\\\" and \\\"Nacho Man\\\", two characters created to parodyHulk Hoganand\\\"Macho Man\\\" Randy Savage(former WWF performers who had joined its competitorWorld Championship Wrestling). The referee for the match was \\\"Billionaire Ted\\\", a parody ofTed Turner, the owner of World Championship Wrestling's parent companyTurner Broadcasting System. This bout marked the culmination of a series of skits the WWF had aired featuring the three characters. This match did not take place in the Arrowhead Pond, having been pre-recorded elsewhere. The match ended in a no contest when both competitors, along with Billionaire Ted, seemingly expired in the ring. The third bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast proper, was asix-man tag team matchpittingThe British Bulldog,Owen Hart, andVader(Camp Cornette) againstAhmed Johnson,Jake Roberts, andYokozuna, with the stipulation that if Yokozuna's team won he would receive five minutes in the ring withJim Cornette, the manager of Camp Cornette. The match ended when Roberts attempted to give Cornette aDDT, only for Vader to knock Roberts down and pin him following aVader Bomb. The fourth bout was a \\\"Hollywood Backlot Brawl\\\" betweenGoldustandRoddy Piper. The match began in a parking lot, with the men brawling and using weapons. After Goldust fled in a goldenCadillac, Piper pursued him in a whiteFord Bronco. The fifth bout was a singles match betweenSavio VegaandStone Cold Steve Austin. Austin won the bout by technical knockout after hitting Vega with theMillion Dollar Championshipthen applying theMillion Dollar Dreamto Vega until he passed out. During and after the fifth bout, footage aired of what was purportedly Piper pursuing Goldust (the actual footage aired was from theLos Angeles Police Department's pursuit ofO.J. Simpsonin 1994). The sixth bout was a singles match betweenHunter Hearst HelmsleyandThe Ultimate Warrior. Early in the match, Helmsley performed his finishing move,The Pedigree, on The Ultimate Warrior. However, The Ultimate Warriorno-soldthe move and went on to pin Helmsley following aflying shoulder tackle,gorilla press slam, andWarrior Splash. Following the sixth bout,Todd Pettengillinterviewed the debutingMarc Merobackstage. The interview was interrupted by Hunter Hearst Helmsley, resulting in a brawl between Helmsley and Mero. The seventh bout was a singles match betweenDieselandThe Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall following achokeslamandTombstone Piledriver, marking his fifth consecutive win at WrestleMania. Following the seventh bout, Goldust and Piper arrived at the Arrowhead Pond, with Piper crashing his car into Goldust's car. Piper then chased Goldust to the ring, where the match continued. The match ended when Piper tore off Goldust's bodysuit - revealing him to be wearing woman's lingerie - and gave him alow blow, after which Goldust fled from the ring, leaving Piper the winner. The main event sawWWF ChampionBret Hartdefend his title againstShawn Michaelsin anIron Man match, with the stipulation that whichever wrestler won the most falls in 60 minutes would win the match. Towards the end of the match, with neither men having won any falls, Hart applied hisSharpshooterhold to Michaels, but time expired without Michaels submitting. As Hart began to leave with his title, WWF PresidentGorilla Monsooninstructed refereeEarl Hebnerto continue the match under \\\"sudden death\\\" rules, with ring announcerHoward Finkelannouncing that \\\"there must be a winner!\\\" The match ended shortly thereafter when Michaels pinned Hart after giving himSweet Chin Musictwice, thus becoming the new WWF Champion. Reception WrestleMania XII received generally positive reviews from critics, who aimed praise, particularly at the main event. Rob McNew of 411mania called the opening match \\\"really good,\\\" and gave it 3 and 1/4 stars (out of 5 stars). However, he called the match between Helmsley and The Ultimate Warrior the worst of the night, going on to call it the \\\"funniest squash ever, considering that HHH is now arguably a bigger star than Warrior was.\\\" He gave the main event the highest score of the night, with 4 stars. However, he says the match \\\"isn't for everyone.\\\" Continuing, he says, \\\"It's about a three-star match for the first 40 minutes, the last 20+ are an easy five stars.\\\" He gave the entire event a score of 7 out of 10.In 2015, Ryan Dilbert of Bleacher Report called it the 16th greatest of the first 30 WrestleMania events. While the Iron Man match got positive reviews, PWInsider's Mike Johnson pointed that in the match both wrestlers \\\"were working in spite of each other, not together\\\". Results WWF Tag Team Championship tournament In February 1996,WWF Tag Team ChampionsThe Smoking Gunnswere forced to vacate the titles afterBilly Gunnsustained a neck injury. As a result, a tournament was staged in February and March 1996 to determine the new champions, with the matches airing on tape delaySuperstarsthroughout March. The tournament final was held at WrestleMania XII, withThe BodydonnasdefeatingThe Godwinnsto be crowned the new champions. Other on-screen personnel References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania 13 WrestleMania 13was the 13th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). The event waspresentedbyPlayStationand held on March 23, 1997, at theRosemont Horizonin theChicagosuburb ofRosemont, Illinois. Eight matches were held at the event, including one on theFree for Allpre-show. Themain eventwas ano disqualification matchbetweenThe UndertakerandSycho Sidfor theWWF Championship, which Undertaker won following interference fromBret Hart. The main matches on theundercardwereBret HartversusStone Cold Steve Austinin aNo Disqualification Submission match,Legion of DoomandAhmed JohnsonversusNation of Dominationin aChicago Street Fight, and Rocky Maivia versus The Sultan for theWWF Intercontinental Championship. WrestleMania 13 was the second WrestleMania to take place in theChicago metropolitan area, followingWrestleMania 2. The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees, and drew a 0.77 buy rate. The event as a whole received mixed to negative reviews. However, the submission match between Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin was highly praised, being called one of the greatest matches in wrestling history, and has been cited as the beginning of theAttitude Era. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\",and was considered one of the \\\"Big Five\\\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania 13 was scheduled to be held on March 23, 1997, at theRosemont Horizonin theChicagosuburb ofRosemont, Illinois. The event waspresentedbyPlayStation. Storylines The mainfeudheading into WrestleMania 13 was betweenThe UndertakerandSycho Sid, with the two battling over theWWF Championship. AtIn Your House 13in February,Bret Hartlast eliminated The Undertaker in theFinal Four matchto win the vacant WWF Championship.Hart's reign, however, lasted only one day as he lost the title the next night onMonday Night Rawto Sycho Sid after interference byStone Cold Steve Austin, one of the other participants in the Final Four match (the other wasVader, who had no further involvement in the ongoing storyline).Due to being the runner-up to the title at Final Four, Undertaker was made the number one contender and wasbookedto challenge Sycho Sid for the title at WrestleMania. However, on the March 17 edition ofRaw Is War, Sid defended the title against Hart in asteel cage match, with the winner defending his title at WrestleMania. During the match, both Undertaker and Austin interfered. Undertaker came out to help Sid because he wanted to wrestle Sid for the title while Austin helped Hart because he wanted to make his scheduledsubmission matchwith Hart a title match. Sid won the match and retained his title and as a result, Sid vs. Undertaker remained themain eventof WrestleMania. The second main match on the card wasBret HartversusStone Cold Steve Austinin aSubmission match. Hart and Austin's rivalry began after Austin won the1996 King of the Ring tournamentand began taunting Hart, who was inactive at the time. Austin insulted Hart in his speeches so Hart would accept his challenge to a match. Hart returned in October and accepted Austin's challenge, with the two facing each other atSurvivor Series 1996where Hart defeated Austin.Their rivalry continued as Hart and Austin were the final two participants in the1997 Royal Rumble match. Hart had originally eliminated Austin from the match but Austin's elimination was considered unofficial because theofficialsdid not see it as they were busy attending to a brawl between eliminated wrestlersMankindandTerry Funk.They were participants in aFour Corners Elimination matchfor the vacantWWF ChampionshipatFinal Four, which Hart won.The next night onMonday Night Raw, Austin cost Hart the WWF Championship against Sycho Sid when Hart had applied theSharpshooteron Sid, Austin nailed Hart with asteel chairfollowed by SidpowerbombingHart for the win.Hart and Austin were booked to wrestle in a submission match at WrestleMania, but Hart got a shot at the WWF Championship in asteel cage matchon the March 17 edition ofRaw Is War, with the winner defending the title againstThe Undertakerat WrestleMania 13. Hart almost had the match won, until Undertaker interfered and helped Sid in getting the victory. One of the mainundercardmatches was aChicago Street FightfeaturingAhmed JohnsonandLegion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) againstNation of Domination(Faarooq,CrushandSavio Vega). Johnson was attacked by a newcomerFaarooq Asad, aRomangladiator on the July 22, 1996 edition ofMonday Night Rawduring a match for theWWF Tag Team Championship.Ahmed was scheduled to defend hisIntercontinental Championshipagainst Faarooq atSummerSlam 1996butlegitimatekidney problems forced him to vacate the Intercontinental Championship. In thestoryline, it was explained that Faarooq had caused Ahmed's kidney problem.Ahmed returned from his injury in early 1997 and continued with Faarooq, who had formed TheNation of Dominationduring Ahmed's absence. Ahmed joined forces with the Legion of Doom and the trio were scheduled to wrestle the Nation of Domination in a Chicago Street Fight at WrestleMania 13. Event Before the event aired live onpay-per-view(PPV),Billy GunnfacedFlash FunkatFree for All.Gunn defeated Funk by pinning him following atornado DDT. The first match that aired on television was aFour-Way Tag Team Elimination Match. The match featuredThe Headbangers(MoshandThrasher),The Godwinns(Henry O. GodwinnandPhineas I. Godwinn),The New Blackjacks(Blackjack WindhamandBlackjack Bradshaw) and the team ofDoug Furnas and Phil LaFon. All the teams wrestled each other and sometimes in the match, teammates also fought against each other. Barry Windham and Phil LaFon brawled to the outside the ring. Bradshaw attacked the referee and gotdisqualified, which led to the first elimination of the match while Furnas was counted-out. Headbangers and Godwinns were the remaining teams and they battled for five minutes and 39 seconds before Thrasher hit Phineas with aCannonball Sentonand won the match via pinfall. As a result of winning the match, Headbangers earned a shot at theWWF Tag Team Championship. The second match was betweenRocky MaiviaandThe Sultanfor Maivia'sWWF Intercontinental Championship.The Honky Tonk Manprovided commentary for the match. Sultan had an early advantage in the match due to his size and power but Maivia used his quicker moves to push the big man outside the ring. Sultan overpowered Maivia withslamsandpunchesbut was unable to pin him. Maivia gained advantage on Sultan by nailing him with abelly to belly suplex,Maivia Hurricaneand aflying crossbodybeforepinningSultan with aroll-upto win the match and retain the title. After the match, Sultan and hismanagers,Bob BacklundandThe Iron Sheikattacked Maivia before his father,Rocky Johnson, came out to help his son. The third match was betweenHunter Hearst HelmsleyandGoldust. Goldust dominated the early portion of the match. Helmsley had brief flurries of offense but Goldust had still the advantage. Helmsley began usingsubmission maneuversto keep the advantages for himself. Goldust was going to hit his maneuver until Helmsley'sbodyguardChynamanhandled Goldust's wifeMarlenato distract him. Helmsley took advantage and hit Goldust with aPedigree, enabling him to pin Goldust for the win. The fourth match was atag teammatch for theWWF Tag Team Championship, asOwen Hart and The British Bulldogdefended the titles againstMankindandVader. The big Vader made easy work of Owen in the beginning of the match. Vader tagged in with Mankind while Owen tagged in with Bulldog. Bulldog and Mankind punched each other but Bulldog had more advantage. He applied asleeper holdon Mankind which caused both of them to fall to the outside. They continued to brawl outside. Therefereewas distracted due to the brawl. Vader took advantage and hit Bulldog withPaul Bearer's urn and dragged him into the ring. Vader and Mankind both took turns and continued to attack Bulldog. Owen tried to save his partner, but Vader used his strength while Mankind used his cheating tactics to overwhelm Owen. Mankind trapped Bulldog to the outside and applied the mandible claw on him. Both men werecounted outas the match resulted in a draw. As a result, Hart and Bulldog retained the championship. The fifth match was aNo Disqualification Submission matchbetween Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin.UFCfighterKen Shamrockwas thespecial guest refereefor this match. Austin attacked Hart, who was still in his entrance attire. The two first beat each other in the ring before the action spilled outside the ring. Hart tossed Austin into the steel ring post while Austin drove him onto the steel barrier. The two men began fighting in the crowd, where both men hit each other with severalforeign objects. They moved up the steps high into the crowd. Shamrock followed them and brought them back towards the ring where Austin attempted to use steel steps on Hart, but Hart stopped him with a kick to the midsection. As the action began in the ring, Hart focused on Austin's leg. He busted Austin open with an Irish whip into the steel barricade and Austin's head began to bleed profusely. Hart tried to use a steel chair on Austin's leg, but Austin choked Hart with a television cable. Hart hit Austin in the head with the ring bell. He applied aSharpshooteron Austin who did not submit and tried to resist but passed out from the pain and loss of blood. Shamrock awarded the match to Hart, but Hart continued to attack Austin which led to a double-turn as the fans turned on Hart and began cheering for Austin. Shamrock pulled Hart off of Austin and executed a waistlock takedown and physically challenged him to a fight. Hart declined to fight Shamrock and left the ring to a chorus of boos.Austin, meanwhile, after regaining consciousness, hit aStunneron a referee when he tried to help Austin out, then slowly limped away to backstage, while the crowd chanted his name. The sixth match of the event was aChicago Street Fightbetween theLegion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) andAhmed JohnsonandNation of Domination(Faarooq,CrushandSavio Vega). All the two teams hit each other with many foreign objects. The match continued inside the ring and outside the ring in the same fashion. Finally, Animal hit Crush with a2x4and then pinned him to win the match. Main Event Themain eventwas aNo Disqualification MatchbetweenThe Undertakerand reigning championSycho Sidfor theWWF Championship.Shawn Michaelsprovided commentary for the match. The then-heel superstar,Bret Hart, came out during the match and insulted Undertaker, Michaels and particularly Sid because he claimed that Sid had screwed him out of the title. SidpowerbombedHart while Undertaker took advantage and began attacking the champion from behind. Undertaker went for anOld Schoolbut Sid took him in abearhug. Sid attacked Undertaker with various moves and attacked him with television monitors, and applied acamel clutchon Undertaker. Sid had the advantage in the match until Hart came back and attacked Sid with a steel chair. He recovered and got Undertaker in the powerbomb but Hart returned again and distracted Sid which allowed Undertaker to hit Sid with theTombstoneand pin him to win the match. Reception The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees and drew a 0.77 buy-rate. In 2011, Marc Elusive of 411mania gave the event an overall score of 7.0 out of 10.0 and noted that \\\"The Attitude Era began here...\\\" and that the main event was \\\"a very boring match\\\".John Canton ofThe John Reportgave the event an overall score of 4 out of 10 and said that the show was \\\"poor\\\" and noted that the main event \\\"sucked for the first 15 minutes, but the ending was okay\\\". Despite the lackluster reviews towards the event, the submission match between Hart and Austin was highly praised. In 2007, it was placed #1 onIGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History, and described as a match that \\\"launched an era.\\\"Thomas Golianopoulos ofComplex Sportsalso ranked it at number 1 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, citing the match's six factors of storyline, innovation, psychology, finish, post-match angle, and fallout.Elusive of 411mania described the match as \\\"outstanding\\\" and \\\"that helped propel Steve Austin into the stratosphere and become the star of the late 90s and the early 00s\\\", while also noting the double-turn after the match. John Canton called the match a \\\"wrestling perfection\\\". It received afive-star ratingfromDave Meltzerand was also voted Match of the Year (1997) by readers of hisWrestling Observer Newsletterpublication.Pro Wrestling Illustratedreaders named it Match of the Year (1997). The submission match would also be the last time a WrestleMania match would receive a five-star rating untilWrestleMania 39in 2023 whenKevin OwensandSami ZaynvsJimmyandJey Usoon Night 1 andGunthervsSheamusvsDrew McIntyreon Night 2 both received the five-star rating. Hart would call it his favourite match, labeling it \\\"a real masterpiece.\\\"Ken Shamrockwould call it \\\"one of the greatest matches in wrestling history\\\",andJim Rosscalled it the greatest match he'd called at WrestleMania and the most \\\"well-executed\\\" match he'd seen. Aftermath Stone Cold Steve AustinandBret Hartcontinued their rivalry after WrestleMania, but Austin was now ababyfaceand his popularity would start to increase considerably while Hart was aheel. Hart recruitedBritish Bulldog,Owen Hart,Brian Pillmanand formertag teampartnerJim Neidhartto reformThe Hart Foundation.AtIn Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Takerin April, Hart and Austin had a match which Austin won bydisqualification.Theirfeudcontinued untilIn Your House 16: Canadian Stampedein July, where theHart Foundation(working as faces in Canada) defeated the American team of Austin,Ken Shamrock,Legion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) andGoldust. The Undertakerreceived apushafter he won his second WWF Championship at WrestleMania 13.He spent a reign of133 dayswhich included battles withMankind,Steve Austin,FaarooqandVader.AtSummerSlam 1997, Undertaker's long reign finally ended when he lost the title toBret Hartwhenspecial guest refereeShawn Michaelsaccidentally struck Undertaker with a steel chair, which was intended for Hart. After losing the WWF Championship to The Undertaker at WrestleMania, Sycho Sid's push began to diminish and afterKing of the Ring, he began to disappear from WWF programming. In actuality, Sid quietly left WWF to focus on recovering from a neck injury. Sid eventually returned to rival promotionWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) in 1999 and continued to wrestle as Sid Vicious until he suffered a near career-ending leg injury atWCW Sinon January 14, 2001. Results Other on-screen personnel References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania XIV WrestleMania XIV(marketed asWrestleMania dX raided) was the 14th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF; WWE as of 2002). It took place on March 29, 1998, at theFleetCenterinBoston, Massachusetts. A total of eight matches were held at the event. This pay-per-view event was notable for the involvement of boxerMike Tyson, who acted as a ring enforcer for the main event. In the main event,Stone Cold Steve AustindefeatedShawn Michaelsto win theWWF Championshipfor the first time; Michaels performed despite a severe injury sustained during a match at theRoyal Rumbleand would not compete again untilSummerSlam in 2002. This was the first WrestleMania ofThe Attitude Eraand also the first WrestleMania event since1985not to featureBret Hart, who jumped to the rivalWorld Championship Wrestlingthe previous year. Production Background WrestleManiais theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\",and was considered one of the \\\"Big Five\\\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XIV was scheduled to be held on March 29, 1998, at theFleetCenterinBoston, Massachusetts. In print advertisements, the event was billed as \\\"WrestleMania: dX raided\\\". Storylines After theLegion of Doomlost theirWWF Tag Team ChampionshiptoThe New Age Outlaws, they were then assaulted by the Outlaws andD-Generation X. At theRoyal Rumble, the LOD lost a championship match, thanks in large part toRoad DogghandcuffingHawkoutside of the ring.Following this, they suffered two defeats at the hands ofNWAmembersJeff JarrettandBarry Windham. Finally, on the February 23 episode ofRaw Is War, the LOD once again lost to The New Age Outlaws when, despite having the match all but won following aDoomsday Device, the non-legal Hawk did not leave the ring as Animal was making the cover; while the referee was busy removing Hawk, Animal was struck by the title belts, causing them to lose the match.Following the match, the two men brawled all the way to the back and announced their dissolution, not appearing again until WrestleMania. After theMontreal Screwjob,Owen Hartwas left as the only member of theHart familyto remain with the company; and after a temporary absence, Owen returned during the closing moments ofD-Generation X: In Your Houseto attackShawn Michaels.Following this, he turned his attention to Hunter Hearst Helmsley (who would later be known simply asTriple H) and theEuropean Championshipthat Michaels had given to Helmsley as a Christmas present. After weeks of deterring a championship match by way of a fractured kneecap (which was, in fact, legitimate), Triple H finally acquiesced to a match on the January 26 edition ofRaw Is War, only forThe Artist Formerly Known as Goldust(who was dressing up from week-to-week in a bid for attention) to appear in Helmsley's place. After Hart won the match, WWF CommissionerSgt. Slaughterdeclared the disguise to be so convincing that he upheld the decision and awarded the championship to Hart.On the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Owen defended the title againstMark Henry. During the match,Chynacame to the ring and pushed Hart off the turnbuckle allowing Henry to lock on abearhug, but before Owen could submit, Chyna delivered a blatantlow blowto Henry, resulting in a disqualification in favor of Hart. The following week in a match againstBarry Windham, Hart landed awkwardly on his ankle, suffering asprained anklewith ligament damage as a result. On a special Tuesday edition ofRaw Is Waron March 17, Hart joined the commentary team with a supportive cast on his leg. This would bring Triple H to ringside, where he goaded Owen into an impromptu title defense despite his cast. During the match, Chyna appeared and struck Owen's ankle with a baseball bat, allowing Helmsley to capitalize and win the title back. Due to his jealousy over the attention hiswife and valet,Sable, was garnering from the crowd,Marc Merowould try to intentionally cover up Sable's provocative clothing and eventually send her to the back during his matches, replacing her withThe Artist Formerly Known as Goldust, who at the time was dressing up from week-to-week in his own bid of self-attention. Although the two initially worked well together, Goldust's valetLuna Vachongrew vocally disdainful of Sable, who was also being mocked by Mero and Goldust, causing Sable to eventually grow tired of the disrespect and fight back. As the two women brawled, their partners tried to separate them; but when Goldust grabbed Sable in order to restrain her, Mero's jealousy took over and he attacked him. The two men then had a match on Raw, where both women were handcuffed to the ring posts in an effort to prevent their brawling. But after the referee was knocked down, Goldust stole the key and unchained Luna who attacked Sable withmake up, painting her face before also throwing water on her. Goldust then challenged Mero and Sable to a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania XIV. After successively beating members of theNation of Dominationweek after week,Ken Shamrockinitially defeated theIntercontinental ChampionRocky Maivia(later known as The Rock) at theRoyal Rumbledespite being hit with aforeign object, seemingly winning the title.However, The Rock convinced the referee that it was, in fact, he who suffered an illegal attack and the referee reversed his decision (Maivia had placed the foreign object in Shamrock's trunks after hitting him with it).The following month atNo Way Out of Texas: In Your House, Shamrock capitalized on the in-fighting of the Nation, due to leadership disputes betweenFaarooqand The Rock, by making the champion tap out in a ten-man tag team match. At the end of the inauguralHell in a Cellmatch atBadd Blood: In Your House, just asThe Undertakerlooked to win the match against Shawn Michaels, the lights went out and a huge masked man came to the ring and delivered atombstone piledriverto the shocked Undertaker.The masked man was revealed to beKane, Undertaker's (kayfabe) half-brother and, despite the animosity and the presence ofPaul Bearer, Undertaker vowed never to fight his little brother. Before Undertaker'scasket matchwith Michaels at the Royal Rumble, D-Generation X claimed Kane had joined them, but in fact, he came to the ring to assist Undertaker. The alliance was short-lived, however, as during theRoyal Rumble, Kane came to the ring and turned on his brother, allowing Michaels to win the match before locking Undertaker in the casket and setting it ablaze, presuming his brother dead.On the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Kane's scheduled opponent,Stone Cold Steve Austin, was taken out by D-Generation X before the match could begin. With nothing else to do, Bearer ordered the timekeeper to deliver aten-bell salutefor The Undertaker's passing, before then telling Kane to tombstone him. After he did, more bells were heard ringing, this time signaling Undertaker's arrival. The ringing continued much longer than normal, with Bearer vehemently denying the possibility of it being Undertaker. Eventually, asarcophagusappeared on the top of the ramp. After the sarcophagus was struck by a bolt of lightning, The Undertaker sat up before revealing that he had been to Hell and talked with his parents, telling them that he would have to go back on his vow before finally challenging Kane to a match at WrestleMania. The week before WrestleMania, Kane came to the ring and began to display similar supernatural powers as his brother, striking theTitanTronwith lightning, as well as the announce table, before finally striking a crew worker with lightning, setting him on fire; Undertaker was shown on the same episode speaking to his parents' gravestones, revealing it may have to take thedamnationof his soul to reunite the troubled family. In January, Stone Cold Steve Austin won theRoyal Rumble matchwhile Shawn Michaels retained hisWWF Championship, all whileMike Tysonlooked on from the director's box.The following night onRaw Is War,Vince McMahonwas set to reveal that Tyson would be thespecial guest refereefor WrestleMania's main event; however, Austin appeared and gave thefingerto Tyson, offering him a fight and proclaiming the wrestling ring to be his, not Tyson's. Austin and Tyson then engaged in a massive brawl that garnered headlines all around the world.At the ensuing press conference, McMahon officially announced that due to the explosive situation, Tyson's role was being changed to that ofring enforcer. On the February 2 episode ofRaw Is War, in a scheduled match against Road Dogg, D-Generation X stormed the match and tied Austin in the ropes, allowing Shawn Michaels to hurl insults at Austin and rub the championship belt in his face, taunting him with it untilCactus JackandChainsaw Charliecame to his aid. The following week, Austin stole the championship belt from Michaels in the hope of baiting him into a singles match, but the partnership of D-Generation X and The New Age Outlaws continued, allowing Michaels to retrieve the belt back. This all led to a \\\"non-sanctioned\\\" eight-man tag match atNo Way Out of Texas: In Your House, which Michaels was unable to participate in due to a back injury; Austin won the match for his team by pinning Road Dogg.With WrestleMania drawing closer, on the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Mike Tyson appeared once again to be interviewed by Vince McMahon, only for DX to interrupt; Shawn Michaels then challenged Tyson to a fight. After both men's entourages left the ring, the two taunted each other for a bit until Michaels would rip off Tyson's shirt, revealing a DX T-shirt underneath, showing the enforcer's degenerate alliance; Later in the evening, as Austin came out to take place in a match against Kane, Triple H appeared on the ramp and lured Austin to him. Austin fell for the trap, and promptly turned around into aSweet Chin Musicby Michaels which knocked him out, a trap which occurred again the following week. Also that week, during a St. Patrick's Day Tuesday broadcast ofRaw Is Waron March 17, Austin called out Vince McMahon and verbally berated him for describing Mike Tyson as \\\"the baddest man on the planet\\\", but McMahon would not be goaded into a fight, as he instead forced Austin to fight Rocky Maivia the following episode, just before WrestleMania. Event Chris Warrenand The DX Band opened the show by performing hard rock versions of \\\"America the Beautiful\\\" and \\\"The Star-Spangled Banner\\\". The audience did not react well to the performance, booing the band during and after their songs. This segment was edited off all subsequent home video releases, as well as the WWE Network and Peacock. Preliminary matches The night began with the mystery entrants in the tag team battle royal being revealed as the reunitedLegion of Doom, now known as LOD 2000, withSunnyas their new valet.Savio Vegawas first eliminated byChainzmeaning his tag team partner,Miguel Perez, had to leave too.Kurrganillegally entered the ring to enact revenge onSniperandReconby eliminating them on behalf ofThe Jackyl.Barry Windhamalso illegally entered to eliminate Chainz, and so left his partnerBradshaw. The final four teams lasted a while untilSkullwould be eliminated byHenry Godwinn, which meantThe Disciples of Apocalypsewere eliminated.8-Ballthen eliminatedPhineas Godwinn, which meantThe Godwinnswere then eliminated. Afterwards, The Godwinns attacked LOD 2000 with slop buckets before leaving.The Midnight Expresstried to keepAnimalout of the ring while double-teamingHawk, but once Animal re-entered the ring, LOD 2000 simultaneously eliminated bothBobandBart, leaving LOD 2000 the last team standing and the winners of the battle royal. The second match was aLight Heavyweight Championshipmatch, withTaka Michinokudefending his title againstÁguila; this would be the first and only time the championship was defended at WrestleMania, though its successor, theCruiserweight Championshipwould be defended at the event more than once. After throwing Taka out the ring andbaseball slidinginto him, Águila hit anasai moonsaultoutside the ring, but was soon the victim of aspringboard crossbodyafter Taka reversed asuplexfrom the apron. Águila almost won the match with a moonsault crossbody into a pin, but remained on the offensive with afrankensteiner. Taka tried to land theMichinoku Driver, but as Aguila flipped out and attempted a hurricanrana, Taka managed apowerbombreversal. Taka then stopped a high flying dive attempt by Aguila with a dropkick, before successfully executing a Michinoku Driver and picking up the win. After the match, both contestants shook each other's hand and celebrated together.Also, partway into the matchup,Jim Rossmade a fleeting comment about the date of Taka's title win, December 7, the date of the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, calling it \\\"ironic enough\\\". This incident went largely unnoticed, only causing a slight stir in the wrestling community. Triple Hmade his way to the ring with his theme being played by the DX Band. BeforeOwen Hartcame to the ring, CommissionerSgt. Slaughterhandcuffed himself toChynaso that she would not interfere, despite her protestations. The match began with Hart pummeling Helmsley with fists before sliding out of the ring. Triple H tried to jump from the apron onto Hart, but made contact with the crowd barrier instead. After executing a powerbomb, Hart attempted to lock in thesharpshooter, but Helmsley reversed it and started some offensive maneuvers of his own, kicking Hart in the turnbuckle and delivering a suplex. Hart then suffered a cut to the bridge of his nose from a boot to the face, after which Triple H began to work on Hart's damaged ankle, dropping his knee onto it and stretching it. After avoiding another kick to the face and crouching Helmsley onto the ring post, Owen managed to take advantage, reversing a Pedigree attempt into the sharpshooter. Chyna, having to pull Slaughter, pulled Triple H to the rope for the break. As Slaughter was distracted, Chyna then threw white powder into Slaughter's face, causing the referee a worried Hart to check on him. While the referee was distracted and as Owen turned around to confront Triple H, Chyna low-blowed him from outside, allowing Triple H to successfully nail the Pedigree and retain the title. After she was freed from the handcuffs, Chyna nailed Slaughter with a forearm and shoved him over the barricade into the crowd. Next up was the mixed tag team match.Marc MeroandGoldustbegan the match, but Goldust soon tagged inLuna Vachon, requiringSableto be tagged in too, as per the rules. However, Vachon simply ran around the outside of the ring with Sable chasing her, before tagging Goldust back in. Wanting to get her hands on Vachon, Sable double-teamed Goldust with a boot to the face after an Irish whip from Mero, but could not get Vachon to enter the ring. A near-pinfall came from a running crossbody from Mero and following this, the two ran into each other, causing both men to crawl and tag in the women. Sable then took Luna down and punched her around the face before kicking her in the midsection and face in the turnbuckle and attacking Goldust, before running back to clothesline Vachon over the ropes. Vachon tagged Goldust in, but before Sable would do the same, she struck him in the face, then let Mero take over who had hisTKOreversed into aDDT. Mero would then reverse the Curtain Call, allowing him the chance to try a moonsault pin to a standing Goldust. After Vachon struck a running Mero with her knee, Mero went to punch her, but ducked out of the way as Goldust ran to her rescue, causing him to inadvertently knock her off the apron. Mero then executed the TKO, but Luna interrupted the pin count, jumping on Mero's back resulting in Sable tagging in as Mero wandered around the ring with Vachon on his back. Sable tried pinning Goldust, but the referee was distracted and as he finally began to count, Sable leapt off Goldust so the interfering Vachon would inadvertently bodysplash Goldust. Sable then performed a powerbomb and Mero's TKO to win the bout. Gennifer Flowers, who was accompanied byJeff JarrettandTennessee Lee, then came to the ring as the special guest ring announcer for the upcomingIntercontinental Championshipmatch betweenKen ShamrockandRocky Maivia. The fight began in the aisleway with a brawl that saw Shamrock get whipped into the steel steps before both men entered the ring. Maivia then delivered his People's Elbow, but could not secure a three-count. Shamrock then rolled out of the ring and grabbed a steel chair; when the referee tried to take it off him, he threw the referee into the corner; Maivia quickly grabbed the chair and hit Shamrock with it as the referee recovered. Shamrock kicked out and quickly re-gained the advantage, delivering abelly-to-belly suplexoff an Irish whip and then securing his ankle lock submission in the center of the ring, making Maivia tap to win the match and the title. The surrounding members of the Nation quickly jumped into the ring, but Shamrock dispatched them all with suplexes, including the four hundred pound Mark Henry, before then reapplying the ankle lock to a bloody Maivia.Faarooqthen ran down from the back and jumped onto the apron, only to look on at Maivia with a smile, before walking away. A number of referees (the ones Shamrock attacked were actually independent wrestlers, or stuntmen put in referee uniforms) and officials would appear, trying to subdue Shamrock. After being surrounded, Shamrock suplexed a referee and then an official before calming down as Maivia was wheeled away on a gurney.Howard Finkelthen announced Shamrock had been disqualified for not breaking his ankle lock submission, meaning The Rock would retain the Intercontinental championship. This would cause Shamrock to become enraged and chase Rocky, and dump him off of the gurney and fighting him on the Chris Warren band stage. TheWWF Tag Team Championshipmatch was a \\\"Dumpster match\\\", the objective being the first tag team to put their opponents into a dumpster with the lids being closed shut would be the winners. The match began withBilly GunnfacingChainsaw CharlieandRoad Doggexchanging blows withCactus Jack. Trying acannonballon Road Dogg from the apron, Cactus missed and slammed himself into the dumpster instead. The Outlaws then focused on Charlie, using a back drop to deposit him into the dumpster and, as he attempted to climb out, they simultaneously slammed the lid shut on the hardcore legends' heads. With Cactus and Charlie both in the dumpster, the Outlaws shut the lid down on them, but Cactus managed to get back up while the Outlaws were celebrating and pushed Road Dogg down to the ground with a mandible claw, pulling him into the dumpster. Both teams took time to recover and began to brawl with weapons in the ring, Cactus Jack pulling out a ladder and climbing it opposite Billy Gunn, only for both men to be pushed off straight into the dumpster outside the ring, thanks to a dazed Chainsaw Charlie. Road Dogg pulled his partner out and the two then focused their efforts on Charlie, powerbombing him into the dumpster, but Cactus had managed to escape in the meantime. The fight eventually found its way to the backstage area, with both Outlaws throwing Cactus into boxes and promotional displays, but Jack replied with a chair shot to both of them and planted Billy Gunn onto a wooden pallet with adouble-arm DDT. Charlie then reappeared on aforkliftand elevated the wooden pallet as Jack dragged Road Dogg onto it too. Charlie then drove the forklift above a backstage dumpster and dropped both opponents inside as Cactus Jack closed the lid to win the WWF Tag Team Championship. Main event matches BeforeThe Undertaker's match withKane, baseball record-holderPete Rosecame to the ring as the special ring announcer. However, after insulting the hometown team and introducing Kane, he received atombstone piledriver, starting atri-year tradition.The Undertaker was preceded by a league oftorch-bearingdruids to the tune of \\\"O Fortuna\\\". As the match began, The Undertaker cornered Kane and threw a flurry of punches into him, ducking and reversing Kane's attempts until Kane hit him with aclotheslinethat he instantly sat up from. Kane then set Undertaker up in atree of woeto begin his assault of punches and Irish whips, before suplexing Undertaker onto the ropes and delivering a flying club to the neck from the turnbuckle. As The Undertaker began to fight back, Kane threw him into the ropes, but Undertaker retaliated by jumping onto his back, which was met aface-first electric chair.Paul Bearerkept the referee distracted while Kane landed the steel steps onto Undertaker, and repeated the effort a second time while Undertaker was lying on the steps, crushing him in-between them. As the referee tried to keep Kane in check, Bearer slapped Undertaker while walking past him. Kane caught his brother running and delivered achokeslam, but Undetaker lifted his shoulders off the mat before the three-count could be made. Kane put The Undertaker into a sleeper hold that he eventually fought out of with a flurry of punches. Undertaker then dropped Kane on top of the ropes and punched him off the apron; he followed this with anover the top rope suicide divethat Kane managed to sidestep, sending Undertaker crashing through the Spanish announce table. As Undertaker made it back into the ring, Kane hit him with aflying lariat. Undertaker then attempted to give Kane the Tombstone Piledriver, but Kane managed to shift his weight, reversing the positions and allowing Kane to deliver the tombstone to Undertaker instead. Undertaker kicked out and after landing a running clothesline, Undertaker choke slammed Kane and then delivered a tombstone piledriver of his own; but Kane kicked out. This would mark the first time anyone had ever kicked out of Undertaker's tombstone piledriver. It would take three tombstones with a guillotine leg drop and flying clothesline in between to stop Kane. But in the end, Undertaker scored the pin and was victorious. As soon as the match was over, Bearer attacked Undertaker and ordered Kane to attack him, which he did with a chair shot to the head and then a tombstone piledriver onto the chair. After Kane and Bearer left, Undertaker sat up and left the ring. WithMike Tysonenforcing from ringside, theWWF Championshipmatch began with both wrestlers taunting each other, engaging in a few light punches beforeShawn Michaelsescaped the ring and ran back in to take advantage ofStone Cold Steve Austin, but was met with a standing clothesline. Austin followed up by pulling down Michaels' tights, exposing Michaels' backside. Michaels then tried to run at Austin, but was back dropped over the top rope onto Triple H. As Triple H threw Austin into the crowd barrier, the referee ordered he and Chyna to leave ringside. As they were leaving Austin followed and fought with Triple H up to the entrance gate. Michaels caught up and hit Austin with a cymbal from the DX Band's stage, before Irish whipping Austin into the dumpster. As the match resumed in the ring, Austin met Michaels's high-risk maneuver with a clothesline and then ran him into the turnbuckle before picking him up for an inverted atomic drop. Michaels' attempt to pick up some momentum saw him picked up and dropped onto the ropes, but Michaels managed to push Austin away as he attempted a stunner. When Michaels tried to escape the ring though, Austin delivered a right hand, forcing the champion to fall upon the announce table. After Austin slowed the match down with a sleeper hold, Michaels tried to pull his knee into the ring post but was instead pulled into it himself. Austin then tried to rush at Michaels, but was back dropped into the crowd and struck with the ring bell. Michaels used the momentum to take advantage inside the ring, delivering a snapmare and then a low kick to the grounded Austin, while also taking time totaunt the audience. Austin briefly picked up some speed throwing Michaels out of the ring, but just as quickly lost ground as Michaels repeatedly worked on Austin's left knee, throwing it into the ring post before kicking and dropping onto it back inside the ring. When Austin tried to recover outside of the ring, he was met with a baseball slide that launched him over the announce table. Austin was then thrown back into the ring by Miks Tyson, where he soon suffered a figure-four leglock that Michaels illegally elevated using the second and third ring rope. Austin's eventual counter was stopped by a rope break. Austin then tried to reverse a standing sleeper hold by throwing Michaels back into the turnbuckle, but unwittingly trapped refereeMike Chiodawho fell unconscious. With both men on the floor, Michaels recovered with a kip-up and landed a high-flying elbow drop, getting in position forSweet Chin Music. As Austin eventually stood up, he ducked the superkick, attempting a stunner on Michaels. Michaels responded by throwing Austin into the ropes before once again attempting Sweet Chin Music. However, Austin grabbed Michaels' foot, spun him around and nailed him with a Stone Cold Stunner. Mike Tyson jumped into the ring to make a quick three count and the new champion celebrated by tossing the enforcer an \\\"Austin 3:16\\\" t-shirt. When Shawn Michaels stood up, he confronted Tyson about his turn, but was met with a punch that instantly floored him, before Tyson then draped Michaels with Austin's t-shirt. Aftermath The result of the main event heralded a changing of the guard in the World Wrestling Federation. Shawn Michaels, who had been a major superstar in the company for many years, having won his first WWF Championship at WrestleManiatwo years previously, took a four-year hiatus from wrestling due to a severe back injury sustained during the casket match against Undertaker at the Royal Rumble. During his retirement, Shawn made several ostensible one-off appearances as a guest commentator during episodes ofRaw Is Warin the summer of 1998, and eventually replacing Sgt. Slaughter as the WWF commissioner at the end of the year, holding onto the position for a year and a half. After what was supposed to be a one-time match four years later atSummerSlam, Michaels and the now renamed World Wrestling Entertainment realized that his injuries had healed, and he made a full-time return to wrestling, eventually retiring permanently in 2010 atWrestleMania XXVI, 12 years after this event. With Stone Cold Steve Austin as the new WWF Champion, the \\\"Attitude Era\\\" was fully ushered in. The company's iconic scratch logo had started to replace the \\\"New Generation\\\" logo and began to appear on ring aprons and promotional material during and after this event. The next night onRaw Is Warafter WrestleMania, the old WWF \\\"winged eagle\\\" world championship belt was retired, and a new belt design with a larger eagle and blue globe debuted (eventually being retired in 2002). The Attitude Era saw Austin's feud with Vince McMahon escalate and two weeks later,Raw Is WardefeatedWorld Championship Wrestling'sMonday Nitroin theratings warfor the first time in eighty-four weeks. Shawn Michaels' loss was criticized by Triple H the following night onRaw Is War, with Triple H blaming Michaels for overlooking Tyson's potential double-cross. Helmsley delivered a promo saying that he would now lead D-Generation X and turn it into an army, saying \\\"the first thing you do is look to your blood. You look to your buddies. You look to your friends. You look...tothe Kliq\\\",before introducing a returningSean Waltman, now under the \\\"X-Pac\\\" persona, who had re-signed with the company after being fired from World Championship Wrestling (WCW). Later in the evening, it was revealed thatRoad DoggandBilly Gunnwere also part of theDX Army. The ongoing saga between The Undertaker and Kane continued to escalate even further. The following night, Paul Bearer challenged Undertaker on behalf of Kane to a match atUnforgiven: In Your House, where the ring would be surrounded by fire. The first man to be set ablaze would lose, thus giving birth to theInferno Match. By winning the fifteen-team battle royal, LOD 2000 won the right to face the WWF Tag Team Champions at Unforgiven. The champions by rights were Cactus Jack and Chainsaw Charlie, but some legal wrangling from The New Age Outlaws saw the match held up on account of the wrong dumpster being used. The vacant titles were then decided in a steel cage match between the two teams the following night, which the Outlaws won after interference from the newly formed DX Army, concreting their ties, and by handcuffing Charlie to the cage by his neck. Charlie returned to his Terry Funk persona, whilst Cactus Jack became Dude Love again. Meanwhile, the New Age Outlaws became part of the DX Army, achieving further success. In a tag team match against Ken Shamrock and Steve Blackman, Rocky Maivia promised to show Faarooq that the Nation was stronger and more connected than ever before. The promise was a sour one as, during the match, Rocky left Faarooq to suffer the wrath of Shamrock and Blackman. Afterwards, Faarooq demanded that Rocky come back out so the two could fight. When Rocky returned and squared up to Faarooq, the other members of the Nation turned on him, and Maivia proclaimed himself as the new \\\"ruler\\\" of the faction. Before Marc Mero's match with Taka Michinoku the next night, Luna Vachon appeared and challenged Sable to a singles match, which Sable promptly accepted. Vachon also announced that it was not to be a traditional wrestling match, because she wanted to humiliate Sable, and so it would be an evening gown match to be held at Unforgiven. Results References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania XV WrestleMania XVwas the 15th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 28, 1999, at theFirst Union CenterinPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania. Tenprofessional wrestling matcheswere scheduled on the event'scard. The ticket sales of 20,276 drew a gross of $1,437,050. The main event saw the challengerStone Cold Steve AustinfaceThe Rockin ano disqualification matchfor theWWF Championship. The penultimate match sawThe UndertakerwrestleBig Boss Manin aHell in a Cellmatch. Lower on the card, six of the promotion's seven activechampionshipswere defended, including the first WrestleMania defense of theHardcore Championship. Also on the undercard was aBrawl for Allmatch, an unscripted type of shootfight between wrestlerBart Gunnand boxer/mixed martial artistButterbean. This event also marked the final WWF appearance forGorilla Monsoon,who died in October that year. Production Background WrestleManiais theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\",and was considered one of the \\\"Big Five\\\" pay-per-views, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XV was scheduled on March 28, 1999, at theFirst Union CenterinPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania. Storylines WhenRoad Dogg Jesse Jamesand \\\"Bad Ass\\\"Billy Gunnlost theWWF Tag Team ChampionshiptoThe Corporation,they tried their hand at singles wrestling for some time. Gunn failed in his attempts to win theWWF Intercontinental Championship, but Road Dogg becomingHardcore Championuntil an injury prevented him from honoring a championship match withAl Snow. Snow ended up fighting himself and thenBob Hollyfor the vacant belt atSt. Valentine's Day Massacre: In Your House, with Holly winning the title at the banks of theMississippi River.When Road Dogg won the Intercontinental Championship onRaw Is WarGunn fought Holly (now Hardcore Holly) and won when Holly crashed into an ad-hoc announcers tableJim Rosshad constructed for his pirate broadcast of the show.Holly felt enraged that circumstances had conspired against him, while Snow still wanted another chance at the belt. In the previous year, due to the suddenly enlarged roster, ashootfighting(unscripted) knockout tournament titledBrawl for Allwas organized on a voluntary basis, with Bart Gunn winning the tournament on August 24after defeating every opponent by knockout aside from his opening-round opponent Bob Holly. When Holly rechristened himself Hardcore Holly on February 15, decrying poor gimmicks and tag-team partners he had been given in the past, Gunn made his first appearance since winning the tournament, to remind Holly that not all his partners were of a poor caliber.After a hardcore match between the two, which Gunn dominated until a masked assailant, revealed to be\\\"Dr. Death\\\" Steve Williams, threw him off the stage. Williams did this out of revenge for losing to Gunn in the Brawl for All. The week after on Raw Is War, Williams' managerJim Rossannounced to Gunn he would be facing notedmixed martial artistandboxerEric \\\"Butterbean\\\" Esch, who held a 43–1–1 record at the time, who challenged him to a Brawl for All fight. From November'sSurvivor Seriesuntil the night after St. Valentine's Day Massacre,The Rockand Mankind (Mick Foley) traded theWWF Championshipnumerous times as Mr. McMahonscrewedMankind time and time again on his quest to headline WrestleMania. In their final match, aRaw Is Warladder match,Paul Wightdelivered theShowstopperto Mankind as he was about to win the match,removing his chances of appearing the main event. However, as Mr. McMahon's conspiracy of appointing Big Show as special guest referee to secure The Rock as champion began to fall apart, Mankind constantly offered his services as a second official. With The Rock and Big Show causing infighting in the Corporation, Mankind successfully canvassed for a chance to referee; rather than have two conflicting referees, a match was booked to give the winner the right to officiate. When Ryan Shamrock (Alicia Webb) appeared front row onRaw Is Waron January 11, she gained attention not only from her brother but alsoVal Venis, who performed a flirtatious dance for her, and \\\"Badd Ass\\\" Billy Gunn, who lived up to his moniker by mooning her. Enraged,Ken Shamrockfought Gunn at theRoyal Rumble,then Venis at St. Valentine's Day Massacre, with Venis winning the Intercontinental Championship thanks to help from Ryan.Venis soon dumped Ryan,and she began a relationship with Goldust (Dustin Rhodes). Venis also unwittingly lost his championship to Road Dogg onRaw Is Warand found himself defending his championship against the important men in Ryan Shamrock's life in a four-corners elimination match. After The Rock won his\\\"I Quit\\\" matchagainst Mankind at the Royal Rumble by playing a recording of his voice,Triple Hdemanded an I Quit match of his own, but as he was about to put Rock through the announcers table, The Corporation came to the ring andKaneheld his manager/girlfriendChynahostage, demanding that he quit the match. As soon as the match was over, Chynalow blowedTriple H and revealed her alliances with The Corporation, promising aValentine's Daypresent at the subsequent pay-per-view. Despite almost having the match won, Triple H suffered at the hands of an interferingShane McMahonand illegal man Kane's chokeslam.Triple H took revenge on the February 22Raw Is Warby interfering in X-Pac's (Sean Waltman) match with Chyna, causing her to lose. Chyna called Triple H out on March 8, but before they could fight, Kane came to the ring. Chyna held up Triple H as Kane shot afireballat him, though he would duck out of the way causing (kayfabe) severe retinal damage to Chyna. Despite not receiving any damage, Triple H maintained that the fireball was meant for him, an insult he took personally and an intended injury he wanted to return at WrestleMania. On March 22, Kane prepared to have a match against Goldust, but as he threw off his entrance robes and wig, it turned out he was Triple H holding a flamethrower, shooting flames in Kane's face.Meanwhile, X-Pac, who had altercations with Shane McMahon prior to the February event, was frustrated with Shane's interference in the match and goaded into putting hisEuropean Championshipon the line in a tag-team match with Triple H against Kane and Shane, which Shane won thanks to Triple H being distracted by Chyna.With Shane claiming himself to be a fighting champion, he agreed to a rematch at WrestleMania, but regularly interfered in X-Pac's matches up until that point, culminating in a Greenwich Street Fight on March 22 that ended in a no-contest when theMean Street Posseambushed X-Pac and drove off with Shane in their car. Toriwas sitting front row as aplantas early as September 14'sRaw Is War, but it was not until late December that she began to act with stalker tendencies, sending flowers and notes to Sable, theWomen's Championand even helping her to defend her title againstLuna Vachonat the Royal Rumble.OnRaw Is Warthe night after the previous pay-per-view, Tori invaded the ring again and was publicly shouted at and humiliated by Sable. Vachon then brought Tori to the ring a fortnight after, reprimanding Sable for her ego, but a still-obsessed Tori helped attack Vachon. The following week on March 8'sRaw Is War, Tori fought Vachon with Sable in her corner but after receiving asquashfrom Vachon, Sable also gave Tori aSable Bomb, leading to Tori interrupting Sable'sPlayboyinterview by demanding a championship match at WrestleMania. Having beenburied alivein a Royal Rumble qualification match atRock Bottom: In Your House,The Undertakerdisappeared from television whileThe Acolytes, Faarooq (Ron Simmons) and Bradshaw (John Layfield), began to act strangely, eventually abductingDennis Knightand leaving him tied up in a darkened room. On January 11, The Undertaker returned in slightly new attire, taking a seat in a ceremonial throne on theRaw Is Warstage whilePaul Bearerstood beside him and The Acolytes brought Knight out and tied him to a table. There, Undertaker performed a ritualistic ceremony, rechristening him Mideon.Undertaker began delivering ambiguous apocalyptic messages, but after recruiting Mabel, now Viscera (Nelson Frazier, Jr.) andThe Brood, he began to be more direct, revealing his plan to attack Mr. McMahon and take over the World Wrestling Federation. The security of Mr. McMahon's Corporation,Big Boss Man, challenged the Ministry to a six-man tag team match, which ended in a no-contest when the Ministry abducted Shane McMahon and took him to Undertaker, who threatened him while choking him then gave him a letter to give to his father. McMahon replied the following week on February 22 by booking The Undertaker in anInferno matchwith Kane onRaw Is War, the first network television airing of that type of match. During the match, McMahon provided commentary, nonchalantly revealing he had placed Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match against Big Boss Man for WrestleMania. During the match, Paul Bearer gave an ominous gift to McMahon, a teddy bear. After Undertaker set Kane on fire, he turned to the enraged McMahon, taking the teddy bear (later revealed to belong toStephanie McMahon) and setting it alight, reducing Vince to his knees.Trying to defeat either of his problems, McMahon declared he'd never show such weakness again and put Mankind against Undertaker, which ended with Undertaker almost chokeslamming McMahon through the announcers table until Boss Man saved him.Undertaker continued with his mind games on March 8, ordering his Ministry to look for Boss Man all night and attacking any innocents in his way, eventually capturing Boss Man and crucifying him. Boss Man managed to escape while police were being beaten off by Undertaker's minions until he offered himself to the police while being derided by McMahon. The following week he continued his assault, with videos playing throughout the evening of the Ministry at McMahon's mansion ending in McMahon coming to the ring while Triple H brawled with Kane, begging Kane to help him. Kane ripped off his mask to reveal it was actually The Undertaker who grabbed McMahon by the throat as the lights turned off in the arena and when they came up, he was gone with McMahon alone in the ring. The main event of the evening was another chapter in the ongoing rivalry betweenStone Cold Steve Austinand McMahon, which dated back to when Austin won the Royal Rumble in 1998.After Austin won the WWF Championship atWrestleMania XIV,McMahon set on a six-month-long quest to take the championship from him. With the exception of a one day reign by Kane, who won the championship in a First Blood Match atKing of the Ringwhen his (kayfabe) brother The Undertaker caused Austin to bleed first, Austin thwarted each attempt by McMahon untilBreakdown: In Your Housein September 1998. There, Austin defended the championship against Undertaker and Kane in what was billed as a triple threat match. McMahon added a stipulation, however, that neither brother could pin the other to win the match;this led to both men simultaneously pinning Austin, causing him to lose the match and the championship. This had been part of a deal McMahon had made with the two men to protect him from Austin, with the reward of the championship if they were successful. However, McMahon went back on his word after Austin attacked him on the next night’sRawand announced he was forcing Undertaker and Kane to wrestle for the vacant championship atJudgment Day: In Your House. He also named Austin the special guest referee, hoping to humiliate him by forcing him to declare a new champion. Austin, however, had other ideas and counted both men out, declaring himself the winner of the match and leaving the championship vacant. ADeadly Gamestournament was scheduled forSurvivor Seriesin November, in which it turned out that The Rock, not Mankind, was McMahon's choice for winner and had the tournament manipulated to his advantage, while Austin lost in a match when McMahon's son Shane, acting as referee, refused to count a pinfall to go to the finals.Knowing Rock would be busy feuding with Mankind, McMahon realized Austin was likely to use the 1999 Royal Rumble, rather than a personal attack, to attempt to reclaim the belt and laid down the stipulation that he must win a Buried Alive match against The Undertaker to be in the Rumble. When he did, with some help from Kane,McMahon further tried to prevent Austin winning back the championship by \\\"randomly\\\" drawing him as the first entrant in the Rumble and drawing himself as the 30th. Having annoyed commissionerShawn Michaels, McMahon was placed into the match as the second entrant. McMahon would later try to incentivize other wrestlers to eliminate Austin by putting a $100,000 bounty on him during the Royal Rumble match. Despite this, Austin (and, for that matter, McMahon) managed to stay in the match to the very end, although this was mostly due to he and McMahon leaving the ring at various points to brawl around the arena. Late in the match The Rock, who earlier in the evening had regained the WWF Championship, came to the ring and started arguing with Austin. McMahon took advantage of the distraction and threw Austin over the top rope, thus winning the match. Since he was officially now the winner of the Royal Rumble, McMahon was entitled to face whoever the WWF Champion was at WrestleMania. On the following night's episode ofRaw, however, he announced that, since he was only a part-timer and the champion was a fellow Corporation member in The Rock, that he had filed paperwork relinquishing his WrestleMania championship opportunity and that he would be naming a replacement later in the evening. To his chagrin, Austin and Michaels informed him shortly thereafter that, according to the rules, his actions resulted in Austin, as the runner-up in the Royal Rumble, taking his place. With McMahon irate, Austin revealed he was willing to put his place on the line and not headline WrestleMania if McMahon would give him the opportunity to fight him one on one with no interference from The Corporation; if McMahon could beat him, Austin would not go to WrestleMania. Their steel-cage match at St. Valentine's Day Massacre mostly consisted of McMahon running away, but eventually the two fought with Austin winning the match under unusual circumstances whenBig Showmade his debut, coming from under the ring and throwing Austin into the cage with the walls of it coming open, meaning that Austin had inadvertently won. Event (Brawl For All) Pre-show The event was marked with aRage Partythe preceding evening at thePennsylvania Convention Center, playing on the tagline of the event, much likeFan Axessthat would come in later years. It included music fromIsaac Hayes,Big Pun, and theCherry Poppin' Daddies. During theSunday Night Heatpre-show, Jacqueline (Jacqueline Moore) pinned Ivory (Lisa Moretti) after a back suplex.After the match,Terri Runnelsburned her cigar into Ivory's cheek. The secondHeatmatch saw a 21-man battle royal match with the last two competitors becoming a tag team for the evening to face the Tag Team Championship holders. In the event,D'Lo Brownand Test (Andrew Martin) were the last two, still fighting without realizing the match was over when Droz (Darren Drozdov) and The Godfather (Charles Wright) eliminated each other.The show officially began withBoyz II Mensinging \\\"America the Beautiful\\\" in the ring before the opening video. Preliminary matches The inaugural WrestleMania Hardcore Championship match began with Al Snow striking Billy Gunn as he tried to make apre-match speech. With Gunn in the corner, Snow fought with Hardcore Holly outside the ring, wrapping his neck in cable but, after some fighting from Gunn, Holly was able tosuplexSnow. After Gunn again interjected himself, Snow was able to go underneath the mat to find some weapons including aPhiladelphia Flyershockey stick much to the delight of the crowd. The match ended when Gunn put Snow through a table in the corner, originally intended for Gunn and then used theFameasseron Snow, driving him into a chair on the mat. As the referee counted, Holly struck Gunn with a weapon, quickly covering Snow to steal his second championship reign. TheWWF Tag Team Championshipmatch began withJeff Jarrettand D'Lo Brown exchanging running maneuvers before both tagging in their respective partners, at which point Test used apumphandle slamonOwen Hart, but tried again after a failed pin attempt only to be met with anenziguiriand then theSharpshooter. Brown came in illegally to break it up but was tagged in straight afterward, dominating both Hart and Jarrett with power slams and dropkicks, almost winning the match after aSky Highthat was broken up by Jarrett. RefereeJimmy Korderaswas distracted when Debra (Debra Marshall) came to the apron to distract Brown only to be pulled down by Ivory (Lisa Moretti), at which pointPMS(Terri RunnelsandJacqueline Moore) arrived and all of them began to fight while Test tried to pull them apart. With everyone distracted, Hartmissile dropkickedBrown allowing Jarrett to roll Brown up and sit on him, securing a pin count. The Brawl For All match began with the two meetings in the middle, Gunn running into some blows from Butterbean. The two traded punches, neither man managing to contact properly until Butterbean shook Gunn with a left-hand jab followed by a right hook which stunned Gunn allowing Bean to corner him, giving him another right hook which knocked him down. Gunn immediately came back upon his knees but took advantage of the eight seconds before standing up fully. As the fight resumed, Butterbean jabbed Gunn to the body and followed with a clean overhand right which sent Gunn back to the canvas, giving Butterbean a victory via knockout.The match lasted a total of 34 seconds.This was followed with an appearance fromthe San Diego Chicken, who mocked special refereeVinny Pazienzaand was punched to the floor for it. On the WWF WrestleMania special onHSNlater during the pay per view, after the Shane McMahon match\\\"Dr. Death\\\" Steve Williamscut a promo on Bart Gunn in a backstage interview withJim Rossby his side, saying the Butterbean's punch \\\"wasn't lucky\\\" and that \\\"Bart deserved what he got\\\", telling the viewer to keep watching WWF because \\\"the Doctor hasn't finished his job yet\\\".This was in hopes of setting up an angle between Williams and Gunn, and to continue building Williams as a credible midcarder. However, because of Gunn being released, their feud instead carried over toAll Japan Pro Wrestlingin the early 2000s, where in Japan the Brawl For All was better received. When Mankind entered the ring he was immediatelyheadbuttedout, but as Big Show followed him out, Mankind slammed Show's head into the steel steps. He then tried adouble-armed DDTinto the steps but was shoved over the steps falling backward. Show dominated Mankind in the ring afterward, using his sheer size to punch and throw Mankind, with Mankind eventually being tied up in the ropes, which allowed him to back body drop Show out of the ring. Mankind then took out Mr. Socko, a smelly gym sock, and stuffed the foul-smelling sock into the Big Show’s mouth with themandible clawthree times. The third claw came with alow blow, for which Mankind was not disqualified. When Show stood back up, he had Mankind on his back with the sock in his mouth and jumped backward so that his entire body landed on Mankind, breaking up the hold. As the two recovered, Show kicked his opponent out of the ring, grabbing a steel chair and thrusting it into Mankind's chest then hitting it over his back. Big Show threw that chair and another in the ring, setting them both in seated positions andShow StoppingMankind through the middle of them. At this pointEarl Hebnerfinally decided to disqualify Big Show, with Show taking out his anger by attacking Mankind more with the chair. Mr. McMahon made his way to the ring afterward, berating Big Show for risking the WWF Championship match at which point Show grabbed him by the throat. He then thought better of it and released him, only to be met with another tirade from McMahon and a slap, causing Show to punch McMahon and knock him out. The four corners Intercontinental match began with Ken Shamrock and Road Dogg in the ring, with the latter being thrown from corner to corner until Goldust tagged his way in, with runningshoulder bargesthat floored Shamrock. Shamrock tagged in Venis who came in and instantly attacked Shamrock until Goldustbackdroppedhim. Goldust tried theCurtain Callbut Venis flipped over Goldust's back only to be knocked down again by aclotheslinefrom Goldust who then put Venis on the turnbuckle and attempted asuperplexbut Venis fought back and replied with adiving bulldogfollowing with afisherman suplex pinwhich would only make a two count. The two then collided in the turnbuckle, causing Goldust to fall down and Venis to fall on him, headbutting his crotch. Shamrock took a blind tag from Road Dogg, after he replaced Goldust, immediately putting anankle lockuntil Venis grabbed the bottom rope. As Venis grabbed the ropes to stand up again Shamrock charged him but was tossed over the ropes as Ryan Shamrock insulted him. Venis went after Ken Shamrock and the two fought up the walkway with Shamrock running back to the ring but not fast enough to avoid a double count-out. Shamrock, not accepting the decisionbelly to belly suplex slammedboth competitors before leaving. When they recovered Goldust Irish whipped Road Dogg but had it reversed and as Goldust ran into the ropes he had his leg caught by Ryan Shamrock, seemingly trying to grab Road Dogg's leg. Road Dogg charged Goldust and was picked up for apowerslambut managed to roll Goldust round, crashing him into the floor and covering him for a successful pin count. Before Kane's match with Triple H, Kane entered the ring only to be attacked while he was performing his signature entrance by the San Diego Chicken. Kane fought back and unmasked the chicken, revealing it to bePete Rose, trying to gain revenge for theprevious year's incidentbut receiving aTombstone piledriver.Triple H also tried to ambush Kane by coming through the crowd while all eyes were on the stage entrance, hitting Kane out of the ring and then hitting him into the ring post and whipping him into the steel steps. Kane then picked Triple H up and straddled him on the crowd barrier, pushing him into theMean Street Possewho were at ringside, picking him up again to ram his back into the steel post three times. Back inside the ring, Kane dominated Helmsley with his rough fighting style, using his foot to choke Triple H and knocking him down with clotheslines and punches until Triple H gained momentum from a reversal, smashing Kane's face into his knee. Kane was allowed time to recover when Triple H was distracted by Chyna coming to ringside. Triple H tried toPedigreeKane as he stood up but failed while Chyna pushed the steel steps into the ring. Kane picked them up and ran into Triple H, who used the turnbuckle to swing his feet up and kicked them back into Kane causing Kane to stagger backward and drop them before smashing his face into the steps from adrop toe-hold. Triple H then clotheslined Kane out of the ring, following himself and attempting to Pedigree Kane on the steps but wasbackbody dropped. When they made it back into the ring Kane chokeslammed Triple H while Chyna entered the ring with a steel chair, telling Kane she wanted to attack Triple H, but as Kane turned, Chyna hit him with the chair, causing him to corner her but again was hit with the chair, this time by Triple H, who followed it up with a Pedigree onto the chair. Chyna and Triple H celebrated the reunion of D-Generation X afterwards. The Women's Championship match began with Tori taking her time to enter the ring, Sable grabbing her hair when she finally did and tossing her back out. Tori regrouped outside and pulled Sable out by her legs, ramming her face into the apron and the barricade. She was whipped into the barrier herself and as she recovered, Sable performed acrossbodyfrom the outside apron. Sable continuously assaulted Tori while down on the mat, but Tori delivered two vicious clotheslines to the corner on Sable, then attempted asunset flip pinwhich began a series of pinning reversals ending in a stalemate. Afterward Tori tried a running attack on Sable but took out referee Jimmy Korderas unwittingly. Sable then tried to perform herSable Bombbut Tori jumped out of it. As she tried to perform her own powerbomb, a muscled woman, later identified asNicole Bass, came into the ring togorilla press slamTori. This allowed Sable to Sable Bomb Tori and pin her to retain the championship. Before X-Pac could make his way to the ringPat PattersonandGerald Briscoattacked him from behind but caused the little problem to X-Pac who beat them then ran into the ring, with Shane McMahon fleeing. Shane eventually made his way to the ring and was punched into the corner, escaping aBronco Busterwhen Test pulled him out of the ring. Shane tried to escape once again but X-Pac chased him and threw him back into the ring, only to be struck down by Test and then have his crotch rammed into the ring post. When he returned to the ring Shanescoop slammedhim and attempted aCorporate Elbow, with X-Pac sitting up just before the end but he was brought back down with a low blow as refereeMike Chiodawas distracted by Test. Shane continued to push the disqualification boundaries by whipping X-Pac with his belt several times before being back body dropped out of the ring, recovering only to be met with a flying crossbody. The Mean Street Posse tried to restrain X-Pac but he fought back, only to be floored by Test. After a superplex, the pin-count was broken up by Test but he was soon kicked out of the ring then X-Pac whipped McMahon with the belt before round house kicking him into the corner and performing the Bronco Buster. When Chioda checked on McMahon afterward, Test struck X-Pac with the championship belt but by the time McMahon covered him he managed to kick out. Test tried to interfere but took a Bronco Buster too. Triple H and Chyna came to the ring to pull Test out but when McMahon was floored by anX Factor, Chyna distracted the referee to allow Triple H to Pedigree X-Pac and cover him with Shane, turningheeland allowing him to retain the title. The New Age Outlaws ran to the ring and brawled with Triple H and Test until the lights went out and Kane's music began to play but by the time the lights came up The Corporation were clear of the ring and had fled. Main event matches The Hell in a Cell match began with Big Boss Man punching The Undertaker into the corner until he ducked out and returned the same. Although Boss Man was able to deliver aswinging neckbreaker, Undertaker took control again throwing Boss Man into the cell. Boss Man reversed an Irish whip and threw Undertaker into the cell too, handcuffing one hand to the chain fence. Boss Man taunted Undertaker's lack of control before striking him repeatedly with hisnight stickcausing Undertaker to fall to the floor and rip the handcuffs, though Boss Man carried on using the nightstick andcut Undertaker open. Undertaker fought back by grabbing Boss Man at the throat and throwing him back into the fence again, striking him with a chair and running Boss Man face-first into the chain fence with afireman's carry. As the two returned to the ring Boss Man tried to clothesline Undertaker but he ducked and performed aleaping flying clotheslineof his own before goingOld School, ultimately falling into the ropes. The two began a fistfight in the middle of the ring with Undertaker failing a tombstone piledriver attempt, but successfully performing it seconds later and pinned him afterwards.Undertaker stood up and looked to the heavens with his hands upwards, signalingThe Broodto descend onto the roof of the cell. They cut open the roof of the cell and passed through a noose, securing the other end to the top of the cell. The Brood then ascended back into the rafters as Undertaker put the noose around Boss Man's neck, with Paul Bearer causing the Cell to rise and take a hanging Boss Man with it.After the match a video package of theRage Partywas shown while Boss Man was taken down and carried off on a stretcher. Before the main event,Michael ColeannouncedJim Rossreturning to call the match. Mr. McMahon then came to the ring as the special guest referee but was confronted by CommissionerShawn Michaels, who explained that only the commissioner is entitled to appoint a referee for WrestleMania, ordering McMahon to the back and barring all members of The Corporation from ringside. The main event began with the two wrestlers insulting each other before Austin threw the first punch, The Rock instantly returning. The majority of the early part of the match took place outside the ring, with Austin being choked with a T-shirt then taking Rock through the crowd before returning into the secure area and into the crowd the opposite end. When Rock threw Austin back into the secure area he choked him on some cable and took him up the walkway, but Austin fought out of his grasp and threw him into the steel barriers, trying to piledrive him but being backbody dropped so that his knee landed onto light support girders. Rock picked up Austin and threw him into the WrestleMania XV sign but Austin circled round and threw Rock into them instead, then dragged him back towards the ring having a suplex reversed on the concrete walkway. Rock then tried to throw Austin back through the crowd at ringside, spitting water in his face but Austin took control and put him onto the Spanish announce table, performing two elbow drops to break the table and then spat water into Rock's face. Austin threw his opponent into the ring, celebrating to the crowd but when he entered the ring Rock sprang up and drove Austin into the floor with aRock Bottom, following with an unsuccessful pin cover. The Rock grabbed a chair but Austin took it from him, Rock blocked the oncoming chair shot by pulling referee Mike Chioda in front of him, who took the chair shot. Rock then caught Austin by surprise with a swinging neckbreaker, taking the chair and driving it into Austin's back several times. After another pin attempt, withTim Whitenow officiating, Austin still kicked out and Rock used asitting chin holdto subdue him. After holding him for some time, Austin slowly stood up, elbowing Rock and attempting a running attack but was taken out with aSamoan drop, which Austin again kicked out of. The Rock took his frustration out on White, Rock Bottoming him,which gave Austin the time to recover and attack the champion with aStone Cold Stunner, withEarl Hebnereventually coming in to officiate but only counting to two before Rock kicked out. Mr. McMahon came to the ring, distracting Austin while The Rock low-blowed him; the two men kicking away at Austin in the corner and punching Hebner when he tried to stop them. As the two double-teamed Austin, Mankind came running to the ring in his referee's uniform,throwing McMahon straight out the ring and taking over as referee. Austin tried a roll-up pin, following up with aLou Thesz Pressbut Rock soon took the advantage with another Rock Bottom. With Austin in the middle of the ring, The Rock tried theCorporate Elbowbut Austin moved out of the way at the last second. Rock caught Austin's foot and spun him around, trying to Rock Bottom him again but Austin elbowed him away and delivered a stunner, finally securing a pinfall and winning the WWF Championship. Reception The event was met with mixed critical response.Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event five out of 10 stars. The main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin for the WWF Championship was rated eight out of 10 stars; the Hell in a Cell match between The Undertaker and Big Boss Man was rated five out of 10 stars; the match between Shane McMahon and X-Pac for the WWF European Championship was rated seven out of 10 stars; the match between Sable and Tori for the WWF Women's Championship was rated one out of 10 stars; the match between Triple H and Kane was rated four out of 10 stars; the referee match between Mankind and Big Show was rated four out of 10; the four-corners elimination match for the WWF Intercontinental Championship between Road Dogg Jesse James, Ken Shamrock, Goldust, and Val Venis was rated five out of 10 stars; the tag team match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between D'Lo Brown and Test against Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett was rated three out of 10 stars; and the triple threat match for the WWF Hardcore Championship between Hardcore Holly, Billy Gunn, and Al Snow was rated six out of 10 stars. Writing for 411Mania in 2009, Rob McNew gave the event a rating of 5.5/10, stating, \\\"Like mostAttitude Erashows this one doesn’t hold up very well ten years later\\\" though he praised the main event bout between Rock and Austin.Similarly, Scott Keith gave the event an overall negative rating, while calling the Rock vs. Austin match \\\"solid by default\\\" and complimenting Shane McMahon's performance given his lack of wrestling experience.In 2012,Bleacher Reportranked the event 25th out of the 27 Wrestlemanias to that point, calling the event \\\"underwhelming\\\" and criticizing theHell in a Cellmatch. Aftermath Stone Cold Steve Austin's feud with The Corporation continued after WrestleMania with Austin demanding the return of his customized smoking skull belt that was taken from him after losing the WWF Championship atBreakdown: In Your Housein 1998. WithThe Ministry of Darknesscontinuing to threaten his family, Mr. McMahon was forced to comply with his nemesis' demands and requested his son Shane to deliver the belt to Austin. Shane, however, refused and took matters with Austin into his own hands by giving the smoking skull belt to The Rock. This culminated in a rematch between Austin and The Rock atBacklash 1999while McMahon served as a special guest referee. Austin defeated The Rock to retain the WWF Championship after Mr. McMahon prevented Shane from screwing him and handed the smoking skull belt back to Austin. The Ministry of Darkness continued their ongoing war with The Corporation with The Undertaker going after Mr. McMahon's daughterStephanie. The Undertaker continued to make sacrifices includingRyan Shamrockleading to a feud between Undertaker and Ken Shamrock who wanted revenge for Undertaker's actions to his family with Undertaker defeating Shamrock at Backlash: In Your House. When The Undertaker did successfully find Stephanie, Shamrock, in his quest to get revenge on Undertaker, continued to beat down and interrogate members of The Ministry of Darkness for McMahon's whereabouts. AfterChristiantold Shamrock McMahon's whereabouts, Undertaker punished Christian by whipping him and have him face Crucifixion.EdgeandGangrel, who along with Christian were members of their own stableThe Broodand were loyal to Christian decided to rescue him, betraying The Ministry. The Ministry got revenge by defeating The Brood in a Six-Man Tag Team Match at Backlash. Bart Gunn would leave the WWF after his match against Butterbean. On theDark Side of the Ringepisode on theBrawl for All, Gunn said he felt his match against Butterbean was \\\"punishment\\\" for winning the Brawl and knocking out Steve \\\"Dr. Death\\\" Williams during the event (Williams suffered other injuries during the match) which was not what the bookers wanted (they wanted Williams to win to give him a push against \\\"Stone Cold\\\" Steve Austin). Gunn would not return to WWF TV until 2007. Nicole Bass continued to accompany Sable to the ring and destroyed all competition for Sable's WWF Women's Championship. After HHH washed his hands of D-Generation X and joined Chyna in the Corporation, X-Pac teamed up with Kane to form an unlikely tag team, and captured the WWF Tag Team titles from Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett. The City of Philadelphia would later host the event again in2024with this time being held at the nearbyLincoln Financial Fieldin commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the event held in the city and the 40th anniversary of the WrestleMania. Results References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania X-Seven WrestleMania X-Seven(also known asWrestleMania 17) was the 17th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF). It took place on April 1, 2001, at theReliant AstrodomeinHouston, Texas. It was the first WrestleMania held in thestateofTexas. Twelve matches were contested at the event, including one broadcast exclusively on theSunday Night Heatpre-show. Themain eventwas aNo Disqualification matchbetweenThe Rockand\\\"Stone Cold\\\" Steve Austinfor theWWF Championship. TheundercardincludedTriple HversusThe Undertaker, the secondTables, Ladders, and Chairs matchfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipand aStreet FightbetweenVince McMahonandShane McMahonwithMick Foleyas special guest referee. A record-breaking attendance for the Reliant Astrodome of 67,925 grossedUS$3.5 million.Many in professional wrestling considered WrestleMania X-Seven to be the pinnacle of the company's famousAttitude Era, similar to howWrestleMania IIIwas the pinnacle of the 80's wrestling boom. The WWF bought out rival competitionWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) the week prior. In addition to its commercial success, the event has received acclaim from critics and fans, and is often regarded as the greatest WrestleMania of all time, and the greatest professional wrestling pay-per-view event ever produced. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) first flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\",and was considered one of the \\\"Big Five\\\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania 17, stylized as WrestleMania X-Seven, was scheduled to be held on April 1, 2001, at theReliant AstrodomeinHouston, Texas, the first WrestleMania held in thestateofTexas. Storylines The main feud leading into WrestleMania X-Seven involved\\\"Stone Cold\\\" Steve AustinchallengingThe Rockfor theWWF Championship.The Rock and \\\"Stone Cold\\\" Steve Austin had fought for the WWF Championship atWrestleMania XVandBacklashin 1999. Stone Cold Steve Austin earned his opportunity to compete for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania X-Seven by winning the2001 Royal Rumblematch when he last eliminatedKane, while The Rock became the first ever six-time WWF Champion when he defeatedKurt AngleatNo Way Out.During their feud, Austin's wifeDebra, who was trying to get back into managing, was ordered by WWF chairman,Vince McMahon, to be The Rock's manager against her wishes as well as both Rock and Austin's. As a result, Austin would hold The Rock and McMahon responsible if any harm came to her. On the March 12 episode ofRaw is War, The Rock was placed in an overlongAnkle Lockhold during his rematch with Kurt Angle. When Debra went to check on The Rock, Angle also placed her into an Ankle Lock hold. Austin soon ran in to save her and knocked Angle out of the ring. Keeping to his word, he immediately gave The Rock aStone Cold Stunneras punishment. The following week on Raw is War, during a handicap tag team match involving The Rock,Chris Jericho,Kurt Angle,Chris Benoit, andWilliam Regal, Austin made his way down to the ring and ended up getting a Rock Bottom from The Rock in response to the stunner from the previous week. On the March 29 episode ofSmackDown!, Debra was relieved from her managerial role by Mr. McMahon after failing to prevent a brawl between Rock and Austin. The secondary feud leading into the event pittedThe Brothers of Destruction(The UndertakerandKane) againstTriple HandThe Big Show. After defeating \\\"Stone Cold\\\" Steve Austin in aThree Stages of Hellmatch at No Way Out, Triple H felt that he deserved to be in the WrestleMania main event having defeated everyone in the WWF, including The Rock and Austin.The Undertaker took exception to that and told him that Triple H had never defeated him. Before WrestleMania X-Seven, the two had never faced each other in a one-on-one match on a pay-per-view event.During his entrance for aHardcore Championshipmatch against The Big Show, Triple H ambushed Undertaker. Kane ran in and saved the Undertaker from a further attack but was met with his own ambush by The Big Show. On the following episode ofSmackDown!, Undertaker tried to break into the limousine of Triple H and his wife,Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, on arrival but ended up being arrested by the police. As a result, Kane requested a match against Triple H later that night but lost when The Big Show interfered on behalf of Triple H. In retaliation, Kane interfered in The Big Show's Hardcore Championship match againstRavenonRaw is War, helping Raven pin Big Show to become the new Hardcore Champion. Undertaker's arrest led to a restraining order from Stephanie. To circumvent this, the Brothers of Destruction interfered in Triple H's match againstTest, with Kane ordered to run after Stephanie. With Stephanie held at ransom by Kane on a balcony in the arena, WWF commissionerWilliam Regalgave Undertaker and Kane matches at WrestleMania against Triple H and The Big Show respectively and the Undertaker told Kane to put her down. After being attacked during a Hardcore Championship title defense, Regal would later include Raven into Kane and Big Show's match, making it a Triple Threat Hardcore match for the Hardcore Championship. Another major feud that was built up in the lead to WrestleMania was the one involving Vince McMahon and his sonShane McMahon. The feud started with Vince's disapproval ofMick Foley's job as then-WWF commissioner as well as Foley's decision of holding a six-manHell in a Cellmatch atArmageddon 2000, taking into consideration about the well-being of the wrestlers involved in the match. Despite his attempts Foley was given full support byLinda McMahon, Vince's wife and the WWF's CEO. Not pleased with this result, Vince immediately demanded a divorce from Linda. Shortly after Armageddon, secretly to Vince's delight, it was revealed Linda was rushed to hospital suffering with a nervous breakdown. With Linda hospitalized, the Board of Directors appointed Vince as the new CEO of the WWF, allowing him to fire Foley as commissioner. With Linda in acoma-like state, Vince started to have a public affair withTrish Stratus. Vince's daughter, Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, was at first far from pleased about the turn of events. AtNo Way Out, Stephanie and Trish squared off, with Stephanie scoring the victory after arun-inby William Regal. On the February 26 episode ofRaw is War, however, during a match that placed Vince and Trish against Stephanie and William Regal, Stratus was turned on by the other participants in the match and had sewage dumped over her. In the following shows, Vince continued to demean Trish by having her do such actions as bark like a dog around the ring and stripping down to her lingerie. Despite this, Trish remained loyal to Vince and begged for his forgiveness. On the March 12 episode ofRaw is War, Shane McMahon made his return to the WWF. Angry with his father's actions, Shane started to throw punches at Vince only to be stopped by William Regal. Shane explained his actions on the following episode ofSmackDown!as a result of frustrations over the manipulation of his sister, his mother's state and Vince's treatment of Trish. On March 23, World Wrestling Federation Entertainment, Inc. purchased the assets of their longtime rival promotion,World Championship Wrestling(WCW) fromAOL Time Warner.With it, the purchase brought in an extra twist to the storyline. On the March 26 episode ofRaw is War(which was held atGund ArenainCleveland, Ohio), Vince McMahon made a live speech that was alsosimulcaston the final episode ofWCW Monday Nitro(which was held inPanama City Beach, Florida). In the speech, Vince announced that the signing was not final and that he wantedTed Turnerto come to WrestleMania to hand-deliver the contract for signing. He then promised that with the purchase he was going to bury his rival forever. However, Shane, who was at the venue forNitro, interrupted the speech and said: Because, dad, the deal is finalized... with WCW, and the name on the contract does say \\\"McMahon\\\". However, the contract reads \\\"Shane McMahon\\\". That's right! I now own WCW! And, dad, just likeWCW did in the past, how it kicked your ass in the pastand it will again, that's exactly what's going to happen to you this Sunday at WrestleMania! Oh my god! I don't believe it! I do not believe what we heard.Shane McMahon has bought WCW, and Mr. McMahon is in absolute shock! -Jim Ross,play-by-play commentatorfor theRaw is Warepisode before the event. To make matters worse for Vince, Mick Foley appeared shortly afterward that night and revealed that prior to his firing, Linda had made multiple contracts for him to sign, one of them was for Foley to referee a match of his choice at WrestleMania. Foley then chose the match between Vince and Shane, which was designated astreet fight. At theRoyal Rumble, Chyna (kayfabe) injured her neck during a match with Ivory, causing her to lose the match and fail to capture the Women's Championship. In order for Chyna to again challenge for the title, Ivory required the match contract to include a \\\"hold harmless\\\" clause, stating that if Ivory injures Chyna's neck again, there could be no legal recourse against Ivory. In doing so, the contract also included a provision to ban Ivory'sRight To Censor(RTC) stablemates from ringside. Event Before the event airedliveon pay-per-view, aSunday Night Heatmatch was aired withSteve BlackmanandGrand Master Sexaysquaring off againstX-FactormembersX-PacandJustin Credible. Near the end of the match, fellow X-Factor memberAlbertinterfered by pulling Sexay out of the ring, allowing X-Pac and Credible to hit theirX Marks the Spotfinisher on Blackman for the win. The first match of the event was theWWF Intercontinental Championshipmatch betweenChris Jerichoand WWF commissionerWilliam Regal. During the match, Regal exposed one of the top turnbuckles to throw Jericho's shoulder into it before giving him adouble underhooksuperplex. Jericho attempted theWalls of Jerichosubmission hold but had it reversed into aRegal Stretch. After Jericho managed to grab a ring rope to break the hold, he retaliated with numerouschopsbefore throwing Regal into the exposed turnbuckle and finishing him off with aLionsaultto retain the Intercontinental Championship. TazzandThe APA(BradshawandFaarooq) took onRight to Censor(The Goodfather,Val Venis, andBull Buchanan) next in a short match that ended with Bradshaw pinning the Goodfather after aClothesline from Hell. The third match was thetriple threathardcore matchbetweenRaven,KaneandThe Big Showfor theWWF Hardcore Championship. Raven came out with a shopping cart full of weapons. Kane and Raven began fighting before Big Show made his entrance. During the match, the three wrestlers fought their way out of the ring and through the crowd into the backstage area. Big Show tried to lock himself, Raven and the referee in a security cage but Kane broke the padlock and afterward threw Raven through a glass window. Big Show and Kane continued to brawl ending with the two throwing each other through a wall. Raven tried to escape by driving off in agolf cart, but Big Show stopped him and caused him to crash. The golf cart also ran over some cords that allegedly almost knocked the power out of the building. Kane shortly followed with another golf cart, accompanied by the referee, and ran into Raven. The fight headed back into the stadium with Big Show attempting to press slam Raven off the entrance stage but both were kicked off it by Kane. Kane followed this with a divingleg dropoff the stage onto Big Show, pinning him to become the new Hardcore Champion. The fourth match was theWWF European Championshipmatch betweenTestandEddie Guerrero. During the match, Test went over the top rope but got his foot caught between the top two ropes, forcing the referee and Guerrero to have to untangle him. With the help of his fellowRadicalzmembersDean MalenkoandPerry Saturn, Guerrero hit Test in the face with the European Championship belt while the referee was distracted and pinned him to become the new champion. The fifth match pittedKurt AngleagainstChris Benoit. The match started with mat wrestling between the two but Angle soon punched Benoit out of frustration and threw him out of the ring, so he could throw him into the broadcast table and the steel steps. Back in the ring, both men tried to submit their opponent using the other's signature hold with Benoit using theankle lockon Angle, and Angle using theCrippler Crossfaceon Benoit. Benoit eventually succeeded in forcing Angle to tap out to the Crippler Crossface but the referee was knocked down and didn't see it. Near the end of the match, Benoit tried to pin Angle after adiving headbuttbut was met with a two-count. Angle then quicklyrolled-upBenoit, using the tights for leverage to win the match. The following match sawChynachallenge theWWF Women's ChampionIvory. After an early bit of offense from Ivory, Chyna performed aChynabomband looked to have the pinfall, but picked Ivory up after the 2-count. Chyna then performed agorilla press dropand nonchalantly pinned Ivory to win the Women's Championship. The seventh match was thestreet fightbetweenShane McMahonandVince McMahonwithMick Foleyas the special guest referee. Shane dominated his father during the earlier part of the match by attacking him with various weapons such as a kendo stick and monitors from the Spanish broadcast table. Shane laid Vince on said table and performed adiving elbow dropoff the top rope but his sister,Stephanie, pulled Vince out of the way, causing Shane to crash through it.Trish Stratuscame towards the ring, pushingLinda McMahonout in a wheelchair, and then slapped Vince, causing her and Stephanie to get into a fight that led them out of the stadium. As referee Foley tried to wheel Linda out to safety, Vince hit him with a steel chair, and then pulled Linda into the ring to make her watch as he beat down Shane with a garbage can. However, Linda stood up and low-blowed Vince, allowing Foley to recover and attack him. With Vince prone in the corner, Shane placed a garbage can in front of Vince's face and hit aCoast-to-Coastdropkick, pinning his father to win the match. The eighth match, dubbed \\\"TLC II\\\",was theTables, Ladders, and Chairs matchfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipbetween theHardy Boyz,Edge and Christianand theDudley Boyz, the defending champions. Respective associates of each tag team,Spike Dudleyfor the Dudley Boyz,Rhynofor Edge and Christian, andLitafor the Hardy Boyz, interfered during the match. With Spike (who had just taken a chair shot to the head from Lita) and Rhyno (who had already been dispatched by Jeff Hardy) both laying on two tables outside the ring,Jeff Hardyset up a huge ladder beside them and performed aSwanton Bombonto them through the tables with most of his body landing on Spike, taking him out of the match. Lita was taken out of the match whenBubba RayandD-Von Dudleyperformed a 3-D on her. Jeff tried to unhook the belts but had the ladder beneath him pulled away by Bubba Ray, leaving him hanging in the air, and allowingEdgeto jump off another ladder andspearJeff to the ground at a height of 12 feet. Bubba Ray andMatt Hardyclimbed the same ladder but Rhyno tipped the ladder over, sending Bubba Ray and Matt through four stacked tables at ringside and taking them out of the match. D-Von then set the ladder up again and attempted to grab the titles, but was held back by Edge. With Edge holding onto D-Von's legs,Christiansat on Rhyno's shoulders as he climbed up the ladder and unhooked the belts, making him and Edge the new Tag Team Champions. A total of 9 tables were destroyed in this match, and every performer involved except D-Von and Lita went through at least one table. The ninth match was agimmick battle royal, involving nineteen WWF alumni famous for their outlandishgimmicks. To further increase the nostalgia, former announcers\\\"Mean Gene\\\" OkerlundandBobby \\\"The Brain\\\" Heenanhandled commentary for the match.The Iron Sheikwon the match by throwingHillbilly Jimout of the ring. In revenge for being eliminated,Sgt. Slaughterreentered the ring and put him in theCobra Clutch. The penultimate match was betweenThe UndertakerandTriple H. For his entrance, Triple H had Britishheavy metalbandMotörheadperform his theme song,\\\"The Game\\\", live. The match started with the two fighting outside of the ring with Triple H quickly being put through the replacement Spanish announcers' table. Later on, refereeMike Chiodaaccidentally had Triple Hcatapultedinto him and was then attacked by Undertaker due to his dissatisfaction over a two-count. With Chioda knocked out, the two brawled outside the ring, through the crowd, and into the technical area. On top of scaffolding, Triple H used a steel chair to attack Undertaker's legs, but Undertaker retaliated with achokeslamoff the scaffolding, followed by a diving elbow drop. Back in the ring, Undertaker hit Triple H with aTombstone piledriverand went for the pin but Chioda was still unconscious. Later in the match, Triple H tried to pin Undertaker after hitting him in the head with asledgehammerwhile in theLast Rideposition but only gained a two-count. Triple H sent Undertaker into the corner and stood on the second rope to hit him with more punches, but Undertaker countered with a Last Ride, allowing him to pin Triple H and increase his WrestleMania winning streak to 9–0. The final contest of the night was theWWF Championshipmatch betweenThe RockandStone Cold Steve Austin, which had a surpriseno disqualificationstipulation added just before the superstars were introduced. During the match, the two brawled inside and outside of the ring, with both men bleeding after hitting each other with the ring bell. The Rock attempted to place Austin in aSharpshooterhold, but Austin reversed it into a Sharpshooter of his own. After Rock reached the ropes to force a break, Austin applied theMillion Dollar Dream, a submission hold best known from his former gimmick, The Ringmaster. Shortly after, Rock used Austin's own finishing maneuver on Austin by executing aStunner. Vince McMahon then came to ringside to observe the match. When Rock tried to pin Austin after thePeople's Elbow, McMahon seized Rock's leg and pulled him off Austin, breaking the pin attempt. After chasing McMahon around the ring, Austin responded by using Rock's signature move, theRock Bottom. Later, Rock executed a Rock Bottom for a near fall. After Rock attacked McMahon, he was given a Stunner by Austin for a near fall. After Rock kicked out of the Stunner, McMahon handed Austin a steel chair to hit Rock with at Austin's request, revealing that Austin had sided with McMahon, a man he once considered hisnemesis. With this, Austin turnedheel.Austin attacked him with the steel chair, hitting him sixteen times, before pinning him and becoming the new WWF Champion. The show ended with Austin and McMahon shaking hands and sharing beers. Reception and legacy The event was met with universal acclaim from fans and critics alike. John Powell ofCanadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section rated the event a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, with the main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin in a No Disqualification Match for the WWF Championship rated 10 out of 10 stars. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boyz, Edge and Christian, and The Dudley Boyz also received a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, the Street Fight between Vince and Shane McMahon rated 7 out of 10 stars, the match between Triple H and The Undertaker rated 6 out of 10 stars and the match between Kurt Angle and Chris Benoit rated 8 out of 10 stars. X-Seven was also awardedBest Major Showfor 2001 byDave Meltzer's Wrestling Observer Newsletter. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boys, Edge and Christian and The Dudley Boyz was also placed #5 onIGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History and noted that the match included \\\"some of the most memorable bumps wrestling fans have ever witnessed.\\\"D-Von Dudleyexpressed his belief that the match should be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame, stating: \\\"In my opinion, I think that we should — you know, then.W.ogot inducted into the Hall of Fame and those guys were already in it. How about a TLC induction? How about recognizing how special that match was? Because think about it, not only was the match special, but they actually nameda pay-per-viewafter it. So, you know, it has some relevance to it to be special, so why not put that match in the Hall of Fame?\\\"Matt Hardysaid it was his favorite career TLC match. In 2013, WWE released a list of their \\\"15 best pay-per-views ever\\\", with WrestleMania X-Seven ranked at number one.In 2019, Troy L. Smith ofcleveland.comreleased a list of the \\\"50 greatest wrestling pay-per-views of all time\\\" from every professional wrestling promotion in the world, with WrestleMania X-Seven again ranked at number one. The promotional match preview video package for the main event, set toLimp Bizkit's \\\"My Way\\\", is widely considered one of the greatest wrestling video packages of all time. Aftermath The following night onRaw, Austin and The Rock faced each other in a rematch held in asteel cagewhich Triple H entered the cage and teased a fight with Austin before turning on The Rock. For several minutes Austin, Triple H, and Vince McMahon triple-teamed the outnumbered Rock forging an alliance with Triple H and Austin calledThe Two-Man Power Trip.The Rock was written out of the WWF's storylines with McMahon giving him asuspension. This allowed The Rock time off to begin filmingThe Scorpion King.The Rock returned on the edition of July 30 ofRawand chose to fight for Team WWF overTeam WCW/ECW. Three weeks later atSummerSlam, The Rock won his firstWCW Championshipby defeatingBooker T. The Rock and Austin would face each other again atWrestleMania XIXin a rematch with The Rock winning. Following The Rock's suspension, Triple H's feud with the Brothers of Destruction continued with Austin now on his side. On the edition of April 5, 2001, ofSmackDown!, Triple H challengedIntercontinental ChampionChris Jericho for his title and after interference from CommissionerWilliam Regaland his wife Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley defeated Jericho to win his third Intercontinental Championship.The feud with Undertaker and Kane was temporarily put on hold after Triple H and Austin entered a brief rivalry with the Hardy Boyz, which resulted in Jeff Hardy beating Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship the following week and Triple H promptly regaining the title the next Monday onRaw. Meanwhile, the Brothers of Destruction defeated Edge and Christian to become the newWWF Tag Team Championson the edition of April 19, 2001, ofSmackDown!in a no-disqualification match. Austin and Triple H decided to challenge Undertaker and Kane for their newly won titles, but due to some wrangling by Linda McMahon the match between the teams signed forBacklashforced the two to put up their singles titles against the tag team titles in a \\\"winner-take-all\\\" match. Triple H scored the pin after attacking Kane with his sledgehammer and the Power Trip became the second team in WWF history to hold both major singles titles and the tag team titles at the same time.The feud came to a climax atJudgment Daywhen Austin defeated Undertaker to retain the WWF Championship while Kane defeated Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship.The next night Austin and Triple H lost the tag team titles to Chris Jericho and Chris Benoit; during the course of the match Triple H tore his quadriceps tendon and would miss the remainder of the year, leaving Austin to feud with the tag team champions alone.The feud culminated in a Triple Threat Match atKing of the Ring, where Austin pinned Benoit to retain the WWF Championship. Ten years later in 2011, Undertaker and Triple H would once again renew their rivalry, went on to face each other in a rematch atWrestleMania XXVIIwith The Undertaker defeating HHH via submission, to set his WrestleMania winning streak to 19–0. A year later, they faced each other a third time atWrestleMania XXVIIIin a Hell in a Cell match withShawn Michaelsas the special guest referee. The Undertaker once again won the match to extend his WrestleMania winning streak to 20–0. Due to the acquisition of WCW, Vince's feud with Shane would later spiral intoThe Invasionstoryline that dominated the WWF in the latter half of the year. It consisted of WCW wrestlers \\\"invading\\\" the WWF's televised shows in an attempt to \\\"take over\\\" the WWF. TheExtreme Championship Wrestling(ECW) promotion would also be involved with Stephanie as its new owner, merging WCW and ECW intoThe Alliance. Despite giving her own demands for a divorce shortly after WrestleMania, Linda would eventually reconcile with Vince in the wake of the Alliance's threat to the WWF. Shane McMahon's next feud would involveKurt Angleas he would crash Angle's Olympic Gold Medal Ceremony reenactment on the May 21 edition ofRaw. Angle was celebrating the return of his Gold Medal from Chris Benoit which he won back the previous night atJudgment Day. Shane mocked him while declaring the return of WCW, and he got an Angle slam for his efforts. Shane would return the favor on the June 11 edition ofRawwith an assist from The Undertaker. The two would eventually meet in astreetfightat King of the Ring, which was the third of three matches for Kurt Angle on the night. The other two matches were the Semifinals and Final of the King of the Ring tournament which Angle was the defending champion. He would lose to Edge thanks to interference from Shane. Following King of the Ring, Edge let success go to his head and this led to Christian becoming jealous of Edge's success. They would break up on the September 3, 2001, edition ofRawfollowing Christian's loss to The Rock in a WCW title match. After a brief feud for the WWF Intercontinental Championship, both would go on to become successful singles wrestlers in their own right with Edge being best known as the \\\"Rated R Superstar.\\\" This would be the only WrestleMania forPaul Heymanas a commentator. However he has served in a variety of roles for the WWE for the better part of the time since, including creative team member and manager of his longtime friend and clientBrock Lesnar. Results References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["The Undertaker Mark William Calaway(born March 24, 1965), better known by hisring nameThe Undertaker, is an American retiredprofessional wrestler. Widely regarded as one of the greatest professional wrestlers of all time,Calaway spent the vast majority of his career wrestling forWWEand in 2022 was inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame. Calaway began his career in 1987, working under variousgimmicksforWorld Class Championship Wrestling(WCCW) and other affiliate promotions. He signed withWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) in 1989 for a brief stint, and then joined the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1990. Calaway rebranded himself as \"The Undertaker\" when he joined the WWF. As one of WWE's most high-profile and enduring characters,The Undertaker is famed for hisundead,funereal,macabre\"Deadman\" persona, which gained significant mainstream popularity and won him theWrestling Observer Newsletterawardfor Best Gimmicka record-setting 5 years in a row.He is the longest-tenured wrestler in company history at","company history at 30 years. In 2000, the Undertaker adopted a biker identity nicknamed \"American Badass\". Calaway resurrected the Deadman gimmick in 2004, with residual elements of the \"American Badass\" remaining. For the better part of his career, the Undertaker was observed as a focal point of WWE's flagship annual event,WrestleMania, where he became esteemed forThe Streak— a series of 21 straight victories, and headlined the event five times (13,24,26,33and36). He is also known for pairing with hisin-storylinehalf-brotherKane, with whom he alternativelyfeudedandteamed(as theBrothers of Destruction) from 1997 through 2020. During his wrestling career under the Undertaker gimmick, Calaway won theWWF/E Championshipfour times, theWorld Heavyweight Championshipthree times, theHardcore Championshiponce and theWorld Tag Team Championshipsix times. He also won theRoyal Rumble matchin 2007. Early life Mark William Calaway was born inHouston,Texas, on March 24, 1965,the son of Frank Compton Calaway (died July","Calaway (died July 2003) and Betty Catherine Truby.He has four older brothers named David, Michael, Paul, and Timothy (died March 2020, age 63).He attendedWaltrip High School, where he was a member of thefootballandbasketballteams. He graduated in 1983 and began studying on a basketball scholarship atAngelina CollegeinLufkin, Texas. In 1985, he enrolled inTexas Wesleyan UniversityinFort Worth, Texas, where hemajoredinsport managementand played as acenterfor theRamsin the 1985–1986 season. In 1986, Calaway dropped out of university to focus on a career in sports and briefly considered playing professional basketball in Europe, before deciding to focus on professional wrestling. Professional wrestling career Early career (1987–1989) Calaway began training underBuzz Sawyerin late 1986;he disliked Sawyer, who reportedly lacked commitment and provided a limited education.Calaway learned \"on the job\" thereafter.Performing under a mask as Texas Red,Calaway wrestled his first match on June 26, 1987, forWorld Class","forWorld Class Championship Wrestling(WCCW), losing toBruiser Brodyat theDallas Sportatorium.He was accompanied to the ring by Percival \"Percy\" Pringle III, who would later serve as his manager in the WWF asPaul Bearer.Two myths have circulated regarding Calaway's beginnings in the industry, the first being that he made his in-ring debut in 1984,and the second being that he was trained by former WCCW colleague Don Jardine (akaThe Spoiler).While never trained by Jardine, Calaway was an admirer of his work and would emulate Jardine's top rope walk.PWInsider's Mike Johnson stated, \"Undertaker using some of Jardine's style eventually morphed into this story that he was trained by Jardine.\" He wrestled inDurban, South Africa on August 22, 1987, as \"Texas Red Jack\", losing to Tiger Singh.He would also wrestle in prison shows under the name Boris Dragu, a Russian grave digger. In 1988, Calaway developed a military gimmick named The Commando. Under this persona, he mainly wrestled in the Chicago area for Central","area for Central Illinois Wrestling. He would also have a brief stint in Georgia forSouthern Championship Wrestling. By the end of 1988, Calaway joined theContinental Wrestling Association, wrestling under several gimmicks. On February 2, 1989, managed byDutch Mantel, he was reintroduced as The Master of Pain, a former murderer.On April 1, The Master of Pain won his firstprofessional wrestling championshipby defeatingJerry Lawlerfor the USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion. Just over three weeks had passed when Lawler became the first man to pin him, giving it back to him. While performing as The Punisher upon returning to Dallas, Calaway won the USWA Texas Heavyweight Championship on October 5, 1989, whenEric Embryforfeited the title. World Championship Wrestling (1989–1990) By the end of 1989, Calaway joined World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as avillainand adopted the ring name \"Mean Mark\" Callous, a name devised for him byTerry Funk.He was portrayed as a sinister force, wearing predominantly black","predominantly black ring attire and was described by commentatorJim Rossas having a fondness for pet snakes and the music ofOzzy Osbourne.Callous was promptly drafted intoThe Skyscraperstag teamto replace alegitimatelyinjuredSid Vicious, and made his debut on January 3, 1990, in a match later televised against Agent Steel and Randy Harris.The new team gained some notoriety atClash of the Champions Xwhen they beat downThe Road Warriorsafter their match.However, Callous's partnerDan Spiveyleft WCW days before theirChicago Street Fightagainst the Road Warriors atWrestleWar. Callous anda replacement masked Skyscraperwere defeated in thestreet fightand the team broke up soon afterwards.Now a singles wrestler, Callous took on the guidance ofPaul E. Dangerously(Paul Heyman). Calaway later began to question his future in WCW after being told bycompany booker,Ole Anderson, during contract renewal discussions that nobody would ever pay money to watch him perform.It was in response to this that Calaway made numerous","made numerous efforts to join the World Wrestling Federation, going to many lengths to land a meeting withVince McMahon. However, accessing and securing an interview with McMahon was described by Calaway as a despairing task. Among routes Calaway took to land a meeting with McMahon was trying to convince individuals acquainted with McMahon or already existing WWF talent to recommend him into the WWF, such asHulk Hogan, Paul Heyman, andBruce Prichard, crediting the latter two for arranging the meeting at McMahon's mansion. Calaway immediately gavenoticeto WCW before the interview took place. McMahon initially declined to hire Calaway; however, several days later the owner pitched the idea an \"Old West Undertaker,\" a concept he had intended to create for several years but had never found an appropriate wrestler to play the part. Calaway's final WCW match was on September 7 at aWorldWidetaping inAmarillo, Texasin which he defeated Dave Johnson.During his time in WCW, Calaway briefly wrestled inNew Japan","inNew Japan Pro-Wrestling(NJPW) as \"Punisher\" Dice Morgan.After leaving WCW, he briefly returned to the USWA to participate in a tournament to determine the new USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion; Calaway defeatedBill Dundeein the first round, but lost to Jerry Lawler in the quarterfinals. World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment/WWE Debut of The Undertaker (1990–1991) In October 1990, Calaway signed with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), set to portray the \"brainchild\" of McMahon that he had assigned to him, originally entitledKane the Undertaker(\"Kane\" later added on to \"the Undertaker\" moniker by the time of his arrival at the urgings of Bruce Prichard, who had always desired aCain and Abeleffect for his character).Despite Calaway's perplexed, pessimistic feelings about McMahon's gimmick idea, he was readily accepting of the role, feeling anything better than the laughingstock gimmicks of that time, such asThe Gobbledy Gooker.Kane the Undertaker was characterized as a menacing derivative of","derivative of theWild Westundertakersdepicted intelevision westerns. Resulting from that, this first edition of the Undertaker's series ofDeadmanincarnationshas been distinguished in external media as \"The Old West Mortician\".He made his overall WWF debut on a November 19, 1990, taping ofWWF Superstarsquickly defeating his first opponent,Mario Mancini, in a singles match(this match was filmed three days prior to the Undertaker's televised debut atSurvivor Serieson November 22, but did not air on television until December 15, 1990). Also prior to his Survivor Series appearance, Kane the Undertaker had a match on November 20 against Rick Sampson, which later aired on the December 9, 1990 episode ofWWF Wrestling Challenge. Calaway's official televised debut was at Survivor Series in which he was presented as theheelmystery partner of Ted DiBiase's \"Million Dollar Team\".Approximately one minute into the match, the Undertaker eliminatedKoko B. Warewith his finisher, theTombstone Piledriver.(In 2018, Koko B. Ware","2018, Koko B. Ware shared that directly following this match that night, he confronted the Undertaker with serious objections to what he felt was a botched Tombstone. Though Ware also shared that he always admired Mark Calaway and perceived him as a great performer).During the match, the Undertaker also eliminatedDusty Rhodesbefore beingcounted out; however, his team won the match with DiBiase being the sole survivor.During the match, Calaway was referred to as simply the Undertaker, omitting the portion \"Kane\", which was dropped shortly after the event (and seven years later at the urgings of Prichard, given to another wrestler once he took on the role of the Undertaker'syounger brother).Throughout the end of 1990, the Undertaker mostly picked upsquashvictories against jobbers on Superstars of Wrestling and Wrestling Challenge tapings.He was a participant in the1991Royal Rumble matchwhich was won by Hulk Hogan. In February 1991,Brother Lovedelegated his short-livedmanagementrole of the Undertaker over to","Undertaker over to Paul Bearer (real-life funeral director), Love communicating the need for someone who better aligned with the Undertaker's \"deadman\" themes.Histrionic, wailing and ghostly in character, Bearer complemented the Undertaker and was almost always seen bearing anurnwhich he raised in the air to transmit supernatural healing powers to the Undertaker; this typically resulted in the Undertaker recovering from attacks and counterattacking his adversaries.During his early years, the Undertaker took to a post-match ritual of placing his defeated opponents (almost alwaysjobbers) in abody bagand carrying them backstage.He continued picking up victories in squash matches leading up to his firstfeudin the WWF with\"Superfly\" Jimmy Snuka. WWF Champion and beginning of The Streak (1991–1994) The Undertaker made his WrestleMania debut atWrestleMania VIIon March 24, 1991, quickly defeating \"Superfly\" Jimmy Snuka.He began his first major feud shortly thereafter, which was withThe Ultimate Warriorwhen The","Warriorwhen The Undertaker attacked him and locked him in an airtight casket on the set of Paul Bearer'sFuneral Parlorsegment.Resulting from this, the Warrior enlisted the assistance ofJake \"The Snake\" Robertsto get him mentally psyched for The Undertaker's morbid alarmist tactics: Roberts would drill the Warrior with \"know your enemy\" training, setting up the Warrior in a series of creepy, terrorizing circumstances, such as by locking him in caskets and in rooms with snakes.This culminated in a final stage of Roberts's training in which Roberts proved to be stringing Warrior along the entire time by assisting The Undertaker in an ambush.The Undertaker would later suffer his first losses in the WWF to The Ultimate Warrior, including in a first ever body bag challenge, a casket match, and (athouse show) standard pin-fall match.The feud was, however, cut short after the Warrior's suspension and ongoing issues with Vince McMahon.In the1991 King of the Ring, Undertaker defeatedAnimalin a qualifying match before","match before fightingSid Viciousto a doubledisqualificationin the semifinal, which saw both men eliminated from theKing of the Ring tournament.The Undertaker defeated Hulk Hogan to win his firstWWF ChampionshipatSurvivor Serieswith the help ofRic Flairand thus became the youngest WWF Champion in history to that point, 26 years of age—this record was later broken byYokozunain April 1993 atWrestleMania IX.The Undertaker's Tombstone of Hogan to win the WWF Championship at the 1991 Survivor Series created real-life, offscreen discord between the two, which Undertaker attributes his short title reign, lack of title runs during his early career and distrust of Hogan.In storyline, however, WWF PresidentJack Tunneyordered a rematch between the two atThis Tuesday in Texassix days later, where The Undertaker lost the title back to Hogan.However, due to the controversial endings of the two title matches between The Undertaker and Hogan, the title wasvacatedfrom Hogan the next night by Tunney. The company was without a","was without a WWF Champion until Ric Flair earned it by winning the1992Royal Rumble match. In February 1992, The Undertaker's ally Jake \"The Snake\" Roberts tried to attack\"Macho Man\" Randy Savage's manager/wifeMiss Elizabethwith a steel chair when Undertaker stopped him, turning him (and Paul Bearer)facefor the first time. Their face turn was solidified on the February 29 episode ofSuperstarswhen Roberts confronted The Undertaker on theFuneral Parlorset over the matter (aired onSaturday Night's Main Event XXX). After demanding to know whose side The Undertaker was on and getting the reply, \"Not yours\", Roberts attacked both Bearer and The Undertaker, only for The Undertaker to stand his ground and run Roberts off. The Undertaker defeated Roberts atWrestleMania VIII.He then feuded extensively with wrestlers managed byHarvey Wipplemanthroughout 1992 and 1993, such asKamalaandGiant González. Also during this time, The Undertaker headlined thedebut episodeofMonday Night Rawon January 11, 1993, with a victory","with a victory overDamien Demento.According to Calaway, working with González \"...was survival every night trying to figure out what he could do\" and \"took years off my career\".He faced González at WrestleMania IX, which is notable asThe Undertaker's only disqualification win at WrestleManiaafter the use ofchloroform.The Undertaker's next rivalry initiated atSurvivor Serieswith Yokozuna when a clash between the two lost control, causing them to be counted out in an elimination tag match.In the weeks following, The Undertaker and Bearer spooked Yokozuna with multiple segments from their wintery and remoterural areaworkshop. There, Bearer presented The Undertaker hard at workcarpenteringYokozuna what would eventually become a \"double wide, double deep casket\" custom-built for Yokozuna's immensely overweight size.The feud culminated in a WWF Championshipcasket matchat theRoyal Rumblein January 1994. During the match, Yokozuna sealed The Undertaker in the casket with the assistance of a multitude of heel","a multitude of heel wrestlers (some of themWhippleman-managed) hired by Yokozuna's vindictive managersJim CornetteandMr. Fuji, which was in retaliation for Bearer's casket match stipulation that he snuck into their Royal Rumble match contract. After being trapped inside the casket by the pack, green vapor emitted from the casket and the arena lights went out. Undertaker then appeared from inside the casket on the video screen, representing the spirit of his dead corpse, warning that he would produce a future \"rebirth\" of himself, explaining to his antagonists that he cannot and will not Rest in Peace.The Undertaker did not appear in the WWF for seven months after his loss to Yokozuna. In reality, he was given time off to allow a back injury to heal. Rebirthed Deadman (1994–1996) Following the death angle at the Royal Rumble during The Undertaker's absence, the WWF promoted reported sightings of him through video clips of random people claiming to have seen him. AfterWrestleMania X,Ted DiBiaseintroduced an","an Undertaker back to the WWF. This Undertaker, however, played byBrian Lee(one of Calaway's real-life best friends)was an impostor Undertaker (dubbed \"The Underfaker\" by fans)rejuvenated by Dibiase's money rather than Bearer's urn. His actions led to the return of the real Undertaker atSummerSlam, defeating the impostor and appearing as a reincarnation of his Deadman gimmick, one of a more shadowy, mysterious and secret presence.Represented now by cool colors, The Undertaker replaced details of his wrestling gear that were previously colored gray with purple, and effected scenes with blue/purple semidarkness.Many details that would become associated with The Undertaker for the remainder of his career were produced during this rebirth incarnation, such as the addition ofsleeve tattoosandGodlikesupernatural elements (thunder, lightning and windy weather-like effects used to indicate The Undertaker's presence and wrath). Seeking retribution, The Undertaker revisited his feud with Yokozuna and eventually faced","eventually faced him in a casket rematch atSurvivor Series.Chuck Norris(portraying hisWalker, Texas Rangerpersona) was involved in the match as special guest enforcer, preventing interference from wrestlers that Yokozuna, Jim Cornette and Mr. Fuji had again enlisted for help.Unable to rely on much as far as interference this time around (onlyIrwin R. Schysterable to get in a brief ambush) due to Norris averting the attempts of several heel wrestlers, Yokozuna was defeated by The Undertaker and sealed in the casket.Throughout most of 1995, Undertaker feuded with members of Ted DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation. The chain of wrestlers DiBiase enlisted to do away with The Undertaker started with Irwin R. Schyster at theRoyal Rumblefor which The Undertaker was victorious, but assaulted by another member of the Million Dollar Team,King Kong Bundy. While being assaulted, Bearer was deprived of his urn by the Corporation.AtWrestleMania XI, The Undertaker made short work of Bundy in a singles match. This edition","match. This edition of WrestleMania included the first mention of The Undertaker's historicWrestleMania-winning Streak, acknowledged on commentary by Vince McMahon as Undertaker made his entrance: \"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania.\"During The Undertaker's WrestleMania encounter, DiBiase issued him with yet another antagonist in \"The Supreme Fighting Machine\"Kama, who had stolen the briefly recaptured urn from Bearer during the match. Kama followed this up with a series of malicious acts, including destroying the stolen urn and recycling it intobling.While sporting the flashy bling around his neck, he repeatedly cost The Undertaker matches and attacked diehard Undertaker fans, dubbed \"Creatures of the Night\".In August, Undertaker settled the score with Kama, defeating him in a casket match atSummerSlam.Several weeks later, Undertaker suffered a seriousorbital boneinjury whenKing Mabelunintentionally struck him in the eye with his fist during ahouse show, forcing","show, forcing The Undertaker into a period of absence for surgery. Due to the incident happening at a house show, Vince McMahon had it presented to the audience as though it had occurred from Mabel and Yokozuna's exchange ofleg dropsandsplasheson The Undertaker on theMonday Night Rawthat had aired 2 days prior.The Undertaker returned a couple months later atSurvivor Series, in which he single-handedly eliminated an entire team of wrestlers led by King Mabel, The Undertaker leading his own team to victory.It was at that Survivor Series return in which he began wearing aPhantom of the Opera-like, gray upper-face mask to safeguard his orbital injury while it healed.The following month in December, The Undertaker defeated Mabel in a casket match atIn Your House, retrieving the urn, which had been traded between several of The Undertaker's antagonists over the course of the year. In the main event of theRoyal Rumblein January 1996, The Undertaker was unmasked of his Phantom of the Opera-like facial covering in a","covering in a WWF Championship match againstBret Hart. The Undertaker was eventually able to hit theTombstone Piledriveron Hart, butDieselinterfered, costing The Undertaker the championship.A rematch for the title on the February 5 episode ofRawsaw similar interference.At that month'sIn Your House: Rage in the Cage, while Diesel was facing Hart in asteel cage matchfor the WWF Championship, The Undertaker delivered a surprise attack, emerging from a hole he had ripped through the ring canvas and dragging Diesel with him down under amid a cloud of smoke, allowing Hart the victory.After several weeks of more retaliatoryone-upmanshipbetween Diesel and The Undertaker, their feud culminated in asingles matchatWrestleMania XII, where Undertaker was victorious. The Undertaker's next feud commenced the next night onRawwhenMankind, a twisted and tortured soul, made his debut and randomly interfered in Undertaker's match againstJustin \"Hawk\" Bradshaw. For the next few months, Mankind viciously ambushed The Undertaker","The Undertaker and cost him multiple matches.Among them, Mankind cost The Undertaker theWWF Intercontinental Championshipby interfering in his casket match againstGoldustatIn Your House 8: Beware of Dog. In interfering in this match, Mankind proved to have mystifying horror tactic capabilities that matched The Undertaker's, mysteriously appearing from inside the casket and sealing The Undertaker inside. The Undertaker, however, had vanished amid a cloud of smoke once the casket lid was opened.As a result of the interference and repeated ambushes from Mankind on The Undertaker throughout the ensuing weeks, The Undertaker and Mankind competed in their first on-screen bout at the1996 King of the Ring, a heated encounter in which The Undertaker presented as uncharacteristically intense.During the match, Bearer inadvertently hit The Undertaker with the urn, allowing Mankind to incapacitate The Undertaker with his finisher, theMandible Claw, and score the win.With Mankind insatiably continuing to cost The","to cost The Undertaker matches even following their King of the Ring encounter, The Undertaker began firing back with rage and the feud spiraled out of control: the two routinely interrupted other matches already in progress, battling each other at random intervals outside of having arranged matches—their chaos also spilling into audiences, arena backstage communal areas, and arenaboiler rooms, all of this unprecedented at the time.As a result, the first everBoiler Room Brawl(Mankind's specialty match) was booked between the two atSummerSlam.After more than 20 minutes of brawling with Mankind in the ClevelandGund Arena's boiler room, the arena corridors, the SummerSlam entrance area and aisleway to the ring, The Undertaker reached for Paul Bearer's urn in an attempt to win the match, but Bearer struck him with it, betraying The Undertaker. This followed with Bearer allowing Mankind to take hold of the urn, thus winning this match. According to Paul Bearer in shoot interviews the WWF wanted Bearer to betray","Bearer to betray him during that match because it was a storyline thatKanewas coming and they wanted The Undertaker to get ready for the angle with Kane the following year by having Bearer turn on him.After Bearer's betrayal, The Undertaker grew more aggressive, resolving his feud against Goldust (Mankind's comrade in tormenting The Undertaker) atIn Your House 10: Mind Games. The Undertaker then took his rivalry with Mankind to new lengths in a specialty match of his own, and at that time unprecedentedBuried Alive matchto take place in the main event ofIn Your House 11: Buried Alive. The Undertaker won the match afterchokeslammingMankind into the open grave and subsequently shoveling enough dirt on him so that he was covered. However, after interference from the debutingExecutioner, as well as the help of several other heel wrestlers apparently enlisted by Bearer, Mankind escaped the grave and together the mob all shoveled dirt onto The Undertaker to the point that the grave was completely filled, resulting","filled, resulting in The Undertaker fully buried alive. Not without a parting message for the pack, however, The Undertaker's purple glove fit hand emerged from his burying place amid a bolt of lightning that had erupted over the gravesite. The scene sent all of his antagonists fleeing. Lord of Darkness (1996–1998) After being buried alive and a following month-long hiatus, The Undertaker returned at theSurvivor Seriesagain pitting him against Mankind, but with a unique stipulation: Hanging 6.1 m (20 ft) above the ring would be Paul Bearer, enclosed in a steel cage. And if The Undertaker were to win the match, he would be rewarded the opportunity to assault Bearer however he pleased. Even though The Undertaker won this match, interference from The Executioner enabled Bearer to escape Undertaker's clutches.It was also at this event that The Undertaker had developed a comparatively more humanized and more informal yet still superhuman \"Deadman\" incarnation. In this then new form, he took on aGothappearance and","aGothappearance and persona, with a brash, rebelling, Championship-driven mean streak (perhaps to better fit in with the then-budding, more adult-orientedAttitude Era).This delivering, dubbed \"The Lord of Darkness\", was the 3rd incarnation of his Deadman persona.Following Survivor Series, The Undertaker briefly turned his attention to The Executioner, who had been interfering in his matches since his arrival. AtIn Your House 12: It's Time, The Undertaker defeated The Executioner in anArmageddon Rulesmatch even with Mankind heavily involved throughout the entire encounter.The Undertaker then moved on to feud withVader, whom he faced in January 1997 at theRoyal Rumblein a singles match, which The Undertaker lost after Bearer interfered on behalf of his new protégé.The two then clashed in the Royal Rumble match itself as they made it to the final moments of the match, but both were eliminated byStone Cold Steve Austin, who had crept back into the match after his elimination was unseen. He faced both Vader and","both Vader and Austin in afour-corners elimination matchfor the vacant WWF Championship atIn Your House 13: Final Four, but Bret Hart won.However, the following month, The Undertaker managed to win the WWF Championship for the second time by defeatingSycho SidatWrestleMania 13.Reviving his first Deadman incarnation for that night only, The Undertaker appeared as the \"Old West Mortician\", donning the trademarked gray wrestling gear accessories (boot spats, tie, gloves), along with a pitch-black entrance with only a white spotlight shined over him, contrasted from the purple/blue semidarkness associated with the rest of his Deadman incarnations. Following his WWF Championship win at WrestleMania 13, Paul Bearer attempted to rejoin The Undertaker as his manager. After The Undertaker refused and attacked Bearer, Bearer had Mankind set a fireball to the Undertaker's face, leading up to a match atIn Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Taker, for which The Undertaker was victorious.Evening the score at \"Revenge of the","at \"Revenge of the 'Taker\", The Undertaker set a fireball to Bearer's face directly following the match.Following the event, Bearer bandaged up from fire burns, likened The Undertaker's assault to a past incident he described as The Undertaker's \"deepest, darkest secret\". Through giving The Undertaker theultimatumof revealing his deepest, darkest secret to the world, Bearer was able to reunite with him as manager and protégé. After only a few months of abrasive behaviors from Bearer, however, The Undertaker lost his patience and rejected Bearer as his manager. In retaliation, Bearer disclosed that The Undertaker had intentionally killed his family by burning down his parents' family funeral home for which they raised him and his younger brother.(Note that the younger brother, Kane, was not revealed to be The Undertaker's half-brother until the following year, April 1998, when Bearer disclosed to the world that he is Kane's father, The Undertaker's mother having had an affair with him. Bearer later verified","later verified this with DNA test results).At this point in his career, The Undertaker denied the charges of committing the arson murder that killed his family; however, Bearer claimed to have proof in the form of The Undertaker's alive and well younger brother, Kane, who had survived though scarred and burned. Bearer raised Kane after the fire, having him institutionalized from the date of the fire into adulthood. Ever since the fire, Kane had been awaiting to exact vengeance on his older half-brother. In defense, Undertaker responded that Kane, a \"pyromaniac\", had been the one to set the fire and, as a result, could not have possibly even survived.(Note that it would not be until a year and a half later from this point, in latter 1998, in which The Undertaker would shamelessly confess to intentional acts of arson to the funeral home that killed his parents and scarred his brother). In spite of Bearer projecting himself as a constant source of mental distress to The Undertaker during his Championship title","Championship title reign, The Undertaker managed to secure successful title defenses against Stone Cold Steve Austin (A Cold Day In Hell: In Your House),Faarooq(King of the Ring)and Vader (Canadian Stampede: In Your House, revisiting and settling their Royal Rumble feud from earlier on in the year),respectively. Concurrent to the \"deep, dark secret\" storyline directed by Bearer, Undertaker began a then new rivalry atSummerSlamwhenspecial guest refereeShawn Michaelsaccidentally hit him with a steel chair shot intended for his archnemesis Bret Hart, in effect, costing The Undertaker the WWF Championship.The accidental chair shot led to Michaels feeling betrayed by the now booing WWF fans, and quickly becoming heel. Thus, a severely violent storyline with The Undertaker followed, one revolving around repeated intentional chair shots by Michaels on the Undertaker, Michaels taunting The Undertaker throughout.After the duo's first match, which was a chaotic and uncontrolled encounter that resulted in a double","in a double count-out draw atGround Zero: In Your House, Undertaker challenged Michaels to the first everHell in a Cell matchto take place atBadd Blood: In Your House. Despite the inclusion of the cell for more order and to prevent Michaels from receiving help from hisD-Generation Xstable, the encounter ended up even more uncontrolled and savage than their first and is considered one of The Undertaker's best matches of his career.Seemingly about to emerge the victor after striking Michaels with a chair shot of his own, The Undertaker was interrupted by his storyline half-brother Kane, finally making his debut. Under the control of Paul Bearer, Kane stormed the arena, ripped off the cell door, and laid out a nonplussed Undertaker with his own trademarked finisher,The Tombstone Piledriver, allowing Michaels to pin him for the victory.As the storyline progressed through Bearer having Kane mow down much of the WWF roster, Kane repeatedly challenged The Undertaker, going to lengths of tormenting and humiliating","and humiliating him. However, The Undertaker consistently refused to fight his half-brother, claiming he had made a vow to his parents never to do harm to his own \"flesh and blood\".The Undertaker's final encounter with Michaels during this chapter of his career was in a casket match for the WWF Championship at theRoyal Rumble. The week before onRaw, Kane had duplicitously presented as allying with his brother against Michaels's D-Generation X stable; however, at the Royal Rumble, Kane trapped The Undertaker in the coffin, padlocked the lid shut, and set the casket ablaze, allowing Michaels another victory.After a two-month hiatus in which Kane wreaked havoc over the WWF, The Undertaker returned on the March 2, 1998 episode ofRawin a most notable resurrection—his druids interrupting Kane and Bearer by presenting them with a coffin on the entrance stage amid a large number of bell tolls. The coffin was struck and dismantled by a lightning bolt, revealing a lied out Undertaker who sat up in a fury state and","in a fury state and challenged Kane to do battle with him.AtWrestleMania XIVin their first match, The Undertaker defeated Kane.Kane challenged Undertaker to a rematch—Kane's specialty and first everInferno match—that occurred one month later atUnforgiven: In Your House. The Undertaker won the encounter by setting Kane's right arm on fire. The Undertaker and Mankind's wildly violent, outlandish feud from over a year previous to this point was revitalized over the next month, ultimately taken to a new graphic height and decisively resolved whenthey faced each other in a Hell in a Cell matchatKing of the Ring. The match became one of the most famous matches in professional wrestling history. During the match, the Undertaker threw Mankind off the roof of the 4.9 m (16 ft) cell onto a broadcast table below, in what was a preplanned move. He later performed a chokeslam on Mankind through the roof of the cell into the ring, which was not preplanned and legitimately knocked Mankind unconscious. In jumping from the","In jumping from the top of the cell to the ring canvas, The Undertaker suffered a broken ankle. Escalating as things progressed, blood flowed from both wrestlers as they attacked each other with steel steps, chairs, the cell wall, etc. Topping that off, Mankind introduced multitudes of thumbtacks scattered across the ring canvas but wasback body droppedon them, and subsequently chokeslammed onto them before The Undertaker won the match with hisTombstone Piledriver.AtFully Loaded: In Your House, the Undertaker and Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated Kane and Mankind to win theWWF Tag Team Championship.The Undertaker and Austin's reign astag team championslasted only two weeks, as Kane and Mankind regained the titles from them in afatal four-way tag-team matchon the August 10 episode ofRaw.The Undertaker then became the number one contender for the WWF Championship, held by Austin at that point, for a match atSummerSlam. Shortly before SummerSlam and after much speculation, The Undertaker finally disclosed that","disclosed that he and his half-brother were working together. Despite this revelation, The Undertaker told Kane before his SummerSlam bout that he did not want him interfering, even sending Kane away during the match itself when he appeared. Even though The Undertaker lost the match at SummerSlam, he handed Austin his championship belt back after the match with a show of respect and sportsmanship. In September as the storyline matured however, The Undertaker subtly began showing some heel characteristics, becoming atweener. This began when he and Kane revealed the fact that they were in cahoots to rid Austin of his title for villainous company owner Mr. McMahon—Austin and McMahon immersed in a bitter rivalry during this era. AtBreakdown: In Your House, The Undertaker and Kane were booked in atriple threat matchwith Austin for the WWF Championship, in which McMahon stated that the brothers were not allowed to pin each other. The Undertaker and Kane pinned Austin simultaneously after adouble chokeslam, ending","chokeslam, ending the match in ano contest, so the title was vacated by McMahon.This event led to a match atJudgment Day: In Your Housebetween The Undertaker and Kane for the title, with Austin as the special guest referee. Near the end of the match, Paul Bearer seemed about to assist Kane by handing him a steel chair to hit The Undertaker with, but as Kane had his back turned, both Bearer and The Undertaker hit Kane with chair shots. The Undertaker went for the pin, but Austin refused to count the fall, attacked The Undertaker and counted out both of them.Finally the next night onRaw, The Undertaker reconciled with Bearer and claimed that he and Bearer would unleash their \"Ministry of Darkness\" on the WWF, turning heel for the first time since 1992. As part of the then new storyline angle, The Undertaker admitted that he had indeed intentionally set the fire that killed his parents and scarred Kane, for which he had previously blamed on Kane. Ministry of Darkness Deadman (1998–1999) AfterSurvivor Series,","Series, The Undertaker returned his attention to his previous feud with Austin for costing him the title at Judgment Day, hitting Austin in the head with a shovel during a title match withThe Rockon the November 16 episode ofRaw, returning the favor for what happened a month earlier. With this twist in the storyline, Mr. McMahon scheduled a Buried Alive match between The Undertaker and Austin atRock Bottom: In Your House. In the weeks leading up to Rock Bottom, The Undertaker attempted toembalmAustin alive, tried to have Kane committed to a mental asylum, and had his druids chain Austin to an immense structure of his Undertaker crucifix-like logo (which took the appearance of a capital T combined X) before having that structure lifted up on high into the air.However, The Undertaker lost the Buried Alive match to Austin at Rock Bottom after Kane interfered. After the buildup to his second heel run in the latter part of 1998, The Undertaker introduced an updated version of his Deadman identity by January","identity by January 1999—a dark priest-like character who in the initial period of this persona reigned over a stable known as The Ministry of Darkness. In this form, he took on a wicked, demonic presence, much more so than ever before. He often proclaimed to be invoking and taking orders from a \"Higher Power\". Moreover, he often appeared in a hooded black robe and sat on a throne with a towering backrest specially designed into his crucifix-like logo. With the help of his minions, he often performed sacrifices on select WWF wrestlers, using variousincantationsandmagic wordswith intent to extract out the dark side of the wrestlers in question to recruit them into his Ministry. The completed Ministry of Darkness consisted ofThe Brood(Christian,EdgeandGangrel),The Acolytes(Bradshaw and Faarooq),MideonandViscera. Calaway himself did not wrestle for a period, having undergone a hip replacement. As part of theangle, The Undertaker had his Ministry members fight his battles, carry out his evil wishes and do all","wishes and do all his dirty deeds. In this manner, he expressed his desires to take over the World Wrestling Federation, displacing its owner, Mr. McMahon. These ambitions culminated into a rivalry between The Ministry andThe Corporation, ultimately resulting in a match between The Undertaker and Corporation enforcer,Big Boss Man. The two faced off in a Hell in a Cell match atWrestleMania XV, which The Undertaker won.AtBacklash: In Your House, The Undertaker defeated Corporation memberKen Shamrockafter interference from Ministry member Bradshaw. Thereafter, The Undertaker kidnappedStephanie McMahon, forcing Mr. McMahon to enter into a reluctant alliance with his longtime nemesis Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Undertaker attempted to marry Stephanie before sacrificing her in aneldritchceremony conducted by Paul Bearer, but Austin was able to rescue her.At theOver the Edgepay-per-view, The Undertaker defeated Austin for his third WWF Championship with help fromShane McMahon, the special guest referee.The","guest referee.The Ministry eventually merged with Shane McMahon's Corporation alliance to formThe Corporate Ministry. The Undertaker later revealed that Mr. McMahon had been his \"Higher Power\" all along as a scheme against Austin.After The Undertakerlostthe WWF Championship back to Austin on theRawfollowingKing of the Ringand lost to him in aFirst Blood matchatFully Loaded, his relationship with the McMahons dissolved and The Corporate Ministry disbanded. The Undertaker then began a storyline where he teamed withBig Showin a tag team known as \"The Unholy Alliance\", which held the WWF Tag Team Championship twice. After their victory atSummerSlam, The Undertaker suffered a groin tear and was seen limping in several matches. He avoided competing in wrestling matches in the following weeks, instead overbearingly ordering Big Show to fight his battles and do all his dirty deeds. Developing a comedy horror smart mouth during this time, elements of The Undertaker's trash-talking biker identity (that he would","(that he would eventually introduce in 2000) began peeping out during this phase of his career. According to an interview with Kevin Nash, this was a move to allow Calaway to return to WCW with a non-trademarked persona; had he entered WCW, it would have been as Mark Calaway. According to Nash, although negotiations were described as close, Calaway ultimately re-signed with the WWF. Conversely, while on Steve Austin'sBroken Skull Sessionspodcast on November 22, 2020, Calaway revealed that there was no way he was ever going to rejoin WCW, that the gimmick's biker transition was just a matter of him mixing things up because he didn't feel the character's Deadman side properly fit with the then ongoing Attitude Era. To compensate for his lack of physical activity, The Undertaker became increasingly overbearing and vocal, often mouthing off with a weirdness and making sinisterlysmart-aleckremarks in promos and on commentary. On the September 23, 1999, episode ofSmackDown!, Mr. McMahon threatened that he would","that he would remove The Undertaker from theUnforgivenmain event if he refused to participate in a casket match againstTriple H. The Undertaker retorted that he did not care and maybe he would not be participating in anything WWF any longer, from there walking out on the WWF.In reality, Calaway went on a hiatus from the WWF in order to treat his groin injury. He made his return to action on December 14, teaming with Viscera in a losing effort against Kane and The Godfather at a house show inCoamo, Puerto Rico.The Undertaker was advertised on theArmageddonpromotional poster to return, but meanwhile also tore his pectoral muscle, taking him out of action for almost eight months. American Badass (2000–2001) In May 2000, Calaway expanded on The Undertaker gimmick, returning under a human alter ego of the gimmick—a smack-talking, redneck biker, dubbed \"The American Badass\", known for motorcycle-riding, tobacco chewing/spitting, and donning a sporty appearance and manner.In stark contrast to his horror-themed and","horror-themed and fully fictional Deadman persona, Calaway's Badass persona was only semifictional with traits and features adopted from who he is out of character—hence, why he desired to transform The Undertaker.While explained off screen years later for the above reasons, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it. When The Undertaker returned near the end of theiron man matchfor the WWF Championship between Triple H and The Rock atJudgment Dayon May 21, 2000, he took out all the members of the McMahon-Helmsley Faction, which created for afaceturn after having left things off as a heel before his hiatus.He also targeted their leader, then WWF Champion Triple H. At theKing of the Ringpay-per-view on June 25, The Undertaker teamed with The Rock and Kane to defeat the team of Triple H, Shane McMahon and Vince","McMahon and Vince McMahon.Afterward, he was booked to team with Kane to contend for the WWF Tag Team Championship. They defeatedEdge and Christian, earning the right to face them the following week for the championship, which Edge and Christian retained. During an August 14Raw is Warbout againstChris Benoit, Kane became involved and betrayed The Undertaker by hitting him with two chokeslams, the second one causing the ring apron to cave in underneath The Undertaker.This incident led to another match between the two atSummerSlamon August 27, which ended in a no contest as Kane fled from the ring area after The Undertaker removed Kane's mask. The Undertaker then challengedKurt Anglefor the WWF Championship atSurvivor Serieson November 19.Angle, however, defeated The Undertaker after he switched places with his real-life brother,Eric Angle. The Undertaker demanded and was awarded a spot in the six-man Hell in a Cell match for the WWF Championship atArmageddonon December 10. The Undertaker promised to make","promised to make someone famous and did so when he performed a chokeslam onRikishifrom the roof of the cell into hay-filled cargo bed of a truck. The Undertaker reunited with Kane as the Brothers of Destruction, issuing a challenge for the WWF Tag Team Championship once again. They received a title shot atNo Way Outon February 25, 2001, facing Edge and Christian and then championsThe Dudley Boyzin atables matchbut were unsuccessful.The Undertaker then went on to defeat Triple H atWrestleMania X-Sevenon April 1.He and Kane continued a storyline that focused on Triple H, who formed a \"surprise alliance\" with then WWF Champion Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Brothers of Destruction were granted an opportunity to face Triple H and Austin for their titles (Triple H was the WWF Intercontinental Champion). After The Undertaker and Kane won the WWF Tag Team Championship from Edge and Christian on the April 19 episode ofSmackDown!,Triple H pinned Kane after attacking him with a sledgehammer atBacklashon April 29, where","April 29, where the Brothers of Destruction lost their championships.With Kane injured, The Undertaker feuded briefly with Austin for his WWF Championship, but he failed to win the title atJudgment Dayon May 20. As part of \"The Invasion\" storyline, The Undertaker's next nemesis wasDiamond Dallas Page, who was obsessively stalking The Undertaker's wife, Sara.AtSummerSlamon August 19,WCW Tag Team ChampionsThe Undertaker and Kane defeated Page and his partnerKanyonin a steel cage match to win the WWF Tag Team Championship.AtSurvivor Serieson November 18, The Undertaker teamed with Kane, The Rock,Chris Jerichoand Big Show to take on The Alliance's Stone Cold Steve Austin,Booker T,Rob Van Dam, Shane McMahon and Kurt Angle (this was the last time The Undertaker and Kane teamed until 2006). Angle pinned The Undertaker due to interference by Austin. Despite this, Team WWF won the match. Big Evil (2001–2003) AfterThe Alliancewas defeated, The Undertaker inducted commentatorJim Rossinto theMr. McMahon: Kiss My Ass","Kiss My Ass Clubon the November 26 episode ofRaw, which involved The Undertaker pressing the lips of Ross against McMahon's exposed buttocks, turning heel in the process.In transitioning his \"American Badass\" biker identity into a heel, The Undertaker eventually cut his long hair short and went by the nickname \"Big Evil\". AtVengeanceon December 9, The Undertaker defeated Rob Van Dam to win theWWF Hardcore Championship. The Undertaker's next storyline began at theRoyal Rumbleon January 20, 2002, whenMaveneliminated him from theRoyal Rumble matchby hitting him with adropkickfrom behind. Subsequently, The Undertaker eliminated Maven in return and brutally assaulted him backstage.Thereafter, on an episode ofSmackDown!, The Rock angered The Undertaker by mentioning his elimination at the Royal Rumble. He responded by costing The Rock the number one contendership for theUndisputed WWF Championship.The storyline continued when The Rock cost The Undertaker the WWF Hardcore Championship against Maven on the February","on the February 7 episode ofSmackDown!.The two faced off atNo Way Outon February 17, where The Undertaker lost due to interference from Ric Flair.This interference began a storyline with Flair, who declined a challenge to wrestle The Undertaker atWrestleMania X8on March 17.As a result, The Undertaker assaulted his sonDavid Flair.Flair eventually accepted the match after The Undertaker threatened to inflict the same punishment on Flair'sdaughter.A no-disqualification stipulation was added to the match and The Undertaker defeated Flair at WrestleMania. After the storyline with Flair, The Undertaker was drafted to theRaw brandafter the WWF split its roster into twobrandsand defeated Stone Cold Steve Austin atBacklashon April 21 to become the number one contender for the Undisputed WWF Championship. Later that night, he helped Hollywood Hulk Hogan win the title against then champion Triple H.The Undertaker then defeated Hogan for the renamed WWE Undisputed Championship atJudgment Dayon May 19. The next night","19. The next night onRaw, The Undertaker seemingly lost the WWE Undisputed Championship to Rob Van Dam; however, Raw owner Ric Flair restarted the match (Van Dam pinned The Undertaker when his foot was on the rope, thus invalidating the pin attempt) and The Undertaker defeated Van Dam to retain the championship.On the July 1 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker defeatedJeff Hardyin aladder matchto retain the WWE Undisputed Championship and raised Hardy's hand as a show of respect, turning face once again. The Undertaker, however, lost the title atVengeanceon July 21 to The Rock in a triple threat match that also involved Kurt Angle.On the August 29 episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker moved to theSmackDown! brand(where he remained until the first brand extension ended in 2011), and defeated Chris Benoit and Kurt Angle in a triple threat match to become the number-one contender for the renamed WWE Championship and challengedBrock Lesnarfor the title atUnforgivenon September 22 that ended in a double","ended in a double disqualification.Their feud carried over toNo Mercyon October 20 in a Hell in a Cell match, which The Undertaker performed with a legitimately broken hand and ultimately lost to Lesnar. The Undertaker took a break after Big Show threw him off the stage on the October 24 episode ofSmackDown!, sparking a feud.The Undertaker returned at theRoyal Rumbleon January 19, 2003.He immediately continued his feud with Big Show and defeated him bysubmissionatNo Way Outon February 23 with atriangle choke.A-Trainentered the storyline by attempting to attack The Undertaker after the match, butNathan Jonescame to his aid.The storyline resumed as The Undertaker began to train Jones to wrestle and the two were scheduled to fight Big Show and A-Train in atag team matchatWrestleMania XIXon March 30.However, Jones was removed before the match, making it ahandicap match, which The Undertaker won with the help of Jones. Over the remainder of the year, The Undertaker entered a brief feud withJohn Cena(defeating him","Cena(defeating him atVengeanceon July 27) and was booked to have two WWE Championship opportunities. The first, on the September 4SmackDown!, against Kurt Angle, ended in a no contest, due to interference from Brock Lesnar.The second, atNo Mercyon October 19, was aBiker Chain matchbetween The Undertaker and Lesnar, which Lesnar won with the help of Vince McMahon.This match resulted in a feud with McMahon, culminating atSurvivor Serieson November 16 where The Undertaker lost a Buried Alive match against McMahon when Kane interfered.The Undertaker disappeared for some time following this match, with Kane claiming that he was \"dead and buried forever\". Return of the Deadman (2004–2007) In the storyline leading up toWrestleMania XX, Kane was tormented by horror-themed mind games, paranormal activities, and spooking vignettes proclaiming The Undertaker's Deadman return. The first was during theRoyal Rumblewhen The Undertaker's bells tolled, distracting Kane and allowing Booker T to eliminate him.Accompanied by","him.Accompanied by Paul Bearer at WrestleMania XX, The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity, defeating Kane in a singles match.Introduced was a more dramatic, theatrical and supernatural Deadman than in years past, his presence, mannerisms, and entrances significantly elaborated on as well, such as with more intensity, special effects and rising and falling flames.At the same time, The Undertaker maintained elements of his American Badass identity, thus a composite character more humanized than all of his previous Deadman incarnations(The Undertaker would present in this particular hybrid Deadman form untilNo Mercy 2005whenRandy Ortonsealed him in a casket and set it on fire).AtJudgment Day, The Undertaker defeated Booker T. One week later,Paul Heymanordered TheDudley Boyzto kidnap Bearer.Thus, Heyman \"took control\" of Undertaker.AtThe Great American Bash, The Undertaker fought a handicap match against The Dudley Boyz, with the stipulation that if he did not lay down and purposely lose, Heyman would","lose, Heyman would bury Paul Bearer in cement. The Undertaker won and stopped Heyman from burying Bearer, but after claiming Bearer was merely a liability he had no use for, buried him himself. The Undertaker began a feud with then WWE Champion John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) by challenging him to a title match atSummerSlam, which The Undertaker lost by disqualification.AtNo Mercy, The Undertaker and JBL competed in the first-everLast Ride match, although The Undertaker lost afterHeidenreichinterfered.After defeating Heidenreich in a match atSurvivor Series,The Undertaker turned his focus to the WWE Championship once again. Along withEddie Guerreroand Booker T, he challenged JBL to a championship rematch atArmageddonin a fatal four-way match, in which The Undertaker was unsuccessful, again due to Heidenreich's interference.The feud culminated in a casket match between The Undertaker and Heidenreich at theRoyal Rumble, where The Undertaker sealed Heidenreich in a casket for the victory. Soon after, Randy Orton","after, Randy Orton challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 21, uppishly proclaiming that he would end his WrestleMania winning Streak.Even with help fromhis father, Orton lost as The Undertaker improved his WrestleMania record to 13–0.After a two-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned on the June 16 episode ofSmackDown!, but lost to JBL due to interference from Randy Orton, who was drafted toSmackDown!as part of thedraft lottery.Despite his interference, the Randy Orton/Undertaker feud was put on the back burner until late summer of that year, resulting from Orton on the injured list. In the meantime and in one of the most controversial moments in WWE history on an episode ofSmackDown!taped on July 4, 2005 (aired on July 7),SmackDown!General ManagerTheodore LongscheduledMuhammad Hassanin a match against The Undertaker atThe Great American Bash, and placedDaivariin a match that night against Undertaker: Undertaker quickly defeated Daivari. After the match, however, Hassan began to \"pray\" on the","to \"pray\" on the ramp, summoning five masked men, dressed in black shirts, ski-masks and camouflage pants. Armed with clubs and a piano wire, the masked men assaulted and choked out The Undertaker before Hassan then placed The Undertaker in acamel clutch. Afterward, the masked men lifted Daivari above their heads and carried him away. Three days later, theLondon bombingstook place. The footage aired unedited onUPNin the United States and onThe Scorein Canada with an advisory warning shown several times during the broadcast. It was removed from the Australian and European (including in the United Kingdom) broadcasts. The angle elicited national attention in theNew York Post,TV Guide,Varietyand other major media outlets. In response to the criticism, UPN decided that it would monitor the storyline closely and that it did not want the Hassan character on its network that week.In apromohosted on WWE's website - UPN had edited it from the July 14, 2005 episode ofSmackDown!- Hassan reiterated that he was anArab","that he was anArab Americanand that the American people automatically and unfairly assumed that he was a terrorist. Despite being in character, he referred to the real-world media coverage of the storyline, singling out theNew York Post'sDon Kaplan by name and denouncing his description of the events onSmackDown!, such as Kaplan's comment of the masked men being \"Arabs in ski masks\". On the July 14, 2005 episode ofSmackDown!, Hassan's absence was explained by a statement delivered by his attorney,Thomas Whitney, that Hassan refused to appear on the show untilThe Great American Bashdue to the way he was treated by the American media and WWE fans. It was revealed in late July 2005 that UPN had pressured WWE to keep Hassan off their network, effectively removing him fromSmackDown!.Undertaker defeated Hassan at The Great American Bash to become the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship. After the match, The Undertaker delivered aLast Ridethrough an open stage ramp onto a concrete floor to","a concrete floor to Hassan. It was reported that Hassan sustained serious injuries and had to be rushed to a nearby medical facility, writing Hassan off television.Several days later, Long (kayfabe) banned Hassan fromSmackDown!. It was revealed years later that Hassan was about to receive a majorpushby winning the World Heavyweight Championship fromBatistaatSummerSlamand thus breaking Randy Orton's record for being the youngest World Heavyweight Champion in WWE history. On the following episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker lost to JBL in a number-one contender's match, once again due to interference from Orton, reviving their feud that was put on hiatus.AtSummerSlam, Orton defeated The Undertaker in a WrestleMania rematch. The storyline intensified as the two tried to get into the head of one another with dark mind game tactics and use of caskets, leading to a handicap casket match atNo Mercy, in which The Undertaker lost to Randy and his father \"Cowboy\" Bob Orton.After the match, the Ortons poured gasoline","poured gasoline on the casket and set it on fire (a throwback moment to one of The Undertaker's most infamous attacks received and done by Kane doing the same to him at the 1998 Royal Rumble). When the charred casket was opened, however, The Undertaker was absent, presented as having vanished. The Undertaker resurrected at theSurvivor Serieswhen the druids delivered a casket that was struck by lightning and went up in flames. The Undertaker then burst from the flaming casket in rage, battering and brutalizing an entire ring full of wrestlers as a message to Orton. Here, he reappeared still in hybrid form but with lessened Badass characteristics, eliminating several elements of his biker identity so that his Deadman side projected, most notably, replacing loose-fitting cargo pants with his Deadman spandex, and less use of theLast Ridefinisher.The Undertaker returned onSmackDown!in early December to haunt Orton and set up a Hell in a Cell match atArmageddon.After The Undertaker won their brutal Hell in a Cell","Hell in a Cell encounter, in effect, settling his 9 month long feud with Orton,Calaway took a brief hiatus from professional wrestling. In January 2006 at theRoyal Rumble, The Undertaker returned on a horse-drawn cart during Kurt Angle's celebration of his World Heavyweight Championship defense againstMark Henry. In this appearance, The Undertaker signaled for a title shot by using his supernatural powers to collapse the wrestling ring that Angle stood in as a means to spook him. As part of their storyline angle, The Undertaker lost his match with Angle atNo Way Outafter a 30-minute bout—described as underrated and among Undertaker's top matches, in which he versatilely took to a more ground-based submission style to combat Angle's trademarkedfreestyle wrestling.The Undertaker cornered Angle after the match and told him he was not finished with him.In a rematch with Angle (similarly described as underrated and among The Undertaker's top matches that utilized the wrestling styles of their previous encounter","previous encounter on the March 3 episode ofSmackDown!) Henry attacked The Undertaker from behind, costing him the title.This led to The Undertaker challenging Henry to a casket match atWrestleMania 22and Henry vowing to end The Undertaker's WrestleMania winning Streak. The match resulted in The Undertaker sealing Henry in the casket, winning the match and extending his streak to 14–0 at WrestleMania.During a rematch on the next episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker was assaulted by the debutingGreat Khali. The Undertaker was not heard from until the May 5 episode ofSmackDown!when Theodore Long delivered a challenge from The Undertaker to Khali for a match atJudgment Day. The Undertaker lost to Khali at Judgment Day,and he did not appear again until the July 7 episode ofSmackDown!when he accepted Khali's challenge to aPunjabi Prison matchatThe Great American Bash. However, Khali was removed from the match due to not being medically cleared. He was thus replaced by thenECW World ChampionBig Show, over whom The","Show, over whom The Undertaker gained the victory.In storyline, Theodore Long replaced Khali with Big Show as punishment for an attack on The Undertaker shortly before the match.Khali was then challenged by The Undertaker to aLast Man Standing MatchforSummerSlamafter interfering in The Undertaker's match with then World Heavyweight Champion King Booker. Khali refused the challenge but Long scheduled the Last Man Standing Match ahead of time, for the August 18 episode ofSmackDown!instead. The Undertaker won the match by striking Khali with steel stairs and finishing him with a chokeslam. It was Khali's first defeat and effectively ended his feud with The Undertaker. The Undertaker's next match was with then United States ChampionMr. KennedyatNo Mercy, but was disqualified in the match after he hit Kennedy with the championship belt.On the November 3 episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker reunited with Kane to reform the Brothers of Destruction for the first time in five years, defeating reluctant opposition in","opposition in the form of Mr. Kennedy andMontel Vontavious Porter(MVP), with whom Kane was feuding with at the time.As part of the storyline, Kennedy defeated The Undertaker in a First Blood match atSurvivor Seriesafter interference from MVP,but finally defeated Kennedy in a Last Ride match atArmageddon.The two continued to feud into 2007 as Kennedy cost The Undertaker two World Heavyweight Championship opportunities for a championship match at theRoyal Rumble.However, The Undertaker eventually qualified for the 2007 Royal Rumble match, by winning abattle royalon the January 26 episode ofSmackDown!. World Heavyweight Champion (2007–2010) The Undertaker won his firstRoyal Rumblematch on January 28, in doing so becoming the first man to enter the Rumble at number 30 and win the match, after lastly eliminating Shawn Michaels.On the February 5 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker elected to face World Heavyweight Champion Batista atWrestleMania 23on April 1, before attacking him with the chokeslam.AtNo Way Outon","Way Outon February 18, The Undertaker and Batista reluctantly teamed together to face John Cena and Shawn Michaels, but lost after Batista gained revenge on The Undertaker by hitting him with aspinebuster, allowing Cena to pin him.At WrestleMania 23, The Undertaker defeated Batista to win his first World Heavyweight Championship and extend his Streak to 15–0.The Undertaker faced Batista in a rematch atBacklashon April 29, this time in a Last Man Standing match. The match ended in a draw after neither man got to their feet by the referee's count of ten, meaning The Undertaker retained the championship.The Undertaker and Batista then fought once again in a steel cage match on the May 11 episode ofSmackDown!that also ended in a draw when both men's feet touched the floor at the same time. After the match, Mark Henry made his return by assaulting an already battered The Undertaker, after which Edge ran to the ring and cashed in hisMoney in the Bankbriefcase, forcing The Undertaker into a second title defense.","title defense. Although he kicked out of two quick pin attempts, The Undertaker was pinned by Edge after twospearsand lost the World Heavyweight Championship.After this match, The Undertaker took time off due to a torn right biceps. During his rehabilitation, Henry bragged about his assault on The Undertaker, until vignettes began playing that promoted The Undertaker's return. The Undertaker returned atUnforgivenon September 16, defeating Henry.Batista and The Undertaker reignited their feud atCyber Sundayon October 28 with the fans choosing the special guest referee to be Stone Cold Steve Austin, however, Batista retained the World Heavyweight Championship.They battled again in a Hell in a Cell match atSurvivor Serieson November 18, where Edge returned and interfered to help Batista retain the World Heavyweight Championship.In response to this, The Undertaker delivered aTombstone Piledriverto General ManagerVickie Guerreroon the November 23 episode ofSmackDown!, sending her to the hospital. Returning","hospital. Returning assistant-General Manager Theodore Long declared a triple threat match for the title between the three men atArmageddonon December 16, which Edge won after interference fromThe Major Brothers. At theRoyal Rumbleon January 27, 2008, The Undertaker competed in the Royal Rumble match itself, entering at number 1, but eliminated by Shawn Michaels after lasting for most of the bout.AtNo Way Outon February 17, The Undertaker defeated Batista,Finlay, The Great Khali, MVP and Big Daddy V in the SmackDownElimination Chamber matchto become the number one contender for Edge's World Heavyweight Championship atWrestleMania XXIVon March 30.At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Edge with theHell's Gatesubmission hold to win his second World Heavyweight Championship in what was his 16th WrestleMania win.In a WrestleMania rematch, The Undertaker defeated Edge once again atBacklashon April 27 to retain the World Heavyweight Championship.Vickie Guerrero then banned The Undertaker'sHell's Gatesubmission","Gatesubmission hold and stripped him of the World Heavyweight Championship on the May 2 episode ofSmackDown.The Undertaker battled Edge for the vacant title atJudgment Dayon May 18, which he won by countout. Guerrero ordered that the title remain vacant, because titles could not change hands in this way.Edge and The Undertaker faced each other again for the vacant championship atOne Night Standon June 1 in aTables, Ladders, and Chairs match, which The Undertaker lost after interference fromLa Familia. As a result of the stipulation, The Undertaker was forced to leave WWE. On the July 25 episode ofSmackDown, Vickie Guerrero reinstated The Undertaker and scheduled Edge to face him atSummerSlamon August 17 in a Hell in a Cell match,which The Undertaker won. After the match, The Undertaker chokeslammed Edge from the top of a ladder and through the ring canvas.Following this match, Guerrero tried making a peace offering with The Undertaker onSmackDownby apologizing, but The Undertaker told her that he was not the","that he was not the forgiving kind. AtUnforgivenon September 7, as The Undertaker approached the ring to \"take Guerrero's soul\" and seal her in a casket,Big Show, who appeared at first to be aiding The Undertaker ended up assaulting him.Resulting from that, The Undertaker and Big Show faced each other in a match atNo Mercyon October 5, where Big Show won byknockout.AtCyber Sundayon October 26, The Undertaker defeated Big Show in a Last Man Standing match after choking him out withHell's Gate.At the same time, The Undertaker was engaged in a short feud with Jeff Hardy, who interfered during his match withVladimir Kozlovon the November 7 episode ofSmackDown. Hardy defeated The Undertaker in anExtreme Rules matchthe following week onSmackDowndue to interference from Big Show. The Undertaker then went on to defeat Big Show in a casket match atSurvivor Serieson November 23 and again in a steel cage match by submission on the December 5 episode ofSmackDownto end their feud.AtNo Way Outon February 15, 2009, The","15, 2009, The Undertaker was part of the WWE Championship Elimination Chamber match along with Triple H, Jeff Hardy, Big Show, Vladimir Kozlov and Edge; however, he was unsuccessful at winning the match as he was the runner-up behind Triple H. In early 2009, The Undertaker began a second chapter to his unresolved feud with Shawn Michaels from the late 1990s, over a decade prior to this point (their tensions gradually increasing in the years immediately preceding this from heated run-ins at the 2007 and 2008 Royal Rumble matches). Their renewed feud by this point was two-dimensional, in part focusing on the wonder of The Undertaker's undefeated WrestleMania Streak in relation to, however, the fact that he had never before defeated Michaels in a singles match, only vice versa.Michaels also made the buildup to their WrestleMania encounter personal, repeatedly demonstrating his Christian objections to the demonic dark side nature of The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick, even creating his own heaven-esque bright side","bright side spin-off of what he felt The Undertaker's gimmick should be (Michaels having become a real-life born again Christian by this point in his career).The feud culminated in a singles match between the two atWrestleMania 25on April 5 in which Michaels made a heaven-sent entrance descending from up on high portraying his bright side anti-Deadman, while The Undertaker made a grave-risen entrance emerging from the ground.After what was widely described as a suspenseful, competitive match, The Undertaker defeated Michaels, thus extending hisWrestleMania winning streak to 17–0.Their encounter was highly acclaimed by critics and audiences alike and is considered by many to be one of the greatest WrestleMania matches of all time.On the April 24 episode ofSmackDown, after losing a match against Big Show by knockout with Big Show taking advantage of The Undertaker's battered neck state from his previous WrestleMania encounter, The Undertaker attacked Big Show. Following this, The Undertaker took another hiatus","took another hiatus from the WWE. After a four-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned atSummerSlamon August 23 by attackingCM Punk, who had just won the World Heavyweight Championship from Jeff Hardy in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match.AtBreaking Pointon September 13, The Undertaker faced Punk in a submission match for the World Heavyweight Championship. The Undertaker had originally won the match with hisHell's Gatesubmission hold, but the match was restarted by SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long, who ruled that the ban placed on the move by Vickie Guerrero was still in effect. Punk went on to win the match with hisanaconda visewhen refereeScott Armstrongcalled for the bell, despite The Undertaker never submitting—a recreation of theMontreal Screwjob, which took place in the same venue in1997.On the September 25 episode ofSmackDown, Theodore Long officially lifted the ban after being released from a casket that The Undertaker had him placed inside of, among a series of other horror-themed mind game","mind game tactics.With Long out of the way, the feud between The Undertaker and Punk pressed on and atHell in a Cellon October 4, The Undertaker won the World Heavyweight Championship from him in a Hell in a Cell match.The Undertaker successfully defended the title against CM Punk on the October 23 episode ofSmackDown, in a fatal four-way match atBragging Rightson October 25 against Punk, Batista andRey Mysterioand in a triple threat match against Chris Jericho and Big Show atSurvivor Serieson November 22.He faced Batista atTLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairson December 13 in a chairs match for the championship and won when the match was restarted by Long, after Batista had originally won after utilizing alow blow. The next night onRaw, The Undertaker competed in a tournament to crown the2009 Superstar of the Year, losing to Randy Orton by countout in the first round after a distraction by Orton's protegèsCody RhodesandTed DiBiase. After successfully defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Rey","against Rey Mysterio at theRoyal Rumbleon January 31, 2010,The Undertaker lost the championship at theElimination Chamberpay-per-view on February 21. It was also at this event that a notoriousshoot incident(non-kayfabe) befell The Undertaker: apyrotechnicsmalfunction momentarily engulfed him in flames up to three times during his ring entrance. He was, however, able to continue with his scheduled match that night despite suffering first and second-degree burns on his chest and neck. According to a WWE spokesman, it \"looked like a bad sunburn\".The Undertaker lost the title to Chris Jericho after interference from Shawn Michaels that night;Jericho has said on multiple occasions that the pyrotechnician responsible for the accident was immediately escorted from the arena and relieved of his employment with WWE, following a threat of violence from Calaway.Calaway himself explained that he had previously expressed concerns to the technician regarding the pyro arrangement, but was ignored. He feels he was saved","feels he was saved from severe injury by applying water to his hair, and altering his attire from a sleeveless to a sleeved jacket, just minutes before the accident. The Undertaker then accepted Michaels's rematch offer, after initially declining, atWrestleMania XXVIon March 28 in aStreak vs. Career match, where The Undertaker was victorious and Shawn Michaels was forced to retire. This match also made both The Undertaker and Michaels the first men in WWE history to main event WrestleMania in three different decades (Undertaker main evented WrestleMania 13 and XXIV in 1997 and 2008 and Michaels main evented WrestleMania XII and XIV in 1996 and 1998 and XX and 23 in 2004 and 2007, respectively). After a hiatus (which included wrestling two matches onRaw), he returned toSmackDownon May 28, defeating Rey Mysterio to qualify for a spot at theFatal 4-Waypay-per-view on June 20 to compete for the World Heavyweight title.During the Rey Mysterio match, The Undertaker suffered a concussion, broken orbital bone and","orbital bone and broken nose; he was visibly bleeding profusely on camera by the end of this match.To cover for the injury, Kane revealed that The Undertaker had been found in a vegetative state on the June 4 episode ofSmackDown;Mysterio took his place in the match and won the World Heavyweight Championship. While attempting to learn which wrestler had attacked The Undertaker, Kane defeated Mysterio to win the World Heavyweight Championship atMoney in the Bank. Kane and Mysterio continued to clash as they accused one another of being the assailant behind the mysterious ambush of The Undertaker. AtSummerSlamon August 15, The Undertaker returned to confront Kane and Rey Mysterio, only to be attacked with aTombstone Piledriverby Kane. With Kane revealed as his attacker, the two feuded for the next few months over the World Heavyweight Championship. After losing to Kane in a No Holds Barred match atNight of Championson September 19, Paul Bearer returned as The Undertaker's manager on the September 24 episode","24 episode ofSmackDown.However, Bearer turned on him atHell in a Cellon October 3 to help Kane win once again in a Hell in a Cell match. The feud ended atBragging Rightson October 24 whenThe Nexushelped Kane defeat The Undertaker in a Buried Alive match (the half-brothers' final singles match against one another). The Undertaker needed surgery for a torn rotator cuff, causing him to be written off. Final years of The Streak (2011–2014) After the2011 Royal Rumble, promotional videos began airing, showing The Undertaker entering and standing within a Western-style, dilapidated shack on a rainy desert inDeath Valley, The birthplace. Each promo ended with the date 2–21–11 being \"burned into\" the screen. On the February 21 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker returned, but before he could speak, Triple H also returned and confronted him. The two challenged each other to a match atWrestleMania XXVII, which was later made aNo Holds Barredmatch and which The Undertaker won by submission. However, he had to be carried away","to be carried away from the ring on a stretcher.Following WrestleMania XXVII in 2011, The Undertaker would take on a more part-time role within the company; he would not have another match onRaworSmackDownuntil 2013. On the January 30, 2012 episode ofRaw SuperShow, The Undertaker returned after a nine-month hiatus to confront Triple H.On the February 13 episode ofRaw SuperShow, Triple H refused The Undertaker's challenge for a WrestleMania rematch.After The Undertaker accused Triple H of living in the shadow of Shawn Michaels on the February 20 episode ofRaw SuperShow, Triple H accepted the challenge on the condition that it would be a Hell in a Cell match; Michaels was later inserted as guest referee in the match. AtWrestleMania XXVIII, The Undertaker, while debuting his new look, a mohawk, defeated Triple H to extend his Streak to 20–0. After the match, The Undertaker and Michaels carried Triple H to the entrance stage, where the three embraced.Later in 2012, The Undertaker appeared on the1000th episode","the1000th episode ofRawon July 23 to help Kane, who had been confronted byJinder Mahal, Curt Hawkins,Tyler Reks,Hunico,CamachoandDrew McIntyre. The Brothers of Destruction overcame and dominated the six other wrestlers. The Undertaker's next television appearance was onOld School Rawon March 4, 2013, where he opened the show by performing his signature entrance. CM Punk, Randy Orton, Big Show andSheamusfought in a fatal four-way match to determine who would face him atWrestleMania 29, which Punk won.After the real-life death of Paul Bearer on March 5, 2013, a storyline involving Punk regularlyspitingThe Undertaker through displays of flippancy and disrespect towards Bearer's death began.Punk interrupted The Undertaker's ceremony to honor Bearer onRaw, stealing the trademark urn and later using it to attack Kane, humiliate The Brothers of Destruction and mock Bearer.The Undertaker defeated Punk at WrestleMania 29 to extend his Streak to 21–0 and then took back the urn.The following night onRaw, The Undertaker","The Undertaker came out to pay his respects to Bearer, but was interrupted byThe Shield, who attempted to attack Undertaker beforeTeam Hell No(Kane andDaniel Bryan) made the save.The Undertaker would wrestle his finalRawmatch (his first since 2010) on the April 22 episode, teaming with Kane and Bryan against The Shield in a losing effort.Four days later, he wrestled his finalSmackDownmatch (also his first since 2010), defeating Shield memberDean Ambroseby submission. Afterward, The Undertaker was attacked by Ambrose and the rest of The Shield, who performed a triple powerbomb through the broadcast table on him. On the February 24, 2014, episode ofRaw, The Undertaker returned to confront Brock Lesnar and accepted his challenge for a match atWrestleMania XXX.After 25 minutes and threeF-5s, Lesnar won the match at WrestleMania bypinfall, ending The Undertaker's Streak in what was described as \"the most shocking result in WWE history\".Following the match, The Undertaker was hospitalized with a severe concussion","a severe concussion which he suffered in the first minutes of the match.In a December 2014 interview, Vince McMahon confirmed that it was his final decision to have Lesnar end The Streak and that The Undertaker was initially shocked at the decision. McMahon justified his decision that it would significantly enhance Lesnar's formidability to set up the next WrestleMania event and that there were no other viable candidates to fill Lesnar's role.In 2014, The Undertaker was also offered to be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame, but he declined the offer, feeling it wasn't time yet. Final feuds (2015–2020) In February 2015,Bray Wyattbegan a series of cryptic promos which led toFastlane, where Wyatt challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 31, which The Undertaker accepted.At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Wyatt after twoTombstone Piledrivers. AtBattlegroundin July, The Undertaker made his return by attacking Lesnar as he was on the verge of defeatingSeth Rollinsduring his WWE World Heavyweight","World Heavyweight Championship match, causing the match to end in a disqualification win for Lesnar.The next night onRaw, The Undertaker explained his actions as revenge, not against Lesnar breaking The Streak, but rather the constant taunting he allowed Paul Heyman to engage in. Later that night, after The Undertaker and Lesnar brawled throughout the arena and had to be separated, a rematch was scheduled forSummerSlamin August, where The Undertaker controversially defeated Lesnar. Lesnar put The Undertaker in akimura lockand the timekeeper rang the bell after seeing The Undertaker supposedly indicating submission, but since the referee had not seen a submission and never stopped the match, the match continued. The confusion allowed The Undertaker to surprise Lesnar with a low blow and applyHell's Gate, in which Lesnar passed out.AtHell in a Cell, The Undertaker was defeated by Lesnar in a Hell in a Cell match after Lesnar hit him with his own low blow, returning the favor, and executing what was his","what was his thirdF-5of the match. While the crowd gave The Undertaker an ovation after his loss to Lesnar, he was attacked and captured byThe Wyatt Family(Bray Wyatt,Luke Harper,Erick RowanandBraun Strowman), who carried him away from the ring.After ambushing and capturing Kane the next night onRaw, Wyatt explained that he had claimed their souls and stole their demonic powers.The Brothers of Destruction returned on the November 9 episode ofRawand attacked The Wyatt Family, setting up a tag team match atSurvivor Series, which honored The Undertaker's 25 years in WWE.At Survivor Series on November 22, the Brothers of Destruction defeated Wyatt and Harper. On the February 22, 2016, episode ofRaw, Vince McMahon placed his son Shane McMahon, who returned to WWE for the first time since 2009, in a Hell in a Cell match atWrestleMania 32against The Undertaker with the stipulation that if Shane won, he would gain control ofRaw.Vince later decided that should Undertaker lose the match against Shane, it would be his","it would be his final match at WrestleMania.After weeks of random physical confrontations and mind games exchanged between the pair, The Undertaker defeated Shane McMahon at WrestleMania 32.The Undertaker would not appear again until the900th episode ofSmackDownon November 15, issuing a threat to Team SmackDown if they failed to defeat Team Raw at the upcomingSurvivor Seriespay-per-view. The Undertaker appeared on the January 23 episode ofRaw, confronting Brock Lesnar andGoldberg.During theRoyal Rumbleon January 29, The Undertaker entered at number 29, eliminating Goldberg,The Miz,Baron CorbinandSami Zayn, before being eliminated by the number 30 entrant,Roman Reigns.The Undertaker returned on the March 6 episode ofRawand performed a chokeslam on Reigns.This led to a No Holds Barred match between The Undertaker and Reigns atWrestleMania 33,in which The Undertaker lost to Reigns after five spears in his fourth WrestleMania main event.After the match, The Undertaker left his gloves, coat and hat in the center","hat in the center of the ring before slowly making his exit. The Undertaker took part in theRaw 25 Yearsbroadcast on January 22, 2018, his first post-WrestleMania 33 appearance.In the months prior toWrestleMania 34, John Cena challenged The Undertaker to a singles match. At WrestleMania, afterEliasconfronted Cena and was beaten down, The Undertaker's hat and coat appeared in the center of the ring and were struck by lightning. The Undertaker then appeared and beat Cena in a three-minute squash match.Three weeks later, The Undertaker defeatedRusevat WWE'sGreatest Royal Rumbleevent in a casket match.AtSuper Show-Downin Australia on October 6, The Undertaker faced Triple H in ano disqualification matchbilled as the \"Last Time Ever\"; they were accompanied by Kane and Shawn Michaels, respectively. The Undertaker lost the match after interference from Michaels. After the match, the four men shook hands as a sign of respect, however, The Undertaker and Kane would follow this by attacking them.As a result, the duos","a result, the duos reunited their respective tag teams—the Brothers of Destruction and D-Generation X—and faced each other atCrown Jewelon November 2, where The Undertaker and Kane lost their final match as a tag team. On the April 8, 2019 episode ofRaw, the night afterWrestleMania 35—the first WrestleMania in 19 years without his involvement—The Undertaker appeared to interrupt and attack Elias during a musical performance.The Undertaker made his return to the ring to face Goldberg atSuper ShowDownin Saudi Arabia on June 7, defeating him in the main event of the night in their first match against each other.On the June 24, 2019 episode ofRaw, during a handicap match in which Roman Reigns was dominated by Shane McMahon and Drew McIntyre, The Undertaker suddenly appeared and attacked McMahon and McIntyre. The Undertaker and Reigns were later scheduled to face McMahon and McIntyre in a No Holds Barred tag team match atExtreme Rules. At Extreme Rules, The Undertaker and Reigns won. This turned out to be The","out to be The Undertaker's final match in front of a live audience in the United States. The Undertaker returned atSuper ShowDownin Saudi Arabia on February 27, 2020, as a surprise replacement in agauntlet match. He entered the match last, replacing Rey Mysterio and defeatingAJ Stylesto win theTuwaiq Mountain Trophy.AtElimination Chamberduring a match between Styles andAleister Black, The Undertaker made another surprise appearance with an attack on Styles.The following night onRaw, Styles challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 36.Over the following weeks that led up to WrestleMania, a resentful Styles made unprecedented efforts to expose The Undertaker, going so far as departing from bashing his Deadman gimmick, instead taking to ametafictionform of bashing Calaway himself. The feud saw Styles solely referring to The Undertaker by his real name, Mark Calaway, referencing his age and his wife,Michelle McCool. In response, The Undertaker cut promos of ominous warning against Styles in which for","Styles in which for the first time in years, hebroke from the Deadman gimmickby presenting as himself out of character. In doing so, elements of his American Badass gimmick were reflected with Calaway making appearances in his biker gear. At WrestleMania 36, The Undertaker presented his third and final identity, \"The Unholy Trinity,\" a combination of The Deadman, American Badass, and himself as Mark Calaway, this blend allowing him to trash talk Styles over real life matters during their encounter, while also able to maintain his superhuman horror capabilities.In what was subsequently learned to be The Undertaker's final match, he and Styles fought in a cemetery at a secluded rural locale, competing in what was a cinematic, narrative-heavy brawl similar to \"Buried Alive matches\",named the \"Boneyard match\". Despite the assistance ofGallows and Anderson, The Undertaker buried Styles in the grave to win this match and ride off on motorcycle into the sunset,scoring his 25th WrestleMania victory to complete his","to complete his professional wrestling career. Retirement and Hall of Fame (2020–2022) On June 21, 2020, in the final episode of theUndertaker: The Last Ridedocumentary, Callaway retired from the professional wrestling industry.Later on that November, he confirmed that he was \"officially retired\" in an interview.Many wrestlers and other public figures paid tribute to him on their social media pages.Madison Square Garden, regarded as the most famous venue in professional wrestling, also paid tribute to him. Undertaker, wearing his trademark mortician trench coat and stetson hat, made an appearance at the conclusion of theSurvivor Seriesevent on November 22, 2020. The event is dedicated to him, commemorating thirty years from that time since his WWE debut. There, he reiterated that his career had been completed, giving an emotional farewell speech which ended in typical Undertaker fashion: \"My time has come to let The UndertakerRest in Peace.\"Aten-bell salutewas also given for The Undertaker character as he","character as he did his traditional take-the-knee pose, and a holographic image of Paul Bearer, Undertaker's former manager, was projected in the ring. News that the Undertaker would be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fameclass of 2022were responded to with extensive praise from WWE fans, the professional wrestling community and media outlets alike.On March 3, 2022, onThe Pat McAfee Show, WWE Chairman Vince McMahon stated that he would be Undertaker's WWE Hall of Fame inductor. In praising Undertaker both inside and outside of character in a heartfelt message, McMahon said that the induction would be one of the most difficult endeavors of his life because of his longtime history with Undertaker, and how close they were behind the scenes.Undertaker issued aTwitterresponse later on that same day, which read: After over 30 years of long roads traveled, countless hours of TV, and one hell of a ride together… couldn't think of anyone better to put me in the #WWEHOF than @VinceMcMahon. One final ride","One final ride together,old-timer!!! On April 1, 2022, The Undertaker was formally inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame at theAmerican Airlines Center.At his induction, Calaway made a 137-minute speech that opened with a 10-minute, emotional standing ovation from the live audience, bringing Calaway to tears. Calaway's acceptance speech, hailed by media outlets as matchless and beyond compare, was motivational and shared his collection of self-reflections and life philosophies for success. In making his speech, he stood before several genres of his Deadman character, through the varying costumes displayed on mannequins.Later that same weekend, Calaway made appearances on the entrance stage on both nights ofWrestleMania. Sporadic appearances (2023–present) On January 23, 2023, The Undertaker made an appearance at the Monday Night Raw 30th Anniversary special,Raw is XXX. He appeared under his American Badass gimmick, confrontingLA Knightand seemingly giving his approval toBray Wyatt.On October 10, 2023, The","10, 2023, The Undertaker made his first appearance onWWE NXTchokeslammingBron Breakker. On April 5, 2024, The Undertaker inductedMuhammad Aliinto the 2024WWE Hall of Fame.On April 7, 2024, The Undertaker appeared briefly during the Night 2 main event ofWrestleMania XLbetween Roman Reigns and Cody Rhodes where he aided Cody Rhodes and chokeslammed The Rock. Undertaker gimmick, identities and character evolution The Deadman identity Under his undead,funereal, and macabre horror-themed gimmick, in which The Undertaker is subtitled \"The Deadman\", he routinely took to alarmist tactics to disrupt the focus and confidence of his rivals.Often, these alarmist tactics were morbid and applied the use of props that reflected demise as the consequence of a wrestling match against him: caskets (sometimes personalizing casket designs to represent his opponents),body bags,corpse-likeeffigies,cemeteries,hearses.To that end, the gimmick evoked funerals and death down to finer details, such as in the character's birthplace","birthplace ofDeath Valley, catchphrase of \"Rest in Peace\", signature finishing maneuver of theTombstone Piledriver, awrestling pinthat had the opponent resemble a corpse with their arms crossed over their chest, etc.Adding to his many effects of treating his wrestling matches as funeral services, The Undertaker frequently served a list of specialized matches that were personalized to his Deadman gimmick:Casket Match, Body Bag Match,Buried Alive Match,Last Ride Match,Hell in a Cell, Boneyard Match, etc. Filled withbells and whistles, The Undertaker's godlike superhuman presence and indignation were signaled byfuneral tolls, settings of pitch-black darkness and blue/purple semidarkness, flickering lights, hazy fog, thunder, lightning strikes, and other bone-chilling scenes and sound activity.Portrayed as miraculously resilient to destruction,The Undertaker yielded numerous resurrections,which sometimes gave way to reincarnations of his Deadman gimmick. While maintaining his general character premise as death","premise as death personified with accompanying alarmist tactics throughout all sagas of the Deadman,each incarnation took on its own distinct appearance and characterization. For example, some Deadman incarnations wereunearthly and zombie-likewhile others wereGoth and comparatively more human. The earliest of The Undertaker's Deadman incarnations (nicknamed in external media as \"The Old West Mortician\" to distinguish from his other Deadman incarnations) depicted him as a menacing derivative of the Wild West undertakers in television westerns.In his own rendition, he was garbed in a black trench coat; gray-striped tie; black-ribboned, blackstetson; grayboot spats; and gray gloves(black gloves for first few appearances before gray).However, most of The Undertaker's Deadman character development (sleeve tattoos, longer/straightened/black hair, purple/blue color representation, elements of thunder and lightning, etc.) would not surface until his first reincarnation into what was hisrebirthed Deadmanvariation,","Deadmanvariation, lasting fromSummerSlam 94'(resurrection from adeath angle with Yokozuna) throughBuried Alive: In Your House(The Undertaker buried alive by Mankind and numerous other WWF heel wrestlers).In these initial zombie-like incarnations of his gimmick, he was portrayed as impervious to pain, something accomplished by Calawaynot sellinghis opponents' attacks. Among the many ways this was showcased was The Undertaker's maneuver of raising up from ataken downsupine positioninto ahigh Fowler's position, dubbed \"the sit-up\" (often accompanied by his sharp hissing sound). Beginning early on, The Undertaker's persona was complemented with histrionically spooky, wailing managerPaul Bearer, introduced to represent and guide The Deadman.Playing a key role, Bearer used an urn to transmit mysterious powers to The Undertaker that had supernatural healing effects on him during combat.Also linked to The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick were the druids–a team of mysterious, incognito cult-like members, completely","members, completely disguised in black hooded clergy robes.A mysterious choir chantingsounded whenever the druids presented.The druids typically appeared for the purposes of removing The Undertaker where he had seemingly been extinguished by his enemies (as opposed toEMTsor medical personnel used for the rest of WWF/E talent). The druids were also seen reproducing The Undertaker in recovered, wrathful states to those same enemies who were thought to have extinguished him. The Undertaker took to many trademarked idiosyncrasies and themes, including a stylized throat-slashing gesture,grimacing facial expressions fit with eyeballs rolled back so that only the whites of his eyes displayed,backwards hair-whips so as to expose his ominous facial expressions,fixed stares on adversaries,protruding tongue displays, jolting of his head with a fury so that it faced the direction of his antagonists,his celebratory take-the-knee pose,sonorous vocalizations,collectively labeling his fanbase as \"Creatures of the","\"Creatures of the Night\",voice of God-like promos in which things were interrupted with dimmed lights and thunder while The Undertaker's communications were heard booming throughout the arena with no physical trace of him;messages filled with death threats of a deeply posthumous insight into impending corpse decomposition, maggot feasting, unsouling and so on.A main attraction of the Deadman gimmick, The Undertaker mesmerized his opponents and viewers alike through elaborately \"bone-chilling\" entrances.The character's godlike powers were routinely put on display in these moments, triggering lights back to the arena either gradually or suddenly dependent on his either slowly or abruptly raised arms.During the vast majority of his wrestling career as the Deadman, The Undertaker used an extended remix ofFrédéric Chopin'sFuneral Marchas histheme music.WWF ComposerJim Johnstonembellished on the Chopin march, using the historic melody as a pre- and post-chorus to a main chorus of bell tolls, along with an original","with an original transition section to the song of a slow,lugubriousinstrumental feel.Of his entrances, Calaway has stated, \"When that gong went off, that was go time. The music fit the character. That's the key element of it: the end is at hand for whoever's going to be standing in that ring waiting for me to come down. That was the mindset behind the gong. And the music was just doom and gloom, you knew what was coming.\" Alternate identities of The Undertaker gimmick After a hiatus, Calaway returned in 2000 adopting a human form of the Undertaker gimmick. Under the character's alter ego, he is a semifictional smack-talking,redneckbiker, thoroughly absent of his fully fictional Deadman zombie-like traits and wizardry.In performing this alternate identity, he rode to the ring on motorcycles, chewed tobacco, donned cargo garments and/or denim, printed shirts, and sporty fashion accessories (sunglasses, necklaces, bandanas).His theme music was replaced with popular rock songs of the time, initiallyKid Rock's","initiallyKid Rock's \"American Bad Ass\" (from which The Undertaker's subtitle used to refer to this second identity derived), and eventuallyLimp Bizkit's \"Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)\".His American Badass catch phrases, such as threats of “I'll make you famous” or references to the wrestling ring as his “yard”, became popular during this era. According toBruce Prichard, Calaway requested this metamorphosis of character since he wanted to be \"the biker–he wanted to be the guy that he is in everyday life\". While explained off-screen for the above reason years later, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it.This transition lasted3+1⁄2years until 2004 when The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity in hybrid form—residual features of his American Badass identity remaining. Among subtle details left over from","left over from his biker identity were his in-ringMMAstyle between his stances, strikes, and submissions; penchant to sporadically lower his tank top for a barechested appearance; celebrating victories with an arm-raised fist; etc.This hybrid Deadman (Deadman incarnation most closely based on Calaway himself) would last many years and for the remainder of The Undertaker's professional wrestling career, excluding his final wrestling match. For The Undertaker's final encounter, a Boneyard Match atWrestleMania 36in 2020, he introduced a three-dimensional identity that brought all of his identities into one, dubbed \"The Unholy Trinity:\" a mix of his Deadman identity, American Badass identity, and his natural and genuine identity as Mark Calaway. Gimmick reflective nicknames The Undertaker generated many nicknames from commentators throughout the course of his active wrestling career, some of those names more associated with his Deadman Undertaker identity, including \"The Grim Reaper\" (variants of this used were","of this used were \"The Reaper\" and \"The Reaper of Wayward Souls\"),\"The Demon of Death Valley\",\"The Man from the Dark Side\",\"The Prince of Darkness\",\"The Lord of Darkness\".He also generated nicknames associated with his American Badass Undertaker identity, including \"Big Evil\" (used in reference to his American Badassheelside),\"Booger Red\".Some of his nicknames were not identity specific but used for the character in general, such as \"The Phenom\". Domestic backstory, parents and brother The Undertaker's gimmick has adark and disturbed family backstorywhich involves him intentionallyburning down his family funeral homeas a teenager, resulting in the deaths of his parents and purportedly a brother of his as well. Undertaker initially denied his then ex-manager Paul Bearer's charges of him committing the arson murder of his family, (though later confessed in late 1998). Instead, Undertaker blamed his younger brother of whom he thought long dead from the incident, describing him as a \"pyromaniac\". This led to","This led to Bearer's shocking warnings to proof in the form of the brother, \"Kane\", as alive and well.In late 1997 atIn Your House Badd Blood, Bearer unleashed a vengeful Kane: the fire-personified, juggernaut half-brother of Undertaker, who was fit with a mask to conceal the scarring from Undertaker's arson.In what became a fickle sibling relationship with Bearer (later revealed to be Kane's father) only adding to the pendulum and complexities, Undertaker and Kane went back and forth from one extreme to the other, feuding barbarically at points and yet teami...","Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Streak_(professional_wrestling","WrestleMania VII WrestleMania VIIwas the seventh annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 24, 1991, at theLos Angeles Memorial Sports Arenain Los Angeles. Fourteen matches were shown during thelivebroadcast, with onedark matchheld before the event. The main event sawHulk HogandefeatSgt. Slaughterfor theWWF Championshipas part of astorylinein which Sgt. Slaughter portrayed an Iraqi sympathizer during the United States' involvement in theGulf War. Significant events on the undercard includedThe Undertaker's WrestleMania debut and the beginning ofhis renowned winning streak, a retirement match betweenRandy SavageandThe Ultimate Warriorleading to the former's reunion with estranged loveMiss Elizabeth, as well as the final televised match of the originalHart Foundation, after whichBret Hartbecame primarily a singles wrestler. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now","(WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\".WrestleMania VII was originally scheduled to be held on March 24, 1991, inLos Angeles, Californiaat theLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum, but the WWF decided to move the event to the adjacentLos Angeles Memorial Sports Arena. The WWF's stated reason for the venue change was that it had security concerns in the wake ofSgt. Slaughter's portrayal of an Iraqi sympathizer during theGulf War.This was dismissed by outlets such as SLAM! Sports of Canada, who chalked up the venue change to poor advanced ticket sales, and the company having difficulty filling the estimated 100,000 seats available.According to former WWF executiveBruce Prichard, both were accurate statements. In hisSomething to Wrestle Withpodcast, Prichard said that","Prichard said that even if the WWF had sold out the Coliseum, the scope of the event was too large for police to ensure its security.Prichard explained further in an interview with Kayfabe Commentaries that the WWF would have had to foot the entire bill for the amount of security necessary to keep the wrestlers and fans safe from all potential issues, citing both the possibility of an outside attack and the crime rate of the surrounding neighborhood.Dave Meltzerin theWrestling Observer Newsletterwrote that between 11,900 and 15,000 tickets were sold before the move. He also reported that no tickets had to be refunded, indicating that sales were under 15,500. Comp tickets were believed to help fill the show's crowd. The tagline for the event was\"Superstars and Stripes Forever,\" and is remembered for its theme of American patriotism in the wake of the Gulf War. American flags were hung all over the arena and the ring apron and banners were colored red, white, and blue, which was the basis for the main event","for the main event betweenHulk HoganandSgt. Slaughterfor theWWF World Heavyweight Championship. This was the first WrestleMania not to featureJesse \"The Body\" Venturaas a color commentator.Gorilla Monsoonhosted the event withBobby Heenan. When Heenan had to manage at ringside in the opening match and again duringMr. Perfect'sIntercontinental Heavyweight Championshipdefense, Monsoon was joined on the commentary byJim Dugganand \"Lord\"Alfred Hayesrespectively. In addition,Regis Philbinhelped with commentary on the main event whileJeopardy!hostAlex Trebekserved as the ring announcer. Willie Nelsonsang a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\" before the show. Other celebrity guests in attendance for WrestleMania VII included Philbin, Trebek, andMarla Maplesas backstage announcers.George Steinbrenner,Paul Maguire,Macaulay Culkin,Donald Trump,Lou Ferrigno,Chuck Norris,Beverly D'AngeloandHenry Winklerappeared as spectators.Bob Costaswas scheduled to make an appearance, but he canceled weeks before the event due to his","event due to his objection to the main event angle. Theartistfor the promotionalposteris renowned illustrative painterJoe Juskoknown mainly for his work within the comic book industry. Randy Savage required surgery on a broken thumb in late January before the event. The injury required him to miss several matches leading up to WrestleMania. Storylines The two main feuds entering WrestleMania in 1991 were betweenHulk Hoganand WWF ChampionSgt. SlaughterandThe Ultimate Warriorand\"Macho King\" Randy Savage, and in a way, both were intertwined. Warrior had defeated Hogan for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania a year earlier and entered 1991 as the champion. In the meantime, Sgt. Slaughter had returned to the WWF near the end of 1990 after spending five years wrestling in theAmerican Wrestling Association. When he returned, Slaughter announced that he had turned his back on his country and had become anIraqisympathizer and follower ofSaddam Hussein. He had also revealed an alliance with an Iraqi military","an Iraqi military leader,General Adnan, who became his advisor (Adnan having followed Slaughter from the AWA to participate in the angle). This coincided with the increasing tension in the Middle East that was going on at that time, which eventually would lead toOperation Desert Stormand American involvement in the conflict. Slaughter would eventually set his sights on the Warrior, and the two agreed to a match at theRoyal Rumblein January 1991. Savage, meanwhile, was trying to regain the WWF Championship that he had lost atWrestleMania Vto Hogan and challenged Warrior repeatedly to give him a shot. Warrior defeated Savage to successfully defend the title numerous times and subsequently refused to grant any more title shots, so Savage decided to seek another remedy. During the match between Warrior and Slaughter, Savage and his managerQueen Sherricame to ringside and got involved in the match. Warrior picked up an interfering Sherri and tossed her from the ring onto Savage. Slaughter capitalized by driving","by driving Warrior down, leaving him hanging over the second rope. Savage then struck Warrior with his royalscepteras Slaughter kept the referee's attention, knocking the champion unconscious. Slaughter then hit an elbow drop on the Warrior and pinned him to become the new champion. After he came to and realized what Savage had done, Warrior charged to the back looking for Savage. He then issued a challenge for a retirement match for the two at WrestleMania, which Savage accepted. Hogan, having no connection with the ongoing story to this point, entered the Royal Rumble match as its defending champion. He won the match by eliminating his old rivalEarthquakelast, then went backstage to be interviewed byGene Okerlund. During the course of the interview, the word was relayed to the two that Slaughter and Adnan were celebrating their triumph by defacing an American flag. Hogan then promised to stand up for his country and take the title from Slaughter as soon as possible, and was later named the leading","named the leading contender for the WWF Championship, which he had not contended for since losing the title to the Warrior atWrestleMania VI. Leading up to the show, Hogan continued to cite the ongoing real-life war in their feud. On one episode ofWWF Prime Time Wrestling, Hogan stated that Iraq would surrender in the war at the moment he defeated Slaughter. Event The opening bout was asingles matchpitting theBrooklyn BrawleragainstKoko B. Ware. Ware defeated the Brooklyn Brawler by pinfall. This was adark matchthat did not air on thepay-per-viewbroadcast. The pay-per-view broadcast began with a performance of \"America the Beautiful\" byWillie Nelson. The second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was a tag team match pittingthe BarbarianandHakuagainstthe Rockers. In the end,Shawn Michaelshit Haku with aflying bodypressand pinned him for the three count. After that,Dino Bravoand theTexas Tornadofaced off in the ring. In the end, The Texas Tornado won the bout by pinfall following","pinfall following adiscus punch. Next,the British Bulldogtook on theWarlord. In the end, The British Bulldog performed arunning powerslamon Warlord to win the match. After that, theWWF Tag Team Championswere on the line withthe Hart Foundationdefended their titles againstthe Nasty Boys. In the end,Jerry SagsstruckJim Neidhartwith a motorcycle helmet, enablingBrian Knobbsto pin him, earning The Nasty Boys their first tag team championship in WWF. Next,Jake RobertsandRick Martelcompeted in ablindfold match. In the end, Roberts struck Martel with aDDTand pinned him, winning the match. After that,Jimmy Snukafaced off againstThe Undertaker. Although Snuka attempted to bring Undertaker off his feet, he was unable too. In the end, Snuka attempted aSpringboard crossbodymaneuver on Undertaker but Undertaker caught him and hit Snuka withTombstone Piledriverfor the victory. This marked the beginning of the Undertaker'sstreak. Next, was theretirement matchbetweenRandy Savageandthe Ultimate Warrior. Before both men came","both men came out,Bobby Heenanspotted Savage's formervaletMiss Elizabethin the crowd. Savage and Queen Sherri came to the ring carried on a throne and Warrior walked out instead of his trademark running. The match started slow, both men initially insisted on chain wrestling until Savage started usingstrikeson Warrior. Savage went to the top rope and attempted a crossbody on Warrior but he caught him but put Savage on his feet and slapped him. Savage retreated from the ring and grabbed a chair at ringside and threw it at Warrior but it missed. Savage snuck back into the ring after being distracted by the referee picking up the chair and attacked Warrior. Warrior irish whipped Savage into the corner and attempted a splash but Savage got out of the way and Warrior fell to the outside. Sherri picked up Warrior and struck his throat when the referee wasn't looking and Savage performed a diving axe handle from the top turnbuckle to outside the ring. Savage got back into the ring but Sherri picked up Warrior again","up Warrior again and began hitting him but Warrior pushed her over. Savage then came out of the ring and attacked Warrior from behind. Eventually, Warrior got back in the ring and Savage hit Warrior with a body slam for a two count. After a brief back and fourth, Savage attempted to wear Warrior down with a sleeper hold but Warrior got out of it and ran on the ropes but both men collided with each other in the center of the ring. Savage got Warrior up but Warrior countered with a small package but Sherri distracted the referee and when the referee turned around he counted but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior began arguing with the referee and Savage took advantage by delivering a running knee lift which propelled Warrior into the referee, taking him out. Savage then held Warrior in place and Sherri took her shoe off so she could hit Warrior with it. She climbed to the top turnbuckle and attempted and axe handle with the shoe but Warrior got out of the way and she struck Savage with it instead. Warrior","it instead. Warrior chased Sherri around ringside until Savage intervened and rolled up Warrior for a two count. Savage performed a stun gun on Warrior and performed a clothesline to the back of the head. After body slamming Warrior, Savage climbed to the top rope and performed five diving elbow drops on Warrior and pinned him but Warrior kicked out. Warrior then got a surge of energy and fought back against Savage and delivered a gorilla press slam and splash to the back and pinned him but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior then began talking to his hands and asking his gods if he should step aside and lose the match and questioning whether his destiny is to lose to Savage. Warrior stepped out of the ring to give Savage a count out win after apparently receiving an answer from above. Before Warrior could do that though, Savage attacked him while he was on the apron. Savage then attempted an axe handle to the outside but Warrior moved out the way and Savage hit the barricade instead. Warrior got Savage in the","got Savage in the ring and performed three shoulder tackles on Savage and pinned him for the three count. After winning, Warrior put on his entrance coat and celebrated in the ring before leaving. After he had left, Sherri berated Savage who was still lying on the ring canvas trying to recover from his match. Sherri began attacking Savage in the ring but Elizabeth hopped over the barricade and got into the ring and grabbed Sherri and threw her to the outside. Elizabeth began crying and both Savage and Elizabeth embraced in the ring. The two then left the ring. After that,Demolitiontook onGenichiro TenryuandKōji Kitao. In the end, Tenryu performed apowerbombonSmashand stacked him up for the win. Next, was a singles match betweenWWF Intercontinental ChampionMr. PerfectagainstBig Boss Manwith Perfect's title on the line. In the end, Big Boss Man was attacked by The Barbarian and Haku causing adisqualificationvictory for Big Boss Man. After that,EarthquakeandGreg Valentinefaced off and Earthquake took an","Earthquake took an advantage early on and performed anEarthquake Splashfor the three count. Next,Legion of Doomtook onPower and Glory. In the end, The Legion of Doom performed a 'doomsday deviceonPaul RomaandAnimalpinned him for the victory. After that, was a match betweenTed DiBiaseandVirgil. In the end,Roddy Pipercame out and distracted DiBiase. When Virgil threw DiBiase to the outside Piper continued distracting him and was unable to enter the ring thus Virgil won bycountout. In the penultimate match,The Mountiefaced off againstTito Santana. In the end,Jimmy Hartdistracted the referee and The Mountie zapped Santana with hiscattle prodand pinned him for a quick victory. In the main event the reigningWWF ChampionSgt. Slaughterdefend his title againstHulk Hogan. Slaughter entered withGeneral Adnanwho was waiving theFlag of Iraq. Hogan entered waiving theFlag of the United Statesto a thunderousovation. Both men started the match circling one another. They began chain wrestling and Slaughter pinned Hogan in","pinned Hogan in the corner and the referee had to separate them. Slaughter once again pinned Hogan in the corner but Hogan shoved Slaughter who was sent to the other side of the ring. Hogan then knocked down Slaughter who retreated to the outside. Hogan went to the outside to get Slaughter but Adnan hit him from behind but Hogan wasn't phased and began chasing Adnan and Slaughter hit Hogan in the back with a steel chair but Hogan still wasn't phased. Hogan grabbed Slaughter and sent him into the ring. Slaughter begged for mercy and then poked Hogan in the eye. Slaughter then began wearing down Hogan. Hogan then knocked Slaughter down and Adnan got on the apron to taunt Hogan but Hogan hit him which sent him down on the floor. Hogan then took control and began beating Slaughter. Hogan then went to the top rope but Adnan grabbed Hogan's foot and Slaughter grabbed Hogan and threw him into the middle of the ring. Slaughter then clotheslined Hogan out of the ring and began hitting him with a steel chair.","with a steel chair. Slaughter then grabbed some TV cables and began choking Hogan with them. Slaughter took Hogan inside the ring and delivered a backbreaker for a two count. Slaughter began arguing with the referee and continued to beat Hogan and then put him in aBoston Crabsubmission. Hogan grabbed the ropes to break the hold but Slaughter thought he had won but the referee told him he hadn't. Slaughter began giving knees to Hogan's back and went to the top rope and delivered a foot stomp to Hogan's back and pinned him but Adnan accidentally distracted the referee. When the referee turned around and began counting Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter went to the outside and grabbed a steel chair. Hogan, who was leaning on the ropes facing the outside was hit in the hide by Slaughter with the steel chair. Slaughter then pinned Hogan but Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter then began hitting Hogan in the head, causing him to bleed. Hogan attempted a comeback but was not able too. Slaughter then put Hogan in","then put Hogan in theCamel clutchbut would release the hold to stomp a few times on Hogan's back, only to put the hold on again. Hogan got up while Slaughter still had the hold applied and attempted to ram Slaughter into the turnbuckle but Slaughter released the hold and shoved Hogan into the turnbuckle. Slaughter then asked Adnan for the flag of Iraq and Adnan handed him it. Slaughter then placed the flag of Iraq on Hogan and pinned him but Hogan kicked out at two and Hogan grabbed the flag and tore it in front of Slaughter. Hogan then hulked up and even though Slaughter began hitting him, his punches had no effect. Hogan then irish whipped Slaughter off the ropes and delivered a big boot. Hogan then peformed a leg drop on Slaughter for the three count and thus became a record three-time WWF World Heavyweight Champion. Hogan then waived the Flag of the United States and celebrated in the ring. Reception The official attendance of WrestleMania VII held at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena was","Sports Arena was 16,158.JournalistDave Meltzerreported that the paid attendance was approximately 10,500. Aftermath The Undertaker's victory debut at the event marked the beginning of hisWrestleMania streak. Backstage as Hogan was being interviewed on his victory over Sgt. Slaughter, Slaughter attacked Hogan by throwing a fireball in his face. Hogan quickly recovered from the attack and defended the belt primarily against Slaughter, largely in \"Desert Storm\" (i.e., no-disqualification) matches. He also had to deal with the returningIron Sheik, who was now competing as Colonel Mustafa. Hogan and the Ultimate Warrior eventually teamed up atSummerSlam 1991, defeating Slaughter, Mustafa, and their manager, General Adnan, in a two-vs.-three handicap match. Savage returned to television in a non-wrestling role as a color commentator for the WWF's flagship syndicated program,Superstars; although a fan favorite to the crowd, much of his commentary was heel-leaning. Meanwhile, the storyline with Miss Elizabeth","with Miss Elizabeth continued, culminating with Savage proposing to her in the ring leading to an on-air wedding at SummerSlam 1991 dubbedThe Match Made in Heaven. (The wedding was kayfabe, as Savage and Elizabeth were already legally married.) VirgilandTed DiBiasefeuded with each other until November 1991, including facing off at SummerSlam 1991 when DiBiase lost his Million Dollar Belt to Virgil. After DiBiase won his belt back in November with the help ofThe Repo Man(formerly Smash of Demolition), their feud ended at theThis Tuesday in TexasPPV when DiBiase and Repo Man defeated Virgil andTito Santanain a tag team match. Genichiro TenryuandKōji Kitaowere on loan from the Japanese promotionSuper World of Sports. The WWF co-promoted several cards in Japan with the group, including twoTokyo Domeshows on March 30 and December 12, 1991. Although SWS folded in June 1992, Tenryu's follow-up promotion,WAR, co-promoted the WWF's first Japanese tour in 1994. After WrestleMania VII,The Hart Foundationdisbanded.Bret","HartandJim Neidhartwent into singles competition. Bret Hart went on to singles success, defeatingMr. Perfectfor the WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam 1991, and later in 1992 would win the WWF Championship when he defeatedRic Flairin hisfather's home town ofSaskatooninSaskatchewan, Canada. Neidhart would later in 1991 form a tag team called \"The New Foundation\" with Hart's younger brotherOwen. This would be the final WrestleMania appearance forAndré the Giant. André would appear at ringside during the Intercontinental Championship match and assist theBig Boss Manin fending off the Heenan Family. He would make sporadic appearances for the rest of the year before his passing in 1993. Results References External links","WrestleMania VIII WrestleMania VIIIwas the eighth annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 5, 1992, at theHoosier DomeinIndianapolis, Indianain the United States. Nine matches were shown during thelivebroadcast, with onedark matchoccurring before the event. Matches held at WrestleMania VIII includedWWF Intercontinental ChampionRoddy Piperdefending his title against former championBret Hart,WWF ChampionRic Flairdefending his title againstRandy Savage,Hulk Hoganfacing his rivalSid Justice. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\".WrestleMania VIII was scheduled to be held on April 5,","be held on April 5, 1992, at theHoosier DomeinIndianapolis, Indiana. Storylines The original plan for the main event was the long-awaited bout between Ric Flair and Hulk Hogan for the WWF Championship, the meeting between the two legends was even promoted on television in a mock press conference where WWF PresidentJack Tunneyhad announced Hogan as the number one contender to Flair's WWF Championship. Both Flair and Hogan had wrestled against each other in several house show matches and a televised tag match, but not in a televised main event singles match. WrestleMania VIII was changed to a double main event with Hogan wrestling Sid Justice, while Flair wrestled Randy Savage. For storyline purposes, Sid Justice lobbied to wrestle Hulk Hogan due to tensions starting between the two at that year's Royal Rumble, where Hogan was eliminated by Sid Justice. This maneuver on Sid's part led Hogan to helping rival Ric Flair eliminate Justice and then win not only the Royal Rumble but the WWF Championship in the","Championship in the process. This would make Ric Flair only the second man to win both the WWF and NWA World Heavyweight Titles, the first being the original \"Nature Boy\",Buddy Rogers. Event A scheduled match betweenthe British BulldogandThe Berzerkerwas cut due to time constraints. The opening bout was atag team matchpittingthe Beverly Brothersagainstthe Bushwhackers. The Bushwhackers won the match by pinfall. This was adark matchthat did not air on the pay-per-view broadcast. The pay-per-view broadcast opened withcountry musicsingerReba McEntireperforming \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". The second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was aSingles matchbetweenShawn MichaelsandTito Santana. Michaels won the match by pinfall after reversing abody slamattempt into abody press. Following the second bout,the Legion of Doomand their managerPaul Elleringwere interviewed byGene Okerlund. The Legion of Doom were originally supposed to challengeMoney Incfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipat","Team Championshipat WrestleMania VIII but due toHawkbeing under suspension until after WrestleMania they were replaced in the match bythe Natural Disasters. The third bout was a singles match betweenJake Robertsandthe Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall after giving Roberts aTombstone Piledriveroutside of the ring. The fourth bout was a singles match in whichWWF Intercontinental ChampionRoddy Piperdefended his title againstBret Hart. Hart defeated Piper by pinfall after reversing Piper'ssleeper holdinto a pin, thus winning the WWF Intercontinental Championship. Following the fourth bout, a pre-recorded interview withLex Lugeraired in which he promoted theWorld Bodybuilding Federation. The fifth bout was aneight-man tag team matchpittingBig Boss Man,Jim Duggan,Sgt. Slaughter, andVirgilagainstThe Mountie,The Nasty Boys, andRepo Man.Family FeudhostRay Combswas a guestring announcerfor the eight-man tag match. Big Boss Man, Duggan, Slaughter, and Virgil won the match by pinfall whenJerry","pinfall whenJerry SagsaccidentallypunchedBrian Knobbs, enabling Virgil to pin Knobbs. The sixth bout was a singles match in whichWWF ChampionRic Flairdefended his title againstRandy Savage. Savage defeated Flair by pinfall using aroll-upto win the title. At the time the company had a \"no blood\" policy. Nonetheless, Ric Flair was caughtbladingdirectly on camera and was fined several thousand dollars.In one of his first appearances in the WWF,Shane McMahonwas one of the backstage officials who attempted to keepMiss Elizabethaway from ringside during the Flair/Savage match. He then restrained Savage in the ensuing brawl after the contest. The seventh bout was a singles match betweenRick MartelandTatanka. Tatanka won the match by pinfall using across body block. The eighth bout was a tag team match in whichWWF Tag Team ChampionsMoney Inc.defended their titles againstthe Natural Disasters. The Natural Disasters won the bout bycountoutafter Money Inc abandoned the match. The ninth bout was a singles match","was a singles match betweenOwen HartandSkinner. Hart won the match by pinfall using aroll-up. The main event bout was a singles match betweenHulk HoganandSid Justice. Hogan won the match bydisqualificationafter Justice's managerHarvey Whipplemaninterfered. The finish to the Justice-Hogan match actually did not occur as planned - the original plan was for Hogan to hit the leg drop on Justice and forPapa Shangoto do a run in and break up the pin causing a disqualification; however, Papa Shango either missed or misjudged his cue and was late in getting down to the ring, causing Justice to have to improvise by kicking out of the leg drop. Following the match, Justice and Shango attacked Hogan untilthe Ultimate Warriormade a surprise return, helping Hogan drive Justice and Shango away. Reception Critics praised the Intercontinental Championship match between Piper and Hart. Thomas Golianopoulos ofComplex Sportsranked it at number 15 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, describing it as","describing it as \"A stiff match that veers from amateur wrestling to all-out street fight with a great finish.\"Golianopoulos also ranked the Flair vs. Savage match at number 19 on the same list, praising the in-ring psychology despite an abrupt finish.On the other hand, Dave Meltzer of theWrestling Observer Newslettergave the Hogan/Justice main event negative two stars, citing their lackluster performance and the late entry of Papa Shango, which necessitated a hastily rewritten ending. The main event was also ranked by YouTube wrestling channel Cultaholic as the worst WrestleMania main event of all time in their 2019 ranking of every WrestleMania Main Event,while saying that the WWF Championship Match between Flair and Savage should've been the main event in their 2020 list of 10 WrestleMania Matches That Closed The Show. Aftermath Savage's primary opponent during the spring and summer of 1992 was Ric Flair, with the storyline over Flair's alleged past relationship with Elizabeth continuing to play a major","to play a major factor. It was revealed later inWWF Magazinethat the photos that Flair had shown of himself with Elizabeth were fakes, and that they were actually of Savage and Elizabeth. In real life, Savage and Elizabeth were about toseparate, and did, with Elizabeth making her final WWF appearance on April 19, 1992 at theUK Rampagepay-per-view. WrestleMania VIII marked Elizabeth's last major pay-per-view appearance in the United States for the WWF. Although Savage and Flair continued feuding, the Elizabeth aspect was dropped from the storyline, and the former couple's divorce was finalized in September 1992. Savage briefly addressed the divorce in an issue ofWWF Magazine, but it was otherwise not mentioned in kayfabe. Shawn Michaels began receiving his first major push as a main-event singles competitor, as he would challenge Randy Savage for the WWF Championship in Europe, while challenging Bret Hart for the WWF Intercontinental Championship in the United States, while occasionally teaming with Ric Flair","with Ric Flair in tag team matches against Hart and Savage. Michaels eventually won the WWF Intercontinental Championship from The British Bulldog (who had won the title from Hart at theSummerSlamevent inLondon,Englandin August) in October. The Hulk Hogan-Sid Justice match was billed as Hogan's \"last match\", when in actuality, Hogan took a hiatus, due to the steroid scandal which was beginning to emerge in the news media.Piper also took a hiatus from the ring following WrestleMania VIII. Roberts left the company and would return four years later, using a \"born-again Christian\" gimmick. Sid Justice was largely unsuccessful in post-WrestleMania matches against the Ultimate Warrior and The Undertaker and eventually left the company, returning in 1995. Results References External links","WrestleMania IX WrestleMania IXwas the ninth annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). The event took place on April 4, 1993, atCaesars Palacein theLas Vegassuburb ofParadise,Nevada. It was the first WrestleMania event held outdoors. WrestleMania IX was built around two main storylines. The first was the seemingly unstoppableYokozunachallengingBret Hartfor theWWF Championshipin the main event, a right he earned by winning the1993 Royal Rumble. The other major storyline was the return ofHulk Hogan, who had departed the WWF followingWrestleMania VIIIbut returned to team withBrutus Beefcakeagainst theWWF Tag Team Champions,Money Inc.(Ted DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schyster). Hogan and Beefcake lost the tag team match, but Hogan later faced Yokozuna for the title in an impromptu, unadvertised 22-second match after Yokozuna defeated Hart to win the championship. In addition,Shawn Michaelsretained theIntercontinental Championship, though he lost","though he lost his match againstTatanka. The event has been panned by critics and fans alike. The most frequent criticism has been related to the match betweenThe UndertakerandGiant Gonzalez, Hulk Hogan's title win, and the Romantogasworn by announcers. Both the pay-per-view buyrate and the attendance for the event dropped from the previous year's WrestleMania. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\".WrestleMania IX was scheduled to be held on April 4, 1993, atCaesars Palacein theLas Vegassuburb ofParadise,Nevada. Early TV promos for WrestleMania IX ticket sales, airing in December 1992, focused on shots of Hulk Hogan and Bret Hart, with quick shots of Doink the Clown, Razor Ramon,","Clown, Razor Ramon, Crush, Shawn Michaels, Ric Flair, and Randy Savage also shown. Hogan had notably not appeared on WWF TV since April of that year. Flair would not be on the roster at the time of the event. This was the first WrestleMania held entirely outdoors, a concept the company did not use again untilWrestleMania XXIVin 2008.Because WrestleMania IX was held in Caesars Palace, the WWF promoted the event as the \"World's Largest Toga Party\".The arena was made to look like a Roman coliseum, and the event featured guards, trumpeters, and several live animals.The company built on this theme by having the commentators, including debuting announcerJim Ross, wear togas. Ring announcerHoward Finkelwas also renamed \"Finkus Maximus\" for the day.Randy Savagecame to the broadcast booth accompanied by women throwing flower petals and feeding him grapes while he rode on a couch carried by guards.Bobby Heenanmade his entrance wearing a toga and riding a camel backwards. Hulk Hogan's visibly damaged eye was explained","eye was explained in the storyline as the result of Ted DiBiase hiring a group of men to attack Hogan before the match. In reality, the cause of injury has been open to debate. One theory is that Randy Savage punched Hogan because he believed that his ex-wifeElizabeth Hulettehad an affair with Hogan while Savage and Hulette were married (the couple divorced in September 1992).WWF officials claimed that the injury was the result of ajet skiaccident. A match was scheduled betweenBam Bam BigelowandKamala, but it was canceled due to time constraints before the event began. Storylines One of the feuds heading into the event was betweenTatankaandIntercontinental ChampionShawn Michaels. Tatanka was in the midst of an undefeated streak and had wrestled Michaels twice in the months leading up to WrestleMania IX.TatankapinnedMichaels in a singles match on the February 13, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestlingand later teamed withThe Nasty Boysin asix-manmatch against Michaels and theBeverly Brothers; Tatanka","Brothers; Tatanka pinned Michaels to win this match as well.Michaels was also feuding withSensational Sherri, who stood in Tatanka's corner during the match. Sherri had been Michaels'valet. WhenMarty Jannettytried to hit Michaels with a mirror, however, Michaels pulled Sherri in front of him to protect himself.Sherri's anger at getting hit over the head with a mirror caused her toturnon him atRoyal Rumble 1993. The match betweenThe Steiner Brothers(Rick SteinerandScott Steiner) andThe Headshrinkers(SamuandFatu) had little background, althoughAfa, who managed The Headshrinkers, claimed that his team would \"tear heads off\".Doink the ClownandCrushhad been feuding since the January 2, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling. After Crush's match on that show, he confronted Doink, who had thrown a ball at a child in the audience. Crush grabbed Doink by the arm and warned him not to play any more pranks on children.Doink, wearing a cast on the arm that Crush had supposedly injured by grabbing, came to ringside","came to ringside during Crush's match on the January 18 episode ofWWF Monday Night Raw. He apologized to Crush and gave him a flower; when Crush walked away, Doink removed aprosthetic armfrom his cast and attacked Crush, who was later taken away in an ambulance due tokayfabe(storyline) injuries.For storyline purposes, Crush was said to be too injured to compete in the 1993 Royal Rumble match.Doink continued his pranks by squirting Crush with a water pistol and recordingvideo messagesto Crush, which showed two Doinks on the screen. The feud betweenThe Mega-Maniacs(Brutus BeefcakeandHulk Hogan) andWWF Tag Team ChampionsMoney Inc.(Ted DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schyster)stemmed from alegitimateparasailing accident in 1990 that forced Beefcake to undergo reconstructive surgery to his face.He was unable to wrestle again until the February 15, 1993, episode ofRaw. He faced DiBiase in his return match, after which DiBiase and Schyster attacked him. DiBiase held Beefcake for Schyster to hit him in the face with a briefcase,","with a briefcase, butJimmy Hart, whomanagedMoney Inc., repeatedly got in the way before Schyster shoved him out of the ring. Schyster then hit Beefcake in the face with the briefcase.Hart later claimed that he felt the need to \"step up and do the right thing\" and that he \"had a change of heart\", and his intervention led to him becoming ababyface, or crowd favorite.Shortly thereafter,Hulk Hoganmade his return to the WWF and joined with Beefcake, and manager Jimmy Hart, to formThe Mega-Maniacsand challenge Money Inc. for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Mr. Perfect's rivalry withBobby Heenandated back toSurvivor Series (1992). Perfect andRic Flairwere managed by Heenan, but Perfect turned on Flair and Heenan by agreeing to face them as part of a tag team match at Survivor Series.Flair feuded briefly with Perfect but left the company to return toWorld Championship Wrestling.Lex Lugerhad joinedVince McMahon'sWorld Bodybuilding Federation, but he signed with McMahon's WWF when the bodybuilding company failed.He","company failed.He made his debut at Royal Rumble 1993, where he was unveiled as Heenan's latest wrestler, Narcissus (although thering namewas changed to \"The Narcissist\" Lex Luger). The Undertaker's feud withGiant Gonzalezwas an offshoot of The Undertaker's feud with managerHarvey Wippleman. The Undertaker defeatedKamala, who was managed by Wippleman, atSummerSlam 1992.A rematch was held at Survivor Series 1992, and The Undertaker beat Kamala in acoffin match.Wippleman vowed revenge, and he introduced Gonzalez at Royal Rumble 1993 and instructed him to attack The Undertaker. The Undertaker was eliminated from the Royal Rumble match as a result of the interference, and a match was scheduled between The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez for WrestleMania IX. Beginning with his debut with the company in 1992,Yokozunawaspushedby the WWF as an unstoppable monster heel. Weighing over 500 pounds, he used theBanzai Drop, a move in which he jumped from the second rope and sat on his opponent's chest, to defeat several of","defeat several of the WWF's biggest stars.In a notable match on the February 6, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling, Yokozuna attacked \"Hacksaw\"Jim Dugganand performed the Banzai Drop four times. Due to the kayfabe injuries from the attack, Duggan was unable to wrestle for over two months.Yokozuna earned a title shot againstWWF ChampionBret Hartby winning the 1993 Royal Rumble match.During the contract signing, Yokozuna attacked Hart and performed the Banzai Drop on him. Event Before the televised broadcast began,Tito SantanadefeatedPapa Shangoin adark match,which became available for viewing on April 4, 2019 in the Hidden Gems section on WWE Network and is also notable as the WWE debut of Jim Ross on commentary. In the first match of the pay-per-view event, WWF Intercontinental Champion Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring by a new valet,Luna Vachon. Sensational Sherri followed Tatanka to the ring to prevent Vachon from getting involved in the match. During the match, Vachon approached Tatanka","approached Tatanka twice outside the ring, but Sherri was able to intervene and stop Vachon from interfering. Tatanka spent much of the match trying to injure Michaels with anarmbarhold. Michaels gained the advantage and almost pinned Tatanka with avictory roll, but Tatanka escaped the pin attempt and performed a war dance to channel his energy. Michaels threw Tatanka out of the ring and tried to jump at him to attack, but Tatanka moved. Michaels was unable to return to the ring within ten seconds; he pulled therefereeout of the ring. Tatanka was awarded the victory bycountoutbut did not win the championship because titles can only change hands as a result of pinfall orsubmission.Vachon attacked Sherri after the match by pulling her off the ring apron and delivery a devastatingclothesline, body slam and kicks to the ribs. Tatanka had to help Sherri make it back to the dressing rooms; however, she would be attacked again at the first aid station by Vachon, who choked her, hit her head against a wall, and","against a wall, and dropped a machine on top of her and then Vachon was arrested by security. In the next match, The Steiner Brothers (Rick Steiner and Scott Steiner) faced The Headshrinkers (Samu and Fatu). The advantage switched back and forth several times, as the Steiners threw The Headshrinkers with severalsuplexvariations and used their aerial abilities to attack their opponents from the ring ropes. The Headshrinkers relied mainly on using their power to wear down the Steiners. At one point, Fatu picked Rick Steiner upon his shoulders so that Samu could attack Rick from the top rope. Rick caught Samu instead and performed abodyslamon Samu from Fatu's shoulders. The match ended when Scott Steiner performed aFrankensteinerto pin Samu and win the match. Crush attacked Doink the Clown outside the ring prior to the next match. After getting Doink inside the ring, Crush used his strength advantage to overpower Doink. Doink gained the advantage but missed two attacks from the top rope. Crush used more power","used more power moves to wear down Doink, and Doink tried to crawl under the ring. Crush forced Doink back into the ring and performed theCranium Crunch, a head vice submission hold, on Doink. Doink pulled himself to the ropes and broke the hold. Doink hit the referee and knocked him unconscious; as a result of this stagedref bump, a second Doink the Clown (portrayed bySteve Keirn) was able to interfere. He hit Crush with a prosthetic arm, which enabled the first Doink to win by pinfall when the referee regained consciousness. Razor RamonfacedBob Backlundnext. Ramon used his power to dominate the majority of the match, but Backlund usedhip tossesto attempt a comeback. Ramon won the match in under four minutes by pinning Backlund with asmall package. In the following match, Money Inc. (Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster) defended their WWF Tag Team Championship againstThe Mega-Maniacs(Hulk Hogan and Brutus Beefcake). Beefcake wore a protective titanium facemask because of his injured face, and Hulk Hogan came","and Hulk Hogan came to the ring with a black eye, which led the announcers to speculate about the cause. Money Inc. gained the early advantage, but DiBiase soon injured himself by hitting Beefcake's mask. Hogan and Beefcake brawled with their enemies and controlled the match until Money Inc. was counted out. RefereeEarl Hebnerannounced, however, that he would strip them of their title if they did not return to the ring and continue the match. DiBiase returned to the ring and rendered Hogan unconscious with theMillion Dollar Dreamchokehold. Beefcake attacked DiBiase by applying asleeper holdand then turned his attention to Schyster, but DiBiase hit him in the back with Schyster's briefcase. Money Inc. attacked Beefcake and removed his facemask, but Beefcake fought back and applied a sleeper hold to Schyster. The referee was accidentally knocked unconscious, and Hogan recovered and attacked both members of Money Inc. with Beefcake's facemask. He tried to make the cover for a pinfall, but the referee was still","referee was still unconscious. Manager Jimmy Hart turned his jacket inside-out to reveal a striped referee jacket; he made thethree-countand declared The Mega-Maniacs the winners of the match. RefereeDanny Daviscame to the ring and disqualified Hogan for using the facemask as a weapon. Money Inc. won the match and retained their championship, but The Mega-Maniacs threw them out of the ring and opened Schyster's briefcase to reveal stacks of cash. They celebrated in the ring and threw the money into the crowd. Lex Luger was accompanied to the ring by four women dressed in bikinis as he prepared to face Mr. Perfect. The match began with technical wrestling, and Perfect tried to injure Luger's knee while Luger worked on Perfect's back. Perfect took control of the match with a powerslam and tried to pin Luger after performing adropkick from the top rope. Luger's foot was on the ropes, however, so the referee halted the three-count and continued the match. Luger gained momentum and pinned Perfect; Perfect's feet","Perfect's feet were on the rope, but the referee did not see them. Luger continued to attack Perfect after the match and hit him with his forearm, which contains a steel plate as the result of a legitimate motorcycle accident. When Perfect got up, he chased Luger but was attacked by Shawn Michaels backstage. In the next match, The Undertaker faced Giant Gonzalez. Both men tried to use their size and power to control the match. Gonzalez used areverse chinlockto wear The Undertaker down and attacked him outside the ring. The Undertaker regained control of the match and knocked Gonzalez onto his knees. Harvey Wippleman threw Gonzalez a rag soaked withchloroform, which Gonzalez used to knock The Undertaker unconscious. The referee disqualified Gonzalez for using a foreign object and awarded the match to The Undertaker.After the match, The Undertaker recovered and attacked Giant Gonzalez. In the main event and final scheduled match on the card, Bret Hart defended the WWF Championship against Yokozuna. Hart tried","Hart tried to use his technical wrestling abilities against Yokozuna, while Yokozuna relied on his size advantage in the match. Hart gained control at the beginning, but Yokozuna came back with aclothesline,leg drop, andnerve hold. Hart regained the advantage when Yokozuna missed arunning splash. Yokozuna applied another nerve hold but missed a running splash again. He recovered and carried Hart to the middle of the ring, but Hart removed the protective padding on theturnbucklein the corner of the ring. He threw Yokozuna's head into the turnbuckle and applied theSharpshooter, his signature submission hold that stretches the opponent's legs and back.Mr. Fuji, Yokozuna's manager, threw salt in Hart's eyes, which enabled Yokozuna to pin Hart and win the WWF Championship. In an impromptu main event and the final match on the card, Hulk Hogan came to ring to check on Hart's condition. Hogan had stated during an interview earlier in the broadcast that he wanted to face the winner of the match, and Fuji challenged","and Fuji challenged Hogan to face Yokozuna immediately in an impromptu bout. Hogan agreed and entered the ring. Fuji tried to throw salt in Hogan's eyes, but he missed and the salt hit Yokozuna. Hogan performed a leg drop and pinned Yokozuna to win the title in 22 seconds. Reception The event was attended by 16,891 fans, who paid a total of $1,100,000 in admission fees.This represents less than one-third of the number of fans atWrestleMania VIII, which had an attendance of 62,167.The pay-per-view drew a 2.3 buyrate, which was lower than the previous year's 2.8 buyrate. It was higher, however, than the buyrates for any of the following four WrestleManias. WrestleMania IX received overwhelmingly negative reviews. The event has received criticism for what some reviewers have perceived as a poorly booked event. Writing forSLAM! Wrestling, John Powell states that, aside from the Intercontinental and Tag Team Championship matches and the scantily-clad women that accompanied Lex Luger to the ring, the rest of the","the rest of the broadcast was poor. He is also critical of some of the outfits worn for the event, notably Jim Ross's toga and Giant Gonzalez's spray-painted suit.Reviewing the event for Online Onslaught, Adam Gutschmidt claims that several of the matches flowed poorly and had ill-conceived conclusions. He also claims that the match between Giant Gonzalez and The Undertaker was a \"dud\" and that Hulk Hogan's ego made the conclusion the \"worst WrestleMania ending ever\".RD Reynolds, owner of the websiteWrestleCrap, has inducted the event into the site's list of \"the very worst in pro wrestling\". He cites Giant Gonzalez, Papa Shango, Luger's \"narcissist\" gimmick, and Jim Ross wearing a toga as his reasons for including the event in the list. WWE places two events from WrestleMania IX in its top 50 WrestleMania moments: Bobby Heenan's entrance on the camel, which the company calls \"one of the most hilarious moments in WWE history\", and Hulk Hogan's title victory.Matt Anoa'i, who wrestled for WWE as Rosey, and was","as Rosey, and was the brother ofRoman Reigns, cousin of Yokozuna, Samu and Fatu, has identified The Headshrinkers performing a double splash on Scott Steiner at this event as his favorite moment at WrestleMania. WrestleMania IX was released onVHSbyColiseum Video. It was then released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Collection (1985–1997) box set in 1997.The video was re-released six years later in March 1999.That month, it was also released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Legacy box set.It was also released on DVD for WWE's History of WrestleMania I-IX box set on September 14, 2004. In theUnited Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 5, 1993.Packaged together withWrestleMania X, it was released on DVD for theWWE Tagged Classicsseries on May 8, 2006. Aftermath A feud began between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect after WrestleMania IX as a result of Michaels attacking Perfect. They faced each other atSummerSlam 1993, and Michaels won by countout after his new bodyguard,Dieselattacked","Perfect.Perfect then feuded with Diesel until leaving the WWF. Money Inc. lost the WWF Tag Team Championship to the Steiner Brothers on June 14, 1993.Money Inc. won the belts back in a rematch on June 16,but the Steiners won them again three days later.Money Inc. received several rematches but were unable to regain the title; they soon focused on singles competition, and DiBiase retired at the end of August. The Undertaker continued to feud with Harvey Wippleman. On the June 12, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling, Wippleman, Giant Gonzalez, andMr. Hughesattacked The Undertaker, and his managerPaul Bearer, and stole the urn that was said to be the source of his power.The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez faced each other one final time at SummerSlam 1993 in aRest in Peace match, in which neither wrestler could be disqualified. The Undertaker won the match to end the feud. After the match, a frustrated Gonzalez choke slammed Wippleman to the delight of the fans andturned facein the process. Bret Hart","process. Bret Hart later claimed that during a conversation with Vince McMahon, he was told that Hulk Hogan refused to drop the WWF Championship to him.However, Hulk Hogan stated that, during a conversation with Vince McMahon, a deal was made for Hogan to drop the belt to the top heel at the time, Yokozuna, at the following King of The Ring.All three men eventually wound up in a meeting, where McMahon outlined the plan to have Hogan drop the belt to Yokozuna and denied telling Bret that Hogan refused to drop the championship to him. After regaining the title, Yokozuna challenged any American athlete to bodyslam him on the deck of theUSS Intrepidon July 4, 1993. After many challengers failed, Lex Luger arrived by helicopter and bodyslammed Yokozuna. Luger became a fan favorite and changed hisgimmickto an American patriot. He faced Yokozuna for the WWF Championship at SummerSlam 1993; he won the match by count-out but did not win the title.Lex Luger and Bret Hart each earned a title match against Yokozuna the","Yokozuna the following year at WrestleMania X. Luger was disqualified in his match, but Hart won the championship later that night. 32 years after WrestleMania IX, the event will once again be held in the city, with the41st editiontaking place at theAllegiant Stadiumon April 19 and 20, 2025. Results References External links","WrestleMania XI WrestleMania XIwas the 11th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 2, 1995, at theHartford Civic CenterinHartford, Connecticut. Seven matches were contested at the event. The main event featured formerNFLlinebackerLawrence TayloragainstBam Bam Bigelow, a match which came as the result of an argument that took place between the two at the1995 Royal Rumble. Taylor won the match, which led to Bigelow being kicked out ofTed DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation.Shawn MichaelsfacedWWF ChampionDieselin a title match but was unable to win the championship.Jeff Jarrettretained hisWWF Intercontinental ChampionshipagainstRazor Ramon.Owen Hartand his mystery partner,Yokozuna, challengedThe Smoking Gunnsfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipand won the title belts. The match between Taylor and Bigelow brought the WWF mainstream press coverage. The reactions to the match were mixed; some people thought that","people thought that Taylor performed surprisingly well for a non-wrestler. Others thought that the WWF pushing a football player to defeat a wrestler made professional wrestling look bad. Reviews of the event as a whole were mixed, with the event called both the worst WrestleMania of all time and the event that saved the WWF. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XI was scheduled to be held on April 2, 1995, at theHartford Civic CenterinHartford, Connecticut. Special OlympianKathy Huey sang a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\"","the Beautiful\" during the event, replacing the previously advertised band,Fishbone.Prior toLawrence Taylor's match againstBam Bam Bigelow,Salt-n-PepasangWhatta Man. Several other celebrities also had roles at WrestleMania.Nicholas Turturro, one of the stars ofNYPD Blue, conducted interviews and served as a guest ring announcer.Jonathan Taylor ThomasofHome Improvementwas a guest timekeeper for the match betweenDieselandShawn Michaels.WrestleMania XI marked the first time that the WWF featured an interview on theInternetas Diesel and Shawn Michaels were interviewed byBob Ryder. On September 30, 1995, a one-hour special including the Diesel vs. Shawn Michaels match and the Lawrence Taylor vs. Bam Bam Bigelow match was broadcast on theFOX Network.At the WrestleMania weekend, the WWF also held its Fan Fest, a promotional event during which wrestlers interacted with fans and signed autographs. Storylines The most heavily promoted feud going into the event was betweenBam Bam BigelowandLawrence Taylor. At the1995","Taylor. At the1995 Royal Rumble, Bigelow teamed withTatankain the final round of a tournament for theWWF Tag Team Championship. Bigelow waspinnedat the end of the match, which led to the crowd heckling him. He responded by pushingNFLplayer Lawrence Taylor, who was sitting at ringside. Bigelow refused to apologize and instead challenged Taylor to a wrestling match.Taylor agreed and trained withWWF ChampionDiesel to prepare for the match.The storyline between Bigelow and Taylor brought the WWF much mainstream exposure, as the match was discussed by several news outlets. The other main event at WrestleMania was a match for the WWF Championship between Diesel andShawn Michaels. Diesel had originally entered the WWF as Michaels's bodyguard but later began wrestling and forming atag teamwith Michaels. The pair held the WWF Tag Team Championship together in 1994. AtSurvivor Series 1994, however, Michaels accidentally kicked Diesel in the face. This led to an argument during which Diesel dissolved the tag team and","the tag team and vacated the championship.Three days later, Diesel defeatedBob Backlundto become the new WWF Champion.At the Royal Rumble, Michaels won the titular match, which earned him a match against Diesel for the title belt at WrestleMania. TheWWF Intercontinental Championshipwas also defended at WrestleMania.Jeff Jarrett, the champion, had been feuding withRazor Ramon, the challenger, for several months. At the Royal Rumble, Jarrett was accompanied byThe Roadie, who interfered on Jarrett's behalf and helped Jarrett win the championship.To even the sides in the rematch at WrestleMania, Ramon was accompanied by his friend, the1–2–3 Kid. In a match for the WWF Tag Team Championship,The Smoking Gunnsdefended their title. Their opponents wereOwen Hartand a mystery partner. Hart refused to tell anyone the name of his partner, which left the Gunns uncertain who they would be facing and led to much speculation about the identity of the mystery partner. Bret Hartfaced Bob Backlund in an\"I Quit\" matchat","an\"I Quit\" matchat WrestleMania. The feud began the previous summer, when Hart defended the WWF Championship against Backlund. Backlund mistakenly thought he won the match and began celebrating, but Hart pinned him to retain the title. After the match, Backlundturnedheelby attacking Hart.This led to a title match at Survivor Series 1994, in which Backlund won the title from Hart.Although Backlund soon lost the belt,the feud continued and Backlund attacked Hart during Hart's match at the Royal Rumble. Also at the Royal Rumble,The UndertakerfacedIrwin R. Schysteras part of The Undertaker's feud withTed DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation. During the match,King Kong Bundy, another Corporation member, interfered and enabled the Corporation to steal The Undertaker's urn, which was said to be the source of his power. Event In the opening match,The Allied Powers(Davey Boy SmithandLex Luger) faced theBlu Brothers(Eli Blu and Jacob Blu). Smith started out on the offensive, but Jacob gained control with arunning","with arunning bulldogthrow. The Blus capitalized on the fact that they are identical twins by switching places without tagging while the referee was not looking. Luger came into the match near the end and performed arunning forearm smashon Eli. Jacob tried to throw Luger with apowerbomb, but Luger tagged in Smith, who performed asunset flipto pin Jacob and win the match. The second match pitted Razor Ramon, with the 1–2–3 Kid in his corner, against WWF Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett, who had The Roadie in his corner. Ramon took control at the beginning of the match by using power moves against Jarrett. Jarrett tried to leave the match, but the 1–2–3 Kid forced him back into the ring. Jarrett took advantage of one of Ramon's mistakes to gain the advantage. He applied asleeper holdon Ramon, who used his strength advantage to escape the move. After Ramon threw Jarrett, the Kid attempted to interfere but was kicked by Jarrett. Ramon jumped off the ropes to attack Jarrett, but Jarrett avoided the move and","the move and applied afigure four leglockon Ramon. Ramon reversed the move to place the pressure on Jarrett's legs. He then threw Jarrett to the mat with asuplex from the second ropeand prepared to execute theRazor's Edge, his finishing move. The Roadie entered the ring and attacked Ramon, prompting the referee to disqualify Jarrett; because titles cannot change hands on a disqualification, Jarrett retained his championship. In the next match, The Undertaker faced King Kong Bundy. Ted DiBiase was at ringside holding the urn that his wrestlers had stolen from The Undertaker.Larry Young, a legit American League umpire, was the special referee for the match. Young's storyline was as an out-of-work sports official because of therecently ended MLB Players Association strikeand a lockout of the Major League Umpires Association umpires (which led to the eventual dissolution of the MLUA in 2000; prior to the new union, umpires were split by league).The Undertaker took control at the beginning of the match byjumping","the match byjumping off the top rope and hitting Bundy. He then performed severalclotheslineattacks on Bundy. Bundy responded with a clothesline that knocked The Undertaker out of the ring. Seeing DiBiase close, The Undertaker took back his urn. After The Undertaker returned to the ring, DiBiase calledKama, another Corporation member, to the ring. Kama stole the urn, and Bundy attacked The Undertaker in order to let Kama escape backstage. Bundy picked The Undertaker up andpowerslammedhim to the mat. He then performed anAvalanche Splashto crush The Undertaker against the corner of the ring. The Undertaker was unharmed, however, and performed a powerslam and a clothesline on Bundy before pinning him to win the match. The Smoking Gunns defended their WWF Tag Team Championship in the next match against Owen Hart and his mystery partner, who was revealed to beYokozuna. The Gunns worked together to control the match at the beginning, but Yokozuna gained control by performing aleg dropon Billy Gunn. Hart attempted","Hart attempted to perform adropkick from the top ropebut accidentally hit Yokozuna. The Gunns briefly took control until Yokozuna performed abelly to belly suplexand landed on Billy. He then performed aBanzai Drop, jumping from the second rope and sitting on Billy's chest. Hart tagged in and considered performing theSharpshootersubmission hold; instead, he pinned Billy Gunn to win the title belts for his team. The next match, an \"I Quit\" match, took place between Bret Hart and Bob Backlund, withRoddy Piperas the guest referee. It was explained that, in order to win the match, a wrestler must force his opponent to say \"I quit\" into a microphone held by Piper. Hart attempted to perform the Sharpshooter early in the match; when Backlund blocked it, Hart executed afigure four leglockinstead. Backlund escaped the hold and began trying to injure Hart's arm with anarmbarhold. Hart then tried to attack Backlund in the corner of the ring, but Backlund moved and Hart hit his shoulder against the ring post. Backlund","ring post. Backlund tried to perform thecrossface chickenwing, his signature submission hold. Hart blocked him and performed the same hold on Backlund instead. Backlund made an unintelligible sound into the microphone, and Piper determined that he had submitted. As a result, the win was awarded to Bret Hart. In the next match, which was for the WWF Championship, challenger Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring byJenny McCarthyand Diesel, the champion, was escorted byPamela Anderson. Michaels relied on his quickness in the opening stages, while Diesel used his strength advantage against Michaels. Diesel threw Michaels out of the ring and onto the arena floor, but Michaels later performed a clothesline that knocked Diesel out of the ring. Michaels capitalized on his advantage by performing several aerial moves, including aflying crossbody,flying bulldogthrow, and adiving elbow drop. He was unable to pin Diesel, however, so he performed a sleeper hold to wear Diesel down. They brawled outside the ring,","outside the ring, after which Michaels performedSweet Chin Music, his finishing move, butSid, Michaels's bodyguard, had the referee distracted and unable to count the pinfall. Diesel recovered and controlled the remainder of the match with power moves before throwing Michaels to the mat with a botchedJackknifeand getting the pinfall victory. The final bout of the event was the main event match between Bam Bam Bigelow and Lawrence Taylor. Bigelow was accompanied by the members of DiBiase's Million Dollar Corporation: King Kong Bundy, Tatanka, Irwin R. Schyster, Kama, andNikolai Volkoff. To prevent the Corporation members from interfering, Taylor brought several football players:Ken Norton Jr.,Chris Spielman,Rickey Jackson,Carl Banks,Reggie White, andSteve McMichael. Taylor gained the advantage early and performed a clothesline that knocked Bigelow out of the ring. Once he returned to the ring, Bigelow took control of the match by kicking Taylor repeatedly and performing aBoston crabsubmission hold to hurt","hold to hurt Taylor's back. Taylor got out of the hold and threw Bigelow with asuplex. Bigelow recovered and performed several headbutts on Taylor before executing amoonsaultflip to knock Taylor down to the mat. Taylor began to take control of the match again, but Bigelow kicked him in the back of the head and then performed aheadbutt from the top rope. Bigelow was unable to pin Taylor, however. Taylor climbed to the second rope, jumped off, and used his forearm to hit Bigelow. He then covered Bigelow to win the match. Reception The event was attended by 15,000 fans, who paid a total of $750,000 in admission fees. This was down from the previous year's attendance of 18,065,but the decline could be attributed to the smaller size of the venue for WrestleMania XI.The attendance figure was also lower than the following year's figure of 18,852 fans atWrestleMania XII. The pay-per-view buyrate for WrestleMania XI was 1.3, which was lower than the 1.68 buyrate for WrestleMania X but higher than the 1.2 buyrate for","the 1.2 buyrate for WrestleMania XII. Writing for411mania, columnist Dustin James rated the event as the seventeenth best of the first twenty-three WrestleManias. He stated that the event did not have any truly amazing matches but that Lawrence Taylor put on a solid performance.John Powell ofSLAM! Wrestlingrated the event as the worst WrestleMania of all time. The specific concerns he mentioned in his review are Diesel's championship reign and WWF allowing a football player to defeat a wrestler in what he describes as a \"sham of a match\".In contrast,Pro Wrestling Illustratedcolumnist Dave Rosenbaum stated that WrestleMania \"saved\" the WWF in its feud with rivalWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW). He argued that Taylor \"looked like a pro\" and contributed to an \"incredible\" match. He also observed that the tag team matches helped rejuvenate an area of wrestling that had been suffering in the WWF and that the match between Michaels and Diesel was a candidate for match of the year.Bret Hart was critical about his","critical about his match against Bob Backlund, claiming it was \"probably my worst pay-per-view match I ever had\". Aftermath Shortly after WrestleMania, Diesel offered Shawn Michaels a rematch. Michaels blamed Sid for the loss and informed him that he would not be needed during the match. Sid got angry and attacked Michaels until Diesel saved him.Diesel and Michaels became allies once again, and they teamed up to win the WWF Tag Team Championship later that year.Diesel feuded with Sid and defeated him at theIn Your House 1andIn Your House 2pay-per-view events.The animosity lingered between Michaels and Sid, but they did not face each other to settle the feud until the September 11, 1995 episode ofMonday Night Raw. Bam Bam Bigelow was embarrassed after losing to Lawrence Taylor. To redeem himself, he challenged Diesel to a match for the WWF Championship. During the match, Tatanka turned on Bigelow and caused him to get pinned. Bigelow was kicked out of the Million Dollar Corporation and attacked by DiBiase's","by DiBiase's wrestlers. Diesel saved Bigelow from the attack, which led to a friendship being formed between the two.Bigelow defeated Tatanka in adark matchat In Your House 2.At King of the Ring 1995, Sid, DiBiase's latest addition to the Corporation, teamed with Tatanka in a loss to the team of Diesel and Bigelow. Razor Ramon and the 1–2–3 Kid was scheduled to face Jeff Jarrett and The Roadie at In Your House 1 the month after WrestleMania. The Kid sustained alegitinjury, however, and was unable to compete. As a result, Ramon wrestled a two-on-onehandicap matchagainst Jarrett and The Roadie instead.Ramon won the bout, but the feud continued. At In Your House 2, The Roadie faced the 1–2–3 Kid and defeated him.Ramon and Jarrett wrestled several times, and Ramon regained the Intercontinental Championship on May 19, 1995.He held the belt for three days beforedroppingit back to Jarrett. After WrestleMania, Kama melted down The Undertaker's urn and made it into a necklace.The Undertaker defeated Kama in a dark","Kama in a dark match at In Your House 1, and again in acasket matchat In Your House 2.He then won another casket match against Kama atSummerSlam 1995to end the feud. The Undertaker was not able to recapture the remnants of the urn until he ended his feud with King Mabel in another Casket match.TheUndertaker's streakof 21 consecutive WrestleMania victories was first acknowledged during his entrance for his encounter withKing Kong Bundyby play-by-play commentatorVince McMahon, who stated, \"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania\". The Smoking Gunns were given a rematch for the WWF Tag Team Championship at In Your House 1. Hart pinned Bart Gunn to retain the championship for his team.Hart and Yokozuna then moved on to face other competition, and the Gunns did not become serious contenders for the title again until late in 1995 when they defeated Hart and Yokozuna to regain the championship. Steve McMichael, who accompanied Lawrence Taylor, joinedWorld Championship","Championship Wrestling(WCW) later in 1995 as a color commentator then eventually as an in-ring performer, joining the famousFour Horsemanwhen he turned on and betrayed his tag team partner and former NFL starKevin GreeneatThe Great American Bash '96near the end of their tag team match againstRic FlairandArn Anderson. Going by the name \"Mongo\" McMichael, he eventually went on to win theWCW United States Heavyweight Championship. The WWF released the event onVHSin North America in 1995. The VHS version was then re-released on March 2, 1999.The event was also released onDVDin North America as part of the WrestleMania Complete Anthology boxed set on November 1, 2005.In the United Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 10, 1995.Packaged together withWrestleMania XII, it was then released on DVD in the United Kingdom as part of theWWE Tagged Classicsline on August 7, 2006. Results References External links","WrestleMania XII WrestleMania XIIwas the 12th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 31, 1996, at theArrowhead Pond of AnaheiminAnaheim, Californiain the United States. Eight matches were held at the event, including two on theFree for Allpre-show. In the main event,Bret Hartlost theWWF ChampionshiptoShawn Michaelsin the first televisedIron Man matchin company history, lasting over 60 minutes. In his return to the company after a four-year hiatus,The Ultimate WarriordefeatedHunter Hearst Helmsley.Roddy Piperhad his first match since 1994. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal","which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XII was scheduled to be held on March 31, 1996, at theArrowhead Pond of AnaheiminAnaheim, California. Storylines The main attraction of this WrestleMania was theWWF Championshipcontested in anIron Man match; whereby the winner would be the man to win mostfallsover sixty minutes. Michaels had earned the opportunity to face reigning championBret Hartby winning the1996 Royal Rumble, and had also defeatedOwen HartatIn Your House 6for the right to keep the WrestleMania title shot. Themain eventwas built on Bret Hart wanting to retain the WWF Championship against Shawn Michaels, who had suffered a number of setbacks over the course of the previous year, including failing to winDiesel'sWWF Championship the previous year atWrestleMania XIin April 1995, being accosted at aSyracuse, New Yorknightclub in October 1995 (and subsequently","(and subsequently forfeiting theWWF Intercontinental ChampionshiptoDean DouglasatIn Your House 4), and suffering astorylineconcussionat the hands of Owen Hart in November 1995. Hunter Hearst Helmsleymade his debut in the WWF in May 1995, with hiswrestling gimmickbeing in that he was a rich snob born with a silver spoon in his mouth. He went on an undefeated winning streak throughout the year until theRoyal Rumble.The Ultimate Warriormeanwhile had left the WWF in 1992 after failing a drug test. His last match was on the November 14, 1992 edition ofSaturday Night's Main Event XXXI, where he and\"Macho Man\" Randy SavagedefeatedTed DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schysterin a tag team match. WWF officials later signed on a match between Ultimate Warrior, who re-signed to the WWF in an attempt to increase ratings, and Helmsley for WrestleMania XII. Diesel began feuding withThe Undertakerafter interfering in a bout between The Undertaker and Bret Hart at the 1996 Royal Rumble. In an episode ofMonday Night Rawthat aired on March","aired on March 18, 1996, Diesel was battlingBarry Horowitzwhen he caught a glimpse ofPaul Bearerpushing acasketup the entrance ramp. Believing it to be The Undertaker's casket, Diesel armed himself with a wrench before opening the casket's lid and seeing his own \"corpse\" lying in repose inside (which was actually an illusion made possible by having live footage cut to a pre-recorded close-up footage of Diesel himself in the same casket, lying in a relaxed position with his eyes closed, filmed at some time before the episode, thus avoiding showing the mannequin in the casket up-close); seeing \"himself\" in the casket terrified him, as it foreshadowed The Undertaker's upcoming match against Diesel in WrestleMania XII. Event The opening bout, which aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was atag team matchfor the vacantWWF Tag Team Championshipbetween theBodydonnas(SkipandZip) andthe Godwinns(Henry O. GodwinnandPhineas I. Godwinn). This match was the final bout of a tournament held to determine the new champions","the new champions after the titles were vacated in February 1996. The match ended when Skip pinned Phineas I. Godwinn using aroll-up, making the Bodydonnas the new WWF Tag Team Champions. The second bout, which also aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was asingles match(billed as a \"geriatric match\") between \"The Huckster\" and \"Nacho Man\", two characters created to parodyHulk Hoganand\"Macho Man\" Randy Savage(former WWF performers who had joined its competitorWorld Championship Wrestling). The referee for the match was \"Billionaire Ted\", a parody ofTed Turner, the owner of World Championship Wrestling's parent companyTurner Broadcasting System. This bout marked the culmination of a series of skits the WWF had aired featuring the three characters. This match did not take place in the Arrowhead Pond, having been pre-recorded elsewhere. The match ended in a no contest when both competitors, along with Billionaire Ted, seemingly expired in the ring. The third bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view","on the pay-per-view broadcast proper, was asix-man tag team matchpittingThe British Bulldog,Owen Hart, andVader(Camp Cornette) againstAhmed Johnson,Jake Roberts, andYokozuna, with the stipulation that if Yokozuna's team won he would receive five minutes in the ring withJim Cornette, the manager of Camp Cornette. The match ended when Roberts attempted to give Cornette aDDT, only for Vader to knock Roberts down and pin him following aVader Bomb. The fourth bout was a \"Hollywood Backlot Brawl\" betweenGoldustandRoddy Piper. The match began in a parking lot, with the men brawling and using weapons. After Goldust fled in a goldenCadillac, Piper pursued him in a whiteFord Bronco. The fifth bout was a singles match betweenSavio VegaandStone Cold Steve Austin. Austin won the bout by technical knockout after hitting Vega with theMillion Dollar Championshipthen applying theMillion Dollar Dreamto Vega until he passed out. During and after the fifth bout, footage aired of what was purportedly Piper pursuing Goldust (the","Goldust (the actual footage aired was from theLos Angeles Police Department's pursuit ofO.J. Simpsonin 1994). The sixth bout was a singles match betweenHunter Hearst HelmsleyandThe Ultimate Warrior. Early in the match, Helmsley performed his finishing move,The Pedigree, on The Ultimate Warrior. However, The Ultimate Warriorno-soldthe move and went on to pin Helmsley following aflying shoulder tackle,gorilla press slam, andWarrior Splash. Following the sixth bout,Todd Pettengillinterviewed the debutingMarc Merobackstage. The interview was interrupted by Hunter Hearst Helmsley, resulting in a brawl between Helmsley and Mero. The seventh bout was a singles match betweenDieselandThe Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall following achokeslamandTombstone Piledriver, marking his fifth consecutive win at WrestleMania. Following the seventh bout, Goldust and Piper arrived at the Arrowhead Pond, with Piper crashing his car into Goldust's car. Piper then chased Goldust to the ring, where the match","where the match continued. The match ended when Piper tore off Goldust's bodysuit - revealing him to be wearing woman's lingerie - and gave him alow blow, after which Goldust fled from the ring, leaving Piper the winner. The main event sawWWF ChampionBret Hartdefend his title againstShawn Michaelsin anIron Man match, with the stipulation that whichever wrestler won the most falls in 60 minutes would win the match. Towards the end of the match, with neither men having won any falls, Hart applied hisSharpshooterhold to Michaels, but time expired without Michaels submitting. As Hart began to leave with his title, WWF PresidentGorilla Monsooninstructed refereeEarl Hebnerto continue the match under \"sudden death\" rules, with ring announcerHoward Finkelannouncing that \"there must be a winner!\" The match ended shortly thereafter when Michaels pinned Hart after giving himSweet Chin Musictwice, thus becoming the new WWF Champion. Reception WrestleMania XII received generally positive reviews from critics, who aimed","critics, who aimed praise, particularly at the main event. Rob McNew of 411mania called the opening match \"really good,\" and gave it 3 and 1/4 stars (out of 5 stars). However, he called the match between Helmsley and The Ultimate Warrior the worst of the night, going on to call it the \"funniest squash ever, considering that HHH is now arguably a bigger star than Warrior was.\" He gave the main event the highest score of the night, with 4 stars. However, he says the match \"isn't for everyone.\" Continuing, he says, \"It's about a three-star match for the first 40 minutes, the last 20+ are an easy five stars.\" He gave the entire event a score of 7 out of 10.In 2015, Ryan Dilbert of Bleacher Report called it the 16th greatest of the first 30 WrestleMania events. While the Iron Man match got positive reviews, PWInsider's Mike Johnson pointed that in the match both wrestlers \"were working in spite of each other, not together\". Results WWF Tag Team Championship tournament In February 1996,WWF Tag Team ChampionsThe","Team ChampionsThe Smoking Gunnswere forced to vacate the titles afterBilly Gunnsustained a neck injury. As a result, a tournament was staged in February and March 1996 to determine the new champions, with the matches airing on tape delaySuperstarsthroughout March. The tournament final was held at WrestleMania XII, withThe BodydonnasdefeatingThe Godwinnsto be crowned the new champions. Other on-screen personnel References External links","WrestleMania 13 WrestleMania 13was the 13th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). The event waspresentedbyPlayStationand held on March 23, 1997, at theRosemont Horizonin theChicagosuburb ofRosemont, Illinois. Eight matches were held at the event, including one on theFree for Allpre-show. Themain eventwas ano disqualification matchbetweenThe UndertakerandSycho Sidfor theWWF Championship, which Undertaker won following interference fromBret Hart. The main matches on theundercardwereBret HartversusStone Cold Steve Austinin aNo Disqualification Submission match,Legion of DoomandAhmed JohnsonversusNation of Dominationin aChicago Street Fight, and Rocky Maivia versus The Sultan for theWWF Intercontinental Championship. WrestleMania 13 was the second WrestleMania to take place in theChicago metropolitan area, followingWrestleMania 2. The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees, and drew a 0.77 buy","and drew a 0.77 buy rate. The event as a whole received mixed to negative reviews. However, the submission match between Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin was highly praised, being called one of the greatest matches in wrestling history, and has been cited as the beginning of theAttitude Era. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania 13 was scheduled to be held on March 23, 1997, at theRosemont Horizonin theChicagosuburb ofRosemont, Illinois. The event waspresentedbyPlayStation. Storylines The mainfeudheading into WrestleMania 13","WrestleMania 13 was betweenThe UndertakerandSycho Sid, with the two battling over theWWF Championship. AtIn Your House 13in February,Bret Hartlast eliminated The Undertaker in theFinal Four matchto win the vacant WWF Championship.Hart's reign, however, lasted only one day as he lost the title the next night onMonday Night Rawto Sycho Sid after interference byStone Cold Steve Austin, one of the other participants in the Final Four match (the other wasVader, who had no further involvement in the ongoing storyline).Due to being the runner-up to the title at Final Four, Undertaker was made the number one contender and wasbookedto challenge Sycho Sid for the title at WrestleMania. However, on the March 17 edition ofRaw Is War, Sid defended the title against Hart in asteel cage match, with the winner defending his title at WrestleMania. During the match, both Undertaker and Austin interfered. Undertaker came out to help Sid because he wanted to wrestle Sid for the title while Austin helped Hart because he wanted","because he wanted to make his scheduledsubmission matchwith Hart a title match. Sid won the match and retained his title and as a result, Sid vs. Undertaker remained themain eventof WrestleMania. The second main match on the card wasBret HartversusStone Cold Steve Austinin aSubmission match. Hart and Austin's rivalry began after Austin won the1996 King of the Ring tournamentand began taunting Hart, who was inactive at the time. Austin insulted Hart in his speeches so Hart would accept his challenge to a match. Hart returned in October and accepted Austin's challenge, with the two facing each other atSurvivor Series 1996where Hart defeated Austin.Their rivalry continued as Hart and Austin were the final two participants in the1997 Royal Rumble match. Hart had originally eliminated Austin from the match but Austin's elimination was considered unofficial because theofficialsdid not see it as they were busy attending to a brawl between eliminated wrestlersMankindandTerry Funk.They were participants in aFour","in aFour Corners Elimination matchfor the vacantWWF ChampionshipatFinal Four, which Hart won.The next night onMonday Night Raw, Austin cost Hart the WWF Championship against Sycho Sid when Hart had applied theSharpshooteron Sid, Austin nailed Hart with asteel chairfollowed by SidpowerbombingHart for the win.Hart and Austin were booked to wrestle in a submission match at WrestleMania, but Hart got a shot at the WWF Championship in asteel cage matchon the March 17 edition ofRaw Is War, with the winner defending the title againstThe Undertakerat WrestleMania 13. Hart almost had the match won, until Undertaker interfered and helped Sid in getting the victory. One of the mainundercardmatches was aChicago Street FightfeaturingAhmed JohnsonandLegion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) againstNation of Domination(Faarooq,CrushandSavio Vega). Johnson was attacked by a newcomerFaarooq Asad, aRomangladiator on the July 22, 1996 edition ofMonday Night Rawduring a match for theWWF Tag Team Championship.Ahmed was scheduled to defend","scheduled to defend hisIntercontinental Championshipagainst Faarooq atSummerSlam 1996butlegitimatekidney problems forced him to vacate the Intercontinental Championship. In thestoryline, it was explained that Faarooq had caused Ahmed's kidney problem.Ahmed returned from his injury in early 1997 and continued with Faarooq, who had formed TheNation of Dominationduring Ahmed's absence. Ahmed joined forces with the Legion of Doom and the trio were scheduled to wrestle the Nation of Domination in a Chicago Street Fight at WrestleMania 13. Event Before the event aired live onpay-per-view(PPV),Billy GunnfacedFlash FunkatFree for All.Gunn defeated Funk by pinning him following atornado DDT. The first match that aired on television was aFour-Way Tag Team Elimination Match. The match featuredThe Headbangers(MoshandThrasher),The Godwinns(Henry O. GodwinnandPhineas I. Godwinn),The New Blackjacks(Blackjack WindhamandBlackjack Bradshaw) and the team ofDoug Furnas and Phil LaFon. All the teams wrestled each other and","each other and sometimes in the match, teammates also fought against each other. Barry Windham and Phil LaFon brawled to the outside the ring. Bradshaw attacked the referee and gotdisqualified, which led to the first elimination of the match while Furnas was counted-out. Headbangers and Godwinns were the remaining teams and they battled for five minutes and 39 seconds before Thrasher hit Phineas with aCannonball Sentonand won the match via pinfall. As a result of winning the match, Headbangers earned a shot at theWWF Tag Team Championship. The second match was betweenRocky MaiviaandThe Sultanfor Maivia'sWWF Intercontinental Championship.The Honky Tonk Manprovided commentary for the match. Sultan had an early advantage in the match due to his size and power but Maivia used his quicker moves to push the big man outside the ring. Sultan overpowered Maivia withslamsandpunchesbut was unable to pin him. Maivia gained advantage on Sultan by nailing him with abelly to belly suplex,Maivia Hurricaneand aflying","aflying crossbodybeforepinningSultan with aroll-upto win the match and retain the title. After the match, Sultan and hismanagers,Bob BacklundandThe Iron Sheikattacked Maivia before his father,Rocky Johnson, came out to help his son. The third match was betweenHunter Hearst HelmsleyandGoldust. Goldust dominated the early portion of the match. Helmsley had brief flurries of offense but Goldust had still the advantage. Helmsley began usingsubmission maneuversto keep the advantages for himself. Goldust was going to hit his maneuver until Helmsley'sbodyguardChynamanhandled Goldust's wifeMarlenato distract him. Helmsley took advantage and hit Goldust with aPedigree, enabling him to pin Goldust for the win. The fourth match was atag teammatch for theWWF Tag Team Championship, asOwen Hart and The British Bulldogdefended the titles againstMankindandVader. The big Vader made easy work of Owen in the beginning of the match. Vader tagged in with Mankind while Owen tagged in with Bulldog. Bulldog and Mankind punched each","punched each other but Bulldog had more advantage. He applied asleeper holdon Mankind which caused both of them to fall to the outside. They continued to brawl outside. Therefereewas distracted due to the brawl. Vader took advantage and hit Bulldog withPaul Bearer's urn and dragged him into the ring. Vader and Mankind both took turns and continued to attack Bulldog. Owen tried to save his partner, but Vader used his strength while Mankind used his cheating tactics to overwhelm Owen. Mankind trapped Bulldog to the outside and applied the mandible claw on him. Both men werecounted outas the match resulted in a draw. As a result, Hart and Bulldog retained the championship. The fifth match was aNo Disqualification Submission matchbetween Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin.UFCfighterKen Shamrockwas thespecial guest refereefor this match. Austin attacked Hart, who was still in his entrance attire. The two first beat each other in the ring before the action spilled outside the ring. Hart tossed Austin into the","Austin into the steel ring post while Austin drove him onto the steel barrier. The two men began fighting in the crowd, where both men hit each other with severalforeign objects. They moved up the steps high into the crowd. Shamrock followed them and brought them back towards the ring where Austin attempted to use steel steps on Hart, but Hart stopped him with a kick to the midsection. As the action began in the ring, Hart focused on Austin's leg. He busted Austin open with an Irish whip into the steel barricade and Austin's head began to bleed profusely. Hart tried to use a steel chair on Austin's leg, but Austin choked Hart with a television cable. Hart hit Austin in the head with the ring bell. He applied aSharpshooteron Austin who did not submit and tried to resist but passed out from the pain and loss of blood. Shamrock awarded the match to Hart, but Hart continued to attack Austin which led to a double-turn as the fans turned on Hart and began cheering for Austin. Shamrock pulled Hart off of Austin and","off of Austin and executed a waistlock takedown and physically challenged him to a fight. Hart declined to fight Shamrock and left the ring to a chorus of boos.Austin, meanwhile, after regaining consciousness, hit aStunneron a referee when he tried to help Austin out, then slowly limped away to backstage, while the crowd chanted his name. The sixth match of the event was aChicago Street Fightbetween theLegion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) andAhmed JohnsonandNation of Domination(Faarooq,CrushandSavio Vega). All the two teams hit each other with many foreign objects. The match continued inside the ring and outside the ring in the same fashion. Finally, Animal hit Crush with a2x4and then pinned him to win the match. Main Event Themain eventwas aNo Disqualification MatchbetweenThe Undertakerand reigning championSycho Sidfor theWWF Championship.Shawn Michaelsprovided commentary for the match. The then-heel superstar,Bret Hart, came out during the match and insulted Undertaker, Michaels and particularly Sid because he","Sid because he claimed that Sid had screwed him out of the title. SidpowerbombedHart while Undertaker took advantage and began attacking the champion from behind. Undertaker went for anOld Schoolbut Sid took him in abearhug. Sid attacked Undertaker with various moves and attacked him with television monitors, and applied acamel clutchon Undertaker. Sid had the advantage in the match until Hart came back and attacked Sid with a steel chair. He recovered and got Undertaker in the powerbomb but Hart returned again and distracted Sid which allowed Undertaker to hit Sid with theTombstoneand pin him to win the match. Reception The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees and drew a 0.77 buy-rate. In 2011, Marc Elusive of 411mania gave the event an overall score of 7.0 out of 10.0 and noted that \"The Attitude Era began here...\" and that the main event was \"a very boring match\".John Canton ofThe John Reportgave the event an overall score of 4 out of 10 and said that the show was","that the show was \"poor\" and noted that the main event \"sucked for the first 15 minutes, but the ending was okay\". Despite the lackluster reviews towards the event, the submission match between Hart and Austin was highly praised. In 2007, it was placed #1 onIGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History, and described as a match that \"launched an era.\"Thomas Golianopoulos ofComplex Sportsalso ranked it at number 1 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, citing the match's six factors of storyline, innovation, psychology, finish, post-match angle, and fallout.Elusive of 411mania described the match as \"outstanding\" and \"that helped propel Steve Austin into the stratosphere and become the star of the late 90s and the early 00s\", while also noting the double-turn after the match. John Canton called the match a \"wrestling perfection\". It received afive-star ratingfromDave Meltzerand was also voted Match of the Year (1997) by readers of hisWrestling Observer Newsletterpublication.Pro","Wrestling Illustratedreaders named it Match of the Year (1997). The submission match would also be the last time a WrestleMania match would receive a five-star rating untilWrestleMania 39in 2023 whenKevin OwensandSami ZaynvsJimmyandJey Usoon Night 1 andGunthervsSheamusvsDrew McIntyreon Night 2 both received the five-star rating. Hart would call it his favourite match, labeling it \"a real masterpiece.\"Ken Shamrockwould call it \"one of the greatest matches in wrestling history\",andJim Rosscalled it the greatest match he'd called at WrestleMania and the most \"well-executed\" match he'd seen. Aftermath Stone Cold Steve AustinandBret Hartcontinued their rivalry after WrestleMania, but Austin was now ababyfaceand his popularity would start to increase considerably while Hart was aheel. Hart recruitedBritish Bulldog,Owen Hart,Brian Pillmanand formertag teampartnerJim Neidhartto reformThe Hart Foundation.AtIn Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Takerin April, Hart and Austin had a match which Austin won","which Austin won bydisqualification.Theirfeudcontinued untilIn Your House 16: Canadian Stampedein July, where theHart Foundation(working as faces in Canada) defeated the American team of Austin,Ken Shamrock,Legion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) andGoldust. The Undertakerreceived apushafter he won his second WWF Championship at WrestleMania 13.He spent a reign of133 dayswhich included battles withMankind,Steve Austin,FaarooqandVader.AtSummerSlam 1997, Undertaker's long reign finally ended when he lost the title toBret Hartwhenspecial guest refereeShawn Michaelsaccidentally struck Undertaker with a steel chair, which was intended for Hart. After losing the WWF Championship to The Undertaker at WrestleMania, Sycho Sid's push began to diminish and afterKing of the Ring, he began to disappear from WWF programming. In actuality, Sid quietly left WWF to focus on recovering from a neck injury. Sid eventually returned to rival promotionWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) in 1999 and continued to wrestle as Sid Vicious until he","Vicious until he suffered a near career-ending leg injury atWCW Sinon January 14, 2001. Results Other on-screen personnel References External links","WrestleMania XIV WrestleMania XIV(marketed asWrestleMania dX raided) was the 14th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF; WWE as of 2002). It took place on March 29, 1998, at theFleetCenterinBoston, Massachusetts. A total of eight matches were held at the event. This pay-per-view event was notable for the involvement of boxerMike Tyson, who acted as a ring enforcer for the main event. In the main event,Stone Cold Steve AustindefeatedShawn Michaelsto win theWWF Championshipfor the first time; Michaels performed despite a severe injury sustained during a match at theRoyal Rumbleand would not compete again untilSummerSlam in 2002. This was the first WrestleMania ofThe Attitude Eraand also the first WrestleMania event since1985not to featureBret Hart, who jumped to the rivalWorld Championship Wrestlingthe previous year. Production Background WrestleManiais theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having","event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XIV was scheduled to be held on March 29, 1998, at theFleetCenterinBoston, Massachusetts. In print advertisements, the event was billed as \"WrestleMania: dX raided\". Storylines After theLegion of Doomlost theirWWF Tag Team ChampionshiptoThe New Age Outlaws, they were then assaulted by the Outlaws andD-Generation X. At theRoyal Rumble, the LOD lost a championship match, thanks in large part toRoad DogghandcuffingHawkoutside of the ring.Following this, they suffered two defeats at the hands ofNWAmembersJeff JarrettandBarry Windham. Finally, on the February 23 episode ofRaw Is War, the LOD once again lost to The New","lost to The New Age Outlaws when, despite having the match all but won following aDoomsday Device, the non-legal Hawk did not leave the ring as Animal was making the cover; while the referee was busy removing Hawk, Animal was struck by the title belts, causing them to lose the match.Following the match, the two men brawled all the way to the back and announced their dissolution, not appearing again until WrestleMania. After theMontreal Screwjob,Owen Hartwas left as the only member of theHart familyto remain with the company; and after a temporary absence, Owen returned during the closing moments ofD-Generation X: In Your Houseto attackShawn Michaels.Following this, he turned his attention to Hunter Hearst Helmsley (who would later be known simply asTriple H) and theEuropean Championshipthat Michaels had given to Helmsley as a Christmas present. After weeks of deterring a championship match by way of a fractured kneecap (which was, in fact, legitimate), Triple H finally acquiesced to a match on the January 26","on the January 26 edition ofRaw Is War, only forThe Artist Formerly Known as Goldust(who was dressing up from week-to-week in a bid for attention) to appear in Helmsley's place. After Hart won the match, WWF CommissionerSgt. Slaughterdeclared the disguise to be so convincing that he upheld the decision and awarded the championship to Hart.On the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Owen defended the title againstMark Henry. During the match,Chynacame to the ring and pushed Hart off the turnbuckle allowing Henry to lock on abearhug, but before Owen could submit, Chyna delivered a blatantlow blowto Henry, resulting in a disqualification in favor of Hart. The following week in a match againstBarry Windham, Hart landed awkwardly on his ankle, suffering asprained anklewith ligament damage as a result. On a special Tuesday edition ofRaw Is Waron March 17, Hart joined the commentary team with a supportive cast on his leg. This would bring Triple H to ringside, where he goaded Owen into an impromptu title defense despite","defense despite his cast. During the match, Chyna appeared and struck Owen's ankle with a baseball bat, allowing Helmsley to capitalize and win the title back. Due to his jealousy over the attention hiswife and valet,Sable, was garnering from the crowd,Marc Merowould try to intentionally cover up Sable's provocative clothing and eventually send her to the back during his matches, replacing her withThe Artist Formerly Known as Goldust, who at the time was dressing up from week-to-week in his own bid of self-attention. Although the two initially worked well together, Goldust's valetLuna Vachongrew vocally disdainful of Sable, who was also being mocked by Mero and Goldust, causing Sable to eventually grow tired of the disrespect and fight back. As the two women brawled, their partners tried to separate them; but when Goldust grabbed Sable in order to restrain her, Mero's jealousy took over and he attacked him. The two men then had a match on Raw, where both women were handcuffed to the ring posts in an effort","posts in an effort to prevent their brawling. But after the referee was knocked down, Goldust stole the key and unchained Luna who attacked Sable withmake up, painting her face before also throwing water on her. Goldust then challenged Mero and Sable to a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania XIV. After successively beating members of theNation of Dominationweek after week,Ken Shamrockinitially defeated theIntercontinental ChampionRocky Maivia(later known as The Rock) at theRoyal Rumbledespite being hit with aforeign object, seemingly winning the title.However, The Rock convinced the referee that it was, in fact, he who suffered an illegal attack and the referee reversed his decision (Maivia had placed the foreign object in Shamrock's trunks after hitting him with it).The following month atNo Way Out of Texas: In Your House, Shamrock capitalized on the in-fighting of the Nation, due to leadership disputes betweenFaarooqand The Rock, by making the champion tap out in a ten-man tag team match. At the end of the","At the end of the inauguralHell in a Cellmatch atBadd Blood: In Your House, just asThe Undertakerlooked to win the match against Shawn Michaels, the lights went out and a huge masked man came to the ring and delivered atombstone piledriverto the shocked Undertaker.The masked man was revealed to beKane, Undertaker's (kayfabe) half-brother and, despite the animosity and the presence ofPaul Bearer, Undertaker vowed never to fight his little brother. Before Undertaker'scasket matchwith Michaels at the Royal Rumble, D-Generation X claimed Kane had joined them, but in fact, he came to the ring to assist Undertaker. The alliance was short-lived, however, as during theRoyal Rumble, Kane came to the ring and turned on his brother, allowing Michaels to win the match before locking Undertaker in the casket and setting it ablaze, presuming his brother dead.On the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Kane's scheduled opponent,Stone Cold Steve Austin, was taken out by D-Generation X before the match could begin. With nothing","begin. With nothing else to do, Bearer ordered the timekeeper to deliver aten-bell salutefor The Undertaker's passing, before then telling Kane to tombstone him. After he did, more bells were heard ringing, this time signaling Undertaker's arrival. The ringing continued much longer than normal, with Bearer vehemently denying the possibility of it being Undertaker. Eventually, asarcophagusappeared on the top of the ramp. After the sarcophagus was struck by a bolt of lightning, The Undertaker sat up before revealing that he had been to Hell and talked with his parents, telling them that he would have to go back on his vow before finally challenging Kane to a match at WrestleMania. The week before WrestleMania, Kane came to the ring and began to display similar supernatural powers as his brother, striking theTitanTronwith lightning, as well as the announce table, before finally striking a crew worker with lightning, setting him on fire; Undertaker was shown on the same episode speaking to his parents'","to his parents' gravestones, revealing it may have to take thedamnationof his soul to reunite the troubled family. In January, Stone Cold Steve Austin won theRoyal Rumble matchwhile Shawn Michaels retained hisWWF Championship, all whileMike Tysonlooked on from the director's box.The following night onRaw Is War,Vince McMahonwas set to reveal that Tyson would be thespecial guest refereefor WrestleMania's main event; however, Austin appeared and gave thefingerto Tyson, offering him a fight and proclaiming the wrestling ring to be his, not Tyson's. Austin and Tyson then engaged in a massive brawl that garnered headlines all around the world.At the ensuing press conference, McMahon officially announced that due to the explosive situation, Tyson's role was being changed to that ofring enforcer. On the February 2 episode ofRaw Is War, in a scheduled match against Road Dogg, D-Generation X stormed the match and tied Austin in the ropes, allowing Shawn Michaels to hurl insults at Austin and rub the championship belt","championship belt in his face, taunting him with it untilCactus JackandChainsaw Charliecame to his aid. The following week, Austin stole the championship belt from Michaels in the hope of baiting him into a singles match, but the partnership of D-Generation X and The New Age Outlaws continued, allowing Michaels to retrieve the belt back. This all led to a \"non-sanctioned\" eight-man tag match atNo Way Out of Texas: In Your House, which Michaels was unable to participate in due to a back injury; Austin won the match for his team by pinning Road Dogg.With WrestleMania drawing closer, on the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Mike Tyson appeared once again to be interviewed by Vince McMahon, only for DX to interrupt; Shawn Michaels then challenged Tyson to a fight. After both men's entourages left the ring, the two taunted each other for a bit until Michaels would rip off Tyson's shirt, revealing a DX T-shirt underneath, showing the enforcer's degenerate alliance; Later in the evening, as Austin came out to take","came out to take place in a match against Kane, Triple H appeared on the ramp and lured Austin to him. Austin fell for the trap, and promptly turned around into aSweet Chin Musicby Michaels which knocked him out, a trap which occurred again the following week. Also that week, during a St. Patrick's Day Tuesday broadcast ofRaw Is Waron March 17, Austin called out Vince McMahon and verbally berated him for describing Mike Tyson as \"the baddest man on the planet\", but McMahon would not be goaded into a fight, as he instead forced Austin to fight Rocky Maivia the following episode, just before WrestleMania. Event Chris Warrenand The DX Band opened the show by performing hard rock versions of \"America the Beautiful\" and \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". The audience did not react well to the performance, booing the band during and after their songs. This segment was edited off all subsequent home video releases, as well as the WWE Network and Peacock. Preliminary matches The night began with the mystery entrants in the","entrants in the tag team battle royal being revealed as the reunitedLegion of Doom, now known as LOD 2000, withSunnyas their new valet.Savio Vegawas first eliminated byChainzmeaning his tag team partner,Miguel Perez, had to leave too.Kurrganillegally entered the ring to enact revenge onSniperandReconby eliminating them on behalf ofThe Jackyl.Barry Windhamalso illegally entered to eliminate Chainz, and so left his partnerBradshaw. The final four teams lasted a while untilSkullwould be eliminated byHenry Godwinn, which meantThe Disciples of Apocalypsewere eliminated.8-Ballthen eliminatedPhineas Godwinn, which meantThe Godwinnswere then eliminated. Afterwards, The Godwinns attacked LOD 2000 with slop buckets before leaving.The Midnight Expresstried to keepAnimalout of the ring while double-teamingHawk, but once Animal re-entered the ring, LOD 2000 simultaneously eliminated bothBobandBart, leaving LOD 2000 the last team standing and the winners of the battle royal. The second match was aLight Heavyweight","aLight Heavyweight Championshipmatch, withTaka Michinokudefending his title againstÁguila; this would be the first and only time the championship was defended at WrestleMania, though its successor, theCruiserweight Championshipwould be defended at the event more than once. After throwing Taka out the ring andbaseball slidinginto him, Águila hit anasai moonsaultoutside the ring, but was soon the victim of aspringboard crossbodyafter Taka reversed asuplexfrom the apron. Águila almost won the match with a moonsault crossbody into a pin, but remained on the offensive with afrankensteiner. Taka tried to land theMichinoku Driver, but as Aguila flipped out and attempted a hurricanrana, Taka managed apowerbombreversal. Taka then stopped a high flying dive attempt by Aguila with a dropkick, before successfully executing a Michinoku Driver and picking up the win. After the match, both contestants shook each other's hand and celebrated together.Also, partway into the matchup,Jim Rossmade a fleeting comment about the","comment about the date of Taka's title win, December 7, the date of the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, calling it \"ironic enough\". This incident went largely unnoticed, only causing a slight stir in the wrestling community. Triple Hmade his way to the ring with his theme being played by the DX Band. BeforeOwen Hartcame to the ring, CommissionerSgt. Slaughterhandcuffed himself toChynaso that she would not interfere, despite her protestations. The match began with Hart pummeling Helmsley with fists before sliding out of the ring. Triple H tried to jump from the apron onto Hart, but made contact with the crowd barrier instead. After executing a powerbomb, Hart attempted to lock in thesharpshooter, but Helmsley reversed it and started some offensive maneuvers of his own, kicking Hart in the turnbuckle and delivering a suplex. Hart then suffered a cut to the bridge of his nose from a boot to the face, after which Triple H began to work on Hart's damaged ankle, dropping his knee onto it and stretching it. After","it. After avoiding another kick to the face and crouching Helmsley onto the ring post, Owen managed to take advantage, reversing a Pedigree attempt into the sharpshooter. Chyna, having to pull Slaughter, pulled Triple H to the rope for the break. As Slaughter was distracted, Chyna then threw white powder into Slaughter's face, causing the referee a worried Hart to check on him. While the referee was distracted and as Owen turned around to confront Triple H, Chyna low-blowed him from outside, allowing Triple H to successfully nail the Pedigree and retain the title. After she was freed from the handcuffs, Chyna nailed Slaughter with a forearm and shoved him over the barricade into the crowd. Next up was the mixed tag team match.Marc MeroandGoldustbegan the match, but Goldust soon tagged inLuna Vachon, requiringSableto be tagged in too, as per the rules. However, Vachon simply ran around the outside of the ring with Sable chasing her, before tagging Goldust back in. Wanting to get her hands on Vachon, Sable","on Vachon, Sable double-teamed Goldust with a boot to the face after an Irish whip from Mero, but could not get Vachon to enter the ring. A near-pinfall came from a running crossbody from Mero and following this, the two ran into each other, causing both men to crawl and tag in the women. Sable then took Luna down and punched her around the face before kicking her in the midsection and face in the turnbuckle and attacking Goldust, before running back to clothesline Vachon over the ropes. Vachon tagged Goldust in, but before Sable would do the same, she struck him in the face, then let Mero take over who had hisTKOreversed into aDDT. Mero would then reverse the Curtain Call, allowing him the chance to try a moonsault pin to a standing Goldust. After Vachon struck a running Mero with her knee, Mero went to punch her, but ducked out of the way as Goldust ran to her rescue, causing him to inadvertently knock her off the apron. Mero then executed the TKO, but Luna interrupted the pin count, jumping on Mero's back","on Mero's back resulting in Sable tagging in as Mero wandered around the ring with Vachon on his back. Sable tried pinning Goldust, but the referee was distracted and as he finally began to count, Sable leapt off Goldust so the interfering Vachon would inadvertently bodysplash Goldust. Sable then performed a powerbomb and Mero's TKO to win the bout. Gennifer Flowers, who was accompanied byJeff JarrettandTennessee Lee, then came to the ring as the special guest ring announcer for the upcomingIntercontinental Championshipmatch betweenKen ShamrockandRocky Maivia. The fight began in the aisleway with a brawl that saw Shamrock get whipped into the steel steps before both men entered the ring. Maivia then delivered his People's Elbow, but could not secure a three-count. Shamrock then rolled out of the ring and grabbed a steel chair; when the referee tried to take it off him, he threw the referee into the corner; Maivia quickly grabbed the chair and hit Shamrock with it as the referee recovered. Shamrock kicked out","Shamrock kicked out and quickly re-gained the advantage, delivering abelly-to-belly suplexoff an Irish whip and then securing his ankle lock submission in the center of the ring, making Maivia tap to win the match and the title. The surrounding members of the Nation quickly jumped into the ring, but Shamrock dispatched them all with suplexes, including the four hundred pound Mark Henry, before then reapplying the ankle lock to a bloody Maivia.Faarooqthen ran down from the back and jumped onto the apron, only to look on at Maivia with a smile, before walking away. A number of referees (the ones Shamrock attacked were actually independent wrestlers, or stuntmen put in referee uniforms) and officials would appear, trying to subdue Shamrock. After being surrounded, Shamrock suplexed a referee and then an official before calming down as Maivia was wheeled away on a gurney.Howard Finkelthen announced Shamrock had been disqualified for not breaking his ankle lock submission, meaning The Rock would retain the","would retain the Intercontinental championship. This would cause Shamrock to become enraged and chase Rocky, and dump him off of the gurney and fighting him on the Chris Warren band stage. TheWWF Tag Team Championshipmatch was a \"Dumpster match\", the objective being the first tag team to put their opponents into a dumpster with the lids being closed shut would be the winners. The match began withBilly GunnfacingChainsaw CharlieandRoad Doggexchanging blows withCactus Jack. Trying acannonballon Road Dogg from the apron, Cactus missed and slammed himself into the dumpster instead. The Outlaws then focused on Charlie, using a back drop to deposit him into the dumpster and, as he attempted to climb out, they simultaneously slammed the lid shut on the hardcore legends' heads. With Cactus and Charlie both in the dumpster, the Outlaws shut the lid down on them, but Cactus managed to get back up while the Outlaws were celebrating and pushed Road Dogg down to the ground with a mandible claw, pulling him into the","him into the dumpster. Both teams took time to recover and began to brawl with weapons in the ring, Cactus Jack pulling out a ladder and climbing it opposite Billy Gunn, only for both men to be pushed off straight into the dumpster outside the ring, thanks to a dazed Chainsaw Charlie. Road Dogg pulled his partner out and the two then focused their efforts on Charlie, powerbombing him into the dumpster, but Cactus had managed to escape in the meantime. The fight eventually found its way to the backstage area, with both Outlaws throwing Cactus into boxes and promotional displays, but Jack replied with a chair shot to both of them and planted Billy Gunn onto a wooden pallet with adouble-arm DDT. Charlie then reappeared on aforkliftand elevated the wooden pallet as Jack dragged Road Dogg onto it too. Charlie then drove the forklift above a backstage dumpster and dropped both opponents inside as Cactus Jack closed the lid to win the WWF Tag Team Championship. Main event matches BeforeThe Undertaker's match","Undertaker's match withKane, baseball record-holderPete Rosecame to the ring as the special ring announcer. However, after insulting the hometown team and introducing Kane, he received atombstone piledriver, starting atri-year tradition.The Undertaker was preceded by a league oftorch-bearingdruids to the tune of \"O Fortuna\". As the match began, The Undertaker cornered Kane and threw a flurry of punches into him, ducking and reversing Kane's attempts until Kane hit him with aclotheslinethat he instantly sat up from. Kane then set Undertaker up in atree of woeto begin his assault of punches and Irish whips, before suplexing Undertaker onto the ropes and delivering a flying club to the neck from the turnbuckle. As The Undertaker began to fight back, Kane threw him into the ropes, but Undertaker retaliated by jumping onto his back, which was met aface-first electric chair.Paul Bearerkept the referee distracted while Kane landed the steel steps onto Undertaker, and repeated the effort a second time while","a second time while Undertaker was lying on the steps, crushing him in-between them. As the referee tried to keep Kane in check, Bearer slapped Undertaker while walking past him. Kane caught his brother running and delivered achokeslam, but Undetaker lifted his shoulders off the mat before the three-count could be made. Kane put The Undertaker into a sleeper hold that he eventually fought out of with a flurry of punches. Undertaker then dropped Kane on top of the ropes and punched him off the apron; he followed this with anover the top rope suicide divethat Kane managed to sidestep, sending Undertaker crashing through the Spanish announce table. As Undertaker made it back into the ring, Kane hit him with aflying lariat. Undertaker then attempted to give Kane the Tombstone Piledriver, but Kane managed to shift his weight, reversing the positions and allowing Kane to deliver the tombstone to Undertaker instead. Undertaker kicked out and after landing a running clothesline, Undertaker choke slammed Kane and","slammed Kane and then delivered a tombstone piledriver of his own; but Kane kicked out. This would mark the first time anyone had ever kicked out of Undertaker's tombstone piledriver. It would take three tombstones with a guillotine leg drop and flying clothesline in between to stop Kane. But in the end, Undertaker scored the pin and was victorious. As soon as the match was over, Bearer attacked Undertaker and ordered Kane to attack him, which he did with a chair shot to the head and then a tombstone piledriver onto the chair. After Kane and Bearer left, Undertaker sat up and left the ring. WithMike Tysonenforcing from ringside, theWWF Championshipmatch began with both wrestlers taunting each other, engaging in a few light punches beforeShawn Michaelsescaped the ring and ran back in to take advantage ofStone Cold Steve Austin, but was met with a standing clothesline. Austin followed up by pulling down Michaels' tights, exposing Michaels' backside. Michaels then tried to run at Austin, but was back dropped","was back dropped over the top rope onto Triple H. As Triple H threw Austin into the crowd barrier, the referee ordered he and Chyna to leave ringside. As they were leaving Austin followed and fought with Triple H up to the entrance gate. Michaels caught up and hit Austin with a cymbal from the DX Band's stage, before Irish whipping Austin into the dumpster. As the match resumed in the ring, Austin met Michaels's high-risk maneuver with a clothesline and then ran him into the turnbuckle before picking him up for an inverted atomic drop. Michaels' attempt to pick up some momentum saw him picked up and dropped onto the ropes, but Michaels managed to push Austin away as he attempted a stunner. When Michaels tried to escape the ring though, Austin delivered a right hand, forcing the champion to fall upon the announce table. After Austin slowed the match down with a sleeper hold, Michaels tried to pull his knee into the ring post but was instead pulled into it himself. Austin then tried to rush at Michaels, but","at Michaels, but was back dropped into the crowd and struck with the ring bell. Michaels used the momentum to take advantage inside the ring, delivering a snapmare and then a low kick to the grounded Austin, while also taking time totaunt the audience. Austin briefly picked up some speed throwing Michaels out of the ring, but just as quickly lost ground as Michaels repeatedly worked on Austin's left knee, throwing it into the ring post before kicking and dropping onto it back inside the ring. When Austin tried to recover outside of the ring, he was met with a baseball slide that launched him over the announce table. Austin was then thrown back into the ring by Miks Tyson, where he soon suffered a figure-four leglock that Michaels illegally elevated using the second and third ring rope. Austin's eventual counter was stopped by a rope break. Austin then tried to reverse a standing sleeper hold by throwing Michaels back into the turnbuckle, but unwittingly trapped refereeMike Chiodawho fell unconscious. With","unconscious. With both men on the floor, Michaels recovered with a kip-up and landed a high-flying elbow drop, getting in position forSweet Chin Music. As Austin eventually stood up, he ducked the superkick, attempting a stunner on Michaels. Michaels responded by throwing Austin into the ropes before once again attempting Sweet Chin Music. However, Austin grabbed Michaels' foot, spun him around and nailed him with a Stone Cold Stunner. Mike Tyson jumped into the ring to make a quick three count and the new champion celebrated by tossing the enforcer an \"Austin 3:16\" t-shirt. When Shawn Michaels stood up, he confronted Tyson about his turn, but was met with a punch that instantly floored him, before Tyson then draped Michaels with Austin's t-shirt. Aftermath The result of the main event heralded a changing of the guard in the World Wrestling Federation. Shawn Michaels, who had been a major superstar in the company for many years, having won his first WWF Championship at WrestleManiatwo years previously, took","previously, took a four-year hiatus from wrestling due to a severe back injury sustained during the casket match against Undertaker at the Royal Rumble. During his retirement, Shawn made several ostensible one-off appearances as a guest commentator during episodes ofRaw Is Warin the summer of 1998, and eventually replacing Sgt. Slaughter as the WWF commissioner at the end of the year, holding onto the position for a year and a half. After what was supposed to be a one-time match four years later atSummerSlam, Michaels and the now renamed World Wrestling Entertainment realized that his injuries had healed, and he made a full-time return to wrestling, eventually retiring permanently in 2010 atWrestleMania XXVI, 12 years after this event. With Stone Cold Steve Austin as the new WWF Champion, the \"Attitude Era\" was fully ushered in. The company's iconic scratch logo had started to replace the \"New Generation\" logo and began to appear on ring aprons and promotional material during and after this event. The next","event. The next night onRaw Is Warafter WrestleMania, the old WWF \"winged eagle\" world championship belt was retired, and a new belt design with a larger eagle and blue globe debuted (eventually being retired in 2002). The Attitude Era saw Austin's feud with Vince McMahon escalate and two weeks later,Raw Is WardefeatedWorld Championship Wrestling'sMonday Nitroin theratings warfor the first time in eighty-four weeks. Shawn Michaels' loss was criticized by Triple H the following night onRaw Is War, with Triple H blaming Michaels for overlooking Tyson's potential double-cross. Helmsley delivered a promo saying that he would now lead D-Generation X and turn it into an army, saying \"the first thing you do is look to your blood. You look to your buddies. You look to your friends. You look...tothe Kliq\",before introducing a returningSean Waltman, now under the \"X-Pac\" persona, who had re-signed with the company after being fired from World Championship Wrestling (WCW). Later in the evening, it was revealed thatRoad","revealed thatRoad DoggandBilly Gunnwere also part of theDX Army. The ongoing saga between The Undertaker and Kane continued to escalate even further. The following night, Paul Bearer challenged Undertaker on behalf of Kane to a match atUnforgiven: In Your House, where the ring would be surrounded by fire. The first man to be set ablaze would lose, thus giving birth to theInferno Match. By winning the fifteen-team battle royal, LOD 2000 won the right to face the WWF Tag Team Champions at Unforgiven. The champions by rights were Cactus Jack and Chainsaw Charlie, but some legal wrangling from The New Age Outlaws saw the match held up on account of the wrong dumpster being used. The vacant titles were then decided in a steel cage match between the two teams the following night, which the Outlaws won after interference from the newly formed DX Army, concreting their ties, and by handcuffing Charlie to the cage by his neck. Charlie returned to his Terry Funk persona, whilst Cactus Jack became Dude Love again.","Dude Love again. Meanwhile, the New Age Outlaws became part of the DX Army, achieving further success. In a tag team match against Ken Shamrock and Steve Blackman, Rocky Maivia promised to show Faarooq that the Nation was stronger and more connected than ever before. The promise was a sour one as, during the match, Rocky left Faarooq to suffer the wrath of Shamrock and Blackman. Afterwards, Faarooq demanded that Rocky come back out so the two could fight. When Rocky returned and squared up to Faarooq, the other members of the Nation turned on him, and Maivia proclaimed himself as the new \"ruler\" of the faction. Before Marc Mero's match with Taka Michinoku the next night, Luna Vachon appeared and challenged Sable to a singles match, which Sable promptly accepted. Vachon also announced that it was not to be a traditional wrestling match, because she wanted to humiliate Sable, and so it would be an evening gown match to be held at Unforgiven. Results References External links","WrestleMania XV WrestleMania XVwas the 15th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 28, 1999, at theFirst Union CenterinPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania. Tenprofessional wrestling matcheswere scheduled on the event'scard. The ticket sales of 20,276 drew a gross of $1,437,050. The main event saw the challengerStone Cold Steve AustinfaceThe Rockin ano disqualification matchfor theWWF Championship. The penultimate match sawThe UndertakerwrestleBig Boss Manin aHell in a Cellmatch. Lower on the card, six of the promotion's seven activechampionshipswere defended, including the first WrestleMania defense of theHardcore Championship. Also on the undercard was aBrawl for Allmatch, an unscripted type of shootfight between wrestlerBart Gunnand boxer/mixed martial artistButterbean. This event also marked the final WWF appearance forGorilla Monsoon,who died in October that year. Production Background WrestleManiais theWorld","theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" pay-per-views, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XV was scheduled on March 28, 1999, at theFirst Union CenterinPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania. Storylines WhenRoad Dogg Jesse Jamesand \"Bad Ass\"Billy Gunnlost theWWF Tag Team ChampionshiptoThe Corporation,they tried their hand at singles wrestling for some time. Gunn failed in his attempts to win theWWF Intercontinental Championship, but Road Dogg becomingHardcore Championuntil an injury prevented him from honoring a championship match withAl Snow. Snow ended up fighting himself and thenBob Hollyfor the vacant belt atSt. Valentine's Day","Valentine's Day Massacre: In Your House, with Holly winning the title at the banks of theMississippi River.When Road Dogg won the Intercontinental Championship onRaw Is WarGunn fought Holly (now Hardcore Holly) and won when Holly crashed into an ad-hoc announcers tableJim Rosshad constructed for his pirate broadcast of the show.Holly felt enraged that circumstances had conspired against him, while Snow still wanted another chance at the belt. In the previous year, due to the suddenly enlarged roster, ashootfighting(unscripted) knockout tournament titledBrawl for Allwas organized on a voluntary basis, with Bart Gunn winning the tournament on August 24after defeating every opponent by knockout aside from his opening-round opponent Bob Holly. When Holly rechristened himself Hardcore Holly on February 15, decrying poor gimmicks and tag-team partners he had been given in the past, Gunn made his first appearance since winning the tournament, to remind Holly that not all his partners were of a poor caliber.After a","caliber.After a hardcore match between the two, which Gunn dominated until a masked assailant, revealed to be\"Dr. Death\" Steve Williams, threw him off the stage. Williams did this out of revenge for losing to Gunn in the Brawl for All. The week after on Raw Is War, Williams' managerJim Rossannounced to Gunn he would be facing notedmixed martial artistandboxerEric \"Butterbean\" Esch, who held a 43–1–1 record at the time, who challenged him to a Brawl for All fight. From November'sSurvivor Seriesuntil the night after St. Valentine's Day Massacre,The Rockand Mankind (Mick Foley) traded theWWF Championshipnumerous times as Mr. McMahonscrewedMankind time and time again on his quest to headline WrestleMania. In their final match, aRaw Is Warladder match,Paul Wightdelivered theShowstopperto Mankind as he was about to win the match,removing his chances of appearing the main event. However, as Mr. McMahon's conspiracy of appointing Big Show as special guest referee to secure The Rock as champion began to fall apart,","to fall apart, Mankind constantly offered his services as a second official. With The Rock and Big Show causing infighting in the Corporation, Mankind successfully canvassed for a chance to referee; rather than have two conflicting referees, a match was booked to give the winner the right to officiate. When Ryan Shamrock (Alicia Webb) appeared front row onRaw Is Waron January 11, she gained attention not only from her brother but alsoVal Venis, who performed a flirtatious dance for her, and \"Badd Ass\" Billy Gunn, who lived up to his moniker by mooning her. Enraged,Ken Shamrockfought Gunn at theRoyal Rumble,then Venis at St. Valentine's Day Massacre, with Venis winning the Intercontinental Championship thanks to help from Ryan.Venis soon dumped Ryan,and she began a relationship with Goldust (Dustin Rhodes). Venis also unwittingly lost his championship to Road Dogg onRaw Is Warand found himself defending his championship against the important men in Ryan Shamrock's life in a four-corners elimination match.","elimination match. After The Rock won his\"I Quit\" matchagainst Mankind at the Royal Rumble by playing a recording of his voice,Triple Hdemanded an I Quit match of his own, but as he was about to put Rock through the announcers table, The Corporation came to the ring andKaneheld his manager/girlfriendChynahostage, demanding that he quit the match. As soon as the match was over, Chynalow blowedTriple H and revealed her alliances with The Corporation, promising aValentine's Daypresent at the subsequent pay-per-view. Despite almost having the match won, Triple H suffered at the hands of an interferingShane McMahonand illegal man Kane's chokeslam.Triple H took revenge on the February 22Raw Is Warby interfering in X-Pac's (Sean Waltman) match with Chyna, causing her to lose. Chyna called Triple H out on March 8, but before they could fight, Kane came to the ring. Chyna held up Triple H as Kane shot afireballat him, though he would duck out of the way causing (kayfabe) severe retinal damage to Chyna. Despite not","Chyna. Despite not receiving any damage, Triple H maintained that the fireball was meant for him, an insult he took personally and an intended injury he wanted to return at WrestleMania. On March 22, Kane prepared to have a match against Goldust, but as he threw off his entrance robes and wig, it turned out he was Triple H holding a flamethrower, shooting flames in Kane's face.Meanwhile, X-Pac, who had altercations with Shane McMahon prior to the February event, was frustrated with Shane's interference in the match and goaded into putting hisEuropean Championshipon the line in a tag-team match with Triple H against Kane and Shane, which Shane won thanks to Triple H being distracted by Chyna.With Shane claiming himself to be a fighting champion, he agreed to a rematch at WrestleMania, but regularly interfered in X-Pac's matches up until that point, culminating in a Greenwich Street Fight on March 22 that ended in a no-contest when theMean Street Posseambushed X-Pac and drove off with Shane in their car.","Shane in their car. Toriwas sitting front row as aplantas early as September 14'sRaw Is War, but it was not until late December that she began to act with stalker tendencies, sending flowers and notes to Sable, theWomen's Championand even helping her to defend her title againstLuna Vachonat the Royal Rumble.OnRaw Is Warthe night after the previous pay-per-view, Tori invaded the ring again and was publicly shouted at and humiliated by Sable. Vachon then brought Tori to the ring a fortnight after, reprimanding Sable for her ego, but a still-obsessed Tori helped attack Vachon. The following week on March 8'sRaw Is War, Tori fought Vachon with Sable in her corner but after receiving asquashfrom Vachon, Sable also gave Tori aSable Bomb, leading to Tori interrupting Sable'sPlayboyinterview by demanding a championship match at WrestleMania. Having beenburied alivein a Royal Rumble qualification match atRock Bottom: In Your House,The Undertakerdisappeared from television whileThe Acolytes, Faarooq (Ron Simmons) and","(Ron Simmons) and Bradshaw (John Layfield), began to act strangely, eventually abductingDennis Knightand leaving him tied up in a darkened room. On January 11, The Undertaker returned in slightly new attire, taking a seat in a ceremonial throne on theRaw Is Warstage whilePaul Bearerstood beside him and The Acolytes brought Knight out and tied him to a table. There, Undertaker performed a ritualistic ceremony, rechristening him Mideon.Undertaker began delivering ambiguous apocalyptic messages, but after recruiting Mabel, now Viscera (Nelson Frazier, Jr.) andThe Brood, he began to be more direct, revealing his plan to attack Mr. McMahon and take over the World Wrestling Federation. The security of Mr. McMahon's Corporation,Big Boss Man, challenged the Ministry to a six-man tag team match, which ended in a no-contest when the Ministry abducted Shane McMahon and took him to Undertaker, who threatened him while choking him then gave him a letter to give to his father. McMahon replied the following week on","following week on February 22 by booking The Undertaker in anInferno matchwith Kane onRaw Is War, the first network television airing of that type of match. During the match, McMahon provided commentary, nonchalantly revealing he had placed Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match against Big Boss Man for WrestleMania. During the match, Paul Bearer gave an ominous gift to McMahon, a teddy bear. After Undertaker set Kane on fire, he turned to the enraged McMahon, taking the teddy bear (later revealed to belong toStephanie McMahon) and setting it alight, reducing Vince to his knees.Trying to defeat either of his problems, McMahon declared he'd never show such weakness again and put Mankind against Undertaker, which ended with Undertaker almost chokeslamming McMahon through the announcers table until Boss Man saved him.Undertaker continued with his mind games on March 8, ordering his Ministry to look for Boss Man all night and attacking any innocents in his way, eventually capturing Boss Man and crucifying him.","and crucifying him. Boss Man managed to escape while police were being beaten off by Undertaker's minions until he offered himself to the police while being derided by McMahon. The following week he continued his assault, with videos playing throughout the evening of the Ministry at McMahon's mansion ending in McMahon coming to the ring while Triple H brawled with Kane, begging Kane to help him. Kane ripped off his mask to reveal it was actually The Undertaker who grabbed McMahon by the throat as the lights turned off in the arena and when they came up, he was gone with McMahon alone in the ring. The main event of the evening was another chapter in the ongoing rivalry betweenStone Cold Steve Austinand McMahon, which dated back to when Austin won the Royal Rumble in 1998.After Austin won the WWF Championship atWrestleMania XIV,McMahon set on a six-month-long quest to take the championship from him. With the exception of a one day reign by Kane, who won the championship in a First Blood Match atKing of the","Match atKing of the Ringwhen his (kayfabe) brother The Undertaker caused Austin to bleed first, Austin thwarted each attempt by McMahon untilBreakdown: In Your Housein September 1998. There, Austin defended the championship against Undertaker and Kane in what was billed as a triple threat match. McMahon added a stipulation, however, that neither brother could pin the other to win the match;this led to both men simultaneously pinning Austin, causing him to lose the match and the championship. This had been part of a deal McMahon had made with the two men to protect him from Austin, with the reward of the championship if they were successful. However, McMahon went back on his word after Austin attacked him on the next night’sRawand announced he was forcing Undertaker and Kane to wrestle for the vacant championship atJudgment Day: In Your House. He also named Austin the special guest referee, hoping to humiliate him by forcing him to declare a new champion. Austin, however, had other ideas and counted both men","counted both men out, declaring himself the winner of the match and leaving the championship vacant. ADeadly Gamestournament was scheduled forSurvivor Seriesin November, in which it turned out that The Rock, not Mankind, was McMahon's choice for winner and had the tournament manipulated to his advantage, while Austin lost in a match when McMahon's son Shane, acting as referee, refused to count a pinfall to go to the finals.Knowing Rock would be busy feuding with Mankind, McMahon realized Austin was likely to use the 1999 Royal Rumble, rather than a personal attack, to attempt to reclaim the belt and laid down the stipulation that he must win a Buried Alive match against The Undertaker to be in the Rumble. When he did, with some help from Kane,McMahon further tried to prevent Austin winning back the championship by \"randomly\" drawing him as the first entrant in the Rumble and drawing himself as the 30th. Having annoyed commissionerShawn Michaels, McMahon was placed into the match as the second entrant.","the second entrant. McMahon would later try to incentivize other wrestlers to eliminate Austin by putting a $100,000 bounty on him during the Royal Rumble match. Despite this, Austin (and, for that matter, McMahon) managed to stay in the match to the very end, although this was mostly due to he and McMahon leaving the ring at various points to brawl around the arena. Late in the match The Rock, who earlier in the evening had regained the WWF Championship, came to the ring and started arguing with Austin. McMahon took advantage of the distraction and threw Austin over the top rope, thus winning the match. Since he was officially now the winner of the Royal Rumble, McMahon was entitled to face whoever the WWF Champion was at WrestleMania. On the following night's episode ofRaw, however, he announced that, since he was only a part-timer and the champion was a fellow Corporation member in The Rock, that he had filed paperwork relinquishing his WrestleMania championship opportunity and that he would be naming a","would be naming a replacement later in the evening. To his chagrin, Austin and Michaels informed him shortly thereafter that, according to the rules, his actions resulted in Austin, as the runner-up in the Royal Rumble, taking his place. With McMahon irate, Austin revealed he was willing to put his place on the line and not headline WrestleMania if McMahon would give him the opportunity to fight him one on one with no interference from The Corporation; if McMahon could beat him, Austin would not go to WrestleMania. Their steel-cage match at St. Valentine's Day Massacre mostly consisted of McMahon running away, but eventually the two fought with Austin winning the match under unusual circumstances whenBig Showmade his debut, coming from under the ring and throwing Austin into the cage with the walls of it coming open, meaning that Austin had inadvertently won. Event (Brawl For All) Pre-show The event was marked with aRage Partythe preceding evening at thePennsylvania Convention Center, playing on the tagline","on the tagline of the event, much likeFan Axessthat would come in later years. It included music fromIsaac Hayes,Big Pun, and theCherry Poppin' Daddies. During theSunday Night Heatpre-show, Jacqueline (Jacqueline Moore) pinned Ivory (Lisa Moretti) after a back suplex.After the match,Terri Runnelsburned her cigar into Ivory's cheek. The secondHeatmatch saw a 21-man battle royal match with the last two competitors becoming a tag team for the evening to face the Tag Team Championship holders. In the event,D'Lo Brownand Test (Andrew Martin) were the last two, still fighting without realizing the match was over when Droz (Darren Drozdov) and The Godfather (Charles Wright) eliminated each other.The show officially began withBoyz II Mensinging \"America the Beautiful\" in the ring before the opening video. Preliminary matches The inaugural WrestleMania Hardcore Championship match began with Al Snow striking Billy Gunn as he tried to make apre-match speech. With Gunn in the corner, Snow fought with Hardcore Holly","with Hardcore Holly outside the ring, wrapping his neck in cable but, after some fighting from Gunn, Holly was able tosuplexSnow. After Gunn again interjected himself, Snow was able to go underneath the mat to find some weapons including aPhiladelphia Flyershockey stick much to the delight of the crowd. The match ended when Gunn put Snow through a table in the corner, originally intended for Gunn and then used theFameasseron Snow, driving him into a chair on the mat. As the referee counted, Holly struck Gunn with a weapon, quickly covering Snow to steal his second championship reign. TheWWF Tag Team Championshipmatch began withJeff Jarrettand D'Lo Brown exchanging running maneuvers before both tagging in their respective partners, at which point Test used apumphandle slamonOwen Hart, but tried again after a failed pin attempt only to be met with anenziguiriand then theSharpshooter. Brown came in illegally to break it up but was tagged in straight afterward, dominating both Hart and Jarrett with power slams","with power slams and dropkicks, almost winning the match after aSky Highthat was broken up by Jarrett. RefereeJimmy Korderaswas distracted when Debra (Debra Marshall) came to the apron to distract Brown only to be pulled down by Ivory (Lisa Moretti), at which pointPMS(Terri RunnelsandJacqueline Moore) arrived and all of them began to fight while Test tried to pull them apart. With everyone distracted, Hartmissile dropkickedBrown allowing Jarrett to roll Brown up and sit on him, securing a pin count. The Brawl For All match began with the two meetings in the middle, Gunn running into some blows from Butterbean. The two traded punches, neither man managing to contact properly until Butterbean shook Gunn with a left-hand jab followed by a right hook which stunned Gunn allowing Bean to corner him, giving him another right hook which knocked him down. Gunn immediately came back upon his knees but took advantage of the eight seconds before standing up fully. As the fight resumed, Butterbean jabbed Gunn to the body","Gunn to the body and followed with a clean overhand right which sent Gunn back to the canvas, giving Butterbean a victory via knockout.The match lasted a total of 34 seconds.This was followed with an appearance fromthe San Diego Chicken, who mocked special refereeVinny Pazienzaand was punched to the floor for it. On the WWF WrestleMania special onHSNlater during the pay per view, after the Shane McMahon match\"Dr. Death\" Steve Williamscut a promo on Bart Gunn in a backstage interview withJim Rossby his side, saying the Butterbean's punch \"wasn't lucky\" and that \"Bart deserved what he got\", telling the viewer to keep watching WWF because \"the Doctor hasn't finished his job yet\".This was in hopes of setting up an angle between Williams and Gunn, and to continue building Williams as a credible midcarder. However, because of Gunn being released, their feud instead carried over toAll Japan Pro Wrestlingin the early 2000s, where in Japan the Brawl For All was better received. When Mankind entered the ring he was","the ring he was immediatelyheadbuttedout, but as Big Show followed him out, Mankind slammed Show's head into the steel steps. He then tried adouble-armed DDTinto the steps but was shoved over the steps falling backward. Show dominated Mankind in the ring afterward, using his sheer size to punch and throw Mankind, with Mankind eventually being tied up in the ropes, which allowed him to back body drop Show out of the ring. Mankind then took out Mr. Socko, a smelly gym sock, and stuffed the foul-smelling sock into the Big Show’s mouth with themandible clawthree times. The third claw came with alow blow, for which Mankind was not disqualified. When Show stood back up, he had Mankind on his back with the sock in his mouth and jumped backward so that his entire body landed on Mankind, breaking up the hold. As the two recovered, Show kicked his opponent out of the ring, grabbing a steel chair and thrusting it into Mankind's chest then hitting it over his back. Big Show threw that chair and another in the ring,","in the ring, setting them both in seated positions andShow StoppingMankind through the middle of them. At this pointEarl Hebnerfinally decided to disqualify Big Show, with Show taking out his anger by attacking Mankind more with the chair. Mr. McMahon made his way to the ring afterward, berating Big Show for risking the WWF Championship match at which point Show grabbed him by the throat. He then thought better of it and released him, only to be met with another tirade from McMahon and a slap, causing Show to punch McMahon and knock him out. The four corners Intercontinental match began with Ken Shamrock and Road Dogg in the ring, with the latter being thrown from corner to corner until Goldust tagged his way in, with runningshoulder bargesthat floored Shamrock. Shamrock tagged in Venis who came in and instantly attacked Shamrock until Goldustbackdroppedhim. Goldust tried theCurtain Callbut Venis flipped over Goldust's back only to be knocked down again by aclotheslinefrom Goldust who then put Venis on the","put Venis on the turnbuckle and attempted asuperplexbut Venis fought back and replied with adiving bulldogfollowing with afisherman suplex pinwhich would only make a two count. The two then collided in the turnbuckle, causing Goldust to fall down and Venis to fall on him, headbutting his crotch. Shamrock took a blind tag from Road Dogg, after he replaced Goldust, immediately putting anankle lockuntil Venis grabbed the bottom rope. As Venis grabbed the ropes to stand up again Shamrock charged him but was tossed over the ropes as Ryan Shamrock insulted him. Venis went after Ken Shamrock and the two fought up the walkway with Shamrock running back to the ring but not fast enough to avoid a double count-out. Shamrock, not accepting the decisionbelly to belly suplex slammedboth competitors before leaving. When they recovered Goldust Irish whipped Road Dogg but had it reversed and as Goldust ran into the ropes he had his leg caught by Ryan Shamrock, seemingly trying to grab Road Dogg's leg. Road Dogg charged","Road Dogg charged Goldust and was picked up for apowerslambut managed to roll Goldust round, crashing him into the floor and covering him for a successful pin count. Before Kane's match with Triple H, Kane entered the ring only to be attacked while he was performing his signature entrance by the San Diego Chicken. Kane fought back and unmasked the chicken, revealing it to bePete Rose, trying to gain revenge for theprevious year's incidentbut receiving aTombstone piledriver.Triple H also tried to ambush Kane by coming through the crowd while all eyes were on the stage entrance, hitting Kane out of the ring and then hitting him into the ring post and whipping him into the steel steps. Kane then picked Triple H up and straddled him on the crowd barrier, pushing him into theMean Street Possewho were at ringside, picking him up again to ram his back into the steel post three times. Back inside the ring, Kane dominated Helmsley with his rough fighting style, using his foot to choke Triple H and knocking him down","knocking him down with clotheslines and punches until Triple H gained momentum from a reversal, smashing Kane's face into his knee. Kane was allowed time to recover when Triple H was distracted by Chyna coming to ringside. Triple H tried toPedigreeKane as he stood up but failed while Chyna pushed the steel steps into the ring. Kane picked them up and ran into Triple H, who used the turnbuckle to swing his feet up and kicked them back into Kane causing Kane to stagger backward and drop them before smashing his face into the steps from adrop toe-hold. Triple H then clotheslined Kane out of the ring, following himself and attempting to Pedigree Kane on the steps but wasbackbody dropped. When they made it back into the ring Kane chokeslammed Triple H while Chyna entered the ring with a steel chair, telling Kane she wanted to attack Triple H, but as Kane turned, Chyna hit him with the chair, causing him to corner her but again was hit with the chair, this time by Triple H, who followed it up with a Pedigree onto","a Pedigree onto the chair. Chyna and Triple H celebrated the reunion of D-Generation X afterwards. The Women's Championship match began with Tori taking her time to enter the ring, Sable grabbing her hair when she finally did and tossing her back out. Tori regrouped outside and pulled Sable out by her legs, ramming her face into the apron and the barricade. She was whipped into the barrier herself and as she recovered, Sable performed acrossbodyfrom the outside apron. Sable continuously assaulted Tori while down on the mat, but Tori delivered two vicious clotheslines to the corner on Sable, then attempted asunset flip pinwhich began a series of pinning reversals ending in a stalemate. Afterward Tori tried a running attack on Sable but took out referee Jimmy Korderas unwittingly. Sable then tried to perform herSable Bombbut Tori jumped out of it. As she tried to perform her own powerbomb, a muscled woman, later identified asNicole Bass, came into the ring togorilla press slamTori. This allowed Sable to Sable","Sable to Sable Bomb Tori and pin her to retain the championship. Before X-Pac could make his way to the ringPat PattersonandGerald Briscoattacked him from behind but caused the little problem to X-Pac who beat them then ran into the ring, with Shane McMahon fleeing. Shane eventually made his way to the ring and was punched into the corner, escaping aBronco Busterwhen Test pulled him out of the ring. Shane tried to escape once again but X-Pac chased him and threw him back into the ring, only to be struck down by Test and then have his crotch rammed into the ring post. When he returned to the ring Shanescoop slammedhim and attempted aCorporate Elbow, with X-Pac sitting up just before the end but he was brought back down with a low blow as refereeMike Chiodawas distracted by Test. Shane continued to push the disqualification boundaries by whipping X-Pac with his belt several times before being back body dropped out of the ring, recovering only to be met with a flying crossbody. The Mean Street Posse tried to","Posse tried to restrain X-Pac but he fought back, only to be floored by Test. After a superplex, the pin-count was broken up by Test but he was soon kicked out of the ring then X-Pac whipped McMahon with the belt before round house kicking him into the corner and performing the Bronco Buster. When Chioda checked on McMahon afterward, Test struck X-Pac with the championship belt but by the time McMahon covered him he managed to kick out. Test tried to interfere but took a Bronco Buster too. Triple H and Chyna came to the ring to pull Test out but when McMahon was floored by anX Factor, Chyna distracted the referee to allow Triple H to Pedigree X-Pac and cover him with Shane, turningheeland allowing him to retain the title. The New Age Outlaws ran to the ring and brawled with Triple H and Test until the lights went out and Kane's music began to play but by the time the lights came up The Corporation were clear of the ring and had fled. Main event matches The Hell in a Cell match began with Big Boss Man","with Big Boss Man punching The Undertaker into the corner until he ducked out and returned the same. Although Boss Man was able to deliver aswinging neckbreaker, Undertaker took control again throwing Boss Man into the cell. Boss Man reversed an Irish whip and threw Undertaker into the cell too, handcuffing one hand to the chain fence. Boss Man taunted Undertaker's lack of control before striking him repeatedly with hisnight stickcausing Undertaker to fall to the floor and rip the handcuffs, though Boss Man carried on using the nightstick andcut Undertaker open. Undertaker fought back by grabbing Boss Man at the throat and throwing him back into the fence again, striking him with a chair and running Boss Man face-first into the chain fence with afireman's carry. As the two returned to the ring Boss Man tried to clothesline Undertaker but he ducked and performed aleaping flying clotheslineof his own before goingOld School, ultimately falling into the ropes. The two began a fistfight in the middle of the ring","middle of the ring with Undertaker failing a tombstone piledriver attempt, but successfully performing it seconds later and pinned him afterwards.Undertaker stood up and looked to the heavens with his hands upwards, signalingThe Broodto descend onto the roof of the cell. They cut open the roof of the cell and passed through a noose, securing the other end to the top of the cell. The Brood then ascended back into the rafters as Undertaker put the noose around Boss Man's neck, with Paul Bearer causing the Cell to rise and take a hanging Boss Man with it.After the match a video package of theRage Partywas shown while Boss Man was taken down and carried off on a stretcher. Before the main event,Michael ColeannouncedJim Rossreturning to call the match. Mr. McMahon then came to the ring as the special guest referee but was confronted by CommissionerShawn Michaels, who explained that only the commissioner is entitled to appoint a referee for WrestleMania, ordering McMahon to the back and barring all members of The","all members of The Corporation from ringside. The main event began with the two wrestlers insulting each other before Austin threw the first punch, The Rock instantly returning. The majority of the early part of the match took place outside the ring, with Austin being choked with a T-shirt then taking Rock through the crowd before returning into the secure area and into the crowd the opposite end. When Rock threw Austin back into the secure area he choked him on some cable and took him up the walkway, but Austin fought out of his grasp and threw him into the steel barriers, trying to piledrive him but being backbody dropped so that his knee landed onto light support girders. Rock picked up Austin and threw him into the WrestleMania XV sign but Austin circled round and threw Rock into them instead, then dragged him back towards the ring having a suplex reversed on the concrete walkway. Rock then tried to throw Austin back through the crowd at ringside, spitting water in his face but Austin took control and","took control and put him onto the Spanish announce table, performing two elbow drops to break the table and then spat water into Rock's face. Austin threw his opponent into the ring, celebrating to the crowd but when he entered the ring Rock sprang up and drove Austin into the floor with aRock Bottom, following with an unsuccessful pin cover. The Rock grabbed a chair but Austin took it from him, Rock blocked the oncoming chair shot by pulling referee Mike Chioda in front of him, who took the chair shot. Rock then caught Austin by surprise with a swinging neckbreaker, taking the chair and driving it into Austin's back several times. After another pin attempt, withTim Whitenow officiating, Austin still kicked out and Rock used asitting chin holdto subdue him. After holding him for some time, Austin slowly stood up, elbowing Rock and attempting a running attack but was taken out with aSamoan drop, which Austin again kicked out of. The Rock took his frustration out on White, Rock Bottoming him,which gave Austin","gave Austin the time to recover and attack the champion with aStone Cold Stunner, withEarl Hebnereventually coming in to officiate but only counting to two before Rock kicked out. Mr. McMahon came to the ring, distracting Austin while The Rock low-blowed him; the two men kicking away at Austin in the corner and punching Hebner when he tried to stop them. As the two double-teamed Austin, Mankind came running to the ring in his referee's uniform,throwing McMahon straight out the ring and taking over as referee. Austin tried a roll-up pin, following up with aLou Thesz Pressbut Rock soon took the advantage with another Rock Bottom. With Austin in the middle of the ring, The Rock tried theCorporate Elbowbut Austin moved out of the way at the last second. Rock caught Austin's foot and spun him around, trying to Rock Bottom him again but Austin elbowed him away and delivered a stunner, finally securing a pinfall and winning the WWF Championship. Reception The event was met with mixed critical response.Canadian","response.Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event five out of 10 stars. The main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin for the WWF Championship was rated eight out of 10 stars; the Hell in a Cell match between The Undertaker and Big Boss Man was rated five out of 10 stars; the match between Shane McMahon and X-Pac for the WWF European Championship was rated seven out of 10 stars; the match between Sable and Tori for the WWF Women's Championship was rated one out of 10 stars; the match between Triple H and Kane was rated four out of 10 stars; the referee match between Mankind and Big Show was rated four out of 10; the four-corners elimination match for the WWF Intercontinental Championship between Road Dogg Jesse James, Ken Shamrock, Goldust, and Val Venis was rated five out of 10 stars; the tag team match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between D'Lo Brown and Test against Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett was rated three out of 10 stars; and the triple threat","the triple threat match for the WWF Hardcore Championship between Hardcore Holly, Billy Gunn, and Al Snow was rated six out of 10 stars. Writing for 411Mania in 2009, Rob McNew gave the event a rating of 5.5/10, stating, \"Like mostAttitude Erashows this one doesn’t hold up very well ten years later\" though he praised the main event bout between Rock and Austin.Similarly, Scott Keith gave the event an overall negative rating, while calling the Rock vs. Austin match \"solid by default\" and complimenting Shane McMahon's performance given his lack of wrestling experience.In 2012,Bleacher Reportranked the event 25th out of the 27 Wrestlemanias to that point, calling the event \"underwhelming\" and criticizing theHell in a Cellmatch. Aftermath Stone Cold Steve Austin's feud with The Corporation continued after WrestleMania with Austin demanding the return of his customized smoking skull belt that was taken from him after losing the WWF Championship atBreakdown: In Your Housein 1998. WithThe Ministry of","WithThe Ministry of Darknesscontinuing to threaten his family, Mr. McMahon was forced to comply with his nemesis' demands and requested his son Shane to deliver the belt to Austin. Shane, however, refused and took matters with Austin into his own hands by giving the smoking skull belt to The Rock. This culminated in a rematch between Austin and The Rock atBacklash 1999while McMahon served as a special guest referee. Austin defeated The Rock to retain the WWF Championship after Mr. McMahon prevented Shane from screwing him and handed the smoking skull belt back to Austin. The Ministry of Darkness continued their ongoing war with The Corporation with The Undertaker going after Mr. McMahon's daughterStephanie. The Undertaker continued to make sacrifices includingRyan Shamrockleading to a feud between Undertaker and Ken Shamrock who wanted revenge for Undertaker's actions to his family with Undertaker defeating Shamrock at Backlash: In Your House. When The Undertaker did successfully find Stephanie, Shamrock, in","Shamrock, in his quest to get revenge on Undertaker, continued to beat down and interrogate members of The Ministry of Darkness for McMahon's whereabouts. AfterChristiantold Shamrock McMahon's whereabouts, Undertaker punished Christian by whipping him and have him face Crucifixion.EdgeandGangrel, who along with Christian were members of their own stableThe Broodand were loyal to Christian decided to rescue him, betraying The Ministry. The Ministry got revenge by defeating The Brood in a Six-Man Tag Team Match at Backlash. Bart Gunn would leave the WWF after his match against Butterbean. On theDark Side of the Ringepisode on theBrawl for All, Gunn said he felt his match against Butterbean was \"punishment\" for winning the Brawl and knocking out Steve \"Dr. Death\" Williams during the event (Williams suffered other injuries during the match) which was not what the bookers wanted (they wanted Williams to win to give him a push against \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin). Gunn would not return to WWF TV until 2007. Nicole","until 2007. Nicole Bass continued to accompany Sable to the ring and destroyed all competition for Sable's WWF Women's Championship. After HHH washed his hands of D-Generation X and joined Chyna in the Corporation, X-Pac teamed up with Kane to form an unlikely tag team, and captured the WWF Tag Team titles from Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett. The City of Philadelphia would later host the event again in2024with this time being held at the nearbyLincoln Financial Fieldin commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the event held in the city and the 40th anniversary of the WrestleMania. Results References External links","WrestleMania X-Seven WrestleMania X-Seven(also known asWrestleMania 17) was the 17th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF). It took place on April 1, 2001, at theReliant AstrodomeinHouston, Texas. It was the first WrestleMania held in thestateofTexas. Twelve matches were contested at the event, including one broadcast exclusively on theSunday Night Heatpre-show. Themain eventwas aNo Disqualification matchbetweenThe Rockand\"Stone Cold\" Steve Austinfor theWWF Championship. TheundercardincludedTriple HversusThe Undertaker, the secondTables, Ladders, and Chairs matchfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipand aStreet FightbetweenVince McMahonandShane McMahonwithMick Foleyas special guest referee. A record-breaking attendance for the Reliant Astrodome of 67,925 grossedUS$3.5 million.Many in professional wrestling considered WrestleMania X-Seven to be the pinnacle of the company's famousAttitude Era, similar to howWrestleMania IIIwas the pinnacle of the","the pinnacle of the 80's wrestling boom. The WWF bought out rival competitionWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) the week prior. In addition to its commercial success, the event has received acclaim from critics and fans, and is often regarded as the greatest WrestleMania of all time, and the greatest professional wrestling pay-per-view event ever produced. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) first flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania 17, stylized as WrestleMania X-Seven, was scheduled to be held on April 1, 2001, at theReliant AstrodomeinHouston, Texas, the first","Texas, the first WrestleMania held in thestateofTexas. Storylines The main feud leading into WrestleMania X-Seven involved\"Stone Cold\" Steve AustinchallengingThe Rockfor theWWF Championship.The Rock and \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin had fought for the WWF Championship atWrestleMania XVandBacklashin 1999. Stone Cold Steve Austin earned his opportunity to compete for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania X-Seven by winning the2001 Royal Rumblematch when he last eliminatedKane, while The Rock became the first ever six-time WWF Champion when he defeatedKurt AngleatNo Way Out.During their feud, Austin's wifeDebra, who was trying to get back into managing, was ordered by WWF chairman,Vince McMahon, to be The Rock's manager against her wishes as well as both Rock and Austin's. As a result, Austin would hold The Rock and McMahon responsible if any harm came to her. On the March 12 episode ofRaw is War, The Rock was placed in an overlongAnkle Lockhold during his rematch with Kurt Angle. When Debra went to check on The","to check on The Rock, Angle also placed her into an Ankle Lock hold. Austin soon ran in to save her and knocked Angle out of the ring. Keeping to his word, he immediately gave The Rock aStone Cold Stunneras punishment. The following week on Raw is War, during a handicap tag team match involving The Rock,Chris Jericho,Kurt Angle,Chris Benoit, andWilliam Regal, Austin made his way down to the ring and ended up getting a Rock Bottom from The Rock in response to the stunner from the previous week. On the March 29 episode ofSmackDown!, Debra was relieved from her managerial role by Mr. McMahon after failing to prevent a brawl between Rock and Austin. The secondary feud leading into the event pittedThe Brothers of Destruction(The UndertakerandKane) againstTriple HandThe Big Show. After defeating \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin in aThree Stages of Hellmatch at No Way Out, Triple H felt that he deserved to be in the WrestleMania main event having defeated everyone in the WWF, including The Rock and Austin.The Undertaker","Undertaker took exception to that and told him that Triple H had never defeated him. Before WrestleMania X-Seven, the two had never faced each other in a one-on-one match on a pay-per-view event.During his entrance for aHardcore Championshipmatch against The Big Show, Triple H ambushed Undertaker. Kane ran in and saved the Undertaker from a further attack but was met with his own ambush by The Big Show. On the following episode ofSmackDown!, Undertaker tried to break into the limousine of Triple H and his wife,Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, on arrival but ended up being arrested by the police. As a result, Kane requested a match against Triple H later that night but lost when The Big Show interfered on behalf of Triple H. In retaliation, Kane interfered in The Big Show's Hardcore Championship match againstRavenonRaw is War, helping Raven pin Big Show to become the new Hardcore Champion. Undertaker's arrest led to a restraining order from Stephanie. To circumvent this, the Brothers of Destruction interfered in","interfered in Triple H's match againstTest, with Kane ordered to run after Stephanie. With Stephanie held at ransom by Kane on a balcony in the arena, WWF commissionerWilliam Regalgave Undertaker and Kane matches at WrestleMania against Triple H and The Big Show respectively and the Undertaker told Kane to put her down. After being attacked during a Hardcore Championship title defense, Regal would later include Raven into Kane and Big Show's match, making it a Triple Threat Hardcore match for the Hardcore Championship. Another major feud that was built up in the lead to WrestleMania was the one involving Vince McMahon and his sonShane McMahon. The feud started with Vince's disapproval ofMick Foley's job as then-WWF commissioner as well as Foley's decision of holding a six-manHell in a Cellmatch atArmageddon 2000, taking into consideration about the well-being of the wrestlers involved in the match. Despite his attempts Foley was given full support byLinda McMahon, Vince's wife and the WWF's CEO. Not pleased","CEO. Not pleased with this result, Vince immediately demanded a divorce from Linda. Shortly after Armageddon, secretly to Vince's delight, it was revealed Linda was rushed to hospital suffering with a nervous breakdown. With Linda hospitalized, the Board of Directors appointed Vince as the new CEO of the WWF, allowing him to fire Foley as commissioner. With Linda in acoma-like state, Vince started to have a public affair withTrish Stratus. Vince's daughter, Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, was at first far from pleased about the turn of events. AtNo Way Out, Stephanie and Trish squared off, with Stephanie scoring the victory after arun-inby William Regal. On the February 26 episode ofRaw is War, however, during a match that placed Vince and Trish against Stephanie and William Regal, Stratus was turned on by the other participants in the match and had sewage dumped over her. In the following shows, Vince continued to demean Trish by having her do such actions as bark like a dog around the ring and stripping down","and stripping down to her lingerie. Despite this, Trish remained loyal to Vince and begged for his forgiveness. On the March 12 episode ofRaw is War, Shane McMahon made his return to the WWF. Angry with his father's actions, Shane started to throw punches at Vince only to be stopped by William Regal. Shane explained his actions on the following episode ofSmackDown!as a result of frustrations over the manipulation of his sister, his mother's state and Vince's treatment of Trish. On March 23, World Wrestling Federation Entertainment, Inc. purchased the assets of their longtime rival promotion,World Championship Wrestling(WCW) fromAOL Time Warner.With it, the purchase brought in an extra twist to the storyline. On the March 26 episode ofRaw is War(which was held atGund ArenainCleveland, Ohio), Vince McMahon made a live speech that was alsosimulcaston the final episode ofWCW Monday Nitro(which was held inPanama City Beach, Florida). In the speech, Vince announced that the signing was not final and that he","final and that he wantedTed Turnerto come to WrestleMania to hand-deliver the contract for signing. He then promised that with the purchase he was going to bury his rival forever. However, Shane, who was at the venue forNitro, interrupted the speech and said: Because, dad, the deal is finalized... with WCW, and the name on the contract does say \"McMahon\". However, the contract reads \"Shane McMahon\". That's right! I now own WCW! And, dad, just likeWCW did in the past, how it kicked your ass in the pastand it will again, that's exactly what's going to happen to you this Sunday at WrestleMania! Oh my god! I don't believe it! I do not believe what we heard.Shane McMahon has bought WCW, and Mr. McMahon is in absolute shock! -Jim Ross,play-by-play commentatorfor theRaw is Warepisode before the event. To make matters worse for Vince, Mick Foley appeared shortly afterward that night and revealed that prior to his firing, Linda had made multiple contracts for him to sign, one of them was for Foley to referee a match","to referee a match of his choice at WrestleMania. Foley then chose the match between Vince and Shane, which was designated astreet fight. At theRoyal Rumble, Chyna (kayfabe) injured her neck during a match with Ivory, causing her to lose the match and fail to capture the Women's Championship. In order for Chyna to again challenge for the title, Ivory required the match contract to include a \"hold harmless\" clause, stating that if Ivory injures Chyna's neck again, there could be no legal recourse against Ivory. In doing so, the contract also included a provision to ban Ivory'sRight To Censor(RTC) stablemates from ringside. Event Before the event airedliveon pay-per-view, aSunday Night Heatmatch was aired withSteve BlackmanandGrand Master Sexaysquaring off againstX-FactormembersX-PacandJustin Credible. Near the end of the match, fellow X-Factor memberAlbertinterfered by pulling Sexay out of the ring, allowing X-Pac and Credible to hit theirX Marks the Spotfinisher on Blackman for the win. The first match of","The first match of the event was theWWF Intercontinental Championshipmatch betweenChris Jerichoand WWF commissionerWilliam Regal. During the match, Regal exposed one of the top turnbuckles to throw Jericho's shoulder into it before giving him adouble underhooksuperplex. Jericho attempted theWalls of Jerichosubmission hold but had it reversed into aRegal Stretch. After Jericho managed to grab a ring rope to break the hold, he retaliated with numerouschopsbefore throwing Regal into the exposed turnbuckle and finishing him off with aLionsaultto retain the Intercontinental Championship. TazzandThe APA(BradshawandFaarooq) took onRight to Censor(The Goodfather,Val Venis, andBull Buchanan) next in a short match that ended with Bradshaw pinning the Goodfather after aClothesline from Hell. The third match was thetriple threathardcore matchbetweenRaven,KaneandThe Big Showfor theWWF Hardcore Championship. Raven came out with a shopping cart full of weapons. Kane and Raven began fighting before Big Show made his","Big Show made his entrance. During the match, the three wrestlers fought their way out of the ring and through the crowd into the backstage area. Big Show tried to lock himself, Raven and the referee in a security cage but Kane broke the padlock and afterward threw Raven through a glass window. Big Show and Kane continued to brawl ending with the two throwing each other through a wall. Raven tried to escape by driving off in agolf cart, but Big Show stopped him and caused him to crash. The golf cart also ran over some cords that allegedly almost knocked the power out of the building. Kane shortly followed with another golf cart, accompanied by the referee, and ran into Raven. The fight headed back into the stadium with Big Show attempting to press slam Raven off the entrance stage but both were kicked off it by Kane. Kane followed this with a divingleg dropoff the stage onto Big Show, pinning him to become the new Hardcore Champion. The fourth match was theWWF European Championshipmatch betweenTestandEddie","betweenTestandEddie Guerrero. During the match, Test went over the top rope but got his foot caught between the top two ropes, forcing the referee and Guerrero to have to untangle him. With the help of his fellowRadicalzmembersDean MalenkoandPerry Saturn, Guerrero hit Test in the face with the European Championship belt while the referee was distracted and pinned him to become the new champion. The fifth match pittedKurt AngleagainstChris Benoit. The match started with mat wrestling between the two but Angle soon punched Benoit out of frustration and threw him out of the ring, so he could throw him into the broadcast table and the steel steps. Back in the ring, both men tried to submit their opponent using the other's signature hold with Benoit using theankle lockon Angle, and Angle using theCrippler Crossfaceon Benoit. Benoit eventually succeeded in forcing Angle to tap out to the Crippler Crossface but the referee was knocked down and didn't see it. Near the end of the match, Benoit tried to pin Angle","tried to pin Angle after adiving headbuttbut was met with a two-count. Angle then quicklyrolled-upBenoit, using the tights for leverage to win the match. The following match sawChynachallenge theWWF Women's ChampionIvory. After an early bit of offense from Ivory, Chyna performed aChynabomband looked to have the pinfall, but picked Ivory up after the 2-count. Chyna then performed agorilla press dropand nonchalantly pinned Ivory to win the Women's Championship. The seventh match was thestreet fightbetweenShane McMahonandVince McMahonwithMick Foleyas the special guest referee. Shane dominated his father during the earlier part of the match by attacking him with various weapons such as a kendo stick and monitors from the Spanish broadcast table. Shane laid Vince on said table and performed adiving elbow dropoff the top rope but his sister,Stephanie, pulled Vince out of the way, causing Shane to crash through it.Trish Stratuscame towards the ring, pushingLinda McMahonout in a wheelchair, and then slapped Vince,","then slapped Vince, causing her and Stephanie to get into a fight that led them out of the stadium. As referee Foley tried to wheel Linda out to safety, Vince hit him with a steel chair, and then pulled Linda into the ring to make her watch as he beat down Shane with a garbage can. However, Linda stood up and low-blowed Vince, allowing Foley to recover and attack him. With Vince prone in the corner, Shane placed a garbage can in front of Vince's face and hit aCoast-to-Coastdropkick, pinning his father to win the match. The eighth match, dubbed \"TLC II\",was theTables, Ladders, and Chairs matchfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipbetween theHardy Boyz,Edge and Christianand theDudley Boyz, the defending champions. Respective associates of each tag team,Spike Dudleyfor the Dudley Boyz,Rhynofor Edge and Christian, andLitafor the Hardy Boyz, interfered during the match. With Spike (who had just taken a chair shot to the head from Lita) and Rhyno (who had already been dispatched by Jeff Hardy) both laying on two tables","on two tables outside the ring,Jeff Hardyset up a huge ladder beside them and performed aSwanton Bombonto them through the tables with most of his body landing on Spike, taking him out of the match. Lita was taken out of the match whenBubba RayandD-Von Dudleyperformed a 3-D on her. Jeff tried to unhook the belts but had the ladder beneath him pulled away by Bubba Ray, leaving him hanging in the air, and allowingEdgeto jump off another ladder andspearJeff to the ground at a height of 12 feet. Bubba Ray andMatt Hardyclimbed the same ladder but Rhyno tipped the ladder over, sending Bubba Ray and Matt through four stacked tables at ringside and taking them out of the match. D-Von then set the ladder up again and attempted to grab the titles, but was held back by Edge. With Edge holding onto D-Von's legs,Christiansat on Rhyno's shoulders as he climbed up the ladder and unhooked the belts, making him and Edge the new Tag Team Champions. A total of 9 tables were destroyed in this match, and every performer involved","performer involved except D-Von and Lita went through at least one table. The ninth match was agimmick battle royal, involving nineteen WWF alumni famous for their outlandishgimmicks. To further increase the nostalgia, former announcers\"Mean Gene\" OkerlundandBobby \"The Brain\" Heenanhandled commentary for the match.The Iron Sheikwon the match by throwingHillbilly Jimout of the ring. In revenge for being eliminated,Sgt. Slaughterreentered the ring and put him in theCobra Clutch. The penultimate match was betweenThe UndertakerandTriple H. For his entrance, Triple H had Britishheavy metalbandMotörheadperform his theme song,\"The Game\", live. The match started with the two fighting outside of the ring with Triple H quickly being put through the replacement Spanish announcers' table. Later on, refereeMike Chiodaaccidentally had Triple Hcatapultedinto him and was then attacked by Undertaker due to his dissatisfaction over a two-count. With Chioda knocked out, the two brawled outside the ring, through the crowd, and","the crowd, and into the technical area. On top of scaffolding, Triple H used a steel chair to attack Undertaker's legs, but Undertaker retaliated with achokeslamoff the scaffolding, followed by a diving elbow drop. Back in the ring, Undertaker hit Triple H with aTombstone piledriverand went for the pin but Chioda was still unconscious. Later in the match, Triple H tried to pin Undertaker after hitting him in the head with asledgehammerwhile in theLast Rideposition but only gained a two-count. Triple H sent Undertaker into the corner and stood on the second rope to hit him with more punches, but Undertaker countered with a Last Ride, allowing him to pin Triple H and increase his WrestleMania winning streak to 9–0. The final contest of the night was theWWF Championshipmatch betweenThe RockandStone Cold Steve Austin, which had a surpriseno disqualificationstipulation added just before the superstars were introduced. During the match, the two brawled inside and outside of the ring, with both men bleeding after","men bleeding after hitting each other with the ring bell. The Rock attempted to place Austin in aSharpshooterhold, but Austin reversed it into a Sharpshooter of his own. After Rock reached the ropes to force a break, Austin applied theMillion Dollar Dream, a submission hold best known from his former gimmick, The Ringmaster. Shortly after, Rock used Austin's own finishing maneuver on Austin by executing aStunner. Vince McMahon then came to ringside to observe the match. When Rock tried to pin Austin after thePeople's Elbow, McMahon seized Rock's leg and pulled him off Austin, breaking the pin attempt. After chasing McMahon around the ring, Austin responded by using Rock's signature move, theRock Bottom. Later, Rock executed a Rock Bottom for a near fall. After Rock attacked McMahon, he was given a Stunner by Austin for a near fall. After Rock kicked out of the Stunner, McMahon handed Austin a steel chair to hit Rock with at Austin's request, revealing that Austin had sided with McMahon, a man he once","a man he once considered hisnemesis. With this, Austin turnedheel.Austin attacked him with the steel chair, hitting him sixteen times, before pinning him and becoming the new WWF Champion. The show ended with Austin and McMahon shaking hands and sharing beers. Reception and legacy The event was met with universal acclaim from fans and critics alike. John Powell ofCanadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section rated the event a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, with the main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin in a No Disqualification Match for the WWF Championship rated 10 out of 10 stars. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boyz, Edge and Christian, and The Dudley Boyz also received a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, the Street Fight between Vince and Shane McMahon rated 7 out of 10 stars, the match between Triple H and The Undertaker rated 6 out of 10 stars and the match between Kurt Angle and Chris Benoit rated 8 out of 10 stars. X-Seven","10 stars. X-Seven was also awardedBest Major Showfor 2001 byDave Meltzer's Wrestling Observer Newsletter. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boys, Edge and Christian and The Dudley Boyz was also placed #5 onIGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History and noted that the match included \"some of the most memorable bumps wrestling fans have ever witnessed.\"D-Von Dudleyexpressed his belief that the match should be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame, stating: \"In my opinion, I think that we should — you know, then.W.ogot inducted into the Hall of Fame and those guys were already in it. How about a TLC induction? How about recognizing how special that match was? Because think about it, not only was the match special, but they actually nameda pay-per-viewafter it. So, you know, it has some relevance to it to be special, so why not put that match in the Hall of Fame?\"Matt Hardysaid it was his favorite career TLC match. In 2013, WWE released a list of","released a list of their \"15 best pay-per-views ever\", with WrestleMania X-Seven ranked at number one.In 2019, Troy L. Smith ofcleveland.comreleased a list of the \"50 greatest wrestling pay-per-views of all time\" from every professional wrestling promotion in the world, with WrestleMania X-Seven again ranked at number one. The promotional match preview video package for the main event, set toLimp Bizkit's \"My Way\", is widely considered one of the greatest wrestling video packages of all time. Aftermath The following night onRaw, Austin and The Rock faced each other in a rematch held in asteel cagewhich Triple H entered the cage and teased a fight with Austin before turning on The Rock. For several minutes Austin, Triple H, and Vince McMahon triple-teamed the outnumbered Rock forging an alliance with Triple H and Austin calledThe Two-Man Power Trip.The Rock was written out of the WWF's storylines with McMahon giving him asuspension. This allowed The Rock time off to begin filmingThe Scorpion King.The Rock","King.The Rock returned on the edition of July 30 ofRawand chose to fight for Team WWF overTeam WCW/ECW. Three weeks later atSummerSlam, The Rock won his firstWCW Championshipby defeatingBooker T. The Rock and Austin would face each other again atWrestleMania XIXin a rematch with The Rock winning. Following The Rock's suspension, Triple H's feud with the Brothers of Destruction continued with Austin now on his side. On the edition of April 5, 2001, ofSmackDown!, Triple H challengedIntercontinental ChampionChris Jericho for his title and after interference from CommissionerWilliam Regaland his wife Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley defeated Jericho to win his third Intercontinental Championship.The feud with Undertaker and Kane was temporarily put on hold after Triple H and Austin entered a brief rivalry with the Hardy Boyz, which resulted in Jeff Hardy beating Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship the following week and Triple H promptly regaining the title the next Monday onRaw. Meanwhile, the Brothers of","the Brothers of Destruction defeated Edge and Christian to become the newWWF Tag Team Championson the edition of April 19, 2001, ofSmackDown!in a no-disqualification match. Austin and Triple H decided to challenge Undertaker and Kane for their newly won titles, but due to some wrangling by Linda McMahon the match between the teams signed forBacklashforced the two to put up their singles titles against the tag team titles in a \"winner-take-all\" match. Triple H scored the pin after attacking Kane with his sledgehammer and the Power Trip became the second team in WWF history to hold both major singles titles and the tag team titles at the same time.The feud came to a climax atJudgment Daywhen Austin defeated Undertaker to retain the WWF Championship while Kane defeated Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship.The next night Austin and Triple H lost the tag team titles to Chris Jericho and Chris Benoit; during the course of the match Triple H tore his quadriceps tendon and would miss the remainder of the","remainder of the year, leaving Austin to feud with the tag team champions alone.The feud culminated in a Triple Threat Match atKing of the Ring, where Austin pinned Benoit to retain the WWF Championship. Ten years later in 2011, Undertaker and Triple H would once again renew their rivalry, went on to face each other in a rematch atWrestleMania XXVIIwith The Undertaker defeating HHH via submission, to set his WrestleMania winning streak to 19–0. A year later, they faced each other a third time atWrestleMania XXVIIIin a Hell in a Cell match withShawn Michaelsas the special guest referee. The Undertaker once again won the match to extend his WrestleMania winning streak to 20–0. Due to the acquisition of WCW, Vince's feud with Shane would later spiral intoThe Invasionstoryline that dominated the WWF in the latter half of the year. It consisted of WCW wrestlers \"invading\" the WWF's televised shows in an attempt to \"take over\" the WWF. TheExtreme Championship Wrestling(ECW) promotion would also be involved with","be involved with Stephanie as its new owner, merging WCW and ECW intoThe Alliance. Despite giving her own demands for a divorce shortly after WrestleMania, Linda would eventually reconcile with Vince in the wake of the Alliance's threat to the WWF. Shane McMahon's next feud would involveKurt Angleas he would crash Angle's Olympic Gold Medal Ceremony reenactment on the May 21 edition ofRaw. Angle was celebrating the return of his Gold Medal from Chris Benoit which he won back the previous night atJudgment Day. Shane mocked him while declaring the return of WCW, and he got an Angle slam for his efforts. Shane would return the favor on the June 11 edition ofRawwith an assist from The Undertaker. The two would eventually meet in astreetfightat King of the Ring, which was the third of three matches for Kurt Angle on the night. The other two matches were the Semifinals and Final of the King of the Ring tournament which Angle was the defending champion. He would lose to Edge thanks to interference from Shane.","from Shane. Following King of the Ring, Edge let success go to his head and this led to Christian becoming jealous of Edge's success. They would break up on the September 3, 2001, edition ofRawfollowing Christian's loss to The Rock in a WCW title match. After a brief feud for the WWF Intercontinental Championship, both would go on to become successful singles wrestlers in their own right with Edge being best known as the \"Rated R Superstar.\" This would be the only WrestleMania forPaul Heymanas a commentator. However he has served in a variety of roles for the WWE for the better part of the time since, including creative team member and manager of his longtime friend and clientBrock Lesnar. Results References External links"],"string":"[\n \"The Undertaker Mark William Calaway(born March 24, 1965), better known by hisring nameThe Undertaker, is an American retiredprofessional wrestler. Widely regarded as one of the greatest professional wrestlers of all time,Calaway spent the vast majority of his career wrestling forWWEand in 2022 was inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame. Calaway began his career in 1987, working under variousgimmicksforWorld Class Championship Wrestling(WCCW) and other affiliate promotions. He signed withWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) in 1989 for a brief stint, and then joined the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1990. Calaway rebranded himself as \\\"The Undertaker\\\" when he joined the WWF. As one of WWE's most high-profile and enduring characters,The Undertaker is famed for hisundead,funereal,macabre\\\"Deadman\\\" persona, which gained significant mainstream popularity and won him theWrestling Observer Newsletterawardfor Best Gimmicka record-setting 5 years in a row.He is the longest-tenured wrestler in company history at\",\n \"company history at 30 years. In 2000, the Undertaker adopted a biker identity nicknamed \\\"American Badass\\\". Calaway resurrected the Deadman gimmick in 2004, with residual elements of the \\\"American Badass\\\" remaining. For the better part of his career, the Undertaker was observed as a focal point of WWE's flagship annual event,WrestleMania, where he became esteemed forThe Streak— a series of 21 straight victories, and headlined the event five times (13,24,26,33and36). He is also known for pairing with hisin-storylinehalf-brotherKane, with whom he alternativelyfeudedandteamed(as theBrothers of Destruction) from 1997 through 2020. During his wrestling career under the Undertaker gimmick, Calaway won theWWF/E Championshipfour times, theWorld Heavyweight Championshipthree times, theHardcore Championshiponce and theWorld Tag Team Championshipsix times. He also won theRoyal Rumble matchin 2007. Early life Mark William Calaway was born inHouston,Texas, on March 24, 1965,the son of Frank Compton Calaway (died July\",\n \"Calaway (died July 2003) and Betty Catherine Truby.He has four older brothers named David, Michael, Paul, and Timothy (died March 2020, age 63).He attendedWaltrip High School, where he was a member of thefootballandbasketballteams. He graduated in 1983 and began studying on a basketball scholarship atAngelina CollegeinLufkin, Texas. In 1985, he enrolled inTexas Wesleyan UniversityinFort Worth, Texas, where hemajoredinsport managementand played as acenterfor theRamsin the 1985–1986 season. In 1986, Calaway dropped out of university to focus on a career in sports and briefly considered playing professional basketball in Europe, before deciding to focus on professional wrestling. Professional wrestling career Early career (1987–1989) Calaway began training underBuzz Sawyerin late 1986;he disliked Sawyer, who reportedly lacked commitment and provided a limited education.Calaway learned \\\"on the job\\\" thereafter.Performing under a mask as Texas Red,Calaway wrestled his first match on June 26, 1987, forWorld Class\",\n \"forWorld Class Championship Wrestling(WCCW), losing toBruiser Brodyat theDallas Sportatorium.He was accompanied to the ring by Percival \\\"Percy\\\" Pringle III, who would later serve as his manager in the WWF asPaul Bearer.Two myths have circulated regarding Calaway's beginnings in the industry, the first being that he made his in-ring debut in 1984,and the second being that he was trained by former WCCW colleague Don Jardine (akaThe Spoiler).While never trained by Jardine, Calaway was an admirer of his work and would emulate Jardine's top rope walk.PWInsider's Mike Johnson stated, \\\"Undertaker using some of Jardine's style eventually morphed into this story that he was trained by Jardine.\\\" He wrestled inDurban, South Africa on August 22, 1987, as \\\"Texas Red Jack\\\", losing to Tiger Singh.He would also wrestle in prison shows under the name Boris Dragu, a Russian grave digger. In 1988, Calaway developed a military gimmick named The Commando. Under this persona, he mainly wrestled in the Chicago area for Central\",\n \"area for Central Illinois Wrestling. He would also have a brief stint in Georgia forSouthern Championship Wrestling. By the end of 1988, Calaway joined theContinental Wrestling Association, wrestling under several gimmicks. On February 2, 1989, managed byDutch Mantel, he was reintroduced as The Master of Pain, a former murderer.On April 1, The Master of Pain won his firstprofessional wrestling championshipby defeatingJerry Lawlerfor the USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion. Just over three weeks had passed when Lawler became the first man to pin him, giving it back to him. While performing as The Punisher upon returning to Dallas, Calaway won the USWA Texas Heavyweight Championship on October 5, 1989, whenEric Embryforfeited the title. World Championship Wrestling (1989–1990) By the end of 1989, Calaway joined World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as avillainand adopted the ring name \\\"Mean Mark\\\" Callous, a name devised for him byTerry Funk.He was portrayed as a sinister force, wearing predominantly black\",\n \"predominantly black ring attire and was described by commentatorJim Rossas having a fondness for pet snakes and the music ofOzzy Osbourne.Callous was promptly drafted intoThe Skyscraperstag teamto replace alegitimatelyinjuredSid Vicious, and made his debut on January 3, 1990, in a match later televised against Agent Steel and Randy Harris.The new team gained some notoriety atClash of the Champions Xwhen they beat downThe Road Warriorsafter their match.However, Callous's partnerDan Spiveyleft WCW days before theirChicago Street Fightagainst the Road Warriors atWrestleWar. Callous anda replacement masked Skyscraperwere defeated in thestreet fightand the team broke up soon afterwards.Now a singles wrestler, Callous took on the guidance ofPaul E. Dangerously(Paul Heyman). Calaway later began to question his future in WCW after being told bycompany booker,Ole Anderson, during contract renewal discussions that nobody would ever pay money to watch him perform.It was in response to this that Calaway made numerous\",\n \"made numerous efforts to join the World Wrestling Federation, going to many lengths to land a meeting withVince McMahon. However, accessing and securing an interview with McMahon was described by Calaway as a despairing task. Among routes Calaway took to land a meeting with McMahon was trying to convince individuals acquainted with McMahon or already existing WWF talent to recommend him into the WWF, such asHulk Hogan, Paul Heyman, andBruce Prichard, crediting the latter two for arranging the meeting at McMahon's mansion. Calaway immediately gavenoticeto WCW before the interview took place. McMahon initially declined to hire Calaway; however, several days later the owner pitched the idea an \\\"Old West Undertaker,\\\" a concept he had intended to create for several years but had never found an appropriate wrestler to play the part. Calaway's final WCW match was on September 7 at aWorldWidetaping inAmarillo, Texasin which he defeated Dave Johnson.During his time in WCW, Calaway briefly wrestled inNew Japan\",\n \"inNew Japan Pro-Wrestling(NJPW) as \\\"Punisher\\\" Dice Morgan.After leaving WCW, he briefly returned to the USWA to participate in a tournament to determine the new USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion; Calaway defeatedBill Dundeein the first round, but lost to Jerry Lawler in the quarterfinals. World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment/WWE Debut of The Undertaker (1990–1991) In October 1990, Calaway signed with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), set to portray the \\\"brainchild\\\" of McMahon that he had assigned to him, originally entitledKane the Undertaker(\\\"Kane\\\" later added on to \\\"the Undertaker\\\" moniker by the time of his arrival at the urgings of Bruce Prichard, who had always desired aCain and Abeleffect for his character).Despite Calaway's perplexed, pessimistic feelings about McMahon's gimmick idea, he was readily accepting of the role, feeling anything better than the laughingstock gimmicks of that time, such asThe Gobbledy Gooker.Kane the Undertaker was characterized as a menacing derivative of\",\n \"derivative of theWild Westundertakersdepicted intelevision westerns. Resulting from that, this first edition of the Undertaker's series ofDeadmanincarnationshas been distinguished in external media as \\\"The Old West Mortician\\\".He made his overall WWF debut on a November 19, 1990, taping ofWWF Superstarsquickly defeating his first opponent,Mario Mancini, in a singles match(this match was filmed three days prior to the Undertaker's televised debut atSurvivor Serieson November 22, but did not air on television until December 15, 1990). Also prior to his Survivor Series appearance, Kane the Undertaker had a match on November 20 against Rick Sampson, which later aired on the December 9, 1990 episode ofWWF Wrestling Challenge. Calaway's official televised debut was at Survivor Series in which he was presented as theheelmystery partner of Ted DiBiase's \\\"Million Dollar Team\\\".Approximately one minute into the match, the Undertaker eliminatedKoko B. Warewith his finisher, theTombstone Piledriver.(In 2018, Koko B. Ware\",\n \"2018, Koko B. Ware shared that directly following this match that night, he confronted the Undertaker with serious objections to what he felt was a botched Tombstone. Though Ware also shared that he always admired Mark Calaway and perceived him as a great performer).During the match, the Undertaker also eliminatedDusty Rhodesbefore beingcounted out; however, his team won the match with DiBiase being the sole survivor.During the match, Calaway was referred to as simply the Undertaker, omitting the portion \\\"Kane\\\", which was dropped shortly after the event (and seven years later at the urgings of Prichard, given to another wrestler once he took on the role of the Undertaker'syounger brother).Throughout the end of 1990, the Undertaker mostly picked upsquashvictories against jobbers on Superstars of Wrestling and Wrestling Challenge tapings.He was a participant in the1991Royal Rumble matchwhich was won by Hulk Hogan. In February 1991,Brother Lovedelegated his short-livedmanagementrole of the Undertaker over to\",\n \"Undertaker over to Paul Bearer (real-life funeral director), Love communicating the need for someone who better aligned with the Undertaker's \\\"deadman\\\" themes.Histrionic, wailing and ghostly in character, Bearer complemented the Undertaker and was almost always seen bearing anurnwhich he raised in the air to transmit supernatural healing powers to the Undertaker; this typically resulted in the Undertaker recovering from attacks and counterattacking his adversaries.During his early years, the Undertaker took to a post-match ritual of placing his defeated opponents (almost alwaysjobbers) in abody bagand carrying them backstage.He continued picking up victories in squash matches leading up to his firstfeudin the WWF with\\\"Superfly\\\" Jimmy Snuka. WWF Champion and beginning of The Streak (1991–1994) The Undertaker made his WrestleMania debut atWrestleMania VIIon March 24, 1991, quickly defeating \\\"Superfly\\\" Jimmy Snuka.He began his first major feud shortly thereafter, which was withThe Ultimate Warriorwhen The\",\n \"Warriorwhen The Undertaker attacked him and locked him in an airtight casket on the set of Paul Bearer'sFuneral Parlorsegment.Resulting from this, the Warrior enlisted the assistance ofJake \\\"The Snake\\\" Robertsto get him mentally psyched for The Undertaker's morbid alarmist tactics: Roberts would drill the Warrior with \\\"know your enemy\\\" training, setting up the Warrior in a series of creepy, terrorizing circumstances, such as by locking him in caskets and in rooms with snakes.This culminated in a final stage of Roberts's training in which Roberts proved to be stringing Warrior along the entire time by assisting The Undertaker in an ambush.The Undertaker would later suffer his first losses in the WWF to The Ultimate Warrior, including in a first ever body bag challenge, a casket match, and (athouse show) standard pin-fall match.The feud was, however, cut short after the Warrior's suspension and ongoing issues with Vince McMahon.In the1991 King of the Ring, Undertaker defeatedAnimalin a qualifying match before\",\n \"match before fightingSid Viciousto a doubledisqualificationin the semifinal, which saw both men eliminated from theKing of the Ring tournament.The Undertaker defeated Hulk Hogan to win his firstWWF ChampionshipatSurvivor Serieswith the help ofRic Flairand thus became the youngest WWF Champion in history to that point, 26 years of age—this record was later broken byYokozunain April 1993 atWrestleMania IX.The Undertaker's Tombstone of Hogan to win the WWF Championship at the 1991 Survivor Series created real-life, offscreen discord between the two, which Undertaker attributes his short title reign, lack of title runs during his early career and distrust of Hogan.In storyline, however, WWF PresidentJack Tunneyordered a rematch between the two atThis Tuesday in Texassix days later, where The Undertaker lost the title back to Hogan.However, due to the controversial endings of the two title matches between The Undertaker and Hogan, the title wasvacatedfrom Hogan the next night by Tunney. The company was without a\",\n \"was without a WWF Champion until Ric Flair earned it by winning the1992Royal Rumble match. In February 1992, The Undertaker's ally Jake \\\"The Snake\\\" Roberts tried to attack\\\"Macho Man\\\" Randy Savage's manager/wifeMiss Elizabethwith a steel chair when Undertaker stopped him, turning him (and Paul Bearer)facefor the first time. Their face turn was solidified on the February 29 episode ofSuperstarswhen Roberts confronted The Undertaker on theFuneral Parlorset over the matter (aired onSaturday Night's Main Event XXX). After demanding to know whose side The Undertaker was on and getting the reply, \\\"Not yours\\\", Roberts attacked both Bearer and The Undertaker, only for The Undertaker to stand his ground and run Roberts off. The Undertaker defeated Roberts atWrestleMania VIII.He then feuded extensively with wrestlers managed byHarvey Wipplemanthroughout 1992 and 1993, such asKamalaandGiant González. Also during this time, The Undertaker headlined thedebut episodeofMonday Night Rawon January 11, 1993, with a victory\",\n \"with a victory overDamien Demento.According to Calaway, working with González \\\"...was survival every night trying to figure out what he could do\\\" and \\\"took years off my career\\\".He faced González at WrestleMania IX, which is notable asThe Undertaker's only disqualification win at WrestleManiaafter the use ofchloroform.The Undertaker's next rivalry initiated atSurvivor Serieswith Yokozuna when a clash between the two lost control, causing them to be counted out in an elimination tag match.In the weeks following, The Undertaker and Bearer spooked Yokozuna with multiple segments from their wintery and remoterural areaworkshop. There, Bearer presented The Undertaker hard at workcarpenteringYokozuna what would eventually become a \\\"double wide, double deep casket\\\" custom-built for Yokozuna's immensely overweight size.The feud culminated in a WWF Championshipcasket matchat theRoyal Rumblein January 1994. During the match, Yokozuna sealed The Undertaker in the casket with the assistance of a multitude of heel\",\n \"a multitude of heel wrestlers (some of themWhippleman-managed) hired by Yokozuna's vindictive managersJim CornetteandMr. Fuji, which was in retaliation for Bearer's casket match stipulation that he snuck into their Royal Rumble match contract. After being trapped inside the casket by the pack, green vapor emitted from the casket and the arena lights went out. Undertaker then appeared from inside the casket on the video screen, representing the spirit of his dead corpse, warning that he would produce a future \\\"rebirth\\\" of himself, explaining to his antagonists that he cannot and will not Rest in Peace.The Undertaker did not appear in the WWF for seven months after his loss to Yokozuna. In reality, he was given time off to allow a back injury to heal. Rebirthed Deadman (1994–1996) Following the death angle at the Royal Rumble during The Undertaker's absence, the WWF promoted reported sightings of him through video clips of random people claiming to have seen him. AfterWrestleMania X,Ted DiBiaseintroduced an\",\n \"an Undertaker back to the WWF. This Undertaker, however, played byBrian Lee(one of Calaway's real-life best friends)was an impostor Undertaker (dubbed \\\"The Underfaker\\\" by fans)rejuvenated by Dibiase's money rather than Bearer's urn. His actions led to the return of the real Undertaker atSummerSlam, defeating the impostor and appearing as a reincarnation of his Deadman gimmick, one of a more shadowy, mysterious and secret presence.Represented now by cool colors, The Undertaker replaced details of his wrestling gear that were previously colored gray with purple, and effected scenes with blue/purple semidarkness.Many details that would become associated with The Undertaker for the remainder of his career were produced during this rebirth incarnation, such as the addition ofsleeve tattoosandGodlikesupernatural elements (thunder, lightning and windy weather-like effects used to indicate The Undertaker's presence and wrath). Seeking retribution, The Undertaker revisited his feud with Yokozuna and eventually faced\",\n \"eventually faced him in a casket rematch atSurvivor Series.Chuck Norris(portraying hisWalker, Texas Rangerpersona) was involved in the match as special guest enforcer, preventing interference from wrestlers that Yokozuna, Jim Cornette and Mr. Fuji had again enlisted for help.Unable to rely on much as far as interference this time around (onlyIrwin R. Schysterable to get in a brief ambush) due to Norris averting the attempts of several heel wrestlers, Yokozuna was defeated by The Undertaker and sealed in the casket.Throughout most of 1995, Undertaker feuded with members of Ted DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation. The chain of wrestlers DiBiase enlisted to do away with The Undertaker started with Irwin R. Schyster at theRoyal Rumblefor which The Undertaker was victorious, but assaulted by another member of the Million Dollar Team,King Kong Bundy. While being assaulted, Bearer was deprived of his urn by the Corporation.AtWrestleMania XI, The Undertaker made short work of Bundy in a singles match. This edition\",\n \"match. This edition of WrestleMania included the first mention of The Undertaker's historicWrestleMania-winning Streak, acknowledged on commentary by Vince McMahon as Undertaker made his entrance: \\\"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania.\\\"During The Undertaker's WrestleMania encounter, DiBiase issued him with yet another antagonist in \\\"The Supreme Fighting Machine\\\"Kama, who had stolen the briefly recaptured urn from Bearer during the match. Kama followed this up with a series of malicious acts, including destroying the stolen urn and recycling it intobling.While sporting the flashy bling around his neck, he repeatedly cost The Undertaker matches and attacked diehard Undertaker fans, dubbed \\\"Creatures of the Night\\\".In August, Undertaker settled the score with Kama, defeating him in a casket match atSummerSlam.Several weeks later, Undertaker suffered a seriousorbital boneinjury whenKing Mabelunintentionally struck him in the eye with his fist during ahouse show, forcing\",\n \"show, forcing The Undertaker into a period of absence for surgery. Due to the incident happening at a house show, Vince McMahon had it presented to the audience as though it had occurred from Mabel and Yokozuna's exchange ofleg dropsandsplasheson The Undertaker on theMonday Night Rawthat had aired 2 days prior.The Undertaker returned a couple months later atSurvivor Series, in which he single-handedly eliminated an entire team of wrestlers led by King Mabel, The Undertaker leading his own team to victory.It was at that Survivor Series return in which he began wearing aPhantom of the Opera-like, gray upper-face mask to safeguard his orbital injury while it healed.The following month in December, The Undertaker defeated Mabel in a casket match atIn Your House, retrieving the urn, which had been traded between several of The Undertaker's antagonists over the course of the year. In the main event of theRoyal Rumblein January 1996, The Undertaker was unmasked of his Phantom of the Opera-like facial covering in a\",\n \"covering in a WWF Championship match againstBret Hart. The Undertaker was eventually able to hit theTombstone Piledriveron Hart, butDieselinterfered, costing The Undertaker the championship.A rematch for the title on the February 5 episode ofRawsaw similar interference.At that month'sIn Your House: Rage in the Cage, while Diesel was facing Hart in asteel cage matchfor the WWF Championship, The Undertaker delivered a surprise attack, emerging from a hole he had ripped through the ring canvas and dragging Diesel with him down under amid a cloud of smoke, allowing Hart the victory.After several weeks of more retaliatoryone-upmanshipbetween Diesel and The Undertaker, their feud culminated in asingles matchatWrestleMania XII, where Undertaker was victorious. The Undertaker's next feud commenced the next night onRawwhenMankind, a twisted and tortured soul, made his debut and randomly interfered in Undertaker's match againstJustin \\\"Hawk\\\" Bradshaw. For the next few months, Mankind viciously ambushed The Undertaker\",\n \"The Undertaker and cost him multiple matches.Among them, Mankind cost The Undertaker theWWF Intercontinental Championshipby interfering in his casket match againstGoldustatIn Your House 8: Beware of Dog. In interfering in this match, Mankind proved to have mystifying horror tactic capabilities that matched The Undertaker's, mysteriously appearing from inside the casket and sealing The Undertaker inside. The Undertaker, however, had vanished amid a cloud of smoke once the casket lid was opened.As a result of the interference and repeated ambushes from Mankind on The Undertaker throughout the ensuing weeks, The Undertaker and Mankind competed in their first on-screen bout at the1996 King of the Ring, a heated encounter in which The Undertaker presented as uncharacteristically intense.During the match, Bearer inadvertently hit The Undertaker with the urn, allowing Mankind to incapacitate The Undertaker with his finisher, theMandible Claw, and score the win.With Mankind insatiably continuing to cost The\",\n \"to cost The Undertaker matches even following their King of the Ring encounter, The Undertaker began firing back with rage and the feud spiraled out of control: the two routinely interrupted other matches already in progress, battling each other at random intervals outside of having arranged matches—their chaos also spilling into audiences, arena backstage communal areas, and arenaboiler rooms, all of this unprecedented at the time.As a result, the first everBoiler Room Brawl(Mankind's specialty match) was booked between the two atSummerSlam.After more than 20 minutes of brawling with Mankind in the ClevelandGund Arena's boiler room, the arena corridors, the SummerSlam entrance area and aisleway to the ring, The Undertaker reached for Paul Bearer's urn in an attempt to win the match, but Bearer struck him with it, betraying The Undertaker. This followed with Bearer allowing Mankind to take hold of the urn, thus winning this match. According to Paul Bearer in shoot interviews the WWF wanted Bearer to betray\",\n \"Bearer to betray him during that match because it was a storyline thatKanewas coming and they wanted The Undertaker to get ready for the angle with Kane the following year by having Bearer turn on him.After Bearer's betrayal, The Undertaker grew more aggressive, resolving his feud against Goldust (Mankind's comrade in tormenting The Undertaker) atIn Your House 10: Mind Games. The Undertaker then took his rivalry with Mankind to new lengths in a specialty match of his own, and at that time unprecedentedBuried Alive matchto take place in the main event ofIn Your House 11: Buried Alive. The Undertaker won the match afterchokeslammingMankind into the open grave and subsequently shoveling enough dirt on him so that he was covered. However, after interference from the debutingExecutioner, as well as the help of several other heel wrestlers apparently enlisted by Bearer, Mankind escaped the grave and together the mob all shoveled dirt onto The Undertaker to the point that the grave was completely filled, resulting\",\n \"filled, resulting in The Undertaker fully buried alive. Not without a parting message for the pack, however, The Undertaker's purple glove fit hand emerged from his burying place amid a bolt of lightning that had erupted over the gravesite. The scene sent all of his antagonists fleeing. Lord of Darkness (1996–1998) After being buried alive and a following month-long hiatus, The Undertaker returned at theSurvivor Seriesagain pitting him against Mankind, but with a unique stipulation: Hanging 6.1 m (20 ft) above the ring would be Paul Bearer, enclosed in a steel cage. And if The Undertaker were to win the match, he would be rewarded the opportunity to assault Bearer however he pleased. Even though The Undertaker won this match, interference from The Executioner enabled Bearer to escape Undertaker's clutches.It was also at this event that The Undertaker had developed a comparatively more humanized and more informal yet still superhuman \\\"Deadman\\\" incarnation. In this then new form, he took on aGothappearance and\",\n \"aGothappearance and persona, with a brash, rebelling, Championship-driven mean streak (perhaps to better fit in with the then-budding, more adult-orientedAttitude Era).This delivering, dubbed \\\"The Lord of Darkness\\\", was the 3rd incarnation of his Deadman persona.Following Survivor Series, The Undertaker briefly turned his attention to The Executioner, who had been interfering in his matches since his arrival. AtIn Your House 12: It's Time, The Undertaker defeated The Executioner in anArmageddon Rulesmatch even with Mankind heavily involved throughout the entire encounter.The Undertaker then moved on to feud withVader, whom he faced in January 1997 at theRoyal Rumblein a singles match, which The Undertaker lost after Bearer interfered on behalf of his new protégé.The two then clashed in the Royal Rumble match itself as they made it to the final moments of the match, but both were eliminated byStone Cold Steve Austin, who had crept back into the match after his elimination was unseen. He faced both Vader and\",\n \"both Vader and Austin in afour-corners elimination matchfor the vacant WWF Championship atIn Your House 13: Final Four, but Bret Hart won.However, the following month, The Undertaker managed to win the WWF Championship for the second time by defeatingSycho SidatWrestleMania 13.Reviving his first Deadman incarnation for that night only, The Undertaker appeared as the \\\"Old West Mortician\\\", donning the trademarked gray wrestling gear accessories (boot spats, tie, gloves), along with a pitch-black entrance with only a white spotlight shined over him, contrasted from the purple/blue semidarkness associated with the rest of his Deadman incarnations. Following his WWF Championship win at WrestleMania 13, Paul Bearer attempted to rejoin The Undertaker as his manager. After The Undertaker refused and attacked Bearer, Bearer had Mankind set a fireball to the Undertaker's face, leading up to a match atIn Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Taker, for which The Undertaker was victorious.Evening the score at \\\"Revenge of the\",\n \"at \\\"Revenge of the 'Taker\\\", The Undertaker set a fireball to Bearer's face directly following the match.Following the event, Bearer bandaged up from fire burns, likened The Undertaker's assault to a past incident he described as The Undertaker's \\\"deepest, darkest secret\\\". Through giving The Undertaker theultimatumof revealing his deepest, darkest secret to the world, Bearer was able to reunite with him as manager and protégé. After only a few months of abrasive behaviors from Bearer, however, The Undertaker lost his patience and rejected Bearer as his manager. In retaliation, Bearer disclosed that The Undertaker had intentionally killed his family by burning down his parents' family funeral home for which they raised him and his younger brother.(Note that the younger brother, Kane, was not revealed to be The Undertaker's half-brother until the following year, April 1998, when Bearer disclosed to the world that he is Kane's father, The Undertaker's mother having had an affair with him. Bearer later verified\",\n \"later verified this with DNA test results).At this point in his career, The Undertaker denied the charges of committing the arson murder that killed his family; however, Bearer claimed to have proof in the form of The Undertaker's alive and well younger brother, Kane, who had survived though scarred and burned. Bearer raised Kane after the fire, having him institutionalized from the date of the fire into adulthood. Ever since the fire, Kane had been awaiting to exact vengeance on his older half-brother. In defense, Undertaker responded that Kane, a \\\"pyromaniac\\\", had been the one to set the fire and, as a result, could not have possibly even survived.(Note that it would not be until a year and a half later from this point, in latter 1998, in which The Undertaker would shamelessly confess to intentional acts of arson to the funeral home that killed his parents and scarred his brother). In spite of Bearer projecting himself as a constant source of mental distress to The Undertaker during his Championship title\",\n \"Championship title reign, The Undertaker managed to secure successful title defenses against Stone Cold Steve Austin (A Cold Day In Hell: In Your House),Faarooq(King of the Ring)and Vader (Canadian Stampede: In Your House, revisiting and settling their Royal Rumble feud from earlier on in the year),respectively. Concurrent to the \\\"deep, dark secret\\\" storyline directed by Bearer, Undertaker began a then new rivalry atSummerSlamwhenspecial guest refereeShawn Michaelsaccidentally hit him with a steel chair shot intended for his archnemesis Bret Hart, in effect, costing The Undertaker the WWF Championship.The accidental chair shot led to Michaels feeling betrayed by the now booing WWF fans, and quickly becoming heel. Thus, a severely violent storyline with The Undertaker followed, one revolving around repeated intentional chair shots by Michaels on the Undertaker, Michaels taunting The Undertaker throughout.After the duo's first match, which was a chaotic and uncontrolled encounter that resulted in a double\",\n \"in a double count-out draw atGround Zero: In Your House, Undertaker challenged Michaels to the first everHell in a Cell matchto take place atBadd Blood: In Your House. Despite the inclusion of the cell for more order and to prevent Michaels from receiving help from hisD-Generation Xstable, the encounter ended up even more uncontrolled and savage than their first and is considered one of The Undertaker's best matches of his career.Seemingly about to emerge the victor after striking Michaels with a chair shot of his own, The Undertaker was interrupted by his storyline half-brother Kane, finally making his debut. Under the control of Paul Bearer, Kane stormed the arena, ripped off the cell door, and laid out a nonplussed Undertaker with his own trademarked finisher,The Tombstone Piledriver, allowing Michaels to pin him for the victory.As the storyline progressed through Bearer having Kane mow down much of the WWF roster, Kane repeatedly challenged The Undertaker, going to lengths of tormenting and humiliating\",\n \"and humiliating him. However, The Undertaker consistently refused to fight his half-brother, claiming he had made a vow to his parents never to do harm to his own \\\"flesh and blood\\\".The Undertaker's final encounter with Michaels during this chapter of his career was in a casket match for the WWF Championship at theRoyal Rumble. The week before onRaw, Kane had duplicitously presented as allying with his brother against Michaels's D-Generation X stable; however, at the Royal Rumble, Kane trapped The Undertaker in the coffin, padlocked the lid shut, and set the casket ablaze, allowing Michaels another victory.After a two-month hiatus in which Kane wreaked havoc over the WWF, The Undertaker returned on the March 2, 1998 episode ofRawin a most notable resurrection—his druids interrupting Kane and Bearer by presenting them with a coffin on the entrance stage amid a large number of bell tolls. The coffin was struck and dismantled by a lightning bolt, revealing a lied out Undertaker who sat up in a fury state and\",\n \"in a fury state and challenged Kane to do battle with him.AtWrestleMania XIVin their first match, The Undertaker defeated Kane.Kane challenged Undertaker to a rematch—Kane's specialty and first everInferno match—that occurred one month later atUnforgiven: In Your House. The Undertaker won the encounter by setting Kane's right arm on fire. The Undertaker and Mankind's wildly violent, outlandish feud from over a year previous to this point was revitalized over the next month, ultimately taken to a new graphic height and decisively resolved whenthey faced each other in a Hell in a Cell matchatKing of the Ring. The match became one of the most famous matches in professional wrestling history. During the match, the Undertaker threw Mankind off the roof of the 4.9 m (16 ft) cell onto a broadcast table below, in what was a preplanned move. He later performed a chokeslam on Mankind through the roof of the cell into the ring, which was not preplanned and legitimately knocked Mankind unconscious. In jumping from the\",\n \"In jumping from the top of the cell to the ring canvas, The Undertaker suffered a broken ankle. Escalating as things progressed, blood flowed from both wrestlers as they attacked each other with steel steps, chairs, the cell wall, etc. Topping that off, Mankind introduced multitudes of thumbtacks scattered across the ring canvas but wasback body droppedon them, and subsequently chokeslammed onto them before The Undertaker won the match with hisTombstone Piledriver.AtFully Loaded: In Your House, the Undertaker and Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated Kane and Mankind to win theWWF Tag Team Championship.The Undertaker and Austin's reign astag team championslasted only two weeks, as Kane and Mankind regained the titles from them in afatal four-way tag-team matchon the August 10 episode ofRaw.The Undertaker then became the number one contender for the WWF Championship, held by Austin at that point, for a match atSummerSlam. Shortly before SummerSlam and after much speculation, The Undertaker finally disclosed that\",\n \"disclosed that he and his half-brother were working together. Despite this revelation, The Undertaker told Kane before his SummerSlam bout that he did not want him interfering, even sending Kane away during the match itself when he appeared. Even though The Undertaker lost the match at SummerSlam, he handed Austin his championship belt back after the match with a show of respect and sportsmanship. In September as the storyline matured however, The Undertaker subtly began showing some heel characteristics, becoming atweener. This began when he and Kane revealed the fact that they were in cahoots to rid Austin of his title for villainous company owner Mr. McMahon—Austin and McMahon immersed in a bitter rivalry during this era. AtBreakdown: In Your House, The Undertaker and Kane were booked in atriple threat matchwith Austin for the WWF Championship, in which McMahon stated that the brothers were not allowed to pin each other. The Undertaker and Kane pinned Austin simultaneously after adouble chokeslam, ending\",\n \"chokeslam, ending the match in ano contest, so the title was vacated by McMahon.This event led to a match atJudgment Day: In Your Housebetween The Undertaker and Kane for the title, with Austin as the special guest referee. Near the end of the match, Paul Bearer seemed about to assist Kane by handing him a steel chair to hit The Undertaker with, but as Kane had his back turned, both Bearer and The Undertaker hit Kane with chair shots. The Undertaker went for the pin, but Austin refused to count the fall, attacked The Undertaker and counted out both of them.Finally the next night onRaw, The Undertaker reconciled with Bearer and claimed that he and Bearer would unleash their \\\"Ministry of Darkness\\\" on the WWF, turning heel for the first time since 1992. As part of the then new storyline angle, The Undertaker admitted that he had indeed intentionally set the fire that killed his parents and scarred Kane, for which he had previously blamed on Kane. Ministry of Darkness Deadman (1998–1999) AfterSurvivor Series,\",\n \"Series, The Undertaker returned his attention to his previous feud with Austin for costing him the title at Judgment Day, hitting Austin in the head with a shovel during a title match withThe Rockon the November 16 episode ofRaw, returning the favor for what happened a month earlier. With this twist in the storyline, Mr. McMahon scheduled a Buried Alive match between The Undertaker and Austin atRock Bottom: In Your House. In the weeks leading up to Rock Bottom, The Undertaker attempted toembalmAustin alive, tried to have Kane committed to a mental asylum, and had his druids chain Austin to an immense structure of his Undertaker crucifix-like logo (which took the appearance of a capital T combined X) before having that structure lifted up on high into the air.However, The Undertaker lost the Buried Alive match to Austin at Rock Bottom after Kane interfered. After the buildup to his second heel run in the latter part of 1998, The Undertaker introduced an updated version of his Deadman identity by January\",\n \"identity by January 1999—a dark priest-like character who in the initial period of this persona reigned over a stable known as The Ministry of Darkness. In this form, he took on a wicked, demonic presence, much more so than ever before. He often proclaimed to be invoking and taking orders from a \\\"Higher Power\\\". Moreover, he often appeared in a hooded black robe and sat on a throne with a towering backrest specially designed into his crucifix-like logo. With the help of his minions, he often performed sacrifices on select WWF wrestlers, using variousincantationsandmagic wordswith intent to extract out the dark side of the wrestlers in question to recruit them into his Ministry. The completed Ministry of Darkness consisted ofThe Brood(Christian,EdgeandGangrel),The Acolytes(Bradshaw and Faarooq),MideonandViscera. Calaway himself did not wrestle for a period, having undergone a hip replacement. As part of theangle, The Undertaker had his Ministry members fight his battles, carry out his evil wishes and do all\",\n \"wishes and do all his dirty deeds. In this manner, he expressed his desires to take over the World Wrestling Federation, displacing its owner, Mr. McMahon. These ambitions culminated into a rivalry between The Ministry andThe Corporation, ultimately resulting in a match between The Undertaker and Corporation enforcer,Big Boss Man. The two faced off in a Hell in a Cell match atWrestleMania XV, which The Undertaker won.AtBacklash: In Your House, The Undertaker defeated Corporation memberKen Shamrockafter interference from Ministry member Bradshaw. Thereafter, The Undertaker kidnappedStephanie McMahon, forcing Mr. McMahon to enter into a reluctant alliance with his longtime nemesis Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Undertaker attempted to marry Stephanie before sacrificing her in aneldritchceremony conducted by Paul Bearer, but Austin was able to rescue her.At theOver the Edgepay-per-view, The Undertaker defeated Austin for his third WWF Championship with help fromShane McMahon, the special guest referee.The\",\n \"guest referee.The Ministry eventually merged with Shane McMahon's Corporation alliance to formThe Corporate Ministry. The Undertaker later revealed that Mr. McMahon had been his \\\"Higher Power\\\" all along as a scheme against Austin.After The Undertakerlostthe WWF Championship back to Austin on theRawfollowingKing of the Ringand lost to him in aFirst Blood matchatFully Loaded, his relationship with the McMahons dissolved and The Corporate Ministry disbanded. The Undertaker then began a storyline where he teamed withBig Showin a tag team known as \\\"The Unholy Alliance\\\", which held the WWF Tag Team Championship twice. After their victory atSummerSlam, The Undertaker suffered a groin tear and was seen limping in several matches. He avoided competing in wrestling matches in the following weeks, instead overbearingly ordering Big Show to fight his battles and do all his dirty deeds. Developing a comedy horror smart mouth during this time, elements of The Undertaker's trash-talking biker identity (that he would\",\n \"(that he would eventually introduce in 2000) began peeping out during this phase of his career. According to an interview with Kevin Nash, this was a move to allow Calaway to return to WCW with a non-trademarked persona; had he entered WCW, it would have been as Mark Calaway. According to Nash, although negotiations were described as close, Calaway ultimately re-signed with the WWF. Conversely, while on Steve Austin'sBroken Skull Sessionspodcast on November 22, 2020, Calaway revealed that there was no way he was ever going to rejoin WCW, that the gimmick's biker transition was just a matter of him mixing things up because he didn't feel the character's Deadman side properly fit with the then ongoing Attitude Era. To compensate for his lack of physical activity, The Undertaker became increasingly overbearing and vocal, often mouthing off with a weirdness and making sinisterlysmart-aleckremarks in promos and on commentary. On the September 23, 1999, episode ofSmackDown!, Mr. McMahon threatened that he would\",\n \"that he would remove The Undertaker from theUnforgivenmain event if he refused to participate in a casket match againstTriple H. The Undertaker retorted that he did not care and maybe he would not be participating in anything WWF any longer, from there walking out on the WWF.In reality, Calaway went on a hiatus from the WWF in order to treat his groin injury. He made his return to action on December 14, teaming with Viscera in a losing effort against Kane and The Godfather at a house show inCoamo, Puerto Rico.The Undertaker was advertised on theArmageddonpromotional poster to return, but meanwhile also tore his pectoral muscle, taking him out of action for almost eight months. American Badass (2000–2001) In May 2000, Calaway expanded on The Undertaker gimmick, returning under a human alter ego of the gimmick—a smack-talking, redneck biker, dubbed \\\"The American Badass\\\", known for motorcycle-riding, tobacco chewing/spitting, and donning a sporty appearance and manner.In stark contrast to his horror-themed and\",\n \"horror-themed and fully fictional Deadman persona, Calaway's Badass persona was only semifictional with traits and features adopted from who he is out of character—hence, why he desired to transform The Undertaker.While explained off screen years later for the above reasons, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it. When The Undertaker returned near the end of theiron man matchfor the WWF Championship between Triple H and The Rock atJudgment Dayon May 21, 2000, he took out all the members of the McMahon-Helmsley Faction, which created for afaceturn after having left things off as a heel before his hiatus.He also targeted their leader, then WWF Champion Triple H. At theKing of the Ringpay-per-view on June 25, The Undertaker teamed with The Rock and Kane to defeat the team of Triple H, Shane McMahon and Vince\",\n \"McMahon and Vince McMahon.Afterward, he was booked to team with Kane to contend for the WWF Tag Team Championship. They defeatedEdge and Christian, earning the right to face them the following week for the championship, which Edge and Christian retained. During an August 14Raw is Warbout againstChris Benoit, Kane became involved and betrayed The Undertaker by hitting him with two chokeslams, the second one causing the ring apron to cave in underneath The Undertaker.This incident led to another match between the two atSummerSlamon August 27, which ended in a no contest as Kane fled from the ring area after The Undertaker removed Kane's mask. The Undertaker then challengedKurt Anglefor the WWF Championship atSurvivor Serieson November 19.Angle, however, defeated The Undertaker after he switched places with his real-life brother,Eric Angle. The Undertaker demanded and was awarded a spot in the six-man Hell in a Cell match for the WWF Championship atArmageddonon December 10. The Undertaker promised to make\",\n \"promised to make someone famous and did so when he performed a chokeslam onRikishifrom the roof of the cell into hay-filled cargo bed of a truck. The Undertaker reunited with Kane as the Brothers of Destruction, issuing a challenge for the WWF Tag Team Championship once again. They received a title shot atNo Way Outon February 25, 2001, facing Edge and Christian and then championsThe Dudley Boyzin atables matchbut were unsuccessful.The Undertaker then went on to defeat Triple H atWrestleMania X-Sevenon April 1.He and Kane continued a storyline that focused on Triple H, who formed a \\\"surprise alliance\\\" with then WWF Champion Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Brothers of Destruction were granted an opportunity to face Triple H and Austin for their titles (Triple H was the WWF Intercontinental Champion). After The Undertaker and Kane won the WWF Tag Team Championship from Edge and Christian on the April 19 episode ofSmackDown!,Triple H pinned Kane after attacking him with a sledgehammer atBacklashon April 29, where\",\n \"April 29, where the Brothers of Destruction lost their championships.With Kane injured, The Undertaker feuded briefly with Austin for his WWF Championship, but he failed to win the title atJudgment Dayon May 20. As part of \\\"The Invasion\\\" storyline, The Undertaker's next nemesis wasDiamond Dallas Page, who was obsessively stalking The Undertaker's wife, Sara.AtSummerSlamon August 19,WCW Tag Team ChampionsThe Undertaker and Kane defeated Page and his partnerKanyonin a steel cage match to win the WWF Tag Team Championship.AtSurvivor Serieson November 18, The Undertaker teamed with Kane, The Rock,Chris Jerichoand Big Show to take on The Alliance's Stone Cold Steve Austin,Booker T,Rob Van Dam, Shane McMahon and Kurt Angle (this was the last time The Undertaker and Kane teamed until 2006). Angle pinned The Undertaker due to interference by Austin. Despite this, Team WWF won the match. Big Evil (2001–2003) AfterThe Alliancewas defeated, The Undertaker inducted commentatorJim Rossinto theMr. McMahon: Kiss My Ass\",\n \"Kiss My Ass Clubon the November 26 episode ofRaw, which involved The Undertaker pressing the lips of Ross against McMahon's exposed buttocks, turning heel in the process.In transitioning his \\\"American Badass\\\" biker identity into a heel, The Undertaker eventually cut his long hair short and went by the nickname \\\"Big Evil\\\". AtVengeanceon December 9, The Undertaker defeated Rob Van Dam to win theWWF Hardcore Championship. The Undertaker's next storyline began at theRoyal Rumbleon January 20, 2002, whenMaveneliminated him from theRoyal Rumble matchby hitting him with adropkickfrom behind. Subsequently, The Undertaker eliminated Maven in return and brutally assaulted him backstage.Thereafter, on an episode ofSmackDown!, The Rock angered The Undertaker by mentioning his elimination at the Royal Rumble. He responded by costing The Rock the number one contendership for theUndisputed WWF Championship.The storyline continued when The Rock cost The Undertaker the WWF Hardcore Championship against Maven on the February\",\n \"on the February 7 episode ofSmackDown!.The two faced off atNo Way Outon February 17, where The Undertaker lost due to interference from Ric Flair.This interference began a storyline with Flair, who declined a challenge to wrestle The Undertaker atWrestleMania X8on March 17.As a result, The Undertaker assaulted his sonDavid Flair.Flair eventually accepted the match after The Undertaker threatened to inflict the same punishment on Flair'sdaughter.A no-disqualification stipulation was added to the match and The Undertaker defeated Flair at WrestleMania. After the storyline with Flair, The Undertaker was drafted to theRaw brandafter the WWF split its roster into twobrandsand defeated Stone Cold Steve Austin atBacklashon April 21 to become the number one contender for the Undisputed WWF Championship. Later that night, he helped Hollywood Hulk Hogan win the title against then champion Triple H.The Undertaker then defeated Hogan for the renamed WWE Undisputed Championship atJudgment Dayon May 19. The next night\",\n \"19. The next night onRaw, The Undertaker seemingly lost the WWE Undisputed Championship to Rob Van Dam; however, Raw owner Ric Flair restarted the match (Van Dam pinned The Undertaker when his foot was on the rope, thus invalidating the pin attempt) and The Undertaker defeated Van Dam to retain the championship.On the July 1 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker defeatedJeff Hardyin aladder matchto retain the WWE Undisputed Championship and raised Hardy's hand as a show of respect, turning face once again. The Undertaker, however, lost the title atVengeanceon July 21 to The Rock in a triple threat match that also involved Kurt Angle.On the August 29 episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker moved to theSmackDown! brand(where he remained until the first brand extension ended in 2011), and defeated Chris Benoit and Kurt Angle in a triple threat match to become the number-one contender for the renamed WWE Championship and challengedBrock Lesnarfor the title atUnforgivenon September 22 that ended in a double\",\n \"ended in a double disqualification.Their feud carried over toNo Mercyon October 20 in a Hell in a Cell match, which The Undertaker performed with a legitimately broken hand and ultimately lost to Lesnar. The Undertaker took a break after Big Show threw him off the stage on the October 24 episode ofSmackDown!, sparking a feud.The Undertaker returned at theRoyal Rumbleon January 19, 2003.He immediately continued his feud with Big Show and defeated him bysubmissionatNo Way Outon February 23 with atriangle choke.A-Trainentered the storyline by attempting to attack The Undertaker after the match, butNathan Jonescame to his aid.The storyline resumed as The Undertaker began to train Jones to wrestle and the two were scheduled to fight Big Show and A-Train in atag team matchatWrestleMania XIXon March 30.However, Jones was removed before the match, making it ahandicap match, which The Undertaker won with the help of Jones. Over the remainder of the year, The Undertaker entered a brief feud withJohn Cena(defeating him\",\n \"Cena(defeating him atVengeanceon July 27) and was booked to have two WWE Championship opportunities. The first, on the September 4SmackDown!, against Kurt Angle, ended in a no contest, due to interference from Brock Lesnar.The second, atNo Mercyon October 19, was aBiker Chain matchbetween The Undertaker and Lesnar, which Lesnar won with the help of Vince McMahon.This match resulted in a feud with McMahon, culminating atSurvivor Serieson November 16 where The Undertaker lost a Buried Alive match against McMahon when Kane interfered.The Undertaker disappeared for some time following this match, with Kane claiming that he was \\\"dead and buried forever\\\". Return of the Deadman (2004–2007) In the storyline leading up toWrestleMania XX, Kane was tormented by horror-themed mind games, paranormal activities, and spooking vignettes proclaiming The Undertaker's Deadman return. The first was during theRoyal Rumblewhen The Undertaker's bells tolled, distracting Kane and allowing Booker T to eliminate him.Accompanied by\",\n \"him.Accompanied by Paul Bearer at WrestleMania XX, The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity, defeating Kane in a singles match.Introduced was a more dramatic, theatrical and supernatural Deadman than in years past, his presence, mannerisms, and entrances significantly elaborated on as well, such as with more intensity, special effects and rising and falling flames.At the same time, The Undertaker maintained elements of his American Badass identity, thus a composite character more humanized than all of his previous Deadman incarnations(The Undertaker would present in this particular hybrid Deadman form untilNo Mercy 2005whenRandy Ortonsealed him in a casket and set it on fire).AtJudgment Day, The Undertaker defeated Booker T. One week later,Paul Heymanordered TheDudley Boyzto kidnap Bearer.Thus, Heyman \\\"took control\\\" of Undertaker.AtThe Great American Bash, The Undertaker fought a handicap match against The Dudley Boyz, with the stipulation that if he did not lay down and purposely lose, Heyman would\",\n \"lose, Heyman would bury Paul Bearer in cement. The Undertaker won and stopped Heyman from burying Bearer, but after claiming Bearer was merely a liability he had no use for, buried him himself. The Undertaker began a feud with then WWE Champion John \\\"Bradshaw\\\" Layfield (JBL) by challenging him to a title match atSummerSlam, which The Undertaker lost by disqualification.AtNo Mercy, The Undertaker and JBL competed in the first-everLast Ride match, although The Undertaker lost afterHeidenreichinterfered.After defeating Heidenreich in a match atSurvivor Series,The Undertaker turned his focus to the WWE Championship once again. Along withEddie Guerreroand Booker T, he challenged JBL to a championship rematch atArmageddonin a fatal four-way match, in which The Undertaker was unsuccessful, again due to Heidenreich's interference.The feud culminated in a casket match between The Undertaker and Heidenreich at theRoyal Rumble, where The Undertaker sealed Heidenreich in a casket for the victory. Soon after, Randy Orton\",\n \"after, Randy Orton challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 21, uppishly proclaiming that he would end his WrestleMania winning Streak.Even with help fromhis father, Orton lost as The Undertaker improved his WrestleMania record to 13–0.After a two-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned on the June 16 episode ofSmackDown!, but lost to JBL due to interference from Randy Orton, who was drafted toSmackDown!as part of thedraft lottery.Despite his interference, the Randy Orton/Undertaker feud was put on the back burner until late summer of that year, resulting from Orton on the injured list. In the meantime and in one of the most controversial moments in WWE history on an episode ofSmackDown!taped on July 4, 2005 (aired on July 7),SmackDown!General ManagerTheodore LongscheduledMuhammad Hassanin a match against The Undertaker atThe Great American Bash, and placedDaivariin a match that night against Undertaker: Undertaker quickly defeated Daivari. After the match, however, Hassan began to \\\"pray\\\" on the\",\n \"to \\\"pray\\\" on the ramp, summoning five masked men, dressed in black shirts, ski-masks and camouflage pants. Armed with clubs and a piano wire, the masked men assaulted and choked out The Undertaker before Hassan then placed The Undertaker in acamel clutch. Afterward, the masked men lifted Daivari above their heads and carried him away. Three days later, theLondon bombingstook place. The footage aired unedited onUPNin the United States and onThe Scorein Canada with an advisory warning shown several times during the broadcast. It was removed from the Australian and European (including in the United Kingdom) broadcasts. The angle elicited national attention in theNew York Post,TV Guide,Varietyand other major media outlets. In response to the criticism, UPN decided that it would monitor the storyline closely and that it did not want the Hassan character on its network that week.In apromohosted on WWE's website - UPN had edited it from the July 14, 2005 episode ofSmackDown!- Hassan reiterated that he was anArab\",\n \"that he was anArab Americanand that the American people automatically and unfairly assumed that he was a terrorist. Despite being in character, he referred to the real-world media coverage of the storyline, singling out theNew York Post'sDon Kaplan by name and denouncing his description of the events onSmackDown!, such as Kaplan's comment of the masked men being \\\"Arabs in ski masks\\\". On the July 14, 2005 episode ofSmackDown!, Hassan's absence was explained by a statement delivered by his attorney,Thomas Whitney, that Hassan refused to appear on the show untilThe Great American Bashdue to the way he was treated by the American media and WWE fans. It was revealed in late July 2005 that UPN had pressured WWE to keep Hassan off their network, effectively removing him fromSmackDown!.Undertaker defeated Hassan at The Great American Bash to become the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship. After the match, The Undertaker delivered aLast Ridethrough an open stage ramp onto a concrete floor to\",\n \"a concrete floor to Hassan. It was reported that Hassan sustained serious injuries and had to be rushed to a nearby medical facility, writing Hassan off television.Several days later, Long (kayfabe) banned Hassan fromSmackDown!. It was revealed years later that Hassan was about to receive a majorpushby winning the World Heavyweight Championship fromBatistaatSummerSlamand thus breaking Randy Orton's record for being the youngest World Heavyweight Champion in WWE history. On the following episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker lost to JBL in a number-one contender's match, once again due to interference from Orton, reviving their feud that was put on hiatus.AtSummerSlam, Orton defeated The Undertaker in a WrestleMania rematch. The storyline intensified as the two tried to get into the head of one another with dark mind game tactics and use of caskets, leading to a handicap casket match atNo Mercy, in which The Undertaker lost to Randy and his father \\\"Cowboy\\\" Bob Orton.After the match, the Ortons poured gasoline\",\n \"poured gasoline on the casket and set it on fire (a throwback moment to one of The Undertaker's most infamous attacks received and done by Kane doing the same to him at the 1998 Royal Rumble). When the charred casket was opened, however, The Undertaker was absent, presented as having vanished. The Undertaker resurrected at theSurvivor Serieswhen the druids delivered a casket that was struck by lightning and went up in flames. The Undertaker then burst from the flaming casket in rage, battering and brutalizing an entire ring full of wrestlers as a message to Orton. Here, he reappeared still in hybrid form but with lessened Badass characteristics, eliminating several elements of his biker identity so that his Deadman side projected, most notably, replacing loose-fitting cargo pants with his Deadman spandex, and less use of theLast Ridefinisher.The Undertaker returned onSmackDown!in early December to haunt Orton and set up a Hell in a Cell match atArmageddon.After The Undertaker won their brutal Hell in a Cell\",\n \"Hell in a Cell encounter, in effect, settling his 9 month long feud with Orton,Calaway took a brief hiatus from professional wrestling. In January 2006 at theRoyal Rumble, The Undertaker returned on a horse-drawn cart during Kurt Angle's celebration of his World Heavyweight Championship defense againstMark Henry. In this appearance, The Undertaker signaled for a title shot by using his supernatural powers to collapse the wrestling ring that Angle stood in as a means to spook him. As part of their storyline angle, The Undertaker lost his match with Angle atNo Way Outafter a 30-minute bout—described as underrated and among Undertaker's top matches, in which he versatilely took to a more ground-based submission style to combat Angle's trademarkedfreestyle wrestling.The Undertaker cornered Angle after the match and told him he was not finished with him.In a rematch with Angle (similarly described as underrated and among The Undertaker's top matches that utilized the wrestling styles of their previous encounter\",\n \"previous encounter on the March 3 episode ofSmackDown!) Henry attacked The Undertaker from behind, costing him the title.This led to The Undertaker challenging Henry to a casket match atWrestleMania 22and Henry vowing to end The Undertaker's WrestleMania winning Streak. The match resulted in The Undertaker sealing Henry in the casket, winning the match and extending his streak to 14–0 at WrestleMania.During a rematch on the next episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker was assaulted by the debutingGreat Khali. The Undertaker was not heard from until the May 5 episode ofSmackDown!when Theodore Long delivered a challenge from The Undertaker to Khali for a match atJudgment Day. The Undertaker lost to Khali at Judgment Day,and he did not appear again until the July 7 episode ofSmackDown!when he accepted Khali's challenge to aPunjabi Prison matchatThe Great American Bash. However, Khali was removed from the match due to not being medically cleared. He was thus replaced by thenECW World ChampionBig Show, over whom The\",\n \"Show, over whom The Undertaker gained the victory.In storyline, Theodore Long replaced Khali with Big Show as punishment for an attack on The Undertaker shortly before the match.Khali was then challenged by The Undertaker to aLast Man Standing MatchforSummerSlamafter interfering in The Undertaker's match with then World Heavyweight Champion King Booker. Khali refused the challenge but Long scheduled the Last Man Standing Match ahead of time, for the August 18 episode ofSmackDown!instead. The Undertaker won the match by striking Khali with steel stairs and finishing him with a chokeslam. It was Khali's first defeat and effectively ended his feud with The Undertaker. The Undertaker's next match was with then United States ChampionMr. KennedyatNo Mercy, but was disqualified in the match after he hit Kennedy with the championship belt.On the November 3 episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker reunited with Kane to reform the Brothers of Destruction for the first time in five years, defeating reluctant opposition in\",\n \"opposition in the form of Mr. Kennedy andMontel Vontavious Porter(MVP), with whom Kane was feuding with at the time.As part of the storyline, Kennedy defeated The Undertaker in a First Blood match atSurvivor Seriesafter interference from MVP,but finally defeated Kennedy in a Last Ride match atArmageddon.The two continued to feud into 2007 as Kennedy cost The Undertaker two World Heavyweight Championship opportunities for a championship match at theRoyal Rumble.However, The Undertaker eventually qualified for the 2007 Royal Rumble match, by winning abattle royalon the January 26 episode ofSmackDown!. World Heavyweight Champion (2007–2010) The Undertaker won his firstRoyal Rumblematch on January 28, in doing so becoming the first man to enter the Rumble at number 30 and win the match, after lastly eliminating Shawn Michaels.On the February 5 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker elected to face World Heavyweight Champion Batista atWrestleMania 23on April 1, before attacking him with the chokeslam.AtNo Way Outon\",\n \"Way Outon February 18, The Undertaker and Batista reluctantly teamed together to face John Cena and Shawn Michaels, but lost after Batista gained revenge on The Undertaker by hitting him with aspinebuster, allowing Cena to pin him.At WrestleMania 23, The Undertaker defeated Batista to win his first World Heavyweight Championship and extend his Streak to 15–0.The Undertaker faced Batista in a rematch atBacklashon April 29, this time in a Last Man Standing match. The match ended in a draw after neither man got to their feet by the referee's count of ten, meaning The Undertaker retained the championship.The Undertaker and Batista then fought once again in a steel cage match on the May 11 episode ofSmackDown!that also ended in a draw when both men's feet touched the floor at the same time. After the match, Mark Henry made his return by assaulting an already battered The Undertaker, after which Edge ran to the ring and cashed in hisMoney in the Bankbriefcase, forcing The Undertaker into a second title defense.\",\n \"title defense. Although he kicked out of two quick pin attempts, The Undertaker was pinned by Edge after twospearsand lost the World Heavyweight Championship.After this match, The Undertaker took time off due to a torn right biceps. During his rehabilitation, Henry bragged about his assault on The Undertaker, until vignettes began playing that promoted The Undertaker's return. The Undertaker returned atUnforgivenon September 16, defeating Henry.Batista and The Undertaker reignited their feud atCyber Sundayon October 28 with the fans choosing the special guest referee to be Stone Cold Steve Austin, however, Batista retained the World Heavyweight Championship.They battled again in a Hell in a Cell match atSurvivor Serieson November 18, where Edge returned and interfered to help Batista retain the World Heavyweight Championship.In response to this, The Undertaker delivered aTombstone Piledriverto General ManagerVickie Guerreroon the November 23 episode ofSmackDown!, sending her to the hospital. Returning\",\n \"hospital. Returning assistant-General Manager Theodore Long declared a triple threat match for the title between the three men atArmageddonon December 16, which Edge won after interference fromThe Major Brothers. At theRoyal Rumbleon January 27, 2008, The Undertaker competed in the Royal Rumble match itself, entering at number 1, but eliminated by Shawn Michaels after lasting for most of the bout.AtNo Way Outon February 17, The Undertaker defeated Batista,Finlay, The Great Khali, MVP and Big Daddy V in the SmackDownElimination Chamber matchto become the number one contender for Edge's World Heavyweight Championship atWrestleMania XXIVon March 30.At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Edge with theHell's Gatesubmission hold to win his second World Heavyweight Championship in what was his 16th WrestleMania win.In a WrestleMania rematch, The Undertaker defeated Edge once again atBacklashon April 27 to retain the World Heavyweight Championship.Vickie Guerrero then banned The Undertaker'sHell's Gatesubmission\",\n \"Gatesubmission hold and stripped him of the World Heavyweight Championship on the May 2 episode ofSmackDown.The Undertaker battled Edge for the vacant title atJudgment Dayon May 18, which he won by countout. Guerrero ordered that the title remain vacant, because titles could not change hands in this way.Edge and The Undertaker faced each other again for the vacant championship atOne Night Standon June 1 in aTables, Ladders, and Chairs match, which The Undertaker lost after interference fromLa Familia. As a result of the stipulation, The Undertaker was forced to leave WWE. On the July 25 episode ofSmackDown, Vickie Guerrero reinstated The Undertaker and scheduled Edge to face him atSummerSlamon August 17 in a Hell in a Cell match,which The Undertaker won. After the match, The Undertaker chokeslammed Edge from the top of a ladder and through the ring canvas.Following this match, Guerrero tried making a peace offering with The Undertaker onSmackDownby apologizing, but The Undertaker told her that he was not the\",\n \"that he was not the forgiving kind. AtUnforgivenon September 7, as The Undertaker approached the ring to \\\"take Guerrero's soul\\\" and seal her in a casket,Big Show, who appeared at first to be aiding The Undertaker ended up assaulting him.Resulting from that, The Undertaker and Big Show faced each other in a match atNo Mercyon October 5, where Big Show won byknockout.AtCyber Sundayon October 26, The Undertaker defeated Big Show in a Last Man Standing match after choking him out withHell's Gate.At the same time, The Undertaker was engaged in a short feud with Jeff Hardy, who interfered during his match withVladimir Kozlovon the November 7 episode ofSmackDown. Hardy defeated The Undertaker in anExtreme Rules matchthe following week onSmackDowndue to interference from Big Show. The Undertaker then went on to defeat Big Show in a casket match atSurvivor Serieson November 23 and again in a steel cage match by submission on the December 5 episode ofSmackDownto end their feud.AtNo Way Outon February 15, 2009, The\",\n \"15, 2009, The Undertaker was part of the WWE Championship Elimination Chamber match along with Triple H, Jeff Hardy, Big Show, Vladimir Kozlov and Edge; however, he was unsuccessful at winning the match as he was the runner-up behind Triple H. In early 2009, The Undertaker began a second chapter to his unresolved feud with Shawn Michaels from the late 1990s, over a decade prior to this point (their tensions gradually increasing in the years immediately preceding this from heated run-ins at the 2007 and 2008 Royal Rumble matches). Their renewed feud by this point was two-dimensional, in part focusing on the wonder of The Undertaker's undefeated WrestleMania Streak in relation to, however, the fact that he had never before defeated Michaels in a singles match, only vice versa.Michaels also made the buildup to their WrestleMania encounter personal, repeatedly demonstrating his Christian objections to the demonic dark side nature of The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick, even creating his own heaven-esque bright side\",\n \"bright side spin-off of what he felt The Undertaker's gimmick should be (Michaels having become a real-life born again Christian by this point in his career).The feud culminated in a singles match between the two atWrestleMania 25on April 5 in which Michaels made a heaven-sent entrance descending from up on high portraying his bright side anti-Deadman, while The Undertaker made a grave-risen entrance emerging from the ground.After what was widely described as a suspenseful, competitive match, The Undertaker defeated Michaels, thus extending hisWrestleMania winning streak to 17–0.Their encounter was highly acclaimed by critics and audiences alike and is considered by many to be one of the greatest WrestleMania matches of all time.On the April 24 episode ofSmackDown, after losing a match against Big Show by knockout with Big Show taking advantage of The Undertaker's battered neck state from his previous WrestleMania encounter, The Undertaker attacked Big Show. Following this, The Undertaker took another hiatus\",\n \"took another hiatus from the WWE. After a four-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned atSummerSlamon August 23 by attackingCM Punk, who had just won the World Heavyweight Championship from Jeff Hardy in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match.AtBreaking Pointon September 13, The Undertaker faced Punk in a submission match for the World Heavyweight Championship. The Undertaker had originally won the match with hisHell's Gatesubmission hold, but the match was restarted by SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long, who ruled that the ban placed on the move by Vickie Guerrero was still in effect. Punk went on to win the match with hisanaconda visewhen refereeScott Armstrongcalled for the bell, despite The Undertaker never submitting—a recreation of theMontreal Screwjob, which took place in the same venue in1997.On the September 25 episode ofSmackDown, Theodore Long officially lifted the ban after being released from a casket that The Undertaker had him placed inside of, among a series of other horror-themed mind game\",\n \"mind game tactics.With Long out of the way, the feud between The Undertaker and Punk pressed on and atHell in a Cellon October 4, The Undertaker won the World Heavyweight Championship from him in a Hell in a Cell match.The Undertaker successfully defended the title against CM Punk on the October 23 episode ofSmackDown, in a fatal four-way match atBragging Rightson October 25 against Punk, Batista andRey Mysterioand in a triple threat match against Chris Jericho and Big Show atSurvivor Serieson November 22.He faced Batista atTLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairson December 13 in a chairs match for the championship and won when the match was restarted by Long, after Batista had originally won after utilizing alow blow. The next night onRaw, The Undertaker competed in a tournament to crown the2009 Superstar of the Year, losing to Randy Orton by countout in the first round after a distraction by Orton's protegèsCody RhodesandTed DiBiase. After successfully defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Rey\",\n \"against Rey Mysterio at theRoyal Rumbleon January 31, 2010,The Undertaker lost the championship at theElimination Chamberpay-per-view on February 21. It was also at this event that a notoriousshoot incident(non-kayfabe) befell The Undertaker: apyrotechnicsmalfunction momentarily engulfed him in flames up to three times during his ring entrance. He was, however, able to continue with his scheduled match that night despite suffering first and second-degree burns on his chest and neck. According to a WWE spokesman, it \\\"looked like a bad sunburn\\\".The Undertaker lost the title to Chris Jericho after interference from Shawn Michaels that night;Jericho has said on multiple occasions that the pyrotechnician responsible for the accident was immediately escorted from the arena and relieved of his employment with WWE, following a threat of violence from Calaway.Calaway himself explained that he had previously expressed concerns to the technician regarding the pyro arrangement, but was ignored. He feels he was saved\",\n \"feels he was saved from severe injury by applying water to his hair, and altering his attire from a sleeveless to a sleeved jacket, just minutes before the accident. The Undertaker then accepted Michaels's rematch offer, after initially declining, atWrestleMania XXVIon March 28 in aStreak vs. Career match, where The Undertaker was victorious and Shawn Michaels was forced to retire. This match also made both The Undertaker and Michaels the first men in WWE history to main event WrestleMania in three different decades (Undertaker main evented WrestleMania 13 and XXIV in 1997 and 2008 and Michaels main evented WrestleMania XII and XIV in 1996 and 1998 and XX and 23 in 2004 and 2007, respectively). After a hiatus (which included wrestling two matches onRaw), he returned toSmackDownon May 28, defeating Rey Mysterio to qualify for a spot at theFatal 4-Waypay-per-view on June 20 to compete for the World Heavyweight title.During the Rey Mysterio match, The Undertaker suffered a concussion, broken orbital bone and\",\n \"orbital bone and broken nose; he was visibly bleeding profusely on camera by the end of this match.To cover for the injury, Kane revealed that The Undertaker had been found in a vegetative state on the June 4 episode ofSmackDown;Mysterio took his place in the match and won the World Heavyweight Championship. While attempting to learn which wrestler had attacked The Undertaker, Kane defeated Mysterio to win the World Heavyweight Championship atMoney in the Bank. Kane and Mysterio continued to clash as they accused one another of being the assailant behind the mysterious ambush of The Undertaker. AtSummerSlamon August 15, The Undertaker returned to confront Kane and Rey Mysterio, only to be attacked with aTombstone Piledriverby Kane. With Kane revealed as his attacker, the two feuded for the next few months over the World Heavyweight Championship. After losing to Kane in a No Holds Barred match atNight of Championson September 19, Paul Bearer returned as The Undertaker's manager on the September 24 episode\",\n \"24 episode ofSmackDown.However, Bearer turned on him atHell in a Cellon October 3 to help Kane win once again in a Hell in a Cell match. The feud ended atBragging Rightson October 24 whenThe Nexushelped Kane defeat The Undertaker in a Buried Alive match (the half-brothers' final singles match against one another). The Undertaker needed surgery for a torn rotator cuff, causing him to be written off. Final years of The Streak (2011–2014) After the2011 Royal Rumble, promotional videos began airing, showing The Undertaker entering and standing within a Western-style, dilapidated shack on a rainy desert inDeath Valley, The birthplace. Each promo ended with the date 2–21–11 being \\\"burned into\\\" the screen. On the February 21 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker returned, but before he could speak, Triple H also returned and confronted him. The two challenged each other to a match atWrestleMania XXVII, which was later made aNo Holds Barredmatch and which The Undertaker won by submission. However, he had to be carried away\",\n \"to be carried away from the ring on a stretcher.Following WrestleMania XXVII in 2011, The Undertaker would take on a more part-time role within the company; he would not have another match onRaworSmackDownuntil 2013. On the January 30, 2012 episode ofRaw SuperShow, The Undertaker returned after a nine-month hiatus to confront Triple H.On the February 13 episode ofRaw SuperShow, Triple H refused The Undertaker's challenge for a WrestleMania rematch.After The Undertaker accused Triple H of living in the shadow of Shawn Michaels on the February 20 episode ofRaw SuperShow, Triple H accepted the challenge on the condition that it would be a Hell in a Cell match; Michaels was later inserted as guest referee in the match. AtWrestleMania XXVIII, The Undertaker, while debuting his new look, a mohawk, defeated Triple H to extend his Streak to 20–0. After the match, The Undertaker and Michaels carried Triple H to the entrance stage, where the three embraced.Later in 2012, The Undertaker appeared on the1000th episode\",\n \"the1000th episode ofRawon July 23 to help Kane, who had been confronted byJinder Mahal, Curt Hawkins,Tyler Reks,Hunico,CamachoandDrew McIntyre. The Brothers of Destruction overcame and dominated the six other wrestlers. The Undertaker's next television appearance was onOld School Rawon March 4, 2013, where he opened the show by performing his signature entrance. CM Punk, Randy Orton, Big Show andSheamusfought in a fatal four-way match to determine who would face him atWrestleMania 29, which Punk won.After the real-life death of Paul Bearer on March 5, 2013, a storyline involving Punk regularlyspitingThe Undertaker through displays of flippancy and disrespect towards Bearer's death began.Punk interrupted The Undertaker's ceremony to honor Bearer onRaw, stealing the trademark urn and later using it to attack Kane, humiliate The Brothers of Destruction and mock Bearer.The Undertaker defeated Punk at WrestleMania 29 to extend his Streak to 21–0 and then took back the urn.The following night onRaw, The Undertaker\",\n \"The Undertaker came out to pay his respects to Bearer, but was interrupted byThe Shield, who attempted to attack Undertaker beforeTeam Hell No(Kane andDaniel Bryan) made the save.The Undertaker would wrestle his finalRawmatch (his first since 2010) on the April 22 episode, teaming with Kane and Bryan against The Shield in a losing effort.Four days later, he wrestled his finalSmackDownmatch (also his first since 2010), defeating Shield memberDean Ambroseby submission. Afterward, The Undertaker was attacked by Ambrose and the rest of The Shield, who performed a triple powerbomb through the broadcast table on him. On the February 24, 2014, episode ofRaw, The Undertaker returned to confront Brock Lesnar and accepted his challenge for a match atWrestleMania XXX.After 25 minutes and threeF-5s, Lesnar won the match at WrestleMania bypinfall, ending The Undertaker's Streak in what was described as \\\"the most shocking result in WWE history\\\".Following the match, The Undertaker was hospitalized with a severe concussion\",\n \"a severe concussion which he suffered in the first minutes of the match.In a December 2014 interview, Vince McMahon confirmed that it was his final decision to have Lesnar end The Streak and that The Undertaker was initially shocked at the decision. McMahon justified his decision that it would significantly enhance Lesnar's formidability to set up the next WrestleMania event and that there were no other viable candidates to fill Lesnar's role.In 2014, The Undertaker was also offered to be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame, but he declined the offer, feeling it wasn't time yet. Final feuds (2015–2020) In February 2015,Bray Wyattbegan a series of cryptic promos which led toFastlane, where Wyatt challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 31, which The Undertaker accepted.At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Wyatt after twoTombstone Piledrivers. AtBattlegroundin July, The Undertaker made his return by attacking Lesnar as he was on the verge of defeatingSeth Rollinsduring his WWE World Heavyweight\",\n \"World Heavyweight Championship match, causing the match to end in a disqualification win for Lesnar.The next night onRaw, The Undertaker explained his actions as revenge, not against Lesnar breaking The Streak, but rather the constant taunting he allowed Paul Heyman to engage in. Later that night, after The Undertaker and Lesnar brawled throughout the arena and had to be separated, a rematch was scheduled forSummerSlamin August, where The Undertaker controversially defeated Lesnar. Lesnar put The Undertaker in akimura lockand the timekeeper rang the bell after seeing The Undertaker supposedly indicating submission, but since the referee had not seen a submission and never stopped the match, the match continued. The confusion allowed The Undertaker to surprise Lesnar with a low blow and applyHell's Gate, in which Lesnar passed out.AtHell in a Cell, The Undertaker was defeated by Lesnar in a Hell in a Cell match after Lesnar hit him with his own low blow, returning the favor, and executing what was his\",\n \"what was his thirdF-5of the match. While the crowd gave The Undertaker an ovation after his loss to Lesnar, he was attacked and captured byThe Wyatt Family(Bray Wyatt,Luke Harper,Erick RowanandBraun Strowman), who carried him away from the ring.After ambushing and capturing Kane the next night onRaw, Wyatt explained that he had claimed their souls and stole their demonic powers.The Brothers of Destruction returned on the November 9 episode ofRawand attacked The Wyatt Family, setting up a tag team match atSurvivor Series, which honored The Undertaker's 25 years in WWE.At Survivor Series on November 22, the Brothers of Destruction defeated Wyatt and Harper. On the February 22, 2016, episode ofRaw, Vince McMahon placed his son Shane McMahon, who returned to WWE for the first time since 2009, in a Hell in a Cell match atWrestleMania 32against The Undertaker with the stipulation that if Shane won, he would gain control ofRaw.Vince later decided that should Undertaker lose the match against Shane, it would be his\",\n \"it would be his final match at WrestleMania.After weeks of random physical confrontations and mind games exchanged between the pair, The Undertaker defeated Shane McMahon at WrestleMania 32.The Undertaker would not appear again until the900th episode ofSmackDownon November 15, issuing a threat to Team SmackDown if they failed to defeat Team Raw at the upcomingSurvivor Seriespay-per-view. The Undertaker appeared on the January 23 episode ofRaw, confronting Brock Lesnar andGoldberg.During theRoyal Rumbleon January 29, The Undertaker entered at number 29, eliminating Goldberg,The Miz,Baron CorbinandSami Zayn, before being eliminated by the number 30 entrant,Roman Reigns.The Undertaker returned on the March 6 episode ofRawand performed a chokeslam on Reigns.This led to a No Holds Barred match between The Undertaker and Reigns atWrestleMania 33,in which The Undertaker lost to Reigns after five spears in his fourth WrestleMania main event.After the match, The Undertaker left his gloves, coat and hat in the center\",\n \"hat in the center of the ring before slowly making his exit. The Undertaker took part in theRaw 25 Yearsbroadcast on January 22, 2018, his first post-WrestleMania 33 appearance.In the months prior toWrestleMania 34, John Cena challenged The Undertaker to a singles match. At WrestleMania, afterEliasconfronted Cena and was beaten down, The Undertaker's hat and coat appeared in the center of the ring and were struck by lightning. The Undertaker then appeared and beat Cena in a three-minute squash match.Three weeks later, The Undertaker defeatedRusevat WWE'sGreatest Royal Rumbleevent in a casket match.AtSuper Show-Downin Australia on October 6, The Undertaker faced Triple H in ano disqualification matchbilled as the \\\"Last Time Ever\\\"; they were accompanied by Kane and Shawn Michaels, respectively. The Undertaker lost the match after interference from Michaels. After the match, the four men shook hands as a sign of respect, however, The Undertaker and Kane would follow this by attacking them.As a result, the duos\",\n \"a result, the duos reunited their respective tag teams—the Brothers of Destruction and D-Generation X—and faced each other atCrown Jewelon November 2, where The Undertaker and Kane lost their final match as a tag team. On the April 8, 2019 episode ofRaw, the night afterWrestleMania 35—the first WrestleMania in 19 years without his involvement—The Undertaker appeared to interrupt and attack Elias during a musical performance.The Undertaker made his return to the ring to face Goldberg atSuper ShowDownin Saudi Arabia on June 7, defeating him in the main event of the night in their first match against each other.On the June 24, 2019 episode ofRaw, during a handicap match in which Roman Reigns was dominated by Shane McMahon and Drew McIntyre, The Undertaker suddenly appeared and attacked McMahon and McIntyre. The Undertaker and Reigns were later scheduled to face McMahon and McIntyre in a No Holds Barred tag team match atExtreme Rules. At Extreme Rules, The Undertaker and Reigns won. This turned out to be The\",\n \"out to be The Undertaker's final match in front of a live audience in the United States. The Undertaker returned atSuper ShowDownin Saudi Arabia on February 27, 2020, as a surprise replacement in agauntlet match. He entered the match last, replacing Rey Mysterio and defeatingAJ Stylesto win theTuwaiq Mountain Trophy.AtElimination Chamberduring a match between Styles andAleister Black, The Undertaker made another surprise appearance with an attack on Styles.The following night onRaw, Styles challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 36.Over the following weeks that led up to WrestleMania, a resentful Styles made unprecedented efforts to expose The Undertaker, going so far as departing from bashing his Deadman gimmick, instead taking to ametafictionform of bashing Calaway himself. The feud saw Styles solely referring to The Undertaker by his real name, Mark Calaway, referencing his age and his wife,Michelle McCool. In response, The Undertaker cut promos of ominous warning against Styles in which for\",\n \"Styles in which for the first time in years, hebroke from the Deadman gimmickby presenting as himself out of character. In doing so, elements of his American Badass gimmick were reflected with Calaway making appearances in his biker gear. At WrestleMania 36, The Undertaker presented his third and final identity, \\\"The Unholy Trinity,\\\" a combination of The Deadman, American Badass, and himself as Mark Calaway, this blend allowing him to trash talk Styles over real life matters during their encounter, while also able to maintain his superhuman horror capabilities.In what was subsequently learned to be The Undertaker's final match, he and Styles fought in a cemetery at a secluded rural locale, competing in what was a cinematic, narrative-heavy brawl similar to \\\"Buried Alive matches\\\",named the \\\"Boneyard match\\\". Despite the assistance ofGallows and Anderson, The Undertaker buried Styles in the grave to win this match and ride off on motorcycle into the sunset,scoring his 25th WrestleMania victory to complete his\",\n \"to complete his professional wrestling career. Retirement and Hall of Fame (2020–2022) On June 21, 2020, in the final episode of theUndertaker: The Last Ridedocumentary, Callaway retired from the professional wrestling industry.Later on that November, he confirmed that he was \\\"officially retired\\\" in an interview.Many wrestlers and other public figures paid tribute to him on their social media pages.Madison Square Garden, regarded as the most famous venue in professional wrestling, also paid tribute to him. Undertaker, wearing his trademark mortician trench coat and stetson hat, made an appearance at the conclusion of theSurvivor Seriesevent on November 22, 2020. The event is dedicated to him, commemorating thirty years from that time since his WWE debut. There, he reiterated that his career had been completed, giving an emotional farewell speech which ended in typical Undertaker fashion: \\\"My time has come to let The UndertakerRest in Peace.\\\"Aten-bell salutewas also given for The Undertaker character as he\",\n \"character as he did his traditional take-the-knee pose, and a holographic image of Paul Bearer, Undertaker's former manager, was projected in the ring. News that the Undertaker would be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fameclass of 2022were responded to with extensive praise from WWE fans, the professional wrestling community and media outlets alike.On March 3, 2022, onThe Pat McAfee Show, WWE Chairman Vince McMahon stated that he would be Undertaker's WWE Hall of Fame inductor. In praising Undertaker both inside and outside of character in a heartfelt message, McMahon said that the induction would be one of the most difficult endeavors of his life because of his longtime history with Undertaker, and how close they were behind the scenes.Undertaker issued aTwitterresponse later on that same day, which read: After over 30 years of long roads traveled, countless hours of TV, and one hell of a ride together… couldn't think of anyone better to put me in the #WWEHOF than @VinceMcMahon. One final ride\",\n \"One final ride together,old-timer!!! On April 1, 2022, The Undertaker was formally inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame at theAmerican Airlines Center.At his induction, Calaway made a 137-minute speech that opened with a 10-minute, emotional standing ovation from the live audience, bringing Calaway to tears. Calaway's acceptance speech, hailed by media outlets as matchless and beyond compare, was motivational and shared his collection of self-reflections and life philosophies for success. In making his speech, he stood before several genres of his Deadman character, through the varying costumes displayed on mannequins.Later that same weekend, Calaway made appearances on the entrance stage on both nights ofWrestleMania. Sporadic appearances (2023–present) On January 23, 2023, The Undertaker made an appearance at the Monday Night Raw 30th Anniversary special,Raw is XXX. He appeared under his American Badass gimmick, confrontingLA Knightand seemingly giving his approval toBray Wyatt.On October 10, 2023, The\",\n \"10, 2023, The Undertaker made his first appearance onWWE NXTchokeslammingBron Breakker. On April 5, 2024, The Undertaker inductedMuhammad Aliinto the 2024WWE Hall of Fame.On April 7, 2024, The Undertaker appeared briefly during the Night 2 main event ofWrestleMania XLbetween Roman Reigns and Cody Rhodes where he aided Cody Rhodes and chokeslammed The Rock. Undertaker gimmick, identities and character evolution The Deadman identity Under his undead,funereal, and macabre horror-themed gimmick, in which The Undertaker is subtitled \\\"The Deadman\\\", he routinely took to alarmist tactics to disrupt the focus and confidence of his rivals.Often, these alarmist tactics were morbid and applied the use of props that reflected demise as the consequence of a wrestling match against him: caskets (sometimes personalizing casket designs to represent his opponents),body bags,corpse-likeeffigies,cemeteries,hearses.To that end, the gimmick evoked funerals and death down to finer details, such as in the character's birthplace\",\n \"birthplace ofDeath Valley, catchphrase of \\\"Rest in Peace\\\", signature finishing maneuver of theTombstone Piledriver, awrestling pinthat had the opponent resemble a corpse with their arms crossed over their chest, etc.Adding to his many effects of treating his wrestling matches as funeral services, The Undertaker frequently served a list of specialized matches that were personalized to his Deadman gimmick:Casket Match, Body Bag Match,Buried Alive Match,Last Ride Match,Hell in a Cell, Boneyard Match, etc. Filled withbells and whistles, The Undertaker's godlike superhuman presence and indignation were signaled byfuneral tolls, settings of pitch-black darkness and blue/purple semidarkness, flickering lights, hazy fog, thunder, lightning strikes, and other bone-chilling scenes and sound activity.Portrayed as miraculously resilient to destruction,The Undertaker yielded numerous resurrections,which sometimes gave way to reincarnations of his Deadman gimmick. While maintaining his general character premise as death\",\n \"premise as death personified with accompanying alarmist tactics throughout all sagas of the Deadman,each incarnation took on its own distinct appearance and characterization. For example, some Deadman incarnations wereunearthly and zombie-likewhile others wereGoth and comparatively more human. The earliest of The Undertaker's Deadman incarnations (nicknamed in external media as \\\"The Old West Mortician\\\" to distinguish from his other Deadman incarnations) depicted him as a menacing derivative of the Wild West undertakers in television westerns.In his own rendition, he was garbed in a black trench coat; gray-striped tie; black-ribboned, blackstetson; grayboot spats; and gray gloves(black gloves for first few appearances before gray).However, most of The Undertaker's Deadman character development (sleeve tattoos, longer/straightened/black hair, purple/blue color representation, elements of thunder and lightning, etc.) would not surface until his first reincarnation into what was hisrebirthed Deadmanvariation,\",\n \"Deadmanvariation, lasting fromSummerSlam 94'(resurrection from adeath angle with Yokozuna) throughBuried Alive: In Your House(The Undertaker buried alive by Mankind and numerous other WWF heel wrestlers).In these initial zombie-like incarnations of his gimmick, he was portrayed as impervious to pain, something accomplished by Calawaynot sellinghis opponents' attacks. Among the many ways this was showcased was The Undertaker's maneuver of raising up from ataken downsupine positioninto ahigh Fowler's position, dubbed \\\"the sit-up\\\" (often accompanied by his sharp hissing sound). Beginning early on, The Undertaker's persona was complemented with histrionically spooky, wailing managerPaul Bearer, introduced to represent and guide The Deadman.Playing a key role, Bearer used an urn to transmit mysterious powers to The Undertaker that had supernatural healing effects on him during combat.Also linked to The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick were the druids–a team of mysterious, incognito cult-like members, completely\",\n \"members, completely disguised in black hooded clergy robes.A mysterious choir chantingsounded whenever the druids presented.The druids typically appeared for the purposes of removing The Undertaker where he had seemingly been extinguished by his enemies (as opposed toEMTsor medical personnel used for the rest of WWF/E talent). The druids were also seen reproducing The Undertaker in recovered, wrathful states to those same enemies who were thought to have extinguished him. The Undertaker took to many trademarked idiosyncrasies and themes, including a stylized throat-slashing gesture,grimacing facial expressions fit with eyeballs rolled back so that only the whites of his eyes displayed,backwards hair-whips so as to expose his ominous facial expressions,fixed stares on adversaries,protruding tongue displays, jolting of his head with a fury so that it faced the direction of his antagonists,his celebratory take-the-knee pose,sonorous vocalizations,collectively labeling his fanbase as \\\"Creatures of the\",\n \"\\\"Creatures of the Night\\\",voice of God-like promos in which things were interrupted with dimmed lights and thunder while The Undertaker's communications were heard booming throughout the arena with no physical trace of him;messages filled with death threats of a deeply posthumous insight into impending corpse decomposition, maggot feasting, unsouling and so on.A main attraction of the Deadman gimmick, The Undertaker mesmerized his opponents and viewers alike through elaborately \\\"bone-chilling\\\" entrances.The character's godlike powers were routinely put on display in these moments, triggering lights back to the arena either gradually or suddenly dependent on his either slowly or abruptly raised arms.During the vast majority of his wrestling career as the Deadman, The Undertaker used an extended remix ofFrédéric Chopin'sFuneral Marchas histheme music.WWF ComposerJim Johnstonembellished on the Chopin march, using the historic melody as a pre- and post-chorus to a main chorus of bell tolls, along with an original\",\n \"with an original transition section to the song of a slow,lugubriousinstrumental feel.Of his entrances, Calaway has stated, \\\"When that gong went off, that was go time. The music fit the character. That's the key element of it: the end is at hand for whoever's going to be standing in that ring waiting for me to come down. That was the mindset behind the gong. And the music was just doom and gloom, you knew what was coming.\\\" Alternate identities of The Undertaker gimmick After a hiatus, Calaway returned in 2000 adopting a human form of the Undertaker gimmick. Under the character's alter ego, he is a semifictional smack-talking,redneckbiker, thoroughly absent of his fully fictional Deadman zombie-like traits and wizardry.In performing this alternate identity, he rode to the ring on motorcycles, chewed tobacco, donned cargo garments and/or denim, printed shirts, and sporty fashion accessories (sunglasses, necklaces, bandanas).His theme music was replaced with popular rock songs of the time, initiallyKid Rock's\",\n \"initiallyKid Rock's \\\"American Bad Ass\\\" (from which The Undertaker's subtitle used to refer to this second identity derived), and eventuallyLimp Bizkit's \\\"Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)\\\".His American Badass catch phrases, such as threats of “I'll make you famous” or references to the wrestling ring as his “yard”, became popular during this era. According toBruce Prichard, Calaway requested this metamorphosis of character since he wanted to be \\\"the biker–he wanted to be the guy that he is in everyday life\\\". While explained off-screen for the above reason years later, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it.This transition lasted3+1⁄2years until 2004 when The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity in hybrid form—residual features of his American Badass identity remaining. Among subtle details left over from\",\n \"left over from his biker identity were his in-ringMMAstyle between his stances, strikes, and submissions; penchant to sporadically lower his tank top for a barechested appearance; celebrating victories with an arm-raised fist; etc.This hybrid Deadman (Deadman incarnation most closely based on Calaway himself) would last many years and for the remainder of The Undertaker's professional wrestling career, excluding his final wrestling match. For The Undertaker's final encounter, a Boneyard Match atWrestleMania 36in 2020, he introduced a three-dimensional identity that brought all of his identities into one, dubbed \\\"The Unholy Trinity:\\\" a mix of his Deadman identity, American Badass identity, and his natural and genuine identity as Mark Calaway. Gimmick reflective nicknames The Undertaker generated many nicknames from commentators throughout the course of his active wrestling career, some of those names more associated with his Deadman Undertaker identity, including \\\"The Grim Reaper\\\" (variants of this used were\",\n \"of this used were \\\"The Reaper\\\" and \\\"The Reaper of Wayward Souls\\\"),\\\"The Demon of Death Valley\\\",\\\"The Man from the Dark Side\\\",\\\"The Prince of Darkness\\\",\\\"The Lord of Darkness\\\".He also generated nicknames associated with his American Badass Undertaker identity, including \\\"Big Evil\\\" (used in reference to his American Badassheelside),\\\"Booger Red\\\".Some of his nicknames were not identity specific but used for the character in general, such as \\\"The Phenom\\\". Domestic backstory, parents and brother The Undertaker's gimmick has adark and disturbed family backstorywhich involves him intentionallyburning down his family funeral homeas a teenager, resulting in the deaths of his parents and purportedly a brother of his as well. Undertaker initially denied his then ex-manager Paul Bearer's charges of him committing the arson murder of his family, (though later confessed in late 1998). Instead, Undertaker blamed his younger brother of whom he thought long dead from the incident, describing him as a \\\"pyromaniac\\\". This led to\",\n \"This led to Bearer's shocking warnings to proof in the form of the brother, \\\"Kane\\\", as alive and well.In late 1997 atIn Your House Badd Blood, Bearer unleashed a vengeful Kane: the fire-personified, juggernaut half-brother of Undertaker, who was fit with a mask to conceal the scarring from Undertaker's arson.In what became a fickle sibling relationship with Bearer (later revealed to be Kane's father) only adding to the pendulum and complexities, Undertaker and Kane went back and forth from one extreme to the other, feuding barbarically at points and yet teami...\",\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Streak_(professional_wrestling\",\n \"WrestleMania VII WrestleMania VIIwas the seventh annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 24, 1991, at theLos Angeles Memorial Sports Arenain Los Angeles. Fourteen matches were shown during thelivebroadcast, with onedark matchheld before the event. The main event sawHulk HogandefeatSgt. Slaughterfor theWWF Championshipas part of astorylinein which Sgt. Slaughter portrayed an Iraqi sympathizer during the United States' involvement in theGulf War. Significant events on the undercard includedThe Undertaker's WrestleMania debut and the beginning ofhis renowned winning streak, a retirement match betweenRandy SavageandThe Ultimate Warriorleading to the former's reunion with estranged loveMiss Elizabeth, as well as the final televised match of the originalHart Foundation, after whichBret Hartbecame primarily a singles wrestler. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now\",\n \"(WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\".WrestleMania VII was originally scheduled to be held on March 24, 1991, inLos Angeles, Californiaat theLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum, but the WWF decided to move the event to the adjacentLos Angeles Memorial Sports Arena. The WWF's stated reason for the venue change was that it had security concerns in the wake ofSgt. Slaughter's portrayal of an Iraqi sympathizer during theGulf War.This was dismissed by outlets such as SLAM! Sports of Canada, who chalked up the venue change to poor advanced ticket sales, and the company having difficulty filling the estimated 100,000 seats available.According to former WWF executiveBruce Prichard, both were accurate statements. In hisSomething to Wrestle Withpodcast, Prichard said that\",\n \"Prichard said that even if the WWF had sold out the Coliseum, the scope of the event was too large for police to ensure its security.Prichard explained further in an interview with Kayfabe Commentaries that the WWF would have had to foot the entire bill for the amount of security necessary to keep the wrestlers and fans safe from all potential issues, citing both the possibility of an outside attack and the crime rate of the surrounding neighborhood.Dave Meltzerin theWrestling Observer Newsletterwrote that between 11,900 and 15,000 tickets were sold before the move. He also reported that no tickets had to be refunded, indicating that sales were under 15,500. Comp tickets were believed to help fill the show's crowd. The tagline for the event was\\\"Superstars and Stripes Forever,\\\" and is remembered for its theme of American patriotism in the wake of the Gulf War. American flags were hung all over the arena and the ring apron and banners were colored red, white, and blue, which was the basis for the main event\",\n \"for the main event betweenHulk HoganandSgt. Slaughterfor theWWF World Heavyweight Championship. This was the first WrestleMania not to featureJesse \\\"The Body\\\" Venturaas a color commentator.Gorilla Monsoonhosted the event withBobby Heenan. When Heenan had to manage at ringside in the opening match and again duringMr. Perfect'sIntercontinental Heavyweight Championshipdefense, Monsoon was joined on the commentary byJim Dugganand \\\"Lord\\\"Alfred Hayesrespectively. In addition,Regis Philbinhelped with commentary on the main event whileJeopardy!hostAlex Trebekserved as the ring announcer. Willie Nelsonsang a rendition of \\\"America the Beautiful\\\" before the show. Other celebrity guests in attendance for WrestleMania VII included Philbin, Trebek, andMarla Maplesas backstage announcers.George Steinbrenner,Paul Maguire,Macaulay Culkin,Donald Trump,Lou Ferrigno,Chuck Norris,Beverly D'AngeloandHenry Winklerappeared as spectators.Bob Costaswas scheduled to make an appearance, but he canceled weeks before the event due to his\",\n \"event due to his objection to the main event angle. Theartistfor the promotionalposteris renowned illustrative painterJoe Juskoknown mainly for his work within the comic book industry. Randy Savage required surgery on a broken thumb in late January before the event. The injury required him to miss several matches leading up to WrestleMania. Storylines The two main feuds entering WrestleMania in 1991 were betweenHulk Hoganand WWF ChampionSgt. SlaughterandThe Ultimate Warriorand\\\"Macho King\\\" Randy Savage, and in a way, both were intertwined. Warrior had defeated Hogan for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania a year earlier and entered 1991 as the champion. In the meantime, Sgt. Slaughter had returned to the WWF near the end of 1990 after spending five years wrestling in theAmerican Wrestling Association. When he returned, Slaughter announced that he had turned his back on his country and had become anIraqisympathizer and follower ofSaddam Hussein. He had also revealed an alliance with an Iraqi military\",\n \"an Iraqi military leader,General Adnan, who became his advisor (Adnan having followed Slaughter from the AWA to participate in the angle). This coincided with the increasing tension in the Middle East that was going on at that time, which eventually would lead toOperation Desert Stormand American involvement in the conflict. Slaughter would eventually set his sights on the Warrior, and the two agreed to a match at theRoyal Rumblein January 1991. Savage, meanwhile, was trying to regain the WWF Championship that he had lost atWrestleMania Vto Hogan and challenged Warrior repeatedly to give him a shot. Warrior defeated Savage to successfully defend the title numerous times and subsequently refused to grant any more title shots, so Savage decided to seek another remedy. During the match between Warrior and Slaughter, Savage and his managerQueen Sherricame to ringside and got involved in the match. Warrior picked up an interfering Sherri and tossed her from the ring onto Savage. Slaughter capitalized by driving\",\n \"by driving Warrior down, leaving him hanging over the second rope. Savage then struck Warrior with his royalscepteras Slaughter kept the referee's attention, knocking the champion unconscious. Slaughter then hit an elbow drop on the Warrior and pinned him to become the new champion. After he came to and realized what Savage had done, Warrior charged to the back looking for Savage. He then issued a challenge for a retirement match for the two at WrestleMania, which Savage accepted. Hogan, having no connection with the ongoing story to this point, entered the Royal Rumble match as its defending champion. He won the match by eliminating his old rivalEarthquakelast, then went backstage to be interviewed byGene Okerlund. During the course of the interview, the word was relayed to the two that Slaughter and Adnan were celebrating their triumph by defacing an American flag. Hogan then promised to stand up for his country and take the title from Slaughter as soon as possible, and was later named the leading\",\n \"named the leading contender for the WWF Championship, which he had not contended for since losing the title to the Warrior atWrestleMania VI. Leading up to the show, Hogan continued to cite the ongoing real-life war in their feud. On one episode ofWWF Prime Time Wrestling, Hogan stated that Iraq would surrender in the war at the moment he defeated Slaughter. Event The opening bout was asingles matchpitting theBrooklyn BrawleragainstKoko B. Ware. Ware defeated the Brooklyn Brawler by pinfall. This was adark matchthat did not air on thepay-per-viewbroadcast. The pay-per-view broadcast began with a performance of \\\"America the Beautiful\\\" byWillie Nelson. The second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was a tag team match pittingthe BarbarianandHakuagainstthe Rockers. In the end,Shawn Michaelshit Haku with aflying bodypressand pinned him for the three count. After that,Dino Bravoand theTexas Tornadofaced off in the ring. In the end, The Texas Tornado won the bout by pinfall following\",\n \"pinfall following adiscus punch. Next,the British Bulldogtook on theWarlord. In the end, The British Bulldog performed arunning powerslamon Warlord to win the match. After that, theWWF Tag Team Championswere on the line withthe Hart Foundationdefended their titles againstthe Nasty Boys. In the end,Jerry SagsstruckJim Neidhartwith a motorcycle helmet, enablingBrian Knobbsto pin him, earning The Nasty Boys their first tag team championship in WWF. Next,Jake RobertsandRick Martelcompeted in ablindfold match. In the end, Roberts struck Martel with aDDTand pinned him, winning the match. After that,Jimmy Snukafaced off againstThe Undertaker. Although Snuka attempted to bring Undertaker off his feet, he was unable too. In the end, Snuka attempted aSpringboard crossbodymaneuver on Undertaker but Undertaker caught him and hit Snuka withTombstone Piledriverfor the victory. This marked the beginning of the Undertaker'sstreak. Next, was theretirement matchbetweenRandy Savageandthe Ultimate Warrior. Before both men came\",\n \"both men came out,Bobby Heenanspotted Savage's formervaletMiss Elizabethin the crowd. Savage and Queen Sherri came to the ring carried on a throne and Warrior walked out instead of his trademark running. The match started slow, both men initially insisted on chain wrestling until Savage started usingstrikeson Warrior. Savage went to the top rope and attempted a crossbody on Warrior but he caught him but put Savage on his feet and slapped him. Savage retreated from the ring and grabbed a chair at ringside and threw it at Warrior but it missed. Savage snuck back into the ring after being distracted by the referee picking up the chair and attacked Warrior. Warrior irish whipped Savage into the corner and attempted a splash but Savage got out of the way and Warrior fell to the outside. Sherri picked up Warrior and struck his throat when the referee wasn't looking and Savage performed a diving axe handle from the top turnbuckle to outside the ring. Savage got back into the ring but Sherri picked up Warrior again\",\n \"up Warrior again and began hitting him but Warrior pushed her over. Savage then came out of the ring and attacked Warrior from behind. Eventually, Warrior got back in the ring and Savage hit Warrior with a body slam for a two count. After a brief back and fourth, Savage attempted to wear Warrior down with a sleeper hold but Warrior got out of it and ran on the ropes but both men collided with each other in the center of the ring. Savage got Warrior up but Warrior countered with a small package but Sherri distracted the referee and when the referee turned around he counted but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior began arguing with the referee and Savage took advantage by delivering a running knee lift which propelled Warrior into the referee, taking him out. Savage then held Warrior in place and Sherri took her shoe off so she could hit Warrior with it. She climbed to the top turnbuckle and attempted and axe handle with the shoe but Warrior got out of the way and she struck Savage with it instead. Warrior\",\n \"it instead. Warrior chased Sherri around ringside until Savage intervened and rolled up Warrior for a two count. Savage performed a stun gun on Warrior and performed a clothesline to the back of the head. After body slamming Warrior, Savage climbed to the top rope and performed five diving elbow drops on Warrior and pinned him but Warrior kicked out. Warrior then got a surge of energy and fought back against Savage and delivered a gorilla press slam and splash to the back and pinned him but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior then began talking to his hands and asking his gods if he should step aside and lose the match and questioning whether his destiny is to lose to Savage. Warrior stepped out of the ring to give Savage a count out win after apparently receiving an answer from above. Before Warrior could do that though, Savage attacked him while he was on the apron. Savage then attempted an axe handle to the outside but Warrior moved out the way and Savage hit the barricade instead. Warrior got Savage in the\",\n \"got Savage in the ring and performed three shoulder tackles on Savage and pinned him for the three count. After winning, Warrior put on his entrance coat and celebrated in the ring before leaving. After he had left, Sherri berated Savage who was still lying on the ring canvas trying to recover from his match. Sherri began attacking Savage in the ring but Elizabeth hopped over the barricade and got into the ring and grabbed Sherri and threw her to the outside. Elizabeth began crying and both Savage and Elizabeth embraced in the ring. The two then left the ring. After that,Demolitiontook onGenichiro TenryuandKōji Kitao. In the end, Tenryu performed apowerbombonSmashand stacked him up for the win. Next, was a singles match betweenWWF Intercontinental ChampionMr. PerfectagainstBig Boss Manwith Perfect's title on the line. In the end, Big Boss Man was attacked by The Barbarian and Haku causing adisqualificationvictory for Big Boss Man. After that,EarthquakeandGreg Valentinefaced off and Earthquake took an\",\n \"Earthquake took an advantage early on and performed anEarthquake Splashfor the three count. Next,Legion of Doomtook onPower and Glory. In the end, The Legion of Doom performed a 'doomsday deviceonPaul RomaandAnimalpinned him for the victory. After that, was a match betweenTed DiBiaseandVirgil. In the end,Roddy Pipercame out and distracted DiBiase. When Virgil threw DiBiase to the outside Piper continued distracting him and was unable to enter the ring thus Virgil won bycountout. In the penultimate match,The Mountiefaced off againstTito Santana. In the end,Jimmy Hartdistracted the referee and The Mountie zapped Santana with hiscattle prodand pinned him for a quick victory. In the main event the reigningWWF ChampionSgt. Slaughterdefend his title againstHulk Hogan. Slaughter entered withGeneral Adnanwho was waiving theFlag of Iraq. Hogan entered waiving theFlag of the United Statesto a thunderousovation. Both men started the match circling one another. They began chain wrestling and Slaughter pinned Hogan in\",\n \"pinned Hogan in the corner and the referee had to separate them. Slaughter once again pinned Hogan in the corner but Hogan shoved Slaughter who was sent to the other side of the ring. Hogan then knocked down Slaughter who retreated to the outside. Hogan went to the outside to get Slaughter but Adnan hit him from behind but Hogan wasn't phased and began chasing Adnan and Slaughter hit Hogan in the back with a steel chair but Hogan still wasn't phased. Hogan grabbed Slaughter and sent him into the ring. Slaughter begged for mercy and then poked Hogan in the eye. Slaughter then began wearing down Hogan. Hogan then knocked Slaughter down and Adnan got on the apron to taunt Hogan but Hogan hit him which sent him down on the floor. Hogan then took control and began beating Slaughter. Hogan then went to the top rope but Adnan grabbed Hogan's foot and Slaughter grabbed Hogan and threw him into the middle of the ring. Slaughter then clotheslined Hogan out of the ring and began hitting him with a steel chair.\",\n \"with a steel chair. Slaughter then grabbed some TV cables and began choking Hogan with them. Slaughter took Hogan inside the ring and delivered a backbreaker for a two count. Slaughter began arguing with the referee and continued to beat Hogan and then put him in aBoston Crabsubmission. Hogan grabbed the ropes to break the hold but Slaughter thought he had won but the referee told him he hadn't. Slaughter began giving knees to Hogan's back and went to the top rope and delivered a foot stomp to Hogan's back and pinned him but Adnan accidentally distracted the referee. When the referee turned around and began counting Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter went to the outside and grabbed a steel chair. Hogan, who was leaning on the ropes facing the outside was hit in the hide by Slaughter with the steel chair. Slaughter then pinned Hogan but Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter then began hitting Hogan in the head, causing him to bleed. Hogan attempted a comeback but was not able too. Slaughter then put Hogan in\",\n \"then put Hogan in theCamel clutchbut would release the hold to stomp a few times on Hogan's back, only to put the hold on again. Hogan got up while Slaughter still had the hold applied and attempted to ram Slaughter into the turnbuckle but Slaughter released the hold and shoved Hogan into the turnbuckle. Slaughter then asked Adnan for the flag of Iraq and Adnan handed him it. Slaughter then placed the flag of Iraq on Hogan and pinned him but Hogan kicked out at two and Hogan grabbed the flag and tore it in front of Slaughter. Hogan then hulked up and even though Slaughter began hitting him, his punches had no effect. Hogan then irish whipped Slaughter off the ropes and delivered a big boot. Hogan then peformed a leg drop on Slaughter for the three count and thus became a record three-time WWF World Heavyweight Champion. Hogan then waived the Flag of the United States and celebrated in the ring. Reception The official attendance of WrestleMania VII held at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena was\",\n \"Sports Arena was 16,158.JournalistDave Meltzerreported that the paid attendance was approximately 10,500. Aftermath The Undertaker's victory debut at the event marked the beginning of hisWrestleMania streak. Backstage as Hogan was being interviewed on his victory over Sgt. Slaughter, Slaughter attacked Hogan by throwing a fireball in his face. Hogan quickly recovered from the attack and defended the belt primarily against Slaughter, largely in \\\"Desert Storm\\\" (i.e., no-disqualification) matches. He also had to deal with the returningIron Sheik, who was now competing as Colonel Mustafa. Hogan and the Ultimate Warrior eventually teamed up atSummerSlam 1991, defeating Slaughter, Mustafa, and their manager, General Adnan, in a two-vs.-three handicap match. Savage returned to television in a non-wrestling role as a color commentator for the WWF's flagship syndicated program,Superstars; although a fan favorite to the crowd, much of his commentary was heel-leaning. Meanwhile, the storyline with Miss Elizabeth\",\n \"with Miss Elizabeth continued, culminating with Savage proposing to her in the ring leading to an on-air wedding at SummerSlam 1991 dubbedThe Match Made in Heaven. (The wedding was kayfabe, as Savage and Elizabeth were already legally married.) VirgilandTed DiBiasefeuded with each other until November 1991, including facing off at SummerSlam 1991 when DiBiase lost his Million Dollar Belt to Virgil. After DiBiase won his belt back in November with the help ofThe Repo Man(formerly Smash of Demolition), their feud ended at theThis Tuesday in TexasPPV when DiBiase and Repo Man defeated Virgil andTito Santanain a tag team match. Genichiro TenryuandKōji Kitaowere on loan from the Japanese promotionSuper World of Sports. The WWF co-promoted several cards in Japan with the group, including twoTokyo Domeshows on March 30 and December 12, 1991. Although SWS folded in June 1992, Tenryu's follow-up promotion,WAR, co-promoted the WWF's first Japanese tour in 1994. After WrestleMania VII,The Hart Foundationdisbanded.Bret\",\n \"HartandJim Neidhartwent into singles competition. Bret Hart went on to singles success, defeatingMr. Perfectfor the WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam 1991, and later in 1992 would win the WWF Championship when he defeatedRic Flairin hisfather's home town ofSaskatooninSaskatchewan, Canada. Neidhart would later in 1991 form a tag team called \\\"The New Foundation\\\" with Hart's younger brotherOwen. This would be the final WrestleMania appearance forAndré the Giant. André would appear at ringside during the Intercontinental Championship match and assist theBig Boss Manin fending off the Heenan Family. He would make sporadic appearances for the rest of the year before his passing in 1993. Results References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania VIII WrestleMania VIIIwas the eighth annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 5, 1992, at theHoosier DomeinIndianapolis, Indianain the United States. Nine matches were shown during thelivebroadcast, with onedark matchoccurring before the event. Matches held at WrestleMania VIII includedWWF Intercontinental ChampionRoddy Piperdefending his title against former championBret Hart,WWF ChampionRic Flairdefending his title againstRandy Savage,Hulk Hoganfacing his rivalSid Justice. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\".WrestleMania VIII was scheduled to be held on April 5,\",\n \"be held on April 5, 1992, at theHoosier DomeinIndianapolis, Indiana. Storylines The original plan for the main event was the long-awaited bout between Ric Flair and Hulk Hogan for the WWF Championship, the meeting between the two legends was even promoted on television in a mock press conference where WWF PresidentJack Tunneyhad announced Hogan as the number one contender to Flair's WWF Championship. Both Flair and Hogan had wrestled against each other in several house show matches and a televised tag match, but not in a televised main event singles match. WrestleMania VIII was changed to a double main event with Hogan wrestling Sid Justice, while Flair wrestled Randy Savage. For storyline purposes, Sid Justice lobbied to wrestle Hulk Hogan due to tensions starting between the two at that year's Royal Rumble, where Hogan was eliminated by Sid Justice. This maneuver on Sid's part led Hogan to helping rival Ric Flair eliminate Justice and then win not only the Royal Rumble but the WWF Championship in the\",\n \"Championship in the process. This would make Ric Flair only the second man to win both the WWF and NWA World Heavyweight Titles, the first being the original \\\"Nature Boy\\\",Buddy Rogers. Event A scheduled match betweenthe British BulldogandThe Berzerkerwas cut due to time constraints. The opening bout was atag team matchpittingthe Beverly Brothersagainstthe Bushwhackers. The Bushwhackers won the match by pinfall. This was adark matchthat did not air on the pay-per-view broadcast. The pay-per-view broadcast opened withcountry musicsingerReba McEntireperforming \\\"The Star-Spangled Banner\\\". The second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was aSingles matchbetweenShawn MichaelsandTito Santana. Michaels won the match by pinfall after reversing abody slamattempt into abody press. Following the second bout,the Legion of Doomand their managerPaul Elleringwere interviewed byGene Okerlund. The Legion of Doom were originally supposed to challengeMoney Incfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipat\",\n \"Team Championshipat WrestleMania VIII but due toHawkbeing under suspension until after WrestleMania they were replaced in the match bythe Natural Disasters. The third bout was a singles match betweenJake Robertsandthe Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall after giving Roberts aTombstone Piledriveroutside of the ring. The fourth bout was a singles match in whichWWF Intercontinental ChampionRoddy Piperdefended his title againstBret Hart. Hart defeated Piper by pinfall after reversing Piper'ssleeper holdinto a pin, thus winning the WWF Intercontinental Championship. Following the fourth bout, a pre-recorded interview withLex Lugeraired in which he promoted theWorld Bodybuilding Federation. The fifth bout was aneight-man tag team matchpittingBig Boss Man,Jim Duggan,Sgt. Slaughter, andVirgilagainstThe Mountie,The Nasty Boys, andRepo Man.Family FeudhostRay Combswas a guestring announcerfor the eight-man tag match. Big Boss Man, Duggan, Slaughter, and Virgil won the match by pinfall whenJerry\",\n \"pinfall whenJerry SagsaccidentallypunchedBrian Knobbs, enabling Virgil to pin Knobbs. The sixth bout was a singles match in whichWWF ChampionRic Flairdefended his title againstRandy Savage. Savage defeated Flair by pinfall using aroll-upto win the title. At the time the company had a \\\"no blood\\\" policy. Nonetheless, Ric Flair was caughtbladingdirectly on camera and was fined several thousand dollars.In one of his first appearances in the WWF,Shane McMahonwas one of the backstage officials who attempted to keepMiss Elizabethaway from ringside during the Flair/Savage match. He then restrained Savage in the ensuing brawl after the contest. The seventh bout was a singles match betweenRick MartelandTatanka. Tatanka won the match by pinfall using across body block. The eighth bout was a tag team match in whichWWF Tag Team ChampionsMoney Inc.defended their titles againstthe Natural Disasters. The Natural Disasters won the bout bycountoutafter Money Inc abandoned the match. The ninth bout was a singles match\",\n \"was a singles match betweenOwen HartandSkinner. Hart won the match by pinfall using aroll-up. The main event bout was a singles match betweenHulk HoganandSid Justice. Hogan won the match bydisqualificationafter Justice's managerHarvey Whipplemaninterfered. The finish to the Justice-Hogan match actually did not occur as planned - the original plan was for Hogan to hit the leg drop on Justice and forPapa Shangoto do a run in and break up the pin causing a disqualification; however, Papa Shango either missed or misjudged his cue and was late in getting down to the ring, causing Justice to have to improvise by kicking out of the leg drop. Following the match, Justice and Shango attacked Hogan untilthe Ultimate Warriormade a surprise return, helping Hogan drive Justice and Shango away. Reception Critics praised the Intercontinental Championship match between Piper and Hart. Thomas Golianopoulos ofComplex Sportsranked it at number 15 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, describing it as\",\n \"describing it as \\\"A stiff match that veers from amateur wrestling to all-out street fight with a great finish.\\\"Golianopoulos also ranked the Flair vs. Savage match at number 19 on the same list, praising the in-ring psychology despite an abrupt finish.On the other hand, Dave Meltzer of theWrestling Observer Newslettergave the Hogan/Justice main event negative two stars, citing their lackluster performance and the late entry of Papa Shango, which necessitated a hastily rewritten ending. The main event was also ranked by YouTube wrestling channel Cultaholic as the worst WrestleMania main event of all time in their 2019 ranking of every WrestleMania Main Event,while saying that the WWF Championship Match between Flair and Savage should've been the main event in their 2020 list of 10 WrestleMania Matches That Closed The Show. Aftermath Savage's primary opponent during the spring and summer of 1992 was Ric Flair, with the storyline over Flair's alleged past relationship with Elizabeth continuing to play a major\",\n \"to play a major factor. It was revealed later inWWF Magazinethat the photos that Flair had shown of himself with Elizabeth were fakes, and that they were actually of Savage and Elizabeth. In real life, Savage and Elizabeth were about toseparate, and did, with Elizabeth making her final WWF appearance on April 19, 1992 at theUK Rampagepay-per-view. WrestleMania VIII marked Elizabeth's last major pay-per-view appearance in the United States for the WWF. Although Savage and Flair continued feuding, the Elizabeth aspect was dropped from the storyline, and the former couple's divorce was finalized in September 1992. Savage briefly addressed the divorce in an issue ofWWF Magazine, but it was otherwise not mentioned in kayfabe. Shawn Michaels began receiving his first major push as a main-event singles competitor, as he would challenge Randy Savage for the WWF Championship in Europe, while challenging Bret Hart for the WWF Intercontinental Championship in the United States, while occasionally teaming with Ric Flair\",\n \"with Ric Flair in tag team matches against Hart and Savage. Michaels eventually won the WWF Intercontinental Championship from The British Bulldog (who had won the title from Hart at theSummerSlamevent inLondon,Englandin August) in October. The Hulk Hogan-Sid Justice match was billed as Hogan's \\\"last match\\\", when in actuality, Hogan took a hiatus, due to the steroid scandal which was beginning to emerge in the news media.Piper also took a hiatus from the ring following WrestleMania VIII. Roberts left the company and would return four years later, using a \\\"born-again Christian\\\" gimmick. Sid Justice was largely unsuccessful in post-WrestleMania matches against the Ultimate Warrior and The Undertaker and eventually left the company, returning in 1995. Results References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania IX WrestleMania IXwas the ninth annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). The event took place on April 4, 1993, atCaesars Palacein theLas Vegassuburb ofParadise,Nevada. It was the first WrestleMania event held outdoors. WrestleMania IX was built around two main storylines. The first was the seemingly unstoppableYokozunachallengingBret Hartfor theWWF Championshipin the main event, a right he earned by winning the1993 Royal Rumble. The other major storyline was the return ofHulk Hogan, who had departed the WWF followingWrestleMania VIIIbut returned to team withBrutus Beefcakeagainst theWWF Tag Team Champions,Money Inc.(Ted DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schyster). Hogan and Beefcake lost the tag team match, but Hogan later faced Yokozuna for the title in an impromptu, unadvertised 22-second match after Yokozuna defeated Hart to win the championship. In addition,Shawn Michaelsretained theIntercontinental Championship, though he lost\",\n \"though he lost his match againstTatanka. The event has been panned by critics and fans alike. The most frequent criticism has been related to the match betweenThe UndertakerandGiant Gonzalez, Hulk Hogan's title win, and the Romantogasworn by announcers. Both the pay-per-view buyrate and the attendance for the event dropped from the previous year's WrestleMania. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\".WrestleMania IX was scheduled to be held on April 4, 1993, atCaesars Palacein theLas Vegassuburb ofParadise,Nevada. Early TV promos for WrestleMania IX ticket sales, airing in December 1992, focused on shots of Hulk Hogan and Bret Hart, with quick shots of Doink the Clown, Razor Ramon,\",\n \"Clown, Razor Ramon, Crush, Shawn Michaels, Ric Flair, and Randy Savage also shown. Hogan had notably not appeared on WWF TV since April of that year. Flair would not be on the roster at the time of the event. This was the first WrestleMania held entirely outdoors, a concept the company did not use again untilWrestleMania XXIVin 2008.Because WrestleMania IX was held in Caesars Palace, the WWF promoted the event as the \\\"World's Largest Toga Party\\\".The arena was made to look like a Roman coliseum, and the event featured guards, trumpeters, and several live animals.The company built on this theme by having the commentators, including debuting announcerJim Ross, wear togas. Ring announcerHoward Finkelwas also renamed \\\"Finkus Maximus\\\" for the day.Randy Savagecame to the broadcast booth accompanied by women throwing flower petals and feeding him grapes while he rode on a couch carried by guards.Bobby Heenanmade his entrance wearing a toga and riding a camel backwards. Hulk Hogan's visibly damaged eye was explained\",\n \"eye was explained in the storyline as the result of Ted DiBiase hiring a group of men to attack Hogan before the match. In reality, the cause of injury has been open to debate. One theory is that Randy Savage punched Hogan because he believed that his ex-wifeElizabeth Hulettehad an affair with Hogan while Savage and Hulette were married (the couple divorced in September 1992).WWF officials claimed that the injury was the result of ajet skiaccident. A match was scheduled betweenBam Bam BigelowandKamala, but it was canceled due to time constraints before the event began. Storylines One of the feuds heading into the event was betweenTatankaandIntercontinental ChampionShawn Michaels. Tatanka was in the midst of an undefeated streak and had wrestled Michaels twice in the months leading up to WrestleMania IX.TatankapinnedMichaels in a singles match on the February 13, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestlingand later teamed withThe Nasty Boysin asix-manmatch against Michaels and theBeverly Brothers; Tatanka\",\n \"Brothers; Tatanka pinned Michaels to win this match as well.Michaels was also feuding withSensational Sherri, who stood in Tatanka's corner during the match. Sherri had been Michaels'valet. WhenMarty Jannettytried to hit Michaels with a mirror, however, Michaels pulled Sherri in front of him to protect himself.Sherri's anger at getting hit over the head with a mirror caused her toturnon him atRoyal Rumble 1993. The match betweenThe Steiner Brothers(Rick SteinerandScott Steiner) andThe Headshrinkers(SamuandFatu) had little background, althoughAfa, who managed The Headshrinkers, claimed that his team would \\\"tear heads off\\\".Doink the ClownandCrushhad been feuding since the January 2, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling. After Crush's match on that show, he confronted Doink, who had thrown a ball at a child in the audience. Crush grabbed Doink by the arm and warned him not to play any more pranks on children.Doink, wearing a cast on the arm that Crush had supposedly injured by grabbing, came to ringside\",\n \"came to ringside during Crush's match on the January 18 episode ofWWF Monday Night Raw. He apologized to Crush and gave him a flower; when Crush walked away, Doink removed aprosthetic armfrom his cast and attacked Crush, who was later taken away in an ambulance due tokayfabe(storyline) injuries.For storyline purposes, Crush was said to be too injured to compete in the 1993 Royal Rumble match.Doink continued his pranks by squirting Crush with a water pistol and recordingvideo messagesto Crush, which showed two Doinks on the screen. The feud betweenThe Mega-Maniacs(Brutus BeefcakeandHulk Hogan) andWWF Tag Team ChampionsMoney Inc.(Ted DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schyster)stemmed from alegitimateparasailing accident in 1990 that forced Beefcake to undergo reconstructive surgery to his face.He was unable to wrestle again until the February 15, 1993, episode ofRaw. He faced DiBiase in his return match, after which DiBiase and Schyster attacked him. DiBiase held Beefcake for Schyster to hit him in the face with a briefcase,\",\n \"with a briefcase, butJimmy Hart, whomanagedMoney Inc., repeatedly got in the way before Schyster shoved him out of the ring. Schyster then hit Beefcake in the face with the briefcase.Hart later claimed that he felt the need to \\\"step up and do the right thing\\\" and that he \\\"had a change of heart\\\", and his intervention led to him becoming ababyface, or crowd favorite.Shortly thereafter,Hulk Hoganmade his return to the WWF and joined with Beefcake, and manager Jimmy Hart, to formThe Mega-Maniacsand challenge Money Inc. for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Mr. Perfect's rivalry withBobby Heenandated back toSurvivor Series (1992). Perfect andRic Flairwere managed by Heenan, but Perfect turned on Flair and Heenan by agreeing to face them as part of a tag team match at Survivor Series.Flair feuded briefly with Perfect but left the company to return toWorld Championship Wrestling.Lex Lugerhad joinedVince McMahon'sWorld Bodybuilding Federation, but he signed with McMahon's WWF when the bodybuilding company failed.He\",\n \"company failed.He made his debut at Royal Rumble 1993, where he was unveiled as Heenan's latest wrestler, Narcissus (although thering namewas changed to \\\"The Narcissist\\\" Lex Luger). The Undertaker's feud withGiant Gonzalezwas an offshoot of The Undertaker's feud with managerHarvey Wippleman. The Undertaker defeatedKamala, who was managed by Wippleman, atSummerSlam 1992.A rematch was held at Survivor Series 1992, and The Undertaker beat Kamala in acoffin match.Wippleman vowed revenge, and he introduced Gonzalez at Royal Rumble 1993 and instructed him to attack The Undertaker. The Undertaker was eliminated from the Royal Rumble match as a result of the interference, and a match was scheduled between The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez for WrestleMania IX. Beginning with his debut with the company in 1992,Yokozunawaspushedby the WWF as an unstoppable monster heel. Weighing over 500 pounds, he used theBanzai Drop, a move in which he jumped from the second rope and sat on his opponent's chest, to defeat several of\",\n \"defeat several of the WWF's biggest stars.In a notable match on the February 6, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling, Yokozuna attacked \\\"Hacksaw\\\"Jim Dugganand performed the Banzai Drop four times. Due to the kayfabe injuries from the attack, Duggan was unable to wrestle for over two months.Yokozuna earned a title shot againstWWF ChampionBret Hartby winning the 1993 Royal Rumble match.During the contract signing, Yokozuna attacked Hart and performed the Banzai Drop on him. Event Before the televised broadcast began,Tito SantanadefeatedPapa Shangoin adark match,which became available for viewing on April 4, 2019 in the Hidden Gems section on WWE Network and is also notable as the WWE debut of Jim Ross on commentary. In the first match of the pay-per-view event, WWF Intercontinental Champion Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring by a new valet,Luna Vachon. Sensational Sherri followed Tatanka to the ring to prevent Vachon from getting involved in the match. During the match, Vachon approached Tatanka\",\n \"approached Tatanka twice outside the ring, but Sherri was able to intervene and stop Vachon from interfering. Tatanka spent much of the match trying to injure Michaels with anarmbarhold. Michaels gained the advantage and almost pinned Tatanka with avictory roll, but Tatanka escaped the pin attempt and performed a war dance to channel his energy. Michaels threw Tatanka out of the ring and tried to jump at him to attack, but Tatanka moved. Michaels was unable to return to the ring within ten seconds; he pulled therefereeout of the ring. Tatanka was awarded the victory bycountoutbut did not win the championship because titles can only change hands as a result of pinfall orsubmission.Vachon attacked Sherri after the match by pulling her off the ring apron and delivery a devastatingclothesline, body slam and kicks to the ribs. Tatanka had to help Sherri make it back to the dressing rooms; however, she would be attacked again at the first aid station by Vachon, who choked her, hit her head against a wall, and\",\n \"against a wall, and dropped a machine on top of her and then Vachon was arrested by security. In the next match, The Steiner Brothers (Rick Steiner and Scott Steiner) faced The Headshrinkers (Samu and Fatu). The advantage switched back and forth several times, as the Steiners threw The Headshrinkers with severalsuplexvariations and used their aerial abilities to attack their opponents from the ring ropes. The Headshrinkers relied mainly on using their power to wear down the Steiners. At one point, Fatu picked Rick Steiner upon his shoulders so that Samu could attack Rick from the top rope. Rick caught Samu instead and performed abodyslamon Samu from Fatu's shoulders. The match ended when Scott Steiner performed aFrankensteinerto pin Samu and win the match. Crush attacked Doink the Clown outside the ring prior to the next match. After getting Doink inside the ring, Crush used his strength advantage to overpower Doink. Doink gained the advantage but missed two attacks from the top rope. Crush used more power\",\n \"used more power moves to wear down Doink, and Doink tried to crawl under the ring. Crush forced Doink back into the ring and performed theCranium Crunch, a head vice submission hold, on Doink. Doink pulled himself to the ropes and broke the hold. Doink hit the referee and knocked him unconscious; as a result of this stagedref bump, a second Doink the Clown (portrayed bySteve Keirn) was able to interfere. He hit Crush with a prosthetic arm, which enabled the first Doink to win by pinfall when the referee regained consciousness. Razor RamonfacedBob Backlundnext. Ramon used his power to dominate the majority of the match, but Backlund usedhip tossesto attempt a comeback. Ramon won the match in under four minutes by pinning Backlund with asmall package. In the following match, Money Inc. (Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster) defended their WWF Tag Team Championship againstThe Mega-Maniacs(Hulk Hogan and Brutus Beefcake). Beefcake wore a protective titanium facemask because of his injured face, and Hulk Hogan came\",\n \"and Hulk Hogan came to the ring with a black eye, which led the announcers to speculate about the cause. Money Inc. gained the early advantage, but DiBiase soon injured himself by hitting Beefcake's mask. Hogan and Beefcake brawled with their enemies and controlled the match until Money Inc. was counted out. RefereeEarl Hebnerannounced, however, that he would strip them of their title if they did not return to the ring and continue the match. DiBiase returned to the ring and rendered Hogan unconscious with theMillion Dollar Dreamchokehold. Beefcake attacked DiBiase by applying asleeper holdand then turned his attention to Schyster, but DiBiase hit him in the back with Schyster's briefcase. Money Inc. attacked Beefcake and removed his facemask, but Beefcake fought back and applied a sleeper hold to Schyster. The referee was accidentally knocked unconscious, and Hogan recovered and attacked both members of Money Inc. with Beefcake's facemask. He tried to make the cover for a pinfall, but the referee was still\",\n \"referee was still unconscious. Manager Jimmy Hart turned his jacket inside-out to reveal a striped referee jacket; he made thethree-countand declared The Mega-Maniacs the winners of the match. RefereeDanny Daviscame to the ring and disqualified Hogan for using the facemask as a weapon. Money Inc. won the match and retained their championship, but The Mega-Maniacs threw them out of the ring and opened Schyster's briefcase to reveal stacks of cash. They celebrated in the ring and threw the money into the crowd. Lex Luger was accompanied to the ring by four women dressed in bikinis as he prepared to face Mr. Perfect. The match began with technical wrestling, and Perfect tried to injure Luger's knee while Luger worked on Perfect's back. Perfect took control of the match with a powerslam and tried to pin Luger after performing adropkick from the top rope. Luger's foot was on the ropes, however, so the referee halted the three-count and continued the match. Luger gained momentum and pinned Perfect; Perfect's feet\",\n \"Perfect's feet were on the rope, but the referee did not see them. Luger continued to attack Perfect after the match and hit him with his forearm, which contains a steel plate as the result of a legitimate motorcycle accident. When Perfect got up, he chased Luger but was attacked by Shawn Michaels backstage. In the next match, The Undertaker faced Giant Gonzalez. Both men tried to use their size and power to control the match. Gonzalez used areverse chinlockto wear The Undertaker down and attacked him outside the ring. The Undertaker regained control of the match and knocked Gonzalez onto his knees. Harvey Wippleman threw Gonzalez a rag soaked withchloroform, which Gonzalez used to knock The Undertaker unconscious. The referee disqualified Gonzalez for using a foreign object and awarded the match to The Undertaker.After the match, The Undertaker recovered and attacked Giant Gonzalez. In the main event and final scheduled match on the card, Bret Hart defended the WWF Championship against Yokozuna. Hart tried\",\n \"Hart tried to use his technical wrestling abilities against Yokozuna, while Yokozuna relied on his size advantage in the match. Hart gained control at the beginning, but Yokozuna came back with aclothesline,leg drop, andnerve hold. Hart regained the advantage when Yokozuna missed arunning splash. Yokozuna applied another nerve hold but missed a running splash again. He recovered and carried Hart to the middle of the ring, but Hart removed the protective padding on theturnbucklein the corner of the ring. He threw Yokozuna's head into the turnbuckle and applied theSharpshooter, his signature submission hold that stretches the opponent's legs and back.Mr. Fuji, Yokozuna's manager, threw salt in Hart's eyes, which enabled Yokozuna to pin Hart and win the WWF Championship. In an impromptu main event and the final match on the card, Hulk Hogan came to ring to check on Hart's condition. Hogan had stated during an interview earlier in the broadcast that he wanted to face the winner of the match, and Fuji challenged\",\n \"and Fuji challenged Hogan to face Yokozuna immediately in an impromptu bout. Hogan agreed and entered the ring. Fuji tried to throw salt in Hogan's eyes, but he missed and the salt hit Yokozuna. Hogan performed a leg drop and pinned Yokozuna to win the title in 22 seconds. Reception The event was attended by 16,891 fans, who paid a total of $1,100,000 in admission fees.This represents less than one-third of the number of fans atWrestleMania VIII, which had an attendance of 62,167.The pay-per-view drew a 2.3 buyrate, which was lower than the previous year's 2.8 buyrate. It was higher, however, than the buyrates for any of the following four WrestleManias. WrestleMania IX received overwhelmingly negative reviews. The event has received criticism for what some reviewers have perceived as a poorly booked event. Writing forSLAM! Wrestling, John Powell states that, aside from the Intercontinental and Tag Team Championship matches and the scantily-clad women that accompanied Lex Luger to the ring, the rest of the\",\n \"the rest of the broadcast was poor. He is also critical of some of the outfits worn for the event, notably Jim Ross's toga and Giant Gonzalez's spray-painted suit.Reviewing the event for Online Onslaught, Adam Gutschmidt claims that several of the matches flowed poorly and had ill-conceived conclusions. He also claims that the match between Giant Gonzalez and The Undertaker was a \\\"dud\\\" and that Hulk Hogan's ego made the conclusion the \\\"worst WrestleMania ending ever\\\".RD Reynolds, owner of the websiteWrestleCrap, has inducted the event into the site's list of \\\"the very worst in pro wrestling\\\". He cites Giant Gonzalez, Papa Shango, Luger's \\\"narcissist\\\" gimmick, and Jim Ross wearing a toga as his reasons for including the event in the list. WWE places two events from WrestleMania IX in its top 50 WrestleMania moments: Bobby Heenan's entrance on the camel, which the company calls \\\"one of the most hilarious moments in WWE history\\\", and Hulk Hogan's title victory.Matt Anoa'i, who wrestled for WWE as Rosey, and was\",\n \"as Rosey, and was the brother ofRoman Reigns, cousin of Yokozuna, Samu and Fatu, has identified The Headshrinkers performing a double splash on Scott Steiner at this event as his favorite moment at WrestleMania. WrestleMania IX was released onVHSbyColiseum Video. It was then released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Collection (1985–1997) box set in 1997.The video was re-released six years later in March 1999.That month, it was also released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Legacy box set.It was also released on DVD for WWE's History of WrestleMania I-IX box set on September 14, 2004. In theUnited Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 5, 1993.Packaged together withWrestleMania X, it was released on DVD for theWWE Tagged Classicsseries on May 8, 2006. Aftermath A feud began between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect after WrestleMania IX as a result of Michaels attacking Perfect. They faced each other atSummerSlam 1993, and Michaels won by countout after his new bodyguard,Dieselattacked\",\n \"Perfect.Perfect then feuded with Diesel until leaving the WWF. Money Inc. lost the WWF Tag Team Championship to the Steiner Brothers on June 14, 1993.Money Inc. won the belts back in a rematch on June 16,but the Steiners won them again three days later.Money Inc. received several rematches but were unable to regain the title; they soon focused on singles competition, and DiBiase retired at the end of August. The Undertaker continued to feud with Harvey Wippleman. On the June 12, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling, Wippleman, Giant Gonzalez, andMr. Hughesattacked The Undertaker, and his managerPaul Bearer, and stole the urn that was said to be the source of his power.The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez faced each other one final time at SummerSlam 1993 in aRest in Peace match, in which neither wrestler could be disqualified. The Undertaker won the match to end the feud. After the match, a frustrated Gonzalez choke slammed Wippleman to the delight of the fans andturned facein the process. Bret Hart\",\n \"process. Bret Hart later claimed that during a conversation with Vince McMahon, he was told that Hulk Hogan refused to drop the WWF Championship to him.However, Hulk Hogan stated that, during a conversation with Vince McMahon, a deal was made for Hogan to drop the belt to the top heel at the time, Yokozuna, at the following King of The Ring.All three men eventually wound up in a meeting, where McMahon outlined the plan to have Hogan drop the belt to Yokozuna and denied telling Bret that Hogan refused to drop the championship to him. After regaining the title, Yokozuna challenged any American athlete to bodyslam him on the deck of theUSS Intrepidon July 4, 1993. After many challengers failed, Lex Luger arrived by helicopter and bodyslammed Yokozuna. Luger became a fan favorite and changed hisgimmickto an American patriot. He faced Yokozuna for the WWF Championship at SummerSlam 1993; he won the match by count-out but did not win the title.Lex Luger and Bret Hart each earned a title match against Yokozuna the\",\n \"Yokozuna the following year at WrestleMania X. Luger was disqualified in his match, but Hart won the championship later that night. 32 years after WrestleMania IX, the event will once again be held in the city, with the41st editiontaking place at theAllegiant Stadiumon April 19 and 20, 2025. Results References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania XI WrestleMania XIwas the 11th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 2, 1995, at theHartford Civic CenterinHartford, Connecticut. Seven matches were contested at the event. The main event featured formerNFLlinebackerLawrence TayloragainstBam Bam Bigelow, a match which came as the result of an argument that took place between the two at the1995 Royal Rumble. Taylor won the match, which led to Bigelow being kicked out ofTed DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation.Shawn MichaelsfacedWWF ChampionDieselin a title match but was unable to win the championship.Jeff Jarrettretained hisWWF Intercontinental ChampionshipagainstRazor Ramon.Owen Hartand his mystery partner,Yokozuna, challengedThe Smoking Gunnsfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipand won the title belts. The match between Taylor and Bigelow brought the WWF mainstream press coverage. The reactions to the match were mixed; some people thought that\",\n \"people thought that Taylor performed surprisingly well for a non-wrestler. Others thought that the WWF pushing a football player to defeat a wrestler made professional wrestling look bad. Reviews of the event as a whole were mixed, with the event called both the worst WrestleMania of all time and the event that saved the WWF. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\",and was considered one of the \\\"Big Five\\\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XI was scheduled to be held on April 2, 1995, at theHartford Civic CenterinHartford, Connecticut. Special OlympianKathy Huey sang a rendition of \\\"America the Beautiful\\\"\",\n \"the Beautiful\\\" during the event, replacing the previously advertised band,Fishbone.Prior toLawrence Taylor's match againstBam Bam Bigelow,Salt-n-PepasangWhatta Man. Several other celebrities also had roles at WrestleMania.Nicholas Turturro, one of the stars ofNYPD Blue, conducted interviews and served as a guest ring announcer.Jonathan Taylor ThomasofHome Improvementwas a guest timekeeper for the match betweenDieselandShawn Michaels.WrestleMania XI marked the first time that the WWF featured an interview on theInternetas Diesel and Shawn Michaels were interviewed byBob Ryder. On September 30, 1995, a one-hour special including the Diesel vs. Shawn Michaels match and the Lawrence Taylor vs. Bam Bam Bigelow match was broadcast on theFOX Network.At the WrestleMania weekend, the WWF also held its Fan Fest, a promotional event during which wrestlers interacted with fans and signed autographs. Storylines The most heavily promoted feud going into the event was betweenBam Bam BigelowandLawrence Taylor. At the1995\",\n \"Taylor. At the1995 Royal Rumble, Bigelow teamed withTatankain the final round of a tournament for theWWF Tag Team Championship. Bigelow waspinnedat the end of the match, which led to the crowd heckling him. He responded by pushingNFLplayer Lawrence Taylor, who was sitting at ringside. Bigelow refused to apologize and instead challenged Taylor to a wrestling match.Taylor agreed and trained withWWF ChampionDiesel to prepare for the match.The storyline between Bigelow and Taylor brought the WWF much mainstream exposure, as the match was discussed by several news outlets. The other main event at WrestleMania was a match for the WWF Championship between Diesel andShawn Michaels. Diesel had originally entered the WWF as Michaels's bodyguard but later began wrestling and forming atag teamwith Michaels. The pair held the WWF Tag Team Championship together in 1994. AtSurvivor Series 1994, however, Michaels accidentally kicked Diesel in the face. This led to an argument during which Diesel dissolved the tag team and\",\n \"the tag team and vacated the championship.Three days later, Diesel defeatedBob Backlundto become the new WWF Champion.At the Royal Rumble, Michaels won the titular match, which earned him a match against Diesel for the title belt at WrestleMania. TheWWF Intercontinental Championshipwas also defended at WrestleMania.Jeff Jarrett, the champion, had been feuding withRazor Ramon, the challenger, for several months. At the Royal Rumble, Jarrett was accompanied byThe Roadie, who interfered on Jarrett's behalf and helped Jarrett win the championship.To even the sides in the rematch at WrestleMania, Ramon was accompanied by his friend, the1–2–3 Kid. In a match for the WWF Tag Team Championship,The Smoking Gunnsdefended their title. Their opponents wereOwen Hartand a mystery partner. Hart refused to tell anyone the name of his partner, which left the Gunns uncertain who they would be facing and led to much speculation about the identity of the mystery partner. Bret Hartfaced Bob Backlund in an\\\"I Quit\\\" matchat\",\n \"an\\\"I Quit\\\" matchat WrestleMania. The feud began the previous summer, when Hart defended the WWF Championship against Backlund. Backlund mistakenly thought he won the match and began celebrating, but Hart pinned him to retain the title. After the match, Backlundturnedheelby attacking Hart.This led to a title match at Survivor Series 1994, in which Backlund won the title from Hart.Although Backlund soon lost the belt,the feud continued and Backlund attacked Hart during Hart's match at the Royal Rumble. Also at the Royal Rumble,The UndertakerfacedIrwin R. Schysteras part of The Undertaker's feud withTed DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation. During the match,King Kong Bundy, another Corporation member, interfered and enabled the Corporation to steal The Undertaker's urn, which was said to be the source of his power. Event In the opening match,The Allied Powers(Davey Boy SmithandLex Luger) faced theBlu Brothers(Eli Blu and Jacob Blu). Smith started out on the offensive, but Jacob gained control with arunning\",\n \"with arunning bulldogthrow. The Blus capitalized on the fact that they are identical twins by switching places without tagging while the referee was not looking. Luger came into the match near the end and performed arunning forearm smashon Eli. Jacob tried to throw Luger with apowerbomb, but Luger tagged in Smith, who performed asunset flipto pin Jacob and win the match. The second match pitted Razor Ramon, with the 1–2–3 Kid in his corner, against WWF Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett, who had The Roadie in his corner. Ramon took control at the beginning of the match by using power moves against Jarrett. Jarrett tried to leave the match, but the 1–2–3 Kid forced him back into the ring. Jarrett took advantage of one of Ramon's mistakes to gain the advantage. He applied asleeper holdon Ramon, who used his strength advantage to escape the move. After Ramon threw Jarrett, the Kid attempted to interfere but was kicked by Jarrett. Ramon jumped off the ropes to attack Jarrett, but Jarrett avoided the move and\",\n \"the move and applied afigure four leglockon Ramon. Ramon reversed the move to place the pressure on Jarrett's legs. He then threw Jarrett to the mat with asuplex from the second ropeand prepared to execute theRazor's Edge, his finishing move. The Roadie entered the ring and attacked Ramon, prompting the referee to disqualify Jarrett; because titles cannot change hands on a disqualification, Jarrett retained his championship. In the next match, The Undertaker faced King Kong Bundy. Ted DiBiase was at ringside holding the urn that his wrestlers had stolen from The Undertaker.Larry Young, a legit American League umpire, was the special referee for the match. Young's storyline was as an out-of-work sports official because of therecently ended MLB Players Association strikeand a lockout of the Major League Umpires Association umpires (which led to the eventual dissolution of the MLUA in 2000; prior to the new union, umpires were split by league).The Undertaker took control at the beginning of the match byjumping\",\n \"the match byjumping off the top rope and hitting Bundy. He then performed severalclotheslineattacks on Bundy. Bundy responded with a clothesline that knocked The Undertaker out of the ring. Seeing DiBiase close, The Undertaker took back his urn. After The Undertaker returned to the ring, DiBiase calledKama, another Corporation member, to the ring. Kama stole the urn, and Bundy attacked The Undertaker in order to let Kama escape backstage. Bundy picked The Undertaker up andpowerslammedhim to the mat. He then performed anAvalanche Splashto crush The Undertaker against the corner of the ring. The Undertaker was unharmed, however, and performed a powerslam and a clothesline on Bundy before pinning him to win the match. The Smoking Gunns defended their WWF Tag Team Championship in the next match against Owen Hart and his mystery partner, who was revealed to beYokozuna. The Gunns worked together to control the match at the beginning, but Yokozuna gained control by performing aleg dropon Billy Gunn. Hart attempted\",\n \"Hart attempted to perform adropkick from the top ropebut accidentally hit Yokozuna. The Gunns briefly took control until Yokozuna performed abelly to belly suplexand landed on Billy. He then performed aBanzai Drop, jumping from the second rope and sitting on Billy's chest. Hart tagged in and considered performing theSharpshootersubmission hold; instead, he pinned Billy Gunn to win the title belts for his team. The next match, an \\\"I Quit\\\" match, took place between Bret Hart and Bob Backlund, withRoddy Piperas the guest referee. It was explained that, in order to win the match, a wrestler must force his opponent to say \\\"I quit\\\" into a microphone held by Piper. Hart attempted to perform the Sharpshooter early in the match; when Backlund blocked it, Hart executed afigure four leglockinstead. Backlund escaped the hold and began trying to injure Hart's arm with anarmbarhold. Hart then tried to attack Backlund in the corner of the ring, but Backlund moved and Hart hit his shoulder against the ring post. Backlund\",\n \"ring post. Backlund tried to perform thecrossface chickenwing, his signature submission hold. Hart blocked him and performed the same hold on Backlund instead. Backlund made an unintelligible sound into the microphone, and Piper determined that he had submitted. As a result, the win was awarded to Bret Hart. In the next match, which was for the WWF Championship, challenger Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring byJenny McCarthyand Diesel, the champion, was escorted byPamela Anderson. Michaels relied on his quickness in the opening stages, while Diesel used his strength advantage against Michaels. Diesel threw Michaels out of the ring and onto the arena floor, but Michaels later performed a clothesline that knocked Diesel out of the ring. Michaels capitalized on his advantage by performing several aerial moves, including aflying crossbody,flying bulldogthrow, and adiving elbow drop. He was unable to pin Diesel, however, so he performed a sleeper hold to wear Diesel down. They brawled outside the ring,\",\n \"outside the ring, after which Michaels performedSweet Chin Music, his finishing move, butSid, Michaels's bodyguard, had the referee distracted and unable to count the pinfall. Diesel recovered and controlled the remainder of the match with power moves before throwing Michaels to the mat with a botchedJackknifeand getting the pinfall victory. The final bout of the event was the main event match between Bam Bam Bigelow and Lawrence Taylor. Bigelow was accompanied by the members of DiBiase's Million Dollar Corporation: King Kong Bundy, Tatanka, Irwin R. Schyster, Kama, andNikolai Volkoff. To prevent the Corporation members from interfering, Taylor brought several football players:Ken Norton Jr.,Chris Spielman,Rickey Jackson,Carl Banks,Reggie White, andSteve McMichael. Taylor gained the advantage early and performed a clothesline that knocked Bigelow out of the ring. Once he returned to the ring, Bigelow took control of the match by kicking Taylor repeatedly and performing aBoston crabsubmission hold to hurt\",\n \"hold to hurt Taylor's back. Taylor got out of the hold and threw Bigelow with asuplex. Bigelow recovered and performed several headbutts on Taylor before executing amoonsaultflip to knock Taylor down to the mat. Taylor began to take control of the match again, but Bigelow kicked him in the back of the head and then performed aheadbutt from the top rope. Bigelow was unable to pin Taylor, however. Taylor climbed to the second rope, jumped off, and used his forearm to hit Bigelow. He then covered Bigelow to win the match. Reception The event was attended by 15,000 fans, who paid a total of $750,000 in admission fees. This was down from the previous year's attendance of 18,065,but the decline could be attributed to the smaller size of the venue for WrestleMania XI.The attendance figure was also lower than the following year's figure of 18,852 fans atWrestleMania XII. The pay-per-view buyrate for WrestleMania XI was 1.3, which was lower than the 1.68 buyrate for WrestleMania X but higher than the 1.2 buyrate for\",\n \"the 1.2 buyrate for WrestleMania XII. Writing for411mania, columnist Dustin James rated the event as the seventeenth best of the first twenty-three WrestleManias. He stated that the event did not have any truly amazing matches but that Lawrence Taylor put on a solid performance.John Powell ofSLAM! Wrestlingrated the event as the worst WrestleMania of all time. The specific concerns he mentioned in his review are Diesel's championship reign and WWF allowing a football player to defeat a wrestler in what he describes as a \\\"sham of a match\\\".In contrast,Pro Wrestling Illustratedcolumnist Dave Rosenbaum stated that WrestleMania \\\"saved\\\" the WWF in its feud with rivalWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW). He argued that Taylor \\\"looked like a pro\\\" and contributed to an \\\"incredible\\\" match. He also observed that the tag team matches helped rejuvenate an area of wrestling that had been suffering in the WWF and that the match between Michaels and Diesel was a candidate for match of the year.Bret Hart was critical about his\",\n \"critical about his match against Bob Backlund, claiming it was \\\"probably my worst pay-per-view match I ever had\\\". Aftermath Shortly after WrestleMania, Diesel offered Shawn Michaels a rematch. Michaels blamed Sid for the loss and informed him that he would not be needed during the match. Sid got angry and attacked Michaels until Diesel saved him.Diesel and Michaels became allies once again, and they teamed up to win the WWF Tag Team Championship later that year.Diesel feuded with Sid and defeated him at theIn Your House 1andIn Your House 2pay-per-view events.The animosity lingered between Michaels and Sid, but they did not face each other to settle the feud until the September 11, 1995 episode ofMonday Night Raw. Bam Bam Bigelow was embarrassed after losing to Lawrence Taylor. To redeem himself, he challenged Diesel to a match for the WWF Championship. During the match, Tatanka turned on Bigelow and caused him to get pinned. Bigelow was kicked out of the Million Dollar Corporation and attacked by DiBiase's\",\n \"by DiBiase's wrestlers. Diesel saved Bigelow from the attack, which led to a friendship being formed between the two.Bigelow defeated Tatanka in adark matchat In Your House 2.At King of the Ring 1995, Sid, DiBiase's latest addition to the Corporation, teamed with Tatanka in a loss to the team of Diesel and Bigelow. Razor Ramon and the 1–2–3 Kid was scheduled to face Jeff Jarrett and The Roadie at In Your House 1 the month after WrestleMania. The Kid sustained alegitinjury, however, and was unable to compete. As a result, Ramon wrestled a two-on-onehandicap matchagainst Jarrett and The Roadie instead.Ramon won the bout, but the feud continued. At In Your House 2, The Roadie faced the 1–2–3 Kid and defeated him.Ramon and Jarrett wrestled several times, and Ramon regained the Intercontinental Championship on May 19, 1995.He held the belt for three days beforedroppingit back to Jarrett. After WrestleMania, Kama melted down The Undertaker's urn and made it into a necklace.The Undertaker defeated Kama in a dark\",\n \"Kama in a dark match at In Your House 1, and again in acasket matchat In Your House 2.He then won another casket match against Kama atSummerSlam 1995to end the feud. The Undertaker was not able to recapture the remnants of the urn until he ended his feud with King Mabel in another Casket match.TheUndertaker's streakof 21 consecutive WrestleMania victories was first acknowledged during his entrance for his encounter withKing Kong Bundyby play-by-play commentatorVince McMahon, who stated, \\\"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania\\\". The Smoking Gunns were given a rematch for the WWF Tag Team Championship at In Your House 1. Hart pinned Bart Gunn to retain the championship for his team.Hart and Yokozuna then moved on to face other competition, and the Gunns did not become serious contenders for the title again until late in 1995 when they defeated Hart and Yokozuna to regain the championship. Steve McMichael, who accompanied Lawrence Taylor, joinedWorld Championship\",\n \"Championship Wrestling(WCW) later in 1995 as a color commentator then eventually as an in-ring performer, joining the famousFour Horsemanwhen he turned on and betrayed his tag team partner and former NFL starKevin GreeneatThe Great American Bash '96near the end of their tag team match againstRic FlairandArn Anderson. Going by the name \\\"Mongo\\\" McMichael, he eventually went on to win theWCW United States Heavyweight Championship. The WWF released the event onVHSin North America in 1995. The VHS version was then re-released on March 2, 1999.The event was also released onDVDin North America as part of the WrestleMania Complete Anthology boxed set on November 1, 2005.In the United Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 10, 1995.Packaged together withWrestleMania XII, it was then released on DVD in the United Kingdom as part of theWWE Tagged Classicsline on August 7, 2006. Results References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania XII WrestleMania XIIwas the 12th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 31, 1996, at theArrowhead Pond of AnaheiminAnaheim, Californiain the United States. Eight matches were held at the event, including two on theFree for Allpre-show. In the main event,Bret Hartlost theWWF ChampionshiptoShawn Michaelsin the first televisedIron Man matchin company history, lasting over 60 minutes. In his return to the company after a four-year hiatus,The Ultimate WarriordefeatedHunter Hearst Helmsley.Roddy Piperhad his first match since 1994. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal\",\n \"which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\",and was considered one of the \\\"Big Five\\\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XII was scheduled to be held on March 31, 1996, at theArrowhead Pond of AnaheiminAnaheim, California. Storylines The main attraction of this WrestleMania was theWWF Championshipcontested in anIron Man match; whereby the winner would be the man to win mostfallsover sixty minutes. Michaels had earned the opportunity to face reigning championBret Hartby winning the1996 Royal Rumble, and had also defeatedOwen HartatIn Your House 6for the right to keep the WrestleMania title shot. Themain eventwas built on Bret Hart wanting to retain the WWF Championship against Shawn Michaels, who had suffered a number of setbacks over the course of the previous year, including failing to winDiesel'sWWF Championship the previous year atWrestleMania XIin April 1995, being accosted at aSyracuse, New Yorknightclub in October 1995 (and subsequently\",\n \"(and subsequently forfeiting theWWF Intercontinental ChampionshiptoDean DouglasatIn Your House 4), and suffering astorylineconcussionat the hands of Owen Hart in November 1995. Hunter Hearst Helmsleymade his debut in the WWF in May 1995, with hiswrestling gimmickbeing in that he was a rich snob born with a silver spoon in his mouth. He went on an undefeated winning streak throughout the year until theRoyal Rumble.The Ultimate Warriormeanwhile had left the WWF in 1992 after failing a drug test. His last match was on the November 14, 1992 edition ofSaturday Night's Main Event XXXI, where he and\\\"Macho Man\\\" Randy SavagedefeatedTed DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schysterin a tag team match. WWF officials later signed on a match between Ultimate Warrior, who re-signed to the WWF in an attempt to increase ratings, and Helmsley for WrestleMania XII. Diesel began feuding withThe Undertakerafter interfering in a bout between The Undertaker and Bret Hart at the 1996 Royal Rumble. In an episode ofMonday Night Rawthat aired on March\",\n \"aired on March 18, 1996, Diesel was battlingBarry Horowitzwhen he caught a glimpse ofPaul Bearerpushing acasketup the entrance ramp. Believing it to be The Undertaker's casket, Diesel armed himself with a wrench before opening the casket's lid and seeing his own \\\"corpse\\\" lying in repose inside (which was actually an illusion made possible by having live footage cut to a pre-recorded close-up footage of Diesel himself in the same casket, lying in a relaxed position with his eyes closed, filmed at some time before the episode, thus avoiding showing the mannequin in the casket up-close); seeing \\\"himself\\\" in the casket terrified him, as it foreshadowed The Undertaker's upcoming match against Diesel in WrestleMania XII. Event The opening bout, which aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was atag team matchfor the vacantWWF Tag Team Championshipbetween theBodydonnas(SkipandZip) andthe Godwinns(Henry O. GodwinnandPhineas I. Godwinn). This match was the final bout of a tournament held to determine the new champions\",\n \"the new champions after the titles were vacated in February 1996. The match ended when Skip pinned Phineas I. Godwinn using aroll-up, making the Bodydonnas the new WWF Tag Team Champions. The second bout, which also aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was asingles match(billed as a \\\"geriatric match\\\") between \\\"The Huckster\\\" and \\\"Nacho Man\\\", two characters created to parodyHulk Hoganand\\\"Macho Man\\\" Randy Savage(former WWF performers who had joined its competitorWorld Championship Wrestling). The referee for the match was \\\"Billionaire Ted\\\", a parody ofTed Turner, the owner of World Championship Wrestling's parent companyTurner Broadcasting System. This bout marked the culmination of a series of skits the WWF had aired featuring the three characters. This match did not take place in the Arrowhead Pond, having been pre-recorded elsewhere. The match ended in a no contest when both competitors, along with Billionaire Ted, seemingly expired in the ring. The third bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view\",\n \"on the pay-per-view broadcast proper, was asix-man tag team matchpittingThe British Bulldog,Owen Hart, andVader(Camp Cornette) againstAhmed Johnson,Jake Roberts, andYokozuna, with the stipulation that if Yokozuna's team won he would receive five minutes in the ring withJim Cornette, the manager of Camp Cornette. The match ended when Roberts attempted to give Cornette aDDT, only for Vader to knock Roberts down and pin him following aVader Bomb. The fourth bout was a \\\"Hollywood Backlot Brawl\\\" betweenGoldustandRoddy Piper. The match began in a parking lot, with the men brawling and using weapons. After Goldust fled in a goldenCadillac, Piper pursued him in a whiteFord Bronco. The fifth bout was a singles match betweenSavio VegaandStone Cold Steve Austin. Austin won the bout by technical knockout after hitting Vega with theMillion Dollar Championshipthen applying theMillion Dollar Dreamto Vega until he passed out. During and after the fifth bout, footage aired of what was purportedly Piper pursuing Goldust (the\",\n \"Goldust (the actual footage aired was from theLos Angeles Police Department's pursuit ofO.J. Simpsonin 1994). The sixth bout was a singles match betweenHunter Hearst HelmsleyandThe Ultimate Warrior. Early in the match, Helmsley performed his finishing move,The Pedigree, on The Ultimate Warrior. However, The Ultimate Warriorno-soldthe move and went on to pin Helmsley following aflying shoulder tackle,gorilla press slam, andWarrior Splash. Following the sixth bout,Todd Pettengillinterviewed the debutingMarc Merobackstage. The interview was interrupted by Hunter Hearst Helmsley, resulting in a brawl between Helmsley and Mero. The seventh bout was a singles match betweenDieselandThe Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall following achokeslamandTombstone Piledriver, marking his fifth consecutive win at WrestleMania. Following the seventh bout, Goldust and Piper arrived at the Arrowhead Pond, with Piper crashing his car into Goldust's car. Piper then chased Goldust to the ring, where the match\",\n \"where the match continued. The match ended when Piper tore off Goldust's bodysuit - revealing him to be wearing woman's lingerie - and gave him alow blow, after which Goldust fled from the ring, leaving Piper the winner. The main event sawWWF ChampionBret Hartdefend his title againstShawn Michaelsin anIron Man match, with the stipulation that whichever wrestler won the most falls in 60 minutes would win the match. Towards the end of the match, with neither men having won any falls, Hart applied hisSharpshooterhold to Michaels, but time expired without Michaels submitting. As Hart began to leave with his title, WWF PresidentGorilla Monsooninstructed refereeEarl Hebnerto continue the match under \\\"sudden death\\\" rules, with ring announcerHoward Finkelannouncing that \\\"there must be a winner!\\\" The match ended shortly thereafter when Michaels pinned Hart after giving himSweet Chin Musictwice, thus becoming the new WWF Champion. Reception WrestleMania XII received generally positive reviews from critics, who aimed\",\n \"critics, who aimed praise, particularly at the main event. Rob McNew of 411mania called the opening match \\\"really good,\\\" and gave it 3 and 1/4 stars (out of 5 stars). However, he called the match between Helmsley and The Ultimate Warrior the worst of the night, going on to call it the \\\"funniest squash ever, considering that HHH is now arguably a bigger star than Warrior was.\\\" He gave the main event the highest score of the night, with 4 stars. However, he says the match \\\"isn't for everyone.\\\" Continuing, he says, \\\"It's about a three-star match for the first 40 minutes, the last 20+ are an easy five stars.\\\" He gave the entire event a score of 7 out of 10.In 2015, Ryan Dilbert of Bleacher Report called it the 16th greatest of the first 30 WrestleMania events. While the Iron Man match got positive reviews, PWInsider's Mike Johnson pointed that in the match both wrestlers \\\"were working in spite of each other, not together\\\". Results WWF Tag Team Championship tournament In February 1996,WWF Tag Team ChampionsThe\",\n \"Team ChampionsThe Smoking Gunnswere forced to vacate the titles afterBilly Gunnsustained a neck injury. As a result, a tournament was staged in February and March 1996 to determine the new champions, with the matches airing on tape delaySuperstarsthroughout March. The tournament final was held at WrestleMania XII, withThe BodydonnasdefeatingThe Godwinnsto be crowned the new champions. Other on-screen personnel References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania 13 WrestleMania 13was the 13th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). The event waspresentedbyPlayStationand held on March 23, 1997, at theRosemont Horizonin theChicagosuburb ofRosemont, Illinois. Eight matches were held at the event, including one on theFree for Allpre-show. Themain eventwas ano disqualification matchbetweenThe UndertakerandSycho Sidfor theWWF Championship, which Undertaker won following interference fromBret Hart. The main matches on theundercardwereBret HartversusStone Cold Steve Austinin aNo Disqualification Submission match,Legion of DoomandAhmed JohnsonversusNation of Dominationin aChicago Street Fight, and Rocky Maivia versus The Sultan for theWWF Intercontinental Championship. WrestleMania 13 was the second WrestleMania to take place in theChicago metropolitan area, followingWrestleMania 2. The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees, and drew a 0.77 buy\",\n \"and drew a 0.77 buy rate. The event as a whole received mixed to negative reviews. However, the submission match between Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin was highly praised, being called one of the greatest matches in wrestling history, and has been cited as the beginning of theAttitude Era. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\",and was considered one of the \\\"Big Five\\\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania 13 was scheduled to be held on March 23, 1997, at theRosemont Horizonin theChicagosuburb ofRosemont, Illinois. The event waspresentedbyPlayStation. Storylines The mainfeudheading into WrestleMania 13\",\n \"WrestleMania 13 was betweenThe UndertakerandSycho Sid, with the two battling over theWWF Championship. AtIn Your House 13in February,Bret Hartlast eliminated The Undertaker in theFinal Four matchto win the vacant WWF Championship.Hart's reign, however, lasted only one day as he lost the title the next night onMonday Night Rawto Sycho Sid after interference byStone Cold Steve Austin, one of the other participants in the Final Four match (the other wasVader, who had no further involvement in the ongoing storyline).Due to being the runner-up to the title at Final Four, Undertaker was made the number one contender and wasbookedto challenge Sycho Sid for the title at WrestleMania. However, on the March 17 edition ofRaw Is War, Sid defended the title against Hart in asteel cage match, with the winner defending his title at WrestleMania. During the match, both Undertaker and Austin interfered. Undertaker came out to help Sid because he wanted to wrestle Sid for the title while Austin helped Hart because he wanted\",\n \"because he wanted to make his scheduledsubmission matchwith Hart a title match. Sid won the match and retained his title and as a result, Sid vs. Undertaker remained themain eventof WrestleMania. The second main match on the card wasBret HartversusStone Cold Steve Austinin aSubmission match. Hart and Austin's rivalry began after Austin won the1996 King of the Ring tournamentand began taunting Hart, who was inactive at the time. Austin insulted Hart in his speeches so Hart would accept his challenge to a match. Hart returned in October and accepted Austin's challenge, with the two facing each other atSurvivor Series 1996where Hart defeated Austin.Their rivalry continued as Hart and Austin were the final two participants in the1997 Royal Rumble match. Hart had originally eliminated Austin from the match but Austin's elimination was considered unofficial because theofficialsdid not see it as they were busy attending to a brawl between eliminated wrestlersMankindandTerry Funk.They were participants in aFour\",\n \"in aFour Corners Elimination matchfor the vacantWWF ChampionshipatFinal Four, which Hart won.The next night onMonday Night Raw, Austin cost Hart the WWF Championship against Sycho Sid when Hart had applied theSharpshooteron Sid, Austin nailed Hart with asteel chairfollowed by SidpowerbombingHart for the win.Hart and Austin were booked to wrestle in a submission match at WrestleMania, but Hart got a shot at the WWF Championship in asteel cage matchon the March 17 edition ofRaw Is War, with the winner defending the title againstThe Undertakerat WrestleMania 13. Hart almost had the match won, until Undertaker interfered and helped Sid in getting the victory. One of the mainundercardmatches was aChicago Street FightfeaturingAhmed JohnsonandLegion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) againstNation of Domination(Faarooq,CrushandSavio Vega). Johnson was attacked by a newcomerFaarooq Asad, aRomangladiator on the July 22, 1996 edition ofMonday Night Rawduring a match for theWWF Tag Team Championship.Ahmed was scheduled to defend\",\n \"scheduled to defend hisIntercontinental Championshipagainst Faarooq atSummerSlam 1996butlegitimatekidney problems forced him to vacate the Intercontinental Championship. In thestoryline, it was explained that Faarooq had caused Ahmed's kidney problem.Ahmed returned from his injury in early 1997 and continued with Faarooq, who had formed TheNation of Dominationduring Ahmed's absence. Ahmed joined forces with the Legion of Doom and the trio were scheduled to wrestle the Nation of Domination in a Chicago Street Fight at WrestleMania 13. Event Before the event aired live onpay-per-view(PPV),Billy GunnfacedFlash FunkatFree for All.Gunn defeated Funk by pinning him following atornado DDT. The first match that aired on television was aFour-Way Tag Team Elimination Match. The match featuredThe Headbangers(MoshandThrasher),The Godwinns(Henry O. GodwinnandPhineas I. Godwinn),The New Blackjacks(Blackjack WindhamandBlackjack Bradshaw) and the team ofDoug Furnas and Phil LaFon. All the teams wrestled each other and\",\n \"each other and sometimes in the match, teammates also fought against each other. Barry Windham and Phil LaFon brawled to the outside the ring. Bradshaw attacked the referee and gotdisqualified, which led to the first elimination of the match while Furnas was counted-out. Headbangers and Godwinns were the remaining teams and they battled for five minutes and 39 seconds before Thrasher hit Phineas with aCannonball Sentonand won the match via pinfall. As a result of winning the match, Headbangers earned a shot at theWWF Tag Team Championship. The second match was betweenRocky MaiviaandThe Sultanfor Maivia'sWWF Intercontinental Championship.The Honky Tonk Manprovided commentary for the match. Sultan had an early advantage in the match due to his size and power but Maivia used his quicker moves to push the big man outside the ring. Sultan overpowered Maivia withslamsandpunchesbut was unable to pin him. Maivia gained advantage on Sultan by nailing him with abelly to belly suplex,Maivia Hurricaneand aflying\",\n \"aflying crossbodybeforepinningSultan with aroll-upto win the match and retain the title. After the match, Sultan and hismanagers,Bob BacklundandThe Iron Sheikattacked Maivia before his father,Rocky Johnson, came out to help his son. The third match was betweenHunter Hearst HelmsleyandGoldust. Goldust dominated the early portion of the match. Helmsley had brief flurries of offense but Goldust had still the advantage. Helmsley began usingsubmission maneuversto keep the advantages for himself. Goldust was going to hit his maneuver until Helmsley'sbodyguardChynamanhandled Goldust's wifeMarlenato distract him. Helmsley took advantage and hit Goldust with aPedigree, enabling him to pin Goldust for the win. The fourth match was atag teammatch for theWWF Tag Team Championship, asOwen Hart and The British Bulldogdefended the titles againstMankindandVader. The big Vader made easy work of Owen in the beginning of the match. Vader tagged in with Mankind while Owen tagged in with Bulldog. Bulldog and Mankind punched each\",\n \"punched each other but Bulldog had more advantage. He applied asleeper holdon Mankind which caused both of them to fall to the outside. They continued to brawl outside. Therefereewas distracted due to the brawl. Vader took advantage and hit Bulldog withPaul Bearer's urn and dragged him into the ring. Vader and Mankind both took turns and continued to attack Bulldog. Owen tried to save his partner, but Vader used his strength while Mankind used his cheating tactics to overwhelm Owen. Mankind trapped Bulldog to the outside and applied the mandible claw on him. Both men werecounted outas the match resulted in a draw. As a result, Hart and Bulldog retained the championship. The fifth match was aNo Disqualification Submission matchbetween Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin.UFCfighterKen Shamrockwas thespecial guest refereefor this match. Austin attacked Hart, who was still in his entrance attire. The two first beat each other in the ring before the action spilled outside the ring. Hart tossed Austin into the\",\n \"Austin into the steel ring post while Austin drove him onto the steel barrier. The two men began fighting in the crowd, where both men hit each other with severalforeign objects. They moved up the steps high into the crowd. Shamrock followed them and brought them back towards the ring where Austin attempted to use steel steps on Hart, but Hart stopped him with a kick to the midsection. As the action began in the ring, Hart focused on Austin's leg. He busted Austin open with an Irish whip into the steel barricade and Austin's head began to bleed profusely. Hart tried to use a steel chair on Austin's leg, but Austin choked Hart with a television cable. Hart hit Austin in the head with the ring bell. He applied aSharpshooteron Austin who did not submit and tried to resist but passed out from the pain and loss of blood. Shamrock awarded the match to Hart, but Hart continued to attack Austin which led to a double-turn as the fans turned on Hart and began cheering for Austin. Shamrock pulled Hart off of Austin and\",\n \"off of Austin and executed a waistlock takedown and physically challenged him to a fight. Hart declined to fight Shamrock and left the ring to a chorus of boos.Austin, meanwhile, after regaining consciousness, hit aStunneron a referee when he tried to help Austin out, then slowly limped away to backstage, while the crowd chanted his name. The sixth match of the event was aChicago Street Fightbetween theLegion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) andAhmed JohnsonandNation of Domination(Faarooq,CrushandSavio Vega). All the two teams hit each other with many foreign objects. The match continued inside the ring and outside the ring in the same fashion. Finally, Animal hit Crush with a2x4and then pinned him to win the match. Main Event Themain eventwas aNo Disqualification MatchbetweenThe Undertakerand reigning championSycho Sidfor theWWF Championship.Shawn Michaelsprovided commentary for the match. The then-heel superstar,Bret Hart, came out during the match and insulted Undertaker, Michaels and particularly Sid because he\",\n \"Sid because he claimed that Sid had screwed him out of the title. SidpowerbombedHart while Undertaker took advantage and began attacking the champion from behind. Undertaker went for anOld Schoolbut Sid took him in abearhug. Sid attacked Undertaker with various moves and attacked him with television monitors, and applied acamel clutchon Undertaker. Sid had the advantage in the match until Hart came back and attacked Sid with a steel chair. He recovered and got Undertaker in the powerbomb but Hart returned again and distracted Sid which allowed Undertaker to hit Sid with theTombstoneand pin him to win the match. Reception The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees and drew a 0.77 buy-rate. In 2011, Marc Elusive of 411mania gave the event an overall score of 7.0 out of 10.0 and noted that \\\"The Attitude Era began here...\\\" and that the main event was \\\"a very boring match\\\".John Canton ofThe John Reportgave the event an overall score of 4 out of 10 and said that the show was\",\n \"that the show was \\\"poor\\\" and noted that the main event \\\"sucked for the first 15 minutes, but the ending was okay\\\". Despite the lackluster reviews towards the event, the submission match between Hart and Austin was highly praised. In 2007, it was placed #1 onIGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History, and described as a match that \\\"launched an era.\\\"Thomas Golianopoulos ofComplex Sportsalso ranked it at number 1 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, citing the match's six factors of storyline, innovation, psychology, finish, post-match angle, and fallout.Elusive of 411mania described the match as \\\"outstanding\\\" and \\\"that helped propel Steve Austin into the stratosphere and become the star of the late 90s and the early 00s\\\", while also noting the double-turn after the match. John Canton called the match a \\\"wrestling perfection\\\". It received afive-star ratingfromDave Meltzerand was also voted Match of the Year (1997) by readers of hisWrestling Observer Newsletterpublication.Pro\",\n \"Wrestling Illustratedreaders named it Match of the Year (1997). The submission match would also be the last time a WrestleMania match would receive a five-star rating untilWrestleMania 39in 2023 whenKevin OwensandSami ZaynvsJimmyandJey Usoon Night 1 andGunthervsSheamusvsDrew McIntyreon Night 2 both received the five-star rating. Hart would call it his favourite match, labeling it \\\"a real masterpiece.\\\"Ken Shamrockwould call it \\\"one of the greatest matches in wrestling history\\\",andJim Rosscalled it the greatest match he'd called at WrestleMania and the most \\\"well-executed\\\" match he'd seen. Aftermath Stone Cold Steve AustinandBret Hartcontinued their rivalry after WrestleMania, but Austin was now ababyfaceand his popularity would start to increase considerably while Hart was aheel. Hart recruitedBritish Bulldog,Owen Hart,Brian Pillmanand formertag teampartnerJim Neidhartto reformThe Hart Foundation.AtIn Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Takerin April, Hart and Austin had a match which Austin won\",\n \"which Austin won bydisqualification.Theirfeudcontinued untilIn Your House 16: Canadian Stampedein July, where theHart Foundation(working as faces in Canada) defeated the American team of Austin,Ken Shamrock,Legion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) andGoldust. The Undertakerreceived apushafter he won his second WWF Championship at WrestleMania 13.He spent a reign of133 dayswhich included battles withMankind,Steve Austin,FaarooqandVader.AtSummerSlam 1997, Undertaker's long reign finally ended when he lost the title toBret Hartwhenspecial guest refereeShawn Michaelsaccidentally struck Undertaker with a steel chair, which was intended for Hart. After losing the WWF Championship to The Undertaker at WrestleMania, Sycho Sid's push began to diminish and afterKing of the Ring, he began to disappear from WWF programming. In actuality, Sid quietly left WWF to focus on recovering from a neck injury. Sid eventually returned to rival promotionWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) in 1999 and continued to wrestle as Sid Vicious until he\",\n \"Vicious until he suffered a near career-ending leg injury atWCW Sinon January 14, 2001. Results Other on-screen personnel References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania XIV WrestleMania XIV(marketed asWrestleMania dX raided) was the 14th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF; WWE as of 2002). It took place on March 29, 1998, at theFleetCenterinBoston, Massachusetts. A total of eight matches were held at the event. This pay-per-view event was notable for the involvement of boxerMike Tyson, who acted as a ring enforcer for the main event. In the main event,Stone Cold Steve AustindefeatedShawn Michaelsto win theWWF Championshipfor the first time; Michaels performed despite a severe injury sustained during a match at theRoyal Rumbleand would not compete again untilSummerSlam in 2002. This was the first WrestleMania ofThe Attitude Eraand also the first WrestleMania event since1985not to featureBret Hart, who jumped to the rivalWorld Championship Wrestlingthe previous year. Production Background WrestleManiais theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having\",\n \"event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\",and was considered one of the \\\"Big Five\\\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XIV was scheduled to be held on March 29, 1998, at theFleetCenterinBoston, Massachusetts. In print advertisements, the event was billed as \\\"WrestleMania: dX raided\\\". Storylines After theLegion of Doomlost theirWWF Tag Team ChampionshiptoThe New Age Outlaws, they were then assaulted by the Outlaws andD-Generation X. At theRoyal Rumble, the LOD lost a championship match, thanks in large part toRoad DogghandcuffingHawkoutside of the ring.Following this, they suffered two defeats at the hands ofNWAmembersJeff JarrettandBarry Windham. Finally, on the February 23 episode ofRaw Is War, the LOD once again lost to The New\",\n \"lost to The New Age Outlaws when, despite having the match all but won following aDoomsday Device, the non-legal Hawk did not leave the ring as Animal was making the cover; while the referee was busy removing Hawk, Animal was struck by the title belts, causing them to lose the match.Following the match, the two men brawled all the way to the back and announced their dissolution, not appearing again until WrestleMania. After theMontreal Screwjob,Owen Hartwas left as the only member of theHart familyto remain with the company; and after a temporary absence, Owen returned during the closing moments ofD-Generation X: In Your Houseto attackShawn Michaels.Following this, he turned his attention to Hunter Hearst Helmsley (who would later be known simply asTriple H) and theEuropean Championshipthat Michaels had given to Helmsley as a Christmas present. After weeks of deterring a championship match by way of a fractured kneecap (which was, in fact, legitimate), Triple H finally acquiesced to a match on the January 26\",\n \"on the January 26 edition ofRaw Is War, only forThe Artist Formerly Known as Goldust(who was dressing up from week-to-week in a bid for attention) to appear in Helmsley's place. After Hart won the match, WWF CommissionerSgt. Slaughterdeclared the disguise to be so convincing that he upheld the decision and awarded the championship to Hart.On the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Owen defended the title againstMark Henry. During the match,Chynacame to the ring and pushed Hart off the turnbuckle allowing Henry to lock on abearhug, but before Owen could submit, Chyna delivered a blatantlow blowto Henry, resulting in a disqualification in favor of Hart. The following week in a match againstBarry Windham, Hart landed awkwardly on his ankle, suffering asprained anklewith ligament damage as a result. On a special Tuesday edition ofRaw Is Waron March 17, Hart joined the commentary team with a supportive cast on his leg. This would bring Triple H to ringside, where he goaded Owen into an impromptu title defense despite\",\n \"defense despite his cast. During the match, Chyna appeared and struck Owen's ankle with a baseball bat, allowing Helmsley to capitalize and win the title back. Due to his jealousy over the attention hiswife and valet,Sable, was garnering from the crowd,Marc Merowould try to intentionally cover up Sable's provocative clothing and eventually send her to the back during his matches, replacing her withThe Artist Formerly Known as Goldust, who at the time was dressing up from week-to-week in his own bid of self-attention. Although the two initially worked well together, Goldust's valetLuna Vachongrew vocally disdainful of Sable, who was also being mocked by Mero and Goldust, causing Sable to eventually grow tired of the disrespect and fight back. As the two women brawled, their partners tried to separate them; but when Goldust grabbed Sable in order to restrain her, Mero's jealousy took over and he attacked him. The two men then had a match on Raw, where both women were handcuffed to the ring posts in an effort\",\n \"posts in an effort to prevent their brawling. But after the referee was knocked down, Goldust stole the key and unchained Luna who attacked Sable withmake up, painting her face before also throwing water on her. Goldust then challenged Mero and Sable to a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania XIV. After successively beating members of theNation of Dominationweek after week,Ken Shamrockinitially defeated theIntercontinental ChampionRocky Maivia(later known as The Rock) at theRoyal Rumbledespite being hit with aforeign object, seemingly winning the title.However, The Rock convinced the referee that it was, in fact, he who suffered an illegal attack and the referee reversed his decision (Maivia had placed the foreign object in Shamrock's trunks after hitting him with it).The following month atNo Way Out of Texas: In Your House, Shamrock capitalized on the in-fighting of the Nation, due to leadership disputes betweenFaarooqand The Rock, by making the champion tap out in a ten-man tag team match. At the end of the\",\n \"At the end of the inauguralHell in a Cellmatch atBadd Blood: In Your House, just asThe Undertakerlooked to win the match against Shawn Michaels, the lights went out and a huge masked man came to the ring and delivered atombstone piledriverto the shocked Undertaker.The masked man was revealed to beKane, Undertaker's (kayfabe) half-brother and, despite the animosity and the presence ofPaul Bearer, Undertaker vowed never to fight his little brother. Before Undertaker'scasket matchwith Michaels at the Royal Rumble, D-Generation X claimed Kane had joined them, but in fact, he came to the ring to assist Undertaker. The alliance was short-lived, however, as during theRoyal Rumble, Kane came to the ring and turned on his brother, allowing Michaels to win the match before locking Undertaker in the casket and setting it ablaze, presuming his brother dead.On the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Kane's scheduled opponent,Stone Cold Steve Austin, was taken out by D-Generation X before the match could begin. With nothing\",\n \"begin. With nothing else to do, Bearer ordered the timekeeper to deliver aten-bell salutefor The Undertaker's passing, before then telling Kane to tombstone him. After he did, more bells were heard ringing, this time signaling Undertaker's arrival. The ringing continued much longer than normal, with Bearer vehemently denying the possibility of it being Undertaker. Eventually, asarcophagusappeared on the top of the ramp. After the sarcophagus was struck by a bolt of lightning, The Undertaker sat up before revealing that he had been to Hell and talked with his parents, telling them that he would have to go back on his vow before finally challenging Kane to a match at WrestleMania. The week before WrestleMania, Kane came to the ring and began to display similar supernatural powers as his brother, striking theTitanTronwith lightning, as well as the announce table, before finally striking a crew worker with lightning, setting him on fire; Undertaker was shown on the same episode speaking to his parents'\",\n \"to his parents' gravestones, revealing it may have to take thedamnationof his soul to reunite the troubled family. In January, Stone Cold Steve Austin won theRoyal Rumble matchwhile Shawn Michaels retained hisWWF Championship, all whileMike Tysonlooked on from the director's box.The following night onRaw Is War,Vince McMahonwas set to reveal that Tyson would be thespecial guest refereefor WrestleMania's main event; however, Austin appeared and gave thefingerto Tyson, offering him a fight and proclaiming the wrestling ring to be his, not Tyson's. Austin and Tyson then engaged in a massive brawl that garnered headlines all around the world.At the ensuing press conference, McMahon officially announced that due to the explosive situation, Tyson's role was being changed to that ofring enforcer. On the February 2 episode ofRaw Is War, in a scheduled match against Road Dogg, D-Generation X stormed the match and tied Austin in the ropes, allowing Shawn Michaels to hurl insults at Austin and rub the championship belt\",\n \"championship belt in his face, taunting him with it untilCactus JackandChainsaw Charliecame to his aid. The following week, Austin stole the championship belt from Michaels in the hope of baiting him into a singles match, but the partnership of D-Generation X and The New Age Outlaws continued, allowing Michaels to retrieve the belt back. This all led to a \\\"non-sanctioned\\\" eight-man tag match atNo Way Out of Texas: In Your House, which Michaels was unable to participate in due to a back injury; Austin won the match for his team by pinning Road Dogg.With WrestleMania drawing closer, on the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Mike Tyson appeared once again to be interviewed by Vince McMahon, only for DX to interrupt; Shawn Michaels then challenged Tyson to a fight. After both men's entourages left the ring, the two taunted each other for a bit until Michaels would rip off Tyson's shirt, revealing a DX T-shirt underneath, showing the enforcer's degenerate alliance; Later in the evening, as Austin came out to take\",\n \"came out to take place in a match against Kane, Triple H appeared on the ramp and lured Austin to him. Austin fell for the trap, and promptly turned around into aSweet Chin Musicby Michaels which knocked him out, a trap which occurred again the following week. Also that week, during a St. Patrick's Day Tuesday broadcast ofRaw Is Waron March 17, Austin called out Vince McMahon and verbally berated him for describing Mike Tyson as \\\"the baddest man on the planet\\\", but McMahon would not be goaded into a fight, as he instead forced Austin to fight Rocky Maivia the following episode, just before WrestleMania. Event Chris Warrenand The DX Band opened the show by performing hard rock versions of \\\"America the Beautiful\\\" and \\\"The Star-Spangled Banner\\\". The audience did not react well to the performance, booing the band during and after their songs. This segment was edited off all subsequent home video releases, as well as the WWE Network and Peacock. Preliminary matches The night began with the mystery entrants in the\",\n \"entrants in the tag team battle royal being revealed as the reunitedLegion of Doom, now known as LOD 2000, withSunnyas their new valet.Savio Vegawas first eliminated byChainzmeaning his tag team partner,Miguel Perez, had to leave too.Kurrganillegally entered the ring to enact revenge onSniperandReconby eliminating them on behalf ofThe Jackyl.Barry Windhamalso illegally entered to eliminate Chainz, and so left his partnerBradshaw. The final four teams lasted a while untilSkullwould be eliminated byHenry Godwinn, which meantThe Disciples of Apocalypsewere eliminated.8-Ballthen eliminatedPhineas Godwinn, which meantThe Godwinnswere then eliminated. Afterwards, The Godwinns attacked LOD 2000 with slop buckets before leaving.The Midnight Expresstried to keepAnimalout of the ring while double-teamingHawk, but once Animal re-entered the ring, LOD 2000 simultaneously eliminated bothBobandBart, leaving LOD 2000 the last team standing and the winners of the battle royal. The second match was aLight Heavyweight\",\n \"aLight Heavyweight Championshipmatch, withTaka Michinokudefending his title againstÁguila; this would be the first and only time the championship was defended at WrestleMania, though its successor, theCruiserweight Championshipwould be defended at the event more than once. After throwing Taka out the ring andbaseball slidinginto him, Águila hit anasai moonsaultoutside the ring, but was soon the victim of aspringboard crossbodyafter Taka reversed asuplexfrom the apron. Águila almost won the match with a moonsault crossbody into a pin, but remained on the offensive with afrankensteiner. Taka tried to land theMichinoku Driver, but as Aguila flipped out and attempted a hurricanrana, Taka managed apowerbombreversal. Taka then stopped a high flying dive attempt by Aguila with a dropkick, before successfully executing a Michinoku Driver and picking up the win. After the match, both contestants shook each other's hand and celebrated together.Also, partway into the matchup,Jim Rossmade a fleeting comment about the\",\n \"comment about the date of Taka's title win, December 7, the date of the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, calling it \\\"ironic enough\\\". This incident went largely unnoticed, only causing a slight stir in the wrestling community. Triple Hmade his way to the ring with his theme being played by the DX Band. BeforeOwen Hartcame to the ring, CommissionerSgt. Slaughterhandcuffed himself toChynaso that she would not interfere, despite her protestations. The match began with Hart pummeling Helmsley with fists before sliding out of the ring. Triple H tried to jump from the apron onto Hart, but made contact with the crowd barrier instead. After executing a powerbomb, Hart attempted to lock in thesharpshooter, but Helmsley reversed it and started some offensive maneuvers of his own, kicking Hart in the turnbuckle and delivering a suplex. Hart then suffered a cut to the bridge of his nose from a boot to the face, after which Triple H began to work on Hart's damaged ankle, dropping his knee onto it and stretching it. After\",\n \"it. After avoiding another kick to the face and crouching Helmsley onto the ring post, Owen managed to take advantage, reversing a Pedigree attempt into the sharpshooter. Chyna, having to pull Slaughter, pulled Triple H to the rope for the break. As Slaughter was distracted, Chyna then threw white powder into Slaughter's face, causing the referee a worried Hart to check on him. While the referee was distracted and as Owen turned around to confront Triple H, Chyna low-blowed him from outside, allowing Triple H to successfully nail the Pedigree and retain the title. After she was freed from the handcuffs, Chyna nailed Slaughter with a forearm and shoved him over the barricade into the crowd. Next up was the mixed tag team match.Marc MeroandGoldustbegan the match, but Goldust soon tagged inLuna Vachon, requiringSableto be tagged in too, as per the rules. However, Vachon simply ran around the outside of the ring with Sable chasing her, before tagging Goldust back in. Wanting to get her hands on Vachon, Sable\",\n \"on Vachon, Sable double-teamed Goldust with a boot to the face after an Irish whip from Mero, but could not get Vachon to enter the ring. A near-pinfall came from a running crossbody from Mero and following this, the two ran into each other, causing both men to crawl and tag in the women. Sable then took Luna down and punched her around the face before kicking her in the midsection and face in the turnbuckle and attacking Goldust, before running back to clothesline Vachon over the ropes. Vachon tagged Goldust in, but before Sable would do the same, she struck him in the face, then let Mero take over who had hisTKOreversed into aDDT. Mero would then reverse the Curtain Call, allowing him the chance to try a moonsault pin to a standing Goldust. After Vachon struck a running Mero with her knee, Mero went to punch her, but ducked out of the way as Goldust ran to her rescue, causing him to inadvertently knock her off the apron. Mero then executed the TKO, but Luna interrupted the pin count, jumping on Mero's back\",\n \"on Mero's back resulting in Sable tagging in as Mero wandered around the ring with Vachon on his back. Sable tried pinning Goldust, but the referee was distracted and as he finally began to count, Sable leapt off Goldust so the interfering Vachon would inadvertently bodysplash Goldust. Sable then performed a powerbomb and Mero's TKO to win the bout. Gennifer Flowers, who was accompanied byJeff JarrettandTennessee Lee, then came to the ring as the special guest ring announcer for the upcomingIntercontinental Championshipmatch betweenKen ShamrockandRocky Maivia. The fight began in the aisleway with a brawl that saw Shamrock get whipped into the steel steps before both men entered the ring. Maivia then delivered his People's Elbow, but could not secure a three-count. Shamrock then rolled out of the ring and grabbed a steel chair; when the referee tried to take it off him, he threw the referee into the corner; Maivia quickly grabbed the chair and hit Shamrock with it as the referee recovered. Shamrock kicked out\",\n \"Shamrock kicked out and quickly re-gained the advantage, delivering abelly-to-belly suplexoff an Irish whip and then securing his ankle lock submission in the center of the ring, making Maivia tap to win the match and the title. The surrounding members of the Nation quickly jumped into the ring, but Shamrock dispatched them all with suplexes, including the four hundred pound Mark Henry, before then reapplying the ankle lock to a bloody Maivia.Faarooqthen ran down from the back and jumped onto the apron, only to look on at Maivia with a smile, before walking away. A number of referees (the ones Shamrock attacked were actually independent wrestlers, or stuntmen put in referee uniforms) and officials would appear, trying to subdue Shamrock. After being surrounded, Shamrock suplexed a referee and then an official before calming down as Maivia was wheeled away on a gurney.Howard Finkelthen announced Shamrock had been disqualified for not breaking his ankle lock submission, meaning The Rock would retain the\",\n \"would retain the Intercontinental championship. This would cause Shamrock to become enraged and chase Rocky, and dump him off of the gurney and fighting him on the Chris Warren band stage. TheWWF Tag Team Championshipmatch was a \\\"Dumpster match\\\", the objective being the first tag team to put their opponents into a dumpster with the lids being closed shut would be the winners. The match began withBilly GunnfacingChainsaw CharlieandRoad Doggexchanging blows withCactus Jack. Trying acannonballon Road Dogg from the apron, Cactus missed and slammed himself into the dumpster instead. The Outlaws then focused on Charlie, using a back drop to deposit him into the dumpster and, as he attempted to climb out, they simultaneously slammed the lid shut on the hardcore legends' heads. With Cactus and Charlie both in the dumpster, the Outlaws shut the lid down on them, but Cactus managed to get back up while the Outlaws were celebrating and pushed Road Dogg down to the ground with a mandible claw, pulling him into the\",\n \"him into the dumpster. Both teams took time to recover and began to brawl with weapons in the ring, Cactus Jack pulling out a ladder and climbing it opposite Billy Gunn, only for both men to be pushed off straight into the dumpster outside the ring, thanks to a dazed Chainsaw Charlie. Road Dogg pulled his partner out and the two then focused their efforts on Charlie, powerbombing him into the dumpster, but Cactus had managed to escape in the meantime. The fight eventually found its way to the backstage area, with both Outlaws throwing Cactus into boxes and promotional displays, but Jack replied with a chair shot to both of them and planted Billy Gunn onto a wooden pallet with adouble-arm DDT. Charlie then reappeared on aforkliftand elevated the wooden pallet as Jack dragged Road Dogg onto it too. Charlie then drove the forklift above a backstage dumpster and dropped both opponents inside as Cactus Jack closed the lid to win the WWF Tag Team Championship. Main event matches BeforeThe Undertaker's match\",\n \"Undertaker's match withKane, baseball record-holderPete Rosecame to the ring as the special ring announcer. However, after insulting the hometown team and introducing Kane, he received atombstone piledriver, starting atri-year tradition.The Undertaker was preceded by a league oftorch-bearingdruids to the tune of \\\"O Fortuna\\\". As the match began, The Undertaker cornered Kane and threw a flurry of punches into him, ducking and reversing Kane's attempts until Kane hit him with aclotheslinethat he instantly sat up from. Kane then set Undertaker up in atree of woeto begin his assault of punches and Irish whips, before suplexing Undertaker onto the ropes and delivering a flying club to the neck from the turnbuckle. As The Undertaker began to fight back, Kane threw him into the ropes, but Undertaker retaliated by jumping onto his back, which was met aface-first electric chair.Paul Bearerkept the referee distracted while Kane landed the steel steps onto Undertaker, and repeated the effort a second time while\",\n \"a second time while Undertaker was lying on the steps, crushing him in-between them. As the referee tried to keep Kane in check, Bearer slapped Undertaker while walking past him. Kane caught his brother running and delivered achokeslam, but Undetaker lifted his shoulders off the mat before the three-count could be made. Kane put The Undertaker into a sleeper hold that he eventually fought out of with a flurry of punches. Undertaker then dropped Kane on top of the ropes and punched him off the apron; he followed this with anover the top rope suicide divethat Kane managed to sidestep, sending Undertaker crashing through the Spanish announce table. As Undertaker made it back into the ring, Kane hit him with aflying lariat. Undertaker then attempted to give Kane the Tombstone Piledriver, but Kane managed to shift his weight, reversing the positions and allowing Kane to deliver the tombstone to Undertaker instead. Undertaker kicked out and after landing a running clothesline, Undertaker choke slammed Kane and\",\n \"slammed Kane and then delivered a tombstone piledriver of his own; but Kane kicked out. This would mark the first time anyone had ever kicked out of Undertaker's tombstone piledriver. It would take three tombstones with a guillotine leg drop and flying clothesline in between to stop Kane. But in the end, Undertaker scored the pin and was victorious. As soon as the match was over, Bearer attacked Undertaker and ordered Kane to attack him, which he did with a chair shot to the head and then a tombstone piledriver onto the chair. After Kane and Bearer left, Undertaker sat up and left the ring. WithMike Tysonenforcing from ringside, theWWF Championshipmatch began with both wrestlers taunting each other, engaging in a few light punches beforeShawn Michaelsescaped the ring and ran back in to take advantage ofStone Cold Steve Austin, but was met with a standing clothesline. Austin followed up by pulling down Michaels' tights, exposing Michaels' backside. Michaels then tried to run at Austin, but was back dropped\",\n \"was back dropped over the top rope onto Triple H. As Triple H threw Austin into the crowd barrier, the referee ordered he and Chyna to leave ringside. As they were leaving Austin followed and fought with Triple H up to the entrance gate. Michaels caught up and hit Austin with a cymbal from the DX Band's stage, before Irish whipping Austin into the dumpster. As the match resumed in the ring, Austin met Michaels's high-risk maneuver with a clothesline and then ran him into the turnbuckle before picking him up for an inverted atomic drop. Michaels' attempt to pick up some momentum saw him picked up and dropped onto the ropes, but Michaels managed to push Austin away as he attempted a stunner. When Michaels tried to escape the ring though, Austin delivered a right hand, forcing the champion to fall upon the announce table. After Austin slowed the match down with a sleeper hold, Michaels tried to pull his knee into the ring post but was instead pulled into it himself. Austin then tried to rush at Michaels, but\",\n \"at Michaels, but was back dropped into the crowd and struck with the ring bell. Michaels used the momentum to take advantage inside the ring, delivering a snapmare and then a low kick to the grounded Austin, while also taking time totaunt the audience. Austin briefly picked up some speed throwing Michaels out of the ring, but just as quickly lost ground as Michaels repeatedly worked on Austin's left knee, throwing it into the ring post before kicking and dropping onto it back inside the ring. When Austin tried to recover outside of the ring, he was met with a baseball slide that launched him over the announce table. Austin was then thrown back into the ring by Miks Tyson, where he soon suffered a figure-four leglock that Michaels illegally elevated using the second and third ring rope. Austin's eventual counter was stopped by a rope break. Austin then tried to reverse a standing sleeper hold by throwing Michaels back into the turnbuckle, but unwittingly trapped refereeMike Chiodawho fell unconscious. With\",\n \"unconscious. With both men on the floor, Michaels recovered with a kip-up and landed a high-flying elbow drop, getting in position forSweet Chin Music. As Austin eventually stood up, he ducked the superkick, attempting a stunner on Michaels. Michaels responded by throwing Austin into the ropes before once again attempting Sweet Chin Music. However, Austin grabbed Michaels' foot, spun him around and nailed him with a Stone Cold Stunner. Mike Tyson jumped into the ring to make a quick three count and the new champion celebrated by tossing the enforcer an \\\"Austin 3:16\\\" t-shirt. When Shawn Michaels stood up, he confronted Tyson about his turn, but was met with a punch that instantly floored him, before Tyson then draped Michaels with Austin's t-shirt. Aftermath The result of the main event heralded a changing of the guard in the World Wrestling Federation. Shawn Michaels, who had been a major superstar in the company for many years, having won his first WWF Championship at WrestleManiatwo years previously, took\",\n \"previously, took a four-year hiatus from wrestling due to a severe back injury sustained during the casket match against Undertaker at the Royal Rumble. During his retirement, Shawn made several ostensible one-off appearances as a guest commentator during episodes ofRaw Is Warin the summer of 1998, and eventually replacing Sgt. Slaughter as the WWF commissioner at the end of the year, holding onto the position for a year and a half. After what was supposed to be a one-time match four years later atSummerSlam, Michaels and the now renamed World Wrestling Entertainment realized that his injuries had healed, and he made a full-time return to wrestling, eventually retiring permanently in 2010 atWrestleMania XXVI, 12 years after this event. With Stone Cold Steve Austin as the new WWF Champion, the \\\"Attitude Era\\\" was fully ushered in. The company's iconic scratch logo had started to replace the \\\"New Generation\\\" logo and began to appear on ring aprons and promotional material during and after this event. The next\",\n \"event. The next night onRaw Is Warafter WrestleMania, the old WWF \\\"winged eagle\\\" world championship belt was retired, and a new belt design with a larger eagle and blue globe debuted (eventually being retired in 2002). The Attitude Era saw Austin's feud with Vince McMahon escalate and two weeks later,Raw Is WardefeatedWorld Championship Wrestling'sMonday Nitroin theratings warfor the first time in eighty-four weeks. Shawn Michaels' loss was criticized by Triple H the following night onRaw Is War, with Triple H blaming Michaels for overlooking Tyson's potential double-cross. Helmsley delivered a promo saying that he would now lead D-Generation X and turn it into an army, saying \\\"the first thing you do is look to your blood. You look to your buddies. You look to your friends. You look...tothe Kliq\\\",before introducing a returningSean Waltman, now under the \\\"X-Pac\\\" persona, who had re-signed with the company after being fired from World Championship Wrestling (WCW). Later in the evening, it was revealed thatRoad\",\n \"revealed thatRoad DoggandBilly Gunnwere also part of theDX Army. The ongoing saga between The Undertaker and Kane continued to escalate even further. The following night, Paul Bearer challenged Undertaker on behalf of Kane to a match atUnforgiven: In Your House, where the ring would be surrounded by fire. The first man to be set ablaze would lose, thus giving birth to theInferno Match. By winning the fifteen-team battle royal, LOD 2000 won the right to face the WWF Tag Team Champions at Unforgiven. The champions by rights were Cactus Jack and Chainsaw Charlie, but some legal wrangling from The New Age Outlaws saw the match held up on account of the wrong dumpster being used. The vacant titles were then decided in a steel cage match between the two teams the following night, which the Outlaws won after interference from the newly formed DX Army, concreting their ties, and by handcuffing Charlie to the cage by his neck. Charlie returned to his Terry Funk persona, whilst Cactus Jack became Dude Love again.\",\n \"Dude Love again. Meanwhile, the New Age Outlaws became part of the DX Army, achieving further success. In a tag team match against Ken Shamrock and Steve Blackman, Rocky Maivia promised to show Faarooq that the Nation was stronger and more connected than ever before. The promise was a sour one as, during the match, Rocky left Faarooq to suffer the wrath of Shamrock and Blackman. Afterwards, Faarooq demanded that Rocky come back out so the two could fight. When Rocky returned and squared up to Faarooq, the other members of the Nation turned on him, and Maivia proclaimed himself as the new \\\"ruler\\\" of the faction. Before Marc Mero's match with Taka Michinoku the next night, Luna Vachon appeared and challenged Sable to a singles match, which Sable promptly accepted. Vachon also announced that it was not to be a traditional wrestling match, because she wanted to humiliate Sable, and so it would be an evening gown match to be held at Unforgiven. Results References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania XV WrestleMania XVwas the 15th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 28, 1999, at theFirst Union CenterinPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania. Tenprofessional wrestling matcheswere scheduled on the event'scard. The ticket sales of 20,276 drew a gross of $1,437,050. The main event saw the challengerStone Cold Steve AustinfaceThe Rockin ano disqualification matchfor theWWF Championship. The penultimate match sawThe UndertakerwrestleBig Boss Manin aHell in a Cellmatch. Lower on the card, six of the promotion's seven activechampionshipswere defended, including the first WrestleMania defense of theHardcore Championship. Also on the undercard was aBrawl for Allmatch, an unscripted type of shootfight between wrestlerBart Gunnand boxer/mixed martial artistButterbean. This event also marked the final WWF appearance forGorilla Monsoon,who died in October that year. Production Background WrestleManiais theWorld\",\n \"theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\",and was considered one of the \\\"Big Five\\\" pay-per-views, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XV was scheduled on March 28, 1999, at theFirst Union CenterinPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania. Storylines WhenRoad Dogg Jesse Jamesand \\\"Bad Ass\\\"Billy Gunnlost theWWF Tag Team ChampionshiptoThe Corporation,they tried their hand at singles wrestling for some time. Gunn failed in his attempts to win theWWF Intercontinental Championship, but Road Dogg becomingHardcore Championuntil an injury prevented him from honoring a championship match withAl Snow. Snow ended up fighting himself and thenBob Hollyfor the vacant belt atSt. Valentine's Day\",\n \"Valentine's Day Massacre: In Your House, with Holly winning the title at the banks of theMississippi River.When Road Dogg won the Intercontinental Championship onRaw Is WarGunn fought Holly (now Hardcore Holly) and won when Holly crashed into an ad-hoc announcers tableJim Rosshad constructed for his pirate broadcast of the show.Holly felt enraged that circumstances had conspired against him, while Snow still wanted another chance at the belt. In the previous year, due to the suddenly enlarged roster, ashootfighting(unscripted) knockout tournament titledBrawl for Allwas organized on a voluntary basis, with Bart Gunn winning the tournament on August 24after defeating every opponent by knockout aside from his opening-round opponent Bob Holly. When Holly rechristened himself Hardcore Holly on February 15, decrying poor gimmicks and tag-team partners he had been given in the past, Gunn made his first appearance since winning the tournament, to remind Holly that not all his partners were of a poor caliber.After a\",\n \"caliber.After a hardcore match between the two, which Gunn dominated until a masked assailant, revealed to be\\\"Dr. Death\\\" Steve Williams, threw him off the stage. Williams did this out of revenge for losing to Gunn in the Brawl for All. The week after on Raw Is War, Williams' managerJim Rossannounced to Gunn he would be facing notedmixed martial artistandboxerEric \\\"Butterbean\\\" Esch, who held a 43–1–1 record at the time, who challenged him to a Brawl for All fight. From November'sSurvivor Seriesuntil the night after St. Valentine's Day Massacre,The Rockand Mankind (Mick Foley) traded theWWF Championshipnumerous times as Mr. McMahonscrewedMankind time and time again on his quest to headline WrestleMania. In their final match, aRaw Is Warladder match,Paul Wightdelivered theShowstopperto Mankind as he was about to win the match,removing his chances of appearing the main event. However, as Mr. McMahon's conspiracy of appointing Big Show as special guest referee to secure The Rock as champion began to fall apart,\",\n \"to fall apart, Mankind constantly offered his services as a second official. With The Rock and Big Show causing infighting in the Corporation, Mankind successfully canvassed for a chance to referee; rather than have two conflicting referees, a match was booked to give the winner the right to officiate. When Ryan Shamrock (Alicia Webb) appeared front row onRaw Is Waron January 11, she gained attention not only from her brother but alsoVal Venis, who performed a flirtatious dance for her, and \\\"Badd Ass\\\" Billy Gunn, who lived up to his moniker by mooning her. Enraged,Ken Shamrockfought Gunn at theRoyal Rumble,then Venis at St. Valentine's Day Massacre, with Venis winning the Intercontinental Championship thanks to help from Ryan.Venis soon dumped Ryan,and she began a relationship with Goldust (Dustin Rhodes). Venis also unwittingly lost his championship to Road Dogg onRaw Is Warand found himself defending his championship against the important men in Ryan Shamrock's life in a four-corners elimination match.\",\n \"elimination match. After The Rock won his\\\"I Quit\\\" matchagainst Mankind at the Royal Rumble by playing a recording of his voice,Triple Hdemanded an I Quit match of his own, but as he was about to put Rock through the announcers table, The Corporation came to the ring andKaneheld his manager/girlfriendChynahostage, demanding that he quit the match. As soon as the match was over, Chynalow blowedTriple H and revealed her alliances with The Corporation, promising aValentine's Daypresent at the subsequent pay-per-view. Despite almost having the match won, Triple H suffered at the hands of an interferingShane McMahonand illegal man Kane's chokeslam.Triple H took revenge on the February 22Raw Is Warby interfering in X-Pac's (Sean Waltman) match with Chyna, causing her to lose. Chyna called Triple H out on March 8, but before they could fight, Kane came to the ring. Chyna held up Triple H as Kane shot afireballat him, though he would duck out of the way causing (kayfabe) severe retinal damage to Chyna. Despite not\",\n \"Chyna. Despite not receiving any damage, Triple H maintained that the fireball was meant for him, an insult he took personally and an intended injury he wanted to return at WrestleMania. On March 22, Kane prepared to have a match against Goldust, but as he threw off his entrance robes and wig, it turned out he was Triple H holding a flamethrower, shooting flames in Kane's face.Meanwhile, X-Pac, who had altercations with Shane McMahon prior to the February event, was frustrated with Shane's interference in the match and goaded into putting hisEuropean Championshipon the line in a tag-team match with Triple H against Kane and Shane, which Shane won thanks to Triple H being distracted by Chyna.With Shane claiming himself to be a fighting champion, he agreed to a rematch at WrestleMania, but regularly interfered in X-Pac's matches up until that point, culminating in a Greenwich Street Fight on March 22 that ended in a no-contest when theMean Street Posseambushed X-Pac and drove off with Shane in their car.\",\n \"Shane in their car. Toriwas sitting front row as aplantas early as September 14'sRaw Is War, but it was not until late December that she began to act with stalker tendencies, sending flowers and notes to Sable, theWomen's Championand even helping her to defend her title againstLuna Vachonat the Royal Rumble.OnRaw Is Warthe night after the previous pay-per-view, Tori invaded the ring again and was publicly shouted at and humiliated by Sable. Vachon then brought Tori to the ring a fortnight after, reprimanding Sable for her ego, but a still-obsessed Tori helped attack Vachon. The following week on March 8'sRaw Is War, Tori fought Vachon with Sable in her corner but after receiving asquashfrom Vachon, Sable also gave Tori aSable Bomb, leading to Tori interrupting Sable'sPlayboyinterview by demanding a championship match at WrestleMania. Having beenburied alivein a Royal Rumble qualification match atRock Bottom: In Your House,The Undertakerdisappeared from television whileThe Acolytes, Faarooq (Ron Simmons) and\",\n \"(Ron Simmons) and Bradshaw (John Layfield), began to act strangely, eventually abductingDennis Knightand leaving him tied up in a darkened room. On January 11, The Undertaker returned in slightly new attire, taking a seat in a ceremonial throne on theRaw Is Warstage whilePaul Bearerstood beside him and The Acolytes brought Knight out and tied him to a table. There, Undertaker performed a ritualistic ceremony, rechristening him Mideon.Undertaker began delivering ambiguous apocalyptic messages, but after recruiting Mabel, now Viscera (Nelson Frazier, Jr.) andThe Brood, he began to be more direct, revealing his plan to attack Mr. McMahon and take over the World Wrestling Federation. The security of Mr. McMahon's Corporation,Big Boss Man, challenged the Ministry to a six-man tag team match, which ended in a no-contest when the Ministry abducted Shane McMahon and took him to Undertaker, who threatened him while choking him then gave him a letter to give to his father. McMahon replied the following week on\",\n \"following week on February 22 by booking The Undertaker in anInferno matchwith Kane onRaw Is War, the first network television airing of that type of match. During the match, McMahon provided commentary, nonchalantly revealing he had placed Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match against Big Boss Man for WrestleMania. During the match, Paul Bearer gave an ominous gift to McMahon, a teddy bear. After Undertaker set Kane on fire, he turned to the enraged McMahon, taking the teddy bear (later revealed to belong toStephanie McMahon) and setting it alight, reducing Vince to his knees.Trying to defeat either of his problems, McMahon declared he'd never show such weakness again and put Mankind against Undertaker, which ended with Undertaker almost chokeslamming McMahon through the announcers table until Boss Man saved him.Undertaker continued with his mind games on March 8, ordering his Ministry to look for Boss Man all night and attacking any innocents in his way, eventually capturing Boss Man and crucifying him.\",\n \"and crucifying him. Boss Man managed to escape while police were being beaten off by Undertaker's minions until he offered himself to the police while being derided by McMahon. The following week he continued his assault, with videos playing throughout the evening of the Ministry at McMahon's mansion ending in McMahon coming to the ring while Triple H brawled with Kane, begging Kane to help him. Kane ripped off his mask to reveal it was actually The Undertaker who grabbed McMahon by the throat as the lights turned off in the arena and when they came up, he was gone with McMahon alone in the ring. The main event of the evening was another chapter in the ongoing rivalry betweenStone Cold Steve Austinand McMahon, which dated back to when Austin won the Royal Rumble in 1998.After Austin won the WWF Championship atWrestleMania XIV,McMahon set on a six-month-long quest to take the championship from him. With the exception of a one day reign by Kane, who won the championship in a First Blood Match atKing of the\",\n \"Match atKing of the Ringwhen his (kayfabe) brother The Undertaker caused Austin to bleed first, Austin thwarted each attempt by McMahon untilBreakdown: In Your Housein September 1998. There, Austin defended the championship against Undertaker and Kane in what was billed as a triple threat match. McMahon added a stipulation, however, that neither brother could pin the other to win the match;this led to both men simultaneously pinning Austin, causing him to lose the match and the championship. This had been part of a deal McMahon had made with the two men to protect him from Austin, with the reward of the championship if they were successful. However, McMahon went back on his word after Austin attacked him on the next night’sRawand announced he was forcing Undertaker and Kane to wrestle for the vacant championship atJudgment Day: In Your House. He also named Austin the special guest referee, hoping to humiliate him by forcing him to declare a new champion. Austin, however, had other ideas and counted both men\",\n \"counted both men out, declaring himself the winner of the match and leaving the championship vacant. ADeadly Gamestournament was scheduled forSurvivor Seriesin November, in which it turned out that The Rock, not Mankind, was McMahon's choice for winner and had the tournament manipulated to his advantage, while Austin lost in a match when McMahon's son Shane, acting as referee, refused to count a pinfall to go to the finals.Knowing Rock would be busy feuding with Mankind, McMahon realized Austin was likely to use the 1999 Royal Rumble, rather than a personal attack, to attempt to reclaim the belt and laid down the stipulation that he must win a Buried Alive match against The Undertaker to be in the Rumble. When he did, with some help from Kane,McMahon further tried to prevent Austin winning back the championship by \\\"randomly\\\" drawing him as the first entrant in the Rumble and drawing himself as the 30th. Having annoyed commissionerShawn Michaels, McMahon was placed into the match as the second entrant.\",\n \"the second entrant. McMahon would later try to incentivize other wrestlers to eliminate Austin by putting a $100,000 bounty on him during the Royal Rumble match. Despite this, Austin (and, for that matter, McMahon) managed to stay in the match to the very end, although this was mostly due to he and McMahon leaving the ring at various points to brawl around the arena. Late in the match The Rock, who earlier in the evening had regained the WWF Championship, came to the ring and started arguing with Austin. McMahon took advantage of the distraction and threw Austin over the top rope, thus winning the match. Since he was officially now the winner of the Royal Rumble, McMahon was entitled to face whoever the WWF Champion was at WrestleMania. On the following night's episode ofRaw, however, he announced that, since he was only a part-timer and the champion was a fellow Corporation member in The Rock, that he had filed paperwork relinquishing his WrestleMania championship opportunity and that he would be naming a\",\n \"would be naming a replacement later in the evening. To his chagrin, Austin and Michaels informed him shortly thereafter that, according to the rules, his actions resulted in Austin, as the runner-up in the Royal Rumble, taking his place. With McMahon irate, Austin revealed he was willing to put his place on the line and not headline WrestleMania if McMahon would give him the opportunity to fight him one on one with no interference from The Corporation; if McMahon could beat him, Austin would not go to WrestleMania. Their steel-cage match at St. Valentine's Day Massacre mostly consisted of McMahon running away, but eventually the two fought with Austin winning the match under unusual circumstances whenBig Showmade his debut, coming from under the ring and throwing Austin into the cage with the walls of it coming open, meaning that Austin had inadvertently won. Event (Brawl For All) Pre-show The event was marked with aRage Partythe preceding evening at thePennsylvania Convention Center, playing on the tagline\",\n \"on the tagline of the event, much likeFan Axessthat would come in later years. It included music fromIsaac Hayes,Big Pun, and theCherry Poppin' Daddies. During theSunday Night Heatpre-show, Jacqueline (Jacqueline Moore) pinned Ivory (Lisa Moretti) after a back suplex.After the match,Terri Runnelsburned her cigar into Ivory's cheek. The secondHeatmatch saw a 21-man battle royal match with the last two competitors becoming a tag team for the evening to face the Tag Team Championship holders. In the event,D'Lo Brownand Test (Andrew Martin) were the last two, still fighting without realizing the match was over when Droz (Darren Drozdov) and The Godfather (Charles Wright) eliminated each other.The show officially began withBoyz II Mensinging \\\"America the Beautiful\\\" in the ring before the opening video. Preliminary matches The inaugural WrestleMania Hardcore Championship match began with Al Snow striking Billy Gunn as he tried to make apre-match speech. With Gunn in the corner, Snow fought with Hardcore Holly\",\n \"with Hardcore Holly outside the ring, wrapping his neck in cable but, after some fighting from Gunn, Holly was able tosuplexSnow. After Gunn again interjected himself, Snow was able to go underneath the mat to find some weapons including aPhiladelphia Flyershockey stick much to the delight of the crowd. The match ended when Gunn put Snow through a table in the corner, originally intended for Gunn and then used theFameasseron Snow, driving him into a chair on the mat. As the referee counted, Holly struck Gunn with a weapon, quickly covering Snow to steal his second championship reign. TheWWF Tag Team Championshipmatch began withJeff Jarrettand D'Lo Brown exchanging running maneuvers before both tagging in their respective partners, at which point Test used apumphandle slamonOwen Hart, but tried again after a failed pin attempt only to be met with anenziguiriand then theSharpshooter. Brown came in illegally to break it up but was tagged in straight afterward, dominating both Hart and Jarrett with power slams\",\n \"with power slams and dropkicks, almost winning the match after aSky Highthat was broken up by Jarrett. RefereeJimmy Korderaswas distracted when Debra (Debra Marshall) came to the apron to distract Brown only to be pulled down by Ivory (Lisa Moretti), at which pointPMS(Terri RunnelsandJacqueline Moore) arrived and all of them began to fight while Test tried to pull them apart. With everyone distracted, Hartmissile dropkickedBrown allowing Jarrett to roll Brown up and sit on him, securing a pin count. The Brawl For All match began with the two meetings in the middle, Gunn running into some blows from Butterbean. The two traded punches, neither man managing to contact properly until Butterbean shook Gunn with a left-hand jab followed by a right hook which stunned Gunn allowing Bean to corner him, giving him another right hook which knocked him down. Gunn immediately came back upon his knees but took advantage of the eight seconds before standing up fully. As the fight resumed, Butterbean jabbed Gunn to the body\",\n \"Gunn to the body and followed with a clean overhand right which sent Gunn back to the canvas, giving Butterbean a victory via knockout.The match lasted a total of 34 seconds.This was followed with an appearance fromthe San Diego Chicken, who mocked special refereeVinny Pazienzaand was punched to the floor for it. On the WWF WrestleMania special onHSNlater during the pay per view, after the Shane McMahon match\\\"Dr. Death\\\" Steve Williamscut a promo on Bart Gunn in a backstage interview withJim Rossby his side, saying the Butterbean's punch \\\"wasn't lucky\\\" and that \\\"Bart deserved what he got\\\", telling the viewer to keep watching WWF because \\\"the Doctor hasn't finished his job yet\\\".This was in hopes of setting up an angle between Williams and Gunn, and to continue building Williams as a credible midcarder. However, because of Gunn being released, their feud instead carried over toAll Japan Pro Wrestlingin the early 2000s, where in Japan the Brawl For All was better received. When Mankind entered the ring he was\",\n \"the ring he was immediatelyheadbuttedout, but as Big Show followed him out, Mankind slammed Show's head into the steel steps. He then tried adouble-armed DDTinto the steps but was shoved over the steps falling backward. Show dominated Mankind in the ring afterward, using his sheer size to punch and throw Mankind, with Mankind eventually being tied up in the ropes, which allowed him to back body drop Show out of the ring. Mankind then took out Mr. Socko, a smelly gym sock, and stuffed the foul-smelling sock into the Big Show’s mouth with themandible clawthree times. The third claw came with alow blow, for which Mankind was not disqualified. When Show stood back up, he had Mankind on his back with the sock in his mouth and jumped backward so that his entire body landed on Mankind, breaking up the hold. As the two recovered, Show kicked his opponent out of the ring, grabbing a steel chair and thrusting it into Mankind's chest then hitting it over his back. Big Show threw that chair and another in the ring,\",\n \"in the ring, setting them both in seated positions andShow StoppingMankind through the middle of them. At this pointEarl Hebnerfinally decided to disqualify Big Show, with Show taking out his anger by attacking Mankind more with the chair. Mr. McMahon made his way to the ring afterward, berating Big Show for risking the WWF Championship match at which point Show grabbed him by the throat. He then thought better of it and released him, only to be met with another tirade from McMahon and a slap, causing Show to punch McMahon and knock him out. The four corners Intercontinental match began with Ken Shamrock and Road Dogg in the ring, with the latter being thrown from corner to corner until Goldust tagged his way in, with runningshoulder bargesthat floored Shamrock. Shamrock tagged in Venis who came in and instantly attacked Shamrock until Goldustbackdroppedhim. Goldust tried theCurtain Callbut Venis flipped over Goldust's back only to be knocked down again by aclotheslinefrom Goldust who then put Venis on the\",\n \"put Venis on the turnbuckle and attempted asuperplexbut Venis fought back and replied with adiving bulldogfollowing with afisherman suplex pinwhich would only make a two count. The two then collided in the turnbuckle, causing Goldust to fall down and Venis to fall on him, headbutting his crotch. Shamrock took a blind tag from Road Dogg, after he replaced Goldust, immediately putting anankle lockuntil Venis grabbed the bottom rope. As Venis grabbed the ropes to stand up again Shamrock charged him but was tossed over the ropes as Ryan Shamrock insulted him. Venis went after Ken Shamrock and the two fought up the walkway with Shamrock running back to the ring but not fast enough to avoid a double count-out. Shamrock, not accepting the decisionbelly to belly suplex slammedboth competitors before leaving. When they recovered Goldust Irish whipped Road Dogg but had it reversed and as Goldust ran into the ropes he had his leg caught by Ryan Shamrock, seemingly trying to grab Road Dogg's leg. Road Dogg charged\",\n \"Road Dogg charged Goldust and was picked up for apowerslambut managed to roll Goldust round, crashing him into the floor and covering him for a successful pin count. Before Kane's match with Triple H, Kane entered the ring only to be attacked while he was performing his signature entrance by the San Diego Chicken. Kane fought back and unmasked the chicken, revealing it to bePete Rose, trying to gain revenge for theprevious year's incidentbut receiving aTombstone piledriver.Triple H also tried to ambush Kane by coming through the crowd while all eyes were on the stage entrance, hitting Kane out of the ring and then hitting him into the ring post and whipping him into the steel steps. Kane then picked Triple H up and straddled him on the crowd barrier, pushing him into theMean Street Possewho were at ringside, picking him up again to ram his back into the steel post three times. Back inside the ring, Kane dominated Helmsley with his rough fighting style, using his foot to choke Triple H and knocking him down\",\n \"knocking him down with clotheslines and punches until Triple H gained momentum from a reversal, smashing Kane's face into his knee. Kane was allowed time to recover when Triple H was distracted by Chyna coming to ringside. Triple H tried toPedigreeKane as he stood up but failed while Chyna pushed the steel steps into the ring. Kane picked them up and ran into Triple H, who used the turnbuckle to swing his feet up and kicked them back into Kane causing Kane to stagger backward and drop them before smashing his face into the steps from adrop toe-hold. Triple H then clotheslined Kane out of the ring, following himself and attempting to Pedigree Kane on the steps but wasbackbody dropped. When they made it back into the ring Kane chokeslammed Triple H while Chyna entered the ring with a steel chair, telling Kane she wanted to attack Triple H, but as Kane turned, Chyna hit him with the chair, causing him to corner her but again was hit with the chair, this time by Triple H, who followed it up with a Pedigree onto\",\n \"a Pedigree onto the chair. Chyna and Triple H celebrated the reunion of D-Generation X afterwards. The Women's Championship match began with Tori taking her time to enter the ring, Sable grabbing her hair when she finally did and tossing her back out. Tori regrouped outside and pulled Sable out by her legs, ramming her face into the apron and the barricade. She was whipped into the barrier herself and as she recovered, Sable performed acrossbodyfrom the outside apron. Sable continuously assaulted Tori while down on the mat, but Tori delivered two vicious clotheslines to the corner on Sable, then attempted asunset flip pinwhich began a series of pinning reversals ending in a stalemate. Afterward Tori tried a running attack on Sable but took out referee Jimmy Korderas unwittingly. Sable then tried to perform herSable Bombbut Tori jumped out of it. As she tried to perform her own powerbomb, a muscled woman, later identified asNicole Bass, came into the ring togorilla press slamTori. This allowed Sable to Sable\",\n \"Sable to Sable Bomb Tori and pin her to retain the championship. Before X-Pac could make his way to the ringPat PattersonandGerald Briscoattacked him from behind but caused the little problem to X-Pac who beat them then ran into the ring, with Shane McMahon fleeing. Shane eventually made his way to the ring and was punched into the corner, escaping aBronco Busterwhen Test pulled him out of the ring. Shane tried to escape once again but X-Pac chased him and threw him back into the ring, only to be struck down by Test and then have his crotch rammed into the ring post. When he returned to the ring Shanescoop slammedhim and attempted aCorporate Elbow, with X-Pac sitting up just before the end but he was brought back down with a low blow as refereeMike Chiodawas distracted by Test. Shane continued to push the disqualification boundaries by whipping X-Pac with his belt several times before being back body dropped out of the ring, recovering only to be met with a flying crossbody. The Mean Street Posse tried to\",\n \"Posse tried to restrain X-Pac but he fought back, only to be floored by Test. After a superplex, the pin-count was broken up by Test but he was soon kicked out of the ring then X-Pac whipped McMahon with the belt before round house kicking him into the corner and performing the Bronco Buster. When Chioda checked on McMahon afterward, Test struck X-Pac with the championship belt but by the time McMahon covered him he managed to kick out. Test tried to interfere but took a Bronco Buster too. Triple H and Chyna came to the ring to pull Test out but when McMahon was floored by anX Factor, Chyna distracted the referee to allow Triple H to Pedigree X-Pac and cover him with Shane, turningheeland allowing him to retain the title. The New Age Outlaws ran to the ring and brawled with Triple H and Test until the lights went out and Kane's music began to play but by the time the lights came up The Corporation were clear of the ring and had fled. Main event matches The Hell in a Cell match began with Big Boss Man\",\n \"with Big Boss Man punching The Undertaker into the corner until he ducked out and returned the same. Although Boss Man was able to deliver aswinging neckbreaker, Undertaker took control again throwing Boss Man into the cell. Boss Man reversed an Irish whip and threw Undertaker into the cell too, handcuffing one hand to the chain fence. Boss Man taunted Undertaker's lack of control before striking him repeatedly with hisnight stickcausing Undertaker to fall to the floor and rip the handcuffs, though Boss Man carried on using the nightstick andcut Undertaker open. Undertaker fought back by grabbing Boss Man at the throat and throwing him back into the fence again, striking him with a chair and running Boss Man face-first into the chain fence with afireman's carry. As the two returned to the ring Boss Man tried to clothesline Undertaker but he ducked and performed aleaping flying clotheslineof his own before goingOld School, ultimately falling into the ropes. The two began a fistfight in the middle of the ring\",\n \"middle of the ring with Undertaker failing a tombstone piledriver attempt, but successfully performing it seconds later and pinned him afterwards.Undertaker stood up and looked to the heavens with his hands upwards, signalingThe Broodto descend onto the roof of the cell. They cut open the roof of the cell and passed through a noose, securing the other end to the top of the cell. The Brood then ascended back into the rafters as Undertaker put the noose around Boss Man's neck, with Paul Bearer causing the Cell to rise and take a hanging Boss Man with it.After the match a video package of theRage Partywas shown while Boss Man was taken down and carried off on a stretcher. Before the main event,Michael ColeannouncedJim Rossreturning to call the match. Mr. McMahon then came to the ring as the special guest referee but was confronted by CommissionerShawn Michaels, who explained that only the commissioner is entitled to appoint a referee for WrestleMania, ordering McMahon to the back and barring all members of The\",\n \"all members of The Corporation from ringside. The main event began with the two wrestlers insulting each other before Austin threw the first punch, The Rock instantly returning. The majority of the early part of the match took place outside the ring, with Austin being choked with a T-shirt then taking Rock through the crowd before returning into the secure area and into the crowd the opposite end. When Rock threw Austin back into the secure area he choked him on some cable and took him up the walkway, but Austin fought out of his grasp and threw him into the steel barriers, trying to piledrive him but being backbody dropped so that his knee landed onto light support girders. Rock picked up Austin and threw him into the WrestleMania XV sign but Austin circled round and threw Rock into them instead, then dragged him back towards the ring having a suplex reversed on the concrete walkway. Rock then tried to throw Austin back through the crowd at ringside, spitting water in his face but Austin took control and\",\n \"took control and put him onto the Spanish announce table, performing two elbow drops to break the table and then spat water into Rock's face. Austin threw his opponent into the ring, celebrating to the crowd but when he entered the ring Rock sprang up and drove Austin into the floor with aRock Bottom, following with an unsuccessful pin cover. The Rock grabbed a chair but Austin took it from him, Rock blocked the oncoming chair shot by pulling referee Mike Chioda in front of him, who took the chair shot. Rock then caught Austin by surprise with a swinging neckbreaker, taking the chair and driving it into Austin's back several times. After another pin attempt, withTim Whitenow officiating, Austin still kicked out and Rock used asitting chin holdto subdue him. After holding him for some time, Austin slowly stood up, elbowing Rock and attempting a running attack but was taken out with aSamoan drop, which Austin again kicked out of. The Rock took his frustration out on White, Rock Bottoming him,which gave Austin\",\n \"gave Austin the time to recover and attack the champion with aStone Cold Stunner, withEarl Hebnereventually coming in to officiate but only counting to two before Rock kicked out. Mr. McMahon came to the ring, distracting Austin while The Rock low-blowed him; the two men kicking away at Austin in the corner and punching Hebner when he tried to stop them. As the two double-teamed Austin, Mankind came running to the ring in his referee's uniform,throwing McMahon straight out the ring and taking over as referee. Austin tried a roll-up pin, following up with aLou Thesz Pressbut Rock soon took the advantage with another Rock Bottom. With Austin in the middle of the ring, The Rock tried theCorporate Elbowbut Austin moved out of the way at the last second. Rock caught Austin's foot and spun him around, trying to Rock Bottom him again but Austin elbowed him away and delivered a stunner, finally securing a pinfall and winning the WWF Championship. Reception The event was met with mixed critical response.Canadian\",\n \"response.Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event five out of 10 stars. The main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin for the WWF Championship was rated eight out of 10 stars; the Hell in a Cell match between The Undertaker and Big Boss Man was rated five out of 10 stars; the match between Shane McMahon and X-Pac for the WWF European Championship was rated seven out of 10 stars; the match between Sable and Tori for the WWF Women's Championship was rated one out of 10 stars; the match between Triple H and Kane was rated four out of 10 stars; the referee match between Mankind and Big Show was rated four out of 10; the four-corners elimination match for the WWF Intercontinental Championship between Road Dogg Jesse James, Ken Shamrock, Goldust, and Val Venis was rated five out of 10 stars; the tag team match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between D'Lo Brown and Test against Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett was rated three out of 10 stars; and the triple threat\",\n \"the triple threat match for the WWF Hardcore Championship between Hardcore Holly, Billy Gunn, and Al Snow was rated six out of 10 stars. Writing for 411Mania in 2009, Rob McNew gave the event a rating of 5.5/10, stating, \\\"Like mostAttitude Erashows this one doesn’t hold up very well ten years later\\\" though he praised the main event bout between Rock and Austin.Similarly, Scott Keith gave the event an overall negative rating, while calling the Rock vs. Austin match \\\"solid by default\\\" and complimenting Shane McMahon's performance given his lack of wrestling experience.In 2012,Bleacher Reportranked the event 25th out of the 27 Wrestlemanias to that point, calling the event \\\"underwhelming\\\" and criticizing theHell in a Cellmatch. Aftermath Stone Cold Steve Austin's feud with The Corporation continued after WrestleMania with Austin demanding the return of his customized smoking skull belt that was taken from him after losing the WWF Championship atBreakdown: In Your Housein 1998. WithThe Ministry of\",\n \"WithThe Ministry of Darknesscontinuing to threaten his family, Mr. McMahon was forced to comply with his nemesis' demands and requested his son Shane to deliver the belt to Austin. Shane, however, refused and took matters with Austin into his own hands by giving the smoking skull belt to The Rock. This culminated in a rematch between Austin and The Rock atBacklash 1999while McMahon served as a special guest referee. Austin defeated The Rock to retain the WWF Championship after Mr. McMahon prevented Shane from screwing him and handed the smoking skull belt back to Austin. The Ministry of Darkness continued their ongoing war with The Corporation with The Undertaker going after Mr. McMahon's daughterStephanie. The Undertaker continued to make sacrifices includingRyan Shamrockleading to a feud between Undertaker and Ken Shamrock who wanted revenge for Undertaker's actions to his family with Undertaker defeating Shamrock at Backlash: In Your House. When The Undertaker did successfully find Stephanie, Shamrock, in\",\n \"Shamrock, in his quest to get revenge on Undertaker, continued to beat down and interrogate members of The Ministry of Darkness for McMahon's whereabouts. AfterChristiantold Shamrock McMahon's whereabouts, Undertaker punished Christian by whipping him and have him face Crucifixion.EdgeandGangrel, who along with Christian were members of their own stableThe Broodand were loyal to Christian decided to rescue him, betraying The Ministry. The Ministry got revenge by defeating The Brood in a Six-Man Tag Team Match at Backlash. Bart Gunn would leave the WWF after his match against Butterbean. On theDark Side of the Ringepisode on theBrawl for All, Gunn said he felt his match against Butterbean was \\\"punishment\\\" for winning the Brawl and knocking out Steve \\\"Dr. Death\\\" Williams during the event (Williams suffered other injuries during the match) which was not what the bookers wanted (they wanted Williams to win to give him a push against \\\"Stone Cold\\\" Steve Austin). Gunn would not return to WWF TV until 2007. Nicole\",\n \"until 2007. Nicole Bass continued to accompany Sable to the ring and destroyed all competition for Sable's WWF Women's Championship. After HHH washed his hands of D-Generation X and joined Chyna in the Corporation, X-Pac teamed up with Kane to form an unlikely tag team, and captured the WWF Tag Team titles from Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett. The City of Philadelphia would later host the event again in2024with this time being held at the nearbyLincoln Financial Fieldin commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the event held in the city and the 40th anniversary of the WrestleMania. Results References External links\",\n \"WrestleMania X-Seven WrestleMania X-Seven(also known asWrestleMania 17) was the 17th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF). It took place on April 1, 2001, at theReliant AstrodomeinHouston, Texas. It was the first WrestleMania held in thestateofTexas. Twelve matches were contested at the event, including one broadcast exclusively on theSunday Night Heatpre-show. Themain eventwas aNo Disqualification matchbetweenThe Rockand\\\"Stone Cold\\\" Steve Austinfor theWWF Championship. TheundercardincludedTriple HversusThe Undertaker, the secondTables, Ladders, and Chairs matchfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipand aStreet FightbetweenVince McMahonandShane McMahonwithMick Foleyas special guest referee. A record-breaking attendance for the Reliant Astrodome of 67,925 grossedUS$3.5 million.Many in professional wrestling considered WrestleMania X-Seven to be the pinnacle of the company's famousAttitude Era, similar to howWrestleMania IIIwas the pinnacle of the\",\n \"the pinnacle of the 80's wrestling boom. The WWF bought out rival competitionWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) the week prior. In addition to its commercial success, the event has received acclaim from critics and fans, and is often regarded as the greatest WrestleMania of all time, and the greatest professional wrestling pay-per-view event ever produced. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) first flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \\\"Big Four\\\",and was considered one of the \\\"Big Five\\\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania 17, stylized as WrestleMania X-Seven, was scheduled to be held on April 1, 2001, at theReliant AstrodomeinHouston, Texas, the first\",\n \"Texas, the first WrestleMania held in thestateofTexas. Storylines The main feud leading into WrestleMania X-Seven involved\\\"Stone Cold\\\" Steve AustinchallengingThe Rockfor theWWF Championship.The Rock and \\\"Stone Cold\\\" Steve Austin had fought for the WWF Championship atWrestleMania XVandBacklashin 1999. Stone Cold Steve Austin earned his opportunity to compete for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania X-Seven by winning the2001 Royal Rumblematch when he last eliminatedKane, while The Rock became the first ever six-time WWF Champion when he defeatedKurt AngleatNo Way Out.During their feud, Austin's wifeDebra, who was trying to get back into managing, was ordered by WWF chairman,Vince McMahon, to be The Rock's manager against her wishes as well as both Rock and Austin's. As a result, Austin would hold The Rock and McMahon responsible if any harm came to her. On the March 12 episode ofRaw is War, The Rock was placed in an overlongAnkle Lockhold during his rematch with Kurt Angle. When Debra went to check on The\",\n \"to check on The Rock, Angle also placed her into an Ankle Lock hold. Austin soon ran in to save her and knocked Angle out of the ring. Keeping to his word, he immediately gave The Rock aStone Cold Stunneras punishment. The following week on Raw is War, during a handicap tag team match involving The Rock,Chris Jericho,Kurt Angle,Chris Benoit, andWilliam Regal, Austin made his way down to the ring and ended up getting a Rock Bottom from The Rock in response to the stunner from the previous week. On the March 29 episode ofSmackDown!, Debra was relieved from her managerial role by Mr. McMahon after failing to prevent a brawl between Rock and Austin. The secondary feud leading into the event pittedThe Brothers of Destruction(The UndertakerandKane) againstTriple HandThe Big Show. After defeating \\\"Stone Cold\\\" Steve Austin in aThree Stages of Hellmatch at No Way Out, Triple H felt that he deserved to be in the WrestleMania main event having defeated everyone in the WWF, including The Rock and Austin.The Undertaker\",\n \"Undertaker took exception to that and told him that Triple H had never defeated him. Before WrestleMania X-Seven, the two had never faced each other in a one-on-one match on a pay-per-view event.During his entrance for aHardcore Championshipmatch against The Big Show, Triple H ambushed Undertaker. Kane ran in and saved the Undertaker from a further attack but was met with his own ambush by The Big Show. On the following episode ofSmackDown!, Undertaker tried to break into the limousine of Triple H and his wife,Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, on arrival but ended up being arrested by the police. As a result, Kane requested a match against Triple H later that night but lost when The Big Show interfered on behalf of Triple H. In retaliation, Kane interfered in The Big Show's Hardcore Championship match againstRavenonRaw is War, helping Raven pin Big Show to become the new Hardcore Champion. Undertaker's arrest led to a restraining order from Stephanie. To circumvent this, the Brothers of Destruction interfered in\",\n \"interfered in Triple H's match againstTest, with Kane ordered to run after Stephanie. With Stephanie held at ransom by Kane on a balcony in the arena, WWF commissionerWilliam Regalgave Undertaker and Kane matches at WrestleMania against Triple H and The Big Show respectively and the Undertaker told Kane to put her down. After being attacked during a Hardcore Championship title defense, Regal would later include Raven into Kane and Big Show's match, making it a Triple Threat Hardcore match for the Hardcore Championship. Another major feud that was built up in the lead to WrestleMania was the one involving Vince McMahon and his sonShane McMahon. The feud started with Vince's disapproval ofMick Foley's job as then-WWF commissioner as well as Foley's decision of holding a six-manHell in a Cellmatch atArmageddon 2000, taking into consideration about the well-being of the wrestlers involved in the match. Despite his attempts Foley was given full support byLinda McMahon, Vince's wife and the WWF's CEO. Not pleased\",\n \"CEO. Not pleased with this result, Vince immediately demanded a divorce from Linda. Shortly after Armageddon, secretly to Vince's delight, it was revealed Linda was rushed to hospital suffering with a nervous breakdown. With Linda hospitalized, the Board of Directors appointed Vince as the new CEO of the WWF, allowing him to fire Foley as commissioner. With Linda in acoma-like state, Vince started to have a public affair withTrish Stratus. Vince's daughter, Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, was at first far from pleased about the turn of events. AtNo Way Out, Stephanie and Trish squared off, with Stephanie scoring the victory after arun-inby William Regal. On the February 26 episode ofRaw is War, however, during a match that placed Vince and Trish against Stephanie and William Regal, Stratus was turned on by the other participants in the match and had sewage dumped over her. In the following shows, Vince continued to demean Trish by having her do such actions as bark like a dog around the ring and stripping down\",\n \"and stripping down to her lingerie. Despite this, Trish remained loyal to Vince and begged for his forgiveness. On the March 12 episode ofRaw is War, Shane McMahon made his return to the WWF. Angry with his father's actions, Shane started to throw punches at Vince only to be stopped by William Regal. Shane explained his actions on the following episode ofSmackDown!as a result of frustrations over the manipulation of his sister, his mother's state and Vince's treatment of Trish. On March 23, World Wrestling Federation Entertainment, Inc. purchased the assets of their longtime rival promotion,World Championship Wrestling(WCW) fromAOL Time Warner.With it, the purchase brought in an extra twist to the storyline. On the March 26 episode ofRaw is War(which was held atGund ArenainCleveland, Ohio), Vince McMahon made a live speech that was alsosimulcaston the final episode ofWCW Monday Nitro(which was held inPanama City Beach, Florida). In the speech, Vince announced that the signing was not final and that he\",\n \"final and that he wantedTed Turnerto come to WrestleMania to hand-deliver the contract for signing. He then promised that with the purchase he was going to bury his rival forever. However, Shane, who was at the venue forNitro, interrupted the speech and said: Because, dad, the deal is finalized... with WCW, and the name on the contract does say \\\"McMahon\\\". However, the contract reads \\\"Shane McMahon\\\". That's right! I now own WCW! And, dad, just likeWCW did in the past, how it kicked your ass in the pastand it will again, that's exactly what's going to happen to you this Sunday at WrestleMania! Oh my god! I don't believe it! I do not believe what we heard.Shane McMahon has bought WCW, and Mr. McMahon is in absolute shock! -Jim Ross,play-by-play commentatorfor theRaw is Warepisode before the event. To make matters worse for Vince, Mick Foley appeared shortly afterward that night and revealed that prior to his firing, Linda had made multiple contracts for him to sign, one of them was for Foley to referee a match\",\n \"to referee a match of his choice at WrestleMania. Foley then chose the match between Vince and Shane, which was designated astreet fight. At theRoyal Rumble, Chyna (kayfabe) injured her neck during a match with Ivory, causing her to lose the match and fail to capture the Women's Championship. In order for Chyna to again challenge for the title, Ivory required the match contract to include a \\\"hold harmless\\\" clause, stating that if Ivory injures Chyna's neck again, there could be no legal recourse against Ivory. In doing so, the contract also included a provision to ban Ivory'sRight To Censor(RTC) stablemates from ringside. Event Before the event airedliveon pay-per-view, aSunday Night Heatmatch was aired withSteve BlackmanandGrand Master Sexaysquaring off againstX-FactormembersX-PacandJustin Credible. Near the end of the match, fellow X-Factor memberAlbertinterfered by pulling Sexay out of the ring, allowing X-Pac and Credible to hit theirX Marks the Spotfinisher on Blackman for the win. The first match of\",\n \"The first match of the event was theWWF Intercontinental Championshipmatch betweenChris Jerichoand WWF commissionerWilliam Regal. During the match, Regal exposed one of the top turnbuckles to throw Jericho's shoulder into it before giving him adouble underhooksuperplex. Jericho attempted theWalls of Jerichosubmission hold but had it reversed into aRegal Stretch. After Jericho managed to grab a ring rope to break the hold, he retaliated with numerouschopsbefore throwing Regal into the exposed turnbuckle and finishing him off with aLionsaultto retain the Intercontinental Championship. TazzandThe APA(BradshawandFaarooq) took onRight to Censor(The Goodfather,Val Venis, andBull Buchanan) next in a short match that ended with Bradshaw pinning the Goodfather after aClothesline from Hell. The third match was thetriple threathardcore matchbetweenRaven,KaneandThe Big Showfor theWWF Hardcore Championship. Raven came out with a shopping cart full of weapons. Kane and Raven began fighting before Big Show made his\",\n \"Big Show made his entrance. During the match, the three wrestlers fought their way out of the ring and through the crowd into the backstage area. Big Show tried to lock himself, Raven and the referee in a security cage but Kane broke the padlock and afterward threw Raven through a glass window. Big Show and Kane continued to brawl ending with the two throwing each other through a wall. Raven tried to escape by driving off in agolf cart, but Big Show stopped him and caused him to crash. The golf cart also ran over some cords that allegedly almost knocked the power out of the building. Kane shortly followed with another golf cart, accompanied by the referee, and ran into Raven. The fight headed back into the stadium with Big Show attempting to press slam Raven off the entrance stage but both were kicked off it by Kane. Kane followed this with a divingleg dropoff the stage onto Big Show, pinning him to become the new Hardcore Champion. The fourth match was theWWF European Championshipmatch betweenTestandEddie\",\n \"betweenTestandEddie Guerrero. During the match, Test went over the top rope but got his foot caught between the top two ropes, forcing the referee and Guerrero to have to untangle him. With the help of his fellowRadicalzmembersDean MalenkoandPerry Saturn, Guerrero hit Test in the face with the European Championship belt while the referee was distracted and pinned him to become the new champion. The fifth match pittedKurt AngleagainstChris Benoit. The match started with mat wrestling between the two but Angle soon punched Benoit out of frustration and threw him out of the ring, so he could throw him into the broadcast table and the steel steps. Back in the ring, both men tried to submit their opponent using the other's signature hold with Benoit using theankle lockon Angle, and Angle using theCrippler Crossfaceon Benoit. Benoit eventually succeeded in forcing Angle to tap out to the Crippler Crossface but the referee was knocked down and didn't see it. Near the end of the match, Benoit tried to pin Angle\",\n \"tried to pin Angle after adiving headbuttbut was met with a two-count. Angle then quicklyrolled-upBenoit, using the tights for leverage to win the match. The following match sawChynachallenge theWWF Women's ChampionIvory. After an early bit of offense from Ivory, Chyna performed aChynabomband looked to have the pinfall, but picked Ivory up after the 2-count. Chyna then performed agorilla press dropand nonchalantly pinned Ivory to win the Women's Championship. The seventh match was thestreet fightbetweenShane McMahonandVince McMahonwithMick Foleyas the special guest referee. Shane dominated his father during the earlier part of the match by attacking him with various weapons such as a kendo stick and monitors from the Spanish broadcast table. Shane laid Vince on said table and performed adiving elbow dropoff the top rope but his sister,Stephanie, pulled Vince out of the way, causing Shane to crash through it.Trish Stratuscame towards the ring, pushingLinda McMahonout in a wheelchair, and then slapped Vince,\",\n \"then slapped Vince, causing her and Stephanie to get into a fight that led them out of the stadium. As referee Foley tried to wheel Linda out to safety, Vince hit him with a steel chair, and then pulled Linda into the ring to make her watch as he beat down Shane with a garbage can. However, Linda stood up and low-blowed Vince, allowing Foley to recover and attack him. With Vince prone in the corner, Shane placed a garbage can in front of Vince's face and hit aCoast-to-Coastdropkick, pinning his father to win the match. The eighth match, dubbed \\\"TLC II\\\",was theTables, Ladders, and Chairs matchfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipbetween theHardy Boyz,Edge and Christianand theDudley Boyz, the defending champions. Respective associates of each tag team,Spike Dudleyfor the Dudley Boyz,Rhynofor Edge and Christian, andLitafor the Hardy Boyz, interfered during the match. With Spike (who had just taken a chair shot to the head from Lita) and Rhyno (who had already been dispatched by Jeff Hardy) both laying on two tables\",\n \"on two tables outside the ring,Jeff Hardyset up a huge ladder beside them and performed aSwanton Bombonto them through the tables with most of his body landing on Spike, taking him out of the match. Lita was taken out of the match whenBubba RayandD-Von Dudleyperformed a 3-D on her. Jeff tried to unhook the belts but had the ladder beneath him pulled away by Bubba Ray, leaving him hanging in the air, and allowingEdgeto jump off another ladder andspearJeff to the ground at a height of 12 feet. Bubba Ray andMatt Hardyclimbed the same ladder but Rhyno tipped the ladder over, sending Bubba Ray and Matt through four stacked tables at ringside and taking them out of the match. D-Von then set the ladder up again and attempted to grab the titles, but was held back by Edge. With Edge holding onto D-Von's legs,Christiansat on Rhyno's shoulders as he climbed up the ladder and unhooked the belts, making him and Edge the new Tag Team Champions. A total of 9 tables were destroyed in this match, and every performer involved\",\n \"performer involved except D-Von and Lita went through at least one table. The ninth match was agimmick battle royal, involving nineteen WWF alumni famous for their outlandishgimmicks. To further increase the nostalgia, former announcers\\\"Mean Gene\\\" OkerlundandBobby \\\"The Brain\\\" Heenanhandled commentary for the match.The Iron Sheikwon the match by throwingHillbilly Jimout of the ring. In revenge for being eliminated,Sgt. Slaughterreentered the ring and put him in theCobra Clutch. The penultimate match was betweenThe UndertakerandTriple H. For his entrance, Triple H had Britishheavy metalbandMotörheadperform his theme song,\\\"The Game\\\", live. The match started with the two fighting outside of the ring with Triple H quickly being put through the replacement Spanish announcers' table. Later on, refereeMike Chiodaaccidentally had Triple Hcatapultedinto him and was then attacked by Undertaker due to his dissatisfaction over a two-count. With Chioda knocked out, the two brawled outside the ring, through the crowd, and\",\n \"the crowd, and into the technical area. On top of scaffolding, Triple H used a steel chair to attack Undertaker's legs, but Undertaker retaliated with achokeslamoff the scaffolding, followed by a diving elbow drop. Back in the ring, Undertaker hit Triple H with aTombstone piledriverand went for the pin but Chioda was still unconscious. Later in the match, Triple H tried to pin Undertaker after hitting him in the head with asledgehammerwhile in theLast Rideposition but only gained a two-count. Triple H sent Undertaker into the corner and stood on the second rope to hit him with more punches, but Undertaker countered with a Last Ride, allowing him to pin Triple H and increase his WrestleMania winning streak to 9–0. The final contest of the night was theWWF Championshipmatch betweenThe RockandStone Cold Steve Austin, which had a surpriseno disqualificationstipulation added just before the superstars were introduced. During the match, the two brawled inside and outside of the ring, with both men bleeding after\",\n \"men bleeding after hitting each other with the ring bell. The Rock attempted to place Austin in aSharpshooterhold, but Austin reversed it into a Sharpshooter of his own. After Rock reached the ropes to force a break, Austin applied theMillion Dollar Dream, a submission hold best known from his former gimmick, The Ringmaster. Shortly after, Rock used Austin's own finishing maneuver on Austin by executing aStunner. Vince McMahon then came to ringside to observe the match. When Rock tried to pin Austin after thePeople's Elbow, McMahon seized Rock's leg and pulled him off Austin, breaking the pin attempt. After chasing McMahon around the ring, Austin responded by using Rock's signature move, theRock Bottom. Later, Rock executed a Rock Bottom for a near fall. After Rock attacked McMahon, he was given a Stunner by Austin for a near fall. After Rock kicked out of the Stunner, McMahon handed Austin a steel chair to hit Rock with at Austin's request, revealing that Austin had sided with McMahon, a man he once\",\n \"a man he once considered hisnemesis. With this, Austin turnedheel.Austin attacked him with the steel chair, hitting him sixteen times, before pinning him and becoming the new WWF Champion. The show ended with Austin and McMahon shaking hands and sharing beers. Reception and legacy The event was met with universal acclaim from fans and critics alike. John Powell ofCanadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section rated the event a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, with the main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin in a No Disqualification Match for the WWF Championship rated 10 out of 10 stars. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boyz, Edge and Christian, and The Dudley Boyz also received a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, the Street Fight between Vince and Shane McMahon rated 7 out of 10 stars, the match between Triple H and The Undertaker rated 6 out of 10 stars and the match between Kurt Angle and Chris Benoit rated 8 out of 10 stars. X-Seven\",\n \"10 stars. X-Seven was also awardedBest Major Showfor 2001 byDave Meltzer's Wrestling Observer Newsletter. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boys, Edge and Christian and The Dudley Boyz was also placed #5 onIGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History and noted that the match included \\\"some of the most memorable bumps wrestling fans have ever witnessed.\\\"D-Von Dudleyexpressed his belief that the match should be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame, stating: \\\"In my opinion, I think that we should — you know, then.W.ogot inducted into the Hall of Fame and those guys were already in it. How about a TLC induction? How about recognizing how special that match was? Because think about it, not only was the match special, but they actually nameda pay-per-viewafter it. So, you know, it has some relevance to it to be special, so why not put that match in the Hall of Fame?\\\"Matt Hardysaid it was his favorite career TLC match. In 2013, WWE released a list of\",\n \"released a list of their \\\"15 best pay-per-views ever\\\", with WrestleMania X-Seven ranked at number one.In 2019, Troy L. Smith ofcleveland.comreleased a list of the \\\"50 greatest wrestling pay-per-views of all time\\\" from every professional wrestling promotion in the world, with WrestleMania X-Seven again ranked at number one. The promotional match preview video package for the main event, set toLimp Bizkit's \\\"My Way\\\", is widely considered one of the greatest wrestling video packages of all time. Aftermath The following night onRaw, Austin and The Rock faced each other in a rematch held in asteel cagewhich Triple H entered the cage and teased a fight with Austin before turning on The Rock. For several minutes Austin, Triple H, and Vince McMahon triple-teamed the outnumbered Rock forging an alliance with Triple H and Austin calledThe Two-Man Power Trip.The Rock was written out of the WWF's storylines with McMahon giving him asuspension. This allowed The Rock time off to begin filmingThe Scorpion King.The Rock\",\n \"King.The Rock returned on the edition of July 30 ofRawand chose to fight for Team WWF overTeam WCW/ECW. Three weeks later atSummerSlam, The Rock won his firstWCW Championshipby defeatingBooker T. The Rock and Austin would face each other again atWrestleMania XIXin a rematch with The Rock winning. Following The Rock's suspension, Triple H's feud with the Brothers of Destruction continued with Austin now on his side. On the edition of April 5, 2001, ofSmackDown!, Triple H challengedIntercontinental ChampionChris Jericho for his title and after interference from CommissionerWilliam Regaland his wife Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley defeated Jericho to win his third Intercontinental Championship.The feud with Undertaker and Kane was temporarily put on hold after Triple H and Austin entered a brief rivalry with the Hardy Boyz, which resulted in Jeff Hardy beating Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship the following week and Triple H promptly regaining the title the next Monday onRaw. Meanwhile, the Brothers of\",\n \"the Brothers of Destruction defeated Edge and Christian to become the newWWF Tag Team Championson the edition of April 19, 2001, ofSmackDown!in a no-disqualification match. Austin and Triple H decided to challenge Undertaker and Kane for their newly won titles, but due to some wrangling by Linda McMahon the match between the teams signed forBacklashforced the two to put up their singles titles against the tag team titles in a \\\"winner-take-all\\\" match. Triple H scored the pin after attacking Kane with his sledgehammer and the Power Trip became the second team in WWF history to hold both major singles titles and the tag team titles at the same time.The feud came to a climax atJudgment Daywhen Austin defeated Undertaker to retain the WWF Championship while Kane defeated Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship.The next night Austin and Triple H lost the tag team titles to Chris Jericho and Chris Benoit; during the course of the match Triple H tore his quadriceps tendon and would miss the remainder of the\",\n \"remainder of the year, leaving Austin to feud with the tag team champions alone.The feud culminated in a Triple Threat Match atKing of the Ring, where Austin pinned Benoit to retain the WWF Championship. Ten years later in 2011, Undertaker and Triple H would once again renew their rivalry, went on to face each other in a rematch atWrestleMania XXVIIwith The Undertaker defeating HHH via submission, to set his WrestleMania winning streak to 19–0. A year later, they faced each other a third time atWrestleMania XXVIIIin a Hell in a Cell match withShawn Michaelsas the special guest referee. The Undertaker once again won the match to extend his WrestleMania winning streak to 20–0. Due to the acquisition of WCW, Vince's feud with Shane would later spiral intoThe Invasionstoryline that dominated the WWF in the latter half of the year. It consisted of WCW wrestlers \\\"invading\\\" the WWF's televised shows in an attempt to \\\"take over\\\" the WWF. TheExtreme Championship Wrestling(ECW) promotion would also be involved with\",\n \"be involved with Stephanie as its new owner, merging WCW and ECW intoThe Alliance. Despite giving her own demands for a divorce shortly after WrestleMania, Linda would eventually reconcile with Vince in the wake of the Alliance's threat to the WWF. Shane McMahon's next feud would involveKurt Angleas he would crash Angle's Olympic Gold Medal Ceremony reenactment on the May 21 edition ofRaw. Angle was celebrating the return of his Gold Medal from Chris Benoit which he won back the previous night atJudgment Day. Shane mocked him while declaring the return of WCW, and he got an Angle slam for his efforts. Shane would return the favor on the June 11 edition ofRawwith an assist from The Undertaker. The two would eventually meet in astreetfightat King of the Ring, which was the third of three matches for Kurt Angle on the night. The other two matches were the Semifinals and Final of the King of the Ring tournament which Angle was the defending champion. He would lose to Edge thanks to interference from Shane.\",\n \"from Shane. Following King of the Ring, Edge let success go to his head and this led to Christian becoming jealous of Edge's success. They would break up on the September 3, 2001, edition ofRawfollowing Christian's loss to The Rock in a WCW title match. After a brief feud for the WWF Intercontinental Championship, both would go on to become successful singles wrestlers in their own right with Edge being best known as the \\\"Rated R Superstar.\\\" This would be the only WrestleMania forPaul Heymanas a commentator. However he has served in a variety of roles for the WWE for the better part of the time since, including creative team member and manager of his longtime friend and clientBrock Lesnar. Results References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":395,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"As of August 2, 2024, what is the title of the most viewed episode in the second most viewed season of the TV show that Zooey Deschanel stars in as a character named \"Jess Day\"?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"The most viewed episode of the second season (second most viewed) is its first episode, \"Re-Launch\". "},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooey_Deschanel"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Girl#Episodes"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Girl_episodes#Season_2_(2012%E2%80%9313)"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooey_Deschanel', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Girl#Episodes', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Girl_episodes#Season_2_(2012%E2%80%9313)']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooey_Deschanel","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Girl#Episodes","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Girl_episodes#Season_2_(2012%E2%80%9313"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooey_Deschanel\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Girl#Episodes\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Girl_episodes#Season_2_(2012%E2%80%9313\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Zooey Deschanel Zooey Claire Deschanel(/ˈzoʊiˌdeɪʃəˈnɛl/ZO-ee day-shə-NEL; born January 17, 1980) is an American actress and musician. She made her film debut inMumford(1999) and had a supporting role inCameron Crowe's filmAlmost Famous(2000). Deschanel is known for herdeadpanroles in comedy films such asThe Good Girl(2002),The New Guy(2002),Elf(2003),The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy(2005),Failure to Launch(2006),Yes Man(2008),500 Days of Summer(2009), andOur Idiot Brother(2011).She has also ventured into dramatic film territory withManic(2001),All the Real Girls(2003),Winter Passing(2005),Bridge to Terabithia(2007),The Happening(2008), andThe Driftless Area(2015).From 2011 to 2018, she starred asJess Dayon theFoxsitcomNew Girl, for which she received nominations for aPrimetime Emmy Awardand threeGolden Globe Awards. For a few years starting in 2001, Deschanel performed in thejazzcabaretactIf All the Stars Were Pretty Babieswith actressSamantha Shelton.In 2006, Deschanel teamed up withM. Wardto formShe & Him, and subsequently released their debut album,Volume One, in 2008. They have since released six albums:Volume Two(2010),A Very She & Him Christmas(2011),Volume 3(2013),Classics(2014),Christmas Party(2016), andMelt Away: A Tribute to Brian Wilson(2022). She received aGrammy Awardnomination forBest Song Written for Visual Mediafor \"So Long\", which was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 filmWinnie the Pooh. Besides singing, she plays keyboards, percussion, banjo, and ukulele. Deschanel is also a co-founder of the female-focused websiteHelloGiggles, which was acquired byTime Inc.in 2015. Early life Zooey Claire Deschanel was born in Los Angeles, California on January 17, 1980,the younger daughter of cinematographer and directorCaleb Deschaneland actressMary Jo Deschanel(née Weir). Her paternal grandfather was French, fromOullins, Rhône, and her paternal grandmother came from aQuakerfamily; she also has Swiss, Dutch, English, Irish, and other French ancestry.She was named afterZooey Glass, the protagonist ofJ. D. Salinger's 1961 novellaFranny and Zooey.Her older sister is actressEmily Deschanel, who starred in the Fox crime comedy-drama seriesBones. Deschanel lived in Los Angeles, but spent much of her childhood traveling because her father shot films on location. She later said that she: ... hated all the traveling... I'm really happy now that I had the experience, but at the time I was just so miserable to have to leave my friends in Los Angeles and go to places where they didn't have any food I liked or things I was used to. She attendedCrossroads, a private preparatory school in Santa Monica, where she befriended future co-starsJake GyllenhaalandKate Hudson.She sang throughout high school, planning to pursue a career in musical theatre and attendingFrench Woods Festival of the Performing Arts.She attendedNorthwestern Universityfor nine months before dropping out to pursue acting. Acting career 1997–2002: Early acting credits Deschanel had a guest appearance on the television seriesVeronica's Closetin 1998. She made her film debut inLawrence Kasdan's comedyMumford(1999), revolving around the neurotic residents in a small town and co-starringHope Davis,Jason Lee,Alfre WoodardandMary McDonnell. That same year, she appeared in a non-singing role in the music video forThe Offspring's single \"She's Got Issues\", which premiered on September 27, 1999.Deschanel was a judge for the ninth Independent Music Awards.In 2005, she modeled forChanelandClements Ribeiro, and in 2010, she signed to representRimmel. Deschanel co-starred inCameron Crowe's semi-autobiographicalAlmost Famous(2000), where she played Anita Miller, the rebellious older sister of a teenage journalist. Despite a modest box office response, the film received critical praise,winning theGolden Globe Award for Best Film – Musical or Comedy. Deschanel appeared in the independent dramaManic(2001), as the love interest of a troubled teen (Joseph Gordon-Levitt). The film was screened at theSundance Film Festivaland received a limited theatrical release.The New York Timesfound Deschanel to be \"particularly spontaneous, unaffected and emotionally direct\" in her role. Following early notice, Deschanel took on supporting parts in four feature films released throughout 2002:Big Trouble,The New Guy,The Good Girl, andAbandon. In the comedyBig Trouble, withTim AllenandRene Russo, she played the daughter of a devoted and reluctant woman, and in the teen comedyThe New Guy, starred as a guitar player in a band. Deschanel portrayed a cynical, plain-spoken young woman working in abig-box storein the black dramedyThe Good Girl, oppositeJennifer AnistonandJake Gyllenhaal. The psychological thrillerAbandonsaw her play the roommate of a woman involved in her boyfriend's disappearance. Deschanel also made a one-episode appearance inFrasier, as Roz's out-of-control Cousin, Jen.The New York Timesreported that Deschanel was \"one of Hollywood's most sought-after young stars\",in 2002, and theLos Angeles Timeswrote in early 2003 that Deschanel had become a recognizabletype, due to \"her deadpan, sardonic and scene-stealing performances\" as the protagonist's best friend.Deschanel objected to her typecasting, arguing, \"A lot of these roles are just a formula idea of somebody's best friend, and it's like, I don't even have that many friends. In high school, I stayed home all the time, so I don't know how I'm everybody's best friend now.\" 2003–2010: Breakthrough Deschanel obtained her first leading film role debut in the independent dramaAll the Real Girls(2003) as Noel, a sexually curious 18-year-oldvirginwho has a life-changing romance with an aimless 22-year-old. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and was an arthouse success. Her performance received wide critical acclaim,andVarietyremarked: \"Performances are all credible and naturalistic, but standing out from the rest is Deschanel's work, which evinces an impressively direct connection to her character's emotions. The actress does a wonderful job presenting a young woman who is trying, with varying degrees of success, to give voice to all sorts of things she has never felt or expressed before\".She received anIndependent Spirit Awardnomination forBest Actress.Also in 2003, Deschanel starred oppositeWill Ferrellin the Christmas comedyElfas a deadpan department store worker and the love interest of a man raised by Santa's elves.Reviewers found the film to be a \"spirited, good-natured family comedy\" as part of an overall positive critical response;and, budgeted at US$33 million,Elfmade US$220.4 million worldwide. In 2004, Deschanel starred inEulogy, and in 2005 playedTrillianin the film adaptation ofDouglas Adams's science fiction novelThe Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. She acted inWinter Passing(2005), co-starring Will Ferrell. Deschanel next appeared inFailure to Launch(2006), as the neurotic roommate ofSarah Jessica Parker's character. She also had a recurring role in four episodes of theShowtimetelevision seriesWeedsfrom 2006 to 2007 where she played Kat,Andy Botwin's ex-girlfriend. In September 2006, it was announced that Deschanel had signed on to play 1960s singerJanis Joplinin the filmThe Gospel According to Janis, to be co-written and directed byPenelope Spheeris.The film was scheduled to begin shooting in 2006, but was then postponed indefinitely;it was then resurrected again, with a planned release date of 2012, before being cancelled altogether in 2011. Deschanel expressed frustration with the cancellation, saying she had spent three years working on imitating Joplin's scratchy singing voice. In 2007, Deschanel played a music teacher inBridge to Terabithia, and the voice of a penguin in the animated filmSurf's Up. She had a small role as Dorothy Evans in therevisionist WesternThe Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Fordand starred in theBcomedyFlakes, which was released in only one theater.Deschanel starred as DG in theSyfyminiseriesTin Man, a re-imagined science fiction version ofThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz. It aired in December 2007. Deschanel also narrated the children's bookPlayers in Pigtails.She voiced Mary,Cletus's daughter in three episodes ofThe Simpsonssince debuting on the April 27, 2008, episode, \"Apocalypse Cow\". InM. Night Shyamalan's thrillerThe Happening(2008), she starred oppositeMark Wahlbergas a couple trying to escape from an inexplicable natural disaster. Despite largely negative reviews, criticRoger Ebertfelt that Wahlberg and Deschanel's performances \"bring a quiet dignity to their characters\",and globally, the film made US$163 million.She starred in the independent comedyGigantic(2008), which screened at theToronto International Film Festivaland was distributed for a limited release in certain parts of the United States only. In the comedyYes Man(also 2008), she played an unorthodox singer and the girlfriend ofJim Carrey's character.The film grossed US$223.1 million around the world. Deschanel reunited with Joseph Gordon-Levitt in the independent romantic drama about the development and demise of a relationship(500) Days of Summer(2009).The film garnered critical acclaim and became a \"sleeper hit\", earning over $60 million in worldwide returns, far exceeding its $7.5 million budget.Mark Adams of theDaily Mirrorfound the film to be a \"modern romance for grown-ups\" and a \"sweet-natured, funny, deeply-romantic tale\" blessed with \"top-notch performances by Deschanel and Gordon-Levitt, who are both charming and have real chemistry\".In December 2009, Deschanel guest-starred in a Christmas episode of theFoxcrime procedural comedy-dramaBones, which was the first-ever on-screen pairing of the Deschanel sisters. Since 2010:New Girland other projects Deschanel was originally the top choice forJanet van Dyne / The Waspin an early draft ofJoss Whedon'sThe Avengersin which she would have played a prominent role. However, onceScarlett Johanssonwas cast asNatasha Romanoff / Black Widow, Deschanel was no longer in consideration to portray the Wasp with Janet's daughter Hope van Dyne taking up the mantle in theInfinity Saga, played byEvangeline Lilly.Deschanel starred in the comedyOur Idiot Brother(2011) as the independent and bisexual sister of a dimwitted but idealistic man (Paul Rudd). The production was screened at theSundance Film Festival, to a generally positive critical reception.She played Belladonna in the stoner fantasy-comedyYour Highness(2011), withDanny McBrideandJames Franco.The film received negative reviews andbombed at the box office.Describing her role, Roger Ebert noted in its review for the film: \" brought onstage, quickly kidnapped by an evil sorcerer, spends a good deal of time as a captive in his lair, is rescued and lives happily ever after. She might as well be a mannequin, for all she's given to say and do. This intelligent, nuanced actress, standing there baffled. Used as a placeholder\". Deschanel signed on to star as a bubbly and offbeat teacherJessica \"Jess\" Dayon theFoxsitcomNew Girl, created byElizabeth Meriwether. She became a producer on the show and helped build the character,which she has described as a part of her, especially in regards to \"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\" of her youth.The series premiered in September 2011, andUSA Todaydescribed her performance as \"a role tailored to launch her from respected indie actor to certified star, Deschanel soars, combining well-honed skills with a natural charm\".She has received anEmmy Awardnomination and three Golden Globe nominations for her role.The series finale ran on May 15, 2018. Deschanel hostedSaturday Night Liveon February 11, 2012.That same year, she was featured in a commercial for theiPhone 4S(Siri). InRock the Kasbah(2015), she played a Los Angeles singer taken toAfghanistanby her former manager (Bill Murray). Despite a US$15 million budget, the comedy only made US$3 million at the North American box office.She obtained the role of a mysterious woman in the neo-noir dramaThe Driftless Area(2015), screened at theTribeca Film Festivaland released on video on demand and home media.She voiced a kind-hearted Bergen, Bridget, in the animated family comedyTrolls(2016), which grossed US$344 million worldwide. In December 2020, Deschanel appeared in the music video forKaty Perry's song \"Not the End of the World\".In 2021, she co-hosted the ABC television seriesThe Celebrity Dating GamewithMichael Bolton. In January 2022, she began cohostingWelcome to Our Show, aNew Girlrewatch podcast with co-starsHannah SimoneandLamorne Morris, distributed byIHeartRadio.Deschanel appears as Kelly in season 3 ofPhysicalreleased on August 2, 2023and Nancy inDreamin' Wild, released on August 4, 2023. She would also appear as Terry inHarold and the Purple Crayon, which was released on August 2, 2024. Music career Singing and performing In 2001, Deschanel formedIf All the Stars Were Pretty Babies, ajazzcabaretact with fellow actressSamantha Shelton.The pair performed around Los Angeles. In March 2007, Deschanel contributed vocals to two songs \"Slowly\" and \"Ask Her to Dance\" on the albumNighttimingbyJason Schwartzman's bandCoconut Records. It was reported that Deschanel andM. Ward, who had previously performed with Deschanel on-stage, were recording music under the moniker She & Him.Their first album, titledVolume One, was released byMerge Recordson March 18, 2008.It received a strong response from critics, withPastemagazine voting it the No. 1 Album of 2008. Patrick Caldwell of theAustin American Statesmanwrote: \"The album gently rambled through 13 tracks of sun-dappled pop, with a gentle Orbisonian charm and sweet, wistful vocals from Deschanel.\" Deschanel recorded \"The Fabric of My Life\" for a 2009 advertising campaign forCotton Incorporated.On March 23, 2010, the second She & Him album,Volume Two, was released.Deschanel and M. Ward both featured onThe Place We Ran From(2010), the album bySnow PatrolmemberGary Lightbody's side project,Tired Pony. Deschanel contributed vocals to the tracks \"Get on the Road\" and \"Point Me at Lost Islands\", while M. Ward contributed vocals and guitar to the track \"Held in the Arms of Your Words\" and guitar to the track \"That Silver Necklace\". Deschanel performed \"God Bless America\" during theseventh-inning stretchin game three of theNational League Championship Seriesbetween thePhiladelphia PhilliesandSan Francisco Giantson October 19, 2010, atAT&T Parkin San Francisco.On October 23, 2011, Deschanel performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" before game four of theWorld Seriesbetween theTexas Rangersand theSt. Louis CardinalsatRangers BallparkinArlington, Texas.Deschanel contributed a cover ofBuddy Holly's \"It's So Easy\" for the tribute albumListen to Me: Buddy Holly, released on September 6, 2011. She had previously appeared onRave On Buddy Holly, with She & Him performing \"Oh, Boy!\", released in June 2011. A Very She & Him Christmaswas announced on Pitchfork.com in September 2011. The 12-trackChristmas albumwas released October 25, 2011, underMerge Records.On December 28, 2011, she and Joseph Gordon-Levitt recorded an informal version of \"What Are You Doing New Year's Eve?\" for her HelloGiggles YouTube channel. It was immensely popular and within four days had over 6 million views.Deschanel was featured on bandmate M. Ward's sixth solo album,A Wasteland Companion(2012). During a May 2012 performance at theRyman Auditorium, country music singerLoretta Lynnannounced that she was in the development stages of creating a Broadway musical from her autobiography and Deschanel would play the title role., saying, \"There's a little girl back stage that's going to do the play of 'Coal Miner's Daughter' on Broadway\". She then brought Deschanel onstage and the two sang a duet of thetitle song.On September 21, 2012, it was announced that Deschanel was producing the comedyMust Be Nice, written byNew Girlconsulting producerJ. J. Philbin. She and Him's next album,Volume 3was released byMerge Recordsin May 2013. In the 15-track album, Deschanel wrote eleven songs, while three others are cover songs.It debuted at number 15 on theBillboard200.The band's fifth studio album,Classics, received a December 2014 release byColumbia Records, and it features 13 covers of classic songs, recorded live and accompanied by a 20-piece orchestra.Response towards the album was positive, with Robert Hamm forAlternative Presswriting that Deschanel \"is a delight, at times coy and romantic, and in other moments, moody and pensive\".She also appeared as a guest vocalist onBrian Wilson's albumNo Pier Pressure(2015).She & Him's second Christmas album and sixth album overall,Christmas Party, was released in 2016. Film-related music Deschanel made her on-screen singing debut inThe New Guy(2002). InElf(2003), she sings \"Baby, It's Cold Outside\" withWill Ferrellin the bathroom shower scene, \"Auld Lang Syne\" withJames Caanon piano and withLeon Redboneon the soundtrack. Her piano composition \"Bittersuite\" was used thematically in the darkdramedyWinter Passing(2006), in which she co starred with Ferrell andEd Harris, and also sings \"My Bonnie Lies over the Ocean\" in the film. In 2007, other singing credits followed: the television musicalOnce Upon a Mattress(\"An Opening for a Princess\", \"In a Little While\", \"Normandy\", and \"Yesterday I Loved You\");an old cabaret song inThe Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford(\"A Bird in a Gilded Cage\"); and the short filmRaving(\"Hello, Dolly!\"). Deschanel and a cast of school children sing theSteve Earlesong \"Someday\" andWar's \"Why Can't We Be Friends?\" inBridge to Terabithia. InYes Man(2008), Deschanel sings several songs featured in the film and on the film soundtrack, and is shown singing \"Uh-Huh\" and \"Sweet Ballad\" with San Franciscan all-girl electro soul-punk groupVon Ivain a fictional band called \"Munchausen by Proxy\".In500 Days of Summer(2009), Deschanel sings a cover ofThe Smiths's \"Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want\" and it appears on the soundtrack of the film, as performed by She & Him.She also sings a cover of \"Sugar Town\" byNancy Sinatra. Deschanel and Joseph Gordon-Levitt did a music video, calledBank Dance, directed by500 Days of SummerdirectorMarc Webb, to accompany the film. It uses the She & Him song \"Why Do You Let Me Stay Here?\", and some complicated choreography, choreographed by Michael Rooney. Mason Novick, the film's producer said, \"We made the short because Zooey came in and said, 'I have this idea ... because I didn't get to dance in the movie'\" (as Gordon-Levitt did). Deschanel sings \"The Greatest Most Beautiful Love Song in All the Land\" withJames Francoin the comedyYour Highness(2011). She also appears with M. Ward in a number of songs on the soundtrack album for Disney's animated version ofWinnie the Pooh(2011), earning aGrammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Medianomination for \"So Long\".Deschanel wrote and performed the theme song toNew Girl.Also, in season three's episode \"Prince\", the song \"Fallinlove2nite\" is sung by Deschanel andPrince.InRock the Kasbah(2015), she sang a cover ofMeredith Brooks's \"Bitch\", which is featured in the soundtrack for the film.In 2016, Deschanel voiced Bridget, the scullery maid in the animated filmTrolls. Other work In May 2011, after the success of her HelloGiggles YouTube channel, Deschanel, along with producer Sophia Rossi and writer Molly McAleer, founded the websiteHelloGiggles.com, an entertainment website geared towards women.HelloGiggles.com was acquired by Time, Inc. in 2015. In 2023, Deschanel hosted theMaxinformational showWhat Am I Eating?. It was based on a previous series Deschanel did forATTN:,Your Food's Roots. Personal life Deschanel is allergic to eggs, dairy products, and soy.She had a gluten allergy, but stated in a 2022 interview onArmchair Expertthat she no longer suffers from it.She used to be avegan,which she gave up because she found it difficult to eat enough calories on a vegan diet due to her sensitivities to wheat and soy.A year prior to giving up her vegan diet, she was featured on episode eight of season one ofBravo'sTop Chef Masters, in which the chefs participating in the competition were challenged to cater a vegan lunch party for her family and friends using no soy or gluten.Deschanel is currently apescetarian. In December 2008, Deschanel became engaged to musicianBen Gibbard, lead vocalist forDeath Cab for CutieandThe Postal Service.They married on September 19, 2009, nearSeattle, Washington.On November 1, 2011, they announced their separation.Deschanel filed for divorce on December 27, 2011, citing \"irreconcilable differences\".The divorce was finalized on December 12, 2012. Deschanel confirmed her engagement to film producer Jacob Pechenik in January 2015,and they married in June 2015.They have two children: a daughter born in July 2015, and a son born in May 2017.Deschanel reportedly converted to Judaism before marrying Pechenik, who is Jewish. In August 2019, Deschanel metProperty BrothersstarJonathan Scottwhile filming an episode ofCarpool Karaoke: The Series. On September 6, 2019, Deschanel and Pechenik announced their separation.Deschanel and Pechenik divorced on June 1, 2020. On August 13, 2023, Deschanel and Scott announced their engagement atEdinburgh Castlein Scotland. Filmography Discography Awards and nominations References External links","New Girl New Girlis an American televisionsitcomcreated byElizabeth Meriwetherand produced by20th Century Fox TelevisionforFoxthat aired from September 20, 2011, to May 15, 2018. The series revolves around quirky teacher,Jessica Day(Zooey Deschanel), after she moves into aLos Angelesloft with three men, Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), Schmidt (Max Greenfield), and Coach (Damon Wayans Jr.). Former roommate Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris) and Jess's best friend Cece Parekh (Hannah Simone) later join the characters. The show combines comedy and drama elements as the characters, who are in their late 20s and early 30s, deal with relationship issues and career choices.New Girlis a joint production betweenElizabeth Meriwether Picturesand20th Century Fox Televisionand is syndicated by20th Television. Produced in Los Angeles as asingle-cameracomedy,New Girlis an ensemble show aimed at a general audience.New Girlreceived acclaim from critics and was named one of the best new comedies of the 2011 fall season. The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating, making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show since 2001. Particular praise has been given to the performances of Deschanel, Greenfield, Simone, Johnson and Morris. The show has garnered increased mainstream viewership following its inclusion onNetflix, becoming one of the most popular shows on the platform.The series concluded its seven season run in May 2018. Plot Jessica \"Jess\" Day(Zooey Deschanel), a bubbly and quirky teacher in her late 20s, comes home from vacation to find her boyfriend, Spencer (Ian Wolterstorff), with another woman and leaves him immediately to look for somewhere else to live. After Jess answers an ad for a new roommate onCraigslist, she moves into a loft in Los Angeles with three men around her own age: Nick, Schmidt, and Coach. After thepilot episode, Winston, a former roommate and Nick's childhood friend, replaces Coach, who leaves the apartment to live with his girlfriend. Jess' childhood best friend, Cece, a fashion model frequently visits Jess and the guys. The series follows the group's interactions with each other as they become closer friends and develop romantic relationships. Midway through season 1, Schmidt and Cece become involved in a mostly sexual relationship but break up at the end of the season. In Season 2, Jess is laid off from her teaching job; she and the others get involved in mostly temporary relationships however, Cece enters an arranged marriage engagement withShivrang(Satya Bhabha) that is broken up at their wedding in the season 2 finale when Cece realizes she loves Schmidt. Schmidt had recently started dating his old college girlfriend Elizabeth had to choose between Elizabeth and Cece. Meanwhile, Nick and Jess develop feelings and start dating at Cece's wedding, making their relationship official at the end of season 2,and it lasts through most of season 3 until they realize that ultimately, they want different things in life. Coach returns to the loft in season 3, revealing that he had broken up with his girlfriend and rejoins the gang, and even has a short fling with Cece after ending the short relationship with Schmidt. He stays through season 4 until he moves out to be with another girl, May (Meaghan Rath) to New York.At the end of season 4, Schmidt proposes to Cece, and they marry at the end of season 5. Meanwhile, after bouncing around several random jobs and several dating choices throughout the series, Winston works to become a police officer withthe LAPD, and falls in love with his partnerAly(Nasim Pedrad). In the beginning of season 5, Jess is called away to jury duty resulting in the group bringing in temporary roommateReagan Lucas(Megan Fox), who becomes Nick's love interest for the rest of the season. Shortly after returning from jury duty, Jess realizes that she loves Nick and wants to be with him. At the end of season 6, Nick and Reagan break up and shortly after, Nick and Jess get together, Cece and Schmidt are pregnant, and Winston is engaged to Aly and is trying to meet his father.Season 7 advances the storyline three years later where Schmidt and Cece have a three-year-old daughter named Ruth, Winston and Aly are expecting their first baby, and Nick proposes to Jess. Cast and characters The principal cast ofNew Girlincludes: Special guest stars Production Conception 20th Century Fox Televisionfirst approached playwrightElizabeth Meriwetherin 2008 to develop a pilot that was eventually shelved. After Meriwether's success with the 2011 romantic comedy filmNo Strings Attached, 20th Century Fox approached her once more, and she pitched an idea for a TV sitcom about an \"offbeat girl moving in with three single guys\",inspired by her experience of \"bouncing fromCraigslistsublet to Craigslist sublet, for four years in L.A.\" when she was in her twenties.This show was initially calledChicks and Dickswith two of the characters similar to the final characters of Jess and Schmidt.The initial idea was aWill & Grace-style comedy inspired by Meriwether's close friendship with a guy after their exes started dating each other.The Fox network liked the script and pursuedZooey Deschanelfor the role of Jess,to whose story Meriwether felt most connected.As the script developed, the plot moved on from being about the sexual endeavors of the roommates and became more socially oriented, so the title was changed toNew Girl. The show attempts to combine \"comedy and drama as the five characters explore the difficulties of the decade between 30 and 40, which is when many people take their biggest steps toward maturity\" with regard to relationships and careers,which, unlikeFriends, is giving the show a \"built-in biological clock\".ProducerJake Kasdansaid that \"Their lives are moving forward, they're still trying to hang on to some kind of crazy youth\" although he does not \"want them ever to seem pathetic.\" Casting Movie actress and singer-songwriter Zooey Deschanel was in the process of developing anHBOshow when she read theNew Girlpilot script and responded to the material.The character of Jess was not specifically written for Deschanel, but the producers found it a great match and adjusted it to better fit the actress.With the support from Fox, Meriwether wanted to make Jess a unique, interesting and funny female characterthat would have been the side character on other shows.Deschanel became a producer on the show and helped build the character,requesting to not play the classic wife character who would be ignored by the guys she tries to keep out of trouble.Meriwether's goal was to write about herself from an honest perspective,with Jess mirroring her at the start and later Deschanel until Jess turned into a \"hybrid of me and Zooey, the writers, and the editor\".Deschanel described Jess as a part of her, especially with regard to \"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\" of her youth. She does not shy away from playing embarrassing scenes or being unattractive.As Kasdan said, \"This show advocates for the attractive dork.\"Although Meriwether had always imagined the show as an ensemble show, Fox would later focus its first marketing push on Zooey Deschaneland gave the show the promotional tagline \"Simply Adorkable.\" Basing Nick Miller on a friend also surnamed Miller,she originally imagined Nick as the smartest one of the group who doesn't need to say thatand thought of him as \"the everyman one, who's stepping away and commenting on what all the crazy people are doing around him.\"She sent theNew Girlpilot script to movie actorJake Johnson, with whom she had enjoyed working onNo Strings Attachedand guided him through the audition process.Johnson auditioned withMax Greenfield, who impressed the producers in his first audition as Schmidt.The actors auditioning for Schmidt were more varied in appearance than those auditioning for Nick,and Johnson and Greenfield were initially worried that they looked too much alike.however, both men were cast the same day. Meriwether originally envisioned Coach as \"a fat Jewish guy, like a manchild\" and later as \"this dumb jock crazy rage problems\".David Neher (who would play Schmidt's so-called \"fremesis,\" Benjamin, in four episodes) was among the 400 actors auditioning for Coach before the producers settled onDamon Wayans Jr.who was expecting his show, theABCsitcomHappy Endings, to be cancelled. When that show was renewed for a second season, Wayans' spot was replaced with Lamorne Morris,who had also read for Coach but had been unavailable for filming the pilot.Meriwether estimated that about 80 percent of the pilot would have needed to be re-shot in order to remove Wayans from the episode, since he was in one of the leading roles of the show.As the producers also liked reflecting the frequent apartment changes in young people's lives,Meriwether, 20th Century Fox and the studio decided to keep the characters and the plot of the pilot episode as they were.Morris joined the show in the second episode of the series when the producers had already broken seven episodes without knowing what the actor was going to be able to do.Wayans returned toNew Girlin season 3 for a season-long arc afterHappy Endingshad been cancelled, and was officially added as a regular for season 4. Writing New Girlhad 11 writers during its first seasonand 15 during the second season—includingElizabeth Meriwether,Brett Baer, andDave Finkel.Stories were developed in a collaborative effortand aimed at viewers of any gender.Writers intended to keep actors and audiences on their toes by planning very few story arcs and focusing on setting up characters in the first couple seasons . The writers challenged themselves to create new stories and change the show's dynamics to keep things fresh,while aiming to be \"as emotionally real as possible.\"As the show's jokes rely on the actors' performance instead of perfectly constructed punch lines, Meriwether looked for the actors' strengths before writing.The A story generally revolved around Jess and had an emotional core.Still, Meriwether saw the show as an ensemble about friendship with \"everybody having their own stories and people being interested in all of the characters.\" EachNew Girlepisode started out as a pitch page, went through stages of an outline and a final draft before being filmed and edited,a process which could take weeks.The writers were broken up to rework drafts until they found the funniest and most emotionally resonant version. All characters were aimed to be tied into the story, and determining their motivation was the major goal so that people would laugh.During the first season, Meriwether usually made a final pass at the draft alone because of her film and theater background.The actors' performance influenced new story ideaswith the actors also handing in story ideas. Filming and editing The main set built for the pilot was to represent a factory-turned-loft in downtown Los Angeles. It was reused once the show was given a full season.The apartment building exterior is the Binford Building, located at 837 Traction Avenue inthe city's Arts District, with interior shots done in a studio set.The exterior shots for the bar where Nick works is of The Griffin (now The High Low), located inAtwater Village. The interior shots of the bar are originally from a restaurant called The Prince inKoreatown, and were recreated in a studio set after the first season. As asingle-cameracomedy,New Girlis neither performed in front of a studio audience nor has alaugh track.Some scenes are cross-covered (i.e. are filmed with a shooting camera on each person at the same time), to allow for better improvisations.Handheld cameras are avoided for a more filmic look. The actors first perform scenes as written, then act out the alternatives or improvise,to later allow the producers and editors to choose the gags that ultimately work best.Morris estimated that 20 percent of each episode is improvised. True American True Americanis a fictional, convoluteddrinking gamethat theNew Girlcharacters first played in the season 1 episode 20, \"Normal\". After \"Normal\" aired, internet sources began to summarize the rules forTrue American, which the characters described as a mix of a drinking game andCandy Landwherethe floor is lava; it also involves shouting the names of American presidents.The idea ofTrue Americancame from aNew Girlwriter who played a similar game in college. As she could not remember the game's exact rules, the writers focused on making the game as funny on the page as possible, but only established chanting \"JFK!FDR!\" and walking on chairs. Throughout the series, the writers created new rules on the spot in order to keep the actors improvising and encouraged them to \"have fun, dig in, jump in\". The game's second appearance in season 2's \"Cooler\" was played with the strip-poker version called \"Clinton Rules\", but the exact rules remain unclear even to the actors.True Americanwith updated rules and the resulting hangover were featured in season 3's \"Mars Landing\". The writers started to do newTrue Americanepisodes once each yearwithout ever giving explicit rules for the game. Liz Meriwether said the game would not be easier to comprehend in later appearances, as the writers' goal is to actually make it harder to understand. Relationships Creator Elizabeth Meriwether sees Nick, Schmidt and Winston \"on the weirder side of things\".The producers started learning more about the characters by seeing the actors' work and that \"We probably rely on them more than we should\" to define the characters.Each of the actors improvisations allowed for the characters to switch traits around in the first season before solidifying their characters. Producers found more variety in Nick's character in season 1 and enjoyed Johnson's improvisations, so they relayed Coach's previous attributed rage issues to Nick.Nick's character connects the most with the other roommates, childhood friends with Winston and college roommates with Schmidt, allowing him to be more involved in their stories. Writers developed the Nick–Winston dynamic in season 1 and sought to figure out Winston's relationship with the other loft mates in season 2.The writers noticed late during the first season that Morris seemed better suited to play a smart character and act as the loft's voice of reason,although Meriwether found that when Winston \"finally does blow up, he's crazier than all of them\"and that he works better \"in these kind of crazy, comedic runners, small pieces of the episode\"that contrast the relationship dramas of the other main characters.The Winston–Schmidt friendship was developed significantly in the second half of season 2 when the story focus moved to Nick and Jess.The Nick–Jess relationship affects the three guys' friendship as Nick starts being more considerate of Jess' feelings regarding shenanigans.Damon Wayans Jr. was planned to reprise his role as Coach in at least four episodes in the third season,according to Meriwether \"at a time when the roommates are at odds with each other\". With Meriwether's openness regarding straight and gay communities,New Girlalso plays with the guys' sexual orientation for humor. One of Winston's recurring alternate persona is Nick's gay lover \"Theodore K. Mullins\", which started out as an improv of Morris.Johnson thought that Nick and Schmidt had \"a pretty funny bromance\" with \"their own little weird will-they-won't-they\".Greenfield improvised kissing Nick a lot in season 1 until the writers started putting Schmidt–Nick kisses into the script,so that they shared more kisses than Nick and Jess did in the first two seasons. Episodes Broadcast and ratings TheNew Girlpilotwas released via on-demand, iTunes, andTiVoon September 6, 2011before its September 20 premiere onFoxin theUnited Statesand onCityin Canada.Other international broadcasters includeChannel 4andE4in the United Kingdom,RTÉ2in the Republic of Ireland,Network TenandElevenin Australia,andFourin New Zealand.The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating,making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show sinceThe Bernie Mac Showin 2001.The second episode madeNew Girlthe top-rated show on television in the marketing-important 18–49 demographic, improved the rating of its lead-in hit seriesGleeand beat the long-running hit seriesNCISandDancing with the Stars.At this time, Fox ordered 11 additional episodes to the initial 13-episode order, bringing the first season to 24 episodes. The ratings dropped when the show took a break for baseball, falling almost 30 percent to a 2.1 rating in the 18–49 audience group.During the 2011–12 television season,New Girlaveraged 8.22 million viewers and a 4.2 adults 18–49 demo rating. In 18–49 demo, it ranked as the fifth highest rated show on Fox and 13th overall.On April 9, 2012,New Girlwas officially renewed for a second season of 24 episodes;Fox ordered one more episode during the second half of the season. Awards and nominations Main article:List of awards and nominations received by New Girl The show has been nominated for several awards, including fiveGolden Globe Awardsand fivePrimetime Emmy Awards. Syndication and streaming New Girlwas added toTBSin 2015 and was removed in 2022. Additionally, the sitcom was added toMTVin 2015 and was removed in 2016.After 10 years on Netflix,the show became exclusively available onHuluandPeacocksince April 17, 2023. Home media Tie-ins Reception Critical reviews On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes, season one holds an approval rating of 84% based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.83/10.Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 66 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". In June 2011,New Girlwas one of eight honorees in the \"most exciting new series\" category at the1st Critics' Choice Television Awards, voted by journalists who had seen thepilots.Robert Bianco ofUSA TodayconsideredNew Girl\"fall's most promising new series\" and praised how Deschanel and Meriwether \"have shaped Jess into something we haven't quite seen before – a woman who is sweet yet crass, innocent yet sexy, beautiful yet clumsy, and brash yet irresistibly adorable.\" However, he noted how \"Some people will be resistant to Deschanel's doe-eyed charm; others have a congenital need to insult anyone who most everyone else is praising, particularly if doing so gets them attention.\"The Hollywood Reporter'sTim Goodman saw the show as a \"mostly romantic comedy\", and although Jess' adorability \"might seem like a thin premise, Meriwether manages to make the situations funny and lets Deschanel channel her charm – a winning combination.\"David Wiegandof theSan Francisco Chroniclewould rather see the show tone down. He felt \"the show's fundamental setup isn't all that inspired, but it could work with smarter writing and better direction, especially with regard to Deschanel\", who, in his opinion, overplayed Jess' weird habits \"to the point of overkill within the first 10 minutes of the show\". Alan SepinwallofHitFixconsideredNew Girl\"the best new comedy of the fall season, and the only new show I genuinely enjoyed from start to finish\" because it was so well developed from the start. He praised Deschanel's \"wonderful comic performance\" and said that while the supporting actors \"all bounce nicely off of Deschanel\", the scenes without Deschanel around them fell flat for him.Writing for theDaily News, David Hinckley lauded how none of the characters \"settle in as the stereotypes they could easily become\", and presumed that all of them would evolve and get smarter as the show progresses.Lori Rack of theChicago Sun-Timespraised the actors' comedic timing and playing off each other. Despite the guys sounding \"like nightmares\" on paper, \"they have endearing, vulnerable cores that make them likable, and occasionally, lovable. New Girldidn't give me as many laugh-out-loud moments as some comedies\", but instead made her \"feel warm and fuzzy\".Rob Owen of thePittsburgh Post-Gazettesaid the show's pilot was \"more charming than hilarious\" and \"cuter than it is funny, but when it does conjure laughs, its style of humor is reminiscent of ABC'sHappy Endings\". Many critics considered Max Greenfield the show's breakout star in season 1;The A.V. Clubeven named Greenfield's Schmidt \"the year's breakout TV character\" as a \"douchebag with a heart of gold\".Salondescribed Schmidt as \"a sort of self-created alpha male and a collection of beta male qualities are performed with such conviction they congeal into a sort of deranged machismo, one slathered in sandalwood-scented lotion. As part of this transition, Schmidt has gone from being a douchebag in the classic model—a guy who, in the pilot, constantly wanted to show off his pecs and scam girls, and seemed capable of doing so—to a douche of a more unique variety.\"The Huffington Post'sMaureen Ryan said how \"Schmidt could have easily been 'the dumb guy', or the show could have exploited his status as an eminently mockable douche. But thanks to Max Greenfield's endearing depiction of the would-be lady-killer, there's a lot more the writers have been able to do with the character.\" On Rotten Tomatoes, season two holds an approval rating of 88% based on 16 reviews, with an average rating of 6.56/10. After the teasing of the Nick–Jess relationship in the first season, critics named Jake Johnson the breakout star of season 2 as the characters' romance unfolded.Saying that \"Not since Ross and Rachel's tango onFriendshas watching a comedy romance been so satisfying\",The Hollywood Reportersaid the producers \"did the impossible by engaging their leads in a love story, which only strengthened the artistry of the single-cam comedy\".The New York Timessaid season 2 \"erupted in fantastic and bizarre fits and starts\" because of the characters' unmatched personalities, and lauded the writers for not playing up the will-they-or-won't-they dynamic. By emphasizinghowthe characters got together, the show \"made for hilarious setups to high-level Abbott and Costello slapstick. The continued Nick–Jess relationship was criticized in season 3 for dropping the characters' personalities, lack of tension,and for neglecting the show's female friendship between Jess and Cece. On Rotten Tomatoes, season three holds an approval rating of 88% based on 14 reviews, with an average rating of 6.46/10. Season four holds an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.67/10. The series' seventh and final season has an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.78, and a critical consensus of, \"After seven years of friendship,New Girlsigns off with a thoughtful, funny final season that bids a proper adieu to its colorful cast of characters.\" References External links","List ofNew Girlepisodes New Girlis an American televisionsitcomthat premiered onFoxon September 20, 2011. Developed byElizabeth Meriwetherunder the working titleChicks & Dicks, the show starsZooey Deschanelas Jessica \"Jess\" Day, a well-liked and bubbly woman who is trying to get over her surprise breakup with her boyfriend. With the help of her best friend Cece (Hannah Simone), she finds a new place to stay when she moves in with three single guys: Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), an underachieving bartender; Schmidt (Max Greenfield), who thinks of himself as a modern-dayCasanova; and Coach (Damon Wayans, Jr.), who leaves the series in the next episode and is replaced by Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris), a former professional athlete who achieved modest success abroad and is adjusting to life back in the United States. Coach reappears in the series during seasons three, four, five, six, and seven. On May 14, 2017, the series was renewed for a seventh and final season, which featured eight episodes.On January 4, 2018, it was announced that the seventh and final season would premiere on April 10, 2018, and also it would end with a one-hour series finale, which was aired on May 15, 2018. During the course of the series, 146 episodes ofNew Girlaired over seven seasons. Series overview Episodes Season 1 (2011–12) Season 2 (2012–13) Season 3 (2013–14) Season 4 (2014–15) Season 5 (2016) Season 6 (2016–17) Season 7 (2018) Ratings Notes References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Zooey Deschanel Zooey Claire Deschanel(/ˈzoʊiˌdeɪʃəˈnɛl/ZO-ee day-shə-NEL; born January 17, 1980) is an American actress and musician. She made her film debut inMumford(1999) and had a supporting role inCameron Crowe's filmAlmost Famous(2000). Deschanel is known for herdeadpanroles in comedy films such asThe Good Girl(2002),The New Guy(2002),Elf(2003),The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy(2005),Failure to Launch(2006),Yes Man(2008),500 Days of Summer(2009), andOur Idiot Brother(2011).She has also ventured into dramatic film territory withManic(2001),All the Real Girls(2003),Winter Passing(2005),Bridge to Terabithia(2007),The Happening(2008), andThe Driftless Area(2015).From 2011 to 2018, she starred asJess Dayon theFoxsitcomNew Girl, for which she received nominations for aPrimetime Emmy Awardand threeGolden Globe Awards. For a few years starting in 2001, Deschanel performed in thejazzcabaretactIf All the Stars Were Pretty Babieswith actressSamantha Shelton.In 2006, Deschanel teamed up withM. Wardto formShe & Him, and subsequently released their debut album,Volume One, in 2008. They have since released six albums:Volume Two(2010),A Very She & Him Christmas(2011),Volume 3(2013),Classics(2014),Christmas Party(2016), andMelt Away: A Tribute to Brian Wilson(2022). She received aGrammy Awardnomination forBest Song Written for Visual Mediafor \\\"So Long\\\", which was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 filmWinnie the Pooh. Besides singing, she plays keyboards, percussion, banjo, and ukulele. Deschanel is also a co-founder of the female-focused websiteHelloGiggles, which was acquired byTime Inc.in 2015. Early life Zooey Claire Deschanel was born in Los Angeles, California on January 17, 1980,the younger daughter of cinematographer and directorCaleb Deschaneland actressMary Jo Deschanel(née Weir). Her paternal grandfather was French, fromOullins, Rhône, and her paternal grandmother came from aQuakerfamily; she also has Swiss, Dutch, English, Irish, and other French ancestry.She was named afterZooey Glass, the protagonist ofJ. D. Salinger's 1961 novellaFranny and Zooey.Her older sister is actressEmily Deschanel, who starred in the Fox crime comedy-drama seriesBones. Deschanel lived in Los Angeles, but spent much of her childhood traveling because her father shot films on location. She later said that she: ... hated all the traveling... I'm really happy now that I had the experience, but at the time I was just so miserable to have to leave my friends in Los Angeles and go to places where they didn't have any food I liked or things I was used to. She attendedCrossroads, a private preparatory school in Santa Monica, where she befriended future co-starsJake GyllenhaalandKate Hudson.She sang throughout high school, planning to pursue a career in musical theatre and attendingFrench Woods Festival of the Performing Arts.She attendedNorthwestern Universityfor nine months before dropping out to pursue acting. Acting career 1997–2002: Early acting credits Deschanel had a guest appearance on the television seriesVeronica's Closetin 1998. She made her film debut inLawrence Kasdan's comedyMumford(1999), revolving around the neurotic residents in a small town and co-starringHope Davis,Jason Lee,Alfre WoodardandMary McDonnell. That same year, she appeared in a non-singing role in the music video forThe Offspring's single \\\"She's Got Issues\\\", which premiered on September 27, 1999.Deschanel was a judge for the ninth Independent Music Awards.In 2005, she modeled forChanelandClements Ribeiro, and in 2010, she signed to representRimmel. Deschanel co-starred inCameron Crowe's semi-autobiographicalAlmost Famous(2000), where she played Anita Miller, the rebellious older sister of a teenage journalist. Despite a modest box office response, the film received critical praise,winning theGolden Globe Award for Best Film – Musical or Comedy. Deschanel appeared in the independent dramaManic(2001), as the love interest of a troubled teen (Joseph Gordon-Levitt). The film was screened at theSundance Film Festivaland received a limited theatrical release.The New York Timesfound Deschanel to be \\\"particularly spontaneous, unaffected and emotionally direct\\\" in her role. Following early notice, Deschanel took on supporting parts in four feature films released throughout 2002:Big Trouble,The New Guy,The Good Girl, andAbandon. In the comedyBig Trouble, withTim AllenandRene Russo, she played the daughter of a devoted and reluctant woman, and in the teen comedyThe New Guy, starred as a guitar player in a band. Deschanel portrayed a cynical, plain-spoken young woman working in abig-box storein the black dramedyThe Good Girl, oppositeJennifer AnistonandJake Gyllenhaal. The psychological thrillerAbandonsaw her play the roommate of a woman involved in her boyfriend's disappearance. Deschanel also made a one-episode appearance inFrasier, as Roz's out-of-control Cousin, Jen.The New York Timesreported that Deschanel was \\\"one of Hollywood's most sought-after young stars\\\",in 2002, and theLos Angeles Timeswrote in early 2003 that Deschanel had become a recognizabletype, due to \\\"her deadpan, sardonic and scene-stealing performances\\\" as the protagonist's best friend.Deschanel objected to her typecasting, arguing, \\\"A lot of these roles are just a formula idea of somebody's best friend, and it's like, I don't even have that many friends. In high school, I stayed home all the time, so I don't know how I'm everybody's best friend now.\\\" 2003–2010: Breakthrough Deschanel obtained her first leading film role debut in the independent dramaAll the Real Girls(2003) as Noel, a sexually curious 18-year-oldvirginwho has a life-changing romance with an aimless 22-year-old. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and was an arthouse success. Her performance received wide critical acclaim,andVarietyremarked: \\\"Performances are all credible and naturalistic, but standing out from the rest is Deschanel's work, which evinces an impressively direct connection to her character's emotions. The actress does a wonderful job presenting a young woman who is trying, with varying degrees of success, to give voice to all sorts of things she has never felt or expressed before\\\".She received anIndependent Spirit Awardnomination forBest Actress.Also in 2003, Deschanel starred oppositeWill Ferrellin the Christmas comedyElfas a deadpan department store worker and the love interest of a man raised by Santa's elves.Reviewers found the film to be a \\\"spirited, good-natured family comedy\\\" as part of an overall positive critical response;and, budgeted at US$33 million,Elfmade US$220.4 million worldwide. In 2004, Deschanel starred inEulogy, and in 2005 playedTrillianin the film adaptation ofDouglas Adams's science fiction novelThe Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. She acted inWinter Passing(2005), co-starring Will Ferrell. Deschanel next appeared inFailure to Launch(2006), as the neurotic roommate ofSarah Jessica Parker's character. She also had a recurring role in four episodes of theShowtimetelevision seriesWeedsfrom 2006 to 2007 where she played Kat,Andy Botwin's ex-girlfriend. In September 2006, it was announced that Deschanel had signed on to play 1960s singerJanis Joplinin the filmThe Gospel According to Janis, to be co-written and directed byPenelope Spheeris.The film was scheduled to begin shooting in 2006, but was then postponed indefinitely;it was then resurrected again, with a planned release date of 2012, before being cancelled altogether in 2011. Deschanel expressed frustration with the cancellation, saying she had spent three years working on imitating Joplin's scratchy singing voice. In 2007, Deschanel played a music teacher inBridge to Terabithia, and the voice of a penguin in the animated filmSurf's Up. She had a small role as Dorothy Evans in therevisionist WesternThe Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Fordand starred in theBcomedyFlakes, which was released in only one theater.Deschanel starred as DG in theSyfyminiseriesTin Man, a re-imagined science fiction version ofThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz. It aired in December 2007. Deschanel also narrated the children's bookPlayers in Pigtails.She voiced Mary,Cletus's daughter in three episodes ofThe Simpsonssince debuting on the April 27, 2008, episode, \\\"Apocalypse Cow\\\". InM. Night Shyamalan's thrillerThe Happening(2008), she starred oppositeMark Wahlbergas a couple trying to escape from an inexplicable natural disaster. Despite largely negative reviews, criticRoger Ebertfelt that Wahlberg and Deschanel's performances \\\"bring a quiet dignity to their characters\\\",and globally, the film made US$163 million.She starred in the independent comedyGigantic(2008), which screened at theToronto International Film Festivaland was distributed for a limited release in certain parts of the United States only. In the comedyYes Man(also 2008), she played an unorthodox singer and the girlfriend ofJim Carrey's character.The film grossed US$223.1 million around the world. Deschanel reunited with Joseph Gordon-Levitt in the independent romantic drama about the development and demise of a relationship(500) Days of Summer(2009).The film garnered critical acclaim and became a \\\"sleeper hit\\\", earning over $60 million in worldwide returns, far exceeding its $7.5 million budget.Mark Adams of theDaily Mirrorfound the film to be a \\\"modern romance for grown-ups\\\" and a \\\"sweet-natured, funny, deeply-romantic tale\\\" blessed with \\\"top-notch performances by Deschanel and Gordon-Levitt, who are both charming and have real chemistry\\\".In December 2009, Deschanel guest-starred in a Christmas episode of theFoxcrime procedural comedy-dramaBones, which was the first-ever on-screen pairing of the Deschanel sisters. Since 2010:New Girland other projects Deschanel was originally the top choice forJanet van Dyne / The Waspin an early draft ofJoss Whedon'sThe Avengersin which she would have played a prominent role. However, onceScarlett Johanssonwas cast asNatasha Romanoff / Black Widow, Deschanel was no longer in consideration to portray the Wasp with Janet's daughter Hope van Dyne taking up the mantle in theInfinity Saga, played byEvangeline Lilly.Deschanel starred in the comedyOur Idiot Brother(2011) as the independent and bisexual sister of a dimwitted but idealistic man (Paul Rudd). The production was screened at theSundance Film Festival, to a generally positive critical reception.She played Belladonna in the stoner fantasy-comedyYour Highness(2011), withDanny McBrideandJames Franco.The film received negative reviews andbombed at the box office.Describing her role, Roger Ebert noted in its review for the film: \\\" brought onstage, quickly kidnapped by an evil sorcerer, spends a good deal of time as a captive in his lair, is rescued and lives happily ever after. She might as well be a mannequin, for all she's given to say and do. This intelligent, nuanced actress, standing there baffled. Used as a placeholder\\\". Deschanel signed on to star as a bubbly and offbeat teacherJessica \\\"Jess\\\" Dayon theFoxsitcomNew Girl, created byElizabeth Meriwether. She became a producer on the show and helped build the character,which she has described as a part of her, especially in regards to \\\"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\\\" of her youth.The series premiered in September 2011, andUSA Todaydescribed her performance as \\\"a role tailored to launch her from respected indie actor to certified star, Deschanel soars, combining well-honed skills with a natural charm\\\".She has received anEmmy Awardnomination and three Golden Globe nominations for her role.The series finale ran on May 15, 2018. Deschanel hostedSaturday Night Liveon February 11, 2012.That same year, she was featured in a commercial for theiPhone 4S(Siri). InRock the Kasbah(2015), she played a Los Angeles singer taken toAfghanistanby her former manager (Bill Murray). Despite a US$15 million budget, the comedy only made US$3 million at the North American box office.She obtained the role of a mysterious woman in the neo-noir dramaThe Driftless Area(2015), screened at theTribeca Film Festivaland released on video on demand and home media.She voiced a kind-hearted Bergen, Bridget, in the animated family comedyTrolls(2016), which grossed US$344 million worldwide. In December 2020, Deschanel appeared in the music video forKaty Perry's song \\\"Not the End of the World\\\".In 2021, she co-hosted the ABC television seriesThe Celebrity Dating GamewithMichael Bolton. In January 2022, she began cohostingWelcome to Our Show, aNew Girlrewatch podcast with co-starsHannah SimoneandLamorne Morris, distributed byIHeartRadio.Deschanel appears as Kelly in season 3 ofPhysicalreleased on August 2, 2023and Nancy inDreamin' Wild, released on August 4, 2023. She would also appear as Terry inHarold and the Purple Crayon, which was released on August 2, 2024. Music career Singing and performing In 2001, Deschanel formedIf All the Stars Were Pretty Babies, ajazzcabaretact with fellow actressSamantha Shelton.The pair performed around Los Angeles. In March 2007, Deschanel contributed vocals to two songs \\\"Slowly\\\" and \\\"Ask Her to Dance\\\" on the albumNighttimingbyJason Schwartzman's bandCoconut Records. It was reported that Deschanel andM. Ward, who had previously performed with Deschanel on-stage, were recording music under the moniker She & Him.Their first album, titledVolume One, was released byMerge Recordson March 18, 2008.It received a strong response from critics, withPastemagazine voting it the No. 1 Album of 2008. Patrick Caldwell of theAustin American Statesmanwrote: \\\"The album gently rambled through 13 tracks of sun-dappled pop, with a gentle Orbisonian charm and sweet, wistful vocals from Deschanel.\\\" Deschanel recorded \\\"The Fabric of My Life\\\" for a 2009 advertising campaign forCotton Incorporated.On March 23, 2010, the second She & Him album,Volume Two, was released.Deschanel and M. Ward both featured onThe Place We Ran From(2010), the album bySnow PatrolmemberGary Lightbody's side project,Tired Pony. Deschanel contributed vocals to the tracks \\\"Get on the Road\\\" and \\\"Point Me at Lost Islands\\\", while M. Ward contributed vocals and guitar to the track \\\"Held in the Arms of Your Words\\\" and guitar to the track \\\"That Silver Necklace\\\". Deschanel performed \\\"God Bless America\\\" during theseventh-inning stretchin game three of theNational League Championship Seriesbetween thePhiladelphia PhilliesandSan Francisco Giantson October 19, 2010, atAT&T Parkin San Francisco.On October 23, 2011, Deschanel performed \\\"The Star-Spangled Banner\\\" before game four of theWorld Seriesbetween theTexas Rangersand theSt. Louis CardinalsatRangers BallparkinArlington, Texas.Deschanel contributed a cover ofBuddy Holly's \\\"It's So Easy\\\" for the tribute albumListen to Me: Buddy Holly, released on September 6, 2011. She had previously appeared onRave On Buddy Holly, with She & Him performing \\\"Oh, Boy!\\\", released in June 2011. A Very She & Him Christmaswas announced on Pitchfork.com in September 2011. The 12-trackChristmas albumwas released October 25, 2011, underMerge Records.On December 28, 2011, she and Joseph Gordon-Levitt recorded an informal version of \\\"What Are You Doing New Year's Eve?\\\" for her HelloGiggles YouTube channel. It was immensely popular and within four days had over 6 million views.Deschanel was featured on bandmate M. Ward's sixth solo album,A Wasteland Companion(2012). During a May 2012 performance at theRyman Auditorium, country music singerLoretta Lynnannounced that she was in the development stages of creating a Broadway musical from her autobiography and Deschanel would play the title role., saying, \\\"There's a little girl back stage that's going to do the play of 'Coal Miner's Daughter' on Broadway\\\". She then brought Deschanel onstage and the two sang a duet of thetitle song.On September 21, 2012, it was announced that Deschanel was producing the comedyMust Be Nice, written byNew Girlconsulting producerJ. J. Philbin. She and Him's next album,Volume 3was released byMerge Recordsin May 2013. In the 15-track album, Deschanel wrote eleven songs, while three others are cover songs.It debuted at number 15 on theBillboard200.The band's fifth studio album,Classics, received a December 2014 release byColumbia Records, and it features 13 covers of classic songs, recorded live and accompanied by a 20-piece orchestra.Response towards the album was positive, with Robert Hamm forAlternative Presswriting that Deschanel \\\"is a delight, at times coy and romantic, and in other moments, moody and pensive\\\".She also appeared as a guest vocalist onBrian Wilson's albumNo Pier Pressure(2015).She & Him's second Christmas album and sixth album overall,Christmas Party, was released in 2016. Film-related music Deschanel made her on-screen singing debut inThe New Guy(2002). InElf(2003), she sings \\\"Baby, It's Cold Outside\\\" withWill Ferrellin the bathroom shower scene, \\\"Auld Lang Syne\\\" withJames Caanon piano and withLeon Redboneon the soundtrack. Her piano composition \\\"Bittersuite\\\" was used thematically in the darkdramedyWinter Passing(2006), in which she co starred with Ferrell andEd Harris, and also sings \\\"My Bonnie Lies over the Ocean\\\" in the film. In 2007, other singing credits followed: the television musicalOnce Upon a Mattress(\\\"An Opening for a Princess\\\", \\\"In a Little While\\\", \\\"Normandy\\\", and \\\"Yesterday I Loved You\\\");an old cabaret song inThe Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford(\\\"A Bird in a Gilded Cage\\\"); and the short filmRaving(\\\"Hello, Dolly!\\\"). Deschanel and a cast of school children sing theSteve Earlesong \\\"Someday\\\" andWar's \\\"Why Can't We Be Friends?\\\" inBridge to Terabithia. InYes Man(2008), Deschanel sings several songs featured in the film and on the film soundtrack, and is shown singing \\\"Uh-Huh\\\" and \\\"Sweet Ballad\\\" with San Franciscan all-girl electro soul-punk groupVon Ivain a fictional band called \\\"Munchausen by Proxy\\\".In500 Days of Summer(2009), Deschanel sings a cover ofThe Smiths's \\\"Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want\\\" and it appears on the soundtrack of the film, as performed by She & Him.She also sings a cover of \\\"Sugar Town\\\" byNancy Sinatra. Deschanel and Joseph Gordon-Levitt did a music video, calledBank Dance, directed by500 Days of SummerdirectorMarc Webb, to accompany the film. It uses the She & Him song \\\"Why Do You Let Me Stay Here?\\\", and some complicated choreography, choreographed by Michael Rooney. Mason Novick, the film's producer said, \\\"We made the short because Zooey came in and said, 'I have this idea ... because I didn't get to dance in the movie'\\\" (as Gordon-Levitt did). Deschanel sings \\\"The Greatest Most Beautiful Love Song in All the Land\\\" withJames Francoin the comedyYour Highness(2011). She also appears with M. Ward in a number of songs on the soundtrack album for Disney's animated version ofWinnie the Pooh(2011), earning aGrammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Medianomination for \\\"So Long\\\".Deschanel wrote and performed the theme song toNew Girl.Also, in season three's episode \\\"Prince\\\", the song \\\"Fallinlove2nite\\\" is sung by Deschanel andPrince.InRock the Kasbah(2015), she sang a cover ofMeredith Brooks's \\\"Bitch\\\", which is featured in the soundtrack for the film.In 2016, Deschanel voiced Bridget, the scullery maid in the animated filmTrolls. Other work In May 2011, after the success of her HelloGiggles YouTube channel, Deschanel, along with producer Sophia Rossi and writer Molly McAleer, founded the websiteHelloGiggles.com, an entertainment website geared towards women.HelloGiggles.com was acquired by Time, Inc. in 2015. In 2023, Deschanel hosted theMaxinformational showWhat Am I Eating?. It was based on a previous series Deschanel did forATTN:,Your Food's Roots. Personal life Deschanel is allergic to eggs, dairy products, and soy.She had a gluten allergy, but stated in a 2022 interview onArmchair Expertthat she no longer suffers from it.She used to be avegan,which she gave up because she found it difficult to eat enough calories on a vegan diet due to her sensitivities to wheat and soy.A year prior to giving up her vegan diet, she was featured on episode eight of season one ofBravo'sTop Chef Masters, in which the chefs participating in the competition were challenged to cater a vegan lunch party for her family and friends using no soy or gluten.Deschanel is currently apescetarian. In December 2008, Deschanel became engaged to musicianBen Gibbard, lead vocalist forDeath Cab for CutieandThe Postal Service.They married on September 19, 2009, nearSeattle, Washington.On November 1, 2011, they announced their separation.Deschanel filed for divorce on December 27, 2011, citing \\\"irreconcilable differences\\\".The divorce was finalized on December 12, 2012. Deschanel confirmed her engagement to film producer Jacob Pechenik in January 2015,and they married in June 2015.They have two children: a daughter born in July 2015, and a son born in May 2017.Deschanel reportedly converted to Judaism before marrying Pechenik, who is Jewish. In August 2019, Deschanel metProperty BrothersstarJonathan Scottwhile filming an episode ofCarpool Karaoke: The Series. On September 6, 2019, Deschanel and Pechenik announced their separation.Deschanel and Pechenik divorced on June 1, 2020. On August 13, 2023, Deschanel and Scott announced their engagement atEdinburgh Castlein Scotland. Filmography Discography Awards and nominations References External links\",\n \"New Girl New Girlis an American televisionsitcomcreated byElizabeth Meriwetherand produced by20th Century Fox TelevisionforFoxthat aired from September 20, 2011, to May 15, 2018. The series revolves around quirky teacher,Jessica Day(Zooey Deschanel), after she moves into aLos Angelesloft with three men, Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), Schmidt (Max Greenfield), and Coach (Damon Wayans Jr.). Former roommate Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris) and Jess's best friend Cece Parekh (Hannah Simone) later join the characters. The show combines comedy and drama elements as the characters, who are in their late 20s and early 30s, deal with relationship issues and career choices.New Girlis a joint production betweenElizabeth Meriwether Picturesand20th Century Fox Televisionand is syndicated by20th Television. Produced in Los Angeles as asingle-cameracomedy,New Girlis an ensemble show aimed at a general audience.New Girlreceived acclaim from critics and was named one of the best new comedies of the 2011 fall season. The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating, making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show since 2001. Particular praise has been given to the performances of Deschanel, Greenfield, Simone, Johnson and Morris. The show has garnered increased mainstream viewership following its inclusion onNetflix, becoming one of the most popular shows on the platform.The series concluded its seven season run in May 2018. Plot Jessica \\\"Jess\\\" Day(Zooey Deschanel), a bubbly and quirky teacher in her late 20s, comes home from vacation to find her boyfriend, Spencer (Ian Wolterstorff), with another woman and leaves him immediately to look for somewhere else to live. After Jess answers an ad for a new roommate onCraigslist, she moves into a loft in Los Angeles with three men around her own age: Nick, Schmidt, and Coach. After thepilot episode, Winston, a former roommate and Nick's childhood friend, replaces Coach, who leaves the apartment to live with his girlfriend. Jess' childhood best friend, Cece, a fashion model frequently visits Jess and the guys. The series follows the group's interactions with each other as they become closer friends and develop romantic relationships. Midway through season 1, Schmidt and Cece become involved in a mostly sexual relationship but break up at the end of the season. In Season 2, Jess is laid off from her teaching job; she and the others get involved in mostly temporary relationships however, Cece enters an arranged marriage engagement withShivrang(Satya Bhabha) that is broken up at their wedding in the season 2 finale when Cece realizes she loves Schmidt. Schmidt had recently started dating his old college girlfriend Elizabeth had to choose between Elizabeth and Cece. Meanwhile, Nick and Jess develop feelings and start dating at Cece's wedding, making their relationship official at the end of season 2,and it lasts through most of season 3 until they realize that ultimately, they want different things in life. Coach returns to the loft in season 3, revealing that he had broken up with his girlfriend and rejoins the gang, and even has a short fling with Cece after ending the short relationship with Schmidt. He stays through season 4 until he moves out to be with another girl, May (Meaghan Rath) to New York.At the end of season 4, Schmidt proposes to Cece, and they marry at the end of season 5. Meanwhile, after bouncing around several random jobs and several dating choices throughout the series, Winston works to become a police officer withthe LAPD, and falls in love with his partnerAly(Nasim Pedrad). In the beginning of season 5, Jess is called away to jury duty resulting in the group bringing in temporary roommateReagan Lucas(Megan Fox), who becomes Nick's love interest for the rest of the season. Shortly after returning from jury duty, Jess realizes that she loves Nick and wants to be with him. At the end of season 6, Nick and Reagan break up and shortly after, Nick and Jess get together, Cece and Schmidt are pregnant, and Winston is engaged to Aly and is trying to meet his father.Season 7 advances the storyline three years later where Schmidt and Cece have a three-year-old daughter named Ruth, Winston and Aly are expecting their first baby, and Nick proposes to Jess. Cast and characters The principal cast ofNew Girlincludes: Special guest stars Production Conception 20th Century Fox Televisionfirst approached playwrightElizabeth Meriwetherin 2008 to develop a pilot that was eventually shelved. After Meriwether's success with the 2011 romantic comedy filmNo Strings Attached, 20th Century Fox approached her once more, and she pitched an idea for a TV sitcom about an \\\"offbeat girl moving in with three single guys\\\",inspired by her experience of \\\"bouncing fromCraigslistsublet to Craigslist sublet, for four years in L.A.\\\" when she was in her twenties.This show was initially calledChicks and Dickswith two of the characters similar to the final characters of Jess and Schmidt.The initial idea was aWill & Grace-style comedy inspired by Meriwether's close friendship with a guy after their exes started dating each other.The Fox network liked the script and pursuedZooey Deschanelfor the role of Jess,to whose story Meriwether felt most connected.As the script developed, the plot moved on from being about the sexual endeavors of the roommates and became more socially oriented, so the title was changed toNew Girl. The show attempts to combine \\\"comedy and drama as the five characters explore the difficulties of the decade between 30 and 40, which is when many people take their biggest steps toward maturity\\\" with regard to relationships and careers,which, unlikeFriends, is giving the show a \\\"built-in biological clock\\\".ProducerJake Kasdansaid that \\\"Their lives are moving forward, they're still trying to hang on to some kind of crazy youth\\\" although he does not \\\"want them ever to seem pathetic.\\\" Casting Movie actress and singer-songwriter Zooey Deschanel was in the process of developing anHBOshow when she read theNew Girlpilot script and responded to the material.The character of Jess was not specifically written for Deschanel, but the producers found it a great match and adjusted it to better fit the actress.With the support from Fox, Meriwether wanted to make Jess a unique, interesting and funny female characterthat would have been the side character on other shows.Deschanel became a producer on the show and helped build the character,requesting to not play the classic wife character who would be ignored by the guys she tries to keep out of trouble.Meriwether's goal was to write about herself from an honest perspective,with Jess mirroring her at the start and later Deschanel until Jess turned into a \\\"hybrid of me and Zooey, the writers, and the editor\\\".Deschanel described Jess as a part of her, especially with regard to \\\"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\\\" of her youth. She does not shy away from playing embarrassing scenes or being unattractive.As Kasdan said, \\\"This show advocates for the attractive dork.\\\"Although Meriwether had always imagined the show as an ensemble show, Fox would later focus its first marketing push on Zooey Deschaneland gave the show the promotional tagline \\\"Simply Adorkable.\\\" Basing Nick Miller on a friend also surnamed Miller,she originally imagined Nick as the smartest one of the group who doesn't need to say thatand thought of him as \\\"the everyman one, who's stepping away and commenting on what all the crazy people are doing around him.\\\"She sent theNew Girlpilot script to movie actorJake Johnson, with whom she had enjoyed working onNo Strings Attachedand guided him through the audition process.Johnson auditioned withMax Greenfield, who impressed the producers in his first audition as Schmidt.The actors auditioning for Schmidt were more varied in appearance than those auditioning for Nick,and Johnson and Greenfield were initially worried that they looked too much alike.however, both men were cast the same day. Meriwether originally envisioned Coach as \\\"a fat Jewish guy, like a manchild\\\" and later as \\\"this dumb jock crazy rage problems\\\".David Neher (who would play Schmidt's so-called \\\"fremesis,\\\" Benjamin, in four episodes) was among the 400 actors auditioning for Coach before the producers settled onDamon Wayans Jr.who was expecting his show, theABCsitcomHappy Endings, to be cancelled. When that show was renewed for a second season, Wayans' spot was replaced with Lamorne Morris,who had also read for Coach but had been unavailable for filming the pilot.Meriwether estimated that about 80 percent of the pilot would have needed to be re-shot in order to remove Wayans from the episode, since he was in one of the leading roles of the show.As the producers also liked reflecting the frequent apartment changes in young people's lives,Meriwether, 20th Century Fox and the studio decided to keep the characters and the plot of the pilot episode as they were.Morris joined the show in the second episode of the series when the producers had already broken seven episodes without knowing what the actor was going to be able to do.Wayans returned toNew Girlin season 3 for a season-long arc afterHappy Endingshad been cancelled, and was officially added as a regular for season 4. Writing New Girlhad 11 writers during its first seasonand 15 during the second season—includingElizabeth Meriwether,Brett Baer, andDave Finkel.Stories were developed in a collaborative effortand aimed at viewers of any gender.Writers intended to keep actors and audiences on their toes by planning very few story arcs and focusing on setting up characters in the first couple seasons . The writers challenged themselves to create new stories and change the show's dynamics to keep things fresh,while aiming to be \\\"as emotionally real as possible.\\\"As the show's jokes rely on the actors' performance instead of perfectly constructed punch lines, Meriwether looked for the actors' strengths before writing.The A story generally revolved around Jess and had an emotional core.Still, Meriwether saw the show as an ensemble about friendship with \\\"everybody having their own stories and people being interested in all of the characters.\\\" EachNew Girlepisode started out as a pitch page, went through stages of an outline and a final draft before being filmed and edited,a process which could take weeks.The writers were broken up to rework drafts until they found the funniest and most emotionally resonant version. All characters were aimed to be tied into the story, and determining their motivation was the major goal so that people would laugh.During the first season, Meriwether usually made a final pass at the draft alone because of her film and theater background.The actors' performance influenced new story ideaswith the actors also handing in story ideas. Filming and editing The main set built for the pilot was to represent a factory-turned-loft in downtown Los Angeles. It was reused once the show was given a full season.The apartment building exterior is the Binford Building, located at 837 Traction Avenue inthe city's Arts District, with interior shots done in a studio set.The exterior shots for the bar where Nick works is of The Griffin (now The High Low), located inAtwater Village. The interior shots of the bar are originally from a restaurant called The Prince inKoreatown, and were recreated in a studio set after the first season. As asingle-cameracomedy,New Girlis neither performed in front of a studio audience nor has alaugh track.Some scenes are cross-covered (i.e. are filmed with a shooting camera on each person at the same time), to allow for better improvisations.Handheld cameras are avoided for a more filmic look. The actors first perform scenes as written, then act out the alternatives or improvise,to later allow the producers and editors to choose the gags that ultimately work best.Morris estimated that 20 percent of each episode is improvised. True American True Americanis a fictional, convoluteddrinking gamethat theNew Girlcharacters first played in the season 1 episode 20, \\\"Normal\\\". After \\\"Normal\\\" aired, internet sources began to summarize the rules forTrue American, which the characters described as a mix of a drinking game andCandy Landwherethe floor is lava; it also involves shouting the names of American presidents.The idea ofTrue Americancame from aNew Girlwriter who played a similar game in college. As she could not remember the game's exact rules, the writers focused on making the game as funny on the page as possible, but only established chanting \\\"JFK!FDR!\\\" and walking on chairs. Throughout the series, the writers created new rules on the spot in order to keep the actors improvising and encouraged them to \\\"have fun, dig in, jump in\\\". The game's second appearance in season 2's \\\"Cooler\\\" was played with the strip-poker version called \\\"Clinton Rules\\\", but the exact rules remain unclear even to the actors.True Americanwith updated rules and the resulting hangover were featured in season 3's \\\"Mars Landing\\\". The writers started to do newTrue Americanepisodes once each yearwithout ever giving explicit rules for the game. Liz Meriwether said the game would not be easier to comprehend in later appearances, as the writers' goal is to actually make it harder to understand. Relationships Creator Elizabeth Meriwether sees Nick, Schmidt and Winston \\\"on the weirder side of things\\\".The producers started learning more about the characters by seeing the actors' work and that \\\"We probably rely on them more than we should\\\" to define the characters.Each of the actors improvisations allowed for the characters to switch traits around in the first season before solidifying their characters. Producers found more variety in Nick's character in season 1 and enjoyed Johnson's improvisations, so they relayed Coach's previous attributed rage issues to Nick.Nick's character connects the most with the other roommates, childhood friends with Winston and college roommates with Schmidt, allowing him to be more involved in their stories. Writers developed the Nick–Winston dynamic in season 1 and sought to figure out Winston's relationship with the other loft mates in season 2.The writers noticed late during the first season that Morris seemed better suited to play a smart character and act as the loft's voice of reason,although Meriwether found that when Winston \\\"finally does blow up, he's crazier than all of them\\\"and that he works better \\\"in these kind of crazy, comedic runners, small pieces of the episode\\\"that contrast the relationship dramas of the other main characters.The Winston–Schmidt friendship was developed significantly in the second half of season 2 when the story focus moved to Nick and Jess.The Nick–Jess relationship affects the three guys' friendship as Nick starts being more considerate of Jess' feelings regarding shenanigans.Damon Wayans Jr. was planned to reprise his role as Coach in at least four episodes in the third season,according to Meriwether \\\"at a time when the roommates are at odds with each other\\\". With Meriwether's openness regarding straight and gay communities,New Girlalso plays with the guys' sexual orientation for humor. One of Winston's recurring alternate persona is Nick's gay lover \\\"Theodore K. Mullins\\\", which started out as an improv of Morris.Johnson thought that Nick and Schmidt had \\\"a pretty funny bromance\\\" with \\\"their own little weird will-they-won't-they\\\".Greenfield improvised kissing Nick a lot in season 1 until the writers started putting Schmidt–Nick kisses into the script,so that they shared more kisses than Nick and Jess did in the first two seasons. Episodes Broadcast and ratings TheNew Girlpilotwas released via on-demand, iTunes, andTiVoon September 6, 2011before its September 20 premiere onFoxin theUnited Statesand onCityin Canada.Other international broadcasters includeChannel 4andE4in the United Kingdom,RTÉ2in the Republic of Ireland,Network TenandElevenin Australia,andFourin New Zealand.The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating,making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show sinceThe Bernie Mac Showin 2001.The second episode madeNew Girlthe top-rated show on television in the marketing-important 18–49 demographic, improved the rating of its lead-in hit seriesGleeand beat the long-running hit seriesNCISandDancing with the Stars.At this time, Fox ordered 11 additional episodes to the initial 13-episode order, bringing the first season to 24 episodes. The ratings dropped when the show took a break for baseball, falling almost 30 percent to a 2.1 rating in the 18–49 audience group.During the 2011–12 television season,New Girlaveraged 8.22 million viewers and a 4.2 adults 18–49 demo rating. In 18–49 demo, it ranked as the fifth highest rated show on Fox and 13th overall.On April 9, 2012,New Girlwas officially renewed for a second season of 24 episodes;Fox ordered one more episode during the second half of the season. Awards and nominations Main article:List of awards and nominations received by New Girl The show has been nominated for several awards, including fiveGolden Globe Awardsand fivePrimetime Emmy Awards. Syndication and streaming New Girlwas added toTBSin 2015 and was removed in 2022. Additionally, the sitcom was added toMTVin 2015 and was removed in 2016.After 10 years on Netflix,the show became exclusively available onHuluandPeacocksince April 17, 2023. Home media Tie-ins Reception Critical reviews On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes, season one holds an approval rating of 84% based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.83/10.Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 66 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating \\\"generally favorable reviews\\\". In June 2011,New Girlwas one of eight honorees in the \\\"most exciting new series\\\" category at the1st Critics' Choice Television Awards, voted by journalists who had seen thepilots.Robert Bianco ofUSA TodayconsideredNew Girl\\\"fall's most promising new series\\\" and praised how Deschanel and Meriwether \\\"have shaped Jess into something we haven't quite seen before – a woman who is sweet yet crass, innocent yet sexy, beautiful yet clumsy, and brash yet irresistibly adorable.\\\" However, he noted how \\\"Some people will be resistant to Deschanel's doe-eyed charm; others have a congenital need to insult anyone who most everyone else is praising, particularly if doing so gets them attention.\\\"The Hollywood Reporter'sTim Goodman saw the show as a \\\"mostly romantic comedy\\\", and although Jess' adorability \\\"might seem like a thin premise, Meriwether manages to make the situations funny and lets Deschanel channel her charm – a winning combination.\\\"David Wiegandof theSan Francisco Chroniclewould rather see the show tone down. He felt \\\"the show's fundamental setup isn't all that inspired, but it could work with smarter writing and better direction, especially with regard to Deschanel\\\", who, in his opinion, overplayed Jess' weird habits \\\"to the point of overkill within the first 10 minutes of the show\\\". Alan SepinwallofHitFixconsideredNew Girl\\\"the best new comedy of the fall season, and the only new show I genuinely enjoyed from start to finish\\\" because it was so well developed from the start. He praised Deschanel's \\\"wonderful comic performance\\\" and said that while the supporting actors \\\"all bounce nicely off of Deschanel\\\", the scenes without Deschanel around them fell flat for him.Writing for theDaily News, David Hinckley lauded how none of the characters \\\"settle in as the stereotypes they could easily become\\\", and presumed that all of them would evolve and get smarter as the show progresses.Lori Rack of theChicago Sun-Timespraised the actors' comedic timing and playing off each other. Despite the guys sounding \\\"like nightmares\\\" on paper, \\\"they have endearing, vulnerable cores that make them likable, and occasionally, lovable. New Girldidn't give me as many laugh-out-loud moments as some comedies\\\", but instead made her \\\"feel warm and fuzzy\\\".Rob Owen of thePittsburgh Post-Gazettesaid the show's pilot was \\\"more charming than hilarious\\\" and \\\"cuter than it is funny, but when it does conjure laughs, its style of humor is reminiscent of ABC'sHappy Endings\\\". Many critics considered Max Greenfield the show's breakout star in season 1;The A.V. Clubeven named Greenfield's Schmidt \\\"the year's breakout TV character\\\" as a \\\"douchebag with a heart of gold\\\".Salondescribed Schmidt as \\\"a sort of self-created alpha male and a collection of beta male qualities are performed with such conviction they congeal into a sort of deranged machismo, one slathered in sandalwood-scented lotion. As part of this transition, Schmidt has gone from being a douchebag in the classic model—a guy who, in the pilot, constantly wanted to show off his pecs and scam girls, and seemed capable of doing so—to a douche of a more unique variety.\\\"The Huffington Post'sMaureen Ryan said how \\\"Schmidt could have easily been 'the dumb guy', or the show could have exploited his status as an eminently mockable douche. But thanks to Max Greenfield's endearing depiction of the would-be lady-killer, there's a lot more the writers have been able to do with the character.\\\" On Rotten Tomatoes, season two holds an approval rating of 88% based on 16 reviews, with an average rating of 6.56/10. After the teasing of the Nick–Jess relationship in the first season, critics named Jake Johnson the breakout star of season 2 as the characters' romance unfolded.Saying that \\\"Not since Ross and Rachel's tango onFriendshas watching a comedy romance been so satisfying\\\",The Hollywood Reportersaid the producers \\\"did the impossible by engaging their leads in a love story, which only strengthened the artistry of the single-cam comedy\\\".The New York Timessaid season 2 \\\"erupted in fantastic and bizarre fits and starts\\\" because of the characters' unmatched personalities, and lauded the writers for not playing up the will-they-or-won't-they dynamic. By emphasizinghowthe characters got together, the show \\\"made for hilarious setups to high-level Abbott and Costello slapstick. The continued Nick–Jess relationship was criticized in season 3 for dropping the characters' personalities, lack of tension,and for neglecting the show's female friendship between Jess and Cece. On Rotten Tomatoes, season three holds an approval rating of 88% based on 14 reviews, with an average rating of 6.46/10. Season four holds an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.67/10. The series' seventh and final season has an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.78, and a critical consensus of, \\\"After seven years of friendship,New Girlsigns off with a thoughtful, funny final season that bids a proper adieu to its colorful cast of characters.\\\" References External links\",\n \"List ofNew Girlepisodes New Girlis an American televisionsitcomthat premiered onFoxon September 20, 2011. Developed byElizabeth Meriwetherunder the working titleChicks & Dicks, the show starsZooey Deschanelas Jessica \\\"Jess\\\" Day, a well-liked and bubbly woman who is trying to get over her surprise breakup with her boyfriend. With the help of her best friend Cece (Hannah Simone), she finds a new place to stay when she moves in with three single guys: Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), an underachieving bartender; Schmidt (Max Greenfield), who thinks of himself as a modern-dayCasanova; and Coach (Damon Wayans, Jr.), who leaves the series in the next episode and is replaced by Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris), a former professional athlete who achieved modest success abroad and is adjusting to life back in the United States. Coach reappears in the series during seasons three, four, five, six, and seven. On May 14, 2017, the series was renewed for a seventh and final season, which featured eight episodes.On January 4, 2018, it was announced that the seventh and final season would premiere on April 10, 2018, and also it would end with a one-hour series finale, which was aired on May 15, 2018. During the course of the series, 146 episodes ofNew Girlaired over seven seasons. Series overview Episodes Season 1 (2011–12) Season 2 (2012–13) Season 3 (2013–14) Season 4 (2014–15) Season 5 (2016) Season 6 (2016–17) Season 7 (2018) Ratings Notes References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Zooey Deschanel Zooey Claire Deschanel(/ˈzoʊiˌdeɪʃəˈnɛl/ZO-ee day-shə-NEL; born January 17, 1980) is an American actress and musician. She made her film debut inMumford(1999) and had a supporting role inCameron Crowe's filmAlmost Famous(2000). Deschanel is known for herdeadpanroles in comedy films such asThe Good Girl(2002),The New Guy(2002),Elf(2003),The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy(2005),Failure to Launch(2006),Yes Man(2008),500 Days of Summer(2009), andOur Idiot Brother(2011).She has also ventured into dramatic film territory withManic(2001),All the Real Girls(2003),Winter Passing(2005),Bridge to Terabithia(2007),The Happening(2008), andThe Driftless Area(2015).From 2011 to 2018, she starred asJess Dayon theFoxsitcomNew Girl, for which she received nominations for aPrimetime Emmy Awardand threeGolden Globe Awards. For a few years starting in 2001, Deschanel performed in thejazzcabaretactIf All the Stars Were Pretty Babieswith actressSamantha Shelton.In 2006, Deschanel teamed up withM. Wardto formShe &","Wardto formShe & Him, and subsequently released their debut album,Volume One, in 2008. They have since released six albums:Volume Two(2010),A Very She & Him Christmas(2011),Volume 3(2013),Classics(2014),Christmas Party(2016), andMelt Away: A Tribute to Brian Wilson(2022). She received aGrammy Awardnomination forBest Song Written for Visual Mediafor \"So Long\", which was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 filmWinnie the Pooh. Besides singing, she plays keyboards, percussion, banjo, and ukulele. Deschanel is also a co-founder of the female-focused websiteHelloGiggles, which was acquired byTime Inc.in 2015. Early life Zooey Claire Deschanel was born in Los Angeles, California on January 17, 1980,the younger daughter of cinematographer and directorCaleb Deschaneland actressMary Jo Deschanel(née Weir). Her paternal grandfather was French, fromOullins, Rhône, and her paternal grandmother came from aQuakerfamily; she also has Swiss, Dutch, English, Irish, and other French ancestry.She was named afterZooey Glass,","afterZooey Glass, the protagonist ofJ. D. Salinger's 1961 novellaFranny and Zooey.Her older sister is actressEmily Deschanel, who starred in the Fox crime comedy-drama seriesBones. Deschanel lived in Los Angeles, but spent much of her childhood traveling because her father shot films on location. She later said that she: ... hated all the traveling... I'm really happy now that I had the experience, but at the time I was just so miserable to have to leave my friends in Los Angeles and go to places where they didn't have any food I liked or things I was used to. She attendedCrossroads, a private preparatory school in Santa Monica, where she befriended future co-starsJake GyllenhaalandKate Hudson.She sang throughout high school, planning to pursue a career in musical theatre and attendingFrench Woods Festival of the Performing Arts.She attendedNorthwestern Universityfor nine months before dropping out to pursue acting. Acting career 1997–2002: Early acting credits Deschanel had a guest appearance on the","appearance on the television seriesVeronica's Closetin 1998. She made her film debut inLawrence Kasdan's comedyMumford(1999), revolving around the neurotic residents in a small town and co-starringHope Davis,Jason Lee,Alfre WoodardandMary McDonnell. That same year, she appeared in a non-singing role in the music video forThe Offspring's single \"She's Got Issues\", which premiered on September 27, 1999.Deschanel was a judge for the ninth Independent Music Awards.In 2005, she modeled forChanelandClements Ribeiro, and in 2010, she signed to representRimmel. Deschanel co-starred inCameron Crowe's semi-autobiographicalAlmost Famous(2000), where she played Anita Miller, the rebellious older sister of a teenage journalist. Despite a modest box office response, the film received critical praise,winning theGolden Globe Award for Best Film – Musical or Comedy. Deschanel appeared in the independent dramaManic(2001), as the love interest of a troubled teen (Joseph Gordon-Levitt). The film was screened at theSundance Film","at theSundance Film Festivaland received a limited theatrical release.The New York Timesfound Deschanel to be \"particularly spontaneous, unaffected and emotionally direct\" in her role. Following early notice, Deschanel took on supporting parts in four feature films released throughout 2002:Big Trouble,The New Guy,The Good Girl, andAbandon. In the comedyBig Trouble, withTim AllenandRene Russo, she played the daughter of a devoted and reluctant woman, and in the teen comedyThe New Guy, starred as a guitar player in a band. Deschanel portrayed a cynical, plain-spoken young woman working in abig-box storein the black dramedyThe Good Girl, oppositeJennifer AnistonandJake Gyllenhaal. The psychological thrillerAbandonsaw her play the roommate of a woman involved in her boyfriend's disappearance. Deschanel also made a one-episode appearance inFrasier, as Roz's out-of-control Cousin, Jen.The New York Timesreported that Deschanel was \"one of Hollywood's most sought-after young stars\",in 2002, and theLos Angeles","and theLos Angeles Timeswrote in early 2003 that Deschanel had become a recognizabletype, due to \"her deadpan, sardonic and scene-stealing performances\" as the protagonist's best friend.Deschanel objected to her typecasting, arguing, \"A lot of these roles are just a formula idea of somebody's best friend, and it's like, I don't even have that many friends. In high school, I stayed home all the time, so I don't know how I'm everybody's best friend now.\" 2003–2010: Breakthrough Deschanel obtained her first leading film role debut in the independent dramaAll the Real Girls(2003) as Noel, a sexually curious 18-year-oldvirginwho has a life-changing romance with an aimless 22-year-old. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and was an arthouse success. Her performance received wide critical acclaim,andVarietyremarked: \"Performances are all credible and naturalistic, but standing out from the rest is Deschanel's work, which evinces an impressively direct connection to her character's emotions. The","emotions. The actress does a wonderful job presenting a young woman who is trying, with varying degrees of success, to give voice to all sorts of things she has never felt or expressed before\".She received anIndependent Spirit Awardnomination forBest Actress.Also in 2003, Deschanel starred oppositeWill Ferrellin the Christmas comedyElfas a deadpan department store worker and the love interest of a man raised by Santa's elves.Reviewers found the film to be a \"spirited, good-natured family comedy\" as part of an overall positive critical response;and, budgeted at US$33 million,Elfmade US$220.4 million worldwide. In 2004, Deschanel starred inEulogy, and in 2005 playedTrillianin the film adaptation ofDouglas Adams's science fiction novelThe Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. She acted inWinter Passing(2005), co-starring Will Ferrell. Deschanel next appeared inFailure to Launch(2006), as the neurotic roommate ofSarah Jessica Parker's character. She also had a recurring role in four episodes of theShowtimetelevision","seriesWeedsfrom 2006 to 2007 where she played Kat,Andy Botwin's ex-girlfriend. In September 2006, it was announced that Deschanel had signed on to play 1960s singerJanis Joplinin the filmThe Gospel According to Janis, to be co-written and directed byPenelope Spheeris.The film was scheduled to begin shooting in 2006, but was then postponed indefinitely;it was then resurrected again, with a planned release date of 2012, before being cancelled altogether in 2011. Deschanel expressed frustration with the cancellation, saying she had spent three years working on imitating Joplin's scratchy singing voice. In 2007, Deschanel played a music teacher inBridge to Terabithia, and the voice of a penguin in the animated filmSurf's Up. She had a small role as Dorothy Evans in therevisionist WesternThe Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Fordand starred in theBcomedyFlakes, which was released in only one theater.Deschanel starred as DG in theSyfyminiseriesTin Man, a re-imagined science fiction version ofThe","version ofThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz. It aired in December 2007. Deschanel also narrated the children's bookPlayers in Pigtails.She voiced Mary,Cletus's daughter in three episodes ofThe Simpsonssince debuting on the April 27, 2008, episode, \"Apocalypse Cow\". InM. Night Shyamalan's thrillerThe Happening(2008), she starred oppositeMark Wahlbergas a couple trying to escape from an inexplicable natural disaster. Despite largely negative reviews, criticRoger Ebertfelt that Wahlberg and Deschanel's performances \"bring a quiet dignity to their characters\",and globally, the film made US$163 million.She starred in the independent comedyGigantic(2008), which screened at theToronto International Film Festivaland was distributed for a limited release in certain parts of the United States only. In the comedyYes Man(also 2008), she played an unorthodox singer and the girlfriend ofJim Carrey's character.The film grossed US$223.1 million around the world. Deschanel reunited with Joseph Gordon-Levitt in the independent","in the independent romantic drama about the development and demise of a relationship(500) Days of Summer(2009).The film garnered critical acclaim and became a \"sleeper hit\", earning over $60 million in worldwide returns, far exceeding its $7.5 million budget.Mark Adams of theDaily Mirrorfound the film to be a \"modern romance for grown-ups\" and a \"sweet-natured, funny, deeply-romantic tale\" blessed with \"top-notch performances by Deschanel and Gordon-Levitt, who are both charming and have real chemistry\".In December 2009, Deschanel guest-starred in a Christmas episode of theFoxcrime procedural comedy-dramaBones, which was the first-ever on-screen pairing of the Deschanel sisters. Since 2010:New Girland other projects Deschanel was originally the top choice forJanet van Dyne / The Waspin an early draft ofJoss Whedon'sThe Avengersin which she would have played a prominent role. However, onceScarlett Johanssonwas cast asNatasha Romanoff / Black Widow, Deschanel was no longer in consideration to portray the Wasp","to portray the Wasp with Janet's daughter Hope van Dyne taking up the mantle in theInfinity Saga, played byEvangeline Lilly.Deschanel starred in the comedyOur Idiot Brother(2011) as the independent and bisexual sister of a dimwitted but idealistic man (Paul Rudd). The production was screened at theSundance Film Festival, to a generally positive critical reception.She played Belladonna in the stoner fantasy-comedyYour Highness(2011), withDanny McBrideandJames Franco.The film received negative reviews andbombed at the box office.Describing her role, Roger Ebert noted in its review for the film: \" brought onstage, quickly kidnapped by an evil sorcerer, spends a good deal of time as a captive in his lair, is rescued and lives happily ever after. She might as well be a mannequin, for all she's given to say and do. This intelligent, nuanced actress, standing there baffled. Used as a placeholder\". Deschanel signed on to star as a bubbly and offbeat teacherJessica \"Jess\" Dayon theFoxsitcomNew Girl, created","Girl, created byElizabeth Meriwether. She became a producer on the show and helped build the character,which she has described as a part of her, especially in regards to \"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\" of her youth.The series premiered in September 2011, andUSA Todaydescribed her performance as \"a role tailored to launch her from respected indie actor to certified star, Deschanel soars, combining well-honed skills with a natural charm\".She has received anEmmy Awardnomination and three Golden Globe nominations for her role.The series finale ran on May 15, 2018. Deschanel hostedSaturday Night Liveon February 11, 2012.That same year, she was featured in a commercial for theiPhone 4S(Siri). InRock the Kasbah(2015), she played a Los Angeles singer taken toAfghanistanby her former manager (Bill Murray). Despite a US$15 million budget, the comedy only made US$3 million at the North American box office.She obtained the role of a mysterious woman in the neo-noir dramaThe Driftless Area(2015), screened at","screened at theTribeca Film Festivaland released on video on demand and home media.She voiced a kind-hearted Bergen, Bridget, in the animated family comedyTrolls(2016), which grossed US$344 million worldwide. In December 2020, Deschanel appeared in the music video forKaty Perry's song \"Not the End of the World\".In 2021, she co-hosted the ABC television seriesThe Celebrity Dating GamewithMichael Bolton. In January 2022, she began cohostingWelcome to Our Show, aNew Girlrewatch podcast with co-starsHannah SimoneandLamorne Morris, distributed byIHeartRadio.Deschanel appears as Kelly in season 3 ofPhysicalreleased on August 2, 2023and Nancy inDreamin' Wild, released on August 4, 2023. She would also appear as Terry inHarold and the Purple Crayon, which was released on August 2, 2024. Music career Singing and performing In 2001, Deschanel formedIf All the Stars Were Pretty Babies, ajazzcabaretact with fellow actressSamantha Shelton.The pair performed around Los Angeles. In March 2007, Deschanel contributed vocals","contributed vocals to two songs \"Slowly\" and \"Ask Her to Dance\" on the albumNighttimingbyJason Schwartzman's bandCoconut Records. It was reported that Deschanel andM. Ward, who had previously performed with Deschanel on-stage, were recording music under the moniker She & Him.Their first album, titledVolume One, was released byMerge Recordson March 18, 2008.It received a strong response from critics, withPastemagazine voting it the No. 1 Album of 2008. Patrick Caldwell of theAustin American Statesmanwrote: \"The album gently rambled through 13 tracks of sun-dappled pop, with a gentle Orbisonian charm and sweet, wistful vocals from Deschanel.\" Deschanel recorded \"The Fabric of My Life\" for a 2009 advertising campaign forCotton Incorporated.On March 23, 2010, the second She & Him album,Volume Two, was released.Deschanel and M. Ward both featured onThe Place We Ran From(2010), the album bySnow PatrolmemberGary Lightbody's side project,Tired Pony. Deschanel contributed vocals to the tracks \"Get on the Road\" and","on the Road\" and \"Point Me at Lost Islands\", while M. Ward contributed vocals and guitar to the track \"Held in the Arms of Your Words\" and guitar to the track \"That Silver Necklace\". Deschanel performed \"God Bless America\" during theseventh-inning stretchin game three of theNational League Championship Seriesbetween thePhiladelphia PhilliesandSan Francisco Giantson October 19, 2010, atAT&T Parkin San Francisco.On October 23, 2011, Deschanel performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" before game four of theWorld Seriesbetween theTexas Rangersand theSt. Louis CardinalsatRangers BallparkinArlington, Texas.Deschanel contributed a cover ofBuddy Holly's \"It's So Easy\" for the tribute albumListen to Me: Buddy Holly, released on September 6, 2011. She had previously appeared onRave On Buddy Holly, with She & Him performing \"Oh, Boy!\", released in June 2011. A Very She & Him Christmaswas announced on Pitchfork.com in September 2011. The 12-trackChristmas albumwas released October 25, 2011, underMerge Records.On December","Records.On December 28, 2011, she and Joseph Gordon-Levitt recorded an informal version of \"What Are You Doing New Year's Eve?\" for her HelloGiggles YouTube channel. It was immensely popular and within four days had over 6 million views.Deschanel was featured on bandmate M. Ward's sixth solo album,A Wasteland Companion(2012). During a May 2012 performance at theRyman Auditorium, country music singerLoretta Lynnannounced that she was in the development stages of creating a Broadway musical from her autobiography and Deschanel would play the title role., saying, \"There's a little girl back stage that's going to do the play of 'Coal Miner's Daughter' on Broadway\". She then brought Deschanel onstage and the two sang a duet of thetitle song.On September 21, 2012, it was announced that Deschanel was producing the comedyMust Be Nice, written byNew Girlconsulting producerJ. J. Philbin. She and Him's next album,Volume 3was released byMerge Recordsin May 2013. In the 15-track album, Deschanel wrote eleven songs, while","eleven songs, while three others are cover songs.It debuted at number 15 on theBillboard200.The band's fifth studio album,Classics, received a December 2014 release byColumbia Records, and it features 13 covers of classic songs, recorded live and accompanied by a 20-piece orchestra.Response towards the album was positive, with Robert Hamm forAlternative Presswriting that Deschanel \"is a delight, at times coy and romantic, and in other moments, moody and pensive\".She also appeared as a guest vocalist onBrian Wilson's albumNo Pier Pressure(2015).She & Him's second Christmas album and sixth album overall,Christmas Party, was released in 2016. Film-related music Deschanel made her on-screen singing debut inThe New Guy(2002). InElf(2003), she sings \"Baby, It's Cold Outside\" withWill Ferrellin the bathroom shower scene, \"Auld Lang Syne\" withJames Caanon piano and withLeon Redboneon the soundtrack. Her piano composition \"Bittersuite\" was used thematically in the darkdramedyWinter Passing(2006), in which she co","in which she co starred with Ferrell andEd Harris, and also sings \"My Bonnie Lies over the Ocean\" in the film. In 2007, other singing credits followed: the television musicalOnce Upon a Mattress(\"An Opening for a Princess\", \"In a Little While\", \"Normandy\", and \"Yesterday I Loved You\");an old cabaret song inThe Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford(\"A Bird in a Gilded Cage\"); and the short filmRaving(\"Hello, Dolly!\"). Deschanel and a cast of school children sing theSteve Earlesong \"Someday\" andWar's \"Why Can't We Be Friends?\" inBridge to Terabithia. InYes Man(2008), Deschanel sings several songs featured in the film and on the film soundtrack, and is shown singing \"Uh-Huh\" and \"Sweet Ballad\" with San Franciscan all-girl electro soul-punk groupVon Ivain a fictional band called \"Munchausen by Proxy\".In500 Days of Summer(2009), Deschanel sings a cover ofThe Smiths's \"Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want\" and it appears on the soundtrack of the film, as performed by She & Him.She also","She & Him.She also sings a cover of \"Sugar Town\" byNancy Sinatra. Deschanel and Joseph Gordon-Levitt did a music video, calledBank Dance, directed by500 Days of SummerdirectorMarc Webb, to accompany the film. It uses the She & Him song \"Why Do You Let Me Stay Here?\", and some complicated choreography, choreographed by Michael Rooney. Mason Novick, the film's producer said, \"We made the short because Zooey came in and said, 'I have this idea ... because I didn't get to dance in the movie'\" (as Gordon-Levitt did). Deschanel sings \"The Greatest Most Beautiful Love Song in All the Land\" withJames Francoin the comedyYour Highness(2011). She also appears with M. Ward in a number of songs on the soundtrack album for Disney's animated version ofWinnie the Pooh(2011), earning aGrammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Medianomination for \"So Long\".Deschanel wrote and performed the theme song toNew Girl.Also, in season three's episode \"Prince\", the song \"Fallinlove2nite\" is sung by Deschanel andPrince.InRock the","the Kasbah(2015), she sang a cover ofMeredith Brooks's \"Bitch\", which is featured in the soundtrack for the film.In 2016, Deschanel voiced Bridget, the scullery maid in the animated filmTrolls. Other work In May 2011, after the success of her HelloGiggles YouTube channel, Deschanel, along with producer Sophia Rossi and writer Molly McAleer, founded the websiteHelloGiggles.com, an entertainment website geared towards women.HelloGiggles.com was acquired by Time, Inc. in 2015. In 2023, Deschanel hosted theMaxinformational showWhat Am I Eating?. It was based on a previous series Deschanel did forATTN:,Your Food's Roots. Personal life Deschanel is allergic to eggs, dairy products, and soy.She had a gluten allergy, but stated in a 2022 interview onArmchair Expertthat she no longer suffers from it.She used to be avegan,which she gave up because she found it difficult to eat enough calories on a vegan diet due to her sensitivities to wheat and soy.A year prior to giving up her vegan diet, she was featured on episode","featured on episode eight of season one ofBravo'sTop Chef Masters, in which the chefs participating in the competition were challenged to cater a vegan lunch party for her family and friends using no soy or gluten.Deschanel is currently apescetarian. In December 2008, Deschanel became engaged to musicianBen Gibbard, lead vocalist forDeath Cab for CutieandThe Postal Service.They married on September 19, 2009, nearSeattle, Washington.On November 1, 2011, they announced their separation.Deschanel filed for divorce on December 27, 2011, citing \"irreconcilable differences\".The divorce was finalized on December 12, 2012. Deschanel confirmed her engagement to film producer Jacob Pechenik in January 2015,and they married in June 2015.They have two children: a daughter born in July 2015, and a son born in May 2017.Deschanel reportedly converted to Judaism before marrying Pechenik, who is Jewish. In August 2019, Deschanel metProperty BrothersstarJonathan Scottwhile filming an episode ofCarpool Karaoke: The Series. On","The Series. On September 6, 2019, Deschanel and Pechenik announced their separation.Deschanel and Pechenik divorced on June 1, 2020. On August 13, 2023, Deschanel and Scott announced their engagement atEdinburgh Castlein Scotland. Filmography Discography Awards and nominations References External links","New Girl New Girlis an American televisionsitcomcreated byElizabeth Meriwetherand produced by20th Century Fox TelevisionforFoxthat aired from September 20, 2011, to May 15, 2018. The series revolves around quirky teacher,Jessica Day(Zooey Deschanel), after she moves into aLos Angelesloft with three men, Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), Schmidt (Max Greenfield), and Coach (Damon Wayans Jr.). Former roommate Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris) and Jess's best friend Cece Parekh (Hannah Simone) later join the characters. The show combines comedy and drama elements as the characters, who are in their late 20s and early 30s, deal with relationship issues and career choices.New Girlis a joint production betweenElizabeth Meriwether Picturesand20th Century Fox Televisionand is syndicated by20th Television. Produced in Los Angeles as asingle-cameracomedy,New Girlis an ensemble show aimed at a general audience.New Girlreceived acclaim from critics and was named one of the best new comedies of the 2011 fall season. The pilot","season. The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating, making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show since 2001. Particular praise has been given to the performances of Deschanel, Greenfield, Simone, Johnson and Morris. The show has garnered increased mainstream viewership following its inclusion onNetflix, becoming one of the most popular shows on the platform.The series concluded its seven season run in May 2018. Plot Jessica \"Jess\" Day(Zooey Deschanel), a bubbly and quirky teacher in her late 20s, comes home from vacation to find her boyfriend, Spencer (Ian Wolterstorff), with another woman and leaves him immediately to look for somewhere else to live. After Jess answers an ad for a new roommate onCraigslist, she moves into a loft in Los Angeles with three men around her own age: Nick, Schmidt, and Coach. After thepilot episode, Winston, a former roommate and Nick's childhood friend, replaces Coach, who leaves the apartment to live with his","to live with his girlfriend. Jess' childhood best friend, Cece, a fashion model frequently visits Jess and the guys. The series follows the group's interactions with each other as they become closer friends and develop romantic relationships. Midway through season 1, Schmidt and Cece become involved in a mostly sexual relationship but break up at the end of the season. In Season 2, Jess is laid off from her teaching job; she and the others get involved in mostly temporary relationships however, Cece enters an arranged marriage engagement withShivrang(Satya Bhabha) that is broken up at their wedding in the season 2 finale when Cece realizes she loves Schmidt. Schmidt had recently started dating his old college girlfriend Elizabeth had to choose between Elizabeth and Cece. Meanwhile, Nick and Jess develop feelings and start dating at Cece's wedding, making their relationship official at the end of season 2,and it lasts through most of season 3 until they realize that ultimately, they want different things in","different things in life. Coach returns to the loft in season 3, revealing that he had broken up with his girlfriend and rejoins the gang, and even has a short fling with Cece after ending the short relationship with Schmidt. He stays through season 4 until he moves out to be with another girl, May (Meaghan Rath) to New York.At the end of season 4, Schmidt proposes to Cece, and they marry at the end of season 5. Meanwhile, after bouncing around several random jobs and several dating choices throughout the series, Winston works to become a police officer withthe LAPD, and falls in love with his partnerAly(Nasim Pedrad). In the beginning of season 5, Jess is called away to jury duty resulting in the group bringing in temporary roommateReagan Lucas(Megan Fox), who becomes Nick's love interest for the rest of the season. Shortly after returning from jury duty, Jess realizes that she loves Nick and wants to be with him. At the end of season 6, Nick and Reagan break up and shortly after, Nick and Jess get","Nick and Jess get together, Cece and Schmidt are pregnant, and Winston is engaged to Aly and is trying to meet his father.Season 7 advances the storyline three years later where Schmidt and Cece have a three-year-old daughter named Ruth, Winston and Aly are expecting their first baby, and Nick proposes to Jess. Cast and characters The principal cast ofNew Girlincludes: Special guest stars Production Conception 20th Century Fox Televisionfirst approached playwrightElizabeth Meriwetherin 2008 to develop a pilot that was eventually shelved. After Meriwether's success with the 2011 romantic comedy filmNo Strings Attached, 20th Century Fox approached her once more, and she pitched an idea for a TV sitcom about an \"offbeat girl moving in with three single guys\",inspired by her experience of \"bouncing fromCraigslistsublet to Craigslist sublet, for four years in L.A.\" when she was in her twenties.This show was initially calledChicks and Dickswith two of the characters similar to the final characters of Jess and","of Jess and Schmidt.The initial idea was aWill & Grace-style comedy inspired by Meriwether's close friendship with a guy after their exes started dating each other.The Fox network liked the script and pursuedZooey Deschanelfor the role of Jess,to whose story Meriwether felt most connected.As the script developed, the plot moved on from being about the sexual endeavors of the roommates and became more socially oriented, so the title was changed toNew Girl. The show attempts to combine \"comedy and drama as the five characters explore the difficulties of the decade between 30 and 40, which is when many people take their biggest steps toward maturity\" with regard to relationships and careers,which, unlikeFriends, is giving the show a \"built-in biological clock\".ProducerJake Kasdansaid that \"Their lives are moving forward, they're still trying to hang on to some kind of crazy youth\" although he does not \"want them ever to seem pathetic.\" Casting Movie actress and singer-songwriter Zooey Deschanel was in the","was in the process of developing anHBOshow when she read theNew Girlpilot script and responded to the material.The character of Jess was not specifically written for Deschanel, but the producers found it a great match and adjusted it to better fit the actress.With the support from Fox, Meriwether wanted to make Jess a unique, interesting and funny female characterthat would have been the side character on other shows.Deschanel became a producer on the show and helped build the character,requesting to not play the classic wife character who would be ignored by the guys she tries to keep out of trouble.Meriwether's goal was to write about herself from an honest perspective,with Jess mirroring her at the start and later Deschanel until Jess turned into a \"hybrid of me and Zooey, the writers, and the editor\".Deschanel described Jess as a part of her, especially with regard to \"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\" of her youth. She does not shy away from playing embarrassing scenes or being unattractive.As Kasdan","Kasdan said, \"This show advocates for the attractive dork.\"Although Meriwether had always imagined the show as an ensemble show, Fox would later focus its first marketing push on Zooey Deschaneland gave the show the promotional tagline \"Simply Adorkable.\" Basing Nick Miller on a friend also surnamed Miller,she originally imagined Nick as the smartest one of the group who doesn't need to say thatand thought of him as \"the everyman one, who's stepping away and commenting on what all the crazy people are doing around him.\"She sent theNew Girlpilot script to movie actorJake Johnson, with whom she had enjoyed working onNo Strings Attachedand guided him through the audition process.Johnson auditioned withMax Greenfield, who impressed the producers in his first audition as Schmidt.The actors auditioning for Schmidt were more varied in appearance than those auditioning for Nick,and Johnson and Greenfield were initially worried that they looked too much alike.however, both men were cast the same day. Meriwether","day. Meriwether originally envisioned Coach as \"a fat Jewish guy, like a manchild\" and later as \"this dumb jock crazy rage problems\".David Neher (who would play Schmidt's so-called \"fremesis,\" Benjamin, in four episodes) was among the 400 actors auditioning for Coach before the producers settled onDamon Wayans Jr.who was expecting his show, theABCsitcomHappy Endings, to be cancelled. When that show was renewed for a second season, Wayans' spot was replaced with Lamorne Morris,who had also read for Coach but had been unavailable for filming the pilot.Meriwether estimated that about 80 percent of the pilot would have needed to be re-shot in order to remove Wayans from the episode, since he was in one of the leading roles of the show.As the producers also liked reflecting the frequent apartment changes in young people's lives,Meriwether, 20th Century Fox and the studio decided to keep the characters and the plot of the pilot episode as they were.Morris joined the show in the second episode of the series when","of the series when the producers had already broken seven episodes without knowing what the actor was going to be able to do.Wayans returned toNew Girlin season 3 for a season-long arc afterHappy Endingshad been cancelled, and was officially added as a regular for season 4. Writing New Girlhad 11 writers during its first seasonand 15 during the second season—includingElizabeth Meriwether,Brett Baer, andDave Finkel.Stories were developed in a collaborative effortand aimed at viewers of any gender.Writers intended to keep actors and audiences on their toes by planning very few story arcs and focusing on setting up characters in the first couple seasons . The writers challenged themselves to create new stories and change the show's dynamics to keep things fresh,while aiming to be \"as emotionally real as possible.\"As the show's jokes rely on the actors' performance instead of perfectly constructed punch lines, Meriwether looked for the actors' strengths before writing.The A story generally revolved around Jess","around Jess and had an emotional core.Still, Meriwether saw the show as an ensemble about friendship with \"everybody having their own stories and people being interested in all of the characters.\" EachNew Girlepisode started out as a pitch page, went through stages of an outline and a final draft before being filmed and edited,a process which could take weeks.The writers were broken up to rework drafts until they found the funniest and most emotionally resonant version. All characters were aimed to be tied into the story, and determining their motivation was the major goal so that people would laugh.During the first season, Meriwether usually made a final pass at the draft alone because of her film and theater background.The actors' performance influenced new story ideaswith the actors also handing in story ideas. Filming and editing The main set built for the pilot was to represent a factory-turned-loft in downtown Los Angeles. It was reused once the show was given a full season.The apartment building","apartment building exterior is the Binford Building, located at 837 Traction Avenue inthe city's Arts District, with interior shots done in a studio set.The exterior shots for the bar where Nick works is of The Griffin (now The High Low), located inAtwater Village. The interior shots of the bar are originally from a restaurant called The Prince inKoreatown, and were recreated in a studio set after the first season. As asingle-cameracomedy,New Girlis neither performed in front of a studio audience nor has alaugh track.Some scenes are cross-covered (i.e. are filmed with a shooting camera on each person at the same time), to allow for better improvisations.Handheld cameras are avoided for a more filmic look. The actors first perform scenes as written, then act out the alternatives or improvise,to later allow the producers and editors to choose the gags that ultimately work best.Morris estimated that 20 percent of each episode is improvised. True American True Americanis a fictional, convoluteddrinking gamethat","gamethat theNew Girlcharacters first played in the season 1 episode 20, \"Normal\". After \"Normal\" aired, internet sources began to summarize the rules forTrue American, which the characters described as a mix of a drinking game andCandy Landwherethe floor is lava; it also involves shouting the names of American presidents.The idea ofTrue Americancame from aNew Girlwriter who played a similar game in college. As she could not remember the game's exact rules, the writers focused on making the game as funny on the page as possible, but only established chanting \"JFK!FDR!\" and walking on chairs. Throughout the series, the writers created new rules on the spot in order to keep the actors improvising and encouraged them to \"have fun, dig in, jump in\". The game's second appearance in season 2's \"Cooler\" was played with the strip-poker version called \"Clinton Rules\", but the exact rules remain unclear even to the actors.True Americanwith updated rules and the resulting hangover were featured in season 3's \"Mars","in season 3's \"Mars Landing\". The writers started to do newTrue Americanepisodes once each yearwithout ever giving explicit rules for the game. Liz Meriwether said the game would not be easier to comprehend in later appearances, as the writers' goal is to actually make it harder to understand. Relationships Creator Elizabeth Meriwether sees Nick, Schmidt and Winston \"on the weirder side of things\".The producers started learning more about the characters by seeing the actors' work and that \"We probably rely on them more than we should\" to define the characters.Each of the actors improvisations allowed for the characters to switch traits around in the first season before solidifying their characters. Producers found more variety in Nick's character in season 1 and enjoyed Johnson's improvisations, so they relayed Coach's previous attributed rage issues to Nick.Nick's character connects the most with the other roommates, childhood friends with Winston and college roommates with Schmidt, allowing him to be more","him to be more involved in their stories. Writers developed the Nick–Winston dynamic in season 1 and sought to figure out Winston's relationship with the other loft mates in season 2.The writers noticed late during the first season that Morris seemed better suited to play a smart character and act as the loft's voice of reason,although Meriwether found that when Winston \"finally does blow up, he's crazier than all of them\"and that he works better \"in these kind of crazy, comedic runners, small pieces of the episode\"that contrast the relationship dramas of the other main characters.The Winston–Schmidt friendship was developed significantly in the second half of season 2 when the story focus moved to Nick and Jess.The Nick–Jess relationship affects the three guys' friendship as Nick starts being more considerate of Jess' feelings regarding shenanigans.Damon Wayans Jr. was planned to reprise his role as Coach in at least four episodes in the third season,according to Meriwether \"at a time when the roommates are","the roommates are at odds with each other\". With Meriwether's openness regarding straight and gay communities,New Girlalso plays with the guys' sexual orientation for humor. One of Winston's recurring alternate persona is Nick's gay lover \"Theodore K. Mullins\", which started out as an improv of Morris.Johnson thought that Nick and Schmidt had \"a pretty funny bromance\" with \"their own little weird will-they-won't-they\".Greenfield improvised kissing Nick a lot in season 1 until the writers started putting Schmidt–Nick kisses into the script,so that they shared more kisses than Nick and Jess did in the first two seasons. Episodes Broadcast and ratings TheNew Girlpilotwas released via on-demand, iTunes, andTiVoon September 6, 2011before its September 20 premiere onFoxin theUnited Statesand onCityin Canada.Other international broadcasters includeChannel 4andE4in the United Kingdom,RTÉ2in the Republic of Ireland,Network TenandElevenin Australia,andFourin New Zealand.The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S.","10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating,making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show sinceThe Bernie Mac Showin 2001.The second episode madeNew Girlthe top-rated show on television in the marketing-important 18–49 demographic, improved the rating of its lead-in hit seriesGleeand beat the long-running hit seriesNCISandDancing with the Stars.At this time, Fox ordered 11 additional episodes to the initial 13-episode order, bringing the first season to 24 episodes. The ratings dropped when the show took a break for baseball, falling almost 30 percent to a 2.1 rating in the 18–49 audience group.During the 2011–12 television season,New Girlaveraged 8.22 million viewers and a 4.2 adults 18–49 demo rating. In 18–49 demo, it ranked as the fifth highest rated show on Fox and 13th overall.On April 9, 2012,New Girlwas officially renewed for a second season of 24 episodes;Fox ordered one more episode during the second half of the season. Awards and nominations Main article:List of","article:List of awards and nominations received by New Girl The show has been nominated for several awards, including fiveGolden Globe Awardsand fivePrimetime Emmy Awards. Syndication and streaming New Girlwas added toTBSin 2015 and was removed in 2022. Additionally, the sitcom was added toMTVin 2015 and was removed in 2016.After 10 years on Netflix,the show became exclusively available onHuluandPeacocksince April 17, 2023. Home media Tie-ins Reception Critical reviews On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes, season one holds an approval rating of 84% based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.83/10.Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 66 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". In June 2011,New Girlwas one of eight honorees in the \"most exciting new series\" category at the1st Critics' Choice Television Awards, voted by journalists who had seen thepilots.Robert Bianco ofUSA TodayconsideredNew Girl\"fall's most promising new","most promising new series\" and praised how Deschanel and Meriwether \"have shaped Jess into something we haven't quite seen before – a woman who is sweet yet crass, innocent yet sexy, beautiful yet clumsy, and brash yet irresistibly adorable.\" However, he noted how \"Some people will be resistant to Deschanel's doe-eyed charm; others have a congenital need to insult anyone who most everyone else is praising, particularly if doing so gets them attention.\"The Hollywood Reporter'sTim Goodman saw the show as a \"mostly romantic comedy\", and although Jess' adorability \"might seem like a thin premise, Meriwether manages to make the situations funny and lets Deschanel channel her charm – a winning combination.\"David Wiegandof theSan Francisco Chroniclewould rather see the show tone down. He felt \"the show's fundamental setup isn't all that inspired, but it could work with smarter writing and better direction, especially with regard to Deschanel\", who, in his opinion, overplayed Jess' weird habits \"to the point of","\"to the point of overkill within the first 10 minutes of the show\". Alan SepinwallofHitFixconsideredNew Girl\"the best new comedy of the fall season, and the only new show I genuinely enjoyed from start to finish\" because it was so well developed from the start. He praised Deschanel's \"wonderful comic performance\" and said that while the supporting actors \"all bounce nicely off of Deschanel\", the scenes without Deschanel around them fell flat for him.Writing for theDaily News, David Hinckley lauded how none of the characters \"settle in as the stereotypes they could easily become\", and presumed that all of them would evolve and get smarter as the show progresses.Lori Rack of theChicago Sun-Timespraised the actors' comedic timing and playing off each other. Despite the guys sounding \"like nightmares\" on paper, \"they have endearing, vulnerable cores that make them likable, and occasionally, lovable. New Girldidn't give me as many laugh-out-loud moments as some comedies\", but instead made her \"feel warm and","her \"feel warm and fuzzy\".Rob Owen of thePittsburgh Post-Gazettesaid the show's pilot was \"more charming than hilarious\" and \"cuter than it is funny, but when it does conjure laughs, its style of humor is reminiscent of ABC'sHappy Endings\". Many critics considered Max Greenfield the show's breakout star in season 1;The A.V. Clubeven named Greenfield's Schmidt \"the year's breakout TV character\" as a \"douchebag with a heart of gold\".Salondescribed Schmidt as \"a sort of self-created alpha male and a collection of beta male qualities are performed with such conviction they congeal into a sort of deranged machismo, one slathered in sandalwood-scented lotion. As part of this transition, Schmidt has gone from being a douchebag in the classic model—a guy who, in the pilot, constantly wanted to show off his pecs and scam girls, and seemed capable of doing so—to a douche of a more unique variety.\"The Huffington Post'sMaureen Ryan said how \"Schmidt could have easily been 'the dumb guy', or the show could have","the show could have exploited his status as an eminently mockable douche. But thanks to Max Greenfield's endearing depiction of the would-be lady-killer, there's a lot more the writers have been able to do with the character.\" On Rotten Tomatoes, season two holds an approval rating of 88% based on 16 reviews, with an average rating of 6.56/10. After the teasing of the Nick–Jess relationship in the first season, critics named Jake Johnson the breakout star of season 2 as the characters' romance unfolded.Saying that \"Not since Ross and Rachel's tango onFriendshas watching a comedy romance been so satisfying\",The Hollywood Reportersaid the producers \"did the impossible by engaging their leads in a love story, which only strengthened the artistry of the single-cam comedy\".The New York Timessaid season 2 \"erupted in fantastic and bizarre fits and starts\" because of the characters' unmatched personalities, and lauded the writers for not playing up the will-they-or-won't-they dynamic. By emphasizinghowthe","emphasizinghowthe characters got together, the show \"made for hilarious setups to high-level Abbott and Costello slapstick. The continued Nick–Jess relationship was criticized in season 3 for dropping the characters' personalities, lack of tension,and for neglecting the show's female friendship between Jess and Cece. On Rotten Tomatoes, season three holds an approval rating of 88% based on 14 reviews, with an average rating of 6.46/10. Season four holds an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.67/10. The series' seventh and final season has an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.78, and a critical consensus of, \"After seven years of friendship,New Girlsigns off with a thoughtful, funny final season that bids a proper adieu to its colorful cast of characters.\" References External links","List ofNew Girlepisodes New Girlis an American televisionsitcomthat premiered onFoxon September 20, 2011. Developed byElizabeth Meriwetherunder the working titleChicks & Dicks, the show starsZooey Deschanelas Jessica \"Jess\" Day, a well-liked and bubbly woman who is trying to get over her surprise breakup with her boyfriend. With the help of her best friend Cece (Hannah Simone), she finds a new place to stay when she moves in with three single guys: Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), an underachieving bartender; Schmidt (Max Greenfield), who thinks of himself as a modern-dayCasanova; and Coach (Damon Wayans, Jr.), who leaves the series in the next episode and is replaced by Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris), a former professional athlete who achieved modest success abroad and is adjusting to life back in the United States. Coach reappears in the series during seasons three, four, five, six, and seven. On May 14, 2017, the series was renewed for a seventh and final season, which featured eight episodes.On January 4,","January 4, 2018, it was announced that the seventh and final season would premiere on April 10, 2018, and also it would end with a one-hour series finale, which was aired on May 15, 2018. During the course of the series, 146 episodes ofNew Girlaired over seven seasons. Series overview Episodes Season 1 (2011–12) Season 2 (2012–13) Season 3 (2013–14) Season 4 (2014–15) Season 5 (2016) Season 6 (2016–17) Season 7 (2018) Ratings Notes References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Zooey Deschanel Zooey Claire Deschanel(/ˈzoʊiˌdeɪʃəˈnɛl/ZO-ee day-shə-NEL; born January 17, 1980) is an American actress and musician. She made her film debut inMumford(1999) and had a supporting role inCameron Crowe's filmAlmost Famous(2000). Deschanel is known for herdeadpanroles in comedy films such asThe Good Girl(2002),The New Guy(2002),Elf(2003),The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy(2005),Failure to Launch(2006),Yes Man(2008),500 Days of Summer(2009), andOur Idiot Brother(2011).She has also ventured into dramatic film territory withManic(2001),All the Real Girls(2003),Winter Passing(2005),Bridge to Terabithia(2007),The Happening(2008), andThe Driftless Area(2015).From 2011 to 2018, she starred asJess Dayon theFoxsitcomNew Girl, for which she received nominations for aPrimetime Emmy Awardand threeGolden Globe Awards. For a few years starting in 2001, Deschanel performed in thejazzcabaretactIf All the Stars Were Pretty Babieswith actressSamantha Shelton.In 2006, Deschanel teamed up withM. Wardto formShe &\",\n \"Wardto formShe & Him, and subsequently released their debut album,Volume One, in 2008. They have since released six albums:Volume Two(2010),A Very She & Him Christmas(2011),Volume 3(2013),Classics(2014),Christmas Party(2016), andMelt Away: A Tribute to Brian Wilson(2022). She received aGrammy Awardnomination forBest Song Written for Visual Mediafor \\\"So Long\\\", which was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 filmWinnie the Pooh. Besides singing, she plays keyboards, percussion, banjo, and ukulele. Deschanel is also a co-founder of the female-focused websiteHelloGiggles, which was acquired byTime Inc.in 2015. Early life Zooey Claire Deschanel was born in Los Angeles, California on January 17, 1980,the younger daughter of cinematographer and directorCaleb Deschaneland actressMary Jo Deschanel(née Weir). Her paternal grandfather was French, fromOullins, Rhône, and her paternal grandmother came from aQuakerfamily; she also has Swiss, Dutch, English, Irish, and other French ancestry.She was named afterZooey Glass,\",\n \"afterZooey Glass, the protagonist ofJ. D. Salinger's 1961 novellaFranny and Zooey.Her older sister is actressEmily Deschanel, who starred in the Fox crime comedy-drama seriesBones. Deschanel lived in Los Angeles, but spent much of her childhood traveling because her father shot films on location. She later said that she: ... hated all the traveling... I'm really happy now that I had the experience, but at the time I was just so miserable to have to leave my friends in Los Angeles and go to places where they didn't have any food I liked or things I was used to. She attendedCrossroads, a private preparatory school in Santa Monica, where she befriended future co-starsJake GyllenhaalandKate Hudson.She sang throughout high school, planning to pursue a career in musical theatre and attendingFrench Woods Festival of the Performing Arts.She attendedNorthwestern Universityfor nine months before dropping out to pursue acting. Acting career 1997–2002: Early acting credits Deschanel had a guest appearance on the\",\n \"appearance on the television seriesVeronica's Closetin 1998. She made her film debut inLawrence Kasdan's comedyMumford(1999), revolving around the neurotic residents in a small town and co-starringHope Davis,Jason Lee,Alfre WoodardandMary McDonnell. That same year, she appeared in a non-singing role in the music video forThe Offspring's single \\\"She's Got Issues\\\", which premiered on September 27, 1999.Deschanel was a judge for the ninth Independent Music Awards.In 2005, she modeled forChanelandClements Ribeiro, and in 2010, she signed to representRimmel. Deschanel co-starred inCameron Crowe's semi-autobiographicalAlmost Famous(2000), where she played Anita Miller, the rebellious older sister of a teenage journalist. Despite a modest box office response, the film received critical praise,winning theGolden Globe Award for Best Film – Musical or Comedy. Deschanel appeared in the independent dramaManic(2001), as the love interest of a troubled teen (Joseph Gordon-Levitt). The film was screened at theSundance Film\",\n \"at theSundance Film Festivaland received a limited theatrical release.The New York Timesfound Deschanel to be \\\"particularly spontaneous, unaffected and emotionally direct\\\" in her role. Following early notice, Deschanel took on supporting parts in four feature films released throughout 2002:Big Trouble,The New Guy,The Good Girl, andAbandon. In the comedyBig Trouble, withTim AllenandRene Russo, she played the daughter of a devoted and reluctant woman, and in the teen comedyThe New Guy, starred as a guitar player in a band. Deschanel portrayed a cynical, plain-spoken young woman working in abig-box storein the black dramedyThe Good Girl, oppositeJennifer AnistonandJake Gyllenhaal. The psychological thrillerAbandonsaw her play the roommate of a woman involved in her boyfriend's disappearance. Deschanel also made a one-episode appearance inFrasier, as Roz's out-of-control Cousin, Jen.The New York Timesreported that Deschanel was \\\"one of Hollywood's most sought-after young stars\\\",in 2002, and theLos Angeles\",\n \"and theLos Angeles Timeswrote in early 2003 that Deschanel had become a recognizabletype, due to \\\"her deadpan, sardonic and scene-stealing performances\\\" as the protagonist's best friend.Deschanel objected to her typecasting, arguing, \\\"A lot of these roles are just a formula idea of somebody's best friend, and it's like, I don't even have that many friends. In high school, I stayed home all the time, so I don't know how I'm everybody's best friend now.\\\" 2003–2010: Breakthrough Deschanel obtained her first leading film role debut in the independent dramaAll the Real Girls(2003) as Noel, a sexually curious 18-year-oldvirginwho has a life-changing romance with an aimless 22-year-old. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and was an arthouse success. Her performance received wide critical acclaim,andVarietyremarked: \\\"Performances are all credible and naturalistic, but standing out from the rest is Deschanel's work, which evinces an impressively direct connection to her character's emotions. The\",\n \"emotions. The actress does a wonderful job presenting a young woman who is trying, with varying degrees of success, to give voice to all sorts of things she has never felt or expressed before\\\".She received anIndependent Spirit Awardnomination forBest Actress.Also in 2003, Deschanel starred oppositeWill Ferrellin the Christmas comedyElfas a deadpan department store worker and the love interest of a man raised by Santa's elves.Reviewers found the film to be a \\\"spirited, good-natured family comedy\\\" as part of an overall positive critical response;and, budgeted at US$33 million,Elfmade US$220.4 million worldwide. In 2004, Deschanel starred inEulogy, and in 2005 playedTrillianin the film adaptation ofDouglas Adams's science fiction novelThe Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. She acted inWinter Passing(2005), co-starring Will Ferrell. Deschanel next appeared inFailure to Launch(2006), as the neurotic roommate ofSarah Jessica Parker's character. She also had a recurring role in four episodes of theShowtimetelevision\",\n \"seriesWeedsfrom 2006 to 2007 where she played Kat,Andy Botwin's ex-girlfriend. In September 2006, it was announced that Deschanel had signed on to play 1960s singerJanis Joplinin the filmThe Gospel According to Janis, to be co-written and directed byPenelope Spheeris.The film was scheduled to begin shooting in 2006, but was then postponed indefinitely;it was then resurrected again, with a planned release date of 2012, before being cancelled altogether in 2011. Deschanel expressed frustration with the cancellation, saying she had spent three years working on imitating Joplin's scratchy singing voice. In 2007, Deschanel played a music teacher inBridge to Terabithia, and the voice of a penguin in the animated filmSurf's Up. She had a small role as Dorothy Evans in therevisionist WesternThe Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Fordand starred in theBcomedyFlakes, which was released in only one theater.Deschanel starred as DG in theSyfyminiseriesTin Man, a re-imagined science fiction version ofThe\",\n \"version ofThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz. It aired in December 2007. Deschanel also narrated the children's bookPlayers in Pigtails.She voiced Mary,Cletus's daughter in three episodes ofThe Simpsonssince debuting on the April 27, 2008, episode, \\\"Apocalypse Cow\\\". InM. Night Shyamalan's thrillerThe Happening(2008), she starred oppositeMark Wahlbergas a couple trying to escape from an inexplicable natural disaster. Despite largely negative reviews, criticRoger Ebertfelt that Wahlberg and Deschanel's performances \\\"bring a quiet dignity to their characters\\\",and globally, the film made US$163 million.She starred in the independent comedyGigantic(2008), which screened at theToronto International Film Festivaland was distributed for a limited release in certain parts of the United States only. In the comedyYes Man(also 2008), she played an unorthodox singer and the girlfriend ofJim Carrey's character.The film grossed US$223.1 million around the world. Deschanel reunited with Joseph Gordon-Levitt in the independent\",\n \"in the independent romantic drama about the development and demise of a relationship(500) Days of Summer(2009).The film garnered critical acclaim and became a \\\"sleeper hit\\\", earning over $60 million in worldwide returns, far exceeding its $7.5 million budget.Mark Adams of theDaily Mirrorfound the film to be a \\\"modern romance for grown-ups\\\" and a \\\"sweet-natured, funny, deeply-romantic tale\\\" blessed with \\\"top-notch performances by Deschanel and Gordon-Levitt, who are both charming and have real chemistry\\\".In December 2009, Deschanel guest-starred in a Christmas episode of theFoxcrime procedural comedy-dramaBones, which was the first-ever on-screen pairing of the Deschanel sisters. Since 2010:New Girland other projects Deschanel was originally the top choice forJanet van Dyne / The Waspin an early draft ofJoss Whedon'sThe Avengersin which she would have played a prominent role. However, onceScarlett Johanssonwas cast asNatasha Romanoff / Black Widow, Deschanel was no longer in consideration to portray the Wasp\",\n \"to portray the Wasp with Janet's daughter Hope van Dyne taking up the mantle in theInfinity Saga, played byEvangeline Lilly.Deschanel starred in the comedyOur Idiot Brother(2011) as the independent and bisexual sister of a dimwitted but idealistic man (Paul Rudd). The production was screened at theSundance Film Festival, to a generally positive critical reception.She played Belladonna in the stoner fantasy-comedyYour Highness(2011), withDanny McBrideandJames Franco.The film received negative reviews andbombed at the box office.Describing her role, Roger Ebert noted in its review for the film: \\\" brought onstage, quickly kidnapped by an evil sorcerer, spends a good deal of time as a captive in his lair, is rescued and lives happily ever after. She might as well be a mannequin, for all she's given to say and do. This intelligent, nuanced actress, standing there baffled. Used as a placeholder\\\". Deschanel signed on to star as a bubbly and offbeat teacherJessica \\\"Jess\\\" Dayon theFoxsitcomNew Girl, created\",\n \"Girl, created byElizabeth Meriwether. She became a producer on the show and helped build the character,which she has described as a part of her, especially in regards to \\\"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\\\" of her youth.The series premiered in September 2011, andUSA Todaydescribed her performance as \\\"a role tailored to launch her from respected indie actor to certified star, Deschanel soars, combining well-honed skills with a natural charm\\\".She has received anEmmy Awardnomination and three Golden Globe nominations for her role.The series finale ran on May 15, 2018. Deschanel hostedSaturday Night Liveon February 11, 2012.That same year, she was featured in a commercial for theiPhone 4S(Siri). InRock the Kasbah(2015), she played a Los Angeles singer taken toAfghanistanby her former manager (Bill Murray). Despite a US$15 million budget, the comedy only made US$3 million at the North American box office.She obtained the role of a mysterious woman in the neo-noir dramaThe Driftless Area(2015), screened at\",\n \"screened at theTribeca Film Festivaland released on video on demand and home media.She voiced a kind-hearted Bergen, Bridget, in the animated family comedyTrolls(2016), which grossed US$344 million worldwide. In December 2020, Deschanel appeared in the music video forKaty Perry's song \\\"Not the End of the World\\\".In 2021, she co-hosted the ABC television seriesThe Celebrity Dating GamewithMichael Bolton. In January 2022, she began cohostingWelcome to Our Show, aNew Girlrewatch podcast with co-starsHannah SimoneandLamorne Morris, distributed byIHeartRadio.Deschanel appears as Kelly in season 3 ofPhysicalreleased on August 2, 2023and Nancy inDreamin' Wild, released on August 4, 2023. She would also appear as Terry inHarold and the Purple Crayon, which was released on August 2, 2024. Music career Singing and performing In 2001, Deschanel formedIf All the Stars Were Pretty Babies, ajazzcabaretact with fellow actressSamantha Shelton.The pair performed around Los Angeles. In March 2007, Deschanel contributed vocals\",\n \"contributed vocals to two songs \\\"Slowly\\\" and \\\"Ask Her to Dance\\\" on the albumNighttimingbyJason Schwartzman's bandCoconut Records. It was reported that Deschanel andM. Ward, who had previously performed with Deschanel on-stage, were recording music under the moniker She & Him.Their first album, titledVolume One, was released byMerge Recordson March 18, 2008.It received a strong response from critics, withPastemagazine voting it the No. 1 Album of 2008. Patrick Caldwell of theAustin American Statesmanwrote: \\\"The album gently rambled through 13 tracks of sun-dappled pop, with a gentle Orbisonian charm and sweet, wistful vocals from Deschanel.\\\" Deschanel recorded \\\"The Fabric of My Life\\\" for a 2009 advertising campaign forCotton Incorporated.On March 23, 2010, the second She & Him album,Volume Two, was released.Deschanel and M. Ward both featured onThe Place We Ran From(2010), the album bySnow PatrolmemberGary Lightbody's side project,Tired Pony. Deschanel contributed vocals to the tracks \\\"Get on the Road\\\" and\",\n \"on the Road\\\" and \\\"Point Me at Lost Islands\\\", while M. Ward contributed vocals and guitar to the track \\\"Held in the Arms of Your Words\\\" and guitar to the track \\\"That Silver Necklace\\\". Deschanel performed \\\"God Bless America\\\" during theseventh-inning stretchin game three of theNational League Championship Seriesbetween thePhiladelphia PhilliesandSan Francisco Giantson October 19, 2010, atAT&T Parkin San Francisco.On October 23, 2011, Deschanel performed \\\"The Star-Spangled Banner\\\" before game four of theWorld Seriesbetween theTexas Rangersand theSt. Louis CardinalsatRangers BallparkinArlington, Texas.Deschanel contributed a cover ofBuddy Holly's \\\"It's So Easy\\\" for the tribute albumListen to Me: Buddy Holly, released on September 6, 2011. She had previously appeared onRave On Buddy Holly, with She & Him performing \\\"Oh, Boy!\\\", released in June 2011. A Very She & Him Christmaswas announced on Pitchfork.com in September 2011. The 12-trackChristmas albumwas released October 25, 2011, underMerge Records.On December\",\n \"Records.On December 28, 2011, she and Joseph Gordon-Levitt recorded an informal version of \\\"What Are You Doing New Year's Eve?\\\" for her HelloGiggles YouTube channel. It was immensely popular and within four days had over 6 million views.Deschanel was featured on bandmate M. Ward's sixth solo album,A Wasteland Companion(2012). During a May 2012 performance at theRyman Auditorium, country music singerLoretta Lynnannounced that she was in the development stages of creating a Broadway musical from her autobiography and Deschanel would play the title role., saying, \\\"There's a little girl back stage that's going to do the play of 'Coal Miner's Daughter' on Broadway\\\". She then brought Deschanel onstage and the two sang a duet of thetitle song.On September 21, 2012, it was announced that Deschanel was producing the comedyMust Be Nice, written byNew Girlconsulting producerJ. J. Philbin. She and Him's next album,Volume 3was released byMerge Recordsin May 2013. In the 15-track album, Deschanel wrote eleven songs, while\",\n \"eleven songs, while three others are cover songs.It debuted at number 15 on theBillboard200.The band's fifth studio album,Classics, received a December 2014 release byColumbia Records, and it features 13 covers of classic songs, recorded live and accompanied by a 20-piece orchestra.Response towards the album was positive, with Robert Hamm forAlternative Presswriting that Deschanel \\\"is a delight, at times coy and romantic, and in other moments, moody and pensive\\\".She also appeared as a guest vocalist onBrian Wilson's albumNo Pier Pressure(2015).She & Him's second Christmas album and sixth album overall,Christmas Party, was released in 2016. Film-related music Deschanel made her on-screen singing debut inThe New Guy(2002). InElf(2003), she sings \\\"Baby, It's Cold Outside\\\" withWill Ferrellin the bathroom shower scene, \\\"Auld Lang Syne\\\" withJames Caanon piano and withLeon Redboneon the soundtrack. Her piano composition \\\"Bittersuite\\\" was used thematically in the darkdramedyWinter Passing(2006), in which she co\",\n \"in which she co starred with Ferrell andEd Harris, and also sings \\\"My Bonnie Lies over the Ocean\\\" in the film. In 2007, other singing credits followed: the television musicalOnce Upon a Mattress(\\\"An Opening for a Princess\\\", \\\"In a Little While\\\", \\\"Normandy\\\", and \\\"Yesterday I Loved You\\\");an old cabaret song inThe Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford(\\\"A Bird in a Gilded Cage\\\"); and the short filmRaving(\\\"Hello, Dolly!\\\"). Deschanel and a cast of school children sing theSteve Earlesong \\\"Someday\\\" andWar's \\\"Why Can't We Be Friends?\\\" inBridge to Terabithia. InYes Man(2008), Deschanel sings several songs featured in the film and on the film soundtrack, and is shown singing \\\"Uh-Huh\\\" and \\\"Sweet Ballad\\\" with San Franciscan all-girl electro soul-punk groupVon Ivain a fictional band called \\\"Munchausen by Proxy\\\".In500 Days of Summer(2009), Deschanel sings a cover ofThe Smiths's \\\"Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want\\\" and it appears on the soundtrack of the film, as performed by She & Him.She also\",\n \"She & Him.She also sings a cover of \\\"Sugar Town\\\" byNancy Sinatra. Deschanel and Joseph Gordon-Levitt did a music video, calledBank Dance, directed by500 Days of SummerdirectorMarc Webb, to accompany the film. It uses the She & Him song \\\"Why Do You Let Me Stay Here?\\\", and some complicated choreography, choreographed by Michael Rooney. Mason Novick, the film's producer said, \\\"We made the short because Zooey came in and said, 'I have this idea ... because I didn't get to dance in the movie'\\\" (as Gordon-Levitt did). Deschanel sings \\\"The Greatest Most Beautiful Love Song in All the Land\\\" withJames Francoin the comedyYour Highness(2011). She also appears with M. Ward in a number of songs on the soundtrack album for Disney's animated version ofWinnie the Pooh(2011), earning aGrammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Medianomination for \\\"So Long\\\".Deschanel wrote and performed the theme song toNew Girl.Also, in season three's episode \\\"Prince\\\", the song \\\"Fallinlove2nite\\\" is sung by Deschanel andPrince.InRock the\",\n \"the Kasbah(2015), she sang a cover ofMeredith Brooks's \\\"Bitch\\\", which is featured in the soundtrack for the film.In 2016, Deschanel voiced Bridget, the scullery maid in the animated filmTrolls. Other work In May 2011, after the success of her HelloGiggles YouTube channel, Deschanel, along with producer Sophia Rossi and writer Molly McAleer, founded the websiteHelloGiggles.com, an entertainment website geared towards women.HelloGiggles.com was acquired by Time, Inc. in 2015. In 2023, Deschanel hosted theMaxinformational showWhat Am I Eating?. It was based on a previous series Deschanel did forATTN:,Your Food's Roots. Personal life Deschanel is allergic to eggs, dairy products, and soy.She had a gluten allergy, but stated in a 2022 interview onArmchair Expertthat she no longer suffers from it.She used to be avegan,which she gave up because she found it difficult to eat enough calories on a vegan diet due to her sensitivities to wheat and soy.A year prior to giving up her vegan diet, she was featured on episode\",\n \"featured on episode eight of season one ofBravo'sTop Chef Masters, in which the chefs participating in the competition were challenged to cater a vegan lunch party for her family and friends using no soy or gluten.Deschanel is currently apescetarian. In December 2008, Deschanel became engaged to musicianBen Gibbard, lead vocalist forDeath Cab for CutieandThe Postal Service.They married on September 19, 2009, nearSeattle, Washington.On November 1, 2011, they announced their separation.Deschanel filed for divorce on December 27, 2011, citing \\\"irreconcilable differences\\\".The divorce was finalized on December 12, 2012. Deschanel confirmed her engagement to film producer Jacob Pechenik in January 2015,and they married in June 2015.They have two children: a daughter born in July 2015, and a son born in May 2017.Deschanel reportedly converted to Judaism before marrying Pechenik, who is Jewish. In August 2019, Deschanel metProperty BrothersstarJonathan Scottwhile filming an episode ofCarpool Karaoke: The Series. On\",\n \"The Series. On September 6, 2019, Deschanel and Pechenik announced their separation.Deschanel and Pechenik divorced on June 1, 2020. On August 13, 2023, Deschanel and Scott announced their engagement atEdinburgh Castlein Scotland. Filmography Discography Awards and nominations References External links\",\n \"New Girl New Girlis an American televisionsitcomcreated byElizabeth Meriwetherand produced by20th Century Fox TelevisionforFoxthat aired from September 20, 2011, to May 15, 2018. The series revolves around quirky teacher,Jessica Day(Zooey Deschanel), after she moves into aLos Angelesloft with three men, Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), Schmidt (Max Greenfield), and Coach (Damon Wayans Jr.). Former roommate Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris) and Jess's best friend Cece Parekh (Hannah Simone) later join the characters. The show combines comedy and drama elements as the characters, who are in their late 20s and early 30s, deal with relationship issues and career choices.New Girlis a joint production betweenElizabeth Meriwether Picturesand20th Century Fox Televisionand is syndicated by20th Television. Produced in Los Angeles as asingle-cameracomedy,New Girlis an ensemble show aimed at a general audience.New Girlreceived acclaim from critics and was named one of the best new comedies of the 2011 fall season. The pilot\",\n \"season. The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating, making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show since 2001. Particular praise has been given to the performances of Deschanel, Greenfield, Simone, Johnson and Morris. The show has garnered increased mainstream viewership following its inclusion onNetflix, becoming one of the most popular shows on the platform.The series concluded its seven season run in May 2018. Plot Jessica \\\"Jess\\\" Day(Zooey Deschanel), a bubbly and quirky teacher in her late 20s, comes home from vacation to find her boyfriend, Spencer (Ian Wolterstorff), with another woman and leaves him immediately to look for somewhere else to live. After Jess answers an ad for a new roommate onCraigslist, she moves into a loft in Los Angeles with three men around her own age: Nick, Schmidt, and Coach. After thepilot episode, Winston, a former roommate and Nick's childhood friend, replaces Coach, who leaves the apartment to live with his\",\n \"to live with his girlfriend. Jess' childhood best friend, Cece, a fashion model frequently visits Jess and the guys. The series follows the group's interactions with each other as they become closer friends and develop romantic relationships. Midway through season 1, Schmidt and Cece become involved in a mostly sexual relationship but break up at the end of the season. In Season 2, Jess is laid off from her teaching job; she and the others get involved in mostly temporary relationships however, Cece enters an arranged marriage engagement withShivrang(Satya Bhabha) that is broken up at their wedding in the season 2 finale when Cece realizes she loves Schmidt. Schmidt had recently started dating his old college girlfriend Elizabeth had to choose between Elizabeth and Cece. Meanwhile, Nick and Jess develop feelings and start dating at Cece's wedding, making their relationship official at the end of season 2,and it lasts through most of season 3 until they realize that ultimately, they want different things in\",\n \"different things in life. Coach returns to the loft in season 3, revealing that he had broken up with his girlfriend and rejoins the gang, and even has a short fling with Cece after ending the short relationship with Schmidt. He stays through season 4 until he moves out to be with another girl, May (Meaghan Rath) to New York.At the end of season 4, Schmidt proposes to Cece, and they marry at the end of season 5. Meanwhile, after bouncing around several random jobs and several dating choices throughout the series, Winston works to become a police officer withthe LAPD, and falls in love with his partnerAly(Nasim Pedrad). In the beginning of season 5, Jess is called away to jury duty resulting in the group bringing in temporary roommateReagan Lucas(Megan Fox), who becomes Nick's love interest for the rest of the season. Shortly after returning from jury duty, Jess realizes that she loves Nick and wants to be with him. At the end of season 6, Nick and Reagan break up and shortly after, Nick and Jess get\",\n \"Nick and Jess get together, Cece and Schmidt are pregnant, and Winston is engaged to Aly and is trying to meet his father.Season 7 advances the storyline three years later where Schmidt and Cece have a three-year-old daughter named Ruth, Winston and Aly are expecting their first baby, and Nick proposes to Jess. Cast and characters The principal cast ofNew Girlincludes: Special guest stars Production Conception 20th Century Fox Televisionfirst approached playwrightElizabeth Meriwetherin 2008 to develop a pilot that was eventually shelved. After Meriwether's success with the 2011 romantic comedy filmNo Strings Attached, 20th Century Fox approached her once more, and she pitched an idea for a TV sitcom about an \\\"offbeat girl moving in with three single guys\\\",inspired by her experience of \\\"bouncing fromCraigslistsublet to Craigslist sublet, for four years in L.A.\\\" when she was in her twenties.This show was initially calledChicks and Dickswith two of the characters similar to the final characters of Jess and\",\n \"of Jess and Schmidt.The initial idea was aWill & Grace-style comedy inspired by Meriwether's close friendship with a guy after their exes started dating each other.The Fox network liked the script and pursuedZooey Deschanelfor the role of Jess,to whose story Meriwether felt most connected.As the script developed, the plot moved on from being about the sexual endeavors of the roommates and became more socially oriented, so the title was changed toNew Girl. The show attempts to combine \\\"comedy and drama as the five characters explore the difficulties of the decade between 30 and 40, which is when many people take their biggest steps toward maturity\\\" with regard to relationships and careers,which, unlikeFriends, is giving the show a \\\"built-in biological clock\\\".ProducerJake Kasdansaid that \\\"Their lives are moving forward, they're still trying to hang on to some kind of crazy youth\\\" although he does not \\\"want them ever to seem pathetic.\\\" Casting Movie actress and singer-songwriter Zooey Deschanel was in the\",\n \"was in the process of developing anHBOshow when she read theNew Girlpilot script and responded to the material.The character of Jess was not specifically written for Deschanel, but the producers found it a great match and adjusted it to better fit the actress.With the support from Fox, Meriwether wanted to make Jess a unique, interesting and funny female characterthat would have been the side character on other shows.Deschanel became a producer on the show and helped build the character,requesting to not play the classic wife character who would be ignored by the guys she tries to keep out of trouble.Meriwether's goal was to write about herself from an honest perspective,with Jess mirroring her at the start and later Deschanel until Jess turned into a \\\"hybrid of me and Zooey, the writers, and the editor\\\".Deschanel described Jess as a part of her, especially with regard to \\\"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\\\" of her youth. She does not shy away from playing embarrassing scenes or being unattractive.As Kasdan\",\n \"Kasdan said, \\\"This show advocates for the attractive dork.\\\"Although Meriwether had always imagined the show as an ensemble show, Fox would later focus its first marketing push on Zooey Deschaneland gave the show the promotional tagline \\\"Simply Adorkable.\\\" Basing Nick Miller on a friend also surnamed Miller,she originally imagined Nick as the smartest one of the group who doesn't need to say thatand thought of him as \\\"the everyman one, who's stepping away and commenting on what all the crazy people are doing around him.\\\"She sent theNew Girlpilot script to movie actorJake Johnson, with whom she had enjoyed working onNo Strings Attachedand guided him through the audition process.Johnson auditioned withMax Greenfield, who impressed the producers in his first audition as Schmidt.The actors auditioning for Schmidt were more varied in appearance than those auditioning for Nick,and Johnson and Greenfield were initially worried that they looked too much alike.however, both men were cast the same day. Meriwether\",\n \"day. Meriwether originally envisioned Coach as \\\"a fat Jewish guy, like a manchild\\\" and later as \\\"this dumb jock crazy rage problems\\\".David Neher (who would play Schmidt's so-called \\\"fremesis,\\\" Benjamin, in four episodes) was among the 400 actors auditioning for Coach before the producers settled onDamon Wayans Jr.who was expecting his show, theABCsitcomHappy Endings, to be cancelled. When that show was renewed for a second season, Wayans' spot was replaced with Lamorne Morris,who had also read for Coach but had been unavailable for filming the pilot.Meriwether estimated that about 80 percent of the pilot would have needed to be re-shot in order to remove Wayans from the episode, since he was in one of the leading roles of the show.As the producers also liked reflecting the frequent apartment changes in young people's lives,Meriwether, 20th Century Fox and the studio decided to keep the characters and the plot of the pilot episode as they were.Morris joined the show in the second episode of the series when\",\n \"of the series when the producers had already broken seven episodes without knowing what the actor was going to be able to do.Wayans returned toNew Girlin season 3 for a season-long arc afterHappy Endingshad been cancelled, and was officially added as a regular for season 4. Writing New Girlhad 11 writers during its first seasonand 15 during the second season—includingElizabeth Meriwether,Brett Baer, andDave Finkel.Stories were developed in a collaborative effortand aimed at viewers of any gender.Writers intended to keep actors and audiences on their toes by planning very few story arcs and focusing on setting up characters in the first couple seasons . The writers challenged themselves to create new stories and change the show's dynamics to keep things fresh,while aiming to be \\\"as emotionally real as possible.\\\"As the show's jokes rely on the actors' performance instead of perfectly constructed punch lines, Meriwether looked for the actors' strengths before writing.The A story generally revolved around Jess\",\n \"around Jess and had an emotional core.Still, Meriwether saw the show as an ensemble about friendship with \\\"everybody having their own stories and people being interested in all of the characters.\\\" EachNew Girlepisode started out as a pitch page, went through stages of an outline and a final draft before being filmed and edited,a process which could take weeks.The writers were broken up to rework drafts until they found the funniest and most emotionally resonant version. All characters were aimed to be tied into the story, and determining their motivation was the major goal so that people would laugh.During the first season, Meriwether usually made a final pass at the draft alone because of her film and theater background.The actors' performance influenced new story ideaswith the actors also handing in story ideas. Filming and editing The main set built for the pilot was to represent a factory-turned-loft in downtown Los Angeles. It was reused once the show was given a full season.The apartment building\",\n \"apartment building exterior is the Binford Building, located at 837 Traction Avenue inthe city's Arts District, with interior shots done in a studio set.The exterior shots for the bar where Nick works is of The Griffin (now The High Low), located inAtwater Village. The interior shots of the bar are originally from a restaurant called The Prince inKoreatown, and were recreated in a studio set after the first season. As asingle-cameracomedy,New Girlis neither performed in front of a studio audience nor has alaugh track.Some scenes are cross-covered (i.e. are filmed with a shooting camera on each person at the same time), to allow for better improvisations.Handheld cameras are avoided for a more filmic look. The actors first perform scenes as written, then act out the alternatives or improvise,to later allow the producers and editors to choose the gags that ultimately work best.Morris estimated that 20 percent of each episode is improvised. True American True Americanis a fictional, convoluteddrinking gamethat\",\n \"gamethat theNew Girlcharacters first played in the season 1 episode 20, \\\"Normal\\\". After \\\"Normal\\\" aired, internet sources began to summarize the rules forTrue American, which the characters described as a mix of a drinking game andCandy Landwherethe floor is lava; it also involves shouting the names of American presidents.The idea ofTrue Americancame from aNew Girlwriter who played a similar game in college. As she could not remember the game's exact rules, the writers focused on making the game as funny on the page as possible, but only established chanting \\\"JFK!FDR!\\\" and walking on chairs. Throughout the series, the writers created new rules on the spot in order to keep the actors improvising and encouraged them to \\\"have fun, dig in, jump in\\\". The game's second appearance in season 2's \\\"Cooler\\\" was played with the strip-poker version called \\\"Clinton Rules\\\", but the exact rules remain unclear even to the actors.True Americanwith updated rules and the resulting hangover were featured in season 3's \\\"Mars\",\n \"in season 3's \\\"Mars Landing\\\". The writers started to do newTrue Americanepisodes once each yearwithout ever giving explicit rules for the game. Liz Meriwether said the game would not be easier to comprehend in later appearances, as the writers' goal is to actually make it harder to understand. Relationships Creator Elizabeth Meriwether sees Nick, Schmidt and Winston \\\"on the weirder side of things\\\".The producers started learning more about the characters by seeing the actors' work and that \\\"We probably rely on them more than we should\\\" to define the characters.Each of the actors improvisations allowed for the characters to switch traits around in the first season before solidifying their characters. Producers found more variety in Nick's character in season 1 and enjoyed Johnson's improvisations, so they relayed Coach's previous attributed rage issues to Nick.Nick's character connects the most with the other roommates, childhood friends with Winston and college roommates with Schmidt, allowing him to be more\",\n \"him to be more involved in their stories. Writers developed the Nick–Winston dynamic in season 1 and sought to figure out Winston's relationship with the other loft mates in season 2.The writers noticed late during the first season that Morris seemed better suited to play a smart character and act as the loft's voice of reason,although Meriwether found that when Winston \\\"finally does blow up, he's crazier than all of them\\\"and that he works better \\\"in these kind of crazy, comedic runners, small pieces of the episode\\\"that contrast the relationship dramas of the other main characters.The Winston–Schmidt friendship was developed significantly in the second half of season 2 when the story focus moved to Nick and Jess.The Nick–Jess relationship affects the three guys' friendship as Nick starts being more considerate of Jess' feelings regarding shenanigans.Damon Wayans Jr. was planned to reprise his role as Coach in at least four episodes in the third season,according to Meriwether \\\"at a time when the roommates are\",\n \"the roommates are at odds with each other\\\". With Meriwether's openness regarding straight and gay communities,New Girlalso plays with the guys' sexual orientation for humor. One of Winston's recurring alternate persona is Nick's gay lover \\\"Theodore K. Mullins\\\", which started out as an improv of Morris.Johnson thought that Nick and Schmidt had \\\"a pretty funny bromance\\\" with \\\"their own little weird will-they-won't-they\\\".Greenfield improvised kissing Nick a lot in season 1 until the writers started putting Schmidt–Nick kisses into the script,so that they shared more kisses than Nick and Jess did in the first two seasons. Episodes Broadcast and ratings TheNew Girlpilotwas released via on-demand, iTunes, andTiVoon September 6, 2011before its September 20 premiere onFoxin theUnited Statesand onCityin Canada.Other international broadcasters includeChannel 4andE4in the United Kingdom,RTÉ2in the Republic of Ireland,Network TenandElevenin Australia,andFourin New Zealand.The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S.\",\n \"10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating,making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show sinceThe Bernie Mac Showin 2001.The second episode madeNew Girlthe top-rated show on television in the marketing-important 18–49 demographic, improved the rating of its lead-in hit seriesGleeand beat the long-running hit seriesNCISandDancing with the Stars.At this time, Fox ordered 11 additional episodes to the initial 13-episode order, bringing the first season to 24 episodes. The ratings dropped when the show took a break for baseball, falling almost 30 percent to a 2.1 rating in the 18–49 audience group.During the 2011–12 television season,New Girlaveraged 8.22 million viewers and a 4.2 adults 18–49 demo rating. In 18–49 demo, it ranked as the fifth highest rated show on Fox and 13th overall.On April 9, 2012,New Girlwas officially renewed for a second season of 24 episodes;Fox ordered one more episode during the second half of the season. Awards and nominations Main article:List of\",\n \"article:List of awards and nominations received by New Girl The show has been nominated for several awards, including fiveGolden Globe Awardsand fivePrimetime Emmy Awards. Syndication and streaming New Girlwas added toTBSin 2015 and was removed in 2022. Additionally, the sitcom was added toMTVin 2015 and was removed in 2016.After 10 years on Netflix,the show became exclusively available onHuluandPeacocksince April 17, 2023. Home media Tie-ins Reception Critical reviews On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes, season one holds an approval rating of 84% based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.83/10.Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 66 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating \\\"generally favorable reviews\\\". In June 2011,New Girlwas one of eight honorees in the \\\"most exciting new series\\\" category at the1st Critics' Choice Television Awards, voted by journalists who had seen thepilots.Robert Bianco ofUSA TodayconsideredNew Girl\\\"fall's most promising new\",\n \"most promising new series\\\" and praised how Deschanel and Meriwether \\\"have shaped Jess into something we haven't quite seen before – a woman who is sweet yet crass, innocent yet sexy, beautiful yet clumsy, and brash yet irresistibly adorable.\\\" However, he noted how \\\"Some people will be resistant to Deschanel's doe-eyed charm; others have a congenital need to insult anyone who most everyone else is praising, particularly if doing so gets them attention.\\\"The Hollywood Reporter'sTim Goodman saw the show as a \\\"mostly romantic comedy\\\", and although Jess' adorability \\\"might seem like a thin premise, Meriwether manages to make the situations funny and lets Deschanel channel her charm – a winning combination.\\\"David Wiegandof theSan Francisco Chroniclewould rather see the show tone down. He felt \\\"the show's fundamental setup isn't all that inspired, but it could work with smarter writing and better direction, especially with regard to Deschanel\\\", who, in his opinion, overplayed Jess' weird habits \\\"to the point of\",\n \"\\\"to the point of overkill within the first 10 minutes of the show\\\". Alan SepinwallofHitFixconsideredNew Girl\\\"the best new comedy of the fall season, and the only new show I genuinely enjoyed from start to finish\\\" because it was so well developed from the start. He praised Deschanel's \\\"wonderful comic performance\\\" and said that while the supporting actors \\\"all bounce nicely off of Deschanel\\\", the scenes without Deschanel around them fell flat for him.Writing for theDaily News, David Hinckley lauded how none of the characters \\\"settle in as the stereotypes they could easily become\\\", and presumed that all of them would evolve and get smarter as the show progresses.Lori Rack of theChicago Sun-Timespraised the actors' comedic timing and playing off each other. Despite the guys sounding \\\"like nightmares\\\" on paper, \\\"they have endearing, vulnerable cores that make them likable, and occasionally, lovable. New Girldidn't give me as many laugh-out-loud moments as some comedies\\\", but instead made her \\\"feel warm and\",\n \"her \\\"feel warm and fuzzy\\\".Rob Owen of thePittsburgh Post-Gazettesaid the show's pilot was \\\"more charming than hilarious\\\" and \\\"cuter than it is funny, but when it does conjure laughs, its style of humor is reminiscent of ABC'sHappy Endings\\\". Many critics considered Max Greenfield the show's breakout star in season 1;The A.V. Clubeven named Greenfield's Schmidt \\\"the year's breakout TV character\\\" as a \\\"douchebag with a heart of gold\\\".Salondescribed Schmidt as \\\"a sort of self-created alpha male and a collection of beta male qualities are performed with such conviction they congeal into a sort of deranged machismo, one slathered in sandalwood-scented lotion. As part of this transition, Schmidt has gone from being a douchebag in the classic model—a guy who, in the pilot, constantly wanted to show off his pecs and scam girls, and seemed capable of doing so—to a douche of a more unique variety.\\\"The Huffington Post'sMaureen Ryan said how \\\"Schmidt could have easily been 'the dumb guy', or the show could have\",\n \"the show could have exploited his status as an eminently mockable douche. But thanks to Max Greenfield's endearing depiction of the would-be lady-killer, there's a lot more the writers have been able to do with the character.\\\" On Rotten Tomatoes, season two holds an approval rating of 88% based on 16 reviews, with an average rating of 6.56/10. After the teasing of the Nick–Jess relationship in the first season, critics named Jake Johnson the breakout star of season 2 as the characters' romance unfolded.Saying that \\\"Not since Ross and Rachel's tango onFriendshas watching a comedy romance been so satisfying\\\",The Hollywood Reportersaid the producers \\\"did the impossible by engaging their leads in a love story, which only strengthened the artistry of the single-cam comedy\\\".The New York Timessaid season 2 \\\"erupted in fantastic and bizarre fits and starts\\\" because of the characters' unmatched personalities, and lauded the writers for not playing up the will-they-or-won't-they dynamic. By emphasizinghowthe\",\n \"emphasizinghowthe characters got together, the show \\\"made for hilarious setups to high-level Abbott and Costello slapstick. The continued Nick–Jess relationship was criticized in season 3 for dropping the characters' personalities, lack of tension,and for neglecting the show's female friendship between Jess and Cece. On Rotten Tomatoes, season three holds an approval rating of 88% based on 14 reviews, with an average rating of 6.46/10. Season four holds an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.67/10. The series' seventh and final season has an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.78, and a critical consensus of, \\\"After seven years of friendship,New Girlsigns off with a thoughtful, funny final season that bids a proper adieu to its colorful cast of characters.\\\" References External links\",\n \"List ofNew Girlepisodes New Girlis an American televisionsitcomthat premiered onFoxon September 20, 2011. Developed byElizabeth Meriwetherunder the working titleChicks & Dicks, the show starsZooey Deschanelas Jessica \\\"Jess\\\" Day, a well-liked and bubbly woman who is trying to get over her surprise breakup with her boyfriend. With the help of her best friend Cece (Hannah Simone), she finds a new place to stay when she moves in with three single guys: Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), an underachieving bartender; Schmidt (Max Greenfield), who thinks of himself as a modern-dayCasanova; and Coach (Damon Wayans, Jr.), who leaves the series in the next episode and is replaced by Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris), a former professional athlete who achieved modest success abroad and is adjusting to life back in the United States. Coach reappears in the series during seasons three, four, five, six, and seven. On May 14, 2017, the series was renewed for a seventh and final season, which featured eight episodes.On January 4,\",\n \"January 4, 2018, it was announced that the seventh and final season would premiere on April 10, 2018, and also it would end with a one-hour series finale, which was aired on May 15, 2018. During the course of the series, 146 episodes ofNew Girlaired over seven seasons. Series overview Episodes Season 1 (2011–12) Season 2 (2012–13) Season 3 (2013–14) Season 4 (2014–15) Season 5 (2016) Season 6 (2016–17) Season 7 (2018) Ratings Notes References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":396,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What medal was won in 1979 by the famous physicist who attended the oldest college in London?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"Albert Einstein medal"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford#Mathematics_and_sciences"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#1975%E2%80%931990"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Medal"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford#Mathematics_and_sciences', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#1975%E2%80%931990', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Medal']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford#Mathematics_and_sciences","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#1975%E2%80%931990","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Medal"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford#Mathematics_and_sciences\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#1975%E2%80%931990\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Medal\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/University_of_Oxford (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))","Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Stephen_Hawking (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))","Albert Einstein Medal TheAlbert Einstein Medalis an award presented by theAlbert Einstein SocietyinBern. First given in 1979, the award is presented to people for \"scientific findings, works, or publications related toAlbert Einstein\" each year. Recipients Source:Einstein Society See also References"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/University_of_Oxford (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Stephen_Hawking (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"Albert Einstein Medal TheAlbert Einstein Medalis an award presented by theAlbert Einstein SocietyinBern. First given in 1979, the award is presented to people for \\\"scientific findings, works, or publications related toAlbert Einstein\\\" each year. 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Recipients Source:Einstein Society See also References"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/University_of_Oxford (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Stephen_Hawking (Caused by NewConnectionError(': Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))\",\n \"Albert Einstein Medal TheAlbert Einstein Medalis an award presented by theAlbert Einstein SocietyinBern. First given in 1979, the award is presented to people for \\\"scientific findings, works, or publications related toAlbert Einstein\\\" each year. 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It is located inMidtown ManhattanbetweenSeventhandEighthAvenues from 31st to 33rd Street abovePennsylvania Station. It is the fourth venue to bear the name \"Madison Square Garden\"; the first two, opened in1879and1890respectively, were located onMadison Square, on East 26th Street and Madison Avenue, with thethird Madison Square Garden(1925) farther uptown at Eighth Avenue and 50th Street. The Garden hosts professional ice hockey, professional basketball, boxing, mixed martial arts, concerts, ice shows, circuses, professional wrestling, and other forms of sports and entertainment. It is close to other midtown Manhattan landmarks, including theEmpire State Building,Koreatown, andMacy'satHerald Square. It is home to theNew York Rangersof theNational Hockey League(NHL), theNew York Knicksof theNational Basketball Association(NBA), and was home to theNew York Libertyof theWomen's National Basketball Association(WNBA) from 1997 to 2017. Originally calledMadison Square Garden Center, the Garden opened on February 11, 1968, and is the oldest major sporting facility in theNew York metropolitan area. It is the oldest arena in the NBA and the second-oldest in the NHL, after Seattle'sClimate Pledge Arena. As of 2016, MSG is also the second-busiest music arena in the world in terms of ticket sales.Including its two major renovations in 1991 and 2013, the Garden's total construction cost was approximately $1.1 billion, and it has been ranked as one of the 10 most expensivearenavenues ever built.It is part of thePennsylvania Plazaoffice and retail complex, named for the railway station. Severalother operating entitiesrelated to the Garden share its name. History Previous Gardens Madison Squareis formed by the intersection of5th AvenueandBroadwayat23rd Streetin Manhattan. It was named afterJames Madison, fourthPresident of the United States. Two venues called Madison Square Garden were located just northeast of the square,the original Gardenfrom 1879 to 1890, andthe second Gardenfrom 1890 to 1925. The first, leased toP. T. Barnum,was demolished in 1890 because of a leaky roof and dangerous balconies that had collapsed, resulting in deaths. The second was designed by noted architectStanford White. The new building was built by a syndicate that includedJ. P. Morgan,Andrew Carnegie,P. T. Barnum,Darius Mills,James StillmanandW. W. Astor. White gave them aBeaux-Artsstructure with aMoorishfeel, including a minaret-like tower modeled afterGiralda, the bell tower of theCathedral of Seville,soaring 32 stories, the city's second-tallest building at the timeand dominatingMadison Square Park. It was 200 feet (61 m) by 485 feet (148 m), and the main hall, which was the largest in the world, measured 200 feet (61 m) by 350 feet (110 m) with permanent seating for 8,000 people and floor space for thousands more. It had a 1,200-seat theater, a concert hall with a capacity of 1,500, the largest restaurant in the city, and a roof garden cabaret.The building cost $3 million.Madison Square Garden II was unsuccessful like the first Garden,and theNew York Life Insurance Company, which held the mortgage on it, decided to tear it down in 1925 to make way for a new headquarters building, which would become the landmarkCass Gilbert-designedNew York Life Building. Athird Madison Square Gardenopened in a new location, on8th Avenuebetween49thand50th Streets, from 1925 to 1968. Groundbreaking on the third Madison Square Garden took place on January 9, 1925.Designed by the noted theater architectThomas W. Lamb, it was built at the cost of $4.75 million in 249 days by boxing promoterTex Rickard;the arena was dubbed \"The House That Tex Built.\"The arena was 200 feet (61 m) by 375 feet (114 m), with seating on three levels, and a maximum capacity of 18,496 spectators for boxing. Demolition commenced in 1968 after the opening of the current Garden,and was completed in early 1969. The site is now the location ofOne Worldwide Plaza. Current Garden In February 1959, former automobile manufacturerGraham-Paigepurchased a 40% interest in the Madison Square Garden for $4 millionand later gained control.In November 1960, Graham-Paige presidentIrving Mitchell Feltpurchased from thePennsylvania Railroadthe rights to build atPenn Station.To build the new facility, the above-ground portions ofthe original Pennsylvania Stationwere torn down. The new structure was one of the first of its kind to be built above the platforms of an active railroad station. It was an engineering feat constructed byRobert E. McKeeofEl Paso, Texas. Public outcry over the demolition of the Pennsylvania Station structure—an outstanding example ofBeaux-Arts architecture—led to the creation of theNew York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. The venue opened on February 11, 1968. Comparing the new and the old Penn Station, Yale architectural historianVincent Scullywrote, \"One entered the city like a god; one scuttles in now like a rat.\" In 1972, Felt proposed moving theKnicksandRangersto a then incomplete venue in theNew Jersey Meadowlands, theMeadowlands Sports Complex. The Garden was also the home arena for theNY Raiders/NY Golden Bladesof theWorld Hockey Association. The Meadowlands would eventually host its own NBA and NHL teams, theNew Jersey Netsand theNew Jersey Devils, respectively. TheNew York GiantsandJetsof theNational Football League(NFL) also relocated there. In 1977, the arena was sold toGulf and Western Industries. Felt's efforts fueled controversy between the Garden and New York City over real estate taxes. The disagreement again flared in 1980 when the Garden again challenged its tax bill. The arena, since the 1980s, has since enjoyed tax-free status, under the condition that all Knicks and Rangers home games must be hosted at MSG, lest it lose this exemption. As such, when the Rangers have played neutral-site games—even those in New York City, such as the2018 NHL Winter Classic, they have always been designated as the visiting team.The tax agreement includes anact of Godclause, which allowed Knicks and Rangers home games to be played elsewhere during the2020 NBA Bubbleand2020 Stanley Cup playoffs, respectively, because of theCOVID-19 pandemic. In 1984, the four streets immediately surrounding the Garden were designated as Joe Louis Plaza, in honor of boxerJoe Louis, who had made eight successful title defenses in theprevious Madison Square Garden. 1991 renovation In April 1986, Gulf and Western announced that they would build a new Madison Square Garden a few blocks away on the site of present-dayHudson Yards. The plan would cost an estimated $150 million and included the demolition of the 1964 building to replace it with a new office tower development.After years of planning, Gulf and Western decided against building a new arena in favor of a renovation after estimated costs doubled throughout the process. Garden owners spent $200 million in 1991 to renovate facilities and add 89 suites in place of hundreds of upper-tier seats. The project was designed byEllerbe Becket. The renovation was criticized for perceived corporatization. Additionally, the renovation made bathrooms larger, expanded menus, added a new ventilation system, replaced all of the seats with new cushioned teal and violet seats, and refurbished both home teams' locker rooms. In 2000, current MSG owner, James Dolan was quoted as saying that a new arena was being considered as the current building was starting to show its age. In 2004–2005,Cablevisionbattled with the City of New York over the proposedWest Side arena, which was canceled. Cablevision then announced plans to raze the Garden, replace it with high-rise commercial buildings, and build a new Garden one block away at the site of theJames Farley Post Office. Meanwhile, a new project to renovate and modernize the Garden completed phase one in time for theRangersandKnicks' 2011–12 seasons,though the vice president of the Garden says he remains committed to the installation of an extension of Penn Station at the Farley Post Office site. While the Knicks and Rangers were not displaced, theNew York Libertyplayed at thePrudential CenterinNewark, New Jerseyduring the renovation. Madison Square Garden is the last of theNBAandNHLarenas not to be named after a corporate sponsor. 2011–2013 renovation Madison Square Garden's $1 billion second renovation took place mainly over three off-seasons. It was set to begin after the 2009–10 hockey/basketball seasons, but was delayed until after the 2010–11 seasons. Renovation was done in phases with the majority of the work done in the summer months to minimize disruptions to the NHL and NBA seasons. While the Rangers and Knicks were not displaced,the Liberty played their home games through the 2013 season atPrudential CenterinNewark, New Jersey, during the renovation. New features include a larger entrance with interactive kiosks, retail, climate-controlled space, and broadcast studio; larger concourses; new lighting and LED video systems with HDTV; new seating; two new pedestrian walkways suspended from the ceiling to allow fans to look directly down onto the games being played below; more dining options; and improved dressing rooms, locker rooms, green rooms, upgraded roof, and production offices. The lower bowl concourse, called the Madison Concourse, remains on the sixth floor. The upper bowl concourse was relocated to the eighth floor and it is known as the Garden Concourse. The seventh floor houses the new Madison Suites and the Madison Club. The upper bowl was built on top of these suites. The rebuilt concourses are wider than their predecessors, and include large windows that offer views of the city streets around the Garden. Construction of the lower bowl (Phase 1) was completed in 2011.An extended off-season for the Garden permitted some advanced work to begin on the new upper bowl, which was completed in 2012. This advance work included the West Balcony on the tenth floor, taking the place of sky-boxes, and new end-ice 300 level seating. The construction of the upper bowl along with the Madison Suites and the Madison Club (Phase 2) were completed for the 2012–13 NHL and NBA seasons.Phase 3, which involved the construction of the new lobby known as Chase Square, the Chase Bridges on the 10th floor, and the new scoreboard, was completed for the 2013–14 NHL and NBA seasons. Penn Station renovation controversy Madison Square Garden is seen as an obstacle in the renovation and future expansion ofPenn Station,which expanded in 2021 with the opening ofMoynihan Train Hallat theJames Farley Post Office,and some have proposed moving MSG to other sites in western Manhattan. On February 15, 2013,Manhattan Community Board 5voted 36–0 against granting a renewal to MSG's operating permit in perpetuity and proposed a 10-year limit instead in order to build a new Penn Station where the arena is currently standing. Manhattan borough presidentScott Stringersaid, \"Moving the arena is an important first step to improving Penn Station.\"The Madison Square Garden Companyresponded by saying that \"t is incongruous to think that M.S.G. would be considering moving.\" In May 2013, four architecture firms –SHoP Architects,SOM,H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture, andDiller Scofidio + Renfro– submittedproposalsfor a new Penn Station. SHoP Architects recommended moving Madison Square Garden to the Morgan Postal Facility a few blocks southwest, as well as removing2 Penn Plazaand redeveloping other towers, and an extension of theHigh Lineto Penn Station.Meanwhile, SOM proposed moving Madison Square Garden to the area just south of theJames Farley Post Office, and redeveloping the area above Penn Station as amixed-use developmentwith commercial, residential, and recreational space.H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture wanted to move the arena to a new pier west ofJacob K. Javits Convention Center, four blocks west of the current station and arena. Then, according to H3's plan, fourskyscraperswould be built, one at each of the four corners of the new Penn Station superblock, with aroof gardenon top of the station; the Farley Post Office would become an education center.Finally, Diller Scofidio + Renfro proposed a mixed-use development on the site, with spas, theaters, a cascading park, a pool, and restaurants; Madison Square Garden would be moved two blocks west, next to the post office. DS+F also proposed high-tech features in the station, such as train arrival and departure boards on the floor, andappsthat would inform waiting passengers of ways to occupy their time until they board their trains.Madison Square Garden rejected the notion that it would be relocated, and called the plans \"pie-in-the-sky\". In June 2013, theNew York City CouncilCommittee on Land Use voted unanimously to give the Garden a ten-year permit, at the end of which period the owners will either have to relocate or go back through the permission process.On July 24, the City Council voted to give the Garden a 10-year operating permit by a vote of 47–1. \"This is the first step in finding a new home for Madison Square Garden and building a new Penn Station that is as great as New York and suitable for the 21st century,\" said City Council speakerChristine Quinn. \"This is an opportunity to reimagine and redevelop Penn Station as a world-class transportation destination.\" In October 2014, the Morgan facility was selected as the ideal area for Madison Square Garden to be moved, following the 2014 MAS Summit in New York City. More plans for the station were discussed.Then, in January 2016, New York GovernorAndrew Cuomoannounced a redevelopment plan for Penn Station that would involve the removal ofThe Theater at Madison Square Garden, but would otherwise leave the arena intact. In June 2023, nearing the end of the Garden's ten-year permit granted by the city, theMetropolitan Transportation Authority, along withAmtrakandNJ Transit, filed a report stating that MSG is no longer compatible with Penn Station, with the report saying, \"MSG's existing configuration and property boundaries impose severe constraints on the station that impede the safe and efficient movement of passengers and restrict efforts to implement improvements, particularly at the street and platform levels.\"On September 14, 2023, the New York City Council voted 48–0 to renew the operating permit for Madison Square Garden for five years, the shortest ever granted by the city to the Garden. Events Regular events Sports Madison Square Garden hosts approximately 320 events a year. It is the home to theNew York Rangersof the National Hockey League, and theNew York Knicksof the National Basketball Association. Before 2020, the New York Rangers, New York Knicks, and the Madison Square Garden arena itself were all owned by the Madison Square Garden Company. The MSG Company split into two entities in 2020, with the Garden arena and other non-sports assets spun off intoMadison Square Garden Entertainmentand the Rangers and Knicks remaining with the original company, renamedMadison Square Garden Sports. Both entities remain under the voting control ofJames Dolanand his family. The arena is also host to theBig East men's basketball tournamentand was home to the finals of theNational Invitation Tournamentfrom the beginning of its existence up until 2022.It also hosts select home games for theSt. John's Red Storm, representingSt. John's Universityin men's (college basketball), and almost any other kind of indoor activity that draws large audiences, such as theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Showand the2004 Republican National Convention. The Garden was home of theNBA draftandNIT Season Tip-Off,as well as the former New York City home of theRingling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey CircusandDisney on Ice; all four events are now held at theBarclays CenterinBrooklyn. It served theNew York Cosmosfor half of their home games during the1983–84 NASL Indoor season. Many ofboxing's biggest fights were held at Madison Square Garden, including theRoberto Durán–Ken Buchananaffair,the firstMuhammad Ali–Joe Frazierbout and the US debut ofAnthony Joshuathat ended in a huge upset when he was beaten byAndy Ruiz. Before promoters such asDon KingandBob Arummoved boxing toLas Vegas,Nevada, Madison Square Garden was a popular location for boxing. The original18+1⁄2ft ×18+1⁄2ft (5.6 m × 5.6 m) ring, which was brought from the second and third generation of the Garden, was officially retired on September 19, 2007, and donated to theInternational Boxing Hall of Fameafter 82 years of service.A 20 ft × 20 ft (6.1 m × 6.1 m) ring replaced it beginning on October 6 of that same year.TheUFChas made Madison Square Garden in recent years and have put on some of the highest grossing PPV events in history. Pro wrestling Madison Square Garden has hosted many notableWWE(formerly WWF and WWWF) events.The Garden has hosted threeWrestleManiaevents, including thefirstedition of the annual marquee event for WWE, as well as the10thand20theditions. Madison Square Garden is also one of two venues (the other beingAllstate Arena) to host WrestleMania three times. It also hosted theRoyal Rumblein2000and2008;SummerSlamin1988,1991and1998; as well asSurvivor Seriesin1996,2002and2011. Multiple episodes of WWE's weekly shows,RawandSmackDownhave been broadcast from the Arena as well. New Japan Pro-Wrestling(NJPW) andRing of Honor(ROH) hosted theirG1 Supercardsupershow at the venue on April 6, 2019. A year later it was announced thatNew Japan Pro-Wrestlingwould return to Madison Square Garden alone on August 22, 2020, for NJPW Wrestle Dynasty.In May 2020, NJPW announced that the Wrestle Dynasty show would be postponed to 2021 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. Concerts Madison Square Garden hosts more high-profile concert events than any other venue in New York City. It has been the venue forMichael Jackson'sBad World Tourin 1988,George Harrison'sThe Concert for Bangladesh,The Concert for New York Cityfollowing theSeptember 11 attacks,John Lennon's final concert appearance during anElton Johnconcert on Thanksgiving Night in 1974 beforehis murderin 1980, andElvis Presley, who gave four sold-out performances in 1972, his first and last ever in New York City.Parliament-Funkadelicheadlined numerous sold-out shows in 1977 and 1978.Kiss, who were formed in the arena's city and three of whose members were city-born, did six shows during their second half of the 1970s main attraction peak or \"heyday\": four sold out winter shows at the arena in 1977 (February 18 and December 14–16), and another two shows only this time in summer for a decade-ender in 1979 (July 24–25). They played their final two shows at the venue on the December 1 and 2, 2023, the 50th anniversary year of their formation.Billy Joel, another city-born and fellow 1970's pop star, played his first Garden show on December 14, 1978, with that month's follow ups on the 15th, 16th and 18th.Led Zeppelin's three-night stand in July 1973 was recorded and released as both afilmandalbumtitledThe Song Remains The Same.The Policeplayed their final show of their reunion tour at the Garden in 2008. In the summer of 2017,Phishheld a 13 night series of concerts called \"The Bakers' Dozen.\" During which the band played 237 unique songs, repeating none during the entire run. The Garden commemorated \"The Bakers' Dozen\" by adding a Phish themed banner to the rafters.With their first MSG show taking place on December 30, 1994, Phish has regularly played annual multi night runs, typically around New Year's Eve.As of January 2024, Phish has performed 83 times at MSG. Elton Johnonce held the all-time record for the greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 64 shows. In a 2009 press release, John was quoted as saying \"Madison Square Garden is my favorite venue in the whole world. I chose to have my 60th birthday concert there, because of all the incredible memories I've had playing the venue.\"A DVD recording was released asElton 60—Live at Madison Square Garden. Billy Joel, who holds the record for the greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 134 shows as of February 2023,stated that the site \"has the best acoustics, the best audiences, the best reputation, and the best history of great artists who have played there. It is the iconic, holy temple of rock and roll for most touring acts.\" TheGrateful Deadperformed in the venue 53 times from 1979 to 1994, with the first show being held on January 7, 1979, and the last being on October 19, 1994. Their longest run being done in September 1991. The Whohave headlined at the venue 32 times, including a four-night stand in 1974, a five-night stand in 1979, a six-night stand in 1996, and four-night stands in 2000 and 2002. They also performed atThe Concert for New York Cityin 2001. On March 10, 2020, a 50th-anniversary celebration ofThe Allman Brothers Bandtitled 'The Brothers' took place, featuring the five surviving members of the final Allman Brothers lineup andChuck Leavell.Dickey Bettswas invited to participate but his health precluded him from traveling.This was the final concert at the venue before theCOVID-19 pandemicforced its closure. Live shows returned to The Garden when theFoo Fightersheadlined a show there on June 20, 2021. The show was for a vaccinated audience only and was the first 100 percent capacity concert in a New York arena since the start of the pandemic. Other events It hosted the1976 Democratic National Convention,1980 Democratic National Convention,1992 Democratic National Convention,and the2004 Republican National Convention,and hosted theNFL draftfor many years (later held at Garden-leasedRadio City Music Hall, now shared between cities of NFL franchises).TheJeopardy!Teen Tournament and several installments ofCelebrity Jeopardy!were filmed at MSG in 1999,as well as several episodes ofWheel of Fortunein 1999 and 2013. TheNew York City Police Academy,Baruch College/CUNYandYeshiva Universityalso hold their annual graduation ceremonies at Madison Square Garden. It hosted theGrammy Awardsin 1972, 1997, 2003, and 2018 (which are normally held inLos Angeles) as well as theLatin Grammy Awards of 2006. The group, and Best in Show competitions of theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Showhave been held at MSG every February from 1877 to 2020, which was MSG's longest continuous tenant although this was broken in 2021 as the Westminster Kennel Club announced that the event would be held outdoors for the first time due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Notable firsts and significant events The Garden hosted theStanley Cup FinalsandNBA Finalssimultaneously on two occasions: in 1972 and 1994. MSG has hosted the following All-Star Games: Mike Krzyzewskirecorded two notable milestones at the arena. In 2011, he surpassedBob Knightas the coach with the most winsNCAA Division Imen's basketball history whenDukedefeatedMichigan State. Four years later, a Duke victory over St. John's gave Coach K his 1,000th career win. Stephen Currybroke the NBA'sall-time three-point scoring recordat Madison Square Garden, on December 14, 2021. TheWarriorsdefeated the Knicks 105–96 with Curry recording his 2,977th career three-pointer by the end of the game, eclipsingRay Allen's 2,973 career total. Recognition given by Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden Gold Ticket Award In 1977, Madison Square Garden announcedGold Ticket Awardswould be given to performers who had brought in more than 100,000 unit ticket sales to the venue. Since the arena's seating capacity is about 20,000, this would require a minimum of five sold-out shows. Performers who were eligible for the award at the time of its inauguration includedChicago,John Denver,Peter Frampton, theRolling Stones, theJackson 5,Elton John,Led Zeppelin,Sly Stone,Jethro Tull,The Who, andYes.Graeme Edge, who received his award in 1981 as a member ofThe Moody Blues, said he found his gold ticket to be an interesting piece of memorabilia because he could use it to attend any event at the Garden.Many other performers received Gold Ticket Awards between 1977 and 1994. Madison Square Garden Platinum Ticket Award Madison Square Garden also gave Platinum Ticket Awards to performers who sold over 250,000 tickets to their shows throughout the years. Winners of the Platinum Ticket Awards include: the Rolling Stones (1981),Elton John (1982),Yes (1984),Billy Joel (1984),the Grateful Dead (1987),and Madonna (2004). Madison Square Garden Hall of Fame The Madison Square Garden Hall of Fame honors those who have demonstrated excellence in their fields at the Garden. Most of the inductees have been sports figures, however, some performers have been inducted as well. Elton John was reported to be the first non-sports figure inducted into the MSG Hall of Fame in 1977 for \"record attendance of 140,000\" in June of that year.For their accomplishment of \"13 sell-out concerts\" at the venue, the Rolling Stones were inducted into the MSG Hall of Fame in 1984, along with nine sports figures icons, bringing the hall's membership to 107. Madison Square Garden Walk of Fame The walkway leading to the arena of Madison Square Garden was designated as the \"Walk of Fame\" in 1992.It was established \"to recognize athletes, artists, announcers and coaches for their extraordinary achievements and memorable performances at the venue.\"Each inductee is commemorated with a plaque that lists the performance category in which his or her contributions have been made.Twenty-five athletes were inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame at its inaugural ceremony in 1992, a black-tie dinner to raise money to fight multiple sclerosis.Elton John was the first entertainer to be inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame in 1992.Billy Joel was inducted at a date after Elton John,and the Rolling Stones were inducted in 1998.In 2015, the Grateful Dead were inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame along with at least three sports-related figures. Capacity The Theater at Madison Square Garden The Theater at Madison Square Garden seats between 2,000 and 5,600 for concerts and can also be used for meetings, stage shows, and graduation ceremonies. It was the home of theNFL draftuntil 2005, when it moved to theJacob K. Javits Convention Centerafter MSG management opposed anew arenafor theNew York Jets. It also hosted theNBA draftfrom 2001 to 2010. The theater also occasionally hosts boxing matches. The fall 1999Jeopardy!Teen Tournamentas well as aCelebrity Jeopardy!competitions were held at the theater.Wheel of Fortunetaped at the theater twice in 1999 and 2013. In 2004, it was the venue of theSurvivor: All-Starsfinale. No seat is more than 177 feet (54 m) from the 30' × 64' stage. The theater has a relatively low 20-foot (6.1 m) ceiling at stage leveland all of its seating except for boxes on the two side walls is on one level slanted back from the stage. There is an 8,000-square-foot (740 m2) lobby at the theater. Accessibility and transportation Madison Square Garden sits directly atop a major transportation hub,New York Penn Station, which is served byLong Island Rail RoadandNJ Transitcommuter rail, as well asAmtrak. The Garden is also accessible via theNew York City Subwayat the34th Street–Penn Station(A, C, and Etrains) and the34th Street–Penn Station(1, 2, and 3trains) stations. See also References Notes Sources External links","AC/DC discography AustralianrockbandAC/DChave released 18studio albums, twosoundtrack albums, threelive albums, oneextended play, 57singles, 11video albums, 52music videosand twobox sets. Although many AC/DC singles have been released, the band refused to issue anygreatest hitsalbums.Who Made Who, which served as the soundtrack to Stephen King's filmMaximum Overdrive,Iron Man 2and the band's various live recordings are the closest they have issued to such a compilation. BrothersAngus(lead guitar) andMalcolm Young(rhythm guitar) formed AC/DC in 1973.The band released two albums inAustralasiabefore issuing their first international album,High Voltagein 1976; the Youngs had been joined by vocalistBon Scott, bass guitaristMark Evansand drummerPhil Rudd.In 1980, less than a year after the appearance of the successfulHighway to Hell, Scott died and was replaced by English singerBrian Johnson, with whom AC/DC released their best-selling album,Back in Black.The albumBlack Ice, from 2008, reached number one in 29 countries.In 50 years of their career, AC/DC have sold over 200 million albums worldwide,and 83 million in the United States.Back in Blacksold 50 million copies worldwide, and became thesecond best-selling album in history. Verizonmade AC/DC albums available fordigital downloadin 2007;for five years the band refused to release their albums viaiTunes, as that company allows downloading of individual tracks.Angus Young observed, \"We honestly believe the songs on any of our albums belong together. If we were on iTunes, we know a certain percentage of people would only download two or three songs from the album – and we don't think that represents us musically.\"However, in November 2012, the band relented and released their entire discography via iTunes.On 30 June 2015, their catalogue appeared onSpotifyfor the first time, which made their works available forstreaming.Their most certified singles in the US are \"Thunderstruck\" (1990), \"Back in Black\" (1980), \"Highway to Hell\" (1979), and \"You Shook Me All Night Long\" (1980) – each have received Diamond, 7× Platinum, and 6× Platinum and from theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) in 2024, respectively.In Australia, \"Thunderstruck\" (1990) was accredited 10× Platinum by theAustralian Recording Industry Association(ARIA) in 2022. Albums Studio albums Live albums Soundtrack albums Box set albums Extended plays Singles Videos Video albums Music videos See also Notes References Further reading External links","If You Want Blood You've Got It If You Want Blood You've Got It(written as justIf You Want Blood) is the first live album by Australianhard rockbandAC/DC, and their only live album released duringBon Scott's lifetime. It was originally released in the UK and Europe on 13 October 1978, in the US on 21 November 1978, and in Australia on 27 November 1978.The album was re-released in 1994 onAtco Recordsand in 2003 as part of theAC/DC Remastersseries. Background The album was released six months after the band's previous studio albumPowerage. A 'best-of' package called12 of the Besthad been in the works, but the project was scrapped in favour of a live album. It was recorded during the 1978Poweragetour and contains songs fromT.N.T.,Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap,Let There Be Rock, andPowerage. It is the last Bon Scott-era AC/DC album produced byHarry VandaandGeorge Young, who also produced the band's first five studio releases. In his 1994 Bon Scott memoirHighway to Hell, authorClinton Walkerobserves, \"Live albums, which tended to be double or triple sets in which songs short in their studio versions were stretched out into extended tedium, were for some reason popular in the seventies.If You Want Bloodreversed this tradition... it boasted a blunt ten tracks and, allowing nothing extraneous, got straight to the point, that being raging AC/DC rock and roll.\" A concert at theApollo TheatreinGlasgow, Scotland on 30 April 1978 was used for the live tracks. The concert is also remembered for the encore, when AC/DC came back on stage dressed in the Scottish football strip, paying homage to Scott's and the Young brothers' homeland. \"This gig summed up what made AC/DC so special live: the energy, the rapport with the crowd and the way those simple yet classic songs took on another life. You hear all of this onIf You Want Blood. It's a great reminder of how remarkable the band and their fans were that night.\" –Tom Russell, DJ \"Dog Eat Dog\", performed on the night, was removed from the album release, while the encore – \"Fling Thing/Rocker\" – was edited, removing \"Fling Thing\" and cutting out Angus's extended solo, as he did a walk around the audience (with an early version of a wireless guitar lead). This part of the band's concert theatrics later accompanied \"Let There Be Rock\"; \"Rocker\" has been performed only a few times since Bon Scott's passing in 1980. The live \"Dog Eat Dog\" was released as the b-side of the single \"Whole Lotta Rosie\" in November 1978, but only in Australia. It was rereleased worldwide in 2009 on the two (standard) and three (collectors) CD boxed set compilationBacktracks, featuring Australian-only songs not released internationally at the time, and live b-Sides from 7\" and 12\" singles. The encores \"Fling Thing\" and \"Rocker\" (with a complete guitar solo) appeared only on footage of the concert by a Dutch TV station played at the time, but were eventually released on theFamily JewelsDVD. According to the 2006 bookAC/DC: Maximum Rock & Roll, the album title was an extension of Scott's response – at theDay on the Greenfestival in July 1978 – when a journalist asked what they could expect from the band. The singer replied, \"Blood.\"The cover art is from a shoot withAtlantic Records' staff photographer Jim Houghton after the show at Boston'sParadise Theateron 21st August 1978, the idea for which came from Atlantic's art director Bob Defrin.The front cover depicts Angus Young being impaled on stage with a guitar during a performance, while the back depicts a bloodied Young lying facedown on the same stage, though deserted. A song titled \"If You Want Blood (You've Got It)\" appeared on the next album: the band's US chart breakthrough,Highway to Hell. Reception The album was listed at #2 onClassic Rockmagazine's readers' poll of \"50 Greatest Live Albums Ever\".In a 1992 interview withMetal Hammerat the time of the band'ssecond live release, Malcolm Young admitted, \"I personally still prefer the old album. We were young, fresh, vital and kicking ass.\"Greg Prato ofAllMusicnotes, \"While most other rock bands of the era were busy experimenting withdiscoor creating studio-perfected epics, AC/DC was one of the few specializing in raw and bluesy hard rock, as evidenced by 1978's live set, If You Want Blood You've Got It.\"Eduardo Rivadavia ofUltimate Classic Rockenthuses, \"Other concert records may boast more songs, more Top 40 hits or even more crowd-pleasing gimmicks. But very few can challenge the sheer excitement and reckless abandon captured on AC/DC’s terrific concert document.\"Carlo Twist ofBlendermagazine praised the album, saying that \"They were always a mighty live act, and this is the sound of AC/DC in Europe just prior to 1979's U.S. breakthrough. The audience's hysteria regularly cuts through the amps, as they howl along to singer Bon Scott's tale of sexually transmitted disease (\"The Jack\") and punctuate guitarist Angus Young's staccato riffing on \"Whole Lotta Rosie.\" Imagine a punk-rock Chuck Berry played at nosebleed volume.\" Concert footage The entire Glasgow concert was filmed but the complete footage has never been released. Eventually, \"Riff Raff\" and \"Fling Thing/Rocker\" segments were made available on the DVDAC/DC Family Jewels, released in 2005. Video footage was also used from the show onFamily Jewelsusing the \"Rock 'n' Roll Damnation\" studio version audio track promotional clip. Segments from the concert (the songs \"Rock 'n' Roll Damnation\", \"Dog Eat Dog\" and \"Let There Be Rock\") were made available on the DVDPlug Me In, released in 2007 (the latter 2 were also released on YouTube in 2013)). \"Bad Boy Boogie\" was included on the bonus disc on the three-disc edition ofPlug Me In. Track listing All tracks are written byAngus Young,Malcolm YoungandBon Scott Original concert setlist All songs written by Angus Young, Malcolm Young, and Bon Scott except \"Fling Thing\", which is a Scottishtraditional song. Notes Personnel Production Charts Certifications *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification alone. References External links","The Apollo, Glasgow The Apollowas amusic venueat 126 Renfield Street inGlasgowcity centre,Scotland. The Apollo operated from 5 September 1973 until closure on 16 June 1985 and was Glasgow's leading music venue during this period. The Apollo was a re-brand of the previousGreen's Playhousein the same building. History The Green family owned Green's Playhouse cinema at 126 Renfield Street. It was thought to be the largest cinema in Europe at the time but was in decline. Unicorn Leisure, owned by Frank Lynch and Max Langdown, leased a discothèque named Clouds in the top floor of the building. Unicorn included management ofBilly Connollyin their portfolio.On hearing the Green family were considering converting the dis-repaired venue into a bingo hall or demolishing the venue for a completely new development, Unicorn applied to lease the building which they felt had potential as a music venue. They bought a job lot of 3,000 cinema seats and re-upholstered the 'Golden Divans' in the balcony. \"Apollo\" was chosen as the name of the re-branded venue so to mitigate the cost of letters for which the sign company charged £250 per letter. The first two concerts at The Apollo were performed by Johnny Cash on 5 & 6 September 1973. The venue was quickly attractive to the public responding to booking of popular performers of the time who spoke favourably of the atmosphere generated by the exuberant crowds.Theballroomoperated above the main concert auditorium, originally known as \"Clouds\", following various name changes that included \"Satellite City\" and \"The Penthouse\". The ballroom became a music venue for up-coming and relatively lesser-known contemporary bands, such asSimple Minds,Elvis Costello,Sham 69andThe Rich Kids. These were unable to attract a large enough paying audience to fill the concert venue. The venue was known for the atmosphere generated by its enthusiastic crowds, a 15 ft 6 in high stage (often exaggerated and misreported)that sloped down towards the audience and \"bouncy balcony\" designed and built so that it would move up and down. This feature was put to the test by concert-goers, who would jump to get it to bounce.Francis Rossirefers to this onStatus Quo'sLive!, recorded at the venue: \"Those people at the top, on the balcony, can only see you when the lights go up there. Get the balcony to move about a bit and they'llall be running about and shitting themselves. Nice bunch of fellas, but very very scared of balconies!\" Jake BurnsofStiff Little Fingerssaid the stage was \"the only one in our career where we said if anyone got onstage from the audience, they could stay. They'd earned it.\"Andy SummersofThe Policein his autobiography \"One Train Later\" wrote \"Back in the dressing room, drenched in sweat and sitting among piles of little tartan-wrapped presents, we remarked about the bouncing balcony, amazed that the whole thing didn't collapse.\"The venue was used for numerous live album recordings (see \"Notable Performances\" section) and was used as either opening or closing venue by many performers visiting the UK from America. The management team for the Ramones have subsequently said the Apollo was the Ramones' favourite venue. Despite the Apollo's success as a music venue, the building was in a poor condition and its structure was gradually deteriorating. Maintenance was undertaken only on a \"make-do\" basis. In mid-1977 the owner of Unicorn Leisure relocated toFlorida. The lease for the venue was acquired by theApollo Leisure Group. The new leaseholders experienced considerable problems with the buildings structural condition and later considered relinquishing the lease in 1978, withMecca Bingoexpressing interest in the acquisition of the building. A successful campaign to preserve the building's status as a music venue included a 100,000 signature petition including support fromPaul McCartneyandEric Clapton. The resumption was to herald a seven-year downward spiral until the venue finally closed for business on 16 June 1985.The Style Councilwere the final performers on the bill. The building was demolished in September 1987 following a fire that rendered the building structurally unsafe. Such is the high regard that Ozzy Osbourne felt for the place that when he agreed to an interview on Scottish Television he asked that the interview be held in the empty disused site of the old building. Notable performances After demolition The Apollo was replaced by aCineworldbuilding constructed in 2000 and opened a year later on exactly the same site. A musical was first produced in 2009 titled,I Was There: The Story of The Glasgow Apollo. The retro website glasgowapollo.com was launched in 2003. As of 2017 the site has received over 12 million hits. See also References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Song_Remains_the_Same_(album\",\n \"Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden, colloquially known asthe Gardenor by its initialsMSG, is a multi-purpose indoor arena inNew York City. It is located inMidtown ManhattanbetweenSeventhandEighthAvenues from 31st to 33rd Street abovePennsylvania Station. It is the fourth venue to bear the name \\\"Madison Square Garden\\\"; the first two, opened in1879and1890respectively, were located onMadison Square, on East 26th Street and Madison Avenue, with thethird Madison Square Garden(1925) farther uptown at Eighth Avenue and 50th Street. The Garden hosts professional ice hockey, professional basketball, boxing, mixed martial arts, concerts, ice shows, circuses, professional wrestling, and other forms of sports and entertainment. It is close to other midtown Manhattan landmarks, including theEmpire State Building,Koreatown, andMacy'satHerald Square. It is home to theNew York Rangersof theNational Hockey League(NHL), theNew York Knicksof theNational Basketball Association(NBA), and was home to theNew York Libertyof theWomen's National Basketball Association(WNBA) from 1997 to 2017. Originally calledMadison Square Garden Center, the Garden opened on February 11, 1968, and is the oldest major sporting facility in theNew York metropolitan area. It is the oldest arena in the NBA and the second-oldest in the NHL, after Seattle'sClimate Pledge Arena. As of 2016, MSG is also the second-busiest music arena in the world in terms of ticket sales.Including its two major renovations in 1991 and 2013, the Garden's total construction cost was approximately $1.1 billion, and it has been ranked as one of the 10 most expensivearenavenues ever built.It is part of thePennsylvania Plazaoffice and retail complex, named for the railway station. Severalother operating entitiesrelated to the Garden share its name. History Previous Gardens Madison Squareis formed by the intersection of5th AvenueandBroadwayat23rd Streetin Manhattan. It was named afterJames Madison, fourthPresident of the United States. Two venues called Madison Square Garden were located just northeast of the square,the original Gardenfrom 1879 to 1890, andthe second Gardenfrom 1890 to 1925. The first, leased toP. T. Barnum,was demolished in 1890 because of a leaky roof and dangerous balconies that had collapsed, resulting in deaths. The second was designed by noted architectStanford White. The new building was built by a syndicate that includedJ. P. Morgan,Andrew Carnegie,P. T. Barnum,Darius Mills,James StillmanandW. W. Astor. White gave them aBeaux-Artsstructure with aMoorishfeel, including a minaret-like tower modeled afterGiralda, the bell tower of theCathedral of Seville,soaring 32 stories, the city's second-tallest building at the timeand dominatingMadison Square Park. It was 200 feet (61 m) by 485 feet (148 m), and the main hall, which was the largest in the world, measured 200 feet (61 m) by 350 feet (110 m) with permanent seating for 8,000 people and floor space for thousands more. It had a 1,200-seat theater, a concert hall with a capacity of 1,500, the largest restaurant in the city, and a roof garden cabaret.The building cost $3 million.Madison Square Garden II was unsuccessful like the first Garden,and theNew York Life Insurance Company, which held the mortgage on it, decided to tear it down in 1925 to make way for a new headquarters building, which would become the landmarkCass Gilbert-designedNew York Life Building. Athird Madison Square Gardenopened in a new location, on8th Avenuebetween49thand50th Streets, from 1925 to 1968. Groundbreaking on the third Madison Square Garden took place on January 9, 1925.Designed by the noted theater architectThomas W. Lamb, it was built at the cost of $4.75 million in 249 days by boxing promoterTex Rickard;the arena was dubbed \\\"The House That Tex Built.\\\"The arena was 200 feet (61 m) by 375 feet (114 m), with seating on three levels, and a maximum capacity of 18,496 spectators for boxing. Demolition commenced in 1968 after the opening of the current Garden,and was completed in early 1969. The site is now the location ofOne Worldwide Plaza. Current Garden In February 1959, former automobile manufacturerGraham-Paigepurchased a 40% interest in the Madison Square Garden for $4 millionand later gained control.In November 1960, Graham-Paige presidentIrving Mitchell Feltpurchased from thePennsylvania Railroadthe rights to build atPenn Station.To build the new facility, the above-ground portions ofthe original Pennsylvania Stationwere torn down. The new structure was one of the first of its kind to be built above the platforms of an active railroad station. It was an engineering feat constructed byRobert E. McKeeofEl Paso, Texas. Public outcry over the demolition of the Pennsylvania Station structure—an outstanding example ofBeaux-Arts architecture—led to the creation of theNew York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. The venue opened on February 11, 1968. Comparing the new and the old Penn Station, Yale architectural historianVincent Scullywrote, \\\"One entered the city like a god; one scuttles in now like a rat.\\\" In 1972, Felt proposed moving theKnicksandRangersto a then incomplete venue in theNew Jersey Meadowlands, theMeadowlands Sports Complex. The Garden was also the home arena for theNY Raiders/NY Golden Bladesof theWorld Hockey Association. The Meadowlands would eventually host its own NBA and NHL teams, theNew Jersey Netsand theNew Jersey Devils, respectively. TheNew York GiantsandJetsof theNational Football League(NFL) also relocated there. In 1977, the arena was sold toGulf and Western Industries. Felt's efforts fueled controversy between the Garden and New York City over real estate taxes. The disagreement again flared in 1980 when the Garden again challenged its tax bill. The arena, since the 1980s, has since enjoyed tax-free status, under the condition that all Knicks and Rangers home games must be hosted at MSG, lest it lose this exemption. As such, when the Rangers have played neutral-site games—even those in New York City, such as the2018 NHL Winter Classic, they have always been designated as the visiting team.The tax agreement includes anact of Godclause, which allowed Knicks and Rangers home games to be played elsewhere during the2020 NBA Bubbleand2020 Stanley Cup playoffs, respectively, because of theCOVID-19 pandemic. In 1984, the four streets immediately surrounding the Garden were designated as Joe Louis Plaza, in honor of boxerJoe Louis, who had made eight successful title defenses in theprevious Madison Square Garden. 1991 renovation In April 1986, Gulf and Western announced that they would build a new Madison Square Garden a few blocks away on the site of present-dayHudson Yards. The plan would cost an estimated $150 million and included the demolition of the 1964 building to replace it with a new office tower development.After years of planning, Gulf and Western decided against building a new arena in favor of a renovation after estimated costs doubled throughout the process. Garden owners spent $200 million in 1991 to renovate facilities and add 89 suites in place of hundreds of upper-tier seats. The project was designed byEllerbe Becket. The renovation was criticized for perceived corporatization. Additionally, the renovation made bathrooms larger, expanded menus, added a new ventilation system, replaced all of the seats with new cushioned teal and violet seats, and refurbished both home teams' locker rooms. In 2000, current MSG owner, James Dolan was quoted as saying that a new arena was being considered as the current building was starting to show its age. In 2004–2005,Cablevisionbattled with the City of New York over the proposedWest Side arena, which was canceled. Cablevision then announced plans to raze the Garden, replace it with high-rise commercial buildings, and build a new Garden one block away at the site of theJames Farley Post Office. Meanwhile, a new project to renovate and modernize the Garden completed phase one in time for theRangersandKnicks' 2011–12 seasons,though the vice president of the Garden says he remains committed to the installation of an extension of Penn Station at the Farley Post Office site. While the Knicks and Rangers were not displaced, theNew York Libertyplayed at thePrudential CenterinNewark, New Jerseyduring the renovation. Madison Square Garden is the last of theNBAandNHLarenas not to be named after a corporate sponsor. 2011–2013 renovation Madison Square Garden's $1 billion second renovation took place mainly over three off-seasons. It was set to begin after the 2009–10 hockey/basketball seasons, but was delayed until after the 2010–11 seasons. Renovation was done in phases with the majority of the work done in the summer months to minimize disruptions to the NHL and NBA seasons. While the Rangers and Knicks were not displaced,the Liberty played their home games through the 2013 season atPrudential CenterinNewark, New Jersey, during the renovation. New features include a larger entrance with interactive kiosks, retail, climate-controlled space, and broadcast studio; larger concourses; new lighting and LED video systems with HDTV; new seating; two new pedestrian walkways suspended from the ceiling to allow fans to look directly down onto the games being played below; more dining options; and improved dressing rooms, locker rooms, green rooms, upgraded roof, and production offices. The lower bowl concourse, called the Madison Concourse, remains on the sixth floor. The upper bowl concourse was relocated to the eighth floor and it is known as the Garden Concourse. The seventh floor houses the new Madison Suites and the Madison Club. The upper bowl was built on top of these suites. The rebuilt concourses are wider than their predecessors, and include large windows that offer views of the city streets around the Garden. Construction of the lower bowl (Phase 1) was completed in 2011.An extended off-season for the Garden permitted some advanced work to begin on the new upper bowl, which was completed in 2012. This advance work included the West Balcony on the tenth floor, taking the place of sky-boxes, and new end-ice 300 level seating. The construction of the upper bowl along with the Madison Suites and the Madison Club (Phase 2) were completed for the 2012–13 NHL and NBA seasons.Phase 3, which involved the construction of the new lobby known as Chase Square, the Chase Bridges on the 10th floor, and the new scoreboard, was completed for the 2013–14 NHL and NBA seasons. Penn Station renovation controversy Madison Square Garden is seen as an obstacle in the renovation and future expansion ofPenn Station,which expanded in 2021 with the opening ofMoynihan Train Hallat theJames Farley Post Office,and some have proposed moving MSG to other sites in western Manhattan. On February 15, 2013,Manhattan Community Board 5voted 36–0 against granting a renewal to MSG's operating permit in perpetuity and proposed a 10-year limit instead in order to build a new Penn Station where the arena is currently standing. Manhattan borough presidentScott Stringersaid, \\\"Moving the arena is an important first step to improving Penn Station.\\\"The Madison Square Garden Companyresponded by saying that \\\"t is incongruous to think that M.S.G. would be considering moving.\\\" In May 2013, four architecture firms –SHoP Architects,SOM,H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture, andDiller Scofidio + Renfro– submittedproposalsfor a new Penn Station. SHoP Architects recommended moving Madison Square Garden to the Morgan Postal Facility a few blocks southwest, as well as removing2 Penn Plazaand redeveloping other towers, and an extension of theHigh Lineto Penn Station.Meanwhile, SOM proposed moving Madison Square Garden to the area just south of theJames Farley Post Office, and redeveloping the area above Penn Station as amixed-use developmentwith commercial, residential, and recreational space.H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture wanted to move the arena to a new pier west ofJacob K. Javits Convention Center, four blocks west of the current station and arena. Then, according to H3's plan, fourskyscraperswould be built, one at each of the four corners of the new Penn Station superblock, with aroof gardenon top of the station; the Farley Post Office would become an education center.Finally, Diller Scofidio + Renfro proposed a mixed-use development on the site, with spas, theaters, a cascading park, a pool, and restaurants; Madison Square Garden would be moved two blocks west, next to the post office. DS+F also proposed high-tech features in the station, such as train arrival and departure boards on the floor, andappsthat would inform waiting passengers of ways to occupy their time until they board their trains.Madison Square Garden rejected the notion that it would be relocated, and called the plans \\\"pie-in-the-sky\\\". In June 2013, theNew York City CouncilCommittee on Land Use voted unanimously to give the Garden a ten-year permit, at the end of which period the owners will either have to relocate or go back through the permission process.On July 24, the City Council voted to give the Garden a 10-year operating permit by a vote of 47–1. \\\"This is the first step in finding a new home for Madison Square Garden and building a new Penn Station that is as great as New York and suitable for the 21st century,\\\" said City Council speakerChristine Quinn. \\\"This is an opportunity to reimagine and redevelop Penn Station as a world-class transportation destination.\\\" In October 2014, the Morgan facility was selected as the ideal area for Madison Square Garden to be moved, following the 2014 MAS Summit in New York City. More plans for the station were discussed.Then, in January 2016, New York GovernorAndrew Cuomoannounced a redevelopment plan for Penn Station that would involve the removal ofThe Theater at Madison Square Garden, but would otherwise leave the arena intact. In June 2023, nearing the end of the Garden's ten-year permit granted by the city, theMetropolitan Transportation Authority, along withAmtrakandNJ Transit, filed a report stating that MSG is no longer compatible with Penn Station, with the report saying, \\\"MSG's existing configuration and property boundaries impose severe constraints on the station that impede the safe and efficient movement of passengers and restrict efforts to implement improvements, particularly at the street and platform levels.\\\"On September 14, 2023, the New York City Council voted 48–0 to renew the operating permit for Madison Square Garden for five years, the shortest ever granted by the city to the Garden. Events Regular events Sports Madison Square Garden hosts approximately 320 events a year. It is the home to theNew York Rangersof the National Hockey League, and theNew York Knicksof the National Basketball Association. Before 2020, the New York Rangers, New York Knicks, and the Madison Square Garden arena itself were all owned by the Madison Square Garden Company. The MSG Company split into two entities in 2020, with the Garden arena and other non-sports assets spun off intoMadison Square Garden Entertainmentand the Rangers and Knicks remaining with the original company, renamedMadison Square Garden Sports. Both entities remain under the voting control ofJames Dolanand his family. The arena is also host to theBig East men's basketball tournamentand was home to the finals of theNational Invitation Tournamentfrom the beginning of its existence up until 2022.It also hosts select home games for theSt. John's Red Storm, representingSt. John's Universityin men's (college basketball), and almost any other kind of indoor activity that draws large audiences, such as theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Showand the2004 Republican National Convention. The Garden was home of theNBA draftandNIT Season Tip-Off,as well as the former New York City home of theRingling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey CircusandDisney on Ice; all four events are now held at theBarclays CenterinBrooklyn. It served theNew York Cosmosfor half of their home games during the1983–84 NASL Indoor season. Many ofboxing's biggest fights were held at Madison Square Garden, including theRoberto Durán–Ken Buchananaffair,the firstMuhammad Ali–Joe Frazierbout and the US debut ofAnthony Joshuathat ended in a huge upset when he was beaten byAndy Ruiz. Before promoters such asDon KingandBob Arummoved boxing toLas Vegas,Nevada, Madison Square Garden was a popular location for boxing. The original18+1⁄2ft ×18+1⁄2ft (5.6 m × 5.6 m) ring, which was brought from the second and third generation of the Garden, was officially retired on September 19, 2007, and donated to theInternational Boxing Hall of Fameafter 82 years of service.A 20 ft × 20 ft (6.1 m × 6.1 m) ring replaced it beginning on October 6 of that same year.TheUFChas made Madison Square Garden in recent years and have put on some of the highest grossing PPV events in history. Pro wrestling Madison Square Garden has hosted many notableWWE(formerly WWF and WWWF) events.The Garden has hosted threeWrestleManiaevents, including thefirstedition of the annual marquee event for WWE, as well as the10thand20theditions. Madison Square Garden is also one of two venues (the other beingAllstate Arena) to host WrestleMania three times. It also hosted theRoyal Rumblein2000and2008;SummerSlamin1988,1991and1998; as well asSurvivor Seriesin1996,2002and2011. Multiple episodes of WWE's weekly shows,RawandSmackDownhave been broadcast from the Arena as well. New Japan Pro-Wrestling(NJPW) andRing of Honor(ROH) hosted theirG1 Supercardsupershow at the venue on April 6, 2019. A year later it was announced thatNew Japan Pro-Wrestlingwould return to Madison Square Garden alone on August 22, 2020, for NJPW Wrestle Dynasty.In May 2020, NJPW announced that the Wrestle Dynasty show would be postponed to 2021 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. Concerts Madison Square Garden hosts more high-profile concert events than any other venue in New York City. It has been the venue forMichael Jackson'sBad World Tourin 1988,George Harrison'sThe Concert for Bangladesh,The Concert for New York Cityfollowing theSeptember 11 attacks,John Lennon's final concert appearance during anElton Johnconcert on Thanksgiving Night in 1974 beforehis murderin 1980, andElvis Presley, who gave four sold-out performances in 1972, his first and last ever in New York City.Parliament-Funkadelicheadlined numerous sold-out shows in 1977 and 1978.Kiss, who were formed in the arena's city and three of whose members were city-born, did six shows during their second half of the 1970s main attraction peak or \\\"heyday\\\": four sold out winter shows at the arena in 1977 (February 18 and December 14–16), and another two shows only this time in summer for a decade-ender in 1979 (July 24–25). They played their final two shows at the venue on the December 1 and 2, 2023, the 50th anniversary year of their formation.Billy Joel, another city-born and fellow 1970's pop star, played his first Garden show on December 14, 1978, with that month's follow ups on the 15th, 16th and 18th.Led Zeppelin's three-night stand in July 1973 was recorded and released as both afilmandalbumtitledThe Song Remains The Same.The Policeplayed their final show of their reunion tour at the Garden in 2008. In the summer of 2017,Phishheld a 13 night series of concerts called \\\"The Bakers' Dozen.\\\" During which the band played 237 unique songs, repeating none during the entire run. The Garden commemorated \\\"The Bakers' Dozen\\\" by adding a Phish themed banner to the rafters.With their first MSG show taking place on December 30, 1994, Phish has regularly played annual multi night runs, typically around New Year's Eve.As of January 2024, Phish has performed 83 times at MSG. Elton Johnonce held the all-time record for the greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 64 shows. In a 2009 press release, John was quoted as saying \\\"Madison Square Garden is my favorite venue in the whole world. I chose to have my 60th birthday concert there, because of all the incredible memories I've had playing the venue.\\\"A DVD recording was released asElton 60—Live at Madison Square Garden. Billy Joel, who holds the record for the greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 134 shows as of February 2023,stated that the site \\\"has the best acoustics, the best audiences, the best reputation, and the best history of great artists who have played there. It is the iconic, holy temple of rock and roll for most touring acts.\\\" TheGrateful Deadperformed in the venue 53 times from 1979 to 1994, with the first show being held on January 7, 1979, and the last being on October 19, 1994. Their longest run being done in September 1991. The Whohave headlined at the venue 32 times, including a four-night stand in 1974, a five-night stand in 1979, a six-night stand in 1996, and four-night stands in 2000 and 2002. They also performed atThe Concert for New York Cityin 2001. On March 10, 2020, a 50th-anniversary celebration ofThe Allman Brothers Bandtitled 'The Brothers' took place, featuring the five surviving members of the final Allman Brothers lineup andChuck Leavell.Dickey Bettswas invited to participate but his health precluded him from traveling.This was the final concert at the venue before theCOVID-19 pandemicforced its closure. Live shows returned to The Garden when theFoo Fightersheadlined a show there on June 20, 2021. The show was for a vaccinated audience only and was the first 100 percent capacity concert in a New York arena since the start of the pandemic. Other events It hosted the1976 Democratic National Convention,1980 Democratic National Convention,1992 Democratic National Convention,and the2004 Republican National Convention,and hosted theNFL draftfor many years (later held at Garden-leasedRadio City Music Hall, now shared between cities of NFL franchises).TheJeopardy!Teen Tournament and several installments ofCelebrity Jeopardy!were filmed at MSG in 1999,as well as several episodes ofWheel of Fortunein 1999 and 2013. TheNew York City Police Academy,Baruch College/CUNYandYeshiva Universityalso hold their annual graduation ceremonies at Madison Square Garden. It hosted theGrammy Awardsin 1972, 1997, 2003, and 2018 (which are normally held inLos Angeles) as well as theLatin Grammy Awards of 2006. The group, and Best in Show competitions of theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Showhave been held at MSG every February from 1877 to 2020, which was MSG's longest continuous tenant although this was broken in 2021 as the Westminster Kennel Club announced that the event would be held outdoors for the first time due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Notable firsts and significant events The Garden hosted theStanley Cup FinalsandNBA Finalssimultaneously on two occasions: in 1972 and 1994. MSG has hosted the following All-Star Games: Mike Krzyzewskirecorded two notable milestones at the arena. In 2011, he surpassedBob Knightas the coach with the most winsNCAA Division Imen's basketball history whenDukedefeatedMichigan State. Four years later, a Duke victory over St. John's gave Coach K his 1,000th career win. Stephen Currybroke the NBA'sall-time three-point scoring recordat Madison Square Garden, on December 14, 2021. TheWarriorsdefeated the Knicks 105–96 with Curry recording his 2,977th career three-pointer by the end of the game, eclipsingRay Allen's 2,973 career total. Recognition given by Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden Gold Ticket Award In 1977, Madison Square Garden announcedGold Ticket Awardswould be given to performers who had brought in more than 100,000 unit ticket sales to the venue. Since the arena's seating capacity is about 20,000, this would require a minimum of five sold-out shows. Performers who were eligible for the award at the time of its inauguration includedChicago,John Denver,Peter Frampton, theRolling Stones, theJackson 5,Elton John,Led Zeppelin,Sly Stone,Jethro Tull,The Who, andYes.Graeme Edge, who received his award in 1981 as a member ofThe Moody Blues, said he found his gold ticket to be an interesting piece of memorabilia because he could use it to attend any event at the Garden.Many other performers received Gold Ticket Awards between 1977 and 1994. Madison Square Garden Platinum Ticket Award Madison Square Garden also gave Platinum Ticket Awards to performers who sold over 250,000 tickets to their shows throughout the years. Winners of the Platinum Ticket Awards include: the Rolling Stones (1981),Elton John (1982),Yes (1984),Billy Joel (1984),the Grateful Dead (1987),and Madonna (2004). Madison Square Garden Hall of Fame The Madison Square Garden Hall of Fame honors those who have demonstrated excellence in their fields at the Garden. Most of the inductees have been sports figures, however, some performers have been inducted as well. Elton John was reported to be the first non-sports figure inducted into the MSG Hall of Fame in 1977 for \\\"record attendance of 140,000\\\" in June of that year.For their accomplishment of \\\"13 sell-out concerts\\\" at the venue, the Rolling Stones were inducted into the MSG Hall of Fame in 1984, along with nine sports figures icons, bringing the hall's membership to 107. Madison Square Garden Walk of Fame The walkway leading to the arena of Madison Square Garden was designated as the \\\"Walk of Fame\\\" in 1992.It was established \\\"to recognize athletes, artists, announcers and coaches for their extraordinary achievements and memorable performances at the venue.\\\"Each inductee is commemorated with a plaque that lists the performance category in which his or her contributions have been made.Twenty-five athletes were inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame at its inaugural ceremony in 1992, a black-tie dinner to raise money to fight multiple sclerosis.Elton John was the first entertainer to be inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame in 1992.Billy Joel was inducted at a date after Elton John,and the Rolling Stones were inducted in 1998.In 2015, the Grateful Dead were inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame along with at least three sports-related figures. Capacity The Theater at Madison Square Garden The Theater at Madison Square Garden seats between 2,000 and 5,600 for concerts and can also be used for meetings, stage shows, and graduation ceremonies. It was the home of theNFL draftuntil 2005, when it moved to theJacob K. Javits Convention Centerafter MSG management opposed anew arenafor theNew York Jets. It also hosted theNBA draftfrom 2001 to 2010. The theater also occasionally hosts boxing matches. The fall 1999Jeopardy!Teen Tournamentas well as aCelebrity Jeopardy!competitions were held at the theater.Wheel of Fortunetaped at the theater twice in 1999 and 2013. In 2004, it was the venue of theSurvivor: All-Starsfinale. No seat is more than 177 feet (54 m) from the 30' × 64' stage. The theater has a relatively low 20-foot (6.1 m) ceiling at stage leveland all of its seating except for boxes on the two side walls is on one level slanted back from the stage. There is an 8,000-square-foot (740 m2) lobby at the theater. Accessibility and transportation Madison Square Garden sits directly atop a major transportation hub,New York Penn Station, which is served byLong Island Rail RoadandNJ Transitcommuter rail, as well asAmtrak. The Garden is also accessible via theNew York City Subwayat the34th Street–Penn Station(A, C, and Etrains) and the34th Street–Penn Station(1, 2, and 3trains) stations. See also References Notes Sources External links\",\n \"AC/DC discography AustralianrockbandAC/DChave released 18studio albums, twosoundtrack albums, threelive albums, oneextended play, 57singles, 11video albums, 52music videosand twobox sets. Although many AC/DC singles have been released, the band refused to issue anygreatest hitsalbums.Who Made Who, which served as the soundtrack to Stephen King's filmMaximum Overdrive,Iron Man 2and the band's various live recordings are the closest they have issued to such a compilation. BrothersAngus(lead guitar) andMalcolm Young(rhythm guitar) formed AC/DC in 1973.The band released two albums inAustralasiabefore issuing their first international album,High Voltagein 1976; the Youngs had been joined by vocalistBon Scott, bass guitaristMark Evansand drummerPhil Rudd.In 1980, less than a year after the appearance of the successfulHighway to Hell, Scott died and was replaced by English singerBrian Johnson, with whom AC/DC released their best-selling album,Back in Black.The albumBlack Ice, from 2008, reached number one in 29 countries.In 50 years of their career, AC/DC have sold over 200 million albums worldwide,and 83 million in the United States.Back in Blacksold 50 million copies worldwide, and became thesecond best-selling album in history. Verizonmade AC/DC albums available fordigital downloadin 2007;for five years the band refused to release their albums viaiTunes, as that company allows downloading of individual tracks.Angus Young observed, \\\"We honestly believe the songs on any of our albums belong together. If we were on iTunes, we know a certain percentage of people would only download two or three songs from the album – and we don't think that represents us musically.\\\"However, in November 2012, the band relented and released their entire discography via iTunes.On 30 June 2015, their catalogue appeared onSpotifyfor the first time, which made their works available forstreaming.Their most certified singles in the US are \\\"Thunderstruck\\\" (1990), \\\"Back in Black\\\" (1980), \\\"Highway to Hell\\\" (1979), and \\\"You Shook Me All Night Long\\\" (1980) – each have received Diamond, 7× Platinum, and 6× Platinum and from theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) in 2024, respectively.In Australia, \\\"Thunderstruck\\\" (1990) was accredited 10× Platinum by theAustralian Recording Industry Association(ARIA) in 2022. Albums Studio albums Live albums Soundtrack albums Box set albums Extended plays Singles Videos Video albums Music videos See also Notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"If You Want Blood You've Got It If You Want Blood You've Got It(written as justIf You Want Blood) is the first live album by Australianhard rockbandAC/DC, and their only live album released duringBon Scott's lifetime. It was originally released in the UK and Europe on 13 October 1978, in the US on 21 November 1978, and in Australia on 27 November 1978.The album was re-released in 1994 onAtco Recordsand in 2003 as part of theAC/DC Remastersseries. Background The album was released six months after the band's previous studio albumPowerage. A 'best-of' package called12 of the Besthad been in the works, but the project was scrapped in favour of a live album. It was recorded during the 1978Poweragetour and contains songs fromT.N.T.,Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap,Let There Be Rock, andPowerage. It is the last Bon Scott-era AC/DC album produced byHarry VandaandGeorge Young, who also produced the band's first five studio releases. In his 1994 Bon Scott memoirHighway to Hell, authorClinton Walkerobserves, \\\"Live albums, which tended to be double or triple sets in which songs short in their studio versions were stretched out into extended tedium, were for some reason popular in the seventies.If You Want Bloodreversed this tradition... it boasted a blunt ten tracks and, allowing nothing extraneous, got straight to the point, that being raging AC/DC rock and roll.\\\" A concert at theApollo TheatreinGlasgow, Scotland on 30 April 1978 was used for the live tracks. The concert is also remembered for the encore, when AC/DC came back on stage dressed in the Scottish football strip, paying homage to Scott's and the Young brothers' homeland. \\\"This gig summed up what made AC/DC so special live: the energy, the rapport with the crowd and the way those simple yet classic songs took on another life. You hear all of this onIf You Want Blood. It's a great reminder of how remarkable the band and their fans were that night.\\\" –Tom Russell, DJ \\\"Dog Eat Dog\\\", performed on the night, was removed from the album release, while the encore – \\\"Fling Thing/Rocker\\\" – was edited, removing \\\"Fling Thing\\\" and cutting out Angus's extended solo, as he did a walk around the audience (with an early version of a wireless guitar lead). This part of the band's concert theatrics later accompanied \\\"Let There Be Rock\\\"; \\\"Rocker\\\" has been performed only a few times since Bon Scott's passing in 1980. The live \\\"Dog Eat Dog\\\" was released as the b-side of the single \\\"Whole Lotta Rosie\\\" in November 1978, but only in Australia. It was rereleased worldwide in 2009 on the two (standard) and three (collectors) CD boxed set compilationBacktracks, featuring Australian-only songs not released internationally at the time, and live b-Sides from 7\\\" and 12\\\" singles. The encores \\\"Fling Thing\\\" and \\\"Rocker\\\" (with a complete guitar solo) appeared only on footage of the concert by a Dutch TV station played at the time, but were eventually released on theFamily JewelsDVD. According to the 2006 bookAC/DC: Maximum Rock & Roll, the album title was an extension of Scott's response – at theDay on the Greenfestival in July 1978 – when a journalist asked what they could expect from the band. The singer replied, \\\"Blood.\\\"The cover art is from a shoot withAtlantic Records' staff photographer Jim Houghton after the show at Boston'sParadise Theateron 21st August 1978, the idea for which came from Atlantic's art director Bob Defrin.The front cover depicts Angus Young being impaled on stage with a guitar during a performance, while the back depicts a bloodied Young lying facedown on the same stage, though deserted. A song titled \\\"If You Want Blood (You've Got It)\\\" appeared on the next album: the band's US chart breakthrough,Highway to Hell. Reception The album was listed at #2 onClassic Rockmagazine's readers' poll of \\\"50 Greatest Live Albums Ever\\\".In a 1992 interview withMetal Hammerat the time of the band'ssecond live release, Malcolm Young admitted, \\\"I personally still prefer the old album. We were young, fresh, vital and kicking ass.\\\"Greg Prato ofAllMusicnotes, \\\"While most other rock bands of the era were busy experimenting withdiscoor creating studio-perfected epics, AC/DC was one of the few specializing in raw and bluesy hard rock, as evidenced by 1978's live set, If You Want Blood You've Got It.\\\"Eduardo Rivadavia ofUltimate Classic Rockenthuses, \\\"Other concert records may boast more songs, more Top 40 hits or even more crowd-pleasing gimmicks. But very few can challenge the sheer excitement and reckless abandon captured on AC/DC’s terrific concert document.\\\"Carlo Twist ofBlendermagazine praised the album, saying that \\\"They were always a mighty live act, and this is the sound of AC/DC in Europe just prior to 1979's U.S. breakthrough. The audience's hysteria regularly cuts through the amps, as they howl along to singer Bon Scott's tale of sexually transmitted disease (\\\"The Jack\\\") and punctuate guitarist Angus Young's staccato riffing on \\\"Whole Lotta Rosie.\\\" Imagine a punk-rock Chuck Berry played at nosebleed volume.\\\" Concert footage The entire Glasgow concert was filmed but the complete footage has never been released. Eventually, \\\"Riff Raff\\\" and \\\"Fling Thing/Rocker\\\" segments were made available on the DVDAC/DC Family Jewels, released in 2005. Video footage was also used from the show onFamily Jewelsusing the \\\"Rock 'n' Roll Damnation\\\" studio version audio track promotional clip. Segments from the concert (the songs \\\"Rock 'n' Roll Damnation\\\", \\\"Dog Eat Dog\\\" and \\\"Let There Be Rock\\\") were made available on the DVDPlug Me In, released in 2007 (the latter 2 were also released on YouTube in 2013)). \\\"Bad Boy Boogie\\\" was included on the bonus disc on the three-disc edition ofPlug Me In. Track listing All tracks are written byAngus Young,Malcolm YoungandBon Scott Original concert setlist All songs written by Angus Young, Malcolm Young, and Bon Scott except \\\"Fling Thing\\\", which is a Scottishtraditional song. Notes Personnel Production Charts Certifications *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification alone. References External links\",\n \"The Apollo, Glasgow The Apollowas amusic venueat 126 Renfield Street inGlasgowcity centre,Scotland. The Apollo operated from 5 September 1973 until closure on 16 June 1985 and was Glasgow's leading music venue during this period. The Apollo was a re-brand of the previousGreen's Playhousein the same building. History The Green family owned Green's Playhouse cinema at 126 Renfield Street. It was thought to be the largest cinema in Europe at the time but was in decline. Unicorn Leisure, owned by Frank Lynch and Max Langdown, leased a discothèque named Clouds in the top floor of the building. Unicorn included management ofBilly Connollyin their portfolio.On hearing the Green family were considering converting the dis-repaired venue into a bingo hall or demolishing the venue for a completely new development, Unicorn applied to lease the building which they felt had potential as a music venue. They bought a job lot of 3,000 cinema seats and re-upholstered the 'Golden Divans' in the balcony. \\\"Apollo\\\" was chosen as the name of the re-branded venue so to mitigate the cost of letters for which the sign company charged £250 per letter. The first two concerts at The Apollo were performed by Johnny Cash on 5 & 6 September 1973. The venue was quickly attractive to the public responding to booking of popular performers of the time who spoke favourably of the atmosphere generated by the exuberant crowds.Theballroomoperated above the main concert auditorium, originally known as \\\"Clouds\\\", following various name changes that included \\\"Satellite City\\\" and \\\"The Penthouse\\\". The ballroom became a music venue for up-coming and relatively lesser-known contemporary bands, such asSimple Minds,Elvis Costello,Sham 69andThe Rich Kids. These were unable to attract a large enough paying audience to fill the concert venue. The venue was known for the atmosphere generated by its enthusiastic crowds, a 15 ft 6 in high stage (often exaggerated and misreported)that sloped down towards the audience and \\\"bouncy balcony\\\" designed and built so that it would move up and down. This feature was put to the test by concert-goers, who would jump to get it to bounce.Francis Rossirefers to this onStatus Quo'sLive!, recorded at the venue: \\\"Those people at the top, on the balcony, can only see you when the lights go up there. Get the balcony to move about a bit and they'llall be running about and shitting themselves. Nice bunch of fellas, but very very scared of balconies!\\\" Jake BurnsofStiff Little Fingerssaid the stage was \\\"the only one in our career where we said if anyone got onstage from the audience, they could stay. They'd earned it.\\\"Andy SummersofThe Policein his autobiography \\\"One Train Later\\\" wrote \\\"Back in the dressing room, drenched in sweat and sitting among piles of little tartan-wrapped presents, we remarked about the bouncing balcony, amazed that the whole thing didn't collapse.\\\"The venue was used for numerous live album recordings (see \\\"Notable Performances\\\" section) and was used as either opening or closing venue by many performers visiting the UK from America. The management team for the Ramones have subsequently said the Apollo was the Ramones' favourite venue. Despite the Apollo's success as a music venue, the building was in a poor condition and its structure was gradually deteriorating. Maintenance was undertaken only on a \\\"make-do\\\" basis. In mid-1977 the owner of Unicorn Leisure relocated toFlorida. The lease for the venue was acquired by theApollo Leisure Group. The new leaseholders experienced considerable problems with the buildings structural condition and later considered relinquishing the lease in 1978, withMecca Bingoexpressing interest in the acquisition of the building. A successful campaign to preserve the building's status as a music venue included a 100,000 signature petition including support fromPaul McCartneyandEric Clapton. The resumption was to herald a seven-year downward spiral until the venue finally closed for business on 16 June 1985.The Style Councilwere the final performers on the bill. The building was demolished in September 1987 following a fire that rendered the building structurally unsafe. Such is the high regard that Ozzy Osbourne felt for the place that when he agreed to an interview on Scottish Television he asked that the interview be held in the empty disused site of the old building. Notable performances After demolition The Apollo was replaced by aCineworldbuilding constructed in 2000 and opened a year later on exactly the same site. A musical was first produced in 2009 titled,I Was There: The Story of The Glasgow Apollo. The retro website glasgowapollo.com was launched in 2003. As of 2017 the site has received over 12 million hits. See also References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Song_Remains_the_Same_(album","Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden, colloquially known asthe Gardenor by its initialsMSG, is a multi-purpose indoor arena inNew York City. It is located inMidtown ManhattanbetweenSeventhandEighthAvenues from 31st to 33rd Street abovePennsylvania Station. It is the fourth venue to bear the name \"Madison Square Garden\"; the first two, opened in1879and1890respectively, were located onMadison Square, on East 26th Street and Madison Avenue, with thethird Madison Square Garden(1925) farther uptown at Eighth Avenue and 50th Street. The Garden hosts professional ice hockey, professional basketball, boxing, mixed martial arts, concerts, ice shows, circuses, professional wrestling, and other forms of sports and entertainment. It is close to other midtown Manhattan landmarks, including theEmpire State Building,Koreatown, andMacy'satHerald Square. It is home to theNew York Rangersof theNational Hockey League(NHL), theNew York Knicksof theNational Basketball Association(NBA), and was home to theNew York Libertyof","York Libertyof theWomen's National Basketball Association(WNBA) from 1997 to 2017. Originally calledMadison Square Garden Center, the Garden opened on February 11, 1968, and is the oldest major sporting facility in theNew York metropolitan area. It is the oldest arena in the NBA and the second-oldest in the NHL, after Seattle'sClimate Pledge Arena. As of 2016, MSG is also the second-busiest music arena in the world in terms of ticket sales.Including its two major renovations in 1991 and 2013, the Garden's total construction cost was approximately $1.1 billion, and it has been ranked as one of the 10 most expensivearenavenues ever built.It is part of thePennsylvania Plazaoffice and retail complex, named for the railway station. Severalother operating entitiesrelated to the Garden share its name. History Previous Gardens Madison Squareis formed by the intersection of5th AvenueandBroadwayat23rd Streetin Manhattan. It was named afterJames Madison, fourthPresident of the United States. Two venues called Madison","called Madison Square Garden were located just northeast of the square,the original Gardenfrom 1879 to 1890, andthe second Gardenfrom 1890 to 1925. The first, leased toP. T. Barnum,was demolished in 1890 because of a leaky roof and dangerous balconies that had collapsed, resulting in deaths. The second was designed by noted architectStanford White. The new building was built by a syndicate that includedJ. P. Morgan,Andrew Carnegie,P. T. Barnum,Darius Mills,James StillmanandW. W. Astor. White gave them aBeaux-Artsstructure with aMoorishfeel, including a minaret-like tower modeled afterGiralda, the bell tower of theCathedral of Seville,soaring 32 stories, the city's second-tallest building at the timeand dominatingMadison Square Park. It was 200 feet (61 m) by 485 feet (148 m), and the main hall, which was the largest in the world, measured 200 feet (61 m) by 350 feet (110 m) with permanent seating for 8,000 people and floor space for thousands more. It had a 1,200-seat theater, a concert hall with a capacity","with a capacity of 1,500, the largest restaurant in the city, and a roof garden cabaret.The building cost $3 million.Madison Square Garden II was unsuccessful like the first Garden,and theNew York Life Insurance Company, which held the mortgage on it, decided to tear it down in 1925 to make way for a new headquarters building, which would become the landmarkCass Gilbert-designedNew York Life Building. Athird Madison Square Gardenopened in a new location, on8th Avenuebetween49thand50th Streets, from 1925 to 1968. Groundbreaking on the third Madison Square Garden took place on January 9, 1925.Designed by the noted theater architectThomas W. Lamb, it was built at the cost of $4.75 million in 249 days by boxing promoterTex Rickard;the arena was dubbed \"The House That Tex Built.\"The arena was 200 feet (61 m) by 375 feet (114 m), with seating on three levels, and a maximum capacity of 18,496 spectators for boxing. Demolition commenced in 1968 after the opening of the current Garden,and was completed in early 1969.","in early 1969. The site is now the location ofOne Worldwide Plaza. Current Garden In February 1959, former automobile manufacturerGraham-Paigepurchased a 40% interest in the Madison Square Garden for $4 millionand later gained control.In November 1960, Graham-Paige presidentIrving Mitchell Feltpurchased from thePennsylvania Railroadthe rights to build atPenn Station.To build the new facility, the above-ground portions ofthe original Pennsylvania Stationwere torn down. The new structure was one of the first of its kind to be built above the platforms of an active railroad station. It was an engineering feat constructed byRobert E. McKeeofEl Paso, Texas. Public outcry over the demolition of the Pennsylvania Station structure—an outstanding example ofBeaux-Arts architecture—led to the creation of theNew York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. The venue opened on February 11, 1968. Comparing the new and the old Penn Station, Yale architectural historianVincent Scullywrote, \"One entered the city like a god;","city like a god; one scuttles in now like a rat.\" In 1972, Felt proposed moving theKnicksandRangersto a then incomplete venue in theNew Jersey Meadowlands, theMeadowlands Sports Complex. The Garden was also the home arena for theNY Raiders/NY Golden Bladesof theWorld Hockey Association. The Meadowlands would eventually host its own NBA and NHL teams, theNew Jersey Netsand theNew Jersey Devils, respectively. TheNew York GiantsandJetsof theNational Football League(NFL) also relocated there. In 1977, the arena was sold toGulf and Western Industries. Felt's efforts fueled controversy between the Garden and New York City over real estate taxes. The disagreement again flared in 1980 when the Garden again challenged its tax bill. The arena, since the 1980s, has since enjoyed tax-free status, under the condition that all Knicks and Rangers home games must be hosted at MSG, lest it lose this exemption. As such, when the Rangers have played neutral-site games—even those in New York City, such as the2018 NHL Winter","the2018 NHL Winter Classic, they have always been designated as the visiting team.The tax agreement includes anact of Godclause, which allowed Knicks and Rangers home games to be played elsewhere during the2020 NBA Bubbleand2020 Stanley Cup playoffs, respectively, because of theCOVID-19 pandemic. In 1984, the four streets immediately surrounding the Garden were designated as Joe Louis Plaza, in honor of boxerJoe Louis, who had made eight successful title defenses in theprevious Madison Square Garden. 1991 renovation In April 1986, Gulf and Western announced that they would build a new Madison Square Garden a few blocks away on the site of present-dayHudson Yards. The plan would cost an estimated $150 million and included the demolition of the 1964 building to replace it with a new office tower development.After years of planning, Gulf and Western decided against building a new arena in favor of a renovation after estimated costs doubled throughout the process. Garden owners spent $200 million in 1991 to","million in 1991 to renovate facilities and add 89 suites in place of hundreds of upper-tier seats. The project was designed byEllerbe Becket. The renovation was criticized for perceived corporatization. Additionally, the renovation made bathrooms larger, expanded menus, added a new ventilation system, replaced all of the seats with new cushioned teal and violet seats, and refurbished both home teams' locker rooms. In 2000, current MSG owner, James Dolan was quoted as saying that a new arena was being considered as the current building was starting to show its age. In 2004–2005,Cablevisionbattled with the City of New York over the proposedWest Side arena, which was canceled. Cablevision then announced plans to raze the Garden, replace it with high-rise commercial buildings, and build a new Garden one block away at the site of theJames Farley Post Office. Meanwhile, a new project to renovate and modernize the Garden completed phase one in time for theRangersandKnicks' 2011–12 seasons,though the vice president","the vice president of the Garden says he remains committed to the installation of an extension of Penn Station at the Farley Post Office site. While the Knicks and Rangers were not displaced, theNew York Libertyplayed at thePrudential CenterinNewark, New Jerseyduring the renovation. Madison Square Garden is the last of theNBAandNHLarenas not to be named after a corporate sponsor. 2011–2013 renovation Madison Square Garden's $1 billion second renovation took place mainly over three off-seasons. It was set to begin after the 2009–10 hockey/basketball seasons, but was delayed until after the 2010–11 seasons. Renovation was done in phases with the majority of the work done in the summer months to minimize disruptions to the NHL and NBA seasons. While the Rangers and Knicks were not displaced,the Liberty played their home games through the 2013 season atPrudential CenterinNewark, New Jersey, during the renovation. New features include a larger entrance with interactive kiosks, retail, climate-controlled space,","space, and broadcast studio; larger concourses; new lighting and LED video systems with HDTV; new seating; two new pedestrian walkways suspended from the ceiling to allow fans to look directly down onto the games being played below; more dining options; and improved dressing rooms, locker rooms, green rooms, upgraded roof, and production offices. The lower bowl concourse, called the Madison Concourse, remains on the sixth floor. The upper bowl concourse was relocated to the eighth floor and it is known as the Garden Concourse. The seventh floor houses the new Madison Suites and the Madison Club. The upper bowl was built on top of these suites. The rebuilt concourses are wider than their predecessors, and include large windows that offer views of the city streets around the Garden. Construction of the lower bowl (Phase 1) was completed in 2011.An extended off-season for the Garden permitted some advanced work to begin on the new upper bowl, which was completed in 2012. This advance work included the West","included the West Balcony on the tenth floor, taking the place of sky-boxes, and new end-ice 300 level seating. The construction of the upper bowl along with the Madison Suites and the Madison Club (Phase 2) were completed for the 2012–13 NHL and NBA seasons.Phase 3, which involved the construction of the new lobby known as Chase Square, the Chase Bridges on the 10th floor, and the new scoreboard, was completed for the 2013–14 NHL and NBA seasons. Penn Station renovation controversy Madison Square Garden is seen as an obstacle in the renovation and future expansion ofPenn Station,which expanded in 2021 with the opening ofMoynihan Train Hallat theJames Farley Post Office,and some have proposed moving MSG to other sites in western Manhattan. On February 15, 2013,Manhattan Community Board 5voted 36–0 against granting a renewal to MSG's operating permit in perpetuity and proposed a 10-year limit instead in order to build a new Penn Station where the arena is currently standing. Manhattan borough presidentScott","presidentScott Stringersaid, \"Moving the arena is an important first step to improving Penn Station.\"The Madison Square Garden Companyresponded by saying that \"t is incongruous to think that M.S.G. would be considering moving.\" In May 2013, four architecture firms –SHoP Architects,SOM,H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture, andDiller Scofidio + Renfro– submittedproposalsfor a new Penn Station. SHoP Architects recommended moving Madison Square Garden to the Morgan Postal Facility a few blocks southwest, as well as removing2 Penn Plazaand redeveloping other towers, and an extension of theHigh Lineto Penn Station.Meanwhile, SOM proposed moving Madison Square Garden to the area just south of theJames Farley Post Office, and redeveloping the area above Penn Station as amixed-use developmentwith commercial, residential, and recreational space.H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture wanted to move the arena to a new pier west ofJacob K. Javits Convention Center, four blocks west of the current station and arena. Then,","and arena. Then, according to H3's plan, fourskyscraperswould be built, one at each of the four corners of the new Penn Station superblock, with aroof gardenon top of the station; the Farley Post Office would become an education center.Finally, Diller Scofidio + Renfro proposed a mixed-use development on the site, with spas, theaters, a cascading park, a pool, and restaurants; Madison Square Garden would be moved two blocks west, next to the post office. DS+F also proposed high-tech features in the station, such as train arrival and departure boards on the floor, andappsthat would inform waiting passengers of ways to occupy their time until they board their trains.Madison Square Garden rejected the notion that it would be relocated, and called the plans \"pie-in-the-sky\". In June 2013, theNew York City CouncilCommittee on Land Use voted unanimously to give the Garden a ten-year permit, at the end of which period the owners will either have to relocate or go back through the permission process.On July 24, the","July 24, the City Council voted to give the Garden a 10-year operating permit by a vote of 47–1. \"This is the first step in finding a new home for Madison Square Garden and building a new Penn Station that is as great as New York and suitable for the 21st century,\" said City Council speakerChristine Quinn. \"This is an opportunity to reimagine and redevelop Penn Station as a world-class transportation destination.\" In October 2014, the Morgan facility was selected as the ideal area for Madison Square Garden to be moved, following the 2014 MAS Summit in New York City. More plans for the station were discussed.Then, in January 2016, New York GovernorAndrew Cuomoannounced a redevelopment plan for Penn Station that would involve the removal ofThe Theater at Madison Square Garden, but would otherwise leave the arena intact. In June 2023, nearing the end of the Garden's ten-year permit granted by the city, theMetropolitan Transportation Authority, along withAmtrakandNJ Transit, filed a report stating that MSG is no","that MSG is no longer compatible with Penn Station, with the report saying, \"MSG's existing configuration and property boundaries impose severe constraints on the station that impede the safe and efficient movement of passengers and restrict efforts to implement improvements, particularly at the street and platform levels.\"On September 14, 2023, the New York City Council voted 48–0 to renew the operating permit for Madison Square Garden for five years, the shortest ever granted by the city to the Garden. Events Regular events Sports Madison Square Garden hosts approximately 320 events a year. It is the home to theNew York Rangersof the National Hockey League, and theNew York Knicksof the National Basketball Association. Before 2020, the New York Rangers, New York Knicks, and the Madison Square Garden arena itself were all owned by the Madison Square Garden Company. The MSG Company split into two entities in 2020, with the Garden arena and other non-sports assets spun off intoMadison Square Garden","Square Garden Entertainmentand the Rangers and Knicks remaining with the original company, renamedMadison Square Garden Sports. Both entities remain under the voting control ofJames Dolanand his family. The arena is also host to theBig East men's basketball tournamentand was home to the finals of theNational Invitation Tournamentfrom the beginning of its existence up until 2022.It also hosts select home games for theSt. John's Red Storm, representingSt. John's Universityin men's (college basketball), and almost any other kind of indoor activity that draws large audiences, such as theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Showand the2004 Republican National Convention. The Garden was home of theNBA draftandNIT Season Tip-Off,as well as the former New York City home of theRingling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey CircusandDisney on Ice; all four events are now held at theBarclays CenterinBrooklyn. It served theNew York Cosmosfor half of their home games during the1983–84 NASL Indoor season. Many ofboxing's biggest fights","biggest fights were held at Madison Square Garden, including theRoberto Durán–Ken Buchananaffair,the firstMuhammad Ali–Joe Frazierbout and the US debut ofAnthony Joshuathat ended in a huge upset when he was beaten byAndy Ruiz. Before promoters such asDon KingandBob Arummoved boxing toLas Vegas,Nevada, Madison Square Garden was a popular location for boxing. The original18+1⁄2ft ×18+1⁄2ft (5.6 m × 5.6 m) ring, which was brought from the second and third generation of the Garden, was officially retired on September 19, 2007, and donated to theInternational Boxing Hall of Fameafter 82 years of service.A 20 ft × 20 ft (6.1 m × 6.1 m) ring replaced it beginning on October 6 of that same year.TheUFChas made Madison Square Garden in recent years and have put on some of the highest grossing PPV events in history. Pro wrestling Madison Square Garden has hosted many notableWWE(formerly WWF and WWWF) events.The Garden has hosted threeWrestleManiaevents, including thefirstedition of the annual marquee event for WWE, as","event for WWE, as well as the10thand20theditions. Madison Square Garden is also one of two venues (the other beingAllstate Arena) to host WrestleMania three times. It also hosted theRoyal Rumblein2000and2008;SummerSlamin1988,1991and1998; as well asSurvivor Seriesin1996,2002and2011. Multiple episodes of WWE's weekly shows,RawandSmackDownhave been broadcast from the Arena as well. New Japan Pro-Wrestling(NJPW) andRing of Honor(ROH) hosted theirG1 Supercardsupershow at the venue on April 6, 2019. A year later it was announced thatNew Japan Pro-Wrestlingwould return to Madison Square Garden alone on August 22, 2020, for NJPW Wrestle Dynasty.In May 2020, NJPW announced that the Wrestle Dynasty show would be postponed to 2021 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. Concerts Madison Square Garden hosts more high-profile concert events than any other venue in New York City. It has been the venue forMichael Jackson'sBad World Tourin 1988,George Harrison'sThe Concert for Bangladesh,The Concert for New York Cityfollowing","York Cityfollowing theSeptember 11 attacks,John Lennon's final concert appearance during anElton Johnconcert on Thanksgiving Night in 1974 beforehis murderin 1980, andElvis Presley, who gave four sold-out performances in 1972, his first and last ever in New York City.Parliament-Funkadelicheadlined numerous sold-out shows in 1977 and 1978.Kiss, who were formed in the arena's city and three of whose members were city-born, did six shows during their second half of the 1970s main attraction peak or \"heyday\": four sold out winter shows at the arena in 1977 (February 18 and December 14–16), and another two shows only this time in summer for a decade-ender in 1979 (July 24–25). They played their final two shows at the venue on the December 1 and 2, 2023, the 50th anniversary year of their formation.Billy Joel, another city-born and fellow 1970's pop star, played his first Garden show on December 14, 1978, with that month's follow ups on the 15th, 16th and 18th.Led Zeppelin's three-night stand in July 1973 was","in July 1973 was recorded and released as both afilmandalbumtitledThe Song Remains The Same.The Policeplayed their final show of their reunion tour at the Garden in 2008. In the summer of 2017,Phishheld a 13 night series of concerts called \"The Bakers' Dozen.\" During which the band played 237 unique songs, repeating none during the entire run. The Garden commemorated \"The Bakers' Dozen\" by adding a Phish themed banner to the rafters.With their first MSG show taking place on December 30, 1994, Phish has regularly played annual multi night runs, typically around New Year's Eve.As of January 2024, Phish has performed 83 times at MSG. Elton Johnonce held the all-time record for the greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 64 shows. In a 2009 press release, John was quoted as saying \"Madison Square Garden is my favorite venue in the whole world. I chose to have my 60th birthday concert there, because of all the incredible memories I've had playing the venue.\"A DVD recording was released asElton 60—Live","asElton 60—Live at Madison Square Garden. Billy Joel, who holds the record for the greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 134 shows as of February 2023,stated that the site \"has the best acoustics, the best audiences, the best reputation, and the best history of great artists who have played there. It is the iconic, holy temple of rock and roll for most touring acts.\" TheGrateful Deadperformed in the venue 53 times from 1979 to 1994, with the first show being held on January 7, 1979, and the last being on October 19, 1994. Their longest run being done in September 1991. The Whohave headlined at the venue 32 times, including a four-night stand in 1974, a five-night stand in 1979, a six-night stand in 1996, and four-night stands in 2000 and 2002. They also performed atThe Concert for New York Cityin 2001. On March 10, 2020, a 50th-anniversary celebration ofThe Allman Brothers Bandtitled 'The Brothers' took place, featuring the five surviving members of the final Allman Brothers lineup andChuck","lineup andChuck Leavell.Dickey Bettswas invited to participate but his health precluded him from traveling.This was the final concert at the venue before theCOVID-19 pandemicforced its closure. Live shows returned to The Garden when theFoo Fightersheadlined a show there on June 20, 2021. The show was for a vaccinated audience only and was the first 100 percent capacity concert in a New York arena since the start of the pandemic. Other events It hosted the1976 Democratic National Convention,1980 Democratic National Convention,1992 Democratic National Convention,and the2004 Republican National Convention,and hosted theNFL draftfor many years (later held at Garden-leasedRadio City Music Hall, now shared between cities of NFL franchises).TheJeopardy!Teen Tournament and several installments ofCelebrity Jeopardy!were filmed at MSG in 1999,as well as several episodes ofWheel of Fortunein 1999 and 2013. TheNew York City Police Academy,Baruch College/CUNYandYeshiva Universityalso hold their annual graduation","annual graduation ceremonies at Madison Square Garden. It hosted theGrammy Awardsin 1972, 1997, 2003, and 2018 (which are normally held inLos Angeles) as well as theLatin Grammy Awards of 2006. The group, and Best in Show competitions of theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Showhave been held at MSG every February from 1877 to 2020, which was MSG's longest continuous tenant although this was broken in 2021 as the Westminster Kennel Club announced that the event would be held outdoors for the first time due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Notable firsts and significant events The Garden hosted theStanley Cup FinalsandNBA Finalssimultaneously on two occasions: in 1972 and 1994. MSG has hosted the following All-Star Games: Mike Krzyzewskirecorded two notable milestones at the arena. In 2011, he surpassedBob Knightas the coach with the most winsNCAA Division Imen's basketball history whenDukedefeatedMichigan State. Four years later, a Duke victory over St. John's gave Coach K his 1,000th career win. Stephen Currybroke the","Currybroke the NBA'sall-time three-point scoring recordat Madison Square Garden, on December 14, 2021. TheWarriorsdefeated the Knicks 105–96 with Curry recording his 2,977th career three-pointer by the end of the game, eclipsingRay Allen's 2,973 career total. Recognition given by Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden Gold Ticket Award In 1977, Madison Square Garden announcedGold Ticket Awardswould be given to performers who had brought in more than 100,000 unit ticket sales to the venue. Since the arena's seating capacity is about 20,000, this would require a minimum of five sold-out shows. Performers who were eligible for the award at the time of its inauguration includedChicago,John Denver,Peter Frampton, theRolling Stones, theJackson 5,Elton John,Led Zeppelin,Sly Stone,Jethro Tull,The Who, andYes.Graeme Edge, who received his award in 1981 as a member ofThe Moody Blues, said he found his gold ticket to be an interesting piece of memorabilia because he could use it to attend any event at the","any event at the Garden.Many other performers received Gold Ticket Awards between 1977 and 1994. Madison Square Garden Platinum Ticket Award Madison Square Garden also gave Platinum Ticket Awards to performers who sold over 250,000 tickets to their shows throughout the years. Winners of the Platinum Ticket Awards include: the Rolling Stones (1981),Elton John (1982),Yes (1984),Billy Joel (1984),the Grateful Dead (1987),and Madonna (2004). Madison Square Garden Hall of Fame The Madison Square Garden Hall of Fame honors those who have demonstrated excellence in their fields at the Garden. Most of the inductees have been sports figures, however, some performers have been inducted as well. Elton John was reported to be the first non-sports figure inducted into the MSG Hall of Fame in 1977 for \"record attendance of 140,000\" in June of that year.For their accomplishment of \"13 sell-out concerts\" at the venue, the Rolling Stones were inducted into the MSG Hall of Fame in 1984, along with nine sports figures icons,","figures icons, bringing the hall's membership to 107. Madison Square Garden Walk of Fame The walkway leading to the arena of Madison Square Garden was designated as the \"Walk of Fame\" in 1992.It was established \"to recognize athletes, artists, announcers and coaches for their extraordinary achievements and memorable performances at the venue.\"Each inductee is commemorated with a plaque that lists the performance category in which his or her contributions have been made.Twenty-five athletes were inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame at its inaugural ceremony in 1992, a black-tie dinner to raise money to fight multiple sclerosis.Elton John was the first entertainer to be inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame in 1992.Billy Joel was inducted at a date after Elton John,and the Rolling Stones were inducted in 1998.In 2015, the Grateful Dead were inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame along with at least three sports-related figures. Capacity The Theater at Madison Square Garden The Theater at Madison Square Garden seats","Square Garden seats between 2,000 and 5,600 for concerts and can also be used for meetings, stage shows, and graduation ceremonies. It was the home of theNFL draftuntil 2005, when it moved to theJacob K. Javits Convention Centerafter MSG management opposed anew arenafor theNew York Jets. It also hosted theNBA draftfrom 2001 to 2010. The theater also occasionally hosts boxing matches. The fall 1999Jeopardy!Teen Tournamentas well as aCelebrity Jeopardy!competitions were held at the theater.Wheel of Fortunetaped at the theater twice in 1999 and 2013. In 2004, it was the venue of theSurvivor: All-Starsfinale. No seat is more than 177 feet (54 m) from the 30' × 64' stage. The theater has a relatively low 20-foot (6.1 m) ceiling at stage leveland all of its seating except for boxes on the two side walls is on one level slanted back from the stage. There is an 8,000-square-foot (740 m2) lobby at the theater. Accessibility and transportation Madison Square Garden sits directly atop a major transportation hub,New","hub,New York Penn Station, which is served byLong Island Rail RoadandNJ Transitcommuter rail, as well asAmtrak. The Garden is also accessible via theNew York City Subwayat the34th Street–Penn Station(A, C, and Etrains) and the34th Street–Penn Station(1, 2, and 3trains) stations. See also References Notes Sources External links","AC/DC discography AustralianrockbandAC/DChave released 18studio albums, twosoundtrack albums, threelive albums, oneextended play, 57singles, 11video albums, 52music videosand twobox sets. Although many AC/DC singles have been released, the band refused to issue anygreatest hitsalbums.Who Made Who, which served as the soundtrack to Stephen King's filmMaximum Overdrive,Iron Man 2and the band's various live recordings are the closest they have issued to such a compilation. BrothersAngus(lead guitar) andMalcolm Young(rhythm guitar) formed AC/DC in 1973.The band released two albums inAustralasiabefore issuing their first international album,High Voltagein 1976; the Youngs had been joined by vocalistBon Scott, bass guitaristMark Evansand drummerPhil Rudd.In 1980, less than a year after the appearance of the successfulHighway to Hell, Scott died and was replaced by English singerBrian Johnson, with whom AC/DC released their best-selling album,Back in Black.The albumBlack Ice, from 2008, reached number one in 29","number one in 29 countries.In 50 years of their career, AC/DC have sold over 200 million albums worldwide,and 83 million in the United States.Back in Blacksold 50 million copies worldwide, and became thesecond best-selling album in history. Verizonmade AC/DC albums available fordigital downloadin 2007;for five years the band refused to release their albums viaiTunes, as that company allows downloading of individual tracks.Angus Young observed, \"We honestly believe the songs on any of our albums belong together. If we were on iTunes, we know a certain percentage of people would only download two or three songs from the album – and we don't think that represents us musically.\"However, in November 2012, the band relented and released their entire discography via iTunes.On 30 June 2015, their catalogue appeared onSpotifyfor the first time, which made their works available forstreaming.Their most certified singles in the US are \"Thunderstruck\" (1990), \"Back in Black\" (1980), \"Highway to Hell\" (1979), and \"You","(1979), and \"You Shook Me All Night Long\" (1980) – each have received Diamond, 7× Platinum, and 6× Platinum and from theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) in 2024, respectively.In Australia, \"Thunderstruck\" (1990) was accredited 10× Platinum by theAustralian Recording Industry Association(ARIA) in 2022. Albums Studio albums Live albums Soundtrack albums Box set albums Extended plays Singles Videos Video albums Music videos See also Notes References Further reading External links","If You Want Blood You've Got It If You Want Blood You've Got It(written as justIf You Want Blood) is the first live album by Australianhard rockbandAC/DC, and their only live album released duringBon Scott's lifetime. It was originally released in the UK and Europe on 13 October 1978, in the US on 21 November 1978, and in Australia on 27 November 1978.The album was re-released in 1994 onAtco Recordsand in 2003 as part of theAC/DC Remastersseries. Background The album was released six months after the band's previous studio albumPowerage. A 'best-of' package called12 of the Besthad been in the works, but the project was scrapped in favour of a live album. It was recorded during the 1978Poweragetour and contains songs fromT.N.T.,Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap,Let There Be Rock, andPowerage. It is the last Bon Scott-era AC/DC album produced byHarry VandaandGeorge Young, who also produced the band's first five studio releases. In his 1994 Bon Scott memoirHighway to Hell, authorClinton Walkerobserves, \"Live albums,","\"Live albums, which tended to be double or triple sets in which songs short in their studio versions were stretched out into extended tedium, were for some reason popular in the seventies.If You Want Bloodreversed this tradition... it boasted a blunt ten tracks and, allowing nothing extraneous, got straight to the point, that being raging AC/DC rock and roll.\" A concert at theApollo TheatreinGlasgow, Scotland on 30 April 1978 was used for the live tracks. The concert is also remembered for the encore, when AC/DC came back on stage dressed in the Scottish football strip, paying homage to Scott's and the Young brothers' homeland. \"This gig summed up what made AC/DC so special live: the energy, the rapport with the crowd and the way those simple yet classic songs took on another life. You hear all of this onIf You Want Blood. It's a great reminder of how remarkable the band and their fans were that night.\" –Tom Russell, DJ \"Dog Eat Dog\", performed on the night, was removed from the album release, while the","release, while the encore – \"Fling Thing/Rocker\" – was edited, removing \"Fling Thing\" and cutting out Angus's extended solo, as he did a walk around the audience (with an early version of a wireless guitar lead). This part of the band's concert theatrics later accompanied \"Let There Be Rock\"; \"Rocker\" has been performed only a few times since Bon Scott's passing in 1980. The live \"Dog Eat Dog\" was released as the b-side of the single \"Whole Lotta Rosie\" in November 1978, but only in Australia. It was rereleased worldwide in 2009 on the two (standard) and three (collectors) CD boxed set compilationBacktracks, featuring Australian-only songs not released internationally at the time, and live b-Sides from 7\" and 12\" singles. The encores \"Fling Thing\" and \"Rocker\" (with a complete guitar solo) appeared only on footage of the concert by a Dutch TV station played at the time, but were eventually released on theFamily JewelsDVD. According to the 2006 bookAC/DC: Maximum Rock & Roll, the album title was an extension","was an extension of Scott's response – at theDay on the Greenfestival in July 1978 – when a journalist asked what they could expect from the band. The singer replied, \"Blood.\"The cover art is from a shoot withAtlantic Records' staff photographer Jim Houghton after the show at Boston'sParadise Theateron 21st August 1978, the idea for which came from Atlantic's art director Bob Defrin.The front cover depicts Angus Young being impaled on stage with a guitar during a performance, while the back depicts a bloodied Young lying facedown on the same stage, though deserted. A song titled \"If You Want Blood (You've Got It)\" appeared on the next album: the band's US chart breakthrough,Highway to Hell. Reception The album was listed at #2 onClassic Rockmagazine's readers' poll of \"50 Greatest Live Albums Ever\".In a 1992 interview withMetal Hammerat the time of the band'ssecond live release, Malcolm Young admitted, \"I personally still prefer the old album. We were young, fresh, vital and kicking ass.\"Greg Prato","ass.\"Greg Prato ofAllMusicnotes, \"While most other rock bands of the era were busy experimenting withdiscoor creating studio-perfected epics, AC/DC was one of the few specializing in raw and bluesy hard rock, as evidenced by 1978's live set, If You Want Blood You've Got It.\"Eduardo Rivadavia ofUltimate Classic Rockenthuses, \"Other concert records may boast more songs, more Top 40 hits or even more crowd-pleasing gimmicks. But very few can challenge the sheer excitement and reckless abandon captured on AC/DC’s terrific concert document.\"Carlo Twist ofBlendermagazine praised the album, saying that \"They were always a mighty live act, and this is the sound of AC/DC in Europe just prior to 1979's U.S. breakthrough. The audience's hysteria regularly cuts through the amps, as they howl along to singer Bon Scott's tale of sexually transmitted disease (\"The Jack\") and punctuate guitarist Angus Young's staccato riffing on \"Whole Lotta Rosie.\" Imagine a punk-rock Chuck Berry played at nosebleed volume.\" Concert","volume.\" Concert footage The entire Glasgow concert was filmed but the complete footage has never been released. Eventually, \"Riff Raff\" and \"Fling Thing/Rocker\" segments were made available on the DVDAC/DC Family Jewels, released in 2005. Video footage was also used from the show onFamily Jewelsusing the \"Rock 'n' Roll Damnation\" studio version audio track promotional clip. Segments from the concert (the songs \"Rock 'n' Roll Damnation\", \"Dog Eat Dog\" and \"Let There Be Rock\") were made available on the DVDPlug Me In, released in 2007 (the latter 2 were also released on YouTube in 2013)). \"Bad Boy Boogie\" was included on the bonus disc on the three-disc edition ofPlug Me In. Track listing All tracks are written byAngus Young,Malcolm YoungandBon Scott Original concert setlist All songs written by Angus Young, Malcolm Young, and Bon Scott except \"Fling Thing\", which is a Scottishtraditional song. Notes Personnel Production Charts Certifications *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures","figures based on certification alone. References External links","The Apollo, Glasgow The Apollowas amusic venueat 126 Renfield Street inGlasgowcity centre,Scotland. The Apollo operated from 5 September 1973 until closure on 16 June 1985 and was Glasgow's leading music venue during this period. The Apollo was a re-brand of the previousGreen's Playhousein the same building. History The Green family owned Green's Playhouse cinema at 126 Renfield Street. It was thought to be the largest cinema in Europe at the time but was in decline. Unicorn Leisure, owned by Frank Lynch and Max Langdown, leased a discothèque named Clouds in the top floor of the building. Unicorn included management ofBilly Connollyin their portfolio.On hearing the Green family were considering converting the dis-repaired venue into a bingo hall or demolishing the venue for a completely new development, Unicorn applied to lease the building which they felt had potential as a music venue. They bought a job lot of 3,000 cinema seats and re-upholstered the 'Golden Divans' in the balcony. \"Apollo\" was chosen as","was chosen as the name of the re-branded venue so to mitigate the cost of letters for which the sign company charged £250 per letter. The first two concerts at The Apollo were performed by Johnny Cash on 5 & 6 September 1973. The venue was quickly attractive to the public responding to booking of popular performers of the time who spoke favourably of the atmosphere generated by the exuberant crowds.Theballroomoperated above the main concert auditorium, originally known as \"Clouds\", following various name changes that included \"Satellite City\" and \"The Penthouse\". The ballroom became a music venue for up-coming and relatively lesser-known contemporary bands, such asSimple Minds,Elvis Costello,Sham 69andThe Rich Kids. These were unable to attract a large enough paying audience to fill the concert venue. The venue was known for the atmosphere generated by its enthusiastic crowds, a 15 ft 6 in high stage (often exaggerated and misreported)that sloped down towards the audience and \"bouncy balcony\" designed and","designed and built so that it would move up and down. This feature was put to the test by concert-goers, who would jump to get it to bounce.Francis Rossirefers to this onStatus Quo'sLive!, recorded at the venue: \"Those people at the top, on the balcony, can only see you when the lights go up there. Get the balcony to move about a bit and they'llall be running about and shitting themselves. Nice bunch of fellas, but very very scared of balconies!\" Jake BurnsofStiff Little Fingerssaid the stage was \"the only one in our career where we said if anyone got onstage from the audience, they could stay. They'd earned it.\"Andy SummersofThe Policein his autobiography \"One Train Later\" wrote \"Back in the dressing room, drenched in sweat and sitting among piles of little tartan-wrapped presents, we remarked about the bouncing balcony, amazed that the whole thing didn't collapse.\"The venue was used for numerous live album recordings (see \"Notable Performances\" section) and was used as either opening or closing venue by","or closing venue by many performers visiting the UK from America. The management team for the Ramones have subsequently said the Apollo was the Ramones' favourite venue. Despite the Apollo's success as a music venue, the building was in a poor condition and its structure was gradually deteriorating. Maintenance was undertaken only on a \"make-do\" basis. In mid-1977 the owner of Unicorn Leisure relocated toFlorida. The lease for the venue was acquired by theApollo Leisure Group. The new leaseholders experienced considerable problems with the buildings structural condition and later considered relinquishing the lease in 1978, withMecca Bingoexpressing interest in the acquisition of the building. A successful campaign to preserve the building's status as a music venue included a 100,000 signature petition including support fromPaul McCartneyandEric Clapton. The resumption was to herald a seven-year downward spiral until the venue finally closed for business on 16 June 1985.The Style Councilwere the final","the final performers on the bill. The building was demolished in September 1987 following a fire that rendered the building structurally unsafe. Such is the high regard that Ozzy Osbourne felt for the place that when he agreed to an interview on Scottish Television he asked that the interview be held in the empty disused site of the old building. Notable performances After demolition The Apollo was replaced by aCineworldbuilding constructed in 2000 and opened a year later on exactly the same site. A musical was first produced in 2009 titled,I Was There: The Story of The Glasgow Apollo. The retro website glasgowapollo.com was launched in 2003. As of 2017 the site has received over 12 million hits. See also References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Song_Remains_the_Same_(album\",\n \"Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden, colloquially known asthe Gardenor by its initialsMSG, is a multi-purpose indoor arena inNew York City. It is located inMidtown ManhattanbetweenSeventhandEighthAvenues from 31st to 33rd Street abovePennsylvania Station. It is the fourth venue to bear the name \\\"Madison Square Garden\\\"; the first two, opened in1879and1890respectively, were located onMadison Square, on East 26th Street and Madison Avenue, with thethird Madison Square Garden(1925) farther uptown at Eighth Avenue and 50th Street. The Garden hosts professional ice hockey, professional basketball, boxing, mixed martial arts, concerts, ice shows, circuses, professional wrestling, and other forms of sports and entertainment. It is close to other midtown Manhattan landmarks, including theEmpire State Building,Koreatown, andMacy'satHerald Square. It is home to theNew York Rangersof theNational Hockey League(NHL), theNew York Knicksof theNational Basketball Association(NBA), and was home to theNew York Libertyof\",\n \"York Libertyof theWomen's National Basketball Association(WNBA) from 1997 to 2017. Originally calledMadison Square Garden Center, the Garden opened on February 11, 1968, and is the oldest major sporting facility in theNew York metropolitan area. It is the oldest arena in the NBA and the second-oldest in the NHL, after Seattle'sClimate Pledge Arena. As of 2016, MSG is also the second-busiest music arena in the world in terms of ticket sales.Including its two major renovations in 1991 and 2013, the Garden's total construction cost was approximately $1.1 billion, and it has been ranked as one of the 10 most expensivearenavenues ever built.It is part of thePennsylvania Plazaoffice and retail complex, named for the railway station. Severalother operating entitiesrelated to the Garden share its name. History Previous Gardens Madison Squareis formed by the intersection of5th AvenueandBroadwayat23rd Streetin Manhattan. It was named afterJames Madison, fourthPresident of the United States. Two venues called Madison\",\n \"called Madison Square Garden were located just northeast of the square,the original Gardenfrom 1879 to 1890, andthe second Gardenfrom 1890 to 1925. The first, leased toP. T. Barnum,was demolished in 1890 because of a leaky roof and dangerous balconies that had collapsed, resulting in deaths. The second was designed by noted architectStanford White. The new building was built by a syndicate that includedJ. P. Morgan,Andrew Carnegie,P. T. Barnum,Darius Mills,James StillmanandW. W. Astor. White gave them aBeaux-Artsstructure with aMoorishfeel, including a minaret-like tower modeled afterGiralda, the bell tower of theCathedral of Seville,soaring 32 stories, the city's second-tallest building at the timeand dominatingMadison Square Park. It was 200 feet (61 m) by 485 feet (148 m), and the main hall, which was the largest in the world, measured 200 feet (61 m) by 350 feet (110 m) with permanent seating for 8,000 people and floor space for thousands more. It had a 1,200-seat theater, a concert hall with a capacity\",\n \"with a capacity of 1,500, the largest restaurant in the city, and a roof garden cabaret.The building cost $3 million.Madison Square Garden II was unsuccessful like the first Garden,and theNew York Life Insurance Company, which held the mortgage on it, decided to tear it down in 1925 to make way for a new headquarters building, which would become the landmarkCass Gilbert-designedNew York Life Building. Athird Madison Square Gardenopened in a new location, on8th Avenuebetween49thand50th Streets, from 1925 to 1968. Groundbreaking on the third Madison Square Garden took place on January 9, 1925.Designed by the noted theater architectThomas W. Lamb, it was built at the cost of $4.75 million in 249 days by boxing promoterTex Rickard;the arena was dubbed \\\"The House That Tex Built.\\\"The arena was 200 feet (61 m) by 375 feet (114 m), with seating on three levels, and a maximum capacity of 18,496 spectators for boxing. Demolition commenced in 1968 after the opening of the current Garden,and was completed in early 1969.\",\n \"in early 1969. The site is now the location ofOne Worldwide Plaza. Current Garden In February 1959, former automobile manufacturerGraham-Paigepurchased a 40% interest in the Madison Square Garden for $4 millionand later gained control.In November 1960, Graham-Paige presidentIrving Mitchell Feltpurchased from thePennsylvania Railroadthe rights to build atPenn Station.To build the new facility, the above-ground portions ofthe original Pennsylvania Stationwere torn down. The new structure was one of the first of its kind to be built above the platforms of an active railroad station. It was an engineering feat constructed byRobert E. McKeeofEl Paso, Texas. Public outcry over the demolition of the Pennsylvania Station structure—an outstanding example ofBeaux-Arts architecture—led to the creation of theNew York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. The venue opened on February 11, 1968. Comparing the new and the old Penn Station, Yale architectural historianVincent Scullywrote, \\\"One entered the city like a god;\",\n \"city like a god; one scuttles in now like a rat.\\\" In 1972, Felt proposed moving theKnicksandRangersto a then incomplete venue in theNew Jersey Meadowlands, theMeadowlands Sports Complex. The Garden was also the home arena for theNY Raiders/NY Golden Bladesof theWorld Hockey Association. The Meadowlands would eventually host its own NBA and NHL teams, theNew Jersey Netsand theNew Jersey Devils, respectively. TheNew York GiantsandJetsof theNational Football League(NFL) also relocated there. In 1977, the arena was sold toGulf and Western Industries. Felt's efforts fueled controversy between the Garden and New York City over real estate taxes. The disagreement again flared in 1980 when the Garden again challenged its tax bill. The arena, since the 1980s, has since enjoyed tax-free status, under the condition that all Knicks and Rangers home games must be hosted at MSG, lest it lose this exemption. As such, when the Rangers have played neutral-site games—even those in New York City, such as the2018 NHL Winter\",\n \"the2018 NHL Winter Classic, they have always been designated as the visiting team.The tax agreement includes anact of Godclause, which allowed Knicks and Rangers home games to be played elsewhere during the2020 NBA Bubbleand2020 Stanley Cup playoffs, respectively, because of theCOVID-19 pandemic. In 1984, the four streets immediately surrounding the Garden were designated as Joe Louis Plaza, in honor of boxerJoe Louis, who had made eight successful title defenses in theprevious Madison Square Garden. 1991 renovation In April 1986, Gulf and Western announced that they would build a new Madison Square Garden a few blocks away on the site of present-dayHudson Yards. The plan would cost an estimated $150 million and included the demolition of the 1964 building to replace it with a new office tower development.After years of planning, Gulf and Western decided against building a new arena in favor of a renovation after estimated costs doubled throughout the process. Garden owners spent $200 million in 1991 to\",\n \"million in 1991 to renovate facilities and add 89 suites in place of hundreds of upper-tier seats. The project was designed byEllerbe Becket. The renovation was criticized for perceived corporatization. Additionally, the renovation made bathrooms larger, expanded menus, added a new ventilation system, replaced all of the seats with new cushioned teal and violet seats, and refurbished both home teams' locker rooms. In 2000, current MSG owner, James Dolan was quoted as saying that a new arena was being considered as the current building was starting to show its age. In 2004–2005,Cablevisionbattled with the City of New York over the proposedWest Side arena, which was canceled. Cablevision then announced plans to raze the Garden, replace it with high-rise commercial buildings, and build a new Garden one block away at the site of theJames Farley Post Office. Meanwhile, a new project to renovate and modernize the Garden completed phase one in time for theRangersandKnicks' 2011–12 seasons,though the vice president\",\n \"the vice president of the Garden says he remains committed to the installation of an extension of Penn Station at the Farley Post Office site. While the Knicks and Rangers were not displaced, theNew York Libertyplayed at thePrudential CenterinNewark, New Jerseyduring the renovation. Madison Square Garden is the last of theNBAandNHLarenas not to be named after a corporate sponsor. 2011–2013 renovation Madison Square Garden's $1 billion second renovation took place mainly over three off-seasons. It was set to begin after the 2009–10 hockey/basketball seasons, but was delayed until after the 2010–11 seasons. Renovation was done in phases with the majority of the work done in the summer months to minimize disruptions to the NHL and NBA seasons. While the Rangers and Knicks were not displaced,the Liberty played their home games through the 2013 season atPrudential CenterinNewark, New Jersey, during the renovation. New features include a larger entrance with interactive kiosks, retail, climate-controlled space,\",\n \"space, and broadcast studio; larger concourses; new lighting and LED video systems with HDTV; new seating; two new pedestrian walkways suspended from the ceiling to allow fans to look directly down onto the games being played below; more dining options; and improved dressing rooms, locker rooms, green rooms, upgraded roof, and production offices. The lower bowl concourse, called the Madison Concourse, remains on the sixth floor. The upper bowl concourse was relocated to the eighth floor and it is known as the Garden Concourse. The seventh floor houses the new Madison Suites and the Madison Club. The upper bowl was built on top of these suites. The rebuilt concourses are wider than their predecessors, and include large windows that offer views of the city streets around the Garden. Construction of the lower bowl (Phase 1) was completed in 2011.An extended off-season for the Garden permitted some advanced work to begin on the new upper bowl, which was completed in 2012. This advance work included the West\",\n \"included the West Balcony on the tenth floor, taking the place of sky-boxes, and new end-ice 300 level seating. The construction of the upper bowl along with the Madison Suites and the Madison Club (Phase 2) were completed for the 2012–13 NHL and NBA seasons.Phase 3, which involved the construction of the new lobby known as Chase Square, the Chase Bridges on the 10th floor, and the new scoreboard, was completed for the 2013–14 NHL and NBA seasons. Penn Station renovation controversy Madison Square Garden is seen as an obstacle in the renovation and future expansion ofPenn Station,which expanded in 2021 with the opening ofMoynihan Train Hallat theJames Farley Post Office,and some have proposed moving MSG to other sites in western Manhattan. On February 15, 2013,Manhattan Community Board 5voted 36–0 against granting a renewal to MSG's operating permit in perpetuity and proposed a 10-year limit instead in order to build a new Penn Station where the arena is currently standing. Manhattan borough presidentScott\",\n \"presidentScott Stringersaid, \\\"Moving the arena is an important first step to improving Penn Station.\\\"The Madison Square Garden Companyresponded by saying that \\\"t is incongruous to think that M.S.G. would be considering moving.\\\" In May 2013, four architecture firms –SHoP Architects,SOM,H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture, andDiller Scofidio + Renfro– submittedproposalsfor a new Penn Station. SHoP Architects recommended moving Madison Square Garden to the Morgan Postal Facility a few blocks southwest, as well as removing2 Penn Plazaand redeveloping other towers, and an extension of theHigh Lineto Penn Station.Meanwhile, SOM proposed moving Madison Square Garden to the area just south of theJames Farley Post Office, and redeveloping the area above Penn Station as amixed-use developmentwith commercial, residential, and recreational space.H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture wanted to move the arena to a new pier west ofJacob K. Javits Convention Center, four blocks west of the current station and arena. Then,\",\n \"and arena. Then, according to H3's plan, fourskyscraperswould be built, one at each of the four corners of the new Penn Station superblock, with aroof gardenon top of the station; the Farley Post Office would become an education center.Finally, Diller Scofidio + Renfro proposed a mixed-use development on the site, with spas, theaters, a cascading park, a pool, and restaurants; Madison Square Garden would be moved two blocks west, next to the post office. DS+F also proposed high-tech features in the station, such as train arrival and departure boards on the floor, andappsthat would inform waiting passengers of ways to occupy their time until they board their trains.Madison Square Garden rejected the notion that it would be relocated, and called the plans \\\"pie-in-the-sky\\\". In June 2013, theNew York City CouncilCommittee on Land Use voted unanimously to give the Garden a ten-year permit, at the end of which period the owners will either have to relocate or go back through the permission process.On July 24, the\",\n \"July 24, the City Council voted to give the Garden a 10-year operating permit by a vote of 47–1. \\\"This is the first step in finding a new home for Madison Square Garden and building a new Penn Station that is as great as New York and suitable for the 21st century,\\\" said City Council speakerChristine Quinn. \\\"This is an opportunity to reimagine and redevelop Penn Station as a world-class transportation destination.\\\" In October 2014, the Morgan facility was selected as the ideal area for Madison Square Garden to be moved, following the 2014 MAS Summit in New York City. More plans for the station were discussed.Then, in January 2016, New York GovernorAndrew Cuomoannounced a redevelopment plan for Penn Station that would involve the removal ofThe Theater at Madison Square Garden, but would otherwise leave the arena intact. In June 2023, nearing the end of the Garden's ten-year permit granted by the city, theMetropolitan Transportation Authority, along withAmtrakandNJ Transit, filed a report stating that MSG is no\",\n \"that MSG is no longer compatible with Penn Station, with the report saying, \\\"MSG's existing configuration and property boundaries impose severe constraints on the station that impede the safe and efficient movement of passengers and restrict efforts to implement improvements, particularly at the street and platform levels.\\\"On September 14, 2023, the New York City Council voted 48–0 to renew the operating permit for Madison Square Garden for five years, the shortest ever granted by the city to the Garden. Events Regular events Sports Madison Square Garden hosts approximately 320 events a year. It is the home to theNew York Rangersof the National Hockey League, and theNew York Knicksof the National Basketball Association. Before 2020, the New York Rangers, New York Knicks, and the Madison Square Garden arena itself were all owned by the Madison Square Garden Company. The MSG Company split into two entities in 2020, with the Garden arena and other non-sports assets spun off intoMadison Square Garden\",\n \"Square Garden Entertainmentand the Rangers and Knicks remaining with the original company, renamedMadison Square Garden Sports. Both entities remain under the voting control ofJames Dolanand his family. The arena is also host to theBig East men's basketball tournamentand was home to the finals of theNational Invitation Tournamentfrom the beginning of its existence up until 2022.It also hosts select home games for theSt. John's Red Storm, representingSt. John's Universityin men's (college basketball), and almost any other kind of indoor activity that draws large audiences, such as theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Showand the2004 Republican National Convention. The Garden was home of theNBA draftandNIT Season Tip-Off,as well as the former New York City home of theRingling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey CircusandDisney on Ice; all four events are now held at theBarclays CenterinBrooklyn. It served theNew York Cosmosfor half of their home games during the1983–84 NASL Indoor season. Many ofboxing's biggest fights\",\n \"biggest fights were held at Madison Square Garden, including theRoberto Durán–Ken Buchananaffair,the firstMuhammad Ali–Joe Frazierbout and the US debut ofAnthony Joshuathat ended in a huge upset when he was beaten byAndy Ruiz. Before promoters such asDon KingandBob Arummoved boxing toLas Vegas,Nevada, Madison Square Garden was a popular location for boxing. The original18+1⁄2ft ×18+1⁄2ft (5.6 m × 5.6 m) ring, which was brought from the second and third generation of the Garden, was officially retired on September 19, 2007, and donated to theInternational Boxing Hall of Fameafter 82 years of service.A 20 ft × 20 ft (6.1 m × 6.1 m) ring replaced it beginning on October 6 of that same year.TheUFChas made Madison Square Garden in recent years and have put on some of the highest grossing PPV events in history. Pro wrestling Madison Square Garden has hosted many notableWWE(formerly WWF and WWWF) events.The Garden has hosted threeWrestleManiaevents, including thefirstedition of the annual marquee event for WWE, as\",\n \"event for WWE, as well as the10thand20theditions. Madison Square Garden is also one of two venues (the other beingAllstate Arena) to host WrestleMania three times. It also hosted theRoyal Rumblein2000and2008;SummerSlamin1988,1991and1998; as well asSurvivor Seriesin1996,2002and2011. Multiple episodes of WWE's weekly shows,RawandSmackDownhave been broadcast from the Arena as well. New Japan Pro-Wrestling(NJPW) andRing of Honor(ROH) hosted theirG1 Supercardsupershow at the venue on April 6, 2019. A year later it was announced thatNew Japan Pro-Wrestlingwould return to Madison Square Garden alone on August 22, 2020, for NJPW Wrestle Dynasty.In May 2020, NJPW announced that the Wrestle Dynasty show would be postponed to 2021 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. Concerts Madison Square Garden hosts more high-profile concert events than any other venue in New York City. It has been the venue forMichael Jackson'sBad World Tourin 1988,George Harrison'sThe Concert for Bangladesh,The Concert for New York Cityfollowing\",\n \"York Cityfollowing theSeptember 11 attacks,John Lennon's final concert appearance during anElton Johnconcert on Thanksgiving Night in 1974 beforehis murderin 1980, andElvis Presley, who gave four sold-out performances in 1972, his first and last ever in New York City.Parliament-Funkadelicheadlined numerous sold-out shows in 1977 and 1978.Kiss, who were formed in the arena's city and three of whose members were city-born, did six shows during their second half of the 1970s main attraction peak or \\\"heyday\\\": four sold out winter shows at the arena in 1977 (February 18 and December 14–16), and another two shows only this time in summer for a decade-ender in 1979 (July 24–25). They played their final two shows at the venue on the December 1 and 2, 2023, the 50th anniversary year of their formation.Billy Joel, another city-born and fellow 1970's pop star, played his first Garden show on December 14, 1978, with that month's follow ups on the 15th, 16th and 18th.Led Zeppelin's three-night stand in July 1973 was\",\n \"in July 1973 was recorded and released as both afilmandalbumtitledThe Song Remains The Same.The Policeplayed their final show of their reunion tour at the Garden in 2008. In the summer of 2017,Phishheld a 13 night series of concerts called \\\"The Bakers' Dozen.\\\" During which the band played 237 unique songs, repeating none during the entire run. The Garden commemorated \\\"The Bakers' Dozen\\\" by adding a Phish themed banner to the rafters.With their first MSG show taking place on December 30, 1994, Phish has regularly played annual multi night runs, typically around New Year's Eve.As of January 2024, Phish has performed 83 times at MSG. Elton Johnonce held the all-time record for the greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 64 shows. In a 2009 press release, John was quoted as saying \\\"Madison Square Garden is my favorite venue in the whole world. I chose to have my 60th birthday concert there, because of all the incredible memories I've had playing the venue.\\\"A DVD recording was released asElton 60—Live\",\n \"asElton 60—Live at Madison Square Garden. Billy Joel, who holds the record for the greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 134 shows as of February 2023,stated that the site \\\"has the best acoustics, the best audiences, the best reputation, and the best history of great artists who have played there. It is the iconic, holy temple of rock and roll for most touring acts.\\\" TheGrateful Deadperformed in the venue 53 times from 1979 to 1994, with the first show being held on January 7, 1979, and the last being on October 19, 1994. Their longest run being done in September 1991. The Whohave headlined at the venue 32 times, including a four-night stand in 1974, a five-night stand in 1979, a six-night stand in 1996, and four-night stands in 2000 and 2002. They also performed atThe Concert for New York Cityin 2001. On March 10, 2020, a 50th-anniversary celebration ofThe Allman Brothers Bandtitled 'The Brothers' took place, featuring the five surviving members of the final Allman Brothers lineup andChuck\",\n \"lineup andChuck Leavell.Dickey Bettswas invited to participate but his health precluded him from traveling.This was the final concert at the venue before theCOVID-19 pandemicforced its closure. Live shows returned to The Garden when theFoo Fightersheadlined a show there on June 20, 2021. The show was for a vaccinated audience only and was the first 100 percent capacity concert in a New York arena since the start of the pandemic. Other events It hosted the1976 Democratic National Convention,1980 Democratic National Convention,1992 Democratic National Convention,and the2004 Republican National Convention,and hosted theNFL draftfor many years (later held at Garden-leasedRadio City Music Hall, now shared between cities of NFL franchises).TheJeopardy!Teen Tournament and several installments ofCelebrity Jeopardy!were filmed at MSG in 1999,as well as several episodes ofWheel of Fortunein 1999 and 2013. TheNew York City Police Academy,Baruch College/CUNYandYeshiva Universityalso hold their annual graduation\",\n \"annual graduation ceremonies at Madison Square Garden. It hosted theGrammy Awardsin 1972, 1997, 2003, and 2018 (which are normally held inLos Angeles) as well as theLatin Grammy Awards of 2006. The group, and Best in Show competitions of theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Showhave been held at MSG every February from 1877 to 2020, which was MSG's longest continuous tenant although this was broken in 2021 as the Westminster Kennel Club announced that the event would be held outdoors for the first time due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Notable firsts and significant events The Garden hosted theStanley Cup FinalsandNBA Finalssimultaneously on two occasions: in 1972 and 1994. MSG has hosted the following All-Star Games: Mike Krzyzewskirecorded two notable milestones at the arena. In 2011, he surpassedBob Knightas the coach with the most winsNCAA Division Imen's basketball history whenDukedefeatedMichigan State. Four years later, a Duke victory over St. John's gave Coach K his 1,000th career win. Stephen Currybroke the\",\n \"Currybroke the NBA'sall-time three-point scoring recordat Madison Square Garden, on December 14, 2021. TheWarriorsdefeated the Knicks 105–96 with Curry recording his 2,977th career three-pointer by the end of the game, eclipsingRay Allen's 2,973 career total. Recognition given by Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden Gold Ticket Award In 1977, Madison Square Garden announcedGold Ticket Awardswould be given to performers who had brought in more than 100,000 unit ticket sales to the venue. Since the arena's seating capacity is about 20,000, this would require a minimum of five sold-out shows. Performers who were eligible for the award at the time of its inauguration includedChicago,John Denver,Peter Frampton, theRolling Stones, theJackson 5,Elton John,Led Zeppelin,Sly Stone,Jethro Tull,The Who, andYes.Graeme Edge, who received his award in 1981 as a member ofThe Moody Blues, said he found his gold ticket to be an interesting piece of memorabilia because he could use it to attend any event at the\",\n \"any event at the Garden.Many other performers received Gold Ticket Awards between 1977 and 1994. Madison Square Garden Platinum Ticket Award Madison Square Garden also gave Platinum Ticket Awards to performers who sold over 250,000 tickets to their shows throughout the years. Winners of the Platinum Ticket Awards include: the Rolling Stones (1981),Elton John (1982),Yes (1984),Billy Joel (1984),the Grateful Dead (1987),and Madonna (2004). Madison Square Garden Hall of Fame The Madison Square Garden Hall of Fame honors those who have demonstrated excellence in their fields at the Garden. Most of the inductees have been sports figures, however, some performers have been inducted as well. Elton John was reported to be the first non-sports figure inducted into the MSG Hall of Fame in 1977 for \\\"record attendance of 140,000\\\" in June of that year.For their accomplishment of \\\"13 sell-out concerts\\\" at the venue, the Rolling Stones were inducted into the MSG Hall of Fame in 1984, along with nine sports figures icons,\",\n \"figures icons, bringing the hall's membership to 107. Madison Square Garden Walk of Fame The walkway leading to the arena of Madison Square Garden was designated as the \\\"Walk of Fame\\\" in 1992.It was established \\\"to recognize athletes, artists, announcers and coaches for their extraordinary achievements and memorable performances at the venue.\\\"Each inductee is commemorated with a plaque that lists the performance category in which his or her contributions have been made.Twenty-five athletes were inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame at its inaugural ceremony in 1992, a black-tie dinner to raise money to fight multiple sclerosis.Elton John was the first entertainer to be inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame in 1992.Billy Joel was inducted at a date after Elton John,and the Rolling Stones were inducted in 1998.In 2015, the Grateful Dead were inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame along with at least three sports-related figures. Capacity The Theater at Madison Square Garden The Theater at Madison Square Garden seats\",\n \"Square Garden seats between 2,000 and 5,600 for concerts and can also be used for meetings, stage shows, and graduation ceremonies. It was the home of theNFL draftuntil 2005, when it moved to theJacob K. Javits Convention Centerafter MSG management opposed anew arenafor theNew York Jets. It also hosted theNBA draftfrom 2001 to 2010. The theater also occasionally hosts boxing matches. The fall 1999Jeopardy!Teen Tournamentas well as aCelebrity Jeopardy!competitions were held at the theater.Wheel of Fortunetaped at the theater twice in 1999 and 2013. In 2004, it was the venue of theSurvivor: All-Starsfinale. No seat is more than 177 feet (54 m) from the 30' × 64' stage. The theater has a relatively low 20-foot (6.1 m) ceiling at stage leveland all of its seating except for boxes on the two side walls is on one level slanted back from the stage. There is an 8,000-square-foot (740 m2) lobby at the theater. Accessibility and transportation Madison Square Garden sits directly atop a major transportation hub,New\",\n \"hub,New York Penn Station, which is served byLong Island Rail RoadandNJ Transitcommuter rail, as well asAmtrak. The Garden is also accessible via theNew York City Subwayat the34th Street–Penn Station(A, C, and Etrains) and the34th Street–Penn Station(1, 2, and 3trains) stations. See also References Notes Sources External links\",\n \"AC/DC discography AustralianrockbandAC/DChave released 18studio albums, twosoundtrack albums, threelive albums, oneextended play, 57singles, 11video albums, 52music videosand twobox sets. Although many AC/DC singles have been released, the band refused to issue anygreatest hitsalbums.Who Made Who, which served as the soundtrack to Stephen King's filmMaximum Overdrive,Iron Man 2and the band's various live recordings are the closest they have issued to such a compilation. BrothersAngus(lead guitar) andMalcolm Young(rhythm guitar) formed AC/DC in 1973.The band released two albums inAustralasiabefore issuing their first international album,High Voltagein 1976; the Youngs had been joined by vocalistBon Scott, bass guitaristMark Evansand drummerPhil Rudd.In 1980, less than a year after the appearance of the successfulHighway to Hell, Scott died and was replaced by English singerBrian Johnson, with whom AC/DC released their best-selling album,Back in Black.The albumBlack Ice, from 2008, reached number one in 29\",\n \"number one in 29 countries.In 50 years of their career, AC/DC have sold over 200 million albums worldwide,and 83 million in the United States.Back in Blacksold 50 million copies worldwide, and became thesecond best-selling album in history. Verizonmade AC/DC albums available fordigital downloadin 2007;for five years the band refused to release their albums viaiTunes, as that company allows downloading of individual tracks.Angus Young observed, \\\"We honestly believe the songs on any of our albums belong together. If we were on iTunes, we know a certain percentage of people would only download two or three songs from the album – and we don't think that represents us musically.\\\"However, in November 2012, the band relented and released their entire discography via iTunes.On 30 June 2015, their catalogue appeared onSpotifyfor the first time, which made their works available forstreaming.Their most certified singles in the US are \\\"Thunderstruck\\\" (1990), \\\"Back in Black\\\" (1980), \\\"Highway to Hell\\\" (1979), and \\\"You\",\n \"(1979), and \\\"You Shook Me All Night Long\\\" (1980) – each have received Diamond, 7× Platinum, and 6× Platinum and from theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) in 2024, respectively.In Australia, \\\"Thunderstruck\\\" (1990) was accredited 10× Platinum by theAustralian Recording Industry Association(ARIA) in 2022. Albums Studio albums Live albums Soundtrack albums Box set albums Extended plays Singles Videos Video albums Music videos See also Notes References Further reading External links\",\n \"If You Want Blood You've Got It If You Want Blood You've Got It(written as justIf You Want Blood) is the first live album by Australianhard rockbandAC/DC, and their only live album released duringBon Scott's lifetime. It was originally released in the UK and Europe on 13 October 1978, in the US on 21 November 1978, and in Australia on 27 November 1978.The album was re-released in 1994 onAtco Recordsand in 2003 as part of theAC/DC Remastersseries. Background The album was released six months after the band's previous studio albumPowerage. A 'best-of' package called12 of the Besthad been in the works, but the project was scrapped in favour of a live album. It was recorded during the 1978Poweragetour and contains songs fromT.N.T.,Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap,Let There Be Rock, andPowerage. It is the last Bon Scott-era AC/DC album produced byHarry VandaandGeorge Young, who also produced the band's first five studio releases. In his 1994 Bon Scott memoirHighway to Hell, authorClinton Walkerobserves, \\\"Live albums,\",\n \"\\\"Live albums, which tended to be double or triple sets in which songs short in their studio versions were stretched out into extended tedium, were for some reason popular in the seventies.If You Want Bloodreversed this tradition... it boasted a blunt ten tracks and, allowing nothing extraneous, got straight to the point, that being raging AC/DC rock and roll.\\\" A concert at theApollo TheatreinGlasgow, Scotland on 30 April 1978 was used for the live tracks. The concert is also remembered for the encore, when AC/DC came back on stage dressed in the Scottish football strip, paying homage to Scott's and the Young brothers' homeland. \\\"This gig summed up what made AC/DC so special live: the energy, the rapport with the crowd and the way those simple yet classic songs took on another life. You hear all of this onIf You Want Blood. It's a great reminder of how remarkable the band and their fans were that night.\\\" –Tom Russell, DJ \\\"Dog Eat Dog\\\", performed on the night, was removed from the album release, while the\",\n \"release, while the encore – \\\"Fling Thing/Rocker\\\" – was edited, removing \\\"Fling Thing\\\" and cutting out Angus's extended solo, as he did a walk around the audience (with an early version of a wireless guitar lead). This part of the band's concert theatrics later accompanied \\\"Let There Be Rock\\\"; \\\"Rocker\\\" has been performed only a few times since Bon Scott's passing in 1980. The live \\\"Dog Eat Dog\\\" was released as the b-side of the single \\\"Whole Lotta Rosie\\\" in November 1978, but only in Australia. It was rereleased worldwide in 2009 on the two (standard) and three (collectors) CD boxed set compilationBacktracks, featuring Australian-only songs not released internationally at the time, and live b-Sides from 7\\\" and 12\\\" singles. The encores \\\"Fling Thing\\\" and \\\"Rocker\\\" (with a complete guitar solo) appeared only on footage of the concert by a Dutch TV station played at the time, but were eventually released on theFamily JewelsDVD. According to the 2006 bookAC/DC: Maximum Rock & Roll, the album title was an extension\",\n \"was an extension of Scott's response – at theDay on the Greenfestival in July 1978 – when a journalist asked what they could expect from the band. The singer replied, \\\"Blood.\\\"The cover art is from a shoot withAtlantic Records' staff photographer Jim Houghton after the show at Boston'sParadise Theateron 21st August 1978, the idea for which came from Atlantic's art director Bob Defrin.The front cover depicts Angus Young being impaled on stage with a guitar during a performance, while the back depicts a bloodied Young lying facedown on the same stage, though deserted. A song titled \\\"If You Want Blood (You've Got It)\\\" appeared on the next album: the band's US chart breakthrough,Highway to Hell. Reception The album was listed at #2 onClassic Rockmagazine's readers' poll of \\\"50 Greatest Live Albums Ever\\\".In a 1992 interview withMetal Hammerat the time of the band'ssecond live release, Malcolm Young admitted, \\\"I personally still prefer the old album. We were young, fresh, vital and kicking ass.\\\"Greg Prato\",\n \"ass.\\\"Greg Prato ofAllMusicnotes, \\\"While most other rock bands of the era were busy experimenting withdiscoor creating studio-perfected epics, AC/DC was one of the few specializing in raw and bluesy hard rock, as evidenced by 1978's live set, If You Want Blood You've Got It.\\\"Eduardo Rivadavia ofUltimate Classic Rockenthuses, \\\"Other concert records may boast more songs, more Top 40 hits or even more crowd-pleasing gimmicks. But very few can challenge the sheer excitement and reckless abandon captured on AC/DC’s terrific concert document.\\\"Carlo Twist ofBlendermagazine praised the album, saying that \\\"They were always a mighty live act, and this is the sound of AC/DC in Europe just prior to 1979's U.S. breakthrough. The audience's hysteria regularly cuts through the amps, as they howl along to singer Bon Scott's tale of sexually transmitted disease (\\\"The Jack\\\") and punctuate guitarist Angus Young's staccato riffing on \\\"Whole Lotta Rosie.\\\" Imagine a punk-rock Chuck Berry played at nosebleed volume.\\\" Concert\",\n \"volume.\\\" Concert footage The entire Glasgow concert was filmed but the complete footage has never been released. Eventually, \\\"Riff Raff\\\" and \\\"Fling Thing/Rocker\\\" segments were made available on the DVDAC/DC Family Jewels, released in 2005. Video footage was also used from the show onFamily Jewelsusing the \\\"Rock 'n' Roll Damnation\\\" studio version audio track promotional clip. Segments from the concert (the songs \\\"Rock 'n' Roll Damnation\\\", \\\"Dog Eat Dog\\\" and \\\"Let There Be Rock\\\") were made available on the DVDPlug Me In, released in 2007 (the latter 2 were also released on YouTube in 2013)). \\\"Bad Boy Boogie\\\" was included on the bonus disc on the three-disc edition ofPlug Me In. Track listing All tracks are written byAngus Young,Malcolm YoungandBon Scott Original concert setlist All songs written by Angus Young, Malcolm Young, and Bon Scott except \\\"Fling Thing\\\", which is a Scottishtraditional song. Notes Personnel Production Charts Certifications *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures\",\n \"figures based on certification alone. References External links\",\n \"The Apollo, Glasgow The Apollowas amusic venueat 126 Renfield Street inGlasgowcity centre,Scotland. The Apollo operated from 5 September 1973 until closure on 16 June 1985 and was Glasgow's leading music venue during this period. The Apollo was a re-brand of the previousGreen's Playhousein the same building. History The Green family owned Green's Playhouse cinema at 126 Renfield Street. It was thought to be the largest cinema in Europe at the time but was in decline. Unicorn Leisure, owned by Frank Lynch and Max Langdown, leased a discothèque named Clouds in the top floor of the building. Unicorn included management ofBilly Connollyin their portfolio.On hearing the Green family were considering converting the dis-repaired venue into a bingo hall or demolishing the venue for a completely new development, Unicorn applied to lease the building which they felt had potential as a music venue. They bought a job lot of 3,000 cinema seats and re-upholstered the 'Golden Divans' in the balcony. \\\"Apollo\\\" was chosen as\",\n \"was chosen as the name of the re-branded venue so to mitigate the cost of letters for which the sign company charged £250 per letter. The first two concerts at The Apollo were performed by Johnny Cash on 5 & 6 September 1973. The venue was quickly attractive to the public responding to booking of popular performers of the time who spoke favourably of the atmosphere generated by the exuberant crowds.Theballroomoperated above the main concert auditorium, originally known as \\\"Clouds\\\", following various name changes that included \\\"Satellite City\\\" and \\\"The Penthouse\\\". The ballroom became a music venue for up-coming and relatively lesser-known contemporary bands, such asSimple Minds,Elvis Costello,Sham 69andThe Rich Kids. These were unable to attract a large enough paying audience to fill the concert venue. The venue was known for the atmosphere generated by its enthusiastic crowds, a 15 ft 6 in high stage (often exaggerated and misreported)that sloped down towards the audience and \\\"bouncy balcony\\\" designed and\",\n \"designed and built so that it would move up and down. This feature was put to the test by concert-goers, who would jump to get it to bounce.Francis Rossirefers to this onStatus Quo'sLive!, recorded at the venue: \\\"Those people at the top, on the balcony, can only see you when the lights go up there. Get the balcony to move about a bit and they'llall be running about and shitting themselves. Nice bunch of fellas, but very very scared of balconies!\\\" Jake BurnsofStiff Little Fingerssaid the stage was \\\"the only one in our career where we said if anyone got onstage from the audience, they could stay. They'd earned it.\\\"Andy SummersofThe Policein his autobiography \\\"One Train Later\\\" wrote \\\"Back in the dressing room, drenched in sweat and sitting among piles of little tartan-wrapped presents, we remarked about the bouncing balcony, amazed that the whole thing didn't collapse.\\\"The venue was used for numerous live album recordings (see \\\"Notable Performances\\\" section) and was used as either opening or closing venue by\",\n \"or closing venue by many performers visiting the UK from America. The management team for the Ramones have subsequently said the Apollo was the Ramones' favourite venue. Despite the Apollo's success as a music venue, the building was in a poor condition and its structure was gradually deteriorating. Maintenance was undertaken only on a \\\"make-do\\\" basis. In mid-1977 the owner of Unicorn Leisure relocated toFlorida. The lease for the venue was acquired by theApollo Leisure Group. The new leaseholders experienced considerable problems with the buildings structural condition and later considered relinquishing the lease in 1978, withMecca Bingoexpressing interest in the acquisition of the building. A successful campaign to preserve the building's status as a music venue included a 100,000 signature petition including support fromPaul McCartneyandEric Clapton. The resumption was to herald a seven-year downward spiral until the venue finally closed for business on 16 June 1985.The Style Councilwere the final\",\n \"the final performers on the bill. The building was demolished in September 1987 following a fire that rendered the building structurally unsafe. Such is the high regard that Ozzy Osbourne felt for the place that when he agreed to an interview on Scottish Television he asked that the interview be held in the empty disused site of the old building. Notable performances After demolition The Apollo was replaced by aCineworldbuilding constructed in 2000 and opened a year later on exactly the same site. A musical was first produced in 2009 titled,I Was There: The Story of The Glasgow Apollo. The retro website glasgowapollo.com was launched in 2003. As of 2017 the site has received over 12 million hits. See also References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":398,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Using the Pruett rule, out of all of the blue moons that occurred between the beginning of World War I and the end of World War II, how many of them occurred on the 31st of the month?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"9"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_moon#Blue_moon_dates"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_moon#Blue_moon_dates', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_moon#Blue_moon_dates","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_moon#Blue_moon_dates\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Blue moon Ablue moonrefers either to the presence of a secondfull moonin a calendarmonth, to the third full moon in aseasoncontaining four, or to a moon that appearsbluedue to atmospheric effects. Thecalendricalmeaning of \"blue moon\" is unconnected to the other meanings. It is often referred to as “traditional”,but since no occurrences are known prior to 1937 it is better described as aninvented traditionor “modern American folklore”.The practice of designating the second full moon in a month as \"blue\" originated with amateur astronomer James Hugh Pruett in 1946.It does not come fromNative American lunar tradition, as is sometimes supposed. The moon - not necessarily full - can sometimes appear blue due to atmospheric emissions from large forest fires or volcanoes, though the phenomenon is rare and unpredictable (hence the saying “once in a blue moon”).A calendrical blue moon (by Pruett's definition) is predictable and relatively common, happening 7 times in every 19 years (i.e. once every 2 or 3 years).Calendrical blue moons occur because thetime between successive full moons(approximately 29.5 days) is shorter than the average calendar month.They are of no astronomical or historical significance, and are not a product of actuallunisolar timekeepingorintercalation. Phrase origin A 1528 satire,Rede Me and Be Nott Wrothe, contained the lines, “Yf they saye the mone is belewe / We must beleve that it is true.”The intended sense was of an absurd belief, like themoon being made of cheese. There is nothing to connect it with the later metaphorical or calendrical meanings of “blue moon”. However, a confusion ofbelewe(Middle English, “blue”)withbelǽwan(Old English “to betray”)) led to afalse etymologyfor the calendrical term that remains widely circulated, despite its originator having acknowledged it as groundless. Percy Bysshe Shelley’spoem \"Alastor\" (1816)mentioned an erupting volcano: 7and a “blue moon / Low in the west.”: 14It was written at a time when the eruption ofMount Tamborawas causing global climate effects, and not long before the first recorded instances of “blue moon” as a metaphor. The OED citesPierce Egan’sReal Life in London(1821) as the earliest known occurrence of “blue moon” in the metaphorical sense of a long time. (“How's Harry and Ben?—haven't seen you this blue moon.”)An 1823 revision of Francis Grose’s ‘’Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue’’, edited by Egan, included the definition: “Blue moon. In allusion to a long time before such a circumstance happens. ‘O yes, in a blue moon.’”An earlier (1811) version of the same dictionary had not included the phrase, so it was likely coined some time in the 1810s.\"Once in a blue moon\" is recorded from 1833. The use of blue moon to mean a specific calendrical event dates from 1937, when theMaine Farmers' Almanacused the term in a slightly different sense from the one now in common use. According to the OED, “Earlier occurrences of the sense given in theMaine Farmers' Almanachave not been traced, either in editions of the Almanac prior to 1937, or elsewhere; the source of this application of the term (if it is not a coinage by the editor, H. P. Trefethen) is unclear.”The conjecture of editorial invention is further supported by the spurious explanation the almanac gave: The Moon usually comes full twelve times in a year, three times in each season... However, occasionally the moon comes full thirteen times in a year. This was considered a very unfortunate circumstance, especially by the monks who had charge of the calendar. It became necessary for them to make a calendar of thirteen months, and it upset the regular arrangement of church festivals. For this reason thirteen came to be considered an unlucky number. Also, this extra moon had a way of coming in each of the seasons so that it could not be given a name appropriate to the time of year like the other moons. It was usually called the Blue Moon... In olden times the almanac makers had much difficulty calculating the occurrence of the Blue Moon and this uncertainty gave rise to the expression \"Once in a Blue Moon\". There is no evidence that an extra moon in a month, season or year was considered unlucky, or that it led to13 being considered unlucky, or that the extra moon was called \"blue\", or that it led to the phrase \"once in a blue moon\". There is good reason to suspect that the 1937 article was a hoax, practical joke, or simply misinformed. It is however true that the date of the Christian festival ofEasterdepended on an accuratecomputationof full moon dates, and important work was done by the monksDionysius ExiguusandBede, explained by the latter inThe Reckoning of Time, written c725 CE. According to Bede, “Whenever it was a common year, gave three lunar months to each season. When an embolismic year occurred (that is, one of 13 lunar months) they assigned the extra month to summer, so that three months together bore the name ‘‘Litha’’; hence they called year ‘‘Thrilithi’’. It had four summer months, with the usual three for the other seasons.” The nameLithais now applied by someNeo-Paganstomidsummer. The 1937Maine Farmers' Almanacarticle was misinterpreted by James Hugh Pruett in a 1946Sky and Telescope article, leading to the calendrical definition of “blue moon” that is now most commonly used, i.e. the second full moon in a calendar month. “A blue moon in the originalMaine Farmers' Almanacsense can only occur in the months of February, May, August, and November. In the later sense, one can occur in any month except February.\"This later sense gained currency from its use in a United States radio programme,StarDateon January 31, 1980 and in a question in theTrivial Pursuitgame in 1986. Several songs have been titled \"Blue Moon\", seen as a \"symbol of sadness and loneliness.\" Visually blue moon The moon (and sun) can appear blue under certain atmospheric conditions – for instance, if volcanic eruptions or large-scale fires release particles into the atmosphere of just the right size to preferentiallyscatterred light.According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, scattering is the cause of “that epitome of rare occurrences, the blue Moon (seen when forest fires produce clouds composed of small droplets of organic compounds).” ARoyal Societyreport on the 1883Krakatoaeruptiongave a detailed account of “blue, green, and other coloured appearances of the sun and moon” seen in many places for months afterwards.: xiii. The report mentioned that in February 1884 an observer in central America saw the crescent moon as “a magnificent emerald-green” while itsashenpart was “pale green”. Venus, bright stars and a comet were also green.: 173The report authors suspected that green moons were a contrast effect, since in those cases the surrounding sky was seen as red.:203 People saw blue moons in 1983 after the eruption of theEl Chichónvolcano in Mexico, and there are reports of blue moons caused byMount St. Helensin 1980 andMount Pinatuboin 1991. The moon looked blue after forest fires in Sweden and Canada in 1950 and 1951,On September 23, 1950, severalmuskegfires that had been smoldering for several years in Alberta, Canada, suddenly blew up into major—and very smoky—fires. Winds carried the smoke eastward and southward with unusual speed, and the conditions of the fire produced large quantities of oily droplets of just the right size (about 1micrometrein diameter) to scatter red and yellow light. Wherever the smoke cleared enough so that the sun was visible, it was lavender or blue. Ontario, Canada, and much of the east coast of the United States were affected by the following day, and two days later, observers in Britain reported an indigo sun in smoke-dimmed skies, followed by an equally blue moon that evening. Ice particles might have a similar effect. The Antarctic diary ofRobert Falcon Scottfor July 11, 1911 mentioned \"the air thick with snow, and the moon a vague blue\". The key to a blue moon is having many particles slightly wider than the wavelength of red light (0.7 micrometer)—and no other sizes present. Ash and dust clouds thrown into the atmosphere by fires and storms usually contain a mixture of particles with a wide range of sizes, with most smaller than 1 micrometer, and they tend to scatter blue light. This kind of cloud makes the moon turn red; thus red moons are far more common than blue moons. Calendrical blue moon Blue moon as a calendrical term originated with the 1937Maine Farmers’ Almanac, a provincial U.S. magazine that is not to be confused with theFarmers' Almanac,Old Farmer's Almanac, or otherAmerican almanacs. There is no evidence of “blue moon” having been used as a specific calendrical term before 1937, and it was possibly invented by the magazine’s editor, Henry Porter Trefethen (1887-1957).As a term for the second full moon in a calendar month it began to be widely known in the U.S. in the mid-1980s and became internationally known in the late 1990s when calendrical matters were of special interest given the approaching millennium. It created a misapprehension that the calendrical meaning of “blue moon” had preceded the metaphorical one, and inspired variousfolk etymologies, e.g. the “betrayer” speculation mentioned earlier, or that it came from a printing convention in calendars or a saying in Czech.A 1997 Taiwanese movie,Blue Moon, had thelog line“There is usually only one full moon every month, but occasionally there are two – and that second full moon is called the Blue Moon. It is said that when a person sees a blue moon and makes a wish, he will be granted a second chance in things.” In 1999 folklorist Philip Hiscock presented a timeline for the calendrical term.First, the August page of the 1937Maine Farmers' Almanacran a sidebar claiming that the term was used “in olden times” for an extra full moon in a season, and gave some examples (21 November 1915, 22 August 1918, 21 May 1921, 20 February 1924, 21 November 1934, 22 August 1937, and 21 May 1940). Six years later, Laurence J. Lafleur (1907-66) quoted the almanac in the U.S. magazineSky & Telescope(July 1943, page 17) in answer to a reader’s question about the meaning of “blue moon”. Then James Hugh Pruett (1886-1955) quoted it again inSky & Telescope(March 1946, p3), saying “seven times in 19 years there were — and still are — 13 full moons in a year. This gives 11 months with one full moon each and one with two. This second in a month, so I interpret it, was called Blue Moon”. In 1980 the term was used (with Pruett’s definition) in a U.S. radio program,Star Date, and in 1985 it appeared in a U.S. children’s book,The Kids' World Almanac of Records and Facts(“What is a blue moon? When there are two full moons in a month, the second one is called a blue moon. It is a rare occurrence.”)In 1986 it was included as a question in Trivial Pursuit (likely taken from the children’s book), and in 1988 a forthcoming blue moon received widespread press coverage. In 1999 U.S. astronomerDonald W. Olsonresearched the original articles and published the results in aSky & Telescopearticle co-authored with Richard T Fienberg and Roger W. Sinnott. From the examples given by Trefethen in the 1937Maine Farmers’ Almanacthey deduced a “rule” he must effectively have used. “Seasonal Moon names are assigned near the springequinoxin accordance with theecclesiastical rulesfor determining the dates ofEasterandLent. The beginnings of summer, fall, and winter are determined by thedynamical mean Sun. When a season contains four full Moons, the third is called a Blue Moon.”They termed this the “Maine rule” for blue moons, as distinct from Pruett’s 1946 definition that was seen to have been a misinterpretation. In popular astronomy the Maine rule is sometimes called the “seasonal”,“true”or “traditional”rule (though of course no tradition of it exists prior to 1937). Blue moons by Pruett’s definition are sometimes called “calendar blue moons”.The \"seasonal\" blue moon rule is itself ambiguous since it depends which definition ofseasonis used. The Maine rule used seasons of equal length with the ecclesiastical equinox (March 21). An alternative is to use the astronomical seasons, which are of unequal length. There is also reference in modern popular astrology to “zodiacal blue moons”. Blue moon dates The table below has blue moon dates and times (UTC) calculated according to Pruett’s “calendar” rule (second full moon in a calendar month) and two versions of the “seasonal” rule (third full moon in a season with four). The Maine rule uses equal-length seasons defined by the dynamical mean sun, and is presumed to have been the original rule of Trefethen.The “astro-seasonal” rule uses the unequal astronomical seasons defined by the apparent sun. All calculations are by David Harper. The fourth column shows blue moon dates that were actually printed in theMaine Farmers’ Almanac, as found by Olson, Fienberg and Sinnott in 1999. They studied issues published between 1819 and 1962, and found that all mentions occurred between 1937, when H.P. Trefethen introduced the term, and 1956, when Trefethen’s editorship ended (consistent with it being Trefethen’s own invention). Occasional discrepancies between the Maine rule and the almanac’s printed dates can be ascribed to clerical errors or miscalculation. In one case (August 1945) Trefethen appears to have used the apparent rather than mean sun. The table shows that in 200 years there are 187 full moons that could be called \"blue\" by some definition - an average of nearly one per year. Two Pruett blue moons can occur in a single year (1915, 1961, 1999, 2018, 2037, 2094). 1915 had four blue moons (two Pruett, one Maine, one astro-seasonal). 1934 and 2048 have three (one of each type). Despite the 187 blue moons appearing across the 200 years in this table, only 146 years have any of these 3 types of blue moons, leaving 54 years (thus averaging just over 1 year in every 4) which have none of the 3 rules represented in that calendar year. While not totally unexpected (given the overlapping frequencies of these 3 rules), it so happens there are not any 2 sequential years (at least within these 200) wherein none of the 3 types of blue moon occur. Conversely, despite the preponderance of years with blue moons (of at least 1 type) occurring in this 200-year range, there are no instances of more than 4 sequential years having a blue moon, of any of these 3 types -- i.e. at least 1 year out of every 5 sequential years has none of the 3 types appearing. Remarks Onelunation(an average lunar cycle) is 29.53days. There are about 365.24 days in atropical year. Therefore, about 12.37 lunations (365.24 days divided by 29.53 days) occur in a tropical year. So the date of the full moon falls back by nearly one day every calendar month on average. Each calendar year contains roughly 11 days more than the number of days in 12 lunar cycles, so every two or three years (seven times in the 19 yearMetonic cycle), there is an extra full moon in the year. The extra full moon necessarily falls in one of the four seasons (however defined), giving that season four full moons instead of the usual three. Given that a year is approximately 365.2425 days and a synodic orbit is 29.5309 days,then there are about 12.368 synodic months in a year. For this to add up to another full month would take 1/0.368 years. Thus it would take about 2.716 years, or 2 years, 8 months, and 18 days for another Pruett blue moon to occur. Or approximately once in 32.5 months on an average. When there are two Pruett blue moons in a single year, the first occurs in January and the second in March or April. The next timeNew Year's Evefalls on a Pruett blue moon (as occurred on December 31, 2009 in time zones west of UTC+05) is after one Metonic cycle, in 2028 in time zones west of UTC+08. At that time there will be atotal lunar eclipse. See also References External links","World War I World War Ior theFirst World War(28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as theGreat War, was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAllies(or Entente) and theCentral Powers. Fighting took place mainly inEuropeand theMiddle East, as well as in parts ofAfricaand theAsia-Pacific, and in Europe was characterised bytrench warfareand the use ofartillery, machine guns, andchemical weapons(gas). World War I was one of thedeadliest conflicts in history, resulting in an estimated9 million military dead and 23 million wounded, plus up to 8 million civilian deaths from causes includinggenocide. The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in theSpanish flupandemic, which killed millions. Thecauses of World War Iincluded the rise ofGermanyanddecline of the Ottoman Empire, which disturbed the long-standingbalance of powerin Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered byindustrialisationandimperialism. Growing tensions between thegreat powersand in theBalkansreacheda breaking pointon 28 June 1914, when aBosnian SerbnamedGavrilo Principassassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to theAustro-Hungarianthrone. Austria-Hungary heldSerbiaresponsible, and declared war on 28 July. AfterRussiamobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia; by 4 August,Franceand theUnited Kingdomwere drawn in, with the Ottomans joining in November.Germany's strategy in 1914was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east. However, this failed, and by the end of the year theWestern Frontconsisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. TheEastern Frontwas more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives.Italy,Bulgaria,Romania,Greeceand others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917, theUnited States entered the waron the Allied side following Germany's resumption ofunrestricted submarine warfareagainst Atlantic shipping. Later that year, theBolsheviksseized power in the RussianOctober Revolution;Soviet Russiasignedan armisticewith the Central Powers in December, followed bya separate peacein March 1918. That month, Germany launchedan offensive in the west, which despite initial successes left theGerman Armyexhausted and demoralised.A successful Allied counter-offensivefrom August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facinga revolution at home,Kaiser WilhelmIIabdicated on 9 November, and the war ended with theArmistice of 11 November 1918. TheParis Peace Conferenceof 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably theTreaty of Versailles, by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay largewar reparationsto the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in the creation of new independent states, includingPoland,Finland, theBaltic states,Czechoslovakia, andYugoslavia. TheLeague of Nationswas established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during theinterwar periodcontributed to the outbreak ofWorld War IIin 1939. Names BeforeWorld War II, the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as theGreat Waror simply theWorld War.In August 1914, the magazineThe Independentwrote \"This is the Great War. It names itself\".In October 1914, the Canadian magazineMaclean'ssimilarly wrote, \"Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War.\"Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as \"the war to end war\" and it was also described as \"the war to end all wars\" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life.The first recorded use of the termFirst World Warwas in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopherErnst Haeckelwho stated, \"There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word.\" Background Political and military alliances For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuousbalance of power, known as theConcert of Europe.After 1848, this was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-calledsplendid isolation, thedecline of the Ottoman Empire,New Imperialism, and the rise ofPrussiaunderOtto von Bismarck. Victory in the 1870–1871Franco-Prussian Warallowed Bismarck toconsolidateaGerman Empire. Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was toavengethis defeat,but by the early 1890s, this had switched to the expansion of theFrench colonial empire. In 1873, Bismarck negotiated theLeague of the Three Emperors, which includedAustria-Hungary,Russiaand Germany. After the 1877–1878Russo-Turkish War, the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in theBalkans, an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest.Germanyand Austria-Hungary then formed the 1879Dual Alliance, which became theTriple Alliancewhen Italy joined in 1882.For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up theReinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire byWilhelm II. The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his newChancellor,Leo von Caprivi.This gave France an opening to agree theFranco-Russian Alliancein 1894, which was then followed by the 1904Entente Cordialewith Britain. TheTriple Ententewas completed by the 1907Anglo-Russian Convention. While not formal alliances, by settlinglong-standing colonial disputes in Asiaand Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became a possibility.This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911Agadir Crisis. Arms race German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, AdmiralAlfred von Tirpitzsought to use this growth to build anImperial German Navy, that could compete with the BritishRoyal Navy.This policy was based on the work of US naval authorAlfred Thayer Mahan, who argued that possession of ablue-water navywas vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to a change in policy and anAnglo-German naval arms racebegan.Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch ofHMSDreadnoughtin 1906 gave the British a technological advantage.Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, ChancellorTheobald von Bethmann Hollwegacknowledged defeat, leading to theRüstungswendeor 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in theRusso-Japanese Warand subsequent1905 Russian Revolution. Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions.Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia, the threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by theBalkan powersand Italy, which led to increased expenditure by theOttomansand Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. Conflicts in the Balkans The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. WhilePan-SlavicandOrthodoxRussia considered itself the protector ofSerbiaand otherSlavstates, they preferred the strategically vitalBosporusstraits to be controlled by a weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power likeBulgaria. Russia had ambitions in northeasternAnatoliawhile its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as a direct threat. The 1908–1909Bosnian Crisisbegan when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory ofBosnia and Herzegovina, which ithad occupiedsince 1878. Timed to coincide with theBulgarian Declaration of Independencefrom the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as a significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912Italo-Turkish Wardemonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of theBalkan League, an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria,Montenegro, andGreece.The League quickly overran most of the Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913First Balkan War, much to the surprise of outside observers.The Serbian capture of ports on theAdriaticresulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border inGalicia. TheRussian governmentdecided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through the 1913Treaty of London, which had created an independentAlbaniawhile enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-daySecond Balkan War, when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most ofMacedoniato Serbia and Greece, andSouthern Dobrujato Romania.The result was that even countries which benefited from the Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their \"rightful gains\", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany.This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the \"powder keg of Europe\". Prelude Sarajevo assassination On 28 June 1914,Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to EmperorFranz Joseph I of Austria, visitedSarajevo, the capital of the recently annexedBosnia and Herzegovina.Cvjetko Popović,Gavrilo Princip,Nedeljko Čabrinović,Trifko Grabež,Vaso Čubrilović(Bosnian Serbs) andMuhamed Mehmedbašić(from theBosniakscommunity),from the movement known asYoung Bosnia, took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the SerbianBlack Handintelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw agrenadeat the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street whereGavrilo Principwas standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wifeSophie. According to historianZbyněk Zeman, in Vienna \"the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June, the crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened.\"Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historianChristopher Clarkas a \"9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna\". Expansion of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequentanti-Serb riots in Sarajevo.Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as theSchutzkorpswas established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. July Crisis The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as the best way of achieving this.However, theForeign Ministryhad no solid proof of Serbian involvement.On 23July, Austria delivered anultimatumto Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered generalmobilizationon 25July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress \"subversive elements\" inside Serbia, and take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination.Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shellingBelgrade. Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from theSPDpolitical opposition by presenting Russia as the aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July.That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to \"cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary\" within 12 hours.A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war.TheGerman General Staffhad long assumed they faced a war on two fronts; theSchlieffen Planenvisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon.Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under the 1839Treaty of Londondid not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime MinisterAsquithand his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention.On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply.Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-ChiefJoseph Joffreasked his government for permission to cross the border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion.Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August,Germany occupied Luxembourgand exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which was refused. Early on the morning of 4August, the Germans invaded, andAlbert I of Belgiumcalled for assistance under theTreaty of London.Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Progress of the war Opening hostilities Confusion among the Central Powers Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Serbian campaign Beginning on 12 August, the Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of theCerandKolubara; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia.Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century.In 1915, the campaign saw the first use ofanti-aircraft warfareafter an Austrian plane was shot down withground-to-airfire, as well as the firstmedical evacuationby the Serbian army. German offensive in Belgium and France Upon mobilisation, in accordance with theSchlieffen Plan, 80% of theGerman Armywas located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier, the German right wing would sweep through theNetherlandsandBelgium, then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator,Alfred von Schlieffen, head of theGerman General Stafffrom 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor,Helmuth von Moltke the Younger. Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the \"lost provinces\" ofAlsace-Lorraine, which was the strategy envisaged by theirPlan XVII.However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as the German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30.He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan.HistorianRichard Holmesargues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in the West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included theBritish Expeditionary Force(BEF), was infull retreat, and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000.German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, butvon Kluckused this freedom to disobey orders, opening a gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris.The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911, the RussianStavkaagreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that enteredEast Prussiaon 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war.As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after theFirst Battle of the Marne,Crown Prince Wilhelmtold an American reporter \"We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already.\" Asia and the Pacific On 30 August 1914, New Zealandoccupied German Samoa(nowSamoa). On 11 September, theAustralian Naval and Military Expeditionary Forcelanded on the island ofNew Britain, then part ofGerman New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiserSMSEmdensank theRussian cruiserZhemchugin theBattle of Penang. Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became theSouth Seas Mandate, as well as GermanTreaty portson the ChineseShandongpeninsula atTsingtao. After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiserSMSKaiserin Elisabethfrom Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914.Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. African campaigns Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates ofTogolandandKamerun. On 10 August, German forces inSouth-West Africaattacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces inGerman East Africa, led by ColonelPaul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought aguerrilla warfarecampaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Indian support for the Allies Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 byinstigating uprisings in India, while theNiedermayer–Hentig Expeditionurged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity.Leaders from theIndian National Congressand other groups believed support for the British war effort would hastenIndian Home Rule, a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 byEdwin Montagu, theSecretary of State for India. In 1914, theBritish Indian Armywas larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded.The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting inthe campaign for full independenceled byMahatma Gandhi. Western Front 1914 to 1916 Trench warfare begins Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed the creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such asbarbed wire, machine guns and above all far more powerfulartillery, which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult.Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such asgas warfareand thetank. After theFirst Battle of the Marnein September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the \"Race to the Sea\". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from theChannelto the Swiss border.Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held the high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered \"temporary\", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences.Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at theSecond Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating theHague Convention) usedchlorinegas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. Continuation of trench warfare In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at theBattle of Verdun, lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000to 975,000casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. TheBattle of the Sommewas an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. Theopening dayon 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of theBritish Army, which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As a whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans.The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such astrench foot,lice,typhus,trench fever, and the 'Spanish flu'. Naval war At the start of the war, Germancruiserswere scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Alliedmerchant shipping. These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was theSMSEmden, part of the GermanEast Asia Squadronstationed atQingdao, which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at theBattle of Coronelin November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at theBattle of the Falkland Islandsin December. TheSMSDresdenescaped with a few auxiliaries, but after theBattle of Más a Tierra, these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a navalblockade of Germany. This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law.Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of the ocean, even to neutral ships.Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. TheBattle of Jutlandin May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of the GermanHigh Seas Fleetwas confined to port. GermanU-boatsattempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.The nature ofsubmarine warfaremeant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger shipRMSLusitaniain 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the \"cruiser rules\", which demanded warning and movement of crews to \"a place of safety\" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet).Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy ofunrestricted submarine warfare, realising the Americans would eventually enter the war.Germany sought to strangle Alliedsea lanesbefore the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling inconvoys, escorted bydestroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after thehydrophoneanddepth chargeswere introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at the cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use ofaircraft carriersin combat, withHMSFuriouslaunchingSopwith Camelsin a successful raid against theZeppelinhangars atTondernin July 1918, as well asblimpsfor antisubmarine patrol. Southern theatres War in the Balkans Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital,Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia.The Austro-Hungarian provinces ofSlovenia, Croatia andBosniaprovided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in the attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northernAlbania. The Serbs suffered defeat in theBattle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in theBattle of Mojkovacon 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece.After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed atSalonicain Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-GermanKing Constantine Idismissed the pro-Allied government ofEleftherios Venizelosbefore the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturingBitolaon 19 November 1916 following the costlyMonastir offensive, which brought stabilisation of the front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in theVardar offensive, after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at theBattle of Dobro Pole, and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918.The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were too weak to re-establish a front. The disappearance of the Macedonian front meant that the road toBudapestand Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against theCentral Powersand, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement. Ottoman Empire The Ottomans threatened Russia'sCaucasianterritories and Britain's communications with India via theSuez Canal. The Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers' preoccupation with the war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of theArmenian,Greek, andAssyrianChristian populations—theArmenian genocide,Greek genocide, andSayforespectively. The British and French opened overseas fronts with theGallipoli(1915) andMesopotamian campaigns(1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, andAustralian and New Zealand Army Corps(ANZACs). InMesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in thesiege of Kutby the Ottomans (1915–1916), British Imperial forces reorganised and capturedBaghdadin March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian fighters, while the Ottomans employed localKurdishandTurcomantribes. TheSuez Canalwas defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August 1916, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at theBattle of Romaniby theANZAC Mounted Divisionand the52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, anEgyptian Expeditionary Forceadvanced across theSinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in theBattle of Magdhabain December and theBattle of Rafaon the border between the EgyptianSinaiand Ottoman Palestine in January 1917. Russian armies generally had success in theCaucasus campaign.Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been previously lost to Russia. He was, however, a poor commander.He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86% of his force at theBattle of Sarikamish.GeneralYudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southernCaucasus. The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modernIran) in December 1914 to cut off British and Russian access topetroleum reservoirsaroundBaku.Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided byKurdishandAzeriforces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. ThePersian campaignlasted until 1918 and ended in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However, the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led Armenian and Assyrian forces to be cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia. TheArab Revolt, instigated by the BritishForeign Office, started in June 1916 with theBattle of Mecca, led bySharif Hussein. The Sharif declared the independence of theKingdom of Hejazand, with British assistance, conquered much of Ottoman-held Arabia, resulting finally in the Ottoman surrender of Damascus.Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander ofMedina, resisted for more than2+1⁄2years during thesiege of Medinabefore surrendering in January 1919. TheSenussitribe, along the border ofItalian LibyaandBritish Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-scaleguerrilla waragainst Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in theSenussi campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916. Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted to 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000, with 325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded. Italian Front Though Italy joined the Triple Alliance in 1882, a treaty with its traditional Austrian enemy was so controversial that subsequent governments denied its existence and the terms were only made public in 1915.This arose fromnationalistdesigns on Austro-Hungarian territory inTrentino, theAustrian Littoral,RijekaandDalmatia, considered vital to secure the borders established in1866.In 1902, Rome secretly had agreed with France to remain neutral if the latter was attacked by Germany, effectively nullifying its role in the Triple Alliance. When the war began in 1914, Italy argued the Triple Alliance was defensive and it was not obliged to support an Austrian attack on Serbia. Opposition to joining the Central Powers increased when Turkey became a member in September, since in1911Italy had occupied Ottoman possessions inLibyaand theDodecaneseislands.To secure Italian neutrality, the Central Powers offered themTunisia, while in return for an immediate entry into the war, the Allies agreed to their demands for Austrian territory and sovereignty over the Dodecanese.Although they remained secret, these provisions were incorporated into the April 1915Treaty of London; Italy joined the Triple Entente and, on 23 May, declared war on Austria-Hungary,followed by Germany fifteen months later. The pre-1914 Italian army was short of officers, trained men, adequate transport and modern weapons; by April 1915, some of these deficiencies had been remedied but it was still unprepared for the major offensive required by the Treaty of London.The advantage of superior numbers was offset by the difficult terrain; much of the fighting took place high in theAlpsandDolomites, where trench lines had to be cut through rock and ice and keeping troops supplied was a major challenge. These issues were exacerbated by unimaginative strategies and tactics.Between 1915 and 1917, the Italian commander,Luigi Cadorna, undertooka series of frontal assaults along the Isonzo, which made little progress and cost many lives; by the end of the war, Italian combat deaths totalled around 548,000. In the spring of 1916, the Austro-Hungarians counterattacked inAsiagoin theStrafexpedition, but made little progress and were pushed by the Italians back to Tyrol.Although Italy occupied southernAlbaniain May 1916, their main focus was the Isonzo front which, after thecapture of Goriziain August 1916, remained static until October 1917. After a combined Austro-German force won a major victory atCaporetto, Cadorna was replaced byArmando Diazwho retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) before holding positions along thePiave River.A second Austrianoffensive was repulsedin June 1918. On 24 October, Diaz launched theBattle of Vittorio Venetoand initially met stubborn resistance,but with Austria-Hungary collapsing, Hungarian divisions in Italy demanded they be sent home.When this was granted, many others followed and the Imperial army disintegrated, the Italians taking over 300,000 prisoners.On 3November, theArmistice of Villa Giustiended hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Italy which occupiedTriesteand areas along theAdriatic Seaawarded to it in 1915. Eastern Front Initial actions As previously agreed with French presidentRaymond Poincaré, Russian plans at the start of the war were to simultaneously advance intoAustrian Galiciaand East Prussia as soon as possible. Although theirattack on Galiciawas largely successful, and the invasions achieved their aim of forcing Germany to divert troops from the Western Front, the speed of mobilisation meant they did so without much of their heavy equipment and support functions. These weaknesses contributed to Russian defeats atTannenbergand theMasurian Lakesin August and September 1914, forcing them to withdraw from East Prussia with heavy losses.By spring 1915, they had also retreated from Galicia, and the May 1915Gorlice–Tarnów offensiveallowed the Central Powers to invadeRussian-occupied Poland. Despite the successful June 1916Brusilov offensiveagainst the Austrians in eastern Galicia,shortages of supplies, heavy losses and command failures prevented the Russians from fully exploiting their victory. However, it was one of the most significant offensives of the war, diverting German resources fromVerdun, relieving Austro-Hungarian pressure on the Italians, and convincing Romania to enter the war on the side of the Allies on 27 August. It also fatally weakened both the Austrian and Russian armies, whose offensive capabilities were badly affected by their losses and increased disillusion with the war that ultimately led to the Russian revolutions. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia asthe Tsarremained at the front, with the home front controlled byEmpress Alexandra. Her increasingly incompetent rule and food shortages in urban areas led to widespread protests and the murder of her favourite,Grigori Rasputin, at the end of 1916. Romanian participation Despite secretly agreeing to support the Triple Alliance in 1883, Romania increasingly found itself at odds with the Central Powers over their support for Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and the status of ethnic Romanian communities inHungarian-controlledTransylvania,which comprised an estimated 2.8 million of the 5.0 million population.With the ruling elite split into pro-German and pro-Entente factions,Romania remained neutral for two years while allowing Germany and Austria to transport military supplies and advisors across Romanian territory. In September 1914, Russia acknowledged Romanian rights to Austro-Hungarian territories including Transylvania andBanat, whose acquisition had widespread popular support,and Russian success against Austria led Romania to join the Entente in the August 1916Treaty of Bucharest.Under the strategic plan known asHypothesis Z, the Romanian army planned an offensive into Transylvania, while defending SouthernDobrujaandGiurgiuagainst a possible Bulgarian counterattack.On 27 August 1916, theyattacked Transylvaniaand occupied substantial parts of the province before being driven back by the recently formedGerman 9th Army, led by former Chief of StaffErich von Falkenhayn.A combined German-Bulgarian-Turkish offensive captured Dobruja and Giurgiu, although the bulk of the Romanian army managed to escape encirclement and retreated toBucharest, whichsurrenderedto the Central Powers on 6 December 1916. In the summer of 1917, a Central Powers offensive began in Romania under the command of August von Mackensen to knock Romania out of the war, resulting in the battles ofOituz,MărăștiandMărășeștiwhere up to 1,000,000 Central Powers troops were present. The battles lasted from 22 July to 3 September and eventually, the Romanian army was victorious advancing 500 km2. August von Mackensen could not plan for another offensive as he had to transfer troops to the Italian Front.Following the Russian revolution, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed theTreaty of Bucharestwith the Central Powers, which recognised Romanian sovereignty overBessarabiain return for ceding control of passes in the Carpathian Mountains to Austria-Hungary and leasing its oil wells to Germany. Although approved byParliament,King Ferdinand Irefused to sign it, hoping for an Allied victory in the west.Romania re-entered the war on 10 November 1918 on the side of the Allies and the Treaty of Bucharest was formally annulled by the Armistice of 11 November 1918. Central Powers peace overtures On 12 December 1916, after ten brutal months of theBattle of Verdunand asuccessful offensive against Romania, Germany attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies.However, this attempt was rejected out of hand as a \"duplicitous war ruse\". US presidentWoodrow Wilsonattempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking for both sides to state their demands.Lloyd George'sWar Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions among the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the US was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the \"submarine outrages\". While the Allies debated a response to Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of \"a direct exchange of views\". Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities.The Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars.The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer on the grounds of honour, and noted Germany had not put forward any specific proposals. Final years of the war Russian Revolution and withdrawal By the end of 1916, Russian casualties totalled nearly five million killed, wounded or captured, with major urban areas affected by food shortages and high prices. In March 1917, Tsar Nicholas ordered the military to forcibly suppress strikes inPetrogradbut the troops refused to fire on the crowds.Revolutionaries set up thePetrograd Sovietand fearing a left-wing takeover, theState Dumaforced Nicholas to abdicate and established theRussian Provisional Government, which confirmed Russia's willingness to continue the war. However, the Petrograd Soviet refused to disband, creatingcompeting power centresand causing confusion and chaos, with frontline soldiers becoming increasingly demoralised. Following the Tsar's abdication,Vladimir Lenin—with the help of the German government—was ushered from Switzerland into Russia on 16 April 1917. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, they acceded to theTreaty of Brest-Litovskon 3March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. With theRussian Empireout of the war, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed theTreaty of Bucharestwith the Central Powers in May 1918. Under the terms of the treaty, Romania ceded territory to Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria and leased its oil reserves to Germany. However, the terms also included the Central Powers' recognition of the union ofBessarabiawith Romania. United States enters the war The United States was a major supplier of war material to the Allies but remained neutral in 1914, in large part due to domestic opposition.The most significant factor in creating the support Wilson needed was the German submarine offensive, which not only cost American lives but paralysed trade as ships were reluctant to put to sea. On 6 April 1917, Congressdeclared war on Germanyas an \"Associated Power\" of the Allies.TheUS Navysent abattleship grouptoScapa Flowto join the Grand Fleet, and provided convoy escorts. In April 1917, theUS Armyhad fewer than 300,000 men, includingNational Guardunits, compared to British and French armies of 4.1 and 8.3 million respectively. TheSelective Service Act of 1917drafted 2.8 million men, though training and equipping such numbers was a huge logistical challenge. By June 1918, over 667,000 members of theAmerican Expeditionary Forces(AEF) were transported to France, a figure which reached 2 million by the end of November. Despite his conviction that Germany must be defeated, Wilson went to war to ensure the US played a leading role in shaping the peace, which meant preserving the AEF as a separate military force, rather than being absorbed into British or French units as his Allies wanted.He was strongly supported by AEF commander GeneralJohn J. Pershing, a proponent of pre-1914 \"open warfare\" who considered the French and British emphasis on artillery misguided and incompatible with American \"offensive spirit\".Much to the frustration of his Allies, who had suffered heavy losses in 1917, he insisted on retaining control of American troops, and refused to commit them to the front line until able to operate as independent units. As a result, the first significant US involvement was theMeuse–Argonne offensivein late September 1918. Nivelle Offensive (April–May 1917) In December 1916,Robert Nivellereplaced Pétain as commander of French armies on the Western Front and began planning aspring attackinChampagne, part of a joint Franco-British operation.Poor security meant German intelligence was well informed on tactics and timetables, but despite this, when the attack began on 16 April the French made substantial gains, before being brought to a halt by the newly built and extremely strong defences of the Hindenburg Line. Nivelle persisted with frontal assaults and, by 25 April, the French had suffered nearly 135,000 casualties, including 30,000 dead, most incurred in the first two days. Concurrent British attacks atArraswere more successful, though ultimately of little strategic value.Operating as a separate unit for the first time, theCanadian Corps' capture ofVimy Ridgeis viewed by many Canadians as a defining moment in creating a sense of national identity.Though Nivelle continued the offensive, on 3 May the21st Division, which had been involved in some of the heaviest fighting at Verdun, refused orders to go into battle, initiating theFrench Army mutinies; within days, \"collective indiscipline\" had spread to 54 divisions, while over 20,000 deserted. Sinai and Palestine campaign (1917–1918) In March and April 1917, at theFirstandSecond Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani.At the end of October 1917, theSinai and Palestine campaignresumed, when GeneralEdmund Allenby'sXXth Corps,XXI CorpsandDesert Mounted Corpswon theBattle of Beersheba.Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at theBattle of Mughar Ridgeand, early in December,Jerusalemhad been captured following another Ottoman defeat at theBattle of Jerusalem.About this time,Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressensteinwas relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army's commander, replaced byDjevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of theOttoman Armyin Palestine,Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced byOtto Liman von Sanders. In early 1918, the front line wasextendedand theJordan Valleywas occupied, following theFirst Transjordanand theSecond Transjordanattacks by British Empire forces in March and April 1918. German offensive and Allied counter-offensive (March–November 1918) In December 1917, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the West. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success in a final quick offensive.Ludendorff drew up plans (Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces nearSaint-Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).The initial offensive was a success; after heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks ormotorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell-torn and often impassable to traffic.Germany launchedOperation Georgetteagainst the northernEnglish Channelports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conductedOperations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) on 15 July, in an attempt to encircleReims. The resulting counter-attack, which started theHundred Days Offensiveon 8 August,led to a marked collapse in German morale. Allied advance to the Hindenburg Line By September, the Germans had fallen back to the Hindenburg Line. The Allies hadadvanced to the Hindenburg Linein the north and centre. German forces launched numerous counterattacks, but positions and outposts of the Line continued falling, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September, the Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable. Thefinal assaulton the Hindenburg Line began with theMeuse-Argonne offensive, launched by American and French troops on 26 September. Two days later the Belgians, French and Britishattacked around Ypres, and the day after the British at St Quentin in the centre of the line. The following week, cooperating American and French units broke through inChampagneat theBattle of Blanc Mont Ridge(3–27 October), forcing the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier.On 8October, the Hindenburg Line was pierced by British and Dominion troops of the First and Third British Armies at theSecond Battle of Cambrai. Breakthrough of Macedonian front (September 1918) Allied forces started theVardar offensiveon 15 September at two key points:Dobro Poleand nearDojran Lake. In theBattle of Dobro Pole, the Serbian and French armies had success after a three-day-long battle with relatively small casualties, and subsequently made a breakthrough in the front, something which was rarely seen in World War I. After the front was broken, Allied forces started to liberate Serbia and reachedSkopjeat 29 September, after whichBulgariasigned an armistice with the Allies on 30 September. Armistices and capitulations The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, theArmistice of Salonicaon 29 September 1918.German EmperorWilhelm IIin a telegram toBulgarian Tsar Ferdinand Idescribed the situation thus: \"Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the war!\".On the same day, theGerman Supreme Army Commandinformed Kaiser Wilhelm II and theImperial ChancellorCountGeorg von Hertling, that the military situation facing Germany was hopeless. On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, marking the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3November, Austria-Hungary sent aflag of truceand accepted theArmistice of Villa Giusti, arranged with the Allied Authorities in Paris. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of theHabsburg monarchy. In the following days, the Italian Army occupiedInnsbruckand allTyrol, with over 20,000 soldiers. On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, and signed the Armistice of Mudros. German government surrenders With the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser leading to his abdication and fleeing of the country, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge on October 3 as Chancellor of Germany. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military. TheGerman Revolution of 1918–1919began at the end of October 1918. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war they believed to be as good as lost. Thesailors' revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports ofWilhelmshavenandKiel, spread across the whole country within days and led to theproclamation of a republicon 9November 1918, shortly thereafter to theabdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and German surrender. Aftermath In the aftermath of the war, the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires disappeared.Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties fell as a result of the war: theRomanovs, theHohenzollerns, theHabsburgs, and theOttomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead,not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. Formal end of the war A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of theTreaty of Versailleswith Germany on 28 June 1919. The US Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it,and did not formally end its involvement in the war until theKnox–Porter Resolutionwas signed on 2July 1921 by PresidentWarren G. Harding.For the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of theTermination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918concerning: Somewar memorialsdate the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned home; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Peace treaties and national boundaries TheParis Peace Conferenceimposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919Treaty of Versaillesdealt with Germany and, building onWilson's 14th point, established theLeague of Nationson 28 June 1919. The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for \"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by\" their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement wasArticle 231. This article became known as the \"War Guilt Clause\", as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful.The Germans felt they had been unjustly dealt with by what they called the \"diktatof Versailles\". German historian Hagen Schulze said the Treaty placed Germany \"under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated.\"Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasises the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s: Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic. The legend of the \"stab in the back\" and the wish to revise the \"Versailles diktat\", and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a man of peace such as Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanise the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its policies. Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as a recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbours. Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Apart from Austria and Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia received territories from the Dual Monarchy (the formerly separate and autonomousKingdom of Croatia-Slavoniawas incorporated into Yugoslavia). The details were contained in the treaties ofSaint-Germain-en-LayeandTrianon. As a result, Hungary lost 64% of its total population, decreasing from 20.9 million to 7.6 million, and losing 31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of its ethnicHungarians.According to the 1910 census, speakers of the Hungarian language included approximately 54% of the entire population of theKingdom of Hungary. Within the country, numerous ethnic minorities were present: 16.1%Romanians, 10.5%Slovaks, 10.4%Germans, 2.5%Ruthenians, 2.5%Serbsand 8% others.Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The Russian Empire lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations ofEstonia,Finland,Latvia,Lithuania, andPolandwere carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918. National identities After 123 years, Poland re-emerged as an independent country. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a \"minor Entente nation\" and the country with the most casualties per capita,became the backbone of a new multinational state, theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining theKingdom of Bohemiawith parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Romania woulduniteall Romanian-speaking people under a single state, leading toGreater Romania. In Australia and New Zealand, the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' \"Baptism of Fire\". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of theBritish Crown, and independent national identities for these nations took hold.Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), celebrates this defining moment. In the aftermath of World War I, Greecefoughtagainst Turkish nationalists led byMustafa Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in amassive population exchange between the two countriesunder the Treaty of Lausanne.According to various sources,several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the Greek genocide. Casualties Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilised from 1914 to 1918, an estimated8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria-Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%.France mobilised 7.8 million men, of which 1.4 million died and 3.2 million were injured.Approximately 15,000 deployed men sustained gruesome facial injuries, causing social stigma and marginalisation; they were called thegueules cassées(broken faces). In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that had weakened disease resistance. These excess deaths are estimated as 271,000 in 1918, plus another 71,000 in the first half of 1919 when the blockade was still in effect.Starvation caused by famine killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borneepidemic typhuskilled 200,000 in Serbia.Starting in early 1918, a major influenza epidemic known asSpanish fluspread across the world, accelerated by the movement of large numbers of soldiers, often crammed together in camps and transport ships with poor sanitation. The Spanish flu killed at least 17 to 25 million people,including an estimated 2.64 million Europeans and as many as 675,000 Americans.Between 1915 and 1926, an epidemic ofencephalitis lethargicaaffected nearly five million people worldwide. Eight millionequinesmostlyhorses,donkeysandmulesdied, three-quarters of them from the extreme conditions they worked in. War crimes Chemical weapons in warfare The German army was the first to successfully deploy chemical weapons during the Second Battle of Ypres (April–May 1915), after German scientists under the direction ofFritz Haberat theKaiser Wilhelm Institutedeveloped a method to weaponizechlorine.The use of chemical weapons had been sanctioned by the German High Command to force Allied soldiers out of their entrenched positions, complementing rather than supplanting more lethal conventional weapons.Chemical weapons were deployed by all major belligerents throughout the war, inflicting approximately 1.3 million casualties, of which about 90,000 were fatal.The use of chemical weapons in warfare was a direct violation of the1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gasesand the1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their use. Genocides by the Ottoman Empire Theethnic cleansingof the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is consideredgenocide.The Ottomans carried out organised and systematic massacres of the Armenian population at the beginning of the war and manipulated acts of Armenian resistance by portraying them as rebellions to justify further extermination.In early 1915, several Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue theTehcir Law(Law on Deportation), which authorised the deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionallymarched to deathand a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands.While the exact number of deaths is unknown, theInternational Association of Genocide Scholarsestimates around 1.5 million.The government of Turkey continues todeny the genocideto the present day, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World WarI; these claims are rejected by most historians. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians andGreeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination.At least 250,000 Assyrian Christians, about half of the population, and 350,000–750,000AnatolianandPontic Greekswere killed between 1915 and 1922. Prisoners of war About 8 million soldiers surrendered and were held inPOW campsduring the war. All nations pledged to follow theHague Conventionson fair treatment ofprisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of combatants at the front. Around 25–31% of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria-Hungary 32%; for Italy 26%; for France 12%; for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5–3.5 million soldiers as prisoners). From the Central Powers, about 3.3 million soldiers became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians. Soldiers' experiences Allied personnel was around 42,928,000, while Central personnel was near 25,248,000.British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but were increasinglyconscripted. Surviving veterans returning home often found they could discuss their experiences only among themselves, so formed \"veterans' associations\" or \"Legions\". Conscription Conscription was common in most European countries. However, it was controversial in English-speaking countries,It was especially unpopular among minority ethnicities—especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland,Australia,and the French Catholics in Canada. In the US, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well-received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas.The administration decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower after only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of war. Military attachés and war correspondents Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war.Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern \"embedded\" positions within the opposing land and naval forces. Economic effects Macro- and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, the industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle forvoting rights for women. In all nations, the government's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50% in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the US, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily fromWall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916 but allowed a great increase inUS governmentlending to the Allies. After 1919, the US demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations that, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and some loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4billionof World WarI debt in 1934; the last installment was finally paid in 2015. Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such asAlbert Kitsonwere called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits ofmanganese, used in munitions production, in theGold Coast. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called \"war guilt\" clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for \"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.\"It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However, neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war guilt.In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, \"Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay\" this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being \"deliberately designed to be chimerical\" and its \"primary function was to mislead public opinion ... into believing the 'total sum was being maintained.'\"Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) \"represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay\" and \"therefore ... represented the total German reparations\" figure that had to be paid. This figure could be paid in cash or in-kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). Some of the territory lost—via the Treaty of Versailles—was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain.By 1929, theGreat Depressioncaused political chaos throughout the world.In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point Germany had paid only the equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks.With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled.David Andelmannotes \"Refusing to pay doesn't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the agreement, still exist.\" Thus, following the Second World War, at theLondon Conferencein 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3October 2010, Germany made the final payment on these bonds. The Australian prime minister,Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister,David Lloyd George, \"You have assured us that you cannot get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies.\" Australia received £5,571,720 in war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been £376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were £831,280,947. Support and opposition for the war Support In the Balkans,Yugoslav nationalistssuch as the leader,Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom ofYugoslavsfrom Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. TheYugoslav Committee, led by Trumbić, was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London.In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, includingCzechoslovak, Italian,Polish,Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support nationalself-determinationfor the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary. In the Middle East,Arab nationalismsoared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of apan-Arabstate. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle East to achieve independence. In East Africa,Iyasu VofEthiopiawas supporting theDervish statewho were at war with the British in theSomaliland campaign.Von Syburg, the German envoy inAddis Ababa, said, \"now the time has come for Ethiopia to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians home, to restore the Empire to its ancient size.\" The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge of entering World WarI on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu's overthrow at theBattle of Segaledue to Allied pressure on the Ethiopian aristocracy. Several socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914.But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept ofclass conflictheld by radical socialists such as Marxists andsyndicalistsbeing overborne by their patriotic support for the war.Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries' intervention in the war. Italian nationalismwas stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war wasGabriele D'Annunzio, who promotedItalian irredentismand helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war.TheItalian Liberal Party, under the leadership ofPaolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and used the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism.Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, includingBenito MussoliniandLeonida Bissolati.However, theItalian Socialist Partydecided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in ageneral strikecalledRed Week.The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini.Mussolini formed the pro-interventionistIl Popolo d'Italiaand theFasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista(\"RevolutionaryFascifor International Action\") in October 1914 that later developed into theFasci Italiani di Combattimentoin 1919, the origin of fascism.Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds fromAnsaldo(an armaments firm) and other companies to createIl Popolo d'Italiato convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. Patriotic funds On both sides, there was large-scale fundraising for soldiers' welfare, their dependents and those injured. TheNail Menwere a German example. Around the British Empire, there were many patriotic funds, including theRoyal Patriotic Fund Corporation,Canadian Patriotic Fund,Queensland Patriotic Fundand, by 1919, there were 983 funds in New Zealand.At the start of the next world war the New Zealand funds were reformed, having been criticised as overlapping, wasteful and abused,but 11 were still functioning in 2002. Opposition Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These includedEugene Debsin the US andBertrand Russellin Britain. In the US, theEspionage Act of 1917andSedition Act of 1918made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed \"disloyal\". Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors,and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic. Several nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advancedIrish nationalistshad staunchly opposed taking part.The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912, and by July 1914 there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in theEaster Risingof 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain.The British government placed Ireland undermartial lawin response to the Easter Rising, though once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling.However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland, resulting in theConscription Crisis of 1918. Other opposition came fromconscientious objectors—some socialist, some religious—who had refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status.Some of them, most notably prominent peace activistStephen Hobhouse, refused both military andalternative service.Many suffered years of prison, includingsolitary confinement. Even after the war, in Britain, many job advertisements were marked \"No conscientious objectors need to apply\". On 1–4 May 1917, about 100,000 workers and soldiers ofPetrograd, and after them, the workers and soldiers of other Russian cities, led by the Bolsheviks, demonstrated under banners reading \"Down with the war!\" and \"all power to the Soviets!\". The mass demonstrations resulted in a crisis for theRussian Provisional Government.InMilan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation.The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks andanarchists, who fought violently until May 23 when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people were arrested. Technology World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-centurytactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies had modernised and were making use of telephone,wireless communication,armoured cars,tanks(especially with the advent of the prototype tank,Little Willie), and aircraft. Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917,indirect firewith guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably, aircraft and thefield telephone. Fixed-wing aircraftwere initially used forreconnaissanceandground attack. To shoot down enemy planes,anti-aircraft gunsandfighter aircraftwere developed.Strategic bomberswere created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former usedZeppelinsas well.Towards the end of the conflict,aircraft carrierswere used for the first time, with HMSFuriouslaunchingSopwith Camelsin a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars atTønderin 1918. Diplomacy The non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed to build support for the cause or to undermine support for the enemy. For the most part, wartime diplomacy focused on five issues:propaganda campaigns; defining and redefining the war goals, which became harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements inside the Central Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and Arabs. In addition, multiple peace proposals were coming from neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very far. Legacy and memory Memorials Memorials were built in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as theCommonwealth War Graves Commission, theAmerican Battle Monuments Commission, theGerman War Graves Commission, andLe Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have monuments to the missing orunidentifieddead, such as theMenin Gate Memorial to the Missingand theThiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme. In 1915,John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the poemIn Flanders Fieldsas a salute to those who perished in the war. It is still recited today, especially onRemembrance DayandMemorial Day. National World War I Museum and MemorialinKansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World WarI. TheLiberty Memorialwas dedicated on 1 November 1921. The British government budgeted substantial resources tothe commemoration of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is theImperial War Museum.On 3August 2014, French PresidentFrançois Hollandeand German PresidentJoachim Gaucktogether markedthe centenary of Germany's declaration of war on Franceby laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German asHartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in the war.As part of commemorations for thecentenary of the 1918 Armistice, French PresidentEmmanuel Macronand German ChancellorAngela Merkelvisited the site of the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne and unveiled a plaque to reconciliation. Historiography ... \"Strange, friend,\" I said, \"Here is no cause to mourn.\"\"None,\" said the other, \"Save the undone years\"... The first efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences ofmodern warfarebegan during the initial phases of the war and are still underway more than a century later. Teaching World War I has presented special challenges. When compared withWorld War II, the First World War is often thought to be \"a wrong war fought for the wrong reasons\"; it lacks themetanarrativeofgood versus evilthat characterizes retellings of the Second World War. Lacking recognizable heroes and villains, it is often taught thematically, invoking simplifiedtropesthat obscure the complexity of the conflict. Historian Heather Jones argues that thehistoriographyhas been reinvigorated by a cultural turn in the 21st century. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regardingmilitary occupation,radicalisationof politics,race,medical science,genderandmental health. Among the major subjects that historians have long debated regarding the war include:Why the war began; why theAllieswon; whether generals were responsible forhigh casualty rates; how soldiers endured the poor conditions oftrench warfare; and to what extent the civilianhome frontaccepted and endorsed the war effort. Unexploded ordnance As late as 2007,unexploded ordnanceat battlefield sites likeVerdunandSommecontinued to pose a danger. In France and Belgium, locals who discover caches of unexploded munitions are assisted by weapons disposal units. In some places, plant life has still not recovered from the effects of the war. See also Footnotes References Bibliography External links Library guides","World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War IIor theSecond World War(1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAlliesand theAxis powers.Nearly all the world's countries—including all thegreat powers—participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit oftotal war, blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources.Tanksandaircraft played major roles, with the latter enabling thestrategic bombingof population centres and delivery of theonly two nuclear weaponsever used in war. World War II was thedeadliest conflictin history, resulting in70 to 85 million fatalities, more than half of which were civilians. Millions died ingenocides, includingthe Holocaustof European Jews, and by massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory,Germany,Austria,Japan, andKoreawere occupied, andwar crimestribunals were conductedagainst GermanandJapanese leaders. Thecauses of World War IIincluded unresolved tensions in theaftermath of World War Iand the rises offascism in Europeandmilitarism in Japan, and it was preceded by events including theJapanese invasion of Manchuria,Spanish Civil War, outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, and Germanannexations of Austriaandthe Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, whenNazi Germany, underAdolf Hitler,invaded Poland, after which theUnited KingdomandFrancedeclared waron Germany. Poland was partitioned between Germany and theSoviet Unionunder theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, by which they had agreed on respective \"spheres of influence\" in Eastern Europe; in 1940, the Sovietsannexed the Baltic statesandparts of FinlandandRomania. After thefall of Francein June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and theBritish Empire, with fighting in theBalkans,Mediterranean, and Middle East, the aerialBattle of Britainandthe Blitz, and navalBattle of the Atlantic. Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much ofcontinental Europeandformed the Axis alliancewithItaly,Japan, and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis inan invasion of the Soviet Union, opening theEastern Frontand initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed todominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific, and by 1937 was at war with theRepublic of China. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territoriesin Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, includingat Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan; theEuropean Axis declared war on the US.Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia, but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the navalBattle of Midway; Germany and Italy weredefeated in North Africaand atStalingradin the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, theAllied invasions of Sicilyand theItalian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Alliesinvaded German-occupied France at Normandy, while the Soviet Unionregained its territorial lossesand pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled theJapanese Navyandcaptured key islands. The war in Europe concluded with the liberation ofGerman-occupied territories; theinvasion of Germany by the Western Alliesand the Soviet Union, culminating in thefall of Berlinto Soviet troops;Hitler's suicide; and theGerman unconditional surrenderon8 May 1945. Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of thePotsdam Declaration, the USdropped the first atomic bombsonHiroshimaandNagasakion 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminentinvasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Sovietdeclaration of waragainst Japan and itsinvasion of Manchuria, Japan announcedits unconditional surrenderon 15 August and signeda surrender documenton2 September 1945, marking the end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. TheUnited Nationswas established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becomingthe permanent membersofits security council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rivalsuperpowers, setting the stage for theCold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering thedecolonisation of AfricaandAsia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towardseconomic recovery and expansion. Start and end dates World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939with theGerman invasion of Polandand theUnited KingdomandFrance's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of thePacific Warinclude the start of theSecond Sino-Japanese Waron 7 July 1937,or the earlierJapanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931.Others follow the British historianA. J. P. Taylor, who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars became World War II in 1941.Other proposed starting dates for World War II include theItalian invasion of Abyssiniaon 3 October 1935.The British historianAntony Beevorviews the beginning of World WarII as theBattles of Khalkhin Golfought betweenJapanand the forces ofMongoliaand theSoviet Unionfrom May to September 1939.Others view theSpanish Civil Waras the start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than with the formalsurrender of Japanon 2 September 1945, which officiallyended the war in Asia. Apeace treaty between Japan and the Allieswas signed in 1951.A 1990treaty regarding Germany's futureallowed thereunification of East and West Germanyto take place and resolved most post–World WarII issues.No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed,although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by theSoviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. History Background Aftermath of World War I World War Ihad radically altered the political European map with the defeat of theCentral Powers—includingAustria-Hungary,Germany,Bulgaria, and theOttoman Empire—and the 1917Bolshevik seizure of powerinRussia, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victoriousAllies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and newnation-stateswere created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, theLeague of Nationswas established in 1920 by theParis Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, andnaval disarmament, as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentimentafter World WarI,irredentistandrevanchistnationalismhad emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by theTreaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and allits overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited,reparationswere imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country'sarmed forces. Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as theWeimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that thepromises madeby the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, theFascistmovement led byBenito Mussoliniseized power in Italy with a nationalist,totalitarian, andclass collaborationistagenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \"New Roman Empire\". Adolf Hitler, after anunsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German governmentin 1923, eventuallybecame the Chancellor of Germanyin 1933 whenPaul von Hindenburgand the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himselfFührerof Germany and abolished democracy, espousing aradical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massiverearmament campaign.France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy,allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when theTerritory of the Saar Basinwas legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed theStresa Frontin April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towardsmilitary globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made anindependent naval agreementwith Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany'sgoals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, theFranco-Soviet pactwas required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed theNeutrality Actin August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles andLocarno Treatiesbyremilitarising the Rhinelandin March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy ofappeasement.In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed theRome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed theAnti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year. Asia TheKuomintang(KMT) party in China launched aunification campaignagainstregional warlordsand nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled ina civil waragainst its formerChinese Communist Party(CCP) alliesandnew regional warlords. In 1931, anincreasingly militaristicEmpire of Japan, which had long sought influence in Chinaas the first step of what its government saw as the country'sright to rule Asia, staged theMukden incidentas a pretext toinvade Manchuriaand establish thepuppet stateofManchukuo. China appealed to theLeague of Nationsto stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after beingcondemnedfor its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, inShanghai,ReheandHebei, until theTanggu Trucewas signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression inManchuria, andChahar and Suiyuan.After the 1936Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to presenta united frontto oppose Japan. Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) TheSecond Italo-Ethiopian Warwas a briefcolonial warthat began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of theEthiopian Empire(also known asAbyssinia) by the armed forces of theKingdom of Italy(Regno d'Italia), which was launched fromItalian SomalilandandEritrea.The war resulted in themilitary occupationof Ethiopia and itsannexationinto the newly created colony ofItalian East Africa(Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of theLeague of Nationsas a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations,but the League did littlewhen the former clearly violated Article X of the League'sCovenant.The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion.Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbingAustria. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to theNationalist rebels, led by GeneralFrancisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain.The Soviet Union supported the existing government of theSpanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as theInternational Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used thisproxy waras an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World WarII butgenerally favoured the Axis.His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending ofvolunteersto fight on theEastern Front. Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital ofPekingafter instigating theMarco Polo Bridge incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.The Soviets quickly signed anon-aggression pact with Chinato lendmaterielsupport, effectively ending China's priorcooperation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attackedTaiyuan, engaged theKuomintang Armyaround Xinkou,and foughtCommunist forcesin Pingxingguan.GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shekdeployed hisbest armytodefend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back,capturing the capital Nankingin December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants weremurdered by the Japanese. In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won theirfirst major victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city ofXuzhouwas taken by the Japanesein May.In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance byflooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences atWuhan, but thecity was takenby October.Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland toChongqingand continued the war. Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces inManchukuohad sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union andMongolia. The Japanese doctrine ofHokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat atKhalkin Golin 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese Warand ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed aNeutrality Pactin April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine ofNanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germanyannexed Austria, again provokinglittle responsefrom other European powers.Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on theSudetenland, an area ofCzechoslovakiawith a predominantlyethnic Germanpopulation. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlainand conceded this territory to Germany in theMunich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia tocede additional territoryto Hungary, and Poland annexed theTrans-Olzaregion of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \"war-mongers\" and in January 1939secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navyto challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939,Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakiaand subsequently split it into the GermanProtectorate of Bohemia and Moraviaand a pro-Germanclient state, theSlovak Republic.Hitler also delivered anultimatum to Lithuaniaon 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of theKlaipėda Region, formerly the GermanMemelland. Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on theFree City of Danzig, the United Kingdom and Franceguaranteed their support for Polish independence; whenItaly conquered Albaniain April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to theKingdoms of RomaniaandGreece.Shortly after theFranco-Britishpledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with thePact of Steel.Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to \"encircle\" Germany and renounced theAnglo-German Naval Agreementand theGerman–Polish declaration of non-aggression. The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signeda non-aggression pactwith Germany,after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled.This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet \"spheres of influence\" (westernPolandand Lithuania for Germany;eastern Poland, Finland,Estonia,LatviaandBessarabiafor the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence.The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World WarI. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations.On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polishplenipotentiaryimmediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover ofDanzig, and to allow aplebiscitein thePolish Corridorin which the German minority would vote on secession.The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassadorNevile Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germanyinvaded Polandafterhaving stagedseveralfalse flag border incidentsas a pretext to initiate the invasion.The first German attack of the war came against thePolish defenses at Westerplatte.The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany.During thePhoney Warperiod, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of acautious French probe into the Saarland.The Western Allies also began anaval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.Germany responded by orderingU-boat warfareagainst Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into theBattle of the Atlantic. On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs ofWarsaw. The Polishcounter-offensiveto the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by theWehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through tobesieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing acease-fire with Japan, theSoviet Union invaded Polandunder the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist.On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, andthe last large operational unit of the Polish Armysurrendered on 6October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed thePolish government-in-exileand aclandestine state apparatus remainedin occupied Poland.A significant part of Polish military personnelevacuated to Romaniaand Latvia; many of them laterfought against the Axisin other theatres of the war. Germanyannexed westernPoland andoccupied central Poland; the Soviet Unionannexed eastern Poland; small shares of Polish territory were transferred toLithuaniaandSlovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejectedand Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatenedEstonia,Latvia, andLithuaniawith military invasion, forcing the threeBaltic countriesto signpactsallowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there.Finlandrefused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union.The Soviet Union invaded Finlandin November 1939,and was subsequently expelled from theLeague of Nationsfor this crime of aggression.Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during theWinter Warwas modest,and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 withsome Finnish concessions of territory. In June 1940, the Soviet Unionoccupiedthe entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,as well as the Romanian regions ofBessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. In August 1940, Hitler imposed theSecond Vienna Awardon Romania which led to the transfer ofNorthern Transylvaniato Hungary.In September 1940, Bulgaria demandedSouthern Dobrujafrom Romania with German and Italian support, leading to theTreaty of Craiova.The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under MarshalIon Antonescu, with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee.Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operationgradually stalled,and both states began preparations for war. Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940,Germany invaded Denmark and Norwayto protect shipments ofiron ore from Sweden, which the Allies wereattempting to cut off.Denmark capitulated after six hours, anddespite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.British discontent over the Norwegian campaignled to the resignation of Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain, who was replaced byWinston Churchillon 10May 1940. On the same day, Germanylaunched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strongMaginot Linefortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations ofBelgium,the Netherlands, andLuxembourg.The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through theArdennesregion,which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.By successfully implementing newBlitzkriegtactics, theWehrmachtrapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was ableto evacuate a significant number of Allied troopsfrom the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June,Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, andParisfell to them on 14June. Eight days laterFrance signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided intoGermanandItalian occupation zones,and an unoccupiedrump stateunder theVichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, whichthe United Kingdom attackedon 3July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The airBattle of Britainbegan in early July withLuftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours.TheGerman campaign for air superioritystarted in August but its failure to defeatRAF Fighter Commandforced the indefinite postponement of theproposed German invasion of Britain. The Germanstrategic bombingoffensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities inthe Blitz, but largely ended in May 1941after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navyenjoyed successagainst an over-extendedRoyal Navy, usingU-boatsagainst British shippingin the Atlantic.The BritishHome Fleetscored a significant victory on 27May 1941 bysinking the German battleshipBismarck. In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended theNeutrality Actto allow\"cash and carry\"purchases by the Allies.In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of theUnited States Navywassignificantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to atrade of American destroyers for British bases.Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an \"arsenal of democracy\" and promotingLend-Leaseprogrammes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it wasinvadedby Germany.The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, theTripartite Pactformally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as theAxis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.The Axis expanded in November 1940 whenHungary,Slovakia, andRomaniajoined.RomaniaandHungarylater made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recaptureterritory ceded to the Soviet Union. Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the ItalianRegia Aeronauticaattacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italyconquered British Somalilandand made anincursion into British-held Egypt. In October,Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes.To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces begancounter-offensivesagainst Italian forces in Egypt andItalian East Africa.The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. TheItalian Navyalso suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after acarrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at theBattle of Cape Matapan. Italian defeats prompted Germany todeploy an expeditionary forceto North Africa; at the end of March 1941,Rommel'sAfrika Korpslaunched an offensivewhich drove back Commonwealth forces.In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt andbesieged the port of Tobruk. By late March 1941,BulgariaandYugoslaviasigned theTripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government wasoverthrown two days laterby pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of bothYugoslaviaandGreece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month.The airborneinvasion of the Greek island of Creteat the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans.Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against theAxis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forcesquashed an uprising in Iraqwhich had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlledSyria.Between June and July, British-led forcesinvaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon, assisted by theFree French. Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions inSoutheast Asia, the two powers signed theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pactin April 1941.By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later.On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest ofUkraine, theBaltic statesandByelorussia.However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact.In November 1940,negotiations took placeto determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union inOperation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets ofplotting against them; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.The primary targets of this surprise offensivewere theBaltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with theultimate goalof ending the 1941 campaign near theArkhangelsk-Astrakhan line—from theCaspianto theWhite Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminateCommunism, generateLebensraum(\"living space\")bydispossessing the native population,and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. Although theRed Armywas preparing for strategiccounter-offensivesbefore the war,OperationBarbarossaforced theSoviet supreme commandto adoptstrategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By mid-August, however, the GermanArmy High Commanddecided tosuspend the offensiveof a considerably depletedArmy Group Centre, and to divert the2nd Panzer Groupto reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.TheKiev offensivewas overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible furtheradvance into Crimeaand industrially-developed Eastern Ukraine (theFirst Battle of Kharkov). The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to theEastern Frontprompted the United Kingdom to reconsider itsgrand strategy.In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed amilitary alliance against Germanyand in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued theAtlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world.In late August the British and Sovietsinvaded neutral Iranto secure thePersian Corridor, Iran'soil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. By October, Axis powers had achievedoperational objectivesin Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges ofLeningradandSevastopolcontinuing.A majoroffensive against Moscowwas renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troopswere forced to suspend the offensive.Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Sovietcapability to resistwas not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. Theblitzkriegphaseof the war in Europe had ended. By early December, freshly mobilisedreservesallowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.This, as well asintelligence datawhich established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the JapaneseKwantung Army,allowed the Soviets to begin amassive counter-offensivethat started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanesefalse flagMukden incidentin 1931, the Japanese shelling of the AmericangunboatUSS Panayin 1937, and the 1937–1938Nanjing Massacre,Japanese-American relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—theExport Control Acts—which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.During 1939 Japan launched itsfirst attack against Changsha, but was repulsed by late September.Despiteseveral offensivesby both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded andoccupied northern Indochinain September 1940. Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scalecounter-offensivein early 1940. In August,Chinese communistslaunched anoffensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan institutedharsh measuresin occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forcesculminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed duringBattle of Shanggao.In September, Japan attempted totake the city of Changshaagain and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments inSoutheast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from theDutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.At the same time, Japan wasplanning an invasion of the Soviet Far East, intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.Roosevelt reinforcedthe Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946)and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any \"neighboring countries\". Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American–British–Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. EmperorHirohito, after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory,began to favour Japan's entry into the war.As a result, Prime MinisterFumimaro Konoeresigned.Hirohito refused the recommendation to appointPrince Naruhiko Higashikuniin his place, choosing War MinisterHideki Tojoinstead.On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of theattack on Pearl Harborto the Emperor.On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war.On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise theUnited States Pacific Fleetand the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneousoffensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.These included anattack on the American fleets at Pearl Harborandthe Philippines, as well as invasions ofGuam,Wake Island,Malaya,Thailand, andHong Kong. These attacks led theUnited States,United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United Statesin solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, theAllied Big Four—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued theDeclaration by United Nations, thereby affirming theAtlantic Charterand agreeing not to sign aseparate peacewith the Axis powers. During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriategrand strategyto pursue. All agreed thatdefeating Germanywas the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward,large-scale attackon Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies.Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. At theCasablanca Conferencein early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded theunconditional surrenderof their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its allyThailandhad almost conqueredBurma,Malaya,the Dutch East Indies,Singapore, andRabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.Despite stubbornresistance by Filipino and U.S. forces, thePhilippine Commonwealthwas eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during theBattle of Yenangyaungand rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in theSouth China Sea,Java Sea, andIndian Ocean,andbombed the Allied naval baseatDarwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinesevictory at Changsha.These easy victories over the unprepared U.S. and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations tocapture Port Moresbybyamphibious assaultand thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in theBattle of the Coral Sea.Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlierDoolittle Raid, was to seizeMidway Atolland lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces tooccupy the Aleutian Islandsin Alaska.In mid-May, Japan started theZhejiang-Jiangxi campaignin China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had brokenJapanese naval codesin late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisivevictory at Midwayover theImperial Japanese Navy. With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capturePort Moresbyby anoverland campaignin theTerritory of Papua.The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southernSolomon Islands, primarilyGuadalcanal, as a first step towards capturingRabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. Both plans started in July, but by mid-September,the Battle for Guadalcanaltook priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to thenorthern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in theBattle of Buna–Gona.Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island andwithdrew their troops.In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrousoffensive into the Arakan regionin late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943.The second was theinsertion of irregular forcesbehind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive incentralandsouthern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in theKerch Peninsulaand atKharkov,and then in June 1942 launched their mainsummer offensiveagainst southern Russia, to seize theoil fields of the Caucasusand occupy theKubansteppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans splitArmy Group Southinto two groups:Army Group Aadvanced to the lowerDon Riverand struck south-east to the Caucasus, whileArmy Group Bheaded towards theVolga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. By mid-November, the Germans hadnearly taken Stalingradin bitterstreet fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with anencirclement of German forces at Stalingrad,and an assault on theRzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched anotherattack on Kharkov, creating asalientin their front line around the Soviet city ofKursk. Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions,the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa,Operation Crusader, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at theGazala lineby early February,followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.Concerns that the Japanese might use bases inVichy-held Madagascarcaused the British toinvade the islandin early May 1942.An Axisoffensive in Libyaforced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces werestopped at El Alamein.On the Continent, raids of Alliedcommandoson strategic targets, culminating in the failedDieppe Raid,demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling asecond attack against El Alameinand, at a high cost, managed todeliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.A few months later, the Alliescommenced an attack of their ownin Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.This attack was followed up shortly after byAnglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering theoccupation of Vichy France;although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed toscuttle their fleetto prevent its capture by German forces.Axis forces in Africa withdrew intoTunisia, which wasconquered by the Alliesin May 1943. In June 1943, the British and Americans begana strategic bombing campaignagainst Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and \"de-house\" the civilian population.Thefirebombing of Hamburgwas among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent toeliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians.Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations toisolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, andbreach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had alsoneutralised the major Japanese base at Trukin theCaroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation toretake Western New Guinea. In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives incentral Russia. On 5 July 1943, Germanyattacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences,and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies'invasion of Sicilylaunched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in theousting and arrest of Mussolinilater that month. On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their owncounter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortifiedPanther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it atSmolenskand theLower Dnieper Offensive. On 3 September 1943, the Western Alliesinvaded the Italian mainland, followingItaly's armistice with the Alliesand the ensuing German occupation of Italy.Germany, with the help of fascists, responded to the armistice bydisarming Italian forcesthat were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,and creating a series of defensive lines.German special forces thenrescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named theItalian Social Republic,causing anItalian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching themain German defensive linein mid-November. German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. ByMay 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.In November 1943,Franklin D. Rooseveltand Winston Churchill met withChiang Kai-shekin Cairoand then with Joseph Stalinin Tehran.The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territoryand the military planning for theBurma campaign,while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. From November 1943, during the seven-weekBattle of Changde, the Chinese awaited allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition.In January 1944, the Allies launched aseries of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassinoand tried to outflank it withlandings at Anzio. On 27 January 1944,Soviettroops launcheda major offensivethat expelled German forces from theLeningrad region, thereby ending themost lethal siege in history.Thefollowing Soviet offensivewashalted on the pre-war Estonian borderby the GermanArmy Group Northaided byEstonianshoping tore-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in theBaltic Searegion.By late May 1944, the Soviets hadliberated Crimea,largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and madeincursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops.The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions,an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India,and soon besieged Commonwealth positions atImphalandKohima.In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,and Chinese forces that hadinvaded northern Burmain late 1943besieged Japanese troopsinMyitkyina.Thesecond Japanese invasionof China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.By June, the Japanese had conquered the province ofHenanand begun anew attack on Changsha. Allies close in (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known asD-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,the Western Alliesinvaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they alsoattacked southern France.These landings were successful and led to the defeat of theGerman Army units in France.Pariswasliberatedon 25 August by thelocal resistanceassisted by theFree French Forces, both led by GeneralCharles de Gaulle,and the Western Allies continued topush back German forcesin western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded bya major airborne operationin the Netherlands failed.After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, butfailed to cross the Rur river. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to thelast major German defensive line. On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\"Operation Bagration\") that nearly destroyed the GermanArmy Group Centre.Soon after that,another Soviet strategic offensiveforced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed thePolish Committee of National Liberationto control territory in Poland and combat the PolishArmia Krajowa; the Soviet Red Army remained in thePragadistrict on the other side of theVistulaand watched passively as the Germans quelled theWarsaw Uprisinginitiated by the Armia Krajowa.Thenational uprisinginSlovakiawas also quelled by the Germans.The SovietRed Army'sstrategic offensive in eastern Romaniacut off and destroyed theconsiderable German troops thereand triggereda successful coup d'état in Romaniaandin Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced intoYugoslaviaand forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army GroupsEandFinGreece,Albaniaand Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.By this point, the communist-ledPartisansunder MarshalJosip Broz Tito, who had led anincreasingly successful guerrilla campaignagainst the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northernSerbia, the SovietRed Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a jointliberation of the capital city of Belgradeon 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched amassive assaultagainstGerman-occupiedHungary that lasted untilthe fall of Budapestin February 1945.Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans,bitter Finnish resistanceto theSoviet offensivein theKarelian Isthmusdenied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to aSoviet-Finnish armisticeon relatively mild conditions,although Finland was forced tofight their former German allies. By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges inAssam, pushing the Japanese back to theChindwin Riverwhile the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forcescaptured Mount Songand reopened theBurma Road.In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finallycaptured Changshain mid-June and the city ofHengyangby early August.Soon after, they invaded the province ofGuangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces atGuilin and Liuzhouby the end of Novemberand successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. In the Pacific, U.S. forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began theiroffensive against the Mariana and Palau islandsand decisively defeated Japanese forces in theBattle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister,Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forcesinvaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in theBattle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launcha massive counter-offensive in the Ardennesandalong the French-German border, hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port atAntwerp. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland,pushing from the Vistula to the Oderriver in Germany, andoverran East Prussia.On 4 February Soviet, British, and U.S. leaders met for theYalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. In February, the Sovietsentered SilesiaandPomerania, while theWestern Allies entered western Germanyand closed to theRhineriver. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhinenorthandsouthof theRuhr,encircling the German Army Group B.In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launchedits last major offensiveagainst Soviet troops nearLake Balaton. Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced toVienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troopscaptured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finallypushed forward in Italyand swept across western Germany capturingHamburgandNuremberg.American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe riveron 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troopsstormed and captured Berlinin late April.In Italy,German forces surrenderedon 29 April, while theItalian Social Republiccapitulated two days later. On 30 April, theReichstagwas captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president,Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussoliniwas killedbyItalian partisanson 28 April.On 30 April,Hitler committed suicidein hisheadquarters, and was succeeded byGrand AdmiralKarl Dönitz(asPresident of the Reich) andJoseph Goebbels(asChancellor of the Reich); Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced byLutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, in what would later be known as theFlensburg Government.Total and unconditional surrenderin Europe was signedon 7and 8May, to be effective by the end of8 May.German Army Group Centreresisted in Pragueuntil 11 May.On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by the Allied Forces inFlensburg, while on 5 June all German political and military institutions were transferred under the control of the Allies through theBerlin Declaration. In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of thePhilippine Commonwealthadvancedin the Philippines,clearing Leyteby the end of April 1945. Theylanded on Luzonin January 1945 andrecaptured Manilain March. Fighting continued on Luzon,Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until theend of the war.Meanwhile, theUnited States Army Air Forceslauncheda massive firebombing campaignof strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastatingbombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 Marchwas the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. In May 1945, Australian troopslanded in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northernBurmain March, and the British pushed on to reachRangoonby 3 May.Chinese forces started a counterattack in theBattle of West Hunanthat occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, takingIwo Jimaby March, andOkinawaby the end of June.At the same time, a naval blockade bysubmarineswas strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. On 11 July, Allied leadersmet in Potsdam, Germany. Theyconfirmed earlier agreementsabout Germany,and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that \"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\".During this conference, the United Kingdomheld its general election, andClement Attleereplaced Churchill as Prime Minister. The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.In early August, the United Statesdropped atomic bombson the Japanese cities ofHiroshimaandNagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement,declared war on Japan,invaded Japanese-held Manchuriaand quickly defeated theKwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.The Red Army also captured thesouthern part of Sakhalin Islandand theKuril Islands. On the night of 9–10 August 1945, EmperorHirohitoannounced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in thePotsdam Declaration.On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio (Gyokuon-hōsō, literally \"broadcast in the Emperor's voice\").On 15 August 1945,Japan surrendered, with thesurrender documentsfinally signed atTokyo Bayon the deck of the American battleshipUSSMissourion 2 September 1945, ending the war. Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations inAustriaandGermany, both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, thewesternandeastern occupation zonescontrolled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries,West GermanyandEast Germany.In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). Adenazificationprogram in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in theNuremberg trialsand the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories,Silesia,Neumarkand most ofPomeraniawere taken over by Poland,andEast Prussiawas divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by theexpulsion to Germanyof the nine million Germans from these provinces,as well as three million Germans from theSudetenlandin Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of theCurzon Line,from which2 million Poles were expelled;north-east Romania,parts of eastern Finland,and theBaltic stateswereannexed into the Soviet Union.Italylost its monarchy,colonial empireand someEuropean territories. In an effort to maintainworld peace,the Allies formed theUnited Nations,which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,and adopted theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin 1948 as a common standard for allmember nations.Thegreat powersthat were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became thepermanent membersof the UN'sSecurity Council.The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes,betweentheRepublic of Chinaand thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1971, and between the Soviet Union and itssuccessor state, theRussian Federation, following thedissolution of the USSRin 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Sovietspheres of influence.Most eastern and central European countries fell intothe Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result,East Germany,Poland,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia, andAlbaniabecame Sovietsatellite states. CommunistYugoslaviaconducted a fullyindependent policy, causingtension with the Soviet Union.ACommunist uprising in Greecewas put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-ledNATOand the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact.The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—theCold War—would be accompanied by an unprecedentedarms raceand number ofproxy warsthroughout the world. In Asia, the United States led theoccupation of Japanandadministered Japan's former islandsin the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexedSouth Sakhalinand theKuril Islands.Korea, formerlyunder Japanese colonial rule, wasdivided and occupiedby the Soviet Union in theNorthand the United States in theSouthbetween 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to theKorean War. In China, nationalist and communist forces resumedthe civil warin June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated toTaiwanin 1949.In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestineand thecreation of Israelmarked the escalation of theArab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of theircolonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading todecolonisation. The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to ababy boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy ofindustrial disarmament in Western Germanyfrom 1945 to 1948.Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. At theBretton Woods Conferencein July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD), which later became part of theWorld Bank Group. TheBretton Woods systemlasted until 1973.Recovery began with the mid-1948currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the U.S.Marshall Planeconomic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.The post-1948 West German recovery has been called theGerman economic miracle.Italy also experienced aneconomic boomand theFrench economy rebounded.By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,it continued in relative economic decline for decades.The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era,having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exactedwar reparationsfrom its satellite states.Japan recovered much later.China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. Impact Casualties and war crimes Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about20 million military personneland 40 million civilians. The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. An estimated 11to 17 millioncivilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler'sracist policies, includingmass killingofaround 6million Jews, along withRoma,homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnicPolesandmillions of other Slavs(including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), andother ethnic and minority groups.Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnicSerbs, along with Roma and Jews, werepersecuted and murderedby the Axis-aligned CroatianUstašeinYugoslavia.Concurrently,MuslimsandCroatswerepersecuted and killedby Serb nationalistChetniks,with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by theUkrainian Insurgent Armyin theVolhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945.At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the PolishHome Armyand other Polish units, in reprisal attacks. In Asia and the Pacific, the number of people killed by Japanese troops remains contested. According to R.J. Rummel, the Japanese killed between 3million and more than 10 million people, with the most probable case of almost 6,000,000 people.According to the British historianM. R. D. Foot, civilian deaths are between 10 million and 20 million, whereas Chinese military casualties (killed and wounded) are estimated to be over five million.Other estimates say that up to 30 million people, most of them civilians, were killed.The most infamous Japanese atrocity was theNanjing Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during theThree Alls policy. GeneralYasuji Okamuraimplemented the policy inHebeiandShandong. Axis forces employedbiologicalandchemical weapons. TheImperial Japanese Armyused a variety of such weapons during itsinvasion and occupation of China(seeUnit 731)and inearly conflicts against the Soviets.Both the Germans and theJapanese testedsuch weapons against civilians,and sometimes onprisoners of war. The Soviet Union was responsible for theKatyn massacreof 22,000 Polish officers,and the imprisonment or execution ofhundreds of thousands of political prisonersby theNKVDsecret police, along withmass civilian deportations to Siberia, in theBaltic statesandeastern Polandannexed by the Red Army.Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especiallyin Germany.The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million,while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although nopositiveor specificcustomaryinternational humanitarian lawwith respect toaerial warfareexisted before or during World War II.The USAAFbombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians, including theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and destroying 65% of built-up areas. Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany, under thedictatorshipof Adolf Hitler, was responsible for murdering about 6million Jews in what is now known asthe Holocaust. They also murdered an additional 4million others who were deemed \"unworthy of life\" (including thedisabledandmentally ill,Soviet prisoners of war,Romani,homosexuals,Freemasons, andJehovah's Witnesses) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a \"genocidalstate\".Soviet POWswere kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.In addition toconcentration camps,death campswere created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively usedforced labourers; about 12 millionEuropeansfrom German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. The SovietGulagbecame ade factosystem of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,including foreign citizens of Poland andother countriesoccupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as AxisPOWs.By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected toNKVDevaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. Japaneseprisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. TheInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastfound the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after thesurrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56. At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by theEast Asia Development Board, orKōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.InJava, between 4and 10 millionrōmusha(Japanese: \"manual labourers\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and theannexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion U.S. dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include theplunderof industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. In the East, the intended gains ofLebensraumwere never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Sovietscorched earthpolicies denied resources to the German invaders.Unlike in the West, theNazi racial policyencouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the \"inferior people\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed bymass atrocities and war crimes.The Naziskilled an estimated 2.77 million ethnic Polesduring the war in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.Althoughresistance groupsformed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the Eastor the Westuntil late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanesehegemonywhich it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination,Japanese war crimesfrequently turned local public opinion against them.During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. Home fronts and production In the 1930s Britain and the United States of America together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one ofattrition.While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in thelabour force,Alliedstrategic bombing,and Germany's late shift to awar economycontributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions ofslave labourers;Germany enslavedabout 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,whileJapan usedmore than 18 million people in Far East Asia. Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used forreconnaissance, asfighters,bombers, andground-support, and each role developed considerably. Innovations includedairlift(the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);andstrategic bombing(the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).Anti-aircraft weaponryalso advanced, including defences such asradarand surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of theproximity fuze. The use of thejet aircraftwas pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Advances were made in nearly every aspect ofnaval warfare, most notably withaircraft carriersandsubmarines. Althoughaeronauticalwarfare had relatively little success at the start of the war,actions at Taranto,Pearl Harbor, and theCoral Seaestablished the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship).In the Atlantic,escort carriersbecame a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close theMid-Atlantic gap.Carriers were also more economical thanbattleshipsdue to the relatively low cost of aircraftand because they are not required to be as heavily armoured.Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during theFirst World War,were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development onanti-submarineweaponryand tactics, such assonarand convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as theType VII submarineandwolfpacktactics.Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as theLeigh Light,Hedgehog,Squid, andhoming torpedoesproved effective against German submarines. Land warfarechanged from the static frontlines oftrench warfareof World War I, which had relied on improvedartillerythat outmatched the speed of bothinfantryandcavalry, to increased mobility andcombined arms. Thetank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World WarI,andadvances continued throughout the warwith increases in speed, armour and firepower.At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.Many means ofdestroying tanks, includingindirect artillery,anti-tank guns(both towed andself-propelled),mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the GermanMG 34, and varioussubmachine gunswhich were suited toclose combatin urban and jungle settings.Theassault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using largecodebooksforcryptographyby designingcipheringmachines, the most well-known being the GermanEnigma machine.Development ofSIGINT(signalsintelligence) andcryptanalysisenabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption ofJapanese naval codesand BritishUltra, apioneering methodfor decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by thePolish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.Another component ofmilitary intelligencewasdeception, which the Allies used to great effect in operations such asMincemeatandBodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3,Colossus, andENIAC),guided missilesandmodern rockets, theManhattan Project's development ofnuclear weapons,operations research, the development ofartificial harbours, andoil pipelines under the English Channel.Penicillinwas firstdeveloped, mass-produced, and usedduring the war. See also Notes Citations References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Blue moon Ablue moonrefers either to the presence of a secondfull moonin a calendarmonth, to the third full moon in aseasoncontaining four, or to a moon that appearsbluedue to atmospheric effects. Thecalendricalmeaning of \\\"blue moon\\\" is unconnected to the other meanings. It is often referred to as “traditional”,but since no occurrences are known prior to 1937 it is better described as aninvented traditionor “modern American folklore”.The practice of designating the second full moon in a month as \\\"blue\\\" originated with amateur astronomer James Hugh Pruett in 1946.It does not come fromNative American lunar tradition, as is sometimes supposed. The moon - not necessarily full - can sometimes appear blue due to atmospheric emissions from large forest fires or volcanoes, though the phenomenon is rare and unpredictable (hence the saying “once in a blue moon”).A calendrical blue moon (by Pruett's definition) is predictable and relatively common, happening 7 times in every 19 years (i.e. once every 2 or 3 years).Calendrical blue moons occur because thetime between successive full moons(approximately 29.5 days) is shorter than the average calendar month.They are of no astronomical or historical significance, and are not a product of actuallunisolar timekeepingorintercalation. Phrase origin A 1528 satire,Rede Me and Be Nott Wrothe, contained the lines, “Yf they saye the mone is belewe / We must beleve that it is true.”The intended sense was of an absurd belief, like themoon being made of cheese. There is nothing to connect it with the later metaphorical or calendrical meanings of “blue moon”. However, a confusion ofbelewe(Middle English, “blue”)withbelǽwan(Old English “to betray”)) led to afalse etymologyfor the calendrical term that remains widely circulated, despite its originator having acknowledged it as groundless. Percy Bysshe Shelley’spoem \\\"Alastor\\\" (1816)mentioned an erupting volcano: 7and a “blue moon / Low in the west.”: 14It was written at a time when the eruption ofMount Tamborawas causing global climate effects, and not long before the first recorded instances of “blue moon” as a metaphor. The OED citesPierce Egan’sReal Life in London(1821) as the earliest known occurrence of “blue moon” in the metaphorical sense of a long time. (“How's Harry and Ben?—haven't seen you this blue moon.”)An 1823 revision of Francis Grose’s ‘’Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue’’, edited by Egan, included the definition: “Blue moon. In allusion to a long time before such a circumstance happens. ‘O yes, in a blue moon.’”An earlier (1811) version of the same dictionary had not included the phrase, so it was likely coined some time in the 1810s.\\\"Once in a blue moon\\\" is recorded from 1833. The use of blue moon to mean a specific calendrical event dates from 1937, when theMaine Farmers' Almanacused the term in a slightly different sense from the one now in common use. According to the OED, “Earlier occurrences of the sense given in theMaine Farmers' Almanachave not been traced, either in editions of the Almanac prior to 1937, or elsewhere; the source of this application of the term (if it is not a coinage by the editor, H. P. Trefethen) is unclear.”The conjecture of editorial invention is further supported by the spurious explanation the almanac gave: The Moon usually comes full twelve times in a year, three times in each season... However, occasionally the moon comes full thirteen times in a year. This was considered a very unfortunate circumstance, especially by the monks who had charge of the calendar. It became necessary for them to make a calendar of thirteen months, and it upset the regular arrangement of church festivals. For this reason thirteen came to be considered an unlucky number. Also, this extra moon had a way of coming in each of the seasons so that it could not be given a name appropriate to the time of year like the other moons. It was usually called the Blue Moon... In olden times the almanac makers had much difficulty calculating the occurrence of the Blue Moon and this uncertainty gave rise to the expression \\\"Once in a Blue Moon\\\". There is no evidence that an extra moon in a month, season or year was considered unlucky, or that it led to13 being considered unlucky, or that the extra moon was called \\\"blue\\\", or that it led to the phrase \\\"once in a blue moon\\\". There is good reason to suspect that the 1937 article was a hoax, practical joke, or simply misinformed. It is however true that the date of the Christian festival ofEasterdepended on an accuratecomputationof full moon dates, and important work was done by the monksDionysius ExiguusandBede, explained by the latter inThe Reckoning of Time, written c725 CE. According to Bede, “Whenever it was a common year, gave three lunar months to each season. When an embolismic year occurred (that is, one of 13 lunar months) they assigned the extra month to summer, so that three months together bore the name ‘‘Litha’’; hence they called year ‘‘Thrilithi’’. It had four summer months, with the usual three for the other seasons.” The nameLithais now applied by someNeo-Paganstomidsummer. The 1937Maine Farmers' Almanacarticle was misinterpreted by James Hugh Pruett in a 1946Sky and Telescope article, leading to the calendrical definition of “blue moon” that is now most commonly used, i.e. the second full moon in a calendar month. “A blue moon in the originalMaine Farmers' Almanacsense can only occur in the months of February, May, August, and November. In the later sense, one can occur in any month except February.\\\"This later sense gained currency from its use in a United States radio programme,StarDateon January 31, 1980 and in a question in theTrivial Pursuitgame in 1986. Several songs have been titled \\\"Blue Moon\\\", seen as a \\\"symbol of sadness and loneliness.\\\" Visually blue moon The moon (and sun) can appear blue under certain atmospheric conditions – for instance, if volcanic eruptions or large-scale fires release particles into the atmosphere of just the right size to preferentiallyscatterred light.According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, scattering is the cause of “that epitome of rare occurrences, the blue Moon (seen when forest fires produce clouds composed of small droplets of organic compounds).” ARoyal Societyreport on the 1883Krakatoaeruptiongave a detailed account of “blue, green, and other coloured appearances of the sun and moon” seen in many places for months afterwards.: xiii. The report mentioned that in February 1884 an observer in central America saw the crescent moon as “a magnificent emerald-green” while itsashenpart was “pale green”. Venus, bright stars and a comet were also green.: 173The report authors suspected that green moons were a contrast effect, since in those cases the surrounding sky was seen as red.:203 People saw blue moons in 1983 after the eruption of theEl Chichónvolcano in Mexico, and there are reports of blue moons caused byMount St. Helensin 1980 andMount Pinatuboin 1991. The moon looked blue after forest fires in Sweden and Canada in 1950 and 1951,On September 23, 1950, severalmuskegfires that had been smoldering for several years in Alberta, Canada, suddenly blew up into major—and very smoky—fires. Winds carried the smoke eastward and southward with unusual speed, and the conditions of the fire produced large quantities of oily droplets of just the right size (about 1micrometrein diameter) to scatter red and yellow light. Wherever the smoke cleared enough so that the sun was visible, it was lavender or blue. Ontario, Canada, and much of the east coast of the United States were affected by the following day, and two days later, observers in Britain reported an indigo sun in smoke-dimmed skies, followed by an equally blue moon that evening. Ice particles might have a similar effect. The Antarctic diary ofRobert Falcon Scottfor July 11, 1911 mentioned \\\"the air thick with snow, and the moon a vague blue\\\". The key to a blue moon is having many particles slightly wider than the wavelength of red light (0.7 micrometer)—and no other sizes present. Ash and dust clouds thrown into the atmosphere by fires and storms usually contain a mixture of particles with a wide range of sizes, with most smaller than 1 micrometer, and they tend to scatter blue light. This kind of cloud makes the moon turn red; thus red moons are far more common than blue moons. Calendrical blue moon Blue moon as a calendrical term originated with the 1937Maine Farmers’ Almanac, a provincial U.S. magazine that is not to be confused with theFarmers' Almanac,Old Farmer's Almanac, or otherAmerican almanacs. There is no evidence of “blue moon” having been used as a specific calendrical term before 1937, and it was possibly invented by the magazine’s editor, Henry Porter Trefethen (1887-1957).As a term for the second full moon in a calendar month it began to be widely known in the U.S. in the mid-1980s and became internationally known in the late 1990s when calendrical matters were of special interest given the approaching millennium. It created a misapprehension that the calendrical meaning of “blue moon” had preceded the metaphorical one, and inspired variousfolk etymologies, e.g. the “betrayer” speculation mentioned earlier, or that it came from a printing convention in calendars or a saying in Czech.A 1997 Taiwanese movie,Blue Moon, had thelog line“There is usually only one full moon every month, but occasionally there are two – and that second full moon is called the Blue Moon. It is said that when a person sees a blue moon and makes a wish, he will be granted a second chance in things.” In 1999 folklorist Philip Hiscock presented a timeline for the calendrical term.First, the August page of the 1937Maine Farmers' Almanacran a sidebar claiming that the term was used “in olden times” for an extra full moon in a season, and gave some examples (21 November 1915, 22 August 1918, 21 May 1921, 20 February 1924, 21 November 1934, 22 August 1937, and 21 May 1940). Six years later, Laurence J. Lafleur (1907-66) quoted the almanac in the U.S. magazineSky & Telescope(July 1943, page 17) in answer to a reader’s question about the meaning of “blue moon”. Then James Hugh Pruett (1886-1955) quoted it again inSky & Telescope(March 1946, p3), saying “seven times in 19 years there were — and still are — 13 full moons in a year. This gives 11 months with one full moon each and one with two. This second in a month, so I interpret it, was called Blue Moon”. In 1980 the term was used (with Pruett’s definition) in a U.S. radio program,Star Date, and in 1985 it appeared in a U.S. children’s book,The Kids' World Almanac of Records and Facts(“What is a blue moon? When there are two full moons in a month, the second one is called a blue moon. It is a rare occurrence.”)In 1986 it was included as a question in Trivial Pursuit (likely taken from the children’s book), and in 1988 a forthcoming blue moon received widespread press coverage. In 1999 U.S. astronomerDonald W. Olsonresearched the original articles and published the results in aSky & Telescopearticle co-authored with Richard T Fienberg and Roger W. Sinnott. From the examples given by Trefethen in the 1937Maine Farmers’ Almanacthey deduced a “rule” he must effectively have used. “Seasonal Moon names are assigned near the springequinoxin accordance with theecclesiastical rulesfor determining the dates ofEasterandLent. The beginnings of summer, fall, and winter are determined by thedynamical mean Sun. When a season contains four full Moons, the third is called a Blue Moon.”They termed this the “Maine rule” for blue moons, as distinct from Pruett’s 1946 definition that was seen to have been a misinterpretation. In popular astronomy the Maine rule is sometimes called the “seasonal”,“true”or “traditional”rule (though of course no tradition of it exists prior to 1937). Blue moons by Pruett’s definition are sometimes called “calendar blue moons”.The \\\"seasonal\\\" blue moon rule is itself ambiguous since it depends which definition ofseasonis used. The Maine rule used seasons of equal length with the ecclesiastical equinox (March 21). An alternative is to use the astronomical seasons, which are of unequal length. There is also reference in modern popular astrology to “zodiacal blue moons”. Blue moon dates The table below has blue moon dates and times (UTC) calculated according to Pruett’s “calendar” rule (second full moon in a calendar month) and two versions of the “seasonal” rule (third full moon in a season with four). The Maine rule uses equal-length seasons defined by the dynamical mean sun, and is presumed to have been the original rule of Trefethen.The “astro-seasonal” rule uses the unequal astronomical seasons defined by the apparent sun. All calculations are by David Harper. The fourth column shows blue moon dates that were actually printed in theMaine Farmers’ Almanac, as found by Olson, Fienberg and Sinnott in 1999. They studied issues published between 1819 and 1962, and found that all mentions occurred between 1937, when H.P. Trefethen introduced the term, and 1956, when Trefethen’s editorship ended (consistent with it being Trefethen’s own invention). Occasional discrepancies between the Maine rule and the almanac’s printed dates can be ascribed to clerical errors or miscalculation. In one case (August 1945) Trefethen appears to have used the apparent rather than mean sun. The table shows that in 200 years there are 187 full moons that could be called \\\"blue\\\" by some definition - an average of nearly one per year. Two Pruett blue moons can occur in a single year (1915, 1961, 1999, 2018, 2037, 2094). 1915 had four blue moons (two Pruett, one Maine, one astro-seasonal). 1934 and 2048 have three (one of each type). Despite the 187 blue moons appearing across the 200 years in this table, only 146 years have any of these 3 types of blue moons, leaving 54 years (thus averaging just over 1 year in every 4) which have none of the 3 rules represented in that calendar year. While not totally unexpected (given the overlapping frequencies of these 3 rules), it so happens there are not any 2 sequential years (at least within these 200) wherein none of the 3 types of blue moon occur. Conversely, despite the preponderance of years with blue moons (of at least 1 type) occurring in this 200-year range, there are no instances of more than 4 sequential years having a blue moon, of any of these 3 types -- i.e. at least 1 year out of every 5 sequential years has none of the 3 types appearing. Remarks Onelunation(an average lunar cycle) is 29.53days. There are about 365.24 days in atropical year. Therefore, about 12.37 lunations (365.24 days divided by 29.53 days) occur in a tropical year. So the date of the full moon falls back by nearly one day every calendar month on average. Each calendar year contains roughly 11 days more than the number of days in 12 lunar cycles, so every two or three years (seven times in the 19 yearMetonic cycle), there is an extra full moon in the year. The extra full moon necessarily falls in one of the four seasons (however defined), giving that season four full moons instead of the usual three. Given that a year is approximately 365.2425 days and a synodic orbit is 29.5309 days,then there are about 12.368 synodic months in a year. For this to add up to another full month would take 1/0.368 years. Thus it would take about 2.716 years, or 2 years, 8 months, and 18 days for another Pruett blue moon to occur. Or approximately once in 32.5 months on an average. When there are two Pruett blue moons in a single year, the first occurs in January and the second in March or April. The next timeNew Year's Evefalls on a Pruett blue moon (as occurred on December 31, 2009 in time zones west of UTC+05) is after one Metonic cycle, in 2028 in time zones west of UTC+08. At that time there will be atotal lunar eclipse. See also References External links\",\n \"World War I World War Ior theFirst World War(28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as theGreat War, was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAllies(or Entente) and theCentral Powers. Fighting took place mainly inEuropeand theMiddle East, as well as in parts ofAfricaand theAsia-Pacific, and in Europe was characterised bytrench warfareand the use ofartillery, machine guns, andchemical weapons(gas). World War I was one of thedeadliest conflicts in history, resulting in an estimated9 million military dead and 23 million wounded, plus up to 8 million civilian deaths from causes includinggenocide. The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in theSpanish flupandemic, which killed millions. Thecauses of World War Iincluded the rise ofGermanyanddecline of the Ottoman Empire, which disturbed the long-standingbalance of powerin Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered byindustrialisationandimperialism. Growing tensions between thegreat powersand in theBalkansreacheda breaking pointon 28 June 1914, when aBosnian SerbnamedGavrilo Principassassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to theAustro-Hungarianthrone. Austria-Hungary heldSerbiaresponsible, and declared war on 28 July. AfterRussiamobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia; by 4 August,Franceand theUnited Kingdomwere drawn in, with the Ottomans joining in November.Germany's strategy in 1914was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east. However, this failed, and by the end of the year theWestern Frontconsisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. TheEastern Frontwas more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives.Italy,Bulgaria,Romania,Greeceand others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917, theUnited States entered the waron the Allied side following Germany's resumption ofunrestricted submarine warfareagainst Atlantic shipping. Later that year, theBolsheviksseized power in the RussianOctober Revolution;Soviet Russiasignedan armisticewith the Central Powers in December, followed bya separate peacein March 1918. That month, Germany launchedan offensive in the west, which despite initial successes left theGerman Armyexhausted and demoralised.A successful Allied counter-offensivefrom August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facinga revolution at home,Kaiser WilhelmIIabdicated on 9 November, and the war ended with theArmistice of 11 November 1918. TheParis Peace Conferenceof 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably theTreaty of Versailles, by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay largewar reparationsto the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in the creation of new independent states, includingPoland,Finland, theBaltic states,Czechoslovakia, andYugoslavia. TheLeague of Nationswas established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during theinterwar periodcontributed to the outbreak ofWorld War IIin 1939. Names BeforeWorld War II, the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as theGreat Waror simply theWorld War.In August 1914, the magazineThe Independentwrote \\\"This is the Great War. It names itself\\\".In October 1914, the Canadian magazineMaclean'ssimilarly wrote, \\\"Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War.\\\"Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as \\\"the war to end war\\\" and it was also described as \\\"the war to end all wars\\\" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life.The first recorded use of the termFirst World Warwas in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopherErnst Haeckelwho stated, \\\"There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word.\\\" Background Political and military alliances For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuousbalance of power, known as theConcert of Europe.After 1848, this was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-calledsplendid isolation, thedecline of the Ottoman Empire,New Imperialism, and the rise ofPrussiaunderOtto von Bismarck. Victory in the 1870–1871Franco-Prussian Warallowed Bismarck toconsolidateaGerman Empire. Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was toavengethis defeat,but by the early 1890s, this had switched to the expansion of theFrench colonial empire. In 1873, Bismarck negotiated theLeague of the Three Emperors, which includedAustria-Hungary,Russiaand Germany. After the 1877–1878Russo-Turkish War, the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in theBalkans, an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest.Germanyand Austria-Hungary then formed the 1879Dual Alliance, which became theTriple Alliancewhen Italy joined in 1882.For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up theReinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire byWilhelm II. The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his newChancellor,Leo von Caprivi.This gave France an opening to agree theFranco-Russian Alliancein 1894, which was then followed by the 1904Entente Cordialewith Britain. TheTriple Ententewas completed by the 1907Anglo-Russian Convention. While not formal alliances, by settlinglong-standing colonial disputes in Asiaand Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became a possibility.This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911Agadir Crisis. Arms race German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, AdmiralAlfred von Tirpitzsought to use this growth to build anImperial German Navy, that could compete with the BritishRoyal Navy.This policy was based on the work of US naval authorAlfred Thayer Mahan, who argued that possession of ablue-water navywas vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to a change in policy and anAnglo-German naval arms racebegan.Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch ofHMSDreadnoughtin 1906 gave the British a technological advantage.Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, ChancellorTheobald von Bethmann Hollwegacknowledged defeat, leading to theRüstungswendeor 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in theRusso-Japanese Warand subsequent1905 Russian Revolution. Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions.Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia, the threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by theBalkan powersand Italy, which led to increased expenditure by theOttomansand Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. Conflicts in the Balkans The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. WhilePan-SlavicandOrthodoxRussia considered itself the protector ofSerbiaand otherSlavstates, they preferred the strategically vitalBosporusstraits to be controlled by a weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power likeBulgaria. Russia had ambitions in northeasternAnatoliawhile its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as a direct threat. The 1908–1909Bosnian Crisisbegan when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory ofBosnia and Herzegovina, which ithad occupiedsince 1878. Timed to coincide with theBulgarian Declaration of Independencefrom the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as a significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912Italo-Turkish Wardemonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of theBalkan League, an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria,Montenegro, andGreece.The League quickly overran most of the Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913First Balkan War, much to the surprise of outside observers.The Serbian capture of ports on theAdriaticresulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border inGalicia. TheRussian governmentdecided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through the 1913Treaty of London, which had created an independentAlbaniawhile enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-daySecond Balkan War, when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most ofMacedoniato Serbia and Greece, andSouthern Dobrujato Romania.The result was that even countries which benefited from the Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their \\\"rightful gains\\\", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany.This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the \\\"powder keg of Europe\\\". Prelude Sarajevo assassination On 28 June 1914,Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to EmperorFranz Joseph I of Austria, visitedSarajevo, the capital of the recently annexedBosnia and Herzegovina.Cvjetko Popović,Gavrilo Princip,Nedeljko Čabrinović,Trifko Grabež,Vaso Čubrilović(Bosnian Serbs) andMuhamed Mehmedbašić(from theBosniakscommunity),from the movement known asYoung Bosnia, took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the SerbianBlack Handintelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw agrenadeat the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street whereGavrilo Principwas standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wifeSophie. According to historianZbyněk Zeman, in Vienna \\\"the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June, the crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened.\\\"Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historianChristopher Clarkas a \\\"9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna\\\". Expansion of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequentanti-Serb riots in Sarajevo.Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as theSchutzkorpswas established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. July Crisis The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as the best way of achieving this.However, theForeign Ministryhad no solid proof of Serbian involvement.On 23July, Austria delivered anultimatumto Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered generalmobilizationon 25July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress \\\"subversive elements\\\" inside Serbia, and take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination.Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shellingBelgrade. Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from theSPDpolitical opposition by presenting Russia as the aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July.That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to \\\"cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary\\\" within 12 hours.A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war.TheGerman General Staffhad long assumed they faced a war on two fronts; theSchlieffen Planenvisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon.Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under the 1839Treaty of Londondid not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime MinisterAsquithand his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention.On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply.Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-ChiefJoseph Joffreasked his government for permission to cross the border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion.Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August,Germany occupied Luxembourgand exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which was refused. Early on the morning of 4August, the Germans invaded, andAlbert I of Belgiumcalled for assistance under theTreaty of London.Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Progress of the war Opening hostilities Confusion among the Central Powers Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Serbian campaign Beginning on 12 August, the Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of theCerandKolubara; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia.Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century.In 1915, the campaign saw the first use ofanti-aircraft warfareafter an Austrian plane was shot down withground-to-airfire, as well as the firstmedical evacuationby the Serbian army. German offensive in Belgium and France Upon mobilisation, in accordance with theSchlieffen Plan, 80% of theGerman Armywas located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier, the German right wing would sweep through theNetherlandsandBelgium, then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator,Alfred von Schlieffen, head of theGerman General Stafffrom 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor,Helmuth von Moltke the Younger. Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the \\\"lost provinces\\\" ofAlsace-Lorraine, which was the strategy envisaged by theirPlan XVII.However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as the German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30.He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan.HistorianRichard Holmesargues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in the West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included theBritish Expeditionary Force(BEF), was infull retreat, and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000.German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, butvon Kluckused this freedom to disobey orders, opening a gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris.The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911, the RussianStavkaagreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that enteredEast Prussiaon 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war.As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after theFirst Battle of the Marne,Crown Prince Wilhelmtold an American reporter \\\"We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already.\\\" Asia and the Pacific On 30 August 1914, New Zealandoccupied German Samoa(nowSamoa). On 11 September, theAustralian Naval and Military Expeditionary Forcelanded on the island ofNew Britain, then part ofGerman New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiserSMSEmdensank theRussian cruiserZhemchugin theBattle of Penang. Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became theSouth Seas Mandate, as well as GermanTreaty portson the ChineseShandongpeninsula atTsingtao. After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiserSMSKaiserin Elisabethfrom Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914.Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. African campaigns Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates ofTogolandandKamerun. On 10 August, German forces inSouth-West Africaattacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces inGerman East Africa, led by ColonelPaul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought aguerrilla warfarecampaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Indian support for the Allies Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 byinstigating uprisings in India, while theNiedermayer–Hentig Expeditionurged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity.Leaders from theIndian National Congressand other groups believed support for the British war effort would hastenIndian Home Rule, a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 byEdwin Montagu, theSecretary of State for India. In 1914, theBritish Indian Armywas larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded.The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting inthe campaign for full independenceled byMahatma Gandhi. Western Front 1914 to 1916 Trench warfare begins Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed the creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such asbarbed wire, machine guns and above all far more powerfulartillery, which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult.Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such asgas warfareand thetank. After theFirst Battle of the Marnein September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the \\\"Race to the Sea\\\". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from theChannelto the Swiss border.Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held the high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered \\\"temporary\\\", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences.Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at theSecond Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating theHague Convention) usedchlorinegas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. Continuation of trench warfare In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at theBattle of Verdun, lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000to 975,000casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. TheBattle of the Sommewas an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. Theopening dayon 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of theBritish Army, which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As a whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans.The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such astrench foot,lice,typhus,trench fever, and the 'Spanish flu'. Naval war At the start of the war, Germancruiserswere scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Alliedmerchant shipping. These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was theSMSEmden, part of the GermanEast Asia Squadronstationed atQingdao, which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at theBattle of Coronelin November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at theBattle of the Falkland Islandsin December. TheSMSDresdenescaped with a few auxiliaries, but after theBattle of Más a Tierra, these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a navalblockade of Germany. This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law.Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of the ocean, even to neutral ships.Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. TheBattle of Jutlandin May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of the GermanHigh Seas Fleetwas confined to port. GermanU-boatsattempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.The nature ofsubmarine warfaremeant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger shipRMSLusitaniain 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the \\\"cruiser rules\\\", which demanded warning and movement of crews to \\\"a place of safety\\\" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet).Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy ofunrestricted submarine warfare, realising the Americans would eventually enter the war.Germany sought to strangle Alliedsea lanesbefore the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling inconvoys, escorted bydestroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after thehydrophoneanddepth chargeswere introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at the cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use ofaircraft carriersin combat, withHMSFuriouslaunchingSopwith Camelsin a successful raid against theZeppelinhangars atTondernin July 1918, as well asblimpsfor antisubmarine patrol. Southern theatres War in the Balkans Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital,Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia.The Austro-Hungarian provinces ofSlovenia, Croatia andBosniaprovided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in the attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northernAlbania. The Serbs suffered defeat in theBattle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in theBattle of Mojkovacon 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece.After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed atSalonicain Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-GermanKing Constantine Idismissed the pro-Allied government ofEleftherios Venizelosbefore the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturingBitolaon 19 November 1916 following the costlyMonastir offensive, which brought stabilisation of the front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in theVardar offensive, after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at theBattle of Dobro Pole, and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918.The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were too weak to re-establish a front. The disappearance of the Macedonian front meant that the road toBudapestand Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against theCentral Powersand, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement. Ottoman Empire The Ottomans threatened Russia'sCaucasianterritories and Britain's communications with India via theSuez Canal. The Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers' preoccupation with the war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of theArmenian,Greek, andAssyrianChristian populations—theArmenian genocide,Greek genocide, andSayforespectively. The British and French opened overseas fronts with theGallipoli(1915) andMesopotamian campaigns(1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, andAustralian and New Zealand Army Corps(ANZACs). InMesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in thesiege of Kutby the Ottomans (1915–1916), British Imperial forces reorganised and capturedBaghdadin March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian fighters, while the Ottomans employed localKurdishandTurcomantribes. TheSuez Canalwas defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August 1916, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at theBattle of Romaniby theANZAC Mounted Divisionand the52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, anEgyptian Expeditionary Forceadvanced across theSinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in theBattle of Magdhabain December and theBattle of Rafaon the border between the EgyptianSinaiand Ottoman Palestine in January 1917. Russian armies generally had success in theCaucasus campaign.Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been previously lost to Russia. He was, however, a poor commander.He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86% of his force at theBattle of Sarikamish.GeneralYudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southernCaucasus. The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modernIran) in December 1914 to cut off British and Russian access topetroleum reservoirsaroundBaku.Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided byKurdishandAzeriforces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. ThePersian campaignlasted until 1918 and ended in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However, the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led Armenian and Assyrian forces to be cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia. TheArab Revolt, instigated by the BritishForeign Office, started in June 1916 with theBattle of Mecca, led bySharif Hussein. The Sharif declared the independence of theKingdom of Hejazand, with British assistance, conquered much of Ottoman-held Arabia, resulting finally in the Ottoman surrender of Damascus.Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander ofMedina, resisted for more than2+1⁄2years during thesiege of Medinabefore surrendering in January 1919. TheSenussitribe, along the border ofItalian LibyaandBritish Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-scaleguerrilla waragainst Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in theSenussi campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916. Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted to 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000, with 325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded. Italian Front Though Italy joined the Triple Alliance in 1882, a treaty with its traditional Austrian enemy was so controversial that subsequent governments denied its existence and the terms were only made public in 1915.This arose fromnationalistdesigns on Austro-Hungarian territory inTrentino, theAustrian Littoral,RijekaandDalmatia, considered vital to secure the borders established in1866.In 1902, Rome secretly had agreed with France to remain neutral if the latter was attacked by Germany, effectively nullifying its role in the Triple Alliance. When the war began in 1914, Italy argued the Triple Alliance was defensive and it was not obliged to support an Austrian attack on Serbia. Opposition to joining the Central Powers increased when Turkey became a member in September, since in1911Italy had occupied Ottoman possessions inLibyaand theDodecaneseislands.To secure Italian neutrality, the Central Powers offered themTunisia, while in return for an immediate entry into the war, the Allies agreed to their demands for Austrian territory and sovereignty over the Dodecanese.Although they remained secret, these provisions were incorporated into the April 1915Treaty of London; Italy joined the Triple Entente and, on 23 May, declared war on Austria-Hungary,followed by Germany fifteen months later. The pre-1914 Italian army was short of officers, trained men, adequate transport and modern weapons; by April 1915, some of these deficiencies had been remedied but it was still unprepared for the major offensive required by the Treaty of London.The advantage of superior numbers was offset by the difficult terrain; much of the fighting took place high in theAlpsandDolomites, where trench lines had to be cut through rock and ice and keeping troops supplied was a major challenge. These issues were exacerbated by unimaginative strategies and tactics.Between 1915 and 1917, the Italian commander,Luigi Cadorna, undertooka series of frontal assaults along the Isonzo, which made little progress and cost many lives; by the end of the war, Italian combat deaths totalled around 548,000. In the spring of 1916, the Austro-Hungarians counterattacked inAsiagoin theStrafexpedition, but made little progress and were pushed by the Italians back to Tyrol.Although Italy occupied southernAlbaniain May 1916, their main focus was the Isonzo front which, after thecapture of Goriziain August 1916, remained static until October 1917. After a combined Austro-German force won a major victory atCaporetto, Cadorna was replaced byArmando Diazwho retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) before holding positions along thePiave River.A second Austrianoffensive was repulsedin June 1918. On 24 October, Diaz launched theBattle of Vittorio Venetoand initially met stubborn resistance,but with Austria-Hungary collapsing, Hungarian divisions in Italy demanded they be sent home.When this was granted, many others followed and the Imperial army disintegrated, the Italians taking over 300,000 prisoners.On 3November, theArmistice of Villa Giustiended hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Italy which occupiedTriesteand areas along theAdriatic Seaawarded to it in 1915. Eastern Front Initial actions As previously agreed with French presidentRaymond Poincaré, Russian plans at the start of the war were to simultaneously advance intoAustrian Galiciaand East Prussia as soon as possible. Although theirattack on Galiciawas largely successful, and the invasions achieved their aim of forcing Germany to divert troops from the Western Front, the speed of mobilisation meant they did so without much of their heavy equipment and support functions. These weaknesses contributed to Russian defeats atTannenbergand theMasurian Lakesin August and September 1914, forcing them to withdraw from East Prussia with heavy losses.By spring 1915, they had also retreated from Galicia, and the May 1915Gorlice–Tarnów offensiveallowed the Central Powers to invadeRussian-occupied Poland. Despite the successful June 1916Brusilov offensiveagainst the Austrians in eastern Galicia,shortages of supplies, heavy losses and command failures prevented the Russians from fully exploiting their victory. However, it was one of the most significant offensives of the war, diverting German resources fromVerdun, relieving Austro-Hungarian pressure on the Italians, and convincing Romania to enter the war on the side of the Allies on 27 August. It also fatally weakened both the Austrian and Russian armies, whose offensive capabilities were badly affected by their losses and increased disillusion with the war that ultimately led to the Russian revolutions. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia asthe Tsarremained at the front, with the home front controlled byEmpress Alexandra. Her increasingly incompetent rule and food shortages in urban areas led to widespread protests and the murder of her favourite,Grigori Rasputin, at the end of 1916. Romanian participation Despite secretly agreeing to support the Triple Alliance in 1883, Romania increasingly found itself at odds with the Central Powers over their support for Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and the status of ethnic Romanian communities inHungarian-controlledTransylvania,which comprised an estimated 2.8 million of the 5.0 million population.With the ruling elite split into pro-German and pro-Entente factions,Romania remained neutral for two years while allowing Germany and Austria to transport military supplies and advisors across Romanian territory. In September 1914, Russia acknowledged Romanian rights to Austro-Hungarian territories including Transylvania andBanat, whose acquisition had widespread popular support,and Russian success against Austria led Romania to join the Entente in the August 1916Treaty of Bucharest.Under the strategic plan known asHypothesis Z, the Romanian army planned an offensive into Transylvania, while defending SouthernDobrujaandGiurgiuagainst a possible Bulgarian counterattack.On 27 August 1916, theyattacked Transylvaniaand occupied substantial parts of the province before being driven back by the recently formedGerman 9th Army, led by former Chief of StaffErich von Falkenhayn.A combined German-Bulgarian-Turkish offensive captured Dobruja and Giurgiu, although the bulk of the Romanian army managed to escape encirclement and retreated toBucharest, whichsurrenderedto the Central Powers on 6 December 1916. In the summer of 1917, a Central Powers offensive began in Romania under the command of August von Mackensen to knock Romania out of the war, resulting in the battles ofOituz,MărăștiandMărășeștiwhere up to 1,000,000 Central Powers troops were present. The battles lasted from 22 July to 3 September and eventually, the Romanian army was victorious advancing 500 km2. August von Mackensen could not plan for another offensive as he had to transfer troops to the Italian Front.Following the Russian revolution, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed theTreaty of Bucharestwith the Central Powers, which recognised Romanian sovereignty overBessarabiain return for ceding control of passes in the Carpathian Mountains to Austria-Hungary and leasing its oil wells to Germany. Although approved byParliament,King Ferdinand Irefused to sign it, hoping for an Allied victory in the west.Romania re-entered the war on 10 November 1918 on the side of the Allies and the Treaty of Bucharest was formally annulled by the Armistice of 11 November 1918. Central Powers peace overtures On 12 December 1916, after ten brutal months of theBattle of Verdunand asuccessful offensive against Romania, Germany attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies.However, this attempt was rejected out of hand as a \\\"duplicitous war ruse\\\". US presidentWoodrow Wilsonattempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking for both sides to state their demands.Lloyd George'sWar Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions among the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the US was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the \\\"submarine outrages\\\". While the Allies debated a response to Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of \\\"a direct exchange of views\\\". Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities.The Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars.The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer on the grounds of honour, and noted Germany had not put forward any specific proposals. Final years of the war Russian Revolution and withdrawal By the end of 1916, Russian casualties totalled nearly five million killed, wounded or captured, with major urban areas affected by food shortages and high prices. In March 1917, Tsar Nicholas ordered the military to forcibly suppress strikes inPetrogradbut the troops refused to fire on the crowds.Revolutionaries set up thePetrograd Sovietand fearing a left-wing takeover, theState Dumaforced Nicholas to abdicate and established theRussian Provisional Government, which confirmed Russia's willingness to continue the war. However, the Petrograd Soviet refused to disband, creatingcompeting power centresand causing confusion and chaos, with frontline soldiers becoming increasingly demoralised. Following the Tsar's abdication,Vladimir Lenin—with the help of the German government—was ushered from Switzerland into Russia on 16 April 1917. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, they acceded to theTreaty of Brest-Litovskon 3March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. With theRussian Empireout of the war, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed theTreaty of Bucharestwith the Central Powers in May 1918. Under the terms of the treaty, Romania ceded territory to Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria and leased its oil reserves to Germany. However, the terms also included the Central Powers' recognition of the union ofBessarabiawith Romania. United States enters the war The United States was a major supplier of war material to the Allies but remained neutral in 1914, in large part due to domestic opposition.The most significant factor in creating the support Wilson needed was the German submarine offensive, which not only cost American lives but paralysed trade as ships were reluctant to put to sea. On 6 April 1917, Congressdeclared war on Germanyas an \\\"Associated Power\\\" of the Allies.TheUS Navysent abattleship grouptoScapa Flowto join the Grand Fleet, and provided convoy escorts. In April 1917, theUS Armyhad fewer than 300,000 men, includingNational Guardunits, compared to British and French armies of 4.1 and 8.3 million respectively. TheSelective Service Act of 1917drafted 2.8 million men, though training and equipping such numbers was a huge logistical challenge. By June 1918, over 667,000 members of theAmerican Expeditionary Forces(AEF) were transported to France, a figure which reached 2 million by the end of November. Despite his conviction that Germany must be defeated, Wilson went to war to ensure the US played a leading role in shaping the peace, which meant preserving the AEF as a separate military force, rather than being absorbed into British or French units as his Allies wanted.He was strongly supported by AEF commander GeneralJohn J. Pershing, a proponent of pre-1914 \\\"open warfare\\\" who considered the French and British emphasis on artillery misguided and incompatible with American \\\"offensive spirit\\\".Much to the frustration of his Allies, who had suffered heavy losses in 1917, he insisted on retaining control of American troops, and refused to commit them to the front line until able to operate as independent units. As a result, the first significant US involvement was theMeuse–Argonne offensivein late September 1918. Nivelle Offensive (April–May 1917) In December 1916,Robert Nivellereplaced Pétain as commander of French armies on the Western Front and began planning aspring attackinChampagne, part of a joint Franco-British operation.Poor security meant German intelligence was well informed on tactics and timetables, but despite this, when the attack began on 16 April the French made substantial gains, before being brought to a halt by the newly built and extremely strong defences of the Hindenburg Line. Nivelle persisted with frontal assaults and, by 25 April, the French had suffered nearly 135,000 casualties, including 30,000 dead, most incurred in the first two days. Concurrent British attacks atArraswere more successful, though ultimately of little strategic value.Operating as a separate unit for the first time, theCanadian Corps' capture ofVimy Ridgeis viewed by many Canadians as a defining moment in creating a sense of national identity.Though Nivelle continued the offensive, on 3 May the21st Division, which had been involved in some of the heaviest fighting at Verdun, refused orders to go into battle, initiating theFrench Army mutinies; within days, \\\"collective indiscipline\\\" had spread to 54 divisions, while over 20,000 deserted. Sinai and Palestine campaign (1917–1918) In March and April 1917, at theFirstandSecond Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani.At the end of October 1917, theSinai and Palestine campaignresumed, when GeneralEdmund Allenby'sXXth Corps,XXI CorpsandDesert Mounted Corpswon theBattle of Beersheba.Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at theBattle of Mughar Ridgeand, early in December,Jerusalemhad been captured following another Ottoman defeat at theBattle of Jerusalem.About this time,Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressensteinwas relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army's commander, replaced byDjevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of theOttoman Armyin Palestine,Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced byOtto Liman von Sanders. In early 1918, the front line wasextendedand theJordan Valleywas occupied, following theFirst Transjordanand theSecond Transjordanattacks by British Empire forces in March and April 1918. German offensive and Allied counter-offensive (March–November 1918) In December 1917, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the West. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success in a final quick offensive.Ludendorff drew up plans (Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces nearSaint-Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).The initial offensive was a success; after heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks ormotorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell-torn and often impassable to traffic.Germany launchedOperation Georgetteagainst the northernEnglish Channelports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conductedOperations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) on 15 July, in an attempt to encircleReims. The resulting counter-attack, which started theHundred Days Offensiveon 8 August,led to a marked collapse in German morale. Allied advance to the Hindenburg Line By September, the Germans had fallen back to the Hindenburg Line. The Allies hadadvanced to the Hindenburg Linein the north and centre. German forces launched numerous counterattacks, but positions and outposts of the Line continued falling, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September, the Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable. Thefinal assaulton the Hindenburg Line began with theMeuse-Argonne offensive, launched by American and French troops on 26 September. Two days later the Belgians, French and Britishattacked around Ypres, and the day after the British at St Quentin in the centre of the line. The following week, cooperating American and French units broke through inChampagneat theBattle of Blanc Mont Ridge(3–27 October), forcing the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier.On 8October, the Hindenburg Line was pierced by British and Dominion troops of the First and Third British Armies at theSecond Battle of Cambrai. Breakthrough of Macedonian front (September 1918) Allied forces started theVardar offensiveon 15 September at two key points:Dobro Poleand nearDojran Lake. In theBattle of Dobro Pole, the Serbian and French armies had success after a three-day-long battle with relatively small casualties, and subsequently made a breakthrough in the front, something which was rarely seen in World War I. After the front was broken, Allied forces started to liberate Serbia and reachedSkopjeat 29 September, after whichBulgariasigned an armistice with the Allies on 30 September. Armistices and capitulations The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, theArmistice of Salonicaon 29 September 1918.German EmperorWilhelm IIin a telegram toBulgarian Tsar Ferdinand Idescribed the situation thus: \\\"Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the war!\\\".On the same day, theGerman Supreme Army Commandinformed Kaiser Wilhelm II and theImperial ChancellorCountGeorg von Hertling, that the military situation facing Germany was hopeless. On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, marking the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3November, Austria-Hungary sent aflag of truceand accepted theArmistice of Villa Giusti, arranged with the Allied Authorities in Paris. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of theHabsburg monarchy. In the following days, the Italian Army occupiedInnsbruckand allTyrol, with over 20,000 soldiers. On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, and signed the Armistice of Mudros. German government surrenders With the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser leading to his abdication and fleeing of the country, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge on October 3 as Chancellor of Germany. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military. TheGerman Revolution of 1918–1919began at the end of October 1918. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war they believed to be as good as lost. Thesailors' revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports ofWilhelmshavenandKiel, spread across the whole country within days and led to theproclamation of a republicon 9November 1918, shortly thereafter to theabdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and German surrender. Aftermath In the aftermath of the war, the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires disappeared.Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties fell as a result of the war: theRomanovs, theHohenzollerns, theHabsburgs, and theOttomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead,not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. Formal end of the war A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of theTreaty of Versailleswith Germany on 28 June 1919. The US Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it,and did not formally end its involvement in the war until theKnox–Porter Resolutionwas signed on 2July 1921 by PresidentWarren G. Harding.For the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of theTermination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918concerning: Somewar memorialsdate the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned home; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Peace treaties and national boundaries TheParis Peace Conferenceimposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919Treaty of Versaillesdealt with Germany and, building onWilson's 14th point, established theLeague of Nationson 28 June 1919. The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for \\\"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by\\\" their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement wasArticle 231. This article became known as the \\\"War Guilt Clause\\\", as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful.The Germans felt they had been unjustly dealt with by what they called the \\\"diktatof Versailles\\\". German historian Hagen Schulze said the Treaty placed Germany \\\"under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated.\\\"Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasises the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s: Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic. The legend of the \\\"stab in the back\\\" and the wish to revise the \\\"Versailles diktat\\\", and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a man of peace such as Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanise the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its policies. Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as a recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbours. Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Apart from Austria and Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia received territories from the Dual Monarchy (the formerly separate and autonomousKingdom of Croatia-Slavoniawas incorporated into Yugoslavia). The details were contained in the treaties ofSaint-Germain-en-LayeandTrianon. As a result, Hungary lost 64% of its total population, decreasing from 20.9 million to 7.6 million, and losing 31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of its ethnicHungarians.According to the 1910 census, speakers of the Hungarian language included approximately 54% of the entire population of theKingdom of Hungary. Within the country, numerous ethnic minorities were present: 16.1%Romanians, 10.5%Slovaks, 10.4%Germans, 2.5%Ruthenians, 2.5%Serbsand 8% others.Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The Russian Empire lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations ofEstonia,Finland,Latvia,Lithuania, andPolandwere carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918. National identities After 123 years, Poland re-emerged as an independent country. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a \\\"minor Entente nation\\\" and the country with the most casualties per capita,became the backbone of a new multinational state, theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining theKingdom of Bohemiawith parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Romania woulduniteall Romanian-speaking people under a single state, leading toGreater Romania. In Australia and New Zealand, the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' \\\"Baptism of Fire\\\". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of theBritish Crown, and independent national identities for these nations took hold.Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), celebrates this defining moment. In the aftermath of World War I, Greecefoughtagainst Turkish nationalists led byMustafa Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in amassive population exchange between the two countriesunder the Treaty of Lausanne.According to various sources,several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the Greek genocide. Casualties Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilised from 1914 to 1918, an estimated8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria-Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%.France mobilised 7.8 million men, of which 1.4 million died and 3.2 million were injured.Approximately 15,000 deployed men sustained gruesome facial injuries, causing social stigma and marginalisation; they were called thegueules cassées(broken faces). In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that had weakened disease resistance. These excess deaths are estimated as 271,000 in 1918, plus another 71,000 in the first half of 1919 when the blockade was still in effect.Starvation caused by famine killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borneepidemic typhuskilled 200,000 in Serbia.Starting in early 1918, a major influenza epidemic known asSpanish fluspread across the world, accelerated by the movement of large numbers of soldiers, often crammed together in camps and transport ships with poor sanitation. The Spanish flu killed at least 17 to 25 million people,including an estimated 2.64 million Europeans and as many as 675,000 Americans.Between 1915 and 1926, an epidemic ofencephalitis lethargicaaffected nearly five million people worldwide. Eight millionequinesmostlyhorses,donkeysandmulesdied, three-quarters of them from the extreme conditions they worked in. War crimes Chemical weapons in warfare The German army was the first to successfully deploy chemical weapons during the Second Battle of Ypres (April–May 1915), after German scientists under the direction ofFritz Haberat theKaiser Wilhelm Institutedeveloped a method to weaponizechlorine.The use of chemical weapons had been sanctioned by the German High Command to force Allied soldiers out of their entrenched positions, complementing rather than supplanting more lethal conventional weapons.Chemical weapons were deployed by all major belligerents throughout the war, inflicting approximately 1.3 million casualties, of which about 90,000 were fatal.The use of chemical weapons in warfare was a direct violation of the1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gasesand the1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their use. Genocides by the Ottoman Empire Theethnic cleansingof the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is consideredgenocide.The Ottomans carried out organised and systematic massacres of the Armenian population at the beginning of the war and manipulated acts of Armenian resistance by portraying them as rebellions to justify further extermination.In early 1915, several Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue theTehcir Law(Law on Deportation), which authorised the deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionallymarched to deathand a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands.While the exact number of deaths is unknown, theInternational Association of Genocide Scholarsestimates around 1.5 million.The government of Turkey continues todeny the genocideto the present day, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World WarI; these claims are rejected by most historians. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians andGreeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination.At least 250,000 Assyrian Christians, about half of the population, and 350,000–750,000AnatolianandPontic Greekswere killed between 1915 and 1922. Prisoners of war About 8 million soldiers surrendered and were held inPOW campsduring the war. All nations pledged to follow theHague Conventionson fair treatment ofprisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of combatants at the front. Around 25–31% of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria-Hungary 32%; for Italy 26%; for France 12%; for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5–3.5 million soldiers as prisoners). From the Central Powers, about 3.3 million soldiers became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians. Soldiers' experiences Allied personnel was around 42,928,000, while Central personnel was near 25,248,000.British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but were increasinglyconscripted. Surviving veterans returning home often found they could discuss their experiences only among themselves, so formed \\\"veterans' associations\\\" or \\\"Legions\\\". Conscription Conscription was common in most European countries. However, it was controversial in English-speaking countries,It was especially unpopular among minority ethnicities—especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland,Australia,and the French Catholics in Canada. In the US, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well-received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas.The administration decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower after only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of war. Military attachés and war correspondents Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war.Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern \\\"embedded\\\" positions within the opposing land and naval forces. Economic effects Macro- and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, the industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle forvoting rights for women. In all nations, the government's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50% in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the US, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily fromWall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916 but allowed a great increase inUS governmentlending to the Allies. After 1919, the US demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations that, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and some loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4billionof World WarI debt in 1934; the last installment was finally paid in 2015. Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such asAlbert Kitsonwere called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits ofmanganese, used in munitions production, in theGold Coast. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called \\\"war guilt\\\" clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for \\\"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.\\\"It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However, neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war guilt.In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, \\\"Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay\\\" this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being \\\"deliberately designed to be chimerical\\\" and its \\\"primary function was to mislead public opinion ... into believing the 'total sum was being maintained.'\\\"Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) \\\"represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay\\\" and \\\"therefore ... represented the total German reparations\\\" figure that had to be paid. This figure could be paid in cash or in-kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). Some of the territory lost—via the Treaty of Versailles—was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain.By 1929, theGreat Depressioncaused political chaos throughout the world.In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point Germany had paid only the equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks.With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled.David Andelmannotes \\\"Refusing to pay doesn't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the agreement, still exist.\\\" Thus, following the Second World War, at theLondon Conferencein 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3October 2010, Germany made the final payment on these bonds. The Australian prime minister,Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister,David Lloyd George, \\\"You have assured us that you cannot get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies.\\\" Australia received £5,571,720 in war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been £376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were £831,280,947. Support and opposition for the war Support In the Balkans,Yugoslav nationalistssuch as the leader,Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom ofYugoslavsfrom Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. TheYugoslav Committee, led by Trumbić, was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London.In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, includingCzechoslovak, Italian,Polish,Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support nationalself-determinationfor the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary. In the Middle East,Arab nationalismsoared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of apan-Arabstate. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle East to achieve independence. In East Africa,Iyasu VofEthiopiawas supporting theDervish statewho were at war with the British in theSomaliland campaign.Von Syburg, the German envoy inAddis Ababa, said, \\\"now the time has come for Ethiopia to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians home, to restore the Empire to its ancient size.\\\" The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge of entering World WarI on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu's overthrow at theBattle of Segaledue to Allied pressure on the Ethiopian aristocracy. Several socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914.But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept ofclass conflictheld by radical socialists such as Marxists andsyndicalistsbeing overborne by their patriotic support for the war.Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries' intervention in the war. Italian nationalismwas stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war wasGabriele D'Annunzio, who promotedItalian irredentismand helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war.TheItalian Liberal Party, under the leadership ofPaolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and used the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism.Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, includingBenito MussoliniandLeonida Bissolati.However, theItalian Socialist Partydecided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in ageneral strikecalledRed Week.The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini.Mussolini formed the pro-interventionistIl Popolo d'Italiaand theFasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista(\\\"RevolutionaryFascifor International Action\\\") in October 1914 that later developed into theFasci Italiani di Combattimentoin 1919, the origin of fascism.Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds fromAnsaldo(an armaments firm) and other companies to createIl Popolo d'Italiato convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. Patriotic funds On both sides, there was large-scale fundraising for soldiers' welfare, their dependents and those injured. TheNail Menwere a German example. Around the British Empire, there were many patriotic funds, including theRoyal Patriotic Fund Corporation,Canadian Patriotic Fund,Queensland Patriotic Fundand, by 1919, there were 983 funds in New Zealand.At the start of the next world war the New Zealand funds were reformed, having been criticised as overlapping, wasteful and abused,but 11 were still functioning in 2002. Opposition Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These includedEugene Debsin the US andBertrand Russellin Britain. In the US, theEspionage Act of 1917andSedition Act of 1918made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed \\\"disloyal\\\". Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors,and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic. Several nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advancedIrish nationalistshad staunchly opposed taking part.The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912, and by July 1914 there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in theEaster Risingof 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain.The British government placed Ireland undermartial lawin response to the Easter Rising, though once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling.However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland, resulting in theConscription Crisis of 1918. Other opposition came fromconscientious objectors—some socialist, some religious—who had refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status.Some of them, most notably prominent peace activistStephen Hobhouse, refused both military andalternative service.Many suffered years of prison, includingsolitary confinement. Even after the war, in Britain, many job advertisements were marked \\\"No conscientious objectors need to apply\\\". On 1–4 May 1917, about 100,000 workers and soldiers ofPetrograd, and after them, the workers and soldiers of other Russian cities, led by the Bolsheviks, demonstrated under banners reading \\\"Down with the war!\\\" and \\\"all power to the Soviets!\\\". The mass demonstrations resulted in a crisis for theRussian Provisional Government.InMilan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation.The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks andanarchists, who fought violently until May 23 when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people were arrested. Technology World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-centurytactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies had modernised and were making use of telephone,wireless communication,armoured cars,tanks(especially with the advent of the prototype tank,Little Willie), and aircraft. Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917,indirect firewith guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably, aircraft and thefield telephone. Fixed-wing aircraftwere initially used forreconnaissanceandground attack. To shoot down enemy planes,anti-aircraft gunsandfighter aircraftwere developed.Strategic bomberswere created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former usedZeppelinsas well.Towards the end of the conflict,aircraft carrierswere used for the first time, with HMSFuriouslaunchingSopwith Camelsin a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars atTønderin 1918. Diplomacy The non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed to build support for the cause or to undermine support for the enemy. For the most part, wartime diplomacy focused on five issues:propaganda campaigns; defining and redefining the war goals, which became harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements inside the Central Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and Arabs. In addition, multiple peace proposals were coming from neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very far. Legacy and memory Memorials Memorials were built in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as theCommonwealth War Graves Commission, theAmerican Battle Monuments Commission, theGerman War Graves Commission, andLe Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have monuments to the missing orunidentifieddead, such as theMenin Gate Memorial to the Missingand theThiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme. In 1915,John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the poemIn Flanders Fieldsas a salute to those who perished in the war. It is still recited today, especially onRemembrance DayandMemorial Day. National World War I Museum and MemorialinKansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World WarI. TheLiberty Memorialwas dedicated on 1 November 1921. The British government budgeted substantial resources tothe commemoration of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is theImperial War Museum.On 3August 2014, French PresidentFrançois Hollandeand German PresidentJoachim Gaucktogether markedthe centenary of Germany's declaration of war on Franceby laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German asHartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in the war.As part of commemorations for thecentenary of the 1918 Armistice, French PresidentEmmanuel Macronand German ChancellorAngela Merkelvisited the site of the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne and unveiled a plaque to reconciliation. Historiography ... \\\"Strange, friend,\\\" I said, \\\"Here is no cause to mourn.\\\"\\\"None,\\\" said the other, \\\"Save the undone years\\\"... The first efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences ofmodern warfarebegan during the initial phases of the war and are still underway more than a century later. Teaching World War I has presented special challenges. When compared withWorld War II, the First World War is often thought to be \\\"a wrong war fought for the wrong reasons\\\"; it lacks themetanarrativeofgood versus evilthat characterizes retellings of the Second World War. Lacking recognizable heroes and villains, it is often taught thematically, invoking simplifiedtropesthat obscure the complexity of the conflict. Historian Heather Jones argues that thehistoriographyhas been reinvigorated by a cultural turn in the 21st century. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regardingmilitary occupation,radicalisationof politics,race,medical science,genderandmental health. Among the major subjects that historians have long debated regarding the war include:Why the war began; why theAllieswon; whether generals were responsible forhigh casualty rates; how soldiers endured the poor conditions oftrench warfare; and to what extent the civilianhome frontaccepted and endorsed the war effort. Unexploded ordnance As late as 2007,unexploded ordnanceat battlefield sites likeVerdunandSommecontinued to pose a danger. In France and Belgium, locals who discover caches of unexploded munitions are assisted by weapons disposal units. In some places, plant life has still not recovered from the effects of the war. See also Footnotes References Bibliography External links Library guides\",\n \"World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War IIor theSecond World War(1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAlliesand theAxis powers.Nearly all the world's countries—including all thegreat powers—participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit oftotal war, blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources.Tanksandaircraft played major roles, with the latter enabling thestrategic bombingof population centres and delivery of theonly two nuclear weaponsever used in war. World War II was thedeadliest conflictin history, resulting in70 to 85 million fatalities, more than half of which were civilians. Millions died ingenocides, includingthe Holocaustof European Jews, and by massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory,Germany,Austria,Japan, andKoreawere occupied, andwar crimestribunals were conductedagainst GermanandJapanese leaders. Thecauses of World War IIincluded unresolved tensions in theaftermath of World War Iand the rises offascism in Europeandmilitarism in Japan, and it was preceded by events including theJapanese invasion of Manchuria,Spanish Civil War, outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, and Germanannexations of Austriaandthe Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, whenNazi Germany, underAdolf Hitler,invaded Poland, after which theUnited KingdomandFrancedeclared waron Germany. Poland was partitioned between Germany and theSoviet Unionunder theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, by which they had agreed on respective \\\"spheres of influence\\\" in Eastern Europe; in 1940, the Sovietsannexed the Baltic statesandparts of FinlandandRomania. After thefall of Francein June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and theBritish Empire, with fighting in theBalkans,Mediterranean, and Middle East, the aerialBattle of Britainandthe Blitz, and navalBattle of the Atlantic. Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much ofcontinental Europeandformed the Axis alliancewithItaly,Japan, and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis inan invasion of the Soviet Union, opening theEastern Frontand initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed todominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific, and by 1937 was at war with theRepublic of China. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territoriesin Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, includingat Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan; theEuropean Axis declared war on the US.Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia, but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the navalBattle of Midway; Germany and Italy weredefeated in North Africaand atStalingradin the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, theAllied invasions of Sicilyand theItalian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Alliesinvaded German-occupied France at Normandy, while the Soviet Unionregained its territorial lossesand pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled theJapanese Navyandcaptured key islands. The war in Europe concluded with the liberation ofGerman-occupied territories; theinvasion of Germany by the Western Alliesand the Soviet Union, culminating in thefall of Berlinto Soviet troops;Hitler's suicide; and theGerman unconditional surrenderon8 May 1945. Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of thePotsdam Declaration, the USdropped the first atomic bombsonHiroshimaandNagasakion 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminentinvasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Sovietdeclaration of waragainst Japan and itsinvasion of Manchuria, Japan announcedits unconditional surrenderon 15 August and signeda surrender documenton2 September 1945, marking the end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. TheUnited Nationswas established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becomingthe permanent membersofits security council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rivalsuperpowers, setting the stage for theCold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering thedecolonisation of AfricaandAsia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towardseconomic recovery and expansion. Start and end dates World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939with theGerman invasion of Polandand theUnited KingdomandFrance's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of thePacific Warinclude the start of theSecond Sino-Japanese Waron 7 July 1937,or the earlierJapanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931.Others follow the British historianA. J. P. Taylor, who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars became World War II in 1941.Other proposed starting dates for World War II include theItalian invasion of Abyssiniaon 3 October 1935.The British historianAntony Beevorviews the beginning of World WarII as theBattles of Khalkhin Golfought betweenJapanand the forces ofMongoliaand theSoviet Unionfrom May to September 1939.Others view theSpanish Civil Waras the start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than with the formalsurrender of Japanon 2 September 1945, which officiallyended the war in Asia. Apeace treaty between Japan and the Allieswas signed in 1951.A 1990treaty regarding Germany's futureallowed thereunification of East and West Germanyto take place and resolved most post–World WarII issues.No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed,although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by theSoviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. History Background Aftermath of World War I World War Ihad radically altered the political European map with the defeat of theCentral Powers—includingAustria-Hungary,Germany,Bulgaria, and theOttoman Empire—and the 1917Bolshevik seizure of powerinRussia, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victoriousAllies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and newnation-stateswere created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, theLeague of Nationswas established in 1920 by theParis Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, andnaval disarmament, as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentimentafter World WarI,irredentistandrevanchistnationalismhad emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by theTreaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and allits overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited,reparationswere imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country'sarmed forces. Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as theWeimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that thepromises madeby the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, theFascistmovement led byBenito Mussoliniseized power in Italy with a nationalist,totalitarian, andclass collaborationistagenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \\\"New Roman Empire\\\". Adolf Hitler, after anunsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German governmentin 1923, eventuallybecame the Chancellor of Germanyin 1933 whenPaul von Hindenburgand the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himselfFührerof Germany and abolished democracy, espousing aradical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massiverearmament campaign.France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy,allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when theTerritory of the Saar Basinwas legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed theStresa Frontin April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towardsmilitary globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made anindependent naval agreementwith Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany'sgoals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, theFranco-Soviet pactwas required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed theNeutrality Actin August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles andLocarno Treatiesbyremilitarising the Rhinelandin March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy ofappeasement.In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed theRome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed theAnti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year. Asia TheKuomintang(KMT) party in China launched aunification campaignagainstregional warlordsand nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled ina civil waragainst its formerChinese Communist Party(CCP) alliesandnew regional warlords. In 1931, anincreasingly militaristicEmpire of Japan, which had long sought influence in Chinaas the first step of what its government saw as the country'sright to rule Asia, staged theMukden incidentas a pretext toinvade Manchuriaand establish thepuppet stateofManchukuo. China appealed to theLeague of Nationsto stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after beingcondemnedfor its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, inShanghai,ReheandHebei, until theTanggu Trucewas signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression inManchuria, andChahar and Suiyuan.After the 1936Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to presenta united frontto oppose Japan. Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) TheSecond Italo-Ethiopian Warwas a briefcolonial warthat began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of theEthiopian Empire(also known asAbyssinia) by the armed forces of theKingdom of Italy(Regno d'Italia), which was launched fromItalian SomalilandandEritrea.The war resulted in themilitary occupationof Ethiopia and itsannexationinto the newly created colony ofItalian East Africa(Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of theLeague of Nationsas a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations,but the League did littlewhen the former clearly violated Article X of the League'sCovenant.The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion.Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbingAustria. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to theNationalist rebels, led by GeneralFrancisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain.The Soviet Union supported the existing government of theSpanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as theInternational Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used thisproxy waras an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World WarII butgenerally favoured the Axis.His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending ofvolunteersto fight on theEastern Front. Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital ofPekingafter instigating theMarco Polo Bridge incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.The Soviets quickly signed anon-aggression pact with Chinato lendmaterielsupport, effectively ending China's priorcooperation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attackedTaiyuan, engaged theKuomintang Armyaround Xinkou,and foughtCommunist forcesin Pingxingguan.GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shekdeployed hisbest armytodefend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back,capturing the capital Nankingin December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants weremurdered by the Japanese. In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won theirfirst major victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city ofXuzhouwas taken by the Japanesein May.In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance byflooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences atWuhan, but thecity was takenby October.Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland toChongqingand continued the war. Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces inManchukuohad sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union andMongolia. The Japanese doctrine ofHokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat atKhalkin Golin 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese Warand ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed aNeutrality Pactin April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine ofNanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germanyannexed Austria, again provokinglittle responsefrom other European powers.Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on theSudetenland, an area ofCzechoslovakiawith a predominantlyethnic Germanpopulation. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlainand conceded this territory to Germany in theMunich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia tocede additional territoryto Hungary, and Poland annexed theTrans-Olzaregion of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \\\"war-mongers\\\" and in January 1939secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navyto challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939,Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakiaand subsequently split it into the GermanProtectorate of Bohemia and Moraviaand a pro-Germanclient state, theSlovak Republic.Hitler also delivered anultimatum to Lithuaniaon 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of theKlaipėda Region, formerly the GermanMemelland. Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on theFree City of Danzig, the United Kingdom and Franceguaranteed their support for Polish independence; whenItaly conquered Albaniain April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to theKingdoms of RomaniaandGreece.Shortly after theFranco-Britishpledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with thePact of Steel.Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to \\\"encircle\\\" Germany and renounced theAnglo-German Naval Agreementand theGerman–Polish declaration of non-aggression. The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signeda non-aggression pactwith Germany,after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled.This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet \\\"spheres of influence\\\" (westernPolandand Lithuania for Germany;eastern Poland, Finland,Estonia,LatviaandBessarabiafor the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence.The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World WarI. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations.On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polishplenipotentiaryimmediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover ofDanzig, and to allow aplebiscitein thePolish Corridorin which the German minority would vote on secession.The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassadorNevile Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germanyinvaded Polandafterhaving stagedseveralfalse flag border incidentsas a pretext to initiate the invasion.The first German attack of the war came against thePolish defenses at Westerplatte.The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany.During thePhoney Warperiod, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of acautious French probe into the Saarland.The Western Allies also began anaval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.Germany responded by orderingU-boat warfareagainst Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into theBattle of the Atlantic. On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs ofWarsaw. The Polishcounter-offensiveto the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by theWehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through tobesieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing acease-fire with Japan, theSoviet Union invaded Polandunder the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist.On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, andthe last large operational unit of the Polish Armysurrendered on 6October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed thePolish government-in-exileand aclandestine state apparatus remainedin occupied Poland.A significant part of Polish military personnelevacuated to Romaniaand Latvia; many of them laterfought against the Axisin other theatres of the war. Germanyannexed westernPoland andoccupied central Poland; the Soviet Unionannexed eastern Poland; small shares of Polish territory were transferred toLithuaniaandSlovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejectedand Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatenedEstonia,Latvia, andLithuaniawith military invasion, forcing the threeBaltic countriesto signpactsallowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there.Finlandrefused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union.The Soviet Union invaded Finlandin November 1939,and was subsequently expelled from theLeague of Nationsfor this crime of aggression.Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during theWinter Warwas modest,and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 withsome Finnish concessions of territory. In June 1940, the Soviet Unionoccupiedthe entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,as well as the Romanian regions ofBessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. In August 1940, Hitler imposed theSecond Vienna Awardon Romania which led to the transfer ofNorthern Transylvaniato Hungary.In September 1940, Bulgaria demandedSouthern Dobrujafrom Romania with German and Italian support, leading to theTreaty of Craiova.The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under MarshalIon Antonescu, with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee.Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operationgradually stalled,and both states began preparations for war. Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940,Germany invaded Denmark and Norwayto protect shipments ofiron ore from Sweden, which the Allies wereattempting to cut off.Denmark capitulated after six hours, anddespite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.British discontent over the Norwegian campaignled to the resignation of Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain, who was replaced byWinston Churchillon 10May 1940. On the same day, Germanylaunched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strongMaginot Linefortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations ofBelgium,the Netherlands, andLuxembourg.The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through theArdennesregion,which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.By successfully implementing newBlitzkriegtactics, theWehrmachtrapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was ableto evacuate a significant number of Allied troopsfrom the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June,Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, andParisfell to them on 14June. Eight days laterFrance signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided intoGermanandItalian occupation zones,and an unoccupiedrump stateunder theVichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, whichthe United Kingdom attackedon 3July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The airBattle of Britainbegan in early July withLuftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours.TheGerman campaign for air superioritystarted in August but its failure to defeatRAF Fighter Commandforced the indefinite postponement of theproposed German invasion of Britain. The Germanstrategic bombingoffensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities inthe Blitz, but largely ended in May 1941after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navyenjoyed successagainst an over-extendedRoyal Navy, usingU-boatsagainst British shippingin the Atlantic.The BritishHome Fleetscored a significant victory on 27May 1941 bysinking the German battleshipBismarck. In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended theNeutrality Actto allow\\\"cash and carry\\\"purchases by the Allies.In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of theUnited States Navywassignificantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to atrade of American destroyers for British bases.Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an \\\"arsenal of democracy\\\" and promotingLend-Leaseprogrammes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it wasinvadedby Germany.The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, theTripartite Pactformally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as theAxis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.The Axis expanded in November 1940 whenHungary,Slovakia, andRomaniajoined.RomaniaandHungarylater made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recaptureterritory ceded to the Soviet Union. Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the ItalianRegia Aeronauticaattacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italyconquered British Somalilandand made anincursion into British-held Egypt. In October,Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes.To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces begancounter-offensivesagainst Italian forces in Egypt andItalian East Africa.The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. TheItalian Navyalso suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after acarrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at theBattle of Cape Matapan. Italian defeats prompted Germany todeploy an expeditionary forceto North Africa; at the end of March 1941,Rommel'sAfrika Korpslaunched an offensivewhich drove back Commonwealth forces.In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt andbesieged the port of Tobruk. By late March 1941,BulgariaandYugoslaviasigned theTripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government wasoverthrown two days laterby pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of bothYugoslaviaandGreece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month.The airborneinvasion of the Greek island of Creteat the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans.Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against theAxis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forcesquashed an uprising in Iraqwhich had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlledSyria.Between June and July, British-led forcesinvaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon, assisted by theFree French. Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions inSoutheast Asia, the two powers signed theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pactin April 1941.By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later.On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest ofUkraine, theBaltic statesandByelorussia.However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact.In November 1940,negotiations took placeto determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union inOperation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets ofplotting against them; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.The primary targets of this surprise offensivewere theBaltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with theultimate goalof ending the 1941 campaign near theArkhangelsk-Astrakhan line—from theCaspianto theWhite Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminateCommunism, generateLebensraum(\\\"living space\\\")bydispossessing the native population,and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. Although theRed Armywas preparing for strategiccounter-offensivesbefore the war,OperationBarbarossaforced theSoviet supreme commandto adoptstrategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By mid-August, however, the GermanArmy High Commanddecided tosuspend the offensiveof a considerably depletedArmy Group Centre, and to divert the2nd Panzer Groupto reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.TheKiev offensivewas overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible furtheradvance into Crimeaand industrially-developed Eastern Ukraine (theFirst Battle of Kharkov). The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to theEastern Frontprompted the United Kingdom to reconsider itsgrand strategy.In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed amilitary alliance against Germanyand in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued theAtlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world.In late August the British and Sovietsinvaded neutral Iranto secure thePersian Corridor, Iran'soil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. By October, Axis powers had achievedoperational objectivesin Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges ofLeningradandSevastopolcontinuing.A majoroffensive against Moscowwas renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troopswere forced to suspend the offensive.Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Sovietcapability to resistwas not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. Theblitzkriegphaseof the war in Europe had ended. By early December, freshly mobilisedreservesallowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.This, as well asintelligence datawhich established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the JapaneseKwantung Army,allowed the Soviets to begin amassive counter-offensivethat started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanesefalse flagMukden incidentin 1931, the Japanese shelling of the AmericangunboatUSS Panayin 1937, and the 1937–1938Nanjing Massacre,Japanese-American relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—theExport Control Acts—which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.During 1939 Japan launched itsfirst attack against Changsha, but was repulsed by late September.Despiteseveral offensivesby both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded andoccupied northern Indochinain September 1940. Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scalecounter-offensivein early 1940. In August,Chinese communistslaunched anoffensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan institutedharsh measuresin occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forcesculminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed duringBattle of Shanggao.In September, Japan attempted totake the city of Changshaagain and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments inSoutheast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from theDutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.At the same time, Japan wasplanning an invasion of the Soviet Far East, intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.Roosevelt reinforcedthe Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946)and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any \\\"neighboring countries\\\". Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American–British–Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. EmperorHirohito, after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory,began to favour Japan's entry into the war.As a result, Prime MinisterFumimaro Konoeresigned.Hirohito refused the recommendation to appointPrince Naruhiko Higashikuniin his place, choosing War MinisterHideki Tojoinstead.On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of theattack on Pearl Harborto the Emperor.On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war.On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise theUnited States Pacific Fleetand the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneousoffensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.These included anattack on the American fleets at Pearl Harborandthe Philippines, as well as invasions ofGuam,Wake Island,Malaya,Thailand, andHong Kong. These attacks led theUnited States,United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United Statesin solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, theAllied Big Four—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued theDeclaration by United Nations, thereby affirming theAtlantic Charterand agreeing not to sign aseparate peacewith the Axis powers. During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriategrand strategyto pursue. All agreed thatdefeating Germanywas the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward,large-scale attackon Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies.Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. At theCasablanca Conferencein early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded theunconditional surrenderof their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its allyThailandhad almost conqueredBurma,Malaya,the Dutch East Indies,Singapore, andRabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.Despite stubbornresistance by Filipino and U.S. forces, thePhilippine Commonwealthwas eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during theBattle of Yenangyaungand rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in theSouth China Sea,Java Sea, andIndian Ocean,andbombed the Allied naval baseatDarwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinesevictory at Changsha.These easy victories over the unprepared U.S. and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations tocapture Port Moresbybyamphibious assaultand thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in theBattle of the Coral Sea.Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlierDoolittle Raid, was to seizeMidway Atolland lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces tooccupy the Aleutian Islandsin Alaska.In mid-May, Japan started theZhejiang-Jiangxi campaignin China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had brokenJapanese naval codesin late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisivevictory at Midwayover theImperial Japanese Navy. With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capturePort Moresbyby anoverland campaignin theTerritory of Papua.The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southernSolomon Islands, primarilyGuadalcanal, as a first step towards capturingRabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. Both plans started in July, but by mid-September,the Battle for Guadalcanaltook priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to thenorthern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in theBattle of Buna–Gona.Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island andwithdrew their troops.In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrousoffensive into the Arakan regionin late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943.The second was theinsertion of irregular forcesbehind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive incentralandsouthern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in theKerch Peninsulaand atKharkov,and then in June 1942 launched their mainsummer offensiveagainst southern Russia, to seize theoil fields of the Caucasusand occupy theKubansteppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans splitArmy Group Southinto two groups:Army Group Aadvanced to the lowerDon Riverand struck south-east to the Caucasus, whileArmy Group Bheaded towards theVolga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. By mid-November, the Germans hadnearly taken Stalingradin bitterstreet fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with anencirclement of German forces at Stalingrad,and an assault on theRzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched anotherattack on Kharkov, creating asalientin their front line around the Soviet city ofKursk. Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions,the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa,Operation Crusader, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at theGazala lineby early February,followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.Concerns that the Japanese might use bases inVichy-held Madagascarcaused the British toinvade the islandin early May 1942.An Axisoffensive in Libyaforced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces werestopped at El Alamein.On the Continent, raids of Alliedcommandoson strategic targets, culminating in the failedDieppe Raid,demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling asecond attack against El Alameinand, at a high cost, managed todeliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.A few months later, the Alliescommenced an attack of their ownin Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.This attack was followed up shortly after byAnglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering theoccupation of Vichy France;although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed toscuttle their fleetto prevent its capture by German forces.Axis forces in Africa withdrew intoTunisia, which wasconquered by the Alliesin May 1943. In June 1943, the British and Americans begana strategic bombing campaignagainst Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and \\\"de-house\\\" the civilian population.Thefirebombing of Hamburgwas among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent toeliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians.Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations toisolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, andbreach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had alsoneutralised the major Japanese base at Trukin theCaroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation toretake Western New Guinea. In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives incentral Russia. On 5 July 1943, Germanyattacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences,and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies'invasion of Sicilylaunched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in theousting and arrest of Mussolinilater that month. On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their owncounter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortifiedPanther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it atSmolenskand theLower Dnieper Offensive. On 3 September 1943, the Western Alliesinvaded the Italian mainland, followingItaly's armistice with the Alliesand the ensuing German occupation of Italy.Germany, with the help of fascists, responded to the armistice bydisarming Italian forcesthat were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,and creating a series of defensive lines.German special forces thenrescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named theItalian Social Republic,causing anItalian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching themain German defensive linein mid-November. German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. ByMay 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.In November 1943,Franklin D. Rooseveltand Winston Churchill met withChiang Kai-shekin Cairoand then with Joseph Stalinin Tehran.The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territoryand the military planning for theBurma campaign,while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. From November 1943, during the seven-weekBattle of Changde, the Chinese awaited allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition.In January 1944, the Allies launched aseries of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassinoand tried to outflank it withlandings at Anzio. On 27 January 1944,Soviettroops launcheda major offensivethat expelled German forces from theLeningrad region, thereby ending themost lethal siege in history.Thefollowing Soviet offensivewashalted on the pre-war Estonian borderby the GermanArmy Group Northaided byEstonianshoping tore-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in theBaltic Searegion.By late May 1944, the Soviets hadliberated Crimea,largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and madeincursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops.The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions,an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India,and soon besieged Commonwealth positions atImphalandKohima.In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,and Chinese forces that hadinvaded northern Burmain late 1943besieged Japanese troopsinMyitkyina.Thesecond Japanese invasionof China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.By June, the Japanese had conquered the province ofHenanand begun anew attack on Changsha. Allies close in (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known asD-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,the Western Alliesinvaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they alsoattacked southern France.These landings were successful and led to the defeat of theGerman Army units in France.Pariswasliberatedon 25 August by thelocal resistanceassisted by theFree French Forces, both led by GeneralCharles de Gaulle,and the Western Allies continued topush back German forcesin western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded bya major airborne operationin the Netherlands failed.After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, butfailed to cross the Rur river. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to thelast major German defensive line. On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\\\"Operation Bagration\\\") that nearly destroyed the GermanArmy Group Centre.Soon after that,another Soviet strategic offensiveforced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed thePolish Committee of National Liberationto control territory in Poland and combat the PolishArmia Krajowa; the Soviet Red Army remained in thePragadistrict on the other side of theVistulaand watched passively as the Germans quelled theWarsaw Uprisinginitiated by the Armia Krajowa.Thenational uprisinginSlovakiawas also quelled by the Germans.The SovietRed Army'sstrategic offensive in eastern Romaniacut off and destroyed theconsiderable German troops thereand triggereda successful coup d'état in Romaniaandin Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced intoYugoslaviaand forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army GroupsEandFinGreece,Albaniaand Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.By this point, the communist-ledPartisansunder MarshalJosip Broz Tito, who had led anincreasingly successful guerrilla campaignagainst the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northernSerbia, the SovietRed Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a jointliberation of the capital city of Belgradeon 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched amassive assaultagainstGerman-occupiedHungary that lasted untilthe fall of Budapestin February 1945.Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans,bitter Finnish resistanceto theSoviet offensivein theKarelian Isthmusdenied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to aSoviet-Finnish armisticeon relatively mild conditions,although Finland was forced tofight their former German allies. By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges inAssam, pushing the Japanese back to theChindwin Riverwhile the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forcescaptured Mount Songand reopened theBurma Road.In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finallycaptured Changshain mid-June and the city ofHengyangby early August.Soon after, they invaded the province ofGuangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces atGuilin and Liuzhouby the end of Novemberand successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. In the Pacific, U.S. forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began theiroffensive against the Mariana and Palau islandsand decisively defeated Japanese forces in theBattle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister,Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forcesinvaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in theBattle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launcha massive counter-offensive in the Ardennesandalong the French-German border, hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port atAntwerp. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland,pushing from the Vistula to the Oderriver in Germany, andoverran East Prussia.On 4 February Soviet, British, and U.S. leaders met for theYalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. In February, the Sovietsentered SilesiaandPomerania, while theWestern Allies entered western Germanyand closed to theRhineriver. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhinenorthandsouthof theRuhr,encircling the German Army Group B.In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launchedits last major offensiveagainst Soviet troops nearLake Balaton. Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced toVienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troopscaptured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finallypushed forward in Italyand swept across western Germany capturingHamburgandNuremberg.American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe riveron 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troopsstormed and captured Berlinin late April.In Italy,German forces surrenderedon 29 April, while theItalian Social Republiccapitulated two days later. On 30 April, theReichstagwas captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president,Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussoliniwas killedbyItalian partisanson 28 April.On 30 April,Hitler committed suicidein hisheadquarters, and was succeeded byGrand AdmiralKarl Dönitz(asPresident of the Reich) andJoseph Goebbels(asChancellor of the Reich); Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced byLutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, in what would later be known as theFlensburg Government.Total and unconditional surrenderin Europe was signedon 7and 8May, to be effective by the end of8 May.German Army Group Centreresisted in Pragueuntil 11 May.On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by the Allied Forces inFlensburg, while on 5 June all German political and military institutions were transferred under the control of the Allies through theBerlin Declaration. In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of thePhilippine Commonwealthadvancedin the Philippines,clearing Leyteby the end of April 1945. Theylanded on Luzonin January 1945 andrecaptured Manilain March. Fighting continued on Luzon,Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until theend of the war.Meanwhile, theUnited States Army Air Forceslauncheda massive firebombing campaignof strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastatingbombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 Marchwas the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. In May 1945, Australian troopslanded in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northernBurmain March, and the British pushed on to reachRangoonby 3 May.Chinese forces started a counterattack in theBattle of West Hunanthat occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, takingIwo Jimaby March, andOkinawaby the end of June.At the same time, a naval blockade bysubmarineswas strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. On 11 July, Allied leadersmet in Potsdam, Germany. Theyconfirmed earlier agreementsabout Germany,and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that \\\"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\\\".During this conference, the United Kingdomheld its general election, andClement Attleereplaced Churchill as Prime Minister. The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.In early August, the United Statesdropped atomic bombson the Japanese cities ofHiroshimaandNagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement,declared war on Japan,invaded Japanese-held Manchuriaand quickly defeated theKwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.The Red Army also captured thesouthern part of Sakhalin Islandand theKuril Islands. On the night of 9–10 August 1945, EmperorHirohitoannounced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in thePotsdam Declaration.On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio (Gyokuon-hōsō, literally \\\"broadcast in the Emperor's voice\\\").On 15 August 1945,Japan surrendered, with thesurrender documentsfinally signed atTokyo Bayon the deck of the American battleshipUSSMissourion 2 September 1945, ending the war. Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations inAustriaandGermany, both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, thewesternandeastern occupation zonescontrolled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries,West GermanyandEast Germany.In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). Adenazificationprogram in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in theNuremberg trialsand the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories,Silesia,Neumarkand most ofPomeraniawere taken over by Poland,andEast Prussiawas divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by theexpulsion to Germanyof the nine million Germans from these provinces,as well as three million Germans from theSudetenlandin Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of theCurzon Line,from which2 million Poles were expelled;north-east Romania,parts of eastern Finland,and theBaltic stateswereannexed into the Soviet Union.Italylost its monarchy,colonial empireand someEuropean territories. In an effort to maintainworld peace,the Allies formed theUnited Nations,which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,and adopted theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin 1948 as a common standard for allmember nations.Thegreat powersthat were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became thepermanent membersof the UN'sSecurity Council.The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes,betweentheRepublic of Chinaand thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1971, and between the Soviet Union and itssuccessor state, theRussian Federation, following thedissolution of the USSRin 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Sovietspheres of influence.Most eastern and central European countries fell intothe Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result,East Germany,Poland,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia, andAlbaniabecame Sovietsatellite states. CommunistYugoslaviaconducted a fullyindependent policy, causingtension with the Soviet Union.ACommunist uprising in Greecewas put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-ledNATOand the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact.The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—theCold War—would be accompanied by an unprecedentedarms raceand number ofproxy warsthroughout the world. In Asia, the United States led theoccupation of Japanandadministered Japan's former islandsin the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexedSouth Sakhalinand theKuril Islands.Korea, formerlyunder Japanese colonial rule, wasdivided and occupiedby the Soviet Union in theNorthand the United States in theSouthbetween 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to theKorean War. In China, nationalist and communist forces resumedthe civil warin June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated toTaiwanin 1949.In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestineand thecreation of Israelmarked the escalation of theArab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of theircolonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading todecolonisation. The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to ababy boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy ofindustrial disarmament in Western Germanyfrom 1945 to 1948.Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. At theBretton Woods Conferencein July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD), which later became part of theWorld Bank Group. TheBretton Woods systemlasted until 1973.Recovery began with the mid-1948currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the U.S.Marshall Planeconomic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.The post-1948 West German recovery has been called theGerman economic miracle.Italy also experienced aneconomic boomand theFrench economy rebounded.By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,it continued in relative economic decline for decades.The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era,having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exactedwar reparationsfrom its satellite states.Japan recovered much later.China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. Impact Casualties and war crimes Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about20 million military personneland 40 million civilians. The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. An estimated 11to 17 millioncivilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler'sracist policies, includingmass killingofaround 6million Jews, along withRoma,homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnicPolesandmillions of other Slavs(including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), andother ethnic and minority groups.Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnicSerbs, along with Roma and Jews, werepersecuted and murderedby the Axis-aligned CroatianUstašeinYugoslavia.Concurrently,MuslimsandCroatswerepersecuted and killedby Serb nationalistChetniks,with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by theUkrainian Insurgent Armyin theVolhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945.At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the PolishHome Armyand other Polish units, in reprisal attacks. In Asia and the Pacific, the number of people killed by Japanese troops remains contested. According to R.J. Rummel, the Japanese killed between 3million and more than 10 million people, with the most probable case of almost 6,000,000 people.According to the British historianM. R. D. Foot, civilian deaths are between 10 million and 20 million, whereas Chinese military casualties (killed and wounded) are estimated to be over five million.Other estimates say that up to 30 million people, most of them civilians, were killed.The most infamous Japanese atrocity was theNanjing Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during theThree Alls policy. GeneralYasuji Okamuraimplemented the policy inHebeiandShandong. Axis forces employedbiologicalandchemical weapons. TheImperial Japanese Armyused a variety of such weapons during itsinvasion and occupation of China(seeUnit 731)and inearly conflicts against the Soviets.Both the Germans and theJapanese testedsuch weapons against civilians,and sometimes onprisoners of war. The Soviet Union was responsible for theKatyn massacreof 22,000 Polish officers,and the imprisonment or execution ofhundreds of thousands of political prisonersby theNKVDsecret police, along withmass civilian deportations to Siberia, in theBaltic statesandeastern Polandannexed by the Red Army.Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especiallyin Germany.The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million,while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although nopositiveor specificcustomaryinternational humanitarian lawwith respect toaerial warfareexisted before or during World War II.The USAAFbombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians, including theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and destroying 65% of built-up areas. Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany, under thedictatorshipof Adolf Hitler, was responsible for murdering about 6million Jews in what is now known asthe Holocaust. They also murdered an additional 4million others who were deemed \\\"unworthy of life\\\" (including thedisabledandmentally ill,Soviet prisoners of war,Romani,homosexuals,Freemasons, andJehovah's Witnesses) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a \\\"genocidalstate\\\".Soviet POWswere kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.In addition toconcentration camps,death campswere created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively usedforced labourers; about 12 millionEuropeansfrom German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. The SovietGulagbecame ade factosystem of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,including foreign citizens of Poland andother countriesoccupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as AxisPOWs.By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected toNKVDevaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. Japaneseprisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. TheInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastfound the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after thesurrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56. At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by theEast Asia Development Board, orKōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.InJava, between 4and 10 millionrōmusha(Japanese: \\\"manual labourers\\\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and theannexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion U.S. dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include theplunderof industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. In the East, the intended gains ofLebensraumwere never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Sovietscorched earthpolicies denied resources to the German invaders.Unlike in the West, theNazi racial policyencouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the \\\"inferior people\\\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed bymass atrocities and war crimes.The Naziskilled an estimated 2.77 million ethnic Polesduring the war in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.Althoughresistance groupsformed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the Eastor the Westuntil late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanesehegemonywhich it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination,Japanese war crimesfrequently turned local public opinion against them.During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. Home fronts and production In the 1930s Britain and the United States of America together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one ofattrition.While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in thelabour force,Alliedstrategic bombing,and Germany's late shift to awar economycontributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions ofslave labourers;Germany enslavedabout 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,whileJapan usedmore than 18 million people in Far East Asia. Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used forreconnaissance, asfighters,bombers, andground-support, and each role developed considerably. Innovations includedairlift(the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);andstrategic bombing(the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).Anti-aircraft weaponryalso advanced, including defences such asradarand surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of theproximity fuze. The use of thejet aircraftwas pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Advances were made in nearly every aspect ofnaval warfare, most notably withaircraft carriersandsubmarines. Althoughaeronauticalwarfare had relatively little success at the start of the war,actions at Taranto,Pearl Harbor, and theCoral Seaestablished the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship).In the Atlantic,escort carriersbecame a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close theMid-Atlantic gap.Carriers were also more economical thanbattleshipsdue to the relatively low cost of aircraftand because they are not required to be as heavily armoured.Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during theFirst World War,were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development onanti-submarineweaponryand tactics, such assonarand convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as theType VII submarineandwolfpacktactics.Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as theLeigh Light,Hedgehog,Squid, andhoming torpedoesproved effective against German submarines. Land warfarechanged from the static frontlines oftrench warfareof World War I, which had relied on improvedartillerythat outmatched the speed of bothinfantryandcavalry, to increased mobility andcombined arms. Thetank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World WarI,andadvances continued throughout the warwith increases in speed, armour and firepower.At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.Many means ofdestroying tanks, includingindirect artillery,anti-tank guns(both towed andself-propelled),mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the GermanMG 34, and varioussubmachine gunswhich were suited toclose combatin urban and jungle settings.Theassault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using largecodebooksforcryptographyby designingcipheringmachines, the most well-known being the GermanEnigma machine.Development ofSIGINT(signalsintelligence) andcryptanalysisenabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption ofJapanese naval codesand BritishUltra, apioneering methodfor decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by thePolish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.Another component ofmilitary intelligencewasdeception, which the Allies used to great effect in operations such asMincemeatandBodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3,Colossus, andENIAC),guided missilesandmodern rockets, theManhattan Project's development ofnuclear weapons,operations research, the development ofartificial harbours, andoil pipelines under the English Channel.Penicillinwas firstdeveloped, mass-produced, and usedduring the war. See also Notes Citations References External links\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Blue moon Ablue moonrefers either to the presence of a secondfull moonin a calendarmonth, to the third full moon in aseasoncontaining four, or to a moon that appearsbluedue to atmospheric effects. Thecalendricalmeaning of \"blue moon\" is unconnected to the other meanings. It is often referred to as “traditional”,but since no occurrences are known prior to 1937 it is better described as aninvented traditionor “modern American folklore”.The practice of designating the second full moon in a month as \"blue\" originated with amateur astronomer James Hugh Pruett in 1946.It does not come fromNative American lunar tradition, as is sometimes supposed. The moon - not necessarily full - can sometimes appear blue due to atmospheric emissions from large forest fires or volcanoes, though the phenomenon is rare and unpredictable (hence the saying “once in a blue moon”).A calendrical blue moon (by Pruett's definition) is predictable and relatively common, happening 7 times in every 19 years (i.e. once every 2 or 3","once every 2 or 3 years).Calendrical blue moons occur because thetime between successive full moons(approximately 29.5 days) is shorter than the average calendar month.They are of no astronomical or historical significance, and are not a product of actuallunisolar timekeepingorintercalation. Phrase origin A 1528 satire,Rede Me and Be Nott Wrothe, contained the lines, “Yf they saye the mone is belewe / We must beleve that it is true.”The intended sense was of an absurd belief, like themoon being made of cheese. There is nothing to connect it with the later metaphorical or calendrical meanings of “blue moon”. However, a confusion ofbelewe(Middle English, “blue”)withbelǽwan(Old English “to betray”)) led to afalse etymologyfor the calendrical term that remains widely circulated, despite its originator having acknowledged it as groundless. Percy Bysshe Shelley’spoem \"Alastor\" (1816)mentioned an erupting volcano: 7and a “blue moon / Low in the west.”: 14It was written at a time when the eruption ofMount Tamborawas","ofMount Tamborawas causing global climate effects, and not long before the first recorded instances of “blue moon” as a metaphor. The OED citesPierce Egan’sReal Life in London(1821) as the earliest known occurrence of “blue moon” in the metaphorical sense of a long time. (“How's Harry and Ben?—haven't seen you this blue moon.”)An 1823 revision of Francis Grose’s ‘’Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue’’, edited by Egan, included the definition: “Blue moon. In allusion to a long time before such a circumstance happens. ‘O yes, in a blue moon.’”An earlier (1811) version of the same dictionary had not included the phrase, so it was likely coined some time in the 1810s.\"Once in a blue moon\" is recorded from 1833. The use of blue moon to mean a specific calendrical event dates from 1937, when theMaine Farmers' Almanacused the term in a slightly different sense from the one now in common use. According to the OED, “Earlier occurrences of the sense given in theMaine Farmers' Almanachave not been traced, either","been traced, either in editions of the Almanac prior to 1937, or elsewhere; the source of this application of the term (if it is not a coinage by the editor, H. P. Trefethen) is unclear.”The conjecture of editorial invention is further supported by the spurious explanation the almanac gave: The Moon usually comes full twelve times in a year, three times in each season... However, occasionally the moon comes full thirteen times in a year. This was considered a very unfortunate circumstance, especially by the monks who had charge of the calendar. It became necessary for them to make a calendar of thirteen months, and it upset the regular arrangement of church festivals. For this reason thirteen came to be considered an unlucky number. Also, this extra moon had a way of coming in each of the seasons so that it could not be given a name appropriate to the time of year like the other moons. It was usually called the Blue Moon... In olden times the almanac makers had much difficulty calculating the occurrence of","the occurrence of the Blue Moon and this uncertainty gave rise to the expression \"Once in a Blue Moon\". There is no evidence that an extra moon in a month, season or year was considered unlucky, or that it led to13 being considered unlucky, or that the extra moon was called \"blue\", or that it led to the phrase \"once in a blue moon\". There is good reason to suspect that the 1937 article was a hoax, practical joke, or simply misinformed. It is however true that the date of the Christian festival ofEasterdepended on an accuratecomputationof full moon dates, and important work was done by the monksDionysius ExiguusandBede, explained by the latter inThe Reckoning of Time, written c725 CE. According to Bede, “Whenever it was a common year, gave three lunar months to each season. When an embolismic year occurred (that is, one of 13 lunar months) they assigned the extra month to summer, so that three months together bore the name ‘‘Litha’’; hence they called year ‘‘Thrilithi’’. It had four summer months, with the","months, with the usual three for the other seasons.” The nameLithais now applied by someNeo-Paganstomidsummer. The 1937Maine Farmers' Almanacarticle was misinterpreted by James Hugh Pruett in a 1946Sky and Telescope article, leading to the calendrical definition of “blue moon” that is now most commonly used, i.e. the second full moon in a calendar month. “A blue moon in the originalMaine Farmers' Almanacsense can only occur in the months of February, May, August, and November. In the later sense, one can occur in any month except February.\"This later sense gained currency from its use in a United States radio programme,StarDateon January 31, 1980 and in a question in theTrivial Pursuitgame in 1986. Several songs have been titled \"Blue Moon\", seen as a \"symbol of sadness and loneliness.\" Visually blue moon The moon (and sun) can appear blue under certain atmospheric conditions – for instance, if volcanic eruptions or large-scale fires release particles into the atmosphere of just the right size to","the right size to preferentiallyscatterred light.According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, scattering is the cause of “that epitome of rare occurrences, the blue Moon (seen when forest fires produce clouds composed of small droplets of organic compounds).” ARoyal Societyreport on the 1883Krakatoaeruptiongave a detailed account of “blue, green, and other coloured appearances of the sun and moon” seen in many places for months afterwards.: xiii. The report mentioned that in February 1884 an observer in central America saw the crescent moon as “a magnificent emerald-green” while itsashenpart was “pale green”. Venus, bright stars and a comet were also green.: 173The report authors suspected that green moons were a contrast effect, since in those cases the surrounding sky was seen as red.:203 People saw blue moons in 1983 after the eruption of theEl Chichónvolcano in Mexico, and there are reports of blue moons caused byMount St. Helensin 1980 andMount Pinatuboin 1991. The moon looked blue after forest fires in","forest fires in Sweden and Canada in 1950 and 1951,On September 23, 1950, severalmuskegfires that had been smoldering for several years in Alberta, Canada, suddenly blew up into major—and very smoky—fires. Winds carried the smoke eastward and southward with unusual speed, and the conditions of the fire produced large quantities of oily droplets of just the right size (about 1micrometrein diameter) to scatter red and yellow light. Wherever the smoke cleared enough so that the sun was visible, it was lavender or blue. Ontario, Canada, and much of the east coast of the United States were affected by the following day, and two days later, observers in Britain reported an indigo sun in smoke-dimmed skies, followed by an equally blue moon that evening. Ice particles might have a similar effect. The Antarctic diary ofRobert Falcon Scottfor July 11, 1911 mentioned \"the air thick with snow, and the moon a vague blue\". The key to a blue moon is having many particles slightly wider than the wavelength of red light (0.7","of red light (0.7 micrometer)—and no other sizes present. Ash and dust clouds thrown into the atmosphere by fires and storms usually contain a mixture of particles with a wide range of sizes, with most smaller than 1 micrometer, and they tend to scatter blue light. This kind of cloud makes the moon turn red; thus red moons are far more common than blue moons. Calendrical blue moon Blue moon as a calendrical term originated with the 1937Maine Farmers’ Almanac, a provincial U.S. magazine that is not to be confused with theFarmers' Almanac,Old Farmer's Almanac, or otherAmerican almanacs. There is no evidence of “blue moon” having been used as a specific calendrical term before 1937, and it was possibly invented by the magazine’s editor, Henry Porter Trefethen (1887-1957).As a term for the second full moon in a calendar month it began to be widely known in the U.S. in the mid-1980s and became internationally known in the late 1990s when calendrical matters were of special interest given the approaching","the approaching millennium. It created a misapprehension that the calendrical meaning of “blue moon” had preceded the metaphorical one, and inspired variousfolk etymologies, e.g. the “betrayer” speculation mentioned earlier, or that it came from a printing convention in calendars or a saying in Czech.A 1997 Taiwanese movie,Blue Moon, had thelog line“There is usually only one full moon every month, but occasionally there are two – and that second full moon is called the Blue Moon. It is said that when a person sees a blue moon and makes a wish, he will be granted a second chance in things.” In 1999 folklorist Philip Hiscock presented a timeline for the calendrical term.First, the August page of the 1937Maine Farmers' Almanacran a sidebar claiming that the term was used “in olden times” for an extra full moon in a season, and gave some examples (21 November 1915, 22 August 1918, 21 May 1921, 20 February 1924, 21 November 1934, 22 August 1937, and 21 May 1940). Six years later, Laurence J. Lafleur (1907-66)","Lafleur (1907-66) quoted the almanac in the U.S. magazineSky & Telescope(July 1943, page 17) in answer to a reader’s question about the meaning of “blue moon”. Then James Hugh Pruett (1886-1955) quoted it again inSky & Telescope(March 1946, p3), saying “seven times in 19 years there were — and still are — 13 full moons in a year. This gives 11 months with one full moon each and one with two. This second in a month, so I interpret it, was called Blue Moon”. In 1980 the term was used (with Pruett’s definition) in a U.S. radio program,Star Date, and in 1985 it appeared in a U.S. children’s book,The Kids' World Almanac of Records and Facts(“What is a blue moon? When there are two full moons in a month, the second one is called a blue moon. It is a rare occurrence.”)In 1986 it was included as a question in Trivial Pursuit (likely taken from the children’s book), and in 1988 a forthcoming blue moon received widespread press coverage. In 1999 U.S. astronomerDonald W. Olsonresearched the original articles and","articles and published the results in aSky & Telescopearticle co-authored with Richard T Fienberg and Roger W. Sinnott. From the examples given by Trefethen in the 1937Maine Farmers’ Almanacthey deduced a “rule” he must effectively have used. “Seasonal Moon names are assigned near the springequinoxin accordance with theecclesiastical rulesfor determining the dates ofEasterandLent. The beginnings of summer, fall, and winter are determined by thedynamical mean Sun. When a season contains four full Moons, the third is called a Blue Moon.”They termed this the “Maine rule” for blue moons, as distinct from Pruett’s 1946 definition that was seen to have been a misinterpretation. In popular astronomy the Maine rule is sometimes called the “seasonal”,“true”or “traditional”rule (though of course no tradition of it exists prior to 1937). Blue moons by Pruett’s definition are sometimes called “calendar blue moons”.The \"seasonal\" blue moon rule is itself ambiguous since it depends which definition ofseasonis used. The","used. The Maine rule used seasons of equal length with the ecclesiastical equinox (March 21). An alternative is to use the astronomical seasons, which are of unequal length. There is also reference in modern popular astrology to “zodiacal blue moons”. Blue moon dates The table below has blue moon dates and times (UTC) calculated according to Pruett’s “calendar” rule (second full moon in a calendar month) and two versions of the “seasonal” rule (third full moon in a season with four). The Maine rule uses equal-length seasons defined by the dynamical mean sun, and is presumed to have been the original rule of Trefethen.The “astro-seasonal” rule uses the unequal astronomical seasons defined by the apparent sun. All calculations are by David Harper. The fourth column shows blue moon dates that were actually printed in theMaine Farmers’ Almanac, as found by Olson, Fienberg and Sinnott in 1999. They studied issues published between 1819 and 1962, and found that all mentions occurred between 1937, when H.P.","1937, when H.P. Trefethen introduced the term, and 1956, when Trefethen’s editorship ended (consistent with it being Trefethen’s own invention). Occasional discrepancies between the Maine rule and the almanac’s printed dates can be ascribed to clerical errors or miscalculation. In one case (August 1945) Trefethen appears to have used the apparent rather than mean sun. The table shows that in 200 years there are 187 full moons that could be called \"blue\" by some definition - an average of nearly one per year. Two Pruett blue moons can occur in a single year (1915, 1961, 1999, 2018, 2037, 2094). 1915 had four blue moons (two Pruett, one Maine, one astro-seasonal). 1934 and 2048 have three (one of each type). Despite the 187 blue moons appearing across the 200 years in this table, only 146 years have any of these 3 types of blue moons, leaving 54 years (thus averaging just over 1 year in every 4) which have none of the 3 rules represented in that calendar year. While not totally unexpected (given the","(given the overlapping frequencies of these 3 rules), it so happens there are not any 2 sequential years (at least within these 200) wherein none of the 3 types of blue moon occur. Conversely, despite the preponderance of years with blue moons (of at least 1 type) occurring in this 200-year range, there are no instances of more than 4 sequential years having a blue moon, of any of these 3 types -- i.e. at least 1 year out of every 5 sequential years has none of the 3 types appearing. Remarks Onelunation(an average lunar cycle) is 29.53days. There are about 365.24 days in atropical year. Therefore, about 12.37 lunations (365.24 days divided by 29.53 days) occur in a tropical year. So the date of the full moon falls back by nearly one day every calendar month on average. Each calendar year contains roughly 11 days more than the number of days in 12 lunar cycles, so every two or three years (seven times in the 19 yearMetonic cycle), there is an extra full moon in the year. The extra full moon necessarily falls","necessarily falls in one of the four seasons (however defined), giving that season four full moons instead of the usual three. Given that a year is approximately 365.2425 days and a synodic orbit is 29.5309 days,then there are about 12.368 synodic months in a year. For this to add up to another full month would take 1/0.368 years. Thus it would take about 2.716 years, or 2 years, 8 months, and 18 days for another Pruett blue moon to occur. Or approximately once in 32.5 months on an average. When there are two Pruett blue moons in a single year, the first occurs in January and the second in March or April. The next timeNew Year's Evefalls on a Pruett blue moon (as occurred on December 31, 2009 in time zones west of UTC+05) is after one Metonic cycle, in 2028 in time zones west of UTC+08. At that time there will be atotal lunar eclipse. See also References External links","World War I World War Ior theFirst World War(28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as theGreat War, was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAllies(or Entente) and theCentral Powers. Fighting took place mainly inEuropeand theMiddle East, as well as in parts ofAfricaand theAsia-Pacific, and in Europe was characterised bytrench warfareand the use ofartillery, machine guns, andchemical weapons(gas). World War I was one of thedeadliest conflicts in history, resulting in an estimated9 million military dead and 23 million wounded, plus up to 8 million civilian deaths from causes includinggenocide. The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in theSpanish flupandemic, which killed millions. Thecauses of World War Iincluded the rise ofGermanyanddecline of the Ottoman Empire, which disturbed the long-standingbalance of powerin Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered byindustrialisationandimperialism. Growing tensions between thegreat powersand in theBalkansreacheda","theBalkansreacheda breaking pointon 28 June 1914, when aBosnian SerbnamedGavrilo Principassassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to theAustro-Hungarianthrone. Austria-Hungary heldSerbiaresponsible, and declared war on 28 July. AfterRussiamobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia; by 4 August,Franceand theUnited Kingdomwere drawn in, with the Ottomans joining in November.Germany's strategy in 1914was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east. However, this failed, and by the end of the year theWestern Frontconsisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. TheEastern Frontwas more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives.Italy,Bulgaria,Romania,Greeceand others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917, theUnited States entered the waron the Allied side following Germany's resumption ofunrestricted submarine warfareagainst Atlantic shipping. Later that year, theBolsheviksseized","theBolsheviksseized power in the RussianOctober Revolution;Soviet Russiasignedan armisticewith the Central Powers in December, followed bya separate peacein March 1918. That month, Germany launchedan offensive in the west, which despite initial successes left theGerman Armyexhausted and demoralised.A successful Allied counter-offensivefrom August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facinga revolution at home,Kaiser WilhelmIIabdicated on 9 November, and the war ended with theArmistice of 11 November 1918. TheParis Peace Conferenceof 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably theTreaty of Versailles, by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay largewar reparationsto the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in","and resulted in the creation of new independent states, includingPoland,Finland, theBaltic states,Czechoslovakia, andYugoslavia. TheLeague of Nationswas established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during theinterwar periodcontributed to the outbreak ofWorld War IIin 1939. Names BeforeWorld War II, the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as theGreat Waror simply theWorld War.In August 1914, the magazineThe Independentwrote \"This is the Great War. It names itself\".In October 1914, the Canadian magazineMaclean'ssimilarly wrote, \"Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War.\"Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as \"the war to end war\" and it was also described as \"the war to end all wars\" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life.The first recorded use of the termFirst World Warwas in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopherErnst Haeckelwho stated, \"There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared","of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word.\" Background Political and military alliances For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuousbalance of power, known as theConcert of Europe.After 1848, this was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-calledsplendid isolation, thedecline of the Ottoman Empire,New Imperialism, and the rise ofPrussiaunderOtto von Bismarck. Victory in the 1870–1871Franco-Prussian Warallowed Bismarck toconsolidateaGerman Empire. Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was toavengethis defeat,but by the early 1890s, this had switched to the expansion of theFrench colonial empire. In 1873, Bismarck negotiated theLeague of the Three Emperors, which includedAustria-Hungary,Russiaand Germany. After the 1877–1878Russo-Turkish War, the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in theBalkans, an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest.Germanyand","interest.Germanyand Austria-Hungary then formed the 1879Dual Alliance, which became theTriple Alliancewhen Italy joined in 1882.For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up theReinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire byWilhelm II. The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his newChancellor,Leo von Caprivi.This gave France an opening to agree theFranco-Russian Alliancein 1894, which was then followed by the 1904Entente Cordialewith Britain. TheTriple Ententewas completed by the 1907Anglo-Russian Convention. While not formal alliances, by settlinglong-standing colonial disputes in Asiaand Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became a","conflict became a possibility.This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911Agadir Crisis. Arms race German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, AdmiralAlfred von Tirpitzsought to use this growth to build anImperial German Navy, that could compete with the BritishRoyal Navy.This policy was based on the work of US naval authorAlfred Thayer Mahan, who argued that possession of ablue-water navywas vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to a change in policy and anAnglo-German naval arms racebegan.Despite","racebegan.Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch ofHMSDreadnoughtin 1906 gave the British a technological advantage.Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, ChancellorTheobald von Bethmann Hollwegacknowledged defeat, leading to theRüstungswendeor 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in theRusso-Japanese Warand subsequent1905 Russian Revolution. Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions.Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia, the threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After","Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by theBalkan powersand Italy, which led to increased expenditure by theOttomansand Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. Conflicts in the Balkans The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. WhilePan-SlavicandOrthodoxRussia considered itself the protector ofSerbiaand otherSlavstates, they preferred the strategically vitalBosporusstraits to be controlled by a weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power likeBulgaria.","power likeBulgaria. Russia had ambitions in northeasternAnatoliawhile its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as a direct threat. The 1908–1909Bosnian Crisisbegan when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory ofBosnia and Herzegovina, which ithad occupiedsince 1878. Timed to coincide with theBulgarian Declaration of Independencefrom the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as a significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912Italo-Turkish Wardemonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of","to the formation of theBalkan League, an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria,Montenegro, andGreece.The League quickly overran most of the Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913First Balkan War, much to the surprise of outside observers.The Serbian capture of ports on theAdriaticresulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border inGalicia. TheRussian governmentdecided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through the 1913Treaty of London, which had created an independentAlbaniawhile enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-daySecond Balkan War, when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most ofMacedoniato Serbia and Greece, andSouthern Dobrujato Romania.The result was that even countries which benefited from the Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece,","Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their \"rightful gains\", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany.This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the \"powder keg of Europe\". Prelude Sarajevo assassination On 28 June 1914,Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to EmperorFranz Joseph I of Austria, visitedSarajevo, the capital of the recently annexedBosnia and Herzegovina.Cvjetko Popović,Gavrilo Princip,Nedeljko Čabrinović,Trifko Grabež,Vaso Čubrilović(Bosnian Serbs) andMuhamed Mehmedbašić(from theBosniakscommunity),from the movement known asYoung Bosnia, took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the SerbianBlack Handintelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw agrenadeat the Archduke's car and injured two of his","injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street whereGavrilo Principwas standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wifeSophie. According to historianZbyněk Zeman, in Vienna \"the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June, the crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened.\"Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historianChristopher Clarkas a \"9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna\". Expansion of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequentanti-Serb riots in Sarajevo.Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and","Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as theSchutzkorpswas established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. July Crisis The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as the best way of achieving this.However, theForeign Ministryhad no solid proof of Serbian involvement.On 23July, Austria delivered anultimatumto Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered generalmobilizationon 25July, but accepted all the terms, except for","terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress \"subversive elements\" inside Serbia, and take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination.Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shellingBelgrade. Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from theSPDpolitical opposition by presenting Russia as the aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July.That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to \"cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary\" within 12 hours.A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war.TheGerman General Staffhad long assumed they faced a war on two fronts; theSchlieffen Planenvisaged","Planenvisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon.Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under the 1839Treaty of Londondid not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime MinisterAsquithand his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention.On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply.Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-ChiefJoseph Joffreasked his government for permission to cross the border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he","neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion.Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August,Germany occupied Luxembourgand exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which was refused. Early on the morning of 4August, the Germans invaded, andAlbert I of Belgiumcalled for assistance under theTreaty of London.Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Progress of the war Opening hostilities Confusion among the Central Powers Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders","leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Serbian campaign Beginning on 12 August, the Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of theCerandKolubara; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia.Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century.In 1915, the campaign saw the first use ofanti-aircraft warfareafter an Austrian plane was shot down withground-to-airfire, as well as the firstmedical evacuationby the Serbian army. German offensive in Belgium and France Upon mobilisation, in accordance with theSchlieffen Plan, 80% of theGerman Armywas located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier, the German right wing would sweep through theNetherlandsandBelgium,","then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator,Alfred von Schlieffen, head of theGerman General Stafffrom 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor,Helmuth von Moltke the Younger. Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the \"lost provinces\" ofAlsace-Lorraine, which was the strategy envisaged by theirPlan XVII.However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as the German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30.He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the","incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan.HistorianRichard Holmesargues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in the West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included theBritish Expeditionary Force(BEF), was infull retreat, and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000.German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, butvon Kluckused this freedom to disobey orders, opening a gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris.The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the","trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911, the RussianStavkaagreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that enteredEast Prussiaon 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war.As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after theFirst Battle of the Marne,Crown Prince Wilhelmtold an American reporter \"We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already.\" Asia and","already.\" Asia and the Pacific On 30 August 1914, New Zealandoccupied German Samoa(nowSamoa). On 11 September, theAustralian Naval and Military Expeditionary Forcelanded on the island ofNew Britain, then part ofGerman New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiserSMSEmdensank theRussian cruiserZhemchugin theBattle of Penang. Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became theSouth Seas Mandate, as well as GermanTreaty portson the ChineseShandongpeninsula atTsingtao. After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiserSMSKaiserin Elisabethfrom Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914.Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. African campaigns Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates","protectorates ofTogolandandKamerun. On 10 August, German forces inSouth-West Africaattacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces inGerman East Africa, led by ColonelPaul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought aguerrilla warfarecampaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Indian support for the Allies Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 byinstigating uprisings in India, while theNiedermayer–Hentig Expeditionurged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity.Leaders from theIndian National Congressand other groups believed support for the British war effort would hastenIndian Home Rule, a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 byEdwin Montagu, theSecretary of State for India. In 1914,","for India. In 1914, theBritish Indian Armywas larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded.The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting inthe campaign for full independenceled byMahatma Gandhi. Western Front 1914 to 1916 Trench warfare begins Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed the creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such asbarbed wire, machine guns and above all far more powerfulartillery, which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground","open ground extremely difficult.Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such asgas warfareand thetank. After theFirst Battle of the Marnein September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the \"Race to the Sea\". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from theChannelto the Swiss border.Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held the high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered \"temporary\", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences.Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at theSecond Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating","Germans (violating theHague Convention) usedchlorinegas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. Continuation of trench warfare In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at theBattle of Verdun, lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000to 975,000casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. TheBattle of the Sommewas an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. Theopening dayon 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of theBritish Army, which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As a whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans.The","500,000 Germans.The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such astrench foot,lice,typhus,trench fever, and the 'Spanish flu'. Naval war At the start of the war, Germancruiserswere scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Alliedmerchant shipping. These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was theSMSEmden, part of the GermanEast Asia Squadronstationed atQingdao, which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at theBattle of Coronelin November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at theBattle of the Falkland Islandsin December. TheSMSDresdenescaped with a few auxiliaries, but after theBattle of Más a Tierra, these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of","the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a navalblockade of Germany. This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law.Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of the ocean, even to neutral ships.Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. TheBattle of Jutlandin May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of the GermanHigh Seas Fleetwas confined to port. GermanU-boatsattempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.The nature ofsubmarine warfaremeant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the","the sinking of the passenger shipRMSLusitaniain 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the \"cruiser rules\", which demanded warning and movement of crews to \"a place of safety\" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet).Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy ofunrestricted submarine warfare, realising the Americans would eventually enter the war.Germany sought to strangle Alliedsea lanesbefore the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling inconvoys, escorted bydestroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after thehydrophoneanddepth chargeswere introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were","as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at the cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use ofaircraft carriersin combat, withHMSFuriouslaunchingSopwith Camelsin a successful raid against theZeppelinhangars atTondernin July 1918, as well asblimpsfor antisubmarine patrol. Southern theatres War in the Balkans Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital,Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on","join the attack on Serbia.The Austro-Hungarian provinces ofSlovenia, Croatia andBosniaprovided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in the attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northernAlbania. The Serbs suffered defeat in theBattle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in theBattle of Mojkovacon 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece.After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed atSalonicain Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government","its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-GermanKing Constantine Idismissed the pro-Allied government ofEleftherios Venizelosbefore the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturingBitolaon 19 November 1916 following the costlyMonastir offensive, which brought stabilisation of the front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in theVardar offensive, after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at theBattle of Dobro Pole, and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918.The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were too weak to re-establish a front. The disappearance of the Macedonian front meant that the","meant that the road toBudapestand Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against theCentral Powersand, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement. Ottoman Empire The Ottomans threatened Russia'sCaucasianterritories and Britain's communications with India via theSuez Canal. The Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers' preoccupation with the war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of theArmenian,Greek, andAssyrianChristian populations—theArmenian genocide,Greek genocide, andSayforespectively. The British and French opened overseas fronts with theGallipoli(1915) andMesopotamian campaigns(1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, andAustralian and New Zealand Army Corps(ANZACs). InMesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in thesiege of Kutby the Ottomans (1915–1916), British Imperial","British Imperial forces reorganised and capturedBaghdadin March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian fighters, while the Ottomans employed localKurdishandTurcomantribes. TheSuez Canalwas defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August 1916, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at theBattle of Romaniby theANZAC Mounted Divisionand the52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, anEgyptian Expeditionary Forceadvanced across theSinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in theBattle of Magdhabain December and theBattle of Rafaon the border between the EgyptianSinaiand Ottoman Palestine in January 1917. Russian armies generally had success in theCaucasus campaign.Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been previously lost to Russia. He was, however, a poor commander.He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting","troops, insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86% of his force at theBattle of Sarikamish.GeneralYudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southernCaucasus. The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modernIran) in December 1914 to cut off British and Russian access topetroleum reservoirsaroundBaku.Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided byKurdishandAzeriforces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. ThePersian campaignlasted until 1918 and ended in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However, the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led Armenian and Assyrian forces to be cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia. TheArab Revolt,","TheArab Revolt, instigated by the BritishForeign Office, started in June 1916 with theBattle of Mecca, led bySharif Hussein. The Sharif declared the independence of theKingdom of Hejazand, with British assistance, conquered much of Ottoman-held Arabia, resulting finally in the Ottoman surrender of Damascus.Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander ofMedina, resisted for more than2+1⁄2years during thesiege of Medinabefore surrendering in January 1919. TheSenussitribe, along the border ofItalian LibyaandBritish Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-scaleguerrilla waragainst Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in theSenussi campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916. Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted to 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000, with 325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded. Italian Front Though Italy joined the Triple Alliance in 1882, a treaty with its traditional Austrian enemy was so controversial that","controversial that subsequent governments denied its existence and the terms were only made public in 1915.This arose fromnationalistdesigns on Austro-Hungarian territory inTrentino, theAustrian Littoral,RijekaandDalmatia, considered vital to secure the borders established in1866.In 1902, Rome secretly had agreed with France to remain neutral if the latter was attacked by Germany, effectively nullifying its role in the Triple Alliance. When the war began in 1914, Italy argued the Triple Alliance was defensive and it was not obliged to support an Austrian attack on Serbia. Opposition to joining the Central Powers increased when Turkey became a member in September, since in1911Italy had occupied Ottoman possessions inLibyaand theDodecaneseislands.To secure Italian neutrality, the Central Powers offered themTunisia, while in return for an immediate entry into the war, the Allies agreed to their demands for Austrian territory and sovereignty over the Dodecanese.Although they remained secret, these provisions","these provisions were incorporated into the April 1915Treaty of London; Italy joined the Triple Entente and, on 23 May, declared war on Austria-Hungary,followed by Germany fifteen months later. The pre-1914 Italian army was short of officers, trained men, adequate transport and modern weapons; by April 1915, some of these deficiencies had been remedied but it was still unprepared for the major offensive required by the Treaty of London.The advantage of superior numbers was offset by the difficult terrain; much of the fighting took place high in theAlpsandDolomites, where trench lines had to be cut through rock and ice and keeping troops supplied was a major challenge. These issues were exacerbated by unimaginative strategies and tactics.Between 1915 and 1917, the Italian commander,Luigi Cadorna, undertooka series of frontal assaults along the Isonzo, which made little progress and cost many lives; by the end of the war, Italian combat deaths totalled around 548,000. In the spring of 1916, the","spring of 1916, the Austro-Hungarians counterattacked inAsiagoin theStrafexpedition, but made little progress and were pushed by the Italians back to Tyrol.Although Italy occupied southernAlbaniain May 1916, their main focus was the Isonzo front which, after thecapture of Goriziain August 1916, remained static until October 1917. After a combined Austro-German force won a major victory atCaporetto, Cadorna was replaced byArmando Diazwho retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) before holding positions along thePiave River.A second Austrianoffensive was repulsedin June 1918. On 24 October, Diaz launched theBattle of Vittorio Venetoand initially met stubborn resistance,but with Austria-Hungary collapsing, Hungarian divisions in Italy demanded they be sent home.When this was granted, many others followed and the Imperial army disintegrated, the Italians taking over 300,000 prisoners.On 3November, theArmistice of Villa Giustiended hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Italy which occupiedTriesteand areas","areas along theAdriatic Seaawarded to it in 1915. Eastern Front Initial actions As previously agreed with French presidentRaymond Poincaré, Russian plans at the start of the war were to simultaneously advance intoAustrian Galiciaand East Prussia as soon as possible. Although theirattack on Galiciawas largely successful, and the invasions achieved their aim of forcing Germany to divert troops from the Western Front, the speed of mobilisation meant they did so without much of their heavy equipment and support functions. These weaknesses contributed to Russian defeats atTannenbergand theMasurian Lakesin August and September 1914, forcing them to withdraw from East Prussia with heavy losses.By spring 1915, they had also retreated from Galicia, and the May 1915Gorlice–Tarnów offensiveallowed the Central Powers to invadeRussian-occupied Poland. Despite the successful June 1916Brusilov offensiveagainst the Austrians in eastern Galicia,shortages of supplies, heavy losses and command failures prevented the Russians","the Russians from fully exploiting their victory. However, it was one of the most significant offensives of the war, diverting German resources fromVerdun, relieving Austro-Hungarian pressure on the Italians, and convincing Romania to enter the war on the side of the Allies on 27 August. It also fatally weakened both the Austrian and Russian armies, whose offensive capabilities were badly affected by their losses and increased disillusion with the war that ultimately led to the Russian revolutions. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia asthe Tsarremained at the front, with the home front controlled byEmpress Alexandra. Her increasingly incompetent rule and food shortages in urban areas led to widespread protests and the murder of her favourite,Grigori Rasputin, at the end of 1916. Romanian participation Despite secretly agreeing to support the Triple Alliance in 1883, Romania increasingly found itself at odds with the Central Powers over their support for Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and the status of ethnic","status of ethnic Romanian communities inHungarian-controlledTransylvania,which comprised an estimated 2.8 million of the 5.0 million population.With the ruling elite split into pro-German and pro-Entente factions,Romania remained neutral for two years while allowing Germany and Austria to transport military supplies and advisors across Romanian territory. In September 1914, Russia acknowledged Romanian rights to Austro-Hungarian territories including Transylvania andBanat, whose acquisition had widespread popular support,and Russian success against Austria led Romania to join the Entente in the August 1916Treaty of Bucharest.Under the strategic plan known asHypothesis Z, the Romanian army planned an offensive into Transylvania, while defending SouthernDobrujaandGiurgiuagainst a possible Bulgarian counterattack.On 27 August 1916, theyattacked Transylvaniaand occupied substantial parts of the province before being driven back by the recently formedGerman 9th Army, led by former Chief of StaffErich von","of StaffErich von Falkenhayn.A combined German-Bulgarian-Turkish offensive captured Dobruja and Giurgiu, although the bulk of the Romanian army managed to escape encirclement and retreated toBucharest, whichsurrenderedto the Central Powers on 6 December 1916. In the summer of 1917, a Central Powers offensive began in Romania under the command of August von Mackensen to knock Romania out of the war, resulting in the battles ofOituz,MărăștiandMărășeștiwhere up to 1,000,000 Central Powers troops were present. The battles lasted from 22 July to 3 September and eventually, the Romanian army was victorious advancing 500 km2. August von Mackensen could not plan for another offensive as he had to transfer troops to the Italian Front.Following the Russian revolution, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed theTreaty of Bucharestwith the Central Powers, which recognised Romanian sovereignty overBessarabiain return for ceding control of passes in the Carpathian Mountains to Austria-Hungary and","Austria-Hungary and leasing its oil wells to Germany. Although approved byParliament,King Ferdinand Irefused to sign it, hoping for an Allied victory in the west.Romania re-entered the war on 10 November 1918 on the side of the Allies and the Treaty of Bucharest was formally annulled by the Armistice of 11 November 1918. Central Powers peace overtures On 12 December 1916, after ten brutal months of theBattle of Verdunand asuccessful offensive against Romania, Germany attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies.However, this attempt was rejected out of hand as a \"duplicitous war ruse\". US presidentWoodrow Wilsonattempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking for both sides to state their demands.Lloyd George'sWar Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions among the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the US was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the \"submarine outrages\". While the","While the Allies debated a response to Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of \"a direct exchange of views\". Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities.The Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars.The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer on the grounds of honour, and noted Germany had not put forward any specific proposals. Final years of the war Russian Revolution and withdrawal By the end of 1916, Russian casualties totalled nearly five million killed, wounded or captured, with major urban areas affected by food shortages and high prices. In March 1917, Tsar Nicholas ordered the military to forcibly suppress strikes inPetrogradbut the troops refused to fire on the crowds.Revolutionaries","set up thePetrograd Sovietand fearing a left-wing takeover, theState Dumaforced Nicholas to abdicate and established theRussian Provisional Government, which confirmed Russia's willingness to continue the war. However, the Petrograd Soviet refused to disband, creatingcompeting power centresand causing confusion and chaos, with frontline soldiers becoming increasingly demoralised. Following the Tsar's abdication,Vladimir Lenin—with the help of the German government—was ushered from Switzerland into Russia on 16 April 1917. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, they acceded to theTreaty of Brest-Litovskon 3March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including","including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. With theRussian Empireout of the war, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed theTreaty of Bucharestwith the Central Powers in May 1918. Under the terms of the treaty, Romania ceded territory to Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria and leased its oil reserves to Germany. However, the terms also included the Central Powers' recognition of the union ofBessarabiawith Romania. United States enters the war The United States was a major supplier of war material to the Allies but remained neutral in 1914, in large part due to domestic opposition.The most significant factor in creating the support Wilson needed was the German submarine offensive, which not only cost American lives but paralysed trade as ships were reluctant to put to sea. On 6 April 1917, Congressdeclared war on Germanyas an \"Associated Power\" of the Allies.TheUS Navysent abattleship grouptoScapa Flowto join the Grand Fleet, and provided","Fleet, and provided convoy escorts. In April 1917, theUS Armyhad fewer than 300,000 men, includingNational Guardunits, compared to British and French armies of 4.1 and 8.3 million respectively. TheSelective Service Act of 1917drafted 2.8 million men, though training and equipping such numbers was a huge logistical challenge. By June 1918, over 667,000 members of theAmerican Expeditionary Forces(AEF) were transported to France, a figure which reached 2 million by the end of November. Despite his conviction that Germany must be defeated, Wilson went to war to ensure the US played a leading role in shaping the peace, which meant preserving the AEF as a separate military force, rather than being absorbed into British or French units as his Allies wanted.He was strongly supported by AEF commander GeneralJohn J. Pershing, a proponent of pre-1914 \"open warfare\" who considered the French and British emphasis on artillery misguided and incompatible with American \"offensive spirit\".Much to the frustration of his","frustration of his Allies, who had suffered heavy losses in 1917, he insisted on retaining control of American troops, and refused to commit them to the front line until able to operate as independent units. As a result, the first significant US involvement was theMeuse–Argonne offensivein late September 1918. Nivelle Offensive (April–May 1917) In December 1916,Robert Nivellereplaced Pétain as commander of French armies on the Western Front and began planning aspring attackinChampagne, part of a joint Franco-British operation.Poor security meant German intelligence was well informed on tactics and timetables, but despite this, when the attack began on 16 April the French made substantial gains, before being brought to a halt by the newly built and extremely strong defences of the Hindenburg Line. Nivelle persisted with frontal assaults and, by 25 April, the French had suffered nearly 135,000 casualties, including 30,000 dead, most incurred in the first two days. Concurrent British attacks atArraswere more","atArraswere more successful, though ultimately of little strategic value.Operating as a separate unit for the first time, theCanadian Corps' capture ofVimy Ridgeis viewed by many Canadians as a defining moment in creating a sense of national identity.Though Nivelle continued the offensive, on 3 May the21st Division, which had been involved in some of the heaviest fighting at Verdun, refused orders to go into battle, initiating theFrench Army mutinies; within days, \"collective indiscipline\" had spread to 54 divisions, while over 20,000 deserted. Sinai and Palestine campaign (1917–1918) In March and April 1917, at theFirstandSecond Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani.At the end of October 1917, theSinai and Palestine campaignresumed, when GeneralEdmund Allenby'sXXth Corps,XXI CorpsandDesert Mounted Corpswon theBattle of Beersheba.Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at theBattle","later at theBattle of Mughar Ridgeand, early in December,Jerusalemhad been captured following another Ottoman defeat at theBattle of Jerusalem.About this time,Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressensteinwas relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army's commander, replaced byDjevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of theOttoman Armyin Palestine,Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced byOtto Liman von Sanders. In early 1918, the front line wasextendedand theJordan Valleywas occupied, following theFirst Transjordanand theSecond Transjordanattacks by British Empire forces in March and April 1918. German offensive and Allied counter-offensive (March–November 1918) In December 1917, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the West. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success","hopes for success in a final quick offensive.Ludendorff drew up plans (Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces nearSaint-Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).The initial offensive was a success; after heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks ormotorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell-torn and often impassable to traffic.Germany launchedOperation Georgetteagainst the northernEnglish Channelports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conductedOperations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) on 15 July, in an attempt to encircleReims. The resulting","The resulting counter-attack, which started theHundred Days Offensiveon 8 August,led to a marked collapse in German morale. Allied advance to the Hindenburg Line By September, the Germans had fallen back to the Hindenburg Line. The Allies hadadvanced to the Hindenburg Linein the north and centre. German forces launched numerous counterattacks, but positions and outposts of the Line continued falling, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September, the Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable. Thefinal assaulton the Hindenburg Line began with theMeuse-Argonne offensive, launched by American and French troops on 26 September. Two days later the Belgians, French and Britishattacked around Ypres, and the day after the British at St Quentin in the centre of the line. The following week, cooperating American and French units broke through inChampagneat theBattle of Blanc Mont Ridge(3–27 October), forcing the Germans off the","the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier.On 8October, the Hindenburg Line was pierced by British and Dominion troops of the First and Third British Armies at theSecond Battle of Cambrai. Breakthrough of Macedonian front (September 1918) Allied forces started theVardar offensiveon 15 September at two key points:Dobro Poleand nearDojran Lake. In theBattle of Dobro Pole, the Serbian and French armies had success after a three-day-long battle with relatively small casualties, and subsequently made a breakthrough in the front, something which was rarely seen in World War I. After the front was broken, Allied forces started to liberate Serbia and reachedSkopjeat 29 September, after whichBulgariasigned an armistice with the Allies on 30 September. Armistices and capitulations The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, theArmistice of Salonicaon 29 September 1918.German EmperorWilhelm IIin a telegram toBulgarian Tsar Ferdinand","Tsar Ferdinand Idescribed the situation thus: \"Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the war!\".On the same day, theGerman Supreme Army Commandinformed Kaiser Wilhelm II and theImperial ChancellorCountGeorg von Hertling, that the military situation facing Germany was hopeless. On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, marking the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3November, Austria-Hungary sent aflag of truceand accepted theArmistice of Villa Giusti, arranged with the Allied Authorities in Paris. Austria and Hungary signed separate","signed separate armistices following the overthrow of theHabsburg monarchy. In the following days, the Italian Army occupiedInnsbruckand allTyrol, with over 20,000 soldiers. On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, and signed the Armistice of Mudros. German government surrenders With the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser leading to his abdication and fleeing of the country, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge on October 3 as Chancellor of Germany. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military. TheGerman Revolution of 1918–1919began at the end of October 1918. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war they believed to be as good as lost. Thesailors' revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports","in the naval ports ofWilhelmshavenandKiel, spread across the whole country within days and led to theproclamation of a republicon 9November 1918, shortly thereafter to theabdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and German surrender. Aftermath In the aftermath of the war, the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires disappeared.Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties fell as a result of the war: theRomanovs, theHohenzollerns, theHabsburgs, and theOttomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead,not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. Formal end of the war A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of theTreaty of Versailleswith Germany on 28 June 1919. The US Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it,and did not formally end its involvement in the war until theKnox–Porter Resolutionwas signed","signed on 2July 1921 by PresidentWarren G. Harding.For the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of theTermination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918concerning: Somewar memorialsdate the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned home; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Peace treaties and national boundaries TheParis Peace Conferenceimposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919Treaty of Versaillesdealt with Germany and, building onWilson's 14th point, established theLeague of Nationson 28 June 1919. The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for \"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by\" their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement","this statement wasArticle 231. This article became known as the \"War Guilt Clause\", as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful.The Germans felt they had been unjustly dealt with by what they called the \"diktatof Versailles\". German historian Hagen Schulze said the Treaty placed Germany \"under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated.\"Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasises the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s: Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic. The legend of the \"stab in the back\" and the wish to revise the \"Versailles diktat\", and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a man of peace such as","of peace such as Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanise the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its policies. Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as a recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbours. Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Apart from Austria and Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia received territories from the Dual Monarchy (the formerly separate and autonomousKingdom of Croatia-Slavoniawas incorporated into Yugoslavia). The details were contained in the treaties ofSaint-Germain-en-LayeandTrianon. As a result, Hungary lost 64% of its total population, decreasing from 20.9 million to 7.6 million, and losing","million, and losing 31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of its ethnicHungarians.According to the 1910 census, speakers of the Hungarian language included approximately 54% of the entire population of theKingdom of Hungary. Within the country, numerous ethnic minorities were present: 16.1%Romanians, 10.5%Slovaks, 10.4%Germans, 2.5%Ruthenians, 2.5%Serbsand 8% others.Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The Russian Empire lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations ofEstonia,Finland,Latvia,Lithuania, andPolandwere carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918. National identities After 123 years, Poland re-emerged as an independent country. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a \"minor Entente nation\" and the country with the most casualties per capita,became the backbone of a new multinational state, theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia.","renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining theKingdom of Bohemiawith parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Romania woulduniteall Romanian-speaking people under a single state, leading toGreater Romania. In Australia and New Zealand, the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' \"Baptism of Fire\". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of theBritish Crown, and independent national identities for these nations took hold.Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), celebrates this defining moment. In the aftermath of World War I, Greecefoughtagainst Turkish nationalists led byMustafa Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in amassive population exchange between the two countriesunder the Treaty of Lausanne.According to various sources,several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the","tied in with the Greek genocide. Casualties Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilised from 1914 to 1918, an estimated8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria-Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%.France mobilised 7.8 million men, of which 1.4 million died and 3.2 million were injured.Approximately 15,000 deployed men sustained gruesome facial injuries, causing social stigma and marginalisation; they were called thegueules cassées(broken faces). In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that had weakened disease resistance. These excess deaths are estimated as 271,000 in 1918, plus another 71,000 in the first half of 1919 when the blockade was still in effect.Starvation caused by famine killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In","conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borneepidemic typhuskilled 200,000 in Serbia.Starting in early 1918, a major influenza epidemic known asSpanish fluspread across the world, accelerated by the movement of large numbers of soldiers, often crammed together in camps and transport ships with poor sanitation. The Spanish flu killed at least 17 to 25 million people,including an estimated 2.64 million Europeans and as many as 675,000 Americans.Between 1915 and 1926, an epidemic ofencephalitis lethargicaaffected nearly five million people worldwide. Eight millionequinesmostlyhorses,donkeysandmulesdied, three-quarters of them from the extreme conditions they worked in. War crimes Chemical weapons in warfare The German army was the first to successfully deploy chemical weapons during the Second Battle of Ypres (April–May 1915), after German scientists under the direction ofFritz Haberat theKaiser Wilhelm Institutedeveloped a method to weaponizechlorine.The use of chemical weapons had been sanctioned by the German High","by the German High Command to force Allied soldiers out of their entrenched positions, complementing rather than supplanting more lethal conventional weapons.Chemical weapons were deployed by all major belligerents throughout the war, inflicting approximately 1.3 million casualties, of which about 90,000 were fatal.The use of chemical weapons in warfare was a direct violation of the1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gasesand the1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their use. Genocides by the Ottoman Empire Theethnic cleansingof the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is consideredgenocide.The Ottomans carried out organised and systematic massacres of the Armenian population at the beginning of the war and manipulated acts of Armenian resistance by portraying them as rebellions to justify further extermination.In early 1915, several Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the","forces and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue theTehcir Law(Law on Deportation), which authorised the deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionallymarched to deathand a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands.While the exact number of deaths is unknown, theInternational Association of Genocide Scholarsestimates around 1.5 million.The government of Turkey continues todeny the genocideto the present day, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World WarI; these claims are rejected by most historians. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians andGreeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination.At least 250,000 Assyrian Christians, about half of the population, and 350,000–750,000AnatolianandPontic Greekswere killed between 1915 and 1922. Prisoners of","1922. Prisoners of war About 8 million soldiers surrendered and were held inPOW campsduring the war. All nations pledged to follow theHague Conventionson fair treatment ofprisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of combatants at the front. Around 25–31% of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria-Hungary 32%; for Italy 26%; for France 12%; for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5–3.5 million soldiers as prisoners). From the Central Powers, about 3.3 million soldiers became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians. Soldiers' experiences Allied personnel was around 42,928,000, while Central personnel was near 25,248,000.British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but were increasinglyconscripted. Surviving veterans returning home often found they could discuss their experiences only among","only among themselves, so formed \"veterans' associations\" or \"Legions\". Conscription Conscription was common in most European countries. However, it was controversial in English-speaking countries,It was especially unpopular among minority ethnicities—especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland,Australia,and the French Catholics in Canada. In the US, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well-received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas.The administration decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower after only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of war. Military attachés and war correspondents Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war.Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern \"embedded\" positions within the opposing land and naval forces. Economic effects Macro- and micro-economic","and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, the industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle forvoting rights for women. In all nations, the government's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50% in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the US, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily fromWall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916 but allowed a great increase inUS governmentlending to the Allies. After 1919, the US demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations that, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and some loans were never","loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4billionof World WarI debt in 1934; the last installment was finally paid in 2015. Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such asAlbert Kitsonwere called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits ofmanganese, used in munitions production, in theGold Coast. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called \"war guilt\" clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for \"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.\"It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However, neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war","an admission of war guilt.In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, \"Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay\" this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being \"deliberately designed to be chimerical\" and its \"primary function was to mislead public opinion ... into believing the 'total sum was being maintained.'\"Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) \"represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay\" and \"therefore ... represented the total German reparations\" figure that had to be paid. This figure could be paid in cash or in-kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). Some of the territory lost—via the Treaty of Versailles—was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain.By 1929, theGreat Depressioncaused political chaos throughout the world.In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point","by which point Germany had paid only the equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks.With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled.David Andelmannotes \"Refusing to pay doesn't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the agreement, still exist.\" Thus, following the Second World War, at theLondon Conferencein 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3October 2010, Germany made the final payment on these bonds. The Australian prime minister,Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister,David Lloyd George, \"You have assured us that you cannot get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies.\" Australia received £5,571,720 in war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been £376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s,","by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were £831,280,947. Support and opposition for the war Support In the Balkans,Yugoslav nationalistssuch as the leader,Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom ofYugoslavsfrom Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. TheYugoslav Committee, led by Trumbić, was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London.In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, includingCzechoslovak, Italian,Polish,Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support nationalself-determinationfor the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary. In the Middle East,Arab nationalismsoared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of apan-Arabstate. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle","of the Middle East to achieve independence. In East Africa,Iyasu VofEthiopiawas supporting theDervish statewho were at war with the British in theSomaliland campaign.Von Syburg, the German envoy inAddis Ababa, said, \"now the time has come for Ethiopia to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians home, to restore the Empire to its ancient size.\" The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge of entering World WarI on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu's overthrow at theBattle of Segaledue to Allied pressure on the Ethiopian aristocracy. Several socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914.But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept ofclass conflictheld by radical socialists such as Marxists andsyndicalistsbeing overborne by their patriotic support for the war.Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries' intervention in the war. Italian","in the war. Italian nationalismwas stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war wasGabriele D'Annunzio, who promotedItalian irredentismand helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war.TheItalian Liberal Party, under the leadership ofPaolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and used the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism.Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, includingBenito MussoliniandLeonida Bissolati.However, theItalian Socialist Partydecided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in ageneral strikecalledRed Week.The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini.Mussolini formed the pro-interventionistIl Popolo d'Italiaand theFasci","theFasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista(\"RevolutionaryFascifor International Action\") in October 1914 that later developed into theFasci Italiani di Combattimentoin 1919, the origin of fascism.Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds fromAnsaldo(an armaments firm) and other companies to createIl Popolo d'Italiato convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. Patriotic funds On both sides, there was large-scale fundraising for soldiers' welfare, their dependents and those injured. TheNail Menwere a German example. Around the British Empire, there were many patriotic funds, including theRoyal Patriotic Fund Corporation,Canadian Patriotic Fund,Queensland Patriotic Fundand, by 1919, there were 983 funds in New Zealand.At the start of the next world war the New Zealand funds were reformed, having been criticised as overlapping, wasteful and abused,but 11 were still functioning in 2002. Opposition Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These","the conflict. These includedEugene Debsin the US andBertrand Russellin Britain. In the US, theEspionage Act of 1917andSedition Act of 1918made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed \"disloyal\". Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors,and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic. Several nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advancedIrish nationalistshad staunchly opposed taking part.The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912, and by July 1914 there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in theEaster Risingof 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to","to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain.The British government placed Ireland undermartial lawin response to the Easter Rising, though once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling.However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland, resulting in theConscription Crisis of 1918. Other opposition came fromconscientious objectors—some socialist, some religious—who had refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status.Some of them, most notably prominent peace activistStephen Hobhouse, refused both military andalternative service.Many suffered years of prison, includingsolitary confinement. Even after the war, in Britain, many job advertisements were marked \"No conscientious objectors need to apply\". On 1–4 May 1917, about 100,000 workers and soldiers ofPetrograd, and after them, the workers and soldiers of other Russian cities, led by the Bolsheviks, demonstrated under banners reading \"Down","reading \"Down with the war!\" and \"all power to the Soviets!\". The mass demonstrations resulted in a crisis for theRussian Provisional Government.InMilan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation.The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks andanarchists, who fought violently until May 23 when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people were arrested. Technology World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-centurytactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies had modernised and were making use of telephone,wireless communication,armoured cars,tanks(especially with the advent of the prototype tank,Little Willie), and aircraft. Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were","1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917,indirect firewith guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably, aircraft and thefield telephone. Fixed-wing aircraftwere initially used forreconnaissanceandground attack. To shoot down enemy planes,anti-aircraft gunsandfighter aircraftwere developed.Strategic bomberswere created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former usedZeppelinsas well.Towards the end of the conflict,aircraft carrierswere used for the first time, with HMSFuriouslaunchingSopwith Camelsin a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars atTønderin 1918. Diplomacy The non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed to build support for the cause or to undermine support for the enemy. For the most part, wartime diplomacy focused on five issues:propaganda campaigns; defining and redefining the war goals, which became harsher as the","harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements inside the Central Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and Arabs. In addition, multiple peace proposals were coming from neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very far. Legacy and memory Memorials Memorials were built in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as theCommonwealth War Graves Commission, theAmerican Battle Monuments Commission, theGerman War Graves Commission, andLe Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have monuments to the missing orunidentifieddead, such as theMenin Gate Memorial to the Missingand theThiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme. In 1915,John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the","doctor, wrote the poemIn Flanders Fieldsas a salute to those who perished in the war. It is still recited today, especially onRemembrance DayandMemorial Day. National World War I Museum and MemorialinKansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World WarI. TheLiberty Memorialwas dedicated on 1 November 1921. The British government budgeted substantial resources tothe commemoration of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is theImperial War Museum.On 3August 2014, French PresidentFrançois Hollandeand German PresidentJoachim Gaucktogether markedthe centenary of Germany's declaration of war on Franceby laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German asHartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in the war.As part of commemorations for thecentenary of the 1918 Armistice, French PresidentEmmanuel Macronand German ChancellorAngela Merkelvisited the site of the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne and unveiled a plaque to","a plaque to reconciliation. Historiography ... \"Strange, friend,\" I said, \"Here is no cause to mourn.\"\"None,\" said the other, \"Save the undone years\"... The first efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences ofmodern warfarebegan during the initial phases of the war and are still underway more than a century later. Teaching World War I has presented special challenges. When compared withWorld War II, the First World War is often thought to be \"a wrong war fought for the wrong reasons\"; it lacks themetanarrativeofgood versus evilthat characterizes retellings of the Second World War. Lacking recognizable heroes and villains, it is often taught thematically, invoking simplifiedtropesthat obscure the complexity of the conflict. Historian Heather Jones argues that thehistoriographyhas been reinvigorated by a cultural turn in the 21st century. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regardingmilitary occupation,radicalisationof politics,race,medical science,genderandmental health. Among the major","Among the major subjects that historians have long debated regarding the war include:Why the war began; why theAllieswon; whether generals were responsible forhigh casualty rates; how soldiers endured the poor conditions oftrench warfare; and to what extent the civilianhome frontaccepted and endorsed the war effort. Unexploded ordnance As late as 2007,unexploded ordnanceat battlefield sites likeVerdunandSommecontinued to pose a danger. In France and Belgium, locals who discover caches of unexploded munitions are assisted by weapons disposal units. In some places, plant life has still not recovered from the effects of the war. See also Footnotes References Bibliography External links Library guides","World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War IIor theSecond World War(1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAlliesand theAxis powers.Nearly all the world's countries—including all thegreat powers—participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit oftotal war, blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources.Tanksandaircraft played major roles, with the latter enabling thestrategic bombingof population centres and delivery of theonly two nuclear weaponsever used in war. World War II was thedeadliest conflictin history, resulting in70 to 85 million fatalities, more than half of which were civilians. Millions died ingenocides, includingthe Holocaustof European Jews, and by massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory,Germany,Austria,Japan, andKoreawere occupied, andwar crimestribunals were conductedagainst GermanandJapanese","GermanandJapanese leaders. Thecauses of World War IIincluded unresolved tensions in theaftermath of World War Iand the rises offascism in Europeandmilitarism in Japan, and it was preceded by events including theJapanese invasion of Manchuria,Spanish Civil War, outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, and Germanannexations of Austriaandthe Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, whenNazi Germany, underAdolf Hitler,invaded Poland, after which theUnited KingdomandFrancedeclared waron Germany. Poland was partitioned between Germany and theSoviet Unionunder theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, by which they had agreed on respective \"spheres of influence\" in Eastern Europe; in 1940, the Sovietsannexed the Baltic statesandparts of FinlandandRomania. After thefall of Francein June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and theBritish Empire, with fighting in theBalkans,Mediterranean, and Middle East, the aerialBattle of Britainandthe Blitz, and navalBattle of the Atlantic.","of the Atlantic. Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much ofcontinental Europeandformed the Axis alliancewithItaly,Japan, and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis inan invasion of the Soviet Union, opening theEastern Frontand initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed todominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific, and by 1937 was at war with theRepublic of China. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territoriesin Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, includingat Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan; theEuropean Axis declared war on the US.Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia, but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the navalBattle of Midway; Germany and Italy weredefeated in North Africaand atStalingradin the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, theAllied invasions of Sicilyand","of Sicilyand theItalian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Alliesinvaded German-occupied France at Normandy, while the Soviet Unionregained its territorial lossesand pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled theJapanese Navyandcaptured key islands. The war in Europe concluded with the liberation ofGerman-occupied territories; theinvasion of Germany by the Western Alliesand the Soviet Union, culminating in thefall of Berlinto Soviet troops;Hitler's suicide; and theGerman unconditional surrenderon8 May 1945. Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of thePotsdam Declaration, the USdropped the first atomic bombsonHiroshimaandNagasakion 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminentinvasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Sovietdeclaration of","of waragainst Japan and itsinvasion of Manchuria, Japan announcedits unconditional surrenderon 15 August and signeda surrender documenton2 September 1945, marking the end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. TheUnited Nationswas established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becomingthe permanent membersofits security council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rivalsuperpowers, setting the stage for theCold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering thedecolonisation of AfricaandAsia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towardseconomic recovery and expansion. Start and end dates World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939with theGerman invasion of","invasion of Polandand theUnited KingdomandFrance's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of thePacific Warinclude the start of theSecond Sino-Japanese Waron 7 July 1937,or the earlierJapanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931.Others follow the British historianA. J. P. Taylor, who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars became World War II in 1941.Other proposed starting dates for World War II include theItalian invasion of Abyssiniaon 3 October 1935.The British historianAntony Beevorviews the beginning of World WarII as theBattles of Khalkhin Golfought betweenJapanand the forces ofMongoliaand theSoviet Unionfrom May to September 1939.Others view theSpanish Civil Waras the start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 (V-J Day),","1945 (V-J Day), rather than with the formalsurrender of Japanon 2 September 1945, which officiallyended the war in Asia. Apeace treaty between Japan and the Allieswas signed in 1951.A 1990treaty regarding Germany's futureallowed thereunification of East and West Germanyto take place and resolved most post–World WarII issues.No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed,although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by theSoviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. History Background Aftermath of World War I World War Ihad radically altered the political European map with the defeat of theCentral Powers—includingAustria-Hungary,Germany,Bulgaria, and theOttoman Empire—and the 1917Bolshevik seizure of powerinRussia, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victoriousAllies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and newnation-stateswere","created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, theLeague of Nationswas established in 1920 by theParis Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, andnaval disarmament, as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentimentafter World WarI,irredentistandrevanchistnationalismhad emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by theTreaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and allits overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited,reparationswere imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country'sarmed forces. Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in theGerman","in theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as theWeimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that thepromises madeby the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, theFascistmovement led byBenito Mussoliniseized power in Italy with a nationalist,totalitarian, andclass collaborationistagenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \"New Roman Empire\". Adolf Hitler, after anunsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German governmentin 1923, eventuallybecame the Chancellor of Germanyin 1933 whenPaul von","1933 whenPaul von Hindenburgand the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himselfFührerof Germany and abolished democracy, espousing aradical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massiverearmament campaign.France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy,allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when theTerritory of the Saar Basinwas legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed theStresa Frontin April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towardsmilitary globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made anindependent naval agreementwith Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany'sgoals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty","drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, theFranco-Soviet pactwas required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed theNeutrality Actin August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles andLocarno Treatiesbyremilitarising the Rhinelandin March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy ofappeasement.In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed theRome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed theAnti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year. Asia TheKuomintang(KMT) party in China launched aunification campaignagainstregional warlordsand nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled ina civil waragainst its formerChinese Communist Party(CCP) alliesandnew regional warlords. In 1931, anincreasingly militaristicEmpire of Japan, which had long sought influence in Chinaas the first step of what its","step of what its government saw as the country'sright to rule Asia, staged theMukden incidentas a pretext toinvade Manchuriaand establish thepuppet stateofManchukuo. China appealed to theLeague of Nationsto stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after beingcondemnedfor its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, inShanghai,ReheandHebei, until theTanggu Trucewas signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression inManchuria, andChahar and Suiyuan.After the 1936Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to presenta united frontto oppose Japan. Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) TheSecond Italo-Ethiopian Warwas a briefcolonial warthat began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of theEthiopian Empire(also known asAbyssinia) by the armed forces of theKingdom of Italy(Regno d'Italia), which was launched fromItalian","fromItalian SomalilandandEritrea.The war resulted in themilitary occupationof Ethiopia and itsannexationinto the newly created colony ofItalian East Africa(Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of theLeague of Nationsas a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations,but the League did littlewhen the former clearly violated Article X of the League'sCovenant.The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion.Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbingAustria. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to theNationalist rebels, led by GeneralFrancisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain.The Soviet Union","Soviet Union supported the existing government of theSpanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as theInternational Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used thisproxy waras an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World WarII butgenerally favoured the Axis.His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending ofvolunteersto fight on theEastern Front. Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital ofPekingafter instigating theMarco Polo Bridge incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.The Soviets quickly signed anon-aggression pact with Chinato lendmaterielsupport, effectively ending China's priorcooperation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attackedTaiyuan, engaged theKuomintang Armyaround Xinkou,and","Xinkou,and foughtCommunist forcesin Pingxingguan.GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shekdeployed hisbest armytodefend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back,capturing the capital Nankingin December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants weremurdered by the Japanese. In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won theirfirst major victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city ofXuzhouwas taken by the Japanesein May.In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance byflooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences atWuhan, but thecity was takenby October.Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland toChongqingand continued the war. Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces","Japanese forces inManchukuohad sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union andMongolia. The Japanese doctrine ofHokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat atKhalkin Golin 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese Warand ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed aNeutrality Pactin April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine ofNanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germanyannexed Austria, again provokinglittle responsefrom other European powers.Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on theSudetenland, an area ofCzechoslovakiawith a predominantlyethnic Germanpopulation. Soon the United Kingdom","the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlainand conceded this territory to Germany in theMunich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia tocede additional territoryto Hungary, and Poland annexed theTrans-Olzaregion of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \"war-mongers\" and in January 1939secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navyto challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939,Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakiaand subsequently split it into the GermanProtectorate of Bohemia and Moraviaand a pro-Germanclient state, theSlovak","state, theSlovak Republic.Hitler also delivered anultimatum to Lithuaniaon 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of theKlaipėda Region, formerly the GermanMemelland. Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on theFree City of Danzig, the United Kingdom and Franceguaranteed their support for Polish independence; whenItaly conquered Albaniain April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to theKingdoms of RomaniaandGreece.Shortly after theFranco-Britishpledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with thePact of Steel.Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to \"encircle\" Germany and renounced theAnglo-German Naval Agreementand theGerman–Polish declaration of non-aggression. The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signeda non-aggression pactwith Germany,after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had","Soviet Union had stalled.This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet \"spheres of influence\" (westernPolandand Lithuania for Germany;eastern Poland, Finland,Estonia,LatviaandBessarabiafor the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence.The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World WarI. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations.On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polishplenipotentiaryimmediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover ofDanzig, and to allow aplebiscitein thePolish","thePolish Corridorin which the German minority would vote on secession.The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassadorNevile Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germanyinvaded Polandafterhaving stagedseveralfalse flag border incidentsas a pretext to initiate the invasion.The first German attack of the war came against thePolish defenses at Westerplatte.The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany.During thePhoney Warperiod, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of acautious French probe into the Saarland.The Western Allies also began anaval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.Germany","war effort.Germany responded by orderingU-boat warfareagainst Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into theBattle of the Atlantic. On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs ofWarsaw. The Polishcounter-offensiveto the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by theWehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through tobesieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing acease-fire with Japan, theSoviet Union invaded Polandunder the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist.On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, andthe last large operational unit of the Polish Armysurrendered on 6October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed thePolish government-in-exileand aclandestine state apparatus remainedin occupied Poland.A significant part of Polish military personnelevacuated to Romaniaand Latvia; many of them laterfought against the Axisin other theatres of","other theatres of the war. Germanyannexed westernPoland andoccupied central Poland; the Soviet Unionannexed eastern Poland; small shares of Polish territory were transferred toLithuaniaandSlovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejectedand Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatenedEstonia,Latvia, andLithuaniawith military invasion, forcing the threeBaltic countriesto signpactsallowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there.Finlandrefused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union.The Soviet Union invaded Finlandin November 1939,and was subsequently expelled from theLeague of","from theLeague of Nationsfor this crime of aggression.Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during theWinter Warwas modest,and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 withsome Finnish concessions of territory. In June 1940, the Soviet Unionoccupiedthe entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,as well as the Romanian regions ofBessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. In August 1940, Hitler imposed theSecond Vienna Awardon Romania which led to the transfer ofNorthern Transylvaniato Hungary.In September 1940, Bulgaria demandedSouthern Dobrujafrom Romania with German and Italian support, leading to theTreaty of Craiova.The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under MarshalIon Antonescu, with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee.Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operationgradually stalled,and both states began","both states began preparations for war. Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940,Germany invaded Denmark and Norwayto protect shipments ofiron ore from Sweden, which the Allies wereattempting to cut off.Denmark capitulated after six hours, anddespite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.British discontent over the Norwegian campaignled to the resignation of Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain, who was replaced byWinston Churchillon 10May 1940. On the same day, Germanylaunched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strongMaginot Linefortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations ofBelgium,the Netherlands, andLuxembourg.The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through theArdennesregion,which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.By successfully implementing newBlitzkriegtactics, theWehrmachtrapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping","Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was ableto evacuate a significant number of Allied troopsfrom the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June,Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, andParisfell to them on 14June. Eight days laterFrance signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided intoGermanandItalian occupation zones,and an unoccupiedrump stateunder theVichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, whichthe United Kingdom attackedon 3July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The airBattle of Britainbegan in early July withLuftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours.TheGerman campaign for air superioritystarted in August but its failure to defeatRAF Fighter Commandforced the indefinite postponement of","postponement of theproposed German invasion of Britain. The Germanstrategic bombingoffensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities inthe Blitz, but largely ended in May 1941after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navyenjoyed successagainst an over-extendedRoyal Navy, usingU-boatsagainst British shippingin the Atlantic.The BritishHome Fleetscored a significant victory on 27May 1941 bysinking the German battleshipBismarck. In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended theNeutrality Actto allow\"cash and carry\"purchases by the Allies.In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of theUnited States Navywassignificantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to atrade of American destroyers for British bases.Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.In December","1941.In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an \"arsenal of democracy\" and promotingLend-Leaseprogrammes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it wasinvadedby Germany.The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, theTripartite Pactformally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as theAxis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.The Axis expanded in November 1940 whenHungary,Slovakia, andRomaniajoined.RomaniaandHungarylater made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recaptureterritory ceded to the Soviet Union. Mediterranean","Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the ItalianRegia Aeronauticaattacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italyconquered British Somalilandand made anincursion into British-held Egypt. In October,Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes.To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces begancounter-offensivesagainst Italian forces in Egypt andItalian East Africa.The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. TheItalian Navyalso suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after acarrier attack at","acarrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at theBattle of Cape Matapan. Italian defeats prompted Germany todeploy an expeditionary forceto North Africa; at the end of March 1941,Rommel'sAfrika Korpslaunched an offensivewhich drove back Commonwealth forces.In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt andbesieged the port of Tobruk. By late March 1941,BulgariaandYugoslaviasigned theTripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government wasoverthrown two days laterby pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of bothYugoslaviaandGreece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month.The airborneinvasion of the Greek island of Creteat the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans.Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against theAxis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forcesquashed an uprising in Iraqwhich had been","Iraqwhich had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlledSyria.Between June and July, British-led forcesinvaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon, assisted by theFree French. Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions inSoutheast Asia, the two powers signed theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pactin April 1941.By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later.On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be","Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest ofUkraine, theBaltic statesandByelorussia.However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact.In November 1940,negotiations took placeto determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union inOperation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets ofplotting against them; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.The primary targets of this surprise offensivewere theBaltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with theultimate goalof ending the 1941 campaign near theArkhangelsk-Astrakhan line—from theCaspianto theWhite","theWhite Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminateCommunism, generateLebensraum(\"living space\")bydispossessing the native population,and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. Although theRed Armywas preparing for strategiccounter-offensivesbefore the war,OperationBarbarossaforced theSoviet supreme commandto adoptstrategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By mid-August, however, the GermanArmy High Commanddecided tosuspend the offensiveof a considerably depletedArmy Group Centre, and to divert the2nd Panzer Groupto reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.TheKiev offensivewas overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible furtheradvance into Crimeaand industrially-developed Eastern Ukraine (theFirst Battle of","(theFirst Battle of Kharkov). The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to theEastern Frontprompted the United Kingdom to reconsider itsgrand strategy.In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed amilitary alliance against Germanyand in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued theAtlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world.In late August the British and Sovietsinvaded neutral Iranto secure thePersian Corridor, Iran'soil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. By October, Axis powers had achievedoperational objectivesin Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges ofLeningradandSevastopolcontinuing.A majoroffensive against Moscowwas renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troopswere forced to","forced to suspend the offensive.Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Sovietcapability to resistwas not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. Theblitzkriegphaseof the war in Europe had ended. By early December, freshly mobilisedreservesallowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.This, as well asintelligence datawhich established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the JapaneseKwantung Army,allowed the Soviets to begin amassive counter-offensivethat started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanesefalse flagMukden incidentin 1931, the Japanese shelling of the AmericangunboatUSS Panayin 1937, and the 1937–1938Nanjing Massacre,Japanese-American relations","relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—theExport Control Acts—which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.During 1939 Japan launched itsfirst attack against Changsha, but was repulsed by late September.Despiteseveral offensivesby both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded andoccupied northern Indochinain September 1940. Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scalecounter-offensivein early 1940. In August,Chinese communistslaunched anoffensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan institutedharsh measuresin occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for","resources for the communists.Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forcesculminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed duringBattle of Shanggao.In September, Japan attempted totake the city of Changshaagain and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments inSoutheast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from theDutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.At the same time, Japan wasplanning an invasion of the Soviet","of the Soviet Far East, intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.Roosevelt reinforcedthe Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946)and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any \"neighboring countries\". Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American–British–Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. EmperorHirohito, after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory,began to","of victory,began to favour Japan's entry into the war.As a result, Prime MinisterFumimaro Konoeresigned.Hirohito refused the recommendation to appointPrince Naruhiko Higashikuniin his place, choosing War MinisterHideki Tojoinstead.On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of theattack on Pearl Harborto the Emperor.On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war.On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the","or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise theUnited States Pacific Fleetand the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneousoffensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.These included anattack on the American fleets at Pearl Harborandthe Philippines, as well as invasions ofGuam,Wake Island,Malaya,Thailand, andHong Kong. These","andHong Kong. These attacks led theUnited States,United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United Statesin solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, theAllied Big Four—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued theDeclaration by United Nations, thereby affirming theAtlantic Charterand agreeing not to sign aseparate peacewith the Axis powers. During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriategrand strategyto pursue. All agreed thatdefeating Germanywas the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward,large-scale attackon","attackon Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies.Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. At theCasablanca Conferencein early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded theunconditional surrenderof their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the","in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its allyThailandhad almost conqueredBurma,Malaya,the Dutch East Indies,Singapore, andRabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.Despite stubbornresistance by Filipino and U.S. forces, thePhilippine Commonwealthwas eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during theBattle of Yenangyaungand rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in theSouth China Sea,Java Sea, andIndian Ocean,andbombed the Allied naval baseatDarwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinesevictory at Changsha.These easy victories over the unprepared U.S. and European","U.S. and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations tocapture Port Moresbybyamphibious assaultand thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in theBattle of the Coral Sea.Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlierDoolittle Raid, was to seizeMidway Atolland lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces tooccupy the Aleutian Islandsin Alaska.In mid-May, Japan started theZhejiang-Jiangxi campaignin China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had brokenJapanese naval codesin late","naval codesin late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisivevictory at Midwayover theImperial Japanese Navy. With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capturePort Moresbyby anoverland campaignin theTerritory of Papua.The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southernSolomon Islands, primarilyGuadalcanal, as a first step towards capturingRabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. Both plans started in July, but by mid-September,the Battle for Guadalcanaltook priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to thenorthern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in theBattle of Buna–Gona.Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were","the Japanese were defeated on the island andwithdrew their troops.In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrousoffensive into the Arakan regionin late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943.The second was theinsertion of irregular forcesbehind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive incentralandsouthern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in theKerch Peninsulaand atKharkov,and then in June 1942 launched their mainsummer offensiveagainst southern Russia, to seize theoil fields of the Caucasusand occupy theKubansteppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans splitArmy Group Southinto two groups:Army Group Aadvanced to the lowerDon Riverand struck","Riverand struck south-east to the Caucasus, whileArmy Group Bheaded towards theVolga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. By mid-November, the Germans hadnearly taken Stalingradin bitterstreet fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with anencirclement of German forces at Stalingrad,and an assault on theRzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched anotherattack on Kharkov, creating asalientin their front line around the Soviet city ofKursk. Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions,the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.By November 1941,","November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa,Operation Crusader, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at theGazala lineby early February,followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.Concerns that the Japanese might use bases inVichy-held Madagascarcaused the British toinvade the islandin early May 1942.An Axisoffensive in Libyaforced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces werestopped at El Alamein.On the Continent, raids of Alliedcommandoson strategic targets, culminating in the failedDieppe Raid,demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling asecond attack against El Alameinand, at a high cost, managed todeliver","managed todeliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.A few months later, the Alliescommenced an attack of their ownin Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.This attack was followed up shortly after byAnglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering theoccupation of Vichy France;although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed toscuttle their fleetto prevent its capture by German forces.Axis forces in Africa withdrew intoTunisia, which wasconquered by the Alliesin May 1943. In June 1943, the British and Americans begana strategic bombing campaignagainst Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and \"de-house\" the civilian population.Thefirebombing of Hamburgwas among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important","of this important industrial centre. Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent toeliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians.Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations toisolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, andbreach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had alsoneutralised the major Japanese base at Trukin theCaroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation toretake Western New Guinea. In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives incentral Russia. On 5 July 1943, Germanyattacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had","German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences,and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies'invasion of Sicilylaunched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in theousting and arrest of Mussolinilater that month. On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their owncounter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortifiedPanther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it atSmolenskand theLower Dnieper Offensive. On 3 September 1943, the Western Alliesinvaded the Italian mainland, followingItaly's armistice with the Alliesand the ensuing German occupation of Italy.Germany,","of Italy.Germany, with the help of fascists, responded to the armistice bydisarming Italian forcesthat were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,and creating a series of defensive lines.German special forces thenrescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named theItalian Social Republic,causing anItalian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching themain German defensive linein mid-November. German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. ByMay 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.In November 1943,Franklin D. Rooseveltand Winston Churchill met withChiang Kai-shekin Cairoand then with Joseph Stalinin Tehran.The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territoryand the military planning for theBurma campaign,while the latter included","the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. From November 1943, during the seven-weekBattle of Changde, the Chinese awaited allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition.In January 1944, the Allies launched aseries of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassinoand tried to outflank it withlandings at Anzio. On 27 January 1944,Soviettroops launcheda major offensivethat expelled German forces from theLeningrad region, thereby ending themost lethal siege in history.Thefollowing Soviet offensivewashalted on the pre-war Estonian borderby the GermanArmy Group Northaided byEstonianshoping tore-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in theBaltic Searegion.By late May 1944, the Soviets hadliberated Crimea,largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and madeincursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis","by the Axis troops.The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions,an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India,and soon besieged Commonwealth positions atImphalandKohima.In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,and Chinese forces that hadinvaded northern Burmain late 1943besieged Japanese troopsinMyitkyina.Thesecond Japanese invasionof China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.By June, the Japanese had conquered the province ofHenanand begun anew attack on Changsha. Allies close in (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known asD-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,the Western Alliesinvaded northern France. After reassigning several","reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they alsoattacked southern France.These landings were successful and led to the defeat of theGerman Army units in France.Pariswasliberatedon 25 August by thelocal resistanceassisted by theFree French Forces, both led by GeneralCharles de Gaulle,and the Western Allies continued topush back German forcesin western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded bya major airborne operationin the Netherlands failed.After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, butfailed to cross the Rur river. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to thelast major German defensive line. On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\"Operation Bagration\") that nearly destroyed the GermanArmy Group Centre.Soon after that,another Soviet strategic offensiveforced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed thePolish Committee of National Liberationto control territory","control territory in Poland and combat the PolishArmia Krajowa; the Soviet Red Army remained in thePragadistrict on the other side of theVistulaand watched passively as the Germans quelled theWarsaw Uprisinginitiated by the Armia Krajowa.Thenational uprisinginSlovakiawas also quelled by the Germans.The SovietRed Army'sstrategic offensive in eastern Romaniacut off and destroyed theconsiderable German troops thereand triggereda successful coup d'état in Romaniaandin Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced intoYugoslaviaand forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army GroupsEandFinGreece,Albaniaand Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.By this point, the communist-ledPartisansunder MarshalJosip Broz Tito, who had led anincreasingly successful guerrilla campaignagainst the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northernSerbia, the SovietRed","the SovietRed Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a jointliberation of the capital city of Belgradeon 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched amassive assaultagainstGerman-occupiedHungary that lasted untilthe fall of Budapestin February 1945.Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans,bitter Finnish resistanceto theSoviet offensivein theKarelian Isthmusdenied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to aSoviet-Finnish armisticeon relatively mild conditions,although Finland was forced tofight their former German allies. By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges inAssam, pushing the Japanese back to theChindwin Riverwhile the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forcescaptured Mount Songand reopened theBurma Road.In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finallycaptured Changshain mid-June and the city ofHengyangby early August.Soon after, they invaded the province","the province ofGuangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces atGuilin and Liuzhouby the end of Novemberand successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. In the Pacific, U.S. forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began theiroffensive against the Mariana and Palau islandsand decisively defeated Japanese forces in theBattle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister,Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forcesinvaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in theBattle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launcha massive","to launcha massive counter-offensive in the Ardennesandalong the French-German border, hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port atAntwerp. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland,pushing from the Vistula to the Oderriver in Germany, andoverran East Prussia.On 4 February Soviet, British, and U.S. leaders met for theYalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. In February, the Sovietsentered SilesiaandPomerania, while theWestern Allies entered western Germanyand closed to theRhineriver. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhinenorthandsouthof theRuhr,encircling the German Army Group B.In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves","last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launchedits last major offensiveagainst Soviet troops nearLake Balaton. Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced toVienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troopscaptured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finallypushed forward in Italyand swept across western Germany capturingHamburgandNuremberg.American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe riveron 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troopsstormed and captured Berlinin late April.In Italy,German forces surrenderedon 29 April, while theItalian Social Republiccapitulated two days later. On 30 April, theReichstagwas captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president,Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussoliniwas killedbyItalian partisanson 28 April.On 30 April,Hitler","30 April,Hitler committed suicidein hisheadquarters, and was succeeded byGrand AdmiralKarl Dönitz(asPresident of the Reich) andJoseph Goebbels(asChancellor of the Reich); Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced byLutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, in what would later be known as theFlensburg Government.Total and unconditional surrenderin Europe was signedon 7and 8May, to be effective by the end of8 May.German Army Group Centreresisted in Pragueuntil 11 May.On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by the Allied Forces inFlensburg, while on 5 June all German political and military institutions were transferred under the control of the Allies through theBerlin Declaration. In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of thePhilippine Commonwealthadvancedin the Philippines,clearing Leyteby the end of April 1945. Theylanded on Luzonin January 1945 andrecaptured Manilain March. Fighting continued on Luzon,Mindanao, and other islands of","other islands of the Philippines until theend of the war.Meanwhile, theUnited States Army Air Forceslauncheda massive firebombing campaignof strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastatingbombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 Marchwas the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. In May 1945, Australian troopslanded in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northernBurmain March, and the British pushed on to reachRangoonby 3 May.Chinese forces started a counterattack in theBattle of West Hunanthat occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, takingIwo Jimaby March, andOkinawaby the end of June.At the same time, a naval blockade bysubmarineswas strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. On 11 July, Allied leadersmet in Potsdam, Germany. Theyconfirmed earlier agreementsabout","agreementsabout Germany,and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that \"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\".During this conference, the United Kingdomheld its general election, andClement Attleereplaced Churchill as Prime Minister. The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.In early August, the United Statesdropped atomic bombson the Japanese cities ofHiroshimaandNagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement,declared war on Japan,invaded Japanese-held Manchuriaand quickly defeated theKwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.The Red Army also captured thesouthern part of Sakhalin Islandand theKuril Islands. On the night of 9–10 August","of 9–10 August 1945, EmperorHirohitoannounced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in thePotsdam Declaration.On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio (Gyokuon-hōsō, literally \"broadcast in the Emperor's voice\").On 15 August 1945,Japan surrendered, with thesurrender documentsfinally signed atTokyo Bayon the deck of the American battleshipUSSMissourion 2 September 1945, ending the war. Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations inAustriaandGermany, both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, thewesternandeastern occupation zonescontrolled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries,West GermanyandEast Germany.In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement","a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). Adenazificationprogram in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in theNuremberg trialsand the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories,Silesia,Neumarkand most ofPomeraniawere taken over by Poland,andEast Prussiawas divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by theexpulsion to Germanyof the nine million Germans from these provinces,as well as three million Germans from theSudetenlandin Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of theCurzon Line,from which2 million","which2 million Poles were expelled;north-east Romania,parts of eastern Finland,and theBaltic stateswereannexed into the Soviet Union.Italylost its monarchy,colonial empireand someEuropean territories. In an effort to maintainworld peace,the Allies formed theUnited Nations,which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,and adopted theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin 1948 as a common standard for allmember nations.Thegreat powersthat were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became thepermanent membersof the UN'sSecurity Council.The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes,betweentheRepublic of Chinaand thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1971, and between the Soviet Union and itssuccessor state, theRussian Federation, following thedissolution of the USSRin 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. Besides","was over. Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Sovietspheres of influence.Most eastern and central European countries fell intothe Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result,East Germany,Poland,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia, andAlbaniabecame Sovietsatellite states. CommunistYugoslaviaconducted a fullyindependent policy, causingtension with the Soviet Union.ACommunist uprising in Greecewas put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-ledNATOand the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact.The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—theCold War—would be accompanied by an unprecedentedarms raceand number ofproxy warsthroughout the world. In Asia, the United States led theoccupation of Japanandadministered","Japan's former islandsin the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexedSouth Sakhalinand theKuril Islands.Korea, formerlyunder Japanese colonial rule, wasdivided and occupiedby the Soviet Union in theNorthand the United States in theSouthbetween 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to theKorean War. In China, nationalist and communist forces resumedthe civil warin June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated toTaiwanin 1949.In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestineand thecreation of Israelmarked the escalation of theArab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of theircolonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading todecolonisation. The global","The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to ababy boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy ofindustrial disarmament in Western Germanyfrom 1945 to 1948.Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. At theBretton Woods Conferencein July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD), which later became part of theWorld Bank Group. TheBretton Woods systemlasted until 1973.Recovery began with the mid-1948currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by","and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the U.S.Marshall Planeconomic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.The post-1948 West German recovery has been called theGerman economic miracle.Italy also experienced aneconomic boomand theFrench economy rebounded.By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,it continued in relative economic decline for decades.The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era,having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exactedwar reparationsfrom its satellite states.Japan recovered much later.China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. Impact Casualties and war crimes Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.Most suggest that","suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about20 million military personneland 40 million civilians. The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. An estimated 11to 17 millioncivilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler'sracist policies, includingmass killingofaround 6million Jews, along withRoma,homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnicPolesandmillions of other Slavs(including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), andother ethnic and minority groups.Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnicSerbs, along with Roma and Jews, werepersecuted and murderedby the Axis-aligned CroatianUstašeinYugoslavia.Concurrently,MuslimsandCroatswerepersecuted and killedby Serb nationalistChetniks,with an estimated","an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by theUkrainian Insurgent Armyin theVolhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945.At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the PolishHome Armyand other Polish units, in reprisal attacks. In Asia and the Pacific, the number of people killed by Japanese troops remains contested. According to R.J. Rummel, the Japanese killed between 3million and more than 10 million people, with the most probable case of almost 6,000,000 people.According to the British historianM. R. D. Foot, civilian deaths are between 10 million and 20 million, whereas Chinese military casualties (killed and wounded) are estimated to be over five million.Other estimates say that up to 30 million people, most of them civilians, were killed.The most infamous Japanese atrocity was theNanjing Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that","reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during theThree Alls policy. GeneralYasuji Okamuraimplemented the policy inHebeiandShandong. Axis forces employedbiologicalandchemical weapons. TheImperial Japanese Armyused a variety of such weapons during itsinvasion and occupation of China(seeUnit 731)and inearly conflicts against the Soviets.Both the Germans and theJapanese testedsuch weapons against civilians,and sometimes onprisoners of war. The Soviet Union was responsible for theKatyn massacreof 22,000 Polish officers,and the imprisonment or execution ofhundreds of thousands of political prisonersby theNKVDsecret police, along withmass civilian deportations to Siberia, in theBaltic statesandeastern Polandannexed by the Red Army.Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especiallyin Germany.The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and","of thousands, and possibly as many as two million,while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although nopositiveor specificcustomaryinternational humanitarian lawwith respect toaerial warfareexisted before or during World War II.The USAAFbombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians, including theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and destroying 65% of built-up areas. Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany, under thedictatorshipof Adolf Hitler, was responsible for murdering about 6million Jews in what is now known asthe Holocaust. They also murdered an additional 4million others who were deemed \"unworthy of life\" (including thedisabledandmentally ill,Soviet prisoners of war,Romani,homosexuals,Freemasons, andJehovah's Witnesses) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a \"genocidalstate\".Soviet POWswere","POWswere kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.In addition toconcentration camps,death campswere created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively usedforced labourers; about 12 millionEuropeansfrom German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. The SovietGulagbecame ade factosystem of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,including foreign citizens of Poland andother countriesoccupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as AxisPOWs.By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected toNKVDevaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. Japaneseprisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as","which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. TheInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastfound the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after thesurrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56. At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by theEast Asia Development Board, orKōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.InJava, between 4and 10 millionrōmusha(Japanese: \"manual labourers\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central","and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and theannexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion U.S. dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include theplunderof industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. In the East, the intended gains ofLebensraumwere never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Sovietscorched earthpolicies denied resources to the German invaders.Unlike in the West, theNazi racial policyencouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the \"inferior people\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed bymass atrocities and war crimes.The Naziskilled an estimated 2.77 million ethnic Polesduring the war in","the war in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.Althoughresistance groupsformed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the Eastor the Westuntil late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanesehegemonywhich it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination,Japanese war crimesfrequently turned local public opinion against them.During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. Home fronts and production In the 1930s Britain and the United States of America together controlled almost 75% of world","almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial","during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one ofattrition.While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in thelabour force,Alliedstrategic bombing,and Germany's late shift to awar economycontributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions ofslave labourers;Germany enslavedabout 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,whileJapan usedmore than 18 million people in Far East Asia. Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used forreconnaissance, asfighters,bombers, andground-support, and each role developed considerably. Innovations includedairlift(the capability to","capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);andstrategic bombing(the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).Anti-aircraft weaponryalso advanced, including defences such asradarand surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of theproximity fuze. The use of thejet aircraftwas pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Advances were made in nearly every aspect ofnaval warfare, most notably withaircraft carriersandsubmarines. Althoughaeronauticalwarfare had relatively little success at the start of the war,actions at Taranto,Pearl Harbor, and theCoral Seaestablished the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship).In the Atlantic,escort carriersbecame a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close theMid-Atlantic gap.Carriers were also more economical thanbattleshipsdue to the relatively low cost of","low cost of aircraftand because they are not required to be as heavily armoured.Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during theFirst World War,were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development onanti-submarineweaponryand tactics, such assonarand convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as theType VII submarineandwolfpacktactics.Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as theLeigh Light,Hedgehog,Squid, andhoming torpedoesproved effective against German submarines. Land warfarechanged from the static frontlines oftrench warfareof World War I, which had relied on improvedartillerythat outmatched the speed of bothinfantryandcavalry, to increased mobility andcombined arms. Thetank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World","been during World WarI,andadvances continued throughout the warwith increases in speed, armour and firepower.At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.Many means ofdestroying tanks, includingindirect artillery,anti-tank guns(both towed andself-propelled),mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the GermanMG 34, and varioussubmachine gunswhich were suited toclose combatin urban and jungle","urban and jungle settings.Theassault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using largecodebooksforcryptographyby designingcipheringmachines, the most well-known being the GermanEnigma machine.Development ofSIGINT(signalsintelligence) andcryptanalysisenabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption ofJapanese naval codesand BritishUltra, apioneering methodfor decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by thePolish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.Another component ofmilitary intelligencewasdeception, which the Allies used to great effect in operations such asMincemeatandBodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the","the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3,Colossus, andENIAC),guided missilesandmodern rockets, theManhattan Project's development ofnuclear weapons,operations research, the development ofartificial harbours, andoil pipelines under the English Channel.Penicillinwas firstdeveloped, mass-produced, and usedduring the war. See also Notes Citations References External links"],"string":"[\n \"Blue moon Ablue moonrefers either to the presence of a secondfull moonin a calendarmonth, to the third full moon in aseasoncontaining four, or to a moon that appearsbluedue to atmospheric effects. Thecalendricalmeaning of \\\"blue moon\\\" is unconnected to the other meanings. It is often referred to as “traditional”,but since no occurrences are known prior to 1937 it is better described as aninvented traditionor “modern American folklore”.The practice of designating the second full moon in a month as \\\"blue\\\" originated with amateur astronomer James Hugh Pruett in 1946.It does not come fromNative American lunar tradition, as is sometimes supposed. The moon - not necessarily full - can sometimes appear blue due to atmospheric emissions from large forest fires or volcanoes, though the phenomenon is rare and unpredictable (hence the saying “once in a blue moon”).A calendrical blue moon (by Pruett's definition) is predictable and relatively common, happening 7 times in every 19 years (i.e. once every 2 or 3\",\n \"once every 2 or 3 years).Calendrical blue moons occur because thetime between successive full moons(approximately 29.5 days) is shorter than the average calendar month.They are of no astronomical or historical significance, and are not a product of actuallunisolar timekeepingorintercalation. Phrase origin A 1528 satire,Rede Me and Be Nott Wrothe, contained the lines, “Yf they saye the mone is belewe / We must beleve that it is true.”The intended sense was of an absurd belief, like themoon being made of cheese. There is nothing to connect it with the later metaphorical or calendrical meanings of “blue moon”. However, a confusion ofbelewe(Middle English, “blue”)withbelǽwan(Old English “to betray”)) led to afalse etymologyfor the calendrical term that remains widely circulated, despite its originator having acknowledged it as groundless. Percy Bysshe Shelley’spoem \\\"Alastor\\\" (1816)mentioned an erupting volcano: 7and a “blue moon / Low in the west.”: 14It was written at a time when the eruption ofMount Tamborawas\",\n \"ofMount Tamborawas causing global climate effects, and not long before the first recorded instances of “blue moon” as a metaphor. The OED citesPierce Egan’sReal Life in London(1821) as the earliest known occurrence of “blue moon” in the metaphorical sense of a long time. (“How's Harry and Ben?—haven't seen you this blue moon.”)An 1823 revision of Francis Grose’s ‘’Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue’’, edited by Egan, included the definition: “Blue moon. In allusion to a long time before such a circumstance happens. ‘O yes, in a blue moon.’”An earlier (1811) version of the same dictionary had not included the phrase, so it was likely coined some time in the 1810s.\\\"Once in a blue moon\\\" is recorded from 1833. The use of blue moon to mean a specific calendrical event dates from 1937, when theMaine Farmers' Almanacused the term in a slightly different sense from the one now in common use. According to the OED, “Earlier occurrences of the sense given in theMaine Farmers' Almanachave not been traced, either\",\n \"been traced, either in editions of the Almanac prior to 1937, or elsewhere; the source of this application of the term (if it is not a coinage by the editor, H. P. Trefethen) is unclear.”The conjecture of editorial invention is further supported by the spurious explanation the almanac gave: The Moon usually comes full twelve times in a year, three times in each season... However, occasionally the moon comes full thirteen times in a year. This was considered a very unfortunate circumstance, especially by the monks who had charge of the calendar. It became necessary for them to make a calendar of thirteen months, and it upset the regular arrangement of church festivals. For this reason thirteen came to be considered an unlucky number. Also, this extra moon had a way of coming in each of the seasons so that it could not be given a name appropriate to the time of year like the other moons. It was usually called the Blue Moon... In olden times the almanac makers had much difficulty calculating the occurrence of\",\n \"the occurrence of the Blue Moon and this uncertainty gave rise to the expression \\\"Once in a Blue Moon\\\". There is no evidence that an extra moon in a month, season or year was considered unlucky, or that it led to13 being considered unlucky, or that the extra moon was called \\\"blue\\\", or that it led to the phrase \\\"once in a blue moon\\\". There is good reason to suspect that the 1937 article was a hoax, practical joke, or simply misinformed. It is however true that the date of the Christian festival ofEasterdepended on an accuratecomputationof full moon dates, and important work was done by the monksDionysius ExiguusandBede, explained by the latter inThe Reckoning of Time, written c725 CE. According to Bede, “Whenever it was a common year, gave three lunar months to each season. When an embolismic year occurred (that is, one of 13 lunar months) they assigned the extra month to summer, so that three months together bore the name ‘‘Litha’’; hence they called year ‘‘Thrilithi’’. It had four summer months, with the\",\n \"months, with the usual three for the other seasons.” The nameLithais now applied by someNeo-Paganstomidsummer. The 1937Maine Farmers' Almanacarticle was misinterpreted by James Hugh Pruett in a 1946Sky and Telescope article, leading to the calendrical definition of “blue moon” that is now most commonly used, i.e. the second full moon in a calendar month. “A blue moon in the originalMaine Farmers' Almanacsense can only occur in the months of February, May, August, and November. In the later sense, one can occur in any month except February.\\\"This later sense gained currency from its use in a United States radio programme,StarDateon January 31, 1980 and in a question in theTrivial Pursuitgame in 1986. Several songs have been titled \\\"Blue Moon\\\", seen as a \\\"symbol of sadness and loneliness.\\\" Visually blue moon The moon (and sun) can appear blue under certain atmospheric conditions – for instance, if volcanic eruptions or large-scale fires release particles into the atmosphere of just the right size to\",\n \"the right size to preferentiallyscatterred light.According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, scattering is the cause of “that epitome of rare occurrences, the blue Moon (seen when forest fires produce clouds composed of small droplets of organic compounds).” ARoyal Societyreport on the 1883Krakatoaeruptiongave a detailed account of “blue, green, and other coloured appearances of the sun and moon” seen in many places for months afterwards.: xiii. The report mentioned that in February 1884 an observer in central America saw the crescent moon as “a magnificent emerald-green” while itsashenpart was “pale green”. Venus, bright stars and a comet were also green.: 173The report authors suspected that green moons were a contrast effect, since in those cases the surrounding sky was seen as red.:203 People saw blue moons in 1983 after the eruption of theEl Chichónvolcano in Mexico, and there are reports of blue moons caused byMount St. Helensin 1980 andMount Pinatuboin 1991. The moon looked blue after forest fires in\",\n \"forest fires in Sweden and Canada in 1950 and 1951,On September 23, 1950, severalmuskegfires that had been smoldering for several years in Alberta, Canada, suddenly blew up into major—and very smoky—fires. Winds carried the smoke eastward and southward with unusual speed, and the conditions of the fire produced large quantities of oily droplets of just the right size (about 1micrometrein diameter) to scatter red and yellow light. Wherever the smoke cleared enough so that the sun was visible, it was lavender or blue. Ontario, Canada, and much of the east coast of the United States were affected by the following day, and two days later, observers in Britain reported an indigo sun in smoke-dimmed skies, followed by an equally blue moon that evening. Ice particles might have a similar effect. The Antarctic diary ofRobert Falcon Scottfor July 11, 1911 mentioned \\\"the air thick with snow, and the moon a vague blue\\\". The key to a blue moon is having many particles slightly wider than the wavelength of red light (0.7\",\n \"of red light (0.7 micrometer)—and no other sizes present. Ash and dust clouds thrown into the atmosphere by fires and storms usually contain a mixture of particles with a wide range of sizes, with most smaller than 1 micrometer, and they tend to scatter blue light. This kind of cloud makes the moon turn red; thus red moons are far more common than blue moons. Calendrical blue moon Blue moon as a calendrical term originated with the 1937Maine Farmers’ Almanac, a provincial U.S. magazine that is not to be confused with theFarmers' Almanac,Old Farmer's Almanac, or otherAmerican almanacs. There is no evidence of “blue moon” having been used as a specific calendrical term before 1937, and it was possibly invented by the magazine’s editor, Henry Porter Trefethen (1887-1957).As a term for the second full moon in a calendar month it began to be widely known in the U.S. in the mid-1980s and became internationally known in the late 1990s when calendrical matters were of special interest given the approaching\",\n \"the approaching millennium. It created a misapprehension that the calendrical meaning of “blue moon” had preceded the metaphorical one, and inspired variousfolk etymologies, e.g. the “betrayer” speculation mentioned earlier, or that it came from a printing convention in calendars or a saying in Czech.A 1997 Taiwanese movie,Blue Moon, had thelog line“There is usually only one full moon every month, but occasionally there are two – and that second full moon is called the Blue Moon. It is said that when a person sees a blue moon and makes a wish, he will be granted a second chance in things.” In 1999 folklorist Philip Hiscock presented a timeline for the calendrical term.First, the August page of the 1937Maine Farmers' Almanacran a sidebar claiming that the term was used “in olden times” for an extra full moon in a season, and gave some examples (21 November 1915, 22 August 1918, 21 May 1921, 20 February 1924, 21 November 1934, 22 August 1937, and 21 May 1940). Six years later, Laurence J. Lafleur (1907-66)\",\n \"Lafleur (1907-66) quoted the almanac in the U.S. magazineSky & Telescope(July 1943, page 17) in answer to a reader’s question about the meaning of “blue moon”. Then James Hugh Pruett (1886-1955) quoted it again inSky & Telescope(March 1946, p3), saying “seven times in 19 years there were — and still are — 13 full moons in a year. This gives 11 months with one full moon each and one with two. This second in a month, so I interpret it, was called Blue Moon”. In 1980 the term was used (with Pruett’s definition) in a U.S. radio program,Star Date, and in 1985 it appeared in a U.S. children’s book,The Kids' World Almanac of Records and Facts(“What is a blue moon? When there are two full moons in a month, the second one is called a blue moon. It is a rare occurrence.”)In 1986 it was included as a question in Trivial Pursuit (likely taken from the children’s book), and in 1988 a forthcoming blue moon received widespread press coverage. In 1999 U.S. astronomerDonald W. Olsonresearched the original articles and\",\n \"articles and published the results in aSky & Telescopearticle co-authored with Richard T Fienberg and Roger W. Sinnott. From the examples given by Trefethen in the 1937Maine Farmers’ Almanacthey deduced a “rule” he must effectively have used. “Seasonal Moon names are assigned near the springequinoxin accordance with theecclesiastical rulesfor determining the dates ofEasterandLent. The beginnings of summer, fall, and winter are determined by thedynamical mean Sun. When a season contains four full Moons, the third is called a Blue Moon.”They termed this the “Maine rule” for blue moons, as distinct from Pruett’s 1946 definition that was seen to have been a misinterpretation. In popular astronomy the Maine rule is sometimes called the “seasonal”,“true”or “traditional”rule (though of course no tradition of it exists prior to 1937). Blue moons by Pruett’s definition are sometimes called “calendar blue moons”.The \\\"seasonal\\\" blue moon rule is itself ambiguous since it depends which definition ofseasonis used. The\",\n \"used. The Maine rule used seasons of equal length with the ecclesiastical equinox (March 21). An alternative is to use the astronomical seasons, which are of unequal length. There is also reference in modern popular astrology to “zodiacal blue moons”. Blue moon dates The table below has blue moon dates and times (UTC) calculated according to Pruett’s “calendar” rule (second full moon in a calendar month) and two versions of the “seasonal” rule (third full moon in a season with four). The Maine rule uses equal-length seasons defined by the dynamical mean sun, and is presumed to have been the original rule of Trefethen.The “astro-seasonal” rule uses the unequal astronomical seasons defined by the apparent sun. All calculations are by David Harper. The fourth column shows blue moon dates that were actually printed in theMaine Farmers’ Almanac, as found by Olson, Fienberg and Sinnott in 1999. They studied issues published between 1819 and 1962, and found that all mentions occurred between 1937, when H.P.\",\n \"1937, when H.P. Trefethen introduced the term, and 1956, when Trefethen’s editorship ended (consistent with it being Trefethen’s own invention). Occasional discrepancies between the Maine rule and the almanac’s printed dates can be ascribed to clerical errors or miscalculation. In one case (August 1945) Trefethen appears to have used the apparent rather than mean sun. The table shows that in 200 years there are 187 full moons that could be called \\\"blue\\\" by some definition - an average of nearly one per year. Two Pruett blue moons can occur in a single year (1915, 1961, 1999, 2018, 2037, 2094). 1915 had four blue moons (two Pruett, one Maine, one astro-seasonal). 1934 and 2048 have three (one of each type). Despite the 187 blue moons appearing across the 200 years in this table, only 146 years have any of these 3 types of blue moons, leaving 54 years (thus averaging just over 1 year in every 4) which have none of the 3 rules represented in that calendar year. While not totally unexpected (given the\",\n \"(given the overlapping frequencies of these 3 rules), it so happens there are not any 2 sequential years (at least within these 200) wherein none of the 3 types of blue moon occur. Conversely, despite the preponderance of years with blue moons (of at least 1 type) occurring in this 200-year range, there are no instances of more than 4 sequential years having a blue moon, of any of these 3 types -- i.e. at least 1 year out of every 5 sequential years has none of the 3 types appearing. Remarks Onelunation(an average lunar cycle) is 29.53days. There are about 365.24 days in atropical year. Therefore, about 12.37 lunations (365.24 days divided by 29.53 days) occur in a tropical year. So the date of the full moon falls back by nearly one day every calendar month on average. Each calendar year contains roughly 11 days more than the number of days in 12 lunar cycles, so every two or three years (seven times in the 19 yearMetonic cycle), there is an extra full moon in the year. The extra full moon necessarily falls\",\n \"necessarily falls in one of the four seasons (however defined), giving that season four full moons instead of the usual three. Given that a year is approximately 365.2425 days and a synodic orbit is 29.5309 days,then there are about 12.368 synodic months in a year. For this to add up to another full month would take 1/0.368 years. Thus it would take about 2.716 years, or 2 years, 8 months, and 18 days for another Pruett blue moon to occur. Or approximately once in 32.5 months on an average. When there are two Pruett blue moons in a single year, the first occurs in January and the second in March or April. The next timeNew Year's Evefalls on a Pruett blue moon (as occurred on December 31, 2009 in time zones west of UTC+05) is after one Metonic cycle, in 2028 in time zones west of UTC+08. At that time there will be atotal lunar eclipse. See also References External links\",\n \"World War I World War Ior theFirst World War(28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as theGreat War, was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAllies(or Entente) and theCentral Powers. Fighting took place mainly inEuropeand theMiddle East, as well as in parts ofAfricaand theAsia-Pacific, and in Europe was characterised bytrench warfareand the use ofartillery, machine guns, andchemical weapons(gas). World War I was one of thedeadliest conflicts in history, resulting in an estimated9 million military dead and 23 million wounded, plus up to 8 million civilian deaths from causes includinggenocide. The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in theSpanish flupandemic, which killed millions. Thecauses of World War Iincluded the rise ofGermanyanddecline of the Ottoman Empire, which disturbed the long-standingbalance of powerin Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered byindustrialisationandimperialism. Growing tensions between thegreat powersand in theBalkansreacheda\",\n \"theBalkansreacheda breaking pointon 28 June 1914, when aBosnian SerbnamedGavrilo Principassassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to theAustro-Hungarianthrone. Austria-Hungary heldSerbiaresponsible, and declared war on 28 July. AfterRussiamobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia; by 4 August,Franceand theUnited Kingdomwere drawn in, with the Ottomans joining in November.Germany's strategy in 1914was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east. However, this failed, and by the end of the year theWestern Frontconsisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. TheEastern Frontwas more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives.Italy,Bulgaria,Romania,Greeceand others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917, theUnited States entered the waron the Allied side following Germany's resumption ofunrestricted submarine warfareagainst Atlantic shipping. Later that year, theBolsheviksseized\",\n \"theBolsheviksseized power in the RussianOctober Revolution;Soviet Russiasignedan armisticewith the Central Powers in December, followed bya separate peacein March 1918. That month, Germany launchedan offensive in the west, which despite initial successes left theGerman Armyexhausted and demoralised.A successful Allied counter-offensivefrom August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facinga revolution at home,Kaiser WilhelmIIabdicated on 9 November, and the war ended with theArmistice of 11 November 1918. TheParis Peace Conferenceof 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably theTreaty of Versailles, by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay largewar reparationsto the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in\",\n \"and resulted in the creation of new independent states, includingPoland,Finland, theBaltic states,Czechoslovakia, andYugoslavia. TheLeague of Nationswas established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during theinterwar periodcontributed to the outbreak ofWorld War IIin 1939. Names BeforeWorld War II, the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as theGreat Waror simply theWorld War.In August 1914, the magazineThe Independentwrote \\\"This is the Great War. It names itself\\\".In October 1914, the Canadian magazineMaclean'ssimilarly wrote, \\\"Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War.\\\"Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as \\\"the war to end war\\\" and it was also described as \\\"the war to end all wars\\\" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life.The first recorded use of the termFirst World Warwas in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopherErnst Haeckelwho stated, \\\"There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared\",\n \"of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word.\\\" Background Political and military alliances For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuousbalance of power, known as theConcert of Europe.After 1848, this was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-calledsplendid isolation, thedecline of the Ottoman Empire,New Imperialism, and the rise ofPrussiaunderOtto von Bismarck. Victory in the 1870–1871Franco-Prussian Warallowed Bismarck toconsolidateaGerman Empire. Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was toavengethis defeat,but by the early 1890s, this had switched to the expansion of theFrench colonial empire. In 1873, Bismarck negotiated theLeague of the Three Emperors, which includedAustria-Hungary,Russiaand Germany. After the 1877–1878Russo-Turkish War, the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in theBalkans, an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest.Germanyand\",\n \"interest.Germanyand Austria-Hungary then formed the 1879Dual Alliance, which became theTriple Alliancewhen Italy joined in 1882.For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up theReinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire byWilhelm II. The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his newChancellor,Leo von Caprivi.This gave France an opening to agree theFranco-Russian Alliancein 1894, which was then followed by the 1904Entente Cordialewith Britain. TheTriple Ententewas completed by the 1907Anglo-Russian Convention. While not formal alliances, by settlinglong-standing colonial disputes in Asiaand Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became a\",\n \"conflict became a possibility.This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911Agadir Crisis. Arms race German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, AdmiralAlfred von Tirpitzsought to use this growth to build anImperial German Navy, that could compete with the BritishRoyal Navy.This policy was based on the work of US naval authorAlfred Thayer Mahan, who argued that possession of ablue-water navywas vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to a change in policy and anAnglo-German naval arms racebegan.Despite\",\n \"racebegan.Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch ofHMSDreadnoughtin 1906 gave the British a technological advantage.Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, ChancellorTheobald von Bethmann Hollwegacknowledged defeat, leading to theRüstungswendeor 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in theRusso-Japanese Warand subsequent1905 Russian Revolution. Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions.Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia, the threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After\",\n \"Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by theBalkan powersand Italy, which led to increased expenditure by theOttomansand Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. Conflicts in the Balkans The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. WhilePan-SlavicandOrthodoxRussia considered itself the protector ofSerbiaand otherSlavstates, they preferred the strategically vitalBosporusstraits to be controlled by a weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power likeBulgaria.\",\n \"power likeBulgaria. Russia had ambitions in northeasternAnatoliawhile its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as a direct threat. The 1908–1909Bosnian Crisisbegan when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory ofBosnia and Herzegovina, which ithad occupiedsince 1878. Timed to coincide with theBulgarian Declaration of Independencefrom the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as a significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912Italo-Turkish Wardemonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of\",\n \"to the formation of theBalkan League, an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria,Montenegro, andGreece.The League quickly overran most of the Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913First Balkan War, much to the surprise of outside observers.The Serbian capture of ports on theAdriaticresulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border inGalicia. TheRussian governmentdecided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through the 1913Treaty of London, which had created an independentAlbaniawhile enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-daySecond Balkan War, when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most ofMacedoniato Serbia and Greece, andSouthern Dobrujato Romania.The result was that even countries which benefited from the Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece,\",\n \"Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their \\\"rightful gains\\\", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany.This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the \\\"powder keg of Europe\\\". Prelude Sarajevo assassination On 28 June 1914,Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to EmperorFranz Joseph I of Austria, visitedSarajevo, the capital of the recently annexedBosnia and Herzegovina.Cvjetko Popović,Gavrilo Princip,Nedeljko Čabrinović,Trifko Grabež,Vaso Čubrilović(Bosnian Serbs) andMuhamed Mehmedbašić(from theBosniakscommunity),from the movement known asYoung Bosnia, took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the SerbianBlack Handintelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw agrenadeat the Archduke's car and injured two of his\",\n \"injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street whereGavrilo Principwas standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wifeSophie. According to historianZbyněk Zeman, in Vienna \\\"the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June, the crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened.\\\"Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historianChristopher Clarkas a \\\"9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna\\\". Expansion of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequentanti-Serb riots in Sarajevo.Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and\",\n \"Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as theSchutzkorpswas established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. July Crisis The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as the best way of achieving this.However, theForeign Ministryhad no solid proof of Serbian involvement.On 23July, Austria delivered anultimatumto Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered generalmobilizationon 25July, but accepted all the terms, except for\",\n \"terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress \\\"subversive elements\\\" inside Serbia, and take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination.Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shellingBelgrade. Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from theSPDpolitical opposition by presenting Russia as the aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July.That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to \\\"cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary\\\" within 12 hours.A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war.TheGerman General Staffhad long assumed they faced a war on two fronts; theSchlieffen Planenvisaged\",\n \"Planenvisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon.Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under the 1839Treaty of Londondid not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime MinisterAsquithand his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention.On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply.Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-ChiefJoseph Joffreasked his government for permission to cross the border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he\",\n \"neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion.Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August,Germany occupied Luxembourgand exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which was refused. Early on the morning of 4August, the Germans invaded, andAlbert I of Belgiumcalled for assistance under theTreaty of London.Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Progress of the war Opening hostilities Confusion among the Central Powers Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders\",\n \"leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Serbian campaign Beginning on 12 August, the Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of theCerandKolubara; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia.Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century.In 1915, the campaign saw the first use ofanti-aircraft warfareafter an Austrian plane was shot down withground-to-airfire, as well as the firstmedical evacuationby the Serbian army. German offensive in Belgium and France Upon mobilisation, in accordance with theSchlieffen Plan, 80% of theGerman Armywas located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier, the German right wing would sweep through theNetherlandsandBelgium,\",\n \"then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator,Alfred von Schlieffen, head of theGerman General Stafffrom 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor,Helmuth von Moltke the Younger. Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the \\\"lost provinces\\\" ofAlsace-Lorraine, which was the strategy envisaged by theirPlan XVII.However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as the German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30.He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the\",\n \"incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan.HistorianRichard Holmesargues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in the West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included theBritish Expeditionary Force(BEF), was infull retreat, and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000.German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, butvon Kluckused this freedom to disobey orders, opening a gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris.The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the\",\n \"trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911, the RussianStavkaagreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that enteredEast Prussiaon 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war.As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after theFirst Battle of the Marne,Crown Prince Wilhelmtold an American reporter \\\"We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already.\\\" Asia and\",\n \"already.\\\" Asia and the Pacific On 30 August 1914, New Zealandoccupied German Samoa(nowSamoa). On 11 September, theAustralian Naval and Military Expeditionary Forcelanded on the island ofNew Britain, then part ofGerman New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiserSMSEmdensank theRussian cruiserZhemchugin theBattle of Penang. Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became theSouth Seas Mandate, as well as GermanTreaty portson the ChineseShandongpeninsula atTsingtao. After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiserSMSKaiserin Elisabethfrom Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914.Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. African campaigns Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates\",\n \"protectorates ofTogolandandKamerun. On 10 August, German forces inSouth-West Africaattacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces inGerman East Africa, led by ColonelPaul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought aguerrilla warfarecampaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Indian support for the Allies Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 byinstigating uprisings in India, while theNiedermayer–Hentig Expeditionurged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity.Leaders from theIndian National Congressand other groups believed support for the British war effort would hastenIndian Home Rule, a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 byEdwin Montagu, theSecretary of State for India. In 1914,\",\n \"for India. In 1914, theBritish Indian Armywas larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded.The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting inthe campaign for full independenceled byMahatma Gandhi. Western Front 1914 to 1916 Trench warfare begins Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed the creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such asbarbed wire, machine guns and above all far more powerfulartillery, which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground\",\n \"open ground extremely difficult.Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such asgas warfareand thetank. After theFirst Battle of the Marnein September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the \\\"Race to the Sea\\\". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from theChannelto the Swiss border.Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held the high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered \\\"temporary\\\", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences.Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at theSecond Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating\",\n \"Germans (violating theHague Convention) usedchlorinegas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. Continuation of trench warfare In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at theBattle of Verdun, lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000to 975,000casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. TheBattle of the Sommewas an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. Theopening dayon 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of theBritish Army, which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As a whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans.The\",\n \"500,000 Germans.The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such astrench foot,lice,typhus,trench fever, and the 'Spanish flu'. Naval war At the start of the war, Germancruiserswere scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Alliedmerchant shipping. These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was theSMSEmden, part of the GermanEast Asia Squadronstationed atQingdao, which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at theBattle of Coronelin November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at theBattle of the Falkland Islandsin December. TheSMSDresdenescaped with a few auxiliaries, but after theBattle of Más a Tierra, these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of\",\n \"the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a navalblockade of Germany. This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law.Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of the ocean, even to neutral ships.Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. TheBattle of Jutlandin May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of the GermanHigh Seas Fleetwas confined to port. GermanU-boatsattempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.The nature ofsubmarine warfaremeant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the\",\n \"the sinking of the passenger shipRMSLusitaniain 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the \\\"cruiser rules\\\", which demanded warning and movement of crews to \\\"a place of safety\\\" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet).Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy ofunrestricted submarine warfare, realising the Americans would eventually enter the war.Germany sought to strangle Alliedsea lanesbefore the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling inconvoys, escorted bydestroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after thehydrophoneanddepth chargeswere introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were\",\n \"as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at the cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use ofaircraft carriersin combat, withHMSFuriouslaunchingSopwith Camelsin a successful raid against theZeppelinhangars atTondernin July 1918, as well asblimpsfor antisubmarine patrol. Southern theatres War in the Balkans Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital,Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on\",\n \"join the attack on Serbia.The Austro-Hungarian provinces ofSlovenia, Croatia andBosniaprovided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in the attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northernAlbania. The Serbs suffered defeat in theBattle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in theBattle of Mojkovacon 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece.After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed atSalonicain Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government\",\n \"its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-GermanKing Constantine Idismissed the pro-Allied government ofEleftherios Venizelosbefore the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturingBitolaon 19 November 1916 following the costlyMonastir offensive, which brought stabilisation of the front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in theVardar offensive, after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at theBattle of Dobro Pole, and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918.The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were too weak to re-establish a front. The disappearance of the Macedonian front meant that the\",\n \"meant that the road toBudapestand Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against theCentral Powersand, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement. Ottoman Empire The Ottomans threatened Russia'sCaucasianterritories and Britain's communications with India via theSuez Canal. The Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers' preoccupation with the war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of theArmenian,Greek, andAssyrianChristian populations—theArmenian genocide,Greek genocide, andSayforespectively. The British and French opened overseas fronts with theGallipoli(1915) andMesopotamian campaigns(1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, andAustralian and New Zealand Army Corps(ANZACs). InMesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in thesiege of Kutby the Ottomans (1915–1916), British Imperial\",\n \"British Imperial forces reorganised and capturedBaghdadin March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian fighters, while the Ottomans employed localKurdishandTurcomantribes. TheSuez Canalwas defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August 1916, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at theBattle of Romaniby theANZAC Mounted Divisionand the52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, anEgyptian Expeditionary Forceadvanced across theSinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in theBattle of Magdhabain December and theBattle of Rafaon the border between the EgyptianSinaiand Ottoman Palestine in January 1917. Russian armies generally had success in theCaucasus campaign.Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been previously lost to Russia. He was, however, a poor commander.He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting\",\n \"troops, insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86% of his force at theBattle of Sarikamish.GeneralYudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southernCaucasus. The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modernIran) in December 1914 to cut off British and Russian access topetroleum reservoirsaroundBaku.Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided byKurdishandAzeriforces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. ThePersian campaignlasted until 1918 and ended in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However, the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led Armenian and Assyrian forces to be cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia. TheArab Revolt,\",\n \"TheArab Revolt, instigated by the BritishForeign Office, started in June 1916 with theBattle of Mecca, led bySharif Hussein. The Sharif declared the independence of theKingdom of Hejazand, with British assistance, conquered much of Ottoman-held Arabia, resulting finally in the Ottoman surrender of Damascus.Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander ofMedina, resisted for more than2+1⁄2years during thesiege of Medinabefore surrendering in January 1919. TheSenussitribe, along the border ofItalian LibyaandBritish Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-scaleguerrilla waragainst Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in theSenussi campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916. Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted to 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000, with 325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded. Italian Front Though Italy joined the Triple Alliance in 1882, a treaty with its traditional Austrian enemy was so controversial that\",\n \"controversial that subsequent governments denied its existence and the terms were only made public in 1915.This arose fromnationalistdesigns on Austro-Hungarian territory inTrentino, theAustrian Littoral,RijekaandDalmatia, considered vital to secure the borders established in1866.In 1902, Rome secretly had agreed with France to remain neutral if the latter was attacked by Germany, effectively nullifying its role in the Triple Alliance. When the war began in 1914, Italy argued the Triple Alliance was defensive and it was not obliged to support an Austrian attack on Serbia. Opposition to joining the Central Powers increased when Turkey became a member in September, since in1911Italy had occupied Ottoman possessions inLibyaand theDodecaneseislands.To secure Italian neutrality, the Central Powers offered themTunisia, while in return for an immediate entry into the war, the Allies agreed to their demands for Austrian territory and sovereignty over the Dodecanese.Although they remained secret, these provisions\",\n \"these provisions were incorporated into the April 1915Treaty of London; Italy joined the Triple Entente and, on 23 May, declared war on Austria-Hungary,followed by Germany fifteen months later. The pre-1914 Italian army was short of officers, trained men, adequate transport and modern weapons; by April 1915, some of these deficiencies had been remedied but it was still unprepared for the major offensive required by the Treaty of London.The advantage of superior numbers was offset by the difficult terrain; much of the fighting took place high in theAlpsandDolomites, where trench lines had to be cut through rock and ice and keeping troops supplied was a major challenge. These issues were exacerbated by unimaginative strategies and tactics.Between 1915 and 1917, the Italian commander,Luigi Cadorna, undertooka series of frontal assaults along the Isonzo, which made little progress and cost many lives; by the end of the war, Italian combat deaths totalled around 548,000. In the spring of 1916, the\",\n \"spring of 1916, the Austro-Hungarians counterattacked inAsiagoin theStrafexpedition, but made little progress and were pushed by the Italians back to Tyrol.Although Italy occupied southernAlbaniain May 1916, their main focus was the Isonzo front which, after thecapture of Goriziain August 1916, remained static until October 1917. After a combined Austro-German force won a major victory atCaporetto, Cadorna was replaced byArmando Diazwho retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) before holding positions along thePiave River.A second Austrianoffensive was repulsedin June 1918. On 24 October, Diaz launched theBattle of Vittorio Venetoand initially met stubborn resistance,but with Austria-Hungary collapsing, Hungarian divisions in Italy demanded they be sent home.When this was granted, many others followed and the Imperial army disintegrated, the Italians taking over 300,000 prisoners.On 3November, theArmistice of Villa Giustiended hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Italy which occupiedTriesteand areas\",\n \"areas along theAdriatic Seaawarded to it in 1915. Eastern Front Initial actions As previously agreed with French presidentRaymond Poincaré, Russian plans at the start of the war were to simultaneously advance intoAustrian Galiciaand East Prussia as soon as possible. Although theirattack on Galiciawas largely successful, and the invasions achieved their aim of forcing Germany to divert troops from the Western Front, the speed of mobilisation meant they did so without much of their heavy equipment and support functions. These weaknesses contributed to Russian defeats atTannenbergand theMasurian Lakesin August and September 1914, forcing them to withdraw from East Prussia with heavy losses.By spring 1915, they had also retreated from Galicia, and the May 1915Gorlice–Tarnów offensiveallowed the Central Powers to invadeRussian-occupied Poland. Despite the successful June 1916Brusilov offensiveagainst the Austrians in eastern Galicia,shortages of supplies, heavy losses and command failures prevented the Russians\",\n \"the Russians from fully exploiting their victory. However, it was one of the most significant offensives of the war, diverting German resources fromVerdun, relieving Austro-Hungarian pressure on the Italians, and convincing Romania to enter the war on the side of the Allies on 27 August. It also fatally weakened both the Austrian and Russian armies, whose offensive capabilities were badly affected by their losses and increased disillusion with the war that ultimately led to the Russian revolutions. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia asthe Tsarremained at the front, with the home front controlled byEmpress Alexandra. Her increasingly incompetent rule and food shortages in urban areas led to widespread protests and the murder of her favourite,Grigori Rasputin, at the end of 1916. Romanian participation Despite secretly agreeing to support the Triple Alliance in 1883, Romania increasingly found itself at odds with the Central Powers over their support for Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and the status of ethnic\",\n \"status of ethnic Romanian communities inHungarian-controlledTransylvania,which comprised an estimated 2.8 million of the 5.0 million population.With the ruling elite split into pro-German and pro-Entente factions,Romania remained neutral for two years while allowing Germany and Austria to transport military supplies and advisors across Romanian territory. In September 1914, Russia acknowledged Romanian rights to Austro-Hungarian territories including Transylvania andBanat, whose acquisition had widespread popular support,and Russian success against Austria led Romania to join the Entente in the August 1916Treaty of Bucharest.Under the strategic plan known asHypothesis Z, the Romanian army planned an offensive into Transylvania, while defending SouthernDobrujaandGiurgiuagainst a possible Bulgarian counterattack.On 27 August 1916, theyattacked Transylvaniaand occupied substantial parts of the province before being driven back by the recently formedGerman 9th Army, led by former Chief of StaffErich von\",\n \"of StaffErich von Falkenhayn.A combined German-Bulgarian-Turkish offensive captured Dobruja and Giurgiu, although the bulk of the Romanian army managed to escape encirclement and retreated toBucharest, whichsurrenderedto the Central Powers on 6 December 1916. In the summer of 1917, a Central Powers offensive began in Romania under the command of August von Mackensen to knock Romania out of the war, resulting in the battles ofOituz,MărăștiandMărășeștiwhere up to 1,000,000 Central Powers troops were present. The battles lasted from 22 July to 3 September and eventually, the Romanian army was victorious advancing 500 km2. August von Mackensen could not plan for another offensive as he had to transfer troops to the Italian Front.Following the Russian revolution, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed theTreaty of Bucharestwith the Central Powers, which recognised Romanian sovereignty overBessarabiain return for ceding control of passes in the Carpathian Mountains to Austria-Hungary and\",\n \"Austria-Hungary and leasing its oil wells to Germany. Although approved byParliament,King Ferdinand Irefused to sign it, hoping for an Allied victory in the west.Romania re-entered the war on 10 November 1918 on the side of the Allies and the Treaty of Bucharest was formally annulled by the Armistice of 11 November 1918. Central Powers peace overtures On 12 December 1916, after ten brutal months of theBattle of Verdunand asuccessful offensive against Romania, Germany attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies.However, this attempt was rejected out of hand as a \\\"duplicitous war ruse\\\". US presidentWoodrow Wilsonattempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking for both sides to state their demands.Lloyd George'sWar Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions among the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the US was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the \\\"submarine outrages\\\". While the\",\n \"While the Allies debated a response to Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of \\\"a direct exchange of views\\\". Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities.The Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars.The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer on the grounds of honour, and noted Germany had not put forward any specific proposals. Final years of the war Russian Revolution and withdrawal By the end of 1916, Russian casualties totalled nearly five million killed, wounded or captured, with major urban areas affected by food shortages and high prices. In March 1917, Tsar Nicholas ordered the military to forcibly suppress strikes inPetrogradbut the troops refused to fire on the crowds.Revolutionaries\",\n \"set up thePetrograd Sovietand fearing a left-wing takeover, theState Dumaforced Nicholas to abdicate and established theRussian Provisional Government, which confirmed Russia's willingness to continue the war. However, the Petrograd Soviet refused to disband, creatingcompeting power centresand causing confusion and chaos, with frontline soldiers becoming increasingly demoralised. Following the Tsar's abdication,Vladimir Lenin—with the help of the German government—was ushered from Switzerland into Russia on 16 April 1917. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, they acceded to theTreaty of Brest-Litovskon 3March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including\",\n \"including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. With theRussian Empireout of the war, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed theTreaty of Bucharestwith the Central Powers in May 1918. Under the terms of the treaty, Romania ceded territory to Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria and leased its oil reserves to Germany. However, the terms also included the Central Powers' recognition of the union ofBessarabiawith Romania. United States enters the war The United States was a major supplier of war material to the Allies but remained neutral in 1914, in large part due to domestic opposition.The most significant factor in creating the support Wilson needed was the German submarine offensive, which not only cost American lives but paralysed trade as ships were reluctant to put to sea. On 6 April 1917, Congressdeclared war on Germanyas an \\\"Associated Power\\\" of the Allies.TheUS Navysent abattleship grouptoScapa Flowto join the Grand Fleet, and provided\",\n \"Fleet, and provided convoy escorts. In April 1917, theUS Armyhad fewer than 300,000 men, includingNational Guardunits, compared to British and French armies of 4.1 and 8.3 million respectively. TheSelective Service Act of 1917drafted 2.8 million men, though training and equipping such numbers was a huge logistical challenge. By June 1918, over 667,000 members of theAmerican Expeditionary Forces(AEF) were transported to France, a figure which reached 2 million by the end of November. Despite his conviction that Germany must be defeated, Wilson went to war to ensure the US played a leading role in shaping the peace, which meant preserving the AEF as a separate military force, rather than being absorbed into British or French units as his Allies wanted.He was strongly supported by AEF commander GeneralJohn J. Pershing, a proponent of pre-1914 \\\"open warfare\\\" who considered the French and British emphasis on artillery misguided and incompatible with American \\\"offensive spirit\\\".Much to the frustration of his\",\n \"frustration of his Allies, who had suffered heavy losses in 1917, he insisted on retaining control of American troops, and refused to commit them to the front line until able to operate as independent units. As a result, the first significant US involvement was theMeuse–Argonne offensivein late September 1918. Nivelle Offensive (April–May 1917) In December 1916,Robert Nivellereplaced Pétain as commander of French armies on the Western Front and began planning aspring attackinChampagne, part of a joint Franco-British operation.Poor security meant German intelligence was well informed on tactics and timetables, but despite this, when the attack began on 16 April the French made substantial gains, before being brought to a halt by the newly built and extremely strong defences of the Hindenburg Line. Nivelle persisted with frontal assaults and, by 25 April, the French had suffered nearly 135,000 casualties, including 30,000 dead, most incurred in the first two days. Concurrent British attacks atArraswere more\",\n \"atArraswere more successful, though ultimately of little strategic value.Operating as a separate unit for the first time, theCanadian Corps' capture ofVimy Ridgeis viewed by many Canadians as a defining moment in creating a sense of national identity.Though Nivelle continued the offensive, on 3 May the21st Division, which had been involved in some of the heaviest fighting at Verdun, refused orders to go into battle, initiating theFrench Army mutinies; within days, \\\"collective indiscipline\\\" had spread to 54 divisions, while over 20,000 deserted. Sinai and Palestine campaign (1917–1918) In March and April 1917, at theFirstandSecond Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani.At the end of October 1917, theSinai and Palestine campaignresumed, when GeneralEdmund Allenby'sXXth Corps,XXI CorpsandDesert Mounted Corpswon theBattle of Beersheba.Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at theBattle\",\n \"later at theBattle of Mughar Ridgeand, early in December,Jerusalemhad been captured following another Ottoman defeat at theBattle of Jerusalem.About this time,Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressensteinwas relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army's commander, replaced byDjevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of theOttoman Armyin Palestine,Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced byOtto Liman von Sanders. In early 1918, the front line wasextendedand theJordan Valleywas occupied, following theFirst Transjordanand theSecond Transjordanattacks by British Empire forces in March and April 1918. German offensive and Allied counter-offensive (March–November 1918) In December 1917, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the West. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success\",\n \"hopes for success in a final quick offensive.Ludendorff drew up plans (Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces nearSaint-Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).The initial offensive was a success; after heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks ormotorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell-torn and often impassable to traffic.Germany launchedOperation Georgetteagainst the northernEnglish Channelports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conductedOperations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) on 15 July, in an attempt to encircleReims. The resulting\",\n \"The resulting counter-attack, which started theHundred Days Offensiveon 8 August,led to a marked collapse in German morale. Allied advance to the Hindenburg Line By September, the Germans had fallen back to the Hindenburg Line. The Allies hadadvanced to the Hindenburg Linein the north and centre. German forces launched numerous counterattacks, but positions and outposts of the Line continued falling, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September, the Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable. Thefinal assaulton the Hindenburg Line began with theMeuse-Argonne offensive, launched by American and French troops on 26 September. Two days later the Belgians, French and Britishattacked around Ypres, and the day after the British at St Quentin in the centre of the line. The following week, cooperating American and French units broke through inChampagneat theBattle of Blanc Mont Ridge(3–27 October), forcing the Germans off the\",\n \"the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier.On 8October, the Hindenburg Line was pierced by British and Dominion troops of the First and Third British Armies at theSecond Battle of Cambrai. Breakthrough of Macedonian front (September 1918) Allied forces started theVardar offensiveon 15 September at two key points:Dobro Poleand nearDojran Lake. In theBattle of Dobro Pole, the Serbian and French armies had success after a three-day-long battle with relatively small casualties, and subsequently made a breakthrough in the front, something which was rarely seen in World War I. After the front was broken, Allied forces started to liberate Serbia and reachedSkopjeat 29 September, after whichBulgariasigned an armistice with the Allies on 30 September. Armistices and capitulations The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, theArmistice of Salonicaon 29 September 1918.German EmperorWilhelm IIin a telegram toBulgarian Tsar Ferdinand\",\n \"Tsar Ferdinand Idescribed the situation thus: \\\"Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the war!\\\".On the same day, theGerman Supreme Army Commandinformed Kaiser Wilhelm II and theImperial ChancellorCountGeorg von Hertling, that the military situation facing Germany was hopeless. On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, marking the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3November, Austria-Hungary sent aflag of truceand accepted theArmistice of Villa Giusti, arranged with the Allied Authorities in Paris. Austria and Hungary signed separate\",\n \"signed separate armistices following the overthrow of theHabsburg monarchy. In the following days, the Italian Army occupiedInnsbruckand allTyrol, with over 20,000 soldiers. On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, and signed the Armistice of Mudros. German government surrenders With the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser leading to his abdication and fleeing of the country, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge on October 3 as Chancellor of Germany. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military. TheGerman Revolution of 1918–1919began at the end of October 1918. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war they believed to be as good as lost. Thesailors' revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports\",\n \"in the naval ports ofWilhelmshavenandKiel, spread across the whole country within days and led to theproclamation of a republicon 9November 1918, shortly thereafter to theabdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and German surrender. Aftermath In the aftermath of the war, the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires disappeared.Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties fell as a result of the war: theRomanovs, theHohenzollerns, theHabsburgs, and theOttomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead,not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. Formal end of the war A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of theTreaty of Versailleswith Germany on 28 June 1919. The US Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it,and did not formally end its involvement in the war until theKnox–Porter Resolutionwas signed\",\n \"signed on 2July 1921 by PresidentWarren G. Harding.For the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of theTermination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918concerning: Somewar memorialsdate the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned home; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Peace treaties and national boundaries TheParis Peace Conferenceimposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919Treaty of Versaillesdealt with Germany and, building onWilson's 14th point, established theLeague of Nationson 28 June 1919. The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for \\\"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by\\\" their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement\",\n \"this statement wasArticle 231. This article became known as the \\\"War Guilt Clause\\\", as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful.The Germans felt they had been unjustly dealt with by what they called the \\\"diktatof Versailles\\\". German historian Hagen Schulze said the Treaty placed Germany \\\"under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated.\\\"Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasises the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s: Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic. The legend of the \\\"stab in the back\\\" and the wish to revise the \\\"Versailles diktat\\\", and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a man of peace such as\",\n \"of peace such as Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanise the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its policies. Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as a recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbours. Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Apart from Austria and Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia received territories from the Dual Monarchy (the formerly separate and autonomousKingdom of Croatia-Slavoniawas incorporated into Yugoslavia). The details were contained in the treaties ofSaint-Germain-en-LayeandTrianon. As a result, Hungary lost 64% of its total population, decreasing from 20.9 million to 7.6 million, and losing\",\n \"million, and losing 31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of its ethnicHungarians.According to the 1910 census, speakers of the Hungarian language included approximately 54% of the entire population of theKingdom of Hungary. Within the country, numerous ethnic minorities were present: 16.1%Romanians, 10.5%Slovaks, 10.4%Germans, 2.5%Ruthenians, 2.5%Serbsand 8% others.Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The Russian Empire lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations ofEstonia,Finland,Latvia,Lithuania, andPolandwere carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918. National identities After 123 years, Poland re-emerged as an independent country. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a \\\"minor Entente nation\\\" and the country with the most casualties per capita,became the backbone of a new multinational state, theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia.\",\n \"renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining theKingdom of Bohemiawith parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Romania woulduniteall Romanian-speaking people under a single state, leading toGreater Romania. In Australia and New Zealand, the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' \\\"Baptism of Fire\\\". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of theBritish Crown, and independent national identities for these nations took hold.Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), celebrates this defining moment. In the aftermath of World War I, Greecefoughtagainst Turkish nationalists led byMustafa Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in amassive population exchange between the two countriesunder the Treaty of Lausanne.According to various sources,several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the\",\n \"tied in with the Greek genocide. Casualties Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilised from 1914 to 1918, an estimated8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria-Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%.France mobilised 7.8 million men, of which 1.4 million died and 3.2 million were injured.Approximately 15,000 deployed men sustained gruesome facial injuries, causing social stigma and marginalisation; they were called thegueules cassées(broken faces). In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that had weakened disease resistance. These excess deaths are estimated as 271,000 in 1918, plus another 71,000 in the first half of 1919 when the blockade was still in effect.Starvation caused by famine killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In\",\n \"conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borneepidemic typhuskilled 200,000 in Serbia.Starting in early 1918, a major influenza epidemic known asSpanish fluspread across the world, accelerated by the movement of large numbers of soldiers, often crammed together in camps and transport ships with poor sanitation. The Spanish flu killed at least 17 to 25 million people,including an estimated 2.64 million Europeans and as many as 675,000 Americans.Between 1915 and 1926, an epidemic ofencephalitis lethargicaaffected nearly five million people worldwide. Eight millionequinesmostlyhorses,donkeysandmulesdied, three-quarters of them from the extreme conditions they worked in. War crimes Chemical weapons in warfare The German army was the first to successfully deploy chemical weapons during the Second Battle of Ypres (April–May 1915), after German scientists under the direction ofFritz Haberat theKaiser Wilhelm Institutedeveloped a method to weaponizechlorine.The use of chemical weapons had been sanctioned by the German High\",\n \"by the German High Command to force Allied soldiers out of their entrenched positions, complementing rather than supplanting more lethal conventional weapons.Chemical weapons were deployed by all major belligerents throughout the war, inflicting approximately 1.3 million casualties, of which about 90,000 were fatal.The use of chemical weapons in warfare was a direct violation of the1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gasesand the1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their use. Genocides by the Ottoman Empire Theethnic cleansingof the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is consideredgenocide.The Ottomans carried out organised and systematic massacres of the Armenian population at the beginning of the war and manipulated acts of Armenian resistance by portraying them as rebellions to justify further extermination.In early 1915, several Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the\",\n \"forces and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue theTehcir Law(Law on Deportation), which authorised the deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionallymarched to deathand a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands.While the exact number of deaths is unknown, theInternational Association of Genocide Scholarsestimates around 1.5 million.The government of Turkey continues todeny the genocideto the present day, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World WarI; these claims are rejected by most historians. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians andGreeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination.At least 250,000 Assyrian Christians, about half of the population, and 350,000–750,000AnatolianandPontic Greekswere killed between 1915 and 1922. Prisoners of\",\n \"1922. Prisoners of war About 8 million soldiers surrendered and were held inPOW campsduring the war. All nations pledged to follow theHague Conventionson fair treatment ofprisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of combatants at the front. Around 25–31% of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria-Hungary 32%; for Italy 26%; for France 12%; for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5–3.5 million soldiers as prisoners). From the Central Powers, about 3.3 million soldiers became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians. Soldiers' experiences Allied personnel was around 42,928,000, while Central personnel was near 25,248,000.British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but were increasinglyconscripted. Surviving veterans returning home often found they could discuss their experiences only among\",\n \"only among themselves, so formed \\\"veterans' associations\\\" or \\\"Legions\\\". Conscription Conscription was common in most European countries. However, it was controversial in English-speaking countries,It was especially unpopular among minority ethnicities—especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland,Australia,and the French Catholics in Canada. In the US, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well-received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas.The administration decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower after only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of war. Military attachés and war correspondents Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war.Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern \\\"embedded\\\" positions within the opposing land and naval forces. Economic effects Macro- and micro-economic\",\n \"and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, the industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle forvoting rights for women. In all nations, the government's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50% in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the US, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily fromWall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916 but allowed a great increase inUS governmentlending to the Allies. After 1919, the US demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations that, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and some loans were never\",\n \"loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4billionof World WarI debt in 1934; the last installment was finally paid in 2015. Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such asAlbert Kitsonwere called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits ofmanganese, used in munitions production, in theGold Coast. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called \\\"war guilt\\\" clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for \\\"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.\\\"It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However, neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war\",\n \"an admission of war guilt.In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, \\\"Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay\\\" this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being \\\"deliberately designed to be chimerical\\\" and its \\\"primary function was to mislead public opinion ... into believing the 'total sum was being maintained.'\\\"Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) \\\"represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay\\\" and \\\"therefore ... represented the total German reparations\\\" figure that had to be paid. This figure could be paid in cash or in-kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). Some of the territory lost—via the Treaty of Versailles—was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain.By 1929, theGreat Depressioncaused political chaos throughout the world.In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point\",\n \"by which point Germany had paid only the equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks.With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled.David Andelmannotes \\\"Refusing to pay doesn't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the agreement, still exist.\\\" Thus, following the Second World War, at theLondon Conferencein 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3October 2010, Germany made the final payment on these bonds. The Australian prime minister,Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister,David Lloyd George, \\\"You have assured us that you cannot get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies.\\\" Australia received £5,571,720 in war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been £376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s,\",\n \"by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were £831,280,947. Support and opposition for the war Support In the Balkans,Yugoslav nationalistssuch as the leader,Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom ofYugoslavsfrom Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. TheYugoslav Committee, led by Trumbić, was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London.In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, includingCzechoslovak, Italian,Polish,Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support nationalself-determinationfor the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary. In the Middle East,Arab nationalismsoared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of apan-Arabstate. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle\",\n \"of the Middle East to achieve independence. In East Africa,Iyasu VofEthiopiawas supporting theDervish statewho were at war with the British in theSomaliland campaign.Von Syburg, the German envoy inAddis Ababa, said, \\\"now the time has come for Ethiopia to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians home, to restore the Empire to its ancient size.\\\" The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge of entering World WarI on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu's overthrow at theBattle of Segaledue to Allied pressure on the Ethiopian aristocracy. Several socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914.But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept ofclass conflictheld by radical socialists such as Marxists andsyndicalistsbeing overborne by their patriotic support for the war.Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries' intervention in the war. Italian\",\n \"in the war. Italian nationalismwas stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war wasGabriele D'Annunzio, who promotedItalian irredentismand helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war.TheItalian Liberal Party, under the leadership ofPaolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and used the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism.Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, includingBenito MussoliniandLeonida Bissolati.However, theItalian Socialist Partydecided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in ageneral strikecalledRed Week.The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini.Mussolini formed the pro-interventionistIl Popolo d'Italiaand theFasci\",\n \"theFasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista(\\\"RevolutionaryFascifor International Action\\\") in October 1914 that later developed into theFasci Italiani di Combattimentoin 1919, the origin of fascism.Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds fromAnsaldo(an armaments firm) and other companies to createIl Popolo d'Italiato convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. Patriotic funds On both sides, there was large-scale fundraising for soldiers' welfare, their dependents and those injured. TheNail Menwere a German example. Around the British Empire, there were many patriotic funds, including theRoyal Patriotic Fund Corporation,Canadian Patriotic Fund,Queensland Patriotic Fundand, by 1919, there were 983 funds in New Zealand.At the start of the next world war the New Zealand funds were reformed, having been criticised as overlapping, wasteful and abused,but 11 were still functioning in 2002. Opposition Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These\",\n \"the conflict. These includedEugene Debsin the US andBertrand Russellin Britain. In the US, theEspionage Act of 1917andSedition Act of 1918made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed \\\"disloyal\\\". Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors,and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic. Several nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advancedIrish nationalistshad staunchly opposed taking part.The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912, and by July 1914 there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in theEaster Risingof 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to\",\n \"to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain.The British government placed Ireland undermartial lawin response to the Easter Rising, though once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling.However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland, resulting in theConscription Crisis of 1918. Other opposition came fromconscientious objectors—some socialist, some religious—who had refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status.Some of them, most notably prominent peace activistStephen Hobhouse, refused both military andalternative service.Many suffered years of prison, includingsolitary confinement. Even after the war, in Britain, many job advertisements were marked \\\"No conscientious objectors need to apply\\\". On 1–4 May 1917, about 100,000 workers and soldiers ofPetrograd, and after them, the workers and soldiers of other Russian cities, led by the Bolsheviks, demonstrated under banners reading \\\"Down\",\n \"reading \\\"Down with the war!\\\" and \\\"all power to the Soviets!\\\". The mass demonstrations resulted in a crisis for theRussian Provisional Government.InMilan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation.The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks andanarchists, who fought violently until May 23 when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people were arrested. Technology World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-centurytactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies had modernised and were making use of telephone,wireless communication,armoured cars,tanks(especially with the advent of the prototype tank,Little Willie), and aircraft. Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were\",\n \"1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917,indirect firewith guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably, aircraft and thefield telephone. Fixed-wing aircraftwere initially used forreconnaissanceandground attack. To shoot down enemy planes,anti-aircraft gunsandfighter aircraftwere developed.Strategic bomberswere created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former usedZeppelinsas well.Towards the end of the conflict,aircraft carrierswere used for the first time, with HMSFuriouslaunchingSopwith Camelsin a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars atTønderin 1918. Diplomacy The non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed to build support for the cause or to undermine support for the enemy. For the most part, wartime diplomacy focused on five issues:propaganda campaigns; defining and redefining the war goals, which became harsher as the\",\n \"harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements inside the Central Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and Arabs. In addition, multiple peace proposals were coming from neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very far. Legacy and memory Memorials Memorials were built in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as theCommonwealth War Graves Commission, theAmerican Battle Monuments Commission, theGerman War Graves Commission, andLe Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have monuments to the missing orunidentifieddead, such as theMenin Gate Memorial to the Missingand theThiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme. In 1915,John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the\",\n \"doctor, wrote the poemIn Flanders Fieldsas a salute to those who perished in the war. It is still recited today, especially onRemembrance DayandMemorial Day. National World War I Museum and MemorialinKansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World WarI. TheLiberty Memorialwas dedicated on 1 November 1921. The British government budgeted substantial resources tothe commemoration of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is theImperial War Museum.On 3August 2014, French PresidentFrançois Hollandeand German PresidentJoachim Gaucktogether markedthe centenary of Germany's declaration of war on Franceby laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German asHartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in the war.As part of commemorations for thecentenary of the 1918 Armistice, French PresidentEmmanuel Macronand German ChancellorAngela Merkelvisited the site of the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne and unveiled a plaque to\",\n \"a plaque to reconciliation. Historiography ... \\\"Strange, friend,\\\" I said, \\\"Here is no cause to mourn.\\\"\\\"None,\\\" said the other, \\\"Save the undone years\\\"... The first efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences ofmodern warfarebegan during the initial phases of the war and are still underway more than a century later. Teaching World War I has presented special challenges. When compared withWorld War II, the First World War is often thought to be \\\"a wrong war fought for the wrong reasons\\\"; it lacks themetanarrativeofgood versus evilthat characterizes retellings of the Second World War. Lacking recognizable heroes and villains, it is often taught thematically, invoking simplifiedtropesthat obscure the complexity of the conflict. Historian Heather Jones argues that thehistoriographyhas been reinvigorated by a cultural turn in the 21st century. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regardingmilitary occupation,radicalisationof politics,race,medical science,genderandmental health. Among the major\",\n \"Among the major subjects that historians have long debated regarding the war include:Why the war began; why theAllieswon; whether generals were responsible forhigh casualty rates; how soldiers endured the poor conditions oftrench warfare; and to what extent the civilianhome frontaccepted and endorsed the war effort. Unexploded ordnance As late as 2007,unexploded ordnanceat battlefield sites likeVerdunandSommecontinued to pose a danger. In France and Belgium, locals who discover caches of unexploded munitions are assisted by weapons disposal units. In some places, plant life has still not recovered from the effects of the war. See also Footnotes References Bibliography External links Library guides\",\n \"World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War IIor theSecond World War(1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAlliesand theAxis powers.Nearly all the world's countries—including all thegreat powers—participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit oftotal war, blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources.Tanksandaircraft played major roles, with the latter enabling thestrategic bombingof population centres and delivery of theonly two nuclear weaponsever used in war. World War II was thedeadliest conflictin history, resulting in70 to 85 million fatalities, more than half of which were civilians. Millions died ingenocides, includingthe Holocaustof European Jews, and by massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory,Germany,Austria,Japan, andKoreawere occupied, andwar crimestribunals were conductedagainst GermanandJapanese\",\n \"GermanandJapanese leaders. Thecauses of World War IIincluded unresolved tensions in theaftermath of World War Iand the rises offascism in Europeandmilitarism in Japan, and it was preceded by events including theJapanese invasion of Manchuria,Spanish Civil War, outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, and Germanannexations of Austriaandthe Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, whenNazi Germany, underAdolf Hitler,invaded Poland, after which theUnited KingdomandFrancedeclared waron Germany. Poland was partitioned between Germany and theSoviet Unionunder theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, by which they had agreed on respective \\\"spheres of influence\\\" in Eastern Europe; in 1940, the Sovietsannexed the Baltic statesandparts of FinlandandRomania. After thefall of Francein June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and theBritish Empire, with fighting in theBalkans,Mediterranean, and Middle East, the aerialBattle of Britainandthe Blitz, and navalBattle of the Atlantic.\",\n \"of the Atlantic. Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much ofcontinental Europeandformed the Axis alliancewithItaly,Japan, and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis inan invasion of the Soviet Union, opening theEastern Frontand initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed todominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific, and by 1937 was at war with theRepublic of China. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territoriesin Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, includingat Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan; theEuropean Axis declared war on the US.Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia, but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the navalBattle of Midway; Germany and Italy weredefeated in North Africaand atStalingradin the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, theAllied invasions of Sicilyand\",\n \"of Sicilyand theItalian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Alliesinvaded German-occupied France at Normandy, while the Soviet Unionregained its territorial lossesand pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled theJapanese Navyandcaptured key islands. The war in Europe concluded with the liberation ofGerman-occupied territories; theinvasion of Germany by the Western Alliesand the Soviet Union, culminating in thefall of Berlinto Soviet troops;Hitler's suicide; and theGerman unconditional surrenderon8 May 1945. Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of thePotsdam Declaration, the USdropped the first atomic bombsonHiroshimaandNagasakion 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminentinvasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Sovietdeclaration of\",\n \"of waragainst Japan and itsinvasion of Manchuria, Japan announcedits unconditional surrenderon 15 August and signeda surrender documenton2 September 1945, marking the end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. TheUnited Nationswas established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becomingthe permanent membersofits security council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rivalsuperpowers, setting the stage for theCold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering thedecolonisation of AfricaandAsia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towardseconomic recovery and expansion. Start and end dates World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939with theGerman invasion of\",\n \"invasion of Polandand theUnited KingdomandFrance's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of thePacific Warinclude the start of theSecond Sino-Japanese Waron 7 July 1937,or the earlierJapanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931.Others follow the British historianA. J. P. Taylor, who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars became World War II in 1941.Other proposed starting dates for World War II include theItalian invasion of Abyssiniaon 3 October 1935.The British historianAntony Beevorviews the beginning of World WarII as theBattles of Khalkhin Golfought betweenJapanand the forces ofMongoliaand theSoviet Unionfrom May to September 1939.Others view theSpanish Civil Waras the start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 (V-J Day),\",\n \"1945 (V-J Day), rather than with the formalsurrender of Japanon 2 September 1945, which officiallyended the war in Asia. Apeace treaty between Japan and the Allieswas signed in 1951.A 1990treaty regarding Germany's futureallowed thereunification of East and West Germanyto take place and resolved most post–World WarII issues.No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed,although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by theSoviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. History Background Aftermath of World War I World War Ihad radically altered the political European map with the defeat of theCentral Powers—includingAustria-Hungary,Germany,Bulgaria, and theOttoman Empire—and the 1917Bolshevik seizure of powerinRussia, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victoriousAllies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and newnation-stateswere\",\n \"created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, theLeague of Nationswas established in 1920 by theParis Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, andnaval disarmament, as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentimentafter World WarI,irredentistandrevanchistnationalismhad emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by theTreaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and allits overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited,reparationswere imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country'sarmed forces. Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in theGerman\",\n \"in theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as theWeimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that thepromises madeby the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, theFascistmovement led byBenito Mussoliniseized power in Italy with a nationalist,totalitarian, andclass collaborationistagenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \\\"New Roman Empire\\\". Adolf Hitler, after anunsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German governmentin 1923, eventuallybecame the Chancellor of Germanyin 1933 whenPaul von\",\n \"1933 whenPaul von Hindenburgand the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himselfFührerof Germany and abolished democracy, espousing aradical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massiverearmament campaign.France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy,allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when theTerritory of the Saar Basinwas legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed theStresa Frontin April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towardsmilitary globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made anindependent naval agreementwith Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany'sgoals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty\",\n \"drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, theFranco-Soviet pactwas required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed theNeutrality Actin August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles andLocarno Treatiesbyremilitarising the Rhinelandin March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy ofappeasement.In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed theRome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed theAnti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year. Asia TheKuomintang(KMT) party in China launched aunification campaignagainstregional warlordsand nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled ina civil waragainst its formerChinese Communist Party(CCP) alliesandnew regional warlords. In 1931, anincreasingly militaristicEmpire of Japan, which had long sought influence in Chinaas the first step of what its\",\n \"step of what its government saw as the country'sright to rule Asia, staged theMukden incidentas a pretext toinvade Manchuriaand establish thepuppet stateofManchukuo. China appealed to theLeague of Nationsto stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after beingcondemnedfor its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, inShanghai,ReheandHebei, until theTanggu Trucewas signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression inManchuria, andChahar and Suiyuan.After the 1936Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to presenta united frontto oppose Japan. Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) TheSecond Italo-Ethiopian Warwas a briefcolonial warthat began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of theEthiopian Empire(also known asAbyssinia) by the armed forces of theKingdom of Italy(Regno d'Italia), which was launched fromItalian\",\n \"fromItalian SomalilandandEritrea.The war resulted in themilitary occupationof Ethiopia and itsannexationinto the newly created colony ofItalian East Africa(Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of theLeague of Nationsas a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations,but the League did littlewhen the former clearly violated Article X of the League'sCovenant.The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion.Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbingAustria. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to theNationalist rebels, led by GeneralFrancisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain.The Soviet Union\",\n \"Soviet Union supported the existing government of theSpanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as theInternational Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used thisproxy waras an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World WarII butgenerally favoured the Axis.His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending ofvolunteersto fight on theEastern Front. Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital ofPekingafter instigating theMarco Polo Bridge incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.The Soviets quickly signed anon-aggression pact with Chinato lendmaterielsupport, effectively ending China's priorcooperation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attackedTaiyuan, engaged theKuomintang Armyaround Xinkou,and\",\n \"Xinkou,and foughtCommunist forcesin Pingxingguan.GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shekdeployed hisbest armytodefend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back,capturing the capital Nankingin December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants weremurdered by the Japanese. In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won theirfirst major victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city ofXuzhouwas taken by the Japanesein May.In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance byflooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences atWuhan, but thecity was takenby October.Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland toChongqingand continued the war. Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces\",\n \"Japanese forces inManchukuohad sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union andMongolia. The Japanese doctrine ofHokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat atKhalkin Golin 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese Warand ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed aNeutrality Pactin April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine ofNanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germanyannexed Austria, again provokinglittle responsefrom other European powers.Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on theSudetenland, an area ofCzechoslovakiawith a predominantlyethnic Germanpopulation. Soon the United Kingdom\",\n \"the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlainand conceded this territory to Germany in theMunich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia tocede additional territoryto Hungary, and Poland annexed theTrans-Olzaregion of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \\\"war-mongers\\\" and in January 1939secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navyto challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939,Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakiaand subsequently split it into the GermanProtectorate of Bohemia and Moraviaand a pro-Germanclient state, theSlovak\",\n \"state, theSlovak Republic.Hitler also delivered anultimatum to Lithuaniaon 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of theKlaipėda Region, formerly the GermanMemelland. Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on theFree City of Danzig, the United Kingdom and Franceguaranteed their support for Polish independence; whenItaly conquered Albaniain April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to theKingdoms of RomaniaandGreece.Shortly after theFranco-Britishpledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with thePact of Steel.Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to \\\"encircle\\\" Germany and renounced theAnglo-German Naval Agreementand theGerman–Polish declaration of non-aggression. The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signeda non-aggression pactwith Germany,after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had\",\n \"Soviet Union had stalled.This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet \\\"spheres of influence\\\" (westernPolandand Lithuania for Germany;eastern Poland, Finland,Estonia,LatviaandBessarabiafor the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence.The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World WarI. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations.On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polishplenipotentiaryimmediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover ofDanzig, and to allow aplebiscitein thePolish\",\n \"thePolish Corridorin which the German minority would vote on secession.The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassadorNevile Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germanyinvaded Polandafterhaving stagedseveralfalse flag border incidentsas a pretext to initiate the invasion.The first German attack of the war came against thePolish defenses at Westerplatte.The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany.During thePhoney Warperiod, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of acautious French probe into the Saarland.The Western Allies also began anaval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.Germany\",\n \"war effort.Germany responded by orderingU-boat warfareagainst Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into theBattle of the Atlantic. On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs ofWarsaw. The Polishcounter-offensiveto the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by theWehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through tobesieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing acease-fire with Japan, theSoviet Union invaded Polandunder the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist.On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, andthe last large operational unit of the Polish Armysurrendered on 6October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed thePolish government-in-exileand aclandestine state apparatus remainedin occupied Poland.A significant part of Polish military personnelevacuated to Romaniaand Latvia; many of them laterfought against the Axisin other theatres of\",\n \"other theatres of the war. Germanyannexed westernPoland andoccupied central Poland; the Soviet Unionannexed eastern Poland; small shares of Polish territory were transferred toLithuaniaandSlovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejectedand Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatenedEstonia,Latvia, andLithuaniawith military invasion, forcing the threeBaltic countriesto signpactsallowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there.Finlandrefused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union.The Soviet Union invaded Finlandin November 1939,and was subsequently expelled from theLeague of\",\n \"from theLeague of Nationsfor this crime of aggression.Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during theWinter Warwas modest,and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 withsome Finnish concessions of territory. In June 1940, the Soviet Unionoccupiedthe entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,as well as the Romanian regions ofBessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. In August 1940, Hitler imposed theSecond Vienna Awardon Romania which led to the transfer ofNorthern Transylvaniato Hungary.In September 1940, Bulgaria demandedSouthern Dobrujafrom Romania with German and Italian support, leading to theTreaty of Craiova.The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under MarshalIon Antonescu, with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee.Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operationgradually stalled,and both states began\",\n \"both states began preparations for war. Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940,Germany invaded Denmark and Norwayto protect shipments ofiron ore from Sweden, which the Allies wereattempting to cut off.Denmark capitulated after six hours, anddespite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.British discontent over the Norwegian campaignled to the resignation of Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain, who was replaced byWinston Churchillon 10May 1940. On the same day, Germanylaunched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strongMaginot Linefortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations ofBelgium,the Netherlands, andLuxembourg.The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through theArdennesregion,which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.By successfully implementing newBlitzkriegtactics, theWehrmachtrapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping\",\n \"Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was ableto evacuate a significant number of Allied troopsfrom the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June,Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, andParisfell to them on 14June. Eight days laterFrance signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided intoGermanandItalian occupation zones,and an unoccupiedrump stateunder theVichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, whichthe United Kingdom attackedon 3July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The airBattle of Britainbegan in early July withLuftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours.TheGerman campaign for air superioritystarted in August but its failure to defeatRAF Fighter Commandforced the indefinite postponement of\",\n \"postponement of theproposed German invasion of Britain. The Germanstrategic bombingoffensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities inthe Blitz, but largely ended in May 1941after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navyenjoyed successagainst an over-extendedRoyal Navy, usingU-boatsagainst British shippingin the Atlantic.The BritishHome Fleetscored a significant victory on 27May 1941 bysinking the German battleshipBismarck. In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended theNeutrality Actto allow\\\"cash and carry\\\"purchases by the Allies.In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of theUnited States Navywassignificantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to atrade of American destroyers for British bases.Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.In December\",\n \"1941.In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an \\\"arsenal of democracy\\\" and promotingLend-Leaseprogrammes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it wasinvadedby Germany.The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, theTripartite Pactformally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as theAxis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.The Axis expanded in November 1940 whenHungary,Slovakia, andRomaniajoined.RomaniaandHungarylater made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recaptureterritory ceded to the Soviet Union. Mediterranean\",\n \"Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the ItalianRegia Aeronauticaattacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italyconquered British Somalilandand made anincursion into British-held Egypt. In October,Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes.To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces begancounter-offensivesagainst Italian forces in Egypt andItalian East Africa.The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. TheItalian Navyalso suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after acarrier attack at\",\n \"acarrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at theBattle of Cape Matapan. Italian defeats prompted Germany todeploy an expeditionary forceto North Africa; at the end of March 1941,Rommel'sAfrika Korpslaunched an offensivewhich drove back Commonwealth forces.In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt andbesieged the port of Tobruk. By late March 1941,BulgariaandYugoslaviasigned theTripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government wasoverthrown two days laterby pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of bothYugoslaviaandGreece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month.The airborneinvasion of the Greek island of Creteat the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans.Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against theAxis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forcesquashed an uprising in Iraqwhich had been\",\n \"Iraqwhich had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlledSyria.Between June and July, British-led forcesinvaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon, assisted by theFree French. Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions inSoutheast Asia, the two powers signed theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pactin April 1941.By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later.On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be\",\n \"Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest ofUkraine, theBaltic statesandByelorussia.However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact.In November 1940,negotiations took placeto determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union inOperation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets ofplotting against them; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.The primary targets of this surprise offensivewere theBaltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with theultimate goalof ending the 1941 campaign near theArkhangelsk-Astrakhan line—from theCaspianto theWhite\",\n \"theWhite Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminateCommunism, generateLebensraum(\\\"living space\\\")bydispossessing the native population,and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. Although theRed Armywas preparing for strategiccounter-offensivesbefore the war,OperationBarbarossaforced theSoviet supreme commandto adoptstrategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By mid-August, however, the GermanArmy High Commanddecided tosuspend the offensiveof a considerably depletedArmy Group Centre, and to divert the2nd Panzer Groupto reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.TheKiev offensivewas overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible furtheradvance into Crimeaand industrially-developed Eastern Ukraine (theFirst Battle of\",\n \"(theFirst Battle of Kharkov). The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to theEastern Frontprompted the United Kingdom to reconsider itsgrand strategy.In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed amilitary alliance against Germanyand in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued theAtlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world.In late August the British and Sovietsinvaded neutral Iranto secure thePersian Corridor, Iran'soil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. By October, Axis powers had achievedoperational objectivesin Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges ofLeningradandSevastopolcontinuing.A majoroffensive against Moscowwas renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troopswere forced to\",\n \"forced to suspend the offensive.Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Sovietcapability to resistwas not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. Theblitzkriegphaseof the war in Europe had ended. By early December, freshly mobilisedreservesallowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.This, as well asintelligence datawhich established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the JapaneseKwantung Army,allowed the Soviets to begin amassive counter-offensivethat started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanesefalse flagMukden incidentin 1931, the Japanese shelling of the AmericangunboatUSS Panayin 1937, and the 1937–1938Nanjing Massacre,Japanese-American relations\",\n \"relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—theExport Control Acts—which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.During 1939 Japan launched itsfirst attack against Changsha, but was repulsed by late September.Despiteseveral offensivesby both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded andoccupied northern Indochinain September 1940. Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scalecounter-offensivein early 1940. In August,Chinese communistslaunched anoffensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan institutedharsh measuresin occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for\",\n \"resources for the communists.Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forcesculminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed duringBattle of Shanggao.In September, Japan attempted totake the city of Changshaagain and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments inSoutheast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from theDutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.At the same time, Japan wasplanning an invasion of the Soviet\",\n \"of the Soviet Far East, intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.Roosevelt reinforcedthe Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946)and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any \\\"neighboring countries\\\". Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American–British–Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. EmperorHirohito, after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory,began to\",\n \"of victory,began to favour Japan's entry into the war.As a result, Prime MinisterFumimaro Konoeresigned.Hirohito refused the recommendation to appointPrince Naruhiko Higashikuniin his place, choosing War MinisterHideki Tojoinstead.On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of theattack on Pearl Harborto the Emperor.On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war.On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the\",\n \"or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise theUnited States Pacific Fleetand the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneousoffensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.These included anattack on the American fleets at Pearl Harborandthe Philippines, as well as invasions ofGuam,Wake Island,Malaya,Thailand, andHong Kong. These\",\n \"andHong Kong. These attacks led theUnited States,United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United Statesin solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, theAllied Big Four—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued theDeclaration by United Nations, thereby affirming theAtlantic Charterand agreeing not to sign aseparate peacewith the Axis powers. During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriategrand strategyto pursue. All agreed thatdefeating Germanywas the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward,large-scale attackon\",\n \"attackon Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies.Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. At theCasablanca Conferencein early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded theunconditional surrenderof their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the\",\n \"in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its allyThailandhad almost conqueredBurma,Malaya,the Dutch East Indies,Singapore, andRabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.Despite stubbornresistance by Filipino and U.S. forces, thePhilippine Commonwealthwas eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during theBattle of Yenangyaungand rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in theSouth China Sea,Java Sea, andIndian Ocean,andbombed the Allied naval baseatDarwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinesevictory at Changsha.These easy victories over the unprepared U.S. and European\",\n \"U.S. and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations tocapture Port Moresbybyamphibious assaultand thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in theBattle of the Coral Sea.Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlierDoolittle Raid, was to seizeMidway Atolland lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces tooccupy the Aleutian Islandsin Alaska.In mid-May, Japan started theZhejiang-Jiangxi campaignin China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had brokenJapanese naval codesin late\",\n \"naval codesin late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisivevictory at Midwayover theImperial Japanese Navy. With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capturePort Moresbyby anoverland campaignin theTerritory of Papua.The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southernSolomon Islands, primarilyGuadalcanal, as a first step towards capturingRabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. Both plans started in July, but by mid-September,the Battle for Guadalcanaltook priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to thenorthern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in theBattle of Buna–Gona.Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were\",\n \"the Japanese were defeated on the island andwithdrew their troops.In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrousoffensive into the Arakan regionin late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943.The second was theinsertion of irregular forcesbehind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive incentralandsouthern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in theKerch Peninsulaand atKharkov,and then in June 1942 launched their mainsummer offensiveagainst southern Russia, to seize theoil fields of the Caucasusand occupy theKubansteppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans splitArmy Group Southinto two groups:Army Group Aadvanced to the lowerDon Riverand struck\",\n \"Riverand struck south-east to the Caucasus, whileArmy Group Bheaded towards theVolga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. By mid-November, the Germans hadnearly taken Stalingradin bitterstreet fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with anencirclement of German forces at Stalingrad,and an assault on theRzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched anotherattack on Kharkov, creating asalientin their front line around the Soviet city ofKursk. Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions,the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.By November 1941,\",\n \"November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa,Operation Crusader, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at theGazala lineby early February,followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.Concerns that the Japanese might use bases inVichy-held Madagascarcaused the British toinvade the islandin early May 1942.An Axisoffensive in Libyaforced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces werestopped at El Alamein.On the Continent, raids of Alliedcommandoson strategic targets, culminating in the failedDieppe Raid,demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling asecond attack against El Alameinand, at a high cost, managed todeliver\",\n \"managed todeliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.A few months later, the Alliescommenced an attack of their ownin Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.This attack was followed up shortly after byAnglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering theoccupation of Vichy France;although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed toscuttle their fleetto prevent its capture by German forces.Axis forces in Africa withdrew intoTunisia, which wasconquered by the Alliesin May 1943. In June 1943, the British and Americans begana strategic bombing campaignagainst Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and \\\"de-house\\\" the civilian population.Thefirebombing of Hamburgwas among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important\",\n \"of this important industrial centre. Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent toeliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians.Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations toisolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, andbreach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had alsoneutralised the major Japanese base at Trukin theCaroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation toretake Western New Guinea. In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives incentral Russia. On 5 July 1943, Germanyattacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had\",\n \"German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences,and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies'invasion of Sicilylaunched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in theousting and arrest of Mussolinilater that month. On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their owncounter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortifiedPanther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it atSmolenskand theLower Dnieper Offensive. On 3 September 1943, the Western Alliesinvaded the Italian mainland, followingItaly's armistice with the Alliesand the ensuing German occupation of Italy.Germany,\",\n \"of Italy.Germany, with the help of fascists, responded to the armistice bydisarming Italian forcesthat were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,and creating a series of defensive lines.German special forces thenrescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named theItalian Social Republic,causing anItalian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching themain German defensive linein mid-November. German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. ByMay 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.In November 1943,Franklin D. Rooseveltand Winston Churchill met withChiang Kai-shekin Cairoand then with Joseph Stalinin Tehran.The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territoryand the military planning for theBurma campaign,while the latter included\",\n \"the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. From November 1943, during the seven-weekBattle of Changde, the Chinese awaited allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition.In January 1944, the Allies launched aseries of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassinoand tried to outflank it withlandings at Anzio. On 27 January 1944,Soviettroops launcheda major offensivethat expelled German forces from theLeningrad region, thereby ending themost lethal siege in history.Thefollowing Soviet offensivewashalted on the pre-war Estonian borderby the GermanArmy Group Northaided byEstonianshoping tore-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in theBaltic Searegion.By late May 1944, the Soviets hadliberated Crimea,largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and madeincursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis\",\n \"by the Axis troops.The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions,an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India,and soon besieged Commonwealth positions atImphalandKohima.In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,and Chinese forces that hadinvaded northern Burmain late 1943besieged Japanese troopsinMyitkyina.Thesecond Japanese invasionof China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.By June, the Japanese had conquered the province ofHenanand begun anew attack on Changsha. Allies close in (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known asD-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,the Western Alliesinvaded northern France. After reassigning several\",\n \"reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they alsoattacked southern France.These landings were successful and led to the defeat of theGerman Army units in France.Pariswasliberatedon 25 August by thelocal resistanceassisted by theFree French Forces, both led by GeneralCharles de Gaulle,and the Western Allies continued topush back German forcesin western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded bya major airborne operationin the Netherlands failed.After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, butfailed to cross the Rur river. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to thelast major German defensive line. On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\\\"Operation Bagration\\\") that nearly destroyed the GermanArmy Group Centre.Soon after that,another Soviet strategic offensiveforced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed thePolish Committee of National Liberationto control territory\",\n \"control territory in Poland and combat the PolishArmia Krajowa; the Soviet Red Army remained in thePragadistrict on the other side of theVistulaand watched passively as the Germans quelled theWarsaw Uprisinginitiated by the Armia Krajowa.Thenational uprisinginSlovakiawas also quelled by the Germans.The SovietRed Army'sstrategic offensive in eastern Romaniacut off and destroyed theconsiderable German troops thereand triggereda successful coup d'état in Romaniaandin Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced intoYugoslaviaand forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army GroupsEandFinGreece,Albaniaand Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.By this point, the communist-ledPartisansunder MarshalJosip Broz Tito, who had led anincreasingly successful guerrilla campaignagainst the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northernSerbia, the SovietRed\",\n \"the SovietRed Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a jointliberation of the capital city of Belgradeon 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched amassive assaultagainstGerman-occupiedHungary that lasted untilthe fall of Budapestin February 1945.Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans,bitter Finnish resistanceto theSoviet offensivein theKarelian Isthmusdenied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to aSoviet-Finnish armisticeon relatively mild conditions,although Finland was forced tofight their former German allies. By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges inAssam, pushing the Japanese back to theChindwin Riverwhile the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forcescaptured Mount Songand reopened theBurma Road.In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finallycaptured Changshain mid-June and the city ofHengyangby early August.Soon after, they invaded the province\",\n \"the province ofGuangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces atGuilin and Liuzhouby the end of Novemberand successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. In the Pacific, U.S. forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began theiroffensive against the Mariana and Palau islandsand decisively defeated Japanese forces in theBattle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister,Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forcesinvaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in theBattle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launcha massive\",\n \"to launcha massive counter-offensive in the Ardennesandalong the French-German border, hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port atAntwerp. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland,pushing from the Vistula to the Oderriver in Germany, andoverran East Prussia.On 4 February Soviet, British, and U.S. leaders met for theYalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. In February, the Sovietsentered SilesiaandPomerania, while theWestern Allies entered western Germanyand closed to theRhineriver. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhinenorthandsouthof theRuhr,encircling the German Army Group B.In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves\",\n \"last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launchedits last major offensiveagainst Soviet troops nearLake Balaton. Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced toVienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troopscaptured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finallypushed forward in Italyand swept across western Germany capturingHamburgandNuremberg.American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe riveron 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troopsstormed and captured Berlinin late April.In Italy,German forces surrenderedon 29 April, while theItalian Social Republiccapitulated two days later. On 30 April, theReichstagwas captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president,Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussoliniwas killedbyItalian partisanson 28 April.On 30 April,Hitler\",\n \"30 April,Hitler committed suicidein hisheadquarters, and was succeeded byGrand AdmiralKarl Dönitz(asPresident of the Reich) andJoseph Goebbels(asChancellor of the Reich); Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced byLutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, in what would later be known as theFlensburg Government.Total and unconditional surrenderin Europe was signedon 7and 8May, to be effective by the end of8 May.German Army Group Centreresisted in Pragueuntil 11 May.On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by the Allied Forces inFlensburg, while on 5 June all German political and military institutions were transferred under the control of the Allies through theBerlin Declaration. In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of thePhilippine Commonwealthadvancedin the Philippines,clearing Leyteby the end of April 1945. Theylanded on Luzonin January 1945 andrecaptured Manilain March. Fighting continued on Luzon,Mindanao, and other islands of\",\n \"other islands of the Philippines until theend of the war.Meanwhile, theUnited States Army Air Forceslauncheda massive firebombing campaignof strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastatingbombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 Marchwas the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. In May 1945, Australian troopslanded in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northernBurmain March, and the British pushed on to reachRangoonby 3 May.Chinese forces started a counterattack in theBattle of West Hunanthat occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, takingIwo Jimaby March, andOkinawaby the end of June.At the same time, a naval blockade bysubmarineswas strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. On 11 July, Allied leadersmet in Potsdam, Germany. Theyconfirmed earlier agreementsabout\",\n \"agreementsabout Germany,and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that \\\"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\\\".During this conference, the United Kingdomheld its general election, andClement Attleereplaced Churchill as Prime Minister. The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.In early August, the United Statesdropped atomic bombson the Japanese cities ofHiroshimaandNagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement,declared war on Japan,invaded Japanese-held Manchuriaand quickly defeated theKwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.The Red Army also captured thesouthern part of Sakhalin Islandand theKuril Islands. On the night of 9–10 August\",\n \"of 9–10 August 1945, EmperorHirohitoannounced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in thePotsdam Declaration.On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio (Gyokuon-hōsō, literally \\\"broadcast in the Emperor's voice\\\").On 15 August 1945,Japan surrendered, with thesurrender documentsfinally signed atTokyo Bayon the deck of the American battleshipUSSMissourion 2 September 1945, ending the war. Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations inAustriaandGermany, both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, thewesternandeastern occupation zonescontrolled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries,West GermanyandEast Germany.In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement\",\n \"a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). Adenazificationprogram in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in theNuremberg trialsand the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories,Silesia,Neumarkand most ofPomeraniawere taken over by Poland,andEast Prussiawas divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by theexpulsion to Germanyof the nine million Germans from these provinces,as well as three million Germans from theSudetenlandin Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of theCurzon Line,from which2 million\",\n \"which2 million Poles were expelled;north-east Romania,parts of eastern Finland,and theBaltic stateswereannexed into the Soviet Union.Italylost its monarchy,colonial empireand someEuropean territories. In an effort to maintainworld peace,the Allies formed theUnited Nations,which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,and adopted theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin 1948 as a common standard for allmember nations.Thegreat powersthat were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became thepermanent membersof the UN'sSecurity Council.The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes,betweentheRepublic of Chinaand thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1971, and between the Soviet Union and itssuccessor state, theRussian Federation, following thedissolution of the USSRin 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. Besides\",\n \"was over. Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Sovietspheres of influence.Most eastern and central European countries fell intothe Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result,East Germany,Poland,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia, andAlbaniabecame Sovietsatellite states. CommunistYugoslaviaconducted a fullyindependent policy, causingtension with the Soviet Union.ACommunist uprising in Greecewas put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-ledNATOand the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact.The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—theCold War—would be accompanied by an unprecedentedarms raceand number ofproxy warsthroughout the world. In Asia, the United States led theoccupation of Japanandadministered\",\n \"Japan's former islandsin the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexedSouth Sakhalinand theKuril Islands.Korea, formerlyunder Japanese colonial rule, wasdivided and occupiedby the Soviet Union in theNorthand the United States in theSouthbetween 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to theKorean War. In China, nationalist and communist forces resumedthe civil warin June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated toTaiwanin 1949.In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestineand thecreation of Israelmarked the escalation of theArab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of theircolonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading todecolonisation. The global\",\n \"The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to ababy boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy ofindustrial disarmament in Western Germanyfrom 1945 to 1948.Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. At theBretton Woods Conferencein July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD), which later became part of theWorld Bank Group. TheBretton Woods systemlasted until 1973.Recovery began with the mid-1948currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by\",\n \"and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the U.S.Marshall Planeconomic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.The post-1948 West German recovery has been called theGerman economic miracle.Italy also experienced aneconomic boomand theFrench economy rebounded.By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,it continued in relative economic decline for decades.The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era,having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exactedwar reparationsfrom its satellite states.Japan recovered much later.China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. Impact Casualties and war crimes Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.Most suggest that\",\n \"suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about20 million military personneland 40 million civilians. The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. An estimated 11to 17 millioncivilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler'sracist policies, includingmass killingofaround 6million Jews, along withRoma,homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnicPolesandmillions of other Slavs(including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), andother ethnic and minority groups.Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnicSerbs, along with Roma and Jews, werepersecuted and murderedby the Axis-aligned CroatianUstašeinYugoslavia.Concurrently,MuslimsandCroatswerepersecuted and killedby Serb nationalistChetniks,with an estimated\",\n \"an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by theUkrainian Insurgent Armyin theVolhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945.At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the PolishHome Armyand other Polish units, in reprisal attacks. In Asia and the Pacific, the number of people killed by Japanese troops remains contested. According to R.J. Rummel, the Japanese killed between 3million and more than 10 million people, with the most probable case of almost 6,000,000 people.According to the British historianM. R. D. Foot, civilian deaths are between 10 million and 20 million, whereas Chinese military casualties (killed and wounded) are estimated to be over five million.Other estimates say that up to 30 million people, most of them civilians, were killed.The most infamous Japanese atrocity was theNanjing Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that\",\n \"reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during theThree Alls policy. GeneralYasuji Okamuraimplemented the policy inHebeiandShandong. Axis forces employedbiologicalandchemical weapons. TheImperial Japanese Armyused a variety of such weapons during itsinvasion and occupation of China(seeUnit 731)and inearly conflicts against the Soviets.Both the Germans and theJapanese testedsuch weapons against civilians,and sometimes onprisoners of war. The Soviet Union was responsible for theKatyn massacreof 22,000 Polish officers,and the imprisonment or execution ofhundreds of thousands of political prisonersby theNKVDsecret police, along withmass civilian deportations to Siberia, in theBaltic statesandeastern Polandannexed by the Red Army.Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especiallyin Germany.The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and\",\n \"of thousands, and possibly as many as two million,while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although nopositiveor specificcustomaryinternational humanitarian lawwith respect toaerial warfareexisted before or during World War II.The USAAFbombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians, including theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and destroying 65% of built-up areas. Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany, under thedictatorshipof Adolf Hitler, was responsible for murdering about 6million Jews in what is now known asthe Holocaust. They also murdered an additional 4million others who were deemed \\\"unworthy of life\\\" (including thedisabledandmentally ill,Soviet prisoners of war,Romani,homosexuals,Freemasons, andJehovah's Witnesses) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a \\\"genocidalstate\\\".Soviet POWswere\",\n \"POWswere kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.In addition toconcentration camps,death campswere created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively usedforced labourers; about 12 millionEuropeansfrom German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. The SovietGulagbecame ade factosystem of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,including foreign citizens of Poland andother countriesoccupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as AxisPOWs.By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected toNKVDevaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. Japaneseprisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as\",\n \"which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. TheInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastfound the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after thesurrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56. At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by theEast Asia Development Board, orKōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.InJava, between 4and 10 millionrōmusha(Japanese: \\\"manual labourers\\\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central\",\n \"and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and theannexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion U.S. dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include theplunderof industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. In the East, the intended gains ofLebensraumwere never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Sovietscorched earthpolicies denied resources to the German invaders.Unlike in the West, theNazi racial policyencouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the \\\"inferior people\\\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed bymass atrocities and war crimes.The Naziskilled an estimated 2.77 million ethnic Polesduring the war in\",\n \"the war in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.Althoughresistance groupsformed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the Eastor the Westuntil late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanesehegemonywhich it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination,Japanese war crimesfrequently turned local public opinion against them.During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. Home fronts and production In the 1930s Britain and the United States of America together controlled almost 75% of world\",\n \"almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial\",\n \"during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one ofattrition.While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in thelabour force,Alliedstrategic bombing,and Germany's late shift to awar economycontributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions ofslave labourers;Germany enslavedabout 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,whileJapan usedmore than 18 million people in Far East Asia. Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used forreconnaissance, asfighters,bombers, andground-support, and each role developed considerably. Innovations includedairlift(the capability to\",\n \"capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);andstrategic bombing(the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).Anti-aircraft weaponryalso advanced, including defences such asradarand surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of theproximity fuze. The use of thejet aircraftwas pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Advances were made in nearly every aspect ofnaval warfare, most notably withaircraft carriersandsubmarines. Althoughaeronauticalwarfare had relatively little success at the start of the war,actions at Taranto,Pearl Harbor, and theCoral Seaestablished the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship).In the Atlantic,escort carriersbecame a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close theMid-Atlantic gap.Carriers were also more economical thanbattleshipsdue to the relatively low cost of\",\n \"low cost of aircraftand because they are not required to be as heavily armoured.Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during theFirst World War,were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development onanti-submarineweaponryand tactics, such assonarand convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as theType VII submarineandwolfpacktactics.Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as theLeigh Light,Hedgehog,Squid, andhoming torpedoesproved effective against German submarines. Land warfarechanged from the static frontlines oftrench warfareof World War I, which had relied on improvedartillerythat outmatched the speed of bothinfantryandcavalry, to increased mobility andcombined arms. Thetank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World\",\n \"been during World WarI,andadvances continued throughout the warwith increases in speed, armour and firepower.At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.Many means ofdestroying tanks, includingindirect artillery,anti-tank guns(both towed andself-propelled),mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the GermanMG 34, and varioussubmachine gunswhich were suited toclose combatin urban and jungle\",\n \"urban and jungle settings.Theassault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using largecodebooksforcryptographyby designingcipheringmachines, the most well-known being the GermanEnigma machine.Development ofSIGINT(signalsintelligence) andcryptanalysisenabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption ofJapanese naval codesand BritishUltra, apioneering methodfor decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by thePolish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.Another component ofmilitary intelligencewasdeception, which the Allies used to great effect in operations such asMincemeatandBodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the\",\n \"the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3,Colossus, andENIAC),guided missilesandmodern rockets, theManhattan Project's development ofnuclear weapons,operations research, the development ofartificial harbours, andoil pipelines under the English Channel.Penicillinwas firstdeveloped, mass-produced, and usedduring the war. See also Notes Citations References External links\"\n]"}}},{"rowIdx":399,"cells":{"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What was the running time of the first cartoon in the series that inspired the name of the Looney Tunes franchise?"},"answers":{"kind":"string","value":"5 minutes and 31 seconds"},"wikipedia_link_1":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looney_Tunes"},"wikipedia_link_2":{"kind":"string","value":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silly_Symphony"},"wikipedia_link_3":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_4":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_5":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_6":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_7":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_8":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_9":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_10":{"kind":"null"},"wikipedia_link_11+":{"kind":"null"},"reasoning_types":{"kind":"string","value":"Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints"},"wiki_links":{"kind":"string","value":"['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looney_Tunes', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silly_Symphony']"},"urls":{"kind":"list like","value":["https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looney_Tunes","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silly_Symphony"],"string":"[\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looney_Tunes\",\n \"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silly_Symphony\"\n]"},"content":{"kind":"list like","value":["Looney Tunes Looney Tunesis an Americanmedia franchiseproduced and distributed byWarner Bros.The franchise began as a series ofanimatedshort filmsthat originally ran from 1930 to 1969, alongside the related seriesMerrie Melodies, during thegolden age of American animation.Following a revival in the late 1970s, new shorts were released as recently as 2014. The two series introduced a largecast of characters, includingBugs Bunny,Daffy Duck, andPorky Pig. The termLooney Tuneshas since been expanded to also refer to the characters themselves. Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere initially produced byLeon Schlesingerand animatorsHugh HarmanandRudolf Isingfrom 1930 to 1933.Schlesinger assumed full production from 1933 until he sold his studio to Warner Bros. in 1944, after which it was renamedWarner Bros. Cartoons.TheLooney Tunestitle was inspired by that ofWalt Disney'sSilly Symphonies.The shorts initially showcased musical compositions owned by Warner's music publishing interests through the adventures of such characters asBoskoandBuddy.However, the shorts gained a higher profile upon the debuts of directorsTex Avery,Friz Freleng,Chuck Jones,Bob Clampett, andRobert McKimson, andvoice actorMel Blanclater in the decade.Porky Pig and Daffy Duck became the featuredLooney Tunescharacters, whileMerrie Melodiesfeatured one-shot cartoons and minor recurring characters. After Bugs Bunny became popular in theMerrie Melodiesshorts of the early 1940s,Looney Tunesmoved fromblack and whiteto color production,Merrie Melodieshaving already been in color since 1934.The two series gradually lost their distinctions, and shorts were assigned to each series arbitrarily.From 1942 to 1964,Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere the most popular animated shorts in movie theaters. Looney Tuneshas become one of thehighest-grossing media franchisesof all time, spawning several television series, feature films, comic books, music albums, video games, and amusement park rides. Many of the characters have made and continue to make cameo appearances in television shows, films, and other media. Bugs Bunny, in particular, is regarded as acultural iconand has a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame.ManyLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesfilms are ranked among the greatest animated cartoons of all time, and five of them have wonAcademy Awards.In 2013,TV GuidecountedLooney Tunesas the third greatest television cartoon series of all time, behindThe SimpsonsandThe Flintstones, the latter of which also featured the voice talents of Mel Blanc andBea Benaderet. History Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere so named as a reference to Disney'sSilly Symphoniesand were initially developed to showcase tracks from Warner Bros.' extensive music library; the title of the firstLooney Tunesshort,Sinkin' in the Bathtub(1930), is a pun onSingin' in the Bathtub.Between 1934 and 1943,Merrie Melodieswere produced in color andLooney Tunesin black and white.After 1943, both series were produced in color and became virtually indistinguishable, varying only in their opening theme music and titles.Both series made use of the various Warner Bros. characters. By 1937, the theme music forLooney Tuneswas \"The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down\" byCliff FriendandDave Franklin, and the theme music forMerrie Melodieswas an adaptation of \"Merrily We Roll Along\" byCharles Tobias, Murray Mencher andEddie Cantor. 1930–1933: Harman and Ising era In 1929, to compete againstWalt Disney'sMickey Mouse short cartoons, Warner Bros. became interested in developing a series of animated shorts to promote their music. They had recently acquiredBrunswick Recordsalong with four music publishers for US$28 million (equivalent to $511 million in 2024) and were eager to promote this material for the sales of sheet music and phonograph records. Warner made a deal withLeon Schlesingerto produce cartoons for them. Schlesinger hiredRudolf IsingandHugh Harmanto produce the first series of cartoons. Schlesinger was impressed by Harman's and Ising's 1929 pilot cartoon,Bosko, The Talk-Ink Kid. The firstLooney Tunesshort wasSinkin' in the BathtubstarringBosko, which was released in 1930. 1933–1936: Leon Schlesinger Productions When Harman and Ising left Warner Bros. in 1933 over a budget dispute with Schlesinger, they took with them all the rights of the characters they had created. A new character calledBuddybecame the only star of theLooney Tunesseries for a couple of years. New directors includingTex Avery,Friz FrelengandBob Clampettwere brought in or promoted to work with animators in the Schlesinger studio, with Avery's unit housed in a bungalow which the animators dubbed \"Termite Terrace.\" In 1935, the first majorLooney Tunesstar debuted,Porky Pig. He first appeared along withBeans the Catin theMerrie MelodiescartoonI Haven't Got a Hat, directed by Friz Freleng. Beans was the star of the next Porky/Beans cartoon,Gold Diggers of '49, but it was Porky who emerged as the star instead of Beans. The ensemble characters ofI Haven't Got a Hat, such as Oliver Owl and the twin dogs Ham and Ex, were also given a sampling of shorts. Beans and Porky proved much more popular in comparison. Beans was later phased out when his popularity declined, leaving Porky as the only star of the Schlesinger studio. 1936–1944: More star characters and switch to color The debuts of other memorableLooney Tunesstars followed:Daffy DuckinPorky's Duck Hunt(1937),Elmer Fuddin theMerrie MelodiesshortElmer's Candid Camera(1940),Bugs Bunnyin theMerrie MelodiesshortA Wild Hare(1940),andTweetyin theMerrie MelodiesshortA Tale of Two Kitties(1942). Bugs initially starred in the colorMerrie Melodiesshorts following the success of 1940'sA Wild Hare, and formally joined theLooney Tunesseries with the release ofBuckaroo Bugsin 1944. Schlesinger began to phase in the production of colorLooney Tuneswith the 1942 cartoonThe Hep Cat. The final black-and-whiteLooney Tunesshort wasPuss n' Bootyin 1943, directed byFrank Tashlin. The inspiration for the changeover was Warner's decision to re-release only the color cartoons in theBlue Ribbon Classicsseries ofMerrie Melodies. Bugs made a cameo appearance in 1942 in the Avery/Clampett cartoonCrazy Cruiseand also at the end of the Frank Tashlin 1943 cartoonPorky Pig's Feat, which marked Bugs' only official appearance in a black-and-whiteLooney Tunesshort. Schlesinger sold his interest in the cartoon studio in 1944 to Warner Bros. and went into retirement; he died five years later. 1944–1964: The Golden era More popularLooney Tunescharacters were created (most of which first appeared inMerrie Melodiescartoons), such asPepé Le Pew(debuted in 1945'sOdor-able Kitty),Sylvester(debuted in 1945'sLife with Feathers),Yosemite Sam(debuted in 1945'sHare Trigger),Foghorn Leghorn(debuted in 1946'sWalky Talky Hawky),Marvin the Martian(debuted in 1948'sHaredevil Hare),Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner(debuted in 1949'sFast and Furry-ous),Granny(debuted in 1950'sCanary Row),Speedy Gonzales(debuted in 1953'sCat Tails for Two),the Tasmanian Devil(debuted in 1954'sDevil May Hare), andRalph Wolf and Sam Sheepdog(debuted in 1953'sDon't Give Up the Sheep). It was during this era that the series won fiveAcademy Awards: 1964–1969: DePatie–Freleng and Seven Arts era During the mid-late 1960s, the shorts were produced byDePatie–Freleng Enterprises(andFormat Productions) (1964–1967) andWarner Bros.-Seven Arts(1967–1969) after Warner Bros. shut down their animation studio. The shorts from this era can be identified by their different title sequence, featuring stylizedlimited animationand graphics on a black background and a new arrangement, byWilliam Lava, of \"The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down\" which had first been used in the 1963 experimental short \"Now Hear This\" directed by Chuck Jones. In 1967, Warner Bros.-Seven Arts commissioned an animation studio inSouth Koreato redraw 79 black-and-white Looney Tunes produced from 1935 to 1943 in color which were syndicated to TV stations from the late 1960s to the early 1990s. The originalLooney Tunestheatrical series ran from 1930'sSinkin' in the Bathtubto 1969'sInjun TroublebyRobert McKimson. ACool Catcartoon called \"Stage Cat\" was planned, about Cool Cat being in a stage production, but it was cancelled when Warner Bros.-Seven Arts shut down. 1970–1999: Syndication and return to television and film TheLooney Tunesseries' popularity was further strengthened when it began airing on network andsyndicated televisionin the 1950s under various titles and formats. TheLooney Tunesshorts were broadcast with edits to remove scenes of violence (particularly suicidal gags and scenes of characters performing dangerous stunts that impressionable viewers could easily imitate), stereotypes, and alcohol consumption. Production of theatrical animated shorts was dormant from 1969 until 1979, when new shorts were made to introduce theLooney Tunesto a new generation of audiences.New shortshave been produced and released sporadically for theaters since then, though usually as promotional tie-ins with various family movies produced by Warner Bros. While many have been released in limited releases theatrically for Academy Award consideration, only a few have gained theatrical releases with movies. In the 1970s through the early 1990s, several feature-film compilations andtelevision specialswere produced, mostly centering on Bugs Bunny and/or Daffy Duck, with a mixture of new and old footage. These releases includeThe Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie(1979),The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie(1981),Bugs Bunny's 3rd Movie: 1001 Rabbit Tales(1982),Daffy Duck's Fantastic Island(1983), andDaffy Duck's Quackbusters(1988). In 1976, theLooney Tunescharacters made their way into the amusement park business when they became the mascots for Marriott's two Great America theme parks in Gurnee, Illinois, and Santa Clara, California. After theGurnee parkwas sold toSix Flagsin 1984, they also claimed the rights to use the characters at the other Six Flags parks, which continues to the present. (Warner Bros. parent company Time Warner would own the Six Flags chain in whole or part form most of the 1990s.) In 1988, severalLooney Tunescharacters appeared in cameo roles in theDisneyfilmWho Framed Roger Rabbit. The more significant cameos featured Bugs, Daffy, Porky, Tweety, and Yosemite Sam. It is the only time in whichLooney Tunescharacters have shared screen time with their rivals at Disney (producers of the film)—particularly in the scenes where Bugs andMickey Mouseareskydiving, and when Daffy andDonald Duckare performing their \"Dueling Pianos\" sequence. On July 10, 1989, after a battle with heart problems,Mel Blancdied at theCedars-Sinai Medical Centerofcardiovascular disease. A picture depicting theLooney Tunescharacters entitled \"Speechless\" was released shortly after his death. Viacom-ownedNickelodeonairedLooney Tunescartoons in a show calledLooney Tunes on Nickelodeonbetween 1988 and 1999. Initially, the Nickelodeon package included cartoons that were typically omitted from the higher-profile Saturday morning network and syndicated weekday packages, including black-and-white Bosko cartoons that had not aired in many years and cartoons from the late DePattie–Freling and Seven Arts eras. In January 1999, it was reported that the cartoons shown on Nickelodeon would move toCartoon Networkin the fall of that year.To date,Looney Tunes on Nickelodeonis the longest-airinganimated serieson the network that was not aNicktoon. In 1996,Space Jam, alive-action animated film, was released to theaters starring Bugs Bunny and basketball playerMichael Jordan. Despite a mixed critical reception,the film was a major box-office success, grossing nearly $100 million in the U.S. alone, almost becoming the first non-Disney animated film to achieve that feat.For a two-year period, it was the highest grossing non-Disney animated film ever.The film also introduced the characterLola Bunny, who subsequently became another recurring member of theLooney Tunescast, usually as a love interest for Bugs. In 1997, Bugs Bunny was featured on a U.S. 32 cent postage stamp, the first of fiveLooney Tunesthemed stamps to be issued. TheLooney Tunesalso achieved success in the area of television during this era, with appearances in several originally produced series, includingTaz-Mania(1991, starring Taz) andThe Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries(1995, starring Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny). The gang also made frequent cameos in the 1990 spinoff seriesTiny Toon Adventures, from executive producerSteven Spielberg, where they played teachers and mentors to a younger generation of cartoon characters (Plucky Duck,Hamton J. Pig,Babs and Buster Bunny, etc.), plus occasional cameos in the later Warner Bros. shows such asAnimaniacs(also from Spielberg) andHisteria!.Traditional cel animationwas used to animate the characters forLooney Tunes'cartoons until 1999 when it was replaced withdigital ink and paint animation. In 1979,Bugs Bunny's Christmas Carolpremiered. AfterThe Chocolate Chase, there would not be another short released for seven years. In 1990, it was made so there would be about one short per year until 1998. In 2003, there would be seven shorts produced to promoteLooney Tunes: Back in Action. The first of these to be released wasThe Whizzard of Ow, which appeared on a DVD release ofBack in Actionthat was sold exclusively atWal-Martstores. Only about half of the shorts were shown in theaters; the rest would not be made available until 2004, when all seven shorts were included on the general home video release of the film. In 2010, five computer-animated shorts would be released and directed byMatthew O'Callaghan, who would also direct another short,Flash in the Pain, in 2014. 2000–2014: Network exploration In March 2000, it was revealed that the entireLooney TunesandMerrie Melodieslibrary would be exclusive to Cartoon Network, starting with the fall of that year.Looney Tunesshorts were still airing on Disney'sABCas part ofThe Bugs Bunny and Tweety Showat the time and the decision led to the show's cancellation. This decision would remain in effect for over 20 years untilMeTVbegan airing the classic Warner Bros. cartoons (along with MGM and Paramount's library) in January 2021. In 2003, another feature film was released, this time in an attempt to recapture the spirit of the original shorts: the live-action/animatedLooney Tunes: Back in Action. Although the film was not financially successful,it was met with mixed-to-positive reviews from film critics and has been argued by animation historians and fans as the finest original feature-length appearance of the cartoon characters.In 2006,Warner Home Videoreleased a new and Christmas-themedLooney Tunesdirect-to-video film calledBah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas, a parody ofCharles Dickens'A Christmas Carol. OtherLooney TunesTV series made during this time wereBaby Looney Tunes(2001–2006),Duck Dodgers(2003–2005) andLoonatics Unleashed(2005–2007). On October 22, 2007,Looney TunesandMerrie Melodiescartoons became available for the first time inHigh-definitionviaMicrosoft'sXbox Liveservice, including some in Spanish.From February 29 – May 18, 2008, manyLooney Tunesartifacts, including original animation cels and concept drawings, were on display at theButler Institute of American ArtinYoungstown, Ohio, just off the campus ofYoungstown State University, near where the Warners lived early in life. At the 2009 Cartoon Networkupfront,The Looney Tunes Showwas announced.After several delays, the series premiered on May 3, 2011. Produced byWarner Bros. Animation, the series centers on Bugs and Daffy as they leave the woods and move to the suburbs with \"colorful neighbors\" including Sylvester, Tweety, Granny, Yosemite Sam, etc. The series introduced the characterTina Russo, a duck who becomes Daffy's girlfriend. The show also features 2-minute music videos titled respectfully \"Merrie Melodies\" (as a tribute to theLooney Tunessister shorts) which features the characters singing original songs, as well as CGI animated shorts starring Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner (which were removed after the first season). The series was cancelled after its second season. Also, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner returned to the big screen in a series of 3-D shorts that preceded select Warner Bros. films. There were six in the works that began with the first short,Coyote Falls, that preceded the filmCats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore, which was released on July 30, 2010. On September 24, 2010,Fur of Flyingpreceded the film,Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole, and on December 17, 2010,Rabid Riderpreceded the film,Yogi Bear. On June 8, 2011, Warner Bros. Animation announced that there will be moreLooney Tunes3-D theatrical shorts; the first titledDaffy's Rhapsodywith Daffy Duck and Elmer Fudd, the next beingI Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tatwith Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny.Daffy's Rhapsodywas to precede the filmHappy Feet Two,until the studio decided to premiereI Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tatinstead.Daffy's Rhapsodyinstead premiered in 2012, precedingJourney 2: The Mysterious Island.All five shorts were directed byMatthew O'Callaghan. In 2012, several announcements were made about aLooney Tunesreboot film titledAcme, in development.FormerSaturday Night Livecast memberJenny Slatewas said to be on board as writer for the new film. Jeffrey Clifford,Harry PotterproducerDavid Heyman, andDark Shadowswriters David Katzenberg andSeth Grahame-Smithwere slated to produce the film.On August 27, 2014, writersAshley MillerandZack Stentzwere hired to script the film, directorsGlenn Ficarraand John Requa were in talks to direct the film, while actorSteve Carellwas rumored to be starring in a lead role.Despite this, the film never entered production. 2015–2021: Revival At the 2014 Cartoon Networkupfront, another series titledWabbit: A Looney Tunes Production(laterNew Looney Tunes) was announced.Starring Bugs Bunny, the series premiered on both Cartoon Network and its sister channelBoomerangin late 2015.The series had an unusually slow rollout, with the series being moved to the Boomerang streaming service in 2017, and was eventually cancelled on January 30, 2020. On June 11, 2018, another series, titledLooney Tunes Cartoons, was announced by Warner Bros. Animation. It premiered on May 27, 2020, on the streaming serviceHBO Max. The series features \"1,000 minutes of new one-to-six minute cartoons featuring the brand's marquee characters\", voiced by their current voice actors in \"simple, gag-driven and visually vibrant stories\" that are rendered by multiple artists employing \"a visual style that will resonate with fans\", most noticeably having a style reminiscent of the styles ofTex Avery,Bob Clampett,Chuck Jones,Friz FrelengandRobert McKimson.According to co-executive producerPeter Browngardt, \"We're not doing guns, but we can do cartoony violence — TNT, the Acme stuff. All that was kind of grandfathered in.\"Sam Register, president of Warner Bros. Animation also served as a co-executive producer for the series.The series ended on July 27, 2023. On February 11, 2021, it was announced two new series were in the works:Bugs Bunny BuildersandTweety Mysteries.Bugs Bunny Buildersbegan airing on Cartoon Network as part ofCartoonitoandHBO Maxon July 25, 2022;Tweety Mysterieswould also air onCartoon Network.Bugs Bunny Buildersis aimed towards preschoolers; whileTweety Mysteriesis a live-action/animated hybrid.However, the latter was scrapped for unknown reasons. A sequel toSpace JamtitledSpace Jam: A New Legacy, starring basketball playerLeBron James, was released in theaters and HBO Max on July 16, 2021, after aLos Angelesspecial screening on July 12, 2021. It is a film with a story of LeBron James' second son, Dom, who gets kidnapped by an evilAInamed Al. G Rhythm (Don Cheadle), into the Warner Bros. server-verse. LeBron then assembles the Tune Squad to play against the algorithm and get his son back. It received generally negative reviews and underperformed at the box office. 2022–present; Warner Bros. Discovery ownership and tax write-offs A reboot ofTiny Toon AdventurestitledTiny Toons Looniversitypremiered on September 8, 2023, onMaxand then aired the following day on Cartoon Network. The Looney Tunes characters reprise their roles as the professors at Acme Looniversity in this series. In September 2021, it was reported that a film based on theLooney Tunes Cartoons, titledThe Day the Earth Blew Up: A Looney Tunes Movieand starringDaffy DuckandPorky Pig, was announced for release onHBO Maxand Cartoon Network.However, it was reported in August 2022 that the film would instead be shopped around to other streaming services.In October 2023, it was announced the film would instead be released in theaters, becoming the first animated non-compilation feature film in the franchise to do so.In early August 2024, it was announced thatKetchup Entertainmentacquired the North American theatrical distribution rights to the film. On December 31, 2022, 256 shorts were removed from HBO Max, includingWhat's Opera, Doc?andDuck Amuck,though many were later re-added in March 2024 when the shorts on the service were rotated. In August 2024, it was announced that Warner Bros. was planning to relaunch theLooney Tunestheatrical film series in 2028. Home media In the 1980s, the shorts receivedVHSreleases, with the pre-August 1948 shorts released byMGM/UA Home Videoand the post-July 1948 shorts released byWarner Home Video. In 2003, Warner Home Video began releasing select shorts onDVD, aimed at collectors, in four-disc sets known as theLooney Tunes Golden Collectionstarting withVolume 1. This continued until 2008, whenthe final volume of the Golden Collectionwas released. Then, from 2010 until 2013, the company released theLooney Tunes Super StarsDVDs. There have been numerous complaints regarding theSuper Starsreleases, however (particularly the first two), having the post-1953 shorts in a 16:9 widescreen format. The last DVD in theSuper Starsseries wasSylvester and Hippety Hopper: Marsupial Mayhem, released on April 23, 2013. 2010 and 2011 saw the releases ofThe Essential Bugs BunnyandThe Essential Daffy DuckDVDs. In 2011, the shorts were released onBlu-ray Discfor the first time with theLooney Tunes Platinum Collectionseries. On September 19, 2017,Warner Home Video'sWarner Archive Collectionreleased the five-discPorky Pig 101DVD-set. Licensing and ownership In 1933,Harman and Isingleft, taking the rights to theBosko characterswith them. However, Warner Bros. retained the rights to the cartoons and theLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesbrand names, leaving their former producer Leon Schlesinger to start his own animation studio to continue theLooney Tunesseries. With their retained Bosko rights, Harman and Ising began making cartoons atMetro-Goldwyn-Mayerin 1934 until they were fired in 1937 due to a lack of success. MGM proceeded to formtheir own studioto create its own cartoons. Time Warner eventually acquired the Bosko characters from Harman and Ising's estates. Meanwhile, the Schlesinger studio continued to make popular cartoons until 1944 when Schlesinger sold his studio to Warner Bros. Since then, Warner Bros. has owned all rights to all post-1933 characters created by Leon Schlesinger Productions and Warner Bros. Cartoons, even after the rights to individual cartoons were placed in other hands. In 1955, Warner Bros. sold the television distribution rights to 191 of its cartoons (which included the black-and-whiteLooney Tunesand the black-and-whiteMerrie Melodiesmade after Harman and Ising left) to Guild Films.The copyrights to those cartoons were assigned toSunset Productions, an entity owned by Warner Bros.The cartoons were distributed by Guild Films until it went bankrupt and was bought by Seven Arts. Seven Arts bought WB in 1967, and WB regained the TV distribution rights to the black and white cartoons. In 1956,Associated Artists Productions(a.a.p.) acquired television distribution rights to most of Warner Bros.' pre-1950library, including allMerrie Melodies(except for those sold to Guild andLady, Play Your Mandolin!) and colorLooney Tunesshorts that were released prior to August 1948, while Warner still owned the copyright to all of the cartoons. Unlike the previous TV package, this package had the Warner titles kept intact and an \"Associated Artists Productions presents\" title inserted at the head of each reel (as a result, eachMerrie Melodiescartoon had the song \"Merrily We Roll Along\" playing twice).Two years later,United Artistsbought a.a.p. (which had also bought Paramount'sPopeyefilms) who merged the company into its television division,United Artists Television. In 1981, UA was sold to MGM, and five years later,Ted Turneracquired the pre-May 1986 MGM library, as well the rights to the a.a.p. library. In 1996, Turner's company,Turner Broadcasting System(whoseTurner Entertainmentdivision oversaw the film library), was purchased by Time Warner (nowWarner Bros. Discovery), which was also Warner Bros.' corporate parent.Then when MGM/UA terminated its distribution deal with Time Warner in 1999, it surrendered its home video rights to the a.a.p. library to WB.Since then, Warner Home Video (nowWarner Bros. Home Entertainment) has held the video rights to the entireLooney Tunes/Merrie Melodiesanimated output by virtue of Warner Bros.' ownership of Turner Entertainment. Starting in 1960, the cartoons were repackaged into several different TV programs that remained popular for several decades before being purchased by Turner Broadcasting System.Turner'sCartoon Networkreran the cartoons from its launch in 1992 until 2004, again from 2009 until 2017, and making a temporary return in April 2023 to celebrate WB's 100th anniversary.The Looney Tunes Show(not to be confused with the 2010s animated series ofthe same name), an early 2000s anthology produced by Warner Bros. Animation for the network, was broadcast from 2001to 2004. The show featured shorts from the originalLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiestheatrical series. As of 2021, classic cartoons continue to air on CN's sister channel,BoomerangandMeTV. Differing curated collections ofLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesare available for streaming on both theBoomerang streaming serviceandHBO Max. Five dozenLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesshorts from before December 1943 have lapsed into thepublic domainand are thus freely distributed through various unofficial releases. Filmography Characters The major characters of the originalLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesseries areBugs Bunny, a clever and insouciant rabbit or hare who is portrayed as atrickster;Daffy Duck, a black duck who was originally portrayed as ascrewball, but later became greedy and egocentric;Porky Pig, a stuttering pig who often appears as thestraight manto Daffy, and is the oldest of the franchise's recurring characters;Sylvester the Cat, his preyTweety(a small canary), and their elderly ownerGranny;Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, who routinely engage in high-speed chases in their home in theSouthwest Americandesert;Elmer Fudd, an unintelligent hunter who is Bugs' oldest nemesis;Yosemite Sam, a hot-tempered cowboy who is another of Bugs' archenemies;Foghorn Leghorn, a rooster who is known for his often excessive ranting;Marvin the Martian, an alien commander from the planetMars, who aims to conquer the Earth; theTasmanian Devil(often nicknamed \"Taz\" in later media), a vicious, brutal marsupial with an insatiable appetite;Pepé Le Pew, a French skunk who is always looking for love and romance; andSpeedy Gonzales, the self-proclaimed \"fastest mouse in all of Mexico\". One additional major character was introduced in post-Golden AgeLooney Tunesmedia (starting withSpace Jam):Lola Bunny, a female rabbit who is usually portrayed as Bugs' girlfriend. Racial stereotypes and censorship controversies Due to content considered offensive,stereotypedor insensitive, in 1968 Warner Bros. removed the \"Censored Eleven\" episodes ofLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiescartoons from broadcast or distribution. Depictions included those ofAfrican Americans(as inCoal Black and de Sebben DwarfsandJungle Jitters),Native Americans,Japanese people(especially during WWII, as inTokio JokioandBugs Bunny Nips the Nips),Germans,Italians,White Southerners, andMexicans. In 1999,Cartoon Networkceased broadcast of all of Speedy Gonzales' cartoons, due to concerns about stereotyping of Mexicans.ManyLatinosprotested that they were not offended, and expressed fondness for Speedy; the character's shorts were made available for broadcast on CN again in 2002. Many Warner Bros. cartoons contain fleeting or sometimes extended gags that make reference to racial or ethnic stereotypes, or useethnic humor. The release of theLooney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 3includes a disclaimer at the beginning of each DVD in the volume given byWhoopi Goldberg. She explains that the cartoons are products of their time and contain racial and ethnic stereotypes that \"were wrong then and they are wrong today\", but the cartoons are presented on the DVD uncut and uncensored because \"editing them would be the same as denying that the stereotypes existed.\"A similarly phrased written disclaimer is shown at the beginning of each DVD in theLooney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 4,Volume 5, andVolume 6sets, as well as the Daffy Duck andFoghorn LeghornLooney Tunes Super Starssets and theWarner Bros. Home Entertainment Academy Awards Animation Collection. Accolades Inducted into the National Film Registry Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film(Cartoon) Academy Award nominations Related media Television series Series marked with * are compilations of earlier shorts. Television specials Films Compilation films Feature films Direct-to-video Comic books Looney Tunescomic books were published beginning in 1941 byDell Comicsunder license. These comics were, like many published by Dell, were produced in partnership withWestern Publishing. After Dell and Western ended their partnership in 1962, Western continued the series under theirGold Key Comicsand Whitman imprints through 1984. Beginning in 1990,DC Comics, which is owned by Warner Bros., has publishedLooney Tunescomics. Dell Comics (1941–1962) Western Publishing (1962–1984) DC Comics (1990–present) Video games Video games based onLooney Tunescharacters began in 1979 with theRoad Runnerpinball machine. More titles would continue to be released as video game hardware evolved throughout the 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s. Prominent characters who have received multiple video games include Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, the Tasmanian Devil, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, Speedy Gonzales, and Sylvester and Tweety. See also References External links","Silly Symphony Silly Symphony(also known asSilly Symphonies) is an Americananimatedseries of 75 musicalshort filmsproduced byWalt Disney Productionsfrom 1929 to 1939. As the series name implies, theSilly Symphonieswere originally intended as whimsical accompaniments to pieces of music.As such, the films usually did not feature continuing characters, unlike theMickey Mouseshorts produced by Disney at the same time (exceptions to this includeThree Little Pigs,The Tortoise and the Hare, andThree Orphan Kittens, which all had sequels). The series is notable for its innovation withTechnicolorand themultiplane motion picture camera, as well as its introduction of the characterDonald Duck, who made his first appearance in theSilly SymphonycartoonThe Wise Little Henin 1934. Seven shorts won theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Film. The series also spawned aSilly Symphonynewspaper comic stripdistributed byKing Features Syndicate, as well as aDellcomic book series and several children's books. TheSilly Symphoniesreturned to theaters with its re-issues and re-releases, and eventually tied withJoseph BarberaandWilliam Hanna'sTom and Jerry's record for most Oscar wins for a cartoon series in theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmcategory. Production While Walt Disney andCarl Stalling, a theatre organist from Kansas City, were in New York to add sound to the Mickey Mouse shortsThe Gallopin' Gaucho,The Barn DanceandPlane Crazy, Stalling suggested the idea of making a series of musical animated shorts that combined the latest sound technology with storytelling. At first Walt did not seem interested, but when they returned to New York in February to record the sound for a fifth Mickey Mouse cartoon,The Opry House, they also recorded the soundtrack forThe Skeleton Dance, the type of short that Stalling had suggested and the first Silly Symphony cartoon. Within the animation industry, the series is known for its use byWalt Disneyas a platform for experimenting with processes, techniques, characters, and stories in order to further the art of animation. It also provided a venue to try out techniques and technologies, such as Technicolor,special effects animation, and dramatic storytelling in animation, that would be crucial to Disney's plans to eventually begin making feature-length animated films. Shortly after the switch to United Artists, the series became even more popular. Walt Disney had seen some of Dr. Herbert Kalmus' tests for a newthree-strip, full-colorTechnicolorprocess, which would replace the previoustwo-tone Technicolorprocess. Disney signed a contract with Technicolor which gave the Disney studio exclusive rights to the new three-strip process through the end of 1935, and had a 60% completeSymphony,Flowers and Trees, scrapped and redone in full color.Flowers and Treeswas the first animated film to use the three-strip Technicolor process,and was a phenomenal success. Within a year, the now-in-TechnicolorSilly Symphoniesseries had popularity and success that matched (and later surpassed) that of theMickey Mousecartoons. The contract Disney had with Technicolor would also later be extended another five years as well. The success ofSilly Symphonieswould be tremendously boosted afterThree Little Pigswas released in 1933 and became a box office sensation; the film was featured in movie theaters for several months and also featured the hit song that became the anthem of the Great Depression, \"Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf\".SeveralSilly Symphoniesentries, includingThree Little Pigs(1933),The Grasshopper and the Ants(1934),The Tortoise and the Hare(1935),The Country Cousin(1936),The Old Mill(1937),Wynken, Blynken, and Nod(1938), andThe Ugly Duckling(1939, with an earlierblack-and-white versionfrom 1931), are among the most notable films produced by Walt Disney. Due to problems related to Disney's scheduled productions of cartoons, a deal was made withHarman and Isingto produce three Silly Symphonies:Merbabies,Pipe Dreams, andThe Little Bantamweight. Only one of these cartoons,Merbabies, ended up being bought by Disney, the remaining two Harman-Ising Silly Symphonies were then sold to MGM who released them as Happy Harmonies cartoons.Disney ceased production ofSilly Symphoniesin 1939. Distribution The series was first distributed byPat Powersfrom 1929 to 1930 and released by Celebrity Productions (1929–1930) indirectly throughColumbia Pictures. The original basis of the cartoons was musical novelty, and the musical scores of the first cartoons were composed byCarl Stalling. Columbia Pictures After viewing \"The Skeleton Dance\", the manager at Columbia Pictures quickly became interested in distributing the series, and gained the perfect opportunity to acquire Silly Symphonies after Disney broke with Celebrity Productions head Pat Powers after Powers signed Disney's colleagueUb Iwerksto a studio contract.Columbia Pictures(1930–1932) agreed to pick up the direct distribution of theMickey Mouseseries on the condition that they would have exclusive rights to distribute theSilly Symphoniesseries; at first,Silly Symphoniescould not even come close to the popularity Mickey Mouse had. The original title cards to the shorts released by Celebrity Productions and Columbia Pictures were all redrawn after Walt Disney stopped distributing his cartoons through them. Meanwhile, more competition spread for Disney afterMax Fleischer's flapper cartoon characterBetty Boopbegan to gain more and more popularity after starring in the cartoonMinnie the Moocher. By August 1932, Betty Boop became so popular that theTalkartoonseries was renamed as Betty Boop cartoons. United Artists In 1932, after falling out with Columbia Pictures, Disney began distributing his products throughUnited Artists. UA refused to distribute theSilly Symphoniesunless Disney associated Mickey Mouse with them somehow, resulting in the \"Mickey Mouse presents aSilly Symphony\" title cards and posters that introduced and promoted the series during its five-year run for UA. United Artists also agreed to double the budget for each cartoon from $7,500 to $15,000. RKO Radio Pictures In 1937, Disney signed a distribution deal withRKO Radio Picturesto distribute the Silly Symphony cartoons, along with the Mickey Mouse series. RKO would continue to distribute until the end of the series in 1939. Home media SeveralSymphonieshave been released in home media, most of the time as bonus shorts that relate to something within various Disney films. For instance, the originalDumboVHS includedFather Noah's Ark,The Practical PigandThree Orphan Kittensas bonus shorts to make up for the film's short length. In the UK, severalSilly Symphonieswere released in compilations under Disney Videos' \"Storybook Favourites\" brand. The three \"Storybook Favourites Shorts\" volumes released included among others,The Three Little Pigs,The Tortoise and the Hareand the remake ofThe Ugly Duckling. On December 4, 2001, Disney released \"Silly Symphonies\" as part of its DVD series \"Walt Disney Treasures\". On December 19, 2006, \"More Silly Symphonies\" was released, completing the collection and allowing the cartoons to be completely available to the public. Some DisneyBlu-raydiscs includeSilly Symphoniesas high definition special features.Snow White and the Seven Dwarfsincludes six,Beauty and the BeastandDumboboth contain two andPixar'sA Bug's Lifecontains one. TheSilly Symphonyshorts originally aired onTurner Classic Movies' period program block \"Treasures from the Disney Vault\". SomeSilly Symphonyshorts are viewable onDisney+. List of films TheSilly Symphoniesare listed here in production order. Reception Disney's experiments were widely praised within the film industry, and theSilly Symphonieswon theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmseven times, maintaining a six-year-hold on the category after it was first introduced. This record was matched only byMGM'sTom and Jerryseries during the 1940s and 1950s. Legacy TheSymphonieschanged the course of Disney Studio history when Walt's plans to direct his first feature cartoon became problematic after his warm-up to the taskThe Golden Touchwas widely seen (even by Disney himself) as stiff and slowly paced. This motivated him to embrace his role as being the producer and providing creative oversight (especially of the story) forSnow Whitewhile taskingDavid Handto handle the actual directing. Silly Symphoniesbrought along many imitators, including Warner Bros. cartoon seriesLooney TunesandMerrie Melodies, MGM'sHappy Harmonies, and later, Universal'sSwing Symphony. Years later after theSilly Symphoniesended, Disney occasionally produced a handful of one-shot cartoons, playing the same style as theSilly Symphonyseries. Unlike theSilly Symphoniescanon, most of these \"Specials\" have a narration, usually by Disney legendSterling Holloway. In the 1934 MGM filmHollywood Party, Mickey Mouse appears withJimmy Durante, where they introduceThe Hot Choc-late Soldiers. The 1999–2000 television seriesMickey Mouse Worksused theSilly Symphoniestitle for some of its new cartoons, but unlike the original cartoons, these did feature continuing characters. As of 2021, three of theSilly Symphonyshorts (Three Little Pigs,The Old Mill, andFlowers and Trees), have been selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registryby the Library of Congress, for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Comic adaptations A SundaySilly Symphonycomic stripran in newspapers from January 10, 1932, to July 12, 1942.The strip featured adaptations of some of theSilly Symphonycartoons, includingBirds of a Feather,The Robber Kitten,Elmer Elephant,Farmyard SymphonyandLittle Hiawatha.This strip began with a two-year sequence aboutBucky Bug, a character based on the bugs inBugs in Love. There was also an occasionalSilly Symphoniescomic book, with nine issues published byDell Comicsfrom September 1952 to February 1959.The first issue of this anthology comic featured adaptations of someSilly Symphonycartoons, includingThe Grasshopper and the Ants,Three Little Pigs,The Goddess of SpringandMother Pluto, but it also included non-Symphonycartoons like Mickey Mouse'sBrave Little Tailor.By the third issue, there was almost noSymphony-related material in the book; the stories and activities were mostly based on other Disney shorts and feature films. See also References Further reading External links Category"],"string":"[\n \"Looney Tunes Looney Tunesis an Americanmedia franchiseproduced and distributed byWarner Bros.The franchise began as a series ofanimatedshort filmsthat originally ran from 1930 to 1969, alongside the related seriesMerrie Melodies, during thegolden age of American animation.Following a revival in the late 1970s, new shorts were released as recently as 2014. The two series introduced a largecast of characters, includingBugs Bunny,Daffy Duck, andPorky Pig. The termLooney Tuneshas since been expanded to also refer to the characters themselves. Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere initially produced byLeon Schlesingerand animatorsHugh HarmanandRudolf Isingfrom 1930 to 1933.Schlesinger assumed full production from 1933 until he sold his studio to Warner Bros. in 1944, after which it was renamedWarner Bros. Cartoons.TheLooney Tunestitle was inspired by that ofWalt Disney'sSilly Symphonies.The shorts initially showcased musical compositions owned by Warner's music publishing interests through the adventures of such characters asBoskoandBuddy.However, the shorts gained a higher profile upon the debuts of directorsTex Avery,Friz Freleng,Chuck Jones,Bob Clampett, andRobert McKimson, andvoice actorMel Blanclater in the decade.Porky Pig and Daffy Duck became the featuredLooney Tunescharacters, whileMerrie Melodiesfeatured one-shot cartoons and minor recurring characters. After Bugs Bunny became popular in theMerrie Melodiesshorts of the early 1940s,Looney Tunesmoved fromblack and whiteto color production,Merrie Melodieshaving already been in color since 1934.The two series gradually lost their distinctions, and shorts were assigned to each series arbitrarily.From 1942 to 1964,Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere the most popular animated shorts in movie theaters. Looney Tuneshas become one of thehighest-grossing media franchisesof all time, spawning several television series, feature films, comic books, music albums, video games, and amusement park rides. Many of the characters have made and continue to make cameo appearances in television shows, films, and other media. Bugs Bunny, in particular, is regarded as acultural iconand has a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame.ManyLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesfilms are ranked among the greatest animated cartoons of all time, and five of them have wonAcademy Awards.In 2013,TV GuidecountedLooney Tunesas the third greatest television cartoon series of all time, behindThe SimpsonsandThe Flintstones, the latter of which also featured the voice talents of Mel Blanc andBea Benaderet. History Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere so named as a reference to Disney'sSilly Symphoniesand were initially developed to showcase tracks from Warner Bros.' extensive music library; the title of the firstLooney Tunesshort,Sinkin' in the Bathtub(1930), is a pun onSingin' in the Bathtub.Between 1934 and 1943,Merrie Melodieswere produced in color andLooney Tunesin black and white.After 1943, both series were produced in color and became virtually indistinguishable, varying only in their opening theme music and titles.Both series made use of the various Warner Bros. characters. By 1937, the theme music forLooney Tuneswas \\\"The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down\\\" byCliff FriendandDave Franklin, and the theme music forMerrie Melodieswas an adaptation of \\\"Merrily We Roll Along\\\" byCharles Tobias, Murray Mencher andEddie Cantor. 1930–1933: Harman and Ising era In 1929, to compete againstWalt Disney'sMickey Mouse short cartoons, Warner Bros. became interested in developing a series of animated shorts to promote their music. They had recently acquiredBrunswick Recordsalong with four music publishers for US$28 million (equivalent to $511 million in 2024) and were eager to promote this material for the sales of sheet music and phonograph records. Warner made a deal withLeon Schlesingerto produce cartoons for them. Schlesinger hiredRudolf IsingandHugh Harmanto produce the first series of cartoons. Schlesinger was impressed by Harman's and Ising's 1929 pilot cartoon,Bosko, The Talk-Ink Kid. The firstLooney Tunesshort wasSinkin' in the BathtubstarringBosko, which was released in 1930. 1933–1936: Leon Schlesinger Productions When Harman and Ising left Warner Bros. in 1933 over a budget dispute with Schlesinger, they took with them all the rights of the characters they had created. A new character calledBuddybecame the only star of theLooney Tunesseries for a couple of years. New directors includingTex Avery,Friz FrelengandBob Clampettwere brought in or promoted to work with animators in the Schlesinger studio, with Avery's unit housed in a bungalow which the animators dubbed \\\"Termite Terrace.\\\" In 1935, the first majorLooney Tunesstar debuted,Porky Pig. He first appeared along withBeans the Catin theMerrie MelodiescartoonI Haven't Got a Hat, directed by Friz Freleng. Beans was the star of the next Porky/Beans cartoon,Gold Diggers of '49, but it was Porky who emerged as the star instead of Beans. The ensemble characters ofI Haven't Got a Hat, such as Oliver Owl and the twin dogs Ham and Ex, were also given a sampling of shorts. Beans and Porky proved much more popular in comparison. Beans was later phased out when his popularity declined, leaving Porky as the only star of the Schlesinger studio. 1936–1944: More star characters and switch to color The debuts of other memorableLooney Tunesstars followed:Daffy DuckinPorky's Duck Hunt(1937),Elmer Fuddin theMerrie MelodiesshortElmer's Candid Camera(1940),Bugs Bunnyin theMerrie MelodiesshortA Wild Hare(1940),andTweetyin theMerrie MelodiesshortA Tale of Two Kitties(1942). Bugs initially starred in the colorMerrie Melodiesshorts following the success of 1940'sA Wild Hare, and formally joined theLooney Tunesseries with the release ofBuckaroo Bugsin 1944. Schlesinger began to phase in the production of colorLooney Tuneswith the 1942 cartoonThe Hep Cat. The final black-and-whiteLooney Tunesshort wasPuss n' Bootyin 1943, directed byFrank Tashlin. The inspiration for the changeover was Warner's decision to re-release only the color cartoons in theBlue Ribbon Classicsseries ofMerrie Melodies. Bugs made a cameo appearance in 1942 in the Avery/Clampett cartoonCrazy Cruiseand also at the end of the Frank Tashlin 1943 cartoonPorky Pig's Feat, which marked Bugs' only official appearance in a black-and-whiteLooney Tunesshort. Schlesinger sold his interest in the cartoon studio in 1944 to Warner Bros. and went into retirement; he died five years later. 1944–1964: The Golden era More popularLooney Tunescharacters were created (most of which first appeared inMerrie Melodiescartoons), such asPepé Le Pew(debuted in 1945'sOdor-able Kitty),Sylvester(debuted in 1945'sLife with Feathers),Yosemite Sam(debuted in 1945'sHare Trigger),Foghorn Leghorn(debuted in 1946'sWalky Talky Hawky),Marvin the Martian(debuted in 1948'sHaredevil Hare),Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner(debuted in 1949'sFast and Furry-ous),Granny(debuted in 1950'sCanary Row),Speedy Gonzales(debuted in 1953'sCat Tails for Two),the Tasmanian Devil(debuted in 1954'sDevil May Hare), andRalph Wolf and Sam Sheepdog(debuted in 1953'sDon't Give Up the Sheep). It was during this era that the series won fiveAcademy Awards: 1964–1969: DePatie–Freleng and Seven Arts era During the mid-late 1960s, the shorts were produced byDePatie–Freleng Enterprises(andFormat Productions) (1964–1967) andWarner Bros.-Seven Arts(1967–1969) after Warner Bros. shut down their animation studio. The shorts from this era can be identified by their different title sequence, featuring stylizedlimited animationand graphics on a black background and a new arrangement, byWilliam Lava, of \\\"The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down\\\" which had first been used in the 1963 experimental short \\\"Now Hear This\\\" directed by Chuck Jones. In 1967, Warner Bros.-Seven Arts commissioned an animation studio inSouth Koreato redraw 79 black-and-white Looney Tunes produced from 1935 to 1943 in color which were syndicated to TV stations from the late 1960s to the early 1990s. The originalLooney Tunestheatrical series ran from 1930'sSinkin' in the Bathtubto 1969'sInjun TroublebyRobert McKimson. ACool Catcartoon called \\\"Stage Cat\\\" was planned, about Cool Cat being in a stage production, but it was cancelled when Warner Bros.-Seven Arts shut down. 1970–1999: Syndication and return to television and film TheLooney Tunesseries' popularity was further strengthened when it began airing on network andsyndicated televisionin the 1950s under various titles and formats. TheLooney Tunesshorts were broadcast with edits to remove scenes of violence (particularly suicidal gags and scenes of characters performing dangerous stunts that impressionable viewers could easily imitate), stereotypes, and alcohol consumption. Production of theatrical animated shorts was dormant from 1969 until 1979, when new shorts were made to introduce theLooney Tunesto a new generation of audiences.New shortshave been produced and released sporadically for theaters since then, though usually as promotional tie-ins with various family movies produced by Warner Bros. While many have been released in limited releases theatrically for Academy Award consideration, only a few have gained theatrical releases with movies. In the 1970s through the early 1990s, several feature-film compilations andtelevision specialswere produced, mostly centering on Bugs Bunny and/or Daffy Duck, with a mixture of new and old footage. These releases includeThe Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie(1979),The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie(1981),Bugs Bunny's 3rd Movie: 1001 Rabbit Tales(1982),Daffy Duck's Fantastic Island(1983), andDaffy Duck's Quackbusters(1988). In 1976, theLooney Tunescharacters made their way into the amusement park business when they became the mascots for Marriott's two Great America theme parks in Gurnee, Illinois, and Santa Clara, California. After theGurnee parkwas sold toSix Flagsin 1984, they also claimed the rights to use the characters at the other Six Flags parks, which continues to the present. (Warner Bros. parent company Time Warner would own the Six Flags chain in whole or part form most of the 1990s.) In 1988, severalLooney Tunescharacters appeared in cameo roles in theDisneyfilmWho Framed Roger Rabbit. The more significant cameos featured Bugs, Daffy, Porky, Tweety, and Yosemite Sam. It is the only time in whichLooney Tunescharacters have shared screen time with their rivals at Disney (producers of the film)—particularly in the scenes where Bugs andMickey Mouseareskydiving, and when Daffy andDonald Duckare performing their \\\"Dueling Pianos\\\" sequence. On July 10, 1989, after a battle with heart problems,Mel Blancdied at theCedars-Sinai Medical Centerofcardiovascular disease. A picture depicting theLooney Tunescharacters entitled \\\"Speechless\\\" was released shortly after his death. Viacom-ownedNickelodeonairedLooney Tunescartoons in a show calledLooney Tunes on Nickelodeonbetween 1988 and 1999. Initially, the Nickelodeon package included cartoons that were typically omitted from the higher-profile Saturday morning network and syndicated weekday packages, including black-and-white Bosko cartoons that had not aired in many years and cartoons from the late DePattie–Freling and Seven Arts eras. In January 1999, it was reported that the cartoons shown on Nickelodeon would move toCartoon Networkin the fall of that year.To date,Looney Tunes on Nickelodeonis the longest-airinganimated serieson the network that was not aNicktoon. In 1996,Space Jam, alive-action animated film, was released to theaters starring Bugs Bunny and basketball playerMichael Jordan. Despite a mixed critical reception,the film was a major box-office success, grossing nearly $100 million in the U.S. alone, almost becoming the first non-Disney animated film to achieve that feat.For a two-year period, it was the highest grossing non-Disney animated film ever.The film also introduced the characterLola Bunny, who subsequently became another recurring member of theLooney Tunescast, usually as a love interest for Bugs. In 1997, Bugs Bunny was featured on a U.S. 32 cent postage stamp, the first of fiveLooney Tunesthemed stamps to be issued. TheLooney Tunesalso achieved success in the area of television during this era, with appearances in several originally produced series, includingTaz-Mania(1991, starring Taz) andThe Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries(1995, starring Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny). The gang also made frequent cameos in the 1990 spinoff seriesTiny Toon Adventures, from executive producerSteven Spielberg, where they played teachers and mentors to a younger generation of cartoon characters (Plucky Duck,Hamton J. Pig,Babs and Buster Bunny, etc.), plus occasional cameos in the later Warner Bros. shows such asAnimaniacs(also from Spielberg) andHisteria!.Traditional cel animationwas used to animate the characters forLooney Tunes'cartoons until 1999 when it was replaced withdigital ink and paint animation. In 1979,Bugs Bunny's Christmas Carolpremiered. AfterThe Chocolate Chase, there would not be another short released for seven years. In 1990, it was made so there would be about one short per year until 1998. In 2003, there would be seven shorts produced to promoteLooney Tunes: Back in Action. The first of these to be released wasThe Whizzard of Ow, which appeared on a DVD release ofBack in Actionthat was sold exclusively atWal-Martstores. Only about half of the shorts were shown in theaters; the rest would not be made available until 2004, when all seven shorts were included on the general home video release of the film. In 2010, five computer-animated shorts would be released and directed byMatthew O'Callaghan, who would also direct another short,Flash in the Pain, in 2014. 2000–2014: Network exploration In March 2000, it was revealed that the entireLooney TunesandMerrie Melodieslibrary would be exclusive to Cartoon Network, starting with the fall of that year.Looney Tunesshorts were still airing on Disney'sABCas part ofThe Bugs Bunny and Tweety Showat the time and the decision led to the show's cancellation. This decision would remain in effect for over 20 years untilMeTVbegan airing the classic Warner Bros. cartoons (along with MGM and Paramount's library) in January 2021. In 2003, another feature film was released, this time in an attempt to recapture the spirit of the original shorts: the live-action/animatedLooney Tunes: Back in Action. Although the film was not financially successful,it was met with mixed-to-positive reviews from film critics and has been argued by animation historians and fans as the finest original feature-length appearance of the cartoon characters.In 2006,Warner Home Videoreleased a new and Christmas-themedLooney Tunesdirect-to-video film calledBah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas, a parody ofCharles Dickens'A Christmas Carol. OtherLooney TunesTV series made during this time wereBaby Looney Tunes(2001–2006),Duck Dodgers(2003–2005) andLoonatics Unleashed(2005–2007). On October 22, 2007,Looney TunesandMerrie Melodiescartoons became available for the first time inHigh-definitionviaMicrosoft'sXbox Liveservice, including some in Spanish.From February 29 – May 18, 2008, manyLooney Tunesartifacts, including original animation cels and concept drawings, were on display at theButler Institute of American ArtinYoungstown, Ohio, just off the campus ofYoungstown State University, near where the Warners lived early in life. At the 2009 Cartoon Networkupfront,The Looney Tunes Showwas announced.After several delays, the series premiered on May 3, 2011. Produced byWarner Bros. Animation, the series centers on Bugs and Daffy as they leave the woods and move to the suburbs with \\\"colorful neighbors\\\" including Sylvester, Tweety, Granny, Yosemite Sam, etc. The series introduced the characterTina Russo, a duck who becomes Daffy's girlfriend. The show also features 2-minute music videos titled respectfully \\\"Merrie Melodies\\\" (as a tribute to theLooney Tunessister shorts) which features the characters singing original songs, as well as CGI animated shorts starring Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner (which were removed after the first season). The series was cancelled after its second season. Also, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner returned to the big screen in a series of 3-D shorts that preceded select Warner Bros. films. There were six in the works that began with the first short,Coyote Falls, that preceded the filmCats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore, which was released on July 30, 2010. On September 24, 2010,Fur of Flyingpreceded the film,Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole, and on December 17, 2010,Rabid Riderpreceded the film,Yogi Bear. On June 8, 2011, Warner Bros. Animation announced that there will be moreLooney Tunes3-D theatrical shorts; the first titledDaffy's Rhapsodywith Daffy Duck and Elmer Fudd, the next beingI Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tatwith Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny.Daffy's Rhapsodywas to precede the filmHappy Feet Two,until the studio decided to premiereI Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tatinstead.Daffy's Rhapsodyinstead premiered in 2012, precedingJourney 2: The Mysterious Island.All five shorts were directed byMatthew O'Callaghan. In 2012, several announcements were made about aLooney Tunesreboot film titledAcme, in development.FormerSaturday Night Livecast memberJenny Slatewas said to be on board as writer for the new film. Jeffrey Clifford,Harry PotterproducerDavid Heyman, andDark Shadowswriters David Katzenberg andSeth Grahame-Smithwere slated to produce the film.On August 27, 2014, writersAshley MillerandZack Stentzwere hired to script the film, directorsGlenn Ficarraand John Requa were in talks to direct the film, while actorSteve Carellwas rumored to be starring in a lead role.Despite this, the film never entered production. 2015–2021: Revival At the 2014 Cartoon Networkupfront, another series titledWabbit: A Looney Tunes Production(laterNew Looney Tunes) was announced.Starring Bugs Bunny, the series premiered on both Cartoon Network and its sister channelBoomerangin late 2015.The series had an unusually slow rollout, with the series being moved to the Boomerang streaming service in 2017, and was eventually cancelled on January 30, 2020. On June 11, 2018, another series, titledLooney Tunes Cartoons, was announced by Warner Bros. Animation. It premiered on May 27, 2020, on the streaming serviceHBO Max. The series features \\\"1,000 minutes of new one-to-six minute cartoons featuring the brand's marquee characters\\\", voiced by their current voice actors in \\\"simple, gag-driven and visually vibrant stories\\\" that are rendered by multiple artists employing \\\"a visual style that will resonate with fans\\\", most noticeably having a style reminiscent of the styles ofTex Avery,Bob Clampett,Chuck Jones,Friz FrelengandRobert McKimson.According to co-executive producerPeter Browngardt, \\\"We're not doing guns, but we can do cartoony violence — TNT, the Acme stuff. All that was kind of grandfathered in.\\\"Sam Register, president of Warner Bros. Animation also served as a co-executive producer for the series.The series ended on July 27, 2023. On February 11, 2021, it was announced two new series were in the works:Bugs Bunny BuildersandTweety Mysteries.Bugs Bunny Buildersbegan airing on Cartoon Network as part ofCartoonitoandHBO Maxon July 25, 2022;Tweety Mysterieswould also air onCartoon Network.Bugs Bunny Buildersis aimed towards preschoolers; whileTweety Mysteriesis a live-action/animated hybrid.However, the latter was scrapped for unknown reasons. A sequel toSpace JamtitledSpace Jam: A New Legacy, starring basketball playerLeBron James, was released in theaters and HBO Max on July 16, 2021, after aLos Angelesspecial screening on July 12, 2021. It is a film with a story of LeBron James' second son, Dom, who gets kidnapped by an evilAInamed Al. G Rhythm (Don Cheadle), into the Warner Bros. server-verse. LeBron then assembles the Tune Squad to play against the algorithm and get his son back. It received generally negative reviews and underperformed at the box office. 2022–present; Warner Bros. Discovery ownership and tax write-offs A reboot ofTiny Toon AdventurestitledTiny Toons Looniversitypremiered on September 8, 2023, onMaxand then aired the following day on Cartoon Network. The Looney Tunes characters reprise their roles as the professors at Acme Looniversity in this series. In September 2021, it was reported that a film based on theLooney Tunes Cartoons, titledThe Day the Earth Blew Up: A Looney Tunes Movieand starringDaffy DuckandPorky Pig, was announced for release onHBO Maxand Cartoon Network.However, it was reported in August 2022 that the film would instead be shopped around to other streaming services.In October 2023, it was announced the film would instead be released in theaters, becoming the first animated non-compilation feature film in the franchise to do so.In early August 2024, it was announced thatKetchup Entertainmentacquired the North American theatrical distribution rights to the film. On December 31, 2022, 256 shorts were removed from HBO Max, includingWhat's Opera, Doc?andDuck Amuck,though many were later re-added in March 2024 when the shorts on the service were rotated. In August 2024, it was announced that Warner Bros. was planning to relaunch theLooney Tunestheatrical film series in 2028. Home media In the 1980s, the shorts receivedVHSreleases, with the pre-August 1948 shorts released byMGM/UA Home Videoand the post-July 1948 shorts released byWarner Home Video. In 2003, Warner Home Video began releasing select shorts onDVD, aimed at collectors, in four-disc sets known as theLooney Tunes Golden Collectionstarting withVolume 1. This continued until 2008, whenthe final volume of the Golden Collectionwas released. Then, from 2010 until 2013, the company released theLooney Tunes Super StarsDVDs. There have been numerous complaints regarding theSuper Starsreleases, however (particularly the first two), having the post-1953 shorts in a 16:9 widescreen format. The last DVD in theSuper Starsseries wasSylvester and Hippety Hopper: Marsupial Mayhem, released on April 23, 2013. 2010 and 2011 saw the releases ofThe Essential Bugs BunnyandThe Essential Daffy DuckDVDs. In 2011, the shorts were released onBlu-ray Discfor the first time with theLooney Tunes Platinum Collectionseries. On September 19, 2017,Warner Home Video'sWarner Archive Collectionreleased the five-discPorky Pig 101DVD-set. Licensing and ownership In 1933,Harman and Isingleft, taking the rights to theBosko characterswith them. However, Warner Bros. retained the rights to the cartoons and theLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesbrand names, leaving their former producer Leon Schlesinger to start his own animation studio to continue theLooney Tunesseries. With their retained Bosko rights, Harman and Ising began making cartoons atMetro-Goldwyn-Mayerin 1934 until they were fired in 1937 due to a lack of success. MGM proceeded to formtheir own studioto create its own cartoons. Time Warner eventually acquired the Bosko characters from Harman and Ising's estates. Meanwhile, the Schlesinger studio continued to make popular cartoons until 1944 when Schlesinger sold his studio to Warner Bros. Since then, Warner Bros. has owned all rights to all post-1933 characters created by Leon Schlesinger Productions and Warner Bros. Cartoons, even after the rights to individual cartoons were placed in other hands. In 1955, Warner Bros. sold the television distribution rights to 191 of its cartoons (which included the black-and-whiteLooney Tunesand the black-and-whiteMerrie Melodiesmade after Harman and Ising left) to Guild Films.The copyrights to those cartoons were assigned toSunset Productions, an entity owned by Warner Bros.The cartoons were distributed by Guild Films until it went bankrupt and was bought by Seven Arts. Seven Arts bought WB in 1967, and WB regained the TV distribution rights to the black and white cartoons. In 1956,Associated Artists Productions(a.a.p.) acquired television distribution rights to most of Warner Bros.' pre-1950library, including allMerrie Melodies(except for those sold to Guild andLady, Play Your Mandolin!) and colorLooney Tunesshorts that were released prior to August 1948, while Warner still owned the copyright to all of the cartoons. Unlike the previous TV package, this package had the Warner titles kept intact and an \\\"Associated Artists Productions presents\\\" title inserted at the head of each reel (as a result, eachMerrie Melodiescartoon had the song \\\"Merrily We Roll Along\\\" playing twice).Two years later,United Artistsbought a.a.p. (which had also bought Paramount'sPopeyefilms) who merged the company into its television division,United Artists Television. In 1981, UA was sold to MGM, and five years later,Ted Turneracquired the pre-May 1986 MGM library, as well the rights to the a.a.p. library. In 1996, Turner's company,Turner Broadcasting System(whoseTurner Entertainmentdivision oversaw the film library), was purchased by Time Warner (nowWarner Bros. Discovery), which was also Warner Bros.' corporate parent.Then when MGM/UA terminated its distribution deal with Time Warner in 1999, it surrendered its home video rights to the a.a.p. library to WB.Since then, Warner Home Video (nowWarner Bros. Home Entertainment) has held the video rights to the entireLooney Tunes/Merrie Melodiesanimated output by virtue of Warner Bros.' ownership of Turner Entertainment. Starting in 1960, the cartoons were repackaged into several different TV programs that remained popular for several decades before being purchased by Turner Broadcasting System.Turner'sCartoon Networkreran the cartoons from its launch in 1992 until 2004, again from 2009 until 2017, and making a temporary return in April 2023 to celebrate WB's 100th anniversary.The Looney Tunes Show(not to be confused with the 2010s animated series ofthe same name), an early 2000s anthology produced by Warner Bros. Animation for the network, was broadcast from 2001to 2004. The show featured shorts from the originalLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiestheatrical series. As of 2021, classic cartoons continue to air on CN's sister channel,BoomerangandMeTV. Differing curated collections ofLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesare available for streaming on both theBoomerang streaming serviceandHBO Max. Five dozenLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesshorts from before December 1943 have lapsed into thepublic domainand are thus freely distributed through various unofficial releases. Filmography Characters The major characters of the originalLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesseries areBugs Bunny, a clever and insouciant rabbit or hare who is portrayed as atrickster;Daffy Duck, a black duck who was originally portrayed as ascrewball, but later became greedy and egocentric;Porky Pig, a stuttering pig who often appears as thestraight manto Daffy, and is the oldest of the franchise's recurring characters;Sylvester the Cat, his preyTweety(a small canary), and their elderly ownerGranny;Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, who routinely engage in high-speed chases in their home in theSouthwest Americandesert;Elmer Fudd, an unintelligent hunter who is Bugs' oldest nemesis;Yosemite Sam, a hot-tempered cowboy who is another of Bugs' archenemies;Foghorn Leghorn, a rooster who is known for his often excessive ranting;Marvin the Martian, an alien commander from the planetMars, who aims to conquer the Earth; theTasmanian Devil(often nicknamed \\\"Taz\\\" in later media), a vicious, brutal marsupial with an insatiable appetite;Pepé Le Pew, a French skunk who is always looking for love and romance; andSpeedy Gonzales, the self-proclaimed \\\"fastest mouse in all of Mexico\\\". One additional major character was introduced in post-Golden AgeLooney Tunesmedia (starting withSpace Jam):Lola Bunny, a female rabbit who is usually portrayed as Bugs' girlfriend. Racial stereotypes and censorship controversies Due to content considered offensive,stereotypedor insensitive, in 1968 Warner Bros. removed the \\\"Censored Eleven\\\" episodes ofLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiescartoons from broadcast or distribution. Depictions included those ofAfrican Americans(as inCoal Black and de Sebben DwarfsandJungle Jitters),Native Americans,Japanese people(especially during WWII, as inTokio JokioandBugs Bunny Nips the Nips),Germans,Italians,White Southerners, andMexicans. In 1999,Cartoon Networkceased broadcast of all of Speedy Gonzales' cartoons, due to concerns about stereotyping of Mexicans.ManyLatinosprotested that they were not offended, and expressed fondness for Speedy; the character's shorts were made available for broadcast on CN again in 2002. Many Warner Bros. cartoons contain fleeting or sometimes extended gags that make reference to racial or ethnic stereotypes, or useethnic humor. The release of theLooney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 3includes a disclaimer at the beginning of each DVD in the volume given byWhoopi Goldberg. She explains that the cartoons are products of their time and contain racial and ethnic stereotypes that \\\"were wrong then and they are wrong today\\\", but the cartoons are presented on the DVD uncut and uncensored because \\\"editing them would be the same as denying that the stereotypes existed.\\\"A similarly phrased written disclaimer is shown at the beginning of each DVD in theLooney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 4,Volume 5, andVolume 6sets, as well as the Daffy Duck andFoghorn LeghornLooney Tunes Super Starssets and theWarner Bros. Home Entertainment Academy Awards Animation Collection. Accolades Inducted into the National Film Registry Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film(Cartoon) Academy Award nominations Related media Television series Series marked with * are compilations of earlier shorts. Television specials Films Compilation films Feature films Direct-to-video Comic books Looney Tunescomic books were published beginning in 1941 byDell Comicsunder license. These comics were, like many published by Dell, were produced in partnership withWestern Publishing. After Dell and Western ended their partnership in 1962, Western continued the series under theirGold Key Comicsand Whitman imprints through 1984. Beginning in 1990,DC Comics, which is owned by Warner Bros., has publishedLooney Tunescomics. Dell Comics (1941–1962) Western Publishing (1962–1984) DC Comics (1990–present) Video games Video games based onLooney Tunescharacters began in 1979 with theRoad Runnerpinball machine. More titles would continue to be released as video game hardware evolved throughout the 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s. Prominent characters who have received multiple video games include Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, the Tasmanian Devil, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, Speedy Gonzales, and Sylvester and Tweety. See also References External links\",\n \"Silly Symphony Silly Symphony(also known asSilly Symphonies) is an Americananimatedseries of 75 musicalshort filmsproduced byWalt Disney Productionsfrom 1929 to 1939. As the series name implies, theSilly Symphonieswere originally intended as whimsical accompaniments to pieces of music.As such, the films usually did not feature continuing characters, unlike theMickey Mouseshorts produced by Disney at the same time (exceptions to this includeThree Little Pigs,The Tortoise and the Hare, andThree Orphan Kittens, which all had sequels). The series is notable for its innovation withTechnicolorand themultiplane motion picture camera, as well as its introduction of the characterDonald Duck, who made his first appearance in theSilly SymphonycartoonThe Wise Little Henin 1934. Seven shorts won theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Film. The series also spawned aSilly Symphonynewspaper comic stripdistributed byKing Features Syndicate, as well as aDellcomic book series and several children's books. TheSilly Symphoniesreturned to theaters with its re-issues and re-releases, and eventually tied withJoseph BarberaandWilliam Hanna'sTom and Jerry's record for most Oscar wins for a cartoon series in theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmcategory. Production While Walt Disney andCarl Stalling, a theatre organist from Kansas City, were in New York to add sound to the Mickey Mouse shortsThe Gallopin' Gaucho,The Barn DanceandPlane Crazy, Stalling suggested the idea of making a series of musical animated shorts that combined the latest sound technology with storytelling. At first Walt did not seem interested, but when they returned to New York in February to record the sound for a fifth Mickey Mouse cartoon,The Opry House, they also recorded the soundtrack forThe Skeleton Dance, the type of short that Stalling had suggested and the first Silly Symphony cartoon. Within the animation industry, the series is known for its use byWalt Disneyas a platform for experimenting with processes, techniques, characters, and stories in order to further the art of animation. It also provided a venue to try out techniques and technologies, such as Technicolor,special effects animation, and dramatic storytelling in animation, that would be crucial to Disney's plans to eventually begin making feature-length animated films. Shortly after the switch to United Artists, the series became even more popular. Walt Disney had seen some of Dr. Herbert Kalmus' tests for a newthree-strip, full-colorTechnicolorprocess, which would replace the previoustwo-tone Technicolorprocess. Disney signed a contract with Technicolor which gave the Disney studio exclusive rights to the new three-strip process through the end of 1935, and had a 60% completeSymphony,Flowers and Trees, scrapped and redone in full color.Flowers and Treeswas the first animated film to use the three-strip Technicolor process,and was a phenomenal success. Within a year, the now-in-TechnicolorSilly Symphoniesseries had popularity and success that matched (and later surpassed) that of theMickey Mousecartoons. The contract Disney had with Technicolor would also later be extended another five years as well. The success ofSilly Symphonieswould be tremendously boosted afterThree Little Pigswas released in 1933 and became a box office sensation; the film was featured in movie theaters for several months and also featured the hit song that became the anthem of the Great Depression, \\\"Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf\\\".SeveralSilly Symphoniesentries, includingThree Little Pigs(1933),The Grasshopper and the Ants(1934),The Tortoise and the Hare(1935),The Country Cousin(1936),The Old Mill(1937),Wynken, Blynken, and Nod(1938), andThe Ugly Duckling(1939, with an earlierblack-and-white versionfrom 1931), are among the most notable films produced by Walt Disney. Due to problems related to Disney's scheduled productions of cartoons, a deal was made withHarman and Isingto produce three Silly Symphonies:Merbabies,Pipe Dreams, andThe Little Bantamweight. Only one of these cartoons,Merbabies, ended up being bought by Disney, the remaining two Harman-Ising Silly Symphonies were then sold to MGM who released them as Happy Harmonies cartoons.Disney ceased production ofSilly Symphoniesin 1939. Distribution The series was first distributed byPat Powersfrom 1929 to 1930 and released by Celebrity Productions (1929–1930) indirectly throughColumbia Pictures. The original basis of the cartoons was musical novelty, and the musical scores of the first cartoons were composed byCarl Stalling. Columbia Pictures After viewing \\\"The Skeleton Dance\\\", the manager at Columbia Pictures quickly became interested in distributing the series, and gained the perfect opportunity to acquire Silly Symphonies after Disney broke with Celebrity Productions head Pat Powers after Powers signed Disney's colleagueUb Iwerksto a studio contract.Columbia Pictures(1930–1932) agreed to pick up the direct distribution of theMickey Mouseseries on the condition that they would have exclusive rights to distribute theSilly Symphoniesseries; at first,Silly Symphoniescould not even come close to the popularity Mickey Mouse had. The original title cards to the shorts released by Celebrity Productions and Columbia Pictures were all redrawn after Walt Disney stopped distributing his cartoons through them. Meanwhile, more competition spread for Disney afterMax Fleischer's flapper cartoon characterBetty Boopbegan to gain more and more popularity after starring in the cartoonMinnie the Moocher. By August 1932, Betty Boop became so popular that theTalkartoonseries was renamed as Betty Boop cartoons. United Artists In 1932, after falling out with Columbia Pictures, Disney began distributing his products throughUnited Artists. UA refused to distribute theSilly Symphoniesunless Disney associated Mickey Mouse with them somehow, resulting in the \\\"Mickey Mouse presents aSilly Symphony\\\" title cards and posters that introduced and promoted the series during its five-year run for UA. United Artists also agreed to double the budget for each cartoon from $7,500 to $15,000. RKO Radio Pictures In 1937, Disney signed a distribution deal withRKO Radio Picturesto distribute the Silly Symphony cartoons, along with the Mickey Mouse series. RKO would continue to distribute until the end of the series in 1939. Home media SeveralSymphonieshave been released in home media, most of the time as bonus shorts that relate to something within various Disney films. For instance, the originalDumboVHS includedFather Noah's Ark,The Practical PigandThree Orphan Kittensas bonus shorts to make up for the film's short length. In the UK, severalSilly Symphonieswere released in compilations under Disney Videos' \\\"Storybook Favourites\\\" brand. The three \\\"Storybook Favourites Shorts\\\" volumes released included among others,The Three Little Pigs,The Tortoise and the Hareand the remake ofThe Ugly Duckling. On December 4, 2001, Disney released \\\"Silly Symphonies\\\" as part of its DVD series \\\"Walt Disney Treasures\\\". On December 19, 2006, \\\"More Silly Symphonies\\\" was released, completing the collection and allowing the cartoons to be completely available to the public. Some DisneyBlu-raydiscs includeSilly Symphoniesas high definition special features.Snow White and the Seven Dwarfsincludes six,Beauty and the BeastandDumboboth contain two andPixar'sA Bug's Lifecontains one. TheSilly Symphonyshorts originally aired onTurner Classic Movies' period program block \\\"Treasures from the Disney Vault\\\". SomeSilly Symphonyshorts are viewable onDisney+. List of films TheSilly Symphoniesare listed here in production order. Reception Disney's experiments were widely praised within the film industry, and theSilly Symphonieswon theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmseven times, maintaining a six-year-hold on the category after it was first introduced. This record was matched only byMGM'sTom and Jerryseries during the 1940s and 1950s. Legacy TheSymphonieschanged the course of Disney Studio history when Walt's plans to direct his first feature cartoon became problematic after his warm-up to the taskThe Golden Touchwas widely seen (even by Disney himself) as stiff and slowly paced. This motivated him to embrace his role as being the producer and providing creative oversight (especially of the story) forSnow Whitewhile taskingDavid Handto handle the actual directing. Silly Symphoniesbrought along many imitators, including Warner Bros. cartoon seriesLooney TunesandMerrie Melodies, MGM'sHappy Harmonies, and later, Universal'sSwing Symphony. Years later after theSilly Symphoniesended, Disney occasionally produced a handful of one-shot cartoons, playing the same style as theSilly Symphonyseries. Unlike theSilly Symphoniescanon, most of these \\\"Specials\\\" have a narration, usually by Disney legendSterling Holloway. In the 1934 MGM filmHollywood Party, Mickey Mouse appears withJimmy Durante, where they introduceThe Hot Choc-late Soldiers. The 1999–2000 television seriesMickey Mouse Worksused theSilly Symphoniestitle for some of its new cartoons, but unlike the original cartoons, these did feature continuing characters. As of 2021, three of theSilly Symphonyshorts (Three Little Pigs,The Old Mill, andFlowers and Trees), have been selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registryby the Library of Congress, for being \\\"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\\\". Comic adaptations A SundaySilly Symphonycomic stripran in newspapers from January 10, 1932, to July 12, 1942.The strip featured adaptations of some of theSilly Symphonycartoons, includingBirds of a Feather,The Robber Kitten,Elmer Elephant,Farmyard SymphonyandLittle Hiawatha.This strip began with a two-year sequence aboutBucky Bug, a character based on the bugs inBugs in Love. There was also an occasionalSilly Symphoniescomic book, with nine issues published byDell Comicsfrom September 1952 to February 1959.The first issue of this anthology comic featured adaptations of someSilly Symphonycartoons, includingThe Grasshopper and the Ants,Three Little Pigs,The Goddess of SpringandMother Pluto, but it also included non-Symphonycartoons like Mickey Mouse'sBrave Little Tailor.By the third issue, there was almost noSymphony-related material in the book; the stories and activities were mostly based on other Disney shorts and feature films. See also References Further reading External links Category\"\n]"},"chunks_1024_20":{"kind":"list like","value":["Looney Tunes Looney Tunesis an Americanmedia franchiseproduced and distributed byWarner Bros.The franchise began as a series ofanimatedshort filmsthat originally ran from 1930 to 1969, alongside the related seriesMerrie Melodies, during thegolden age of American animation.Following a revival in the late 1970s, new shorts were released as recently as 2014. The two series introduced a largecast of characters, includingBugs Bunny,Daffy Duck, andPorky Pig. The termLooney Tuneshas since been expanded to also refer to the characters themselves. Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere initially produced byLeon Schlesingerand animatorsHugh HarmanandRudolf Isingfrom 1930 to 1933.Schlesinger assumed full production from 1933 until he sold his studio to Warner Bros. in 1944, after which it was renamedWarner Bros. Cartoons.TheLooney Tunestitle was inspired by that ofWalt Disney'sSilly Symphonies.The shorts initially showcased musical compositions owned by Warner's music publishing interests through the adventures of such","adventures of such characters asBoskoandBuddy.However, the shorts gained a higher profile upon the debuts of directorsTex Avery,Friz Freleng,Chuck Jones,Bob Clampett, andRobert McKimson, andvoice actorMel Blanclater in the decade.Porky Pig and Daffy Duck became the featuredLooney Tunescharacters, whileMerrie Melodiesfeatured one-shot cartoons and minor recurring characters. After Bugs Bunny became popular in theMerrie Melodiesshorts of the early 1940s,Looney Tunesmoved fromblack and whiteto color production,Merrie Melodieshaving already been in color since 1934.The two series gradually lost their distinctions, and shorts were assigned to each series arbitrarily.From 1942 to 1964,Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere the most popular animated shorts in movie theaters. Looney Tuneshas become one of thehighest-grossing media franchisesof all time, spawning several television series, feature films, comic books, music albums, video games, and amusement park rides. Many of the characters have made and continue to","and continue to make cameo appearances in television shows, films, and other media. Bugs Bunny, in particular, is regarded as acultural iconand has a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame.ManyLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesfilms are ranked among the greatest animated cartoons of all time, and five of them have wonAcademy Awards.In 2013,TV GuidecountedLooney Tunesas the third greatest television cartoon series of all time, behindThe SimpsonsandThe Flintstones, the latter of which also featured the voice talents of Mel Blanc andBea Benaderet. History Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere so named as a reference to Disney'sSilly Symphoniesand were initially developed to showcase tracks from Warner Bros.' extensive music library; the title of the firstLooney Tunesshort,Sinkin' in the Bathtub(1930), is a pun onSingin' in the Bathtub.Between 1934 and 1943,Merrie Melodieswere produced in color andLooney Tunesin black and white.After 1943, both series were produced in color and became virtually indistinguishable, varying","varying only in their opening theme music and titles.Both series made use of the various Warner Bros. characters. By 1937, the theme music forLooney Tuneswas \"The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down\" byCliff FriendandDave Franklin, and the theme music forMerrie Melodieswas an adaptation of \"Merrily We Roll Along\" byCharles Tobias, Murray Mencher andEddie Cantor. 1930–1933: Harman and Ising era In 1929, to compete againstWalt Disney'sMickey Mouse short cartoons, Warner Bros. became interested in developing a series of animated shorts to promote their music. They had recently acquiredBrunswick Recordsalong with four music publishers for US$28 million (equivalent to $511 million in 2024) and were eager to promote this material for the sales of sheet music and phonograph records. Warner made a deal withLeon Schlesingerto produce cartoons for them. Schlesinger hiredRudolf IsingandHugh Harmanto produce the first series of cartoons. Schlesinger was impressed by Harman's and Ising's 1929 pilot cartoon,Bosko, The Talk-Ink Kid.","The Talk-Ink Kid. The firstLooney Tunesshort wasSinkin' in the BathtubstarringBosko, which was released in 1930. 1933–1936: Leon Schlesinger Productions When Harman and Ising left Warner Bros. in 1933 over a budget dispute with Schlesinger, they took with them all the rights of the characters they had created. A new character calledBuddybecame the only star of theLooney Tunesseries for a couple of years. New directors includingTex Avery,Friz FrelengandBob Clampettwere brought in or promoted to work with animators in the Schlesinger studio, with Avery's unit housed in a bungalow which the animators dubbed \"Termite Terrace.\" In 1935, the first majorLooney Tunesstar debuted,Porky Pig. He first appeared along withBeans the Catin theMerrie MelodiescartoonI Haven't Got a Hat, directed by Friz Freleng. Beans was the star of the next Porky/Beans cartoon,Gold Diggers of '49, but it was Porky who emerged as the star instead of Beans. The ensemble characters ofI Haven't Got a Hat, such as Oliver Owl and the twin dogs","and the twin dogs Ham and Ex, were also given a sampling of shorts. Beans and Porky proved much more popular in comparison. Beans was later phased out when his popularity declined, leaving Porky as the only star of the Schlesinger studio. 1936–1944: More star characters and switch to color The debuts of other memorableLooney Tunesstars followed:Daffy DuckinPorky's Duck Hunt(1937),Elmer Fuddin theMerrie MelodiesshortElmer's Candid Camera(1940),Bugs Bunnyin theMerrie MelodiesshortA Wild Hare(1940),andTweetyin theMerrie MelodiesshortA Tale of Two Kitties(1942). Bugs initially starred in the colorMerrie Melodiesshorts following the success of 1940'sA Wild Hare, and formally joined theLooney Tunesseries with the release ofBuckaroo Bugsin 1944. Schlesinger began to phase in the production of colorLooney Tuneswith the 1942 cartoonThe Hep Cat. The final black-and-whiteLooney Tunesshort wasPuss n' Bootyin 1943, directed byFrank Tashlin. The inspiration for the changeover was Warner's decision to re-release only the","re-release only the color cartoons in theBlue Ribbon Classicsseries ofMerrie Melodies. Bugs made a cameo appearance in 1942 in the Avery/Clampett cartoonCrazy Cruiseand also at the end of the Frank Tashlin 1943 cartoonPorky Pig's Feat, which marked Bugs' only official appearance in a black-and-whiteLooney Tunesshort. Schlesinger sold his interest in the cartoon studio in 1944 to Warner Bros. and went into retirement; he died five years later. 1944–1964: The Golden era More popularLooney Tunescharacters were created (most of which first appeared inMerrie Melodiescartoons), such asPepé Le Pew(debuted in 1945'sOdor-able Kitty),Sylvester(debuted in 1945'sLife with Feathers),Yosemite Sam(debuted in 1945'sHare Trigger),Foghorn Leghorn(debuted in 1946'sWalky Talky Hawky),Marvin the Martian(debuted in 1948'sHaredevil Hare),Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner(debuted in 1949'sFast and Furry-ous),Granny(debuted in 1950'sCanary Row),Speedy Gonzales(debuted in 1953'sCat Tails for Two),the Tasmanian Devil(debuted in","Devil(debuted in 1954'sDevil May Hare), andRalph Wolf and Sam Sheepdog(debuted in 1953'sDon't Give Up the Sheep). It was during this era that the series won fiveAcademy Awards: 1964–1969: DePatie–Freleng and Seven Arts era During the mid-late 1960s, the shorts were produced byDePatie–Freleng Enterprises(andFormat Productions) (1964–1967) andWarner Bros.-Seven Arts(1967–1969) after Warner Bros. shut down their animation studio. The shorts from this era can be identified by their different title sequence, featuring stylizedlimited animationand graphics on a black background and a new arrangement, byWilliam Lava, of \"The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down\" which had first been used in the 1963 experimental short \"Now Hear This\" directed by Chuck Jones. In 1967, Warner Bros.-Seven Arts commissioned an animation studio inSouth Koreato redraw 79 black-and-white Looney Tunes produced from 1935 to 1943 in color which were syndicated to TV stations from the late 1960s to the early 1990s. The originalLooney Tunestheatrical","Tunestheatrical series ran from 1930'sSinkin' in the Bathtubto 1969'sInjun TroublebyRobert McKimson. ACool Catcartoon called \"Stage Cat\" was planned, about Cool Cat being in a stage production, but it was cancelled when Warner Bros.-Seven Arts shut down. 1970–1999: Syndication and return to television and film TheLooney Tunesseries' popularity was further strengthened when it began airing on network andsyndicated televisionin the 1950s under various titles and formats. TheLooney Tunesshorts were broadcast with edits to remove scenes of violence (particularly suicidal gags and scenes of characters performing dangerous stunts that impressionable viewers could easily imitate), stereotypes, and alcohol consumption. Production of theatrical animated shorts was dormant from 1969 until 1979, when new shorts were made to introduce theLooney Tunesto a new generation of audiences.New shortshave been produced and released sporadically for theaters since then, though usually as promotional tie-ins with various family","with various family movies produced by Warner Bros. While many have been released in limited releases theatrically for Academy Award consideration, only a few have gained theatrical releases with movies. In the 1970s through the early 1990s, several feature-film compilations andtelevision specialswere produced, mostly centering on Bugs Bunny and/or Daffy Duck, with a mixture of new and old footage. These releases includeThe Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie(1979),The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie(1981),Bugs Bunny's 3rd Movie: 1001 Rabbit Tales(1982),Daffy Duck's Fantastic Island(1983), andDaffy Duck's Quackbusters(1988). In 1976, theLooney Tunescharacters made their way into the amusement park business when they became the mascots for Marriott's two Great America theme parks in Gurnee, Illinois, and Santa Clara, California. After theGurnee parkwas sold toSix Flagsin 1984, they also claimed the rights to use the characters at the other Six Flags parks, which continues to the present. (Warner Bros. parent","Bros. parent company Time Warner would own the Six Flags chain in whole or part form most of the 1990s.) In 1988, severalLooney Tunescharacters appeared in cameo roles in theDisneyfilmWho Framed Roger Rabbit. The more significant cameos featured Bugs, Daffy, Porky, Tweety, and Yosemite Sam. It is the only time in whichLooney Tunescharacters have shared screen time with their rivals at Disney (producers of the film)—particularly in the scenes where Bugs andMickey Mouseareskydiving, and when Daffy andDonald Duckare performing their \"Dueling Pianos\" sequence. On July 10, 1989, after a battle with heart problems,Mel Blancdied at theCedars-Sinai Medical Centerofcardiovascular disease. A picture depicting theLooney Tunescharacters entitled \"Speechless\" was released shortly after his death. Viacom-ownedNickelodeonairedLooney Tunescartoons in a show calledLooney Tunes on Nickelodeonbetween 1988 and 1999. Initially, the Nickelodeon package included cartoons that were typically omitted from the higher-profile Saturday","Saturday morning network and syndicated weekday packages, including black-and-white Bosko cartoons that had not aired in many years and cartoons from the late DePattie–Freling and Seven Arts eras. In January 1999, it was reported that the cartoons shown on Nickelodeon would move toCartoon Networkin the fall of that year.To date,Looney Tunes on Nickelodeonis the longest-airinganimated serieson the network that was not aNicktoon. In 1996,Space Jam, alive-action animated film, was released to theaters starring Bugs Bunny and basketball playerMichael Jordan. Despite a mixed critical reception,the film was a major box-office success, grossing nearly $100 million in the U.S. alone, almost becoming the first non-Disney animated film to achieve that feat.For a two-year period, it was the highest grossing non-Disney animated film ever.The film also introduced the characterLola Bunny, who subsequently became another recurring member of theLooney Tunescast, usually as a love interest for Bugs. In 1997, Bugs Bunny was","Bugs Bunny was featured on a U.S. 32 cent postage stamp, the first of fiveLooney Tunesthemed stamps to be issued. TheLooney Tunesalso achieved success in the area of television during this era, with appearances in several originally produced series, includingTaz-Mania(1991, starring Taz) andThe Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries(1995, starring Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny). The gang also made frequent cameos in the 1990 spinoff seriesTiny Toon Adventures, from executive producerSteven Spielberg, where they played teachers and mentors to a younger generation of cartoon characters (Plucky Duck,Hamton J. Pig,Babs and Buster Bunny, etc.), plus occasional cameos in the later Warner Bros. shows such asAnimaniacs(also from Spielberg) andHisteria!.Traditional cel animationwas used to animate the characters forLooney Tunes'cartoons until 1999 when it was replaced withdigital ink and paint animation. In 1979,Bugs Bunny's Christmas Carolpremiered. AfterThe Chocolate Chase, there would not be another short released for seven","released for seven years. In 1990, it was made so there would be about one short per year until 1998. In 2003, there would be seven shorts produced to promoteLooney Tunes: Back in Action. The first of these to be released wasThe Whizzard of Ow, which appeared on a DVD release ofBack in Actionthat was sold exclusively atWal-Martstores. Only about half of the shorts were shown in theaters; the rest would not be made available until 2004, when all seven shorts were included on the general home video release of the film. In 2010, five computer-animated shorts would be released and directed byMatthew O'Callaghan, who would also direct another short,Flash in the Pain, in 2014. 2000–2014: Network exploration In March 2000, it was revealed that the entireLooney TunesandMerrie Melodieslibrary would be exclusive to Cartoon Network, starting with the fall of that year.Looney Tunesshorts were still airing on Disney'sABCas part ofThe Bugs Bunny and Tweety Showat the time and the decision led to the show's cancellation.","cancellation. This decision would remain in effect for over 20 years untilMeTVbegan airing the classic Warner Bros. cartoons (along with MGM and Paramount's library) in January 2021. In 2003, another feature film was released, this time in an attempt to recapture the spirit of the original shorts: the live-action/animatedLooney Tunes: Back in Action. Although the film was not financially successful,it was met with mixed-to-positive reviews from film critics and has been argued by animation historians and fans as the finest original feature-length appearance of the cartoon characters.In 2006,Warner Home Videoreleased a new and Christmas-themedLooney Tunesdirect-to-video film calledBah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas, a parody ofCharles Dickens'A Christmas Carol. OtherLooney TunesTV series made during this time wereBaby Looney Tunes(2001–2006),Duck Dodgers(2003–2005) andLoonatics Unleashed(2005–2007). On October 22, 2007,Looney TunesandMerrie Melodiescartoons became available for the first time","for the first time inHigh-definitionviaMicrosoft'sXbox Liveservice, including some in Spanish.From February 29 – May 18, 2008, manyLooney Tunesartifacts, including original animation cels and concept drawings, were on display at theButler Institute of American ArtinYoungstown, Ohio, just off the campus ofYoungstown State University, near where the Warners lived early in life. At the 2009 Cartoon Networkupfront,The Looney Tunes Showwas announced.After several delays, the series premiered on May 3, 2011. Produced byWarner Bros. Animation, the series centers on Bugs and Daffy as they leave the woods and move to the suburbs with \"colorful neighbors\" including Sylvester, Tweety, Granny, Yosemite Sam, etc. The series introduced the characterTina Russo, a duck who becomes Daffy's girlfriend. The show also features 2-minute music videos titled respectfully \"Merrie Melodies\" (as a tribute to theLooney Tunessister shorts) which features the characters singing original songs, as well as CGI animated shorts starring","shorts starring Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner (which were removed after the first season). The series was cancelled after its second season. Also, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner returned to the big screen in a series of 3-D shorts that preceded select Warner Bros. films. There were six in the works that began with the first short,Coyote Falls, that preceded the filmCats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore, which was released on July 30, 2010. On September 24, 2010,Fur of Flyingpreceded the film,Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole, and on December 17, 2010,Rabid Riderpreceded the film,Yogi Bear. On June 8, 2011, Warner Bros. Animation announced that there will be moreLooney Tunes3-D theatrical shorts; the first titledDaffy's Rhapsodywith Daffy Duck and Elmer Fudd, the next beingI Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tatwith Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny.Daffy's Rhapsodywas to precede the filmHappy Feet Two,until the studio decided to premiereI Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tatinstead.Daffy's Rhapsodyinstead premiered","premiered in 2012, precedingJourney 2: The Mysterious Island.All five shorts were directed byMatthew O'Callaghan. In 2012, several announcements were made about aLooney Tunesreboot film titledAcme, in development.FormerSaturday Night Livecast memberJenny Slatewas said to be on board as writer for the new film. Jeffrey Clifford,Harry PotterproducerDavid Heyman, andDark Shadowswriters David Katzenberg andSeth Grahame-Smithwere slated to produce the film.On August 27, 2014, writersAshley MillerandZack Stentzwere hired to script the film, directorsGlenn Ficarraand John Requa were in talks to direct the film, while actorSteve Carellwas rumored to be starring in a lead role.Despite this, the film never entered production. 2015–2021: Revival At the 2014 Cartoon Networkupfront, another series titledWabbit: A Looney Tunes Production(laterNew Looney Tunes) was announced.Starring Bugs Bunny, the series premiered on both Cartoon Network and its sister channelBoomerangin late 2015.The series had an unusually slow","an unusually slow rollout, with the series being moved to the Boomerang streaming service in 2017, and was eventually cancelled on January 30, 2020. On June 11, 2018, another series, titledLooney Tunes Cartoons, was announced by Warner Bros. Animation. It premiered on May 27, 2020, on the streaming serviceHBO Max. The series features \"1,000 minutes of new one-to-six minute cartoons featuring the brand's marquee characters\", voiced by their current voice actors in \"simple, gag-driven and visually vibrant stories\" that are rendered by multiple artists employing \"a visual style that will resonate with fans\", most noticeably having a style reminiscent of the styles ofTex Avery,Bob Clampett,Chuck Jones,Friz FrelengandRobert McKimson.According to co-executive producerPeter Browngardt, \"We're not doing guns, but we can do cartoony violence — TNT, the Acme stuff. All that was kind of grandfathered in.\"Sam Register, president of Warner Bros. Animation also served as a co-executive producer for the series.The series","series.The series ended on July 27, 2023. On February 11, 2021, it was announced two new series were in the works:Bugs Bunny BuildersandTweety Mysteries.Bugs Bunny Buildersbegan airing on Cartoon Network as part ofCartoonitoandHBO Maxon July 25, 2022;Tweety Mysterieswould also air onCartoon Network.Bugs Bunny Buildersis aimed towards preschoolers; whileTweety Mysteriesis a live-action/animated hybrid.However, the latter was scrapped for unknown reasons. A sequel toSpace JamtitledSpace Jam: A New Legacy, starring basketball playerLeBron James, was released in theaters and HBO Max on July 16, 2021, after aLos Angelesspecial screening on July 12, 2021. It is a film with a story of LeBron James' second son, Dom, who gets kidnapped by an evilAInamed Al. G Rhythm (Don Cheadle), into the Warner Bros. server-verse. LeBron then assembles the Tune Squad to play against the algorithm and get his son back. It received generally negative reviews and underperformed at the box office. 2022–present; Warner Bros. Discovery","Bros. Discovery ownership and tax write-offs A reboot ofTiny Toon AdventurestitledTiny Toons Looniversitypremiered on September 8, 2023, onMaxand then aired the following day on Cartoon Network. The Looney Tunes characters reprise their roles as the professors at Acme Looniversity in this series. In September 2021, it was reported that a film based on theLooney Tunes Cartoons, titledThe Day the Earth Blew Up: A Looney Tunes Movieand starringDaffy DuckandPorky Pig, was announced for release onHBO Maxand Cartoon Network.However, it was reported in August 2022 that the film would instead be shopped around to other streaming services.In October 2023, it was announced the film would instead be released in theaters, becoming the first animated non-compilation feature film in the franchise to do so.In early August 2024, it was announced thatKetchup Entertainmentacquired the North American theatrical distribution rights to the film. On December 31, 2022, 256 shorts were removed from HBO Max, includingWhat's Opera,","Opera, Doc?andDuck Amuck,though many were later re-added in March 2024 when the shorts on the service were rotated. In August 2024, it was announced that Warner Bros. was planning to relaunch theLooney Tunestheatrical film series in 2028. Home media In the 1980s, the shorts receivedVHSreleases, with the pre-August 1948 shorts released byMGM/UA Home Videoand the post-July 1948 shorts released byWarner Home Video. In 2003, Warner Home Video began releasing select shorts onDVD, aimed at collectors, in four-disc sets known as theLooney Tunes Golden Collectionstarting withVolume 1. This continued until 2008, whenthe final volume of the Golden Collectionwas released. Then, from 2010 until 2013, the company released theLooney Tunes Super StarsDVDs. There have been numerous complaints regarding theSuper Starsreleases, however (particularly the first two), having the post-1953 shorts in a 16:9 widescreen format. The last DVD in theSuper Starsseries wasSylvester and Hippety Hopper: Marsupial Mayhem, released on April","released on April 23, 2013. 2010 and 2011 saw the releases ofThe Essential Bugs BunnyandThe Essential Daffy DuckDVDs. In 2011, the shorts were released onBlu-ray Discfor the first time with theLooney Tunes Platinum Collectionseries. On September 19, 2017,Warner Home Video'sWarner Archive Collectionreleased the five-discPorky Pig 101DVD-set. Licensing and ownership In 1933,Harman and Isingleft, taking the rights to theBosko characterswith them. However, Warner Bros. retained the rights to the cartoons and theLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesbrand names, leaving their former producer Leon Schlesinger to start his own animation studio to continue theLooney Tunesseries. With their retained Bosko rights, Harman and Ising began making cartoons atMetro-Goldwyn-Mayerin 1934 until they were fired in 1937 due to a lack of success. MGM proceeded to formtheir own studioto create its own cartoons. Time Warner eventually acquired the Bosko characters from Harman and Ising's estates. Meanwhile, the Schlesinger studio","Schlesinger studio continued to make popular cartoons until 1944 when Schlesinger sold his studio to Warner Bros. Since then, Warner Bros. has owned all rights to all post-1933 characters created by Leon Schlesinger Productions and Warner Bros. Cartoons, even after the rights to individual cartoons were placed in other hands. In 1955, Warner Bros. sold the television distribution rights to 191 of its cartoons (which included the black-and-whiteLooney Tunesand the black-and-whiteMerrie Melodiesmade after Harman and Ising left) to Guild Films.The copyrights to those cartoons were assigned toSunset Productions, an entity owned by Warner Bros.The cartoons were distributed by Guild Films until it went bankrupt and was bought by Seven Arts. Seven Arts bought WB in 1967, and WB regained the TV distribution rights to the black and white cartoons. In 1956,Associated Artists Productions(a.a.p.) acquired television distribution rights to most of Warner Bros.' pre-1950library, including allMerrie Melodies(except for","Melodies(except for those sold to Guild andLady, Play Your Mandolin!) and colorLooney Tunesshorts that were released prior to August 1948, while Warner still owned the copyright to all of the cartoons. Unlike the previous TV package, this package had the Warner titles kept intact and an \"Associated Artists Productions presents\" title inserted at the head of each reel (as a result, eachMerrie Melodiescartoon had the song \"Merrily We Roll Along\" playing twice).Two years later,United Artistsbought a.a.p. (which had also bought Paramount'sPopeyefilms) who merged the company into its television division,United Artists Television. In 1981, UA was sold to MGM, and five years later,Ted Turneracquired the pre-May 1986 MGM library, as well the rights to the a.a.p. library. In 1996, Turner's company,Turner Broadcasting System(whoseTurner Entertainmentdivision oversaw the film library), was purchased by Time Warner (nowWarner Bros. Discovery), which was also Warner Bros.' corporate parent.Then when MGM/UA terminated its","terminated its distribution deal with Time Warner in 1999, it surrendered its home video rights to the a.a.p. library to WB.Since then, Warner Home Video (nowWarner Bros. Home Entertainment) has held the video rights to the entireLooney Tunes/Merrie Melodiesanimated output by virtue of Warner Bros.' ownership of Turner Entertainment. Starting in 1960, the cartoons were repackaged into several different TV programs that remained popular for several decades before being purchased by Turner Broadcasting System.Turner'sCartoon Networkreran the cartoons from its launch in 1992 until 2004, again from 2009 until 2017, and making a temporary return in April 2023 to celebrate WB's 100th anniversary.The Looney Tunes Show(not to be confused with the 2010s animated series ofthe same name), an early 2000s anthology produced by Warner Bros. Animation for the network, was broadcast from 2001to 2004. The show featured shorts from the originalLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiestheatrical series. As of 2021, classic cartoons","classic cartoons continue to air on CN's sister channel,BoomerangandMeTV. Differing curated collections ofLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesare available for streaming on both theBoomerang streaming serviceandHBO Max. Five dozenLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesshorts from before December 1943 have lapsed into thepublic domainand are thus freely distributed through various unofficial releases. Filmography Characters The major characters of the originalLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesseries areBugs Bunny, a clever and insouciant rabbit or hare who is portrayed as atrickster;Daffy Duck, a black duck who was originally portrayed as ascrewball, but later became greedy and egocentric;Porky Pig, a stuttering pig who often appears as thestraight manto Daffy, and is the oldest of the franchise's recurring characters;Sylvester the Cat, his preyTweety(a small canary), and their elderly ownerGranny;Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, who routinely engage in high-speed chases in their home in theSouthwest Americandesert;Elmer","Fudd, an unintelligent hunter who is Bugs' oldest nemesis;Yosemite Sam, a hot-tempered cowboy who is another of Bugs' archenemies;Foghorn Leghorn, a rooster who is known for his often excessive ranting;Marvin the Martian, an alien commander from the planetMars, who aims to conquer the Earth; theTasmanian Devil(often nicknamed \"Taz\" in later media), a vicious, brutal marsupial with an insatiable appetite;Pepé Le Pew, a French skunk who is always looking for love and romance; andSpeedy Gonzales, the self-proclaimed \"fastest mouse in all of Mexico\". One additional major character was introduced in post-Golden AgeLooney Tunesmedia (starting withSpace Jam):Lola Bunny, a female rabbit who is usually portrayed as Bugs' girlfriend. Racial stereotypes and censorship controversies Due to content considered offensive,stereotypedor insensitive, in 1968 Warner Bros. removed the \"Censored Eleven\" episodes ofLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiescartoons from broadcast or distribution. Depictions included those ofAfrican","those ofAfrican Americans(as inCoal Black and de Sebben DwarfsandJungle Jitters),Native Americans,Japanese people(especially during WWII, as inTokio JokioandBugs Bunny Nips the Nips),Germans,Italians,White Southerners, andMexicans. In 1999,Cartoon Networkceased broadcast of all of Speedy Gonzales' cartoons, due to concerns about stereotyping of Mexicans.ManyLatinosprotested that they were not offended, and expressed fondness for Speedy; the character's shorts were made available for broadcast on CN again in 2002. Many Warner Bros. cartoons contain fleeting or sometimes extended gags that make reference to racial or ethnic stereotypes, or useethnic humor. The release of theLooney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 3includes a disclaimer at the beginning of each DVD in the volume given byWhoopi Goldberg. She explains that the cartoons are products of their time and contain racial and ethnic stereotypes that \"were wrong then and they are wrong today\", but the cartoons are presented on the DVD uncut and uncensored","and uncensored because \"editing them would be the same as denying that the stereotypes existed.\"A similarly phrased written disclaimer is shown at the beginning of each DVD in theLooney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 4,Volume 5, andVolume 6sets, as well as the Daffy Duck andFoghorn LeghornLooney Tunes Super Starssets and theWarner Bros. Home Entertainment Academy Awards Animation Collection. Accolades Inducted into the National Film Registry Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film(Cartoon) Academy Award nominations Related media Television series Series marked with * are compilations of earlier shorts. Television specials Films Compilation films Feature films Direct-to-video Comic books Looney Tunescomic books were published beginning in 1941 byDell Comicsunder license. These comics were, like many published by Dell, were produced in partnership withWestern Publishing. After Dell and Western ended their partnership in 1962, Western continued the series under theirGold Key Comicsand Whitman imprints","Whitman imprints through 1984. Beginning in 1990,DC Comics, which is owned by Warner Bros., has publishedLooney Tunescomics. Dell Comics (1941–1962) Western Publishing (1962–1984) DC Comics (1990–present) Video games Video games based onLooney Tunescharacters began in 1979 with theRoad Runnerpinball machine. More titles would continue to be released as video game hardware evolved throughout the 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s. Prominent characters who have received multiple video games include Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, the Tasmanian Devil, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, Speedy Gonzales, and Sylvester and Tweety. See also References External links","Silly Symphony Silly Symphony(also known asSilly Symphonies) is an Americananimatedseries of 75 musicalshort filmsproduced byWalt Disney Productionsfrom 1929 to 1939. As the series name implies, theSilly Symphonieswere originally intended as whimsical accompaniments to pieces of music.As such, the films usually did not feature continuing characters, unlike theMickey Mouseshorts produced by Disney at the same time (exceptions to this includeThree Little Pigs,The Tortoise and the Hare, andThree Orphan Kittens, which all had sequels). The series is notable for its innovation withTechnicolorand themultiplane motion picture camera, as well as its introduction of the characterDonald Duck, who made his first appearance in theSilly SymphonycartoonThe Wise Little Henin 1934. Seven shorts won theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Film. The series also spawned aSilly Symphonynewspaper comic stripdistributed byKing Features Syndicate, as well as aDellcomic book series and several children's books. TheSilly","books. TheSilly Symphoniesreturned to theaters with its re-issues and re-releases, and eventually tied withJoseph BarberaandWilliam Hanna'sTom and Jerry's record for most Oscar wins for a cartoon series in theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmcategory. Production While Walt Disney andCarl Stalling, a theatre organist from Kansas City, were in New York to add sound to the Mickey Mouse shortsThe Gallopin' Gaucho,The Barn DanceandPlane Crazy, Stalling suggested the idea of making a series of musical animated shorts that combined the latest sound technology with storytelling. At first Walt did not seem interested, but when they returned to New York in February to record the sound for a fifth Mickey Mouse cartoon,The Opry House, they also recorded the soundtrack forThe Skeleton Dance, the type of short that Stalling had suggested and the first Silly Symphony cartoon. Within the animation industry, the series is known for its use byWalt Disneyas a platform for experimenting with processes, techniques,","techniques, characters, and stories in order to further the art of animation. It also provided a venue to try out techniques and technologies, such as Technicolor,special effects animation, and dramatic storytelling in animation, that would be crucial to Disney's plans to eventually begin making feature-length animated films. Shortly after the switch to United Artists, the series became even more popular. Walt Disney had seen some of Dr. Herbert Kalmus' tests for a newthree-strip, full-colorTechnicolorprocess, which would replace the previoustwo-tone Technicolorprocess. Disney signed a contract with Technicolor which gave the Disney studio exclusive rights to the new three-strip process through the end of 1935, and had a 60% completeSymphony,Flowers and Trees, scrapped and redone in full color.Flowers and Treeswas the first animated film to use the three-strip Technicolor process,and was a phenomenal success. Within a year, the now-in-TechnicolorSilly Symphoniesseries had popularity and success that matched","that matched (and later surpassed) that of theMickey Mousecartoons. The contract Disney had with Technicolor would also later be extended another five years as well. The success ofSilly Symphonieswould be tremendously boosted afterThree Little Pigswas released in 1933 and became a box office sensation; the film was featured in movie theaters for several months and also featured the hit song that became the anthem of the Great Depression, \"Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf\".SeveralSilly Symphoniesentries, includingThree Little Pigs(1933),The Grasshopper and the Ants(1934),The Tortoise and the Hare(1935),The Country Cousin(1936),The Old Mill(1937),Wynken, Blynken, and Nod(1938), andThe Ugly Duckling(1939, with an earlierblack-and-white versionfrom 1931), are among the most notable films produced by Walt Disney. Due to problems related to Disney's scheduled productions of cartoons, a deal was made withHarman and Isingto produce three Silly Symphonies:Merbabies,Pipe Dreams, andThe Little Bantamweight. Only one of","Only one of these cartoons,Merbabies, ended up being bought by Disney, the remaining two Harman-Ising Silly Symphonies were then sold to MGM who released them as Happy Harmonies cartoons.Disney ceased production ofSilly Symphoniesin 1939. Distribution The series was first distributed byPat Powersfrom 1929 to 1930 and released by Celebrity Productions (1929–1930) indirectly throughColumbia Pictures. The original basis of the cartoons was musical novelty, and the musical scores of the first cartoons were composed byCarl Stalling. Columbia Pictures After viewing \"The Skeleton Dance\", the manager at Columbia Pictures quickly became interested in distributing the series, and gained the perfect opportunity to acquire Silly Symphonies after Disney broke with Celebrity Productions head Pat Powers after Powers signed Disney's colleagueUb Iwerksto a studio contract.Columbia Pictures(1930–1932) agreed to pick up the direct distribution of theMickey Mouseseries on the condition that they would have exclusive rights to","exclusive rights to distribute theSilly Symphoniesseries; at first,Silly Symphoniescould not even come close to the popularity Mickey Mouse had. The original title cards to the shorts released by Celebrity Productions and Columbia Pictures were all redrawn after Walt Disney stopped distributing his cartoons through them. Meanwhile, more competition spread for Disney afterMax Fleischer's flapper cartoon characterBetty Boopbegan to gain more and more popularity after starring in the cartoonMinnie the Moocher. By August 1932, Betty Boop became so popular that theTalkartoonseries was renamed as Betty Boop cartoons. United Artists In 1932, after falling out with Columbia Pictures, Disney began distributing his products throughUnited Artists. UA refused to distribute theSilly Symphoniesunless Disney associated Mickey Mouse with them somehow, resulting in the \"Mickey Mouse presents aSilly Symphony\" title cards and posters that introduced and promoted the series during its five-year run for UA. United Artists also","United Artists also agreed to double the budget for each cartoon from $7,500 to $15,000. RKO Radio Pictures In 1937, Disney signed a distribution deal withRKO Radio Picturesto distribute the Silly Symphony cartoons, along with the Mickey Mouse series. RKO would continue to distribute until the end of the series in 1939. Home media SeveralSymphonieshave been released in home media, most of the time as bonus shorts that relate to something within various Disney films. For instance, the originalDumboVHS includedFather Noah's Ark,The Practical PigandThree Orphan Kittensas bonus shorts to make up for the film's short length. In the UK, severalSilly Symphonieswere released in compilations under Disney Videos' \"Storybook Favourites\" brand. The three \"Storybook Favourites Shorts\" volumes released included among others,The Three Little Pigs,The Tortoise and the Hareand the remake ofThe Ugly Duckling. On December 4, 2001, Disney released \"Silly Symphonies\" as part of its DVD series \"Walt Disney Treasures\". On December","On December 19, 2006, \"More Silly Symphonies\" was released, completing the collection and allowing the cartoons to be completely available to the public. Some DisneyBlu-raydiscs includeSilly Symphoniesas high definition special features.Snow White and the Seven Dwarfsincludes six,Beauty and the BeastandDumboboth contain two andPixar'sA Bug's Lifecontains one. TheSilly Symphonyshorts originally aired onTurner Classic Movies' period program block \"Treasures from the Disney Vault\". SomeSilly Symphonyshorts are viewable onDisney+. List of films TheSilly Symphoniesare listed here in production order. Reception Disney's experiments were widely praised within the film industry, and theSilly Symphonieswon theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmseven times, maintaining a six-year-hold on the category after it was first introduced. This record was matched only byMGM'sTom and Jerryseries during the 1940s and 1950s. Legacy TheSymphonieschanged the course of Disney Studio history when Walt's plans to direct his","plans to direct his first feature cartoon became problematic after his warm-up to the taskThe Golden Touchwas widely seen (even by Disney himself) as stiff and slowly paced. This motivated him to embrace his role as being the producer and providing creative oversight (especially of the story) forSnow Whitewhile taskingDavid Handto handle the actual directing. Silly Symphoniesbrought along many imitators, including Warner Bros. cartoon seriesLooney TunesandMerrie Melodies, MGM'sHappy Harmonies, and later, Universal'sSwing Symphony. Years later after theSilly Symphoniesended, Disney occasionally produced a handful of one-shot cartoons, playing the same style as theSilly Symphonyseries. Unlike theSilly Symphoniescanon, most of these \"Specials\" have a narration, usually by Disney legendSterling Holloway. In the 1934 MGM filmHollywood Party, Mickey Mouse appears withJimmy Durante, where they introduceThe Hot Choc-late Soldiers. The 1999–2000 television seriesMickey Mouse Worksused theSilly Symphoniestitle for","Symphoniestitle for some of its new cartoons, but unlike the original cartoons, these did feature continuing characters. As of 2021, three of theSilly Symphonyshorts (Three Little Pigs,The Old Mill, andFlowers and Trees), have been selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registryby the Library of Congress, for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Comic adaptations A SundaySilly Symphonycomic stripran in newspapers from January 10, 1932, to July 12, 1942.The strip featured adaptations of some of theSilly Symphonycartoons, includingBirds of a Feather,The Robber Kitten,Elmer Elephant,Farmyard SymphonyandLittle Hiawatha.This strip began with a two-year sequence aboutBucky Bug, a character based on the bugs inBugs in Love. There was also an occasionalSilly Symphoniescomic book, with nine issues published byDell Comicsfrom September 1952 to February 1959.The first issue of this anthology comic featured adaptations of someSilly Symphonycartoons, includingThe","includingThe Grasshopper and the Ants,Three Little Pigs,The Goddess of SpringandMother Pluto, but it also included non-Symphonycartoons like Mickey Mouse'sBrave Little Tailor.By the third issue, there was almost noSymphony-related material in the book; the stories and activities were mostly based on other Disney shorts and feature films. See also References Further reading External links Category"],"string":"[\n \"Looney Tunes Looney Tunesis an Americanmedia franchiseproduced and distributed byWarner Bros.The franchise began as a series ofanimatedshort filmsthat originally ran from 1930 to 1969, alongside the related seriesMerrie Melodies, during thegolden age of American animation.Following a revival in the late 1970s, new shorts were released as recently as 2014. The two series introduced a largecast of characters, includingBugs Bunny,Daffy Duck, andPorky Pig. The termLooney Tuneshas since been expanded to also refer to the characters themselves. Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere initially produced byLeon Schlesingerand animatorsHugh HarmanandRudolf Isingfrom 1930 to 1933.Schlesinger assumed full production from 1933 until he sold his studio to Warner Bros. in 1944, after which it was renamedWarner Bros. Cartoons.TheLooney Tunestitle was inspired by that ofWalt Disney'sSilly Symphonies.The shorts initially showcased musical compositions owned by Warner's music publishing interests through the adventures of such\",\n \"adventures of such characters asBoskoandBuddy.However, the shorts gained a higher profile upon the debuts of directorsTex Avery,Friz Freleng,Chuck Jones,Bob Clampett, andRobert McKimson, andvoice actorMel Blanclater in the decade.Porky Pig and Daffy Duck became the featuredLooney Tunescharacters, whileMerrie Melodiesfeatured one-shot cartoons and minor recurring characters. After Bugs Bunny became popular in theMerrie Melodiesshorts of the early 1940s,Looney Tunesmoved fromblack and whiteto color production,Merrie Melodieshaving already been in color since 1934.The two series gradually lost their distinctions, and shorts were assigned to each series arbitrarily.From 1942 to 1964,Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere the most popular animated shorts in movie theaters. Looney Tuneshas become one of thehighest-grossing media franchisesof all time, spawning several television series, feature films, comic books, music albums, video games, and amusement park rides. Many of the characters have made and continue to\",\n \"and continue to make cameo appearances in television shows, films, and other media. Bugs Bunny, in particular, is regarded as acultural iconand has a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame.ManyLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesfilms are ranked among the greatest animated cartoons of all time, and five of them have wonAcademy Awards.In 2013,TV GuidecountedLooney Tunesas the third greatest television cartoon series of all time, behindThe SimpsonsandThe Flintstones, the latter of which also featured the voice talents of Mel Blanc andBea Benaderet. History Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere so named as a reference to Disney'sSilly Symphoniesand were initially developed to showcase tracks from Warner Bros.' extensive music library; the title of the firstLooney Tunesshort,Sinkin' in the Bathtub(1930), is a pun onSingin' in the Bathtub.Between 1934 and 1943,Merrie Melodieswere produced in color andLooney Tunesin black and white.After 1943, both series were produced in color and became virtually indistinguishable, varying\",\n \"varying only in their opening theme music and titles.Both series made use of the various Warner Bros. characters. By 1937, the theme music forLooney Tuneswas \\\"The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down\\\" byCliff FriendandDave Franklin, and the theme music forMerrie Melodieswas an adaptation of \\\"Merrily We Roll Along\\\" byCharles Tobias, Murray Mencher andEddie Cantor. 1930–1933: Harman and Ising era In 1929, to compete againstWalt Disney'sMickey Mouse short cartoons, Warner Bros. became interested in developing a series of animated shorts to promote their music. They had recently acquiredBrunswick Recordsalong with four music publishers for US$28 million (equivalent to $511 million in 2024) and were eager to promote this material for the sales of sheet music and phonograph records. Warner made a deal withLeon Schlesingerto produce cartoons for them. Schlesinger hiredRudolf IsingandHugh Harmanto produce the first series of cartoons. Schlesinger was impressed by Harman's and Ising's 1929 pilot cartoon,Bosko, The Talk-Ink Kid.\",\n \"The Talk-Ink Kid. The firstLooney Tunesshort wasSinkin' in the BathtubstarringBosko, which was released in 1930. 1933–1936: Leon Schlesinger Productions When Harman and Ising left Warner Bros. in 1933 over a budget dispute with Schlesinger, they took with them all the rights of the characters they had created. A new character calledBuddybecame the only star of theLooney Tunesseries for a couple of years. New directors includingTex Avery,Friz FrelengandBob Clampettwere brought in or promoted to work with animators in the Schlesinger studio, with Avery's unit housed in a bungalow which the animators dubbed \\\"Termite Terrace.\\\" In 1935, the first majorLooney Tunesstar debuted,Porky Pig. He first appeared along withBeans the Catin theMerrie MelodiescartoonI Haven't Got a Hat, directed by Friz Freleng. Beans was the star of the next Porky/Beans cartoon,Gold Diggers of '49, but it was Porky who emerged as the star instead of Beans. The ensemble characters ofI Haven't Got a Hat, such as Oliver Owl and the twin dogs\",\n \"and the twin dogs Ham and Ex, were also given a sampling of shorts. Beans and Porky proved much more popular in comparison. Beans was later phased out when his popularity declined, leaving Porky as the only star of the Schlesinger studio. 1936–1944: More star characters and switch to color The debuts of other memorableLooney Tunesstars followed:Daffy DuckinPorky's Duck Hunt(1937),Elmer Fuddin theMerrie MelodiesshortElmer's Candid Camera(1940),Bugs Bunnyin theMerrie MelodiesshortA Wild Hare(1940),andTweetyin theMerrie MelodiesshortA Tale of Two Kitties(1942). Bugs initially starred in the colorMerrie Melodiesshorts following the success of 1940'sA Wild Hare, and formally joined theLooney Tunesseries with the release ofBuckaroo Bugsin 1944. Schlesinger began to phase in the production of colorLooney Tuneswith the 1942 cartoonThe Hep Cat. The final black-and-whiteLooney Tunesshort wasPuss n' Bootyin 1943, directed byFrank Tashlin. The inspiration for the changeover was Warner's decision to re-release only the\",\n \"re-release only the color cartoons in theBlue Ribbon Classicsseries ofMerrie Melodies. Bugs made a cameo appearance in 1942 in the Avery/Clampett cartoonCrazy Cruiseand also at the end of the Frank Tashlin 1943 cartoonPorky Pig's Feat, which marked Bugs' only official appearance in a black-and-whiteLooney Tunesshort. Schlesinger sold his interest in the cartoon studio in 1944 to Warner Bros. and went into retirement; he died five years later. 1944–1964: The Golden era More popularLooney Tunescharacters were created (most of which first appeared inMerrie Melodiescartoons), such asPepé Le Pew(debuted in 1945'sOdor-able Kitty),Sylvester(debuted in 1945'sLife with Feathers),Yosemite Sam(debuted in 1945'sHare Trigger),Foghorn Leghorn(debuted in 1946'sWalky Talky Hawky),Marvin the Martian(debuted in 1948'sHaredevil Hare),Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner(debuted in 1949'sFast and Furry-ous),Granny(debuted in 1950'sCanary Row),Speedy Gonzales(debuted in 1953'sCat Tails for Two),the Tasmanian Devil(debuted in\",\n \"Devil(debuted in 1954'sDevil May Hare), andRalph Wolf and Sam Sheepdog(debuted in 1953'sDon't Give Up the Sheep). It was during this era that the series won fiveAcademy Awards: 1964–1969: DePatie–Freleng and Seven Arts era During the mid-late 1960s, the shorts were produced byDePatie–Freleng Enterprises(andFormat Productions) (1964–1967) andWarner Bros.-Seven Arts(1967–1969) after Warner Bros. shut down their animation studio. The shorts from this era can be identified by their different title sequence, featuring stylizedlimited animationand graphics on a black background and a new arrangement, byWilliam Lava, of \\\"The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down\\\" which had first been used in the 1963 experimental short \\\"Now Hear This\\\" directed by Chuck Jones. In 1967, Warner Bros.-Seven Arts commissioned an animation studio inSouth Koreato redraw 79 black-and-white Looney Tunes produced from 1935 to 1943 in color which were syndicated to TV stations from the late 1960s to the early 1990s. The originalLooney Tunestheatrical\",\n \"Tunestheatrical series ran from 1930'sSinkin' in the Bathtubto 1969'sInjun TroublebyRobert McKimson. ACool Catcartoon called \\\"Stage Cat\\\" was planned, about Cool Cat being in a stage production, but it was cancelled when Warner Bros.-Seven Arts shut down. 1970–1999: Syndication and return to television and film TheLooney Tunesseries' popularity was further strengthened when it began airing on network andsyndicated televisionin the 1950s under various titles and formats. TheLooney Tunesshorts were broadcast with edits to remove scenes of violence (particularly suicidal gags and scenes of characters performing dangerous stunts that impressionable viewers could easily imitate), stereotypes, and alcohol consumption. Production of theatrical animated shorts was dormant from 1969 until 1979, when new shorts were made to introduce theLooney Tunesto a new generation of audiences.New shortshave been produced and released sporadically for theaters since then, though usually as promotional tie-ins with various family\",\n \"with various family movies produced by Warner Bros. While many have been released in limited releases theatrically for Academy Award consideration, only a few have gained theatrical releases with movies. In the 1970s through the early 1990s, several feature-film compilations andtelevision specialswere produced, mostly centering on Bugs Bunny and/or Daffy Duck, with a mixture of new and old footage. These releases includeThe Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie(1979),The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie(1981),Bugs Bunny's 3rd Movie: 1001 Rabbit Tales(1982),Daffy Duck's Fantastic Island(1983), andDaffy Duck's Quackbusters(1988). In 1976, theLooney Tunescharacters made their way into the amusement park business when they became the mascots for Marriott's two Great America theme parks in Gurnee, Illinois, and Santa Clara, California. After theGurnee parkwas sold toSix Flagsin 1984, they also claimed the rights to use the characters at the other Six Flags parks, which continues to the present. (Warner Bros. parent\",\n \"Bros. parent company Time Warner would own the Six Flags chain in whole or part form most of the 1990s.) In 1988, severalLooney Tunescharacters appeared in cameo roles in theDisneyfilmWho Framed Roger Rabbit. The more significant cameos featured Bugs, Daffy, Porky, Tweety, and Yosemite Sam. It is the only time in whichLooney Tunescharacters have shared screen time with their rivals at Disney (producers of the film)—particularly in the scenes where Bugs andMickey Mouseareskydiving, and when Daffy andDonald Duckare performing their \\\"Dueling Pianos\\\" sequence. On July 10, 1989, after a battle with heart problems,Mel Blancdied at theCedars-Sinai Medical Centerofcardiovascular disease. A picture depicting theLooney Tunescharacters entitled \\\"Speechless\\\" was released shortly after his death. Viacom-ownedNickelodeonairedLooney Tunescartoons in a show calledLooney Tunes on Nickelodeonbetween 1988 and 1999. Initially, the Nickelodeon package included cartoons that were typically omitted from the higher-profile Saturday\",\n \"Saturday morning network and syndicated weekday packages, including black-and-white Bosko cartoons that had not aired in many years and cartoons from the late DePattie–Freling and Seven Arts eras. In January 1999, it was reported that the cartoons shown on Nickelodeon would move toCartoon Networkin the fall of that year.To date,Looney Tunes on Nickelodeonis the longest-airinganimated serieson the network that was not aNicktoon. In 1996,Space Jam, alive-action animated film, was released to theaters starring Bugs Bunny and basketball playerMichael Jordan. Despite a mixed critical reception,the film was a major box-office success, grossing nearly $100 million in the U.S. alone, almost becoming the first non-Disney animated film to achieve that feat.For a two-year period, it was the highest grossing non-Disney animated film ever.The film also introduced the characterLola Bunny, who subsequently became another recurring member of theLooney Tunescast, usually as a love interest for Bugs. In 1997, Bugs Bunny was\",\n \"Bugs Bunny was featured on a U.S. 32 cent postage stamp, the first of fiveLooney Tunesthemed stamps to be issued. TheLooney Tunesalso achieved success in the area of television during this era, with appearances in several originally produced series, includingTaz-Mania(1991, starring Taz) andThe Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries(1995, starring Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny). The gang also made frequent cameos in the 1990 spinoff seriesTiny Toon Adventures, from executive producerSteven Spielberg, where they played teachers and mentors to a younger generation of cartoon characters (Plucky Duck,Hamton J. Pig,Babs and Buster Bunny, etc.), plus occasional cameos in the later Warner Bros. shows such asAnimaniacs(also from Spielberg) andHisteria!.Traditional cel animationwas used to animate the characters forLooney Tunes'cartoons until 1999 when it was replaced withdigital ink and paint animation. In 1979,Bugs Bunny's Christmas Carolpremiered. AfterThe Chocolate Chase, there would not be another short released for seven\",\n \"released for seven years. In 1990, it was made so there would be about one short per year until 1998. In 2003, there would be seven shorts produced to promoteLooney Tunes: Back in Action. The first of these to be released wasThe Whizzard of Ow, which appeared on a DVD release ofBack in Actionthat was sold exclusively atWal-Martstores. Only about half of the shorts were shown in theaters; the rest would not be made available until 2004, when all seven shorts were included on the general home video release of the film. In 2010, five computer-animated shorts would be released and directed byMatthew O'Callaghan, who would also direct another short,Flash in the Pain, in 2014. 2000–2014: Network exploration In March 2000, it was revealed that the entireLooney TunesandMerrie Melodieslibrary would be exclusive to Cartoon Network, starting with the fall of that year.Looney Tunesshorts were still airing on Disney'sABCas part ofThe Bugs Bunny and Tweety Showat the time and the decision led to the show's cancellation.\",\n \"cancellation. This decision would remain in effect for over 20 years untilMeTVbegan airing the classic Warner Bros. cartoons (along with MGM and Paramount's library) in January 2021. In 2003, another feature film was released, this time in an attempt to recapture the spirit of the original shorts: the live-action/animatedLooney Tunes: Back in Action. Although the film was not financially successful,it was met with mixed-to-positive reviews from film critics and has been argued by animation historians and fans as the finest original feature-length appearance of the cartoon characters.In 2006,Warner Home Videoreleased a new and Christmas-themedLooney Tunesdirect-to-video film calledBah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas, a parody ofCharles Dickens'A Christmas Carol. OtherLooney TunesTV series made during this time wereBaby Looney Tunes(2001–2006),Duck Dodgers(2003–2005) andLoonatics Unleashed(2005–2007). On October 22, 2007,Looney TunesandMerrie Melodiescartoons became available for the first time\",\n \"for the first time inHigh-definitionviaMicrosoft'sXbox Liveservice, including some in Spanish.From February 29 – May 18, 2008, manyLooney Tunesartifacts, including original animation cels and concept drawings, were on display at theButler Institute of American ArtinYoungstown, Ohio, just off the campus ofYoungstown State University, near where the Warners lived early in life. At the 2009 Cartoon Networkupfront,The Looney Tunes Showwas announced.After several delays, the series premiered on May 3, 2011. Produced byWarner Bros. Animation, the series centers on Bugs and Daffy as they leave the woods and move to the suburbs with \\\"colorful neighbors\\\" including Sylvester, Tweety, Granny, Yosemite Sam, etc. The series introduced the characterTina Russo, a duck who becomes Daffy's girlfriend. The show also features 2-minute music videos titled respectfully \\\"Merrie Melodies\\\" (as a tribute to theLooney Tunessister shorts) which features the characters singing original songs, as well as CGI animated shorts starring\",\n \"shorts starring Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner (which were removed after the first season). The series was cancelled after its second season. Also, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner returned to the big screen in a series of 3-D shorts that preceded select Warner Bros. films. There were six in the works that began with the first short,Coyote Falls, that preceded the filmCats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore, which was released on July 30, 2010. On September 24, 2010,Fur of Flyingpreceded the film,Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole, and on December 17, 2010,Rabid Riderpreceded the film,Yogi Bear. On June 8, 2011, Warner Bros. Animation announced that there will be moreLooney Tunes3-D theatrical shorts; the first titledDaffy's Rhapsodywith Daffy Duck and Elmer Fudd, the next beingI Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tatwith Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny.Daffy's Rhapsodywas to precede the filmHappy Feet Two,until the studio decided to premiereI Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tatinstead.Daffy's Rhapsodyinstead premiered\",\n \"premiered in 2012, precedingJourney 2: The Mysterious Island.All five shorts were directed byMatthew O'Callaghan. In 2012, several announcements were made about aLooney Tunesreboot film titledAcme, in development.FormerSaturday Night Livecast memberJenny Slatewas said to be on board as writer for the new film. Jeffrey Clifford,Harry PotterproducerDavid Heyman, andDark Shadowswriters David Katzenberg andSeth Grahame-Smithwere slated to produce the film.On August 27, 2014, writersAshley MillerandZack Stentzwere hired to script the film, directorsGlenn Ficarraand John Requa were in talks to direct the film, while actorSteve Carellwas rumored to be starring in a lead role.Despite this, the film never entered production. 2015–2021: Revival At the 2014 Cartoon Networkupfront, another series titledWabbit: A Looney Tunes Production(laterNew Looney Tunes) was announced.Starring Bugs Bunny, the series premiered on both Cartoon Network and its sister channelBoomerangin late 2015.The series had an unusually slow\",\n \"an unusually slow rollout, with the series being moved to the Boomerang streaming service in 2017, and was eventually cancelled on January 30, 2020. On June 11, 2018, another series, titledLooney Tunes Cartoons, was announced by Warner Bros. Animation. It premiered on May 27, 2020, on the streaming serviceHBO Max. The series features \\\"1,000 minutes of new one-to-six minute cartoons featuring the brand's marquee characters\\\", voiced by their current voice actors in \\\"simple, gag-driven and visually vibrant stories\\\" that are rendered by multiple artists employing \\\"a visual style that will resonate with fans\\\", most noticeably having a style reminiscent of the styles ofTex Avery,Bob Clampett,Chuck Jones,Friz FrelengandRobert McKimson.According to co-executive producerPeter Browngardt, \\\"We're not doing guns, but we can do cartoony violence — TNT, the Acme stuff. All that was kind of grandfathered in.\\\"Sam Register, president of Warner Bros. Animation also served as a co-executive producer for the series.The series\",\n \"series.The series ended on July 27, 2023. On February 11, 2021, it was announced two new series were in the works:Bugs Bunny BuildersandTweety Mysteries.Bugs Bunny Buildersbegan airing on Cartoon Network as part ofCartoonitoandHBO Maxon July 25, 2022;Tweety Mysterieswould also air onCartoon Network.Bugs Bunny Buildersis aimed towards preschoolers; whileTweety Mysteriesis a live-action/animated hybrid.However, the latter was scrapped for unknown reasons. A sequel toSpace JamtitledSpace Jam: A New Legacy, starring basketball playerLeBron James, was released in theaters and HBO Max on July 16, 2021, after aLos Angelesspecial screening on July 12, 2021. It is a film with a story of LeBron James' second son, Dom, who gets kidnapped by an evilAInamed Al. G Rhythm (Don Cheadle), into the Warner Bros. server-verse. LeBron then assembles the Tune Squad to play against the algorithm and get his son back. It received generally negative reviews and underperformed at the box office. 2022–present; Warner Bros. Discovery\",\n \"Bros. Discovery ownership and tax write-offs A reboot ofTiny Toon AdventurestitledTiny Toons Looniversitypremiered on September 8, 2023, onMaxand then aired the following day on Cartoon Network. The Looney Tunes characters reprise their roles as the professors at Acme Looniversity in this series. In September 2021, it was reported that a film based on theLooney Tunes Cartoons, titledThe Day the Earth Blew Up: A Looney Tunes Movieand starringDaffy DuckandPorky Pig, was announced for release onHBO Maxand Cartoon Network.However, it was reported in August 2022 that the film would instead be shopped around to other streaming services.In October 2023, it was announced the film would instead be released in theaters, becoming the first animated non-compilation feature film in the franchise to do so.In early August 2024, it was announced thatKetchup Entertainmentacquired the North American theatrical distribution rights to the film. On December 31, 2022, 256 shorts were removed from HBO Max, includingWhat's Opera,\",\n \"Opera, Doc?andDuck Amuck,though many were later re-added in March 2024 when the shorts on the service were rotated. In August 2024, it was announced that Warner Bros. was planning to relaunch theLooney Tunestheatrical film series in 2028. Home media In the 1980s, the shorts receivedVHSreleases, with the pre-August 1948 shorts released byMGM/UA Home Videoand the post-July 1948 shorts released byWarner Home Video. In 2003, Warner Home Video began releasing select shorts onDVD, aimed at collectors, in four-disc sets known as theLooney Tunes Golden Collectionstarting withVolume 1. This continued until 2008, whenthe final volume of the Golden Collectionwas released. Then, from 2010 until 2013, the company released theLooney Tunes Super StarsDVDs. There have been numerous complaints regarding theSuper Starsreleases, however (particularly the first two), having the post-1953 shorts in a 16:9 widescreen format. The last DVD in theSuper Starsseries wasSylvester and Hippety Hopper: Marsupial Mayhem, released on April\",\n \"released on April 23, 2013. 2010 and 2011 saw the releases ofThe Essential Bugs BunnyandThe Essential Daffy DuckDVDs. In 2011, the shorts were released onBlu-ray Discfor the first time with theLooney Tunes Platinum Collectionseries. On September 19, 2017,Warner Home Video'sWarner Archive Collectionreleased the five-discPorky Pig 101DVD-set. Licensing and ownership In 1933,Harman and Isingleft, taking the rights to theBosko characterswith them. However, Warner Bros. retained the rights to the cartoons and theLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesbrand names, leaving their former producer Leon Schlesinger to start his own animation studio to continue theLooney Tunesseries. With their retained Bosko rights, Harman and Ising began making cartoons atMetro-Goldwyn-Mayerin 1934 until they were fired in 1937 due to a lack of success. MGM proceeded to formtheir own studioto create its own cartoons. Time Warner eventually acquired the Bosko characters from Harman and Ising's estates. Meanwhile, the Schlesinger studio\",\n \"Schlesinger studio continued to make popular cartoons until 1944 when Schlesinger sold his studio to Warner Bros. Since then, Warner Bros. has owned all rights to all post-1933 characters created by Leon Schlesinger Productions and Warner Bros. Cartoons, even after the rights to individual cartoons were placed in other hands. In 1955, Warner Bros. sold the television distribution rights to 191 of its cartoons (which included the black-and-whiteLooney Tunesand the black-and-whiteMerrie Melodiesmade after Harman and Ising left) to Guild Films.The copyrights to those cartoons were assigned toSunset Productions, an entity owned by Warner Bros.The cartoons were distributed by Guild Films until it went bankrupt and was bought by Seven Arts. Seven Arts bought WB in 1967, and WB regained the TV distribution rights to the black and white cartoons. In 1956,Associated Artists Productions(a.a.p.) acquired television distribution rights to most of Warner Bros.' pre-1950library, including allMerrie Melodies(except for\",\n \"Melodies(except for those sold to Guild andLady, Play Your Mandolin!) and colorLooney Tunesshorts that were released prior to August 1948, while Warner still owned the copyright to all of the cartoons. Unlike the previous TV package, this package had the Warner titles kept intact and an \\\"Associated Artists Productions presents\\\" title inserted at the head of each reel (as a result, eachMerrie Melodiescartoon had the song \\\"Merrily We Roll Along\\\" playing twice).Two years later,United Artistsbought a.a.p. (which had also bought Paramount'sPopeyefilms) who merged the company into its television division,United Artists Television. In 1981, UA was sold to MGM, and five years later,Ted Turneracquired the pre-May 1986 MGM library, as well the rights to the a.a.p. library. In 1996, Turner's company,Turner Broadcasting System(whoseTurner Entertainmentdivision oversaw the film library), was purchased by Time Warner (nowWarner Bros. Discovery), which was also Warner Bros.' corporate parent.Then when MGM/UA terminated its\",\n \"terminated its distribution deal with Time Warner in 1999, it surrendered its home video rights to the a.a.p. library to WB.Since then, Warner Home Video (nowWarner Bros. Home Entertainment) has held the video rights to the entireLooney Tunes/Merrie Melodiesanimated output by virtue of Warner Bros.' ownership of Turner Entertainment. Starting in 1960, the cartoons were repackaged into several different TV programs that remained popular for several decades before being purchased by Turner Broadcasting System.Turner'sCartoon Networkreran the cartoons from its launch in 1992 until 2004, again from 2009 until 2017, and making a temporary return in April 2023 to celebrate WB's 100th anniversary.The Looney Tunes Show(not to be confused with the 2010s animated series ofthe same name), an early 2000s anthology produced by Warner Bros. Animation for the network, was broadcast from 2001to 2004. The show featured shorts from the originalLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiestheatrical series. As of 2021, classic cartoons\",\n \"classic cartoons continue to air on CN's sister channel,BoomerangandMeTV. Differing curated collections ofLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesare available for streaming on both theBoomerang streaming serviceandHBO Max. Five dozenLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesshorts from before December 1943 have lapsed into thepublic domainand are thus freely distributed through various unofficial releases. Filmography Characters The major characters of the originalLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesseries areBugs Bunny, a clever and insouciant rabbit or hare who is portrayed as atrickster;Daffy Duck, a black duck who was originally portrayed as ascrewball, but later became greedy and egocentric;Porky Pig, a stuttering pig who often appears as thestraight manto Daffy, and is the oldest of the franchise's recurring characters;Sylvester the Cat, his preyTweety(a small canary), and their elderly ownerGranny;Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, who routinely engage in high-speed chases in their home in theSouthwest Americandesert;Elmer\",\n \"Fudd, an unintelligent hunter who is Bugs' oldest nemesis;Yosemite Sam, a hot-tempered cowboy who is another of Bugs' archenemies;Foghorn Leghorn, a rooster who is known for his often excessive ranting;Marvin the Martian, an alien commander from the planetMars, who aims to conquer the Earth; theTasmanian Devil(often nicknamed \\\"Taz\\\" in later media), a vicious, brutal marsupial with an insatiable appetite;Pepé Le Pew, a French skunk who is always looking for love and romance; andSpeedy Gonzales, the self-proclaimed \\\"fastest mouse in all of Mexico\\\". One additional major character was introduced in post-Golden AgeLooney Tunesmedia (starting withSpace Jam):Lola Bunny, a female rabbit who is usually portrayed as Bugs' girlfriend. Racial stereotypes and censorship controversies Due to content considered offensive,stereotypedor insensitive, in 1968 Warner Bros. removed the \\\"Censored Eleven\\\" episodes ofLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiescartoons from broadcast or distribution. Depictions included those ofAfrican\",\n \"those ofAfrican Americans(as inCoal Black and de Sebben DwarfsandJungle Jitters),Native Americans,Japanese people(especially during WWII, as inTokio JokioandBugs Bunny Nips the Nips),Germans,Italians,White Southerners, andMexicans. In 1999,Cartoon Networkceased broadcast of all of Speedy Gonzales' cartoons, due to concerns about stereotyping of Mexicans.ManyLatinosprotested that they were not offended, and expressed fondness for Speedy; the character's shorts were made available for broadcast on CN again in 2002. Many Warner Bros. cartoons contain fleeting or sometimes extended gags that make reference to racial or ethnic stereotypes, or useethnic humor. The release of theLooney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 3includes a disclaimer at the beginning of each DVD in the volume given byWhoopi Goldberg. She explains that the cartoons are products of their time and contain racial and ethnic stereotypes that \\\"were wrong then and they are wrong today\\\", but the cartoons are presented on the DVD uncut and uncensored\",\n \"and uncensored because \\\"editing them would be the same as denying that the stereotypes existed.\\\"A similarly phrased written disclaimer is shown at the beginning of each DVD in theLooney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 4,Volume 5, andVolume 6sets, as well as the Daffy Duck andFoghorn LeghornLooney Tunes Super Starssets and theWarner Bros. Home Entertainment Academy Awards Animation Collection. Accolades Inducted into the National Film Registry Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film(Cartoon) Academy Award nominations Related media Television series Series marked with * are compilations of earlier shorts. Television specials Films Compilation films Feature films Direct-to-video Comic books Looney Tunescomic books were published beginning in 1941 byDell Comicsunder license. These comics were, like many published by Dell, were produced in partnership withWestern Publishing. After Dell and Western ended their partnership in 1962, Western continued the series under theirGold Key Comicsand Whitman imprints\",\n \"Whitman imprints through 1984. Beginning in 1990,DC Comics, which is owned by Warner Bros., has publishedLooney Tunescomics. Dell Comics (1941–1962) Western Publishing (1962–1984) DC Comics (1990–present) Video games Video games based onLooney Tunescharacters began in 1979 with theRoad Runnerpinball machine. More titles would continue to be released as video game hardware evolved throughout the 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s. Prominent characters who have received multiple video games include Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, the Tasmanian Devil, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, Speedy Gonzales, and Sylvester and Tweety. See also References External links\",\n \"Silly Symphony Silly Symphony(also known asSilly Symphonies) is an Americananimatedseries of 75 musicalshort filmsproduced byWalt Disney Productionsfrom 1929 to 1939. As the series name implies, theSilly Symphonieswere originally intended as whimsical accompaniments to pieces of music.As such, the films usually did not feature continuing characters, unlike theMickey Mouseshorts produced by Disney at the same time (exceptions to this includeThree Little Pigs,The Tortoise and the Hare, andThree Orphan Kittens, which all had sequels). The series is notable for its innovation withTechnicolorand themultiplane motion picture camera, as well as its introduction of the characterDonald Duck, who made his first appearance in theSilly SymphonycartoonThe Wise Little Henin 1934. Seven shorts won theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Film. The series also spawned aSilly Symphonynewspaper comic stripdistributed byKing Features Syndicate, as well as aDellcomic book series and several children's books. TheSilly\",\n \"books. TheSilly Symphoniesreturned to theaters with its re-issues and re-releases, and eventually tied withJoseph BarberaandWilliam Hanna'sTom and Jerry's record for most Oscar wins for a cartoon series in theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmcategory. Production While Walt Disney andCarl Stalling, a theatre organist from Kansas City, were in New York to add sound to the Mickey Mouse shortsThe Gallopin' Gaucho,The Barn DanceandPlane Crazy, Stalling suggested the idea of making a series of musical animated shorts that combined the latest sound technology with storytelling. At first Walt did not seem interested, but when they returned to New York in February to record the sound for a fifth Mickey Mouse cartoon,The Opry House, they also recorded the soundtrack forThe Skeleton Dance, the type of short that Stalling had suggested and the first Silly Symphony cartoon. Within the animation industry, the series is known for its use byWalt Disneyas a platform for experimenting with processes, techniques,\",\n \"techniques, characters, and stories in order to further the art of animation. It also provided a venue to try out techniques and technologies, such as Technicolor,special effects animation, and dramatic storytelling in animation, that would be crucial to Disney's plans to eventually begin making feature-length animated films. Shortly after the switch to United Artists, the series became even more popular. Walt Disney had seen some of Dr. Herbert Kalmus' tests for a newthree-strip, full-colorTechnicolorprocess, which would replace the previoustwo-tone Technicolorprocess. Disney signed a contract with Technicolor which gave the Disney studio exclusive rights to the new three-strip process through the end of 1935, and had a 60% completeSymphony,Flowers and Trees, scrapped and redone in full color.Flowers and Treeswas the first animated film to use the three-strip Technicolor process,and was a phenomenal success. Within a year, the now-in-TechnicolorSilly Symphoniesseries had popularity and success that matched\",\n \"that matched (and later surpassed) that of theMickey Mousecartoons. The contract Disney had with Technicolor would also later be extended another five years as well. The success ofSilly Symphonieswould be tremendously boosted afterThree Little Pigswas released in 1933 and became a box office sensation; the film was featured in movie theaters for several months and also featured the hit song that became the anthem of the Great Depression, \\\"Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf\\\".SeveralSilly Symphoniesentries, includingThree Little Pigs(1933),The Grasshopper and the Ants(1934),The Tortoise and the Hare(1935),The Country Cousin(1936),The Old Mill(1937),Wynken, Blynken, and Nod(1938), andThe Ugly Duckling(1939, with an earlierblack-and-white versionfrom 1931), are among the most notable films produced by Walt Disney. Due to problems related to Disney's scheduled productions of cartoons, a deal was made withHarman and Isingto produce three Silly Symphonies:Merbabies,Pipe Dreams, andThe Little Bantamweight. Only one of\",\n \"Only one of these cartoons,Merbabies, ended up being bought by Disney, the remaining two Harman-Ising Silly Symphonies were then sold to MGM who released them as Happy Harmonies cartoons.Disney ceased production ofSilly Symphoniesin 1939. Distribution The series was first distributed byPat Powersfrom 1929 to 1930 and released by Celebrity Productions (1929–1930) indirectly throughColumbia Pictures. The original basis of the cartoons was musical novelty, and the musical scores of the first cartoons were composed byCarl Stalling. Columbia Pictures After viewing \\\"The Skeleton Dance\\\", the manager at Columbia Pictures quickly became interested in distributing the series, and gained the perfect opportunity to acquire Silly Symphonies after Disney broke with Celebrity Productions head Pat Powers after Powers signed Disney's colleagueUb Iwerksto a studio contract.Columbia Pictures(1930–1932) agreed to pick up the direct distribution of theMickey Mouseseries on the condition that they would have exclusive rights to\",\n \"exclusive rights to distribute theSilly Symphoniesseries; at first,Silly Symphoniescould not even come close to the popularity Mickey Mouse had. The original title cards to the shorts released by Celebrity Productions and Columbia Pictures were all redrawn after Walt Disney stopped distributing his cartoons through them. Meanwhile, more competition spread for Disney afterMax Fleischer's flapper cartoon characterBetty Boopbegan to gain more and more popularity after starring in the cartoonMinnie the Moocher. By August 1932, Betty Boop became so popular that theTalkartoonseries was renamed as Betty Boop cartoons. United Artists In 1932, after falling out with Columbia Pictures, Disney began distributing his products throughUnited Artists. UA refused to distribute theSilly Symphoniesunless Disney associated Mickey Mouse with them somehow, resulting in the \\\"Mickey Mouse presents aSilly Symphony\\\" title cards and posters that introduced and promoted the series during its five-year run for UA. United Artists also\",\n \"United Artists also agreed to double the budget for each cartoon from $7,500 to $15,000. RKO Radio Pictures In 1937, Disney signed a distribution deal withRKO Radio Picturesto distribute the Silly Symphony cartoons, along with the Mickey Mouse series. RKO would continue to distribute until the end of the series in 1939. Home media SeveralSymphonieshave been released in home media, most of the time as bonus shorts that relate to something within various Disney films. For instance, the originalDumboVHS includedFather Noah's Ark,The Practical PigandThree Orphan Kittensas bonus shorts to make up for the film's short length. In the UK, severalSilly Symphonieswere released in compilations under Disney Videos' \\\"Storybook Favourites\\\" brand. The three \\\"Storybook Favourites Shorts\\\" volumes released included among others,The Three Little Pigs,The Tortoise and the Hareand the remake ofThe Ugly Duckling. On December 4, 2001, Disney released \\\"Silly Symphonies\\\" as part of its DVD series \\\"Walt Disney Treasures\\\". On December\",\n \"On December 19, 2006, \\\"More Silly Symphonies\\\" was released, completing the collection and allowing the cartoons to be completely available to the public. Some DisneyBlu-raydiscs includeSilly Symphoniesas high definition special features.Snow White and the Seven Dwarfsincludes six,Beauty and the BeastandDumboboth contain two andPixar'sA Bug's Lifecontains one. TheSilly Symphonyshorts originally aired onTurner Classic Movies' period program block \\\"Treasures from the Disney Vault\\\". SomeSilly Symphonyshorts are viewable onDisney+. List of films TheSilly Symphoniesare listed here in production order. Reception Disney's experiments were widely praised within the film industry, and theSilly Symphonieswon theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmseven times, maintaining a six-year-hold on the category after it was first introduced. This record was matched only byMGM'sTom and Jerryseries during the 1940s and 1950s. Legacy TheSymphonieschanged the course of Disney Studio history when Walt's plans to direct his\",\n \"plans to direct his first feature cartoon became problematic after his warm-up to the taskThe Golden Touchwas widely seen (even by Disney himself) as stiff and slowly paced. This motivated him to embrace his role as being the producer and providing creative oversight (especially of the story) forSnow Whitewhile taskingDavid Handto handle the actual directing. Silly Symphoniesbrought along many imitators, including Warner Bros. cartoon seriesLooney TunesandMerrie Melodies, MGM'sHappy Harmonies, and later, Universal'sSwing Symphony. Years later after theSilly Symphoniesended, Disney occasionally produced a handful of one-shot cartoons, playing the same style as theSilly Symphonyseries. Unlike theSilly Symphoniescanon, most of these \\\"Specials\\\" have a narration, usually by Disney legendSterling Holloway. In the 1934 MGM filmHollywood Party, Mickey Mouse appears withJimmy Durante, where they introduceThe Hot Choc-late Soldiers. The 1999–2000 television seriesMickey Mouse Worksused theSilly Symphoniestitle for\",\n \"Symphoniestitle for some of its new cartoons, but unlike the original cartoons, these did feature continuing characters. As of 2021, three of theSilly Symphonyshorts (Three Little Pigs,The Old Mill, andFlowers and Trees), have been selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registryby the Library of Congress, for being \\\"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\\\". Comic adaptations A SundaySilly Symphonycomic stripran in newspapers from January 10, 1932, to July 12, 1942.The strip featured adaptations of some of theSilly Symphonycartoons, includingBirds of a Feather,The Robber Kitten,Elmer Elephant,Farmyard SymphonyandLittle Hiawatha.This strip began with a two-year sequence aboutBucky Bug, a character based on the bugs inBugs in Love. There was also an occasionalSilly Symphoniescomic book, with nine issues published byDell Comicsfrom September 1952 to February 1959.The first issue of this anthology comic featured adaptations of someSilly Symphonycartoons, includingThe\",\n \"includingThe Grasshopper and the Ants,Three Little Pigs,The Goddess of SpringandMother Pluto, but it also included non-Symphonycartoons like Mickey Mouse'sBrave Little Tailor.By the third issue, there was almost noSymphony-related material in the book; the stories and activities were mostly based on other Disney shorts and feature films. 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Of the 6 main cast members of the series Friends, which have appeared in music videos? | Of the 6 main cast members of Friends, Jennifer Anniston, Courtney Cox, and Matt LeBlanc have all appeared in music videos. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Aniston | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courteney_Cox | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Kudrow | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_LeBlanc | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Perry | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Schwimmer | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Aniston', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courteney_Cox', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Kudrow', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_LeBlanc', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Perry', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Schwimmer'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Aniston",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courteney_Cox",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Kudrow",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_LeBlanc",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Perry",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Schwimmer"
] | [
"Friends Friendsis an American televisionsitcomcreated byDavid CraneandMarta Kauffman, which aired onNBCfrom September 22, 1994, to May 6, 2004, lastingten seasons.With anensemble caststarringJennifer Aniston,Courteney Cox,Lisa Kudrow,Matt LeBlanc,Matthew PerryandDavid Schwimmer, the show revolves around six friends in their 20s and early 30s who live inManhattan, New York City. The original executive producers wereKevin S. Bright, Kauffman, and Crane. Kauffman and Crane began developingFriendsunder theworking titleInsomnia Cafebetween November and December 1993. They presented the idea to Bright, and together they pitched a seven-page treatment of the show to NBC. After several script rewrites and changes, including title changes toSix of OneandFriends Like Us, the series was finally namedFriends.Filming took place atWarner Bros. StudiosinBurbank, California. The series was produced by Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions andWarner Bros. Television. The show ranked within the top ten of the finaltelevision seasonratings; it ultimately reached the number-one spot in itseighth season. Theseries finaleaired on May 6, 2004, and was watched by around 52.5 million American viewers, making it the fifth-most-watched series finale in television historyand the most-watched television episode of the 2000s.Friendsreceived acclaim throughout its run, becoming one of the most popular television shows of all time.The series was nominated for 62Primetime Emmy Awards, winning theOutstanding Comedy Seriesaward in 2002 for its eighth season.The show rankedno.21 onTV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time,andno.5 onEmpiremagazine's The 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.In 1997, the episode \"The One with the Prom Video\" was rankedno.100 onTV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time.In 2013,Friendsrankedno.24 on theWriters Guild of America's 101 Best Written TV Series of All Time,andno.28 onTV Guide's 60 Best TV Series of All Time.The sitcom's cast members returned forFriends: The Reunion, a reunion special which was released onHBO Maxon May 27, 2021. Cast and characters James Michael Tylerappears asGunther, abaristaat Central Perk, in every season of the show, but is only ever credited as aguest star. Gunther has a mostly secret profound love for Rachel throughout the entire series. At one point he becomes the manager of the coffee house. It is revealed that Gunther speaksDutchin addition to English, as well as being a former soap opera actor. In their original contracts for the first season, cast members were paid $22,500 per episode.The cast members received different salaries in the second season, beginning from the $20,000 range to $40,000 per episode.Before their salary negotiations for the third season, the cast decided to enter collective negotiations, despite Warner Bros.' preference for individual deals.The actors were given the salary of the least paid cast member. The stars were each paid $75,000 per episode in season three, $85,000 in season four, $100,000 in season five, $125,000 in season six, $750,000 in seasons seven and eight, and $1 million in seasons nine and ten, making Aniston, Cox, and Kudrowthe highest-paid TV actresses of all time.The cast also received syndication royalties beginning in 2000 after renegotiations. At the time, that financial benefit of a piece of the show's lucrative back-end profits had only been given out to stars who had ownership rights in a show, likeJerry SeinfeldandBill Cosby. Series creatorDavid Cranewanted all six actors to be equally prominent,and the series was lauded as being \"the first true 'ensemble' show.\"The cast members made efforts to keep the ensemble format and not allow one member to dominate;they entered themselves in the same acting categories for awards,opted for collective salary negotiations,and asked to appear together on magazine cover photos in the first season.The cast members also became best friends off-screen,so much so that recurring guest starTom Selleckreported that he sometimes felt left out. The cast remained good friends after the series run, most notably Cox and Aniston, with Aniston being godmother to Cox andDavid Arquette's daughter, Coco.In the official farewell commemorative bookFriends 'Til the End, each separately acknowledged in interviews that the cast had become their family. Episodes Season 1 The first season introduces the six main characters who live in New York City:Rachel Green, a waitress; professional chefMonica Geller; her paleontologist brother,Ross Geller; free-spirited masseusePhoebe Buffay; struggling actorJoey Tribbiani; and Ross's college friend,Chandler Bing, whose precise occupation at a corporation is unknown. Rachel arrives at Central Perk, wearing her wedding dress, after leaving her fiancé, Barry, an orthodontist, at the altar. She moves into her high school friend Monica's apartment, and gets a waitress job at Central Perk. Ross, who has had a crush on Rachel since high school, often attempts to declare his feelings for her. However many obstacles stand in his way, including his insecurities, Rachel dating an Italian neighbor named Paolo, and the fact that he is expecting a baby with his lesbian ex-wife, Carol, who gives birth to Ben later in the season. Joey never has a steady girlfriend and constantly sleeps with a variety of women. Phoebe is rather odd and complex, mostly due to her mother's suicide when she was a child and having lived on the streets for a time. However, the gang loves her regardless. Chandler breaks up with his girlfriend, Janice (Maggie Wheeler), only to find himself reconnecting with her throughout the series. Near the end of the season, while Ross is at a paleontology dig in China, Chandler accidentally lets slip that Ross loves Rachel, who then realizes that she also cares for him. The season ends with Rachel waiting at the airport for Ross, who is returning from China. Season 2 Rachel greets Ross at the airport only to discover that he has returned with Julie (Lauren Tom), someone he knew from graduate school. Rachel's attempts to tell Ross that she loves him initially mirror his failed attempts in the first season. After he breaks up with Julie for Rachel, friction between them develops when Rachel discovers Ross's list of the cons of dating her. They eventually begin a relationship after Rachel sees an old home video from her and Monica's prom night and realizes Ross was going to stand in for her prom date who nearly stood her up. Monica is promoted to head chef at the Iridium restaurant, then gets fired for accepting gifts from a supplier, which is against company policy. Needing money, she is forced to take an embarrassing job as a waitress at a 1950s-style diner. She begins dating Richard Burke (Tom Selleck), a recently divorced family friend who is 21 years her senior. They eventually break up when Monica realizes that Richard, already a father, does not want more children. Joey is cast in a fictional version of the soap opera,Days of Our Livesas neurosurgeon Dr. Drake Ramoray. He moves out of his and Chandler's apartment, forcing Chandler to get a new roommate, Eddie (Adam Goldberg). However, Eddie is annoying and somewhat deranged. When Joey claims in a soap opera magazine interview that he writes many of his own lines, offending the show's writer, his character is killed off. No longer able to afford his expensive new apartment, Joey moves back in with Chandler, kicking Eddie out in the process. In the season finale, Chandler talks to an anonymous woman in an online chat room. When they agree to meet in person, the woman turns out to be Janice. Season 3 Season 3 takes on a significantly more serialized format. Chandler and Janice date for several episodes until Joey catches Janice kissing her soon-to-be ex-husband. Not wanting to destroy her family, Chandler urges Janice to go back to her husband, then becomes depressed over the breakup for several episodes. Rachel quits her job at Central Perk and begins working atBloomingdale's, an upscale department store chain. Ross soon becomes jealous of her colleague Mark and frustrated by Rachel's long work hours. She is tired of his constant jealousy and insecurity, and decides they need a relationship break. Ross, hurt and somewhat drunk, immediately sleeps with Chloe, \"the hot girl from the Xerox place,\" causing Rachel to break up with him completely. Although Phoebe initially believes she has no family except her twin sister Ursula (Lisa Kudrow), she learns she has a half-brother, Frank Jr. (Giovanni Ribisi) and discovers her birth mother, Phoebe Abbott (Teri Garr) over the course of the season. Joey falls in love with his acting partner Kate (Dina Meyer), but is jealous of her dating the director of their play. They begin a brief relationship that ends when she takes an acting job in Los Angeles. Monica dates millionaire Pete Becker (Jon Favreau), despite her initially not being attracted to him. However, she breaks up with Pete after he is seriously hurt trying to become theUltimate Fighting Championand refuses to quit. Phoebe sets Ross up on a date with her friend, Bonnie (Christine Taylor), inciting Rachel's jealousy. She tries sabotaging the relationship by coercing Bonnie to shave her head bald, and eventually admits to Ross that she still has feelings for him. The season closes with Ross having to choose between Rachel and Bonnie. Season 4 In the season 4 premiere, after Ross breaks up with Bonnie, he and Rachel briefly reconcile after Ross pretends to read a long letter that Rachel wrote for him. However, Ross continues to insist that the two were on a break when he slept with Chloe, so they break up again. Joey dates Kathy (Paget Brewster), a girl that Chandler has a crush on. Kathy and Chandler later kiss, which causes drama between Chandler and Joey. Joey only forgives Chandler and allows him to date Kathy after Chandler spends Thanksgiving in a box as punishment. Chandler's relationship with Kathy ends after he discovers that she cheated on him due to an argument. Phoebe loses her job as a masseuse after making out with one of her clients and she accompanies Monica, who has become a caterer for hire. They soon start a catering business together but Monica, after negatively reviewing a restaurant, Allesandro's, is offered the position of head chef. Despite initially being pressured by the wrath of her co-workers, Monica eventually asserts her dominance in the kitchen. Phoebe becomes asurrogatefor her brother and his wife, Alice (Debra Jo Rupp). Monica and Rachel are forced to switch apartments with Joey and Chandler after losing a bet during a quiz game, but manage to switch back by bribing them withKnicksseason tickets and a one-minute kiss (off-screen) between each other. After her boss dies, Rachel is demoted to personal shopping and meets and later dates a customer named Joshua (Tate Donovan). Ross begins dating an English woman named Emily (Helen Baxendale), and they quickly get engaged. Rachel struggles to cope and hastily suggests to Joshua that they marry, after which he rejects her. In theseason finale, the group, apart from a heavily pregnant Phoebe and Rachel, travel to Ross and Emily's wedding in London. Chandler and Monica sleep together, and Rachel, realizing that she is still in love with Ross, rushes to London to stop Ross and Emily's wedding, but changes her mind when she sees them happy together. While saying his vows, Ross accidentally says Rachel's name at the altar, shocking his bride and the guests. Season 5 Ross and Emily marry, but an angry and humiliated Emily flees the reception. Rachel soon admits her love for Ross, but realizing how ridiculous this is, advises him to work on his marriage to Emily. She develops a crush on her neighbor Danny and they date briefly, until she realizes that he is too close with his sister. Monica and Chandler try to keep their new relationship a secret from their friends. Phoebe gives birth to triplets in the show's 100th episode. She gives birth to a boy, Frank Jr. Jr., and two girls, Leslie and Chandler, the latter of whom was supposed to be a boy, but was later revealed to be a girl. After weeks of trying to contact her, Emily agrees to reconcile with Ross and move to New York if he breaks off all communication with Rachel. Ross agrees, but later attends a dinner with all his friends, Rachel included. Emily phones Ross, discovers Rachel is there, realizes she does not trust him and ends their marriage. Ross takes out his anger at work, resulting in him being indefinitely suspended from the museum, and he moves in with Chandler and Joey until eventually getting a new apartment across the street from them. Rachel gets a new job at Ralph Lauren. Phoebe has a brief relationship with a police officer, Gary (Michael Rapaport), after finding his badge and using it as her own. Monica and Chandler go public with their relationship, to the surprise and delight of their friends. They decide to get married on a trip to Las Vegas, but change their plans after witnessing Ross and Rachel drunkenly stumbling out of the wedding chapel. Season 6 In the season 6 premiere, Ross and Rachel's marriage turns out to be a drunken mistake that neither remembers until the other friends mention it. Ross promises Rachel he will get them an annulment, then secretly does nothing because he cannot face having three failed marriages. By the time Rachel discovers they are still married, an annulment is impossible due to their history; they are forced to get a divorce. After ignoring the numerous signs that they should get married, Monica and Chandler decide to live together, forcing Rachel to move in with Phoebe. Joey gets a new roommate, Janine (Elle Macpherson). They develop feelings for each other and date briefly until Janine criticizes Monica and Chandler, ending the relationship. After Janine moves out, Joey struggles with paying his bills so he takes a job at Central Perk. He soon lands a role on a cable TV series calledMac and C.H.E.E.S.E., starring alongside a crime-fighting robot. Ross gets a teaching job atNew York University. He dates Elizabeth (Alexandra Holden), a student, despite it being against university policy. Elizabeth's father, Paul (Bruce Willis), disapproves of Ross but falls for Rachel, and they start dating. Both relationships soon end: Elizabeth is too immature for Ross, and previously reserved Paul opens up emotionally and is more than Rachel can handle. Phoebe and Rachel's apartment catches fire, and Rachel moves in with Joey, while Phoebe stays with Chandler and Monica, though they later switch. While at a museum that has a two-year wait for weddings, Monica puts her name on the reservation list as a joke. When Chandler intercepts the museum's phone call about a cancellation, he panics; however, Chandler has been planning to propose while pretending he may never want to marry. While dining at a fancy restaurant, Chandler's planned proposal is subverted by Monica's ex-boyfriend Richard Burke, who unexpectedly shows up. Richard later tells Monica he wants to marry her and have children. Monica becomes upset at Chandler, believing his ruse about not wanting to marry. Chandler believes Monica has left him until he comes home to find their apartment decorated with candles and her waiting to propose to him. When she becomes too emotional to continue, Chandler proposes and she accepts. Season 7 The seventh season mainly follows Monica and Chandler as they plan their wedding amid various problems. Joey's television series,Mac and C.H.E.E.S.Eis canceled, but he is offered his old role onDays of Our Lives; the show isretconnedwith the revelation that Dr. Drake Ramoray has been in a four-year coma and is revived with a brain transplant from another character. Phoebe's repaired apartment now has one large bedroom instead of the original two, so Rachel permanently stays at Joey's. Rachel is promoted at Ralph Lauren and impulsively hires a young assistant, Tag Jones (Eddie Cahill), based on his looks, passing over a more qualified woman. Tag discovers her feelings about him at Thanksgiving dinner, and they begin dating, hiding it from co-workers. However, on her 30th birthday, Rachel ends their relationship, realizing Tag is too young and immature, particularly if she intends to follow her marriage schedule. Hours before Monica and Chandler's wedding ceremony, Chandler panics and goes into hiding just as Phoebe and Rachel find a positive pregnancy test in Monica and Chandler's bathroom. They assume Monica is pregnant. Ross and Phoebe find Chandler and convince him to return for the ceremony, though he briefly bolts again after overhearing Phoebe and Rachel discussing the pregnancy test. He quickly returns, embracing the idea of fatherhood. After the ceremony, Monica denies she is pregnant; unbeknown to everyone, the positive pregnancy test is Rachel's. Season 8 Season 8 begins at Monica and Chandler's wedding reception. Phoebe and Monica discover Rachel's pregnancy and persuade her to take another test to confirm it. Phoebe initially claims the test is negative, badly disappointing Rachel, then reveals it is positive, saying Rachel now knows how she really feels about having a baby. Ross is eventually revealed to be the father, and the season revolves around Rachel's pregnancy. Rachel and Ross agree to be co-parents without resuming their romantic relationship; Ross begins dating Mona (Bonnie Somerville), who is Monica's co-worker from Allesandro's. Joey takes Rachel out to quell her fears about motherhood, and realizes he has romantic feelings for her. While suppressing his feelings, he encourages Rachel to stay at Ross's apartment so he can be involved in the pregnancy. The arrangement is too much for Mona, and she breaks up with Ross. Joey tells Ross about his feelings for Rachel. Ross initially is angry, then gives his blessing. Joey tells Rachel that he loves her, but she realizes she does not feel the same way, and they remain friends. When Rachel goes into labor, Ross's mother gives him a family heirloom ring and encourages him to propose to Rachel. Ross hesitates, and puts the ring in his jacket, which he later leaves in Rachel's room. After Monica jokes about having kids, she and Chandler decide to have a baby, starting while they are still at the hospital. After a prolonged labor, during which numerous other expectant mothers, including Janice, are taken to the delivery room, Rachel gives birth to baby Emma. She is left saddened and afraid after Janice later says that Ross may not always be there for her and the baby. When Joey comforts Rachel, the ring falls from Ross's jacket to the floor. Joey kneels to pick it up, and Rachel, believing he is proposing, impulsively says yes. Meanwhile, Ross intends to ask Rachel if she wants to resume their relationship. Season 9 Season nine begins with Ross and Rachel cohabitating with their daughter Emma, after Joey and Rachel clear up the proposal misunderstanding. Monica and Chandler run into obstacles as they try for a baby: Chandler unknowingly agrees to a work transfer to Tulsa just as Monica is offered a head chef job at a new restaurant, Javu, resulting in Chandler commuting back and forth. After being apart from Monica during Christmas, Chandler quits to pursue a new career in advertising, starting as an unpaid intern at an ad agency, and eventually being hired as a junior copywriter. Monica and Chandler discover they are physically incompatible to conceive and after considering multiple options, decide to adopt. Phoebe begins dating Mike Hannigan (Paul Rudd) for most of the season until Mike says that he never wants to marry again. Phoebe dates her ex-boyfriend from season 1, David (Hank Azaria) who plans on proposing to her, but Mike proposes first. Phoebe rejects both proposals but gets back together with Mike, only needing the reassurance that they have a future together. Rachel, believing that her co-worker Gavin (Dermot Mulroney) is trying to steal her job while she is on maternity leave, returns to Ralph Lauren early. She discovers at her birthday party that Gavin has feelings for her. They kiss but do not pursue a relationship due to her history with Ross. Meanwhile, Ross, having seen the kiss, retaliates by dating other women. After realizing that her and Ross's living situation is too weird, Rachel and Emma move in with Joey. Rachel develops a crush on him, only to be disheartened when he starts dating Charlie (Aisha Tyler), a new palaeontology professor to whom Ross is attracted. In the finale, the group travels toBarbadosfor Ross's keynote speech at a conference. Joey and Charlie break up upon realizing they have nothing in common. Joey then learns about Rachel's feelings for him, but says they cannot pursue this because of Ross. However, upon seeing Ross and Charlie kiss each other, he goes to Rachel's hotel room, and the finale ends with them kissing. Season 10 The tenth season brings several long-running story lines to a close. Joey and Rachel try to contend with Ross's feelings about their relationship, and after disastrous attempts to consummate, decide it is best they remain friends. Charlie breaks up with Ross to get back together with her ex-boyfriend. Mid-season, Joey officiates Phoebe and Mike's wedding outside the Central Perk coffee house after a snow storm paralyzes the city, preventing them and guests getting to the wedding venue. Monica and Chandler are chosen by a pregnant woman named Erica (Anna Faris) to adopt her baby. Following this, Monica and Chandler prepare to move to a house in the suburbs to raise their family, saddening everyone, particularly Joey, who is coping with all the changes in his life. In the series finale, Erica gives birth to fraternal twins, much to Monica and Chandler's surprise. Rachel is fired from Ralph Lauren after her boss overhears her interviewing for a job at Gucci. She encounters her former Bloomingdale co-worker Mark, who offers her a new job at Louis Vuitton in Paris. Ross, believing Rachel wants to stay, tries bribing Mr. Zelner to rehire her until he realizes Rachel wants to go to Paris. When Rachel says a tearful personal goodbye to everyone except Ross at her going away party, a hurt and angry Ross confronts Rachel, and they end up sleeping together. Rachel leaves, and Ross – realizing how much he loves Rachel – chases her to the airport. When he reaches her, Rachel says she has to go toParis. Before the plane takes off, Rachel calls Ross's home phone and leaves a voice mail, apologizing for the way it ended. While speaking, she realizes that she loves him too, and gets off the plane at the last minute. The series ends with all the friends, plus Monica and Chandler's new babies, leaving the empty apartment together for a final cup of coffee at Central Perk. The show ends first with a shot of everyone's keys to Monica and Chandler's apartment left on the counter top, and then pans to a shot of the apartment's purple door. Production Conception It's about sex, love, relationships, careers, a time in your life when everything's possible. And it's about friendship because when you're single and in the city, your friends are your family. David CraneandMarta Kauffmanbegan developing three new television pilots that would premiere in 1994 after their sitcomFamily Albumwas cancelled by CBS in 1993.Kauffman and Crane decided to pitch the series about \"six people in their 20s making their way in Manhattan\" to NBC since they thought it would fit best there.(Film director and screenwriterCameron Crowehas asserted that the concept originated withWarner Bros. Televisionwanting him to make his 1992 movieSinglesinto a television show.Crowe alleges that when he refused permission, the idea was then taken over by Crane and Kaufman, who changed some details from the premise of the movie while developing the show.) Crane and Kauffman presented the idea to their production partnerKevin Bright, who had served as executive producer on theirHBOseriesDream On.The idea for the series was conceived when Crane and Kauffman began thinking about the time when they had finished college and started living by themselves in New York; Kauffman believed they were looking at a time when the future was \"more of a question mark.\"They found the concept to be interesting, as they believed \"everybody knows that feeling\",and because it was also how they felt about their own lives at the time.The team titled the seriesInsomnia Cafeand pitched the idea as a seven-page treatment to NBC in December 1993. At the same time,Warren Littlefield, the then-president ofNBC Entertainment, was seeking a comedy involving young people living together and sharing expenses after he regretted passing on the Black sitcomLiving Single. Littlefield wanted the group to share memorable periods of their lives with friends, who had become \"new, surrogate family members.\"However, Littlefield found difficulty in bringing the concept to life and found the scripts developed by NBC to be terrible. When Kauffman, Crane and Bright pitchedInsomnia Cafe, Littlefield was impressed that they knew who their characters were.NBC bought the idea as aput pilot, meaning they risked financial penalties if the pilot was not filmed. Kauffman and Crane took three days to write the pilot script for a show they titledFriends Like Us.Littlefield wanted the series to \"representGeneration Xand explore a new kind of tribal bonding\", but the rest disagreed. Crane argued that it was not a series for one generation, and wanted to produce a series that everyone would enjoy watching.NBC liked the script and ordered the series. They changed the title toSix of One, mainly because they feltFriends Like Uswas too similar to the ABC sitcomThese Friends of Mine. Casting Once it became apparent that the series was a favored project at NBC, Littlefield reported that he was getting calls from every agent in town, wanting their client to be a part of the series.Auditions for the lead roles took place in New York and Los Angeles.The casting director shortlisted 1,000 actors who had applied for each role down to 75. Those who received a callback read in front of Crane, Kauffman and Bright. At the end of March, the number of potential actors had been reduced to three or four for each part, and these actors were asked to read forLes Moonves, then president ofWarner Bros. Television. Having worked withDavid Schwimmerin the past,the series creators wrote the character of Ross with him in mind, and he was the first actor cast.Cox wanted to play the role of Monica because she liked the \"strong\" character, but the producers had her in mind to play Rachel because of her \"cheery, upbeat energy\", which was not how they envisioned Monica; after Cox's audition, though, Kauffman agreed with Cox, and she got the role.When Matt LeBlanc auditioned for Joey, he put a \"different spin\" on the character.He played Joey more simple-minded than intended and gave the character heart. Although Crane and Kauffman did not want LeBlanc for the role at the time, they were told by the network to cast him.Jennifer Aniston, Matthew Perry and Lisa Kudrow were cast based on their auditions.Perry and Aniston, both still under contract to other shows that year, were cast days before shooting of the pilot began. More changes occurred to the series's storylines during the casting process. The writers found that they had to adjust the characters they had written to suit the actors, and the discovery process of the characters occurred throughout the first season. Kauffman acknowledged that Joey's character became \"this whole new being\", and that \"it wasn't until we did the first Thanksgiving episode that we realized how much fun Monica's neuroses are.\" Writing In the weeks after NBC's pick up ofFriends, Crane, Kauffman and Bright reviewed sent-in scripts that writers had originally prepared for other series, mainly unproducedSeinfeldepisodes.Kauffman and Crane hired a team of seven young writers because \"When you're 40, you can't do it anymore. The networks and studios are looking for young people coming in out of college.\"The creators felt that using six equal characters, rather than emphasizing one or two, would allow for \"myriad storylines and give the show legs.\"The majority of the storyline ideas came from the writers, although the actors added ideas.Although the writers originally planned the big love story to be between Joey and Monica, the idea of a romantic interest between Ross and Rachel emerged during the period when Kauffman and Crane wrote the pilot script. During the production of the pilot,NBCrequested that the script be changed to feature one dominant storyline and several minor ones, but the writers refused, wanting to keep three storylines of equal weight.NBC also wanted the writers to include an older character to balance out the young ones. Crane and Kauffman were forced to comply and wrote a draft of an early episode that featured \"Pat the Cop\" who would be used to provide advice to the other characters. Crane found the storyline to be terrible, and Kauffman joked, \"You know the kids book,Pat the Bunny? We had Pat the Cop.\" NBC eventually relented and dropped the idea. Each summer, the producers would outline the storylines for the subsequent season.Before an episode went into production, Kauffman and Crane would revise the script written by another writer, mainly if something concerning either the series or a character felt foreign.The hardest episodes to write were always \"the first one and the last one of each season.\"Unlike other storylines, the idea for a relationship between Joey and Rachel was decided on halfway through the eighth season. The creators did not want Ross and Rachel to get back together so soon, and while looking for a romantic impediment, a writer suggested Joey's romantic interest in Rachel. The storyline was incorporated into the season; however, when the actors feared that the storyline would make their characters unlikable, the storyline was wrapped up, until it again resurfaced in the season's finale. For the ninth season, the writers were unsure about the amount of storyline to give to Rachel's baby, as they wanted the show neither to revolve around a baby nor pretend there to be none.Crane said that it took them a while to accept the idea of a tenth season, which they decided to do because they had enough stories left to tell to justify the season. Kauffman and Crane would not have signed on for an eleventh season, even if all the cast members had wanted to continue. The episode title format—\"The One ...\"—was created when the producers realized that the episode titles would not be featured in the opening credits, and therefore would be unknown to most of the audience. Episode titles officially begin with \"The One ...\" except the title of thepilot episodeand the series finale \"The Last One\". The season 5 episode \"The One Hundredth\" has the alternative title of \"The One With The Triplet\". Filming The first season was shot on Stage 5 atWarner Bros. StudiosinBurbank, California.NBC executives had worried that the coffee house setting was too hip and asked for the series to be set in a diner, but eventually consented to the coffee house concept.The opening title sequence was filmed in a fountain at theWarner Bros. Ranchat 4:00 am, while it was particularly cold for a Burbank morning.At the beginning of the second season, production moved to the larger Stage 24, which was renamed The \"Friends\" Stage after the series finale. Filming for the series began during the summer of 1994 in front of a live audience, who were given a summary of the series to familiarize themselves with the six main characters.A hired comedian entertained the studio audience between takes.Each 22-minute episode took six hours to film—twice the length of most sitcom tapings—mainly due to the several retakes and rewrites of the script. Although the producers always wanted to find the right stories to take advantage of being on location,Friendswas never shot in New York. Bright felt that filming outside the studio made episodes less funny, even when shooting on the lot outside, and that the live audience was an integral part of the series.When the series was criticized for incorrectly depicting New York, with the financially struggling group of friends being able to afford huge apartments, Bright noted that the set had to be big enough for the cameras, lighting, and \"for the audience to be able to see what's going on\".The apartments also needed to provide a place for the actors to execute the actions in the scripts. The fourth-season finale was shot on location inLondonbecause the producers were aware of the series' popularity in the UK.The scenes were shot in a studio with three audiences each made up of 500 people. These were the show's largest audiences throughout its run. The fifth-season finale, set inLas Vegas, was filmed at Warner Bros. Studios, although Bright met people who thought it was filmed on location. Series finale The series's creators completed the first draft of the hour-long finale in January 2004, four months before its original airing. Crane, Kauffman and Bright watched the finales of other sitcoms to prepare the episode's outline, paying attention to what worked and what did not. They liked the ones that stayed true to the series, deeming the finale ofThe Mary Tyler Moore Showto be the gold standard. Crane, Kauffman, and Bright had difficulty writing the finale. They did not want to do \"something high concept, or take the show out of the show.\"The most critical parts of the finale were shot without an audience and with a minimum number of crew members. The main cast enjoyed the finale and were confident that the fans would react similarly: It's exactly what I had hoped. We all end up with a sense of a new beginning and the audience has a sense that it's a new chapter in the lives of all these characters. NBC heavily promoted the series finale, which was preceded by weeks of media hype.Local NBC affiliates organized viewing parties around the U.S., including an event atUniversal CityWalkfeaturing a special broadcast of the finale on an outdoorAstrovisionscreen.The finale was the subject of two episodes ofDateline NBC, one of which ran for two hours. A one-hour retrospective of clips from previous episodes was shown before the airing of the episode. Following the finale,The Tonight Show with Jay Lenowas filmed on the set of theFriends' Central Perk coffee house, which featured the cast as guests.The advertising rates for the finale averaged $2 million for 30 seconds of commercial time, breaking the record held by theSeinfeldfinale at $1.7 million. In the U.S., 52.5 million viewers watched the finale on May 6, 2004, making it the most-watched entertainment telecast since theSeinfeldfinale in 1998.The finale was the fifth most-watched series finale in television history, only behind the finales ofM*A*S*H,Cheers,The Fugitive, andSeinfeld, which were respectively watched by 105, 80.4, 78.0 and 76.3 million viewers.The retrospective episode was watched by fewer than 36 million viewers, and the finale was the second most-watched television broadcast of the year in the United States, only behind theSuper Bowl.Following the finales ofFriendsandFrasier, media critics speculated about the fate of the sitcom genre. Opinions varied between a signalling of the end of the sitcom genre, a small decline in the large history of the genre,and a general reduction of scripted television in favor of reality shows. Reunion special On November 12, 2019,The Hollywood Reporterannounced thatWarner Bros TVwas developing aFriendsreunion forHBO Maxthat would feature the whole cast and creators returning.On February 21, 2020, HBO confirmed that the unscripted reunion special, tentatively named \"The One Where They Got Back Together\", was set to be released in May the same year, along with the 236 original episodes of the series.On March 18, 2020, it was announced that the special, which was set to film on theFriendsstage on March 23 and 24, had been postponed indefinitely, due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.In November 2020,Matthew Perrytweeted that the reunion is set to start filming in March 2021.On May 13, 2021, a teaser trailer was released officially announcingFriends: The Reunionalso known as \"The One Where They Get Back Together\". The reunion special was released onHBO Maxon May 27, 2021. Reception Critical reception Early reviews of the series were mixed; the first season holds aMetacriticscore of 65 out of 100, based on 24 sampled reviews, indicating \"generally favourable reviews\".Tom Feran ofThe Plain Dealerwrote that the series traded \"vaguely and less successfully on the hanging-out style ofSeinfeld\",while Ann Hodges of theHouston Chroniclecalled it \"the newSeinfeldwannabe, but it will never be as funny asSeinfeld.\"In theLos Angeles Daily News,Ray Richmondnamed the series as \"one of the brighter comedies of the new season\",and theLos Angeles Timescalled it \"flat-out the best comedy series of the new season.\" TheChicago Sun-Times'Ginny Holbert found Joey and Rachel's characters to be underdeveloped,while Richmond commended the cast as a \"likeable youth ensemble\" with \"good chemistry.\"Robert Bianco ofUSA Todaywas complimentary of Schwimmer, calling him \"terrific.\" He also praised the female leads, but was concerned that Perry's role as Chandler was \"undefined\" and that LeBlanc was \"relying too much on the same brain-dead stud routine that was already tired the last two times he tried it.\"The authors ofFriends Like Us: The Unofficial Guide to Friendsthought that the cast was \"trying just a little too hard\"; in particular, Perry and Schwimmer. As the series progressed, reviews became more positive, andFriendsbecame one of the most popular sitcoms of its time. It is now often ranked among the all-time best TV shows.Critics commended the series for having consistently sharp writing and for the chemistry between the main actors.Noel Holston ofNewsday, who had dismissed the pilot as a \"so-soSeinfeldwannabe\" in 1994, repudiated his earlier review after rewatching the episode and felt like writing an apology to the writers.Heather HavrileskyofSalon.comthought that the series \"hit its stride\" in the second season. Havrilesky found the character-specific jokes and situations \"could reliably make you laugh out loud a few times each episode\", and the quality of writing allowed the stories to be \"original and innovative.\" Bill CarterofThe New York Timescalled the eighth season a \"truly stunning comeback.\" Carter found that by \"generating new hot storylines and high-decibel laughs\", the series made its way \"back into the hearts of its fans.\"However, Liane Bonin ofEntertainment Weeklyfelt that the direction of the ninth season was a \"disappointing buzzkill\", criticizing it for the non-stop celebrity guest spots and going intojump the sharkterritory. Although disappointed with the season, Bonin noted that \"the writing still sharp.\"Havrilesky thought that the tenth season was \"alarmingly awful, far worse than you would ever imagine a show that was once so good could be.\"Friendswas featured onTime's list of \"The 100 Best TV Shows of All-Time\", saying, \"the well-hidden secret of this show was that it called itselfFriends, and was really about family.\" Reviews of theseries finalewere mostly positive.USA Today's Robert Bianco described the finale as entertaining and satisfying and praised it for deftly mixing emotion and humor while highlighting each of the stars.Sarah Rodman of theBoston Heraldpraised Aniston and Schwimmer for their acting, but felt that their characters' reunion was \"a bit too neat, even if it was what most of the show's legions of fans wanted.\"Roger Catlin of theHartford Courantfelt that newcomers to the series would be \"surprised at how laughless the affair could be, and how nearly every strained gag depends on the sheer stupidity of its characters.\"Ken Parish Perkins, writing forFort Worth Star-Telegram, pointed out that the finale was \"more touching than comical, more satisfying in terms of closure than knee-slappingly funny.\" It may have been impossible for any one episode to live up to the hype and expectations built up around the Friends finale, but this hour probably came as close as fans could have reasonably hoped. Ultimately, the two-hour package did exactly what it was supposed to do. It wrapped up the story while reminding us why we liked the show and will miss it. In a 2021 program onITV,Mr. BeanwriterRichard Curtisaccused theFriendswriters of stealing the joke which involved Joey getting a turkey stuck on his head in \"The One with All the Thanksgivings\" from the 1992 episode \"Merry Christmas, Mr. Bean\". In that episode, Mr Bean got a turkey stuck on his head after losing his watch while stuffing the turkey and put his head in to try to retrieve it.Rowan Atkinson, however, argued that jokes are meant to be stolen, or to inspire. Awards To maintain the series's ensemble format, the main cast members decided to enter themselves in the same acting categories for awards.Beginning with the eighth season, the actors decided to submit themselves in the lead actor balloting, rather than in the supporting actor fields.The series was nominated for 62Primetime Emmy Awards,winning six. Aniston and Kudrow are the only main cast members to win an Emmy, while Cox is the only actor not to be nominated. The series won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Seriesin 2002, receiving nominations in 1995, 1996, 1999, 2000, and 2003.The series also won anAmerican Comedy Award,oneGLAAD Media Award,oneGolden Globe Award,threeLogie Awards,sixPeople's Choice Awards,oneSatellite Award,and oneScreen Actors Guild Award. Ratings The table below shows the ratings ofFriendsin the United States, where it consistently ranked within the top ten of the finaltelevision seasonratings.\"Rank\" refers to how wellFriendsrated compared to other television series that aired during primetime hours of the corresponding television season. It is shown in relation to the total number of series airing on the then-six major English-language networks in a given season. \"Viewers\" refers to the average number of viewers for all original episodes, broadcast during the television season in the series' regular timeslot. The \"season premiere\" is the date that the first episode of the season aired, and the \"season finale\" is the date that the final episode of the season aired. Following theSeptember 11 attacks, ratings increased 17% over the previous season. Syndication Because of syndication revenue,Friendscontinues to generate approximately $1 billion each year for Warner Bros. That translates into about $20 million in annual residuals each for Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer, who each get 2% of syndication income forFriends. All episodes became available onNetflixon January 1, 2015, introducing a new generation to the show. UKFriendsreruns' ratings in 2015 increased by more than 10% annually. The 2016 reruns' US weekly audience, not including streaming, of 16 million would make it a hit on network television were the show still being produced.In the US, the series has a syndication deal through multiple networks, includingNick at Nite,TBS, andParamount Network. In July 2019, it was announced that from the beginning of 2020,Friendswould not be available on Netflix in the US and instead would be shown onWarner Bros. Discovery's video-streaming serviceHBO Max,which launched in May 2020. Cultural impact Although the producers thought ofFriendsas \"only a TV show\", psychologists investigated the cultural impact ofFriendsduring the series' run. Aniston's hairstyle was nicknamed \"The Rachel\" and copied around the world.Joey's catchphrase, \"Howyoudoin'?\", became a popular part of Western English slang, often used as apick-up lineor when greeting friends.The series also influenced the English language, according to a study by theUniversity of Torontothat found that the characters used the emphasized word \"so\" to modify adjectives more often than any otherintensifier. Although the preference had already made its way into the Americanvernacular, usage on the series may have accelerated the change.Chandler's habit of ending a sentence unfinished for sarcasm also influenced viewers' speech.The show's availability onstreaming television—it accounted for 4% of all Netflix views in 2018—gave it a large newGen Zaudience. Kauffman reported that her high school daughter's friends thought thatFriendswas a newperiod pieceabout the 1990s. One young fan described the show as \"aspirational ... that when they're that age ... they'll have those friends\". Friendshas been credited in helping non-English speaking students to learn thelanguage. A 2012 poll byKaplan International EnglishColleges found that more than a quarter (26%) of its students cited the sitcom as the best show for helping them improve their English.Notable individuals who have also said that the sitcom helped them learn English includeLiverpool Football ClubmanagerJürgen Klopp,South Korean bandBTSmemberRMand Belgianprofessional golferThomas Pieters. Friendsdeveloped an alternative family lifestyle by representing young people who live unconventional domestic lives. It presented the idea that \"all you need are good friends\" and that you can construct families through choice. The audience was able to identify with the program through the troubles seen on weekly episodes. It portrayed a new way of living life and developing relationships which were not normally seen in conventional society.According to a pop-culture expert at theUniversity at Buffalo,Friendsis \"one of those rare shows that marked a change in American culture.\" The images of youth and the roles they portray are better defined and represent a lifestyle that centers around creating and sustaining relationships between friends running their own lives and seeking help from each other. Voxstated thatFriendshad an impact on the creation of other conflictless \"hangout sitcoms\", with groups of adult friends who are funny and have similar character traits. One example of this isHow I Met Your Mother, whichThe Guardian's TV and radio blog noted also shares its setting (Manhattan) withFriends. Other examples includeThe Big Bang Theory,New Girl, andHappy Endings. Readers ofTV Guidevoted the cast ofFriendstheir Best Comedy cast of all time, ranking at 29% of the votes, beatingSeinfeld, which registered 18%.A poll undertaken by60 MinutesandVanity FairnamedFriendsthe third-greatest sitcom of all time.In 2014, the series was ranked byMundo Estranhothe Best TV Series of All Time.A 2015 survey byThe Hollywood Reporterof 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people namedFriendsas their No. 1 favorite show. Friendswas parodied in the twelfth seasonMurder, She Wroteepisode \"Murder Among Friends\". In the episode, amateur sleuthJessica Fletcher(Angela Lansbury) investigates the murder of a writer forBuds, a fictional television series about the daily lives of a group of city friends. The episode was devised after CBS movedMurder, She Wrotefrom its regular Sunday night timeslot to a Thursday night timeslot directly oppositeFriendson NBC; Angela Lansbury was quoted byBruce Lansbury, her brother andMurder, She Wrote's supervising producer, as having \"a bit of an attitude\" about the move to Thursday, but he saw the plot as \"a friendly setup, no mean-spiritedness.\"Jerry Ludwig, the writer of the episode, researched the \"flavor\" ofBudsby watching episodes ofFriends. Producers ofMarried... with Childrenattempted to create a spinoff series calledEnemies, which was intended to act as an antithesis toFriendsthe same wayMarried... with Childrenhad been an antithesis to family sitcoms such asThe Cosby Show. However, theFoxnetwork declined to pick up the series. Coffee house The Central Perk coffee house, one of the principal settings of the series, is part of theWarner Bros. Studio Tour Hollywood. People sometimes propose marriage on the couch, and many tourists cry when they sit on it.The coffee house has inspired various imitations worldwide. In 2006, Iranian businessman Mojtaba Asadian started a Central Perkfranchise, registering the name in 32 countries. The decor of the coffee houses is inspired byFriends, featuring replica couches, counters, neon signage and bricks. The coffee houses contain paintings of the various characters from the series, and televisions playingFriendsepisodes.James Michael Tyler, who plays Gunther, the Central Perk manager in the series, attended the grand opening of theDubaicafé, where he worked as a waiter. Central Perk was rebuilt as part of a museum exhibit at Warner Bros. Studios and was shown onThe Ellen DeGeneres Showin October 2008 whenJennifer Anistonvisited the set for the first time since the series finale in 2004.From September 24 to October 7, 2009, a Central Perk replica was on Broadwick Street,Soho, London. The coffee house sold coffee to customers and featured a display ofFriendsmemorabilia andprops, such as the Geller Cup from the season three episode \"The One with the Football\".In Beijing, business owner Du Xin opened a coffee shop named Central Perk in March 2010. In India, there are sixFriends-themed cafes which features many icons from the original TV series, including Chandler and Joey's ugly dog statue, the orange sofa, the purple door of Monica and Rachel's apartment, and Phoebe's pink bicycle. One named Central Perk is inChandigarh,Kolkata; one named F.R.I.E.N.D.S. Cafe inWest Bengal, and the others are in Delhi,Gurgaon;Bhubaneswar,Odisha; andPune, Maharashtra. There are twoFriendsthemed cafes in Pakistan—one inLahore,Punjab, known as \"Friends Cafe\" and the other inPeshawar,Khyber Pakhtunkhwacalled \"Central Perk\". Both cafes have an iconic couch, a guitar and foosball table, quotes from the show on the walls and episode reruns on a projector. They're planning to have their own Gunther at the bar. In 2016, a Central Perk replica was opened inOutram, Singapore. It is the only Central Perk replica outside of the United States that has been givenintellectual property rightsbyWarner Bros.The café includes feature walls, replicating the walls of the main characters' apartments and memorabilia and props used on the show. In August 2019,Legolaunched a Central Perk Lego set to mark the show's 25 anniversary. Distribution Broadcast United States After the produced pilot lived up to NBC's hopes, the series premiered with the nameFriendson September 22, 1994, in the coveted Thursday 8:30 p.m. time slot. The pilot aired betweenMad About YouandSeinfeld,and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers.The series was a huge success throughout its run and was a staple of NBC's Thursday night line-up, dubbed by the network asMust See TV.When Crane told reporters in 2001 that the ninth season was a possibility, critics believed that he was posturing and that at least two of the cast members would not sign on for another season.When it was confirmed thatFriendswould return for a ninth season, the news was mainly about the amount of money—$7 million per episode—that it took to bring the series back for another season. After year-long expectations that the ninth season would be the series's last, NBC signed a deal in late December 2002 to bring the series back for a final tenth season. The series' creative team did not want to extend negotiations into the next year and wanted to start writing the rest of the ninth-season episodes and a potential series finale.NBC agreed to pay $10 million to Warner Bros. for the production of each tenth-season episode, the highest price in television history for a 30-minute series.Although NBC was unable to bring in enough advertising revenue from commercials to cover the costs, the series was integral to the Thursday night schedule, which brought high ratings and profits to the other television series.The cast demanded that the tenth season be reduced from the usual 24 episodes to 18 episodes to allow them to work on outside projects. In fall 2001,Warner Bros. Domestic Cablemade a deal with sister networkTBS(both were owned byTime Warner) to air the series in rerun syndication. Warner Bros. Domestic Cable announced that it had sold additional cable rights toFriendstoNick at Nitewhich began airing in the fall of 2011 (unlike the TBS and broadcast syndication airings, Nick at Nite broadcasts of the series, which began airing as part of a seven-night launch marathon on September 5, 2011, replace the end credittag sceneswithmarginalized creditsfeaturing promotions for the series and other Nick at Nite programs). Warner Bros. was expected to make $200 million in license fees and advertising from the deal. Nick at Nite paid $500,000 per episode to air the episodes after 6 pm. ET for six years through fall 2017. In syndication until 2005,Friendshad earned $4 million per episode in cash license fees for a total of $944 million. Comedy Centralbegan airing reruns ofFriendsin October 2019. International Having already made huge success in theUnited States,Friendsproducers decided to air the show inEurope. It premiered in theUnited Kingdomon April 28, 1995.Season 1 was broadcast until September 1995 onChannel 4at 9:30 PM on Friday nights, and immediately was a success. The popularity of the show allowed the theme song by the Rembrandts to hit number 3 on theUK Singles Chartsin September 1995. The popularity of the show in Britain led to an episode being produced in London at the end of the fourth season, starring British actressHelen Baxendale, who became a leading cast member in seasons four and five during her character's relationship with Ross. The show has since aired on different channels in the UK in their original, unedited international versions prior to their being re-edited for US broadcast and syndication. These versions, with additional footage not seen domestically, have aired on such stations as Channel 4,Sky1,E4, andComedy Central UK. In September 2011,Friendsofficially ended on E4 after the channel re-ran the series since 2004. Comedy Central took over the rights to air the program from October 2011. Since 2018Channel 5started airing the program. In theRepublic of Ireland, each season of the show made its European debut onRTÉ2. After 2004RTÉ2began to repeat the series from the start before moving over toTV3and its digital channel3ein 2010.As of February 2015, repeats of the show have returned toRTÉ2while also broadcasting onComedy Central Ireland. Season 10's finale in the UK, broadcast on May 28, 2004, was on Channel 4. It was broadcast from 9 pm to 10 pm and attractedFriends'largest UK audiences. It attracted almost 10 million viewers, and is currently standing at Number 10 in Channel 4's most-watched shows.Big Brotherwas moved to 10 pm, whichFriendshad beaten.Friendsgot 9.6 million viewers at 9 pm, whileBig Brother 5's launch attracted 7.2 million viewers at 10 pm, which is the most-watched premiere on UK TV ever. However, on January 3, 2007,Celebrity Big Brother 5's launch was watched by 7.3 million viewers, and its eviction on January 19, 2007, was watched by 8.7 million viewers. Friendshas previously aired inAustraliaon theSeven Network(season 1),Nine Network(season 2–10),Network Ten(2007–09, repeats),Arena,111 Hits,9Gem(2012–2018, repeats), andTVHits. It currently airs on10 Peachand on pay TV channelComedy, both of which broadcast the high-definition version of the series.The show is broadcast onTV2inNew Zealand. InCanada, the series was broadcast onGlobal. In later years, it was syndicated on several of its cable sibling networks, includingSlice,DTour, and TVTropolis, its previous incarnation.The series is now syndicated toBell MediaownedCTV Comedy Channel. InLatin America, the first seven seasons aired onSony, and the remaining seasons onWarner.In Brazil, free-to-air networksRedeTV!andSBTalso aired a few seasons. InIndia, the show is broadcast byComedy Centralat various times. It is the most-watched English language show in the country. In thePhilippines, the show was originally aired onABC-5from 1996 to 2005 andETCfrom 2005 to 2014. InGreece, the show was broadcast onStar Channel.In Cyprus,Friendsaired onCyBC 2while reruns air onTVOne. In November 2019Croatiantelevision broadcasterRTL2announced that they will be airingFriends, and to this day they are shown every late night In 2022,Bilibili,iQIYI,Tencent Video, andYoukubegan distributing editedFriendsepisodes inChina. These edited versions of episodes removed mostLGBTcontent, not edited in original Chinese airings. Chinese fans of the show reacted negatively online. Remaster Beginning in March 2012,high definitionversions of all 236Friendsepisodes were made available to local broadcast stations, starting with the pilot episode. For the remastered episodes, Warner Bros. restored previously cropped images on the left and right sides of the screen, using the original35 mm filmsource, to use the entire16:9widescreen frame. Because the show was not originally filmed for widescreen, but rather filmed in 4-perf format and protected for 4:3, some cropping problems arise in some shots where information from the top and bottom of the frame is removed, and some expanded shots reveal unintentional artifacts, including set edges, boom mics and body doubles replacing some of the main cast. In early versions of the HD remasters, there were also a few shots, including chroma effects shots, which were sourced from standard-definition videotape sources, as not all of the footage had been located in time for the remaster. The original film sources for these shots were later rescanned for later broadcast and release.These masters had been airing in New Zealand on TV2 since January 2011, and the earlier HD prints continue to air onComedy Centralin the United Kingdom as of 2020.Netflixadded all ten seasons ofFriendsin high definition to its streaming service in the United States in January 2015 before the platform discontinued the series in late 2019. Home media Streaming In October 2014,Warner Bros.chairman and chief executive officer,Kevin Tsujihara, announced that the company had licensed the North American streaming rights of all ten seasons ofFriendstoNetflix,in a deal said to be worth around $500,000 an episode,or about $120 million in total. The show became available on Netflix from January 1, 2015.The Netflix airings are the versions aired on NBC rather than the longer international versions, as discussed below. The series left Netflix in the US on January 1, 2020, as it began streaming onHBO Maxon May 27, 2020.The series left Netflix in Canada forCraveon December 31, 2020. Blu-ray and DVD All ten seasons have been released on DVD individually and as a box set. EachRegion1 season release contains special features and are presented in their aforementioned original international broadcast versions, although Region 2 releases are as originally aired domestically. For the first season, each episode is updated with color correction and sound enhancement.A wide range ofFriendsmerchandise has been produced by various companies. In September 1995,WEA Recordsreleased the first album ofmusic fromFriends, theFriends Original TV Soundtrack, containing music featured in previous and future episodes. The soundtrack debuted on theBillboard200at number 46,and sold 500,000 copies in November 1995. In 1999, a second soundtrack album entitledFriends Againwas released.Other merchandise includes aFriendsversion of the DVD game \"Scene It?\", and a quiz video game forPlayStation 2andPCentitledFriends: The One with All the Trivia.On September 28, 2009, a box set was released in the UK celebrating the show's 15th anniversary. The box set contained extended episodes, an episode guide, and original special features. Warner Home Video released a complete series collection onBlu-rayon November 13, 2012.The collection does not feature the extra deleted scenes and jokes that were included on prior DVD releases, and are therefore presented in their NBC broadcast versions. In Australia, the original DVD releases were fold out box sets which contained three discs, and released as follows: Season 1 and Season 2 on March 13, 2002, Season 3 and Season 4 on July 9, 2002, Season 5, 6 and 7 on July 29, 2002, Season 8 on March 18, 2003, Season 9 on February 11, 2004, and Season 10 on November 24, 2004. Repackaged sets, slimmed into regular DVD cases also containing three discs were released from 2003 to 2004. Collector's Edition sets were released from September 9, 2003, through to February 1, 2006, these sets contains 4 discs, in fat DVD cases, with extra bonus material. On October 4, 2006, the individual seasons were repackaged into regular DVD case sets and marked as \"Including Brand New Bonus Disc\". Once again each individual season were repackaged with new artwork on March 31, 2010. The first complete series boxset on DVD was released around 2004 or 2005, this was titled 'The One With All Ten Seasons\" and the packaging was a black box with a lift up lid and contains exclusive packaging for all ten seasons. The second complete series boxset was released August 21, 2013 and was a red box which contained the 2010 individual season sets inside. On October 1, 2014, was the 20th Anniversary boxset, this was a white box and contained the same 2010 individual releases inside. On October 7, 2015, another boxset was released 'The One With All Ten Seasons\", the same name used on the original boxset, however this time slimmed down and contains the 2010 individual releases inside. The outer box is open on insert side for the cases to slide in and out, more of a budget release. In 2016, a repackaged 'The Complete Series' Blu-ray boxset was issued, containing the same 10 individual seasons in the original set, however the box is more cut down and is opened on one side, and also does not include the book that contained the episode guide. The entire series will be released onUltra HD Blu-rayon September 24, 2024. Spin-off After the series finale in 2004, LeBlanc signed on for the spin-off series,Joey, following Joey's move to Los Angeles to pursue his acting career. Kauffman and Crane were not interested in the spin-off, although Bright agreed to executive produce the series with Scott Silveri and Shana Goldberg-Meehan.NBC heavily promotedJoeyand gave itFriends' Thursday 8:00 pm timeslot. The pilot was watched by 18.6 million American viewers,but ratings continually decreased throughout the series's two seasons, averaging 10.2 million viewers in the first season and 7.1 million in the second.The final broadcast episode on March 7, 2006, was watched by 7.09 million viewers;NBC cancelled the series on May 15, 2006, after two seasons, leaving eight episodes unaired.Bright blamed the collaboration between NBC executives, the studio and other producers for quickly ruining the series: OnFriends, Joey was a womanizer, but we enjoyed his exploits. He was a solid friend, a guy you knew you could count on. Joey was deconstructed to be a guy who couldn't get a job, couldn't ask a girl out. He became a pathetic, mopey character. I felt he was moving in the wrong direction, but I was not heard. See also References Further reading Articles concerning the cultural influence of the program: External links",
"Jennifer Aniston Jennifer Joanna Aniston(born February 11, 1969) is an American actress. She rose to international fame for her role asRachel Greenon the televisionsitcomFriendsfrom 1994 to 2004, which earned herPrimetime Emmy,Golden Globe, andScreen Actors Guildawards. Aniston has consistently ranked among the world's highest-paid actresses, as of 2023. The daughter of actorsJohn AnistonandNancy Dow, she began working as an actress at an early age with an uncredited role in the 1988 filmMac and Me. Her first major film role came in the 1993 horror comedyLeprechaun. She has since starred in a string of successful comedy films such asOffice Space(1999),Bruce Almighty(2003),The Break-Up(2006),Marley & Me(2008),Just Go with It(2011),Horrible Bosses(2011),We're the Millers(2013),Dumplin'(2018), andMurder Mystery(2019). Aniston also starred in the acclaimed independent filmsThe Good Girl(2002),Friends with Money(2006), andCake(2014). She returned to television in 2019, producing and starring in theApple TV+drama seriesThe Morning Show, for which she received aScreen Actors Guild Award. Aniston has been included in numerous magazines' lists of the world's most beautiful women. Her net worth is estimated as US$300 million, and her box office gross is over $1.6 billion worldwide.She is the recipient of a star on theHollywood Walk of Fameand is the co-founder of the production companyEcho Films, established in 2008. Early life Aniston was born on February 11, 1969, in theSherman Oaksneighborhood of Los Angelesto Greek-born actorJohn Anistonand actressNancy Dow.One of her maternal great-grandfathers, Louis Grieco, was from Italy.Her mother's other ancestry includes English, Irish, Scottish, and a small amount of Greek. Her father's ancestry is from the Greek island of Crete. Aniston has two half-brothers: John Melick, her older maternal half-brother; and Alex Aniston, her younger paternal half-brother.Her godfather was actorTelly Savalas, one of her father's best friends. Her family moved to New York City when she was a child.Despite her father's television career, she was discouraged from watching television, though she found ways around the prohibition. When she was six, she began attending aWaldorf school.Her parents divorced when she was nine. Having discovered acting at age 11 at the Waldorf school,Aniston enrolled in Manhattan'sFiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts, where she joined the school's drama society,and where Anthony Abeson was her drama teacher.She performed inThe Sign in Sidney Brustein's WindowbyLorraine HansberryandThree SistersbyAnton Chekhov. Career 1988–1993: Beginnings Aniston first worked inoff-Broadwayproductions such asFor Dear LifeandDancing on Checker's Grave,and supported herself with part-time jobs including work as atelemarketer, waitress and bike messenger.In 1988, she had an uncredited minor role in the critically panned sci-fi adventure filmMac and Me. The next year, she appeared onThe Howard Stern Showas aspokesmodelforNutrisystem,and moved back to Los Angeles. Her first regular television role was in the TV seriesMolloyin 1990, and she appeared in thetelevision adaptationof the 1986 filmFerris Bueller's Day Off; both series were quickly canceled. She starred as a teenage summer camp counselor in the made-for-television filmCamp Cucamonga(1990), and as a spoiled teenager followed by a vengefulleprechaunin the horror filmLeprechaun(1993).A 2014 retrospective fromEntertainment WeeklyidentifiedLeprechaunas her worst role,and Aniston herself has expressed embarrassment over it. Aniston also appeared in the two failed television comedy seriesThe EdgeandMuddling Through,and guest-starred inQuantum Leap,Herman's HeadandBurke's Law. 1994–2004:Friendsand worldwide recognition Depressed over her four unsuccessful television shows, Aniston approached TV executiveWarren Littlefieldat a Los Angeles gas station asking for reassurance. As the head of NBC entertainment, he encouraged her to continue acting, and a few months later helped cast her inFriends,a sitcom set to debut on NBC's 1994–1995 fall lineup. The producer wanted Aniston to audition for the role ofMonica Geller,butCourteney Coxwas deemed more suitable, and Aniston was cast asRachel Green. She was also offered a spot as a featured player onSaturday Night Live, but turned it down in favor ofFriends.She played Rachel until the show ended in 2004, when Aniston took a 15-year hiatus from television save for occasional guest roles. The program was a massive hit and Aniston, along with her co-stars, gained worldwide recognition. Her character was especially popular.She received fivePrimetime Emmy Awardnominations (two forSupporting Actress, three forLead Actress), and won for Lead Actress.She was also nominated for twoGolden Globe Awardsand won in 2003 asBest Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy. According to theGuinness Book of World Records, Aniston (along with her female co-stars) became the highest-paid television actress of all time with her $1 million-per-episode paycheck during the final season ofFriends.Her character's relationship withRoss Geller, portrayed byDavid Schwimmer, was widely popular among audiences; they were frequently voted television's favorite couple in polls and magazines. After a four-year hiatus, Aniston returned to film work in 1996, when she performed in the ensemble cast of romantic comedyShe's the One.Her first starring film vehicle wasPicture Perfect(1997), where she played a struggling young advertising executive oppositeKevin BaconandJay Mohr. It received mixed reviews and was only a moderate commercial success;but Aniston's performance was more warmly received, with many critics suggesting that she had screen presence.In 1998, she appeared as a woman who falls for a gay man (played byPaul Rudd) in the romantic comedyThe Object of My Affection,and the next year she starred as a restaurant waitress in thecult filmOffice Space. Aniston appeared in thedramedyRock Star(2001) oppositeMark WahlbergandDominic West. She starred in the independent dramedyThe Good Girl(2002) as an unglamorous cashier who cheats on her husband. The film was a commercial success in limited release, taking in over $14 million in North America.Film criticRoger Ebertdeclared it her breakthrough: After languishing in a series of overlooked movies that ranged from the entertainingOffice Spaceto the disposablePicture Perfect, Jennifer Aniston has at last decisively broken with herFriendsimage in an independent film of satiric fire and emotional turmoil. It will no longer be possible to consider her in the same way. Aniston's biggest commercial success in film has been the comedyBruce Almighty(2003), where she played the girlfriend of a television field reporter (Jim Carrey) offered the chance to be God for one week.With a worldwide box office gross of $484 million,it was the fifth-highest-grossing feature film of the year.Aniston next starred as the old classmate of a tightly wound newlywed in the romantic comedyAlong Came Polly(2004) oppositeBen Stiller,which placed number one at the North American box office, earning $27.7 million in its opening weekend;it eventually made $172 million worldwide. 2005–2013: Continued film success In 2005, Aniston appeared as an alluring woman having an affair with an advertising executive in the thrillerDerailed, and as an obituary and wedding announcement writer in the romantic comedyRumor Has It.Both films were moderate box office hits.Aniston took on the role of a single, cash-strapped woman working as a maid in the independent dramaFriends with Money(2006), which received a limited release. Her next film was the romantic comedyThe Break-Up(2006), alongsideVince Vaughn, in which she starred as one half of a couple having a complicated split when both refuse to move out of the pair's recently purchased home. It received mixed reviews but grossed approximately $39.17 million during its opening weekend and $204 million worldwide.The A.V. Club's Keith Phipps gave the film a negative review, stating, \"It's like watching the 'we were on a break' episode ofFriendsstretched to feature length, and without the blessed relief of commercial breaks or the promise ofSeinfeldaround the corner.\"CinemaBlendgave the film a positive review stating, \"In an era of formulaic romantic movies that bear no resemblance to reality,The Break-Upoffers a refreshing flipside.\" In 2006, Aniston directed theshort filmRoom 10, set in a hospital emergency room and starringRobin WrightandKris Kristofferson, as part ofGlamour'sReel Momentsfilm series.She noted that she was inspired to direct by actressGwyneth Paltrow, who also directed a short film that year.In 2007, Aniston guest-starred in an episode ofDirt—playing the rival ofCourteney Cox's character—and in an episode of30 Rock, playing a woman whostalksJack Donaghy.For the latter she received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination asOutstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series. The 2008 comedy dramaMarley & Me, starring Aniston andOwen Wilsonas the owners of the titular dog, set a record for the largest Christmas Day box office sales ever with $14.75 million. It earned a total of $51.7 million over the four-day weekend and placed number one at the box office, a position it maintained for two weeks.The total worldwide gross was $242.7 million.Her next film in wide release, the romantic comedyHe's Just Not That Into You(2009), in which she starred oppositeBen Affleck, grossed $178.8 million globallyand ranked number one at the United States box office for its opening weekend.While it received mixed reviews, Aniston, along with Affleck,Ginnifer Goodwin, andJennifer Connelly, were praised by critics as standouts in the film. Aniston appeared as the former wife of abounty hunter(Gerard Butler) in the romantic comedy action filmThe Bounty Hunter(2010). The film was panned by critics, withThe Hollywood Reporterwriting that \"the mishmash ends up as a thoroughly unfunny adult cartoon.\"Nevertheless, it was a box office success, garnering over $130 million worldwide.A lukewarm box office reception greeted her next film, the romantic comedyThe Switch(2010), in which she starred withJason Batemanas a 30-something single woman who decides to have a child using a sperm bank. The film's opening weekend drew whatThe Hollywood Reporterdubbed \"a dispiriting $8.4 million\".The film received generally mixed reviews, with review siteMetacriticshowing 13 out of 30 critics delivering a positive verdict. In 2010, Aniston was also a guest star on the season two premiere ofABC's sitcomCougar Town, playing a psychiatrist.Her announcement that she would appear onCougar Towngarnered excitement and was dubbed her return to television.The A.V. Clubwrote, \" is a funny bit, and it highlights just how much Jennifer Aniston is built to be a TV star.\"In 2011, she starred oppositeAdam Sandleras an office manager posing as the wife of a plastic surgeon in the romantic comedyJust Go with It,and played a sexually aggressive dentist inHorrible Bosses.Just Go with ItandHorrible Bossesboth made over $100 million in North America and $200 million worldwide. Aniston appeared in the comedyWanderlust(2012) withPaul Rudd,with whom she acted inThe Object of My Affectionand alsoFriends, as a married couple who join a commune after losing their money and deciding modern life is not for them.The script forWanderlust, bought byUniversal Pictures,was produced byJudd Apatow.Wanderlustreceived positive reviews but was a box office failure, grossing only $21 million worldwide, against a production budget of $35 million.Aniston starred as a struggling stripper who agrees to pose as a wife for a drug deal, withJason Sudeikis, inWe're the Millers(2013). The film received mixed reviews from critics,but was a financial success, grossing $269 million against a budget of $37 million. 2014–present: film roles and return to television Aniston played the role of a stoic socialite who becomes the target of an ill-planned kidnapping plot inLife of Crime(2014), a film adaptation ofElmore Leonard's 1978 novelThe Switch.The film was released in limited theaters, to positive reviews.Catherine Shoard ofThe Guardiandescribed her performance as \"endearingly comic\"and Eric Kohn ofIndieWirewrote that \"Aniston tops any of her recent performances with a spirited turn that harkens back to her neurotic days onFriends.\"She also reprised her role forHorrible Bosses 2(2014). InCake(2014), Aniston starred as an astringent woman named Claire Simmons who struggles with chronic pain.The film received mixed reviews; nonetheless, Aniston's performance was acclaimed, dubbed by some critics as \"Oscar-worthy\".TheToronto International Film Festivalcalled her performance \"heartbreakingly good\",Gregory Ellwood ofHitFixstated, \"It's really on most people's radar for being a rare dramatic turn for Jennifer Aniston, and she doesn't disappoint.\" He further stated, \"Aniston makes you believe in Claire's pain. She makes you believe this character is at her lowest point and only she can pull herself out of it. ... It's a complete performance from beginning to end and she deserves the appropriate accolades for it.\"For her performance, Aniston was nominated for theGolden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama,SAG Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role, andCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress.She was also nominated multiple nominations for its latter seasons. In 2015, Aniston starred as a reluctant therapist in the screwball comedyShe's Funny That Way,which received mixed reviews and found a limited release in theaters, but her performance was once again noticed.Wesley MorrisofGrantlandcalled her \"one of the great screen comedians. ... Most of her scenes here are extraneous, but her vulgarity and tartness are so sharp that the movie needs them. ... This isn't just Aniston having the best stuff. It's her having the most fun with her talent. She's funny in every way.\" Aniston starred as the recently divorced mother of two children in the romantic comedyMother's Day(2016), directed byGarry Marshall, and oppositeJulia RobertsandKate Hudson.The film was panned by critics and a moderate commercial success.In 2016, she voiced a workaholic and overprotective mother in the animated filmStorks, alongsideAndy SambergandKelsey Grammer,which was released to mostly positive reviews; it grossed over $183.4 million against a $70 million budget.Her last 2016 film role was that of a frigidly cold head honcho of a company in the comedyOffice Christmas Party, directed byWill Speck and Josh Gordonand oppositeJason BatemanandKate McKinnon.It grossed $114.5 million worldwide. InThe Yellow Birds, a war drama directed byAlexandre Moors, Aniston portrays the mother of a deceased soldier, alongsideAlden Ehrenreich,Tye Sheridan,Jack Huston, andToni Collette.While she said she does not \"normally gravitate toward being in war films\", she made an exception because the film was \"written so beautifully and in such a way had never experienced\".The film, first presented at the2017 Sundance Film Festival, received avideo on demandrelease in June 2018.TheLos Angeles Timeswrote in its review: \"Toni Collette and Jennifer Aniston as the soldiers' quite different but equally concerned mothers, deliver uniformly naturalistic performances\". In December 2018,Netflixreleased the musical comedyDumplin', with Aniston as executive producer and star—marking her first project for a streaming service.That year, she began work on another Netflix project,Murder Mystery, a comedy that reunited her with Adam Sandler, which premiered on June 14, 2019.The two of them reunited for the sequelMurder Mystery 2, which premiered on March 31, 2023. Aniston made her return to television on November 1, 2019, producing and starring alongsideReese Witherspoonin theApple TV+dramaThe Morning Show. It was her first main television role since the conclusion ofFriendsin 2004.For its first season, Aniston won theScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series,and received aPrimetime Emmy Awardnomination forOutstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Seriesand twoGolden Globe Awardnominations forBest Actress – Television Series DramaandBest Television Series – Dramaas a producer.The series' latter seasons earned her multiple additional nominations atCritics' Choice, Golden Globe, Primetime Emmy andSAGawards. She reunited with herFriendscast mates for anHBO Maxunscripted television special titledFriends: The Reunionin May 2021.The special earned her a nomination for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Pre-Recorded)for her producing credit. In the media Wealth Aniston is one of the world's highest-paid actresses as of 2018.She has been on theForbesTop Earning Actresses list for 15 years, every year since 2001—and since then also on itsCelebrity 100list (based on \"earnings and fame\"), topping it in 2003.According toForbes, in October 2007, Aniston was the best-selling celebrity face of the entertainment industry. The magazine estimated her net worth at $110 million in 2007,and $200 million in 2017.It listed her earnings as $19.5 million in 2018. Public image The media nicknamed Aniston \"America's sweetheart\" while the actress was starring onFriends.In 2019, Rachel Simon ofNBCNews.comsaid Aniston \"has filled the role of our most beloved celebrity for nearly two and a half decades now, and there are no signs of her being replaced anytime soon\", arguing that few celebrities have maintained the \"America's sweetheart\" title for as long as she has.Aniston has been included in various magazine lists of the world's most beautiful women.In 2005, she became the firstGQ(Gentlemen's Quarterly) Woman of the Year. She has frequently appeared onPeoplemagazine's annual list ofMost Beautiful Women, topping the ranking in 2004 and 2016.She also topped the magazine's Best Dressed List in 2006. She has been a regular on theFHM(For Him Magazine)100 Sexiest Women in the Worldlist since 1996, most recently ranking at number 79 in 2012.A survey of their patients by two Hollywood plastic surgeons, reported in 2011 byThe Daily Telegraph, identified her (alongsideGisele BündchenandPenélope Cruz) as having one of the most sought-after body shapes.In the same year, readers ofMen's Healthvoted her as the Sexiest Woman of All Time.Men's Healthalso included her on its 100 Hottest Sex Symbols of All Time list, explaining that \"Her down-to-earth persona makes her seem attainable, ... she makes even pieces of flair look good. She rarely plays the airhead, and she seldom overplays a role: she's funny in a quiet, refreshingly human way. And her all-too-human love life off screen inspires sympathy ... throughout her career Aniston has remained sexy, funny, and unmistakably real.\"Although Aniston disliked the hairstyle she wore during her first two years onFriends, \"The Rachel\" became very popular. She received amotion picture staron theHollywood Walk of Fameon February 22, 2012,located at 6270Hollywood Boulevard.She was ranked third onForbes'list of the 100 Most Powerful Actresses in Hollywood in 2013. In July 2016, amidst media speculation over whether she was pregnant, Aniston penned an essay forThe Huffington Postcondemning the \"objectification and scrutiny we put women through\". She asserted: \"We are complete with or without a mate, with or without a child. We get to decide for ourselves what is beautiful when it comes to our bodies. We don't need to be married or mothers to be complete. We get to determine our own 'happily ever after' for ourselves.\"The piece was supported by many celebrities and widely covered in the media. After years of aversion to social media, Aniston joinedInstagramon October 15, 2019, causing the app to \"break\" (for hours the \"follow\" button became inoperable due to an overload of web traffic to her account) with the first picture of the plannedFriendscast reunionforHBO Max(whose release was delayed until 2021 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic). She broke theGuinness World Recordfor fastest time to reach one million followers on Instagram, by doing so within five hours and sixteen minutes. Personal life Aniston practicesHatha yogaandBudokan karate.In 2014, she spoke of herTranscendental Meditationpractice.The following year, she revealed she hasdyslexia, which had affected her education and self-esteem, and that after being diagnosed in her twenties, her outlook toward life changed. She stated, \"I thought I wasn't smart. I just couldn't retain anything. Now I had this great discovery. I felt like all of my childhood trauma-dies, tragedies, dramas were explained.\" Aniston donated toBarack Obama's2008 presidential campaignand took part in a fundraiser forHillary Clintonduring her2016 presidential campaign.She endorsedJoe Bidenin the2020 presidential election. Aniston does not have any children. In November 2022, she appeared on the cover ofAllurefor their final print issue.In the accompanying interview, Aniston said she had undergonein vitro fertilization(IVF) to try to have children when she was in her thirties and forties, but the attempts did not result in any pregnancies.She said, \"All the years and years and years of speculation... It was really hard. I was going through IVF, drinking Chinese teas, you name it. I was throwing everything at it.\"In July 2024, after comments about \"childless cat ladies\" that Republican vice presidential nomineeJD Vancemade in 2021 went viral, Aniston stated on social media that: All I can say is… Mr. Vance, I pray that your daughter is fortunate enough to bear children of her own one day (...) I hope she will not need to turn to IVF as a second option. Because you are trying to take that away from her, too. In 2023, she disclosed that Adam Sandler's family sends her flowers every year on Mother's Day. Relationships Aniston metBrad Pittin 1998, and their relationship was highly publicized.After two years of dating, they married on July 29, 2000, in a lavishMalibu, California, wedding. For a few years, their marriage was considered a rareHollywoodsuccess.On January 7, 2005, they announced their separation,and finalized their divorce on October 2.During their divorce proceedings, news media speculated that Pitt had been unfaithful to Aniston with hisMr. & Mrs. Smithco-starAngelina Jolie, with whom he began a relationship soon after the split.In the months following, the public's reaction towards the divorce played out as \"Team Aniston\" and \"Team Jolie\" T-shirts appeared throughout the country.Aniston commented on the divorce in a January 2015 interview withThe Hollywood Reporter, stating, \"Nobody did anything wrong... It was just like, sometimes things .\" In 2005, amid reports that their divorce was due to Aniston's refusal to have children with Pitt, Aniston said, \"I've never in my life said I didn't want to have children. I did and I do and I will! ... I would never give up that experience for a career.\" Aniston said the divorce prompted her to reach out to her mother, Nancy, from whom she had been estranged for nearly a decade. Nancy had talked about her daughter on a television show and writtenFrom Mother and Daughter to Friends: A Memoir(1999). In 2006, Aniston said she had been devastated by the death of her longtime therapist, whom she credited for helping make her separation from Pitt easier.She said she did not regret her relationship with Pitt, describing it as \"very intense\" and \"a beautiful, complicated relationship\". Aniston began a relationship with actor, director, and screenwriterJustin Therouxin May 2011. The following January, they purchased a home in theBel Airneighborhood of Los Angeles for roughly $22 million.They became engaged on August 10, 2012and were married on August 5, 2015, at their estate.They separated at the end of 2017. Other ventures Aniston has appeared in commercials and music videos throughout her career. After starting onFriends, Aniston and her co-starMatthew Perryshot a 60-minute instructional video for the release ofMicrosoft'sWindows 95operating system.The next year she appeared in commercials forL'Oréalhair products. Under a contract withElizabeth Arden, Inc.,Aniston worked for over a year on her first perfume, which was released in July 2010.Original plans called for the perfume to be named \"Lolavie by Jennifer Aniston\", but to avoid confusion with a similarly named perfume, the name was changed to simply \"Jennifer Aniston\".In 2014, she launched her second perfume, named J,followed by Near Dusk (2015),Beachscape (2016),Luxe and Chapter One (both in 2017), Chapter Two (2018), Silver and Solstice Bloom (both in 2020).In 2021, Aniston launched the LolaVie haircare company. Since 2007, she has worked in a publicity campaign for the drinkSmartWater; on March 7, 2011, she released aYouTubevideo for SmartWater,Jennifer Aniston Goes Viral, which tripled online interest in the product within 24 hours of its release.In 2012, Aniston co-founded hair care brand Living Proof and also became its spokeswoman. She left when the company was sold toUnileverin 2016.In January 2013, she became the new spokeswoman ofAveeno Skincare.Aniston is paid \"eight figures\" for her endorsement.She became the new face ofEmirates airlinein 2015,which was reportedly a success.For pharmaceutical companyShire, she appeared in a 2016 campaign raising awareness aboutchronic dry eye. She appeared in the 1996Tom Petty and The Heartbreakersmusic video for \"Walls\", and inMelissa Etheridge's 2001 music video for \"I Want to Be in Love\".She also appeared in a 2005Heinekencommercial. Along with Brad Pitt andBrad Grey, CEO ofParamount Pictures, Aniston founded the film production companyPlan B Entertainmentin 2002,although she and Grey withdrew in 2005.In 2008, she and producer Kristin Hahn formedEcho Films. Philanthropy Aniston has been a celebrity advocate for numerous charities and received attention for her own donations. She has appeared in television commercials forSt. Jude's Children's Research Hospital, and hosted September 2008'sStand Up to Cancershow.In the \"It Can't Wait\" campaign to freeBurma, Aniston directed and starred in a video.She is a supporter of Friends of El Faro, a nonprofit organization that helps raise money for Casa Hogar Sion, an orphanage inTijuana, Mexico. On April 14, 2007, Aniston receivedGLAAD's Vanguard Award for her contributions to increased visibility and understanding of theLGBTcommunity.In 2013, she was named theEntertainment Industry Foundation(EIF) ambassador for theSaks Fifth AvenueKey to the Cure campaign, which raises funds for the EIF Women's Cancer Research Fund.In 2015, she supported theComic Relief, Inc.charity.Other charities that Aniston has publicly supported include Clothes Off Our Back, Feeding America, EB Medical Research Foundation, Project A.L.S.,OmniPeace, and theRape, Abuse & Incest National Network. Aniston donated $500,000 toDoctors Without Borders, Haitian health care providerPartners in HealthandAmeriCares,and also participated in theHope for Haiti Nowtelethon. She donated $500,000 to theRed Crossand another $500,000 to the Ricky Martin Foundation in 2017 to help victims of hurricanesHarvey,IrmaandMaria. After being honored by SmartWater in 2016 for her ongoing philanthropic work forSt. Jude's, Aniston spoke of the importance of philanthropy in her life toInStylemagazine: \"We live an extremely beautiful, fortunate life being able to do what we get to do for a living. And so it's a way of being able to be in a position to do something for people who are less able. It's something that makes my heart smile.\" Acting credits and awards Aniston received five Primetime Emmy Award nominations, two Golden Globe Award nominations, and nine SAG Award nominations for her role inFriends. From these, she won one of each. She also garnered a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for her guest appearance in30 Rock, while her performance inCakeearned her nominations at the Golden Globe and SAG awards. Aniston additionally won a SAG Award and was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award and a Golden Globe Award for the first season ofThe Morning Show, and earned multiple nominations at Critics' Choice, Golden Globe, Primetime Emmy and SAG awards for its latter seasons. As a producer, she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award and three Golden Globe Awards. According to review aggregator siteRotten Tomatoesand the box-office siteBox Office Mojo, Aniston's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful films areOffice Space(1999),The Good Girl(2002),Bruce Almighty(2003),Friends with Money(2006),The Break-Up(2006),Marley & Me(2008),Just Go with It(2011),Horrible Bosses(2011),We're the Millers(2013), andDumplin'(2018). See also References Further reading External links",
"Courteney Cox Courteney Bass Cox(born June 15, 1964)is an American actress and filmmaker. She rose to international prominence for playingMonica Gellerin theNBCsitcomFriends(1994–2004) andGale Weathersin the horror film franchiseScream(1996–present).Her accolades include aScreen Actors Guild Award, nominations for twoEmmy Awardsand aGolden Globe Award, and a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame. Cox had a recurring role in theNBCsitcomFamily Ties(1987–1989), and starred in theFXdrama seriesDirt(2007–2008), theABC/TBSsitcomCougar Town(2009–2015) which she also directed, and theStarzhorror comedy seriesShining Vale(2022–2023). Her film credits include the action fantasyMasters of the Universe(1987), the comedyAce Ventura: Pet Detective(1994), the animated comedyBarnyard(2006), the fantasy comedyBedtime Stories(2008), and theindependentdramaMothers and Daughters(2016). Cox owns the production companyCoquette Productions, which she founded with her then-husband,David Arquette. She has directed the television drama filmTalhotBlond(2012), the black comedy drama filmJust Before I Go(2014), and executive produced the game showCelebrity Name Game(2014–2017). Early life Cox was born June 15, 1964, inBirmingham, Alabama, and raised there.She is a daughter of businessman Richard Lewis Cox (1931–2001) and Courteney Copeland (née Bass; 1934–2020).Cox has two older sisters, Virginia and Dorothy, and an older brother, Richard Jr. Her parents divorced in 1974 and her mother then married businessman Hunter Copeland (uncle to music promoter and business managerIan Copelandandthe PolicedrummerStewart Copeland). After graduating fromMountain Brook High School, Cox left forMount Vernon CollegeinWashington, D.C.(now part ofGeorge Washington University), but did not complete her architecture course, opting instead to pursue a career in modeling and acting.Cox has English and Norman ancestry; researching her family tree for the seriesWho Do You Think You Are?, Cox discovered she was a direct descendant ofWilliam the ConquerorandEdward I of England. Career Early work Cox worked at video game publisherBethesda Softworksbriefly in the 1980s.She was chosen from acasting callby directorBrian De Palmato appear in the 1984 music video forBruce Springsteen's \"Dancing in the Dark\", as the young woman pulled onstage at theSt. Paul Civic Centerto dance with Springsteen.Her early television work includes a starring role as Gloria Dinallo in the short-livedNBCscience fiction seriesMisfits of Science(1985),and guest-starring roles in theABCcomedy-drama seriesThe Love Boat(1986) and theCBScrime drama seriesMurder, She Wrote(1986). She later had a recurring role as Lauren Miller, the girlfriend ofMichael J. Fox's characterAlex P. Keatonin the NBC comedy seriesFamily Ties(1987–1989).Cox's early film roles includeMasters of the Universe(1987),Cocoon: The Return(1988), andI'll Be Home for Christmas(1988).She also played Jewel Jagger, the tough-as-nails assistant of Larry Burrows (James Belushi), inMr. Destiny(1990). 1990s: International breakthrough In 1993, Cox co-starred in the short-lived CBS sitcomThe Trouble with Larry, alongsideBronson PinchotandPerry King.The following year, shortly before the debut of the sitcomFriends, Cox starred alongsideJim Carreyin the comedy filmAce Ventura: Pet Detective,and asJerry Seinfeld's girlfriend, Meryl, in theSeinfeldepisode \"The Wife\". In 1994, Cox was asked to audition for the starring role ofRachel Greenon a new sitcom,Friends; she was cast asMonica Gellerinstead.At first the most famous cast member of the new show, Cox joinedJennifer Aniston(Rachel Green),Lisa Kudrow(Phoebe Buffay),Matt LeBlanc(Joey Tribbiani),Matthew Perry(Chandler Bing) andDavid Schwimmer(Ross Geller) for what became her most famous role, lasting for ten seasons until 2004. The series is commonly referred to as one of the greatest of all sitcoms.According to theGuinness Book of World Records(2005), Cox (along with her female co-stars) became the highest-paid TV actress of all time, with herUS$1 million-per-episode fee for the final two seasons ofFriends.Syndication of the series earned Cox and her co-stars an estimated $20 million in annual residuals.In 1995, she was cast inToad the Wet Sprocket's music video \"Good Intentions\". The song was also featured on theFriendssoundtrack. Between seasons five and six, she marriedDavid Arquetteand consequently changed her name to Courteney Cox Arquette. A joke reference to this is made in the opening credits of the episode \"The One After Vegas\", where the rest of the cast has \"Arquette\" added to their names. The dedication \"For Courteney and David, who did get married\" – a reference to Monica and Chandler's decision not to marry in the episode – appears during the fade out to the tag scene. Cox received further recognition and critical acclaim for her starring role as reporterGale Weathersin the high-profile slasher horror filmScream(1996), and its sequelsScream 2(1997) andScream 3(2000). The series is one of thehighest grossingand critically acclaimed horror franchises of all time.Cox's character was well known for her \"snappy remarks and being brilliantly bossy\".She met her future husband, David Arquette, who played her on-screen love interest, Dwight \"Dewey\" Riley, while filming the firstScreamfilm.Cox also hosted an episode of the variety sketch seriesSaturday Night Livein July 1995,and appeared in the crime thriller filmThe Runner(1999). 2000s: Continued success Cox's major films during this period include the crime drama3000 Miles to Graceland(2001) and the comedyThe Shrink Is In(2001).In late 2003, Cox and Arquette produced one season of the reality television seriesMix It Up.The lifestyle series, which aired on the WE cable channel, struggled with low ratings and was not renewed for a second season.After the conclusion ofFriends, Cox was producerMarc Cherry's first choice to be offered a starring role asSusan MayeronDesperate Housewives, but Cox was unavailable due to her pregnancy and the role later went toTeri Hatcher.A few years later, Cox signed a deal withABC Studios(formerly Touchstone Television) to star in her own series. She starred in theindependentdrama filmNovember(2005), which had a limited theatrical release.She had acameo appearancein the big-budget remakeThe Longest Yard(2005) as Lena, the girlfriend of Paul Crewe (Adam Sandler), and co-starred withTim Allenin the critically deridedZoom(2006).Cox voiced Daisy the Cow in the animated filmBarnyard(2006).AFriendsreunion film was rumored to be in production following the success ofSex and the City(2008),but this was laterdeniedbyWarner Bros.and others. Cox starred as Lucy Spiller, a cynicaltabloideditor, in theFXtelevision drama seriesDirt, which premiered in 2007. Cox and her then-husband David Arquette were the executive producers of the series.The series was eventually canceled after the second season in 2008.In July 2008,Entertainment Weeklyannounced that Cox signed on to star in a three-episode arc for the television medical comedy seriesScrubs.Also that year, she starred in the fantasy comedy filmBedtime Stories, reuniting with co-star Adam Sandler.She went to executive produce the short drama filmThe Butler's in Love, directed by David Arquette. Cox guest-starred in a three-episodestory arcon formerFriendsco-starLisa Kudrow's web comedy seriesWeb Therapy(2009).Also in 2009, she began her role as the star of thesingle-cameraABC comedy seriesCougar Town, playing a newly single 40-year-old mother on the hunt for new experiences.It is notably Cox's most successful work sinceFriends, earning her a nomination for theGolden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy. The series' third season was set to premiere in November 2011 but moved to February 14, 2012. Cox directed two episodes of the series' fifteen episodes that season. The fourth season premiered on January 8, 2013. The series came to an end on March 31, 2015, after six seasons. 2010s: Directorial debut and expansion Cox reprised her role as Gale Weathers from theScreamtrilogy for the sequelScream 4. The film was released in theaters on April 15, 2011.She made her directorial debut and had a cameo appearance in aLifetimetelevision drama filmTalhotBlond, which premiered on the network on June 23, 2012. In 2014, Cox directed and produced the black comedy filmJust Before I Go, starringSeann William ScottandElisha Cuthbert.The film premiered at theTribeca Film Festivalon April 24, 2014,and it was released in select theaters on April 24, 2015.From 2014 to 2017, she executive produced the syndicated game showCelebrity Name Game, hosted byCraig Ferguson. It ended after three seasons. The series earned her a nomination for theDaytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game Show. In 2016, Cox starred in the independent drama filmMothers and Daughters, alongsideSusan Sarandon,Mira Sorvino, andSharon Stone. The film was released to generally negative reviews on May 6, 2016.In 2019, she created and executive produced theFacebook Watchdocumentary series9 Months with Courteney Cox, which focuses on \"people from across the country of various race, religion, and class as they self-document their 9-month journey of pregnancy\".It lasted for three seasons until 2021. 2020s: Current work In 2020, she guest starred in the ABC sitcomModern Family.Cox reunited with herFriendsco-stars for a reunion special titledFriends: The Reunion, which was released on May 27, 2021, onHBO Max.The special earned Cox a nomination for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Pre-Recorded).In the same year she launched her line of home products, named Homecourt.She also participated in theCelebrity Escape Roomspecial to raise $150,000 for Red Nose Day. Cox reprised her role as Gale Weathers for thefifthScreamfilm, which was directed byMatt Bettinelli-OlpinandTyler Gillett.The film was released on January 14, 2022, to box office success and positive reviews.Also in 2022, she signed on to star alongsideGreg Kinnearin theStarzhorror comedy seriesShining Vale, from creatorsSharon Horganand Jeff Astrof; she plays Patricia \"Pat\" Phelps, who moves her family \"from the 'crazy' of the city to a large, old house in the suburbs where evil and humor collide.\" Cox again reprised her role as Gale Weathers for thesixthScreamfilm,which she also executive produced.The film was released on March 9, 2023, to box office success and positive reviews. Also in 2023, she received a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame.She is set to executive produce and star as Brittany Wagner in theSpectrum Originalsadaptation of the documentary seriesLast Chance U. Personal life Cox dated actorMichael Keatonfrom 1989 to 1995.Cox married herScreamco-starDavid Arquetteon June 12, 1999, atGrace CathedralinSan Francisco.The couple has a daughter, born in June 2004.Jennifer Anistonis hergodmother.Cox revealed that she suffered frompostpartum depressionsix months after the birth of her child.On October 11, 2010, Cox and Arquette announced that they had separated, although they still maintain a close friendship and ongoing business relationship inCoquette Productions.In June 2012, Arquette filed for divorce after nearly two years of separation from Cox.The divorce became final in May 2013.Cox began datingSnow Patrolband memberJohnny McDaidin late 2013.The couple announced their engagement in June 2014.Soon afterward they called off the engagement, but they have remained a couple. In 2020, Cox said that she did not remember much about the episode plots ofFriendsand that she had begun binge-watching the show.Cox is a practitioner ofBudokan karate. Filmography Film Television Music videos Awards and honors Accolades Honors Notes References External links",
"Lisa Kudrow Lisa Valerie Kudrow(/ˈkuːdroʊ/KOO-droh; born July 30, 1963) is an American actress. She rose to international fame for her role asPhoebe Buffayin the American television sitcomFriends, which aired from 1994 to 2004. The series earned herPrimetime Emmy,Screen Actors Guild,Satellite,American ComedyandTV Guideawards. Phoebe has since been named one of the greatest television characters of all time and is considered to be Kudrow's breakout role, spawning her successful film career. Kudrow initially appeared in a 1989 episode of the hit sitcomCheersplaying a character named Emily. She also starred in several episodes of the showMad About You(1993) as Ursula, before auditioning and earning the role of Phoebe onFriends; her character onMad About Youwas written into theFriendsstoryline as Phoebe’s twin. In the late 1990s, Kudrow starred in thecultcomedy filmRomy and Michele's High School Reunion(1997) and followed it with an acclaimed performance in the comedy/dramaThe Opposite of Sex(1998), which won her theNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actressand a nomination for theIndependent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female. She created, produced, wrote, and starred in theHBOmockumentary seriesThe Comeback, which initially lasted for one season in 2005 but was revived for a critically acclaimed second and final season in 2014. She was nominated for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor both seasons. In 2007, Kudrow received praise for her starring role in the filmKablueyand appeared in the filmP.S. I Love You. She produced and starred in theShowtimeprogramWeb Therapy(2011–2015), which was nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Award. She is a producer on theTLC/NBCreality programWho Do You Think You Are, which has been nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Awardfive times. She currently is a voice actress on the animated seriesHouseBroken. Kudrow has also had roles inAnalyze This(1999) and its sequelAnalyze That(2002),Dr. Dolittle 2(2001),Bandslam(2008),Hotel for Dogs(2009),Easy A(2010),Neighbors(2014) and its sequelNeighbors 2: Sorority Rising(2016),The Girl on the Train(2016),The Boss Baby(2017),Long Shot(2019) andBooksmart(2019). Early life Lisa Valerie Kudrowwas born in theEncinoneighborhood ofLos Angeleson July 30, 1963,the daughter of Nedra, a travel agent, and Lee Kudrow, a doctor who specialized in treating headaches.She has an older sister, Helene, and two brothers, David and Derrick.She was raised in a middle-classJewishfamily and had aBat Mitzvah.She is of Belarusian, German, Hungarian, and Polish Jewish descent.Some of her Belarusian ancestors were fromIlya.Almost all Jews in Ilya were murdered duringthe Holocaust, including Kudrow's paternal great-grandmother. Her paternal grandmother later left Belarus forBrooklyn, where her father grew up. Kudrow attended Portola Middle School in theTarzananeighborhood of Los Angeles.She graduated fromTaft High Schoolin theWoodland Hillsneighborhood, which was attended at the same time by rapperEazy-Eand actressRobin Wright. She received herBAin biology fromVassar CollegeinPoughkeepsie, New York, intending to become an expert on headaches like her father.While breaking into acting, she worked for her father for eight years and earned a research credit on his study on the comparative likelihood of left-handed individuals developingcluster headaches. Career 1989–1994: Pre-Friends At the urging of comedianJon Lovitz, who was a childhood friend of her brother,Kudrow began her comedic career as a member ofThe Groundlings, an improv and sketch comedy school in Los Angeles. She has creditedCynthia Szigeti, her improv teacher at The Groundlings, for changing her perspective on acting, calling her \"the best thing that happened, on so many levels\".Briefly, Kudrow joined withConan O'Brienand director Tim Hillman in the short-livedimprovtroupeUnexpected Company.She was also the only regular female member of the Transformers Comedy Troupe.She played a role in an episode of theNBCsitcomCheers. She tried out forSaturday Night Livein 1990, but the show choseJulia Sweeneyinstead.She had a recurring role as Kathy Fleisher in three episodes of season one of theBob NewhartsitcomBob(CBS, 1992–1993), a role she played after taking part in the series finale of Newhart's previous seriesNewhart.Prior toFriends, she appeared in at least two network-producedpilots: NBC'sJust Temporary(also known asTemporarily Yours) in 1989, playing Nicole; and CBS'Close Encounters(also known asMatchmaker) in 1990, playing aValley girl. Kudrow was cast asRoz DoyleinFrasier, but the role was re-cast withPeri Gilpinduring the taping of the pilot episode. In 2000, Kudrow explained that when rehearsals started, \"I knew it wasn't working. I could feel it all slipping away, and I was panicking, which only made things worse.\"Her first recurring television role wasUrsula Buffay, the eccentric waitress on the NBC sitcomMad About You. 1994–2004:Friendsand worldwide recognition Kudrow, the oldest actor of the main cast, reprised the character of Ursula on the NBC sitcomFriends, in which she co-starred asmassage therapistPhoebe Buffay, Ursula's twin sister.Praised for her performance, Kudrow was the firstFriendscast member to win anEmmy Awardwith her 1998 honor asOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her starring role as Phoebe onFriends(NBC, 1994–2004).Kudrow received critical acclaim for playing Phoebe. According to theGuinness Book of World Records(2005), Kudrow and co-starsJennifer AnistonandCourteney Coxbecame the highest paid TV actresses of all time, earning $1 million per episode for the ninth and tenth seasons ofFriends.Phoebe has since been named one of the greatest television characters of all time. Phoebe is considered to be Kudrow's breakout role, credited with making her the show's second-most famous cast member, afterJennifer Aniston, and for spawning her successful film career. She played Phoebe until the show ended in 2004. The program was a massive hit and Kudrow, along with her co-stars, gained worldwide recognition. Her character, Phoebe, was especially popular.Entertainment Weeklyvoted Phoebe onFriendsas Kudrow's best performance. During her tenure onFriends, Kudrow appeared in several comedy films such asRomy and Michele's High School Reunion,Hanging Up,Marci X,Dr. Dolittle 2,Analyze Thisand its sequelAnalyze That, and dramatic films, such asWonderlandandThe Opposite of Sex. She also guest-starred on numerous television series duringFriends, includingThe Simpsons,Hope and GloriaandKing of the Hill, and hostedSaturday Night Live. 2004–present: Post-Friends FollowingFriends, Kudrow starred as protagonist Valerie Cherish on the single-seasonHBOseriesThe Comeback(premiered June 5, 2005), about a has-been sitcom star trying for a comeback. She also served as co-creator, writer, and executive producer. Nine years after the original season,HBOrevived the series in 2014 for an abbreviated second season. Kudrow received two Emmy nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for her work onThe Comeback.Her production company is 'Is or Isn't Entertainment'.Kudrow serves as the executive producer for theU.S. versionof the British television seriesWho Do You Think You Are?, in which celebrities trace theirfamily trees. The subjects of the first series included Kudrow herself, in which it was discovered her great-grandmother was murdered in theHolocaust. Kudrow co-created an improvised comedy webseries,Web Therapyon Lstudio.com. The improv series, which launched online in 2008, has earned several Webby nominations and one Outstanding Comedic Performance Webby for Kudrow, who plays therapist Fiona Wallice. She offers her patients three-minute sessions over iChat.In July 2011, a reformatted, half-hour version of the show premiered on Showtime,before being cancelled in 2015 after four seasons.Kudrow has guest starred on multiple television series such asCougar Town,BoJack Horseman,Angie Tribeca,Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt, andScandal. Kudrow has appeared in multiple comedic films such asHappy Endings,Hotel for Dogs,Easy A,Neighborsand its sequelNeighbors 2: Sorority Rising,Long Shot, andBooksmart. She also appeared in theromantic drama filmP.S. I Love Youand co-starred in thethriller filmThe Girl on the Train.In 2020, Kudrow playedHypatia of Alexandriain season 4 episode 12 ofThe Good Place\"Patty\", and starred as Maggie Naird in theNetflixcomedy series,Space Force.She reunited with herFriendscast mates for an HBO Max unscripted television special titledFriends: The Reunionin May 2021. She is currently, along withMary McCormack, an executive producer of the syndicated game show,25 Words or Less; sometimes, Kudrow herself is one of the two celebrity guests playing with a contestant on the show. Personal life Kudrow married French advertising executive Michel Stern on May 27, 1995. The couple reside inBeverly Hills, California, and have a son named Julian who was born on May 7, 1998.Kudrow's pregnancy was written into the fourth season ofFriends, with her character having triplets as asurrogate motherfor her half-brother and his wife.In addition to her Beverly Hills home, Kudrow maintained a penthouse inPark City, Utah, which she sold in April 2017.She revealed in 2019 that she had experiencedbody dysmorphic disorderwhile working onFriends. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Kudrow has been honored with numerous accolades over her career. For her role in the sitcomFriends, she received six nominations at thePrimetime Emmy Awards, winning in 1998 forOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, won twoScreen Actors Guild Awards, oneSatellite Award, oneAmerican Comedyaward, and oneTV Guideaward. In total, she has received fifteen Emmy nominations, with her most recent nomination in the 2021Primetime Emmy Awards, twelve nominations and two wins at theScreen Actors Guild Awards, one win and eight nominations at theAmerican Comedy Awards, oneGolden Globenomination, oneBanff Rockieaward, oneBlockbuster Entertainmentaward, one Chicago Film Critics Association nomination, oneChlotrudisaward, twoCritics' Choice Televisionnominations, oneDorianaward, oneGracieaward, oneIndependent Spiritnomination, oneMTV Movie & TVnomination, one National Society of Film Critics nomination, oneNew York Film Critics Circleaward, oneNickelodeon Kids' Choicenomination, oneOnline Film Critics Societynomination, onePeople Magazineaward, five nominations and one win at theSatellite Awards, three nominations and one win at theTeen Choice Awards, twoStreamynominations, two nominations and one win at theTV Guide Awards, oneViewers for Quality Televisionnomination and seven nominations and four wins at theWebby Awards. References External links",
"Matt LeBlanc Matthew Steven LeBlanc(/ləˈblɒŋk/; born July 25, 1967) is an American actor. He garnered global recognition with his portrayal ofJoey Tribbianiin theNBCsitcomFriendsand in itsspin-offseries,Joey. For his work onFriends, LeBlanc received three nominations at thePrimetime Emmy Awards. He has also starred as a fictionalized version of himself inEpisodes(2011–2017), for which he won aGolden Globe Awardand received four additional Emmy Award nominations. He co-hostedTop Gearfrom 2016 to 2019. From 2016 to 2020, he played patriarch Adam Burns in the CBS sitcomMan with a Plan. Early life LeBlanc was born atNewton-Wellesley HospitalinNewton, Massachusetts. His mother, Patricia (née Di Cillo), was an office manager; his father, Paul LeBlanc, was a mechanic and a veteran of theVietnam War.His father is of French-Canadian descent and his mother is of Italian ancestry, the daughter of immigrants fromArce, Lazio.He attendedNewton North High School, where he graduated in the same year as future comedianLouis C.K.After high school he attended college atWentworth Institute of Technologyin Boston. He dropped out shortly after starting his second semester. LeBlanc moved to New York at the age of 17 to pursue a career in modeling, but he was told he was too short to be in the industry. His acting career began after a woman invited him to accompany her to an audition, where he ended up getting signed by her manager.Although he had booked commercials and television and film roles beforeFriends, he was reportedly down to his last eleven dollars before landing the role of Joey Tribbiani. Career 1987–1994: Early career LeBlanc first appeared in a 1987Heinz Tomato Ketchupcommercial. In 1988, he starred in the television dramaTV 101for one season. In 1991, he had a recurring role on the hitFoxsitcomMarried... with Children. He played Vinnie Verducci, a family friend of protagonistAl Bundy(Ed O'Neill) who briefly dates his daughter,Kelly(Christina Applegate). He also guest-starred in the first season ofRed Shoe Diaries. LeBlanc starred in two short-livedMarried... with Childrenspin-offs:Top of the Heap(1991) andVinnie & Bobby(1992). He appeared in twoBon Jovimusic videos: \"Miracle,\" from theYoung Guns IIsoundtrack in 1990, and \"Say It Isn't So\" in 2000.He also appeared in videos forAlanis Morissette's single \"Walk Away,\"Tom Petty & The Heartbreakers's \"Into The Great Wide Open\" andBob Seger's \"Night Moves\". 1994–2006:Friends,Joeyand film roles LeBlanc found success as the dimwitted but lovableJoey TribbianionFriends; he played this character for 12 years — 10 seasons ofFriendsand two seasons ofJoey.Friendswas wildly successful, and LeBlanc (along with co-starsJennifer Aniston,Courteney Cox,Lisa Kudrow,Matthew Perry, andDavid Schwimmer) gained wide recognition among viewers. This ensemble situation comedy became a major hit for NBC, airing on Thursday nights for ten years. For his performance, LeBlanc received threePrimetime Emmy Awardnominations, threeGolden Globeaward nominations, and oneScreen Actors Guild Awardnomination. During this time he also appeared in the filmsLookin' Italian(1994),Ed(1996),Lost in Space(1998),Charlie's Angels(2000), and its sequel,Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle(2003). Following the cancellation ofJoey, LeBlanc announced that he would be taking a one-year hiatus from acting on television, which eventually turned into five years. 2011–present: Career revival From 2011, LeBlanc appeared as a fictionalized version of himself inEpisodes,a television series about an American remake of a fictional British television series.The series is written byFriendsco-creatorDavid Craneand his partnerJeffrey Klarik.At the69th Golden Globe Awardsin 2012, LeBlanc won theGolden Globe Award for Best Actorin a television series, musical, or comedy, and was nominated for an additional fourPrimetime Emmy Awards. In February 2012, LeBlanc appeared in the second episode of the eighteenth season ofTop Gear, where he set the fastest lap time in the \"Star in a Reasonably Priced Car\" segment in aKia Cee'd. Lapping at 1:42.1, he beat the show's previous record-holder,Rowan Atkinson, by 0.1 seconds.He also appeared in the fourth episode of the nineteenth season to race the New Kia Cee'd, and beat his previous time. In February 2016, theBBCannounced LeBlanc had signed on to become one of the newTop Gearhosts,signing a two-year deal later that year.In May 2018, he announced that he was leaving the series in order to spend more time with his family and friends in the US.He andRory Reidwere replaced by new co-hostsPaddy McGuinnessandAndrew Flintoffin the twenty-seventh series in October 2018. LeBlanc played the lead role in theCBSsitcomMan with a Plan, which began airing in 2016 until it was cancelled in 2020. Personal life LeBlanc has an extensive interest in cars, and worked as a carpenter before acting.In the mid-1990s, he dated actressKate Hudson.He married Melissa McKnight, a British-born American model and a divorced single mother of two children, in May 2003.In 1997, they had been introduced to each other by McKnight's friend, Kelly Phillips (wife of actorLou Diamond Phillips). LeBlanc proposed to her a year later.Their daughter, born in 2004, began suffering seizures at eight months old. By the time she was two years old, the condition, thought to be due to corticaldysplasia, had mostly subsided.LeBlanc and McKnight divorced in October 2006, citingirreconcilable differences. LeBlanc met actressAndrea Andersin 2004 while she was co-starring as his friend and eventual love interest onJoeyand the pair eventually embarked on a relationship which was confirmed in 2006 following LeBlanc's split from his wife Melissa McKnight.After over eight years as a couple, LeBlanc announced at the start of 2015 that he and Anders had been broken up for several months. LeBlanc primarily resides inPacific Palisades, Los Angeles. Filmography Film Television Music videos Awards and nominations References External links",
"Matthew Perry Matthew Langford Perry(August 19, 1969 – October 28, 2023) was an American and Canadian actor. He gained international fame for starring asChandler Bingon theNBCtelevision sitcomFriends(1994–2004). Perry also appeared onAlly McBeal(2002) and receivedPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations for his performances inThe West Wing(2003) andThe Ron Clark Story(2006). He played a leading role in the NBC seriesStudio 60 on the Sunset Strip(2006–2007), and also became known for his leading film roles inFools Rush In(1997),Almost Heroes(1998),Three to Tango(1999),The Whole Nine Yards(2000),Serving Sara(2002),The Whole Ten Yards(2004), and17 Again(2009). Perry was co-creator, co-writer, executive producer, and star of theABCsitcomMr. Sunshine, which ran from February to April 2011. In August 2012, he starred as sportscaster Ryan King on the NBC sitcomGo On. He co-developed and starred in a revival of theCBSsitcomThe Odd Coupleportraying Oscar Madison from 2015 to 2017. He had recurring roles in the legal dramasThe Good Wife(2012–2013), andThe Good Fight(2017). Perry portrayedTed KennedyinThe Kennedys: After Camelot(2017) and appeared as himself in his final television appearance,Friends: The Reunion(2021). He voiced Benny in the video gameFallout: New Vegas(2010). For most of his life, Perry suffered from severe addictions todrugsandalcohol. Through his recovery, he became an advocate for rehabilitation and a spokesperson for theNational Association of Drug Court Professionals. In 2013, Perry received the Champion of Recovery Award from theWhite House Office of National Drug Control Policy. In 2022, he released his memoir,Friends, Lovers, and the Big Terrible Thing. In 2023, Perry died from the acute effects ofketamineuse; the following year, five people were charged in connection with helping him acquire lethal doses of the drug. Early life and education Matthew Langford Perry was born inWilliamstown, Massachusetts, on August 19, 1969.His mother, Suzanne Marie Morrison (née Langford, born 1948),is a Canadian journalist who was press secretary to Canadian prime ministerPierre Trudeau. His father,John Bennett Perry(born 1941), is an American actor and former model. Perry's parents separated when he was a year old, and his mother married Canadian broadcast journalistKeith Morrison. Perry was mostly raised by his mother in Ottawa, Ontario, but he also lived briefly in Toronto and Montreal.He attendedRockcliffe Park Public SchoolandAshbury College, a boarding school in Ottawa.He had four younger maternal half-siblings—Caitlin, Emily, Will, and Madeline—as well as a younger paternal half-sister named Maria. His siblings \"would stand and applaud\" him for early performances. By the time he was 10, Perry started misbehaving. He stole money, smoked, let his grades slip, and beat up fellow student and future Canadian prime ministerJustin Trudeau.Perry later attributed his behavior to his feeling like a family outsider who no longer belonged, once his mother began having children with Morrison. As Perry wrote, \"I was so often on the outside looking in, still that kid up in the clouds on a flight to somewhere else, unaccompanied.\"At age 14, he began consuming alcohol and, by the time he was 18, was drinking every day.Perry practiced tennis, often for 10 hours per day,and became a top-ranked junior player in Canada with the possibility of a tennis career. But his prospects diminished when he moved from Ottawa, at age 15, to live with his father in Los Angeles, where competition was much tougher. At 15, Perry began studying acting at theBuckley School, acollege-preparatory schoolinSherman Oaks, Los Angeles, from which he graduated in 1987.While in high school, he tookimprovisational comedyclasses at L.A. Connection in Sherman Oaks. Career 1979–1993: Early roles Perry's first credited role was a small part in240-Robertin 1979 as a child actor.Shortly after moving to Los Angeles, Perry started auditioning for roles.Perry made guest appearances onNot Necessarily the Newsin 1983,Charles in Chargein 1985, andSilver Spoonsin 1986.In 1987 and 1988, he played Chazz Russell in the TV seriesSecond Chance(later calledBoys Will Be Boys). Perry made his film debut in 1988 withA Night in the Life of Jimmy Reardon.In 1989, he had a three-episode arc onGrowing Pains, portraying Carol Seaver's boyfriend Sandy, who dies in adrunk drivingincident. Perry was cast as a regular on the 1990 CBS sitcomSydney, playing the younger brother ofValerie Bertinelli's character.In 1991, he made a guest appearance onBeverly Hills, 90210as Roger Azarian.Perry played the starring role in theABCsitcomHome Free, which aired in 1993. 1994–2004: Breakthrough withFriends Perry's commitment to a pilot for a sitcom calledLAX 2194, set in the baggage handling department of Los Angeles Airport 200 years in the future,initially made him unavailable for a role in another pilot,Six of One, later calledFriends. After theLAX 2194pilot fell through, he had the opportunity to read for a part inSix of Oneand was cast asChandler Bing. At the age of 24, he was the youngest member of the main cast.After making the pilot and while waiting for the show to air, Perry spent the summer of 1993 performing at theWilliamstown Theater FestivalalongsideGwyneth Paltrow. Friendswas hugely successful, and it made Perry an international celebrity.By 2002, he and his co-starsJennifer Aniston,Courteney Cox,Lisa Kudrow,Matt LeBlanc, andDavid Schwimmerwere making $1 million per episode.The program earned him anEmmynomination in 2002 for theOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Seriesaward.Perry appeared in films suchFools Rush In,Almost Heroes,Three to Tango,The Whole Nine Yardsand its sequelThe Whole Ten Yards, andServing Sara.In 1995, he and Jennifer Aniston appeared in a 60-minute-long promotional video for Microsoft'sWindows 95, released onVHSon August 1. For his performance as Joe Quincy inThe West Wing, Perry received twoEmmynominations for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2003 and 2004.He appeared as attorney Todd Merrick in two episodes ofAlly McBeal.In 2004, he made his directorial debut and acted in an episode of the fourth season of the comedy-dramaScrubs, an episode which included his father. 2005–2022: Later work Perry starred in theTNTmovieThe Ron Clark Story,which premiered August 13, 2006,and received aGolden GlobeandEmmynomination for his performance.From 2006 to 2007, he appeared inAaron Sorkin's dramaStudio 60 on the Sunset Strip. Perry played Matt Albie alongsideBradley Whitford's Danny Tripp, a writer-director duo brought in to help save a failingsketch show. In 2006, Perry began filmingNumb, a film based on a man suffering fromdepersonalization disorder. The release was postponed several times, but it was finally released on DVD on May 13, 2008.Perry also appeared on stage in London inDavid Mamet'sSexual Perversity in Chicago.In 2008, Perry starred in the independent filmBirds of America.Showtimepassed on a pilot calledThe End of Steve, adark comedystarring, written, and produced by Perry andPeter Tolan. In 2009, Perry starred in the film17 Againplaying a 37-year-old man who transforms into his 17-year-old self (Zac Efron) after an accident.The film received mixed reviews and was a box-office success.A review onWRC-TVfound Perry miscast in his role, emphasizing the disbelief in Efron growing up to resemble Perry, both physically and behaviorally — a sentiment echoed by other critics. In 2009, Perry was a guest onThe Ellen DeGeneres Show, when he presentedEllen DeGenereswith anXbox 360video game console and a copy of the gameFallout 3. The gesture led to game studioObsidian Entertainmentcasting him inFallout: New Vegasas the voice of Benny. Perry's new comedy pilot,Mr. Sunshine, based on his original idea for the show, was bought byABC.He played the lead role as a middle-aged man with an identity crisis.ABC canceled the series after nine episodes in 2011. In 2012, Perry starred in the NBC comedy seriesGo On, written and produced by formerFriendswriter/producerScott Silveri. Perry portrayed Ryan King, a sportscaster who tries to move on after the death of his wife through the help of mandatory therapy sessions.In the same year, he guest-starred on the CBS dramaThe Good Wifeas attorney Mike Kresteva. He reprised his role in the fourth season in 2013. In 2014, Perry made his British TV debut in the one-off comedy programThe Dog Thrower, which aired on May 1 as part ofSky Arts'Playhouse Presents. He portrayed \"a charismatic man\" who enchanted onlookers by throwing his dog in the air.From 2015 to 2017, Perry starred in, co-wrote, and served as executive producer of a reboot of the sitcomThe Odd Coupleon CBS. He played Oscar Madison oppositeThomas Lennonas Felix Unger. Perry played the lead role in the world premiere production of his playThe End of Longing, which opened on February 11, 2016, at thePlayhouse Theatrein London.Its limited run proved successful despite mixed reviews.Perry restructured the play and appeared alongsideJennifer Morrisonin its secondoff-Broadwayproduction, which opened at theLucille Lortel Theatreon June 5, 2017. It closed on July 1 after receiving poor reviews.Years later Perry described the play as \"a personal message to the world, an exaggerated form of me as a drunk. I had something important to say to people like me, and to people who love people like me.\" In March 2017, Perry again reprised his role as attorney Mike Kresteva inThe Good Fight, a sequel show to the CBS dramaThe Good Wife.Later that year, he starred asTed Kennedyin the mini-seriesThe Kennedys: After Camelot. In May 2021, he participated in the special episodeFriends: The Reunion.He was meant to have a role inDon't Look Up, but withdrew in 2020 because of CPR-induced broken ribs.Perry published a memoir,Friends, Lovers, and the Big Terrible Thing, in October 2022. It became a bestseller on both Amazon andThe New York Timescharts. Personal life Perry held Canadian and American citizenship. He datedYasmine Bleethin 1995,Julia Robertsfrom 1995 to 1996, andLizzy Caplanfrom 2006 to 2012.In November 2020, Perry became engaged to literary manager Molly Hurwitz. Their engagement ended in 2021. Residences owned at some point by Perry included a condo inSierra Towerspurchased fromElton John, a house inHollywood Hills, a house inMalibu, and a cottage inPacific Palisades.In 2017, Perry purchased a condo occupying the top floor ofThe Centuryin Los Angeles for $20 million,selling it toNick Molnarfor $21.6 million in 2021, who in turn sold it toRihannain 2023.In June 2023, Perry purchased amid-century modernhouse inHollywood Hills. Perry had aperfectionistandobsessivepersonality, spending many hours perfecting hisanswering machinemessage.He also believed in God, with whom he had \"a very close relationship,\"calling himself \"a seeker.\" Health and addiction In his memoirs, Perry wrote that by the age of 14, he had become an alcoholic.He became addicted toVicodinafter ajet skiaccident in 1997, and completed a 28-day rehab program at theHazelden Betty Ford Foundationthat year.His weight dropped to 128 pounds (58 kg) as he took as many as 55 Vicodin pills per day.In May 2000, at the age of 30, he was admitted toCedars-Sinai Medical Centerwith alcohol-inducedpancreatitis. While Perry said in 2002 that, although he had made an effort not to drink on the set ofFriends, he did arrive with extremehangoversand sometimes would shake or sweat excessively on set.During the later seasons of the series, he was frequently drunk or high on set. His castmates made efforts to help him, even staging anintervention,but were unsuccessful. In February 2001, Perry paused productions ofFriendsandServing Sarafor two monthsso that he could enter in-patient rehabilitation for his addictions to Vicodin,methadone,amphetamines, andalcohol.He said later that, due to hissubstance use disorder, he had no memory of three years of his work onFriends. In 2018, Perry spent five months in a hospital for agastrointestinal perforation. During the hospital stay, Perry nearly died after hiscolonburst fromopioidabuse. He spent two weeks in a coma and used acolostomy bagfor nine months. Upon being admitted to the hospital, doctors told his family that Perry had a 2% chance of survival. He was connected to anextracorporeal membrane oxygenation(ECMO) machine. Two years later, while attending rehab inSwitzerland, Perry faked pain to get a prescription for 1,800 milligrams ofhydrocodoneper day and was having dailyketamineinfusions. He was givenpropofolin conjunction with a surgery, which stopped his heart for five minutes. The resultingcardiopulmonary resuscitation(CPR) resulted in eight broken ribs. He paid $175,000 for a private jet to take him to Los Angeles to get more drugs. When doctors there refused, Perry spent another $175,000 to take a private jet back to Switzerland.In 2022, he estimated that he had spent $9 million on his addiction, including 14 stomach surgeries, 15 stays in rehab, and therapy twice a week for 30 years and had attended approximately 6,000Alcoholics Anonymousmeetings. Philanthropy and advocacy In July 2011, Perry lobbied theUnited States Congressas a celebrity spokesperson for theNational Association of Drug Court Professionalsin support of funding fordrug courts.He received a Champion of Recovery award in May 2013 from the White HouseOffice of National Drug Control Policyfor opening Perry House, a rehab center in his former mansion in Malibu.In 2015, Perry sold the mansion and relocated its services.During theCOVID-19 pandemic, he launched an apparel line inspired byFriends, with proceeds donated to theWorld Health Organization'sCOVID-19relief fund. Death On October 28, 2023, Perry was found unresponsive in ahot tubat his home in Los Angeles. He was pronounced dead at 4:17pm that day at the age of 54. On November 3, 2023, Perry's funeral was held atForest Lawn Memorial Parkin Los Angeles where he was buried.His father, mother, and stepfather attended, as did his fiveFriendsco-stars.ThePeter GabrielandKate Bushsong \"Don't Give Up\" was played; Perry was enamored with the song and referenced it in signed copies of his autobiography, released in part to help people suffering from depression or addiction issues.Following Perry's death, theNational Philanthropic Trustestablished the Matthew Perry Foundation to support people suffering from addiction. On December 15, 2023, Perry's death was revealed to have occurred due to acute effects ofketamine.Other circumstances that contributed to his death included the effects ofbuprenorphine, drowning, andcoronary artery disease.TheLos Angeles County Department of Medical Examinersaid in a statement that ...at the high levels of ketamine found in hispost-mortemblood specimens, the main lethal effects would be from both cardiovascular overstimulation and respiratory depression... ...drowning contributes due to the likelihood of submersion into the pool as he lapsed into unconsciousness; coronary artery disease contributes due to exacerbation of ketamine induced myocardial effects on the heart.The ketamine in his system at death could not be from that infusion therapy, since ketamine'shalf-lifeis 3 to 4 hours, or less. Perry had been receivingketamine-assisted psychotherapysessions to treat anxiety at the time of his death, his last known session of which having been the week prior to his death. However, the report stated that the therapy couldn't have resulted in his death. In May 2024, an investigation was opened by the Los Angeles Police Department to determine how Perry obtained the high dose of ketamine that caused his death.On August 15, 2024, indictments and charges were filed against five people: Perry's personal assistant, two doctors, and two drug dealers (including TV directorErik Fleming),alleging involvement in the distribution of ketamine that caused the death of Perry and one other person.Three agreed to plead guilty,with two, Fleming and Perry's former assistant Kenneth Iwamasa, having their guilty pleas entered into court soon after being charged;Iwamasa pled guilty on August 7, 2024, while Fleming would plead guilty on August 8.During a court hearing on August 30, 2024, it was agreed that former doctor Mark Chavez, who had signed a plea agreement but had not yet officially entered it into court, would have his guilty plea accepted, though he will still not officially plead guilty until a later court appearance.Chavez would have his medical license suspended the next month and would officially plead guilty at a court hearing held on October 2, 2024.According to U.S. Attorney Martin Estrada, Perry paid the two doctors $55,000 in cash for ketamine in the two months before his death.Iwamasa admitted to obtaining ketamine for Perry and injecting him with the drug, while Fleming admitted to obtaining the ketamine from the supplier and giving it to Iwamasa for Perry to use.Text messages also revealed that the other doctor, who is currently awaiting trial, would purchase the ketamine from Chavez. Acting credits Film Television Theatre Video games Specials Awards and nominations Publications Notes References External links",
"David Schwimmer David Lawrence Schwimmer(born November 2, 1966)is an American actor, director, comedian, and producer. He gained worldwide recognition for portrayingRoss Gellerin the sitcomFriends, for which he received aScreen Actors Guild Awardand aPrimetime Emmy Awardnomination forOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Seriesin 1995. While still acting inFriends, his first leading film role was inThe Pallbearer(1996), followed by roles inKissing a Fool;Six Days, Seven Nights;Apt Pupil(all 1998); andPicking Up the Pieces(2000). He was then cast in the miniseriesBand of Brothers(2001) asHerbert Sobel. Schwimmer began his acting career performing in school plays atBeverly Hills High School. In 1988, he graduated fromNorthwestern Universitywith aBachelor of Artsin theater and speech. After graduation, Schwimmer co-founded theLookingglass Theatre Company. For much of the late 1980s, he lived inLos Angelesas a struggling, unemployed actor, until he starred in the television movieA Deadly Silencein 1989 and appeared in a number of television roles in the early 1990s, includingL.A. Law,The Wonder Years,NYPD Blue, andMonty. After the series finale ofFriendsin 2004, Schwimmer branched out into film and stage work. He was cast as the title character in the 2005 drama filmDuane Hopwood, and voicedMelman the Giraffein the animatedMadagascarfilm franchise, acted in the dark comedyBig Nothing(2006), and the thrillerNothing but the Truth(2008). Schwimmer made hisWest Endstage debut in the leading role in 2005'sSome Girl(s). He made hisBroadwaydebut inThe Caine Mutiny Court-Martialin 2006. His feature film directorial debut followed in 2007 with the comedyRun Fatboy Run, and the following year he made hisOff-Broadwaydirectorial debut inFault Lines. He has also worked as a director, including many episodes ofFriendsduring his time on the series. In 2016, Schwimmer starred as lawyerRobert KardashianinThe People v. O. J. Simpson, for which he received his second Primetime Emmy Award nomination, this time forOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie. Early life Schwimmer was born in 1966 inFlushing, Queens,New York City, to attorneys Arthur (born 1941) and Arlene Coleman-Schwimmer (born 1940).His family isJewish.He has an older sister named Ellie Schwimmer (born 1965).His family subsequently moved to Los Angeles, where Schwimmer, at 10, had his first acting experience when he was cast as the fairy godmother in a Jewish version ofCinderella.In 1979, Schwimmer went to a Shakespeare workshop given by English actor SirIan McKellenin Los Angeles.He recalls being riveted by the experience.Schwimmer then entered a contest in the Southern California Shakespeare Festival three years in a row, winning two first prizes. Following his mother's successful career as a divorce lawyer, the family moved toBeverly Hills, where Schwimmer attendedBeverly Hills High School.His classmates included actorJonathan Silverman. Schwimmer admitted to feeling like an outsider during his time at the school, recalling, \"When I was there I always felt: 'This is not me, I'm surrounded by people with a different value system. And I just wanted to get out of California.'\"His best subjects were science and math and he originally wanted to become a doctor.Schwimmer enrolled in a drama class, where he appeared in stage productions. Encouraged by his school drama teacher to further his acting, he flew to Chicago for a summer acting program atNorthwestern University. He noted that the experience was both \"enlightening and exhilarating\".In 1984, Schwimmer graduated from Beverly Hills High and wanted to go straight into acting, but his parents insisted he go to college first so he would have something to fall back on.Schwimmer enrolled in Northwestern University, where he had attended the summer acting program earlier.He had originally intended on becoming a surgeon, having studied various body systems but eventually decided to pursue acting professionally.At the university, he studied theater and was in an improv group withStephen Colbert, the No-Fun Mud Piranhas.After graduating in 1988, with a Bachelor of Arts degree in theater and speech, Schwimmer co-founded theLookingglass Theatre Company.Subsequently, he returned to Los Angeles to pursue an acting career. Career 1989–1994: Early work After his supporting role debut in theABCtelevision movieA Deadly Silence(1989),Schwimmer followed this with roles on the legal dramaL.A. Lawin 1992, and the comedy-drama seriesThe Wonder Years.He made his feature film debut inFlight of the Intruder(1991),had a recurring role as a lawyer-turned-vigilante inNYPD Bluebefore auditioning, unsuccessfully, for a series pilot calledCouples.He landed his first regular series role as the liberal son of a conservative talk show host (Henry Winkler) in the sitcomMonty. 1994–2004: Breakthrough In 1994, Schwimmer was cast asRoss GellerinNBC's situation comedyFriends, a series that revolved around a group of friends who live near each other inManhattan. He played a hopeless-romanticpaleontologistwho works at a museum and later becomes a professor at a university. Schwimmer initially turned down the role as Ross, but accepted later.Executive producerKevin S. Brightsaid that he had previously worked with Schwimmer,the character of Ross was written with him in mind, and he was the first actor cast.The show debuted on September 22, 1994, and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers.Friendsquickly developed a loyal audience, with the show and Schwimmer receiving strong reviews. Much of theFriendssuccess is attributed to the plotline between his character Ross and his on-again-off-again love interest Rachel, which has been described as one of the greatest TV couples of all time by various media outlets.ThePittsburgh Post-Gazettewas complimentary of Schwimmer, calling him \"terrific\".Variety's television reviewer said: \"All six of the principals, especially (Courteney) Cox and Schwimmer, appear resourceful and display sharp sitcom skills\".For this performance, he earned aPrimetime Emmy Awardnomination forOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Seriesin 1995. Schwimmer starred in his first leading film role in the 1996 romantic comedy film,The PallbearerwithGwyneth Paltrow.In the film, Schwimmer plays a man asked to deliver the eulogy for a high school friend he cannot remember, and begins an affair with the friend's mother. Critics dismissedThe Pallbeareras a poor imitation of the 1967 filmThe Graduate.Variety's film reviewer complimented the actor, writing that he had enjoyed his performance, stating that he displayed \"a winning, if rather deadpan, personality along with good comic timing\".It also concluded that Schwimmer had a \"promising bigscreen future\".Janet MaslinofThe New York Timescited that his first film \"relegates him to a drab role\".When asked why he decided to accept the role, Schwimmer admitted the decision was to \"make an effort to find roles that are as far away from the character of Ross as possible.\"Schwimmer was chosen to play a leading role in the 1997Men in Blackbut he turned it down. He later regretted this decision. Ultimately,Will Smithgot the role. His next film roles, in 1998, wereKissing a Fool,Six Days, Seven Nights, andApt Pupil. InKissing a Fool, a romantic comedy, Schwimmer played Max, a smart-mouthed, but dapper and charming man.Mick LaSalleof theSan Francisco Chroniclewrote, \"Fans of the sitcomFriendsmay be surprised by David Schwimmer inKissing a Fool. Take it from someone who has never seenFriendsand comes at Schwimmer with no preconceptions: He does just fine. As a TV sports reporter inKissing a Fool, he oozes the command and self-satisfaction of a young, successful man.\"The film was critically and financially unsuccessful.InSix Days, Seven Nights, he played the boyfriend ofAnne Heche's character. InApt Pupil, adapted from anovella of the same namebyStephen King,he had a supporting role as a school guidance counselor. \"I was scared of the part\", Schwimmer said, \"but I wanted to be part of the movie\". At the time, he noted it was a \"little frustrating\" that people would typecast him due to his role onFriends.He subsequently appeared oppositeWoody AllenandSharon StoneinAlfonso Arau's straight-to-cable comedyPicking Up the Pieces(2000). In 2001, Schwimmer playedCaptain Herbert M. SobelinSteven SpielbergandTom Hanks'HBOWorld War IIminiseriesBand of Brothers. The television miniseries is based on the book of the same title written by historian and biographerStephen Ambrose.AlthoughBand of Brotherswas met with largely positive reception,Schwimmer's performance was criticized; theBBC Newsconcluded, \"Part of the problem ... may have been the ridiculous fact thatFriendsfavourite David Schwimmer plays the hard and cruel Captain Herbert Sobel. The only thing believable about Schwimmer's acting is when he cowers in the face of true battle. His puppy dog eyes make him appear even more pitiful.\"Later that year he portrayedYitzhak Zuckermanin the war dramaUprising, based on the true events of theWarsaw Ghetto Uprisingin 1943. In March 2004, Schwimmer appeared as himself on HBO's comedy seriesCurb Your Enthusiasm.During the lengthy run ofFriends, Schwimmer directed ten of the show's episodes.The show's tenth and final season ended on May 6, 2004. 2004–2010: Directing In 2004, Schwimmer was director and executive producer onNevermind Nirvana, a sitcom about anIndian Americanfamily that was not picked up by NBC.AfterFriends, Schwimmer starred in the 2005 independent dramaDuane Hopwood, as the title character, who is an alcoholic whose life is spiraling downward rapidly after a divorce and is looking to turn his life around. The film received ambivalent reviews.Despite the reception, Schwimmer's performance was favored by critics;Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesreported that the role was Schwimmer's \"career-transforming performance.\"Duane Hopwoodwas screened at a special presentation at the 2005Sundance Film Festival.Furthermore, in the same year he voicedMelman, ahypochondriacgiraffe, in the animated filmMadagascar(2005).The Washington Postnoted that Schwimmer is particularly appealing as Melman.Despite the mixed response from critics,the film was a commercial success, earning US$532 million worldwide,making it one of the biggest hits of 2005. Schwimmer starred on the London stage in May 2005, withCatherine Tate,Lesley Manville,Sara Powell, andSaffron Burrows, inNeil LaBute'sSome Girl(s)at theGielgud Theatre.In the production, he plays a teacher who is ready to settle down and marry, but decides to visit four ex-girlfriends first.For his performance, Schwimmer received critical reviews.The Independentwrote that Schwimmer \"is not called upon to extend his range nearly as far as one might have expected inSome Girl(s). Schwimmer remains bland, competent, and boyish—though not fatally boyish in the manner that appears to have turned these women on.\"However,Charles SpencerofThe Daily Telegraphpraised Schwimmer, reporting he \"proves inspired casting. He takes to the stage with ... his endearing gaucheness seems designed to ensure our continued sympathy. Schwimmer mercilessly lays bare his character's opportunism, casual cruelties, and chronic self-deception.\" In 2006, he made hisBroadwaydebut inHerman Wouk's two-act playThe Caine Mutiny Court-Martial.Schwimmer played the role of Lieutenant Barney Greenwald in the production, which was directed byJerry Zaks.In an interview withNew Yorkmagazine, he revealed that he had wanted to try Broadway, however said \"a couple of things came up that just never quite felt right. Either because I liked the play but wasn't hot on the director, or there was another star attached that I wasn't jazzed about working with.\"He further added that when showed a copy of Wouk's novel \"...I was shocked at how good the writing was.\"His next film role was in the 2006 black comedyBig Nothing, in which he played a bitter, unemployed scientist. Schwimmer made his directorial feature debut in the 2007 British comedy filmRun Fatboy Run. The film starsSimon Peggas an out of shape man who signs up for a marathon to convince his former fiancée and five-year-old son that he has turned his life around.When asked why he decided to direct the film, Schwimmer said: \"As a director, I was struck by the challenge that I thought the script presented, which was that it was kind of three films in one. You had some great, big physical comedy, and I thought funny dialogue and characters. And then there was some real emotion to it with the relationship between the father and the son and the romance aspect.\"Run Fatboy Rungarnered mixed reception, with theNew York Daily Newsrating it one-and-a-half out of five stars and writing, \"Most disappointing is how Schwimmer—who spent 10 seasons on a sitcom filled with hyperverbal characters—manages to bumble 'Fatboy's' tender moments.\"USA Today, however, was favorable towards Schwimmer, reporting he possesses filmmaking finesse \"having wisely chosen strong comic material for his debut behind the camera.\"For his directorial work, he was nominated for aBritish Independent Film Awardin the category of Best Debut Director. On November 8, 2007, Schwimmer made a guest appearance in thesecond seasonof the television series30 Rock, where he played Greenzo, an NBC environmental mascot.The following year, he was part of anensemble castthat includedKate Beckinsale,Matt Dillon,Alan Alda,Angela Bassett, andNoah Wylein the thrillerNothing But the Truth(2008).The movie received generally favorable reviews.The success ofMadagascarled Schwimmer to return to the role of Melman in the 2008 sequel,Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa. The film earned US$603 million at the international box office.Schwimmer took part in directing in-studio segments forLittle Britain USA, an American spin-off of the BritishBBCtelevision seriesLittle Britain.In regard to this, he commented that he had \"a good time directing episodes\" for the show. In October 2008, Schwimmer made his Off-Broadway directorial debut inFault Linesat theCherry Lane Theatrein New York.The production won a mixed review from theLos Angeles Times, which wrote: \"Based onFault Lines... we can't really tell whether Schwimmer has much talent as a director. We're surprised he didn't try something more challenging for his debut. If not much else, Schwimmer has encouraged his actors to intense their energy levels and comic timing at all costs\".TheNew York Post, however, noted that Schwimmer \"knows a thing or two about freewheeling banter ... and for a good while the play crackles with terrific dialogue, expertly delivered\".In February 2009, he returned to theater in a Chicago production ofThornton Wilder's three-act playOur Townas George Gibbs at theLookingglass Theatre.\"Schwimmer ... turns in a poignant, richly textured and demonstrably heartfelt performance as George Gibbs. I've seen a fair bit of Schwimmer's post-Friendsstage work in London and New York, and I've never seen him better\", commented theChicago Tribune. On August 2, 2009, Schwimmer played himself in thesixth seasonof theHBOtelevision series,Entourage. In the episode,Ari Gold's (Jeremy Piven) agency tries to steer his career back to television.Schwimmer directed his second feature,Trust, starringClive OwenandCatherine Keener. The film, a drama, is about a family whose teenage daughter becomes victim of an online sexual predator.Trustpremiered at the2010 Toronto International Film Festival. 2010–present: Return to television On January 1, 2011, Schwimmer guest-starred on the British comedy seriesCome Fly With MestarringMatt LucasandDavid Walliams, whom he directed inLittle Britain USA.The following year, he returned to voice Melman the Giraffe inMadagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted.In 2013, Schwimmer appeared as Josh Rosenthal, a mobster who was brought up by the notoriousRoy DeMeoand part of theGambino Family, alongsideMichael ShannoninThe Iceman. In 2014, Schwimmer was cast as the lead in the ABC comedy pilotIrreversible, playing \"one half of a somewhat eccentric, self-absorbed couple\".In 2016, Schwimmer playedRobert Kardashianin the first season of the FX anthology seriesAmerican Crime Story. He received aPrimetime Emmy Awardnomination for his performance.In January 2016, Schwimmer andJim Sturgesswere cast to star in the newAMCcrime dramaFeed the Beast. The series premiered on June 5, 2016, and aired 10 episodes through August before being canceled.In November 2016, it was announced that Schwimmer would star in his first audio series.Gimlet Media'spodcastHomecomingbegan airing on November 16, 2016. In April 2017, Schwimmer helped adapt the films ofSigal Avinfor a US audience. The six short features depict sexual harassment at work by men on women. In 2020, Schwimmer was cast as a main character in the British sitcomIntelligencebroadcast onSky One.In the same year, he was a celebrity reader onCBeebiesBedtime Stories,and was signed as the face of British banking chainTSB. Schwimmer featured inJews Don't Count, a 2022 documentary by British Jewish comedianDavid Baddielon the subject ofantisemitism. Schwimmer's contribution, in which he said that he has never felt white, was described as \"erudite\" by Rebecca Nicholson ofThe Guardian. Schwimmer will be starting in season 2 of the anthology horror seriesGoosebumps, based on thebook series of the same nameon January 2025. Personal life Schwimmer dated singer-songwriterNatalie Imbrugliain the late 1990s. Schwimmer andJennifer Anistonadmitted to having crushes on each other early on while filmingFriendsduring HBO Max'sFriends: The Reunion.Schwimmer began a relationship with British artistZoë Buckmanin 2007and they married on June 4, 2010. Their child Cleo Buckman Schwimmer was born in 2011.The couple announced in April 2017 that they were \"taking some time apart\".They divorced later that year.Schwimmer and his ex-wife are on good terms and continue to co-parent their child amicably. He tends to keep his personal life away from the media to preserve his daughter's childhood. Schwimmer primarily lives inEast Village, Manhattan.He previously had a loft inNear West Side, Chicagoas well as a house inHancock Park, Los Angeles. In June 2006, Schwimmer won a US$400,000defamationlawsuit against Aaron Tonken, a former charity fundraiser. Tonken claimed Schwimmer had demandedRolexwatches in order to appear at his own charity event, a claim that Schwimmer had denied. Schwimmer is an active director of the Rape Treatment Center inSanta Monica, which specializes in helping victims of date rape and child rape.He has also campaigned for legislation to ban drugs such asRohypnolandGHB.In November 2011, he gave the Scottish charityChildren 1stpermission to screen his filmTrustto commemorate World Day for Prevention of Child Abuse and Violence against Children. In 2012, he rebutted two longstanding rumors: one that he appeared as a soldier on a train inBiloxi Blues(1988), saying, \"No. I don't know why that's onIMDb, but I never was in that\" (the credit has since been removed), and the other that he is related to dancerLacey Schwimmer, saying, \"No, not at all. Please set the record straight. I guess it's a natural assumption because we have the same last name, but no. I've never even met her\". Filmography Film Television Director/producer Awards and nominations See also References External links"
] | [
"Friends Friendsis an American televisionsitcomcreated byDavid CraneandMarta Kauffman, which aired onNBCfrom September 22, 1994, to May 6, 2004, lastingten seasons.With anensemble caststarringJennifer Aniston,Courteney Cox,Lisa Kudrow,Matt LeBlanc,Matthew PerryandDavid Schwimmer, the show revolves around six friends in their 20s and early 30s who live inManhattan, New York City. The original executive producers wereKevin S. Bright, Kauffman, and Crane. Kauffman and Crane began developingFriendsunder theworking titleInsomnia Cafebetween November and December 1993. They presented the idea to Bright, and together they pitched a seven-page treatment of the show to NBC. After several script rewrites and changes, including title changes toSix of OneandFriends Like Us, the series was finally namedFriends.Filming took place atWarner Bros. StudiosinBurbank, California. The series was produced by Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions andWarner Bros. Television. The show ranked within the top ten of the finaltelevision",
"the finaltelevision seasonratings; it ultimately reached the number-one spot in itseighth season. Theseries finaleaired on May 6, 2004, and was watched by around 52.5 million American viewers, making it the fifth-most-watched series finale in television historyand the most-watched television episode of the 2000s.Friendsreceived acclaim throughout its run, becoming one of the most popular television shows of all time.The series was nominated for 62Primetime Emmy Awards, winning theOutstanding Comedy Seriesaward in 2002 for its eighth season.The show rankedno.21 onTV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time,andno.5 onEmpiremagazine's The 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.In 1997, the episode \"The One with the Prom Video\" was rankedno.100 onTV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time.In 2013,Friendsrankedno.24 on theWriters Guild of America's 101 Best Written TV Series of All Time,andno.28 onTV Guide's 60 Best TV Series of All Time.The sitcom's cast members returned forFriends: The Reunion, a reunion special",
"a reunion special which was released onHBO Maxon May 27, 2021. Cast and characters James Michael Tylerappears asGunther, abaristaat Central Perk, in every season of the show, but is only ever credited as aguest star. Gunther has a mostly secret profound love for Rachel throughout the entire series. At one point he becomes the manager of the coffee house. It is revealed that Gunther speaksDutchin addition to English, as well as being a former soap opera actor. In their original contracts for the first season, cast members were paid $22,500 per episode.The cast members received different salaries in the second season, beginning from the $20,000 range to $40,000 per episode.Before their salary negotiations for the third season, the cast decided to enter collective negotiations, despite Warner Bros.' preference for individual deals.The actors were given the salary of the least paid cast member. The stars were each paid $75,000 per episode in season three, $85,000 in season four, $100,000 in season five, $125,000",
"five, $125,000 in season six, $750,000 in seasons seven and eight, and $1 million in seasons nine and ten, making Aniston, Cox, and Kudrowthe highest-paid TV actresses of all time.The cast also received syndication royalties beginning in 2000 after renegotiations. At the time, that financial benefit of a piece of the show's lucrative back-end profits had only been given out to stars who had ownership rights in a show, likeJerry SeinfeldandBill Cosby. Series creatorDavid Cranewanted all six actors to be equally prominent,and the series was lauded as being \"the first true 'ensemble' show.\"The cast members made efforts to keep the ensemble format and not allow one member to dominate;they entered themselves in the same acting categories for awards,opted for collective salary negotiations,and asked to appear together on magazine cover photos in the first season.The cast members also became best friends off-screen,so much so that recurring guest starTom Selleckreported that he sometimes felt left out. The cast",
"left out. The cast remained good friends after the series run, most notably Cox and Aniston, with Aniston being godmother to Cox andDavid Arquette's daughter, Coco.In the official farewell commemorative bookFriends 'Til the End, each separately acknowledged in interviews that the cast had become their family. Episodes Season 1 The first season introduces the six main characters who live in New York City:Rachel Green, a waitress; professional chefMonica Geller; her paleontologist brother,Ross Geller; free-spirited masseusePhoebe Buffay; struggling actorJoey Tribbiani; and Ross's college friend,Chandler Bing, whose precise occupation at a corporation is unknown. Rachel arrives at Central Perk, wearing her wedding dress, after leaving her fiancé, Barry, an orthodontist, at the altar. She moves into her high school friend Monica's apartment, and gets a waitress job at Central Perk. Ross, who has had a crush on Rachel since high school, often attempts to declare his feelings for her. However many obstacles stand",
"obstacles stand in his way, including his insecurities, Rachel dating an Italian neighbor named Paolo, and the fact that he is expecting a baby with his lesbian ex-wife, Carol, who gives birth to Ben later in the season. Joey never has a steady girlfriend and constantly sleeps with a variety of women. Phoebe is rather odd and complex, mostly due to her mother's suicide when she was a child and having lived on the streets for a time. However, the gang loves her regardless. Chandler breaks up with his girlfriend, Janice (Maggie Wheeler), only to find himself reconnecting with her throughout the series. Near the end of the season, while Ross is at a paleontology dig in China, Chandler accidentally lets slip that Ross loves Rachel, who then realizes that she also cares for him. The season ends with Rachel waiting at the airport for Ross, who is returning from China. Season 2 Rachel greets Ross at the airport only to discover that he has returned with Julie (Lauren Tom), someone he knew from graduate school.",
"graduate school. Rachel's attempts to tell Ross that she loves him initially mirror his failed attempts in the first season. After he breaks up with Julie for Rachel, friction between them develops when Rachel discovers Ross's list of the cons of dating her. They eventually begin a relationship after Rachel sees an old home video from her and Monica's prom night and realizes Ross was going to stand in for her prom date who nearly stood her up. Monica is promoted to head chef at the Iridium restaurant, then gets fired for accepting gifts from a supplier, which is against company policy. Needing money, she is forced to take an embarrassing job as a waitress at a 1950s-style diner. She begins dating Richard Burke (Tom Selleck), a recently divorced family friend who is 21 years her senior. They eventually break up when Monica realizes that Richard, already a father, does not want more children. Joey is cast in a fictional version of the soap opera,Days of Our Livesas neurosurgeon Dr. Drake Ramoray. He moves out",
"He moves out of his and Chandler's apartment, forcing Chandler to get a new roommate, Eddie (Adam Goldberg). However, Eddie is annoying and somewhat deranged. When Joey claims in a soap opera magazine interview that he writes many of his own lines, offending the show's writer, his character is killed off. No longer able to afford his expensive new apartment, Joey moves back in with Chandler, kicking Eddie out in the process. In the season finale, Chandler talks to an anonymous woman in an online chat room. When they agree to meet in person, the woman turns out to be Janice. Season 3 Season 3 takes on a significantly more serialized format. Chandler and Janice date for several episodes until Joey catches Janice kissing her soon-to-be ex-husband. Not wanting to destroy her family, Chandler urges Janice to go back to her husband, then becomes depressed over the breakup for several episodes. Rachel quits her job at Central Perk and begins working atBloomingdale's, an upscale department store chain. Ross soon",
"chain. Ross soon becomes jealous of her colleague Mark and frustrated by Rachel's long work hours. She is tired of his constant jealousy and insecurity, and decides they need a relationship break. Ross, hurt and somewhat drunk, immediately sleeps with Chloe, \"the hot girl from the Xerox place,\" causing Rachel to break up with him completely. Although Phoebe initially believes she has no family except her twin sister Ursula (Lisa Kudrow), she learns she has a half-brother, Frank Jr. (Giovanni Ribisi) and discovers her birth mother, Phoebe Abbott (Teri Garr) over the course of the season. Joey falls in love with his acting partner Kate (Dina Meyer), but is jealous of her dating the director of their play. They begin a brief relationship that ends when she takes an acting job in Los Angeles. Monica dates millionaire Pete Becker (Jon Favreau), despite her initially not being attracted to him. However, she breaks up with Pete after he is seriously hurt trying to become theUltimate Fighting Championand refuses to",
"refuses to quit. Phoebe sets Ross up on a date with her friend, Bonnie (Christine Taylor), inciting Rachel's jealousy. She tries sabotaging the relationship by coercing Bonnie to shave her head bald, and eventually admits to Ross that she still has feelings for him. The season closes with Ross having to choose between Rachel and Bonnie. Season 4 In the season 4 premiere, after Ross breaks up with Bonnie, he and Rachel briefly reconcile after Ross pretends to read a long letter that Rachel wrote for him. However, Ross continues to insist that the two were on a break when he slept with Chloe, so they break up again. Joey dates Kathy (Paget Brewster), a girl that Chandler has a crush on. Kathy and Chandler later kiss, which causes drama between Chandler and Joey. Joey only forgives Chandler and allows him to date Kathy after Chandler spends Thanksgiving in a box as punishment. Chandler's relationship with Kathy ends after he discovers that she cheated on him due to an argument. Phoebe loses her job as a",
"loses her job as a masseuse after making out with one of her clients and she accompanies Monica, who has become a caterer for hire. They soon start a catering business together but Monica, after negatively reviewing a restaurant, Allesandro's, is offered the position of head chef. Despite initially being pressured by the wrath of her co-workers, Monica eventually asserts her dominance in the kitchen. Phoebe becomes asurrogatefor her brother and his wife, Alice (Debra Jo Rupp). Monica and Rachel are forced to switch apartments with Joey and Chandler after losing a bet during a quiz game, but manage to switch back by bribing them withKnicksseason tickets and a one-minute kiss (off-screen) between each other. After her boss dies, Rachel is demoted to personal shopping and meets and later dates a customer named Joshua (Tate Donovan). Ross begins dating an English woman named Emily (Helen Baxendale), and they quickly get engaged. Rachel struggles to cope and hastily suggests to Joshua that they marry, after which",
"marry, after which he rejects her. In theseason finale, the group, apart from a heavily pregnant Phoebe and Rachel, travel to Ross and Emily's wedding in London. Chandler and Monica sleep together, and Rachel, realizing that she is still in love with Ross, rushes to London to stop Ross and Emily's wedding, but changes her mind when she sees them happy together. While saying his vows, Ross accidentally says Rachel's name at the altar, shocking his bride and the guests. Season 5 Ross and Emily marry, but an angry and humiliated Emily flees the reception. Rachel soon admits her love for Ross, but realizing how ridiculous this is, advises him to work on his marriage to Emily. She develops a crush on her neighbor Danny and they date briefly, until she realizes that he is too close with his sister. Monica and Chandler try to keep their new relationship a secret from their friends. Phoebe gives birth to triplets in the show's 100th episode. She gives birth to a boy, Frank Jr. Jr., and two girls, Leslie and",
"girls, Leslie and Chandler, the latter of whom was supposed to be a boy, but was later revealed to be a girl. After weeks of trying to contact her, Emily agrees to reconcile with Ross and move to New York if he breaks off all communication with Rachel. Ross agrees, but later attends a dinner with all his friends, Rachel included. Emily phones Ross, discovers Rachel is there, realizes she does not trust him and ends their marriage. Ross takes out his anger at work, resulting in him being indefinitely suspended from the museum, and he moves in with Chandler and Joey until eventually getting a new apartment across the street from them. Rachel gets a new job at Ralph Lauren. Phoebe has a brief relationship with a police officer, Gary (Michael Rapaport), after finding his badge and using it as her own. Monica and Chandler go public with their relationship, to the surprise and delight of their friends. They decide to get married on a trip to Las Vegas, but change their plans after witnessing Ross and Rachel",
"Ross and Rachel drunkenly stumbling out of the wedding chapel. Season 6 In the season 6 premiere, Ross and Rachel's marriage turns out to be a drunken mistake that neither remembers until the other friends mention it. Ross promises Rachel he will get them an annulment, then secretly does nothing because he cannot face having three failed marriages. By the time Rachel discovers they are still married, an annulment is impossible due to their history; they are forced to get a divorce. After ignoring the numerous signs that they should get married, Monica and Chandler decide to live together, forcing Rachel to move in with Phoebe. Joey gets a new roommate, Janine (Elle Macpherson). They develop feelings for each other and date briefly until Janine criticizes Monica and Chandler, ending the relationship. After Janine moves out, Joey struggles with paying his bills so he takes a job at Central Perk. He soon lands a role on a cable TV series calledMac and C.H.E.E.S.E., starring alongside a crime-fighting robot.",
"robot. Ross gets a teaching job atNew York University. He dates Elizabeth (Alexandra Holden), a student, despite it being against university policy. Elizabeth's father, Paul (Bruce Willis), disapproves of Ross but falls for Rachel, and they start dating. Both relationships soon end: Elizabeth is too immature for Ross, and previously reserved Paul opens up emotionally and is more than Rachel can handle. Phoebe and Rachel's apartment catches fire, and Rachel moves in with Joey, while Phoebe stays with Chandler and Monica, though they later switch. While at a museum that has a two-year wait for weddings, Monica puts her name on the reservation list as a joke. When Chandler intercepts the museum's phone call about a cancellation, he panics; however, Chandler has been planning to propose while pretending he may never want to marry. While dining at a fancy restaurant, Chandler's planned proposal is subverted by Monica's ex-boyfriend Richard Burke, who unexpectedly shows up. Richard later tells Monica he wants to",
"Monica he wants to marry her and have children. Monica becomes upset at Chandler, believing his ruse about not wanting to marry. Chandler believes Monica has left him until he comes home to find their apartment decorated with candles and her waiting to propose to him. When she becomes too emotional to continue, Chandler proposes and she accepts. Season 7 The seventh season mainly follows Monica and Chandler as they plan their wedding amid various problems. Joey's television series,Mac and C.H.E.E.S.Eis canceled, but he is offered his old role onDays of Our Lives; the show isretconnedwith the revelation that Dr. Drake Ramoray has been in a four-year coma and is revived with a brain transplant from another character. Phoebe's repaired apartment now has one large bedroom instead of the original two, so Rachel permanently stays at Joey's. Rachel is promoted at Ralph Lauren and impulsively hires a young assistant, Tag Jones (Eddie Cahill), based on his looks, passing over a more qualified woman. Tag discovers her",
"Tag discovers her feelings about him at Thanksgiving dinner, and they begin dating, hiding it from co-workers. However, on her 30th birthday, Rachel ends their relationship, realizing Tag is too young and immature, particularly if she intends to follow her marriage schedule. Hours before Monica and Chandler's wedding ceremony, Chandler panics and goes into hiding just as Phoebe and Rachel find a positive pregnancy test in Monica and Chandler's bathroom. They assume Monica is pregnant. Ross and Phoebe find Chandler and convince him to return for the ceremony, though he briefly bolts again after overhearing Phoebe and Rachel discussing the pregnancy test. He quickly returns, embracing the idea of fatherhood. After the ceremony, Monica denies she is pregnant; unbeknown to everyone, the positive pregnancy test is Rachel's. Season 8 Season 8 begins at Monica and Chandler's wedding reception. Phoebe and Monica discover Rachel's pregnancy and persuade her to take another test to confirm it. Phoebe initially claims",
"initially claims the test is negative, badly disappointing Rachel, then reveals it is positive, saying Rachel now knows how she really feels about having a baby. Ross is eventually revealed to be the father, and the season revolves around Rachel's pregnancy. Rachel and Ross agree to be co-parents without resuming their romantic relationship; Ross begins dating Mona (Bonnie Somerville), who is Monica's co-worker from Allesandro's. Joey takes Rachel out to quell her fears about motherhood, and realizes he has romantic feelings for her. While suppressing his feelings, he encourages Rachel to stay at Ross's apartment so he can be involved in the pregnancy. The arrangement is too much for Mona, and she breaks up with Ross. Joey tells Ross about his feelings for Rachel. Ross initially is angry, then gives his blessing. Joey tells Rachel that he loves her, but she realizes she does not feel the same way, and they remain friends. When Rachel goes into labor, Ross's mother gives him a family heirloom ring and",
"heirloom ring and encourages him to propose to Rachel. Ross hesitates, and puts the ring in his jacket, which he later leaves in Rachel's room. After Monica jokes about having kids, she and Chandler decide to have a baby, starting while they are still at the hospital. After a prolonged labor, during which numerous other expectant mothers, including Janice, are taken to the delivery room, Rachel gives birth to baby Emma. She is left saddened and afraid after Janice later says that Ross may not always be there for her and the baby. When Joey comforts Rachel, the ring falls from Ross's jacket to the floor. Joey kneels to pick it up, and Rachel, believing he is proposing, impulsively says yes. Meanwhile, Ross intends to ask Rachel if she wants to resume their relationship. Season 9 Season nine begins with Ross and Rachel cohabitating with their daughter Emma, after Joey and Rachel clear up the proposal misunderstanding. Monica and Chandler run into obstacles as they try for a baby: Chandler unknowingly agrees to",
"agrees to a work transfer to Tulsa just as Monica is offered a head chef job at a new restaurant, Javu, resulting in Chandler commuting back and forth. After being apart from Monica during Christmas, Chandler quits to pursue a new career in advertising, starting as an unpaid intern at an ad agency, and eventually being hired as a junior copywriter. Monica and Chandler discover they are physically incompatible to conceive and after considering multiple options, decide to adopt. Phoebe begins dating Mike Hannigan (Paul Rudd) for most of the season until Mike says that he never wants to marry again. Phoebe dates her ex-boyfriend from season 1, David (Hank Azaria) who plans on proposing to her, but Mike proposes first. Phoebe rejects both proposals but gets back together with Mike, only needing the reassurance that they have a future together. Rachel, believing that her co-worker Gavin (Dermot Mulroney) is trying to steal her job while she is on maternity leave, returns to Ralph Lauren early. She discovers at",
"She discovers at her birthday party that Gavin has feelings for her. They kiss but do not pursue a relationship due to her history with Ross. Meanwhile, Ross, having seen the kiss, retaliates by dating other women. After realizing that her and Ross's living situation is too weird, Rachel and Emma move in with Joey. Rachel develops a crush on him, only to be disheartened when he starts dating Charlie (Aisha Tyler), a new palaeontology professor to whom Ross is attracted. In the finale, the group travels toBarbadosfor Ross's keynote speech at a conference. Joey and Charlie break up upon realizing they have nothing in common. Joey then learns about Rachel's feelings for him, but says they cannot pursue this because of Ross. However, upon seeing Ross and Charlie kiss each other, he goes to Rachel's hotel room, and the finale ends with them kissing. Season 10 The tenth season brings several long-running story lines to a close. Joey and Rachel try to contend with Ross's feelings about their relationship, and after",
"and after disastrous attempts to consummate, decide it is best they remain friends. Charlie breaks up with Ross to get back together with her ex-boyfriend. Mid-season, Joey officiates Phoebe and Mike's wedding outside the Central Perk coffee house after a snow storm paralyzes the city, preventing them and guests getting to the wedding venue. Monica and Chandler are chosen by a pregnant woman named Erica (Anna Faris) to adopt her baby. Following this, Monica and Chandler prepare to move to a house in the suburbs to raise their family, saddening everyone, particularly Joey, who is coping with all the changes in his life. In the series finale, Erica gives birth to fraternal twins, much to Monica and Chandler's surprise. Rachel is fired from Ralph Lauren after her boss overhears her interviewing for a job at Gucci. She encounters her former Bloomingdale co-worker Mark, who offers her a new job at Louis Vuitton in Paris. Ross, believing Rachel wants to stay, tries bribing Mr. Zelner to rehire her until he",
"rehire her until he realizes Rachel wants to go to Paris. When Rachel says a tearful personal goodbye to everyone except Ross at her going away party, a hurt and angry Ross confronts Rachel, and they end up sleeping together. Rachel leaves, and Ross – realizing how much he loves Rachel – chases her to the airport. When he reaches her, Rachel says she has to go toParis. Before the plane takes off, Rachel calls Ross's home phone and leaves a voice mail, apologizing for the way it ended. While speaking, she realizes that she loves him too, and gets off the plane at the last minute. The series ends with all the friends, plus Monica and Chandler's new babies, leaving the empty apartment together for a final cup of coffee at Central Perk. The show ends first with a shot of everyone's keys to Monica and Chandler's apartment left on the counter top, and then pans to a shot of the apartment's purple door. Production Conception It's about sex, love, relationships, careers, a time in your life when everything's",
"when everything's possible. And it's about friendship because when you're single and in the city, your friends are your family. David CraneandMarta Kauffmanbegan developing three new television pilots that would premiere in 1994 after their sitcomFamily Albumwas cancelled by CBS in 1993.Kauffman and Crane decided to pitch the series about \"six people in their 20s making their way in Manhattan\" to NBC since they thought it would fit best there.(Film director and screenwriterCameron Crowehas asserted that the concept originated withWarner Bros. Televisionwanting him to make his 1992 movieSinglesinto a television show.Crowe alleges that when he refused permission, the idea was then taken over by Crane and Kaufman, who changed some details from the premise of the movie while developing the show.) Crane and Kauffman presented the idea to their production partnerKevin Bright, who had served as executive producer on theirHBOseriesDream On.The idea for the series was conceived when Crane and Kauffman began thinking",
"began thinking about the time when they had finished college and started living by themselves in New York; Kauffman believed they were looking at a time when the future was \"more of a question mark.\"They found the concept to be interesting, as they believed \"everybody knows that feeling\",and because it was also how they felt about their own lives at the time.The team titled the seriesInsomnia Cafeand pitched the idea as a seven-page treatment to NBC in December 1993. At the same time,Warren Littlefield, the then-president ofNBC Entertainment, was seeking a comedy involving young people living together and sharing expenses after he regretted passing on the Black sitcomLiving Single. Littlefield wanted the group to share memorable periods of their lives with friends, who had become \"new, surrogate family members.\"However, Littlefield found difficulty in bringing the concept to life and found the scripts developed by NBC to be terrible. When Kauffman, Crane and Bright pitchedInsomnia Cafe, Littlefield was",
"Littlefield was impressed that they knew who their characters were.NBC bought the idea as aput pilot, meaning they risked financial penalties if the pilot was not filmed. Kauffman and Crane took three days to write the pilot script for a show they titledFriends Like Us.Littlefield wanted the series to \"representGeneration Xand explore a new kind of tribal bonding\", but the rest disagreed. Crane argued that it was not a series for one generation, and wanted to produce a series that everyone would enjoy watching.NBC liked the script and ordered the series. They changed the title toSix of One, mainly because they feltFriends Like Uswas too similar to the ABC sitcomThese Friends of Mine. Casting Once it became apparent that the series was a favored project at NBC, Littlefield reported that he was getting calls from every agent in town, wanting their client to be a part of the series.Auditions for the lead roles took place in New York and Los Angeles.The casting director shortlisted 1,000 actors who had applied",
"who had applied for each role down to 75. Those who received a callback read in front of Crane, Kauffman and Bright. At the end of March, the number of potential actors had been reduced to three or four for each part, and these actors were asked to read forLes Moonves, then president ofWarner Bros. Television. Having worked withDavid Schwimmerin the past,the series creators wrote the character of Ross with him in mind, and he was the first actor cast.Cox wanted to play the role of Monica because she liked the \"strong\" character, but the producers had her in mind to play Rachel because of her \"cheery, upbeat energy\", which was not how they envisioned Monica; after Cox's audition, though, Kauffman agreed with Cox, and she got the role.When Matt LeBlanc auditioned for Joey, he put a \"different spin\" on the character.He played Joey more simple-minded than intended and gave the character heart. Although Crane and Kauffman did not want LeBlanc for the role at the time, they were told by the network to cast",
"the network to cast him.Jennifer Aniston, Matthew Perry and Lisa Kudrow were cast based on their auditions.Perry and Aniston, both still under contract to other shows that year, were cast days before shooting of the pilot began. More changes occurred to the series's storylines during the casting process. The writers found that they had to adjust the characters they had written to suit the actors, and the discovery process of the characters occurred throughout the first season. Kauffman acknowledged that Joey's character became \"this whole new being\", and that \"it wasn't until we did the first Thanksgiving episode that we realized how much fun Monica's neuroses are.\" Writing In the weeks after NBC's pick up ofFriends, Crane, Kauffman and Bright reviewed sent-in scripts that writers had originally prepared for other series, mainly unproducedSeinfeldepisodes.Kauffman and Crane hired a team of seven young writers because \"When you're 40, you can't do it anymore. The networks and studios are looking for young",
"looking for young people coming in out of college.\"The creators felt that using six equal characters, rather than emphasizing one or two, would allow for \"myriad storylines and give the show legs.\"The majority of the storyline ideas came from the writers, although the actors added ideas.Although the writers originally planned the big love story to be between Joey and Monica, the idea of a romantic interest between Ross and Rachel emerged during the period when Kauffman and Crane wrote the pilot script. During the production of the pilot,NBCrequested that the script be changed to feature one dominant storyline and several minor ones, but the writers refused, wanting to keep three storylines of equal weight.NBC also wanted the writers to include an older character to balance out the young ones. Crane and Kauffman were forced to comply and wrote a draft of an early episode that featured \"Pat the Cop\" who would be used to provide advice to the other characters. Crane found the storyline to be terrible, and",
"to be terrible, and Kauffman joked, \"You know the kids book,Pat the Bunny? We had Pat the Cop.\" NBC eventually relented and dropped the idea. Each summer, the producers would outline the storylines for the subsequent season.Before an episode went into production, Kauffman and Crane would revise the script written by another writer, mainly if something concerning either the series or a character felt foreign.The hardest episodes to write were always \"the first one and the last one of each season.\"Unlike other storylines, the idea for a relationship between Joey and Rachel was decided on halfway through the eighth season. The creators did not want Ross and Rachel to get back together so soon, and while looking for a romantic impediment, a writer suggested Joey's romantic interest in Rachel. The storyline was incorporated into the season; however, when the actors feared that the storyline would make their characters unlikable, the storyline was wrapped up, until it again resurfaced in the season's finale. For",
"finale. For the ninth season, the writers were unsure about the amount of storyline to give to Rachel's baby, as they wanted the show neither to revolve around a baby nor pretend there to be none.Crane said that it took them a while to accept the idea of a tenth season, which they decided to do because they had enough stories left to tell to justify the season. Kauffman and Crane would not have signed on for an eleventh season, even if all the cast members had wanted to continue. The episode title format—\"The One ...\"—was created when the producers realized that the episode titles would not be featured in the opening credits, and therefore would be unknown to most of the audience. Episode titles officially begin with \"The One ...\" except the title of thepilot episodeand the series finale \"The Last One\". The season 5 episode \"The One Hundredth\" has the alternative title of \"The One With The Triplet\". Filming The first season was shot on Stage 5 atWarner Bros. StudiosinBurbank, California.NBC executives had",
"executives had worried that the coffee house setting was too hip and asked for the series to be set in a diner, but eventually consented to the coffee house concept.The opening title sequence was filmed in a fountain at theWarner Bros. Ranchat 4:00 am, while it was particularly cold for a Burbank morning.At the beginning of the second season, production moved to the larger Stage 24, which was renamed The \"Friends\" Stage after the series finale. Filming for the series began during the summer of 1994 in front of a live audience, who were given a summary of the series to familiarize themselves with the six main characters.A hired comedian entertained the studio audience between takes.Each 22-minute episode took six hours to film—twice the length of most sitcom tapings—mainly due to the several retakes and rewrites of the script. Although the producers always wanted to find the right stories to take advantage of being on location,Friendswas never shot in New York. Bright felt that filming outside the studio made",
"the studio made episodes less funny, even when shooting on the lot outside, and that the live audience was an integral part of the series.When the series was criticized for incorrectly depicting New York, with the financially struggling group of friends being able to afford huge apartments, Bright noted that the set had to be big enough for the cameras, lighting, and \"for the audience to be able to see what's going on\".The apartments also needed to provide a place for the actors to execute the actions in the scripts. The fourth-season finale was shot on location inLondonbecause the producers were aware of the series' popularity in the UK.The scenes were shot in a studio with three audiences each made up of 500 people. These were the show's largest audiences throughout its run. The fifth-season finale, set inLas Vegas, was filmed at Warner Bros. Studios, although Bright met people who thought it was filmed on location. Series finale The series's creators completed the first draft of the hour-long finale in",
"hour-long finale in January 2004, four months before its original airing. Crane, Kauffman and Bright watched the finales of other sitcoms to prepare the episode's outline, paying attention to what worked and what did not. They liked the ones that stayed true to the series, deeming the finale ofThe Mary Tyler Moore Showto be the gold standard. Crane, Kauffman, and Bright had difficulty writing the finale. They did not want to do \"something high concept, or take the show out of the show.\"The most critical parts of the finale were shot without an audience and with a minimum number of crew members. The main cast enjoyed the finale and were confident that the fans would react similarly: It's exactly what I had hoped. We all end up with a sense of a new beginning and the audience has a sense that it's a new chapter in the lives of all these characters. NBC heavily promoted the series finale, which was preceded by weeks of media hype.Local NBC affiliates organized viewing parties around the U.S., including an event",
"including an event atUniversal CityWalkfeaturing a special broadcast of the finale on an outdoorAstrovisionscreen.The finale was the subject of two episodes ofDateline NBC, one of which ran for two hours. A one-hour retrospective of clips from previous episodes was shown before the airing of the episode. Following the finale,The Tonight Show with Jay Lenowas filmed on the set of theFriends' Central Perk coffee house, which featured the cast as guests.The advertising rates for the finale averaged $2 million for 30 seconds of commercial time, breaking the record held by theSeinfeldfinale at $1.7 million. In the U.S., 52.5 million viewers watched the finale on May 6, 2004, making it the most-watched entertainment telecast since theSeinfeldfinale in 1998.The finale was the fifth most-watched series finale in television history, only behind the finales ofM*A*S*H,Cheers,The Fugitive, andSeinfeld, which were respectively watched by 105, 80.4, 78.0 and 76.3 million viewers.The retrospective episode was watched by",
"was watched by fewer than 36 million viewers, and the finale was the second most-watched television broadcast of the year in the United States, only behind theSuper Bowl.Following the finales ofFriendsandFrasier, media critics speculated about the fate of the sitcom genre. Opinions varied between a signalling of the end of the sitcom genre, a small decline in the large history of the genre,and a general reduction of scripted television in favor of reality shows. Reunion special On November 12, 2019,The Hollywood Reporterannounced thatWarner Bros TVwas developing aFriendsreunion forHBO Maxthat would feature the whole cast and creators returning.On February 21, 2020, HBO confirmed that the unscripted reunion special, tentatively named \"The One Where They Got Back Together\", was set to be released in May the same year, along with the 236 original episodes of the series.On March 18, 2020, it was announced that the special, which was set to film on theFriendsstage on March 23 and 24, had been postponed",
"had been postponed indefinitely, due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.In November 2020,Matthew Perrytweeted that the reunion is set to start filming in March 2021.On May 13, 2021, a teaser trailer was released officially announcingFriends: The Reunionalso known as \"The One Where They Get Back Together\". The reunion special was released onHBO Maxon May 27, 2021. Reception Critical reception Early reviews of the series were mixed; the first season holds aMetacriticscore of 65 out of 100, based on 24 sampled reviews, indicating \"generally favourable reviews\".Tom Feran ofThe Plain Dealerwrote that the series traded \"vaguely and less successfully on the hanging-out style ofSeinfeld\",while Ann Hodges of theHouston Chroniclecalled it \"the newSeinfeldwannabe, but it will never be as funny asSeinfeld.\"In theLos Angeles Daily News,Ray Richmondnamed the series as \"one of the brighter comedies of the new season\",and theLos Angeles Timescalled it \"flat-out the best comedy series of the new season.\" TheChicago Sun-Times'Ginny",
"Sun-Times'Ginny Holbert found Joey and Rachel's characters to be underdeveloped,while Richmond commended the cast as a \"likeable youth ensemble\" with \"good chemistry.\"Robert Bianco ofUSA Todaywas complimentary of Schwimmer, calling him \"terrific.\" He also praised the female leads, but was concerned that Perry's role as Chandler was \"undefined\" and that LeBlanc was \"relying too much on the same brain-dead stud routine that was already tired the last two times he tried it.\"The authors ofFriends Like Us: The Unofficial Guide to Friendsthought that the cast was \"trying just a little too hard\"; in particular, Perry and Schwimmer. As the series progressed, reviews became more positive, andFriendsbecame one of the most popular sitcoms of its time. It is now often ranked among the all-time best TV shows.Critics commended the series for having consistently sharp writing and for the chemistry between the main actors.Noel Holston ofNewsday, who had dismissed the pilot as a \"so-soSeinfeldwannabe\" in 1994, repudiated his",
"repudiated his earlier review after rewatching the episode and felt like writing an apology to the writers.Heather HavrileskyofSalon.comthought that the series \"hit its stride\" in the second season. Havrilesky found the character-specific jokes and situations \"could reliably make you laugh out loud a few times each episode\", and the quality of writing allowed the stories to be \"original and innovative.\" Bill CarterofThe New York Timescalled the eighth season a \"truly stunning comeback.\" Carter found that by \"generating new hot storylines and high-decibel laughs\", the series made its way \"back into the hearts of its fans.\"However, Liane Bonin ofEntertainment Weeklyfelt that the direction of the ninth season was a \"disappointing buzzkill\", criticizing it for the non-stop celebrity guest spots and going intojump the sharkterritory. Although disappointed with the season, Bonin noted that \"the writing still sharp.\"Havrilesky thought that the tenth season was \"alarmingly awful, far worse than you would ever",
"than you would ever imagine a show that was once so good could be.\"Friendswas featured onTime's list of \"The 100 Best TV Shows of All-Time\", saying, \"the well-hidden secret of this show was that it called itselfFriends, and was really about family.\" Reviews of theseries finalewere mostly positive.USA Today's Robert Bianco described the finale as entertaining and satisfying and praised it for deftly mixing emotion and humor while highlighting each of the stars.Sarah Rodman of theBoston Heraldpraised Aniston and Schwimmer for their acting, but felt that their characters' reunion was \"a bit too neat, even if it was what most of the show's legions of fans wanted.\"Roger Catlin of theHartford Courantfelt that newcomers to the series would be \"surprised at how laughless the affair could be, and how nearly every strained gag depends on the sheer stupidity of its characters.\"Ken Parish Perkins, writing forFort Worth Star-Telegram, pointed out that the finale was \"more touching than comical, more satisfying in terms",
"satisfying in terms of closure than knee-slappingly funny.\" It may have been impossible for any one episode to live up to the hype and expectations built up around the Friends finale, but this hour probably came as close as fans could have reasonably hoped. Ultimately, the two-hour package did exactly what it was supposed to do. It wrapped up the story while reminding us why we liked the show and will miss it. In a 2021 program onITV,Mr. BeanwriterRichard Curtisaccused theFriendswriters of stealing the joke which involved Joey getting a turkey stuck on his head in \"The One with All the Thanksgivings\" from the 1992 episode \"Merry Christmas, Mr. Bean\". In that episode, Mr Bean got a turkey stuck on his head after losing his watch while stuffing the turkey and put his head in to try to retrieve it.Rowan Atkinson, however, argued that jokes are meant to be stolen, or to inspire. Awards To maintain the series's ensemble format, the main cast members decided to enter themselves in the same acting categories for",
"categories for awards.Beginning with the eighth season, the actors decided to submit themselves in the lead actor balloting, rather than in the supporting actor fields.The series was nominated for 62Primetime Emmy Awards,winning six. Aniston and Kudrow are the only main cast members to win an Emmy, while Cox is the only actor not to be nominated. The series won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Seriesin 2002, receiving nominations in 1995, 1996, 1999, 2000, and 2003.The series also won anAmerican Comedy Award,oneGLAAD Media Award,oneGolden Globe Award,threeLogie Awards,sixPeople's Choice Awards,oneSatellite Award,and oneScreen Actors Guild Award. Ratings The table below shows the ratings ofFriendsin the United States, where it consistently ranked within the top ten of the finaltelevision seasonratings.\"Rank\" refers to how wellFriendsrated compared to other television series that aired during primetime hours of the corresponding television season. It is shown in relation to the total number of",
"the total number of series airing on the then-six major English-language networks in a given season. \"Viewers\" refers to the average number of viewers for all original episodes, broadcast during the television season in the series' regular timeslot. The \"season premiere\" is the date that the first episode of the season aired, and the \"season finale\" is the date that the final episode of the season aired. Following theSeptember 11 attacks, ratings increased 17% over the previous season. Syndication Because of syndication revenue,Friendscontinues to generate approximately $1 billion each year for Warner Bros. That translates into about $20 million in annual residuals each for Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer, who each get 2% of syndication income forFriends. All episodes became available onNetflixon January 1, 2015, introducing a new generation to the show. UKFriendsreruns' ratings in 2015 increased by more than 10% annually. The 2016 reruns' US",
"The 2016 reruns' US weekly audience, not including streaming, of 16 million would make it a hit on network television were the show still being produced.In the US, the series has a syndication deal through multiple networks, includingNick at Nite,TBS, andParamount Network. In July 2019, it was announced that from the beginning of 2020,Friendswould not be available on Netflix in the US and instead would be shown onWarner Bros. Discovery's video-streaming serviceHBO Max,which launched in May 2020. Cultural impact Although the producers thought ofFriendsas \"only a TV show\", psychologists investigated the cultural impact ofFriendsduring the series' run. Aniston's hairstyle was nicknamed \"The Rachel\" and copied around the world.Joey's catchphrase, \"Howyoudoin'?\", became a popular part of Western English slang, often used as apick-up lineor when greeting friends.The series also influenced the English language, according to a study by theUniversity of Torontothat found that the characters used the emphasized word",
"the emphasized word \"so\" to modify adjectives more often than any otherintensifier. Although the preference had already made its way into the Americanvernacular, usage on the series may have accelerated the change.Chandler's habit of ending a sentence unfinished for sarcasm also influenced viewers' speech.The show's availability onstreaming television—it accounted for 4% of all Netflix views in 2018—gave it a large newGen Zaudience. Kauffman reported that her high school daughter's friends thought thatFriendswas a newperiod pieceabout the 1990s. One young fan described the show as \"aspirational ... that when they're that age ... they'll have those friends\". Friendshas been credited in helping non-English speaking students to learn thelanguage. A 2012 poll byKaplan International EnglishColleges found that more than a quarter (26%) of its students cited the sitcom as the best show for helping them improve their English.Notable individuals who have also said that the sitcom helped them learn English",
"them learn English includeLiverpool Football ClubmanagerJürgen Klopp,South Korean bandBTSmemberRMand Belgianprofessional golferThomas Pieters. Friendsdeveloped an alternative family lifestyle by representing young people who live unconventional domestic lives. It presented the idea that \"all you need are good friends\" and that you can construct families through choice. The audience was able to identify with the program through the troubles seen on weekly episodes. It portrayed a new way of living life and developing relationships which were not normally seen in conventional society.According to a pop-culture expert at theUniversity at Buffalo,Friendsis \"one of those rare shows that marked a change in American culture.\" The images of youth and the roles they portray are better defined and represent a lifestyle that centers around creating and sustaining relationships between friends running their own lives and seeking help from each other. Voxstated thatFriendshad an impact on the creation of other",
"creation of other conflictless \"hangout sitcoms\", with groups of adult friends who are funny and have similar character traits. One example of this isHow I Met Your Mother, whichThe Guardian's TV and radio blog noted also shares its setting (Manhattan) withFriends. Other examples includeThe Big Bang Theory,New Girl, andHappy Endings. Readers ofTV Guidevoted the cast ofFriendstheir Best Comedy cast of all time, ranking at 29% of the votes, beatingSeinfeld, which registered 18%.A poll undertaken by60 MinutesandVanity FairnamedFriendsthe third-greatest sitcom of all time.In 2014, the series was ranked byMundo Estranhothe Best TV Series of All Time.A 2015 survey byThe Hollywood Reporterof 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people namedFriendsas their No. 1 favorite show. Friendswas parodied in the twelfth seasonMurder, She Wroteepisode \"Murder Among Friends\". In the episode, amateur sleuthJessica Fletcher(Angela Lansbury) investigates the murder of a writer forBuds, a fictional television",
"television series about the daily lives of a group of city friends. The episode was devised after CBS movedMurder, She Wrotefrom its regular Sunday night timeslot to a Thursday night timeslot directly oppositeFriendson NBC; Angela Lansbury was quoted byBruce Lansbury, her brother andMurder, She Wrote's supervising producer, as having \"a bit of an attitude\" about the move to Thursday, but he saw the plot as \"a friendly setup, no mean-spiritedness.\"Jerry Ludwig, the writer of the episode, researched the \"flavor\" ofBudsby watching episodes ofFriends. Producers ofMarried... with Childrenattempted to create a spinoff series calledEnemies, which was intended to act as an antithesis toFriendsthe same wayMarried... with Childrenhad been an antithesis to family sitcoms such asThe Cosby Show. However, theFoxnetwork declined to pick up the series. Coffee house The Central Perk coffee house, one of the principal settings of the series, is part of theWarner Bros. Studio Tour Hollywood. People sometimes propose marriage",
"propose marriage on the couch, and many tourists cry when they sit on it.The coffee house has inspired various imitations worldwide. In 2006, Iranian businessman Mojtaba Asadian started a Central Perkfranchise, registering the name in 32 countries. The decor of the coffee houses is inspired byFriends, featuring replica couches, counters, neon signage and bricks. The coffee houses contain paintings of the various characters from the series, and televisions playingFriendsepisodes.James Michael Tyler, who plays Gunther, the Central Perk manager in the series, attended the grand opening of theDubaicafé, where he worked as a waiter. Central Perk was rebuilt as part of a museum exhibit at Warner Bros. Studios and was shown onThe Ellen DeGeneres Showin October 2008 whenJennifer Anistonvisited the set for the first time since the series finale in 2004.From September 24 to October 7, 2009, a Central Perk replica was on Broadwick Street,Soho, London. The coffee house sold coffee to customers and featured a display",
"featured a display ofFriendsmemorabilia andprops, such as the Geller Cup from the season three episode \"The One with the Football\".In Beijing, business owner Du Xin opened a coffee shop named Central Perk in March 2010. In India, there are sixFriends-themed cafes which features many icons from the original TV series, including Chandler and Joey's ugly dog statue, the orange sofa, the purple door of Monica and Rachel's apartment, and Phoebe's pink bicycle. One named Central Perk is inChandigarh,Kolkata; one named F.R.I.E.N.D.S. Cafe inWest Bengal, and the others are in Delhi,Gurgaon;Bhubaneswar,Odisha; andPune, Maharashtra. There are twoFriendsthemed cafes in Pakistan—one inLahore,Punjab, known as \"Friends Cafe\" and the other inPeshawar,Khyber Pakhtunkhwacalled \"Central Perk\". Both cafes have an iconic couch, a guitar and foosball table, quotes from the show on the walls and episode reruns on a projector. They're planning to have their own Gunther at the bar. In 2016, a Central Perk replica was opened",
"replica was opened inOutram, Singapore. It is the only Central Perk replica outside of the United States that has been givenintellectual property rightsbyWarner Bros.The café includes feature walls, replicating the walls of the main characters' apartments and memorabilia and props used on the show. In August 2019,Legolaunched a Central Perk Lego set to mark the show's 25 anniversary. Distribution Broadcast United States After the produced pilot lived up to NBC's hopes, the series premiered with the nameFriendson September 22, 1994, in the coveted Thursday 8:30 p.m. time slot. The pilot aired betweenMad About YouandSeinfeld,and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers.The series was a huge success throughout its run and was a staple of NBC's Thursday night line-up, dubbed by the network asMust See TV.When Crane told reporters in 2001 that the ninth season was a possibility, critics believed that he was posturing and that at least two of the cast members would not sign on for another season.When it",
"season.When it was confirmed thatFriendswould return for a ninth season, the news was mainly about the amount of money—$7 million per episode—that it took to bring the series back for another season. After year-long expectations that the ninth season would be the series's last, NBC signed a deal in late December 2002 to bring the series back for a final tenth season. The series' creative team did not want to extend negotiations into the next year and wanted to start writing the rest of the ninth-season episodes and a potential series finale.NBC agreed to pay $10 million to Warner Bros. for the production of each tenth-season episode, the highest price in television history for a 30-minute series.Although NBC was unable to bring in enough advertising revenue from commercials to cover the costs, the series was integral to the Thursday night schedule, which brought high ratings and profits to the other television series.The cast demanded that the tenth season be reduced from the usual 24 episodes to 18 episodes",
"to 18 episodes to allow them to work on outside projects. In fall 2001,Warner Bros. Domestic Cablemade a deal with sister networkTBS(both were owned byTime Warner) to air the series in rerun syndication. Warner Bros. Domestic Cable announced that it had sold additional cable rights toFriendstoNick at Nitewhich began airing in the fall of 2011 (unlike the TBS and broadcast syndication airings, Nick at Nite broadcasts of the series, which began airing as part of a seven-night launch marathon on September 5, 2011, replace the end credittag sceneswithmarginalized creditsfeaturing promotions for the series and other Nick at Nite programs). Warner Bros. was expected to make $200 million in license fees and advertising from the deal. Nick at Nite paid $500,000 per episode to air the episodes after 6 pm. ET for six years through fall 2017. In syndication until 2005,Friendshad earned $4 million per episode in cash license fees for a total of $944 million. Comedy Centralbegan airing reruns ofFriendsin October 2019.",
"October 2019. International Having already made huge success in theUnited States,Friendsproducers decided to air the show inEurope. It premiered in theUnited Kingdomon April 28, 1995.Season 1 was broadcast until September 1995 onChannel 4at 9:30 PM on Friday nights, and immediately was a success. The popularity of the show allowed the theme song by the Rembrandts to hit number 3 on theUK Singles Chartsin September 1995. The popularity of the show in Britain led to an episode being produced in London at the end of the fourth season, starring British actressHelen Baxendale, who became a leading cast member in seasons four and five during her character's relationship with Ross. The show has since aired on different channels in the UK in their original, unedited international versions prior to their being re-edited for US broadcast and syndication. These versions, with additional footage not seen domestically, have aired on such stations as Channel 4,Sky1,E4, andComedy Central UK. In September",
"UK. In September 2011,Friendsofficially ended on E4 after the channel re-ran the series since 2004. Comedy Central took over the rights to air the program from October 2011. Since 2018Channel 5started airing the program. In theRepublic of Ireland, each season of the show made its European debut onRTÉ2. After 2004RTÉ2began to repeat the series from the start before moving over toTV3and its digital channel3ein 2010.As of February 2015, repeats of the show have returned toRTÉ2while also broadcasting onComedy Central Ireland. Season 10's finale in the UK, broadcast on May 28, 2004, was on Channel 4. It was broadcast from 9 pm to 10 pm and attractedFriends'largest UK audiences. It attracted almost 10 million viewers, and is currently standing at Number 10 in Channel 4's most-watched shows.Big Brotherwas moved to 10 pm, whichFriendshad beaten.Friendsgot 9.6 million viewers at 9 pm, whileBig Brother 5's launch attracted 7.2 million viewers at 10 pm, which is the most-watched premiere on UK TV ever. However, on",
"ever. However, on January 3, 2007,Celebrity Big Brother 5's launch was watched by 7.3 million viewers, and its eviction on January 19, 2007, was watched by 8.7 million viewers. Friendshas previously aired inAustraliaon theSeven Network(season 1),Nine Network(season 2–10),Network Ten(2007–09, repeats),Arena,111 Hits,9Gem(2012–2018, repeats), andTVHits. It currently airs on10 Peachand on pay TV channelComedy, both of which broadcast the high-definition version of the series.The show is broadcast onTV2inNew Zealand. InCanada, the series was broadcast onGlobal. In later years, it was syndicated on several of its cable sibling networks, includingSlice,DTour, and TVTropolis, its previous incarnation.The series is now syndicated toBell MediaownedCTV Comedy Channel. InLatin America, the first seven seasons aired onSony, and the remaining seasons onWarner.In Brazil, free-to-air networksRedeTV!andSBTalso aired a few seasons. InIndia, the show is broadcast byComedy Centralat various times. It is the most-watched",
"is the most-watched English language show in the country. In thePhilippines, the show was originally aired onABC-5from 1996 to 2005 andETCfrom 2005 to 2014. InGreece, the show was broadcast onStar Channel.In Cyprus,Friendsaired onCyBC 2while reruns air onTVOne. In November 2019Croatiantelevision broadcasterRTL2announced that they will be airingFriends, and to this day they are shown every late night In 2022,Bilibili,iQIYI,Tencent Video, andYoukubegan distributing editedFriendsepisodes inChina. These edited versions of episodes removed mostLGBTcontent, not edited in original Chinese airings. Chinese fans of the show reacted negatively online. Remaster Beginning in March 2012,high definitionversions of all 236Friendsepisodes were made available to local broadcast stations, starting with the pilot episode. For the remastered episodes, Warner Bros. restored previously cropped images on the left and right sides of the screen, using the original35 mm filmsource, to use the entire16:9widescreen frame. Because the",
"frame. Because the show was not originally filmed for widescreen, but rather filmed in 4-perf format and protected for 4:3, some cropping problems arise in some shots where information from the top and bottom of the frame is removed, and some expanded shots reveal unintentional artifacts, including set edges, boom mics and body doubles replacing some of the main cast. In early versions of the HD remasters, there were also a few shots, including chroma effects shots, which were sourced from standard-definition videotape sources, as not all of the footage had been located in time for the remaster. The original film sources for these shots were later rescanned for later broadcast and release.These masters had been airing in New Zealand on TV2 since January 2011, and the earlier HD prints continue to air onComedy Centralin the United Kingdom as of 2020.Netflixadded all ten seasons ofFriendsin high definition to its streaming service in the United States in January 2015 before the platform discontinued the series",
"the series in late 2019. Home media Streaming In October 2014,Warner Bros.chairman and chief executive officer,Kevin Tsujihara, announced that the company had licensed the North American streaming rights of all ten seasons ofFriendstoNetflix,in a deal said to be worth around $500,000 an episode,or about $120 million in total. The show became available on Netflix from January 1, 2015.The Netflix airings are the versions aired on NBC rather than the longer international versions, as discussed below. The series left Netflix in the US on January 1, 2020, as it began streaming onHBO Maxon May 27, 2020.The series left Netflix in Canada forCraveon December 31, 2020. Blu-ray and DVD All ten seasons have been released on DVD individually and as a box set. EachRegion1 season release contains special features and are presented in their aforementioned original international broadcast versions, although Region 2 releases are as originally aired domestically. For the first season, each episode is updated with color",
"updated with color correction and sound enhancement.A wide range ofFriendsmerchandise has been produced by various companies. In September 1995,WEA Recordsreleased the first album ofmusic fromFriends, theFriends Original TV Soundtrack, containing music featured in previous and future episodes. The soundtrack debuted on theBillboard200at number 46,and sold 500,000 copies in November 1995. In 1999, a second soundtrack album entitledFriends Againwas released.Other merchandise includes aFriendsversion of the DVD game \"Scene It?\", and a quiz video game forPlayStation 2andPCentitledFriends: The One with All the Trivia.On September 28, 2009, a box set was released in the UK celebrating the show's 15th anniversary. The box set contained extended episodes, an episode guide, and original special features. Warner Home Video released a complete series collection onBlu-rayon November 13, 2012.The collection does not feature the extra deleted scenes and jokes that were included on prior DVD releases, and are therefore",
"and are therefore presented in their NBC broadcast versions. In Australia, the original DVD releases were fold out box sets which contained three discs, and released as follows: Season 1 and Season 2 on March 13, 2002, Season 3 and Season 4 on July 9, 2002, Season 5, 6 and 7 on July 29, 2002, Season 8 on March 18, 2003, Season 9 on February 11, 2004, and Season 10 on November 24, 2004. Repackaged sets, slimmed into regular DVD cases also containing three discs were released from 2003 to 2004. Collector's Edition sets were released from September 9, 2003, through to February 1, 2006, these sets contains 4 discs, in fat DVD cases, with extra bonus material. On October 4, 2006, the individual seasons were repackaged into regular DVD case sets and marked as \"Including Brand New Bonus Disc\". Once again each individual season were repackaged with new artwork on March 31, 2010. The first complete series boxset on DVD was released around 2004 or 2005, this was titled 'The One With All Ten Seasons\" and the packaging",
"and the packaging was a black box with a lift up lid and contains exclusive packaging for all ten seasons. The second complete series boxset was released August 21, 2013 and was a red box which contained the 2010 individual season sets inside. On October 1, 2014, was the 20th Anniversary boxset, this was a white box and contained the same 2010 individual releases inside. On October 7, 2015, another boxset was released 'The One With All Ten Seasons\", the same name used on the original boxset, however this time slimmed down and contains the 2010 individual releases inside. The outer box is open on insert side for the cases to slide in and out, more of a budget release. In 2016, a repackaged 'The Complete Series' Blu-ray boxset was issued, containing the same 10 individual seasons in the original set, however the box is more cut down and is opened on one side, and also does not include the book that contained the episode guide. The entire series will be released onUltra HD Blu-rayon September 24, 2024. Spin-off",
"24, 2024. Spin-off After the series finale in 2004, LeBlanc signed on for the spin-off series,Joey, following Joey's move to Los Angeles to pursue his acting career. Kauffman and Crane were not interested in the spin-off, although Bright agreed to executive produce the series with Scott Silveri and Shana Goldberg-Meehan.NBC heavily promotedJoeyand gave itFriends' Thursday 8:00 pm timeslot. The pilot was watched by 18.6 million American viewers,but ratings continually decreased throughout the series's two seasons, averaging 10.2 million viewers in the first season and 7.1 million in the second.The final broadcast episode on March 7, 2006, was watched by 7.09 million viewers;NBC cancelled the series on May 15, 2006, after two seasons, leaving eight episodes unaired.Bright blamed the collaboration between NBC executives, the studio and other producers for quickly ruining the series: OnFriends, Joey was a womanizer, but we enjoyed his exploits. He was a solid friend, a guy you knew you could count on. Joey was",
"count on. Joey was deconstructed to be a guy who couldn't get a job, couldn't ask a girl out. He became a pathetic, mopey character. I felt he was moving in the wrong direction, but I was not heard. See also References Further reading Articles concerning the cultural influence of the program: External links",
"Jennifer Aniston Jennifer Joanna Aniston(born February 11, 1969) is an American actress. She rose to international fame for her role asRachel Greenon the televisionsitcomFriendsfrom 1994 to 2004, which earned herPrimetime Emmy,Golden Globe, andScreen Actors Guildawards. Aniston has consistently ranked among the world's highest-paid actresses, as of 2023. The daughter of actorsJohn AnistonandNancy Dow, she began working as an actress at an early age with an uncredited role in the 1988 filmMac and Me. Her first major film role came in the 1993 horror comedyLeprechaun. She has since starred in a string of successful comedy films such asOffice Space(1999),Bruce Almighty(2003),The Break-Up(2006),Marley & Me(2008),Just Go with It(2011),Horrible Bosses(2011),We're the Millers(2013),Dumplin'(2018), andMurder Mystery(2019). Aniston also starred in the acclaimed independent filmsThe Good Girl(2002),Friends with Money(2006), andCake(2014). She returned to television in 2019, producing and starring in theApple TV+drama",
"theApple TV+drama seriesThe Morning Show, for which she received aScreen Actors Guild Award. Aniston has been included in numerous magazines' lists of the world's most beautiful women. Her net worth is estimated as US$300 million, and her box office gross is over $1.6 billion worldwide.She is the recipient of a star on theHollywood Walk of Fameand is the co-founder of the production companyEcho Films, established in 2008. Early life Aniston was born on February 11, 1969, in theSherman Oaksneighborhood of Los Angelesto Greek-born actorJohn Anistonand actressNancy Dow.One of her maternal great-grandfathers, Louis Grieco, was from Italy.Her mother's other ancestry includes English, Irish, Scottish, and a small amount of Greek. Her father's ancestry is from the Greek island of Crete. Aniston has two half-brothers: John Melick, her older maternal half-brother; and Alex Aniston, her younger paternal half-brother.Her godfather was actorTelly Savalas, one of her father's best friends. Her family moved to New York",
"moved to New York City when she was a child.Despite her father's television career, she was discouraged from watching television, though she found ways around the prohibition. When she was six, she began attending aWaldorf school.Her parents divorced when she was nine. Having discovered acting at age 11 at the Waldorf school,Aniston enrolled in Manhattan'sFiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts, where she joined the school's drama society,and where Anthony Abeson was her drama teacher.She performed inThe Sign in Sidney Brustein's WindowbyLorraine HansberryandThree SistersbyAnton Chekhov. Career 1988–1993: Beginnings Aniston first worked inoff-Broadwayproductions such asFor Dear LifeandDancing on Checker's Grave,and supported herself with part-time jobs including work as atelemarketer, waitress and bike messenger.In 1988, she had an uncredited minor role in the critically panned sci-fi adventure filmMac and Me. The next year, she appeared onThe Howard Stern Showas",
"Howard Stern Showas aspokesmodelforNutrisystem,and moved back to Los Angeles. Her first regular television role was in the TV seriesMolloyin 1990, and she appeared in thetelevision adaptationof the 1986 filmFerris Bueller's Day Off; both series were quickly canceled. She starred as a teenage summer camp counselor in the made-for-television filmCamp Cucamonga(1990), and as a spoiled teenager followed by a vengefulleprechaunin the horror filmLeprechaun(1993).A 2014 retrospective fromEntertainment WeeklyidentifiedLeprechaunas her worst role,and Aniston herself has expressed embarrassment over it. Aniston also appeared in the two failed television comedy seriesThe EdgeandMuddling Through,and guest-starred inQuantum Leap,Herman's HeadandBurke's Law. 1994–2004:Friendsand worldwide recognition Depressed over her four unsuccessful television shows, Aniston approached TV executiveWarren Littlefieldat a Los Angeles gas station asking for reassurance. As the head of NBC entertainment, he encouraged her to continue",
"her to continue acting, and a few months later helped cast her inFriends,a sitcom set to debut on NBC's 1994–1995 fall lineup. The producer wanted Aniston to audition for the role ofMonica Geller,butCourteney Coxwas deemed more suitable, and Aniston was cast asRachel Green. She was also offered a spot as a featured player onSaturday Night Live, but turned it down in favor ofFriends.She played Rachel until the show ended in 2004, when Aniston took a 15-year hiatus from television save for occasional guest roles. The program was a massive hit and Aniston, along with her co-stars, gained worldwide recognition. Her character was especially popular.She received fivePrimetime Emmy Awardnominations (two forSupporting Actress, three forLead Actress), and won for Lead Actress.She was also nominated for twoGolden Globe Awardsand won in 2003 asBest Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy. According to theGuinness Book of World Records, Aniston (along with her female co-stars) became the highest-paid television",
"television actress of all time with her $1 million-per-episode paycheck during the final season ofFriends.Her character's relationship withRoss Geller, portrayed byDavid Schwimmer, was widely popular among audiences; they were frequently voted television's favorite couple in polls and magazines. After a four-year hiatus, Aniston returned to film work in 1996, when she performed in the ensemble cast of romantic comedyShe's the One.Her first starring film vehicle wasPicture Perfect(1997), where she played a struggling young advertising executive oppositeKevin BaconandJay Mohr. It received mixed reviews and was only a moderate commercial success;but Aniston's performance was more warmly received, with many critics suggesting that she had screen presence.In 1998, she appeared as a woman who falls for a gay man (played byPaul Rudd) in the romantic comedyThe Object of My Affection,and the next year she starred as a restaurant waitress in thecult filmOffice Space. Aniston appeared in thedramedyRock Star(2001)",
"Star(2001) oppositeMark WahlbergandDominic West. She starred in the independent dramedyThe Good Girl(2002) as an unglamorous cashier who cheats on her husband. The film was a commercial success in limited release, taking in over $14 million in North America.Film criticRoger Ebertdeclared it her breakthrough: After languishing in a series of overlooked movies that ranged from the entertainingOffice Spaceto the disposablePicture Perfect, Jennifer Aniston has at last decisively broken with herFriendsimage in an independent film of satiric fire and emotional turmoil. It will no longer be possible to consider her in the same way. Aniston's biggest commercial success in film has been the comedyBruce Almighty(2003), where she played the girlfriend of a television field reporter (Jim Carrey) offered the chance to be God for one week.With a worldwide box office gross of $484 million,it was the fifth-highest-grossing feature film of the year.Aniston next starred as the old classmate of a tightly wound newlywed in the",
"newlywed in the romantic comedyAlong Came Polly(2004) oppositeBen Stiller,which placed number one at the North American box office, earning $27.7 million in its opening weekend;it eventually made $172 million worldwide. 2005–2013: Continued film success In 2005, Aniston appeared as an alluring woman having an affair with an advertising executive in the thrillerDerailed, and as an obituary and wedding announcement writer in the romantic comedyRumor Has It.Both films were moderate box office hits.Aniston took on the role of a single, cash-strapped woman working as a maid in the independent dramaFriends with Money(2006), which received a limited release. Her next film was the romantic comedyThe Break-Up(2006), alongsideVince Vaughn, in which she starred as one half of a couple having a complicated split when both refuse to move out of the pair's recently purchased home. It received mixed reviews but grossed approximately $39.17 million during its opening weekend and $204 million worldwide.The A.V. Club's Keith",
"A.V. Club's Keith Phipps gave the film a negative review, stating, \"It's like watching the 'we were on a break' episode ofFriendsstretched to feature length, and without the blessed relief of commercial breaks or the promise ofSeinfeldaround the corner.\"CinemaBlendgave the film a positive review stating, \"In an era of formulaic romantic movies that bear no resemblance to reality,The Break-Upoffers a refreshing flipside.\" In 2006, Aniston directed theshort filmRoom 10, set in a hospital emergency room and starringRobin WrightandKris Kristofferson, as part ofGlamour'sReel Momentsfilm series.She noted that she was inspired to direct by actressGwyneth Paltrow, who also directed a short film that year.In 2007, Aniston guest-starred in an episode ofDirt—playing the rival ofCourteney Cox's character—and in an episode of30 Rock, playing a woman whostalksJack Donaghy.For the latter she received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination asOutstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series. The 2008 comedy dramaMarley & Me, starring",
"& Me, starring Aniston andOwen Wilsonas the owners of the titular dog, set a record for the largest Christmas Day box office sales ever with $14.75 million. It earned a total of $51.7 million over the four-day weekend and placed number one at the box office, a position it maintained for two weeks.The total worldwide gross was $242.7 million.Her next film in wide release, the romantic comedyHe's Just Not That Into You(2009), in which she starred oppositeBen Affleck, grossed $178.8 million globallyand ranked number one at the United States box office for its opening weekend.While it received mixed reviews, Aniston, along with Affleck,Ginnifer Goodwin, andJennifer Connelly, were praised by critics as standouts in the film. Aniston appeared as the former wife of abounty hunter(Gerard Butler) in the romantic comedy action filmThe Bounty Hunter(2010). The film was panned by critics, withThe Hollywood Reporterwriting that \"the mishmash ends up as a thoroughly unfunny adult cartoon.\"Nevertheless, it was a box office",
"it was a box office success, garnering over $130 million worldwide.A lukewarm box office reception greeted her next film, the romantic comedyThe Switch(2010), in which she starred withJason Batemanas a 30-something single woman who decides to have a child using a sperm bank. The film's opening weekend drew whatThe Hollywood Reporterdubbed \"a dispiriting $8.4 million\".The film received generally mixed reviews, with review siteMetacriticshowing 13 out of 30 critics delivering a positive verdict. In 2010, Aniston was also a guest star on the season two premiere ofABC's sitcomCougar Town, playing a psychiatrist.Her announcement that she would appear onCougar Towngarnered excitement and was dubbed her return to television.The A.V. Clubwrote, \" is a funny bit, and it highlights just how much Jennifer Aniston is built to be a TV star.\"In 2011, she starred oppositeAdam Sandleras an office manager posing as the wife of a plastic surgeon in the romantic comedyJust Go with It,and played a sexually aggressive dentist",
"aggressive dentist inHorrible Bosses.Just Go with ItandHorrible Bossesboth made over $100 million in North America and $200 million worldwide. Aniston appeared in the comedyWanderlust(2012) withPaul Rudd,with whom she acted inThe Object of My Affectionand alsoFriends, as a married couple who join a commune after losing their money and deciding modern life is not for them.The script forWanderlust, bought byUniversal Pictures,was produced byJudd Apatow.Wanderlustreceived positive reviews but was a box office failure, grossing only $21 million worldwide, against a production budget of $35 million.Aniston starred as a struggling stripper who agrees to pose as a wife for a drug deal, withJason Sudeikis, inWe're the Millers(2013). The film received mixed reviews from critics,but was a financial success, grossing $269 million against a budget of $37 million. 2014–present: film roles and return to television Aniston played the role of a stoic socialite who becomes the target of an ill-planned kidnapping plot inLife",
"plot inLife of Crime(2014), a film adaptation ofElmore Leonard's 1978 novelThe Switch.The film was released in limited theaters, to positive reviews.Catherine Shoard ofThe Guardiandescribed her performance as \"endearingly comic\"and Eric Kohn ofIndieWirewrote that \"Aniston tops any of her recent performances with a spirited turn that harkens back to her neurotic days onFriends.\"She also reprised her role forHorrible Bosses 2(2014). InCake(2014), Aniston starred as an astringent woman named Claire Simmons who struggles with chronic pain.The film received mixed reviews; nonetheless, Aniston's performance was acclaimed, dubbed by some critics as \"Oscar-worthy\".TheToronto International Film Festivalcalled her performance \"heartbreakingly good\",Gregory Ellwood ofHitFixstated, \"It's really on most people's radar for being a rare dramatic turn for Jennifer Aniston, and she doesn't disappoint.\" He further stated, \"Aniston makes you believe in Claire's pain. She makes you believe this character is at her lowest point",
"at her lowest point and only she can pull herself out of it. ... It's a complete performance from beginning to end and she deserves the appropriate accolades for it.\"For her performance, Aniston was nominated for theGolden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama,SAG Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role, andCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress.She was also nominated multiple nominations for its latter seasons. In 2015, Aniston starred as a reluctant therapist in the screwball comedyShe's Funny That Way,which received mixed reviews and found a limited release in theaters, but her performance was once again noticed.Wesley MorrisofGrantlandcalled her \"one of the great screen comedians. ... Most of her scenes here are extraneous, but her vulgarity and tartness are so sharp that the movie needs them. ... This isn't just Aniston having the best stuff. It's her having the most fun with her talent. She's funny in every way.\" Aniston starred as the recently",
"as the recently divorced mother of two children in the romantic comedyMother's Day(2016), directed byGarry Marshall, and oppositeJulia RobertsandKate Hudson.The film was panned by critics and a moderate commercial success.In 2016, she voiced a workaholic and overprotective mother in the animated filmStorks, alongsideAndy SambergandKelsey Grammer,which was released to mostly positive reviews; it grossed over $183.4 million against a $70 million budget.Her last 2016 film role was that of a frigidly cold head honcho of a company in the comedyOffice Christmas Party, directed byWill Speck and Josh Gordonand oppositeJason BatemanandKate McKinnon.It grossed $114.5 million worldwide. InThe Yellow Birds, a war drama directed byAlexandre Moors, Aniston portrays the mother of a deceased soldier, alongsideAlden Ehrenreich,Tye Sheridan,Jack Huston, andToni Collette.While she said she does not \"normally gravitate toward being in war films\", she made an exception because the film was \"written so beautifully and in such a",
"and in such a way had never experienced\".The film, first presented at the2017 Sundance Film Festival, received avideo on demandrelease in June 2018.TheLos Angeles Timeswrote in its review: \"Toni Collette and Jennifer Aniston as the soldiers' quite different but equally concerned mothers, deliver uniformly naturalistic performances\". In December 2018,Netflixreleased the musical comedyDumplin', with Aniston as executive producer and star—marking her first project for a streaming service.That year, she began work on another Netflix project,Murder Mystery, a comedy that reunited her with Adam Sandler, which premiered on June 14, 2019.The two of them reunited for the sequelMurder Mystery 2, which premiered on March 31, 2023. Aniston made her return to television on November 1, 2019, producing and starring alongsideReese Witherspoonin theApple TV+dramaThe Morning Show. It was her first main television role since the conclusion ofFriendsin 2004.For its first season, Aniston won theScreen Actors Guild Award for",
"Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series,and received aPrimetime Emmy Awardnomination forOutstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Seriesand twoGolden Globe Awardnominations forBest Actress – Television Series DramaandBest Television Series – Dramaas a producer.The series' latter seasons earned her multiple additional nominations atCritics' Choice, Golden Globe, Primetime Emmy andSAGawards. She reunited with herFriendscast mates for anHBO Maxunscripted television special titledFriends: The Reunionin May 2021.The special earned her a nomination for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Pre-Recorded)for her producing credit. In the media Wealth Aniston is one of the world's highest-paid actresses as of 2018.She has been on theForbesTop Earning Actresses list for 15 years, every year since 2001—and since then also on itsCelebrity 100list (based on \"earnings and fame\"), topping it in 2003.According toForbes, in October 2007, Aniston was the best-selling celebrity",
"celebrity face of the entertainment industry. The magazine estimated her net worth at $110 million in 2007,and $200 million in 2017.It listed her earnings as $19.5 million in 2018. Public image The media nicknamed Aniston \"America's sweetheart\" while the actress was starring onFriends.In 2019, Rachel Simon ofNBCNews.comsaid Aniston \"has filled the role of our most beloved celebrity for nearly two and a half decades now, and there are no signs of her being replaced anytime soon\", arguing that few celebrities have maintained the \"America's sweetheart\" title for as long as she has.Aniston has been included in various magazine lists of the world's most beautiful women.In 2005, she became the firstGQ(Gentlemen's Quarterly) Woman of the Year. She has frequently appeared onPeoplemagazine's annual list ofMost Beautiful Women, topping the ranking in 2004 and 2016.She also topped the magazine's Best Dressed List in 2006. She has been a regular on theFHM(For Him Magazine)100 Sexiest Women in the Worldlist since 1996,",
"since 1996, most recently ranking at number 79 in 2012.A survey of their patients by two Hollywood plastic surgeons, reported in 2011 byThe Daily Telegraph, identified her (alongsideGisele BündchenandPenélope Cruz) as having one of the most sought-after body shapes.In the same year, readers ofMen's Healthvoted her as the Sexiest Woman of All Time.Men's Healthalso included her on its 100 Hottest Sex Symbols of All Time list, explaining that \"Her down-to-earth persona makes her seem attainable, ... she makes even pieces of flair look good. She rarely plays the airhead, and she seldom overplays a role: she's funny in a quiet, refreshingly human way. And her all-too-human love life off screen inspires sympathy ... throughout her career Aniston has remained sexy, funny, and unmistakably real.\"Although Aniston disliked the hairstyle she wore during her first two years onFriends, \"The Rachel\" became very popular. She received amotion picture staron theHollywood Walk of Fameon February 22, 2012,located at",
"22, 2012,located at 6270Hollywood Boulevard.She was ranked third onForbes'list of the 100 Most Powerful Actresses in Hollywood in 2013. In July 2016, amidst media speculation over whether she was pregnant, Aniston penned an essay forThe Huffington Postcondemning the \"objectification and scrutiny we put women through\". She asserted: \"We are complete with or without a mate, with or without a child. We get to decide for ourselves what is beautiful when it comes to our bodies. We don't need to be married or mothers to be complete. We get to determine our own 'happily ever after' for ourselves.\"The piece was supported by many celebrities and widely covered in the media. After years of aversion to social media, Aniston joinedInstagramon October 15, 2019, causing the app to \"break\" (for hours the \"follow\" button became inoperable due to an overload of web traffic to her account) with the first picture of the plannedFriendscast reunionforHBO Max(whose release was delayed until 2021 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic). She",
"pandemic). She broke theGuinness World Recordfor fastest time to reach one million followers on Instagram, by doing so within five hours and sixteen minutes. Personal life Aniston practicesHatha yogaandBudokan karate.In 2014, she spoke of herTranscendental Meditationpractice.The following year, she revealed she hasdyslexia, which had affected her education and self-esteem, and that after being diagnosed in her twenties, her outlook toward life changed. She stated, \"I thought I wasn't smart. I just couldn't retain anything. Now I had this great discovery. I felt like all of my childhood trauma-dies, tragedies, dramas were explained.\" Aniston donated toBarack Obama's2008 presidential campaignand took part in a fundraiser forHillary Clintonduring her2016 presidential campaign.She endorsedJoe Bidenin the2020 presidential election. Aniston does not have any children. In November 2022, she appeared on the cover ofAllurefor their final print issue.In the accompanying interview, Aniston said she had undergonein",
"she had undergonein vitro fertilization(IVF) to try to have children when she was in her thirties and forties, but the attempts did not result in any pregnancies.She said, \"All the years and years and years of speculation... It was really hard. I was going through IVF, drinking Chinese teas, you name it. I was throwing everything at it.\"In July 2024, after comments about \"childless cat ladies\" that Republican vice presidential nomineeJD Vancemade in 2021 went viral, Aniston stated on social media that: All I can say is… Mr. Vance, I pray that your daughter is fortunate enough to bear children of her own one day (...) I hope she will not need to turn to IVF as a second option. Because you are trying to take that away from her, too. In 2023, she disclosed that Adam Sandler's family sends her flowers every year on Mother's Day. Relationships Aniston metBrad Pittin 1998, and their relationship was highly publicized.After two years of dating, they married on July 29, 2000, in a lavishMalibu, California, wedding.",
"wedding. For a few years, their marriage was considered a rareHollywoodsuccess.On January 7, 2005, they announced their separation,and finalized their divorce on October 2.During their divorce proceedings, news media speculated that Pitt had been unfaithful to Aniston with hisMr. & Mrs. Smithco-starAngelina Jolie, with whom he began a relationship soon after the split.In the months following, the public's reaction towards the divorce played out as \"Team Aniston\" and \"Team Jolie\" T-shirts appeared throughout the country.Aniston commented on the divorce in a January 2015 interview withThe Hollywood Reporter, stating, \"Nobody did anything wrong... It was just like, sometimes things .\" In 2005, amid reports that their divorce was due to Aniston's refusal to have children with Pitt, Aniston said, \"I've never in my life said I didn't want to have children. I did and I do and I will! ... I would never give up that experience for a career.\" Aniston said the divorce prompted her to reach out to her mother, Nancy,",
"her mother, Nancy, from whom she had been estranged for nearly a decade. Nancy had talked about her daughter on a television show and writtenFrom Mother and Daughter to Friends: A Memoir(1999). In 2006, Aniston said she had been devastated by the death of her longtime therapist, whom she credited for helping make her separation from Pitt easier.She said she did not regret her relationship with Pitt, describing it as \"very intense\" and \"a beautiful, complicated relationship\". Aniston began a relationship with actor, director, and screenwriterJustin Therouxin May 2011. The following January, they purchased a home in theBel Airneighborhood of Los Angeles for roughly $22 million.They became engaged on August 10, 2012and were married on August 5, 2015, at their estate.They separated at the end of 2017. Other ventures Aniston has appeared in commercials and music videos throughout her career. After starting onFriends, Aniston and her co-starMatthew Perryshot a 60-minute instructional video for the release",
"for the release ofMicrosoft'sWindows 95operating system.The next year she appeared in commercials forL'Oréalhair products. Under a contract withElizabeth Arden, Inc.,Aniston worked for over a year on her first perfume, which was released in July 2010.Original plans called for the perfume to be named \"Lolavie by Jennifer Aniston\", but to avoid confusion with a similarly named perfume, the name was changed to simply \"Jennifer Aniston\".In 2014, she launched her second perfume, named J,followed by Near Dusk (2015),Beachscape (2016),Luxe and Chapter One (both in 2017), Chapter Two (2018), Silver and Solstice Bloom (both in 2020).In 2021, Aniston launched the LolaVie haircare company. Since 2007, she has worked in a publicity campaign for the drinkSmartWater; on March 7, 2011, she released aYouTubevideo for SmartWater,Jennifer Aniston Goes Viral, which tripled online interest in the product within 24 hours of its release.In 2012, Aniston co-founded hair care brand Living Proof and also became its spokeswoman. She",
"spokeswoman. She left when the company was sold toUnileverin 2016.In January 2013, she became the new spokeswoman ofAveeno Skincare.Aniston is paid \"eight figures\" for her endorsement.She became the new face ofEmirates airlinein 2015,which was reportedly a success.For pharmaceutical companyShire, she appeared in a 2016 campaign raising awareness aboutchronic dry eye. She appeared in the 1996Tom Petty and The Heartbreakersmusic video for \"Walls\", and inMelissa Etheridge's 2001 music video for \"I Want to Be in Love\".She also appeared in a 2005Heinekencommercial. Along with Brad Pitt andBrad Grey, CEO ofParamount Pictures, Aniston founded the film production companyPlan B Entertainmentin 2002,although she and Grey withdrew in 2005.In 2008, she and producer Kristin Hahn formedEcho Films. Philanthropy Aniston has been a celebrity advocate for numerous charities and received attention for her own donations. She has appeared in television commercials forSt. Jude's Children's Research Hospital, and hosted September",
"hosted September 2008'sStand Up to Cancershow.In the \"It Can't Wait\" campaign to freeBurma, Aniston directed and starred in a video.She is a supporter of Friends of El Faro, a nonprofit organization that helps raise money for Casa Hogar Sion, an orphanage inTijuana, Mexico. On April 14, 2007, Aniston receivedGLAAD's Vanguard Award for her contributions to increased visibility and understanding of theLGBTcommunity.In 2013, she was named theEntertainment Industry Foundation(EIF) ambassador for theSaks Fifth AvenueKey to the Cure campaign, which raises funds for the EIF Women's Cancer Research Fund.In 2015, she supported theComic Relief, Inc.charity.Other charities that Aniston has publicly supported include Clothes Off Our Back, Feeding America, EB Medical Research Foundation, Project A.L.S.,OmniPeace, and theRape, Abuse & Incest National Network. Aniston donated $500,000 toDoctors Without Borders, Haitian health care providerPartners in HealthandAmeriCares,and also participated in theHope for Haiti",
"theHope for Haiti Nowtelethon. She donated $500,000 to theRed Crossand another $500,000 to the Ricky Martin Foundation in 2017 to help victims of hurricanesHarvey,IrmaandMaria. After being honored by SmartWater in 2016 for her ongoing philanthropic work forSt. Jude's, Aniston spoke of the importance of philanthropy in her life toInStylemagazine: \"We live an extremely beautiful, fortunate life being able to do what we get to do for a living. And so it's a way of being able to be in a position to do something for people who are less able. It's something that makes my heart smile.\" Acting credits and awards Aniston received five Primetime Emmy Award nominations, two Golden Globe Award nominations, and nine SAG Award nominations for her role inFriends. From these, she won one of each. She also garnered a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for her guest appearance in30 Rock, while her performance inCakeearned her nominations at the Golden Globe and SAG awards. Aniston additionally won a SAG Award and was nominated",
"and was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award and a Golden Globe Award for the first season ofThe Morning Show, and earned multiple nominations at Critics' Choice, Golden Globe, Primetime Emmy and SAG awards for its latter seasons. As a producer, she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award and three Golden Globe Awards. According to review aggregator siteRotten Tomatoesand the box-office siteBox Office Mojo, Aniston's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful films areOffice Space(1999),The Good Girl(2002),Bruce Almighty(2003),Friends with Money(2006),The Break-Up(2006),Marley & Me(2008),Just Go with It(2011),Horrible Bosses(2011),We're the Millers(2013), andDumplin'(2018). See also References Further reading External links",
"Courteney Cox Courteney Bass Cox(born June 15, 1964)is an American actress and filmmaker. She rose to international prominence for playingMonica Gellerin theNBCsitcomFriends(1994–2004) andGale Weathersin the horror film franchiseScream(1996–present).Her accolades include aScreen Actors Guild Award, nominations for twoEmmy Awardsand aGolden Globe Award, and a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame. Cox had a recurring role in theNBCsitcomFamily Ties(1987–1989), and starred in theFXdrama seriesDirt(2007–2008), theABC/TBSsitcomCougar Town(2009–2015) which she also directed, and theStarzhorror comedy seriesShining Vale(2022–2023). Her film credits include the action fantasyMasters of the Universe(1987), the comedyAce Ventura: Pet Detective(1994), the animated comedyBarnyard(2006), the fantasy comedyBedtime Stories(2008), and theindependentdramaMothers and Daughters(2016). Cox owns the production companyCoquette Productions, which she founded with her then-husband,David Arquette. She has directed the television drama",
"television drama filmTalhotBlond(2012), the black comedy drama filmJust Before I Go(2014), and executive produced the game showCelebrity Name Game(2014–2017). Early life Cox was born June 15, 1964, inBirmingham, Alabama, and raised there.She is a daughter of businessman Richard Lewis Cox (1931–2001) and Courteney Copeland (née Bass; 1934–2020).Cox has two older sisters, Virginia and Dorothy, and an older brother, Richard Jr. Her parents divorced in 1974 and her mother then married businessman Hunter Copeland (uncle to music promoter and business managerIan Copelandandthe PolicedrummerStewart Copeland). After graduating fromMountain Brook High School, Cox left forMount Vernon CollegeinWashington, D.C.(now part ofGeorge Washington University), but did not complete her architecture course, opting instead to pursue a career in modeling and acting.Cox has English and Norman ancestry; researching her family tree for the seriesWho Do You Think You Are?, Cox discovered she was a direct descendant ofWilliam the",
"ofWilliam the ConquerorandEdward I of England. Career Early work Cox worked at video game publisherBethesda Softworksbriefly in the 1980s.She was chosen from acasting callby directorBrian De Palmato appear in the 1984 music video forBruce Springsteen's \"Dancing in the Dark\", as the young woman pulled onstage at theSt. Paul Civic Centerto dance with Springsteen.Her early television work includes a starring role as Gloria Dinallo in the short-livedNBCscience fiction seriesMisfits of Science(1985),and guest-starring roles in theABCcomedy-drama seriesThe Love Boat(1986) and theCBScrime drama seriesMurder, She Wrote(1986). She later had a recurring role as Lauren Miller, the girlfriend ofMichael J. Fox's characterAlex P. Keatonin the NBC comedy seriesFamily Ties(1987–1989).Cox's early film roles includeMasters of the Universe(1987),Cocoon: The Return(1988), andI'll Be Home for Christmas(1988).She also played Jewel Jagger, the tough-as-nails assistant of Larry Burrows (James Belushi), inMr. Destiny(1990). 1990s:",
"1990s: International breakthrough In 1993, Cox co-starred in the short-lived CBS sitcomThe Trouble with Larry, alongsideBronson PinchotandPerry King.The following year, shortly before the debut of the sitcomFriends, Cox starred alongsideJim Carreyin the comedy filmAce Ventura: Pet Detective,and asJerry Seinfeld's girlfriend, Meryl, in theSeinfeldepisode \"The Wife\". In 1994, Cox was asked to audition for the starring role ofRachel Greenon a new sitcom,Friends; she was cast asMonica Gellerinstead.At first the most famous cast member of the new show, Cox joinedJennifer Aniston(Rachel Green),Lisa Kudrow(Phoebe Buffay),Matt LeBlanc(Joey Tribbiani),Matthew Perry(Chandler Bing) andDavid Schwimmer(Ross Geller) for what became her most famous role, lasting for ten seasons until 2004. The series is commonly referred to as one of the greatest of all sitcoms.According to theGuinness Book of World Records(2005), Cox (along with her female co-stars) became the highest-paid TV actress of all time, with herUS$1",
"time, with herUS$1 million-per-episode fee for the final two seasons ofFriends.Syndication of the series earned Cox and her co-stars an estimated $20 million in annual residuals.In 1995, she was cast inToad the Wet Sprocket's music video \"Good Intentions\". The song was also featured on theFriendssoundtrack. Between seasons five and six, she marriedDavid Arquetteand consequently changed her name to Courteney Cox Arquette. A joke reference to this is made in the opening credits of the episode \"The One After Vegas\", where the rest of the cast has \"Arquette\" added to their names. The dedication \"For Courteney and David, who did get married\" – a reference to Monica and Chandler's decision not to marry in the episode – appears during the fade out to the tag scene. Cox received further recognition and critical acclaim for her starring role as reporterGale Weathersin the high-profile slasher horror filmScream(1996), and its sequelsScream 2(1997) andScream 3(2000). The series is one of thehighest grossingand",
"grossingand critically acclaimed horror franchises of all time.Cox's character was well known for her \"snappy remarks and being brilliantly bossy\".She met her future husband, David Arquette, who played her on-screen love interest, Dwight \"Dewey\" Riley, while filming the firstScreamfilm.Cox also hosted an episode of the variety sketch seriesSaturday Night Livein July 1995,and appeared in the crime thriller filmThe Runner(1999). 2000s: Continued success Cox's major films during this period include the crime drama3000 Miles to Graceland(2001) and the comedyThe Shrink Is In(2001).In late 2003, Cox and Arquette produced one season of the reality television seriesMix It Up.The lifestyle series, which aired on the WE cable channel, struggled with low ratings and was not renewed for a second season.After the conclusion ofFriends, Cox was producerMarc Cherry's first choice to be offered a starring role asSusan MayeronDesperate Housewives, but Cox was unavailable due to her pregnancy and the role later went toTeri",
"later went toTeri Hatcher.A few years later, Cox signed a deal withABC Studios(formerly Touchstone Television) to star in her own series. She starred in theindependentdrama filmNovember(2005), which had a limited theatrical release.She had acameo appearancein the big-budget remakeThe Longest Yard(2005) as Lena, the girlfriend of Paul Crewe (Adam Sandler), and co-starred withTim Allenin the critically deridedZoom(2006).Cox voiced Daisy the Cow in the animated filmBarnyard(2006).AFriendsreunion film was rumored to be in production following the success ofSex and the City(2008),but this was laterdeniedbyWarner Bros.and others. Cox starred as Lucy Spiller, a cynicaltabloideditor, in theFXtelevision drama seriesDirt, which premiered in 2007. Cox and her then-husband David Arquette were the executive producers of the series.The series was eventually canceled after the second season in 2008.In July 2008,Entertainment Weeklyannounced that Cox signed on to star in a three-episode arc for the television medical comedy",
"medical comedy seriesScrubs.Also that year, she starred in the fantasy comedy filmBedtime Stories, reuniting with co-star Adam Sandler.She went to executive produce the short drama filmThe Butler's in Love, directed by David Arquette. Cox guest-starred in a three-episodestory arcon formerFriendsco-starLisa Kudrow's web comedy seriesWeb Therapy(2009).Also in 2009, she began her role as the star of thesingle-cameraABC comedy seriesCougar Town, playing a newly single 40-year-old mother on the hunt for new experiences.It is notably Cox's most successful work sinceFriends, earning her a nomination for theGolden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy. The series' third season was set to premiere in November 2011 but moved to February 14, 2012. Cox directed two episodes of the series' fifteen episodes that season. The fourth season premiered on January 8, 2013. The series came to an end on March 31, 2015, after six seasons. 2010s: Directorial debut and expansion Cox reprised her role as",
"her role as Gale Weathers from theScreamtrilogy for the sequelScream 4. The film was released in theaters on April 15, 2011.She made her directorial debut and had a cameo appearance in aLifetimetelevision drama filmTalhotBlond, which premiered on the network on June 23, 2012. In 2014, Cox directed and produced the black comedy filmJust Before I Go, starringSeann William ScottandElisha Cuthbert.The film premiered at theTribeca Film Festivalon April 24, 2014,and it was released in select theaters on April 24, 2015.From 2014 to 2017, she executive produced the syndicated game showCelebrity Name Game, hosted byCraig Ferguson. It ended after three seasons. The series earned her a nomination for theDaytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game Show. In 2016, Cox starred in the independent drama filmMothers and Daughters, alongsideSusan Sarandon,Mira Sorvino, andSharon Stone. The film was released to generally negative reviews on May 6, 2016.In 2019, she created and executive produced theFacebook Watchdocumentary series9",
"series9 Months with Courteney Cox, which focuses on \"people from across the country of various race, religion, and class as they self-document their 9-month journey of pregnancy\".It lasted for three seasons until 2021. 2020s: Current work In 2020, she guest starred in the ABC sitcomModern Family.Cox reunited with herFriendsco-stars for a reunion special titledFriends: The Reunion, which was released on May 27, 2021, onHBO Max.The special earned Cox a nomination for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Pre-Recorded).In the same year she launched her line of home products, named Homecourt.She also participated in theCelebrity Escape Roomspecial to raise $150,000 for Red Nose Day. Cox reprised her role as Gale Weathers for thefifthScreamfilm, which was directed byMatt Bettinelli-OlpinandTyler Gillett.The film was released on January 14, 2022, to box office success and positive reviews.Also in 2022, she signed on to star alongsideGreg Kinnearin theStarzhorror comedy seriesShining Vale, from",
"Vale, from creatorsSharon Horganand Jeff Astrof; she plays Patricia \"Pat\" Phelps, who moves her family \"from the 'crazy' of the city to a large, old house in the suburbs where evil and humor collide.\" Cox again reprised her role as Gale Weathers for thesixthScreamfilm,which she also executive produced.The film was released on March 9, 2023, to box office success and positive reviews. Also in 2023, she received a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame.She is set to executive produce and star as Brittany Wagner in theSpectrum Originalsadaptation of the documentary seriesLast Chance U. Personal life Cox dated actorMichael Keatonfrom 1989 to 1995.Cox married herScreamco-starDavid Arquetteon June 12, 1999, atGrace CathedralinSan Francisco.The couple has a daughter, born in June 2004.Jennifer Anistonis hergodmother.Cox revealed that she suffered frompostpartum depressionsix months after the birth of her child.On October 11, 2010, Cox and Arquette announced that they had separated, although they still maintain a close",
"maintain a close friendship and ongoing business relationship inCoquette Productions.In June 2012, Arquette filed for divorce after nearly two years of separation from Cox.The divorce became final in May 2013.Cox began datingSnow Patrolband memberJohnny McDaidin late 2013.The couple announced their engagement in June 2014.Soon afterward they called off the engagement, but they have remained a couple. In 2020, Cox said that she did not remember much about the episode plots ofFriendsand that she had begun binge-watching the show.Cox is a practitioner ofBudokan karate. Filmography Film Television Music videos Awards and honors Accolades Honors Notes References External links",
"Lisa Kudrow Lisa Valerie Kudrow(/ˈkuːdroʊ/KOO-droh; born July 30, 1963) is an American actress. She rose to international fame for her role asPhoebe Buffayin the American television sitcomFriends, which aired from 1994 to 2004. The series earned herPrimetime Emmy,Screen Actors Guild,Satellite,American ComedyandTV Guideawards. Phoebe has since been named one of the greatest television characters of all time and is considered to be Kudrow's breakout role, spawning her successful film career. Kudrow initially appeared in a 1989 episode of the hit sitcomCheersplaying a character named Emily. She also starred in several episodes of the showMad About You(1993) as Ursula, before auditioning and earning the role of Phoebe onFriends; her character onMad About Youwas written into theFriendsstoryline as Phoebe’s twin. In the late 1990s, Kudrow starred in thecultcomedy filmRomy and Michele's High School Reunion(1997) and followed it with an acclaimed performance in the comedy/dramaThe Opposite of Sex(1998), which won her",
"which won her theNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actressand a nomination for theIndependent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female. She created, produced, wrote, and starred in theHBOmockumentary seriesThe Comeback, which initially lasted for one season in 2005 but was revived for a critically acclaimed second and final season in 2014. She was nominated for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor both seasons. In 2007, Kudrow received praise for her starring role in the filmKablueyand appeared in the filmP.S. I Love You. She produced and starred in theShowtimeprogramWeb Therapy(2011–2015), which was nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Award. She is a producer on theTLC/NBCreality programWho Do You Think You Are, which has been nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Awardfive times. She currently is a voice actress on the animated seriesHouseBroken. Kudrow has also had roles inAnalyze This(1999) and its sequelAnalyze That(2002),Dr. Dolittle",
"Dolittle 2(2001),Bandslam(2008),Hotel for Dogs(2009),Easy A(2010),Neighbors(2014) and its sequelNeighbors 2: Sorority Rising(2016),The Girl on the Train(2016),The Boss Baby(2017),Long Shot(2019) andBooksmart(2019). Early life Lisa Valerie Kudrowwas born in theEncinoneighborhood ofLos Angeleson July 30, 1963,the daughter of Nedra, a travel agent, and Lee Kudrow, a doctor who specialized in treating headaches.She has an older sister, Helene, and two brothers, David and Derrick.She was raised in a middle-classJewishfamily and had aBat Mitzvah.She is of Belarusian, German, Hungarian, and Polish Jewish descent.Some of her Belarusian ancestors were fromIlya.Almost all Jews in Ilya were murdered duringthe Holocaust, including Kudrow's paternal great-grandmother. Her paternal grandmother later left Belarus forBrooklyn, where her father grew up. Kudrow attended Portola Middle School in theTarzananeighborhood of Los Angeles.She graduated fromTaft High Schoolin theWoodland Hillsneighborhood, which was attended at the",
"was attended at the same time by rapperEazy-Eand actressRobin Wright. She received herBAin biology fromVassar CollegeinPoughkeepsie, New York, intending to become an expert on headaches like her father.While breaking into acting, she worked for her father for eight years and earned a research credit on his study on the comparative likelihood of left-handed individuals developingcluster headaches. Career 1989–1994: Pre-Friends At the urging of comedianJon Lovitz, who was a childhood friend of her brother,Kudrow began her comedic career as a member ofThe Groundlings, an improv and sketch comedy school in Los Angeles. She has creditedCynthia Szigeti, her improv teacher at The Groundlings, for changing her perspective on acting, calling her \"the best thing that happened, on so many levels\".Briefly, Kudrow joined withConan O'Brienand director Tim Hillman in the short-livedimprovtroupeUnexpected Company.She was also the only regular female member of the Transformers Comedy Troupe.She played a role in an episode of",
"in an episode of theNBCsitcomCheers. She tried out forSaturday Night Livein 1990, but the show choseJulia Sweeneyinstead.She had a recurring role as Kathy Fleisher in three episodes of season one of theBob NewhartsitcomBob(CBS, 1992–1993), a role she played after taking part in the series finale of Newhart's previous seriesNewhart.Prior toFriends, she appeared in at least two network-producedpilots: NBC'sJust Temporary(also known asTemporarily Yours) in 1989, playing Nicole; and CBS'Close Encounters(also known asMatchmaker) in 1990, playing aValley girl. Kudrow was cast asRoz DoyleinFrasier, but the role was re-cast withPeri Gilpinduring the taping of the pilot episode. In 2000, Kudrow explained that when rehearsals started, \"I knew it wasn't working. I could feel it all slipping away, and I was panicking, which only made things worse.\"Her first recurring television role wasUrsula Buffay, the eccentric waitress on the NBC sitcomMad About You. 1994–2004:Friendsand worldwide recognition Kudrow, the oldest",
"Kudrow, the oldest actor of the main cast, reprised the character of Ursula on the NBC sitcomFriends, in which she co-starred asmassage therapistPhoebe Buffay, Ursula's twin sister.Praised for her performance, Kudrow was the firstFriendscast member to win anEmmy Awardwith her 1998 honor asOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her starring role as Phoebe onFriends(NBC, 1994–2004).Kudrow received critical acclaim for playing Phoebe. According to theGuinness Book of World Records(2005), Kudrow and co-starsJennifer AnistonandCourteney Coxbecame the highest paid TV actresses of all time, earning $1 million per episode for the ninth and tenth seasons ofFriends.Phoebe has since been named one of the greatest television characters of all time. Phoebe is considered to be Kudrow's breakout role, credited with making her the show's second-most famous cast member, afterJennifer Aniston, and for spawning her successful film career. She played Phoebe until the show ended in 2004. The program was a massive",
"was a massive hit and Kudrow, along with her co-stars, gained worldwide recognition. Her character, Phoebe, was especially popular.Entertainment Weeklyvoted Phoebe onFriendsas Kudrow's best performance. During her tenure onFriends, Kudrow appeared in several comedy films such asRomy and Michele's High School Reunion,Hanging Up,Marci X,Dr. Dolittle 2,Analyze Thisand its sequelAnalyze That, and dramatic films, such asWonderlandandThe Opposite of Sex. She also guest-starred on numerous television series duringFriends, includingThe Simpsons,Hope and GloriaandKing of the Hill, and hostedSaturday Night Live. 2004–present: Post-Friends FollowingFriends, Kudrow starred as protagonist Valerie Cherish on the single-seasonHBOseriesThe Comeback(premiered June 5, 2005), about a has-been sitcom star trying for a comeback. She also served as co-creator, writer, and executive producer. Nine years after the original season,HBOrevived the series in 2014 for an abbreviated second season. Kudrow received two Emmy nominations",
"Emmy nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for her work onThe Comeback.Her production company is 'Is or Isn't Entertainment'.Kudrow serves as the executive producer for theU.S. versionof the British television seriesWho Do You Think You Are?, in which celebrities trace theirfamily trees. The subjects of the first series included Kudrow herself, in which it was discovered her great-grandmother was murdered in theHolocaust. Kudrow co-created an improvised comedy webseries,Web Therapyon Lstudio.com. The improv series, which launched online in 2008, has earned several Webby nominations and one Outstanding Comedic Performance Webby for Kudrow, who plays therapist Fiona Wallice. She offers her patients three-minute sessions over iChat.In July 2011, a reformatted, half-hour version of the show premiered on Showtime,before being cancelled in 2015 after four seasons.Kudrow has guest starred on multiple television series such asCougar Town,BoJack Horseman,Angie Tribeca,Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt,",
"Kimmy Schmidt, andScandal. Kudrow has appeared in multiple comedic films such asHappy Endings,Hotel for Dogs,Easy A,Neighborsand its sequelNeighbors 2: Sorority Rising,Long Shot, andBooksmart. She also appeared in theromantic drama filmP.S. I Love Youand co-starred in thethriller filmThe Girl on the Train.In 2020, Kudrow playedHypatia of Alexandriain season 4 episode 12 ofThe Good Place\"Patty\", and starred as Maggie Naird in theNetflixcomedy series,Space Force.She reunited with herFriendscast mates for an HBO Max unscripted television special titledFriends: The Reunionin May 2021. She is currently, along withMary McCormack, an executive producer of the syndicated game show,25 Words or Less; sometimes, Kudrow herself is one of the two celebrity guests playing with a contestant on the show. Personal life Kudrow married French advertising executive Michel Stern on May 27, 1995. The couple reside inBeverly Hills, California, and have a son named Julian who was born on May 7, 1998.Kudrow's pregnancy was written",
"was written into the fourth season ofFriends, with her character having triplets as asurrogate motherfor her half-brother and his wife.In addition to her Beverly Hills home, Kudrow maintained a penthouse inPark City, Utah, which she sold in April 2017.She revealed in 2019 that she had experiencedbody dysmorphic disorderwhile working onFriends. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Kudrow has been honored with numerous accolades over her career. For her role in the sitcomFriends, she received six nominations at thePrimetime Emmy Awards, winning in 1998 forOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, won twoScreen Actors Guild Awards, oneSatellite Award, oneAmerican Comedyaward, and oneTV Guideaward. In total, she has received fifteen Emmy nominations, with her most recent nomination in the 2021Primetime Emmy Awards, twelve nominations and two wins at theScreen Actors Guild Awards, one win and eight nominations at theAmerican Comedy Awards, oneGolden Globenomination, oneBanff Rockieaward,",
"Rockieaward, oneBlockbuster Entertainmentaward, one Chicago Film Critics Association nomination, oneChlotrudisaward, twoCritics' Choice Televisionnominations, oneDorianaward, oneGracieaward, oneIndependent Spiritnomination, oneMTV Movie & TVnomination, one National Society of Film Critics nomination, oneNew York Film Critics Circleaward, oneNickelodeon Kids' Choicenomination, oneOnline Film Critics Societynomination, onePeople Magazineaward, five nominations and one win at theSatellite Awards, three nominations and one win at theTeen Choice Awards, twoStreamynominations, two nominations and one win at theTV Guide Awards, oneViewers for Quality Televisionnomination and seven nominations and four wins at theWebby Awards. References External links",
"Matt LeBlanc Matthew Steven LeBlanc(/ləˈblɒŋk/; born July 25, 1967) is an American actor. He garnered global recognition with his portrayal ofJoey Tribbianiin theNBCsitcomFriendsand in itsspin-offseries,Joey. For his work onFriends, LeBlanc received three nominations at thePrimetime Emmy Awards. He has also starred as a fictionalized version of himself inEpisodes(2011–2017), for which he won aGolden Globe Awardand received four additional Emmy Award nominations. He co-hostedTop Gearfrom 2016 to 2019. From 2016 to 2020, he played patriarch Adam Burns in the CBS sitcomMan with a Plan. Early life LeBlanc was born atNewton-Wellesley HospitalinNewton, Massachusetts. His mother, Patricia (née Di Cillo), was an office manager; his father, Paul LeBlanc, was a mechanic and a veteran of theVietnam War.His father is of French-Canadian descent and his mother is of Italian ancestry, the daughter of immigrants fromArce, Lazio.He attendedNewton North High School, where he graduated in the same year as future comedianLouis",
"comedianLouis C.K.After high school he attended college atWentworth Institute of Technologyin Boston. He dropped out shortly after starting his second semester. LeBlanc moved to New York at the age of 17 to pursue a career in modeling, but he was told he was too short to be in the industry. His acting career began after a woman invited him to accompany her to an audition, where he ended up getting signed by her manager.Although he had booked commercials and television and film roles beforeFriends, he was reportedly down to his last eleven dollars before landing the role of Joey Tribbiani. Career 1987–1994: Early career LeBlanc first appeared in a 1987Heinz Tomato Ketchupcommercial. In 1988, he starred in the television dramaTV 101for one season. In 1991, he had a recurring role on the hitFoxsitcomMarried... with Children. He played Vinnie Verducci, a family friend of protagonistAl Bundy(Ed O'Neill) who briefly dates his daughter,Kelly(Christina Applegate). He also guest-starred in the first season ofRed Shoe",
"season ofRed Shoe Diaries. LeBlanc starred in two short-livedMarried... with Childrenspin-offs:Top of the Heap(1991) andVinnie & Bobby(1992). He appeared in twoBon Jovimusic videos: \"Miracle,\" from theYoung Guns IIsoundtrack in 1990, and \"Say It Isn't So\" in 2000.He also appeared in videos forAlanis Morissette's single \"Walk Away,\"Tom Petty & The Heartbreakers's \"Into The Great Wide Open\" andBob Seger's \"Night Moves\". 1994–2006:Friends,Joeyand film roles LeBlanc found success as the dimwitted but lovableJoey TribbianionFriends; he played this character for 12 years — 10 seasons ofFriendsand two seasons ofJoey.Friendswas wildly successful, and LeBlanc (along with co-starsJennifer Aniston,Courteney Cox,Lisa Kudrow,Matthew Perry, andDavid Schwimmer) gained wide recognition among viewers. This ensemble situation comedy became a major hit for NBC, airing on Thursday nights for ten years. For his performance, LeBlanc received threePrimetime Emmy Awardnominations, threeGolden Globeaward nominations, and oneScreen",
"and oneScreen Actors Guild Awardnomination. During this time he also appeared in the filmsLookin' Italian(1994),Ed(1996),Lost in Space(1998),Charlie's Angels(2000), and its sequel,Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle(2003). Following the cancellation ofJoey, LeBlanc announced that he would be taking a one-year hiatus from acting on television, which eventually turned into five years. 2011–present: Career revival From 2011, LeBlanc appeared as a fictionalized version of himself inEpisodes,a television series about an American remake of a fictional British television series.The series is written byFriendsco-creatorDavid Craneand his partnerJeffrey Klarik.At the69th Golden Globe Awardsin 2012, LeBlanc won theGolden Globe Award for Best Actorin a television series, musical, or comedy, and was nominated for an additional fourPrimetime Emmy Awards. In February 2012, LeBlanc appeared in the second episode of the eighteenth season ofTop Gear, where he set the fastest lap time in the \"Star in a Reasonably Priced Car\"",
"Priced Car\" segment in aKia Cee'd. Lapping at 1:42.1, he beat the show's previous record-holder,Rowan Atkinson, by 0.1 seconds.He also appeared in the fourth episode of the nineteenth season to race the New Kia Cee'd, and beat his previous time. In February 2016, theBBCannounced LeBlanc had signed on to become one of the newTop Gearhosts,signing a two-year deal later that year.In May 2018, he announced that he was leaving the series in order to spend more time with his family and friends in the US.He andRory Reidwere replaced by new co-hostsPaddy McGuinnessandAndrew Flintoffin the twenty-seventh series in October 2018. LeBlanc played the lead role in theCBSsitcomMan with a Plan, which began airing in 2016 until it was cancelled in 2020. Personal life LeBlanc has an extensive interest in cars, and worked as a carpenter before acting.In the mid-1990s, he dated actressKate Hudson.He married Melissa McKnight, a British-born American model and a divorced single mother of two children, in May 2003.In 1997, they",
"2003.In 1997, they had been introduced to each other by McKnight's friend, Kelly Phillips (wife of actorLou Diamond Phillips). LeBlanc proposed to her a year later.Their daughter, born in 2004, began suffering seizures at eight months old. By the time she was two years old, the condition, thought to be due to corticaldysplasia, had mostly subsided.LeBlanc and McKnight divorced in October 2006, citingirreconcilable differences. LeBlanc met actressAndrea Andersin 2004 while she was co-starring as his friend and eventual love interest onJoeyand the pair eventually embarked on a relationship which was confirmed in 2006 following LeBlanc's split from his wife Melissa McKnight.After over eight years as a couple, LeBlanc announced at the start of 2015 that he and Anders had been broken up for several months. LeBlanc primarily resides inPacific Palisades, Los Angeles. Filmography Film Television Music videos Awards and nominations References External links",
"Matthew Perry Matthew Langford Perry(August 19, 1969 – October 28, 2023) was an American and Canadian actor. He gained international fame for starring asChandler Bingon theNBCtelevision sitcomFriends(1994–2004). Perry also appeared onAlly McBeal(2002) and receivedPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations for his performances inThe West Wing(2003) andThe Ron Clark Story(2006). He played a leading role in the NBC seriesStudio 60 on the Sunset Strip(2006–2007), and also became known for his leading film roles inFools Rush In(1997),Almost Heroes(1998),Three to Tango(1999),The Whole Nine Yards(2000),Serving Sara(2002),The Whole Ten Yards(2004), and17 Again(2009). Perry was co-creator, co-writer, executive producer, and star of theABCsitcomMr. Sunshine, which ran from February to April 2011. In August 2012, he starred as sportscaster Ryan King on the NBC sitcomGo On. He co-developed and starred in a revival of theCBSsitcomThe Odd Coupleportraying Oscar Madison from 2015 to 2017. He had recurring roles in the legal dramasThe",
"the legal dramasThe Good Wife(2012–2013), andThe Good Fight(2017). Perry portrayedTed KennedyinThe Kennedys: After Camelot(2017) and appeared as himself in his final television appearance,Friends: The Reunion(2021). He voiced Benny in the video gameFallout: New Vegas(2010). For most of his life, Perry suffered from severe addictions todrugsandalcohol. Through his recovery, he became an advocate for rehabilitation and a spokesperson for theNational Association of Drug Court Professionals. In 2013, Perry received the Champion of Recovery Award from theWhite House Office of National Drug Control Policy. In 2022, he released his memoir,Friends, Lovers, and the Big Terrible Thing. In 2023, Perry died from the acute effects ofketamineuse; the following year, five people were charged in connection with helping him acquire lethal doses of the drug. Early life and education Matthew Langford Perry was born inWilliamstown, Massachusetts, on August 19, 1969.His mother, Suzanne Marie Morrison (née Langford, born 1948),is",
"born 1948),is a Canadian journalist who was press secretary to Canadian prime ministerPierre Trudeau. His father,John Bennett Perry(born 1941), is an American actor and former model. Perry's parents separated when he was a year old, and his mother married Canadian broadcast journalistKeith Morrison. Perry was mostly raised by his mother in Ottawa, Ontario, but he also lived briefly in Toronto and Montreal.He attendedRockcliffe Park Public SchoolandAshbury College, a boarding school in Ottawa.He had four younger maternal half-siblings—Caitlin, Emily, Will, and Madeline—as well as a younger paternal half-sister named Maria. His siblings \"would stand and applaud\" him for early performances. By the time he was 10, Perry started misbehaving. He stole money, smoked, let his grades slip, and beat up fellow student and future Canadian prime ministerJustin Trudeau.Perry later attributed his behavior to his feeling like a family outsider who no longer belonged, once his mother began having children with Morrison. As",
"with Morrison. As Perry wrote, \"I was so often on the outside looking in, still that kid up in the clouds on a flight to somewhere else, unaccompanied.\"At age 14, he began consuming alcohol and, by the time he was 18, was drinking every day.Perry practiced tennis, often for 10 hours per day,and became a top-ranked junior player in Canada with the possibility of a tennis career. But his prospects diminished when he moved from Ottawa, at age 15, to live with his father in Los Angeles, where competition was much tougher. At 15, Perry began studying acting at theBuckley School, acollege-preparatory schoolinSherman Oaks, Los Angeles, from which he graduated in 1987.While in high school, he tookimprovisational comedyclasses at L.A. Connection in Sherman Oaks. Career 1979–1993: Early roles Perry's first credited role was a small part in240-Robertin 1979 as a child actor.Shortly after moving to Los Angeles, Perry started auditioning for roles.Perry made guest appearances onNot Necessarily the Newsin 1983,Charles in",
"1983,Charles in Chargein 1985, andSilver Spoonsin 1986.In 1987 and 1988, he played Chazz Russell in the TV seriesSecond Chance(later calledBoys Will Be Boys). Perry made his film debut in 1988 withA Night in the Life of Jimmy Reardon.In 1989, he had a three-episode arc onGrowing Pains, portraying Carol Seaver's boyfriend Sandy, who dies in adrunk drivingincident. Perry was cast as a regular on the 1990 CBS sitcomSydney, playing the younger brother ofValerie Bertinelli's character.In 1991, he made a guest appearance onBeverly Hills, 90210as Roger Azarian.Perry played the starring role in theABCsitcomHome Free, which aired in 1993. 1994–2004: Breakthrough withFriends Perry's commitment to a pilot for a sitcom calledLAX 2194, set in the baggage handling department of Los Angeles Airport 200 years in the future,initially made him unavailable for a role in another pilot,Six of One, later calledFriends. After theLAX 2194pilot fell through, he had the opportunity to read for a part inSix of Oneand was cast",
"of Oneand was cast asChandler Bing. At the age of 24, he was the youngest member of the main cast.After making the pilot and while waiting for the show to air, Perry spent the summer of 1993 performing at theWilliamstown Theater FestivalalongsideGwyneth Paltrow. Friendswas hugely successful, and it made Perry an international celebrity.By 2002, he and his co-starsJennifer Aniston,Courteney Cox,Lisa Kudrow,Matt LeBlanc, andDavid Schwimmerwere making $1 million per episode.The program earned him anEmmynomination in 2002 for theOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Seriesaward.Perry appeared in films suchFools Rush In,Almost Heroes,Three to Tango,The Whole Nine Yardsand its sequelThe Whole Ten Yards, andServing Sara.In 1995, he and Jennifer Aniston appeared in a 60-minute-long promotional video for Microsoft'sWindows 95, released onVHSon August 1. For his performance as Joe Quincy inThe West Wing, Perry received twoEmmynominations for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2003 and 2004.He appeared as",
"2004.He appeared as attorney Todd Merrick in two episodes ofAlly McBeal.In 2004, he made his directorial debut and acted in an episode of the fourth season of the comedy-dramaScrubs, an episode which included his father. 2005–2022: Later work Perry starred in theTNTmovieThe Ron Clark Story,which premiered August 13, 2006,and received aGolden GlobeandEmmynomination for his performance.From 2006 to 2007, he appeared inAaron Sorkin's dramaStudio 60 on the Sunset Strip. Perry played Matt Albie alongsideBradley Whitford's Danny Tripp, a writer-director duo brought in to help save a failingsketch show. In 2006, Perry began filmingNumb, a film based on a man suffering fromdepersonalization disorder. The release was postponed several times, but it was finally released on DVD on May 13, 2008.Perry also appeared on stage in London inDavid Mamet'sSexual Perversity in Chicago.In 2008, Perry starred in the independent filmBirds of America.Showtimepassed on a pilot calledThe End of Steve, adark comedystarring, written,",
"written, and produced by Perry andPeter Tolan. In 2009, Perry starred in the film17 Againplaying a 37-year-old man who transforms into his 17-year-old self (Zac Efron) after an accident.The film received mixed reviews and was a box-office success.A review onWRC-TVfound Perry miscast in his role, emphasizing the disbelief in Efron growing up to resemble Perry, both physically and behaviorally — a sentiment echoed by other critics. In 2009, Perry was a guest onThe Ellen DeGeneres Show, when he presentedEllen DeGenereswith anXbox 360video game console and a copy of the gameFallout 3. The gesture led to game studioObsidian Entertainmentcasting him inFallout: New Vegasas the voice of Benny. Perry's new comedy pilot,Mr. Sunshine, based on his original idea for the show, was bought byABC.He played the lead role as a middle-aged man with an identity crisis.ABC canceled the series after nine episodes in 2011. In 2012, Perry starred in the NBC comedy seriesGo On, written and produced by",
"and produced by formerFriendswriter/producerScott Silveri. Perry portrayed Ryan King, a sportscaster who tries to move on after the death of his wife through the help of mandatory therapy sessions.In the same year, he guest-starred on the CBS dramaThe Good Wifeas attorney Mike Kresteva. He reprised his role in the fourth season in 2013. In 2014, Perry made his British TV debut in the one-off comedy programThe Dog Thrower, which aired on May 1 as part ofSky Arts'Playhouse Presents. He portrayed \"a charismatic man\" who enchanted onlookers by throwing his dog in the air.From 2015 to 2017, Perry starred in, co-wrote, and served as executive producer of a reboot of the sitcomThe Odd Coupleon CBS. He played Oscar Madison oppositeThomas Lennonas Felix Unger. Perry played the lead role in the world premiere production of his playThe End of Longing, which opened on February 11, 2016, at thePlayhouse Theatrein London.Its limited run proved successful despite mixed reviews.Perry restructured the play and appeared",
"play and appeared alongsideJennifer Morrisonin its secondoff-Broadwayproduction, which opened at theLucille Lortel Theatreon June 5, 2017. It closed on July 1 after receiving poor reviews.Years later Perry described the play as \"a personal message to the world, an exaggerated form of me as a drunk. I had something important to say to people like me, and to people who love people like me.\" In March 2017, Perry again reprised his role as attorney Mike Kresteva inThe Good Fight, a sequel show to the CBS dramaThe Good Wife.Later that year, he starred asTed Kennedyin the mini-seriesThe Kennedys: After Camelot. In May 2021, he participated in the special episodeFriends: The Reunion.He was meant to have a role inDon't Look Up, but withdrew in 2020 because of CPR-induced broken ribs.Perry published a memoir,Friends, Lovers, and the Big Terrible Thing, in October 2022. It became a bestseller on both Amazon andThe New York Timescharts. Personal life Perry held Canadian and American citizenship. He datedYasmine",
"He datedYasmine Bleethin 1995,Julia Robertsfrom 1995 to 1996, andLizzy Caplanfrom 2006 to 2012.In November 2020, Perry became engaged to literary manager Molly Hurwitz. Their engagement ended in 2021. Residences owned at some point by Perry included a condo inSierra Towerspurchased fromElton John, a house inHollywood Hills, a house inMalibu, and a cottage inPacific Palisades.In 2017, Perry purchased a condo occupying the top floor ofThe Centuryin Los Angeles for $20 million,selling it toNick Molnarfor $21.6 million in 2021, who in turn sold it toRihannain 2023.In June 2023, Perry purchased amid-century modernhouse inHollywood Hills. Perry had aperfectionistandobsessivepersonality, spending many hours perfecting hisanswering machinemessage.He also believed in God, with whom he had \"a very close relationship,\"calling himself \"a seeker.\" Health and addiction In his memoirs, Perry wrote that by the age of 14, he had become an alcoholic.He became addicted toVicodinafter ajet skiaccident in 1997, and completed a",
"and completed a 28-day rehab program at theHazelden Betty Ford Foundationthat year.His weight dropped to 128 pounds (58 kg) as he took as many as 55 Vicodin pills per day.In May 2000, at the age of 30, he was admitted toCedars-Sinai Medical Centerwith alcohol-inducedpancreatitis. While Perry said in 2002 that, although he had made an effort not to drink on the set ofFriends, he did arrive with extremehangoversand sometimes would shake or sweat excessively on set.During the later seasons of the series, he was frequently drunk or high on set. His castmates made efforts to help him, even staging anintervention,but were unsuccessful. In February 2001, Perry paused productions ofFriendsandServing Sarafor two monthsso that he could enter in-patient rehabilitation for his addictions to Vicodin,methadone,amphetamines, andalcohol.He said later that, due to hissubstance use disorder, he had no memory of three years of his work onFriends. In 2018, Perry spent five months in a hospital for agastrointestinal perforation.",
"perforation. During the hospital stay, Perry nearly died after hiscolonburst fromopioidabuse. He spent two weeks in a coma and used acolostomy bagfor nine months. Upon being admitted to the hospital, doctors told his family that Perry had a 2% chance of survival. He was connected to anextracorporeal membrane oxygenation(ECMO) machine. Two years later, while attending rehab inSwitzerland, Perry faked pain to get a prescription for 1,800 milligrams ofhydrocodoneper day and was having dailyketamineinfusions. He was givenpropofolin conjunction with a surgery, which stopped his heart for five minutes. The resultingcardiopulmonary resuscitation(CPR) resulted in eight broken ribs. He paid $175,000 for a private jet to take him to Los Angeles to get more drugs. When doctors there refused, Perry spent another $175,000 to take a private jet back to Switzerland.In 2022, he estimated that he had spent $9 million on his addiction, including 14 stomach surgeries, 15 stays in rehab, and therapy twice a week for 30 years",
"a week for 30 years and had attended approximately 6,000Alcoholics Anonymousmeetings. Philanthropy and advocacy In July 2011, Perry lobbied theUnited States Congressas a celebrity spokesperson for theNational Association of Drug Court Professionalsin support of funding fordrug courts.He received a Champion of Recovery award in May 2013 from the White HouseOffice of National Drug Control Policyfor opening Perry House, a rehab center in his former mansion in Malibu.In 2015, Perry sold the mansion and relocated its services.During theCOVID-19 pandemic, he launched an apparel line inspired byFriends, with proceeds donated to theWorld Health Organization'sCOVID-19relief fund. Death On October 28, 2023, Perry was found unresponsive in ahot tubat his home in Los Angeles. He was pronounced dead at 4:17pm that day at the age of 54. On November 3, 2023, Perry's funeral was held atForest Lawn Memorial Parkin Los Angeles where he was buried.His father, mother, and stepfather attended, as did his",
"as did his fiveFriendsco-stars.ThePeter GabrielandKate Bushsong \"Don't Give Up\" was played; Perry was enamored with the song and referenced it in signed copies of his autobiography, released in part to help people suffering from depression or addiction issues.Following Perry's death, theNational Philanthropic Trustestablished the Matthew Perry Foundation to support people suffering from addiction. On December 15, 2023, Perry's death was revealed to have occurred due to acute effects ofketamine.Other circumstances that contributed to his death included the effects ofbuprenorphine, drowning, andcoronary artery disease.TheLos Angeles County Department of Medical Examinersaid in a statement that ...at the high levels of ketamine found in hispost-mortemblood specimens, the main lethal effects would be from both cardiovascular overstimulation and respiratory depression... ...drowning contributes due to the likelihood of submersion into the pool as he lapsed into unconsciousness; coronary artery disease contributes",
"disease contributes due to exacerbation of ketamine induced myocardial effects on the heart.The ketamine in his system at death could not be from that infusion therapy, since ketamine'shalf-lifeis 3 to 4 hours, or less. Perry had been receivingketamine-assisted psychotherapysessions to treat anxiety at the time of his death, his last known session of which having been the week prior to his death. However, the report stated that the therapy couldn't have resulted in his death. In May 2024, an investigation was opened by the Los Angeles Police Department to determine how Perry obtained the high dose of ketamine that caused his death.On August 15, 2024, indictments and charges were filed against five people: Perry's personal assistant, two doctors, and two drug dealers (including TV directorErik Fleming),alleging involvement in the distribution of ketamine that caused the death of Perry and one other person.Three agreed to plead guilty,with two, Fleming and Perry's former assistant Kenneth Iwamasa, having their",
"having their guilty pleas entered into court soon after being charged;Iwamasa pled guilty on August 7, 2024, while Fleming would plead guilty on August 8.During a court hearing on August 30, 2024, it was agreed that former doctor Mark Chavez, who had signed a plea agreement but had not yet officially entered it into court, would have his guilty plea accepted, though he will still not officially plead guilty until a later court appearance.Chavez would have his medical license suspended the next month and would officially plead guilty at a court hearing held on October 2, 2024.According to U.S. Attorney Martin Estrada, Perry paid the two doctors $55,000 in cash for ketamine in the two months before his death.Iwamasa admitted to obtaining ketamine for Perry and injecting him with the drug, while Fleming admitted to obtaining the ketamine from the supplier and giving it to Iwamasa for Perry to use.Text messages also revealed that the other doctor, who is currently awaiting trial, would purchase the ketamine from",
"the ketamine from Chavez. Acting credits Film Television Theatre Video games Specials Awards and nominations Publications Notes References External links",
"David Schwimmer David Lawrence Schwimmer(born November 2, 1966)is an American actor, director, comedian, and producer. He gained worldwide recognition for portrayingRoss Gellerin the sitcomFriends, for which he received aScreen Actors Guild Awardand aPrimetime Emmy Awardnomination forOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Seriesin 1995. While still acting inFriends, his first leading film role was inThe Pallbearer(1996), followed by roles inKissing a Fool;Six Days, Seven Nights;Apt Pupil(all 1998); andPicking Up the Pieces(2000). He was then cast in the miniseriesBand of Brothers(2001) asHerbert Sobel. Schwimmer began his acting career performing in school plays atBeverly Hills High School. In 1988, he graduated fromNorthwestern Universitywith aBachelor of Artsin theater and speech. After graduation, Schwimmer co-founded theLookingglass Theatre Company. For much of the late 1980s, he lived inLos Angelesas a struggling, unemployed actor, until he starred in the television movieA Deadly Silencein 1989 and",
"Silencein 1989 and appeared in a number of television roles in the early 1990s, includingL.A. Law,The Wonder Years,NYPD Blue, andMonty. After the series finale ofFriendsin 2004, Schwimmer branched out into film and stage work. He was cast as the title character in the 2005 drama filmDuane Hopwood, and voicedMelman the Giraffein the animatedMadagascarfilm franchise, acted in the dark comedyBig Nothing(2006), and the thrillerNothing but the Truth(2008). Schwimmer made hisWest Endstage debut in the leading role in 2005'sSome Girl(s). He made hisBroadwaydebut inThe Caine Mutiny Court-Martialin 2006. His feature film directorial debut followed in 2007 with the comedyRun Fatboy Run, and the following year he made hisOff-Broadwaydirectorial debut inFault Lines. He has also worked as a director, including many episodes ofFriendsduring his time on the series. In 2016, Schwimmer starred as lawyerRobert KardashianinThe People v. O. J. Simpson, for which he received his second Primetime Emmy Award nomination, this time",
"this time forOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie. Early life Schwimmer was born in 1966 inFlushing, Queens,New York City, to attorneys Arthur (born 1941) and Arlene Coleman-Schwimmer (born 1940).His family isJewish.He has an older sister named Ellie Schwimmer (born 1965).His family subsequently moved to Los Angeles, where Schwimmer, at 10, had his first acting experience when he was cast as the fairy godmother in a Jewish version ofCinderella.In 1979, Schwimmer went to a Shakespeare workshop given by English actor SirIan McKellenin Los Angeles.He recalls being riveted by the experience.Schwimmer then entered a contest in the Southern California Shakespeare Festival three years in a row, winning two first prizes. Following his mother's successful career as a divorce lawyer, the family moved toBeverly Hills, where Schwimmer attendedBeverly Hills High School.His classmates included actorJonathan Silverman. Schwimmer admitted to feeling like an outsider during his time at the school,",
"time at the school, recalling, \"When I was there I always felt: 'This is not me, I'm surrounded by people with a different value system. And I just wanted to get out of California.'\"His best subjects were science and math and he originally wanted to become a doctor.Schwimmer enrolled in a drama class, where he appeared in stage productions. Encouraged by his school drama teacher to further his acting, he flew to Chicago for a summer acting program atNorthwestern University. He noted that the experience was both \"enlightening and exhilarating\".In 1984, Schwimmer graduated from Beverly Hills High and wanted to go straight into acting, but his parents insisted he go to college first so he would have something to fall back on.Schwimmer enrolled in Northwestern University, where he had attended the summer acting program earlier.He had originally intended on becoming a surgeon, having studied various body systems but eventually decided to pursue acting professionally.At the university, he studied theater and was",
"theater and was in an improv group withStephen Colbert, the No-Fun Mud Piranhas.After graduating in 1988, with a Bachelor of Arts degree in theater and speech, Schwimmer co-founded theLookingglass Theatre Company.Subsequently, he returned to Los Angeles to pursue an acting career. Career 1989–1994: Early work After his supporting role debut in theABCtelevision movieA Deadly Silence(1989),Schwimmer followed this with roles on the legal dramaL.A. Lawin 1992, and the comedy-drama seriesThe Wonder Years.He made his feature film debut inFlight of the Intruder(1991),had a recurring role as a lawyer-turned-vigilante inNYPD Bluebefore auditioning, unsuccessfully, for a series pilot calledCouples.He landed his first regular series role as the liberal son of a conservative talk show host (Henry Winkler) in the sitcomMonty. 1994–2004: Breakthrough In 1994, Schwimmer was cast asRoss GellerinNBC's situation comedyFriends, a series that revolved around a group of friends who live near each other inManhattan. He played a",
"He played a hopeless-romanticpaleontologistwho works at a museum and later becomes a professor at a university. Schwimmer initially turned down the role as Ross, but accepted later.Executive producerKevin S. Brightsaid that he had previously worked with Schwimmer,the character of Ross was written with him in mind, and he was the first actor cast.The show debuted on September 22, 1994, and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers.Friendsquickly developed a loyal audience, with the show and Schwimmer receiving strong reviews. Much of theFriendssuccess is attributed to the plotline between his character Ross and his on-again-off-again love interest Rachel, which has been described as one of the greatest TV couples of all time by various media outlets.ThePittsburgh Post-Gazettewas complimentary of Schwimmer, calling him \"terrific\".Variety's television reviewer said: \"All six of the principals, especially (Courteney) Cox and Schwimmer, appear resourceful and display sharp sitcom skills\".For this",
"skills\".For this performance, he earned aPrimetime Emmy Awardnomination forOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Seriesin 1995. Schwimmer starred in his first leading film role in the 1996 romantic comedy film,The PallbearerwithGwyneth Paltrow.In the film, Schwimmer plays a man asked to deliver the eulogy for a high school friend he cannot remember, and begins an affair with the friend's mother. Critics dismissedThe Pallbeareras a poor imitation of the 1967 filmThe Graduate.Variety's film reviewer complimented the actor, writing that he had enjoyed his performance, stating that he displayed \"a winning, if rather deadpan, personality along with good comic timing\".It also concluded that Schwimmer had a \"promising bigscreen future\".Janet MaslinofThe New York Timescited that his first film \"relegates him to a drab role\".When asked why he decided to accept the role, Schwimmer admitted the decision was to \"make an effort to find roles that are as far away from the character of Ross as possible.\"Schwimmer was",
"was chosen to play a leading role in the 1997Men in Blackbut he turned it down. He later regretted this decision. Ultimately,Will Smithgot the role. His next film roles, in 1998, wereKissing a Fool,Six Days, Seven Nights, andApt Pupil. InKissing a Fool, a romantic comedy, Schwimmer played Max, a smart-mouthed, but dapper and charming man.Mick LaSalleof theSan Francisco Chroniclewrote, \"Fans of the sitcomFriendsmay be surprised by David Schwimmer inKissing a Fool. Take it from someone who has never seenFriendsand comes at Schwimmer with no preconceptions: He does just fine. As a TV sports reporter inKissing a Fool, he oozes the command and self-satisfaction of a young, successful man.\"The film was critically and financially unsuccessful.InSix Days, Seven Nights, he played the boyfriend ofAnne Heche's character. InApt Pupil, adapted from anovella of the same namebyStephen King,he had a supporting role as a school guidance counselor. \"I was scared of the part\", Schwimmer said, \"but I wanted to be part of the",
"to be part of the movie\". At the time, he noted it was a \"little frustrating\" that people would typecast him due to his role onFriends.He subsequently appeared oppositeWoody AllenandSharon StoneinAlfonso Arau's straight-to-cable comedyPicking Up the Pieces(2000). In 2001, Schwimmer playedCaptain Herbert M. SobelinSteven SpielbergandTom Hanks'HBOWorld War IIminiseriesBand of Brothers. The television miniseries is based on the book of the same title written by historian and biographerStephen Ambrose.AlthoughBand of Brotherswas met with largely positive reception,Schwimmer's performance was criticized; theBBC Newsconcluded, \"Part of the problem ... may have been the ridiculous fact thatFriendsfavourite David Schwimmer plays the hard and cruel Captain Herbert Sobel. The only thing believable about Schwimmer's acting is when he cowers in the face of true battle. His puppy dog eyes make him appear even more pitiful.\"Later that year he portrayedYitzhak Zuckermanin the war dramaUprising, based on the true events of",
"the true events of theWarsaw Ghetto Uprisingin 1943. In March 2004, Schwimmer appeared as himself on HBO's comedy seriesCurb Your Enthusiasm.During the lengthy run ofFriends, Schwimmer directed ten of the show's episodes.The show's tenth and final season ended on May 6, 2004. 2004–2010: Directing In 2004, Schwimmer was director and executive producer onNevermind Nirvana, a sitcom about anIndian Americanfamily that was not picked up by NBC.AfterFriends, Schwimmer starred in the 2005 independent dramaDuane Hopwood, as the title character, who is an alcoholic whose life is spiraling downward rapidly after a divorce and is looking to turn his life around. The film received ambivalent reviews.Despite the reception, Schwimmer's performance was favored by critics;Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesreported that the role was Schwimmer's \"career-transforming performance.\"Duane Hopwoodwas screened at a special presentation at the 2005Sundance Film Festival.Furthermore, in the same year he voicedMelman,",
"he voicedMelman, ahypochondriacgiraffe, in the animated filmMadagascar(2005).The Washington Postnoted that Schwimmer is particularly appealing as Melman.Despite the mixed response from critics,the film was a commercial success, earning US$532 million worldwide,making it one of the biggest hits of 2005. Schwimmer starred on the London stage in May 2005, withCatherine Tate,Lesley Manville,Sara Powell, andSaffron Burrows, inNeil LaBute'sSome Girl(s)at theGielgud Theatre.In the production, he plays a teacher who is ready to settle down and marry, but decides to visit four ex-girlfriends first.For his performance, Schwimmer received critical reviews.The Independentwrote that Schwimmer \"is not called upon to extend his range nearly as far as one might have expected inSome Girl(s). Schwimmer remains bland, competent, and boyish—though not fatally boyish in the manner that appears to have turned these women on.\"However,Charles SpencerofThe Daily Telegraphpraised Schwimmer, reporting he \"proves inspired casting. He",
"casting. He takes to the stage with ... his endearing gaucheness seems designed to ensure our continued sympathy. Schwimmer mercilessly lays bare his character's opportunism, casual cruelties, and chronic self-deception.\" In 2006, he made hisBroadwaydebut inHerman Wouk's two-act playThe Caine Mutiny Court-Martial.Schwimmer played the role of Lieutenant Barney Greenwald in the production, which was directed byJerry Zaks.In an interview withNew Yorkmagazine, he revealed that he had wanted to try Broadway, however said \"a couple of things came up that just never quite felt right. Either because I liked the play but wasn't hot on the director, or there was another star attached that I wasn't jazzed about working with.\"He further added that when showed a copy of Wouk's novel \"...I was shocked at how good the writing was.\"His next film role was in the 2006 black comedyBig Nothing, in which he played a bitter, unemployed scientist. Schwimmer made his directorial feature debut in the 2007 British comedy filmRun",
"comedy filmRun Fatboy Run. The film starsSimon Peggas an out of shape man who signs up for a marathon to convince his former fiancée and five-year-old son that he has turned his life around.When asked why he decided to direct the film, Schwimmer said: \"As a director, I was struck by the challenge that I thought the script presented, which was that it was kind of three films in one. You had some great, big physical comedy, and I thought funny dialogue and characters. And then there was some real emotion to it with the relationship between the father and the son and the romance aspect.\"Run Fatboy Rungarnered mixed reception, with theNew York Daily Newsrating it one-and-a-half out of five stars and writing, \"Most disappointing is how Schwimmer—who spent 10 seasons on a sitcom filled with hyperverbal characters—manages to bumble 'Fatboy's' tender moments.\"USA Today, however, was favorable towards Schwimmer, reporting he possesses filmmaking finesse \"having wisely chosen strong comic material for his debut behind",
"his debut behind the camera.\"For his directorial work, he was nominated for aBritish Independent Film Awardin the category of Best Debut Director. On November 8, 2007, Schwimmer made a guest appearance in thesecond seasonof the television series30 Rock, where he played Greenzo, an NBC environmental mascot.The following year, he was part of anensemble castthat includedKate Beckinsale,Matt Dillon,Alan Alda,Angela Bassett, andNoah Wylein the thrillerNothing But the Truth(2008).The movie received generally favorable reviews.The success ofMadagascarled Schwimmer to return to the role of Melman in the 2008 sequel,Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa. The film earned US$603 million at the international box office.Schwimmer took part in directing in-studio segments forLittle Britain USA, an American spin-off of the BritishBBCtelevision seriesLittle Britain.In regard to this, he commented that he had \"a good time directing episodes\" for the show. In October 2008, Schwimmer made his Off-Broadway directorial debut inFault",
"debut inFault Linesat theCherry Lane Theatrein New York.The production won a mixed review from theLos Angeles Times, which wrote: \"Based onFault Lines... we can't really tell whether Schwimmer has much talent as a director. We're surprised he didn't try something more challenging for his debut. If not much else, Schwimmer has encouraged his actors to intense their energy levels and comic timing at all costs\".TheNew York Post, however, noted that Schwimmer \"knows a thing or two about freewheeling banter ... and for a good while the play crackles with terrific dialogue, expertly delivered\".In February 2009, he returned to theater in a Chicago production ofThornton Wilder's three-act playOur Townas George Gibbs at theLookingglass Theatre.\"Schwimmer ... turns in a poignant, richly textured and demonstrably heartfelt performance as George Gibbs. I've seen a fair bit of Schwimmer's post-Friendsstage work in London and New York, and I've never seen him better\", commented theChicago Tribune. On August 2, 2009,",
"On August 2, 2009, Schwimmer played himself in thesixth seasonof theHBOtelevision series,Entourage. In the episode,Ari Gold's (Jeremy Piven) agency tries to steer his career back to television.Schwimmer directed his second feature,Trust, starringClive OwenandCatherine Keener. The film, a drama, is about a family whose teenage daughter becomes victim of an online sexual predator.Trustpremiered at the2010 Toronto International Film Festival. 2010–present: Return to television On January 1, 2011, Schwimmer guest-starred on the British comedy seriesCome Fly With MestarringMatt LucasandDavid Walliams, whom he directed inLittle Britain USA.The following year, he returned to voice Melman the Giraffe inMadagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted.In 2013, Schwimmer appeared as Josh Rosenthal, a mobster who was brought up by the notoriousRoy DeMeoand part of theGambino Family, alongsideMichael ShannoninThe Iceman. In 2014, Schwimmer was cast as the lead in the ABC comedy pilotIrreversible, playing \"one half of a somewhat",
"half of a somewhat eccentric, self-absorbed couple\".In 2016, Schwimmer playedRobert Kardashianin the first season of the FX anthology seriesAmerican Crime Story. He received aPrimetime Emmy Awardnomination for his performance.In January 2016, Schwimmer andJim Sturgesswere cast to star in the newAMCcrime dramaFeed the Beast. The series premiered on June 5, 2016, and aired 10 episodes through August before being canceled.In November 2016, it was announced that Schwimmer would star in his first audio series.Gimlet Media'spodcastHomecomingbegan airing on November 16, 2016. In April 2017, Schwimmer helped adapt the films ofSigal Avinfor a US audience. The six short features depict sexual harassment at work by men on women. In 2020, Schwimmer was cast as a main character in the British sitcomIntelligencebroadcast onSky One.In the same year, he was a celebrity reader onCBeebiesBedtime Stories,and was signed as the face of British banking chainTSB. Schwimmer featured inJews Don't Count, a 2022 documentary by British",
"by British Jewish comedianDavid Baddielon the subject ofantisemitism. Schwimmer's contribution, in which he said that he has never felt white, was described as \"erudite\" by Rebecca Nicholson ofThe Guardian. Schwimmer will be starting in season 2 of the anthology horror seriesGoosebumps, based on thebook series of the same nameon January 2025. Personal life Schwimmer dated singer-songwriterNatalie Imbrugliain the late 1990s. Schwimmer andJennifer Anistonadmitted to having crushes on each other early on while filmingFriendsduring HBO Max'sFriends: The Reunion.Schwimmer began a relationship with British artistZoë Buckmanin 2007and they married on June 4, 2010. Their child Cleo Buckman Schwimmer was born in 2011.The couple announced in April 2017 that they were \"taking some time apart\".They divorced later that year.Schwimmer and his ex-wife are on good terms and continue to co-parent their child amicably. He tends to keep his personal life away from the media to preserve his daughter's childhood. Schwimmer",
"Schwimmer primarily lives inEast Village, Manhattan.He previously had a loft inNear West Side, Chicagoas well as a house inHancock Park, Los Angeles. In June 2006, Schwimmer won a US$400,000defamationlawsuit against Aaron Tonken, a former charity fundraiser. Tonken claimed Schwimmer had demandedRolexwatches in order to appear at his own charity event, a claim that Schwimmer had denied. Schwimmer is an active director of the Rape Treatment Center inSanta Monica, which specializes in helping victims of date rape and child rape.He has also campaigned for legislation to ban drugs such asRohypnolandGHB.In November 2011, he gave the Scottish charityChildren 1stpermission to screen his filmTrustto commemorate World Day for Prevention of Child Abuse and Violence against Children. In 2012, he rebutted two longstanding rumors: one that he appeared as a soldier on a train inBiloxi Blues(1988), saying, \"No. I don't know why that's onIMDb, but I never was in that\" (the credit has since been removed), and the other that",
"and the other that he is related to dancerLacey Schwimmer, saying, \"No, not at all. Please set the record straight. I guess it's a natural assumption because we have the same last name, but no. I've never even met her\". Filmography Film Television Director/producer Awards and nominations See also References External links"
] |
Who became the prime minister of Canada in the same year that Jonathan Tremblay's re-election bid as representative for the electoral district of Montmorency—Charlevoix—Haute-Côte-Nord ended in defeat? | Justin Trudeau | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Tremblay | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Tremblay', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Tremblay",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada"
] | [
"Jonathan Tremblay Jonathan Tremblay(born November 15, 1984) is aCanadianpolitician, who was elected to theHouse of Commons of Canadain the2011 election.He represented the electoral district ofMontmorency—Charlevoix—Haute-Côte-Nordas a member of theNew Democratic Party. Tremblay was defeated when he ran for re-election in2015. Shortly after his defeat, Tremblay announced he would seek a city council seat inBeaupréin a by-election. Prior to being elected, Tremblay was a bricklayer and mason. He has three children. References External links This article about a Quebec Member of Parliament is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"List of prime ministers of Canada Theprime minister of Canadais an official who serves as the primaryminister of the Crown, chair of theCabinet, and thushead of governmentofCanada. Twenty-three people (twenty-two men and one woman) have served as prime ministers. Officially, the prime minister is appointed by thegovernor general of Canada, but by constitutional convention, the prime minister must have theconfidenceof the electedHouse of Commons. Normally, this is the leader of the party caucus with the greatest number of seats in the house. But if that leader lacks the support of the majority, the governor general can appoint another leader who has that support or may dissolve parliament and call a new election. Byconstitutional convention, a prime minister holds a seat in parliament and, since the early 20th century, this has more specifically meant the House of Commons. The 23rd and current prime minister isJustin Trudeau, who assumed office on 4 November 2015. There are currently five living former prime ministers. The most recent former prime minister to die wasBrian Mulroney, on 29 February 2024. Model The office is not outlined in any of the documents that constitute the written portion of theConstitution of Canada;executive authorityis formally vested inthe sovereignand exercised on the sovereign's behalf by the governor general. The prime ministership is part of Canada's constitutional convention tradition. The office was modelled after that which existed in theUnited Kingdomat the time.John A. Macdonaldwas commissioned by theViscount Monckon 24 May 1867, to form the firstgovernmentof theCanadian Confederation. On 1 July 1867, thefirst ministryassumed office. Term When the prime minister begins their term is determined by the date that they are sworn into theirportfolio, as anoath of officeas prime minister is not required.However, since 1957, the incoming prime minister has sworn an oath as prime minister.Before 1920, prime ministers' resignations were accepted immediately by the governor general and the last day of the ministries were the date he died or the date of resignation.Since 1920, the outgoing prime minister has only formally resigned when the new government is ready to be formed.TheInterpretation Actof 1967 states that \"where an appointment is made effective or terminates on a specified day, that appointment is considered to be effective or to terminate after the end of the previous day\".Thus, although the outgoing prime minister formally resigns only hours before the incoming ministry swears their oaths, both during the day, the ministries are effectively changed at midnight the night before. Some sources, including theParliament of Canada, apply this convention as far back as 1917.Two prime ministers have died in office: John A. Macdonald (1867–1873, 1878–1891), andJohn Thompson(1892–1894), both of natural causes. All others have resigned, either after losing an election or upon retirement. Prime ministers Canadian custom is to count by the individuals who were prime minister, not by terms.Since Confederation, 23 prime ministers have been \"called upon\" by the governor general to form29 Canadian ministries. 1867 election(1stParl.) 1872 election(2ndParl.) 1874 election(3rdParl.) 1882 election(5thParl.) 1887 election(6thParl.) 1891 election(7thParl.) MP forCarleton, ON(1882–1887) MP forKingston, ON(1887–1891) 1900 election(9thParl.) 1904 election(10thParl.) 1908 election(11thParl.) 1917 election(13thParl.) MP forKings, NS(1917–1920) 1925 election(15thParl.) MP forPrince Albert, SK(1925–1926) 1940 election(19thParl.) 1945 election(20thParl.) MP forGlengarry, ON(1945–1948) 1949 election(21stParl.) 1953 election(22ndParl.) 1958 election(24thParl.) 1962 election(25thParl.) 1965 election(27thParl.) 1968 election(28thParl.) 1972 election(29thParl.) 1974 election(30thParl.) 1988 election(34thParl.) MP forCharlevoix, QC(1988–1993) 1997 election(36thParl.) 2000 election(37thParl.) 2004 election(38thParl.) 2008 election(40thParl.) 2011 election(41stParl.) 2019 election(43rdParl.) 2021 election(44thParl.) Timeline See also References Further reading External links"
] | [
"Jonathan Tremblay Jonathan Tremblay(born November 15, 1984) is aCanadianpolitician, who was elected to theHouse of Commons of Canadain the2011 election.He represented the electoral district ofMontmorency—Charlevoix—Haute-Côte-Nordas a member of theNew Democratic Party. Tremblay was defeated when he ran for re-election in2015. Shortly after his defeat, Tremblay announced he would seek a city council seat inBeaupréin a by-election. Prior to being elected, Tremblay was a bricklayer and mason. He has three children. References External links This article about a Quebec Member of Parliament is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"List of prime ministers of Canada Theprime minister of Canadais an official who serves as the primaryminister of the Crown, chair of theCabinet, and thushead of governmentofCanada. Twenty-three people (twenty-two men and one woman) have served as prime ministers. Officially, the prime minister is appointed by thegovernor general of Canada, but by constitutional convention, the prime minister must have theconfidenceof the electedHouse of Commons. Normally, this is the leader of the party caucus with the greatest number of seats in the house. But if that leader lacks the support of the majority, the governor general can appoint another leader who has that support or may dissolve parliament and call a new election. Byconstitutional convention, a prime minister holds a seat in parliament and, since the early 20th century, this has more specifically meant the House of Commons. The 23rd and current prime minister isJustin Trudeau, who assumed office on 4 November 2015. There are currently five living former prime",
"living former prime ministers. The most recent former prime minister to die wasBrian Mulroney, on 29 February 2024. Model The office is not outlined in any of the documents that constitute the written portion of theConstitution of Canada;executive authorityis formally vested inthe sovereignand exercised on the sovereign's behalf by the governor general. The prime ministership is part of Canada's constitutional convention tradition. The office was modelled after that which existed in theUnited Kingdomat the time.John A. Macdonaldwas commissioned by theViscount Monckon 24 May 1867, to form the firstgovernmentof theCanadian Confederation. On 1 July 1867, thefirst ministryassumed office. Term When the prime minister begins their term is determined by the date that they are sworn into theirportfolio, as anoath of officeas prime minister is not required.However, since 1957, the incoming prime minister has sworn an oath as prime minister.Before 1920, prime ministers' resignations were accepted immediately by the",
"immediately by the governor general and the last day of the ministries were the date he died or the date of resignation.Since 1920, the outgoing prime minister has only formally resigned when the new government is ready to be formed.TheInterpretation Actof 1967 states that \"where an appointment is made effective or terminates on a specified day, that appointment is considered to be effective or to terminate after the end of the previous day\".Thus, although the outgoing prime minister formally resigns only hours before the incoming ministry swears their oaths, both during the day, the ministries are effectively changed at midnight the night before. Some sources, including theParliament of Canada, apply this convention as far back as 1917.Two prime ministers have died in office: John A. Macdonald (1867–1873, 1878–1891), andJohn Thompson(1892–1894), both of natural causes. All others have resigned, either after losing an election or upon retirement. Prime ministers Canadian custom is to count by the individuals",
"by the individuals who were prime minister, not by terms.Since Confederation, 23 prime ministers have been \"called upon\" by the governor general to form29 Canadian ministries. 1867 election(1stParl.) 1872 election(2ndParl.) 1874 election(3rdParl.) 1882 election(5thParl.) 1887 election(6thParl.) 1891 election(7thParl.) MP forCarleton, ON(1882–1887) MP forKingston, ON(1887–1891) 1900 election(9thParl.) 1904 election(10thParl.) 1908 election(11thParl.) 1917 election(13thParl.) MP forKings, NS(1917–1920) 1925 election(15thParl.) MP forPrince Albert, SK(1925–1926) 1940 election(19thParl.) 1945 election(20thParl.) MP forGlengarry, ON(1945–1948) 1949 election(21stParl.) 1953 election(22ndParl.) 1958 election(24thParl.) 1962 election(25thParl.) 1965 election(27thParl.) 1968 election(28thParl.) 1972 election(29thParl.) 1974 election(30thParl.) 1988 election(34thParl.) MP forCharlevoix, QC(1988–1993) 1997 election(36thParl.) 2000 election(37thParl.) 2004 election(38thParl.) 2008 election(40thParl.) 2011",
"2011 election(41stParl.) 2019 election(43rdParl.) 2021 election(44thParl.) Timeline See also References Further reading External links"
] |
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"Marshall McLuhan Herbert Marshall McLuhanCC(/məˈkluːən/,mə-KLOO-ən; July 21, 1911 – December 31, 1980) was a Canadian philosopher whose work is among the cornerstones of the study ofmedia theory.He studied at theUniversity of Manitobaand theUniversity of Cambridge. He began his teaching career as a professor of English at several universities in the United States and Canada before moving to theUniversity of Torontoin 1946, where he remained for the rest of his life. He is known as the \"father ofmedia studies\". McLuhan coined the expression \"the medium is the message\"in the first chapter in hisUnderstanding Media: The Extensions of Manand the termglobal village.He predicted theWorld Wide Webalmost 30 years before it was invented.He was a fixture in media discourse in the late 1960s, though his influence began to wane in the early 1970s.In the years following his death, he continued to be a controversial figure in academic circles.However, with the arrival of the Internet and the World Wide Web, interest was renewed in his work and perspectives. Life and career McLuhan was born on July 21, 1911, inEdmonton, Alberta, and was named \"Marshall\" from his maternal grandmother's surname. His brother, Maurice, was born two years later. His parents were both also born in Canada: his mother, Elsie Naomi (née Hall), was aBaptistschool teacher who later became an actress; and his father, Herbert Ernest McLuhan, was aMethodistwith a real-estate business in Edmonton. When the business failed at the start ofWorld War I, McLuhan's father enlisted in theCanadian Army. After a year of service, he contractedinfluenzaand remained in Canada, away from the front lines. After Herbert's discharge from the army in 1915, the McLuhan family moved toWinnipeg, Manitoba, where Marshall grew up and went to school, attendingKelvin Technical Schoolbefore enrolling in theUniversity of Manitobain 1928. Undergraduate education After studying for one year as an engineering student, he changed majors and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree (1933), winning a University Gold Medal in Arts and Sciences.He went on to receive a Master of Arts degree (1934) in English from the university as well. He had long desired to pursue graduate studies in England and was accepted byTrinity Hall, Cambridge, having failed to secure aRhodes Scholarshipto study atOxford. Though having already earned his BA and MA in Manitoba, Cambridge required him to enroll as an undergraduate \"affiliated\" student, with one year's credit towards a three-yearbachelor's degree, before entering anydoctoral studies.He went up toCambridgein the autumn of 1934, studied underI. A. RichardsandF. R. Leavis, and was influenced byNew Criticism.Years afterward, upon reflection, he credited the faculty there with influencing the direction of his later work because of their emphasis on the \"training of perception\", as well as such concepts as Richards' notion of \"feedforward\".These studies formed an important precursor to his later ideas on technological forms.He received the required bachelor's degree from Cambridge in 1936and entered their graduate program. Conversion to Catholicism At the University of Manitoba, McLuhan explored his conflicted relationship with religion and turned to literature to \"gratify his soul's hunger for truth and beauty,\"later referring to this stage as agnosticism.While studying thetriviumat Cambridge, he took the first steps toward his eventual conversion toCatholicismin 1937,founded on his reading ofG. K. Chesterton.In 1935, he wrote to his mother: Had I not encountered Chesterton I would have remained agnostic for many years at least. Chesterton did not convince me of religious faith, but he prevented my despair from becoming a habit or hardening into misanthropy. He opened my eyes to European culture and encouraged me to know it more closely. He taught me the reasons for all that in me was simply blind anger and misery. At the end of March 1937,McLuhan completed what was a slow but total conversion process, when he was formally received into theCatholic Church. After consulting a minister, his father accepted the decision to convert. His mother, however, felt that his conversion would hurt his career and was inconsolable.McLuhan was devout throughout his life, but his religion remained a private matter.He had a lifelong interest in the number three(e.g., the trivium, theTrinity) and sometimes said that theVirgin Maryprovided intellectual guidance for him.For the rest of his career, he taught in Catholic institutions of higher education. Early career, marriage, and doctorate Unable to find a suitable job in Canada, he went to the United States to take a job as a teaching assistant at theUniversity of Wisconsin–Madisonfor the 1936–37 academic year.From 1937 to 1944, he taught English atSaint Louis University(with an interruption from 1939 to 1940 when he returned to Cambridge). There he taught courses onShakespeare,eventually tutoring and befriendingWalter J. Ong, who would write his doctoral dissertation on a topic that McLuhan had called to his attention, as well as become a well-known authority on communication and technology. McLuhan met Corinne Lewis in St. Louis,a teacher and aspiring actress fromFort Worth, Texas, whom he married on August 4, 1939. They spent 1939–40 in Cambridge, where he completed his master's degree (awarded in January 1940)and began to work on his doctoral dissertation onThomas Nasheand the verbal arts. While the McLuhans were in England,World War IIhad erupted in Europe. For this reason, he obtained permission to complete and submit his dissertation from the United States, without having to return to Cambridge for an oral defence. In 1940, the McLuhans returned to Saint Louis University, where they started a family as he continued teaching. He was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree in December 1943. He next taught atAssumption CollegeinWindsor, Ontario, from 1944 to 1946, then moved toTorontoin 1946 where he joined the faculty ofSt. Michael's College, a Catholic college of theUniversity of Toronto, whereHugh Kennerwould be one of his students. Canadian economist and communications scholarHarold Inniswas a university colleague who had a strong influence on his work. McLuhan wrote in 1964: \"I am pleased to think of my own bookThe Gutenberg Galaxyas a footnote to the observations of Innis on the subject of the psychic and social consequences, first of writing then of printing.\" Later career and reputation In the early 1950s, McLuhan began the Communication and Culture seminars at the University of Toronto, funded by theFord Foundation. As his reputation grew, he received a growing number of offers from other universities.During this period, he published his first major work,The Mechanical Bride(1951), in which he examines the effect of advertising on society and culture. Throughout the 1950s, he andEdmund Carpenteralso produced an important academic journal calledExplorations.McLuhan and Carpenter have been characterized as theToronto School of communication theory, together withHarold Innis,Eric A. Havelock, andNorthrop Frye. During this time, McLuhan supervised the doctoral thesis ofmodernist writerSheila Watsonon the subject ofWyndham Lewis. Hoping to keep him from moving to another institute, the University of Toronto created theCentre for Culture and Technology(CCT) in 1963. From 1967 to 1968, McLuhan was named theAlbert SchweitzerChair in Humanities atFordham Universityin the Bronx.While at Fordham, he was diagnosed with abenignbrain tumor, which was treated successfully. He returned to Toronto where he taught at the University of Toronto for the rest of his life and lived inWychwood Park, a bucolic enclave on a hill overlooking thedowntownwhereAnatol Rapoportwas his neighbour. In 1970, he was made a Companion of theOrder of Canada.In 1975, theUniversity of Dallashosted him from April to May, appointing him to the McDermott Chair.Marshall and Corinne McLuhan had six children:Eric, twins Mary and Teresa, Stephanie, Elizabeth, and Michael. The associated costs of a large family eventually drove him to advertising work and accepting frequent consulting and speaking engagements for large corporations, includingIBMandAT&T. Death In September 1979, McLuhan suffered a stroke which affected his ability to speak. The University of Toronto's School of Graduate Studies tried to close his research center shortly thereafter, but was deterred by substantial protests. McLuhan never fully recovered from the stroke and died in his sleep on December 31, 1980.He is buried at Holy Cross Cemetery inThornhill, Ontario, Canada. Major works During his years at Saint Louis University (1937–1944), McLuhan worked concurrently on two projects: his doctoraldissertationand the manuscript that was eventually published in 1951 as a book, titledThe Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man, which included only a representative selection of the materials that McLuhan had prepared for it. McLuhan's 1942 Cambridge University doctoral dissertation surveys the history of the verbal arts (grammar,logic, andrhetoric—collectively known as thetrivium) from the time ofCicerodown to the time of Thomas Nashe.In his later publications, McLuhan at times uses the Latin concept of thetriviumto outline an orderly and systematic picture of certain periods in the history ofWestern culture. McLuhan suggests that theLate Middle Ages, for instance, were characterized by the heavy emphasis on the formal study of logic. The key development that led to theRenaissancewas not the rediscovery of ancient texts, but a shift in emphasis from the formal study of logic to rhetoric and grammar.Modern lifeis characterized by the re-emergence of grammar as its most salient feature—a trend McLuhan felt was exemplified by theNew Criticismof Richards and Leavis. McLuhan also began theacademic journalExplorationswithanthropologistEdmund \"Ted\" Carpenter. In a letter to Walter Ong, dated 31 May 1953, McLuhan reports that he had received a two-yeargrantof $43,000 from the Ford Foundation to carry out a communication project at the University of Toronto involving faculty from different disciplines, which led to the creation of the journal. At a Fordham lecture in 1999,Tom Wolfesuggested that a major under-acknowledged influence on McLuhan's work is theJesuitphilosopherPierre Teilhard de Chardin, whose ideas anticipated those of McLuhan, especially the evolution of the human mind into the \"noosphere.\"In fact, McLuhan warns against outright dismissing or whole-heartedly accepting de Chardin's observations early on in his second published bookThe Gutenberg Galaxy: This externalization of our senses creates what de Chardin calls the \"noosphere\" or a technological brain for the world. Instead of tending towards a vast Alexandrian library the world has become a computer, an electronic brain, exactly as in an infantile piece of science fiction. And as our senses have gone outside us, Big Brother goes inside. So, unless aware of this dynamic, we shall at once move into a phase of panic terrors, exactly befitting a small world of tribal drums, total interdependence, and super-imposed co-existence. In his private life, McLuhan wrote to friends saying: \"I am not a fan of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. The idea that anything is better because it comes later is surely borrowed from pre-electronic technologies.\" Further, McLuhan noted to a Catholic collaborator: \"The idea of a Cosmic thrust in one direction ... is surely one of the lamest semantic fallacies ever bred by the word 'evolution'.… That development should have any direction at all is inconceivable except to the highly literate community.\" Some of McLuhan's main ideas were influenced or prefigured by anthropologists likeEdward SapirandClaude Lévi-Strauss, arguably with a more complex historical and psychological analysis.The idea of the retribalization of Western society by the far-reaching techniques of communication, the view on the function of the artist in society, and the characterization of means of transportation, like the railroad and the airplane, as means of communication, are prefigured in Sapir's 1933 article onCommunicationin theEncyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,while the distinction between \"hot\" and \"cool\" media draws from Lévi-Strauss' distinction between hot and cold societies. The Mechanical Bride(1951) McLuhan's first book,The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man(1951), is a pioneering study in the field now known as popular culture. In the book, McLuhan turns his attention to analysing and commenting on numerous examples of persuasion in contemporary popular culture. This followed naturally from his earlier work as bothdialecticand rhetoric in the classical trivium aimed atpersuasion. At this point, his focus shifted dramatically, turning inward to study the influence ofcommunication mediaindependent of their content. His famousaphorism\"the medium is the message\" (elaborated in hisUnderstanding Media: The Extensions of Man, 1964) calls attention to this intrinsic effect of communications media. His interest in the critical study of popular culture was influenced by the 1933 bookCulture and EnvironmentbyF. R. LeavisandDenys Thompson, and the titleThe Mechanical Brideis derived from a piece by theDadaistartistMarcel Duchamp. The Mechanical Brideis composed of 59 short essaysthat may be read in any order—what he styled the \"mosaicapproach\" to writing a book. Each essay begins with a newspaper or magazine article, or an advertisement, followed by McLuhan's analysis thereof. The analyses bear onaestheticconsiderations as well as on the implications behind the imagery and text. McLuhan chose these ads and articles not only to draw attention to theirsymbolism, as well as their implications for thecorporate entitieswho created and disseminated them, but also to mull over what such advertising implies about the wider society at which it is aimed. Roland Barthes's essays 1957Mythologies, echoes McLuhan'sMechanical Bride, as a series of exhibits of popular mass culture (like advertisements, newspaper articles and photographs) that are analyzed in asemiologicalway. The Gutenberg Galaxy(1962) Written in 1961 and first published byUniversity of Toronto Press,The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man(1962) is a pioneering study in the fields oforal culture,print culture,cultural studies,media ecologyormedia-adequacy. Throughout the book, McLuhan makes efforts to reveal howcommunication technology(i.e.,alphabetic writing, theprinting press, and theelectronic media) affectscognitiveorganization, which in turn has profound ramifications for social organization: f a new technology extends one or more of our senses outside us into the social world, then new ratios among all of our senses will occur in that particular culture. It is comparable to what happens when a new note is added to a melody. And when the sense ratios alter in any culture then what had appeared lucid before may suddenly become opaque, and what had been vague or opaque will become translucent. Movable type McLuhan's episodic history takes the reader from pre-alphabetic,tribalhumankind to theelectronic age. According to McLuhan, the invention ofmovable typegreatly accelerated, intensified, and ultimately enabled cultural and cognitive changes that had already been taking place since the invention and implementation of the alphabet, by which McLuhan meansphonemic orthography. (McLuhan is careful to distinguish the phonetic alphabet fromlogographicor logogramic writing systems, such asEgyptian hieroglyphsorideograms.) Print culture, ushered in by the advance in printing during the middle of the 15th century when theGutenberg presswas invented, brought about the cultural predominance of the visual over the aural/oral. Quoting (with approval) an observation on the nature of the printed word fromWilliam Ivins'Prints and Visual Communication, McLuhan remarks: In this passage not only notes the ingraining of lineal, sequential habits, but, even more important, points out the visual homogenizing of experience of print culture, and the relegation of auditory and other sensuous complexity to the background.… The technology and social effects of typography incline us to abstain from noting interplay and, as it were, \"formal\" causality, both in our inner and external lives. Print exists by virtue of the static separation of functions and fosters a mentality that gradually resists any but a separative and compartmentalizing or specialist outlook. The main concept of McLuhan's argument (later elaborated upon inThe Medium Is the Massage) is that new technologies (such as alphabets, printing presses, and even speech) exert a gravitational effect on cognition, which in turn, affectssocial organization: print technology changes our perceptual habits—\"visualhomogenizingof experience\"—which in turn affects social interactions—\"fosters a mentality that gradually resists all but a…specialist outlook\". According to McLuhan, this advance of print technology contributed to and made possible most of the salient trends in the modern period in the Western world:individualism, democracy,Protestantism,capitalism, andnationalism. For McLuhan, these trends all reverberate with print technology's principle of \"segmentation of actions and functions and principle of visualquantification.\" Global village In the early 1960s, McLuhan wrote that the visual, individualistic print culture would soon be brought to an end by what he called \"electronicinterdependence\" wherein electronic media replaces visual culture with aural/oral culture. In this new age, humankind would move from individualism and fragmentation to acollective identity, with a \"tribal base.\" McLuhan's coinage for this new social organization is theglobal village. The term is sometimes described as having negative connotations inThe Gutenberg Galaxy, but McLuhan was interested in exploring effects, not makingvalue judgments: Instead of tending towards a vastAlexandrian librarythe world has become a computer, an electronic brain, exactly as an infantile piece of science fiction. And as our senses have gone outside us,Big Brothergoes inside. So, unless aware of this dynamic, we shall at once move into a phase of panic terrors, exactly befitting a small world of tribal drums, total interdependence, and superimposed co-existence.… Terror is the normal state of any oral society, for in it everything affects everything all the time.… In our long striving to recover for the Western world a unity of sensibility and of thought and feeling we have no more been prepared to accept the tribal consequences of such unity than we were ready for the fragmentation of the human psyche by print culture. Key to McLuhan's argument is the idea that technology has noper semoral bent—it is a tool that profoundly shapes an individual's and, by extension, a society'sself-conceptionandrealization: Is it not obvious that there are always enough moral problems without also taking a moral stand on technological grounds?… Print is the extreme phase of alphabet culture thatdetribalizesor decollectivizes man in the first instance. Print raises the visual features of alphabet to highest intensity of definition. Thus, print carries the individuating power of the phonetic alphabet much further than manuscript culture could ever do. Print is the technology of individualism. If men decided to modify thisvisual technologyby an electric technology, individualism would also be modified. To raise a moral complaint about this is like cussing a buzz-saw for lopping off fingers. \"But\", someone says, \"we didn't know it would happen.\" Yet even witlessness is not a moral issue. It is a problem, but not a moral problem; and it would be nice to clear away some of the moral fogs that surround our technologies. It would be good for morality. The moralvalenceof technology's effects on cognition is, for McLuhan, a matter of perspective. For instance, McLuhan contrasts the considerable alarm and revulsion that the growing quantity of books aroused in the latter 17th century with the modern concern for the \"end of the book.\" If there can be no universal moral sentence passed on technology, McLuhan believes that \"there can only be disaster arising from unawareness of thecausalitiesand effects inherent in our technologies\". Though the World Wide Web was invented almost 30 years afterThe Gutenberg Galaxy, and 10 years after his death, McLuhan prophesied the web technology seen today as early as 1962: The next medium, whatever it is—it may be the extension of consciousness—will include television as its content, not as its environment, and will transform television into an art form. A computer as a research and communication instrument could enhance retrieval, obsolesce mass library organization, retrieve the individual's encyclopedic function and flip into a private line to speedily tailored data of a saleable kind. Furthermore, McLuhan coined and certainly popularized the usage of the termsurfingto refer to rapid, irregular, and multidirectional movement through a heterogeneous body of documents or knowledge, e.g., statements such as \"Heideggersurf-boards along on the electronic wave as triumphantly asDescartesrode the mechanical wave.\"Paul Levinson's 1999 bookDigital McLuhanexplores the ways that McLuhan's work may be understood better through using the lens of the digital revolution. McLuhan frequently quoted Walter Ong'sRamus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue(1958), which evidently had prompted McLuhan to writeThe Gutenberg Galaxy. Ong wrote a highly favorable review of this new book inAmerica.However, Ong later tempered his praise, by describing McLuhan'sThe Gutenberg Galaxyas \"a racy survey, indifferent to some scholarly detail, but uniquely valuable in suggesting the sweep and depth of the cultural and psychological changes entailed in the passage from illiteracy to print and beyond.\"McLuhan himself said of the book, \"I'm not concerned to get any kudos out of . It seems to me a book that somebody should have written a century ago. I wish somebody else had written it. It will be a useful prelude to the rewrite ofUnderstanding Media that I'm doing now.\" McLuhan'sThe Gutenberg Galaxywon Canada's highest literary award, theGovernor-General's Award for Non-Fiction, in 1962. The chairman of the selection committee was McLuhan's colleague at the University of Toronto and oftentime intellectual sparring partner,Northrop Frye. Understanding Media(1964) McLuhan's best-known work,Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man(1964), is a seminal study in media theory. Dismayed by the way in which people approach and use new media such as television, McLuhan famously argues that in the modern world \"we live mythically and integrally…but continue to think in the old, fragmented space and time patterns of the pre-electric age.\" McLuhan proposes that media themselves, not the content they carry, should be the focus of study—popularly quoted as \"the medium is the message\". His insight is that a medium affects the society in which it plays a role not by the content it delivers, but by its own characteristics. McLuhan points to the light bulb as a clear demonstration of this. A light bulb does not have content in the way that a newspaper has articles, or a television has programs, but it is a medium that has a social effect; that is, a light bulb enables people to create spaces at night that would otherwise be enveloped by darkness. He describes the light bulb as a medium without any content. McLuhan writes, \"a light bulb creates an environment by its mere presence.\"More controversially, he postulates that content has little effect on society—for example, whether television broadcasts children's shows or violent programming, its effect on society is identical.He notes that all media have characteristics that engage the viewer in different ways; for instance, a passage in a book can be reread at will, but a movie must be screened again in its entirety to study any part of it. \"Hot\" and \"cool\" media In the first part ofUnderstanding Media, McLuhan writes that different media invite different degrees of participation on the part of a person who chooses to consume a medium. Using terminology derived from French anthropologistClaude Lévi-Strauss's distinction between hot and cold societies,McLuhan argues that acool mediumrequires increased involvement due to decreased description, while ahot mediumis the opposite, decreasing involvement and increasing description. In other words, a society that appears to be actively participating in streaming content but does not consider the tool's effects is not allowing an \"extension of ourselves\".A movie is thus said to be \"high definition\", demanding a viewer's attention, and a comic book \"low definition\", requiring much more conscious participation by the reader to extract value:\"Any hot medium allows of less participation than a cool one, as a lecture makes for less participation than a seminar, and a book for less than a dialogue.\" Some media, such as movies, arehot—that is, they enhance a single sense, in this case vision, in such a manner that a person does not need to exert much effort to perceive a detailed moving image. Hot media usually, but not always, provide complete involvement with considerablestimulus. In contrast, \"cool\" print may also occupyvisual space, usingvisual senses, but require focus and comprehension to immerse readers. Hot media creation favouranalyticalprecision,quantitative analysisand sequential ordering, as they are usually sequential,linear, and logical. They emphasize one sense (for example, of sight or sound) over the others. For this reason, hot media include film (especiallysilent films), radio, the lecture, and photography. McLuhan contrastshotmedia withcool—specifically, television , which he claims requires more effort from the viewer to determine meaning; and comics, which, due to their minimal presentation of visual detail, require a high degree of effort to fill in details the cartoonist may have intended to portray. Cool media are usually, but not always, those that provide little involvement with substantial stimulus. They require more active participation on the part of the user, including the perception of abstract patterning and simultaneous comprehension of all parts. Therefore, in addition to television, cool media includeseminarsand cartoons. McLuhan describes the termcool mediaas emerging from jazz and popular music used, in this context, to mean \"detached\". This appears to force media into binary categories, but McLuhan's hot and cool exist on a continuum: they are more correctly measured on a scale than asdichotomousterms. Critiques ofUnderstanding Media Some theorists have attacked McLuhan's definition and treatment of the word \"medium\" for being too simplistic.Umberto Eco, for instance, contends that McLuhan's medium conflates channels,codes, and messages under the overarching term of the medium, confusing the vehicle, internal code, and content of a given message in his framework. InMedia Manifestos,Régis Debrayalso takes issue with McLuhan's envisioning of the medium. Like Eco, he is ill at ease with this reductionist approach, summarizing its ramifications as follows: The list of objections could be and has been lengthened indefinitely: confusing technology itself with its use of the media makes of the media an abstract, undifferentiated force and produces its image in an imaginary \"public\" for mass consumption; the magical naivete of supposed causalities turns the media into a catch-all and contagious \"mana\"; apocalyptic millenarianism invents the figure of ahomo mass-mediaticuswithout ties to historical and social context, and so on. Furthermore, whenWiredmagazine interviewed him in 1995, Debray said he saw McLuhan \"more as a poet than a historian, a master of intellectual collage rather than a systematic analyst.… McLuhan overemphasizes the technology behind cultural change at the expense of the usage that the messages and codes make of that technology.\" Dwight Macdonald, in turn, reproached McLuhan for his focus on television and for his \"aphoristic\" prose style, which he believes leavesUnderstanding Mediafilled with \"contradictions, non-sequiturs, facts that are distorted and facts that are not facts, exaggerations, and chronic rhetorical vagueness.\" Brian Winston'sMisunderstanding Media, published in 1986, chides McLuhan for what he sees as histechnologically deterministicstances.Raymond Williamsfurthers this point of contention, claiming: The work of McLuhan was a particular culmination of an aesthetic theory which became, negatively, a social theory ... It is an apparently sophisticated technological determinism which has the significant effect of indicating a social and cultural determinism.… For if the medium—whether print or television—is the cause, all other causes, all that men ordinarily see as history, are at once reduced to effects. David Carr wrote that there has been a long line of \"academics who have made a career out of deconstructing McLuhan’s effort to define the modern media ecosystem\", whether it be due to what they see as McLuhan's ignorance of sociohistorical context or the style of his argument. While some critics have taken issue with McLuhan's writing style and mode of argument, McLuhan himself urged readers to think of his work as \"probes\" or \"mosaics\" offering a toolkit approach to thinking about media. His eclectic writing style has also been praised for its postmodern sensibilitiesand suitability for virtual space. The Medium Is the Massage(1967) The Medium Is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects, published in 1967, was McLuhan's best seller,\"eventually selling nearly a million copies worldwide.\"Initiated byQuentin Fiore,McLuhan adopted the term \"massage\" to denote the effect each medium has on the humansensorium, taking inventory of the \"effects\" of numerous media in terms of how they \"massage\" the sensorium. Fiore, at the time a prominentgraphic designerand communications consultant, set about composing the visual illustration of these effects which were compiled by Jerome Agel. Near the beginning of the book, Fiore adopted a pattern in which an image demonstrating a media effect was presented with atextualsynopsis on the facing page. The reader experiences a repeated shifting of analytic registers—from \"reading\"typographic printto \"scanning\" photographicfacsimiles—reinforcing McLuhan's overarching argument in this book: namely, that each medium produces a different \"massage\" or \"effect\" on the human sensorium. InThe Medium Is the Massage, McLuhan also rehashed the argument—which first appeared in the Prologue to 1962'sThe Gutenberg Galaxy—that all media are \"extensions\" of our human senses, bodies and minds. Finally, McLuhan described key points of change in how man has viewed the world and how these views were changed by the adoption of new media. \"The technique of invention was the discovery of the nineteenth \", brought on by the adoption of fixed points of view and perspective by typography, while \"he technique of thesuspended judgmentis the discovery of the twentieth century,\" brought on by thebardabilities of radio, movies and television. The past went that-a-way. When faced with a totally new situation we tend always to attach ourselves to the objects, to the flavor of the most recent past. We look at the present through a rear-view mirror. We march backward into the future. Suburbia lives imaginatively inBonanza-land. An audio recording version of McLuhan's famous work was made byColumbia Records. The recording consists of a pastiche of statements made by McLuhaninterruptedby other speakers, including people speaking in variousphonationsandfalsettos, discordant sounds and 1960s incidental music in what could be considered a deliberate attempt to translate the disconnected images seen on TV into an audio format, resulting in the prevention of a connected stream of conscious thought. Various audio recording techniques and statements are used to illustrate the relationship between spoken, literary speech and the characteristics of electronic audio media. McLuhan biographer Philip Marchand called the recording \"the 1967 equivalent of a McLuhan video.\" \"I wouldn't be seen dead with a living work of art.\"—'Old man' speaking \"Drop this jiggery-pokery and talk straight turkey.\"—\"Middle-aged man\" speaking War and Peace in the Global Village(1968) InWar and Peace in the Global Village, McLuhan usedJames Joyce'sFinnegans Wake, an inspiration for this study of war throughout history, as an indicator as to how war may be conducted in the future. Joyce'sWakeis claimed to be a giganticcryptogramthat reveals a cyclic pattern for human history through its Ten Thunders. Each \"thunder\" below is a 100-characterportmanteauof other words to create a statement McLuhan likens to an effect that each technology has on the society into which it is introduced. In order to glean the most understanding out of each, the reader must break the portmanteau into separate words (many of these themselves portmanteaus of words taken from multiple languages other than English) and speak them aloud for the spoken effect of each word. There is much dispute over what each portmanteau truly denotes. McLuhan claims that the ten thunders inWakerepresent different stages in the history of man: From Cliché to Archetype(1970) Collaborating withCanadian poetWilfred WatsoninFrom Cliché to Archetype(1970), McLuhan approaches the various implications of the verbalclichéand of thearchetype. One major facet in McLuhan's overall framework introduced in this book that is seldom noticed is the provision of a new term that actually succeeds the global village: theglobal theater. In McLuhan's terms, aclichéis a \"normal\" action, phrase, etc. which becomes so often used that we are \"anesthetized\" to its effects. McLuhan provides the example ofEugène Ionesco's playThe Bald Soprano, whose dialogue consists entirely of phrases Ionesco pulled from anAssimillanguage book: \"Ionesco originally put all these idiomatic English clichés into literary French which presented the English in the most absurd aspect possible.\" McLuhan'sarchetype\"is a quoted extension, medium, technology, or environment.\"Environmentwould also include the kinds of \"awareness\" andcognitive shiftsbrought upon people by it, not totally unlike the psychological contextCarl Jungdescribed. McLuhan also posits that there is a factor of interplay between theclichéand thearchetype, or a \"doubleness\": Another theme of the Wake that helps in the understanding of the paradoxical shift from cliché to archetype is 'past time are pastimes.' The dominant technologies of one age become the games and pastimes of a later age. In the 20th century, the number of 'past times' that are simultaneously available is so vast as to create cultural anarchy. When all the cultures of the world are simultaneously present, the work of the artist in the elucidation of form takes on new scope and new urgency. Most men are pushed into the artist's role. The artist cannot dispense with the principle of 'doubleness' or 'interplay' because this type ofhendiadysdialogue is essential to the very structure of consciousness, awareness, and autonomy. McLuhan relates the cliché-to-archetype process to theTheater of the Absurd: Pascal, in the seventeenth century, tells us that the heart has many reasons of which the head knows nothing. The Theater of the Absurd is essentially a communicating to the head of some of the silent languages of the heart which in two or three hundred years it has tried to forget all about. In the seventeenth century world the languages of the heart were pushed down into the unconscious by the dominant print cliché. The \"languages of the heart\", or what McLuhan otherwise defined as oral culture, were thus made archetype by means of the printing press, and turned into cliché. According to McLuhan, the satellite medium encloses the Earth in a man-made environment, which \"ends 'Nature' and turns the globe into a repertory theater to be programmed.\"All previous environments (book, newspaper, radio, etc.) and their artifacts are retrieved under these conditions (\"past times are pastimes\"). McLuhan thereby meshes this into the termglobal theater. This updates his concept of the global village, which, in its own definitions, can be said to be subsumed into the overall condition of the global theater. The Global Village(1989) In his posthumous book,The Global Village: Transformations in World Life and Media in the 21st Century(1989), McLuhan, collaborating with Bruce R. Powers, provides a strongconceptual frameworkfor understanding the cultural implications of the technological advances associated with the rise of a worldwideelectronic network. This is a major work of McLuhan's as it contains the most extensive elaboration of his concept ofacoustic space, and provides a critique of standard 20th-century communication models such as theShannon–Weaver model. McLuhan distinguishes between the existing worldview ofvisual space—a linear, quantitative, classically geometric model—and that ofacoustic space—aholistic, qualitative order with an intricate,paradoxicaltopology: \"Acoustic Space has the basic character of a sphere whose focus or center is simultaneously everywhere and whose margin is nowhere.\"The transition fromvisualtoacousticspacewas not automatic with the advent of the global network, but would have to be a conscious project. The \"universal environment of simultaneous electronic flow\"inherently favorsright-brainAcoustic Space, yet we are held back by habits of adhering to a fixed point of view. There are no boundaries to sound. We hear from all directions at once. Yet Acoustic and Visual Space are inseparable. The resonant interval is the invisible borderline between Visual and Acoustic Space. This is like the television camera that theApollo 8astronauts focused on the Earth after they had orbited the Moon. McLuhan illustrates how it feels to exist within acoustic space by quoting from the autobiography ofJacques Lusseyran,And There Was Light.Lusseyran lost his eyesight in a violent accident as a child, and the autobiography describes how a reordering of his sensory life and perception followed: When I came upon the myth of objectivity in certain modern thinkers, it made me angry. So, there was only one world for these people, the same for everyone. And all the other worlds were to be counted as illusions left over from the past. Or why not call them by their name—hallucinations? I had learned to my cost how wrong they were. From my own experience I knew very well that it was enough to take from a man a memory here, an association there, to deprive him of hearing or sight, for the world to undergo immediate transformation, and for another world, entirely different, but entirely coherent, to be born. Another world? Not really. The same world, rather, but seen from a different angle, and counted in entirely new measures. When this happened all the hierarchies they called objective were turned upside down, scattered to the four winds, not even theories but like whims. Reading, writing, and hierarchical ordering are associated with theleft brainand visual space, as are the linear concept of time and phonetic literacy. The left brain is the locus of analysis, classification, and rationality. The right brain and acoustic space are the locus of the spatial, tactile, and musical.\"Comprehensive awareness\"results when the two sides of the brain are in true balance. Visual Space is associated with the simplified worldview ofEuclidean geometry, the intuitive three dimensions useful for the architecture of buildings and the surveying of land. It is linearly rational and has no grasp of the acoustic. Acoustic Space is multisensory. McLuhan writes aboutrobotismin the context ofJapanese Zen Buddhismand how it can offer us new ways of thinking about technology. The Western way of thinking about technology is too related to the left brain, which has a rational and linear focus. What he called robotism might better be called androidism in the wake ofBlade Runnerand the novels ofPhilip K. Dick. Robotism-androidism emerges from the further development of the right brain, creativity and a new relationship to spacetime (most humans are still living in 17th-century classical Newtonian physics spacetime). Robots-androids will have much greater flexibility than humans have had until now, in both mind and body. Robots-androids will teach humanity this new flexibility. And this flexibility of androids (what McLuhan calls robotism) has a strong affinity with Japanese culture and life. McLuhan quotes fromRuth Benedict'sThe Chrysanthemum and the Swordan anthropological study ofJapanese culturepublished in 1946: Occidentals cannot easily credit the ability of the Japanese to swing from one behavior to another without psychic cost. Such extreme possibilities are not included in our experience. Yet in Japanese life the contradictions, as they seem to us, are as deeply based in their view of life as our uniformities are in ours. The ability to live in the present and instantly readjust. Beyond existing communication models \"All Western scientific models of communication are—like theShannon–Weaver model—linear, sequential, and logical as a reflection of the late medieval emphasis on the Greek notion of efficient causality.\"McLuhan and Powers criticize the Shannon-Weaver model of communication as emblematic of left-hemisphere bias and linearity, descended from a print-era perversion of Aristotle's notion of efficient causality. A third term ofThe Global Villagethat McLuhan and Powers develop at length isThe Tetrad. McLuhan had begun development on the Tetrad as early as 1974.The tetrad is an analogical, simultaneous, fourfold pattern of transformation. \"At full maturity the tetrad reveals the metaphoric structure of the artifact as having two figures and two grounds in dynamic and analogical relationship to each other.\"Like the camera focused on the Earth by the Apollo 8 astronauts, the tetrad reveals figure (Moon) and ground (Earth) simultaneously. The right-brain hemisphere thinking is the capability of being in many places at the same time. Electricity is acoustic. It is simultaneously everywhere. The Tetrad, with its fourfoldMöbiustopological structureof enhancement, reversal, retrieval and obsolescence, is mobilized by McLuhan and Powers to illuminate the media or technological inventions of cash money, the compass, the computer, the database, the satellite, and the global media network. Key concepts Tetrad of media effects InLaws of Media(1988), published posthumously by his sonEric, McLuhan summarized his ideas aboutmediain a concise tetrad of media effects. The tetrad is a means of examining the effects on society of any technology (i.e., any medium) by dividing its effects into four categories and displaying them simultaneously. McLuhan designed the tetrad as a pedagogical tool, phrasing his laws as questions with which to consider any medium: The laws of the tetrad exist simultaneously, not successively or chronologically, and allow the questioner to explore the \"grammar and syntax\" of the \"language\" of media. McLuhan departs from his mentor Harold Innis in suggesting that a medium \"overheats,\" or reverses into an opposing form, when taken to its extreme. Visually, a tetrad can be depicted as four diamonds forming an X, with the name of a medium in the centre. The two diamonds on the left of a tetrad are theEnhancementandRetrievalqualities of the medium, bothFigurequalities. The two diamonds on the right of a tetrad are theObsolescenceandReversalqualities, bothGroundqualities. Using the example of radio: Figure and ground McLuhan adapted theGestalt psychologyidea of afigure and a ground, which underpins the meaning of \"the medium is the message.\" He used this concept to explain how a form of communications technology, the medium, orfigure, necessarily operates through its context, orground. McLuhan believed that in order to grasp fully the effect of a new technology, one must examine figure (medium) and ground (context) together, since neither is completely intelligible without the other. McLuhan argued that we must study media in their historical context, particularly in relation to the technologies that preceded them. The present environment, itself made up of the effects of previous technologies, gives rise to new technologies, which, in their turn, further affect society and individuals. All technologies have embedded within them their own assumptions abouttime and space. The message which the medium conveys can only be understood if the medium and the environment in which the medium is used—and which, simultaneously, it effectively creates—are analysed together. He believed that an examination of the figure-ground relationship can offer a critical commentary on culture and society. Opposition between optic and haptic perception In McLuhan's (andHarley Parker's) work, electric media have an affinity withhapticand hearing perception, while mechanical media have an affinity with visual perception. This opposition between optic and haptic had previously been formulated by art historiansAlois Rieglin his 1901Late Roman Art Industry, and byErwin Panofsky, in his 1927Perspective as Symbolic Form. In hisThe Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction(1935),Walter Benjaminobserved how, in perceptions of modern Western culture, from about the 19th century a shift began from the optic toward the haptic.This shift is one of the main recurring topics in McLuhan's work, which McLuhan attributes to the advent of the electronic era. Legacy Influence After the publication ofUnderstanding Media, McLuhan received an astonishing amount of publicity, making him perhaps the most-publicized 20th-century English teacher and arguably the most controversial.This publicity began with the work of two California advertising executives,Howard Gossageand Gerald Feigen, who used personal funds to fund their practice of \"genius scouting\".Much enamoured of McLuhan's work, Feigen and Gossage arranged for McLuhan to meet with editors of several major New York magazines in May 1965 at theLombardy Hotelin New York. Philip Marchand reports that, as a direct consequence of these meetings, McLuhan was offered the use of an office in the headquarters of bothTimeandNewsweekanytime he wanted it. In August 1965, Feigen and Gossage held what they called a \"McLuhan festival\" in the offices of Gossage's advertising agency in San Francisco. During this \"festival\", McLuhan met with advertising executives, members of the mayor's office, and editors from theSan Francisco ChronicleandRampartsmagazine. More significant was the presence at the festival ofTom Wolfe, who wrote about McLuhan in a subsequent article, \"What If He Is Right?\", published inNew Yorkmagazineand Wolfe's ownThe Pump House Gang. According to Feigen and Gossage, their work had only a moderate effect on McLuhan's eventual celebrity: they claimed that their work only \"probably speeded up the recognition of his genius by about six months.\"In any case, McLuhan soon became a fixture of media discourse.Newsweekmagazine did a cover story on him; articles appeared inLife,Harper's,Fortune,Esquire, and others. Cartoons about him appeared inThe New Yorker.In 1969,Playboymagazine published a lengthy interview with him.In a running gag on the popular sketch comedyRowan & Martin's Laugh-In, the \"poet\"Henry Gibsonwould randomly say, \"Marshall McLuhan, what are you doin'?\" McLuhan was credited with coining the phraseTurn on, tune in, drop outby its popularizer,Timothy Leary, in the 1960s. In a 1988 interview withNeil Strauss, Leary said the slogan was \"given to him\" by McLuhan during a lunch in New York City. Leary said McLuhan \"was very much interested in ideas and marketing, and he started singing something like, 'Psychedelics hit the spot / Five hundred micrograms, that’s a lot,' to the tune of a Pepsi commercial. Then he started going, 'Tune in, turn on, and drop out.'\" During his lifetime and afterward, McLuhan heavily influencedcultural critics, thinkers, and media theorists such asNeil Postman,Jean Baudrillard,Timothy Leary,Terence McKenna,William Irwin Thompson,Paul Levinson,Douglas Rushkoff,Jaron Lanier,Hugh Kenner, andJohn David Ebert, as well as political leaders such asPierre Elliott TrudeauandJerry Brown.Andy Warholwas paraphrasing McLuhan with his now famous \"15 minutes of fame\" quote. When asked in the 1970s for a way to sedate violence inAngola, he suggested a massive spread of TV devices.Douglas Couplandargued that McLuhan \"was conservative, socially, but he never let politics enter his writing or his teaching\". Popular culture Woody Allen's Oscar-winningAnnie Hall(1977) featured McLuhan in acameoas himself. In the film, a pompous academic is arguing with Allen in a cinema queue when McLuhan suddenly appears and silences him, saying, \"You know nothing of my work.\" The character \"Brian O'Blivion\" inDavid Cronenberg's 1983 filmVideodromeis a \"media oracle\" based on McLuhan. In 1991, McLuhan was named the \"patron saint\" ofWiredmagazine and a quote of his appeared on the mastheadfor the first ten years of its publication. McLuhan's perspective on the cycle of cultural identity inspiredDuke Ellington's albumThe Afro-Eurasian Eclipse. He is mentioned by name in aPeter Gabriel–penned lyric in the song \"Broadway Melody of 1974\", onGenesis'sconcept albumThe Lamb Lies Down on Broadway: \"Marshall McLuhan, casual viewin', head buried in the sand.\" McLuhan is jokingly referred to in an episode ofThe Sopranostitled \"House Arrest\". Despite his death in 1980, someone claiming to be McLuhan posted on aWiredmailing list in 1996. The information this person provided convinced oneWiredwriter that \"if the poster was not McLuhan himself, it was a bot programmed with an eerie command of McLuhan's life and inimitable perspective.\" McLuhan is the subject of the 1993 playThe Medium, the first major work by theSaratoga International Theater Instituteand directorAnne Bogart. The play was revived by SITI Company for a farewell tour in 2022. Recognition A new centre known as theMcLuhan Program in Culture and Technology, formed soon after his death in 1980, was the successor to McLuhan's Centre for Culture and Technology at the University of Toronto. Since 1994, it has been part of theUniversity of Toronto Faculty of Information. In 2008, the centre incorporated in the Coach House Institute, which was subsequently renamedThe McLuhan Centre for Culture and Technology. In 2011, at the time of his centenary, the centre established a \"Marshall McLuhan Centenary Fellowship\" program in his honour, and each year appoints up to four fellows for a maximum of two years. In Toronto,Marshall McLuhan Catholic Secondary Schoolis named after him. The media room atCanada HouseinBerlinis called theMarshall McLuhan Salon.It includes a multimedia information centre and anauditorium, and hosts a permanent exhibition dedicated to McLuhan, based on its collection of film and audio items by and about him. Bibliography of major works This is a partial list of works cited in this article. Discography See also Notes by the time it appeared in 1967, McLuhan no doubt recognized that his original saying had become a cliché and welcomed the opportunity to throw it back on the compost heap of language to recycle and revitalize it. But the new title is more than McLuhan indulging his insatiable taste for puns, more than a clever fusion of self-mockery and self-rescue—the subtitle is 'An Inventory of Effects,' underscoring the lesson compressed into the original saying. However, the FAQ section on the website maintained by McLuhan's estate says that this interpretation is incomplete and makes its own leap of logic as to why McLuhan left it as is: Why is the title of the bookThe Medium Is the Massageand notThe Medium is the Message? Actually, the title was a mistake. When the book came back from the typesetter's, it had on the cover \"Massage\" as it still does. The title was supposed to have readThe Medium is the Message, but the typesetter had made an error. When McLuhan saw the typo he exclaimed, \"Leave it alone! It's great, and right on target!\" Now there are possible four readings for the last word of the title, all of them accurate:MessageandMess Age,MassageandMass Age. References Footnotes Works cited Further reading External links",
"Videodrome Videodromeis a 1983 Canadianscience fictionbody horrorfilm written and directed byDavid Cronenbergand starringJames Woods,Sonja Smits, andDebbie Harry. Set inTorontoduring the early 1980s, it follows the CEO of a smallUHFtelevision station who stumbles upon a broadcast signal ofsnuff films. Layers of deception andmind-controlconspiracy unfold as he attempts to uncover the signal's source, complicated by increasingly intense hallucinations that cause him to lose his grasp on reality. Distributed byUniversal Pictures,Videodromewas the first film by Cronenberg to gain backing from any major Hollywood studio. With the highest budget of any of his films to date, the film was abox-office bomb, recouping only $2.1 million from a $5.9 million budget. The film received praise for the special makeup effects, Cronenberg's direction, Woods and Harry's performances, its \"techno-surrealist\" aesthetic, and its cryptic,psychosexualthemes.Cronenberg won theBest Directionaward and was nominated for seven other awards at the5th Genie Awards. Now considered acult classic, the film has been cited as one of Cronenberg's best, and a key example of the body horror andscience fiction horrorgenres. Plot Max Renn is the president of CIVIC-TV, aTorontoUHFtelevision station specializing in sensationalist programming. Harlan, the operator of CIVIC-TV's unauthorizedsatellite dish, shows MaxVideodrome. Purportedly broadcast fromMalaysia, it is a plotless show depicting victims being violently tortured and eventually murdered. Believing this to be the future of television, Max orders Harlan to begin unlicensed use of the show. Nicki Brand, asadomasochisticradio hostwho becomes sexually involved with Max, is aroused by an episode ofVideodrome.Upon learning it is actually broadcast out ofPittsburgh, she goes to audition for the show but never returns. Max contacts Masha, asoftcore pornographer, and asks her to help him investigateVideodrome. Through Masha, Max learns that the footage is real and is the public \"face\" of a political movement. Masha further informs him that the enigmaticmedia theoristBrian O'Blivion knows aboutVideodrome. Max tracks down O'Blivion to ahomeless shelterwhere vagrants engage inmarathon sessionsof television viewing. He discovers that O'Blivion's daughter Bianca runs the mission, aiding her father's vision of a world where television replaces everyday life. Later, Max views a videotape of O'Blivion explaining thatVideodromeis a socio-political battleground in which a war is being fought to control the minds of the people of North America. Max then hallucinates that Nicki speaks directly to him and causes his television to undulate as he kisses the screen. Disturbed, Max returns to O'Blivion's homeless shelter. Bianca tells him thatVideodromecarries a broadcast signal that gives malignantbrain tumors. O'Blivion considers it as part of his vision, and hallucinations are a higher form of reality. When O'Blivion found out it was to be used for malevolent purposes, he attempted to stop his partners only to be killed by his own invention. In the year before his death, O'Blivion recorded tens of thousands of videos, which now form the basis of his television appearances. Later that night, Max hallucinates placing his handgun in a slit in his abdomen. He is contacted byVideodrome's producer, Barry Convex of the Spectacular Optical Corporation, an eyeglasses company that acts as a front for anarms company, who uses a device to record Max's fantasies. Max then wakes up to find Masha's corpse in his bed. He frantically calls Harlan to photograph the body as evidence, but, shortly after he arrives, her body is gone. Wanting to see the latest Videodrome broadcast, Max meets Harlan at his studio. Harlan reveals that he has been working with Convex to recruit Max to their cause. They aim to end North America'scultural decayby usingVideodrometo kill anyone too obsessed with sex and violence. Convex then inserts a brainwashingBetamaxtape into Max's torso. Under Convex's influence, Max kills his colleagues at CIVIC-TV. He attempts to kill Bianca, who stops him by showing him a videotape of Nicki's murder on the Videodrome set. Bianca then \"reprograms\" Max to her father's cause: \"Death toVideodrome. Long live the new flesh.\" On her orders, he kills Harlan and Convex. Now wanted for murder, Max takes refuge on a derelict boat in thePort Lands. Appearing to him on television, Nicki tells him he has weakenedVideodrome, but to defeat it, he must \"leave the old flesh\" and ascend to the next level. The television shows an image of Max shooting himself in the head, which causes the set to explode. Reenacting what he has just seen, Max utters the words \"Long live the new flesh\" and shoots himself. Cast Production Development The basis forVideodromecame fromDavid Cronenberg's childhood. Cronenberg used to pick upAmerican television signalsfromBuffalo, New York, late at night afterCanadian stationshad gone off the air, and worry he might see something disturbing not meant for public consumption.As Cronenberg explained, \"I've always been interested in dark things and other people's fascinations with dark things. Plus, the idea of people locking themselves in a room and turning a key on a television set so that they can watch something extremely dark, and by doing that, allowing themselves to explore their fascinations.\"Cronenberg watchedMarshall McLuhan, on whom O'Blivion was based, and McLuhan later taught at theUniversity of Torontowhile Cronenberg was a student there, although he never took any of McLuhan's classes. Cronenberg's first exploration of themes of the branding of sex and violence and media impacting people's reality was writing a treatment titledNetwork of Bloodin the early 1970s; its premise was a worker for an independent television company (who would become Max Renn inVideodrome) unintentionally finding, in the filmmaker's words, \"a private television network subscribed to by strange, wealthy people who were willing to pay to see bizarre things.\"He later planned the story to be told from the main character'sfirst-person perspective, showcasing a duality between how insane he looks to other people and how he himself perceives a different reality in his head.Concepts similar toNetwork of Blood's were further explored in a 1977 episode of theCBC TelevisionseriesPeep ShowCronenberg directed, named \"The Victim.\"The film's fictional station CIVIC-TV was modeled on the real-life Toronto television stationCITY-TV, which was known for broadcasting pornographic content and violent films in its late-night programming blocThe Baby Blue Movie. Victor Snolicki, Dick Schouten, andPierre Davidof Vision 4, a company taking advantage of Canada's tax shelter policies, aided Cronenberg in the film's financing.Vision 4 dissolved after Schouten's death and reorganized into Filmplan International which fundedScanners.Solnicki, David, and Claude Héroux formed Filmplan II which gave financial backing toVideodrome. This was the last film Cronenberg made under Canada's film tax shelter policy. Cronenberg's increased reputation made it easier for his projects to get produced, leading to the film's $5.5 million budget, more interest from studios and producers, and a larger number of interested actors to choose from.After the box office success ofScanners, Cronenberg turned down the chance of directingReturn of the Jedi, having had no desire to direct material produced by other filmmakers.Cronenberg met with David inMontrealto discuss ideas for a new film, with the former pitching two ideas, one of them beingVideodrome. Cronenberg started writing the first draft ofVideodromein January 1981, and, as with first drafts of Cronenberg's prior projects, included many parts not featured in the final cut to make it more acceptable for audiences; this included Renn having an explosive grenade as a hand after he chops off his flesh gun during a hallucination, Renn and Nicki melting, via a kiss, into an object that then melts an on-looker, and five other characters besides Barry also dying ofcancer.Cronenberg admits that he was worried that the project would be rejected by Filmplan due to the excessive violent content of an early draft, but it was approved, with Claude Héroux joking that the movie would get a tripleX rating.Although talent for the film was attracted using the first draft, alterations were made constantly from pre-production to post-production. Accumulation of the cast and crew started in the summer of 1981 in Toronto, with most of the supporting actors being local performers of the city.Videodrome's three producers, David, Claude Héroux and Victor Solnicki, suggestedJames Woodsfor the role of Max Renn; they unsuccessfully tried to attach him to another film they produced,Models(1982).Woods was a fan ofRabid(1977) andScanners, and met Cronenberg inBeverly Hillsfor the part; Cronenberg liked the fact that Woods was very articulate in terms of delivery,and Woods appreciated the filmmaker's oddball style as well as being a \"good controversialist\" with \"a lot of power.\"Cronenberg doubled for Woods in the scene where Max puts on the Videodrome helmet since the actor was afraid of getting electrocuted.Co-starDebbie Harrywas recommended by David, and Cronenberg cast her after viewing her two times inUnion City(1980) and a Toronto audition.She had never had such a large part before, and said that the more experienced Woods gave her a number of helpful suggestions. Filming The film was shot in Toronto from 27 October to 23 December 1981, on a budget of $5,952,000 (equivalent to $18,890,085 in 2023), with the financing equally coming from Canada and the United States. 50% of the film's budget came from Universal.The initial week of filming being devoted to videotaping variousmonitor inserts. These included the television monologues of Professor Brian O'Blivion, as well as theVideodrometorture scenes and the soft-core pornographic programsSamurai DreamsandApollo & Dionysus.The video camera used for the monitor scenes was a Hitachi SK-91.The film's cinematography was handled byMark Irwin, who was very uncomfortable with doing the monitor scenes; he was far more experienced with composing shots for regular film cameras than videotapes, disliked the flat television standards of lighting and color, and couldn't compose his shots privately as all of the film crew watched the monitors as the shots were being set up.Cronenberg stated thatVideodromewas the first time that he fired a crew worker due to an incident between a hairdresser and Harry. TheSamurai Dreamsshort was filmed in half a day without any audio recorded at a rented spot at aGlobal TVstudio in Toronto, and lasted five minutes longer than what ended up in the final film. Three different endings were filmed. The ending used in the final film, wherein Max shoots himself on the derelict ship, was James Woods' idea.One of the initial intentions for the ending was to include an epilogue after the suicide, wherein Max, Bianca, and Nicki appear on the set ofVideodrome. Bianca and Nicki are shown to have chest slits like Max, from which grotesque, mutatedsex organsemerge.Another ending featured an orgy between Bianca, Max, and Nicki after Max shoots himself and sex-organs were designed for the scene, but Cronenberg decided to remove the scene. Effects Rick Baker, who worked on the effects ofAn American Werewolf in London, did the effects for the film. However, his desired six months of preparation was reduced to two months and less effects were created due to a reduced budget. One of the scenes cut from the script showed Max and Nicki's faces melting together while kissing and going across the floor to a bystander's leg and melting him. Michael Lennick served as special video effects supervisor. To create the breathing effects of the television set that Max interacts with, Frank C. Carere utilized an air compressor with valves hooked to a piano keyboard that he himself operated.The undulating screen of the television set was created using avideo projectorand a sheet of rubberydental dam. Baker stated that \"I knew we would need a flexible material ... we tested with aweather balloonfirst, stretching it over a frame the size of a TV screen, and pushed a hand through it to see how far it stretched, and then werear-projectedon it.\"Betamaxvideotape cassettes were used as items to be inserted into Max's stomach slit, becauseVHScassettes were too large to fit the faux abdominal wound.Woods found the stomach slit uncomfortable,and after a long day of wearing it, vented, \"I am not an actor anymore. I'm just the bearer of the slit!\"Baker's original concept for Max's flesh gun featured eyes, mouth and foreskin, which Cronenberg found to be \"too graphic\".The cancer effects caused by Max's flesh gun went through various tests, with some tests having the face of the victim being distorted through the use ofsolvents, but Baker decided against this upon learning that his mentor,Dick Smith, had recently used the same technique inSpasms.Baker settled on having the cancer tumors burst out from the body of Barry Convex, with his crew operating a dummy underneath the set. Lennick devised effects such as having the image of the Videodrome television set distort whenever Max would whip it through the use of a device which he called the \"Videodromer\", and glitch and twitch effects related to Max's visions through the Videodrome helmet, but these effects were scrapped due to budget and time concerns. Music Anoriginal scorewas composed forVideodromeby Cronenberg's close friend, Howard Shore.The score was composed to follow Max Renn's descent into video hallucinations, starting out with dramatic orchestral music that increasingly incorporates, and eventually emphasizes, electronic instrumentation. To achieve this, Shore composed the entire score for an orchestra before programming it into aSynclavierII digital synthesizer. The rendered score, taken from the Synclavier II, was then recorded being played in tandem with a small string section.The resulting sound was a subtle blend that often made it difficult to tell which sounds were real and which were synthesized. The soundtrack was also released on vinyl byVarèse Sarabande, and was re-released on compact disc in 1998. The album itself is not just a straight copy of Shore's score, but a remix. Shore has commented that while there were small issues with some of the acoustic numbers, \"on the whole I think they did very well\". Editing Cronenberg stated that the firsttest screeningof a 72-75 minute cut of the film was \"the most disastrous screening you can imagine\". He and editorRonald Sanders\"thought we had cut it really tight, but it was totally incomprehensible that you didn't even know that Max Renn worked at Civic TV, I'd cut out all the footage that explained that\". TheMPAArequested multiple edits to the film. Bob Remy, the head of Universal Pictures, also suggested removing the scene inSamurai Dreamsshowing the dildo. Cronenberg was confused by Remy's suggestion as the \"MPAA didn't even ask me to cut that. Why is he asking me to cut that\".Thom Mounttold Cronenberg that it was due to Remy having \"a problem with cocks\".The film's runtime was 87 minutes and 18 seconds in Canada and the United States, but was 15 seconds longer in the international version. Cronenberg was critical of editsUniversal Picturesperformed on the film without request from the MPAA. Themes According toTim Lucas,Videodromedeals with \"the impression of a sprawlingly technological world on our human senses; the fascination and horror of sex and violence; and the boundaries of reality and consciousness.\" Release David was able to get Universal Pictures to finance and distribute the film based \"on a one-page description,\" according to Cronenberg.Videodromewas distributed by Universal Pictures in Canada and the United States, and by Les Films Mutuels in Quebec. It was released in six hundred theatres on 4 February 1983. Cronenberg stated thatSidney Sheinbergregretted giving the film a wide theatrical release rather than treating it as anart film. Around 900 prints of the film were distributed according to Cronenberg, and the film was only in theaters for a short amount of time. Cronenberg stated thatVideodrome\"wasn't an exploitation sell, and it wasn't an art sell. I don't know what it was.\" Reception The film holds a 83% aggregate rating onRotten Tomatoes, based on 59 reviews, with an average score of 7.5/10. Its consensus states, \"Visually audacious, disorienting, and just plain weird,Videodrome'smusings on technology, entertainment, and politics still feel fresh today.\"It has been described as a \"disturbing techno-surrealist film\"and \"burningly intense, chaotic, indelibly surreal, absolutely like nothing else\". Janet MaslinofThe New York Timesremarked on the film's \"innovativeness\", and praised Woods' performance as having a \"sharply authentic edge\".Adam Smith ofEmpiregave the film 4 out of 5 possible stars, calling it a \"perfect example\" ofbody horror.The staff ofVarietywrote that the film \"proves more fascinating than distancing\", and commended the \"stunning visual effects\".Gary Arnold ofThe Washington Postgave the film a negative review, calling it \"simultaneously stupefying and boring\". C.J. Henderson reviewedVideodromeinThe Space GamerNo. 63.Henderson commented that \"Despite the fact thatVideodromecame and went faster than Superman and his bullet, it is still an excellent picture. It is a genre film of high caliber, posing a number of important questions.\" Christopher John reviewedVideodromeinAres Magazine#14 and commented that \"As usual, Cronenberg has pulled no punches in getting his message across. The movie is tight, and perfectly clear for anyone willing towatchthe screen andthinkabout what they are seeing.\" Trace Thurman ofBloody Disgustinglisted it as one of eight \"horror movies that were ahead of their time\".It was also selected as one of the \"23 weirdest films of all time\" byTotal Film.Nick Schager ofEsquireranked the film at number 10 on their list of \"the 50 best horror movies of the 1980s\". Awards The film won a number of awards upon its release. At the 1984Brussels International Festival of Fantasy Film, it tied withBloodbath at the House of Deathfor Best Science-Fiction Film, and Mark Irwin received aCSCAward for Best Cinematography in a Theatrical Feature.Videodromewas also nominated for eightGenie Awards, with David Cronenberg tyingBob Clark'sA Christmas Storyfor Best Achievement in Direction. It was the first Genie Award that Cronenberg won. Videodromewas named the 89th-most-essential film in history by theToronto International Film Festival. Home media Videodromewas released onVHSandDVDin the late 1990s byUniversal Studios Home Entertainment, who also released the film onLaserDisc. The film was released on DVD bythe Criterion Collectionon August 31, 2004, and theirBlu-rayedition was released on December 7, 2010.The Criterion Blu-ray features two commentary tracks, one with Cronenberg and cinematographer Mark Irwin, and the other with actors James Woods and Deborah Harry. Among the other special features are a documentary titledForging the New Flesh; the soft-core videoSamurai Dreams; the 2000 short filmCamera; three trailers forVideodrome; andFear on Film, which consists of an interview with Cronenberg,John CarpenterandJohn Landis, hosted byMick Garris. In 2015,Arrow Filmsreleased the film on Blu-ray inRegion Bwith further special features, including Cronenberg's short filmsTransfer(1966) andFrom the Drain(1967), as well as his feature filmsStereo(1969) andCrimes of the Future(1970). Novelization A novelization ofVideodromewas released byZebra Booksalongside the movie in 1983. Though credited to \"Jack Martin\", the novel was, in fact, the work of horror novelistDennis Etchison.Cronenberg reportedly invited Etchison up to Toronto, where they discussed and clarified the story, allowing the novel to remain as close as possible to the actions in the film. There are some differences, however, such as the inclusion of the \"bathtub sequence\", a scene never filmed in which a television rises from Max Renn's bathtub like inSandro Botticelli'sThe Birth of Venus.This was the result of the lead time required to write the book, which left Etchison working with an earlier draft of the script than was used in the film. See also References Works cited External links",
"Jack Creley Jack Creley(March 6, 1926 – March 10, 2004) was an American-born Canadian actor.Although most prominently a stage actor, he also had film and television roles. Background Creley was born inChicago,Illinois, on March 6, 1926.During theGreat Depression, his family moved toCalifornia, where he acted in amateur theatre as a teenager, until he was old enough to enlist in theUnited States Armylate inWorld War II.He was shot in the shoulder during theBattle of Okinawa, and spent the rest of his life telling the story that he knew he was destined to become an actor when he realized he was responding to the injury like a character in aJohn Waynefilm. After the end of the war, he went toNew York Cityto study acting underErwin Piscatorat theDramatic Workshop, where he was a classmate ofHarry Belafonte,Tony CurtisandRod Steiger.He moved toMontrealin 1951 to take a job with the Mountain Theatre Company, and remained there until 1954, when he moved toToronto.Soon after moving to Toronto, he met David Smith, who would be his partner for the remainder of his life. Acting career In Toronto, he acted on stage,including frequent performances at theStratford Festival,and often appeared inCBC Televisionanthology series, includingScope,Playbill,CBC Summer Theatre,Encounter,Folio,Startime,Horizon,Playdateand severalWayne and Shustersketches, as well as performing incabaretshows. In 1956, Creley starred in the Canadian production ofSalad Days,and in 1958 he starred in the Canadian production ofVisit to a Small Planet.In 1960, he played two roles at the Stratford Festival, as Lord Capulet inRomeo and Julietand as King Philip inKing John. Creley had his first major film role in 1961, in the Western filmThe Canadians.After completing a run as Holofernes in a Stratford Festival production ofLove's Labour's Lostthat summer,he returned to New York to appear in aBroadwayproduction ofA Man for All Seasonsas Cardinal Wolsey.After completing his run in New York, he appeared in a Stratford Festival production ofThe Gondoliers,and then went toLondonto appear alongsideCorinne Conley,Dave Broadfoot,Eric HouseandEric Christmasin the musical revueClap Handsat theHammersmith Theatre.Following the end of that show's run, most of the cast returned to Canada, although Creley remained in London to take a role as Mr. Staines in the filmDr. Strangelove. After returning to Canada, he appeared in productions ofEdward Albee'sThe Zoo StoryandAnton Chekhov'sSummer in the Country.During this time, he also became a popularvoice-overartist for television commercials, recording at least 18 commercial spots in 1965 and 1966.He directed a musical revue,The Decline and Fall of the Entire World As Seen Through the Eyes of Cole Porter, in 1965 and 1966, and when he stepped in for several shows in the absence of lead performerLouis Negin, it was his first time singing on stage since the end ofClap Handsin 1963. In 1966, he appeared asWilfrid Laurierin the CBC Television miniseriesReluctant Nation,and in 1969 he appeared in the television seriesStrange Paradiseas Laslo Thaxton. In 1970, he starred in the musicalOh, Coward!at Theatre in the Dell, alongsidePatricia CollinsandGordon Thomson. Charles Pope from theToronto Starcalled his performance \"magnificent\". In 1972 he had his second and final Broadway role, appearing in a production ofThere's One in Every Marriageas Roubillon,and in 1974 he had his last role at Stratford in a production ofThe Imaginary Invalid.In this era, he began to appear more often in film and television roles, most notably in the filmVideodromeand the television sitcomSnow Job.His final role was a guest appearance onE.N.G.in 1990. Personal life Creley and Smith shared ownership of an antique store, The Green Dolphin, beginning in 1955,and later of a clothing store, Mr. Smith.They also had a widespread reputation among actors as being excellent hosts of parties; performers such asVivien Leigh,Sean Connery,Richard Burton,Bea ArthurandBilly Dee Williamswere frequent houseguests of the couple. Late in life, Creley suffered two strokes, and began to developaphasia.He died on March 10, 2004, in Toronto. Filmography References External links"
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"Marshall McLuhan Herbert Marshall McLuhanCC(/məˈkluːən/,mə-KLOO-ən; July 21, 1911 – December 31, 1980) was a Canadian philosopher whose work is among the cornerstones of the study ofmedia theory.He studied at theUniversity of Manitobaand theUniversity of Cambridge. He began his teaching career as a professor of English at several universities in the United States and Canada before moving to theUniversity of Torontoin 1946, where he remained for the rest of his life. He is known as the \"father ofmedia studies\". McLuhan coined the expression \"the medium is the message\"in the first chapter in hisUnderstanding Media: The Extensions of Manand the termglobal village.He predicted theWorld Wide Webalmost 30 years before it was invented.He was a fixture in media discourse in the late 1960s, though his influence began to wane in the early 1970s.In the years following his death, he continued to be a controversial figure in academic circles.However, with the arrival of the Internet and the World Wide Web, interest was",
"Web, interest was renewed in his work and perspectives. Life and career McLuhan was born on July 21, 1911, inEdmonton, Alberta, and was named \"Marshall\" from his maternal grandmother's surname. His brother, Maurice, was born two years later. His parents were both also born in Canada: his mother, Elsie Naomi (née Hall), was aBaptistschool teacher who later became an actress; and his father, Herbert Ernest McLuhan, was aMethodistwith a real-estate business in Edmonton. When the business failed at the start ofWorld War I, McLuhan's father enlisted in theCanadian Army. After a year of service, he contractedinfluenzaand remained in Canada, away from the front lines. After Herbert's discharge from the army in 1915, the McLuhan family moved toWinnipeg, Manitoba, where Marshall grew up and went to school, attendingKelvin Technical Schoolbefore enrolling in theUniversity of Manitobain 1928. Undergraduate education After studying for one year as an engineering student, he changed majors and earned a Bachelor of Arts",
"a Bachelor of Arts degree (1933), winning a University Gold Medal in Arts and Sciences.He went on to receive a Master of Arts degree (1934) in English from the university as well. He had long desired to pursue graduate studies in England and was accepted byTrinity Hall, Cambridge, having failed to secure aRhodes Scholarshipto study atOxford. Though having already earned his BA and MA in Manitoba, Cambridge required him to enroll as an undergraduate \"affiliated\" student, with one year's credit towards a three-yearbachelor's degree, before entering anydoctoral studies.He went up toCambridgein the autumn of 1934, studied underI. A. RichardsandF. R. Leavis, and was influenced byNew Criticism.Years afterward, upon reflection, he credited the faculty there with influencing the direction of his later work because of their emphasis on the \"training of perception\", as well as such concepts as Richards' notion of \"feedforward\".These studies formed an important precursor to his later ideas on technological forms.He",
"forms.He received the required bachelor's degree from Cambridge in 1936and entered their graduate program. Conversion to Catholicism At the University of Manitoba, McLuhan explored his conflicted relationship with religion and turned to literature to \"gratify his soul's hunger for truth and beauty,\"later referring to this stage as agnosticism.While studying thetriviumat Cambridge, he took the first steps toward his eventual conversion toCatholicismin 1937,founded on his reading ofG. K. Chesterton.In 1935, he wrote to his mother: Had I not encountered Chesterton I would have remained agnostic for many years at least. Chesterton did not convince me of religious faith, but he prevented my despair from becoming a habit or hardening into misanthropy. He opened my eyes to European culture and encouraged me to know it more closely. He taught me the reasons for all that in me was simply blind anger and misery. At the end of March 1937,McLuhan completed what was a slow but total conversion process, when he was",
"when he was formally received into theCatholic Church. After consulting a minister, his father accepted the decision to convert. His mother, however, felt that his conversion would hurt his career and was inconsolable.McLuhan was devout throughout his life, but his religion remained a private matter.He had a lifelong interest in the number three(e.g., the trivium, theTrinity) and sometimes said that theVirgin Maryprovided intellectual guidance for him.For the rest of his career, he taught in Catholic institutions of higher education. Early career, marriage, and doctorate Unable to find a suitable job in Canada, he went to the United States to take a job as a teaching assistant at theUniversity of Wisconsin–Madisonfor the 1936–37 academic year.From 1937 to 1944, he taught English atSaint Louis University(with an interruption from 1939 to 1940 when he returned to Cambridge). There he taught courses onShakespeare,eventually tutoring and befriendingWalter J. Ong, who would write his doctoral dissertation on a",
"dissertation on a topic that McLuhan had called to his attention, as well as become a well-known authority on communication and technology. McLuhan met Corinne Lewis in St. Louis,a teacher and aspiring actress fromFort Worth, Texas, whom he married on August 4, 1939. They spent 1939–40 in Cambridge, where he completed his master's degree (awarded in January 1940)and began to work on his doctoral dissertation onThomas Nasheand the verbal arts. While the McLuhans were in England,World War IIhad erupted in Europe. For this reason, he obtained permission to complete and submit his dissertation from the United States, without having to return to Cambridge for an oral defence. In 1940, the McLuhans returned to Saint Louis University, where they started a family as he continued teaching. He was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree in December 1943. He next taught atAssumption CollegeinWindsor, Ontario, from 1944 to 1946, then moved toTorontoin 1946 where he joined the faculty ofSt. Michael's College, a Catholic",
"College, a Catholic college of theUniversity of Toronto, whereHugh Kennerwould be one of his students. Canadian economist and communications scholarHarold Inniswas a university colleague who had a strong influence on his work. McLuhan wrote in 1964: \"I am pleased to think of my own bookThe Gutenberg Galaxyas a footnote to the observations of Innis on the subject of the psychic and social consequences, first of writing then of printing.\" Later career and reputation In the early 1950s, McLuhan began the Communication and Culture seminars at the University of Toronto, funded by theFord Foundation. As his reputation grew, he received a growing number of offers from other universities.During this period, he published his first major work,The Mechanical Bride(1951), in which he examines the effect of advertising on society and culture. Throughout the 1950s, he andEdmund Carpenteralso produced an important academic journal calledExplorations.McLuhan and Carpenter have been characterized as theToronto School of",
"School of communication theory, together withHarold Innis,Eric A. Havelock, andNorthrop Frye. During this time, McLuhan supervised the doctoral thesis ofmodernist writerSheila Watsonon the subject ofWyndham Lewis. Hoping to keep him from moving to another institute, the University of Toronto created theCentre for Culture and Technology(CCT) in 1963. From 1967 to 1968, McLuhan was named theAlbert SchweitzerChair in Humanities atFordham Universityin the Bronx.While at Fordham, he was diagnosed with abenignbrain tumor, which was treated successfully. He returned to Toronto where he taught at the University of Toronto for the rest of his life and lived inWychwood Park, a bucolic enclave on a hill overlooking thedowntownwhereAnatol Rapoportwas his neighbour. In 1970, he was made a Companion of theOrder of Canada.In 1975, theUniversity of Dallashosted him from April to May, appointing him to the McDermott Chair.Marshall and Corinne McLuhan had six children:Eric, twins Mary and Teresa, Stephanie, Elizabeth, and",
"Elizabeth, and Michael. The associated costs of a large family eventually drove him to advertising work and accepting frequent consulting and speaking engagements for large corporations, includingIBMandAT&T. Death In September 1979, McLuhan suffered a stroke which affected his ability to speak. The University of Toronto's School of Graduate Studies tried to close his research center shortly thereafter, but was deterred by substantial protests. McLuhan never fully recovered from the stroke and died in his sleep on December 31, 1980.He is buried at Holy Cross Cemetery inThornhill, Ontario, Canada. Major works During his years at Saint Louis University (1937–1944), McLuhan worked concurrently on two projects: his doctoraldissertationand the manuscript that was eventually published in 1951 as a book, titledThe Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man, which included only a representative selection of the materials that McLuhan had prepared for it. McLuhan's 1942 Cambridge University doctoral dissertation",
"dissertation surveys the history of the verbal arts (grammar,logic, andrhetoric—collectively known as thetrivium) from the time ofCicerodown to the time of Thomas Nashe.In his later publications, McLuhan at times uses the Latin concept of thetriviumto outline an orderly and systematic picture of certain periods in the history ofWestern culture. McLuhan suggests that theLate Middle Ages, for instance, were characterized by the heavy emphasis on the formal study of logic. The key development that led to theRenaissancewas not the rediscovery of ancient texts, but a shift in emphasis from the formal study of logic to rhetoric and grammar.Modern lifeis characterized by the re-emergence of grammar as its most salient feature—a trend McLuhan felt was exemplified by theNew Criticismof Richards and Leavis. McLuhan also began theacademic journalExplorationswithanthropologistEdmund \"Ted\" Carpenter. In a letter to Walter Ong, dated 31 May 1953, McLuhan reports that he had received a two-yeargrantof $43,000 from the Ford",
"from the Ford Foundation to carry out a communication project at the University of Toronto involving faculty from different disciplines, which led to the creation of the journal. At a Fordham lecture in 1999,Tom Wolfesuggested that a major under-acknowledged influence on McLuhan's work is theJesuitphilosopherPierre Teilhard de Chardin, whose ideas anticipated those of McLuhan, especially the evolution of the human mind into the \"noosphere.\"In fact, McLuhan warns against outright dismissing or whole-heartedly accepting de Chardin's observations early on in his second published bookThe Gutenberg Galaxy: This externalization of our senses creates what de Chardin calls the \"noosphere\" or a technological brain for the world. Instead of tending towards a vast Alexandrian library the world has become a computer, an electronic brain, exactly as in an infantile piece of science fiction. And as our senses have gone outside us, Big Brother goes inside. So, unless aware of this dynamic, we shall at once move into a",
"at once move into a phase of panic terrors, exactly befitting a small world of tribal drums, total interdependence, and super-imposed co-existence. In his private life, McLuhan wrote to friends saying: \"I am not a fan of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. The idea that anything is better because it comes later is surely borrowed from pre-electronic technologies.\" Further, McLuhan noted to a Catholic collaborator: \"The idea of a Cosmic thrust in one direction ... is surely one of the lamest semantic fallacies ever bred by the word 'evolution'.… That development should have any direction at all is inconceivable except to the highly literate community.\" Some of McLuhan's main ideas were influenced or prefigured by anthropologists likeEdward SapirandClaude Lévi-Strauss, arguably with a more complex historical and psychological analysis.The idea of the retribalization of Western society by the far-reaching techniques of communication, the view on the function of the artist in society, and the characterization of means",
"of means of transportation, like the railroad and the airplane, as means of communication, are prefigured in Sapir's 1933 article onCommunicationin theEncyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,while the distinction between \"hot\" and \"cool\" media draws from Lévi-Strauss' distinction between hot and cold societies. The Mechanical Bride(1951) McLuhan's first book,The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man(1951), is a pioneering study in the field now known as popular culture. In the book, McLuhan turns his attention to analysing and commenting on numerous examples of persuasion in contemporary popular culture. This followed naturally from his earlier work as bothdialecticand rhetoric in the classical trivium aimed atpersuasion. At this point, his focus shifted dramatically, turning inward to study the influence ofcommunication mediaindependent of their content. His famousaphorism\"the medium is the message\" (elaborated in hisUnderstanding Media: The Extensions of Man, 1964) calls attention to this intrinsic",
"to this intrinsic effect of communications media. His interest in the critical study of popular culture was influenced by the 1933 bookCulture and EnvironmentbyF. R. LeavisandDenys Thompson, and the titleThe Mechanical Brideis derived from a piece by theDadaistartistMarcel Duchamp. The Mechanical Brideis composed of 59 short essaysthat may be read in any order—what he styled the \"mosaicapproach\" to writing a book. Each essay begins with a newspaper or magazine article, or an advertisement, followed by McLuhan's analysis thereof. The analyses bear onaestheticconsiderations as well as on the implications behind the imagery and text. McLuhan chose these ads and articles not only to draw attention to theirsymbolism, as well as their implications for thecorporate entitieswho created and disseminated them, but also to mull over what such advertising implies about the wider society at which it is aimed. Roland Barthes's essays 1957Mythologies, echoes McLuhan'sMechanical Bride, as a series of exhibits of popular",
"exhibits of popular mass culture (like advertisements, newspaper articles and photographs) that are analyzed in asemiologicalway. The Gutenberg Galaxy(1962) Written in 1961 and first published byUniversity of Toronto Press,The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man(1962) is a pioneering study in the fields oforal culture,print culture,cultural studies,media ecologyormedia-adequacy. Throughout the book, McLuhan makes efforts to reveal howcommunication technology(i.e.,alphabetic writing, theprinting press, and theelectronic media) affectscognitiveorganization, which in turn has profound ramifications for social organization: f a new technology extends one or more of our senses outside us into the social world, then new ratios among all of our senses will occur in that particular culture. It is comparable to what happens when a new note is added to a melody. And when the sense ratios alter in any culture then what had appeared lucid before may suddenly become opaque, and what had been vague or opaque",
"vague or opaque will become translucent. Movable type McLuhan's episodic history takes the reader from pre-alphabetic,tribalhumankind to theelectronic age. According to McLuhan, the invention ofmovable typegreatly accelerated, intensified, and ultimately enabled cultural and cognitive changes that had already been taking place since the invention and implementation of the alphabet, by which McLuhan meansphonemic orthography. (McLuhan is careful to distinguish the phonetic alphabet fromlogographicor logogramic writing systems, such asEgyptian hieroglyphsorideograms.) Print culture, ushered in by the advance in printing during the middle of the 15th century when theGutenberg presswas invented, brought about the cultural predominance of the visual over the aural/oral. Quoting (with approval) an observation on the nature of the printed word fromWilliam Ivins'Prints and Visual Communication, McLuhan remarks: In this passage not only notes the ingraining of lineal, sequential habits, but, even more important,",
"more important, points out the visual homogenizing of experience of print culture, and the relegation of auditory and other sensuous complexity to the background.… The technology and social effects of typography incline us to abstain from noting interplay and, as it were, \"formal\" causality, both in our inner and external lives. Print exists by virtue of the static separation of functions and fosters a mentality that gradually resists any but a separative and compartmentalizing or specialist outlook. The main concept of McLuhan's argument (later elaborated upon inThe Medium Is the Massage) is that new technologies (such as alphabets, printing presses, and even speech) exert a gravitational effect on cognition, which in turn, affectssocial organization: print technology changes our perceptual habits—\"visualhomogenizingof experience\"—which in turn affects social interactions—\"fosters a mentality that gradually resists all but a…specialist outlook\". According to McLuhan, this advance of print technology",
"of print technology contributed to and made possible most of the salient trends in the modern period in the Western world:individualism, democracy,Protestantism,capitalism, andnationalism. For McLuhan, these trends all reverberate with print technology's principle of \"segmentation of actions and functions and principle of visualquantification.\" Global village In the early 1960s, McLuhan wrote that the visual, individualistic print culture would soon be brought to an end by what he called \"electronicinterdependence\" wherein electronic media replaces visual culture with aural/oral culture. In this new age, humankind would move from individualism and fragmentation to acollective identity, with a \"tribal base.\" McLuhan's coinage for this new social organization is theglobal village. The term is sometimes described as having negative connotations inThe Gutenberg Galaxy, but McLuhan was interested in exploring effects, not makingvalue judgments: Instead of tending towards a vastAlexandrian librarythe world has",
"world has become a computer, an electronic brain, exactly as an infantile piece of science fiction. And as our senses have gone outside us,Big Brothergoes inside. So, unless aware of this dynamic, we shall at once move into a phase of panic terrors, exactly befitting a small world of tribal drums, total interdependence, and superimposed co-existence.… Terror is the normal state of any oral society, for in it everything affects everything all the time.… In our long striving to recover for the Western world a unity of sensibility and of thought and feeling we have no more been prepared to accept the tribal consequences of such unity than we were ready for the fragmentation of the human psyche by print culture. Key to McLuhan's argument is the idea that technology has noper semoral bent—it is a tool that profoundly shapes an individual's and, by extension, a society'sself-conceptionandrealization: Is it not obvious that there are always enough moral problems without also taking a moral stand on technological",
"on technological grounds?… Print is the extreme phase of alphabet culture thatdetribalizesor decollectivizes man in the first instance. Print raises the visual features of alphabet to highest intensity of definition. Thus, print carries the individuating power of the phonetic alphabet much further than manuscript culture could ever do. Print is the technology of individualism. If men decided to modify thisvisual technologyby an electric technology, individualism would also be modified. To raise a moral complaint about this is like cussing a buzz-saw for lopping off fingers. \"But\", someone says, \"we didn't know it would happen.\" Yet even witlessness is not a moral issue. It is a problem, but not a moral problem; and it would be nice to clear away some of the moral fogs that surround our technologies. It would be good for morality. The moralvalenceof technology's effects on cognition is, for McLuhan, a matter of perspective. For instance, McLuhan contrasts the considerable alarm and revulsion that the growing",
"that the growing quantity of books aroused in the latter 17th century with the modern concern for the \"end of the book.\" If there can be no universal moral sentence passed on technology, McLuhan believes that \"there can only be disaster arising from unawareness of thecausalitiesand effects inherent in our technologies\". Though the World Wide Web was invented almost 30 years afterThe Gutenberg Galaxy, and 10 years after his death, McLuhan prophesied the web technology seen today as early as 1962: The next medium, whatever it is—it may be the extension of consciousness—will include television as its content, not as its environment, and will transform television into an art form. A computer as a research and communication instrument could enhance retrieval, obsolesce mass library organization, retrieve the individual's encyclopedic function and flip into a private line to speedily tailored data of a saleable kind. Furthermore, McLuhan coined and certainly popularized the usage of the termsurfingto refer to",
"refer to rapid, irregular, and multidirectional movement through a heterogeneous body of documents or knowledge, e.g., statements such as \"Heideggersurf-boards along on the electronic wave as triumphantly asDescartesrode the mechanical wave.\"Paul Levinson's 1999 bookDigital McLuhanexplores the ways that McLuhan's work may be understood better through using the lens of the digital revolution. McLuhan frequently quoted Walter Ong'sRamus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue(1958), which evidently had prompted McLuhan to writeThe Gutenberg Galaxy. Ong wrote a highly favorable review of this new book inAmerica.However, Ong later tempered his praise, by describing McLuhan'sThe Gutenberg Galaxyas \"a racy survey, indifferent to some scholarly detail, but uniquely valuable in suggesting the sweep and depth of the cultural and psychological changes entailed in the passage from illiteracy to print and beyond.\"McLuhan himself said of the book, \"I'm not concerned to get any kudos out of . It seems to me a book that",
"to me a book that somebody should have written a century ago. I wish somebody else had written it. It will be a useful prelude to the rewrite ofUnderstanding Media that I'm doing now.\" McLuhan'sThe Gutenberg Galaxywon Canada's highest literary award, theGovernor-General's Award for Non-Fiction, in 1962. The chairman of the selection committee was McLuhan's colleague at the University of Toronto and oftentime intellectual sparring partner,Northrop Frye. Understanding Media(1964) McLuhan's best-known work,Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man(1964), is a seminal study in media theory. Dismayed by the way in which people approach and use new media such as television, McLuhan famously argues that in the modern world \"we live mythically and integrally…but continue to think in the old, fragmented space and time patterns of the pre-electric age.\" McLuhan proposes that media themselves, not the content they carry, should be the focus of study—popularly quoted as \"the medium is the message\". His insight is that",
"His insight is that a medium affects the society in which it plays a role not by the content it delivers, but by its own characteristics. McLuhan points to the light bulb as a clear demonstration of this. A light bulb does not have content in the way that a newspaper has articles, or a television has programs, but it is a medium that has a social effect; that is, a light bulb enables people to create spaces at night that would otherwise be enveloped by darkness. He describes the light bulb as a medium without any content. McLuhan writes, \"a light bulb creates an environment by its mere presence.\"More controversially, he postulates that content has little effect on society—for example, whether television broadcasts children's shows or violent programming, its effect on society is identical.He notes that all media have characteristics that engage the viewer in different ways; for instance, a passage in a book can be reread at will, but a movie must be screened again in its entirety to study any part of it.",
"any part of it. \"Hot\" and \"cool\" media In the first part ofUnderstanding Media, McLuhan writes that different media invite different degrees of participation on the part of a person who chooses to consume a medium. Using terminology derived from French anthropologistClaude Lévi-Strauss's distinction between hot and cold societies,McLuhan argues that acool mediumrequires increased involvement due to decreased description, while ahot mediumis the opposite, decreasing involvement and increasing description. In other words, a society that appears to be actively participating in streaming content but does not consider the tool's effects is not allowing an \"extension of ourselves\".A movie is thus said to be \"high definition\", demanding a viewer's attention, and a comic book \"low definition\", requiring much more conscious participation by the reader to extract value:\"Any hot medium allows of less participation than a cool one, as a lecture makes for less participation than a seminar, and a book for less than a",
"for less than a dialogue.\" Some media, such as movies, arehot—that is, they enhance a single sense, in this case vision, in such a manner that a person does not need to exert much effort to perceive a detailed moving image. Hot media usually, but not always, provide complete involvement with considerablestimulus. In contrast, \"cool\" print may also occupyvisual space, usingvisual senses, but require focus and comprehension to immerse readers. Hot media creation favouranalyticalprecision,quantitative analysisand sequential ordering, as they are usually sequential,linear, and logical. They emphasize one sense (for example, of sight or sound) over the others. For this reason, hot media include film (especiallysilent films), radio, the lecture, and photography. McLuhan contrastshotmedia withcool—specifically, television , which he claims requires more effort from the viewer to determine meaning; and comics, which, due to their minimal presentation of visual detail, require a high degree of effort to fill in",
"effort to fill in details the cartoonist may have intended to portray. Cool media are usually, but not always, those that provide little involvement with substantial stimulus. They require more active participation on the part of the user, including the perception of abstract patterning and simultaneous comprehension of all parts. Therefore, in addition to television, cool media includeseminarsand cartoons. McLuhan describes the termcool mediaas emerging from jazz and popular music used, in this context, to mean \"detached\". This appears to force media into binary categories, but McLuhan's hot and cool exist on a continuum: they are more correctly measured on a scale than asdichotomousterms. Critiques ofUnderstanding Media Some theorists have attacked McLuhan's definition and treatment of the word \"medium\" for being too simplistic.Umberto Eco, for instance, contends that McLuhan's medium conflates channels,codes, and messages under the overarching term of the medium, confusing the vehicle, internal code, and",
"internal code, and content of a given message in his framework. InMedia Manifestos,Régis Debrayalso takes issue with McLuhan's envisioning of the medium. Like Eco, he is ill at ease with this reductionist approach, summarizing its ramifications as follows: The list of objections could be and has been lengthened indefinitely: confusing technology itself with its use of the media makes of the media an abstract, undifferentiated force and produces its image in an imaginary \"public\" for mass consumption; the magical naivete of supposed causalities turns the media into a catch-all and contagious \"mana\"; apocalyptic millenarianism invents the figure of ahomo mass-mediaticuswithout ties to historical and social context, and so on. Furthermore, whenWiredmagazine interviewed him in 1995, Debray said he saw McLuhan \"more as a poet than a historian, a master of intellectual collage rather than a systematic analyst.… McLuhan overemphasizes the technology behind cultural change at the expense of the usage that the",
"the usage that the messages and codes make of that technology.\" Dwight Macdonald, in turn, reproached McLuhan for his focus on television and for his \"aphoristic\" prose style, which he believes leavesUnderstanding Mediafilled with \"contradictions, non-sequiturs, facts that are distorted and facts that are not facts, exaggerations, and chronic rhetorical vagueness.\" Brian Winston'sMisunderstanding Media, published in 1986, chides McLuhan for what he sees as histechnologically deterministicstances.Raymond Williamsfurthers this point of contention, claiming: The work of McLuhan was a particular culmination of an aesthetic theory which became, negatively, a social theory ... It is an apparently sophisticated technological determinism which has the significant effect of indicating a social and cultural determinism.… For if the medium—whether print or television—is the cause, all other causes, all that men ordinarily see as history, are at once reduced to effects. David Carr wrote that there has been a long line",
"been a long line of \"academics who have made a career out of deconstructing McLuhan’s effort to define the modern media ecosystem\", whether it be due to what they see as McLuhan's ignorance of sociohistorical context or the style of his argument. While some critics have taken issue with McLuhan's writing style and mode of argument, McLuhan himself urged readers to think of his work as \"probes\" or \"mosaics\" offering a toolkit approach to thinking about media. His eclectic writing style has also been praised for its postmodern sensibilitiesand suitability for virtual space. The Medium Is the Massage(1967) The Medium Is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects, published in 1967, was McLuhan's best seller,\"eventually selling nearly a million copies worldwide.\"Initiated byQuentin Fiore,McLuhan adopted the term \"massage\" to denote the effect each medium has on the humansensorium, taking inventory of the \"effects\" of numerous media in terms of how they \"massage\" the sensorium. Fiore, at the time a prominentgraphic",
"a prominentgraphic designerand communications consultant, set about composing the visual illustration of these effects which were compiled by Jerome Agel. Near the beginning of the book, Fiore adopted a pattern in which an image demonstrating a media effect was presented with atextualsynopsis on the facing page. The reader experiences a repeated shifting of analytic registers—from \"reading\"typographic printto \"scanning\" photographicfacsimiles—reinforcing McLuhan's overarching argument in this book: namely, that each medium produces a different \"massage\" or \"effect\" on the human sensorium. InThe Medium Is the Massage, McLuhan also rehashed the argument—which first appeared in the Prologue to 1962'sThe Gutenberg Galaxy—that all media are \"extensions\" of our human senses, bodies and minds. Finally, McLuhan described key points of change in how man has viewed the world and how these views were changed by the adoption of new media. \"The technique of invention was the discovery of the nineteenth \", brought on by",
"\", brought on by the adoption of fixed points of view and perspective by typography, while \"he technique of thesuspended judgmentis the discovery of the twentieth century,\" brought on by thebardabilities of radio, movies and television. The past went that-a-way. When faced with a totally new situation we tend always to attach ourselves to the objects, to the flavor of the most recent past. We look at the present through a rear-view mirror. We march backward into the future. Suburbia lives imaginatively inBonanza-land. An audio recording version of McLuhan's famous work was made byColumbia Records. The recording consists of a pastiche of statements made by McLuhaninterruptedby other speakers, including people speaking in variousphonationsandfalsettos, discordant sounds and 1960s incidental music in what could be considered a deliberate attempt to translate the disconnected images seen on TV into an audio format, resulting in the prevention of a connected stream of conscious thought. Various audio recording",
"audio recording techniques and statements are used to illustrate the relationship between spoken, literary speech and the characteristics of electronic audio media. McLuhan biographer Philip Marchand called the recording \"the 1967 equivalent of a McLuhan video.\" \"I wouldn't be seen dead with a living work of art.\"—'Old man' speaking \"Drop this jiggery-pokery and talk straight turkey.\"—\"Middle-aged man\" speaking War and Peace in the Global Village(1968) InWar and Peace in the Global Village, McLuhan usedJames Joyce'sFinnegans Wake, an inspiration for this study of war throughout history, as an indicator as to how war may be conducted in the future. Joyce'sWakeis claimed to be a giganticcryptogramthat reveals a cyclic pattern for human history through its Ten Thunders. Each \"thunder\" below is a 100-characterportmanteauof other words to create a statement McLuhan likens to an effect that each technology has on the society into which it is introduced. In order to glean the most understanding out of each, the",
"out of each, the reader must break the portmanteau into separate words (many of these themselves portmanteaus of words taken from multiple languages other than English) and speak them aloud for the spoken effect of each word. There is much dispute over what each portmanteau truly denotes. McLuhan claims that the ten thunders inWakerepresent different stages in the history of man: From Cliché to Archetype(1970) Collaborating withCanadian poetWilfred WatsoninFrom Cliché to Archetype(1970), McLuhan approaches the various implications of the verbalclichéand of thearchetype. One major facet in McLuhan's overall framework introduced in this book that is seldom noticed is the provision of a new term that actually succeeds the global village: theglobal theater. In McLuhan's terms, aclichéis a \"normal\" action, phrase, etc. which becomes so often used that we are \"anesthetized\" to its effects. McLuhan provides the example ofEugène Ionesco's playThe Bald Soprano, whose dialogue consists entirely of phrases Ionesco",
"of phrases Ionesco pulled from anAssimillanguage book: \"Ionesco originally put all these idiomatic English clichés into literary French which presented the English in the most absurd aspect possible.\" McLuhan'sarchetype\"is a quoted extension, medium, technology, or environment.\"Environmentwould also include the kinds of \"awareness\" andcognitive shiftsbrought upon people by it, not totally unlike the psychological contextCarl Jungdescribed. McLuhan also posits that there is a factor of interplay between theclichéand thearchetype, or a \"doubleness\": Another theme of the Wake that helps in the understanding of the paradoxical shift from cliché to archetype is 'past time are pastimes.' The dominant technologies of one age become the games and pastimes of a later age. In the 20th century, the number of 'past times' that are simultaneously available is so vast as to create cultural anarchy. When all the cultures of the world are simultaneously present, the work of the artist in the elucidation of form takes on",
"of form takes on new scope and new urgency. Most men are pushed into the artist's role. The artist cannot dispense with the principle of 'doubleness' or 'interplay' because this type ofhendiadysdialogue is essential to the very structure of consciousness, awareness, and autonomy. McLuhan relates the cliché-to-archetype process to theTheater of the Absurd: Pascal, in the seventeenth century, tells us that the heart has many reasons of which the head knows nothing. The Theater of the Absurd is essentially a communicating to the head of some of the silent languages of the heart which in two or three hundred years it has tried to forget all about. In the seventeenth century world the languages of the heart were pushed down into the unconscious by the dominant print cliché. The \"languages of the heart\", or what McLuhan otherwise defined as oral culture, were thus made archetype by means of the printing press, and turned into cliché. According to McLuhan, the satellite medium encloses the Earth in a man-made",
"Earth in a man-made environment, which \"ends 'Nature' and turns the globe into a repertory theater to be programmed.\"All previous environments (book, newspaper, radio, etc.) and their artifacts are retrieved under these conditions (\"past times are pastimes\"). McLuhan thereby meshes this into the termglobal theater. This updates his concept of the global village, which, in its own definitions, can be said to be subsumed into the overall condition of the global theater. The Global Village(1989) In his posthumous book,The Global Village: Transformations in World Life and Media in the 21st Century(1989), McLuhan, collaborating with Bruce R. Powers, provides a strongconceptual frameworkfor understanding the cultural implications of the technological advances associated with the rise of a worldwideelectronic network. This is a major work of McLuhan's as it contains the most extensive elaboration of his concept ofacoustic space, and provides a critique of standard 20th-century communication models such as",
"models such as theShannon–Weaver model. McLuhan distinguishes between the existing worldview ofvisual space—a linear, quantitative, classically geometric model—and that ofacoustic space—aholistic, qualitative order with an intricate,paradoxicaltopology: \"Acoustic Space has the basic character of a sphere whose focus or center is simultaneously everywhere and whose margin is nowhere.\"The transition fromvisualtoacousticspacewas not automatic with the advent of the global network, but would have to be a conscious project. The \"universal environment of simultaneous electronic flow\"inherently favorsright-brainAcoustic Space, yet we are held back by habits of adhering to a fixed point of view. There are no boundaries to sound. We hear from all directions at once. Yet Acoustic and Visual Space are inseparable. The resonant interval is the invisible borderline between Visual and Acoustic Space. This is like the television camera that theApollo 8astronauts focused on the Earth after they had orbited the Moon. McLuhan",
"the Moon. McLuhan illustrates how it feels to exist within acoustic space by quoting from the autobiography ofJacques Lusseyran,And There Was Light.Lusseyran lost his eyesight in a violent accident as a child, and the autobiography describes how a reordering of his sensory life and perception followed: When I came upon the myth of objectivity in certain modern thinkers, it made me angry. So, there was only one world for these people, the same for everyone. And all the other worlds were to be counted as illusions left over from the past. Or why not call them by their name—hallucinations? I had learned to my cost how wrong they were. From my own experience I knew very well that it was enough to take from a man a memory here, an association there, to deprive him of hearing or sight, for the world to undergo immediate transformation, and for another world, entirely different, but entirely coherent, to be born. Another world? Not really. The same world, rather, but seen from a different angle, and counted in",
"and counted in entirely new measures. When this happened all the hierarchies they called objective were turned upside down, scattered to the four winds, not even theories but like whims. Reading, writing, and hierarchical ordering are associated with theleft brainand visual space, as are the linear concept of time and phonetic literacy. The left brain is the locus of analysis, classification, and rationality. The right brain and acoustic space are the locus of the spatial, tactile, and musical.\"Comprehensive awareness\"results when the two sides of the brain are in true balance. Visual Space is associated with the simplified worldview ofEuclidean geometry, the intuitive three dimensions useful for the architecture of buildings and the surveying of land. It is linearly rational and has no grasp of the acoustic. Acoustic Space is multisensory. McLuhan writes aboutrobotismin the context ofJapanese Zen Buddhismand how it can offer us new ways of thinking about technology. The Western way of thinking about",
"of thinking about technology is too related to the left brain, which has a rational and linear focus. What he called robotism might better be called androidism in the wake ofBlade Runnerand the novels ofPhilip K. Dick. Robotism-androidism emerges from the further development of the right brain, creativity and a new relationship to spacetime (most humans are still living in 17th-century classical Newtonian physics spacetime). Robots-androids will have much greater flexibility than humans have had until now, in both mind and body. Robots-androids will teach humanity this new flexibility. And this flexibility of androids (what McLuhan calls robotism) has a strong affinity with Japanese culture and life. McLuhan quotes fromRuth Benedict'sThe Chrysanthemum and the Swordan anthropological study ofJapanese culturepublished in 1946: Occidentals cannot easily credit the ability of the Japanese to swing from one behavior to another without psychic cost. Such extreme possibilities are not included in our experience.",
"in our experience. Yet in Japanese life the contradictions, as they seem to us, are as deeply based in their view of life as our uniformities are in ours. The ability to live in the present and instantly readjust. Beyond existing communication models \"All Western scientific models of communication are—like theShannon–Weaver model—linear, sequential, and logical as a reflection of the late medieval emphasis on the Greek notion of efficient causality.\"McLuhan and Powers criticize the Shannon-Weaver model of communication as emblematic of left-hemisphere bias and linearity, descended from a print-era perversion of Aristotle's notion of efficient causality. A third term ofThe Global Villagethat McLuhan and Powers develop at length isThe Tetrad. McLuhan had begun development on the Tetrad as early as 1974.The tetrad is an analogical, simultaneous, fourfold pattern of transformation. \"At full maturity the tetrad reveals the metaphoric structure of the artifact as having two figures and two grounds in dynamic and",
"in dynamic and analogical relationship to each other.\"Like the camera focused on the Earth by the Apollo 8 astronauts, the tetrad reveals figure (Moon) and ground (Earth) simultaneously. The right-brain hemisphere thinking is the capability of being in many places at the same time. Electricity is acoustic. It is simultaneously everywhere. The Tetrad, with its fourfoldMöbiustopological structureof enhancement, reversal, retrieval and obsolescence, is mobilized by McLuhan and Powers to illuminate the media or technological inventions of cash money, the compass, the computer, the database, the satellite, and the global media network. Key concepts Tetrad of media effects InLaws of Media(1988), published posthumously by his sonEric, McLuhan summarized his ideas aboutmediain a concise tetrad of media effects. The tetrad is a means of examining the effects on society of any technology (i.e., any medium) by dividing its effects into four categories and displaying them simultaneously. McLuhan designed the tetrad as a",
"the tetrad as a pedagogical tool, phrasing his laws as questions with which to consider any medium: The laws of the tetrad exist simultaneously, not successively or chronologically, and allow the questioner to explore the \"grammar and syntax\" of the \"language\" of media. McLuhan departs from his mentor Harold Innis in suggesting that a medium \"overheats,\" or reverses into an opposing form, when taken to its extreme. Visually, a tetrad can be depicted as four diamonds forming an X, with the name of a medium in the centre. The two diamonds on the left of a tetrad are theEnhancementandRetrievalqualities of the medium, bothFigurequalities. The two diamonds on the right of a tetrad are theObsolescenceandReversalqualities, bothGroundqualities. Using the example of radio: Figure and ground McLuhan adapted theGestalt psychologyidea of afigure and a ground, which underpins the meaning of \"the medium is the message.\" He used this concept to explain how a form of communications technology, the medium, orfigure,",
"medium, orfigure, necessarily operates through its context, orground. McLuhan believed that in order to grasp fully the effect of a new technology, one must examine figure (medium) and ground (context) together, since neither is completely intelligible without the other. McLuhan argued that we must study media in their historical context, particularly in relation to the technologies that preceded them. The present environment, itself made up of the effects of previous technologies, gives rise to new technologies, which, in their turn, further affect society and individuals. All technologies have embedded within them their own assumptions abouttime and space. The message which the medium conveys can only be understood if the medium and the environment in which the medium is used—and which, simultaneously, it effectively creates—are analysed together. He believed that an examination of the figure-ground relationship can offer a critical commentary on culture and society. Opposition between optic and haptic",
"optic and haptic perception In McLuhan's (andHarley Parker's) work, electric media have an affinity withhapticand hearing perception, while mechanical media have an affinity with visual perception. This opposition between optic and haptic had previously been formulated by art historiansAlois Rieglin his 1901Late Roman Art Industry, and byErwin Panofsky, in his 1927Perspective as Symbolic Form. In hisThe Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction(1935),Walter Benjaminobserved how, in perceptions of modern Western culture, from about the 19th century a shift began from the optic toward the haptic.This shift is one of the main recurring topics in McLuhan's work, which McLuhan attributes to the advent of the electronic era. Legacy Influence After the publication ofUnderstanding Media, McLuhan received an astonishing amount of publicity, making him perhaps the most-publicized 20th-century English teacher and arguably the most controversial.This publicity began with the work of two California advertising",
"advertising executives,Howard Gossageand Gerald Feigen, who used personal funds to fund their practice of \"genius scouting\".Much enamoured of McLuhan's work, Feigen and Gossage arranged for McLuhan to meet with editors of several major New York magazines in May 1965 at theLombardy Hotelin New York. Philip Marchand reports that, as a direct consequence of these meetings, McLuhan was offered the use of an office in the headquarters of bothTimeandNewsweekanytime he wanted it. In August 1965, Feigen and Gossage held what they called a \"McLuhan festival\" in the offices of Gossage's advertising agency in San Francisco. During this \"festival\", McLuhan met with advertising executives, members of the mayor's office, and editors from theSan Francisco ChronicleandRampartsmagazine. More significant was the presence at the festival ofTom Wolfe, who wrote about McLuhan in a subsequent article, \"What If He Is Right?\", published inNew Yorkmagazineand Wolfe's ownThe Pump House Gang. According to Feigen and Gossage, their",
"and Gossage, their work had only a moderate effect on McLuhan's eventual celebrity: they claimed that their work only \"probably speeded up the recognition of his genius by about six months.\"In any case, McLuhan soon became a fixture of media discourse.Newsweekmagazine did a cover story on him; articles appeared inLife,Harper's,Fortune,Esquire, and others. Cartoons about him appeared inThe New Yorker.In 1969,Playboymagazine published a lengthy interview with him.In a running gag on the popular sketch comedyRowan & Martin's Laugh-In, the \"poet\"Henry Gibsonwould randomly say, \"Marshall McLuhan, what are you doin'?\" McLuhan was credited with coining the phraseTurn on, tune in, drop outby its popularizer,Timothy Leary, in the 1960s. In a 1988 interview withNeil Strauss, Leary said the slogan was \"given to him\" by McLuhan during a lunch in New York City. Leary said McLuhan \"was very much interested in ideas and marketing, and he started singing something like, 'Psychedelics hit the spot / Five hundred micrograms,",
"hundred micrograms, that’s a lot,' to the tune of a Pepsi commercial. Then he started going, 'Tune in, turn on, and drop out.'\" During his lifetime and afterward, McLuhan heavily influencedcultural critics, thinkers, and media theorists such asNeil Postman,Jean Baudrillard,Timothy Leary,Terence McKenna,William Irwin Thompson,Paul Levinson,Douglas Rushkoff,Jaron Lanier,Hugh Kenner, andJohn David Ebert, as well as political leaders such asPierre Elliott TrudeauandJerry Brown.Andy Warholwas paraphrasing McLuhan with his now famous \"15 minutes of fame\" quote. When asked in the 1970s for a way to sedate violence inAngola, he suggested a massive spread of TV devices.Douglas Couplandargued that McLuhan \"was conservative, socially, but he never let politics enter his writing or his teaching\". Popular culture Woody Allen's Oscar-winningAnnie Hall(1977) featured McLuhan in acameoas himself. In the film, a pompous academic is arguing with Allen in a cinema queue when McLuhan suddenly appears and silences him, saying,",
"him, saying, \"You know nothing of my work.\" The character \"Brian O'Blivion\" inDavid Cronenberg's 1983 filmVideodromeis a \"media oracle\" based on McLuhan. In 1991, McLuhan was named the \"patron saint\" ofWiredmagazine and a quote of his appeared on the mastheadfor the first ten years of its publication. McLuhan's perspective on the cycle of cultural identity inspiredDuke Ellington's albumThe Afro-Eurasian Eclipse. He is mentioned by name in aPeter Gabriel–penned lyric in the song \"Broadway Melody of 1974\", onGenesis'sconcept albumThe Lamb Lies Down on Broadway: \"Marshall McLuhan, casual viewin', head buried in the sand.\" McLuhan is jokingly referred to in an episode ofThe Sopranostitled \"House Arrest\". Despite his death in 1980, someone claiming to be McLuhan posted on aWiredmailing list in 1996. The information this person provided convinced oneWiredwriter that \"if the poster was not McLuhan himself, it was a bot programmed with an eerie command of McLuhan's life and inimitable perspective.\" McLuhan is the",
"McLuhan is the subject of the 1993 playThe Medium, the first major work by theSaratoga International Theater Instituteand directorAnne Bogart. The play was revived by SITI Company for a farewell tour in 2022. Recognition A new centre known as theMcLuhan Program in Culture and Technology, formed soon after his death in 1980, was the successor to McLuhan's Centre for Culture and Technology at the University of Toronto. Since 1994, it has been part of theUniversity of Toronto Faculty of Information. In 2008, the centre incorporated in the Coach House Institute, which was subsequently renamedThe McLuhan Centre for Culture and Technology. In 2011, at the time of his centenary, the centre established a \"Marshall McLuhan Centenary Fellowship\" program in his honour, and each year appoints up to four fellows for a maximum of two years. In Toronto,Marshall McLuhan Catholic Secondary Schoolis named after him. The media room atCanada HouseinBerlinis called theMarshall McLuhan Salon.It includes a multimedia information",
"information centre and anauditorium, and hosts a permanent exhibition dedicated to McLuhan, based on its collection of film and audio items by and about him. Bibliography of major works This is a partial list of works cited in this article. Discography See also Notes by the time it appeared in 1967, McLuhan no doubt recognized that his original saying had become a cliché and welcomed the opportunity to throw it back on the compost heap of language to recycle and revitalize it. But the new title is more than McLuhan indulging his insatiable taste for puns, more than a clever fusion of self-mockery and self-rescue—the subtitle is 'An Inventory of Effects,' underscoring the lesson compressed into the original saying. However, the FAQ section on the website maintained by McLuhan's estate says that this interpretation is incomplete and makes its own leap of logic as to why McLuhan left it as is: Why is the title of the bookThe Medium Is the Massageand notThe Medium is the Message? Actually, the title was a",
"the title was a mistake. When the book came back from the typesetter's, it had on the cover \"Massage\" as it still does. The title was supposed to have readThe Medium is the Message, but the typesetter had made an error. When McLuhan saw the typo he exclaimed, \"Leave it alone! It's great, and right on target!\" Now there are possible four readings for the last word of the title, all of them accurate:MessageandMess Age,MassageandMass Age. References Footnotes Works cited Further reading External links",
"Videodrome Videodromeis a 1983 Canadianscience fictionbody horrorfilm written and directed byDavid Cronenbergand starringJames Woods,Sonja Smits, andDebbie Harry. Set inTorontoduring the early 1980s, it follows the CEO of a smallUHFtelevision station who stumbles upon a broadcast signal ofsnuff films. Layers of deception andmind-controlconspiracy unfold as he attempts to uncover the signal's source, complicated by increasingly intense hallucinations that cause him to lose his grasp on reality. Distributed byUniversal Pictures,Videodromewas the first film by Cronenberg to gain backing from any major Hollywood studio. With the highest budget of any of his films to date, the film was abox-office bomb, recouping only $2.1 million from a $5.9 million budget. The film received praise for the special makeup effects, Cronenberg's direction, Woods and Harry's performances, its \"techno-surrealist\" aesthetic, and its cryptic,psychosexualthemes.Cronenberg won theBest Directionaward and was nominated for seven other",
"for seven other awards at the5th Genie Awards. Now considered acult classic, the film has been cited as one of Cronenberg's best, and a key example of the body horror andscience fiction horrorgenres. Plot Max Renn is the president of CIVIC-TV, aTorontoUHFtelevision station specializing in sensationalist programming. Harlan, the operator of CIVIC-TV's unauthorizedsatellite dish, shows MaxVideodrome. Purportedly broadcast fromMalaysia, it is a plotless show depicting victims being violently tortured and eventually murdered. Believing this to be the future of television, Max orders Harlan to begin unlicensed use of the show. Nicki Brand, asadomasochisticradio hostwho becomes sexually involved with Max, is aroused by an episode ofVideodrome.Upon learning it is actually broadcast out ofPittsburgh, she goes to audition for the show but never returns. Max contacts Masha, asoftcore pornographer, and asks her to help him investigateVideodrome. Through Masha, Max learns that the footage is real and is the public",
"and is the public \"face\" of a political movement. Masha further informs him that the enigmaticmedia theoristBrian O'Blivion knows aboutVideodrome. Max tracks down O'Blivion to ahomeless shelterwhere vagrants engage inmarathon sessionsof television viewing. He discovers that O'Blivion's daughter Bianca runs the mission, aiding her father's vision of a world where television replaces everyday life. Later, Max views a videotape of O'Blivion explaining thatVideodromeis a socio-political battleground in which a war is being fought to control the minds of the people of North America. Max then hallucinates that Nicki speaks directly to him and causes his television to undulate as he kisses the screen. Disturbed, Max returns to O'Blivion's homeless shelter. Bianca tells him thatVideodromecarries a broadcast signal that gives malignantbrain tumors. O'Blivion considers it as part of his vision, and hallucinations are a higher form of reality. When O'Blivion found out it was to be used for malevolent purposes, he",
"purposes, he attempted to stop his partners only to be killed by his own invention. In the year before his death, O'Blivion recorded tens of thousands of videos, which now form the basis of his television appearances. Later that night, Max hallucinates placing his handgun in a slit in his abdomen. He is contacted byVideodrome's producer, Barry Convex of the Spectacular Optical Corporation, an eyeglasses company that acts as a front for anarms company, who uses a device to record Max's fantasies. Max then wakes up to find Masha's corpse in his bed. He frantically calls Harlan to photograph the body as evidence, but, shortly after he arrives, her body is gone. Wanting to see the latest Videodrome broadcast, Max meets Harlan at his studio. Harlan reveals that he has been working with Convex to recruit Max to their cause. They aim to end North America'scultural decayby usingVideodrometo kill anyone too obsessed with sex and violence. Convex then inserts a brainwashingBetamaxtape into Max's torso. Under Convex's",
"Under Convex's influence, Max kills his colleagues at CIVIC-TV. He attempts to kill Bianca, who stops him by showing him a videotape of Nicki's murder on the Videodrome set. Bianca then \"reprograms\" Max to her father's cause: \"Death toVideodrome. Long live the new flesh.\" On her orders, he kills Harlan and Convex. Now wanted for murder, Max takes refuge on a derelict boat in thePort Lands. Appearing to him on television, Nicki tells him he has weakenedVideodrome, but to defeat it, he must \"leave the old flesh\" and ascend to the next level. The television shows an image of Max shooting himself in the head, which causes the set to explode. Reenacting what he has just seen, Max utters the words \"Long live the new flesh\" and shoots himself. Cast Production Development The basis forVideodromecame fromDavid Cronenberg's childhood. Cronenberg used to pick upAmerican television signalsfromBuffalo, New York, late at night afterCanadian stationshad gone off the air, and worry he might see something disturbing not",
"disturbing not meant for public consumption.As Cronenberg explained, \"I've always been interested in dark things and other people's fascinations with dark things. Plus, the idea of people locking themselves in a room and turning a key on a television set so that they can watch something extremely dark, and by doing that, allowing themselves to explore their fascinations.\"Cronenberg watchedMarshall McLuhan, on whom O'Blivion was based, and McLuhan later taught at theUniversity of Torontowhile Cronenberg was a student there, although he never took any of McLuhan's classes. Cronenberg's first exploration of themes of the branding of sex and violence and media impacting people's reality was writing a treatment titledNetwork of Bloodin the early 1970s; its premise was a worker for an independent television company (who would become Max Renn inVideodrome) unintentionally finding, in the filmmaker's words, \"a private television network subscribed to by strange, wealthy people who were willing to pay to see bizarre",
"pay to see bizarre things.\"He later planned the story to be told from the main character'sfirst-person perspective, showcasing a duality between how insane he looks to other people and how he himself perceives a different reality in his head.Concepts similar toNetwork of Blood's were further explored in a 1977 episode of theCBC TelevisionseriesPeep ShowCronenberg directed, named \"The Victim.\"The film's fictional station CIVIC-TV was modeled on the real-life Toronto television stationCITY-TV, which was known for broadcasting pornographic content and violent films in its late-night programming blocThe Baby Blue Movie. Victor Snolicki, Dick Schouten, andPierre Davidof Vision 4, a company taking advantage of Canada's tax shelter policies, aided Cronenberg in the film's financing.Vision 4 dissolved after Schouten's death and reorganized into Filmplan International which fundedScanners.Solnicki, David, and Claude Héroux formed Filmplan II which gave financial backing toVideodrome. This was the last film Cronenberg",
"film Cronenberg made under Canada's film tax shelter policy. Cronenberg's increased reputation made it easier for his projects to get produced, leading to the film's $5.5 million budget, more interest from studios and producers, and a larger number of interested actors to choose from.After the box office success ofScanners, Cronenberg turned down the chance of directingReturn of the Jedi, having had no desire to direct material produced by other filmmakers.Cronenberg met with David inMontrealto discuss ideas for a new film, with the former pitching two ideas, one of them beingVideodrome. Cronenberg started writing the first draft ofVideodromein January 1981, and, as with first drafts of Cronenberg's prior projects, included many parts not featured in the final cut to make it more acceptable for audiences; this included Renn having an explosive grenade as a hand after he chops off his flesh gun during a hallucination, Renn and Nicki melting, via a kiss, into an object that then melts an on-looker, and five",
"on-looker, and five other characters besides Barry also dying ofcancer.Cronenberg admits that he was worried that the project would be rejected by Filmplan due to the excessive violent content of an early draft, but it was approved, with Claude Héroux joking that the movie would get a tripleX rating.Although talent for the film was attracted using the first draft, alterations were made constantly from pre-production to post-production. Accumulation of the cast and crew started in the summer of 1981 in Toronto, with most of the supporting actors being local performers of the city.Videodrome's three producers, David, Claude Héroux and Victor Solnicki, suggestedJames Woodsfor the role of Max Renn; they unsuccessfully tried to attach him to another film they produced,Models(1982).Woods was a fan ofRabid(1977) andScanners, and met Cronenberg inBeverly Hillsfor the part; Cronenberg liked the fact that Woods was very articulate in terms of delivery,and Woods appreciated the filmmaker's oddball style as well as",
"style as well as being a \"good controversialist\" with \"a lot of power.\"Cronenberg doubled for Woods in the scene where Max puts on the Videodrome helmet since the actor was afraid of getting electrocuted.Co-starDebbie Harrywas recommended by David, and Cronenberg cast her after viewing her two times inUnion City(1980) and a Toronto audition.She had never had such a large part before, and said that the more experienced Woods gave her a number of helpful suggestions. Filming The film was shot in Toronto from 27 October to 23 December 1981, on a budget of $5,952,000 (equivalent to $18,890,085 in 2023), with the financing equally coming from Canada and the United States. 50% of the film's budget came from Universal.The initial week of filming being devoted to videotaping variousmonitor inserts. These included the television monologues of Professor Brian O'Blivion, as well as theVideodrometorture scenes and the soft-core pornographic programsSamurai DreamsandApollo & Dionysus.The video camera used for the monitor",
"for the monitor scenes was a Hitachi SK-91.The film's cinematography was handled byMark Irwin, who was very uncomfortable with doing the monitor scenes; he was far more experienced with composing shots for regular film cameras than videotapes, disliked the flat television standards of lighting and color, and couldn't compose his shots privately as all of the film crew watched the monitors as the shots were being set up.Cronenberg stated thatVideodromewas the first time that he fired a crew worker due to an incident between a hairdresser and Harry. TheSamurai Dreamsshort was filmed in half a day without any audio recorded at a rented spot at aGlobal TVstudio in Toronto, and lasted five minutes longer than what ended up in the final film. Three different endings were filmed. The ending used in the final film, wherein Max shoots himself on the derelict ship, was James Woods' idea.One of the initial intentions for the ending was to include an epilogue after the suicide, wherein Max, Bianca, and Nicki appear on",
"and Nicki appear on the set ofVideodrome. Bianca and Nicki are shown to have chest slits like Max, from which grotesque, mutatedsex organsemerge.Another ending featured an orgy between Bianca, Max, and Nicki after Max shoots himself and sex-organs were designed for the scene, but Cronenberg decided to remove the scene. Effects Rick Baker, who worked on the effects ofAn American Werewolf in London, did the effects for the film. However, his desired six months of preparation was reduced to two months and less effects were created due to a reduced budget. One of the scenes cut from the script showed Max and Nicki's faces melting together while kissing and going across the floor to a bystander's leg and melting him. Michael Lennick served as special video effects supervisor. To create the breathing effects of the television set that Max interacts with, Frank C. Carere utilized an air compressor with valves hooked to a piano keyboard that he himself operated.The undulating screen of the television set was created",
"set was created using avideo projectorand a sheet of rubberydental dam. Baker stated that \"I knew we would need a flexible material ... we tested with aweather balloonfirst, stretching it over a frame the size of a TV screen, and pushed a hand through it to see how far it stretched, and then werear-projectedon it.\"Betamaxvideotape cassettes were used as items to be inserted into Max's stomach slit, becauseVHScassettes were too large to fit the faux abdominal wound.Woods found the stomach slit uncomfortable,and after a long day of wearing it, vented, \"I am not an actor anymore. I'm just the bearer of the slit!\"Baker's original concept for Max's flesh gun featured eyes, mouth and foreskin, which Cronenberg found to be \"too graphic\".The cancer effects caused by Max's flesh gun went through various tests, with some tests having the face of the victim being distorted through the use ofsolvents, but Baker decided against this upon learning that his mentor,Dick Smith, had recently used the same technique",
"the same technique inSpasms.Baker settled on having the cancer tumors burst out from the body of Barry Convex, with his crew operating a dummy underneath the set. Lennick devised effects such as having the image of the Videodrome television set distort whenever Max would whip it through the use of a device which he called the \"Videodromer\", and glitch and twitch effects related to Max's visions through the Videodrome helmet, but these effects were scrapped due to budget and time concerns. Music Anoriginal scorewas composed forVideodromeby Cronenberg's close friend, Howard Shore.The score was composed to follow Max Renn's descent into video hallucinations, starting out with dramatic orchestral music that increasingly incorporates, and eventually emphasizes, electronic instrumentation. To achieve this, Shore composed the entire score for an orchestra before programming it into aSynclavierII digital synthesizer. The rendered score, taken from the Synclavier II, was then recorded being played in tandem with a",
"in tandem with a small string section.The resulting sound was a subtle blend that often made it difficult to tell which sounds were real and which were synthesized. The soundtrack was also released on vinyl byVarèse Sarabande, and was re-released on compact disc in 1998. The album itself is not just a straight copy of Shore's score, but a remix. Shore has commented that while there were small issues with some of the acoustic numbers, \"on the whole I think they did very well\". Editing Cronenberg stated that the firsttest screeningof a 72-75 minute cut of the film was \"the most disastrous screening you can imagine\". He and editorRonald Sanders\"thought we had cut it really tight, but it was totally incomprehensible that you didn't even know that Max Renn worked at Civic TV, I'd cut out all the footage that explained that\". TheMPAArequested multiple edits to the film. Bob Remy, the head of Universal Pictures, also suggested removing the scene inSamurai Dreamsshowing the dildo. Cronenberg was confused by Remy's",
"confused by Remy's suggestion as the \"MPAA didn't even ask me to cut that. Why is he asking me to cut that\".Thom Mounttold Cronenberg that it was due to Remy having \"a problem with cocks\".The film's runtime was 87 minutes and 18 seconds in Canada and the United States, but was 15 seconds longer in the international version. Cronenberg was critical of editsUniversal Picturesperformed on the film without request from the MPAA. Themes According toTim Lucas,Videodromedeals with \"the impression of a sprawlingly technological world on our human senses; the fascination and horror of sex and violence; and the boundaries of reality and consciousness.\" Release David was able to get Universal Pictures to finance and distribute the film based \"on a one-page description,\" according to Cronenberg.Videodromewas distributed by Universal Pictures in Canada and the United States, and by Les Films Mutuels in Quebec. It was released in six hundred theatres on 4 February 1983. Cronenberg stated thatSidney Sheinbergregretted",
"Sheinbergregretted giving the film a wide theatrical release rather than treating it as anart film. Around 900 prints of the film were distributed according to Cronenberg, and the film was only in theaters for a short amount of time. Cronenberg stated thatVideodrome\"wasn't an exploitation sell, and it wasn't an art sell. I don't know what it was.\" Reception The film holds a 83% aggregate rating onRotten Tomatoes, based on 59 reviews, with an average score of 7.5/10. Its consensus states, \"Visually audacious, disorienting, and just plain weird,Videodrome'smusings on technology, entertainment, and politics still feel fresh today.\"It has been described as a \"disturbing techno-surrealist film\"and \"burningly intense, chaotic, indelibly surreal, absolutely like nothing else\". Janet MaslinofThe New York Timesremarked on the film's \"innovativeness\", and praised Woods' performance as having a \"sharply authentic edge\".Adam Smith ofEmpiregave the film 4 out of 5 possible stars, calling it a \"perfect example\" ofbody",
"example\" ofbody horror.The staff ofVarietywrote that the film \"proves more fascinating than distancing\", and commended the \"stunning visual effects\".Gary Arnold ofThe Washington Postgave the film a negative review, calling it \"simultaneously stupefying and boring\". C.J. Henderson reviewedVideodromeinThe Space GamerNo. 63.Henderson commented that \"Despite the fact thatVideodromecame and went faster than Superman and his bullet, it is still an excellent picture. It is a genre film of high caliber, posing a number of important questions.\" Christopher John reviewedVideodromeinAres Magazine#14 and commented that \"As usual, Cronenberg has pulled no punches in getting his message across. The movie is tight, and perfectly clear for anyone willing towatchthe screen andthinkabout what they are seeing.\" Trace Thurman ofBloody Disgustinglisted it as one of eight \"horror movies that were ahead of their time\".It was also selected as one of the \"23 weirdest films of all time\" byTotal Film.Nick Schager ofEsquireranked the",
"ofEsquireranked the film at number 10 on their list of \"the 50 best horror movies of the 1980s\". Awards The film won a number of awards upon its release. At the 1984Brussels International Festival of Fantasy Film, it tied withBloodbath at the House of Deathfor Best Science-Fiction Film, and Mark Irwin received aCSCAward for Best Cinematography in a Theatrical Feature.Videodromewas also nominated for eightGenie Awards, with David Cronenberg tyingBob Clark'sA Christmas Storyfor Best Achievement in Direction. It was the first Genie Award that Cronenberg won. Videodromewas named the 89th-most-essential film in history by theToronto International Film Festival. Home media Videodromewas released onVHSandDVDin the late 1990s byUniversal Studios Home Entertainment, who also released the film onLaserDisc. The film was released on DVD bythe Criterion Collectionon August 31, 2004, and theirBlu-rayedition was released on December 7, 2010.The Criterion Blu-ray features two commentary tracks, one with Cronenberg and",
"with Cronenberg and cinematographer Mark Irwin, and the other with actors James Woods and Deborah Harry. Among the other special features are a documentary titledForging the New Flesh; the soft-core videoSamurai Dreams; the 2000 short filmCamera; three trailers forVideodrome; andFear on Film, which consists of an interview with Cronenberg,John CarpenterandJohn Landis, hosted byMick Garris. In 2015,Arrow Filmsreleased the film on Blu-ray inRegion Bwith further special features, including Cronenberg's short filmsTransfer(1966) andFrom the Drain(1967), as well as his feature filmsStereo(1969) andCrimes of the Future(1970). Novelization A novelization ofVideodromewas released byZebra Booksalongside the movie in 1983. Though credited to \"Jack Martin\", the novel was, in fact, the work of horror novelistDennis Etchison.Cronenberg reportedly invited Etchison up to Toronto, where they discussed and clarified the story, allowing the novel to remain as close as possible to the actions in the film. There are some",
"There are some differences, however, such as the inclusion of the \"bathtub sequence\", a scene never filmed in which a television rises from Max Renn's bathtub like inSandro Botticelli'sThe Birth of Venus.This was the result of the lead time required to write the book, which left Etchison working with an earlier draft of the script than was used in the film. See also References Works cited External links",
"Jack Creley Jack Creley(March 6, 1926 – March 10, 2004) was an American-born Canadian actor.Although most prominently a stage actor, he also had film and television roles. Background Creley was born inChicago,Illinois, on March 6, 1926.During theGreat Depression, his family moved toCalifornia, where he acted in amateur theatre as a teenager, until he was old enough to enlist in theUnited States Armylate inWorld War II.He was shot in the shoulder during theBattle of Okinawa, and spent the rest of his life telling the story that he knew he was destined to become an actor when he realized he was responding to the injury like a character in aJohn Waynefilm. After the end of the war, he went toNew York Cityto study acting underErwin Piscatorat theDramatic Workshop, where he was a classmate ofHarry Belafonte,Tony CurtisandRod Steiger.He moved toMontrealin 1951 to take a job with the Mountain Theatre Company, and remained there until 1954, when he moved toToronto.Soon after moving to Toronto, he met David Smith, who",
"David Smith, who would be his partner for the remainder of his life. Acting career In Toronto, he acted on stage,including frequent performances at theStratford Festival,and often appeared inCBC Televisionanthology series, includingScope,Playbill,CBC Summer Theatre,Encounter,Folio,Startime,Horizon,Playdateand severalWayne and Shustersketches, as well as performing incabaretshows. In 1956, Creley starred in the Canadian production ofSalad Days,and in 1958 he starred in the Canadian production ofVisit to a Small Planet.In 1960, he played two roles at the Stratford Festival, as Lord Capulet inRomeo and Julietand as King Philip inKing John. Creley had his first major film role in 1961, in the Western filmThe Canadians.After completing a run as Holofernes in a Stratford Festival production ofLove's Labour's Lostthat summer,he returned to New York to appear in aBroadwayproduction ofA Man for All Seasonsas Cardinal Wolsey.After completing his run in New York, he appeared in a Stratford Festival production ofThe",
"production ofThe Gondoliers,and then went toLondonto appear alongsideCorinne Conley,Dave Broadfoot,Eric HouseandEric Christmasin the musical revueClap Handsat theHammersmith Theatre.Following the end of that show's run, most of the cast returned to Canada, although Creley remained in London to take a role as Mr. Staines in the filmDr. Strangelove. After returning to Canada, he appeared in productions ofEdward Albee'sThe Zoo StoryandAnton Chekhov'sSummer in the Country.During this time, he also became a popularvoice-overartist for television commercials, recording at least 18 commercial spots in 1965 and 1966.He directed a musical revue,The Decline and Fall of the Entire World As Seen Through the Eyes of Cole Porter, in 1965 and 1966, and when he stepped in for several shows in the absence of lead performerLouis Negin, it was his first time singing on stage since the end ofClap Handsin 1963. In 1966, he appeared asWilfrid Laurierin the CBC Television miniseriesReluctant Nation,and in 1969 he appeared in the",
"he appeared in the television seriesStrange Paradiseas Laslo Thaxton. In 1970, he starred in the musicalOh, Coward!at Theatre in the Dell, alongsidePatricia CollinsandGordon Thomson. Charles Pope from theToronto Starcalled his performance \"magnificent\". In 1972 he had his second and final Broadway role, appearing in a production ofThere's One in Every Marriageas Roubillon,and in 1974 he had his last role at Stratford in a production ofThe Imaginary Invalid.In this era, he began to appear more often in film and television roles, most notably in the filmVideodromeand the television sitcomSnow Job.His final role was a guest appearance onE.N.G.in 1990. Personal life Creley and Smith shared ownership of an antique store, The Green Dolphin, beginning in 1955,and later of a clothing store, Mr. Smith.They also had a widespread reputation among actors as being excellent hosts of parties; performers such asVivien Leigh,Sean Connery,Richard Burton,Bea ArthurandBilly Dee Williamswere frequent houseguests of the couple.",
"of the couple. Late in life, Creley suffered two strokes, and began to developaphasia.He died on March 10, 2004, in Toronto. Filmography References External links"
] |
In 2010, the WWE Hall of Fame took place in the same stadium as a famous comedy movie done a few years before. Who are the four comedians that starred in this comedy movie? | jeff Foxworthy, Bill Engvall, Ron White and Larry the Cable Guy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWE_Hall_of_Fame_(2010) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_Financial_Theatre | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Collar_Comedy_Tour:_The_Movie | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWE_Hall_of_Fame_(2010)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_Financial_Theatre', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Collar_Comedy_Tour:_The_Movie'] | [
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"Arizona Financial Theatre 33°26′55″N112°4′45″W / 33.44861°N 112.07917°W /33.44861; -112.07917 TheArizona Financial Theatre(formerly known as theDodge Theatre, theComerica Theatreand theArizona Federal Theatre) is a multi-use theatre inDowntownPhoenix, Arizona. The venue seats 5,000 people. History Jerry Colangelo, longtime former owner of thePhoenix SunsandArizona Diamondbacks, was one of the original investors. The facility, designed byDan MeisofNBBJ, was designed to fill the need for performers that don't need a huge sports stadium, but are too large for the smaller, intimate venues. Construction began in September 2000 with CORE Construction as general contractor.It opened in the spring of 2002 as part of the ongoing redevelopment efforts in Downtown Phoenix, and reached the 2 million mark in attendance in 2009.Live Nationbegan operating the venue in 2007.The theater's name was first changed in October 2010 afterComerica Bankacquired the naming rights. On December 18, 2019, the theatre was renamed to Arizona Federal Theatre, asArizona Federal Credit Unionowned the naming rights.On July 11, 2022, the theatre was renamed once again to Arizona Financial Theatreafter the rebranding of Arizona Federal Credit Union intoArizona Financial Credit Union. Events The theatre is probably best recognized as the stage for the comedy movieBlue Collar Comedy Tour: The Movie. In addition to this,George Lopez's most recent HBO Special,America's Mexican, was aired live at the venue. Rock groupChickenfootrecorded their live albumGet Your Buzz Onthere and it also hosted the 2010WWE Hall of FameInduction Ceremony and the 2015NFL Honors. It is also a venue forBroadwayand family stage shows that play the Phoenix area, and in the theater's first few years the Arizona edition of theRadio City Christmas Spectaculartook place at the venue. On September 14, 2004,Barney's Colorful World- Barney's fifth stage show and third national stage show tour was taped in March of 2004. Lordebrought her Pure Heroine Tour to the theatre on April 17, 2014, performing here in between her two shows atCoachella. Janet Jacksonperformed a sold-out show at the theatre on April 8, 2011, as part of herNumber Ones, Up Close and Personal World Tour.She returned to the theatre on October 19, 2015, as part of herUnbreakable World Tour. Lana Del Reyperformed her first show in Arizona at the theatre on April 15, 2014, as part of herParadise Tour.Latin singerYuridiaperformed here on November 21, 2012, as part of herPara MíTour. Troye Sivanhas performed shows here for both his Suburbia Tour and Bloom Tour. Notable concerts and shows References",
"Blue Collar Comedy Tour: The Movie Blue Collar Comedy Tour: The Movieis a 2003 Americanstand-up comedyconcert filmfromWarner Bros. Pictures. It stars comediansJeff FoxworthyandBill Engvalland fellow Blue Collar comicsRon WhiteandLarry the Cable Guy. The movie is similar in nature to that ofThe Original Kings of Comedy. It was followed by twodirect-to-videosequels,Blue Collar Comedy Tour Rides Again(2004) andBlue Collar Comedy Tour: One for the Road(2006).The film received critical acclaim. Premise The film features live stand-up performances filmed at theDodge TheaterinPhoenix, Arizonaon July 21, 2002. It also features behind-the-scenes segments highlighting the individual comedians. Television broadcast When aired on Comedy Central, in addition to editing of the stand-up material for time and content,Heidi Klum's appearance is completely cut out. Filming locations Soundtrack Reception The film has received near-universal critical acclaim, praising the irreverent jokes and humor. OnRotten Tomatoes, the film has a 92% positive score. References External links This film article about a 2000s comedy film is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. This article related to an American film of the 2000s is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it."
] | [
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"Arizona Financial Theatre 33°26′55″N112°4′45″W / 33.44861°N 112.07917°W /33.44861; -112.07917 TheArizona Financial Theatre(formerly known as theDodge Theatre, theComerica Theatreand theArizona Federal Theatre) is a multi-use theatre inDowntownPhoenix, Arizona. The venue seats 5,000 people. History Jerry Colangelo, longtime former owner of thePhoenix SunsandArizona Diamondbacks, was one of the original investors. The facility, designed byDan MeisofNBBJ, was designed to fill the need for performers that don't need a huge sports stadium, but are too large for the smaller, intimate venues. Construction began in September 2000 with CORE Construction as general contractor.It opened in the spring of 2002 as part of the ongoing redevelopment efforts in Downtown Phoenix, and reached the 2 million mark in attendance in 2009.Live Nationbegan operating the venue in 2007.The theater's name was first changed in October 2010 afterComerica Bankacquired the naming rights. On December 18, 2019, the theatre was renamed to",
"was renamed to Arizona Federal Theatre, asArizona Federal Credit Unionowned the naming rights.On July 11, 2022, the theatre was renamed once again to Arizona Financial Theatreafter the rebranding of Arizona Federal Credit Union intoArizona Financial Credit Union. Events The theatre is probably best recognized as the stage for the comedy movieBlue Collar Comedy Tour: The Movie. In addition to this,George Lopez's most recent HBO Special,America's Mexican, was aired live at the venue. Rock groupChickenfootrecorded their live albumGet Your Buzz Onthere and it also hosted the 2010WWE Hall of FameInduction Ceremony and the 2015NFL Honors. It is also a venue forBroadwayand family stage shows that play the Phoenix area, and in the theater's first few years the Arizona edition of theRadio City Christmas Spectaculartook place at the venue. On September 14, 2004,Barney's Colorful World- Barney's fifth stage show and third national stage show tour was taped in March of 2004. Lordebrought her Pure Heroine Tour to the",
"Heroine Tour to the theatre on April 17, 2014, performing here in between her two shows atCoachella. Janet Jacksonperformed a sold-out show at the theatre on April 8, 2011, as part of herNumber Ones, Up Close and Personal World Tour.She returned to the theatre on October 19, 2015, as part of herUnbreakable World Tour. Lana Del Reyperformed her first show in Arizona at the theatre on April 15, 2014, as part of herParadise Tour.Latin singerYuridiaperformed here on November 21, 2012, as part of herPara MíTour. Troye Sivanhas performed shows here for both his Suburbia Tour and Bloom Tour. Notable concerts and shows References",
"Blue Collar Comedy Tour: The Movie Blue Collar Comedy Tour: The Movieis a 2003 Americanstand-up comedyconcert filmfromWarner Bros. Pictures. It stars comediansJeff FoxworthyandBill Engvalland fellow Blue Collar comicsRon WhiteandLarry the Cable Guy. The movie is similar in nature to that ofThe Original Kings of Comedy. It was followed by twodirect-to-videosequels,Blue Collar Comedy Tour Rides Again(2004) andBlue Collar Comedy Tour: One for the Road(2006).The film received critical acclaim. Premise The film features live stand-up performances filmed at theDodge TheaterinPhoenix, Arizonaon July 21, 2002. It also features behind-the-scenes segments highlighting the individual comedians. Television broadcast When aired on Comedy Central, in addition to editing of the stand-up material for time and content,Heidi Klum's appearance is completely cut out. Filming locations Soundtrack Reception The film has received near-universal critical acclaim, praising the irreverent jokes and humor. OnRotten Tomatoes, the film",
"Tomatoes, the film has a 92% positive score. References External links This film article about a 2000s comedy film is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. This article related to an American film of the 2000s is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it."
] |
How many more letters are in the first name of the eighth Director of Special Forces (United Kingdom) than the runner who won Silver in the 1985 UK Athletics Championship 10,000 meters event? Give the answer in morse code. | ....- | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Director_Special_Forces | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985_UK_Athletics_Championships | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Director_Special_Forces', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985_UK_Athletics_Championships', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Director_Special_Forces",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985_UK_Athletics_Championships",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code"
] | [
"Director Special Forces Director Special Forces(DSF) is the seniorBritish Armed Forcesofficer responsible for theUnited Kingdom Special Forces. The post is a senior role within theMinistry of Defence(MoD).As director, the incumbent is responsible for the provision of special forces capability to MoD, and holds operational command for discrete special forces operations. History The post ofColonelSAS (Special Air Service) was created in 1964; this post evolved into Director SAS with the post holder commanding the SAScorpsfrom 1969. In March 1987, the post of Director SAS became Director Special Forces; it consisted of theArmy'sSpecial Air Service,Royal Navy'sSpecial Boat Serviceand the Army's14 Intelligence Companyunder the command of the DSF, who held therankofbrigadier, and with a Deputy, who held the rank of colonel. During the 2000s, the size of the directorate increased substantially with the inclusion of theSpecial Forces Support Groupand theJoint Special Forces Aviation Wing. Other changes included the 14th Intelligence Company renamed as theSpecial Reconnaissance Regiment. This was to meet a demand for a special reconnaissance capability identified in theStrategic Defence Review: A New Chapterpublished in 2002 in response to the 2001September 11 attacks.Following a review, it was found that the SAS Reserve lacked a clearly defined role, and also stated that the reservists lacked the capability, equipment, and skills to serve alongside the regular special forces. What followed was a reduction in the scope of UK Special Forces.As an outcome of this review, on 1 September 2014, 21 and 23 SAS were removed from the UKSF order of battleand placed with theHonourable Artillery Company(HAC), under the command of1st Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Brigade.This change was partly reversed in 2019 with 21 and 23 SAS returning as an integrated part of the UKSF group. In 2008, the rank of the DSF was upgraded from brigadier tomajor-generalwith the directorate becoming an independent, operational-level component command, alongside Land, Navy and Air elements in thePermanent Joint Headquarters(PJHQ) and in the deployable Joint Force Headquarters (JFHQ). The DSF is only accountable to theDefence Secretaryand thePrime Minister. UKSF may operate in locations where the UK does not formally acknowledge a military presence. List of commanders Commanders of special forces have been: Colonel SAS Director SAS Director Special Forces References",
"1985 UK Athletics Championships The1985UK Athletics Championshipswas the national championship in outdoortrack and fieldfor the United Kingdom held atAntrim Stadium,Antrim. It was the second time that a national track and field championship was held inNorthern Ireland, after hosting the 1981 event. It was the ninth edition of the competition limited to British athletes only, launched as an alternative to theAAA Championships, which was open to foreign competitors. However, due to the fact that the calibre of national competition remained greater at the AAA event, the UK Championships this year were not considered the principal national championship event by some statisticians, such as theNational Union of Track Statisticians(NUTS). Many of the athletes below also competed at the1985 AAA Championships. Fatima Whitbreadwon her fifth consecutive women'sjavelin throwUK title. Both the men's and women's champions defended in the5000 metres(Eamonn Martin,Angela Tooby) andshot put(Billy Cole,Judy Oakes), as did men'shammer throwerDave Smith.Linford ChristieandJohn Regisrecorded the same times in both the100 metresand200 metresfinals. Christie was given the 100 m title while the two shared the 200 m title. Christie was the only athlete at the competition to win two titles. The main international track and field competition for the United Kingdom that year was the1985 European Cup. Three UK champions medalled at that event: Whitbread in the javelin, Angela Tooby in the 10,000 m andTom McKeanin the800 metres.Derek Redmondwas third in the400 metresat the European competition, despite coming second at the UK race. Medal summary Men Women References",
"Morse code Morse codeis atelecommunicationsmethod whichencodestextcharacters as standardized sequences of two different signal durations, calleddotsanddashes, orditsanddahs.Morse code is named afterSamuel Morse, one of the early developers of the system adopted forelectrical telegraphy. International Morse codeencodes the 26basic Latin lettersAtoZ, oneaccentedLatin letter (É), theArabic numerals, and a small set of punctuation and procedural signals (prosigns). There is no distinction between upper and lower case letters.Each Morse code symbol is formed by a sequence ofditsanddahs. Theditduration can vary for signal clarity and operator skill, but for any one message, once established it is the basic unit of time measurement in Morse code. The duration of adahis three times the duration of adit(although some telegraphers deliberately exaggerate the length of adahfor clearer signalling). Eachditordahwithin an encoded character is followed by a period of signal absence, called aspace, equal to theditduration. The letters of a word areseparated bya space of duration equal to threedits, and words are separated by a space equal to sevendits. Morse code can be memorized and sent in a form perceptible to the human senses, e.g. via sound waves or visible light, such that it can be directly interpreted by persons trained in the skill.Morse code is usually transmitted byon-off keyingof an information-carrying medium such as electric current, radio waves, visible light, or sound waves.The current or wave is present during the time period of theditordahand absent during the time betweenditsanddahs. Since many natural languages use more than the 26 letters of theLatin alphabet,Morse alphabetshave been developed for those languages, largely by transliteration of existing codes. To increase the efficiency of transmission, Morse code was originally designed so that the duration of each symbol is approximatelyinverse to the frequency of occurrenceof the character that it represents in text of the English language. Thus the most common letter in English, the letterE, has the shortest code – a singledit. Because the Morse code elements are specified by proportion rather than specific time durations, the code is usually transmitted at the highest rate that the receiver is capable of decoding. Morse code transmission rate (speed) is specified ingroups per minute, commonly referred to aswords per minute. Development and history Pre-Morse telegraphs and codes Early in the nineteenth century, European experimenters made progress with electrical signaling systems, using a variety of techniques includingstatic electricityand electricity fromVoltaic pilesproducingelectrochemicalandelectromagneticchanges. These experimental designs were precursors to practical telegraphic applications. Following the discovery ofelectromagnetismbyHans Christian Ørstedin 1820 and the invention of theelectromagnetbyWilliam Sturgeonin 1824, there were developments inelectromagnetic telegraphyin Europe and America. Pulses ofelectric currentwere sent along wires to control an electromagnet in the receiving instrument. Many of the earliest telegraph systems used a single-needle system which gave a very simple and robust instrument. However, it was slow, as the receiving operator had to alternate between looking at the needle and writing down the message. In Morse code, a deflection of the needle to the left corresponded to aditand a deflection to the right to adah.The needle clicked each time it moved to the right or left. By making the two clicks sound different (by installing one ivory and one metal stop), transmissions on the single needle device became audible as well as visible, which led in turn to theDouble PlateSounderSystem. William CookeandCharles WheatstoneinBritaindeveloped an electrical telegraph that used electromagnets in its receivers. They obtained an English patent in June 1837 and demonstrated it on the London and Birmingham Railway, making it the first commercial telegraph.Carl Friedrich GaussandWilhelm Eduard Weber(1833) as well asCarl August von Steinheil(1837) used codes with varying word lengths for their telegraph systems.In 1841, Cooke and Wheatstone built a telegraph that printed the letters from a wheel of typefaces struck by a hammer.: 79 Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail The American artistSamuel Morse, the AmericanphysicistJoseph Henry, and mechanical engineerAlfred Vaildeveloped anelectrical telegraphsystem. The simple \"on or off\" nature of its signals made it desirable to find a method of transmitting natural language using only electrical pulses and the silence between them. Around 1837, Morse therefore developed such a method, an early forerunner to the modern International Morse code.: 79 The Morse system fortelegraphy, which was first used in about 1844, was designed to make indentations on a paper tape when electric currents were received. Morse's original telegraph receiver used a mechanical clockwork to move a paper tape. When an electrical current was received, an electromagnet engaged an armature that pushed a stylus onto the moving paper tape, making an indentation on the tape. When the current was interrupted, a spring retracted the stylus and that portion of the moving tape remained unmarked. Morse code was developed so that operators could translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into text messages. In his earliest design for a code, Morse had planned to transmit only numerals, and to use a codebook to look up each word according to the number which had been sent. However, the code was soon expanded byAlfred Vailin 1840 to include letters and special characters, so it could be used more generally. Vail estimated the frequency of use of letters in theEnglish languageby counting the movable type he found in the type-cases of a local newspaper inMorristown, New Jersey.: 84The shorter marks were called \"dots\" and the longer ones \"dashes\", and the letters most commonly used were assigned the shortest sequences of dots and dashes. This code, first used in 1844, was what later became known asMorse landline code,American Morse code, orRailroad Morse, until the end of railroad telegraphy in the U.S. in the 1970s. Operator-led change from graphical to audible code In the original Morse telegraph system, the receiver's armature made a clicking noise as it moved in and out of position to mark the paper tape. Early telegraph operators soon learned that they could translate the clicks directly into dots and dashes, and write these down by hand, thus making the paper tape unnecessary. When Morse code was adapted toradio communication, the dots and dashes were sent as short and long tone pulses. Later telegraphy training found that people become more proficient at receiving Morse code when it is taught \"like a language\", with each code perceived as a whole \"word\" instead of a sequence of separate dots and dashes, such as might be shown on a page. With the advent of tones produced by radiotelegraph receivers, the operators began to vocalize a dot asdit, and a dash asdah, to reflect the sounds of Morse code they heard. To conform to normal sending speed,ditswhich are not the last element of a code became voiced asdi. For example, theletterL(▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄) is voiced asdi dah di dit.Morse code was sometimes facetiously known as \"iddy-umpty\", aditlampooned as \"iddy\" and adahas \"umpty\", leading to the word \"umpteen\". Gerke's refinement of Morse's code The Morse code, as specified in the current international standard,International Morse Code Recommendation,ITU-RM.1677-1,was derived from a much-improved proposal byFriedrich Gerkein 1848 that became known as the \"Hamburg alphabet\", its only real defect being the use of an excessively long code (▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄and later the equal duration code▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄) for the frequently used vowelO. Gerke changed many of the codepoints, in the process doing away with the different length dashes and different inter-element spaces ofAmerican Morse, leaving only two coding elements, the dot and the dash. Codes forGermanumlautedvowels andCHwere introduced. Gerke's code was adopted in Germany and Austria in 1851. This finally led to the International Morse code in 1865. The International Morse code adopted most of Gerke's codepoints. The codes forOandPwere taken from a code system developed by Steinheil. A new codepoint was added forJsince Gerke did not distinguish betweenIandJ. Changes were also made toX,Y, andZ. This left only four codepoints identical to the original Morse code, namelyE,H,KandN, and the latter two had theirdahsextended to full length. The original American code being compared dates to 1838; the later American code shown in the table was developed in 1844. Radiotelegraphy and aviation In the 1890s, Morse code began to be used extensively for earlyradiocommunication before it was possible to transmit voice. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most high-speed international communication used Morse code on telegraph lines, undersea cables, and radio circuits. Although previous transmitters were bulky and thespark gap system of transmissionwas dangerous and difficult to use, there had been some early attempts: In 1910, the U.S. Navy experimented with sending Morse from an airplane.However the first regular aviation radiotelegraphy was onairships, which had space to accommodate the large, heavy radio equipment then in use. The same year, 1910, a radio on the airshipAmericawas instrumental in coordinating the rescue of its crew. DuringWorld War I,Zeppelin airshipsequipped with radio were used for bombing and naval scouting,and ground-based radio direction finders were used for airship navigation.Allied airships and military aircraft also made some use of radiotelegraphy. However, there was little aeronautical radio in general use duringWorld War I, and in the 1920s, there was no radio system used by such important flights as that ofCharles LindberghfromNew YorktoParisin 1927. Once he and theSpirit of St. Louiswere off the ground, Lindbergh was truly incommunicado and alone. Morse code in aviation began regular use in the mid-1920s. By 1928, when the first airplane flight was made by theSouthern Crossfrom California to Australia, one of its four crewmen was a radio operator who communicated with ground stations viaradio telegraph. Beginning in the 1930s, both civilian and military pilots were required to be able to use Morse code, both for use with early communications systems and for identification of navigational beacons that transmitted continuous two- or three-letter identifiers in Morse code.Aeronautical chartsshow the identifier of each navigational aid next to its location on the map. In addition, rapidly moving field armies could not have fought effectively without radiotelegraphy; they moved more quickly than their communications services could put up new telegraph and telephone lines. This was seen especially in theblitzkriegoffensives of theNazi GermanWehrmachtinPoland,Belgium,France(in 1940), theSoviet Union, and inNorth Africa; by theBritish ArmyinNorth Africa,Italy, and theNetherlands; and by theU.S. Armyin France and Belgium (in 1944), and in southern Germany in 1945. Maritime flash telegraphy and radio telegraphy Radiotelegraphy using Morse code was vital duringWorld War II, especially in carrying messages between thewarshipsand thenaval basesof the belligerents. Long-range ship-to-ship communication was by radio telegraphy, usingencryptedmessages because the voice radio systems on ships then were quite limited in both their range and their security. Radiotelegraphy was also extensively used bywarplanes, especially by long-rangepatrol planesthat were sent out by navies to scout for enemy warships, cargo ships, and troop ships. Morse code was used as an international standard for maritime distress until 1999 when it was replaced by theGlobal Maritime Distress and Safety System. When theFrench Navyceased using Morse code on January 31, 1997, the final message transmitted was\"Calling all. This is our last call before our eternal silence.\" Demise of commercial telegraphy In the United States the final commercial Morse code transmission was on July 12, 1999, signing off with Samuel Morse's original 1844 message,WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT, and theprosignSK(\"end of contact\"). As of 2015, theUnited States Air Forcestill trains ten people a year in Morse. TheUnited States Coast Guardhas ceased all use of Morse code on the radio, and no longer monitors anyradio frequenciesfor Morse code transmissions, including the internationalmedium frequency(MF) distress frequency of500 kHz.However, theFederal Communications Commissionstill grants commercial radiotelegraph operator licenses to applicants who pass its code and written tests.Licensees have reactivated the old California coastal Morse stationKPHand regularly transmit from the site under either thiscall signor as KSM. Similarly, a few U.S.museum shipstations are operated by Morse enthusiasts. Operator proficiency Morse code speed is measured inwords per minute(WPM) or characters per minute (CPM). Characters have differing lengths because they contain differing numbers ofditsanddahs. Consequently, words also have different lengths in terms of dot duration, even when they contain the same number of characters. For this reason, some standard word is adopted for measuring operators' transmission speeds: Two such standard words in common use arePARISandCODEX.Operators skilled in Morse code can often understand (\"copy\") code in their heads at rates in excess of 40WPM. In addition to knowing, understanding, and being able to copy the standard written alpha-numeric and punctuation characters or symbols at high speeds, skilled high-speed operators must also be fully knowledgeable of all of the special unwritten Morse code symbols for the standardProsigns for Morse codeand the meanings of these special procedural signals in standard Morse codecommunications protocol. International contests in code copying are still occasionally held. In July 1939 at a contest inAsheville, North Carolinain the United StatesTed R. McElroy (W1JYN)set a still-standing record for Morse copying, 75.2WPM.Pierpont (2004) also notes that some operators may have passed 100WPM.By this time, they are \"hearing\" phrases and sentences rather than words. The fastest speed ever sent by a straight key was achieved in 1942 by Harry Turner (W9YZE) (d. 1992) who reached 35WPMin a demonstration at a U.S. Army base. To accurately compare code copying speed records of different eras it is useful to keep in mind that different standard words (50 dit durations versus 60 dit durations) and different interword gaps (5 dit durations versus 7 dit durations) may have been used when determining such speed records. For example, speeds run with theCODEXstandard word and thePARISstandard may differ by up to 20%. Today among amateur operators there are several organizations that recognize high-speed code ability, one group consisting of those who can copy Morse at 60WPM.Also, Certificates of Code Proficiency are issued by several amateur radio societies, including theAmerican Radio Relay League. Their basic award starts at 10WPMwith endorsements as high as 40WPM, and are available to anyone who can copy the transmitted text. Members of theBoy Scouts of Americamay put a Morse interpreter's strip on their uniforms if they meet the standards for translating code at 5WPM. Through May 2013, the First, Second, and Third Class (commercial) Radiotelegraph Licenses using code tests based upon theCODEXstandard word were still being issued in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission. The First Class license required 20WPMcode group and 25WPMtext code proficiency, the others 16WPMcode group test (five letter blocks sent as simulation of receiving encrypted text) and 20WPMcode text (plain language) test. It was also necessary to pass written tests on operating practice and electronics theory. A unique additional demand for the First Class was a requirement of a year of experience for operators of shipboard and coast stations using Morse. This allowed the holder to be chief operator on board a passenger ship. However, since 1999 the use of satellite and very high-frequency maritime communications systems (GMDSS) has made them obsolete. (By that point meeting experience requirement for the First was very difficult.) Currently, only one class of license, the Radiotelegraph Operator License, is issued. This is granted either when the tests are passed or as the Second and First are renewed and become this lifetime license. For new applicants, it requires passing a written examination on electronic theory and radiotelegraphy practices, as well as 16WPMcode-group and 20WPMtext tests. However, the code exams are currently waived for holders of Amateur Extra Class licenses who obtained their operating privileges under the old 20WPMtest requirement. International Morse code Morse codes of one version or another have been in use for more than 160 years — longer than any otherelectricalmessage encoding system. What is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse. The Modern International Morse code, orcontinental code, was created byFriedrich Clemens Gerkein 1848 and initially used for telegraphy betweenHamburgandCuxhavenin Germany. Gerke changed nearly half of the alphabet and all of thenumerals, providing the foundation for the modern form of the code. After some minor changes to the letters and a complete revision of the numerals, International Morse Code was standardized by the International Telegraphy Congress in 1865 in Paris, and later became the standard adopted by theInternational Telecommunication Union(ITU). Morse and Vail's final code specification, however, was only really used only for land-line telegraphy in the United States and Canada, with the International code used everywhere else, including all ships at sea and sailing in North American waters. Morse's version became known asAmerican Morse codeorrailroad code, and is now almost never used, with the possible exception of historical re-enactments. Aviation Inaviation, pilots useradio navigationaids. To allow pilots to ensure that the stations they intend to use are serviceable, the stations transmit a set of identification letters (usually a two-to-five-letter version of the station name) in Morse code. Station identification letters are shown on air navigation charts. For example, theVOR-DMEbased atVilo Acuña AirportinCayo Largo del Sur, Cubais identified by \"UCL\", and Morse codeUCLis repeatedly transmitted on its radio frequency. In some countries, during periods of maintenance, the facility may instead transmit the signalTEST(▄▄▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄▄), or theidentificationmay be removed, which tellspilotsandnavigatorsthat the station is unreliable. In Canada, the identification is removed entirely to signify the navigation aid is not to be used. In the aviation service, Morse is typically sent at a very slow speed of about 5 words per minute. In the U.S., pilots do not actually have to know Morse to identify the transmitter because the dot/dash sequence is written out next to the transmitter's symbol on aeronautical charts. Some modern navigation receivers automatically translate the code into displayed letters. Amateur radio International Morse code today is most popular amongamateur radiooperators, in the mode commonly referred to as \"continuous wave\" or \"CW\".Other, faster keying methods are available in radio telegraphy, such asfrequency-shift keying(FSK). The original amateur radio operators used Morse code exclusively since voice-capable radio transmitters did not become commonly available until around 1920. Until 2003, theInternational Telecommunication Unionmandated Morse code proficiency as part of the amateur radio licensing procedure worldwide. However, theWorld Radiocommunication Conferenceof 2003 made the Morse code requirement for amateur radio licensing optional.Many countries subsequently removed the Morse requirement from their license requirements. Until 1991, a demonstration of the ability to send and receive Morse code at a minimum of five words per minute (WPM) was required to receive an amateur radio license for use in the United States from theFederal Communications Commission. Demonstration of this ability was still required for the privilege to use theshortwave bands. Until 2000, proficiency at the 20WPMlevel was required to receive the highest level of amateur license (Amateur Extra Class); effective April 15, 2000, in the FCC reduced the Extra Class requirement to 5WPM.Finally, effective on February 23, 2007, the FCC eliminated the Morse code proficiency requirements from all amateur radio licenses. While voice and data transmissions are limited to specific amateur radio bands under U.S. rules, Morse code is permitted on all amateur bands:LF,MF low,MF high,HF,VHF, andUHF. In some countries, certain portions of the amateur radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code signals only. Because Morse code transmissions employ anon-off keyedradio signal, it requires less complex equipment than otherradio transmission modes. Morse code also uses lessbandwidth(typically only 100–150Hzwide, although only for a slow data rate) than voice communication (roughly 2,400~2,800 Hz used bySSB voice). Morse code is usually received as a high-pitched audio tone, so transmissions are easier to copy than voice through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal environments. The fact that the transmitted power is concentrated into a very limited bandwidth makes it possible to use narrow receiver filters, which suppress or eliminate interference on nearby frequencies. The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage of the natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability.This efficiency makes CW extremely useful forDX (long distance) transmissions, as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly called \"QRP operation\", from theQ-codefor \"reduce power\"). There are several amateur clubs that require solid high speed copy, the highest of these has a standard of 60WPM. TheAmerican Radio Relay Leagueoffers a code proficiency certification program that starts at 10WPM. The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an extensive number of abbreviations to speed communication. These include prosigns,Q codes, and a set ofMorse code abbreviationsfor typical message components. For example,CQis broadcast to be interpreted as \"seek you\" (I'd like to converse with anyone who can hear my signal). The abbreviationsOM(old man),YL(young lady), andXYL(\"ex-young lady\" – wife) are common.YLorOMis used by an operator when referring to the other operator (regardless of their actual age), andXYLorOM(rather than the expectedXYM) is used by an operator when referring to his or her spouse.QTHis \"transmitting location\" (spoken \"my Q.T.H.\" is \"my location\"). The use of abbreviations for common terms permits conversation even when the operators speak different languages. Although the traditionaltelegraph key(straight key) is still used by some amateurs, the use of mechanical semi-automatickeyers(informally called \"bugs\"), and of fully automatic electronickeyers(called \"single paddle\" and either \"double-paddle\" or \"iambic\" keys) is prevalent today.Softwareis also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse code radio signals. TheARRLhas a readability standard for robot encoders calledARRL Farnsworth spacingthat is supposed to have higher readability for both robot and human decoders. Some programs like WinMorsehave implemented the standard. Other uses Radio navigation aids such asVORsandNDBsfor aeronautical use broadcast identifying information in the form of Morse Code, though manyVORstations now also provide voice identification.Warships, including those of theU.S. Navy, have long usedsignal lampsto exchange messages in Morse code. Modern use continues, in part, as a way to communicate while maintainingradio silence. Automatic Transmitter Identification System(ATIS) uses Morse code to identify uplink sources of analog satellite transmissions. Manyamateur radio repeatersidentify with Morse, even though they are used for voice communications. Applications for the general public An important application is signalling for help throughSOS, \"▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄\". This can be sent many ways: keying a radio on and off, flashing a mirror, toggling a flashlight, and similar methods. TheSOSsignal is not sent as three separate characters; rather, it is aprosignSOS, and is keyed without gaps between characters. SomeNokiamobile phones offer an option to alert the user of an incoming text message with the Morse tone \"▄ ▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄ ▄\" (representingSMSor Short Message Service).In addition, applications are now available for mobile phones that enable short messages to be input in Morse Code. Morse code as an assistive technology Morse code has been employed as anassistive technology, helping people with a variety ofdisabilitiesto communicate.For example, the Android operating system versions 5.0 and higher allow users to input text using Morse Code as an alternative to a keypad orhandwriting recognition. Morse can be sent by persons with severe motion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal motor control. An original solution to the problem that caretakers have to learn to decode has been an electronic typewriter with the codes written on the keys. Codes were sung by users; see the voice typewriter employing Morse or votem. Morse code can also be translated by computer and used in a speaking communication aid. In some cases, this means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic tube (\"sip-and-puff\" interface). An important advantage of Morse code overrow column scanningis that once learned, it does not require looking at a display. Also, it appears faster than scanning. In one case reported in the radio amateur magazineQST,an old shipboard radio operator who had astrokeand lost the ability to speak or write could communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking his eyes in Morse. Two examples of communication in intensive care units were also published inQST magazine.Another example occurred in 1966 whenprisoner of warJeremiah Denton, brought on television by hisNorth Vietnamesecaptors, Morse-blinked the wordTORTURE. In these two cases, interpreters were available to understand those series of eye-blinks. Representation, timing, and speeds International Morse code is composed of five elements:: §3 Transmission Morse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: Originally as electrical pulses along atelegraphwire, but later extended to an audio tone, a radio signal with short and long tones, or high and low tones, or as a mechanical, audible, or visual signal (e.g. a flashing light) using devices like anAldis lampor aheliograph, a common flashlight, or even a car horn. Some mine rescues have used pulling on a rope - a short pull for a dot and a long pull for adah. Ground forces send messages to aircraft with panel signalling, where a horizontal panel is a dah and a vertical panel a dit. Morse messages are generally transmitted by a hand-operated device such as atelegraph key, so there are variations introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver — more experienced operators can send and receive at faster speeds. In addition, individual operators differ slightly, for example, using slightly longer or shorterdahsor gaps, perhaps only for particular characters. This is called their \"fist\", and experienced operators can recognize specific individuals by it alone. A good operator who sends clearly and is easy to copy is said to have a \"good fist\". A \"poor fist\" is a characteristic of sloppy or hard to copy Morse code. Digital storage Morse code is transmitted using just two states (on and off). Morse code may be represented as a binary code, and that is what telegraph operators do when transmitting messages. Working from the above ITU definition and further defining abitas a dot time, a Morse code sequence may be crudely represented a combination of the following five bit-strings: The marks and gaps alternate:Ditsanddahsare always separated by one of the gaps, and that the gaps are always separated by aditor adah. A more efficient binary encoding uses only two-bits for eachditordahelement, with the 1dit-length pause that must follow after each automatically included for every 2 bit code. One possible coding is by number value for the length of signal tone sent one could use '01'b for aditand the automatic single-dit pause after it, and '11'b for adahand the automatic single-ditfollowing pause, and '00'b for theextrapause between letters (in effect, an end-of-letter mark). That leaves the code '10'b available for some other purpose, such as an escape character, or to more compactly represent theextraspace between words (an end-of-word mark) instead of '00 00 00'b (only 6ditlengths, since the 7th is automatically inserted as part of the priorditordah). Although theditand inter-letter pauses work out to be the same, for any letter containing adah, the two-bit encoding uses digital memory more compactly than the direct-conversion bit strings mentioned above. Including the letter-separating spaces, all International Morse letter codes pack into 12 bits or less (5 symbols), and most fit into 10 bits or less (4 symbols); most of theprocedural signsfit into 14 bits, with a few only needing 12 bits (5 symbols); and all digits require exactly 12 bits. For example, MorseG(▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄+ 2extraempty dits for \"end of letter\") would binary-encode as '11'b, '11'b, '01'b, '00'b; when packed it is '1111 0100'b = 'F4'x, which stores into only onebyte(twonibbles) (as does every three-element code). The bit encoding for the longer method mentioned earlier the same letter would encode as '1110'b, '1110'b, '1000'b = '1110 1110 1000'b = 'EE8'x, or one-and-a-half bytes (three nibbles). The space saving allows small devices, like portable memory keyers, to have more and longer International Morse code sequences in small, conventional device-drivermicroprocessors'RAMchips. Cable code The very longtime constantsof 19th and early 20th centurysubmarine communications cablesrequired a different form of Morse signalling. Instead of keying a voltage on and off for varying times, the dits and dahs were represented by two polarities of voltage impressed on the cable, for a uniform time. Timing Below is an illustration of timing conventions. The phraseMORSE CODE, in Morse code format, would normally be written something like this, where–representsdahsand·representsdits: Next is the exact conventional timing for this phrase, with▓representing \"signal on\", and˽representing \"signal off\", each for the time length of exactly one dit: Spoken representation Morse code is often spoken or written withdahfor dashes,ditfor dots located at the end of a character, anddifor dots located at the beginning or internally within the character. Thus, the following Morse code sequence: is spoken (or sung): Dah dah dah dah dah di dah dit di di dit dit,Dah di dah dit dah dah dah dah di dit dit. For use on radio, there is little point in learning to readwrittenMorse as above; rather, thesoundsof all of the letters and symbols need to be learned, for both sending and receiving. Speed in words per minute All Morse code elements depend on the dot /ditlength. Adahis the length of 3 dits (with no gaps between), and spacings are specified in number ofditlengths. An unambiguous method of specifying the transmission speed is to specify theditduration as, for example, 50 milliseconds. Specifying theditduration is, however, not the common practice. Usually, speeds are stated in words per minute. That introduces ambiguity because words have different numbers of characters, and characters have differentditlengths. It is not immediately clear how a specific word rate determines theditduration in milliseconds. Some method to standardize the transformation of a word rate to aditduration is useful. A simple way to do this is to choose aditduration that would send a typical word the desired number of times in one minute. If, for example, the operator wanted a character speed of 13 words per minute, the operator would choose aditrate that would send the typical word 13 times in exactly one minute. The typical word thus determines theditlength. It is common to assume that a word is 5 characters long. There are two common typical words:PARISandCODEX.PARISmimics a word rate that is typical of natural language words and reflects the benefits of Morse code's shorter code durations for common characters such asEandT.CODEXoffers a word rate that is typical of 5 letter code groups (sequences of random letters). Using the wordPARISas a standard, the number ofditunits is 50 and a simple calculation shows that theditlength at 20 words per minute is 60 milliseconds. Using the wordCODEXwith 60 dit units, theditlength at 20 words per minute is 50 milliseconds. Because Morse code is usually sent by hand, it is unlikely that an operator could be that precise with theditlength, and the individual characteristics and preferences of the operators usually override the standards. For commercial radiotelegraph licenses in the United States, the Federal Communications Commission specifies tests for Morse code proficiency in words per minute and in code groups per minute.: §13.207(c), §13.209(d)TheFCCspecifies that a \"word\" is 5 characters long. The Commission specifies Morse code test elements at 16 code groups per minute, 20 words per minute, 20 code groups per minute, and 25 words per minute.: §13.203(b)The word per minute rate would be close to thePARISstandard, and the code groups per minute would be close to theCODEXstandard. While the Federal Communications Commission no longer requires Morse code for amateur radio licenses, the old requirements were similar to the requirements for commercial radiotelegraph licenses.: §97.503, 1996 A difference between amateur radio licenses and commercial radiotelegraph licenses is that commercial operators must be able to receive code groups of random characters along with plain language text. For each class of license, the code group speed requirement is slower than the plain language text requirement. For example, for the Radiotelegraph Operator License, the examinee must pass a 20 word per minute plain text test and a 16 word per minute code group test. Based upon a 50 dit duration standard word such asPARIS, the time for oneditduration or one unit can be computed by the formula: where:Tis the unit time, orditduration in milliseconds, andWis the speed inWPM. High-speed telegraphycontests are held; according to theGuinness Book of Recordsin June 2005 at theInternational Amateur Radio Union's 6th World Championship in High Speed Telegraphy inPrimorsko, Bulgaria, Andrei Bindasov ofBelarustransmitted 230 Morse code marks of mixed text in one minute. Farnsworth speed Sometimes, especially while teaching Morse code, the timing rules above are changed so two different speeds are used: A character speed and a text speed. The character speed is how fast each individual letter is sent. The text speed is how fast the entire message is sent. For example, individual characters may be sent at a 13 words-per-minute rate, but the intercharacter and interword gaps may be lengthened so the word rate is only 5 words per minute. Using different character and text speeds is, in fact, a common practice, and is used in the Farnsworth method oflearning Morse code. Alternative display of common characters in International Morse code Some methods of teaching Morse code use adichotomic searchtable. Learning methods People learning Morse code using theFarnsworth methodare taught to send and receive letters and other symbols at their full target speed, that is with normal relative timing of thedits,dahs, and spaces within each symbol for that speed. The Farnsworth method is named for Donald R. \"Russ\" Farnsworth, also known by hiscall sign, W6TTB. However, initially exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give \"thinking time\" to make the sound \"shape\" of the letters and symbols easier to learn. The spacing can then be reduced with practice and familiarity. Another popular teaching method is theKoch method, invented in 1935 by the German engineer and formerstormtrooperLudwig Koch,which uses the full target speed from the outset but begins with just two characters. Once strings containing those two characters can be copied with 90% accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on until the full character set is mastered. In North America, many thousands of individuals have increased their code recognition speed (after initial memorization of the characters) by listening to the regularly scheduled code practice transmissions broadcast byW1AW, the American Radio Relay League's headquarters station.As of 2015,the United States military taught Morse code as an 81-day self-paced course, having phased out more traditional classes. Mnemonics Visual mnemonic charts have been devised over the ages.Baden-Powellincluded one in theGirl Guideshandbookin 1918. In the United Kingdom, many people learned the Morse code by means of a series of words or phrases that have the same rhythm as a Morse character. For instance,Qin Morse isdah dah di dah,which can be memorized by the phrase \"God Save the Queen\", and the Morse forFisdi di dah dit,which can be memorized as \"Did she like it?\" Letters, numbers, punctuation, prosigns for Morse code and non-Latin variants Cut numbers Most numbers have an unofficial short-form, given in the table below. They are only used when both the sender and the receiver understand that numbers, and not letters, are intended;for example, one often sees the most commonR-S-T signal reportrendered as5NNinstead of599. Prosigns Prosigns for Morse code are special (usually) unwritten procedural signals or symbols that are used to indicate changes incommunications protocolstatus orwhite spacetext formatting actions. Symbol representations The symbols , , and are not defined inside the officialITU-RInternational Morse Code Recommendation,but informal conventions for them exist. (The symbol was formally added in 2004.) Diacritics and non-Latin extensions The typical tactic for creating Morse codes fordiacriticsand non-Latinalphabetic scripts has been to begin by simply using the International Morse codes used for letters whose sound matches the sound of the local alphabet. BecauseGerke code(the predecessor to International Morse) was in official use in central Europe,and included four characters not included in the International Morse standard (Ä,Ö,Ü, andCH) it has served as a beginning-point for other languages that use analphabeticscript, but require codes for letters not accommodated by International Morse. The usual method has been to first transliterate the sounds represented by the International code and the four unique Gerke codes into the local alphabet, henceGreek, Hebrew,Russian, and UkrainianMorse codes. If more codes are needed, one can either invent a new code or convert an otherwise unused code from either code set to the non-Latin letter. For example: ForRussianand Bulgarian,Russian Morse codeis used to map the Cyrillic characters to four-element codes. Many of the characters are encoded the same as their latin-alphabet look-alikes or sound-alikes (A,O,E,I,T,M,N,R,K, etc.). The Bulgarian alphabet contains 30 characters, which exactly match all possible combinations of 1, 2, 3, and 4ditsanddahs(RussianЫis used as BulgarianЬ, RussianЬis used as BulgarianЪ). Russian requires two more codes, for lettersЭandЪwhich are each encoded with 5 elements. Non-alphabeticscripts require more radical adaption. Japanese Morse code (Wabun code) has a separate encoding forkanascript; although many of the codes are used for International Morse, the sounds they represent are mostly unrelated. The Japanese /Wabuncode includes specialprosignsfor switching back-and-forth from International Morse:▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄signals a switch from International Morse toWabun, and▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄to return fromWabunto International Morse. ForChinese,Chinese telegraph codeis used to mapChinese charactersto four-digit codes and send these digits out using standard Morse code. Korean Morse codeuses the SKATS mapping, originally developed to allow Korean to be typed on western typewriters. SKATS mapshangulcharacters to arbitrary letters of theLatin scriptand has no relationship to pronunciation inKorean. Unusual variants During early World War I (1914–1916), Germany briefly experimented with 'dotty' and 'dashy' Morse, in essence adding a dot or a dash at the end of each Morse symbol. Each one was quickly broken by Allied SIGINT, and standard Morse was resumed by Spring 1916. Only a small percentage of Western Front (North AtlanticandMediterranean Sea) traffic was in 'dotty' or 'dashy' Morse during the entire war. In popular culture, this is mostly remembered in the bookThe CodebreakersbyDavid Kahnand in the national archives of the UK and Australia (whoseSIGINToperators copied most of this Morse variant). Kahn's cited sources come from the popular press and wireless magazines of the time. Other variations include forms of \"fractional Morse\" or \"fractionated Morse\", which recombine the characters of the Morse code–encoded message and then encrypt them using a cipher in order to disguise the text. Decoding software Decoding software for Morse code ranges from software-defined wide-band radio receivers, coupled to theReverse Beacon Network,which decodes signals and detectsCQmessages onham bands, to smartphone applications. See also Footnotes References External links"
] | [
"Director Special Forces Director Special Forces(DSF) is the seniorBritish Armed Forcesofficer responsible for theUnited Kingdom Special Forces. The post is a senior role within theMinistry of Defence(MoD).As director, the incumbent is responsible for the provision of special forces capability to MoD, and holds operational command for discrete special forces operations. History The post ofColonelSAS (Special Air Service) was created in 1964; this post evolved into Director SAS with the post holder commanding the SAScorpsfrom 1969. In March 1987, the post of Director SAS became Director Special Forces; it consisted of theArmy'sSpecial Air Service,Royal Navy'sSpecial Boat Serviceand the Army's14 Intelligence Companyunder the command of the DSF, who held therankofbrigadier, and with a Deputy, who held the rank of colonel. During the 2000s, the size of the directorate increased substantially with the inclusion of theSpecial Forces Support Groupand theJoint Special Forces Aviation Wing. Other changes included the",
"included the 14th Intelligence Company renamed as theSpecial Reconnaissance Regiment. This was to meet a demand for a special reconnaissance capability identified in theStrategic Defence Review: A New Chapterpublished in 2002 in response to the 2001September 11 attacks.Following a review, it was found that the SAS Reserve lacked a clearly defined role, and also stated that the reservists lacked the capability, equipment, and skills to serve alongside the regular special forces. What followed was a reduction in the scope of UK Special Forces.As an outcome of this review, on 1 September 2014, 21 and 23 SAS were removed from the UKSF order of battleand placed with theHonourable Artillery Company(HAC), under the command of1st Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Brigade.This change was partly reversed in 2019 with 21 and 23 SAS returning as an integrated part of the UKSF group. In 2008, the rank of the DSF was upgraded from brigadier tomajor-generalwith the directorate becoming an independent,",
"an independent, operational-level component command, alongside Land, Navy and Air elements in thePermanent Joint Headquarters(PJHQ) and in the deployable Joint Force Headquarters (JFHQ). The DSF is only accountable to theDefence Secretaryand thePrime Minister. UKSF may operate in locations where the UK does not formally acknowledge a military presence. List of commanders Commanders of special forces have been: Colonel SAS Director SAS Director Special Forces References",
"1985 UK Athletics Championships The1985UK Athletics Championshipswas the national championship in outdoortrack and fieldfor the United Kingdom held atAntrim Stadium,Antrim. It was the second time that a national track and field championship was held inNorthern Ireland, after hosting the 1981 event. It was the ninth edition of the competition limited to British athletes only, launched as an alternative to theAAA Championships, which was open to foreign competitors. However, due to the fact that the calibre of national competition remained greater at the AAA event, the UK Championships this year were not considered the principal national championship event by some statisticians, such as theNational Union of Track Statisticians(NUTS). Many of the athletes below also competed at the1985 AAA Championships. Fatima Whitbreadwon her fifth consecutive women'sjavelin throwUK title. Both the men's and women's champions defended in the5000 metres(Eamonn Martin,Angela Tooby) andshot put(Billy Cole,Judy Oakes), as did",
"Oakes), as did men'shammer throwerDave Smith.Linford ChristieandJohn Regisrecorded the same times in both the100 metresand200 metresfinals. Christie was given the 100 m title while the two shared the 200 m title. Christie was the only athlete at the competition to win two titles. The main international track and field competition for the United Kingdom that year was the1985 European Cup. Three UK champions medalled at that event: Whitbread in the javelin, Angela Tooby in the 10,000 m andTom McKeanin the800 metres.Derek Redmondwas third in the400 metresat the European competition, despite coming second at the UK race. Medal summary Men Women References",
"Morse code Morse codeis atelecommunicationsmethod whichencodestextcharacters as standardized sequences of two different signal durations, calleddotsanddashes, orditsanddahs.Morse code is named afterSamuel Morse, one of the early developers of the system adopted forelectrical telegraphy. International Morse codeencodes the 26basic Latin lettersAtoZ, oneaccentedLatin letter (É), theArabic numerals, and a small set of punctuation and procedural signals (prosigns). There is no distinction between upper and lower case letters.Each Morse code symbol is formed by a sequence ofditsanddahs. Theditduration can vary for signal clarity and operator skill, but for any one message, once established it is the basic unit of time measurement in Morse code. The duration of adahis three times the duration of adit(although some telegraphers deliberately exaggerate the length of adahfor clearer signalling). Eachditordahwithin an encoded character is followed by a period of signal absence, called aspace, equal to theditduration.",
"to theditduration. The letters of a word areseparated bya space of duration equal to threedits, and words are separated by a space equal to sevendits. Morse code can be memorized and sent in a form perceptible to the human senses, e.g. via sound waves or visible light, such that it can be directly interpreted by persons trained in the skill.Morse code is usually transmitted byon-off keyingof an information-carrying medium such as electric current, radio waves, visible light, or sound waves.The current or wave is present during the time period of theditordahand absent during the time betweenditsanddahs. Since many natural languages use more than the 26 letters of theLatin alphabet,Morse alphabetshave been developed for those languages, largely by transliteration of existing codes. To increase the efficiency of transmission, Morse code was originally designed so that the duration of each symbol is approximatelyinverse to the frequency of occurrenceof the character that it represents in text of the English",
"text of the English language. Thus the most common letter in English, the letterE, has the shortest code – a singledit. Because the Morse code elements are specified by proportion rather than specific time durations, the code is usually transmitted at the highest rate that the receiver is capable of decoding. Morse code transmission rate (speed) is specified ingroups per minute, commonly referred to aswords per minute. Development and history Pre-Morse telegraphs and codes Early in the nineteenth century, European experimenters made progress with electrical signaling systems, using a variety of techniques includingstatic electricityand electricity fromVoltaic pilesproducingelectrochemicalandelectromagneticchanges. These experimental designs were precursors to practical telegraphic applications. Following the discovery ofelectromagnetismbyHans Christian Ørstedin 1820 and the invention of theelectromagnetbyWilliam Sturgeonin 1824, there were developments inelectromagnetic telegraphyin Europe and America.",
"Europe and America. Pulses ofelectric currentwere sent along wires to control an electromagnet in the receiving instrument. Many of the earliest telegraph systems used a single-needle system which gave a very simple and robust instrument. However, it was slow, as the receiving operator had to alternate between looking at the needle and writing down the message. In Morse code, a deflection of the needle to the left corresponded to aditand a deflection to the right to adah.The needle clicked each time it moved to the right or left. By making the two clicks sound different (by installing one ivory and one metal stop), transmissions on the single needle device became audible as well as visible, which led in turn to theDouble PlateSounderSystem. William CookeandCharles WheatstoneinBritaindeveloped an electrical telegraph that used electromagnets in its receivers. They obtained an English patent in June 1837 and demonstrated it on the London and Birmingham Railway, making it the first commercial telegraph.Carl",
"telegraph.Carl Friedrich GaussandWilhelm Eduard Weber(1833) as well asCarl August von Steinheil(1837) used codes with varying word lengths for their telegraph systems.In 1841, Cooke and Wheatstone built a telegraph that printed the letters from a wheel of typefaces struck by a hammer.: 79 Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail The American artistSamuel Morse, the AmericanphysicistJoseph Henry, and mechanical engineerAlfred Vaildeveloped anelectrical telegraphsystem. The simple \"on or off\" nature of its signals made it desirable to find a method of transmitting natural language using only electrical pulses and the silence between them. Around 1837, Morse therefore developed such a method, an early forerunner to the modern International Morse code.: 79 The Morse system fortelegraphy, which was first used in about 1844, was designed to make indentations on a paper tape when electric currents were received. Morse's original telegraph receiver used a mechanical clockwork to move a paper tape. When an electrical current was",
"current was received, an electromagnet engaged an armature that pushed a stylus onto the moving paper tape, making an indentation on the tape. When the current was interrupted, a spring retracted the stylus and that portion of the moving tape remained unmarked. Morse code was developed so that operators could translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into text messages. In his earliest design for a code, Morse had planned to transmit only numerals, and to use a codebook to look up each word according to the number which had been sent. However, the code was soon expanded byAlfred Vailin 1840 to include letters and special characters, so it could be used more generally. Vail estimated the frequency of use of letters in theEnglish languageby counting the movable type he found in the type-cases of a local newspaper inMorristown, New Jersey.: 84The shorter marks were called \"dots\" and the longer ones \"dashes\", and the letters most commonly used were assigned the shortest sequences of dots and dashes.",
"of dots and dashes. This code, first used in 1844, was what later became known asMorse landline code,American Morse code, orRailroad Morse, until the end of railroad telegraphy in the U.S. in the 1970s. Operator-led change from graphical to audible code In the original Morse telegraph system, the receiver's armature made a clicking noise as it moved in and out of position to mark the paper tape. Early telegraph operators soon learned that they could translate the clicks directly into dots and dashes, and write these down by hand, thus making the paper tape unnecessary. When Morse code was adapted toradio communication, the dots and dashes were sent as short and long tone pulses. Later telegraphy training found that people become more proficient at receiving Morse code when it is taught \"like a language\", with each code perceived as a whole \"word\" instead of a sequence of separate dots and dashes, such as might be shown on a page. With the advent of tones produced by radiotelegraph receivers, the operators",
"the operators began to vocalize a dot asdit, and a dash asdah, to reflect the sounds of Morse code they heard. To conform to normal sending speed,ditswhich are not the last element of a code became voiced asdi. For example, theletterL(▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄) is voiced asdi dah di dit.Morse code was sometimes facetiously known as \"iddy-umpty\", aditlampooned as \"iddy\" and adahas \"umpty\", leading to the word \"umpteen\". Gerke's refinement of Morse's code The Morse code, as specified in the current international standard,International Morse Code Recommendation,ITU-RM.1677-1,was derived from a much-improved proposal byFriedrich Gerkein 1848 that became known as the \"Hamburg alphabet\", its only real defect being the use of an excessively long code (▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄and later the equal duration code▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄) for the frequently used vowelO. Gerke changed many of the codepoints, in the process doing away with the different length dashes and different inter-element spaces ofAmerican Morse, leaving only two coding elements, the dot and",
"the dot and the dash. Codes forGermanumlautedvowels andCHwere introduced. Gerke's code was adopted in Germany and Austria in 1851. This finally led to the International Morse code in 1865. The International Morse code adopted most of Gerke's codepoints. The codes forOandPwere taken from a code system developed by Steinheil. A new codepoint was added forJsince Gerke did not distinguish betweenIandJ. Changes were also made toX,Y, andZ. This left only four codepoints identical to the original Morse code, namelyE,H,KandN, and the latter two had theirdahsextended to full length. The original American code being compared dates to 1838; the later American code shown in the table was developed in 1844. Radiotelegraphy and aviation In the 1890s, Morse code began to be used extensively for earlyradiocommunication before it was possible to transmit voice. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most high-speed international communication used Morse code on telegraph lines, undersea cables, and radio circuits.",
"and radio circuits. Although previous transmitters were bulky and thespark gap system of transmissionwas dangerous and difficult to use, there had been some early attempts: In 1910, the U.S. Navy experimented with sending Morse from an airplane.However the first regular aviation radiotelegraphy was onairships, which had space to accommodate the large, heavy radio equipment then in use. The same year, 1910, a radio on the airshipAmericawas instrumental in coordinating the rescue of its crew. DuringWorld War I,Zeppelin airshipsequipped with radio were used for bombing and naval scouting,and ground-based radio direction finders were used for airship navigation.Allied airships and military aircraft also made some use of radiotelegraphy. However, there was little aeronautical radio in general use duringWorld War I, and in the 1920s, there was no radio system used by such important flights as that ofCharles LindberghfromNew YorktoParisin 1927. Once he and theSpirit of St. Louiswere off the ground, Lindbergh was",
"Lindbergh was truly incommunicado and alone. Morse code in aviation began regular use in the mid-1920s. By 1928, when the first airplane flight was made by theSouthern Crossfrom California to Australia, one of its four crewmen was a radio operator who communicated with ground stations viaradio telegraph. Beginning in the 1930s, both civilian and military pilots were required to be able to use Morse code, both for use with early communications systems and for identification of navigational beacons that transmitted continuous two- or three-letter identifiers in Morse code.Aeronautical chartsshow the identifier of each navigational aid next to its location on the map. In addition, rapidly moving field armies could not have fought effectively without radiotelegraphy; they moved more quickly than their communications services could put up new telegraph and telephone lines. This was seen especially in theblitzkriegoffensives of theNazi GermanWehrmachtinPoland,Belgium,France(in 1940), theSoviet Union, and inNorth",
"Union, and inNorth Africa; by theBritish ArmyinNorth Africa,Italy, and theNetherlands; and by theU.S. Armyin France and Belgium (in 1944), and in southern Germany in 1945. Maritime flash telegraphy and radio telegraphy Radiotelegraphy using Morse code was vital duringWorld War II, especially in carrying messages between thewarshipsand thenaval basesof the belligerents. Long-range ship-to-ship communication was by radio telegraphy, usingencryptedmessages because the voice radio systems on ships then were quite limited in both their range and their security. Radiotelegraphy was also extensively used bywarplanes, especially by long-rangepatrol planesthat were sent out by navies to scout for enemy warships, cargo ships, and troop ships. Morse code was used as an international standard for maritime distress until 1999 when it was replaced by theGlobal Maritime Distress and Safety System. When theFrench Navyceased using Morse code on January 31, 1997, the final message transmitted was\"Calling all. This is our last",
"This is our last call before our eternal silence.\" Demise of commercial telegraphy In the United States the final commercial Morse code transmission was on July 12, 1999, signing off with Samuel Morse's original 1844 message,WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT, and theprosignSK(\"end of contact\"). As of 2015, theUnited States Air Forcestill trains ten people a year in Morse. TheUnited States Coast Guardhas ceased all use of Morse code on the radio, and no longer monitors anyradio frequenciesfor Morse code transmissions, including the internationalmedium frequency(MF) distress frequency of500 kHz.However, theFederal Communications Commissionstill grants commercial radiotelegraph operator licenses to applicants who pass its code and written tests.Licensees have reactivated the old California coastal Morse stationKPHand regularly transmit from the site under either thiscall signor as KSM. Similarly, a few U.S.museum shipstations are operated by Morse enthusiasts. Operator proficiency Morse code speed is measured inwords per",
"inwords per minute(WPM) or characters per minute (CPM). Characters have differing lengths because they contain differing numbers ofditsanddahs. Consequently, words also have different lengths in terms of dot duration, even when they contain the same number of characters. For this reason, some standard word is adopted for measuring operators' transmission speeds: Two such standard words in common use arePARISandCODEX.Operators skilled in Morse code can often understand (\"copy\") code in their heads at rates in excess of 40WPM. In addition to knowing, understanding, and being able to copy the standard written alpha-numeric and punctuation characters or symbols at high speeds, skilled high-speed operators must also be fully knowledgeable of all of the special unwritten Morse code symbols for the standardProsigns for Morse codeand the meanings of these special procedural signals in standard Morse codecommunications protocol. International contests in code copying are still occasionally held. In July 1939 at a",
"In July 1939 at a contest inAsheville, North Carolinain the United StatesTed R. McElroy (W1JYN)set a still-standing record for Morse copying, 75.2WPM.Pierpont (2004) also notes that some operators may have passed 100WPM.By this time, they are \"hearing\" phrases and sentences rather than words. The fastest speed ever sent by a straight key was achieved in 1942 by Harry Turner (W9YZE) (d. 1992) who reached 35WPMin a demonstration at a U.S. Army base. To accurately compare code copying speed records of different eras it is useful to keep in mind that different standard words (50 dit durations versus 60 dit durations) and different interword gaps (5 dit durations versus 7 dit durations) may have been used when determining such speed records. For example, speeds run with theCODEXstandard word and thePARISstandard may differ by up to 20%. Today among amateur operators there are several organizations that recognize high-speed code ability, one group consisting of those who can copy Morse at 60WPM.Also, Certificates",
"Certificates of Code Proficiency are issued by several amateur radio societies, including theAmerican Radio Relay League. Their basic award starts at 10WPMwith endorsements as high as 40WPM, and are available to anyone who can copy the transmitted text. Members of theBoy Scouts of Americamay put a Morse interpreter's strip on their uniforms if they meet the standards for translating code at 5WPM. Through May 2013, the First, Second, and Third Class (commercial) Radiotelegraph Licenses using code tests based upon theCODEXstandard word were still being issued in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission. The First Class license required 20WPMcode group and 25WPMtext code proficiency, the others 16WPMcode group test (five letter blocks sent as simulation of receiving encrypted text) and 20WPMcode text (plain language) test. It was also necessary to pass written tests on operating practice and electronics theory. A unique additional demand for the First Class was a requirement of a year of",
"of a year of experience for operators of shipboard and coast stations using Morse. This allowed the holder to be chief operator on board a passenger ship. However, since 1999 the use of satellite and very high-frequency maritime communications systems (GMDSS) has made them obsolete. (By that point meeting experience requirement for the First was very difficult.) Currently, only one class of license, the Radiotelegraph Operator License, is issued. This is granted either when the tests are passed or as the Second and First are renewed and become this lifetime license. For new applicants, it requires passing a written examination on electronic theory and radiotelegraphy practices, as well as 16WPMcode-group and 20WPMtext tests. However, the code exams are currently waived for holders of Amateur Extra Class licenses who obtained their operating privileges under the old 20WPMtest requirement. International Morse code Morse codes of one version or another have been in use for more than 160 years — longer than any",
"— longer than any otherelectricalmessage encoding system. What is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse. The Modern International Morse code, orcontinental code, was created byFriedrich Clemens Gerkein 1848 and initially used for telegraphy betweenHamburgandCuxhavenin Germany. Gerke changed nearly half of the alphabet and all of thenumerals, providing the foundation for the modern form of the code. After some minor changes to the letters and a complete revision of the numerals, International Morse Code was standardized by the International Telegraphy Congress in 1865 in Paris, and later became the standard adopted by theInternational Telecommunication Union(ITU). Morse and Vail's final code specification, however, was only really used only for land-line telegraphy in the United States and Canada, with the International code used everywhere else, including all ships at sea and sailing in North American waters. Morse's version became known",
"became known asAmerican Morse codeorrailroad code, and is now almost never used, with the possible exception of historical re-enactments. Aviation Inaviation, pilots useradio navigationaids. To allow pilots to ensure that the stations they intend to use are serviceable, the stations transmit a set of identification letters (usually a two-to-five-letter version of the station name) in Morse code. Station identification letters are shown on air navigation charts. For example, theVOR-DMEbased atVilo Acuña AirportinCayo Largo del Sur, Cubais identified by \"UCL\", and Morse codeUCLis repeatedly transmitted on its radio frequency. In some countries, during periods of maintenance, the facility may instead transmit the signalTEST(▄▄▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄▄), or theidentificationmay be removed, which tellspilotsandnavigatorsthat the station is unreliable. In Canada, the identification is removed entirely to signify the navigation aid is not to be used. In the aviation service, Morse is typically sent at a very slow speed of about 5",
"speed of about 5 words per minute. In the U.S., pilots do not actually have to know Morse to identify the transmitter because the dot/dash sequence is written out next to the transmitter's symbol on aeronautical charts. Some modern navigation receivers automatically translate the code into displayed letters. Amateur radio International Morse code today is most popular amongamateur radiooperators, in the mode commonly referred to as \"continuous wave\" or \"CW\".Other, faster keying methods are available in radio telegraphy, such asfrequency-shift keying(FSK). The original amateur radio operators used Morse code exclusively since voice-capable radio transmitters did not become commonly available until around 1920. Until 2003, theInternational Telecommunication Unionmandated Morse code proficiency as part of the amateur radio licensing procedure worldwide. However, theWorld Radiocommunication Conferenceof 2003 made the Morse code requirement for amateur radio licensing optional.Many countries subsequently removed",
"removed the Morse requirement from their license requirements. Until 1991, a demonstration of the ability to send and receive Morse code at a minimum of five words per minute (WPM) was required to receive an amateur radio license for use in the United States from theFederal Communications Commission. Demonstration of this ability was still required for the privilege to use theshortwave bands. Until 2000, proficiency at the 20WPMlevel was required to receive the highest level of amateur license (Amateur Extra Class); effective April 15, 2000, in the FCC reduced the Extra Class requirement to 5WPM.Finally, effective on February 23, 2007, the FCC eliminated the Morse code proficiency requirements from all amateur radio licenses. While voice and data transmissions are limited to specific amateur radio bands under U.S. rules, Morse code is permitted on all amateur bands:LF,MF low,MF high,HF,VHF, andUHF. In some countries, certain portions of the amateur radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code",
"of Morse code signals only. Because Morse code transmissions employ anon-off keyedradio signal, it requires less complex equipment than otherradio transmission modes. Morse code also uses lessbandwidth(typically only 100–150Hzwide, although only for a slow data rate) than voice communication (roughly 2,400~2,800 Hz used bySSB voice). Morse code is usually received as a high-pitched audio tone, so transmissions are easier to copy than voice through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal environments. The fact that the transmitted power is concentrated into a very limited bandwidth makes it possible to use narrow receiver filters, which suppress or eliminate interference on nearby frequencies. The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage of the natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability.This efficiency makes CW extremely useful forDX (long distance) transmissions, as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly",
"(commonly called \"QRP operation\", from theQ-codefor \"reduce power\"). There are several amateur clubs that require solid high speed copy, the highest of these has a standard of 60WPM. TheAmerican Radio Relay Leagueoffers a code proficiency certification program that starts at 10WPM. The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an extensive number of abbreviations to speed communication. These include prosigns,Q codes, and a set ofMorse code abbreviationsfor typical message components. For example,CQis broadcast to be interpreted as \"seek you\" (I'd like to converse with anyone who can hear my signal). The abbreviationsOM(old man),YL(young lady), andXYL(\"ex-young lady\" – wife) are common.YLorOMis used by an operator when referring to the other operator (regardless of their actual age), andXYLorOM(rather than the expectedXYM) is used by an operator when referring to his or her spouse.QTHis \"transmitting location\" (spoken \"my Q.T.H.\" is \"my location\"). The use of",
"The use of abbreviations for common terms permits conversation even when the operators speak different languages. Although the traditionaltelegraph key(straight key) is still used by some amateurs, the use of mechanical semi-automatickeyers(informally called \"bugs\"), and of fully automatic electronickeyers(called \"single paddle\" and either \"double-paddle\" or \"iambic\" keys) is prevalent today.Softwareis also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse code radio signals. TheARRLhas a readability standard for robot encoders calledARRL Farnsworth spacingthat is supposed to have higher readability for both robot and human decoders. Some programs like WinMorsehave implemented the standard. Other uses Radio navigation aids such asVORsandNDBsfor aeronautical use broadcast identifying information in the form of Morse Code, though manyVORstations now also provide voice identification.Warships, including those of theU.S. Navy, have long usedsignal lampsto exchange messages in Morse code. Modern use continues, in",
"use continues, in part, as a way to communicate while maintainingradio silence. Automatic Transmitter Identification System(ATIS) uses Morse code to identify uplink sources of analog satellite transmissions. Manyamateur radio repeatersidentify with Morse, even though they are used for voice communications. Applications for the general public An important application is signalling for help throughSOS, \"▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄\". This can be sent many ways: keying a radio on and off, flashing a mirror, toggling a flashlight, and similar methods. TheSOSsignal is not sent as three separate characters; rather, it is aprosignSOS, and is keyed without gaps between characters. SomeNokiamobile phones offer an option to alert the user of an incoming text message with the Morse tone \"▄ ▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄ ▄\" (representingSMSor Short Message Service).In addition, applications are now available for mobile phones that enable short messages to be input in Morse Code. Morse code as an assistive technology Morse code has been",
"Morse code has been employed as anassistive technology, helping people with a variety ofdisabilitiesto communicate.For example, the Android operating system versions 5.0 and higher allow users to input text using Morse Code as an alternative to a keypad orhandwriting recognition. Morse can be sent by persons with severe motion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal motor control. An original solution to the problem that caretakers have to learn to decode has been an electronic typewriter with the codes written on the keys. Codes were sung by users; see the voice typewriter employing Morse or votem. Morse code can also be translated by computer and used in a speaking communication aid. In some cases, this means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic tube (\"sip-and-puff\" interface). An important advantage of Morse code overrow column scanningis that once learned, it does not require looking at a display. Also, it appears faster than scanning. In one case reported in the radio amateur",
"the radio amateur magazineQST,an old shipboard radio operator who had astrokeand lost the ability to speak or write could communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking his eyes in Morse. Two examples of communication in intensive care units were also published inQST magazine.Another example occurred in 1966 whenprisoner of warJeremiah Denton, brought on television by hisNorth Vietnamesecaptors, Morse-blinked the wordTORTURE. In these two cases, interpreters were available to understand those series of eye-blinks. Representation, timing, and speeds International Morse code is composed of five elements:: §3 Transmission Morse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: Originally as electrical pulses along atelegraphwire, but later extended to an audio tone, a radio signal with short and long tones, or high and low tones, or as a mechanical, audible, or visual signal (e.g. a flashing light) using devices like anAldis lampor aheliograph, a common flashlight, or even a car horn. Some mine rescues",
"Some mine rescues have used pulling on a rope - a short pull for a dot and a long pull for adah. Ground forces send messages to aircraft with panel signalling, where a horizontal panel is a dah and a vertical panel a dit. Morse messages are generally transmitted by a hand-operated device such as atelegraph key, so there are variations introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver — more experienced operators can send and receive at faster speeds. In addition, individual operators differ slightly, for example, using slightly longer or shorterdahsor gaps, perhaps only for particular characters. This is called their \"fist\", and experienced operators can recognize specific individuals by it alone. A good operator who sends clearly and is easy to copy is said to have a \"good fist\". A \"poor fist\" is a characteristic of sloppy or hard to copy Morse code. Digital storage Morse code is transmitted using just two states (on and off). Morse code may be represented as a binary code, and that is what telegraph",
"is what telegraph operators do when transmitting messages. Working from the above ITU definition and further defining abitas a dot time, a Morse code sequence may be crudely represented a combination of the following five bit-strings: The marks and gaps alternate:Ditsanddahsare always separated by one of the gaps, and that the gaps are always separated by aditor adah. A more efficient binary encoding uses only two-bits for eachditordahelement, with the 1dit-length pause that must follow after each automatically included for every 2 bit code. One possible coding is by number value for the length of signal tone sent one could use '01'b for aditand the automatic single-dit pause after it, and '11'b for adahand the automatic single-ditfollowing pause, and '00'b for theextrapause between letters (in effect, an end-of-letter mark). That leaves the code '10'b available for some other purpose, such as an escape character, or to more compactly represent theextraspace between words (an end-of-word mark) instead of '00",
"instead of '00 00 00'b (only 6ditlengths, since the 7th is automatically inserted as part of the priorditordah). Although theditand inter-letter pauses work out to be the same, for any letter containing adah, the two-bit encoding uses digital memory more compactly than the direct-conversion bit strings mentioned above. Including the letter-separating spaces, all International Morse letter codes pack into 12 bits or less (5 symbols), and most fit into 10 bits or less (4 symbols); most of theprocedural signsfit into 14 bits, with a few only needing 12 bits (5 symbols); and all digits require exactly 12 bits. For example, MorseG(▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄+ 2extraempty dits for \"end of letter\") would binary-encode as '11'b, '11'b, '01'b, '00'b; when packed it is '1111 0100'b = 'F4'x, which stores into only onebyte(twonibbles) (as does every three-element code). The bit encoding for the longer method mentioned earlier the same letter would encode as '1110'b, '1110'b, '1000'b = '1110 1110 1000'b = 'EE8'x, or one-and-a-half bytes",
"bytes (three nibbles). The space saving allows small devices, like portable memory keyers, to have more and longer International Morse code sequences in small, conventional device-drivermicroprocessors'RAMchips. Cable code The very longtime constantsof 19th and early 20th centurysubmarine communications cablesrequired a different form of Morse signalling. Instead of keying a voltage on and off for varying times, the dits and dahs were represented by two polarities of voltage impressed on the cable, for a uniform time. Timing Below is an illustration of timing conventions. The phraseMORSE CODE, in Morse code format, would normally be written something like this, where–representsdahsand·representsdits: Next is the exact conventional timing for this phrase, with▓representing \"signal on\", and˽representing \"signal off\", each for the time length of exactly one dit: Spoken representation Morse code is often spoken or written withdahfor dashes,ditfor dots located at the end of a character, anddifor dots located at",
"dots located at the beginning or internally within the character. Thus, the following Morse code sequence: is spoken (or sung): Dah dah dah dah dah di dah dit di di dit dit,Dah di dah dit dah dah dah dah di dit dit. For use on radio, there is little point in learning to readwrittenMorse as above; rather, thesoundsof all of the letters and symbols need to be learned, for both sending and receiving. Speed in words per minute All Morse code elements depend on the dot /ditlength. Adahis the length of 3 dits (with no gaps between), and spacings are specified in number ofditlengths. An unambiguous method of specifying the transmission speed is to specify theditduration as, for example, 50 milliseconds. Specifying theditduration is, however, not the common practice. Usually, speeds are stated in words per minute. That introduces ambiguity because words have different numbers of characters, and characters have differentditlengths. It is not immediately clear how a specific word rate determines theditduration in",
"theditduration in milliseconds. Some method to standardize the transformation of a word rate to aditduration is useful. A simple way to do this is to choose aditduration that would send a typical word the desired number of times in one minute. If, for example, the operator wanted a character speed of 13 words per minute, the operator would choose aditrate that would send the typical word 13 times in exactly one minute. The typical word thus determines theditlength. It is common to assume that a word is 5 characters long. There are two common typical words:PARISandCODEX.PARISmimics a word rate that is typical of natural language words and reflects the benefits of Morse code's shorter code durations for common characters such asEandT.CODEXoffers a word rate that is typical of 5 letter code groups (sequences of random letters). Using the wordPARISas a standard, the number ofditunits is 50 and a simple calculation shows that theditlength at 20 words per minute is 60 milliseconds. Using the wordCODEXwith 60 dit",
"60 dit units, theditlength at 20 words per minute is 50 milliseconds. Because Morse code is usually sent by hand, it is unlikely that an operator could be that precise with theditlength, and the individual characteristics and preferences of the operators usually override the standards. For commercial radiotelegraph licenses in the United States, the Federal Communications Commission specifies tests for Morse code proficiency in words per minute and in code groups per minute.: §13.207(c), §13.209(d)TheFCCspecifies that a \"word\" is 5 characters long. The Commission specifies Morse code test elements at 16 code groups per minute, 20 words per minute, 20 code groups per minute, and 25 words per minute.: §13.203(b)The word per minute rate would be close to thePARISstandard, and the code groups per minute would be close to theCODEXstandard. While the Federal Communications Commission no longer requires Morse code for amateur radio licenses, the old requirements were similar to the requirements for commercial",
"for commercial radiotelegraph licenses.: §97.503, 1996 A difference between amateur radio licenses and commercial radiotelegraph licenses is that commercial operators must be able to receive code groups of random characters along with plain language text. For each class of license, the code group speed requirement is slower than the plain language text requirement. For example, for the Radiotelegraph Operator License, the examinee must pass a 20 word per minute plain text test and a 16 word per minute code group test. Based upon a 50 dit duration standard word such asPARIS, the time for oneditduration or one unit can be computed by the formula: where:Tis the unit time, orditduration in milliseconds, andWis the speed inWPM. High-speed telegraphycontests are held; according to theGuinness Book of Recordsin June 2005 at theInternational Amateur Radio Union's 6th World Championship in High Speed Telegraphy inPrimorsko, Bulgaria, Andrei Bindasov ofBelarustransmitted 230 Morse code marks of mixed text in one",
"mixed text in one minute. Farnsworth speed Sometimes, especially while teaching Morse code, the timing rules above are changed so two different speeds are used: A character speed and a text speed. The character speed is how fast each individual letter is sent. The text speed is how fast the entire message is sent. For example, individual characters may be sent at a 13 words-per-minute rate, but the intercharacter and interword gaps may be lengthened so the word rate is only 5 words per minute. Using different character and text speeds is, in fact, a common practice, and is used in the Farnsworth method oflearning Morse code. Alternative display of common characters in International Morse code Some methods of teaching Morse code use adichotomic searchtable. Learning methods People learning Morse code using theFarnsworth methodare taught to send and receive letters and other symbols at their full target speed, that is with normal relative timing of thedits,dahs, and spaces within each symbol for that speed.",
"for that speed. The Farnsworth method is named for Donald R. \"Russ\" Farnsworth, also known by hiscall sign, W6TTB. However, initially exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give \"thinking time\" to make the sound \"shape\" of the letters and symbols easier to learn. The spacing can then be reduced with practice and familiarity. Another popular teaching method is theKoch method, invented in 1935 by the German engineer and formerstormtrooperLudwig Koch,which uses the full target speed from the outset but begins with just two characters. Once strings containing those two characters can be copied with 90% accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on until the full character set is mastered. In North America, many thousands of individuals have increased their code recognition speed (after initial memorization of the characters) by listening to the regularly scheduled code practice transmissions broadcast byW1AW, the American Radio Relay League's headquarters station.As of 2015,the United",
"of 2015,the United States military taught Morse code as an 81-day self-paced course, having phased out more traditional classes. Mnemonics Visual mnemonic charts have been devised over the ages.Baden-Powellincluded one in theGirl Guideshandbookin 1918. In the United Kingdom, many people learned the Morse code by means of a series of words or phrases that have the same rhythm as a Morse character. For instance,Qin Morse isdah dah di dah,which can be memorized by the phrase \"God Save the Queen\", and the Morse forFisdi di dah dit,which can be memorized as \"Did she like it?\" Letters, numbers, punctuation, prosigns for Morse code and non-Latin variants Cut numbers Most numbers have an unofficial short-form, given in the table below. They are only used when both the sender and the receiver understand that numbers, and not letters, are intended;for example, one often sees the most commonR-S-T signal reportrendered as5NNinstead of599. Prosigns Prosigns for Morse code are special (usually) unwritten procedural",
"procedural signals or symbols that are used to indicate changes incommunications protocolstatus orwhite spacetext formatting actions. Symbol representations The symbols , , and are not defined inside the officialITU-RInternational Morse Code Recommendation,but informal conventions for them exist. (The symbol was formally added in 2004.) Diacritics and non-Latin extensions The typical tactic for creating Morse codes fordiacriticsand non-Latinalphabetic scripts has been to begin by simply using the International Morse codes used for letters whose sound matches the sound of the local alphabet. BecauseGerke code(the predecessor to International Morse) was in official use in central Europe,and included four characters not included in the International Morse standard (Ä,Ö,Ü, andCH) it has served as a beginning-point for other languages that use analphabeticscript, but require codes for letters not accommodated by International Morse. The usual method has been to first transliterate the sounds represented by the",
"represented by the International code and the four unique Gerke codes into the local alphabet, henceGreek, Hebrew,Russian, and UkrainianMorse codes. If more codes are needed, one can either invent a new code or convert an otherwise unused code from either code set to the non-Latin letter. For example: ForRussianand Bulgarian,Russian Morse codeis used to map the Cyrillic characters to four-element codes. Many of the characters are encoded the same as their latin-alphabet look-alikes or sound-alikes (A,O,E,I,T,M,N,R,K, etc.). The Bulgarian alphabet contains 30 characters, which exactly match all possible combinations of 1, 2, 3, and 4ditsanddahs(RussianЫis used as BulgarianЬ, RussianЬis used as BulgarianЪ). Russian requires two more codes, for lettersЭandЪwhich are each encoded with 5 elements. Non-alphabeticscripts require more radical adaption. Japanese Morse code (Wabun code) has a separate encoding forkanascript; although many of the codes are used for International Morse, the sounds they represent are",
"they represent are mostly unrelated. The Japanese /Wabuncode includes specialprosignsfor switching back-and-forth from International Morse:▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄signals a switch from International Morse toWabun, and▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄to return fromWabunto International Morse. ForChinese,Chinese telegraph codeis used to mapChinese charactersto four-digit codes and send these digits out using standard Morse code. Korean Morse codeuses the SKATS mapping, originally developed to allow Korean to be typed on western typewriters. SKATS mapshangulcharacters to arbitrary letters of theLatin scriptand has no relationship to pronunciation inKorean. Unusual variants During early World War I (1914–1916), Germany briefly experimented with 'dotty' and 'dashy' Morse, in essence adding a dot or a dash at the end of each Morse symbol. Each one was quickly broken by Allied SIGINT, and standard Morse was resumed by Spring 1916. Only a small percentage of Western Front (North AtlanticandMediterranean Sea) traffic was in 'dotty' or 'dashy'",
"'dotty' or 'dashy' Morse during the entire war. In popular culture, this is mostly remembered in the bookThe CodebreakersbyDavid Kahnand in the national archives of the UK and Australia (whoseSIGINToperators copied most of this Morse variant). Kahn's cited sources come from the popular press and wireless magazines of the time. Other variations include forms of \"fractional Morse\" or \"fractionated Morse\", which recombine the characters of the Morse code–encoded message and then encrypt them using a cipher in order to disguise the text. Decoding software Decoding software for Morse code ranges from software-defined wide-band radio receivers, coupled to theReverse Beacon Network,which decodes signals and detectsCQmessages onham bands, to smartphone applications. See also Footnotes References External links"
] |
Which section of IPSC Australia Inc. is larger than Honshu and smaller than Sumatra by area? | Victoria and Tasmania | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPSC_Australia_Inc | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Australia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_(state) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmania | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Capital_Territory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Territory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honshu | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumatra | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPSC_Australia_Inc', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Australia', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_(state)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmania', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australia', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Capital_Territory', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Territory', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honshu', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumatra'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPSC_Australia_Inc",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Australia",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_(state",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmania",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australia",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Capital_Territory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Territory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honshu",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumatra"
] | [
"IPSC Australia Inc IPSC Australia Incis theAustralianassociation forpractical shootingunder theInternational Practical Shooting Confederation. It consists of seven sections:VictoriaandTasmania,South Australia,New South Wales,Australian Capital Territory,Queensland,Northern TerritoryandWestern Australia. See also References External links This article about an organisation in Australia is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. Thisshooting sportrelated article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"Western Australia Western Australia(WA) is the westernmoststate of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, theSouthern Oceanto the south, theNorthern Territoryto the north-east, andSouth Australiato the south-east. Western Australia is Australia’s largest state, with a land area of 2,527,013 square kilometres (975,685 sq mi),and is also thesecond-largest subdivisionof any country on Earth, surpassed only by theSakha Republicin eastern Russia. Western Australia has a diverse range of climates, including tropical conditions in theKimberley, deserts in the interior (including theGreat Sandy Desert,Little Sandy Desert,Gibson Desert, andGreat Victoria Desert) and aMediterranean climateon the south-west and southern coastal areas. As of 2021,the state has 2.91 million inhabitants—11 percent of the national total.Over 90 percent of the state's population live in thesouth-west cornerand around 80 percent live in the state capitalPerth,leaving the remainder of the state sparsely populated. TheTrans-Australian Railwayand theEyre Highwaytraverse theNullarbor Plainin the state's south-east, providing the principal connection between Western Australia and the population centres in theeastern states. Western Australia'sIndigenous peopleshave been present for tens of thousands of years. Dutch explorers visited Western Australia from the 17th century, withDirk Hartog's 1616 expedition the first Europeans to make landfall. The British claimed Western Australia in 1827 and established theSwan River Colonywith Perth as its capital in 1829. TheWestern Australian gold rushesof the late 19th century resulted in a significant population influx. The colony was grantedresponsible governmentin 1890, the last of the Australian colonies to become self-governing, andfederatedwith the other colonies in 1901. Western Australia'smining sectoris a key driver of thestate economy. The late 20th century saw the development of the state's significantiron ore mining industry– the world's largest – as well as primarily offshorepetroleum and natural gas resources.Gold miningretains a significant presence and many other mineral commodities are mined, with Perth being a major centre for associated services. Outside of mining, primary industry is the other significant contributor to the state's economy, including agriculture in theWheatbeltand temperate southern coastal regions,pastoralismin marginal grassland areas,forestryin the south-west and fishing (includingpearlingand, historically,whaling). History Western Australia has a geological history dating back to 4.4 billion years ago whenHadean zirconswere formed. The earliest direct known life on land, known asstromatolites, started to be created by microbes at around 3.48 billion years ago. The first human inhabitants of Australia arrived from the north \"over 50,000 years ago and possibly as much as 70,000 years ago\".: 5Over thousands of years they eventually spread across the whole landmass.TheseIndigenous Australianswere long established throughout Western Australia by the time European explorers began to arrive in the early 17th century. The first Europeans to visit Western Australia were those of the DutchDirk Hartogexpedition, who on 25 October 1616 landed at what is now known as Cape Inscription,Dirk Hartog Island. For the rest of the 17th century,other Dutch and British navigatorsencountered the coast of whatAbel TasmannamedNew Hollandin 1644, usually unintentionally as demonstrated by the many shipwrecks along the coast of ships that deviated from theBrouwer Route(because of poor navigation and storms).By the late 18th century, British and French sailors had begun to explore the Western Australian coast. TheBaudin expeditionof 1800–03 included the coast of Western Australia and resulted in theFreycinet Map of 1811, the first published map featuring the full outline of Australia. The name New Holland remained in popular and semi-official use until at least the mid-1850s; that is, it was in use for about 206 years in comparison to the name Australia which to date has been in use for about 195 years.: 11 The origins of the present state began with the establishment by Lockyerof a convict-supported settlement fromNew South WalesatKing George III Sound. The settlement was formally annexed on 21 January 1827 by Lockyer when he commanded theUnion Jackbe raised and afeu de joiefired by the troops. The settlement was founded in response to British concerns about the possibility of a French colony being established on the coast of Western Australia.On 7 March 1831 it was transferred to the control of the Swan River Colony,and namedAlbanyin 1832. In 1829 theSwan River Colonywas established on the Swan River by CaptainJames Stirling. By 1832, the British settler population of the colony had reached around 1,500, and the official name of the colony was changed to Western Australia on 6 February that year.The two separate townsites of the colony developed slowly into the port city ofFremantleand the state's capital,Perth.Yorkwas the first inland settlement in Western Australia, situated 97 kilometres (60 mi) east of Perth and settled on 16 September 1831. York was the staging point for early explorers who discovered the rich gold reserves of Kalgoorlie. Population growth was very slow until significant discoveries of gold were made in the 1890s aroundKalgoorlie. In 1887, a new constitution was drafted, providing for the right of self-governance of European Australians, and in 1890, the act grantingself-governmentto the colony was passed by theBritish Parliament.John Forrestbecame the firstPremier of Western Australia. In 1896, after discoveries of gold atCoolgardieandKalgoorlie, theWestern Australian Parliamentauthorised the raising of a loan to construct apipelineto transport 23 megalitres (5 million imperial gallons) of water per day to the burgeoning population on the goldfields. The pipeline, known as theGoldfields Water Supply Scheme, was completed in 1903.C. Y.O'Connor, Western Australia's first engineer-in-chief, designed and oversaw the construction of the pipeline. It carries water 530 km (330 mi) from Perth toKalgoorlie, and is attributed by historians as an important factor driving the state's population and economic growth. Following a campaign led by Forrest, electors of the colony of Western Australia voted in favour offederationwith the five other Australian colonies, resulting in Western Australia officially becoming a state on 1 January 1901. Geography Western Australia is bounded to the east by longitude 129°E, the meridian 129 degrees east of Greenwich, which defines the border with South Australia and theNorthern Territory, and bounded by the Indian Ocean to the west and north. TheInternational Hydrographic Organization(IHO) designates thebody of water south of the continentas part of the Indian Ocean; in Australia it is officially gazetted as theSouthern Ocean. The total length of thestate's eastern borderis 1,862 km (1,157 mi).There are 20,781 km (12,913 mi) of coastline, including 7,892 km (4,904 mi) of island coastline.The total land area occupied by the state is 2.5 million km2(970 thousand sq mi). Geology The bulk of Western Australia consists of the extremely oldYilgarn cratonandPilbara cratonwhich merged with theDeccan Plateauof India,Madagascarand theKaapvaalandZimbabwecratons of Southern Africa, in theArcheanEon to formUr, one of the oldestsupercontinentson Earth (3 – 3.2 billion years ago). In May 2017, evidence of theearliest known lifeon landmay have been found in 3.48-billion-year-oldgeyseriteand other related mineral deposits (often found aroundhot springsandgeysers) uncovered in the Pilbara craton. Because the onlymountain-buildingsince then has been of theStirling Rangewith the rifting fromAntarctica, the land is extremely eroded and ancient, with no part of the state above 1,249 metres (4,098 ft)AHD(atMount Meharryin theHamersley Rangeof thePilbararegion). Most of the state is a low plateau with an average elevation of about 400 metres (1,200 ft), very low relief, and nosurface runoff. This descends relatively sharply to the coastal plains, in some cases forming a sharp escarpment (as with the Darling Range/Darling Scarpnear Perth). The extreme age of the landscape has meant that the soils are remarkably infertile and frequentlylaterised. Even soils derived fromgraniticbedrockcontain an order of magnitude less availablephosphorusand only half as muchnitrogenas soils in comparable climates in other continents. Soils derived from extensive sandplains orironstoneare even less fertile, nearly devoid of soluble phosphate and deficient inzinc, copper,molybdenumand sometimespotassiumandcalcium. The infertility of most of the soils has required heavy application by farmers of fertilisers. These have resulted in damage toinvertebrateand bacterial populations.The grazing and use of hoofed mammals and, later, heavy machinery through the years have resulted incompaction of soilsand great damage to the fragile soils. Large-scale land clearing for agriculture has damaged habitats for native flora and fauna. As a result, theSouth West regionof the state has a higher concentration of rare, threatened or endangered flora and fauna than many areas of Australia, making it one of the world's biodiversity \"hot spots\". Large areas of the state's wheatbelt region have problems withdryland salinityand the loss of fresh water. Climate Thesouthwest coastal areahas aMediterranean climate. It was originally heavily forested, including large stands ofkarri, one of thetallest treesin the world.This agricultural region is one of the nine most bio-diverse terrestrial habitats, with a higher proportion ofendemic speciesthan most other equivalent regions. Thanks to the offshoreLeeuwin Current, the area is one of the top six regions for marine biodiversity and contains the most southerlycoral reefsin the world. Average annual rainfall varies from 300 millimetres (12 in) at the edge of theWheatbeltregion to 1,400 millimetres (55 in) in the wettest areas nearNorthcliffe, but from November to March, evaporation exceeds rainfall, and it is generally very dry. Plants are adapted to this as well as the extreme poverty of all soils. The central two-thirds of the state isaridand sparsely inhabited. The only significant economic activity is mining. Annual rainfall averages less than 300 millimetres (8–10 in), most of which occurs in sporadic torrential falls related to cyclone events in summer. An exception to this is the northern tropical regions. TheKimberleyhas an extremely hotmonsoonal climatewith average annual rainfall ranging from 500 to 1,500 millimetres (20–60 in), but there is a very long almost rainless season from April to November. Eighty-five percent of the state'srunoffoccurs in the Kimberley, but because it occurs in violent floods and because of the insurmountable poverty of the generally shallow soils, the only development has taken place along theOrd River. Snow is rare in the state and typically occurs only in theStirling RangenearAlbany, as it is the only mountain range far enough south and sufficiently elevated. More rarely, snow can fall on the nearbyPorongurup Range. Snow outside these areas is a major event; it usually occurs in hilly areas of southwestern Australia. The most widespread low-level snow occurred on 26 June 1956 when snow was reported in thePerth Hills, as far north asWongan Hillsand as far east asSalmon Gums. However, even in the Stirling Range, snowfalls rarely exceed 5 cm (2 in) and rarely settle for more than one day. The highest observed temperature of 50.7 °C (123.3 °F) was recorded inOnslowon 13 January 2022.The lowest temperature recorded was −7.2 °C (19.0 °F) atEyre Bird Observatoryon 17 August 2008. Thesouth geomagnetic poleis currently tilted 10 degrees away from theSouth Poletowards Western Australia, allowing foraurora australisdisplays as far north asGeraldton. Flora and fauna Western Australia is home to around630 species of birds(depending on the taxonomy used). Of these around 15 areendemicto the state. The best areas for birds are the southwestern corner of the state and the area around Broome and the Kimberley. TheFlora of Western Australiacomprises 10,162 published nativevascular plantspecies, along with a further 1,196 species currently recognised but unpublished. They occur within 1,543generafrom 211families; there are also 1,276 naturalised alien orinvasive plantspecies, more commonly known as weeds.In the southwest region are some of the largest numbers of plant species for its area in the world. Western Australia'secoregionsinclude the sandstone gorges ofthe Kimberleyon the northern coast, and below that the drierVictoria Plains tropical savannainland, and the semi-desertPilbara shrublands,Carnarvon xeric shrublands, andWestern Australian mulga shrublandsto the southwest. Southwards along the coast are theSouthwest Australia savannaand theSwan Coastal Plainaround Perth, with thejarrah-karri forest and shrublandson the southwest corner of the coast around theMargaret Riverwine-growing area. Going east along the Southern Ocean coast is theGoldfields-Esperanceregion, including theEsperance malleeand theCoolgardie woodlandsinland around town ofCoolgardie. Deserts occupy the interior, including theGreat Sandy-Tanami desert,Gibson Desert,Great Victoria Desert, andNullarbor Plain. In 1831 Scottish botanistRobert Brownproduced a scientific paper,General view of the botany of the vicinity of Swan River. It discusses the vegetation of theSwan River Colony. Demographics Europeans began to settle permanently in 1826 whenAlbanywas claimed by Britain to forestall French claims to the western third of the continent. Perth was founded as theSwan River Colonyin 1829 by British and Irish settlers, though the outpost languished. Its officials eventually requestedconvictlabour to augment its population. In the 1890s, interstate immigration, resulting from a mining boom in theGoldfields region, resulted in a sharp population increase. Western Australia did not receive significant flows ofimmigrantsfrom Britain, Ireland or elsewhere in theBritish Empireuntil the early 20th century. At that time, its local projects—such as theGroup Settlement Schemeof the 1920s, which encouraged farmers to settle the southwest—increased awareness of Australia's western third as a destination for colonists. Led by immigrants from the British Isles, Western Australia's population developed at a faster rate during the twentieth century than it had previously. AfterWorld War II, both the eastern states and Western Australia received large numbers ofItalians,CroatiansandMacedonians. Despite this, Britain has contributed the greatest number of immigrants to this day. Western Australia—particularly Perth—has the highest proportion of British-born of any state: 10.3% in 2011, compared to a national average of 5.1%. This group is heavily concentrated in certain parts, where they account for a quarter of the population. Perth's metropolitan area (includingMandurah) had an estimated population of 2,043,138in June 2017 (79% of the state). Other significant population centres includeBunbury(73,989),Geraldton(37,961),Kalgoorlie-Boulder(30,420),Albany(33,998),Karratha(16,446),Broome(14,501)andPort Hedland(14,285). Ancestry and immigration At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were: 3.1% of the population, or 75,978 people, identified asIndigenous Australians(Aboriginal AustraliansandTorres Strait Islanders) in 2016. Language At the 2016 census, 75.2% of inhabitants spoke only English at home, with the next most common languages beingMandarin(1.9%), Italian (1.2%),Vietnamese(0.8%),Cantonese(0.8%) andTagalog(0.6%). Religion According to the 2021 census,Christianityis the major religious affiliation in WA, followed by 41.1% of its population. In 1971, Christianity was followed by 85.5% of the population and it has been declining since, while the percentage of people who identified as having no religious affiliation has increased from 8.7% in 1971 to 42.9% in 2021. A small minority of the population areMuslims(2.5%),Buddhists(2.2%) andHindus(2.0%). Economy Western Australia's economy is largely driven by extraction and processing of a diverse range of mineral and petroleum commodities. The structure of the economy is closely linked to these natural resources, providing a comparative advantage in resource extraction and processing. As a consequence: In 2019 Western Australia's overseas exports accounted for 46% of the nation's total.The state's major export commodities included iron-ore, petroleum, gold,alumina, nickel, wheat, copper, lithium, chemicals and mineral sands. Western Australia is the world's largest iron-ore producer (34% of the world's total), and extracts 66% (6.9% of world production) of Australia's 306 tonnes (9.8 million troy ounces) of gold in 2022.It is a major world producer of bauxite, which is processed into alumina at four refineries providing 11% of total world production. Until 2020 diamonds were extracted from the world's largestdiamond minein the far north Kimberley region. Coal mined atCollieis the main fuel for baseload electricity generation in the state's south-west. Agricultural production in WA is a major contributor to the state and national economy. In the period 2010–2019 wheat production in WA has averaged nearly 10 million tonnes (22 billion pounds), valued at $2.816billion in 2019, accounting for half the nation's total and providing $2–3billion in export income. Other significant farm output includes wool, beef, lamb, barley, canola, lupins, oats and pulses.There is a high level of overseas demand for live animals from WA, driven mainly by southeast Asia's feedlots and Middle Eastern countries, whereIslamic dietary lawsand a lack of storage and refrigeration facilities favour live animals over imports of processed meat. About half of Australia's live cattle exports come from Western Australia. Resource sector growth in recent years has resulted in significant labour and skills shortages, leading to recent efforts by the state government to encourage interstate and overseas immigration.According to the 2006 census,the median individual income was A$500 per week in Western Australia (compared to A$466 in Australia as a whole). The median family income was A$1246 per week (compared to A$1171 for Australia). Recent growth has also contributed to significant rises in average property values in 2006, although values plateaued in 2007. Located south of Perth, the heavy industrial area ofKwinanahad thenation's largest oil refinerywith a capacity of 23,200 cubic metres per day (146,000 barrels per day) until its closure in 2021, producing most of the state's petrol and diesel.Kwinana also hosts alumina and nickel processing plants, port facilities for grain and other bulk exports, and support industries for mining and petroleum such as heavy and light engineering, and metal fabrication. Shipbuilding (e.g.Austal) and associated support industries are found at nearbyHenderson, just north of Kwinana. Significant secondary industries include cement and building product manufacturing, flour milling, food processing, animal feed production, automotive body building and printing. Western Australia has a significant fishing industry. Products for local consumption and export includewestern rock lobsters, prawns, crabs, shark and tuna, as well as pearl fishing in theKimberleyregion of the state. Processing is conducted along the west coast.Whalingwas a key marine industry but ceased at Albany in 1978. Western Australia has the world's biggest plantations of bothIndian sandalwood(northern WA)andAustralian sandalwood(semi-arid regions), which are used to producesandalwood oilandincense.The WAsandalwoodindustry provides about 40% of the international sandalwood oil market. Tourism In recent years, tourism has grown in importance, with significant numbers of visitors to the state coming from the UK and Ireland (28%), other European countries (14%) Singapore (16%), Japan (10%) and Malaysia (8%).Revenue from tourism is a strong economic driver in many of the smaller population centres outside of Perth, especially in coastal locations. Tourism forms a major part of the Western Australian economy with 833,100 international visitors making up 12.8% of the total international tourism to Australia in the year ending March 2015. The top three source markets include the United Kingdom (17%), Singapore (10%), and New Zealand (10%) with the majority of purpose for visitation being holiday/vacation reasons.The tourism industry contributes $9.3 billion to the Western Australian economy and supports 94,000 jobs within the state. Both directly and indirectly, the industry makes up 3.2% of the state's economy whilst comparatively, WA's largest revenue source, the mining sector, brings in 31%. Tourism WA is the government agency responsible for promoting Western Australia as a holiday destination. Government Western Australia was granted self-government in 1890with a bicameralParliamentlocated in Perth, consisting of theLegislative Assembly(orlower house), which has 59 members; and theLegislative Council(orupper house), which has 36 members. Suffrage is universal and compulsory for citizens over 18 years of age. With the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901, Western Australia became a state within Australia'sfederalstructure; this involved ceding certain powers to the Commonwealth (or Federal) government in accordance with the Constitution; all powers not specifically granted to the Commonwealth remained solely with the State. However over time the Commonwealth has effectively expanded its powers through broad interpretation of its enumerated powers and increasing control of taxation and financial distribution (seeFederalism in Australia). Whilst the sovereign of Western Australia isthe monarch of Australia(currentlyCharles III) and executive power is nominally vested in his or her state representative, theGovernor(currentlyChris Dawson), executive power rests with the premier and ministers drawn from the party or coalition of parties holding a majority of seats in the Legislative Assembly.Roger Cookis the premier, having succeededMark McGowanafter his resignation in June 2023. Secession Secessionism has been a recurring feature of Western Australia's political landscape since shortly after European settlement in 1826. Western Australia was the most reluctant participant in theCommonwealth of Australia.Western Australia did not participate in the earliest federation conference. Longer-term residents of Western Australia were generally opposed to federation; however, the discovery of gold brought many immigrants from other parts of Australia. It was these residents, primarily in Kalgoorlie but also in Albany who voted to join the Commonwealth, and the proposal of these areas being admitted separately under the nameAuraliawas considered. In areferendum in April 1933, 68% of voters voted for the state to leave the Commonwealth of Australia with the aim of returning to the British Empire as an autonomous territory. The State Government sent a delegation toWestminster, but the British Government ruled that after theStatute of Westminster 1931, it no longer had the authority to amend the constitution of Australia without the consent of its federal government; the British Government took no action. Local government Western Australia is divided into 139Local Government Areas, includingChristmas Islandand theCocos (Keeling) Islands. Their mandate and operations are governed by theLocal Government Act 1995. Education Education in Western Australia consists of one year of pre-school at age 4 or 5, followed by six years of primary education for all students as of 2015.At age 12 or 13, students begin six years of secondary education. Students are required to attend school up until they are 16 years old. Sixteen and 17 year olds are required to be enrolled in school or a training organisation, be employed or be in a combination of school/training/employment.Students have the option to study at aTAFEcollege after Year 10,or continue through to Year 12 with vocational courses or a university entrance courses. There are five universities in Western Australia. They consist of fourPerth-basedpublic universities, being theUniversity of Western Australia,Curtin University,Edith Cowan UniversityandMurdoch University; and oneFremantle-basedprivate Roman Catholic university, theUniversity of Notre Dame Australia. TheUniversity of Notre Dameis also one of only twoprivate universitiesin Australia, along withBond University, a not-for-profit private education provider based inGold Coast, Queensland. Media Print Western Australia has two daily newspapers: theSeven West Media-owned tabloidThe West Australianand theKalgoorlie Miner. Also published is one weekend paper,The Weekend West, and one Sunday tabloid newspaper, which is also owned by Seven West Media after purchase fromNews Corporation'sThe Sunday Times. There are also 17 weeklycommunity newspaperswith distribution fromYanchepin the north toMandurahin the south. There are two major weekly rural papers in the state,Countrymanand theAustralian Community Media-ownedFarm Weekly. The national broadsheet publicationThe Australianis also available, although with sales per capita lagging far behind those in other states.WAtodayis an online newspaper owned byNine Entertainment, focusing its coverage on Perth and Western Australia. Television Metropolitan Perth has five broadcast television stations; Regional WA has a similar availability of stations as Perth. Geographically, it is one of the largest television markets in the world, including almost one-third of the continent. In addition, broadcasters operate digital multichannels: Pay TV services are provided byFoxtel, which acquired many of the assets and all the remaining subscribers of the insolventGalaxy Televisionsatellite service in 1998. Some metropolitan suburbs are serviced by Pay TV via cable; however, most of the metropolitan and rural areas can only access Pay TV via satellite. Radio Perth has many radio stations on both AM and FM frequencies. ABC stations includeABC NewsRadio(6PB 585 AM),ABC Radio Perth(6WF 720 AM),Radio National(6RN 810 AM),ABC Classic FM(6ABC 97.7FM) andTriple J(6JJJ 99.3FM). The six commercial stations are:Triple M(6PPM),Nova 93.7(6PER),Mix 94.5(6MIX),96FM(6NOW) and AM 882 (6PR), AM 1080 (6iX) and AM 1116 (6MM) The leadingcommunity radiostations areCurtin FM100.1,6RTRFM 92.1, Sonshine FM 98.5 (6SON) and91.3 SportFM(6WSM). Culture Arts and entertainment Western Australia is home to one of the country's leading performance training institutions, the acclaimedWestern Australian Academy of Performing Arts(WAAPA), as well as a burgeoning theatrical and musical scene. Notable musicians and bands to have been born in or lived in Western Australia includeAdam Brand,Ammonia,Karnivool,Birds of Tokyo,Bon Scott,Eskimo Joe,Johnny Young,Gyroscope, theJohn Butler Trio,Tame Impala,Kevin Mitchell,Tim Minchin,Troye Sivan,the Kill Devil Hills,Pendulum,the Pigram Brothers,Rolf Harris,Stella Donnellyandthe Triffids. TheWest Australian Music Industry Awards(WAMis) have been awarded every year to the leading musicians and performers in WA since 2001. Notable actors and television personalities from Western Australia includeHeath Ledger,Sam Worthington,Ernie Dingo,Jessica Marais,Megan Gale,Rove McManus,Isla Fisher, andMelissa George. Films and television series filmed or partly filmed in Western Australia includeRabbit-Proof Fence,The Heights,Mystery Road,These Final Hours,Cloudstreet,Jasper Jones,Australia,Bran Nu Dae,Red Dog,ABBA: the MovieandLast Train to Freo. Noted Western Australian Indigenous painters and artisans includeJack Dale Mengenen,Paddy Bedford,Queenie McKenzie, and siblingsNyuju Stumpy BrownandRover Thomas. TheWest Australian Symphony Orchestra(WASO) is based at thePerth Concert Hall. Other concert, performance and indoor sporting venues in Western Australia includeHis Majesty's Theatre, theState Theatre Centre of Western Australia, theCrown TheatreandPerth Arena, which opened in 2012. Performing arts companies based in Perth include theWest Australian Ballet, theWest Australian Opera, theBlack Swan State Theatre Companyand thePerth Theatre Company. Western Australia has served as the setting for a number of works ofAustralian literature. Prominent authors includeKatharine Susannah Prichard,Randolph Stow,Tim Winton,Kim Scott,Sally Morgan,Joan London,Mary DurackandCraig Silvey. The publicArt Gallery of Western Australiais part of thePerth Cultural Centre. Founded in 1895, it houses the State Art Collection, comprising works from local and international artists, dating back to the 1800s.ThePerth Cultural Centreis also home to theWestern Australian Museum,State Library of Western Australia,State Records Office, andPerth Institute of Contemporary Arts(PICA). Western Australia has apublic library system, withlibraries in every local government area(although some public libraries are shared school libraries). Sport A number of national or international sporting teams and events are based in the state, including: International sporting events hosted in the past in Western Australia include theTom Hoad Cup(water polo), thePerth International(golf), the 2006Gravity Games(extreme sports), the 2002Women's Hockey World Cup, the 1991FINA World Aquatics Championships, theWorld Rally Championshipsand the1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games. Western Australia's largest sports stadium isPerth Stadium, also known by naming rights sponsorship as Optus Stadium. It has a capacity of over 60,000 people and is primarily used for Australian rules football and cricket. Wine Winemaking regions are concentrated in the cooler climate of thesouth-western portionof the state. Western Australia produces less than 5% of the country's wine output, but in quality terms is considered to be very much near the top.Major wine producing regions include:Margaret River,The Great Southern,Swan Valleyas well as smaller districts includingBlackwood Valley,Manjimup,Pemberton,Peel, Chittering Valley,Perth Hills, andGeographe. Sister states Western Australia has five sister states: In 1981, asister stateagreement was drawn up between Western Australia andHyōgo Prefecturein Japan that was aimed at improving cultural ties between the two states.To commemorate the 10th anniversary of this agreement, the Hyōgo Prefectural Government Cultural Centre was established in Perth in 1992.Prior to that, the Western Australian government opened an office inKobe, the largest city in Hyōgo, to facilitate maintenance of the relationship in 1989. Following theGreat Hanshin earthquakethat devastated southern Hyōgo in January 1995, Western Australian groups and businesses raised funds and provided materials, whilst individuals travelled to Hyōgo to help with emergency relief and the subsequent reconstruction process.The two governments signed amemorandum of understandingon the 20th anniversary in 2001 that aimed to improve the economic relationship between the two states. Further to the sister state relationship, theCity of Rockinghamin Western Australia and theCity of Akōin Hyōgo signed a sister city agreement in 1997. It is one of nine sister city relationships between Western Australian and Japanese cities. See also Lists Notes \"West Australia\" and its related demonym \"West Australian\" are occasionally used, including in the names of the main daily newspaper,The West Australian, and the state-basedWest Australian Football League, but are rarely used in an official sense. The terms \"Westralia\" and \"Westralian\" were regularly used in the 19th and 20th century.The terms are still found in the names of certain companies and buildings, e.g. Westralia House in Perth, theskyscraperWestralia Square onSt Georges Terrace, and Westralia Airports Corporation, which operatesPerth Airport, as well as in the names of several ships. References Further reading External links",
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"IPSC Australia Inc IPSC Australia Incis theAustralianassociation forpractical shootingunder theInternational Practical Shooting Confederation. It consists of seven sections:VictoriaandTasmania,South Australia,New South Wales,Australian Capital Territory,Queensland,Northern TerritoryandWestern Australia. See also References External links This article about an organisation in Australia is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. Thisshooting sportrelated article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"Western Australia Western Australia(WA) is the westernmoststate of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, theSouthern Oceanto the south, theNorthern Territoryto the north-east, andSouth Australiato the south-east. Western Australia is Australia’s largest state, with a land area of 2,527,013 square kilometres (975,685 sq mi),and is also thesecond-largest subdivisionof any country on Earth, surpassed only by theSakha Republicin eastern Russia. Western Australia has a diverse range of climates, including tropical conditions in theKimberley, deserts in the interior (including theGreat Sandy Desert,Little Sandy Desert,Gibson Desert, andGreat Victoria Desert) and aMediterranean climateon the south-west and southern coastal areas. As of 2021,the state has 2.91 million inhabitants—11 percent of the national total.Over 90 percent of the state's population live in thesouth-west cornerand around 80 percent live in the state capitalPerth,leaving the remainder of the state sparsely populated.",
"sparsely populated. TheTrans-Australian Railwayand theEyre Highwaytraverse theNullarbor Plainin the state's south-east, providing the principal connection between Western Australia and the population centres in theeastern states. Western Australia'sIndigenous peopleshave been present for tens of thousands of years. Dutch explorers visited Western Australia from the 17th century, withDirk Hartog's 1616 expedition the first Europeans to make landfall. The British claimed Western Australia in 1827 and established theSwan River Colonywith Perth as its capital in 1829. TheWestern Australian gold rushesof the late 19th century resulted in a significant population influx. The colony was grantedresponsible governmentin 1890, the last of the Australian colonies to become self-governing, andfederatedwith the other colonies in 1901. Western Australia'smining sectoris a key driver of thestate economy. The late 20th century saw the development of the state's significantiron ore mining industry– the world's largest – as",
"largest – as well as primarily offshorepetroleum and natural gas resources.Gold miningretains a significant presence and many other mineral commodities are mined, with Perth being a major centre for associated services. Outside of mining, primary industry is the other significant contributor to the state's economy, including agriculture in theWheatbeltand temperate southern coastal regions,pastoralismin marginal grassland areas,forestryin the south-west and fishing (includingpearlingand, historically,whaling). History Western Australia has a geological history dating back to 4.4 billion years ago whenHadean zirconswere formed. The earliest direct known life on land, known asstromatolites, started to be created by microbes at around 3.48 billion years ago. The first human inhabitants of Australia arrived from the north \"over 50,000 years ago and possibly as much as 70,000 years ago\".: 5Over thousands of years they eventually spread across the whole landmass.TheseIndigenous Australianswere long established",
"long established throughout Western Australia by the time European explorers began to arrive in the early 17th century. The first Europeans to visit Western Australia were those of the DutchDirk Hartogexpedition, who on 25 October 1616 landed at what is now known as Cape Inscription,Dirk Hartog Island. For the rest of the 17th century,other Dutch and British navigatorsencountered the coast of whatAbel TasmannamedNew Hollandin 1644, usually unintentionally as demonstrated by the many shipwrecks along the coast of ships that deviated from theBrouwer Route(because of poor navigation and storms).By the late 18th century, British and French sailors had begun to explore the Western Australian coast. TheBaudin expeditionof 1800–03 included the coast of Western Australia and resulted in theFreycinet Map of 1811, the first published map featuring the full outline of Australia. The name New Holland remained in popular and semi-official use until at least the mid-1850s; that is, it was in use for about 206 years in",
"about 206 years in comparison to the name Australia which to date has been in use for about 195 years.: 11 The origins of the present state began with the establishment by Lockyerof a convict-supported settlement fromNew South WalesatKing George III Sound. The settlement was formally annexed on 21 January 1827 by Lockyer when he commanded theUnion Jackbe raised and afeu de joiefired by the troops. The settlement was founded in response to British concerns about the possibility of a French colony being established on the coast of Western Australia.On 7 March 1831 it was transferred to the control of the Swan River Colony,and namedAlbanyin 1832. In 1829 theSwan River Colonywas established on the Swan River by CaptainJames Stirling. By 1832, the British settler population of the colony had reached around 1,500, and the official name of the colony was changed to Western Australia on 6 February that year.The two separate townsites of the colony developed slowly into the port city ofFremantleand the state's",
"the state's capital,Perth.Yorkwas the first inland settlement in Western Australia, situated 97 kilometres (60 mi) east of Perth and settled on 16 September 1831. York was the staging point for early explorers who discovered the rich gold reserves of Kalgoorlie. Population growth was very slow until significant discoveries of gold were made in the 1890s aroundKalgoorlie. In 1887, a new constitution was drafted, providing for the right of self-governance of European Australians, and in 1890, the act grantingself-governmentto the colony was passed by theBritish Parliament.John Forrestbecame the firstPremier of Western Australia. In 1896, after discoveries of gold atCoolgardieandKalgoorlie, theWestern Australian Parliamentauthorised the raising of a loan to construct apipelineto transport 23 megalitres (5 million imperial gallons) of water per day to the burgeoning population on the goldfields. The pipeline, known as theGoldfields Water Supply Scheme, was completed in 1903.C. Y.O'Connor, Western Australia's",
"Western Australia's first engineer-in-chief, designed and oversaw the construction of the pipeline. It carries water 530 km (330 mi) from Perth toKalgoorlie, and is attributed by historians as an important factor driving the state's population and economic growth. Following a campaign led by Forrest, electors of the colony of Western Australia voted in favour offederationwith the five other Australian colonies, resulting in Western Australia officially becoming a state on 1 January 1901. Geography Western Australia is bounded to the east by longitude 129°E, the meridian 129 degrees east of Greenwich, which defines the border with South Australia and theNorthern Territory, and bounded by the Indian Ocean to the west and north. TheInternational Hydrographic Organization(IHO) designates thebody of water south of the continentas part of the Indian Ocean; in Australia it is officially gazetted as theSouthern Ocean. The total length of thestate's eastern borderis 1,862 km (1,157 mi).There are 20,781 km (12,913 mi)",
"km (12,913 mi) of coastline, including 7,892 km (4,904 mi) of island coastline.The total land area occupied by the state is 2.5 million km2(970 thousand sq mi). Geology The bulk of Western Australia consists of the extremely oldYilgarn cratonandPilbara cratonwhich merged with theDeccan Plateauof India,Madagascarand theKaapvaalandZimbabwecratons of Southern Africa, in theArcheanEon to formUr, one of the oldestsupercontinentson Earth (3 – 3.2 billion years ago). In May 2017, evidence of theearliest known lifeon landmay have been found in 3.48-billion-year-oldgeyseriteand other related mineral deposits (often found aroundhot springsandgeysers) uncovered in the Pilbara craton. Because the onlymountain-buildingsince then has been of theStirling Rangewith the rifting fromAntarctica, the land is extremely eroded and ancient, with no part of the state above 1,249 metres (4,098 ft)AHD(atMount Meharryin theHamersley Rangeof thePilbararegion). Most of the state is a low plateau with an average elevation of about 400",
"of about 400 metres (1,200 ft), very low relief, and nosurface runoff. This descends relatively sharply to the coastal plains, in some cases forming a sharp escarpment (as with the Darling Range/Darling Scarpnear Perth). The extreme age of the landscape has meant that the soils are remarkably infertile and frequentlylaterised. Even soils derived fromgraniticbedrockcontain an order of magnitude less availablephosphorusand only half as muchnitrogenas soils in comparable climates in other continents. Soils derived from extensive sandplains orironstoneare even less fertile, nearly devoid of soluble phosphate and deficient inzinc, copper,molybdenumand sometimespotassiumandcalcium. The infertility of most of the soils has required heavy application by farmers of fertilisers. These have resulted in damage toinvertebrateand bacterial populations.The grazing and use of hoofed mammals and, later, heavy machinery through the years have resulted incompaction of soilsand great damage to the fragile soils. Large-scale",
"soils. Large-scale land clearing for agriculture has damaged habitats for native flora and fauna. As a result, theSouth West regionof the state has a higher concentration of rare, threatened or endangered flora and fauna than many areas of Australia, making it one of the world's biodiversity \"hot spots\". Large areas of the state's wheatbelt region have problems withdryland salinityand the loss of fresh water. Climate Thesouthwest coastal areahas aMediterranean climate. It was originally heavily forested, including large stands ofkarri, one of thetallest treesin the world.This agricultural region is one of the nine most bio-diverse terrestrial habitats, with a higher proportion ofendemic speciesthan most other equivalent regions. Thanks to the offshoreLeeuwin Current, the area is one of the top six regions for marine biodiversity and contains the most southerlycoral reefsin the world. Average annual rainfall varies from 300 millimetres (12 in) at the edge of theWheatbeltregion to 1,400 millimetres (55 in) in",
"(55 in) in the wettest areas nearNorthcliffe, but from November to March, evaporation exceeds rainfall, and it is generally very dry. Plants are adapted to this as well as the extreme poverty of all soils. The central two-thirds of the state isaridand sparsely inhabited. The only significant economic activity is mining. Annual rainfall averages less than 300 millimetres (8–10 in), most of which occurs in sporadic torrential falls related to cyclone events in summer. An exception to this is the northern tropical regions. TheKimberleyhas an extremely hotmonsoonal climatewith average annual rainfall ranging from 500 to 1,500 millimetres (20–60 in), but there is a very long almost rainless season from April to November. Eighty-five percent of the state'srunoffoccurs in the Kimberley, but because it occurs in violent floods and because of the insurmountable poverty of the generally shallow soils, the only development has taken place along theOrd River. Snow is rare in the state and typically occurs only in",
"occurs only in theStirling RangenearAlbany, as it is the only mountain range far enough south and sufficiently elevated. More rarely, snow can fall on the nearbyPorongurup Range. Snow outside these areas is a major event; it usually occurs in hilly areas of southwestern Australia. The most widespread low-level snow occurred on 26 June 1956 when snow was reported in thePerth Hills, as far north asWongan Hillsand as far east asSalmon Gums. However, even in the Stirling Range, snowfalls rarely exceed 5 cm (2 in) and rarely settle for more than one day. The highest observed temperature of 50.7 °C (123.3 °F) was recorded inOnslowon 13 January 2022.The lowest temperature recorded was −7.2 °C (19.0 °F) atEyre Bird Observatoryon 17 August 2008. Thesouth geomagnetic poleis currently tilted 10 degrees away from theSouth Poletowards Western Australia, allowing foraurora australisdisplays as far north asGeraldton. Flora and fauna Western Australia is home to around630 species of birds(depending on the taxonomy used). Of",
"taxonomy used). Of these around 15 areendemicto the state. The best areas for birds are the southwestern corner of the state and the area around Broome and the Kimberley. TheFlora of Western Australiacomprises 10,162 published nativevascular plantspecies, along with a further 1,196 species currently recognised but unpublished. They occur within 1,543generafrom 211families; there are also 1,276 naturalised alien orinvasive plantspecies, more commonly known as weeds.In the southwest region are some of the largest numbers of plant species for its area in the world. Western Australia'secoregionsinclude the sandstone gorges ofthe Kimberleyon the northern coast, and below that the drierVictoria Plains tropical savannainland, and the semi-desertPilbara shrublands,Carnarvon xeric shrublands, andWestern Australian mulga shrublandsto the southwest. Southwards along the coast are theSouthwest Australia savannaand theSwan Coastal Plainaround Perth, with thejarrah-karri forest and shrublandson the southwest corner of the",
"corner of the coast around theMargaret Riverwine-growing area. Going east along the Southern Ocean coast is theGoldfields-Esperanceregion, including theEsperance malleeand theCoolgardie woodlandsinland around town ofCoolgardie. Deserts occupy the interior, including theGreat Sandy-Tanami desert,Gibson Desert,Great Victoria Desert, andNullarbor Plain. In 1831 Scottish botanistRobert Brownproduced a scientific paper,General view of the botany of the vicinity of Swan River. It discusses the vegetation of theSwan River Colony. Demographics Europeans began to settle permanently in 1826 whenAlbanywas claimed by Britain to forestall French claims to the western third of the continent. Perth was founded as theSwan River Colonyin 1829 by British and Irish settlers, though the outpost languished. Its officials eventually requestedconvictlabour to augment its population. In the 1890s, interstate immigration, resulting from a mining boom in theGoldfields region, resulted in a sharp population increase. Western Australia",
"Western Australia did not receive significant flows ofimmigrantsfrom Britain, Ireland or elsewhere in theBritish Empireuntil the early 20th century. At that time, its local projects—such as theGroup Settlement Schemeof the 1920s, which encouraged farmers to settle the southwest—increased awareness of Australia's western third as a destination for colonists. Led by immigrants from the British Isles, Western Australia's population developed at a faster rate during the twentieth century than it had previously. AfterWorld War II, both the eastern states and Western Australia received large numbers ofItalians,CroatiansandMacedonians. Despite this, Britain has contributed the greatest number of immigrants to this day. Western Australia—particularly Perth—has the highest proportion of British-born of any state: 10.3% in 2011, compared to a national average of 5.1%. This group is heavily concentrated in certain parts, where they account for a quarter of the population. Perth's metropolitan area (includingMandurah)",
"(includingMandurah) had an estimated population of 2,043,138in June 2017 (79% of the state). Other significant population centres includeBunbury(73,989),Geraldton(37,961),Kalgoorlie-Boulder(30,420),Albany(33,998),Karratha(16,446),Broome(14,501)andPort Hedland(14,285). Ancestry and immigration At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were: 3.1% of the population, or 75,978 people, identified asIndigenous Australians(Aboriginal AustraliansandTorres Strait Islanders) in 2016. Language At the 2016 census, 75.2% of inhabitants spoke only English at home, with the next most common languages beingMandarin(1.9%), Italian (1.2%),Vietnamese(0.8%),Cantonese(0.8%) andTagalog(0.6%). Religion According to the 2021 census,Christianityis the major religious affiliation in WA, followed by 41.1% of its population. In 1971, Christianity was followed by 85.5% of the population and it has been declining since, while the percentage of people who identified as having no religious affiliation has increased from",
"has increased from 8.7% in 1971 to 42.9% in 2021. A small minority of the population areMuslims(2.5%),Buddhists(2.2%) andHindus(2.0%). Economy Western Australia's economy is largely driven by extraction and processing of a diverse range of mineral and petroleum commodities. The structure of the economy is closely linked to these natural resources, providing a comparative advantage in resource extraction and processing. As a consequence: In 2019 Western Australia's overseas exports accounted for 46% of the nation's total.The state's major export commodities included iron-ore, petroleum, gold,alumina, nickel, wheat, copper, lithium, chemicals and mineral sands. Western Australia is the world's largest iron-ore producer (34% of the world's total), and extracts 66% (6.9% of world production) of Australia's 306 tonnes (9.8 million troy ounces) of gold in 2022.It is a major world producer of bauxite, which is processed into alumina at four refineries providing 11% of total world production. Until 2020 diamonds",
"Until 2020 diamonds were extracted from the world's largestdiamond minein the far north Kimberley region. Coal mined atCollieis the main fuel for baseload electricity generation in the state's south-west. Agricultural production in WA is a major contributor to the state and national economy. In the period 2010–2019 wheat production in WA has averaged nearly 10 million tonnes (22 billion pounds), valued at $2.816billion in 2019, accounting for half the nation's total and providing $2–3billion in export income. Other significant farm output includes wool, beef, lamb, barley, canola, lupins, oats and pulses.There is a high level of overseas demand for live animals from WA, driven mainly by southeast Asia's feedlots and Middle Eastern countries, whereIslamic dietary lawsand a lack of storage and refrigeration facilities favour live animals over imports of processed meat. About half of Australia's live cattle exports come from Western Australia. Resource sector growth in recent years has resulted in significant",
"in significant labour and skills shortages, leading to recent efforts by the state government to encourage interstate and overseas immigration.According to the 2006 census,the median individual income was A$500 per week in Western Australia (compared to A$466 in Australia as a whole). The median family income was A$1246 per week (compared to A$1171 for Australia). Recent growth has also contributed to significant rises in average property values in 2006, although values plateaued in 2007. Located south of Perth, the heavy industrial area ofKwinanahad thenation's largest oil refinerywith a capacity of 23,200 cubic metres per day (146,000 barrels per day) until its closure in 2021, producing most of the state's petrol and diesel.Kwinana also hosts alumina and nickel processing plants, port facilities for grain and other bulk exports, and support industries for mining and petroleum such as heavy and light engineering, and metal fabrication. Shipbuilding (e.g.Austal) and associated support industries are found",
"are found at nearbyHenderson, just north of Kwinana. Significant secondary industries include cement and building product manufacturing, flour milling, food processing, animal feed production, automotive body building and printing. Western Australia has a significant fishing industry. Products for local consumption and export includewestern rock lobsters, prawns, crabs, shark and tuna, as well as pearl fishing in theKimberleyregion of the state. Processing is conducted along the west coast.Whalingwas a key marine industry but ceased at Albany in 1978. Western Australia has the world's biggest plantations of bothIndian sandalwood(northern WA)andAustralian sandalwood(semi-arid regions), which are used to producesandalwood oilandincense.The WAsandalwoodindustry provides about 40% of the international sandalwood oil market. Tourism In recent years, tourism has grown in importance, with significant numbers of visitors to the state coming from the UK and Ireland (28%), other European countries (14%) Singapore",
"(14%) Singapore (16%), Japan (10%) and Malaysia (8%).Revenue from tourism is a strong economic driver in many of the smaller population centres outside of Perth, especially in coastal locations. Tourism forms a major part of the Western Australian economy with 833,100 international visitors making up 12.8% of the total international tourism to Australia in the year ending March 2015. The top three source markets include the United Kingdom (17%), Singapore (10%), and New Zealand (10%) with the majority of purpose for visitation being holiday/vacation reasons.The tourism industry contributes $9.3 billion to the Western Australian economy and supports 94,000 jobs within the state. Both directly and indirectly, the industry makes up 3.2% of the state's economy whilst comparatively, WA's largest revenue source, the mining sector, brings in 31%. Tourism WA is the government agency responsible for promoting Western Australia as a holiday destination. Government Western Australia was granted self-government in",
"self-government in 1890with a bicameralParliamentlocated in Perth, consisting of theLegislative Assembly(orlower house), which has 59 members; and theLegislative Council(orupper house), which has 36 members. Suffrage is universal and compulsory for citizens over 18 years of age. With the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901, Western Australia became a state within Australia'sfederalstructure; this involved ceding certain powers to the Commonwealth (or Federal) government in accordance with the Constitution; all powers not specifically granted to the Commonwealth remained solely with the State. However over time the Commonwealth has effectively expanded its powers through broad interpretation of its enumerated powers and increasing control of taxation and financial distribution (seeFederalism in Australia). Whilst the sovereign of Western Australia isthe monarch of Australia(currentlyCharles III) and executive power is nominally vested in his or her state representative, theGovernor(currentlyChris",
"Dawson), executive power rests with the premier and ministers drawn from the party or coalition of parties holding a majority of seats in the Legislative Assembly.Roger Cookis the premier, having succeededMark McGowanafter his resignation in June 2023. Secession Secessionism has been a recurring feature of Western Australia's political landscape since shortly after European settlement in 1826. Western Australia was the most reluctant participant in theCommonwealth of Australia.Western Australia did not participate in the earliest federation conference. Longer-term residents of Western Australia were generally opposed to federation; however, the discovery of gold brought many immigrants from other parts of Australia. It was these residents, primarily in Kalgoorlie but also in Albany who voted to join the Commonwealth, and the proposal of these areas being admitted separately under the nameAuraliawas considered. In areferendum in April 1933, 68% of voters voted for the state to leave the Commonwealth of",
"the Commonwealth of Australia with the aim of returning to the British Empire as an autonomous territory. The State Government sent a delegation toWestminster, but the British Government ruled that after theStatute of Westminster 1931, it no longer had the authority to amend the constitution of Australia without the consent of its federal government; the British Government took no action. Local government Western Australia is divided into 139Local Government Areas, includingChristmas Islandand theCocos (Keeling) Islands. Their mandate and operations are governed by theLocal Government Act 1995. Education Education in Western Australia consists of one year of pre-school at age 4 or 5, followed by six years of primary education for all students as of 2015.At age 12 or 13, students begin six years of secondary education. Students are required to attend school up until they are 16 years old. Sixteen and 17 year olds are required to be enrolled in school or a training organisation, be employed or be in a",
"employed or be in a combination of school/training/employment.Students have the option to study at aTAFEcollege after Year 10,or continue through to Year 12 with vocational courses or a university entrance courses. There are five universities in Western Australia. They consist of fourPerth-basedpublic universities, being theUniversity of Western Australia,Curtin University,Edith Cowan UniversityandMurdoch University; and oneFremantle-basedprivate Roman Catholic university, theUniversity of Notre Dame Australia. TheUniversity of Notre Dameis also one of only twoprivate universitiesin Australia, along withBond University, a not-for-profit private education provider based inGold Coast, Queensland. Media Print Western Australia has two daily newspapers: theSeven West Media-owned tabloidThe West Australianand theKalgoorlie Miner. Also published is one weekend paper,The Weekend West, and one Sunday tabloid newspaper, which is also owned by Seven West Media after purchase fromNews Corporation'sThe Sunday Times.",
"Sunday Times. There are also 17 weeklycommunity newspaperswith distribution fromYanchepin the north toMandurahin the south. There are two major weekly rural papers in the state,Countrymanand theAustralian Community Media-ownedFarm Weekly. The national broadsheet publicationThe Australianis also available, although with sales per capita lagging far behind those in other states.WAtodayis an online newspaper owned byNine Entertainment, focusing its coverage on Perth and Western Australia. Television Metropolitan Perth has five broadcast television stations; Regional WA has a similar availability of stations as Perth. Geographically, it is one of the largest television markets in the world, including almost one-third of the continent. In addition, broadcasters operate digital multichannels: Pay TV services are provided byFoxtel, which acquired many of the assets and all the remaining subscribers of the insolventGalaxy Televisionsatellite service in 1998. Some metropolitan suburbs are serviced by Pay TV via",
"by Pay TV via cable; however, most of the metropolitan and rural areas can only access Pay TV via satellite. Radio Perth has many radio stations on both AM and FM frequencies. ABC stations includeABC NewsRadio(6PB 585 AM),ABC Radio Perth(6WF 720 AM),Radio National(6RN 810 AM),ABC Classic FM(6ABC 97.7FM) andTriple J(6JJJ 99.3FM). The six commercial stations are:Triple M(6PPM),Nova 93.7(6PER),Mix 94.5(6MIX),96FM(6NOW) and AM 882 (6PR), AM 1080 (6iX) and AM 1116 (6MM) The leadingcommunity radiostations areCurtin FM100.1,6RTRFM 92.1, Sonshine FM 98.5 (6SON) and91.3 SportFM(6WSM). Culture Arts and entertainment Western Australia is home to one of the country's leading performance training institutions, the acclaimedWestern Australian Academy of Performing Arts(WAAPA), as well as a burgeoning theatrical and musical scene. Notable musicians and bands to have been born in or lived in Western Australia includeAdam Brand,Ammonia,Karnivool,Birds of Tokyo,Bon Scott,Eskimo Joe,Johnny Young,Gyroscope, theJohn Butler",
"theJohn Butler Trio,Tame Impala,Kevin Mitchell,Tim Minchin,Troye Sivan,the Kill Devil Hills,Pendulum,the Pigram Brothers,Rolf Harris,Stella Donnellyandthe Triffids. TheWest Australian Music Industry Awards(WAMis) have been awarded every year to the leading musicians and performers in WA since 2001. Notable actors and television personalities from Western Australia includeHeath Ledger,Sam Worthington,Ernie Dingo,Jessica Marais,Megan Gale,Rove McManus,Isla Fisher, andMelissa George. Films and television series filmed or partly filmed in Western Australia includeRabbit-Proof Fence,The Heights,Mystery Road,These Final Hours,Cloudstreet,Jasper Jones,Australia,Bran Nu Dae,Red Dog,ABBA: the MovieandLast Train to Freo. Noted Western Australian Indigenous painters and artisans includeJack Dale Mengenen,Paddy Bedford,Queenie McKenzie, and siblingsNyuju Stumpy BrownandRover Thomas. TheWest Australian Symphony Orchestra(WASO) is based at thePerth Concert Hall. Other concert, performance and indoor sporting venues in",
"sporting venues in Western Australia includeHis Majesty's Theatre, theState Theatre Centre of Western Australia, theCrown TheatreandPerth Arena, which opened in 2012. Performing arts companies based in Perth include theWest Australian Ballet, theWest Australian Opera, theBlack Swan State Theatre Companyand thePerth Theatre Company. Western Australia has served as the setting for a number of works ofAustralian literature. Prominent authors includeKatharine Susannah Prichard,Randolph Stow,Tim Winton,Kim Scott,Sally Morgan,Joan London,Mary DurackandCraig Silvey. The publicArt Gallery of Western Australiais part of thePerth Cultural Centre. Founded in 1895, it houses the State Art Collection, comprising works from local and international artists, dating back to the 1800s.ThePerth Cultural Centreis also home to theWestern Australian Museum,State Library of Western Australia,State Records Office, andPerth Institute of Contemporary Arts(PICA). Western Australia has apublic library system, withlibraries in every",
"in every local government area(although some public libraries are shared school libraries). Sport A number of national or international sporting teams and events are based in the state, including: International sporting events hosted in the past in Western Australia include theTom Hoad Cup(water polo), thePerth International(golf), the 2006Gravity Games(extreme sports), the 2002Women's Hockey World Cup, the 1991FINA World Aquatics Championships, theWorld Rally Championshipsand the1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games. Western Australia's largest sports stadium isPerth Stadium, also known by naming rights sponsorship as Optus Stadium. It has a capacity of over 60,000 people and is primarily used for Australian rules football and cricket. Wine Winemaking regions are concentrated in the cooler climate of thesouth-western portionof the state. Western Australia produces less than 5% of the country's wine output, but in quality terms is considered to be very much near the top.Major wine producing regions",
"producing regions include:Margaret River,The Great Southern,Swan Valleyas well as smaller districts includingBlackwood Valley,Manjimup,Pemberton,Peel, Chittering Valley,Perth Hills, andGeographe. Sister states Western Australia has five sister states: In 1981, asister stateagreement was drawn up between Western Australia andHyōgo Prefecturein Japan that was aimed at improving cultural ties between the two states.To commemorate the 10th anniversary of this agreement, the Hyōgo Prefectural Government Cultural Centre was established in Perth in 1992.Prior to that, the Western Australian government opened an office inKobe, the largest city in Hyōgo, to facilitate maintenance of the relationship in 1989. Following theGreat Hanshin earthquakethat devastated southern Hyōgo in January 1995, Western Australian groups and businesses raised funds and provided materials, whilst individuals travelled to Hyōgo to help with emergency relief and the subsequent reconstruction process.The two governments signed amemorandum of",
"amemorandum of understandingon the 20th anniversary in 2001 that aimed to improve the economic relationship between the two states. Further to the sister state relationship, theCity of Rockinghamin Western Australia and theCity of Akōin Hyōgo signed a sister city agreement in 1997. It is one of nine sister city relationships between Western Australian and Japanese cities. See also Lists Notes \"West Australia\" and its related demonym \"West Australian\" are occasionally used, including in the names of the main daily newspaper,The West Australian, and the state-basedWest Australian Football League, but are rarely used in an official sense. The terms \"Westralia\" and \"Westralian\" were regularly used in the 19th and 20th century.The terms are still found in the names of certain companies and buildings, e.g. Westralia House in Perth, theskyscraperWestralia Square onSt Georges Terrace, and Westralia Airports Corporation, which operatesPerth Airport, as well as in the names of several ships. References Further reading",
"Further reading External links",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Victoria_(state (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b938a16f0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Tasmania (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93cc0e80>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/South_Australia (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93cc00a0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/New_South_Wales (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9438cd90>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Australian_Capital_Territory (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9438da50>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Queensland (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93cc0280>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Northern_Territory (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93f08310>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Honshu (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92d9cee0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Sumatra (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9438e020>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"
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As of 1st june 2024 Which Jonas brother has a wife who narrated a nature documentary released under the Disneynature label? | Nick | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonas_Brothers#Members | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Jonas#Personal_life | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Jonas#Personal_life | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Jonas#Personal_life | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disneynature#Filmography | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priyanka_Chopra | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | Post processing | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonas_Brothers#Members', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Jonas#Personal_life', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Jonas#Personal_life', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Jonas#Personal_life', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disneynature#Filmography', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priyanka_Chopra'] | [
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disneynature#Filmography",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priyanka_Chopra"
] | [
"Jonas Brothers TheJonas Brothers(/ˈdʒoʊnəs/) are an Americanpop rockband. Formed in 2005, they gained popularity from their appearances on theDisney Channeltelevision network. They consist of three brothers:Kevin Jonas,Joe Jonas, andNick Jonas.Raised inWyckoff, New Jersey, the Jonas Brothers moved toLittle Falls, New Jersey, in 2005, where they wrote their first record that made itsHollywood Recordsrelease.They starred in the 2008Disney Channel Original MovieCamp Rockand its 2010 sequel,Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam. They also starred in their own Disney Channel seriesJonas, which was rebranded asJonas L.A.for its second season. The band has released six albums:It's About Time(2006),Jonas Brothers(2007),A Little Bit Longer(2008),Lines, Vines and Trying Times(2009),Happiness Begins(2019), andThe Album(2023). In 2008, the group was nominated for the Best New Artist award at the51st Grammy Awardsand won the award for Breakthrough Artist at theAmerican Music Awards. Before the release ofLines, Vines and Trying Times, they had sold over eight million albums worldwide.After a hiatus between 2010 and 2011 to pursue solo projects, the group reunited in 2012 to record a new album, which was cancelled following their break-up on October 29, 2013. As of that year, they had sold over 17 million albums worldwide. Six years following their split, the group reunited with the release of \"Sucker\" on March 1, 2019.The song became the 34th song in history to debut at number one on theBillboardHot 100, and became the Jonas Brothers' first number one single on the chart.Their fifth studio album,Happiness Begins,was released on June 7, 2019, topping the USBillboard200. The brothers released their sixth studio album,The Album,on May 12, 2023, preceded by two singles, \"Waffle House\" and \"Wings\". The 12-track record was produced byJon Bellion. History 2005–2007:It's About Time In 2005, Joe, Kevin and Nick recorded \"Please Be Mine\", their first song recorded.Upon hearing the song, theColumbia RecordspresidentSteve Greenbergdecided to sign the brothers as a group.They considered naming their group \"Sons of Jonas\" before settling on the name Jonas Brothers.While working on their debut studio album, the band toured throughout 2005 with artists such asJump5,Kelly Clarkson,Jesse McCartney, theBackstreet Boys, andThe Click Fiveamong others.They spent the latter portion of the year on a tour withAly & AJandThe Cheetah Girls. Additionally, they opened forthe Veronicasin early 2006. For their first album, titledIt's About Time, the band collaborated with several writers, includingAdam Schlesinger(Fountains of Wayne),Michael Mangini(Joss Stone),Desmond Child(Aerosmith,Bon Jovi),Billy Mann(Destiny's Child,Jessica Simpson) and Steve Greenberg. The album was initially supposed to be released in February 2006, but was pushed back several times, due to executive changes atSony(the parent company of Columbia) and the executives' desire to have \"another lead single\" on the album. For the album, the Jonas Brothers covered two hit songs by UK bandBusted– \"Year 3000\" and \"What I Go to School For\". The Jonas Brothers' first single, \"Mandy\", was released on December 27, 2005. Its music video was shown on MTV'sTotal Request Liveon February 22, 2006, and reached number four. Another song, \"Time for Me to Fly\", was released on theAquamarinesoundtrack, also in February. In March, \"Mandy\" was featured in theNickelodeontelevision filmZoey 101: Spring Break-Upand theZoey 101: Music Mixsoundtrack album, with Nicholas Jonas listed as the artist name. The group's music was also featured onCartoon Network's Friday night programming blockFridays. The band covered \"Yo Ho (A Pirate's Life for Me)\" fromPirates of the Caribbeanfor theDisneymania 4album, released on April 4, 2006.Over the summer of 2006, the Jonas Brothers went on tour with Aly & AJ. The Jonas Brothers also created the theme song for the second season ofAmerican Dragon: Jake Long, airing from June 2006 to September 2007 on theDisney Channel.It's About Timewas finally released on August 8, 2006.According to the band's manager, it was only a \"limited release\" of 50,000 copies, so the album's price can rise as high as $200–$300 USD on auction sites likeeBay. Because Sony was not interested in further promoting the band, the Jonas Brothers considered switching labels. On October 3, 2006, Nick's 2004 solo single, \"Joy to the World (A Christmas Prayer)\", was re-released onJoy to the World: The Ultimate Christmas Collection.The same month, the Jonas Brothers covered \"Poor Unfortunate Souls\" fromThe Little Mermaid. Along with a music video, the song was released on a two-disc special-edition release ofThe Little Mermaidsoundtrack.The second single fromIt's About Timewas \"Year 3000\", the music video of which premiered on the Disney Channel in January 2007. The band was ultimately dropped by Columbia Records in early 2007. 2007–2008:Jonas Brothers After being without a label for a short time, the Jonas Brothers signed with Hollywood Records in February 2007.Around the same time, the brothers began appearing in commercials for Baby Bottle Pops, singing thejingle.On March 24, two additional songs on two different albums were released: \"Kids of the Future\", from theMeet the Robinsonssoundtrack(spoof ofKim Wilde's \"Kids in America\"), and \"I Wanna Be Like You\", fromDisneymania 5.The Jonas Brothers made their first appearance at the White House on Monday, April 9, 2007, during the annual White House Easter Egg Roll, where they sang the National Anthem.They returned on Wednesday June 27, 2007, during a Celebrating Women in Sports Tee Ball game on the South Lawn. They sang the National Anthem again, and, after the game, the Jonas Brothers entertained at the picnic-reception with a selection of their hits.Theirself-titled second albumwas released on August 7, 2007.It reached number five on theBillboard Hot 200chart in its first week. Two singles with music videos were also released around this time – \"Hold On\" two weeks before, and \"S.O.S.\", four days before the release of the album. In August 2007, the Jonas Brothers made several appearances on television. On August 17, they guest-starred in an episode of the Disney Channel showHannah Montanatitled \"Me and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas\". They also performed \"We Got the Party\" withMiley Cyrusin the episode, which premiered afterHigh School Musical 2and was viewed by 10.7 million people that night. On August 24, the Jonas Brothers performed two songs at theMiss Teen USAcontest.On August 26, the Jonas Brothers co-presented an award with Miley Cyrus at theTeen Choice Awards. On November 18, 2007, they performed at theAmerican Music Awards, performing the song \"S.O.S.\" On November 22, the brothers appeared in the 81st annualMacy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. For their final performance of 2007, the three brothers performed their singles \"Hold On\" and \"S.O.S.\" atDick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve. The Jonas Brothers kicked off theirLook Me in the Eyes Touron January 31, 2008, inTucson, Arizona. They performed several new songs on the tour that were slated to be on their third studio album,A Little Bit Longer. The Jonas Brothers made their acting debut inSeason 2of theDisney ChannelseriesHannah Montana, where they guest starred and performed \"We Got The Party With Us\" on the episode \"Me and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas\". In 2008, they collaborated withMiley Cyruson her 3D concert filmHannah Montana & Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert, filmed during Cyrus'Best of Both Worlds Tour, where they sang \"We Got The Party With Us\" with Cyrus asHannah Montana. While on theLook Me in the Eyes Tour, the Jonas Brothers filmed a Disney Channel reality short series entitled,Jonas Brothers: Living the Dream, that premiered onDisney Channel. 2008–2009:A Little Bit Longerand acting The Jonas Brothers' third studio album,A Little Bit Longer, was released in the United States on August 12, 2008. On June 24, 2008, iTunes announced that it would release four songs fromA Little Bit Longer, one roughly every two weeks.The purchase of each of the songs applies to the cost of the entire album, which could be purchased via iTunes' Complete the Album feature after release. Each song released also featured a podcast. Each song occupied the number one spot on iTunes for at least three days. After theLook Me in the Eyes Tourended on March 22, 2008, the Jonas Brothers announced that they would be opening up forAvril Lavigne'sBest Damn Touralong withBoys Like Girls, for the second leg of the tour in Europe, which lasted from late May to late June 2008.While filmingCamp Rock, the Jonas Brothers co-wrote and co-produced six songs for fellow Disney Channel star and close friendDemi Lovato, for Lovato's albumDon't Forget.The album, co-produced by the Jonas Brothers, was released on September 23, 2008.Asoundtrackwas released for the filmCamp Rockon June 17, 2008, debuting at No. 3 on theBillboard200with 188,000 copies sold in its first week.The Jonas Brothers also did a half-hour variety special on Disney Channel entitled,Studio DC: Almost Live, that featuredThe Muppetsand other Disney Channel stars. During this time, the Jonas Brothers also appeared on the Olympics-based special miniseries theDisney Channel Games, for the third annual show. During the summer of 2008, the Jonas Brothers started theBurnin' Up Tourin North America, promotingA Little Bit Longer. The tour began on July 4, 2008, atMolson AmphitheatreinToronto, Ontario. The band made their film debut in theDisney Channel Original MovieCamp Rock, in which they played a band called Connect Three. Joe Jonas plays the lead male role and lead singer Shane Gray, Nick Jonas plays the role of Nate, a guitarist, and Kevin Jonas plays the role of Jason, another guitarist. The film premiered on June 20, 2008, in the United States on Disney Channel, and Canada onFamily, receiving mixed reviews. On the Disney Channel, the film was followed by the premiere of the music video forBurnin' Up, which featured cameos fromSelena Gomez,Robert Davi,Danny TrejoandDavid Carradine. Directed byBrendan Malloy, the video earned nominations forVideo of the YearandBest Pop Videoat the2008 MTV Video Music Awards. ADisney Digital 3-Dproduction crew filmed the two shows of theirs Burnin' Up Tour inAnaheimon July 13 and 14, 2008, including a performance by Lovato with the Jonas Brothers on \"This Is Me\" andTaylor Swiftwith the brothers on \"Should've Said No\". Both shows and additional footage recorded while on tour were used for the theatrical release of their 3D concert biopic,Jonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience, on February 22, 2009. On July 14, they announced on stage that the band had already written five songs for their fourth studio album. The band was featured in the July 2008 issue ofRolling Stonemagazine and became the youngest band to be on the cover of the magazine. The Jonas Brothers visited downtownCleveland, Ohio'sRock and Roll Hall of Famebefore their sold-out concert on the evening of August 22, 2008, atBlossom Music Center. They presented the suits and pants they wore on the cover artwork ofA Little Bit Longerto Jim Henke, vice president of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The suits are part of theRight Here, Right Now!exhibit.In December 2008, the Jonas Brothers were nominated for theBest New Artistaward at the51st Grammy Awards. The Jonas Brothers appeared as musical guest onSaturday Night Live's34th seasonon February 14, 2009, making theirSNLdebut.The band also announced on March 11, 2009, that they will be embarking on aworld tourin mid-2009. They were joined by the popular Korean girl bandWonder Girls, who debuted in America, as their opening act.In April 2009, the Jonas Brothers finished filming the first season of theirDisney Channel Original Series,Jonasand was premiered on May 2, 2009. The Jonas Brothers also voiced three stonecherubsin the filmNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian, which was released on May 22, 2009. 2009–2010:JonasandLines, Vines and Trying Times The brothers finished recording their fourth studio album,Lines, Vines and Trying Times, and began to talk about the album in the beginning of 2009. They said on several occasions that they had been working on writing and recording songs since theirBurnin' Up tourin mid-2008. On March 11, 2009, the Jonas Brothers announced that their fourth studio album,Lines, Vines and Trying Times, would be released on June 15, 2009.They said about the title in the interview withRolling Stonethat, \"Lines are something that someone feeds you, vines are the things that get in the way, and trying times, well, that's obvious.\" They also told Billboard, \"We're trying to learn as much as we can, continuing to grow.\" Kevin added that, \"The overall message is it's the same old Jonas Brothers, in a sense, but we're adding more and more music, including different musical instruments that are going to add and build to the sound we already have.\" Nick also said the songs on the album are \"our journal in songs, about all things we've gone through, personal experiences we get inspiration from. We've also been working on trying to use metaphors.. to kind of mask a literal thing that happens to us.\". Before the release ofLines, Vines and Trying Times, they released two singles, \"Paranoid\" (a month before) and \"Fly with Me\" (seven days before).Lines, Vines and Trying Timesdebuted at number one, thus becoming their second No. 1 album. On July 7, 2009, the Jonas Brothers announced that they had signedHonor Societyto the record label they started with Hollywood Records. A month later, \"Send It On\" was released onRadio Disney. The radio single was performed withSelena Gomez,Miley Cyrus, andDemi LovatoforDisney's Friends for Change. On August 9, 2009, the Jonas Brothers hosted and performed on the 2009Teen Choice Awards.Hollywood Records announced viaYouTubeDemi Lovato and Jonas Brothers'Walmart CD+DVD Soundcheck. Joe was a guest judge onAmerican Idolduring the Dallas auditions, which aired January 27, 2010.After the success ofCamp Rock, a sequel was in immediate development.Production on the film began on September 3, 2009, and wrapped on October 16, 2009.The film, entitledCamp Rock 2: The Final Jam, was aired onDisney Channelon September 3, 2010. The movie was filmed in Ontario, Canada.In late 2010, the Brothers took part in a concert at theWhite HousehonoringPaul McCartney's reception of aGershwin Prizefor Popular Music by U.S. PresidentBarack Obama. As a personal request from McCartney, they covered \"Drive My Car\" fromthe Beatles'Rubber Soul. 2011–2013: Hiatus,LiVeand split In 2011, the brothers took a hiatus to focus on their solo careers – Joe released his debut albumFastlife, Nick embarked on2011 Tourwith his bandNick Jonas & the Administrationand Kevin studied music production.In addition, they parted ways with Hollywood Records, who had been their label since February 2007. In December 2011, a new song leaked on the internet, \"Dance Until Tomorrow\", but they never released it.Despite rumors that they had split, Kevin said the band would release new material in the future: \"I think the tides are perfectly lining up for the future of the Jonas Brothers again\".In August 2012, Kevin starred in theE!reality seriesMarried to Jonasalongside his wife Danielle and brothers Nick and Joe, documenting the young couple's domestic life. On August 17, 2012, after two years of their last work together, they announced a new concert tour, theWorld Tour 2012/2013.On October 3, 2012, a preview of the song \"Meet You in Paris\" was released on Cambio.The new tour started on October 11, 2012, atRadio City Music Hallin New York City, where they performed several songs from their previous albums along with a new song entitled \"Let's Go\".During the reunion concert, they also performed other new songs: \"Wedding Bells\", \"First Time\" and \"Neon\".They performed atJingle BallatL.A. Liveon December 1, 2012, and announced several tour dates to take place in South America. They performed at theViña del Mar International Song Festivalon February 28, 2013, in Chile.Their fifth studio album, which would have been their first not to be released throughHollywood Recordssince 2006 and their first record since 2009'sLines, Vines and Trying Times, was scheduled to be released in 2013.The album would be titledV(pronounced:Five), theRoman numeralfor five. The lead single, \"Pom Poms\" was released on April 2, 2013.The music video for the song was filmed in February 2013 inNew Orleans,Louisiana, and premiered onE!on April 2, 2013.\"First Time\", the second single from their fifth album, was released on June 25, 2013.In June they embarked atLive Tourto promote the new songs. On October 9, 2013, the group cancelled 23 tour dates between October and December, citing a \"deep rift within the band\" over \"creative differences\".On October 29, 2013, the Jonas Brothers officially confirmed their split.During an interview, Nick Jonas stated that the album wouldn't be released but decided to release songs in a live album: \"We want to do something special for our fans because they've been so supportive of us for so many years. What we've decided to do is package an album with 10 live tracks from the summer tour and four of the songs that would have been on 'V', and if you count 'Pom Poms' and 'First Time', it's actually 6 songs that would have been on 'V'. We’ll be sending that out soon for the fans.\"The album was released with the titleLive, noting the letter \"V\" in caps as a reference to their would-be fifth studio album of the same name. 2019–2022: Reunion andHappiness Begins On February 28, 2019, the Jonas Brothers announced their comeback via social media.On March 1, they released a new single, \"Sucker\" underRepublic Records.They appeared onThe Late Late Show with James Cordeneach night from March 4 to 7 to promote the track.The song debuted at number one on theBillboardHot 100and the USHot Digital Songschart, with 88,000 copies sold in its first week, becoming the Jonas Brothers' first number-one song and the first number one by a boy band on the chart since 2003's \"Bump, Bump, Bump\" byB2K.It became the band's first entry on the chart since 2013's \"Pom Poms\" and their first top 10 since 2008's \"Tonight\". The Jonas Brothers also became the second group in history to have a song debut at number one afterAerosmith's \"I Don't Want to Miss a Thing\" and the first group in this century to achieve this.In its April 13, 2019, issue, \"Sucker\" became the Jonas' first top 10 onDance/Mix Show Airplay, surging 20–6 in its third week of charting.On April 5, the group released the single \"Cool\".On April 22, the band announced their upcoming albumHappiness Begins, which was released on June 7, 2019and preceded by a documentary titledChasing Happiness, which premiered on June 4 onAmazon Prime Video.The album debuted at number one on theBillboard 200chart, marked the biggest debut of 2019and maintained the record untilTaylor Swift's seventh studio album,Lover, was released on August 23 of the same year.The group embarked on their tenth headlining tour, the \"Happiness Begins Tour\", performing 92 shows around the globe. On June 8, the band performed at Capital's Summertime Ball 2019 in the United Kingdom; the setlist included performing \"Year 3000\" with the original band behind the song,Busted.On June 18, the band released the promotional single \"Greenlight\" from their episode ofSongland.On June 21, they were featured on Latino singersSebastián Yatra,Daddy Yankee, andNatti Natasha's single called \"Runaway\".On July 2, the band released \"Only Human\", the third single offHappiness Begins, followed by the music video on August 13.On September 27,Diploreleased a single titled \"Lonely\", which featured the Jonas Brothers.On November 8, the group released aChristmas songtitled \"Like It's Christmas\".The subsequent year, the band made a cameo appearance on the seriesDash & Lilyand performed the single. On January 17, 2020, the band released the single \"What a Man Gotta Do\".On January 24, they announced a residency show inLas Vegasnamed Jonas Brothers in Vegas at the Park Theater at Park MGM beginning on April 1, with eight other dates during the month keeping them in place until the 18th.The residency was ultimately cancelled due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.The band performed at the62nd Annual Grammy Awardson January 26, revealing a new song titled \"Five More Minutes\".On May 15, they released a two-track bundle titledXV, which contains the singles \"X\" and \"Five More Minutes\", the former of which features Colombian singerKarol G.On May 16, they made an appearance onGraduate Together: America Honors the High School Class of 2020to perform their new song. On October 30, they released another Christmas song titled \"I Need You Christmas\".On March 15, 2021, a deluxe version of Nick Jonas' fourth studio album,Spaceman, was released. The record included the song \"Selfish\", which featured the Jonas Brothers. On May 19, 2021, the Jonas Brothers announced that they would be embarking on their eleventh headlining tour, the Remember This Tour, consisting of 44 shows at outdoor venues around the United States, with the tour beginning on August 20, 2021, inLas Vegas. During their Remember This Tour tour, the Jonas Brothers required all fans attending their shows to present a proof ofvaccination against COVID-19or a negativeCOVID-19 test.The brothers released a statement on social media saying \"We believe this is the best thing we can do for our fans, our hard working crew, and the communities we're visiting.\"Kelsea Balleriniwas announced as a special guest for a majority of shows. On May 21, DJMarshmelloreleased \"Leave Before You Love Me\", a single featuring the Jonas Brothers. Two days later, they performed the single at the2021 Billboard Music Awards,with Nick Jonas also serving as the host for the ceremony.The single \"Remember This\" premiered on June 18 and was used in NBC's coverage of the2020 Summer Olympics.They recorded the song \"Mercy\" for the soundtrack ofSpace Jam: A New Legacywhich was released on July 9. On September 5, 2021, during the band's Remember This Tour, the Jonas Brothers premiered a song titled \"Who's in Your Head\" while performing at the Red Rocks Parks and Amphitheater in Colorado. The single was released on September 17.On March 1, 2022, they announced a 5-dates residency show in Las Vegas named Jonas Brothers: Live in Vegas, taking place from June 3 to 11.It was followed by a second 3-dates residency, which took place in November of the same year. 2023–present:The Album In January 2023, while appearing onThe Kelly Clarkson Show, Nick Jonas announced that the band's new album was completed.On January 30, 2023, the Jonas Brothers received a star on theHollywood Walk of Fameand announced that their sixth studio album, titledThe Album, would be released on May 5, 2023,later delayed to and released on May 12.The Albumdebuted at number three onBillboard200chart, marking the Jonas Brothers' seventh top ten album on the chart.The record was preceded by its lead single, \"Wings\", which was released on February 24 of the same year.\"Waffle House\" was released as the second single on April 7, 2023.The third single, \"Summer Baby\", was sent toadult contemporary radioon June 5, 2023.In support ofThe Album, the band embarked the tour \"Five Albums. One Night. The World Tour\". The single \"Do It Like That\", a collaboration with South Korean boy bandTomorrow X Togetherfrom the albumThe Name Chapter: Freefall, was released on July 7, 2023.On July 27, 2023, Busted released \"Year 3000 2.0\", which features the Jonas Brothers in a collaboration celebrating the 20th anniversary of Busted. The song is included in the compilation albumGreatest Hits 2.0.The single \"Strong Enough\", a collaboration withBailey Zimmerman, was released on November 10, 2023. The band will be performing at thehalftime showat the111th Grey Cupon November 17th, 2024 inVancouver,British Columbia,Canada. Philanthropy \"We started The Change for the Children Foundation to support programs that motivate and inspire children to face adversity with confidence, determination and a will to succeed. And we think the best people to help children are their peers – kids helping other kids who are a little less fortunate\". — Jonas about the success process. The Jonas Brothers earned an estimated $12 million in 2007, and have donated 10% of their earnings to their charity, Change for the Children Foundation.Change for the Children Foundation, started by the Jonas Brothers, has contributors donate to charities such as Nothing But Nets, American Diabetes Foundation, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, and Summer Stars Camp for the Performing Arts. Since August 6, 2008, Bayer Diabetes Care has partnered with Nick Jonas as adiabetesambassador to promote the idea that young people should manage their diabetes, as Nick was diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes when he was 13.Jonas testified in theU.S. Senateto promote more research funding for the disease. The Jonas Brothers have been strong supporters ofDo Something. In 2007, the brothers filmed a public service announcement raising awareness about teenage homelessness and encouraging teens to begin \"jeans drives\" in their communities to donate to the homeless. In 2010, Nick further volunteered his efforts forDo Somethingby offering his time as a prize to teens who donated jeans to Do Something and Aeropostale's \"Teens for Jeans\" campaign.Further, Nick filmed another public service announcement, this one in support of Do Something's \"Battle of the Bands\" campaign for the advancement of music education in schools. The Jonas Brothers have made several appearances atWe Day, an event that encourages young people to do local and global acts of charity.In a post on Twitter, the band also announced that a portion of every ticket purchased for their Toronto show would be donated toWEto help provide secondary school scholarships to young girls in Kenya. In August 2021, the Jonas Brothers partnered with NGOFeeding Americato promote donations to the organization by holding a competition to have dinner with a selected fan at a Los Angeles restaurant.The Jonas Brothers have continued to advocate to fight hunger worldwide by partnering, in early 2022, withGlobal Citizen, which fightsextreme poverty, among other issues. Musical style The Jonas Brothers' musical style has generally been described asrock,pop rock,pop punk,andpower pop. Members Current Current touring musicians Former touring musicians Accolades Discography Filmography Film Television Web Bibliography Concert tours Headlining Residency shows Promotional Opening act References Footnotes Sources External links",
"Nick Jonas Nicholas Jerry Jonas(born September 16, 1992)is an American singer, songwriter and actor. Jonas began acting on Broadway at the age of seven, and released his debut single in 2002; this caught the attention ofColumbia Records, where Jonas formed a band with his older brothers,KevinandJoe, known as theJonas Brothers. The group released their debut studio album,It's About Time,through the Columbia label in 2006. After leaving Columbia Records and signing withHollywood Records, the group released theirself-titled second studio albumin 2007, which became their breakthrough record. The band became prominent figures on theDisney Channelduring this time, gaining a large following through the network, and appeared in the widely successful musical television filmCamp Rock(2008) and its sequelCamp Rock 2: The Final Jam(2010), as well as two of their own series,Jonas Brothers: Living the Dream(2008–2010) andJonas(2009–2010). The band's third studio album,A Little Bit Longer(2008), saw continued commercial success for the group; the album's lead single \"Burnin' Up\" hit the top five on theBillboardHot 100chart. Following the release of their fourth studio album,Lines, Vines and Trying Times(2009), the Jonas Brothers confirmed a hiatus. Jonas formed a new band known asNick Jonas & the Administration, who released the albumWho I Amin 2010. Afterward, Jonas shifted his focus to acting and had a recurring role on the television seriesSmashand some Broadway shows roles. After the group's official disbandment in 2013, Jonas began work on his second solo studio album, signing withIsland Recordsand releasingNick Jonasthrough the label in 2014, which saw the commercial success of the single \"Jealous\". Jonas later co-foundedSafehouse Records, a record label in conjunction with the Island and Hollywood labels. His third studio albumLast Year Was Complicated(2016) peaked at number two on theBillboard200chart in the United States. Following the release, Jonas won the Songwriters Hall of Fame's Hal David Starlight Award in 2016.In 2017, Jonas appeared in the adventure comedy filmJumanji: Welcome to the Jungle, which became thefifth highest-grossing film of the year. The Jonas Brothers reformed in early 2019, and released the albumHappiness Beginsin June of that year. Jonas' fourth solo studio album,Spaceman, was released on March 12, 2021. Life and career 1992–2006: Childhood and career beginnings Jonas was born inDallas, Texas,the third son of Denise (néeMiller) and Paul Kevin Jonas. Jonas' father is a songwriter, musician, and former ordained minister at anAssemblies of Godchurch, while his mother is a former sign language teacher and singer.Nick has a younger brother,Frankie, and two older brothers,JoeandKevin.Jonas was raised inWyckoff, New Jerseyandhomeschooledby his mother. Jonas' career started when he was discovered at the age of six in a barber shop, where his mother was getting her hair cut, and was referred to a professional show business manager.He began performing onBroadwayat the age of seven, portraying characters such asTiny Tim,Chip Potts,Little Jake, andGavrocheamong other roles.Jonas wrote a song titled \"Joy to the World (A Christmas Prayer)\" with his father while performing inBeauty and the Beast(2002), featuring background vocals from Jonas' fellow cast members, which was featured on the compilation albumBroadway's Greatest Gifts: Carols for a Cure, Vol. 4.The song was later released throughINO Recordsto Christian Radio in 2003, serving as Jonas' debut single. The single caught the attention ofColumbia Records, leading to Jonas signing with Columbia and INO to release his debut studio effort.\"Dear God\" (2004) was released as the lead single from the project, followed by a re-recorded version of \"Joy to the World (A Christmas Prayer)\".Jonas co-wrote songs for the album with his two older brothers, who also provided background vocals for the release.Nicholas Jonas(2004) received a limited release on September 5, 2004.The project was scheduled for a wide release in December, but was pushed back before ultimately being cancelled altogether.The new president of Columbia Records,Steve Greenberg, liked Jonas' voice on the record, but did not like the album.Upon hearing the song \"Please Be Mine\", he decided to sign Jonas and his brothers as a group.After being signed to Columbia, the brothers considered naming their group Sons of Jonas before settling on the nameJonas Brothers.In 2005, Jonas was diagnosed withtype 1 diabetesat the age of 13. While working on their debut studio album, the band toured throughout 2005 with artists such asJump5,Kelly Clarkson,Jesse McCartney, theBackstreet Boys, andThe Click Five, among others.The band's debut single, \"Mandy\", was released in December 2005.The album was initially scheduled for a February 2006 release date, but executive changes at Columbia's parent companySonyled to numerous delays on the project's release.It was during this time that the group began making appearances on variousDisney Channel-related soundtracks, and toured withAly & AJthroughout 2006.The band's debut album,It's About Time(2006), was released on August 8, 2006.The album received little backing from the label, who had no further interest in promoting the band. During its initial run, the album only received a limited release of 50,000 copies.Unhappy with how the release of the record was handled, the band hoped to depart from Columbia Records and find a new label; it was later confirmed in 2007 that the group had been dropped by the label.The album went on to sell a total of 1,750,000 copies. 2007–2011: Breakthrough with Jonas Brothers and other projects Shortly following their departure from Columbia Records, it was confirmed that the Jonas Brothers had signed withHollywood Records.While working on their new album, the group continued to gain popularity from soundtrack appearances and promotional appearances.The group released theirself-titled second studio albumthrough Hollywood Records on August 7, 2007.The album entered the top five of theBillboard200in the United States, going on to sell over two million copies in the country.The group's single \"S.O.S\" became their first top twenty hit on theBillboardHot 100,and has sold over 1.5 million copies in the country.Nick and his brothers made their acting debut on an August 17 episode of the Disney seriesHannah Montanatitled \"Me and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas\". The band performed the collaboration \"We Got the Party\" with lead actressMiley Cyrus, with the episode garnering over ten million viewers and becoming basic cable's most watched series telecast ever.In May 2008, he and the band began starring in their own Disney seriesJonas Brothers: Living the Dream. Jonas made his film debut along with his brothers in the Disney Channel filmCamp Rock(2008), starring alongsideDemi Lovato. The film's soundtrack was released on June 17, 2008, and sold 188,000 copies in its first week of release in the United States.The movie went on to become a major hit for the network, receiving 8.86 million viewers.The band achieved further success with their third studio album,A Little Bit Longer(2008), which became their first to debut at number one on theBillboard200 chart; the project sold over 525,000 in its first week of release.The album went on to sell over two million copies in the United States, making it their second multi-platinum album.A Little Bit Longerremains the band's highest-selling effort to date. \"Burnin' Up\" (2008) served as the album's lead single, becoming the band's first top five hit in the United States. The band starred in the 3D biopicJonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience, which received a theatrical release on February 27, 2009.The film was a financial success, and is the sixth highest-grossing concert film.Jonas starred with all three of his brothers in their second Disney Channel series,Jonas, which made its debut on May 2, 2009.The band released their fourth studio album, titledLines, Vines and Trying Times, on June 16, 2009. The project debuted at the top spot on theBillboard200, boasting first week sales of 247,000 copies. Following the release of their fourth studio album, the Jonas Brothers confirmed that they would be taking a hiatus to focus on solo projects.While Joe chose to record a solo record, Nick opted to form the bandNick Jonas & the Administration, signing withHollywood Recordsto release the project and later doing a tour.On June 21, Jonas made his West End debut performing inLes Misérablesfor the second time, this time in the role ofMarius Pontmercy.Jonas was originally supposed to play the role for only three weeks, but was able to extend his run until July 24, 2010, because of changes in the Jonas Brothers touring schedule.He also appeared in the25th Anniversary ConcertatThe O2Arena on October 3, 2010, again playing the role of Marius Pontmercy.He starred inHow to Succeed in Business Without Really Tryingon Broadway. From August 5–7, Jonas performed in the musicalHairsprayas Link Larkin at theHollywood Bowl.He also starred in the sequelCamp Rock 2: The Final Jam(2010), which was a commercial success.Jonas later appeared in the 2011 seriesMr. Sunshine; he played Eli Cutler, an up-and-coming singer who wants everything his way before he performs at the Sunshine Center.He also played the role of Ryan on an episode of the sitcomLast Man Standing. 2012–2013: Jonas Brothers split Jonas guest-starred on an episode ofSmashas Lyle West, a young musician and television star backing a promising Broadway musical;Jonas would later reprise the role in the show's season finale on May 14.Jonas had acameo appearancein the last episode of the second season of the comedy web seriesSubmissions Only.Jonas was to perform in the musicalHow to Succeed in Business Without Really Tryingas J. Pierrepont Finchfrom January 24 to July 1, 2012.Despite this, the musical ended its run on May 20.Jonas recorded five songs for the project, which were released as an extended play in 2012.The Jonas Brothers confirmed in March that work had begun on their fifth studio album.The band officially parted ways with Hollywood Records in May 2012; they purchased the rights to all of their music from the label.Despite claims that Jonas would be signing on as a judge for thetwelfth seasonof the singing competitionAmerican Idol,Jonas opted to appear instead as a mentor withDemi LovatoonThe X Factor.Jonas made guest appearances on the television seriesMarried to Jonas, starring his older brother Kevin and his wife.The television show also documented their return to music and the process of working on their fifth album. The Jonas Brothers released a new single, \"Pom Poms\" (2013), on April 2 through their own record label.The music video for the song was filmed in February 2013 inNew Orleans,Louisianaand premiered onE!on April 2, 2013.Nick was the co-host of theMiss USA 2013competition onNBC; Jonas and his brothers performed during the event.The band released \"First Time\" as the second single from their forthcoming album.The band cancelled their highly anticipated tour in October only days before it was set to begin, citing a \"deep rift within the band\" over \"creative differences\", leading to speculation that the brothers would be parting ways musically.They officially confirmed on October 29 that the band had split up for good.The split led to the cancellation of their comeback album, though Nick confirmed that some of the songs recorded for the project would become available for fans through an upcoming release; the band released a live album featuring five songs from their unreleased fifth studio album.Around this time, Jonas guest starred as a computer hacker on an episode ofHawaii Five-0. 2014–2018:Nick JonasandLast Year Was Complicated With the Jonas Brothers officially broken up, Jonas began working on material for his second studio album.In 2014, he worked as the musical and creative director on Demi Lovato'sNeon Lights Tour, overseeing video content, wardrobe, lighting and staging, and song arrangement.He joined Lovato on stage for select shows of the concert, performing three of her songs with her.Jonas went on to appear in two more episodes ofHawaii Five-O,and was cast in a starring role as Nate Kulina in the drama seriesKingdom.The series premiered onDirecTV'sAudience Network, and was renewed for two more seasons only two weeks later.Jonas made his return to music with the release of \"Chains\", the lead single to his second studio album.\"Jealous\" was later released as the album's second single, going on to become Jonas' first top ten hit as a solo artist on theBillboardHot 100. Jonas released his second studio album,Nick Jonas, thoughIsland Recordson November 10, 2014.The album debuted at number six on theBillboard200, selling over 37,000 copies in its first week of release.Following the success of \"Jealous\" and the album,\"Chains\"was re-released as the next single from the album.The single achieved commercial success, reaching the top twenty of theBillboardHot 100 and becoming his second multi-platinum single.Jonas served as a guest mentor forChristina Aguileraon theeighth seasonofThe Voice.He also starred in the filmCareful What You Wish For, which was filmed in 2013.In 2015, Jonas released a new single, \"Levels\", as the lead single to the re-released version of his debut album,Nick Jonas X2.Jonas had a recurring role as Boone Clemens in the comedy horror seriesScream Queens; he is credited for five episodes of the first season. Work on Jonas' third studio album began as early as 2014, prior to the release ofNick Jonas.The album was initially set to be titledUnhinged, but was changed toLast Year Was Complicatedprior to its release.\"Close\", a collaboration withTove Lo, was released as the album's lead single.The project was a commercial success, reaching the top twenty of theBillboardHot 100 and becoming his third top ten hit on theMainstream Top 40chart.Last Year Was Complicatedwas released on June 10 to a generally positive reception.The album sold a total of 66,000 equivalent album units in its first week of release, entering theBillboard200chart at number two.This marks his highest peaking effort as a solo artist to date.\"Bacon\" has been serviced as the second single from the album.Jonas's contributions as a songwriter led to him receiving the Hal David Starlight Award in theSongwriters Hall of Fame.Jonas embarked on the co-headliningFuture Now Tour(2016) alongsideDemi Lovatoon June 29, and continued on the tour until the final concert on September 17.In May 2015,Billboardrevealed that Jonas was in the process of starting an \"artist-centric\" new record label, Safehouse Records, of which he would be co-founder and co-owner. The label would be a partnership between Jonas, Demi Lovato, and Lovato then-manager Phil McIntyre, and will form part of a new collaborative arrangement with record labelIsland. Jonas also starred in the drama filmGoatalongsideJames Franco, which was released on September 23, 2016.He participated in a rap battle withKevin Harton October 27. On May 26, 2017, Jonas released the single \"Remember I Told You\" which features British singer-songwriterAnne-Marieand American singer and producerMike Posner.Jonas released the song \"Find You\" on September 14, 2017.Jonas contributed to theFerdinandsoundtrack with the songs \"Home\" and \"Watch Me\", released on October 20. \"Home\" was nominated for theGolden Globe Award for Best Original Song.In May 2018, Jonas released the single \"Anywhere\", a collaboration with DJ/ProducerMustard. Jonas and Mustard performed the song live, along with \"Jealous\", with contestant Jurnee during the finale ofAmerican Idolseason 16 on May 21.They also performed the song during the2018 MTV Movie & TV Awardson June 18.In an August 2018 interview withTeen Vogue, Jonas announced the impending release of a collaboration withRobin Schulztitled \"Right Now\", which he co-wrote withSkylar Grey.In August 2018, it was announced that Jonas had joined the cast of the animated filmUglyDollsalongsideKelly ClarksonandPitbull, which was released on May 3, 2019.Jonas also performs the song \"The Ugly Truth\" for the film, which appears on thesoundtrack album. 2019–present: Jonas Brothers reunion,The VoiceandSpaceman Starting in late January, rumors were swirling online that the three brothers were going to reform the Jonas Brothers. On February 28, 2019, the Jonas Brothers officially announced their return along with a new single, \"Sucker\", which released the next day, March 1.The group's fifth album,Happiness Beginswas released on June 7.In October 2019, it was announced that Jonas would joinThe Voiceas a coach for its eighteenth season and later for its twentieth season.Jonas had a role inRoland Emmerich's World War II blockbuster movieMidway, which was released on November 8, 2019. On February 20, 2021, it was announced that Jonas would hostSaturday Night Livefor the first time on February 27.He wasSNL's musical guest for the fourth time, performing his single, \"Spaceman\", from his fourth studio album, also titledSpaceman.The second single, titled \"This Is Heaven\", was released on March 4, 2021. On March 15, 2021, Jonas and his wifePriyanka Chopraannounced the nominees for the93rd Academy Awards.On April 30, 2021, it was announced that Jonas would host the2021BillboardMusic Awards.Nick Jonas is set to star as Frankie Valli in a proshot taping of the musicalJersey Boys. In March 2023, Jonas and King released a single in Hindi and English, titled \"Maan Meri Jaan (Afterlife).\" Other ventures Outside of his acting and music career, Jonas ventured in various directions. In 2014, he signed a contract with modeling agency Wilhelmina Models. Fashion In 2017, he released his shoe collection 1410, a collaboration with versatile sneaker company Creative Recreation.In 2018, he released a spring clothing line withJohn Varvatos, labeled JV x NJ.Later in the year, they also released a fragrance, also labeled JV x NJ.In 2019, they released two more fragrances: JVXNJ Redand JVxNJ Silver.In October 2022 it was annmounced that Nick collaborated with PGX on a capsule collection for the golfsport. The PXG x NJ collection includes apparel and accessories, from hats and bags to shirts, pants, socks. Tequila In September 2019, Jonas announced that he had collaborated with John Varvatos and the spirits giant Stoli Group on an ultra-premium tequila named Villa One. The tequila, which was rolled out in the U.S. in September, came in Silver, Reposado and Añejo expressions.At the end of 2020, the tequila was made available for purchase in the United Kingdom.In May 2021, it was made available in Canada. Producing On September 29, 2021, it was announced that Nick Jonas and Priyanka Chopra Jonas had joined the producing team of Douglas Lyons’ Broadway comedy Chicken & Biscuits, currently in previews at Circle in the Square Theatre. Image 32 Jonas was an executive producer for the showDash & Lily,withStranger Thingsproducer Shawn Levy. Levy produced the series with Josh Barry via his 21 Laps banner.The series was released on November 10, 2020, onNetflix. Jonas was involved on casting, filming, and music.He also made a cameo in the series, giving love advice and performing the single \"Like It's Christmas\" with his brothers. In 2020, Amazon Studios greenlit an unscripted series following engaged couples as they prepare for their sangeet, an Indian pre-wedding tradition. Jonas was announced as an executive producer through Image 32, and Chopra Jonas would executive produce through Purple Pebble Productions. Business In July 2022, Jonas and Chopra announced an investment inPerfect Moment, a 1979-founded company dedicated mainly to womenswear. The company said that the couple will play a \"substantial role\" in the marketplaces of Asia and the Middle East. Public image During the early stages of their career, the Jonas Brothers were seen as role models andteen idolsby their fans, and they drew much media attention when they made the decision to begin wearingpurity ringsduring their time on the Disney Channel.Though he has stated that the rings helped \"shape view of sex\", Nick felt that his faith became more about his personal relationship with God.He claimed in 2016 that all of the youth at their church had been asked to wear them, and he didn't have a \"full understanding\" of what the ring meant.Jonas has more recently earned the title of asex symbolfollowing a string of provocative photo shoots.He has often rejected the title, stating that: \"I don't really consider myself . If someone wants to give me that title, that's fine, but I don't say these words about myself. I just try to be humble, make sexy music and push the envelope a little bit.\" Jonas was featured onOK!'s list of 2014's Sexiest Men Alive,while his photo shoot forFlauntwas listed on their Most Memorable Naked Moments list.He was ranked at number ten onPeople's Sexiest Men Alive list in 2015.He was ranked in sixth place onCapital FM's list of Sexiest Men in Pop during 2016.Jonas' new public image has led to him receiving a large fan following in theLGBTcommunity, a fact he claims to be \"thrilled\" about.Some of Jonas' interviews and comments have drawn criticism for being \"gay pandering\", though Jonas has denied these claims.He was deemed Sexiest Reality Show Judge in the 2020People's Sexiest Men Alive poll.That same year, he was also nominated alongside Joe and Kevin for Sexiest Brothers. Personal life Health Jonas was diagnosed withtype 1 diabetesat the age of thirteen and uses aninsulin pumpto help him manage his condition.He has developed the Change for the Children Foundation; partnering with five different charities, their goal is to raise money and awareness for diabetes.He also developed a public service announcement with theWashington Nationalsto support diabetes care atChildren's National Medical Centerin Washington, D.C.Since August 6, 2008, Bayer Diabetes Care has partnered with Jonas as a diabetes ambassador to encourage young people to manage their diabetes.Jonas testified in theU.S. Senateto promote more research funding for the condition. On May 15, 2021, Jonas suffered an accident while biking and cracked a rib.He also suffered bumps and bruises and had to be transported in an ambulance to a hospital, from which he was discharged a day later.On May 17, he returned to the showThe Voiceafter the accident.In an interview on May 19, Jonas said that he was feeling better and that his accident would not interfere with his hosting of theBillboard Music Awards. Relationships Jonas dated fellow Disney starMiley Cyrusfrom June 2006 to December 2007.He briefly dated another Disney starSelena Gomezin 2008, she appeared in his band music video for \"Burnin' Up\".In May 2011, Jonas started dating Australian singerDelta Goodrem. They broke up in February 2012.Jonas started dating model andMiss Universe 2012Olivia Culpoin 2013. They ended their relationship in 2015 after nearly two years of dating. In May 2018, Jonas started dating Indian actressPriyanka Chopra. Jonas proposed to her on July 19, 2018, a day after her birthday, inCrete, Greece.Jonas and Chopra got engaged in August 2018 in aPunjabi Roka ceremonyinMumbai.In December 2018, the couple married atUmaid Bhawan Palace, Jodhpur, in traditional Hindu and Christian ceremonies.In January 2022, Jonas revealed he and his wife had welcomed their first child, a daughter, viasurrogacy. Philanthropy In 2009, Jonas was involved in \"Disney's Friends for Change\", an organization which promoted \"environmentally-friendly behavior\", alongside his brothers.Jonas Brothers,Demi Lovato,Miley Cyrus, andSelena Gomez, as the ad hoc musical team \"Disney's Friends For Change\", recorded the charity single \"Send It On\", all of the proceeds of which were accepted into the Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund.It debuted on theBillboardHot 100 at No. 20. In January 2010, Jonas donated $25,000 from his family foundation to theNorth Texas Food Bank. He made the visit as part of a joint effort with the television programThe Biggest LoserandFeeding America, a national network of food banks.In the same year, Jonas further volunteered his efforts forDo Somethingby offering his time as a prize to teens who donated jeans to Do Something andAeropostale's\"Teens for Jeans\" campaign.Further, Jonas filmed another PSA, this one in support of Do Something's \"Battle of the Bands\" campaign, for the advancement of music education in schools.Jonas is also a member of the National Youth Leadership Committee for the Ronald Reagan Centennial Celebration, along withJordin Sparks, Genevieve Ryan, and Brodi Conover.In 2017, Jonas, alongsideDemi LovatoandDNCE, began a Crowd Rise campaign to raise money to supportHurricane Harveyrelief. In March 2020, Jonas and his wife,Priyanka Chopra, announced they have donated to several organizations, includingUNICEF,Feeding America,Goonj,Doctors Without Borders,No Kid Hungry,GiveIndia,PM CARES Fund, and others to help fight the outbreak ofCOVID-19.They also made donations to theEqual Justice InitiativeandAmerican Civil Liberties Union, amid the widespread protests over themurder of George Floydin June 2020.The next month, they made donations to Bihar and Assam flood relief organizations following theAssam floodand asked their fans to provide help and support as well. In April 2021, Jonas and Chopra urged fans to donate to the GiveIndia NGO through their fundraiser \"Together for India\" during the resurgence of theCOVID-19 pandemic in India.By 13 May 2021, the fundraiser had reached their initial target of $1 million, and they subsequently raised the target to $3 million. Discography Solo albums withThe Administration with theJonas Brothers Filmography Theatre Film TV Web Music videos Commercials Tours Awards and nominations References External links",
"Joe Jonas Joseph Adam Jonas(born August 15, 1989) is an American singer, songwriter, and actor. He rose to fame as a member of the pop rock band theJonas Brothers, alongside his brothersKevinandNick. The group released their debut studio albumIt's About Timethrough theColumbialabel in 2006. After signing withHollywood Records, the group released theirself-titled second studio albumin 2007, which became their breakthrough record. The band became prominent figures on theDisney Channelduring this time, gaining a large following through the network: they appeared in the widely successful musical television filmCamp Rock(2008) and its sequelCamp Rock 2: The Final Jam(2010) as well as two of their own series,Jonas Brothers: Living the Dream(2008–2010) andJonas(2009–2010). The band's third studio album,A Little Bit Longer(2008), saw continued commercial success for the group; the album's lead single \"Burnin' Up\" hit the top five on theBillboardHot 100chart. Theirfourth studio album, while still successful on theBillboard200chart, saw a decline in record sales. After the group confirmed a hiatus, Joe released his debut solo studio album,Fastlife(2011), which saw moderate commercial success. After the Jonas Brothers officially parted ways due to creative differences, Jonas formed thefunk-popbandDNCEin 2015, serving as the lead vocalist. The group saw the significant commercial success of their debut single \"Cake by the Ocean\", which peaked at number 9 on theBillboardHot 100chart in the United States. Early life Joseph Adam Jonas was born on August 15, 1989.inCasa Grande, Arizona, the son of Denise (née Miller) and Paul Kevin Jonas. His father is a songwriter, musician, and former ordained minister at anAssemblies of Godchurch while his mother is a former sign language teacher and singer.He has an older brother,Kevin, and two younger brothers,NickandFrankie. He attendedEastern Christian High SchoolinNorth Haledon, New Jersey. In 2002, Joe appeared inBaz Luhrmann's Broadway production ofLa bohème. Career 2005–2007: Breakthrough with Jonas Brothers In 2005, Joe, Kevin, and Nick recordedPlease Be Mine, their first song recorded.Upon hearing the song, theColumbia RecordspresidentSteve Greenbergdecided to sign the brothers as a group.They considered naming their group \"Sons of Jonas\" before settling on the nameJonas Brothers.While working on their debut studio album, the band toured throughout 2005 with artists such asJump5,Kelly Clarkson,Jesse McCartney, theBackstreet Boys, andThe Click Fiveamong others.The group released their debut single, \"Mandy\", in December 2005.The album was initially scheduled for a February 2006 release date, though executive changes at Columbia's parent companySonyled to numerous delays on the project's release.During this time, the group began making appearances on variousDisney Channelrelated soundtracks and toured withAly & AJthroughout 2006.The band's debut album,It's About Time(2006), was released on August 8, 2006.The album received little backing from the label, who had no further interest in promoting the band.The album's second single, \"Year 3000\", had its music video premiere on the Disney Channel in the beginning of 2007. Dissatisfied with how the release of the record was handled, the band hoped to depart from Columbia Records and find a new label; it was later confirmed in 2007 that the group had been dropped by the label.The album went on to sell a total of 67,000 copies in the United States. Only a short period of time after their departure from Columbia Records, it was confirmed that the group had signed a new contract withHollywood Records.While working on their new album, the group continued to gain popularity due to soundtrack appearances and promotional appearances.The group released theirself-titled second studio albumthrough Hollywood Records on August 7, 2007.The album entered the top five of theBillboard200in the United States, going on to sell over two million copies in the country.Joe and his brothers made their acting debut on an August 17 episode of the Disney seriesHannah Montanatitled \"Me and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas\". The band performed the collaboration \"We Got the Party\" with lead actressMiley Cyrus, with the episode gaining over ten million viewers and became basic cable's most watched series telecast ever.The group's single \"S.O.S\" became their first top twenty hit on theBillboardHot 100,and has sold over 1.5 million copies in the country, they put outHold On,When You Look Me in the Eyesamong singles. 2008–2010: Acting In May 2008, he and the band began starring in their own Documentary seriesJonas Brothers: Living the Dream.Jonas made his film debut along with his brothers in the Disney Channel filmCamp Rock(2008). The film's soundtrack was released on July 17, 2008, and sold 188,000 copies in its first week of release in the United States.Joe recorded the duet \"This Is Me\" for the project, with the song reaching the top ten of theBillboardHot 100 chart.The song served as Jonas' first release outside of the Jonas Brothers. It has sold just over 900,000 copies in the United States.The Jonas Brothers' third studio album,A Little Bit Longer, was released in the United States on August 12, 2008. The album became their first to debut at number one on theBillboard200 chart, selling over 525,000 copies in its first week of release.The album went on to sell over two million copies in the United States, making it their second multi-platinum album.The album was preceded by the release of the single \"Burnin' Up\" (2008), which became the band's first top five hit in the United States.Love Bug,Tonightwere put out among singles.Joe and his brothers starred in the 3D biopicJonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience, which received a theatrical release on February 27, 2009.The film was a financial success and is the sixth highest-grossing concert film. Jonas starred with all three of his brothers their second Disney Channel series,Jonas, which made its debut on May 2, 2009.The show's second and final season aired under the nameJonas L.A.The band released their fourth studio album, entitledLines, Vines and Trying Times, on June 16, 2009. The project debuted at the top spot on theBillboard200, boasting first week sales of 247,000 copies.ParanoidandFly with Mewere put out as singles.Joe was featured as a guest judge on a January 2010 episode of theninth seasonof the singing competitionAmerican Idol.In February 2010, Jonas made a cameo appearance inVampire Weekend's music video for \"Giving Up the Gun\" along withJake Gyllenhaal,Lil Jon, andRZA.He later guest starred in a 2010 episode ofHot In ClevelandasValerie Bertinelli's son, Will.Jonas starred in the sequelCamp Rock 2: The Final Jam. 2011–2014:Fastlifeand group disbandment In 2011, it was announced that Jonas was planning on recording a solo album.Jonas hoped to incorporate elements offunkinto the album.Jonas released the album's lead single, titled \"See No More\", made in collaboration with Chris Brown on June 3, 2011.The single failed to have much commercial success, only reaching ninety-two on theBillboardHot 100 chart.On August 4, 2011, Jonas announced viaTwitterthat he would joinBritney Spearson her European tour starting October 16, 2011.Ryan Seacrestpremiered the album's second single, \"Just in Love\", on September 9, 2011.The single was later remixed to include rapperLil Wayne.Jonas later confirmed the album to be titledFastlife. In support of the album, Joe co-headlined withJay Seanin theJoe Jonas & Jay Sean TourwithJoJoas the opening act.The tour kicked off on September 9, 2011, and concluded on October 6, 2011.Fastlifewas released through Hollywood Records on October 11, 2011.The album sold a total of 18,000 copies in its first week of release, debuting at number fifteen on theBillboard200.The album quickly fell off of the albums chart, going on to sell a mere 45,000 copies by 2015.On May 1, 2012, it was announced that both the Jonas Brothers and Joe Jonas had parted ways with Hollywood Records. It was confirmed in April 2013 that the Jonas Brothers would reunite to begin working on their fifth studio album and an upcoming tour. Kevin Jonas later starred in his ownE!reality series,Married to Jonas, which focused on his marriage to new wife Danielle.The show featured appearances from Joe and Nick and documented the band's preparations for their musical comeback.That same year, Jonas participated inFox's dating game showThe Choice.Jonas began dating model Blanda Eggenschwiler in September 2012, with the two dating until July 2014.Jonas co-wrote the song \"Dreams\" for theJohn LegendalbumLove in the Future(2013).The brothers performed inRussiain September 2012, making it their first live performance since their 2010 tour.Their much-anticipated reunion concert, which had been announced in August 2012, took place on October 11, 2012, atRadio City Music HallinNew York City.The band's fifth studio album, set to be released independently through their own label, was slated for release in 2013.The Jonas Brothers also announced an upcoming North American tour, with tickets going on sale. The album, initially titledV,Live included the previously released singles, \"Pom Poms\" and \"First Time\".On October 9, 2013, the group cancelled their upcoming tour days before it was slated to start, citing a \"deep rift within the band\" over \"creative differences\".Only days later, it was confirmed that the band had officially ended. 2015–2018: DNCE andThe Voice With the band officially broken up, Jonas began working on a new musical project with producers such asMalayandMattman & Robin.While working on the project, Jonas was unsure whether he wanted to record a second studio album or start a new band. Upon working withJustin Tranteron multiple songs, Jonas decided to form a band with his friends and former touring partnersJack LawlessandJinJoo Lee.Cole Whittle, a member of the alternative rock bandSemi Precious Weapons, became the fourth and final member of the group.The group named themselvesDNCE, a misspelling of the word dance.DNCE released their debut single, \"Cake by the Ocean\", in 2015.TheirSwaaydebut extended playwas released in October 2015. Their self title DNCE album was later released.It debuted at number seventy-nine on theBillboard200 chartin the United States but peaked at number nine. In 2018, he joined theAustralian version ofThe Voiceas a coach, a year after being a mentor on theAmerican version. In June 2018, Jonas and British DJJonas Bluereleased their collaborative track \"I See Love\", a song for the filmHotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation. He also voiced aKrakenin the movie. 2019–2023: Jonas Brothers and DNCE reunions Starting in late January, rumors were swirling on Twitter and other social media that the three brothers were going to reform the Jonas Brothers. On February 28, 2019, the Jonas Brothers officially announced their return along with a new single, \"Sucker\", which released the next day, March 1.In April 2019, Joe Jonas appeared atWE DayCalifornia, portions of which were aired on ABC in August of the same year. In January 2021, it was announced that Jonas was among the cast of theKorean WarmovieDevotion.During March 2021, the filming took place onTybee Island, Georgia.The movie, which is expected to premiere in 2022,also had filming onArthur Ravenel Jr. BridgeinCharleston, South Carolinaduring May 2021.He has called his joining the cast ofDevotiona \"life changing\" experience.In September 2022, it was announced that Jonas had co-authored a song titled \"Not Alone\" for the credits of the movie, calling the song \"One of the favorites that I've ever written\" and labeling the song as \"spiritual\". In February 2022, Jonas announced the return of DNCE along with Lawless and Lee. Jonas announced the return of the band with a new song by Norwegian DJKygo, titledDancing Feet, which was released on February 25, 2022. The Jonas brothers released their sixth studio albumThe Albumin May 2023. 2024:Music for People Who Believe in Love On July 17, 2024, Jonas announced the release of his second studio album,Music for People Who Believe in Love, which is set to be released on October 18, 2024.The lead single from the album, \"Work It Out\", was released on July 19, 2024. Personal life Jonas datedGigi Hadid,Taylor SwiftandDemi Lovato.He started dating English actressSophie Turnerin 2016.They got engaged in October 2017,and married on May 1, 2019, inLas Vegas,Nevada.They held their second wedding inParis, Franceon June 29, 2019.The couple has two daughters.In September 2023, Jonas filed for divorce from Turner in Miami, Florida.Turner subsequently sued Jonas and cited \"wrongful detention,\" saying that Jonas refused to allow their daughters to return to England, which had been registered as theirpermanent residencein April.Jonas and Turner reached a temporary custody agreement in October.The divorce was finalized in September 2024. In September 2021, Jonas and Turner purchased a mansion inMiami, Floridafor $11 million. The mansion was reportedly inspired by architectFrank Lloyd Wright.Prior to moving to Miami, Jonas and Turner sold their house inEncino, a neighborhood of Los Angeles, for $15.2 million.In November 2022, the Jonases' Miami residence was listed for sale with an asking price of nearly $17 million. Discography Solo albums with theJonas Brothers withDNCE Filmography Film Television Web Music videos Commercials Awards and nominations References External links",
"Kevin Jonas Paul Kevin Jonas Jr.(born November 5, 1987) is an American musician and actor. He rose to fame as the lead guitarist of the pop rock bandJonas Brothersalongside his younger brothersJoeandNick. Jonas became a prominent figure on theDisney Channelalongside his brothers in the late 2000s, gaining a large following through the network: he appeared in the widely successful musical television film,Camp Rock(2008) and its sequel,Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam(2010) as well as two other series,Jonas Brothers: Living the Dream(2008–2010) andJonas(2009–2010). After the group confirmed a hiatus in 2012, Kevin appeared on his ownE!reality series that same year,Married to Jonas,with his wife,Danielle. Following the band's initial break-up in 2013, Jonas appeared on theseventh seasonofThe Celebrity Apprenticein 2014, founded the construction company Jonas Werner, and became the co-CEO of The Blu Market, an influencer marketing company. In 2019, he rejoined the Jonas Brothers following their reunion. The group would go on to release their fifth studio album. The reunited Jonas Brothers appeared in twoAmazon Prime Videodocumentaries namedJonas Brothers: Chasing HappinessandJonas Brothers: Happiness Continuesin 2019 and 2020. Jonas appeared onPeoplemagazine's list of the Sexiest Men Alive in 2008 at the age of 21, and thus included as part of the 21 Club. Early life Paul Kevin Jonas Jr. was born on November 5, 1987, inTeaneck, New Jersey, and grew up inWyckoff.His mother, Denise Marie (née Miller), is a former sign language teacher and singer, and his father, Paul Kevin Jonas Sr., is a songwriter, musician, and former ordained minister at anAssemblies of Godchurch.He has three younger brothers,Joe(b. 1989),Nick(b. 1992), andFrankie(b. 2000).As a child, Jonas appeared in several TV commercials as well as print ads. Unlike his brothers, he originally did not intend to become a musician but became interested one day after stumbling upon a book on playing guitar and playing his father’s guitar.He attendedEastern Christian High SchoolinNorth Haledon, New Jersey. Career 2005–2006: Career beginnings In early 2005,Columbia Records' new president,Steve Greenberg, listened toNick's record. While Greenberg did not like the album, he did like Nick's voice.After hearing the song \"Please Be Mine\", written and performed by all the brothers,Daylight/Columbia Records decided to sign the three as a group act.After being signed to Columbia, the brothers considered naming their group \"Sons of Jonas\" before settling on the name \"Jonas Brothers\".It's About Time, the brothers' first album, was released on August 8, 2006.According to the band's manager, it was only a \"limited release\" of a little over 50,000 copies. BecauseSonywas not interested in further promoting the band, the Jonas Brothers then considered switching labels. The band was ultimately dropped by Columbia Records in early 2007. 2007–2012: Breakthrough with the Jonas Brothers After shortly being without a label, the Jonas Brothers signed withHollywood Recordsin February 2007.Around the same time, the brothers began appearing inGap Inc.commercials forBaby Bottle Pop, singing thejingle. Their self-titled second album,Jonas Brothers, was released on August 7, 2007.It reached number five on theBillboardHot 200chart in its first week.Jonas and his brothers guest-starred in an episode ofHannah Montana, titled \"Me and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas\", which aired August 17, 2007 onDisney Channel. The episode debuted alongside the television filmHigh School Musical 2and a sneak peek ofPhineas and Ferb.The episode broke basic cable records with a record 10.7 million viewers and became basic cable's most watched series telecast ever. Jonas and his brothers also starred in theDisney Channel Original MovieCamp Rock, where they played a band called \"Connect 3\". Kevin played Jason, a guitarist; Nick played Nate, also a guitarist; and Joe played the lead male role and lead singer, Shane Gray.Asoundtrackfor the movie was released on June 17, 2008. The film premiered on June 20, 2008, on Disney Channel in the United States, on Disney Channel, and onFamilyin Canada.They returned in the sequel,Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam, which premiered on September 3, 2010.The Disney Channel reality short series,Jonas Brothers: Living the Dream, premiered on Disney Channel, May 16, 2008.The show, which ran until September 5, 2008, documented the brother's lives during theLook Me in the EyesTour. The name was inspired by their hit songWhen You Look Me in the Eyes. The series was renewed for a second season, which premiered March 21, 2010.The second season followed the band on the European leg of their World Tour 2009. The Jonas Brothers' third studio album,A Little Bit Longer, was released in the United States on August 12, 2008, and peaked at No. 1 on theBillboard200. Kevin, Joe, Nick, and Frankie starred in their ownDisney Channel Original Series,Jonas, which premiered May 2, 2009.The show was renewed for a second season premiering June 20, 2010 asJonas L.A.It centered on the brothers vacationing at their summer house in Los Angeles with Stella and Macy. On June 16, 2009, the brothers' fourth studio album, and third release under Hollywood Records, titledLines, Vines, and Trying Timeswas released. The album peaked at number 1 on the Billboard 200 with 247,000 copies sold. Jonas appeared on MTV's fourth episode ofWhen I Was 17, talking about life as a teenager, regarding sports and his hairstyles.He guest hostedLive with Kelly, December 13, 2011, and did so a second time on July 4, 2012.It was announced on May 1, 2012, that the Jonas Brothers parted ways with their record label Hollywood Records, and bought the rights to their music. 2013–2018: Jonas Brothers split Kevin appeared in an E! reality series alongside his wife, Danielle, and his brothers, which premiered on August 19, 2012. Produced byRyan Seacrest,Married to Jonasdocumented the young couple's domestic life as well as the brothers' recording efforts as they prepared to release their fifth studio album.The final episode of the second season aired on May 26, 2013. On October 29, 2013, The Jonas Brothers officially announced that the band was breaking up because of creative differences. After parting ways with the Jonas Brothers in 2013, he founded the real estate development, construction company called JonasWerner, and is the co-CEO of The Blu Market company, which deals with communications and plans for social media influencers.Jonas was part of theseventh seasonofCelebrity Apprenticetaping in spring 2014, which was filmed throughout New York City.He was fired in the second episode when his team lost the competition, during which time he'd been acting as the team leader. Kevin also made a cameo in a 2014 episode ofThe Real Housewives of New Jersey, working in his new role as contractor, leading the construction on Housewife Kathy Wakile's home. In 2015, he created a food app Yood.As of 2016, he is also in partnership with the video-sharing appWe Heart It.While the band was on hiatus, Nick was on his solo music and acting career, while Joe started the bandDNCEin 2015 with Jonas Brothers drummerJack Lawless,Semi Precious Weaponsbassist Cole Whittle, and guitaristJinJoo Lee. 2019–present: Jonas Brothers reunion andHappiness Begins On February 28, 2019, nearly six years after the Jonas Brothers initial breakup, the brothers announced the band's reunion.They commenced their reunion the next day with releasing their new single, \"Sucker\" on March 1, 2019, and partaking in a week long segment onThe Late Late Show with James Cordeneveryday from March 4 to March 7.Jonas and his brothers appeared in the band's documentaryChasing Happiness, which was released on June 4, 2019. On May 9, 2019, a compilation album titledMusic from Chasing Happinesswas released. It consists of old Jonas Brothers songs, two Nick songs, one Joe song featuring a guest appearance fromLil Wayne, and a song from Joe's bandDNCE, who are currently in hiatus as of January 2019 since Joe and Jonas Brothers and DNCE drummerJack Lawlesshave resumed work back with the brothers.Directed byJohn Lloyd Taylor, the documentary covers the brothers childhood life, how the brothers started as a band, why the band broke up, and how the band got back together. They released their fifth studio album,Happiness Beginson June 7, 2019. It is the band's first album released after their reunion.They have released two songs with other artists, which consist of: their feature on \"Runaway\" bySebastián Yatra,Daddy Yankee, andNatti Natasha, as well as their collaboration on \"Lonely\" withDiplo. They released a song titled \"Greenlight\" for their episode ofSonglandthe same day on June 18, three days before \"Runaway\". On November 8, they released a Christmas song, \"Like It's Christmas\". On January 17, 2020, they released a new single, \"What a Man Gotta Do\", the lead single for their upcoming sixth studio album. Since July 11, 2022, Kevin Jonas has been co-hosting the reality competition seriesClaim to Fameon ABC alongside his brother,Franklin Jonas. Personal life Kevin Jonas lives in New Jersey with his wife,Danielle Jonas, and their two daughters. Danielle is a former hairdresser with Ryan Rodgers Redken Ambassador, and the pair married atOheka Castleon December 19, 2009, with his brothers Joe and Nick as his best men. The couple met while vacationing with their families inthe Bahamasin May 2007.Their first daughter was born on February 2, 2014,and their second daughter was born on October 27, 2016. In April 2021, Jonas showed support for the NGOGiveIndiaduring the worsening situation of theCOVID-19 pandemic in Indiaand urged fans to help donate to the organization to help. In September 2021, Jonas and his wife Danielle announced the release of a book for children titledThere's a Rock Concert in My Bedroom, which chronicles the story of Emma, a girl who is excited about participating in her school's talent show. The Jonases said the initiative was motivated by their daughters.It was released in April 2022. In June 2024, Jonas shared that he was diagnosed with skin cancer after discovering a malignant mole on his forehead. He got a basal cell carcinoma removed from his head. Filmography Film Television Internet Video games References External links",
"Disneynature Disneynatureis an independentfilm studiothat specializes in the production ofnature documentaryfilms forWalt Disney Studios, a division ofDisney Entertainment, which is owned byThe Walt Disney Company. The production company was founded on April 21, 2008, and is headquartered inParis,France. The company's nature films are consistently budgeted between $5 million to $10 million, with their distribution and marketing handled byWalt Disney Studios Motion Pictures.The label's event films are released onEarth Dayand have a conservation campaign based on the feature of the film with an appropriate conservation charity receiving donations based on tickets sold,at a pace of one per year.The eight Disneynature theatrical films have a gross of $151.6 million at the box office, at an average of $19 million, withEarththe top earner at $32 million. Background Disney had a background in making nature films prior to the creation of Disneynature;Bambi(1942) featured forest life and was a hit.From 1948 through 1960, the company produced theTrue-Life Adventuresseries, which won severalAcademy Awards.Outside of film work, Disney parks were involved.Disneylandin 1955 opened theJungle Cruiseride.Walt Disney WorldincludesDisney's Animal Kingdom, which is a theme park crossed with a zoo.Animal Kingdom has contributed to conservation causes by nursingendangered sea turtlesback to health, returning white rhinos to Africa and conducting a census ofcotton-top tamarins, a monkey species native to Colombia. In addition, since its creation in 1995, the Disney Wildlife Conservation Fund has given over $11 million to 650 conservation projects in 110 countries. After a long absence from nature documentaries, Disney decided to get back into the market after the French release ofMarch of the Penguins. The film was given U.S. distribution throughWarner Independent Picturesin 2005. Made on an $8 million budget, it grossed almost 10 times its budget at the U.S. box office and won theAcademy Award for Best Documentary Featurein 2006.Jean-Francois Camilleri, head ofBuena Vista International Franceat the time, had the company acquire the film for the French market. Buena Vista International France also managed to obtain a 20% ownership stake in the French version of the film, butBuena Vista Pictures Distribution's bid to distribute the film in the U.S. ultimately failed.Disney CEOBob Iger, in consideration of Disney's past efforts, felt thatPenguins\"should have been a Disney film worldwide\". This was the impetus behind the creation of Disneynature. The film's 2007 follow-up wasArctic Tale, which only took in $1.8 million worldwide.Paul Baribault, Vice President of Disney Studios Marketing, led the US efforts for Disneynature from 2008 forward, overseeing all marketing, production, brand development, and conservation programmatic efforts for the label. He was eventually named general manager of Disneynature. History Disneynature was announced on April 21, 2008, a day beforeEarth Day, with a starting slate of seven films. Camilleri was set to head the new division. A multi-film production agreement was made withAlastair Fothergill,BBC'sPlanet Earthseries producer, for three scheduled films:Earth(2009),African Cats(2011) andChimpanzee(2012).The other announced slate films and their release years were:The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos(2008),Oceans(2010),Orangutans: One Minute to Midnight(2010) andWings of Life(2011).Original announced plans had the division releasing two films per year,which was curtailed by April 2009 due to a nature film's long period needed to film wildlife.No decision was made at that time as to whether or not the studio would donate the films' proceeds to conservation causes. The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingoswas the first film produced for Disneynature.The first film released domestically under the new label wasEarth, opening on April 22, 2009, in the US.In 2012, a Disneynature TV cable channel was launched in France. It is currently carried byFrance Telecom. Animal Planetpick up for a two-year period three Disneynature films,Oceans,African Cats, andThe Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos, in April 2012 fromDisney-ABC Domestic Television.In April 2014,Jane Goodallwas named Disneynature ambassador. Disneynature has recently expanded to China with the production ofBorn in China. The production was made possible due to an expansion of Disney's relationship withShanghai Media Groupstarting in 2014.FollowingBorn in China,Ghost of the MountainsandExpedition Chinawere released toNetflixto reflect the incredible journeys involved in creating these films. In 2016, the company released its first compilation film,Growing Up Wild,direct-to-video(Blu-rayandDVD) and video on demand. Paul Baribault, vice president of studio marketing and Disneynature, was appointed general manager of Disneynature officially in 2018, after having been operating in the capacity for several years. Camilleri resigned his posts with Disney in March 2019. Helene Etzi was appointed to take over his responsibility as head of Disney's French operations. The unit's first streaming films forDisney+wereDolphin ReefandElephant. Filmography Notes References External links",
"Priyanka Chopra Priyanka Chopra Jonas(pronounced;néeChopra; born 18 July 1982)is an Indian actress and producer. The winner of theMiss World 2000pageant, Chopra is one of India's highest-paid actresses and has receivednumerous accolades, including twoNational Film Awardsand fiveFilmfare Awards. In 2016, theGovernment of Indiahonoured her with thePadma Shri, andTimenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the world. In the next two years,Forbeslisted her among theWorld's 100 Most Powerful Women, and in 2022, she was named in theBBC 100 Womenlist. Chopra accepted offers to join the Indian film industry following her pageant wins. Her acting debut came in theTamilfilmThamizhan(2002), followed by her firstBollywoodfeature inThe Hero: Love Story of a Spy(2003). She played the leading lady in the box-office hitsAndaaz(2003) andMujhse Shaadi Karogi(2004) and had herbreakout rolein the 2004 romantic thrillerAitraaz. Chopra established herself with starring roles in the top-grossing productionsKrrishandDon(both 2006), and later reprised her role in their sequels. For playing a troubled model in the dramaFashion(2008), Chopra won aNational Film Awardand aFilmfare Award for Best Actress. Chopra gained further praise for portraying a range of characters in the filmsKaminey(2009),7 Khoon Maaf(2011),Barfi!(2012),Mary Kom(2014),Dil Dhadakne Do(2015) andBajirao Mastani(2015). From 2015 to 2018, Chopra starred asAlex Parrishin theABCthriller seriesQuantico, becoming the first South Asian to headline an American network drama series. Founding the production companyPurple Pebble Picturesin 2015, she produced several films under it, including theMarathifilmsVentilator(2016) andPaani(2019), and the self-starring Hindi biopicThe Sky Is Pink(2019). Chopra has also appeared in Hollywood films, such asBaywatch(2017),Isn't It Romantic(2019),The White Tiger(2021), andThe Matrix Resurrections(2021), and starred in the action thriller seriesCitadel(2023–present). Chopra ventured into music by releasing three singles and into writing with her memoirUnfinished(2021), which reachedThe New York TimesBest Seller list. Her other ventures include tech investments, a haircare brand, a restaurant, and a homeware line. She promotes social causes such as environment and women's rights and is vocal about gender equality, the gender pay gap, and feminism. She has worked withUNICEFsince 2006 and was appointed as the national and globalUNICEF Goodwill Ambassadorfor child rights in 2010 and 2016, respectively. Her namesake foundation for health and education works towards providing support to underprivileged Indian children. Despite maintaining privacy, Chopra's off-screen life, including her marriage to American singer and actorNick Jonas, is the subject of substantial media coverage. The couple has one daughter. Early life Chopra was born on 18 July 1982 inJamshedpur,Bihar(present-dayJharkhand), to Ashok and Madhu Chopra, both physicians in theIndian Army.Her father was aPunjabi HindufromAmbala.Her mother is aBihari-Magahi Hindufrom Jharkhand and is the eldest daughter of Dr. Manohar Kishan Akhouri, a formerCongressveteran,and Madhu Jyotsna Akhouri, a former member ofBihar Legislative Assembly. Chopra's maternal grandmother, Mrs. Akhouri, was aMalayaleeJacobite Syrian Christianoriginally named Mary John,who belonged to theKavalappara Nairfamily inKumarakom,Kerala.Chopra has a brother, Siddharth, who is seven years her junior.BollywoodactressesParineeti Chopra,Meera Chopra, andMannara Chopraare her cousins. Owing to Chopra's parents' professions as military physicians, the family was posted in a number of places in India, includingDelhi,Chandigarh,Ambala,Ladakh,Lucknow,Bareilly, andPune.Among the schools she attended wereLa Martiniere Girls' Schoolin Lucknow and St. Maria Goretti College in Bareilly.In an interview published inDaily News and Analysis, Chopra said that she did not mind travelling regularly and changing schools; she welcomed it as a new experience and a way to discover India's multicultural society.Among the many places that she lived, Chopra has fond memories as a child of playing in the valleys ofLeh, in the cold northwestern Indian desert region ofLadakh. She had said, \"I think I was in Class 4 when I was in Leh. My brother was just born. My dad was in the army and was posted there. I stayed in Leh for a year, and my memories of that place are tremendous. We were all army kids there. We weren't living in houses, we were in bunkers in the valley and there was astuparight on top of a hill which used to overlook our valley. We used to race up to the top of the stupa\".She now considersBareillyher home town, and maintains strong connections there. At 13, Chopra moved to theUnited Statesto study, living with her aunt, and attending schools inNewton, Massachusetts, andCedar Rapids, Iowa, after a stop inQueens, New York, as her aunt's family also moved frequently.While in Massachusetts, she participated in several theatre productions, and studied Western classical music, and choral singing.During her teenage years in the United States, Chopra sometimes faced racial issues and was bullied for being Indian by anAfrican-Americanclassmate.She has said, \"I was a gawky kid, had low self-esteem, came from a modest middle-class background, had white marks on my legs. But I was damn hard working. Today, my legs sell 12 brands.\"After three years, Chopra returned to India, finishing the senior year of her high-school education at theArmy Public Schoolin Bareilly. During this period, Chopra won the local May Queen beauty pageant,after which she was pursued by admirers; her family equipped their home with bars for her protection.Her mother entered her in theFemina Miss Indiacontest of 2000;she finished second,winning the FeminaMiss India Worldtitle.Chopra next won theMiss Worldpageant, where she was crownedMiss World 2000andMiss World Continental Queen of Beauty—Asia & Oceaniaat theMillennium Domein London on 30 November 2000.Chopra was the fifth Indian contestant to win Miss World, and the fourth to do so within seven years.She had enrolled in college, but left after winning the Miss World pageant.Chopra said that the Miss India and Miss World titles brought her recognition, and she began receiving offers for film roles.In 2001, the bridge of Chopra's nose collapsed duringnasal surgeryto remove apolyp. She fell into depression over her \"completely different\" appearance, but was satisfied with the results of corrective surgeries. Acting career Career beginnings and breakthrough (2002–2004) After winning Miss India World, Chopra was cast as the female lead inAbbas–Mustan's romantic thrillerHumraaz(2002), in which she was to make her film debut.However, this fell through for various reasons: she stated the production conflicted with her schedule, while the producers said they recast because Chopra took on various other commitments.Her screen debut occurred in the 2002 Tamil filmThamizhanas the love interest of the protagonist, played byVijay. A review published inThe Hinduwas appreciative of the film for its wit and dialogue; however it felt that Chopra's role was limited from an acting viewpoint. In 2003, Chopra made herBollywoodfilm debut as the second female lead oppositeSunny DeolandPreity ZintainAnil Sharma'sThe Hero: Love Story of a Spy.Set against the backdrop of the Indian Army in Kashmir, the film tells the story of anRAWagent's fight against terrorism. She later recounted her experience, admitting she was very nervous and \"shaking\" when she first met Deol.Despite rumors that she was not a good actress and discussions about possibly removing her from the film, Deol recognized her potential and insisted on giving her a chance to prove herself.The Heroemerged as one of the highest-grossing Bollywood films that year, but received mixed reviews from critics.Derek ElleyfromVarietysaid that \"mega-looker Chopra makes a solid screen debut.\"Later that year she appeared inRaj Kanwar's box-office successAndaazwithAkshay Kumar, sharing the female lead with debutanteLara Dutta.Chopra played a vivacious young woman who falls in love with Kumar's character. TheHindustan Timesnoted the glamour that she brought to the role;Kunal Shah ofSifypraised her performance and stated she had \"all the qualities to be a star.\"Her performance earned her theFilmfare Award for Best Female Debut(along with Dutta) and aBest Supporting Actressnomination. Chopra's first three releases in 2004—Plan,Kismat, andAsambhav—performed poorly at the box office.Chopra was typically cast during this earlier period as a \"glamour quotient\", in roles that were considered forgettable by film critic Joginder Tuteja.Later that year she starred withSalman Khanand Akshay Kumar inDavid Dhawan's romantic comedyMujhse Shaadi Karogi, which opened to commercial success and emerged the third-highest-grossing film of the year in India. In late 2004, she starred opposite Kumar andKareena Kapoorin Abbas–Mustan's romantic thrillerAitraaz.Chopra considers her first role as an antagonist, portraying Soniya Roy, an ambitious woman who accuses her employee of sexual harassment, as the \"biggest learning experience of her career\".The film was a critical and commercial success, and Chopra's performance received critical acclaim.TheHindustan Timescited it as the film that changed her career significantly.A reviewer writing for theBBCsaid, \"Aitraazis Chopra's film. As the deliciously wicked, gold digging, scheming seductress, she chews up every scene she is in with her magnetic screen presence.\"She won aFilmfare Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role, becoming the second and final actress to win the award afterKajol(the category was discontinued in 2008).Chopra also received a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress, and theProducers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. Rise to prominence (2005–2006) In 2005, Chopra appeared in 6 films. Her first two releases, the action thrillersBlackmailandKaram, were critically and commercially unsuccessful.Shilpa Bharatan-Iyer ofRediff.comconsideredBlackmailto be a very predictable film and believed that her role as a police commissioner's wife was very limited from an acting point of view.Her performance inKaramwas better received, Subhash K. Jha wrote that Chopra \"with her poised interpretation of high drama, flies high creating a character whose vulnerability and beauty are endorsed by both the inner and outer worlds created for her character.\"Later that year Chopra played the wife of Akshay Kumar inVipul Amrutlal Shah's family dramaWaqt: The Race Against Time, the story of a small businessman (played byAmitabh Bachchan) who, hiding his illness, wants to teach his irresponsible son some lessons before he dies. During production, Chopra revisited Leh, a favourite childhood haunt, for the shooting of the song \"Subah Hogi\".She suffered an accident during the filming for the song \"Do Me A Favour Let's Play Holi\" when she electrocuted herself, spending a day recovering in hospital.The film was well received by critics, and was a commercial success.She next starred oppositeArjun Rampalin the romantic mystery thrillerYakeen, portraying the role of a possessive lover. Critical reaction towards the film was mixed, but her performance received praise.Taran Adarshwrote that Chopra \"is bound to win laurels yet again the actor is emerging as one of the finest talents in these fast-changing times\".Her next release wasSuneel Darshan's romanceBarsaat, co-starringBobby DeolandBipasha Basu. The film was a critical and commercial failure in India, but fared better in the overseas market.Chopra's performance received mixed reviews, withBollywood Hungamadescribing it as \"mechanical\".However, Rediff.com considered Chopra to be an \"epitome of calm intelligence, who underplayed her role to perfection\".Later that year,Rohan Sippycast her alongsideAbhishek Bachchan,Ritesh DeshmukhandNana Patekarin the comedyBluffmaster!. Chopra played independent working woman Simran Saxena, Bachchan's love interest. The film proved to be a box-office success. After starting 2006 with special appearances in three films, Chopra starred inRakesh Roshan's superhero filmKrrish(a sequel to the 2003 science-fiction filmKoi... Mil Gaya). Co-starring withHrithik Roshan,RekhaandNaseeruddin Shah, Chopra played a young television journalist who schemes to take advantage of an innocent young man with remarkable physical abilities, but eventually falls in love with him. The film was the second-highest-grossing film of the year in India and grossed over₹1.17 billion(US$14 million) worldwide attaining ablockbusterstatus.Her next film wasDharmesh Darshan's romantic comedyAap Ki Khatir, co-starringAkshaye Khanna,Ameesha PatelandDino Morea. Neither the film nor Chopra's performance were well received.Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com stated that Chopra's portrayal of Anu was \"erratically sketched\" and that her character was never consistent: \"first flaky, then cool, and later, sensitive\". Chopra's final release of 2006 wasFarhan Akhtar's action-thrillerDon(a remake of the1978 film of the same name), withShah Rukh Khan. Chopra portrayedRoma(played byZeenat Amanin the original film), who joins the underworld to avenge Don for killing her brother. Chopra received martial-arts training for her role in the movie, and performed her own stunts.The film was declared a box-office success in India and overseas, with revenues of₹1.05 billion(US$13 million).Raja Sen of Rediff.com found Chopra to be film's \"big surprise\"; he believed that Chopra convincingly portrayed Roma, \"looking every bit the competent woman of action\" and wrote \"This is an actress willing to push herself, and has definite potential for screen magic. Not to mention a great smile.\" Setbacks and resurgence (2007–2008) In 2007, Chopra had two leading roles. Her first film wasNikhil Advani'sSalaam-e-Ishq: A Tribute to Love, a romantic comedy-drama in six chapters with anensemble cast. She was featured opposite Salman Khan in the first chapter as Kamini, anitem girland aspiring actress who tries to land the lead role in aKaran Joharfilm with a publicity gimmick.Film critic Sukanya Verma praised her flair for comedy, especially her impressions ofMeena Kumari,NargisandMadhubala.BothSalaam-e-Ishq: A Tribute to Loveand her next film,Big Brother, proved unsuccessful at the domestic box office. In 2008, Chopra starred oppositeHarman Bawejainhis father'sLove Story 2050. Chopra played a double role, so she colored her hair twice; once red to portray the girl from the future and then black for the girl of the past.Her performance was poorly received;Rajeev Masandwas unimpressed with Chopra's chemistry with her co-star, remarking that her character \"fails to inspire either affection or sympathy\".She next appeared in the comedyGod Tussi Great Ho, portraying a TV anchor opposite Salman Khan,Sohail Khanand Amitabh Bachchan.Chopra next starred as a kindergarten teacher inChamkuoppositeBobby DeolandIrrfan Khan, and played the role of Sonia inGoldie Behl's fantasy superhero filmDronaopposite Abhishek Bachchan andJaya Bachchan.Drona, widely criticized for its extensive use of special effects, marked Chopra's sixth film in succession which had failed at both the box-office and critically, although Sukanya Verma ofRediff.comstated that Chopra displayed convincing action heroine skills.Critics generally perceived at this time that her career was over. The string of poorly received films ended when Chopra starred inMadhur Bhandarkar'sFashion, a drama about the Indian fashion industry which followed the lives and careers of several fashion models. She portrayed the ambitious supermodel Meghna Mathur, a role which she initially thought was out of her depth, but after six months' consideration she accepted the role, inspired by Bhandarkar's confidence in her.For the role, Chopra had to gain 6 kilograms (13 lb) and steadily shed the weight during the production as the character progressed in the film. Both the film and her performance received critical acclaim, proving to be a major turning point in her career.Rajeev Masand felt that she \"turns in a respectable performance, one that will inevitably go down as her best.\"For her performance, she won several awards, including theNational Film Award for Best Actress, theFilmfare Award for Best Actress, theIIFA Award for Best Actress, theScreen Award for Best Actress, and theProducers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role.With a worldwide revenue of₹600 million(US$7 million),Fashionemerged as a commercial success, and was listed by Subhash K. Jha as one of the best films of the decade with women protagonists.It was noted for being commercially successful despite being awomen-centricfilm with no male lead.Chopra said in 2012: \"I think actuallyFashionkick started ... the process of female dominated films. Today you have so many other films which have done well with female leads.\" Chopra's final film of the year wasTarun Mansukhani's romantic comedyDostana, with Abhishek Bachchan andJohn Abraham. Set in Miami, the film tells the story of a friendship between her character and two men who pretend to be gay to share an apartment with her. Chopra played a stylish young fashion-magazine editor Neha Melwani, who is trying to deal with professional pressures in her life. Produced byDharma Productions, the film was a financial success with worldwide revenues of over₹860 million(US$10 million).Chopra's performance and look in the film were praised.For her performances in bothFashionandDostana, she jointly won theStardust Award for Actor of the Year – Female. Experiment with unconventional roles (2009–2011) In 2009, Chopra played a feistyMarathiwoman named Sweety inVishal Bhardwaj'scaperthrillerKaminey(co-starringShahid Kapoor), about twin brothers and the journey in their life linked with the underworld. The film received critical acclaim and became successful at the box-office with the worldwide gross earnings of₹710 million(US$9 million).Nikhat KazmiofThe Times of Indiathought that Chopra's role completely reinvented her, and Rajeev Masand wrote: \"Springing a delightful surprise in a smaller part is , who sprinkles her lines with a smattering of fluent Marathi and emerges one of the film's most lovable characters.\"Raja Sen ofRediff.comnamed Chopra's performance as the best by an actress that year.Her role earned her several awards and nominations, including a second consecutive Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role afterFashionand Best Actress nominations at theFilmfare,ScreenandIIFAawards. Chopra subsequently appeared inAshutosh Gowariker's romantic comedyWhat's Your Raashee?, based on the novelKimball RavenswoodbyMadhu Rye. The film depicts the story of a US-based GujratiNRIin search of his soulmate among 12 girls (all played by Chopra) associated with the 12zodiacsigns. She received a nomination for theScreen Award for Best Actressfor her performance in the film.She was considered for inclusion in theGuinness World Recordsbook for being the first film actress to portray 12 distinct characters in one film.Chopra's heavy workload—filming for several productions, travelling for endorsements and performing at live shows (including the Miss India pageant)—took its toll; she fainted during filming, and was admitted to hospital.In 2010, Chopra starred withUday ChoprainJugal Hansraj's romantic comedyPyaar Impossible!as Alisha, a popular college girl (and later a working mother) who falls in love with a socially inept man. Later that year, she starred withRanbir KapoorinSiddharth Anand's romantic comedy-dramaAnjaana Anjaani. Set in New York and Las Vegas, the film follows the story of two suicidal strangers who fall in love with each other. The film received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success at the box office. She starred as afemme fatalein her first film of 2011, Vishal Bhardwaj's black comedy7 Khoon Maaf. Based on the short storySusanna's Seven HusbandsbyRuskin Bond,7 Khoon Maafcenters on Chopra's Susanna Anna-Marie Johannes, anAnglo-Indianwoman who murders her husbands in an unending quest for love. The film and her performance received acclaim from critics. Nikhat Kazmi labelled the film \"a milestone in Chopra's career graph\", complimenting her \"exquisite command over a complex character that is definitely a first in Indian cinema\".Rachel Saltz ofNew York Timesfelt that Susanna was more conceit than a character and that Chopra \"though charming as always, can't make her cohere\".Chopra's performance earned her theFilmfare Award for Best Actress (Critics)and a nomination for the Filmfare Award, IIFA Award, Producers Guild Film Award, and Screen Award for Best Actress. Chopra's final release of the year saw her reprising her role as Roma in the second installment of theDonfranchise,Don 2. Although the film received mixed reviews,Chopra's performance earned positive feedback from critics. According toThe Express Tribune, \"Chopra ... seems to be the perfect choice for an action heroine. As you watch her effortlessly beat up some thugs in the movie, you come to the realization that she may be the first proper female action hero in Bollywood.\"Don 2was a major success in India and overseas, earning over₹2.06 billion(US$25 million) worldwide. Further success (2012–2014) Chopra's first film of 2012 wasKaran Malhotra's action dramaAgneepath, in which she starred with Hrithik Roshan,Sanjay DuttandRishi Kapoor. Produced by Karan Johar, the film is a remake of his father's 1990 production of thesame name. In one of several accidents to happen during production, Chopra'slehenga(a traditional skirt) caught fire while filming a sequence for an elaborateGanpati festivalsong.She featured as Kaali Gawde, Roshan's loquacious love interest in the film.Mayank Shekharnoted how much Chopra stood out in the male-dominated film.Agneepathbroke Bollywood's highestopening-day earningsrecord, and had a worldwide gross of₹1.93 billion(US$23 million).Chopra next co-starred with Shahid Kapoor inKunal Kohli's romance,Teri Meri Kahaani. The film relates the stories of three unconnected couples (each played by Kapoor and Chopra), born in different eras. Anurag Basu'sBarfi!, with Ranbir Kapoor andIleana D'Cruz, was her final appearance of 2012. Set in the 1970s, the film tells the story of three people, two of whom are physically disabled. Chopra played Jhilmil Chatterjee, an autistic woman who falls in love with a deaf, mute man (Kapoor). DirectorRituparno Ghoshconsidered it a \"very, very brave\" role to accept given how demanding it is for an actor to convincingly portray a woman with autism.To prepare for the role, Chopra visited several mental institutions and spent time with autistic people.The film received critical acclaimand was a major commercial success, earning₹1.75 billion(US$21 million) worldwide.Rachit Gupta ofFilmfarefound Chopra to be the film's \"surprise package\" and found her performance to be \"the best representation of on Indian celluloid\".Pratim D. GuptaofThe Telegraphhighly praised Kapoor and Chopra, although he found her to be a \"tad showy\" in her part.Chopra received Best Actress nominations at the Filmfare, Screen, IIFA and Producers Guild Film Awards.The film was chosen asIndia's entryfor the85th Academy Awards.AgneepathandBarfi!ranked amongthe highest grossing Bollywood filmsto that point. In 2013, she lent her voice to the character of Ishaani, the reigning Pan-Asian champion from India and the love interest of the main protagonist in theDisneytoon StudiosfilmPlanes, a spinoff ofPixar'sCarsfranchise. Chopra, a fan ofDisney films, had fun voicing the character saying \"The closest I could come to being aDisney princess, I think, was Ishaani\".The film was a commercial success, grossing approximately US$240 million worldwide.She played an NRI girl in theApoorva Lakhia's bilingual action dramaZanjeer(Thoofanin Telugu), a remake of the 1973 Hindifilm of the same name, which met with poor reactions from critics and was unsuccessful at the box office.Chopra next reprised her role of Priya in Rakesh Roshan'sKrrish 3—a sequel to the 2006 superhero filmKrrish—with Hrithik Roshan,Vivek OberoiandKangana Ranaut. Critics felt that Chopra had very little to do in the film.Saibal Chatterjee ofNDTVwriting that she \"is saddled with a sketchily written role and is reduced to the status of a hanger-on waiting for things to unfold\".The feature became a box-office success, earning over₹3 billion(US$36 million) worldwide, to become Chopra's biggest commercial success to that point and her fourth major hit in two years.She danced a contemporarymujrain the song \"Ram Chahe Leela\" forSanjay Leela Bhansali'sGoliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela. In 2014, Chopra played the lead female role inYash Raj Films's romantic action dramaGundaydirected byAli Abbas Zafar, alongsideRanveer Singh,Arjun KapoorandIrrfan Khan. She portrayed Nandita, acabaretdancer in Calcutta. Set in the 1970s, the film tells the story of two best friends who fall in love with Nandita.Gundayproved to be a box-office success, grossing over₹1 billion(US$12 million) worldwide.Chopra next starred as the title character inMary Kom, a biographical film of the five timeworld boxing championand Olympic bronze medalistMary Kom.To prepare for the role, she spent time with Kom and received four months of boxing training.The film premiered at the2014 Toronto International Film Festival, received positive reviews from critics, and her performance received critical acclaim.Sudhish KamathfromThe Hinducriticized the film's screenplay but praised Chopra's \"knockout\" performance, writing \"The spirited actress rises above the material and makes us invest in her and does full justice to the spirit\" of the boxer.TheIndo-Asian News Servicereview noted the actress for expressing every shade of the character with \"a pitch-perfect bravado\".Mary Komemerged as a commercial success, with revenues of₹1.04 billion(US$12 million) at the box office.She won theScreen Award for Best Actress, the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, and received another nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress. Expansion into American film and television (2015–2019) In 2015, Chopra starred inZoya Akhtar'sDil Dhadakne Do, an ensemble comedy-drama, featuringAnil Kapoor,Shefali Shah, Ranveer Singh andAnushka Sharma. The film tells the story of a dysfunctional Punjabi family (the Mehras), who invite their family and friends on a cruise trip to celebrate the parents' 30th wedding anniversary. She portrayed the role of Ayesha Mehra, a successful entrepreneur and the eldest child. Pratim D. Gupta fromThe Telegraphwrote of Chopra, \"From the propah body language to the measured speech shows the kind of depth she is able to bring to her lines and characters these days.Conversely, Shubhra Gupta ofThe Indian Expresscommented that it was time for her \"to being a little messy: all these not-a-hair-out-place roles are making her constrained.\"The cast ofDil Dhadakne Dowon theScreen Award for Best Ensemble Cast, and Chopra was nominated for a Screen Award, IIFA Award, andProducers Guild Film Awardfor Best Actress.In 2016, she dubbed for Kaa, a female python, in the Hindi version of the filmThe Jungle Book. Chopra signed a talent holding deal withABC Studiosand was later cast in the American thriller seriesQuanticoas the characterAlex Parrish.The series premiered in 2015 onABC, making Chopra the first South Asian to headline an American network drama series.The series received positive reviews from television critics and Chopra was praised for her performance.Rob Lowman of theLos Angeles Daily Newsapplauded her \"dynamic screen presence\" andJames PoniewozikofThe New York Timesnamed Chopra as the \"strongest human asset\" of the show, and added that \"she is immediately charismatic and commanding.\"She received thePeople's Choice Awardfor Favourite Actress In A New TV Series for her role inQuantico, becoming the first South Asian actress to win a People's Choice Award.The following year, Chopra won a second People's Choice Award for Favorite Dramatic TV Actress.Quanticowas cancelled after three seasons in 2018.Chopra later said that her move to America was prompted by disagreements with people in Bollywood: \"I had people not casting me, I had beef with people, I am not good at playing that game so I kind of was tired of the politics and I said I needed a break.” Chopra next portrayedKashibai, the first wife of theMarathageneralPeshwaBajirao I, in Sanjay Leela Bhansali's epic historical romantic dramaBajirao Mastani, alongside Ranveer Singh andDeepika Padukone. The feature opened to highly positive reviews, and Chopra received widespread praise for her portrayal which several reviewers regarded as her best performance to date.Rajeev Masand wrote \"the film benefits from a nice touch of playfulness and humor in Priyanka Chopra's Kashibai. Chopra brings grace to the character, and practically steals the film.\"Film critic Raja Sen thought that Chopra, despite not being in the title role, owned the film, and wrote \"Chopra's terrific in the part, her intelligently expressive eyes speaking volumes and her no-nonsense Marathi rhythm bang-on.\"A major commercial success,Bajirao Mastanigrossed₹3.5 billion(US$42 million) at the box office, becoming one of the highest-grossing Indian films of all time.For her performance, she won theFilmfare Award,IIFA Award, andScreen Awardfor Best Supporting Actress, and received a nomination for the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role. In 2016, Chopra starred as a police officer inPrakash Jha's social dramaJai Gangaajal. Writing forThe Hindu, Namrata Joshi thought that she \"looks off-colour, disinterested and uninvolved with the goings on through most of the film\".It did not perform well commercially.The following year, Chopra made her Hollywood live-action film debut by playing the antagonist Victoria Leeds inSeth Gordon's action comedyBaywatchoppositeDwayne JohnsonandZac Efron. The feature received unfavorable reviews.IGNdeclared Chopra as the highlight of the film, noting she \"outshines pretty much anyone she's in a scene with\" and wrote \"Chopra's engaging and interesting and is the only character that speaks with any kind of distinctive cadence.\"Scott Mendelson ofForbeswrote \"Chopra has fun as the baddie, but she stays in the background until the end of the movie and really only gets one big scene at the end of the picture.\"Baywatchwas not a commercial success in North America but the film performed well in the overseas markets, grossing approximately $178 million at the worldwide box office.The 2018Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of Chopra's next American film,A Kid Like Jake, a drama aboutgender variance, starringJim ParsonsandClaire Danes. Amy Nicholson ofVarietycommended her \"charming presence\" but thought that her role added little value to the film.In early 2019, she had signed on to play the leading lady opposite Salman Khan inBharat, but opted out days before filming her scenes. Nikhil Namit, a producer of the film, said that she quit due to her engagement toNick Jonasand accused her of being \"a little unprofessional\". In 2019, Chopra had another supporting part, as a yoga ambassador, inTodd Strauss-Schulson's comedyIsn't It Romantic, which starredRebel Wilson. The film was well received by critics and grossed approximately $49 million at the North American box office.Dana SchwartzofEntertainment Weeklyconsidered her to be \"perfectly cast\" but Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianthought that she was \"not quite interesting enough\".She returned to Hindi cinema (as Priyanka Chopra Jonas) later in 2019 withShonali Bose's biographical dramaThe Sky Is Pink, in which she played mother toAisha Chaudhary, a teenager suffering from a terminal illness. She also produced the project, and connected with the story for its blend of humour and tragedy.Kate Erbland ofIndieWirefound her to be \"extraordinary\" as \"the film's driving force, a tough-talking mama bear\", andAnna M. M. Vetticadtook note of the \"simmering restraint\" in her performance.The film did not do well at the box office.She received another nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress. Streaming projects (2020–present) In 2020, Chopra Jonas signed a multimillion-dollar first-look TV deal with Amazon Prime Video to back content by first timeBIPOCand female filmmakers.Her only release that year was theNetflixchildren's superhero filmWe Can Be Heroesdirected byRobert Rodriguez. She starred as Ms. Granada, the director of a superhero organisation called Heroics. The feature received generally positive reviews;Richard Roeperfrom theChicago Sun-Timespraised the actress for \"livening up the proceedings\" as the strait-laced Ms. Granada, andIan Freerof theEmpiremagazine felt that she did the \"kids' film acting to the hilt\".Her first film of 2021 wasRamin Bahrani'sThe White Tiger, an adaptation ofAravind Adiga's satiricalnovel of the same name. She starred alongsideAdarsh GouravandRajkummar Rao, and also executive produced this Netflix production. Critical reviews towards the film and her performance were positive.Writing forThe Times, film criticKevin Maherdeemed Chopra Jonas' performance \"impressive\" andThe Hollywood Reporter's David Rooney commended her for bringing \"emotional depth\" to her role.The film received aBest Adapted Screenplaynomination at the93rd Academy Awards.Later that year, Chopra Jonas had a supporting role in the science fiction filmThe Matrix Resurrections. Chopra Jonas next starred alongsideRichard MaddeninAmazon Prime Video's action thriller seriesCitadel(2023).With a production budget of US$300 million, the six-episode first season ranks as one of the most-expensive television shows.It marked the first time in her career when she received equal pay with her male co-star.She performed many of her own stunts, and suffered a permanent scar from an injury on her eyebrow.Critics had mixed opinions on the series,but Jasper Rees ofThe Daily Telegraphwas particularly impressed by Chopra Jonas' potential as a femaleJames Bond, finding her \"flirty and funny and hard as a bag of nine-inch nails\".She then led the romantic comedyLove Again, oppositeSam HeughanandCeline Dion, which was panned by critics. Chopra Jonas will next star alongsideJohn CenaandIdris Elbain the action filmHeads of Stateand alongsideKarl Urbanin the action filmThe Bluff. Music career Chopra's main vocal influence was her father, who helped develop her interest in singing.She used her vocal talent early in her pageantry career.Her first recording, the song \"Ullathai Killathe\" in the Tamil filmThamizhan(2002), was made at the urging of her director and co-star, Vijay (who had noticed her singing on the set).She declined to singplaybackfor \"Tinka Tinka\" in her filmKaram(2005), preferring to concentrate on her acting career, but later sang the song live on the television programmeSa Re Ga Ma Pa.Chopra recorded an unreleased song forBluffmaster!(2005).In August 2011,Universal Music Groupsigned Chopra to a worldwide recording agreement withDesiHits. The deal indicated that her first studio album would be released byInterscope Recordsin North America and byIsland Recordselsewhere. In July 2012, Chopra became the first Bollywood star signed byCreative Artists Agency, an entertainment and sports agency based in Los Angeles.The album was produced byRedOne.Her first single, \"In My City\", debuted in the US on 13 September 2012 in a TV spot for theNFL Network'sThursday Night Football;a shortened version of the song was used to open each show of the season. \"In My City\" features rapperwill.i.am; according to Chopra, a co-writer,the song was inspired by her unsettled childhood and her journey from a small-town girl to a celebrity.The song received mixed reviews from critics, and was a commercial success in India; it sold more than 130,000 copies in its first week, topped the Hindi pop chart and was certifiedtriple platinum.In the United States the single was unsuccessful, with 5,000 digital downloads in its first week according toNielsen SoundScan, and did not receive radio play.In October 2012, the single won her the Best International Debut award at thePeople's Choice Awards India.In December 2012, she received three nominations: Best Female Artist, Best Song and Best Video (for \"In My City\") at theWorld Music Awards.Chopra was also featured on \"Erase\", anEDMsong produced by the American DJ and producer duoThe Chainsmokers. In July 2013, Chopra released her second single \"Exotic\" featuring American rapperPitbull, along with its music video.\"Exotic\" debuted at number 16 on theBillboardDance/Electronic Songsand number 11 on theDance/Electronic Digital Songschart on 27 July 2013 issue.The single also entered at number 74 on theCanadian Hot 100chart. \"Exotic\" debuted at number 44 on theBillboardHot Dance Club Songschart and peaked at number 12.Her third single, a cover ofBonnie Raitt's \"I Can't Make You Love Me\" was released in April 2014.The song peaked at number 28 on theBillboardHot Dance/Electronic Songs chart. Chopra's first song as a playback singer in Bollywood was \"Chaoro\", alullabyfromMary Kom(2014).In 2015, she sang the title song, a duet with Farhan Akhtar, forDil Dhadakne Do.She recorded a promotional song forVentilator(2016), making herMarathi languageplayback singing debut with \"Baba\".In 2017, Chopra collaborated with the Australian DJWill Sparksfor \"Young and Free\", an EDM song which she also wrote.Chopra later said that her music career \"was not living up to my standards\" and that it would have been \"futile\" to have kept pursuing it. Philanthropy Chopra supports various causes through her foundation \"The Priyanka Chopra Foundation for Health and Education\", which works towards providing support to unprivileged children across the country in the areas of Education and Health.She donates ten percent of her earnings to fund the foundation's operations, and pays for educational and medical expenses for seventy children in India, fifty among whom are girls.She often speaks out on women's issues: against femaleinfanticideandfoeticide, and in support ofeducation for girls.A believer infeminism, Chopra has always been vocal aboutwomen's rights,gender equality, andgender pay gap.In 2006, a \"day with Chopra\" was auctioned on eBay; the proceeds were donated to an NGO, Nanhi Kali, which helps educate girls in India.She has made appearances in support of other charities, such as the 2005 HELP! Telethon Concert to raise funds for the victims of the2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. She has worked withUNICEFsince 2006, recording public-service announcements and participating in media panel discussions promoting children's rights and the education of girls, and also participated in celebrating the 20th anniversary of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.She was appointed as the nationalUNICEF Goodwill Ambassadorfor Child Rights on 10 August 2010.UNICEF Representative Karin Hulshof said of the appointment: \"She is equally passionate about her work on behalf of children and adolescents. We are proud of the work she has done with us so far on child rights, and, we are thrilled about all what we will be doing together so that no child gets left behind.\"In 2009, she shot a documentary for the organisation Alert India to increase understanding ofleprosy.She modelled for designerManish MalhotraandShaina NC's charity fashion show to raise funds for the Cancer Patients Aid Association NGO.In 2010 Chopra was one of several celebrities who created promotional messages for Pearls Wave Trust, which campaigns against violence and abuse of women and girls.Chopra also launched the \"Save the Girl Child\" campaign, which aims to change the attitudes of Indians towards girls.In 2012 Chopra spoke at the launch of Awakening Youth, an anti-addiction programme. At a public event in 2019, an activist criticised Chopra for a tweet in which she hailed India's military forces while tensions amid Pakistan and India were escalating. The main line of argument was that she was warmongering and that was incompatible with her job as UN Peace Ambassador. Chopra's response at the event was that she is patriotic; she was also fast to silence the activist criticising her.Pakistan asked for Chopra being sacked from her UN job but UN supported Chopra's right to talk for herself. Chopra is a supporter of environmental charities and is brand ambassador forNDTVGreenathon, an initiative to support eco-friendliness and providesolar powerto rural villages without electricity supplies.She appeared with children in an animated video to support the cause,and removed rubbish from the banks of theYamuna riverinAgrato increase awareness of environmental issues.During the third and fourth editions of Greenathon, She adopted up to seven villages to provide with a regular supply of electricity.She adopted a tigress in 2011 and a lioness in 2012 at theBirsa biological park, paying for both animals upkeep for a year.To promote organ donation, Chopra pledged to donate her own organs after death and was co-keynote speaker at theUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center's Bollywood-themed 20th-anniversary celebration of its liver-transplant programme in 2012. She donated₹5 million(US$60,000) toNanavati hospitalto build a cancer ward. The ward, which is named after her late father, was inaugurated by her in 2013.The same year, she provided voice-over in English and Hindi for the documentary filmGirl Risingfor theorganisation of the same name.She was invited as one of the speakers alongsideGordon Brown,Steve Wozniak,Bill Clinton, andCharlie Bakerfor the 50th anniversary of the World Leaders Conference at theHynes Convention Center, Boston. She spoke aboutwomen empowermentthrough education, discussing inequality and the challenges of education for women, and received a standing ovation for her speech.Chopra also lent her voice to a music video ofJohn Lennon's \"Imagine\". The video featuring her along with other singers, includingKaty Perry, andThe Black Eyed Peaswas created as part of a global campaign byUNICEFto celebrate the 25th anniversary of theConvention on the Rights of the Child. Indian prime ministerNarendra Modiselected Chopra as one of his nine nominees called \"Navratna\" in 2014 for theSwachh Bharat Abhiyan, a national cleanliness campaign by theGovernment of India.She lent her support to the campaign by working as asanitation workerfor a day, cleaning and rehabilitating agarbage-laden neighbourhood in Mumbai, and urged people to maintain the cleanliness. In 2015, she voicedPeople for the Ethical Treatment of Animals(PETA's) life-size robotic elephant named \"Ellie\", who visited schools across the United States and Europe to educate kids about elephants and captivity, and to urge people to boycott circuses.Chopra was appointed as the global UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in December 2016.In 2017,Varietyhonoured her with the Power of Women award for her philanthropic work with UNICEF and she received theMother Teresa Memorial Award for Social Justicefor her contribution towards social causes.Two years later, Chopra was awarded theDanny Kaye Humanitarian Awardby UNICEF for her \"philanthropic work and dedication towards the welfare of the society\" at the UNICEF Snowflake Ball 2019. In December 2019, Chopra teamed-up with theUnited Nations Children's Fundand theCrocs Companyto donate 50,000 pairs of shoes to deserving school children in the Central American country,Belize. In late April 2021, due to theCOVID-19 pandemic in India, Chopra along with husbandNickopened a fundraiser along with NGO GiveIndia to get donations for oxygen supply, COVID-19 care centers, testing, and vaccination efforts. The fundraiser had achievedUSD400,000 in the first few days.Chopra's brother-in-lawKevin Jonasalso urged his followers to help donate to the fundraiser.By 13 May 2021, the fundraiser had achieved the $1 million landmark and put its newer target at $3 million for COVID-19 relief. Other works Film production and entrepreneurship Chopra set up her production companyPurple Pebble Pictureswith an aim to produce small budget films and introduce and promote new talent in theIndian film industry, particularlyregional Indian films.Her firstMarathi film, the 2016 comedy-dramaVentilator, was a box office success and went on to win three awards at the64th National Film Awards.She went on to produce several Indian regional language films, includingPahuna: The Little Visitors(2018) andPaani(2019), which won theNational Film Award for Best Film on Environment Conservation/Preservationat the66th National Film Awards. Chopra started investing in tech companies in 2018 by investing in a coding education startup called Holberton School and the dating and social media appBumble.The Bumble app was launched in India with the help of Chopra in October 2018.In 2021, it was reported that she had invested in the US-based rental marketplaceApartment List.At theStartup IndiaPrarambh event 2021, Chopra said that \"ideas are the currency of the present\" and that she was looking forward to further invest in a mix of beauty and tech startups.The same month, she launched a haircare line called \"Anamoly Haircare\" which became available exclusively inTargetstores in the United States on 1 February 2021 and was planned to be available internationally later that year. In March 2021, Chopra opened her new restaurantSonainManhattan, featuring haute-coutureIndian cuisine. Television presenting and stage performances In 2007, Chopra was on the judges' panel of the Miss India pageant. She stated, \"Miss India will always remain special. That's where it all started for me. And maybe that's where it would've ended if I hadn't won the crown.\"She also served as a judge atMiss World 2009.She visitedJawantroops inTenga, in eastern India, for a special episode of the NDTV showJai Jawancelebrating the 60th anniversary of India's independence. In 2010, she hosted the third season of the reality showFear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladion theColorschannel, taking over from previous host Akshay Kumar.According to contestants, in hosting the series, Chopra had \"transformed into quite a whip-wielding dictator\", relentlessly pushing the contestants to work.She performed most of her own stunts, adamant to prove that she could rival Akshay Kumar, who had hosted the previous two seasons.The opening ratings of the show topped those of the two previous seasons.The show was praised by critics, and earned her theIndian Telly Awardfor Most Impactful Debut on Television.In February 2016, Chopra presented the award forBest Film Editingat the88th Academy Awards. Chopra has participated in a number of world tours and concerts. She took part in a world concert tour, \"Temptations 2004\", and performed with other Bollywood actors (including Shah Rukh Khan,Saif Ali Khan,Rani Mukerji, Preity Zinta andArjun Rampal) in 19 stage shows.In 2011, she participated (with Shahid Kapoor and Shah Rukh Khan) in a concert inDurban, South Africa celebrating 150 years of India–South Africa friendship.In 2012, she performed atM. A. Chidambaram Stadium,Chennaiin theopening ceremonyof thefifth seasonof cricket'sIndian Premier Leaguewith Amitabh Bachchan, Salman Khan, Kareena Kapoor and Katy Perry.The same year, she performed atDubai Festival City's Ahlan Bollywood Concert with other Bollywood stars such as Salman Khan andSophie Choudry. In 2021, Chopra along with her husbandNick Jonas, announced the nominees for the93rd Academy Awards. Writing Chopra began writing an opinion column for theHindustan Timesin 2009. She wrote a total of 50 columns for the newspaper. She said after her first year of writing: \"I'm a private person and never thought that I could express my feelings. But strangely enough, whenever I sat down to write this column, my inner most thoughts came to the fore.\"In March 2009, she met several readers who had submitted feedback on her weekly column.She continued to write sporadically for newspapers. In August 2012 she wrote a column published inThe Times of Indiatitled \"No woman in Mumbai feels safe any longer\", discussing the murder of 25-year-old Pallavi Purkayastha,whom she met while working onDon.In the article, Chopra expressed her views about the safety of women in cities.In a July 2014 article published inThe Guardian, Chopra criticisedfemale genital mutilationandchild marriage. Later that year, Chopra wrote an op-ed forThe New York Timestitled \"WhatJane AustenKnew\" about the importance of education for girls. She praised and quotedNobel Peace PrizewinnersMalala YousafzaiandKailash Satyarthi, and described how her desire to help others was triggered when, at 9, she joined her parents while they volunteered their spare time to offer modern health care to the rural poor.In late 2014, Chopra began writing a monthly column, \"Pret-a-Priyanka\", forElle. In an article published in January 2015, she expressed her views on diversity and being a global citizen.Released byPenguin Random House, Chopra published her firstmemoirtitledUnfinishedon 9 February 2021.In a rave review,Associated Press's Molly Sprayregen termed the book \"deeply open and honest account\" and wrote \"Chopra Jonas' writing is open, engaging, and full of energy. She writes, it seems, to connect. The experience feels intimate, like Chopra Jonas is exchanging stories with a friend over coffee. Her stories are exceedingly personal, and despite being an international movie star, many of them even feel relatable.\"UnfinishedreachedThe New York TimesBest Seller listin the United States. Personal life Chopra has maintained a strong relationship with her family, including her younger brother, Siddharth, and lives in an apartment on the same floor as her family.She was especially close to her father, who died in June 2013;in 2012, she got a tattoo reading \"Daddy's lil girl\" in his handwriting.Having not come from a film background, she describes herself as aself-made woman.Her mother, a well-establishedgynaecologistinBareilly, gave up her practice to support Chopra as she embarked upon a film career. A practisingHindu, Chopra performs apujaevery morning at a small shrine consisting of variousmurtisof Hindu deities in her home, which she even travels with.Although she is known for her media-friendly attitude, Chopra is publicly reticent about her personal life.Chopra started dating American singer and actor,Nick Jonasin May 2018. Jonas proposed to her on 19 July 2018, a day after her birthday inCrete, Greece.Chopra and Jonas became engaged in August 2018 in aPunjabi Roka ceremonyinMumbai.In December 2018, the couple married atUmaid Bhawan Palace, Jodhpur in traditional Hindu and Christian ceremonies.Following the marriage, Chopra legally changed her full name to \"Priyanka Chopra Jonas\".In January 2022, the couple had their first child, a girl, viasurrogacy. Public image Chopra is known in the Indian media and film industry for her professionalism and is popularly referred to by the media and the film industry as \"PeeCee\", \"PC\" and \"Piggy Chops\".She has had aTwitteraccount since January 2009, and is the tenth most followed Indian on the platform.In 2012, she was declared the most influential Indian on social-media in a survey conducted byPinstormand in 2015, Chopra appeared inHuffPost's \"100 Most Influential Women on Twitter\" list, in which she was ranked first among Indians.As of August 2024, she is one of themost-followed people on Instagram. Remarking upon her role choices,CNN-IBNdescribed Chopra as a powerful modern actress unafraid of experimenting with roles.Analysing Chopra's career,Bollywood Hungamanoted her constant growth as a performer despite career fluctuations.The Times of Indiacalled her a \"game changer\" for changing \"the age-old demarcation between a hero and heroine\".In 2012, film critic Subhash K. Jha labelled her \"the best actress in the post-Sridevi generation\" and listed her character inBarfi!as being \"one of the finest inwardly ravaged characters in Bollywood.\"Chopra has often featured on Rediff.com's annual listing of \"Bollywood's Best Actresses\", ranking first in 2009, and was featured in their list of \"Top 10 Actresses of 2000–2010\". A high-profile and popular celebrity in India, Chopra is described as asex symboland a style icon.Her figure, eyes, lips and looks have been cited by the media as her distinctive physical features.Designers Falguni and Shane Peacock wrote, \"She is comfortable in her own skin and looks ravishing in whatever she wears, be it a bikini, short or long dress or even asari.\"She was named \"India's Best-Dressed Woman of the Year\" byPeople Indiain 2011.She ranks highly on various beauty listings in the world.The UK magazineEastern Eyeranked her first on their list of \"World's Sexiest Asian Women\" for a record five times (2006, 2012, 2014, 2015 and 2017).Chopra also topped theMaxim India's Hot 100 list in 2011, 2013, 2016 and 2018.In 2017,Buzznetnamed her the world's second most beautiful woman afterBeyoncé.Chopra was named one ofPeoplemagazine'sMost Beautiful Women in the Worldin 2017 and 2019. Chopra has featured on power listings, includingVerve's most powerful Indian women (2009, 2010, 2013, 2015, and 2016),The Indian Express's most powerful Indians (2016 and 2017),andIndia Today's50 most powerful people in India (2017 and 2018).After debuting in Hollywood, Chopra appeared in other lists, includingPeople'sMost Intriguing People of the Year(2015),Time's100 Most Influential People in the World(2016),Forbes'World's 100 Most Powerful Women(2017 and 2018),Variety's500 most influential business leaders (2017 and 2018),andUSA Today's50 most powerful women in entertainment (2019).The market research firmYouGovnamed her the world's twelfth and fourteenth most-admired woman in 2018 and 2019, respectively. Chopra is also one of the highest-paid Indian celebrities.She has featured in theIndian editionof \"Celebrity 100\" every year since its inception in 2012, ranking under top fifteen each year except 2018.Chopra ranked as the highest earning Indian female celebrity in 2016 and 2017 with respective earnings of₹760 million(US$9.1 million) and₹680 million(US$8.1 million), peaking at the seventh position in 2017.The global edition ofForbesnamed her the world's eighth-highest-paid TV actress both years.Chopra is a prominent celebrity endorser for brands and products.She ranked second in the list ofbrand ambassadorsof 2008 (after Shah Rukh Khan) in a survey conducted byTAM AdEx.The following year, she topped their list, becoming the first woman in India to do so.Chopra has represented many brands, includingTAG Heuer,Pepsi,Nikon,Nokia,GarnierandNestlé; she was the first female representative ofHero Honda.In 2016, Chopra became the first Indian woman to representPanteneas its global brand ambassador.In 2017,Forbesreported that Chopra earned at least $1 million per endorsement deal.In 2020, Chopra was one among several Bollywood actors who were criticised on social media for posting Instagram messages showing solidarity with theBlack Lives Mattermovement, despite their previous work advertising skin-lightening products which perpetuate colorism.In the past Chopra has expressed regret for promoting such products. Chopra and three other Bollywood actors (Shah Rukh Khan, Kajol and Hrithik Roshan) had their likenesses made into a series of miniature dolls for U.S. toy manufacturerHasbroand the UK-based Bollywood Legends Corporation.In 2009, Chopra became the first Indian actress to cast a foot impression at theSalvatore Ferragamo Museumin Florence, Italy, and she received custom-designed shoes from the Ferragamo house.Madame Tussaudsmuseum installed four wax sculptures of her in 2019 at four locations, includingNew York,London,Sydney, and a traveling exhibit between several Asian cities, making her the first Indian actor to have wax statues in four Madame Tussauds museums.In 2013, she became the first Indian model to representGuess, whose CEOPaul Marcianocalled her \"the youngSophia Loren\".Chopra's life, pictures of her family and win at the Miss World in 2000 were depicted in a chapter ofRoving Families, Shifting Homes, a book taught atSpringdales School.Three unauthorised biographies of her have been published: Indu Prabhu'sPriyanka Chopra: Road To Destiny(2016), Aseem Chhabra'sPriyanka Chopra: The Incredible Story of a Global Bollywood Star(2018) and Bharathi S. Pradhan'sPriyanka Chopra: The Dark Horse(2018). Awards and nominations Chopra has won aNational Film Award for Best ActressforFashion(2008) and five Filmfare Awards:Best Female DebutforAndaaz(2003),Best Performance in a Negative RoleforAitraaz(2004),Best ActressforFashion(2008),Critics Award for Best Actressfor7 Khoon Maaf(2011), andBest Supporting ActressforBajirao Mastani(2015).She has also won twoPeople's Choice Awards: \"Favourite Actress In A New TV Series\", and \"Favorite Dramatic TV Actress\" forQuantico.She is the first South Asian actress to win a People's Choice Award.In 2016, she was awarded thePadma Shri, thefourth highest civilianaward, by the Government of India for her contribution to artsand was honored as one of theBBC 100 Womenin 2022. Books See also Explanatory notes References External links Miss WorldPriyanka Chopra Miss UniverseLara Dutta Miss InternationalVivian Urdaneta"
] | [
"Jonas Brothers TheJonas Brothers(/ˈdʒoʊnəs/) are an Americanpop rockband. Formed in 2005, they gained popularity from their appearances on theDisney Channeltelevision network. They consist of three brothers:Kevin Jonas,Joe Jonas, andNick Jonas.Raised inWyckoff, New Jersey, the Jonas Brothers moved toLittle Falls, New Jersey, in 2005, where they wrote their first record that made itsHollywood Recordsrelease.They starred in the 2008Disney Channel Original MovieCamp Rockand its 2010 sequel,Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam. They also starred in their own Disney Channel seriesJonas, which was rebranded asJonas L.A.for its second season. The band has released six albums:It's About Time(2006),Jonas Brothers(2007),A Little Bit Longer(2008),Lines, Vines and Trying Times(2009),Happiness Begins(2019), andThe Album(2023). In 2008, the group was nominated for the Best New Artist award at the51st Grammy Awardsand won the award for Breakthrough Artist at theAmerican Music Awards. Before the release ofLines, Vines and Trying",
"Vines and Trying Times, they had sold over eight million albums worldwide.After a hiatus between 2010 and 2011 to pursue solo projects, the group reunited in 2012 to record a new album, which was cancelled following their break-up on October 29, 2013. As of that year, they had sold over 17 million albums worldwide. Six years following their split, the group reunited with the release of \"Sucker\" on March 1, 2019.The song became the 34th song in history to debut at number one on theBillboardHot 100, and became the Jonas Brothers' first number one single on the chart.Their fifth studio album,Happiness Begins,was released on June 7, 2019, topping the USBillboard200. The brothers released their sixth studio album,The Album,on May 12, 2023, preceded by two singles, \"Waffle House\" and \"Wings\". The 12-track record was produced byJon Bellion. History 2005–2007:It's About Time In 2005, Joe, Kevin and Nick recorded \"Please Be Mine\", their first song recorded.Upon hearing the song, theColumbia RecordspresidentSteve",
"Greenbergdecided to sign the brothers as a group.They considered naming their group \"Sons of Jonas\" before settling on the name Jonas Brothers.While working on their debut studio album, the band toured throughout 2005 with artists such asJump5,Kelly Clarkson,Jesse McCartney, theBackstreet Boys, andThe Click Fiveamong others.They spent the latter portion of the year on a tour withAly & AJandThe Cheetah Girls. Additionally, they opened forthe Veronicasin early 2006. For their first album, titledIt's About Time, the band collaborated with several writers, includingAdam Schlesinger(Fountains of Wayne),Michael Mangini(Joss Stone),Desmond Child(Aerosmith,Bon Jovi),Billy Mann(Destiny's Child,Jessica Simpson) and Steve Greenberg. The album was initially supposed to be released in February 2006, but was pushed back several times, due to executive changes atSony(the parent company of Columbia) and the executives' desire to have \"another lead single\" on the album. For the album, the Jonas Brothers covered two hit songs",
"two hit songs by UK bandBusted– \"Year 3000\" and \"What I Go to School For\". The Jonas Brothers' first single, \"Mandy\", was released on December 27, 2005. Its music video was shown on MTV'sTotal Request Liveon February 22, 2006, and reached number four. Another song, \"Time for Me to Fly\", was released on theAquamarinesoundtrack, also in February. In March, \"Mandy\" was featured in theNickelodeontelevision filmZoey 101: Spring Break-Upand theZoey 101: Music Mixsoundtrack album, with Nicholas Jonas listed as the artist name. The group's music was also featured onCartoon Network's Friday night programming blockFridays. The band covered \"Yo Ho (A Pirate's Life for Me)\" fromPirates of the Caribbeanfor theDisneymania 4album, released on April 4, 2006.Over the summer of 2006, the Jonas Brothers went on tour with Aly & AJ. The Jonas Brothers also created the theme song for the second season ofAmerican Dragon: Jake Long, airing from June 2006 to September 2007 on theDisney Channel.It's About Timewas finally released on",
"finally released on August 8, 2006.According to the band's manager, it was only a \"limited release\" of 50,000 copies, so the album's price can rise as high as $200–$300 USD on auction sites likeeBay. Because Sony was not interested in further promoting the band, the Jonas Brothers considered switching labels. On October 3, 2006, Nick's 2004 solo single, \"Joy to the World (A Christmas Prayer)\", was re-released onJoy to the World: The Ultimate Christmas Collection.The same month, the Jonas Brothers covered \"Poor Unfortunate Souls\" fromThe Little Mermaid. Along with a music video, the song was released on a two-disc special-edition release ofThe Little Mermaidsoundtrack.The second single fromIt's About Timewas \"Year 3000\", the music video of which premiered on the Disney Channel in January 2007. The band was ultimately dropped by Columbia Records in early 2007. 2007–2008:Jonas Brothers After being without a label for a short time, the Jonas Brothers signed with Hollywood Records in February 2007.Around the same",
"the same time, the brothers began appearing in commercials for Baby Bottle Pops, singing thejingle.On March 24, two additional songs on two different albums were released: \"Kids of the Future\", from theMeet the Robinsonssoundtrack(spoof ofKim Wilde's \"Kids in America\"), and \"I Wanna Be Like You\", fromDisneymania 5.The Jonas Brothers made their first appearance at the White House on Monday, April 9, 2007, during the annual White House Easter Egg Roll, where they sang the National Anthem.They returned on Wednesday June 27, 2007, during a Celebrating Women in Sports Tee Ball game on the South Lawn. They sang the National Anthem again, and, after the game, the Jonas Brothers entertained at the picnic-reception with a selection of their hits.Theirself-titled second albumwas released on August 7, 2007.It reached number five on theBillboard Hot 200chart in its first week. Two singles with music videos were also released around this time – \"Hold On\" two weeks before, and \"S.O.S.\", four days before the release of the",
"the release of the album. In August 2007, the Jonas Brothers made several appearances on television. On August 17, they guest-starred in an episode of the Disney Channel showHannah Montanatitled \"Me and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas\". They also performed \"We Got the Party\" withMiley Cyrusin the episode, which premiered afterHigh School Musical 2and was viewed by 10.7 million people that night. On August 24, the Jonas Brothers performed two songs at theMiss Teen USAcontest.On August 26, the Jonas Brothers co-presented an award with Miley Cyrus at theTeen Choice Awards. On November 18, 2007, they performed at theAmerican Music Awards, performing the song \"S.O.S.\" On November 22, the brothers appeared in the 81st annualMacy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. For their final performance of 2007, the three brothers performed their singles \"Hold On\" and \"S.O.S.\" atDick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve. The Jonas Brothers kicked off theirLook Me in the Eyes Touron January 31, 2008, inTucson, Arizona. They performed",
"They performed several new songs on the tour that were slated to be on their third studio album,A Little Bit Longer. The Jonas Brothers made their acting debut inSeason 2of theDisney ChannelseriesHannah Montana, where they guest starred and performed \"We Got The Party With Us\" on the episode \"Me and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas\". In 2008, they collaborated withMiley Cyruson her 3D concert filmHannah Montana & Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert, filmed during Cyrus'Best of Both Worlds Tour, where they sang \"We Got The Party With Us\" with Cyrus asHannah Montana. While on theLook Me in the Eyes Tour, the Jonas Brothers filmed a Disney Channel reality short series entitled,Jonas Brothers: Living the Dream, that premiered onDisney Channel. 2008–2009:A Little Bit Longerand acting The Jonas Brothers' third studio album,A Little Bit Longer, was released in the United States on August 12, 2008. On June 24, 2008, iTunes announced that it would release four songs fromA Little Bit Longer, one roughly",
"Longer, one roughly every two weeks.The purchase of each of the songs applies to the cost of the entire album, which could be purchased via iTunes' Complete the Album feature after release. Each song released also featured a podcast. Each song occupied the number one spot on iTunes for at least three days. After theLook Me in the Eyes Tourended on March 22, 2008, the Jonas Brothers announced that they would be opening up forAvril Lavigne'sBest Damn Touralong withBoys Like Girls, for the second leg of the tour in Europe, which lasted from late May to late June 2008.While filmingCamp Rock, the Jonas Brothers co-wrote and co-produced six songs for fellow Disney Channel star and close friendDemi Lovato, for Lovato's albumDon't Forget.The album, co-produced by the Jonas Brothers, was released on September 23, 2008.Asoundtrackwas released for the filmCamp Rockon June 17, 2008, debuting at No. 3 on theBillboard200with 188,000 copies sold in its first week.The Jonas Brothers also did a half-hour variety special on",
"variety special on Disney Channel entitled,Studio DC: Almost Live, that featuredThe Muppetsand other Disney Channel stars. During this time, the Jonas Brothers also appeared on the Olympics-based special miniseries theDisney Channel Games, for the third annual show. During the summer of 2008, the Jonas Brothers started theBurnin' Up Tourin North America, promotingA Little Bit Longer. The tour began on July 4, 2008, atMolson AmphitheatreinToronto, Ontario. The band made their film debut in theDisney Channel Original MovieCamp Rock, in which they played a band called Connect Three. Joe Jonas plays the lead male role and lead singer Shane Gray, Nick Jonas plays the role of Nate, a guitarist, and Kevin Jonas plays the role of Jason, another guitarist. The film premiered on June 20, 2008, in the United States on Disney Channel, and Canada onFamily, receiving mixed reviews. On the Disney Channel, the film was followed by the premiere of the music video forBurnin' Up, which featured cameos fromSelena Gomez,Robert",
"Gomez,Robert Davi,Danny TrejoandDavid Carradine. Directed byBrendan Malloy, the video earned nominations forVideo of the YearandBest Pop Videoat the2008 MTV Video Music Awards. ADisney Digital 3-Dproduction crew filmed the two shows of theirs Burnin' Up Tour inAnaheimon July 13 and 14, 2008, including a performance by Lovato with the Jonas Brothers on \"This Is Me\" andTaylor Swiftwith the brothers on \"Should've Said No\". Both shows and additional footage recorded while on tour were used for the theatrical release of their 3D concert biopic,Jonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience, on February 22, 2009. On July 14, they announced on stage that the band had already written five songs for their fourth studio album. The band was featured in the July 2008 issue ofRolling Stonemagazine and became the youngest band to be on the cover of the magazine. The Jonas Brothers visited downtownCleveland, Ohio'sRock and Roll Hall of Famebefore their sold-out concert on the evening of August 22, 2008, atBlossom Music Center.",
"Music Center. They presented the suits and pants they wore on the cover artwork ofA Little Bit Longerto Jim Henke, vice president of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The suits are part of theRight Here, Right Now!exhibit.In December 2008, the Jonas Brothers were nominated for theBest New Artistaward at the51st Grammy Awards. The Jonas Brothers appeared as musical guest onSaturday Night Live's34th seasonon February 14, 2009, making theirSNLdebut.The band also announced on March 11, 2009, that they will be embarking on aworld tourin mid-2009. They were joined by the popular Korean girl bandWonder Girls, who debuted in America, as their opening act.In April 2009, the Jonas Brothers finished filming the first season of theirDisney Channel Original Series,Jonasand was premiered on May 2, 2009. The Jonas Brothers also voiced three stonecherubsin the filmNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian, which was released on May 22, 2009. 2009–2010:JonasandLines, Vines and Trying Times The brothers finished recording",
"finished recording their fourth studio album,Lines, Vines and Trying Times, and began to talk about the album in the beginning of 2009. They said on several occasions that they had been working on writing and recording songs since theirBurnin' Up tourin mid-2008. On March 11, 2009, the Jonas Brothers announced that their fourth studio album,Lines, Vines and Trying Times, would be released on June 15, 2009.They said about the title in the interview withRolling Stonethat, \"Lines are something that someone feeds you, vines are the things that get in the way, and trying times, well, that's obvious.\" They also told Billboard, \"We're trying to learn as much as we can, continuing to grow.\" Kevin added that, \"The overall message is it's the same old Jonas Brothers, in a sense, but we're adding more and more music, including different musical instruments that are going to add and build to the sound we already have.\" Nick also said the songs on the album are \"our journal in songs, about all things we've gone through,",
"we've gone through, personal experiences we get inspiration from. We've also been working on trying to use metaphors.. to kind of mask a literal thing that happens to us.\". Before the release ofLines, Vines and Trying Times, they released two singles, \"Paranoid\" (a month before) and \"Fly with Me\" (seven days before).Lines, Vines and Trying Timesdebuted at number one, thus becoming their second No. 1 album. On July 7, 2009, the Jonas Brothers announced that they had signedHonor Societyto the record label they started with Hollywood Records. A month later, \"Send It On\" was released onRadio Disney. The radio single was performed withSelena Gomez,Miley Cyrus, andDemi LovatoforDisney's Friends for Change. On August 9, 2009, the Jonas Brothers hosted and performed on the 2009Teen Choice Awards.Hollywood Records announced viaYouTubeDemi Lovato and Jonas Brothers'Walmart CD+DVD Soundcheck. Joe was a guest judge onAmerican Idolduring the Dallas auditions, which aired January 27, 2010.After the success ofCamp Rock, a",
"ofCamp Rock, a sequel was in immediate development.Production on the film began on September 3, 2009, and wrapped on October 16, 2009.The film, entitledCamp Rock 2: The Final Jam, was aired onDisney Channelon September 3, 2010. The movie was filmed in Ontario, Canada.In late 2010, the Brothers took part in a concert at theWhite HousehonoringPaul McCartney's reception of aGershwin Prizefor Popular Music by U.S. PresidentBarack Obama. As a personal request from McCartney, they covered \"Drive My Car\" fromthe Beatles'Rubber Soul. 2011–2013: Hiatus,LiVeand split In 2011, the brothers took a hiatus to focus on their solo careers – Joe released his debut albumFastlife, Nick embarked on2011 Tourwith his bandNick Jonas & the Administrationand Kevin studied music production.In addition, they parted ways with Hollywood Records, who had been their label since February 2007. In December 2011, a new song leaked on the internet, \"Dance Until Tomorrow\", but they never released it.Despite rumors that they had split, Kevin",
"had split, Kevin said the band would release new material in the future: \"I think the tides are perfectly lining up for the future of the Jonas Brothers again\".In August 2012, Kevin starred in theE!reality seriesMarried to Jonasalongside his wife Danielle and brothers Nick and Joe, documenting the young couple's domestic life. On August 17, 2012, after two years of their last work together, they announced a new concert tour, theWorld Tour 2012/2013.On October 3, 2012, a preview of the song \"Meet You in Paris\" was released on Cambio.The new tour started on October 11, 2012, atRadio City Music Hallin New York City, where they performed several songs from their previous albums along with a new song entitled \"Let's Go\".During the reunion concert, they also performed other new songs: \"Wedding Bells\", \"First Time\" and \"Neon\".They performed atJingle BallatL.A. Liveon December 1, 2012, and announced several tour dates to take place in South America. They performed at theViña del Mar International Song Festivalon",
"Song Festivalon February 28, 2013, in Chile.Their fifth studio album, which would have been their first not to be released throughHollywood Recordssince 2006 and their first record since 2009'sLines, Vines and Trying Times, was scheduled to be released in 2013.The album would be titledV(pronounced:Five), theRoman numeralfor five. The lead single, \"Pom Poms\" was released on April 2, 2013.The music video for the song was filmed in February 2013 inNew Orleans,Louisiana, and premiered onE!on April 2, 2013.\"First Time\", the second single from their fifth album, was released on June 25, 2013.In June they embarked atLive Tourto promote the new songs. On October 9, 2013, the group cancelled 23 tour dates between October and December, citing a \"deep rift within the band\" over \"creative differences\".On October 29, 2013, the Jonas Brothers officially confirmed their split.During an interview, Nick Jonas stated that the album wouldn't be released but decided to release songs in a live album: \"We want to do something",
"to do something special for our fans because they've been so supportive of us for so many years. What we've decided to do is package an album with 10 live tracks from the summer tour and four of the songs that would have been on 'V', and if you count 'Pom Poms' and 'First Time', it's actually 6 songs that would have been on 'V'. We’ll be sending that out soon for the fans.\"The album was released with the titleLive, noting the letter \"V\" in caps as a reference to their would-be fifth studio album of the same name. 2019–2022: Reunion andHappiness Begins On February 28, 2019, the Jonas Brothers announced their comeback via social media.On March 1, they released a new single, \"Sucker\" underRepublic Records.They appeared onThe Late Late Show with James Cordeneach night from March 4 to 7 to promote the track.The song debuted at number one on theBillboardHot 100and the USHot Digital Songschart, with 88,000 copies sold in its first week, becoming the Jonas Brothers' first number-one song and the first number one by",
"first number one by a boy band on the chart since 2003's \"Bump, Bump, Bump\" byB2K.It became the band's first entry on the chart since 2013's \"Pom Poms\" and their first top 10 since 2008's \"Tonight\". The Jonas Brothers also became the second group in history to have a song debut at number one afterAerosmith's \"I Don't Want to Miss a Thing\" and the first group in this century to achieve this.In its April 13, 2019, issue, \"Sucker\" became the Jonas' first top 10 onDance/Mix Show Airplay, surging 20–6 in its third week of charting.On April 5, the group released the single \"Cool\".On April 22, the band announced their upcoming albumHappiness Begins, which was released on June 7, 2019and preceded by a documentary titledChasing Happiness, which premiered on June 4 onAmazon Prime Video.The album debuted at number one on theBillboard 200chart, marked the biggest debut of 2019and maintained the record untilTaylor Swift's seventh studio album,Lover, was released on August 23 of the same year.The group embarked on their",
"embarked on their tenth headlining tour, the \"Happiness Begins Tour\", performing 92 shows around the globe. On June 8, the band performed at Capital's Summertime Ball 2019 in the United Kingdom; the setlist included performing \"Year 3000\" with the original band behind the song,Busted.On June 18, the band released the promotional single \"Greenlight\" from their episode ofSongland.On June 21, they were featured on Latino singersSebastián Yatra,Daddy Yankee, andNatti Natasha's single called \"Runaway\".On July 2, the band released \"Only Human\", the third single offHappiness Begins, followed by the music video on August 13.On September 27,Diploreleased a single titled \"Lonely\", which featured the Jonas Brothers.On November 8, the group released aChristmas songtitled \"Like It's Christmas\".The subsequent year, the band made a cameo appearance on the seriesDash & Lilyand performed the single. On January 17, 2020, the band released the single \"What a Man Gotta Do\".On January 24, they announced a residency show inLas",
"show inLas Vegasnamed Jonas Brothers in Vegas at the Park Theater at Park MGM beginning on April 1, with eight other dates during the month keeping them in place until the 18th.The residency was ultimately cancelled due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.The band performed at the62nd Annual Grammy Awardson January 26, revealing a new song titled \"Five More Minutes\".On May 15, they released a two-track bundle titledXV, which contains the singles \"X\" and \"Five More Minutes\", the former of which features Colombian singerKarol G.On May 16, they made an appearance onGraduate Together: America Honors the High School Class of 2020to perform their new song. On October 30, they released another Christmas song titled \"I Need You Christmas\".On March 15, 2021, a deluxe version of Nick Jonas' fourth studio album,Spaceman, was released. The record included the song \"Selfish\", which featured the Jonas Brothers. On May 19, 2021, the Jonas Brothers announced that they would be embarking on their eleventh headlining tour, the Remember",
"tour, the Remember This Tour, consisting of 44 shows at outdoor venues around the United States, with the tour beginning on August 20, 2021, inLas Vegas. During their Remember This Tour tour, the Jonas Brothers required all fans attending their shows to present a proof ofvaccination against COVID-19or a negativeCOVID-19 test.The brothers released a statement on social media saying \"We believe this is the best thing we can do for our fans, our hard working crew, and the communities we're visiting.\"Kelsea Balleriniwas announced as a special guest for a majority of shows. On May 21, DJMarshmelloreleased \"Leave Before You Love Me\", a single featuring the Jonas Brothers. Two days later, they performed the single at the2021 Billboard Music Awards,with Nick Jonas also serving as the host for the ceremony.The single \"Remember This\" premiered on June 18 and was used in NBC's coverage of the2020 Summer Olympics.They recorded the song \"Mercy\" for the soundtrack ofSpace Jam: A New Legacywhich was released on July 9. On",
"on July 9. On September 5, 2021, during the band's Remember This Tour, the Jonas Brothers premiered a song titled \"Who's in Your Head\" while performing at the Red Rocks Parks and Amphitheater in Colorado. The single was released on September 17.On March 1, 2022, they announced a 5-dates residency show in Las Vegas named Jonas Brothers: Live in Vegas, taking place from June 3 to 11.It was followed by a second 3-dates residency, which took place in November of the same year. 2023–present:The Album In January 2023, while appearing onThe Kelly Clarkson Show, Nick Jonas announced that the band's new album was completed.On January 30, 2023, the Jonas Brothers received a star on theHollywood Walk of Fameand announced that their sixth studio album, titledThe Album, would be released on May 5, 2023,later delayed to and released on May 12.The Albumdebuted at number three onBillboard200chart, marking the Jonas Brothers' seventh top ten album on the chart.The record was preceded by its lead single, \"Wings\", which was",
"\"Wings\", which was released on February 24 of the same year.\"Waffle House\" was released as the second single on April 7, 2023.The third single, \"Summer Baby\", was sent toadult contemporary radioon June 5, 2023.In support ofThe Album, the band embarked the tour \"Five Albums. One Night. The World Tour\". The single \"Do It Like That\", a collaboration with South Korean boy bandTomorrow X Togetherfrom the albumThe Name Chapter: Freefall, was released on July 7, 2023.On July 27, 2023, Busted released \"Year 3000 2.0\", which features the Jonas Brothers in a collaboration celebrating the 20th anniversary of Busted. The song is included in the compilation albumGreatest Hits 2.0.The single \"Strong Enough\", a collaboration withBailey Zimmerman, was released on November 10, 2023. The band will be performing at thehalftime showat the111th Grey Cupon November 17th, 2024 inVancouver,British Columbia,Canada. Philanthropy \"We started The Change for the Children Foundation to support programs that motivate and inspire children",
"inspire children to face adversity with confidence, determination and a will to succeed. And we think the best people to help children are their peers – kids helping other kids who are a little less fortunate\". — Jonas about the success process. The Jonas Brothers earned an estimated $12 million in 2007, and have donated 10% of their earnings to their charity, Change for the Children Foundation.Change for the Children Foundation, started by the Jonas Brothers, has contributors donate to charities such as Nothing But Nets, American Diabetes Foundation, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, and Summer Stars Camp for the Performing Arts. Since August 6, 2008, Bayer Diabetes Care has partnered with Nick Jonas as adiabetesambassador to promote the idea that young people should manage their diabetes, as Nick was diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes when he was 13.Jonas testified in theU.S. Senateto promote more research funding for the disease. The Jonas Brothers have been strong",
"have been strong supporters ofDo Something. In 2007, the brothers filmed a public service announcement raising awareness about teenage homelessness and encouraging teens to begin \"jeans drives\" in their communities to donate to the homeless. In 2010, Nick further volunteered his efforts forDo Somethingby offering his time as a prize to teens who donated jeans to Do Something and Aeropostale's \"Teens for Jeans\" campaign.Further, Nick filmed another public service announcement, this one in support of Do Something's \"Battle of the Bands\" campaign for the advancement of music education in schools. The Jonas Brothers have made several appearances atWe Day, an event that encourages young people to do local and global acts of charity.In a post on Twitter, the band also announced that a portion of every ticket purchased for their Toronto show would be donated toWEto help provide secondary school scholarships to young girls in Kenya. In August 2021, the Jonas Brothers partnered with NGOFeeding Americato promote",
"Americato promote donations to the organization by holding a competition to have dinner with a selected fan at a Los Angeles restaurant.The Jonas Brothers have continued to advocate to fight hunger worldwide by partnering, in early 2022, withGlobal Citizen, which fightsextreme poverty, among other issues. Musical style The Jonas Brothers' musical style has generally been described asrock,pop rock,pop punk,andpower pop. Members Current Current touring musicians Former touring musicians Accolades Discography Filmography Film Television Web Bibliography Concert tours Headlining Residency shows Promotional Opening act References Footnotes Sources External links",
"Nick Jonas Nicholas Jerry Jonas(born September 16, 1992)is an American singer, songwriter and actor. Jonas began acting on Broadway at the age of seven, and released his debut single in 2002; this caught the attention ofColumbia Records, where Jonas formed a band with his older brothers,KevinandJoe, known as theJonas Brothers. The group released their debut studio album,It's About Time,through the Columbia label in 2006. After leaving Columbia Records and signing withHollywood Records, the group released theirself-titled second studio albumin 2007, which became their breakthrough record. The band became prominent figures on theDisney Channelduring this time, gaining a large following through the network, and appeared in the widely successful musical television filmCamp Rock(2008) and its sequelCamp Rock 2: The Final Jam(2010), as well as two of their own series,Jonas Brothers: Living the Dream(2008–2010) andJonas(2009–2010). The band's third studio album,A Little Bit Longer(2008), saw continued commercial",
"commercial success for the group; the album's lead single \"Burnin' Up\" hit the top five on theBillboardHot 100chart. Following the release of their fourth studio album,Lines, Vines and Trying Times(2009), the Jonas Brothers confirmed a hiatus. Jonas formed a new band known asNick Jonas & the Administration, who released the albumWho I Amin 2010. Afterward, Jonas shifted his focus to acting and had a recurring role on the television seriesSmashand some Broadway shows roles. After the group's official disbandment in 2013, Jonas began work on his second solo studio album, signing withIsland Recordsand releasingNick Jonasthrough the label in 2014, which saw the commercial success of the single \"Jealous\". Jonas later co-foundedSafehouse Records, a record label in conjunction with the Island and Hollywood labels. His third studio albumLast Year Was Complicated(2016) peaked at number two on theBillboard200chart in the United States. Following the release, Jonas won the Songwriters Hall of Fame's Hal David Starlight",
"Hal David Starlight Award in 2016.In 2017, Jonas appeared in the adventure comedy filmJumanji: Welcome to the Jungle, which became thefifth highest-grossing film of the year. The Jonas Brothers reformed in early 2019, and released the albumHappiness Beginsin June of that year. Jonas' fourth solo studio album,Spaceman, was released on March 12, 2021. Life and career 1992–2006: Childhood and career beginnings Jonas was born inDallas, Texas,the third son of Denise (néeMiller) and Paul Kevin Jonas. Jonas' father is a songwriter, musician, and former ordained minister at anAssemblies of Godchurch, while his mother is a former sign language teacher and singer.Nick has a younger brother,Frankie, and two older brothers,JoeandKevin.Jonas was raised inWyckoff, New Jerseyandhomeschooledby his mother. Jonas' career started when he was discovered at the age of six in a barber shop, where his mother was getting her hair cut, and was referred to a professional show business manager.He began performing onBroadwayat the age",
"the age of seven, portraying characters such asTiny Tim,Chip Potts,Little Jake, andGavrocheamong other roles.Jonas wrote a song titled \"Joy to the World (A Christmas Prayer)\" with his father while performing inBeauty and the Beast(2002), featuring background vocals from Jonas' fellow cast members, which was featured on the compilation albumBroadway's Greatest Gifts: Carols for a Cure, Vol. 4.The song was later released throughINO Recordsto Christian Radio in 2003, serving as Jonas' debut single. The single caught the attention ofColumbia Records, leading to Jonas signing with Columbia and INO to release his debut studio effort.\"Dear God\" (2004) was released as the lead single from the project, followed by a re-recorded version of \"Joy to the World (A Christmas Prayer)\".Jonas co-wrote songs for the album with his two older brothers, who also provided background vocals for the release.Nicholas Jonas(2004) received a limited release on September 5, 2004.The project was scheduled for a wide release in December,",
"in December, but was pushed back before ultimately being cancelled altogether.The new president of Columbia Records,Steve Greenberg, liked Jonas' voice on the record, but did not like the album.Upon hearing the song \"Please Be Mine\", he decided to sign Jonas and his brothers as a group.After being signed to Columbia, the brothers considered naming their group Sons of Jonas before settling on the nameJonas Brothers.In 2005, Jonas was diagnosed withtype 1 diabetesat the age of 13. While working on their debut studio album, the band toured throughout 2005 with artists such asJump5,Kelly Clarkson,Jesse McCartney, theBackstreet Boys, andThe Click Five, among others.The band's debut single, \"Mandy\", was released in December 2005.The album was initially scheduled for a February 2006 release date, but executive changes at Columbia's parent companySonyled to numerous delays on the project's release.It was during this time that the group began making appearances on variousDisney Channel-related soundtracks, and toured",
"and toured withAly & AJthroughout 2006.The band's debut album,It's About Time(2006), was released on August 8, 2006.The album received little backing from the label, who had no further interest in promoting the band. During its initial run, the album only received a limited release of 50,000 copies.Unhappy with how the release of the record was handled, the band hoped to depart from Columbia Records and find a new label; it was later confirmed in 2007 that the group had been dropped by the label.The album went on to sell a total of 1,750,000 copies. 2007–2011: Breakthrough with Jonas Brothers and other projects Shortly following their departure from Columbia Records, it was confirmed that the Jonas Brothers had signed withHollywood Records.While working on their new album, the group continued to gain popularity from soundtrack appearances and promotional appearances.The group released theirself-titled second studio albumthrough Hollywood Records on August 7, 2007.The album entered the top five of",
"the top five of theBillboard200in the United States, going on to sell over two million copies in the country.The group's single \"S.O.S\" became their first top twenty hit on theBillboardHot 100,and has sold over 1.5 million copies in the country.Nick and his brothers made their acting debut on an August 17 episode of the Disney seriesHannah Montanatitled \"Me and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas\". The band performed the collaboration \"We Got the Party\" with lead actressMiley Cyrus, with the episode garnering over ten million viewers and becoming basic cable's most watched series telecast ever.In May 2008, he and the band began starring in their own Disney seriesJonas Brothers: Living the Dream. Jonas made his film debut along with his brothers in the Disney Channel filmCamp Rock(2008), starring alongsideDemi Lovato. The film's soundtrack was released on June 17, 2008, and sold 188,000 copies in its first week of release in the United States.The movie went on to become a major hit for the network,",
"for the network, receiving 8.86 million viewers.The band achieved further success with their third studio album,A Little Bit Longer(2008), which became their first to debut at number one on theBillboard200 chart; the project sold over 525,000 in its first week of release.The album went on to sell over two million copies in the United States, making it their second multi-platinum album.A Little Bit Longerremains the band's highest-selling effort to date. \"Burnin' Up\" (2008) served as the album's lead single, becoming the band's first top five hit in the United States. The band starred in the 3D biopicJonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience, which received a theatrical release on February 27, 2009.The film was a financial success, and is the sixth highest-grossing concert film.Jonas starred with all three of his brothers in their second Disney Channel series,Jonas, which made its debut on May 2, 2009.The band released their fourth studio album, titledLines, Vines and Trying Times, on June 16, 2009. The",
"June 16, 2009. The project debuted at the top spot on theBillboard200, boasting first week sales of 247,000 copies. Following the release of their fourth studio album, the Jonas Brothers confirmed that they would be taking a hiatus to focus on solo projects.While Joe chose to record a solo record, Nick opted to form the bandNick Jonas & the Administration, signing withHollywood Recordsto release the project and later doing a tour.On June 21, Jonas made his West End debut performing inLes Misérablesfor the second time, this time in the role ofMarius Pontmercy.Jonas was originally supposed to play the role for only three weeks, but was able to extend his run until July 24, 2010, because of changes in the Jonas Brothers touring schedule.He also appeared in the25th Anniversary ConcertatThe O2Arena on October 3, 2010, again playing the role of Marius Pontmercy.He starred inHow to Succeed in Business Without Really Tryingon Broadway. From August 5–7, Jonas performed in the musicalHairsprayas Link Larkin at",
"Link Larkin at theHollywood Bowl.He also starred in the sequelCamp Rock 2: The Final Jam(2010), which was a commercial success.Jonas later appeared in the 2011 seriesMr. Sunshine; he played Eli Cutler, an up-and-coming singer who wants everything his way before he performs at the Sunshine Center.He also played the role of Ryan on an episode of the sitcomLast Man Standing. 2012–2013: Jonas Brothers split Jonas guest-starred on an episode ofSmashas Lyle West, a young musician and television star backing a promising Broadway musical;Jonas would later reprise the role in the show's season finale on May 14.Jonas had acameo appearancein the last episode of the second season of the comedy web seriesSubmissions Only.Jonas was to perform in the musicalHow to Succeed in Business Without Really Tryingas J. Pierrepont Finchfrom January 24 to July 1, 2012.Despite this, the musical ended its run on May 20.Jonas recorded five songs for the project, which were released as an extended play in 2012.The Jonas Brothers",
"Jonas Brothers confirmed in March that work had begun on their fifth studio album.The band officially parted ways with Hollywood Records in May 2012; they purchased the rights to all of their music from the label.Despite claims that Jonas would be signing on as a judge for thetwelfth seasonof the singing competitionAmerican Idol,Jonas opted to appear instead as a mentor withDemi LovatoonThe X Factor.Jonas made guest appearances on the television seriesMarried to Jonas, starring his older brother Kevin and his wife.The television show also documented their return to music and the process of working on their fifth album. The Jonas Brothers released a new single, \"Pom Poms\" (2013), on April 2 through their own record label.The music video for the song was filmed in February 2013 inNew Orleans,Louisianaand premiered onE!on April 2, 2013.Nick was the co-host of theMiss USA 2013competition onNBC; Jonas and his brothers performed during the event.The band released \"First Time\" as the second single from their",
"single from their forthcoming album.The band cancelled their highly anticipated tour in October only days before it was set to begin, citing a \"deep rift within the band\" over \"creative differences\", leading to speculation that the brothers would be parting ways musically.They officially confirmed on October 29 that the band had split up for good.The split led to the cancellation of their comeback album, though Nick confirmed that some of the songs recorded for the project would become available for fans through an upcoming release; the band released a live album featuring five songs from their unreleased fifth studio album.Around this time, Jonas guest starred as a computer hacker on an episode ofHawaii Five-0. 2014–2018:Nick JonasandLast Year Was Complicated With the Jonas Brothers officially broken up, Jonas began working on material for his second studio album.In 2014, he worked as the musical and creative director on Demi Lovato'sNeon Lights Tour, overseeing video content, wardrobe, lighting and",
"lighting and staging, and song arrangement.He joined Lovato on stage for select shows of the concert, performing three of her songs with her.Jonas went on to appear in two more episodes ofHawaii Five-O,and was cast in a starring role as Nate Kulina in the drama seriesKingdom.The series premiered onDirecTV'sAudience Network, and was renewed for two more seasons only two weeks later.Jonas made his return to music with the release of \"Chains\", the lead single to his second studio album.\"Jealous\" was later released as the album's second single, going on to become Jonas' first top ten hit as a solo artist on theBillboardHot 100. Jonas released his second studio album,Nick Jonas, thoughIsland Recordson November 10, 2014.The album debuted at number six on theBillboard200, selling over 37,000 copies in its first week of release.Following the success of \"Jealous\" and the album,\"Chains\"was re-released as the next single from the album.The single achieved commercial success, reaching the top twenty of theBillboardHot",
"of theBillboardHot 100 and becoming his second multi-platinum single.Jonas served as a guest mentor forChristina Aguileraon theeighth seasonofThe Voice.He also starred in the filmCareful What You Wish For, which was filmed in 2013.In 2015, Jonas released a new single, \"Levels\", as the lead single to the re-released version of his debut album,Nick Jonas X2.Jonas had a recurring role as Boone Clemens in the comedy horror seriesScream Queens; he is credited for five episodes of the first season. Work on Jonas' third studio album began as early as 2014, prior to the release ofNick Jonas.The album was initially set to be titledUnhinged, but was changed toLast Year Was Complicatedprior to its release.\"Close\", a collaboration withTove Lo, was released as the album's lead single.The project was a commercial success, reaching the top twenty of theBillboardHot 100 and becoming his third top ten hit on theMainstream Top 40chart.Last Year Was Complicatedwas released on June 10 to a generally positive reception.The album",
"reception.The album sold a total of 66,000 equivalent album units in its first week of release, entering theBillboard200chart at number two.This marks his highest peaking effort as a solo artist to date.\"Bacon\" has been serviced as the second single from the album.Jonas's contributions as a songwriter led to him receiving the Hal David Starlight Award in theSongwriters Hall of Fame.Jonas embarked on the co-headliningFuture Now Tour(2016) alongsideDemi Lovatoon June 29, and continued on the tour until the final concert on September 17.In May 2015,Billboardrevealed that Jonas was in the process of starting an \"artist-centric\" new record label, Safehouse Records, of which he would be co-founder and co-owner. The label would be a partnership between Jonas, Demi Lovato, and Lovato then-manager Phil McIntyre, and will form part of a new collaborative arrangement with record labelIsland. Jonas also starred in the drama filmGoatalongsideJames Franco, which was released on September 23, 2016.He participated in a rap",
"in a rap battle withKevin Harton October 27. On May 26, 2017, Jonas released the single \"Remember I Told You\" which features British singer-songwriterAnne-Marieand American singer and producerMike Posner.Jonas released the song \"Find You\" on September 14, 2017.Jonas contributed to theFerdinandsoundtrack with the songs \"Home\" and \"Watch Me\", released on October 20. \"Home\" was nominated for theGolden Globe Award for Best Original Song.In May 2018, Jonas released the single \"Anywhere\", a collaboration with DJ/ProducerMustard. Jonas and Mustard performed the song live, along with \"Jealous\", with contestant Jurnee during the finale ofAmerican Idolseason 16 on May 21.They also performed the song during the2018 MTV Movie & TV Awardson June 18.In an August 2018 interview withTeen Vogue, Jonas announced the impending release of a collaboration withRobin Schulztitled \"Right Now\", which he co-wrote withSkylar Grey.In August 2018, it was announced that Jonas had joined the cast of the animated",
"of the animated filmUglyDollsalongsideKelly ClarksonandPitbull, which was released on May 3, 2019.Jonas also performs the song \"The Ugly Truth\" for the film, which appears on thesoundtrack album. 2019–present: Jonas Brothers reunion,The VoiceandSpaceman Starting in late January, rumors were swirling online that the three brothers were going to reform the Jonas Brothers. On February 28, 2019, the Jonas Brothers officially announced their return along with a new single, \"Sucker\", which released the next day, March 1.The group's fifth album,Happiness Beginswas released on June 7.In October 2019, it was announced that Jonas would joinThe Voiceas a coach for its eighteenth season and later for its twentieth season.Jonas had a role inRoland Emmerich's World War II blockbuster movieMidway, which was released on November 8, 2019. On February 20, 2021, it was announced that Jonas would hostSaturday Night Livefor the first time on February 27.He wasSNL's musical guest for the fourth time, performing his single,",
"his single, \"Spaceman\", from his fourth studio album, also titledSpaceman.The second single, titled \"This Is Heaven\", was released on March 4, 2021. On March 15, 2021, Jonas and his wifePriyanka Chopraannounced the nominees for the93rd Academy Awards.On April 30, 2021, it was announced that Jonas would host the2021BillboardMusic Awards.Nick Jonas is set to star as Frankie Valli in a proshot taping of the musicalJersey Boys. In March 2023, Jonas and King released a single in Hindi and English, titled \"Maan Meri Jaan (Afterlife).\" Other ventures Outside of his acting and music career, Jonas ventured in various directions. In 2014, he signed a contract with modeling agency Wilhelmina Models. Fashion In 2017, he released his shoe collection 1410, a collaboration with versatile sneaker company Creative Recreation.In 2018, he released a spring clothing line withJohn Varvatos, labeled JV x NJ.Later in the year, they also released a fragrance, also labeled JV x NJ.In 2019, they released two more fragrances: JVXNJ",
"fragrances: JVXNJ Redand JVxNJ Silver.In October 2022 it was annmounced that Nick collaborated with PGX on a capsule collection for the golfsport. The PXG x NJ collection includes apparel and accessories, from hats and bags to shirts, pants, socks. Tequila In September 2019, Jonas announced that he had collaborated with John Varvatos and the spirits giant Stoli Group on an ultra-premium tequila named Villa One. The tequila, which was rolled out in the U.S. in September, came in Silver, Reposado and Añejo expressions.At the end of 2020, the tequila was made available for purchase in the United Kingdom.In May 2021, it was made available in Canada. Producing On September 29, 2021, it was announced that Nick Jonas and Priyanka Chopra Jonas had joined the producing team of Douglas Lyons’ Broadway comedy Chicken & Biscuits, currently in previews at Circle in the Square Theatre. Image 32 Jonas was an executive producer for the showDash & Lily,withStranger Thingsproducer Shawn Levy. Levy produced the series with",
"the series with Josh Barry via his 21 Laps banner.The series was released on November 10, 2020, onNetflix. Jonas was involved on casting, filming, and music.He also made a cameo in the series, giving love advice and performing the single \"Like It's Christmas\" with his brothers. In 2020, Amazon Studios greenlit an unscripted series following engaged couples as they prepare for their sangeet, an Indian pre-wedding tradition. Jonas was announced as an executive producer through Image 32, and Chopra Jonas would executive produce through Purple Pebble Productions. Business In July 2022, Jonas and Chopra announced an investment inPerfect Moment, a 1979-founded company dedicated mainly to womenswear. The company said that the couple will play a \"substantial role\" in the marketplaces of Asia and the Middle East. Public image During the early stages of their career, the Jonas Brothers were seen as role models andteen idolsby their fans, and they drew much media attention when they made the decision to begin",
"decision to begin wearingpurity ringsduring their time on the Disney Channel.Though he has stated that the rings helped \"shape view of sex\", Nick felt that his faith became more about his personal relationship with God.He claimed in 2016 that all of the youth at their church had been asked to wear them, and he didn't have a \"full understanding\" of what the ring meant.Jonas has more recently earned the title of asex symbolfollowing a string of provocative photo shoots.He has often rejected the title, stating that: \"I don't really consider myself . If someone wants to give me that title, that's fine, but I don't say these words about myself. I just try to be humble, make sexy music and push the envelope a little bit.\" Jonas was featured onOK!'s list of 2014's Sexiest Men Alive,while his photo shoot forFlauntwas listed on their Most Memorable Naked Moments list.He was ranked at number ten onPeople's Sexiest Men Alive list in 2015.He was ranked in sixth place onCapital FM's list of Sexiest Men in Pop during",
"Men in Pop during 2016.Jonas' new public image has led to him receiving a large fan following in theLGBTcommunity, a fact he claims to be \"thrilled\" about.Some of Jonas' interviews and comments have drawn criticism for being \"gay pandering\", though Jonas has denied these claims.He was deemed Sexiest Reality Show Judge in the 2020People's Sexiest Men Alive poll.That same year, he was also nominated alongside Joe and Kevin for Sexiest Brothers. Personal life Health Jonas was diagnosed withtype 1 diabetesat the age of thirteen and uses aninsulin pumpto help him manage his condition.He has developed the Change for the Children Foundation; partnering with five different charities, their goal is to raise money and awareness for diabetes.He also developed a public service announcement with theWashington Nationalsto support diabetes care atChildren's National Medical Centerin Washington, D.C.Since August 6, 2008, Bayer Diabetes Care has partnered with Jonas as a diabetes ambassador to encourage young people to",
"young people to manage their diabetes.Jonas testified in theU.S. Senateto promote more research funding for the condition. On May 15, 2021, Jonas suffered an accident while biking and cracked a rib.He also suffered bumps and bruises and had to be transported in an ambulance to a hospital, from which he was discharged a day later.On May 17, he returned to the showThe Voiceafter the accident.In an interview on May 19, Jonas said that he was feeling better and that his accident would not interfere with his hosting of theBillboard Music Awards. Relationships Jonas dated fellow Disney starMiley Cyrusfrom June 2006 to December 2007.He briefly dated another Disney starSelena Gomezin 2008, she appeared in his band music video for \"Burnin' Up\".In May 2011, Jonas started dating Australian singerDelta Goodrem. They broke up in February 2012.Jonas started dating model andMiss Universe 2012Olivia Culpoin 2013. They ended their relationship in 2015 after nearly two years of dating. In May 2018, Jonas started dating Indian",
"dating Indian actressPriyanka Chopra. Jonas proposed to her on July 19, 2018, a day after her birthday, inCrete, Greece.Jonas and Chopra got engaged in August 2018 in aPunjabi Roka ceremonyinMumbai.In December 2018, the couple married atUmaid Bhawan Palace, Jodhpur, in traditional Hindu and Christian ceremonies.In January 2022, Jonas revealed he and his wife had welcomed their first child, a daughter, viasurrogacy. Philanthropy In 2009, Jonas was involved in \"Disney's Friends for Change\", an organization which promoted \"environmentally-friendly behavior\", alongside his brothers.Jonas Brothers,Demi Lovato,Miley Cyrus, andSelena Gomez, as the ad hoc musical team \"Disney's Friends For Change\", recorded the charity single \"Send It On\", all of the proceeds of which were accepted into the Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund.It debuted on theBillboardHot 100 at No. 20. In January 2010, Jonas donated $25,000 from his family foundation to theNorth Texas Food Bank. He made the visit as part of a joint effort with the",
"effort with the television programThe Biggest LoserandFeeding America, a national network of food banks.In the same year, Jonas further volunteered his efforts forDo Somethingby offering his time as a prize to teens who donated jeans to Do Something andAeropostale's\"Teens for Jeans\" campaign.Further, Jonas filmed another PSA, this one in support of Do Something's \"Battle of the Bands\" campaign, for the advancement of music education in schools.Jonas is also a member of the National Youth Leadership Committee for the Ronald Reagan Centennial Celebration, along withJordin Sparks, Genevieve Ryan, and Brodi Conover.In 2017, Jonas, alongsideDemi LovatoandDNCE, began a Crowd Rise campaign to raise money to supportHurricane Harveyrelief. In March 2020, Jonas and his wife,Priyanka Chopra, announced they have donated to several organizations, includingUNICEF,Feeding America,Goonj,Doctors Without Borders,No Kid Hungry,GiveIndia,PM CARES Fund, and others to help fight the outbreak ofCOVID-19.They also made donations to",
"made donations to theEqual Justice InitiativeandAmerican Civil Liberties Union, amid the widespread protests over themurder of George Floydin June 2020.The next month, they made donations to Bihar and Assam flood relief organizations following theAssam floodand asked their fans to provide help and support as well. In April 2021, Jonas and Chopra urged fans to donate to the GiveIndia NGO through their fundraiser \"Together for India\" during the resurgence of theCOVID-19 pandemic in India.By 13 May 2021, the fundraiser had reached their initial target of $1 million, and they subsequently raised the target to $3 million. Discography Solo albums withThe Administration with theJonas Brothers Filmography Theatre Film TV Web Music videos Commercials Tours Awards and nominations References External links",
"Joe Jonas Joseph Adam Jonas(born August 15, 1989) is an American singer, songwriter, and actor. He rose to fame as a member of the pop rock band theJonas Brothers, alongside his brothersKevinandNick. The group released their debut studio albumIt's About Timethrough theColumbialabel in 2006. After signing withHollywood Records, the group released theirself-titled second studio albumin 2007, which became their breakthrough record. The band became prominent figures on theDisney Channelduring this time, gaining a large following through the network: they appeared in the widely successful musical television filmCamp Rock(2008) and its sequelCamp Rock 2: The Final Jam(2010) as well as two of their own series,Jonas Brothers: Living the Dream(2008–2010) andJonas(2009–2010). The band's third studio album,A Little Bit Longer(2008), saw continued commercial success for the group; the album's lead single \"Burnin' Up\" hit the top five on theBillboardHot 100chart. Theirfourth studio album, while still successful on",
"still successful on theBillboard200chart, saw a decline in record sales. After the group confirmed a hiatus, Joe released his debut solo studio album,Fastlife(2011), which saw moderate commercial success. After the Jonas Brothers officially parted ways due to creative differences, Jonas formed thefunk-popbandDNCEin 2015, serving as the lead vocalist. The group saw the significant commercial success of their debut single \"Cake by the Ocean\", which peaked at number 9 on theBillboardHot 100chart in the United States. Early life Joseph Adam Jonas was born on August 15, 1989.inCasa Grande, Arizona, the son of Denise (née Miller) and Paul Kevin Jonas. His father is a songwriter, musician, and former ordained minister at anAssemblies of Godchurch while his mother is a former sign language teacher and singer.He has an older brother,Kevin, and two younger brothers,NickandFrankie. He attendedEastern Christian High SchoolinNorth Haledon, New Jersey. In 2002, Joe appeared inBaz Luhrmann's Broadway production ofLa",
"production ofLa bohème. Career 2005–2007: Breakthrough with Jonas Brothers In 2005, Joe, Kevin, and Nick recordedPlease Be Mine, their first song recorded.Upon hearing the song, theColumbia RecordspresidentSteve Greenbergdecided to sign the brothers as a group.They considered naming their group \"Sons of Jonas\" before settling on the nameJonas Brothers.While working on their debut studio album, the band toured throughout 2005 with artists such asJump5,Kelly Clarkson,Jesse McCartney, theBackstreet Boys, andThe Click Fiveamong others.The group released their debut single, \"Mandy\", in December 2005.The album was initially scheduled for a February 2006 release date, though executive changes at Columbia's parent companySonyled to numerous delays on the project's release.During this time, the group began making appearances on variousDisney Channelrelated soundtracks and toured withAly & AJthroughout 2006.The band's debut album,It's About Time(2006), was released on August 8, 2006.The album received little backing",
"little backing from the label, who had no further interest in promoting the band.The album's second single, \"Year 3000\", had its music video premiere on the Disney Channel in the beginning of 2007. Dissatisfied with how the release of the record was handled, the band hoped to depart from Columbia Records and find a new label; it was later confirmed in 2007 that the group had been dropped by the label.The album went on to sell a total of 67,000 copies in the United States. Only a short period of time after their departure from Columbia Records, it was confirmed that the group had signed a new contract withHollywood Records.While working on their new album, the group continued to gain popularity due to soundtrack appearances and promotional appearances.The group released theirself-titled second studio albumthrough Hollywood Records on August 7, 2007.The album entered the top five of theBillboard200in the United States, going on to sell over two million copies in the country.Joe and his brothers made their",
"brothers made their acting debut on an August 17 episode of the Disney seriesHannah Montanatitled \"Me and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas\". The band performed the collaboration \"We Got the Party\" with lead actressMiley Cyrus, with the episode gaining over ten million viewers and became basic cable's most watched series telecast ever.The group's single \"S.O.S\" became their first top twenty hit on theBillboardHot 100,and has sold over 1.5 million copies in the country, they put outHold On,When You Look Me in the Eyesamong singles. 2008–2010: Acting In May 2008, he and the band began starring in their own Documentary seriesJonas Brothers: Living the Dream.Jonas made his film debut along with his brothers in the Disney Channel filmCamp Rock(2008). The film's soundtrack was released on July 17, 2008, and sold 188,000 copies in its first week of release in the United States.Joe recorded the duet \"This Is Me\" for the project, with the song reaching the top ten of theBillboardHot 100 chart.The song served as",
"song served as Jonas' first release outside of the Jonas Brothers. It has sold just over 900,000 copies in the United States.The Jonas Brothers' third studio album,A Little Bit Longer, was released in the United States on August 12, 2008. The album became their first to debut at number one on theBillboard200 chart, selling over 525,000 copies in its first week of release.The album went on to sell over two million copies in the United States, making it their second multi-platinum album.The album was preceded by the release of the single \"Burnin' Up\" (2008), which became the band's first top five hit in the United States.Love Bug,Tonightwere put out among singles.Joe and his brothers starred in the 3D biopicJonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience, which received a theatrical release on February 27, 2009.The film was a financial success and is the sixth highest-grossing concert film. Jonas starred with all three of his brothers their second Disney Channel series,Jonas, which made its debut on May 2, 2009.The",
"on May 2, 2009.The show's second and final season aired under the nameJonas L.A.The band released their fourth studio album, entitledLines, Vines and Trying Times, on June 16, 2009. The project debuted at the top spot on theBillboard200, boasting first week sales of 247,000 copies.ParanoidandFly with Mewere put out as singles.Joe was featured as a guest judge on a January 2010 episode of theninth seasonof the singing competitionAmerican Idol.In February 2010, Jonas made a cameo appearance inVampire Weekend's music video for \"Giving Up the Gun\" along withJake Gyllenhaal,Lil Jon, andRZA.He later guest starred in a 2010 episode ofHot In ClevelandasValerie Bertinelli's son, Will.Jonas starred in the sequelCamp Rock 2: The Final Jam. 2011–2014:Fastlifeand group disbandment In 2011, it was announced that Jonas was planning on recording a solo album.Jonas hoped to incorporate elements offunkinto the album.Jonas released the album's lead single, titled \"See No More\", made in collaboration with Chris Brown on June 3,",
"Brown on June 3, 2011.The single failed to have much commercial success, only reaching ninety-two on theBillboardHot 100 chart.On August 4, 2011, Jonas announced viaTwitterthat he would joinBritney Spearson her European tour starting October 16, 2011.Ryan Seacrestpremiered the album's second single, \"Just in Love\", on September 9, 2011.The single was later remixed to include rapperLil Wayne.Jonas later confirmed the album to be titledFastlife. In support of the album, Joe co-headlined withJay Seanin theJoe Jonas & Jay Sean TourwithJoJoas the opening act.The tour kicked off on September 9, 2011, and concluded on October 6, 2011.Fastlifewas released through Hollywood Records on October 11, 2011.The album sold a total of 18,000 copies in its first week of release, debuting at number fifteen on theBillboard200.The album quickly fell off of the albums chart, going on to sell a mere 45,000 copies by 2015.On May 1, 2012, it was announced that both the Jonas Brothers and Joe Jonas had parted ways with Hollywood",
"ways with Hollywood Records. It was confirmed in April 2013 that the Jonas Brothers would reunite to begin working on their fifth studio album and an upcoming tour. Kevin Jonas later starred in his ownE!reality series,Married to Jonas, which focused on his marriage to new wife Danielle.The show featured appearances from Joe and Nick and documented the band's preparations for their musical comeback.That same year, Jonas participated inFox's dating game showThe Choice.Jonas began dating model Blanda Eggenschwiler in September 2012, with the two dating until July 2014.Jonas co-wrote the song \"Dreams\" for theJohn LegendalbumLove in the Future(2013).The brothers performed inRussiain September 2012, making it their first live performance since their 2010 tour.Their much-anticipated reunion concert, which had been announced in August 2012, took place on October 11, 2012, atRadio City Music HallinNew York City.The band's fifth studio album, set to be released independently through their own label, was slated for",
"was slated for release in 2013.The Jonas Brothers also announced an upcoming North American tour, with tickets going on sale. The album, initially titledV,Live included the previously released singles, \"Pom Poms\" and \"First Time\".On October 9, 2013, the group cancelled their upcoming tour days before it was slated to start, citing a \"deep rift within the band\" over \"creative differences\".Only days later, it was confirmed that the band had officially ended. 2015–2018: DNCE andThe Voice With the band officially broken up, Jonas began working on a new musical project with producers such asMalayandMattman & Robin.While working on the project, Jonas was unsure whether he wanted to record a second studio album or start a new band. Upon working withJustin Tranteron multiple songs, Jonas decided to form a band with his friends and former touring partnersJack LawlessandJinJoo Lee.Cole Whittle, a member of the alternative rock bandSemi Precious Weapons, became the fourth and final member of the group.The group named",
"group named themselvesDNCE, a misspelling of the word dance.DNCE released their debut single, \"Cake by the Ocean\", in 2015.TheirSwaaydebut extended playwas released in October 2015. Their self title DNCE album was later released.It debuted at number seventy-nine on theBillboard200 chartin the United States but peaked at number nine. In 2018, he joined theAustralian version ofThe Voiceas a coach, a year after being a mentor on theAmerican version. In June 2018, Jonas and British DJJonas Bluereleased their collaborative track \"I See Love\", a song for the filmHotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation. He also voiced aKrakenin the movie. 2019–2023: Jonas Brothers and DNCE reunions Starting in late January, rumors were swirling on Twitter and other social media that the three brothers were going to reform the Jonas Brothers. On February 28, 2019, the Jonas Brothers officially announced their return along with a new single, \"Sucker\", which released the next day, March 1.In April 2019, Joe Jonas appeared atWE",
"Jonas appeared atWE DayCalifornia, portions of which were aired on ABC in August of the same year. In January 2021, it was announced that Jonas was among the cast of theKorean WarmovieDevotion.During March 2021, the filming took place onTybee Island, Georgia.The movie, which is expected to premiere in 2022,also had filming onArthur Ravenel Jr. BridgeinCharleston, South Carolinaduring May 2021.He has called his joining the cast ofDevotiona \"life changing\" experience.In September 2022, it was announced that Jonas had co-authored a song titled \"Not Alone\" for the credits of the movie, calling the song \"One of the favorites that I've ever written\" and labeling the song as \"spiritual\". In February 2022, Jonas announced the return of DNCE along with Lawless and Lee. Jonas announced the return of the band with a new song by Norwegian DJKygo, titledDancing Feet, which was released on February 25, 2022. The Jonas brothers released their sixth studio albumThe Albumin May 2023. 2024:Music for People Who Believe in Love",
"Who Believe in Love On July 17, 2024, Jonas announced the release of his second studio album,Music for People Who Believe in Love, which is set to be released on October 18, 2024.The lead single from the album, \"Work It Out\", was released on July 19, 2024. Personal life Jonas datedGigi Hadid,Taylor SwiftandDemi Lovato.He started dating English actressSophie Turnerin 2016.They got engaged in October 2017,and married on May 1, 2019, inLas Vegas,Nevada.They held their second wedding inParis, Franceon June 29, 2019.The couple has two daughters.In September 2023, Jonas filed for divorce from Turner in Miami, Florida.Turner subsequently sued Jonas and cited \"wrongful detention,\" saying that Jonas refused to allow their daughters to return to England, which had been registered as theirpermanent residencein April.Jonas and Turner reached a temporary custody agreement in October.The divorce was finalized in September 2024. In September 2021, Jonas and Turner purchased a mansion inMiami, Floridafor $11 million. The",
"$11 million. The mansion was reportedly inspired by architectFrank Lloyd Wright.Prior to moving to Miami, Jonas and Turner sold their house inEncino, a neighborhood of Los Angeles, for $15.2 million.In November 2022, the Jonases' Miami residence was listed for sale with an asking price of nearly $17 million. Discography Solo albums with theJonas Brothers withDNCE Filmography Film Television Web Music videos Commercials Awards and nominations References External links",
"Kevin Jonas Paul Kevin Jonas Jr.(born November 5, 1987) is an American musician and actor. He rose to fame as the lead guitarist of the pop rock bandJonas Brothersalongside his younger brothersJoeandNick. Jonas became a prominent figure on theDisney Channelalongside his brothers in the late 2000s, gaining a large following through the network: he appeared in the widely successful musical television film,Camp Rock(2008) and its sequel,Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam(2010) as well as two other series,Jonas Brothers: Living the Dream(2008–2010) andJonas(2009–2010). After the group confirmed a hiatus in 2012, Kevin appeared on his ownE!reality series that same year,Married to Jonas,with his wife,Danielle. Following the band's initial break-up in 2013, Jonas appeared on theseventh seasonofThe Celebrity Apprenticein 2014, founded the construction company Jonas Werner, and became the co-CEO of The Blu Market, an influencer marketing company. In 2019, he rejoined the Jonas Brothers following their reunion. The group would",
"The group would go on to release their fifth studio album. The reunited Jonas Brothers appeared in twoAmazon Prime Videodocumentaries namedJonas Brothers: Chasing HappinessandJonas Brothers: Happiness Continuesin 2019 and 2020. Jonas appeared onPeoplemagazine's list of the Sexiest Men Alive in 2008 at the age of 21, and thus included as part of the 21 Club. Early life Paul Kevin Jonas Jr. was born on November 5, 1987, inTeaneck, New Jersey, and grew up inWyckoff.His mother, Denise Marie (née Miller), is a former sign language teacher and singer, and his father, Paul Kevin Jonas Sr., is a songwriter, musician, and former ordained minister at anAssemblies of Godchurch.He has three younger brothers,Joe(b. 1989),Nick(b. 1992), andFrankie(b. 2000).As a child, Jonas appeared in several TV commercials as well as print ads. Unlike his brothers, he originally did not intend to become a musician but became interested one day after stumbling upon a book on playing guitar and playing his father’s guitar.He",
"father’s guitar.He attendedEastern Christian High SchoolinNorth Haledon, New Jersey. Career 2005–2006: Career beginnings In early 2005,Columbia Records' new president,Steve Greenberg, listened toNick's record. While Greenberg did not like the album, he did like Nick's voice.After hearing the song \"Please Be Mine\", written and performed by all the brothers,Daylight/Columbia Records decided to sign the three as a group act.After being signed to Columbia, the brothers considered naming their group \"Sons of Jonas\" before settling on the name \"Jonas Brothers\".It's About Time, the brothers' first album, was released on August 8, 2006.According to the band's manager, it was only a \"limited release\" of a little over 50,000 copies. BecauseSonywas not interested in further promoting the band, the Jonas Brothers then considered switching labels. The band was ultimately dropped by Columbia Records in early 2007. 2007–2012: Breakthrough with the Jonas Brothers After shortly being without a label, the Jonas Brothers",
"the Jonas Brothers signed withHollywood Recordsin February 2007.Around the same time, the brothers began appearing inGap Inc.commercials forBaby Bottle Pop, singing thejingle. Their self-titled second album,Jonas Brothers, was released on August 7, 2007.It reached number five on theBillboardHot 200chart in its first week.Jonas and his brothers guest-starred in an episode ofHannah Montana, titled \"Me and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas\", which aired August 17, 2007 onDisney Channel. The episode debuted alongside the television filmHigh School Musical 2and a sneak peek ofPhineas and Ferb.The episode broke basic cable records with a record 10.7 million viewers and became basic cable's most watched series telecast ever. Jonas and his brothers also starred in theDisney Channel Original MovieCamp Rock, where they played a band called \"Connect 3\". Kevin played Jason, a guitarist; Nick played Nate, also a guitarist; and Joe played the lead male role and lead singer, Shane Gray.Asoundtrackfor the movie was",
"the movie was released on June 17, 2008. The film premiered on June 20, 2008, on Disney Channel in the United States, on Disney Channel, and onFamilyin Canada.They returned in the sequel,Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam, which premiered on September 3, 2010.The Disney Channel reality short series,Jonas Brothers: Living the Dream, premiered on Disney Channel, May 16, 2008.The show, which ran until September 5, 2008, documented the brother's lives during theLook Me in the EyesTour. The name was inspired by their hit songWhen You Look Me in the Eyes. The series was renewed for a second season, which premiered March 21, 2010.The second season followed the band on the European leg of their World Tour 2009. The Jonas Brothers' third studio album,A Little Bit Longer, was released in the United States on August 12, 2008, and peaked at No. 1 on theBillboard200. Kevin, Joe, Nick, and Frankie starred in their ownDisney Channel Original Series,Jonas, which premiered May 2, 2009.The show was renewed for a second season",
"for a second season premiering June 20, 2010 asJonas L.A.It centered on the brothers vacationing at their summer house in Los Angeles with Stella and Macy. On June 16, 2009, the brothers' fourth studio album, and third release under Hollywood Records, titledLines, Vines, and Trying Timeswas released. The album peaked at number 1 on the Billboard 200 with 247,000 copies sold. Jonas appeared on MTV's fourth episode ofWhen I Was 17, talking about life as a teenager, regarding sports and his hairstyles.He guest hostedLive with Kelly, December 13, 2011, and did so a second time on July 4, 2012.It was announced on May 1, 2012, that the Jonas Brothers parted ways with their record label Hollywood Records, and bought the rights to their music. 2013–2018: Jonas Brothers split Kevin appeared in an E! reality series alongside his wife, Danielle, and his brothers, which premiered on August 19, 2012. Produced byRyan Seacrest,Married to Jonasdocumented the young couple's domestic life as well as the brothers' recording",
"brothers' recording efforts as they prepared to release their fifth studio album.The final episode of the second season aired on May 26, 2013. On October 29, 2013, The Jonas Brothers officially announced that the band was breaking up because of creative differences. After parting ways with the Jonas Brothers in 2013, he founded the real estate development, construction company called JonasWerner, and is the co-CEO of The Blu Market company, which deals with communications and plans for social media influencers.Jonas was part of theseventh seasonofCelebrity Apprenticetaping in spring 2014, which was filmed throughout New York City.He was fired in the second episode when his team lost the competition, during which time he'd been acting as the team leader. Kevin also made a cameo in a 2014 episode ofThe Real Housewives of New Jersey, working in his new role as contractor, leading the construction on Housewife Kathy Wakile's home. In 2015, he created a food app Yood.As of 2016, he is also in partnership with the",
"with the video-sharing appWe Heart It.While the band was on hiatus, Nick was on his solo music and acting career, while Joe started the bandDNCEin 2015 with Jonas Brothers drummerJack Lawless,Semi Precious Weaponsbassist Cole Whittle, and guitaristJinJoo Lee. 2019–present: Jonas Brothers reunion andHappiness Begins On February 28, 2019, nearly six years after the Jonas Brothers initial breakup, the brothers announced the band's reunion.They commenced their reunion the next day with releasing their new single, \"Sucker\" on March 1, 2019, and partaking in a week long segment onThe Late Late Show with James Cordeneveryday from March 4 to March 7.Jonas and his brothers appeared in the band's documentaryChasing Happiness, which was released on June 4, 2019. On May 9, 2019, a compilation album titledMusic from Chasing Happinesswas released. It consists of old Jonas Brothers songs, two Nick songs, one Joe song featuring a guest appearance fromLil Wayne, and a song from Joe's bandDNCE, who are currently in hiatus as",
"in hiatus as of January 2019 since Joe and Jonas Brothers and DNCE drummerJack Lawlesshave resumed work back with the brothers.Directed byJohn Lloyd Taylor, the documentary covers the brothers childhood life, how the brothers started as a band, why the band broke up, and how the band got back together. They released their fifth studio album,Happiness Beginson June 7, 2019. It is the band's first album released after their reunion.They have released two songs with other artists, which consist of: their feature on \"Runaway\" bySebastián Yatra,Daddy Yankee, andNatti Natasha, as well as their collaboration on \"Lonely\" withDiplo. They released a song titled \"Greenlight\" for their episode ofSonglandthe same day on June 18, three days before \"Runaway\". On November 8, they released a Christmas song, \"Like It's Christmas\". On January 17, 2020, they released a new single, \"What a Man Gotta Do\", the lead single for their upcoming sixth studio album. Since July 11, 2022, Kevin Jonas has been co-hosting the reality",
"the reality competition seriesClaim to Fameon ABC alongside his brother,Franklin Jonas. Personal life Kevin Jonas lives in New Jersey with his wife,Danielle Jonas, and their two daughters. Danielle is a former hairdresser with Ryan Rodgers Redken Ambassador, and the pair married atOheka Castleon December 19, 2009, with his brothers Joe and Nick as his best men. The couple met while vacationing with their families inthe Bahamasin May 2007.Their first daughter was born on February 2, 2014,and their second daughter was born on October 27, 2016. In April 2021, Jonas showed support for the NGOGiveIndiaduring the worsening situation of theCOVID-19 pandemic in Indiaand urged fans to help donate to the organization to help. In September 2021, Jonas and his wife Danielle announced the release of a book for children titledThere's a Rock Concert in My Bedroom, which chronicles the story of Emma, a girl who is excited about participating in her school's talent show. The Jonases said the initiative was motivated by their",
"motivated by their daughters.It was released in April 2022. In June 2024, Jonas shared that he was diagnosed with skin cancer after discovering a malignant mole on his forehead. He got a basal cell carcinoma removed from his head. Filmography Film Television Internet Video games References External links",
"Disneynature Disneynatureis an independentfilm studiothat specializes in the production ofnature documentaryfilms forWalt Disney Studios, a division ofDisney Entertainment, which is owned byThe Walt Disney Company. The production company was founded on April 21, 2008, and is headquartered inParis,France. The company's nature films are consistently budgeted between $5 million to $10 million, with their distribution and marketing handled byWalt Disney Studios Motion Pictures.The label's event films are released onEarth Dayand have a conservation campaign based on the feature of the film with an appropriate conservation charity receiving donations based on tickets sold,at a pace of one per year.The eight Disneynature theatrical films have a gross of $151.6 million at the box office, at an average of $19 million, withEarththe top earner at $32 million. Background Disney had a background in making nature films prior to the creation of Disneynature;Bambi(1942) featured forest life and was a hit.From 1948 through",
"1948 through 1960, the company produced theTrue-Life Adventuresseries, which won severalAcademy Awards.Outside of film work, Disney parks were involved.Disneylandin 1955 opened theJungle Cruiseride.Walt Disney WorldincludesDisney's Animal Kingdom, which is a theme park crossed with a zoo.Animal Kingdom has contributed to conservation causes by nursingendangered sea turtlesback to health, returning white rhinos to Africa and conducting a census ofcotton-top tamarins, a monkey species native to Colombia. In addition, since its creation in 1995, the Disney Wildlife Conservation Fund has given over $11 million to 650 conservation projects in 110 countries. After a long absence from nature documentaries, Disney decided to get back into the market after the French release ofMarch of the Penguins. The film was given U.S. distribution throughWarner Independent Picturesin 2005. Made on an $8 million budget, it grossed almost 10 times its budget at the U.S. box office and won theAcademy Award for Best Documentary",
"Best Documentary Featurein 2006.Jean-Francois Camilleri, head ofBuena Vista International Franceat the time, had the company acquire the film for the French market. Buena Vista International France also managed to obtain a 20% ownership stake in the French version of the film, butBuena Vista Pictures Distribution's bid to distribute the film in the U.S. ultimately failed.Disney CEOBob Iger, in consideration of Disney's past efforts, felt thatPenguins\"should have been a Disney film worldwide\". This was the impetus behind the creation of Disneynature. The film's 2007 follow-up wasArctic Tale, which only took in $1.8 million worldwide.Paul Baribault, Vice President of Disney Studios Marketing, led the US efforts for Disneynature from 2008 forward, overseeing all marketing, production, brand development, and conservation programmatic efforts for the label. He was eventually named general manager of Disneynature. History Disneynature was announced on April 21, 2008, a day beforeEarth Day, with a starting slate of",
"a starting slate of seven films. Camilleri was set to head the new division. A multi-film production agreement was made withAlastair Fothergill,BBC'sPlanet Earthseries producer, for three scheduled films:Earth(2009),African Cats(2011) andChimpanzee(2012).The other announced slate films and their release years were:The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos(2008),Oceans(2010),Orangutans: One Minute to Midnight(2010) andWings of Life(2011).Original announced plans had the division releasing two films per year,which was curtailed by April 2009 due to a nature film's long period needed to film wildlife.No decision was made at that time as to whether or not the studio would donate the films' proceeds to conservation causes. The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingoswas the first film produced for Disneynature.The first film released domestically under the new label wasEarth, opening on April 22, 2009, in the US.In 2012, a Disneynature TV cable channel was launched in France. It is currently carried byFrance",
"carried byFrance Telecom. Animal Planetpick up for a two-year period three Disneynature films,Oceans,African Cats, andThe Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos, in April 2012 fromDisney-ABC Domestic Television.In April 2014,Jane Goodallwas named Disneynature ambassador. Disneynature has recently expanded to China with the production ofBorn in China. The production was made possible due to an expansion of Disney's relationship withShanghai Media Groupstarting in 2014.FollowingBorn in China,Ghost of the MountainsandExpedition Chinawere released toNetflixto reflect the incredible journeys involved in creating these films. In 2016, the company released its first compilation film,Growing Up Wild,direct-to-video(Blu-rayandDVD) and video on demand. Paul Baribault, vice president of studio marketing and Disneynature, was appointed general manager of Disneynature officially in 2018, after having been operating in the capacity for several years. Camilleri resigned his posts with Disney in March 2019. Helene Etzi was",
"Helene Etzi was appointed to take over his responsibility as head of Disney's French operations. The unit's first streaming films forDisney+wereDolphin ReefandElephant. Filmography Notes References External links",
"Priyanka Chopra Priyanka Chopra Jonas(pronounced;néeChopra; born 18 July 1982)is an Indian actress and producer. The winner of theMiss World 2000pageant, Chopra is one of India's highest-paid actresses and has receivednumerous accolades, including twoNational Film Awardsand fiveFilmfare Awards. In 2016, theGovernment of Indiahonoured her with thePadma Shri, andTimenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the world. In the next two years,Forbeslisted her among theWorld's 100 Most Powerful Women, and in 2022, she was named in theBBC 100 Womenlist. Chopra accepted offers to join the Indian film industry following her pageant wins. Her acting debut came in theTamilfilmThamizhan(2002), followed by her firstBollywoodfeature inThe Hero: Love Story of a Spy(2003). She played the leading lady in the box-office hitsAndaaz(2003) andMujhse Shaadi Karogi(2004) and had herbreakout rolein the 2004 romantic thrillerAitraaz. Chopra established herself with starring roles in the top-grossing",
"in the top-grossing productionsKrrishandDon(both 2006), and later reprised her role in their sequels. For playing a troubled model in the dramaFashion(2008), Chopra won aNational Film Awardand aFilmfare Award for Best Actress. Chopra gained further praise for portraying a range of characters in the filmsKaminey(2009),7 Khoon Maaf(2011),Barfi!(2012),Mary Kom(2014),Dil Dhadakne Do(2015) andBajirao Mastani(2015). From 2015 to 2018, Chopra starred asAlex Parrishin theABCthriller seriesQuantico, becoming the first South Asian to headline an American network drama series. Founding the production companyPurple Pebble Picturesin 2015, she produced several films under it, including theMarathifilmsVentilator(2016) andPaani(2019), and the self-starring Hindi biopicThe Sky Is Pink(2019). Chopra has also appeared in Hollywood films, such asBaywatch(2017),Isn't It Romantic(2019),The White Tiger(2021), andThe Matrix Resurrections(2021), and starred in the action thriller seriesCitadel(2023–present). Chopra ventured into",
"ventured into music by releasing three singles and into writing with her memoirUnfinished(2021), which reachedThe New York TimesBest Seller list. Her other ventures include tech investments, a haircare brand, a restaurant, and a homeware line. She promotes social causes such as environment and women's rights and is vocal about gender equality, the gender pay gap, and feminism. She has worked withUNICEFsince 2006 and was appointed as the national and globalUNICEF Goodwill Ambassadorfor child rights in 2010 and 2016, respectively. Her namesake foundation for health and education works towards providing support to underprivileged Indian children. Despite maintaining privacy, Chopra's off-screen life, including her marriage to American singer and actorNick Jonas, is the subject of substantial media coverage. The couple has one daughter. Early life Chopra was born on 18 July 1982 inJamshedpur,Bihar(present-dayJharkhand), to Ashok and Madhu Chopra, both physicians in theIndian Army.Her father was aPunjabi",
"father was aPunjabi HindufromAmbala.Her mother is aBihari-Magahi Hindufrom Jharkhand and is the eldest daughter of Dr. Manohar Kishan Akhouri, a formerCongressveteran,and Madhu Jyotsna Akhouri, a former member ofBihar Legislative Assembly. Chopra's maternal grandmother, Mrs. Akhouri, was aMalayaleeJacobite Syrian Christianoriginally named Mary John,who belonged to theKavalappara Nairfamily inKumarakom,Kerala.Chopra has a brother, Siddharth, who is seven years her junior.BollywoodactressesParineeti Chopra,Meera Chopra, andMannara Chopraare her cousins. Owing to Chopra's parents' professions as military physicians, the family was posted in a number of places in India, includingDelhi,Chandigarh,Ambala,Ladakh,Lucknow,Bareilly, andPune.Among the schools she attended wereLa Martiniere Girls' Schoolin Lucknow and St. Maria Goretti College in Bareilly.In an interview published inDaily News and Analysis, Chopra said that she did not mind travelling regularly and changing schools; she welcomed it as a new experience",
"as a new experience and a way to discover India's multicultural society.Among the many places that she lived, Chopra has fond memories as a child of playing in the valleys ofLeh, in the cold northwestern Indian desert region ofLadakh. She had said, \"I think I was in Class 4 when I was in Leh. My brother was just born. My dad was in the army and was posted there. I stayed in Leh for a year, and my memories of that place are tremendous. We were all army kids there. We weren't living in houses, we were in bunkers in the valley and there was astuparight on top of a hill which used to overlook our valley. We used to race up to the top of the stupa\".She now considersBareillyher home town, and maintains strong connections there. At 13, Chopra moved to theUnited Statesto study, living with her aunt, and attending schools inNewton, Massachusetts, andCedar Rapids, Iowa, after a stop inQueens, New York, as her aunt's family also moved frequently.While in Massachusetts, she participated in several theatre productions,",
"productions, and studied Western classical music, and choral singing.During her teenage years in the United States, Chopra sometimes faced racial issues and was bullied for being Indian by anAfrican-Americanclassmate.She has said, \"I was a gawky kid, had low self-esteem, came from a modest middle-class background, had white marks on my legs. But I was damn hard working. Today, my legs sell 12 brands.\"After three years, Chopra returned to India, finishing the senior year of her high-school education at theArmy Public Schoolin Bareilly. During this period, Chopra won the local May Queen beauty pageant,after which she was pursued by admirers; her family equipped their home with bars for her protection.Her mother entered her in theFemina Miss Indiacontest of 2000;she finished second,winning the FeminaMiss India Worldtitle.Chopra next won theMiss Worldpageant, where she was crownedMiss World 2000andMiss World Continental Queen of Beauty—Asia & Oceaniaat theMillennium Domein London on 30 November 2000.Chopra was",
"2000.Chopra was the fifth Indian contestant to win Miss World, and the fourth to do so within seven years.She had enrolled in college, but left after winning the Miss World pageant.Chopra said that the Miss India and Miss World titles brought her recognition, and she began receiving offers for film roles.In 2001, the bridge of Chopra's nose collapsed duringnasal surgeryto remove apolyp. She fell into depression over her \"completely different\" appearance, but was satisfied with the results of corrective surgeries. Acting career Career beginnings and breakthrough (2002–2004) After winning Miss India World, Chopra was cast as the female lead inAbbas–Mustan's romantic thrillerHumraaz(2002), in which she was to make her film debut.However, this fell through for various reasons: she stated the production conflicted with her schedule, while the producers said they recast because Chopra took on various other commitments.Her screen debut occurred in the 2002 Tamil filmThamizhanas the love interest of the protagonist,",
"of the protagonist, played byVijay. A review published inThe Hinduwas appreciative of the film for its wit and dialogue; however it felt that Chopra's role was limited from an acting viewpoint. In 2003, Chopra made herBollywoodfilm debut as the second female lead oppositeSunny DeolandPreity ZintainAnil Sharma'sThe Hero: Love Story of a Spy.Set against the backdrop of the Indian Army in Kashmir, the film tells the story of anRAWagent's fight against terrorism. She later recounted her experience, admitting she was very nervous and \"shaking\" when she first met Deol.Despite rumors that she was not a good actress and discussions about possibly removing her from the film, Deol recognized her potential and insisted on giving her a chance to prove herself.The Heroemerged as one of the highest-grossing Bollywood films that year, but received mixed reviews from critics.Derek ElleyfromVarietysaid that \"mega-looker Chopra makes a solid screen debut.\"Later that year she appeared inRaj Kanwar's box-office",
"Kanwar's box-office successAndaazwithAkshay Kumar, sharing the female lead with debutanteLara Dutta.Chopra played a vivacious young woman who falls in love with Kumar's character. TheHindustan Timesnoted the glamour that she brought to the role;Kunal Shah ofSifypraised her performance and stated she had \"all the qualities to be a star.\"Her performance earned her theFilmfare Award for Best Female Debut(along with Dutta) and aBest Supporting Actressnomination. Chopra's first three releases in 2004—Plan,Kismat, andAsambhav—performed poorly at the box office.Chopra was typically cast during this earlier period as a \"glamour quotient\", in roles that were considered forgettable by film critic Joginder Tuteja.Later that year she starred withSalman Khanand Akshay Kumar inDavid Dhawan's romantic comedyMujhse Shaadi Karogi, which opened to commercial success and emerged the third-highest-grossing film of the year in India. In late 2004, she starred opposite Kumar andKareena Kapoorin Abbas–Mustan's romantic",
"romantic thrillerAitraaz.Chopra considers her first role as an antagonist, portraying Soniya Roy, an ambitious woman who accuses her employee of sexual harassment, as the \"biggest learning experience of her career\".The film was a critical and commercial success, and Chopra's performance received critical acclaim.TheHindustan Timescited it as the film that changed her career significantly.A reviewer writing for theBBCsaid, \"Aitraazis Chopra's film. As the deliciously wicked, gold digging, scheming seductress, she chews up every scene she is in with her magnetic screen presence.\"She won aFilmfare Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role, becoming the second and final actress to win the award afterKajol(the category was discontinued in 2008).Chopra also received a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress, and theProducers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. Rise to prominence (2005–2006) In 2005, Chopra appeared in 6 films. Her first two releases, the action",
"the action thrillersBlackmailandKaram, were critically and commercially unsuccessful.Shilpa Bharatan-Iyer ofRediff.comconsideredBlackmailto be a very predictable film and believed that her role as a police commissioner's wife was very limited from an acting point of view.Her performance inKaramwas better received, Subhash K. Jha wrote that Chopra \"with her poised interpretation of high drama, flies high creating a character whose vulnerability and beauty are endorsed by both the inner and outer worlds created for her character.\"Later that year Chopra played the wife of Akshay Kumar inVipul Amrutlal Shah's family dramaWaqt: The Race Against Time, the story of a small businessman (played byAmitabh Bachchan) who, hiding his illness, wants to teach his irresponsible son some lessons before he dies. During production, Chopra revisited Leh, a favourite childhood haunt, for the shooting of the song \"Subah Hogi\".She suffered an accident during the filming for the song \"Do Me A Favour Let's Play Holi\" when she",
"Play Holi\" when she electrocuted herself, spending a day recovering in hospital.The film was well received by critics, and was a commercial success.She next starred oppositeArjun Rampalin the romantic mystery thrillerYakeen, portraying the role of a possessive lover. Critical reaction towards the film was mixed, but her performance received praise.Taran Adarshwrote that Chopra \"is bound to win laurels yet again the actor is emerging as one of the finest talents in these fast-changing times\".Her next release wasSuneel Darshan's romanceBarsaat, co-starringBobby DeolandBipasha Basu. The film was a critical and commercial failure in India, but fared better in the overseas market.Chopra's performance received mixed reviews, withBollywood Hungamadescribing it as \"mechanical\".However, Rediff.com considered Chopra to be an \"epitome of calm intelligence, who underplayed her role to perfection\".Later that year,Rohan Sippycast her alongsideAbhishek Bachchan,Ritesh DeshmukhandNana Patekarin the comedyBluffmaster!.",
"comedyBluffmaster!. Chopra played independent working woman Simran Saxena, Bachchan's love interest. The film proved to be a box-office success. After starting 2006 with special appearances in three films, Chopra starred inRakesh Roshan's superhero filmKrrish(a sequel to the 2003 science-fiction filmKoi... Mil Gaya). Co-starring withHrithik Roshan,RekhaandNaseeruddin Shah, Chopra played a young television journalist who schemes to take advantage of an innocent young man with remarkable physical abilities, but eventually falls in love with him. The film was the second-highest-grossing film of the year in India and grossed over₹1.17 billion(US$14 million) worldwide attaining ablockbusterstatus.Her next film wasDharmesh Darshan's romantic comedyAap Ki Khatir, co-starringAkshaye Khanna,Ameesha PatelandDino Morea. Neither the film nor Chopra's performance were well received.Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com stated that Chopra's portrayal of Anu was \"erratically sketched\" and that her character was never consistent:",
"never consistent: \"first flaky, then cool, and later, sensitive\". Chopra's final release of 2006 wasFarhan Akhtar's action-thrillerDon(a remake of the1978 film of the same name), withShah Rukh Khan. Chopra portrayedRoma(played byZeenat Amanin the original film), who joins the underworld to avenge Don for killing her brother. Chopra received martial-arts training for her role in the movie, and performed her own stunts.The film was declared a box-office success in India and overseas, with revenues of₹1.05 billion(US$13 million).Raja Sen of Rediff.com found Chopra to be film's \"big surprise\"; he believed that Chopra convincingly portrayed Roma, \"looking every bit the competent woman of action\" and wrote \"This is an actress willing to push herself, and has definite potential for screen magic. Not to mention a great smile.\" Setbacks and resurgence (2007–2008) In 2007, Chopra had two leading roles. Her first film wasNikhil Advani'sSalaam-e-Ishq: A Tribute to Love, a romantic comedy-drama in six chapters with",
"six chapters with anensemble cast. She was featured opposite Salman Khan in the first chapter as Kamini, anitem girland aspiring actress who tries to land the lead role in aKaran Joharfilm with a publicity gimmick.Film critic Sukanya Verma praised her flair for comedy, especially her impressions ofMeena Kumari,NargisandMadhubala.BothSalaam-e-Ishq: A Tribute to Loveand her next film,Big Brother, proved unsuccessful at the domestic box office. In 2008, Chopra starred oppositeHarman Bawejainhis father'sLove Story 2050. Chopra played a double role, so she colored her hair twice; once red to portray the girl from the future and then black for the girl of the past.Her performance was poorly received;Rajeev Masandwas unimpressed with Chopra's chemistry with her co-star, remarking that her character \"fails to inspire either affection or sympathy\".She next appeared in the comedyGod Tussi Great Ho, portraying a TV anchor opposite Salman Khan,Sohail Khanand Amitabh Bachchan.Chopra next starred as a kindergarten teacher",
"teacher inChamkuoppositeBobby DeolandIrrfan Khan, and played the role of Sonia inGoldie Behl's fantasy superhero filmDronaopposite Abhishek Bachchan andJaya Bachchan.Drona, widely criticized for its extensive use of special effects, marked Chopra's sixth film in succession which had failed at both the box-office and critically, although Sukanya Verma ofRediff.comstated that Chopra displayed convincing action heroine skills.Critics generally perceived at this time that her career was over. The string of poorly received films ended when Chopra starred inMadhur Bhandarkar'sFashion, a drama about the Indian fashion industry which followed the lives and careers of several fashion models. She portrayed the ambitious supermodel Meghna Mathur, a role which she initially thought was out of her depth, but after six months' consideration she accepted the role, inspired by Bhandarkar's confidence in her.For the role, Chopra had to gain 6 kilograms (13 lb) and steadily shed the weight during the production as the",
"production as the character progressed in the film. Both the film and her performance received critical acclaim, proving to be a major turning point in her career.Rajeev Masand felt that she \"turns in a respectable performance, one that will inevitably go down as her best.\"For her performance, she won several awards, including theNational Film Award for Best Actress, theFilmfare Award for Best Actress, theIIFA Award for Best Actress, theScreen Award for Best Actress, and theProducers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role.With a worldwide revenue of₹600 million(US$7 million),Fashionemerged as a commercial success, and was listed by Subhash K. Jha as one of the best films of the decade with women protagonists.It was noted for being commercially successful despite being awomen-centricfilm with no male lead.Chopra said in 2012: \"I think actuallyFashionkick started ... the process of female dominated films. Today you have so many other films which have done well with female leads.\" Chopra's final",
"Chopra's final film of the year wasTarun Mansukhani's romantic comedyDostana, with Abhishek Bachchan andJohn Abraham. Set in Miami, the film tells the story of a friendship between her character and two men who pretend to be gay to share an apartment with her. Chopra played a stylish young fashion-magazine editor Neha Melwani, who is trying to deal with professional pressures in her life. Produced byDharma Productions, the film was a financial success with worldwide revenues of over₹860 million(US$10 million).Chopra's performance and look in the film were praised.For her performances in bothFashionandDostana, she jointly won theStardust Award for Actor of the Year – Female. Experiment with unconventional roles (2009–2011) In 2009, Chopra played a feistyMarathiwoman named Sweety inVishal Bhardwaj'scaperthrillerKaminey(co-starringShahid Kapoor), about twin brothers and the journey in their life linked with the underworld. The film received critical acclaim and became successful at the box-office with the",
"box-office with the worldwide gross earnings of₹710 million(US$9 million).Nikhat KazmiofThe Times of Indiathought that Chopra's role completely reinvented her, and Rajeev Masand wrote: \"Springing a delightful surprise in a smaller part is , who sprinkles her lines with a smattering of fluent Marathi and emerges one of the film's most lovable characters.\"Raja Sen ofRediff.comnamed Chopra's performance as the best by an actress that year.Her role earned her several awards and nominations, including a second consecutive Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role afterFashionand Best Actress nominations at theFilmfare,ScreenandIIFAawards. Chopra subsequently appeared inAshutosh Gowariker's romantic comedyWhat's Your Raashee?, based on the novelKimball RavenswoodbyMadhu Rye. The film depicts the story of a US-based GujratiNRIin search of his soulmate among 12 girls (all played by Chopra) associated with the 12zodiacsigns. She received a nomination for theScreen Award for Best Actressfor her",
"Best Actressfor her performance in the film.She was considered for inclusion in theGuinness World Recordsbook for being the first film actress to portray 12 distinct characters in one film.Chopra's heavy workload—filming for several productions, travelling for endorsements and performing at live shows (including the Miss India pageant)—took its toll; she fainted during filming, and was admitted to hospital.In 2010, Chopra starred withUday ChoprainJugal Hansraj's romantic comedyPyaar Impossible!as Alisha, a popular college girl (and later a working mother) who falls in love with a socially inept man. Later that year, she starred withRanbir KapoorinSiddharth Anand's romantic comedy-dramaAnjaana Anjaani. Set in New York and Las Vegas, the film follows the story of two suicidal strangers who fall in love with each other. The film received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success at the box office. She starred as afemme fatalein her first film of 2011, Vishal Bhardwaj's black comedy7",
"black comedy7 Khoon Maaf. Based on the short storySusanna's Seven HusbandsbyRuskin Bond,7 Khoon Maafcenters on Chopra's Susanna Anna-Marie Johannes, anAnglo-Indianwoman who murders her husbands in an unending quest for love. The film and her performance received acclaim from critics. Nikhat Kazmi labelled the film \"a milestone in Chopra's career graph\", complimenting her \"exquisite command over a complex character that is definitely a first in Indian cinema\".Rachel Saltz ofNew York Timesfelt that Susanna was more conceit than a character and that Chopra \"though charming as always, can't make her cohere\".Chopra's performance earned her theFilmfare Award for Best Actress (Critics)and a nomination for the Filmfare Award, IIFA Award, Producers Guild Film Award, and Screen Award for Best Actress. Chopra's final release of the year saw her reprising her role as Roma in the second installment of theDonfranchise,Don 2. Although the film received mixed reviews,Chopra's performance earned positive feedback from",
"feedback from critics. According toThe Express Tribune, \"Chopra ... seems to be the perfect choice for an action heroine. As you watch her effortlessly beat up some thugs in the movie, you come to the realization that she may be the first proper female action hero in Bollywood.\"Don 2was a major success in India and overseas, earning over₹2.06 billion(US$25 million) worldwide. Further success (2012–2014) Chopra's first film of 2012 wasKaran Malhotra's action dramaAgneepath, in which she starred with Hrithik Roshan,Sanjay DuttandRishi Kapoor. Produced by Karan Johar, the film is a remake of his father's 1990 production of thesame name. In one of several accidents to happen during production, Chopra'slehenga(a traditional skirt) caught fire while filming a sequence for an elaborateGanpati festivalsong.She featured as Kaali Gawde, Roshan's loquacious love interest in the film.Mayank Shekharnoted how much Chopra stood out in the male-dominated film.Agneepathbroke Bollywood's highestopening-day earningsrecord, and",
"earningsrecord, and had a worldwide gross of₹1.93 billion(US$23 million).Chopra next co-starred with Shahid Kapoor inKunal Kohli's romance,Teri Meri Kahaani. The film relates the stories of three unconnected couples (each played by Kapoor and Chopra), born in different eras. Anurag Basu'sBarfi!, with Ranbir Kapoor andIleana D'Cruz, was her final appearance of 2012. Set in the 1970s, the film tells the story of three people, two of whom are physically disabled. Chopra played Jhilmil Chatterjee, an autistic woman who falls in love with a deaf, mute man (Kapoor). DirectorRituparno Ghoshconsidered it a \"very, very brave\" role to accept given how demanding it is for an actor to convincingly portray a woman with autism.To prepare for the role, Chopra visited several mental institutions and spent time with autistic people.The film received critical acclaimand was a major commercial success, earning₹1.75 billion(US$21 million) worldwide.Rachit Gupta ofFilmfarefound Chopra to be the film's \"surprise package\" and",
"package\" and found her performance to be \"the best representation of on Indian celluloid\".Pratim D. GuptaofThe Telegraphhighly praised Kapoor and Chopra, although he found her to be a \"tad showy\" in her part.Chopra received Best Actress nominations at the Filmfare, Screen, IIFA and Producers Guild Film Awards.The film was chosen asIndia's entryfor the85th Academy Awards.AgneepathandBarfi!ranked amongthe highest grossing Bollywood filmsto that point. In 2013, she lent her voice to the character of Ishaani, the reigning Pan-Asian champion from India and the love interest of the main protagonist in theDisneytoon StudiosfilmPlanes, a spinoff ofPixar'sCarsfranchise. Chopra, a fan ofDisney films, had fun voicing the character saying \"The closest I could come to being aDisney princess, I think, was Ishaani\".The film was a commercial success, grossing approximately US$240 million worldwide.She played an NRI girl in theApoorva Lakhia's bilingual action dramaZanjeer(Thoofanin Telugu), a remake of the 1973 Hindifilm",
"the 1973 Hindifilm of the same name, which met with poor reactions from critics and was unsuccessful at the box office.Chopra next reprised her role of Priya in Rakesh Roshan'sKrrish 3—a sequel to the 2006 superhero filmKrrish—with Hrithik Roshan,Vivek OberoiandKangana Ranaut. Critics felt that Chopra had very little to do in the film.Saibal Chatterjee ofNDTVwriting that she \"is saddled with a sketchily written role and is reduced to the status of a hanger-on waiting for things to unfold\".The feature became a box-office success, earning over₹3 billion(US$36 million) worldwide, to become Chopra's biggest commercial success to that point and her fourth major hit in two years.She danced a contemporarymujrain the song \"Ram Chahe Leela\" forSanjay Leela Bhansali'sGoliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela. In 2014, Chopra played the lead female role inYash Raj Films's romantic action dramaGundaydirected byAli Abbas Zafar, alongsideRanveer Singh,Arjun KapoorandIrrfan Khan. She portrayed Nandita, acabaretdancer in Calcutta. Set",
"in Calcutta. Set in the 1970s, the film tells the story of two best friends who fall in love with Nandita.Gundayproved to be a box-office success, grossing over₹1 billion(US$12 million) worldwide.Chopra next starred as the title character inMary Kom, a biographical film of the five timeworld boxing championand Olympic bronze medalistMary Kom.To prepare for the role, she spent time with Kom and received four months of boxing training.The film premiered at the2014 Toronto International Film Festival, received positive reviews from critics, and her performance received critical acclaim.Sudhish KamathfromThe Hinducriticized the film's screenplay but praised Chopra's \"knockout\" performance, writing \"The spirited actress rises above the material and makes us invest in her and does full justice to the spirit\" of the boxer.TheIndo-Asian News Servicereview noted the actress for expressing every shade of the character with \"a pitch-perfect bravado\".Mary Komemerged as a commercial success, with revenues of₹1.04",
"revenues of₹1.04 billion(US$12 million) at the box office.She won theScreen Award for Best Actress, the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, and received another nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress. Expansion into American film and television (2015–2019) In 2015, Chopra starred inZoya Akhtar'sDil Dhadakne Do, an ensemble comedy-drama, featuringAnil Kapoor,Shefali Shah, Ranveer Singh andAnushka Sharma. The film tells the story of a dysfunctional Punjabi family (the Mehras), who invite their family and friends on a cruise trip to celebrate the parents' 30th wedding anniversary. She portrayed the role of Ayesha Mehra, a successful entrepreneur and the eldest child. Pratim D. Gupta fromThe Telegraphwrote of Chopra, \"From the propah body language to the measured speech shows the kind of depth she is able to bring to her lines and characters these days.Conversely, Shubhra Gupta ofThe Indian Expresscommented that it was time for her \"to being a little messy: all these",
"messy: all these not-a-hair-out-place roles are making her constrained.\"The cast ofDil Dhadakne Dowon theScreen Award for Best Ensemble Cast, and Chopra was nominated for a Screen Award, IIFA Award, andProducers Guild Film Awardfor Best Actress.In 2016, she dubbed for Kaa, a female python, in the Hindi version of the filmThe Jungle Book. Chopra signed a talent holding deal withABC Studiosand was later cast in the American thriller seriesQuanticoas the characterAlex Parrish.The series premiered in 2015 onABC, making Chopra the first South Asian to headline an American network drama series.The series received positive reviews from television critics and Chopra was praised for her performance.Rob Lowman of theLos Angeles Daily Newsapplauded her \"dynamic screen presence\" andJames PoniewozikofThe New York Timesnamed Chopra as the \"strongest human asset\" of the show, and added that \"she is immediately charismatic and commanding.\"She received thePeople's Choice Awardfor Favourite Actress In A New TV Series for her",
"TV Series for her role inQuantico, becoming the first South Asian actress to win a People's Choice Award.The following year, Chopra won a second People's Choice Award for Favorite Dramatic TV Actress.Quanticowas cancelled after three seasons in 2018.Chopra later said that her move to America was prompted by disagreements with people in Bollywood: \"I had people not casting me, I had beef with people, I am not good at playing that game so I kind of was tired of the politics and I said I needed a break.” Chopra next portrayedKashibai, the first wife of theMarathageneralPeshwaBajirao I, in Sanjay Leela Bhansali's epic historical romantic dramaBajirao Mastani, alongside Ranveer Singh andDeepika Padukone. The feature opened to highly positive reviews, and Chopra received widespread praise for her portrayal which several reviewers regarded as her best performance to date.Rajeev Masand wrote \"the film benefits from a nice touch of playfulness and humor in Priyanka Chopra's Kashibai. Chopra brings grace to the",
"brings grace to the character, and practically steals the film.\"Film critic Raja Sen thought that Chopra, despite not being in the title role, owned the film, and wrote \"Chopra's terrific in the part, her intelligently expressive eyes speaking volumes and her no-nonsense Marathi rhythm bang-on.\"A major commercial success,Bajirao Mastanigrossed₹3.5 billion(US$42 million) at the box office, becoming one of the highest-grossing Indian films of all time.For her performance, she won theFilmfare Award,IIFA Award, andScreen Awardfor Best Supporting Actress, and received a nomination for the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role. In 2016, Chopra starred as a police officer inPrakash Jha's social dramaJai Gangaajal. Writing forThe Hindu, Namrata Joshi thought that she \"looks off-colour, disinterested and uninvolved with the goings on through most of the film\".It did not perform well commercially.The following year, Chopra made her Hollywood live-action film debut by playing the antagonist",
"the antagonist Victoria Leeds inSeth Gordon's action comedyBaywatchoppositeDwayne JohnsonandZac Efron. The feature received unfavorable reviews.IGNdeclared Chopra as the highlight of the film, noting she \"outshines pretty much anyone she's in a scene with\" and wrote \"Chopra's engaging and interesting and is the only character that speaks with any kind of distinctive cadence.\"Scott Mendelson ofForbeswrote \"Chopra has fun as the baddie, but she stays in the background until the end of the movie and really only gets one big scene at the end of the picture.\"Baywatchwas not a commercial success in North America but the film performed well in the overseas markets, grossing approximately $178 million at the worldwide box office.The 2018Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of Chopra's next American film,A Kid Like Jake, a drama aboutgender variance, starringJim ParsonsandClaire Danes. Amy Nicholson ofVarietycommended her \"charming presence\" but thought that her role added little value to the film.In early 2019,",
"film.In early 2019, she had signed on to play the leading lady opposite Salman Khan inBharat, but opted out days before filming her scenes. Nikhil Namit, a producer of the film, said that she quit due to her engagement toNick Jonasand accused her of being \"a little unprofessional\". In 2019, Chopra had another supporting part, as a yoga ambassador, inTodd Strauss-Schulson's comedyIsn't It Romantic, which starredRebel Wilson. The film was well received by critics and grossed approximately $49 million at the North American box office.Dana SchwartzofEntertainment Weeklyconsidered her to be \"perfectly cast\" but Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianthought that she was \"not quite interesting enough\".She returned to Hindi cinema (as Priyanka Chopra Jonas) later in 2019 withShonali Bose's biographical dramaThe Sky Is Pink, in which she played mother toAisha Chaudhary, a teenager suffering from a terminal illness. She also produced the project, and connected with the story for its blend of humour and tragedy.Kate Erbland",
"Erbland ofIndieWirefound her to be \"extraordinary\" as \"the film's driving force, a tough-talking mama bear\", andAnna M. M. Vetticadtook note of the \"simmering restraint\" in her performance.The film did not do well at the box office.She received another nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress. Streaming projects (2020–present) In 2020, Chopra Jonas signed a multimillion-dollar first-look TV deal with Amazon Prime Video to back content by first timeBIPOCand female filmmakers.Her only release that year was theNetflixchildren's superhero filmWe Can Be Heroesdirected byRobert Rodriguez. She starred as Ms. Granada, the director of a superhero organisation called Heroics. The feature received generally positive reviews;Richard Roeperfrom theChicago Sun-Timespraised the actress for \"livening up the proceedings\" as the strait-laced Ms. Granada, andIan Freerof theEmpiremagazine felt that she did the \"kids' film acting to the hilt\".Her first film of 2021 wasRamin Bahrani'sThe White Tiger, an adaptation",
"an adaptation ofAravind Adiga's satiricalnovel of the same name. She starred alongsideAdarsh GouravandRajkummar Rao, and also executive produced this Netflix production. Critical reviews towards the film and her performance were positive.Writing forThe Times, film criticKevin Maherdeemed Chopra Jonas' performance \"impressive\" andThe Hollywood Reporter's David Rooney commended her for bringing \"emotional depth\" to her role.The film received aBest Adapted Screenplaynomination at the93rd Academy Awards.Later that year, Chopra Jonas had a supporting role in the science fiction filmThe Matrix Resurrections. Chopra Jonas next starred alongsideRichard MaddeninAmazon Prime Video's action thriller seriesCitadel(2023).With a production budget of US$300 million, the six-episode first season ranks as one of the most-expensive television shows.It marked the first time in her career when she received equal pay with her male co-star.She performed many of her own stunts, and suffered a permanent scar from an injury on her",
"an injury on her eyebrow.Critics had mixed opinions on the series,but Jasper Rees ofThe Daily Telegraphwas particularly impressed by Chopra Jonas' potential as a femaleJames Bond, finding her \"flirty and funny and hard as a bag of nine-inch nails\".She then led the romantic comedyLove Again, oppositeSam HeughanandCeline Dion, which was panned by critics. Chopra Jonas will next star alongsideJohn CenaandIdris Elbain the action filmHeads of Stateand alongsideKarl Urbanin the action filmThe Bluff. Music career Chopra's main vocal influence was her father, who helped develop her interest in singing.She used her vocal talent early in her pageantry career.Her first recording, the song \"Ullathai Killathe\" in the Tamil filmThamizhan(2002), was made at the urging of her director and co-star, Vijay (who had noticed her singing on the set).She declined to singplaybackfor \"Tinka Tinka\" in her filmKaram(2005), preferring to concentrate on her acting career, but later sang the song live on the television programmeSa Re Ga",
"programmeSa Re Ga Ma Pa.Chopra recorded an unreleased song forBluffmaster!(2005).In August 2011,Universal Music Groupsigned Chopra to a worldwide recording agreement withDesiHits. The deal indicated that her first studio album would be released byInterscope Recordsin North America and byIsland Recordselsewhere. In July 2012, Chopra became the first Bollywood star signed byCreative Artists Agency, an entertainment and sports agency based in Los Angeles.The album was produced byRedOne.Her first single, \"In My City\", debuted in the US on 13 September 2012 in a TV spot for theNFL Network'sThursday Night Football;a shortened version of the song was used to open each show of the season. \"In My City\" features rapperwill.i.am; according to Chopra, a co-writer,the song was inspired by her unsettled childhood and her journey from a small-town girl to a celebrity.The song received mixed reviews from critics, and was a commercial success in India; it sold more than 130,000 copies in its first week, topped the Hindi pop",
"the Hindi pop chart and was certifiedtriple platinum.In the United States the single was unsuccessful, with 5,000 digital downloads in its first week according toNielsen SoundScan, and did not receive radio play.In October 2012, the single won her the Best International Debut award at thePeople's Choice Awards India.In December 2012, she received three nominations: Best Female Artist, Best Song and Best Video (for \"In My City\") at theWorld Music Awards.Chopra was also featured on \"Erase\", anEDMsong produced by the American DJ and producer duoThe Chainsmokers. In July 2013, Chopra released her second single \"Exotic\" featuring American rapperPitbull, along with its music video.\"Exotic\" debuted at number 16 on theBillboardDance/Electronic Songsand number 11 on theDance/Electronic Digital Songschart on 27 July 2013 issue.The single also entered at number 74 on theCanadian Hot 100chart. \"Exotic\" debuted at number 44 on theBillboardHot Dance Club Songschart and peaked at number 12.Her third single, a cover",
"single, a cover ofBonnie Raitt's \"I Can't Make You Love Me\" was released in April 2014.The song peaked at number 28 on theBillboardHot Dance/Electronic Songs chart. Chopra's first song as a playback singer in Bollywood was \"Chaoro\", alullabyfromMary Kom(2014).In 2015, she sang the title song, a duet with Farhan Akhtar, forDil Dhadakne Do.She recorded a promotional song forVentilator(2016), making herMarathi languageplayback singing debut with \"Baba\".In 2017, Chopra collaborated with the Australian DJWill Sparksfor \"Young and Free\", an EDM song which she also wrote.Chopra later said that her music career \"was not living up to my standards\" and that it would have been \"futile\" to have kept pursuing it. Philanthropy Chopra supports various causes through her foundation \"The Priyanka Chopra Foundation for Health and Education\", which works towards providing support to unprivileged children across the country in the areas of Education and Health.She donates ten percent of her earnings to fund the foundation's",
"the foundation's operations, and pays for educational and medical expenses for seventy children in India, fifty among whom are girls.She often speaks out on women's issues: against femaleinfanticideandfoeticide, and in support ofeducation for girls.A believer infeminism, Chopra has always been vocal aboutwomen's rights,gender equality, andgender pay gap.In 2006, a \"day with Chopra\" was auctioned on eBay; the proceeds were donated to an NGO, Nanhi Kali, which helps educate girls in India.She has made appearances in support of other charities, such as the 2005 HELP! Telethon Concert to raise funds for the victims of the2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. She has worked withUNICEFsince 2006, recording public-service announcements and participating in media panel discussions promoting children's rights and the education of girls, and also participated in celebrating the 20th anniversary of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.She was appointed as the nationalUNICEF Goodwill Ambassadorfor Child Rights on 10 August",
"Rights on 10 August 2010.UNICEF Representative Karin Hulshof said of the appointment: \"She is equally passionate about her work on behalf of children and adolescents. We are proud of the work she has done with us so far on child rights, and, we are thrilled about all what we will be doing together so that no child gets left behind.\"In 2009, she shot a documentary for the organisation Alert India to increase understanding ofleprosy.She modelled for designerManish MalhotraandShaina NC's charity fashion show to raise funds for the Cancer Patients Aid Association NGO.In 2010 Chopra was one of several celebrities who created promotional messages for Pearls Wave Trust, which campaigns against violence and abuse of women and girls.Chopra also launched the \"Save the Girl Child\" campaign, which aims to change the attitudes of Indians towards girls.In 2012 Chopra spoke at the launch of Awakening Youth, an anti-addiction programme. At a public event in 2019, an activist criticised Chopra for a tweet in which she hailed",
"in which she hailed India's military forces while tensions amid Pakistan and India were escalating. The main line of argument was that she was warmongering and that was incompatible with her job as UN Peace Ambassador. Chopra's response at the event was that she is patriotic; she was also fast to silence the activist criticising her.Pakistan asked for Chopra being sacked from her UN job but UN supported Chopra's right to talk for herself. Chopra is a supporter of environmental charities and is brand ambassador forNDTVGreenathon, an initiative to support eco-friendliness and providesolar powerto rural villages without electricity supplies.She appeared with children in an animated video to support the cause,and removed rubbish from the banks of theYamuna riverinAgrato increase awareness of environmental issues.During the third and fourth editions of Greenathon, She adopted up to seven villages to provide with a regular supply of electricity.She adopted a tigress in 2011 and a lioness in 2012 at theBirsa",
"in 2012 at theBirsa biological park, paying for both animals upkeep for a year.To promote organ donation, Chopra pledged to donate her own organs after death and was co-keynote speaker at theUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center's Bollywood-themed 20th-anniversary celebration of its liver-transplant programme in 2012. She donated₹5 million(US$60,000) toNanavati hospitalto build a cancer ward. The ward, which is named after her late father, was inaugurated by her in 2013.The same year, she provided voice-over in English and Hindi for the documentary filmGirl Risingfor theorganisation of the same name.She was invited as one of the speakers alongsideGordon Brown,Steve Wozniak,Bill Clinton, andCharlie Bakerfor the 50th anniversary of the World Leaders Conference at theHynes Convention Center, Boston. She spoke aboutwomen empowermentthrough education, discussing inequality and the challenges of education for women, and received a standing ovation for her speech.Chopra also lent her voice to a music video ofJohn",
"music video ofJohn Lennon's \"Imagine\". The video featuring her along with other singers, includingKaty Perry, andThe Black Eyed Peaswas created as part of a global campaign byUNICEFto celebrate the 25th anniversary of theConvention on the Rights of the Child. Indian prime ministerNarendra Modiselected Chopra as one of his nine nominees called \"Navratna\" in 2014 for theSwachh Bharat Abhiyan, a national cleanliness campaign by theGovernment of India.She lent her support to the campaign by working as asanitation workerfor a day, cleaning and rehabilitating agarbage-laden neighbourhood in Mumbai, and urged people to maintain the cleanliness. In 2015, she voicedPeople for the Ethical Treatment of Animals(PETA's) life-size robotic elephant named \"Ellie\", who visited schools across the United States and Europe to educate kids about elephants and captivity, and to urge people to boycott circuses.Chopra was appointed as the global UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in December 2016.In 2017,Varietyhonoured her with the Power",
"her with the Power of Women award for her philanthropic work with UNICEF and she received theMother Teresa Memorial Award for Social Justicefor her contribution towards social causes.Two years later, Chopra was awarded theDanny Kaye Humanitarian Awardby UNICEF for her \"philanthropic work and dedication towards the welfare of the society\" at the UNICEF Snowflake Ball 2019. In December 2019, Chopra teamed-up with theUnited Nations Children's Fundand theCrocs Companyto donate 50,000 pairs of shoes to deserving school children in the Central American country,Belize. In late April 2021, due to theCOVID-19 pandemic in India, Chopra along with husbandNickopened a fundraiser along with NGO GiveIndia to get donations for oxygen supply, COVID-19 care centers, testing, and vaccination efforts. The fundraiser had achievedUSD400,000 in the first few days.Chopra's brother-in-lawKevin Jonasalso urged his followers to help donate to the fundraiser.By 13 May 2021, the fundraiser had achieved the $1 million landmark and put",
"landmark and put its newer target at $3 million for COVID-19 relief. Other works Film production and entrepreneurship Chopra set up her production companyPurple Pebble Pictureswith an aim to produce small budget films and introduce and promote new talent in theIndian film industry, particularlyregional Indian films.Her firstMarathi film, the 2016 comedy-dramaVentilator, was a box office success and went on to win three awards at the64th National Film Awards.She went on to produce several Indian regional language films, includingPahuna: The Little Visitors(2018) andPaani(2019), which won theNational Film Award for Best Film on Environment Conservation/Preservationat the66th National Film Awards. Chopra started investing in tech companies in 2018 by investing in a coding education startup called Holberton School and the dating and social media appBumble.The Bumble app was launched in India with the help of Chopra in October 2018.In 2021, it was reported that she had invested in the US-based rental",
"the US-based rental marketplaceApartment List.At theStartup IndiaPrarambh event 2021, Chopra said that \"ideas are the currency of the present\" and that she was looking forward to further invest in a mix of beauty and tech startups.The same month, she launched a haircare line called \"Anamoly Haircare\" which became available exclusively inTargetstores in the United States on 1 February 2021 and was planned to be available internationally later that year. In March 2021, Chopra opened her new restaurantSonainManhattan, featuring haute-coutureIndian cuisine. Television presenting and stage performances In 2007, Chopra was on the judges' panel of the Miss India pageant. She stated, \"Miss India will always remain special. That's where it all started for me. And maybe that's where it would've ended if I hadn't won the crown.\"She also served as a judge atMiss World 2009.She visitedJawantroops inTenga, in eastern India, for a special episode of the NDTV showJai Jawancelebrating the 60th anniversary of India's",
"of India's independence. In 2010, she hosted the third season of the reality showFear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladion theColorschannel, taking over from previous host Akshay Kumar.According to contestants, in hosting the series, Chopra had \"transformed into quite a whip-wielding dictator\", relentlessly pushing the contestants to work.She performed most of her own stunts, adamant to prove that she could rival Akshay Kumar, who had hosted the previous two seasons.The opening ratings of the show topped those of the two previous seasons.The show was praised by critics, and earned her theIndian Telly Awardfor Most Impactful Debut on Television.In February 2016, Chopra presented the award forBest Film Editingat the88th Academy Awards. Chopra has participated in a number of world tours and concerts. She took part in a world concert tour, \"Temptations 2004\", and performed with other Bollywood actors (including Shah Rukh Khan,Saif Ali Khan,Rani Mukerji, Preity Zinta andArjun Rampal) in 19 stage shows.In 2011, she",
"shows.In 2011, she participated (with Shahid Kapoor and Shah Rukh Khan) in a concert inDurban, South Africa celebrating 150 years of India–South Africa friendship.In 2012, she performed atM. A. Chidambaram Stadium,Chennaiin theopening ceremonyof thefifth seasonof cricket'sIndian Premier Leaguewith Amitabh Bachchan, Salman Khan, Kareena Kapoor and Katy Perry.The same year, she performed atDubai Festival City's Ahlan Bollywood Concert with other Bollywood stars such as Salman Khan andSophie Choudry. In 2021, Chopra along with her husbandNick Jonas, announced the nominees for the93rd Academy Awards. Writing Chopra began writing an opinion column for theHindustan Timesin 2009. She wrote a total of 50 columns for the newspaper. She said after her first year of writing: \"I'm a private person and never thought that I could express my feelings. But strangely enough, whenever I sat down to write this column, my inner most thoughts came to the fore.\"In March 2009, she met several readers who had submitted feedback on",
"feedback on her weekly column.She continued to write sporadically for newspapers. In August 2012 she wrote a column published inThe Times of Indiatitled \"No woman in Mumbai feels safe any longer\", discussing the murder of 25-year-old Pallavi Purkayastha,whom she met while working onDon.In the article, Chopra expressed her views about the safety of women in cities.In a July 2014 article published inThe Guardian, Chopra criticisedfemale genital mutilationandchild marriage. Later that year, Chopra wrote an op-ed forThe New York Timestitled \"WhatJane AustenKnew\" about the importance of education for girls. She praised and quotedNobel Peace PrizewinnersMalala YousafzaiandKailash Satyarthi, and described how her desire to help others was triggered when, at 9, she joined her parents while they volunteered their spare time to offer modern health care to the rural poor.In late 2014, Chopra began writing a monthly column, \"Pret-a-Priyanka\", forElle. In an article published in January 2015, she expressed her views on",
"her views on diversity and being a global citizen.Released byPenguin Random House, Chopra published her firstmemoirtitledUnfinishedon 9 February 2021.In a rave review,Associated Press's Molly Sprayregen termed the book \"deeply open and honest account\" and wrote \"Chopra Jonas' writing is open, engaging, and full of energy. She writes, it seems, to connect. The experience feels intimate, like Chopra Jonas is exchanging stories with a friend over coffee. Her stories are exceedingly personal, and despite being an international movie star, many of them even feel relatable.\"UnfinishedreachedThe New York TimesBest Seller listin the United States. Personal life Chopra has maintained a strong relationship with her family, including her younger brother, Siddharth, and lives in an apartment on the same floor as her family.She was especially close to her father, who died in June 2013;in 2012, she got a tattoo reading \"Daddy's lil girl\" in his handwriting.Having not come from a film background, she describes herself as",
"herself as aself-made woman.Her mother, a well-establishedgynaecologistinBareilly, gave up her practice to support Chopra as she embarked upon a film career. A practisingHindu, Chopra performs apujaevery morning at a small shrine consisting of variousmurtisof Hindu deities in her home, which she even travels with.Although she is known for her media-friendly attitude, Chopra is publicly reticent about her personal life.Chopra started dating American singer and actor,Nick Jonasin May 2018. Jonas proposed to her on 19 July 2018, a day after her birthday inCrete, Greece.Chopra and Jonas became engaged in August 2018 in aPunjabi Roka ceremonyinMumbai.In December 2018, the couple married atUmaid Bhawan Palace, Jodhpur in traditional Hindu and Christian ceremonies.Following the marriage, Chopra legally changed her full name to \"Priyanka Chopra Jonas\".In January 2022, the couple had their first child, a girl, viasurrogacy. Public image Chopra is known in the Indian media and film industry for her professionalism and",
"professionalism and is popularly referred to by the media and the film industry as \"PeeCee\", \"PC\" and \"Piggy Chops\".She has had aTwitteraccount since January 2009, and is the tenth most followed Indian on the platform.In 2012, she was declared the most influential Indian on social-media in a survey conducted byPinstormand in 2015, Chopra appeared inHuffPost's \"100 Most Influential Women on Twitter\" list, in which she was ranked first among Indians.As of August 2024, she is one of themost-followed people on Instagram. Remarking upon her role choices,CNN-IBNdescribed Chopra as a powerful modern actress unafraid of experimenting with roles.Analysing Chopra's career,Bollywood Hungamanoted her constant growth as a performer despite career fluctuations.The Times of Indiacalled her a \"game changer\" for changing \"the age-old demarcation between a hero and heroine\".In 2012, film critic Subhash K. Jha labelled her \"the best actress in the post-Sridevi generation\" and listed her character inBarfi!as being \"one of the",
"being \"one of the finest inwardly ravaged characters in Bollywood.\"Chopra has often featured on Rediff.com's annual listing of \"Bollywood's Best Actresses\", ranking first in 2009, and was featured in their list of \"Top 10 Actresses of 2000–2010\". A high-profile and popular celebrity in India, Chopra is described as asex symboland a style icon.Her figure, eyes, lips and looks have been cited by the media as her distinctive physical features.Designers Falguni and Shane Peacock wrote, \"She is comfortable in her own skin and looks ravishing in whatever she wears, be it a bikini, short or long dress or even asari.\"She was named \"India's Best-Dressed Woman of the Year\" byPeople Indiain 2011.She ranks highly on various beauty listings in the world.The UK magazineEastern Eyeranked her first on their list of \"World's Sexiest Asian Women\" for a record five times (2006, 2012, 2014, 2015 and 2017).Chopra also topped theMaxim India's Hot 100 list in 2011, 2013, 2016 and 2018.In 2017,Buzznetnamed her the world's second",
"the world's second most beautiful woman afterBeyoncé.Chopra was named one ofPeoplemagazine'sMost Beautiful Women in the Worldin 2017 and 2019. Chopra has featured on power listings, includingVerve's most powerful Indian women (2009, 2010, 2013, 2015, and 2016),The Indian Express's most powerful Indians (2016 and 2017),andIndia Today's50 most powerful people in India (2017 and 2018).After debuting in Hollywood, Chopra appeared in other lists, includingPeople'sMost Intriguing People of the Year(2015),Time's100 Most Influential People in the World(2016),Forbes'World's 100 Most Powerful Women(2017 and 2018),Variety's500 most influential business leaders (2017 and 2018),andUSA Today's50 most powerful women in entertainment (2019).The market research firmYouGovnamed her the world's twelfth and fourteenth most-admired woman in 2018 and 2019, respectively. Chopra is also one of the highest-paid Indian celebrities.She has featured in theIndian editionof \"Celebrity 100\" every year since its inception in 2012, ranking",
"in 2012, ranking under top fifteen each year except 2018.Chopra ranked as the highest earning Indian female celebrity in 2016 and 2017 with respective earnings of₹760 million(US$9.1 million) and₹680 million(US$8.1 million), peaking at the seventh position in 2017.The global edition ofForbesnamed her the world's eighth-highest-paid TV actress both years.Chopra is a prominent celebrity endorser for brands and products.She ranked second in the list ofbrand ambassadorsof 2008 (after Shah Rukh Khan) in a survey conducted byTAM AdEx.The following year, she topped their list, becoming the first woman in India to do so.Chopra has represented many brands, includingTAG Heuer,Pepsi,Nikon,Nokia,GarnierandNestlé; she was the first female representative ofHero Honda.In 2016, Chopra became the first Indian woman to representPanteneas its global brand ambassador.In 2017,Forbesreported that Chopra earned at least $1 million per endorsement deal.In 2020, Chopra was one among several Bollywood actors who were criticised on",
"were criticised on social media for posting Instagram messages showing solidarity with theBlack Lives Mattermovement, despite their previous work advertising skin-lightening products which perpetuate colorism.In the past Chopra has expressed regret for promoting such products. Chopra and three other Bollywood actors (Shah Rukh Khan, Kajol and Hrithik Roshan) had their likenesses made into a series of miniature dolls for U.S. toy manufacturerHasbroand the UK-based Bollywood Legends Corporation.In 2009, Chopra became the first Indian actress to cast a foot impression at theSalvatore Ferragamo Museumin Florence, Italy, and she received custom-designed shoes from the Ferragamo house.Madame Tussaudsmuseum installed four wax sculptures of her in 2019 at four locations, includingNew York,London,Sydney, and a traveling exhibit between several Asian cities, making her the first Indian actor to have wax statues in four Madame Tussauds museums.In 2013, she became the first Indian model to representGuess, whose CEOPaul",
"whose CEOPaul Marcianocalled her \"the youngSophia Loren\".Chopra's life, pictures of her family and win at the Miss World in 2000 were depicted in a chapter ofRoving Families, Shifting Homes, a book taught atSpringdales School.Three unauthorised biographies of her have been published: Indu Prabhu'sPriyanka Chopra: Road To Destiny(2016), Aseem Chhabra'sPriyanka Chopra: The Incredible Story of a Global Bollywood Star(2018) and Bharathi S. Pradhan'sPriyanka Chopra: The Dark Horse(2018). Awards and nominations Chopra has won aNational Film Award for Best ActressforFashion(2008) and five Filmfare Awards:Best Female DebutforAndaaz(2003),Best Performance in a Negative RoleforAitraaz(2004),Best ActressforFashion(2008),Critics Award for Best Actressfor7 Khoon Maaf(2011), andBest Supporting ActressforBajirao Mastani(2015).She has also won twoPeople's Choice Awards: \"Favourite Actress In A New TV Series\", and \"Favorite Dramatic TV Actress\" forQuantico.She is the first South Asian actress to win a People's Choice",
"a People's Choice Award.In 2016, she was awarded thePadma Shri, thefourth highest civilianaward, by the Government of India for her contribution to artsand was honored as one of theBBC 100 Womenin 2022. Books See also Explanatory notes References External links Miss WorldPriyanka Chopra Miss UniverseLara Dutta Miss InternationalVivian Urdaneta"
] |
One episode title from classic Doctor Who series 12 features the name of a Pentateuch book. Can you tell me which part of this episode had the lowest viewing figures in roman numerals? | III (the answer is Genesis of the Daleks, the 3rd part had the least amount of viewers when broadcast) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Who_season_12 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_of_the_Daleks | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Who_season_12', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_of_the_Daleks'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Who_season_12",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_of_the_Daleks"
] | [
"Old Testament TheOld Testament(OT) is the first division of theChristian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 28 books of theHebrew Bible, or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religiousHebrewand occasionallyAramaicwritings by theIsraelites.The second division of Christian Bibles is theNew Testament, written inKoine Greek. The Old Testament consists of many distinct booksby various authorsproduced over a period of centuries.Christians traditionally divide the Old Testament into four sections: the first five books or Pentateuch (which corresponds to the JewishTorah); the history books telling the history of the Israelites, from theirconquest of Canaanto theirdefeat and exile in Babylon; the poetic and \"Wisdom books\" dealing, in various forms, with questions of good and evil in the world; and the books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God. The books that compose the Old Testament canon and their order and names differ betweenvarious branches of Christianity. The canons of theEastern OrthodoxandOriental OrthodoxChurches comprise up to 49 books; theCatholic canoncomprises 46 books; and the most common of theProtestant canonscomprises 39 books. There are 39 books common to essentially all Christian canons. They correspond to the 28books of the Tanakh, with some differences of order, and there are some differences in text. The books that are part of the Christian Old Testament but that are not part of the Hebrew canon are sometimes described asdeuterocanonical books. In general, Catholic and Orthodox churches include these books in the Old Testament. Most Protestant Bibles do not include the deuterocanonical books in their canon, but some versions ofAnglicanandLutheranBibles place such books in a separate section calledApocrypha. These books are ultimately derived from the earlierSeptuagint, the earliest extant Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, and are also Jewish in origin. Some are also contained in theDead Sea Scrolls. Content The Old Testament contains 39 (Protestant), 46 (Catholic), or more (Orthodox and other) books, divided, very broadly, into thePentateuch (Torah), thehistorical books, the\"wisdom\" booksand the prophets. The table below uses the spellings and names present in modern editions of the Christian Bible, such as the CatholicNew American Bible Revised Editionand the ProtestantRevised Standard VersionandEnglish Standard Version. The spelling and names in both the 1609–F10 Douay Old Testament (and in the 1582Rheims New Testament) and the 1749 revision byBishop Challoner(the edition currently in print used by many Catholics, and the source of traditional Catholic spellings in English) and in the Septuagint differ from those spellings and names used in modern editions which are derived from the HebrewMasoretic Text. For the Orthodox canon, Septuagint titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. For the Catholic canon, the Douaic titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. Likewise, theKing James Versionreferences some of these books by the traditional spelling when referring to them in the New Testament, such as \"Esaias\" (forIsaiah). In the spirit ofecumenism, more recentCatholic translations(e.g. theNew American Bible,Jerusalem Bible, and ecumenical translations used by Catholics, such as theRevised Standard Version Catholic Edition) use the same \"standardized\" (King James Version) spellings and names asProtestant Bibles(e.g.1 Chroniclesas opposed to the Douaic 1 Paralipomenon,1–2 Samueland1–2 Kingsinstead of 1–4 Kings) in those books which are universally considered canonical: theprotocanonicals. TheTalmud(the Jewish commentary on the scriptures) inBava Batra14b gives a different order for the books inNevi'imandKetuvim. This order is also cited inMishneh TorahHilchotSeferTorah 7:15.The order of the books of the Torah is universal through all denominations of Judaism and Christianity. The disputed books, included in most canons but not in others, are often called theBiblical apocrypha, a term that is sometimes used specifically to describe the books in the Catholic and Orthodox canons that are absent from the Jewish Masoretic Text and most modernProtestantBibles. Catholics, following theCanon of Trent(1546), describe these books as deuterocanonical, whileGreek OrthodoxChristians, following theSynod of Jerusalem (1672), use the traditional name ofanagignoskomena, meaning \"that which is to be read.\" They are present in a few historic Protestant versions; the GermanLuther Bibleincluded such books, as did the English 1611 King James Version. Empty table cells indicate that a book is absent from that canon. Several of the books in the Eastern Orthodox canon are also found in the appendix to theLatin Vulgate, formerly the official Bible of the Roman Catholic Church. Historicity Early scholarship Some of the stories of the Pentateuch may derive from older sources. Scholars such asAndrew R. Georgepoint out the similarity of theGenesis flood narrativeand theGilgamesh flood myth.Similarities between the origin story ofMosesand that ofSargon of Akkadwere noted by psychoanalystOtto Rankin 1909and popularized by 20th-century writers, such asH. G. WellsandJoseph Campbell.Jacob Bronowskiwrites that, \"the Bible is ... part folklore and part record. History is ... written by the victors, and theIsraelis, when they burst through , became the carriers of history.\" Recent scholarship In 2007, a historian of ancient JudaismLester L. Grabbeexplained that earlier biblical scholars such asJulius Wellhausen(1844–1918) could be described as 'maximalist', accepting biblical text unless it has been disproven. Continuing in this tradition, both \"the 'substantial historicity' of the patriarchs\" and \"the unified conquest of the land\" were widely accepted in the United States until about the 1970s. Contrarily, Grabbe says that those in his field now \"are all minimalists – at least, when it comes to the patriarchal period and the settlement. ... ery few are willing to operate .\" In 2022, archaeologistAvraham Faustwrote that in the 1990s a school known asbiblical minimalismrejected the historical value of the Hebrew Bible for the study of ancient Israel during the Iron Age, \"but this extreme approach was rejected by mainstream scholarship.\" Composition The first five books—Genesis,Exodus,Leviticus,book of NumbersandDeuteronomy—reached their present form in thePersian period (538–332 BC), and their authors were the elite of exilic returnees who controlled theTempleat that time.The books ofJoshua,Judges,SamuelandKingsfollow, forming a history of Israel from theConquest of Canaanto theSiege of Jerusalemc.587BC. There is a broad consensus among scholars that these originated as a single work (the so-called \"Deuteronomistic History\") during theBabylonian exileof the 6th century BC. The twoBooks of Chroniclescover much the same material as the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history and probably date from the 4th century BC.Chronicles, andEzra–Nehemiah, was probably finished during the 3rd century BC.Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments contain two (Catholic Old Testament) to four (Orthodox)Books of the Maccabees, written in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. These history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. Of the remainder, the books of the various prophets—Isaiah,Jeremiah,Ezekiel, and the twelve \"minor prophets\"—were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, with the exceptions ofJonahandDaniel, which were written much later.The \"wisdom\" books—Job,Proverbs,Ecclesiastes,Psalms,Song of Songs—have various dates: Proverbs possibly was completed by theHellenistic time(332–198 BC), though containing much older material as well; Job was completed by the 6th century BC; Ecclesiastes by the 3rd century BC. Themes Throughout the Old Testament, God is consistently depicted as the one who created the world. Although the God of the Old Testament is not consistently presented asthe only god who exists, he is always depicted asthe only God whom Israel is to worship, or the one \"true God\", that onlyYahweh(orYHWH) is Almighty. The Old Testament stresses the special relationship between God and hischosen people, Israel, but includes instructions forproselytesas well. This relationship is expressed in thebiblical covenant(contract)between the two, received byMoses. The law codes in books such asExodusand especiallyDeuteronomyare the terms of the contract: Israel swears faithfulness to God, and God swears to be Israel's special protector and supporter.However,The Jewish Study Bibledenies that the wordcovenant(britin Hebrew) means \"contract\"; in the ancient Near East, a covenant would have been sworn before the gods, who would be its enforcers. As God is part of the agreement, and not merely witnessing it,The Jewish Study Bibleinstead interprets the term to refer to a pledge. Further themes in the Old Testament includesalvation,redemption,divine judgment, obedience and disobedience,faithand faithfulness, among others. Throughout there is a strong emphasis onethicsandritual purity, both of which God demands, although some of the prophets and wisdom writers seem to question this, arguing that God demandssocial justiceabove purity, and perhaps does not even care about purity at all. The Old Testament's moral code enjoins fairness, intervention on behalf of the vulnerable, and the duty of those in power to administer justice righteously. It forbids murder, bribery and corruption, deceitful trading, and manysexual misdemeanours. All morality is traced back to God, who is the source of all goodness. Theproblem of evilplays a large part in the Old Testament. The problem the Old Testament authors faced was that a good God must have had just reason for bringing disaster (meaning notably, but not only, theBabylonian exile) upon his people. The theme is played out, with many variations, in books as different as the histories of Kings and Chronicles, the prophets likeEzekielandJeremiah, and in the wisdom books like Job and Ecclesiastes. Formation The process by which scriptures became canons and Bibles was a long one, and its complexities account for the many different Old Testaments which exist today. Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible andSecond Temple Judaismat theUniversity of Edinburgh, identifies the Old Testament as \"a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing.\"He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written byGodand passed to mankind. By about the 5th century BC, Jews saw the five books of theTorah(the Old Testament Pentateuch) as having authoritative status; by the 2nd century BC, the Prophets had a similar status, although without quite the same level of respect as the Torah; beyond that, the Jewish scriptures were fluid, with different groups seeing authority in different books. Greek Hebrew texts began to be translated into Greek inAlexandriain about 280 BC and continued until about 130 BC.These early Greek translations – supposedly commissioned byPtolemy II Philadelphus– were called theSeptuagint(Latin for 'Seventy') from the supposed number of translators involved (hence its abbreviation \"LXX\"). This Septuagint remains the basis of the Old Testament in theEastern Orthodox Church. It varies in many places from the Masoretic Text and includes numerous books no longer considered canonical in some traditions:1 Esdras,Judith,Tobit, the books ofMaccabees, theBook of Wisdom,Sirach, andBaruch.Early modernbiblical criticismtypically explained these variations as intentional or ignorant corruptions by the Alexandrian scholars, but most recent scholarship holds it is simply based on early source texts differing from those later used by theMasoretesin their work. The Septuagint was originally used byHellenizedJews whose knowledge ofGreekwas better than Hebrew. However, the texts came to be used predominantly by gentile converts to Christianity and by the early Church as its scripture, Greek being thelingua francaof the early Church. The three most acclaimed early interpreters wereAquila of Sinope,Symmachus the Ebionite, andTheodotion; in hisHexapla,Origenplaced his edition of the Hebrew text besideits transcription in Greek lettersand four parallel translations: Aquila's, Symmachus's, the Septuagint's, and Theodotion's. The so-called \"fifth\" and \"sixth editions\" were two other Greek translations supposedly miraculously discovered by students outside the towns ofJerichoandNicopolis: these were added to Origen's Octapla. In 331,Constantine IcommissionedEusebiusto deliverfifty Biblesfor theChurch of Constantinople.AthanasiusrecordedAlexandrianscribes around 340 preparing Bibles forConstans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists and thatCodex VaticanusandCodex Sinaiticusare examples of these Bibles. Together with thePeshittaandCodex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.There is no evidence among thecanons of the First Council of Nicaeaof any determination on the canon. However,Jerome(347–420), in hisPrologue to Judith, claims that theBook of Judithwas \"found by theNicene Councilto have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures\". Latin InWestern Christianityor Christianity in theWestern half of the Roman Empire, Latin had displaced Greek as the common language of the early Christians, and in 382 ADPope Damasus IcommissionedJerome, the leading scholar of the day, to produce an updated Latin Bible to replace theVetus Latina, which was a Latin translation of the Septuagint. Jerome's work, called theVulgate, was a direct translation from Hebrew, since he argued for the superiority ofthe Hebrew textsin correcting the Septuagint on both philological and theological grounds.His Vulgate Old Testament became the standard Bible used in the Western Church, specifically as theSixto-Clementine Vulgate, while theChurches in the Eastcontinued, and continue, to use the Septuagint. Jerome, however, in theVulgate's prologues, describes some portions of books in the Septuagint not found in the Hebrew Bible as being non-canonical(he called themapocrypha);forBaruch, he mentions by name in hisPrologue to Jeremiahand notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or \"not in the canon\".TheSynod of Hippo(in 393), followed by theCouncil of Carthage (397)and theCouncil of Carthage (419), may be the first council that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes the books that did not appear in theHebrew Bible;the councils were under significant influence ofAugustine of Hippo, who regarded the canon as already closed. Protestant canon In the 16th century, the Protestant reformers sided with Jerome; yet although most Protestant Bibles now have only those books that appear in the Hebrew Bible, the order is that of the Greek Bible. Rome then officially adopted a canon, theCanon of Trent, which is seen as following Augustine's Carthaginian Councilsor theCouncil of Rome,and includes most, but not all, of the Septuagint (3 Ezraand 3 and 4 Maccabees are excluded);theAnglicansafter theEnglish Civil Waradopted a compromise position, restoring the39 Articlesand keeping the extra books that were excluded by theWestminster Confession of Faith, both for private study and forreading in churchesbut not for establishing any doctrine, while Lutherans kept them for private study, gathered in an appendix asbiblical apocrypha. Other versions While the Hebrew, Greek and Latin versions of the Hebrew Bible are the best known Old Testaments, there were others. At much the same time as the Septuagint was being produced, translations were being made into Aramaic, the language of Jews living in Palestine and the Near East and likely thelanguage of Jesus: these are called the AramaicTargums, from a word meaning \"translation\", and were used to help Jewish congregations understand their scriptures. For Aramaic Christians, there was aSyriactranslation of the Hebrew Bible called thePeshitta, as well as versions inCoptic(the everyday language of Egypt in the first Christian centuries, descended fromancient Egyptian),Ethiopic(for use in theEthiopian church, one of the oldest Christian churches),Armenian(Armenia was the first to adopt Christianity as its official religion), andArabic. Christian theology Christianity is based on the belief that thehistorical Jesusis also theChrist, as in theConfession of Peter. This belief is in turn based on Jewish understandings of the meaning of the Hebrew termMessiah, which, like the Greek \"Christ\", means \"anointed\". In the Hebrew Scriptures, it describes a king anointed with oil on his accession to the throne: he becomes \"The LORD's anointed\" or Yahweh's Anointed. By the time of Jesus, some Jews expected that a flesh-and-blood descendant ofDavid(the \"Son of David\") would come to establish a real Jewish kingdom in Jerusalem, instead of theRoman provinceof Judaea.Others stressed theSon of Man, a distinctly other-worldly figure who would appear as ajudge at the end of time. Some expounded a synthesised view of both positions, where a messianic kingdom of this world would last for a set period and be followed by the other-worldly age orWorld to Come. Somethought the Messiah was already present, but unrecognised due to Israel's sins; somethought that the Messiah would be announced by a forerunner, probablyElijah(as promised by the prophetMalachi, whose book now ends the Old Testament and precedesMark's account ofJohn the Baptist). However, no view of the Messiah as based on the Old Testament predicted a Messiah who would suffer and die for the sins of all people.The story of Jesus' death, therefore, involved a profound shift in meaning from the Old Testament tradition. The name \"Old Testament\" reflects Christianity's understanding of itself as thefulfillmentof Jeremiah's prophecy of aNew Covenant(which is similar to \"testament\" and often conflated) to replace the existingcovenantbetween God and Israel (Jeremiah 31:31).The emphasis, however, has shifted from Judaism's understanding of the covenant as a racially or tribally based pledge between God and the Jewish people, to one between God and any person of faith who is \"in Christ\". See also Explanatory notes Citations General and cited references Further reading External links",
"Doctor Whoseason 12 The twelfth season ofBritishscience fiction televisionseriesDoctor Whobegan on 28 December 1974 withTom Baker's first serialRobot, and ended withRevenge of the Cybermenon 10 May 1975. This is the first season to featureTom Bakeras thefourth incarnationofthe Doctor, an alienTime Lordwho travels through time and space in hisTARDIS, which appears to be a Britishpolice boxon the outside. He is accompanied bycompanionsSarah Jane Smith(Elisabeth Sladen), continuing fromseason eleven, andHarry Sullivan(Ian Marter), who joins in this season. WithBarry LettsandTerrance Dickshaving both departed along withJon Pertwee, new producerPhilip Hinchcliffeand new script editorRobert Holmesworked on this series. Letts's last story as producer wasRobot, with Hinchcliffe producing the rest of the season. Holmes had previously written for the programme. Casting Main cast During production of season eleven, it was known thatJon Pertweewould be leaving his role as theThird Doctorand that a newFourth Doctorwould need to be cast for the part.Tom Bakerwas an out-of-work actor, working in construction at the time.Baker had been a television and film actor, having major parts in several films includingThe Vault of Horror(1973) and as the main antagonist inThe Golden Voyage of Sinbadthe same year. He had written to Bill Slater, the Head of Serials at the BBC, asking for work.Slater suggested Baker toDoctor WhoproducerBarry Lettswho had been looking to fill the part.Letts had been the producer of the series since the early Pertwee serials in 1970. He had seen Baker's work inThe Golden Voyage of Sinbadand hired him for the part.Baker would continue in his role asthe Doctorfor seven seasons, longer than any other actor to play the part. Elisabeth Sladenreturned to play the role of companionSarah Jane Smiththroughout the season.Ian Marterjoined the cast asHarry Sullivan. The character was created before Baker was cast; there had been discussion of casting an older actor as the Doctor, and so Harry was created as a younger character to handle the action scenes. Recurring cast Nicholas CourtneyandJohn Levenereprised their roles asthe BrigadierandWarrant Officer Bentonrespectively in the first serial,Robot.Courtney had begun his role in theSecond DoctorstoryThe Web of Fear(1968), where the character was a colonel. Levene had begun inSecond DoctorstoryThe Invasion(1968), replacing another actor. Both were members of the military organizationUnited Nations Intelligence Taskforce(UNIT). They, along with Sladen, would be the transition cast to carry through from the Third Doctor to the Fourth Doctor, thoughRobotis the only UNIT story for the twelfth season. Serials AfterRobot, all the serials in this season continue directly one after the other, tracing one single problematic voyage of the TARDIS crew. Despite the continuity, each serial is considered its own standalone story. The season was initially formatted as the previous Pertwee season had been with three six-part stories and two four-part stories. To this end, the initial structure was to open with the four-partRobotand the four-partSpace Stationby Christopher Langley followed by three six-parters –Genesis of Terror(later retitledGenesis of the Daleks),Loch Ness, and another six-part story to be determined. Script editor Robert Holmes discussed with Philip Hinchcliffe the possibility of replacing the as-yet undecided six-parter with a four-part story and a two-parter, both with the same production team. The season structure later became two four-part stories (Robotand a replacement forSpace Station,The Ark in Space), the new two-parterThe Destructors(later retitledThe Sontaran Experiment), the six-partGenesis of Terror, and a four-part version ofLoch Ness(later retitledTerror of the Zygonsand held over for season 13).This decision madeThe Sontaran Experimentthe first two-part story sinceSeason 2'sThe Rescue. It was also the first to be shot entirely on location sinceJon Pertwee's opening storySpearhead from SpaceinSeason 7, and the first to be shot entirely onvideotapeinstead of 16mmfilm, as was usual for location shooting.As a means of saving money,The Ark in SpaceandRevenge of the Cybermenwere shot on the same sets. Production Barry Letts served as producer forRobot, after which he was succeeded byPhilip Hinchcliffe.Robert Holmestook over from Terrance Dicks as script editor. Robotwas written by Dicks, who citedKing Kongas an influence for the serial.Dicks incorporated several familiar elements from the Third Doctor's first storySpearhead from Space(1970), which helped the audience transition between actors.The Ark in Spacewas written byRobert Holmesfrom a story byJohn Lucarottithat was considered unusable.Letts and Dicks were eager to haveTerry Nationreturn to write the Daleks, but initially found his script too similar to past Dalek adventures. They suggested that he write a Dalek origin story instead, which becameGenesis of the Daleks.However, under Hinchcliffe, the serial gained a darker tone. The sets ofThe Ark in Spacewere reused forRevenge of the Cybermen.Genesis of the Dalekswas the last serial of the season to be filmed, afterRevenge of the Cybermen.This took place in January and February 1975. Broadcast The entire season was broadcast from 28 December 1974 to 10 May 1975. The title sequence for Part One ofThe Ark in Spacewas tinted sepia as an experiment, but was not repeated for subsequent episodes. Home media VHS releases Betamax releases Video 2000 releases Laserdisc releases DVD and Blu-ray releases All releases are forDVDunless otherwise indicated: In print References Bibliography External links",
"Genesis of the Daleks Genesis of the Daleksis the fourth serial of thetwelfth seasonof the Britishscience fiction televisionseriesDoctor Who. It was written byTerry Nationand directed byDavid Maloney, and originally broadcast in six weekly parts from 8 March to 12 April 1975 onBBC1. In the serial, the alientime travellertheFourth Doctor(Tom Baker) and his travellingcompanionsSarah Jane Smith(Elisabeth Sladen) andHarry Sullivan(Ian Marter) are directed by theTime Lordsto the planetSkaroat the time of theDaleks' creation to prevent them from becoming the dominant race in the universe. Genesis of the Dalekswas originally commissioned under producerBarry Lettsand script editorTerrance Dicks, who believed that the outline submitted by Nation was too similar to his previous Dalek adventures, and encouraged him to explore the origin of the Daleks. The story introduces the Daleks' creatorDavros(Michael Wisher), who had a unique visual design. The script was handed to Letts and Dicks' successors, producerPhilip Hinchcliffeand script editorRobert Holmes, who made changes to the original script which gave it a darker tone. Nation, having intentionally modelled the Daleks on theNazis, further explored the theme inGenesis. It also addresses the moral issues that come withtime travelandgenocide. The story was filmed over January and February 1975, with some location filming in a quarry inBetchworth. Genesis of the Dalekspremiered with 10.7 million viewers and concluded five weeks later with 9.1 million, with the least-watched episode being Part Three with 8.5 million viewers. Since its broadcast it has been widely praised as one of the series' best. The story was novelised in 1976 by Dicks, and released as a condensedLPin 1979, before being released onVHSin 1991 andDVDin 2006. Plot The Doctorand his companions are intercepted by theTime Lords, who instruct the Doctor to interfere with the creation of theDaleks; and given a Time Ring to return them to his TARDIS when the mission is complete. The three find themselves on the planet ofSkaro. A generations-long war between theThalsand theKaledshas left the planet inhospitable; except for their two domes. An attack separates them;Sarahmeets the Mutos, mutated exiles of both sides, but then are all captured by the Thals. The Doctor and Harry are captured by the Kaleds, their possessions confiscated, and are taken to a bunker to meet the scientific and military elite, including the lead scientistDavros, who unveils the \"Mark III travel machine\", or \"Dalek\". Ronson, one of the scientists, secretly tells the Doctor that Davros' experiments are unethical, and the Doctor convinces the leadership to halt them. Learning of Ronson's actions, Davros covertly provides the Thal leaders a chemical formula that can weaken the Kaled dome. The Doctor and Harry reach the Thal dome and rescue Sarah; missiles strike the Kaled dome, killing all those not in the bunker. Davros accuses Ronson of being the traitor, orders the Daleks to kill him, and convinces the leadership to have his Daleks attack the Thals. The attack kills many Thals; the Doctor, his companions, and the survivors make their way to the bunker and the Doctor instructs them to find a way to destroy it while he and his companions go inside. Davros captures the Doctor; the other scientists, now aware of his plans, free the Doctor, who then rigs the Dalek incubation room with explosives. As he is about to touch the two exposed wire ends to set them off, he hesitates, questioning whether he has the right to make that decision. He is relieved to learn that Davros has agreed to allow a vote on the project. The Doctor recovers the Time Ring; as the vote is called, the Daleks return and exterminate the remaining Kaleds. Harry and Sarah escape, while the Doctor returns to set off the explosives, but a Dalek inadvertently sets it off itself. The Doctor escapes before the Thal and Mutos' bomb caves in the bunker, trapping Davros and the Daleks, who then refuse to take orders from a non-Dalek, and seemingly exterminate Davros. While he suspects he has only managed to set back Dalek evolution somewhat, the Doctor considers his mission complete: out of the Daleks' evil, good will always arise to challenge them. He and his companions say goodbye to the survivors and use the Time Ring to return to the TARDIS. Production Conception and writing When planning stories for season 12, producerBarry Lettsand script editorTerrance Dicksfelt that it was time forTerry Nationto return to the series and write another Dalek adventure. Letts and Dicks enjoyed the script Nation sent in, but found it too \"reminiscent\" of many of his previous Dalek stories. The two suggested that Nation instead write an origin story for the Daleks,originally titledDaleks – Genesis of Terror.The serial was commissioned on 1 April 1974, and the scripts accepted on 22 July.The stories lined up for the season were handed over to Letts and Dicks' successors, producerPhilip Hinchcliffeand script editorRobert Holmes, with whomGenesis of the Daleksgained a darker tone.Holmes was not a fan of frequent appearances by the Daleks, and only allowed the story because it explored their origins.In an aim to make the series more adult, Hinchcliffe wanted the story to be \"pacy\" and make the Daleks appear more powerful.In a 2006 interview, Dicks said that he does not believe the story would have been much different if he and Letts had been in charge, though he remarked he would have added some lighter moments to soften the \"grim\" tone.DirectorDavid Maloneystated that the images of war at the beginning of the serial were intended to create atmosphere, and he had no intention of losing the younger audience. The production ofGenesis of the Dalekssaw several changes from the script. Maloney altered the opening scene to show the soldiers gunned down by machine guns in slow motion. Nation was displeased with the change, and Maloney later felt that the violent addition was \"a bit much\".Hinchcliffe and Maloney were not keen on the Doctor's original meeting with the Time Lord, which took place in a lush garden, and changed it to the Skaro war-zone which they felt more appropriate.The Thal soldiers were originally supposed to be boys aged 15 or 16 to illustrate the youth of those fighting in the war, but this was later changed to make them appear more mature.In theGenesis of Terrorscript, Sarah Jane becomes ill in the third episode from radiation poisoning, and Bettan was a male who was introduced in the fourth episode.Part Five originally had more action in the Dalek incubator room and ended with the Doctor's question of whether he had the right to destroy them. Casting and costumes The talent onGenesiswas extraordinary. David Spode's sets were incredible, Sylvia and Barbara achieved wonders with makeup and costume, and then there were the actors – all excellent. But the star of the show, I have to say, was Michael Wisher. –Elisabeth SladenonGenesis of the Daleksin her autobiography. Maloney castJohn Franklyn-Robbinsas the Time Lord because he had worked with him before and intended his character to resemble Death inThe Seventh Seal.Hilary Minster, who played a Thal soldier, had also played a Thal inPlanet of the Daleks(1973). Minster had been considered for the role of Mogran.Peter Miles previously played Dr. Lawrence inDoctor Who and the Silurians(1970) and Professor Whitaker inInvasion of the Dinosaurs(1974).Stephen Yardley, who played the Muto Sevrin, later appeared inVengeance on Varos(1985).During filming ofGenesis, Yardley walked into the casting department on his lunch break in costume and asked for a job; because of his costume, they assumed he was a tramp from the street.Dennis Chinnery, who played Gharman, had previously been seen inThe Chase(1965) and would later appear inThe Twin Dilemma(1984). The character of Davros was designed by Nation to have created the Daleks in his image, and to also be a \"spokesperson\" for the Daleks as he felt it was \"boring\" listening to Daleks giving speeches.The design was inspired bythe Mekon, a comic book character with a small body and a large \"green, dome-like head\" which Hinchcliffe remembered from his childhood.Davros attracted the attention of BBC prosthetics designer John Friedlander who agreed to come off another show to make Davros' mask. Thelatexmask was moulded toMichael Wisher's face by make-up artist Sylvia James. Wisher could even eat while wearing the mask.Regular latex instead of the more mouldablefoam latexwas used because the latter was too expensive.The cast and crew regarded Davros' effects as a great technical achievement considering the budget and time period they worked in. Two children visiting Baker at the BBC studios were scared by Wisher in costume; they thought he was a statue at first.When sitting in Davros' Dalek-like base, Wisher wore knee pads and a kilt because trousers were too uncomfortable.To prepare during rehearsals, Wisher acted in a wheelchair with a paper bag over his head that only had slits cut out for his eyes so he would be used to the \"disorienting\" situation and be able to express himself without using his whole face.Wisher, a heavy smoker, put two holes in the top of the bag so he could smoke underneath it in rehearsals.Wisher also provided some of the voices for the Daleks withRoy Skelton; in some scenes, he was acting to his own pre-recorded dialogue.Stuntman and actorTerry Walshappeared uncredited in several roles. Filming and effects Genesis of the Dalekswas the last serial of the twelfth season to be filmed, afterRevenge of the Cybermen.As Sarah Jane had been filmed inRevengewearing a combat costume, it was added intoGenesisthat the Doctor would hand her the outfit, into which she changes by the next scene.The story was mainly filmed in January 1975, with some studio recording carried into February.Location filming for the serial took place atBetchworthquarry inSurrey,which represented the landscape of Skaro.Having had trouble with the Daleks on location inPlanet of the Daleks(1973), Maloney scheduled shooting so that they only appeared in studio scenes.The three active Dalek props used in the serial were originals from the 1960s, and their wear was covered by new paint. Five \"dummy\" Daleks which could not be operated were also used.Hinchcliffe wanted the Daleks to appear more powerful, and intended to achieve this through low angles and lighting. Duncan Brown, who was responsible for studio lighting, used colours and dark lighting to make the Daleks seem as if they were \"emerging from the shadows\" and to suggest rather than show the world created to viewers. The same model was used for both the Kaled and the Thal domes.The gas attack in Part One was achieved throughdry iceand green lighting.Some of the Thal guns were re-used props from theFirst Doctor(William Hartnell) serialGalaxy 4(1965).The electric trolley used by the Kaleds in Part One worked in tests, but collapsed when Baker and Marter boarded it.The creature Harry and the Doctor glimpse at the end of Part Two was mainly a reusedIce Warriorcostume, while the Thal rocket ship was a reused model fromThe Ambassadors of Death(1970).During the filming of Part Two, Miles and Chinnery had trouble fitting the gun on the Dalek. As a result, the scene had to be filmed in two takes, bridged with a reaction shot of the Doctor.Part Two is unusual in that it is one of the very few episodes not to begin with a reprise,and also the first to end in a freeze frame.A stunt double for Elisabeth Sladen was hired for Sarah's fall from the scaffolding, but Maloney discovered that she would be falling eight feet, while Sladen had fallen ten feet in rehearsals. Maloney ultimately decided to conclude the episode with a freeze frame ending.Maloney would use the freeze frame technique again, most notably withThe Deadly Assassin.The third episode overran its 25-minute limit and rather than cut material out the cliffhanger was changed from Davros' speech to the Doctor being electrocuted.The music for the serial was recorded on 3 March 1975 and the dubbing finished the day before Part One aired. Themes and analysis Nation, who grew up duringWorld War II, intentionally based the Daleks on theNazis, and this episode contains many deliberate parallels.The Kaleds dress in uniforms reminiscent of the Nazis and display \"fascist salutes\".The Kaleds look to \"keep race pure\" by banishing the Thals and Mutos.Cast and crew members described it as a \"warning to the world\" about the danger of allowingauthoritarianismto take over.Davros has been likened to Nazi dictatorAdolf Hitlerseveral times,while physical comparisons have also been drawn between the appearance of Nyder andSSchiefHeinrich Himmler; aside from the resemblance, both wear insignias and spectacles.As production of the third episode began, the producers decided to play down some of theNazi symbolism, and took away Nyder'sIron Cross. It briefly reappears in a later scene that was filmed in the first recording block. Ed Webb and Mark Wardecker, in a paper inDoctor Who and Philosophy, interpreted the Dalek history shown inGenesis of the Daleksas a warning that \"scientists will be the one to bring about the ultimate destruction, the ultimate evil, anddeliberatelyso\".They also commented that the serial showed that the Daleks were evil by design, rather than evolution.Davros represents a mad scientist who creates a monster that then consumes him.Sarah Honeychurch and Niall Burr, in the same book, wrote that the corruption of the Daleks showed that creatures should not be created with \"such limited moral reasoning,\" and that in our world we cannot \"impose our own personal human standards on everybody else\". Genesis of the Daleksalso displays a battle between good and evil.Letts enjoyed the fact that the story did not have clear heroes and villains, but rather a conflict of principle.The discussion between the Doctor and Davros about the hypothetical viral weapon demonstrates this. Hinchcliffe described it as the \"hero meets antihero\" moment, with the two engaged in \"intellectual grappling\".The episode also presents the \"moral dilemma\" of whether the Doctor should destroy the Daleks, resulting in the famous \"Have I the right?\" scene.The Doctor's comparison to knowingly killing a child who would grow up to be a dictator shows how the Doctor's ethics are influenced by his non-linear experience of time.He considers the good things that may come out of the Daleks, such as that \"many future worlds would become allies\".The Doctor's conclusion that he does not have the right is an example ofutilitarianreasoning, and a \"duty-based ethical\" position.Sladen recalled that Baker took the scene very seriously, almost \"agonising\" over the dialogue. Comparisons to other stories have been drawn. The Time Lord who appears at the story's beginning is intentionally costumed to resemble Death inIngmar Bergman's filmThe Seventh Seal.Gareth Robertshas compared this character to theghost of Hamlet's father, setting the protagonist (the Doctor) on a violent mission with which he has moral qualms.Martin Wiggins, senior lecturer and fellow at theShakespeare Instituteat Stratford-upon-Avon, suggests that the Doctor's indecision about destroying the Dalek embryos in the \"have I the right?\" scene is derived fromThe Brothers Karamazov. Broadcast and reception Genesis of the Dalekswas first broadcast in six weekly parts from 8 March to 12 April 1975. Viewership varied from 8 to 10 million; Parts One and Two were watched by audiences of 10.7 and 10.5 million, Parts Three and Four were watched by audiences of 8.5 and 8.8 million, and Parts Five and Six were watched by audiences of 9.8 and 9.1 million.AudienceAppreciation Indexeswere taken for the second, fourth, fifth, and sixth episodes, scoring 57, 58, 57, and 56 respectively. At the time of broadcast, there were some complaints about the level of violence portrayed.Mary Whitehouse, of theNational Viewers' and Listeners' Association, complained thatGenesiscontained \"tea-time brutality for tots\".Scenes objected to included the depictions of war and Nyder hitting the Doctor.David J. HoweandStephen James Walker, in theirDoctor Who: The Television Companion(1998), recorded a positive reaction from fans in regards to creativity and Davros, though one writer noted the ending did not satisfyingly close the story.The BBC's Audience Research Report concluded, \"A little more complex than someDoctor Whoadventures, perhaps, and with underlying questions of conscience, the serial had been 'different' it was occasionally felt and, although dismissed in some quarters as far-fetched, long drawn-out, confused and/or predictable, had provided acceptable escapist entertainment for the majority.\"Howe and Walker themselves described the serial as \"well-written and full of new ideas, while still remaining true to the Daleks' roots by effectively equating them with the Nazis\", and particularly praised the production values, pacing, and moral dilemma. They considered it to have a few minor flaws, namely Harry being attacked by a giant clam, some \"duff\" cliffhangers, and \"many of the scientist characters serve no other purpose than to act as Dalek-fodder\". In 2010, Mark Braxton ofRadio Timesawarded the serial a full five stars and hailed it as \"Terry Nation's finest hour for the series\", suggesting that Davros was \"the greatest villain inDoctor Whohistory\". He was also positive towards Dudley Simpson's score and Davros's allies, who were \"impeccably written and played\" from Nyder to Gharman, but was disappointed that Harry did not have much to do.The A.V. Clubreviewer Christopher Bahn noted that it contradicted some aspects ofThe Daleksbut that it \" the emotional target dead-on\". He particularly praised Davros and Skaro, but considered the \"major problem\" with the portrayal of the Daleks was that \"we're not given any choice but to view them as psychopathic murderers\", and the Doctor came across as a \"catastrophically incompetent secret agent\".DVD Talk's Stuart Galbraith gaveGenesis of the Daleksfour out of five stars, calling it a \"real fan-pleaser\" and writing that Wisher was \"superb\" as Davros. While noting that the story \"is mostly concerned with action and suspense, which it does rather well\", he wrote that it \"isn't especially original\" as it dealt with common time-travel issues, despite doing it in \"intelligent ways\".In 2009,SFXlisted the scene where the Daleks receive their first blaster as the thirteenth scariest moment ofDoctor Who.The magazine also named the scene where Harry is attacked by a giant clam as one of the silliestDoctor Whomoments, noting \"even the bestDoctor Whostories have the occasional dropped stitch\".Charlie Jane Andersofio9, in a 2010 article, listed the cliffhanger of Episode Four – in which the Doctor is forced to tell Davros how the Daleks will be defeated in the future – as one of the greatestDoctor Whocliffhangers. Writing forBFIScreenonline, James Donohue thoughtGenesis of the Daleks\"shows the series developing a more complex appreciation of the moral issues surrounding being a monster\", but \"the plot contrives to prevent the Doctor from having to make the difficult decision himself anyway. He delays Davros' plans, but he does not change the future. Lacking the courage to answer the questions it raises,Genesisshows how challenging, and how infuriating, children's TV can be.\" Legacy Genesis of the Daleksis one of the most widely known serials of the original run as it was repeated often. It was edited into an 85-minute omnibus version and broadcast on BBC1 at 3:00 pm on 27 December 1975,attracting 7.6 million viewers, and also was repeated in two edited 45-minute episodes as part of the \"Doctor Who and the Monsters\" on 26 July and 2 August 1982, which attracted audiences of 4.9 and 5 million.It was then repeated in its original serial form onBBC Twoin 1993 (averaging 2.2 million viewers) and 2000 (averaging 1 to 1.5 million).In a 1998 poll of readers ofDoctor Who Magazine, over 2500 voters placedGenesisat the top of a poll to find the greatestDoctor Whostories of all time.In the magazine's 2009 \"Mighty 200\" poll, asking readers to rank all of the then-made 200 stories,Genesiscame in third place, behindThe Caves of Androzani(1984) and \"Blink\" (2007).In a 2014 poll, the magazine's readers again placed the episode in third place.In 2008,The Daily TelegraphnamedGenesis of the Daleksone of the ten greatest episodes ofDoctor Who. Genesis of the Daleksis the first example in the history ofDoctor Whoof \"outright revisionism\"; the creation story of the Daleks is very different from that established inThe Daleks(1963),where it was said they evolved from creatures known as Dals, who were once similar to the Thals. Here, the Dals from the original story are changed to Kaleds.The Official Doctor Who and the Daleks Book, co-authored by Terry Nation, suggested thatThe Dalekstook place during the Daleks' 1000-year hibernation followingGenesis of the Daleks, and that the Daleks seen in that story were the descendants of Kaled mutants who had sought refuge in the destroyed Kaled city and discovered Davros' prototypes and notes.Russell T Davies, who revivedDoctor Whoin 2005, suggested that the origins of theTime War, a conflict between the Time Lords and the Daleks which contributed to the storyline of the new series, began with the Time Lords' attempted genocide of the Daleks inGenesis. Davros is resurrected inDestiny of the Daleks(1979), played byDavid Gooderson, and appears in the remaining three Dalek stories of the classic series played byTerry Molloy.He has also appeared in the revived series since \"The Stolen Earth\"/\"Journey's End\" (2008), played byJulian Bleach.In \"The Magician's Apprentice\" (2015), footage from the episode is used with its plot based on the Fourth Doctor's moral issue if one has the right to kill a child if they knew \"that child would grow up totally evil.\" Davros' early life is additionally covered in the 2006Big Finish Productionsfour-part audio seriesI, Davros,which saw Miles reprising his role as Nyder in the fourth episode, \"Guilt\". Commercial releases In print TheTargetnovelisation of this serial, written byTerrance Dicks, was published byTandemin 1976. It was re-released byVirgin Publishingin 1991, bearing its designated number of 27 in the novelisation range.TheGenesis of the Daleksnovelisation has the largest print run of any of the original series, selling over 100,000 copies. Home media In 1979, the BBC released a condensed audio version of the serial as anLP.In 1988, this recording was reissued on cassette byBBC Audioalongside a later radio play,Slipback.It was subsequently released on CD in a revised and expanded version by BBC Audio paired withExploration Earth: The Time Machinein 2001.In February 2011, Audio Go reissued the one-hour condensed audio version of the LP as part of their \"Vintage Beeb\" range. Genesis of the Dalekswas released onVHSbyBBC Enterprisesin 1991 withThe Sontaran Experiment,and again as part of a box set of stories featuring Davros in 2001.It was released onDVDas a two-disc special edition in the United Kingdom byBBC Worldwideon 10 April 2006and in the United States byWarner Home Videoon 6 June 2006.This DVD is also available as part of the limited edition 2007 release ofThe Complete Davros Collectionbox set along withDestiny of the Daleks,Resurrection of the Daleks,Revelation of the DaleksandRemembrance of the Daleks. A 1080iupscaledremaster of the story was released onBlu-rayin the United Kingdom byBBC Studiosas part of the 'Complete Season 12' box set on 11 June 2018, and in the United States by Warner Home Video (as 'Tom Baker: Season One') on 19 June 2018;This release contained both the original 6-episode version and the 85-minute abridged repeat. To promote the release, the repeat version (marketed as a 'Director's Cut') was screened theatrically in the United States viaFathom Eventson 11 June 2018. In November 2020, the story was released as part of theTime Lord Victorious: Road to the Dark TimesBlu-ray, along withPlanet of the Daleks,The Deadly Assassin,State of Decay,The Curse of Fenric, \"The Runaway Bride\" and \"The Waters of Mars\". References Bibliography External links Target novelisation"
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"Old Testament TheOld Testament(OT) is the first division of theChristian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 28 books of theHebrew Bible, or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religiousHebrewand occasionallyAramaicwritings by theIsraelites.The second division of Christian Bibles is theNew Testament, written inKoine Greek. The Old Testament consists of many distinct booksby various authorsproduced over a period of centuries.Christians traditionally divide the Old Testament into four sections: the first five books or Pentateuch (which corresponds to the JewishTorah); the history books telling the history of the Israelites, from theirconquest of Canaanto theirdefeat and exile in Babylon; the poetic and \"Wisdom books\" dealing, in various forms, with questions of good and evil in the world; and the books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God. The books that compose the Old Testament canon and their order and names differ betweenvarious branches of Christianity.",
"of Christianity. The canons of theEastern OrthodoxandOriental OrthodoxChurches comprise up to 49 books; theCatholic canoncomprises 46 books; and the most common of theProtestant canonscomprises 39 books. There are 39 books common to essentially all Christian canons. They correspond to the 28books of the Tanakh, with some differences of order, and there are some differences in text. The books that are part of the Christian Old Testament but that are not part of the Hebrew canon are sometimes described asdeuterocanonical books. In general, Catholic and Orthodox churches include these books in the Old Testament. Most Protestant Bibles do not include the deuterocanonical books in their canon, but some versions ofAnglicanandLutheranBibles place such books in a separate section calledApocrypha. These books are ultimately derived from the earlierSeptuagint, the earliest extant Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, and are also Jewish in origin. Some are also contained in theDead Sea Scrolls. Content The Old",
"Content The Old Testament contains 39 (Protestant), 46 (Catholic), or more (Orthodox and other) books, divided, very broadly, into thePentateuch (Torah), thehistorical books, the\"wisdom\" booksand the prophets. The table below uses the spellings and names present in modern editions of the Christian Bible, such as the CatholicNew American Bible Revised Editionand the ProtestantRevised Standard VersionandEnglish Standard Version. The spelling and names in both the 1609–F10 Douay Old Testament (and in the 1582Rheims New Testament) and the 1749 revision byBishop Challoner(the edition currently in print used by many Catholics, and the source of traditional Catholic spellings in English) and in the Septuagint differ from those spellings and names used in modern editions which are derived from the HebrewMasoretic Text. For the Orthodox canon, Septuagint titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. For the Catholic canon, the Douaic titles are provided in parentheses when these differ",
"when these differ from those editions. Likewise, theKing James Versionreferences some of these books by the traditional spelling when referring to them in the New Testament, such as \"Esaias\" (forIsaiah). In the spirit ofecumenism, more recentCatholic translations(e.g. theNew American Bible,Jerusalem Bible, and ecumenical translations used by Catholics, such as theRevised Standard Version Catholic Edition) use the same \"standardized\" (King James Version) spellings and names asProtestant Bibles(e.g.1 Chroniclesas opposed to the Douaic 1 Paralipomenon,1–2 Samueland1–2 Kingsinstead of 1–4 Kings) in those books which are universally considered canonical: theprotocanonicals. TheTalmud(the Jewish commentary on the scriptures) inBava Batra14b gives a different order for the books inNevi'imandKetuvim. This order is also cited inMishneh TorahHilchotSeferTorah 7:15.The order of the books of the Torah is universal through all denominations of Judaism and Christianity. The disputed books, included in most canons but not",
"most canons but not in others, are often called theBiblical apocrypha, a term that is sometimes used specifically to describe the books in the Catholic and Orthodox canons that are absent from the Jewish Masoretic Text and most modernProtestantBibles. Catholics, following theCanon of Trent(1546), describe these books as deuterocanonical, whileGreek OrthodoxChristians, following theSynod of Jerusalem (1672), use the traditional name ofanagignoskomena, meaning \"that which is to be read.\" They are present in a few historic Protestant versions; the GermanLuther Bibleincluded such books, as did the English 1611 King James Version. Empty table cells indicate that a book is absent from that canon. Several of the books in the Eastern Orthodox canon are also found in the appendix to theLatin Vulgate, formerly the official Bible of the Roman Catholic Church. Historicity Early scholarship Some of the stories of the Pentateuch may derive from older sources. Scholars such asAndrew R. Georgepoint out the similarity of",
"the similarity of theGenesis flood narrativeand theGilgamesh flood myth.Similarities between the origin story ofMosesand that ofSargon of Akkadwere noted by psychoanalystOtto Rankin 1909and popularized by 20th-century writers, such asH. G. WellsandJoseph Campbell.Jacob Bronowskiwrites that, \"the Bible is ... part folklore and part record. History is ... written by the victors, and theIsraelis, when they burst through , became the carriers of history.\" Recent scholarship In 2007, a historian of ancient JudaismLester L. Grabbeexplained that earlier biblical scholars such asJulius Wellhausen(1844–1918) could be described as 'maximalist', accepting biblical text unless it has been disproven. Continuing in this tradition, both \"the 'substantial historicity' of the patriarchs\" and \"the unified conquest of the land\" were widely accepted in the United States until about the 1970s. Contrarily, Grabbe says that those in his field now \"are all minimalists – at least, when it comes to the patriarchal period and the",
"period and the settlement. ... ery few are willing to operate .\" In 2022, archaeologistAvraham Faustwrote that in the 1990s a school known asbiblical minimalismrejected the historical value of the Hebrew Bible for the study of ancient Israel during the Iron Age, \"but this extreme approach was rejected by mainstream scholarship.\" Composition The first five books—Genesis,Exodus,Leviticus,book of NumbersandDeuteronomy—reached their present form in thePersian period (538–332 BC), and their authors were the elite of exilic returnees who controlled theTempleat that time.The books ofJoshua,Judges,SamuelandKingsfollow, forming a history of Israel from theConquest of Canaanto theSiege of Jerusalemc.587BC. There is a broad consensus among scholars that these originated as a single work (the so-called \"Deuteronomistic History\") during theBabylonian exileof the 6th century BC. The twoBooks of Chroniclescover much the same material as the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history and probably date from the 4th century",
"the 4th century BC.Chronicles, andEzra–Nehemiah, was probably finished during the 3rd century BC.Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments contain two (Catholic Old Testament) to four (Orthodox)Books of the Maccabees, written in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. These history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. Of the remainder, the books of the various prophets—Isaiah,Jeremiah,Ezekiel, and the twelve \"minor prophets\"—were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, with the exceptions ofJonahandDaniel, which were written much later.The \"wisdom\" books—Job,Proverbs,Ecclesiastes,Psalms,Song of Songs—have various dates: Proverbs possibly was completed by theHellenistic time(332–198 BC), though containing much older material as well; Job was completed by the 6th century BC; Ecclesiastes by the 3rd century BC. Themes Throughout the Old Testament, God is consistently depicted as the one who created the world. Although the God of the Old Testament is not consistently presented asthe only god",
"asthe only god who exists, he is always depicted asthe only God whom Israel is to worship, or the one \"true God\", that onlyYahweh(orYHWH) is Almighty. The Old Testament stresses the special relationship between God and hischosen people, Israel, but includes instructions forproselytesas well. This relationship is expressed in thebiblical covenant(contract)between the two, received byMoses. The law codes in books such asExodusand especiallyDeuteronomyare the terms of the contract: Israel swears faithfulness to God, and God swears to be Israel's special protector and supporter.However,The Jewish Study Bibledenies that the wordcovenant(britin Hebrew) means \"contract\"; in the ancient Near East, a covenant would have been sworn before the gods, who would be its enforcers. As God is part of the agreement, and not merely witnessing it,The Jewish Study Bibleinstead interprets the term to refer to a pledge. Further themes in the Old Testament includesalvation,redemption,divine judgment, obedience and",
"obedience and disobedience,faithand faithfulness, among others. Throughout there is a strong emphasis onethicsandritual purity, both of which God demands, although some of the prophets and wisdom writers seem to question this, arguing that God demandssocial justiceabove purity, and perhaps does not even care about purity at all. The Old Testament's moral code enjoins fairness, intervention on behalf of the vulnerable, and the duty of those in power to administer justice righteously. It forbids murder, bribery and corruption, deceitful trading, and manysexual misdemeanours. All morality is traced back to God, who is the source of all goodness. Theproblem of evilplays a large part in the Old Testament. The problem the Old Testament authors faced was that a good God must have had just reason for bringing disaster (meaning notably, but not only, theBabylonian exile) upon his people. The theme is played out, with many variations, in books as different as the histories of Kings and Chronicles, the prophets",
"the prophets likeEzekielandJeremiah, and in the wisdom books like Job and Ecclesiastes. Formation The process by which scriptures became canons and Bibles was a long one, and its complexities account for the many different Old Testaments which exist today. Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible andSecond Temple Judaismat theUniversity of Edinburgh, identifies the Old Testament as \"a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing.\"He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written byGodand passed to mankind. By about the 5th century BC, Jews saw the five books of theTorah(the Old Testament Pentateuch) as having authoritative status; by the 2nd century BC, the Prophets had a similar status, although without quite the same level of respect as the Torah; beyond that, the Jewish scriptures were fluid, with different groups seeing authority in different books. Greek Hebrew texts began to be translated into Greek",
"into Greek inAlexandriain about 280 BC and continued until about 130 BC.These early Greek translations – supposedly commissioned byPtolemy II Philadelphus– were called theSeptuagint(Latin for 'Seventy') from the supposed number of translators involved (hence its abbreviation \"LXX\"). This Septuagint remains the basis of the Old Testament in theEastern Orthodox Church. It varies in many places from the Masoretic Text and includes numerous books no longer considered canonical in some traditions:1 Esdras,Judith,Tobit, the books ofMaccabees, theBook of Wisdom,Sirach, andBaruch.Early modernbiblical criticismtypically explained these variations as intentional or ignorant corruptions by the Alexandrian scholars, but most recent scholarship holds it is simply based on early source texts differing from those later used by theMasoretesin their work. The Septuagint was originally used byHellenizedJews whose knowledge ofGreekwas better than Hebrew. However, the texts came to be used predominantly by gentile converts to",
"gentile converts to Christianity and by the early Church as its scripture, Greek being thelingua francaof the early Church. The three most acclaimed early interpreters wereAquila of Sinope,Symmachus the Ebionite, andTheodotion; in hisHexapla,Origenplaced his edition of the Hebrew text besideits transcription in Greek lettersand four parallel translations: Aquila's, Symmachus's, the Septuagint's, and Theodotion's. The so-called \"fifth\" and \"sixth editions\" were two other Greek translations supposedly miraculously discovered by students outside the towns ofJerichoandNicopolis: these were added to Origen's Octapla. In 331,Constantine IcommissionedEusebiusto deliverfifty Biblesfor theChurch of Constantinople.AthanasiusrecordedAlexandrianscribes around 340 preparing Bibles forConstans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists and thatCodex VaticanusandCodex Sinaiticusare examples of these Bibles. Together with",
"Together with thePeshittaandCodex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.There is no evidence among thecanons of the First Council of Nicaeaof any determination on the canon. However,Jerome(347–420), in hisPrologue to Judith, claims that theBook of Judithwas \"found by theNicene Councilto have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures\". Latin InWestern Christianityor Christianity in theWestern half of the Roman Empire, Latin had displaced Greek as the common language of the early Christians, and in 382 ADPope Damasus IcommissionedJerome, the leading scholar of the day, to produce an updated Latin Bible to replace theVetus Latina, which was a Latin translation of the Septuagint. Jerome's work, called theVulgate, was a direct translation from Hebrew, since he argued for the superiority ofthe Hebrew textsin correcting the Septuagint on both philological and theological grounds.His Vulgate Old Testament became the standard Bible used in the Western Church, specifically as",
"specifically as theSixto-Clementine Vulgate, while theChurches in the Eastcontinued, and continue, to use the Septuagint. Jerome, however, in theVulgate's prologues, describes some portions of books in the Septuagint not found in the Hebrew Bible as being non-canonical(he called themapocrypha);forBaruch, he mentions by name in hisPrologue to Jeremiahand notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or \"not in the canon\".TheSynod of Hippo(in 393), followed by theCouncil of Carthage (397)and theCouncil of Carthage (419), may be the first council that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes the books that did not appear in theHebrew Bible;the councils were under significant influence ofAugustine of Hippo, who regarded the canon as already closed. Protestant canon In the 16th century, the Protestant reformers sided with Jerome; yet although most Protestant Bibles now have only those books that appear in the Hebrew Bible, the order is that of the",
"is that of the Greek Bible. Rome then officially adopted a canon, theCanon of Trent, which is seen as following Augustine's Carthaginian Councilsor theCouncil of Rome,and includes most, but not all, of the Septuagint (3 Ezraand 3 and 4 Maccabees are excluded);theAnglicansafter theEnglish Civil Waradopted a compromise position, restoring the39 Articlesand keeping the extra books that were excluded by theWestminster Confession of Faith, both for private study and forreading in churchesbut not for establishing any doctrine, while Lutherans kept them for private study, gathered in an appendix asbiblical apocrypha. Other versions While the Hebrew, Greek and Latin versions of the Hebrew Bible are the best known Old Testaments, there were others. At much the same time as the Septuagint was being produced, translations were being made into Aramaic, the language of Jews living in Palestine and the Near East and likely thelanguage of Jesus: these are called the AramaicTargums, from a word meaning \"translation\", and",
"\"translation\", and were used to help Jewish congregations understand their scriptures. For Aramaic Christians, there was aSyriactranslation of the Hebrew Bible called thePeshitta, as well as versions inCoptic(the everyday language of Egypt in the first Christian centuries, descended fromancient Egyptian),Ethiopic(for use in theEthiopian church, one of the oldest Christian churches),Armenian(Armenia was the first to adopt Christianity as its official religion), andArabic. Christian theology Christianity is based on the belief that thehistorical Jesusis also theChrist, as in theConfession of Peter. This belief is in turn based on Jewish understandings of the meaning of the Hebrew termMessiah, which, like the Greek \"Christ\", means \"anointed\". In the Hebrew Scriptures, it describes a king anointed with oil on his accession to the throne: he becomes \"The LORD's anointed\" or Yahweh's Anointed. By the time of Jesus, some Jews expected that a flesh-and-blood descendant ofDavid(the \"Son of David\") would come to",
"would come to establish a real Jewish kingdom in Jerusalem, instead of theRoman provinceof Judaea.Others stressed theSon of Man, a distinctly other-worldly figure who would appear as ajudge at the end of time. Some expounded a synthesised view of both positions, where a messianic kingdom of this world would last for a set period and be followed by the other-worldly age orWorld to Come. Somethought the Messiah was already present, but unrecognised due to Israel's sins; somethought that the Messiah would be announced by a forerunner, probablyElijah(as promised by the prophetMalachi, whose book now ends the Old Testament and precedesMark's account ofJohn the Baptist). However, no view of the Messiah as based on the Old Testament predicted a Messiah who would suffer and die for the sins of all people.The story of Jesus' death, therefore, involved a profound shift in meaning from the Old Testament tradition. The name \"Old Testament\" reflects Christianity's understanding of itself as thefulfillmentof Jeremiah's",
"Jeremiah's prophecy of aNew Covenant(which is similar to \"testament\" and often conflated) to replace the existingcovenantbetween God and Israel (Jeremiah 31:31).The emphasis, however, has shifted from Judaism's understanding of the covenant as a racially or tribally based pledge between God and the Jewish people, to one between God and any person of faith who is \"in Christ\". See also Explanatory notes Citations General and cited references Further reading External links",
"Doctor Whoseason 12 The twelfth season ofBritishscience fiction televisionseriesDoctor Whobegan on 28 December 1974 withTom Baker's first serialRobot, and ended withRevenge of the Cybermenon 10 May 1975. This is the first season to featureTom Bakeras thefourth incarnationofthe Doctor, an alienTime Lordwho travels through time and space in hisTARDIS, which appears to be a Britishpolice boxon the outside. He is accompanied bycompanionsSarah Jane Smith(Elisabeth Sladen), continuing fromseason eleven, andHarry Sullivan(Ian Marter), who joins in this season. WithBarry LettsandTerrance Dickshaving both departed along withJon Pertwee, new producerPhilip Hinchcliffeand new script editorRobert Holmesworked on this series. Letts's last story as producer wasRobot, with Hinchcliffe producing the rest of the season. Holmes had previously written for the programme. Casting Main cast During production of season eleven, it was known thatJon Pertweewould be leaving his role as theThird Doctorand that a newFourth Doctorwould",
"Doctorwould need to be cast for the part.Tom Bakerwas an out-of-work actor, working in construction at the time.Baker had been a television and film actor, having major parts in several films includingThe Vault of Horror(1973) and as the main antagonist inThe Golden Voyage of Sinbadthe same year. He had written to Bill Slater, the Head of Serials at the BBC, asking for work.Slater suggested Baker toDoctor WhoproducerBarry Lettswho had been looking to fill the part.Letts had been the producer of the series since the early Pertwee serials in 1970. He had seen Baker's work inThe Golden Voyage of Sinbadand hired him for the part.Baker would continue in his role asthe Doctorfor seven seasons, longer than any other actor to play the part. Elisabeth Sladenreturned to play the role of companionSarah Jane Smiththroughout the season.Ian Marterjoined the cast asHarry Sullivan. The character was created before Baker was cast; there had been discussion of casting an older actor as the Doctor, and so Harry was created as",
"was created as a younger character to handle the action scenes. Recurring cast Nicholas CourtneyandJohn Levenereprised their roles asthe BrigadierandWarrant Officer Bentonrespectively in the first serial,Robot.Courtney had begun his role in theSecond DoctorstoryThe Web of Fear(1968), where the character was a colonel. Levene had begun inSecond DoctorstoryThe Invasion(1968), replacing another actor. Both were members of the military organizationUnited Nations Intelligence Taskforce(UNIT). They, along with Sladen, would be the transition cast to carry through from the Third Doctor to the Fourth Doctor, thoughRobotis the only UNIT story for the twelfth season. Serials AfterRobot, all the serials in this season continue directly one after the other, tracing one single problematic voyage of the TARDIS crew. Despite the continuity, each serial is considered its own standalone story. The season was initially formatted as the previous Pertwee season had been with three six-part stories and two four-part stories. To",
"stories. To this end, the initial structure was to open with the four-partRobotand the four-partSpace Stationby Christopher Langley followed by three six-parters –Genesis of Terror(later retitledGenesis of the Daleks),Loch Ness, and another six-part story to be determined. Script editor Robert Holmes discussed with Philip Hinchcliffe the possibility of replacing the as-yet undecided six-parter with a four-part story and a two-parter, both with the same production team. The season structure later became two four-part stories (Robotand a replacement forSpace Station,The Ark in Space), the new two-parterThe Destructors(later retitledThe Sontaran Experiment), the six-partGenesis of Terror, and a four-part version ofLoch Ness(later retitledTerror of the Zygonsand held over for season 13).This decision madeThe Sontaran Experimentthe first two-part story sinceSeason 2'sThe Rescue. It was also the first to be shot entirely on location sinceJon Pertwee's opening storySpearhead from SpaceinSeason 7, and the first to",
"7, and the first to be shot entirely onvideotapeinstead of 16mmfilm, as was usual for location shooting.As a means of saving money,The Ark in SpaceandRevenge of the Cybermenwere shot on the same sets. Production Barry Letts served as producer forRobot, after which he was succeeded byPhilip Hinchcliffe.Robert Holmestook over from Terrance Dicks as script editor. Robotwas written by Dicks, who citedKing Kongas an influence for the serial.Dicks incorporated several familiar elements from the Third Doctor's first storySpearhead from Space(1970), which helped the audience transition between actors.The Ark in Spacewas written byRobert Holmesfrom a story byJohn Lucarottithat was considered unusable.Letts and Dicks were eager to haveTerry Nationreturn to write the Daleks, but initially found his script too similar to past Dalek adventures. They suggested that he write a Dalek origin story instead, which becameGenesis of the Daleks.However, under Hinchcliffe, the serial gained a darker tone. The sets ofThe Ark in",
"sets ofThe Ark in Spacewere reused forRevenge of the Cybermen.Genesis of the Dalekswas the last serial of the season to be filmed, afterRevenge of the Cybermen.This took place in January and February 1975. Broadcast The entire season was broadcast from 28 December 1974 to 10 May 1975. The title sequence for Part One ofThe Ark in Spacewas tinted sepia as an experiment, but was not repeated for subsequent episodes. Home media VHS releases Betamax releases Video 2000 releases Laserdisc releases DVD and Blu-ray releases All releases are forDVDunless otherwise indicated: In print References Bibliography External links",
"Genesis of the Daleks Genesis of the Daleksis the fourth serial of thetwelfth seasonof the Britishscience fiction televisionseriesDoctor Who. It was written byTerry Nationand directed byDavid Maloney, and originally broadcast in six weekly parts from 8 March to 12 April 1975 onBBC1. In the serial, the alientime travellertheFourth Doctor(Tom Baker) and his travellingcompanionsSarah Jane Smith(Elisabeth Sladen) andHarry Sullivan(Ian Marter) are directed by theTime Lordsto the planetSkaroat the time of theDaleks' creation to prevent them from becoming the dominant race in the universe. Genesis of the Dalekswas originally commissioned under producerBarry Lettsand script editorTerrance Dicks, who believed that the outline submitted by Nation was too similar to his previous Dalek adventures, and encouraged him to explore the origin of the Daleks. The story introduces the Daleks' creatorDavros(Michael Wisher), who had a unique visual design. The script was handed to Letts and Dicks' successors, producerPhilip",
"producerPhilip Hinchcliffeand script editorRobert Holmes, who made changes to the original script which gave it a darker tone. Nation, having intentionally modelled the Daleks on theNazis, further explored the theme inGenesis. It also addresses the moral issues that come withtime travelandgenocide. The story was filmed over January and February 1975, with some location filming in a quarry inBetchworth. Genesis of the Dalekspremiered with 10.7 million viewers and concluded five weeks later with 9.1 million, with the least-watched episode being Part Three with 8.5 million viewers. Since its broadcast it has been widely praised as one of the series' best. The story was novelised in 1976 by Dicks, and released as a condensedLPin 1979, before being released onVHSin 1991 andDVDin 2006. Plot The Doctorand his companions are intercepted by theTime Lords, who instruct the Doctor to interfere with the creation of theDaleks; and given a Time Ring to return them to his TARDIS when the mission is complete. The three find",
"The three find themselves on the planet ofSkaro. A generations-long war between theThalsand theKaledshas left the planet inhospitable; except for their two domes. An attack separates them;Sarahmeets the Mutos, mutated exiles of both sides, but then are all captured by the Thals. The Doctor and Harry are captured by the Kaleds, their possessions confiscated, and are taken to a bunker to meet the scientific and military elite, including the lead scientistDavros, who unveils the \"Mark III travel machine\", or \"Dalek\". Ronson, one of the scientists, secretly tells the Doctor that Davros' experiments are unethical, and the Doctor convinces the leadership to halt them. Learning of Ronson's actions, Davros covertly provides the Thal leaders a chemical formula that can weaken the Kaled dome. The Doctor and Harry reach the Thal dome and rescue Sarah; missiles strike the Kaled dome, killing all those not in the bunker. Davros accuses Ronson of being the traitor, orders the Daleks to kill him, and convinces the",
"and convinces the leadership to have his Daleks attack the Thals. The attack kills many Thals; the Doctor, his companions, and the survivors make their way to the bunker and the Doctor instructs them to find a way to destroy it while he and his companions go inside. Davros captures the Doctor; the other scientists, now aware of his plans, free the Doctor, who then rigs the Dalek incubation room with explosives. As he is about to touch the two exposed wire ends to set them off, he hesitates, questioning whether he has the right to make that decision. He is relieved to learn that Davros has agreed to allow a vote on the project. The Doctor recovers the Time Ring; as the vote is called, the Daleks return and exterminate the remaining Kaleds. Harry and Sarah escape, while the Doctor returns to set off the explosives, but a Dalek inadvertently sets it off itself. The Doctor escapes before the Thal and Mutos' bomb caves in the bunker, trapping Davros and the Daleks, who then refuse to take orders from a non-Dalek,",
"from a non-Dalek, and seemingly exterminate Davros. While he suspects he has only managed to set back Dalek evolution somewhat, the Doctor considers his mission complete: out of the Daleks' evil, good will always arise to challenge them. He and his companions say goodbye to the survivors and use the Time Ring to return to the TARDIS. Production Conception and writing When planning stories for season 12, producerBarry Lettsand script editorTerrance Dicksfelt that it was time forTerry Nationto return to the series and write another Dalek adventure. Letts and Dicks enjoyed the script Nation sent in, but found it too \"reminiscent\" of many of his previous Dalek stories. The two suggested that Nation instead write an origin story for the Daleks,originally titledDaleks – Genesis of Terror.The serial was commissioned on 1 April 1974, and the scripts accepted on 22 July.The stories lined up for the season were handed over to Letts and Dicks' successors, producerPhilip Hinchcliffeand script editorRobert Holmes, with",
"Holmes, with whomGenesis of the Daleksgained a darker tone.Holmes was not a fan of frequent appearances by the Daleks, and only allowed the story because it explored their origins.In an aim to make the series more adult, Hinchcliffe wanted the story to be \"pacy\" and make the Daleks appear more powerful.In a 2006 interview, Dicks said that he does not believe the story would have been much different if he and Letts had been in charge, though he remarked he would have added some lighter moments to soften the \"grim\" tone.DirectorDavid Maloneystated that the images of war at the beginning of the serial were intended to create atmosphere, and he had no intention of losing the younger audience. The production ofGenesis of the Dalekssaw several changes from the script. Maloney altered the opening scene to show the soldiers gunned down by machine guns in slow motion. Nation was displeased with the change, and Maloney later felt that the violent addition was \"a bit much\".Hinchcliffe and Maloney were not keen on the",
"not keen on the Doctor's original meeting with the Time Lord, which took place in a lush garden, and changed it to the Skaro war-zone which they felt more appropriate.The Thal soldiers were originally supposed to be boys aged 15 or 16 to illustrate the youth of those fighting in the war, but this was later changed to make them appear more mature.In theGenesis of Terrorscript, Sarah Jane becomes ill in the third episode from radiation poisoning, and Bettan was a male who was introduced in the fourth episode.Part Five originally had more action in the Dalek incubator room and ended with the Doctor's question of whether he had the right to destroy them. Casting and costumes The talent onGenesiswas extraordinary. David Spode's sets were incredible, Sylvia and Barbara achieved wonders with makeup and costume, and then there were the actors – all excellent. But the star of the show, I have to say, was Michael Wisher. –Elisabeth SladenonGenesis of the Daleksin her autobiography. Maloney castJohn Franklyn-Robbinsas",
"Franklyn-Robbinsas the Time Lord because he had worked with him before and intended his character to resemble Death inThe Seventh Seal.Hilary Minster, who played a Thal soldier, had also played a Thal inPlanet of the Daleks(1973). Minster had been considered for the role of Mogran.Peter Miles previously played Dr. Lawrence inDoctor Who and the Silurians(1970) and Professor Whitaker inInvasion of the Dinosaurs(1974).Stephen Yardley, who played the Muto Sevrin, later appeared inVengeance on Varos(1985).During filming ofGenesis, Yardley walked into the casting department on his lunch break in costume and asked for a job; because of his costume, they assumed he was a tramp from the street.Dennis Chinnery, who played Gharman, had previously been seen inThe Chase(1965) and would later appear inThe Twin Dilemma(1984). The character of Davros was designed by Nation to have created the Daleks in his image, and to also be a \"spokesperson\" for the Daleks as he felt it was \"boring\" listening to Daleks giving",
"to Daleks giving speeches.The design was inspired bythe Mekon, a comic book character with a small body and a large \"green, dome-like head\" which Hinchcliffe remembered from his childhood.Davros attracted the attention of BBC prosthetics designer John Friedlander who agreed to come off another show to make Davros' mask. Thelatexmask was moulded toMichael Wisher's face by make-up artist Sylvia James. Wisher could even eat while wearing the mask.Regular latex instead of the more mouldablefoam latexwas used because the latter was too expensive.The cast and crew regarded Davros' effects as a great technical achievement considering the budget and time period they worked in. Two children visiting Baker at the BBC studios were scared by Wisher in costume; they thought he was a statue at first.When sitting in Davros' Dalek-like base, Wisher wore knee pads and a kilt because trousers were too uncomfortable.To prepare during rehearsals, Wisher acted in a wheelchair with a paper bag over his head that only had slits",
"that only had slits cut out for his eyes so he would be used to the \"disorienting\" situation and be able to express himself without using his whole face.Wisher, a heavy smoker, put two holes in the top of the bag so he could smoke underneath it in rehearsals.Wisher also provided some of the voices for the Daleks withRoy Skelton; in some scenes, he was acting to his own pre-recorded dialogue.Stuntman and actorTerry Walshappeared uncredited in several roles. Filming and effects Genesis of the Dalekswas the last serial of the twelfth season to be filmed, afterRevenge of the Cybermen.As Sarah Jane had been filmed inRevengewearing a combat costume, it was added intoGenesisthat the Doctor would hand her the outfit, into which she changes by the next scene.The story was mainly filmed in January 1975, with some studio recording carried into February.Location filming for the serial took place atBetchworthquarry inSurrey,which represented the landscape of Skaro.Having had trouble with the Daleks on location inPlanet",
"location inPlanet of the Daleks(1973), Maloney scheduled shooting so that they only appeared in studio scenes.The three active Dalek props used in the serial were originals from the 1960s, and their wear was covered by new paint. Five \"dummy\" Daleks which could not be operated were also used.Hinchcliffe wanted the Daleks to appear more powerful, and intended to achieve this through low angles and lighting. Duncan Brown, who was responsible for studio lighting, used colours and dark lighting to make the Daleks seem as if they were \"emerging from the shadows\" and to suggest rather than show the world created to viewers. The same model was used for both the Kaled and the Thal domes.The gas attack in Part One was achieved throughdry iceand green lighting.Some of the Thal guns were re-used props from theFirst Doctor(William Hartnell) serialGalaxy 4(1965).The electric trolley used by the Kaleds in Part One worked in tests, but collapsed when Baker and Marter boarded it.The creature Harry and the Doctor glimpse at",
"Doctor glimpse at the end of Part Two was mainly a reusedIce Warriorcostume, while the Thal rocket ship was a reused model fromThe Ambassadors of Death(1970).During the filming of Part Two, Miles and Chinnery had trouble fitting the gun on the Dalek. As a result, the scene had to be filmed in two takes, bridged with a reaction shot of the Doctor.Part Two is unusual in that it is one of the very few episodes not to begin with a reprise,and also the first to end in a freeze frame.A stunt double for Elisabeth Sladen was hired for Sarah's fall from the scaffolding, but Maloney discovered that she would be falling eight feet, while Sladen had fallen ten feet in rehearsals. Maloney ultimately decided to conclude the episode with a freeze frame ending.Maloney would use the freeze frame technique again, most notably withThe Deadly Assassin.The third episode overran its 25-minute limit and rather than cut material out the cliffhanger was changed from Davros' speech to the Doctor being electrocuted.The music for the",
"music for the serial was recorded on 3 March 1975 and the dubbing finished the day before Part One aired. Themes and analysis Nation, who grew up duringWorld War II, intentionally based the Daleks on theNazis, and this episode contains many deliberate parallels.The Kaleds dress in uniforms reminiscent of the Nazis and display \"fascist salutes\".The Kaleds look to \"keep race pure\" by banishing the Thals and Mutos.Cast and crew members described it as a \"warning to the world\" about the danger of allowingauthoritarianismto take over.Davros has been likened to Nazi dictatorAdolf Hitlerseveral times,while physical comparisons have also been drawn between the appearance of Nyder andSSchiefHeinrich Himmler; aside from the resemblance, both wear insignias and spectacles.As production of the third episode began, the producers decided to play down some of theNazi symbolism, and took away Nyder'sIron Cross. It briefly reappears in a later scene that was filmed in the first recording block. Ed Webb and Mark Wardecker,",
"and Mark Wardecker, in a paper inDoctor Who and Philosophy, interpreted the Dalek history shown inGenesis of the Daleksas a warning that \"scientists will be the one to bring about the ultimate destruction, the ultimate evil, anddeliberatelyso\".They also commented that the serial showed that the Daleks were evil by design, rather than evolution.Davros represents a mad scientist who creates a monster that then consumes him.Sarah Honeychurch and Niall Burr, in the same book, wrote that the corruption of the Daleks showed that creatures should not be created with \"such limited moral reasoning,\" and that in our world we cannot \"impose our own personal human standards on everybody else\". Genesis of the Daleksalso displays a battle between good and evil.Letts enjoyed the fact that the story did not have clear heroes and villains, but rather a conflict of principle.The discussion between the Doctor and Davros about the hypothetical viral weapon demonstrates this. Hinchcliffe described it as the \"hero meets antihero\"",
"meets antihero\" moment, with the two engaged in \"intellectual grappling\".The episode also presents the \"moral dilemma\" of whether the Doctor should destroy the Daleks, resulting in the famous \"Have I the right?\" scene.The Doctor's comparison to knowingly killing a child who would grow up to be a dictator shows how the Doctor's ethics are influenced by his non-linear experience of time.He considers the good things that may come out of the Daleks, such as that \"many future worlds would become allies\".The Doctor's conclusion that he does not have the right is an example ofutilitarianreasoning, and a \"duty-based ethical\" position.Sladen recalled that Baker took the scene very seriously, almost \"agonising\" over the dialogue. Comparisons to other stories have been drawn. The Time Lord who appears at the story's beginning is intentionally costumed to resemble Death inIngmar Bergman's filmThe Seventh Seal.Gareth Robertshas compared this character to theghost of Hamlet's father, setting the protagonist (the Doctor)",
"(the Doctor) on a violent mission with which he has moral qualms.Martin Wiggins, senior lecturer and fellow at theShakespeare Instituteat Stratford-upon-Avon, suggests that the Doctor's indecision about destroying the Dalek embryos in the \"have I the right?\" scene is derived fromThe Brothers Karamazov. Broadcast and reception Genesis of the Dalekswas first broadcast in six weekly parts from 8 March to 12 April 1975. Viewership varied from 8 to 10 million; Parts One and Two were watched by audiences of 10.7 and 10.5 million, Parts Three and Four were watched by audiences of 8.5 and 8.8 million, and Parts Five and Six were watched by audiences of 9.8 and 9.1 million.AudienceAppreciation Indexeswere taken for the second, fourth, fifth, and sixth episodes, scoring 57, 58, 57, and 56 respectively. At the time of broadcast, there were some complaints about the level of violence portrayed.Mary Whitehouse, of theNational Viewers' and Listeners' Association, complained thatGenesiscontained \"tea-time brutality for",
"brutality for tots\".Scenes objected to included the depictions of war and Nyder hitting the Doctor.David J. HoweandStephen James Walker, in theirDoctor Who: The Television Companion(1998), recorded a positive reaction from fans in regards to creativity and Davros, though one writer noted the ending did not satisfyingly close the story.The BBC's Audience Research Report concluded, \"A little more complex than someDoctor Whoadventures, perhaps, and with underlying questions of conscience, the serial had been 'different' it was occasionally felt and, although dismissed in some quarters as far-fetched, long drawn-out, confused and/or predictable, had provided acceptable escapist entertainment for the majority.\"Howe and Walker themselves described the serial as \"well-written and full of new ideas, while still remaining true to the Daleks' roots by effectively equating them with the Nazis\", and particularly praised the production values, pacing, and moral dilemma. They considered it to have a few minor flaws,",
"a few minor flaws, namely Harry being attacked by a giant clam, some \"duff\" cliffhangers, and \"many of the scientist characters serve no other purpose than to act as Dalek-fodder\". In 2010, Mark Braxton ofRadio Timesawarded the serial a full five stars and hailed it as \"Terry Nation's finest hour for the series\", suggesting that Davros was \"the greatest villain inDoctor Whohistory\". He was also positive towards Dudley Simpson's score and Davros's allies, who were \"impeccably written and played\" from Nyder to Gharman, but was disappointed that Harry did not have much to do.The A.V. Clubreviewer Christopher Bahn noted that it contradicted some aspects ofThe Daleksbut that it \" the emotional target dead-on\". He particularly praised Davros and Skaro, but considered the \"major problem\" with the portrayal of the Daleks was that \"we're not given any choice but to view them as psychopathic murderers\", and the Doctor came across as a \"catastrophically incompetent secret agent\".DVD Talk's Stuart Galbraith gaveGenesis",
"gaveGenesis of the Daleksfour out of five stars, calling it a \"real fan-pleaser\" and writing that Wisher was \"superb\" as Davros. While noting that the story \"is mostly concerned with action and suspense, which it does rather well\", he wrote that it \"isn't especially original\" as it dealt with common time-travel issues, despite doing it in \"intelligent ways\".In 2009,SFXlisted the scene where the Daleks receive their first blaster as the thirteenth scariest moment ofDoctor Who.The magazine also named the scene where Harry is attacked by a giant clam as one of the silliestDoctor Whomoments, noting \"even the bestDoctor Whostories have the occasional dropped stitch\".Charlie Jane Andersofio9, in a 2010 article, listed the cliffhanger of Episode Four – in which the Doctor is forced to tell Davros how the Daleks will be defeated in the future – as one of the greatestDoctor Whocliffhangers. Writing forBFIScreenonline, James Donohue thoughtGenesis of the Daleks\"shows the series developing a more complex appreciation",
"appreciation of the moral issues surrounding being a monster\", but \"the plot contrives to prevent the Doctor from having to make the difficult decision himself anyway. He delays Davros' plans, but he does not change the future. Lacking the courage to answer the questions it raises,Genesisshows how challenging, and how infuriating, children's TV can be.\" Legacy Genesis of the Daleksis one of the most widely known serials of the original run as it was repeated often. It was edited into an 85-minute omnibus version and broadcast on BBC1 at 3:00 pm on 27 December 1975,attracting 7.6 million viewers, and also was repeated in two edited 45-minute episodes as part of the \"Doctor Who and the Monsters\" on 26 July and 2 August 1982, which attracted audiences of 4.9 and 5 million.It was then repeated in its original serial form onBBC Twoin 1993 (averaging 2.2 million viewers) and 2000 (averaging 1 to 1.5 million).In a 1998 poll of readers ofDoctor Who Magazine, over 2500 voters placedGenesisat the top of a poll to find",
"of a poll to find the greatestDoctor Whostories of all time.In the magazine's 2009 \"Mighty 200\" poll, asking readers to rank all of the then-made 200 stories,Genesiscame in third place, behindThe Caves of Androzani(1984) and \"Blink\" (2007).In a 2014 poll, the magazine's readers again placed the episode in third place.In 2008,The Daily TelegraphnamedGenesis of the Daleksone of the ten greatest episodes ofDoctor Who. Genesis of the Daleksis the first example in the history ofDoctor Whoof \"outright revisionism\"; the creation story of the Daleks is very different from that established inThe Daleks(1963),where it was said they evolved from creatures known as Dals, who were once similar to the Thals. Here, the Dals from the original story are changed to Kaleds.The Official Doctor Who and the Daleks Book, co-authored by Terry Nation, suggested thatThe Dalekstook place during the Daleks' 1000-year hibernation followingGenesis of the Daleks, and that the Daleks seen in that story were the descendants of Kaled mutants",
"of Kaled mutants who had sought refuge in the destroyed Kaled city and discovered Davros' prototypes and notes.Russell T Davies, who revivedDoctor Whoin 2005, suggested that the origins of theTime War, a conflict between the Time Lords and the Daleks which contributed to the storyline of the new series, began with the Time Lords' attempted genocide of the Daleks inGenesis. Davros is resurrected inDestiny of the Daleks(1979), played byDavid Gooderson, and appears in the remaining three Dalek stories of the classic series played byTerry Molloy.He has also appeared in the revived series since \"The Stolen Earth\"/\"Journey's End\" (2008), played byJulian Bleach.In \"The Magician's Apprentice\" (2015), footage from the episode is used with its plot based on the Fourth Doctor's moral issue if one has the right to kill a child if they knew \"that child would grow up totally evil.\" Davros' early life is additionally covered in the 2006Big Finish Productionsfour-part audio seriesI, Davros,which saw Miles reprising his role",
"reprising his role as Nyder in the fourth episode, \"Guilt\". Commercial releases In print TheTargetnovelisation of this serial, written byTerrance Dicks, was published byTandemin 1976. It was re-released byVirgin Publishingin 1991, bearing its designated number of 27 in the novelisation range.TheGenesis of the Daleksnovelisation has the largest print run of any of the original series, selling over 100,000 copies. Home media In 1979, the BBC released a condensed audio version of the serial as anLP.In 1988, this recording was reissued on cassette byBBC Audioalongside a later radio play,Slipback.It was subsequently released on CD in a revised and expanded version by BBC Audio paired withExploration Earth: The Time Machinein 2001.In February 2011, Audio Go reissued the one-hour condensed audio version of the LP as part of their \"Vintage Beeb\" range. Genesis of the Dalekswas released onVHSbyBBC Enterprisesin 1991 withThe Sontaran Experiment,and again as part of a box set of stories featuring Davros in 2001.It was",
"in 2001.It was released onDVDas a two-disc special edition in the United Kingdom byBBC Worldwideon 10 April 2006and in the United States byWarner Home Videoon 6 June 2006.This DVD is also available as part of the limited edition 2007 release ofThe Complete Davros Collectionbox set along withDestiny of the Daleks,Resurrection of the Daleks,Revelation of the DaleksandRemembrance of the Daleks. A 1080iupscaledremaster of the story was released onBlu-rayin the United Kingdom byBBC Studiosas part of the 'Complete Season 12' box set on 11 June 2018, and in the United States by Warner Home Video (as 'Tom Baker: Season One') on 19 June 2018;This release contained both the original 6-episode version and the 85-minute abridged repeat. To promote the release, the repeat version (marketed as a 'Director's Cut') was screened theatrically in the United States viaFathom Eventson 11 June 2018. In November 2020, the story was released as part of theTime Lord Victorious: Road to the Dark TimesBlu-ray, along withPlanet of the",
"withPlanet of the Daleks,The Deadly Assassin,State of Decay,The Curse of Fenric, \"The Runaway Bride\" and \"The Waters of Mars\". References Bibliography External links Target novelisation"
] |
What does Lose Your Way by the British rock band Love Amongst Ruin have in common with Sally Lunn Buns? | They're both made in Bath | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lose_Your_Way_(album) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath,_Somerset#Culture | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_Lunn_bun | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | Post processing | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lose_Your_Way_(album)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath,_Somerset#Culture', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_Lunn_bun'] | [
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"Bath, Somerset Bath(RP:/bɑːθ/;local pronunciation:) is a city in theceremonial countyofSomersetin England, known for and named after itsRoman-built baths.At the 2021 Census, the population was 94,092.Bath is in the valley of theRiver Avon, 97 miles (156 km) west ofLondonand 11 miles (18 km) southeast ofBristol. The city became aUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitein 1987, and was later added to the transnational World Heritage Site known as the \"Great Spa Towns of Europe\" in 2021. Bath is also the largest city and settlement in Somerset. The city became aspawith theLatinnameAquae Sulis(\"the waters ofSulis\")c.60 AD when the Romans builtbathsand a temple in the valley of the River Avon, althoughhot springswere known even before then.Bath Abbeywas founded in the 7th century and became a religious centre; the building was rebuilt in the 12th and 16th centuries. In the 17th century, claims were made for the curative properties of water from the springs, and Bath became popular as aspa townin theGeorgian era.Georgian architecture, crafted fromBath stone, includes theRoyal Crescent,Circus,Pump Room, and theAssembly Rooms, whereBeau Nashpresided over the city's social life from 1705 until his death in 1761. Many of the streets and squares were laid out byJohn Wood, the Elder, and in the 18th century the city became fashionable and the population grew.Jane Austenlived in Bath in the early 19th century. Further building was undertaken in the 19th century and following theBath Blitzin World War II. Bath became part of the county ofAvonin 1974, and, following Avon's abolition in 1996, has been the principal centre ofBath and North East Somerset. Bath has over 6 million yearly visitors,making itone of ten English cities visited most by overseas tourists.Attractions include the spas, canal boat tours, Royal Crescent,Bath Skyline,Parade GardensandRoyal Victoria Parkwhich hostscarnivalsand seasonal events. Shopping areas includeSouthGate shopping centre,the Corridorarcadeand artisan shops atWalcot,Milsom,Stalland York Streets. There are theatres, including theTheatre Royal, as well as several museums including theMuseum of Bath Architecture, theVictoria Art Gallery, theMuseum of East Asian Art, theHerschel Museum of Astronomy,Fashion Museum, and theHolburne Museum. The city has two universities – theUniversity of BathandBath Spa University– withBath Collegeprovidingfurther education. Sporting clubs from the city includeBath RugbyandBath City. History Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages The hills in the locality such asBathampton Downsaw human activity from theMesolithicperiod.SeveralBronze Ageround barrowswere opened byJohn Skinnerin the 18th century.Along barrowsite believed to be from theEarly Bronze AgeBeaker peoplewas flattened to make way forRAF Charmy Down.Solsbury Hilloverlooking the current city was anIron Agehill fortand the adjacent Bathampton Camp may also have been one. Roman baths and town Archaeological evidence shows that the site of theRoman baths'main spring may have been treated as a shrine by theBritons,and was dedicated to the goddessSulis, whom theRomansidentified withMinerva; the name Sulis continued to be used after the Roman invasion, appearing in the town'sRoman name,Aquae Sulis(literally, \"the waters of Sulis\").Messages to her scratched onto metal, known ascurse tablets, have been recovered from the sacred spring by archaeologists.The tablets were written inLatin, and laid curses on personal enemies. For example, if a citizen had his clothes stolen at the baths, he might write a curse against the suspects on a tablet to be read by the goddess. A temple was constructed in AD 60–70, and a bathing complex was built up over the next 300 years.Engineers drove oak piles into the mud to provide a stable foundation, and surrounded the spring with an irregular stone chamber lined with lead. In the 2nd century, the spring was enclosed within a woodenbarrel-vaultedstructure that housed thecaldarium(hot bath),tepidarium(warm bath), andfrigidarium(cold bath). The town was later givendefensive walls, probably in the 3rd century.After the failure of Roman authority in the first decade of the 5th century, the baths fell into disrepair and were eventually lost as a result of rising water levels and silting. In March 2012, a hoard of 30,000 silver Roman coins, one of the largest discovered in Britain, was unearthed in an archaeological dig. The coins, believed to date from the 3rd century, were found about 150 m (490 ft) from the Roman baths. Post-Roman and medieval Bath may have been the site of theBattle of Badon(c.500 AD), in whichArthur, the hero of later legends, is said to have defeated theAnglo-Saxons.The town was captured by theWest Saxonsin 577 after theBattle of Deorham;the Anglo-Saxon poemThe Ruinmay describe the appearance of the Roman site about this time.A monastery was founded at an early date – reputedly bySaint Davidalthough more probably in 675 byOsric, King of theHwicce,perhaps using thewalled areaas its precinct.Nennius, a 9th-century historian, mentions a \"Hot Lake\" in the land of the Hwicce along theRiver Severn, and adds \"It is surrounded by a wall, made of brick and stone, and men may go there to bathe at any time, and every man can have the kind of bath he likes. If he wants, it will be a cold bath; and if he wants a hot bath, it will be hot\".Bededescribed hot baths in the geographical introduction to theEcclesiastical Historyin terms very similar to those of Nennius.King OffaofMerciagained control of the monastery in 781 and rebuilt the church, which was dedicated toSt. Peter. According to the Victorian churchmanEdward Churton, during the Anglo-Saxon era Bath was known asAcemannesceastre('Akemanchester'), or 'aching men's city', on account of the reputation these springs had for healing the sick. By the 9th century, the old Roman street pattern was lost and Bath was a royal possession.King Alfredlaid out the town afresh, leaving its south-eastern quadrant as the abbey precinct.In theBurghal Hidage, Bath is recorded as aburh(borough) and is described as having walls of 1,375 yards (1,257 m) and was allocated 1000 men for defence.During the reign ofEdward the Eldercoins weremintedin Bath based on a design from theWinchestermint but with 'BAD' on the obverse relating to the Anglo-Saxon name for the town, Baðum, Baðan or Baðon, meaning \"at the baths\",and this was the source of the present name.Edgar of Englandwas crowned king of England inBath Abbeyin 973, in a ceremony that formed the basis of all futureEnglish coronations. William Rufusgranted the town, abbey and mint to a royal physician,John of Tours, who became Bishop ofWellsand Abbot of Bath,following the sacking of the town during theRebellion of 1088.It was papal policy for bishops to move to more urban seats, and John of Tourstranslatedhis own from Wells to Bath.The bishop planned and began a much larger church as his cathedral, to which was attached a priory, with the bishop's palace beside it.New baths were built around the three springs. Later bishops returned the episcopal seat to Wells while retaining the name Bath in the title,Bishop of Bath and Wells.St John's Hospitalwas founded around 1180 by BishopReginald Fitz Jocelinand is among the oldestalmshousesin England.The 'hospital of the baths' was built beside the hot springs of theCross Bath, for their health-giving properties and to provide shelter for the poor infirm. Administrative systems fell within thehundreds. TheBath Hundredhad various names including the Hundred of Le Buri. The Bath Foreign Hundred or Forinsecum covered the area outside the city and was later combined into the Bath Forum Hundred. Wealthy merchants had no status within the hundred courts and formedguildsto gain influence. They built the firstguildhallprobably in the 13th century. Around 1200, thefirst mayorwas appointed. Early modern By the 15th century, Bath's abbey church was dilapidatedandOliver King, Bishop of Bath and Wells, decided to rebuild it on a smaller scale in 1500. The new church was completed just a few years before Bath Priory wasdissolvedin 1539 byHenry VIII.The abbey church became derelict before being restored as the city'sparish churchin theElizabethan era, when the city experienced a revival as aspa. The baths were improved and the city began to attract the aristocracy. ARoyal chartergranted by QueenElizabeth Iin 1590 confirmedcity status.James Montagu, Bishop of Bath and Wells from 1608, spent considerable sums in restoring Bath Abbey and actively supported the Baths themselves, aware that the ‘towne liveth wholly by them’. In 1613, perhaps at his behest, Queen Anne visited the town to take the waters: the Queen’s Bath was named after her. The cue for the visit may have been the completion of the restoration work to Bath Abbey, the last instalment of which had been paid for two years previously.Anne of Denmarkcame to Bath in 1613 and 1615. During theEnglish Civil War, the city was garrisoned forCharles I. Seven thousand pounds was spent on fortifications, but on the appearance of parliamentary forces the gates were thrown open and the city surrendered. It became a significant post for the Western Association army underWilliam Waller.Bath was retaken by the royalists in July 1643 following theBattle of Lansdowneand occupied for two years until 1645.Luckily, the city was spared the destruction of property and starvation of its inhabitants unlike nearby Bristol andGloucester. During the occupation, the finances of the Bath City Council took a drubbing with council spending, rents and grants all falling. The billeting of soldiers in private houses also contributed to disorder and vandalism. Normality to the city quickly recovered after the war when the city council achieved a healthy budget surplus.Thomas Guidott, a student of chemistry and medicine atWadham College, Oxford, set up a practice in the city in 1668. He was interested in the curative properties of the waters, and he wroteA discourse of Bathe, and the hot waters there. Also, Some Enquiries into the Nature of the waterin 1676. It brought the health-giving properties of the hot mineral waters to the attention of the country, and the aristocracy arrived to partake in them. Several areas of the city were developed in theStuartperiod, and more building took place duringGeorgiantimes in response to the increasing number of visitors who required accommodation.ArchitectsJohn Wood the Elderandhis sonlaid out the new quarters in streets and squares, the identical façades of which gave an impression of palatial scale and classical decorum.Much of the creamy goldBath stone, a type oflimestoneused for construction in the city, was obtained from theCombe Down and Bathampton Down Minesowned byRalph Allen(1694–1764).Allen, to advertise the quality of his quarried limestone, commissioned the elder John Wood to build a country house on hisPrior Parkestate between the city and the mines.Allen was responsible for improving and expanding the postal service in western England, for which he held the contract for more than forty years.Although not fond of politics, Allen was a civic-minded man and a member of Bath Corporation for many years. He was elected mayor for a single term in 1742. In the early 18th century, Bath acquired its first purpose-built theatre, theOld Orchard Street Theatre. It was rebuilt as theTheatre Royal, along with theGrand Pump Roomattached to the Roman Baths andassembly rooms.Master of ceremoniesBeau Nash, who presided over the city's social life from 1704 until his death in 1761, drew up a code of behaviour for public entertainments.Bath had become perhaps the most fashionable of the rapidly developing British spa towns, attracting many notable visitors such as the wealthy London booksellerAndrew Millarand his wife, who both made long visits.In 1816, it was described as \"a seat of amusement and dissipation\", where \"scenes of extravagance in this receptacle of the wealthy and the idle, the weak and designing\" were habitual. Late modern The population of the city was 40,020 at the 1801 census, making it one of the largest cities in Britain.William Thomas Beckfordbought a house inLansdown Crescentin 1822, and subsequently two adjacent houses to form his residence. Having acquired all the land between his home and the top ofLansdown Hill, he created a garden more than1⁄2mile (800 m) in length and builtBeckford's Towerat the top. EmperorHaile Selassieof Ethiopia spent four years in exile, from 1936 to 1940, atFairfield Housein Bath.DuringWorld War II, between the evening of 25 April and the early morning of 27 April 1942, Bath suffered three air raids in reprisal forRAFraids on the German cities ofLübeckandRostock, part of theLuftwaffecampaign popularly known as theBaedeker Blitz. During theBath Blitz, more than 400 people were killed, and more than 19,000 buildings damaged or destroyed. Houses inRoyal Crescent,CircusandParagonwere burnt out along with theAssembly Rooms.A 500-kilogram (1,100 lb)high explosivebomb landed on the east side ofQueen Square, resulting in houses on the south side being damaged and theFrancis Hotellosing 24 metres (79 ft) of its frontage.The buildings have all been restored although there are still signs of the bombing. A postwar review of inadequate housing led to the clearance and redevelopment of areas of the city in a postwar style, often at variance with the local Georgian style. In the 1950s, the nearby villages ofCombe Down,TwertonandWestonwere incorporated into the city to enable the development of housing, much of itcouncil housing.In 1965, town plannerColin BuchananpublishedBath: A Planning and Transport Study, which to a large degree sought to better accommodate the motor car, including the idea of a traffic tunnel underneath the centre of Bath. Though criticised by conservationists, some parts of the plan were implemented. In the 1970s and 1980s, it was recognised that conservation of historic buildings was inadequate, leading to more care and reuse of buildings and open spaces.In 1987, the city was selected byUNESCOas aWorld Heritage Site, recognising its international cultural significance. Between 1991 and 2000, Bath was the scene of a series of rapes committed by an unidentified man dubbed the \"Batman rapist\".The attacker remains at large and is the subject of Britain's longest-running serial rape investigation.He is said to have atightsfetish, have a scar below his bottom lip and resides in the Bath area or knows it very well.He has also been linked to the unsolvedmurder of Melanie Hall, which occurred in the city in 1996.Although the offender's DNA is known and several thousand men in Bath were DNA tested, the attacker continues to evade police. Since 2000, major developments have included theThermae Bath Spa, theSouthGateshopping centre, the residential Western Riverside project on theStothert & Pittfactory site, and the riverside Bath Quays office and business development.In 2021, Bath become part of a second UNESCO World Heritage Site, a group of spa towns across Europe known as the \"Great Spas of Europe\".This makes it one of the only places to be formally recognised twice as aWorld Heritagesite. Government Since 1996, the city has had asingle tier of local government—Bath and North East Somerset Council. Historical development Bath had long been anancient borough, having that status since 878 when it became a royal borough (burh) ofAlfred the Great, and was reformed into amunicipal boroughin 1835. It has formed part of thecountyof Somerset since 878, when ceded toWessex, having previously been inMercia(the River Avon had acted as the border between the two kingdoms since 628).However, Bath was made acounty boroughin 1889, independent of the newly createdadministrative countyandSomerset County Council.Bath became part ofAvonwhen thenon-metropolitan countywas created in 1974, resulting in its abolition as a county borough, and instead became a non-metropolitan district withborough status. With the abolition of Avon in 1996, the non-metropolitan district and borough were abolished too, and Bath has since been part of theunitary authoritydistrict ofBath and North East Somerset(B&NES).The unitary district included also theWansdykedistrict and therefore includes a wider area than the city (the 'North East Somerset' element) includingKeynshamwhich is home to many of the council's offices, though the council meets at theGuildhallin Bath. Bath was returned to theceremonial countyof Somerset in 1996, though as B&NES is a unitary authority, it is not part of the area covered by Somerset County Council. Charter trustees Bath City Council was abolished in 1996, along with thedistrictof Bath, and there is no longer aparish councilfor the city. The City of Bath's ceremonial functions, including itsformal statusas a city,its twinningarrangements,the mayoralty of Bath– which can be traced back to 1230 – and control of the city'scoat of arms, are maintained by thecharter trusteesof the City of Bath. The councillors elected by the electoral wards that cover Bath (see below) are the trustees, and they elect one of their number as their chair and mayor.The mayor holds office for one municipal year and in modern times the mayor begins their term in office on the first Saturday in June, at a ceremony at Bath Abbey with a civic procession from and to the Guildhall. The 794th mayor, who began her office on 6 May 2021, is June Player. A deputy mayor is also elected. Coat of arms The coat of arms includes a depiction of thecity wall, and two silver stripes representing theRiver Avonand the hot springs. The sword ofSt. Paulis a link to Bath Abbey. The supporters, a lion and a bear, stand on a bed ofacorns, a link toBladud, the subject of the Legend of Bath. The knight's helmet indicates a municipality and thecrownis that of King Edgar (referencing his coronation at the Abbey).Amural crown, indicating acity, is alternatively used instead of the helmet and Edgar's crown. The Arms bear the motto \"Aqvae Svlis\", the Roman name for Bath inLatinscript; although not on the Arms, the motto \"Floreat Bathon\" is sometimes used (\"may Bath flourish\" in Latin). Bath Area Forum Bath and North East Somerset Council has established the Bath City Forum, comprising B&NES councillors representing wards in Bath and up to 13 co-opted members drawn from the communities of the city. The first meeting of the Forum was held on 13 October 2015, at the Guildhall, where the first chair and vice-chair were elected.In 2021, this was re-launched as the Bath Area Forum. Parliamentary elections Bath is one of the oldest extantparliamentary constituenciesin the United Kingdom, being in continuous existence since theModel Parliamentof 1295. Before theReform Act 1832, Bath elected two members to theunreformed House of Commons, as an ancient parliamentary borough.From 1832 until 1918 it elected two MPs and then was reduced to one. Historically the constituency covered only the city of Bath; however, it was enlarged into some outlying areas between 1997 and 2010. The constituency since 2010 once again covers exactly the city of Bath and is currently represented byLiberal DemocratWera Hobhousewho beatConservativeBen Howlettat the2017 general electionand retained her seat at the2019 general election.Howlett had replaced the retiringLiberal DemocratDon Fosterat the2015 general election. Foster's election was a notable result of the1992 general election, asChris Patten, the previous Member (andCabinet Minister) played a major part, asChairman of the Conservative Party, in re-electing the government ofJohn Major, but failed to defend his marginal seat. Electoral wards The fifteenelectoral wardsof Bath are:Bathwick,Combe Down,Kingsmead, Lambridge,Lansdown, Moorlands,Newbridge,Odd Down, Oldfield Park, Southdown,Twerton,Walcot,Westmoreland,WestonandWidcombe&Lyncombe. These wards are co-extensive with the city, except that Newbridge includes also two parishes beyond the city boundary. These wards return a total of 28 councillors toBath and North East Somerset Council; all except two wards return two councillors (Moorlands and Oldfield Park return one each). The most recentelections were held on 4 May 2023and all wards returnedLiberal Democratsexcept for Lambridge and Westmoreland which returnedGreen Partyandindependentcouncillors respectively. Boundary changes enacted from 2 May 2019 included the abolition ofAbbeyward, the merger of Lyncombe and Widcombe wards, the creation of Moorlands ward, and the replacement of Oldfield with Oldfield Park, as well as considerable changes to boundaries affecting all wards. Geography and environment Physical geography Bath is in the Avon Valley and is surrounded by limestone hills as it is near the southern edge of theCotswolds, a designatedArea of Outstanding Natural Beauty, and theMendip Hillsrise around 7 miles (11 km) south of the city. The hills that surround and make up the city have a maximum altitude of 781 feet (238 metres) on the Lansdown plateau. Bath has an area of 11 square miles (28 square kilometres). Thefloodplainof the Avon has an altitude of about 59 ft (18 m) abovesea level,although the city centre is at an elevation of around 25 metres (82 ft) above sea level.The river, once an unnavigable series ofbraided streamsbroken up byswampsand ponds, has been managed byweirsinto a single channel. Periodic flooding, which shortened the life of many buildings in the lowest part of the city, was normal until major flood control works were completed in the 1970s.Kensington Meadows is an area of mixed woodland and open meadow next to the river which has been designated as alocal nature reserve. Water bubbling up from the ground asgeothermal springsoriginates as rain on theMendip Hills. The rain percolates through limestone aquifers to a depth of between 9,000 to 14,000 ft (2,700 to 4,300 m) where geothermal energy raises the water's temperature to between 64 and 96 °C (approximately 147–205 °F). Under pressure, the heated water rises to the surface along fissures and faults in the limestone. Hot water at a temperature of 46 °C (115 °F) rises here at the rate of 1,170,000 litres (257,364 imp gal) daily,from the Pennyquickgeological fault. In 1983, a new spa-water bore-hole was sunk, providing a clean and safe supply for drinking in the Pump Room.There is no universal definition to distinguish ahot springfrom ageothermalspring, although, by severaldefinitions, the Bath springs can be considered the only hot springs in the UK. Three of the springs feed the thermal baths. Climate Along with the rest ofSouth West England, Bath has atemperate climatewhich is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country.The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 °C (50.0 °F). Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures. The summer months of July and August are the warmest, with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 °C (69.8 °F). In winter, mean minimum temperatures of 1 or 2 °C (33.8 or 35.6 °F) are common.In the summer, theAzoreshigh pressure affects the south-west of England bringing fair weather; however,convectivecloud sometimes forms inland, reducing the number of hours of sunshine. Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1,600 hours. In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton. Most of the rainfall in the south-west is caused byAtlantic depressionsor byconvection. In summer, a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground, leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms. Average rainfall is around 700 mm (28 in). About 8–15 days of snowfall is typical. November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, and June to August have the lightest winds. The predominant wind direction is from the southwest. Green belt Bath is fully enclosed bygreen beltas a part of a wider environmental and planning policy first designated in the late 1950s,and this extends into much of the surrounding district and beyond, helping to maintain local green space, prevent furtherurban sprawland unplanned expansion towards Bristol andBradford-on-Avon, as well as protecting smaller villages in between.Suburbs of the city bordering the green belt includeBatheaston,Bathford,Bathampton, the University of Bath campus, Ensleigh,Twerton,Upper Weston,Odd Down, andCombe Down. Parts of the CotswoldsAONBsouthern extent overlap the green belt north of the city, with other nearby landscape features and facilities within the green belt including the River Avon, Kennet and Avon Canal,Bath Racecourse, Bath Golf Club,Bathampton Down, Bathampton Meadow Nature Reserve, Bristol and Bath Railway Path, theCotswold Way,Limestone Linkroute, Pennyquick Park,Little Solsbury Hill, and Primrose Hill. Demography District According to the2021 census, Bath, together with North East Somerset, which includes areas around Bath as far as theChew Valley, had a population of 193,400 (up 9.9% from 2011). The district is largelynon-religiousandChristianat 47.9% and 42.2%, respectively, with no other religion reaching more than 1%. These figures generally compare with the national averages, though the non-religious, at 47.9%, are significantly more prevalent than the national 36.7%. 84.5% of residents rated their health as good or very good, higher than the national level (81.7%). Nationally, 17.7% of people identified as being disabled; in Bath it is 16.2%. The table below compares the unitary authority district as a whole (including the city) andSouth West Englandand contrasts changes since the 2011 census. More detailed updated information, including figures specifically for the city of Bath, appear to be unavailable. City The2011 censusrecorded a population of 94,782 for the Bath built-up area and 88,859 for the city, with the latter exactly corresponding to the boundaries of the parliament constituency.The Bath built-up area extends slightly beyond the boundaries of the city itself, taking in areas to the northeast such asBathamptonandBathford. The 2001 census figure for the city was 83,992.By 2019, the population was estimated at 90,000. An inhabitant of Bath is known as a Bathonian. The table below compares the city of Bath with the unitary authority district as a whole (including the city) andSouth West England. Economy Industry Bath once had an important manufacturing sector, particularly in crane manufacture, furniture manufacture, printing, brass foundries, quarries, dye works andPlasticinemanufacture, as well as many mills.Significant Bath companies includedStothert & Pitt,Bath Cabinet MakersandBath & Portland Stone. During and afterWorld War IIBath was a major location ofMinistry of Defenceoffices, with three major sites on the outskirts of Bath (Ensleigh, Foxhill and Warminster Road) and a number of smaller central offices including theEmpire Hotel. After theCold Warstaff numbers declined, and from 2010 to 2013 about 2,600 remaining staff were moved toMoD Abbey Woodin Bristol. In 2013 the three major sites were sold for the development of over 1,000 new houses. Nowadays, manufacturing is in decline, but the city boasts strong software, publishing and service-oriented industries, and the international manufacturing companyRotorkhas its headquarters in the city.The city's attraction to tourists has also led to a significant number of jobs in tourism-related industries. Important economic sectors in Bath include education and health (30,000 jobs), retail, tourism and leisure (14,000 jobs) and business and professional services (10,000 jobs). Major employers are theNational Health Service, the city's two universities, and Bath and North East Somerset Council. Growing employment sectors include information and communication technologies and creative and cultural industries where Bath is one of the recognised national centres for publishing,with the magazine and digital publisherFuture plcemploying around 650 people. Others includeBuro Happold(400) andIPL Information Processing Limited(250).The city boasts over 400 retail shops, half of which are run by independent specialist retailers, and around 100 restaurants and cafes primarily supported by tourism. Tourism One of Bath's principal industries is tourism, with annually more than one million staying visitors and 3.8 million day visitors.The visits mainly fall into the categories ofheritage tourismandcultural tourism, aided by the city's selection in 1987 as a World Heritage Site in recognition of its international cultural importance.All significant stages of thehistory of Englandare represented within the city, from the Roman Baths (including their significantCelticpresence), to Bath Abbey and the Royal Crescent, to the more recent Thermae Bath Spa. The size of the tourist industry is reflected in the almost 300 places of accommodation – including more than 80 hotels, two of which have 'five-star' ratings,over 180bed and breakfasts– many of which are located inGeorgian buildings, and two campsites located on the western edge of the city. The city also has about 100 restaurants and a similar number ofpubsand bars. Several companies offeropen top bustours around the city, as well as tours on foot and on the river. Since the opening of Thermae Bath Spa in 2006, the city has attempted to recapture its historical position as the only town or city in the United Kingdom offering visitors the opportunity to bathe in naturally heated spring waters. In the 2010Google Street ViewBest Streets Awards, the Royal Crescent took second place in the \"Britain's Most Picturesque Street\" award, first place being given toThe ShamblesinYork.Milsom Streetwas also awarded \"Britain's Best Fashion Street\" in the 11,000-strong vote. Architecture There are many Romanarchaeologicalsites throughout the central area of the city. Thebathsthemselves are about 6 metres (20 ft) below the present city street level. Around the hot springs, Roman foundations, pillar bases, and baths can still be seen; however, all thestoneworkabove the level of the baths is from more recent periods. Bath Abbey was aNormanchurch built on earlier foundations. The present building dates from the early 16th century and shows alate Perpendicularstyle withflying buttressesandcrocketedpinnaclesdecorating acrenellatedand piercedparapet.The choir and transepts have afan vaultbyRobertandWilliam Vertue.A matching vault was added to the nave in the 19th century.The building is lit by 52 windows. Most buildings in Bath are made from the local, golden-coloured Bath stone,and many date from the 18th and 19th century. The dominant style of architecture in Central Bath is Georgian;this style evolved from thePalladianrevival style that became popular in the early 18th century. Many of the prominent architects of the day were employed in the development of the city. The original purpose of much of Bath's architecture is concealed by the honey-coloured classical façades; in an era before the advent of the luxury hotel, these apparently elegant residences were frequently purpose-built lodging houses, where visitors could hire a room, a floor, or (according to their means) an entire house for the duration of their visit, and be waited on by the house's communalservants.The masonsReeves of Bathwere prominent in the city from the 1770s to 1860s. The Circus consists of three long, curved terraces designed by the elder John Wood to form a circular space or theatre intended for civic functions and games. The games give a clue to the design, the inspiration behind which was theColosseumin Rome.Like the Colosseum, the three façades have a different order of architecture on each floor:Doricon the ground level, thenIonicon thepiano nobile, and finishing withCorinthianon the upper floor, the style of the building thus becoming progressively more ornate as it rises.Wood never lived to see his unique example of town planning completed as he died five days after personally laying the foundation stone on 18 May 1754. The most spectacular of Bath's terraces is the Royal Crescent, built between 1767 and 1774 and designed by the younger John Wood.Wood designed the great curved façade of what appears to be about 30 houses with Ioniccolumnson a rusticated ground floor, but that was the extent of his input: each purchaser bought a certain length of the façade, and then employed their own architect to build a house to their own specifications behind it; hence what appears to be two houses is in some cases just one. This system of town planning is betrayed at the rear of the crescent: while the front is completely uniform and symmetrical, the rear is a mixture of differing roof heights, juxtapositions and fenestration. The \"Queen Anne fronts and Mary-Anne backs\" architecture occurs repeatedly in Bath and was designed to keep hired women at the back of the house.Other fine terraces elsewhere in the city include Lansdown CrescentandSomerset Placeon the northern hill. Around 1770 theneoclassicalarchitectRobert AdamdesignedPulteney Bridge, using as the prototype for the three-arched bridge spanning the Avon an original, but unused, design byAndrea Palladiofor theRialto Bridgein Venice.Thus, Pulteney Bridge became not just a means of crossing the river, but also a shopping arcade. Along with the Rialto Bridge and thePonte VecchioinFlorence, which it resembles, it is one of the very few surviving bridges in Europe to serve this dual purpose.It has been substantially altered since it was built. The bridge was named after Frances andWilliam Pulteney, the owners of the Bathwick estate for which the bridge provided a link to the rest of Bath.The Georgian streets in the vicinity of the river tended to be built high above the original ground level to avoid flooding, with the carriageways supported on vaults extending in front of the houses. This can be seen in the multi-storey cellars around Laura Place south of Pulteney Bridge, in the colonnades below Grand Parade, and in the grated coal holes in the pavement of North Parade. In some parts of the city, such as George Street, and London Road near Cleveland Bridge, the developers of the opposite side of the road did not match this pattern, leaving raised pavements with the ends of the vaults exposed to a lower street below. The heart of the Georgian city was the Pump Room, which, together with its associated Lower Assembly Rooms, was designed byThomas Baldwin, a local builder responsible for many other buildings in the city, including the terraces in Argyle Streetand theGuildhall.Baldwin rose rapidly, becoming a leader in Bath's architectural history. In 1776, he was made the chiefCity Surveyor, andBath City Architect.Great Pulteney Street, where he eventually lived, is another of his works: this wideboulevard, constructed around 1789 and over 1,000 feet (305 m) long and 100 feet (30 m) wide, is lined on both sides by Georgian terraces. In the 1960s and early 1970s some parts of Bath were unsympathetically redeveloped, resulting in the loss of some 18th- and 19th-century buildings. This process was largely halted by a popular campaign which drew strength from the publication of Adam Fergusson'sThe Sack of Bath.Controversy has revived periodically, most recently with the demolition of the 1930s Churchill House, a neo-Georgian municipal building originally housing the Electricity Board, to make way for a newbus station. This is part of the Southgate redevelopment in which an ill-favoured 1960s shopping precinct, bus station and multi-storey car park were demolished and replaced by a new area ofneo-Georgianshopping streets. As a result of this and other changes, notably plans for abandoned industrial land along the Avon, the city's status as a World Heritage Site was reviewed by UNESCO in 2009.The decision was made to let Bath keep its status, but UNESCO asked to be consulted on future phases of the Riverside development,saying that the density and volume of buildings in the second and third phases of the development need to be reconsidered.It also demanded Bath do more to attract world-class architecture in new developments. In 2021, Bath received its second UNESCO World Heritage inscription, becoming part of a group of 11 spa towns across seven countries that were listed by UNESCO as the \"Great Spas of Europe\". Culture Bath became the centre of fashionable life in England during the 18th century when its Old Orchard Street Theatre andarchitecturaldevelopments such as Lansdown Crescent,the Royal Crescent,The Circus, and Pulteney Bridge were built. Bath's five theatres –Theatre Royal,Ustinov Studio,the Egg, theRondo Theatre, and theMission Theatre– attract internationally renowned companies and directors and an annual season bySir Peter Hall. The city has a long-standing musical tradition; Bath Abbey, home to theKlais Organand the largest concert venue in the city,stages about 20 concerts and 26 organ recitals each year. Another concert venue, the 1,600-seatart decoThe Forum, originated as a cinema. The city holds the annualBath International Music Festivaland Mozartfest, the annualBath Literature Festival(and itscounterpart for children), theBath Film Festival, the Bath Digital Festival. theBath Fringe Festival, theBath Beer Festivaland theBath Chilli Festival. The Bach Festivals occur at two and a half-year intervals. An annualBard of Bathcompetition aims to find the best poet, singer or storyteller. The city is home to theVictoria Art Gallery,theMuseum of East Asian Art, andHolburne Museum,numerous commercial art galleries and antique shops, as well as a number of other museums, among themBath Postal Museum, theFashion Museum, theJane Austen Centre, theHerschel Museum of Astronomyand the Roman Baths.TheBath Royal Literary and Scientific Institution(BRLSI) in Queen Square was founded in 1824 from the Society for the encouragement of Agriculture, Planting, Manufactures, Commerce and the Fine Arts founded in 1777.In September 1864, BRLSI hosted the 34th annual meeting of theBritish Science Association, which was attended by explorersDavid Livingstone,Sir Richard Francis Burton, andJohn Hanning Speke. The history of the city is displayed at theMuseum of Bath Architecture, which is housed in a building built in 1765 as the TrinityPresbyterianChurch. It was also known as theCountess of Huntingdon'sChapel, as she lived in the attached house from 1707 to 1791. The arts During the 18th centuryThomas GainsboroughandSir Thomas Lawrencelived and worked in Bath.John Maggs, a painter best known for coaching scenes, was born and lived in Bath with his artistic family. Jane Austenlived there from 1801 with her father, mother and sister Cassandra, and the family resided at four different addresses until 1806.Jane Austen never liked the city, and wrote to Cassandra, \"It will be two years tomorrow since we left Bath for Clifton, with what happy feelings of escape.\"Bath has honoured her name with the Jane Austen Centre and a city walk. Austen'sNorthanger AbbeyandPersuasionare set in the city and describe taking the waters, social life, and music recitals. William Friese-Greeneexperimented with celluloid and motion pictures in his studio in the 1870s, developing some of the earliest movie camera technology. He is credited as being one of the inventors ofcinematography. Satirist and political journalistWilliam Honewas born in Bath in 1780. Taking the waters is described inCharles Dickens' novelThe Pickwick Papersin which Pickwick's servant,Sam Weller, comments that the water has \"a very strong flavour o' warm flat irons\". The Royal Crescent is the venue for a chase between two characters, Dowler and Winkle.Moyra Caldecott's novelThe Waters of Sulis set in Roman Bath in AD 72, andThe Regency Detective, byDavid LassmanandTerence James, revolves around the exploits of Jack Swann investigating deaths in the city during the early 19th century.Richard Brinsley Sheridan's playThe Rivalstakes place in the city,as doesRoald Dahl's chillingshort story,The Landlady. Many films and television programmes have been filmed using its architecture as the backdrop, including the 2004filmofThackeray'sVanity Fair,The Duchess(2008),The Elusive Pimpernel(1950)andThe Titfield Thunderbolt(1953).In 2012, Pulteney Weir was used as a replacement location during post production of the film adaptation ofLes Misérables. Stunt shots were filmed in October 2012 after footage acquired during the main filming period was found to have errors.The ITV police dramaMcDonald and Doddsis set and mostly filmed in Bath using many of the city's famous sites. In August 2003The Three Tenorssang at a concert to mark the opening of the Thermae Bath Spa, a new hot waterspain the city centre, but delays to the project meant the spa actually opened three years later on 7 August 2006.In 2008, 104 decorated pigs were displayed around the city in a public art event called \"King Bladud's Pigs in Bath\". It celebrated the city, its origins and artists. Decorated pig sculptures were displayed throughout the summer and were auctioned to raise funds forTwo Tunnels Greenway. Parks Royal Victoria Park, a short walk from the city centre, was opened in 1830 by the 11-year-oldPrincess Victoria, and was the first park to carry her name.Thepublic parkis overlooked by the Royal Crescent and covers 23 hectares (57 acres).It hasaskatepark, tennis courts, abowling green, a putting green and a 12- and 18-hole golf course, a pond, open-air concerts, an annualtravelling funfairat Easter,and a children's play area. Much of its area islawn; a notable feature is aha-hathat segregates it from the Royal Crescent while giving the impression from the Crescent of uninterrupted grassland across the park to Royal Avenue. It has a \"Green Flag Award\", the national standard for parks and green spaces in England and Wales, and is registered byEnglish Heritageas ofNational Historic Importance.The 3.84-hectare (9.5-acre) botanical gardens were formed in 1887 and contain one of the finest collections of plants on limestone in theWest Country. A replica Roman Temple was built at theBritish Empire ExhibitionatWembleyin 1924, and, following the exhibition, was dismantled and rebuilt in Victoria Park in Bath.In 1987, the gardens were extended to include the Great Dell, a disused quarry with a collection ofconifers. Other parks include Alexandra Park on a hill overlooking the city;Parade Gardens, along the river near the abbey in the city centre;Sydney Gardens, an 18th-century pleasure garden; Henrietta Park; Hedgemead Park; and Alice Park.Jane Austenwrote \"It would be pleasant to be near the Sydney Gardens. We could go into the Labyrinth every day.\"Alexandra, Alice and Henrietta parks were built into the growing city among the housing developments.Linear Park is built on the oldSomerset and Dorset Joint Railwayline,and connects with theTwo Tunnels Greenwaywhich contains the longest cycling and walking tunnel in the UK.Cleveland Poolswere built around 1815 close to the River Avon,now the oldest surviving public outdoorlidoin England.Restoration was completed in 2023, after a 20 year fund-raising campaign, with the lido opening for the first time in 40 years on 10 September. Queen Victoria Victoria Art Gallery and Royal Victoria Park are named afterQueen Victoria, who wrote in her journal in 1837, \"The people are really too kind to me.\"This feeling seemed to have been reciprocated by the people of Bath: \"Lord James O'Brien brought a drawing of the intended pillar which the people of Bath are so kind as to erect in commemoration of my 18th birthday.\" Food Several foods have an association with the city.Sally Lunn buns(a type ofteacake) have long been baked in Bath. They were first mentioned by name in verses printed in theBath Chronicle, in 1772.At that time they were eaten hot at public breakfasts in Spring Gardens. They can be eaten with sweet or savoury toppings and are sometimes confused withBath buns, which are smaller, round, very sweet and very rich. They were associated with the city followingThe Great Exhibition. Bath buns were originally topped with crushedcomfitscreated by dippingcarawayseeds repeatedly in boiling sugar; but today seeds are added to a 'London Bath Bun' (a reference to the bun's promotion and sale at the Great Exhibition).The seeds may be replaced by crushed sugar granules or 'nibs'. Bath has lent its name to one other distinctive recipe –Bath Olivers– a dry baked biscuit invented by Dr William Oliver, physician to theMineral Water Hospitalin 1740.Oliver was an anti-obesity campaigner and author of a\"Practical Essay on the Use and Abuse of warm Bathing in Gluty Cases\".In more recent years, Oliver's efforts have been traduced by the introduction of a version of the biscuit with a plain chocolate coating.Bath chaps, the salted and smoked cheek and jawbones of the pig, takes its name from the cityand is available from a stall in the daily covered market.Bath Alesbrewery is located inWarmleyandAbbey Alesare brewed in the city. Twinning Bath istwinnedwith four other cities in Europe. Twinning is the responsibility of the Charter Trustees and each twinning arrangement is managed by a Twinning Association. There is also a historic connection withManly, New South Wales, Australia, which is referred to as a sister city; a partnership arrangement withBeppu,Ōita Prefecture, Japan;and a friendship agreement withOleksandriia,Kirovohrad Oblast, Ukraine. Formal twinning Education Bath has two universities, theUniversity of BathandBath Spa University. Established in 1966, the University of Bathwas named University of the Year byThe Sunday Timesin 2011. It offers programs in politics, languages, the physical sciences, engineering, mathematics, architecture, management and technology. Bath Spa University was first granted degree-awarding powers in 1992 as auniversity collegebefore being granted university status in August 2005.It offers courses leading to aPostgraduate Certificate in Education. It has schools in the following subject areas: Art and Design, Education, English and Creative Studies, Historical and Cultural Studies, Music and the Performing Arts, Science and the Environment and Social Sciences. Bath Collegeoffersfurther education, andNorland Collegeprovides education and training in childcare. Sport Rugby Bath Rugbyis arugby unionteam in thePremiershipleague. It plays in blue, white and black kit at theRecreation Groundin the city, where it has been since the late 19th century, following its establishment in 1865.The team's first major honour was winning the John Player Cup, now sponsored as theLVCup and also known as theAnglo-Welsh Cup, four years consecutively from 1984 until 1987.The team then led theCourage leaguein six seasons in eight years between 1988 and 1989 and 1995–96, during which time it also won the renamed Pilkington Cup in 1989, 1990, 1992, 1994, 1995 and 1996.It finally won theHeineken Cupin the 1997–98 season, and topped the Zürich Premiership (now Gallagher Premiership) in 2003–04.The team'ssquadincludes several members who also play, or have played in theEnglish national team, includingLee Mears,Rob Webber,Dave Attwood,Nick AbendanonandMatt Banahan.Colston's School, Bristol, has had a large input in the team over the past decade,providing several current 1st XV squad members.The former England Rugby Team Manager and formerScotland nationalcoachAndy Robinsonused to play for Bath Rugby team and was captain and later coach. Both of Robinson's predecessors,Clive WoodwardandJack Rowell, as well as his successorBrian Ashton, were also former Bath coaches and managers. Football Bath City F.C.is the semi-professionalfootballteam. Founded in 1889, the club has played their home matches atTwerton Parksince 1932. Bath City's history is entirely in non-league football, predominantly in the 5th tier. Bath narrowly missed out on election to the Football League by a few votes in 1978and again in 1985. The club have a good history in the FA Cup, reaching the third round six times. The record attendance, 18,020, at the ground was in 1960 against Brighton.The club's colours are black and white and their official nickname is \"The Romans\", stemming from Bath's Ancient Roman history.The club is sometimes called \"The Stripes\", referring to their striped kit. Until 2009Team Bath F.C.operated as an affiliate to the University Athletics programme. In 2002, Team Bath became the first university team to enter theFA Cupin 120 years, and advanced through four qualifying rounds to the first round proper.The university's team was established in 1999 while the city team has existed since before 1908 (when it entered theWestern League).However, in 2009, theFootball Conferenceruled that Team Bath would not be eligible to gain promotion to a National division, nor were they allowed to participate inFootball Associationcup competitions. This ruling led to the decision by the club to fold at the end of the 2008–09 Conference South competition. In their final season, Team Bath F.C. finished 11th in the league. Bath also hasNon-League footballclubsOdd Down F.C.who play at the Lew Hill Memorial GroundandLarkhall Athletic F.C.who play at Plain Ham. Other sports Manycricketclubs are based in the city, includingBath Cricket Club, who are based at the North Parade Ground and play in theWest of England Premier League. Cricket is also played on the Recreation Ground, just across from the rugby club. The Recreation Ground is also home to Bath Croquet Club, which was re-formed in 1976 and is affiliated with the South West Federation ofCroquetClubs. TheBath Half Marathonis run annually through the city streets, with over 10,000 runners. TeamBathis the umbrella name for all of the University of Bath sports teams, including the aforementioned football club. Other sports for which TeamBath is noted areathletics, badminton, basketball,bob skeleton,bobsleigh,hockey, judo,modern pentathlon,netball, rugby union, swimming, tennis,triathlonand volleyball. The City of Bath Triathlon takes place annually at the university. Bath Roller Derby Girls (BRDG)is a flat trackroller derbyclub, founded in 2012,they compete in the British Roller Derby Championships Tier 3.As of 2015, they are full members of the United Kingdom Roller Derby Association (UKRDA.) Bath is home to atable tennisLeague, made up of 3 divisions and a number of clubs based in Bath and the surrounding area. Transport Roads Bath is approximately 11 miles (18 km) south-east of the larger city and port of Bristol, to which it is linked by theA4 road, which runs through Bath, and is a similar distance south of theM4 motorwayat junction 18. The potential new junction 18a linking theM4 motorwaywith the A4174Avon Ring Roadwill provide an additional direct route from Bath to the motorway. In an attempt to reduce the level of car use,park and rideschemes have been introduced, with sites at Odd Down, Lansdown and Newbridge. A very large increase in city centre parking was also provided under the new SouthGate shopping centre development, which necessarily introduces more car traffic. In addition, abus gatescheme in Northgate aims to reduce private car use in the city centre. Atransportation study(theBristol/Bath to South Coast Study) was published in 2004 after being initiated by theGovernment Office for the South WestandBath and North East Somerset Counciland undertaken byWSP Globalas a result of thede-trunkingin 1999 of the A36/A46 trunk road networkfrom Bath to Southampton. TheBath Clean Air Zonewas introduced for central Bath on 15 March 2021. A Class C zone, it charges themost polluting commercial vehicles£9 per day (and up to £100 per day for coaches andHGVs).It is the first UK road pollution charging zone outside London, and reducednitrogen dioxidelevels in the city by 26% over the following two years, meeting legal standards. Buses National Expressoperatescoachservices fromBath bus stationto a number of cities. Bath has a network of bus routes run byFirst West of England, with services to surrounding towns and cities, such asBristol,Corsham,Chippenham,Devizes,Salisbury,FromeandWells.Faresaver Busesalso operate services to surrounding towns. TheBath Bus Companyruns open-top double-decker bus tours around the city, as well as frequent services toBristol Airport.Stagecoach Westalso provides services toTetburyand the South Cotswolds.The suburbs of Bath are also served by theWESTlink on demand service, available Monday to Saturday. Cycling Bath is onNational Cycle Route 4, with one of Britain's firstcycleways, theBristol and Bath Railway Path, to the west, and an eastern route toward London on the canal towpath. Bath is about 20 miles (30 km) fromBristol Airport.Bath also benefits from several bridleways and byways. Rivers and canals The city is connected to Bristol and the sea by the River Avon, navigable vialocksby small boats. The river was connected to theRiver Thamesand London by theKennet and Avon Canalin 1810 viaBath Locks; this waterway – closed for many years but restored in the last years of the 20th century – is now popular withnarrowboatusers. Railways Bath is served by theBath Spa railway station(designed byIsambard Kingdom Brunel), which has regular connections to LondonPaddington,Bristol Temple Meads,Cardiff Central,Cheltenham,Exeter,PlymouthandPenzance(seeGreat Western Main Line), and alsoWestbury,Warminster,Weymouth,Salisbury,Southampton,PortsmouthandBrighton(seeWessex Main Line). Services are provided byGreat Western Railway. There is a suburban station on the main line,Oldfield Park, which has a limited commuter service to Bristol as well as other destinations. Green Park Stationwas once the terminus of theMidland Railway,and junction for theSomerset and Dorset Joint Railway, whose line, always steam hauled, went through the Devonshire tunnel (under the Wellsway, St Luke's Church and the Devonshire Arms), through theCombe Down Tunneland climbed over theMendipsto serve many towns and villages on its 71-mile (114 km) run toBournemouth. This example of an English rural line was closed byBeechingin March 1966. Its Bath station building, now restored, houses shops, small businesses, the Saturday Bath Farmers Market and parking for a supermarket, while the route of the Somerset and Dorset within Bath has been reused for the Two Tunnels Greenway, a shared use path that extendsNational Cycle Route 24into the city. Trams Historical TheBath Tramways Companywas introduced in the late 19th century, opening on 24 December 1880. The4 ft(1,219 mm) gauge cars were horse-drawn along a route from London Road to the Bath Spa railway station, but the system closed in 1902. It was replaced by electric tram cars on a greatly expanded4 ft8+1⁄2in(1,435 mm) gauge system that opened in 1904. This eventually extended to 18 miles (29 km) with routes to Combe Down, Oldfield Park, Twerton,Newton St Loe, Weston andBathford. There was a fleet of 40 cars, all but 6 being double deck. The first line to close was replaced by a bus service in 1938, and the last went on 6 May 1939. Possible re-introduction In 2005, a detailed plan was created and presented to the council to re-introduce trams to Bath, but the plan did not proceed, reportedly due to the focus by the council on the government-supported busway planned to run from the Newbridge park and ride into the city centre. Part of the justification for the proposed tram reintroduction plan was the pollution from vehicles within the city, which was twice the legal levels, and the heavy traffic congestion due to high car usage. In 2015another group, Bath Trams, building on the earlier tram group proposals, created interest in the idea of re-introducing trams with several public meetings and meetings with the council.In 2017,Bath and North East Somerset Councilannounced a feasibility study, due to be published by March 2018, into implementing a light rail or tram system in the city. In November 2016, theWest of England Local Enterprise Partnershipbegan a consultation process on their Transport Vision Summary Document, outlining potentiallight rail/tramroutes in the region, one of which being a route fromBristol city centrealong theA4 roadto Bath to relieve pressure on bus and rail services between the two cities. Media Bath's local newspaper is theBath Chronicle, owned byLocal World. Published since 1760, theChroniclewas a daily newspaper until mid-September 2007, when it became a weekly.Since 2018 its website has been operated byTrinity Mirror'sSomerset Liveplatform. TheBBC Bristolwebsite has featured coverage of news and events within Bath since 2003. For television, Bath is served by theBBC Weststudiosbased in Bristol, and byITV West Country, formerly HTV, also from studios in Bristol. Radio stations broadcasting to the city includeBBC Radio Bristolwhich has a studio in Kingsmead Square in the city centre,BBC Radio SomersetinTaunton,Greatest Hits Radio Bristol & The South Weston 107.9FM andHeart West, formerly GWR FM, as well as The University of Bath'sUniversity Radio Bath, a student-focused radio station available on campus and also online.Launched in 2019,BA1 Radiois an onlinecommunity radio station. See also References External links",
"Sally Lunn bun ASally Lunnis a large bun orteacake, a type ofbatter bread, made with a yeast dough including cream and eggs, similar to the sweetbriochebreads of France. Sometimes served warm and sliced, with butter, it was first recorded in 1780in the spa town ofBathin southwestEngland. As a tea cake it is popular in Canada and England. In New Zealand the bakery item known as the Sally Lunn is not the same as it has a thick layer of white icing and coconut on top and is also known as aBoston Bun. There are many variations of Sally Lunn cake inAmerican cuisine, some made with yeast, with variations that add cornmeal, sour cream or buttermilk to the basic recipe.The recipe was brought to the United States by British colonists, and new American variations were developed through the 18th and 19th centuries. It is claimed in one 1892 newspaper article that Sally Lunn bread became known as \"Washington's breakfast bread\" because it was so admired byGeorge Washington. Origins The origins of the Sally Lunn are obscure. One theory is that it is an anglicisation of \"Soleil et lune\" (French for \"sun and moon\"), representing the golden crust and white base/interior.The Sally Lunn Eating House in Bath, England, claims that the recipe was brought to Bath in the 1680s by aHuguenotrefugee called Solange Luyon, who became known as Sally Lunn,but there is no evidence to support this theory. \"Food Britannia\" repudiates the Solange Luyon theory. A 2015 report byThe Daily Telegraphstates \"It is a charming tale, but, sadly, a fictitious one – there is little evidence for Mademoiselle Luyon, whatever the museum in the restaurant’s basement might tell you\". There is a passing mention of \"Sally Lunn and saffron cake\" in a 1776 poem about Dublin by the Irish poetWilliam Preston.The first recorded mention of the bun in Somerset is as part of adetox regimeinPhilip Thicknesse's 1780 guidebook to taking the waters atBath. Thicknesse describes how he would daily see visitors drinking 2–3 pints ofBath waterand then \"sit down to a meal of Sally Lunns or hot spungy rolls, made high by burnt butter!\"He recommends against the practice as his brother died after this kind of breakfast:\"Such a meal, few young men in full health can get over without feeling much inconvenience\". There is little historical evidence for Sally Lunn as a person.The Gentleman's Magazineof 1798 uses Sally Lunn as an example during a discussion of foods named after people—\"a certain sort of hot rolls, now, or not long ago, in vogue at Bath, were gratefully and emphatically styled 'Sally Lunns'\".But it is not until 1827 that a historical person is described by a correspondent ofWilliam Honeusing the pseudonym \"Jehoiada\", who says she had sold the buns on the street \"about thirty years ago\".A baker called Dalmer had bought out her business and made it highly successful after he composed a special song for the vendors,who sold the buns from mobile ovens. The earliest evidence of commercial production is an 1819 advertisement for the Sally Lunn \"cakes\" sold by W. Needes of Bath, bread and biscuit maker tothe Prince Regent. Sally Lunns were mentioned together withmuffinsandcrumpetsbyCharles Dickensin 1844in his novelThe Chimes.A year later, in 1845,Eliza Actongave a recipe inModern Cookery for Private Families, describing it as a version of \"Solimemne – A rich French breakfast cake, or Sally Lunn\".Solilemmesis a kind of brioche that is served warm which was popularised by the Parisian chefMarie-Antoine Carêmein a book of 1815. Carême claimed thesolilemoriginated inAlsacebut there is no evidence to support that claim; he may have taken the idea from contacts in Bath and then tried to disguise the origins of a recipe that came from France's great enemy. Sally Lunn's house The building now known as the Sally Lunn Eating House is at 4 North Parade Passage (formerly Lilliput Alley) in Bath(51°22′51″N2°21′30″W / 51.3808°N 2.3582°W /51.3808; -2.3582 (Sally Lunn Eating House)).The site was originally occupied by the south range ofBath Abbey, and the lowest floor level dates to the reconstruction of the abbey after a great fire in 1137. Themasonry ovenin the basement dates from that time. Journals in the 17th century published accounts of visitors to the various coffee houses and several assembly rooms in and along Terrace Walk & North Parade, but Sally Lunn is not mentioned in any of those reports. After the Reformation, the ruins came into the hands of the Colthurst family ofWardour Castle, who sold the site to John Hall of Bradford on Avon in 1612. In 1622, Hall leased the site to George Parker, a carpenter who built the current house. The Hall estate was later acquired by the2nd Duke of Kingston, who sold the house to William Robinson in 1743. There may have been baking on a small scale during the 1700s, but it only became the main commercial use of the building around the turn of the 20th century. In the mid-19th century, Sarah Fricker, a tallow maker, occupied the building.Subsequent owners include Edward Culverhouse, a cab proprietor, (1904–1921) and Mrs Griffiths, a grocer (1922–1930).The building fell into a bad state of repair and was vacant in 1932–33. Marie Byng-Johnson, an artist, moved to Bath with her daughter, a violinist, c. 1926, taking up lodgings at 13 Abbey Churchyardand giving piano lessons. She moved to 4 North Parade passage in 1934, trading as \"Sally Lunn Ltd\". Byng-Johnson opened the building as a tea-room specialising in Sally Lunn buns, promoting them with a story that she had discovered an ancient document in a secret panel above the fireplace,explaining that Sally Lunn was a young French Huguenot refugee who brought the recipe to Bath around 1680. Remarkably, despite the importance of this priceless and historic document, she lost it. The property has been a Grade II*listed buildingsince June 1950. The listing summary states that \"Sally Lunn, a pastry cook and baker, was a tenant in 1680\" but cites no source to confirm that information. It is possible thatEnglish Heritagesaw the sign on the wall (erected c. 1970)and took the claim at face value. See also References External links"
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"Bath, Somerset Bath(RP:/bɑːθ/;local pronunciation:) is a city in theceremonial countyofSomersetin England, known for and named after itsRoman-built baths.At the 2021 Census, the population was 94,092.Bath is in the valley of theRiver Avon, 97 miles (156 km) west ofLondonand 11 miles (18 km) southeast ofBristol. The city became aUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitein 1987, and was later added to the transnational World Heritage Site known as the \"Great Spa Towns of Europe\" in 2021. Bath is also the largest city and settlement in Somerset. The city became aspawith theLatinnameAquae Sulis(\"the waters ofSulis\")c.60 AD when the Romans builtbathsand a temple in the valley of the River Avon, althoughhot springswere known even before then.Bath Abbeywas founded in the 7th century and became a religious centre; the building was rebuilt in the 12th and 16th centuries. In the 17th century, claims were made for the curative properties of water from the springs, and Bath became popular as aspa townin theGeorgian era.Georgian",
"era.Georgian architecture, crafted fromBath stone, includes theRoyal Crescent,Circus,Pump Room, and theAssembly Rooms, whereBeau Nashpresided over the city's social life from 1705 until his death in 1761. Many of the streets and squares were laid out byJohn Wood, the Elder, and in the 18th century the city became fashionable and the population grew.Jane Austenlived in Bath in the early 19th century. Further building was undertaken in the 19th century and following theBath Blitzin World War II. Bath became part of the county ofAvonin 1974, and, following Avon's abolition in 1996, has been the principal centre ofBath and North East Somerset. Bath has over 6 million yearly visitors,making itone of ten English cities visited most by overseas tourists.Attractions include the spas, canal boat tours, Royal Crescent,Bath Skyline,Parade GardensandRoyal Victoria Parkwhich hostscarnivalsand seasonal events. Shopping areas includeSouthGate shopping centre,the Corridorarcadeand artisan shops atWalcot,Milsom,Stalland York",
"York Streets. There are theatres, including theTheatre Royal, as well as several museums including theMuseum of Bath Architecture, theVictoria Art Gallery, theMuseum of East Asian Art, theHerschel Museum of Astronomy,Fashion Museum, and theHolburne Museum. The city has two universities – theUniversity of BathandBath Spa University– withBath Collegeprovidingfurther education. Sporting clubs from the city includeBath RugbyandBath City. History Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages The hills in the locality such asBathampton Downsaw human activity from theMesolithicperiod.SeveralBronze Ageround barrowswere opened byJohn Skinnerin the 18th century.Along barrowsite believed to be from theEarly Bronze AgeBeaker peoplewas flattened to make way forRAF Charmy Down.Solsbury Hilloverlooking the current city was anIron Agehill fortand the adjacent Bathampton Camp may also have been one. Roman baths and town Archaeological evidence shows that the site of theRoman baths'main spring may have been treated as a shrine by",
"as a shrine by theBritons,and was dedicated to the goddessSulis, whom theRomansidentified withMinerva; the name Sulis continued to be used after the Roman invasion, appearing in the town'sRoman name,Aquae Sulis(literally, \"the waters of Sulis\").Messages to her scratched onto metal, known ascurse tablets, have been recovered from the sacred spring by archaeologists.The tablets were written inLatin, and laid curses on personal enemies. For example, if a citizen had his clothes stolen at the baths, he might write a curse against the suspects on a tablet to be read by the goddess. A temple was constructed in AD 60–70, and a bathing complex was built up over the next 300 years.Engineers drove oak piles into the mud to provide a stable foundation, and surrounded the spring with an irregular stone chamber lined with lead. In the 2nd century, the spring was enclosed within a woodenbarrel-vaultedstructure that housed thecaldarium(hot bath),tepidarium(warm bath), andfrigidarium(cold bath). The town was later",
"The town was later givendefensive walls, probably in the 3rd century.After the failure of Roman authority in the first decade of the 5th century, the baths fell into disrepair and were eventually lost as a result of rising water levels and silting. In March 2012, a hoard of 30,000 silver Roman coins, one of the largest discovered in Britain, was unearthed in an archaeological dig. The coins, believed to date from the 3rd century, were found about 150 m (490 ft) from the Roman baths. Post-Roman and medieval Bath may have been the site of theBattle of Badon(c.500 AD), in whichArthur, the hero of later legends, is said to have defeated theAnglo-Saxons.The town was captured by theWest Saxonsin 577 after theBattle of Deorham;the Anglo-Saxon poemThe Ruinmay describe the appearance of the Roman site about this time.A monastery was founded at an early date – reputedly bySaint Davidalthough more probably in 675 byOsric, King of theHwicce,perhaps using thewalled areaas its precinct.Nennius, a 9th-century historian,",
"historian, mentions a \"Hot Lake\" in the land of the Hwicce along theRiver Severn, and adds \"It is surrounded by a wall, made of brick and stone, and men may go there to bathe at any time, and every man can have the kind of bath he likes. If he wants, it will be a cold bath; and if he wants a hot bath, it will be hot\".Bededescribed hot baths in the geographical introduction to theEcclesiastical Historyin terms very similar to those of Nennius.King OffaofMerciagained control of the monastery in 781 and rebuilt the church, which was dedicated toSt. Peter. According to the Victorian churchmanEdward Churton, during the Anglo-Saxon era Bath was known asAcemannesceastre('Akemanchester'), or 'aching men's city', on account of the reputation these springs had for healing the sick. By the 9th century, the old Roman street pattern was lost and Bath was a royal possession.King Alfredlaid out the town afresh, leaving its south-eastern quadrant as the abbey precinct.In theBurghal Hidage, Bath is recorded as aburh(borough)",
"as aburh(borough) and is described as having walls of 1,375 yards (1,257 m) and was allocated 1000 men for defence.During the reign ofEdward the Eldercoins weremintedin Bath based on a design from theWinchestermint but with 'BAD' on the obverse relating to the Anglo-Saxon name for the town, Baðum, Baðan or Baðon, meaning \"at the baths\",and this was the source of the present name.Edgar of Englandwas crowned king of England inBath Abbeyin 973, in a ceremony that formed the basis of all futureEnglish coronations. William Rufusgranted the town, abbey and mint to a royal physician,John of Tours, who became Bishop ofWellsand Abbot of Bath,following the sacking of the town during theRebellion of 1088.It was papal policy for bishops to move to more urban seats, and John of Tourstranslatedhis own from Wells to Bath.The bishop planned and began a much larger church as his cathedral, to which was attached a priory, with the bishop's palace beside it.New baths were built around the three springs. Later bishops returned",
"bishops returned the episcopal seat to Wells while retaining the name Bath in the title,Bishop of Bath and Wells.St John's Hospitalwas founded around 1180 by BishopReginald Fitz Jocelinand is among the oldestalmshousesin England.The 'hospital of the baths' was built beside the hot springs of theCross Bath, for their health-giving properties and to provide shelter for the poor infirm. Administrative systems fell within thehundreds. TheBath Hundredhad various names including the Hundred of Le Buri. The Bath Foreign Hundred or Forinsecum covered the area outside the city and was later combined into the Bath Forum Hundred. Wealthy merchants had no status within the hundred courts and formedguildsto gain influence. They built the firstguildhallprobably in the 13th century. Around 1200, thefirst mayorwas appointed. Early modern By the 15th century, Bath's abbey church was dilapidatedandOliver King, Bishop of Bath and Wells, decided to rebuild it on a smaller scale in 1500. The new church was completed just a few",
"just a few years before Bath Priory wasdissolvedin 1539 byHenry VIII.The abbey church became derelict before being restored as the city'sparish churchin theElizabethan era, when the city experienced a revival as aspa. The baths were improved and the city began to attract the aristocracy. ARoyal chartergranted by QueenElizabeth Iin 1590 confirmedcity status.James Montagu, Bishop of Bath and Wells from 1608, spent considerable sums in restoring Bath Abbey and actively supported the Baths themselves, aware that the ‘towne liveth wholly by them’. In 1613, perhaps at his behest, Queen Anne visited the town to take the waters: the Queen’s Bath was named after her. The cue for the visit may have been the completion of the restoration work to Bath Abbey, the last instalment of which had been paid for two years previously.Anne of Denmarkcame to Bath in 1613 and 1615. During theEnglish Civil War, the city was garrisoned forCharles I. Seven thousand pounds was spent on fortifications, but on the appearance of",
"the appearance of parliamentary forces the gates were thrown open and the city surrendered. It became a significant post for the Western Association army underWilliam Waller.Bath was retaken by the royalists in July 1643 following theBattle of Lansdowneand occupied for two years until 1645.Luckily, the city was spared the destruction of property and starvation of its inhabitants unlike nearby Bristol andGloucester. During the occupation, the finances of the Bath City Council took a drubbing with council spending, rents and grants all falling. The billeting of soldiers in private houses also contributed to disorder and vandalism. Normality to the city quickly recovered after the war when the city council achieved a healthy budget surplus.Thomas Guidott, a student of chemistry and medicine atWadham College, Oxford, set up a practice in the city in 1668. He was interested in the curative properties of the waters, and he wroteA discourse of Bathe, and the hot waters there. Also, Some Enquiries into the Nature of",
"into the Nature of the waterin 1676. It brought the health-giving properties of the hot mineral waters to the attention of the country, and the aristocracy arrived to partake in them. Several areas of the city were developed in theStuartperiod, and more building took place duringGeorgiantimes in response to the increasing number of visitors who required accommodation.ArchitectsJohn Wood the Elderandhis sonlaid out the new quarters in streets and squares, the identical façades of which gave an impression of palatial scale and classical decorum.Much of the creamy goldBath stone, a type oflimestoneused for construction in the city, was obtained from theCombe Down and Bathampton Down Minesowned byRalph Allen(1694–1764).Allen, to advertise the quality of his quarried limestone, commissioned the elder John Wood to build a country house on hisPrior Parkestate between the city and the mines.Allen was responsible for improving and expanding the postal service in western England, for which he held the contract for",
"the contract for more than forty years.Although not fond of politics, Allen was a civic-minded man and a member of Bath Corporation for many years. He was elected mayor for a single term in 1742. In the early 18th century, Bath acquired its first purpose-built theatre, theOld Orchard Street Theatre. It was rebuilt as theTheatre Royal, along with theGrand Pump Roomattached to the Roman Baths andassembly rooms.Master of ceremoniesBeau Nash, who presided over the city's social life from 1704 until his death in 1761, drew up a code of behaviour for public entertainments.Bath had become perhaps the most fashionable of the rapidly developing British spa towns, attracting many notable visitors such as the wealthy London booksellerAndrew Millarand his wife, who both made long visits.In 1816, it was described as \"a seat of amusement and dissipation\", where \"scenes of extravagance in this receptacle of the wealthy and the idle, the weak and designing\" were habitual. Late modern The population of the city was 40,020 at",
"city was 40,020 at the 1801 census, making it one of the largest cities in Britain.William Thomas Beckfordbought a house inLansdown Crescentin 1822, and subsequently two adjacent houses to form his residence. Having acquired all the land between his home and the top ofLansdown Hill, he created a garden more than1⁄2mile (800 m) in length and builtBeckford's Towerat the top. EmperorHaile Selassieof Ethiopia spent four years in exile, from 1936 to 1940, atFairfield Housein Bath.DuringWorld War II, between the evening of 25 April and the early morning of 27 April 1942, Bath suffered three air raids in reprisal forRAFraids on the German cities ofLübeckandRostock, part of theLuftwaffecampaign popularly known as theBaedeker Blitz. During theBath Blitz, more than 400 people were killed, and more than 19,000 buildings damaged or destroyed. Houses inRoyal Crescent,CircusandParagonwere burnt out along with theAssembly Rooms.A 500-kilogram (1,100 lb)high explosivebomb landed on the east side ofQueen Square, resulting in",
"resulting in houses on the south side being damaged and theFrancis Hotellosing 24 metres (79 ft) of its frontage.The buildings have all been restored although there are still signs of the bombing. A postwar review of inadequate housing led to the clearance and redevelopment of areas of the city in a postwar style, often at variance with the local Georgian style. In the 1950s, the nearby villages ofCombe Down,TwertonandWestonwere incorporated into the city to enable the development of housing, much of itcouncil housing.In 1965, town plannerColin BuchananpublishedBath: A Planning and Transport Study, which to a large degree sought to better accommodate the motor car, including the idea of a traffic tunnel underneath the centre of Bath. Though criticised by conservationists, some parts of the plan were implemented. In the 1970s and 1980s, it was recognised that conservation of historic buildings was inadequate, leading to more care and reuse of buildings and open spaces.In 1987, the city was selected byUNESCOas",
"selected byUNESCOas aWorld Heritage Site, recognising its international cultural significance. Between 1991 and 2000, Bath was the scene of a series of rapes committed by an unidentified man dubbed the \"Batman rapist\".The attacker remains at large and is the subject of Britain's longest-running serial rape investigation.He is said to have atightsfetish, have a scar below his bottom lip and resides in the Bath area or knows it very well.He has also been linked to the unsolvedmurder of Melanie Hall, which occurred in the city in 1996.Although the offender's DNA is known and several thousand men in Bath were DNA tested, the attacker continues to evade police. Since 2000, major developments have included theThermae Bath Spa, theSouthGateshopping centre, the residential Western Riverside project on theStothert & Pittfactory site, and the riverside Bath Quays office and business development.In 2021, Bath become part of a second UNESCO World Heritage Site, a group of spa towns across Europe known as the \"Great Spas",
"as the \"Great Spas of Europe\".This makes it one of the only places to be formally recognised twice as aWorld Heritagesite. Government Since 1996, the city has had asingle tier of local government—Bath and North East Somerset Council. Historical development Bath had long been anancient borough, having that status since 878 when it became a royal borough (burh) ofAlfred the Great, and was reformed into amunicipal boroughin 1835. It has formed part of thecountyof Somerset since 878, when ceded toWessex, having previously been inMercia(the River Avon had acted as the border between the two kingdoms since 628).However, Bath was made acounty boroughin 1889, independent of the newly createdadministrative countyandSomerset County Council.Bath became part ofAvonwhen thenon-metropolitan countywas created in 1974, resulting in its abolition as a county borough, and instead became a non-metropolitan district withborough status. With the abolition of Avon in 1996, the non-metropolitan district and borough were abolished",
"were abolished too, and Bath has since been part of theunitary authoritydistrict ofBath and North East Somerset(B&NES).The unitary district included also theWansdykedistrict and therefore includes a wider area than the city (the 'North East Somerset' element) includingKeynshamwhich is home to many of the council's offices, though the council meets at theGuildhallin Bath. Bath was returned to theceremonial countyof Somerset in 1996, though as B&NES is a unitary authority, it is not part of the area covered by Somerset County Council. Charter trustees Bath City Council was abolished in 1996, along with thedistrictof Bath, and there is no longer aparish councilfor the city. The City of Bath's ceremonial functions, including itsformal statusas a city,its twinningarrangements,the mayoralty of Bath– which can be traced back to 1230 – and control of the city'scoat of arms, are maintained by thecharter trusteesof the City of Bath. The councillors elected by the electoral wards that cover Bath (see below) are the",
"(see below) are the trustees, and they elect one of their number as their chair and mayor.The mayor holds office for one municipal year and in modern times the mayor begins their term in office on the first Saturday in June, at a ceremony at Bath Abbey with a civic procession from and to the Guildhall. The 794th mayor, who began her office on 6 May 2021, is June Player. A deputy mayor is also elected. Coat of arms The coat of arms includes a depiction of thecity wall, and two silver stripes representing theRiver Avonand the hot springs. The sword ofSt. Paulis a link to Bath Abbey. The supporters, a lion and a bear, stand on a bed ofacorns, a link toBladud, the subject of the Legend of Bath. The knight's helmet indicates a municipality and thecrownis that of King Edgar (referencing his coronation at the Abbey).Amural crown, indicating acity, is alternatively used instead of the helmet and Edgar's crown. The Arms bear the motto \"Aqvae Svlis\", the Roman name for Bath inLatinscript; although not on the Arms, the",
"on the Arms, the motto \"Floreat Bathon\" is sometimes used (\"may Bath flourish\" in Latin). Bath Area Forum Bath and North East Somerset Council has established the Bath City Forum, comprising B&NES councillors representing wards in Bath and up to 13 co-opted members drawn from the communities of the city. The first meeting of the Forum was held on 13 October 2015, at the Guildhall, where the first chair and vice-chair were elected.In 2021, this was re-launched as the Bath Area Forum. Parliamentary elections Bath is one of the oldest extantparliamentary constituenciesin the United Kingdom, being in continuous existence since theModel Parliamentof 1295. Before theReform Act 1832, Bath elected two members to theunreformed House of Commons, as an ancient parliamentary borough.From 1832 until 1918 it elected two MPs and then was reduced to one. Historically the constituency covered only the city of Bath; however, it was enlarged into some outlying areas between 1997 and 2010. The constituency since 2010 once again",
"2010 once again covers exactly the city of Bath and is currently represented byLiberal DemocratWera Hobhousewho beatConservativeBen Howlettat the2017 general electionand retained her seat at the2019 general election.Howlett had replaced the retiringLiberal DemocratDon Fosterat the2015 general election. Foster's election was a notable result of the1992 general election, asChris Patten, the previous Member (andCabinet Minister) played a major part, asChairman of the Conservative Party, in re-electing the government ofJohn Major, but failed to defend his marginal seat. Electoral wards The fifteenelectoral wardsof Bath are:Bathwick,Combe Down,Kingsmead, Lambridge,Lansdown, Moorlands,Newbridge,Odd Down, Oldfield Park, Southdown,Twerton,Walcot,Westmoreland,WestonandWidcombe&Lyncombe. These wards are co-extensive with the city, except that Newbridge includes also two parishes beyond the city boundary. These wards return a total of 28 councillors toBath and North East Somerset Council; all except two wards return",
"two wards return two councillors (Moorlands and Oldfield Park return one each). The most recentelections were held on 4 May 2023and all wards returnedLiberal Democratsexcept for Lambridge and Westmoreland which returnedGreen Partyandindependentcouncillors respectively. Boundary changes enacted from 2 May 2019 included the abolition ofAbbeyward, the merger of Lyncombe and Widcombe wards, the creation of Moorlands ward, and the replacement of Oldfield with Oldfield Park, as well as considerable changes to boundaries affecting all wards. Geography and environment Physical geography Bath is in the Avon Valley and is surrounded by limestone hills as it is near the southern edge of theCotswolds, a designatedArea of Outstanding Natural Beauty, and theMendip Hillsrise around 7 miles (11 km) south of the city. The hills that surround and make up the city have a maximum altitude of 781 feet (238 metres) on the Lansdown plateau. Bath has an area of 11 square miles (28 square kilometres). Thefloodplainof the Avon has an",
"the Avon has an altitude of about 59 ft (18 m) abovesea level,although the city centre is at an elevation of around 25 metres (82 ft) above sea level.The river, once an unnavigable series ofbraided streamsbroken up byswampsand ponds, has been managed byweirsinto a single channel. Periodic flooding, which shortened the life of many buildings in the lowest part of the city, was normal until major flood control works were completed in the 1970s.Kensington Meadows is an area of mixed woodland and open meadow next to the river which has been designated as alocal nature reserve. Water bubbling up from the ground asgeothermal springsoriginates as rain on theMendip Hills. The rain percolates through limestone aquifers to a depth of between 9,000 to 14,000 ft (2,700 to 4,300 m) where geothermal energy raises the water's temperature to between 64 and 96 °C (approximately 147–205 °F). Under pressure, the heated water rises to the surface along fissures and faults in the limestone. Hot water at a temperature of 46 °C",
"of 46 °C (115 °F) rises here at the rate of 1,170,000 litres (257,364 imp gal) daily,from the Pennyquickgeological fault. In 1983, a new spa-water bore-hole was sunk, providing a clean and safe supply for drinking in the Pump Room.There is no universal definition to distinguish ahot springfrom ageothermalspring, although, by severaldefinitions, the Bath springs can be considered the only hot springs in the UK. Three of the springs feed the thermal baths. Climate Along with the rest ofSouth West England, Bath has atemperate climatewhich is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country.The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 °C (50.0 °F). Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures. The summer months of July and August are the warmest, with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 °C (69.8 °F). In winter, mean minimum temperatures of 1 or 2 °C (33.8 or 35.6 °F) are common.In the summer, theAzoreshigh pressure affects",
"pressure affects the south-west of England bringing fair weather; however,convectivecloud sometimes forms inland, reducing the number of hours of sunshine. Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1,600 hours. In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton. Most of the rainfall in the south-west is caused byAtlantic depressionsor byconvection. In summer, a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground, leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms. Average rainfall is around 700 mm (28 in). About 8–15 days of snowfall is typical. November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, and June to August have the lightest winds. The predominant wind direction is from the southwest. Green belt Bath is fully enclosed bygreen beltas a part of a wider environmental and planning policy first designated in the late 1950s,and this extends into much of the surrounding district and beyond, helping to maintain local green space, prevent",
"space, prevent furtherurban sprawland unplanned expansion towards Bristol andBradford-on-Avon, as well as protecting smaller villages in between.Suburbs of the city bordering the green belt includeBatheaston,Bathford,Bathampton, the University of Bath campus, Ensleigh,Twerton,Upper Weston,Odd Down, andCombe Down. Parts of the CotswoldsAONBsouthern extent overlap the green belt north of the city, with other nearby landscape features and facilities within the green belt including the River Avon, Kennet and Avon Canal,Bath Racecourse, Bath Golf Club,Bathampton Down, Bathampton Meadow Nature Reserve, Bristol and Bath Railway Path, theCotswold Way,Limestone Linkroute, Pennyquick Park,Little Solsbury Hill, and Primrose Hill. Demography District According to the2021 census, Bath, together with North East Somerset, which includes areas around Bath as far as theChew Valley, had a population of 193,400 (up 9.9% from 2011). The district is largelynon-religiousandChristianat 47.9% and 42.2%, respectively, with no other",
"with no other religion reaching more than 1%. These figures generally compare with the national averages, though the non-religious, at 47.9%, are significantly more prevalent than the national 36.7%. 84.5% of residents rated their health as good or very good, higher than the national level (81.7%). Nationally, 17.7% of people identified as being disabled; in Bath it is 16.2%. The table below compares the unitary authority district as a whole (including the city) andSouth West Englandand contrasts changes since the 2011 census. More detailed updated information, including figures specifically for the city of Bath, appear to be unavailable. City The2011 censusrecorded a population of 94,782 for the Bath built-up area and 88,859 for the city, with the latter exactly corresponding to the boundaries of the parliament constituency.The Bath built-up area extends slightly beyond the boundaries of the city itself, taking in areas to the northeast such asBathamptonandBathford. The 2001 census figure for the city was",
"for the city was 83,992.By 2019, the population was estimated at 90,000. An inhabitant of Bath is known as a Bathonian. The table below compares the city of Bath with the unitary authority district as a whole (including the city) andSouth West England. Economy Industry Bath once had an important manufacturing sector, particularly in crane manufacture, furniture manufacture, printing, brass foundries, quarries, dye works andPlasticinemanufacture, as well as many mills.Significant Bath companies includedStothert & Pitt,Bath Cabinet MakersandBath & Portland Stone. During and afterWorld War IIBath was a major location ofMinistry of Defenceoffices, with three major sites on the outskirts of Bath (Ensleigh, Foxhill and Warminster Road) and a number of smaller central offices including theEmpire Hotel. After theCold Warstaff numbers declined, and from 2010 to 2013 about 2,600 remaining staff were moved toMoD Abbey Woodin Bristol. In 2013 the three major sites were sold for the development of over 1,000 new houses.",
"1,000 new houses. Nowadays, manufacturing is in decline, but the city boasts strong software, publishing and service-oriented industries, and the international manufacturing companyRotorkhas its headquarters in the city.The city's attraction to tourists has also led to a significant number of jobs in tourism-related industries. Important economic sectors in Bath include education and health (30,000 jobs), retail, tourism and leisure (14,000 jobs) and business and professional services (10,000 jobs). Major employers are theNational Health Service, the city's two universities, and Bath and North East Somerset Council. Growing employment sectors include information and communication technologies and creative and cultural industries where Bath is one of the recognised national centres for publishing,with the magazine and digital publisherFuture plcemploying around 650 people. Others includeBuro Happold(400) andIPL Information Processing Limited(250).The city boasts over 400 retail shops, half of which are run by",
"of which are run by independent specialist retailers, and around 100 restaurants and cafes primarily supported by tourism. Tourism One of Bath's principal industries is tourism, with annually more than one million staying visitors and 3.8 million day visitors.The visits mainly fall into the categories ofheritage tourismandcultural tourism, aided by the city's selection in 1987 as a World Heritage Site in recognition of its international cultural importance.All significant stages of thehistory of Englandare represented within the city, from the Roman Baths (including their significantCelticpresence), to Bath Abbey and the Royal Crescent, to the more recent Thermae Bath Spa. The size of the tourist industry is reflected in the almost 300 places of accommodation – including more than 80 hotels, two of which have 'five-star' ratings,over 180bed and breakfasts– many of which are located inGeorgian buildings, and two campsites located on the western edge of the city. The city also has about 100 restaurants and a",
"restaurants and a similar number ofpubsand bars. Several companies offeropen top bustours around the city, as well as tours on foot and on the river. Since the opening of Thermae Bath Spa in 2006, the city has attempted to recapture its historical position as the only town or city in the United Kingdom offering visitors the opportunity to bathe in naturally heated spring waters. In the 2010Google Street ViewBest Streets Awards, the Royal Crescent took second place in the \"Britain's Most Picturesque Street\" award, first place being given toThe ShamblesinYork.Milsom Streetwas also awarded \"Britain's Best Fashion Street\" in the 11,000-strong vote. Architecture There are many Romanarchaeologicalsites throughout the central area of the city. Thebathsthemselves are about 6 metres (20 ft) below the present city street level. Around the hot springs, Roman foundations, pillar bases, and baths can still be seen; however, all thestoneworkabove the level of the baths is from more recent periods. Bath Abbey was",
"Bath Abbey was aNormanchurch built on earlier foundations. The present building dates from the early 16th century and shows alate Perpendicularstyle withflying buttressesandcrocketedpinnaclesdecorating acrenellatedand piercedparapet.The choir and transepts have afan vaultbyRobertandWilliam Vertue.A matching vault was added to the nave in the 19th century.The building is lit by 52 windows. Most buildings in Bath are made from the local, golden-coloured Bath stone,and many date from the 18th and 19th century. The dominant style of architecture in Central Bath is Georgian;this style evolved from thePalladianrevival style that became popular in the early 18th century. Many of the prominent architects of the day were employed in the development of the city. The original purpose of much of Bath's architecture is concealed by the honey-coloured classical façades; in an era before the advent of the luxury hotel, these apparently elegant residences were frequently purpose-built lodging houses, where visitors could",
"visitors could hire a room, a floor, or (according to their means) an entire house for the duration of their visit, and be waited on by the house's communalservants.The masonsReeves of Bathwere prominent in the city from the 1770s to 1860s. The Circus consists of three long, curved terraces designed by the elder John Wood to form a circular space or theatre intended for civic functions and games. The games give a clue to the design, the inspiration behind which was theColosseumin Rome.Like the Colosseum, the three façades have a different order of architecture on each floor:Doricon the ground level, thenIonicon thepiano nobile, and finishing withCorinthianon the upper floor, the style of the building thus becoming progressively more ornate as it rises.Wood never lived to see his unique example of town planning completed as he died five days after personally laying the foundation stone on 18 May 1754. The most spectacular of Bath's terraces is the Royal Crescent, built between 1767 and 1774 and designed by",
"and designed by the younger John Wood.Wood designed the great curved façade of what appears to be about 30 houses with Ioniccolumnson a rusticated ground floor, but that was the extent of his input: each purchaser bought a certain length of the façade, and then employed their own architect to build a house to their own specifications behind it; hence what appears to be two houses is in some cases just one. This system of town planning is betrayed at the rear of the crescent: while the front is completely uniform and symmetrical, the rear is a mixture of differing roof heights, juxtapositions and fenestration. The \"Queen Anne fronts and Mary-Anne backs\" architecture occurs repeatedly in Bath and was designed to keep hired women at the back of the house.Other fine terraces elsewhere in the city include Lansdown CrescentandSomerset Placeon the northern hill. Around 1770 theneoclassicalarchitectRobert AdamdesignedPulteney Bridge, using as the prototype for the three-arched bridge spanning the Avon an original,",
"Avon an original, but unused, design byAndrea Palladiofor theRialto Bridgein Venice.Thus, Pulteney Bridge became not just a means of crossing the river, but also a shopping arcade. Along with the Rialto Bridge and thePonte VecchioinFlorence, which it resembles, it is one of the very few surviving bridges in Europe to serve this dual purpose.It has been substantially altered since it was built. The bridge was named after Frances andWilliam Pulteney, the owners of the Bathwick estate for which the bridge provided a link to the rest of Bath.The Georgian streets in the vicinity of the river tended to be built high above the original ground level to avoid flooding, with the carriageways supported on vaults extending in front of the houses. This can be seen in the multi-storey cellars around Laura Place south of Pulteney Bridge, in the colonnades below Grand Parade, and in the grated coal holes in the pavement of North Parade. In some parts of the city, such as George Street, and London Road near Cleveland Bridge,",
"Cleveland Bridge, the developers of the opposite side of the road did not match this pattern, leaving raised pavements with the ends of the vaults exposed to a lower street below. The heart of the Georgian city was the Pump Room, which, together with its associated Lower Assembly Rooms, was designed byThomas Baldwin, a local builder responsible for many other buildings in the city, including the terraces in Argyle Streetand theGuildhall.Baldwin rose rapidly, becoming a leader in Bath's architectural history. In 1776, he was made the chiefCity Surveyor, andBath City Architect.Great Pulteney Street, where he eventually lived, is another of his works: this wideboulevard, constructed around 1789 and over 1,000 feet (305 m) long and 100 feet (30 m) wide, is lined on both sides by Georgian terraces. In the 1960s and early 1970s some parts of Bath were unsympathetically redeveloped, resulting in the loss of some 18th- and 19th-century buildings. This process was largely halted by a popular campaign which drew",
"campaign which drew strength from the publication of Adam Fergusson'sThe Sack of Bath.Controversy has revived periodically, most recently with the demolition of the 1930s Churchill House, a neo-Georgian municipal building originally housing the Electricity Board, to make way for a newbus station. This is part of the Southgate redevelopment in which an ill-favoured 1960s shopping precinct, bus station and multi-storey car park were demolished and replaced by a new area ofneo-Georgianshopping streets. As a result of this and other changes, notably plans for abandoned industrial land along the Avon, the city's status as a World Heritage Site was reviewed by UNESCO in 2009.The decision was made to let Bath keep its status, but UNESCO asked to be consulted on future phases of the Riverside development,saying that the density and volume of buildings in the second and third phases of the development need to be reconsidered.It also demanded Bath do more to attract world-class architecture in new developments. In",
"developments. In 2021, Bath received its second UNESCO World Heritage inscription, becoming part of a group of 11 spa towns across seven countries that were listed by UNESCO as the \"Great Spas of Europe\". Culture Bath became the centre of fashionable life in England during the 18th century when its Old Orchard Street Theatre andarchitecturaldevelopments such as Lansdown Crescent,the Royal Crescent,The Circus, and Pulteney Bridge were built. Bath's five theatres –Theatre Royal,Ustinov Studio,the Egg, theRondo Theatre, and theMission Theatre– attract internationally renowned companies and directors and an annual season bySir Peter Hall. The city has a long-standing musical tradition; Bath Abbey, home to theKlais Organand the largest concert venue in the city,stages about 20 concerts and 26 organ recitals each year. Another concert venue, the 1,600-seatart decoThe Forum, originated as a cinema. The city holds the annualBath International Music Festivaland Mozartfest, the annualBath Literature Festival(and",
"Festival(and itscounterpart for children), theBath Film Festival, the Bath Digital Festival. theBath Fringe Festival, theBath Beer Festivaland theBath Chilli Festival. The Bach Festivals occur at two and a half-year intervals. An annualBard of Bathcompetition aims to find the best poet, singer or storyteller. The city is home to theVictoria Art Gallery,theMuseum of East Asian Art, andHolburne Museum,numerous commercial art galleries and antique shops, as well as a number of other museums, among themBath Postal Museum, theFashion Museum, theJane Austen Centre, theHerschel Museum of Astronomyand the Roman Baths.TheBath Royal Literary and Scientific Institution(BRLSI) in Queen Square was founded in 1824 from the Society for the encouragement of Agriculture, Planting, Manufactures, Commerce and the Fine Arts founded in 1777.In September 1864, BRLSI hosted the 34th annual meeting of theBritish Science Association, which was attended by explorersDavid Livingstone,Sir Richard Francis Burton, andJohn Hanning Speke.",
"Hanning Speke. The history of the city is displayed at theMuseum of Bath Architecture, which is housed in a building built in 1765 as the TrinityPresbyterianChurch. It was also known as theCountess of Huntingdon'sChapel, as she lived in the attached house from 1707 to 1791. The arts During the 18th centuryThomas GainsboroughandSir Thomas Lawrencelived and worked in Bath.John Maggs, a painter best known for coaching scenes, was born and lived in Bath with his artistic family. Jane Austenlived there from 1801 with her father, mother and sister Cassandra, and the family resided at four different addresses until 1806.Jane Austen never liked the city, and wrote to Cassandra, \"It will be two years tomorrow since we left Bath for Clifton, with what happy feelings of escape.\"Bath has honoured her name with the Jane Austen Centre and a city walk. Austen'sNorthanger AbbeyandPersuasionare set in the city and describe taking the waters, social life, and music recitals. William Friese-Greeneexperimented with celluloid",
"with celluloid and motion pictures in his studio in the 1870s, developing some of the earliest movie camera technology. He is credited as being one of the inventors ofcinematography. Satirist and political journalistWilliam Honewas born in Bath in 1780. Taking the waters is described inCharles Dickens' novelThe Pickwick Papersin which Pickwick's servant,Sam Weller, comments that the water has \"a very strong flavour o' warm flat irons\". The Royal Crescent is the venue for a chase between two characters, Dowler and Winkle.Moyra Caldecott's novelThe Waters of Sulis set in Roman Bath in AD 72, andThe Regency Detective, byDavid LassmanandTerence James, revolves around the exploits of Jack Swann investigating deaths in the city during the early 19th century.Richard Brinsley Sheridan's playThe Rivalstakes place in the city,as doesRoald Dahl's chillingshort story,The Landlady. Many films and television programmes have been filmed using its architecture as the backdrop, including the 2004filmofThackeray'sVanity",
"Fair,The Duchess(2008),The Elusive Pimpernel(1950)andThe Titfield Thunderbolt(1953).In 2012, Pulteney Weir was used as a replacement location during post production of the film adaptation ofLes Misérables. Stunt shots were filmed in October 2012 after footage acquired during the main filming period was found to have errors.The ITV police dramaMcDonald and Doddsis set and mostly filmed in Bath using many of the city's famous sites. In August 2003The Three Tenorssang at a concert to mark the opening of the Thermae Bath Spa, a new hot waterspain the city centre, but delays to the project meant the spa actually opened three years later on 7 August 2006.In 2008, 104 decorated pigs were displayed around the city in a public art event called \"King Bladud's Pigs in Bath\". It celebrated the city, its origins and artists. Decorated pig sculptures were displayed throughout the summer and were auctioned to raise funds forTwo Tunnels Greenway. Parks Royal Victoria Park, a short walk from the city centre, was opened in",
"was opened in 1830 by the 11-year-oldPrincess Victoria, and was the first park to carry her name.Thepublic parkis overlooked by the Royal Crescent and covers 23 hectares (57 acres).It hasaskatepark, tennis courts, abowling green, a putting green and a 12- and 18-hole golf course, a pond, open-air concerts, an annualtravelling funfairat Easter,and a children's play area. Much of its area islawn; a notable feature is aha-hathat segregates it from the Royal Crescent while giving the impression from the Crescent of uninterrupted grassland across the park to Royal Avenue. It has a \"Green Flag Award\", the national standard for parks and green spaces in England and Wales, and is registered byEnglish Heritageas ofNational Historic Importance.The 3.84-hectare (9.5-acre) botanical gardens were formed in 1887 and contain one of the finest collections of plants on limestone in theWest Country. A replica Roman Temple was built at theBritish Empire ExhibitionatWembleyin 1924, and, following the exhibition, was dismantled",
"was dismantled and rebuilt in Victoria Park in Bath.In 1987, the gardens were extended to include the Great Dell, a disused quarry with a collection ofconifers. Other parks include Alexandra Park on a hill overlooking the city;Parade Gardens, along the river near the abbey in the city centre;Sydney Gardens, an 18th-century pleasure garden; Henrietta Park; Hedgemead Park; and Alice Park.Jane Austenwrote \"It would be pleasant to be near the Sydney Gardens. We could go into the Labyrinth every day.\"Alexandra, Alice and Henrietta parks were built into the growing city among the housing developments.Linear Park is built on the oldSomerset and Dorset Joint Railwayline,and connects with theTwo Tunnels Greenwaywhich contains the longest cycling and walking tunnel in the UK.Cleveland Poolswere built around 1815 close to the River Avon,now the oldest surviving public outdoorlidoin England.Restoration was completed in 2023, after a 20 year fund-raising campaign, with the lido opening for the first time in 40 years on",
"time in 40 years on 10 September. Queen Victoria Victoria Art Gallery and Royal Victoria Park are named afterQueen Victoria, who wrote in her journal in 1837, \"The people are really too kind to me.\"This feeling seemed to have been reciprocated by the people of Bath: \"Lord James O'Brien brought a drawing of the intended pillar which the people of Bath are so kind as to erect in commemoration of my 18th birthday.\" Food Several foods have an association with the city.Sally Lunn buns(a type ofteacake) have long been baked in Bath. They were first mentioned by name in verses printed in theBath Chronicle, in 1772.At that time they were eaten hot at public breakfasts in Spring Gardens. They can be eaten with sweet or savoury toppings and are sometimes confused withBath buns, which are smaller, round, very sweet and very rich. They were associated with the city followingThe Great Exhibition. Bath buns were originally topped with crushedcomfitscreated by dippingcarawayseeds repeatedly in boiling sugar; but today",
"sugar; but today seeds are added to a 'London Bath Bun' (a reference to the bun's promotion and sale at the Great Exhibition).The seeds may be replaced by crushed sugar granules or 'nibs'. Bath has lent its name to one other distinctive recipe –Bath Olivers– a dry baked biscuit invented by Dr William Oliver, physician to theMineral Water Hospitalin 1740.Oliver was an anti-obesity campaigner and author of a\"Practical Essay on the Use and Abuse of warm Bathing in Gluty Cases\".In more recent years, Oliver's efforts have been traduced by the introduction of a version of the biscuit with a plain chocolate coating.Bath chaps, the salted and smoked cheek and jawbones of the pig, takes its name from the cityand is available from a stall in the daily covered market.Bath Alesbrewery is located inWarmleyandAbbey Alesare brewed in the city. Twinning Bath istwinnedwith four other cities in Europe. Twinning is the responsibility of the Charter Trustees and each twinning arrangement is managed by a Twinning Association.",
"Association. There is also a historic connection withManly, New South Wales, Australia, which is referred to as a sister city; a partnership arrangement withBeppu,Ōita Prefecture, Japan;and a friendship agreement withOleksandriia,Kirovohrad Oblast, Ukraine. Formal twinning Education Bath has two universities, theUniversity of BathandBath Spa University. Established in 1966, the University of Bathwas named University of the Year byThe Sunday Timesin 2011. It offers programs in politics, languages, the physical sciences, engineering, mathematics, architecture, management and technology. Bath Spa University was first granted degree-awarding powers in 1992 as auniversity collegebefore being granted university status in August 2005.It offers courses leading to aPostgraduate Certificate in Education. It has schools in the following subject areas: Art and Design, Education, English and Creative Studies, Historical and Cultural Studies, Music and the Performing Arts, Science and the Environment and Social Sciences.",
"Social Sciences. Bath Collegeoffersfurther education, andNorland Collegeprovides education and training in childcare. Sport Rugby Bath Rugbyis arugby unionteam in thePremiershipleague. It plays in blue, white and black kit at theRecreation Groundin the city, where it has been since the late 19th century, following its establishment in 1865.The team's first major honour was winning the John Player Cup, now sponsored as theLVCup and also known as theAnglo-Welsh Cup, four years consecutively from 1984 until 1987.The team then led theCourage leaguein six seasons in eight years between 1988 and 1989 and 1995–96, during which time it also won the renamed Pilkington Cup in 1989, 1990, 1992, 1994, 1995 and 1996.It finally won theHeineken Cupin the 1997–98 season, and topped the Zürich Premiership (now Gallagher Premiership) in 2003–04.The team'ssquadincludes several members who also play, or have played in theEnglish national team, includingLee Mears,Rob Webber,Dave Attwood,Nick AbendanonandMatt Banahan.Colston's",
"Banahan.Colston's School, Bristol, has had a large input in the team over the past decade,providing several current 1st XV squad members.The former England Rugby Team Manager and formerScotland nationalcoachAndy Robinsonused to play for Bath Rugby team and was captain and later coach. Both of Robinson's predecessors,Clive WoodwardandJack Rowell, as well as his successorBrian Ashton, were also former Bath coaches and managers. Football Bath City F.C.is the semi-professionalfootballteam. Founded in 1889, the club has played their home matches atTwerton Parksince 1932. Bath City's history is entirely in non-league football, predominantly in the 5th tier. Bath narrowly missed out on election to the Football League by a few votes in 1978and again in 1985. The club have a good history in the FA Cup, reaching the third round six times. The record attendance, 18,020, at the ground was in 1960 against Brighton.The club's colours are black and white and their official nickname is \"The Romans\", stemming from Bath's",
"from Bath's Ancient Roman history.The club is sometimes called \"The Stripes\", referring to their striped kit. Until 2009Team Bath F.C.operated as an affiliate to the University Athletics programme. In 2002, Team Bath became the first university team to enter theFA Cupin 120 years, and advanced through four qualifying rounds to the first round proper.The university's team was established in 1999 while the city team has existed since before 1908 (when it entered theWestern League).However, in 2009, theFootball Conferenceruled that Team Bath would not be eligible to gain promotion to a National division, nor were they allowed to participate inFootball Associationcup competitions. This ruling led to the decision by the club to fold at the end of the 2008–09 Conference South competition. In their final season, Team Bath F.C. finished 11th in the league. Bath also hasNon-League footballclubsOdd Down F.C.who play at the Lew Hill Memorial GroundandLarkhall Athletic F.C.who play at Plain Ham. Other sports",
"Ham. Other sports Manycricketclubs are based in the city, includingBath Cricket Club, who are based at the North Parade Ground and play in theWest of England Premier League. Cricket is also played on the Recreation Ground, just across from the rugby club. The Recreation Ground is also home to Bath Croquet Club, which was re-formed in 1976 and is affiliated with the South West Federation ofCroquetClubs. TheBath Half Marathonis run annually through the city streets, with over 10,000 runners. TeamBathis the umbrella name for all of the University of Bath sports teams, including the aforementioned football club. Other sports for which TeamBath is noted areathletics, badminton, basketball,bob skeleton,bobsleigh,hockey, judo,modern pentathlon,netball, rugby union, swimming, tennis,triathlonand volleyball. The City of Bath Triathlon takes place annually at the university. Bath Roller Derby Girls (BRDG)is a flat trackroller derbyclub, founded in 2012,they compete in the British Roller Derby Championships Tier 3.As",
"Tier 3.As of 2015, they are full members of the United Kingdom Roller Derby Association (UKRDA.) Bath is home to atable tennisLeague, made up of 3 divisions and a number of clubs based in Bath and the surrounding area. Transport Roads Bath is approximately 11 miles (18 km) south-east of the larger city and port of Bristol, to which it is linked by theA4 road, which runs through Bath, and is a similar distance south of theM4 motorwayat junction 18. The potential new junction 18a linking theM4 motorwaywith the A4174Avon Ring Roadwill provide an additional direct route from Bath to the motorway. In an attempt to reduce the level of car use,park and rideschemes have been introduced, with sites at Odd Down, Lansdown and Newbridge. A very large increase in city centre parking was also provided under the new SouthGate shopping centre development, which necessarily introduces more car traffic. In addition, abus gatescheme in Northgate aims to reduce private car use in the city centre. Atransportation",
"Atransportation study(theBristol/Bath to South Coast Study) was published in 2004 after being initiated by theGovernment Office for the South WestandBath and North East Somerset Counciland undertaken byWSP Globalas a result of thede-trunkingin 1999 of the A36/A46 trunk road networkfrom Bath to Southampton. TheBath Clean Air Zonewas introduced for central Bath on 15 March 2021. A Class C zone, it charges themost polluting commercial vehicles£9 per day (and up to £100 per day for coaches andHGVs).It is the first UK road pollution charging zone outside London, and reducednitrogen dioxidelevels in the city by 26% over the following two years, meeting legal standards. Buses National Expressoperatescoachservices fromBath bus stationto a number of cities. Bath has a network of bus routes run byFirst West of England, with services to surrounding towns and cities, such asBristol,Corsham,Chippenham,Devizes,Salisbury,FromeandWells.Faresaver Busesalso operate services to surrounding towns. TheBath Bus Companyruns",
"Bus Companyruns open-top double-decker bus tours around the city, as well as frequent services toBristol Airport.Stagecoach Westalso provides services toTetburyand the South Cotswolds.The suburbs of Bath are also served by theWESTlink on demand service, available Monday to Saturday. Cycling Bath is onNational Cycle Route 4, with one of Britain's firstcycleways, theBristol and Bath Railway Path, to the west, and an eastern route toward London on the canal towpath. Bath is about 20 miles (30 km) fromBristol Airport.Bath also benefits from several bridleways and byways. Rivers and canals The city is connected to Bristol and the sea by the River Avon, navigable vialocksby small boats. The river was connected to theRiver Thamesand London by theKennet and Avon Canalin 1810 viaBath Locks; this waterway – closed for many years but restored in the last years of the 20th century – is now popular withnarrowboatusers. Railways Bath is served by theBath Spa railway station(designed byIsambard Kingdom Brunel), which has",
"Brunel), which has regular connections to LondonPaddington,Bristol Temple Meads,Cardiff Central,Cheltenham,Exeter,PlymouthandPenzance(seeGreat Western Main Line), and alsoWestbury,Warminster,Weymouth,Salisbury,Southampton,PortsmouthandBrighton(seeWessex Main Line). Services are provided byGreat Western Railway. There is a suburban station on the main line,Oldfield Park, which has a limited commuter service to Bristol as well as other destinations. Green Park Stationwas once the terminus of theMidland Railway,and junction for theSomerset and Dorset Joint Railway, whose line, always steam hauled, went through the Devonshire tunnel (under the Wellsway, St Luke's Church and the Devonshire Arms), through theCombe Down Tunneland climbed over theMendipsto serve many towns and villages on its 71-mile (114 km) run toBournemouth. This example of an English rural line was closed byBeechingin March 1966. Its Bath station building, now restored, houses shops, small businesses, the Saturday Bath Farmers Market and parking",
"Market and parking for a supermarket, while the route of the Somerset and Dorset within Bath has been reused for the Two Tunnels Greenway, a shared use path that extendsNational Cycle Route 24into the city. Trams Historical TheBath Tramways Companywas introduced in the late 19th century, opening on 24 December 1880. The4 ft(1,219 mm) gauge cars were horse-drawn along a route from London Road to the Bath Spa railway station, but the system closed in 1902. It was replaced by electric tram cars on a greatly expanded4 ft8+1⁄2in(1,435 mm) gauge system that opened in 1904. This eventually extended to 18 miles (29 km) with routes to Combe Down, Oldfield Park, Twerton,Newton St Loe, Weston andBathford. There was a fleet of 40 cars, all but 6 being double deck. The first line to close was replaced by a bus service in 1938, and the last went on 6 May 1939. Possible re-introduction In 2005, a detailed plan was created and presented to the council to re-introduce trams to Bath, but the plan did not proceed, reportedly",
"proceed, reportedly due to the focus by the council on the government-supported busway planned to run from the Newbridge park and ride into the city centre. Part of the justification for the proposed tram reintroduction plan was the pollution from vehicles within the city, which was twice the legal levels, and the heavy traffic congestion due to high car usage. In 2015another group, Bath Trams, building on the earlier tram group proposals, created interest in the idea of re-introducing trams with several public meetings and meetings with the council.In 2017,Bath and North East Somerset Councilannounced a feasibility study, due to be published by March 2018, into implementing a light rail or tram system in the city. In November 2016, theWest of England Local Enterprise Partnershipbegan a consultation process on their Transport Vision Summary Document, outlining potentiallight rail/tramroutes in the region, one of which being a route fromBristol city centrealong theA4 roadto Bath to relieve pressure on bus and",
"pressure on bus and rail services between the two cities. Media Bath's local newspaper is theBath Chronicle, owned byLocal World. Published since 1760, theChroniclewas a daily newspaper until mid-September 2007, when it became a weekly.Since 2018 its website has been operated byTrinity Mirror'sSomerset Liveplatform. TheBBC Bristolwebsite has featured coverage of news and events within Bath since 2003. For television, Bath is served by theBBC Weststudiosbased in Bristol, and byITV West Country, formerly HTV, also from studios in Bristol. Radio stations broadcasting to the city includeBBC Radio Bristolwhich has a studio in Kingsmead Square in the city centre,BBC Radio SomersetinTaunton,Greatest Hits Radio Bristol & The South Weston 107.9FM andHeart West, formerly GWR FM, as well as The University of Bath'sUniversity Radio Bath, a student-focused radio station available on campus and also online.Launched in 2019,BA1 Radiois an onlinecommunity radio station. See also References External links",
"Sally Lunn bun ASally Lunnis a large bun orteacake, a type ofbatter bread, made with a yeast dough including cream and eggs, similar to the sweetbriochebreads of France. Sometimes served warm and sliced, with butter, it was first recorded in 1780in the spa town ofBathin southwestEngland. As a tea cake it is popular in Canada and England. In New Zealand the bakery item known as the Sally Lunn is not the same as it has a thick layer of white icing and coconut on top and is also known as aBoston Bun. There are many variations of Sally Lunn cake inAmerican cuisine, some made with yeast, with variations that add cornmeal, sour cream or buttermilk to the basic recipe.The recipe was brought to the United States by British colonists, and new American variations were developed through the 18th and 19th centuries. It is claimed in one 1892 newspaper article that Sally Lunn bread became known as \"Washington's breakfast bread\" because it was so admired byGeorge Washington. Origins The origins of the Sally Lunn are",
"the Sally Lunn are obscure. One theory is that it is an anglicisation of \"Soleil et lune\" (French for \"sun and moon\"), representing the golden crust and white base/interior.The Sally Lunn Eating House in Bath, England, claims that the recipe was brought to Bath in the 1680s by aHuguenotrefugee called Solange Luyon, who became known as Sally Lunn,but there is no evidence to support this theory. \"Food Britannia\" repudiates the Solange Luyon theory. A 2015 report byThe Daily Telegraphstates \"It is a charming tale, but, sadly, a fictitious one – there is little evidence for Mademoiselle Luyon, whatever the museum in the restaurant’s basement might tell you\". There is a passing mention of \"Sally Lunn and saffron cake\" in a 1776 poem about Dublin by the Irish poetWilliam Preston.The first recorded mention of the bun in Somerset is as part of adetox regimeinPhilip Thicknesse's 1780 guidebook to taking the waters atBath. Thicknesse describes how he would daily see visitors drinking 2–3 pints ofBath waterand then",
"waterand then \"sit down to a meal of Sally Lunns or hot spungy rolls, made high by burnt butter!\"He recommends against the practice as his brother died after this kind of breakfast:\"Such a meal, few young men in full health can get over without feeling much inconvenience\". There is little historical evidence for Sally Lunn as a person.The Gentleman's Magazineof 1798 uses Sally Lunn as an example during a discussion of foods named after people—\"a certain sort of hot rolls, now, or not long ago, in vogue at Bath, were gratefully and emphatically styled 'Sally Lunns'\".But it is not until 1827 that a historical person is described by a correspondent ofWilliam Honeusing the pseudonym \"Jehoiada\", who says she had sold the buns on the street \"about thirty years ago\".A baker called Dalmer had bought out her business and made it highly successful after he composed a special song for the vendors,who sold the buns from mobile ovens. The earliest evidence of commercial production is an 1819 advertisement for the Sally",
"for the Sally Lunn \"cakes\" sold by W. Needes of Bath, bread and biscuit maker tothe Prince Regent. Sally Lunns were mentioned together withmuffinsandcrumpetsbyCharles Dickensin 1844in his novelThe Chimes.A year later, in 1845,Eliza Actongave a recipe inModern Cookery for Private Families, describing it as a version of \"Solimemne – A rich French breakfast cake, or Sally Lunn\".Solilemmesis a kind of brioche that is served warm which was popularised by the Parisian chefMarie-Antoine Carêmein a book of 1815. Carême claimed thesolilemoriginated inAlsacebut there is no evidence to support that claim; he may have taken the idea from contacts in Bath and then tried to disguise the origins of a recipe that came from France's great enemy. Sally Lunn's house The building now known as the Sally Lunn Eating House is at 4 North Parade Passage (formerly Lilliput Alley) in Bath(51°22′51″N2°21′30″W / 51.3808°N 2.3582°W /51.3808; -2.3582 (Sally Lunn Eating House)).The site was originally occupied by the south range ofBath",
"south range ofBath Abbey, and the lowest floor level dates to the reconstruction of the abbey after a great fire in 1137. Themasonry ovenin the basement dates from that time. Journals in the 17th century published accounts of visitors to the various coffee houses and several assembly rooms in and along Terrace Walk & North Parade, but Sally Lunn is not mentioned in any of those reports. After the Reformation, the ruins came into the hands of the Colthurst family ofWardour Castle, who sold the site to John Hall of Bradford on Avon in 1612. In 1622, Hall leased the site to George Parker, a carpenter who built the current house. The Hall estate was later acquired by the2nd Duke of Kingston, who sold the house to William Robinson in 1743. There may have been baking on a small scale during the 1700s, but it only became the main commercial use of the building around the turn of the 20th century. In the mid-19th century, Sarah Fricker, a tallow maker, occupied the building.Subsequent owners include Edward",
"include Edward Culverhouse, a cab proprietor, (1904–1921) and Mrs Griffiths, a grocer (1922–1930).The building fell into a bad state of repair and was vacant in 1932–33. Marie Byng-Johnson, an artist, moved to Bath with her daughter, a violinist, c. 1926, taking up lodgings at 13 Abbey Churchyardand giving piano lessons. She moved to 4 North Parade passage in 1934, trading as \"Sally Lunn Ltd\". Byng-Johnson opened the building as a tea-room specialising in Sally Lunn buns, promoting them with a story that she had discovered an ancient document in a secret panel above the fireplace,explaining that Sally Lunn was a young French Huguenot refugee who brought the recipe to Bath around 1680. Remarkably, despite the importance of this priceless and historic document, she lost it. The property has been a Grade II*listed buildingsince June 1950. The listing summary states that \"Sally Lunn, a pastry cook and baker, was a tenant in 1680\" but cites no source to confirm that information. It is possible thatEnglish",
"thatEnglish Heritagesaw the sign on the wall (erected c. 1970)and took the claim at face value. See also References External links"
] |
Who was the character in the roster of the Marvel vs. Capcom entry that was ported to the PlayStation 4 in 2016 that represented a video game franchise that has zombies as main antagonists and is the player character of a game released in 1999? | Jill Valentine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvel_vs._Capcom | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_Marvel_vs._Capcom_3 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill_Valentine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemesis_(Resident_Evil) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Wesker | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Redfield | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_West_(Dead_Rising) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resident_Evil_3:_Nemesis | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvel_vs._Capcom', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_Marvel_vs._Capcom_3', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill_Valentine', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemesis_(Resident_Evil)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Wesker', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Redfield', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_West_(Dead_Rising)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resident_Evil_3:_Nemesis'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvel_vs._Capcom",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_Marvel_vs._Capcom_3",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill_Valentine",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemesis_(Resident_Evil",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Wesker",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Redfield",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_West_(Dead_Rising",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resident_Evil_3:_Nemesis"
] | [
"Marvel vs. Capcom Marvel vs. Capcomis a series ofcrossoverfighting gamesdeveloped and published byCapcom, featuring characters from their own video game franchises and comic book series published byMarvel Comics. The series originated as coin-operatedarcade games, though later releases would be specifically developed for home consoles, handhelds, and personal computers. Its gameplay borrows heavily from Capcom's previous Marvel-licensed fighting gamesX-Men: Children of the AtomandMarvel Super Heroes; however, instead of focusing onsingle combat, the games incorporatedtag teambattles. Players form teams of two or three characters and, controlling one fighter at a time, attempt to damage and knock out their opponents. Players can switch out their characters during the match, allowing team members to replenish theirhealthand prolong their ability to fight. The series' gameplay is also distinguished from other fighting game franchises due to its character assist mechanics and emphasis on aerial combat. TheMarvel vs. Capcomseries has received generally positive reviews from critics, who have praised its fast-paced gameplay, vibrant visuals, and wealth of playable characters. The series has enjoyed broad appeal, especially in markets outside of Japan, selling approximately 11 million units as of 2023. Games Related media In 2011, a series ofMinimatesbased on the playable characters fromMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worldswere released by Art Asylum. Udon EntertainmentpublishedMarvel vs. Capcom: Official Complete Worksart book consisting of promotional artwork, sketches and bonus material from the video game collaborations between Marvel and Capcom, beginning with the 1993 arcade gameThe PunishertoUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3.It contains contributions from a variety of artists and illustrators, includingAkiman, Bengus,Shinkiro,Joe Madureira,Adi Granov, Joe Ng,Long Vo, Chamba,Adam WarrenandTakeshi Miyazawa.Official Complete Worksmade its international debut atSan Diego Comic-Conon July 11, 2012, in an exclusive hardcover edition.The hardcover also featured a wrap-around cover designed by Udon Entertainment and Capcom artistAlvin Lee, and digitally-painted by Udon's Genzoman.A standard-format softcover was released in November 2012 byDiamond Comics. Within theMarvel Comics multiverse, theMarvel vs. Capcomuniverse is designated as \"Earth-30847\". The iteration ofSpider-Manfrom the series made a cameo appearance in the second issue of the comics crossover eventSpider-Verse(2014-15), where he is defeated byMorlunas he hunts allSpider-Totemsacross themultiverse. Gameplay The basic gameplay of theMarvel vs. Capcomseries was originally derived fromX-Men: Children of the AtomandMarvel Super Heroes.Players compete in battle using characters with unique moves and special attacks.Using a combination ofjoystickmovements and button presses, players must execute various moves to damage their opponent and deplete their life gauge, or alternatively, have the most cumulative health when the timer runs out.However, unlike the two aforementioned games, which focus on single combat, theMarvel vs. Capcomseries revolve around tag team-based combat.Instead of choosing a single character, players select multiple characters to form teams of two or three.Each character on the team is given their own life gauge.Players control one character at a time, while the others await off-screen.Players are also free to swap between their characters at any point during the match.As characters take damage, portions of their life gauge will turn red, known as \"red health\", which represents the amount of health that a character can recover if the player tags them out.The off-screen, dormant characters will slowly replenish their red health, allowing players to cycle through their team members and prolong their ability to fight.Furthermore, as characters deal and receive damage, a colored meter at the bottom of the screen known as the \"Hyper Combo Gauge\" will gradually fill.By expending meter from their Hyper Combo Gauge, players can perform \"Hyper Combos\" – powerful, cinematic attacks that deal heavy damage to the opponent – in addition to several other special techniques.If one character loses all of their health, they areknocked outand the next available fighter will automatically come into play. Each successiveMarvel vs. Capcominstallment has added, removed, or altered gameplay elements over the course of the series' history.X-Men vs. Street Fighteradded two-on-two tag team features.Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighterintroduced the concept of the \"assist\" by allowing the player to summon their off-screen partner to perform a special move without switching characters.This feature was replaced inMarvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes, which instead randomly allocated an unplayable guest character with a preset assist move before each match; in addition, assists were limited to only a few uses per round.The assist features fromMarvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighterwere re-incorporated into the following sequel,Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes, once again granting players the ability to call in their off-screen characters at any time during the match without constraint.Marvel vs. Capcom 2also increased the number of characters per team by one, providing a three-on-three battle format.Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worldsintroduced \"X-Factor\", a comeback mechanic which offers increased damage, speed, and red health regeneration for a limited time upon activation.Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinitereverts to two-on-two partner battles and removes traditional character assists, in favour of a free-form tag system where the second character switches in at any point, irrespective of whether the player is mid-combo or in air.Infinitealso implements theInfinity Stonesas a gameplay mechanic, where each of the six stones grants unique abilities and enhancements to the player. Another gameplay element that helps to distinguish theMarvel vs. Capcomseries from other fighting game franchises is its emphasis on aerial combat.Every character in theMarvel vs. Capcomseries is given a \"Launcher\" move, which sends the opponent flying up into the air.The player can then choose to follow up immediately by using a \"Super Jump\", which allows a character to jump much higher than normal, in order to continue theircombo; these airborne combos are called \"Air Combos\" or \"Aerial Raves\".Marvel vs. Capcom 3introduced a gameplay feature known as the \"Team Aerial Combo\" or \"Aerial Exchange\", giving players the opportunity to extend their Air Combos further by quickly tagging in their other characters while mid-air. As Capcom's design philosophy for the series has changed to appeal to a wider audience, the control scheme has been repeatedly modified to accommodate people less familiar with the fighting game genre.The first three installments utilized the same layout of six attack buttons, separated as three pairs of light, medium, and hard punches and kicks.InMarvel vs. Capcom 2, in order to make the game more accessible, the layout was tweaked to four attack buttons, consisting of two pairs of light and heavy punches and kicks, and two dedicated assist buttons.The control scheme was further simplified with the release ofMarvel vs. Capcom 3, which included three attack buttons designated to undefined light, medium, and hard attacks, two assist buttons, and an \"exchange button\" used to perform Launchers and switch between characters during Air Combos.In addition,Marvel vs. Capcom 3included two different control scheme options: Normal Mode and Simple Mode.Simple Mode, designed for casual players, allows players to perform special moves and Hyper Combos with single button presses at the expense of limiting a character's available moveset.ThoughMarvel vs. Capcom: Infinitereturned to a control scheme similar toMarvel vs. Capcom 2― with four attack buttons, one dedicated button for character tagging, and another for activating Infinity Stone abilities ― it introduced a new \"auto-combo\" system to improve accessibility that allows players to repeatedly mash the light punch input to automatically execute ground and air combos without any damage penalty. Characters Marvel vs. Capcomhas featured over 100 playable fighters, primarily drawn from comic book series published by Marvel Comics and video games franchises developed and produced by Capcom. The games have introduced a few original characters, which includeNorimarofromMarvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter, and Amingo, Ruby Heart, and SonSon fromMarvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes.In addition to the playable cast, other characters from the Marvel and Capcom universes make appearances in the games in varying capacities. BothMarvel Super Heroes vs. Street FighterandMarvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroesincludesecret characterswhich can be played by inputting specific sequences of joystick movements on the character select screen.These secret characters consist ofpalette swapsof existing fighters with different moveset properties.Clash of Super Heroesalso has unplayable summon characters as part of its \"Guest Character/Special Partner\" assist system. ManyMarvel vs. Capcominstallments also allow players to fight as the games'boss charactersin special game modes, with the exception of Abyss fromMarvel vs. Capcom 2.Characters that have not been playable frequently makecameo appearancesin the games' cutscenes and stage backgrounds.Lastly, numerous non-playable Marvel and Capcom characters are featured as \"Ability Cards\" in the Heroes and Heralds game mode inUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3.Out of all the playable characters, Ryu and Chun-Li are the only ones to have appeared in every game released thus far. Notes History Capcom's partnership with Marvel Comics began in 1993 with the release ofThe Punisher, an arcadebeat 'em upbased on the comic book series of the same name.Capcom then created their first Marvel-licensed fighting game,X-Men: Children of the Atom, in 1994.Marvel Super Heroessoon followed in 1995.Many of the gameplay mechanics used in theMarvel vs. Capcomseries were first developed and refined in these two fighting games, serving as precursors to the series.In 2011, then-current Capcom USA Strategic Marketing Director of Online and Community Seth Killian stated that many fighting game aficionados, including himself, consider them to have laid the foundation for the series. The idea for implementing tag teams was allegedly inspired by aneaster eggfrom Capcom's own 1995 fighting gameStreet Fighter Alpha: Warriors' Dreams.In a secret \"Dramatic Battle\" mode, two players, controllingRyuandKen, were able to fight against an AI-controlledM. Bisonat the same time.The easter egg itself had drawn inspiration from the final battle sequence ofStreet Fighter II: The Animated Movie, which featured a similar fight scene.Recognizing the uniqueness of a team-up concept, Capcom began to work on their next project.After their earlier licensing ventures withChildren of the AtomandMarvel Super Heroes, the company decided to combine Marvel'sX-Menfranchise, their ownStreet Fighterfranchise, and their team-up concept, leading to the creation ofX-Men vs. Street Fighter.The game debuted in Japanese arcades in 1996, establishing the series' fast-paced, tag team-based gameplay style. Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighterwas then released in 1997, which replaced most of theX-Mencast with other heroes from theMarvel Universeand introduced the character assist mechanic.Marvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroeslater followed in 1998, exchanging the majority of theStreet Fightercast with characters from other Capcom video games series, such asMega ManandDarkstalkers.In 1999, Capcom announced the development of yet another sequel, calledMarvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes.Marvel vs. Capcom 2heavily re-used assets from previous Capcom-developed games, includingStreet Fighter Alpha,Darkstalkers, and the earlierMarvel vs. Capcomtitles, resulting in a large roster of 56 playable characters.Shortly after the release of the PlayStation 2 and Xbox ports forMarvel vs. Capcom 2, Capcom lost the use of the Marvel license, putting the series on an indefinite hiatus.However, with the resurgence of 2D fighting games in 2008, owing to the success ofStreet Fighter IV, Marvel requested Capcom to collaborate with them once again.Capcom would announce the development of the next installment in theMarvel vs. Capcomseries,Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds, in 2010.The game was eventually released in 2011.An updated version ofMarvel vs. Capcom 3, titledUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, was released later in the same year.The high-definition compilation gameMarvel vs. Capcom Originswas then released in 2012. Following the release ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3for the PlayStation Vita in 2012, Marvel's new parent company,The Walt Disney Company, which acquired Marvel in 2009, chose not to renew Capcom's license with the Marvel characters, instead opting to put them in its own self-publishedDisney Infinityseries.As a result, Capcom had to pull bothUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3andMarvel vs. Capcom 2off their online platforms in 2013.However, in 2016, Disney announced its decision to cancel theDisney Infinityseries, discontinue self-publishing efforts, and switch to a licensing-only model, allowing them to license their characters to third-party game developers, including Capcom.Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinitewas revealed in 2016, and then released in 2017. In June 2024, Capcom announcedMarvel vs. Capcom Fighting Collection: Arcade ClassicsforNintendo Switch,PlayStation 4andWindows.The compilation features the seven Marvel titles developed and published by Capcom for arcades fromThe PunisherthroughMarvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes.It notably marks the series' debut on Nintendo platforms, the first time the classic entries have been made available on PC, as well as the first general re-releases forMarvel Super Heroes, Clash of Super HeroesandNew Age of Heroessince the originalOriginscompilation and the remaster ofMarvel vs. Capcom 2were digitally delisted from seventh generation console storefronts. Reception TheMarvel vs. Capcomseries has received reviews ranging from average to positive from critics. According to Capcom President andCOOHaruhiro Tsujimoto, the games have enjoyed broad appeal, especially in markets outside of Japan.As of December 2023,11 millionunits of the series have been sold. The series' first three titles,X-Men vs. Street Fighter,Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter, andMarvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes, received praise for their frantic gameplay style, visual flair, playable character rosters, and the quality of their sprite animations.The games' Dreamcast and Sega Saturn ports were also lauded for their technical performance, matching the capabilities of the arcade versions.Conversely, the PlayStation ports were criticized for their removal of tag team battles and noticeable decline in frame rate and animation quality – changes which stemmed from the console'sRAMlimitations. Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroesreceived similar praise, with particular attention given towards the large cast and the addition of three-on-three combat.The Dreamcast, PlayStation 2, and Xbox versions were criticized for their lack of online multiplayer support outside Japan.These concerns were addressed with the release of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 ports, which reviewers commended for their smooth online experience.A common source of complaints was the game's jazz-inspired soundtrack, which critics deemed as out of place. In addition to its character variety and visual presentation,Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worldsgarnered praise for simplifying the series' combat mechanics and control scheme, thus making it more accessible for players new to fighting games.Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcomwas applauded for its additions to the character roster, gameplay tweaks, and improved online functionality.Both games, however, were criticized for their lack of game modes and single-player content.Marvel vs. Capcom Originswas praised for preserving the original arcade releases' integrity and its addition of online multiplayer, dynamic challenges, and unlockable content; however, in remaining faithful to the arcade versions, some reviewers criticized the games for their outdated gameplay and unbalanced fighters.Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinitereceived mixed to positive reviews, with critics praising its implementation of new gameplay mechanics, such as the \"Active Switch\" combo system and the addition of the six Infinity Stones.On the other hand, the game was criticized for its presentation, particularly its art direction, and its character roster. In 2012,ComplexrankedMarvel vs. Capcomat number 37 on the list of the best video game franchises, commenting that \"a frenetic pace and over the top effects work together to make this franchise stand the test of time\". Notes References External links Category",
"Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3is a 2011crossoverfighting gamedeveloped byCapcomin collaboration withEighting. It is an updated version ofMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds. The game features characters from both Capcom's video game franchises and comic book series published byMarvel Comics. It was originally released for thePlayStation 3andXbox 360in November 2011, then as alaunch titlefor thePlayStation Vitain 2012, and later re-released onPlayStation 4,WindowsandXbox One. InUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, players select a team of three characters to engage in combat and attempt to knock out their opponents. As an update, the game utilizes largely identical gameplay mechanics to the original. However, both the aerial combat and X-Factor systems, introduced inFate of Two Worlds, have received adjustments. In addition to gameplay modifications and new playable characters, the game features several aesthetic changes. After the events of the2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunamidisrupted the development schedule fordownloadable contentforFate of Two Worlds, the additional content was created into a standalone title,Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, for a discounted retail price. The game received generally positive reviews upon release; critics praised the expanded character roster and improved online experience, but criticized the lack of new features and game modes. A sequel, titledMarvel vs. Capcom: Infinite, was released in 2017. Gameplay Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3is an updated version ofMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds, anarcade-style fighting game, and changes little from the basic gameplay of the original.Players select teams of three different characters to engage in one-on-one combat.The game utilizes the sametag team-based fighting mechanics as its predecessors; players may choose to swap between their characters at any point during a match.Players must use the various attacks in their arsenal, such as character assists, special moves, and hyper combos, to exhaust their opponent'slife gaugeand defeat the entire enemy team, or have the most cumulative health when time runs out.While the core mechanics remain the same, a number of aesthetic changes have been made inUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, with a stronger emphasis on thecomic bookmotif.TheHUD, character selection, and stage selection screens have been redesigned.In addition, many returning characters receive balancing changes, which include new moves and animation tweaks. Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3uses the same simplified, three-button control scheme of undefined light, medium, and heavy attacks introduced inFate of Two Worlds.The \"exchange button\", used to launch opponents into the air and switch between characters while performingair combos, returns.The aerial exchange feature has been altered inUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3; players can either remove meter from their opponent's Hyper Combo gauge, add meter to their own gauge, or simply deal more damage.The \"X-Factor\" mechanic, which grants increased damage output, speed, and health regeneration for a limited time, also reappears fromFate of Two Worlds.InUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, the attack and speed boosts for each character while using X-Factor have been adjusted.X-Factor can now be used while in the air, as opposed to the previous game, in which activation was restricted to characters on the ground. Modes Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3includes severalgame modesfrom the original, including Arcade Mode, where the player fights againstAI-controlled opponents to reach the finalboss character,Galactus; Versus Mode, where two players engage in combat; Mission Mode, which includes a series of trials for each playable character; and Training Mode.\"Heroes and Heralds\" is a free downloadable single-player and multiplayer team-based mode where players earn new abilities with upgrade cards, customize their characters with new powers, and compete in factions as either the heroes defending Earth or as one ofGalactus' Heralds.The \"ability cards\", which feature various characters from the Marvel and Capcom universes, unlock special power-ups, such as invisibility and projectile invincibility, for use during mode-specific combat. Up to three different cards may be equipped at once, with more than 100 cards available to collect.A new offline mode, called \"Galactus Mode\", allows players to fight as Galactus against AI-controlled opponents. An optimizednetcodeis present in the game, providing smoother online play compared toFate of Two Worlds.A new spectator mode allows up to six players to watch online matches between other players.Rematch features and leaderboard functionality have also been improved to enhance the game's online experience. Playable characters Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3features the original 36 characters fromMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worldsand introduces 12 new playable fighters.Jill ValentineandShuma-Gorath, the two characters released asdownloadable content(DLC) for the previous game, remained available for download, up until all DLC for the game was removed from online stores in December 2013; they are included in the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and PC re-releases.Characters added toUltimateare marked inbold. Marvel characters Capcom characters Development On July 20, 2011, atSan Diego Comic-Con, Capcom announced that an updated version ofMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worldswas under development.The update, titledUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, would add new characters, stages, modes, and other enhancements to improve the game's balance and online functionality.According to Capcom, many new features and refinements, such as the addition of a spectator mode and tweaks to X-Factor, were the results of fan feedback.At the2011 Tokyo Game Show, Capcom video game producer,Yoshinori Ono, would later announce that the game would also be released as a launch title for the PlayStation Vita.The handheld edition promised to contain the same content as the console versions, in addition to touchscreen control support. After the release ofMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds, the game's development team had plans to release more downloadable content.However, after the2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, in addition to staff health issues, delayed the development schedule, producer Ryota Niitsuma and his team decided to release the proposed DLC, along with rebalanced gameplay and other additions, as a separate installment.As a result, the makeup ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3is split \"about half and half\" between DLC meant forFate of Two Worldsand brand new content. Character selection was a collaborative process between Capcom and Marvel.According to Seth Killian, a former community manager for Capcom, Marvel presented a list of their own characters that they were interested in seeing inUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3.Capcom then provided input regarding moveset possibilities in order to reach a consensus.Each company also had their own set of interests and priorities.Marvel characters, such as Rocket Raccoon and Nova, were chosen tocross-promoteupcoming products.On the other hand, Capcom sought to bring more diversity into the cast.For example, Capcom wanted a monster-like character that could fight while in the air, leading to the inclusion of Firebrand. Release Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3was released for thePlayStation 3andXbox 360on November 15, 2011, in North America, November 17 in Japan, and November 18 in Europe.ThePlayStation Vitaversion was released on December 17, 2011, in Japan, and February 22, 2012, in North America and Europe.People who ordered the PlayStation Vita \"First Edition\" bundle in North America were able to receive an early copy ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3on February 15, 2012, one week ahead of the console's official launch date. To promoteUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, special retailer-exclusive costume packs were available aspre-orderbonuses. If the game was pre-ordered fromGameStop, the players received the Femme Fatale Pack (Chun-Li,Morrigan,Storm,X-23).Amazonoffered the New Age of Heroes Costume Pack (Akuma,Doctor Doom,Sentinel,Strider Hiryu), whileBest Buygave access to the Villains Costume Pack (C. Viper,M.O.D.O.K.,Super-Skrull,Wesker).After the game's launch, several other costume packs became available for purchase on specific dates through theXbox Live MarketplaceandPlayStation Network.The Ancient Warriors Costume Pack, consisting ofArthur,Firebrand,Hulk, andMagneto, was originally planned to be released on December 20, 2011,but, on December 19, Capcom announced that the pack would be delayed until March 6 following year, due to existing controversy with Magneto's alternate costume.The costume in question, which was based on Magneto's appearance in Marvel'sHouse of Mseries, bore similarities to the attire of theKing ofSpain,Juan Carlos I, and was later removed from the pack. Prior to the release ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, both Capcom and Marvel announced that the game would include reversible packaging.The front cover art featured the work of Capcom illustratorShinkiro, while the reverse side featured the art of Marvel Comics'Mark Brooks.Brook's alternate cover featured all twelve of the game's new characters in his own comic book style.Both pieces of art were printed on a single reversible cover for the entire first run ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3in North America. On December 13, 2013, Capcom announced that digital versions ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3and its DLC would be removed from online platforms towards the end of the month, following the apparent expiration of Capcom's licensing contracts with Marvel Comics.The game was pulled from the PlayStation Network on December 17 and 19 in North America and Europe, respectively, and from theXbox Live Arcadeon December 26. Later, on December 3, 2016,Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3was re-released digitally for thePlayStation 4, coinciding with the announcement ofMarvel vs. Capcom: Infinite; digital re-releases forWindowsandXbox Onewere released on March 7, 2017.These versions included all previously released downloadable content, including Jill Valentine and Shuma-Gorath, a new gallery mode containing artwork fromMarvel vs. Capcom: Official Complete Works, and an improved1080presolution at 60frames per second.Physical copies of the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions were made available for a limited time throughGameStopandEB Games.The physical editions included updated cover art and a 10-page comic book featuring the artwork of Marvel Comics'Sean Chenand Gerardo Sandoval. Reception Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3was released to generally favorable reviews, garnering scores of 80/100 and 79/100 fromMetacriticfor the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions, respectively.The PlayStation Vita version received a score of 80/100 from Metacritic. The game received praise for addressing several gameplay issues prevalent inMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worldsand refining the online experience. Daniel Maniago ofG4praised the game for its \"simple, yet deep gameplay\", character roster, and improved online features.1UP.com's Neidel Crisan cited the game as a major improvement over the original.GameSpot's Maxwell McGee stated thatUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3was unquestionably the superior version, highlighting the series' \"unique blend of structured insanity\". A common criticism amongst reviewers forUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3was the lack of additional on-disc content beyond the expanded character roster and gameplay tweaks. WhileIGN's Steven Hopper praised the inclusion of new characters, he criticized the lack of new features and modes. As a result, he stated that the game'sUS$40price tag was \"a little hard to swallow\".Tim Turi ofGame Informerstated that while hardcore fans would appreciate Capcom's balancing tweaks, casual fans who already playedFate of Two Worldsand were only interested in new characters would \"likely be left wanting\". Reviewers praised the PlayStation Vita version for its technical performance, despite hardware constraints, and for providing the full console version experience on a portable system. Hopper complimented the graphics, stating that the Vita port matched the visual fidelity of the console versions.Martin Robinson ofEurogamerclaimedUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3was one of the Vita's \"finer-looking launch games\", praising its detail and faithfulness to the original.However, he criticized the addition of touchscreen controls, stating its implementation fell short of the mark laid down bySuper Street Fighter IV: 3D Edition. During the15th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, theAcademy of Interactive Arts & SciencesnominatedUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3for \"Fighting Game of the Year\", but lost toMortal Kombat. Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3reached number 19 in the United Kingdom PlayStation 3 sales chart and number 24 for the Xbox 360.The game sold approximately 600,000 units worldwide for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 during the first two months of its release.By March 2015, the game had sold 1.20 million units for the PS3 and Xbox 360.As of March 2024, it has sold3 millionunits across the PS3, Xbox 360, PS4, PC, and Xbox One. Sequel Following the release ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3for thePlayStation Vitain 2012, Marvel's new parent company,The Walt Disney Company, which acquired Marvel in 2009, chose not to renew Capcom's license with the Marvel characters, instead opting to put them in its own self-publishedDisney Infinityseries. As a result, Capcom had to pull bothUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3andMarvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of HeroesoffXbox Live Arcadeand thePlayStation Networkin 2013.However, in 2016, Disney decided to cancel itsDisney Infinityseries, discontinue self-publishing efforts, and switch to a licensing-only model, allowing them to license their characters to third-party game developers, including Capcom.On December 3 that yearMarvel vs. Capcom: Infinitewas officially unveiled duringSony'sPlayStation Experienceevent.The game was released on September 19, 2017, forPlayStation 4,Windows, andXbox One. Notes References External links",
"Jill Valentine Jill Valentineis a character inResident Evil(Biohazardin Japan), asurvival horrorvideo game series created by the Japanese companyCapcom. She was introduced as one of the twoplayer charactersin the originalResident Evil(1996), alongside her partnerChris Redfield, as a member of theRaccoon City Police Department's Special Tactics And Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.) unit. Jill and Chris fight against theUmbrella Corporation, a pharmaceutical company whosebioterrorismcreateszombiesand otherbio-organic weapons, and later become founding members of theUnited Nations' Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA). Jill is the protagonist of severalResident Evilgames,novelizations, films, and has also appeared in other game franchises includingMarvel vs. Capcom,Project X Zone,Teppen, andDead by Daylight. In later games, such as the2002Resident Evilremake,The Umbrella Chronicles(2007),Resident Evil 5(2009), andThe Mercenaries 3D(2011), her features were based on Canadian model and actressJulia Voth. Several actresses have portrayed Jill, includingSienna GuilloryandHannah John-Kamenin thelive-actionResident Evilfilms. Video game publicationsdescribed Jill as among the most popular and iconic video game characters, and praised her as the most likable and consistentResident Evilcharacter. She has received both acclaim and criticism with regard togender representation in video games. Several publications praised the series for its portrayal of women and considered Jill significantly lesssexualizedthan other female game characters; she was also cited as an example of a female character who was as competent and skilled as her male counterparts. Others argued she was weakened as a protagonist by attributes that undermined her role as a heroine, specifically an unrealistic body shape that did not reflect her military background; some of her overtly sexualized costumes have also been criticized. Concept and design Jill was introduced as one of twoplayable protagonists, alongside her partnerChris Redfield, inCapcom's 1996survival horrorvideo gameResident Evil.She was created bydirectorShinji MikamianddesignerIsao Ohishi.To avoid thesexual objectificationofwomen in video games, Mikami refused to eroticize or portray women as submissive inResident Evil; instead, Jill was characterized as independent. Of Japanese and French descent,Jill excelled atbomb disposalduring hertrainingwithDelta Force,and later joined the Special Tactics and Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.)special operationsunit.Experienced with weapons, explosives material, andlock picking,she was intelligent, brave, and loyal.Although theirstorylinesprogress toward \"the same general direction\",thegameplaydiffers for Jill and Chris;herinventoryis larger, and she has alock pick, giving her early access to morehealthand ammunition. Based on these differences, Jill was recommended to first-time players ofResident Evil.Resident Evilgame designerJun Takeuchigave each character a unique clothing style to make them instantly recognisable, with Jill's character being given a distinct blue beret. According todigital mediascholarEsther MacCallum-Stewart, Mikami's female characters possess unique qualities making them viable choices for players to select over their male counterparts, and said theircombat attirehelped them avoid criticism of adhering to themale gaze.Mikami explained: \"I don't know if I've put more emphasis on women characters, but when I do introduce them, it is never as objects. In games, they will be peripheral characters with ridiculous breast physics. I avoid that sort of obvious eroticism.\"Despite this, subsequent games in the series not directed by Mikami depicted her wearing revealing costumes.Media scholars said players have been intentionally encouraged to both objectify and identify with the character.Several commentators suggested that Mikami's initial portrayal of Jill as a military professional tempered the ability of subsequent game directors to overtly sexualize the character. Jill continued to be redesigned over the course of the series.In the2002 remakeof the original game, her appearance was based on Canadian model and actressJulia Voth.Capcom producerHiroyuki Kobayashisaid they made her morekawaiiin the remake, but also kept her tough and muscular.Voth's likeness was reused forResident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles(2007) andResident Evil 5(2009).Resident Evil 5features Chris as a protagonist; designers opted to focus on how both characters had aged since the original game.Jill underwent another redesign forResident Evil 5to reflect her status as a test subject inbiological researchexperiments.Depicted with blonde hair, pale skin, and tight-fitting outfit – described as abattle suit– these changes represent the effects of the experimentation.Fans criticized the new appearance as an example of whitewashing.MacCallum-Stewart suggested the popularity of the series was damaged by the unexplained reappearance of Jill as a \"mind-controlledBDSMassassin\".In the2020 remakeofResident Evil 3, Jill is modeled after Russian model Sasha Zotova.Jill's redesign reflects the developers' creative vision behind the character's reimagination as a genuine action hero; because the art direction for the remake is based onphotorealism, Capcom wanted to ensure that Jill fits into the game world environment. Alternate costumes as rewards for players have been a staple of theResident Evilseries.Completing the 2002 remake unlocked the ability to dress Jill in herResident Evil 3: Nemesisminiskirt costume and asSarah Connorfrom the 1991 filmTerminator 2: Judgment Day.The miniskirt was added during development upon the staff's request. Following its addition, developers changed camera angles to reduce the amount ofupskirtingand matched the color of the skirt and underwear to make it less obvious.The outfit reappears inResident Evil: The Mercenaries 3D(2011).A prequel to the events ofResident Evil 5, thedownloadable content(DLC) episodeLost in Nightmaresincludes an alternative outfit for Jill,based on military clothing andsportswear.SinceResident Evil: Revelations(2012) was set at sea, her costume was made to resemble awetsuit.The initial design featured more tactical gear attached to herbuoyancy control device, but it was removed to highlight her body's contours.Her alternate outfit in the game, a revealing pirate costume, was deliberately made to be colorful to contrast with the storyline's dark themes. Voice-over and live-action actresses The actresses who appeared in the original game'slive-actioncutscenesand recorded thevoice workwere credited only by their first names; Jill was portrayed by a high school student credited as \"Inezh\".Over the course of the franchise,voice actresseswho played Jill includedCatherine DisherinResident Evil 3,Heidi Anderson in the 2002 remake,Kathleen Barrin Capcom's 2004 action-adventure gameUnder the Skin,andTara PlattinPachislotBiohazard,arecreationalarcade gamereleased solely in Japan.Patricia Ja Leeprovided the voice andmotion capturefor bothThe Umbrella ChroniclesandResident Evil 5.Kari Wahlgrenvoiced the character in the 2011 gameMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two WorldsandUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3.InRevelations, Jill was voiced byMichelle Ruff,who returned for the non-canongameResident Evil: Operation Raccoon City.Nicole Tompkins voiced and provided motion capture performance for Jill in the 2020Resident Evil 3remake and reprised her role in CG animated filmResident Evil: Death Island.Atsuko Yuyavoiced Jill in the Japanese versions of the games. The character appeared in three entries of the originalResident Evilfilm series, where she was portrayed by English actressSienna Guillory.Hannah John-Kamenplayed the role in the 2021 filmResident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City. Appearances In theResident Evilseries Every game in the series is set in the fictional American metropolitan area of Raccoon City until its destruction at the end ofResident Evil 3: Nemesis.Subsequent games featuring Jill take place on an international scale, namely in Russia,Africa,and the Mediterranean Sea.The original game is set in July 1998 in a mansion on the outskirts of Raccoon City,which Jill and her team enter while searching forcolleagues.Working with partnerBarry Burton, she discovers the property is a façade for abiological warfarelaboratory operated by theUmbrella Corporationand itsundeadoccupants are the scientists who developed the T-virusmutagen. Her commanderAlbert Weskeris revealed to be adouble agentfor Umbrella.Jill and Chris are among the five survivors of the incident,who form a strong friendship and become passionate opponents ofbioterrorism. Jill did not appear inResident Evil 2(1998), as the production team used new protagonists (Leon S. KennedyandClaire Redfield) to preserve the original game's horror elements: Mikami believed Jill and Chris would be too experienced to be scared by the events in the sequel.She returned as the sole protagonist inResident Evil 3(1999).Mikami – the lead producer of bothNemesisand the concurrently-producedResident Evil – Code: Veronica(2000) – wanted each game to highlight a female character who had previously appeared in the series; Jill is the protagonist inNemesis, while Claire is thelead characterinCode: Veronica.Commentators suggested these decisions were made as a result of the success of theTomb Raiderseries, which featuredLara Croftas the protagonist. Nemesisis set two months after the first game,during which time Jill joined theRaccoon City Police Department(RCPD) to protect as many civilians as possible from the T-virus. The reason given by Capcom for her informal clothing in this entry was her resignation from the police immediately before the city's population was infected with the virus.She quit in protest over the failure of law enforcement to take action against Umbrella but remained in the city to investigate the corporation.The police uniform she wore in the original game was replaced with a less formal bluetube top, blackminiskirtandknee-high boots. InNemesis, she escapes Raccoon City before its destruction from anuclear strikeas part of aU.S. governmentcover-up.She is pursued byNemesis, asupersoldierwhose task is to kill all remaining members of the S.T.A.R.S. team.Instead of killing Jill, Nemesis infects her with the T-virus; her new partnerCarlos Oliveira– a former Umbrellamercenary– cures her of the infection with an Umbrella-produced vaccine.The Umbrella Chroniclesoccurs in 2003, when Jill and Chris join a private organization with the goal of exposing Umbrella's biological warfare activities,leading a group to destroy their only remaining research facility.After the fall of the corporation, the pair become founding members of theUnited Nations' Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA).InRevelations– set two years later – Jill and new partnerParker Lucianiare sent on a mission to rescue Chris, who is allegedly being held hostage on aghost shipin the Mediterranean. Once aboard, she discovers the ship is infested with a new type of mutagen capable of infecting theaquatic ecosystem. Jill and Chris then unravel a political conspiracy involving an earlier mutagenic outbreak and a botched investigation by a rival agency. Resident Evil 5takes place in 2009 in the fictional African town of Kijuju,whereterroristsare turning local residents intozombies. One of these terrorists is revealed to be Jill,who wasmissing in actionfor the previous two and a half years.Set in 2006, theLost in NightmaresDLC showed Jill and Chris searching inside a mansion forUmbrella's founder; to save Chris from Wesker, Jill tackled the latter through a window.Neither of their bodies were recovered, and Jill isdeclared dead.In fact, she was injured by the fall and taken hostage by Wesker, who then used her as a test subject in his biological experiments. Theantibodiesproduced by Jill's system as a result of herNemesis-era T-virus infection were used as the basis for the Uroboros Virus,the catalyst for the events ofResident Evil 5. DuringResident Evil 5, Chris discovers that Jill is alive; Wesker attached a mind-control device on Jill which forced her to commit the terrorist acts and fight Chris and his new partner, local BSAA agentSheva Alomar.Jill finds enough self-control to open her outfit so the device can be seen and removed. After its removal, she explains that she knew what she was doing but was unable to control her actionsand urges Chris and Sheva to continue their mission.Another DLC episode,Desperate Escape, describes how Jill was able to escape safety with the help of local BSAA agent Josh Stone before they aid both Chris and Sheva to kill Wesker. Other appearances Jill features in several of theResident Evilfilms. She was originally scheduled to be the protagonist for the firstResident Evilmovie (2002), while it was under the direction ofGeorge A. Romero. WhenPaul W. S. Andersontook over from Romero, he created a new character for the film series,Alice, portrayed byMilla Jovovich.Jill appears in the 2004 sequelResident Evil: Apocalypse, where she is a disgraced police officer who escapes the ruins of Raccoon City with the help of Alice and other survivors.Her outfit in the movie is based on her clothing fromResident Evil 3.Anderson considered explanations to justify the usage of the costume, such as having it described as anundercoveroutfit,while Jovovich suggested using aheat waveas the reason.Anderson eventually decided to ignore the issue altogether, arguing that people who would criticize her attire \"probably shouldn't be watching aResident Evilmovie .\" Jill appears in apost-credits sceneinResident Evil: Afterlife(2010), wearing the mind-controlling device fromResident Evil 5and leading an attack against Alice, Chris, Claire, and the survivors they rescued after a virus outbreak in Los Angeles.InResident Evil: Retribution(2012), Jill is an antagonist programmed to capture Alice, but regains control of herself after Alice removes Wesker's mind-control device.The film includes a fight between Jill and Alice containing around 200 moves.She did not appear in the final film,Resident Evil: The Final Chapter(2016), apparently dyingoffscreen.According to Jovovich, Jill was excluded because there were too manyResident Evilcharacters to include in the film.TheResident Evilfilm series consistently received negative reviews.Cinefantastiquepraised Guillory's performance inApocalypseas the film's only highlight.In the reboot filmResident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City(2021), Jill is played by Hannah John-Kamen.She has also appeared in the 2023 animated film,Resident Evil: Death Island.Jill's youthful appearance in the film, despite being aged 40, was said to be a result of the T-virus slowing her aging. Jill is a playable character in several non-canonResident Evilgames.She features in numerousResident Evilmobile games, and is the protagonist ofResident Evil: Genesis(2008), an alternative-story version of the original game.She is a playable character inMarvel vs. Capcom 2(2000),Marvel vs. Capcom 3(2011),Project X Zone(2012),Project X Zone 2(2015),Dead by Daylight(2016),Puzzle Fighter(2017),and thedigital collectible card gameTeppen(2019).She appears as analternate skinforChun-LiinSuper Gem Fighter Mini Mix(1998),CammyinStreet Fighter V(2016),and Zofia inTom Clancy's The Division 2(2019),and can also be selected as a playable skin inWe Love Golf!(2007),Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege(2015),andFortnite Battle Royale(2017).Jill appears as anon-playablecameo in 2004'sUnder the Skin,is one of the 'Spirit'power-upsinSuper Smash Bros. Ultimate(2018),and a robot dressed as Jill makes a cameo reference inAstro's Playroom(2020) andAstro Bot(2024). Jill features innovelizationsof the films and gamesand plays a supporting role in the first novel,Resident Evil: Caliban Cove(1998), in a series byS. D. Perry.InResident Evil: The Umbrella Conspiracy(1998), Perry's novelization of the original game, Jill's Delta Force background is not mentioned; before her career in law enforcement, she is said to have acted as an accomplice for her father Dick Valentine, a professional thief.Several comic books based on the games were released,and she is a character inBandai'sResident Evil Deck Building Card Game(2011).Merchandise featuring Jill include action figures, figurines and a gun replica.The character was featured inResident Evil-themed attractions atUniversal Studios JapanandUniversal Orlando'sHalloween Horror Nights.Capcom's themed restaurant Biohazard Cafe & Grill S.T.A.R.S., which opened inShibuya, Tokyo, in 2012, sold a noodle dish named after her. Reception and legacy Game publications, including the 2011 version of theGuinness World Records Gamer's Edition,described Jill Valentine among the most popular and iconic video game characters.At the 2013Penny Arcade Expo,journalistsand game developers nominated her as one of the top-three lead characters of Western and Japaneserole-playing video games.Magazines praised her as the most likableResident Evilcharacter,with the most believable and consistentstory arcin the series.She was also identified as one of the all-time greatestmascotsof thevideo game industry,as a tough, strong and attractive female character who could appeal to a broaddemographic. Critics commented that Jill was not oversexualized in her initial appearances.She was highlighted as an example of the series' female characters who were not judged solely ongender,and for having \"the most sensible design\" for a female character of the mid-to-late 1990s.Her professional relationship with Chris was celebrated for its basis in loyalty rather than romanceand its balance in their personalities: Jill's intellect and Chris's brawn.Female digital critics felt that several of Jill's features undermine her role as a heroine and weaken her as a protagonist – specifically that her body shape is unrealistic and not reflective of her military background or physical training, noting that she was the only member of her team in the original game not to wear abulletproof vest.The extent to which her appearance changed over the course of the game series has been criticized as excessive,with theResident Evil 3outfit derided for deviating too much from Mikami's initial militaristic iteration of the character.InTropes vs. Women in Video Games, feminist media criticAnita Sarkeesiancriticized Jill's alternate costumes as too revealing, particularly the pirate costume inResident Evil: Revelations.She also cited Jill's movement inRevelationsas an example of female characters who walk in an overtly sexualized manner. MacCallum-Stewart said the firstResident Evilgame became famous for its \"extremely clunky dialogue and voice acting, an element which lent the otherwise suspenseful game an element of charm that endeared it to players\".Although she explains that the weak dialogue might be attributed to poor translation of the original Japanese text, she said this inadvertently helped differentiate the series from its rivals.Several lines from the game achieved enduring popularity: \"You were almost a Jill sandwich\",a quip delivered in awkward voiceover by Barry Burton after a falling ceiling trap almost crushes Jill, was revived as anInternet memea decade after the game's release; it became the subject offan artdepicting Jill in or as a sandwich.Capcomreferenced the linein several of their later games, includingDead Rising(2006),Resident Evil: Uprising(2009),Resident Evil: Revelations 2(2015),andResident Evil: Resistance(2020).Another piece of dialogue spoken by Burton – \"And, Jill, here's a lock pick. It might be handy if you, the master of unlocking, take it with you\" – also gained notoriety.The quote has beenparodiedfor containing an excessive amount ofsilence between words.It was removed from later editions. Notes References Bibliography External links",
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"Chris Redfield Chris Redfield(Japanese:クリス・レッドフィールド,Hepburn:Kurisu Reddofīrudo)is a character in theResident Evilsurvival horrorvideo game series created by the Japanese companyCapcom. He was introduced as one of the twoplayable charactersof the originalResident Evil(1996), alongside his partnerJill Valentine, as a member of theRaccoon Police Department's Special Tactics and Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.) unit. Vowing to never let any tragedies like Raccoon City happen again, Chris becomes a founding member of theUnited Nations' Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA). Chris is the protagonist of severalResident Evilgames,novelizations, and films and has also appeared in other game franchises, includingMarvel vs. Capcom,Project X Zone, andDead by Daylight. In later games, such asResident Evil 7(2017) andResident Evil: Village(2021), his features were based on New Zealand model Geordie Dandy. Several actors have portrayed Chris, includingWentworth MillerandRobbie Amell, in thelive-actionResident Evilfilms. Video game magazineshave mainly given Chris unfavorable reviews; in particular, they have taken issue with the frequent modifications to his design and inconsistent use of appearance. However, he has been recognized for hissex appealand is considered one of the sexiest video game characters by several publications. Some critics have referred to a scene of Chris punching a boulder inResident Evil 5as one of the most memorable within theResident Evilseries, which was also subjected toInternet memes. Concept and design Chris was introduced as one of the twoplayable protagonists, alongside his partnerJill Valentine, inCapcom's 1996survival horrorvideo gameResident Evil.He was created bydirectorShinji MikamianddesignerIsao Ohishi.DesignerHideki Kamiyadescribed Chris as a \"blunt, tough-guy type\", admitting that he was a fan of this archetype. Ofwhite Americandescent,Chris joined the Special Tactics and Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.)special operationsunitafter demonstrating exceptional skills in hand-to-hand combat, helicopters, planes, and shooting during his training with theUnited States Air Force.Although their storylines progress in \"the same general direction,\"thegameplaydiffers for Jill and Chris;Chris can't carry as many goods in hisinventory, but he can run quicker, aim more precisely, and withstand more damage. Chris continued to be redesigned over the course of the series.Resident Evil 5features Chris as a protagonist; designers opted to focus on how the character had aged since the original game.His increased muscle mass was to show that he had trained heavily in order to fight the series' powerful villain,Albert Wesker, bare-handed.Modeler Yosuke Yamagata added that they \"made a new design that retained their signature color—green for Chris, blue for Jill—to carry over the same look from the past. The facial structures are mainly based on the visuals ofthe GameCube version, and we added various details to these in order to develop a realistic structure.\"Resident Evil 5's producerJun Takeuchisaid that the series' fans \"would really love\" a video game featuring bothLeon S. Kennedyand Chris as the protagonists due to their popularity, and at the same time, it would be \"pretty dramatic\" if the two characters never met before the series would end; this eventually occurred inResident Evil 6.InResident Evil 6, Chris has a slightly disheveled look due to his alcoholism andpost-traumatic amnesia. InResident Evil 7, Chris was given an entirely new design as the producers wanted to give him a more realistic look.The character's new design made him completely \"unrecognizable\", as stated by commentators and players.Director Kōshi Nakanishi stated thatResident Evil 6's Chris model \"was just not suitable forResident Evil 7's game engine or aesthetic\". He further said that \"lthough it is a fairly realistic impression, even if it mixes with the character of \"7\", it seems that a sense of incongruity will come out.\"Takeuchi, the executive producer, added that they had been thinking about Chris as the primary character at the time and that, as it was the first time we had seen him in a long time, he needed to be shown as a hero. In retrospect, he also understood that creating Chris into a hero was not the same as creating aResident Evilgame.InResident Evil Village, Chris is once again redesigned, but his look closer resembles that inResident Evil 6, due to fan backlash against his look inResident Evil 7.According to the director ofResident Evil VillageDLC, Kento Kinoshita, the production team behind the DLC for the horror sequel initially had a completely different plan in mind. \"At the time of the project,\" he says, referencing the DLC's early days of planning, \"there were some ideas that focused on Chris. But we wanted to focus on Rose Winters,\" disclosing that the crew had a preference for a DLC that starred Rose as the main character rather than having Chris rejoin the action. Voice-over and live-action actors In the originalResident Evil, which useslive-action cinematics, Chris is played by Charlie Kraslavsky.He is the first actor to have portrayed the character.In English, Scott McCulloch voiced Chris in the originalResident Evil;Michael Filipowich voiced him inResident Evil – Code: Veronica;Joe Whytevoiced him inResident Evil(2002);Kevin Dorman voiced him inResident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles,Resident Evil: Vendetta, andResident Evil: Death Island;Roger Craig Smithvoiced him inResident Evil 5,Resident Evil 6,Resident Evil: The Darkside Chronicles,Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3,Marvel vs Capcom Infinite,Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds, andResident Evil: The Mercenaries 3D;and arecreationalarcade gamereleased solely in Japan.David Vaughn voiced him inResident Evil 7,Jeff Schine voiced him inResident Evil: Village,and Gerard Vachon voiced him inDead by Daylight.In Japanese,Hiroki Tōchivoiced him inResident Evil: Afterlife,Marvel vs. Capcom 3,Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3,Resident Evil: Revelations,Project X Zone,Project X Zone 2,Resident Evil 6,Resident Evil 7, 2002Resident Evil,Resident Evil: Vendetta,Resident Evil: Village, andResident Evil: Death Island,whileSubaru Kimuravoiced him inResident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City. Reuben Langdon did Chris'motion capturefor severalResident Evilgames,while Geordie Dandy did it inResident Evil 7andVillage.Wentworth Millerportrayed him inResident Evil: Afterlife.Miller said that he had seen the series and recalled in particular the third film's trailer, which included a shot above Vegas buried in the sand, described it as \"iconic and arresting\".He requested that the filmmakers put together a montage of noteworthy video game scenes that related to or clarified the mythology or history of his character as part of research.\"Miller also conducted research to learn what the character meant to the audience. He claimed that in order to prepare for the part, he felt compelled to honor the existing mythology around video games. To that end, he conducted online research by visiting fan sites and blogs to learn about the discussions surrounding this character and what kinds of expectations people could have. However, he had to strike a balance between it and his acting identity, his natural talents, and the Chris Redfield thatPaul W.S. Andersoncreates for this film. Rather than the games, he was quite particular about the Resident Evil feature film adaptation.Robbie Amellportrayed him inResident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City.Amell described playing Chris as a \"dream come true\".Amell revealed that they tried to incorporate a scene of Chris punching a boulder, as inResident Evil 5, but it did not fit the movie's tone. According to Amell, Johannes had discussedResident Evil 4orCode Veronicaas possible games that could be adapted as the film's sequel and that he would be open to reprising his role. Appearances In theResident Evilseries Every game in the series is set in the fictional American metropolitan area of Raccoon City until its destruction at the end ofResident Evil 3: Nemesis.Subsequent games featuring Chris take place on an international scale, namely in Russia,Antarctica,China,Louisiana,Romania,Africa,and the Mediterranean Sea.The original game is set in July 1998 in a mansion on the outskirts of Raccoon City,which Chris and his team enter while searching forcolleagues.Working with fellow survivorRebecca Chambers, he discovers the property is a façade for abiological warfarelaboratory operated by theUmbrella Corporation, and itsundeadoccupants are the scientists who developed the T-virusmutagen. His commander, Albert Wesker, is revealed to be adouble agentfor Umbrella.Chris and Jill are among the five survivors of the incidentwho form a strong friendship and become passionate opponents ofbioterrorism. Chris did not appear inResident Evil 2(1998), as the production team used new protagonists (Leon andClaire Redfield) to preserve the original game's horror elements. Mikami believed Chris and Jill would be too experienced to be scared by the events in the sequel.Set five months later,Resident Evil - Code: Veronica(2000) sees Chris return as the protagonist of the second half of the game.He attempts to rescue his younger sister, Claire, from the Umbrella Corporation's research facilities on the fictional Rockfort Island, in the Pacific Ocean, and in Antarctica. Upon discovering she is in Antarctica, Chris is briefly confronted by Wesker, who is revealed to have survived the events of the \"Mansion Incident\" and now has enhanced strength and speed and is seeking revenge on Chris for having destroyed his plans. Eventually, he confrontsAlexia Ashford, the creator of the T-Veronica virus. At the end of the game, he fights with Wesker shortly after killing Alexia. He is no match for him, and their fight is cut short because of the imminent destruction of the base. They vow to finish things another time. The Umbrella Chroniclesoccurs in 2003, when Jill and Chris join a private organization with the goal of exposing Umbrella's biological warfare activities,leading a group to destroy their only remaining research facility.After the fall of the corporation, the pair become founding members of theUnited Nations' Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA).InRevelations– set two years later – Jill and her new partnerParker Lucianiare sent on a mission to rescue Chris, who is allegedly being held hostage on aghost shipin the Mediterranean. Jill and Chris then unravel a political conspiracy involving an earlier mutagenic outbreak and a botched investigation by a rival agency. Resident Evil 5takes place in 2009 in the fictional African town of Kijuju, whereterroristsare turning local residents intozombies.Chris is the protagonist of the game and one of the founding members of theUNparamilitary group Bio-terrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA). In the game, he investigates in Africa, while looking for Jill, who is missing anddeclared dead. In fact, she was injured by the fall and taken hostage by Wesker, who then used her as a test subject in his biological experiments.Accompanying him is his new partner,Sheva Alomar.Eventually, Chris and Sheva manage to find and free Jill and ultimately defeat and destroy Wesker, who was planning to spread the Uroboros virus across the world. Resident Evil 6(2012) sees Chris return as one of the four protagonists alongside Leon,Ada Wong, andJake Muller, the illegitimate son of Albert Wesker.In the game, Chris leads a squad of BSAA soldiers to investigate a bio-terror attack in Europe. Ambushed byCarla Radames, posing as Ada, they suffer severe casualties. Only Chris andPiers Nivanssurvive the assault, with the rest of his team being turned into monsters by Carla. Chris is overwhelmed with guilt and resigns from the BSAA., but Piers later convinces Chris to return to avenge their fallen comrades. They travel to China to investigate bio-terror activity and find themselves in another C-virus outbreak. While attempting to rescue Jake, who possesses the antibodies needed to stop the outbreak, Chris and Piers encounter Haos, a powerful BOW. Piers is grievously injured during the battle and injects himself with the C-virus to gain superhuman powers. He saves Chris, but sacrifices himself to ensure Haos is destroyed. Chris continues to serve the BSAA in Piers' memory. At the end ofResident Evil 7: Biohazard(2017), a man identifying himself as \"Redfield\" arrives to rescueEthan Winters. While the credits refer to the character as Chris Redfield, the helicopter he arrives in is branded with the Umbrella Corporation logo, which is now blue instead of red, initially causing people to question the person's identity. Capcom later confirmed this character to be Chris, in spite of the noticeable change in his appearance due to a different actor portraying him.Additionally, this new iteration of Umbrella opposes its predecessor's B.O.W. research and instead works closely with the BSAA.Chris appeared in thedownloadable contentcampaignNot a Hero, which was released on December 12, 2017.This subchapter focuses on Chris attempting to apprehendLucas Baker, and although he fails to save his men, he confronts and kills Lucas.He also appears at the conclusion of theEnd of Zoedownloadable content. Chris returned for the eighth main installment in the series, titledResident Evil Village(2021). During the three-year gap betweenResident Evil 7andVillage, Chris has been running an off-the-books covert operation investigating an unidentified village suspected to have biohazards inTransylvania, Romania, managed byMother Miranda. During the events ofVillage, Chris and his Hound Wolf squad learn that Miranda was capable of shape-shifting and posed as Mia, and they promptly shoot her in order to protect Ethan and Mia, only for his efforts to be foiled in the process. After revealing the nature of his mission to Ethan, Chris saves the real Mia, learns Miranda's connection to the lateOswell E. Spencer(who was killed by Wesker inResident Evil 5: Lost in Nightmares), and helps plant a bomb on a megamycete in order to destroy the village. During extraction, a dying Ethan gives a recently rescued Rosemary to Chris before sacrificing himself to ensure the village's destruction. With Mia and Rosemary rescued, Chris and his team head to BSAA's European headquarters to demand explanations over their use of BOWs as frontline soldiers. Other appearances Chris features in the non-canonicalResident Evillive-action film series. In the rejectedResident Evilfilm script written byGeorge A. Romeroin 1998, Chris is aNative Americancivilian and ultimately one of the few survivors.In 2000, Capcom fired Romeroand replaced him with Paul W. S. Anderson, who wrote a new script.Chris appears in the 2010 live-action filmResident Evil: Afterlife, portrayed by Wentworth Miller.In the film, Chris is found trapped in a maximum security cell after his unit's attempt to control the T-virus inLos Angelesgoes haywire; the survivors who find him believe him to be a prisoner. He is reunited with his sister Claire, who cannot remember him because of memory damage caused by an Umbrella mind control device. He, Alice, and Claire eventually defeat Wesker and rescue imprisoned survivors being used for Umbrella's experiments. Miller said he prepared for the role by searching for images and videos of Chris on the Internet, as well as doingcardioforendurance.He appears in the reboot filmResident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City(2021).Chris also appears in the adult animatedResident Evilfilms. He was one of the main characters inResident Evil: Vendetta(2017), alongside Leon and Rebecca.Unlike the live-action films, the animated films are in the same continuity as the games.He returned in the sequel,Resident Evil: Death Island(2023). Chris is a playable character in severalnon-canonicalResident Evilgames.He features in theResident Evilmobile gameResident Evil: Mercenaries Vs.(2011).He appears in three games in theMarvel vs. Capcomfranchiseand the crossovertactical role-playing gamesProject X ZoneandProject X Zone 2.He also made a cameo appearance in theNintendocrossover video gameSuper Smash Bros. Ultimate(2018),Dead by Daylight(2016) as analternate skin,Fortnite Battle Royale(2017),Tom Clancy's The Division 2(2019),State of Survival(2019),digital collectible card gameTeppen(2019),Astro's Playroom(2020),Astro Bot(2024),and inDead Rising Deluxe Remaster(2024) as an outfit forFrank West. Chris features innovelizationsof the films and games.Additionally, he makes an appearance in the prequelmangaforResident Evil 6, which describes Chris' activities prior to the events.Several comic books based on the games were released,and he is a character inBandai'sResident Evil Deck Building Card Game(2011).The character was featured in aResident Evil-themed attraction atUniversal Studios Japan'sHalloween Horror Nights.Merchandise featuring Chris includes outfits, perfumes, gun replicas, watches, and figurines. Reception Chris Redfield has received mostly negative reviews from critics. Severalgame publicationshave noted the character's lack of consistent visual design for his appearances throughout theResident Evilfranchise.Polygon's Cass Marshall noted his variations in body mass throughout the games by repeatedly changing from lean to muscular and back again,while Ian Walker fromKotakucompared his appearances inResident Evil 7andResident Evil Villageas \"transition from global bio-terrorism agent to someone's henchman in a British crime comedy written and directed byGuy Ritchie.\"According toPC Gamer's Andy Kelly, Chris is \"finally a person\". He claimed that inVillage, it has \"a very different Chris than we've ever seen before. For the first time, he feels like a human.\"SeveralKotakuemployees have also referred to Chris as the worst of theResident Evilheroes, calling him \"bland\" and \"boring\" and critiquing the majority of his redesigns.Ravi Sinha ofGamingBoltconsidered the character's design inResident Evil 7among the worst in video games, noting that \"the overly buff, borderline steroid-abusing macho man\" was replaced by a \"normal looking guy\".On the other hand, while Matt Cundy ofGamesRadar+compared hisCode VeronicaandResident Evil 5designs while trying to evaluate which would fit better for azombie apocalypse, they found the latter provided a better chance to survive a zombie attack. It also judged Chris from the original game as \"horribly ill-prepared\".GameSpycalled his new design inResident Evil 5\"a cross betweenColin FarrellandHugh Jackman\" in particular, and it became a source of controversy and was often ridiculed.Jesse Schedeen ofIGNdescribed him as one of the most overrated video game characters, with the suggestion that he should \"ditch the 'roids and concentrate on getting the job done\",while Alexander Sliwinski ofEngadgetcommented that duringThe Umbrella Chronicles, Chris possibly started his \"steroid abuse\".Conversely, Chris has been named byIGNand fans as one of the popularResident Evilcharacters.His professional relationship with Jill was celebrated for its basis in loyalty rather than romanceand its balance in their personalities: Chris's brawn and Jill's intellect. Near the climax ofResident Evil 5, Chris and Sheva engage in a final confrontation against a heavily mutated Wesker inside a volcano, but the duo become separated. In order for them to reunite, the player controlling Chris must engage in a button-mashing sequence where Chris pushes and punches a large boulder until it falls into the lava. The scene became recognized as one of the most memorable within theResident Evilseries, largely due to its ridiculousness. It became the subject ofInternet memes, with fans using it to demonstrate Chris' masculinity.Wes Fenlon ofPC Gamersaid that Chris punching a boulder inside an active volcano \"gave us what is truly one of the greatest moments in the history of videogames\" and \"as a quicktime event. It is perfect.\"InResident Evil Village, during theboss fightwith Karl Heisenberg, Karl calls Chris a \"boulder-punching asshole,\" a reference to the aforementioned scene inResident Evil 5. Chris has often been recognized for hissex appeal, particularly since his more muscular appearance inResident Evil 5. Some critics have described him as one of the sexiest video game characters.Sikh media and video game critic Veerender Singh Jubbal stated in aKotakuinterview that Chris, as he appears inResident Evil 5, \"allowed to understand bisexuality\" better; noted that his design was \"different than previous iterations\", Jubbal described Chris as a \"large muscle-bound hunk something was attracted to\".Natalie Romano ofGameZoneincluded Chris in their top \"gaming gods\" for his new look, describing him as \"one gorgeous hunk\" with \"a killer body and dreamy good-looks\".Ed Nightingale ofPinkNews, anonline newspapermarketed to the LGBT community, described Chris as \"burly\" and having arms \"to thirst over\".Eurogamer's Matt Wales, in reviewingResident Evil Revelations, described Chris as the \"supremebeefcake\".Trace Thurman ofBloody Disgustingfound Chris' sailor outfit to be one of the \"silliest\" in the franchise, while recognizing that \"never before has Chris looked sexier\", further highlighting his shirtless warrior outfit fromResident Evil 5.Conversely, Matt Liebl ofGameZonesaid that seeing Chris' \"skimpy\" sailor outfit inResident Evil: Revelationsis \"weird to see\". Notes References External links Media related toChris Redfieldat Wikimedia Commons",
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"Resident Evil 3: Nemesis Resident Evil 3: Nemesisis a 1999survival horrorvideo game developed and published byCapcomoriginally for thePlayStation. It is the third game in theResident Evilseries and takes place almost concurrently with the events ofResident Evil 2. The player must control former elite agentJill Valentineas she escapes from Raccoon City, which has been overrun by zombies. The game uses the sameengineas its predecessors and features3D modelsoverpre-renderedbackgrounds with fixed camera angles. Choices through the game affect how the story unfolds and which ending is achieved. Resident Evil 3was developed concurrently withResident Evil – Code: Veronicaand was conceived as a spin-off featuring a different protagonist. It was designed to have a moreaction-oriented gameplay than its predecessors and features a larger number of enemies for the player to defeat. It also introducesNemesis, a creature that periodically pursues the player throughout the game and that was inspired by theT-1000Terminator from the 1991 filmTerminator 2: Judgment Day. Resident Evil 3received positive reviews and sold more than three million copies worldwide. Critics praised the detailed graphics and Nemesis as an intimidating villain, but some criticized its short length and story. In the years following its release on the PlayStation,Resident Evil 3wasportedtoWindows,Dreamcast, andGameCubewith varying degrees of critical success. In particular, the GameCube version was criticized for its relatively high retail price and outdated graphics. Aremake, entitledResident Evil 3, was released in 2020. Gameplay Resident Evil 3: Nemesisis asurvival horrorgame where the player controls the protagonist,Jill Valentine, from athird-personperspective to interact with the environment and enemies. The player takes control of another character for a brief portion of the game.To advance, the player explores a city while avoiding, outsmarting and defeating enemies. The player can interact with the environment in several ways, such as opening doors, pushing objects or climbing obstacles. Scattered throughout the city are weapons, ammunition and other items, which can be collected and put in the player's inventory. Items can be examined, used, or combined with others.The inventory is limited to a certain number of slots, and the player must often move items from the inventory to a storage box located in special rooms to manage space. The player can use a variety of firearms to defeat enemies, ranging from pistols to arocket launcher. Aside from enemies, parts of the environment, such as explosive barrels, can be shot at, causing them to explode and damage nearby enemies. The game also introduces the ability for players to dodge attacks or perform a quick 180-degree turn to evade enemies.The player has a certain amount ofhealthwhich decreases when attacked by enemies. Health is regained with first aid sprays, as well as herbs, which can be used separately or mixed together to increase their healing effect. The game also features an ammunition creation system that allows players to create new ammunition from different varieties ofgunpowder.In addition to engaging in combat, the player must often solvepuzzlesthat focus on logical and conceptual challenges. During certain situations, the player will be put in a perilous situation, where they will be prompted to choose between two possible actions or suffer a certain penalty, if not instant death. These choices affect how the story unfolds and which ending is achieved.Additionally, a creature calledNemesisis encountered multiple times throughout the game as a recurringboss. Nemesis is considerably more powerful than the player and has the ability to use a rocket launcher as a weapon, dodge incoming fire, and pursue the player from one area to the next. During one of these encounters, the player can choose to either fight Nemesis or run until he is evaded.A variety of encounters are possible, with some being mandatory, and some varying in nature and location based on certain choices made by the player. Even if evaded or defeated during one of these encounters, Nemesis will inevitably continue to pursue the player until the end of the game. Once the player completes the game, a mode called The Mercenaries - Operation: Mad Jackal is unlocked.In this mode, the player must control mercenaries that Jill encounters during the main game and run from one side of the city to the other within a limited amount of time and resources. However, the starting time limit given is insufficient to actually perform this task directly, and the player must continuously receive time extensions by performing certain actions such as defeating enemies, rescuing civilians and exploring hidden areas. Depending on the rank received and difficulty chosen, completing the main game may unlock alternate costumes for Jill and epilogue files that detail the activities of different characters following the events of the game.The Mercenaries mode and alternate costumes for Jill do not need to be unlocked in theWindowsandDreamcastversions of the game. Plot On September 28, 1998, 24 hours prior to the events ofResident Evil 2, former Special Tactics And Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.) member Jill Valentine attempts to escape from Raccoon City. Most of the population has been transformed into zombies by an outbreak of theT-virus, the gruesomebiological weaponsecretly developed by the pharmaceutical company Umbrella Corporation. After fighting through zombies and mutants on her way to the Raccoon City Police Department, Jill runs into fellow team memberBrad Vickers, who is later killed by a new enemy. This creature, Nemesis-T Type, is a bio-organic weapon programmed to target the remaining surviving S.T.A.R.S. members, who had knowledge of Umbrella's experiments. After she evades Nemesis, Jill encounters three surviving members of the Umbrella Biohazard Countermeasure Service (U.B.C.S.):Carlos Oliveira,Mikhail Victor, andNikolai Zinoviev. Nikolai explains to Jill that a rescue helicopter can be contacted if they manage to reach the city's Clock Tower to ring the bell. When they are finished repairing a cable car, Nikolai goes missing and is presumed dead. Nemesis then corners the remaining members of the group onto the car as they head to the tower. Mikhail sacrifices himself with a grenade, causing the car to crash into the tower's central courtyard and separating Jill and Carlos briefly. At the Clock Tower, Jill summons the helicopter by ringing the Clock Tower's bell before being confronted by Nemesis, which destroys the helicopter and infects Jill with the T-virus. Jill manages to temporarily defeat Nemesis but she falls unconscious due to the T-virus infection given by Nemesis. Carlos finds Jill and takes her to safety within the Clock Tower. Three days later, he finds a vaccine for Jill's T-virus infection in a nearby Umbrella owned hospital. He then returns and administers it to Jill, saving her. After she regains consciousness, Jill proceeds towards the Raccoon Park to search for an escape route and enters the park caretaker's cabin. There, she runs into Nikolai, who reveals that he is a \"supervisor\" sent into Raccoon City to gather combat data on Umbrella's bioweapons. Nikolai retreats, and Jill later is confronted by the Gravedigger which is a massive worm-like creature. Jill defeats the monster and escapes to an abandoned Umbrella factory at the edge of town through the worms tunnels. Inside the factory, Jill meets up with Carlos, who tells her that the U.S. government is planning to launch a nuclear missile into Raccoon City to eradicate the T-virus infestation. After confronting Nemesis and grabbing a keycard needed to escape, Jill learns from the factory's control tower that the missile attack on Raccoon City has begun, with only a short time left before the city is destroyed. Depending on the path taken by the player, Jill's final encounter with Nikolai will differ. In one version of the events, Nikolai will attempt to start a gunfight with Jill, only to be ambushed and killed by Nemesis. In another event, Nikolai will hijack Jill's intended escape chopper, and the player must either reason with Nikolai or destroy the helicopter. If Jill negotiates with Nikolai, he reveals that he has killed the other supervisors and boasts about collecting the bounty placed on Jill by Umbrella before escaping. Regardless of Nikolai's fate, Jill makes her way to the rear yard and confronts Nemesis one last time. After an intense battle, Jill defeats Nemesis with the help of a large prototype railgun before meeting up with Carlos and escaping the city via a helicopter. If the previous escape chopper was stolen by Nikolai, Jill and Carlos will instead meet up with S.T.A.R.S. Alpha Team's weapons specialistBarry Burton, who helps them escape in his helicopter. The nuclear missile vaporizes Raccoon City, and Jill swears revenge on Umbrella. A newscast then briefly details the destruction and offers condolences for the lost lives. Development Resident Evil 3was developed byCapcomand produced byShinji Mikami, who had directed the originalResident Eviland producedResident Evil 2.AfterResident Evil 2was released, Capcom was working on multipleResident Evilprojects, withHideki Kamiyadirecting what was planned to be the next main installment.This game would take place on a cruise ship and would involveHUNKattempting to bring back a sample of the G-Virus.However, Capcom cancelled the project after Sony announced thePlayStation 2, claiming that its development would not be completed before the PlayStation 2's launch.Because Capcom did not want fans to wait years for a newResident EvilonPlayStation, it promoted one of its side projects as the third main game while Kamiya's team moved ontoResident Evil 4. The selected project was a spin-off developed by an inexperienced team led by director Kazuhiro Aoyama.It was intended to introduce a new character who would escape from an infected Raccoon City. However, after the promotion, Capcom madeResident Evilprotagonist Jill Valentine the main character and decided that Raccoon City would be destroyed.Unlike the majority of the early scripts in the series, the story was not created by Capcom'sFlagshipstudio but by internal Capcom writer Yasuhisa Kawamura, who had little experience withResident Evil.Kawamura played the original game to familiarize himself with its fictional universe.The story was proofread and sanctioned by Flagship to avoid continuity errors with other games, an issue that was also given attention in monthly meetings between all directors and producers. Resident Evil 3uses the samegame engineas its predecessors.The environments consist of2D pre-renderedbackgrounds while moving objects, such as enemies and some interactive elements, consist of3D polygongraphics.The developers chose this technique because having full 3D graphics would not allow them to create graphically rich and detailed environments.According to project supervisorYoshiki Okamoto, \"the number of polygons allocated for the enemies would not be sufficient. We did not want to have blocky, pixelated zombies.\"Interaction with the environment was improved so that the player could shoot objects such as explosive barrels to damage enemies.The developers also added more zombie varieties, which can take the form of policemen, doctors, and ordinary citizens, among others. Unlike previousResident Evilgames, which mostly took place inside buildings,Resident Evil 3takes place largely in the streets of Raccoon City. This allowed the developers to create more varied environments.Capcom introduced moreactionmechanics, which resulted in the addition of the 180-degree turn and a dodge feature to avoid attacks.Additionally, the developers designed the game so that up to nine enemies can appear at the same time, and improved theirartificial intelligenceto hunt the player up and down stairs.The Nemesis creature was inspired by the liquid-metalT-1000from the 1991 filmTerminator 2: Judgment Day.According to Mikami, \"I wanted to introduce a new kind of fear into the game, a persistent feeling of paranoia. The Nemesis brings that on in spades. When it disappears after the first confrontation, you live in constant dread of the next attack. The idea is to make you feel like you're being stalked.\" The game was developed concurrently with the Dreamcast version ofResident Evil – Code: Veronica. It was originally referred to asBiohazard 1.9orBiohazard 1.5because it takes place between the first twoResident Evilgames.AlthoughCode: Veronicais set afterResident Evil 2, Capcom wantedNemesisto be the third numbered game to keep the PlayStation games consistent.Development began with a team of 20 people, but the size gradually increased to between 40 and 50 staff members.UnlikeResident Evil 2, which features two discs with two different protagonists,Resident Evil 3is a single-CD game that centers on Jill Valentine.Capcom chose her as the only protagonist because she was \"the only suitable character remaining\", noting thatClaire RedfieldandChris Redfieldhad already been chosen forCode: Veronica. Marketing and release Resident Evil 3was featured at theTokyo Game Showin March 1999.A playable version was available at theElectronic Entertainment Expoin 1999. At the time, the dodging feature had not been completed and was absent from the demo.To promote the game, Capcom included a briefdemoofResident Evil 3in the US shipments of their earlier game,Dino Crisis, which had a successful launch in Japan.Prior to the release of the game, Capcom spentUS$20million on advertisement campaigns forResident Evil 3andDino Crisis, as well as theNintendo 64version ofResident Evil 2.The marketing campaign included dedicated television advertising, print advertising, and incentives to the consumer.Adoublesoundtrack album, composed by Masami Ueda, Saori Maeda and Shusaku Uchiyama, was released on September 22, 1999.Anovelization,Nemesis, written byS. D. Perry, was published in 2000. Resident Evil 3was released for the PlayStationvideo game consoleon September 22, 1999 in Japan and November 11, 1999 in North America. The first 500,000 units of the game included additional demo discs ofDino Crisis.The game was a commercial hit, selling more than 1 million units worldwide by early October.According toNPD,Resident Evil 3was the top-selling game for the PlayStation in the US during the first two weeks of November 1999.In Europe, the game was released on February 21, 2000 and became a bestseller in the UK,where it received a \"Gold\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association,indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies.As of June 2012, a total of 3.5 million copies of the PlayStation version had been sold. Reception Upon its release on the PlayStation console,Resident Evil 3received \"universal acclaim\", according toMetacritic.GameSpoteditor James Mielke considered it the most sophisticated and accomplishedResident Evilgame in terms of graphics and gameplay.Official UK PlayStation MagazinecalledResident Evil 3\"a modern-day classic\", concluding that the game \"creates a believable environment, populates it with a host of evil adversaries and uses Raccoon City's urban sprawl to enhance the fiendish puzzles.\"Computer and Video Games(CVG) remarked that the game preserves the best features of its predecessors and adds \"some exciting new elements\".Similarly,Edgedescribed it as \"engrossing\", despite its similarity to its predecessors, and found the Mercenaries mode a valuable addition. The pre-rendered backgrounds were credited for their rich details and dark art style. According toIGNeditor Doug Perry, \"Crashed cars, rubbish and rubble, totally destroyed city streets, and scattered broken glass and debris, all are housed in a suburban area that truly looks devastated in the worst possible way.\"GameSpotfelt that the 3D modeling of Jill Valentine was greatly improved compared to the \"blocky\" models in the original game.The music and sound effects received similar praise, withGameProremarking that the game \"keeps the action hot by hiding what you shouldn't see, but telling you about it through the audio\".The introduction of the Nemesis creature was praised.Official UK PlayStation Magazinedescribed the first encounter as shocking, whileCVGsaid that the creature increases the tension level \"to an insane degree\" because the player never knows when he will appear. GameSpotpraised the prompted choices during certain points in the game as they encouragereplay value, but felt the game was too short compared toResident Evil 2, with only one disc and one protagonist.Perry praised the live-action-choice feature, stating that it \"speeds up the pace, increases the tension, and forces a decision that varies the following scene\".He found the 180-degree turn and dodge moves as welcome and necessary additions.In contrast,Official U.S. PlayStation Magazinecriticized the dodge feature as impractical and for relying too much on timing, resulting in doing more harm to the player.GameRevolutionandOfficial U.S. PlayStation Magazinecriticized the simple premise and voice acting,whileNext Generationsaid that the game might be a bit tiresome for players familiar with its predecessors.Resident Evil 3was nominated forGameSpot's 1999 Adventure Game of the Year. Legacy Ports and re-releases Resident Evil 3wasportedto the Microsoft Windows and Dreamcast platforms in 2000, featuring enhanced 3D character models and higher resolution graphics.The Dreamcast version includes more alternate costumes than in the PlayStation version.Critical reception for these ports was not as positive.The Microsoft Windows version was criticized for not being optimized forkeyboard and mouseand for not letting players save their progress at any time.Critics noted that some of the pre-rendered backgrounds in the Dreamcast version of the game were not improved, resulting in them looking not as good as the PlayStation version's due to the Dreamcast's higher graphic fidelity.CVGgenerally praised the Dreamcast version, but admitted that the difference in graphical quality betweenResident Evil 3andCode: Veronicawas very large. AGameCubeversion of the game was released in 2003 as part of anexclusivityagreement between Capcom andNintendo.It received mixed reviews from critics and was mainly criticized for its relatively high retail price and outdated graphics.AllGamenoted that the fact that the game was not priced as a budget title could mislead buyers into thinking that it was an enhanced update similar to the 2002Resident Evilon the GameCube.GameProremarked that, while the game's graphics on the GameCube were not like those of the 2002Resident EvilorResident Evil Zero, they were better-looking than previous versions of the game.As of November 2003, 41,395 copies of the GameCube version had been sold in the U.S.Resident Evil 3was digitally released on thePlayStation Networkin Japan in 2008 and North America in 2009, allowingPlayStation 3andPlayStation Portableusers to play the PlayStation version of the game viaemulation. In July 2024,Resident Evilwas released onGOG.com, with ports ofResident Evil 2andResident Evil 3: Nemesisexpected to come later.The game will get enhanced 3D character models and higher-resolution graphics on its release. Remake Aremake, entitledResident Evil 3, was released in 2020.The game is played from an over-the-shoulder,third-personperspective and runs on Capcom's proprietaryRE Engine.Although it features the same premise as the original game, many parts were rearranged in favor of a more focused story. Some features such as the original game's multiple endings, several locations and The Mercenaries - Operation: Mad Jackal mode were removed.The game received generally positive reviews from critics. Notes References External links"
] | [
"Marvel vs. Capcom Marvel vs. Capcomis a series ofcrossoverfighting gamesdeveloped and published byCapcom, featuring characters from their own video game franchises and comic book series published byMarvel Comics. The series originated as coin-operatedarcade games, though later releases would be specifically developed for home consoles, handhelds, and personal computers. Its gameplay borrows heavily from Capcom's previous Marvel-licensed fighting gamesX-Men: Children of the AtomandMarvel Super Heroes; however, instead of focusing onsingle combat, the games incorporatedtag teambattles. Players form teams of two or three characters and, controlling one fighter at a time, attempt to damage and knock out their opponents. Players can switch out their characters during the match, allowing team members to replenish theirhealthand prolong their ability to fight. The series' gameplay is also distinguished from other fighting game franchises due to its character assist mechanics and emphasis on aerial combat. TheMarvel",
"combat. TheMarvel vs. Capcomseries has received generally positive reviews from critics, who have praised its fast-paced gameplay, vibrant visuals, and wealth of playable characters. The series has enjoyed broad appeal, especially in markets outside of Japan, selling approximately 11 million units as of 2023. Games Related media In 2011, a series ofMinimatesbased on the playable characters fromMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worldswere released by Art Asylum. Udon EntertainmentpublishedMarvel vs. Capcom: Official Complete Worksart book consisting of promotional artwork, sketches and bonus material from the video game collaborations between Marvel and Capcom, beginning with the 1993 arcade gameThe PunishertoUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3.It contains contributions from a variety of artists and illustrators, includingAkiman, Bengus,Shinkiro,Joe Madureira,Adi Granov, Joe Ng,Long Vo, Chamba,Adam WarrenandTakeshi Miyazawa.Official Complete Worksmade its international debut atSan Diego Comic-Conon July 11, 2012, in",
"July 11, 2012, in an exclusive hardcover edition.The hardcover also featured a wrap-around cover designed by Udon Entertainment and Capcom artistAlvin Lee, and digitally-painted by Udon's Genzoman.A standard-format softcover was released in November 2012 byDiamond Comics. Within theMarvel Comics multiverse, theMarvel vs. Capcomuniverse is designated as \"Earth-30847\". The iteration ofSpider-Manfrom the series made a cameo appearance in the second issue of the comics crossover eventSpider-Verse(2014-15), where he is defeated byMorlunas he hunts allSpider-Totemsacross themultiverse. Gameplay The basic gameplay of theMarvel vs. Capcomseries was originally derived fromX-Men: Children of the AtomandMarvel Super Heroes.Players compete in battle using characters with unique moves and special attacks.Using a combination ofjoystickmovements and button presses, players must execute various moves to damage their opponent and deplete their life gauge, or alternatively, have the most cumulative health when the timer runs",
"when the timer runs out.However, unlike the two aforementioned games, which focus on single combat, theMarvel vs. Capcomseries revolve around tag team-based combat.Instead of choosing a single character, players select multiple characters to form teams of two or three.Each character on the team is given their own life gauge.Players control one character at a time, while the others await off-screen.Players are also free to swap between their characters at any point during the match.As characters take damage, portions of their life gauge will turn red, known as \"red health\", which represents the amount of health that a character can recover if the player tags them out.The off-screen, dormant characters will slowly replenish their red health, allowing players to cycle through their team members and prolong their ability to fight.Furthermore, as characters deal and receive damage, a colored meter at the bottom of the screen known as the \"Hyper Combo Gauge\" will gradually fill.By expending meter from their Hyper",
"from their Hyper Combo Gauge, players can perform \"Hyper Combos\" – powerful, cinematic attacks that deal heavy damage to the opponent – in addition to several other special techniques.If one character loses all of their health, they areknocked outand the next available fighter will automatically come into play. Each successiveMarvel vs. Capcominstallment has added, removed, or altered gameplay elements over the course of the series' history.X-Men vs. Street Fighteradded two-on-two tag team features.Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighterintroduced the concept of the \"assist\" by allowing the player to summon their off-screen partner to perform a special move without switching characters.This feature was replaced inMarvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes, which instead randomly allocated an unplayable guest character with a preset assist move before each match; in addition, assists were limited to only a few uses per round.The assist features fromMarvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighterwere re-incorporated into",
"into the following sequel,Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes, once again granting players the ability to call in their off-screen characters at any time during the match without constraint.Marvel vs. Capcom 2also increased the number of characters per team by one, providing a three-on-three battle format.Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worldsintroduced \"X-Factor\", a comeback mechanic which offers increased damage, speed, and red health regeneration for a limited time upon activation.Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinitereverts to two-on-two partner battles and removes traditional character assists, in favour of a free-form tag system where the second character switches in at any point, irrespective of whether the player is mid-combo or in air.Infinitealso implements theInfinity Stonesas a gameplay mechanic, where each of the six stones grants unique abilities and enhancements to the player. Another gameplay element that helps to distinguish theMarvel vs. Capcomseries from other fighting game franchises is its",
"franchises is its emphasis on aerial combat.Every character in theMarvel vs. Capcomseries is given a \"Launcher\" move, which sends the opponent flying up into the air.The player can then choose to follow up immediately by using a \"Super Jump\", which allows a character to jump much higher than normal, in order to continue theircombo; these airborne combos are called \"Air Combos\" or \"Aerial Raves\".Marvel vs. Capcom 3introduced a gameplay feature known as the \"Team Aerial Combo\" or \"Aerial Exchange\", giving players the opportunity to extend their Air Combos further by quickly tagging in their other characters while mid-air. As Capcom's design philosophy for the series has changed to appeal to a wider audience, the control scheme has been repeatedly modified to accommodate people less familiar with the fighting game genre.The first three installments utilized the same layout of six attack buttons, separated as three pairs of light, medium, and hard punches and kicks.InMarvel vs. Capcom 2, in order to make the",
"order to make the game more accessible, the layout was tweaked to four attack buttons, consisting of two pairs of light and heavy punches and kicks, and two dedicated assist buttons.The control scheme was further simplified with the release ofMarvel vs. Capcom 3, which included three attack buttons designated to undefined light, medium, and hard attacks, two assist buttons, and an \"exchange button\" used to perform Launchers and switch between characters during Air Combos.In addition,Marvel vs. Capcom 3included two different control scheme options: Normal Mode and Simple Mode.Simple Mode, designed for casual players, allows players to perform special moves and Hyper Combos with single button presses at the expense of limiting a character's available moveset.ThoughMarvel vs. Capcom: Infinitereturned to a control scheme similar toMarvel vs. Capcom 2― with four attack buttons, one dedicated button for character tagging, and another for activating Infinity Stone abilities ― it introduced a new \"auto-combo\" system",
"\"auto-combo\" system to improve accessibility that allows players to repeatedly mash the light punch input to automatically execute ground and air combos without any damage penalty. Characters Marvel vs. Capcomhas featured over 100 playable fighters, primarily drawn from comic book series published by Marvel Comics and video games franchises developed and produced by Capcom. The games have introduced a few original characters, which includeNorimarofromMarvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter, and Amingo, Ruby Heart, and SonSon fromMarvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes.In addition to the playable cast, other characters from the Marvel and Capcom universes make appearances in the games in varying capacities. BothMarvel Super Heroes vs. Street FighterandMarvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroesincludesecret characterswhich can be played by inputting specific sequences of joystick movements on the character select screen.These secret characters consist ofpalette swapsof existing fighters with different moveset",
"different moveset properties.Clash of Super Heroesalso has unplayable summon characters as part of its \"Guest Character/Special Partner\" assist system. ManyMarvel vs. Capcominstallments also allow players to fight as the games'boss charactersin special game modes, with the exception of Abyss fromMarvel vs. Capcom 2.Characters that have not been playable frequently makecameo appearancesin the games' cutscenes and stage backgrounds.Lastly, numerous non-playable Marvel and Capcom characters are featured as \"Ability Cards\" in the Heroes and Heralds game mode inUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3.Out of all the playable characters, Ryu and Chun-Li are the only ones to have appeared in every game released thus far. Notes History Capcom's partnership with Marvel Comics began in 1993 with the release ofThe Punisher, an arcadebeat 'em upbased on the comic book series of the same name.Capcom then created their first Marvel-licensed fighting game,X-Men: Children of the Atom, in 1994.Marvel Super Heroessoon followed in",
"followed in 1995.Many of the gameplay mechanics used in theMarvel vs. Capcomseries were first developed and refined in these two fighting games, serving as precursors to the series.In 2011, then-current Capcom USA Strategic Marketing Director of Online and Community Seth Killian stated that many fighting game aficionados, including himself, consider them to have laid the foundation for the series. The idea for implementing tag teams was allegedly inspired by aneaster eggfrom Capcom's own 1995 fighting gameStreet Fighter Alpha: Warriors' Dreams.In a secret \"Dramatic Battle\" mode, two players, controllingRyuandKen, were able to fight against an AI-controlledM. Bisonat the same time.The easter egg itself had drawn inspiration from the final battle sequence ofStreet Fighter II: The Animated Movie, which featured a similar fight scene.Recognizing the uniqueness of a team-up concept, Capcom began to work on their next project.After their earlier licensing ventures withChildren of the AtomandMarvel Super Heroes,",
"Super Heroes, the company decided to combine Marvel'sX-Menfranchise, their ownStreet Fighterfranchise, and their team-up concept, leading to the creation ofX-Men vs. Street Fighter.The game debuted in Japanese arcades in 1996, establishing the series' fast-paced, tag team-based gameplay style. Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighterwas then released in 1997, which replaced most of theX-Mencast with other heroes from theMarvel Universeand introduced the character assist mechanic.Marvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroeslater followed in 1998, exchanging the majority of theStreet Fightercast with characters from other Capcom video games series, such asMega ManandDarkstalkers.In 1999, Capcom announced the development of yet another sequel, calledMarvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes.Marvel vs. Capcom 2heavily re-used assets from previous Capcom-developed games, includingStreet Fighter Alpha,Darkstalkers, and the earlierMarvel vs. Capcomtitles, resulting in a large roster of 56 playable characters.Shortly after",
"after the release of the PlayStation 2 and Xbox ports forMarvel vs. Capcom 2, Capcom lost the use of the Marvel license, putting the series on an indefinite hiatus.However, with the resurgence of 2D fighting games in 2008, owing to the success ofStreet Fighter IV, Marvel requested Capcom to collaborate with them once again.Capcom would announce the development of the next installment in theMarvel vs. Capcomseries,Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds, in 2010.The game was eventually released in 2011.An updated version ofMarvel vs. Capcom 3, titledUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, was released later in the same year.The high-definition compilation gameMarvel vs. Capcom Originswas then released in 2012. Following the release ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3for the PlayStation Vita in 2012, Marvel's new parent company,The Walt Disney Company, which acquired Marvel in 2009, chose not to renew Capcom's license with the Marvel characters, instead opting to put them in its own self-publishedDisney Infinityseries.As a",
"Infinityseries.As a result, Capcom had to pull bothUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3andMarvel vs. Capcom 2off their online platforms in 2013.However, in 2016, Disney announced its decision to cancel theDisney Infinityseries, discontinue self-publishing efforts, and switch to a licensing-only model, allowing them to license their characters to third-party game developers, including Capcom.Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinitewas revealed in 2016, and then released in 2017. In June 2024, Capcom announcedMarvel vs. Capcom Fighting Collection: Arcade ClassicsforNintendo Switch,PlayStation 4andWindows.The compilation features the seven Marvel titles developed and published by Capcom for arcades fromThe PunisherthroughMarvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes.It notably marks the series' debut on Nintendo platforms, the first time the classic entries have been made available on PC, as well as the first general re-releases forMarvel Super Heroes, Clash of Super HeroesandNew Age of Heroessince the originalOriginscompilation and the",
"and the remaster ofMarvel vs. Capcom 2were digitally delisted from seventh generation console storefronts. Reception TheMarvel vs. Capcomseries has received reviews ranging from average to positive from critics. According to Capcom President andCOOHaruhiro Tsujimoto, the games have enjoyed broad appeal, especially in markets outside of Japan.As of December 2023,11 millionunits of the series have been sold. The series' first three titles,X-Men vs. Street Fighter,Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter, andMarvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes, received praise for their frantic gameplay style, visual flair, playable character rosters, and the quality of their sprite animations.The games' Dreamcast and Sega Saturn ports were also lauded for their technical performance, matching the capabilities of the arcade versions.Conversely, the PlayStation ports were criticized for their removal of tag team battles and noticeable decline in frame rate and animation quality – changes which stemmed from the",
"stemmed from the console'sRAMlimitations. Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroesreceived similar praise, with particular attention given towards the large cast and the addition of three-on-three combat.The Dreamcast, PlayStation 2, and Xbox versions were criticized for their lack of online multiplayer support outside Japan.These concerns were addressed with the release of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 ports, which reviewers commended for their smooth online experience.A common source of complaints was the game's jazz-inspired soundtrack, which critics deemed as out of place. In addition to its character variety and visual presentation,Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worldsgarnered praise for simplifying the series' combat mechanics and control scheme, thus making it more accessible for players new to fighting games.Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcomwas applauded for its additions to the character roster, gameplay tweaks, and improved online functionality.Both games, however, were criticized for their lack of game",
"their lack of game modes and single-player content.Marvel vs. Capcom Originswas praised for preserving the original arcade releases' integrity and its addition of online multiplayer, dynamic challenges, and unlockable content; however, in remaining faithful to the arcade versions, some reviewers criticized the games for their outdated gameplay and unbalanced fighters.Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinitereceived mixed to positive reviews, with critics praising its implementation of new gameplay mechanics, such as the \"Active Switch\" combo system and the addition of the six Infinity Stones.On the other hand, the game was criticized for its presentation, particularly its art direction, and its character roster. In 2012,ComplexrankedMarvel vs. Capcomat number 37 on the list of the best video game franchises, commenting that \"a frenetic pace and over the top effects work together to make this franchise stand the test of time\". Notes References External links Category",
"Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3is a 2011crossoverfighting gamedeveloped byCapcomin collaboration withEighting. It is an updated version ofMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds. The game features characters from both Capcom's video game franchises and comic book series published byMarvel Comics. It was originally released for thePlayStation 3andXbox 360in November 2011, then as alaunch titlefor thePlayStation Vitain 2012, and later re-released onPlayStation 4,WindowsandXbox One. InUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, players select a team of three characters to engage in combat and attempt to knock out their opponents. As an update, the game utilizes largely identical gameplay mechanics to the original. However, both the aerial combat and X-Factor systems, introduced inFate of Two Worlds, have received adjustments. In addition to gameplay modifications and new playable characters, the game features several aesthetic changes. After the events of the2011 Tōhoku earthquake and",
"earthquake and tsunamidisrupted the development schedule fordownloadable contentforFate of Two Worlds, the additional content was created into a standalone title,Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, for a discounted retail price. The game received generally positive reviews upon release; critics praised the expanded character roster and improved online experience, but criticized the lack of new features and game modes. A sequel, titledMarvel vs. Capcom: Infinite, was released in 2017. Gameplay Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3is an updated version ofMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds, anarcade-style fighting game, and changes little from the basic gameplay of the original.Players select teams of three different characters to engage in one-on-one combat.The game utilizes the sametag team-based fighting mechanics as its predecessors; players may choose to swap between their characters at any point during a match.Players must use the various attacks in their arsenal, such as character assists, special moves, and hyper",
"moves, and hyper combos, to exhaust their opponent'slife gaugeand defeat the entire enemy team, or have the most cumulative health when time runs out.While the core mechanics remain the same, a number of aesthetic changes have been made inUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, with a stronger emphasis on thecomic bookmotif.TheHUD, character selection, and stage selection screens have been redesigned.In addition, many returning characters receive balancing changes, which include new moves and animation tweaks. Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3uses the same simplified, three-button control scheme of undefined light, medium, and heavy attacks introduced inFate of Two Worlds.The \"exchange button\", used to launch opponents into the air and switch between characters while performingair combos, returns.The aerial exchange feature has been altered inUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3; players can either remove meter from their opponent's Hyper Combo gauge, add meter to their own gauge, or simply deal more damage.The \"X-Factor\"",
"\"X-Factor\" mechanic, which grants increased damage output, speed, and health regeneration for a limited time, also reappears fromFate of Two Worlds.InUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, the attack and speed boosts for each character while using X-Factor have been adjusted.X-Factor can now be used while in the air, as opposed to the previous game, in which activation was restricted to characters on the ground. Modes Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3includes severalgame modesfrom the original, including Arcade Mode, where the player fights againstAI-controlled opponents to reach the finalboss character,Galactus; Versus Mode, where two players engage in combat; Mission Mode, which includes a series of trials for each playable character; and Training Mode.\"Heroes and Heralds\" is a free downloadable single-player and multiplayer team-based mode where players earn new abilities with upgrade cards, customize their characters with new powers, and compete in factions as either the heroes defending Earth or as one ofGalactus'",
"as one ofGalactus' Heralds.The \"ability cards\", which feature various characters from the Marvel and Capcom universes, unlock special power-ups, such as invisibility and projectile invincibility, for use during mode-specific combat. Up to three different cards may be equipped at once, with more than 100 cards available to collect.A new offline mode, called \"Galactus Mode\", allows players to fight as Galactus against AI-controlled opponents. An optimizednetcodeis present in the game, providing smoother online play compared toFate of Two Worlds.A new spectator mode allows up to six players to watch online matches between other players.Rematch features and leaderboard functionality have also been improved to enhance the game's online experience. Playable characters Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3features the original 36 characters fromMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worldsand introduces 12 new playable fighters.Jill ValentineandShuma-Gorath, the two characters released asdownloadable content(DLC) for the previous",
"for the previous game, remained available for download, up until all DLC for the game was removed from online stores in December 2013; they are included in the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and PC re-releases.Characters added toUltimateare marked inbold. Marvel characters Capcom characters Development On July 20, 2011, atSan Diego Comic-Con, Capcom announced that an updated version ofMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worldswas under development.The update, titledUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, would add new characters, stages, modes, and other enhancements to improve the game's balance and online functionality.According to Capcom, many new features and refinements, such as the addition of a spectator mode and tweaks to X-Factor, were the results of fan feedback.At the2011 Tokyo Game Show, Capcom video game producer,Yoshinori Ono, would later announce that the game would also be released as a launch title for the PlayStation Vita.The handheld edition promised to contain the same content as the console versions, in",
"versions, in addition to touchscreen control support. After the release ofMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds, the game's development team had plans to release more downloadable content.However, after the2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, in addition to staff health issues, delayed the development schedule, producer Ryota Niitsuma and his team decided to release the proposed DLC, along with rebalanced gameplay and other additions, as a separate installment.As a result, the makeup ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3is split \"about half and half\" between DLC meant forFate of Two Worldsand brand new content. Character selection was a collaborative process between Capcom and Marvel.According to Seth Killian, a former community manager for Capcom, Marvel presented a list of their own characters that they were interested in seeing inUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3.Capcom then provided input regarding moveset possibilities in order to reach a consensus.Each company also had their own set of interests and",
"of interests and priorities.Marvel characters, such as Rocket Raccoon and Nova, were chosen tocross-promoteupcoming products.On the other hand, Capcom sought to bring more diversity into the cast.For example, Capcom wanted a monster-like character that could fight while in the air, leading to the inclusion of Firebrand. Release Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3was released for thePlayStation 3andXbox 360on November 15, 2011, in North America, November 17 in Japan, and November 18 in Europe.ThePlayStation Vitaversion was released on December 17, 2011, in Japan, and February 22, 2012, in North America and Europe.People who ordered the PlayStation Vita \"First Edition\" bundle in North America were able to receive an early copy ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3on February 15, 2012, one week ahead of the console's official launch date. To promoteUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, special retailer-exclusive costume packs were available aspre-orderbonuses. If the game was pre-ordered fromGameStop, the players received the Femme",
"received the Femme Fatale Pack (Chun-Li,Morrigan,Storm,X-23).Amazonoffered the New Age of Heroes Costume Pack (Akuma,Doctor Doom,Sentinel,Strider Hiryu), whileBest Buygave access to the Villains Costume Pack (C. Viper,M.O.D.O.K.,Super-Skrull,Wesker).After the game's launch, several other costume packs became available for purchase on specific dates through theXbox Live MarketplaceandPlayStation Network.The Ancient Warriors Costume Pack, consisting ofArthur,Firebrand,Hulk, andMagneto, was originally planned to be released on December 20, 2011,but, on December 19, Capcom announced that the pack would be delayed until March 6 following year, due to existing controversy with Magneto's alternate costume.The costume in question, which was based on Magneto's appearance in Marvel'sHouse of Mseries, bore similarities to the attire of theKing ofSpain,Juan Carlos I, and was later removed from the pack. Prior to the release ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, both Capcom and Marvel announced that the game would include",
"game would include reversible packaging.The front cover art featured the work of Capcom illustratorShinkiro, while the reverse side featured the art of Marvel Comics'Mark Brooks.Brook's alternate cover featured all twelve of the game's new characters in his own comic book style.Both pieces of art were printed on a single reversible cover for the entire first run ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3in North America. On December 13, 2013, Capcom announced that digital versions ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3and its DLC would be removed from online platforms towards the end of the month, following the apparent expiration of Capcom's licensing contracts with Marvel Comics.The game was pulled from the PlayStation Network on December 17 and 19 in North America and Europe, respectively, and from theXbox Live Arcadeon December 26. Later, on December 3, 2016,Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3was re-released digitally for thePlayStation 4, coinciding with the announcement ofMarvel vs. Capcom: Infinite; digital re-releases",
"digital re-releases forWindowsandXbox Onewere released on March 7, 2017.These versions included all previously released downloadable content, including Jill Valentine and Shuma-Gorath, a new gallery mode containing artwork fromMarvel vs. Capcom: Official Complete Works, and an improved1080presolution at 60frames per second.Physical copies of the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions were made available for a limited time throughGameStopandEB Games.The physical editions included updated cover art and a 10-page comic book featuring the artwork of Marvel Comics'Sean Chenand Gerardo Sandoval. Reception Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3was released to generally favorable reviews, garnering scores of 80/100 and 79/100 fromMetacriticfor the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions, respectively.The PlayStation Vita version received a score of 80/100 from Metacritic. The game received praise for addressing several gameplay issues prevalent inMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worldsand refining the online experience. Daniel",
"experience. Daniel Maniago ofG4praised the game for its \"simple, yet deep gameplay\", character roster, and improved online features.1UP.com's Neidel Crisan cited the game as a major improvement over the original.GameSpot's Maxwell McGee stated thatUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3was unquestionably the superior version, highlighting the series' \"unique blend of structured insanity\". A common criticism amongst reviewers forUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3was the lack of additional on-disc content beyond the expanded character roster and gameplay tweaks. WhileIGN's Steven Hopper praised the inclusion of new characters, he criticized the lack of new features and modes. As a result, he stated that the game'sUS$40price tag was \"a little hard to swallow\".Tim Turi ofGame Informerstated that while hardcore fans would appreciate Capcom's balancing tweaks, casual fans who already playedFate of Two Worldsand were only interested in new characters would \"likely be left wanting\". Reviewers praised the PlayStation Vita version for",
"Vita version for its technical performance, despite hardware constraints, and for providing the full console version experience on a portable system. Hopper complimented the graphics, stating that the Vita port matched the visual fidelity of the console versions.Martin Robinson ofEurogamerclaimedUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3was one of the Vita's \"finer-looking launch games\", praising its detail and faithfulness to the original.However, he criticized the addition of touchscreen controls, stating its implementation fell short of the mark laid down bySuper Street Fighter IV: 3D Edition. During the15th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, theAcademy of Interactive Arts & SciencesnominatedUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3for \"Fighting Game of the Year\", but lost toMortal Kombat. Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3reached number 19 in the United Kingdom PlayStation 3 sales chart and number 24 for the Xbox 360.The game sold approximately 600,000 units worldwide for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 during the first two months of",
"first two months of its release.By March 2015, the game had sold 1.20 million units for the PS3 and Xbox 360.As of March 2024, it has sold3 millionunits across the PS3, Xbox 360, PS4, PC, and Xbox One. Sequel Following the release ofUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3for thePlayStation Vitain 2012, Marvel's new parent company,The Walt Disney Company, which acquired Marvel in 2009, chose not to renew Capcom's license with the Marvel characters, instead opting to put them in its own self-publishedDisney Infinityseries. As a result, Capcom had to pull bothUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3andMarvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of HeroesoffXbox Live Arcadeand thePlayStation Networkin 2013.However, in 2016, Disney decided to cancel itsDisney Infinityseries, discontinue self-publishing efforts, and switch to a licensing-only model, allowing them to license their characters to third-party game developers, including Capcom.On December 3 that yearMarvel vs. Capcom: Infinitewas officially unveiled duringSony'sPlayStation",
"Experienceevent.The game was released on September 19, 2017, forPlayStation 4,Windows, andXbox One. Notes References External links",
"Jill Valentine Jill Valentineis a character inResident Evil(Biohazardin Japan), asurvival horrorvideo game series created by the Japanese companyCapcom. She was introduced as one of the twoplayer charactersin the originalResident Evil(1996), alongside her partnerChris Redfield, as a member of theRaccoon City Police Department's Special Tactics And Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.) unit. Jill and Chris fight against theUmbrella Corporation, a pharmaceutical company whosebioterrorismcreateszombiesand otherbio-organic weapons, and later become founding members of theUnited Nations' Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA). Jill is the protagonist of severalResident Evilgames,novelizations, films, and has also appeared in other game franchises includingMarvel vs. Capcom,Project X Zone,Teppen, andDead by Daylight. In later games, such as the2002Resident Evilremake,The Umbrella Chronicles(2007),Resident Evil 5(2009), andThe Mercenaries 3D(2011), her features were based on Canadian model and actressJulia Voth.",
"actressJulia Voth. Several actresses have portrayed Jill, includingSienna GuilloryandHannah John-Kamenin thelive-actionResident Evilfilms. Video game publicationsdescribed Jill as among the most popular and iconic video game characters, and praised her as the most likable and consistentResident Evilcharacter. She has received both acclaim and criticism with regard togender representation in video games. Several publications praised the series for its portrayal of women and considered Jill significantly lesssexualizedthan other female game characters; she was also cited as an example of a female character who was as competent and skilled as her male counterparts. Others argued she was weakened as a protagonist by attributes that undermined her role as a heroine, specifically an unrealistic body shape that did not reflect her military background; some of her overtly sexualized costumes have also been criticized. Concept and design Jill was introduced as one of twoplayable protagonists, alongside her",
"alongside her partnerChris Redfield, inCapcom's 1996survival horrorvideo gameResident Evil.She was created bydirectorShinji MikamianddesignerIsao Ohishi.To avoid thesexual objectificationofwomen in video games, Mikami refused to eroticize or portray women as submissive inResident Evil; instead, Jill was characterized as independent. Of Japanese and French descent,Jill excelled atbomb disposalduring hertrainingwithDelta Force,and later joined the Special Tactics and Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.)special operationsunit.Experienced with weapons, explosives material, andlock picking,she was intelligent, brave, and loyal.Although theirstorylinesprogress toward \"the same general direction\",thegameplaydiffers for Jill and Chris;herinventoryis larger, and she has alock pick, giving her early access to morehealthand ammunition. Based on these differences, Jill was recommended to first-time players ofResident Evil.Resident Evilgame designerJun Takeuchigave each character a unique clothing style to make them instantly",
"make them instantly recognisable, with Jill's character being given a distinct blue beret. According todigital mediascholarEsther MacCallum-Stewart, Mikami's female characters possess unique qualities making them viable choices for players to select over their male counterparts, and said theircombat attirehelped them avoid criticism of adhering to themale gaze.Mikami explained: \"I don't know if I've put more emphasis on women characters, but when I do introduce them, it is never as objects. In games, they will be peripheral characters with ridiculous breast physics. I avoid that sort of obvious eroticism.\"Despite this, subsequent games in the series not directed by Mikami depicted her wearing revealing costumes.Media scholars said players have been intentionally encouraged to both objectify and identify with the character.Several commentators suggested that Mikami's initial portrayal of Jill as a military professional tempered the ability of subsequent game directors to overtly sexualize the character. Jill",
"the character. Jill continued to be redesigned over the course of the series.In the2002 remakeof the original game, her appearance was based on Canadian model and actressJulia Voth.Capcom producerHiroyuki Kobayashisaid they made her morekawaiiin the remake, but also kept her tough and muscular.Voth's likeness was reused forResident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles(2007) andResident Evil 5(2009).Resident Evil 5features Chris as a protagonist; designers opted to focus on how both characters had aged since the original game.Jill underwent another redesign forResident Evil 5to reflect her status as a test subject inbiological researchexperiments.Depicted with blonde hair, pale skin, and tight-fitting outfit – described as abattle suit– these changes represent the effects of the experimentation.Fans criticized the new appearance as an example of whitewashing.MacCallum-Stewart suggested the popularity of the series was damaged by the unexplained reappearance of Jill as a \"mind-controlledBDSMassassin\".In the2020",
"the2020 remakeofResident Evil 3, Jill is modeled after Russian model Sasha Zotova.Jill's redesign reflects the developers' creative vision behind the character's reimagination as a genuine action hero; because the art direction for the remake is based onphotorealism, Capcom wanted to ensure that Jill fits into the game world environment. Alternate costumes as rewards for players have been a staple of theResident Evilseries.Completing the 2002 remake unlocked the ability to dress Jill in herResident Evil 3: Nemesisminiskirt costume and asSarah Connorfrom the 1991 filmTerminator 2: Judgment Day.The miniskirt was added during development upon the staff's request. Following its addition, developers changed camera angles to reduce the amount ofupskirtingand matched the color of the skirt and underwear to make it less obvious.The outfit reappears inResident Evil: The Mercenaries 3D(2011).A prequel to the events ofResident Evil 5, thedownloadable content(DLC) episodeLost in Nightmaresincludes an alternative outfit",
"alternative outfit for Jill,based on military clothing andsportswear.SinceResident Evil: Revelations(2012) was set at sea, her costume was made to resemble awetsuit.The initial design featured more tactical gear attached to herbuoyancy control device, but it was removed to highlight her body's contours.Her alternate outfit in the game, a revealing pirate costume, was deliberately made to be colorful to contrast with the storyline's dark themes. Voice-over and live-action actresses The actresses who appeared in the original game'slive-actioncutscenesand recorded thevoice workwere credited only by their first names; Jill was portrayed by a high school student credited as \"Inezh\".Over the course of the franchise,voice actresseswho played Jill includedCatherine DisherinResident Evil 3,Heidi Anderson in the 2002 remake,Kathleen Barrin Capcom's 2004 action-adventure gameUnder the Skin,andTara PlattinPachislotBiohazard,arecreationalarcade gamereleased solely in Japan.Patricia Ja Leeprovided the voice andmotion",
"the voice andmotion capturefor bothThe Umbrella ChroniclesandResident Evil 5.Kari Wahlgrenvoiced the character in the 2011 gameMarvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two WorldsandUltimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3.InRevelations, Jill was voiced byMichelle Ruff,who returned for the non-canongameResident Evil: Operation Raccoon City.Nicole Tompkins voiced and provided motion capture performance for Jill in the 2020Resident Evil 3remake and reprised her role in CG animated filmResident Evil: Death Island.Atsuko Yuyavoiced Jill in the Japanese versions of the games. The character appeared in three entries of the originalResident Evilfilm series, where she was portrayed by English actressSienna Guillory.Hannah John-Kamenplayed the role in the 2021 filmResident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City. Appearances In theResident Evilseries Every game in the series is set in the fictional American metropolitan area of Raccoon City until its destruction at the end ofResident Evil 3: Nemesis.Subsequent games featuring Jill take place on an",
"take place on an international scale, namely in Russia,Africa,and the Mediterranean Sea.The original game is set in July 1998 in a mansion on the outskirts of Raccoon City,which Jill and her team enter while searching forcolleagues.Working with partnerBarry Burton, she discovers the property is a façade for abiological warfarelaboratory operated by theUmbrella Corporationand itsundeadoccupants are the scientists who developed the T-virusmutagen. Her commanderAlbert Weskeris revealed to be adouble agentfor Umbrella.Jill and Chris are among the five survivors of the incident,who form a strong friendship and become passionate opponents ofbioterrorism. Jill did not appear inResident Evil 2(1998), as the production team used new protagonists (Leon S. KennedyandClaire Redfield) to preserve the original game's horror elements: Mikami believed Jill and Chris would be too experienced to be scared by the events in the sequel.She returned as the sole protagonist inResident Evil 3(1999).Mikami – the lead producer of",
"lead producer of bothNemesisand the concurrently-producedResident Evil – Code: Veronica(2000) – wanted each game to highlight a female character who had previously appeared in the series; Jill is the protagonist inNemesis, while Claire is thelead characterinCode: Veronica.Commentators suggested these decisions were made as a result of the success of theTomb Raiderseries, which featuredLara Croftas the protagonist. Nemesisis set two months after the first game,during which time Jill joined theRaccoon City Police Department(RCPD) to protect as many civilians as possible from the T-virus. The reason given by Capcom for her informal clothing in this entry was her resignation from the police immediately before the city's population was infected with the virus.She quit in protest over the failure of law enforcement to take action against Umbrella but remained in the city to investigate the corporation.The police uniform she wore in the original game was replaced with a less formal bluetube top,",
"bluetube top, blackminiskirtandknee-high boots. InNemesis, she escapes Raccoon City before its destruction from anuclear strikeas part of aU.S. governmentcover-up.She is pursued byNemesis, asupersoldierwhose task is to kill all remaining members of the S.T.A.R.S. team.Instead of killing Jill, Nemesis infects her with the T-virus; her new partnerCarlos Oliveira– a former Umbrellamercenary– cures her of the infection with an Umbrella-produced vaccine.The Umbrella Chroniclesoccurs in 2003, when Jill and Chris join a private organization with the goal of exposing Umbrella's biological warfare activities,leading a group to destroy their only remaining research facility.After the fall of the corporation, the pair become founding members of theUnited Nations' Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA).InRevelations– set two years later – Jill and new partnerParker Lucianiare sent on a mission to rescue Chris, who is allegedly being held hostage on aghost shipin the Mediterranean. Once aboard, she discovers",
"she discovers the ship is infested with a new type of mutagen capable of infecting theaquatic ecosystem. Jill and Chris then unravel a political conspiracy involving an earlier mutagenic outbreak and a botched investigation by a rival agency. Resident Evil 5takes place in 2009 in the fictional African town of Kijuju,whereterroristsare turning local residents intozombies. One of these terrorists is revealed to be Jill,who wasmissing in actionfor the previous two and a half years.Set in 2006, theLost in NightmaresDLC showed Jill and Chris searching inside a mansion forUmbrella's founder; to save Chris from Wesker, Jill tackled the latter through a window.Neither of their bodies were recovered, and Jill isdeclared dead.In fact, she was injured by the fall and taken hostage by Wesker, who then used her as a test subject in his biological experiments. Theantibodiesproduced by Jill's system as a result of herNemesis-era T-virus infection were used as the basis for the Uroboros Virus,the catalyst for the events",
"for the events ofResident Evil 5. DuringResident Evil 5, Chris discovers that Jill is alive; Wesker attached a mind-control device on Jill which forced her to commit the terrorist acts and fight Chris and his new partner, local BSAA agentSheva Alomar.Jill finds enough self-control to open her outfit so the device can be seen and removed. After its removal, she explains that she knew what she was doing but was unable to control her actionsand urges Chris and Sheva to continue their mission.Another DLC episode,Desperate Escape, describes how Jill was able to escape safety with the help of local BSAA agent Josh Stone before they aid both Chris and Sheva to kill Wesker. Other appearances Jill features in several of theResident Evilfilms. She was originally scheduled to be the protagonist for the firstResident Evilmovie (2002), while it was under the direction ofGeorge A. Romero. WhenPaul W. S. Andersontook over from Romero, he created a new character for the film series,Alice, portrayed byMilla Jovovich.Jill",
"Jovovich.Jill appears in the 2004 sequelResident Evil: Apocalypse, where she is a disgraced police officer who escapes the ruins of Raccoon City with the help of Alice and other survivors.Her outfit in the movie is based on her clothing fromResident Evil 3.Anderson considered explanations to justify the usage of the costume, such as having it described as anundercoveroutfit,while Jovovich suggested using aheat waveas the reason.Anderson eventually decided to ignore the issue altogether, arguing that people who would criticize her attire \"probably shouldn't be watching aResident Evilmovie .\" Jill appears in apost-credits sceneinResident Evil: Afterlife(2010), wearing the mind-controlling device fromResident Evil 5and leading an attack against Alice, Chris, Claire, and the survivors they rescued after a virus outbreak in Los Angeles.InResident Evil: Retribution(2012), Jill is an antagonist programmed to capture Alice, but regains control of herself after Alice removes Wesker's mind-control device.The film",
"device.The film includes a fight between Jill and Alice containing around 200 moves.She did not appear in the final film,Resident Evil: The Final Chapter(2016), apparently dyingoffscreen.According to Jovovich, Jill was excluded because there were too manyResident Evilcharacters to include in the film.TheResident Evilfilm series consistently received negative reviews.Cinefantastiquepraised Guillory's performance inApocalypseas the film's only highlight.In the reboot filmResident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City(2021), Jill is played by Hannah John-Kamen.She has also appeared in the 2023 animated film,Resident Evil: Death Island.Jill's youthful appearance in the film, despite being aged 40, was said to be a result of the T-virus slowing her aging. Jill is a playable character in several non-canonResident Evilgames.She features in numerousResident Evilmobile games, and is the protagonist ofResident Evil: Genesis(2008), an alternative-story version of the original game.She is a playable character inMarvel vs.",
"inMarvel vs. Capcom 2(2000),Marvel vs. Capcom 3(2011),Project X Zone(2012),Project X Zone 2(2015),Dead by Daylight(2016),Puzzle Fighter(2017),and thedigital collectible card gameTeppen(2019).She appears as analternate skinforChun-LiinSuper Gem Fighter Mini Mix(1998),CammyinStreet Fighter V(2016),and Zofia inTom Clancy's The Division 2(2019),and can also be selected as a playable skin inWe Love Golf!(2007),Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege(2015),andFortnite Battle Royale(2017).Jill appears as anon-playablecameo in 2004'sUnder the Skin,is one of the 'Spirit'power-upsinSuper Smash Bros. Ultimate(2018),and a robot dressed as Jill makes a cameo reference inAstro's Playroom(2020) andAstro Bot(2024). Jill features innovelizationsof the films and gamesand plays a supporting role in the first novel,Resident Evil: Caliban Cove(1998), in a series byS. D. Perry.InResident Evil: The Umbrella Conspiracy(1998), Perry's novelization of the original game, Jill's Delta Force background is not mentioned; before her career in law",
"her career in law enforcement, she is said to have acted as an accomplice for her father Dick Valentine, a professional thief.Several comic books based on the games were released,and she is a character inBandai'sResident Evil Deck Building Card Game(2011).Merchandise featuring Jill include action figures, figurines and a gun replica.The character was featured inResident Evil-themed attractions atUniversal Studios JapanandUniversal Orlando'sHalloween Horror Nights.Capcom's themed restaurant Biohazard Cafe & Grill S.T.A.R.S., which opened inShibuya, Tokyo, in 2012, sold a noodle dish named after her. Reception and legacy Game publications, including the 2011 version of theGuinness World Records Gamer's Edition,described Jill Valentine among the most popular and iconic video game characters.At the 2013Penny Arcade Expo,journalistsand game developers nominated her as one of the top-three lead characters of Western and Japaneserole-playing video games.Magazines praised her as the most likableResident",
"likableResident Evilcharacter,with the most believable and consistentstory arcin the series.She was also identified as one of the all-time greatestmascotsof thevideo game industry,as a tough, strong and attractive female character who could appeal to a broaddemographic. Critics commented that Jill was not oversexualized in her initial appearances.She was highlighted as an example of the series' female characters who were not judged solely ongender,and for having \"the most sensible design\" for a female character of the mid-to-late 1990s.Her professional relationship with Chris was celebrated for its basis in loyalty rather than romanceand its balance in their personalities: Jill's intellect and Chris's brawn.Female digital critics felt that several of Jill's features undermine her role as a heroine and weaken her as a protagonist – specifically that her body shape is unrealistic and not reflective of her military background or physical training, noting that she was the only member of her team in the original",
"in the original game not to wear abulletproof vest.The extent to which her appearance changed over the course of the game series has been criticized as excessive,with theResident Evil 3outfit derided for deviating too much from Mikami's initial militaristic iteration of the character.InTropes vs. Women in Video Games, feminist media criticAnita Sarkeesiancriticized Jill's alternate costumes as too revealing, particularly the pirate costume inResident Evil: Revelations.She also cited Jill's movement inRevelationsas an example of female characters who walk in an overtly sexualized manner. MacCallum-Stewart said the firstResident Evilgame became famous for its \"extremely clunky dialogue and voice acting, an element which lent the otherwise suspenseful game an element of charm that endeared it to players\".Although she explains that the weak dialogue might be attributed to poor translation of the original Japanese text, she said this inadvertently helped differentiate the series from its rivals.Several lines from",
"lines from the game achieved enduring popularity: \"You were almost a Jill sandwich\",a quip delivered in awkward voiceover by Barry Burton after a falling ceiling trap almost crushes Jill, was revived as anInternet memea decade after the game's release; it became the subject offan artdepicting Jill in or as a sandwich.Capcomreferenced the linein several of their later games, includingDead Rising(2006),Resident Evil: Uprising(2009),Resident Evil: Revelations 2(2015),andResident Evil: Resistance(2020).Another piece of dialogue spoken by Burton – \"And, Jill, here's a lock pick. It might be handy if you, the master of unlocking, take it with you\" – also gained notoriety.The quote has beenparodiedfor containing an excessive amount ofsilence between words.It was removed from later editions. Notes References Bibliography External links",
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemesis_(Resident_Evil",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Albert_Wesker (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b94222770>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Chris Redfield Chris Redfield(Japanese:クリス・レッドフィールド,Hepburn:Kurisu Reddofīrudo)is a character in theResident Evilsurvival horrorvideo game series created by the Japanese companyCapcom. He was introduced as one of the twoplayable charactersof the originalResident Evil(1996), alongside his partnerJill Valentine, as a member of theRaccoon Police Department's Special Tactics and Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.) unit. Vowing to never let any tragedies like Raccoon City happen again, Chris becomes a founding member of theUnited Nations' Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA). Chris is the protagonist of severalResident Evilgames,novelizations, and films and has also appeared in other game franchises, includingMarvel vs. Capcom,Project X Zone, andDead by Daylight. In later games, such asResident Evil 7(2017) andResident Evil: Village(2021), his features were based on New Zealand model Geordie Dandy. Several actors have portrayed Chris, includingWentworth MillerandRobbie Amell, in thelive-actionResident",
"Evilfilms. Video game magazineshave mainly given Chris unfavorable reviews; in particular, they have taken issue with the frequent modifications to his design and inconsistent use of appearance. However, he has been recognized for hissex appealand is considered one of the sexiest video game characters by several publications. Some critics have referred to a scene of Chris punching a boulder inResident Evil 5as one of the most memorable within theResident Evilseries, which was also subjected toInternet memes. Concept and design Chris was introduced as one of the twoplayable protagonists, alongside his partnerJill Valentine, inCapcom's 1996survival horrorvideo gameResident Evil.He was created bydirectorShinji MikamianddesignerIsao Ohishi.DesignerHideki Kamiyadescribed Chris as a \"blunt, tough-guy type\", admitting that he was a fan of this archetype. Ofwhite Americandescent,Chris joined the Special Tactics and Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.)special operationsunitafter demonstrating exceptional skills in",
"skills in hand-to-hand combat, helicopters, planes, and shooting during his training with theUnited States Air Force.Although their storylines progress in \"the same general direction,\"thegameplaydiffers for Jill and Chris;Chris can't carry as many goods in hisinventory, but he can run quicker, aim more precisely, and withstand more damage. Chris continued to be redesigned over the course of the series.Resident Evil 5features Chris as a protagonist; designers opted to focus on how the character had aged since the original game.His increased muscle mass was to show that he had trained heavily in order to fight the series' powerful villain,Albert Wesker, bare-handed.Modeler Yosuke Yamagata added that they \"made a new design that retained their signature color—green for Chris, blue for Jill—to carry over the same look from the past. The facial structures are mainly based on the visuals ofthe GameCube version, and we added various details to these in order to develop a realistic structure.\"Resident Evil 5's",
"Evil 5's producerJun Takeuchisaid that the series' fans \"would really love\" a video game featuring bothLeon S. Kennedyand Chris as the protagonists due to their popularity, and at the same time, it would be \"pretty dramatic\" if the two characters never met before the series would end; this eventually occurred inResident Evil 6.InResident Evil 6, Chris has a slightly disheveled look due to his alcoholism andpost-traumatic amnesia. InResident Evil 7, Chris was given an entirely new design as the producers wanted to give him a more realistic look.The character's new design made him completely \"unrecognizable\", as stated by commentators and players.Director Kōshi Nakanishi stated thatResident Evil 6's Chris model \"was just not suitable forResident Evil 7's game engine or aesthetic\". He further said that \"lthough it is a fairly realistic impression, even if it mixes with the character of \"7\", it seems that a sense of incongruity will come out.\"Takeuchi, the executive producer, added that they had been thinking",
"had been thinking about Chris as the primary character at the time and that, as it was the first time we had seen him in a long time, he needed to be shown as a hero. In retrospect, he also understood that creating Chris into a hero was not the same as creating aResident Evilgame.InResident Evil Village, Chris is once again redesigned, but his look closer resembles that inResident Evil 6, due to fan backlash against his look inResident Evil 7.According to the director ofResident Evil VillageDLC, Kento Kinoshita, the production team behind the DLC for the horror sequel initially had a completely different plan in mind. \"At the time of the project,\" he says, referencing the DLC's early days of planning, \"there were some ideas that focused on Chris. But we wanted to focus on Rose Winters,\" disclosing that the crew had a preference for a DLC that starred Rose as the main character rather than having Chris rejoin the action. Voice-over and live-action actors In the originalResident Evil, which useslive-action",
"useslive-action cinematics, Chris is played by Charlie Kraslavsky.He is the first actor to have portrayed the character.In English, Scott McCulloch voiced Chris in the originalResident Evil;Michael Filipowich voiced him inResident Evil – Code: Veronica;Joe Whytevoiced him inResident Evil(2002);Kevin Dorman voiced him inResident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles,Resident Evil: Vendetta, andResident Evil: Death Island;Roger Craig Smithvoiced him inResident Evil 5,Resident Evil 6,Resident Evil: The Darkside Chronicles,Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3,Marvel vs Capcom Infinite,Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds, andResident Evil: The Mercenaries 3D;and arecreationalarcade gamereleased solely in Japan.David Vaughn voiced him inResident Evil 7,Jeff Schine voiced him inResident Evil: Village,and Gerard Vachon voiced him inDead by Daylight.In Japanese,Hiroki Tōchivoiced him inResident Evil: Afterlife,Marvel vs. Capcom 3,Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3,Resident Evil: Revelations,Project X Zone,Project X Zone 2,Resident",
"X Zone 2,Resident Evil 6,Resident Evil 7, 2002Resident Evil,Resident Evil: Vendetta,Resident Evil: Village, andResident Evil: Death Island,whileSubaru Kimuravoiced him inResident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City. Reuben Langdon did Chris'motion capturefor severalResident Evilgames,while Geordie Dandy did it inResident Evil 7andVillage.Wentworth Millerportrayed him inResident Evil: Afterlife.Miller said that he had seen the series and recalled in particular the third film's trailer, which included a shot above Vegas buried in the sand, described it as \"iconic and arresting\".He requested that the filmmakers put together a montage of noteworthy video game scenes that related to or clarified the mythology or history of his character as part of research.\"Miller also conducted research to learn what the character meant to the audience. He claimed that in order to prepare for the part, he felt compelled to honor the existing mythology around video games. To that end, he conducted online research by visiting fan sites",
"visiting fan sites and blogs to learn about the discussions surrounding this character and what kinds of expectations people could have. However, he had to strike a balance between it and his acting identity, his natural talents, and the Chris Redfield thatPaul W.S. Andersoncreates for this film. Rather than the games, he was quite particular about the Resident Evil feature film adaptation.Robbie Amellportrayed him inResident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City.Amell described playing Chris as a \"dream come true\".Amell revealed that they tried to incorporate a scene of Chris punching a boulder, as inResident Evil 5, but it did not fit the movie's tone. According to Amell, Johannes had discussedResident Evil 4orCode Veronicaas possible games that could be adapted as the film's sequel and that he would be open to reprising his role. Appearances In theResident Evilseries Every game in the series is set in the fictional American metropolitan area of Raccoon City until its destruction at the end ofResident Evil 3:",
"ofResident Evil 3: Nemesis.Subsequent games featuring Chris take place on an international scale, namely in Russia,Antarctica,China,Louisiana,Romania,Africa,and the Mediterranean Sea.The original game is set in July 1998 in a mansion on the outskirts of Raccoon City,which Chris and his team enter while searching forcolleagues.Working with fellow survivorRebecca Chambers, he discovers the property is a façade for abiological warfarelaboratory operated by theUmbrella Corporation, and itsundeadoccupants are the scientists who developed the T-virusmutagen. His commander, Albert Wesker, is revealed to be adouble agentfor Umbrella.Chris and Jill are among the five survivors of the incidentwho form a strong friendship and become passionate opponents ofbioterrorism. Chris did not appear inResident Evil 2(1998), as the production team used new protagonists (Leon andClaire Redfield) to preserve the original game's horror elements. Mikami believed Chris and Jill would be too experienced to be scared by the events in",
"by the events in the sequel.Set five months later,Resident Evil - Code: Veronica(2000) sees Chris return as the protagonist of the second half of the game.He attempts to rescue his younger sister, Claire, from the Umbrella Corporation's research facilities on the fictional Rockfort Island, in the Pacific Ocean, and in Antarctica. Upon discovering she is in Antarctica, Chris is briefly confronted by Wesker, who is revealed to have survived the events of the \"Mansion Incident\" and now has enhanced strength and speed and is seeking revenge on Chris for having destroyed his plans. Eventually, he confrontsAlexia Ashford, the creator of the T-Veronica virus. At the end of the game, he fights with Wesker shortly after killing Alexia. He is no match for him, and their fight is cut short because of the imminent destruction of the base. They vow to finish things another time. The Umbrella Chroniclesoccurs in 2003, when Jill and Chris join a private organization with the goal of exposing Umbrella's biological warfare",
"biological warfare activities,leading a group to destroy their only remaining research facility.After the fall of the corporation, the pair become founding members of theUnited Nations' Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA).InRevelations– set two years later – Jill and her new partnerParker Lucianiare sent on a mission to rescue Chris, who is allegedly being held hostage on aghost shipin the Mediterranean. Jill and Chris then unravel a political conspiracy involving an earlier mutagenic outbreak and a botched investigation by a rival agency. Resident Evil 5takes place in 2009 in the fictional African town of Kijuju, whereterroristsare turning local residents intozombies.Chris is the protagonist of the game and one of the founding members of theUNparamilitary group Bio-terrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA). In the game, he investigates in Africa, while looking for Jill, who is missing anddeclared dead. In fact, she was injured by the fall and taken hostage by Wesker, who then used her as a",
"then used her as a test subject in his biological experiments.Accompanying him is his new partner,Sheva Alomar.Eventually, Chris and Sheva manage to find and free Jill and ultimately defeat and destroy Wesker, who was planning to spread the Uroboros virus across the world. Resident Evil 6(2012) sees Chris return as one of the four protagonists alongside Leon,Ada Wong, andJake Muller, the illegitimate son of Albert Wesker.In the game, Chris leads a squad of BSAA soldiers to investigate a bio-terror attack in Europe. Ambushed byCarla Radames, posing as Ada, they suffer severe casualties. Only Chris andPiers Nivanssurvive the assault, with the rest of his team being turned into monsters by Carla. Chris is overwhelmed with guilt and resigns from the BSAA., but Piers later convinces Chris to return to avenge their fallen comrades. They travel to China to investigate bio-terror activity and find themselves in another C-virus outbreak. While attempting to rescue Jake, who possesses the antibodies needed to stop the",
"needed to stop the outbreak, Chris and Piers encounter Haos, a powerful BOW. Piers is grievously injured during the battle and injects himself with the C-virus to gain superhuman powers. He saves Chris, but sacrifices himself to ensure Haos is destroyed. Chris continues to serve the BSAA in Piers' memory. At the end ofResident Evil 7: Biohazard(2017), a man identifying himself as \"Redfield\" arrives to rescueEthan Winters. While the credits refer to the character as Chris Redfield, the helicopter he arrives in is branded with the Umbrella Corporation logo, which is now blue instead of red, initially causing people to question the person's identity. Capcom later confirmed this character to be Chris, in spite of the noticeable change in his appearance due to a different actor portraying him.Additionally, this new iteration of Umbrella opposes its predecessor's B.O.W. research and instead works closely with the BSAA.Chris appeared in thedownloadable contentcampaignNot a Hero, which was released on December 12,",
"on December 12, 2017.This subchapter focuses on Chris attempting to apprehendLucas Baker, and although he fails to save his men, he confronts and kills Lucas.He also appears at the conclusion of theEnd of Zoedownloadable content. Chris returned for the eighth main installment in the series, titledResident Evil Village(2021). During the three-year gap betweenResident Evil 7andVillage, Chris has been running an off-the-books covert operation investigating an unidentified village suspected to have biohazards inTransylvania, Romania, managed byMother Miranda. During the events ofVillage, Chris and his Hound Wolf squad learn that Miranda was capable of shape-shifting and posed as Mia, and they promptly shoot her in order to protect Ethan and Mia, only for his efforts to be foiled in the process. After revealing the nature of his mission to Ethan, Chris saves the real Mia, learns Miranda's connection to the lateOswell E. Spencer(who was killed by Wesker inResident Evil 5: Lost in Nightmares), and helps plant a",
"and helps plant a bomb on a megamycete in order to destroy the village. During extraction, a dying Ethan gives a recently rescued Rosemary to Chris before sacrificing himself to ensure the village's destruction. With Mia and Rosemary rescued, Chris and his team head to BSAA's European headquarters to demand explanations over their use of BOWs as frontline soldiers. Other appearances Chris features in the non-canonicalResident Evillive-action film series. In the rejectedResident Evilfilm script written byGeorge A. Romeroin 1998, Chris is aNative Americancivilian and ultimately one of the few survivors.In 2000, Capcom fired Romeroand replaced him with Paul W. S. Anderson, who wrote a new script.Chris appears in the 2010 live-action filmResident Evil: Afterlife, portrayed by Wentworth Miller.In the film, Chris is found trapped in a maximum security cell after his unit's attempt to control the T-virus inLos Angelesgoes haywire; the survivors who find him believe him to be a prisoner. He is reunited with his",
"reunited with his sister Claire, who cannot remember him because of memory damage caused by an Umbrella mind control device. He, Alice, and Claire eventually defeat Wesker and rescue imprisoned survivors being used for Umbrella's experiments. Miller said he prepared for the role by searching for images and videos of Chris on the Internet, as well as doingcardioforendurance.He appears in the reboot filmResident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City(2021).Chris also appears in the adult animatedResident Evilfilms. He was one of the main characters inResident Evil: Vendetta(2017), alongside Leon and Rebecca.Unlike the live-action films, the animated films are in the same continuity as the games.He returned in the sequel,Resident Evil: Death Island(2023). Chris is a playable character in severalnon-canonicalResident Evilgames.He features in theResident Evilmobile gameResident Evil: Mercenaries Vs.(2011).He appears in three games in theMarvel vs. Capcomfranchiseand the crossovertactical role-playing gamesProject X",
"gamesProject X ZoneandProject X Zone 2.He also made a cameo appearance in theNintendocrossover video gameSuper Smash Bros. Ultimate(2018),Dead by Daylight(2016) as analternate skin,Fortnite Battle Royale(2017),Tom Clancy's The Division 2(2019),State of Survival(2019),digital collectible card gameTeppen(2019),Astro's Playroom(2020),Astro Bot(2024),and inDead Rising Deluxe Remaster(2024) as an outfit forFrank West. Chris features innovelizationsof the films and games.Additionally, he makes an appearance in the prequelmangaforResident Evil 6, which describes Chris' activities prior to the events.Several comic books based on the games were released,and he is a character inBandai'sResident Evil Deck Building Card Game(2011).The character was featured in aResident Evil-themed attraction atUniversal Studios Japan'sHalloween Horror Nights.Merchandise featuring Chris includes outfits, perfumes, gun replicas, watches, and figurines. Reception Chris Redfield has received mostly negative reviews from critics.",
"from critics. Severalgame publicationshave noted the character's lack of consistent visual design for his appearances throughout theResident Evilfranchise.Polygon's Cass Marshall noted his variations in body mass throughout the games by repeatedly changing from lean to muscular and back again,while Ian Walker fromKotakucompared his appearances inResident Evil 7andResident Evil Villageas \"transition from global bio-terrorism agent to someone's henchman in a British crime comedy written and directed byGuy Ritchie.\"According toPC Gamer's Andy Kelly, Chris is \"finally a person\". He claimed that inVillage, it has \"a very different Chris than we've ever seen before. For the first time, he feels like a human.\"SeveralKotakuemployees have also referred to Chris as the worst of theResident Evilheroes, calling him \"bland\" and \"boring\" and critiquing the majority of his redesigns.Ravi Sinha ofGamingBoltconsidered the character's design inResident Evil 7among the worst in video games, noting that \"the overly buff,",
"\"the overly buff, borderline steroid-abusing macho man\" was replaced by a \"normal looking guy\".On the other hand, while Matt Cundy ofGamesRadar+compared hisCode VeronicaandResident Evil 5designs while trying to evaluate which would fit better for azombie apocalypse, they found the latter provided a better chance to survive a zombie attack. It also judged Chris from the original game as \"horribly ill-prepared\".GameSpycalled his new design inResident Evil 5\"a cross betweenColin FarrellandHugh Jackman\" in particular, and it became a source of controversy and was often ridiculed.Jesse Schedeen ofIGNdescribed him as one of the most overrated video game characters, with the suggestion that he should \"ditch the 'roids and concentrate on getting the job done\",while Alexander Sliwinski ofEngadgetcommented that duringThe Umbrella Chronicles, Chris possibly started his \"steroid abuse\".Conversely, Chris has been named byIGNand fans as one of the popularResident Evilcharacters.His professional relationship with Jill was",
"with Jill was celebrated for its basis in loyalty rather than romanceand its balance in their personalities: Chris's brawn and Jill's intellect. Near the climax ofResident Evil 5, Chris and Sheva engage in a final confrontation against a heavily mutated Wesker inside a volcano, but the duo become separated. In order for them to reunite, the player controlling Chris must engage in a button-mashing sequence where Chris pushes and punches a large boulder until it falls into the lava. The scene became recognized as one of the most memorable within theResident Evilseries, largely due to its ridiculousness. It became the subject ofInternet memes, with fans using it to demonstrate Chris' masculinity.Wes Fenlon ofPC Gamersaid that Chris punching a boulder inside an active volcano \"gave us what is truly one of the greatest moments in the history of videogames\" and \"as a quicktime event. It is perfect.\"InResident Evil Village, during theboss fightwith Karl Heisenberg, Karl calls Chris a \"boulder-punching asshole,\" a",
"asshole,\" a reference to the aforementioned scene inResident Evil 5. Chris has often been recognized for hissex appeal, particularly since his more muscular appearance inResident Evil 5. Some critics have described him as one of the sexiest video game characters.Sikh media and video game critic Veerender Singh Jubbal stated in aKotakuinterview that Chris, as he appears inResident Evil 5, \"allowed to understand bisexuality\" better; noted that his design was \"different than previous iterations\", Jubbal described Chris as a \"large muscle-bound hunk something was attracted to\".Natalie Romano ofGameZoneincluded Chris in their top \"gaming gods\" for his new look, describing him as \"one gorgeous hunk\" with \"a killer body and dreamy good-looks\".Ed Nightingale ofPinkNews, anonline newspapermarketed to the LGBT community, described Chris as \"burly\" and having arms \"to thirst over\".Eurogamer's Matt Wales, in reviewingResident Evil Revelations, described Chris as the \"supremebeefcake\".Trace Thurman ofBloody",
"Thurman ofBloody Disgustingfound Chris' sailor outfit to be one of the \"silliest\" in the franchise, while recognizing that \"never before has Chris looked sexier\", further highlighting his shirtless warrior outfit fromResident Evil 5.Conversely, Matt Liebl ofGameZonesaid that seeing Chris' \"skimpy\" sailor outfit inResident Evil: Revelationsis \"weird to see\". Notes References External links Media related toChris Redfieldat Wikimedia Commons",
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_West_(Dead_Rising",
"Resident Evil 3: Nemesis Resident Evil 3: Nemesisis a 1999survival horrorvideo game developed and published byCapcomoriginally for thePlayStation. It is the third game in theResident Evilseries and takes place almost concurrently with the events ofResident Evil 2. The player must control former elite agentJill Valentineas she escapes from Raccoon City, which has been overrun by zombies. The game uses the sameengineas its predecessors and features3D modelsoverpre-renderedbackgrounds with fixed camera angles. Choices through the game affect how the story unfolds and which ending is achieved. Resident Evil 3was developed concurrently withResident Evil – Code: Veronicaand was conceived as a spin-off featuring a different protagonist. It was designed to have a moreaction-oriented gameplay than its predecessors and features a larger number of enemies for the player to defeat. It also introducesNemesis, a creature that periodically pursues the player throughout the game and that was inspired by theT-1000Terminator",
"theT-1000Terminator from the 1991 filmTerminator 2: Judgment Day. Resident Evil 3received positive reviews and sold more than three million copies worldwide. Critics praised the detailed graphics and Nemesis as an intimidating villain, but some criticized its short length and story. In the years following its release on the PlayStation,Resident Evil 3wasportedtoWindows,Dreamcast, andGameCubewith varying degrees of critical success. In particular, the GameCube version was criticized for its relatively high retail price and outdated graphics. Aremake, entitledResident Evil 3, was released in 2020. Gameplay Resident Evil 3: Nemesisis asurvival horrorgame where the player controls the protagonist,Jill Valentine, from athird-personperspective to interact with the environment and enemies. The player takes control of another character for a brief portion of the game.To advance, the player explores a city while avoiding, outsmarting and defeating enemies. The player can interact with the environment in several ways,",
"in several ways, such as opening doors, pushing objects or climbing obstacles. Scattered throughout the city are weapons, ammunition and other items, which can be collected and put in the player's inventory. Items can be examined, used, or combined with others.The inventory is limited to a certain number of slots, and the player must often move items from the inventory to a storage box located in special rooms to manage space. The player can use a variety of firearms to defeat enemies, ranging from pistols to arocket launcher. Aside from enemies, parts of the environment, such as explosive barrels, can be shot at, causing them to explode and damage nearby enemies. The game also introduces the ability for players to dodge attacks or perform a quick 180-degree turn to evade enemies.The player has a certain amount ofhealthwhich decreases when attacked by enemies. Health is regained with first aid sprays, as well as herbs, which can be used separately or mixed together to increase their healing effect. The game",
"effect. The game also features an ammunition creation system that allows players to create new ammunition from different varieties ofgunpowder.In addition to engaging in combat, the player must often solvepuzzlesthat focus on logical and conceptual challenges. During certain situations, the player will be put in a perilous situation, where they will be prompted to choose between two possible actions or suffer a certain penalty, if not instant death. These choices affect how the story unfolds and which ending is achieved.Additionally, a creature calledNemesisis encountered multiple times throughout the game as a recurringboss. Nemesis is considerably more powerful than the player and has the ability to use a rocket launcher as a weapon, dodge incoming fire, and pursue the player from one area to the next. During one of these encounters, the player can choose to either fight Nemesis or run until he is evaded.A variety of encounters are possible, with some being mandatory, and some varying in nature and",
"in nature and location based on certain choices made by the player. Even if evaded or defeated during one of these encounters, Nemesis will inevitably continue to pursue the player until the end of the game. Once the player completes the game, a mode called The Mercenaries - Operation: Mad Jackal is unlocked.In this mode, the player must control mercenaries that Jill encounters during the main game and run from one side of the city to the other within a limited amount of time and resources. However, the starting time limit given is insufficient to actually perform this task directly, and the player must continuously receive time extensions by performing certain actions such as defeating enemies, rescuing civilians and exploring hidden areas. Depending on the rank received and difficulty chosen, completing the main game may unlock alternate costumes for Jill and epilogue files that detail the activities of different characters following the events of the game.The Mercenaries mode and alternate costumes for",
"costumes for Jill do not need to be unlocked in theWindowsandDreamcastversions of the game. Plot On September 28, 1998, 24 hours prior to the events ofResident Evil 2, former Special Tactics And Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.) member Jill Valentine attempts to escape from Raccoon City. Most of the population has been transformed into zombies by an outbreak of theT-virus, the gruesomebiological weaponsecretly developed by the pharmaceutical company Umbrella Corporation. After fighting through zombies and mutants on her way to the Raccoon City Police Department, Jill runs into fellow team memberBrad Vickers, who is later killed by a new enemy. This creature, Nemesis-T Type, is a bio-organic weapon programmed to target the remaining surviving S.T.A.R.S. members, who had knowledge of Umbrella's experiments. After she evades Nemesis, Jill encounters three surviving members of the Umbrella Biohazard Countermeasure Service (U.B.C.S.):Carlos Oliveira,Mikhail Victor, andNikolai Zinoviev. Nikolai explains to Jill that a",
"to Jill that a rescue helicopter can be contacted if they manage to reach the city's Clock Tower to ring the bell. When they are finished repairing a cable car, Nikolai goes missing and is presumed dead. Nemesis then corners the remaining members of the group onto the car as they head to the tower. Mikhail sacrifices himself with a grenade, causing the car to crash into the tower's central courtyard and separating Jill and Carlos briefly. At the Clock Tower, Jill summons the helicopter by ringing the Clock Tower's bell before being confronted by Nemesis, which destroys the helicopter and infects Jill with the T-virus. Jill manages to temporarily defeat Nemesis but she falls unconscious due to the T-virus infection given by Nemesis. Carlos finds Jill and takes her to safety within the Clock Tower. Three days later, he finds a vaccine for Jill's T-virus infection in a nearby Umbrella owned hospital. He then returns and administers it to Jill, saving her. After she regains consciousness, Jill proceeds towards",
"proceeds towards the Raccoon Park to search for an escape route and enters the park caretaker's cabin. There, she runs into Nikolai, who reveals that he is a \"supervisor\" sent into Raccoon City to gather combat data on Umbrella's bioweapons. Nikolai retreats, and Jill later is confronted by the Gravedigger which is a massive worm-like creature. Jill defeats the monster and escapes to an abandoned Umbrella factory at the edge of town through the worms tunnels. Inside the factory, Jill meets up with Carlos, who tells her that the U.S. government is planning to launch a nuclear missile into Raccoon City to eradicate the T-virus infestation. After confronting Nemesis and grabbing a keycard needed to escape, Jill learns from the factory's control tower that the missile attack on Raccoon City has begun, with only a short time left before the city is destroyed. Depending on the path taken by the player, Jill's final encounter with Nikolai will differ. In one version of the events, Nikolai will attempt to start a",
"attempt to start a gunfight with Jill, only to be ambushed and killed by Nemesis. In another event, Nikolai will hijack Jill's intended escape chopper, and the player must either reason with Nikolai or destroy the helicopter. If Jill negotiates with Nikolai, he reveals that he has killed the other supervisors and boasts about collecting the bounty placed on Jill by Umbrella before escaping. Regardless of Nikolai's fate, Jill makes her way to the rear yard and confronts Nemesis one last time. After an intense battle, Jill defeats Nemesis with the help of a large prototype railgun before meeting up with Carlos and escaping the city via a helicopter. If the previous escape chopper was stolen by Nikolai, Jill and Carlos will instead meet up with S.T.A.R.S. Alpha Team's weapons specialistBarry Burton, who helps them escape in his helicopter. The nuclear missile vaporizes Raccoon City, and Jill swears revenge on Umbrella. A newscast then briefly details the destruction and offers condolences for the lost lives.",
"for the lost lives. Development Resident Evil 3was developed byCapcomand produced byShinji Mikami, who had directed the originalResident Eviland producedResident Evil 2.AfterResident Evil 2was released, Capcom was working on multipleResident Evilprojects, withHideki Kamiyadirecting what was planned to be the next main installment.This game would take place on a cruise ship and would involveHUNKattempting to bring back a sample of the G-Virus.However, Capcom cancelled the project after Sony announced thePlayStation 2, claiming that its development would not be completed before the PlayStation 2's launch.Because Capcom did not want fans to wait years for a newResident EvilonPlayStation, it promoted one of its side projects as the third main game while Kamiya's team moved ontoResident Evil 4. The selected project was a spin-off developed by an inexperienced team led by director Kazuhiro Aoyama.It was intended to introduce a new character who would escape from an infected Raccoon City. However, after the",
"However, after the promotion, Capcom madeResident Evilprotagonist Jill Valentine the main character and decided that Raccoon City would be destroyed.Unlike the majority of the early scripts in the series, the story was not created by Capcom'sFlagshipstudio but by internal Capcom writer Yasuhisa Kawamura, who had little experience withResident Evil.Kawamura played the original game to familiarize himself with its fictional universe.The story was proofread and sanctioned by Flagship to avoid continuity errors with other games, an issue that was also given attention in monthly meetings between all directors and producers. Resident Evil 3uses the samegame engineas its predecessors.The environments consist of2D pre-renderedbackgrounds while moving objects, such as enemies and some interactive elements, consist of3D polygongraphics.The developers chose this technique because having full 3D graphics would not allow them to create graphically rich and detailed environments.According to project supervisorYoshiki",
"supervisorYoshiki Okamoto, \"the number of polygons allocated for the enemies would not be sufficient. We did not want to have blocky, pixelated zombies.\"Interaction with the environment was improved so that the player could shoot objects such as explosive barrels to damage enemies.The developers also added more zombie varieties, which can take the form of policemen, doctors, and ordinary citizens, among others. Unlike previousResident Evilgames, which mostly took place inside buildings,Resident Evil 3takes place largely in the streets of Raccoon City. This allowed the developers to create more varied environments.Capcom introduced moreactionmechanics, which resulted in the addition of the 180-degree turn and a dodge feature to avoid attacks.Additionally, the developers designed the game so that up to nine enemies can appear at the same time, and improved theirartificial intelligenceto hunt the player up and down stairs.The Nemesis creature was inspired by the liquid-metalT-1000from the 1991 filmTerminator 2:",
"filmTerminator 2: Judgment Day.According to Mikami, \"I wanted to introduce a new kind of fear into the game, a persistent feeling of paranoia. The Nemesis brings that on in spades. When it disappears after the first confrontation, you live in constant dread of the next attack. The idea is to make you feel like you're being stalked.\" The game was developed concurrently with the Dreamcast version ofResident Evil – Code: Veronica. It was originally referred to asBiohazard 1.9orBiohazard 1.5because it takes place between the first twoResident Evilgames.AlthoughCode: Veronicais set afterResident Evil 2, Capcom wantedNemesisto be the third numbered game to keep the PlayStation games consistent.Development began with a team of 20 people, but the size gradually increased to between 40 and 50 staff members.UnlikeResident Evil 2, which features two discs with two different protagonists,Resident Evil 3is a single-CD game that centers on Jill Valentine.Capcom chose her as the only protagonist because she was \"the only",
"she was \"the only suitable character remaining\", noting thatClaire RedfieldandChris Redfieldhad already been chosen forCode: Veronica. Marketing and release Resident Evil 3was featured at theTokyo Game Showin March 1999.A playable version was available at theElectronic Entertainment Expoin 1999. At the time, the dodging feature had not been completed and was absent from the demo.To promote the game, Capcom included a briefdemoofResident Evil 3in the US shipments of their earlier game,Dino Crisis, which had a successful launch in Japan.Prior to the release of the game, Capcom spentUS$20million on advertisement campaigns forResident Evil 3andDino Crisis, as well as theNintendo 64version ofResident Evil 2.The marketing campaign included dedicated television advertising, print advertising, and incentives to the consumer.Adoublesoundtrack album, composed by Masami Ueda, Saori Maeda and Shusaku Uchiyama, was released on September 22, 1999.Anovelization,Nemesis, written byS. D. Perry, was published in 2000.",
"published in 2000. Resident Evil 3was released for the PlayStationvideo game consoleon September 22, 1999 in Japan and November 11, 1999 in North America. The first 500,000 units of the game included additional demo discs ofDino Crisis.The game was a commercial hit, selling more than 1 million units worldwide by early October.According toNPD,Resident Evil 3was the top-selling game for the PlayStation in the US during the first two weeks of November 1999.In Europe, the game was released on February 21, 2000 and became a bestseller in the UK,where it received a \"Gold\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association,indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies.As of June 2012, a total of 3.5 million copies of the PlayStation version had been sold. Reception Upon its release on the PlayStation console,Resident Evil 3received \"universal acclaim\", according toMetacritic.GameSpoteditor James Mielke considered it the most sophisticated and accomplishedResident Evilgame in terms of",
"in terms of graphics and gameplay.Official UK PlayStation MagazinecalledResident Evil 3\"a modern-day classic\", concluding that the game \"creates a believable environment, populates it with a host of evil adversaries and uses Raccoon City's urban sprawl to enhance the fiendish puzzles.\"Computer and Video Games(CVG) remarked that the game preserves the best features of its predecessors and adds \"some exciting new elements\".Similarly,Edgedescribed it as \"engrossing\", despite its similarity to its predecessors, and found the Mercenaries mode a valuable addition. The pre-rendered backgrounds were credited for their rich details and dark art style. According toIGNeditor Doug Perry, \"Crashed cars, rubbish and rubble, totally destroyed city streets, and scattered broken glass and debris, all are housed in a suburban area that truly looks devastated in the worst possible way.\"GameSpotfelt that the 3D modeling of Jill Valentine was greatly improved compared to the \"blocky\" models in the original game.The music and",
"game.The music and sound effects received similar praise, withGameProremarking that the game \"keeps the action hot by hiding what you shouldn't see, but telling you about it through the audio\".The introduction of the Nemesis creature was praised.Official UK PlayStation Magazinedescribed the first encounter as shocking, whileCVGsaid that the creature increases the tension level \"to an insane degree\" because the player never knows when he will appear. GameSpotpraised the prompted choices during certain points in the game as they encouragereplay value, but felt the game was too short compared toResident Evil 2, with only one disc and one protagonist.Perry praised the live-action-choice feature, stating that it \"speeds up the pace, increases the tension, and forces a decision that varies the following scene\".He found the 180-degree turn and dodge moves as welcome and necessary additions.In contrast,Official U.S. PlayStation Magazinecriticized the dodge feature as impractical and for relying too much on timing,",
"too much on timing, resulting in doing more harm to the player.GameRevolutionandOfficial U.S. PlayStation Magazinecriticized the simple premise and voice acting,whileNext Generationsaid that the game might be a bit tiresome for players familiar with its predecessors.Resident Evil 3was nominated forGameSpot's 1999 Adventure Game of the Year. Legacy Ports and re-releases Resident Evil 3wasportedto the Microsoft Windows and Dreamcast platforms in 2000, featuring enhanced 3D character models and higher resolution graphics.The Dreamcast version includes more alternate costumes than in the PlayStation version.Critical reception for these ports was not as positive.The Microsoft Windows version was criticized for not being optimized forkeyboard and mouseand for not letting players save their progress at any time.Critics noted that some of the pre-rendered backgrounds in the Dreamcast version of the game were not improved, resulting in them looking not as good as the PlayStation version's due to the Dreamcast's",
"to the Dreamcast's higher graphic fidelity.CVGgenerally praised the Dreamcast version, but admitted that the difference in graphical quality betweenResident Evil 3andCode: Veronicawas very large. AGameCubeversion of the game was released in 2003 as part of anexclusivityagreement between Capcom andNintendo.It received mixed reviews from critics and was mainly criticized for its relatively high retail price and outdated graphics.AllGamenoted that the fact that the game was not priced as a budget title could mislead buyers into thinking that it was an enhanced update similar to the 2002Resident Evilon the GameCube.GameProremarked that, while the game's graphics on the GameCube were not like those of the 2002Resident EvilorResident Evil Zero, they were better-looking than previous versions of the game.As of November 2003, 41,395 copies of the GameCube version had been sold in the U.S.Resident Evil 3was digitally released on thePlayStation Networkin Japan in 2008 and North America in 2009, allowingPlayStation",
"allowingPlayStation 3andPlayStation Portableusers to play the PlayStation version of the game viaemulation. In July 2024,Resident Evilwas released onGOG.com, with ports ofResident Evil 2andResident Evil 3: Nemesisexpected to come later.The game will get enhanced 3D character models and higher-resolution graphics on its release. Remake Aremake, entitledResident Evil 3, was released in 2020.The game is played from an over-the-shoulder,third-personperspective and runs on Capcom's proprietaryRE Engine.Although it features the same premise as the original game, many parts were rearranged in favor of a more focused story. Some features such as the original game's multiple endings, several locations and The Mercenaries - Operation: Mad Jackal mode were removed.The game received generally positive reviews from critics. Notes References External links"
] |
Which of the following albums came out on a date closest to the date that Nancy Kerrigan was assaulted? What about which album was closest to the date of Harding's plea deal? Awake by Dream Theater Inside Out by Fates Warning Promised Land by Queensryche Dreamspace by Stratovarius | Dreamspace' by Stratovarius. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault_of_Nancy_Kerrigan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awake_(Dream_Theater_album) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside_Out_(Fates_Warning_album) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promised_Land_(Queensrÿche_album) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamspace | null | null | null | null | null | null | Post processing | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault_of_Nancy_Kerrigan', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awake_(Dream_Theater_album)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside_Out_(Fates_Warning_album)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promised_Land_(Queensrÿche_album)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamspace'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault_of_Nancy_Kerrigan",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awake_(Dream_Theater_album",
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How much wider in centimeters is the painting that inspired a Stephen Sondheim musical than the 10th most expensive painting ever sold? | 211.2 cm | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_of_Stephen_Sondheim | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Sunday_Afternoon_on_the_Island_of_La_Grande_Jatte | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_paintings | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Standard_Bearer_(Rembrandt,_1636) | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_of_Stephen_Sondheim', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Sunday_Afternoon_on_the_Island_of_La_Grande_Jatte', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_paintings', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Standard_Bearer_(Rembrandt,_1636)'] | [
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"Works of Stephen Sondheim Stephen Sondheimwas an American composer and lyricist whose most acclaimed works includeA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum(1962),Company(1970),Follies(1971),A Little Night Music(1973),Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street(1979),Sunday in the Park with George(1984), andInto the Woods(1987). He is also notable as the lyricist forWest Side Story(1957) andGypsy(1959). Major works Revues and anthologies The following are revues of Sondheim's work as composer and lyricist, with songs performed in or cut from productions. Jerome Robbins' Broadwayfeatures \"You Gotta Have a Gimmick\" fromGypsy, \"Suite of Dances\" fromWest Side Storyand \"Comedy Tonight\" fromA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum. The 2010 revueClassic Moments, Hidden Treasureswas conceived and directed by Tim McArthur, first produced at theJermyn Street Theatre.Sondheim's \"Pretty Women,\" \"Don't Laugh,\" and \"Everybody Ought to Have a Maid\" are featured inThe Madwoman of Central Park West. Film and TV adaptations Other works Theatre Film and television Unproduced works for theatre Unproduced works for television Unproduced works for film Books Sondheim's 2010Finishing the Hatannotates his lyrics \"from productions dating 1954–1981. In addition to published and unpublished lyrics fromWest Side Story,FolliesandCompany, the tome finds Sondheim discussing his relationship with Oscar Hammerstein II and his collaborations with composers, actors and directors throughout his lengthy career\".The book, first of a two-part series, is named after a song fromSunday in the Park With George. Sondheim said, \"It's going to be long. I'm not, by nature, a prose writer, but I'm literate, and I have a couple of people who are vetting it for me, whom I trust, who are excellent prose writers\".Finishing the Hatwas published in October 2010. According to aNew York Timesreview, \"The lyrics under consideration here, written during a 27-year period, aren't presented as fixed and sacred paradigms, carefully removed from tissue paper for our reverent inspection. They're living, evolving, flawed organisms, still being shaped and poked and talked to by the man who created them\".The book was 11th on theNew York Times'Hardcover Nonfiction list for November 5, 2010. The sequel,Look, I Made a Hat: Collected Lyrics (1981–2011) with Attendant Comments, Amplifications, Dogmas, Harangues, Digressions, Anecdotes and Miscellany, was published on November 22, 2011. Continuing fromSunday in the Park With George, the book includes sections on Sondheim's work in film and television. MusicologistandLibrary of Congresscurator Mark Eden Horowitz conducted a series of in-depth interviews with Sondheim, published in 2003 asSondheim on Music: Minor Details and Major Decisions. References",
"A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte(French:Un dimanche après-midi à l'Île de la Grande Jatte) was painted from 1884 to 1886 and isGeorges Seurat's most famous work.A leading example ofpointillisttechnique, executed on a large canvas, it is a founding work of theneo-impressionistmovement. Seurat's composition includes a number ofParisiansat a park on the banks of theRiver Seine. It is held in the collection of theArt Institute of Chicago. Background Georges SeuratpaintedA Sunday Afternoonbetween May 1884 and March 1885, and from October 1885 to May 1886, focusing meticulously on thelandscapeof the parkand concentrating on issues of colour, light, andform. The painting is approximately 2 by 3 metres (6.6 ft × 9.8 ft) in size. Seurat completed numerous preliminary drawings andoil sketchesbefore completing his masterpiece. One complete painting, the study featured to the right, measures 27 3/4 x 41 in. (70.5 x 104.1 cm) and is on display in theMetropolitan Museum of Art. Inspired byopticaleffects andperceptioninherent in the color theories ofMichel Eugène Chevreul,Ogden Roodand others, Seurat adapted this scientific research to his painting.Seurat contrasted miniature dots or small brushstrokes of colors that when unified optically in the human eye were perceived as a single shade or hue. He believed that this form of painting, calledDivisionismat the time (a term he preferred)but now known asPointillism, would make the colors more brilliant and powerful than standard brushstrokes. The use of dots of almost uniform size came in the second year of his work on the painting, 1885–86. To make the experience of the painting even more vivid, at the paintings edge, he surrounded it with a frame of painted dots, which in turn he enclosed with a pure white, wooden frame, which is how the painting is exhibited at theArt Institute of Chicago. TheIsland of la Grande Jatteis located at the very gates ofParis, lying in theSeinebetweenNeuillyandLevallois-Perret, a short distance from whereLa Défensebusiness district currently stands. Although for many years it was an industrial site, it has become the site of a public garden and a housing development. When Seurat began the painting in 1884, the island was a bucolic retreat far from the urban center. The painting was first exhibited at the eighth (and last) Impressionist exhibition in May 1886, then in August 1886, dominating the second Salon of theSociété des Artistes Indépendants, of which Seurat had been a founder in 1884.Seurat was extremely disciplined, always serious, and private to the point of secretiveness—for the most part, steering his own steady course. As a painter, he wanted to make a difference in the history of art. WithLa Grande Jatte, Seurat was immediately acknowledged as the leader of a new and rebellious form of Impressionism calledNeo-Impressionism. Interpretation Seurat's painting was a mirror impression of his own painting,Bathers at Asnières, completed shortly before, in 1884. Whereas the bathers in that earlier painting are doused in light, almost every figure onLa Grande Jatteappears to be cast in shadow, either under trees or an umbrella, or from another person. For Parisians, Sunday was the day to escape the heat of the city and head for the shade of the trees and the cool breezes that came off the river. And at first glance, the viewer sees many different people relaxing in a park by the river. On the right, a fashionable couple, the woman with the sunshade and the man in his top hat, are on a stroll. On the left, another woman who is also well dressed extends her fishing pole over the water. There is a small man with the black hat and thin cane looking at the river, and a whitedogwith a brown head, a woman knitting, a man playing a trumpet, two soldiers standing at attention as the musician plays, and a woman hunched under an orange umbrella. Seurat also painted a man with a pipe, a woman under a parasol in a boat filled with rowers, and a couple admiring their infant child. Some of the characters are doing curious things. The lady on the right side has apet monkeyon a leash. A lady on the left near the river bank is fishing. The area was known at the time as being a place to procureprostitutesamong the bourgeoisie, a likely allusion of the otherwise odd \"fishing\" rod. In the painting's center stands a little girl dressed in white (who is not in a shadow), who stares directly at the viewer of the painting. This may be interpreted as someone who is silently questioning the audience. In the 1950s, historian and Marxist philosopherErnst Blochdrew social and political significance from Seurat'sLa Grande Jatte. The historian's focal point was what he saw as Seurat's mechanical use of the figures and what their static nature said about French society at the time. Afterward, critique of the work often centered on the artist's presumed mathematical and robotic interpretation of the meaning of modernity in Paris. According to historian of ModernismWilliam R. Everdell: Seurat himself told a sympathetic critic, Gustave Kahn, that his model was the Panathenaic procession in theParthenon frieze. But Seurat didn't want to paint ancient Athenians. He wanted 'to make the moderns file past ... in their essential form.' By 'moderns' he meant nothing very complicated. He wanted ordinary people as his subject, and ordinary life. He was a bit of a democrat—a \"Communard\", as one of his friends remarked, referring to the left-wing revolutionaries of 1871; and he was fascinated by the way things distinct and different encountered each other: the city and the country, the farm and the factory, the bourgeois and the proletarian meeting at their edges in a sort of harmony of opposites. The border of the painting is, unusually, in inverted color, as if the world around them is also slowly inverting from the way of life they have known. Seen in this context, the boy who bathes on the other side of the river bank atAsnièresappears to be calling out to them, as if to say, \"We are the future. Come and join us\". Painting materials Seurat painted theLa Grande Jattein three distinct stages.In the first stage, which was started in 1884, he mixed his paints from several individual pigments and was still using dull earth pigments such asochreorburnt sienna. In the second stage, during 1885 and 1886, Seurat dispensed with the earth pigments and also limited the number of individual pigments in his paints. This change in his palette was due to his application of the advanced color theories of his time. His intention was to paint small dots or strokes of pure color that would then mix on theretinaof the beholder to achieve the desired color impression instead of the usual practice of mixing individual pigments. Seurat's palette consisted of the usual pigments of his time such ascobalt blue,emerald greenandvermilion.Additionally, he used the then new pigment zinc yellow (zinc chromate), predominantly for yellow highlights in the sunlit grass in the middle of the painting but also in mixtures with orange and blue pigments. In the century and more since the painting's completion, the zinc yellow has darkened to brown—a color degeneration that was already showing in the painting in Seurat's lifetime.The discoloration of the originally bright yellow zinc yellow (zinc chromate) to a brownish color is due to the chemical reaction of the chromate ions to orange-coloreddichromate ions.In the third stage during 1888–89 Seurat added the colored borders to his composition. The results of investigation into the discoloration of this painting have been combined with further research into natural aging of paints to digitally rejuvenate the painting. Acquisition by the Art Institute of Chicago In 1923,Frederic Bartlettwas appointed trustee of theArt Institute of Chicago. He and his second wife, Helen Birch Bartlett, loaned theircollectionof French Post-Impressionist and Modernist art to the museum. It was Mrs. Bartlett who had an interest in French and avant-garde artists and influenced her husband's collecting tastes.Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jattewas purchased on the advice of the Art Institute of Chicago's curatorial staff in 1924. In conceptual artistDon Celender's 1974–75 bookObservation and Scholarship Examination for Art Historians, Museum Directors, Artists, Dealers and Collectors, it is claimed that the institute paid $24,000 for the work(over $354,000 in 2018 dollars). In 1958, the painting was loaned for the only time, to theMuseum of Modern Artin New York. On 15 April 1958, a fire there, which killed one person on the second floor of the museum, forced the evacuation of the painting, which had been on a floor above the fire, to theWhitney Museum, which adjoined MoMA at the time. In popular culture The painting is the basis for the 1984 Broadway musicalSunday in the Park with GeorgebyStephen SondheimandJames Lapine, which tells a fictionalized story of the painting's creation. Subsequently, the painting is sometimes referred to by the misnomer \"Sunday in the Park\". InTopiary Park(formerly Old Deaf School Park) inColumbus, Ohio, sculptor James T. Mason re-created the painting intopiaryform; the installation was completed in 1989. The 1986John HughesfilmFerris Bueller's Day Offfeatured the painting during a scene at theArt Institute of Chicago. Related works by Seurat See also References Further reading External links",
"List of most expensive paintings This is a list of the highest knownpricespaid forpaintings. The record is approximatelyUS$450.3 million (which includescommission), paid forLeonardo da Vinci'sSalvator Mundi(c.1500). The painting was sold in November 2017,through the auction houseChristie'sin New York City. Background The most famous paintings, especiallyold masterworks created before 1803, are generally owned or held bymuseumsfor viewing by patrons. Since museums rarely sell them, they are considered priceless.Guinness World Recordslists Leonardo da Vinci'sMona Lisaas having the highestinsurancevalue for a painting. On permanent display at theLouvrein Paris, theMona Lisawas assessed at US$100 million on 14 December 1962.Takinginflationinto account, the 1962 value would be around US$1010 million in 2023. The earliest sale on the list below (Vase with Fifteen SunflowersbyVincent van Gogh) is from March 1987; with a price of £24.75 million (£87.9 million in 2023 currency). This sale tripled the previous record, and introduced a new era in top art sales. Before this, the highest absolute price paid for a painting was £8.1 million (£22.9 million in 2023 currency) paid by theJ. Paul Getty MuseumforAndrea Mantegna'sAdoration of the MagiatChristie'sin London on 18 April 1985.The sale of Vincent van Gogh'sSunflowerswas the first time a \"modern\" (in this case 1888) painting became the record holder.Old master paintingshad previously dominated the market.In contrast, there are currently only nine pre-1875 paintings among the listed top 89, and none created between 1635 and 1874. An exceptional case is graffiti artistDavid Choe, who accepted payment insharesfor painting graffiti art in the headquarters of a fledglingFacebook. His shares were of limited value when he was given them, but by the time of Facebook'sIPOthey were valued at around $200 million. The list is incomplete with respect to sales between private parties, as these are not always reported and, even if they are, details like the purchase price may remain secret. For example, on June 25, 2019, the American hedge fund managerJ. Tomilson Hillbought a recently rediscoveredJudith and Holofernes(1607) attributed toCaravaggio, two days before it would have been auctioned inToulouse.Though theLouvreMuseum had turned down the opportunity to purchase it for €100 million,the painting was estimated to sell for $110 to $170 million.The actual purchase price was not disclosed, because of a confidentiality agreement attached to the private sale.Another example is a 2019 sale ofThe Seated Zouaveby Vincent van Gogh. According to some sources, the painting had been sold by Argentine art collector Nelly Arrieta de Blaquier for $300 million,but the price was not confirmed by any of the parties involved. Vincent van Gogh,Pablo Picasso, andAndy Warholare the best-represented artists in the list. Whereas Picasso and Warhol became wealthy men, van Gogh is known to have sold only one painting in his lifetime,The Red Vineyard, for 400French francs(approximately $2,000 in 2018 dollars) in 1890, to the Belgian impressionist painter and heiressAnna Boch. Georgia O'Keeffeholds the record for the highest price paid for a painting by a woman. On November 20, 2014 at Sotheby's, theCrystal Bridges Museum of American Artbought her 1932 paintingJimson Weed/White Flower No. 1for US$44.4 million (equivalent to US$57.2 million in 2023). Among the listed top 89, only six are paintings by non-Western artists. Five are traditionalChinese paintingsbyQi Baishi,Wu Bin,Wang MengandXu Yang. In particular, Qi Baishi'sTwelve Landscape Screenswas sold for $140.8 million in 2017. The only non-Westernmodernartwork listed is that of the Chinese-French painterZao Wouki's oil paintingJuin-Octobre 1985, which was sold for $65 million in 2018.Not listed here in this list is Chinese painter Wang Shaofei'sThe High Sun, which was appraised for $74 million in 2017. List of highest prices paid This list is ordered byconsumer price indexinflation-adjusted value (in bold) in millions ofUnited States dollarsin 2023.Where necessary, the price is first converted to dollars using theexchange rateat the time the painting was sold. The inflation adjustment may change as recent inflation rates are often revised. A list in another currency may be in a slightly different order due to exchange-rate fluctuations. Paintings are listed only once, i.e., for the highest price sold. (£85.3) London Interactive graph Progression of highest prices paid This list shows the progression of the highest price paid for a painting since 1746. See also Notes References External links",
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Standard_Bearer_(Rembrandt,_1636"
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"Works of Stephen Sondheim Stephen Sondheimwas an American composer and lyricist whose most acclaimed works includeA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum(1962),Company(1970),Follies(1971),A Little Night Music(1973),Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street(1979),Sunday in the Park with George(1984), andInto the Woods(1987). He is also notable as the lyricist forWest Side Story(1957) andGypsy(1959). Major works Revues and anthologies The following are revues of Sondheim's work as composer and lyricist, with songs performed in or cut from productions. Jerome Robbins' Broadwayfeatures \"You Gotta Have a Gimmick\" fromGypsy, \"Suite of Dances\" fromWest Side Storyand \"Comedy Tonight\" fromA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum. The 2010 revueClassic Moments, Hidden Treasureswas conceived and directed by Tim McArthur, first produced at theJermyn Street Theatre.Sondheim's \"Pretty Women,\" \"Don't Laugh,\" and \"Everybody Ought to Have a Maid\" are featured inThe Madwoman of Central Park West. Film and TV",
"West. Film and TV adaptations Other works Theatre Film and television Unproduced works for theatre Unproduced works for television Unproduced works for film Books Sondheim's 2010Finishing the Hatannotates his lyrics \"from productions dating 1954–1981. In addition to published and unpublished lyrics fromWest Side Story,FolliesandCompany, the tome finds Sondheim discussing his relationship with Oscar Hammerstein II and his collaborations with composers, actors and directors throughout his lengthy career\".The book, first of a two-part series, is named after a song fromSunday in the Park With George. Sondheim said, \"It's going to be long. I'm not, by nature, a prose writer, but I'm literate, and I have a couple of people who are vetting it for me, whom I trust, who are excellent prose writers\".Finishing the Hatwas published in October 2010. According to aNew York Timesreview, \"The lyrics under consideration here, written during a 27-year period, aren't presented as fixed and sacred paradigms, carefully removed",
"carefully removed from tissue paper for our reverent inspection. They're living, evolving, flawed organisms, still being shaped and poked and talked to by the man who created them\".The book was 11th on theNew York Times'Hardcover Nonfiction list for November 5, 2010. The sequel,Look, I Made a Hat: Collected Lyrics (1981–2011) with Attendant Comments, Amplifications, Dogmas, Harangues, Digressions, Anecdotes and Miscellany, was published on November 22, 2011. Continuing fromSunday in the Park With George, the book includes sections on Sondheim's work in film and television. MusicologistandLibrary of Congresscurator Mark Eden Horowitz conducted a series of in-depth interviews with Sondheim, published in 2003 asSondheim on Music: Minor Details and Major Decisions. References",
"A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte(French:Un dimanche après-midi à l'Île de la Grande Jatte) was painted from 1884 to 1886 and isGeorges Seurat's most famous work.A leading example ofpointillisttechnique, executed on a large canvas, it is a founding work of theneo-impressionistmovement. Seurat's composition includes a number ofParisiansat a park on the banks of theRiver Seine. It is held in the collection of theArt Institute of Chicago. Background Georges SeuratpaintedA Sunday Afternoonbetween May 1884 and March 1885, and from October 1885 to May 1886, focusing meticulously on thelandscapeof the parkand concentrating on issues of colour, light, andform. The painting is approximately 2 by 3 metres (6.6 ft × 9.8 ft) in size. Seurat completed numerous preliminary drawings andoil sketchesbefore completing his masterpiece. One complete painting, the study featured to the right, measures 27 3/4 x 41 in. (70.5 x 104.1 cm) and is on display in",
"is on display in theMetropolitan Museum of Art. Inspired byopticaleffects andperceptioninherent in the color theories ofMichel Eugène Chevreul,Ogden Roodand others, Seurat adapted this scientific research to his painting.Seurat contrasted miniature dots or small brushstrokes of colors that when unified optically in the human eye were perceived as a single shade or hue. He believed that this form of painting, calledDivisionismat the time (a term he preferred)but now known asPointillism, would make the colors more brilliant and powerful than standard brushstrokes. The use of dots of almost uniform size came in the second year of his work on the painting, 1885–86. To make the experience of the painting even more vivid, at the paintings edge, he surrounded it with a frame of painted dots, which in turn he enclosed with a pure white, wooden frame, which is how the painting is exhibited at theArt Institute of Chicago. TheIsland of la Grande Jatteis located at the very gates ofParis, lying in",
"ofParis, lying in theSeinebetweenNeuillyandLevallois-Perret, a short distance from whereLa Défensebusiness district currently stands. Although for many years it was an industrial site, it has become the site of a public garden and a housing development. When Seurat began the painting in 1884, the island was a bucolic retreat far from the urban center. The painting was first exhibited at the eighth (and last) Impressionist exhibition in May 1886, then in August 1886, dominating the second Salon of theSociété des Artistes Indépendants, of which Seurat had been a founder in 1884.Seurat was extremely disciplined, always serious, and private to the point of secretiveness—for the most part, steering his own steady course. As a painter, he wanted to make a difference in the history of art. WithLa Grande Jatte, Seurat was immediately acknowledged as the leader of a new and rebellious form of Impressionism calledNeo-Impressionism. Interpretation Seurat's painting was a mirror impression of his own painting,Bathers at",
"painting,Bathers at Asnières, completed shortly before, in 1884. Whereas the bathers in that earlier painting are doused in light, almost every figure onLa Grande Jatteappears to be cast in shadow, either under trees or an umbrella, or from another person. For Parisians, Sunday was the day to escape the heat of the city and head for the shade of the trees and the cool breezes that came off the river. And at first glance, the viewer sees many different people relaxing in a park by the river. On the right, a fashionable couple, the woman with the sunshade and the man in his top hat, are on a stroll. On the left, another woman who is also well dressed extends her fishing pole over the water. There is a small man with the black hat and thin cane looking at the river, and a whitedogwith a brown head, a woman knitting, a man playing a trumpet, two soldiers standing at attention as the musician plays, and a woman hunched under an orange umbrella. Seurat also painted a man with a pipe, a woman under a parasol in a",
"a parasol in a boat filled with rowers, and a couple admiring their infant child. Some of the characters are doing curious things. The lady on the right side has apet monkeyon a leash. A lady on the left near the river bank is fishing. The area was known at the time as being a place to procureprostitutesamong the bourgeoisie, a likely allusion of the otherwise odd \"fishing\" rod. In the painting's center stands a little girl dressed in white (who is not in a shadow), who stares directly at the viewer of the painting. This may be interpreted as someone who is silently questioning the audience. In the 1950s, historian and Marxist philosopherErnst Blochdrew social and political significance from Seurat'sLa Grande Jatte. The historian's focal point was what he saw as Seurat's mechanical use of the figures and what their static nature said about French society at the time. Afterward, critique of the work often centered on the artist's presumed mathematical and robotic interpretation of the meaning of modernity in",
"of modernity in Paris. According to historian of ModernismWilliam R. Everdell: Seurat himself told a sympathetic critic, Gustave Kahn, that his model was the Panathenaic procession in theParthenon frieze. But Seurat didn't want to paint ancient Athenians. He wanted 'to make the moderns file past ... in their essential form.' By 'moderns' he meant nothing very complicated. He wanted ordinary people as his subject, and ordinary life. He was a bit of a democrat—a \"Communard\", as one of his friends remarked, referring to the left-wing revolutionaries of 1871; and he was fascinated by the way things distinct and different encountered each other: the city and the country, the farm and the factory, the bourgeois and the proletarian meeting at their edges in a sort of harmony of opposites. The border of the painting is, unusually, in inverted color, as if the world around them is also slowly inverting from the way of life they have known. Seen in this context, the boy who bathes on the other side of the river bank",
"of the river bank atAsnièresappears to be calling out to them, as if to say, \"We are the future. Come and join us\". Painting materials Seurat painted theLa Grande Jattein three distinct stages.In the first stage, which was started in 1884, he mixed his paints from several individual pigments and was still using dull earth pigments such asochreorburnt sienna. In the second stage, during 1885 and 1886, Seurat dispensed with the earth pigments and also limited the number of individual pigments in his paints. This change in his palette was due to his application of the advanced color theories of his time. His intention was to paint small dots or strokes of pure color that would then mix on theretinaof the beholder to achieve the desired color impression instead of the usual practice of mixing individual pigments. Seurat's palette consisted of the usual pigments of his time such ascobalt blue,emerald greenandvermilion.Additionally, he used the then new pigment zinc yellow (zinc chromate), predominantly for yellow",
"for yellow highlights in the sunlit grass in the middle of the painting but also in mixtures with orange and blue pigments. In the century and more since the painting's completion, the zinc yellow has darkened to brown—a color degeneration that was already showing in the painting in Seurat's lifetime.The discoloration of the originally bright yellow zinc yellow (zinc chromate) to a brownish color is due to the chemical reaction of the chromate ions to orange-coloreddichromate ions.In the third stage during 1888–89 Seurat added the colored borders to his composition. The results of investigation into the discoloration of this painting have been combined with further research into natural aging of paints to digitally rejuvenate the painting. Acquisition by the Art Institute of Chicago In 1923,Frederic Bartlettwas appointed trustee of theArt Institute of Chicago. He and his second wife, Helen Birch Bartlett, loaned theircollectionof French Post-Impressionist and Modernist art to the museum. It was Mrs. Bartlett",
"was Mrs. Bartlett who had an interest in French and avant-garde artists and influenced her husband's collecting tastes.Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jattewas purchased on the advice of the Art Institute of Chicago's curatorial staff in 1924. In conceptual artistDon Celender's 1974–75 bookObservation and Scholarship Examination for Art Historians, Museum Directors, Artists, Dealers and Collectors, it is claimed that the institute paid $24,000 for the work(over $354,000 in 2018 dollars). In 1958, the painting was loaned for the only time, to theMuseum of Modern Artin New York. On 15 April 1958, a fire there, which killed one person on the second floor of the museum, forced the evacuation of the painting, which had been on a floor above the fire, to theWhitney Museum, which adjoined MoMA at the time. In popular culture The painting is the basis for the 1984 Broadway musicalSunday in the Park with GeorgebyStephen SondheimandJames Lapine, which tells a fictionalized story of the painting's creation.",
"creation. Subsequently, the painting is sometimes referred to by the misnomer \"Sunday in the Park\". InTopiary Park(formerly Old Deaf School Park) inColumbus, Ohio, sculptor James T. Mason re-created the painting intopiaryform; the installation was completed in 1989. The 1986John HughesfilmFerris Bueller's Day Offfeatured the painting during a scene at theArt Institute of Chicago. Related works by Seurat See also References Further reading External links",
"List of most expensive paintings This is a list of the highest knownpricespaid forpaintings. The record is approximatelyUS$450.3 million (which includescommission), paid forLeonardo da Vinci'sSalvator Mundi(c.1500). The painting was sold in November 2017,through the auction houseChristie'sin New York City. Background The most famous paintings, especiallyold masterworks created before 1803, are generally owned or held bymuseumsfor viewing by patrons. Since museums rarely sell them, they are considered priceless.Guinness World Recordslists Leonardo da Vinci'sMona Lisaas having the highestinsurancevalue for a painting. On permanent display at theLouvrein Paris, theMona Lisawas assessed at US$100 million on 14 December 1962.Takinginflationinto account, the 1962 value would be around US$1010 million in 2023. The earliest sale on the list below (Vase with Fifteen SunflowersbyVincent van Gogh) is from March 1987; with a price of £24.75 million (£87.9 million in 2023 currency). This sale tripled the previous record,",
"previous record, and introduced a new era in top art sales. Before this, the highest absolute price paid for a painting was £8.1 million (£22.9 million in 2023 currency) paid by theJ. Paul Getty MuseumforAndrea Mantegna'sAdoration of the MagiatChristie'sin London on 18 April 1985.The sale of Vincent van Gogh'sSunflowerswas the first time a \"modern\" (in this case 1888) painting became the record holder.Old master paintingshad previously dominated the market.In contrast, there are currently only nine pre-1875 paintings among the listed top 89, and none created between 1635 and 1874. An exceptional case is graffiti artistDavid Choe, who accepted payment insharesfor painting graffiti art in the headquarters of a fledglingFacebook. His shares were of limited value when he was given them, but by the time of Facebook'sIPOthey were valued at around $200 million. The list is incomplete with respect to sales between private parties, as these are not always reported and, even if they are, details like the purchase",
"like the purchase price may remain secret. For example, on June 25, 2019, the American hedge fund managerJ. Tomilson Hillbought a recently rediscoveredJudith and Holofernes(1607) attributed toCaravaggio, two days before it would have been auctioned inToulouse.Though theLouvreMuseum had turned down the opportunity to purchase it for €100 million,the painting was estimated to sell for $110 to $170 million.The actual purchase price was not disclosed, because of a confidentiality agreement attached to the private sale.Another example is a 2019 sale ofThe Seated Zouaveby Vincent van Gogh. According to some sources, the painting had been sold by Argentine art collector Nelly Arrieta de Blaquier for $300 million,but the price was not confirmed by any of the parties involved. Vincent van Gogh,Pablo Picasso, andAndy Warholare the best-represented artists in the list. Whereas Picasso and Warhol became wealthy men, van Gogh is known to have sold only one painting in his lifetime,The Red Vineyard, for 400French",
"for 400French francs(approximately $2,000 in 2018 dollars) in 1890, to the Belgian impressionist painter and heiressAnna Boch. Georgia O'Keeffeholds the record for the highest price paid for a painting by a woman. On November 20, 2014 at Sotheby's, theCrystal Bridges Museum of American Artbought her 1932 paintingJimson Weed/White Flower No. 1for US$44.4 million (equivalent to US$57.2 million in 2023). Among the listed top 89, only six are paintings by non-Western artists. Five are traditionalChinese paintingsbyQi Baishi,Wu Bin,Wang MengandXu Yang. In particular, Qi Baishi'sTwelve Landscape Screenswas sold for $140.8 million in 2017. The only non-Westernmodernartwork listed is that of the Chinese-French painterZao Wouki's oil paintingJuin-Octobre 1985, which was sold for $65 million in 2018.Not listed here in this list is Chinese painter Wang Shaofei'sThe High Sun, which was appraised for $74 million in 2017. List of highest prices paid This list is ordered byconsumer price indexinflation-adjusted value (in",
"value (in bold) in millions ofUnited States dollarsin 2023.Where necessary, the price is first converted to dollars using theexchange rateat the time the painting was sold. The inflation adjustment may change as recent inflation rates are often revised. A list in another currency may be in a slightly different order due to exchange-rate fluctuations. Paintings are listed only once, i.e., for the highest price sold. (£85.3) London Interactive graph Progression of highest prices paid This list shows the progression of the highest price paid for a painting since 1746. See also Notes References External links",
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The manager Pep Guardiola won the Premier League four years in a row with a football club whose owners are from a country whose main export in 2009 was which raw material? | Oil. ('Oil' is fine here but related words from the Wikipedia article (link 6) are also acceptable, such as 'petroleum') | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pep_Guardiola | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Football_Group | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Dhabi_United_Group | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pep_Guardiola', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C.', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Football_Group', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Dhabi_United_Group', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates'] | [
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"Manchester City F.C. Manchester City Football Club, commonly referred to asManchester City,Man Cityor simplyCity,is a professionalfootballclub based inManchester, England. The club competes in thePremier League, the top tier ofEnglish football. Founded in 1880 asSt. Mark's (West Gorton), they becameArdwick Association Football Clubin 1887 andManchester Cityin 1894. The club's home ground is theCity of Manchester Stadiumin east Manchester, to which they moved in 2003, having played atMaine Roadsince 1923. Manchester City adopted theirsky bluehome shirts in 1894, the first season with the current name.Over the course of its history, the club has won 10league titles, sevenFA Cups, eightLeague Cups, sevenFA Community Shields, oneUEFA Champions League, oneEuropean Cup Winners' Cup, oneUEFA Super Cupand oneFIFA Club World Cup. Manchester City joined theFootball Leaguein1892, and won their first major honour, theFA Cup, in1904. The club had its first major period of success in the late 1960s and early 1970s, winning theleaguetitle,FA Cup,League Cup, andEuropean Cup Winners Cupunder the management ofJoe MercerandMalcolm Allison. After losing the1981 FA Cup final, Manchester City went through a period of decline, culminating inrelegationto the third tier of English football for the only time in their history in1998. They since regained promotion to the top tier in2001–02and have remained a fixture in the Premier League since2002–03. Manchester City received considerable financial investment both in playing staff and facilities following their takeover bySheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyanthrough theAbu Dhabi United Groupin August 2008.This started a new era of unprecedented success, with the club winning the FA Cup in2011and the Premier League in2012, both their first since the 1960s, followed by another league title in2014. Under the management ofPep Guardiola, Manchester City won the Premier League in2018, becoming the only team in the competition history toattain 100 pointsin a single season. In2018–19, theywon four trophies, completing an unprecedented sweep of all domestic titles in England and becoming the first English men's team to win thedomestic treble.This was followed by four consecutive Premier League titles in2020–21,2021–22,2022–23and2023–24, as well as the club's first-everChampions League finalin2021, which they lost toChelsea. The2022–23 seasonsaw Manchester City win their maidenEuropean Cupand complete thecontinental treblein the process, becoming the second English club to do so.The club is ranked first in theUEFA coefficient standingsas of 2023. Manchester City were listed in theDeloitte Football Money Leagueat the end of the 2022–23 season, making them the football club with the second highest revenue in the world, approximated at€825 million.In 2022,Forbesestimated the club was thesixth-most valuablein the world, worth$4.250 billion.Manchester City are owned byCity Football Group Limited, aholding companyvalued at £3.73 ($4.8) billion in November 2019 and majority-owned by theAbu Dhabi United Group. History Early years and first trophies City gained their first honours by winning theSecond Divisionin1899; with it came promotion to the highest level in English football, theFirst Division. They went on to claim their first major honour on23 April 1904, beatingBolton Wanderers1–0 atCrystal Palaceto win theFA Cup; the Blues narrowly missed out on aLeague and Cup doublethat season after finishing runners-up in theleague campaign, but they still became the first club in Manchester to win a major honour.: 32 In the seasons following the FA Cup triumph, the club was dogged by allegations of financial irregularities, culminating in the suspension of seventeen players in 1906, including captainBilly Meredith, who subsequently moved across town toManchester United.: 59–65A fire atHyde Roaddestroyed the main stand in 1920, and in 1923 the club moved to their new purpose-built stadium atMaine RoadinMoss Side. In the 1930s, Manchester City reached two consecutive FA Cup finals, losing toEvertonin1933, before claiming the Cup by beatingPortsmouthin1934.: 31–33During the 1934 run, the club broke the record for thehighest home attendanceof any club in English football history, as 84,569 fans packed Maine Road for a sixth-round FA Cup tie againstStoke City– a record which stood until 2016.The club won the First Division title for the first time in 1937, but were relegated the following season, despite scoring more goals than any other team in the division.Twenty years later, a City team inspired by a tactical system known as theRevie Planreached consecutive FA Cup finals again, in1955and1956; just as in the 1930s, they lost the first one, toNewcastle United, and won the second. The 1956 final, in which the Blues defeatedBirmingham City3–1, saw City goalkeeperBert Trautmanncontinuing to play on after unknowingly breaking his neck. First golden era and subsequent decline After being relegated to the Second Division in1963, the future looked bleak with a record low home attendance of 8,015 againstSwindon Townin January 1965.: 57In the summer of 1965, the management team ofJoe MercerandMalcolm Allisonwas appointed. In the first season under Mercer, Manchester City won theSecond Division titleand made important signings inMike SummerbeeandColin Bell.: 27–36The 1965-66 season also saw City field a Black player for the first time when Stan Horne made his debut on 22 September 1965 in an away game againstLeicester City.Two seasons later, in1967–68, City claimed theleague championshipfor the second time, beating their close neighbours Manchester United to the title on the final day of the season with a 4–3 victory at Newcastle United.: 37–56Further trophies followed: City won the FA Cup in1969and a year later triumphed in theEuropean Cup Winners' Cup, defeatingGórnik Zabrze2–1 in the1970 final. This was the club's only European honour until their triumph in the2022–23 UEFA Champions League.The Blues also won theLeague Cupthat year, becoming the second English team to win a European trophy and a domestic trophy in the same season. The club continued to challenge for honours throughout the 1970s, finishing one point behind the league champions on two occasions and reaching thefinalof the1974 League Cup.: 410–420One of the matches from this period that is most fondly remembered by supporters of Manchester City is the final match of the1973–74 seasonagainstarch-rivalsManchester United, who needed to win to have any hope of avoiding relegation. Former United playerDenis Lawscored with a backheel to give City a 1–0 win at Old Trafford and confirm the relegation of their rivals.: 70The final trophy of the club's most successful period of the 20th century was won in 1976, when Newcastle United were beaten 2–1 in theLeague Cup final. A long period of decline followed the success of the 1960s and 1970s. Malcolm Allison rejoined the club to become manager for the second time in 1979, but squandered large sums of money on several unsuccessful signings, such asSteve Daley.A succession of managers then followed – seven in the 1980s alone. UnderJohn Bond, City reached the1981 FA Cup finalbut lost in a replay toTottenham Hotspur. The club were twice relegated from the top flight in the 1980s (in1983and1987), but returned to the top flight again in1989and finished fifth in1991and1992under the management ofPeter Reid.: 68However, this was only a temporary respite, and following Reid's departure Manchester City's fortunes continued to fade. City were co-founders of thePremier Leagueupon its creation in1992, but after finishing ninth in its first season they endured three years of struggle before being relegated in1996. After two seasons in the First Division,City fell to the lowest point in their history, becoming the second ever European trophy winners to be relegated to their country's third-tier league after1. FC Magdeburgof Germany. Recovery and two takeovers After relegation, the club underwent off-the-field upheaval, with new chairmanDavid Bernsteinintroducing greater fiscal discipline.Under managerJoe Royle, City were promoted at the first attempt, achieved in dramatic fashion in theSecond Division play-off finalagainstGillingham.Asecond successive promotionsaw City return to the top division, but this proved to have been a step too far for the recovering club, and in2001City were relegated once more.Kevin Keeganreplaced Royle as manager in the close season, and achieved an immediate return to the top division as the club won the2001–02 First Division championship, breaking club records for the number of points gained and goals scored in a single season in the process.: 265The2002–03 seasonwas the last at Maine Road and included a 3–1 derby victory over rivals Manchester United, ending a 13-year run without aderbywin.Additionally, City qualified for European competition for the first time in 25 years viaUEFA fair play ranking. In the close2003–04 season, the club moved to the newCity of Manchester Stadium. The first four seasons at the stadium all resulted in mid-table finishes. Former England managerSven-Göran Erikssonbecame the club's first foreign manager when appointed in2007.After a bright start, performances faded in the second half of the season, and Eriksson was sacked on 2 June 2008;he was replaced byMark Hughestwo days later. By 2008, Manchester City were in a financially precarious position.Thaksin Shinawatrahad taken control of the club the year before, but his political travails saw his assets frozen.Then, in August 2008, City were purchased by theAbu Dhabi United Group. The takeover was immediately followed by a flurry of bids for high-profile players; the club broke the British transfer record by signingBrazilian internationalRobinhofromReal Madridfor £32.5 million.There was not a huge improvement in performance compared to the previous season despite the influx of money however, with the teamfinishing tenth, although they did well to reach the quarter-finals of theUEFA Cup. During the summer of 2009, the club took transfer spending to an unprecedented level, with an outlay of over £100 million on playersGareth Barry,Roque Santa Cruz,Kolo Touré,Emmanuel Adebayor,Carlos Tevez, andJoleon Lescott.In December 2009, Mark Hughes – who had been hired shortly before the change in ownership but was originally retained by the new board – was replaced as manager byRoberto Mancini.City finished theseasonin fifth position in thePremier League, narrowly missing out on a place in theChampions Leaguebut qualifying for theUEFA Europa League. The second golden era and continued success under Pep Guardiola Continued investment in players followed in successive seasons, and results began to match the upturn in player quality. City reached theFA Cup finalin 2011, their first major final in over 30 years, after defeating derby rivals Manchester United in the semi-finals,the first time they had knocked their rival out of a cup competition since 1975. The Blues defeatedStoke City1–0 in the final, securing their fifth FA Cup and the club's first major trophy since winning the 1976 League Cup. On the last day of the2010–11 season, City beat outArsenalfor the third place, thereby securing qualification directly into the Champions League group stage. Strong performances continued to follow in the2011–12 season, including a 5–1 victory over Tottenham atWhite Hart Laneand a record-equalling6–1 winover Manchester United atOld Trafford, but a poor run of form in the second half of the season left City in second place, eight points behind United with only six games left to play. At this point, United suffered their own loss of form, dropping eight points in the space of four games, while City began a run of successive wins which saw both teams level on points with two games to go. Despite the Blues only needing a home win againstQueens Park Rangers, a team in the relegation zone, they fell 1–2 behind by the end of normal time. However, two goals in injury time –the second by Sergio Agüero in the fourth added minute– settled the title in City's favour, making them the first team to win the Premier League on goal difference alone. Thefollowing season, City were unable to replicate the previous year's success. After finishing second in theleague, eleven points behind Manchester United, and losing theFA Cup final0–1 to relegatedWigan Athletic,Mancini was sacked.He was replaced by Chilean managerManuel Pellegrini.In Pellegrini'sfirst yearin charge, City won theLeague Cupand regained thePremier League titleon the last matchday of the season.The team's league form then slowly declined over the next couple of years, as the Blues finished second in2014–15and then dropped to fourth in2015–16, although the2015–16 seasonwould see City winanother League Cup titleand reach theChampions Leaguesemi-finals for the first time. Pep Guardiola, former head coach ofBarcelonaandBayern Munich, was confirmed to become Manchester City's new manager on 1 February 2016,with the announcement having been made several months before Manuel Pellegrini left his position. Guardiola'sfirst seasonin Manchester would end trophyless, with the Blues placing third in theleaguestandings,but thefollowing seasonproved far more successful, as City won thePremier Leaguetitle with the highest points total in history and broke numerous otherclubandEnglish league recordsalong the way. This would prove to be the start of a period of unprecedented success for Manchester City under Guardiola. Between the 2017–18 and2023–24 Premier Leagueseasons, City won six out of possible seven league titles, only finishing second behindLiverpoolin the2019–20 season.Guardiola also guided the Blues to silverware in domestic cup competitions, highlighted by four consecutive League Cup triumphs in 2018–2021.During the2018–19 season, City completed an unprecedenteddomestic trebleof English men's titles.Apart from winning all three of the major English football tournaments, they also won theCommunity Shield, the first time any team has ever held all four of England's primary football trophies at the same time.On the continental stage, the club achieved breakthrough in2020–21, reaching their first-everChampions League final.In an all-English affair, City lost 0–1 toChelseaat theEstádio do DragãoinPorto. The2022–23 seasonturned out to be the greatest in the club's history, as Manchester City won their third consecutive Premier League title, theFA Cup finalagainst rivals Manchester United, and their maidenChampions League titleat theAtatürk Olympic StadiuminIstanbulagainstInter Milan, thereby assembling a rare feat – thecontinental treble. The road to the Champions League victory included wins over European giants Bayern Munich, who were defeated 4–1 on aggregate,and Real Madrid, who suffered a 1–5 aggregate loss at the hands of City.The followingseasonsaw less success for Manchester City, yet they became the first English men's club to win four consecutive league titles, and prior to that the2023 UEFA Super Cupand the2023 FIFA Club World Cup. Manchester City's era of sustained competitive excellence coincided with charges of breachingFinancial Fair Play(FFP) regulations. In 2020, theCourt of Arbitration for Sport(CAS) ruled that sanctions placed on the club byUEFAwere not justified, overturning City's two-year European ban.In 2023, the Premier League announced its own investigation of the allegations levied against Manchester City, charging the club with 115 breaches of its FFP rules up to the 2017–18 season.In 2024, Manchester City initiated legal action against the Premier League. The club claims that the league's Associated Party Transaction rules are unlawful and are seeking damages from the league. League history Club badge and colours Manchester City's home colours are sky blue and white. Traditional awaykitcolours have been either maroon or (from the 1960s) red and black; however, in recent years several colours have been used. The origins of the club's home colours are unclear, but there is evidence that the club has worn blue since 1892 or earlier. A booklet entitledFamous Football Clubs – Manchester Citypublished in the 1940s indicates that West Gorton (St. Marks) originally played in scarlet and black, and reports dating from 1884 describe the team wearing black jerseys bearing a white cross, showing the club's origins as a church side.: 14–15The infrequent yet recurrent use of red and black away colours comes from former assistant managerMalcolm Allison's belief that adopting the colours ofAC Milanwould inspire City to glory.Allison's theory seemingly took effect, with City winning the1969 FA Cup final,1970 League Cup final, and1970 Cup Winners' Cup finalin red and black stripes as opposed to the club's home kit of sky blue. City had previously worn three otherbadgeson their shirts, prior to their current badge being implemented in 2016. The first, introduced in 1970, was based on designs which had been used on official club documentation since the mid-1960s. It consisted of a circular badge which used the same shield as the present badge (including a ship, based on theCity of Manchester coat of arms), inside a circle bearing the name of the club. In 1972, this was replaced by a variation which replaced the lower half of the shield with the red rose of Lancashire. In 1976, aheraldic badgewas granted by theCollege of Armsto theEnglish Football Leaguefor use by City. The badge consisted of the familiar ship above a red rose but on a circular device instead of a shield (blazoned as \"A roundel per fess azure and argent in chief a three masted ship sails set pennons flying or in base a rose gules barbed and seeded proper\"). On occasions when Manchester City played in a major cup final, the club wore shirts bearing the City of Manchester coat of arms, as a symbol of pride in representing the city at a major event. This practice originated from a time when the players' shirts did not normally bear a badge of any kind.: 21The club has since abandoned the practice; for the2011 FA Cup final, its first in the 21st century, City used the usual badge with a special legend, but the Manchester coat of arms was included as a small monochrome logo in the numbers on the back of players' shirts. A new club badge was adopted in 1997, as a result of the previous badge being ineligible for registration as a trademark. This badge was based on thearmsof the city ofManchester, and consisted of a shield in front of agolden eagle. The eagle is an old heraldic symbol of the city of Manchester; a golden eagle was added to the city's badge in 1958 (but had since been removed), representing the growing aviation industry. The shield featured a ship on its upper half representing theManchester Ship Canal, and three diagonal stripes in the lower half symbolised the city's three rivers – theIrwell, theIrkand theMedlock. The bottom of the badge bore the motto \"Superbia in Proelio\", which translates as \"Pride in Battle\" inLatin. Above the eagle and shield were the three stars, added for decorative purposes. On 15 October 2015, following years of criticism from the fans over the design of the 1997 badge,the club announced they intended to carry out a fan consultation on whether to discontinue the current badge and institute a new design.After the consultation, the club announced in late November 2015 the badge would be replaced in due course by a new version which would be designed in the style of the older, circular variants.A design purporting to be the new badge was unintentionally leaked two days early prior to the official unveiling on 26 December 2015 by theIPOwhen the design was trademarked on 22 December.The new badge was officially unveiled at Manchester City's home match againstSunderlandon 26 December. Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors Kit deals Players First-team squad Note: Flags indicate national team as defined underFIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. EDS and Academy The following players have previously made appearances or have appeared on the substitutes bench for the first team. Note: Flags indicate national team as defined underFIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Out on loan Note: Flags indicate national team as defined underFIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Retired numbers Since 2003, Manchester City have not issued the squad number 23. It wasretiredin memory ofMarc-Vivien Foé, who was on loan to the club fromLyonat the time of his death on the field of play while playing forCameroonin the2003 FIFA Confederations Cup. Note: Flags indicate national team as defined underFIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Club captains This is a list of City's officialclub captains, who are currently appointed via a vote of players and staff. Other players (vice-captains) have led the team on the pitch when the club captain is not playing or not available. Some players have been made captain on a one-off basis to celebrate or commemorate an event, e.g.Oleksandr Zinchenkocaptained the team in their2021–22 FA Cup fifth round tieatPeterborough Unitedin support of his country during the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Player of the Year Each season since the end of the1966–67 season, the members of theManchester City Official Supporters Clubhave voted by ballot to choose the player on the team they feel is the most worthy of recognition for his performances during that season. The following table lists the recipients of this award since 2000. Sources: Halls of Fame Manchester City Hall of Fame The following former Manchester City players and managers have been inducted into theManchester City F.C. Hall of Fame, and are listed according to the year of their induction: National Football Museum Hall of Fame The following former Manchester City players and managers have been inducted into theEnglish Football Hall of Fame(a.k.a. theNational Football Museum Hall of Fame), and are listed according to the year of their induction within the various categories: Last updated: 21 July 2021.Source:list of NFM Hall of Fame inductees Premier League Hall of Fame The following former Manchester City players have been inducted into thePremier League Hall of Fame. Inaugurated in 2020, but delayed for a year due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, the Hall of Fame is intended to recognise and honour players that have achieved great success and made a significant contribution to the league since itsfounding in 1992. Last updated: 22 April 2024.Source:list of PL Hall of Fame inductees Scottish Football Museum Hall of Fame The following former Manchester City players and managers have been inducted into theScottish Football Hall of Fame(a.k.a. theScottish Football Museum Hall of Fame), and are listed according to the year of their induction within the various categories: Last updated: 30 March 2011.Source:list of SFM Hall of Fame inductees Welsh Sports Hall of Fame The following former Manchester City players have been inducted into theWelsh Sports Hall of Fame, and are listed according to the year of their induction: Non-playing staff Executive Coaching Source: Notable managers Supporters Since moving to the City of Manchester Stadium, the club's average attendances have been in the top six in England,usually in excess of 40,000. Even in the late 1990s, when City were relegated twice in three seasons and playing in the third tier of English football (then theSecond Division, now theEFL League One), home attendances were in the region of 30,000, compared to an average of fewer than 8,000 for the division.Research carried out by Manchester City in 2005 estimated a fanbase of 886,000 in the United Kingdom and a total in excess of 2 million worldwide, although since the purchase of the club by Sheikh Mansour, and City's recent achievements, that figure has since ballooned to many times that size. Manchester City's officially recognised supporters club is the Manchester City F.C. Supporters Club (1949), formed by a merger of two existing organisations in 2010: the Official Supporters Club (OSC) and the Centenary Supporters Association (CSA).City fans' song of choice is a rendition of \"Blue Moon\", which despite its melancholic theme is belted out with gusto as though it were a heroic anthem. City supporters tend to believe that unpredictability is an inherent trait of their team, and label unexpected results \"typical City\".Events that fans regard as \"typical City\" include the club being the only reigning English champions ever to be relegated (in1938), the only team to score and concede over 100 goals in the same season (1957–58),or the more recent example where Manchester City were the only team to beatChelseain the latter's record-breaking2004–05 Premier League season, yet in the same season City were knocked out of theFA CupbyOldham Athletic, a team two divisions lower. In the late 1980s, City fans started a craze of bringinginflatableobjects to matches, primarily oversized bananas. One disputed explanation for the phenomenon is that in a match againstWest Bromwich Albion, chants from fans calling for the introduction ofImre Varadias a substitute mutated into \"Imre Banana\". Terraces packed with inflatable-waving supporters became a frequent sight in the1988–89 season, as the craze spread to other clubs (inflatable fish were seen atGrimsby Town), with the craze reaching its peak at City's match atStoke Cityon 26 December 1988, a game declared by fanzines as a fancy dress party.In 2010, Manchester City supporters adopted an exuberant dance, dubbedThe Poznań, from fans of Polish clubLech Poznańthat they played in theEuropa League.In 2022, Manchester City proposed the release of theConnected Scarf, that would contain a sensor tracking physiological and emotional data of the wearer, for supporters in 2023. Rivalries Manchester City's biggest rivalry is with neighboursManchester United, against whom they contest theManchester derby. Before theSecond World War, when travel to away games was rare, many Mancunian football fans regularly watched both teams even if considering themselves \"supporters\" of only one. This practice continued into the early 1960s but as travel became easier, and the cost of entry to matches rose, watching both teams became unusual and the rivalry intensified. A common stereotype is that City fans come from Manchester proper, while United fans come from elsewhere. A 2002 report by a researcher atManchester Metropolitan Universityfound that while it was true that a higher proportion of City season ticket holders came from Manchesterpostcodeareas (40% compared to United's 29%), there were more United season ticket holders, the lower percentage being due to United's higher overall number of season ticket holders (27,667 compared to City's 16,481). The report noted that since the compiling of data in 2001, the number of both City and United season ticket holders had risen; expansion of United's ground and City's move to the City of Manchester Stadium have caused season ticket sales to increase further. Over the last few years, Manchester City has also developed anotable rivalrywithLiverpool,currently considered one of the biggest in association football.Though the two clubs had been involved in a title race in the1976–77 season, Liverpool and City's modern rivalry began in the 2010s, with the Blues beating Liverpool to the2013–14 titleby just two points on the final day of the season.In thefinalof the2015–16 League Cup, City defeated Liverpool onpenaltiesafter a 1–1 draw. The two clubs met in European competition for the first time in the2017–18 Champions Leaguequarter-finals, where Liverpool won5–1 on aggregate, ultimately reaching thefinaland thenwinning the competitiona year later.In the2018–19 season, City again won the title on the final day, with the Blues' 98 points and Liverpool's 97 being the third- and fourth-highest Premier League points totals ever.Thefollowing season, Liverpool clinched the title, recording 99 points (the second-highest Premier League total ever after Manchester City's 100 in2017–18) to finish 18 points above runners-up City. The Blues then regained the title in2020–21and outgunned Liverpool in another closely-fought title race in2021–22, to finish with 93 points to Liverpool's 92. The success of the two teams in the 2010s and 2020s has led to the development of a rivalry betweenJürgen KloppandPep Guardiola, the managers of Liverpool and Manchester City, with the two previously having been the respective managers ofDer KlassikerrivalsBorussia DortmundandBayern Munichin theBundesliga.At the end of the 2018–19 season, Guardiola described his relationship with Klopp as a \"beautiful rivalry\" and called Klopp's Liverpool team \"the strongest opponents I have faced in my career as a manager\".In September 2019, Klopp hailed Guardiola for being his 'greatest rival ever', after both were nominated for theFIFA Men's Coach of the Yearaward in 2019, which Klopp ultimately won.In a 2019 survey, City fans answered that Liverpool, and not Manchester United, are the club's biggest rivals. Manchester City also have long established local rivalries withBolton Wanderers,Oldham Athletic, andStockport County, and more recent competitive Premier League rivalries withTottenham Hotspur,ChelseaandArsenal. Ownership and finances The holding company of Manchester City F.C., Manchester City Limited, is aprivate limited company, with approximately 54 million shares in issue. The club has been in private hands since 2007, when the major shareholders agreed to sell their holdings to UK Sports Investments Limited (UKSIL), a company controlled by former Thailand prime ministerThaksin Shinawatra. UKSIL then made a formal offer to buy the shares held by several thousands of small shareholders. Prior to the Thaksin takeover, the club was listed on the specialist independent equity market PLUS (formerly OFEX),where it had been listed since 1995. On 6 July 2007, having acquired 75% of the shares, Thaksin de-listed the club and re-registered it as a private company.By August, UKSIL had acquired over 90% of the shares and exercised its rights under the Companies Act to \"squeeze out\" the remaining shareholders, and acquire the entire shareholding. Thaksin Shinawatra became chairman of the club and two of Thaksin's children, Pintongta andOak Chinnawatbecame directors. Former chairman John Wardle stayed on the board for a year, but resigned in July 2008 followingNikeexecutiveGarry Cook'sappointment as executive chairman in May.The club made a pre-tax loss of £11m in the fiscal year ending 31 May 2007, the final year for which the club published accounts as a public company. Thaksin's purchase prompted a period of transfer spending at the club,in total around £30 million,whereas over the several previous seasons Manchester City's net spending had been among the lowest in the Premier League. A year later, this investment was dwarfed by an influx of money derived from the club's takeover. On 1 September 2008,Abu Dhabi-basedAbu Dhabi United Group Investment and Development Limitedcompleted the takeover of Manchester City. The deal, worth a reported £200 million, was announced on the morning of 1 September. It sparked various transfer \"deadline-day\" rumours and bids such as the club's attempt togazumpManchester United's protracted bid to signDimitar BerbatovfromTottenham Hotspurfor a fee in excess of £30 million.Minutes before the transfer window closed, the club signedRobinhofromReal Madridfor aBritish record transfer feeof £32.5 million.The wealth of the new owners meant that, in the summer of 2009, City were able to finance the purchase of experienced international players prior to thenew season, spending more than any other club in the Premier League. City Football Group Created in the 2013–14 season to manage the global footballing interests of theAbu Dhabi United Group,City Football Group(CFG) is an umbrella corporation owning stakes in a network of global clubs for the purposes of resource sharing, academy networking and marketing. CFG ownership Through City Football Group, Manchester City owns stakes in a number of clubs: Partner clubs Stadium TheCity of Manchester Stadiumin east Manchester, known as theEtihad Stadiumsince 2011 for sponsorship reasons, is on a 200-yearleasefromManchester City Councilto Manchester City. It has been the club's home since the end of the2002–03 season, when City moved fromMaine Road.Before moving to the stadium, the club spent in excess of £30 million to convert it to football use: the pitch was lowered, adding another tier of seating around it, and a new North Stand was constructed.The inaugural match at the new stadium was a 2–1 win overBarcelonain afriendly match.A 7,000-seat third tier on the South Stand was completed in time for the start of the2015–16 football season, increasing the stadium's capacity to 55,097. A North Stand third tier is in development, potentially increasing capacity to around 61,000. After playing home matches at five stadiums between 1880 and 1887, the club settled atHyde Road Football Stadium, its home for 36 years.A fire destroyed the Main Stand in 1920, and the club moved to the 84,000 capacity Maine Road three years later. Maine Road, nicknamed the \"Wembley of the North\" by its designers, hosted the largest-ever crowd at an English club ground when 84,569 attended anFA Cuptie against Stoke City on 3 March 1934.Though Maine Road was redeveloped several times over its 80-year lifespan, by 1995 its capacity was restricted to 32,000, prompting the search for a new ground which culminated in the move to the City of Manchester Stadium in 2003; it was renamed the Etihad Stadium in 2011. Honours Based on trophy count, Manchester City are one ofthe most successful teams in England. Their thirty-six major domestic, european and worldwide honours rank them fourth on the list of most decorated sides in England, ahead ofChelseawith 34. The club's first major trophy was the1904 FA Cup,though they had previously won three regionalManchester Cupsbefore that point.Their first top division league title came in the1936–37 season,with the firstCharity Shieldwon in the following August.City's firstLeague CupandEuropean trophyboth came at the end of the1969–70 season, the two trophies also constituting the team's first double of any kind.In the2018–19 season, City became the first team to claim all of the major English trophies available in a single season, winning not just thePremier League,FA Cup, andLeague Cup, but also theCommunity Shield. The1970 Cup Winners' Cupvictory remained City's only European trophy until their triumph in the2022–23 UEFA Champions League.They have reached the semi-finals of theChampions Leaguefour times overall, losing in2016, then winning en route to their first-everfinalin2021, losing in2022, and winning en route to their maidenEuropean Cup titlein2023. They are only the second English club to complete aContinental Treble, in the2022–23 season; and in2023–24became the first English club to win four consecutive league titles. Manchester City used to hold the record formost second division titles, having won the league on seven occasions. Man City's first victory was in1898–99, and the most recent in2001–02.The record was broken byLeicester Cityafter they clinched their eighth title in2023–24. Doubles and Trebles Club records See also References Notes Citations External links Independent websites",
"City Football Group City Football Group Limited(CFG) is a British-basedholding companythat administersassociation footballclubs. The group is owned by three organisations, of which 81% is majority-owned byAbu Dhabi United Group, 18% by the American firmSilver Lake, and 1% by Chinese firmsChina Media CapitalandCITIC Capital.The Abu Dhabi United Group is owned bySheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan,member of theAbu DhabiRoyal Family and Vice President of theUnited Arab Emirates. The group derives its name fromManchester City, its flagship football club, and acts as the club's parent company. CFG also owns stakes in clubs in the United States, Australia, India, Japan, Spain, Brazil, Uruguay, China, Belgium, France, Italy and Turkey. History Founded in 2013, City Football Group is the realisation of a business vision by formerBarcelonaEconomy Vice PresidentFerran Soriano. Soriano first conceived of the ideal of a global football entity while at the Catalan club, beginning with the creation of Barca-branded overseas academies.Soriano contactedMajor League SoccerCommissionerDon Garberabout creating a Barcelona-branded MLS franchise, and the pair progressed as far as looking into several locations to place the team,but ultimately these plans were curtailed when Soriano and seven other members of Barcelona's board chose to resign in protest of then-PresidentJoan Laporta's leadership. After a four-year break from football management, Soriano was hired in late 2012 to replaceGarry Cookas CEO ofManchester Cityfollowing the latter's resignation.Soriano revived his ambitions of creating a global football business entity, beginning by resuming dialogues with Garber.Their discussions resulted in the announcement ofNew York Cityas MLS' 20th expansion side less than one year later in May 2013. In the process of managing the creation of a second football team City Football Group was created,designed to be the holding company to which both Manchester City and NYCFC belonged. CFG expanded at the start of 2014 when it partnered withRugby leaguesideMelbourne Stormto acquire a controlling stake inA-LeaguefranchiseMelbourne Heartfor 12 millionAustralian dollars.The club would subsequently be rebranded to Melbourne City, and their badge changed as part of CFG's early attempts to synergise their investments with Manchester City as a brand,and the club's colours would slowly be changed to sky blue with their red-and-white stripes retained as away colours. In the weeks following their purchase of Melbourne City, CFG indicated their intentions of investing in women's football by rebranding Manchester City's female affiliate as Manchester City Women's Football Club,and successfully lobbied for the team to be added to the top tier of theFA Women's Super League, promising to invest in women's football on a scale never before seen in England. Later the following year, CFG would grow again with the purchase of a 20% in Japanese sideYokohama F Marinos, the traditional company team of group sponsorNissan. In April 2017, after a near three-year pause in its expansion, City Football Group announced the Uruguayan second-tier sideClub Atletico Torque,who would later be renamed Montevideo City Torque.Several months later, Torque would be followed in by Spanish second division clubGirona,a club with ownership links to incumbent Manchester City managerPep Guardiola. 2019 saw the beginning of an increase in CFG's activity. The purchase of Chinese third division clubShenzhen Peng City(known as Sichuan Jiuniu F.C. at that time)was followed towards the end of the year by a second venture in Asia, when the group bought a controlling stake inIndian Super LeaguefranchiseMumbai City.2020 similarly would see two club purchases in European football, first ofLommelof Belgiumand then ofTroyesof France,with both moves notably seeing the purchased clubs rescued from financial difficultiesand linked to the economic damages wrought by theCOVID-19 pandemic.In the same year they would also expand their business interests by taking sole control of US-basedfive-a-side footballbusiness Goals Soccer Centers, a business they had previously invested in, following the near-collapse of the company's owners due to an internal scandal. In March 2022, Dutch second-tier sideNAC Bredaannounced that following an investigation into the best bidders to sell the club's shares, the shareholders of the club had agreed to a sale to CFG.In response, the club's fans held protests both inBredaand alsoManchesterandLommel.A month later, a group of shareholders with key voting rights announced that, in light of the backlash, they had elected instead to sell their shares to a local consortium. Principles and interests Since its inception, commenters have drawn parallels between City Football Group and Ferran Soriano's ideas spelled out in his 2011 bookGoal: The Ball Doesn't Go In By Chance,in which Soriano remarked that the natural evolution of club brands was to expand globally, and that doing so could include the creation of franchise clubs in foreign leagues.His book continued to expound upon the notion that appealing to foreign fans who had no strongly-ingrained non-domestic allegiances was an important facet of business growth of sporting brands, and that giving those fans a domestic side to support alongside and affiliated to their European club could encourage more loyalty from them.This idea would be termed \"Disneyfication\" by ProfessorSimon Chadwick,an expert in Eurasian sport atEmlyon Business Schooland himself a confidant of Soriano. Branding and player development Early growth in the group focused on teams sharing a common identity and an associated brand, which aligned with the traditional identity of Manchester City and was viewed as a key way of helping the Manchester club build up its foreign support.This also matched Soriano's well-reported interest in placing City Football Group as a lynchpin in the opening-up of national markets in whichassociation footballhas not previously been able to secure a strong presence, through the operation of and investment in franchises in those countries. The first entity to join CFG was the newly created New York City, with the club announcing that they would sport the familiar sky blue kit with white shorts which Manchester City have traditionally been associated with,and the rebranded Melbourne City (originally named Melbourne Heart) similarly switched to sky blue after defeating challenges from fellow A-League clubSydney.With the purchase of Mumbai City and the renaming of Club Atletico Torque to Montevideo City Torque, five teams in the group feature the word \"City\" in their name, and similarly all five wear sky blue kits. NYCFC's circular badge style would also be mimicked by Manchester City, Melbourne City, Mumbai City and Torque.Following from these changes, it was reported that the company's aim was to own a team on each continent with the \"City\" brand in its name.However, they have aggressively defended the City brand such as issuing a cease and desist letter against the Chilean sideSantiago City FCfor using a club crest similar to Manchester City's. Developments within Manchester City's academy would ultimately lead to a shift in strategy and focus of the group. Efforts to continue their success in bringing through youth talent led to the buying of promising players in the early teenage years, many of whom would go on to be sold for a large profit. This prompted Soriano and CFG's executive management to change their ambitions to put more emphasis on purchasing smaller clubs in strong existing football markets, with the intention of turning them into specialists centres for acquiring and training future stars from their local areas. Collaboration between clubs One of the core philosophies of City Football Group since its inception has been the mutual supporting of clubs through combined scouting and player sharing. While virtually all large European clubs operate an international scouting network,financial demands make it impossible to access local knowledge in foreign countries to the same extent as a domestic club could. CFG clubs therefore provide invaluable services to each other by using their own local scouting networks to share information on players between clubs. With their combined knowledge, the group claims to have extensive information on half a million players around the world.Possessing such a network then allows the local clubs to sign players early in their development, safe in the knowledge that the range of clubs CFG owns means that they can be placed at any of a number of sides as their development continues and the need for other challenges arises.The player-sharing element of the City network was first evident with the high-profile transfer ofAaron Mooyfrom Melbourne City to Manchester City – an early case of utilising the network to support revenue generation– with the 2020–21 season seeing Manchester City send 14 foreign-sourced youth players out on loan, predominantly to other group clubs. In addition to internal player movements, CFG has also sought to foster movements of coaching staff within their network also; among the most notable relocations are French managerEric Mombaerts, who has worked with Yokohama F. Marinos, Melbourne City and Troyes,Manchester City Women managerNick Cushingtransferring to New Yorkand English coachLiam Manningtransferring from the NYCFC academy to take over management of Lommel's first team. The second of CFG's core philosophies regarding club collaboration is on- and off-pitch technical information sharing. Based around the tactics of Manchester City managerPep Guardiola– long coveted for the Manchester job by Ferran Soriano and Txiki Begiristain after their experience working with him in Barcelona– all of City Football Group's clubs are given access to extensive databases of Manchester City's tactics and coaching methods, enabling them all to follow the group directive to use the same style of football, a style occasionally referred to as \"the City Way\".This synergy of tactical style extends beyond their first teams to the academies and women's sections. In addition to this, the clubs also share other information, such as medical, performance monitoring and player management. Investment in women's football Four of City Football Group's ten clubs sport women's teams, with Montevideo City Torque expected to launch a women's team in 2021 and New York City having previously held discussions about an affiliation withSky Bluein 2014.In both Manchester and Melbourne, CFG (re)launched new women's sides in 2014 and 2015,promising to invest in women's football in unprecedent ways. In both cities, the women's teams would ultimately be given bespoke facilities which, in contrast to the standard for football clubs, shared training locations with their affiliated men's teams.Similarly, both cities would see returns for their investment, with Manchester City Women repeatedly finishing amongst the top two and winning a series of domestic trophieswhile Melbourne City's unprecedented investment in Australian women's football – an area which had previously been underfunded and largely forgotten in the country – earned the side plaudits for their forward-thinkingand would see their female side crowned Grand Final winners four times in five seasons. Esports Looking to capitalise on the growth ofesports, and for City Football Group to be seen as always being at the forefront of innovation, CFG made their first venture into digital gaming in June 2016 when they signed Kieran \"Kez\" Brown to represent Manchester City at FIFA tournaments and fan events, as well as to make digital content for their media profiles. Over the following years, CFG expanded their esports footprint as most of their clubs signed players to represent them inFIFAtournaments, with most clubs keeping onePlayStationplayer and oneXboxplayer on their books to represent them at all times. By early 2021, CFG would have a total of 16 professional esports players across their various clubs.In 2021, Manchester City became the first CFG club to expand beyond FIFA when they signed Aiden \"Threats\" Mong to represent them in Fortnite tournaments.Unlike the other CFG teams, Manchester City would also go on to create separate esports teams in Chinaand South Koreato compete in Asia-localised tournaments. In addition to having their own esports players, CFG have also collaborated with existing teams. In 2019, Manchester City announced a partnership withFaZe Clanwhich would see the two run various esports competitions and merchandising lines, as well as allowing City's and FaZe'sFIFAplayers to share facilities and train together.In 2022, CFG announced that it was sponsoring Blue United eFC, in a move which would see Blue United wear CFG-style sky blue shirts at competitive events. CFG-owned clubs UEFA CONCACAF AFC CONMEBOL CFG partner clubs Club Bolivar It was announced on 12 January 2021 that Club Bolivar had become the first partner club for the group.Club Bolivar is the most successful Bolivian club, having won 30 domestic titles since it was founded inLa Pazon 12 April 1925. The owner of the club,Marcelo Claure, is also part of the ownership group ofInter Miami CFalongsideDavid Beckham, as well as being COO ofSoftBank GroupwithMasayoshi Son(CEO of Softbank) as well as Jorge Mas and Jose Mas fromMasTecrespectively. Honours after partnership : División de Fútbol Profesional (1):2022-A Vannes It was announced on 17 February 2021 that Frenchfourth tier sideVanneshad become the latest partner club for the group.The two clubs were already linked after Vannes' President Maxime Ray had joined CFG to become a minority shareholder inTroyesas part of the 2020 purchase, though he agreed to have no operational role at Troyes as part of the takeover. Geylang International It was announced on 1 February 2023 thatSingapore Premier LeagueclubGeylang Internationalhad become the first Southeast Asian partner club for the group.The agreement is set to be an initial, highly targeted collaboration between both entities with the potential to evolve into a broader, more comprehensive strategic partnership in the future. İstanbul Başakşehir It was revealed on 18 February 2024 that TurkishSüper Ligclubİstanbul Başakşehirsigned an agreement with the group in order to improve their football strategy, recruitment, scouting and coaching methodology. Businesses Goals Soccer Centers On 25 July 2017, City Football Group signed a joint venture partnership withGoals Soccer Centres, a 5-a-side football pitch operator, to invest capital into the US operations of the company in order to expand across North America.On 3 February 2020, CFG purchased the remaining 50% to take full ownership of the joint venture– operating under the Americanised nameGoals Soccer Centers– following the near-collapse of their partner as a result of historic fraud allegations. See also References",
"Abu Dhabi United Group TheAbu Dhabi United Group for Development and Investment(ADUG;Arabic:مجموعة أبوظبي الاتحاد للتنمية والاستثمار) is aUnited Arab Emirates(UAE) basedprivate equitycompany.It is owned by SheikhMansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan,member of theAbu DhabiRoyal Family and Vice President of the UAE.Leaks of internal documents show that the Abu Dhabi government manages the accounts belonging to ADUG.ADUG insists it is separate from the Abu Dhabi government. The primary interest of the group is its 81% majority ownership ofCity Football Group, a worldwide organisation most notably controllingManchester City,Mumbai City,Melbourne CityandNew York City, as well as several other internationalfootballclubs. However, it also holds interests in various other endeavours outside of the sporting world with an extensive property portfolio in theUnited Arab EmiratesandManchester. City Football Group The Group was founded in the summer of 2008, as Sheikh Mansour looked to take over Manchester City Football Club from the former Prime Minister of ThailandThaksin Shinawatraand signed off the deal on 1 September 2008,with due diligence completed on 23 September the same year. Sulaiman Al-Fahimwas the public face of ADUG during the initial phase of the takeover - a larger-than-life figureoften described as the \"Donald Trumpof Abu Dhabi\".On completion of the takeover, Al-Fahim generated considerable attention in the footballing world with promises of grandiose spending plans to capture the world's greatest footballing talents.Although he did bring in the BrazilianRobinhofromReal Madridon the same day on which the takeover was agreed,one week after ADUG took control of the club Al-Fahim was removed from his roleto be replaced byKhaldoon al-Mubarak, who remains in position to the present day. In 2011, Manchester City qualified for theChampions Leagueand won theFA Cup, providing the club their first success in over three decades following ADUG's support.In 2012, the club won thePremier League, their first league title in forty-four years. Following the success of the Manchester club, ADUG began investment into other football clubs. After founding theMLSsideNew York Cityand purchasing theA-LeaguefranchiseMelbourne Heart(shortly afterwards renamed Melbourne City), it was deemed necessary to create a new infrastructure to manage the various worldwide footballing ventures, and to keep them separate from non-footballing business. For this purpose,City Football Groupwas created in 2014 to oversee all of the teams under their control,acting as holding company not only to the football teams but to several businesses designed to market football services to the wider market.In return, ADUG became the holding company for CFG. ADUG have diluted their shareholding the City Football Group on two occasions in 2015 and 2019 to the approximate value of £654 million.As of 2020, they own 78% of the City Football Group. Since July 2021, CFG has been managed under Newton Investment and Development LLC, another company wholly owned by Sheikh Mansour. Other business interests ADUG also have an extensive property portfolio in the United Arab Emirates and abroad.Aside from Manchester City, ADUG have amassed investments totalling nearly £1 billion inManchester, mainly in property and higher education sectors.Aside from purchasing assets for their own control, ADUG signed a ten-year partnership withManchester City Councilto revamp the east end of the city - not coincidentally the same area in which Manchester City are based - creating the Manchester Life Development Company in conjunction with the council in order to build 6,000 affordable houses in the area. Criticism According toHuman Rights Watch, ADUG's investment in Manchester City enabled Abu Dhabi to \"construct a public relations image of a progressive, dynamic Gulf state, which deflects attention from what is really going on in the country\". Manchester Citywas accused of receiving £30 million from an unknown figure from theUnited Arab Emirates, that was supposed to come from the sponsor. The £30 million payments are expected to be one of the 115Premier League's financial charges against Manchester City. The report also claimed that the payments were actually disguised equity funding that came from the Abu Dhabi United Group (ADUG), owned bySheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan, the vice president of the UAE. According to the report, duringUEFAdisciplinary hearing, the Manchester City’s lawyer named the unknown person as Jaber Mohamed, claiming that he is a businessman providing financial and brokering services in the UAE. See also References",
"United Arab Emirates in theArabian Peninsula TheUnited Arab Emirates(UAE), or simply theEmirates,is a country inWest Asia, in theMiddle East, at the eastern end of theArabian Peninsula. It is afederal,elective monarchycomposed ofseven emirates, withAbu Dhabias its capital.It shares land borders withOmanto the east and northeast, and withSaudi Arabiato the southwest; as well as maritime borders in thePersian GulfwithQatarandIran, and with Oman in theGulf of Oman. As of 2024, the UAE has an estimated population of over 10 million, of which 11% are Emiratis;Dubaiis themost populouscity and is an international hub.Islamis theofficial religionandArabicis the official language, while English is the most spoken language and the language of business. The United Arab Emirates'oiland natural gas reserves are the world'sseventhandseventh-largest, respectively.Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the country's first president, oversaw the development of the Emirates by investing oil revenues into healthcare, education, and infrastructure.The country has the most diversified economy among the members of theGulf Cooperation Council(GCC).In the 21st century, the UAE has become less reliant on oil and gas and is economically focusing on tourism and business. The UAE is considered amiddle power. It is also a member of theUnited Nations,Arab League,Organisation of Islamic Cooperation,OPEC,Non-Aligned Movement,World Trade Organization, andBRICS. The UAE is also a dialogue partner of theShanghai Cooperation Organisation. Human rights organisations consider the UAE substandard on human rights, ranking only 6.06 in thehuman freedom index, citing reports of government critics being imprisoned and tortured, families harassed by the state security apparatus, and cases offorced disappearances.Individual rights such as the freedoms ofassembly,association,expression, and the freedom of thepressare severely repressed. History Antiquity Stone tools recovered reveal a settlement of people from Africa some 127,000 years ago and a stone tool used for butchering animals discovered on the Arabian coast suggests an even older habitation from 130,000 years ago.In time lively trading links developed with civilisations inMesopotamia, Iran and theHarappan cultureof the Indus Valley. This contact persisted and became wider, probably motivated by the trade in copper from theHajar Mountains, which commenced around 3,000 BCE.Sumerian sources talk of theMagancivilisation, which has been identified as encompassing the modern UAE and Oman. There are six periods of human settlement with distinctive behaviours in the region before Islam, which include theHafit periodfrom 3,200 to 2,600 BCE, theUmm Al Nar culturefrom 2,600 to 2,000 BCE, and theWadi Suq culturefrom 2,000 to 1,300 BCE. From 1,200 BCE to the advent of Islam in Eastern Arabia, through three distinctiveIron Agesand theMleihaperiod, the area was variously occupied by theAchaemenidsand other forces, and saw the construction of fortified settlements and extensive husbandry thanks to the development of thefalajirrigation system. Islam The spread ofIslamto the northeastern tip of theArabian Peninsulais thought to have followed directly from a letter sent by theIslamic prophetMuhammadto the rulers ofOmanin 630 CE. This led to a group of rulers travelling toMedina, converting to Islam and subsequently driving a successful uprising against the unpopularSassanids, who dominated the coast at the time.Following the death of Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of thePersian Gulfthreatened to disintegrate, with insurrections against theMuslim leaders. CaliphAbu Bakrsent an army from the capitalMedinawhich completed its reconquest of the territory (the Ridda Wars) with theBattle of Dibbain which 10,000 lives are thought to have been lost.This assured the integrity of theCaliphateand the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under the newly emergingRashidun Caliphate. In 637, Julfar (in the area of today'sRas Al Khaimah) was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of theSasanian Empire.The area of theAl Ain/Buraimi Oasiswas known as Tu'am and was an important trading post for camel routes between the coast and the Arabian interior. The earliestChristiansite in the UAE was first discovered in the 1990s, an extensive monastic complex on what is now known asSir Bani YasIsland and which dates back to the seventh century. Thought to beNestorianand built in 600 CE, the church appears to have been abandoned peacefully in 750 CE.It forms a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity, which is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to 350 CE following trade routes. Certainly, by the fifth century, Oman had a bishop named John – the last bishop of Oman being Etienne, in 676 CE. Portuguese era The harsh desert environment led to the emergence of the \"versatile tribesman\", nomadic groups who subsisted due to a variety of economic activities, including animal husbandry, agriculture and hunting. The seasonal movements of these groups led not only to frequent clashes between groups but also to the establishment of seasonal and semi-seasonal settlements and centres. These formed tribal groupings whose names are still carried by modern Emiratis, including theBani YasandAl Bu FalahofAbu Dhabi, Al Ain,Liwa, and the west coast; theDhawahir, Awamir,Al Ali, andManasirof the interior; theSharqiyinof the east coast; and theQawasimto the north. With the expansion of Europeancolonial empires, Portuguese, English andDutchforces appeared in the Persian Gulf region. By the 18th century, the Bani Yas confederation was the dominant force in most of the area now known as Abu Dhabi,while the NorthernAl Qawasim(Al Qasimi) dominated maritime commerce. The Portuguese maintained an influence over the coastal settlements, buildingfortsin the wake of the bloody 16th-century conquests of coastal communities byAlbuquerqueand the Portuguese commanders who followed him – particularly on the east coast atMuscat,SoharandKhor Fakkan. The southern coast of the Persian Gulf was known to the British as the \"Pirate Coast\",as boats of the Al Qawasim federation harassed British-flagged shipping from the 17th century into the 19th.The charge of piracy is disputed by modern Emirati historians, including the current ruler of Sharjah,Sheikh Sultan Al Qasimi, in his 1986 bookThe Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf. British expeditions to protect their Indian trade routes led to campaigns against Ras Al Khaimah and other harbours along the coast, including thePersian Gulf campaign of 1809and the more successfulcampaign of 1819. The following year, Britain and a number of local rulers signed amaritime truce, giving rise to the termTrucial States, which came to define the status of the coastal emirates. A further treaty was signed in 1843 and, in 1853 thePerpetual Maritime Trucewas agreed. To this was added the 'Exclusive Agreements', signed in 1892, which made theTrucial Statesa British protectorate. Under the 1892 treaty, the trucial sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to the British and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the British without their consent. In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack. British maritime policing meant that pearling fleets could operate in relative security. However, the British prohibition of theslave trademeant an important source of income was lost to some sheikhs and merchants. In 1869, the Qubaisat tribe settled atKhor Al Adaidand tried to enlist the support of the Ottomans. Khor Al Adaid was claimed by Abu Dhabi at that time, a claim supported by the British. In 1906, the British Political Resident,Percy Cox, confirmed in writing to the ruler of Abu Dhabi,Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan('Zayed the Great') that Khor Al Adaid belonged to his sheikhdom. British era and discovery of oil During the 19th and early 20th centuries, thepearling industrythrived, providing both income and employment to the people of the Persian Gulf.TheFirst World Warhad a severe impact on the industry, but it was theeconomic depressionof the late 1920s and early 1930s, coupled with the invention of thecultured pearl, that wiped out the trade. The remnants of the trade eventually faded away shortly after theSecond World War, when the newly independentGovernment of Indiaimposed heavy taxation on imported pearls. The decline of pearling resulted in extreme economic hardship in the Trucial States. In 1922, the British government secured undertakings from the rulers of the Trucial States not to sign concessions with foreign companies without their consent. Aware of the potential for the development of natural resources such as oil, following finds in Persia (from 1908) and Mesopotamia (from 1927), a British-led oil company, theIraq Petroleum Company(IPC), showed an interest in the region. TheAnglo-Persian Oil Company(APOC, later to becomeBritish Petroleum, or BP) had a 23.75% share in IPC. From 1935, onshore concessions to explore for oil were granted by local rulers, with APOC signing the first one on behalf of Petroleum Concessions Ltd (PCL), an associate company of IPC.APOC was prevented from developing the region alone because of the restrictions of theRed Line Agreement, which required it to operate through IPC. A number of options between PCL and the trucial rulers were signed, providing useful revenue for communities experiencing poverty following the collapse of the pearl trade. However, the wealth of oil which the rulers could see from the revenues accruing to surrounding countries remained elusive. The first bore holes in Abu Dhabi were drilled by IPC's operating company, Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd (PDTC) at Ras Sadr in 1950, with a 13,000-foot-deep (4,000-metre) bore hole taking a year to drill and turning out dry, at the tremendous cost at the time of £1 million. The British set up a development office that helped in some small developments in the emirates. The sevensheikhsof theemiratesthen decided to form a council to coordinate matters between them and took over the development office. In 1952, they formed the Trucial States Council,and appointedAdi Al Bitar, Dubai'sSheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum's legal advisor, as secretary general and legal advisor to the council. The council was terminated once the United Arab Emirates was formed.The tribal nature of society and the lack of definition of borders between emirates frequently led to disputes, settled either through mediation or, more rarely, force. TheTrucial Oman Scoutswas a small military force used by the British to keep the peace. In 1953, a subsidiary ofBP, D'Arcy Exploration Ltd, obtained an offshore concession from the ruler of Abu Dhabi. BP joined withCompagnie Française des Pétroles(laterTotal) to form operating companies, Abu Dhabi Marine Areas Ltd (ADMA) and Dubai Marine Areas Ltd (DUMA). A number of undersea oil surveys were carried out, including one led by the famous marine explorerJacques Cousteau.In 1958, a floating platform rig was towed fromHamburg,Germany, and positioned over theUmm Shaifpearl bed, in Abu Dhabi waters, where drilling began. In March, it struck oil in the Upper Thamama rock formation. This was the first commercial discovery of the Trucial Coast, leading to the first exports of oil in 1962. ADMA made further offshore discoveries at Zakum and elsewhere, and other companies made commercial finds such as theFateh oilfieldoff Dubai and the Mubarak field off Sharjah (shared with Iran). Meanwhile, onshore exploration was hindered by territorial disputes. In 1955, theUnited Kingdomrepresented Abu Dhabi and Oman in their dispute with Saudi Arabia over theBuraimi Oasis.A 1974 agreement between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia seemed to have settled the Abu Dhabi-Saudiborder dispute, but this has not been ratified.The UAE's border with Oman was ratified in 2008. PDTC continued its onshore exploration away from the disputed area, drilling five more bore holes that were also dry. However, on 27 October 1960, the company discovered oil in commercial quantities at the Murban No. 3 well on the coast near Tarif.In 1962, PDTC became theAbu Dhabi Petroleum Company. As oil revenues increased, the ruler of Abu Dhabi,Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, undertook a massive construction program, building schools, housing, hospitals and roads. When Dubai's oil exports commenced in 1969, SheikhRashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, the ruler of Dubai, was able to invest the revenues from the limited reserves found to spark the diversification drive that would create the modernglobal cityof Dubai. Independence By 1966, it had become clear the British government could no longer afford to administer and protect theTrucial States, what is now the United Arab Emirates. BritishMembers of Parliament(MPs) debated the preparedness of theRoyal Navyto defend thesheikhdoms. On 24 January 1968, British Prime MinisterHarold Wilsonannounced the government's decision, reaffirmed in March 1971 by Prime MinisterEdward Heath, to end the treaty relationships with the seven trucial sheikhdoms. Days after the announcement, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, SheikhZayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, fearing vulnerability, tried to persuade the British to honour the protection treaties by offering to pay the full costs of keeping theBritish Armed Forcesin the Emirates. The BritishLabourgovernment rejected the offer.After Labour MPGoronwy Robertsinformed Sheikh Zayed of the news of British withdrawal, the nine Persian Gulf sheikhdoms attempted to form a union of Arab emirates, but by mid-1971 they were still unable to agree on terms of union even though the British treaty relationship was to expire in December of that year. Fears of vulnerability were realised the day before independence. An Iranian destroyer group broke formation from an exercise in the lower Gulf, sailing to theTunb islands. The islands were taken by force, civilians and Arab defenders alike allowed to flee. A British warship stood idle during the course of the invasion.A destroyer group approached the island ofAbu Musaas well. But there, SheikhKhalid bin Mohammed Al Qasimihad already negotiated with the Iranian shah, and the island was quickly leased to Iran for $3 million a year. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia laid claim to swathes of Abu Dhabi. Originally intended to be part of the proposed Federation of Arab Emirates, Bahrain became independent in August, and Qatar in September 1971. When the British-Trucial Sheikhdoms treaty expired on 1 December 1971, both emirates became fully independent.On 2 December 1971, six of the emirates (Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Sharjah and Umm Al Quwain) agreed to enter into a union named the United Arab Emirates.Ras al-Khaimahjoined later, on 10 January 1972.In February 1972, theFederal National Council(FNC) was created; it was a 40-member consultative body appointed by the seven rulers. The UAE joined theArab Leagueon 6 December 1971 and theUnited Nationson 9 December.It was a founding member of theGulf Cooperation Councilin May 1981, with Abu Dhabi hosting the firstGCC summit. Post-Independence period The UAE supported military operations by the US and othercoalition statesengaged in the war against theTalibaninAfghanistan(2001) andSaddam HusseininBa'athist Iraq(2003) as well as operations supporting the GlobalWar on Terrorfor theHorn of AfricaatAl Dhafra Air Baselocated outside of Abu Dhabi. The air base also supported Allied operations during the 1991 PersianGulf WarandOperation Northern Watch. The country had already signed amilitarydefence agreement with the U.S. in 1994 and one with France in 1995.In January 2008, France and the UAE signed a deal allowing France to set up a permanent military base in the emirate of Abu Dhabi.The UAE joined international military operations in Libya in March 2011. On 2 November 2004, the UAE's first president, SheikhZayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, died. SheikhKhalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyanwas elected as thepresident of the UAE. SheikhMohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyansucceeded Sheikh Khalifa as crown prince of Abu Dhabi.In January 2006, SheikhMaktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the prime minister of the UAE and the ruler of Dubai, died, and SheikhMohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoumassumed both roles. The first ever national elections were held on 16 December 2006. A number of voters chose half of the members of theFederal National Council. The UAE has largely escaped theArab Spring, which other countries have experienced; however, 60 Emirati activists fromAl Islahwere apprehended for an alleged coup attempt and the attempt of the establishment of anIslamiststate in the UAE.Mindful of the protests in nearby Bahrain, in November 2012 the UAE outlawed online mockery of its government or attempts to organise public protests through social media. On 29 January 2020, theCOVID-19 pandemicwas confirmed to havereached the UAE.Two months later, in March, the government announced the closure of shopping malls, schools, and places of worship, in addition to imposing a 24-hour curfew, and suspending allEmiratespassenger flights.This resulted in a major economic downturn, which eventually led to the merger of more than 50% of the UAE'sfederal agencies. On 29 August 2020, the UAE established normal diplomatic relations withIsraeland with the help of theUnited States, they signed theAbraham AccordswithBahrain. On 9 February 2021, the UAE achieved a historic milestone when its probe, namedHope, successfully reachedMars's orbit. The UAE became the first country in theArab worldto reach Mars, the fifth country to successfully reach Mars, and the second country, after anIndian probe, to orbit Mars on its maiden attempt. On 14 May 2022, SheikhMohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyanwas elected as the UAE's new president after the death ofSheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan. Geography The United Arab Emirates is situated in theMiddle East, bordering theGulf of Omanand thePersian Gulf, betweenOmanandSaudi Arabia; it is in a strategic location slightly south of theStrait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for worldcrude oil. The UAE lies between 22°30' and 26°10' north latitude and between 51° and 56°25′ east longitude. It shares a 530-kilometre (330 mi) border with Saudi Arabia on the west, south, and southeast, and a 450-kilometre (280 mi) border with Oman on the southeast and northeast. The land border with Qatar in theKhor Al Adaidarea is about nineteen kilometres (12 miles) in the northwest; however, it is a source ofongoing dispute.Following Britain's military departure from the UAE in 1971, and its establishment as a new state, the UAE laid claim to Iranian-occupied islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and the Lesser Tunbs, when Iran captured them during the British rule, resulting in disputes with Iran that remain unresolved.The UAE also disputes claim on other islands against the neighboring state of Qatar.The largest emirate,Abu Dhabi, accounts for 87% of the UAE's total area,67,340 square kilometres (26,000 sq mi).The smallest emirate,Ajman, encompasses only 259 km2(100 sq mi). The UAE coast stretches for nearly 650 km (404 mi) along the southern shore of thePersian Gulf, briefly interrupted by an isolated outcrop of the Sultanate of Oman. Six of the emirates are situated along the Persian Gulf, and the seventh, Fujairah is on the eastern coast of the peninsula with direct access to the Gulf of Oman.Most of the coast consists ofsalt pansthat extend 8–10 km (5.0–6.2 mi) inland.The largestnatural harboris at Dubai, although other ports have been dredged at Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, and elsewhere.Numerous islands are found in the Persian Gulf, and the ownership of some of them has been the subject of international disputes with bothIranandQatar. The smaller islands, as well as manycoral reefsand shifting sandbars, are a menace to navigation. Strong tides and occasional windstorms further complicate ship movements near the shore. The UAE also has a stretch of theAl Bāţinahcoast of the Gulf of Oman. TheMusandam Peninsula, the very tip of Arabia by the Strait of Hormuz, andMadhaareexclavesof Oman separated by the UAE. South and west of Abu Dhabi, vast, rollingsand dunesmerge into theRub al-Khali(Empty Quarter) of Saudi Arabia.The desert area of Abu Dhabi includes two important oases with adequate underground water for permanent settlements and cultivation. The extensiveLiwa Oasisis in the south near the undefined border with Saudi Arabia. About 100 km (62 mi) to the northeast of Liwa is theAl-Buraimioasis, which extends on both sides of the Abu Dhabi-Oman border.Lake Zakherin Al Ain is ahuman-made lakenear the border with Oman that was created from treated waste water. Prior to withdrawing from the area in 1971, Britain delineated the internal borders among the seven emirates in order to preempt territorial disputes that might hamper formation of the federation. In general, the rulers of the emirates accepted the British interventions, but in the case of boundary disputes between Abu Dhabi and Dubai, and also between Dubai and Sharjah, conflicting claims were not resolved until after the UAE became independent. The most complicated borders were in theWestern Hajar Mountains, where five of the emirates contested jurisdiction over more than a dozen enclaves. Biodiversity The UAE contains the following terrestrial ecoregions:Al Hajar montane woodlandsand shrublands,Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert, and Al-Hajar foothillxeric woodlands and shrublands. The oases growdate palms,acaciaandeucalyptustrees. In the desert, the flora is very sparse and consists ofgrassesand thorn bushes. The indigenous fauna had come close to extinction because of intensive hunting, which has led to a conservation program onSir Bani YasIsland initiated by Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan in the 1970s, resulting in the survival of, for example,Arabian Oryx,Arabian camelandleopards.Coastal fishandmammalsconsist mainly ofmackerel,perch, andtuna, as well assharksand whales. Climate The climate of the UAE is subtropical-arid with hot summers and warm winters. The climate is categorized as desert climate. The hottest months are July and August, when average maximum temperatures reach above 45 °C (113 °F) on thecoastal plain. In the Hajar Mountains, temperatures are considerably lower, a result of increased elevation.Average minimum temperatures in January and February are between 10 and 14 °C (50 and 57 °F).During the late summer months, a humid southeastern wind known as Sharqi (i.e. \"Easterner\") makes the coastal region especially unpleasant. The average annual rainfall in the coastal area is less than 120 mm (4.7 in), but in some mountainous areas annual rainfall often reaches 350 mm (13.8 in). Rain in the coastal region falls in short, torrential bursts during the winter months, sometimes resulting in floods in ordinarily drywadibeds.The region is prone to occasional, violentdust storms, which can severely reduce visibility. On 28 December 2004, snow was recorded in the UAE for the first time, in theJebel Jaismountain cluster in Ras al-Khaimah.A few years later, there were more sightings of snow and hail.The Jebel Jais mountain cluster has experienced snow only twice since records began. Government and politics Government The United Arab Emirates is afederalconstitutional monarchymade up from a federation of sevenhereditarytribalmonarchy-styled political units calledSheikhdoms. It is governed by aFederal Supreme Councilmade up of the ruling Sheikhs ofAbu Dhabi,Ajman,Fujairah,Sharjah,Dubai,Ras Al KhaimahandUmm Al Quwain. All responsibilities not granted to the federal government are reserved to the individual emirate.A percentageof revenues from each emirate is allocated to the UAE's central budget. The UAE uses the titleSheikhinstead ofEmirto refer to the rulers of individual emirates. The title is used due to thesheikhdomstyled governing system in adherence to the culture oftribes of Arabia, where Sheikh means leader, elder, or the tribal chief of the clan who partakes in shared decision making with his followers. Thepresidentandvice presidentare elected by theFederal Supreme Council. Usually, the Head of theAl Nahyanfamily, who are based in Abu Dhabi, holds the presidency and the Head of theAl Maktoumfamily, based in Dubai, the prime ministership. All prime ministers but one have served concurrently as vice president. The federal government is composed of three branches: TheUAE e-Governmentis the extension of the UAE federal government in its electronic form.The UAE'sCouncil of Ministers(Arabic:مجلس الوزراء) is the chief executive branch of the government presided over by the prime minister. The prime minister, who is appointed by theFederal Supreme Council, appoints the ministers. The Council of Ministers is made up of 22 members and manages all internal and foreign affairs of the federation under its constitutional and federal law.In December 2019,the UAE became the only Arab country, and one of only five countries in the world, to attaingender parityin a national legislative body, with its lower house 50 per cent women. The UAE is the only country in the world that has a Ministry of Tolerance,a Ministry of Happiness,and a Ministry of Artificial Intelligence.The UAE also has a virtual ministry called the Ministry of Possibilities, designed to find solutions to challenges and improve quality of life.The UAE also has aNational Youth Council, which is represented in the UAE cabinet by the Minister of Youth. The UAE legislative body is theFederal National Councilwhich convenes nationwide elections every four years. The FNC consists of 40 members drawn from all the emirates. Each emirate is allocated specific seats to ensure full representation. Half are appointed by the rulers of the constituent emirates, and the other half are elected. By law, the council members have to be equally divided between males and females. The FNC is restricted to a largelyconsultativerole. The United Arab Emirates is an authoritarianfederal monarchy.According to theNew York Times, the UAE is \"an autocracy with the sheen of a progressive, modern state\".The UAE has been described as a \"tribal autocracy\" where the seven constituent monarchies are led by tribal rulers in an autocratic fashion.There are no democratically elected institutions, and there is no formal commitment to free speech.According to human rights organisations, there are systematic human rights violations, including the torture and forced disappearance of government critics.The UAE ranks poorly infreedom indicesmeasuringcivil libertiesandpolitical rights. The UAE is annually ranked as \"Not Free\" inFreedom House's annualFreedom in the Worldreport, which measures civil liberties and political rights.The UAE also ranks poorly in the annualReporters without Borders'Press Freedom Index. TheBertelsmann Transformation Indexdescribes the UAE as a \"moderate monarchy\". The country was ranked 91 out of 137 states and is far below the average scoring for development towards a democracy.According to the 2023V-Dem Democracy indices, the United Arab Emirates is the third leastelectoral democratic country in the Middle East. Administrative divisions The United Arab Emirates comprises seven emirates. TheEmirate of Dubaiis the most populous emirate with 35.6% of the UAE population. TheEmirate of Abu Dhabihas 31.2%, meaning that over two-thirds of the UAE population lives in either Abu Dhabi or Dubai. Abu Dhabi has an area of 67,340 square kilometres (26,000 square miles), which is 86.7% of the country's total area, excluding the islands. It has a coastline extending for more than 400 km (250 mi) and is divided for administrative purposes into three major regions. The Emirate of Dubai extends along the Persian Gulf coast of the UAE for approximately 72 km (45 mi). Dubai has an area of 3,885 square kilometres (1,500 square miles), which is equivalent to 5% of the country's total area, excluding the islands. The Emirate of Sharjah extends along approximately 16 km (10 mi) of the UAE's Persian Gulf coastline and for more than 80 km (50 mi) into the interior. The northern emirates which include Fujairah, Ajman, Ras al-Khaimah, andUmm al-Qaiwainall have a total area of 3,881 square kilometres (1,498 square miles). There are two areas under joint control. One is jointly controlled by Oman and Ajman, the other by Fujairah and Sharjah. There is an Omaniexclavesurrounded by UAE territory, known asWadi Madha. It is located halfway between theMusandampeninsula and the rest of Oman in the Emirate ofSharjah. It covers approximately 75 square kilometres (29 square miles) and the boundary was settled in 1969. The north-east corner of Madha is closest to the Khor Fakkan-Fujairah road, barely 10 metres (33 feet) away. Within the Omani exclave of Madha, is a UAE exclave calledNahwa, also belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah. It is about eight kilometres (5.0 miles) on a dirt track west of the town of New Madha. It consists of about forty houses with its own clinic and telephone exchange. Foreign relations The United Arab Emirates has broad diplomatic and commercial relations with most countries and members of theUnited Nations. It plays a significant role inOPEC, and is one of the founding members of theGulf Cooperation Council(GCC). The UAE is a member of theUnited Nationsand several of its specialized agencies (ICAO,ILO,UPU,WHO,WIPO), as well as theWorld Bank,IMF,Arab League,Organisation of Islamic Cooperation(OIC), and theNon-Aligned Movement. Also, it is an observer in theOrganisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Most countries have diplomatic missions in the capitalAbu Dhabiwith most consulates being in UAE's largest city,Dubai. Emirati foreign relations are motivated to a large extent by identity and relationship to theArab world.The United Arab Emirates has strong ties with Bahrain,China,Egypt,France,India,Jordan,Pakistan,Russia,Saudi Arabiaand the United States. Following the British withdrawal from the UAE in 1971 and the establishment of the UAE as a state, the UAE disputed rights to three islands in the Persian Gulf against Iran, namelyAbu Musa,Greater Tunb, andLesser Tunb. The UAE tried to bring the matter to theInternational Court of Justice, but Iran dismissed the notion.Pakistan was the first country to formally recognise the UAE upon its formation.The UAE alongside multipleMiddle EasternandAfricancountries cut diplomatic ties withQatarin June 2017 due to allegations ofQatar being a state sponsor of terrorism, resulting in theQatar diplomatic crisis. Ties were restored in January 2021.The UAE recognized Israel in August 2020, reaching a historicIsrael–United Arab Emirates peace agreementand leading towards full normalization of relations between the two countries. UAE is the 53rd most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index. Military The armed forces of the United Arab Emirates consist of 44,000 active personnel in theArmy, 2,500 personnel and 46 ships in theNavy, 4,500 personnel and 386 aircraft in theAir Force, and 12,000 personnel in thePresidential Guard. In 2022 the country spent US$20.4 billion on defense, which is 4% of its GDP. The UAE is considered to have the most capable military among the Gulf states. Although initially small in number, the UAE armed forces have grown significantly over the years and are presently equipped with some of the most modern weapon systems, purchased from a variety of western military advanced countries, mainly France, the US, and the UK. Most officers are graduates of the United Kingdom'sRoyal Military AcademyatSandhurst, with others having attended theUnited States Military AcademyatWest Point, theRoyal Military College, Duntroonin Australia, andSt Cyr, the military academy of France. France and the United States have played the most strategically significant roles with defence cooperation agreements and military material provision. Some of the UAE military deployments include an infantry battalion to the United NationsUNOSOM IIforce inSomaliain 1993, the 35th Mechanised Infantry Battalion toKosovo, a regiment to Kuwait during theIraq War,deminingoperations inLebanon,Operation Enduring FreedominAfghanistan,American-led intervention in Libya,American-led intervention in Syria, and theSaudi-led intervention in Yemen. The active and effective military role, despite its small active personnel, has led the UAE military to be nicknamed as \"Little Sparta\" byUnited States Armed ForcesGenerals and former US defense secretaryJames Mattis. The UAE intervened in theLibyan Civil Warin support of GeneralKhalifa Haftar'sLibyan National Armyin its conflict with the internationally recognisedGovernment of National Accord(GNA). Examples of the military assets deployed include the enforcement of theno-fly-zone over Libyaby sending sixUAEAFF-16and sixMirage 2000multi-role fighter aircraft,ground troop deployment in Afghanistan,30 UAEAF F-16s and ground troops deployment in Southern Yemen,and helping the US launch its first airstrikes againstISILtargets in Syria. The UAE has begun production of a greater amount of military equipment, in a bid to reduce foreign dependence and help with national industrialisation. Example of national military development include the Abu Dhabi Shipbuilding company (ADSB), which produces a range of ships and is a prime contractor in theBaynunah Programme, a programme to design, develop and produce corvettes customised for operation in the shallow waters of thePersian Gulf. The UAE is also producing weapons and ammunition throughCaracal International, military transport vehicles throughNimr LLCand unmanned aerial vehicles collectively throughEmirates Defence Industries Company. The UAE operates theGeneral Dynamics F-16 Fighting FalconF-16E Block 60 unique variant unofficially called \"Desert Falcon\", developed byGeneral Dynamicswith collaboration of the UAE and specifically for theUnited Arab Emirates Air Force.TheUnited Arab Emirates Armyoperates a customizedLeclerc tankand is the only other operator of the tank aside from the French Army.The largest defence exhibition and conference in the Middle East,International Defence Exhibition, takes place biennially in Abu Dhabi. The UAE introduced amandatory military servicefor adult males, since 2014, for 16 months to expand its reserve force.The highest loss of life in the history of UAE military occurred on Friday 4 September 2015, in which 52 soldiers were killed inMaribarea of central Yemen by aTochkamissile which targeted a weapons cache and caused a large explosion. Law The United Arab Emirates has a federal court system, and the emirates ofAbu Dhabi,DubaiandRas Al Khaimahalso have local court systems. The UAE's judicial system is derived from thecivil law systemandSharialaw. The court system consists of civil courts and Sharia courts. Sharia courts have exclusive jurisdiction in Muslim family law matters, while civil courts deal with all other legal matters.Since September 2020, corporal punishment is no longer a legal form of punishment under UAE federal law. Under the decree, legal forms of punishment are retribution and blood money payments, capital punishment, life imprisonment, temporary imprisonment, indefinite detention, and fines.Article 1 of the Federal Penal Code was amended in 2020 to state that Islamic Law applies only to retribution and blood money punishments; previously the article stated that \"provisions of theIslamic Lawshall apply to the crimes of doctrinal punishment, punitive punishment and blood money.\"Before 2020,flogging,stoning,amputation, andcrucifixionwere technically legal punishments for criminal offences such asadultery,premarital sex, and drug or alcohol use.In recent history, the UAE has declared its intention to move towards a more tolerant legal code, and to phase out corporal punishment altogether in favor of private punishment.With alcohol and cohabitation laws being loosened in advance of the2020 World Expo, Emirati laws have become increasingly acceptable to visitors from non-Muslim countries. Sharia courts have exclusive jurisdiction over Muslim family law matters such as marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance.Muslim women must receive permission from a male guardian to marry and remarry. This requirement is derived fromSharialaw and has been federal law since 2005.It is illegal for Muslim women to marry non-Muslims and is punishable by law.Non-Muslim expatriates were liable to Sharia rulings on marriage, divorce, child custody and inheritance, however, federal law was changed to introduce non-Sharia personal status law for non-Muslims.Recently, the emirate of Abu Dhabi opened a civil law family court for non-Muslims and Dubai has announced that non-Muslims can opt for civil marriages. Apostasyis a technicallycapital crimein the UAE, however, there are no documented cases of apostates being executed.Blasphemyis illegal; expatriates involved in insulting Islam are liable for deportation. Sodomyis illegal and is punishable by a minimum of 6-month imprisonment or a fine or both, but the law does not apply \"except on the basis of a complaint from the husband or legal guardian\", but the penalty may be suspended if the complaint is waived.In 2013, an Emirati man was on trial for being accused of a \"gay handshake\". Due to local customs, public shows of affection in certain public places are illegal and could result indeportation, but holding hands is tolerated.Expats in Dubai have been deported for kissing in public.In several cases, the courts of the UAE have jailed women who have reported rape.Federal law in the UAE prohibits swearing on social media.Dancing in public is illegal in the UAE.In November 2020, UAE announced that it decriminalised alcohol, lifted the ban on unmarried couples living together, and ended lenient punishment onhonor killing. Foreigners living in the Emirates were allowed to follow their native country's laws on divorce and inheritance. Human rights The state security apparatus in the UAE has been accused of human rights abuses including forced disappearance, arbitrary arrests and torture.The annualFreedom Housereport onFreedom in the Worldhas listed the United Arab Emirates as \"Not Free\" every year since 1999, the first year for which records are available on their website.Freedom of association is also severely curtailed. Associations and NGOs are required to register with the government; however twenty non-political groups were reportedly operating in the country without registration. All associations have to be submitted to censorship guidelines and all publications have first to be approved by the government.In its 2013 Annual Report,Amnesty Internationalcriticized the UAE's poor record on human rights issues; highlighting restrictions of freedom of speech and assembly, the use ofarbitrary arrestand torture, and the use of the death penalty. The UAE has escaped theArab Spring; and since 2011, human rights organizations claim that the government has increasingly carried outforced disappearances.TheArab Organization for Human Rightsobtained testimonies from defendants who claimed being kidnapped, tortured and abused in detention centres; they reported 16 methods of torture including beatings, threats withelectrocutionand denial of medical care.Repressive measures, including deportation, were applied on foreigners based on allegations of attempts to destabilize the country.The issue ofsexual abuseamong femaledomestic workersis another area of concern, particularly given that domestic servants are not covered by the UAE labour law of 1980 or the draft labour law of 2007.Worker protests have been suppressed and protesters imprisoned without due process. Amnesty International reported that Qatari men have been abducted by the UAE government and allegedly withheld information about the men's fate from their families.According to some organizations, over 4,000 Shia expatriates have been deported from the UAE;including Lebanese Shia families for their alleged sympathies forHezbollah.In 2013, 94 Emirati activists were held in secret detention centres and put on trial for allegedly attempting to overthrow the government;a relative of a defendant was arrested for tweeting about the trial, and sentenced to 10 months in jail.The latest forced disappearance involvesthree sisters from Abu Dhabi. Sara Jacobsheld foreign actors, including the UAE, responsible for thehumanitarian crisis in Sudan. She expressed her views in March 2024 visit to the refugee camps, stating the children in Sudan are living with extensive trauma. The US representative also claimed that the war could be quickly ended if the involvement of countries like the UAE is stopped. Jacobs also said that the US is morally obligated to take measures and stop the arms to the Emirates, until the UAE stops providing weapons to the RSF. On 29 March 2024, Sudan filed a 78-page formal complaint with theUnited Nations Security Council(UNSC), accusing the UAE of planning and backing theRapid Support Forces(RSF) militias’ against the Sudanese army. The Emirates was allegedly taking assistance fromChad, which acted as a channel for military supplies and mercenaries to reach RSF in Sudan.Human rights organizations pointed out that Sudan’s conflict was among the “world’s worst humanitarian crisis”, while foreign nations like the UAE continued to supply weapons and equipment to the warring parties.Reports also revealed that the Emirates claimed of carrying out a humanitarian campaign to provide aid for Sudanese people. In fact, it was expanding a covert operation of funneling weapons, money and even powerful drones for the militias in Sudan. Officials said the UAE was playing the most consequential role by inflaming the crisis, while pledging to ease it.In October 2024, Sudan wrote a second official letter to the UNSC, calling for it to take strong action against the UAE’s continued aggression towards Sudan. The Sudanese Foreign Ministry also claimed that the UAE is not just an indirect supported of RSF, but rather a “vicious frontline player in the war of aggression” against Sudan. Migrant workers Migrant workers in the UAE are not allowed to join trade unions or go on strike. Those who strike may risk prison and deportation,as seen in 2014 when dozens of workers were deported for striking.TheInternational Trade Union Confederationhas called on theUnited Nationsto investigate evidence that thousands of migrant workers in the UAE are treated as slave labour. In 2019, an investigation performed byThe Guardianrevealed that thousands of migrant construction workers employed on infrastructure and building projects for the UAE'sExpo 2020exhibition were working in an unsafe environment. Some were even exposed to potentially fatal situations due to cardiovascular issues. Long hours in the sun made them vulnerable to heat strokes. A report in January 2020 highlighted that the employers in the United Arab Emirates have been exploiting the Indian labor and hiring them ontourist visas, which is easier and cheaper thanwork permits. Thesemigrant workersare left open tolabor abuse, where they also fear reporting exploitation due to their illegal status. Besides, the issue remains unknown as the visit visa data is not maintained in both the UAE and Indianmigrationand employment records. In a 22 July 2020 news piece,Reutersreportedhuman rightsgroups as saying conditions had deteriorated because of theCOVID-19 pandemic. Many migrant workers racked up debt and depended on the help of charities. The report cited salary delays and layoffs as a major risk, in addition to overcrowded living conditions, lack of support and problems linked with healthcare and sick pay. Reuters reported at least 200,000 workers, mostly from India but also from Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Philippines and Nepal, had been repatriated, according to their diplomatic missions. On 2 May 2020, the Consul General of India inDubai, Vipul, confirmed that more than 150,000 Indians in the United Arab Emirates registered to be repatriated through the e-registration option provided by Indian consulates in the UAE. According to the figures, 25% of applicants lost their jobs and nearly 15% were stranded in the country due to lockdown. Besides, 50% of the total applicants were from the state ofKerala, India. On 9 October 2020,The Telegraphreported that many migrant workers were left abandoned, as they lost their jobs amidst the tightening economy due toCOVID-19. Various human rights organisations have raised serious concerns about the alleged abuse of migrant workers by major contractors organising Expo 2020. UAE's business solution provider German Pavilion is also held accountable for abusing migrant workers. Environmental policy The country is a leadingoil and gas producer. Itsenergy consumption per capitais around 370Gigajoule. The UAE'scarbon dioxide emissions per capitaare high, ranking sixth among countries globally.Recently, it made efforts to make itself more sustainable. Those include: According to official sources, in Dubai, \"the share of mass transport in people’s mobility increased from 6 per cent in 2006 to 20.61 per cent in 2022.\"Together with the USA the country invested 17 billion dollars insustainable agriculture. Economy The United Arab Emirates has developed from a juxtaposition of Bedouin tribes to one of the world's wealthiest states in only about 50 years, boasting one of the highestGDP (PPP) per capitafigures in the world. Economic growth has been impressive and steady throughout the history of this young confederation of emirates with brief periods of recessions only, e.g. in the global financial and economic crisis years 2008–09, and a couple of more mixed years starting in 2015 and persisting until 2019. Between 2000 and 2018, average real gross domestic product (GDP) growth was at close to 4%.It is the second largest economy in theGCC(afterSaudi Arabia),with a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of US$414.2 billion, and a real GDP of 392.8 billion constant 2010 USD in 2018.Since its independence in 1971, the UAE's economy has grown by nearly 231 times to 1.45 trillion AED in 2013. The non-oil trade has grown to 1.2 trillion AED, a growth by around 28 times from 1981 to 2012.Supported by the world's seventh-largest oil reserves and aided by prudent investments coupled with a resolute commitment to economic liberalism and strong governmental oversight, the UAE has witnessed its real GDP increase by more than three times over the past four decades. Presently, the UAE is among the wealthiest countries globally, with GDP per capita nearly 80% higher than the OECD average. As impressive as economic growth has been in the UAE, the total population has increased from just around 550,000 in 1975 to close to 10 million in 2018. This growth is mainly due to the influx of foreign workers into the country, making the national population a minority. The UAE features a unique labour market system, in which residence in the UAE is conditional on stringent visa rules. This system is a major advantage in terms of macroeconomic stability, as labour supply adjusts quickly to demand throughout economic business cycles. This allows the government to keep unemployment in the country on a very low level of less than 3%, and it also gives the government more leeway in terms of macroeconomic policies – where other governments often need to make trade-offs between fighting unemployment and fighting inflation. Between 2014 and 2018, the accommodation and food, education, information and communication, arts and recreation, and real estate sectors overperformed in terms of growth, whereas the construction, logistics, professional services, public, and oil and gas sectors underperformed. Business and finance The UAE offers businesses a strong enabling environment: stable political and macroeconomic conditions, a future-oriented government, good general infrastructure and ICT infrastructure. Moreover, the country has made continuous and convincing improvements to its regulatory environmentand is ranked as the 26th best country in the world for doing business by theDoing Business 2017 Reportpublished by theWorld Bank Group.The UAE are in the top ranks of several other global indices, such as theWorld Economic Forum's (WEF),Global Competitiveness Index(GCI), theWorld Happiness Report(WHR) and 32nd in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.TheEconomist Intelligence Unit(EIU), for example, assigns the UAE rank two regionally in terms of business environment and 22 worldwide. From the 2018 Arab Youth Survey the UAE emerges as the top Arab country in areas such as living, safety and security, economic opportunities, and starting a business, and as an example for other states to emulate. The weaker points remain the level of education across the UAE population, limitations in the financial and labour markets, barriers to trade and some regulations that hinder business dynamism. The major challenge for the country, though, remains translating investments and strong enabling conditions into innovation and creative outputs. UAE law does not allow trade unions to exist.The right tocollective bargainingand theright to strikeare not recognised, and the Ministry of Labour has the power to force workers to go back to work. Migrant workers who participate in a strike can have their work permits cancelled and be deported.Consequently, there are very few anti-discrimination laws in relation to labour issues, with Emiratis – and otherGCCArabs – getting preference in public sector jobs despite lesser credentials than competitors and lower motivation. In fact, just over eighty per cent of Emirati workers hold government posts, with many of the rest taking part in state-owned enterprises such asEmirates airlinesandDubai Properties.Westernstates, including the United Kingdom, were also warned by the Emirati Trade Minister,Thani bin Ahmed Al Zeyoudi, to keep politics separate from trade and the economy, as it dilutes the agreements' main objectives. In 2023, Al Zeyoudi indicated that these countries should \"tone down\" the human and workers' rights provisions in the trade deals, in order to gain greater market access and business opportunities. The UAE's monetary policy stresses stability and predictability. TheCentral Bank of the UAE(CBUAE) keeps a peg to the US Dollar (USD) and moves interest rates close to theFederal Funds Rate. According toFitch Ratings, the decline in property sector follows risks of progressively worsening the quality of assets in possession with UAE banks, leading the economy to rougher times ahead. Even though as compared to retail and property, UAE banks fared well. The higher US interest rates followed since 2016 – which the UAE currency complies to – have boosted profitability. However, the likelihood of plunging interest rates and increasing provisioning costs on bad loans, point to difficult times ahead for theeconomy. Since 2015, economic growth has been more mixed due to a number of factors impacting both demand and supply. In 2017 and 2018 growth has been positive but on a low level of 0.8 and 1.4%, respectively. To support the economy the government is currently following an expansionary fiscal policy. However, the effects of this policy are partially offset by monetary policy, which has been contractionary. If not for the fiscal stimulus in 2018, the UAE economy would probably have contracted in that year. One of the factors responsible for slower growth has been a credit crunch, which is due to, among other factors, higher interest rates. Government debt has remained on a low level, despite high deficits in a few recent years. Risks related to government debt remain low. Inflation has been picking up in 2017 and 2018. Contributing factors were the introduction of avalue added tax(VAT) of 5%in 2018 as well as higher commodity prices. Despite the government's expansionary fiscal policy and a growing economy in 2018 and at the beginning of 2019, prices have been dropping in late 2018 and 2019 owing to oversupply in some sectors of importance to consumer prices. The UAE has an attractive tax system for companies and wealthy individuals, making it a preferred destination for companies seekingtax avoidance. The NGOTax Justice Networkplaces them in 2021 in the group of the ten largesttax havens.In 2023, the UAE's legal system fell under international scrutiny, as themembers of the British Parliamentopened an inquiry into how the foreign business executives are treated in the country, in case of accusations of breaking the law. 2024 will be the third consecutive year that the UAE holds first place as the world's leading wealth magnet, as 6,700 wealthy migrants are set to move to the country. VAT The UAE government implementedvalue-added tax(VAT) in the country from January 1, 2018, at a standard rate of 5%.While the government may still adjust the exact arrangement of the VAT, it is not likely that any new taxes will be introduced in the foreseeable future. Additional taxes would destroy one of the UAE's main enticements for businesses to operate in the country and put a heavy burden on the economy. Energy Oil and gas production is an important part of the economy of the UAE. In 2018, the oil and gas sector contributed 26% to overall GDP. The UAE leadership initiated economic diversification efforts even before the oil price crash in the 1980s, resulting in the UAE having the most diversified economy in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region at present. Although the oil and gas sector continues to be significant to the UAE economy, these efforts have yielded great resilience during periods of oil price fluctuations and economic turbulence. The introduction of the VAT has provided the government with an additional source of income – approximately 6% of the total revenue in 2018, or 27 billionUnited Arab Emirates dirham(AED) – affording its fiscal policy more independence from oil- and gas-related revenue, which constitutes about 36% of the total government revenue. TheBarakah nuclear power plantis the first on the Arabian peninsula and expected to reduce the carbon footprint of the country. The UAE has solar generation potential, and its energy policy has shifted due to the declining price of solar. The Dubai Clean Energy Strategy aims to provide 7 per cent of Dubai's energy from clean energy sources by 2020. It will increase this target to 25 per cent by 2030 and 75 per cent by 2050. In 2023, ADNOC and its CEO Sultan Al Jaber closed at least 20 business deals worth nearly $100 billion. The state oil firm was alleged of exploiting the UAE’s COP28 presidency to pursue oil and gas deals. As per leaked documents, Al Jaber’s team targeted 16 nations to lobby firms, delegates or ministers on such deals. ADNOC sought deals with companies from 12 countries, which included 11 of the 16 target nations. Al Jaber and senior ADNOC officials openly discussed deals. COP28 organising teams were excluded from meetings and replaced by ADNOC officials, leaving a closed group that made deals. Tourism Tourism acts as a growth sector for the entire UAE economy.Dubaiis the top tourism destination in the Middle East.According to the annual MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index, Dubai is the fifth most popular tourism destination in the world.Dubai holds up to 66% share of the UAE's tourism economy, withAbu Dhabihaving 16% andSharjah10%. Dubai welcomed 10 million tourists in 2013. The UAE has the most advanced and developed infrastructure in the region.Since the 1980s, the UAE has been spending billions of dollars on infrastructure. These developments are particularly evident in the larger emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai. The northern emirates are rapidly following suit, providing major incentives for developers of residential and commercial property. The inbound tourism expenditure in the UAE for 2019 accounted for 118.6 per cent share of the outbound tourism expenditure.Since 6 January 2020, tourist visas to the United Arab Emirates are valid for five years.It has been projected that the travel and tourism industry will contribute about 280.6 billion United Arab Emirati dirham to the UAE's GDP by 2028. The country's major tourist attraction includes the famousBurj KhalifainDubai, the tallest tower in the world;The World archipelagoandPalm Jumeirahalso in Dubai;Sheikh Zayed Grand MosqueandYas Marina CircuitinAbu Dhabi;Al Hajar MountainsinFujairah. The uniqueness of the country's natural desert life, especially with theBedouins, also facilitates the country's tourist industry. Transport Dubai International Airportbecame thebusiest airport in the world by international passenger trafficin 2014, overtakingLondon Heathrow. Abu Dhabi,Dubai,Sharjah,Ajman,Umm Al Quwain, andRas Al Khaimahare connected by theE11 highway, which is the longest road in the UAE. In Dubai, in addition to theDubai Metro, TheDubai TramandPalm Jumeirah Monorailalso connect specific parts of the city. There is also a bus, taxi, abra (traditional boat) and water taxi network run by RTA.T1, a double-decker tram system inDowntown Dubai, were operational from 2015 to 2019. Salik, meaning \"open\" or \"clear\", is Dubai's electronic toll collection system that was launched in July 2007 and is part of Dubai's traffic congestion management system. Each time one passes through a Salik tolling point, a toll is deducted from the drivers' prepaid toll account using advanced Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology. There are four Salik tolling points placed in strategic locations in Dubai: atAl Maktoum Bridge,Al Garhoud Bridge, and alongSheikh Zayed RoadatAl SafaandAl Barsha. A 1,200 km (750 mi)country-wide railwayis under construction which will connect all the major cities and ports.TheDubai Metrois the first urban train network in theArabian Peninsula. The major ports of the United Arab Emirates areKhalifa Port,Zayed Port, PortJebel Ali,Port Rashid,Port Khalid,Port Saeed, and Port Khor Fakkan.The Emirates are increasingly developing their logistics and ports in order to participate in trade between Europe and China or Africa. For this purpose, ports are being rapidly expanded and investments are being made in their technology. The Emirates have historically been and currently still are part of the MaritimeSilk Roadthat runs from the Chinese coast to the south via the southern tip of India toMombasa, from there through the Red Sea via theSuez Canalto the Mediterranean, there to the Upper Adriatic region and the northern Italian hub ofTriestewith its rail connections toCentral Europe, Eastern Europe and theNorth Sea. Telecommunications The United Arab Emirates is served by twotelecommunicationsoperators,EtisalatandEmirates Integrated Telecommunications Company(\"du\"). Etisalat operated amonopolyuntil du launched mobile services in February 2007.Internet subscribers were expected to increase from 0.904 million in 2007 to 2.66 million in 2012.The regulator, theTelecommunications Regulatory Authority, mandates filtering websites for religious, political and sexual content. 5Gwireless services were installed nationwide in 2019 through a partnership withHuawei. Competitiveness In June 2024 it was reported, that the UAE has moved up three place to the 7th place among the top 10 countries in the IMD World Competitiveness. This ranking is issued by the World Competitiveness Centre of the Institute for Management Development (IMD) inSwitzerland. Demographics According to an estimate by theWorld Bank, the UAE's population in 2020 was 9,890,400. Immigrants accounted for 88.52% while Emiratis made up the remaining 11.48%.This unique imbalance is due to the country's exceptionally highnet migration rateof 21.71, theworld's highest.UAE citizenship is very difficult to obtain other than byfiliationand only granted under very special circumstances. The UAE is ethnically diverse. The five most populous nationalities in the emirates of Dubai, Sharjah, and Ajman are Indian (25%), Pakistani (12%), Emirati (9%), Bangladeshi (7%), and Filipino (5%).Immigrants from Europe, Australia, North America make up 500,000 of the population.250,000 British nationals live in the country.The rest of the population are from otherArab states. About 88% of the population of the United Arab Emirates is urban.The averagelife expectancywas 76.7 in 2012, higher than for any other Arab country.With a male/femalesex ratioof 2.2 males for each female in the total population and 2.75 to 1 for the 15–65age group, the UAE'sgender imbalanceis second highest in the world after Qatar. Largest cities Language Modern Standard Arabicis the national language of the United Arab Emirates. English is the most commonly spoken language,whereasEmirati Arabic, a variety ofGulf Arabic, is spoken natively by Emirati people. Religion Islamis the largest and the officialstate religionof the United Arab Emirates. The government follows a policy of tolerance toward other religions and rarely interferes in the religious activities of non-Muslims. There are moreSunnithanShiaMuslims in the United Arab Emirates,and 85% of the Emirati population are Sunni Muslims. The vast majority of the remainder 15% are Shia Muslims, who are concentrated in theEmirates of DubaiandSharjah. Although no official statistics are available for the breakdown between Sunni and Shia Muslims among noncitizen residents, media estimates suggest less than 20% of the noncitizen Muslim population are Shia.The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi is the largest mosque in the country and a major tourist attraction.Ibadiis common among Omanis in the UAE, whileSufiinfluences exist as well. Christiansaccount for 9% of the total population of the United Arab Emirates, according to the 2005 census; estimates in 2010 suggested a figure of 12.6%.Roman CatholicsandProtestantsform significant proportions of the Christian minority. The country has over 52 churches in 2023.Many Christians in the United Arab Emirates are of Asian, African, and European origin, along with fellow Middle Eastern countries such as Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt.The United Arab Emirates forms part of theApostolic Vicariate of Southern Arabiaand the Vicar Apostolic BishopPaul Hinderis based inAbu Dhabi. There is a smallJewishcommunity in the United Arab Emirates. Before 2023, there was only one knownsynagogueinDubai, which has been open since 2008 and the synagogue also welcomes visitors.Another synagogue,Moses Ben Maimon Synagoguewas completed in 2023 as part of theAbrahamic Family Housecomplex inAbu Dhabi. As of 2019, according to RabbiMarc Schneierof theFoundation for Ethnic Understanding, it is estimated that there are about 150 families to 3,000 Jews who live and worship freely in the UAE. South Asians in the United Arab Emirates constitute the largest ethnic group in the country.Over 2 million Indian migrants (mostly from the southern states ofKerala,Andhra Pradesh,Coastal KarnatakaandTamil Nadu) are estimated to be living in the UAE.There are currently three Hindu temples in the country. Other religions also exist in the United Arab Emirates, includingJainism,Sikhism,Buddhism,Judaism,BaháʼísandDruze. The UAE Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Co-operation,Abdullah bin Zayed, announced in 2019 the design and construction plan of theAbrahamic Family House, which will serve as an interfaith complex that houses asynagogue,mosque, and achurchonSaadiyat IslandinAbu Dhabi. Education Theeducationsystem through secondary level administered by theMinistry of Educationin all emirates except Abu Dhabi, where it falls under the authority of theDepartment of Education and Knowledge. Public schools are divided intoprimary schools,middle schoolsandhigh schools. The public schools are government-funded and the curriculum is created to match the United Arab Emirates' development goals. The medium of instruction in the public school is Arabic with emphasis on English as a second language. There are also many private schools which are internationally accredited.Public schoolsin the country are free for citizens of the UAE, while the fees for private schools vary. The higher education system is monitored by the Ministry of Higher Education. The ministry also is responsible for admitting students to itsundergraduateinstitutions.The adult literacy rate in 2015 was 93.8%. The UAE has shown a strong interest in improving education and research. Enterprises include the establishment of theCERTResearch Centres and theMasdar Institute of Science and Technologyand Institute for Enterprise Development.According to the QS Rankings, the top-ranking universities in the country are theUnited Arab Emirates University(421–430th worldwide),Khalifa University(441–450th worldwide), theAmerican University of Sharjah(431–440th) andUniversity of Sharjah(551–600th worldwide).United Arab Emirates was ranked 33rd in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2021, up from 36th in 2019. Health The life expectancy at birth in the UAE is at 76.96 years.Cardiovascular diseaseis the principal cause of death in the UAE, constituting 28% of total deaths; other major causes areaccidentsandinjuries,malignancies, andcongenital anomalies.According toWorld Health Organization data from 2016, 34.5% of adults in the UAE are clinicallyobese, with abody mass index(BMI) score of 30 or more. In February 2008, the Ministry of Health unveiled a five-year health strategy for the public health sector in the northern emirates, which fall under its purview and which, unlike Abu Dhabi and Dubai, do not have separate healthcare authorities. The strategy focuses on unifying healthcare policy and improving access to healthcare services at reasonable cost, at the same time reducing dependence on overseas treatment. The ministry plans to add three hospitals to the current 14, and 29 primary healthcare centres to the current 86. Nine were scheduled to open in 2008. The introduction of mandatoryhealth insurancein Abu Dhabi forexpatriatesand their dependents was a major driver in reform of healthcare policy. Abu Dhabi nationals were brought under the scheme from 1 June 2008 and Dubai followed for its government employees. Eventually, under federal law, every Emirati and expatriate in the country will be covered by compulsory health insurance under a unified mandatory scheme.The country has benefited from medical tourists from all over theCooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf. The UAE attractsmedical touristsseekingcosmetic surgeryand advanced procedures, cardiac and spinal surgery, and dental treatment, as health services have higher standards than other Arab countries in the Persian Gulf. Culture Emirati culture is based onArabian cultureand has been influenced by the cultures ofPersia,India, andEast Africa.Arabian andArabian inspired architectureis part of the expression of the local Emirati identity.Arabian influence on Emirati culture is noticeably visible in traditional Emirati architecture andfolk arts.For example, the distinctive wind tower that tops traditional Emirati buildings, thebarjeel, has become an identifying mark of Emirati architecture and is attributed to Arabian influence.This influence is derived both from traders who fled the tax regime in Persia in the early 19th century and from Emirati ownership of ports on the Arabian coast, for instance the Al Qassimi port of Lingeh. The United Arab Emirates has a diverse society.Dubai's economy depends more on international trade and tourism, and is more open to visitors, while Abu Dhabi society is more domestic as the city's economy is focused on fossil fuel extraction. Major holidays in the United Arab Emirates includeEid al Fitr, which marks the end ofRamadan, andNational Day(2 December), which marks the formation of the United Arab Emirates.Emirati males prefer to wear akandura, an ankle-length white tunic woven from wool or cotton, and Emirati women wear anabaya, a black over-garment that covers most parts of the body. The earliest known poet in the UAE isIbn Majid, born between 1432 and 1437 in Ras Al-Khaimah. The most famous Emirati writers were Mubarak Al Oqaili (1880–1954), Salem bin Ali al Owais (1887–1959) and Ahmed bin Sulayem (1905–1976). Three other poets from Sharjah, known as the Hirah group, are observed to have been heavily influenced by the Apollo andRomantic poets.TheSharjah International Book Fairis the oldest and largest in the country. Thelist of museums in the United Arab Emiratesincludes some of regional repute, most famouslySharjahwith its Heritage District containing 17 museums,which in 1998 was the Cultural Capital of the Arab World.In Dubai, the area ofAl Quozhas attracted a number of art galleries as well as museums such as theSalsali Private Museum.Abu Dhabi has established a culture district onSaadiyat Island. Six grand projects are planned, including theGuggenheim Abu Dhabiand theLouvre Abu Dhabi.Dubai also plans to build aKunsthalmuseum and a district for galleries and artists. Emirati culture is a part of theculture of Eastern Arabia.Liwais a type of music and dance performed locally, mainly in communities that contain descendants ofBantu peoplesfrom theAfrican Great Lakesregion.TheDubai Desert Rock Festivalis also another major festival consisting of heavy metal and rock artists.Thecinema of the United Arab Emiratesis minimal but expanding. Media The UAE'smediais annually classified as \"not free\" in theFreedom of the Pressreport byFreedom House.The UAE ranks poorly in the annualPress Freedom IndexbyReporters without Borders.Dubai Media Cityis the UAE's main media zone. The UAE is home to some pan-Arab broadcasters, including theMiddle East Broadcasting CentreandOrbit Showtime Network. In 2007, SheikhMohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoumdecreed that journalists can no longer be prosecuted or imprisoned for reasons relating to their work.At the same time, the UAE has made it illegal to disseminate online material that can threaten \"public order\",and hands down prison terms for those who \"deride or damage\" the reputation of the state and \"display contempt\" for religion. Journalists who are arrested for violating this law are often brutally beaten by the police. According to UAE Year Book 2013, there are seven Arabic newspapers and eight English language newspapers, as well as a Tagalog newspaper produced and published in the UAE. New media, such asFacebook,Twitter,YouTubeandInstagramare used widely in the UAE by the government entities and by the public as well.The UAE government avails official social media accounts to communicate with public and hear their needs. In recent years, there has been a notable surge in digital media consumption in the UAE, driven by the widespread use of platforms like Snapchat and TikTok among the younger population.Influencers on these platforms play a significant role in shaping trends and promoting various products and services.The government has also implemented digital initiatives to enhance e-Government services and promote smart city concepts, further demonstrating the UAE's commitment to technological advancements. Cuisine The traditional food of the Emirates has always been rice, fish, and meat. The people of the United Arab Emirates have adopted most of their foods from other West and South Asian countries including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Pakistan and India. Seafood has been the mainstay of the Emirati diet for centuries. Meat and rice are other staple foods, withlamb and muttonpreferred to goat and beef. Popular beverages are coffee and tea, which can be complemented withcardamomorsaffronto give them a distinctive flavour. Popular cultural Emirati dishes includethreed,machboos,khubisa,khameerandchababbread among others whilelugaimatis a famous Emirati dessert. With the influence of western culture, fast food has become very popular among young people, to the extent that campaigns have been held to highlight the dangers of fast food excesses.Alcohol is allowed to be served only in hotel restaurants and bars. All nightclubs are permitted to sell alcohol. Specific supermarkets may sell alcohol, but these products are sold in separate sections. Likewise, pork, which isharam(not permitted for Muslims), is sold in separate sections in all major supermarkets. Although alcohol may be consumed, it is illegal to be intoxicated in public or drive a motor vehicle with any trace of alcohol in the blood. Sports Formula Oneis particularly popular in the United Arab Emirates, and a Grand Prix is annually held at theYas Marina CircuitinYas Islandin Abu Dhabi. The race takes place in the evening, and was the first ever Grand Prix to start in daylight and finish at night.Other popular sports includecamel racing,falconry,endurance riding, andtennis.The emirate ofDubaiis also home to two majorgolfcourses: the Dubai Golf Club andEmirates Golf Club. In the past, child camel jockeys were used, leading to widespread criticism. Eventually, the UAE passed laws banning the use of children for the sport, leading to the prompt removal of almost all child jockeys.Recently robot jockeys have been introduced to overcome the problem of child camel jockeys which was an issue of human rights violations.Ansar Burneyis often praised for the work he has done in this area. Football Footballis a popular sport in the UAE.Al Nasr,Al Ain,Al Wasl,Sharjah,Al Wahda, andShabab Al Ahliare the most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long-time regional champions.TheUnited Arab Emirates Football Associationwas established in 1971 and since then has dedicated its time and effort to promoting the game, organisingyouth programmesand improving the abilities of not only its players, but also the officials and coaches involved with its regional teams. TheUAEqualified for theFIFA World Cupin1990, along withEgypt. It was the third consecutive World Cup with two Arab nations qualifying, afterKuwaitandAlgeriain1982, andIraqand Algeria again in1986. The UAE has won theGulf Cup Championshiptwice: the first cup won in January 2007 held inAbu Dhabiand the second in January 2013, held inBahrain.The country hosted the2019 AFC Asian Cup. The UAE team went all the way to the semi-finals, where they were defeated by the eventual champions,Qatar. Cricket Cricketis one of the most popular sports in the UAE, largely because of the expatriate population from theSAARCcountries, the United Kingdom, and Australia. The headquarters of theInternational Cricket Council(ICC) have been located in theDubai Sports Citycomplex since 2005, including theICC Academywhich was established in 2009.There are a number of international cricket venues in the UAE, which are frequently used for international tournaments and \"neutral\" bilateral series due to the local climate and Dubai's status as a transport hub. Notable international tournaments hosted by the UAE have included the2014 Under-19 Cricket World Cup, the2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup, and three editions of theAsia Cup(1984, 1995 and 2018). Notable grounds include theSharjah Cricket Association StadiuminSharjah,Sheikh Zayed Cricket StadiuminAbu Dhabi, andDubai International Cricket Stadiumin Dubai. TheEmirates Cricket Board(ECB) became a member of the ICC in 1990. TheUAE national cricket teamhas qualified for theCricket World Cupon two occasions (1996and2015)and theICC Men's T20 World Cupon two occasions (2014and2022). Thenational women's teamis similarly one of the strongest associate teams in Asia, notably participating in the2018 ICC Women's World Twenty20 Qualifier. Following the2009 attack on the Sri Lanka national cricket team, the UAE served as thede factohome of thePakistan national cricket teamfor nearly a decade, as well as hosting thePakistan Super League.The UAE has also hosted one full edition ofIndian Premier League(IPL) in 2020 and two partial editions of theIndian Premier League(IPL) in 2014 and 2021. See also Notes References Further reading External links 24°N54°E / 24°N 54°E /24; 54",
"Economy of the United Arab Emirates TheUnited Arab Emiratesis ahigh-incomedevelopingmarket economy. The UAE's economy is the 4th largest in theMiddle East(afterTurkey,Saudi ArabiaandIsrael), with agross domestic product(GDP) of US$415 billion (AED 1.83 trillion) in 2021-2023. TheUAEeconomy is heavily reliant on revenues frompetroleumandnatural gas, especially inAbu Dhabi. In 2009, more than 85% of the UAE's economy was based on the oil exports.In 2011, oil exports accounted for 77% of the UAE's state budget.In recent years, there has been someeconomic diversification,particularly inDubai.Abu Dhabi and other UAE emirates have remained relatively conservative in their approach to diversification. Dubai has far smaller oil reserves than its counterparts. Tourismis one of the biggest non-oil sources of revenue in the UAE. A massive construction boom, an expanding manufacturing base, and a thriving services sector are helping the country to diversify its economy. Nationwide, there is currently US $350 billion worth of activeconstructionprojects. The UAE is a member of theWorld Trade OrganizationandOPEC. Economic overview UAE has the second-largest economy in the Arab world (after Saudi Arabia),with a gross domestic product (GDP) of US$414 billion (AED 1.52 trillion) in 2018.A third of the GDP is from oil revenues.The economy was expected to grow 4–4.5% in 2013, compared to 2.3–3.5% over the previous five years. Since independence in 1971, UAE's economy has grown by nearly 231 times to AED1.45 trillion in 2013. The non-oil trade has grown to AED1.2 trillion, a growth of around 28 times from 1981 to 2012. The UAE's economy is one of the most open worldwide, and its economic history goes back to the times when ships sailed toIndia, along theSwahili coast, as far south asMozambique. The UAE economy has been ‘inspected’ by international economic institutions on a regular basis, generally receiving good reports on economic developments.International Monetary Fund(IMF) expected UAE's economic growth to increase to 4.5% in 2015, compared to 4.3% in 2014. The IMF ascribed UAE's potentially strong economic growth inWorld Economic OutlookReport to the increased contribution of non-petroleum sectors, which registered a growth average of more than 6% in 2014 and 2015. Such contribution includes banking, tourism, commerce and real estate. Increase of Emirati purchasing power and governmental expenditures in infrastructure projects have considerably increased. Internationally, UAE is ranked among the top 20 for globalservice business, according toAT Kearney, the top 30 on theWEF\"most-networked countries\" and in the top quarter as a least corrupt country per theTI'scorruption index. The government of theUnited Arab Emiratesannounced a broad restructuring and merger of more than 50% of its federal agencies, including ministries and departments, in an attempt to deal with and recover from the economic shocks following months-longcoronaviruslockdown. Historical background Before independence from theUnited Kingdomand unification in 1971, each emirate was responsible for its own economy. At the time,pearl diving,seafaringandfishingwere together the mainstay of the economy, until the development of Japanesecultured pearlsand the discovery of commercial quantities of oil.Previous UAE PresidentZayed Bin Sultan Al Nahyanis credited with bringing the country forward into the 20th century and using the revenue from oil exports to fund all the necessary development. Likewise, former UAE vice-presidentRashid bin Saeed Al Maktoumhad a bold vision for the Emirate of Dubai and foresaw the future in not petroleum alone, but also other industries. In the 1980s Dubai's diversification centred around trade and the creation of shipping and logistics centres, notablyPort Rashidand the port and Free Zone ofJebel Alias well asDubai International Airport,leading to a number of major global plays in shipping, transportation and logistics (DP World,Emirates,DNATA). Recent history The emergence of Dubai's lively real estate market was briefly checked by theglobal financial crisisof 2007–8, when Dubai was bailed out by Abu Dhabi.The recovery from the overheated market led to tighter regulation and oversight and a more realistic market for real estate throughout the UAE with many 'on hold' projects restarting. Although the market continues to expand, current market conditions for developers have been characterised as 'tough'. As a result ofCOVID-19 pandemic, the UAE’s economy shrank by 6.1% in 2020.The country’s account balance dropped to six per cent of GDP in 2020 from 8.5 per cent in 2019 due to the underperformance of both hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon exports mitigated by lower imports. In late 2021, the authority announced that UAE’s banking assets are expected to grow by between 8 per cent and 10 per cent in 2022 as the second-biggest Arab economy continues to recover from the covid-19 pandemic.It was also announced the UAE’s economy might grow at a faster than projected rate, reaching 4.6% in 2022. Data The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2024 (with IMF estimates between 2022-2028). (Bil. US$ nomina) (US$ nominal) (Bil. US$, PPP) (US$, PPP) (real) (% of GDP) External trade Withimportstotaling $273.5 billion in 2012, UAE passed Saudi Arabia as the largest consumer market in the region. Exports totaled $314 billion, making UAE the second largestexporterin the region. UAE andIndiaare each other's main trading partners, with the latter having many of its citizens working andliving in the former. The trade totals over $75 billion (AED275.25 billion). In 2021, the main export partners of the UAE were India (14.2%),Japan(8.3%), China (mainland) (7.7%),Saudi Arabia(7.5%),Iraq(4.8%),Singapore(4.0%), theEuropean Union(4.0%),Oman(3.8%),Hong Kong(3.4%), andThailand(3.0%). The main import partners in 2012 were China (17.3%), the European Union (12.1%),India(9.4%), the United States (5.5%), Saudi Arabia (5.2%), the United Kingdom (2.8%),Mali(2.7%),Japan(2.6%),Turkey(2.1%), andVietnam(2.0%). Diversification of UAE's economy Although UAE has the mostdiversified economyin theGCC, the UAE's economy remains extremely reliant on oil.With the exception of Dubai, most of the UAE is dependent on oil revenues.Petroleumandnatural gascontinue to play a central role in the economy, especially inAbu Dhabi. More than 85% of the UAE's economy was based on the oil exports in 2009.While Abu Dhabi and other UAE emirates have remained relatively conservative in their approach to diversification, Dubai, which has far smaller oil reserves, was bolder in its diversification policy.In 2011, oil exports accounted for 77% of the UAE's state budget. Dubai suffered from a significant economic crisis in 2007–2010 and was bailed out by Abu Dhabi's oil wealth. Dubai's current prosperity has been attributed to Abu Dhabi'spetrodollars.In 2014, Dubai owed a total of $142 billion in debt.The UAE government has worked towards reducing the economy's dependence on oil exports by 2030.Various projects are underway to help achieve this, the most recent being theKhalifa Port, opened in the Emirate ofAbu Dhabiat the end of 2012. The UAE has also won the right to host the World Expo 2020, which is believed to have a positive effect on future growth, although there are some skeptics which mention the opposite. Over the decades, the Emirate ofDubaihas started to look for additional sources of revenue. High-class tourism and international finance continue to be developed. In line with this initiative, theDubai International Financial Centrewas announced, offering 55.5% foreign ownership, nowithholding tax, freehold land and office space and a tailor-madefinancial regulatory systemwith laws taken from best practice in other leading financial centers like New York, London, Zürich and Singapore.A new stock market for regional companies and other initiatives were announced in DIFC. Dubai has also developed Internet and Media free zones, offering 100% foreign ownership, no tax office space for the world's leading ICT and media companies, with the latest communications infrastructure to service them. Many of the world's leading companies have now set up branch offices, and even changed headquarters to, there. Recent liberalization in the property market allowing non citizens to buy freehold land has resulted in a major boom in the construction and real estate sectors, with several signature developments such as the 2Palm Islands,the World (archipelago), Dubai Marina, Jumeirah Lake Towers, and a number of other developments, offering villas and high rise apartments and office space. Emirates (part of the Emirates Group) was formed by the Dubai Government in the 1980s and is presently one of the few airlines to witness strong levels of growth. Emirates is also the largest operator of theAirbus A380aircraft. As of 2001, budgeted government revenues were aboutAED29.7 billion, and expenditures were about AED 22.9 billion. In addition, to finding new ways of sustaining the national economy, the UAE has also made progress in installing new, sustainable methods of generating electricity. This is evidenced by various solar energy initiatives atMasdar Cityand by other renewable energy developments in parts of the country. In addition, the UAE is starting to see the emergence of local manufacturing as new source of economic development, examples of significant government-led investments such asStratainaerospace industry, underMubadalaare successful, while there are also small scale entrepreneurial ventures picking up, such as Zarooq Motors in theautomotive industry. In August 2020, theBarakah nuclear power plant, the first nuclear power plant in theArab world, became operational. In its hard push for economic diversification, the UAE had been increasing its presence in Africa. One of the areas of interest had been clean energy, for which Abu Dhabi’s Masdar built infrastructure, including five wind farms in South Africa, a battery energy storage system inSenegaland solar power facilities inMauritania. Emirati companies were also investing in fossil fuels, whereADNOCpurchased 10% stakes inMozambique’s Rovuma gas basin. UAE’s e& also established a foothold in around 12 countries across Africa. The Emirati companies also entered the mining sector, where Tahnoun bin Zayed’sInternational Holding Companyexpressed investment interests in mines inKenya,TanzaniaandAngola. However, certain investments had also been controversial. Tanzanian authorities were alleged of forcing severalMaasaioff their land for a safari and hunting project of an Emirati firm. A Dubai-based firm, Blue Carbon signed preliminary agreements inLiberia,Tanzania,Kenya,ZambiaandZimbabwe, aiming to generate carbon credits. However, it was accused of attempting to acquire millions of hectares of African forests in a greenwashing attempt. Meanwhile, DP World also invested around $3bn into Africa, and is operating ports from Mozambique in the south toAlgeriain the north andAngolaon theAtlantic. The Emirates had also been alleged of controversial actions in the war zones in Africa, including inLibyaandSudan. Foreign trade Concerning foreign trade, UAE's market is one of the world's most dynamic markets worldwide, placed among the 16 largest exporters and 20 largest importers of commodities.The top five of the Main Partner Countries of the UAE in 2014 are Iran (3.0%), India (2.9%), Saudi Arabia (1.5%), Oman (1.4%) and Switzerland (1.2%). As for the top five of UAE suppliers are China (7.4%), United States (6.4%), India (5.8%), Germany (3.9%) and Japan (3.5%). In 2014, the United Arab Emirates managed to export 380.4bn dominated by four products which arePetroleum oils and oils obtained from bituminous...(19.8%)Diamonds, whether or not worked, but not mounted...(3.4%)Gold in UAE(3.2%) incl. gold plated with platinum, unwrought...Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of...(2.8%). In the same year, the United Arab Emirates imported 298.6 bn dominated by five countries which are China (7.4%), United States (6.4%), India (5.8%), Germany (3.9%), Japan (3.5%). On one hand, the United Arab Emirates managed in 2013 to export 17 bn USD services exported in 2013 dominated by travel (67.13%), transportation (28.13%), Government services (4.74%). On the other hand, it imported 63.9 bn USD of services imported services dominated by transportation (70.68%), travel (27.70%) and government services (1.62%). In September 2021, the UAE announced its plans to aggravate its trade ties with other economies, particularly inAsiaandAfrica. The country indicated that it was looking for inward foreign investments of around $150 billion in the next nine years, that is, by 2030. The Emirates aimed to be one of the world’s ten biggest investment nations. However, it had to face strong competition from its neighbor, Saudi Arabia, creating a broader gap in the once-assumed alliance between the two countries. The Emirati minister of state for foreign trade said, \"Let the Saudis increase the competition. It means the pie is going to be bigger and having a bigger pie means that the UAE share out of this pie is going to be bigger.\" TheEUidentified that the Emirati firms were involved in direct trade of weapon components toRussia. The EU sanctions targeted twoUAE-based companies, I Jet Global and Success Aviation Services, which were exporting dual-use goods. The EU warned that countries that will be used for Russia’s benefit could face a total ban on imports from the EU military and high tech kit. Besides, a trade war with UAE was expected, if it continued trade withRussia. The United Arab Emirates has introduced significant changes to its regulations concerning the promotion and distribution of foreign investment funds within the country. As part of these changes, encapsulated in several decisions by the Securities and Commodities Authority, is that foreign-owned funds can no longer directly advertise or distribute units publicly in the UAE. Instead, these activities are confined to private distribution aimed at Professional Investors and/or Market Counterparties. This shift signifies a strategic move to tighten the circumstances under which foreign funds can interact with UAE-based investors, particularly Retail Customers and Professional Investors, underscoring a push towards a more regulated investment environment. These regulatory updates have also led to changes in the distribution to Professional Investors, as they are now no longer exempt under the Securities and Commodities Authority Rulebook. Only firms licensed by the SCA to conduct the regulated activity of \"Promotion\" are now permitted to promote such funds, and only on a private placement basis. Furthermore, the promotion or distribution of foreign funds to retail investors is outright prohibited, although reverse solicitation from retail investors is not prohibited in itself. All foreign funds to be distributed in the UAE must be registered with the SCA, barring those that can prove documented reverse solicitation. Three Emirati companies were found involved in trade of Iranian petroleum or petrochemical products, and were sanctioned by the US State Department in June 2024. One of the companies was Sea Route Ship Management FZE, which engaged in transport of Iranian petrochemical products as the commercial manager of the vessel ASTRA. The other two firms, Almanac Ship Management LLC and Al Anchor Ship Management FZE were involved in transport of Iranian petroleum products as the commercial manager of the vessels BERENICE PRIDE and PARINE respectively. In July 2024, Samco Petroleum Energy FZE, located inHamriyah Free Zone, was put up for sale for $17.7 million, with a promise to provide a turnkey oil trading operation. The sale emerged amidst the US sanctions imposed on several oil traders in the UAE's free trade zones, particularly Hamriyah, for continuing business with Iran and Russia. In November 2023, OFAC sanctioned a dozen companies in various UAE’s free zones for facilitating the sale of Iranian products in third countries through Sepehr Energy, which is affiliated with Iran's Armed Forces General Staff. In March 2023, more companies operating in the UAE were sanctioned for exporting petrochemical products from Iran’sPersian Gulf Petrochemical Industriesto India and Southeast Asia. The Emirati authorities were also pushed to halt Russian imports and exports via Dubai. In September 2024, the UAE and Australia agreed on a free trade deal, which was expected to increase investment in Australia’s significant mineral and clean energy sectors. The deal was to eliminate tariffs on imports of over 99% of Australian goods. However, Australian unions criticized the deal, highlighting the UAE's poor human rights and labor record, including modern slavery under the kafala system.Michele O'Neilalso expressed concerns regarding the exploitation of migrant workers in the UAE, calling it one of the most repressive regimes with which Australia has entered into a bilateral trade deal. Human Resources and Employment Many buildings were built primarily by workers from South Asia and East Asia.This is generally because the current generation of UAE locals prefer governmental jobs and not private sector employment.On 17 June 2008, there were about 7,500 skilled workers employed at the Burj Khalifa construction site.Press reports indicated in 2006 that skilledcarpentersat the site earned £4.34 a day, and labourers earned £2.84.According to a BBC investigation and aHuman Rights Watchreport, the workers were housed in abysmal conditions, and worked long hours for low pay.During construction, only one construction-related death was reported.However, workplace injuries and fatalities in the UAE are \"poorly documented\", according to Human Rights Watch. In March 2006 about 2,500 workers, upset over buses that were delayed for the end of their shifts, protested and triggered a riot, damaging cars, offices, computers and construction equipment.A Dubai Interior Ministry official said the rioters caused almost £500,000 in damage.Most of the workers involved in the riot returned the following day but refused to work.Workers at Dubai airport also protested. Emiratisation Emiratisationis an initiative by the government of the UAE to employ more UAE Nationals in a meaningful and efficient manner in the public and private sectors.While the program has been in place for more than a decade and results can be seen in the public sector, the private sector is still lagging behind with citizens only representing 0.34% of the private sector workforce. While there is general agreement over the importance of Emiratisation for social, economic and political reasons, there is also some contention as to the impact of localization on organizational efficiency. It is yet unknown whether, and the extent to which, employment of nationals generates returns for MNEs operating in the Middle East. Recent research cautions that localization is not always advantageous for firms operating in the region, and its effectiveness depends on a number of contingent factors. In December 2009 however, a positive impact of UAE citizens in the workplace was identified in a newspaper article citing a yet unpublished study,this advantage being the use of networks within the evolving power structures. Overall, however, uptake in the private sector remains low regardless of significant investments in education, which have reached record levels with education now accounting for 22.5% – or $2.6 billion – of the overall budget planned for 2010.Multiple governmental initiatives are actively promoting Emiratisation by training anyone from high school dropouts to graduates in a multitude of skills needed for the – essentially Western – work environment of the UAE, these initiatives include Tawteen UAE,ENDPor the Abu Dhabi Tawteen Council. There are very few anti-discrimination laws in relation to labour issues, with Emiratis – and otherGCCnationals – being given preference when it comes to employment.Unions are generally banned and workers with any labour issues are advised to be in touch with the Ministry of Labour, instead of protesting or refusing to work. Migrant employees often complain of poor workplace safety and wages based on nationality, although this is being slowly addressed. Beyond directly sponsoring educational initiatives, the Emirates Foundation for Philanthropyis funding major research initiatives into Emiratisation through competitive research grants, allowing universities such asUnited Arab Emirates UniversityorDubai School of Governmentto build and disseminate expertise on the topic. Academics working on various aspects of Emiratisation includePaul Dyer andNatasha Ridgefrom Dubai School of Government,Ingo Forstenlechner from United Arab Emirates University,Kasim Randareefrom the British University of Dubai and Paul Knoglinger from the FHWien. In 2020, economy of the United Arab Emirates became vulnerable to theCOVID-19 pandemic, witnessing an economic shutdown. Among the Emirates,Dubaiwas facing extreme situation, where the expat workers were left jobless. Thousands of theBritonsworking in the city started selling off their possessions to collect money, as the strictvisa regulationsforced them to return to theUK. According to an April 2021 report published by the Democracy Centre for Transparency on theDiscrimination against foreigners and expatriates living in the UAE versus Emirati citizens, despite labor reforms in the UAE, foreigners and skilled or unskilledmigrant workersface discrimination and racializationfrom the citizens of the country. Foreigners and expatriates are often subjected to discrimination at work concerning promotions and wages, orgender inequality. The findings of the DCT concern the organization as the UAE’seconomylargely relies on foreign workers and thus fulfills a crucial international role. The organization demands that the UAE abide by universalhuman rightsprinciples. The 31st edition of World Report 2021 released by Human Rights Watch reiterates that labour abuses driven by an exploitative kafala system are persistent in the UAE. During the Covid-19 pandemic, migrant workers faced massive unemployment issues and were also left stranded in dire conditions without legal residencies. Also, many migrants suffered wage theft and were unable to pay rent or buy food. Investment The stockmarket capitalizationof listed companies in the UAE was valued at $109.9 billion in October 2012 byBloomberg. Outward investment A investment institutions were created by the government to promotemanage investmentsmade by the UAE abroad: Abu Dhabi Investment Authority (ADIA) Inward investment The UAE is in the 17th position in term of theGlobal Competitiveness Index(GCI). The report says that the UAE competitiveness stems from \"high quality infrastructure\" and \"highly efficientgood markets.\" Corporate Governance Code TheSecurities and Commodities Authority(SCA) introduced a new corporate governance regulation (the Corporate Governance Code), which applies to all joint stock companies and institutions whose securities are listed onDubai Financial Market(DFM) andAbu Dhabi Securities Exchange(ADX) in 2009. Banking On 19 June 2020, rating agencyMoody'schanged its outlook regarding eight banks in theUnited Arab Emiratesfrom stable to negative. The change was due to \"the potential material weakening in their standalone credit profiles\", where the UAE's economy was facing additional challenges amidst theCOVID-19 pandemicand low oil prices. The eight banks includedAbu Dhabi Commercial Bank,Emirates NBD,HSBC Bank Middle East,Dubai Islamic Bank,Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank,National Bank of Fujairah,National Bank of Ras al-KhaimahandMashreq Bank. TheFitch Ratingsin its 22 June 2020 report predicted that the Standalone Credit Profiles ofUAE-based banks are to possibly weaken in the following year owing to the financial crisis caused by thecoronaviruspandemic and oil price collapse. As per the Fitch report, despite the implementation of timely measures for supporting theeconomy, the profitability of banks in the UAE are prone to get affected by a lower non-interest income worsened by a controlled business volume, lower interest rates, and higher loan recovery charges. In addition, the asset quality is expected to weaken, too, following the unbearable impact of the economic downturn that all borrowers may not be able to withstand. Real estate The development in thereal estateand infrastructure sectors during the recent year has contributed in making the country a global touristic destination. The contribution of tourism in the Emirati GDP increased from 3% in the mid-1990s to more than 16.5% by the end of 2010. This trend is supported by the huge public investments in touristic projects (47 Billion Dollars per annum) carried mainly to expend airports, increase their capacity, set up new airports and ports. The real estate sector have a positive impact on development, job opportunities, investments and tourism as estate projects were launched to meet the needs of market and the increasing demand for housing and commercial units especially in Dubai and Abu Dhabi. The UAE has about 37% of the region's petroleum and gas industries, chemical industries, energy and water and garbage projects. The UAE's government have been injecting huge funds in tourism and real estate projects, especially in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. Al Saadiyat Island in Abu Dhabi and Burj Khalifa in Dubai, the tallest tower in the world, world central near \"Jebel Ali\" are a point in case of the milestones that have given the UAE its high profile of a global tourist destination. According to 2013–2014Global Competitiveness Report, the UAE ranked fourth worldwide in terms of infrastructure quality. On 28 November 2020, theAbu DhabiMedia Office announced that the government of United Arab Emirates, ahead of the 49thNational Day, granted house loans, land and homes worth $2 billion (7.2 billion dirhams) to their citizens. The package is said to consist 3,099 plots, 2,000 house loans and 601 homes and exempting some families of the deceased citizens and retirees from the repayment ofmortgage. The Director General of the Abu Dhabi Housing Society, Basheer Al Mehairbi said the initiative of providing sustainable housing aimed at ensuring a good standard of living for the citizens of the UAE. Real-estate projects Some of the significant real-estate projects are: Financial centers Among the most prominent financial centers in the UAE are: Regional GDP Data shown are for the year 2023 in nominal numbers. See also Notes References External links World portal"
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"Manchester City F.C. Manchester City Football Club, commonly referred to asManchester City,Man Cityor simplyCity,is a professionalfootballclub based inManchester, England. The club competes in thePremier League, the top tier ofEnglish football. Founded in 1880 asSt. Mark's (West Gorton), they becameArdwick Association Football Clubin 1887 andManchester Cityin 1894. The club's home ground is theCity of Manchester Stadiumin east Manchester, to which they moved in 2003, having played atMaine Roadsince 1923. Manchester City adopted theirsky bluehome shirts in 1894, the first season with the current name.Over the course of its history, the club has won 10league titles, sevenFA Cups, eightLeague Cups, sevenFA Community Shields, oneUEFA Champions League, oneEuropean Cup Winners' Cup, oneUEFA Super Cupand oneFIFA Club World Cup. Manchester City joined theFootball Leaguein1892, and won their first major honour, theFA Cup, in1904. The club had its first major period of success in the late 1960s and early 1970s, winning",
"1970s, winning theleaguetitle,FA Cup,League Cup, andEuropean Cup Winners Cupunder the management ofJoe MercerandMalcolm Allison. After losing the1981 FA Cup final, Manchester City went through a period of decline, culminating inrelegationto the third tier of English football for the only time in their history in1998. They since regained promotion to the top tier in2001–02and have remained a fixture in the Premier League since2002–03. Manchester City received considerable financial investment both in playing staff and facilities following their takeover bySheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyanthrough theAbu Dhabi United Groupin August 2008.This started a new era of unprecedented success, with the club winning the FA Cup in2011and the Premier League in2012, both their first since the 1960s, followed by another league title in2014. Under the management ofPep Guardiola, Manchester City won the Premier League in2018, becoming the only team in the competition history toattain 100 pointsin a single season. In2018–19,",
"season. In2018–19, theywon four trophies, completing an unprecedented sweep of all domestic titles in England and becoming the first English men's team to win thedomestic treble.This was followed by four consecutive Premier League titles in2020–21,2021–22,2022–23and2023–24, as well as the club's first-everChampions League finalin2021, which they lost toChelsea. The2022–23 seasonsaw Manchester City win their maidenEuropean Cupand complete thecontinental treblein the process, becoming the second English club to do so.The club is ranked first in theUEFA coefficient standingsas of 2023. Manchester City were listed in theDeloitte Football Money Leagueat the end of the 2022–23 season, making them the football club with the second highest revenue in the world, approximated at€825 million.In 2022,Forbesestimated the club was thesixth-most valuablein the world, worth$4.250 billion.Manchester City are owned byCity Football Group Limited, aholding companyvalued at £3.73 ($4.8) billion in November 2019 and",
"November 2019 and majority-owned by theAbu Dhabi United Group. History Early years and first trophies City gained their first honours by winning theSecond Divisionin1899; with it came promotion to the highest level in English football, theFirst Division. They went on to claim their first major honour on23 April 1904, beatingBolton Wanderers1–0 atCrystal Palaceto win theFA Cup; the Blues narrowly missed out on aLeague and Cup doublethat season after finishing runners-up in theleague campaign, but they still became the first club in Manchester to win a major honour.: 32 In the seasons following the FA Cup triumph, the club was dogged by allegations of financial irregularities, culminating in the suspension of seventeen players in 1906, including captainBilly Meredith, who subsequently moved across town toManchester United.: 59–65A fire atHyde Roaddestroyed the main stand in 1920, and in 1923 the club moved to their new purpose-built stadium atMaine RoadinMoss Side. In the 1930s, Manchester City reached two",
"City reached two consecutive FA Cup finals, losing toEvertonin1933, before claiming the Cup by beatingPortsmouthin1934.: 31–33During the 1934 run, the club broke the record for thehighest home attendanceof any club in English football history, as 84,569 fans packed Maine Road for a sixth-round FA Cup tie againstStoke City– a record which stood until 2016.The club won the First Division title for the first time in 1937, but were relegated the following season, despite scoring more goals than any other team in the division.Twenty years later, a City team inspired by a tactical system known as theRevie Planreached consecutive FA Cup finals again, in1955and1956; just as in the 1930s, they lost the first one, toNewcastle United, and won the second. The 1956 final, in which the Blues defeatedBirmingham City3–1, saw City goalkeeperBert Trautmanncontinuing to play on after unknowingly breaking his neck. First golden era and subsequent decline After being relegated to the Second Division in1963, the future looked",
"the future looked bleak with a record low home attendance of 8,015 againstSwindon Townin January 1965.: 57In the summer of 1965, the management team ofJoe MercerandMalcolm Allisonwas appointed. In the first season under Mercer, Manchester City won theSecond Division titleand made important signings inMike SummerbeeandColin Bell.: 27–36The 1965-66 season also saw City field a Black player for the first time when Stan Horne made his debut on 22 September 1965 in an away game againstLeicester City.Two seasons later, in1967–68, City claimed theleague championshipfor the second time, beating their close neighbours Manchester United to the title on the final day of the season with a 4–3 victory at Newcastle United.: 37–56Further trophies followed: City won the FA Cup in1969and a year later triumphed in theEuropean Cup Winners' Cup, defeatingGórnik Zabrze2–1 in the1970 final. This was the club's only European honour until their triumph in the2022–23 UEFA Champions League.The Blues also won theLeague Cupthat year,",
"Cupthat year, becoming the second English team to win a European trophy and a domestic trophy in the same season. The club continued to challenge for honours throughout the 1970s, finishing one point behind the league champions on two occasions and reaching thefinalof the1974 League Cup.: 410–420One of the matches from this period that is most fondly remembered by supporters of Manchester City is the final match of the1973–74 seasonagainstarch-rivalsManchester United, who needed to win to have any hope of avoiding relegation. Former United playerDenis Lawscored with a backheel to give City a 1–0 win at Old Trafford and confirm the relegation of their rivals.: 70The final trophy of the club's most successful period of the 20th century was won in 1976, when Newcastle United were beaten 2–1 in theLeague Cup final. A long period of decline followed the success of the 1960s and 1970s. Malcolm Allison rejoined the club to become manager for the second time in 1979, but squandered large sums of money on several",
"of money on several unsuccessful signings, such asSteve Daley.A succession of managers then followed – seven in the 1980s alone. UnderJohn Bond, City reached the1981 FA Cup finalbut lost in a replay toTottenham Hotspur. The club were twice relegated from the top flight in the 1980s (in1983and1987), but returned to the top flight again in1989and finished fifth in1991and1992under the management ofPeter Reid.: 68However, this was only a temporary respite, and following Reid's departure Manchester City's fortunes continued to fade. City were co-founders of thePremier Leagueupon its creation in1992, but after finishing ninth in its first season they endured three years of struggle before being relegated in1996. After two seasons in the First Division,City fell to the lowest point in their history, becoming the second ever European trophy winners to be relegated to their country's third-tier league after1. FC Magdeburgof Germany. Recovery and two takeovers After relegation, the club underwent off-the-field",
"off-the-field upheaval, with new chairmanDavid Bernsteinintroducing greater fiscal discipline.Under managerJoe Royle, City were promoted at the first attempt, achieved in dramatic fashion in theSecond Division play-off finalagainstGillingham.Asecond successive promotionsaw City return to the top division, but this proved to have been a step too far for the recovering club, and in2001City were relegated once more.Kevin Keeganreplaced Royle as manager in the close season, and achieved an immediate return to the top division as the club won the2001–02 First Division championship, breaking club records for the number of points gained and goals scored in a single season in the process.: 265The2002–03 seasonwas the last at Maine Road and included a 3–1 derby victory over rivals Manchester United, ending a 13-year run without aderbywin.Additionally, City qualified for European competition for the first time in 25 years viaUEFA fair play ranking. In the close2003–04 season, the club moved to the newCity of",
"to the newCity of Manchester Stadium. The first four seasons at the stadium all resulted in mid-table finishes. Former England managerSven-Göran Erikssonbecame the club's first foreign manager when appointed in2007.After a bright start, performances faded in the second half of the season, and Eriksson was sacked on 2 June 2008;he was replaced byMark Hughestwo days later. By 2008, Manchester City were in a financially precarious position.Thaksin Shinawatrahad taken control of the club the year before, but his political travails saw his assets frozen.Then, in August 2008, City were purchased by theAbu Dhabi United Group. The takeover was immediately followed by a flurry of bids for high-profile players; the club broke the British transfer record by signingBrazilian internationalRobinhofromReal Madridfor £32.5 million.There was not a huge improvement in performance compared to the previous season despite the influx of money however, with the teamfinishing tenth, although they did well to reach the",
"well to reach the quarter-finals of theUEFA Cup. During the summer of 2009, the club took transfer spending to an unprecedented level, with an outlay of over £100 million on playersGareth Barry,Roque Santa Cruz,Kolo Touré,Emmanuel Adebayor,Carlos Tevez, andJoleon Lescott.In December 2009, Mark Hughes – who had been hired shortly before the change in ownership but was originally retained by the new board – was replaced as manager byRoberto Mancini.City finished theseasonin fifth position in thePremier League, narrowly missing out on a place in theChampions Leaguebut qualifying for theUEFA Europa League. The second golden era and continued success under Pep Guardiola Continued investment in players followed in successive seasons, and results began to match the upturn in player quality. City reached theFA Cup finalin 2011, their first major final in over 30 years, after defeating derby rivals Manchester United in the semi-finals,the first time they had knocked their rival out of a cup competition since 1975.",
"since 1975. The Blues defeatedStoke City1–0 in the final, securing their fifth FA Cup and the club's first major trophy since winning the 1976 League Cup. On the last day of the2010–11 season, City beat outArsenalfor the third place, thereby securing qualification directly into the Champions League group stage. Strong performances continued to follow in the2011–12 season, including a 5–1 victory over Tottenham atWhite Hart Laneand a record-equalling6–1 winover Manchester United atOld Trafford, but a poor run of form in the second half of the season left City in second place, eight points behind United with only six games left to play. At this point, United suffered their own loss of form, dropping eight points in the space of four games, while City began a run of successive wins which saw both teams level on points with two games to go. Despite the Blues only needing a home win againstQueens Park Rangers, a team in the relegation zone, they fell 1–2 behind by the end of normal time. However, two goals in",
"two goals in injury time –the second by Sergio Agüero in the fourth added minute– settled the title in City's favour, making them the first team to win the Premier League on goal difference alone. Thefollowing season, City were unable to replicate the previous year's success. After finishing second in theleague, eleven points behind Manchester United, and losing theFA Cup final0–1 to relegatedWigan Athletic,Mancini was sacked.He was replaced by Chilean managerManuel Pellegrini.In Pellegrini'sfirst yearin charge, City won theLeague Cupand regained thePremier League titleon the last matchday of the season.The team's league form then slowly declined over the next couple of years, as the Blues finished second in2014–15and then dropped to fourth in2015–16, although the2015–16 seasonwould see City winanother League Cup titleand reach theChampions Leaguesemi-finals for the first time. Pep Guardiola, former head coach ofBarcelonaandBayern Munich, was confirmed to become Manchester City's new manager on 1 February",
"on 1 February 2016,with the announcement having been made several months before Manuel Pellegrini left his position. Guardiola'sfirst seasonin Manchester would end trophyless, with the Blues placing third in theleaguestandings,but thefollowing seasonproved far more successful, as City won thePremier Leaguetitle with the highest points total in history and broke numerous otherclubandEnglish league recordsalong the way. This would prove to be the start of a period of unprecedented success for Manchester City under Guardiola. Between the 2017–18 and2023–24 Premier Leagueseasons, City won six out of possible seven league titles, only finishing second behindLiverpoolin the2019–20 season.Guardiola also guided the Blues to silverware in domestic cup competitions, highlighted by four consecutive League Cup triumphs in 2018–2021.During the2018–19 season, City completed an unprecedenteddomestic trebleof English men's titles.Apart from winning all three of the major English football tournaments, they also won",
"they also won theCommunity Shield, the first time any team has ever held all four of England's primary football trophies at the same time.On the continental stage, the club achieved breakthrough in2020–21, reaching their first-everChampions League final.In an all-English affair, City lost 0–1 toChelseaat theEstádio do DragãoinPorto. The2022–23 seasonturned out to be the greatest in the club's history, as Manchester City won their third consecutive Premier League title, theFA Cup finalagainst rivals Manchester United, and their maidenChampions League titleat theAtatürk Olympic StadiuminIstanbulagainstInter Milan, thereby assembling a rare feat – thecontinental treble. The road to the Champions League victory included wins over European giants Bayern Munich, who were defeated 4–1 on aggregate,and Real Madrid, who suffered a 1–5 aggregate loss at the hands of City.The followingseasonsaw less success for Manchester City, yet they became the first English men's club to win four consecutive league titles, and",
"league titles, and prior to that the2023 UEFA Super Cupand the2023 FIFA Club World Cup. Manchester City's era of sustained competitive excellence coincided with charges of breachingFinancial Fair Play(FFP) regulations. In 2020, theCourt of Arbitration for Sport(CAS) ruled that sanctions placed on the club byUEFAwere not justified, overturning City's two-year European ban.In 2023, the Premier League announced its own investigation of the allegations levied against Manchester City, charging the club with 115 breaches of its FFP rules up to the 2017–18 season.In 2024, Manchester City initiated legal action against the Premier League. The club claims that the league's Associated Party Transaction rules are unlawful and are seeking damages from the league. League history Club badge and colours Manchester City's home colours are sky blue and white. Traditional awaykitcolours have been either maroon or (from the 1960s) red and black; however, in recent years several colours have been used. The origins of the club's",
"of the club's home colours are unclear, but there is evidence that the club has worn blue since 1892 or earlier. A booklet entitledFamous Football Clubs – Manchester Citypublished in the 1940s indicates that West Gorton (St. Marks) originally played in scarlet and black, and reports dating from 1884 describe the team wearing black jerseys bearing a white cross, showing the club's origins as a church side.: 14–15The infrequent yet recurrent use of red and black away colours comes from former assistant managerMalcolm Allison's belief that adopting the colours ofAC Milanwould inspire City to glory.Allison's theory seemingly took effect, with City winning the1969 FA Cup final,1970 League Cup final, and1970 Cup Winners' Cup finalin red and black stripes as opposed to the club's home kit of sky blue. City had previously worn three otherbadgeson their shirts, prior to their current badge being implemented in 2016. The first, introduced in 1970, was based on designs which had been used on official club documentation",
"club documentation since the mid-1960s. It consisted of a circular badge which used the same shield as the present badge (including a ship, based on theCity of Manchester coat of arms), inside a circle bearing the name of the club. In 1972, this was replaced by a variation which replaced the lower half of the shield with the red rose of Lancashire. In 1976, aheraldic badgewas granted by theCollege of Armsto theEnglish Football Leaguefor use by City. The badge consisted of the familiar ship above a red rose but on a circular device instead of a shield (blazoned as \"A roundel per fess azure and argent in chief a three masted ship sails set pennons flying or in base a rose gules barbed and seeded proper\"). On occasions when Manchester City played in a major cup final, the club wore shirts bearing the City of Manchester coat of arms, as a symbol of pride in representing the city at a major event. This practice originated from a time when the players' shirts did not normally bear a badge of any kind.: 21The club",
"kind.: 21The club has since abandoned the practice; for the2011 FA Cup final, its first in the 21st century, City used the usual badge with a special legend, but the Manchester coat of arms was included as a small monochrome logo in the numbers on the back of players' shirts. A new club badge was adopted in 1997, as a result of the previous badge being ineligible for registration as a trademark. This badge was based on thearmsof the city ofManchester, and consisted of a shield in front of agolden eagle. The eagle is an old heraldic symbol of the city of Manchester; a golden eagle was added to the city's badge in 1958 (but had since been removed), representing the growing aviation industry. The shield featured a ship on its upper half representing theManchester Ship Canal, and three diagonal stripes in the lower half symbolised the city's three rivers – theIrwell, theIrkand theMedlock. The bottom of the badge bore the motto \"Superbia in Proelio\", which translates as \"Pride in Battle\" inLatin. Above the eagle",
"Above the eagle and shield were the three stars, added for decorative purposes. On 15 October 2015, following years of criticism from the fans over the design of the 1997 badge,the club announced they intended to carry out a fan consultation on whether to discontinue the current badge and institute a new design.After the consultation, the club announced in late November 2015 the badge would be replaced in due course by a new version which would be designed in the style of the older, circular variants.A design purporting to be the new badge was unintentionally leaked two days early prior to the official unveiling on 26 December 2015 by theIPOwhen the design was trademarked on 22 December.The new badge was officially unveiled at Manchester City's home match againstSunderlandon 26 December. Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors Kit deals Players First-team squad Note: Flags indicate national team as defined underFIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. EDS and Academy The",
"EDS and Academy The following players have previously made appearances or have appeared on the substitutes bench for the first team. Note: Flags indicate national team as defined underFIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Out on loan Note: Flags indicate national team as defined underFIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Retired numbers Since 2003, Manchester City have not issued the squad number 23. It wasretiredin memory ofMarc-Vivien Foé, who was on loan to the club fromLyonat the time of his death on the field of play while playing forCameroonin the2003 FIFA Confederations Cup. Note: Flags indicate national team as defined underFIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Club captains This is a list of City's officialclub captains, who are currently appointed via a vote of players and staff. Other players (vice-captains) have led the team on the pitch when the club captain is not playing or not",
"not playing or not available. Some players have been made captain on a one-off basis to celebrate or commemorate an event, e.g.Oleksandr Zinchenkocaptained the team in their2021–22 FA Cup fifth round tieatPeterborough Unitedin support of his country during the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Player of the Year Each season since the end of the1966–67 season, the members of theManchester City Official Supporters Clubhave voted by ballot to choose the player on the team they feel is the most worthy of recognition for his performances during that season. The following table lists the recipients of this award since 2000. Sources: Halls of Fame Manchester City Hall of Fame The following former Manchester City players and managers have been inducted into theManchester City F.C. Hall of Fame, and are listed according to the year of their induction: National Football Museum Hall of Fame The following former Manchester City players and managers have been inducted into theEnglish Football Hall of Fame(a.k.a.",
"Hall of Fame(a.k.a. theNational Football Museum Hall of Fame), and are listed according to the year of their induction within the various categories: Last updated: 21 July 2021.Source:list of NFM Hall of Fame inductees Premier League Hall of Fame The following former Manchester City players have been inducted into thePremier League Hall of Fame. Inaugurated in 2020, but delayed for a year due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, the Hall of Fame is intended to recognise and honour players that have achieved great success and made a significant contribution to the league since itsfounding in 1992. Last updated: 22 April 2024.Source:list of PL Hall of Fame inductees Scottish Football Museum Hall of Fame The following former Manchester City players and managers have been inducted into theScottish Football Hall of Fame(a.k.a. theScottish Football Museum Hall of Fame), and are listed according to the year of their induction within the various categories: Last updated: 30 March 2011.Source:list of SFM Hall of Fame inductees",
"of Fame inductees Welsh Sports Hall of Fame The following former Manchester City players have been inducted into theWelsh Sports Hall of Fame, and are listed according to the year of their induction: Non-playing staff Executive Coaching Source: Notable managers Supporters Since moving to the City of Manchester Stadium, the club's average attendances have been in the top six in England,usually in excess of 40,000. Even in the late 1990s, when City were relegated twice in three seasons and playing in the third tier of English football (then theSecond Division, now theEFL League One), home attendances were in the region of 30,000, compared to an average of fewer than 8,000 for the division.Research carried out by Manchester City in 2005 estimated a fanbase of 886,000 in the United Kingdom and a total in excess of 2 million worldwide, although since the purchase of the club by Sheikh Mansour, and City's recent achievements, that figure has since ballooned to many times that size. Manchester City's officially",
"City's officially recognised supporters club is the Manchester City F.C. Supporters Club (1949), formed by a merger of two existing organisations in 2010: the Official Supporters Club (OSC) and the Centenary Supporters Association (CSA).City fans' song of choice is a rendition of \"Blue Moon\", which despite its melancholic theme is belted out with gusto as though it were a heroic anthem. City supporters tend to believe that unpredictability is an inherent trait of their team, and label unexpected results \"typical City\".Events that fans regard as \"typical City\" include the club being the only reigning English champions ever to be relegated (in1938), the only team to score and concede over 100 goals in the same season (1957–58),or the more recent example where Manchester City were the only team to beatChelseain the latter's record-breaking2004–05 Premier League season, yet in the same season City were knocked out of theFA CupbyOldham Athletic, a team two divisions lower. In the late 1980s, City fans started a",
"City fans started a craze of bringinginflatableobjects to matches, primarily oversized bananas. One disputed explanation for the phenomenon is that in a match againstWest Bromwich Albion, chants from fans calling for the introduction ofImre Varadias a substitute mutated into \"Imre Banana\". Terraces packed with inflatable-waving supporters became a frequent sight in the1988–89 season, as the craze spread to other clubs (inflatable fish were seen atGrimsby Town), with the craze reaching its peak at City's match atStoke Cityon 26 December 1988, a game declared by fanzines as a fancy dress party.In 2010, Manchester City supporters adopted an exuberant dance, dubbedThe Poznań, from fans of Polish clubLech Poznańthat they played in theEuropa League.In 2022, Manchester City proposed the release of theConnected Scarf, that would contain a sensor tracking physiological and emotional data of the wearer, for supporters in 2023. Rivalries Manchester City's biggest rivalry is with neighboursManchester United, against",
"United, against whom they contest theManchester derby. Before theSecond World War, when travel to away games was rare, many Mancunian football fans regularly watched both teams even if considering themselves \"supporters\" of only one. This practice continued into the early 1960s but as travel became easier, and the cost of entry to matches rose, watching both teams became unusual and the rivalry intensified. A common stereotype is that City fans come from Manchester proper, while United fans come from elsewhere. A 2002 report by a researcher atManchester Metropolitan Universityfound that while it was true that a higher proportion of City season ticket holders came from Manchesterpostcodeareas (40% compared to United's 29%), there were more United season ticket holders, the lower percentage being due to United's higher overall number of season ticket holders (27,667 compared to City's 16,481). The report noted that since the compiling of data in 2001, the number of both City and United season ticket holders",
"ticket holders had risen; expansion of United's ground and City's move to the City of Manchester Stadium have caused season ticket sales to increase further. Over the last few years, Manchester City has also developed anotable rivalrywithLiverpool,currently considered one of the biggest in association football.Though the two clubs had been involved in a title race in the1976–77 season, Liverpool and City's modern rivalry began in the 2010s, with the Blues beating Liverpool to the2013–14 titleby just two points on the final day of the season.In thefinalof the2015–16 League Cup, City defeated Liverpool onpenaltiesafter a 1–1 draw. The two clubs met in European competition for the first time in the2017–18 Champions Leaguequarter-finals, where Liverpool won5–1 on aggregate, ultimately reaching thefinaland thenwinning the competitiona year later.In the2018–19 season, City again won the title on the final day, with the Blues' 98 points and Liverpool's 97 being the third- and fourth-highest Premier League points",
"League points totals ever.Thefollowing season, Liverpool clinched the title, recording 99 points (the second-highest Premier League total ever after Manchester City's 100 in2017–18) to finish 18 points above runners-up City. The Blues then regained the title in2020–21and outgunned Liverpool in another closely-fought title race in2021–22, to finish with 93 points to Liverpool's 92. The success of the two teams in the 2010s and 2020s has led to the development of a rivalry betweenJürgen KloppandPep Guardiola, the managers of Liverpool and Manchester City, with the two previously having been the respective managers ofDer KlassikerrivalsBorussia DortmundandBayern Munichin theBundesliga.At the end of the 2018–19 season, Guardiola described his relationship with Klopp as a \"beautiful rivalry\" and called Klopp's Liverpool team \"the strongest opponents I have faced in my career as a manager\".In September 2019, Klopp hailed Guardiola for being his 'greatest rival ever', after both were nominated for theFIFA Men's",
"for theFIFA Men's Coach of the Yearaward in 2019, which Klopp ultimately won.In a 2019 survey, City fans answered that Liverpool, and not Manchester United, are the club's biggest rivals. Manchester City also have long established local rivalries withBolton Wanderers,Oldham Athletic, andStockport County, and more recent competitive Premier League rivalries withTottenham Hotspur,ChelseaandArsenal. Ownership and finances The holding company of Manchester City F.C., Manchester City Limited, is aprivate limited company, with approximately 54 million shares in issue. The club has been in private hands since 2007, when the major shareholders agreed to sell their holdings to UK Sports Investments Limited (UKSIL), a company controlled by former Thailand prime ministerThaksin Shinawatra. UKSIL then made a formal offer to buy the shares held by several thousands of small shareholders. Prior to the Thaksin takeover, the club was listed on the specialist independent equity market PLUS (formerly OFEX),where it had been",
"it had been listed since 1995. On 6 July 2007, having acquired 75% of the shares, Thaksin de-listed the club and re-registered it as a private company.By August, UKSIL had acquired over 90% of the shares and exercised its rights under the Companies Act to \"squeeze out\" the remaining shareholders, and acquire the entire shareholding. Thaksin Shinawatra became chairman of the club and two of Thaksin's children, Pintongta andOak Chinnawatbecame directors. Former chairman John Wardle stayed on the board for a year, but resigned in July 2008 followingNikeexecutiveGarry Cook'sappointment as executive chairman in May.The club made a pre-tax loss of £11m in the fiscal year ending 31 May 2007, the final year for which the club published accounts as a public company. Thaksin's purchase prompted a period of transfer spending at the club,in total around £30 million,whereas over the several previous seasons Manchester City's net spending had been among the lowest in the Premier League. A year later, this investment was",
"this investment was dwarfed by an influx of money derived from the club's takeover. On 1 September 2008,Abu Dhabi-basedAbu Dhabi United Group Investment and Development Limitedcompleted the takeover of Manchester City. The deal, worth a reported £200 million, was announced on the morning of 1 September. It sparked various transfer \"deadline-day\" rumours and bids such as the club's attempt togazumpManchester United's protracted bid to signDimitar BerbatovfromTottenham Hotspurfor a fee in excess of £30 million.Minutes before the transfer window closed, the club signedRobinhofromReal Madridfor aBritish record transfer feeof £32.5 million.The wealth of the new owners meant that, in the summer of 2009, City were able to finance the purchase of experienced international players prior to thenew season, spending more than any other club in the Premier League. City Football Group Created in the 2013–14 season to manage the global footballing interests of theAbu Dhabi United Group,City Football Group(CFG) is an",
"Group(CFG) is an umbrella corporation owning stakes in a network of global clubs for the purposes of resource sharing, academy networking and marketing. CFG ownership Through City Football Group, Manchester City owns stakes in a number of clubs: Partner clubs Stadium TheCity of Manchester Stadiumin east Manchester, known as theEtihad Stadiumsince 2011 for sponsorship reasons, is on a 200-yearleasefromManchester City Councilto Manchester City. It has been the club's home since the end of the2002–03 season, when City moved fromMaine Road.Before moving to the stadium, the club spent in excess of £30 million to convert it to football use: the pitch was lowered, adding another tier of seating around it, and a new North Stand was constructed.The inaugural match at the new stadium was a 2–1 win overBarcelonain afriendly match.A 7,000-seat third tier on the South Stand was completed in time for the start of the2015–16 football season, increasing the stadium's capacity to 55,097. A North Stand third tier is in",
"third tier is in development, potentially increasing capacity to around 61,000. After playing home matches at five stadiums between 1880 and 1887, the club settled atHyde Road Football Stadium, its home for 36 years.A fire destroyed the Main Stand in 1920, and the club moved to the 84,000 capacity Maine Road three years later. Maine Road, nicknamed the \"Wembley of the North\" by its designers, hosted the largest-ever crowd at an English club ground when 84,569 attended anFA Cuptie against Stoke City on 3 March 1934.Though Maine Road was redeveloped several times over its 80-year lifespan, by 1995 its capacity was restricted to 32,000, prompting the search for a new ground which culminated in the move to the City of Manchester Stadium in 2003; it was renamed the Etihad Stadium in 2011. Honours Based on trophy count, Manchester City are one ofthe most successful teams in England. Their thirty-six major domestic, european and worldwide honours rank them fourth on the list of most decorated sides in England,",
"sides in England, ahead ofChelseawith 34. The club's first major trophy was the1904 FA Cup,though they had previously won three regionalManchester Cupsbefore that point.Their first top division league title came in the1936–37 season,with the firstCharity Shieldwon in the following August.City's firstLeague CupandEuropean trophyboth came at the end of the1969–70 season, the two trophies also constituting the team's first double of any kind.In the2018–19 season, City became the first team to claim all of the major English trophies available in a single season, winning not just thePremier League,FA Cup, andLeague Cup, but also theCommunity Shield. The1970 Cup Winners' Cupvictory remained City's only European trophy until their triumph in the2022–23 UEFA Champions League.They have reached the semi-finals of theChampions Leaguefour times overall, losing in2016, then winning en route to their first-everfinalin2021, losing in2022, and winning en route to their maidenEuropean Cup titlein2023. They are only the",
"They are only the second English club to complete aContinental Treble, in the2022–23 season; and in2023–24became the first English club to win four consecutive league titles. Manchester City used to hold the record formost second division titles, having won the league on seven occasions. Man City's first victory was in1898–99, and the most recent in2001–02.The record was broken byLeicester Cityafter they clinched their eighth title in2023–24. Doubles and Trebles Club records See also References Notes Citations External links Independent websites",
"City Football Group City Football Group Limited(CFG) is a British-basedholding companythat administersassociation footballclubs. The group is owned by three organisations, of which 81% is majority-owned byAbu Dhabi United Group, 18% by the American firmSilver Lake, and 1% by Chinese firmsChina Media CapitalandCITIC Capital.The Abu Dhabi United Group is owned bySheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan,member of theAbu DhabiRoyal Family and Vice President of theUnited Arab Emirates. The group derives its name fromManchester City, its flagship football club, and acts as the club's parent company. CFG also owns stakes in clubs in the United States, Australia, India, Japan, Spain, Brazil, Uruguay, China, Belgium, France, Italy and Turkey. History Founded in 2013, City Football Group is the realisation of a business vision by formerBarcelonaEconomy Vice PresidentFerran Soriano. Soriano first conceived of the ideal of a global football entity while at the Catalan club, beginning with the creation of Barca-branded overseas",
"overseas academies.Soriano contactedMajor League SoccerCommissionerDon Garberabout creating a Barcelona-branded MLS franchise, and the pair progressed as far as looking into several locations to place the team,but ultimately these plans were curtailed when Soriano and seven other members of Barcelona's board chose to resign in protest of then-PresidentJoan Laporta's leadership. After a four-year break from football management, Soriano was hired in late 2012 to replaceGarry Cookas CEO ofManchester Cityfollowing the latter's resignation.Soriano revived his ambitions of creating a global football business entity, beginning by resuming dialogues with Garber.Their discussions resulted in the announcement ofNew York Cityas MLS' 20th expansion side less than one year later in May 2013. In the process of managing the creation of a second football team City Football Group was created,designed to be the holding company to which both Manchester City and NYCFC belonged. CFG expanded at the start of 2014 when it",
"of 2014 when it partnered withRugby leaguesideMelbourne Stormto acquire a controlling stake inA-LeaguefranchiseMelbourne Heartfor 12 millionAustralian dollars.The club would subsequently be rebranded to Melbourne City, and their badge changed as part of CFG's early attempts to synergise their investments with Manchester City as a brand,and the club's colours would slowly be changed to sky blue with their red-and-white stripes retained as away colours. In the weeks following their purchase of Melbourne City, CFG indicated their intentions of investing in women's football by rebranding Manchester City's female affiliate as Manchester City Women's Football Club,and successfully lobbied for the team to be added to the top tier of theFA Women's Super League, promising to invest in women's football on a scale never before seen in England. Later the following year, CFG would grow again with the purchase of a 20% in Japanese sideYokohama F Marinos, the traditional company team of group sponsorNissan. In April 2017,",
"In April 2017, after a near three-year pause in its expansion, City Football Group announced the Uruguayan second-tier sideClub Atletico Torque,who would later be renamed Montevideo City Torque.Several months later, Torque would be followed in by Spanish second division clubGirona,a club with ownership links to incumbent Manchester City managerPep Guardiola. 2019 saw the beginning of an increase in CFG's activity. The purchase of Chinese third division clubShenzhen Peng City(known as Sichuan Jiuniu F.C. at that time)was followed towards the end of the year by a second venture in Asia, when the group bought a controlling stake inIndian Super LeaguefranchiseMumbai City.2020 similarly would see two club purchases in European football, first ofLommelof Belgiumand then ofTroyesof France,with both moves notably seeing the purchased clubs rescued from financial difficultiesand linked to the economic damages wrought by theCOVID-19 pandemic.In the same year they would also expand their business interests by taking",
"interests by taking sole control of US-basedfive-a-side footballbusiness Goals Soccer Centers, a business they had previously invested in, following the near-collapse of the company's owners due to an internal scandal. In March 2022, Dutch second-tier sideNAC Bredaannounced that following an investigation into the best bidders to sell the club's shares, the shareholders of the club had agreed to a sale to CFG.In response, the club's fans held protests both inBredaand alsoManchesterandLommel.A month later, a group of shareholders with key voting rights announced that, in light of the backlash, they had elected instead to sell their shares to a local consortium. Principles and interests Since its inception, commenters have drawn parallels between City Football Group and Ferran Soriano's ideas spelled out in his 2011 bookGoal: The Ball Doesn't Go In By Chance,in which Soriano remarked that the natural evolution of club brands was to expand globally, and that doing so could include the creation of franchise",
"of franchise clubs in foreign leagues.His book continued to expound upon the notion that appealing to foreign fans who had no strongly-ingrained non-domestic allegiances was an important facet of business growth of sporting brands, and that giving those fans a domestic side to support alongside and affiliated to their European club could encourage more loyalty from them.This idea would be termed \"Disneyfication\" by ProfessorSimon Chadwick,an expert in Eurasian sport atEmlyon Business Schooland himself a confidant of Soriano. Branding and player development Early growth in the group focused on teams sharing a common identity and an associated brand, which aligned with the traditional identity of Manchester City and was viewed as a key way of helping the Manchester club build up its foreign support.This also matched Soriano's well-reported interest in placing City Football Group as a lynchpin in the opening-up of national markets in whichassociation footballhas not previously been able to secure a strong",
"to secure a strong presence, through the operation of and investment in franchises in those countries. The first entity to join CFG was the newly created New York City, with the club announcing that they would sport the familiar sky blue kit with white shorts which Manchester City have traditionally been associated with,and the rebranded Melbourne City (originally named Melbourne Heart) similarly switched to sky blue after defeating challenges from fellow A-League clubSydney.With the purchase of Mumbai City and the renaming of Club Atletico Torque to Montevideo City Torque, five teams in the group feature the word \"City\" in their name, and similarly all five wear sky blue kits. NYCFC's circular badge style would also be mimicked by Manchester City, Melbourne City, Mumbai City and Torque.Following from these changes, it was reported that the company's aim was to own a team on each continent with the \"City\" brand in its name.However, they have aggressively defended the City brand such as issuing a cease and",
"issuing a cease and desist letter against the Chilean sideSantiago City FCfor using a club crest similar to Manchester City's. Developments within Manchester City's academy would ultimately lead to a shift in strategy and focus of the group. Efforts to continue their success in bringing through youth talent led to the buying of promising players in the early teenage years, many of whom would go on to be sold for a large profit. This prompted Soriano and CFG's executive management to change their ambitions to put more emphasis on purchasing smaller clubs in strong existing football markets, with the intention of turning them into specialists centres for acquiring and training future stars from their local areas. Collaboration between clubs One of the core philosophies of City Football Group since its inception has been the mutual supporting of clubs through combined scouting and player sharing. While virtually all large European clubs operate an international scouting network,financial demands make it",
"demands make it impossible to access local knowledge in foreign countries to the same extent as a domestic club could. CFG clubs therefore provide invaluable services to each other by using their own local scouting networks to share information on players between clubs. With their combined knowledge, the group claims to have extensive information on half a million players around the world.Possessing such a network then allows the local clubs to sign players early in their development, safe in the knowledge that the range of clubs CFG owns means that they can be placed at any of a number of sides as their development continues and the need for other challenges arises.The player-sharing element of the City network was first evident with the high-profile transfer ofAaron Mooyfrom Melbourne City to Manchester City – an early case of utilising the network to support revenue generation– with the 2020–21 season seeing Manchester City send 14 foreign-sourced youth players out on loan, predominantly to other group",
"to other group clubs. In addition to internal player movements, CFG has also sought to foster movements of coaching staff within their network also; among the most notable relocations are French managerEric Mombaerts, who has worked with Yokohama F. Marinos, Melbourne City and Troyes,Manchester City Women managerNick Cushingtransferring to New Yorkand English coachLiam Manningtransferring from the NYCFC academy to take over management of Lommel's first team. The second of CFG's core philosophies regarding club collaboration is on- and off-pitch technical information sharing. Based around the tactics of Manchester City managerPep Guardiola– long coveted for the Manchester job by Ferran Soriano and Txiki Begiristain after their experience working with him in Barcelona– all of City Football Group's clubs are given access to extensive databases of Manchester City's tactics and coaching methods, enabling them all to follow the group directive to use the same style of football, a style occasionally referred to as",
"referred to as \"the City Way\".This synergy of tactical style extends beyond their first teams to the academies and women's sections. In addition to this, the clubs also share other information, such as medical, performance monitoring and player management. Investment in women's football Four of City Football Group's ten clubs sport women's teams, with Montevideo City Torque expected to launch a women's team in 2021 and New York City having previously held discussions about an affiliation withSky Bluein 2014.In both Manchester and Melbourne, CFG (re)launched new women's sides in 2014 and 2015,promising to invest in women's football in unprecedent ways. In both cities, the women's teams would ultimately be given bespoke facilities which, in contrast to the standard for football clubs, shared training locations with their affiliated men's teams.Similarly, both cities would see returns for their investment, with Manchester City Women repeatedly finishing amongst the top two and winning a series of domestic",
"series of domestic trophieswhile Melbourne City's unprecedented investment in Australian women's football – an area which had previously been underfunded and largely forgotten in the country – earned the side plaudits for their forward-thinkingand would see their female side crowned Grand Final winners four times in five seasons. Esports Looking to capitalise on the growth ofesports, and for City Football Group to be seen as always being at the forefront of innovation, CFG made their first venture into digital gaming in June 2016 when they signed Kieran \"Kez\" Brown to represent Manchester City at FIFA tournaments and fan events, as well as to make digital content for their media profiles. Over the following years, CFG expanded their esports footprint as most of their clubs signed players to represent them inFIFAtournaments, with most clubs keeping onePlayStationplayer and oneXboxplayer on their books to represent them at all times. By early 2021, CFG would have a total of 16 professional esports players",
"esports players across their various clubs.In 2021, Manchester City became the first CFG club to expand beyond FIFA when they signed Aiden \"Threats\" Mong to represent them in Fortnite tournaments.Unlike the other CFG teams, Manchester City would also go on to create separate esports teams in Chinaand South Koreato compete in Asia-localised tournaments. In addition to having their own esports players, CFG have also collaborated with existing teams. In 2019, Manchester City announced a partnership withFaZe Clanwhich would see the two run various esports competitions and merchandising lines, as well as allowing City's and FaZe'sFIFAplayers to share facilities and train together.In 2022, CFG announced that it was sponsoring Blue United eFC, in a move which would see Blue United wear CFG-style sky blue shirts at competitive events. CFG-owned clubs UEFA CONCACAF AFC CONMEBOL CFG partner clubs Club Bolivar It was announced on 12 January 2021 that Club Bolivar had become the first partner club for the group.Club",
"for the group.Club Bolivar is the most successful Bolivian club, having won 30 domestic titles since it was founded inLa Pazon 12 April 1925. The owner of the club,Marcelo Claure, is also part of the ownership group ofInter Miami CFalongsideDavid Beckham, as well as being COO ofSoftBank GroupwithMasayoshi Son(CEO of Softbank) as well as Jorge Mas and Jose Mas fromMasTecrespectively. Honours after partnership : División de Fútbol Profesional (1):2022-A Vannes It was announced on 17 February 2021 that Frenchfourth tier sideVanneshad become the latest partner club for the group.The two clubs were already linked after Vannes' President Maxime Ray had joined CFG to become a minority shareholder inTroyesas part of the 2020 purchase, though he agreed to have no operational role at Troyes as part of the takeover. Geylang International It was announced on 1 February 2023 thatSingapore Premier LeagueclubGeylang Internationalhad become the first Southeast Asian partner club for the group.The agreement is set to be an",
"is set to be an initial, highly targeted collaboration between both entities with the potential to evolve into a broader, more comprehensive strategic partnership in the future. İstanbul Başakşehir It was revealed on 18 February 2024 that TurkishSüper Ligclubİstanbul Başakşehirsigned an agreement with the group in order to improve their football strategy, recruitment, scouting and coaching methodology. Businesses Goals Soccer Centers On 25 July 2017, City Football Group signed a joint venture partnership withGoals Soccer Centres, a 5-a-side football pitch operator, to invest capital into the US operations of the company in order to expand across North America.On 3 February 2020, CFG purchased the remaining 50% to take full ownership of the joint venture– operating under the Americanised nameGoals Soccer Centers– following the near-collapse of their partner as a result of historic fraud allegations. See also References",
"Abu Dhabi United Group TheAbu Dhabi United Group for Development and Investment(ADUG;Arabic:مجموعة أبوظبي الاتحاد للتنمية والاستثمار) is aUnited Arab Emirates(UAE) basedprivate equitycompany.It is owned by SheikhMansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan,member of theAbu DhabiRoyal Family and Vice President of the UAE.Leaks of internal documents show that the Abu Dhabi government manages the accounts belonging to ADUG.ADUG insists it is separate from the Abu Dhabi government. The primary interest of the group is its 81% majority ownership ofCity Football Group, a worldwide organisation most notably controllingManchester City,Mumbai City,Melbourne CityandNew York City, as well as several other internationalfootballclubs. However, it also holds interests in various other endeavours outside of the sporting world with an extensive property portfolio in theUnited Arab EmiratesandManchester. City Football Group The Group was founded in the summer of 2008, as Sheikh Mansour looked to take over Manchester City Football Club from",
"Football Club from the former Prime Minister of ThailandThaksin Shinawatraand signed off the deal on 1 September 2008,with due diligence completed on 23 September the same year. Sulaiman Al-Fahimwas the public face of ADUG during the initial phase of the takeover - a larger-than-life figureoften described as the \"Donald Trumpof Abu Dhabi\".On completion of the takeover, Al-Fahim generated considerable attention in the footballing world with promises of grandiose spending plans to capture the world's greatest footballing talents.Although he did bring in the BrazilianRobinhofromReal Madridon the same day on which the takeover was agreed,one week after ADUG took control of the club Al-Fahim was removed from his roleto be replaced byKhaldoon al-Mubarak, who remains in position to the present day. In 2011, Manchester City qualified for theChampions Leagueand won theFA Cup, providing the club their first success in over three decades following ADUG's support.In 2012, the club won thePremier League, their first",
"League, their first league title in forty-four years. Following the success of the Manchester club, ADUG began investment into other football clubs. After founding theMLSsideNew York Cityand purchasing theA-LeaguefranchiseMelbourne Heart(shortly afterwards renamed Melbourne City), it was deemed necessary to create a new infrastructure to manage the various worldwide footballing ventures, and to keep them separate from non-footballing business. For this purpose,City Football Groupwas created in 2014 to oversee all of the teams under their control,acting as holding company not only to the football teams but to several businesses designed to market football services to the wider market.In return, ADUG became the holding company for CFG. ADUG have diluted their shareholding the City Football Group on two occasions in 2015 and 2019 to the approximate value of £654 million.As of 2020, they own 78% of the City Football Group. Since July 2021, CFG has been managed under Newton Investment and Development LLC, another",
"LLC, another company wholly owned by Sheikh Mansour. Other business interests ADUG also have an extensive property portfolio in the United Arab Emirates and abroad.Aside from Manchester City, ADUG have amassed investments totalling nearly £1 billion inManchester, mainly in property and higher education sectors.Aside from purchasing assets for their own control, ADUG signed a ten-year partnership withManchester City Councilto revamp the east end of the city - not coincidentally the same area in which Manchester City are based - creating the Manchester Life Development Company in conjunction with the council in order to build 6,000 affordable houses in the area. Criticism According toHuman Rights Watch, ADUG's investment in Manchester City enabled Abu Dhabi to \"construct a public relations image of a progressive, dynamic Gulf state, which deflects attention from what is really going on in the country\". Manchester Citywas accused of receiving £30 million from an unknown figure from theUnited Arab Emirates, that",
"Arab Emirates, that was supposed to come from the sponsor. The £30 million payments are expected to be one of the 115Premier League's financial charges against Manchester City. The report also claimed that the payments were actually disguised equity funding that came from the Abu Dhabi United Group (ADUG), owned bySheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan, the vice president of the UAE. According to the report, duringUEFAdisciplinary hearing, the Manchester City’s lawyer named the unknown person as Jaber Mohamed, claiming that he is a businessman providing financial and brokering services in the UAE. See also References",
"United Arab Emirates in theArabian Peninsula TheUnited Arab Emirates(UAE), or simply theEmirates,is a country inWest Asia, in theMiddle East, at the eastern end of theArabian Peninsula. It is afederal,elective monarchycomposed ofseven emirates, withAbu Dhabias its capital.It shares land borders withOmanto the east and northeast, and withSaudi Arabiato the southwest; as well as maritime borders in thePersian GulfwithQatarandIran, and with Oman in theGulf of Oman. As of 2024, the UAE has an estimated population of over 10 million, of which 11% are Emiratis;Dubaiis themost populouscity and is an international hub.Islamis theofficial religionandArabicis the official language, while English is the most spoken language and the language of business. The United Arab Emirates'oiland natural gas reserves are the world'sseventhandseventh-largest, respectively.Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the country's first president, oversaw the development of the Emirates by investing oil revenues into",
"oil revenues into healthcare, education, and infrastructure.The country has the most diversified economy among the members of theGulf Cooperation Council(GCC).In the 21st century, the UAE has become less reliant on oil and gas and is economically focusing on tourism and business. The UAE is considered amiddle power. It is also a member of theUnited Nations,Arab League,Organisation of Islamic Cooperation,OPEC,Non-Aligned Movement,World Trade Organization, andBRICS. The UAE is also a dialogue partner of theShanghai Cooperation Organisation. Human rights organisations consider the UAE substandard on human rights, ranking only 6.06 in thehuman freedom index, citing reports of government critics being imprisoned and tortured, families harassed by the state security apparatus, and cases offorced disappearances.Individual rights such as the freedoms ofassembly,association,expression, and the freedom of thepressare severely repressed. History Antiquity Stone tools recovered reveal a settlement of people from Africa",
"people from Africa some 127,000 years ago and a stone tool used for butchering animals discovered on the Arabian coast suggests an even older habitation from 130,000 years ago.In time lively trading links developed with civilisations inMesopotamia, Iran and theHarappan cultureof the Indus Valley. This contact persisted and became wider, probably motivated by the trade in copper from theHajar Mountains, which commenced around 3,000 BCE.Sumerian sources talk of theMagancivilisation, which has been identified as encompassing the modern UAE and Oman. There are six periods of human settlement with distinctive behaviours in the region before Islam, which include theHafit periodfrom 3,200 to 2,600 BCE, theUmm Al Nar culturefrom 2,600 to 2,000 BCE, and theWadi Suq culturefrom 2,000 to 1,300 BCE. From 1,200 BCE to the advent of Islam in Eastern Arabia, through three distinctiveIron Agesand theMleihaperiod, the area was variously occupied by theAchaemenidsand other forces, and saw the construction of fortified",
"of fortified settlements and extensive husbandry thanks to the development of thefalajirrigation system. Islam The spread ofIslamto the northeastern tip of theArabian Peninsulais thought to have followed directly from a letter sent by theIslamic prophetMuhammadto the rulers ofOmanin 630 CE. This led to a group of rulers travelling toMedina, converting to Islam and subsequently driving a successful uprising against the unpopularSassanids, who dominated the coast at the time.Following the death of Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of thePersian Gulfthreatened to disintegrate, with insurrections against theMuslim leaders. CaliphAbu Bakrsent an army from the capitalMedinawhich completed its reconquest of the territory (the Ridda Wars) with theBattle of Dibbain which 10,000 lives are thought to have been lost.This assured the integrity of theCaliphateand the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under the newly emergingRashidun Caliphate. In 637, Julfar (in the area of today'sRas Al Khaimah) was an",
"Al Khaimah) was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of theSasanian Empire.The area of theAl Ain/Buraimi Oasiswas known as Tu'am and was an important trading post for camel routes between the coast and the Arabian interior. The earliestChristiansite in the UAE was first discovered in the 1990s, an extensive monastic complex on what is now known asSir Bani YasIsland and which dates back to the seventh century. Thought to beNestorianand built in 600 CE, the church appears to have been abandoned peacefully in 750 CE.It forms a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity, which is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to 350 CE following trade routes. Certainly, by the fifth century, Oman had a bishop named John – the last bishop of Oman being Etienne, in 676 CE. Portuguese era The harsh desert environment led to the emergence of the \"versatile tribesman\", nomadic groups who subsisted due to a variety of economic activities, including animal husbandry,",
"animal husbandry, agriculture and hunting. The seasonal movements of these groups led not only to frequent clashes between groups but also to the establishment of seasonal and semi-seasonal settlements and centres. These formed tribal groupings whose names are still carried by modern Emiratis, including theBani YasandAl Bu FalahofAbu Dhabi, Al Ain,Liwa, and the west coast; theDhawahir, Awamir,Al Ali, andManasirof the interior; theSharqiyinof the east coast; and theQawasimto the north. With the expansion of Europeancolonial empires, Portuguese, English andDutchforces appeared in the Persian Gulf region. By the 18th century, the Bani Yas confederation was the dominant force in most of the area now known as Abu Dhabi,while the NorthernAl Qawasim(Al Qasimi) dominated maritime commerce. The Portuguese maintained an influence over the coastal settlements, buildingfortsin the wake of the bloody 16th-century conquests of coastal communities byAlbuquerqueand the Portuguese commanders who followed him – particularly",
"him – particularly on the east coast atMuscat,SoharandKhor Fakkan. The southern coast of the Persian Gulf was known to the British as the \"Pirate Coast\",as boats of the Al Qawasim federation harassed British-flagged shipping from the 17th century into the 19th.The charge of piracy is disputed by modern Emirati historians, including the current ruler of Sharjah,Sheikh Sultan Al Qasimi, in his 1986 bookThe Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf. British expeditions to protect their Indian trade routes led to campaigns against Ras Al Khaimah and other harbours along the coast, including thePersian Gulf campaign of 1809and the more successfulcampaign of 1819. The following year, Britain and a number of local rulers signed amaritime truce, giving rise to the termTrucial States, which came to define the status of the coastal emirates. A further treaty was signed in 1843 and, in 1853 thePerpetual Maritime Trucewas agreed. To this was added the 'Exclusive Agreements', signed in 1892, which made theTrucial Statesa British",
"Statesa British protectorate. Under the 1892 treaty, the trucial sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to the British and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the British without their consent. In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack. British maritime policing meant that pearling fleets could operate in relative security. However, the British prohibition of theslave trademeant an important source of income was lost to some sheikhs and merchants. In 1869, the Qubaisat tribe settled atKhor Al Adaidand tried to enlist the support of the Ottomans. Khor Al Adaid was claimed by Abu Dhabi at that time, a claim supported by the British. In 1906, the British Political Resident,Percy Cox, confirmed in writing to the ruler of Abu Dhabi,Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan('Zayed the Great') that Khor Al Adaid belonged to his sheikhdom. British era and discovery of oil During the 19th and early",
"the 19th and early 20th centuries, thepearling industrythrived, providing both income and employment to the people of the Persian Gulf.TheFirst World Warhad a severe impact on the industry, but it was theeconomic depressionof the late 1920s and early 1930s, coupled with the invention of thecultured pearl, that wiped out the trade. The remnants of the trade eventually faded away shortly after theSecond World War, when the newly independentGovernment of Indiaimposed heavy taxation on imported pearls. The decline of pearling resulted in extreme economic hardship in the Trucial States. In 1922, the British government secured undertakings from the rulers of the Trucial States not to sign concessions with foreign companies without their consent. Aware of the potential for the development of natural resources such as oil, following finds in Persia (from 1908) and Mesopotamia (from 1927), a British-led oil company, theIraq Petroleum Company(IPC), showed an interest in the region. TheAnglo-Persian Oil Company(APOC,",
"Oil Company(APOC, later to becomeBritish Petroleum, or BP) had a 23.75% share in IPC. From 1935, onshore concessions to explore for oil were granted by local rulers, with APOC signing the first one on behalf of Petroleum Concessions Ltd (PCL), an associate company of IPC.APOC was prevented from developing the region alone because of the restrictions of theRed Line Agreement, which required it to operate through IPC. A number of options between PCL and the trucial rulers were signed, providing useful revenue for communities experiencing poverty following the collapse of the pearl trade. However, the wealth of oil which the rulers could see from the revenues accruing to surrounding countries remained elusive. The first bore holes in Abu Dhabi were drilled by IPC's operating company, Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd (PDTC) at Ras Sadr in 1950, with a 13,000-foot-deep (4,000-metre) bore hole taking a year to drill and turning out dry, at the tremendous cost at the time of £1 million. The British set up",
"The British set up a development office that helped in some small developments in the emirates. The sevensheikhsof theemiratesthen decided to form a council to coordinate matters between them and took over the development office. In 1952, they formed the Trucial States Council,and appointedAdi Al Bitar, Dubai'sSheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum's legal advisor, as secretary general and legal advisor to the council. The council was terminated once the United Arab Emirates was formed.The tribal nature of society and the lack of definition of borders between emirates frequently led to disputes, settled either through mediation or, more rarely, force. TheTrucial Oman Scoutswas a small military force used by the British to keep the peace. In 1953, a subsidiary ofBP, D'Arcy Exploration Ltd, obtained an offshore concession from the ruler of Abu Dhabi. BP joined withCompagnie Française des Pétroles(laterTotal) to form operating companies, Abu Dhabi Marine Areas Ltd (ADMA) and Dubai Marine Areas Ltd (DUMA). A number",
"(DUMA). A number of undersea oil surveys were carried out, including one led by the famous marine explorerJacques Cousteau.In 1958, a floating platform rig was towed fromHamburg,Germany, and positioned over theUmm Shaifpearl bed, in Abu Dhabi waters, where drilling began. In March, it struck oil in the Upper Thamama rock formation. This was the first commercial discovery of the Trucial Coast, leading to the first exports of oil in 1962. ADMA made further offshore discoveries at Zakum and elsewhere, and other companies made commercial finds such as theFateh oilfieldoff Dubai and the Mubarak field off Sharjah (shared with Iran). Meanwhile, onshore exploration was hindered by territorial disputes. In 1955, theUnited Kingdomrepresented Abu Dhabi and Oman in their dispute with Saudi Arabia over theBuraimi Oasis.A 1974 agreement between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia seemed to have settled the Abu Dhabi-Saudiborder dispute, but this has not been ratified.The UAE's border with Oman was ratified in 2008. PDTC continued",
"PDTC continued its onshore exploration away from the disputed area, drilling five more bore holes that were also dry. However, on 27 October 1960, the company discovered oil in commercial quantities at the Murban No. 3 well on the coast near Tarif.In 1962, PDTC became theAbu Dhabi Petroleum Company. As oil revenues increased, the ruler of Abu Dhabi,Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, undertook a massive construction program, building schools, housing, hospitals and roads. When Dubai's oil exports commenced in 1969, SheikhRashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, the ruler of Dubai, was able to invest the revenues from the limited reserves found to spark the diversification drive that would create the modernglobal cityof Dubai. Independence By 1966, it had become clear the British government could no longer afford to administer and protect theTrucial States, what is now the United Arab Emirates. BritishMembers of Parliament(MPs) debated the preparedness of theRoyal Navyto defend thesheikhdoms. On 24 January 1968, British Prime",
"1968, British Prime MinisterHarold Wilsonannounced the government's decision, reaffirmed in March 1971 by Prime MinisterEdward Heath, to end the treaty relationships with the seven trucial sheikhdoms. Days after the announcement, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, SheikhZayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, fearing vulnerability, tried to persuade the British to honour the protection treaties by offering to pay the full costs of keeping theBritish Armed Forcesin the Emirates. The BritishLabourgovernment rejected the offer.After Labour MPGoronwy Robertsinformed Sheikh Zayed of the news of British withdrawal, the nine Persian Gulf sheikhdoms attempted to form a union of Arab emirates, but by mid-1971 they were still unable to agree on terms of union even though the British treaty relationship was to expire in December of that year. Fears of vulnerability were realised the day before independence. An Iranian destroyer group broke formation from an exercise in the lower Gulf, sailing to theTunb islands. The islands were taken by",
"were taken by force, civilians and Arab defenders alike allowed to flee. A British warship stood idle during the course of the invasion.A destroyer group approached the island ofAbu Musaas well. But there, SheikhKhalid bin Mohammed Al Qasimihad already negotiated with the Iranian shah, and the island was quickly leased to Iran for $3 million a year. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia laid claim to swathes of Abu Dhabi. Originally intended to be part of the proposed Federation of Arab Emirates, Bahrain became independent in August, and Qatar in September 1971. When the British-Trucial Sheikhdoms treaty expired on 1 December 1971, both emirates became fully independent.On 2 December 1971, six of the emirates (Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Sharjah and Umm Al Quwain) agreed to enter into a union named the United Arab Emirates.Ras al-Khaimahjoined later, on 10 January 1972.In February 1972, theFederal National Council(FNC) was created; it was a 40-member consultative body appointed by the seven rulers. The UAE joined",
"The UAE joined theArab Leagueon 6 December 1971 and theUnited Nationson 9 December.It was a founding member of theGulf Cooperation Councilin May 1981, with Abu Dhabi hosting the firstGCC summit. Post-Independence period The UAE supported military operations by the US and othercoalition statesengaged in the war against theTalibaninAfghanistan(2001) andSaddam HusseininBa'athist Iraq(2003) as well as operations supporting the GlobalWar on Terrorfor theHorn of AfricaatAl Dhafra Air Baselocated outside of Abu Dhabi. The air base also supported Allied operations during the 1991 PersianGulf WarandOperation Northern Watch. The country had already signed amilitarydefence agreement with the U.S. in 1994 and one with France in 1995.In January 2008, France and the UAE signed a deal allowing France to set up a permanent military base in the emirate of Abu Dhabi.The UAE joined international military operations in Libya in March 2011. On 2 November 2004, the UAE's first president, SheikhZayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, died.",
"Al Nahyan, died. SheikhKhalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyanwas elected as thepresident of the UAE. SheikhMohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyansucceeded Sheikh Khalifa as crown prince of Abu Dhabi.In January 2006, SheikhMaktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the prime minister of the UAE and the ruler of Dubai, died, and SheikhMohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoumassumed both roles. The first ever national elections were held on 16 December 2006. A number of voters chose half of the members of theFederal National Council. The UAE has largely escaped theArab Spring, which other countries have experienced; however, 60 Emirati activists fromAl Islahwere apprehended for an alleged coup attempt and the attempt of the establishment of anIslamiststate in the UAE.Mindful of the protests in nearby Bahrain, in November 2012 the UAE outlawed online mockery of its government or attempts to organise public protests through social media. On 29 January 2020, theCOVID-19 pandemicwas confirmed to havereached the UAE.Two months later, in March, the government",
"the government announced the closure of shopping malls, schools, and places of worship, in addition to imposing a 24-hour curfew, and suspending allEmiratespassenger flights.This resulted in a major economic downturn, which eventually led to the merger of more than 50% of the UAE'sfederal agencies. On 29 August 2020, the UAE established normal diplomatic relations withIsraeland with the help of theUnited States, they signed theAbraham AccordswithBahrain. On 9 February 2021, the UAE achieved a historic milestone when its probe, namedHope, successfully reachedMars's orbit. The UAE became the first country in theArab worldto reach Mars, the fifth country to successfully reach Mars, and the second country, after anIndian probe, to orbit Mars on its maiden attempt. On 14 May 2022, SheikhMohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyanwas elected as the UAE's new president after the death ofSheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan. Geography The United Arab Emirates is situated in theMiddle East, bordering theGulf of Omanand thePersian",
"Omanand thePersian Gulf, betweenOmanandSaudi Arabia; it is in a strategic location slightly south of theStrait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for worldcrude oil. The UAE lies between 22°30' and 26°10' north latitude and between 51° and 56°25′ east longitude. It shares a 530-kilometre (330 mi) border with Saudi Arabia on the west, south, and southeast, and a 450-kilometre (280 mi) border with Oman on the southeast and northeast. The land border with Qatar in theKhor Al Adaidarea is about nineteen kilometres (12 miles) in the northwest; however, it is a source ofongoing dispute.Following Britain's military departure from the UAE in 1971, and its establishment as a new state, the UAE laid claim to Iranian-occupied islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and the Lesser Tunbs, when Iran captured them during the British rule, resulting in disputes with Iran that remain unresolved.The UAE also disputes claim on other islands against the neighboring state of Qatar.The largest emirate,Abu Dhabi, accounts for 87% of the",
"for 87% of the UAE's total area,67,340 square kilometres (26,000 sq mi).The smallest emirate,Ajman, encompasses only 259 km2(100 sq mi). The UAE coast stretches for nearly 650 km (404 mi) along the southern shore of thePersian Gulf, briefly interrupted by an isolated outcrop of the Sultanate of Oman. Six of the emirates are situated along the Persian Gulf, and the seventh, Fujairah is on the eastern coast of the peninsula with direct access to the Gulf of Oman.Most of the coast consists ofsalt pansthat extend 8–10 km (5.0–6.2 mi) inland.The largestnatural harboris at Dubai, although other ports have been dredged at Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, and elsewhere.Numerous islands are found in the Persian Gulf, and the ownership of some of them has been the subject of international disputes with bothIranandQatar. The smaller islands, as well as manycoral reefsand shifting sandbars, are a menace to navigation. Strong tides and occasional windstorms further complicate ship movements near the shore. The UAE also has a stretch",
"also has a stretch of theAl Bāţinahcoast of the Gulf of Oman. TheMusandam Peninsula, the very tip of Arabia by the Strait of Hormuz, andMadhaareexclavesof Oman separated by the UAE. South and west of Abu Dhabi, vast, rollingsand dunesmerge into theRub al-Khali(Empty Quarter) of Saudi Arabia.The desert area of Abu Dhabi includes two important oases with adequate underground water for permanent settlements and cultivation. The extensiveLiwa Oasisis in the south near the undefined border with Saudi Arabia. About 100 km (62 mi) to the northeast of Liwa is theAl-Buraimioasis, which extends on both sides of the Abu Dhabi-Oman border.Lake Zakherin Al Ain is ahuman-made lakenear the border with Oman that was created from treated waste water. Prior to withdrawing from the area in 1971, Britain delineated the internal borders among the seven emirates in order to preempt territorial disputes that might hamper formation of the federation. In general, the rulers of the emirates accepted the British interventions, but in",
"but in the case of boundary disputes between Abu Dhabi and Dubai, and also between Dubai and Sharjah, conflicting claims were not resolved until after the UAE became independent. The most complicated borders were in theWestern Hajar Mountains, where five of the emirates contested jurisdiction over more than a dozen enclaves. Biodiversity The UAE contains the following terrestrial ecoregions:Al Hajar montane woodlandsand shrublands,Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert, and Al-Hajar foothillxeric woodlands and shrublands. The oases growdate palms,acaciaandeucalyptustrees. In the desert, the flora is very sparse and consists ofgrassesand thorn bushes. The indigenous fauna had come close to extinction because of intensive hunting, which has led to a conservation program onSir Bani YasIsland initiated by Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan in the 1970s, resulting in the survival of, for example,Arabian Oryx,Arabian camelandleopards.Coastal fishandmammalsconsist mainly ofmackerel,perch, andtuna, as well assharksand",
"as well assharksand whales. Climate The climate of the UAE is subtropical-arid with hot summers and warm winters. The climate is categorized as desert climate. The hottest months are July and August, when average maximum temperatures reach above 45 °C (113 °F) on thecoastal plain. In the Hajar Mountains, temperatures are considerably lower, a result of increased elevation.Average minimum temperatures in January and February are between 10 and 14 °C (50 and 57 °F).During the late summer months, a humid southeastern wind known as Sharqi (i.e. \"Easterner\") makes the coastal region especially unpleasant. The average annual rainfall in the coastal area is less than 120 mm (4.7 in), but in some mountainous areas annual rainfall often reaches 350 mm (13.8 in). Rain in the coastal region falls in short, torrential bursts during the winter months, sometimes resulting in floods in ordinarily drywadibeds.The region is prone to occasional, violentdust storms, which can severely reduce visibility. On 28 December 2004,",
"28 December 2004, snow was recorded in the UAE for the first time, in theJebel Jaismountain cluster in Ras al-Khaimah.A few years later, there were more sightings of snow and hail.The Jebel Jais mountain cluster has experienced snow only twice since records began. Government and politics Government The United Arab Emirates is afederalconstitutional monarchymade up from a federation of sevenhereditarytribalmonarchy-styled political units calledSheikhdoms. It is governed by aFederal Supreme Councilmade up of the ruling Sheikhs ofAbu Dhabi,Ajman,Fujairah,Sharjah,Dubai,Ras Al KhaimahandUmm Al Quwain. All responsibilities not granted to the federal government are reserved to the individual emirate.A percentageof revenues from each emirate is allocated to the UAE's central budget. The UAE uses the titleSheikhinstead ofEmirto refer to the rulers of individual emirates. The title is used due to thesheikhdomstyled governing system in adherence to the culture oftribes of Arabia, where Sheikh means leader, elder, or",
"leader, elder, or the tribal chief of the clan who partakes in shared decision making with his followers. Thepresidentandvice presidentare elected by theFederal Supreme Council. Usually, the Head of theAl Nahyanfamily, who are based in Abu Dhabi, holds the presidency and the Head of theAl Maktoumfamily, based in Dubai, the prime ministership. All prime ministers but one have served concurrently as vice president. The federal government is composed of three branches: TheUAE e-Governmentis the extension of the UAE federal government in its electronic form.The UAE'sCouncil of Ministers(Arabic:مجلس الوزراء) is the chief executive branch of the government presided over by the prime minister. The prime minister, who is appointed by theFederal Supreme Council, appoints the ministers. The Council of Ministers is made up of 22 members and manages all internal and foreign affairs of the federation under its constitutional and federal law.In December 2019,the UAE became the only Arab country, and one of only five",
"one of only five countries in the world, to attaingender parityin a national legislative body, with its lower house 50 per cent women. The UAE is the only country in the world that has a Ministry of Tolerance,a Ministry of Happiness,and a Ministry of Artificial Intelligence.The UAE also has a virtual ministry called the Ministry of Possibilities, designed to find solutions to challenges and improve quality of life.The UAE also has aNational Youth Council, which is represented in the UAE cabinet by the Minister of Youth. The UAE legislative body is theFederal National Councilwhich convenes nationwide elections every four years. The FNC consists of 40 members drawn from all the emirates. Each emirate is allocated specific seats to ensure full representation. Half are appointed by the rulers of the constituent emirates, and the other half are elected. By law, the council members have to be equally divided between males and females. The FNC is restricted to a largelyconsultativerole. The United Arab Emirates is",
"Arab Emirates is an authoritarianfederal monarchy.According to theNew York Times, the UAE is \"an autocracy with the sheen of a progressive, modern state\".The UAE has been described as a \"tribal autocracy\" where the seven constituent monarchies are led by tribal rulers in an autocratic fashion.There are no democratically elected institutions, and there is no formal commitment to free speech.According to human rights organisations, there are systematic human rights violations, including the torture and forced disappearance of government critics.The UAE ranks poorly infreedom indicesmeasuringcivil libertiesandpolitical rights. The UAE is annually ranked as \"Not Free\" inFreedom House's annualFreedom in the Worldreport, which measures civil liberties and political rights.The UAE also ranks poorly in the annualReporters without Borders'Press Freedom Index. TheBertelsmann Transformation Indexdescribes the UAE as a \"moderate monarchy\". The country was ranked 91 out of 137 states and is far below the average scoring",
"the average scoring for development towards a democracy.According to the 2023V-Dem Democracy indices, the United Arab Emirates is the third leastelectoral democratic country in the Middle East. Administrative divisions The United Arab Emirates comprises seven emirates. TheEmirate of Dubaiis the most populous emirate with 35.6% of the UAE population. TheEmirate of Abu Dhabihas 31.2%, meaning that over two-thirds of the UAE population lives in either Abu Dhabi or Dubai. Abu Dhabi has an area of 67,340 square kilometres (26,000 square miles), which is 86.7% of the country's total area, excluding the islands. It has a coastline extending for more than 400 km (250 mi) and is divided for administrative purposes into three major regions. The Emirate of Dubai extends along the Persian Gulf coast of the UAE for approximately 72 km (45 mi). Dubai has an area of 3,885 square kilometres (1,500 square miles), which is equivalent to 5% of the country's total area, excluding the islands. The Emirate of Sharjah extends",
"of Sharjah extends along approximately 16 km (10 mi) of the UAE's Persian Gulf coastline and for more than 80 km (50 mi) into the interior. The northern emirates which include Fujairah, Ajman, Ras al-Khaimah, andUmm al-Qaiwainall have a total area of 3,881 square kilometres (1,498 square miles). There are two areas under joint control. One is jointly controlled by Oman and Ajman, the other by Fujairah and Sharjah. There is an Omaniexclavesurrounded by UAE territory, known asWadi Madha. It is located halfway between theMusandampeninsula and the rest of Oman in the Emirate ofSharjah. It covers approximately 75 square kilometres (29 square miles) and the boundary was settled in 1969. The north-east corner of Madha is closest to the Khor Fakkan-Fujairah road, barely 10 metres (33 feet) away. Within the Omani exclave of Madha, is a UAE exclave calledNahwa, also belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah. It is about eight kilometres (5.0 miles) on a dirt track west of the town of New Madha. It consists of about forty",
"of about forty houses with its own clinic and telephone exchange. Foreign relations The United Arab Emirates has broad diplomatic and commercial relations with most countries and members of theUnited Nations. It plays a significant role inOPEC, and is one of the founding members of theGulf Cooperation Council(GCC). The UAE is a member of theUnited Nationsand several of its specialized agencies (ICAO,ILO,UPU,WHO,WIPO), as well as theWorld Bank,IMF,Arab League,Organisation of Islamic Cooperation(OIC), and theNon-Aligned Movement. Also, it is an observer in theOrganisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Most countries have diplomatic missions in the capitalAbu Dhabiwith most consulates being in UAE's largest city,Dubai. Emirati foreign relations are motivated to a large extent by identity and relationship to theArab world.The United Arab Emirates has strong ties with Bahrain,China,Egypt,France,India,Jordan,Pakistan,Russia,Saudi Arabiaand the United States. Following the British withdrawal from the UAE in",
"from the UAE in 1971 and the establishment of the UAE as a state, the UAE disputed rights to three islands in the Persian Gulf against Iran, namelyAbu Musa,Greater Tunb, andLesser Tunb. The UAE tried to bring the matter to theInternational Court of Justice, but Iran dismissed the notion.Pakistan was the first country to formally recognise the UAE upon its formation.The UAE alongside multipleMiddle EasternandAfricancountries cut diplomatic ties withQatarin June 2017 due to allegations ofQatar being a state sponsor of terrorism, resulting in theQatar diplomatic crisis. Ties were restored in January 2021.The UAE recognized Israel in August 2020, reaching a historicIsrael–United Arab Emirates peace agreementand leading towards full normalization of relations between the two countries. UAE is the 53rd most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index. Military The armed forces of the United Arab Emirates consist of 44,000 active personnel in theArmy, 2,500 personnel and 46 ships in",
"and 46 ships in theNavy, 4,500 personnel and 386 aircraft in theAir Force, and 12,000 personnel in thePresidential Guard. In 2022 the country spent US$20.4 billion on defense, which is 4% of its GDP. The UAE is considered to have the most capable military among the Gulf states. Although initially small in number, the UAE armed forces have grown significantly over the years and are presently equipped with some of the most modern weapon systems, purchased from a variety of western military advanced countries, mainly France, the US, and the UK. Most officers are graduates of the United Kingdom'sRoyal Military AcademyatSandhurst, with others having attended theUnited States Military AcademyatWest Point, theRoyal Military College, Duntroonin Australia, andSt Cyr, the military academy of France. France and the United States have played the most strategically significant roles with defence cooperation agreements and military material provision. Some of the UAE military deployments include an infantry battalion to",
"battalion to the United NationsUNOSOM IIforce inSomaliain 1993, the 35th Mechanised Infantry Battalion toKosovo, a regiment to Kuwait during theIraq War,deminingoperations inLebanon,Operation Enduring FreedominAfghanistan,American-led intervention in Libya,American-led intervention in Syria, and theSaudi-led intervention in Yemen. The active and effective military role, despite its small active personnel, has led the UAE military to be nicknamed as \"Little Sparta\" byUnited States Armed ForcesGenerals and former US defense secretaryJames Mattis. The UAE intervened in theLibyan Civil Warin support of GeneralKhalifa Haftar'sLibyan National Armyin its conflict with the internationally recognisedGovernment of National Accord(GNA). Examples of the military assets deployed include the enforcement of theno-fly-zone over Libyaby sending sixUAEAFF-16and sixMirage 2000multi-role fighter aircraft,ground troop deployment in Afghanistan,30 UAEAF F-16s and ground troops deployment in Southern Yemen,and helping the US",
"helping the US launch its first airstrikes againstISILtargets in Syria. The UAE has begun production of a greater amount of military equipment, in a bid to reduce foreign dependence and help with national industrialisation. Example of national military development include the Abu Dhabi Shipbuilding company (ADSB), which produces a range of ships and is a prime contractor in theBaynunah Programme, a programme to design, develop and produce corvettes customised for operation in the shallow waters of thePersian Gulf. The UAE is also producing weapons and ammunition throughCaracal International, military transport vehicles throughNimr LLCand unmanned aerial vehicles collectively throughEmirates Defence Industries Company. The UAE operates theGeneral Dynamics F-16 Fighting FalconF-16E Block 60 unique variant unofficially called \"Desert Falcon\", developed byGeneral Dynamicswith collaboration of the UAE and specifically for theUnited Arab Emirates Air Force.TheUnited Arab Emirates Armyoperates a customizedLeclerc",
"a customizedLeclerc tankand is the only other operator of the tank aside from the French Army.The largest defence exhibition and conference in the Middle East,International Defence Exhibition, takes place biennially in Abu Dhabi. The UAE introduced amandatory military servicefor adult males, since 2014, for 16 months to expand its reserve force.The highest loss of life in the history of UAE military occurred on Friday 4 September 2015, in which 52 soldiers were killed inMaribarea of central Yemen by aTochkamissile which targeted a weapons cache and caused a large explosion. Law The United Arab Emirates has a federal court system, and the emirates ofAbu Dhabi,DubaiandRas Al Khaimahalso have local court systems. The UAE's judicial system is derived from thecivil law systemandSharialaw. The court system consists of civil courts and Sharia courts. Sharia courts have exclusive jurisdiction in Muslim family law matters, while civil courts deal with all other legal matters.Since September 2020, corporal punishment",
"corporal punishment is no longer a legal form of punishment under UAE federal law. Under the decree, legal forms of punishment are retribution and blood money payments, capital punishment, life imprisonment, temporary imprisonment, indefinite detention, and fines.Article 1 of the Federal Penal Code was amended in 2020 to state that Islamic Law applies only to retribution and blood money punishments; previously the article stated that \"provisions of theIslamic Lawshall apply to the crimes of doctrinal punishment, punitive punishment and blood money.\"Before 2020,flogging,stoning,amputation, andcrucifixionwere technically legal punishments for criminal offences such asadultery,premarital sex, and drug or alcohol use.In recent history, the UAE has declared its intention to move towards a more tolerant legal code, and to phase out corporal punishment altogether in favor of private punishment.With alcohol and cohabitation laws being loosened in advance of the2020 World Expo, Emirati laws have become increasingly",
"become increasingly acceptable to visitors from non-Muslim countries. Sharia courts have exclusive jurisdiction over Muslim family law matters such as marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance.Muslim women must receive permission from a male guardian to marry and remarry. This requirement is derived fromSharialaw and has been federal law since 2005.It is illegal for Muslim women to marry non-Muslims and is punishable by law.Non-Muslim expatriates were liable to Sharia rulings on marriage, divorce, child custody and inheritance, however, federal law was changed to introduce non-Sharia personal status law for non-Muslims.Recently, the emirate of Abu Dhabi opened a civil law family court for non-Muslims and Dubai has announced that non-Muslims can opt for civil marriages. Apostasyis a technicallycapital crimein the UAE, however, there are no documented cases of apostates being executed.Blasphemyis illegal; expatriates involved in insulting Islam are liable for deportation. Sodomyis illegal and is",
"illegal and is punishable by a minimum of 6-month imprisonment or a fine or both, but the law does not apply \"except on the basis of a complaint from the husband or legal guardian\", but the penalty may be suspended if the complaint is waived.In 2013, an Emirati man was on trial for being accused of a \"gay handshake\". Due to local customs, public shows of affection in certain public places are illegal and could result indeportation, but holding hands is tolerated.Expats in Dubai have been deported for kissing in public.In several cases, the courts of the UAE have jailed women who have reported rape.Federal law in the UAE prohibits swearing on social media.Dancing in public is illegal in the UAE.In November 2020, UAE announced that it decriminalised alcohol, lifted the ban on unmarried couples living together, and ended lenient punishment onhonor killing. Foreigners living in the Emirates were allowed to follow their native country's laws on divorce and inheritance. Human rights The state security apparatus in",
"apparatus in the UAE has been accused of human rights abuses including forced disappearance, arbitrary arrests and torture.The annualFreedom Housereport onFreedom in the Worldhas listed the United Arab Emirates as \"Not Free\" every year since 1999, the first year for which records are available on their website.Freedom of association is also severely curtailed. Associations and NGOs are required to register with the government; however twenty non-political groups were reportedly operating in the country without registration. All associations have to be submitted to censorship guidelines and all publications have first to be approved by the government.In its 2013 Annual Report,Amnesty Internationalcriticized the UAE's poor record on human rights issues; highlighting restrictions of freedom of speech and assembly, the use ofarbitrary arrestand torture, and the use of the death penalty. The UAE has escaped theArab Spring; and since 2011, human rights organizations claim that the government has increasingly",
"has increasingly carried outforced disappearances.TheArab Organization for Human Rightsobtained testimonies from defendants who claimed being kidnapped, tortured and abused in detention centres; they reported 16 methods of torture including beatings, threats withelectrocutionand denial of medical care.Repressive measures, including deportation, were applied on foreigners based on allegations of attempts to destabilize the country.The issue ofsexual abuseamong femaledomestic workersis another area of concern, particularly given that domestic servants are not covered by the UAE labour law of 1980 or the draft labour law of 2007.Worker protests have been suppressed and protesters imprisoned without due process. Amnesty International reported that Qatari men have been abducted by the UAE government and allegedly withheld information about the men's fate from their families.According to some organizations, over 4,000 Shia expatriates have been deported from the UAE;including Lebanese Shia families for their",
"families for their alleged sympathies forHezbollah.In 2013, 94 Emirati activists were held in secret detention centres and put on trial for allegedly attempting to overthrow the government;a relative of a defendant was arrested for tweeting about the trial, and sentenced to 10 months in jail.The latest forced disappearance involvesthree sisters from Abu Dhabi. Sara Jacobsheld foreign actors, including the UAE, responsible for thehumanitarian crisis in Sudan. She expressed her views in March 2024 visit to the refugee camps, stating the children in Sudan are living with extensive trauma. The US representative also claimed that the war could be quickly ended if the involvement of countries like the UAE is stopped. Jacobs also said that the US is morally obligated to take measures and stop the arms to the Emirates, until the UAE stops providing weapons to the RSF. On 29 March 2024, Sudan filed a 78-page formal complaint with theUnited Nations Security Council(UNSC), accusing the UAE of planning and backing",
"and backing theRapid Support Forces(RSF) militias’ against the Sudanese army. The Emirates was allegedly taking assistance fromChad, which acted as a channel for military supplies and mercenaries to reach RSF in Sudan.Human rights organizations pointed out that Sudan’s conflict was among the “world’s worst humanitarian crisis”, while foreign nations like the UAE continued to supply weapons and equipment to the warring parties.Reports also revealed that the Emirates claimed of carrying out a humanitarian campaign to provide aid for Sudanese people. In fact, it was expanding a covert operation of funneling weapons, money and even powerful drones for the militias in Sudan. Officials said the UAE was playing the most consequential role by inflaming the crisis, while pledging to ease it.In October 2024, Sudan wrote a second official letter to the UNSC, calling for it to take strong action against the UAE’s continued aggression towards Sudan. The Sudanese Foreign Ministry also claimed that the UAE is not just an",
"UAE is not just an indirect supported of RSF, but rather a “vicious frontline player in the war of aggression” against Sudan. Migrant workers Migrant workers in the UAE are not allowed to join trade unions or go on strike. Those who strike may risk prison and deportation,as seen in 2014 when dozens of workers were deported for striking.TheInternational Trade Union Confederationhas called on theUnited Nationsto investigate evidence that thousands of migrant workers in the UAE are treated as slave labour. In 2019, an investigation performed byThe Guardianrevealed that thousands of migrant construction workers employed on infrastructure and building projects for the UAE'sExpo 2020exhibition were working in an unsafe environment. Some were even exposed to potentially fatal situations due to cardiovascular issues. Long hours in the sun made them vulnerable to heat strokes. A report in January 2020 highlighted that the employers in the United Arab Emirates have been exploiting the Indian labor and hiring them",
"and hiring them ontourist visas, which is easier and cheaper thanwork permits. Thesemigrant workersare left open tolabor abuse, where they also fear reporting exploitation due to their illegal status. Besides, the issue remains unknown as the visit visa data is not maintained in both the UAE and Indianmigrationand employment records. In a 22 July 2020 news piece,Reutersreportedhuman rightsgroups as saying conditions had deteriorated because of theCOVID-19 pandemic. Many migrant workers racked up debt and depended on the help of charities. The report cited salary delays and layoffs as a major risk, in addition to overcrowded living conditions, lack of support and problems linked with healthcare and sick pay. Reuters reported at least 200,000 workers, mostly from India but also from Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Philippines and Nepal, had been repatriated, according to their diplomatic missions. On 2 May 2020, the Consul General of India inDubai, Vipul, confirmed that more than 150,000 Indians in the United Arab",
"in the United Arab Emirates registered to be repatriated through the e-registration option provided by Indian consulates in the UAE. According to the figures, 25% of applicants lost their jobs and nearly 15% were stranded in the country due to lockdown. Besides, 50% of the total applicants were from the state ofKerala, India. On 9 October 2020,The Telegraphreported that many migrant workers were left abandoned, as they lost their jobs amidst the tightening economy due toCOVID-19. Various human rights organisations have raised serious concerns about the alleged abuse of migrant workers by major contractors organising Expo 2020. UAE's business solution provider German Pavilion is also held accountable for abusing migrant workers. Environmental policy The country is a leadingoil and gas producer. Itsenergy consumption per capitais around 370Gigajoule. The UAE'scarbon dioxide emissions per capitaare high, ranking sixth among countries globally.Recently, it made efforts to make itself more sustainable. Those",
"sustainable. Those include: According to official sources, in Dubai, \"the share of mass transport in people’s mobility increased from 6 per cent in 2006 to 20.61 per cent in 2022.\"Together with the USA the country invested 17 billion dollars insustainable agriculture. Economy The United Arab Emirates has developed from a juxtaposition of Bedouin tribes to one of the world's wealthiest states in only about 50 years, boasting one of the highestGDP (PPP) per capitafigures in the world. Economic growth has been impressive and steady throughout the history of this young confederation of emirates with brief periods of recessions only, e.g. in the global financial and economic crisis years 2008–09, and a couple of more mixed years starting in 2015 and persisting until 2019. Between 2000 and 2018, average real gross domestic product (GDP) growth was at close to 4%.It is the second largest economy in theGCC(afterSaudi Arabia),with a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of US$414.2 billion, and a real GDP of 392.8",
"a real GDP of 392.8 billion constant 2010 USD in 2018.Since its independence in 1971, the UAE's economy has grown by nearly 231 times to 1.45 trillion AED in 2013. The non-oil trade has grown to 1.2 trillion AED, a growth by around 28 times from 1981 to 2012.Supported by the world's seventh-largest oil reserves and aided by prudent investments coupled with a resolute commitment to economic liberalism and strong governmental oversight, the UAE has witnessed its real GDP increase by more than three times over the past four decades. Presently, the UAE is among the wealthiest countries globally, with GDP per capita nearly 80% higher than the OECD average. As impressive as economic growth has been in the UAE, the total population has increased from just around 550,000 in 1975 to close to 10 million in 2018. This growth is mainly due to the influx of foreign workers into the country, making the national population a minority. The UAE features a unique labour market system, in which residence in the UAE is",
"in the UAE is conditional on stringent visa rules. This system is a major advantage in terms of macroeconomic stability, as labour supply adjusts quickly to demand throughout economic business cycles. This allows the government to keep unemployment in the country on a very low level of less than 3%, and it also gives the government more leeway in terms of macroeconomic policies – where other governments often need to make trade-offs between fighting unemployment and fighting inflation. Between 2014 and 2018, the accommodation and food, education, information and communication, arts and recreation, and real estate sectors overperformed in terms of growth, whereas the construction, logistics, professional services, public, and oil and gas sectors underperformed. Business and finance The UAE offers businesses a strong enabling environment: stable political and macroeconomic conditions, a future-oriented government, good general infrastructure and ICT infrastructure. Moreover, the country has made continuous and",
"made continuous and convincing improvements to its regulatory environmentand is ranked as the 26th best country in the world for doing business by theDoing Business 2017 Reportpublished by theWorld Bank Group.The UAE are in the top ranks of several other global indices, such as theWorld Economic Forum's (WEF),Global Competitiveness Index(GCI), theWorld Happiness Report(WHR) and 32nd in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.TheEconomist Intelligence Unit(EIU), for example, assigns the UAE rank two regionally in terms of business environment and 22 worldwide. From the 2018 Arab Youth Survey the UAE emerges as the top Arab country in areas such as living, safety and security, economic opportunities, and starting a business, and as an example for other states to emulate. The weaker points remain the level of education across the UAE population, limitations in the financial and labour markets, barriers to trade and some regulations that hinder business dynamism. The major challenge for the country, though, remains",
"though, remains translating investments and strong enabling conditions into innovation and creative outputs. UAE law does not allow trade unions to exist.The right tocollective bargainingand theright to strikeare not recognised, and the Ministry of Labour has the power to force workers to go back to work. Migrant workers who participate in a strike can have their work permits cancelled and be deported.Consequently, there are very few anti-discrimination laws in relation to labour issues, with Emiratis – and otherGCCArabs – getting preference in public sector jobs despite lesser credentials than competitors and lower motivation. In fact, just over eighty per cent of Emirati workers hold government posts, with many of the rest taking part in state-owned enterprises such asEmirates airlinesandDubai Properties.Westernstates, including the United Kingdom, were also warned by the Emirati Trade Minister,Thani bin Ahmed Al Zeyoudi, to keep politics separate from trade and the economy, as it dilutes the agreements'",
"the agreements' main objectives. In 2023, Al Zeyoudi indicated that these countries should \"tone down\" the human and workers' rights provisions in the trade deals, in order to gain greater market access and business opportunities. The UAE's monetary policy stresses stability and predictability. TheCentral Bank of the UAE(CBUAE) keeps a peg to the US Dollar (USD) and moves interest rates close to theFederal Funds Rate. According toFitch Ratings, the decline in property sector follows risks of progressively worsening the quality of assets in possession with UAE banks, leading the economy to rougher times ahead. Even though as compared to retail and property, UAE banks fared well. The higher US interest rates followed since 2016 – which the UAE currency complies to – have boosted profitability. However, the likelihood of plunging interest rates and increasing provisioning costs on bad loans, point to difficult times ahead for theeconomy. Since 2015, economic growth has been more mixed due to a number of factors",
"a number of factors impacting both demand and supply. In 2017 and 2018 growth has been positive but on a low level of 0.8 and 1.4%, respectively. To support the economy the government is currently following an expansionary fiscal policy. However, the effects of this policy are partially offset by monetary policy, which has been contractionary. If not for the fiscal stimulus in 2018, the UAE economy would probably have contracted in that year. One of the factors responsible for slower growth has been a credit crunch, which is due to, among other factors, higher interest rates. Government debt has remained on a low level, despite high deficits in a few recent years. Risks related to government debt remain low. Inflation has been picking up in 2017 and 2018. Contributing factors were the introduction of avalue added tax(VAT) of 5%in 2018 as well as higher commodity prices. Despite the government's expansionary fiscal policy and a growing economy in 2018 and at the beginning of 2019, prices have been dropping in",
"been dropping in late 2018 and 2019 owing to oversupply in some sectors of importance to consumer prices. The UAE has an attractive tax system for companies and wealthy individuals, making it a preferred destination for companies seekingtax avoidance. The NGOTax Justice Networkplaces them in 2021 in the group of the ten largesttax havens.In 2023, the UAE's legal system fell under international scrutiny, as themembers of the British Parliamentopened an inquiry into how the foreign business executives are treated in the country, in case of accusations of breaking the law. 2024 will be the third consecutive year that the UAE holds first place as the world's leading wealth magnet, as 6,700 wealthy migrants are set to move to the country. VAT The UAE government implementedvalue-added tax(VAT) in the country from January 1, 2018, at a standard rate of 5%.While the government may still adjust the exact arrangement of the VAT, it is not likely that any new taxes will be introduced in the foreseeable future.",
"foreseeable future. Additional taxes would destroy one of the UAE's main enticements for businesses to operate in the country and put a heavy burden on the economy. Energy Oil and gas production is an important part of the economy of the UAE. In 2018, the oil and gas sector contributed 26% to overall GDP. The UAE leadership initiated economic diversification efforts even before the oil price crash in the 1980s, resulting in the UAE having the most diversified economy in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region at present. Although the oil and gas sector continues to be significant to the UAE economy, these efforts have yielded great resilience during periods of oil price fluctuations and economic turbulence. The introduction of the VAT has provided the government with an additional source of income – approximately 6% of the total revenue in 2018, or 27 billionUnited Arab Emirates dirham(AED) – affording its fiscal policy more independence from oil- and gas-related revenue, which constitutes about 36%",
"about 36% of the total government revenue. TheBarakah nuclear power plantis the first on the Arabian peninsula and expected to reduce the carbon footprint of the country. The UAE has solar generation potential, and its energy policy has shifted due to the declining price of solar. The Dubai Clean Energy Strategy aims to provide 7 per cent of Dubai's energy from clean energy sources by 2020. It will increase this target to 25 per cent by 2030 and 75 per cent by 2050. In 2023, ADNOC and its CEO Sultan Al Jaber closed at least 20 business deals worth nearly $100 billion. The state oil firm was alleged of exploiting the UAE’s COP28 presidency to pursue oil and gas deals. As per leaked documents, Al Jaber’s team targeted 16 nations to lobby firms, delegates or ministers on such deals. ADNOC sought deals with companies from 12 countries, which included 11 of the 16 target nations. Al Jaber and senior ADNOC officials openly discussed deals. COP28 organising teams were excluded from meetings and replaced by ADNOC",
"replaced by ADNOC officials, leaving a closed group that made deals. Tourism Tourism acts as a growth sector for the entire UAE economy.Dubaiis the top tourism destination in the Middle East.According to the annual MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index, Dubai is the fifth most popular tourism destination in the world.Dubai holds up to 66% share of the UAE's tourism economy, withAbu Dhabihaving 16% andSharjah10%. Dubai welcomed 10 million tourists in 2013. The UAE has the most advanced and developed infrastructure in the region.Since the 1980s, the UAE has been spending billions of dollars on infrastructure. These developments are particularly evident in the larger emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai. The northern emirates are rapidly following suit, providing major incentives for developers of residential and commercial property. The inbound tourism expenditure in the UAE for 2019 accounted for 118.6 per cent share of the outbound tourism expenditure.Since 6 January 2020, tourist visas to the United Arab",
"to the United Arab Emirates are valid for five years.It has been projected that the travel and tourism industry will contribute about 280.6 billion United Arab Emirati dirham to the UAE's GDP by 2028. The country's major tourist attraction includes the famousBurj KhalifainDubai, the tallest tower in the world;The World archipelagoandPalm Jumeirahalso in Dubai;Sheikh Zayed Grand MosqueandYas Marina CircuitinAbu Dhabi;Al Hajar MountainsinFujairah. The uniqueness of the country's natural desert life, especially with theBedouins, also facilitates the country's tourist industry. Transport Dubai International Airportbecame thebusiest airport in the world by international passenger trafficin 2014, overtakingLondon Heathrow. Abu Dhabi,Dubai,Sharjah,Ajman,Umm Al Quwain, andRas Al Khaimahare connected by theE11 highway, which is the longest road in the UAE. In Dubai, in addition to theDubai Metro, TheDubai TramandPalm Jumeirah Monorailalso connect specific parts of the city. There is also a bus, taxi, abra",
"a bus, taxi, abra (traditional boat) and water taxi network run by RTA.T1, a double-decker tram system inDowntown Dubai, were operational from 2015 to 2019. Salik, meaning \"open\" or \"clear\", is Dubai's electronic toll collection system that was launched in July 2007 and is part of Dubai's traffic congestion management system. Each time one passes through a Salik tolling point, a toll is deducted from the drivers' prepaid toll account using advanced Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology. There are four Salik tolling points placed in strategic locations in Dubai: atAl Maktoum Bridge,Al Garhoud Bridge, and alongSheikh Zayed RoadatAl SafaandAl Barsha. A 1,200 km (750 mi)country-wide railwayis under construction which will connect all the major cities and ports.TheDubai Metrois the first urban train network in theArabian Peninsula. The major ports of the United Arab Emirates areKhalifa Port,Zayed Port, PortJebel Ali,Port Rashid,Port Khalid,Port Saeed, and Port Khor Fakkan.The Emirates are increasingly",
"are increasingly developing their logistics and ports in order to participate in trade between Europe and China or Africa. For this purpose, ports are being rapidly expanded and investments are being made in their technology. The Emirates have historically been and currently still are part of the MaritimeSilk Roadthat runs from the Chinese coast to the south via the southern tip of India toMombasa, from there through the Red Sea via theSuez Canalto the Mediterranean, there to the Upper Adriatic region and the northern Italian hub ofTriestewith its rail connections toCentral Europe, Eastern Europe and theNorth Sea. Telecommunications The United Arab Emirates is served by twotelecommunicationsoperators,EtisalatandEmirates Integrated Telecommunications Company(\"du\"). Etisalat operated amonopolyuntil du launched mobile services in February 2007.Internet subscribers were expected to increase from 0.904 million in 2007 to 2.66 million in 2012.The regulator, theTelecommunications Regulatory Authority, mandates",
"Authority, mandates filtering websites for religious, political and sexual content. 5Gwireless services were installed nationwide in 2019 through a partnership withHuawei. Competitiveness In June 2024 it was reported, that the UAE has moved up three place to the 7th place among the top 10 countries in the IMD World Competitiveness. This ranking is issued by the World Competitiveness Centre of the Institute for Management Development (IMD) inSwitzerland. Demographics According to an estimate by theWorld Bank, the UAE's population in 2020 was 9,890,400. Immigrants accounted for 88.52% while Emiratis made up the remaining 11.48%.This unique imbalance is due to the country's exceptionally highnet migration rateof 21.71, theworld's highest.UAE citizenship is very difficult to obtain other than byfiliationand only granted under very special circumstances. The UAE is ethnically diverse. The five most populous nationalities in the emirates of Dubai, Sharjah, and Ajman are Indian (25%), Pakistani (12%), Emirati (9%),",
"Emirati (9%), Bangladeshi (7%), and Filipino (5%).Immigrants from Europe, Australia, North America make up 500,000 of the population.250,000 British nationals live in the country.The rest of the population are from otherArab states. About 88% of the population of the United Arab Emirates is urban.The averagelife expectancywas 76.7 in 2012, higher than for any other Arab country.With a male/femalesex ratioof 2.2 males for each female in the total population and 2.75 to 1 for the 15–65age group, the UAE'sgender imbalanceis second highest in the world after Qatar. Largest cities Language Modern Standard Arabicis the national language of the United Arab Emirates. English is the most commonly spoken language,whereasEmirati Arabic, a variety ofGulf Arabic, is spoken natively by Emirati people. Religion Islamis the largest and the officialstate religionof the United Arab Emirates. The government follows a policy of tolerance toward other religions and rarely interferes in the religious activities of non-Muslims.",
"of non-Muslims. There are moreSunnithanShiaMuslims in the United Arab Emirates,and 85% of the Emirati population are Sunni Muslims. The vast majority of the remainder 15% are Shia Muslims, who are concentrated in theEmirates of DubaiandSharjah. Although no official statistics are available for the breakdown between Sunni and Shia Muslims among noncitizen residents, media estimates suggest less than 20% of the noncitizen Muslim population are Shia.The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi is the largest mosque in the country and a major tourist attraction.Ibadiis common among Omanis in the UAE, whileSufiinfluences exist as well. Christiansaccount for 9% of the total population of the United Arab Emirates, according to the 2005 census; estimates in 2010 suggested a figure of 12.6%.Roman CatholicsandProtestantsform significant proportions of the Christian minority. The country has over 52 churches in 2023.Many Christians in the United Arab Emirates are of Asian, African, and European origin, along with fellow",
"along with fellow Middle Eastern countries such as Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt.The United Arab Emirates forms part of theApostolic Vicariate of Southern Arabiaand the Vicar Apostolic BishopPaul Hinderis based inAbu Dhabi. There is a smallJewishcommunity in the United Arab Emirates. Before 2023, there was only one knownsynagogueinDubai, which has been open since 2008 and the synagogue also welcomes visitors.Another synagogue,Moses Ben Maimon Synagoguewas completed in 2023 as part of theAbrahamic Family Housecomplex inAbu Dhabi. As of 2019, according to RabbiMarc Schneierof theFoundation for Ethnic Understanding, it is estimated that there are about 150 families to 3,000 Jews who live and worship freely in the UAE. South Asians in the United Arab Emirates constitute the largest ethnic group in the country.Over 2 million Indian migrants (mostly from the southern states ofKerala,Andhra Pradesh,Coastal KarnatakaandTamil Nadu) are estimated to be living in the UAE.There are currently three Hindu temples in the",
"temples in the country. Other religions also exist in the United Arab Emirates, includingJainism,Sikhism,Buddhism,Judaism,BaháʼísandDruze. The UAE Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Co-operation,Abdullah bin Zayed, announced in 2019 the design and construction plan of theAbrahamic Family House, which will serve as an interfaith complex that houses asynagogue,mosque, and achurchonSaadiyat IslandinAbu Dhabi. Education Theeducationsystem through secondary level administered by theMinistry of Educationin all emirates except Abu Dhabi, where it falls under the authority of theDepartment of Education and Knowledge. Public schools are divided intoprimary schools,middle schoolsandhigh schools. The public schools are government-funded and the curriculum is created to match the United Arab Emirates' development goals. The medium of instruction in the public school is Arabic with emphasis on English as a second language. There are also many private schools which are internationally accredited.Public",
"accredited.Public schoolsin the country are free for citizens of the UAE, while the fees for private schools vary. The higher education system is monitored by the Ministry of Higher Education. The ministry also is responsible for admitting students to itsundergraduateinstitutions.The adult literacy rate in 2015 was 93.8%. The UAE has shown a strong interest in improving education and research. Enterprises include the establishment of theCERTResearch Centres and theMasdar Institute of Science and Technologyand Institute for Enterprise Development.According to the QS Rankings, the top-ranking universities in the country are theUnited Arab Emirates University(421–430th worldwide),Khalifa University(441–450th worldwide), theAmerican University of Sharjah(431–440th) andUniversity of Sharjah(551–600th worldwide).United Arab Emirates was ranked 33rd in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2021, up from 36th in 2019. Health The life expectancy at birth in the UAE is at 76.96 years.Cardiovascular diseaseis the principal",
"the principal cause of death in the UAE, constituting 28% of total deaths; other major causes areaccidentsandinjuries,malignancies, andcongenital anomalies.According toWorld Health Organization data from 2016, 34.5% of adults in the UAE are clinicallyobese, with abody mass index(BMI) score of 30 or more. In February 2008, the Ministry of Health unveiled a five-year health strategy for the public health sector in the northern emirates, which fall under its purview and which, unlike Abu Dhabi and Dubai, do not have separate healthcare authorities. The strategy focuses on unifying healthcare policy and improving access to healthcare services at reasonable cost, at the same time reducing dependence on overseas treatment. The ministry plans to add three hospitals to the current 14, and 29 primary healthcare centres to the current 86. Nine were scheduled to open in 2008. The introduction of mandatoryhealth insurancein Abu Dhabi forexpatriatesand their dependents was a major driver in reform of healthcare policy.",
"healthcare policy. Abu Dhabi nationals were brought under the scheme from 1 June 2008 and Dubai followed for its government employees. Eventually, under federal law, every Emirati and expatriate in the country will be covered by compulsory health insurance under a unified mandatory scheme.The country has benefited from medical tourists from all over theCooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf. The UAE attractsmedical touristsseekingcosmetic surgeryand advanced procedures, cardiac and spinal surgery, and dental treatment, as health services have higher standards than other Arab countries in the Persian Gulf. Culture Emirati culture is based onArabian cultureand has been influenced by the cultures ofPersia,India, andEast Africa.Arabian andArabian inspired architectureis part of the expression of the local Emirati identity.Arabian influence on Emirati culture is noticeably visible in traditional Emirati architecture andfolk arts.For example, the distinctive wind tower that tops traditional Emirati",
"traditional Emirati buildings, thebarjeel, has become an identifying mark of Emirati architecture and is attributed to Arabian influence.This influence is derived both from traders who fled the tax regime in Persia in the early 19th century and from Emirati ownership of ports on the Arabian coast, for instance the Al Qassimi port of Lingeh. The United Arab Emirates has a diverse society.Dubai's economy depends more on international trade and tourism, and is more open to visitors, while Abu Dhabi society is more domestic as the city's economy is focused on fossil fuel extraction. Major holidays in the United Arab Emirates includeEid al Fitr, which marks the end ofRamadan, andNational Day(2 December), which marks the formation of the United Arab Emirates.Emirati males prefer to wear akandura, an ankle-length white tunic woven from wool or cotton, and Emirati women wear anabaya, a black over-garment that covers most parts of the body. The earliest known poet in the UAE isIbn Majid, born between 1432 and 1437 in",
"1432 and 1437 in Ras Al-Khaimah. The most famous Emirati writers were Mubarak Al Oqaili (1880–1954), Salem bin Ali al Owais (1887–1959) and Ahmed bin Sulayem (1905–1976). Three other poets from Sharjah, known as the Hirah group, are observed to have been heavily influenced by the Apollo andRomantic poets.TheSharjah International Book Fairis the oldest and largest in the country. Thelist of museums in the United Arab Emiratesincludes some of regional repute, most famouslySharjahwith its Heritage District containing 17 museums,which in 1998 was the Cultural Capital of the Arab World.In Dubai, the area ofAl Quozhas attracted a number of art galleries as well as museums such as theSalsali Private Museum.Abu Dhabi has established a culture district onSaadiyat Island. Six grand projects are planned, including theGuggenheim Abu Dhabiand theLouvre Abu Dhabi.Dubai also plans to build aKunsthalmuseum and a district for galleries and artists. Emirati culture is a part of theculture of Eastern Arabia.Liwais a type of",
"a type of music and dance performed locally, mainly in communities that contain descendants ofBantu peoplesfrom theAfrican Great Lakesregion.TheDubai Desert Rock Festivalis also another major festival consisting of heavy metal and rock artists.Thecinema of the United Arab Emiratesis minimal but expanding. Media The UAE'smediais annually classified as \"not free\" in theFreedom of the Pressreport byFreedom House.The UAE ranks poorly in the annualPress Freedom IndexbyReporters without Borders.Dubai Media Cityis the UAE's main media zone. The UAE is home to some pan-Arab broadcasters, including theMiddle East Broadcasting CentreandOrbit Showtime Network. In 2007, SheikhMohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoumdecreed that journalists can no longer be prosecuted or imprisoned for reasons relating to their work.At the same time, the UAE has made it illegal to disseminate online material that can threaten \"public order\",and hands down prison terms for those who \"deride or damage\" the reputation of the state and \"display",
"state and \"display contempt\" for religion. Journalists who are arrested for violating this law are often brutally beaten by the police. According to UAE Year Book 2013, there are seven Arabic newspapers and eight English language newspapers, as well as a Tagalog newspaper produced and published in the UAE. New media, such asFacebook,Twitter,YouTubeandInstagramare used widely in the UAE by the government entities and by the public as well.The UAE government avails official social media accounts to communicate with public and hear their needs. In recent years, there has been a notable surge in digital media consumption in the UAE, driven by the widespread use of platforms like Snapchat and TikTok among the younger population.Influencers on these platforms play a significant role in shaping trends and promoting various products and services.The government has also implemented digital initiatives to enhance e-Government services and promote smart city concepts, further demonstrating the UAE's commitment to",
"UAE's commitment to technological advancements. Cuisine The traditional food of the Emirates has always been rice, fish, and meat. The people of the United Arab Emirates have adopted most of their foods from other West and South Asian countries including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Pakistan and India. Seafood has been the mainstay of the Emirati diet for centuries. Meat and rice are other staple foods, withlamb and muttonpreferred to goat and beef. Popular beverages are coffee and tea, which can be complemented withcardamomorsaffronto give them a distinctive flavour. Popular cultural Emirati dishes includethreed,machboos,khubisa,khameerandchababbread among others whilelugaimatis a famous Emirati dessert. With the influence of western culture, fast food has become very popular among young people, to the extent that campaigns have been held to highlight the dangers of fast food excesses.Alcohol is allowed to be served only in hotel restaurants and bars. All nightclubs are permitted to sell alcohol. Specific",
"alcohol. Specific supermarkets may sell alcohol, but these products are sold in separate sections. Likewise, pork, which isharam(not permitted for Muslims), is sold in separate sections in all major supermarkets. Although alcohol may be consumed, it is illegal to be intoxicated in public or drive a motor vehicle with any trace of alcohol in the blood. Sports Formula Oneis particularly popular in the United Arab Emirates, and a Grand Prix is annually held at theYas Marina CircuitinYas Islandin Abu Dhabi. The race takes place in the evening, and was the first ever Grand Prix to start in daylight and finish at night.Other popular sports includecamel racing,falconry,endurance riding, andtennis.The emirate ofDubaiis also home to two majorgolfcourses: the Dubai Golf Club andEmirates Golf Club. In the past, child camel jockeys were used, leading to widespread criticism. Eventually, the UAE passed laws banning the use of children for the sport, leading to the prompt removal of almost all child jockeys.Recently robot",
"robot jockeys have been introduced to overcome the problem of child camel jockeys which was an issue of human rights violations.Ansar Burneyis often praised for the work he has done in this area. Football Footballis a popular sport in the UAE.Al Nasr,Al Ain,Al Wasl,Sharjah,Al Wahda, andShabab Al Ahliare the most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long-time regional champions.TheUnited Arab Emirates Football Associationwas established in 1971 and since then has dedicated its time and effort to promoting the game, organisingyouth programmesand improving the abilities of not only its players, but also the officials and coaches involved with its regional teams. TheUAEqualified for theFIFA World Cupin1990, along withEgypt. It was the third consecutive World Cup with two Arab nations qualifying, afterKuwaitandAlgeriain1982, andIraqand Algeria again in1986. The UAE has won theGulf Cup Championshiptwice: the first cup won in January 2007 held inAbu Dhabiand the second in January 2013, held inBahrain.The",
"held inBahrain.The country hosted the2019 AFC Asian Cup. The UAE team went all the way to the semi-finals, where they were defeated by the eventual champions,Qatar. Cricket Cricketis one of the most popular sports in the UAE, largely because of the expatriate population from theSAARCcountries, the United Kingdom, and Australia. The headquarters of theInternational Cricket Council(ICC) have been located in theDubai Sports Citycomplex since 2005, including theICC Academywhich was established in 2009.There are a number of international cricket venues in the UAE, which are frequently used for international tournaments and \"neutral\" bilateral series due to the local climate and Dubai's status as a transport hub. Notable international tournaments hosted by the UAE have included the2014 Under-19 Cricket World Cup, the2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup, and three editions of theAsia Cup(1984, 1995 and 2018). Notable grounds include theSharjah Cricket Association StadiuminSharjah,Sheikh Zayed Cricket StadiuminAbu Dhabi,",
"StadiuminAbu Dhabi, andDubai International Cricket Stadiumin Dubai. TheEmirates Cricket Board(ECB) became a member of the ICC in 1990. TheUAE national cricket teamhas qualified for theCricket World Cupon two occasions (1996and2015)and theICC Men's T20 World Cupon two occasions (2014and2022). Thenational women's teamis similarly one of the strongest associate teams in Asia, notably participating in the2018 ICC Women's World Twenty20 Qualifier. Following the2009 attack on the Sri Lanka national cricket team, the UAE served as thede factohome of thePakistan national cricket teamfor nearly a decade, as well as hosting thePakistan Super League.The UAE has also hosted one full edition ofIndian Premier League(IPL) in 2020 and two partial editions of theIndian Premier League(IPL) in 2014 and 2021. See also Notes References Further reading External links 24°N54°E / 24°N 54°E /24; 54",
"Economy of the United Arab Emirates TheUnited Arab Emiratesis ahigh-incomedevelopingmarket economy. The UAE's economy is the 4th largest in theMiddle East(afterTurkey,Saudi ArabiaandIsrael), with agross domestic product(GDP) of US$415 billion (AED 1.83 trillion) in 2021-2023. TheUAEeconomy is heavily reliant on revenues frompetroleumandnatural gas, especially inAbu Dhabi. In 2009, more than 85% of the UAE's economy was based on the oil exports.In 2011, oil exports accounted for 77% of the UAE's state budget.In recent years, there has been someeconomic diversification,particularly inDubai.Abu Dhabi and other UAE emirates have remained relatively conservative in their approach to diversification. Dubai has far smaller oil reserves than its counterparts. Tourismis one of the biggest non-oil sources of revenue in the UAE. A massive construction boom, an expanding manufacturing base, and a thriving services sector are helping the country to diversify its economy. Nationwide, there is currently US $350 billion",
"US $350 billion worth of activeconstructionprojects. The UAE is a member of theWorld Trade OrganizationandOPEC. Economic overview UAE has the second-largest economy in the Arab world (after Saudi Arabia),with a gross domestic product (GDP) of US$414 billion (AED 1.52 trillion) in 2018.A third of the GDP is from oil revenues.The economy was expected to grow 4–4.5% in 2013, compared to 2.3–3.5% over the previous five years. Since independence in 1971, UAE's economy has grown by nearly 231 times to AED1.45 trillion in 2013. The non-oil trade has grown to AED1.2 trillion, a growth of around 28 times from 1981 to 2012. The UAE's economy is one of the most open worldwide, and its economic history goes back to the times when ships sailed toIndia, along theSwahili coast, as far south asMozambique. The UAE economy has been ‘inspected’ by international economic institutions on a regular basis, generally receiving good reports on economic developments.International Monetary Fund(IMF) expected UAE's economic growth to",
"economic growth to increase to 4.5% in 2015, compared to 4.3% in 2014. The IMF ascribed UAE's potentially strong economic growth inWorld Economic OutlookReport to the increased contribution of non-petroleum sectors, which registered a growth average of more than 6% in 2014 and 2015. Such contribution includes banking, tourism, commerce and real estate. Increase of Emirati purchasing power and governmental expenditures in infrastructure projects have considerably increased. Internationally, UAE is ranked among the top 20 for globalservice business, according toAT Kearney, the top 30 on theWEF\"most-networked countries\" and in the top quarter as a least corrupt country per theTI'scorruption index. The government of theUnited Arab Emiratesannounced a broad restructuring and merger of more than 50% of its federal agencies, including ministries and departments, in an attempt to deal with and recover from the economic shocks following months-longcoronaviruslockdown. Historical background Before independence from",
"independence from theUnited Kingdomand unification in 1971, each emirate was responsible for its own economy. At the time,pearl diving,seafaringandfishingwere together the mainstay of the economy, until the development of Japanesecultured pearlsand the discovery of commercial quantities of oil.Previous UAE PresidentZayed Bin Sultan Al Nahyanis credited with bringing the country forward into the 20th century and using the revenue from oil exports to fund all the necessary development. Likewise, former UAE vice-presidentRashid bin Saeed Al Maktoumhad a bold vision for the Emirate of Dubai and foresaw the future in not petroleum alone, but also other industries. In the 1980s Dubai's diversification centred around trade and the creation of shipping and logistics centres, notablyPort Rashidand the port and Free Zone ofJebel Alias well asDubai International Airport,leading to a number of major global plays in shipping, transportation and logistics (DP World,Emirates,DNATA). Recent history The emergence of Dubai's",
"of Dubai's lively real estate market was briefly checked by theglobal financial crisisof 2007–8, when Dubai was bailed out by Abu Dhabi.The recovery from the overheated market led to tighter regulation and oversight and a more realistic market for real estate throughout the UAE with many 'on hold' projects restarting. Although the market continues to expand, current market conditions for developers have been characterised as 'tough'. As a result ofCOVID-19 pandemic, the UAE’s economy shrank by 6.1% in 2020.The country’s account balance dropped to six per cent of GDP in 2020 from 8.5 per cent in 2019 due to the underperformance of both hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon exports mitigated by lower imports. In late 2021, the authority announced that UAE’s banking assets are expected to grow by between 8 per cent and 10 per cent in 2022 as the second-biggest Arab economy continues to recover from the covid-19 pandemic.It was also announced the UAE’s economy might grow at a faster than projected rate, reaching 4.6%",
"rate, reaching 4.6% in 2022. Data The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2024 (with IMF estimates between 2022-2028). (Bil. US$ nomina) (US$ nominal) (Bil. US$, PPP) (US$, PPP) (real) (% of GDP) External trade Withimportstotaling $273.5 billion in 2012, UAE passed Saudi Arabia as the largest consumer market in the region. Exports totaled $314 billion, making UAE the second largestexporterin the region. UAE andIndiaare each other's main trading partners, with the latter having many of its citizens working andliving in the former. The trade totals over $75 billion (AED275.25 billion). In 2021, the main export partners of the UAE were India (14.2%),Japan(8.3%), China (mainland) (7.7%),Saudi Arabia(7.5%),Iraq(4.8%),Singapore(4.0%), theEuropean Union(4.0%),Oman(3.8%),Hong Kong(3.4%), andThailand(3.0%). The main import partners in 2012 were China (17.3%), the European Union (12.1%),India(9.4%), the United States (5.5%), Saudi Arabia (5.2%), the United Kingdom",
"the United Kingdom (2.8%),Mali(2.7%),Japan(2.6%),Turkey(2.1%), andVietnam(2.0%). Diversification of UAE's economy Although UAE has the mostdiversified economyin theGCC, the UAE's economy remains extremely reliant on oil.With the exception of Dubai, most of the UAE is dependent on oil revenues.Petroleumandnatural gascontinue to play a central role in the economy, especially inAbu Dhabi. More than 85% of the UAE's economy was based on the oil exports in 2009.While Abu Dhabi and other UAE emirates have remained relatively conservative in their approach to diversification, Dubai, which has far smaller oil reserves, was bolder in its diversification policy.In 2011, oil exports accounted for 77% of the UAE's state budget. Dubai suffered from a significant economic crisis in 2007–2010 and was bailed out by Abu Dhabi's oil wealth. Dubai's current prosperity has been attributed to Abu Dhabi'spetrodollars.In 2014, Dubai owed a total of $142 billion in debt.The UAE government has worked towards reducing the economy's",
"the economy's dependence on oil exports by 2030.Various projects are underway to help achieve this, the most recent being theKhalifa Port, opened in the Emirate ofAbu Dhabiat the end of 2012. The UAE has also won the right to host the World Expo 2020, which is believed to have a positive effect on future growth, although there are some skeptics which mention the opposite. Over the decades, the Emirate ofDubaihas started to look for additional sources of revenue. High-class tourism and international finance continue to be developed. In line with this initiative, theDubai International Financial Centrewas announced, offering 55.5% foreign ownership, nowithholding tax, freehold land and office space and a tailor-madefinancial regulatory systemwith laws taken from best practice in other leading financial centers like New York, London, Zürich and Singapore.A new stock market for regional companies and other initiatives were announced in DIFC. Dubai has also developed Internet and Media free zones, offering 100%",
"offering 100% foreign ownership, no tax office space for the world's leading ICT and media companies, with the latest communications infrastructure to service them. Many of the world's leading companies have now set up branch offices, and even changed headquarters to, there. Recent liberalization in the property market allowing non citizens to buy freehold land has resulted in a major boom in the construction and real estate sectors, with several signature developments such as the 2Palm Islands,the World (archipelago), Dubai Marina, Jumeirah Lake Towers, and a number of other developments, offering villas and high rise apartments and office space. Emirates (part of the Emirates Group) was formed by the Dubai Government in the 1980s and is presently one of the few airlines to witness strong levels of growth. Emirates is also the largest operator of theAirbus A380aircraft. As of 2001, budgeted government revenues were aboutAED29.7 billion, and expenditures were about AED 22.9 billion. In addition, to finding",
"to finding new ways of sustaining the national economy, the UAE has also made progress in installing new, sustainable methods of generating electricity. This is evidenced by various solar energy initiatives atMasdar Cityand by other renewable energy developments in parts of the country. In addition, the UAE is starting to see the emergence of local manufacturing as new source of economic development, examples of significant government-led investments such asStratainaerospace industry, underMubadalaare successful, while there are also small scale entrepreneurial ventures picking up, such as Zarooq Motors in theautomotive industry. In August 2020, theBarakah nuclear power plant, the first nuclear power plant in theArab world, became operational. In its hard push for economic diversification, the UAE had been increasing its presence in Africa. One of the areas of interest had been clean energy, for which Abu Dhabi’s Masdar built infrastructure, including five wind farms in South Africa, a battery energy storage",
"energy storage system inSenegaland solar power facilities inMauritania. Emirati companies were also investing in fossil fuels, whereADNOCpurchased 10% stakes inMozambique’s Rovuma gas basin. UAE’s e& also established a foothold in around 12 countries across Africa. The Emirati companies also entered the mining sector, where Tahnoun bin Zayed’sInternational Holding Companyexpressed investment interests in mines inKenya,TanzaniaandAngola. However, certain investments had also been controversial. Tanzanian authorities were alleged of forcing severalMaasaioff their land for a safari and hunting project of an Emirati firm. A Dubai-based firm, Blue Carbon signed preliminary agreements inLiberia,Tanzania,Kenya,ZambiaandZimbabwe, aiming to generate carbon credits. However, it was accused of attempting to acquire millions of hectares of African forests in a greenwashing attempt. Meanwhile, DP World also invested around $3bn into Africa, and is operating ports from Mozambique in the south toAlgeriain the north",
"the north andAngolaon theAtlantic. The Emirates had also been alleged of controversial actions in the war zones in Africa, including inLibyaandSudan. Foreign trade Concerning foreign trade, UAE's market is one of the world's most dynamic markets worldwide, placed among the 16 largest exporters and 20 largest importers of commodities.The top five of the Main Partner Countries of the UAE in 2014 are Iran (3.0%), India (2.9%), Saudi Arabia (1.5%), Oman (1.4%) and Switzerland (1.2%). As for the top five of UAE suppliers are China (7.4%), United States (6.4%), India (5.8%), Germany (3.9%) and Japan (3.5%). In 2014, the United Arab Emirates managed to export 380.4bn dominated by four products which arePetroleum oils and oils obtained from bituminous...(19.8%)Diamonds, whether or not worked, but not mounted...(3.4%)Gold in UAE(3.2%) incl. gold plated with platinum, unwrought...Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of...(2.8%). In the same year, the United Arab Emirates imported 298.6 bn dominated by five",
"dominated by five countries which are China (7.4%), United States (6.4%), India (5.8%), Germany (3.9%), Japan (3.5%). On one hand, the United Arab Emirates managed in 2013 to export 17 bn USD services exported in 2013 dominated by travel (67.13%), transportation (28.13%), Government services (4.74%). On the other hand, it imported 63.9 bn USD of services imported services dominated by transportation (70.68%), travel (27.70%) and government services (1.62%). In September 2021, the UAE announced its plans to aggravate its trade ties with other economies, particularly inAsiaandAfrica. The country indicated that it was looking for inward foreign investments of around $150 billion in the next nine years, that is, by 2030. The Emirates aimed to be one of the world’s ten biggest investment nations. However, it had to face strong competition from its neighbor, Saudi Arabia, creating a broader gap in the once-assumed alliance between the two countries. The Emirati minister of state for foreign trade said, \"Let the",
"said, \"Let the Saudis increase the competition. It means the pie is going to be bigger and having a bigger pie means that the UAE share out of this pie is going to be bigger.\" TheEUidentified that the Emirati firms were involved in direct trade of weapon components toRussia. The EU sanctions targeted twoUAE-based companies, I Jet Global and Success Aviation Services, which were exporting dual-use goods. The EU warned that countries that will be used for Russia’s benefit could face a total ban on imports from the EU military and high tech kit. Besides, a trade war with UAE was expected, if it continued trade withRussia. The United Arab Emirates has introduced significant changes to its regulations concerning the promotion and distribution of foreign investment funds within the country. As part of these changes, encapsulated in several decisions by the Securities and Commodities Authority, is that foreign-owned funds can no longer directly advertise or distribute units publicly in the UAE. Instead, these",
"UAE. Instead, these activities are confined to private distribution aimed at Professional Investors and/or Market Counterparties. This shift signifies a strategic move to tighten the circumstances under which foreign funds can interact with UAE-based investors, particularly Retail Customers and Professional Investors, underscoring a push towards a more regulated investment environment. These regulatory updates have also led to changes in the distribution to Professional Investors, as they are now no longer exempt under the Securities and Commodities Authority Rulebook. Only firms licensed by the SCA to conduct the regulated activity of \"Promotion\" are now permitted to promote such funds, and only on a private placement basis. Furthermore, the promotion or distribution of foreign funds to retail investors is outright prohibited, although reverse solicitation from retail investors is not prohibited in itself. All foreign funds to be distributed in the UAE must be registered with the SCA, barring those that can",
"those that can prove documented reverse solicitation. Three Emirati companies were found involved in trade of Iranian petroleum or petrochemical products, and were sanctioned by the US State Department in June 2024. One of the companies was Sea Route Ship Management FZE, which engaged in transport of Iranian petrochemical products as the commercial manager of the vessel ASTRA. The other two firms, Almanac Ship Management LLC and Al Anchor Ship Management FZE were involved in transport of Iranian petroleum products as the commercial manager of the vessels BERENICE PRIDE and PARINE respectively. In July 2024, Samco Petroleum Energy FZE, located inHamriyah Free Zone, was put up for sale for $17.7 million, with a promise to provide a turnkey oil trading operation. The sale emerged amidst the US sanctions imposed on several oil traders in the UAE's free trade zones, particularly Hamriyah, for continuing business with Iran and Russia. In November 2023, OFAC sanctioned a dozen companies in various UAE’s free zones",
"UAE’s free zones for facilitating the sale of Iranian products in third countries through Sepehr Energy, which is affiliated with Iran's Armed Forces General Staff. In March 2023, more companies operating in the UAE were sanctioned for exporting petrochemical products from Iran’sPersian Gulf Petrochemical Industriesto India and Southeast Asia. The Emirati authorities were also pushed to halt Russian imports and exports via Dubai. In September 2024, the UAE and Australia agreed on a free trade deal, which was expected to increase investment in Australia’s significant mineral and clean energy sectors. The deal was to eliminate tariffs on imports of over 99% of Australian goods. However, Australian unions criticized the deal, highlighting the UAE's poor human rights and labor record, including modern slavery under the kafala system.Michele O'Neilalso expressed concerns regarding the exploitation of migrant workers in the UAE, calling it one of the most repressive regimes with which Australia has entered into a",
"has entered into a bilateral trade deal. Human Resources and Employment Many buildings were built primarily by workers from South Asia and East Asia.This is generally because the current generation of UAE locals prefer governmental jobs and not private sector employment.On 17 June 2008, there were about 7,500 skilled workers employed at the Burj Khalifa construction site.Press reports indicated in 2006 that skilledcarpentersat the site earned £4.34 a day, and labourers earned £2.84.According to a BBC investigation and aHuman Rights Watchreport, the workers were housed in abysmal conditions, and worked long hours for low pay.During construction, only one construction-related death was reported.However, workplace injuries and fatalities in the UAE are \"poorly documented\", according to Human Rights Watch. In March 2006 about 2,500 workers, upset over buses that were delayed for the end of their shifts, protested and triggered a riot, damaging cars, offices, computers and construction equipment.A Dubai Interior",
"Dubai Interior Ministry official said the rioters caused almost £500,000 in damage.Most of the workers involved in the riot returned the following day but refused to work.Workers at Dubai airport also protested. Emiratisation Emiratisationis an initiative by the government of the UAE to employ more UAE Nationals in a meaningful and efficient manner in the public and private sectors.While the program has been in place for more than a decade and results can be seen in the public sector, the private sector is still lagging behind with citizens only representing 0.34% of the private sector workforce. While there is general agreement over the importance of Emiratisation for social, economic and political reasons, there is also some contention as to the impact of localization on organizational efficiency. It is yet unknown whether, and the extent to which, employment of nationals generates returns for MNEs operating in the Middle East. Recent research cautions that localization is not always advantageous for firms",
"for firms operating in the region, and its effectiveness depends on a number of contingent factors. In December 2009 however, a positive impact of UAE citizens in the workplace was identified in a newspaper article citing a yet unpublished study,this advantage being the use of networks within the evolving power structures. Overall, however, uptake in the private sector remains low regardless of significant investments in education, which have reached record levels with education now accounting for 22.5% – or $2.6 billion – of the overall budget planned for 2010.Multiple governmental initiatives are actively promoting Emiratisation by training anyone from high school dropouts to graduates in a multitude of skills needed for the – essentially Western – work environment of the UAE, these initiatives include Tawteen UAE,ENDPor the Abu Dhabi Tawteen Council. There are very few anti-discrimination laws in relation to labour issues, with Emiratis – and otherGCCnationals – being given preference when it comes to",
"when it comes to employment.Unions are generally banned and workers with any labour issues are advised to be in touch with the Ministry of Labour, instead of protesting or refusing to work. Migrant employees often complain of poor workplace safety and wages based on nationality, although this is being slowly addressed. Beyond directly sponsoring educational initiatives, the Emirates Foundation for Philanthropyis funding major research initiatives into Emiratisation through competitive research grants, allowing universities such asUnited Arab Emirates UniversityorDubai School of Governmentto build and disseminate expertise on the topic. Academics working on various aspects of Emiratisation includePaul Dyer andNatasha Ridgefrom Dubai School of Government,Ingo Forstenlechner from United Arab Emirates University,Kasim Randareefrom the British University of Dubai and Paul Knoglinger from the FHWien. In 2020, economy of the United Arab Emirates became vulnerable to theCOVID-19 pandemic, witnessing an economic",
"an economic shutdown. Among the Emirates,Dubaiwas facing extreme situation, where the expat workers were left jobless. Thousands of theBritonsworking in the city started selling off their possessions to collect money, as the strictvisa regulationsforced them to return to theUK. According to an April 2021 report published by the Democracy Centre for Transparency on theDiscrimination against foreigners and expatriates living in the UAE versus Emirati citizens, despite labor reforms in the UAE, foreigners and skilled or unskilledmigrant workersface discrimination and racializationfrom the citizens of the country. Foreigners and expatriates are often subjected to discrimination at work concerning promotions and wages, orgender inequality. The findings of the DCT concern the organization as the UAE’seconomylargely relies on foreign workers and thus fulfills a crucial international role. The organization demands that the UAE abide by universalhuman rightsprinciples. The 31st edition of World Report 2021 released",
"2021 released by Human Rights Watch reiterates that labour abuses driven by an exploitative kafala system are persistent in the UAE. During the Covid-19 pandemic, migrant workers faced massive unemployment issues and were also left stranded in dire conditions without legal residencies. Also, many migrants suffered wage theft and were unable to pay rent or buy food. Investment The stockmarket capitalizationof listed companies in the UAE was valued at $109.9 billion in October 2012 byBloomberg. Outward investment A investment institutions were created by the government to promotemanage investmentsmade by the UAE abroad: Abu Dhabi Investment Authority (ADIA) Inward investment The UAE is in the 17th position in term of theGlobal Competitiveness Index(GCI). The report says that the UAE competitiveness stems from \"high quality infrastructure\" and \"highly efficientgood markets.\" Corporate Governance Code TheSecurities and Commodities Authority(SCA) introduced a new corporate governance regulation (the Corporate",
"(the Corporate Governance Code), which applies to all joint stock companies and institutions whose securities are listed onDubai Financial Market(DFM) andAbu Dhabi Securities Exchange(ADX) in 2009. Banking On 19 June 2020, rating agencyMoody'schanged its outlook regarding eight banks in theUnited Arab Emiratesfrom stable to negative. The change was due to \"the potential material weakening in their standalone credit profiles\", where the UAE's economy was facing additional challenges amidst theCOVID-19 pandemicand low oil prices. The eight banks includedAbu Dhabi Commercial Bank,Emirates NBD,HSBC Bank Middle East,Dubai Islamic Bank,Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank,National Bank of Fujairah,National Bank of Ras al-KhaimahandMashreq Bank. TheFitch Ratingsin its 22 June 2020 report predicted that the Standalone Credit Profiles ofUAE-based banks are to possibly weaken in the following year owing to the financial crisis caused by thecoronaviruspandemic and oil price collapse. As per the Fitch report, despite the",
"report, despite the implementation of timely measures for supporting theeconomy, the profitability of banks in the UAE are prone to get affected by a lower non-interest income worsened by a controlled business volume, lower interest rates, and higher loan recovery charges. In addition, the asset quality is expected to weaken, too, following the unbearable impact of the economic downturn that all borrowers may not be able to withstand. Real estate The development in thereal estateand infrastructure sectors during the recent year has contributed in making the country a global touristic destination. The contribution of tourism in the Emirati GDP increased from 3% in the mid-1990s to more than 16.5% by the end of 2010. This trend is supported by the huge public investments in touristic projects (47 Billion Dollars per annum) carried mainly to expend airports, increase their capacity, set up new airports and ports. The real estate sector have a positive impact on development, job opportunities, investments and",
"investments and tourism as estate projects were launched to meet the needs of market and the increasing demand for housing and commercial units especially in Dubai and Abu Dhabi. The UAE has about 37% of the region's petroleum and gas industries, chemical industries, energy and water and garbage projects. The UAE's government have been injecting huge funds in tourism and real estate projects, especially in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. Al Saadiyat Island in Abu Dhabi and Burj Khalifa in Dubai, the tallest tower in the world, world central near \"Jebel Ali\" are a point in case of the milestones that have given the UAE its high profile of a global tourist destination. According to 2013–2014Global Competitiveness Report, the UAE ranked fourth worldwide in terms of infrastructure quality. On 28 November 2020, theAbu DhabiMedia Office announced that the government of United Arab Emirates, ahead of the 49thNational Day, granted house loans, land and homes worth $2 billion (7.2 billion dirhams) to their citizens. The package",
"The package is said to consist 3,099 plots, 2,000 house loans and 601 homes and exempting some families of the deceased citizens and retirees from the repayment ofmortgage. The Director General of the Abu Dhabi Housing Society, Basheer Al Mehairbi said the initiative of providing sustainable housing aimed at ensuring a good standard of living for the citizens of the UAE. Real-estate projects Some of the significant real-estate projects are: Financial centers Among the most prominent financial centers in the UAE are: Regional GDP Data shown are for the year 2023 in nominal numbers. See also Notes References External links World portal"
] |
As of August 3rd, 2024, How high is the ancient standing stone located next to the A92 road? | 3.5 metres | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A92_road | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_of_Morphie | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A92_road', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_of_Morphie'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A92_road",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_of_Morphie"
] | [
"A92 road TheA92is a major road that runs throughFife,Dundee,Angus,Aberdeenshire, andAberdeen Cityin Scotland. From south to north, it runs fromDunfermlinetoBlackdog, just north ofAberdeen. History The A92's original route in southern Fife is now numbered as theA921. It connects with the M90 junction 1 via Burntisland and Kirkcaldy and links into the Thornton bypass. Plans were drawn up in the 1960s for a new East Fife regional dual carriageway road starting at the M90 at Masterton (Junction 2), which would have mirrored what is now the A921 and B9157 to the Mossgreen area, before heading north-eastward to Chapel Level, connecting up with the Thornton By-pass. The plans were held back until the early 1970s, and were held back further due to theOil crisis. During the 1970s the Scottish Development Department commissioned a new traffic study which concluded that the A92 should follow the more northern route to provide a better link for Cowdenbeath and Lochgellybefore connecting directly onto the Thornton Bypass,which was completed by early 1983. The new section between Crossgates and Glenrothes began construction in 1980, and was built in four phases: In early April 1998 the A92 was extended beyond the Crossgates junction to provide direct access with the M90 southbound, to ease congestion around the Halbeath interchange. The new section was built three months ahead of schedule, costing £8.4m. Numbering The A92 formerly continued north from Stonehaven through Aberdeen, and terminated at Fraserburgh. The section between Stonehaven and Aberdeen was renumberedA90in 1994.Upon completion of theAberdeen Western Peripheral Route(AWPR) in 2018, the section between Stonehaven and Blackdog was once again numbered as A92. The section between Blackdog and Fraserburgh has now been renumberedA90andA952. The section of the A92 between Dundee and Aberdeen was formerly part of theEuroroutesystem, on route E120, a closed loop connectingInverness, Aberdeen, Dundee andPerth. Route Starting at its junction with theM90 motorwaynearDunfermline, it runs north east pastCowdenbeath,Lochgelly,Kirkcaldy,Glenrothes,LadybankandNewport-on-Tay. The road is adual carriagewayfrom the M90 to Glenrothes town centre, changing to a single carriageway as it passes through the northern side of the town, before switching back to dual carriageway north of Glenrothes (until it meets the A912 towards Perth and the A914 towards St Andrews), it reverts to a single carriageway until a few miles short of theTay Road BridgeatDundee. The section through Fife is often described as the East Fife Regional Road. Across the Tay Road Bridge, the A92 continues along the east coast pastMonifieth,Carnoustie,Muirdrum,Arbroath,Montrose,Inverbervieand theFowlsheugh Nature Reservebefore reachingStonehavenwhere the road once again becomes dual carriageway. From here, the A92 runs parallel with theA90for around 2 miles. The road then continues pastStonehavenandPortlethenheading into and through the city ofAberdeenbefore terminating at Blackdog, where the road once again merges with theA90. The 16-mile section of the road from Dundee to Arbroath was upgraded todual carriagewaystandard in 2005 and significantly reduced the journey time between the two towns.Between Arbroath and Stonehaven the road is a single carriageway apart from a very short section of dual carriageway near Gourdon. The road returns to dual carriageway from Stonehaven heading north to Aberdeen, briefly returning to single carriageway at theBridge of Dee, and then again returning to single carriageway between theHaudagainand Parkway roundabouts in Aberdeen. The remainder of the road from the Parkway roundabout to the termination point at Blackdog is dual carriageway. Archaeological The A92 road traverses lands on which prehistoricalarchaeologicalsites are present. Examples of these features include Gourdon Hilland theStone of Morphie,both situated slightly to the west of the A92 alignment. References Links",
"Stone of Morphie TheStone of Morphie(sometimes known as theStone of Morphy) is astanding stoneabout 700 metres west of the Coast Highway (A92 road) bridge of theRiver North Eskand 400 metres east of the historicMill of MorphieinAberdeenshire,Scotland. The stone is approximately 3.5 metres high and is unshaped and uninscripted; the base of this stone measures approximately 70 by 100 centimetres. TheRCAHMSrecord number for the Stone of Morphie is NO76SW 6 7169 6273. According to RCAHMS,the stone is \"Traditionally said to mark the grave of a son ofCamus, killed in a battle between the Scots and the Danes\".Local tradition claims the site as an alternative burial site for a leader of aVikingarmy that was decimated by the Scots army at the apocryphalBattle of Barryin 1010 AD.The date and mention of this battle rests withBoece. Etymology The nameMorphiemay be ofBrittonicorigin,and derived from an element consanguineous toWelshmorfa, meaning \"a sea-plain\". See also References 56°45′20″N2°27′52″W / 56.7555°N 2.4644°W /56.7555; -2.4644 ThisAberdeenshirelocation article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it."
] | [
"A92 road TheA92is a major road that runs throughFife,Dundee,Angus,Aberdeenshire, andAberdeen Cityin Scotland. From south to north, it runs fromDunfermlinetoBlackdog, just north ofAberdeen. History The A92's original route in southern Fife is now numbered as theA921. It connects with the M90 junction 1 via Burntisland and Kirkcaldy and links into the Thornton bypass. Plans were drawn up in the 1960s for a new East Fife regional dual carriageway road starting at the M90 at Masterton (Junction 2), which would have mirrored what is now the A921 and B9157 to the Mossgreen area, before heading north-eastward to Chapel Level, connecting up with the Thornton By-pass. The plans were held back until the early 1970s, and were held back further due to theOil crisis. During the 1970s the Scottish Development Department commissioned a new traffic study which concluded that the A92 should follow the more northern route to provide a better link for Cowdenbeath and Lochgellybefore connecting directly onto the Thornton",
"onto the Thornton Bypass,which was completed by early 1983. The new section between Crossgates and Glenrothes began construction in 1980, and was built in four phases: In early April 1998 the A92 was extended beyond the Crossgates junction to provide direct access with the M90 southbound, to ease congestion around the Halbeath interchange. The new section was built three months ahead of schedule, costing £8.4m. Numbering The A92 formerly continued north from Stonehaven through Aberdeen, and terminated at Fraserburgh. The section between Stonehaven and Aberdeen was renumberedA90in 1994.Upon completion of theAberdeen Western Peripheral Route(AWPR) in 2018, the section between Stonehaven and Blackdog was once again numbered as A92. The section between Blackdog and Fraserburgh has now been renumberedA90andA952. The section of the A92 between Dundee and Aberdeen was formerly part of theEuroroutesystem, on route E120, a closed loop connectingInverness, Aberdeen, Dundee andPerth. Route Starting at its junction with",
"its junction with theM90 motorwaynearDunfermline, it runs north east pastCowdenbeath,Lochgelly,Kirkcaldy,Glenrothes,LadybankandNewport-on-Tay. The road is adual carriagewayfrom the M90 to Glenrothes town centre, changing to a single carriageway as it passes through the northern side of the town, before switching back to dual carriageway north of Glenrothes (until it meets the A912 towards Perth and the A914 towards St Andrews), it reverts to a single carriageway until a few miles short of theTay Road BridgeatDundee. The section through Fife is often described as the East Fife Regional Road. Across the Tay Road Bridge, the A92 continues along the east coast pastMonifieth,Carnoustie,Muirdrum,Arbroath,Montrose,Inverbervieand theFowlsheugh Nature Reservebefore reachingStonehavenwhere the road once again becomes dual carriageway. From here, the A92 runs parallel with theA90for around 2 miles. The road then continues pastStonehavenandPortlethenheading into and through the city ofAberdeenbefore terminating at",
"terminating at Blackdog, where the road once again merges with theA90. The 16-mile section of the road from Dundee to Arbroath was upgraded todual carriagewaystandard in 2005 and significantly reduced the journey time between the two towns.Between Arbroath and Stonehaven the road is a single carriageway apart from a very short section of dual carriageway near Gourdon. The road returns to dual carriageway from Stonehaven heading north to Aberdeen, briefly returning to single carriageway at theBridge of Dee, and then again returning to single carriageway between theHaudagainand Parkway roundabouts in Aberdeen. The remainder of the road from the Parkway roundabout to the termination point at Blackdog is dual carriageway. Archaeological The A92 road traverses lands on which prehistoricalarchaeologicalsites are present. Examples of these features include Gourdon Hilland theStone of Morphie,both situated slightly to the west of the A92 alignment. References Links",
"Stone of Morphie TheStone of Morphie(sometimes known as theStone of Morphy) is astanding stoneabout 700 metres west of the Coast Highway (A92 road) bridge of theRiver North Eskand 400 metres east of the historicMill of MorphieinAberdeenshire,Scotland. The stone is approximately 3.5 metres high and is unshaped and uninscripted; the base of this stone measures approximately 70 by 100 centimetres. TheRCAHMSrecord number for the Stone of Morphie is NO76SW 6 7169 6273. According to RCAHMS,the stone is \"Traditionally said to mark the grave of a son ofCamus, killed in a battle between the Scots and the Danes\".Local tradition claims the site as an alternative burial site for a leader of aVikingarmy that was decimated by the Scots army at the apocryphalBattle of Barryin 1010 AD.The date and mention of this battle rests withBoece. Etymology The nameMorphiemay be ofBrittonicorigin,and derived from an element consanguineous toWelshmorfa, meaning \"a sea-plain\". See also References 56°45′20″N2°27′52″W / 56.7555°N",
"/ 56.7555°N 2.4644°W /56.7555; -2.4644 ThisAberdeenshirelocation article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it."
] |
What year was the person born who was Prime Minister of The United Kingdom during the year that the first African American ran for president of the United States? | 1792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_presidential_and_vice_presidential_candidates#:~:text=In%201848%2C%20Frederick%20Douglass%20became,major%20party%2C%20namely%20the%20Democrats. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_presidential_and_vice_presidential_candidates#:~:text=In%201848%2C%20Frederick%20Douglass%20became,major%20party%2C%20namely%20the%20Democrats.', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_presidential_and_vice_presidential_candidates#:~:text=In%201848%2C%20Frederick%20Douglass%20became,major%20party%2C%20namely%20the%20Democrats.",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell"
] | [
"List of African-American United States presidential and vice presidential candidates The following is a list ofAfrican-AmericanUnited Statespresidentialandvice presidentialnominees and candidates for nomination. Nominees are candidatesnominatedor otherwise selected bypolitical partiesfor particular offices. Listed are the African-American and Jamaican/Indian-American who achievedballot accessfor the national election in at least onestate. They may have won thenominationof one of theUS political parties(either one of the major parties, or one of thethird parties), or made theballotas anindependent, and in either case must havevotesin theelectionto qualify for this list. Exception is made for candidates whose parties lost ballot status for additional runs. Not included in the first and second sections are African-Americans who ran unsuccessful campaigns innominating conventionsorprimary electionsfor their party's nomination (or who have not yet completed that process),write-in candidates, potential candidates (suggested by media, objects ofdraft movements, etc.), or fictional candidates. The third section includes African-Americans who ran for their party's presidential nomination but who were not nominated, as well as those who are currently pursuing their party's presidential nomination (when applicable). There has been one African American and one Jamaican/Indian American on major party tickets in U.S. history: Democratic presidential nomineeBarack Obamain2008and2012and Democratic vice presidential nomineeKamala Harrisin2020. Barack Obama was the first African American and first biracial president of the United States, being elected in the2008 electionand re-elected in the2012 election. Kamala Harris became the first Jamaican/Indian-American vice president of the United States of America, being elected in the 2020 election alongside PresidentJoe Biden. She is also the first female vice president. She is the second biracial vice president, the first being RepublicanCharles Curtis. U.S. presidential candidates: party nominees † Denotes winning candidate. Candidates receiving electoral votes Candidates receiving popular votes U.S. vice presidential candidates: party nominees † Denotes winning candidate. Candidates receiving electoral votes Until the2020 presidential election, no African-American candidates had received electoral votes for vice president. Candidates receiving popular votes U.S. president: other candidates for party nomination Candidates who failed to receive their party's nomination (or who are currently campaigning for their party's nomination). Candidates who won the nomination belong in the above tables only. U.S. vice president: other candidates for party nomination See also Notes References",
"List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom Theprime minister of the United Kingdomis the principal minister of the crown ofHis Majesty's Government, and the head of theBritish Cabinet. There is no specific date for when the office of prime minister first appeared, as the role was not created but rather evolved over time through a merger of duties.The term was regularly, if informally, used byRobert Walpoleby the 1730s.It was used in theHouse of Commonsas early as 1805,and it was certainly in parliamentary use by the 1880s,although did not become the official title until 1905, whenArthur Balfourwas prime minister. Historians generally considerRobert Walpole, who led the government of theKingdom of Great Britainfor over twenty years from 1721,to be the first prime minister. Walpole is also the longest-serving British prime minister by this definition.The first prime minister of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and IrelandwasWilliam Pitt the Youngerat its creation on 1 January 1801.The first to use the title in an official act wasBenjamin Disraeliwho signed the1878 Treaty of Berlinas \"Prime Minister of Her Britannic Majesty\". In 1905, the post of prime minister was officially given recognition in theorder of precedence,with the incumbentHenry Campbell-Bannermanthe first officially referred to as \"prime minister\". The first prime minister of the currentUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Irelandupon its effective creation in 1922 (when 26 Irish counties seceded and created theIrish Free State) wasBonar Law,although the country was not renamed officially until 1927, whenStanley Baldwinwas the serving prime minister. The incumbent prime minister isKeir Starmer, who assumed the office on 5 July 2024. Before the Kingdom of Great Britain Before theUnion of England and Scotlandin 1707, theTreasuryofEnglandwas led by theLord High Treasurer.By the lateTudor period, the Lord High Treasurer was regarded as one of theGreat Officers of State,and was often (though not always) the dominant figure in government:Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset(lord high treasurer, 1547–1549),served aslord protectorto his young nephew KingEdward VI;William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley(lord high treasurer, 1572–1598),was thedominant ministerto QueenElizabeth I;Burghley's sonRobert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, succeeded his father asChief Ministerto Elizabeth (1598–1603) and was eventually appointed by KingJames Ias lord high treasurer (1608–1612). By the lateStuart period, the Treasury was often run not by a single individual (i.e., the lord high treasurer) but by acommissionoflords of the Treasury,led by thefirst lord of the Treasury. The last lords high treasurer,Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin(1702–1710) andRobert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford(1711–1714),ran the government ofQueen Anne. From 1707 to 1721 Following the succession ofGeorge Iin 1714, the arrangement of a commission of lords of the Treasury (as opposed to a single lord high treasurer) became permanent.For the next three years, the government was headed byCharles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend, who was appointedSecretary of State for the Northern Department.Subsequently, LordsStanhopeandSunderlandran the government jointly,with Stanhope managing foreign affairs and Sunderland domestic.Stanhope died in February 1721 and Sunderland resigned two months later;Townshend andRobert Walpolewere then invited to form the next government.From that point, the holder of theofficeof first lord also usually (albeit unofficially) held the status of prime minister. It was not until theEdwardian erathat the titleprime ministerwas constitutionally recognised.The prime minister still holds the office of first lord by constitutional convention,the only exceptions being theEarl of Chathamand theMarquess of Salisbury. Since 1721 Prime ministers Disputed prime ministers Due to the gradual evolution of the post of prime minister, the title is applied to early prime ministers only retrospectively;this has sometimes given rise to academic dispute.William Pulteney, 1st Earl of BathandJames Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegraveare sometimes listed as prime ministers.Bath was invited toform a ministrybyGeorge IIwhenHenry Pelhamresigned in 1746,as was Waldegrave in 1757 after the dismissal ofWilliam Pitt the Elder,who dominated the affairs of governmentduring the Seven Years' War. Neither was able to command sufficient parliamentary support to form a government; Bath stepped down after two daysand Waldegrave after four.Modern academic consensus does not consider either man to have held office as prime minister;they are therefore listed separately. List notes Timeline See also References Citations Works cited Further reading External links",
"John Russell, 1st Earl Russell John Russell, 1st Earl Russell,KG,GCMG,PC,FRS(18 August 1792 – 28 May 1878), known by hiscourtesy titleLord John Russellbefore 1861, was a BritishWhigandLiberalstatesman who wasPrime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 1846 to 1852 and again from 1865 to 1866. The third son of the6th Duke of Bedford, Russell was educated atWestminster Schooland Edinburgh University before entering Parliament in 1813. In 1828 he took a leading role in the repeal of theTest Actswhich discriminated against Catholics and Protestant dissenters. He was one of the principal architects of theReform Act 1832, which was the first major reform of Parliament since theRestoration, and a significant early step on the road to democracy and away from rule by the aristocracy andlanded gentry. He favoured expanding the right to vote to themiddle classesand enfranchising Britain's growing industrial towns and cities, but he never advocated universal suffrage and he opposed the secret ballot. Russell was outspoken on many issues over the course of his career, advocatingCatholic emancipationin the 1820s, calling for the repeal of theCorn Lawsin 1845, denouncingPope Pius IX'srevival of Catholic bishopricsin 1850, and supportingItalian unificationduring the 1860s. Russell's ministerial career spanned four decades. In addition to his two terms as prime minister, between 1831 and 1865 he served in the cabinets ofEarl Grey,Viscount Melbourne, theEarl of Aberdeen, andViscount Palmerston. Russell's relationship with Palmerston was often stormy and contributed to bringing down Russell's first government in 1852 and Palmerston's first government in 1858. However, their renewed alliance from 1859 was one of the foundations of the united Liberal Party, which would go on to dominate British politics in the following decades. While Russell was an energetic and effective minister during the 1830s and helped to commit the Whigs to a reform agenda, he proved less successful as prime minister. During his two periods as prime minister he often suffered from a disunited cabinet and weak support in the House of Commons, meaning he was unable to carry out much of his agenda. During his first premiership, his government failed to deal effectively with theIrish Famine, a disaster that saw the loss of a quarter of Ireland's population through death and emigration. During his second premiership, he split his party by pressing for further parliamentary reform and was forced from office only to watchDerbyandDisraelicarry a more ambitiousReform Bill.It has been said that Russell'sministry of 1846–1852was the ruin of the old Whig party and that hisministry of 1865–1866was very nearly the ruin of the Liberal Party that took its place. Background and early life Russell was born on 18 August 1792 into the highest echelons of the British aristocracy, being the third son ofJohn Russell, later 6th Duke of Bedford, and Georgiana Byng, daughter ofGeorge Byng, 4th Viscount Torrington.The Russell familyhad been one of the principal Whig dynasties in England since the 17th century, and were among the richest handful of aristocratic landowning families in the country, but as a younger son of the6th Duke of Bedford, he was not expected to inherit the family estates. As a younger son of a duke, he bore the courtesy title \"Lord John Russell\", but he was not a peer in his own right. He was, therefore, able to sit in the House of Commons until he was made an earl in 1861 and was elevated to the House of Lords. Russell was born two months premature and was small and sickly as a child (even in adulthood he remained under 5 feet 5 inches (1.65 m) in height, and his small stature was frequently the butt of jokes by political opponents and caricaturists).In 1801 at the age of nine he was sent away to school. Shortly thereafter his mother died. After being withdrawn fromWestminster Schoolin 1804 due to ill health, Russell was educated by tutors, includingEdmund Cartwright.In 1806 Russell's father was madeLord Lieutenant of Irelandin the short-livedMinistry of All the Talentsand it was during this time that the young Russell metCharles James Fox.Fox was Russell's formative political hero and would remain an inspiration throughout his life.Russell attended theUniversity of Edinburghfrom 1809 to 1812, lodging with ProfessorJohn Playfair, who oversaw his studies.He did not take a degree. Although often in poor health, he travelled widely in Britain and inContinental Europe,and held commission as Captain in theBedfordshire Militiain 1810.During his continental travels, Russell visited Spain where hisbrotherwas serving as aide-de-camp toLord Wellingtonin thePeninsular War.The following year, Russell had a 90-minute meeting withNapoleonin December 1814, during the former emperor's exile atElba. Early political career Backbench MP: 1813–1830 Russell entered theHouse of Commonsas aWhigin 1813 at the age of 20. The future reformer gained his seat by virtue of his father, theDuke of Bedford, instructing the 30 or so electors of Tavistock to return him as an MP even though at the time Russell was abroad and under age. Russell entered Parliament more out of a sense of duty and family tradition than out of serious political ambition. With the exception the 1806-1807 coalition government in which Russell's father had served, the Whigs had been out of power since 1783, and Russell could have had had no certain expectation of a ministerial career. In June 1815, Russell denounced theBourbon Restorationand Britain's declaration of war against therecently-returned Napoleonby arguing in the House of Commons that foreign powers had no right to dictate France's form of government. In 1817, tired of the prospect of perpetual opposition, Russell resigned from Parliament. After spending a year out of politics and travelling on the continent, he changed his mind and re-entered Parliament for Tavistock at the1818 general election.In 1819, Russell embraced the cause of parliamentary reform and he led the more reformist wing of the Whigs throughout the 1820s. In 1828, while still an oppositionbackbencher, Russell introduced aSacramental Test billwith the aim of abolishing the prohibitions on Catholics and Protestant dissenters being elected to local government and from holding civil and military offices. The bill gained the backing of the ToryHome SecretarySir Robert Peeland was passed into law. Minister under Grey and Melbourne: 1830–1841 When the Whigs came to power in 1830, Russell enteredEarl Grey'sgovernment asPaymaster of the Forces. Despite being a relatively junior minister, as a vocal advocate for Parliamentary reform for over a decade, Russell became a principal leader in the fight for theReform Act 1832. He was one of the committee of four tasked by Grey with drafting the reform bill, alongside cabinet ministersLord Durham,Lord DuncannonandSir James Graham. Despite not yet being in the Cabinet, Russell was chosen to introduce the bill in March 1831 and over the following year he successfully steered the Reform Act's difficult progress through the Commons. Russell earned the nickname \"Finality Jack\" from his pronouncing the Act a final measure but in later years he would go on to push for further reform of Parliament.In May 1834, Russell made a speech on the Irish Tithes bill, in which he argued that the revenue generated by tithes was more than was justified by the size of theestablished Protestant church in Ireland. Russell argued that a proportion the tithe revenue should instead be appropriated for the education of the Irish poor, regardless of denomination. The speech was seen by its opponents as an attack on the established church in Ireland and it cemented a split within Grey's government over the issue of Irish tithes.The following monthfour members of the Cabinetresigned over the issue, weakening the government's hold on Parliament.Sensing that his position was now hopeless, Grey offered his resignation to the King in July, and was replaced byViscount Melbourneat the head of the government. In November 1834, when the leader of the Commons,Lord Althorp, succeeded to the peerage asEarl Spencer, Russell became the leader of the Whigs in the Commons. Russell's appointment promptedKing William IVto terminate Melbourne's government, in part because the King objected to Russell's views on the Irish Church.This remains the last time in British history that a monarch has dismissed a government.The subsequent minority Conservative government lasted less than five months before resigning in April 1835. Russell then returned to office asHome SecretaryinMelbourne's second government, before serving asSecretary of State for War and the Coloniesfrom 1839 to 1841. Through this period, he continued to lead the more reformist wing of the Whig party. As Home Secretary, Russell recommended and secured royal pardons for theTolpuddle Martyrsand partial commutation of their sentences.In 1836, he introduced theMarriages Act, which introduced civil marriages in England and Wales and allowed Catholics and Protestant Dissenters to marry in their own churches. In 1837, he steered a series of seven Acts through Parliament, which together reduced the number of offences carrying a sentence of death from thirty-seven to sixteen.This number was reduced further by theSubstitution of Punishments of Death Act 1841. After these reforms the death penalty was rarely used in the United Kingdom for crimes other than murder. As Home Secretary Russell also introduced the public registration for births, marriages and deaths and played a large role in democratising the government of cities outside of London. Opposition: 1841–1846 In 1841 the Whigs lost thegeneral electionto the Conservatives and Russell and his colleagues returned to opposition. In November 1845, following the failure of that year's potato harvest across Britain and Ireland, Russell came out in favour of the repeal of theCorn Lawsand called upon the Prime MinisterSir Robert Peelto take urgent action to alleviate the emerging food crisis. Peel had by this time already become convinced of the need for repeal, but he was opposed in this by the majority of his own cabinet and party. On 11 December 1845, frustrated by his party's unwillingness to support him on repeal, Peel resigned as prime minister andQueen Victoriainvited Russell to form a new government. With the Whigs a minority in the Commons however, Russell struggled to assemble the necessary support. WhenLord Greydeclared that he would not serve in cabinet ifLord Palmerstonwas made Foreign Secretary, it became clear to Russell that he could not form a viable government. Russell declined the Queen's invitation on 21 December and Peel agreed to stay on as prime minister. In June 1846, Peel repealed the Corn Laws with Whig support, bitterly dividing the Conservative Party in the process. Later that same night Peel'sIrish Coercion Billwas defeated after vengeful anti-repeal Tories voted with the opposition; and Peel, taking this as a vote of no confidence, resigned as prime minister. Russell accepted the Queen's offer to form a government; this time Grey did not object to Palmerston's appointment. Prime minister: 1846–1852 Appointment Russell took office as prime minister with the Whigs only a minority in the House of Commons. It was the bitter split in the Conservative Party over the Corn Laws that allowed Russell's government to remain in power in spite of this, with Sir Robert Peel and his supporters offering tentative support to the new ministry in order to keep the protectionist Conservatives underLord Stanleyin opposition. At thegeneral election of August 1847the Whigs made gains at the expense of the Conservatives, but remained a minority, with Russell's government still dependent on the votes ofPeeliteandIrish RepealerMPs to win divisions in the Commons. Domestic agenda Russell's political agenda was frequently frustrated by his lack of a reliable Commons majority. However, his government was able to secure a number of notable social reforms. Russell introduced teachers' pensions and usedOrders in Councilto make grants for teacher training. ThePublic Baths and Wash-houses Actsof 1847 and 1848 enabled local authorities to build municipal baths and washing facilities for the growing urban working classes. Russell lent his support to the passage of theFactories Act 1847, which restricted the working hours of women and young persons (aged 13–18) in textile mills to 10 hours per day. 1848 saw the introduction of theMetropolitan Commission of Sewersand thePublic Health Act 1848(11 & 12 Vict.c. 63), by which the state assumed responsibility for sewerage, clean water supply, refuse collection and other aspects of public health across much of England and Wales. Following the election ofLionel de Rothschildin the 1847 general election, Russell introduced a Jewish Relief bill, which would have allowed Rothschild and other Jews to sit in the House of Commons without their having to take the explicitly Christian oath of allegiance. In 1848, the bill was passed by the House of Commons, receiving support from the Whigs and a minority of Conservatives (including future prime ministerBenjamin Disraeli). However, it was twice rejected by the Tory dominated House of Lords, as was a new bill in 1851. Rothschild was re-elected in the 1852 general election following the fall of the Russell government but was unable to take his seat until theJews Relief Actwas finally passed in 1858. Ireland Russell's government led the calamitous response to theIrish Famine. During the course of the famine, an estimated one million people died from a combination of malnutrition, disease and starvation and well over one million moreemigrated from Ireland.After taking office in 1846, Russell's ministry introduced a programme of public works that by the end of that year employed some half-a-million but proved impossible to administer.In 1846 Russell reported that in one year more than 50,000 Irish families had been \"turned out of their wretched dwellings without pity and without refuge...we have made it the most degraded and most miserable country in the world...all the world is crying shame upon us.\"In January 1847, the government abandoned this policy, realising that it had failed, and turned to a mixture of \"indoor\" and \"outdoor\" direct relief; the former administered inworkhousesthrough theIrish Poor Laws, the latter throughsoup kitchens. The costs of the Poor Law fell primarily on the local landlords, some of whom in turn attempted to reduce their liability by evicting their tenants.In June 1847, thePoor Law Extension Actwas passed, which embodied the principle, popular in Britain, that Irish property should support Irish poverty. Irish landlords were believed in Britain to have created the conditions that led to the famine, a view which Russell shared. Relations with the Roman Catholic Church In the first half of his premiership Russell aimed to improve the British government's relations with the papacy and the Catholic clergy in Ireland, which he saw as one of the keys to making Ireland a more willing part of the United Kingdom. Russell proposed to make an annual grant of £340,000 to the Catholic Church in Ireland, with the aim of ameliorating Irish Catholic opinion towardsthe Union. In 1847, Russell's father-in-law theEarl of Mintowas dispatched on a confidential mission to Rome to seek thePope'ssupport for the grants plan. In the end, the idea had to be abandoned due to Catholic objections to what they saw as an attempt to control their clergy. However, Russell pressed ahead with plans to re-establish formal diplomatic relations between theCourt of St James'sand theHoly See, which had been severed whenJames IIwas deposed in 1688. Russell managed to pass an Act to authorise an exchange of ambassadors with Rome, but not before the bill was amended by Parliament to stipulate that the Pope's ambassador must be alayman. The Pope refused to accept such a restriction on his choice of representative and so the exchange of ambassadors did not take place.It would not be until 1914 that formalUK-Vatican diplomatic relationswere finally established. Relations with the papacy soured badly in late 1850 afterPope Pius IXissued thebullUniversalis Ecclesiae. By this bull Pius unilaterally reintroduced Catholic bishops to England and Wales for the first time since theReformation. Anti-Catholic feelings ran high with many Protestants incensed at what they saw as impertinent foreign interference in the prerogative of the establishedChurch of Englandto appoint bishops. Russell, not withstanding his long record of advocating civil liberties for Catholics, shared the traditional Whig suspicion of the Catholic hierarchy, and was angered at what he saw as a papal imposition. On 4 November 1850, in a letter to theBishop of Durhampublished inThe Timesthe same day, Russell wrote that the Pope's actions suggested a \"pretension to supremacy\" and declared that \"No foreign prince or potentate will be permitted to fasten his fetters upon a nation which has so long and so nobly vindicated its right to freedom of opinion, civil, political, and religious\". Russell's \"Durham letter\" won him popular support in England but in Ireland it was viewed as an unwarranted insult to the Pope. It lost Russell the confidence of Irish Repealer MPs and the cabinet were angered that he had made such an incendiary statement without having consulting them. The following year Russell passed theEcclesiastical Titles Act 1851with Tory support, which made it a criminal offence carrying a fine of £100 for anyone outside of the Church of England to assume an episcopal title \"of any city, town or place, or of any territory or district...in the United Kingdom.\" The Act was widely ignored without consequences and only served to further alienate Irish MPs, thereby weakening the government's position in the Commons. Disagreements with Palmerston and fall of ministry Russell frequently clashed with his headstrong Foreign Secretary,Lord Palmerston, whose belligerence and support for continental revolution he found embarrassing. In 1847 Palmerston provoked a confrontation with the French government by undermining the plans of the Spanish court to marry the youngSpanish Queenandher sisterinto the French royal family.He subsequently clashed with Russell over plans to increase the size of the army and the navy to defend against the perceived threat of French invasion, which subsided after the overthrow of theFrench kingin 1848. In 1850, further tension arose between the two over Palmerston'sgunboat diplomacyin theDon Pacifico affair, in which Palmerston sought compensation from theGreek governmentfor the ransacking and the burning of the house ofDavid Pacifico, a Gibraltarian holder of a British passport.Russell considered the matter \"hardly worth the interposition of the British lion,\" and when Palmerston ignored some of his instructions, the Prime Minister wrote to Palmerston telling him he had informed the Queen that he \"thought the interests of the country required that a change should take place at the Foreign Department.\"However, less than a month laterLord Stanleysuccessfully led the House of Lords into passing a motion of censure of the Government over its handling of the affair and Russell realised that he needed to align with Palmerston in order to prevent a similar motion being passed by the House of Commons, which would have obliged the Government to resign.The Government prevailed, but Palmerston came out of the affair with his popularity at new heights since he was seen as the champion of defending British subjects anywhere in the world. Russell forced Palmerston to resign as Foreign Secretary after Palmerston recognisedNapoleon III's coup of 2 December 1851 without first consulting the Queen or Cabinet.Russell tried to strengthen his government by recruiting leading Peelites such asSir James Grahamandthe Duke of Newcastleto his administration, but they declined.Out of office, Palmerston sought revenge by turning a vote on a militia bill into avote of confidencein the Government. A majority vote in favour of an amendment proposed by Palmerston caused the downfall of Russell's ministry on 21 February 1852. This was Palmerston's famous \"tit for tat with Johnny Russell.\" Between premierships In opposition: February–December 1852 Following Russell's resignation, on the 23 February 1852 theEarl of Derbyaccepted the Queen's invitation to form a government. The new Conservative ministry were a minority in the Commons due to the continuing rift with thePeelites. Derby called ageneral electionfor July but failed to secure a majority. After the election Derby's Conservatives held 292 out of the 662 seats in the Commons but were able to carry on in office due to divisions among the opposition. Negotiations over a Whig-Peelite coalition stalled over the question of who would lead it. Russell's authority and popularity within the Whigs had been dented by his falling out with Palmerston, who flatly refused to serve under him again. Moreover he had alienated many in the Peelites and the Irish Brigade, who held the balance of power in the Commons, leaving them unwilling to support another Russell-led government. Palmerston proposedLord Lansdowneas a compromise candidate. This was acceptable to Russell but Lansdowne was reluctant to take on the burdens of leading a government. The defeat ofDisraeli'sBudgetin December 1852 forced the issue. Derby's government resigned and the Queen sent for Lansdowne and the PeeliteLord Aberdeen. Lansdowne declined the Queen's invitation, pleading ill-health and so Aberdeen was tasked with forming a government. The Aberdeen coalition: 1852–1855 Russell, as the leader of the Whigs, agreed to bring his party into a coalition with the Peelites, headed by Aberdeen. As the leader of the largest party in the coalition, Russell was reluctant to serve under Aberdeen in a subordinate position, but agreed to take on the role of Foreign Secretary on a temporary basis, to lend stability to the fledgling government. He resigned the role in February 1853 in favour ofClarendon, but continued to lead for the government in the Commons and attended cabinet without ministerial responsibilities. Russell was unhappy that half of Aberdeen's cabinet was made up of Peelites, despite the fact that the Whigs contributed hundreds of MPs to the Government's support in the Commons, and the Peelites only around 40. However, he came to admire some of his Peelite colleagues, particularly the Chancellor of the ExchequerWilliam Gladstone, who would go on to become an important political ally in later years. With Aberdeen's agreement, Russell used his position asLeader of the House of Commonsto push for a new Reform Act. Although Russell had promoted theReform Act 1832as a one-off measure to re-balance the constitution, after twenty years he had become convinced of the need for further electoral reform. In February 1854 Russell introduced his bill to the House. The property qualification was to be reduced from £10 to £6 in boroughs, and from £50 to £10 in the counties. Additionally 66 seats would be removed from undersized constituencies and redistributed.The second reading of the bill was set for March 1854, but the prospect of imminent war with Russia led to it being postponed until April. After the outbreak of war on 28 March Russell came under pressure from the cabinet to withdraw the bill entirely. Russell threatened to resign if the cabinet abandoned the reform bill, but he was convinced to stay on by Aberdeen, who promised that he would support the reform bill if Russell reintroduced it in a future session.However, with the fall of the Aberdeen government the following year, it would be 12 years before Russell had another chance to introduce a reform bill. Together with Palmerston, Russell supported the government taking a hard line against Russian territorial ambitions in theOttoman Empire, a policy that ultimately resulted in Britain's entry into theCrimean Warin March 1854, an outcome that the more cautious Aberdeen had hoped to avoid. In the following months Russell grew frustrated by what he saw as a lack of effective war leadership by Aberdeen and theSecretary of State for War, theDuke of Newcastle. Dispatches from the front reported that the army was suffering from supply shortages and a lack of adequate accommodation and medical facilities. In November 1854 Russell urged Aberdeen to replace Newcastle with Palmerston, who he believed would get a firmer grip on the organisation of the war, but these suggestions came to nothing. In January 1855, after a series of military setbacks, a Commons motion was brought by the radical MPJohn Roebuckto appoint a select committee to investigate the management of the war. Russell, not wishing to vote against an inquiry he believed was badly needed, resigned from the cabinet in order to abstain. Aberdeen viewed the Roebuck motion as a vote of no confidence in his leadership and, accordingly, when it passed by 305-148, he resigned. In the eyes of many, including the Queen and Aberdeen, Russell's temperamental behaviour and personal ambition had undermined the stability of the coalition.On visitingWindsor Castleto resign, Aberdeen told the Queen \"Had it not been for the incessant attempts of Lord John Russell to keep up party differences, it must be acknowledged that the experiment of a coalition had succeeded admirably,\" an assessment with which the Queen agreed.Russell accepted an invitation from the Queen to form a new government but found that he could not assemble the necessary support, with many of his colleagues having been angered by his abandonment of Aberdeen over the Roebuck motion.Palmerston became prime minister, and Russell reluctantly accepted the role of Colonial Secretary in his cabinet. Russell was sent to Vienna to negotiate peace terms with Russia, but his proposals were rejected and he resigned from the cabinet and returned to the backbenches in July 1855. Return to the backbenches: 1855–1859 Following his resignation Russell wrote to his father-in-law that he would not serve again under Palmerston or any other prime minister.For a time it appeared as if his career in frontbench politics might be over. Russell continued to speak out from the backbenches on the issues he most cared about - lobbying for increased government grants for education and for reduction in the property qualification for Parliamentary elections.In early 1857 Russell became a vocal critic of Palmerston's government over theAnglo-Persian Warand theSecond Opium War. Russell spoke in support of a motion tabled byRichard Cobden, which criticised British military action in China and calling for a select committee inquiry. When the motion passed on 3 March, Palmerston dissolved Parliament and went to the country.In the subsequentgeneral electionPalmerston was swept back into power on a tide of patriotic feeling with an increased majority. Many of Palmerston's critics lost their seats but Russell hung on in the City of London, after fighting off an attempt to deselect him and replace him with a pro-Palmerston Whig candidate.Palmerston's triumph was short-lived. In February 1858 the Government rushed through a Conspiracy to Murder bill, following theattempted assassinationof Napoleon III by Italian nationalistFelice Orsini- an attack planned in Britain using British-made explosives. Russell attacked the bill, which he saw as undermined traditional British political liberties to appease a foreign government.On 19 February Russell voted in favour ofThomas Milner Gibson'smotion, which criticised the government for bowing to French demands. When the motion passed by 19 votes Palmerston's government resigned. Foreign Secretary under Palmerston: 1859–1865 In 1859, following another short-lived Conservative government, Palmerston and Russell made up their differences, and Russell consented to serve asForeign Secretaryin a new Palmerston cabinet, usually considered the first trueLiberalcabinet. This period was a particularly eventful one in the world outside Britain, seeing theUnification of Italy(the change of British government to one sympathetic to Italian nationalism had a marked part in this process), theAmerican Civil War, and the1864 waroverSchleswig-HolsteinbetweenDenmarkand theGerman states. Russell arranged theLondon Conference of 1864, but failed to establish peace in the war. His tenure of the Foreign Office was noteworthy for the famous dispatch in which he defended Italian unification: \"Her Majesty's Government will turn their eyes rather to the gratifying prospect of a people building up the edifice of their liberties, and consolidating the work of their independence, amid the sympathies and good wishes of Europe\" (27 October 1860). Elevation to the peerage: 1861 In 1861 Russell was elevated to the peerage asEarl Russell, ofKingston Russellin the County ofDorset, and asViscount Amberley, ofAmberleyin the County of Gloucester, and ofArdsallain theCounty of Meathin thePeerage of the United Kingdom.Henceforth, as asuo jurepeer, rather than merely being known as 'Lord' because he was the son of a Duke, he sat in the House of Lords for the remainder of his career. Prime Minister again: 1865–1866 When Palmerston suddenly died in late 1865, Russell again becameprime minister. His second premiership was short and frustrating, and Russell failed in his great ambition of expanding the franchise, a task that would be left to his Conservative successors, Derby andBenjamin Disraeli. In 1866, party disunity again brought down his government. Russell never again held any office. His last contribution to the House of Lords was on 3 August 1875. Personal life Marriages and children Russell married Adelaide Lister (widow ofThomas Lister, 2nd Baron Ribblesdale, who had died in 1832) on 11 April 1835. Together they had two daughters: Adelaide came down with a fever following the birth of their second child and died a few days later on 1 November 1838. Following her death, Russell continued to raise his late wife's four children from her first marriage, as well their two daughters. On 20 July 1841 Russell remarried, toLady Frances (\"Fanny\") Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, daughter of Russell's cabinet colleagueGilbert Elliot, 2nd Earl of Minto. Together they had four children: In 1847Queen VictoriagrantedPembroke LodgeinRichmond Parkto Lord and Lady John. It remained their family home for the rest of their lives. Religious views Russell was religious in a simple non-dogmatic way and supported \"broad church\" stances in the Church of England. He opposed the \"Oxford Movement\" because its \"Tractarian\" members were too dogmatic and too close toRoman Catholicism. He supported Broad Churchmen or Latitudinarians by several appointments of liberal churchmen as bishops. In 1859 he reversed himself and decided to free non-Anglicans of the duty of paying rates (taxes) to the local Anglican parish. His political clumsiness and opposition to Church finance made him a target of attack and ridicule in many Church circles. Final years and death Following the death of their daughter-in-law Viscountess Amberley in 1874 and their son Viscount Amberley in 1876, Earl Russell and Countess Russell brought up their orphaned grandchildren,John (\"Frank\") Russell, who became 2nd Earl Russell on his grandfather's death, andBertrand Russellwho would go on to become a noted philosopher and who in later life recalled his elderly grandfather as \"a kindly old man in a wheelchair.\" Earl Russell died at home at Pembroke Lodge on 28 May 1878. The Prime Minister, theEarl of Beaconsfield, offered a public funeral and burial at Westminster Abbey for Russell but this was declined by Countess Russell in accordance with her late husband's wish to be buried among his family and ancestors.He is buried at the'Bedford Chapel'atSt. Michael's Church,Chenies, Buckinghamshire. Legacy and reputation Scion of one of the most powerful aristocratic families, Russell was a leading reformer who weakened the power of the aristocracy. His great achievements, wroteA. J. P. Taylor, were based on his persistent battles in Parliament over the years on behalf of the expansion of liberty; after each loss he tried again and again, until finally, his efforts were largely successful.E. L. Woodward, however, argued that he was too much the abstract theorist: He was more concerned with the removal of obstacles to civil liberty than with the creation of a more reasonable and civilized society. His political theory centred in therevolution of 1688, and in the clique of aristocratic families to whom the country owed loyalty in return for something like thecharte octroyéeof the reform bill. Nevertheless, Russell led his Whig party into support for reform; he was the principal architect of theReform Act 1832(2 & 3 Will. 4. c. 45). He was succeeded as Liberal leader by former PeeliteWilliam Gladstone, and was thus the last true Whig to serve as prime minister. Generally taken as the model forAnthony Trollope's Mr. Mildmay, aspects of his character may also have suggested those ofPlantagenet Palliser. An ideal statesman, said Trollope, should have \"unblemished, unextinguishable, inexhaustible love of country.... But he should also be scrupulous, and, as being scrupulous, weak.\" TheReform Act 1832and extension of the franchise to British cities are partly attributed to his efforts. He also worked for emancipation, leading the attack on theTestandCorporation acts, which were repealed in 1828, as well as towards legislation limiting working hours in factories in theFactories Act 1847, and thePublic Health Act 1848(11 & 12 Vict.c. 63). His government's approach to dealing with the Great Irish Famine is now widely condemned as counterproductive, ill-informed and disastrous. Russell himself was sympathetic to the plight of the Irish poor, and many of his relief proposals were blocked by his cabinet or by the British Parliament. Queen Victoria's attitude toward Russell was coloured by his role in the Aberdeen administration. On his death in 1878 her journal records that he was \"a man of much talent, who leaves a name behind him, kind, & good, with a great knowledge of the constitution, who behaved very well, on many trying occasions; but he was impulsive, very selfish (as shown on many occasions, especially during Ld Aberdeen's administration) vain, & often reckless & imprudent.\" A public house in Bloomsbury, large parts of which are still owned by the Bedford Estate, is named after Russell, located on Marchmont Street. Earl Russell Street is named after him inAylestone, a suburb ofLeicester. Russell Road inMerton Park, a suburb ofLondon, is named after him, adjacent to Derby, Gladstone, Palmerston and Pelham Roads, all named after former Prime Ministers. The town ofRussellin theNorthland Regionof New Zealand, was named in honour of him as the then Secretary of State for the Colonies. Literature Original works Russell published numerous books and essays over the course of his life, especially during periods out of office. He principally wrote on politics and history, but also turned his hand to a variety of other topics and genres. His published works include: As editor Dedications A Tale of Two CitiesbyCharles Dickenswas dedicated to Lord John Russell, \"In remembrance of many public services and private kindnesses.\"In speech given in 1869, Dickens remarked of Russell that \"there is no man in England whom I respect more in his public capacity, whom I love more in his private capacity.\" Ancestry See also References Notes Citations Sources Historiography External links"
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"List of African-American United States presidential and vice presidential candidates The following is a list ofAfrican-AmericanUnited Statespresidentialandvice presidentialnominees and candidates for nomination. Nominees are candidatesnominatedor otherwise selected bypolitical partiesfor particular offices. Listed are the African-American and Jamaican/Indian-American who achievedballot accessfor the national election in at least onestate. They may have won thenominationof one of theUS political parties(either one of the major parties, or one of thethird parties), or made theballotas anindependent, and in either case must havevotesin theelectionto qualify for this list. Exception is made for candidates whose parties lost ballot status for additional runs. Not included in the first and second sections are African-Americans who ran unsuccessful campaigns innominating conventionsorprimary electionsfor their party's nomination (or who have not yet completed that process),write-in candidates, potential candidates",
"candidates (suggested by media, objects ofdraft movements, etc.), or fictional candidates. The third section includes African-Americans who ran for their party's presidential nomination but who were not nominated, as well as those who are currently pursuing their party's presidential nomination (when applicable). There has been one African American and one Jamaican/Indian American on major party tickets in U.S. history: Democratic presidential nomineeBarack Obamain2008and2012and Democratic vice presidential nomineeKamala Harrisin2020. Barack Obama was the first African American and first biracial president of the United States, being elected in the2008 electionand re-elected in the2012 election. Kamala Harris became the first Jamaican/Indian-American vice president of the United States of America, being elected in the 2020 election alongside PresidentJoe Biden. She is also the first female vice president. She is the second biracial vice president, the first being RepublicanCharles Curtis. U.S. presidential",
"U.S. presidential candidates: party nominees † Denotes winning candidate. Candidates receiving electoral votes Candidates receiving popular votes U.S. vice presidential candidates: party nominees † Denotes winning candidate. Candidates receiving electoral votes Until the2020 presidential election, no African-American candidates had received electoral votes for vice president. Candidates receiving popular votes U.S. president: other candidates for party nomination Candidates who failed to receive their party's nomination (or who are currently campaigning for their party's nomination). Candidates who won the nomination belong in the above tables only. U.S. vice president: other candidates for party nomination See also Notes References",
"List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom Theprime minister of the United Kingdomis the principal minister of the crown ofHis Majesty's Government, and the head of theBritish Cabinet. There is no specific date for when the office of prime minister first appeared, as the role was not created but rather evolved over time through a merger of duties.The term was regularly, if informally, used byRobert Walpoleby the 1730s.It was used in theHouse of Commonsas early as 1805,and it was certainly in parliamentary use by the 1880s,although did not become the official title until 1905, whenArthur Balfourwas prime minister. Historians generally considerRobert Walpole, who led the government of theKingdom of Great Britainfor over twenty years from 1721,to be the first prime minister. Walpole is also the longest-serving British prime minister by this definition.The first prime minister of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and IrelandwasWilliam Pitt the Youngerat its creation on 1 January 1801.The first to use the",
"first to use the title in an official act wasBenjamin Disraeliwho signed the1878 Treaty of Berlinas \"Prime Minister of Her Britannic Majesty\". In 1905, the post of prime minister was officially given recognition in theorder of precedence,with the incumbentHenry Campbell-Bannermanthe first officially referred to as \"prime minister\". The first prime minister of the currentUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Irelandupon its effective creation in 1922 (when 26 Irish counties seceded and created theIrish Free State) wasBonar Law,although the country was not renamed officially until 1927, whenStanley Baldwinwas the serving prime minister. The incumbent prime minister isKeir Starmer, who assumed the office on 5 July 2024. Before the Kingdom of Great Britain Before theUnion of England and Scotlandin 1707, theTreasuryofEnglandwas led by theLord High Treasurer.By the lateTudor period, the Lord High Treasurer was regarded as one of theGreat Officers of State,and was often (though not always) the dominant",
"the dominant figure in government:Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset(lord high treasurer, 1547–1549),served aslord protectorto his young nephew KingEdward VI;William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley(lord high treasurer, 1572–1598),was thedominant ministerto QueenElizabeth I;Burghley's sonRobert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, succeeded his father asChief Ministerto Elizabeth (1598–1603) and was eventually appointed by KingJames Ias lord high treasurer (1608–1612). By the lateStuart period, the Treasury was often run not by a single individual (i.e., the lord high treasurer) but by acommissionoflords of the Treasury,led by thefirst lord of the Treasury. The last lords high treasurer,Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin(1702–1710) andRobert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford(1711–1714),ran the government ofQueen Anne. From 1707 to 1721 Following the succession ofGeorge Iin 1714, the arrangement of a commission of lords of the Treasury (as opposed to a single lord high treasurer) became permanent.For the next three years,",
"next three years, the government was headed byCharles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend, who was appointedSecretary of State for the Northern Department.Subsequently, LordsStanhopeandSunderlandran the government jointly,with Stanhope managing foreign affairs and Sunderland domestic.Stanhope died in February 1721 and Sunderland resigned two months later;Townshend andRobert Walpolewere then invited to form the next government.From that point, the holder of theofficeof first lord also usually (albeit unofficially) held the status of prime minister. It was not until theEdwardian erathat the titleprime ministerwas constitutionally recognised.The prime minister still holds the office of first lord by constitutional convention,the only exceptions being theEarl of Chathamand theMarquess of Salisbury. Since 1721 Prime ministers Disputed prime ministers Due to the gradual evolution of the post of prime minister, the title is applied to early prime ministers only retrospectively;this has sometimes given rise to",
"given rise to academic dispute.William Pulteney, 1st Earl of BathandJames Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegraveare sometimes listed as prime ministers.Bath was invited toform a ministrybyGeorge IIwhenHenry Pelhamresigned in 1746,as was Waldegrave in 1757 after the dismissal ofWilliam Pitt the Elder,who dominated the affairs of governmentduring the Seven Years' War. Neither was able to command sufficient parliamentary support to form a government; Bath stepped down after two daysand Waldegrave after four.Modern academic consensus does not consider either man to have held office as prime minister;they are therefore listed separately. List notes Timeline See also References Citations Works cited Further reading External links",
"John Russell, 1st Earl Russell John Russell, 1st Earl Russell,KG,GCMG,PC,FRS(18 August 1792 – 28 May 1878), known by hiscourtesy titleLord John Russellbefore 1861, was a BritishWhigandLiberalstatesman who wasPrime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 1846 to 1852 and again from 1865 to 1866. The third son of the6th Duke of Bedford, Russell was educated atWestminster Schooland Edinburgh University before entering Parliament in 1813. In 1828 he took a leading role in the repeal of theTest Actswhich discriminated against Catholics and Protestant dissenters. He was one of the principal architects of theReform Act 1832, which was the first major reform of Parliament since theRestoration, and a significant early step on the road to democracy and away from rule by the aristocracy andlanded gentry. He favoured expanding the right to vote to themiddle classesand enfranchising Britain's growing industrial towns and cities, but he never advocated universal suffrage and he opposed the secret ballot. Russell was outspoken",
"was outspoken on many issues over the course of his career, advocatingCatholic emancipationin the 1820s, calling for the repeal of theCorn Lawsin 1845, denouncingPope Pius IX'srevival of Catholic bishopricsin 1850, and supportingItalian unificationduring the 1860s. Russell's ministerial career spanned four decades. In addition to his two terms as prime minister, between 1831 and 1865 he served in the cabinets ofEarl Grey,Viscount Melbourne, theEarl of Aberdeen, andViscount Palmerston. Russell's relationship with Palmerston was often stormy and contributed to bringing down Russell's first government in 1852 and Palmerston's first government in 1858. However, their renewed alliance from 1859 was one of the foundations of the united Liberal Party, which would go on to dominate British politics in the following decades. While Russell was an energetic and effective minister during the 1830s and helped to commit the Whigs to a reform agenda, he proved less successful as prime minister. During his two periods as",
"his two periods as prime minister he often suffered from a disunited cabinet and weak support in the House of Commons, meaning he was unable to carry out much of his agenda. During his first premiership, his government failed to deal effectively with theIrish Famine, a disaster that saw the loss of a quarter of Ireland's population through death and emigration. During his second premiership, he split his party by pressing for further parliamentary reform and was forced from office only to watchDerbyandDisraelicarry a more ambitiousReform Bill.It has been said that Russell'sministry of 1846–1852was the ruin of the old Whig party and that hisministry of 1865–1866was very nearly the ruin of the Liberal Party that took its place. Background and early life Russell was born on 18 August 1792 into the highest echelons of the British aristocracy, being the third son ofJohn Russell, later 6th Duke of Bedford, and Georgiana Byng, daughter ofGeorge Byng, 4th Viscount Torrington.The Russell familyhad been one of the",
"been one of the principal Whig dynasties in England since the 17th century, and were among the richest handful of aristocratic landowning families in the country, but as a younger son of the6th Duke of Bedford, he was not expected to inherit the family estates. As a younger son of a duke, he bore the courtesy title \"Lord John Russell\", but he was not a peer in his own right. He was, therefore, able to sit in the House of Commons until he was made an earl in 1861 and was elevated to the House of Lords. Russell was born two months premature and was small and sickly as a child (even in adulthood he remained under 5 feet 5 inches (1.65 m) in height, and his small stature was frequently the butt of jokes by political opponents and caricaturists).In 1801 at the age of nine he was sent away to school. Shortly thereafter his mother died. After being withdrawn fromWestminster Schoolin 1804 due to ill health, Russell was educated by tutors, includingEdmund Cartwright.In 1806 Russell's father was madeLord Lieutenant of",
"Lieutenant of Irelandin the short-livedMinistry of All the Talentsand it was during this time that the young Russell metCharles James Fox.Fox was Russell's formative political hero and would remain an inspiration throughout his life.Russell attended theUniversity of Edinburghfrom 1809 to 1812, lodging with ProfessorJohn Playfair, who oversaw his studies.He did not take a degree. Although often in poor health, he travelled widely in Britain and inContinental Europe,and held commission as Captain in theBedfordshire Militiain 1810.During his continental travels, Russell visited Spain where hisbrotherwas serving as aide-de-camp toLord Wellingtonin thePeninsular War.The following year, Russell had a 90-minute meeting withNapoleonin December 1814, during the former emperor's exile atElba. Early political career Backbench MP: 1813–1830 Russell entered theHouse of Commonsas aWhigin 1813 at the age of 20. The future reformer gained his seat by virtue of his father, theDuke of Bedford, instructing the 30 or so",
"the 30 or so electors of Tavistock to return him as an MP even though at the time Russell was abroad and under age. Russell entered Parliament more out of a sense of duty and family tradition than out of serious political ambition. With the exception the 1806-1807 coalition government in which Russell's father had served, the Whigs had been out of power since 1783, and Russell could have had had no certain expectation of a ministerial career. In June 1815, Russell denounced theBourbon Restorationand Britain's declaration of war against therecently-returned Napoleonby arguing in the House of Commons that foreign powers had no right to dictate France's form of government. In 1817, tired of the prospect of perpetual opposition, Russell resigned from Parliament. After spending a year out of politics and travelling on the continent, he changed his mind and re-entered Parliament for Tavistock at the1818 general election.In 1819, Russell embraced the cause of parliamentary reform and he led the more reformist wing",
"more reformist wing of the Whigs throughout the 1820s. In 1828, while still an oppositionbackbencher, Russell introduced aSacramental Test billwith the aim of abolishing the prohibitions on Catholics and Protestant dissenters being elected to local government and from holding civil and military offices. The bill gained the backing of the ToryHome SecretarySir Robert Peeland was passed into law. Minister under Grey and Melbourne: 1830–1841 When the Whigs came to power in 1830, Russell enteredEarl Grey'sgovernment asPaymaster of the Forces. Despite being a relatively junior minister, as a vocal advocate for Parliamentary reform for over a decade, Russell became a principal leader in the fight for theReform Act 1832. He was one of the committee of four tasked by Grey with drafting the reform bill, alongside cabinet ministersLord Durham,Lord DuncannonandSir James Graham. Despite not yet being in the Cabinet, Russell was chosen to introduce the bill in March 1831 and over the following year he successfully",
"he successfully steered the Reform Act's difficult progress through the Commons. Russell earned the nickname \"Finality Jack\" from his pronouncing the Act a final measure but in later years he would go on to push for further reform of Parliament.In May 1834, Russell made a speech on the Irish Tithes bill, in which he argued that the revenue generated by tithes was more than was justified by the size of theestablished Protestant church in Ireland. Russell argued that a proportion the tithe revenue should instead be appropriated for the education of the Irish poor, regardless of denomination. The speech was seen by its opponents as an attack on the established church in Ireland and it cemented a split within Grey's government over the issue of Irish tithes.The following monthfour members of the Cabinetresigned over the issue, weakening the government's hold on Parliament.Sensing that his position was now hopeless, Grey offered his resignation to the King in July, and was replaced byViscount Melbourneat the head",
"the head of the government. In November 1834, when the leader of the Commons,Lord Althorp, succeeded to the peerage asEarl Spencer, Russell became the leader of the Whigs in the Commons. Russell's appointment promptedKing William IVto terminate Melbourne's government, in part because the King objected to Russell's views on the Irish Church.This remains the last time in British history that a monarch has dismissed a government.The subsequent minority Conservative government lasted less than five months before resigning in April 1835. Russell then returned to office asHome SecretaryinMelbourne's second government, before serving asSecretary of State for War and the Coloniesfrom 1839 to 1841. Through this period, he continued to lead the more reformist wing of the Whig party. As Home Secretary, Russell recommended and secured royal pardons for theTolpuddle Martyrsand partial commutation of their sentences.In 1836, he introduced theMarriages Act, which introduced civil marriages in England and Wales and allowed",
"Wales and allowed Catholics and Protestant Dissenters to marry in their own churches. In 1837, he steered a series of seven Acts through Parliament, which together reduced the number of offences carrying a sentence of death from thirty-seven to sixteen.This number was reduced further by theSubstitution of Punishments of Death Act 1841. After these reforms the death penalty was rarely used in the United Kingdom for crimes other than murder. As Home Secretary Russell also introduced the public registration for births, marriages and deaths and played a large role in democratising the government of cities outside of London. Opposition: 1841–1846 In 1841 the Whigs lost thegeneral electionto the Conservatives and Russell and his colleagues returned to opposition. In November 1845, following the failure of that year's potato harvest across Britain and Ireland, Russell came out in favour of the repeal of theCorn Lawsand called upon the Prime MinisterSir Robert Peelto take urgent action to alleviate the emerging food",
"the emerging food crisis. Peel had by this time already become convinced of the need for repeal, but he was opposed in this by the majority of his own cabinet and party. On 11 December 1845, frustrated by his party's unwillingness to support him on repeal, Peel resigned as prime minister andQueen Victoriainvited Russell to form a new government. With the Whigs a minority in the Commons however, Russell struggled to assemble the necessary support. WhenLord Greydeclared that he would not serve in cabinet ifLord Palmerstonwas made Foreign Secretary, it became clear to Russell that he could not form a viable government. Russell declined the Queen's invitation on 21 December and Peel agreed to stay on as prime minister. In June 1846, Peel repealed the Corn Laws with Whig support, bitterly dividing the Conservative Party in the process. Later that same night Peel'sIrish Coercion Billwas defeated after vengeful anti-repeal Tories voted with the opposition; and Peel, taking this as a vote of no confidence, resigned",
"resigned as prime minister. Russell accepted the Queen's offer to form a government; this time Grey did not object to Palmerston's appointment. Prime minister: 1846–1852 Appointment Russell took office as prime minister with the Whigs only a minority in the House of Commons. It was the bitter split in the Conservative Party over the Corn Laws that allowed Russell's government to remain in power in spite of this, with Sir Robert Peel and his supporters offering tentative support to the new ministry in order to keep the protectionist Conservatives underLord Stanleyin opposition. At thegeneral election of August 1847the Whigs made gains at the expense of the Conservatives, but remained a minority, with Russell's government still dependent on the votes ofPeeliteandIrish RepealerMPs to win divisions in the Commons. Domestic agenda Russell's political agenda was frequently frustrated by his lack of a reliable Commons majority. However, his government was able to secure a number of notable social reforms. Russell",
"reforms. Russell introduced teachers' pensions and usedOrders in Councilto make grants for teacher training. ThePublic Baths and Wash-houses Actsof 1847 and 1848 enabled local authorities to build municipal baths and washing facilities for the growing urban working classes. Russell lent his support to the passage of theFactories Act 1847, which restricted the working hours of women and young persons (aged 13–18) in textile mills to 10 hours per day. 1848 saw the introduction of theMetropolitan Commission of Sewersand thePublic Health Act 1848(11 & 12 Vict.c. 63), by which the state assumed responsibility for sewerage, clean water supply, refuse collection and other aspects of public health across much of England and Wales. Following the election ofLionel de Rothschildin the 1847 general election, Russell introduced a Jewish Relief bill, which would have allowed Rothschild and other Jews to sit in the House of Commons without their having to take the explicitly Christian oath of allegiance. In 1848, the bill",
"In 1848, the bill was passed by the House of Commons, receiving support from the Whigs and a minority of Conservatives (including future prime ministerBenjamin Disraeli). However, it was twice rejected by the Tory dominated House of Lords, as was a new bill in 1851. Rothschild was re-elected in the 1852 general election following the fall of the Russell government but was unable to take his seat until theJews Relief Actwas finally passed in 1858. Ireland Russell's government led the calamitous response to theIrish Famine. During the course of the famine, an estimated one million people died from a combination of malnutrition, disease and starvation and well over one million moreemigrated from Ireland.After taking office in 1846, Russell's ministry introduced a programme of public works that by the end of that year employed some half-a-million but proved impossible to administer.In 1846 Russell reported that in one year more than 50,000 Irish families had been \"turned out of their wretched dwellings without",
"dwellings without pity and without refuge...we have made it the most degraded and most miserable country in the world...all the world is crying shame upon us.\"In January 1847, the government abandoned this policy, realising that it had failed, and turned to a mixture of \"indoor\" and \"outdoor\" direct relief; the former administered inworkhousesthrough theIrish Poor Laws, the latter throughsoup kitchens. The costs of the Poor Law fell primarily on the local landlords, some of whom in turn attempted to reduce their liability by evicting their tenants.In June 1847, thePoor Law Extension Actwas passed, which embodied the principle, popular in Britain, that Irish property should support Irish poverty. Irish landlords were believed in Britain to have created the conditions that led to the famine, a view which Russell shared. Relations with the Roman Catholic Church In the first half of his premiership Russell aimed to improve the British government's relations with the papacy and the Catholic clergy in Ireland,",
"clergy in Ireland, which he saw as one of the keys to making Ireland a more willing part of the United Kingdom. Russell proposed to make an annual grant of £340,000 to the Catholic Church in Ireland, with the aim of ameliorating Irish Catholic opinion towardsthe Union. In 1847, Russell's father-in-law theEarl of Mintowas dispatched on a confidential mission to Rome to seek thePope'ssupport for the grants plan. In the end, the idea had to be abandoned due to Catholic objections to what they saw as an attempt to control their clergy. However, Russell pressed ahead with plans to re-establish formal diplomatic relations between theCourt of St James'sand theHoly See, which had been severed whenJames IIwas deposed in 1688. Russell managed to pass an Act to authorise an exchange of ambassadors with Rome, but not before the bill was amended by Parliament to stipulate that the Pope's ambassador must be alayman. The Pope refused to accept such a restriction on his choice of representative and so the exchange of",
"so the exchange of ambassadors did not take place.It would not be until 1914 that formalUK-Vatican diplomatic relationswere finally established. Relations with the papacy soured badly in late 1850 afterPope Pius IXissued thebullUniversalis Ecclesiae. By this bull Pius unilaterally reintroduced Catholic bishops to England and Wales for the first time since theReformation. Anti-Catholic feelings ran high with many Protestants incensed at what they saw as impertinent foreign interference in the prerogative of the establishedChurch of Englandto appoint bishops. Russell, not withstanding his long record of advocating civil liberties for Catholics, shared the traditional Whig suspicion of the Catholic hierarchy, and was angered at what he saw as a papal imposition. On 4 November 1850, in a letter to theBishop of Durhampublished inThe Timesthe same day, Russell wrote that the Pope's actions suggested a \"pretension to supremacy\" and declared that \"No foreign prince or potentate will be permitted to fasten his",
"to fasten his fetters upon a nation which has so long and so nobly vindicated its right to freedom of opinion, civil, political, and religious\". Russell's \"Durham letter\" won him popular support in England but in Ireland it was viewed as an unwarranted insult to the Pope. It lost Russell the confidence of Irish Repealer MPs and the cabinet were angered that he had made such an incendiary statement without having consulting them. The following year Russell passed theEcclesiastical Titles Act 1851with Tory support, which made it a criminal offence carrying a fine of £100 for anyone outside of the Church of England to assume an episcopal title \"of any city, town or place, or of any territory or district...in the United Kingdom.\" The Act was widely ignored without consequences and only served to further alienate Irish MPs, thereby weakening the government's position in the Commons. Disagreements with Palmerston and fall of ministry Russell frequently clashed with his headstrong Foreign Secretary,Lord Palmerston,",
"Palmerston, whose belligerence and support for continental revolution he found embarrassing. In 1847 Palmerston provoked a confrontation with the French government by undermining the plans of the Spanish court to marry the youngSpanish Queenandher sisterinto the French royal family.He subsequently clashed with Russell over plans to increase the size of the army and the navy to defend against the perceived threat of French invasion, which subsided after the overthrow of theFrench kingin 1848. In 1850, further tension arose between the two over Palmerston'sgunboat diplomacyin theDon Pacifico affair, in which Palmerston sought compensation from theGreek governmentfor the ransacking and the burning of the house ofDavid Pacifico, a Gibraltarian holder of a British passport.Russell considered the matter \"hardly worth the interposition of the British lion,\" and when Palmerston ignored some of his instructions, the Prime Minister wrote to Palmerston telling him he had informed the Queen that he \"thought the",
"he \"thought the interests of the country required that a change should take place at the Foreign Department.\"However, less than a month laterLord Stanleysuccessfully led the House of Lords into passing a motion of censure of the Government over its handling of the affair and Russell realised that he needed to align with Palmerston in order to prevent a similar motion being passed by the House of Commons, which would have obliged the Government to resign.The Government prevailed, but Palmerston came out of the affair with his popularity at new heights since he was seen as the champion of defending British subjects anywhere in the world. Russell forced Palmerston to resign as Foreign Secretary after Palmerston recognisedNapoleon III's coup of 2 December 1851 without first consulting the Queen or Cabinet.Russell tried to strengthen his government by recruiting leading Peelites such asSir James Grahamandthe Duke of Newcastleto his administration, but they declined.Out of office, Palmerston sought revenge by",
"sought revenge by turning a vote on a militia bill into avote of confidencein the Government. A majority vote in favour of an amendment proposed by Palmerston caused the downfall of Russell's ministry on 21 February 1852. This was Palmerston's famous \"tit for tat with Johnny Russell.\" Between premierships In opposition: February–December 1852 Following Russell's resignation, on the 23 February 1852 theEarl of Derbyaccepted the Queen's invitation to form a government. The new Conservative ministry were a minority in the Commons due to the continuing rift with thePeelites. Derby called ageneral electionfor July but failed to secure a majority. After the election Derby's Conservatives held 292 out of the 662 seats in the Commons but were able to carry on in office due to divisions among the opposition. Negotiations over a Whig-Peelite coalition stalled over the question of who would lead it. Russell's authority and popularity within the Whigs had been dented by his falling out with Palmerston, who flatly",
"who flatly refused to serve under him again. Moreover he had alienated many in the Peelites and the Irish Brigade, who held the balance of power in the Commons, leaving them unwilling to support another Russell-led government. Palmerston proposedLord Lansdowneas a compromise candidate. This was acceptable to Russell but Lansdowne was reluctant to take on the burdens of leading a government. The defeat ofDisraeli'sBudgetin December 1852 forced the issue. Derby's government resigned and the Queen sent for Lansdowne and the PeeliteLord Aberdeen. Lansdowne declined the Queen's invitation, pleading ill-health and so Aberdeen was tasked with forming a government. The Aberdeen coalition: 1852–1855 Russell, as the leader of the Whigs, agreed to bring his party into a coalition with the Peelites, headed by Aberdeen. As the leader of the largest party in the coalition, Russell was reluctant to serve under Aberdeen in a subordinate position, but agreed to take on the role of Foreign Secretary on a temporary basis, to",
"temporary basis, to lend stability to the fledgling government. He resigned the role in February 1853 in favour ofClarendon, but continued to lead for the government in the Commons and attended cabinet without ministerial responsibilities. Russell was unhappy that half of Aberdeen's cabinet was made up of Peelites, despite the fact that the Whigs contributed hundreds of MPs to the Government's support in the Commons, and the Peelites only around 40. However, he came to admire some of his Peelite colleagues, particularly the Chancellor of the ExchequerWilliam Gladstone, who would go on to become an important political ally in later years. With Aberdeen's agreement, Russell used his position asLeader of the House of Commonsto push for a new Reform Act. Although Russell had promoted theReform Act 1832as a one-off measure to re-balance the constitution, after twenty years he had become convinced of the need for further electoral reform. In February 1854 Russell introduced his bill to the House. The property",
"House. The property qualification was to be reduced from £10 to £6 in boroughs, and from £50 to £10 in the counties. Additionally 66 seats would be removed from undersized constituencies and redistributed.The second reading of the bill was set for March 1854, but the prospect of imminent war with Russia led to it being postponed until April. After the outbreak of war on 28 March Russell came under pressure from the cabinet to withdraw the bill entirely. Russell threatened to resign if the cabinet abandoned the reform bill, but he was convinced to stay on by Aberdeen, who promised that he would support the reform bill if Russell reintroduced it in a future session.However, with the fall of the Aberdeen government the following year, it would be 12 years before Russell had another chance to introduce a reform bill. Together with Palmerston, Russell supported the government taking a hard line against Russian territorial ambitions in theOttoman Empire, a policy that ultimately resulted in Britain's entry into",
"entry into theCrimean Warin March 1854, an outcome that the more cautious Aberdeen had hoped to avoid. In the following months Russell grew frustrated by what he saw as a lack of effective war leadership by Aberdeen and theSecretary of State for War, theDuke of Newcastle. Dispatches from the front reported that the army was suffering from supply shortages and a lack of adequate accommodation and medical facilities. In November 1854 Russell urged Aberdeen to replace Newcastle with Palmerston, who he believed would get a firmer grip on the organisation of the war, but these suggestions came to nothing. In January 1855, after a series of military setbacks, a Commons motion was brought by the radical MPJohn Roebuckto appoint a select committee to investigate the management of the war. Russell, not wishing to vote against an inquiry he believed was badly needed, resigned from the cabinet in order to abstain. Aberdeen viewed the Roebuck motion as a vote of no confidence in his leadership and, accordingly, when it",
"when it passed by 305-148, he resigned. In the eyes of many, including the Queen and Aberdeen, Russell's temperamental behaviour and personal ambition had undermined the stability of the coalition.On visitingWindsor Castleto resign, Aberdeen told the Queen \"Had it not been for the incessant attempts of Lord John Russell to keep up party differences, it must be acknowledged that the experiment of a coalition had succeeded admirably,\" an assessment with which the Queen agreed.Russell accepted an invitation from the Queen to form a new government but found that he could not assemble the necessary support, with many of his colleagues having been angered by his abandonment of Aberdeen over the Roebuck motion.Palmerston became prime minister, and Russell reluctantly accepted the role of Colonial Secretary in his cabinet. Russell was sent to Vienna to negotiate peace terms with Russia, but his proposals were rejected and he resigned from the cabinet and returned to the backbenches in July 1855. Return to the",
"1855. Return to the backbenches: 1855–1859 Following his resignation Russell wrote to his father-in-law that he would not serve again under Palmerston or any other prime minister.For a time it appeared as if his career in frontbench politics might be over. Russell continued to speak out from the backbenches on the issues he most cared about - lobbying for increased government grants for education and for reduction in the property qualification for Parliamentary elections.In early 1857 Russell became a vocal critic of Palmerston's government over theAnglo-Persian Warand theSecond Opium War. Russell spoke in support of a motion tabled byRichard Cobden, which criticised British military action in China and calling for a select committee inquiry. When the motion passed on 3 March, Palmerston dissolved Parliament and went to the country.In the subsequentgeneral electionPalmerston was swept back into power on a tide of patriotic feeling with an increased majority. Many of Palmerston's critics lost their seats but",
"their seats but Russell hung on in the City of London, after fighting off an attempt to deselect him and replace him with a pro-Palmerston Whig candidate.Palmerston's triumph was short-lived. In February 1858 the Government rushed through a Conspiracy to Murder bill, following theattempted assassinationof Napoleon III by Italian nationalistFelice Orsini- an attack planned in Britain using British-made explosives. Russell attacked the bill, which he saw as undermined traditional British political liberties to appease a foreign government.On 19 February Russell voted in favour ofThomas Milner Gibson'smotion, which criticised the government for bowing to French demands. When the motion passed by 19 votes Palmerston's government resigned. Foreign Secretary under Palmerston: 1859–1865 In 1859, following another short-lived Conservative government, Palmerston and Russell made up their differences, and Russell consented to serve asForeign Secretaryin a new Palmerston cabinet, usually considered the first",
"the first trueLiberalcabinet. This period was a particularly eventful one in the world outside Britain, seeing theUnification of Italy(the change of British government to one sympathetic to Italian nationalism had a marked part in this process), theAmerican Civil War, and the1864 waroverSchleswig-HolsteinbetweenDenmarkand theGerman states. Russell arranged theLondon Conference of 1864, but failed to establish peace in the war. His tenure of the Foreign Office was noteworthy for the famous dispatch in which he defended Italian unification: \"Her Majesty's Government will turn their eyes rather to the gratifying prospect of a people building up the edifice of their liberties, and consolidating the work of their independence, amid the sympathies and good wishes of Europe\" (27 October 1860). Elevation to the peerage: 1861 In 1861 Russell was elevated to the peerage asEarl Russell, ofKingston Russellin the County ofDorset, and asViscount Amberley, ofAmberleyin the County of Gloucester, and ofArdsallain theCounty",
"theCounty of Meathin thePeerage of the United Kingdom.Henceforth, as asuo jurepeer, rather than merely being known as 'Lord' because he was the son of a Duke, he sat in the House of Lords for the remainder of his career. Prime Minister again: 1865–1866 When Palmerston suddenly died in late 1865, Russell again becameprime minister. His second premiership was short and frustrating, and Russell failed in his great ambition of expanding the franchise, a task that would be left to his Conservative successors, Derby andBenjamin Disraeli. In 1866, party disunity again brought down his government. Russell never again held any office. His last contribution to the House of Lords was on 3 August 1875. Personal life Marriages and children Russell married Adelaide Lister (widow ofThomas Lister, 2nd Baron Ribblesdale, who had died in 1832) on 11 April 1835. Together they had two daughters: Adelaide came down with a fever following the birth of their second child and died a few days later on 1 November 1838. Following her",
"1838. Following her death, Russell continued to raise his late wife's four children from her first marriage, as well their two daughters. On 20 July 1841 Russell remarried, toLady Frances (\"Fanny\") Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, daughter of Russell's cabinet colleagueGilbert Elliot, 2nd Earl of Minto. Together they had four children: In 1847Queen VictoriagrantedPembroke LodgeinRichmond Parkto Lord and Lady John. It remained their family home for the rest of their lives. Religious views Russell was religious in a simple non-dogmatic way and supported \"broad church\" stances in the Church of England. He opposed the \"Oxford Movement\" because its \"Tractarian\" members were too dogmatic and too close toRoman Catholicism. He supported Broad Churchmen or Latitudinarians by several appointments of liberal churchmen as bishops. In 1859 he reversed himself and decided to free non-Anglicans of the duty of paying rates (taxes) to the local Anglican parish. His political clumsiness and opposition to Church finance made him a",
"finance made him a target of attack and ridicule in many Church circles. Final years and death Following the death of their daughter-in-law Viscountess Amberley in 1874 and their son Viscount Amberley in 1876, Earl Russell and Countess Russell brought up their orphaned grandchildren,John (\"Frank\") Russell, who became 2nd Earl Russell on his grandfather's death, andBertrand Russellwho would go on to become a noted philosopher and who in later life recalled his elderly grandfather as \"a kindly old man in a wheelchair.\" Earl Russell died at home at Pembroke Lodge on 28 May 1878. The Prime Minister, theEarl of Beaconsfield, offered a public funeral and burial at Westminster Abbey for Russell but this was declined by Countess Russell in accordance with her late husband's wish to be buried among his family and ancestors.He is buried at the'Bedford Chapel'atSt. Michael's Church,Chenies, Buckinghamshire. Legacy and reputation Scion of one of the most powerful aristocratic families, Russell was a leading reformer who",
"reformer who weakened the power of the aristocracy. His great achievements, wroteA. J. P. Taylor, were based on his persistent battles in Parliament over the years on behalf of the expansion of liberty; after each loss he tried again and again, until finally, his efforts were largely successful.E. L. Woodward, however, argued that he was too much the abstract theorist: He was more concerned with the removal of obstacles to civil liberty than with the creation of a more reasonable and civilized society. His political theory centred in therevolution of 1688, and in the clique of aristocratic families to whom the country owed loyalty in return for something like thecharte octroyéeof the reform bill. Nevertheless, Russell led his Whig party into support for reform; he was the principal architect of theReform Act 1832(2 & 3 Will. 4. c. 45). He was succeeded as Liberal leader by former PeeliteWilliam Gladstone, and was thus the last true Whig to serve as prime minister. Generally taken as the model forAnthony",
"model forAnthony Trollope's Mr. Mildmay, aspects of his character may also have suggested those ofPlantagenet Palliser. An ideal statesman, said Trollope, should have \"unblemished, unextinguishable, inexhaustible love of country.... But he should also be scrupulous, and, as being scrupulous, weak.\" TheReform Act 1832and extension of the franchise to British cities are partly attributed to his efforts. He also worked for emancipation, leading the attack on theTestandCorporation acts, which were repealed in 1828, as well as towards legislation limiting working hours in factories in theFactories Act 1847, and thePublic Health Act 1848(11 & 12 Vict.c. 63). His government's approach to dealing with the Great Irish Famine is now widely condemned as counterproductive, ill-informed and disastrous. Russell himself was sympathetic to the plight of the Irish poor, and many of his relief proposals were blocked by his cabinet or by the British Parliament. Queen Victoria's attitude toward Russell was coloured by his role",
"by his role in the Aberdeen administration. On his death in 1878 her journal records that he was \"a man of much talent, who leaves a name behind him, kind, & good, with a great knowledge of the constitution, who behaved very well, on many trying occasions; but he was impulsive, very selfish (as shown on many occasions, especially during Ld Aberdeen's administration) vain, & often reckless & imprudent.\" A public house in Bloomsbury, large parts of which are still owned by the Bedford Estate, is named after Russell, located on Marchmont Street. Earl Russell Street is named after him inAylestone, a suburb ofLeicester. Russell Road inMerton Park, a suburb ofLondon, is named after him, adjacent to Derby, Gladstone, Palmerston and Pelham Roads, all named after former Prime Ministers. The town ofRussellin theNorthland Regionof New Zealand, was named in honour of him as the then Secretary of State for the Colonies. Literature Original works Russell published numerous books and essays over the course of his life,",
"course of his life, especially during periods out of office. He principally wrote on politics and history, but also turned his hand to a variety of other topics and genres. His published works include: As editor Dedications A Tale of Two CitiesbyCharles Dickenswas dedicated to Lord John Russell, \"In remembrance of many public services and private kindnesses.\"In speech given in 1869, Dickens remarked of Russell that \"there is no man in England whom I respect more in his public capacity, whom I love more in his private capacity.\" Ancestry See also References Notes Citations Sources Historiography External links"
] |
As of August 1 2024, what is the most recently described genus of Colosteidae? | Deltaherpeton, first described in 2010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colosteidae | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltaherpeton | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greererpeton | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pholidogaster | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colosteidae', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltaherpeton', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greererpeton', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pholidogaster'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colosteidae",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltaherpeton",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greererpeton",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pholidogaster"
] | [
"Colosteidae Colosteidaeis afamilyofstegocephalians(stem-grouptetrapods) that lived in theCarboniferousperiod.They possessed a variety of characteristics from different tetrapod orstem-tetrapodgroups, which made them historically difficult to classify. They are now considered to be part of a lineage intermediate between the earliestDevonianterrestrial vertebrates (such asIchthyostega), and the different groups ancestral to all modern tetrapods, such astemnospondyls(probably ancestral to modernamphibians) andreptiliomorphs(ancestral toamniotessuch asmammals,reptiles, andbirds). Description Colosteids had elongated bodies, with an estimated 40 vertebrae, not including the tail. The skull is relatively flat and composed of many separate bones, like that of other stegocephalians. Colosteids lackedotic notchesat the back of the head, unlike temnospondyls and other \"labyrinthodonts\". However, they did possess large mandibular and palatal fangs (on the lower jaw and the roof of the mouth), in addition to smaller marginal teeth (at the edge of the mouth), like \"labyrinthodonts\". The skull was overlaid with wide sensory grooves known aslateral lines, which extended from rear edge of the skull to the tip of the snout. Most aquatic stegocephalians have their lateral lines dip, unbroken, under the nostrils once they reach the tip of the snout, or alternately disconnect into separate grooves separated by the nostrils. However, colosteids evolved a unique alternative; their lateral lines droop below the nostrils so far that they contact the marginal teeth, so that the edge of the skull is responsible for subdividing the grooves, rather than the nostrils. The mandibular fangs were larger than the palatal ones, though those on the palate were still large. Colosteids were unique compared to most stegocephalians in the fact that a pair of palatal fangs were present on thepremaxillary bonesat the tip of the snout. In conjunction with the forward position of these fangs, the dentary bones of the lower jaw developed a notch on either side near the symphysis (chin). The symphysis itself is formed by a rough area of bone on the left and right dentaries. This rough patch is formed by a complex system of ridges, which have been described as \"brassicate\" (textured like acauliflower).OnlyMegalocephalusis known to share this brassicate patch with colosteids. The mandibles were also unique in the fact that they possessed a single elongated hole along their inner surface, known as an exomeckelian foramen (or a meckelian fenestra). Earlier stegocephalians likeIchthyostegapossessed a subtle slit in the mandible, while most later groups had a series of smaller, well-defined holes. Relationships The analysis below was conducted by Swartz in 2012, showing the relationship of colosteids with other tetrapodomorphs. Panderichthys Elpistostege Tiktaalik Elginerpeton Ventastega Acanthostega Ichthyostega Whatcheeriidae Colosteidae Crassigyrinus Baphetidae Crown groupTetrapoda References External links",
"Deltaherpeton Deltaherpetonis anextinctgenusofcolosteidfrom middleMississippian(lateViséanage) deposits ofDelta,Iowa,United States.It was first named by John R. Bolt and R. Eric Lombard in2010and the type species isDeltaherpeton hiemstrae. Deltaherpetoncan be differentiated from othercolosteidsdue to possessing several unique bones along the midline of the skull, separating paired skull bones which typically contact each other along the midline. These include an internasal, an oval-shaped bone which lies at the intersection of the pairedpremaxillaeandnasalbones at the top of the snout. Internasals are known from several of the earliest four-limbed vertebrates, such asAcanthostega,Ichthyostega, andbaphetids. Further back, what seems to be a pair oflozenge-shape bones lie at the intersection of the nasal bones and frontal bones. These bones may be interfrontonasals, which have been found in someeryopoidsandmicrosaurs. In addition,Deltaherpetonhas a singlepostparietal(rather than a pair), which separates the left and rightsupratemporalandtabularbones at the rear edge of the skull. Lone postparietals are rare among non-amniote tetrapods and tetrapod relatives; onlyIchthyostegaanddiadectomorphsare known to possess them. The discovery ofDeltaherpetonprompted a review and re-augmentation of the defining characteristics for the familyColosteidae, though it did not help to clarify the relationship between colosteids and other earlytetrapods. Though it is believed thatDeltaherpetonis more derived, the species is thought to have shared its environment with other early four-limbed vertebrates such asWhatcheeriaandSiguornea, approximately 339.4 to 336 million years ago. References This article about atetrapodomorphis astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. This article related to aCarboniferousanimal is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"Greererpeton Greererpeton burkemorani(\"crawler fromGreer, West Virginia\") is an extinctgenusofcolosteidstem-tetrapodsfrom the EarlyCarboniferousperiod (lateViséan) of North America.Greererpetonwas first described by famed vertebrate paleontologistAlfred S. Romerin 1969, based on a skull and partial skeleton from theBluefield Formation.The skull was redescribed byTimothy R. Smithsonin 1982,while postcranial remains were redescribed byStephen J. Godfreyin 1989. Greererpetonwere probably aquatic, with an elongated body adapted for swimming. Adults have overall length of 1.0–1.4 metres (3.3–4.6 ft)or 1.5 metres (4.9 ft),similar in size to modern Asian giant salamanders (Andrias). The body was elongated, with about 40vertebrae, while the flattenedskullreached about 18 centimetres (7.1 in) long in adult specimens. The most complete adult specimen only preserved 12 tail vertebrae, only about a third the length of the body as inAndrias. However, smaller specimens have been found preserving over 30 vertebrae, so it is not inconceivable that a complete tail was approximately as long as the body.The limbs were short, though not vestigial; the fingers were still well-developed.Greererpetonwere carnivores which probably lived in rivers and swamps. Paleobiology There is a large amount of evidence thatGreererpetonand other colosteids were completely aquatic animals.Grooves on the side of the skull indicate thatGreererpetonhadlateral lines, sensory organs commonly found only in fish and aquatic stem-tetrapods. Thestapesbone at the rear of the skull is massive, probably used as a support for the skull. This contrasts with the stapes of terrestrial animals such as frogs, mammals, and lizards. In these groups the bone is thin and sensitive to vibration, so it is used for sensitive hearing. The thick stapes ofGreererpetonis an indication that did not have good hearing like terrestrial animals.Greererpetonretains a postbranchial lamina on its shoulder blade, which may have been indicative of internal gills like those of fish. However, the erratic distribution of postbranchial laminae in aquatic and terrestrial fish and amphibians makes this conclusion questionable. Godfrey (1989) consideredGreererpetonto be biologically similar to the modernAsian giant salamanders(Andrias), the largest living amphibians. PreservedGreererpetonskeletons have their bodies lay completely flat, with their tails twisted over to lay flat perpendicular to the body. These preservational quirks may indicate that the body was flattened dorsoventrally (from top-to-bottom), while the tail was flattened mediolaterally (from side-to-side) into a fin-like structure used for swimming. YoungAndriascongregate in shallow water while older individuals were bottom-dwelling predators preferring deeper rivers. Given that smallGreererpetonskeletons have been found in groups while larger ones are solitary, it is presumable thatGreererpetonbehaved similarly. Footnotes External links",
"Pholidogaster Pholidogaster('scaly stomach') is anextinctgenus ofstem-tetrapodthat lived during the MiddleCarboniferousperiod(lateViséanto earlySerpukhovian).Pholidogasteris known from only two specimens found inGilmerton,Scotland. Historically it was one of the first to show science theevolutionary linkbetweenfishandamphibians. This animal had a very long and slender body, with small and feeble limbs. The shoulder structure is further back than is usual. Belly scales are present (hence its name), suggesting that in life it did not just swim, but scrawled over hard surfaces as well. The structure of the jaw is not clear, since the jaw bones on both specimens are not well preserved. However, there are large fangs in the front of the mouth, presumably used in hunting. It was a small to medium-sized animal around 1 m in length. References External links This article about atetrapodomorphis astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it."
] | [
"Colosteidae Colosteidaeis afamilyofstegocephalians(stem-grouptetrapods) that lived in theCarboniferousperiod.They possessed a variety of characteristics from different tetrapod orstem-tetrapodgroups, which made them historically difficult to classify. They are now considered to be part of a lineage intermediate between the earliestDevonianterrestrial vertebrates (such asIchthyostega), and the different groups ancestral to all modern tetrapods, such astemnospondyls(probably ancestral to modernamphibians) andreptiliomorphs(ancestral toamniotessuch asmammals,reptiles, andbirds). Description Colosteids had elongated bodies, with an estimated 40 vertebrae, not including the tail. The skull is relatively flat and composed of many separate bones, like that of other stegocephalians. Colosteids lackedotic notchesat the back of the head, unlike temnospondyls and other \"labyrinthodonts\". However, they did possess large mandibular and palatal fangs (on the lower jaw and the roof of the mouth), in addition to smaller",
"addition to smaller marginal teeth (at the edge of the mouth), like \"labyrinthodonts\". The skull was overlaid with wide sensory grooves known aslateral lines, which extended from rear edge of the skull to the tip of the snout. Most aquatic stegocephalians have their lateral lines dip, unbroken, under the nostrils once they reach the tip of the snout, or alternately disconnect into separate grooves separated by the nostrils. However, colosteids evolved a unique alternative; their lateral lines droop below the nostrils so far that they contact the marginal teeth, so that the edge of the skull is responsible for subdividing the grooves, rather than the nostrils. The mandibular fangs were larger than the palatal ones, though those on the palate were still large. Colosteids were unique compared to most stegocephalians in the fact that a pair of palatal fangs were present on thepremaxillary bonesat the tip of the snout. In conjunction with the forward position of these fangs, the dentary bones of the lower jaw",
"of the lower jaw developed a notch on either side near the symphysis (chin). The symphysis itself is formed by a rough area of bone on the left and right dentaries. This rough patch is formed by a complex system of ridges, which have been described as \"brassicate\" (textured like acauliflower).OnlyMegalocephalusis known to share this brassicate patch with colosteids. The mandibles were also unique in the fact that they possessed a single elongated hole along their inner surface, known as an exomeckelian foramen (or a meckelian fenestra). Earlier stegocephalians likeIchthyostegapossessed a subtle slit in the mandible, while most later groups had a series of smaller, well-defined holes. Relationships The analysis below was conducted by Swartz in 2012, showing the relationship of colosteids with other tetrapodomorphs. Panderichthys Elpistostege Tiktaalik Elginerpeton Ventastega Acanthostega Ichthyostega Whatcheeriidae Colosteidae Crassigyrinus Baphetidae Crown groupTetrapoda References External links",
"Deltaherpeton Deltaherpetonis anextinctgenusofcolosteidfrom middleMississippian(lateViséanage) deposits ofDelta,Iowa,United States.It was first named by John R. Bolt and R. Eric Lombard in2010and the type species isDeltaherpeton hiemstrae. Deltaherpetoncan be differentiated from othercolosteidsdue to possessing several unique bones along the midline of the skull, separating paired skull bones which typically contact each other along the midline. These include an internasal, an oval-shaped bone which lies at the intersection of the pairedpremaxillaeandnasalbones at the top of the snout. Internasals are known from several of the earliest four-limbed vertebrates, such asAcanthostega,Ichthyostega, andbaphetids. Further back, what seems to be a pair oflozenge-shape bones lie at the intersection of the nasal bones and frontal bones. These bones may be interfrontonasals, which have been found in someeryopoidsandmicrosaurs. In addition,Deltaherpetonhas a singlepostparietal(rather than a pair), which separates the",
"which separates the left and rightsupratemporalandtabularbones at the rear edge of the skull. Lone postparietals are rare among non-amniote tetrapods and tetrapod relatives; onlyIchthyostegaanddiadectomorphsare known to possess them. The discovery ofDeltaherpetonprompted a review and re-augmentation of the defining characteristics for the familyColosteidae, though it did not help to clarify the relationship between colosteids and other earlytetrapods. Though it is believed thatDeltaherpetonis more derived, the species is thought to have shared its environment with other early four-limbed vertebrates such asWhatcheeriaandSiguornea, approximately 339.4 to 336 million years ago. References This article about atetrapodomorphis astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. This article related to aCarboniferousanimal is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"Greererpeton Greererpeton burkemorani(\"crawler fromGreer, West Virginia\") is an extinctgenusofcolosteidstem-tetrapodsfrom the EarlyCarboniferousperiod (lateViséan) of North America.Greererpetonwas first described by famed vertebrate paleontologistAlfred S. Romerin 1969, based on a skull and partial skeleton from theBluefield Formation.The skull was redescribed byTimothy R. Smithsonin 1982,while postcranial remains were redescribed byStephen J. Godfreyin 1989. Greererpetonwere probably aquatic, with an elongated body adapted for swimming. Adults have overall length of 1.0–1.4 metres (3.3–4.6 ft)or 1.5 metres (4.9 ft),similar in size to modern Asian giant salamanders (Andrias). The body was elongated, with about 40vertebrae, while the flattenedskullreached about 18 centimetres (7.1 in) long in adult specimens. The most complete adult specimen only preserved 12 tail vertebrae, only about a third the length of the body as inAndrias. However, smaller specimens have been found preserving over 30 vertebrae, so it is",
"vertebrae, so it is not inconceivable that a complete tail was approximately as long as the body.The limbs were short, though not vestigial; the fingers were still well-developed.Greererpetonwere carnivores which probably lived in rivers and swamps. Paleobiology There is a large amount of evidence thatGreererpetonand other colosteids were completely aquatic animals.Grooves on the side of the skull indicate thatGreererpetonhadlateral lines, sensory organs commonly found only in fish and aquatic stem-tetrapods. Thestapesbone at the rear of the skull is massive, probably used as a support for the skull. This contrasts with the stapes of terrestrial animals such as frogs, mammals, and lizards. In these groups the bone is thin and sensitive to vibration, so it is used for sensitive hearing. The thick stapes ofGreererpetonis an indication that did not have good hearing like terrestrial animals.Greererpetonretains a postbranchial lamina on its shoulder blade, which may have been indicative of internal gills like",
"internal gills like those of fish. However, the erratic distribution of postbranchial laminae in aquatic and terrestrial fish and amphibians makes this conclusion questionable. Godfrey (1989) consideredGreererpetonto be biologically similar to the modernAsian giant salamanders(Andrias), the largest living amphibians. PreservedGreererpetonskeletons have their bodies lay completely flat, with their tails twisted over to lay flat perpendicular to the body. These preservational quirks may indicate that the body was flattened dorsoventrally (from top-to-bottom), while the tail was flattened mediolaterally (from side-to-side) into a fin-like structure used for swimming. YoungAndriascongregate in shallow water while older individuals were bottom-dwelling predators preferring deeper rivers. Given that smallGreererpetonskeletons have been found in groups while larger ones are solitary, it is presumable thatGreererpetonbehaved similarly. Footnotes External links",
"Pholidogaster Pholidogaster('scaly stomach') is anextinctgenus ofstem-tetrapodthat lived during the MiddleCarboniferousperiod(lateViséanto earlySerpukhovian).Pholidogasteris known from only two specimens found inGilmerton,Scotland. Historically it was one of the first to show science theevolutionary linkbetweenfishandamphibians. This animal had a very long and slender body, with small and feeble limbs. The shoulder structure is further back than is usual. Belly scales are present (hence its name), suggesting that in life it did not just swim, but scrawled over hard surfaces as well. The structure of the jaw is not clear, since the jaw bones on both specimens are not well preserved. However, there are large fangs in the front of the mouth, presumably used in hunting. It was a small to medium-sized animal around 1 m in length. References External links This article about atetrapodomorphis astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it."
] |
The man who owned The Washington Post in 1932 broke the trust established by his father to gain control of the paper, only to run into the ground, lose it, and get committed to a psychiatric hospital where he died. How many days after his death did the man who purchased it in 1933 die? | 6563 days | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Beale_McLean | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Meyer_(financier) | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Beale_McLean', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Meyer_(financier)'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Beale_McLean",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Meyer_(financier"
] | [
"The Washington Post The Washington Post, locally known as \"thePost\" and, informally,WaPoorWP, is an Americandaily newspaperpublished inWashington, D.C., the national capital. It is the most widely circulated newspaper in theWashington metropolitan areaand has a national audience. As of 2023, thePosthas thethird-largestprint circulationin the United States, with 135,980 print subscribers. It has 2.5 million digital subscribers. ThePostwas founded in 1877. In its early years, it went through several owners and struggled both financially and editorially. FinancierEugene Meyerpurchased it out of bankruptcy in 1933 and revived its health and reputation; this work was continued by his successorsKatharineandPhil Graham, Meyer's daughter and son-in-law, respectively, who bought out several rival publications. ThePost's1971 printing of thePentagon Papershelped spuropposition to the Vietnam War. ReportersBob WoodwardandCarl Bernsteinled the investigation into the break-in at the Democratic National Headquarters that developed into theWatergate scandal, which resulted in the1974 resignationof PresidentRichard Nixon. In October 2013, the Graham family sold the newspaper toNash Holdings, a holding company owned byJeff Bezos, for $250 million. As of 2024, the newspaper had won thePulitzer Prize76 times for its work,the second-most of any publication afterThe New York Times.It is considered anewspaper of recordin the U.S.Postjournalists have received 18Nieman Fellowshipsand 368 White House News Photographers Association awards.The paper is well known for itspolitical reportingand is one of the few remaining American newspapers to operateforeign bureaus,with internationalbreaking newshubs inLondonandSeoul. Overview The Washington Postis regarded as one of the leading daily American newspapers along withThe New York Times, theLos Angeles Times, andThe Wall Street Journal.ThePosthas distinguished itself through its political reporting on the workings of the White House, Congress, and other aspects of the U.S. government. It is considered a newspaper of record in the U.S. The Washington Postdoes not print an edition for distribution away from theEast Coast. In 2009, the newspaper ceased publication of itsNational Weekly Editiondue to shrinking circulation.The majority of its newsprint readership is in Washington, D.C., and its suburbs in Maryland and Northern Virginia. The newspaper's 21 current foreign bureaus are inBaghdad,Beijing,Beirut,Berlin,Brussels,Cairo,Dakar,Hong Kong,Islamabad,Istanbul,Jerusalem,London,Mexico City,Moscow,Nairobi,New Delhi,Rio de Janeiro,Rome,Seoul,Tokyo, andToronto.In November 2009, the newspaper announced the closure of three U.S. regional bureaus inChicago,Los AngelesandNew York City, as part of an increased focus onWashington, D.C.-based political stories and local news.The newspaper has local bureaus in Maryland (Annapolis, Montgomery County, Prince George's County, and Southern Maryland) and Virginia (Alexandria, Fairfax, Loudoun County, Richmond, and Prince William County). As of March 2023, thePost's average printed weekday circulation is 139,232, making it the third largest newspaper in the country by circulation. For many decades, thePosthad its main office at 1150 15th Street NW. This real estate remained with Graham Holdings when the newspaper was sold to Jeff Bezos' Nash Holdings in 2013. Graham Holdings sold 1150 15th Street, along with 1515 L Street, 1523 L Street, and land beneath 1100 15th Street, for $159 million in November 2013.The Postcontinued to lease space at 1150 L Street NW.In May 2014,The Postleased the west tower ofOne Franklin Square, a high-rise building at 1301 K Street NW in Washington, D.C. Mary Jordanwas the founding editor, head of content, and moderator forWashington Post Live,The Post's editorial events business, which organizes political debates, conferences and news events for the media company, including \"The 40th Anniversary of Watergate\" in June 2012 that featured key Watergate figures including former White House counselJohn Dean,Washington PosteditorBen Bradlee, and reportersBob WoodwardandCarl Bernstein, which was held at the Watergate hotel. Regular hosts includeFrances Stead Sellers.Lois Romanowas formerly the editor ofWashington Post Live. ThePosthas its own exclusiveZip Code, 20071. Publishing service Arc XP is a department ofThe Washington Post, which provides a publishing system and software for news organizations such as theChicago Tribuneand theLos Angeles Times. History Founding and early period The newspaper was founded in 1877 byStilson Hutchins(1838–1912); in 1880, it added a Sunday edition, becoming the city's first newspaper to publish seven days a week. 19th century In April 1878, about four months into publication,The Washington PostpurchasedThe Washington Union, a competing newspaper which was founded byJohn Lynchin late 1877. TheUnionhad only been in operation about six months at the time of the acquisition. The combined newspaper was published from the Globe Building asThe Washington Post and Unionbeginning on April 15, 1878, with a circulation of 13,000.ThePost and Unionname was used about two weeks until April 29, 1878, returning to the original masthead the following day. In 1889, Hutchins sold the newspaper toFrank Hatton, a former Postmaster General, andBeriah Wilkins, a former Democratic congressman from Ohio. To promote the newspaper, the new owners requested the leader of theUnited States Marine Band,John Philip Sousa, to compose a march for the newspaper's essay contest awards ceremony. Sousa composed \"The Washington Post\".It became the standard music to accompany the two-step, a late 19th-century dance craze,and remains one of Sousa's best-known works. In 1893, the newspaper moved to a building at 14th and E streets NW, where it would remain until 1950. This building combined all functions of the newspaper into one headquarters – newsroom, advertising, typesetting, and printing – that ran 24 hours per day. In 1898, during theSpanish–American War, thePostprintedClifford K. Berryman's classic illustrationRemember the Maine, which became the battle-cry for American sailors during the War. In 1902, Berryman published another famous cartoon in thePost–Drawing the Line in Mississippi. This cartoon depicts PresidentTheodore Rooseveltshowing compassion for a small bear cub and inspired New York store ownerMorris Michtomto create the teddy bear.Wilkins acquired Hatton's share of the newspaper in 1894 at Hatton's death. 20th century After Wilkins' death in 1903, his sons John and Robert ran thePostfor two years before selling it in 1905 toJohn Roll McLean, owner of theCincinnati Enquirer. During the Wilson presidency, thePostwas credited with the \"most famous newspapertypo\" in D.C. history according toReasonmagazine; thePostintended to report that President Wilson had been \"entertaining\" his future-wife Mrs. Galt, but instead wrote that he had been \"entering\" Mrs. Galt. When McLean died in 1916, he put the newspaper in a trust, having little faith that his playboy sonEdward \"Ned\" McLeancould manage it as part of his inheritance. Ned went to court and broke the trust, but, under his management, the newspaper slumped toward ruin. He bled the paper for his lavish lifestyle and used it to promote political agendas. During theRed Summer of 1919the Post supported the white mobs and even ran a front-page story which advertised the location at which white servicemen were planning to meet to carry out attacks on black Washingtonians. In 1929, financierEugene Meyer, who had run theWar Finance Corp.sinceWorld War I,secretly made an offer of $5 million for thePost,but he was rebuffed by Ned McLean.On June 1, 1933, Meyer bought the paper at a bankruptcy auction for $825,000 three weeks after stepping down asChairman of the Federal Reserve. He had bid anonymously, and was prepared to go up to $2 million, far higher than the other bidders.These includedWilliam Randolph Hearst, who had long hoped to shut down the ailingPostto benefit his own Washington newspaper presence. ThePost'shealth and reputation were restored under Meyer's ownership. In 1946, he was succeeded as publisher by his son-in-law,Philip Graham.Meyer eventually gained the last laugh over Hearst, who had owned the oldWashington Timesand theHeraldbefore their 1939 merger that formed theTimes-Herald.This was in turn bought by and merged into thePostin 1954.The combined paper was officially namedThe Washington Post and Times-Heralduntil 1973, although theTimes-Heraldportion of thenameplatebecame less and less prominent over time. The merger left thePostwith two remaining local competitors, theWashington Star(Evening Star) andThe Washington Daily News. In 1972, the two competitors merged, forming theWashington Star-News. Following Graham's death in 1963, control of The Washington Post Company passed to his wife,Katharine Graham(1917–2001), who was also Eugene Meyer's daughter. Few women had run prominent national newspapers in the United States. In her autobiography, Katharine Graham described her own anxiety and lack of confidence when she stepped into a leadership role.She served as publisher from 1969 to 1979. Graham took The Washington Post Company public on June 15, 1971, in the midst of thePentagon Paperscontroversy. A total of 1,294,000 shares were offered to the public at $26 per share.By the end of Graham's tenure as CEO in 1991, the stock was worth $888 per share, not counting the effect of an intermediate 4:1 stock split. Graham also oversaw the Post company's diversification purchase of the for-profit education and training companyKaplan, Inc.for $40 million in 1984.Twenty years later, Kaplan had surpassed thePostnewspaper as the company's leading contributor to income, and by 2010 Kaplan accounted for more than 60% of the entire company revenue stream. Executive editorBen Bradleeput the newspaper's reputation and resources behind reportersBob WoodwardandCarl Bernstein, who, in a long series of articles, chipped away at the story behind the 1972 burglary ofDemocratic National Committeeoffices in theWatergate complexin Washington. ThePost'sdogged coverage of the story, the outcome of which ultimately played a major role in the resignation of PresidentRichard Nixon, won the newspaper aPulitzer Prizein 1973. In 1972, the \"Book World\" section was introduced with Pulitzer Prize-winning criticWilliam McPhersonas its first editor.It featured Pulitzer Prize-winning critics such asJonathan YardleyandMichael Dirda, the latter of whom established his career as a critic at thePost. In 2009, after 37 years, with great reader outcries and protest,The Washington Post Book Worldas a standalone insert was discontinued, the last issue being Sunday, February 15, 2009,along with a general reorganization of the paper, such as placing the Sunday editorials on the back page of the main front section rather than the \"Outlook\" section and distributing some other locally oriented \"op-ed\" letters and commentaries in other sections.However, book reviews are still published in the Outlook section on Sundays and in the Style section the rest of the week, as well as online. In 1975,the pressmen's union went on strike. ThePosthired replacement workers to replace the pressmen's union, and other unions returned to work in February 1976. Donald E. Graham, Katharine's son, succeeded her as a publisher in 1979. In 1995, the domain name washingtonpost.com was purchased. That same year, a failed effort to create an online news repository called Digital Ink launched. The following year it was shut down and the first website was launched in June 1996. Jeff Bezos era (2013–present) In August 2013,Jeff BezospurchasedThe Washington Postand other local publications, websites, and real estateforUS$250million,transferring ownership to Nash Holdings LLC, Bezos's private investment company.The paper's former parent company, which retained some other assets such as Kaplan and a group of TV stations, was renamedGraham Holdingsshortly after the sale. Nash Holdings, which includes thePost, is operated separately from technology companyAmazon, which Bezos founded and where he is as of 2022executive chairman and the largest single shareholder, with 12.7% of voting rights. Bezos said he has a vision that recreates \"the 'daily ritual' of reading thePostas a bundle, not merely a series of individual stories...\"He has been described as a \"hands-off owner\", holding teleconference calls with executive editorMartin Baronevery two weeks.Bezos appointedFred Ryan(founder and CEO ofPolitico) to serve as publisher and chief executive officer. This signaled Bezos' intent to shift thePostto a more digital focus with a national and global readership. In 2015, thePostmoved from the building it owned at 1150 15th Street to a leased space three blocks away at One Franklin Square onK Street.Since 2014 thePosthas launched an online personal finance section,a blog, and a podcast with a retro theme.ThePostwon the2020 Webby People's Voice Award for News & Politicsin the Social and Web categories. In 2017, the newspaper hiredJamal Khashoggias a columnist. In 2018, Khashoggi was murdered bySaudiagents inIstanbul. In October 2023, thePostannounced it would cut 240 jobs across the organization by offering voluntary separation packages to employees.In a staff-wide email announcing the job cuts, interim CEOPatty Stonesiferwrote, \"Our prior projections for traffic, subscriptions and advertising growth for the past two years — and into 2024 — have been overly optimistic\".ThePosthas lost around 500,000 subscribers since the end of 2020 and was set to lose $100 million in 2023, according toThe New York Times.The layoffs promptedDan FroomkinofPresswatchersto suggest that the decline in readership could be reversed by focusing on the rise of authoritarianism (in a fashion similar to the role thePostplayed during theWatergate scandal) instead of staying strictly neutral, which Froomkin says places the paper into an undistinguished secondary role in competition with other contemporary media.As part of the shift in tone, in 2023 the paper closed down the \"KidsPost\" column for children, the \"Skywatch\" astronomy column, and the \"John Kelly's Washington\" column about local history and sights, which had been running under different bylines since 1947. In May 2024, CEO and publisher William Lewis announced that the organization would embraceAIto improve the paper's financial situation, telling staff it would seek \"AI everywhere in our newsroom.\" In June 2024,Axiosreported the Post faced significant internal turmoil and financial challenges. The new CEO, Lewis, has already generated controversy with his leadership style and proposed restructuring plans. The abrupt departure of executive editor Buzbee and the appointment of two white men to top editorial positions have sparked internal discontent, particularly given the lack of consideration for the Post's senior female editors. Additionally, Lewis' proposed division forsocial mediaandservice journalismhas met with resistance from staff. Recent reports alleging Lewis' attempts to influence editorial decisions, including pressuringNPR's media correspondent to drop a story about his past ties to aphone hackingscandal, have further shaken the newsroom's morale.Lewis continues to grapple with declining revenue and audience on the business front, seeking strategies to regain subscribers lost since theTrump era. Later that month, the paper ran a story allegedly exposing a connection between incoming editor Robert Winnett and John Ford, a man who \"admitted to an extensive career using deception and illegal means to obtain confidential information.\"Winnett withdrew from the position shortly thereafter. Political stance 20th century In 1933, financier Eugene Meyer bought the bankruptPost, and assured the public that neither he nor the newspaper would be beholden to any political party.But as a leading Republican who had been appointedChairman of the Federal ReservebyHerbert Hooverin 1930, his opposition toRoosevelt'sNew Dealcolored the paper's editorials and news coverage, includingeditorializingnews stories written by Meyer under a pseudonym.His wifeAgnes Ernst Meyerwas a journalist from the other end of the spectrum politically. ThePostran many of her pieces including tributes to her personal friendsJohn DeweyandSaul Alinsky. In 1946, Meyer was appointed head ofWorld Bank, and he named his son-in-law Phil Graham to succeed him asPostpublisher. The post-war years saw the developing friendship of Phil and Kay Graham with the Kennedys, the Bradlees and the rest of the \"GeorgetownSet\", including manyHarvard Universityalumnithat would color thePost'spolitical orientation.Kay Graham's most memorable Georgetown soirée guest list included British diplomat and communist spyDonald Maclean. ThePostis credited with coining the term \"McCarthyism\" in a 1950editorial cartoonbyHerbert Block.Depicting buckets of tar, it made fun of Sen.Joseph McCarthy's \"tarring\" tactics, i.e.,smear campaignsand character assassination against those targeted by his accusations. Sen. McCarthy was attempting to do for the Senate what theHouse Un-American Activities Committeehad been doing for years—investigatingSoviet espionage in America. TheHUACmade Richard Nixon nationally known for his role in theHiss/Chamberscase that exposed communist spying in theState Department. The committee had evolved from theMcCormack-DicksteinCommittee of the 1930s. Phil Graham's friendship withJohn F. Kennedyremained strong until their deaths in 1963.FBI DirectorJ. Edgar Hooverreportedly told the new PresidentLyndon B. Johnson, \"I don't have much influence with thePostbecause I frankly don't read it. I view it like theDaily Worker.\" Ben Bradlee became the editor-in-chief in 1968, and Kay Graham officially became the publisher in 1969, paving the way for the aggressive reporting of thePentagon PapersandWatergate scandals. ThePoststrengthened public opposition to the Vietnam War in 1971 when it published thePentagon Papers.In the mid-1970s, some conservatives referred to thePostas \"Pravdaon thePotomac\" because of its perceived left-wing bias in both reporting and editorials.Since then, the appellation has been used by both liberal and conservative critics of the newspaper. 21st century In thePBSdocumentaryBuying the War, journalistBill Moyerssaid in the year prior to theIraq Warthere were 27 editorials supporting theBush administration's desire to invade Iraq. National security correspondentWalter Pincusreported that he had been ordered to cease his reports that were critical of the administration.According to author and journalistGreg Mitchell: \"By thePost'sown admission, in the months before the war, it ran more than 140 stories on its front page promoting the war, while contrary information got lost\". On March 23, 2007,Chris Matthewssaid on his television program, \"The Washington Postis not the liberal newspaper it was I have been reading it for years and it is aneoconnewspaper\".It has regularly published a mixture of op-ed columnists, with some of them left-leaning (includingE. J. Dionne,Dana Milbank, Greg Sargent, andEugene Robinson), and some of them right-leaning (includingGeorge Will,Marc Thiessen,Michael GersonandCharles Krauthammer). Responding to criticism of the newspaper's coverage during the run-up to the2008 presidential election, formerPostombudsmanDeborah Howellwrote: \"The opinion pages have strong conservative voices; the editorial board includes centrists and conservatives; and there were editorials critical of Obama. Yet opinion was still weighted toward Obama.\"According to a 2009Oxford University Pressbook by Richard Davis on the impact of blogs on American politics, liberal bloggers link toThe Washington PostandThe New York Timesmore often than other major newspapers; however, conservative bloggers also link predominantly to liberal newspapers. Since 2011, thePosthas been running a column called \"The Fact Checker\" that thePostdescribes as a \"truth squad\".The Fact Checker received a $250,000 grant fromGoogle News Initiative/YouTube to expand production of videofact checks. In mid-September 2016, Matthew Ingram ofForbesjoinedGlenn GreenwaldofThe Intercept, and Trevor Timm ofThe Guardianin criticizingThe Washington Postfor \"demanding that Snowden ... stand trial on espionage charges\". In February 2017, thePostadopted the slogan \"Democracy Dies in Darkness\" for its masthead. Political endorsements In the vast majority of U.S. elections, for federal, state, and local office, thePosteditorial board has endorsedDemocraticcandidates.The paper's editorial board and endorsement decision-making are separate from newsroom operations.Until 1976, thePostdid not regularly make endorsements in presidential elections. Since it endorsedJimmy Carterin 1976, thePosthas endorsed Democrats in presidential elections, and has never endorsed a Republican for president in the general election,although in the1988 presidential election, thePostdeclined to endorse either GovernorMichael Dukakis(the Democratic candidate) or Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bush(the Republican candidate).ThePosteditorial board endorsed Barack Obama in 2008and 2012;Hillary Clintonin2016;andJoe Bidenfor2020. While the newspaper predominantly endorses Democrats in congressional, state, and local elections, it has occasionally endorsedRepublicancandidates.While the paper has not endorsed Republican candidates forgovernor of Virginia,it endorsedMaryland GovernorRobert Ehrlich's unsuccessful bid for a second term in 2006.In 2006, it repeated its historic endorsements of every Republican incumbent for Congress inNorthern Virginia.ThePosteditorial board endorsed Virginia's Republican U.S. SenatorJohn Warnerin his Senate reelection campaign in 1990, 1996 and 2002; the paper's most recent endorsement of a Maryland Republican for U.S. Senate was in the 1980s, when the paper endorsed SenatorCharlies \"Mac\" Mathias Jr.In U.S. House of Representatives elections,moderate RepublicansinVirginiaandMaryland, includingWayne Gilchrest,Thomas M. Davis, andFrank Wolf, have enjoyed the support of thePost; thePostalso endorsed RepublicanCarol Schwartzin her campaign inWashington, D.C. Criticism and controversies \"Jimmy's World\" fabrication In September 1980, a Sunday feature story appeared on the front page of thePosttitled \"Jimmy's World\" in which reporterJanet Cookewrote a profile of the life of an eight-year-old heroinaddict.Although some within thePostdoubted the story's veracity, the paper's editors defended it, and assistant managing editorBob Woodwardsubmitted the story to thePulitzer Prize BoardatColumbia Universityfor consideration.Cooke was awarded thePulitzer Prize for Feature Writingon April 13, 1981. The story was subsequently found to be a complete fabrication, and the Pulitzer was returned. Private \"salon\" solicitation In July 2009, in the midst of an intense debate overhealth care reform,The Politicoreported that a health-care lobbyist had received an \"astonishing\" offer of access to thePost's\"health-care reporting and editorial staff.\"PostpublisherKatharine Weymouthhad planned a series of exclusive dinner parties or \"salons\" at her private residence, to which she had invited prominent lobbyists, trade group members, politicians, and business people.Participants were to be charged $25,000 to sponsor a single salon, and $250,000 for 11 sessions, with the events being closed to the public and to the non-Postpress.Politico's revelation gained a somewhat mixed response in Washingtonas it gave the impression that the parties' sole purpose was to allow insiders to purchase face time withPoststaff. Almost immediately following the disclosure, Weymouth canceled the salons, saying, \"This should never have happened.\" White House counselGregory B. Craigreminded officials that underfederal ethics rules, they need advance approval for such events.PostExecutive EditorMarcus Brauchli, who was named on the flier as one of the salon's \"Hosts and Discussion Leaders\", said he was \"appalled\" by the plan, adding, \"It suggests that access toWashington Postjournalists was available for purchase.\" China Dailyadvertising supplements Dating back to 2011,The Washington Postbegan to include \"China Watch\" advertising supplements provided byChina Daily, an English language newspaper owned by thePublicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party, on the print and online editions. Although the header to the online \"China Watch\" section included the text \"A Paid Supplement to The Washington Post\",James FallowsofThe Atlanticsuggested that the notice was not clear enough for most readers to see.Distributed to thePostand multiple newspapers around the world, the \"China Watch\" advertising supplements range from four to eight pages and appear at least monthly. According to a 2018 report byThe Guardian, \"China Watch\" uses \"a didactic, old-school approach to propaganda.\" In 2020, a report byFreedom House, titled \"Beijing's Global Megaphone\", criticized thePostand other newspapers for distributing \"China Watch\".In the same year, 35 Republican members of the U.S. Congress wrote a letter to the U.S. Department of Justice in February 2020 calling for an investigation of potentialFARAviolations byChina Daily.The letter named an article that appeared in thePost, \"Education Flaws Linked to Hong Kong Unrest\", as an example of \"articles serve as cover for China's atrocities, including ... its support for thecrackdown in Hong Kong.\"According toThe Guardian,thePosthad already stopped running \"China Watch\" in 2019. Employee relations In 1986, five employees, includingNewspaper Guildunit chairman Thomas R. Sherwood and assistant Maryland editorClaudia Levy, suedThe Washington Postfor overtime pay, stating that the newspaper had claimed that budgets did not allow for overtime wages. In June 2018, over 400 employees ofThe Washington Postsigned an open letter to the owner Jeff Bezos demanding \"fair wages; fair benefits for retirement, family leave and health care; and a fair amount of job security.\" The open letter was accompanied by video testimonials from employees, who alleged \"shocking pay practices\" despite record growth in subscriptions at the newspaper, with salaries rising an average of $10 per week, which the letter claimed was less than half the rate of inflation. The petition followed on a year of unsuccessful negotiations betweenThe Washington PostGuildand upper management over pay and benefit increases. In March 2022, reporter Paul Farhi was suspended for five days without pay after he tweeted about the publication's policy on bylines and datelines regarding Russian-based stories. Felicia Sonmez In 2020,The Postsuspended reporterFelicia Sonmezafter she posted a series of tweets about the2003 rape allegation against basketball star Kobe BryantafterBryant's death. She was reinstated after over 200Postjournalists wrote an open letter criticizing the paper's decision.In July 2021, Sonmez suedThe Postand several of its top editors, alleging workplace discrimination; the suit was dismissed in March 2022, with the court determining that Sonmez had failed to make plausible claims. In June 2022, Sonmez engaged in a Twitter feud with fellowPoststaffersDavid Weigel, criticizing him over what he later described as \"an offensive joke\", and Jose A. Del Real, who accused Sonmez of \"engaging in repeated and targeted public harassment of a colleague\".Following the feud, the newspaper suspended Weigel for a month for violating the company's social media guidelines, and the newspaper's executive editorSally Buzbeesent out a newsroom-wide memorandum directing employees to \"Be constructive and collegial\" in their interactions with colleagues.The newspaper fired Sonmez, writing in an emailed termination letter that she had engaged in \"misconduct that includes insubordination, maligning your co-workers online and violatingThe Post's standards on workplace collegiality and inclusivity.\"The Postfaced criticism from the Post Guild after refusing to go to arbitration over the dismissal, stating that the expiration of the Post's contract \"does not relieve the Post from its contractual obligation to arbitrate grievances filed prior to expiration.\" Lawsuit by Covington Catholic High School student In 2019,Covington Catholic High Schoolstudent Nick Sandmann filed a defamation lawsuit against thePost, alleging that it libeled him in seven articles regarding theJanuary 2019 Lincoln Memorial confrontationbetween Covington students and theIndigenous Peoples March.A federal judge dismissed the case, ruling that 30 of the 33 statements in thePostthat Sandmann alleged were libelous were not, but allowed Sandmann to file an amended complaint as to three statements.After Sandmann's lawyers amended the complaint, the suit was reopened on October 28, 2019. In 2020,The Postsettled the lawsuit brought by Sandmann for an undisclosed amount. Controversial op-eds and columns SeveralWashington Postop-edsand columns have prompted criticism, including a number of comments on race by columnistRichard Cohenover the years,and a controversial 2014 column oncampus sexual assaultbyGeorge Will. ThePost's decision to run an op-ed byMohammed Ali al-Houthi, a leader inYemen'sHouthi movement, was criticized by some activists on the basis that it provided a platform to an \"anti-Western andantisemiticgroup supported by Iran.\"The headline of a 2020 op-ed titled \"It's time to give the elites a bigger say in choosing the president\" was changed, without an editor's note, after backlash. In 2022, actorJohnny Deppsuccessfully sued ex-wifeAmber Heardfor an op-ed she wrote inThe Washington Postwhere she described herself as a public figure representing domestic abuse two years after she had publicly accused him of domestic violence. Criticism by elected officials Speaking on behalf ofRichard Nixon, White House Press SecretaryRon Zieglerinfamously accusedThe Washington Postof \"shabby journalism\" for their focus onWatergateonly to apologize when the damning reporting on Nixon was proved correct. Former presidentDonald Trumprepeatedly spoke out againstThe Washington Postonhis Twitter account,having \"tweeted or retweeted criticism of the paper, tying it to Amazon more than 20 times since his campaign for president\" by August 2018.In addition to often attacking the paper itself, Trump used Twitter to blast variousPostjournalists and columnists. During the2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries, SenatorBernie Sandersrepeatedly criticizedThe Washington Post, saying that its coverage of his campaign was slanted against him and attributing this toJeff Bezos' purchase of the newspaper.Sanders' criticism was echoed by the socialist magazineJacobinand the progressive journalist watchdogFairness and Accuracy in Reporting.Washington Postexecutive editorMarty Baronresponded by saying that Sanders' criticism was \"baseless and conspiratorial\". Fossil fuel advertising An investigation bythe Intercept,the Nation, andDeSmogfound thatThe Washington Postis one of the leading media outlets that publishes advertising for thefossil fuelindustry.Journalists who coverclimate changeforThe Washington Postare concerned thatconflicts of interestwith the companies and industries thatcaused climate changeandobstructed actionwill reduce the credibility of their reporting on climate change and cause readers to downplay theclimate crisis. Executive officers and editors Major stockholders Publishers Executive editors See also References Further reading External links 1234567 NBC NewsWall Street JournalPoliticoMSNBC/CNBC/TelemundoBloomberg GovernmentWashington ExaminerBoston Globe/Washington Blade Fox NewsCBS News RadioAP Radio/PBSVOATimeYahoo! NewsDaily Caller/EWTN CBS NewsBloomberg NewsMcClatchyNY Post/TheGrioWashington TimesSalem Radio/CBNCheddar News/Hearst TV APNPRForeign poolThe HillRegionalsNewsmaxGray TV/Spectrum News ABC NewsWashington PostAgence France-PresseFox Business/Fox News RadioCSM/Roll CallAl JazeeraNexstar/Scripps News ReutersNY TimesLA TimesUnivision/AURNRealClearPoliticsDaily Beast/Dallas Morning NewsBBC/Newsweek CNNUSA TodayABC News RadioDaily MailNational JournalHuffPostFinancial Times/The Guardian",
"Edward Beale McLean Edward \"Ned\" Beale McLean(1889 – July 28, 1941) was the publisher and owner ofThe Washington Postnewspaper, from 1916 until 1933. His wife,Evalyn Walsh McLean, was a prominent Washington socialite. McLean was also a thoroughbred racehorse owner and purchaser of theHope Diamond, which was traditionally believed to carry a curse. McLean was declared insane and died in a psychiatric hospital. Early life McLean was born into a publishing fortune founded by his paternal grandfather,Washington McLean, who ownedThe Washington PostandThe Cincinnati Enquirer. He was the only child ofJohn Roll McLean, for whomMcLean, Virginia, is named, and the former Emily Truxtun Beale, daughter ofEdward F. Bealeand the former Mary Edwards. Emily was a hostess andsocialitewho was the inspiration for the character Victoria Dare in the 1880 comicnovel,Democracy: An American NovelbyHenry Brooks Adams. He attended Brooks Debartolo Collegiate High School. Career In 1916, Edward inheritedThe Washington Post, which he owned and published until 1933. Thoroughbred horse racing In 1915, Edward McLean acquiredBelmont Plantation,where he had built a horse stable and training track forthoroughbreds.Involved with show horses for a number of years,in 1917 McLean purchased 32racehorsesand hiredtrainerH. Eugene Leigh.His notable runners included Toro, the winner of the 1928American Derby. The horse also ran third in theKentucky Derbyand second in thePreakness Stakes.McLean dispersed his bloodstock in June 1931 and, in December, the estate was sold to Mr. and Mrs.Patrick J. Hurley. Hope Diamond ownership On January 28, 1911, in a deal made in the offices ofThe Washington Post, McLean purchased theHope DiamondforUS$180,000 fromPierre CartierofCartier JewelersonFifth AvenueinNew York City. A clause in the sale agreement for the diamond (which was widely believed to have brought death and disaster to its owners) stated: \"Should any fatality occur to the family of Edward B. McLean within six months, the said Hope diamond is agreed to be exchanged for jewelry of equal value\". By March, as the diamond had not been paid for, Cartier retained a lawyer to sue McLean for payment. McLean responded by saying that the diamond was on loan for inspection.On February 2, 1912The New York Timesreported, \"Wealthy Purchasers of Famous Stone to Retain It Despite Sinister Reputation.\"The McLeans purchased the diamond for $180,000. For eight years, the bad luck association of the diamond was not evident. However, some subsequent events led to further speculation of thecurse. In 1997,The Washington Postreferenced its former publisher, the feckless Ned McLean, as \"more of a curse even than the diamond\". Personal life In 1908, Edward McLean marriedEvalyn Walsh, the only surviving child and sole heiress of mining millionaireThomas Walsh.Following a honeymoon trip around the world, the couple returned to Washington and settled into the McLean family's country house, called \"Friendship\", now theMcLean Gardens Condominiumdevelopment in the Tenleytown neighborhood of Washington. The McLeans lived lavishly and were prominent in Washington society. Political friends The McLeans were close friends of Senator and PresidentWarren G. Hardingand first ladyFlorence Harding. McLean was also a friend ofSecretary of the InteriorAlbert B. Fall, through whom he became embroiled in theTeapot Dome scandal.McLean falsely told investigatingSenatorThomas J. Walshthat he had given Fall a $100,000 loan when, in fact, Fall had illegally received money from private oil companies. When Walsh threatened to have McLean charged withperjury, McLean admitted the falsity of his claim.This admission was later characterized as \"the first climactic sensation\" and \"the smoking gun\" of the scandal. Divorce, mental illness, and death The McLean marriage ended with much publicized and bitterly contested divorce proceedings, initiated by Mrs. McLean on grounds ofinfidelity, in October 1931. McLean filed for divorce in Mexico but his wife obtained a permanent injunction from aDistrict of Columbiacourt ordering the cessation of the Mexican proceedings. Edward McLean then suddenly announced he had already marriedRose Douras, a sister of Hollywood film starMarion Davies;though a marriage had not occurred. McLean immediately took up residence inRiga, Latvia, where he again filed for a divorce, which was granted on December 13, 1932. Edward McLean's increasingly erratic behavior and reckless spending led to the forced sale ofThe Washington Postby trustees appointed by the court. The divorce proceedings of Evalyn McLean continued in United States court but were droppedfollowing an October 31, 1933, verdict by a jury in aMarylandtrial that declared Edward McLean to be legallyinsaneand incapable of managing his affairs. The court ordered that he be committed indefinitely to apsychiatric hospital. Edward McLean died of aheart attackatSheppard and Enoch Pratt HospitalinTowson, Marylandin 1941. Progeny On May 18, 1919, nine-year-old Vinson Walsh McLean (born December 18, 1909), the eldest of four McLean children, was struck by a car and killed while crossing Wisconsin Avenue in front of their house. On October 9, 1941, their 19-year-old daughter, Evalyn Washington \"Evie\" McLean (November 16, 1921–September 20, 1946), became the fifth wife of 57-year-old SenatorRobert Rice ReynoldsofNorth Carolina.Less than five years later, she was found dead by her mother.A coroner's inquest determined the cause of death to be an accidental overdose ofsleeping pills.Their daughter, Mamie Spears Reynolds, who was the first woman to qualify for theDaytona 500,married Luigi \"Coco\" Chinetti Jr., son of Italian race car driver and Ferrari agentLuigi Chinetti, in 1963; they divorced two years later.She later married Joseph E. Gregory, with whom she had two children. The couple's second son, John Randolph \"Jock\" McLean II, married three times to socialites: first to Agnes Landon Pyne Davis Bacon (née Davis) in 1941, then to Elizabeth Muhlenberg “Betty” Brooke Blake Phipps Reed (née Blake) in 1943, and finally to former model Mildred W. \"Brownie\" Brown Schrafft (née Brown) in 1953.In 1976,Hustlermagazine publisherLarry Flyntrented Brownie McLean's Palm Beach estate, El Solano, as a background for published photographs. In January 1980 she sold the mansion toYoko OnoandJohn Lennon. She turned down the Hope Diamond in 1952 when offered by her husband on the passing of his mother, due to the so-called \"curse\" associated with it. Third son, Edward Beale McLean, Jr., married Ann Carroll Meem in May 1938. Their divorce was granted in July 1943 and in August he married actressGloria Hatrick, with whom he had two sons, Ronald and Michael. Ronald was killed in action in 1969 by enemy fire while serving in Vietnam as afirst lieutenantin theUnited States Marine Corps.McLean Jr. and Gloria divorced in January 1948. In October of that year, he married Manuela Mercedes \"Mollie\" Hudson, who had been the first wife ofAlfred Gwynne Vanderbilt Jr.; in August 1949, Gloria married actorJames Stewart. McLean Jr. and Hudson-Vanderbilt separated in the 1960s and divorced in 1973, after which he married Patricia Dewey. References External links",
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"The Washington Post The Washington Post, locally known as \"thePost\" and, informally,WaPoorWP, is an Americandaily newspaperpublished inWashington, D.C., the national capital. It is the most widely circulated newspaper in theWashington metropolitan areaand has a national audience. As of 2023, thePosthas thethird-largestprint circulationin the United States, with 135,980 print subscribers. It has 2.5 million digital subscribers. ThePostwas founded in 1877. In its early years, it went through several owners and struggled both financially and editorially. FinancierEugene Meyerpurchased it out of bankruptcy in 1933 and revived its health and reputation; this work was continued by his successorsKatharineandPhil Graham, Meyer's daughter and son-in-law, respectively, who bought out several rival publications. ThePost's1971 printing of thePentagon Papershelped spuropposition to the Vietnam War. ReportersBob WoodwardandCarl Bernsteinled the investigation into the break-in at the Democratic National Headquarters that",
"Headquarters that developed into theWatergate scandal, which resulted in the1974 resignationof PresidentRichard Nixon. In October 2013, the Graham family sold the newspaper toNash Holdings, a holding company owned byJeff Bezos, for $250 million. As of 2024, the newspaper had won thePulitzer Prize76 times for its work,the second-most of any publication afterThe New York Times.It is considered anewspaper of recordin the U.S.Postjournalists have received 18Nieman Fellowshipsand 368 White House News Photographers Association awards.The paper is well known for itspolitical reportingand is one of the few remaining American newspapers to operateforeign bureaus,with internationalbreaking newshubs inLondonandSeoul. Overview The Washington Postis regarded as one of the leading daily American newspapers along withThe New York Times, theLos Angeles Times, andThe Wall Street Journal.ThePosthas distinguished itself through its political reporting on the workings of the White House, Congress, and other aspects of the U.S.",
"aspects of the U.S. government. It is considered a newspaper of record in the U.S. The Washington Postdoes not print an edition for distribution away from theEast Coast. In 2009, the newspaper ceased publication of itsNational Weekly Editiondue to shrinking circulation.The majority of its newsprint readership is in Washington, D.C., and its suburbs in Maryland and Northern Virginia. The newspaper's 21 current foreign bureaus are inBaghdad,Beijing,Beirut,Berlin,Brussels,Cairo,Dakar,Hong Kong,Islamabad,Istanbul,Jerusalem,London,Mexico City,Moscow,Nairobi,New Delhi,Rio de Janeiro,Rome,Seoul,Tokyo, andToronto.In November 2009, the newspaper announced the closure of three U.S. regional bureaus inChicago,Los AngelesandNew York City, as part of an increased focus onWashington, D.C.-based political stories and local news.The newspaper has local bureaus in Maryland (Annapolis, Montgomery County, Prince George's County, and Southern Maryland) and Virginia (Alexandria, Fairfax, Loudoun County, Richmond, and Prince",
"and Prince William County). As of March 2023, thePost's average printed weekday circulation is 139,232, making it the third largest newspaper in the country by circulation. For many decades, thePosthad its main office at 1150 15th Street NW. This real estate remained with Graham Holdings when the newspaper was sold to Jeff Bezos' Nash Holdings in 2013. Graham Holdings sold 1150 15th Street, along with 1515 L Street, 1523 L Street, and land beneath 1100 15th Street, for $159 million in November 2013.The Postcontinued to lease space at 1150 L Street NW.In May 2014,The Postleased the west tower ofOne Franklin Square, a high-rise building at 1301 K Street NW in Washington, D.C. Mary Jordanwas the founding editor, head of content, and moderator forWashington Post Live,The Post's editorial events business, which organizes political debates, conferences and news events for the media company, including \"The 40th Anniversary of Watergate\" in June 2012 that featured key Watergate figures including former White House",
"former White House counselJohn Dean,Washington PosteditorBen Bradlee, and reportersBob WoodwardandCarl Bernstein, which was held at the Watergate hotel. Regular hosts includeFrances Stead Sellers.Lois Romanowas formerly the editor ofWashington Post Live. ThePosthas its own exclusiveZip Code, 20071. Publishing service Arc XP is a department ofThe Washington Post, which provides a publishing system and software for news organizations such as theChicago Tribuneand theLos Angeles Times. History Founding and early period The newspaper was founded in 1877 byStilson Hutchins(1838–1912); in 1880, it added a Sunday edition, becoming the city's first newspaper to publish seven days a week. 19th century In April 1878, about four months into publication,The Washington PostpurchasedThe Washington Union, a competing newspaper which was founded byJohn Lynchin late 1877. TheUnionhad only been in operation about six months at the time of the acquisition. The combined newspaper was published from the Globe Building asThe",
"Building asThe Washington Post and Unionbeginning on April 15, 1878, with a circulation of 13,000.ThePost and Unionname was used about two weeks until April 29, 1878, returning to the original masthead the following day. In 1889, Hutchins sold the newspaper toFrank Hatton, a former Postmaster General, andBeriah Wilkins, a former Democratic congressman from Ohio. To promote the newspaper, the new owners requested the leader of theUnited States Marine Band,John Philip Sousa, to compose a march for the newspaper's essay contest awards ceremony. Sousa composed \"The Washington Post\".It became the standard music to accompany the two-step, a late 19th-century dance craze,and remains one of Sousa's best-known works. In 1893, the newspaper moved to a building at 14th and E streets NW, where it would remain until 1950. This building combined all functions of the newspaper into one headquarters – newsroom, advertising, typesetting, and printing – that ran 24 hours per day. In 1898, during theSpanish–American War,",
"War, thePostprintedClifford K. Berryman's classic illustrationRemember the Maine, which became the battle-cry for American sailors during the War. In 1902, Berryman published another famous cartoon in thePost–Drawing the Line in Mississippi. This cartoon depicts PresidentTheodore Rooseveltshowing compassion for a small bear cub and inspired New York store ownerMorris Michtomto create the teddy bear.Wilkins acquired Hatton's share of the newspaper in 1894 at Hatton's death. 20th century After Wilkins' death in 1903, his sons John and Robert ran thePostfor two years before selling it in 1905 toJohn Roll McLean, owner of theCincinnati Enquirer. During the Wilson presidency, thePostwas credited with the \"most famous newspapertypo\" in D.C. history according toReasonmagazine; thePostintended to report that President Wilson had been \"entertaining\" his future-wife Mrs. Galt, but instead wrote that he had been \"entering\" Mrs. Galt. When McLean died in 1916, he put the newspaper in a trust, having little faith that",
"little faith that his playboy sonEdward \"Ned\" McLeancould manage it as part of his inheritance. Ned went to court and broke the trust, but, under his management, the newspaper slumped toward ruin. He bled the paper for his lavish lifestyle and used it to promote political agendas. During theRed Summer of 1919the Post supported the white mobs and even ran a front-page story which advertised the location at which white servicemen were planning to meet to carry out attacks on black Washingtonians. In 1929, financierEugene Meyer, who had run theWar Finance Corp.sinceWorld War I,secretly made an offer of $5 million for thePost,but he was rebuffed by Ned McLean.On June 1, 1933, Meyer bought the paper at a bankruptcy auction for $825,000 three weeks after stepping down asChairman of the Federal Reserve. He had bid anonymously, and was prepared to go up to $2 million, far higher than the other bidders.These includedWilliam Randolph Hearst, who had long hoped to shut down the ailingPostto benefit his own Washington",
"his own Washington newspaper presence. ThePost'shealth and reputation were restored under Meyer's ownership. In 1946, he was succeeded as publisher by his son-in-law,Philip Graham.Meyer eventually gained the last laugh over Hearst, who had owned the oldWashington Timesand theHeraldbefore their 1939 merger that formed theTimes-Herald.This was in turn bought by and merged into thePostin 1954.The combined paper was officially namedThe Washington Post and Times-Heralduntil 1973, although theTimes-Heraldportion of thenameplatebecame less and less prominent over time. The merger left thePostwith two remaining local competitors, theWashington Star(Evening Star) andThe Washington Daily News. In 1972, the two competitors merged, forming theWashington Star-News. Following Graham's death in 1963, control of The Washington Post Company passed to his wife,Katharine Graham(1917–2001), who was also Eugene Meyer's daughter. Few women had run prominent national newspapers in the United States. In her autobiography, Katharine",
"Katharine Graham described her own anxiety and lack of confidence when she stepped into a leadership role.She served as publisher from 1969 to 1979. Graham took The Washington Post Company public on June 15, 1971, in the midst of thePentagon Paperscontroversy. A total of 1,294,000 shares were offered to the public at $26 per share.By the end of Graham's tenure as CEO in 1991, the stock was worth $888 per share, not counting the effect of an intermediate 4:1 stock split. Graham also oversaw the Post company's diversification purchase of the for-profit education and training companyKaplan, Inc.for $40 million in 1984.Twenty years later, Kaplan had surpassed thePostnewspaper as the company's leading contributor to income, and by 2010 Kaplan accounted for more than 60% of the entire company revenue stream. Executive editorBen Bradleeput the newspaper's reputation and resources behind reportersBob WoodwardandCarl Bernstein, who, in a long series of articles, chipped away at the story behind the 1972 burglary",
"the 1972 burglary ofDemocratic National Committeeoffices in theWatergate complexin Washington. ThePost'sdogged coverage of the story, the outcome of which ultimately played a major role in the resignation of PresidentRichard Nixon, won the newspaper aPulitzer Prizein 1973. In 1972, the \"Book World\" section was introduced with Pulitzer Prize-winning criticWilliam McPhersonas its first editor.It featured Pulitzer Prize-winning critics such asJonathan YardleyandMichael Dirda, the latter of whom established his career as a critic at thePost. In 2009, after 37 years, with great reader outcries and protest,The Washington Post Book Worldas a standalone insert was discontinued, the last issue being Sunday, February 15, 2009,along with a general reorganization of the paper, such as placing the Sunday editorials on the back page of the main front section rather than the \"Outlook\" section and distributing some other locally oriented \"op-ed\" letters and commentaries in other sections.However, book reviews are still",
"reviews are still published in the Outlook section on Sundays and in the Style section the rest of the week, as well as online. In 1975,the pressmen's union went on strike. ThePosthired replacement workers to replace the pressmen's union, and other unions returned to work in February 1976. Donald E. Graham, Katharine's son, succeeded her as a publisher in 1979. In 1995, the domain name washingtonpost.com was purchased. That same year, a failed effort to create an online news repository called Digital Ink launched. The following year it was shut down and the first website was launched in June 1996. Jeff Bezos era (2013–present) In August 2013,Jeff BezospurchasedThe Washington Postand other local publications, websites, and real estateforUS$250million,transferring ownership to Nash Holdings LLC, Bezos's private investment company.The paper's former parent company, which retained some other assets such as Kaplan and a group of TV stations, was renamedGraham Holdingsshortly after the sale. Nash Holdings, which",
"Holdings, which includes thePost, is operated separately from technology companyAmazon, which Bezos founded and where he is as of 2022executive chairman and the largest single shareholder, with 12.7% of voting rights. Bezos said he has a vision that recreates \"the 'daily ritual' of reading thePostas a bundle, not merely a series of individual stories...\"He has been described as a \"hands-off owner\", holding teleconference calls with executive editorMartin Baronevery two weeks.Bezos appointedFred Ryan(founder and CEO ofPolitico) to serve as publisher and chief executive officer. This signaled Bezos' intent to shift thePostto a more digital focus with a national and global readership. In 2015, thePostmoved from the building it owned at 1150 15th Street to a leased space three blocks away at One Franklin Square onK Street.Since 2014 thePosthas launched an online personal finance section,a blog, and a podcast with a retro theme.ThePostwon the2020 Webby People's Voice Award for News & Politicsin the Social and Web",
"the Social and Web categories. In 2017, the newspaper hiredJamal Khashoggias a columnist. In 2018, Khashoggi was murdered bySaudiagents inIstanbul. In October 2023, thePostannounced it would cut 240 jobs across the organization by offering voluntary separation packages to employees.In a staff-wide email announcing the job cuts, interim CEOPatty Stonesiferwrote, \"Our prior projections for traffic, subscriptions and advertising growth for the past two years — and into 2024 — have been overly optimistic\".ThePosthas lost around 500,000 subscribers since the end of 2020 and was set to lose $100 million in 2023, according toThe New York Times.The layoffs promptedDan FroomkinofPresswatchersto suggest that the decline in readership could be reversed by focusing on the rise of authoritarianism (in a fashion similar to the role thePostplayed during theWatergate scandal) instead of staying strictly neutral, which Froomkin says places the paper into an undistinguished secondary role in competition with other",
"with other contemporary media.As part of the shift in tone, in 2023 the paper closed down the \"KidsPost\" column for children, the \"Skywatch\" astronomy column, and the \"John Kelly's Washington\" column about local history and sights, which had been running under different bylines since 1947. In May 2024, CEO and publisher William Lewis announced that the organization would embraceAIto improve the paper's financial situation, telling staff it would seek \"AI everywhere in our newsroom.\" In June 2024,Axiosreported the Post faced significant internal turmoil and financial challenges. The new CEO, Lewis, has already generated controversy with his leadership style and proposed restructuring plans. The abrupt departure of executive editor Buzbee and the appointment of two white men to top editorial positions have sparked internal discontent, particularly given the lack of consideration for the Post's senior female editors. Additionally, Lewis' proposed division forsocial mediaandservice journalismhas met with",
"met with resistance from staff. Recent reports alleging Lewis' attempts to influence editorial decisions, including pressuringNPR's media correspondent to drop a story about his past ties to aphone hackingscandal, have further shaken the newsroom's morale.Lewis continues to grapple with declining revenue and audience on the business front, seeking strategies to regain subscribers lost since theTrump era. Later that month, the paper ran a story allegedly exposing a connection between incoming editor Robert Winnett and John Ford, a man who \"admitted to an extensive career using deception and illegal means to obtain confidential information.\"Winnett withdrew from the position shortly thereafter. Political stance 20th century In 1933, financier Eugene Meyer bought the bankruptPost, and assured the public that neither he nor the newspaper would be beholden to any political party.But as a leading Republican who had been appointedChairman of the Federal ReservebyHerbert Hooverin 1930, his opposition",
"his opposition toRoosevelt'sNew Dealcolored the paper's editorials and news coverage, includingeditorializingnews stories written by Meyer under a pseudonym.His wifeAgnes Ernst Meyerwas a journalist from the other end of the spectrum politically. ThePostran many of her pieces including tributes to her personal friendsJohn DeweyandSaul Alinsky. In 1946, Meyer was appointed head ofWorld Bank, and he named his son-in-law Phil Graham to succeed him asPostpublisher. The post-war years saw the developing friendship of Phil and Kay Graham with the Kennedys, the Bradlees and the rest of the \"GeorgetownSet\", including manyHarvard Universityalumnithat would color thePost'spolitical orientation.Kay Graham's most memorable Georgetown soirée guest list included British diplomat and communist spyDonald Maclean. ThePostis credited with coining the term \"McCarthyism\" in a 1950editorial cartoonbyHerbert Block.Depicting buckets of tar, it made fun of Sen.Joseph McCarthy's \"tarring\" tactics, i.e.,smear campaignsand character",
"character assassination against those targeted by his accusations. Sen. McCarthy was attempting to do for the Senate what theHouse Un-American Activities Committeehad been doing for years—investigatingSoviet espionage in America. TheHUACmade Richard Nixon nationally known for his role in theHiss/Chamberscase that exposed communist spying in theState Department. The committee had evolved from theMcCormack-DicksteinCommittee of the 1930s. Phil Graham's friendship withJohn F. Kennedyremained strong until their deaths in 1963.FBI DirectorJ. Edgar Hooverreportedly told the new PresidentLyndon B. Johnson, \"I don't have much influence with thePostbecause I frankly don't read it. I view it like theDaily Worker.\" Ben Bradlee became the editor-in-chief in 1968, and Kay Graham officially became the publisher in 1969, paving the way for the aggressive reporting of thePentagon PapersandWatergate scandals. ThePoststrengthened public opposition to the Vietnam War in 1971 when it published thePentagon Papers.In the",
"Papers.In the mid-1970s, some conservatives referred to thePostas \"Pravdaon thePotomac\" because of its perceived left-wing bias in both reporting and editorials.Since then, the appellation has been used by both liberal and conservative critics of the newspaper. 21st century In thePBSdocumentaryBuying the War, journalistBill Moyerssaid in the year prior to theIraq Warthere were 27 editorials supporting theBush administration's desire to invade Iraq. National security correspondentWalter Pincusreported that he had been ordered to cease his reports that were critical of the administration.According to author and journalistGreg Mitchell: \"By thePost'sown admission, in the months before the war, it ran more than 140 stories on its front page promoting the war, while contrary information got lost\". On March 23, 2007,Chris Matthewssaid on his television program, \"The Washington Postis not the liberal newspaper it was I have been reading it for years and it is aneoconnewspaper\".It has regularly published a mixture",
"published a mixture of op-ed columnists, with some of them left-leaning (includingE. J. Dionne,Dana Milbank, Greg Sargent, andEugene Robinson), and some of them right-leaning (includingGeorge Will,Marc Thiessen,Michael GersonandCharles Krauthammer). Responding to criticism of the newspaper's coverage during the run-up to the2008 presidential election, formerPostombudsmanDeborah Howellwrote: \"The opinion pages have strong conservative voices; the editorial board includes centrists and conservatives; and there were editorials critical of Obama. Yet opinion was still weighted toward Obama.\"According to a 2009Oxford University Pressbook by Richard Davis on the impact of blogs on American politics, liberal bloggers link toThe Washington PostandThe New York Timesmore often than other major newspapers; however, conservative bloggers also link predominantly to liberal newspapers. Since 2011, thePosthas been running a column called \"The Fact Checker\" that thePostdescribes as a \"truth squad\".The Fact Checker received",
"Checker received a $250,000 grant fromGoogle News Initiative/YouTube to expand production of videofact checks. In mid-September 2016, Matthew Ingram ofForbesjoinedGlenn GreenwaldofThe Intercept, and Trevor Timm ofThe Guardianin criticizingThe Washington Postfor \"demanding that Snowden ... stand trial on espionage charges\". In February 2017, thePostadopted the slogan \"Democracy Dies in Darkness\" for its masthead. Political endorsements In the vast majority of U.S. elections, for federal, state, and local office, thePosteditorial board has endorsedDemocraticcandidates.The paper's editorial board and endorsement decision-making are separate from newsroom operations.Until 1976, thePostdid not regularly make endorsements in presidential elections. Since it endorsedJimmy Carterin 1976, thePosthas endorsed Democrats in presidential elections, and has never endorsed a Republican for president in the general election,although in the1988 presidential election, thePostdeclined to endorse either GovernorMichael",
"GovernorMichael Dukakis(the Democratic candidate) or Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bush(the Republican candidate).ThePosteditorial board endorsed Barack Obama in 2008and 2012;Hillary Clintonin2016;andJoe Bidenfor2020. While the newspaper predominantly endorses Democrats in congressional, state, and local elections, it has occasionally endorsedRepublicancandidates.While the paper has not endorsed Republican candidates forgovernor of Virginia,it endorsedMaryland GovernorRobert Ehrlich's unsuccessful bid for a second term in 2006.In 2006, it repeated its historic endorsements of every Republican incumbent for Congress inNorthern Virginia.ThePosteditorial board endorsed Virginia's Republican U.S. SenatorJohn Warnerin his Senate reelection campaign in 1990, 1996 and 2002; the paper's most recent endorsement of a Maryland Republican for U.S. Senate was in the 1980s, when the paper endorsed SenatorCharlies \"Mac\" Mathias Jr.In U.S. House of Representatives elections,moderate RepublicansinVirginiaandMaryland,",
"includingWayne Gilchrest,Thomas M. Davis, andFrank Wolf, have enjoyed the support of thePost; thePostalso endorsed RepublicanCarol Schwartzin her campaign inWashington, D.C. Criticism and controversies \"Jimmy's World\" fabrication In September 1980, a Sunday feature story appeared on the front page of thePosttitled \"Jimmy's World\" in which reporterJanet Cookewrote a profile of the life of an eight-year-old heroinaddict.Although some within thePostdoubted the story's veracity, the paper's editors defended it, and assistant managing editorBob Woodwardsubmitted the story to thePulitzer Prize BoardatColumbia Universityfor consideration.Cooke was awarded thePulitzer Prize for Feature Writingon April 13, 1981. The story was subsequently found to be a complete fabrication, and the Pulitzer was returned. Private \"salon\" solicitation In July 2009, in the midst of an intense debate overhealth care reform,The Politicoreported that a health-care lobbyist had received an \"astonishing\" offer of access to",
"offer of access to thePost's\"health-care reporting and editorial staff.\"PostpublisherKatharine Weymouthhad planned a series of exclusive dinner parties or \"salons\" at her private residence, to which she had invited prominent lobbyists, trade group members, politicians, and business people.Participants were to be charged $25,000 to sponsor a single salon, and $250,000 for 11 sessions, with the events being closed to the public and to the non-Postpress.Politico's revelation gained a somewhat mixed response in Washingtonas it gave the impression that the parties' sole purpose was to allow insiders to purchase face time withPoststaff. Almost immediately following the disclosure, Weymouth canceled the salons, saying, \"This should never have happened.\" White House counselGregory B. Craigreminded officials that underfederal ethics rules, they need advance approval for such events.PostExecutive EditorMarcus Brauchli, who was named on the flier as one of the salon's \"Hosts and Discussion Leaders\", said he was",
"said he was \"appalled\" by the plan, adding, \"It suggests that access toWashington Postjournalists was available for purchase.\" China Dailyadvertising supplements Dating back to 2011,The Washington Postbegan to include \"China Watch\" advertising supplements provided byChina Daily, an English language newspaper owned by thePublicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party, on the print and online editions. Although the header to the online \"China Watch\" section included the text \"A Paid Supplement to The Washington Post\",James FallowsofThe Atlanticsuggested that the notice was not clear enough for most readers to see.Distributed to thePostand multiple newspapers around the world, the \"China Watch\" advertising supplements range from four to eight pages and appear at least monthly. According to a 2018 report byThe Guardian, \"China Watch\" uses \"a didactic, old-school approach to propaganda.\" In 2020, a report byFreedom House, titled \"Beijing's Global Megaphone\", criticized thePostand other newspapers for",
"newspapers for distributing \"China Watch\".In the same year, 35 Republican members of the U.S. Congress wrote a letter to the U.S. Department of Justice in February 2020 calling for an investigation of potentialFARAviolations byChina Daily.The letter named an article that appeared in thePost, \"Education Flaws Linked to Hong Kong Unrest\", as an example of \"articles serve as cover for China's atrocities, including ... its support for thecrackdown in Hong Kong.\"According toThe Guardian,thePosthad already stopped running \"China Watch\" in 2019. Employee relations In 1986, five employees, includingNewspaper Guildunit chairman Thomas R. Sherwood and assistant Maryland editorClaudia Levy, suedThe Washington Postfor overtime pay, stating that the newspaper had claimed that budgets did not allow for overtime wages. In June 2018, over 400 employees ofThe Washington Postsigned an open letter to the owner Jeff Bezos demanding \"fair wages; fair benefits for retirement, family leave and health care; and a fair amount of",
"a fair amount of job security.\" The open letter was accompanied by video testimonials from employees, who alleged \"shocking pay practices\" despite record growth in subscriptions at the newspaper, with salaries rising an average of $10 per week, which the letter claimed was less than half the rate of inflation. The petition followed on a year of unsuccessful negotiations betweenThe Washington PostGuildand upper management over pay and benefit increases. In March 2022, reporter Paul Farhi was suspended for five days without pay after he tweeted about the publication's policy on bylines and datelines regarding Russian-based stories. Felicia Sonmez In 2020,The Postsuspended reporterFelicia Sonmezafter she posted a series of tweets about the2003 rape allegation against basketball star Kobe BryantafterBryant's death. She was reinstated after over 200Postjournalists wrote an open letter criticizing the paper's decision.In July 2021, Sonmez suedThe Postand several of its top editors, alleging workplace",
"alleging workplace discrimination; the suit was dismissed in March 2022, with the court determining that Sonmez had failed to make plausible claims. In June 2022, Sonmez engaged in a Twitter feud with fellowPoststaffersDavid Weigel, criticizing him over what he later described as \"an offensive joke\", and Jose A. Del Real, who accused Sonmez of \"engaging in repeated and targeted public harassment of a colleague\".Following the feud, the newspaper suspended Weigel for a month for violating the company's social media guidelines, and the newspaper's executive editorSally Buzbeesent out a newsroom-wide memorandum directing employees to \"Be constructive and collegial\" in their interactions with colleagues.The newspaper fired Sonmez, writing in an emailed termination letter that she had engaged in \"misconduct that includes insubordination, maligning your co-workers online and violatingThe Post's standards on workplace collegiality and inclusivity.\"The Postfaced criticism from the Post Guild after refusing to go to",
"refusing to go to arbitration over the dismissal, stating that the expiration of the Post's contract \"does not relieve the Post from its contractual obligation to arbitrate grievances filed prior to expiration.\" Lawsuit by Covington Catholic High School student In 2019,Covington Catholic High Schoolstudent Nick Sandmann filed a defamation lawsuit against thePost, alleging that it libeled him in seven articles regarding theJanuary 2019 Lincoln Memorial confrontationbetween Covington students and theIndigenous Peoples March.A federal judge dismissed the case, ruling that 30 of the 33 statements in thePostthat Sandmann alleged were libelous were not, but allowed Sandmann to file an amended complaint as to three statements.After Sandmann's lawyers amended the complaint, the suit was reopened on October 28, 2019. In 2020,The Postsettled the lawsuit brought by Sandmann for an undisclosed amount. Controversial op-eds and columns SeveralWashington Postop-edsand columns have prompted criticism, including a number of",
"a number of comments on race by columnistRichard Cohenover the years,and a controversial 2014 column oncampus sexual assaultbyGeorge Will. ThePost's decision to run an op-ed byMohammed Ali al-Houthi, a leader inYemen'sHouthi movement, was criticized by some activists on the basis that it provided a platform to an \"anti-Western andantisemiticgroup supported by Iran.\"The headline of a 2020 op-ed titled \"It's time to give the elites a bigger say in choosing the president\" was changed, without an editor's note, after backlash. In 2022, actorJohnny Deppsuccessfully sued ex-wifeAmber Heardfor an op-ed she wrote inThe Washington Postwhere she described herself as a public figure representing domestic abuse two years after she had publicly accused him of domestic violence. Criticism by elected officials Speaking on behalf ofRichard Nixon, White House Press SecretaryRon Zieglerinfamously accusedThe Washington Postof \"shabby journalism\" for their focus onWatergateonly to apologize when the damning reporting on Nixon",
"reporting on Nixon was proved correct. Former presidentDonald Trumprepeatedly spoke out againstThe Washington Postonhis Twitter account,having \"tweeted or retweeted criticism of the paper, tying it to Amazon more than 20 times since his campaign for president\" by August 2018.In addition to often attacking the paper itself, Trump used Twitter to blast variousPostjournalists and columnists. During the2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries, SenatorBernie Sandersrepeatedly criticizedThe Washington Post, saying that its coverage of his campaign was slanted against him and attributing this toJeff Bezos' purchase of the newspaper.Sanders' criticism was echoed by the socialist magazineJacobinand the progressive journalist watchdogFairness and Accuracy in Reporting.Washington Postexecutive editorMarty Baronresponded by saying that Sanders' criticism was \"baseless and conspiratorial\". Fossil fuel advertising An investigation bythe Intercept,the Nation, andDeSmogfound thatThe Washington Postis one of the leading",
"one of the leading media outlets that publishes advertising for thefossil fuelindustry.Journalists who coverclimate changeforThe Washington Postare concerned thatconflicts of interestwith the companies and industries thatcaused climate changeandobstructed actionwill reduce the credibility of their reporting on climate change and cause readers to downplay theclimate crisis. Executive officers and editors Major stockholders Publishers Executive editors See also References Further reading External links 1234567 NBC NewsWall Street JournalPoliticoMSNBC/CNBC/TelemundoBloomberg GovernmentWashington ExaminerBoston Globe/Washington Blade Fox NewsCBS News RadioAP Radio/PBSVOATimeYahoo! NewsDaily Caller/EWTN CBS NewsBloomberg NewsMcClatchyNY Post/TheGrioWashington TimesSalem Radio/CBNCheddar News/Hearst TV APNPRForeign poolThe HillRegionalsNewsmaxGray TV/Spectrum News ABC NewsWashington PostAgence France-PresseFox Business/Fox News RadioCSM/Roll CallAl JazeeraNexstar/Scripps News ReutersNY TimesLA",
"ReutersNY TimesLA TimesUnivision/AURNRealClearPoliticsDaily Beast/Dallas Morning NewsBBC/Newsweek CNNUSA TodayABC News RadioDaily MailNational JournalHuffPostFinancial Times/The Guardian",
"Edward Beale McLean Edward \"Ned\" Beale McLean(1889 – July 28, 1941) was the publisher and owner ofThe Washington Postnewspaper, from 1916 until 1933. His wife,Evalyn Walsh McLean, was a prominent Washington socialite. McLean was also a thoroughbred racehorse owner and purchaser of theHope Diamond, which was traditionally believed to carry a curse. McLean was declared insane and died in a psychiatric hospital. Early life McLean was born into a publishing fortune founded by his paternal grandfather,Washington McLean, who ownedThe Washington PostandThe Cincinnati Enquirer. He was the only child ofJohn Roll McLean, for whomMcLean, Virginia, is named, and the former Emily Truxtun Beale, daughter ofEdward F. Bealeand the former Mary Edwards. Emily was a hostess andsocialitewho was the inspiration for the character Victoria Dare in the 1880 comicnovel,Democracy: An American NovelbyHenry Brooks Adams. He attended Brooks Debartolo Collegiate High School. Career In 1916, Edward inheritedThe Washington Post, which he",
"Post, which he owned and published until 1933. Thoroughbred horse racing In 1915, Edward McLean acquiredBelmont Plantation,where he had built a horse stable and training track forthoroughbreds.Involved with show horses for a number of years,in 1917 McLean purchased 32racehorsesand hiredtrainerH. Eugene Leigh.His notable runners included Toro, the winner of the 1928American Derby. The horse also ran third in theKentucky Derbyand second in thePreakness Stakes.McLean dispersed his bloodstock in June 1931 and, in December, the estate was sold to Mr. and Mrs.Patrick J. Hurley. Hope Diamond ownership On January 28, 1911, in a deal made in the offices ofThe Washington Post, McLean purchased theHope DiamondforUS$180,000 fromPierre CartierofCartier JewelersonFifth AvenueinNew York City. A clause in the sale agreement for the diamond (which was widely believed to have brought death and disaster to its owners) stated: \"Should any fatality occur to the family of Edward B. McLean within six months, the said Hope diamond",
"said Hope diamond is agreed to be exchanged for jewelry of equal value\". By March, as the diamond had not been paid for, Cartier retained a lawyer to sue McLean for payment. McLean responded by saying that the diamond was on loan for inspection.On February 2, 1912The New York Timesreported, \"Wealthy Purchasers of Famous Stone to Retain It Despite Sinister Reputation.\"The McLeans purchased the diamond for $180,000. For eight years, the bad luck association of the diamond was not evident. However, some subsequent events led to further speculation of thecurse. In 1997,The Washington Postreferenced its former publisher, the feckless Ned McLean, as \"more of a curse even than the diamond\". Personal life In 1908, Edward McLean marriedEvalyn Walsh, the only surviving child and sole heiress of mining millionaireThomas Walsh.Following a honeymoon trip around the world, the couple returned to Washington and settled into the McLean family's country house, called \"Friendship\", now theMcLean Gardens Condominiumdevelopment",
"in the Tenleytown neighborhood of Washington. The McLeans lived lavishly and were prominent in Washington society. Political friends The McLeans were close friends of Senator and PresidentWarren G. Hardingand first ladyFlorence Harding. McLean was also a friend ofSecretary of the InteriorAlbert B. Fall, through whom he became embroiled in theTeapot Dome scandal.McLean falsely told investigatingSenatorThomas J. Walshthat he had given Fall a $100,000 loan when, in fact, Fall had illegally received money from private oil companies. When Walsh threatened to have McLean charged withperjury, McLean admitted the falsity of his claim.This admission was later characterized as \"the first climactic sensation\" and \"the smoking gun\" of the scandal. Divorce, mental illness, and death The McLean marriage ended with much publicized and bitterly contested divorce proceedings, initiated by Mrs. McLean on grounds ofinfidelity, in October 1931. McLean filed for divorce in Mexico but his wife obtained a permanent injunction from",
"injunction from aDistrict of Columbiacourt ordering the cessation of the Mexican proceedings. Edward McLean then suddenly announced he had already marriedRose Douras, a sister of Hollywood film starMarion Davies;though a marriage had not occurred. McLean immediately took up residence inRiga, Latvia, where he again filed for a divorce, which was granted on December 13, 1932. Edward McLean's increasingly erratic behavior and reckless spending led to the forced sale ofThe Washington Postby trustees appointed by the court. The divorce proceedings of Evalyn McLean continued in United States court but were droppedfollowing an October 31, 1933, verdict by a jury in aMarylandtrial that declared Edward McLean to be legallyinsaneand incapable of managing his affairs. The court ordered that he be committed indefinitely to apsychiatric hospital. Edward McLean died of aheart attackatSheppard and Enoch Pratt HospitalinTowson, Marylandin 1941. Progeny On May 18, 1919, nine-year-old Vinson Walsh McLean (born December 18,",
"(born December 18, 1909), the eldest of four McLean children, was struck by a car and killed while crossing Wisconsin Avenue in front of their house. On October 9, 1941, their 19-year-old daughter, Evalyn Washington \"Evie\" McLean (November 16, 1921–September 20, 1946), became the fifth wife of 57-year-old SenatorRobert Rice ReynoldsofNorth Carolina.Less than five years later, she was found dead by her mother.A coroner's inquest determined the cause of death to be an accidental overdose ofsleeping pills.Their daughter, Mamie Spears Reynolds, who was the first woman to qualify for theDaytona 500,married Luigi \"Coco\" Chinetti Jr., son of Italian race car driver and Ferrari agentLuigi Chinetti, in 1963; they divorced two years later.She later married Joseph E. Gregory, with whom she had two children. The couple's second son, John Randolph \"Jock\" McLean II, married three times to socialites: first to Agnes Landon Pyne Davis Bacon (née Davis) in 1941, then to Elizabeth Muhlenberg “Betty” Brooke Blake Phipps Reed",
"Blake Phipps Reed (née Blake) in 1943, and finally to former model Mildred W. \"Brownie\" Brown Schrafft (née Brown) in 1953.In 1976,Hustlermagazine publisherLarry Flyntrented Brownie McLean's Palm Beach estate, El Solano, as a background for published photographs. In January 1980 she sold the mansion toYoko OnoandJohn Lennon. She turned down the Hope Diamond in 1952 when offered by her husband on the passing of his mother, due to the so-called \"curse\" associated with it. Third son, Edward Beale McLean, Jr., married Ann Carroll Meem in May 1938. Their divorce was granted in July 1943 and in August he married actressGloria Hatrick, with whom he had two sons, Ronald and Michael. Ronald was killed in action in 1969 by enemy fire while serving in Vietnam as afirst lieutenantin theUnited States Marine Corps.McLean Jr. and Gloria divorced in January 1948. In October of that year, he married Manuela Mercedes \"Mollie\" Hudson, who had been the first wife ofAlfred Gwynne Vanderbilt Jr.; in August 1949, Gloria married",
"Gloria married actorJames Stewart. McLean Jr. and Hudson-Vanderbilt separated in the 1960s and divorced in 1973, after which he married Patricia Dewey. References External links",
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Meyer_(financier"
] |
What Formula One car was driven in 1994 by the nephew of a racing driver from Italy who drove a Ferrari 312T and shares a last name with a common cocktail drink? | Minardi M194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minardi_M194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierluigi_Martini | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giancarlo_Martini | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cocktails | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minardi_M194', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierluigi_Martini', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giancarlo_Martini', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cocktails'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minardi_M194",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierluigi_Martini",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giancarlo_Martini",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cocktails"
] | [
"Minardi M194 TheMinardi M194was aFormula Onecar designed byAldo CostaandGustav Brunnerand built byMinardifor the1994 season. It was introduced at that year'sCanadian Grand Prixto replace theMinardi M193B. The car was again powered by theFordHBDV8 engine. Minardi team drivers during 1994 werePierluigi Martiniand former Grand Prix winnerMichele Alboreto. The team's test driver wasLuca Badoer. The M194 would only score two points during its 11 races, both when Martini finished in 5th place at the car's second race, theFrench Grand Prix. The team in fact scored more points in 1994 (3 points) using the M193B than with the M194. The combined 5 point total saw Minardi only finish tenth in the Constructors' Championship. The M194 was replaced for the1995season by theMinardi M195. Alboreto retired and was replaced by test driver Badoer. Livery The M194 had a blue, orange and white livery, with main sponsorship fromLucchiniand Beta Tools. During theBritish Grand Prix, the car ran with the words \"Italia IN - Ireland OUT\", in response to the elimination ofIrelandfrom the1994 FIFA World Cupand the provocation fromEddie Jordanin the previous race. Race results (key) * 3 points scored usingMinardi M193B References ThisFormula One–related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"Pierluigi Martini Pierluigi Martini(born 23 April 1961) is an Italian formerracing driver. He won the 1999 24 Hours of Le Mans and participated in 124Formula OneGrands Prix (with 119 starts) between 1984 and 1995. Early life Martini's uncle,Giancarlo Martini, raced during the 1970s, including some non-championship races in aFerrari312Tentered by Scuderia Everest, a team owned byGiancarlo Minardi. Pierluigi's younger brother,Oliver, is also a racing driver. Formula One Martini participated in 124Formula OneGrands Prix, debuting on 9 September 1984, driving forTolemanin place of suspendedAyrton Sennaat the1984 Italian Grand Prix. He scored a total of 18 championship points and was synonymous with theMinarditeam (run by the sameGiancarlo Minardiwho had previously ownedScuderia Everest). Indeed, aside from a single outing with Toleman and a one-season dalliance withScuderia Italiain1992, Martini's entire Formula One career was spent with the Italian outfit. He raced with the minnow team in three different stints, drove for them on their debut in 1985, scored their first point in the1988 Detroit Grand Prix, and their only front-row start at the1990 United States Grand Prix(where unexpected rain on Saturday meant that the grid was decided entirely by times from Friday's session. Pirelli's soft qualifying tyres caught Goodyear off guard, and the Italian manufacturer put five of its teams in the top ten positions). Both Martini and Minardi led a race for a single lap at the1989 Portuguese Grand Prix, and their joint-best finish was 4th at the1991 San Marino Grand Prixand1991 Portuguese Grand Prix, the latter being Martini's single finish on the lead lap.Initially out of a drive for1993, he was recalled back to the little Italian team midway through the season in place ofFabrizio Barbazza, Martini impressed by outpacing his young teammateChristian Fittipaldi. Martini was also one of the drivers with a reputation for ignoringblue flags. Examples given are the1991 Monaco Grand Prixwhen he held upEmanuele Pirroin theDallara,Stefano Modenain theTyrrell, andRiccardo Patresein theWilliamsfor several laps despite running towards the back of the field, and the1995 Canadian Grand Prixwhere he blockedGerhard Bergerin the Ferrari when the Austrian tried to lap him. On both occasions Martini was called in for a 10-second stop and go penalty for ignoring blue flags. Quizzed about this attitude on the occasion of the1995 San Marino Grand Prix, where he held up winnerDamon Hill, Martini replied: 'What should I exactly apologise for? My trajectories are always clean. Should I just park the car on the grass? I'm here to do my race like anybody else. I've always been correct. Those who complain about my conduct should explain why they cannot overtake me when their car has at least 150 hp more than mine'. Sportscars Prior to commencing his Formula One career, Martini drove aLancia LC2in the1984 24 Hours of Le Mans. After leaving Formula One, he began a successful career insportscar racing. He contested the1996 24 Hours of Le Mansin a Porsche run byJoest Racing. 1997 brought a fourth-place finish in aPorsche 911 GT1which he also raced in theFIA GT Championshipthat year. In 1998, he joined the brand new Le Mans program of BMW Motorsports. In 1999, Martini,Yannick DalmasandJoachim Winkelhockwon theLe Mans 24 Hours.The trio drove for BMW. The team had to fight both Toyota and Mercedes works cars and won the race by a lap from the runner-up Toyota. Martini returned to motorsports in 2006, competing in theGrand Prix Mastersseries for retired Formula One drivers. Racing record Career summary Complete European Formula Two Championship results (key) (Races inboldindicate pole position; races initalicsindicate fastest lap) Complete International Formula 3000 results (key) (Races inboldindicate pole position; races initalicsindicate fastest lap.) Complete Formula One results (key) Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results Complete Grand Prix Masters results (key) Races inboldindicate pole position, races initalicsindicate fastest lap. Sources External links",
"Giancarlo Martini Giancarlo Martini(16 August 1947 – 26 March 2013)was aracing driverfromItaly. He participated in two non-championshipFormula OneGrands Prix driving aFerrari 312TforGiancarlo Minardi. He was the uncle of the racing driversPierluigi MartiniandOliver Martini. Racing record Complete European Formula Two Championship results (key) (Races inboldindicate pole position; races initalicsindicate fastest lap) Complete Formula One results (Note: races inbolddenote pole position.) Non-championship results References",
"List of cocktails Acocktailis amixed drinktypically made with adistilled liquor(such asarrack,brandy,cachaça,gin,rum,tequila,vodka, orwhiskey) as its base ingredient that is then mixed with other ingredients or garnishments. Sweetenedliqueurs, wine, or beer may also serve as the base or be added. Ifbeeris one of the ingredients, the drink is called abeer cocktail. Cocktails often also contain one or more types of juice, fruit, honey, milk or cream, spices, or other flavorings. Cocktails may vary in their ingredients from bartender to bartender, and from region to region. Two creations may have the same name but taste very different because of differences in how the drinks are prepared. This article is organized by the primary type of alcohol (by volume) contained in the beverage. Cocktails marked with \"IBA\" are designated asIBA official cocktailsby theInternational Bartenders Association, and are some of the most popular cocktails worldwide. Absinthe Beer Cocktails made withbeerare classified asbeer cocktails. Brandy Cachaça Gin Rum Sake Tequila Mezcal Vodka Whisky Wines Fortified wines Wine Wine variation Sparkling wine Champagne Red wine White wine Flavored liqueurs Anise-flavored liqueurs Chocolate liqueur Coffee liqueurs Coffee-flavored drinks Cream liqueur A liqueur containingcream, imparting amilkshake-like flavor Crème liqueur An intensely green, mint-flavored liqueur A colorless mint-flavored liqueur Fruit liqueurs Apple-flavored Orange-flavored One of severalorange-flavored liqueurs, likeGrand Marnier,triple sec, orCuraçao Other fruit flavors A clear, bright-green,melon-flavored liqueur Nut-flavored liqueurs Swedish punsch-flavored cocktails Misc. liqueur-based cocktails Less common spirits Bitters Korn Ouzo Pisco Schnapps Other Historical classes of cocktails By mixer Strawberry Strawberries can bemuddledor puréed and added to many drinks, and they are liquor-friendly, being compatible with, e.g.,bourbon whiskey,Cointreau,vodka,tequila,rum, andChampagne,among other spirits and liqueurs and so on. Some recipes call for a strawberry syrup that can be made using strawberries, vanilla extract, sugar, and water.Some strawberry cocktail recipes do not call for a syrup, but rely on puréed strawberries to play that part. Strawberries are often mixed withbasil.Strawberry is popular insmashessince after the beverage has been drunk, the alcohol-infused strawberries can be consumed as well. Carrot juice Carrotjuice can be mixed with spirits such asagave spirits,whiskey,tequila,gin, ormezcal.Vodkais sometimes chosen because its neutral taste allows more of the carrot juice taste to shine through. Carrot juice can also be mixed with liqueurs such asamaro. ginger, orange, lemon and honey can be other ingredients in carrot juice cocktails.Turmericinfusions are also common. Examples of drinks made with carrot juice include: Pineapple juice Smashed fruit Asmashis a casual icyjulep(spirits, sugar, and herb)cocktail filled with hunks of fresh fruit, so that after the liquid part of the drink has been consumed, one can also eat the alcohol-infused fruit (e.g.strawberries). The history of smashes goes back at least as far as the 1862 bookHow to Mix Drinks.Theold-style whiskey smashwas an example of an early smash. The herb used in a smash is often mint, althoughbasilis sometimes used in cocktails that go well with it, e.g. manystrawberry cocktails. The name \"smash\" comes from the idea that on a hot day, one takes whatever fruit is on hand and smashes it all together to make a refreshing beverage.Generally a smash will have crushed ice. Lemonade A number of hard lemonades, such asLynchburg lemonade(whose alcoholic ingredient isJack Daniel'sTennessee whiskey) have been marketed. This section includes drinks that have the ingredients of lemonade (lemon juice and sugar). Lemon-lime soda Alemon-lime soda cocktailis acocktailmade withlemon-lime sodasuch asSprite. Apple juice Hard ciderhas been produced by a number of companies, e.g.Woodchuck Hard Cider. Apple-flavored malt beverageproducts have also been sold by companies likeRedd's Apple Ale, but these do not actually contain fermented apple juice. Grape juice Orange juice Ginger soda Aginger soda cocktailis acocktailwithginger aleorginger beer.Small Town Breweryproduced the 5.90% ABV Not Your Father's Ginger Ale.Coney Island Brewing Co.Henry's Hard Sodaproduced the 4.2% ABV Henry's Hard Ginger Ale. Others have included Crabbie's Original Alcoholic Ginger Beer (4.8 percent) and Spiced Orange Alcoholic Ginger Beer (4.8 percent), Fentimen's Alcoholic Ginger Beer (4 percent), and New City Ginger Beer (8 percent). Cola Some cola cocktails are made by the brewer; for example, McAles sells a \"hard cola\" that is amalt beveragewithkolaand other natural flavors and caramel color added.Jack Daniel'sandMiller Brewingalso introduced a hard cola, \"Black Jack Cola\".Henry's Hard Sodaintroduced a hardcherry cola. Tonic Atonic cocktailis a cocktail that containstonic syruportonic water. Tonic water is usually combined withginfor agin and tonic, ormixed with vodka. However, it can also be used in cocktails withcognac,cynar,Lillet BlancorLillet Rosé,rum,tequila, orwhite port. See also References External links"
] | [
"Minardi M194 TheMinardi M194was aFormula Onecar designed byAldo CostaandGustav Brunnerand built byMinardifor the1994 season. It was introduced at that year'sCanadian Grand Prixto replace theMinardi M193B. The car was again powered by theFordHBDV8 engine. Minardi team drivers during 1994 werePierluigi Martiniand former Grand Prix winnerMichele Alboreto. The team's test driver wasLuca Badoer. The M194 would only score two points during its 11 races, both when Martini finished in 5th place at the car's second race, theFrench Grand Prix. The team in fact scored more points in 1994 (3 points) using the M193B than with the M194. The combined 5 point total saw Minardi only finish tenth in the Constructors' Championship. The M194 was replaced for the1995season by theMinardi M195. Alboreto retired and was replaced by test driver Badoer. Livery The M194 had a blue, orange and white livery, with main sponsorship fromLucchiniand Beta Tools. During theBritish Grand Prix, the car ran with the words \"Italia IN - Ireland",
"IN - Ireland OUT\", in response to the elimination ofIrelandfrom the1994 FIFA World Cupand the provocation fromEddie Jordanin the previous race. Race results (key) * 3 points scored usingMinardi M193B References ThisFormula One–related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"Pierluigi Martini Pierluigi Martini(born 23 April 1961) is an Italian formerracing driver. He won the 1999 24 Hours of Le Mans and participated in 124Formula OneGrands Prix (with 119 starts) between 1984 and 1995. Early life Martini's uncle,Giancarlo Martini, raced during the 1970s, including some non-championship races in aFerrari312Tentered by Scuderia Everest, a team owned byGiancarlo Minardi. Pierluigi's younger brother,Oliver, is also a racing driver. Formula One Martini participated in 124Formula OneGrands Prix, debuting on 9 September 1984, driving forTolemanin place of suspendedAyrton Sennaat the1984 Italian Grand Prix. He scored a total of 18 championship points and was synonymous with theMinarditeam (run by the sameGiancarlo Minardiwho had previously ownedScuderia Everest). Indeed, aside from a single outing with Toleman and a one-season dalliance withScuderia Italiain1992, Martini's entire Formula One career was spent with the Italian outfit. He raced with the minnow team in three different stints,",
"different stints, drove for them on their debut in 1985, scored their first point in the1988 Detroit Grand Prix, and their only front-row start at the1990 United States Grand Prix(where unexpected rain on Saturday meant that the grid was decided entirely by times from Friday's session. Pirelli's soft qualifying tyres caught Goodyear off guard, and the Italian manufacturer put five of its teams in the top ten positions). Both Martini and Minardi led a race for a single lap at the1989 Portuguese Grand Prix, and their joint-best finish was 4th at the1991 San Marino Grand Prixand1991 Portuguese Grand Prix, the latter being Martini's single finish on the lead lap.Initially out of a drive for1993, he was recalled back to the little Italian team midway through the season in place ofFabrizio Barbazza, Martini impressed by outpacing his young teammateChristian Fittipaldi. Martini was also one of the drivers with a reputation for ignoringblue flags. Examples given are the1991 Monaco Grand Prixwhen he held upEmanuele",
"he held upEmanuele Pirroin theDallara,Stefano Modenain theTyrrell, andRiccardo Patresein theWilliamsfor several laps despite running towards the back of the field, and the1995 Canadian Grand Prixwhere he blockedGerhard Bergerin the Ferrari when the Austrian tried to lap him. On both occasions Martini was called in for a 10-second stop and go penalty for ignoring blue flags. Quizzed about this attitude on the occasion of the1995 San Marino Grand Prix, where he held up winnerDamon Hill, Martini replied: 'What should I exactly apologise for? My trajectories are always clean. Should I just park the car on the grass? I'm here to do my race like anybody else. I've always been correct. Those who complain about my conduct should explain why they cannot overtake me when their car has at least 150 hp more than mine'. Sportscars Prior to commencing his Formula One career, Martini drove aLancia LC2in the1984 24 Hours of Le Mans. After leaving Formula One, he began a successful career insportscar racing. He contested",
"He contested the1996 24 Hours of Le Mansin a Porsche run byJoest Racing. 1997 brought a fourth-place finish in aPorsche 911 GT1which he also raced in theFIA GT Championshipthat year. In 1998, he joined the brand new Le Mans program of BMW Motorsports. In 1999, Martini,Yannick DalmasandJoachim Winkelhockwon theLe Mans 24 Hours.The trio drove for BMW. The team had to fight both Toyota and Mercedes works cars and won the race by a lap from the runner-up Toyota. Martini returned to motorsports in 2006, competing in theGrand Prix Mastersseries for retired Formula One drivers. Racing record Career summary Complete European Formula Two Championship results (key) (Races inboldindicate pole position; races initalicsindicate fastest lap) Complete International Formula 3000 results (key) (Races inboldindicate pole position; races initalicsindicate fastest lap.) Complete Formula One results (key) Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results Complete Grand Prix Masters results (key) Races inboldindicate pole position, races",
"position, races initalicsindicate fastest lap. Sources External links",
"Giancarlo Martini Giancarlo Martini(16 August 1947 – 26 March 2013)was aracing driverfromItaly. He participated in two non-championshipFormula OneGrands Prix driving aFerrari 312TforGiancarlo Minardi. He was the uncle of the racing driversPierluigi MartiniandOliver Martini. Racing record Complete European Formula Two Championship results (key) (Races inboldindicate pole position; races initalicsindicate fastest lap) Complete Formula One results (Note: races inbolddenote pole position.) Non-championship results References",
"List of cocktails Acocktailis amixed drinktypically made with adistilled liquor(such asarrack,brandy,cachaça,gin,rum,tequila,vodka, orwhiskey) as its base ingredient that is then mixed with other ingredients or garnishments. Sweetenedliqueurs, wine, or beer may also serve as the base or be added. Ifbeeris one of the ingredients, the drink is called abeer cocktail. Cocktails often also contain one or more types of juice, fruit, honey, milk or cream, spices, or other flavorings. Cocktails may vary in their ingredients from bartender to bartender, and from region to region. Two creations may have the same name but taste very different because of differences in how the drinks are prepared. This article is organized by the primary type of alcohol (by volume) contained in the beverage. Cocktails marked with \"IBA\" are designated asIBA official cocktailsby theInternational Bartenders Association, and are some of the most popular cocktails worldwide. Absinthe Beer Cocktails made withbeerare classified asbeer",
"classified asbeer cocktails. Brandy Cachaça Gin Rum Sake Tequila Mezcal Vodka Whisky Wines Fortified wines Wine Wine variation Sparkling wine Champagne Red wine White wine Flavored liqueurs Anise-flavored liqueurs Chocolate liqueur Coffee liqueurs Coffee-flavored drinks Cream liqueur A liqueur containingcream, imparting amilkshake-like flavor Crème liqueur An intensely green, mint-flavored liqueur A colorless mint-flavored liqueur Fruit liqueurs Apple-flavored Orange-flavored One of severalorange-flavored liqueurs, likeGrand Marnier,triple sec, orCuraçao Other fruit flavors A clear, bright-green,melon-flavored liqueur Nut-flavored liqueurs Swedish punsch-flavored cocktails Misc. liqueur-based cocktails Less common spirits Bitters Korn Ouzo Pisco Schnapps Other Historical classes of cocktails By mixer Strawberry Strawberries can bemuddledor puréed and added to many drinks, and they are liquor-friendly, being compatible with, e.g.,bourbon whiskey,Cointreau,vodka,tequila,rum, andChampagne,among other spirits",
"other spirits and liqueurs and so on. Some recipes call for a strawberry syrup that can be made using strawberries, vanilla extract, sugar, and water.Some strawberry cocktail recipes do not call for a syrup, but rely on puréed strawberries to play that part. Strawberries are often mixed withbasil.Strawberry is popular insmashessince after the beverage has been drunk, the alcohol-infused strawberries can be consumed as well. Carrot juice Carrotjuice can be mixed with spirits such asagave spirits,whiskey,tequila,gin, ormezcal.Vodkais sometimes chosen because its neutral taste allows more of the carrot juice taste to shine through. Carrot juice can also be mixed with liqueurs such asamaro. ginger, orange, lemon and honey can be other ingredients in carrot juice cocktails.Turmericinfusions are also common. Examples of drinks made with carrot juice include: Pineapple juice Smashed fruit Asmashis a casual icyjulep(spirits, sugar, and herb)cocktail filled with hunks of fresh fruit, so that after the liquid part of",
"the liquid part of the drink has been consumed, one can also eat the alcohol-infused fruit (e.g.strawberries). The history of smashes goes back at least as far as the 1862 bookHow to Mix Drinks.Theold-style whiskey smashwas an example of an early smash. The herb used in a smash is often mint, althoughbasilis sometimes used in cocktails that go well with it, e.g. manystrawberry cocktails. The name \"smash\" comes from the idea that on a hot day, one takes whatever fruit is on hand and smashes it all together to make a refreshing beverage.Generally a smash will have crushed ice. Lemonade A number of hard lemonades, such asLynchburg lemonade(whose alcoholic ingredient isJack Daniel'sTennessee whiskey) have been marketed. This section includes drinks that have the ingredients of lemonade (lemon juice and sugar). Lemon-lime soda Alemon-lime soda cocktailis acocktailmade withlemon-lime sodasuch asSprite. Apple juice Hard ciderhas been produced by a number of companies, e.g.Woodchuck Hard Cider. Apple-flavored malt",
"Apple-flavored malt beverageproducts have also been sold by companies likeRedd's Apple Ale, but these do not actually contain fermented apple juice. Grape juice Orange juice Ginger soda Aginger soda cocktailis acocktailwithginger aleorginger beer.Small Town Breweryproduced the 5.90% ABV Not Your Father's Ginger Ale.Coney Island Brewing Co.Henry's Hard Sodaproduced the 4.2% ABV Henry's Hard Ginger Ale. Others have included Crabbie's Original Alcoholic Ginger Beer (4.8 percent) and Spiced Orange Alcoholic Ginger Beer (4.8 percent), Fentimen's Alcoholic Ginger Beer (4 percent), and New City Ginger Beer (8 percent). Cola Some cola cocktails are made by the brewer; for example, McAles sells a \"hard cola\" that is amalt beveragewithkolaand other natural flavors and caramel color added.Jack Daniel'sandMiller Brewingalso introduced a hard cola, \"Black Jack Cola\".Henry's Hard Sodaintroduced a hardcherry cola. Tonic Atonic cocktailis a cocktail that containstonic syruportonic water. Tonic water is usually combined",
"is usually combined withginfor agin and tonic, ormixed with vodka. However, it can also be used in cocktails withcognac,cynar,Lillet BlancorLillet Rosé,rum,tequila, orwhite port. See also References External links"
] |
What was the earliest known media use of the theme song used by the show The Last Leg? | 2007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Leg | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harder_Than_You_Think | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fully_Flared | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Leg', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harder_Than_You_Think', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fully_Flared'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Leg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harder_Than_You_Think",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fully_Flared"
] | [
"The Last Leg The Last Leg(known during its first series asThe Last Leg with Adam Hillsand in Australia asAdam Hills: The Last Leg) is a British late-night televisionhumoroustalk/sketch show that originally ran alongside the2012 Summer Paralympicsevery night following the main coverage onChannel 4. Anchored by Australian comedianAdam Hillsand co-hosted byJosh WiddicombeandAlex Brooker,it gives a review of the week's events. Featuring a mix of comedy, guests and Paralympics highlights, the show received strong reviews and regularly pulled in more than a million viewers each night of the Paralympic Games.It has since become a weekly show giving a humorous alternative look back at the week's events. Outside of the UK, the show is broadcast in Hills' native Australia by theABC, albeit delayed until the Tuesday of the next week and with a different theme tune. Format Overview The Last Legis described by main presenter Adam Hills as \"Three guys with four legs talking about the week\",because Hills was born without a right foot and Brooker had his right leg amputated when he was a baby. The original series, broadcast during the 2012 Paralympics, was a look back at each day's events during the competition, as well as a look at the news that week. Following on from the Paralympics, the series became weekly, and looks at political and other events in the news that week, as well as covering Paralympic matters. The show features guest interviews with Paralympians and celebrities. Originally it was intended to be broadcast onMore4at midnight and was intended to feature Hills alone, hence the original title. However, after a run-through, Channel 4 saw more potential and put the show on at 10 pm every day. During the pilot, which saw Hills alone as presenter and Widdicombe and Brooker merely as guests, producers decided to keep Brooker and Widdicombe as recurring co-presenters. The series is broadcastliveand encourages interaction with the viewers at home, holding polls via Twitter usinghashtags. A recurring theme in the show is the use of the hashtag #isitok to highlight questions from Twitter users to be asked in the show. Initially it was for asking questions about disability that people felt awkward asking: the broadening of the show's remit is reflected in the questions asked in this stream. The show originally was broadcast from the Riverside Studios in London. It would later move to the ITV London Studios on London's South Bank. From Series 14 it is now made in StudioTC1at the BBC Studios in Television Centre, West London, which is operated and run by BBC Studioworks,though some 2020 episodes were made at Elstree Studios. In late April 2020 it was announced thatThe Last Legwould be \"Locked Down Under\" during thecoronavirus lockdown. Hills, Widdicombe and Brooker would be hosting the show from their homes inMelbourne, London andHuddersfieldtakingsocial distancingto the extreme and looking at the week's news in a comedic manner. Guests includingMiriam MargolyesandStephen Merchantwere featured using video relay, and each episode ended with a song fromThe Horne Section. The show ran for five episodes from 8 May until 5 June and is available onAll 4after broadcast. The show is currently playing atTelevision Centre, London.The latest series aired in 2024. Recurring segments Recurring segments in the show include rants or attacks by Hills on certain people and organisations, which has since resulted in the coining of Hills' catchphrase: \"Don't be adick!\"Another segment is \"The Last 7 Days\", in which Widdicombe looks at more comic news items that have occurred during the week, and Brooker's various attempts to qualify for the2016 Summer Paralympics. Another is the \"Bullshit Button\", which was first used in a segment in which Brooker interviewed the then-Leader of theLiberal DemocratsNick Cleggto see if Clegg could persuade him to vote in the2015 UK general election. Brooker would press a large red buzzer that played an audio recording of him saying the word \"Bullshit\" if he thought Clegg was lying during the interviews.Since then, the buzzer has been used in various situations whenever the show thinks someone is lying, and additional buzzers during various seasons have been added including phrases like \"A shite in shining armor\" byArmando Ianucciand \"Fuck off\" byBrian Cox. Dick of the Year Since January 2014,The Last Leghas presented a mock prize to the \"Dick of the Year\", awarded for being the biggestdickover the previous year. Nominees are suggested by viewers on Twitter, as well as the hosts. The winner is voted on by the viewers using Twitter with the hashtag #dickoftheyear. In January 2015, journalistKatie Hopkinsreceived the most votes for 2014's \"Dick of the Year\" but Hills and the team making the show decided not to give Hopkins the prize on the grounds that she would enjoy receiving it. Thus, the prize went to the person with the second-highest number of votes,UK Independence PartyleaderNigel Farage. In the 2016 Christmas special, the prize was awarded to whole of the year 2016, defeating Donald Trump, Nigel Farage andDavid Cameron. In 2017, it was announced that the people who have come second and third in the \"Dick of the Year\" voting will be named \"Ballbags of the Year\". The \"Steaming Turd\" award was also created forHarvey Weinstein, who was ruled out of running for the main award on the grounds that it was possible that Weinstein may take \"Dick of the Year\" as a compliment. In 2019, comedy writerGraham Linehanwas the runaway favourite nominee by viewers to be given the award, in light of controversial comments he had made on social media about transgender people.After Linehan expressed interest in winning the award, Hills and the team disqualified him from receiving the award under the precedent set by Hopkins in 2014. Another poll by the show also announced David Cameron as \"Dick of the Decade\". In 2023 it was decided that multiple time nomineeVladimir Putinwould be made a lifetime recipient. In collaboration withYouTubersJosh PietersandArchie Manners,The Last LegpresentedSuella Bravermanwith her Dick of the Year 2023 award in person by inviting Braverman to a fake boat launch in herconstituency. Theme music The theme music is Public Enemy's \"Harder Than You Think\", which became the show's permanent theme after initially serving as the title music to the whole of Channel 4's2012 Summer Paralympicscoverage. Episodes The first and ninth series were broadcast daily at the end of the day's Paralympics coverage onChannel 4. The second series was broadcast each Friday, with the show moving to Wednesday nights for its third series, before reverting to Friday nights for the fourth and fifth series. In October 2012 it was announced that the show would return for a Christmas special titledThe Last Leg of the Yearand a second series, which began broadcasting in January 2013.A third and fourth series followed in July 2013 and January 2014 (timed around the2014 Winter Paralympics) respectively. A fifth series started broadcasting in August 2014, followed by a sixth series in January 2015 and a seventh in June 2015. After the seventh series, a special 2-part series entitledThe Last Leg Goes Down Underwas broadcast on 29 January and 5 February 2016, and preceded the start of series 8 on 12 February.Starting from series 8, the show was given a brand new set. On 25 March 2016, in a parody of theBoaty McBoatface internet poll controversy, the show released the #renametheLastLeg hashtag on Twitter live on the set to allow viewers to choose a new name for the show. The show brought the number of choices down to the four most popular ones and then they released a Twitter poll to change the name of the programme for next week's final episode of the series. The poll received a total of 3,731 votes with the highest scoring programme name being \"Your Mum\" with a 30% vote.The last episode of the series aired on 1 April 2016 and was calledYour Mum. During one2016 Summer Paralympicsepisode on 14 September 2016, host Adam Hills announced that the show was to be renamed again, this time in Paralympic athleteLibby Clegg's honour. The remainder of that show was calledThe Fast Clegg. The show aired a two-hour special entitledRe-United Kingdomdedicated to MPJo Coxon 16 June 2017 (the anniversary ofher death). Featuring dozens of comedians and politicians, the show aimed to inspire the public to resolve animosity between people they had fallen out with. Politicians appeared in pre-recorded skits where they were stuck in aliftwith another politician they disliked, and found common ground; some members of the public who had resolved arguments with each other were shown in a hot tub together. Following the passing of Queen Elizabeth II on Thursday 8 September 2022, it was announced that there would be no new episode that Friday. This was not due to any regulations, but was rather a choice made by those involved with the show, with Adam Hills breaking the news on Twitter: \"It just doesn’t feel right\".The show the next week was a tribute to Her Majesty, without the typical broad coverage of the week's news. Reception Adam Hills was quoted as saying \"If the Paralympics is covered well, it can change the wayJim Davidsonlooks at and treats people with disabilities\".The Daily MirrordescribedThe Last Legas \"a real success\".Veteran TV pundit, the lateClive Jamessaid: \"Taken as a whole, the Channel 4 coverage of the Paralympics was very good, but almost the best part of it was The Last Leg, the discussion show at the end of each day\". The programme provoked a discussion in the media about whether disability and comedy could work together on TV.The Independentdescribed it as \"a high risk venture\" saying that Hills \"reminds us frequently that he has a prosthetic leg, giving him licence to crack jokes that most of us wouldn't dream of.\"Frances Ryan, forThe Guardian, described it as \"often tasteless, sometimes awkward, always funny\".Damon Rose forBBC Newssaid that \"Comedian Adam Hills' late night irreverent Para-chat show The Last Leg – a title reflecting Adam's lack of a segment of his lower limb – has taken mainstream viewers to dark and delightfully surprising places that only disability humour can go. And it has given a sense of permission for regular viewers to talk openly about things they may previously have shied away from\". Brooker's 2015 interview withNick Cleggfor the programme was described by political journalistHugo Rifkindas \"a model of how to talk normally to a politician – and make them talk normally back\". Awards and nominations Footnotes References External links",
"Harder Than You Think \"Harder Than You Think\" is the first single fromPublic Enemy's 20th anniversary albumHow You Sell Soul to a Soulless People Who Sold Their Soul?released in 2007. It was produced byGary G-Wiz. The song attained popularity during late summer 2007, and became Public Enemy's highest-charting single on theUK Singles Chartin August 2012. The track borrows fromShirley Bassey's 1972 track \"Jezahel\",a cover of the song \"Jesahel\" by the Italian prog rock bandDelirium. On November 25, 2023, the authors of ''Jesahel'' (Ivano FossatiandOscar Prudente) together withUniversal Music Groupsued Public Enemy for plagiarism, since Fossati and Prudente are not recognized as co-authors of \"Harder Than You Think\" Music video The music video was directed by David C. Snyder, and was uploaded unofficially ontoYouTubeon August 3, 2007. Following the use of \"Harder Than You Think\" to soundtrack the UK'sChannel 4coverage of theSummer 2012 Paralympics, a music video including clips from the Channel 4 trailer for the Summer 2012 Paralympics was produced by HWIC Filmworks (founded by John Delserone and David C. Snyder, who directed the original video). A version of the video was also produced for the Dehasse Radio Edit, a dance version of the track remixed for the 2012 re-emergence of the track in the UK charts. Use in media The song was featured inEric Koston's segment in the 2007 skateboarding video \"Fully Flared\". The song and its beat were used byESPNfor the2011 Big East men's basketball tournament. The song is also featured on the soundtrack of the video gameSkate 2. The song was later featured heavily in a Fall K-Mart ad as of September 2011. It is also one of the lead songs in the commercials forESPN's broadcasting of theWinter X Games. The song featured prominently towards the end of the BBC Four 2011 documentary \"Public Enemy: Prophets Of Rage\" which was screened as the fourth episode of the channel's \"Black Music Legends Of The 1980s\" series. It also appeared in the trailer for the 2012 filmSomething from Nothing: The Art of Rapand was also the only track to feature onits soundtrack albumwhich did not appear in the actual film. The song is also featured at the opening of the 2012 filmEnd of Watch. In 2021 it's been used in the NBA commercial about Martin Luther King, Jr Day called \"We Must Learn\". It is also featured in The Redeem Team documentary film released by Netflix in 2022. The song is also featured in the 6th episode ofSuccession's fourth seasonas Kendall walks out to make a speech.In 2023, the song is featured again in the biographical filmGran Turismoduring the film's final race in the24 Hours of Le Mans. Paralympics In the United Kingdom, it was used as the soundtrack in both the 90-second long trailerand as the theme tune toChannel 4's coverage of the2012 Summer Paralympics.The song subsequently experienced a surge in sales, peaking at number 4 and thereby becoming Public Enemy's first Top 10 single in the UK and their highest-charting single ever in the nation. A review forThe Independentsaid of its re-release in the UK: \"Following its prominent use in Channel 4's Paralympics coverage, great lost 2007 single 'Harder Than You Think' had a sales surge that carried it into the UK Top Five, giving the band their biggest hit to date. It'd be a thrilling piece of work in any era, Chuck delivering a typically apocalyptic call to arms over a backing track which uses a horn sample from Shirley Bassey's 'Jezahel', but to hear it blasting from the radio in the second decade of this century is beyond beautiful.\"The song also serves as the theme tune to the British TV showThe Last Leg, which was originally a show that ran alongside the 2012 Paralympics, but later spun off as an independent show. The song was also used as the theme tune to Channel 4's coverage of the2014 Winter ParalympicsinSochi, Russia; the2016 Summer ParalympicsinRio de Janeiro, Brazil; the2018 Winter ParalympicsinPyeongchang, South Koreaand a re-recorded version was used the2020 Summer ParalympicsinTokyo, Japan, the 2022 Winter Paralympics in Beijing, China, and the 2024 Summer Paralympics in Paris, France. Track listing Chart performance Certifications ‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history References External links",
"Fully Flared Fully Flaredis astreet skateboardingvideo by theLakai footwearcompany, featuring video parts from its team riders. The film is directed by Ty Evans,Spike Jonze, and Cory Weincheque. In 2007, it won \"Best Video of the Year\" at theTransworld SkateboardingAwards, whileGuy Marianowon both the \"Best Street\" and \"Best Video Part\" awards at the same event. It was one of the first skateboarding videos to use high-definition cameras. The film has become a skateboarding culture icon as the apex of professional skateboarding. Introduction feature The introduction features the skateboarders performing tricks in a vacant urban space, consisting of obstacles, blocks, and stair sets, while explosions occur.Presented in slow motion, the introduction feature is accompanied by a soundtrack from electronic music group,M83. Originally, Evans, Jonze, and Howard played with different ideas that were significantly more dangerous than what was eventually featured. The introduction was eventually filmed three weeks prior to the premiere. Production Overall the film took about four years to make. Some team members have a considerable amount of leftover footage, and plan to use it for other videos.Most of the video was filmed withSony DCR-VX1000cameras. ThePanasonic HVX200(to which Ty Evans gained access, towards the end of filming)high-definitioncamera was used for second angles. Filming The main group filming was Aaron Meza and Chris Ray. In Europe, an Italian filmer named Federico Vitetta - who had been living with Oliver Barton in Spain for a year - took on the role. Then was conceptual help from Rick Howard and Spike Jonze. Finally, Johannes Gamble helped with all the effects work. Release The video's release was postponed for about two years, mainly due to important team additions. References External links"
] | [
"The Last Leg The Last Leg(known during its first series asThe Last Leg with Adam Hillsand in Australia asAdam Hills: The Last Leg) is a British late-night televisionhumoroustalk/sketch show that originally ran alongside the2012 Summer Paralympicsevery night following the main coverage onChannel 4. Anchored by Australian comedianAdam Hillsand co-hosted byJosh WiddicombeandAlex Brooker,it gives a review of the week's events. Featuring a mix of comedy, guests and Paralympics highlights, the show received strong reviews and regularly pulled in more than a million viewers each night of the Paralympic Games.It has since become a weekly show giving a humorous alternative look back at the week's events. Outside of the UK, the show is broadcast in Hills' native Australia by theABC, albeit delayed until the Tuesday of the next week and with a different theme tune. Format Overview The Last Legis described by main presenter Adam Hills as \"Three guys with four legs talking about the week\",because Hills was born without a",
"was born without a right foot and Brooker had his right leg amputated when he was a baby. The original series, broadcast during the 2012 Paralympics, was a look back at each day's events during the competition, as well as a look at the news that week. Following on from the Paralympics, the series became weekly, and looks at political and other events in the news that week, as well as covering Paralympic matters. The show features guest interviews with Paralympians and celebrities. Originally it was intended to be broadcast onMore4at midnight and was intended to feature Hills alone, hence the original title. However, after a run-through, Channel 4 saw more potential and put the show on at 10 pm every day. During the pilot, which saw Hills alone as presenter and Widdicombe and Brooker merely as guests, producers decided to keep Brooker and Widdicombe as recurring co-presenters. The series is broadcastliveand encourages interaction with the viewers at home, holding polls via Twitter usinghashtags. A recurring",
"A recurring theme in the show is the use of the hashtag #isitok to highlight questions from Twitter users to be asked in the show. Initially it was for asking questions about disability that people felt awkward asking: the broadening of the show's remit is reflected in the questions asked in this stream. The show originally was broadcast from the Riverside Studios in London. It would later move to the ITV London Studios on London's South Bank. From Series 14 it is now made in StudioTC1at the BBC Studios in Television Centre, West London, which is operated and run by BBC Studioworks,though some 2020 episodes were made at Elstree Studios. In late April 2020 it was announced thatThe Last Legwould be \"Locked Down Under\" during thecoronavirus lockdown. Hills, Widdicombe and Brooker would be hosting the show from their homes inMelbourne, London andHuddersfieldtakingsocial distancingto the extreme and looking at the week's news in a comedic manner. Guests includingMiriam MargolyesandStephen Merchantwere featured",
"featured using video relay, and each episode ended with a song fromThe Horne Section. The show ran for five episodes from 8 May until 5 June and is available onAll 4after broadcast. The show is currently playing atTelevision Centre, London.The latest series aired in 2024. Recurring segments Recurring segments in the show include rants or attacks by Hills on certain people and organisations, which has since resulted in the coining of Hills' catchphrase: \"Don't be adick!\"Another segment is \"The Last 7 Days\", in which Widdicombe looks at more comic news items that have occurred during the week, and Brooker's various attempts to qualify for the2016 Summer Paralympics. Another is the \"Bullshit Button\", which was first used in a segment in which Brooker interviewed the then-Leader of theLiberal DemocratsNick Cleggto see if Clegg could persuade him to vote in the2015 UK general election. Brooker would press a large red buzzer that played an audio recording of him saying the word \"Bullshit\" if he thought Clegg was",
"thought Clegg was lying during the interviews.Since then, the buzzer has been used in various situations whenever the show thinks someone is lying, and additional buzzers during various seasons have been added including phrases like \"A shite in shining armor\" byArmando Ianucciand \"Fuck off\" byBrian Cox. Dick of the Year Since January 2014,The Last Leghas presented a mock prize to the \"Dick of the Year\", awarded for being the biggestdickover the previous year. Nominees are suggested by viewers on Twitter, as well as the hosts. The winner is voted on by the viewers using Twitter with the hashtag #dickoftheyear. In January 2015, journalistKatie Hopkinsreceived the most votes for 2014's \"Dick of the Year\" but Hills and the team making the show decided not to give Hopkins the prize on the grounds that she would enjoy receiving it. Thus, the prize went to the person with the second-highest number of votes,UK Independence PartyleaderNigel Farage. In the 2016 Christmas special, the prize was awarded to whole of the",
"to whole of the year 2016, defeating Donald Trump, Nigel Farage andDavid Cameron. In 2017, it was announced that the people who have come second and third in the \"Dick of the Year\" voting will be named \"Ballbags of the Year\". The \"Steaming Turd\" award was also created forHarvey Weinstein, who was ruled out of running for the main award on the grounds that it was possible that Weinstein may take \"Dick of the Year\" as a compliment. In 2019, comedy writerGraham Linehanwas the runaway favourite nominee by viewers to be given the award, in light of controversial comments he had made on social media about transgender people.After Linehan expressed interest in winning the award, Hills and the team disqualified him from receiving the award under the precedent set by Hopkins in 2014. Another poll by the show also announced David Cameron as \"Dick of the Decade\". In 2023 it was decided that multiple time nomineeVladimir Putinwould be made a lifetime recipient. In collaboration withYouTubersJosh PietersandArchie",
"PietersandArchie Manners,The Last LegpresentedSuella Bravermanwith her Dick of the Year 2023 award in person by inviting Braverman to a fake boat launch in herconstituency. Theme music The theme music is Public Enemy's \"Harder Than You Think\", which became the show's permanent theme after initially serving as the title music to the whole of Channel 4's2012 Summer Paralympicscoverage. Episodes The first and ninth series were broadcast daily at the end of the day's Paralympics coverage onChannel 4. The second series was broadcast each Friday, with the show moving to Wednesday nights for its third series, before reverting to Friday nights for the fourth and fifth series. In October 2012 it was announced that the show would return for a Christmas special titledThe Last Leg of the Yearand a second series, which began broadcasting in January 2013.A third and fourth series followed in July 2013 and January 2014 (timed around the2014 Winter Paralympics) respectively. A fifth series started broadcasting in August",
"in August 2014, followed by a sixth series in January 2015 and a seventh in June 2015. After the seventh series, a special 2-part series entitledThe Last Leg Goes Down Underwas broadcast on 29 January and 5 February 2016, and preceded the start of series 8 on 12 February.Starting from series 8, the show was given a brand new set. On 25 March 2016, in a parody of theBoaty McBoatface internet poll controversy, the show released the #renametheLastLeg hashtag on Twitter live on the set to allow viewers to choose a new name for the show. The show brought the number of choices down to the four most popular ones and then they released a Twitter poll to change the name of the programme for next week's final episode of the series. The poll received a total of 3,731 votes with the highest scoring programme name being \"Your Mum\" with a 30% vote.The last episode of the series aired on 1 April 2016 and was calledYour Mum. During one2016 Summer Paralympicsepisode on 14 September 2016, host Adam Hills announced that the",
"announced that the show was to be renamed again, this time in Paralympic athleteLibby Clegg's honour. The remainder of that show was calledThe Fast Clegg. The show aired a two-hour special entitledRe-United Kingdomdedicated to MPJo Coxon 16 June 2017 (the anniversary ofher death). Featuring dozens of comedians and politicians, the show aimed to inspire the public to resolve animosity between people they had fallen out with. Politicians appeared in pre-recorded skits where they were stuck in aliftwith another politician they disliked, and found common ground; some members of the public who had resolved arguments with each other were shown in a hot tub together. Following the passing of Queen Elizabeth II on Thursday 8 September 2022, it was announced that there would be no new episode that Friday. This was not due to any regulations, but was rather a choice made by those involved with the show, with Adam Hills breaking the news on Twitter: \"It just doesn’t feel right\".The show the next week was a tribute to",
"was a tribute to Her Majesty, without the typical broad coverage of the week's news. Reception Adam Hills was quoted as saying \"If the Paralympics is covered well, it can change the wayJim Davidsonlooks at and treats people with disabilities\".The Daily MirrordescribedThe Last Legas \"a real success\".Veteran TV pundit, the lateClive Jamessaid: \"Taken as a whole, the Channel 4 coverage of the Paralympics was very good, but almost the best part of it was The Last Leg, the discussion show at the end of each day\". The programme provoked a discussion in the media about whether disability and comedy could work together on TV.The Independentdescribed it as \"a high risk venture\" saying that Hills \"reminds us frequently that he has a prosthetic leg, giving him licence to crack jokes that most of us wouldn't dream of.\"Frances Ryan, forThe Guardian, described it as \"often tasteless, sometimes awkward, always funny\".Damon Rose forBBC Newssaid that \"Comedian Adam Hills' late night irreverent Para-chat show The Last Leg – a",
"The Last Leg – a title reflecting Adam's lack of a segment of his lower limb – has taken mainstream viewers to dark and delightfully surprising places that only disability humour can go. And it has given a sense of permission for regular viewers to talk openly about things they may previously have shied away from\". Brooker's 2015 interview withNick Cleggfor the programme was described by political journalistHugo Rifkindas \"a model of how to talk normally to a politician – and make them talk normally back\". Awards and nominations Footnotes References External links",
"Harder Than You Think \"Harder Than You Think\" is the first single fromPublic Enemy's 20th anniversary albumHow You Sell Soul to a Soulless People Who Sold Their Soul?released in 2007. It was produced byGary G-Wiz. The song attained popularity during late summer 2007, and became Public Enemy's highest-charting single on theUK Singles Chartin August 2012. The track borrows fromShirley Bassey's 1972 track \"Jezahel\",a cover of the song \"Jesahel\" by the Italian prog rock bandDelirium. On November 25, 2023, the authors of ''Jesahel'' (Ivano FossatiandOscar Prudente) together withUniversal Music Groupsued Public Enemy for plagiarism, since Fossati and Prudente are not recognized as co-authors of \"Harder Than You Think\" Music video The music video was directed by David C. Snyder, and was uploaded unofficially ontoYouTubeon August 3, 2007. Following the use of \"Harder Than You Think\" to soundtrack the UK'sChannel 4coverage of theSummer 2012 Paralympics, a music video including clips from the Channel 4 trailer for the",
"4 trailer for the Summer 2012 Paralympics was produced by HWIC Filmworks (founded by John Delserone and David C. Snyder, who directed the original video). A version of the video was also produced for the Dehasse Radio Edit, a dance version of the track remixed for the 2012 re-emergence of the track in the UK charts. Use in media The song was featured inEric Koston's segment in the 2007 skateboarding video \"Fully Flared\". The song and its beat were used byESPNfor the2011 Big East men's basketball tournament. The song is also featured on the soundtrack of the video gameSkate 2. The song was later featured heavily in a Fall K-Mart ad as of September 2011. It is also one of the lead songs in the commercials forESPN's broadcasting of theWinter X Games. The song featured prominently towards the end of the BBC Four 2011 documentary \"Public Enemy: Prophets Of Rage\" which was screened as the fourth episode of the channel's \"Black Music Legends Of The 1980s\" series. It also appeared in the trailer for the 2012",
"for the 2012 filmSomething from Nothing: The Art of Rapand was also the only track to feature onits soundtrack albumwhich did not appear in the actual film. The song is also featured at the opening of the 2012 filmEnd of Watch. In 2021 it's been used in the NBA commercial about Martin Luther King, Jr Day called \"We Must Learn\". It is also featured in The Redeem Team documentary film released by Netflix in 2022. The song is also featured in the 6th episode ofSuccession's fourth seasonas Kendall walks out to make a speech.In 2023, the song is featured again in the biographical filmGran Turismoduring the film's final race in the24 Hours of Le Mans. Paralympics In the United Kingdom, it was used as the soundtrack in both the 90-second long trailerand as the theme tune toChannel 4's coverage of the2012 Summer Paralympics.The song subsequently experienced a surge in sales, peaking at number 4 and thereby becoming Public Enemy's first Top 10 single in the UK and their highest-charting single ever in the nation. A",
"in the nation. A review forThe Independentsaid of its re-release in the UK: \"Following its prominent use in Channel 4's Paralympics coverage, great lost 2007 single 'Harder Than You Think' had a sales surge that carried it into the UK Top Five, giving the band their biggest hit to date. It'd be a thrilling piece of work in any era, Chuck delivering a typically apocalyptic call to arms over a backing track which uses a horn sample from Shirley Bassey's 'Jezahel', but to hear it blasting from the radio in the second decade of this century is beyond beautiful.\"The song also serves as the theme tune to the British TV showThe Last Leg, which was originally a show that ran alongside the 2012 Paralympics, but later spun off as an independent show. The song was also used as the theme tune to Channel 4's coverage of the2014 Winter ParalympicsinSochi, Russia; the2016 Summer ParalympicsinRio de Janeiro, Brazil; the2018 Winter ParalympicsinPyeongchang, South Koreaand a re-recorded version was used the2020 Summer",
"used the2020 Summer ParalympicsinTokyo, Japan, the 2022 Winter Paralympics in Beijing, China, and the 2024 Summer Paralympics in Paris, France. Track listing Chart performance Certifications ‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history References External links",
"Fully Flared Fully Flaredis astreet skateboardingvideo by theLakai footwearcompany, featuring video parts from its team riders. The film is directed by Ty Evans,Spike Jonze, and Cory Weincheque. In 2007, it won \"Best Video of the Year\" at theTransworld SkateboardingAwards, whileGuy Marianowon both the \"Best Street\" and \"Best Video Part\" awards at the same event. It was one of the first skateboarding videos to use high-definition cameras. The film has become a skateboarding culture icon as the apex of professional skateboarding. Introduction feature The introduction features the skateboarders performing tricks in a vacant urban space, consisting of obstacles, blocks, and stair sets, while explosions occur.Presented in slow motion, the introduction feature is accompanied by a soundtrack from electronic music group,M83. Originally, Evans, Jonze, and Howard played with different ideas that were significantly more dangerous than what was eventually featured. The introduction was eventually filmed three weeks prior",
"three weeks prior to the premiere. Production Overall the film took about four years to make. Some team members have a considerable amount of leftover footage, and plan to use it for other videos.Most of the video was filmed withSony DCR-VX1000cameras. ThePanasonic HVX200(to which Ty Evans gained access, towards the end of filming)high-definitioncamera was used for second angles. Filming The main group filming was Aaron Meza and Chris Ray. In Europe, an Italian filmer named Federico Vitetta - who had been living with Oliver Barton in Spain for a year - took on the role. Then was conceptual help from Rick Howard and Spike Jonze. Finally, Johannes Gamble helped with all the effects work. Release The video's release was postponed for about two years, mainly due to important team additions. References External links"
] |
In the town where the most successful American Ace of World War 2 to survive that war was born, there is a college. What was the name and percentage of the largest demographic of full and part time students attending that college in 2020? | Black/African American, 80%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_aces_from_the_United_States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McCampbell | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer,_Alabama | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawson_State_Community_College | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_aces_from_the_United_States', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McCampbell', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer,_Alabama', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawson_State_Community_College'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_aces_from_the_United_States",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McCampbell",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer,_Alabama",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawson_State_Community_College"
] | [
"List of World War II aces from the United States This is a list offighter acesinWorld War IIfromUnited States. For other countries seeList of World War II flying aces by country Notes Abbreviations Awards References Further reading",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/David_McCampbell (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93a32770>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Bessemer,_Alabama (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b931ccd30>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Lawson_State_Community_College (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b931cd570>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"
] | [
"List of World War II aces from the United States This is a list offighter acesinWorld War IIfromUnited States. For other countries seeList of World War II flying aces by country Notes Abbreviations Awards References Further reading",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/David_McCampbell (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93a32770>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Bessemer,_Alabama (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b931ccd30>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Lawson_State_Community_College (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b931cd570>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"
] |
How much bigger was Ford Motor Company's market share of US Sales the year Matthew McConaughey won his first MTV Movie Award than the year Zac Efron won his? | 10.30% | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company#Sales_numbers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Matthew_McConaughey | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zac_Efron#Awards_and_nominations | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company#Sales_numbers', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Matthew_McConaughey', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zac_Efron#Awards_and_nominations'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company#Sales_numbers",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Matthew_McConaughey",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zac_Efron#Awards_and_nominations"
] | [
"Ford Motor Company Ford Motor Company(commonly known asFord) is an Americanmultinationalautomobile manufacturer headquartered inDearborn, Michigan, United States. It was founded byHenry Fordand incorporated on June 16, 1903. The company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under theFordbrand, and luxury cars under itsLincolnbrand. The company is listed on theNew York Stock Exchangeand is controlled by theFord family. They have minority ownership but a plurality of the voting power. Ford introduced methods for large-scale manufacturing of cars and large-scale management of an industrial workforce using elaborately engineered manufacturing sequences typified by movingassembly lines. By 1914, these methods were known around the world asFordism. Ford's former UK subsidiariesJaguarandLand Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000, respectively, were sold to the Indian automakerTata Motorsin March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automakerVolvofrom 1999 to 2010.In the third quarter of 2010, Ford discontinued theMercurybrand, under which it had marketed upscale cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938. Ford is the second-largest U.S.-based automaker, behindGeneral Motors, and thesixth-largest in the world, behindToyota,Volkswagen Group,Hyundai Motor Group,Stellantis, and General Motors, based on 2022 vehicle production.At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth-largest automaker in Europe.The company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through specialClass B shares, retain 40 percent of the voting rights.During the2008–2010 automotive industry crisis, the company struggled financially but did not have to be rescued by the federal government, unlike the other two major US automakers.Ford Motors has since returned to profitability,and was the eleventh-ranked overall American-based company in the 2018Fortune 500list, based on global revenues in 2017 of $156.7 billion.In 2023, Ford produced 4.4 million automobiles, and employed about 177,000 employees worldwide. The company operates joint ventures in China (Changan Ford), Taiwan (Ford Lio Ho), Thailand (AutoAlliance Thailand), and Turkey (Ford Otosan). Ford owns a 32% stake in China'sJiangling Motors. History 20th century TheHenry Ford Companywas Henry Ford's first attempt at a car manufacturing company and was established on November 3, 1901. This became theCadillac Motor Companyon August 22, 1902, after Ford left with the rights to his name.In 1903, the Ford Motor Company was launched in a converted factory, with $28,000, equivalent to $950,000 in 2023, in cash from twelve investors, most notablyJohnandHorace Dodge, who later founded theDodge Brothers Motor Vehicle Company. The first president was not Ford, but local bankerJohn S. Gray, who was chosen in order to assuage investors' fears that Ford would leave the new company the way he had left its predecessor. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day atits factory on Mack Avenueand later at itsfactory on Piquette AvenueinDetroit,Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on each car, assembling it from parts made mostly by supplier companies contracting for Ford. Within a decade the company led the world in the expansion and refinement of theassembly lineconcept, and Ford soon brought much of the part production in-house, viavertical integration. Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company, which became one of the world's largest and most profitable companies. It has been in continuous family control for over 100 years, and is one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world. The first gasoline-poweredautomobilewas created in 1885 by theGermaninventorKarl Benz, with hisBenz Patent-Motorwagen. More efficient production methods were needed to make automobiles affordable formiddle classpeople. To which Ford contributed by, for instance, introducing the first movingassembly linein 1913 at the Fordfactory in Highland Park. Between 1903 and 1908, Ford produced the ModelsA, B, C, F, K, N, R, and S. Hundreds or a few thousand of most of these were sold per year. In 1908, Ford introduced the mass-producedModel T, which totaled millions sold over nearly 20 years. In 1927, Ford replaced the T with theModel A, the first car with safety glass in the windshield.Ford launched thefirst low-priced car with a V8engine in 1932. In an attempt to compete with General Motors' mid-priced Pontiac, Oldsmobile, and Buick, Ford created the Mercury in 1939 as a higher-priced companion car to Ford. Henry Ford purchased the Lincoln Motor Company in 1922,in order to compete with such brands as Cadillac and Packard for the luxury segment of the automobile market. In 1929, Ford was contracted by the government of theSoviet Unionto set up theGorky Automobile Plantin Russia initially producing Ford Model A and AAs, thereby playing an important role in theindustrializationof that country and consequently the Soviet war effort duringWorld War II.To that end, in 1944, Stalin wrote a letter to theU.S. Chamber of Commercestating that Henry Ford was \"one of the world's greatest industrialists\". During World War II, theUnited States Department of Warpicked Ford to mass-produce theConsolidated B-24 Liberatorbomber at its Willow Run assembly plant.Ford WerkeandFord SAF, Ford's subsidiaries in Germany and France, respectively, produced military vehicles and other equipment forNazi Germany'swar effort. Some of Ford's operations in Germany at the time were runusing forced labor. The creation of a scientific laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan, in 1951, doing unfettered basic research, led to Ford's involvement insuperconductivityresearch. In 1964, Ford Research Labs made a key breakthrough with the invention of a superconducting quantum interference device orSQUID. Ford offeredthe Lifeguard safety package from 1956, which included such innovations as a standard deep-dish steering wheel, optional front, and, for the first time in a car, rear seatbelts, and an optional padded dash.Ford introduced child-proof door locks into its products in 1957, and, in the same year, offered the first retractable hardtop on a mass-produced six-seater car. In late 1955, Ford established the Continental division as a separate luxury car division. This division was responsible for the manufacture and sale of the famousContinental Mark II. At the same time, theEdseldivision was created to design and market that car starting with the 1958 model year. Due to limited sales of the Continental and the Edsel disaster, Ford merged Mercury, Edsel, and Lincoln into \"M-E-L,\" which reverted to \"Lincoln-Mercury\" after Edsel's November 1959 demise. TheFord Mustangwas introduced on April 17, 1964, during the1964 New York World's Fair, where Ford had a pavilion made byThe Walt Disney Company.In 1965, Ford introduced the seat belt reminder light. With the 1980s, Ford introduced several highly successful vehicles around the world. During the 1980s, Ford began using the advertising slogan, \"Have you driven a Ford, lately?\" to introduce new customers to their brand and make their vehicles appear more modern. In 1990 and 1994, respectively, Ford also acquiredJaguar CarsandAston Martin.During the mid-to-late 1990s, Ford continued to sell large numbers of vehicles, in a boomingAmericaneconomy with a soaring stock market and low fuel prices. With the dawn of the new century, legacyhealth care costs, higher fuel prices, and a faltering economy led to falling market shares, declining sales, and diminished profit margins. Most of the corporate profits came from financing consumer automobile loans throughFord Motor Credit Company. 21st century By 2005, both Ford andGM's corporate bonds had been downgraded to junk statusas a result of high U.S. health care costs for anaging workforce, soaring gasoline prices, eroding market share, and an overdependence on decliningSUVsales. Profit margins decreased on large vehicles due to increased \"incentives\" (in the form of rebates or low-interest financing) to offset declining demand.In the latter half of 2005, Chairman Bill Ford asked newly appointed Ford Americas Division PresidentMark Fieldsto develop a plan to return the company to profitability. Fields previewed the plan, namedThe Way Forward, at the board meeting of the company on December 7, 2005, and it was unveiled to the public on January 23, 2006. \"The Way Forward\" included resizing the company to match market realities, dropping some unprofitable and inefficient models, consolidating production lines, closing 14 factories and cutting 30,000 jobs. Ford moved to introduce a range of new vehicles, including \"Crossover SUVs\" built onunibodycar platforms, rather than morebody-on-framechassis. In developing the hybrid electric powertrain technologies for theFord Escape HybridSUV, the company licensed similar Toyota hybrid technologiesin order to avoid patent infringements.Ford announced that it would team up with electricity supply companySouthern California Edison(SCE) to examine the future ofplug-in hybridsin terms of how home and vehicle energy systems will work with the electrical grid. Under the multimillion-dollar, multi-year project, Ford is to convert a demonstration fleet ofFord Escape Hybridsinto plug-in hybrids, and SCE is to evaluate how the vehicles might interact with the home and the utility's electrical grid. Some of the vehicles are to be evaluated \"in typical customer settings\", according to Ford. William Clay Ford Jr., great-grandson of Henry Ford (and better known by his nickname \"Bill\"), was appointed executive chairman in 1998, and also became chief executive officer of the company in 2001, with the departure ofJacques Nasser, becoming the first member of the Ford family to head the company since the retirement of his uncle,Henry Ford II, in 1982. Ford sold motorsport engineering companyCosworthtoGerald ForsytheandKevin Kalkhovenin 2004, the start of a decrease in Ford's motorsport involvement. Upon the retirement of president and chief operations officer Jim Padilla in April 2006, Bill Ford assumed his roles as well. Five months later, in September, Ford namedAlan Mulallyas president and CEO, with Ford continuing as executive chairman. In December 2006, the company raised its borrowing capacity to about $25 billion, placing substantially all corporate assets as collateral.Chairman Bill Ford has stated that \"bankruptcy is not an option\".Ford and theUnited Auto Workers, representing approximately 46,000 hourly workers in North America, agreed to a historic contract settlement in November 2007 giving the company a substantial break in terms of its ongoing retiree health care costs and other economic issues. The agreement included the establishment of a company-funded, independently runVoluntary Employee Beneficiary Association(VEBA) trust to shift the burden of retiree health care from the company's books, thereby improving its balance sheet. This arrangement took effect on January 1, 2010. As a sign of its currently strong cash position, Ford contributed its entire current liability (estimated atUS$5.5 billionas of December 31, 2009) to the VEBA in cash, and also pre-paidUS$500 millionof its future liabilities to the fund. The agreement also gave hourly workers the job security they were seeking by having the company commit to substantial investments in most of its factories. The automaker reported the largest annual loss in company history in 2006 of $12.7 billion,and estimated that it would not return to profitability until 2009.However, Ford surprisedWall Streetin the second quarter of 2007 by posting a $750 million profit. Despite the gains, the company finished the year with a $2.7 billion loss, largely attributed to finance restructuring atVolvo.On June 2, 2008, Ford sold its Jaguar and Land Rover operations toTata Motorsfor $2.3 billion. During congressional hearings held in November 2008 at Washington D.C., Ford's Alan Mulally stated that \"We at Ford are hopeful that we have enough liquidity. But we also must prepare ourselves for the prospect of further deteriorating economic conditions\". He went on to state that \"The collapse of one of our competitors would have a severe impact on Ford\" and that Ford Motor Company supported both Chrysler and General Motors in their search for government bridge loans during the2008–2010 automotive industry crisis.Together, the three companies presented action plans for the sustainability of the industry. Mulally stated that \"In addition to our plan, we are also here today to request support for the industry. In the near-term, Ford does not require access to a government bridge loan. However, we request a credit line of $9 billion as a critical backstop or safeguard against worsening conditions as we drive transformational change in our company\".GM and Chrysler received government loans and financing throughT.A.R.P.legislation funding provisions. On December 19, the cost ofcredit default swapsto insure the debt of Ford was 68 percent of the sum insured for five years, in addition to annual payments of 5 percent. That meant $6.8 million paid upfront to insure $10 million in debt, in addition to payments of $500,000 per year.In January 2009, Ford reported a $14.6 billion loss in the preceding year, a record for the company. The company retained sufficient liquidity to fund its operations. Through April 2009, Ford's strategy ofdebt-for-equityexchanges erased $9.9 billion in liabilities (28% of its total) in order to leverage its cash position.These actions yielded Ford a $2.7 billion profit in fiscal year 2009, the company's first full-year profit in four years.In 2012, Ford's corporate bonds were upgraded from junk to investment grade again, citing sustainable, lasting improvements. On October 29, 2012, Ford announced the sale of its climate control components business, its last remaining automotive components operation, to Detroit Thermal Systems LLC for an undisclosed price.On November 1, 2012, Ford announced thatCEOAlan Mulally would stay with the company until 2014. Ford also named Mark Fields, its president of operations in the Americas, as its new chief operating officerMulally was paid a compensation of over $174 million in his previous seven years at Ford since 2006. The generous amount has been a sore point for some workers of the company. In April 2016, Ford announced a plan to modernize its Dearborn engineering and headquarters campuses through a ten-year building project. The result would see the number of Ford employees working in these areas doubling, to 24,000. During construction, some 2000 of the employees were relocated out of the campus to a temporary location in a disused section of the local shopping mall.Facilities would also be altered to allow ride-sharing and electric and self-driving vehicles.Estimates of the construction cost were $1.2 billion. On January 3, 2017, FordCEOMark Fields announced that in a \"vote of confidence\" because of the pro-business climate being fostered in part byPresident-electDonald Trump, Ford had canceled plans to invest $1.6 billion in a new plant in Mexico to manufacture theFord Focus; instead, the company would invest $700 million inMichigan, which it planned to use to create 700 new jobs. The Focus would now be manufactured in the existing plant in Mexico. Also in 2017, Ford began development of a new mixed-use urban campus inthe Corktown neighborhood of Detroit, with its purchase, renovation, and occupation of The Factory at Michigan and Rosa Parks. The new site was expected to have a major focus on the development ofautonomous vehicleandelectric vehicletechnology.Ford later began buying up other parcels of land in Corktown including a very high-profile purchase ofMichigan Central Stationwhich is planned to become the hub of their Corktown campus, and the adjacentRoosevelt Warehouse.Ford expects to move 2,500 of its employees, roughly 5 percent of its southeast Michigan workforce, to the campus with space for an additional 2,500 entrepreneurs, technology companies and partners.Bill Ford envisioned the first-floor concourse of the train station to be a public gathering place with retail outlets and restaurants.In February 2017, Ford Motor Co. acquired majority ownership ofArgo AI, a self-driving car startup. In May 2017, Ford announced cuts to its global workforce amid efforts to address the company's declining share price and to improve profits. The company is targeting $3 billion in cost reduction and a nearly 10% reduction in the salaried workforce in Asia and North America to enhance earnings in 2018.Jim Hackett was announced to replace Mark Fields as CEO of Ford Motor. Mr. Hackett most recently oversaw the formation of Ford Smart Mobility, a unit responsible for experimenting with car-sharing programs, self-driving ventures and other programs aimed at helping Ford better compete withUber,Alphabet Inc.and other tech giants looking to edge in on the auto industry. On April 25, 2018, Ford announced that it would discontinue passenger cars in the North American market in the next four years, except for the Mustang, due to declining demand and profitability.The Focus Active, a crossover SUV based on the newly unveiled fourth-generation Focus, was also intended to be marketed in the United States. Due to the vehicle being manufactured in China, Ford later announced that it would not release the Focus Active in the United States, due totariffs imposed by the Trump administration on Chinese exports. In March 2020, the DetroitUnited Auto Workersunion announced that after discussion with the leaders ofGeneral Motors, Ford, andFiat Chrysler Automobiles, the carmakers would partially shut down factories on a \"rotating\" basis to mitigate theCOVID-19 pandemic.On March 24, representatives of Ford announced that production in the US, Canada, and Mexico would not resume on March 30 as originally planned, amid the further coronavirus pandemic spread.In the first quarter of 2020, Ford's sales dropped by 15%, entailing the loss of $2 billion. With the change in the demand for the sport vehicles, on January 6, 2021, Ford reported a sales fall of 9.8% in the fourth quarter, selling 542,749 vehicles, compared to 601,862 in 2019.In April 2021, Ford said that it would provide COVID-19 vaccines for its employees, who were to obtain them at the company; at the beginning the vaccination program would be in southeast Michigan, Missouri and Ohio, but it was to be expanded later on to other locations. In March 2022, Ford announced that it would restructure the company into three separate divisions. Ford Model E is to focus on electric vehicles; Ford Blue is to focus on internal combustion vehicles; and the existing commercial division is to be rebranded as Ford Pro, to focus on vehicle distribution and service.In August 2022, Ford announced it planned layoffs of roughly 3,000 employees and contract workers, confirming earlier reporting. The cuts would mostly affect divisions in the US, Canada, and India, which Jim Farley said would allow the company to prepare for the future of electric, software-heavy vehicles. In February 2023, Ford announced that it was going to cut 3,800 jobs across Europe, with the job cuts mainly focusing on their German and British workforce. Ford will be cutting 2,300 jobs from Germany, 1,300 from the United Kingdom, and an additional 200 jobs in the rest of Europe, according to the head of Ford Germany, Martin Sander. The cuts will mainly be done to the company's engineers.Ford also announced during the year that their electric vehicle business had lost $3 billion before taxes over the past two years and will lose a similar amount in 2023 as the company looks to significantly invest in Electric Technology. The Ford Model E is expected to be profitable by 2026. In April 2023, United Kingdom ministers approved Ford'sBlueCruisetechnology. Because of this assisted driving technology, Ford drivers can now legally take their hands off the wheel on certain roads. Its top speed is 129 km/h (80 mph). BlueCruise uses sensors and cameras to regulate the car's speed and to keep track of speed limits and road signs. It also monitors and keeps a safe distance from other vehicles. It also comes equipped with an eye-tracking system. If the driver stops looking at the road then the car will gradually reduce its speed. This technology will initially be offered in Ford's 2023 model of the electric Mustang Mach-E SUV. According to Thatcham Research, an automotive research company, this model is not a self-driving car. It is classified as a level 2 or partial automation assistance system. This means that technology controls two or more driving aspects but still requires human driver control in cases of emergencies. The driver is still legally responsible for accidents.In August 2024Pennsylvania State Policefiled charges against a driver that killed two men while using BlueCruise. Logo history Corporate affairs Business trends The key trends for the Ford Motor Company are (as of the financial year ending December 31): Executive management Members of the Ford board as of March 2023are:William Clay Ford Jr.(executive chairman),Jim Farley(president and CEO),Kimberly Casiano, Alexandra Ford English (daughter of William Clay Ford Jr.), Henry Ford III (son ofEdsel Ford II), William W. Helman IV,Jon Huntsman Jr.,William E. Kennard, John C. May,Beth E. Mooney,John L. Thornton,John Veihmeyer, Lynn Vojvodich Radakovich, and John S. Weinberg. Jim FarleysucceededJim Hackettas the chief executive officer of the company in August 2020; he previously served as Ford's chief operating officer. Hackett stayed in the company as an advisor until the second quarter of 2021. Ownership Ford is mainly owned by institutional investors, who own around 60% of shares. The largest shareholders in December 2023 were: Ford Philanthropy The Ford Philanthropy, formerly known as the Ford Motor Company Fund (also known as Ford Fund, not affiliated with theFord Foundation), based in Dearborn, Michigan, is the philanthropic arm of the Ford Motor Company.Established in 1949byHenry Ford II,the organization is a nonprofit corporate foundationfinanced by contributions from Ford Motor Company. In 2017, it contributed $63 millionto various causeswith a focus on education, driving safely and community building. The Ford Driving Skills for Life program is a driver safety program aimed at teens that were developed together with the Governors Highway Safety Association and safety experts.The Ford Volunteer Corps allows Ford employees and retirees to sign up for volunteering work on local projects in more than 40 countries.The organization invests $18 million annually in education in the United States and around the world, but accepts applications only from nonprofit organizations registered in the U.S.Education programs and scholarships include Alan Mulally Engineering Scholarship, Ford Blue Oval Scholars Program, Ford College Community Challenge (Ford C3), Ford Driving Dreams Tour, Ford Fund/Detroit Free Press Journalism Scholarship, Ford Next Generation Learning (Ford NGL), Grants to Individuals Program, HBCU Community Challenge, Smithsonian Latino Center Young Ambassadors Program, and William Clay Ford Automotive Design Scholarship. On April 29, 2024, the Ford Fund announced its official name has changed to Ford Philanthropy. Operations Ford has had manufacturingoperationsworldwide, including in the United States, Canada, Mexico, China, India, the United Kingdom, Germany, Turkey, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, and South Africa. Ford also helped the Soviet Union to construct Russian automakerGAZ. North America In May 2010, Ford reported that its sales increased 23% for the month, and that 37% of its sales came from fleet sales.In June 2010, sales to individual customers at dealerships increased 13% while fleet sales rose by 32%.In the first seven months of 2010, fleet sales of Ford for the same period rose 35% to 386,000 units while retail sales increase 19%.Fleet sales account for 39 percent of Chrysler's sales and 31 percent for GM's. Europe At first,Ford in GermanyandFord in Britainbuilt different models from one another until 1965, when theFord Transitand later theFord Escortand theFord Capribecame common to both companies. In 1970, theFord Taunusand theFord Cortinacame into production with a common base construction, both models being produced inleft hand driveandright hand drive. Later on, the models became identical and the respective models right- and left-hand-drive exclusively. Rationalisation of model ranges meant that production of many models in the UK switched to elsewhere in Europe, including Belgium and Spain as well as Germany. TheFord Sierrareplaced the Taunus and Cortina in 1982, drawing criticism for its radical aerodynamic styling, which was soon given nicknames, the \"Jellymould\" and \"The Salesman's Spaceship\". In February 2002, Ford ended car production in the UK. It was the first time in 90 years that Ford cars had not been made in Britain, although production of theTransitvan continued at the company'sSouthamptonfacility until mid-2013, engines atBridgendandDagenham, and transmissions atHalewood. Development of European Ford is broadly split betweenDuntonin Essex (powertrain, Fiesta/Ka, and commercial vehicles) andCologne(body, chassis, electrical, Focus, Mondeo) in Germany. Ford also produced theThamesrange of commercial vehicles, although the use of this brand name was discontinued with the introduction of theFord Transitin 1965. Elsewhere in continental Europe, Ford assembles the Mondeo,Galaxy,S-MaxandKugain Valencia (Spain), Fiesta in Cologne (Germany), Focus inSaarlouis(Germany), EcosportandPumainCraiova(Romania). Ford also owns a joint-venture production plant in Turkey.Ford Otosan, established in the 1970s, manufactures theTransit Connectcompact panel van as well as the \"Jumbo\" and long-wheelbase versions of the full-size Transit. This new production facility was set up nearKocaeliin 2002, and its opening marked the end of Transit assembly in Genk. Another joint venture plant nearSetúbalin Portugal, set up in collaboration withVolkswagen, formerly assembled theGalaxypeople-carrier as well as its sister ships, theVW SharanandSEAT Alhambra. With the introduction of the third generation of the Galaxy, Ford has moved the production of the people-carrier to the Genk plant, with Volkswagen taking over sole ownership of the Setúbal facility. In 2008, Ford acquired a majority stake inAutomobile Craiova, Romania. Starting 2009, theFord Transit Connectwas Ford's first model produced in Craiova, followed, in 2012, by low-capacity car engines and a new small class car, theB-Max.In 2022,Ford Romaniawas acquired by Ford Otosan and in 2023, production of theFord Transit Courier/Tourneo Courierstarted at the facility. Its 1959Angliatwo-door saloon was one of the most quirky-looking small family cars in Europe at the time of its launch, but buyers soon became accustomed to its looks and it was hugely popular with British buyers in particular. It was still selling well when replaced by the more practicalEscortin 1967. The third incarnation of the Ford Escort was launched in 1980 and marked the company's move from rear-wheel-drive saloons to front-wheel-drive hatchbacks in the small family car sector. The fourth-generation Escort was produced from 1990 until 2000, although its successor—theFocus—had been on sale since 1998. On its launch, the Focus was arguably the most dramatic-looking and fine-handling small family cars on sale and sold in huge volumes right up to the launch of the next-generation Focus at the end of 2004. The 1982Ford Sierra—replacement for the long-running and massively popularCortinaandTaunusmodels—was a style-setter at the time of its launch. Its ultramodern aerodynamic design was a world away from a boxy, sharp-edged Cortina, and it was massively popular just about everywhere it was sold. A series of updates kept it looking relatively fresh until it was replaced by the front-wheel-driveMondeoat the start of 1993. The rise in popularity of small cars during the 1970s saw Ford enter the mini-car market in 1976 with itsFiestahatchback. Most of its production was concentrated atValenciain Spain, and the Fiesta sold in huge figures from the very start. An update in 1983 and the launch of an all-new model in 1989 strengthened its position in the small car market. On October 24, 2012, Ford announced that it would close itsGenkassembly plant in eastern Belgium by the end of 2014. In 2015, Ford announced that it took control ofFord Sollers, Ford's joint venture with Russian companySollers. In September 2018, at the IAA Commercial Vehicles show in Hannover, Germany, Ford introduced an electric tractor-trailer concept vehicle dubbed the F-Vision, which would have Level 4 autonomous driving capability. On March 1, 2022, Ford announced that it was suspending itsSollersjoint venture operation in Russia, in response to the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.On October 26, 2022, Ford sold its 49 percent share in the joint venture, and exited the Russian market,adding that it retains the option to buy them back within a 5-year period \"should the global situation change\". East and Southeast Asia Ford formed its first passenger-vehicle joint venture in China in 2001, six years behind GM and more than a decade after VW. It has spent as of 2013$4.9 billion to expand its lineup and double production capacity in China to 600,000 vehicles. This includes Ford's largest-ever factory complex in the southwestern city of Chongqing. Ford had 2.5% of the Chinese market in 2013, while VW controlled 14.5% and GM had 15.6%, according to consultant LMC Automotive. GM outsells Ford in China by more than six-to-one.Ford's presence in Asia has traditionally been much smaller, confined to Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, the Philippines, and Taiwan, where Ford has had a joint venture withLio Hosince the 1970s. Ford began assembly of cars in Thailand in 1960, but withdrew from the country in 1976, and did not return until 1995 when it formed a joint venture withMazdacalled Auto Alliance.Now based in the Bo-win Sub District of the Sriracha District inChonburi, the factory still produces passenger automobiles. The factory, built in 1941 in Singapore, was soon taken over by the Japanese during the war and was the site of a surrender of the British to the Japanese, at thefactory sitewhich is now a national monument in Singapore. On April 30, 2013, Ford Motor Co. launched their car and pickup truck line inMyanmar. Previously, heavy importation taxes had stifled imported car purchases in Myanmar, but due to currency reform, lifting of previous import restrictions, and the abolishment ofshadow currency, Myanmar's car market had grown in demand. South Korea In 1967, Ford partnered with the South Korean companyHyundai, and at the new factory inUlsan, South Korea, built the EuropeanFord Cortinauntil 1974 when Hyundai introduced their all-newHyundai Ponyin 1975. Ford then developed a relationship with Korea's oldest car manufacturerKiawhich built vehicles co-engineered withMazda, later selling theFord Festivafrom 1988 to 1993, and theFord Aspirefrom 1994 to 1997 for export to the United States. With the acquisition of a stake in Japanese manufacturerMazdain 1979, Ford began selling Mazda'sFamiliaandCapellaas theFord LaserandTelstarthroughout the region, replacing the European-sourced Escort and Cortina. From 1989 to 1996, Kia imported theMercury Sablefrom Ford in the U.S. and sold them in South Korea as the Kia Sable. Though the Sable was branded and marketed as a Kia, it retained the Mercury badges and emblem. Ford lost their Kia interest to Hyundai in 1998 after the1997 Asian financial crisis. Kia had declared bankruptcy in 1997; in 1998,Hyundai Motor Companyacquired 51% of the company, outbidding Ford which had owned an interest in Kia Motors since 1986.After subsequent divestments,Hyundai Motor Company owns less than 50% of the company but remains Kia's largest stakeholder. As of 2020, Ford sells the Explorer, Mondeo, and Mustang,as well as the Lincoln Aviator, Continental, Corsair, MKZ, and Nautilus in South Korea. South and West Asia Ford Indiabegan production in 1998 atChennai,Tamil Nadu, with its Ford Escort model, which was later replaced by the locally producedFord Ikonin 2001. It has since added the Fusion, Fiesta, Mondeo and Endeavour models to its product line. On March 9, 2010, Ford launched its first made-for-India compact car. Starting at₹349,900, theFigowas Ford's first car designed and priced for the mass Indian market.On July 28, 2011, Ford India signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the State ofGujaratfor the construction of an assembly and engine plant inSanandand planned to invest approximatelyUS$1 billionon a 460-acre site.In 2019, the company andMahindra & Mahindraformed a joint venture to develop, market and distribute Ford-branded vehicles in India.In September 2021 Ford India announced plans to shut down both its assembly plants. The company said that it intends to maintain its parts and service network. Ford's market presence in the Middle East has traditionally been small, partly due to previous Arab boycotts of companies dealing with Israel. Ford and Lincoln vehicles are currently marketed in ten countries in the region.Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates are the biggest markets. Ford also established itself in Egypt in 1926 but faced an uphill battle during the 1950s due to the hostile nationalist business environment.Ford's distributor in Saudi Arabia announced in February 2003 that it had sold 100,000 Ford and Lincoln vehicles since commencing sales in November 1986. Half of the Ford and Lincoln vehicles sold in that country wereFord Crown Victorias.In 2004, Ford sold 30,000 units in the region, falling far short of General Motors' 88,852 units andNissan Motors' 75,000 units. South America In South America, Ford's primary operations are inBrazil,Argentina, and Ford Andina(Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela). Ford employs over 18,000 people and operates seven assembly or other plants in the region.In 1987, Ford Brasil and Ford Motor Argentina merged their operations with the Brazilian and Argentine operations ofVolkswagen Group, forming a new joint-venture company calledAutolatinawith a shared model range.Autolatina was dissolved in 1995. In early 2021, Ford's Brazil branch announced it would completely cease production in the country over the course of a few months. Africa In Africa, Ford's market presence has traditionally been strongest in South Africa and neighbouring countries, with only trucks being sold elsewhere on the continent. Ford in South Africa began by importing kits from Canada to be assembled at its facility inPort Elizabeth; the company later sourced its models from the UK and Australia, with local versions of the Ford Cortina including the XR6, with a 3.0 V6 engine, and aCortina-based 'bakkie' or pick-up, which was exported to the UK. In the mid-1980s Ford merged with a rival company, owned byAnglo American, to form theSouth African Motor Corporation(Samcor). Following international condemnation ofapartheid, Ford divested from South Africa in 1988, and sold its stake in Samcor, although it licensed the use of its brand name to the company.Samcor began to assemble Mazdas as well, which affected its product line-up and saw the European Fords like the Escort and Sierra replaced by theMazda-based LaserandTelstar.Ford bought a 45 per cent stake inSamcorfollowing the demise of apartheid in 1994, and this later became, once again, a wholly owned subsidiary, the Ford Motor Company of Southern Africa. Ford now sells a local sedan version of the Fiesta (also built in India and Mexico), and the Focus. The Falcon model from Australia was also sold in South Africa, but was dropped in 2003; the Mondeo, after briefly being assembled locally, was dropped in 2005. The Mondeo was later reintroduced in 2015, badged as theFusion, but was dropped in 2017. Research Ford Research and Innovation Center is the name of the technology research facilities of Ford Motor Company in The Ford Research and Innovation Center in Palo Alto was first opened in 2012, and in January 2015, announced plans to significantly expand its operations. Former operations East and Southeast Asia Ford decided to shut down their entire operations inIndonesia, including their dealer network by second half of 2016. Ford of Japan Ford established a manufacturing facility in the port city of Yokohama in February 1925, where Model T vehicles were assembled using importedknock-down kits.The factory subsequently produced 10,000 Model A's up to 1936. Production ceased in 1940 as a result of political tensions between Japan and the United States. After World War II, Ford did not have a presence in Japan, as the Ford facility was appropriated by the Japanese Government until 1958 when property was returned as a possession of the Ford Motor Company and became aresearch and development locationfor Ford partnerMazda. In 1979, Ford acquired a 24.5% ownership stake in Mazda, and in 1982, Ford and Mazda jointly established a sales channel to sell Ford products in Japan, including vehicles manufactured in North America, at a dealership calledAutorama(Japanese). The Autorama sales channel was renamed Ford Sales of Japan in 1997. Vehicles sold atAutoramalocations were the North American assembled Ford Explorer, Probe (1989–1998), Mustang, Taurus (1989–1997), Thunderbird (1990–1993), Lincoln Continental, and Lincoln LS. Ford products manufactured in Europe that were sold in Japan were theFord Mondeo,Ka,Focus,Focus C-MAX,Fiesta, and theGalaxy. Mazda manufactured Ford vehicles in Japan and sold them as Fords at the Autorama locations. They were theFord Telstar(Mazda Capella),Laser,Festiva,Festiva Mini Wagon,Ixion(Mazda Premacy),Freda(Mazda Bongo Friendee),Spectron(Mazda Bongo), and commercial trucks J80 and the J100 (Mazda Bongo truck). Ford increased its shareholding in Mazda to 33.4% in 1996, but as of July 2016, it is listed at 11%.Ford did sell a small range of vehicles in Japan; as of October 2010, the Ford Mustang, Escape, Explorer (and Explorer pickup truck),Ford Kuga,Lincoln Navigator,Lincoln MKX, and more recently, theFord Ecosportwere available in Japan. As of February 2016, Ford no longer maintains a regional office in Minato, Tokyo, Japan, and sales of new cars in Japan have ended. Oceania In Australia and New Zealand, the popularFord Falcon(1960–2016) had long been considered the average family car and is considerably larger than the Mondeo, Ford's largest car sold in Europe. Between 1960 and 1972, the Falcon was based on a U.S. model of the same name, but since then has been entirely designed and manufactured in Australia until 2016, occasionally being manufactured in New Zealand. Like itsGeneral Motorsrival, theHolden Commodore, the Falcon used a rear-wheel-drive layout. High-performance variants of the Falcon running locally built engines produce up to 362 hp (270 kW). Aute(short for \"utility\", known in the U.S. aspickup truck) version is also available with the same range of drivetrains. In addition, Ford Australia sold highly tuned limited-production Falcon sedans andutesthrough its performance car division,Ford Performance Vehiclesuntil it closed in 2014. In Australia, the Commodore and Falcon had traditionally outsold all other cars and constituted over 20% of the new car market. In New Zealand, Ford was second in market share in the first eight months of 2006 with 14.4%.More recently, Ford has axed its Falcon-based LWB variant of its lineup– the Fairlane and LTD ranges. Ford discontinued the Fairlane in 2007 and LTD in 2008. Ford had announced that their Geelong engine manufacturing plant would be shut down between 2013 and 2016. They had earlier announced local manufacturing of the Focus small car starting from 2011, but instead decided to import the model from Ford's plant inThailand. In Australia, the Laser was one ofFord Australia's most successful models and was manufactured in Ford'sHomebush Westplant from 1981 until the plant's closure in September 1994. It outsold theMazda 323, despite being almost identical to it because the Laser was manufactured in Australia and Ford was perceived as a local brand.According to research carried out byFord Australiain 1984, a third of Laser buyers were unaware that the Ford model was based on theMazda 323. In New Zealand, theFord LaserandTelstarwere assembled alongside theMazda 323and626until 1997, at the Vehicle Assemblers of New Zealand (VANZ) plant inWiri,Auckland.TheSierrawagon was also assembled in New Zealand, owing to the popularity ofstation wagonsin that market. The scheduled closure of Ford's Australian manufacturing base in 2016 was confirmed on May 23, 2013. Headquartered in the Victorian suburb of Broadmeadows, the company had registered losses worth AU$600 million over the five years prior to the announcement. It was noted that the corporate fleet and government sales that account for two-thirds of large, local car sales in Australia are insufficient to keep Ford's products profitable and viable in Australia. The decision will affect 1200 Ford workers—over 600 employees in Geelong and more than 500 in Broadmeadows—who will lose their jobs by October 2016. The closure of Ford's plants in Norlane Geelong and Broadmeadows Melbourne occurred on October 7, 2016. Products and services Automobiles Ford Motor Company sells a broad range of automobiles under the Fordmarqueworldwide, and an additional range of luxury automobiles under theLincolnmarque in the United States. The company has sold vehicles under a number of other marques during its history. TheMercurybrand was introduced by Ford in 1939, continuing in production until 2011 when poor sales led to its discontinuation.In 1958, Ford introduced theEdselbrand, but poor sales led to its discontinuation in 1960. In 1985, theMerkurbrand was introduced in the United States to market products produced by Ford of Europe; it was discontinued in 1989. Ford acquired the British sports car makerAston Martinin 1989, later selling it on March 12, 2007,although retaining an 8% stake.Ford purchasedVolvo Carsof Sweden in 1999,selling it toZhejiang Geely Holding Groupin 2010. In November 2008, it reduced its 33.4%controlling interestinMazdaof Japan to a 13.4% non-controlling interest.On November 18, 2010, Ford reduced their stake further to just 3%, citing the reduction of ownership would allow greater flexibility to pursue growth in emerging markets. Ford and Mazda remain strategic partners through exchanges of technological information and joint ventures, including an American joint venture plant inFlat Rock, MichigancalledAuto Alliance.In 2015, Ford sold its remaining 3% stake in Mazda. Ford sold the United Kingdom-basedJaguarandLand Rovercompanies and brands toTata Motorsof India in March 2008. On April 25, 2018, Ford announced that it planned to phase out all but one of its North American automobile models (theMustangwill be the sole surviving model) to focus primarily on pickup trucks and SUVs. Ford had also planned to introduce an \"Active\" crossover version of the next-generationFocus, but canceled those plans due to tariff issues between the United States and China. Trucks Ford has produced trucks since 1908, beginning with theFord Model TT, followed by theModel AA, and theModel BB. Countries where Ford commercial vehicles are or were formerly produced include Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada (also badged asMercury), France, Germany, India, Netherlands, Philippines, Spain (badgedEbrotoo), Turkey, UK (badged alsoFordsonandThames), and the United States. From the 1940s to the late 1970s, Ford'sFord F-Serieswas used as the base for light trucks for the North American market. Most of these ventures are now extinct. The European one that lasted longest was the lorries arm ofFord of Britain, which became part of theIvecogroup in 1986. Ford had a minority share in the new company and Iveco took over sales and production of theFord Cargorange.Ford's last significant European truck models were theTranscontinentaland the Cargo. At the end of 1996, Ford sold the rights to its heavy trucks division to theFreightliner Trucksdivision of Daimler AG, with Ford producing the Cargo, Louisville, and Aeromax, through the 1998 model year. During the 1998 model year, Freightliner began production of its own versions of Ford-developed trucks in St. Thomas, Ontario, launching theSterlingtruck brand.Slotted between Freightliner and Western Star, Sterling trucks were produced through 2009. Line of heavy trucks made by Ford for the North American market: For 1999, Ford briefly withdrew from production of medium-duty trucks. For the 2001 model year, the company entered into a joint venture withNavistar International(the supplier of diesel engines for 1-ton F-Series trucks), namedBlue Diamond Truck Company LLC.As part of the joint venture, sharing a common truck chassis, the two companies would produce medium-duty (Class 6–7) trucks in a Navistar facility in Mexico, with each manufacturer supplying its own powertrain and bodywork, with theFord F-650/F-750 Super DutyandInternational 4000/DuraStarsharing an assembly line. In 2006, the joint venture debuted the Ford LCF/International CityStar.Using a modified F-Series chassis adopted to fit a Mazda Titan cab, the LCF was a low-cab forward truck that was sold through 2009. In Europe, Ford manufactures theFord Transitjumbo van, which is classed as a Large Goods Vehicle and has a payload of up to 2,265 kg; there are options of a panel van, pickup or chassis cab. The Ford Transit is also available as a light van called theFord Transit Connectand theFord Rangerpickup is available. Buses Ford manufactured complete buses in the company's early history, but today the role of the company has changed to that of asecond stage manufacturer. In North America, theE-Seriesis still used as a chassis for small school buses and theF-650is used in commercial bus markets. In the 1980s and 1990s, the medium-dutyB700was a popular chassis used by school bus body manufacturers includingThomas Built,Ward, andBlue Bird, but Ford lost its market share due to industry contraction and agreements between body manufacturers. Older bus models included: Prior to 1936, Ford buses were based on truck bodies: In 1936, Ford introduced theFord Transit Bus, a series of small transit buses with bodies built by a second party. Originally a front-engine design, it was modified to a rear-engine design in 1939. About 1,000 to 1,200 of the original design were built, and around 12,500 of the rear-engine design, which was in production until 1947(rebranded as the Universal Bus in 1946). Rear-engine Transit Bus chassis model numbers: After 1946 the Transit City bus was sold as theUniversal Buswith the roof changed from fabric/wood to all-metal: Succeeding theFord Transit Buswas theFord 8Mbuses: Following World War II and from the 1950s onwards, Ford lost out toGeneral Motors.This led to the end of transit buses for Ford in North America. In Europe, Ford manufactures theFord TransitMinibuswhich is classed in Europe as a Passenger Carrying Vehicle and there are options of 12-, 15-, or 17-seaters.In the past, European models included: Tractors The \"Henry Ford and Son Company\" began makingFordson tractorsin Henry's hometown of Springwells (later part ofDearborn), Michigan, from 1907 to 1928, from 1919 to 1932, atCork, Ireland, and between 1933 and 1964 atDagenham, England, later transferred toBasildon. They were also produced inLeningradbeginning in 1924. Ford reentered the tractor market in 1939 with theFord N-series tractors. The Ford 8N, introduced in 1947, became the most popular tractor of all time in North America. Production of the N line of models ended in 1952. TheFord NAA tractorwas introduced as an entirely new model in 1953. It was a replacement for the Ford N-Series tractors. Larger than the 8N, with a four-cylinder engine, and streamlined styling. In 1986, Ford expanded its tractor business when it purchased the Sperry-New Holland skid-steer loader and hay baler, hay tools and implement company fromSperry Corporationand formed Ford-New Holland which bought outVersatiletractors in 1988. This company was bought byFiatin 1993 and the name changed from Ford New Holland to New Holland.New Hollandis now part ofCNH Global. Financial services Ford offers automotive finance throughFord Motor Credit Company. Automotive components Ford'sFoMoCoparts division sells aftermarket parts under theMotorcraftbrand name. It has spun off its parts division under the nameVisteon. FordWorks Program Ford Motor Company created the FordWorks program in 2016with the aim to bring people with disabilities back into the workforce.It was the first automotive program to focus on bringing people with autism in the workforce in the US. They targeted people with autismbut have expanded their criteria to people with other disabilities.Ford has partnered with Upbound to broaden their hiring under the FordWorks program. Marques Current marques Former marques Motorsport FIA World Championships Along withShelbyandChevrolet, Ford is one of only three American constructors to win titles on the international scene at theFIA World Championships. As a constructor, Ford won theWorld Sportscar Championshipthree times in1966(bothsports prototypecategory andGrand Touring (GT)category),1967(GT category), and1968(sports prototype category), and at theWorld Rally ChampionshipFord won 4World Drivers' Championships(in1979,1981,2017and2018) as well as 4World Manufacturers' Championships(in1979,2006,2007and2017). As an engine supplier, Ford also won 13Formula One World Drivers' Championshipsand 10Formula One World Constructors' Championships. Ford is also one of only three constructors to complete theTriple Crown of Motorsport(wins at theIndianapolis 500,24 Hours of Le Mans, andMonaco Grand Prix), a feat that Ford achieved as anengine manufacturerby winning the1968 Monaco Grand Prix. Open-wheel racing IndyCar IndyCarswith Ford engines first competed in 1935 using aproduction-based Ford V8in the Miller-Ford racer.ApushrodFord V8 raced with Lotus in 1963, and Ford's first Indy win was in 1965 with aDOHCV8.Ford motors, including the Ford-sponsoredDFX enginedeveloped byCosworth, have won theIndianapolis 500eighteen times.On May 12, 1996,Arie Luyendyk, while driving an IndyCar powered by a Ford Cosworth XB engine, broke theIndianapolis 500 recordsfor fastest qualification lap (237.498 mph; 382.216 km/h) and fastest qualification four-lap average (236.986 mph; 381.392 km/h).These speed records still stand as of 2022. Formula Ford Formula Ford, conceived in the UK in 1966, is an entry-level type offormula racingwith wingless single-seater cars. Many of today's formula racing drivers started their car racing careers in this category. Formula One Ford was heavily involved inFormula Onefor many years and supplied engines to a large number of teams from 1967 until 2004. These engines were designed and manufactured byCosworth, the racing division that was owned by Ford from 1998 to 2004. Ford-badged engines won 176 Grands Prix between 1967 and 2003 for teams such asTeam LotusandMcLaren. Ford entered Formula One as a constructor in 2000 under theJaguar Racingname, after buying theStewart Grand Prixteam which had been its primary 'works' team in the series since 1997. Jaguar achieved little success in Formula One, and after a turbulent five seasons, Ford withdrew from the category after the2004 season, selling both Jaguar Racing (which becameRed Bull Racing) and Cosworth (toGerald ForsytheandKevin Kalkhoven). Ford has announced that it will return to Formula One in 2026 following a partnership withRed Bull Powertrains, supplying power units to Red Bull Racing and their second teamRB. Stock car racing Ford is one of three manufacturers inNASCAR's three major series: theCup Series,Xfinity Series, andTruck Series. Major teams includeRFK Racing,Team Penske,Stewart-Haas Racing, andWood Brothers Racing. Ford is represented by theMustang GTin the Cup Series, and the Xfinity Series and by theF-150in the Truck Series. Some of the most successful NASCAR Fords were the aerodynamic fastbackFord Torino,Ford Torino Talladega,Mercury Cyclone Spoiler II, andMercury Montegos, and the aero-eraFord Thunderbirds. The Ford nameplate has won eightmanufacturer's championshipsin Sprint Cup while Mercury has won one. In the Sprint Cup Series, Ford earned its 1,000th victory in the2013 Quicken Loans 400.The Ford Fusion is also used in theARCA Racing Series. Rally Ford has a long history inrallyingand has been active in theWorld Rally Championshipsince the beginning of the world championship, the1973 season. Ford took the1979manufacturers' title withHannu Mikkola,Björn Waldegård, andAri Vatanendriving theFord Escort RS1800. In theGroup Bera, Ford achieved success withFord RS200. Since the1999 season, Ford has used various versions of theFord Focus WRCto much success. In the2006 season,BP-Ford World Rally Teamsecured Ford its second manufacturers' title, with the Focus RS WRC 06 built byM-Sportand driven by \"Flying Finns\"Marcus GrönholmandMikko Hirvonen.Continuing with Grönholm and Hirvonen, Ford successfully defended the manufacturers' world championship in the2007 season. Ford is the only manufacturer to score in the points for 92 consecutive races; since the2002 seasonopenerMonte Carlo Rally. In March 1951, the Henri Loos and Henri Berney broke the cross-Africa record of theAlgiers-Cape Town Rallywith a 1950 Ford V8, from Cape Town to Paris. Rallycross Ford has competed in rallycross with itsFord FiestaandFord Focus.Tanner Foustwon theGlobal RallyCross Championshipin 2011 and 2012 and was runner-up in theFIA European Rallycross Championshipin 2011 and 2012.Toomas Heikkinenwon the Global RallyCross Championship title in 2013 andJoni Wimanwon it in 2014. Other notable Ford drivers includeMarcus Grönholm,Ken Block, andBrian Deegan. Sports cars Ford sports cars have been visible in the world of sports car racing since 1964. Most notably theFord GT40won the24 Hours of Le Mansfour times (in1966,1967,1968and1969) and is the only American car to ever win overall at this prestigious event. Ford also won four titles at theWorld Sportscar Championshipwith the GT40. Swiss teamMatech GT Racing, in collaboration with Ford Racing, opened a new chapter with theFord GT, winning the Teams title in the 2008FIA GT3 European Championship. Ford Mustang TheFord Mustanghas arguably been Ford's most successful sports car.Jerry Tituswon the 1965 SCCA Pro B National Championship with a Mustang and the model went on to earn Ford the SCCATrans-Am Championshiptitle in both 1966 and 1967. Ford won the Trans-Am Championship again in 1970 withParnelli JonesandGeorge FollmerdrivingBoss 302 MustangsforBud Moore Engineering. Ford took the 1985 and 1986IMSA GTO Championshipwith Mustangs driven byJohn JonesandScott Pruettbefore returning to Trans-Am glory with a championship in 1989 withDorsey Schroeder. Ford dominated Trans-Am in the 1990s withTommy Kendallwinning championships in 1993, 1995, 1996, and 1997 withPaul Gentilozziadding yet another title in 1999. In 2005 the Ford Mustang FR500C took the championship in the RolexKoni ChallengeSeries in its first year on the circuit. In 2007, Ford added a victory in the GT4 European Championship. 2008 was the first year of the Mustang Challenge for the Miller Cup, a series that pits a full field of identical factory-built Ford Mustang race cars against each other. Also, in 2008, Ford won the manufacturers championship in theKoni ChallengeSeries and HyperSport drivers Joe Foster and Steve Maxwell won the drivers title in a Mustang GT. Ford andMichelinteamed up to provide custom-engineered tires for theFord Performancevehicle lineup.Ford Performancedirector Dave Pericak said: \"That confidence extends from our upcoming racing effort at Le Mans in 2016 with the all-newFord GT, to the Ford Performance vehicle lineup, including theShelby GT350and F-150 Raptor\". Touring cars Ford has campaigned touring cars such as theMustang,Focus,Falcon, andContour/Mondeoand theSierraCosworthin many different series throughout the years. Notably, Mondeo drivers finished 1, 2, and 3 in the 2000British Touring Car Championshipand Falcon drivers placed 1, 2, and 3 in the2005 V8 Supercar Championship Series. Drag racing Indrag racing,John Force RacingdriversJohn Force,Tony Pedregon, andRobert Highthave pilotedFord MustangFunny Carsto severalNHRAtitles in recent seasons. TeammatesTim Wilkersonand Bob Tasca III also drive Mustangs in Funny Car. Drifting Ford has branched out intodriftingwith the introduction of the new model Mustang. Most noticeable is the Turquoise and Blue Falken Tires Mustang driven byVaughn Gittin, Jr., (A.K.A. \"JR\") that produces 750 RWHP (Rear Wheel Horsepower). Environmental initiatives Compressed natural gas Thealternative fossil fuelvehicles, such as some versions of theCrown Victoriaespecially in fleet and taxi service, operate oncompressed natural gas—or CNG. Some CNG vehicles have dual fuel tanks—one for gasoline, the other for CNG—the same engine can operate on either fuel via a selector switch. Flexible fuel vehicles Flexible fuel vehiclesare designed to operate smoothly using a wide range of availableethanol fuelmixtures—from pure gasoline tobioethanol-gasoline blends such asE85(85%ethanoland 15% gasoline) orE100(neathydrousethanol) in Brazil. Part of the challenge of successful marketing alternative and flexible fuel vehicles in the U.S. is the general lack of establishment of sufficientfueling stations, which would be essential for these vehicles to be attractive to a wide range of consumers. Significant efforts to ramp up production and distribution ofE85fuels are underway and expanding.Current Ford E100 Flex sold in the Brazilian market are theCourier,Ford EcoSport,Ford Fiesta,Ford Focus, andFord Ka. Electric drive vehicles Hybrid electric vehicles In 2004, Ford and Toyota agreed a patent-sharing accord that granted Ford access to certain hybrid technology patented by Toyota; in exchange, Ford licensed some of its own patents to Toyota.In 2004, Ford introduced theEscape Hybrid. With this vehicle, Ford was third to the automotive market with ahybrid electric vehicleand the first hybrid electricSUVto market. This was also the first hybrid electric vehicle with aflexible fuelcapability to run onE85.The Escape's platform mateMercury Marinerwas also available with the hybrid-electric system in the 2006 model year—a full year ahead of schedule. The similarMazda Tributewill also receive a hybrid-electric powertrain option, along with many other vehicles in the Ford vehicle line. In 2005, Ford announced a goal to make 250,000 hybrids a year by 2010, but by mid-2006 announced that it would not meet that goal, due to excessively high costs and the lack of sufficient supplies of the hybrid-electric batteries and drivetrain system components.Instead, Ford has committed to accelerating development of next-generation hybrid-electric power plants in Britain, in collaboration with Volvo. This engineering study is expected to yield more than 100 new hybrid-electric vehicle models and derivatives. In September 2007, Ford announced a partnership withSouthern California Edison(SCE) to examine howplug-in hybridswill work with the electrical grid. Under the multimillion-dollar, multi-year project, Ford will convert a demonstration fleet ofFord Escape Hybridsinto plug-in hybrids, and SCE will evaluate how the vehicles might interact with the home and the utility's electrical grid. Some of the vehicles will be evaluated \"in typical customer settings\", according to Ford. On June 12, 2008,USDOEexpanded its own fleet of alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles with the addition of a Ford Escape Plug-In Hybrid Flex-Fuel Vehicle. The vehicle is equipped with a 10-kilowatt (13 hp)lithium-ionbattery supplied byJohnson Controls-Saftthat stores enough electric energy to drive up to 30 miles (48 km) at speeds of up to 40 mph (64 km/h).In March 2009, Ford launched hybrid versions of theFord Fusion Hybridand theMercury Milan Hybridin the United States, both as 2010 models. As of November 2014, Ford has produced for retail sales the following hybrid electric vehicles:Ford Escape Hybrid(2004–2012),Mercury Mariner Hybrid(2005–2010),Mercury Milan Hybrid(2009–2010),Ford Fusion Hybrid(2009–present),Lincoln MKZ Hybrid(2010–present),Ford C-Max Hybrid(2012–present), andFord Mondeo Hybrid(2014–present). By June 2012, Ford had sold 200,000 full hybrids in the U.S. since 2004,and, as of September 2014, the carmaker has sold over 344,000 hybrids in the United States.The top selling hybrids in the U.S. market are the Fusion Hybrid with 127,572 units, followed by Escape Hybrid with 117,997 units, and the C-Max Hybrid with 54,236.As of November 2014, Ford is the world's second-largest manufacturer of hybrids afterToyota Motor Corporation, with 400,000 hybrid electric vehicles produced since their introduction in 2004. Plug-in electric vehicles As of April 2024, Ford currently produces the followingplug-in electric vehicles: theFord Escape/Kuga PHEV,Ford Ranger PHEV,Ford Mustang Mach-E,Ford F-150 Lightning,Ford Explorer EV(Europe),Ford E-Transit/Tourneo Courier,Ford E-Transit Customand theFord E-Transit. Bill Ford was one of the first top industry executives to make regular use of abattery electric vehicle, aFord Ranger EV, while the company contracted with theUnited States Postal Serviceto deliver electric postal vans based on the Ranger EV platform. Ford discontinued a line of electricRangerpickup trucksand ordered them destroyed, though it reversed in January 2005, after environmentalist protest.The all-electric pickup truck leased 205 units to individuals and 1,500 units to fleets in the U.S. from 1998 to 2002. From 2009 to 2011, Ford offered theFord TH!NKcar. Ford ended production and ordered all the cars repossessed and destroyed, even as many of the people leasing them begged to be able to buy the cars from Ford. After an outcry from the lessees and activists in the U.S. and Norway, Ford returned the cars to Norway for sale.Four hundred and forty units were leased in the U.S. from 1999 until 2003. In 2017, Ford CEO Mark Fields announced that the company would invest $4.5 billion in further development of plug-in electric vehicles by 2020. The 2010–2012Azure Transit Connect Electricis anall-electricvanthat was developed as a collaboration betweenAzure Dynamicsand Ford Motor Company, but Azure was the official manufacturer of record. The 2011–2018Ford Focus Electricis based on the third-generationFocusinternal combustion vehicle, converted to anall-electricpropulsion system as a productionelectric carbyMagna International, and retail sales began in the U.S. in December 2011. The 2012–2017Ford C-Max Energiis aplug-in hybridreleased in the U.S. in October 2012.It is followed by theFord Fusion Energithat was produced in 2013–2020.Both Energi models share the same powertrain technology. In October 2017, Ford announced its Team Edison battery electric vehicle group to lead the company's renewed efforts into the EV market, which had plans for a small 300-mile range SUV by 2020.The new team will be headquartered in Detroit and have offices in Europe and Asia. On November 17, 2019, theMustang Mach-Ewas introduced which later went on sale December 2020 as a 2021 model.The Mustang Mach-E is assembled atCuautitlán AssemblyinCuautitlán Izcalli, Mexico.According to former Ford CEO Jim Hackett, assembling the vehicle in Mexico allows Ford to make a profit from the first vehicle, unlike other electric vehicles. In June 2022, the CFO of Ford announced that the Mustang Mach-E was no longer profitable due to increases in the cost of raw materials. On May 19, 2021, Ford revealed a new electric pickup truck, theF-150 Lightning.The first F-150 Lightning was manufactured on April 18, 2022, with first delivery in the US on May 26.Ford adjusted its 2024 production plans for the F-150 Lightning, cutting them in half from an anticipated 3,200 weekly units to around 1,600 weekly units due to sales below expectations.In 2022, Ford began manufacturing its E-Transit electric cargo vans at its plant in Kansas City, Missouri. As the result of 2019 Ford-VW global alliance cooperation agreement,Ford began developing electric vehicles for the European market using theVolkswagen Group MEB platformalong with batteries supplied by Volkswagen. The first Ford product based on the MEB is theFord Explorer EV, which was introduced in March 2023. It is produced in theCologne plantin Germany, which previously manufactured theFiestasmall car.In August 2023, Ford delayed the Explorer EV deliveries to 2024 due to new battery regulations. In March 2022, Ford increased its focus in battery electric vehicles by establishing Ford Model E, a division for Ford's electric vehicle business. Ford Model E is expected to be profitable by 2026, and the company said the division \"should be seen as astartup\".In June 2022, Ford announced its intention to restructure its dealership model, including building ane-commerceplatform where customers can buy electric vehicles at non-negotiable prices in an effort to matchTesla\"s profit margins.Ford also stated in June 2022 that it planned to spend $3.7 billion to hire 6,200 union workers to staff several assembly plants in Michigan, Ohio and Missouri in a bid to sell 2 million electric vehicles annually by 2026. In May 2023, Ford announced its plans to integrate theNorth American Charging System(NACS) system into their electric vehicles, following Tesla's decision toopenand rename its proprietary charging standard to NACS. Newly built Ford electric vehicles after 2024 will have native NACS charging ports on the vehicle. Existing Ford electric models will be able to connect to the NACS system and its chargers by use of an adapter. Both will thus have access to the extensive NACScharging networkwith more than 12,000 chargers in North America. Hydrogen Ford also continues to studyfuel cell-powered electric powertrains and has demonstrated hydrogen-fueledinternal combustion enginetechnologies, as well as developing the next-generation hybrid-electric systems. Compared with conventional vehicles,hybrid vehiclesand/or fuel cell vehicles decrease air pollution emissions as well as sound levels, with favorable impacts upon respiratory health and decrease ofnoise health effects. Ford has launched the production ofhydrogen-poweredshuttle buses, using hydrogen instead of gasoline in a standardinternal combustion engine, for use at airports and convention centers.At the 2006Greater Los Angeles Auto Show, Ford showcased a hydrogen fuel cell version of its Explorer SUV. The Fuel cell Explorer has a combined output of 174 hp (130 kW). It has a large hydrogen storage tank which is situated in the center of the car taking the original place of the conventional model's automatic transmission. The centered position of the tank assists the vehicle reach a notable range of 350 miles (563 km), the farthest for a fuel cell vehicle so far. The fuel cell Explorer the first in a series of prototypes partly funded by theUnited States Department of Energyto expand efforts to determine the feasibility of hydrogen-powered vehicles. The fuel cell Explorer is one of several vehicles with green technology being featured at the L.A. show, including the 2008 Ford Escape Hybrid, PZEV emissions compliant Fusion and Focus models and a 2008 Ford F-Series Super Duty outfitted with Ford's clean diesel technology. Increased fuel efficiency In July 2008, Ford Motor Company announced that it would accelerate its plans to produce more fuel-efficient cars, changing both its North American manufacturing plans and its lineup of vehicles available in the United States. In terms of North American manufacturing, the company planned to convert three existing pickup truck and sport utility vehicle (SUV) plants for small car production, with the first conversion at its Michigan Truck Plant. In addition, Ford's assembly plants near Mexico City, Mexico, and in Louisville, Kentucky, were to be converted from pickups and SUVs to small cars, including the Ford Fiesta, by 2011. Ford then also planned to introduce to North America six of its European small vehicles, including two versions of the Ford Fiesta, by the end of 2012. Ford of Europe developed theECOneticprogramme to address the market and legislative need for higherfuel efficiencyand lower CO2emissions. As opposed to thehybrid enginetechnology used in competitor products such as theToyota Prius, ECOnetic improves existing technology. Using lower-consumingDuratorq TDCidiesel engines, and based on a combination of improved aerodynamics, lower resistance, and improved efficiency, theFord Fiestawas the lowest-emitting mass-produced car in Europewhile the2012 Ford Focus ECOneticwill have better fuel consumption than the Prius or theVolkswagen GolfBlueMotion.ECOnetic is not presently planned to be sold in North American due to current perceived lower consumer demand. Ford has challenged University teams to create a vehicle that is simple, durable, lightweight, and comes equipped with a base target price of only $7,000. The students fromAachen Universitycreated the \"2015 Ford Model T\". In 2000, under the leadership of the current Ford chairman, William Clay Ford, the company announceda planned 25 percent improvement in the average mileage of its SUVs—to be completed by the 2005calendar year. In 2003, Ford announced that competitive market conditions and technological and cost challenges would prevent the company from achieving this goal. For the 2007 model year, Ford had thirteen U.S. models that achieve 30 miles per gallon or better (based on the highway fuel economy estimates of the EPA) and several of Ford's vehicles were recognized in the EPA and Department of Energy Fuel Economy Guide for best-in-class fuel economy. Ford claimed to have eliminated nearly three million pounds of smog-forming emissions from their U.S. cars and light trucks over the 2004 to 2006 model years.However, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has linked Ford to 54Superfundtoxic waste sites, twelve of which have been cleaned up and deleted from the list. Efficient buildings As part of a renovation of theFord River Rouge Complex, in 2010 Ford unveiled a 10.4-acre (42,000 m2) living roof covering part of the Dearborn Truck plant, consisting ofsedum, a low-growing groundcover. The sedum retains and cleanses rainwater and moderates the internal temperature of the building, saving energy. In 2016, Ford announced a ten-year renovation plan for its Dearborn campus.The plan features consolidation of office and lab spaces in to fewer and much larger buildings, which will be built toLEEDstandards, and will feature extensive use of wetlands and park spaces.The new campus features new multi-story parking decks with solar power-generating roofs,and a new natural gas power plant. The DTE Ford Central Energy Plant is a 34MW combined heat-and-power plant which features a high efficiency design and LEED Gold buildings. Sponsorships Ford sponsors numerous events and sports facilities around the U.S., most notably theFord Centerin downtownEvansville, Indiana, andFord Fieldindowntown Detroit. The company has also been a major sponsor of theUEFA Champions Leaguefor over two decades, and is also a longtime sponsor of theSky media channel'scoverage ofPremier Leaguefootball. Between 1994 and 1999, Ford was the main kit sponsor of GermanBundesligaclub1. FC Köln. Sales numbers of US sales Criticism TheFord Pinto, a compact car introduced in the 1970s, became notorious for its safety flaws, particularly its poorly designed fuel tank. The tank was prone to rupture and catch fire when the car was struck from behind, leading to an estimated 500 to 900 fatalities in accidents involving rear-end collisions. Despite multiple safety inspections highlighting this issue, Ford chose not to redesign the car. Internal cost-benefit analyses showed that it would be cheaper to pay settlements for the lawsuits arising from accidents than to implement a safer fuel tank design. This decision, which prioritised cost over human lives, resulted in Ford becoming the first corporation in history to face criminal charges for homicide. The company was accused of showing “callous indifference to public safety,” with the Pinto’s failure attributed to a utilitarian, business-driven response to accident risks and public safety concerns. See also References Further reading External links Only models sold in Continental Europe and the British Isles are shown, overseas territories often have different offerings.",
"List of awards and nominations received by Matthew McConaughey McConaughey at the83rd Academy Awardsin 2011 Matthew McConaugheyis an American actor and producer who rose to prominence with his role in the 1993 ensemble comedy filmDazed and Confused.The film was well received by critics.Since then, McConaughey has received various awards and nominations, including anAcademy Award, aGolden Globe, aScreen Actors Guild Award, two Critics' Choice Awards, anMTV Movie Awardand aPeople’s Choice Award. He has also been nominated for fiveTeen Choice Awardsand twoEmmys. Three years after his role inDazed and Confused, in 1996, McConaughey played the lead role of a lawyer in the movieA Time to Kill, for which he won theMTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance. His next appearances—in the science fiction dramaContact(1997), alongsideJodie Foster, and the war filmU-571(2000)—garnered him twoBlockbuster Entertainment Awardnominations. In the early 2000s, he starred in multiple romantic comedies, includingThe Wedding Planner(2001) andHow to Lose a Guy in 10 Days(2003), for which he received four Teen Choice Award nominations. He received two more nominations and the People's Choice Award for Favorite Male Action Star for his role in the 2005 action-comedy filmSahara. McConaughey received theNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actorfor his role inBernie(2011) andMagic Mike(2012) and was also awarded theCritics' Choice Movie Award in the same categoryfor the latter. He played the role of a hit man in the black comedy crime filmKiller Joe(2011) for which he was awarded theSaturn Award for Best Actor. In the same year, McConaughey starred inMud(2012), which earned him theIndependent Spirit Robert Altman Award. The following year, McConaughey played lead role ofRon Woodroof, a real life AIDS patient in the 1980s, in the biopic dramaDallas Buyers Clubto critical acclaim.He won theAcademy Award,Critics' Choice Movie Award,Golden Globeand aScreen Actors Guild Awardfor his role in the film. In 2014, he starred in the epic sci-fiInterstellarfor which he received a Saturn Award for Best Actor nomination. In November of the same year, he was inducted to theHollywood Walk of Fame.McConaughey co-produced and acted in the crime anthology television seriesTrue Detective, which earned him Lead Actor nominations for aScreen Actors Guild Award,Critics' Choice Television Awardand aGolden Globe. He also received two Primetime Emmy nominations, one for hisrole as an actorand other for hisrole as an executive produceras well as aProducers Guild of America Awardnomination. For his roles in the war filmFree State of JonesandGold(both 2016), he was nominated for theWomen Film Critics CircleAward for Best Actor and the Saturn Award for Best Actor, respectively. Awards and nominations Other honors References Notes Sources External links",
"Zac Efron Zachary David Alexander Efron(/ˈɛfrɒn/; born October 18, 1987) is an American actor. Efron began acting professionally in the early 2000s and rose to prominence as ateen idolfor his leading role asTroy Boltonin theHigh School Musicaltrilogy(2006–2008). During this time, he also starred in the musical filmHairspray(2007) and the comedy film17 Again(2009). Efron had starring roles in the filmsNew Year's Eve(2011),The Lucky One(2012),The Paperboy(2012),Neighbors(2014),Dirty Grandpa(2016),Baywatch(2017), andThe Greatest Showman(2017). He playedTed BundyinExtremely Wicked, Shockingly Evil and Vile(2019) andKevin Von ErichinThe Iron Claw(2023). In 2021, he won aDaytime Emmy Awardfor hosting theNetflixtravel showDown to Earth with Zac Efron(2020–2022). Early life Zachary David Alexander Efron was born on October 18, 1987,and grew up inArroyo Grande, California.His father, David Efron, is an electrical engineer atDiablo Canyon Power Plant, and his mother, Starla Baskett, is an administrative assistant who also works at Diablo Canyon.Efron has a younger brother, Dylan,and had, as he has described, a \"normal childhood\" in a middle-class family.His surname originates fromHebrew.His paternal grandfather isJewish.Efron has described himself as Jewish,though he was raisedagnosticallyand did not practice religion as a child. He has said that he would \"flip out\" if he got a \"B\" and not an \"A\" in school, and was a class clown there.Efron subsequently worked at The Great American Melodrama and the Vaudeville theaters,and began taking singing lessons. He performed in shows such asGypsy;Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up;Little Shop of Horrors; andThe Music Man. He was recommended to an agent in Los Angeles by his drama teacher, Robyn Metchik, the mother of actorAaron Michael Metchik.Efron was later signed to theCreative Artists Agency. Efron graduated fromArroyo Grande High Schoolin 2006and was then accepted into theUniversity of Southern Californiabut did not enroll. He also attendedPacific Conservatory of the Performing Arts, a theater company operating out ofAllan Hancock College, acommunity collegelocated inSanta Maria, California, where he performed in 2000 and 2001. Career 2002–2009: Early career andHigh School Musical Efron began acting in the early 2000s with guest roles on several television series includingFirefly,ER, andThe Guardian. In 2004, he began appearing as a recurring character in the first season of theWBseriesSummerland.For the show's second season, which aired in 2005, he was promoted to the main cast. He also appeared in some films, including theLifetimetelevision filmMiracle Run(2004), for which he earned aYoung Artist Awardnomination for his performance as one of two autistic twins. Efron's career reached a turning point with the teen musical television filmHigh School Musical(2006), which premiered on theDisney Channelin January 2006. The film, which has been described as a modern adaptation ofRomeo and Juliet, saw Efron playing the male lead Troy Bolton, a high school basketball player who feels conflicted when he finds himself interested in participating in the school musical with Gabriella Montez (Vanessa Hudgens), a girl from the scholastic decathlon team. The film became a major success and helped Efron gain recognition among teenage audiences. The film's soundtrack was certified quadruple platinum by theRIAA,and was one of the best-selling albums of the year in the United States. However, Efron's recordings of the film's songs were not included in the final cut, and the majority of his parts were sung byDrew Seeley;the Troy Bolton role had been intended for a tenor before Efron's casting and Efron was a baritone. In his subsequent musical films, Efron did his own singing. Efron was next seen as Link Larkin in the musical comedy filmHairspray(2007), based on the2002 Broadway musical of the same name. Production conflicted with theHigh School Musical concert tour, which prevented Efron from joining; Drew Seeley filled in. The film became a major commercial and critical success upon its release in July 2007. Later that year, he reprised his role of Troy Bolton inHigh School Musical 2(2007), which aired on the Disney Channel in August 2007. Efron again reprised his role inHigh School Musical 3: Senior Year(2008), the first film in theHigh School Musicalfranchise to receive a theatrical release. The film became a major blockbuster at the box office, and received mixed to positive reviews from critics. He followed this with the commercially successful comedy17 Again(2009) about a 37-year-old man who is transformed into his 17-year-old self (Efron) after a chance accident. 2009–present: Other roles and mainstream success Efron's next release wasRichard Linklater's period dramaMe and Orson Welles, which premiered at theToronto International Film Festivalin September 2008 and received a wide release in late 2009. The film earned mostly positive reviews from critics. He then played the title role in the supernatural romantic dramaCharlie St. Cloud(2010), which became a moderate success at the box office despite receiving mostly negative reviews from critics. Efron appeared as a part of the large ensemble cast inGarry Marshall'sNew Year's Eve(2011), which depicted a series of holiday vignettes of different groups of characters. The film received almost unanimously negative reviews from critics, but became a major success at the box office. He also played a supporting role in the critically successfulLiberal Arts(2012), which premiered at theSundance Film Festivalin January 2012 and received a limited release later that year. He also starred inThe Paperboy(2012), which premiered at theCannes Film Festivalin May 2012 and received a wider release later that year. The film received mixed to negative reviews from critics. After lending his voice to the animated filmThe Lorax(2012), he appeared as the male lead in the romantic dramaThe Lucky One(2012), based on thenovel of the same namebyNicholas Sparks. The film became a major box office success despite negative reviews from critics. He also starred in the dramaAt Any Price, which premiered at the2012 Venice International Film Festival, and the historical dramaParkland, which premiered at the2013 Venice International Film Festival. Both films received mixed reviews from critics. Efron's first release of 2014 was the romantic comedyThat Awkward Moment, for which he also served as an executive producer. The film, which starred Efron as one of three bachelors in New York City, became a moderate commercial success despite receiving mostly negative reviews from critics. Later in 2014, Efron was seen in the adult comedyNeighbors(2014). The film revolved around a young couple who struggle to raise their baby daughter while living next to the house of a wild fraternity led by its president, played by Efron. The film became a major commercial success and earned mostly positive reviews from critics, who also added that he had successfully shed his \"Disney pretty boy\" image. Efron's only release in 2015 was the moderately successfulWe Are Your Friends(2015), in which he played a struggling DJ. In January 2016, he starred in the adult comedyDirty Grandpaas a straitlaced young man who begrudgingly indulges his grandfather's unhinged personality by taking him on a vacation to Florida. The film received mostly negative reviews from critics for its crude humor but became a commercial success upon its release.He subsequently starred in the comedy sequelNeighbors 2: Sorority Rising, which became a commercial and critical success upon its release in May 2016. The film followed the same couple who team up with their former rival (Efron) to take down a hard-partying sorority led by a freshman. His third 2016 comedy, released in July, wasMike and Dave Need Wedding Dates. In 2017, Efron starred inBaywatch, an action comedy film version of thetelevision series of the same name, released in May. Also in 2017, Efron had a supporting role in two biographical films released in December:The Disaster Artist, a comedy-drama directed by and starringJames Franco, and as Phillip in the musicalThe Greatest Showman. Both films were nominated for theGolden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy. In 2019, Efron played a drug-addled libertine in theHarmony KorinefilmThe Beach Bum.He also starred as serial killerTed BundyinExtremely Wicked, Shockingly Evil and Vile.The film premiered at Sundance in early 2019 and was released by Netflix on May 3. In 2020, Efron voicedFred Jonesin Warner Bros.'Scooby-Dooanimated film,Scoob!In 2021, he won aDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Daytime Program Host for theNetflixweb documentaryseriesDown to Earth with Zac Efron. In 2022, he starred in the survival thrillerGold, directed byAnthony Hayesand headlined the horror filmFirestarter, a remake of the1984 filmbased upon thenovel of the same namebyStephen King, directed by Keith Thomas.Also that year, he starred inPeter Farrelly's Vietnam War–set comedyThe Greatest Beer Run Ever, which received mixed reviews. In 2023, he starred asKevin Von ErichinSean Durkin'sThe Iron Claw, about theVon Erich familyof wrestlers. Other work In 2010, Efron started his own production company underWarner Bros., Ninjas Runnin' Wild.The company played a part in the production of his filmsDirty Grandpa,That Awkward Moment, andExtremely Wicked, Shockingly Evil and Vile.In 2019, Efron's brother Dylan, who also plays a role in the company, stated that Ninjas Runnin' Wild has started to produce more digital content in addition to their traditional film work. Efron announced the creation of hisYouTubechannel in March 2019.Thevideo sharing platformhosts two weekly series.\"Off the Grid\" follows Efron and his brother Dylan as they participate in outdoor activities and trips without electronic devices—with the exception of a video camera in order to document their experiences.\"Gym Time\" spotlights fitness and nutrition, with Efron informing his viewers that he plans to \"train with celebrities, athletes, and interesting people\".YouTube received backlash for promoting Efron's new channel in a post made from their official Twitter account. Some YouTube users accused the platform of promoting a mainstream celebrity's account, which they feared would overshadow lesser known creators. Personal life Efron was on theForbesCelebrity 100list in 2008 at number 92, with estimated earnings of $5.8 million from June 2007 to June 2008. In April 2009, his personal wealth equaled about $10 million.In May 2015, Efron's net worth was $18million. In March 2014, Efron engaged in a fight with ahomelessman onSkid Row. Law enforcement officials did not make any arrests because they viewed it asmutual combat. Efron turned totranscendental meditation(TM) to help decompress after struggling to separate himself from his role as serial killer Ted Bundy in his movie. \"I really love TM, transcendental meditation. I did TM on the way home. Not while driving, but when you're shooting a movie, one thing we can afford is a ride home, so on the way home I just do some TM and try to phase out of it.\" Efron moved to Australia after selling his Los Angeles home in early 2021and purchased a property inByron Baywhile working on a number of projects there. Health issues Efron sought treatment in early 2013 after struggling withalcoholismandsubstance abuse. He has been sober since June 2013.In November 2013, Efron had to have hisjaw wired shutafter breaking it in a fall at home.He revealed in 2022 that he almost died during this incident, and that it was responsible for his facial swelling, apparent in a viral 2021 video forBill Nye's Earth Day Musical. In December 2019, Efron contracted a serious and potentially life-threatening illness, a \"form oftyphoidor similarbacterial infection\", while filming his adventure seriesKilling Zac EfroninPapua New Guinea. He was flown toSt Andrews War Memorial HospitalinBrisbane, Australia, and was treated before flying back home on December 25. He recovered with little issue. Efron was aveganfor two years until 2022, when he beganintermittent fasting,and reintroduced meat into his diet after undergoing a series offood sensitivitytests. In 2022, Efron opened up about his struggles withmental illnessesincludinginsomnia,agoraphobia, anddepression. He developed insomnia and depression after takingdiureticsfor a long period to prepare for his role inBaywatch. In August 2024, Efron was rushed to hospital after being found unconscious in a swimming pool in Ibiza. According to TMZ, he was discovered by two villa employees who pulled him out of the water. The hospitalization was described as a \"precautionary measure\" and the incident as \"minor\". Efron aspirated a significant amount of water into his lungs and had x-rays taken to ensure his lungs were clear before being discharged the following day. Filmography Film Television Music videos Discography Singles Other charted songs Awards and nominations References External links"
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"Ford Motor Company Ford Motor Company(commonly known asFord) is an Americanmultinationalautomobile manufacturer headquartered inDearborn, Michigan, United States. It was founded byHenry Fordand incorporated on June 16, 1903. The company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under theFordbrand, and luxury cars under itsLincolnbrand. The company is listed on theNew York Stock Exchangeand is controlled by theFord family. They have minority ownership but a plurality of the voting power. Ford introduced methods for large-scale manufacturing of cars and large-scale management of an industrial workforce using elaborately engineered manufacturing sequences typified by movingassembly lines. By 1914, these methods were known around the world asFordism. Ford's former UK subsidiariesJaguarandLand Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000, respectively, were sold to the Indian automakerTata Motorsin March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automakerVolvofrom 1999 to 2010.In the third quarter of 2010, Ford discontinued",
"Ford discontinued theMercurybrand, under which it had marketed upscale cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938. Ford is the second-largest U.S.-based automaker, behindGeneral Motors, and thesixth-largest in the world, behindToyota,Volkswagen Group,Hyundai Motor Group,Stellantis, and General Motors, based on 2022 vehicle production.At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth-largest automaker in Europe.The company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through specialClass B shares, retain 40 percent of the voting rights.During the2008–2010 automotive industry crisis, the company struggled financially but did not have to be rescued by the federal government, unlike the other two major US automakers.Ford Motors has since returned to profitability,and was the eleventh-ranked overall American-based company in the 2018Fortune 500list, based on global revenues in 2017 of $156.7 billion.In 2023, Ford produced 4.4 million automobiles, and employed about 177,000 employees worldwide. The",
"worldwide. The company operates joint ventures in China (Changan Ford), Taiwan (Ford Lio Ho), Thailand (AutoAlliance Thailand), and Turkey (Ford Otosan). Ford owns a 32% stake in China'sJiangling Motors. History 20th century TheHenry Ford Companywas Henry Ford's first attempt at a car manufacturing company and was established on November 3, 1901. This became theCadillac Motor Companyon August 22, 1902, after Ford left with the rights to his name.In 1903, the Ford Motor Company was launched in a converted factory, with $28,000, equivalent to $950,000 in 2023, in cash from twelve investors, most notablyJohnandHorace Dodge, who later founded theDodge Brothers Motor Vehicle Company. The first president was not Ford, but local bankerJohn S. Gray, who was chosen in order to assuage investors' fears that Ford would leave the new company the way he had left its predecessor. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day atits factory on Mack Avenueand later at itsfactory on Piquette",
"on Piquette AvenueinDetroit,Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on each car, assembling it from parts made mostly by supplier companies contracting for Ford. Within a decade the company led the world in the expansion and refinement of theassembly lineconcept, and Ford soon brought much of the part production in-house, viavertical integration. Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company, which became one of the world's largest and most profitable companies. It has been in continuous family control for over 100 years, and is one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world. The first gasoline-poweredautomobilewas created in 1885 by theGermaninventorKarl Benz, with hisBenz Patent-Motorwagen. More efficient production methods were needed to make automobiles affordable formiddle classpeople. To which Ford contributed by, for instance, introducing the first movingassembly linein 1913 at the Fordfactory in Highland Park. Between 1903 and 1908, Ford produced the ModelsA, B,",
"the ModelsA, B, C, F, K, N, R, and S. Hundreds or a few thousand of most of these were sold per year. In 1908, Ford introduced the mass-producedModel T, which totaled millions sold over nearly 20 years. In 1927, Ford replaced the T with theModel A, the first car with safety glass in the windshield.Ford launched thefirst low-priced car with a V8engine in 1932. In an attempt to compete with General Motors' mid-priced Pontiac, Oldsmobile, and Buick, Ford created the Mercury in 1939 as a higher-priced companion car to Ford. Henry Ford purchased the Lincoln Motor Company in 1922,in order to compete with such brands as Cadillac and Packard for the luxury segment of the automobile market. In 1929, Ford was contracted by the government of theSoviet Unionto set up theGorky Automobile Plantin Russia initially producing Ford Model A and AAs, thereby playing an important role in theindustrializationof that country and consequently the Soviet war effort duringWorld War II.To that end, in 1944, Stalin wrote a letter to",
"wrote a letter to theU.S. Chamber of Commercestating that Henry Ford was \"one of the world's greatest industrialists\". During World War II, theUnited States Department of Warpicked Ford to mass-produce theConsolidated B-24 Liberatorbomber at its Willow Run assembly plant.Ford WerkeandFord SAF, Ford's subsidiaries in Germany and France, respectively, produced military vehicles and other equipment forNazi Germany'swar effort. Some of Ford's operations in Germany at the time were runusing forced labor. The creation of a scientific laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan, in 1951, doing unfettered basic research, led to Ford's involvement insuperconductivityresearch. In 1964, Ford Research Labs made a key breakthrough with the invention of a superconducting quantum interference device orSQUID. Ford offeredthe Lifeguard safety package from 1956, which included such innovations as a standard deep-dish steering wheel, optional front, and, for the first time in a car, rear seatbelts, and an optional padded dash.Ford",
"padded dash.Ford introduced child-proof door locks into its products in 1957, and, in the same year, offered the first retractable hardtop on a mass-produced six-seater car. In late 1955, Ford established the Continental division as a separate luxury car division. This division was responsible for the manufacture and sale of the famousContinental Mark II. At the same time, theEdseldivision was created to design and market that car starting with the 1958 model year. Due to limited sales of the Continental and the Edsel disaster, Ford merged Mercury, Edsel, and Lincoln into \"M-E-L,\" which reverted to \"Lincoln-Mercury\" after Edsel's November 1959 demise. TheFord Mustangwas introduced on April 17, 1964, during the1964 New York World's Fair, where Ford had a pavilion made byThe Walt Disney Company.In 1965, Ford introduced the seat belt reminder light. With the 1980s, Ford introduced several highly successful vehicles around the world. During the 1980s, Ford began using the advertising slogan, \"Have you driven a",
"\"Have you driven a Ford, lately?\" to introduce new customers to their brand and make their vehicles appear more modern. In 1990 and 1994, respectively, Ford also acquiredJaguar CarsandAston Martin.During the mid-to-late 1990s, Ford continued to sell large numbers of vehicles, in a boomingAmericaneconomy with a soaring stock market and low fuel prices. With the dawn of the new century, legacyhealth care costs, higher fuel prices, and a faltering economy led to falling market shares, declining sales, and diminished profit margins. Most of the corporate profits came from financing consumer automobile loans throughFord Motor Credit Company. 21st century By 2005, both Ford andGM's corporate bonds had been downgraded to junk statusas a result of high U.S. health care costs for anaging workforce, soaring gasoline prices, eroding market share, and an overdependence on decliningSUVsales. Profit margins decreased on large vehicles due to increased \"incentives\" (in the form of rebates or low-interest financing) to",
"financing) to offset declining demand.In the latter half of 2005, Chairman Bill Ford asked newly appointed Ford Americas Division PresidentMark Fieldsto develop a plan to return the company to profitability. Fields previewed the plan, namedThe Way Forward, at the board meeting of the company on December 7, 2005, and it was unveiled to the public on January 23, 2006. \"The Way Forward\" included resizing the company to match market realities, dropping some unprofitable and inefficient models, consolidating production lines, closing 14 factories and cutting 30,000 jobs. Ford moved to introduce a range of new vehicles, including \"Crossover SUVs\" built onunibodycar platforms, rather than morebody-on-framechassis. In developing the hybrid electric powertrain technologies for theFord Escape HybridSUV, the company licensed similar Toyota hybrid technologiesin order to avoid patent infringements.Ford announced that it would team up with electricity supply companySouthern California Edison(SCE) to examine the future",
"examine the future ofplug-in hybridsin terms of how home and vehicle energy systems will work with the electrical grid. Under the multimillion-dollar, multi-year project, Ford is to convert a demonstration fleet ofFord Escape Hybridsinto plug-in hybrids, and SCE is to evaluate how the vehicles might interact with the home and the utility's electrical grid. Some of the vehicles are to be evaluated \"in typical customer settings\", according to Ford. William Clay Ford Jr., great-grandson of Henry Ford (and better known by his nickname \"Bill\"), was appointed executive chairman in 1998, and also became chief executive officer of the company in 2001, with the departure ofJacques Nasser, becoming the first member of the Ford family to head the company since the retirement of his uncle,Henry Ford II, in 1982. Ford sold motorsport engineering companyCosworthtoGerald ForsytheandKevin Kalkhovenin 2004, the start of a decrease in Ford's motorsport involvement. Upon the retirement of president and chief operations officer",
"operations officer Jim Padilla in April 2006, Bill Ford assumed his roles as well. Five months later, in September, Ford namedAlan Mulallyas president and CEO, with Ford continuing as executive chairman. In December 2006, the company raised its borrowing capacity to about $25 billion, placing substantially all corporate assets as collateral.Chairman Bill Ford has stated that \"bankruptcy is not an option\".Ford and theUnited Auto Workers, representing approximately 46,000 hourly workers in North America, agreed to a historic contract settlement in November 2007 giving the company a substantial break in terms of its ongoing retiree health care costs and other economic issues. The agreement included the establishment of a company-funded, independently runVoluntary Employee Beneficiary Association(VEBA) trust to shift the burden of retiree health care from the company's books, thereby improving its balance sheet. This arrangement took effect on January 1, 2010. As a sign of its currently strong cash position,",
"cash position, Ford contributed its entire current liability (estimated atUS$5.5 billionas of December 31, 2009) to the VEBA in cash, and also pre-paidUS$500 millionof its future liabilities to the fund. The agreement also gave hourly workers the job security they were seeking by having the company commit to substantial investments in most of its factories. The automaker reported the largest annual loss in company history in 2006 of $12.7 billion,and estimated that it would not return to profitability until 2009.However, Ford surprisedWall Streetin the second quarter of 2007 by posting a $750 million profit. Despite the gains, the company finished the year with a $2.7 billion loss, largely attributed to finance restructuring atVolvo.On June 2, 2008, Ford sold its Jaguar and Land Rover operations toTata Motorsfor $2.3 billion. During congressional hearings held in November 2008 at Washington D.C., Ford's Alan Mulally stated that \"We at Ford are hopeful that we have enough liquidity. But we also must prepare",
"also must prepare ourselves for the prospect of further deteriorating economic conditions\". He went on to state that \"The collapse of one of our competitors would have a severe impact on Ford\" and that Ford Motor Company supported both Chrysler and General Motors in their search for government bridge loans during the2008–2010 automotive industry crisis.Together, the three companies presented action plans for the sustainability of the industry. Mulally stated that \"In addition to our plan, we are also here today to request support for the industry. In the near-term, Ford does not require access to a government bridge loan. However, we request a credit line of $9 billion as a critical backstop or safeguard against worsening conditions as we drive transformational change in our company\".GM and Chrysler received government loans and financing throughT.A.R.P.legislation funding provisions. On December 19, the cost ofcredit default swapsto insure the debt of Ford was 68 percent of the sum insured for five years,",
"for five years, in addition to annual payments of 5 percent. That meant $6.8 million paid upfront to insure $10 million in debt, in addition to payments of $500,000 per year.In January 2009, Ford reported a $14.6 billion loss in the preceding year, a record for the company. The company retained sufficient liquidity to fund its operations. Through April 2009, Ford's strategy ofdebt-for-equityexchanges erased $9.9 billion in liabilities (28% of its total) in order to leverage its cash position.These actions yielded Ford a $2.7 billion profit in fiscal year 2009, the company's first full-year profit in four years.In 2012, Ford's corporate bonds were upgraded from junk to investment grade again, citing sustainable, lasting improvements. On October 29, 2012, Ford announced the sale of its climate control components business, its last remaining automotive components operation, to Detroit Thermal Systems LLC for an undisclosed price.On November 1, 2012, Ford announced thatCEOAlan Mulally would stay with the company",
"with the company until 2014. Ford also named Mark Fields, its president of operations in the Americas, as its new chief operating officerMulally was paid a compensation of over $174 million in his previous seven years at Ford since 2006. The generous amount has been a sore point for some workers of the company. In April 2016, Ford announced a plan to modernize its Dearborn engineering and headquarters campuses through a ten-year building project. The result would see the number of Ford employees working in these areas doubling, to 24,000. During construction, some 2000 of the employees were relocated out of the campus to a temporary location in a disused section of the local shopping mall.Facilities would also be altered to allow ride-sharing and electric and self-driving vehicles.Estimates of the construction cost were $1.2 billion. On January 3, 2017, FordCEOMark Fields announced that in a \"vote of confidence\" because of the pro-business climate being fostered in part byPresident-electDonald Trump, Ford",
"Trump, Ford had canceled plans to invest $1.6 billion in a new plant in Mexico to manufacture theFord Focus; instead, the company would invest $700 million inMichigan, which it planned to use to create 700 new jobs. The Focus would now be manufactured in the existing plant in Mexico. Also in 2017, Ford began development of a new mixed-use urban campus inthe Corktown neighborhood of Detroit, with its purchase, renovation, and occupation of The Factory at Michigan and Rosa Parks. The new site was expected to have a major focus on the development ofautonomous vehicleandelectric vehicletechnology.Ford later began buying up other parcels of land in Corktown including a very high-profile purchase ofMichigan Central Stationwhich is planned to become the hub of their Corktown campus, and the adjacentRoosevelt Warehouse.Ford expects to move 2,500 of its employees, roughly 5 percent of its southeast Michigan workforce, to the campus with space for an additional 2,500 entrepreneurs, technology companies and",
"companies and partners.Bill Ford envisioned the first-floor concourse of the train station to be a public gathering place with retail outlets and restaurants.In February 2017, Ford Motor Co. acquired majority ownership ofArgo AI, a self-driving car startup. In May 2017, Ford announced cuts to its global workforce amid efforts to address the company's declining share price and to improve profits. The company is targeting $3 billion in cost reduction and a nearly 10% reduction in the salaried workforce in Asia and North America to enhance earnings in 2018.Jim Hackett was announced to replace Mark Fields as CEO of Ford Motor. Mr. Hackett most recently oversaw the formation of Ford Smart Mobility, a unit responsible for experimenting with car-sharing programs, self-driving ventures and other programs aimed at helping Ford better compete withUber,Alphabet Inc.and other tech giants looking to edge in on the auto industry. On April 25, 2018, Ford announced that it would discontinue passenger cars in the North",
"cars in the North American market in the next four years, except for the Mustang, due to declining demand and profitability.The Focus Active, a crossover SUV based on the newly unveiled fourth-generation Focus, was also intended to be marketed in the United States. Due to the vehicle being manufactured in China, Ford later announced that it would not release the Focus Active in the United States, due totariffs imposed by the Trump administration on Chinese exports. In March 2020, the DetroitUnited Auto Workersunion announced that after discussion with the leaders ofGeneral Motors, Ford, andFiat Chrysler Automobiles, the carmakers would partially shut down factories on a \"rotating\" basis to mitigate theCOVID-19 pandemic.On March 24, representatives of Ford announced that production in the US, Canada, and Mexico would not resume on March 30 as originally planned, amid the further coronavirus pandemic spread.In the first quarter of 2020, Ford's sales dropped by 15%, entailing the loss of $2 billion. With the",
"billion. With the change in the demand for the sport vehicles, on January 6, 2021, Ford reported a sales fall of 9.8% in the fourth quarter, selling 542,749 vehicles, compared to 601,862 in 2019.In April 2021, Ford said that it would provide COVID-19 vaccines for its employees, who were to obtain them at the company; at the beginning the vaccination program would be in southeast Michigan, Missouri and Ohio, but it was to be expanded later on to other locations. In March 2022, Ford announced that it would restructure the company into three separate divisions. Ford Model E is to focus on electric vehicles; Ford Blue is to focus on internal combustion vehicles; and the existing commercial division is to be rebranded as Ford Pro, to focus on vehicle distribution and service.In August 2022, Ford announced it planned layoffs of roughly 3,000 employees and contract workers, confirming earlier reporting. The cuts would mostly affect divisions in the US, Canada, and India, which Jim Farley said would allow the",
"would allow the company to prepare for the future of electric, software-heavy vehicles. In February 2023, Ford announced that it was going to cut 3,800 jobs across Europe, with the job cuts mainly focusing on their German and British workforce. Ford will be cutting 2,300 jobs from Germany, 1,300 from the United Kingdom, and an additional 200 jobs in the rest of Europe, according to the head of Ford Germany, Martin Sander. The cuts will mainly be done to the company's engineers.Ford also announced during the year that their electric vehicle business had lost $3 billion before taxes over the past two years and will lose a similar amount in 2023 as the company looks to significantly invest in Electric Technology. The Ford Model E is expected to be profitable by 2026. In April 2023, United Kingdom ministers approved Ford'sBlueCruisetechnology. Because of this assisted driving technology, Ford drivers can now legally take their hands off the wheel on certain roads. Its top speed is 129 km/h (80 mph). BlueCruise",
"mph). BlueCruise uses sensors and cameras to regulate the car's speed and to keep track of speed limits and road signs. It also monitors and keeps a safe distance from other vehicles. It also comes equipped with an eye-tracking system. If the driver stops looking at the road then the car will gradually reduce its speed. This technology will initially be offered in Ford's 2023 model of the electric Mustang Mach-E SUV. According to Thatcham Research, an automotive research company, this model is not a self-driving car. It is classified as a level 2 or partial automation assistance system. This means that technology controls two or more driving aspects but still requires human driver control in cases of emergencies. The driver is still legally responsible for accidents.In August 2024Pennsylvania State Policefiled charges against a driver that killed two men while using BlueCruise. Logo history Corporate affairs Business trends The key trends for the Ford Motor Company are (as of the financial year ending",
"year ending December 31): Executive management Members of the Ford board as of March 2023are:William Clay Ford Jr.(executive chairman),Jim Farley(president and CEO),Kimberly Casiano, Alexandra Ford English (daughter of William Clay Ford Jr.), Henry Ford III (son ofEdsel Ford II), William W. Helman IV,Jon Huntsman Jr.,William E. Kennard, John C. May,Beth E. Mooney,John L. Thornton,John Veihmeyer, Lynn Vojvodich Radakovich, and John S. Weinberg. Jim FarleysucceededJim Hackettas the chief executive officer of the company in August 2020; he previously served as Ford's chief operating officer. Hackett stayed in the company as an advisor until the second quarter of 2021. Ownership Ford is mainly owned by institutional investors, who own around 60% of shares. The largest shareholders in December 2023 were: Ford Philanthropy The Ford Philanthropy, formerly known as the Ford Motor Company Fund (also known as Ford Fund, not affiliated with theFord Foundation), based in Dearborn, Michigan, is the philanthropic arm of",
"arm of the Ford Motor Company.Established in 1949byHenry Ford II,the organization is a nonprofit corporate foundationfinanced by contributions from Ford Motor Company. In 2017, it contributed $63 millionto various causeswith a focus on education, driving safely and community building. The Ford Driving Skills for Life program is a driver safety program aimed at teens that were developed together with the Governors Highway Safety Association and safety experts.The Ford Volunteer Corps allows Ford employees and retirees to sign up for volunteering work on local projects in more than 40 countries.The organization invests $18 million annually in education in the United States and around the world, but accepts applications only from nonprofit organizations registered in the U.S.Education programs and scholarships include Alan Mulally Engineering Scholarship, Ford Blue Oval Scholars Program, Ford College Community Challenge (Ford C3), Ford Driving Dreams Tour, Ford Fund/Detroit Free Press Journalism Scholarship,",
"Scholarship, Ford Next Generation Learning (Ford NGL), Grants to Individuals Program, HBCU Community Challenge, Smithsonian Latino Center Young Ambassadors Program, and William Clay Ford Automotive Design Scholarship. On April 29, 2024, the Ford Fund announced its official name has changed to Ford Philanthropy. Operations Ford has had manufacturingoperationsworldwide, including in the United States, Canada, Mexico, China, India, the United Kingdom, Germany, Turkey, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, and South Africa. Ford also helped the Soviet Union to construct Russian automakerGAZ. North America In May 2010, Ford reported that its sales increased 23% for the month, and that 37% of its sales came from fleet sales.In June 2010, sales to individual customers at dealerships increased 13% while fleet sales rose by 32%.In the first seven months of 2010, fleet sales of Ford for the same period rose 35% to 386,000 units while retail sales increase 19%.Fleet sales account for 39 percent of Chrysler's sales and 31",
"sales and 31 percent for GM's. Europe At first,Ford in GermanyandFord in Britainbuilt different models from one another until 1965, when theFord Transitand later theFord Escortand theFord Capribecame common to both companies. In 1970, theFord Taunusand theFord Cortinacame into production with a common base construction, both models being produced inleft hand driveandright hand drive. Later on, the models became identical and the respective models right- and left-hand-drive exclusively. Rationalisation of model ranges meant that production of many models in the UK switched to elsewhere in Europe, including Belgium and Spain as well as Germany. TheFord Sierrareplaced the Taunus and Cortina in 1982, drawing criticism for its radical aerodynamic styling, which was soon given nicknames, the \"Jellymould\" and \"The Salesman's Spaceship\". In February 2002, Ford ended car production in the UK. It was the first time in 90 years that Ford cars had not been made in Britain, although production of theTransitvan continued",
"continued at the company'sSouthamptonfacility until mid-2013, engines atBridgendandDagenham, and transmissions atHalewood. Development of European Ford is broadly split betweenDuntonin Essex (powertrain, Fiesta/Ka, and commercial vehicles) andCologne(body, chassis, electrical, Focus, Mondeo) in Germany. Ford also produced theThamesrange of commercial vehicles, although the use of this brand name was discontinued with the introduction of theFord Transitin 1965. Elsewhere in continental Europe, Ford assembles the Mondeo,Galaxy,S-MaxandKugain Valencia (Spain), Fiesta in Cologne (Germany), Focus inSaarlouis(Germany), EcosportandPumainCraiova(Romania). Ford also owns a joint-venture production plant in Turkey.Ford Otosan, established in the 1970s, manufactures theTransit Connectcompact panel van as well as the \"Jumbo\" and long-wheelbase versions of the full-size Transit. This new production facility was set up nearKocaeliin 2002, and its opening marked the end of Transit assembly in Genk. Another joint venture",
"joint venture plant nearSetúbalin Portugal, set up in collaboration withVolkswagen, formerly assembled theGalaxypeople-carrier as well as its sister ships, theVW SharanandSEAT Alhambra. With the introduction of the third generation of the Galaxy, Ford has moved the production of the people-carrier to the Genk plant, with Volkswagen taking over sole ownership of the Setúbal facility. In 2008, Ford acquired a majority stake inAutomobile Craiova, Romania. Starting 2009, theFord Transit Connectwas Ford's first model produced in Craiova, followed, in 2012, by low-capacity car engines and a new small class car, theB-Max.In 2022,Ford Romaniawas acquired by Ford Otosan and in 2023, production of theFord Transit Courier/Tourneo Courierstarted at the facility. Its 1959Angliatwo-door saloon was one of the most quirky-looking small family cars in Europe at the time of its launch, but buyers soon became accustomed to its looks and it was hugely popular with British buyers in particular. It was still selling well when",
"selling well when replaced by the more practicalEscortin 1967. The third incarnation of the Ford Escort was launched in 1980 and marked the company's move from rear-wheel-drive saloons to front-wheel-drive hatchbacks in the small family car sector. The fourth-generation Escort was produced from 1990 until 2000, although its successor—theFocus—had been on sale since 1998. On its launch, the Focus was arguably the most dramatic-looking and fine-handling small family cars on sale and sold in huge volumes right up to the launch of the next-generation Focus at the end of 2004. The 1982Ford Sierra—replacement for the long-running and massively popularCortinaandTaunusmodels—was a style-setter at the time of its launch. Its ultramodern aerodynamic design was a world away from a boxy, sharp-edged Cortina, and it was massively popular just about everywhere it was sold. A series of updates kept it looking relatively fresh until it was replaced by the front-wheel-driveMondeoat the start of 1993. The rise in popularity",
"rise in popularity of small cars during the 1970s saw Ford enter the mini-car market in 1976 with itsFiestahatchback. Most of its production was concentrated atValenciain Spain, and the Fiesta sold in huge figures from the very start. An update in 1983 and the launch of an all-new model in 1989 strengthened its position in the small car market. On October 24, 2012, Ford announced that it would close itsGenkassembly plant in eastern Belgium by the end of 2014. In 2015, Ford announced that it took control ofFord Sollers, Ford's joint venture with Russian companySollers. In September 2018, at the IAA Commercial Vehicles show in Hannover, Germany, Ford introduced an electric tractor-trailer concept vehicle dubbed the F-Vision, which would have Level 4 autonomous driving capability. On March 1, 2022, Ford announced that it was suspending itsSollersjoint venture operation in Russia, in response to the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.On October 26, 2022, Ford sold its 49 percent share in the joint venture, and",
"joint venture, and exited the Russian market,adding that it retains the option to buy them back within a 5-year period \"should the global situation change\". East and Southeast Asia Ford formed its first passenger-vehicle joint venture in China in 2001, six years behind GM and more than a decade after VW. It has spent as of 2013$4.9 billion to expand its lineup and double production capacity in China to 600,000 vehicles. This includes Ford's largest-ever factory complex in the southwestern city of Chongqing. Ford had 2.5% of the Chinese market in 2013, while VW controlled 14.5% and GM had 15.6%, according to consultant LMC Automotive. GM outsells Ford in China by more than six-to-one.Ford's presence in Asia has traditionally been much smaller, confined to Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, the Philippines, and Taiwan, where Ford has had a joint venture withLio Hosince the 1970s. Ford began assembly of cars in Thailand in 1960, but withdrew from the country in 1976, and did not return until 1995 when it formed a",
"when it formed a joint venture withMazdacalled Auto Alliance.Now based in the Bo-win Sub District of the Sriracha District inChonburi, the factory still produces passenger automobiles. The factory, built in 1941 in Singapore, was soon taken over by the Japanese during the war and was the site of a surrender of the British to the Japanese, at thefactory sitewhich is now a national monument in Singapore. On April 30, 2013, Ford Motor Co. launched their car and pickup truck line inMyanmar. Previously, heavy importation taxes had stifled imported car purchases in Myanmar, but due to currency reform, lifting of previous import restrictions, and the abolishment ofshadow currency, Myanmar's car market had grown in demand. South Korea In 1967, Ford partnered with the South Korean companyHyundai, and at the new factory inUlsan, South Korea, built the EuropeanFord Cortinauntil 1974 when Hyundai introduced their all-newHyundai Ponyin 1975. Ford then developed a relationship with Korea's oldest car manufacturerKiawhich",
"built vehicles co-engineered withMazda, later selling theFord Festivafrom 1988 to 1993, and theFord Aspirefrom 1994 to 1997 for export to the United States. With the acquisition of a stake in Japanese manufacturerMazdain 1979, Ford began selling Mazda'sFamiliaandCapellaas theFord LaserandTelstarthroughout the region, replacing the European-sourced Escort and Cortina. From 1989 to 1996, Kia imported theMercury Sablefrom Ford in the U.S. and sold them in South Korea as the Kia Sable. Though the Sable was branded and marketed as a Kia, it retained the Mercury badges and emblem. Ford lost their Kia interest to Hyundai in 1998 after the1997 Asian financial crisis. Kia had declared bankruptcy in 1997; in 1998,Hyundai Motor Companyacquired 51% of the company, outbidding Ford which had owned an interest in Kia Motors since 1986.After subsequent divestments,Hyundai Motor Company owns less than 50% of the company but remains Kia's largest stakeholder. As of 2020, Ford sells the Explorer, Mondeo, and Mustang,as well as",
"Mustang,as well as the Lincoln Aviator, Continental, Corsair, MKZ, and Nautilus in South Korea. South and West Asia Ford Indiabegan production in 1998 atChennai,Tamil Nadu, with its Ford Escort model, which was later replaced by the locally producedFord Ikonin 2001. It has since added the Fusion, Fiesta, Mondeo and Endeavour models to its product line. On March 9, 2010, Ford launched its first made-for-India compact car. Starting at₹349,900, theFigowas Ford's first car designed and priced for the mass Indian market.On July 28, 2011, Ford India signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the State ofGujaratfor the construction of an assembly and engine plant inSanandand planned to invest approximatelyUS$1 billionon a 460-acre site.In 2019, the company andMahindra & Mahindraformed a joint venture to develop, market and distribute Ford-branded vehicles in India.In September 2021 Ford India announced plans to shut down both its assembly plants. The company said that it intends to maintain its parts and",
"its parts and service network. Ford's market presence in the Middle East has traditionally been small, partly due to previous Arab boycotts of companies dealing with Israel. Ford and Lincoln vehicles are currently marketed in ten countries in the region.Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates are the biggest markets. Ford also established itself in Egypt in 1926 but faced an uphill battle during the 1950s due to the hostile nationalist business environment.Ford's distributor in Saudi Arabia announced in February 2003 that it had sold 100,000 Ford and Lincoln vehicles since commencing sales in November 1986. Half of the Ford and Lincoln vehicles sold in that country wereFord Crown Victorias.In 2004, Ford sold 30,000 units in the region, falling far short of General Motors' 88,852 units andNissan Motors' 75,000 units. South America In South America, Ford's primary operations are inBrazil,Argentina, and Ford Andina(Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela). Ford employs over 18,000 people and operates seven",
"and operates seven assembly or other plants in the region.In 1987, Ford Brasil and Ford Motor Argentina merged their operations with the Brazilian and Argentine operations ofVolkswagen Group, forming a new joint-venture company calledAutolatinawith a shared model range.Autolatina was dissolved in 1995. In early 2021, Ford's Brazil branch announced it would completely cease production in the country over the course of a few months. Africa In Africa, Ford's market presence has traditionally been strongest in South Africa and neighbouring countries, with only trucks being sold elsewhere on the continent. Ford in South Africa began by importing kits from Canada to be assembled at its facility inPort Elizabeth; the company later sourced its models from the UK and Australia, with local versions of the Ford Cortina including the XR6, with a 3.0 V6 engine, and aCortina-based 'bakkie' or pick-up, which was exported to the UK. In the mid-1980s Ford merged with a rival company, owned byAnglo American, to form theSouth",
"to form theSouth African Motor Corporation(Samcor). Following international condemnation ofapartheid, Ford divested from South Africa in 1988, and sold its stake in Samcor, although it licensed the use of its brand name to the company.Samcor began to assemble Mazdas as well, which affected its product line-up and saw the European Fords like the Escort and Sierra replaced by theMazda-based LaserandTelstar.Ford bought a 45 per cent stake inSamcorfollowing the demise of apartheid in 1994, and this later became, once again, a wholly owned subsidiary, the Ford Motor Company of Southern Africa. Ford now sells a local sedan version of the Fiesta (also built in India and Mexico), and the Focus. The Falcon model from Australia was also sold in South Africa, but was dropped in 2003; the Mondeo, after briefly being assembled locally, was dropped in 2005. The Mondeo was later reintroduced in 2015, badged as theFusion, but was dropped in 2017. Research Ford Research and Innovation Center is the name of the technology",
"of the technology research facilities of Ford Motor Company in The Ford Research and Innovation Center in Palo Alto was first opened in 2012, and in January 2015, announced plans to significantly expand its operations. Former operations East and Southeast Asia Ford decided to shut down their entire operations inIndonesia, including their dealer network by second half of 2016. Ford of Japan Ford established a manufacturing facility in the port city of Yokohama in February 1925, where Model T vehicles were assembled using importedknock-down kits.The factory subsequently produced 10,000 Model A's up to 1936. Production ceased in 1940 as a result of political tensions between Japan and the United States. After World War II, Ford did not have a presence in Japan, as the Ford facility was appropriated by the Japanese Government until 1958 when property was returned as a possession of the Ford Motor Company and became aresearch and development locationfor Ford partnerMazda. In 1979, Ford acquired a 24.5% ownership",
"a 24.5% ownership stake in Mazda, and in 1982, Ford and Mazda jointly established a sales channel to sell Ford products in Japan, including vehicles manufactured in North America, at a dealership calledAutorama(Japanese). The Autorama sales channel was renamed Ford Sales of Japan in 1997. Vehicles sold atAutoramalocations were the North American assembled Ford Explorer, Probe (1989–1998), Mustang, Taurus (1989–1997), Thunderbird (1990–1993), Lincoln Continental, and Lincoln LS. Ford products manufactured in Europe that were sold in Japan were theFord Mondeo,Ka,Focus,Focus C-MAX,Fiesta, and theGalaxy. Mazda manufactured Ford vehicles in Japan and sold them as Fords at the Autorama locations. They were theFord Telstar(Mazda Capella),Laser,Festiva,Festiva Mini Wagon,Ixion(Mazda Premacy),Freda(Mazda Bongo Friendee),Spectron(Mazda Bongo), and commercial trucks J80 and the J100 (Mazda Bongo truck). Ford increased its shareholding in Mazda to 33.4% in 1996, but as of July 2016, it is listed at 11%.Ford did sell a",
"11%.Ford did sell a small range of vehicles in Japan; as of October 2010, the Ford Mustang, Escape, Explorer (and Explorer pickup truck),Ford Kuga,Lincoln Navigator,Lincoln MKX, and more recently, theFord Ecosportwere available in Japan. As of February 2016, Ford no longer maintains a regional office in Minato, Tokyo, Japan, and sales of new cars in Japan have ended. Oceania In Australia and New Zealand, the popularFord Falcon(1960–2016) had long been considered the average family car and is considerably larger than the Mondeo, Ford's largest car sold in Europe. Between 1960 and 1972, the Falcon was based on a U.S. model of the same name, but since then has been entirely designed and manufactured in Australia until 2016, occasionally being manufactured in New Zealand. Like itsGeneral Motorsrival, theHolden Commodore, the Falcon used a rear-wheel-drive layout. High-performance variants of the Falcon running locally built engines produce up to 362 hp (270 kW). Aute(short for \"utility\", known in the U.S.",
"known in the U.S. aspickup truck) version is also available with the same range of drivetrains. In addition, Ford Australia sold highly tuned limited-production Falcon sedans andutesthrough its performance car division,Ford Performance Vehiclesuntil it closed in 2014. In Australia, the Commodore and Falcon had traditionally outsold all other cars and constituted over 20% of the new car market. In New Zealand, Ford was second in market share in the first eight months of 2006 with 14.4%.More recently, Ford has axed its Falcon-based LWB variant of its lineup– the Fairlane and LTD ranges. Ford discontinued the Fairlane in 2007 and LTD in 2008. Ford had announced that their Geelong engine manufacturing plant would be shut down between 2013 and 2016. They had earlier announced local manufacturing of the Focus small car starting from 2011, but instead decided to import the model from Ford's plant inThailand. In Australia, the Laser was one ofFord Australia's most successful models and was manufactured in",
"was manufactured in Ford'sHomebush Westplant from 1981 until the plant's closure in September 1994. It outsold theMazda 323, despite being almost identical to it because the Laser was manufactured in Australia and Ford was perceived as a local brand.According to research carried out byFord Australiain 1984, a third of Laser buyers were unaware that the Ford model was based on theMazda 323. In New Zealand, theFord LaserandTelstarwere assembled alongside theMazda 323and626until 1997, at the Vehicle Assemblers of New Zealand (VANZ) plant inWiri,Auckland.TheSierrawagon was also assembled in New Zealand, owing to the popularity ofstation wagonsin that market. The scheduled closure of Ford's Australian manufacturing base in 2016 was confirmed on May 23, 2013. Headquartered in the Victorian suburb of Broadmeadows, the company had registered losses worth AU$600 million over the five years prior to the announcement. It was noted that the corporate fleet and government sales that account for two-thirds of large, local",
"of large, local car sales in Australia are insufficient to keep Ford's products profitable and viable in Australia. The decision will affect 1200 Ford workers—over 600 employees in Geelong and more than 500 in Broadmeadows—who will lose their jobs by October 2016. The closure of Ford's plants in Norlane Geelong and Broadmeadows Melbourne occurred on October 7, 2016. Products and services Automobiles Ford Motor Company sells a broad range of automobiles under the Fordmarqueworldwide, and an additional range of luxury automobiles under theLincolnmarque in the United States. The company has sold vehicles under a number of other marques during its history. TheMercurybrand was introduced by Ford in 1939, continuing in production until 2011 when poor sales led to its discontinuation.In 1958, Ford introduced theEdselbrand, but poor sales led to its discontinuation in 1960. In 1985, theMerkurbrand was introduced in the United States to market products produced by Ford of Europe; it was discontinued in 1989. Ford",
"in 1989. Ford acquired the British sports car makerAston Martinin 1989, later selling it on March 12, 2007,although retaining an 8% stake.Ford purchasedVolvo Carsof Sweden in 1999,selling it toZhejiang Geely Holding Groupin 2010. In November 2008, it reduced its 33.4%controlling interestinMazdaof Japan to a 13.4% non-controlling interest.On November 18, 2010, Ford reduced their stake further to just 3%, citing the reduction of ownership would allow greater flexibility to pursue growth in emerging markets. Ford and Mazda remain strategic partners through exchanges of technological information and joint ventures, including an American joint venture plant inFlat Rock, MichigancalledAuto Alliance.In 2015, Ford sold its remaining 3% stake in Mazda. Ford sold the United Kingdom-basedJaguarandLand Rovercompanies and brands toTata Motorsof India in March 2008. On April 25, 2018, Ford announced that it planned to phase out all but one of its North American automobile models (theMustangwill be the sole surviving",
"the sole surviving model) to focus primarily on pickup trucks and SUVs. Ford had also planned to introduce an \"Active\" crossover version of the next-generationFocus, but canceled those plans due to tariff issues between the United States and China. Trucks Ford has produced trucks since 1908, beginning with theFord Model TT, followed by theModel AA, and theModel BB. Countries where Ford commercial vehicles are or were formerly produced include Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada (also badged asMercury), France, Germany, India, Netherlands, Philippines, Spain (badgedEbrotoo), Turkey, UK (badged alsoFordsonandThames), and the United States. From the 1940s to the late 1970s, Ford'sFord F-Serieswas used as the base for light trucks for the North American market. Most of these ventures are now extinct. The European one that lasted longest was the lorries arm ofFord of Britain, which became part of theIvecogroup in 1986. Ford had a minority share in the new company and Iveco took over sales and production of",
"and production of theFord Cargorange.Ford's last significant European truck models were theTranscontinentaland the Cargo. At the end of 1996, Ford sold the rights to its heavy trucks division to theFreightliner Trucksdivision of Daimler AG, with Ford producing the Cargo, Louisville, and Aeromax, through the 1998 model year. During the 1998 model year, Freightliner began production of its own versions of Ford-developed trucks in St. Thomas, Ontario, launching theSterlingtruck brand.Slotted between Freightliner and Western Star, Sterling trucks were produced through 2009. Line of heavy trucks made by Ford for the North American market: For 1999, Ford briefly withdrew from production of medium-duty trucks. For the 2001 model year, the company entered into a joint venture withNavistar International(the supplier of diesel engines for 1-ton F-Series trucks), namedBlue Diamond Truck Company LLC.As part of the joint venture, sharing a common truck chassis, the two companies would produce medium-duty (Class 6–7)",
"(Class 6–7) trucks in a Navistar facility in Mexico, with each manufacturer supplying its own powertrain and bodywork, with theFord F-650/F-750 Super DutyandInternational 4000/DuraStarsharing an assembly line. In 2006, the joint venture debuted the Ford LCF/International CityStar.Using a modified F-Series chassis adopted to fit a Mazda Titan cab, the LCF was a low-cab forward truck that was sold through 2009. In Europe, Ford manufactures theFord Transitjumbo van, which is classed as a Large Goods Vehicle and has a payload of up to 2,265 kg; there are options of a panel van, pickup or chassis cab. The Ford Transit is also available as a light van called theFord Transit Connectand theFord Rangerpickup is available. Buses Ford manufactured complete buses in the company's early history, but today the role of the company has changed to that of asecond stage manufacturer. In North America, theE-Seriesis still used as a chassis for small school buses and theF-650is used in commercial bus markets. In the 1980s and",
"In the 1980s and 1990s, the medium-dutyB700was a popular chassis used by school bus body manufacturers includingThomas Built,Ward, andBlue Bird, but Ford lost its market share due to industry contraction and agreements between body manufacturers. Older bus models included: Prior to 1936, Ford buses were based on truck bodies: In 1936, Ford introduced theFord Transit Bus, a series of small transit buses with bodies built by a second party. Originally a front-engine design, it was modified to a rear-engine design in 1939. About 1,000 to 1,200 of the original design were built, and around 12,500 of the rear-engine design, which was in production until 1947(rebranded as the Universal Bus in 1946). Rear-engine Transit Bus chassis model numbers: After 1946 the Transit City bus was sold as theUniversal Buswith the roof changed from fabric/wood to all-metal: Succeeding theFord Transit Buswas theFord 8Mbuses: Following World War II and from the 1950s onwards, Ford lost out toGeneral Motors.This led to the end of",
"led to the end of transit buses for Ford in North America. In Europe, Ford manufactures theFord TransitMinibuswhich is classed in Europe as a Passenger Carrying Vehicle and there are options of 12-, 15-, or 17-seaters.In the past, European models included: Tractors The \"Henry Ford and Son Company\" began makingFordson tractorsin Henry's hometown of Springwells (later part ofDearborn), Michigan, from 1907 to 1928, from 1919 to 1932, atCork, Ireland, and between 1933 and 1964 atDagenham, England, later transferred toBasildon. They were also produced inLeningradbeginning in 1924. Ford reentered the tractor market in 1939 with theFord N-series tractors. The Ford 8N, introduced in 1947, became the most popular tractor of all time in North America. Production of the N line of models ended in 1952. TheFord NAA tractorwas introduced as an entirely new model in 1953. It was a replacement for the Ford N-Series tractors. Larger than the 8N, with a four-cylinder engine, and streamlined styling. In 1986, Ford expanded its",
"Ford expanded its tractor business when it purchased the Sperry-New Holland skid-steer loader and hay baler, hay tools and implement company fromSperry Corporationand formed Ford-New Holland which bought outVersatiletractors in 1988. This company was bought byFiatin 1993 and the name changed from Ford New Holland to New Holland.New Hollandis now part ofCNH Global. Financial services Ford offers automotive finance throughFord Motor Credit Company. Automotive components Ford'sFoMoCoparts division sells aftermarket parts under theMotorcraftbrand name. It has spun off its parts division under the nameVisteon. FordWorks Program Ford Motor Company created the FordWorks program in 2016with the aim to bring people with disabilities back into the workforce.It was the first automotive program to focus on bringing people with autism in the workforce in the US. They targeted people with autismbut have expanded their criteria to people with other disabilities.Ford has partnered with Upbound to broaden their hiring under",
"their hiring under the FordWorks program. Marques Current marques Former marques Motorsport FIA World Championships Along withShelbyandChevrolet, Ford is one of only three American constructors to win titles on the international scene at theFIA World Championships. As a constructor, Ford won theWorld Sportscar Championshipthree times in1966(bothsports prototypecategory andGrand Touring (GT)category),1967(GT category), and1968(sports prototype category), and at theWorld Rally ChampionshipFord won 4World Drivers' Championships(in1979,1981,2017and2018) as well as 4World Manufacturers' Championships(in1979,2006,2007and2017). As an engine supplier, Ford also won 13Formula One World Drivers' Championshipsand 10Formula One World Constructors' Championships. Ford is also one of only three constructors to complete theTriple Crown of Motorsport(wins at theIndianapolis 500,24 Hours of Le Mans, andMonaco Grand Prix), a feat that Ford achieved as anengine manufacturerby winning the1968 Monaco Grand Prix. Open-wheel",
"Prix. Open-wheel racing IndyCar IndyCarswith Ford engines first competed in 1935 using aproduction-based Ford V8in the Miller-Ford racer.ApushrodFord V8 raced with Lotus in 1963, and Ford's first Indy win was in 1965 with aDOHCV8.Ford motors, including the Ford-sponsoredDFX enginedeveloped byCosworth, have won theIndianapolis 500eighteen times.On May 12, 1996,Arie Luyendyk, while driving an IndyCar powered by a Ford Cosworth XB engine, broke theIndianapolis 500 recordsfor fastest qualification lap (237.498 mph; 382.216 km/h) and fastest qualification four-lap average (236.986 mph; 381.392 km/h).These speed records still stand as of 2022. Formula Ford Formula Ford, conceived in the UK in 1966, is an entry-level type offormula racingwith wingless single-seater cars. Many of today's formula racing drivers started their car racing careers in this category. Formula One Ford was heavily involved inFormula Onefor many years and supplied engines to a large number of teams from 1967 until 2004. These engines were",
"These engines were designed and manufactured byCosworth, the racing division that was owned by Ford from 1998 to 2004. Ford-badged engines won 176 Grands Prix between 1967 and 2003 for teams such asTeam LotusandMcLaren. Ford entered Formula One as a constructor in 2000 under theJaguar Racingname, after buying theStewart Grand Prixteam which had been its primary 'works' team in the series since 1997. Jaguar achieved little success in Formula One, and after a turbulent five seasons, Ford withdrew from the category after the2004 season, selling both Jaguar Racing (which becameRed Bull Racing) and Cosworth (toGerald ForsytheandKevin Kalkhoven). Ford has announced that it will return to Formula One in 2026 following a partnership withRed Bull Powertrains, supplying power units to Red Bull Racing and their second teamRB. Stock car racing Ford is one of three manufacturers inNASCAR's three major series: theCup Series,Xfinity Series, andTruck Series. Major teams includeRFK Racing,Team Penske,Stewart-Haas Racing,",
"Racing, andWood Brothers Racing. Ford is represented by theMustang GTin the Cup Series, and the Xfinity Series and by theF-150in the Truck Series. Some of the most successful NASCAR Fords were the aerodynamic fastbackFord Torino,Ford Torino Talladega,Mercury Cyclone Spoiler II, andMercury Montegos, and the aero-eraFord Thunderbirds. The Ford nameplate has won eightmanufacturer's championshipsin Sprint Cup while Mercury has won one. In the Sprint Cup Series, Ford earned its 1,000th victory in the2013 Quicken Loans 400.The Ford Fusion is also used in theARCA Racing Series. Rally Ford has a long history inrallyingand has been active in theWorld Rally Championshipsince the beginning of the world championship, the1973 season. Ford took the1979manufacturers' title withHannu Mikkola,Björn Waldegård, andAri Vatanendriving theFord Escort RS1800. In theGroup Bera, Ford achieved success withFord RS200. Since the1999 season, Ford has used various versions of theFord Focus WRCto much success. In the2006 season,BP-Ford",
"season,BP-Ford World Rally Teamsecured Ford its second manufacturers' title, with the Focus RS WRC 06 built byM-Sportand driven by \"Flying Finns\"Marcus GrönholmandMikko Hirvonen.Continuing with Grönholm and Hirvonen, Ford successfully defended the manufacturers' world championship in the2007 season. Ford is the only manufacturer to score in the points for 92 consecutive races; since the2002 seasonopenerMonte Carlo Rally. In March 1951, the Henri Loos and Henri Berney broke the cross-Africa record of theAlgiers-Cape Town Rallywith a 1950 Ford V8, from Cape Town to Paris. Rallycross Ford has competed in rallycross with itsFord FiestaandFord Focus.Tanner Foustwon theGlobal RallyCross Championshipin 2011 and 2012 and was runner-up in theFIA European Rallycross Championshipin 2011 and 2012.Toomas Heikkinenwon the Global RallyCross Championship title in 2013 andJoni Wimanwon it in 2014. Other notable Ford drivers includeMarcus Grönholm,Ken Block, andBrian Deegan. Sports cars Ford sports cars have been visible in",
"been visible in the world of sports car racing since 1964. Most notably theFord GT40won the24 Hours of Le Mansfour times (in1966,1967,1968and1969) and is the only American car to ever win overall at this prestigious event. Ford also won four titles at theWorld Sportscar Championshipwith the GT40. Swiss teamMatech GT Racing, in collaboration with Ford Racing, opened a new chapter with theFord GT, winning the Teams title in the 2008FIA GT3 European Championship. Ford Mustang TheFord Mustanghas arguably been Ford's most successful sports car.Jerry Tituswon the 1965 SCCA Pro B National Championship with a Mustang and the model went on to earn Ford the SCCATrans-Am Championshiptitle in both 1966 and 1967. Ford won the Trans-Am Championship again in 1970 withParnelli JonesandGeorge FollmerdrivingBoss 302 MustangsforBud Moore Engineering. Ford took the 1985 and 1986IMSA GTO Championshipwith Mustangs driven byJohn JonesandScott Pruettbefore returning to Trans-Am glory with a championship in 1989 withDorsey",
"in 1989 withDorsey Schroeder. Ford dominated Trans-Am in the 1990s withTommy Kendallwinning championships in 1993, 1995, 1996, and 1997 withPaul Gentilozziadding yet another title in 1999. In 2005 the Ford Mustang FR500C took the championship in the RolexKoni ChallengeSeries in its first year on the circuit. In 2007, Ford added a victory in the GT4 European Championship. 2008 was the first year of the Mustang Challenge for the Miller Cup, a series that pits a full field of identical factory-built Ford Mustang race cars against each other. Also, in 2008, Ford won the manufacturers championship in theKoni ChallengeSeries and HyperSport drivers Joe Foster and Steve Maxwell won the drivers title in a Mustang GT. Ford andMichelinteamed up to provide custom-engineered tires for theFord Performancevehicle lineup.Ford Performancedirector Dave Pericak said: \"That confidence extends from our upcoming racing effort at Le Mans in 2016 with the all-newFord GT, to the Ford Performance vehicle lineup, including theShelby",
"including theShelby GT350and F-150 Raptor\". Touring cars Ford has campaigned touring cars such as theMustang,Focus,Falcon, andContour/Mondeoand theSierraCosworthin many different series throughout the years. Notably, Mondeo drivers finished 1, 2, and 3 in the 2000British Touring Car Championshipand Falcon drivers placed 1, 2, and 3 in the2005 V8 Supercar Championship Series. Drag racing Indrag racing,John Force RacingdriversJohn Force,Tony Pedregon, andRobert Highthave pilotedFord MustangFunny Carsto severalNHRAtitles in recent seasons. TeammatesTim Wilkersonand Bob Tasca III also drive Mustangs in Funny Car. Drifting Ford has branched out intodriftingwith the introduction of the new model Mustang. Most noticeable is the Turquoise and Blue Falken Tires Mustang driven byVaughn Gittin, Jr., (A.K.A. \"JR\") that produces 750 RWHP (Rear Wheel Horsepower). Environmental initiatives Compressed natural gas Thealternative fossil fuelvehicles, such as some versions of theCrown Victoriaespecially in fleet and taxi",
"in fleet and taxi service, operate oncompressed natural gas—or CNG. Some CNG vehicles have dual fuel tanks—one for gasoline, the other for CNG—the same engine can operate on either fuel via a selector switch. Flexible fuel vehicles Flexible fuel vehiclesare designed to operate smoothly using a wide range of availableethanol fuelmixtures—from pure gasoline tobioethanol-gasoline blends such asE85(85%ethanoland 15% gasoline) orE100(neathydrousethanol) in Brazil. Part of the challenge of successful marketing alternative and flexible fuel vehicles in the U.S. is the general lack of establishment of sufficientfueling stations, which would be essential for these vehicles to be attractive to a wide range of consumers. Significant efforts to ramp up production and distribution ofE85fuels are underway and expanding.Current Ford E100 Flex sold in the Brazilian market are theCourier,Ford EcoSport,Ford Fiesta,Ford Focus, andFord Ka. Electric drive vehicles Hybrid electric vehicles In 2004, Ford and Toyota agreed a",
"and Toyota agreed a patent-sharing accord that granted Ford access to certain hybrid technology patented by Toyota; in exchange, Ford licensed some of its own patents to Toyota.In 2004, Ford introduced theEscape Hybrid. With this vehicle, Ford was third to the automotive market with ahybrid electric vehicleand the first hybrid electricSUVto market. This was also the first hybrid electric vehicle with aflexible fuelcapability to run onE85.The Escape's platform mateMercury Marinerwas also available with the hybrid-electric system in the 2006 model year—a full year ahead of schedule. The similarMazda Tributewill also receive a hybrid-electric powertrain option, along with many other vehicles in the Ford vehicle line. In 2005, Ford announced a goal to make 250,000 hybrids a year by 2010, but by mid-2006 announced that it would not meet that goal, due to excessively high costs and the lack of sufficient supplies of the hybrid-electric batteries and drivetrain system components.Instead, Ford has committed to",
"has committed to accelerating development of next-generation hybrid-electric power plants in Britain, in collaboration with Volvo. This engineering study is expected to yield more than 100 new hybrid-electric vehicle models and derivatives. In September 2007, Ford announced a partnership withSouthern California Edison(SCE) to examine howplug-in hybridswill work with the electrical grid. Under the multimillion-dollar, multi-year project, Ford will convert a demonstration fleet ofFord Escape Hybridsinto plug-in hybrids, and SCE will evaluate how the vehicles might interact with the home and the utility's electrical grid. Some of the vehicles will be evaluated \"in typical customer settings\", according to Ford. On June 12, 2008,USDOEexpanded its own fleet of alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles with the addition of a Ford Escape Plug-In Hybrid Flex-Fuel Vehicle. The vehicle is equipped with a 10-kilowatt (13 hp)lithium-ionbattery supplied byJohnson Controls-Saftthat stores enough electric energy to",
"electric energy to drive up to 30 miles (48 km) at speeds of up to 40 mph (64 km/h).In March 2009, Ford launched hybrid versions of theFord Fusion Hybridand theMercury Milan Hybridin the United States, both as 2010 models. As of November 2014, Ford has produced for retail sales the following hybrid electric vehicles:Ford Escape Hybrid(2004–2012),Mercury Mariner Hybrid(2005–2010),Mercury Milan Hybrid(2009–2010),Ford Fusion Hybrid(2009–present),Lincoln MKZ Hybrid(2010–present),Ford C-Max Hybrid(2012–present), andFord Mondeo Hybrid(2014–present). By June 2012, Ford had sold 200,000 full hybrids in the U.S. since 2004,and, as of September 2014, the carmaker has sold over 344,000 hybrids in the United States.The top selling hybrids in the U.S. market are the Fusion Hybrid with 127,572 units, followed by Escape Hybrid with 117,997 units, and the C-Max Hybrid with 54,236.As of November 2014, Ford is the world's second-largest manufacturer of hybrids afterToyota Motor Corporation, with 400,000 hybrid electric",
"hybrid electric vehicles produced since their introduction in 2004. Plug-in electric vehicles As of April 2024, Ford currently produces the followingplug-in electric vehicles: theFord Escape/Kuga PHEV,Ford Ranger PHEV,Ford Mustang Mach-E,Ford F-150 Lightning,Ford Explorer EV(Europe),Ford E-Transit/Tourneo Courier,Ford E-Transit Customand theFord E-Transit. Bill Ford was one of the first top industry executives to make regular use of abattery electric vehicle, aFord Ranger EV, while the company contracted with theUnited States Postal Serviceto deliver electric postal vans based on the Ranger EV platform. Ford discontinued a line of electricRangerpickup trucksand ordered them destroyed, though it reversed in January 2005, after environmentalist protest.The all-electric pickup truck leased 205 units to individuals and 1,500 units to fleets in the U.S. from 1998 to 2002. From 2009 to 2011, Ford offered theFord TH!NKcar. Ford ended production and ordered all the cars repossessed and destroyed, even as many of the",
"even as many of the people leasing them begged to be able to buy the cars from Ford. After an outcry from the lessees and activists in the U.S. and Norway, Ford returned the cars to Norway for sale.Four hundred and forty units were leased in the U.S. from 1999 until 2003. In 2017, Ford CEO Mark Fields announced that the company would invest $4.5 billion in further development of plug-in electric vehicles by 2020. The 2010–2012Azure Transit Connect Electricis anall-electricvanthat was developed as a collaboration betweenAzure Dynamicsand Ford Motor Company, but Azure was the official manufacturer of record. The 2011–2018Ford Focus Electricis based on the third-generationFocusinternal combustion vehicle, converted to anall-electricpropulsion system as a productionelectric carbyMagna International, and retail sales began in the U.S. in December 2011. The 2012–2017Ford C-Max Energiis aplug-in hybridreleased in the U.S. in October 2012.It is followed by theFord Fusion Energithat was produced in 2013–2020.Both",
"in 2013–2020.Both Energi models share the same powertrain technology. In October 2017, Ford announced its Team Edison battery electric vehicle group to lead the company's renewed efforts into the EV market, which had plans for a small 300-mile range SUV by 2020.The new team will be headquartered in Detroit and have offices in Europe and Asia. On November 17, 2019, theMustang Mach-Ewas introduced which later went on sale December 2020 as a 2021 model.The Mustang Mach-E is assembled atCuautitlán AssemblyinCuautitlán Izcalli, Mexico.According to former Ford CEO Jim Hackett, assembling the vehicle in Mexico allows Ford to make a profit from the first vehicle, unlike other electric vehicles. In June 2022, the CFO of Ford announced that the Mustang Mach-E was no longer profitable due to increases in the cost of raw materials. On May 19, 2021, Ford revealed a new electric pickup truck, theF-150 Lightning.The first F-150 Lightning was manufactured on April 18, 2022, with first delivery in the US on May 26.Ford",
"US on May 26.Ford adjusted its 2024 production plans for the F-150 Lightning, cutting them in half from an anticipated 3,200 weekly units to around 1,600 weekly units due to sales below expectations.In 2022, Ford began manufacturing its E-Transit electric cargo vans at its plant in Kansas City, Missouri. As the result of 2019 Ford-VW global alliance cooperation agreement,Ford began developing electric vehicles for the European market using theVolkswagen Group MEB platformalong with batteries supplied by Volkswagen. The first Ford product based on the MEB is theFord Explorer EV, which was introduced in March 2023. It is produced in theCologne plantin Germany, which previously manufactured theFiestasmall car.In August 2023, Ford delayed the Explorer EV deliveries to 2024 due to new battery regulations. In March 2022, Ford increased its focus in battery electric vehicles by establishing Ford Model E, a division for Ford's electric vehicle business. Ford Model E is expected to be profitable by 2026, and the",
"by 2026, and the company said the division \"should be seen as astartup\".In June 2022, Ford announced its intention to restructure its dealership model, including building ane-commerceplatform where customers can buy electric vehicles at non-negotiable prices in an effort to matchTesla\"s profit margins.Ford also stated in June 2022 that it planned to spend $3.7 billion to hire 6,200 union workers to staff several assembly plants in Michigan, Ohio and Missouri in a bid to sell 2 million electric vehicles annually by 2026. In May 2023, Ford announced its plans to integrate theNorth American Charging System(NACS) system into their electric vehicles, following Tesla's decision toopenand rename its proprietary charging standard to NACS. Newly built Ford electric vehicles after 2024 will have native NACS charging ports on the vehicle. Existing Ford electric models will be able to connect to the NACS system and its chargers by use of an adapter. Both will thus have access to the extensive NACScharging networkwith",
"networkwith more than 12,000 chargers in North America. Hydrogen Ford also continues to studyfuel cell-powered electric powertrains and has demonstrated hydrogen-fueledinternal combustion enginetechnologies, as well as developing the next-generation hybrid-electric systems. Compared with conventional vehicles,hybrid vehiclesand/or fuel cell vehicles decrease air pollution emissions as well as sound levels, with favorable impacts upon respiratory health and decrease ofnoise health effects. Ford has launched the production ofhydrogen-poweredshuttle buses, using hydrogen instead of gasoline in a standardinternal combustion engine, for use at airports and convention centers.At the 2006Greater Los Angeles Auto Show, Ford showcased a hydrogen fuel cell version of its Explorer SUV. The Fuel cell Explorer has a combined output of 174 hp (130 kW). It has a large hydrogen storage tank which is situated in the center of the car taking the original place of the conventional model's automatic transmission. The centered",
"The centered position of the tank assists the vehicle reach a notable range of 350 miles (563 km), the farthest for a fuel cell vehicle so far. The fuel cell Explorer the first in a series of prototypes partly funded by theUnited States Department of Energyto expand efforts to determine the feasibility of hydrogen-powered vehicles. The fuel cell Explorer is one of several vehicles with green technology being featured at the L.A. show, including the 2008 Ford Escape Hybrid, PZEV emissions compliant Fusion and Focus models and a 2008 Ford F-Series Super Duty outfitted with Ford's clean diesel technology. Increased fuel efficiency In July 2008, Ford Motor Company announced that it would accelerate its plans to produce more fuel-efficient cars, changing both its North American manufacturing plans and its lineup of vehicles available in the United States. In terms of North American manufacturing, the company planned to convert three existing pickup truck and sport utility vehicle (SUV) plants for small car",
"for small car production, with the first conversion at its Michigan Truck Plant. In addition, Ford's assembly plants near Mexico City, Mexico, and in Louisville, Kentucky, were to be converted from pickups and SUVs to small cars, including the Ford Fiesta, by 2011. Ford then also planned to introduce to North America six of its European small vehicles, including two versions of the Ford Fiesta, by the end of 2012. Ford of Europe developed theECOneticprogramme to address the market and legislative need for higherfuel efficiencyand lower CO2emissions. As opposed to thehybrid enginetechnology used in competitor products such as theToyota Prius, ECOnetic improves existing technology. Using lower-consumingDuratorq TDCidiesel engines, and based on a combination of improved aerodynamics, lower resistance, and improved efficiency, theFord Fiestawas the lowest-emitting mass-produced car in Europewhile the2012 Ford Focus ECOneticwill have better fuel consumption than the Prius or theVolkswagen GolfBlueMotion.ECOnetic",
"is not presently planned to be sold in North American due to current perceived lower consumer demand. Ford has challenged University teams to create a vehicle that is simple, durable, lightweight, and comes equipped with a base target price of only $7,000. The students fromAachen Universitycreated the \"2015 Ford Model T\". In 2000, under the leadership of the current Ford chairman, William Clay Ford, the company announceda planned 25 percent improvement in the average mileage of its SUVs—to be completed by the 2005calendar year. In 2003, Ford announced that competitive market conditions and technological and cost challenges would prevent the company from achieving this goal. For the 2007 model year, Ford had thirteen U.S. models that achieve 30 miles per gallon or better (based on the highway fuel economy estimates of the EPA) and several of Ford's vehicles were recognized in the EPA and Department of Energy Fuel Economy Guide for best-in-class fuel economy. Ford claimed to have eliminated nearly three",
"nearly three million pounds of smog-forming emissions from their U.S. cars and light trucks over the 2004 to 2006 model years.However, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has linked Ford to 54Superfundtoxic waste sites, twelve of which have been cleaned up and deleted from the list. Efficient buildings As part of a renovation of theFord River Rouge Complex, in 2010 Ford unveiled a 10.4-acre (42,000 m2) living roof covering part of the Dearborn Truck plant, consisting ofsedum, a low-growing groundcover. The sedum retains and cleanses rainwater and moderates the internal temperature of the building, saving energy. In 2016, Ford announced a ten-year renovation plan for its Dearborn campus.The plan features consolidation of office and lab spaces in to fewer and much larger buildings, which will be built toLEEDstandards, and will feature extensive use of wetlands and park spaces.The new campus features new multi-story parking decks with solar power-generating roofs,and a new natural gas power plant.",
"gas power plant. The DTE Ford Central Energy Plant is a 34MW combined heat-and-power plant which features a high efficiency design and LEED Gold buildings. Sponsorships Ford sponsors numerous events and sports facilities around the U.S., most notably theFord Centerin downtownEvansville, Indiana, andFord Fieldindowntown Detroit. The company has also been a major sponsor of theUEFA Champions Leaguefor over two decades, and is also a longtime sponsor of theSky media channel'scoverage ofPremier Leaguefootball. Between 1994 and 1999, Ford was the main kit sponsor of GermanBundesligaclub1. FC Köln. Sales numbers of US sales Criticism TheFord Pinto, a compact car introduced in the 1970s, became notorious for its safety flaws, particularly its poorly designed fuel tank. The tank was prone to rupture and catch fire when the car was struck from behind, leading to an estimated 500 to 900 fatalities in accidents involving rear-end collisions. Despite multiple safety inspections highlighting this issue, Ford chose not to",
"Ford chose not to redesign the car. Internal cost-benefit analyses showed that it would be cheaper to pay settlements for the lawsuits arising from accidents than to implement a safer fuel tank design. This decision, which prioritised cost over human lives, resulted in Ford becoming the first corporation in history to face criminal charges for homicide. The company was accused of showing “callous indifference to public safety,” with the Pinto’s failure attributed to a utilitarian, business-driven response to accident risks and public safety concerns. See also References Further reading External links Only models sold in Continental Europe and the British Isles are shown, overseas territories often have different offerings.",
"List of awards and nominations received by Matthew McConaughey McConaughey at the83rd Academy Awardsin 2011 Matthew McConaugheyis an American actor and producer who rose to prominence with his role in the 1993 ensemble comedy filmDazed and Confused.The film was well received by critics.Since then, McConaughey has received various awards and nominations, including anAcademy Award, aGolden Globe, aScreen Actors Guild Award, two Critics' Choice Awards, anMTV Movie Awardand aPeople’s Choice Award. He has also been nominated for fiveTeen Choice Awardsand twoEmmys. Three years after his role inDazed and Confused, in 1996, McConaughey played the lead role of a lawyer in the movieA Time to Kill, for which he won theMTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance. His next appearances—in the science fiction dramaContact(1997), alongsideJodie Foster, and the war filmU-571(2000)—garnered him twoBlockbuster Entertainment Awardnominations. In the early 2000s, he starred in multiple romantic comedies, includingThe",
"includingThe Wedding Planner(2001) andHow to Lose a Guy in 10 Days(2003), for which he received four Teen Choice Award nominations. He received two more nominations and the People's Choice Award for Favorite Male Action Star for his role in the 2005 action-comedy filmSahara. McConaughey received theNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actorfor his role inBernie(2011) andMagic Mike(2012) and was also awarded theCritics' Choice Movie Award in the same categoryfor the latter. He played the role of a hit man in the black comedy crime filmKiller Joe(2011) for which he was awarded theSaturn Award for Best Actor. In the same year, McConaughey starred inMud(2012), which earned him theIndependent Spirit Robert Altman Award. The following year, McConaughey played lead role ofRon Woodroof, a real life AIDS patient in the 1980s, in the biopic dramaDallas Buyers Clubto critical acclaim.He won theAcademy Award,Critics' Choice Movie Award,Golden Globeand aScreen Actors Guild Awardfor his role in the",
"his role in the film. In 2014, he starred in the epic sci-fiInterstellarfor which he received a Saturn Award for Best Actor nomination. In November of the same year, he was inducted to theHollywood Walk of Fame.McConaughey co-produced and acted in the crime anthology television seriesTrue Detective, which earned him Lead Actor nominations for aScreen Actors Guild Award,Critics' Choice Television Awardand aGolden Globe. He also received two Primetime Emmy nominations, one for hisrole as an actorand other for hisrole as an executive produceras well as aProducers Guild of America Awardnomination. For his roles in the war filmFree State of JonesandGold(both 2016), he was nominated for theWomen Film Critics CircleAward for Best Actor and the Saturn Award for Best Actor, respectively. Awards and nominations Other honors References Notes Sources External links",
"Zac Efron Zachary David Alexander Efron(/ˈɛfrɒn/; born October 18, 1987) is an American actor. Efron began acting professionally in the early 2000s and rose to prominence as ateen idolfor his leading role asTroy Boltonin theHigh School Musicaltrilogy(2006–2008). During this time, he also starred in the musical filmHairspray(2007) and the comedy film17 Again(2009). Efron had starring roles in the filmsNew Year's Eve(2011),The Lucky One(2012),The Paperboy(2012),Neighbors(2014),Dirty Grandpa(2016),Baywatch(2017), andThe Greatest Showman(2017). He playedTed BundyinExtremely Wicked, Shockingly Evil and Vile(2019) andKevin Von ErichinThe Iron Claw(2023). In 2021, he won aDaytime Emmy Awardfor hosting theNetflixtravel showDown to Earth with Zac Efron(2020–2022). Early life Zachary David Alexander Efron was born on October 18, 1987,and grew up inArroyo Grande, California.His father, David Efron, is an electrical engineer atDiablo Canyon Power Plant, and his mother, Starla Baskett, is an administrative assistant who",
"assistant who also works at Diablo Canyon.Efron has a younger brother, Dylan,and had, as he has described, a \"normal childhood\" in a middle-class family.His surname originates fromHebrew.His paternal grandfather isJewish.Efron has described himself as Jewish,though he was raisedagnosticallyand did not practice religion as a child. He has said that he would \"flip out\" if he got a \"B\" and not an \"A\" in school, and was a class clown there.Efron subsequently worked at The Great American Melodrama and the Vaudeville theaters,and began taking singing lessons. He performed in shows such asGypsy;Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up;Little Shop of Horrors; andThe Music Man. He was recommended to an agent in Los Angeles by his drama teacher, Robyn Metchik, the mother of actorAaron Michael Metchik.Efron was later signed to theCreative Artists Agency. Efron graduated fromArroyo Grande High Schoolin 2006and was then accepted into theUniversity of Southern Californiabut did not enroll. He also attendedPacific",
"attendedPacific Conservatory of the Performing Arts, a theater company operating out ofAllan Hancock College, acommunity collegelocated inSanta Maria, California, where he performed in 2000 and 2001. Career 2002–2009: Early career andHigh School Musical Efron began acting in the early 2000s with guest roles on several television series includingFirefly,ER, andThe Guardian. In 2004, he began appearing as a recurring character in the first season of theWBseriesSummerland.For the show's second season, which aired in 2005, he was promoted to the main cast. He also appeared in some films, including theLifetimetelevision filmMiracle Run(2004), for which he earned aYoung Artist Awardnomination for his performance as one of two autistic twins. Efron's career reached a turning point with the teen musical television filmHigh School Musical(2006), which premiered on theDisney Channelin January 2006. The film, which has been described as a modern adaptation ofRomeo and Juliet, saw Efron playing the male lead Troy",
"the male lead Troy Bolton, a high school basketball player who feels conflicted when he finds himself interested in participating in the school musical with Gabriella Montez (Vanessa Hudgens), a girl from the scholastic decathlon team. The film became a major success and helped Efron gain recognition among teenage audiences. The film's soundtrack was certified quadruple platinum by theRIAA,and was one of the best-selling albums of the year in the United States. However, Efron's recordings of the film's songs were not included in the final cut, and the majority of his parts were sung byDrew Seeley;the Troy Bolton role had been intended for a tenor before Efron's casting and Efron was a baritone. In his subsequent musical films, Efron did his own singing. Efron was next seen as Link Larkin in the musical comedy filmHairspray(2007), based on the2002 Broadway musical of the same name. Production conflicted with theHigh School Musical concert tour, which prevented Efron from joining; Drew Seeley filled in. The",
"filled in. The film became a major commercial and critical success upon its release in July 2007. Later that year, he reprised his role of Troy Bolton inHigh School Musical 2(2007), which aired on the Disney Channel in August 2007. Efron again reprised his role inHigh School Musical 3: Senior Year(2008), the first film in theHigh School Musicalfranchise to receive a theatrical release. The film became a major blockbuster at the box office, and received mixed to positive reviews from critics. He followed this with the commercially successful comedy17 Again(2009) about a 37-year-old man who is transformed into his 17-year-old self (Efron) after a chance accident. 2009–present: Other roles and mainstream success Efron's next release wasRichard Linklater's period dramaMe and Orson Welles, which premiered at theToronto International Film Festivalin September 2008 and received a wide release in late 2009. The film earned mostly positive reviews from critics. He then played the title role in the supernatural",
"in the supernatural romantic dramaCharlie St. Cloud(2010), which became a moderate success at the box office despite receiving mostly negative reviews from critics. Efron appeared as a part of the large ensemble cast inGarry Marshall'sNew Year's Eve(2011), which depicted a series of holiday vignettes of different groups of characters. The film received almost unanimously negative reviews from critics, but became a major success at the box office. He also played a supporting role in the critically successfulLiberal Arts(2012), which premiered at theSundance Film Festivalin January 2012 and received a limited release later that year. He also starred inThe Paperboy(2012), which premiered at theCannes Film Festivalin May 2012 and received a wider release later that year. The film received mixed to negative reviews from critics. After lending his voice to the animated filmThe Lorax(2012), he appeared as the male lead in the romantic dramaThe Lucky One(2012), based on thenovel of the same namebyNicholas Sparks.",
"Sparks. The film became a major box office success despite negative reviews from critics. He also starred in the dramaAt Any Price, which premiered at the2012 Venice International Film Festival, and the historical dramaParkland, which premiered at the2013 Venice International Film Festival. Both films received mixed reviews from critics. Efron's first release of 2014 was the romantic comedyThat Awkward Moment, for which he also served as an executive producer. The film, which starred Efron as one of three bachelors in New York City, became a moderate commercial success despite receiving mostly negative reviews from critics. Later in 2014, Efron was seen in the adult comedyNeighbors(2014). The film revolved around a young couple who struggle to raise their baby daughter while living next to the house of a wild fraternity led by its president, played by Efron. The film became a major commercial success and earned mostly positive reviews from critics, who also added that he had successfully shed his \"Disney",
"shed his \"Disney pretty boy\" image. Efron's only release in 2015 was the moderately successfulWe Are Your Friends(2015), in which he played a struggling DJ. In January 2016, he starred in the adult comedyDirty Grandpaas a straitlaced young man who begrudgingly indulges his grandfather's unhinged personality by taking him on a vacation to Florida. The film received mostly negative reviews from critics for its crude humor but became a commercial success upon its release.He subsequently starred in the comedy sequelNeighbors 2: Sorority Rising, which became a commercial and critical success upon its release in May 2016. The film followed the same couple who team up with their former rival (Efron) to take down a hard-partying sorority led by a freshman. His third 2016 comedy, released in July, wasMike and Dave Need Wedding Dates. In 2017, Efron starred inBaywatch, an action comedy film version of thetelevision series of the same name, released in May. Also in 2017, Efron had a supporting role in two biographical",
"in two biographical films released in December:The Disaster Artist, a comedy-drama directed by and starringJames Franco, and as Phillip in the musicalThe Greatest Showman. Both films were nominated for theGolden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy. In 2019, Efron played a drug-addled libertine in theHarmony KorinefilmThe Beach Bum.He also starred as serial killerTed BundyinExtremely Wicked, Shockingly Evil and Vile.The film premiered at Sundance in early 2019 and was released by Netflix on May 3. In 2020, Efron voicedFred Jonesin Warner Bros.'Scooby-Dooanimated film,Scoob!In 2021, he won aDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Daytime Program Host for theNetflixweb documentaryseriesDown to Earth with Zac Efron. In 2022, he starred in the survival thrillerGold, directed byAnthony Hayesand headlined the horror filmFirestarter, a remake of the1984 filmbased upon thenovel of the same namebyStephen King, directed by Keith Thomas.Also that year, he starred inPeter Farrelly's Vietnam War–set",
"Vietnam War–set comedyThe Greatest Beer Run Ever, which received mixed reviews. In 2023, he starred asKevin Von ErichinSean Durkin'sThe Iron Claw, about theVon Erich familyof wrestlers. Other work In 2010, Efron started his own production company underWarner Bros., Ninjas Runnin' Wild.The company played a part in the production of his filmsDirty Grandpa,That Awkward Moment, andExtremely Wicked, Shockingly Evil and Vile.In 2019, Efron's brother Dylan, who also plays a role in the company, stated that Ninjas Runnin' Wild has started to produce more digital content in addition to their traditional film work. Efron announced the creation of hisYouTubechannel in March 2019.Thevideo sharing platformhosts two weekly series.\"Off the Grid\" follows Efron and his brother Dylan as they participate in outdoor activities and trips without electronic devices—with the exception of a video camera in order to document their experiences.\"Gym Time\" spotlights fitness and nutrition, with Efron informing his viewers that he plans",
"that he plans to \"train with celebrities, athletes, and interesting people\".YouTube received backlash for promoting Efron's new channel in a post made from their official Twitter account. Some YouTube users accused the platform of promoting a mainstream celebrity's account, which they feared would overshadow lesser known creators. Personal life Efron was on theForbesCelebrity 100list in 2008 at number 92, with estimated earnings of $5.8 million from June 2007 to June 2008. In April 2009, his personal wealth equaled about $10 million.In May 2015, Efron's net worth was $18million. In March 2014, Efron engaged in a fight with ahomelessman onSkid Row. Law enforcement officials did not make any arrests because they viewed it asmutual combat. Efron turned totranscendental meditation(TM) to help decompress after struggling to separate himself from his role as serial killer Ted Bundy in his movie. \"I really love TM, transcendental meditation. I did TM on the way home. Not while driving, but when you're shooting a",
"you're shooting a movie, one thing we can afford is a ride home, so on the way home I just do some TM and try to phase out of it.\" Efron moved to Australia after selling his Los Angeles home in early 2021and purchased a property inByron Baywhile working on a number of projects there. Health issues Efron sought treatment in early 2013 after struggling withalcoholismandsubstance abuse. He has been sober since June 2013.In November 2013, Efron had to have hisjaw wired shutafter breaking it in a fall at home.He revealed in 2022 that he almost died during this incident, and that it was responsible for his facial swelling, apparent in a viral 2021 video forBill Nye's Earth Day Musical. In December 2019, Efron contracted a serious and potentially life-threatening illness, a \"form oftyphoidor similarbacterial infection\", while filming his adventure seriesKilling Zac EfroninPapua New Guinea. He was flown toSt Andrews War Memorial HospitalinBrisbane, Australia, and was treated before flying back home on December 25.",
"on December 25. He recovered with little issue. Efron was aveganfor two years until 2022, when he beganintermittent fasting,and reintroduced meat into his diet after undergoing a series offood sensitivitytests. In 2022, Efron opened up about his struggles withmental illnessesincludinginsomnia,agoraphobia, anddepression. He developed insomnia and depression after takingdiureticsfor a long period to prepare for his role inBaywatch. In August 2024, Efron was rushed to hospital after being found unconscious in a swimming pool in Ibiza. According to TMZ, he was discovered by two villa employees who pulled him out of the water. The hospitalization was described as a \"precautionary measure\" and the incident as \"minor\". Efron aspirated a significant amount of water into his lungs and had x-rays taken to ensure his lungs were clear before being discharged the following day. Filmography Film Television Music videos Discography Singles Other charted songs Awards and nominations References External links"
] |
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"Craig Phillips Craig Phillips(born 16 October 1971) is an English television personality and builder. He is known for winning thefirst seriesofBig Brotherin 2000.He is trained as a bricklayer, and has appeared in numerous television series related to building since winningBig Brother. Early life The younger of two children and born inLiverpool, his family moved toNewport, Shropshire, in the late 1980s. At 18, Phillips secured a day release bricklayers apprenticeship whilst employed withWrekin Council's construction department. He also attended further night school classes in advanced brickwork and civil engineering. Having qualified with aCity & Guilds, Phillips went on to set up his own building company. In the 1990s, he presentedRenovation StreetwithLinda Robsonfor Carlton ITV before being brought in as theDIYexpert for theBBCon an exclusive contract in 2001. Career afterBig Brother After leavingBig Brotheras the first winner, Phillips announced he was giving his £70,000 prize fund to his friend Joanne Harris, who hadDown syndrome, to pay for her heart and lung transplant. He had begun raising money with friends for Harris sometime before enteringBig Brother, raising only small amounts of money towards the £250,000 needed for her operation, but within 6 days of winning, he achieved the target required for her life saving operation thanks to public support and donations from celebrities. Harris died in April 2008.He has featured in comedy seriesBo' Selecta!and appeared in the reality seriesBack To Reality, raising £40,000 for Macmillan Cancer Trust. At Christmas 2000, Phillips released the charity single, \"At This Time of Year\" throughWarner Music. The single went to Number 14 in theUK Singles Chart,achieving silver disc status, and raising over £40,000 for theDown's Syndrome Association. It stayed in the top 40 for three weeks. Since then, he appeared in videos for two other Xmas singles –Bo Selecta!'s Proper Crimbowhich reached No. 4 in 2003 andRicky Tomlinson's\"Christmas My A*se\"which reached 25 in 2006.In 2001, Phillips appeared onLily Savage's Blankety Blank;in 2003, Phillips appeared on the fifth series ofFort Boyard. Phillips has presented numerous televisions programmes, includingHousecall,Housecall in the Country,Builders Sweat and Tears,Our House,Trading Up,Big Strong Boys,Boyz in the Wood,Big Strong Boys in the Sun,Renovation Street,Trading Up in the Sun,House TrapandCraig’s Trade Tips. He also has a production company called Avent Productions.For Avent, he has presentedConversion; a 10-part series forDiscovery Realtime, and the sixth series ofHung, Drawn & Broke, a 6-part series filmed forBritish Forces Broadcasting Service. The company also produces corporate productions many of these for building companies. In 2007, Phillips joined the team of60 Minute MakeoverforITV. He appeared in 80 episodes in 2008. In February 2009, Phillips appeared inAnt & Dec's Saturday Night Takeawayin \"Escape from Takeaway Prison\" for six weeks. In summer 2009, he released his debut autobiography. In July 2009, Phillips returned to theBig Brotherhouse to help celebrate the show's tenth anniversary. In 2010, Phillips appeared onBig Brotheragain, and competed in a shed building task. He also appeared inDermot's Last Supper, a special to celebrate the ending ofBig Brother. In April 2011, he hosted a show calledCelebrity DIY with Craig PhillipsforHome. In June 2011, he also hostedIf It's Broke, Fit Itfor Home. In June 2020, he made a guest appearance onBig Brothers's Best ShowsonE4, where he talked about watching his series back. Since 2018, Phillips has worked as a presenter for his own YouTube channel Mr and Mrs DIY, covering a variety of essential home and garden maintenance jobs through easy-to-follow online tutorials. Personal life In 2018, Phillips married Laura Sherriff atPeckforton Castle, Cheshire, after the couple had dated for two years.Rather than asking for gifts from guests, he and Sherriff asked that the attendants donate to hospice charities instead.The couple have two children: Nelly (born March 2019),and Lennon (born December 2020).The couple featured in Channel 5's (S1 Ep1) \"Millionaire Age Gap Love\" in 2020. References External links",
"Edward Heath Sir Edward Richard George HeathKGMBE(9 July 1916 – 17 July 2005), commonly known asTed Heath, was a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 1970 to 1974 andLeader of the Conservative Partyfrom 1965 to 1975. Heath also served for 51 years as aMember of Parliamentfrom 1950 to 2001. Outside politics, Heath was ayachtsman, a musician, and an author. Born inBroadstairs, Kent, Heath was the son of a chambermaid and carpenter. He attendedChatham House Grammar Schoolin Ramsgate, Kent, and became a leader within student politics while studying atBalliol Collegeat theUniversity of Oxford. DuringWorld War II, Heath served as an officer in theRoyal Artillery. He worked briefly in theCivil Service, but resigned in order to stand for Parliament, and was elected forBexleyat the1950 election.He was promoted to becomeChief WhipbyAnthony Edenin 1955, and in 1959 was appointed to theCabinetbyHarold MacmillanasMinister of Labour. He later held the role ofLord Privy Sealand in 1963, was madePresident of the Board of TradebyAlec Douglas-Home. After the Conservatives were defeated at the1964 election, Heathwas electedas Leader of the Conservative Party in 1965, becomingLeader of the Opposition. Although he led the Conservatives to a landslide defeat at the1966 election, he remained in the leadership, and at the1970 electionled his party to an unexpected victory. During his time as prime minister, Heath oversaw thedecimalisation of British coinagein 1971, and in 1972 he led the reformation oflocal government, significantly reducing the number of local authorities and creating several new metropolitan counties, much of which remains to this day. A strong supporter of British membership of theEuropean Economic Community(EEC), Heath's \"finest hour\" came in 1973, when he led the United Kingdom into membership of what would later become theEuropean Union.However, his premiership also coincided with the height ofthe Troublesin Northern Ireland, with his approval ofinternment without trialand subsequent suspension of theStormont Parliamentseeing the imposition ofdirect British rule. Unofficial talks withProvisional Irish Republican Armydelegates were unsuccessful, as was theSunningdale Agreementof 1973, which led the MPs of theUlster Unionist Partyto withdraw from the Conservative whip. Heath also tried to reform British trade unionism with theIndustrial Relations Act, and hoped to deregulate the economy and make a transfer fromdirecttoindirect taxation. However, aminers' strikeat the start of 1974 severely damaged the Government, causing the implementation of theThree-Day Weekto conserve energy. Attempting to resolve the situation, Heath called anelectionfor February 1974, attempting to obtain a mandate to face down the miners' wage demands, but this instead resulted in ahung parliament, with the Conservatives losing their majority. Despite gaining fewer votes, the Labour Party won four more seats, and Heath resigned as Prime Minister on 4 March after talks with theLiberal Partyto form a coalition government were unsuccessful. After losing asecond successive electionin October 1974, Heath's leadership was challenged byMargaret Thatcherand, on 4 February, she narrowly outpolled him in thefirst round. Heath chose to resign the leadership rather than contest the second round, returning to the backbenches, where he would remain until 2001. In 1975, he played a major role in thereferendumon British membership of the EEC, campaigning for the eventually successful \"remain\" vote. Heath would later become an embittered critic of Thatcher during her time as prime minister, speaking and writing against the policies ofThatcherism. Following the1992 election, he becameFather of the House, until his retirement from the Commons in 2001. He died in 2005, aged 89. Heath is one of four British prime ministers never to have married. He has been described by the BBC as \"the first working-class meritocrat\" to become Conservative leader in \"the party's modern history\" and \"aOne Nation Toryin theDisraelitradition who rejected thelaissez-fairecapitalismthat Thatcher would enthusiastically endorse.\" Early life Heath was born at 54 Albion Road, Broadstairs, Kent, on 9 July 1916, the son of William George Heath (1888–1976), a carpenter who builtairframesforVickersduring the First World War, and was subsequently employed as a builderand Edith Anne Heath (néePantony; 1888–1951), a lady's maid.His father was later a successful small businessman after taking over a building and decorating firm. Heath's paternal grandfather had run a small dairy business, and when that failed worked as a porter atBroadstairs Stationon the Southern Railway.Edward was four years old when his younger brother, John, was born; there was no question that Edward was the \"favoured brother\".Heath was known as \"Teddy\" as a young man.He was educated atChatham House Grammar SchoolinRamsgate, and in 1935 with the aid of a county scholarship he went up to study atBalliol College, Oxford. In later years, Heath's peculiar accent, with its \"strangulated\" vowel sounds, combined with his non-Standard pronunciation of \"l\" as \"w\" and \"out\" as \"eout\", was satirised byMonty Pythonin the audio sketch \"Teach Yourself Heath\" (released on a 7\" flexi-disc single included with initial copies of their 1972 LPMonty Python's Previous Record).Heath's biographerJohn Campbellspeculates that his speech, unlike that of his father and younger brother, who both spoke with Kent accents, must have undergone \"drastic alteration on encountering Oxford\", although retaining elements of Kent speech. Oxford A talented musician, Heath won the college'sorgan scholarshipin his first term (he had previously tried for the organ scholarships atSt Catharine's College, Cambridge, andKeble College, Oxford) which enabled him to stay at the university for a fourth year; he eventually graduated with aSecond Class HonoursBA inPhilosophy, politics and economicsin 1939. While at university Heath became active in Conservative Party politics. On the key political issue of the day, foreign policy, he opposed the Conservative-dominated government of the day ever more openly. His first Paper Speech (i.e. a major speech listed on theOrder Paperalong with the visiting guest speakers) at theOxford Union, in 1936, was in opposition to theappeasementof Germany by returning her colonies, confiscated during the First World War. In June 1937 Heath was elected President of theOxford University Conservative Associationas a pro-Spanish Republiccandidate, in opposition to the pro-FrancoJohn Stokes(himself later a Conservative MP). In 1937–38 Heath was chairman of the nationalFederation of University Conservative Associations, and in the same year (his third at university) he was Secretary and then Librarian of the Oxford Union. At the end of the year he was defeated for the Presidency of the Oxford Union by another Balliol candidate, Alan Wood, on the issue of whether theChamberlain governmentshould give way to a left-wingPopular Front. On that occasion, Heath supported the government. In his final year Heath was President of Balliol CollegeJunior Common Room, an office held in subsequent years by his near-contemporariesDenis Healey, who would become a lifelong friend and political rivalandRoy Jenkins, and as such was invited to support the Master of BalliolAlexander Lindsay, who stood as an anti-appeasement 'Independent Progressive' candidate against the official Conservative candidate,Quintin Hogg, in the1938 Oxford by-election. Heath, who had himself applied to be the Conservative candidate for the by-election,accused the government in an October Union Debate of \"turning all four cheeks\" toAdolf Hitler, and was elected asPresident of the Oxford Unionin November 1938, sponsored by Balliol, after winning the Presidential Debate that \"This House has No Confidence in the National Government as presently constituted\". He was thus President inHilary term1939; the visitingLeo Amerydescribed him in his diaries as \"a pleasant youth\". As an undergraduate, Heath travelled widely in Europe. His opposition to appeasement was nourished by his witnessing first-hand aNuremberg rallyin 1937, where he met leading NazisHermann Göring,Joseph Goebbels, andHeinrich Himmlerat anSScocktail party. He later described Himmler as \"the most evil man I have ever met\".He was in Germany for two months to learn German but did not keep up any fluency in the language in later life.In 1938 he visitedBarcelona, then under attack from Spanish Nationalist forces during theSpanish Civil War. On one occasion a car in which he was travelling came under machine-gun fire, while on another a bomb hit his hotel whilst he was observing an air raid from outside.In the summer of 1939, accompanied by his Jewish friendMadron Seligman, he travelled toDanzigandPoland. They made the return journey by hitchhiking and rail across Germany through mobilising troops, returning to Britain just before the declaration of war. Second World War Heath spent late 1939 and early 1940 on a debating tour of the United States before being called up. On 22 March 1941, he received an emergency commission as asecond lieutenantin theRoyal Artillery.During the war he initially served with heavy anti-aircraft guns aroundLiverpool(which sufferedheavy German bombing raidsin May 1941) and by early 1942 was regimentaladjutant, with the substantive rank ofcaptain. Heath participated as an adjutant in theNormandy landings, where he metMaurice Schumann, French Foreign Minister underPompidou.As a temporary major commanding a battery of his own, he provided artillery support during the Allied campaigns in France and Germany in 1944–45, for which he received amention in despatcheson 8 November 1945. Heath later remarked that \" one thing to be in the war, and you see the enemy on the other side and so you bombard them, and then later on when you pass over their ground, you see dead bodies lying around\". In September 1945 he commanded a firing squad that executed aPolish soldierconvicted of rape and murder.He was appointed aMember of the Order of the British Empire, Military Division (MBE) on 24 January 1946.He was demobilised in August 1946 and promoted to the substantive rank oflieutenant-colonelon 1 May 1947. Heath joined theHonourable Artillery Companyas a lieutenant-colonel on 1 September 1951,in which he remained active throughout the 1950s, rising to commanding officer of the Second Battalion; a portrait of him in full dress uniform still hangs in the HAC's Long Room. In April 1971, as prime minister, he wore his lieutenant-colonel's insignia to inspect troops. Post-war, 1945–1950 Before the war, Heath had won a scholarship toGray's Innand had begun making preparations for a career at the Bar, but after the war he was placed in joint top position in thecivil service examinations.He then became a civil servant in the Ministry of Civil Aviation (he was disappointed not to be posted to the Treasury, but declined an offer to join the Foreign Office, fearing that foreign postings might prevent him from entering politics). Heath joined a team underAlison Munrotasked with drawing up a scheme for British airports using some of the many Second World WarRAFbases, and was specifically charged with planning the home counties. Years later she attributed his evident enthusiasm for Maplin Airport to this work. Then much to the surprise of civil service colleagues, he sought adoption as the prospective parliamentary candidate forBexleyand resigned in November 1947. After working as news editor of theChurch Timesfrom February 1948 to September 1949,Heath worked as a management trainee at themerchant bankersBrown, Shipley & Co.until his election asMember of Parliament(MP) forBexleyin theFebruary 1950 general election. In the election he defeated an old contemporary from the Oxford Union,Ashley Bramall, by a margin of 133 votes. Early political career (1950–1965) Member of Parliament Heath made hismaiden speechin the House of Commons on 26 June 1950, in which he appealed to the Labour government to participate in theSchuman Plan. As MP for Bexley, he gave enthusiastic speeches in support of the young candidate for neighbouringDartford, Margaret Roberts, later Margaret Thatcher. He was appointed as anopposition whipbyWinston Churchillin February 1951. He remained in the whips' office after the Conservatives won the1951 general election, rising rapidly to Joint Deputy Chief Whip, Deputy Chief Whip and, in December 1955,Government Chief WhipunderAnthony Eden. JournalistGeoffrey Wheatcrofthas observed that \"Of all government jobs, this requires firmness and fairness allied to tact and patience and Heath's ascent seems baffling in hindsight\". In office Due to the convention that whips did not speak in Parliament, Heath managed to keep out of the controversy over theSuez Crisis. On the announcement of Eden's resignation, Heath submitted a report on the opinions of the Conservative MPs regarding Eden's possible successors. This report favouredHarold Macmillanand helped to secure Macmillan the premiership in January 1957. Macmillan later appointed Heath Minister of Labour, a Cabinet Minister—as Chief Whip Heath had attended Cabinet, but had not been formally a member—after winning theOctober 1959 election. In 1960 Macmillan appointed HeathLord Privy Sealwith responsibility for the negotiations to secure the UK's first attempt to join theEuropean Communities(orCommon Market, as it was then more widely known). After extensive negotiations, involving detailed agreements about the UK's agricultural trade withCommonwealthcountries such asNew Zealand, British entry was vetoed by the French President,Charles de Gaulle, at a press conference in January 1963 – much to the disappointment of Heath, who was a firm supporter of European common market membership for the United Kingdom. He oversaw a successful application when serving as prime minister a decade later. After this setback, a major humiliation for Macmillan's foreign policy, Heath was not a contender for the party leadership on Macmillan's retirement in October 1963. Under prime minister SirAlec Douglas-Homehe wasPresident of the Board of Tradeand Secretary of State for Industry, Trade and Regional Development, and oversaw the abolition ofretail price maintenance, as well as the move of theAugust Bank Holidayto extend the holiday season and reduce congestion. Leader of the Opposition (1965–1970) Party leadership After the Conservative Party lost thegeneral election of 1964, the defeated Home changed the party leadership rules to allow for a ballot by MPs and then in July 1965, he resigned. Heath—who wasShadow Chancellorat the time, and had recently won favourable publicity for leading the fight against Labour'sFinance Bill—unexpectedly won theparty's leadership contest, gaining 150 votes toReginald Maudling's 133 andEnoch Powell's 15.Heath became the Conservatives' youngest leader and retained office following the party's defeat in thegeneral election of 1966. In April 1968,Enoch Powellmade his controversial \"Rivers of Blood\" speech, which criticisedimmigration to the United Kingdom. Soon afterwards, Heath telephoned Margaret Thatcher to inform her that he was going to sack Powell from theShadow cabinet; she recalled that she \"really thought that it was better to let things cool down for the present rather than heighten the crisis\". The next day, Heath sacked Powell. Several Conservatives on the right protested against Powell's sacking.According to Heath, he never spoke to Powell again. 1970 election With another general election approaching in 1970 a Conservative policy document emerged from theSelsdon Park Hotelthat offered free-market–oriented policies as solutions to the country's unemployment and inflation problems.Heath stated that the Selsdon weekend only reaffirmed policies that had actually been evolving since he became leader of the Conservative Party. The Labour prime minister,Harold Wilson, thought the document a vote-loser and dubbed it the product ofSelsdon Man– after the supposedly prehistoricPiltdown Man– to portray it as reactionary. Heath's Conservative Party won thegeneral election of 1970with 330 seats to Labour's 287. The new cabinet included the future prime minister Margaret Thatcher (Education and Science),William Whitelaw(Leader of the House of Commons) and the former prime ministerAlec Douglas-Home(Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs). Prime minister (1970–1974) Welfare state During Heath's first year in office, higher charges were introduced for benefits of the welfare state such as school meals, spectacles, dentistry, and prescriptions. Entitlement to State Sickness Benefit was also changed so that it would only be paid after the first three days of sickness.In 1971 a series of measures was introduced designed to limit the availability of supplementary benefit. In particular, as noted by one study, \"tax rebates and strike pay were treated as resources, subject to a £4 disregard.\"From April 1972 a man returning from work after being on strike had to pay back any supplementary benefit received to tide him over during the first 15 days at work before he got his pay. In February 1973, the rules about help in urgent cases were made more stringent.As a result of the squeeze in the education budget, the provision offree school milkwas ended for 8- to 11-year-olds (it had already been ended for older children by Harold Wilson); the tabloid press christened Margaret Thatcher, the then Education Secretary as \"Margaret Thatcher: Milk Snatcher\".Despite these measures, the Heath government encouraged a significant increase in welfare spending, and Thatcher blocked Macleod's other posthumous education policy: the abolition of theOpen University, which had recently been founded by the preceding Labour government.In addition, despite the end of cheap milk provision however, 700,000 school children remained entitled to free milk. The Legal Advice and Assistance Act 1972 provided for better facilities for advice and assistance at an early stage in a dispute.The Social Needs (Grants) Act 9NI) 1970 \"made provision for the authorisation of the payment of grants towards expenditure incurred due to special social need in urban areas.\"In January 1973, the Criminal Justice Act 1972 came into effect in England and Wales. It extended the court's power \"to order an offender to pay compensation for personal injury, loss, or damage.\"In June 1973 a new lower rate of attendance allowance was introduced for those aged 16 to 64, while lower rates \"for the aged under 15 and those over 65 were introduced on 1 October and 3 December respectively.\"Another change allowed for small claims of less than £75 to be dealt with in a less formal manner within the County Court system. Rules of evidence and requirements of legal representation were relaxed to make it viable to claim such small sums under the County Court Act 1959 as amended by the Administration of Justice Act (E&W) 1973. Provision was made under theNational Insurance (Old Persons' and Widows' Pensions and Attendances Allowances) Act 1970for pensions to be paid to old people who had been excluded from the pre-1948 pension schemes and were accordingly excluded from the comprehensive scheme that was introduced in 1948. About 100,000 people were affected by this change, half of whom were receivingSupplementary Benefitunder the social security scheme. The Act also made improvements to the Widow's Pension scheme by introducing a scale that started at 30 shillings a week for women widowed at the age of 40 and rose to the full rate of £5 at the age of 50. Considerable support was provided for nursery school building, and a long-term capital investment programme in school building was launched. AFamily Fundwas set up to assist families with children who had congenital conditions,while new benefits were introduced benefiting hundreds of thousands of disabled persons whose disabilities had been caused neither by war nor by industrial injury. AnAttendance Allowancewas introduced for those needing care at home, together withInvalidity Benefitfor the long-term sick, while a higher Child Allowance was made available where invalidity allowance was paid. Widow's Benefits were introduced for those aged between forty and fifty years of age, improved subsidies forslum clearancewere made available, while Rent Allowances were introduced for private tenants.In April 1971, the right to education was given to all children with Down's syndrome for the first time. The school leaving age was raised to 16,whileFamily Income Supplementwas introduced to boost the incomes of low-income earners.Families who received this benefit were exempted fromNHS chargeswhile the children in such families were eligible forfree school meals.Non-contributory pensionswere also introduced for all persons aged eighty and above,while theSocial Security Act 1973was passed which introduced benefit indexation in the United Kingdom for the first time by index-linking benefits to prices to maintain their real value.An amendment to the Social Security Act of 1973 required the secretary of state to publicize benefits for the disabled.The National Insurance Act of 1971 introduced a special addition with no means test for all pensioners over 80, while in 1972 a £10 Christmas bonus was introduced.Annual upratings for all pensioners was also introduced.From October 1973 onwards a higher ' long – term rate ' of supplementary benefit \"was paid to those who had received supplementary benefit for a continuous period.\"That same year, a basic short-term rates were introduced for everyone else; the short-term sick and unemployed in the main.From 1972 onwards, \"while there is no statutory commitment to this effect, the same cash increases have been made in the leading supplementary benefit scale rates as in their national insurance counterparts.\" In 1973, a statutory commitment to uprate national insurance benefits in line with prices was introduced in 1973.The Industrial Relations Act of 1971 gave employees \"the right, depending on a minimum qualifying period, to appeal to an industrial tribunal, where compensation for unfair dismissal could be awarded based on length of service,\"and in 1972 preservation of accrued pension benefits after 5 or more years' service was introduced.The Legal Advice and Assistance Act 1972 set up a Green Form scheme under which advice of up to two hours, free of charge to the poorest or at reduced rates to those of modest means, became available.The Housing Finance Act 1972 \"introduced a national formula for rent increases in the public sector and a mandatory system of local rent and rate rebates that survived subsequent legislation.\"The Supplementary Benefit (Determination of Requirements) Regulations 1972 increased the rent addition for non-householders and removed the present age qualification.The Students' Dependents' Allowances Regulations 1973 enabled the Secretary of State \"to pay allowances to students attending first degree university etc. courses and courses for the training of teachers.\"A social security amendment of 1973 provided for allowing the Supplementary Benefits Commission \"to make payments to cover funeral expenses without having regard to the powers of local authorities, so that the commission will not be inhibited by the fact that local authorities have certain powers concerning the disposal of bodies.\"Subsequently, the Commission \"revised its policy on payments towards funeral expenses . Claimants are no longer advised to ask the Local Authority to make funeral arrangements, and the Commission will consider paying towards the costs of a private funeral under its powers to meet exceptional needs.\" The Redundant Mineworkers and Concessionary Coal (Payments Schemes) Order 1973 provided for three new types of benefits, including \"lump sums based on length of service for men redundant between age 35 and 55, and for men over 55 who due to lack of service in the industry do not qualify for basic benefit; a new benefit equivalent to the current rate of unemployment benefit to be paid to men when they have exhausted their 156 weeks of basic benefit until they reach age 65; and concessionary coal benefits for men made redundant between age 55 and 60, and certain men redundant over age 60. (Most men redundant over age 60 already receive concessionary coal under existing arrangements.) In addition, \"The amount of benefit which a beneficiary may retain if he obtains other employment has also been increased.\"The Employment and Training Act 1973 included various provisions. For instance, as specified in the text of the Act, \"The Secretary of State may— pay to any person appointed in pursuance of the preceding paragraph such subsistence and travelling allowances and such compensation for loss of remunerative time as the Secretary of State may determine with the approval of the Minister for the Civil Service.\" In addition, \"An industrial training board may— pay maintenance and travelling allowances to persons attending courses provided or approved by the board ; make grants or loans to persons providing courses or other facilities approved by the board, to persons who make studies for the purpose of providing such courses or facilities and to persons who maintain arrangements to provide such courses or facilities which are not for the time being in use ; pay fees to persons providing further education in respect of persons who receive it in association with their training in courses provided or approved by the board; make payments to persons in connection with arrangements under which they or employees of theirs make use of courses or other facilities provided or approved by the board.\" The Redundant Mineworkers (Payments Scheme) Order 1972 was intended to be make available for 3 years \"to any miner who is made redundant after he has reached 55 to help him to adjust to the new situation and to the difficulties which confront him.\" It included a number of provisions for miners and their dependents including the addition of cost of living increments, a basic scheme benefit, an increase from £3 to £6 a week to the benefit \"which can be kept if a redundant mineworker finds a new job and enters new employment, because if he did he would probably incur income tax, perhaps National Insurance contributions, travelling expenses and other expenses which might well have exceeded the £3 which he would have been able to draw if he had continued to draw that from the redundant mineworkers payment scheme.\" The rent allowance which is payable to a redundant mineworker was made transferable to a new house if he were to move his home, the rules regarding the offsetting of State and other coal industry benefits against the total of the mineworkers' redundancy payment benefit were eased, and the scheme was changed \"so that in the event of a second redundancy—if a miner is made redundant a second time—his earnings are computed on the wages paid in the year immediately before the second redundancy as opposed to his previous level of earnings.\" Also, \"these last three concessions will apply to men who are in the existing scheme, not only to miners who might be made redundant in future, but to all those who are part of the existing scheme at the present time.\" The scheme also provided that the general increases in benefits, such as the special hardship allowance and workmen's compensation supplementation would not be offset as at present, and also provided for increases in benefits paid to men on workmen's compensation as a result of becoming total or major incapacity cases, award of special hardship allowance in respect of an accident or disease sustained after redundancies. In addition, \"any general increase in unemployment benefit between 6th April, 1972, and 6th April, 1973, will be offset against the benefit of men made redundant after 6th April, 1973.\" Also, \"the maximum amount of benefit that can be kept by those who get a job is increased from £3 to £6\" weekly, and \"the table of basic benefit appropriate to the various ranges of pre-redundancy earnings set out in Appendix 4 has been recalculated so that the basic benefit, plus the 1971 rate of unemployment benefit for a man and one adult dependant, equals, after tax and on average over the three years, 90 per cent. of previous take-home pay.\" Other provisions included service in the coal industry \"before nationalisation can now count towards the 10 qualifying years\" and that women \"who are not paying the full National Insurance stamp will be able to get some benefit despite not being eligible for unemployment benefit.\" In addition, \"days of absence from home which disqualify a person from unemployment benefit, and also from 72 scheme benefit, will be counted as days rather than one day in a week resulting in a whole week's disqualification as at present.\" Also, \"a man made redundant within the terms of the scheme and reemployed in the coal industry for more than a year and then made redundant a second time can choose on which of the two pre-redundancy earnings he wishes his benefit to be calculated.\" In addition, \"the requirement that in order to continue getting the rent allowance a person must continue to live in the same house in which he was living when he was made redundant, and that this house must continue to be owned by the board, is removed.\" Also, \"the relevant tax year on which pre-redundancy earnings are based will now be the previous tax year for everybody, instead of being two years ago for those made redundant during April.\"Also, as noted by one MP, \"Following the introduction of the first redundant mineworkers payments scheme in 1968, which provided benefits for men aged 55 or over on redundancy who otherwise satisfied the requirements of the scheme, there was pressure to enhance the terms available to enable such men to receive concessionary coal as though they had reached normal retirement age. The Government responded to this pressure in the Coal Industry Act 1973, amending the power to make schemes benefiting redundant mineworkers in the 1967 Act.\" Also in 1973, the first concessionary coal payments scheme was introduced by order, which provided for reimbursement to the National Coal Board \"of the full cost of concessionary coal to men aged 55 to 59 who qualified for benefits under the redundant mineworkers payments scheme from 14 December 1969, and half the cost of providing concessionary coal to such men age 60 to 65.\" A number of new superannuation provisions were introduced for various categories of workers. For those in the NHS, this included years and days used in benefit calculations instead of years and half years, the introduction of practitioner dynamising introduced i.e. 1.4% pensions, best of the last 3 years Total Superannuable Remuneration introduced instead of average of last 3 years, 3 x lump sum introduced for post 24 March 1972 service (married men), the introduction of a half rate widow's pension (was previously 1/3), a new rate of Child Allowance, a reduction in the qualifying period for pensions from 10 years to 5 years, the abolition of the qualifying period for Death Gratuities (DG), the introduction of double incapacity build up for service between 5 years and 9 years 364 days (or to age 65 if less), the introduction of 3 months initial widows pension, the introduction of widows limited pension (for 3, 4.5 or 6 months) for those widows who do not have title to continuing widows pensions, the introduction of a Limited Child Allowance, the introduction of automatic payment of benefits at age 70, the introduction of Added Years purchase, \"Pensions Increase Supplement may apply\" from January 1973 to October 1975, the extension of service to take account of untaken annual leave introduced for ancillary staff, and \"Part time service may be superannuable provided half or more of the w/t basic is worked.\"The Pensions (Increase) Act of 1971 provided for regular increases in public service pensions by statutory instrument. The Act was later amended in 1972 and 1974 \"to lower the minimum qualifying age for pensions increase from 60 to 55 and to provide for all pensions paid to widows of scheme members to be increased.\" The Superannuation Act of 1972 provided for new arrangements for premature retirement on grounds of limited efficiency,granted civil servants rights to their pensionsand established the Principal Civil Service Pension Scheme, the Civil Service Additional Voluntary Contribution Scheme (CSAVCS), the Civil Service Compensation Scheme (CSCS) and the Civil Service Injury Benefits Scheme (CSIBS).The Local Government (Retirement of Chief Officers) Regulations 1973 provided \"for persons identified as chief officers and deputy chief officers of local authorities, and certain other persons affected by local government reorganisation, to elect for early retirement on enhanced pension terms and thereby forgo any right to claim compensation which might otherwise have been exercised under section 259 of the Local Government Act 1972.\"Section 27 of the Water Act 1973 empowered water authorities to establish and administer pension schemes and funds.The Social Security Act of 1973 made further provisions \"for occupational pensions, established the Occupational Pensions Board and the contributory reserve pension scheme under a Reserve Pension Board for not recognised pensionable employment.\" Scottish nationalism Scottish nationalismgrew as a political force, while thedecimalisation of British coinage, begun under the previous Labour government, was completed eight months after Heath came to power. TheCentral Policy Review Staffwas established by Heath in February 1971,while theLocal Government Act 1972changed the boundaries of the counties of England and Wales and created Metropolitan Counties around the major cities (e.g. Merseyside around Liverpool): this caused significant public anger. Heath did not divide England into regions, choosing instead to await the report of theCrowther Commissionon the constitution; the 10Government Office Regionswere eventually set up by the Major government in 1994. Economic policy Chancellor of the ExchequerIain Macleoddied and was replaced on 20 July 1970 byAnthony Barber. Heath's planned economic policy changes (including a significant shift from direct to indirect taxation) remained largely unimplemented: the Selsdon policy document was more or less abandoned as unemployment increased considerably by 1972. By January that year, the number of unemployed reached a million, the highest level for more than two decades. Opposed to unemployment on moral grounds, Heath encouraged a famous \"U-Turn\" in economic policy that precipitated what became known as the \"Barber Boom\". This was a two-range process involving the budgets of1972and 1973, the former of which pumped £2.5 billion into the economy in increased pensions and benefits and tax reductions. By early 1974, as a result of this Keynesian economic strategy, unemployment had fallen to under 550,000. The economic boom did not last, and the Heath government implemented various cuts that led to the abandonment of policy goals such as a planned expansion of nursery education. Trade unions Much of the government's attention, as well as the media and public opinion, focused on deteriorating labour relations, as the government sought to weaken the economic power of the trade unions, which had grown steadily since 1945. TheIndustrial Relations Act 1971set up a special court under the judgeLord Donaldson. Its imprisonment of striking dockworkers was a public relations disaster and became an object lesson for the Thatcher government of the 1980s. Thatcher relied instead on confiscating the assets of unions that courts found to have violated anti-strike laws. The trade unions responded with a full-scale counterattack on a government hobbled by inflation and high unemployment. Especially damaging to the government's credibility were the two miners' strikes of 1972 and 1974, the latter of which resulted in much of the country's industry working aThree-Day Weekin an attempt to conserve energy. TheNational Union of Mineworkerswon its case but the energy shortages and the resulting breakdown of domestic consensus contributed to the eventual downfall of his government. Unemployment There was a steep rise in unemployment for the first two years of the Heath ministry, but it was then reversed. Labour in 1964 had inherited an unemployment count of around 400,000 but saw unemployment peak at 631,000 in early 1967. At election time in June 1970, the unemployment numbers were still high at 582,000. Heath and the Conservatives were pledged to \"full employment\" but within a year it became clear that they were losing that battle, as the official unemployment count crept towards 1,000,000 and some newspapers suggested that it was even higher. In January 1972 it was officially confirmed that unemployment had risen above 1,000,000 – a level not seen for more than 30 years.Various other reports around this time suggested that unemployment was higher still, withThe Timesnewspaper claiming that \"nearly 3,000,000\" people were jobless by March of that year. Foreign policy Upon entering office in June 1970, Heath immediately set about trying to reverse Wilson's policy of ending Britain's military presenceEast of Suez.Heath took the United Kingdom into Europe on 1 January 1973, following passage in Parliament of theEuropean Communities Act 1972in October. He publicly supported themassive U.S. bombingofHanoiandHaiphongin December 1972. According toJohn McEvoyandMark CurtisofDeclassified UK, his government quickly recognised the military regime ofAugusto PinochetinChileand maintained good relations with it, despite the illegal nature of the Pinochet regime'scoup d'état. In October 1973 he placed a British arms embargo on all combatants in the Arab-IsraeliYom Kippur War, which mostly affected the Israelis by preventing them obtaining spares for their Centurion tanks. Heath refused to allow US intelligence gathering fromBritish bases in Cyprus, resulting in a temporary halt in the US signals intelligence tap. He favoured links with thePeople's Republic of China, visitingMao Zedongin Beijing in 1974 and 1975 and remaining an honoured guest in China on frequent visits thereafter and forming a close relationship with Mao's successorDeng Xiaoping. Heath realised that to become closer to Europe he needed to be further from the United States, so he downplayed theSpecial Relationshipthat had long knitted the two nations together. The two nations differed on such major crises as Britain's EC membership, theNixon economic \"shocks\" of 1971, theBangladesh Liberation War, détente with Soviet Union, Kissinger's Year of Europe and the Middle East crisis of 1973. Northern Ireland Heath served as Prime Minister during an especially violent period ofthe TroublesinNorthern Ireland. Events such as theFalls Curfew,Operation MotormanandBloody Sundayled to the near-collapse in relations between the Irish Catholic community and Britishsecurity forces. In 1971, Heath sentMI6officer Frank Steele to hold talks with theProvisional Irish Republican Army(IRA) and find common ground to begin official negotiations.In July 1972, Heath permitted theSecretary of State for Northern Ireland, William Whitelaw, to hold unofficial talks in London with an IRA delegation bySeán Mac Stíofáin. In the aftermath of these unsuccessful talks, Heath pushed for a peaceful settlement with Northern Irish political parties exclusively committed tononviolence. The 1973Sunningdale Agreement, which proposed a power-sharing deal, was strongly repudiated by many Unionists, including theUlster Unionist Party, which withdrew its MPs at Westminster from the Conservative whip. The proposal was finally brought down by the UnionistUlster Workers' Council strikein 1974, by which time Heath was no longer in office. Heath was targeted by the IRA for introducinginternmentwithout trial in Northern Ireland. In December 1974, an IRAactive service unitthrew a bomb onto the first-floor balcony of his home in Wilton Street,Belgraviawhere it exploded. Heath had been conducting a Christmas carol concert at Broadstairs and arrived home 10 minutes after the bomb exploded. No one was injured in the attack, but a landscape painted by Winston Churchill – given to Heath as a present – was damaged.In January 2003, Heath gave evidence to theSaville Inquiryand stated that he had never sanctioned unlawful lethal force in Northern Ireland. Fall from power 1974 general elections Heath tried to bolster his government by calling ageneral electionfor 28 February 1974, using the election slogan \"Who governs Britain?\". The result of the election was inconclusive with no party gaining an overall majority in the House of Commons; the Conservatives had the most votes but Labour had slightly more seats. Heath began negotiations withJeremy Thorpe, leader of theLiberal Party, but when these failed, he resigned as prime minister on 4 March 1974, and was replaced by Wilson's minority Labour government, eventually confirmed, though with a tiny majority, in a second election in October.To date, Heath is the last British Prime Minister to have both assumed and lost their term of office by means of a general election. Rise of Thatcher Heath came to be seen as a liability by many Conservative MPs, party activists and newspaper editors. His personality was considered cold and aloof, annoying even to his friends.Alan Watkinsobserved in 1991 that his \"brusqueness, his gaucherie, his lack of small or indeed any talk, his sheer bad manners\" were among the factors costing him the support of Conservative backbenchers in the subsequentConservative leadership election. He resolved to remain Conservative leader, even after losing the October 1974 general election, and at first it appeared that by calling on the loyalty of his front-bench colleagues he might prevail. In the weeks following the second election defeat, Heath came under tremendous pressure to concede a review of the rules and agreed to establish a commission to propose changes and to seek re-election. There was no clear challenger afterEnoch Powellhad left the party andKeith Josephhad ruled himself out after controversial statements implying that the working classes should be encouraged to use more birth control. Joseph's close friend and allyMargaret Thatcher, who believed that an adherent to the philosophy of theCentre for Policy Studiesshould stand, joined the leadership contest in his place alongside the outsiderHugh Fraser. Aided byAirey Neave's campaigning among backbench MPs — whose earlier approach toWilliam Whitelawhad been rebuffed, out of loyalty to Heath — she emerged as the only serious challenger. The new rules permitted new candidates to enter the ballot in a second round of voting should the first be inconclusive, so Thatcher's challenge was considered by some to be that of a stalking horse. Neave deliberately understated Thatcher's support to attract wavering votes from MPs who were keen to see Heath replaced even though they did not necessarily want Thatcher to replace him. On 4 February 1975, Thatcher defeated Heath in the first ballot by 130 votes to 119, with Fraser coming in a distant third with 16 votes. This was not a big enough margin to give Thatcher the 15% majority necessary to win on the first ballot, but having finished in second place Heath immediately resigned and did not contest the next ballot. His favoured candidate, William Whitelaw, lost to Thatcher in the second vote one week later (Thatcher 146, Whitelaw 79,Howe19,Prior19,Peyton11).The vote polarised along right-left lines, with in addition the region, experience and education of the MP having their effects. Heath and Whitelaw were stronger on the left, among Oxbridge and public school graduates, and in MPs from Northern England or Scotland. Thatcher had promised Heath a seat in the Shadow Cabinet and planned to offer him whatever post he wanted. His advisors agreed he should wait at least six months, so he declined. He never relented and his refusal was called \"the incredible sulk\".Thatcher visited Heath at his home shortly after her election as leader and had to stay for coffee with his PPSTimothy Kitsonso the waiting press would not realise how brief the visit had been. Heath claimed that he had simply declined her request for advice about how to handle the press, whilst Thatcher claimed that she offered him any Shadow Cabinet position he wanted and asked him to lead the Conservative campaign in the imminentEEC referendum, only to be rudely rebuffed. Later career (1975–2001) For many years, Heath persisted in criticism of the party's new ideological direction. At the time of his defeat, he was still popular with rank-and-file Conservative members and was warmly applauded at the 1975 Conservative Party Conference. He played a leading role in the 1975 referendum campaign in which the UK voted to remain part of the EEC, and he remained active on the international stage, serving on theBrandtCommission investigation into developmental issues, particularly onNorth–Southprojects (Brandt Report). His relations with Thatcher remained poor, and in 1979–80, he turned down her offers of the positions ofAmbassador to the United StatesandSecretary General of NATO.He continued as a central figure on the left of the party and, at the 1981 Conservative Party conference, openly criticised the government's economic policy ofmonetarism, which had seen inflation rise from 13% in 1979 to 18% in 1980 then fall to 4% by 1983,but had seen unemployment double from around 1.5 million to a postwar high of 3.3 million during that time. In 1990, he flew toBaghdadto attempt to negotiate the release of aircraft passengers onBritish Airways Flight 149and other British nationals taken hostage whenSaddam HusseininvadedKuwait. After the events ofBlack Wednesdayin 1992, he stated in theHouse of Commonsthat government should build a fund of reserves to counter currency speculators. In 1987, he was nominated in theelection for the Chancellorship of the University of Oxfordbut lost toRoy Jenkinsas a result of splitting the Conservative vote withLord Blake. Heath continued to serve as a backbench MP for the London constituency ofOld Bexley and Sidcupand was, from 1992, the longest-serving MP (\"Father of the House\") and the oldest British MP. As Father of the House, he oversaw the election of twoSpeakersof the Commons,Betty BoothroydandMichael Martin. Heath was created aKnight Companion of the Garteron 23 April 1992.He retired from Parliament at the2001 general election. Heath andTony Bennwere the last two serving MPs to have been elected during the reign ofGeorge VI, with Heath serving continuously since 1950. Heath maintained business links with several companies including a Saudi think tank, two investment funds and a Chinese freight operator, mainly as an adviser on China or a member of the governing board.According toChris Patten, the lastGovernor of Hong Kong, his commercial interests in China could have been one of the reasons why he denounced the democratic reforms introduced in the run-up to thehandover of Hong Kong. Parliament broke with precedent by commissioning a bust of Heath while he was still alive.Commentatorshave noted how the statue ofMargaret Thatcherappears to overshadow Heath's bust. The 1993 bronze work, byMartin Jennings, was moved to theMembers' Lobbyin 2002. On 29 April 2002, in his eighty-sixth year, he made a public appearance at Downing Street alongside the then–prime ministerTony Blairand the three other surviving former prime ministers at the time (James Callaghan,Margaret ThatcherandJohn Major), as well as relatives of deceased prime ministers, for a dinner which was part of theGolden Jubilee of Elizabeth II. This was to be one of his last public appearances, as the following year saw a decline in his health. Personal life Private residence In the 1960s, Heath had lived inAlbany, off Piccadilly; at the unexpected end of his premiership, the French couple living there refused his demand that they move out so that he could have his flat back (\"So much for European Unity!\" Heath later wrote in his memoirs). For four months, Heath took the flat of Conservative MPTimothy Kitson; Kitson declined his offer to pay rent but later recalled an occasion when his own watch broke, and Heath in response invited him to take one of a large collection that he had been given on his travels. In July 1974,the Duke of Westminster, a major London landowner and ardent Europhile, allowed Heath to rent a property in Wilton Street, Belgravia, for an annual rent of £1,250 (£16,454 at 2024 prices),a tenth of the market value. The house had three storeys and a basement flat for Heath's housekeeper, and he continued to use it as his London home until old age prevented him from climbing the stairs. In February 1985, Heath acquired a Wiltshire home,Arundells, in theCathedral closeatSalisbury, where he resided until his death twenty years later. In January 2006, it was announced that Heath had placed his house and contents, valued at £5 million in his will, in a charitable foundation, the Sir Edward Heath Charitable Foundation, to conserve the house as a museum to his career.The house is open to the public for guided tours from March to October; displayed therein is a large collection of personal effects as well as Heath's personal library, photo collections, and paintings by Winston Churchill. In his will, Heath, who had no descendants, left only two legacies: £20,000 to his brother's widow, and £2,500 to his housekeeper. Yachting Heath was a keen yachtsman. He bought his first yachtMorning Cloudin 1969 and won theSydney to Hobart Yacht Racethat year. He captained Britain's winning team for theAdmiral's Cupin 1971– while prime minister – and also captained the team in the1979 Fastnet race. He was a member of the Broadstairs Sailing Club, where he learnt to sail on aSnipeand aFireballbefore moving on to success in larger boats. Classical music Heath maintained an interest in classical music as a pianist, organist and orchestral conductor, famously installing aSteinwaygrand in10 Downing Street– bought with his £450Charlemagne Prizemoney, awarded for his unsuccessful efforts to bring Britain into the EEC in 1963, and chosen on the advice of his friend, the pianistMoura Lympany– and conducting Christmas carol concerts in Broadstairs every year from his teens until old age. Heath conducted theLondon Symphony Orchestra, notably at a gala concert at theRoyal Festival Hallin November 1971, at which he conductedSir Edward Elgar's overtureCockaigne (In London Town). He also conducted theRoyal Liverpool Philharmonicand theEnglish Chamber Orchestra, as well as orchestras in Germany and the United States. During his premiership, Heath invited musician friends, such asIsaac Stern,Yehudi Menuhin,Clifford Curzonand theAmadeus Quartet, to perform either atChequersor 10 Downing Street. Heath was the founding President of the European Community Youth Orchestra (in 1976), now theEuropean Union Youth Orchestra. In 1988, Heath recordedBeethoven'sTriple Concerto, Op. 56(with members of the Trio Zingara as soloists) andBoccherini'sCello Concerto in G major, G480. Football Heath was a supporter of theLancashirefootball clubBurnley, and just after the end of his term as prime minister in 1974 he opened the £450,000Bob LordStand at the club'sTurf Moorstadium. Author Heath wrote several books in the second half of the 1970s:Sailing,Music, andTravels. He also compiled a collection of carols calledThe Joy of Christmas, published in 1978 by Oxford University Press, which contained the music and lyrics to a wide variety of Christmas carols, each accompanied by a reproduction of a piece of religious art and a short introduction by Heath. Heath's autobiography,The Course of My Life, appeared in 1998. According to his obituary inThe Daily Telegraph, this \"had involved dozens of researchers and writers (some of whom he never paid) over many years\". \"Grocer Heath\" In 1964, despite substantial opposition from many Conservative MPs and independent grocers and shopkeepers, Heath led a successful fight to abolishresale price maintenance. Private Eye, a satirical current affairs magazine, thereupon persistently ridiculed him as \"Grocer Heath\".The magazine also parodied him as the managing director of a struggling small company, \"Heathco\". Sexuality Heath never married. He had been expected to marry childhood friend Kay Raven, who was reportedly tired of waiting and married an RAF officer whom she met on holiday in 1950. In a four-sentence paragraph of his memoirs, Heath claimed that he had been too busy establishing a career after the war and had \"perhaps ... taken too much for granted\". In a 1998 TV interview with Michael Cockerell, Heath said that he had kept her photograph in his flat for many years afterwards. His interest in music kept him on friendly terms with female musicians, including pianist Moura Lympany. When Heath was prime minister she was approached by the Conservative MPTufton Beamish, who said: \"Moura, Ted must get married. Will you marry him?\" She said she would have done but was in love with someone else.She later said the most intimate thing Heath had done was to put his arm around her shoulder. Bernard Levinwrote at the time inThe Observerthat the UK had to wait until the emergence of thepermissive societyfor a prime minister who was a virgin.In later life, according to his official biographerPhilip Ziegler, at dinner parties Heath was \"apt to relapse into morose silence or completely ignore the woman next to him and talk across her to the nearest man\";others at the time claimed Heath was just not talkative at parties. There were many innuendos inPrivate Eyeabout it and chants insinuating he was homosexual could be heard outside Downing Street during protests by trade unionists against his Industrial Relations Bill. John Campbell, who published a biography of Heath in 1993,devoted four pages to a discussion of the evidence concerning Heath's sexuality. While acknowledging that Heath was often assumed by the public to be gay, not least because it is \"nowadays ... whispered of any bachelor\", he found \"no positive evidence\" that this was so \"except for the faintest unsubstantiated rumour\" (the footnote refers to a mention of a \"disturbing incident\" at the beginning of theSecond World Warin a 1972 biography byAndrew Roth). Campbell ultimately concluded that the most significant aspect of Heath's sexuality was his completerepressionof it. Brian Coleman, the Conservative Party London Assembly member forBarnet and Camden, claimed in 2007 that Heath, to protect his career, had stoppedcottagingin the 1950s. Coleman said it was \"common knowledge\" among Conservatives that Heath had been given a stern warning by police when he underwent background checks for the post ofprivy counsellor.Heath's biographer Philip Ziegler wrote in 2010 that Coleman was able to provide \"little or no information\" to back up this statement, that no man had ever claimed to have had a sexual relationship with Heath, nor was any trace of homosexuality to be found in his papers, and that \"those who knew him well\" insist that he had no such inclination. He believes Heath to have beenasexual,although he does mention a letter from one \"Freddy\", who seems hurt that \"Teddie\" had spurned his advances (chapter 2 of his book). Lord Armstrong of Ilminster, who was Heath's friend and formerprivate secretary, stated his belief that Heath was asexual, saying that he \"never detected a whiff of sexuality in relation to men, women or children.\"Another friend and confidant, Sara Morrison, former vice-chairman of the Conservative Party, said Heath had \"effectively\" told her \"that he was sexless\".Charles Moore, in his authorised biography of Margaret Thatcher, said thatBill Deedesbelieved that Thatcher \"seem convinced\" Heath was gay, whilst Moore believed it is \"possible\" that Thatcher's reference, in interview in 1974, to Heath not having a family, was a deliberate hint that he was gay, in order to discredit him.Thatcher certainly seems to have disliked Heath. \"When I look at him and he looks at me,\" she once remarked, according to Ziegler (Chapter 4), \"it doesn't feel like a man looking at a woman, more like a woman looking at another woman.\" When he moved to Arundells in 1985, Heath hired Derek Frost, life partner ofJeremy Norman, to modernise and redecorate the house in Salisbury. He became friends with the couple, though never close. When they asked Heath why he had not supported homosexual law reform (he was either absent from the debates in the 1960s or voted againstLord Arran's first Bill in May 1965), he replied that he had always been in favour but that \"the rank and file of the party would never have stood for it.\" Norman's view is that Heath was \"a deeply closeted gay man\" who \"decided early in life to sublimate his sexuality to his political ambitions.\"In later life, Heath voted for the lowering of the age of same-sex consent to eighteen and then sixteen. Similarly, Michael McManus, who was Heath's private secretary in the 1990s and helped with his memoirs, writes in his book on gay conservative politicians that he \"was left in no doubt whatsoever that Heath was a gay man who had sacrificed his personal life to his political career, exercising iron self-control and living a celibate existence as he climbed the 'greasy pole' of preferment.\" Allegations of child sexual abuse In April 2015, a rape claim against Heath was investigated by theMetropolitan Policebut was dropped.In August 2015, several police forces were investigating allegations ofchild sexual abuseby Heath.Hampshire, Jersey, Kent, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire and Thames Valley constabularies and London's Metropolitan Police investigated such claims.It was reported that a man had claimed that at the age of 12 years he had been raped by Heath in aMayfairflat in 1961, after he had run away from home.Allegations about Heath were investigated as part ofOperation Midland, the Metropolitan Police inquiry into claims of historic child abuse and relatedhomicides.A witness called \"Nick\" was introduced to the police by the formerExarowebsite, who had asked him about alleged child sexual abuse by prominent figures at theDolphin Squareapartment complex inPimlico, London; Heath was reported to be one of the figures.In 2018 \"Nick\", whose real name isCarl Beech, was arrested and charged over child pornography offencesand in January 2019 he pleaded guilty.Beech, who had fabricated allegations against Heath and other prominent politicians and civil servants, was sentenced in July 2019 to eighteen years in prison. Also in August 2015,Sky Newsreported that Jersey police were investigating allegations against Heath as part ofOperation Whistle,and a similar investigation, Operation Conifer, was launched byWiltshire Policeat the same time.The Sir Edward Heath Charitable Foundation, which operates the museum at Arundells, his home in Salisbury, said it welcomed the investigation.In November 2016, criminologistRichard Hoskinssaid that the evidence used against Heath in Operation Conifer, including discredited allegations ofsatanic ritual abuse, was \"preposterous\", \"fantastical\" and gained through the \"controversial\" practice ofrecovered-memory therapy.Operation Conifer was closed in March 2017, having cost a reported £1.5 million over two years, as no corroborating evidence had been found in any of the 42 allegations by 40 individuals (including three different names used by one person). In September 2017, it was announced that theIndependent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abusewould review the police investigation into Heath.Police said that if Heath were still alive they would have interviewed himunder cautionin relation to seven out of the 42 allegations,but nothing should be inferred about his guilt or innocence.In his summary report, Chief ConstableMike Vealeconfirmed that \"no further corroborative evidence was found\" to support the satanic abuse claims. Illness and death In August 2003, at the age of 87, Heath suffered apulmonary embolismwhile on holiday inSalzburg, Austria. He never fully recovered, and owing to his declining health and mobility made very few public appearances in the last two years of his life. His last appearance was at the unveiling of a set of gates atSt Paul's Cathedraldedicated to Churchill on 30 November 2004. In his final public statement, Heath paid tribute toJames Callaghan, who died on 26 March 2005, saying \"James Callaghan was a major fixture in the political life of this country during his long and varied career. When in opposition he never hesitated to put firmly his party's case. When in office he took a smoother approach towards his supporters and opponents alike. Although he left the House of Commons in 1987 he continued to follow political life and it was always a pleasure to meet with him. We have lost a major figure from our political landscape.\" Just under four months later, Sir Edward Heath died at his home frompneumoniaat 7.30 pm on 17 July 2005, at the age of 89, the day after his spokesman said he was 'nearing the end of his life'.He was cremated on 25 July 2005 at a funeral service attended by 1,500 people. On the day after his death, theBBC Parliamentchannel showed the BBC results coverage of the 1970 election. A memorial service was held for Heath inWestminster Abbeyon 8 November 2005, which was attended by 2,000 people. Three days later his ashes were interred inSalisbury Cathedral. In a tribute to him, the then-prime minister Tony Blair stated \"He was a man of great integrity and beliefs he held firmly from which he never wavered\". Honours Heath received several accolades and honours. Coat of arms Honorary degrees and fellowships Heath was awarded a number ofhonorary degrees: Awards Including the year of award. Books by Heath References Further reading Biographies of Heath Politics and domestic policy Foreign and defence policy Historiography External links"
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"Craig Phillips Craig Phillips(born 16 October 1971) is an English television personality and builder. He is known for winning thefirst seriesofBig Brotherin 2000.He is trained as a bricklayer, and has appeared in numerous television series related to building since winningBig Brother. Early life The younger of two children and born inLiverpool, his family moved toNewport, Shropshire, in the late 1980s. At 18, Phillips secured a day release bricklayers apprenticeship whilst employed withWrekin Council's construction department. He also attended further night school classes in advanced brickwork and civil engineering. Having qualified with aCity & Guilds, Phillips went on to set up his own building company. In the 1990s, he presentedRenovation StreetwithLinda Robsonfor Carlton ITV before being brought in as theDIYexpert for theBBCon an exclusive contract in 2001. Career afterBig Brother After leavingBig Brotheras the first winner, Phillips announced he was giving his £70,000 prize fund to his friend Joanne",
"his friend Joanne Harris, who hadDown syndrome, to pay for her heart and lung transplant. He had begun raising money with friends for Harris sometime before enteringBig Brother, raising only small amounts of money towards the £250,000 needed for her operation, but within 6 days of winning, he achieved the target required for her life saving operation thanks to public support and donations from celebrities. Harris died in April 2008.He has featured in comedy seriesBo' Selecta!and appeared in the reality seriesBack To Reality, raising £40,000 for Macmillan Cancer Trust. At Christmas 2000, Phillips released the charity single, \"At This Time of Year\" throughWarner Music. The single went to Number 14 in theUK Singles Chart,achieving silver disc status, and raising over £40,000 for theDown's Syndrome Association. It stayed in the top 40 for three weeks. Since then, he appeared in videos for two other Xmas singles –Bo Selecta!'s Proper Crimbowhich reached No. 4 in 2003 andRicky Tomlinson's\"Christmas My A*se\"which",
"My A*se\"which reached 25 in 2006.In 2001, Phillips appeared onLily Savage's Blankety Blank;in 2003, Phillips appeared on the fifth series ofFort Boyard. Phillips has presented numerous televisions programmes, includingHousecall,Housecall in the Country,Builders Sweat and Tears,Our House,Trading Up,Big Strong Boys,Boyz in the Wood,Big Strong Boys in the Sun,Renovation Street,Trading Up in the Sun,House TrapandCraig’s Trade Tips. He also has a production company called Avent Productions.For Avent, he has presentedConversion; a 10-part series forDiscovery Realtime, and the sixth series ofHung, Drawn & Broke, a 6-part series filmed forBritish Forces Broadcasting Service. The company also produces corporate productions many of these for building companies. In 2007, Phillips joined the team of60 Minute MakeoverforITV. He appeared in 80 episodes in 2008. In February 2009, Phillips appeared inAnt & Dec's Saturday Night Takeawayin \"Escape from Takeaway Prison\" for six weeks. In summer 2009, he released his debut",
"released his debut autobiography. In July 2009, Phillips returned to theBig Brotherhouse to help celebrate the show's tenth anniversary. In 2010, Phillips appeared onBig Brotheragain, and competed in a shed building task. He also appeared inDermot's Last Supper, a special to celebrate the ending ofBig Brother. In April 2011, he hosted a show calledCelebrity DIY with Craig PhillipsforHome. In June 2011, he also hostedIf It's Broke, Fit Itfor Home. In June 2020, he made a guest appearance onBig Brothers's Best ShowsonE4, where he talked about watching his series back. Since 2018, Phillips has worked as a presenter for his own YouTube channel Mr and Mrs DIY, covering a variety of essential home and garden maintenance jobs through easy-to-follow online tutorials. Personal life In 2018, Phillips married Laura Sherriff atPeckforton Castle, Cheshire, after the couple had dated for two years.Rather than asking for gifts from guests, he and Sherriff asked that the attendants donate to hospice charities instead.The",
"instead.The couple have two children: Nelly (born March 2019),and Lennon (born December 2020).The couple featured in Channel 5's (S1 Ep1) \"Millionaire Age Gap Love\" in 2020. References External links",
"Edward Heath Sir Edward Richard George HeathKGMBE(9 July 1916 – 17 July 2005), commonly known asTed Heath, was a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 1970 to 1974 andLeader of the Conservative Partyfrom 1965 to 1975. Heath also served for 51 years as aMember of Parliamentfrom 1950 to 2001. Outside politics, Heath was ayachtsman, a musician, and an author. Born inBroadstairs, Kent, Heath was the son of a chambermaid and carpenter. He attendedChatham House Grammar Schoolin Ramsgate, Kent, and became a leader within student politics while studying atBalliol Collegeat theUniversity of Oxford. DuringWorld War II, Heath served as an officer in theRoyal Artillery. He worked briefly in theCivil Service, but resigned in order to stand for Parliament, and was elected forBexleyat the1950 election.He was promoted to becomeChief WhipbyAnthony Edenin 1955, and in 1959 was appointed to theCabinetbyHarold MacmillanasMinister of Labour. He later held the role ofLord Privy Sealand in 1963,",
"Sealand in 1963, was madePresident of the Board of TradebyAlec Douglas-Home. After the Conservatives were defeated at the1964 election, Heathwas electedas Leader of the Conservative Party in 1965, becomingLeader of the Opposition. Although he led the Conservatives to a landslide defeat at the1966 election, he remained in the leadership, and at the1970 electionled his party to an unexpected victory. During his time as prime minister, Heath oversaw thedecimalisation of British coinagein 1971, and in 1972 he led the reformation oflocal government, significantly reducing the number of local authorities and creating several new metropolitan counties, much of which remains to this day. A strong supporter of British membership of theEuropean Economic Community(EEC), Heath's \"finest hour\" came in 1973, when he led the United Kingdom into membership of what would later become theEuropean Union.However, his premiership also coincided with the height ofthe Troublesin Northern Ireland, with his approval ofinternment",
"ofinternment without trialand subsequent suspension of theStormont Parliamentseeing the imposition ofdirect British rule. Unofficial talks withProvisional Irish Republican Armydelegates were unsuccessful, as was theSunningdale Agreementof 1973, which led the MPs of theUlster Unionist Partyto withdraw from the Conservative whip. Heath also tried to reform British trade unionism with theIndustrial Relations Act, and hoped to deregulate the economy and make a transfer fromdirecttoindirect taxation. However, aminers' strikeat the start of 1974 severely damaged the Government, causing the implementation of theThree-Day Weekto conserve energy. Attempting to resolve the situation, Heath called anelectionfor February 1974, attempting to obtain a mandate to face down the miners' wage demands, but this instead resulted in ahung parliament, with the Conservatives losing their majority. Despite gaining fewer votes, the Labour Party won four more seats, and Heath resigned as Prime Minister on 4 March after talks with",
"after talks with theLiberal Partyto form a coalition government were unsuccessful. After losing asecond successive electionin October 1974, Heath's leadership was challenged byMargaret Thatcherand, on 4 February, she narrowly outpolled him in thefirst round. Heath chose to resign the leadership rather than contest the second round, returning to the backbenches, where he would remain until 2001. In 1975, he played a major role in thereferendumon British membership of the EEC, campaigning for the eventually successful \"remain\" vote. Heath would later become an embittered critic of Thatcher during her time as prime minister, speaking and writing against the policies ofThatcherism. Following the1992 election, he becameFather of the House, until his retirement from the Commons in 2001. He died in 2005, aged 89. Heath is one of four British prime ministers never to have married. He has been described by the BBC as \"the first working-class meritocrat\" to become Conservative leader in \"the party's modern history\"",
"modern history\" and \"aOne Nation Toryin theDisraelitradition who rejected thelaissez-fairecapitalismthat Thatcher would enthusiastically endorse.\" Early life Heath was born at 54 Albion Road, Broadstairs, Kent, on 9 July 1916, the son of William George Heath (1888–1976), a carpenter who builtairframesforVickersduring the First World War, and was subsequently employed as a builderand Edith Anne Heath (néePantony; 1888–1951), a lady's maid.His father was later a successful small businessman after taking over a building and decorating firm. Heath's paternal grandfather had run a small dairy business, and when that failed worked as a porter atBroadstairs Stationon the Southern Railway.Edward was four years old when his younger brother, John, was born; there was no question that Edward was the \"favoured brother\".Heath was known as \"Teddy\" as a young man.He was educated atChatham House Grammar SchoolinRamsgate, and in 1935 with the aid of a county scholarship he went up to study atBalliol College, Oxford. In later",
"Oxford. In later years, Heath's peculiar accent, with its \"strangulated\" vowel sounds, combined with his non-Standard pronunciation of \"l\" as \"w\" and \"out\" as \"eout\", was satirised byMonty Pythonin the audio sketch \"Teach Yourself Heath\" (released on a 7\" flexi-disc single included with initial copies of their 1972 LPMonty Python's Previous Record).Heath's biographerJohn Campbellspeculates that his speech, unlike that of his father and younger brother, who both spoke with Kent accents, must have undergone \"drastic alteration on encountering Oxford\", although retaining elements of Kent speech. Oxford A talented musician, Heath won the college'sorgan scholarshipin his first term (he had previously tried for the organ scholarships atSt Catharine's College, Cambridge, andKeble College, Oxford) which enabled him to stay at the university for a fourth year; he eventually graduated with aSecond Class HonoursBA inPhilosophy, politics and economicsin 1939. While at university Heath became active in Conservative Party",
"Conservative Party politics. On the key political issue of the day, foreign policy, he opposed the Conservative-dominated government of the day ever more openly. His first Paper Speech (i.e. a major speech listed on theOrder Paperalong with the visiting guest speakers) at theOxford Union, in 1936, was in opposition to theappeasementof Germany by returning her colonies, confiscated during the First World War. In June 1937 Heath was elected President of theOxford University Conservative Associationas a pro-Spanish Republiccandidate, in opposition to the pro-FrancoJohn Stokes(himself later a Conservative MP). In 1937–38 Heath was chairman of the nationalFederation of University Conservative Associations, and in the same year (his third at university) he was Secretary and then Librarian of the Oxford Union. At the end of the year he was defeated for the Presidency of the Oxford Union by another Balliol candidate, Alan Wood, on the issue of whether theChamberlain governmentshould give way to a left-wingPopular",
"a left-wingPopular Front. On that occasion, Heath supported the government. In his final year Heath was President of Balliol CollegeJunior Common Room, an office held in subsequent years by his near-contemporariesDenis Healey, who would become a lifelong friend and political rivalandRoy Jenkins, and as such was invited to support the Master of BalliolAlexander Lindsay, who stood as an anti-appeasement 'Independent Progressive' candidate against the official Conservative candidate,Quintin Hogg, in the1938 Oxford by-election. Heath, who had himself applied to be the Conservative candidate for the by-election,accused the government in an October Union Debate of \"turning all four cheeks\" toAdolf Hitler, and was elected asPresident of the Oxford Unionin November 1938, sponsored by Balliol, after winning the Presidential Debate that \"This House has No Confidence in the National Government as presently constituted\". He was thus President inHilary term1939; the visitingLeo Amerydescribed him in his diaries as \"a",
"his diaries as \"a pleasant youth\". As an undergraduate, Heath travelled widely in Europe. His opposition to appeasement was nourished by his witnessing first-hand aNuremberg rallyin 1937, where he met leading NazisHermann Göring,Joseph Goebbels, andHeinrich Himmlerat anSScocktail party. He later described Himmler as \"the most evil man I have ever met\".He was in Germany for two months to learn German but did not keep up any fluency in the language in later life.In 1938 he visitedBarcelona, then under attack from Spanish Nationalist forces during theSpanish Civil War. On one occasion a car in which he was travelling came under machine-gun fire, while on another a bomb hit his hotel whilst he was observing an air raid from outside.In the summer of 1939, accompanied by his Jewish friendMadron Seligman, he travelled toDanzigandPoland. They made the return journey by hitchhiking and rail across Germany through mobilising troops, returning to Britain just before the declaration of war. Second World War Heath spent",
"War Heath spent late 1939 and early 1940 on a debating tour of the United States before being called up. On 22 March 1941, he received an emergency commission as asecond lieutenantin theRoyal Artillery.During the war he initially served with heavy anti-aircraft guns aroundLiverpool(which sufferedheavy German bombing raidsin May 1941) and by early 1942 was regimentaladjutant, with the substantive rank ofcaptain. Heath participated as an adjutant in theNormandy landings, where he metMaurice Schumann, French Foreign Minister underPompidou.As a temporary major commanding a battery of his own, he provided artillery support during the Allied campaigns in France and Germany in 1944–45, for which he received amention in despatcheson 8 November 1945. Heath later remarked that \" one thing to be in the war, and you see the enemy on the other side and so you bombard them, and then later on when you pass over their ground, you see dead bodies lying around\". In September 1945 he commanded a firing squad that executed",
"squad that executed aPolish soldierconvicted of rape and murder.He was appointed aMember of the Order of the British Empire, Military Division (MBE) on 24 January 1946.He was demobilised in August 1946 and promoted to the substantive rank oflieutenant-colonelon 1 May 1947. Heath joined theHonourable Artillery Companyas a lieutenant-colonel on 1 September 1951,in which he remained active throughout the 1950s, rising to commanding officer of the Second Battalion; a portrait of him in full dress uniform still hangs in the HAC's Long Room. In April 1971, as prime minister, he wore his lieutenant-colonel's insignia to inspect troops. Post-war, 1945–1950 Before the war, Heath had won a scholarship toGray's Innand had begun making preparations for a career at the Bar, but after the war he was placed in joint top position in thecivil service examinations.He then became a civil servant in the Ministry of Civil Aviation (he was disappointed not to be posted to the Treasury, but declined an offer to join the Foreign",
"to join the Foreign Office, fearing that foreign postings might prevent him from entering politics). Heath joined a team underAlison Munrotasked with drawing up a scheme for British airports using some of the many Second World WarRAFbases, and was specifically charged with planning the home counties. Years later she attributed his evident enthusiasm for Maplin Airport to this work. Then much to the surprise of civil service colleagues, he sought adoption as the prospective parliamentary candidate forBexleyand resigned in November 1947. After working as news editor of theChurch Timesfrom February 1948 to September 1949,Heath worked as a management trainee at themerchant bankersBrown, Shipley & Co.until his election asMember of Parliament(MP) forBexleyin theFebruary 1950 general election. In the election he defeated an old contemporary from the Oxford Union,Ashley Bramall, by a margin of 133 votes. Early political career (1950–1965) Member of Parliament Heath made hismaiden speechin the House of Commons on 26",
"of Commons on 26 June 1950, in which he appealed to the Labour government to participate in theSchuman Plan. As MP for Bexley, he gave enthusiastic speeches in support of the young candidate for neighbouringDartford, Margaret Roberts, later Margaret Thatcher. He was appointed as anopposition whipbyWinston Churchillin February 1951. He remained in the whips' office after the Conservatives won the1951 general election, rising rapidly to Joint Deputy Chief Whip, Deputy Chief Whip and, in December 1955,Government Chief WhipunderAnthony Eden. JournalistGeoffrey Wheatcrofthas observed that \"Of all government jobs, this requires firmness and fairness allied to tact and patience and Heath's ascent seems baffling in hindsight\". In office Due to the convention that whips did not speak in Parliament, Heath managed to keep out of the controversy over theSuez Crisis. On the announcement of Eden's resignation, Heath submitted a report on the opinions of the Conservative MPs regarding Eden's possible successors. This",
"successors. This report favouredHarold Macmillanand helped to secure Macmillan the premiership in January 1957. Macmillan later appointed Heath Minister of Labour, a Cabinet Minister—as Chief Whip Heath had attended Cabinet, but had not been formally a member—after winning theOctober 1959 election. In 1960 Macmillan appointed HeathLord Privy Sealwith responsibility for the negotiations to secure the UK's first attempt to join theEuropean Communities(orCommon Market, as it was then more widely known). After extensive negotiations, involving detailed agreements about the UK's agricultural trade withCommonwealthcountries such asNew Zealand, British entry was vetoed by the French President,Charles de Gaulle, at a press conference in January 1963 – much to the disappointment of Heath, who was a firm supporter of European common market membership for the United Kingdom. He oversaw a successful application when serving as prime minister a decade later. After this setback, a major humiliation for Macmillan's foreign",
"Macmillan's foreign policy, Heath was not a contender for the party leadership on Macmillan's retirement in October 1963. Under prime minister SirAlec Douglas-Homehe wasPresident of the Board of Tradeand Secretary of State for Industry, Trade and Regional Development, and oversaw the abolition ofretail price maintenance, as well as the move of theAugust Bank Holidayto extend the holiday season and reduce congestion. Leader of the Opposition (1965–1970) Party leadership After the Conservative Party lost thegeneral election of 1964, the defeated Home changed the party leadership rules to allow for a ballot by MPs and then in July 1965, he resigned. Heath—who wasShadow Chancellorat the time, and had recently won favourable publicity for leading the fight against Labour'sFinance Bill—unexpectedly won theparty's leadership contest, gaining 150 votes toReginald Maudling's 133 andEnoch Powell's 15.Heath became the Conservatives' youngest leader and retained office following the party's defeat in thegeneral election",
"thegeneral election of 1966. In April 1968,Enoch Powellmade his controversial \"Rivers of Blood\" speech, which criticisedimmigration to the United Kingdom. Soon afterwards, Heath telephoned Margaret Thatcher to inform her that he was going to sack Powell from theShadow cabinet; she recalled that she \"really thought that it was better to let things cool down for the present rather than heighten the crisis\". The next day, Heath sacked Powell. Several Conservatives on the right protested against Powell's sacking.According to Heath, he never spoke to Powell again. 1970 election With another general election approaching in 1970 a Conservative policy document emerged from theSelsdon Park Hotelthat offered free-market–oriented policies as solutions to the country's unemployment and inflation problems.Heath stated that the Selsdon weekend only reaffirmed policies that had actually been evolving since he became leader of the Conservative Party. The Labour prime minister,Harold Wilson, thought the document a vote-loser",
"a vote-loser and dubbed it the product ofSelsdon Man– after the supposedly prehistoricPiltdown Man– to portray it as reactionary. Heath's Conservative Party won thegeneral election of 1970with 330 seats to Labour's 287. The new cabinet included the future prime minister Margaret Thatcher (Education and Science),William Whitelaw(Leader of the House of Commons) and the former prime ministerAlec Douglas-Home(Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs). Prime minister (1970–1974) Welfare state During Heath's first year in office, higher charges were introduced for benefits of the welfare state such as school meals, spectacles, dentistry, and prescriptions. Entitlement to State Sickness Benefit was also changed so that it would only be paid after the first three days of sickness.In 1971 a series of measures was introduced designed to limit the availability of supplementary benefit. In particular, as noted by one study, \"tax rebates and strike pay were treated as resources, subject to a £4 disregard.\"From April 1972 a man",
"April 1972 a man returning from work after being on strike had to pay back any supplementary benefit received to tide him over during the first 15 days at work before he got his pay. In February 1973, the rules about help in urgent cases were made more stringent.As a result of the squeeze in the education budget, the provision offree school milkwas ended for 8- to 11-year-olds (it had already been ended for older children by Harold Wilson); the tabloid press christened Margaret Thatcher, the then Education Secretary as \"Margaret Thatcher: Milk Snatcher\".Despite these measures, the Heath government encouraged a significant increase in welfare spending, and Thatcher blocked Macleod's other posthumous education policy: the abolition of theOpen University, which had recently been founded by the preceding Labour government.In addition, despite the end of cheap milk provision however, 700,000 school children remained entitled to free milk. The Legal Advice and Assistance Act 1972 provided for better facilities for",
"facilities for advice and assistance at an early stage in a dispute.The Social Needs (Grants) Act 9NI) 1970 \"made provision for the authorisation of the payment of grants towards expenditure incurred due to special social need in urban areas.\"In January 1973, the Criminal Justice Act 1972 came into effect in England and Wales. It extended the court's power \"to order an offender to pay compensation for personal injury, loss, or damage.\"In June 1973 a new lower rate of attendance allowance was introduced for those aged 16 to 64, while lower rates \"for the aged under 15 and those over 65 were introduced on 1 October and 3 December respectively.\"Another change allowed for small claims of less than £75 to be dealt with in a less formal manner within the County Court system. Rules of evidence and requirements of legal representation were relaxed to make it viable to claim such small sums under the County Court Act 1959 as amended by the Administration of Justice Act (E&W) 1973. Provision was made under theNational",
"under theNational Insurance (Old Persons' and Widows' Pensions and Attendances Allowances) Act 1970for pensions to be paid to old people who had been excluded from the pre-1948 pension schemes and were accordingly excluded from the comprehensive scheme that was introduced in 1948. About 100,000 people were affected by this change, half of whom were receivingSupplementary Benefitunder the social security scheme. The Act also made improvements to the Widow's Pension scheme by introducing a scale that started at 30 shillings a week for women widowed at the age of 40 and rose to the full rate of £5 at the age of 50. Considerable support was provided for nursery school building, and a long-term capital investment programme in school building was launched. AFamily Fundwas set up to assist families with children who had congenital conditions,while new benefits were introduced benefiting hundreds of thousands of disabled persons whose disabilities had been caused neither by war nor by industrial injury. AnAttendance",
"AnAttendance Allowancewas introduced for those needing care at home, together withInvalidity Benefitfor the long-term sick, while a higher Child Allowance was made available where invalidity allowance was paid. Widow's Benefits were introduced for those aged between forty and fifty years of age, improved subsidies forslum clearancewere made available, while Rent Allowances were introduced for private tenants.In April 1971, the right to education was given to all children with Down's syndrome for the first time. The school leaving age was raised to 16,whileFamily Income Supplementwas introduced to boost the incomes of low-income earners.Families who received this benefit were exempted fromNHS chargeswhile the children in such families were eligible forfree school meals.Non-contributory pensionswere also introduced for all persons aged eighty and above,while theSocial Security Act 1973was passed which introduced benefit indexation in the United Kingdom for the first time by index-linking benefits to prices to",
"to prices to maintain their real value.An amendment to the Social Security Act of 1973 required the secretary of state to publicize benefits for the disabled.The National Insurance Act of 1971 introduced a special addition with no means test for all pensioners over 80, while in 1972 a £10 Christmas bonus was introduced.Annual upratings for all pensioners was also introduced.From October 1973 onwards a higher ' long – term rate ' of supplementary benefit \"was paid to those who had received supplementary benefit for a continuous period.\"That same year, a basic short-term rates were introduced for everyone else; the short-term sick and unemployed in the main.From 1972 onwards, \"while there is no statutory commitment to this effect, the same cash increases have been made in the leading supplementary benefit scale rates as in their national insurance counterparts.\" In 1973, a statutory commitment to uprate national insurance benefits in line with prices was introduced in 1973.The Industrial Relations Act of 1971",
"Act of 1971 gave employees \"the right, depending on a minimum qualifying period, to appeal to an industrial tribunal, where compensation for unfair dismissal could be awarded based on length of service,\"and in 1972 preservation of accrued pension benefits after 5 or more years' service was introduced.The Legal Advice and Assistance Act 1972 set up a Green Form scheme under which advice of up to two hours, free of charge to the poorest or at reduced rates to those of modest means, became available.The Housing Finance Act 1972 \"introduced a national formula for rent increases in the public sector and a mandatory system of local rent and rate rebates that survived subsequent legislation.\"The Supplementary Benefit (Determination of Requirements) Regulations 1972 increased the rent addition for non-householders and removed the present age qualification.The Students' Dependents' Allowances Regulations 1973 enabled the Secretary of State \"to pay allowances to students attending first degree university etc. courses",
"etc. courses and courses for the training of teachers.\"A social security amendment of 1973 provided for allowing the Supplementary Benefits Commission \"to make payments to cover funeral expenses without having regard to the powers of local authorities, so that the commission will not be inhibited by the fact that local authorities have certain powers concerning the disposal of bodies.\"Subsequently, the Commission \"revised its policy on payments towards funeral expenses . Claimants are no longer advised to ask the Local Authority to make funeral arrangements, and the Commission will consider paying towards the costs of a private funeral under its powers to meet exceptional needs.\" The Redundant Mineworkers and Concessionary Coal (Payments Schemes) Order 1973 provided for three new types of benefits, including \"lump sums based on length of service for men redundant between age 35 and 55, and for men over 55 who due to lack of service in the industry do not qualify for basic benefit; a new benefit equivalent to",
"equivalent to the current rate of unemployment benefit to be paid to men when they have exhausted their 156 weeks of basic benefit until they reach age 65; and concessionary coal benefits for men made redundant between age 55 and 60, and certain men redundant over age 60. (Most men redundant over age 60 already receive concessionary coal under existing arrangements.) In addition, \"The amount of benefit which a beneficiary may retain if he obtains other employment has also been increased.\"The Employment and Training Act 1973 included various provisions. For instance, as specified in the text of the Act, \"The Secretary of State may— pay to any person appointed in pursuance of the preceding paragraph such subsistence and travelling allowances and such compensation for loss of remunerative time as the Secretary of State may determine with the approval of the Minister for the Civil Service.\" In addition, \"An industrial training board may— pay maintenance and travelling allowances to persons attending courses",
"attending courses provided or approved by the board ; make grants or loans to persons providing courses or other facilities approved by the board, to persons who make studies for the purpose of providing such courses or facilities and to persons who maintain arrangements to provide such courses or facilities which are not for the time being in use ; pay fees to persons providing further education in respect of persons who receive it in association with their training in courses provided or approved by the board; make payments to persons in connection with arrangements under which they or employees of theirs make use of courses or other facilities provided or approved by the board.\" The Redundant Mineworkers (Payments Scheme) Order 1972 was intended to be make available for 3 years \"to any miner who is made redundant after he has reached 55 to help him to adjust to the new situation and to the difficulties which confront him.\" It included a number of provisions for miners and their dependents including the",
"including the addition of cost of living increments, a basic scheme benefit, an increase from £3 to £6 a week to the benefit \"which can be kept if a redundant mineworker finds a new job and enters new employment, because if he did he would probably incur income tax, perhaps National Insurance contributions, travelling expenses and other expenses which might well have exceeded the £3 which he would have been able to draw if he had continued to draw that from the redundant mineworkers payment scheme.\" The rent allowance which is payable to a redundant mineworker was made transferable to a new house if he were to move his home, the rules regarding the offsetting of State and other coal industry benefits against the total of the mineworkers' redundancy payment benefit were eased, and the scheme was changed \"so that in the event of a second redundancy—if a miner is made redundant a second time—his earnings are computed on the wages paid in the year immediately before the second redundancy as opposed to his",
"as opposed to his previous level of earnings.\" Also, \"these last three concessions will apply to men who are in the existing scheme, not only to miners who might be made redundant in future, but to all those who are part of the existing scheme at the present time.\" The scheme also provided that the general increases in benefits, such as the special hardship allowance and workmen's compensation supplementation would not be offset as at present, and also provided for increases in benefits paid to men on workmen's compensation as a result of becoming total or major incapacity cases, award of special hardship allowance in respect of an accident or disease sustained after redundancies. In addition, \"any general increase in unemployment benefit between 6th April, 1972, and 6th April, 1973, will be offset against the benefit of men made redundant after 6th April, 1973.\" Also, \"the maximum amount of benefit that can be kept by those who get a job is increased from £3 to £6\" weekly, and \"the table of basic benefit",
"of basic benefit appropriate to the various ranges of pre-redundancy earnings set out in Appendix 4 has been recalculated so that the basic benefit, plus the 1971 rate of unemployment benefit for a man and one adult dependant, equals, after tax and on average over the three years, 90 per cent. of previous take-home pay.\" Other provisions included service in the coal industry \"before nationalisation can now count towards the 10 qualifying years\" and that women \"who are not paying the full National Insurance stamp will be able to get some benefit despite not being eligible for unemployment benefit.\" In addition, \"days of absence from home which disqualify a person from unemployment benefit, and also from 72 scheme benefit, will be counted as days rather than one day in a week resulting in a whole week's disqualification as at present.\" Also, \"a man made redundant within the terms of the scheme and reemployed in the coal industry for more than a year and then made redundant a second time can choose on which of",
"choose on which of the two pre-redundancy earnings he wishes his benefit to be calculated.\" In addition, \"the requirement that in order to continue getting the rent allowance a person must continue to live in the same house in which he was living when he was made redundant, and that this house must continue to be owned by the board, is removed.\" Also, \"the relevant tax year on which pre-redundancy earnings are based will now be the previous tax year for everybody, instead of being two years ago for those made redundant during April.\"Also, as noted by one MP, \"Following the introduction of the first redundant mineworkers payments scheme in 1968, which provided benefits for men aged 55 or over on redundancy who otherwise satisfied the requirements of the scheme, there was pressure to enhance the terms available to enable such men to receive concessionary coal as though they had reached normal retirement age. The Government responded to this pressure in the Coal Industry Act 1973, amending the power to make",
"the power to make schemes benefiting redundant mineworkers in the 1967 Act.\" Also in 1973, the first concessionary coal payments scheme was introduced by order, which provided for reimbursement to the National Coal Board \"of the full cost of concessionary coal to men aged 55 to 59 who qualified for benefits under the redundant mineworkers payments scheme from 14 December 1969, and half the cost of providing concessionary coal to such men age 60 to 65.\" A number of new superannuation provisions were introduced for various categories of workers. For those in the NHS, this included years and days used in benefit calculations instead of years and half years, the introduction of practitioner dynamising introduced i.e. 1.4% pensions, best of the last 3 years Total Superannuable Remuneration introduced instead of average of last 3 years, 3 x lump sum introduced for post 24 March 1972 service (married men), the introduction of a half rate widow's pension (was previously 1/3), a new rate of Child Allowance, a",
"Child Allowance, a reduction in the qualifying period for pensions from 10 years to 5 years, the abolition of the qualifying period for Death Gratuities (DG), the introduction of double incapacity build up for service between 5 years and 9 years 364 days (or to age 65 if less), the introduction of 3 months initial widows pension, the introduction of widows limited pension (for 3, 4.5 or 6 months) for those widows who do not have title to continuing widows pensions, the introduction of a Limited Child Allowance, the introduction of automatic payment of benefits at age 70, the introduction of Added Years purchase, \"Pensions Increase Supplement may apply\" from January 1973 to October 1975, the extension of service to take account of untaken annual leave introduced for ancillary staff, and \"Part time service may be superannuable provided half or more of the w/t basic is worked.\"The Pensions (Increase) Act of 1971 provided for regular increases in public service pensions by statutory instrument. The Act was later",
"The Act was later amended in 1972 and 1974 \"to lower the minimum qualifying age for pensions increase from 60 to 55 and to provide for all pensions paid to widows of scheme members to be increased.\" The Superannuation Act of 1972 provided for new arrangements for premature retirement on grounds of limited efficiency,granted civil servants rights to their pensionsand established the Principal Civil Service Pension Scheme, the Civil Service Additional Voluntary Contribution Scheme (CSAVCS), the Civil Service Compensation Scheme (CSCS) and the Civil Service Injury Benefits Scheme (CSIBS).The Local Government (Retirement of Chief Officers) Regulations 1973 provided \"for persons identified as chief officers and deputy chief officers of local authorities, and certain other persons affected by local government reorganisation, to elect for early retirement on enhanced pension terms and thereby forgo any right to claim compensation which might otherwise have been exercised under section 259 of the Local Government",
"Local Government Act 1972.\"Section 27 of the Water Act 1973 empowered water authorities to establish and administer pension schemes and funds.The Social Security Act of 1973 made further provisions \"for occupational pensions, established the Occupational Pensions Board and the contributory reserve pension scheme under a Reserve Pension Board for not recognised pensionable employment.\" Scottish nationalism Scottish nationalismgrew as a political force, while thedecimalisation of British coinage, begun under the previous Labour government, was completed eight months after Heath came to power. TheCentral Policy Review Staffwas established by Heath in February 1971,while theLocal Government Act 1972changed the boundaries of the counties of England and Wales and created Metropolitan Counties around the major cities (e.g. Merseyside around Liverpool): this caused significant public anger. Heath did not divide England into regions, choosing instead to await the report of theCrowther Commissionon the constitution;",
"the constitution; the 10Government Office Regionswere eventually set up by the Major government in 1994. Economic policy Chancellor of the ExchequerIain Macleoddied and was replaced on 20 July 1970 byAnthony Barber. Heath's planned economic policy changes (including a significant shift from direct to indirect taxation) remained largely unimplemented: the Selsdon policy document was more or less abandoned as unemployment increased considerably by 1972. By January that year, the number of unemployed reached a million, the highest level for more than two decades. Opposed to unemployment on moral grounds, Heath encouraged a famous \"U-Turn\" in economic policy that precipitated what became known as the \"Barber Boom\". This was a two-range process involving the budgets of1972and 1973, the former of which pumped £2.5 billion into the economy in increased pensions and benefits and tax reductions. By early 1974, as a result of this Keynesian economic strategy, unemployment had fallen to under 550,000. The economic boom",
"The economic boom did not last, and the Heath government implemented various cuts that led to the abandonment of policy goals such as a planned expansion of nursery education. Trade unions Much of the government's attention, as well as the media and public opinion, focused on deteriorating labour relations, as the government sought to weaken the economic power of the trade unions, which had grown steadily since 1945. TheIndustrial Relations Act 1971set up a special court under the judgeLord Donaldson. Its imprisonment of striking dockworkers was a public relations disaster and became an object lesson for the Thatcher government of the 1980s. Thatcher relied instead on confiscating the assets of unions that courts found to have violated anti-strike laws. The trade unions responded with a full-scale counterattack on a government hobbled by inflation and high unemployment. Especially damaging to the government's credibility were the two miners' strikes of 1972 and 1974, the latter of which resulted in much of",
"resulted in much of the country's industry working aThree-Day Weekin an attempt to conserve energy. TheNational Union of Mineworkerswon its case but the energy shortages and the resulting breakdown of domestic consensus contributed to the eventual downfall of his government. Unemployment There was a steep rise in unemployment for the first two years of the Heath ministry, but it was then reversed. Labour in 1964 had inherited an unemployment count of around 400,000 but saw unemployment peak at 631,000 in early 1967. At election time in June 1970, the unemployment numbers were still high at 582,000. Heath and the Conservatives were pledged to \"full employment\" but within a year it became clear that they were losing that battle, as the official unemployment count crept towards 1,000,000 and some newspapers suggested that it was even higher. In January 1972 it was officially confirmed that unemployment had risen above 1,000,000 – a level not seen for more than 30 years.Various other reports around this time",
"around this time suggested that unemployment was higher still, withThe Timesnewspaper claiming that \"nearly 3,000,000\" people were jobless by March of that year. Foreign policy Upon entering office in June 1970, Heath immediately set about trying to reverse Wilson's policy of ending Britain's military presenceEast of Suez.Heath took the United Kingdom into Europe on 1 January 1973, following passage in Parliament of theEuropean Communities Act 1972in October. He publicly supported themassive U.S. bombingofHanoiandHaiphongin December 1972. According toJohn McEvoyandMark CurtisofDeclassified UK, his government quickly recognised the military regime ofAugusto PinochetinChileand maintained good relations with it, despite the illegal nature of the Pinochet regime'scoup d'état. In October 1973 he placed a British arms embargo on all combatants in the Arab-IsraeliYom Kippur War, which mostly affected the Israelis by preventing them obtaining spares for their Centurion tanks. Heath refused to allow US intelligence",
"US intelligence gathering fromBritish bases in Cyprus, resulting in a temporary halt in the US signals intelligence tap. He favoured links with thePeople's Republic of China, visitingMao Zedongin Beijing in 1974 and 1975 and remaining an honoured guest in China on frequent visits thereafter and forming a close relationship with Mao's successorDeng Xiaoping. Heath realised that to become closer to Europe he needed to be further from the United States, so he downplayed theSpecial Relationshipthat had long knitted the two nations together. The two nations differed on such major crises as Britain's EC membership, theNixon economic \"shocks\" of 1971, theBangladesh Liberation War, détente with Soviet Union, Kissinger's Year of Europe and the Middle East crisis of 1973. Northern Ireland Heath served as Prime Minister during an especially violent period ofthe TroublesinNorthern Ireland. Events such as theFalls Curfew,Operation MotormanandBloody Sundayled to the near-collapse in relations between the Irish Catholic",
"the Irish Catholic community and Britishsecurity forces. In 1971, Heath sentMI6officer Frank Steele to hold talks with theProvisional Irish Republican Army(IRA) and find common ground to begin official negotiations.In July 1972, Heath permitted theSecretary of State for Northern Ireland, William Whitelaw, to hold unofficial talks in London with an IRA delegation bySeán Mac Stíofáin. In the aftermath of these unsuccessful talks, Heath pushed for a peaceful settlement with Northern Irish political parties exclusively committed tononviolence. The 1973Sunningdale Agreement, which proposed a power-sharing deal, was strongly repudiated by many Unionists, including theUlster Unionist Party, which withdrew its MPs at Westminster from the Conservative whip. The proposal was finally brought down by the UnionistUlster Workers' Council strikein 1974, by which time Heath was no longer in office. Heath was targeted by the IRA for introducinginternmentwithout trial in Northern Ireland. In December 1974, an IRAactive",
"1974, an IRAactive service unitthrew a bomb onto the first-floor balcony of his home in Wilton Street,Belgraviawhere it exploded. Heath had been conducting a Christmas carol concert at Broadstairs and arrived home 10 minutes after the bomb exploded. No one was injured in the attack, but a landscape painted by Winston Churchill – given to Heath as a present – was damaged.In January 2003, Heath gave evidence to theSaville Inquiryand stated that he had never sanctioned unlawful lethal force in Northern Ireland. Fall from power 1974 general elections Heath tried to bolster his government by calling ageneral electionfor 28 February 1974, using the election slogan \"Who governs Britain?\". The result of the election was inconclusive with no party gaining an overall majority in the House of Commons; the Conservatives had the most votes but Labour had slightly more seats. Heath began negotiations withJeremy Thorpe, leader of theLiberal Party, but when these failed, he resigned as prime minister on 4 March 1974, and",
"4 March 1974, and was replaced by Wilson's minority Labour government, eventually confirmed, though with a tiny majority, in a second election in October.To date, Heath is the last British Prime Minister to have both assumed and lost their term of office by means of a general election. Rise of Thatcher Heath came to be seen as a liability by many Conservative MPs, party activists and newspaper editors. His personality was considered cold and aloof, annoying even to his friends.Alan Watkinsobserved in 1991 that his \"brusqueness, his gaucherie, his lack of small or indeed any talk, his sheer bad manners\" were among the factors costing him the support of Conservative backbenchers in the subsequentConservative leadership election. He resolved to remain Conservative leader, even after losing the October 1974 general election, and at first it appeared that by calling on the loyalty of his front-bench colleagues he might prevail. In the weeks following the second election defeat, Heath came under tremendous",
"under tremendous pressure to concede a review of the rules and agreed to establish a commission to propose changes and to seek re-election. There was no clear challenger afterEnoch Powellhad left the party andKeith Josephhad ruled himself out after controversial statements implying that the working classes should be encouraged to use more birth control. Joseph's close friend and allyMargaret Thatcher, who believed that an adherent to the philosophy of theCentre for Policy Studiesshould stand, joined the leadership contest in his place alongside the outsiderHugh Fraser. Aided byAirey Neave's campaigning among backbench MPs — whose earlier approach toWilliam Whitelawhad been rebuffed, out of loyalty to Heath — she emerged as the only serious challenger. The new rules permitted new candidates to enter the ballot in a second round of voting should the first be inconclusive, so Thatcher's challenge was considered by some to be that of a stalking horse. Neave deliberately understated Thatcher's support to attract",
"support to attract wavering votes from MPs who were keen to see Heath replaced even though they did not necessarily want Thatcher to replace him. On 4 February 1975, Thatcher defeated Heath in the first ballot by 130 votes to 119, with Fraser coming in a distant third with 16 votes. This was not a big enough margin to give Thatcher the 15% majority necessary to win on the first ballot, but having finished in second place Heath immediately resigned and did not contest the next ballot. His favoured candidate, William Whitelaw, lost to Thatcher in the second vote one week later (Thatcher 146, Whitelaw 79,Howe19,Prior19,Peyton11).The vote polarised along right-left lines, with in addition the region, experience and education of the MP having their effects. Heath and Whitelaw were stronger on the left, among Oxbridge and public school graduates, and in MPs from Northern England or Scotland. Thatcher had promised Heath a seat in the Shadow Cabinet and planned to offer him whatever post he wanted. His advisors",
"His advisors agreed he should wait at least six months, so he declined. He never relented and his refusal was called \"the incredible sulk\".Thatcher visited Heath at his home shortly after her election as leader and had to stay for coffee with his PPSTimothy Kitsonso the waiting press would not realise how brief the visit had been. Heath claimed that he had simply declined her request for advice about how to handle the press, whilst Thatcher claimed that she offered him any Shadow Cabinet position he wanted and asked him to lead the Conservative campaign in the imminentEEC referendum, only to be rudely rebuffed. Later career (1975–2001) For many years, Heath persisted in criticism of the party's new ideological direction. At the time of his defeat, he was still popular with rank-and-file Conservative members and was warmly applauded at the 1975 Conservative Party Conference. He played a leading role in the 1975 referendum campaign in which the UK voted to remain part of the EEC, and he remained active on the",
"active on the international stage, serving on theBrandtCommission investigation into developmental issues, particularly onNorth–Southprojects (Brandt Report). His relations with Thatcher remained poor, and in 1979–80, he turned down her offers of the positions ofAmbassador to the United StatesandSecretary General of NATO.He continued as a central figure on the left of the party and, at the 1981 Conservative Party conference, openly criticised the government's economic policy ofmonetarism, which had seen inflation rise from 13% in 1979 to 18% in 1980 then fall to 4% by 1983,but had seen unemployment double from around 1.5 million to a postwar high of 3.3 million during that time. In 1990, he flew toBaghdadto attempt to negotiate the release of aircraft passengers onBritish Airways Flight 149and other British nationals taken hostage whenSaddam HusseininvadedKuwait. After the events ofBlack Wednesdayin 1992, he stated in theHouse of Commonsthat government should build a fund of reserves to counter currency",
"to counter currency speculators. In 1987, he was nominated in theelection for the Chancellorship of the University of Oxfordbut lost toRoy Jenkinsas a result of splitting the Conservative vote withLord Blake. Heath continued to serve as a backbench MP for the London constituency ofOld Bexley and Sidcupand was, from 1992, the longest-serving MP (\"Father of the House\") and the oldest British MP. As Father of the House, he oversaw the election of twoSpeakersof the Commons,Betty BoothroydandMichael Martin. Heath was created aKnight Companion of the Garteron 23 April 1992.He retired from Parliament at the2001 general election. Heath andTony Bennwere the last two serving MPs to have been elected during the reign ofGeorge VI, with Heath serving continuously since 1950. Heath maintained business links with several companies including a Saudi think tank, two investment funds and a Chinese freight operator, mainly as an adviser on China or a member of the governing board.According toChris Patten, the lastGovernor of",
"the lastGovernor of Hong Kong, his commercial interests in China could have been one of the reasons why he denounced the democratic reforms introduced in the run-up to thehandover of Hong Kong. Parliament broke with precedent by commissioning a bust of Heath while he was still alive.Commentatorshave noted how the statue ofMargaret Thatcherappears to overshadow Heath's bust. The 1993 bronze work, byMartin Jennings, was moved to theMembers' Lobbyin 2002. On 29 April 2002, in his eighty-sixth year, he made a public appearance at Downing Street alongside the then–prime ministerTony Blairand the three other surviving former prime ministers at the time (James Callaghan,Margaret ThatcherandJohn Major), as well as relatives of deceased prime ministers, for a dinner which was part of theGolden Jubilee of Elizabeth II. This was to be one of his last public appearances, as the following year saw a decline in his health. Personal life Private residence In the 1960s, Heath had lived inAlbany, off Piccadilly; at the",
"Piccadilly; at the unexpected end of his premiership, the French couple living there refused his demand that they move out so that he could have his flat back (\"So much for European Unity!\" Heath later wrote in his memoirs). For four months, Heath took the flat of Conservative MPTimothy Kitson; Kitson declined his offer to pay rent but later recalled an occasion when his own watch broke, and Heath in response invited him to take one of a large collection that he had been given on his travels. In July 1974,the Duke of Westminster, a major London landowner and ardent Europhile, allowed Heath to rent a property in Wilton Street, Belgravia, for an annual rent of £1,250 (£16,454 at 2024 prices),a tenth of the market value. The house had three storeys and a basement flat for Heath's housekeeper, and he continued to use it as his London home until old age prevented him from climbing the stairs. In February 1985, Heath acquired a Wiltshire home,Arundells, in theCathedral closeatSalisbury, where he resided until his",
"resided until his death twenty years later. In January 2006, it was announced that Heath had placed his house and contents, valued at £5 million in his will, in a charitable foundation, the Sir Edward Heath Charitable Foundation, to conserve the house as a museum to his career.The house is open to the public for guided tours from March to October; displayed therein is a large collection of personal effects as well as Heath's personal library, photo collections, and paintings by Winston Churchill. In his will, Heath, who had no descendants, left only two legacies: £20,000 to his brother's widow, and £2,500 to his housekeeper. Yachting Heath was a keen yachtsman. He bought his first yachtMorning Cloudin 1969 and won theSydney to Hobart Yacht Racethat year. He captained Britain's winning team for theAdmiral's Cupin 1971– while prime minister – and also captained the team in the1979 Fastnet race. He was a member of the Broadstairs Sailing Club, where he learnt to sail on aSnipeand aFireballbefore moving on to",
"moving on to success in larger boats. Classical music Heath maintained an interest in classical music as a pianist, organist and orchestral conductor, famously installing aSteinwaygrand in10 Downing Street– bought with his £450Charlemagne Prizemoney, awarded for his unsuccessful efforts to bring Britain into the EEC in 1963, and chosen on the advice of his friend, the pianistMoura Lympany– and conducting Christmas carol concerts in Broadstairs every year from his teens until old age. Heath conducted theLondon Symphony Orchestra, notably at a gala concert at theRoyal Festival Hallin November 1971, at which he conductedSir Edward Elgar's overtureCockaigne (In London Town). He also conducted theRoyal Liverpool Philharmonicand theEnglish Chamber Orchestra, as well as orchestras in Germany and the United States. During his premiership, Heath invited musician friends, such asIsaac Stern,Yehudi Menuhin,Clifford Curzonand theAmadeus Quartet, to perform either atChequersor 10 Downing Street. Heath was the founding",
"was the founding President of the European Community Youth Orchestra (in 1976), now theEuropean Union Youth Orchestra. In 1988, Heath recordedBeethoven'sTriple Concerto, Op. 56(with members of the Trio Zingara as soloists) andBoccherini'sCello Concerto in G major, G480. Football Heath was a supporter of theLancashirefootball clubBurnley, and just after the end of his term as prime minister in 1974 he opened the £450,000Bob LordStand at the club'sTurf Moorstadium. Author Heath wrote several books in the second half of the 1970s:Sailing,Music, andTravels. He also compiled a collection of carols calledThe Joy of Christmas, published in 1978 by Oxford University Press, which contained the music and lyrics to a wide variety of Christmas carols, each accompanied by a reproduction of a piece of religious art and a short introduction by Heath. Heath's autobiography,The Course of My Life, appeared in 1998. According to his obituary inThe Daily Telegraph, this \"had involved dozens of researchers and writers (some of",
"writers (some of whom he never paid) over many years\". \"Grocer Heath\" In 1964, despite substantial opposition from many Conservative MPs and independent grocers and shopkeepers, Heath led a successful fight to abolishresale price maintenance. Private Eye, a satirical current affairs magazine, thereupon persistently ridiculed him as \"Grocer Heath\".The magazine also parodied him as the managing director of a struggling small company, \"Heathco\". Sexuality Heath never married. He had been expected to marry childhood friend Kay Raven, who was reportedly tired of waiting and married an RAF officer whom she met on holiday in 1950. In a four-sentence paragraph of his memoirs, Heath claimed that he had been too busy establishing a career after the war and had \"perhaps ... taken too much for granted\". In a 1998 TV interview with Michael Cockerell, Heath said that he had kept her photograph in his flat for many years afterwards. His interest in music kept him on friendly terms with female musicians, including pianist",
"including pianist Moura Lympany. When Heath was prime minister she was approached by the Conservative MPTufton Beamish, who said: \"Moura, Ted must get married. Will you marry him?\" She said she would have done but was in love with someone else.She later said the most intimate thing Heath had done was to put his arm around her shoulder. Bernard Levinwrote at the time inThe Observerthat the UK had to wait until the emergence of thepermissive societyfor a prime minister who was a virgin.In later life, according to his official biographerPhilip Ziegler, at dinner parties Heath was \"apt to relapse into morose silence or completely ignore the woman next to him and talk across her to the nearest man\";others at the time claimed Heath was just not talkative at parties. There were many innuendos inPrivate Eyeabout it and chants insinuating he was homosexual could be heard outside Downing Street during protests by trade unionists against his Industrial Relations Bill. John Campbell, who published a biography of Heath",
"biography of Heath in 1993,devoted four pages to a discussion of the evidence concerning Heath's sexuality. While acknowledging that Heath was often assumed by the public to be gay, not least because it is \"nowadays ... whispered of any bachelor\", he found \"no positive evidence\" that this was so \"except for the faintest unsubstantiated rumour\" (the footnote refers to a mention of a \"disturbing incident\" at the beginning of theSecond World Warin a 1972 biography byAndrew Roth). Campbell ultimately concluded that the most significant aspect of Heath's sexuality was his completerepressionof it. Brian Coleman, the Conservative Party London Assembly member forBarnet and Camden, claimed in 2007 that Heath, to protect his career, had stoppedcottagingin the 1950s. Coleman said it was \"common knowledge\" among Conservatives that Heath had been given a stern warning by police when he underwent background checks for the post ofprivy counsellor.Heath's biographer Philip Ziegler wrote in 2010 that Coleman was able to",
"Coleman was able to provide \"little or no information\" to back up this statement, that no man had ever claimed to have had a sexual relationship with Heath, nor was any trace of homosexuality to be found in his papers, and that \"those who knew him well\" insist that he had no such inclination. He believes Heath to have beenasexual,although he does mention a letter from one \"Freddy\", who seems hurt that \"Teddie\" had spurned his advances (chapter 2 of his book). Lord Armstrong of Ilminster, who was Heath's friend and formerprivate secretary, stated his belief that Heath was asexual, saying that he \"never detected a whiff of sexuality in relation to men, women or children.\"Another friend and confidant, Sara Morrison, former vice-chairman of the Conservative Party, said Heath had \"effectively\" told her \"that he was sexless\".Charles Moore, in his authorised biography of Margaret Thatcher, said thatBill Deedesbelieved that Thatcher \"seem convinced\" Heath was gay, whilst Moore believed it is \"possible\" that",
"is \"possible\" that Thatcher's reference, in interview in 1974, to Heath not having a family, was a deliberate hint that he was gay, in order to discredit him.Thatcher certainly seems to have disliked Heath. \"When I look at him and he looks at me,\" she once remarked, according to Ziegler (Chapter 4), \"it doesn't feel like a man looking at a woman, more like a woman looking at another woman.\" When he moved to Arundells in 1985, Heath hired Derek Frost, life partner ofJeremy Norman, to modernise and redecorate the house in Salisbury. He became friends with the couple, though never close. When they asked Heath why he had not supported homosexual law reform (he was either absent from the debates in the 1960s or voted againstLord Arran's first Bill in May 1965), he replied that he had always been in favour but that \"the rank and file of the party would never have stood for it.\" Norman's view is that Heath was \"a deeply closeted gay man\" who \"decided early in life to sublimate his sexuality to his political",
"to his political ambitions.\"In later life, Heath voted for the lowering of the age of same-sex consent to eighteen and then sixteen. Similarly, Michael McManus, who was Heath's private secretary in the 1990s and helped with his memoirs, writes in his book on gay conservative politicians that he \"was left in no doubt whatsoever that Heath was a gay man who had sacrificed his personal life to his political career, exercising iron self-control and living a celibate existence as he climbed the 'greasy pole' of preferment.\" Allegations of child sexual abuse In April 2015, a rape claim against Heath was investigated by theMetropolitan Policebut was dropped.In August 2015, several police forces were investigating allegations ofchild sexual abuseby Heath.Hampshire, Jersey, Kent, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire and Thames Valley constabularies and London's Metropolitan Police investigated such claims.It was reported that a man had claimed that at the age of 12 years he had been raped by Heath in aMayfairflat in 1961,",
"in 1961, after he had run away from home.Allegations about Heath were investigated as part ofOperation Midland, the Metropolitan Police inquiry into claims of historic child abuse and relatedhomicides.A witness called \"Nick\" was introduced to the police by the formerExarowebsite, who had asked him about alleged child sexual abuse by prominent figures at theDolphin Squareapartment complex inPimlico, London; Heath was reported to be one of the figures.In 2018 \"Nick\", whose real name isCarl Beech, was arrested and charged over child pornography offencesand in January 2019 he pleaded guilty.Beech, who had fabricated allegations against Heath and other prominent politicians and civil servants, was sentenced in July 2019 to eighteen years in prison. Also in August 2015,Sky Newsreported that Jersey police were investigating allegations against Heath as part ofOperation Whistle,and a similar investigation, Operation Conifer, was launched byWiltshire Policeat the same time.The Sir Edward Heath Charitable Foundation,",
"Foundation, which operates the museum at Arundells, his home in Salisbury, said it welcomed the investigation.In November 2016, criminologistRichard Hoskinssaid that the evidence used against Heath in Operation Conifer, including discredited allegations ofsatanic ritual abuse, was \"preposterous\", \"fantastical\" and gained through the \"controversial\" practice ofrecovered-memory therapy.Operation Conifer was closed in March 2017, having cost a reported £1.5 million over two years, as no corroborating evidence had been found in any of the 42 allegations by 40 individuals (including three different names used by one person). In September 2017, it was announced that theIndependent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abusewould review the police investigation into Heath.Police said that if Heath were still alive they would have interviewed himunder cautionin relation to seven out of the 42 allegations,but nothing should be inferred about his guilt or innocence.In his summary report, Chief ConstableMike Vealeconfirmed that",
"Vealeconfirmed that \"no further corroborative evidence was found\" to support the satanic abuse claims. Illness and death In August 2003, at the age of 87, Heath suffered apulmonary embolismwhile on holiday inSalzburg, Austria. He never fully recovered, and owing to his declining health and mobility made very few public appearances in the last two years of his life. His last appearance was at the unveiling of a set of gates atSt Paul's Cathedraldedicated to Churchill on 30 November 2004. In his final public statement, Heath paid tribute toJames Callaghan, who died on 26 March 2005, saying \"James Callaghan was a major fixture in the political life of this country during his long and varied career. When in opposition he never hesitated to put firmly his party's case. When in office he took a smoother approach towards his supporters and opponents alike. Although he left the House of Commons in 1987 he continued to follow political life and it was always a pleasure to meet with him. We have lost a major figure",
"lost a major figure from our political landscape.\" Just under four months later, Sir Edward Heath died at his home frompneumoniaat 7.30 pm on 17 July 2005, at the age of 89, the day after his spokesman said he was 'nearing the end of his life'.He was cremated on 25 July 2005 at a funeral service attended by 1,500 people. On the day after his death, theBBC Parliamentchannel showed the BBC results coverage of the 1970 election. A memorial service was held for Heath inWestminster Abbeyon 8 November 2005, which was attended by 2,000 people. Three days later his ashes were interred inSalisbury Cathedral. In a tribute to him, the then-prime minister Tony Blair stated \"He was a man of great integrity and beliefs he held firmly from which he never wavered\". Honours Heath received several accolades and honours. Coat of arms Honorary degrees and fellowships Heath was awarded a number ofhonorary degrees: Awards Including the year of award. Books by Heath References Further reading Biographies of Heath Politics and",
"Heath Politics and domestic policy Foreign and defence policy Historiography External links"
] |
Twenty-three years after the deadliest battle in the US Civil War, who served as governor in the state in which this battle was fought? | Robert E Pattison | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_costliest_American_Civil_War_land_battles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Pennsylvania | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_costliest_American_Civil_War_land_battles', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Pennsylvania'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_costliest_American_Civil_War_land_battles",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Pennsylvania"
] | [
"List of costliest American Civil War land battles This is alist of the costliest land battlesof theAmerican Civil War, measured by casualties (killed, wounded, captured, and missing) on both sides. Highest casualty battles See also Notes",
"Battle of Gettysburg TheBattle of Gettysburg(locally/ˈɡɛtɪsbɜːrɡ/ⓘ)was a three-day battle in theAmerican Civil Warfought betweenUnionandConfederateforces between July 1 and July 3, 1863, in and aroundGettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle, which was won by the Union, is widely considered theCivil War's turning point, ending the Confederacy's aspirations to establish an independent nation. It was the Civil War's bloodiest battle, claiming over 50,000 combined casualties over three days. In the Battle of Gettysburg, UnionMajor GeneralGeorge Meade'sArmy of the Potomacdefeated attacks by ConfederateGeneralRobert E. Lee'sArmy of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion ofthe Northand forcing his retreat. After his success atChancellorsvilleinVirginiain May 1863, Lee led his Confederate forces throughShenandoah Valleyto begin theGettysburg Campaign, his second attempted invasion of the North. With Lee's army in high spirits, he intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravagedNorthern Virginiain the hopes of penetrating as far asHarrisburg, PennsylvaniaorPhiladelphia, which he hoped would convince northern politicians to abandon their prosecution of the war.PresidentAbraham Lincolninitially prodded Major GeneralJoseph Hookerto move his Union forces in pursuit of Lee, but relieved Hooker of his command just three days before the battle, replacing him with Meade. On July 1, 1863, as Lee's forces moved on Gettysburg in the hopes of destroying the Union Army, the two armies initially collided, and the battle commenced. Low ridges to the northwest of Gettysburg were initially defended by a Union cavalry division under Brigadier GeneralJohn Buford, and soon reinforced with twocorpsof Unioninfantry. Two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, however, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, leading them to retreat through the streets of Gettysburg to the hills just south of the city.On the second day of battle, on July 2, the Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union's left flank, leading to fierce fighting atLittle Round Top, theWheatfield,Devil's Den, and thePeach Orchard. On the Union's right flank, Confederatedemonstrationsescalated into full-scale assaults onCulp's HillandCemetery Hill. Despite incurring significant losses, Union forces held their lines. On the third day of battle, July 3, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south of Gettysburg, but the main military engagement was a dramatic Confederate infantry assault of approximately 12,000 Confederates troops, who attacked the center of the Union line atCemetery Ridgein what is known asPickett's Charge. The Confederate charge was repelled by Unionrifleand artillery fire, leading to great Confederate losses. The following day, on theFourth of July, Lee led his Confederate troops on the torturousretreat from the North. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle, representing the most deadly battle in U.S. history. On November 19, President Lincoln traveled to Gettysburg, where he spoke at a ceremony dedicatingGettysburg National Cemeterythat honored the fallen Union soldiers and redefined the purpose of the Civil War in his famedGettysburg Address, a 271-word address considered one of the famousspeechesin American history. Background Military situation Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a major victory over theArmy of the Potomacat theBattle of Chancellorsville(April 30 – May 6, 1863), GeneralRobert E. Leedecided upon a second invasion of the North (the first was the unsuccessfulMaryland campaignof September 1862, which ended in the bloodyBattle of Antietam). Such a move would upset theUnion's plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly reduce the pressure on the besieged Confederate garrison atVicksburg. The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravagedVirginiaa much-needed rest. In addition, Lee's 72,000-man armycould threaten Philadelphia,Baltimore, andWashington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North. Initial movements to battle Thus, on June 3, Lee's army began to shift northward fromFredericksburg, Virginia. Following the death ofThomas J. \"Stonewall\" Jackson, Lee reorganized his two large corps into three new corps, commanded byLieutenant GeneralJames Longstreet(First Corps), Lieutenant GeneralRichard S. Ewell(Second), and Lieutenant GeneralA.P. Hill(Third); both Ewell and Hill, who had formerly reported to Jackson as division commanders, were new to this level of responsibility. The cavalry division remained under the command of Major GeneralJ.E.B. Stuart. The Union Army of the Potomac under Major GeneralJoseph Hookerconsisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an artillery reserve, for a combined strength of more than 100,000 men. The first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces atBrandy Station, nearCulpeper, Virginia. The 9,500 Confederate cavalrymen under Stuart were surprised by Major GeneralAlfred Pleasonton'scombined armsforce of two cavalry divisions (8,000 troopers) and 3,000 infantry, but Stuart eventually repelled the Union attack. The inconclusive battle, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war, proved for the first time that the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart. By mid-June, theArmy of Northern Virginiawas poised to cross thePotomac Riverand enterMaryland. After defeating the Union garrisons atWinchesterandMartinsburg, Ewell's Second Corps began crossing the river on June 15. Hill's and Longstreet's corps followed on June 24 and 25. Hooker's army pursued, keeping between Washington, D.C., and Lee's army. The Union army crossed the Potomac from June 25 to 27. Lee gave strict orders for his army to minimize any negative effects on the civilian population.Food, horses, and other supplies were generally not seized outright unless a citizen concealed property, although quartermasters reimbursing Northern farmers and merchants withConfederate moneywhich was virtually worthless or with equally worthless promissory notes were not well received.Various towns, most notablyYork, Pennsylvania, were required to pay indemnities in lieu of supplies, under threat of destruction.During the invasion, the Confederates seized between 40 and nearly 60 northernAfrican Americans. A few of them were escaped fugitiveslaves, but many were freemen; all were sent south into slavery under guard. On June 26, elements of Major GeneralJubal Early's division of Ewell's corps occupied the town of Gettysburg after chasing off newly raised 26th Pennsylvania emergencymilitiain a series of minor skirmishes.Early laid the borough under tribute, but did not collect any significant supplies. Soldiers burned several railroad cars and acovered bridge, and destroyed nearby rails andtelegraph lines. The following morning, Early departed for adjacentYork County. Meanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed Stuart to take a portion of the army's cavalry and ride around the east flank of the Union army. Lee's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals share the blame for the long absence of Stuart's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army. Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle. By June 29, Lee's army was strung out in an arc fromChambersburg(28 mi (45 km) northwest of Gettysburg) toCarlisle(30 mi (48 km) north of Gettysburg) to nearHarrisburgandWrightsvilleon theSusquehanna River. In a dispute over the use of the forces defending theHarpers Ferrygarrison, Hooker offered his resignation, andAbraham Lincolnand General-in-ChiefHenry W. Halleck, who were looking for an excuse to rid themselves of him, immediately accepted. They replaced Hooker early on the morning of June 28 with Major GeneralGeorge Gordon Meade, then commander of theV Corps. On June 29, when Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed the Potomac River, he ordered a concentration of his forces aroundCashtown, located at the eastern base ofSouth Mountainand eight mi (13 km) west of Gettysburg.On June 30, while part of Hill's corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill's brigades (North Carolinians underBrigadier GeneralJ. Johnston Pettigrew) ventured toward Gettysburg. In his memoirs, Major GeneralHenry Heth, Pettigrew's division commander, claimed that he sent Pettigrew to search for supplies in town—especially shoes. When Pettigrew's troops approached Gettysburg on June 30, they noticed Union cavalry under Major GeneralJohn Bufordarriving south of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them. When Pettigrew told Hill and Heth what he had seen, neither general believed that there was a substantial Union force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia. Despite Lee's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significantreconnaissance in forcethe following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front. Around 5a.m. on Wednesday, July 1, two brigades of Heth's division advanced to Gettysburg. Opposing forces Union The Army of the Potomac, initially under Hooker (Meade replaced Hooker in command on June 28), consisted of more than 100,000 men in the following organization: During the advance on Gettysburg, Reynolds was in operational command of the left, or advanced, wing of the Army, consisting of the I, III, and XI corps.Many other Union units (not part of the Army of the Potomac) were actively involved in the Gettysburg Campaign, but not directly involved in the Battle of Gettysburg. These included portions of the UnionIV Corps, the militia and state troops of theDepartment of the Susquehanna, and various garrisons, including that at Harpers Ferry. Confederate In reaction to the death of Jackson after Chancellorsville, Lee reorganized hisArmy of Northern Virginia(75,000 men) from two infantry corps into three. First day of battle Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge Anticipating that the Confederates would march on Gettysburg from the west on the morning of July 1, Buford laid out his defenses on three ridges west of the town:Herr Ridge,McPherson RidgeandSeminary Ridge. These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small cavalry division against superior Confederate infantry forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town atCemetery Hill,Cemetery Ridge, andCulp's Hill. Buford understood that if the Confederates could gain control of these heights, Meade's army would have difficulty dislodging them. Heth's division advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by brigadier generalsJames J. ArcherandJoseph R. Davis. They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike. Three mi (5 km) west of town, about 7:30 a.m. on July 1, the two brigades met light resistance fromvedettesof Union cavalry, and deployed into line. According to lore, the Union soldier to fire the first shot of the battle was LieutenantMarcellus Jones.Eventually Heth's men encountered dismounted troopers of ColonelWilliam Gamble'scavalry brigade. The dismounted troopers resisted stoutly, delaying the Confederate advance with most firing their breech-loading Sharp'scarbinesfrom behind fences and trees. (A small number of troopers had other carbine models. A small minority of historians have written that some troopers had Spencer repeating carbines or Spencer repeating rifles but most sources disagree.)Still, by 10:20 am, the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of theI Corps(Major GeneralJohn F. Reynolds) finally arrived. North of the pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brigadier GeneralLysander Cutler's brigade but was repelled with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge. South of the pike, Archer's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also known as McPherson's) Woods. The UnionIron Brigadeunder Brigadier GeneralSolomon Meredithenjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself. General Reynolds was shot and killed early in the fighting while directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods. Shelby Foote wrote that the Union cause lost a man considered by many to be \"the best general in the army\".Major GeneralAbner Doubledayassumed command. Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12:30 pm. It resumed around 2:30 pm, when Heth's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and ColonelJohn M. Brockenbrough. As Pettigrew's North Carolina Brigade came on line, they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back. The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army, with 839 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day's fight with around 212 men. By the end of the three-day battle, they had about 152 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment, North or South.Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge. Hill added Major GeneralWilliam Dorsey Pender's division to the assault, and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of theLutheran Seminaryand Gettysburg streets. As the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg roads toward Gettysburg, while the UnionXI Corps(Major GeneralOliver O. Howard) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road. By early afternoon, the Union line ran in a semicircle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg. However, the Union did not have enough troops; Cutler, whose brigade was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air. The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line. Around 2:00p.m., the Confederate Second Corps divisions of major generalsRobert E. Rodesand Jubal Early assaulted and out-flanked the Union I and XI corps' positions north and northwest of town. The Confederate brigades of ColonelEdward A. O'Nealand Brigadier GeneralAlfred Iversonsuffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brigadier GeneralJohn C. Robinsonsouth of Oak Hill. Early's division profited from a blunder by Brigadier GeneralFrancis C. Barlow, when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow's Knoll); this represented asalientin the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early's troops overran Barlow's division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army's position. Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack. As Union positions collapsed both north and west of town, Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town at Cemetery Hill, where he had left the division of Brigadier GeneralAdolph von Steinwehrin reserve.Major GeneralWinfield S. Hancockassumed command of the battlefield, sent by Meade when he heard that Reynolds had been killed. Hancock, commander of theII Corpsand Meade's most trusted subordinate, was ordered to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle.Hancock told Howard, \"I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw.\" When Howard agreed, Hancock concluded the discussion: \"Very well, sir, I select this as the battle-field.\" Hancock's determination had a morale-boosting effect on the retreating Union soldiers, but he played no direct tactical role on the first day. General Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground. He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken \"if practicable\". Ewell, who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson, a general well known for issuing peremptory orders, determined such an assault was not practicable and, thus, did not attempt it; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity. The first day at Gettysburg, more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days, ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged. About one quarter of Meade's army (22,000 men) and one third of Lee's army (27,000) were engaged. Second day of battle Plans and movement to battle Throughout the evening of July 1 and morning of July 2, most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union II, III, V, VI, and XII Corps. Two of Longstreet's divisions were on the road: Brigadier GeneralGeorge Pickett, had begun the 22-mile (35 km) march from Chambersburg, while Brigadier GeneralEvander M. Lawhad begun the march from Guilford. Both arrived late in the morning. Law completed his 28-mile (45 km) march in eleven hours. The Union line ran from Culp's Hill southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly two miles (3 km) along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of Little Round Top.Most of the XII Corps was on Culp's Hill; the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill; II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge; and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank. The shape of the Union line is popularly described as a \"fishhook\" formation. The Confederate line paralleled the Union line about one mile (1,600 m) to the west on Seminary Ridge, ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp's Hill. Thus, the Union army had interior lines, while the Confederate line was nearly five miles (8 km) long. Lee's battle plan for July 2 called for a general assault of Meade's positions. On the right, Longstreet's First Corps was to position itself to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle theEmmitsburgRoad, and to roll up the Union line. The attack sequence was to begin with Maj. Gens.John Bell Hood's andLafayette McLaws's divisions, followed by Major GeneralRichard H. Anderson's division of Hill's Third Corps. On the left, Lee instructed Ewell to position his Second Corps to attack Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill when he heard the gunfire from Longstreet's assault, preventing Meade from shifting troops to bolster his left. Though it does not appear in either his or Lee's Official Report, Ewell claimed years later that Lee had changed the order to simultaneously attack, calling for only a \"diversion\", to be turned into a full-scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself. Lee's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart's continued absence from the battlefield. Though Lee personally reconnoitered his left during the morning, he did not visit Longstreet's position on the Confederate right. Even so, Lee rejected suggestions that Longstreet move beyond Meade's left and attack the Union flank, capturing the supply trains and effectively blocking Meade's escape route. Lee did not issue orders for the attack until 11:00 a.m.About noon, General Anderson's advancing troops were discovered by General Sickles's outpost guard and the Third Corps—upon which Longstreet's First Corps was to form—did not get into position until 1:00 pm. Hood and McLaws, after their long march, were not yet in position and did not launch their attacks until just after 4:00p.m. and 5:00p.m., respectively. Attacks on the Union left flank As Longstreet's left division, under Major General Lafayette McLaws, advanced, they unexpectedly found Major GeneralDaniel Sickles's III Corps directly in their path. Sickles had been dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge. Seeing ground better suited for artillery positions one-half mile (800 m) to the west—centered at the Sherfy farm's Peach Orchard—he violated orders and advanced his corps to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road, moving away from Cemetery Ridge. The new line ran from Devil's Den, northwest to the Peach Orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm. This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brigadier GeneralAndrew A. Humphreys's division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Major GeneralDavid B. Birney's division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively.The Confederate artillery was ordered to open fire at 3:00 pm.After failing to attend a meeting at this time of Meade's corps commanders, Meade rode to Sickles's position and demanded an explanation of the situation. Knowing a Confederate attack was imminent and a retreat would be endangered, Meade refused Sickles' offer to withdraw. Meade was forced to send 20,000 reinforcements:the entire V Corps, Brigadier GeneralJohn C. Caldwell's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and portions of the newly arrived VI Corps. Hood's division moved more to the east than intended, losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road,attacking Devil's Den and Little Round Top. McLaws, coming in on Hood's left, drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in theWheatfieldand overwhelmed them in Sherfy'sPeach Orchard. McLaws's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley (the \"Valley of Death\") before being beaten back by thePennsylvania Reservesdivision of the V Corps, moving down from Little Round Top. The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle, andSickles's legwas amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball. Caldwell's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield. Anderson's division, coming from McLaws's left and starting forward around 6p.m., reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps, including an almost suicidal bayonet charge by the1st Minnesotaregiment against a Confederate brigade, ordered in desperation by Hancock to buy time for reinforcements to arrive. As fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil's Den, ColonelStrong Vincentof V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top, an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line. His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Law's brigade of Hood's division. Meade's chief engineer, Brigadier GeneralGouverneur K. Warren, had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent's brigade, an artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood's troops arrived. The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the20th Maine, ordered by ColonelJoshua L. Chamberlainand possibly led down the slope by LieutenantHolman S. Melcher, was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Chamberlain into prominence after the war. Attacks on the Union right flank Ewell interpreted his orders as calling only for a cannonade.His 32 guns, along with A. P. Hill's 55 guns, engaged in a two-hour artillery barrage at extreme range that had little effect. Finally, about six o'clock, Ewell sent orders to each of his division commanders to attack the Union lines in his front. Major GeneralEdward \"Allegheny\" Johnson's division had contemplated an assault on Culp's Hill, but they were still a mile away and had Rock Creek to cross. The few possible crossings would make significant delays. Because of this, only three of Johnson's four brigades moved to the attack.Most of the hill's defenders, the Union XII Corps, had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet's attacks, leaving only a brigade of New Yorkers under Brigadier GeneralGeorge S. Greenebehind strong, newly constructed defensive works. With reinforcements from the I and XI corps, Greene's men held off the Confederate attackers, though giving up some of the lower earthworks on the lower part of Culp's Hill. Early was similarly unprepared when he orderedHarry T. Hays's andIsaac E. Avery's brigades to attack the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill. Once started, fighting was fierce: ColonelAndrew L. Harrisof the Union 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, XI Corps came under a withering attack, losing half his men. Avery was wounded early on, but the Confederates reached the crest of the hill and entered the Union breastworks, capturing one or two batteries. Seeing he was not supported on his right, Hays withdrew. His right was to be supported by Robert E. Rodes's division, but Rodes—like Early and Johnson—had not been ordered up in preparation for the attack. He had twice as far to travel as Early; by the time he came in contact with the Union skirmish line, Early's troops had already begun to withdraw. Jeb Stuartand his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day's battle. Brigadier GeneralWade Hampton's brigade fought a minor engagement with newly promoted 23-year-old Brigadier GeneralGeorge Armstrong Custer'sMichigancavalry nearHunterstownto the northeast of Gettysburg. Third day of battle Lee's plan Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday, July 3, using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the Union left, while Ewell attacked Culp's Hill.However, before Longstreet was ready, Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works. The Confederates attacked, and the second fight for Culp's Hill ended around 11a.m. Harry Pfanz judged that, after some seven hours of bitter combat, \"the Union line was intact and held more strongly than before\". Lee was forced to change his plans. Longstreet would command Pickett's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill's Corps, in an attack on the Union II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the Union positions would bombard and weaken the enemy's line. Much has been made over the years of General Longstreet's objections to General Lee's plan. In his memoirs, Longstreet states that he told Lee that there were not enough men to assault the strong left center of the Union line by McLaws's and Hood's divisions reinforced by Pickett's brigades. Longstreet thought the attack would be repulsed and a counterattack would put Union forces between the Confederates and the Potomac River. Longstreet wrote that he said it would take a minimum of thirty thousand men to attack successfully as well as close coordination with other Confederate forces. He noted that only about thirteen thousand men were left in the selected divisions after the first two days of fighting. They would have to walk a mile under heavy artillery and long-range musketry fire. Longstreet states that he further asked Lee: \"the strength of the column. He stated fifteen thousand. Opinion was then expressed that the fifteen thousand men who could make successful assault over that field had never been arrayed for battle; but he was impatient of listening, and tired of talking, and nothing was left but to proceed.\" Largest artillery bombardment of the war Around 1p.m., from 150 to 170 Confederate guns began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war. To save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow, the Army of the Potomac's artillery, under the command of Brigadier GeneralHenry Jackson Hunt, at first did not return the enemy's fire. After waiting about 15 minutes, about 80 Union cannons opened fire. The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position. Pickett's Charge Around 3p.m.,the cannon fire subsided, and between 10,500 and 12,500 Southern soldiersstepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three-quarters of a mile (1,200 m) to Cemetery Ridge.A more accurate name for the charge would be the \"Pickett–Pettigrew–Trimble Charge\" after the commanders of the three divisions taking part in the charge, but the role of Pickett's division has led to the attack generally being known as \"Pickett's Charge\".As the Confederates approached, there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and the Little Round Top area,and musket and canister fire from Hancock's II Corps.In the Union center, the commander of artillery had held fire during the Confederate bombardment (to save it for the infantry assault, which Meade had correctly predicted the day before), leading Southern commanders to believe the Northern cannon batteries had been knocked out. However, they opened fire on the Confederate infantry during their approach with devastating results. Although the Union line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called the \"Angle\" in a low stone fence, just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach, and the Confederate attack was repelled. The farthest advance, by Brigadier GeneralLewis A. Armistead's brigade of Pickett's division at the Angle, is referred to as the \"high-water mark of the Confederacy\".Union and Confederate soldiers locked in hand-to-hand combat, attacking with their rifles, bayonets, rocks and even their bare hands. Armistead ordered his Confederates to turn two captured cannons against Union troops, but discovered that there was no ammunition left, the lastdouble canistershots having been used against the charging Confederates. Armistead was mortally wounded shortly afterward. Nearly one half of the Confederate attackers did not return to their own lines.Pickett's division lost about two-thirds of its men, and all three brigadiers were killed or wounded. Cavalry battles There were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3. The first one was coordinated with Pickett's Charge, and the standoff may have prevented a disaster for Union infantry.The site of this engagement is now known as the East Cavalry Field.The second engagement was a loss for Union cavalry attacking Confederate infantry. It has been labeled as a \"fiasco\", and featured faulty cavalry tactics.The site of this engagement is now known as the South Cavalry Field. Northeast of Gettysburg Stuart's cavalry division (three brigades), with the assistance of Jenkins' brigade, was sent to guard the Confederate left flank. Stuart was also in position to exploit any success the Confederate infantry (Pickett's Charge) might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the Union right and getting behind Union infantry facing the Confederate attack.The cavalry fight took place about three miles (4.8 km) northeast of Gettysburg at about 3:00pm—around the end of the Confederate artillery barrage that preceded Pickett's charge. Stuart's forces collided with Union cavalry: Brigadier GeneralDavid McMurtrie Gregg's division and Custer's brigade from Kilpatrick's division.The fight evolved into \"a wild melee of swinging sabers and blazing pistols and carbines\".One of Custer's regiments, the5th Michigan Cavalry Regiment, was armed with Spencer repeating rifles, and at least two companies from an additional regiment were also armed with repeaters.The fight ended in a standoff, as neither side changed positions. However, Gregg and Custer prevented Stuart from gaining the rear of Union infantry facing Pickett. Southwest of Gettysburg After hearing news of the Union's success against Pickett's charge, Brigadier GeneralJudson Kilpatricklaunched a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet's Corps southwest ofBig Round Top. The terrain was difficult for a mounted attack because it was rough, heavily wooded, and contained huge boulders—and Longstreet's men were entrenched with artillery support.Brigadier GeneralElon J. Farnsworthprotested against the futility of such a move, but obeyed orders. Farnsworth was killed in the fourth of five unsuccessful attacks, and his brigade suffered significant losses.Although Kilpatrick was described by at least one Union leader as \"brave, enterprising, and energetic\", incidents such as Farnsworth's charge earned him the nickname of \"Kill Cavalry\". Aftermath Casualties The two armies suffered between 46,000 and 51,000 casualties.Union casualties were 23,055 (3,155 killed, 14,531 wounded, 5,369 captured or missing),while Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate. Many authors have referred to as many as 28,000 Confederate casualties,and Busey and Martin's more recent 2005 work,Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg, documents 23,231 (4,708 killed, 12,693 wounded, 5,830 captured or missing).Nearly a third of Lee's general officers were killed, wounded, or captured.The casualties for both sides for the 6-week campaign, according to Sears, were 57,225. In addition to being the deadliest battle of the war, Gettysburg also had the most generals killed in action. Several generals also were wounded. The Confederacy lost generalsPaul Jones Semmes,William Barksdale, William Dorsey Pender,Richard Garnett, andLewis Armistead, as well as J. Johnston Pettigrew during the retreat after the battle. Confederate generals who were wounded included Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood who lost the use of his left arm and Maj. Gen. Henry Heth who received a shot to the head on the first day of battle (though incapacitated for the rest of the battle, he remarkably survived without long-term injuries, credited in part due to his hat stuffed full of paper dispatches). Confederate generalsJames L. KemperandIsaac R. Trimblewere severely wounded during Pickett's charge and captured during the Confederate retreat. Confederate Brig. Gen. James J. Archer, in command of a brigade that most likely was responsible for killing Reynolds, was taken prisoner shortly after Reynolds' death. In the Confederate 1st Corps, eight of Longstreet's fourteen division and brigade commanders were killed or wounded, including Brig. Gen.George T. Andersonand Brig. Gen.Jerome B. Robertson, who were wounded. In Ewell's 2nd Corps, Brig. Gen. Isaac E. Avery was mortally wounded and Brig. Gen.John M. Joneswas wounded. In Hill's 3rd Corps, in addition to Pender and Pettigrew being killed, Maj. Gen. Henry Heth and Col.Birkett D. Fry(later brigadier general), in temporary brigade command were wounded. In Hill's 3rd Corp, Brig. Gen.Alfred M. Scalesand Col.William L. J. Lowrance, in temporary brigade command, were wounded. In the Confederate Cavalry Division, Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton and Brig. Gen.Albert G. Jenkinswere wounded. Union generals killed were John Reynolds,Samuel K. Zook, andStephen H. Weed, as well as Elon J. Farnsworth, assigned as brigadier general by Maj. Gen. Pleasanton based on his nomination although his promotion was confirmed posthumously, and Strong Vincent, who after being mortally wounded was given a deathbed promotion to brigadier general. Additional senior officer casualties included the wounding of Union GeneralsDan Sickles(lost a leg), Francis C. Barlow,Daniel Butterfield, andWinfield Scott Hancock. Five of seven brigade commanders in Reynolds's First Corps were wounded. In addition to Hancock and Brig. Gen. John Gibbon being wounded in the Second Corps, three of ten brigade commanders were killed and three were wounded. The following tables summarize casualties by corps for the Union and Confederate forces during the three-day battle, according to Busey and Martin. Bruce Cattonwrote, \"The town of Gettysburg looked as if some universal moving day had been interrupted by catastrophe.\"But there was only one documented civilian death during the battle:Ginnie Wade(also widely known as Jennie), 20 years old, was hit by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread.Another notable civilian casualty wasJohn L. Burns, a 69-year-old veteran of the War of 1812 who walked to the front lines on the first day of battle and participated in heavy combat as a volunteer, receiving numerous wounds in the process. Though aged and injured, Burns survived the battle and lived until 1872.Nearly 8,000 had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly. More than 3,000 horse carcasseswere burned in a series of piles south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench.Meanwhile, the town of Gettysburg, with its population of just 2,400, found itself tasked with taking care of 14,000 wounded Union troops and an additional 8,000 Confederate prisoners. Confederates lost over 31–55 battle flags, with the Union possibly having lost slightly fewer than 40.The Confederate battle flags were sent toWashington. 3,000–5,000 horses were killed. Confederate retreat On the morning of July 4, with Lee's army still present, Meade ordered his cavalry to get to the rear of Lee's army.In a heavy rain, the armies stared at one another across the bloody fields, on the same day that, some 920 miles (1,480 km) away, theVicksburggarrison surrendered to Major GeneralUlysses S. Grant. Lee had reformed his lines into a defensive position on Seminary Ridge the night of July3, evacuating the town of Gettysburg. The Confederates remained on the battlefield's west side, hoping that Meade would attack, but the cautious Union commander decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized. Both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead. A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade. Late in the rainy afternoon, Lee started moving the non-fighting portion of his army back to Virginia. Cavalry under Brigadier GeneralJohn D. Imbodenwas entrusted to escort the seventeen-mile long wagon train of supplies and wounded men, using a long route throughCashtownandGreencastletoWilliamsport, Maryland. After sunset, the fighting portion of Lee's army began its retreat to Virginia using a more direct (but more mountainous) route that began on the road toFairfield.Although Lee knew exactly what he needed to do, Meade's situation was different. Meade needed to remain at Gettysburg until he was certain Lee was gone. If Meade left first, he could possibly leave an opening for Lee to get to Washington or Baltimore. In addition, the army that left the battlefield first was often considered the defeated army. \"Now, if General Meade can complete his work so gloriously prosecuted thus far, by the literal or substantial destruction of Lee's army, the rebellion will be over.\" Abraham Lincoln Union cavalry had some minor successes pursuing Lee's army. The first major encounter took place in the mountains atMonterey Passon July4, where Kilpatrick's cavalry division captured 150 to 300 wagons and took 1,300 to 1,500 prisoners.Beginning July 6, additional cavalry fighting took place closer to the Potomac River in Maryland'sWilliamsport-Hagerstown area.Lee's army was trapped and delayed from crossing the Potomac River because rainy weather had caused the river to swell, and thepontoon bridgeatFalling Watershad been destroyed.Meade's infantry did not fully pursue Lee until July7, and despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck, was not aggressive enough to destroy Lee's army.A new pontoon bridge was constructed at Falling Waters, and lower water levels allowed the Confederates to begin crossing after dark on July13.Although Meade's infantry had reached the area on July 12, it was his cavalry that attacked the Confederate rear guard on the morning of July14. Union cavalry took 500 prisoners, and Confederate Brigadier General Pettigrew was mortally wounded, but Lee's army completed its Potomac crossing.The campaign continued south of the Potomac until theBattle of Manassas Gapon July23, when Lee escaped and Meade abandoned the pursuit. Union reaction to the news of the victory The news of the Union victory electrified the North. A headline inThe Philadelphia Inquirerproclaimed \"Victory!WaterlooEclipsed!\" New York diaristGeorge Templeton Strongwrote: The results of this victory are priceless. ... The charm of Robert E. Lee's invincibility is broken. The Army of the Potomac has at last found a general that can handle it, and has stood nobly up to its terrible work in spite of its long disheartening list of hard-fought failures. ...Copperheadsare palsied and dumb for the moment at least. ... Government is strengthened four-fold at home and abroad. However, the Union enthusiasm soon dissipated as the public realized that Lee's army had escaped destruction and the war would continue. Lincoln complained to Secretary of the NavyGideon Wellesthat \"Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it!\"Brigadier GeneralAlexander S. Webbwrote to his father on July 17, stating that such Washington politicians as \"Chase,Sewardand others\", disgusted with Meade, \"write to me that Lee really won that Battle!\" Effect on the Confederacy In fact, the Confederates had lost militarily and also politically. During the final hours of the battle,Confederate Vice PresidentAlexander Stephenswas approaching the Union lines atNorfolk, Virginia, under aflag of truce. Although his formal instructions fromConfederate PresidentJefferson Davishad limited his powers to negotiate on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters, historianJames M. McPhersonspeculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures. Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee's victorious army was marching toward it from the north. President Lincoln, upon hearing of the Gettysburg results, refused Stephens's request to pass through the lines. Furthermore, when the news reached London, any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned.Henry Adams, whose father was serving as the U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom at the time, wrote, \"The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success. It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end.\" Compounding the effects of the defeat was the end of theSiege of Vicksburg, which surrendered to Grant's Federal armies in the West on July 4, the day after the Gettysburg battle, costing the Confederacy an additional 30,000 men, along with all their arms and stores. The immediate reaction of the Southern military and public sectors was that Gettysburg was a setback, not a disaster. The sentiment was that Lee had been successful on July 1 and had fought a valiant battle on July 2–3, but could not dislodge the Union Army from the strong defensive position to which it fled. The Confederates successfully stood their ground on July 4 and withdrew only after they realized Meade would not attack them. The withdrawal to the Potomac that could have been a disaster was handled masterfully. Furthermore, the Army of the Potomac had been kept away from Virginia farmlands for the summer and all predicted that Meade would be too timid to threaten them for the rest of the year. Lee himself had a positive view of the campaign, writing to his wife that the army had returned \"rather sooner than I had originally contemplated, but having accomplished what I proposed on leaving the Rappahannock, viz., relieving the Valley of the presence of the enemy and drawing his Army north of the Potomac\". He was quoted as saying to Maj. John Seddon, brother of the Confederate secretary of war, \"Sir, we did whip them at Gettysburg, and it will be seen for the next six months thatthat armywill be as quiet as a sucking dove.\" Some Southern publications, such as theCharleston Mercury, were critical of Lee's actions. On August 8, Lee offered his resignation to President Davis, who quickly rejected it. Gettysburg Address The ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on November 19, theSoldiers' National Cemeterywas dedicated. During this ceremony, President Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historicGettysburg Address. Medal of Honor There were 72Medals of Honorawarded for the Gettysburg Campaign, 64 of which were for actions taken during the battle itself. The first recipient was awarded in December 1864, while the most recent was posthumously awarded to LieutenantAlonzo Cushingin 2014. Historical assessment Decisive victory controversies The nature of the result of the Battle of Gettysburg has been the subject of controversy. Although not seen as overwhelmingly significant at the time, particularly since the war continued for almost two years, in retrospect it has often been cited as the\"turning point\", usually in combination with the fall of Vicksburg the following day.This is based on the observation that, after Gettysburg, Lee's army conducted no more strategic offensives—his army merely reacted to the initiative of Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 and 1865—and by the speculative viewpoint of the Lost Cause writers that a Confederate victory at Gettysburg might have resulted in the end of the war. had won a victory. It might be less of a victory than Mr. Lincoln had hoped for, but it was nevertheless a victory—and, because of that, it was no longer possible for the Confederacy to win the war. The North might still lose it, to be sure, if the soldiers or the people should lose heart, but outright defeat was no longer in the cards. Bruce Catton,Glory Road It is currently a widely held view that Gettysburg was adecisive victoryfor the Union, but the term is considered imprecise. It is inarguable that Lee's offensive on July 3 was turned back decisively and his campaign in Pennsylvania was terminated prematurely (although the Confederates at the time argued that this was a temporary setback and that the goals of the campaign were largely met). However, when the more common definition of \"decisive victory\" is intended—an indisputable military victory of a battle that determines or significantly influences the ultimate result of a conflict—historians are divided. For example,David J. Eichercalled Gettysburg a \"strategic loss for the Confederacy\" and James M. McPherson wrote that \"Lee and his men would go on to earn further laurels. But they never again possessed the power and reputation they carried into Pennsylvania those palmy summer days of 1863.\" However, Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote that the \"strategic impact of the Battle of Gettysburg was ... fairly limited.\" Steven E. Woodworth wrote that \"Gettysburg proved only the near impossibility of decisive action in the Eastern theater.\" Edwin Coddington pointed out the heavy toll on the Army of the Potomac and that \"after the battle Meade no longer possessed a truly effective instrument for the accomplishments of his task. The army needed a thorough reorganization with new commanders and fresh troops, but these changes were not made until Grant appeared on the scene in March 1864.\" Joseph T. Glatthaar wrote that \"Lost opportunities and near successes plagued the Army of Northern Virginia during its Northern invasion,\" yet after Gettysburg, \"without the distractions of duty as an invading force, without the breakdown of discipline, the Army of Northern Virginia an extremely formidable force.\"Ed Bearsswrote, \"Lee's invasion of the North had been a costly failure. Nevertheless, at best the Army of the Potomac had simply preserved the strategic stalemate in the Eastern Theater ...\"Historian Alan Guelzo notes that Gettysburg and Vicksburg did not end the war and that the war would go on for two more years.He also noted that a little more than a year later Federal armies appeared hopelessly mired in sieges at Petersburg and Atlanta. Peter Carmichael refers to the military context for the armies, the \"horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, which effectively destroyed Lee's offensive capacity,\" implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle. Thomas Goss, writing in the U.S. Army'sMilitary Reviewjournal on the definition of \"decisive\" and the application of that description to Gettysburg, concludes: \"For all that was decided and accomplished, the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label 'decisive battle'.\"The military historianJohn Keeganagrees. Gettysburg was a landmark battle, the largest of the war and it would not be surpassed. The Union had restored to it the belief in certain victory, and the loss dispirited the Confederacy. If \"not exactly a decisive battle\", Gettysburg was the end of Confederate use of Northern Virginia as a military buffer zone, the setting for Grant'sOverland Campaign. Lee vs. Meade Prior to Gettysburg, Robert E. Lee had established a reputation as an almost invincible general, achieving stunning victories against superior numbers—although usually at the cost of high casualties to his army—during theSeven Days, theNorthern Virginia Campaign(including theSecond Battle of Bull Run),Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. Only theMaryland Campaign, with its tactically inconclusive Battle of Antietam, had been less than successful. Therefore, historians such as Fuller, Glatthaar, and Sears have attempted to explain how Lee's winning streak was interrupted so dramatically at Gettysburg.Although the issue is tainted by attempts to portray history and Lee's reputation in a manner supporting different partisan goals, the major factors in Lee's loss arguably can be attributed to: his overconfidence in the invincibility of his men; the performance of his subordinates, and his management thereof; his failing health; and, the performance of his opponent, George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac. Throughout the campaign, Lee was influenced by the belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee's experiences with the Army of Northern Virginia had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1. Since morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal, Lee did not want to dampen his army's desire to fight and resisted suggestions, principally by Longstreet, to withdraw from the recently captured Gettysburg to select a ground more favorable to his army. War correspondent Peter W. Alexander wrote that Lee \"acted, probably, under the impression that his troops were able to carry any position however formidable. If such was the case, he committed an error, such however as the ablest commanders will sometimes fall into.\" Lee himself concurred with this judgment, writing to President Davis, \"No blame can be attached to the army for its failure to accomplish what was projected by me, nor should it be censured for the unreasonable expectations of the public—I am alone to blame, in perhaps expecting too much of its prowess and valor.\" The most controversial assessments of the battle involve the performance of Lee's subordinates. The dominant theme of the Lost Cause writers and many other historians is that Lee's senior generals failed him in crucial ways, directly causing the loss of the battle; the alternative viewpoint is that Lee did not manage his subordinates adequately, and did not thereby compensate for their shortcomings.Two of his corps commanders—Richard S. Ewell and A.P. Hill—had only recently been promoted and were not fully accustomed to Lee's style of command, in which he provided only general objectives and guidance to their former commander, Stonewall Jackson; Jackson translated these into detailed, specific orders to his division commanders.All four of Lee's principal commanders received criticism during the campaign and battle: In addition to Hill's illness, Lee's performance was affected by heart troubles, which would eventually lead to his death in 1870; he had been diagnosed withpericarditisby his staff physicians in March 1863, though modern doctors believe he had in fact suffered a heart attack.As a final factor, Lee faced a new and formidable opponent inGeorge G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac fought well on its home territory. Although new to his army command, Meade deployed his forces relatively effectively; relied on strong subordinates such as Winfield S. Hancock to make decisions where and when they were needed; took great advantage of defensive positions; nimbly shifted defensive resources on interior lines to parry strong threats; and, unlike some of his predecessors, stood his ground throughout the battle in the face of fierce Confederate attacks. Lee was quoted before the battle as saying Meade \"would commit no blunders on my front and if I make one ... will make haste to take advantage of it.\" That prediction proved to be correct at Gettysburg. Stephen Sears wrote, \"The fact of the matter is that George G. Meade, unexpectedly and against all odds, thoroughly outgeneraled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg.\" Edwin B. Coddington wrote that the soldiers of the Army of the Potomac received a \"sense of triumph which grew into an imperishable faith in . The men knew what they could do under an extremely competent general; one of lesser ability and courage could well have lost the battle.\" Meade had his own detractors as well. Similar to the situation with Lee, Meade suffered partisan attacks about his performance at Gettysburg, but he had the misfortune of experiencing them in person. Supporters of his predecessor, Hooker, lambasted Meade before theU.S. Congress'sJoint Committee on the Conduct of the War, whereRadical Republicanssuspected that Meade was aCopperheadand tried in vain to relieve him from command.Daniel E. Sicklesand Daniel Butterfield accused Meade of planning to retreat from Gettysburg during the battle. Most politicians, including Lincoln, criticized Meade for what they considered to be his half-hearted pursuit of Lee after the battle. A number of Meade's most competent subordinates—Winfield S. Hancock,John Gibbon, Gouverneur K. Warren, andHenry J. Hunt, all heroes of the battle—defended Meade in print, but Meade was embittered by the overall experience. Battlefield preservation Gettysburg National CemeteryandGettysburg National Military Parkare maintained by theU.S. National Park Serviceas two of the nation's most revered historical landmarks. Although Gettysburg is one of the best known of all Civil War battlefields, it too faces threats to its preservation and interpretation. Many historically significant locations on the battlefield lie outside the boundaries of Gettysburg National Military Park and are vulnerable to residential or commercial development. Some preservation successes have emerged in recent years. Two proposals to open a casino at Gettysburg were defeated in 2006 and most recently in 2011, when public pressure forced thePennsylvania Gaming Control Boardto reject the proposed gambling hub at the intersection of Routes 15 and 30, nearEast Cavalry Field.TheAmerican Battlefield Trust, formerly the Civil War Trust, also successfully purchased and transferred 95 acres (38 ha) at the former site of the Gettysburg Country Club to the control of theU.S. Department of the Interiorin 2011. Less than half of the over 11,500 acres on the old Gettysburg Battlefield have been preserved for posterity thus far. The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have acquired and preserved 1,242 acres (5.03 km2) of the battlefield in more than 40 separate transactions from 1997 to mid-2023.Some of these acres are now among the 4,998 acres (2,023 ha) of the Gettysburg National Military Park.In 2015, the Trust made one of its most important and expensive acquisitions, paying $6 million for a four-acre (1.6 ha) parcel that included the stone house that Confederate General Robert E. Lee used as his headquarters during the battle. The Trust razed a motel, restaurant and other buildings within the parcel to restore Lee's headquarters and the site to their wartime appearance, adding interpretive signs. It opened the site to the public in October 2016. In popular culture At the50th anniversary Gettysburg reunion (1913), 50,000 veterans attended according to a 1938 Army Medical report.Historian Carol Reardon writes that attendance included at least 35,000 Union veterans and though estimates of attendees ran as high as 56,000, only a few more than 7,000 Confederate veterans, most from Virginia and North Carolina, attended.Some veterans re-enacted Pickett's Charge in a spirit of reconciliation, a meeting that carried great emotional force for both sides. There was a ceremonial mass hand-shake across a stone wall on Cemetery Ridge. At the75th anniversary Gettysburg reunion (1938), 1,333 Union veterans and 479 Confederate veterans attended. Film records survive of two Gettysburg reunions, held on the battlefield, in 1913.and 1938. TheAmerican Civil War Centennialwas the official United States commemoration of theAmerican Civil War. Commemoration activities began in 1957, four years before the 100th anniversary of thewar's first battle, and ended in 1965 with the 100th anniversary of thesurrender at Appomattox. The United States Civil War Centennial Commission and state commissions were established to organize the commemorations. TheNational Park Service, and other federal agencies that controlled key Civil War battlefields, used the Centennial to successfully lobby Congress for increased funding to re-landscape and interpret these battlefields for the general public. The Post Office issued a series of noncontroversialcommemorative stampsto mark the centennial. The children's novelWindow of Time(1991), by Karen Weinberg, tells the story of a boy transported by time travel from the 1980s to the Battle of Gettysburg. The Battle of Gettysburg was depicted in the 1993 filmGettysburg, based onMichael Shaara's 1974 novelThe Killer Angels.The film and novel focused primarily on the actions ofJoshua Lawrence Chamberlain, John Buford, Robert E. Lee, and James Longstreet during the battle. The first day focused on Buford's cavalry defense, the second day on Chamberlain's defense atLittle Round Top, and the third day on Pickett's Charge. See also Notes Citations References Memoirs and primary sources Further reading External links",
"List of governors of Pennsylvania Thegovernor of Pennsylvaniais thehead of governmentof theU.S. stateofPennsylvania, as well ascommander-in-chiefof the state'snational guard. Thegovernorhas a duty to enforce state laws and the power to approve orvetobillspassed by thePennsylvania General Assembly,as well as to convene the legislature.The governor may grant pardons except in cases ofimpeachment, but only when recommended by the Board of Pardons. There have been seven presidents and 48 governors of Pennsylvania, with two governors (Robert E. PattisonandGifford Pinchot) serving non-consecutive terms, totaling 55 terms in both offices. The longest term was that of the first governor,Thomas Mifflin, who served three full terms as governor in addition to two years asPresident of the Continental Congress. The shortest term belonged toJohn C. Bell Jr., who served only 19 days as acting governor after his predecessor,Edward Martin, resigned. The current governor isJosh Shapiro, who took office on January 17, 2023. Governors Pennsylvania was one of the originalThirteen Coloniesand was admitted as a state on December 12, 1787.Before it declared its independence, Pennsylvania was acolonyof theKingdom of Great Britain. Presidents of the Supreme Executive Council ThePennsylvania Constitution of 1776created theSupreme Executive Councilas the state's executive branch, with a president as its head.The president was chosen annually by the council, though with no specific term dates. The constitution created the position of \"vice-president\", though no provision was made if the office of the president became vacant, which occurred four times later. Contemporary sources continue to label the chief executive in such times as the vice-president, without any notion of succeeding in the presidency. One acting president,George Bryan, was subsequently recognized later as a full-fledged governor, due to his acting as president for over six months. Governors of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania The 1790 constitution abolished the council and replaced the president with a governor,and established a three-year term for governor commencing on the third Tuesday of the December following the election, with governors not allowed to serve more than nine out of any twelve years.The 1838 constitution moved the start of the term to the third Tuesday of the January following the election, and allowed governors to only serve six out of any nine years.The 1874 constitution lengthened the term to four years, and prohibited governors from succeeding themselves.The current constitution of 1968 changed this to allow governors to serve two consecutive terms, with no lifetime limit. Under the 1968 constitution,Milton Shappwas the first governor to serve two terms, andTom Corbettwas the first incumbent governor to lose a re-election bid. If the office of governor becomes vacant through death, resignation, or conviction on impeachment, thelieutenant governorbecomes governor for the remainder of the term; if the office is only temporarily vacant due to disability of the governor, the lieutenant governor only acts out the duties of governor.Should both offices be vacant, thepresidentpro temporeof the state senate becomes governor.The position of a lieutenant governor was created in the 1874 constitution; prior to then, the speaker of the senate would act as governor in cases of vacancy. Originally, the lieutenant governor could only act as governor; it was not until the1968 constitutionthat the lieutenant governor could actually become the sitting governor in that fashion. The office of governor has been vacant for an extended period once before, a 17-day gap in 1848 between the resignation of the previous governor and the swearing in of his acting successor. Governors and lieutenant governors are elected on the samepolitical partyticket. See also Notes References External links"
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"List of costliest American Civil War land battles This is alist of the costliest land battlesof theAmerican Civil War, measured by casualties (killed, wounded, captured, and missing) on both sides. Highest casualty battles See also Notes",
"Battle of Gettysburg TheBattle of Gettysburg(locally/ˈɡɛtɪsbɜːrɡ/ⓘ)was a three-day battle in theAmerican Civil Warfought betweenUnionandConfederateforces between July 1 and July 3, 1863, in and aroundGettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle, which was won by the Union, is widely considered theCivil War's turning point, ending the Confederacy's aspirations to establish an independent nation. It was the Civil War's bloodiest battle, claiming over 50,000 combined casualties over three days. In the Battle of Gettysburg, UnionMajor GeneralGeorge Meade'sArmy of the Potomacdefeated attacks by ConfederateGeneralRobert E. Lee'sArmy of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion ofthe Northand forcing his retreat. After his success atChancellorsvilleinVirginiain May 1863, Lee led his Confederate forces throughShenandoah Valleyto begin theGettysburg Campaign, his second attempted invasion of the North. With Lee's army in high spirits, he intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravagedNorthern Virginiain",
"Virginiain the hopes of penetrating as far asHarrisburg, PennsylvaniaorPhiladelphia, which he hoped would convince northern politicians to abandon their prosecution of the war.PresidentAbraham Lincolninitially prodded Major GeneralJoseph Hookerto move his Union forces in pursuit of Lee, but relieved Hooker of his command just three days before the battle, replacing him with Meade. On July 1, 1863, as Lee's forces moved on Gettysburg in the hopes of destroying the Union Army, the two armies initially collided, and the battle commenced. Low ridges to the northwest of Gettysburg were initially defended by a Union cavalry division under Brigadier GeneralJohn Buford, and soon reinforced with twocorpsof Unioninfantry. Two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, however, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, leading them to retreat through the streets of Gettysburg to the hills just south of the city.On the second day of battle, on July 2, the Union line was laid out in a",
"was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union's left flank, leading to fierce fighting atLittle Round Top, theWheatfield,Devil's Den, and thePeach Orchard. On the Union's right flank, Confederatedemonstrationsescalated into full-scale assaults onCulp's HillandCemetery Hill. Despite incurring significant losses, Union forces held their lines. On the third day of battle, July 3, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south of Gettysburg, but the main military engagement was a dramatic Confederate infantry assault of approximately 12,000 Confederates troops, who attacked the center of the Union line atCemetery Ridgein what is known asPickett's Charge. The Confederate charge was repelled by Unionrifleand artillery fire, leading to great Confederate losses. The following day, on theFourth of July, Lee led his Confederate troops on the torturousretreat from the North. Between 46,000 and 51,000",
"46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle, representing the most deadly battle in U.S. history. On November 19, President Lincoln traveled to Gettysburg, where he spoke at a ceremony dedicatingGettysburg National Cemeterythat honored the fallen Union soldiers and redefined the purpose of the Civil War in his famedGettysburg Address, a 271-word address considered one of the famousspeechesin American history. Background Military situation Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a major victory over theArmy of the Potomacat theBattle of Chancellorsville(April 30 – May 6, 1863), GeneralRobert E. Leedecided upon a second invasion of the North (the first was the unsuccessfulMaryland campaignof September 1862, which ended in the bloodyBattle of Antietam). Such a move would upset theUnion's plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly reduce the pressure on the besieged Confederate garrison atVicksburg. The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off",
"to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravagedVirginiaa much-needed rest. In addition, Lee's 72,000-man armycould threaten Philadelphia,Baltimore, andWashington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North. Initial movements to battle Thus, on June 3, Lee's army began to shift northward fromFredericksburg, Virginia. Following the death ofThomas J. \"Stonewall\" Jackson, Lee reorganized his two large corps into three new corps, commanded byLieutenant GeneralJames Longstreet(First Corps), Lieutenant GeneralRichard S. Ewell(Second), and Lieutenant GeneralA.P. Hill(Third); both Ewell and Hill, who had formerly reported to Jackson as division commanders, were new to this level of responsibility. The cavalry division remained under the command of Major GeneralJ.E.B. Stuart. The Union Army of the Potomac under Major GeneralJoseph Hookerconsisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an artillery reserve, for a combined strength of more than 100,000 men. The",
"100,000 men. The first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces atBrandy Station, nearCulpeper, Virginia. The 9,500 Confederate cavalrymen under Stuart were surprised by Major GeneralAlfred Pleasonton'scombined armsforce of two cavalry divisions (8,000 troopers) and 3,000 infantry, but Stuart eventually repelled the Union attack. The inconclusive battle, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war, proved for the first time that the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart. By mid-June, theArmy of Northern Virginiawas poised to cross thePotomac Riverand enterMaryland. After defeating the Union garrisons atWinchesterandMartinsburg, Ewell's Second Corps began crossing the river on June 15. Hill's and Longstreet's corps followed on June 24 and 25. Hooker's army pursued, keeping between Washington, D.C., and Lee's army. The Union army crossed the Potomac from June 25 to 27. Lee gave strict orders for his army to minimize any negative effects on the",
"effects on the civilian population.Food, horses, and other supplies were generally not seized outright unless a citizen concealed property, although quartermasters reimbursing Northern farmers and merchants withConfederate moneywhich was virtually worthless or with equally worthless promissory notes were not well received.Various towns, most notablyYork, Pennsylvania, were required to pay indemnities in lieu of supplies, under threat of destruction.During the invasion, the Confederates seized between 40 and nearly 60 northernAfrican Americans. A few of them were escaped fugitiveslaves, but many were freemen; all were sent south into slavery under guard. On June 26, elements of Major GeneralJubal Early's division of Ewell's corps occupied the town of Gettysburg after chasing off newly raised 26th Pennsylvania emergencymilitiain a series of minor skirmishes.Early laid the borough under tribute, but did not collect any significant supplies. Soldiers burned several railroad cars and acovered bridge, and",
"bridge, and destroyed nearby rails andtelegraph lines. The following morning, Early departed for adjacentYork County. Meanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed Stuart to take a portion of the army's cavalry and ride around the east flank of the Union army. Lee's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals share the blame for the long absence of Stuart's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army. Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle. By June 29, Lee's army was strung out in an arc fromChambersburg(28 mi (45 km) northwest of Gettysburg) toCarlisle(30 mi (48 km) north of Gettysburg) to nearHarrisburgandWrightsvilleon theSusquehanna River. In a dispute over the use of the forces defending theHarpers Ferrygarrison, Hooker offered his resignation, andAbraham Lincolnand General-in-ChiefHenry W. Halleck, who were looking for an excuse",
"for an excuse to rid themselves of him, immediately accepted. They replaced Hooker early on the morning of June 28 with Major GeneralGeorge Gordon Meade, then commander of theV Corps. On June 29, when Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed the Potomac River, he ordered a concentration of his forces aroundCashtown, located at the eastern base ofSouth Mountainand eight mi (13 km) west of Gettysburg.On June 30, while part of Hill's corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill's brigades (North Carolinians underBrigadier GeneralJ. Johnston Pettigrew) ventured toward Gettysburg. In his memoirs, Major GeneralHenry Heth, Pettigrew's division commander, claimed that he sent Pettigrew to search for supplies in town—especially shoes. When Pettigrew's troops approached Gettysburg on June 30, they noticed Union cavalry under Major GeneralJohn Bufordarriving south of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them. When Pettigrew told Hill and Heth what he had seen, neither general believed that there",
"believed that there was a substantial Union force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia. Despite Lee's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significantreconnaissance in forcethe following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front. Around 5a.m. on Wednesday, July 1, two brigades of Heth's division advanced to Gettysburg. Opposing forces Union The Army of the Potomac, initially under Hooker (Meade replaced Hooker in command on June 28), consisted of more than 100,000 men in the following organization: During the advance on Gettysburg, Reynolds was in operational command of the left, or advanced, wing of the Army, consisting of the I, III, and XI corps.Many other Union units (not part of the Army of the Potomac) were actively involved in the Gettysburg Campaign, but not directly involved in the Battle of Gettysburg. These included portions of the UnionIV Corps, the militia and",
"the militia and state troops of theDepartment of the Susquehanna, and various garrisons, including that at Harpers Ferry. Confederate In reaction to the death of Jackson after Chancellorsville, Lee reorganized hisArmy of Northern Virginia(75,000 men) from two infantry corps into three. First day of battle Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge Anticipating that the Confederates would march on Gettysburg from the west on the morning of July 1, Buford laid out his defenses on three ridges west of the town:Herr Ridge,McPherson RidgeandSeminary Ridge. These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small cavalry division against superior Confederate infantry forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town atCemetery Hill,Cemetery Ridge, andCulp's Hill. Buford understood that if the Confederates could gain control of these heights, Meade's army would have difficulty dislodging them. Heth's division advanced with",
"advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by brigadier generalsJames J. ArcherandJoseph R. Davis. They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike. Three mi (5 km) west of town, about 7:30 a.m. on July 1, the two brigades met light resistance fromvedettesof Union cavalry, and deployed into line. According to lore, the Union soldier to fire the first shot of the battle was LieutenantMarcellus Jones.Eventually Heth's men encountered dismounted troopers of ColonelWilliam Gamble'scavalry brigade. The dismounted troopers resisted stoutly, delaying the Confederate advance with most firing their breech-loading Sharp'scarbinesfrom behind fences and trees. (A small number of troopers had other carbine models. A small minority of historians have written that some troopers had Spencer repeating carbines or Spencer repeating rifles but most sources disagree.)Still, by 10:20 am, the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of theI Corps(Major GeneralJohn F.",
"GeneralJohn F. Reynolds) finally arrived. North of the pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brigadier GeneralLysander Cutler's brigade but was repelled with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge. South of the pike, Archer's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also known as McPherson's) Woods. The UnionIron Brigadeunder Brigadier GeneralSolomon Meredithenjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself. General Reynolds was shot and killed early in the fighting while directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods. Shelby Foote wrote that the Union cause lost a man considered by many to be \"the best general in the army\".Major GeneralAbner Doubledayassumed command. Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12:30 pm. It resumed around 2:30 pm, when Heth's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and ColonelJohn M. Brockenbrough. As Pettigrew's North Carolina Brigade",
"Carolina Brigade came on line, they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back. The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army, with 839 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day's fight with around 212 men. By the end of the three-day battle, they had about 152 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment, North or South.Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge. Hill added Major GeneralWilliam Dorsey Pender's division to the assault, and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of theLutheran Seminaryand Gettysburg streets. As the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg roads toward Gettysburg, while the UnionXI Corps(Major GeneralOliver O. Howard) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road. By early afternoon, the Union",
"the Union line ran in a semicircle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg. However, the Union did not have enough troops; Cutler, whose brigade was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air. The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line. Around 2:00p.m., the Confederate Second Corps divisions of major generalsRobert E. Rodesand Jubal Early assaulted and out-flanked the Union I and XI corps' positions north and northwest of town. The Confederate brigades of ColonelEdward A. O'Nealand Brigadier GeneralAlfred Iversonsuffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brigadier GeneralJohn C. Robinsonsouth of Oak Hill. Early's division profited from a blunder by Brigadier GeneralFrancis C. Barlow, when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow's Knoll); this represented asalientin the corps line,",
"the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early's troops overran Barlow's division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army's position. Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack. As Union positions collapsed both north and west of town, Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town at Cemetery Hill, where he had left the division of Brigadier GeneralAdolph von Steinwehrin reserve.Major GeneralWinfield S. Hancockassumed command of the battlefield, sent by Meade when he heard that Reynolds had been killed. Hancock, commander of theII Corpsand Meade's most trusted subordinate, was ordered to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle.Hancock told Howard, \"I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw.\" When Howard agreed, Hancock concluded the discussion: \"Very well, sir, I select this as the battle-field.\" Hancock's determination had a morale-boosting",
"a morale-boosting effect on the retreating Union soldiers, but he played no direct tactical role on the first day. General Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground. He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken \"if practicable\". Ewell, who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson, a general well known for issuing peremptory orders, determined such an assault was not practicable and, thus, did not attempt it; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity. The first day at Gettysburg, more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days, ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged. About one quarter of Meade's army (22,000 men) and one third of Lee's army (27,000) were engaged. Second day of battle Plans and movement to battle Throughout the evening of July 1 and morning of July 2, most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union II, III, V,",
"Union II, III, V, VI, and XII Corps. Two of Longstreet's divisions were on the road: Brigadier GeneralGeorge Pickett, had begun the 22-mile (35 km) march from Chambersburg, while Brigadier GeneralEvander M. Lawhad begun the march from Guilford. Both arrived late in the morning. Law completed his 28-mile (45 km) march in eleven hours. The Union line ran from Culp's Hill southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly two miles (3 km) along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of Little Round Top.Most of the XII Corps was on Culp's Hill; the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill; II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge; and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank. The shape of the Union line is popularly described as a \"fishhook\" formation. The Confederate line paralleled the Union line about one mile (1,600 m) to the west on Seminary Ridge, ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp's",
"opposite Culp's Hill. Thus, the Union army had interior lines, while the Confederate line was nearly five miles (8 km) long. Lee's battle plan for July 2 called for a general assault of Meade's positions. On the right, Longstreet's First Corps was to position itself to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle theEmmitsburgRoad, and to roll up the Union line. The attack sequence was to begin with Maj. Gens.John Bell Hood's andLafayette McLaws's divisions, followed by Major GeneralRichard H. Anderson's division of Hill's Third Corps. On the left, Lee instructed Ewell to position his Second Corps to attack Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill when he heard the gunfire from Longstreet's assault, preventing Meade from shifting troops to bolster his left. Though it does not appear in either his or Lee's Official Report, Ewell claimed years later that Lee had changed the order to simultaneously attack, calling for only a \"diversion\", to be turned into a full-scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented",
"presented itself. Lee's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart's continued absence from the battlefield. Though Lee personally reconnoitered his left during the morning, he did not visit Longstreet's position on the Confederate right. Even so, Lee rejected suggestions that Longstreet move beyond Meade's left and attack the Union flank, capturing the supply trains and effectively blocking Meade's escape route. Lee did not issue orders for the attack until 11:00 a.m.About noon, General Anderson's advancing troops were discovered by General Sickles's outpost guard and the Third Corps—upon which Longstreet's First Corps was to form—did not get into position until 1:00 pm. Hood and McLaws, after their long march, were not yet in position and did not launch their attacks until just after 4:00p.m. and 5:00p.m., respectively. Attacks on the Union left flank As Longstreet's left division, under Major General Lafayette McLaws, advanced, they unexpectedly found Major GeneralDaniel",
"Major GeneralDaniel Sickles's III Corps directly in their path. Sickles had been dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge. Seeing ground better suited for artillery positions one-half mile (800 m) to the west—centered at the Sherfy farm's Peach Orchard—he violated orders and advanced his corps to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road, moving away from Cemetery Ridge. The new line ran from Devil's Den, northwest to the Peach Orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm. This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brigadier GeneralAndrew A. Humphreys's division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Major GeneralDavid B. Birney's division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively.The Confederate artillery was ordered to open fire at 3:00 pm.After failing to attend a meeting at this time of Meade's corps",
"of Meade's corps commanders, Meade rode to Sickles's position and demanded an explanation of the situation. Knowing a Confederate attack was imminent and a retreat would be endangered, Meade refused Sickles' offer to withdraw. Meade was forced to send 20,000 reinforcements:the entire V Corps, Brigadier GeneralJohn C. Caldwell's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and portions of the newly arrived VI Corps. Hood's division moved more to the east than intended, losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road,attacking Devil's Den and Little Round Top. McLaws, coming in on Hood's left, drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in theWheatfieldand overwhelmed them in Sherfy'sPeach Orchard. McLaws's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley (the \"Valley of Death\") before being beaten back by thePennsylvania Reservesdivision of the V Corps, moving down from Little Round Top. The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle, andSickles's legwas amputated after it was",
"after it was shattered by a cannonball. Caldwell's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield. Anderson's division, coming from McLaws's left and starting forward around 6p.m., reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps, including an almost suicidal bayonet charge by the1st Minnesotaregiment against a Confederate brigade, ordered in desperation by Hancock to buy time for reinforcements to arrive. As fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil's Den, ColonelStrong Vincentof V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top, an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line. His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Law's brigade of Hood's division. Meade's chief engineer, Brigadier GeneralGouverneur K. Warren, had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent's brigade, an artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before",
"mere minutes before Hood's troops arrived. The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the20th Maine, ordered by ColonelJoshua L. Chamberlainand possibly led down the slope by LieutenantHolman S. Melcher, was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Chamberlain into prominence after the war. Attacks on the Union right flank Ewell interpreted his orders as calling only for a cannonade.His 32 guns, along with A. P. Hill's 55 guns, engaged in a two-hour artillery barrage at extreme range that had little effect. Finally, about six o'clock, Ewell sent orders to each of his division commanders to attack the Union lines in his front. Major GeneralEdward \"Allegheny\" Johnson's division had contemplated an assault on Culp's Hill, but they were still a mile away and had Rock Creek to cross. The few possible crossings would make significant delays. Because of this, only three of Johnson's four brigades moved to the attack.Most of the hill's defenders, the Union XII Corps, had been sent",
"had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet's attacks, leaving only a brigade of New Yorkers under Brigadier GeneralGeorge S. Greenebehind strong, newly constructed defensive works. With reinforcements from the I and XI corps, Greene's men held off the Confederate attackers, though giving up some of the lower earthworks on the lower part of Culp's Hill. Early was similarly unprepared when he orderedHarry T. Hays's andIsaac E. Avery's brigades to attack the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill. Once started, fighting was fierce: ColonelAndrew L. Harrisof the Union 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, XI Corps came under a withering attack, losing half his men. Avery was wounded early on, but the Confederates reached the crest of the hill and entered the Union breastworks, capturing one or two batteries. Seeing he was not supported on his right, Hays withdrew. His right was to be supported by Robert E. Rodes's division, but Rodes—like Early and Johnson—had not been ordered up in preparation for the",
"preparation for the attack. He had twice as far to travel as Early; by the time he came in contact with the Union skirmish line, Early's troops had already begun to withdraw. Jeb Stuartand his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day's battle. Brigadier GeneralWade Hampton's brigade fought a minor engagement with newly promoted 23-year-old Brigadier GeneralGeorge Armstrong Custer'sMichigancavalry nearHunterstownto the northeast of Gettysburg. Third day of battle Lee's plan Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday, July 3, using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the Union left, while Ewell attacked Culp's Hill.However, before Longstreet was ready, Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works. The Confederates attacked, and the second fight for Culp's Hill ended around 11a.m. Harry Pfanz judged that, after some seven hours",
"some seven hours of bitter combat, \"the Union line was intact and held more strongly than before\". Lee was forced to change his plans. Longstreet would command Pickett's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill's Corps, in an attack on the Union II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the Union positions would bombard and weaken the enemy's line. Much has been made over the years of General Longstreet's objections to General Lee's plan. In his memoirs, Longstreet states that he told Lee that there were not enough men to assault the strong left center of the Union line by McLaws's and Hood's divisions reinforced by Pickett's brigades. Longstreet thought the attack would be repulsed and a counterattack would put Union forces between the Confederates and the Potomac River. Longstreet wrote that he said it would take a minimum of thirty thousand men to attack successfully",
"attack successfully as well as close coordination with other Confederate forces. He noted that only about thirteen thousand men were left in the selected divisions after the first two days of fighting. They would have to walk a mile under heavy artillery and long-range musketry fire. Longstreet states that he further asked Lee: \"the strength of the column. He stated fifteen thousand. Opinion was then expressed that the fifteen thousand men who could make successful assault over that field had never been arrayed for battle; but he was impatient of listening, and tired of talking, and nothing was left but to proceed.\" Largest artillery bombardment of the war Around 1p.m., from 150 to 170 Confederate guns began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war. To save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow, the Army of the Potomac's artillery, under the command of Brigadier GeneralHenry Jackson Hunt, at first did not return the enemy's fire. After waiting",
"fire. After waiting about 15 minutes, about 80 Union cannons opened fire. The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position. Pickett's Charge Around 3p.m.,the cannon fire subsided, and between 10,500 and 12,500 Southern soldiersstepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three-quarters of a mile (1,200 m) to Cemetery Ridge.A more accurate name for the charge would be the \"Pickett–Pettigrew–Trimble Charge\" after the commanders of the three divisions taking part in the charge, but the role of Pickett's division has led to the attack generally being known as \"Pickett's Charge\".As the Confederates approached, there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and the Little Round Top area,and musket and canister fire from Hancock's II Corps.In the Union center, the commander of artillery had held fire during the Confederate bombardment (to save it for the infantry assault, which Meade had",
"which Meade had correctly predicted the day before), leading Southern commanders to believe the Northern cannon batteries had been knocked out. However, they opened fire on the Confederate infantry during their approach with devastating results. Although the Union line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called the \"Angle\" in a low stone fence, just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach, and the Confederate attack was repelled. The farthest advance, by Brigadier GeneralLewis A. Armistead's brigade of Pickett's division at the Angle, is referred to as the \"high-water mark of the Confederacy\".Union and Confederate soldiers locked in hand-to-hand combat, attacking with their rifles, bayonets, rocks and even their bare hands. Armistead ordered his Confederates to turn two captured cannons against Union troops, but discovered that there was no ammunition left, the lastdouble canistershots having been used against the charging Confederates. Armistead was",
"Armistead was mortally wounded shortly afterward. Nearly one half of the Confederate attackers did not return to their own lines.Pickett's division lost about two-thirds of its men, and all three brigadiers were killed or wounded. Cavalry battles There were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3. The first one was coordinated with Pickett's Charge, and the standoff may have prevented a disaster for Union infantry.The site of this engagement is now known as the East Cavalry Field.The second engagement was a loss for Union cavalry attacking Confederate infantry. It has been labeled as a \"fiasco\", and featured faulty cavalry tactics.The site of this engagement is now known as the South Cavalry Field. Northeast of Gettysburg Stuart's cavalry division (three brigades), with the assistance of Jenkins' brigade, was sent to guard the Confederate left flank. Stuart was also in position to exploit any success the Confederate infantry (Pickett's Charge) might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the Union right",
"the Union right and getting behind Union infantry facing the Confederate attack.The cavalry fight took place about three miles (4.8 km) northeast of Gettysburg at about 3:00pm—around the end of the Confederate artillery barrage that preceded Pickett's charge. Stuart's forces collided with Union cavalry: Brigadier GeneralDavid McMurtrie Gregg's division and Custer's brigade from Kilpatrick's division.The fight evolved into \"a wild melee of swinging sabers and blazing pistols and carbines\".One of Custer's regiments, the5th Michigan Cavalry Regiment, was armed with Spencer repeating rifles, and at least two companies from an additional regiment were also armed with repeaters.The fight ended in a standoff, as neither side changed positions. However, Gregg and Custer prevented Stuart from gaining the rear of Union infantry facing Pickett. Southwest of Gettysburg After hearing news of the Union's success against Pickett's charge, Brigadier GeneralJudson Kilpatricklaunched a cavalry attack against the infantry",
"the infantry positions of Longstreet's Corps southwest ofBig Round Top. The terrain was difficult for a mounted attack because it was rough, heavily wooded, and contained huge boulders—and Longstreet's men were entrenched with artillery support.Brigadier GeneralElon J. Farnsworthprotested against the futility of such a move, but obeyed orders. Farnsworth was killed in the fourth of five unsuccessful attacks, and his brigade suffered significant losses.Although Kilpatrick was described by at least one Union leader as \"brave, enterprising, and energetic\", incidents such as Farnsworth's charge earned him the nickname of \"Kill Cavalry\". Aftermath Casualties The two armies suffered between 46,000 and 51,000 casualties.Union casualties were 23,055 (3,155 killed, 14,531 wounded, 5,369 captured or missing),while Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate. Many authors have referred to as many as 28,000 Confederate casualties,and Busey and Martin's more recent 2005 work,Regimental Strengths and Losses at",
"and Losses at Gettysburg, documents 23,231 (4,708 killed, 12,693 wounded, 5,830 captured or missing).Nearly a third of Lee's general officers were killed, wounded, or captured.The casualties for both sides for the 6-week campaign, according to Sears, were 57,225. In addition to being the deadliest battle of the war, Gettysburg also had the most generals killed in action. Several generals also were wounded. The Confederacy lost generalsPaul Jones Semmes,William Barksdale, William Dorsey Pender,Richard Garnett, andLewis Armistead, as well as J. Johnston Pettigrew during the retreat after the battle. Confederate generals who were wounded included Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood who lost the use of his left arm and Maj. Gen. Henry Heth who received a shot to the head on the first day of battle (though incapacitated for the rest of the battle, he remarkably survived without long-term injuries, credited in part due to his hat stuffed full of paper dispatches). Confederate generalsJames L. KemperandIsaac R. Trimblewere",
"R. Trimblewere severely wounded during Pickett's charge and captured during the Confederate retreat. Confederate Brig. Gen. James J. Archer, in command of a brigade that most likely was responsible for killing Reynolds, was taken prisoner shortly after Reynolds' death. In the Confederate 1st Corps, eight of Longstreet's fourteen division and brigade commanders were killed or wounded, including Brig. Gen.George T. Andersonand Brig. Gen.Jerome B. Robertson, who were wounded. In Ewell's 2nd Corps, Brig. Gen. Isaac E. Avery was mortally wounded and Brig. Gen.John M. Joneswas wounded. In Hill's 3rd Corps, in addition to Pender and Pettigrew being killed, Maj. Gen. Henry Heth and Col.Birkett D. Fry(later brigadier general), in temporary brigade command were wounded. In Hill's 3rd Corp, Brig. Gen.Alfred M. Scalesand Col.William L. J. Lowrance, in temporary brigade command, were wounded. In the Confederate Cavalry Division, Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton and Brig. Gen.Albert G. Jenkinswere wounded. Union generals killed",
"generals killed were John Reynolds,Samuel K. Zook, andStephen H. Weed, as well as Elon J. Farnsworth, assigned as brigadier general by Maj. Gen. Pleasanton based on his nomination although his promotion was confirmed posthumously, and Strong Vincent, who after being mortally wounded was given a deathbed promotion to brigadier general. Additional senior officer casualties included the wounding of Union GeneralsDan Sickles(lost a leg), Francis C. Barlow,Daniel Butterfield, andWinfield Scott Hancock. Five of seven brigade commanders in Reynolds's First Corps were wounded. In addition to Hancock and Brig. Gen. John Gibbon being wounded in the Second Corps, three of ten brigade commanders were killed and three were wounded. The following tables summarize casualties by corps for the Union and Confederate forces during the three-day battle, according to Busey and Martin. Bruce Cattonwrote, \"The town of Gettysburg looked as if some universal moving day had been interrupted by catastrophe.\"But there was only one",
"there was only one documented civilian death during the battle:Ginnie Wade(also widely known as Jennie), 20 years old, was hit by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread.Another notable civilian casualty wasJohn L. Burns, a 69-year-old veteran of the War of 1812 who walked to the front lines on the first day of battle and participated in heavy combat as a volunteer, receiving numerous wounds in the process. Though aged and injured, Burns survived the battle and lived until 1872.Nearly 8,000 had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly. More than 3,000 horse carcasseswere burned in a series of piles south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench.Meanwhile, the town of Gettysburg, with its population of just 2,400, found itself tasked with taking care of 14,000 wounded Union troops and an additional 8,000 Confederate prisoners. Confederates lost over 31–55 battle flags, with the Union possibly having",
"possibly having lost slightly fewer than 40.The Confederate battle flags were sent toWashington. 3,000–5,000 horses were killed. Confederate retreat On the morning of July 4, with Lee's army still present, Meade ordered his cavalry to get to the rear of Lee's army.In a heavy rain, the armies stared at one another across the bloody fields, on the same day that, some 920 miles (1,480 km) away, theVicksburggarrison surrendered to Major GeneralUlysses S. Grant. Lee had reformed his lines into a defensive position on Seminary Ridge the night of July3, evacuating the town of Gettysburg. The Confederates remained on the battlefield's west side, hoping that Meade would attack, but the cautious Union commander decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized. Both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead. A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade. Late in the rainy afternoon, Lee started moving the non-fighting portion of his army back",
"of his army back to Virginia. Cavalry under Brigadier GeneralJohn D. Imbodenwas entrusted to escort the seventeen-mile long wagon train of supplies and wounded men, using a long route throughCashtownandGreencastletoWilliamsport, Maryland. After sunset, the fighting portion of Lee's army began its retreat to Virginia using a more direct (but more mountainous) route that began on the road toFairfield.Although Lee knew exactly what he needed to do, Meade's situation was different. Meade needed to remain at Gettysburg until he was certain Lee was gone. If Meade left first, he could possibly leave an opening for Lee to get to Washington or Baltimore. In addition, the army that left the battlefield first was often considered the defeated army. \"Now, if General Meade can complete his work so gloriously prosecuted thus far, by the literal or substantial destruction of Lee's army, the rebellion will be over.\" Abraham Lincoln Union cavalry had some minor successes pursuing Lee's army. The first major encounter took",
"encounter took place in the mountains atMonterey Passon July4, where Kilpatrick's cavalry division captured 150 to 300 wagons and took 1,300 to 1,500 prisoners.Beginning July 6, additional cavalry fighting took place closer to the Potomac River in Maryland'sWilliamsport-Hagerstown area.Lee's army was trapped and delayed from crossing the Potomac River because rainy weather had caused the river to swell, and thepontoon bridgeatFalling Watershad been destroyed.Meade's infantry did not fully pursue Lee until July7, and despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck, was not aggressive enough to destroy Lee's army.A new pontoon bridge was constructed at Falling Waters, and lower water levels allowed the Confederates to begin crossing after dark on July13.Although Meade's infantry had reached the area on July 12, it was his cavalry that attacked the Confederate rear guard on the morning of July14. Union cavalry took 500 prisoners, and Confederate Brigadier General Pettigrew was mortally wounded, but Lee's army",
"but Lee's army completed its Potomac crossing.The campaign continued south of the Potomac until theBattle of Manassas Gapon July23, when Lee escaped and Meade abandoned the pursuit. Union reaction to the news of the victory The news of the Union victory electrified the North. A headline inThe Philadelphia Inquirerproclaimed \"Victory!WaterlooEclipsed!\" New York diaristGeorge Templeton Strongwrote: The results of this victory are priceless. ... The charm of Robert E. Lee's invincibility is broken. The Army of the Potomac has at last found a general that can handle it, and has stood nobly up to its terrible work in spite of its long disheartening list of hard-fought failures. ...Copperheadsare palsied and dumb for the moment at least. ... Government is strengthened four-fold at home and abroad. However, the Union enthusiasm soon dissipated as the public realized that Lee's army had escaped destruction and the war would continue. Lincoln complained to Secretary of the NavyGideon Wellesthat \"Our army held the war",
"army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it!\"Brigadier GeneralAlexander S. Webbwrote to his father on July 17, stating that such Washington politicians as \"Chase,Sewardand others\", disgusted with Meade, \"write to me that Lee really won that Battle!\" Effect on the Confederacy In fact, the Confederates had lost militarily and also politically. During the final hours of the battle,Confederate Vice PresidentAlexander Stephenswas approaching the Union lines atNorfolk, Virginia, under aflag of truce. Although his formal instructions fromConfederate PresidentJefferson Davishad limited his powers to negotiate on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters, historianJames M. McPhersonspeculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures. Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee's victorious army was marching toward it from the north. President Lincoln, upon hearing of the Gettysburg results, refused Stephens's request to pass through",
"to pass through the lines. Furthermore, when the news reached London, any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned.Henry Adams, whose father was serving as the U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom at the time, wrote, \"The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success. It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end.\" Compounding the effects of the defeat was the end of theSiege of Vicksburg, which surrendered to Grant's Federal armies in the West on July 4, the day after the Gettysburg battle, costing the Confederacy an additional 30,000 men, along with all their arms and stores. The immediate reaction of the Southern military and public sectors was that Gettysburg was a setback, not a disaster. The sentiment was that Lee had been successful on July 1 and had fought a valiant battle on July 2–3, but could not dislodge the Union Army from the strong defensive position to which it fled. The Confederates successfully stood their ground",
"stood their ground on July 4 and withdrew only after they realized Meade would not attack them. The withdrawal to the Potomac that could have been a disaster was handled masterfully. Furthermore, the Army of the Potomac had been kept away from Virginia farmlands for the summer and all predicted that Meade would be too timid to threaten them for the rest of the year. Lee himself had a positive view of the campaign, writing to his wife that the army had returned \"rather sooner than I had originally contemplated, but having accomplished what I proposed on leaving the Rappahannock, viz., relieving the Valley of the presence of the enemy and drawing his Army north of the Potomac\". He was quoted as saying to Maj. John Seddon, brother of the Confederate secretary of war, \"Sir, we did whip them at Gettysburg, and it will be seen for the next six months thatthat armywill be as quiet as a sucking dove.\" Some Southern publications, such as theCharleston Mercury, were critical of Lee's actions. On August 8, Lee offered",
"8, Lee offered his resignation to President Davis, who quickly rejected it. Gettysburg Address The ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on November 19, theSoldiers' National Cemeterywas dedicated. During this ceremony, President Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historicGettysburg Address. Medal of Honor There were 72Medals of Honorawarded for the Gettysburg Campaign, 64 of which were for actions taken during the battle itself. The first recipient was awarded in December 1864, while the most recent was posthumously awarded to LieutenantAlonzo Cushingin 2014. Historical assessment Decisive victory controversies The nature of the result of the Battle of Gettysburg has been the subject of controversy. Although not seen as overwhelmingly significant at the time, particularly since the war continued for almost two years, in retrospect it has often been cited as the\"turning point\", usually in combination with the fall of Vicksburg",
"fall of Vicksburg the following day.This is based on the observation that, after Gettysburg, Lee's army conducted no more strategic offensives—his army merely reacted to the initiative of Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 and 1865—and by the speculative viewpoint of the Lost Cause writers that a Confederate victory at Gettysburg might have resulted in the end of the war. had won a victory. It might be less of a victory than Mr. Lincoln had hoped for, but it was nevertheless a victory—and, because of that, it was no longer possible for the Confederacy to win the war. The North might still lose it, to be sure, if the soldiers or the people should lose heart, but outright defeat was no longer in the cards. Bruce Catton,Glory Road It is currently a widely held view that Gettysburg was adecisive victoryfor the Union, but the term is considered imprecise. It is inarguable that Lee's offensive on July 3 was turned back decisively and his campaign in Pennsylvania was terminated prematurely (although the Confederates at the",
"Confederates at the time argued that this was a temporary setback and that the goals of the campaign were largely met). However, when the more common definition of \"decisive victory\" is intended—an indisputable military victory of a battle that determines or significantly influences the ultimate result of a conflict—historians are divided. For example,David J. Eichercalled Gettysburg a \"strategic loss for the Confederacy\" and James M. McPherson wrote that \"Lee and his men would go on to earn further laurels. But they never again possessed the power and reputation they carried into Pennsylvania those palmy summer days of 1863.\" However, Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote that the \"strategic impact of the Battle of Gettysburg was ... fairly limited.\" Steven E. Woodworth wrote that \"Gettysburg proved only the near impossibility of decisive action in the Eastern theater.\" Edwin Coddington pointed out the heavy toll on the Army of the Potomac and that \"after the battle Meade no longer possessed a truly",
"possessed a truly effective instrument for the accomplishments of his task. The army needed a thorough reorganization with new commanders and fresh troops, but these changes were not made until Grant appeared on the scene in March 1864.\" Joseph T. Glatthaar wrote that \"Lost opportunities and near successes plagued the Army of Northern Virginia during its Northern invasion,\" yet after Gettysburg, \"without the distractions of duty as an invading force, without the breakdown of discipline, the Army of Northern Virginia an extremely formidable force.\"Ed Bearsswrote, \"Lee's invasion of the North had been a costly failure. Nevertheless, at best the Army of the Potomac had simply preserved the strategic stalemate in the Eastern Theater ...\"Historian Alan Guelzo notes that Gettysburg and Vicksburg did not end the war and that the war would go on for two more years.He also noted that a little more than a year later Federal armies appeared hopelessly mired in sieges at Petersburg and Atlanta. Peter Carmichael refers",
"Carmichael refers to the military context for the armies, the \"horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, which effectively destroyed Lee's offensive capacity,\" implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle. Thomas Goss, writing in the U.S. Army'sMilitary Reviewjournal on the definition of \"decisive\" and the application of that description to Gettysburg, concludes: \"For all that was decided and accomplished, the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label 'decisive battle'.\"The military historianJohn Keeganagrees. Gettysburg was a landmark battle, the largest of the war and it would not be surpassed. The Union had restored to it the belief in certain victory, and the loss dispirited the Confederacy. If \"not exactly a decisive battle\", Gettysburg was the end of Confederate use of Northern Virginia as a military buffer zone, the setting for Grant'sOverland Campaign. Lee vs. Meade Prior to Gettysburg, Robert E. Lee had established a reputation as an almost invincible",
"almost invincible general, achieving stunning victories against superior numbers—although usually at the cost of high casualties to his army—during theSeven Days, theNorthern Virginia Campaign(including theSecond Battle of Bull Run),Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. Only theMaryland Campaign, with its tactically inconclusive Battle of Antietam, had been less than successful. Therefore, historians such as Fuller, Glatthaar, and Sears have attempted to explain how Lee's winning streak was interrupted so dramatically at Gettysburg.Although the issue is tainted by attempts to portray history and Lee's reputation in a manner supporting different partisan goals, the major factors in Lee's loss arguably can be attributed to: his overconfidence in the invincibility of his men; the performance of his subordinates, and his management thereof; his failing health; and, the performance of his opponent, George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac. Throughout the campaign, Lee was influenced by the belief that his men",
"belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee's experiences with the Army of Northern Virginia had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1. Since morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal, Lee did not want to dampen his army's desire to fight and resisted suggestions, principally by Longstreet, to withdraw from the recently captured Gettysburg to select a ground more favorable to his army. War correspondent Peter W. Alexander wrote that Lee \"acted, probably, under the impression that his troops were able to carry any position however formidable. If such was the case, he committed an error, such however as the ablest commanders will sometimes fall into.\" Lee himself concurred with this judgment, writing to President Davis, \"No blame can be attached to the army for its failure to accomplish what was projected by me, nor should it be censured for the unreasonable",
"the unreasonable expectations of the public—I am alone to blame, in perhaps expecting too much of its prowess and valor.\" The most controversial assessments of the battle involve the performance of Lee's subordinates. The dominant theme of the Lost Cause writers and many other historians is that Lee's senior generals failed him in crucial ways, directly causing the loss of the battle; the alternative viewpoint is that Lee did not manage his subordinates adequately, and did not thereby compensate for their shortcomings.Two of his corps commanders—Richard S. Ewell and A.P. Hill—had only recently been promoted and were not fully accustomed to Lee's style of command, in which he provided only general objectives and guidance to their former commander, Stonewall Jackson; Jackson translated these into detailed, specific orders to his division commanders.All four of Lee's principal commanders received criticism during the campaign and battle: In addition to Hill's illness, Lee's performance was affected by heart",
"affected by heart troubles, which would eventually lead to his death in 1870; he had been diagnosed withpericarditisby his staff physicians in March 1863, though modern doctors believe he had in fact suffered a heart attack.As a final factor, Lee faced a new and formidable opponent inGeorge G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac fought well on its home territory. Although new to his army command, Meade deployed his forces relatively effectively; relied on strong subordinates such as Winfield S. Hancock to make decisions where and when they were needed; took great advantage of defensive positions; nimbly shifted defensive resources on interior lines to parry strong threats; and, unlike some of his predecessors, stood his ground throughout the battle in the face of fierce Confederate attacks. Lee was quoted before the battle as saying Meade \"would commit no blunders on my front and if I make one ... will make haste to take advantage of it.\" That prediction proved to be correct at Gettysburg. Stephen Sears",
"Stephen Sears wrote, \"The fact of the matter is that George G. Meade, unexpectedly and against all odds, thoroughly outgeneraled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg.\" Edwin B. Coddington wrote that the soldiers of the Army of the Potomac received a \"sense of triumph which grew into an imperishable faith in . The men knew what they could do under an extremely competent general; one of lesser ability and courage could well have lost the battle.\" Meade had his own detractors as well. Similar to the situation with Lee, Meade suffered partisan attacks about his performance at Gettysburg, but he had the misfortune of experiencing them in person. Supporters of his predecessor, Hooker, lambasted Meade before theU.S. Congress'sJoint Committee on the Conduct of the War, whereRadical Republicanssuspected that Meade was aCopperheadand tried in vain to relieve him from command.Daniel E. Sicklesand Daniel Butterfield accused Meade of planning to retreat from Gettysburg during the battle. Most politicians, including Lincoln,",
"including Lincoln, criticized Meade for what they considered to be his half-hearted pursuit of Lee after the battle. A number of Meade's most competent subordinates—Winfield S. Hancock,John Gibbon, Gouverneur K. Warren, andHenry J. Hunt, all heroes of the battle—defended Meade in print, but Meade was embittered by the overall experience. Battlefield preservation Gettysburg National CemeteryandGettysburg National Military Parkare maintained by theU.S. National Park Serviceas two of the nation's most revered historical landmarks. Although Gettysburg is one of the best known of all Civil War battlefields, it too faces threats to its preservation and interpretation. Many historically significant locations on the battlefield lie outside the boundaries of Gettysburg National Military Park and are vulnerable to residential or commercial development. Some preservation successes have emerged in recent years. Two proposals to open a casino at Gettysburg were defeated in 2006 and most recently in 2011, when public",
"2011, when public pressure forced thePennsylvania Gaming Control Boardto reject the proposed gambling hub at the intersection of Routes 15 and 30, nearEast Cavalry Field.TheAmerican Battlefield Trust, formerly the Civil War Trust, also successfully purchased and transferred 95 acres (38 ha) at the former site of the Gettysburg Country Club to the control of theU.S. Department of the Interiorin 2011. Less than half of the over 11,500 acres on the old Gettysburg Battlefield have been preserved for posterity thus far. The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have acquired and preserved 1,242 acres (5.03 km2) of the battlefield in more than 40 separate transactions from 1997 to mid-2023.Some of these acres are now among the 4,998 acres (2,023 ha) of the Gettysburg National Military Park.In 2015, the Trust made one of its most important and expensive acquisitions, paying $6 million for a four-acre (1.6 ha) parcel that included the stone house that Confederate General Robert E. Lee used as his headquarters",
"as his headquarters during the battle. The Trust razed a motel, restaurant and other buildings within the parcel to restore Lee's headquarters and the site to their wartime appearance, adding interpretive signs. It opened the site to the public in October 2016. In popular culture At the50th anniversary Gettysburg reunion (1913), 50,000 veterans attended according to a 1938 Army Medical report.Historian Carol Reardon writes that attendance included at least 35,000 Union veterans and though estimates of attendees ran as high as 56,000, only a few more than 7,000 Confederate veterans, most from Virginia and North Carolina, attended.Some veterans re-enacted Pickett's Charge in a spirit of reconciliation, a meeting that carried great emotional force for both sides. There was a ceremonial mass hand-shake across a stone wall on Cemetery Ridge. At the75th anniversary Gettysburg reunion (1938), 1,333 Union veterans and 479 Confederate veterans attended. Film records survive of two Gettysburg reunions, held on the",
"held on the battlefield, in 1913.and 1938. TheAmerican Civil War Centennialwas the official United States commemoration of theAmerican Civil War. Commemoration activities began in 1957, four years before the 100th anniversary of thewar's first battle, and ended in 1965 with the 100th anniversary of thesurrender at Appomattox. The United States Civil War Centennial Commission and state commissions were established to organize the commemorations. TheNational Park Service, and other federal agencies that controlled key Civil War battlefields, used the Centennial to successfully lobby Congress for increased funding to re-landscape and interpret these battlefields for the general public. The Post Office issued a series of noncontroversialcommemorative stampsto mark the centennial. The children's novelWindow of Time(1991), by Karen Weinberg, tells the story of a boy transported by time travel from the 1980s to the Battle of Gettysburg. The Battle of Gettysburg was depicted in the 1993 filmGettysburg, based",
"based onMichael Shaara's 1974 novelThe Killer Angels.The film and novel focused primarily on the actions ofJoshua Lawrence Chamberlain, John Buford, Robert E. Lee, and James Longstreet during the battle. The first day focused on Buford's cavalry defense, the second day on Chamberlain's defense atLittle Round Top, and the third day on Pickett's Charge. See also Notes Citations References Memoirs and primary sources Further reading External links",
"List of governors of Pennsylvania Thegovernor of Pennsylvaniais thehead of governmentof theU.S. stateofPennsylvania, as well ascommander-in-chiefof the state'snational guard. Thegovernorhas a duty to enforce state laws and the power to approve orvetobillspassed by thePennsylvania General Assembly,as well as to convene the legislature.The governor may grant pardons except in cases ofimpeachment, but only when recommended by the Board of Pardons. There have been seven presidents and 48 governors of Pennsylvania, with two governors (Robert E. PattisonandGifford Pinchot) serving non-consecutive terms, totaling 55 terms in both offices. The longest term was that of the first governor,Thomas Mifflin, who served three full terms as governor in addition to two years asPresident of the Continental Congress. The shortest term belonged toJohn C. Bell Jr., who served only 19 days as acting governor after his predecessor,Edward Martin, resigned. The current governor isJosh Shapiro, who took office on January 17, 2023.",
"January 17, 2023. Governors Pennsylvania was one of the originalThirteen Coloniesand was admitted as a state on December 12, 1787.Before it declared its independence, Pennsylvania was acolonyof theKingdom of Great Britain. Presidents of the Supreme Executive Council ThePennsylvania Constitution of 1776created theSupreme Executive Councilas the state's executive branch, with a president as its head.The president was chosen annually by the council, though with no specific term dates. The constitution created the position of \"vice-president\", though no provision was made if the office of the president became vacant, which occurred four times later. Contemporary sources continue to label the chief executive in such times as the vice-president, without any notion of succeeding in the presidency. One acting president,George Bryan, was subsequently recognized later as a full-fledged governor, due to his acting as president for over six months. Governors of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania The 1790 constitution",
"1790 constitution abolished the council and replaced the president with a governor,and established a three-year term for governor commencing on the third Tuesday of the December following the election, with governors not allowed to serve more than nine out of any twelve years.The 1838 constitution moved the start of the term to the third Tuesday of the January following the election, and allowed governors to only serve six out of any nine years.The 1874 constitution lengthened the term to four years, and prohibited governors from succeeding themselves.The current constitution of 1968 changed this to allow governors to serve two consecutive terms, with no lifetime limit. Under the 1968 constitution,Milton Shappwas the first governor to serve two terms, andTom Corbettwas the first incumbent governor to lose a re-election bid. If the office of governor becomes vacant through death, resignation, or conviction on impeachment, thelieutenant governorbecomes governor for the remainder of the term; if the office is",
"if the office is only temporarily vacant due to disability of the governor, the lieutenant governor only acts out the duties of governor.Should both offices be vacant, thepresidentpro temporeof the state senate becomes governor.The position of a lieutenant governor was created in the 1874 constitution; prior to then, the speaker of the senate would act as governor in cases of vacancy. Originally, the lieutenant governor could only act as governor; it was not until the1968 constitutionthat the lieutenant governor could actually become the sitting governor in that fashion. The office of governor has been vacant for an extended period once before, a 17-day gap in 1848 between the resignation of the previous governor and the swearing in of his acting successor. Governors and lieutenant governors are elected on the samepolitical partyticket. See also Notes References External links"
] |
What was the population in 2020 of the city that is in the name of the football team that won the Super Bowl five years before Matthew McConaughey won best actor at the Academy Awards? | 302,971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Matthew_McConaughey | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLIII | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Matthew_McConaughey', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLIII', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Matthew_McConaughey",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLIII",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh"
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"List of awards and nominations received by Matthew McConaughey McConaughey at the83rd Academy Awardsin 2011 Matthew McConaugheyis an American actor and producer who rose to prominence with his role in the 1993 ensemble comedy filmDazed and Confused.The film was well received by critics.Since then, McConaughey has received various awards and nominations, including anAcademy Award, aGolden Globe, aScreen Actors Guild Award, two Critics' Choice Awards, anMTV Movie Awardand aPeople’s Choice Award. He has also been nominated for fiveTeen Choice Awardsand twoEmmys. Three years after his role inDazed and Confused, in 1996, McConaughey played the lead role of a lawyer in the movieA Time to Kill, for which he won theMTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance. His next appearances—in the science fiction dramaContact(1997), alongsideJodie Foster, and the war filmU-571(2000)—garnered him twoBlockbuster Entertainment Awardnominations. In the early 2000s, he starred in multiple romantic comedies, includingThe Wedding Planner(2001) andHow to Lose a Guy in 10 Days(2003), for which he received four Teen Choice Award nominations. He received two more nominations and the People's Choice Award for Favorite Male Action Star for his role in the 2005 action-comedy filmSahara. McConaughey received theNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actorfor his role inBernie(2011) andMagic Mike(2012) and was also awarded theCritics' Choice Movie Award in the same categoryfor the latter. He played the role of a hit man in the black comedy crime filmKiller Joe(2011) for which he was awarded theSaturn Award for Best Actor. In the same year, McConaughey starred inMud(2012), which earned him theIndependent Spirit Robert Altman Award. The following year, McConaughey played lead role ofRon Woodroof, a real life AIDS patient in the 1980s, in the biopic dramaDallas Buyers Clubto critical acclaim.He won theAcademy Award,Critics' Choice Movie Award,Golden Globeand aScreen Actors Guild Awardfor his role in the film. In 2014, he starred in the epic sci-fiInterstellarfor which he received a Saturn Award for Best Actor nomination. In November of the same year, he was inducted to theHollywood Walk of Fame.McConaughey co-produced and acted in the crime anthology television seriesTrue Detective, which earned him Lead Actor nominations for aScreen Actors Guild Award,Critics' Choice Television Awardand aGolden Globe. He also received two Primetime Emmy nominations, one for hisrole as an actorand other for hisrole as an executive produceras well as aProducers Guild of America Awardnomination. For his roles in the war filmFree State of JonesandGold(both 2016), he was nominated for theWomen Film Critics CircleAward for Best Actor and the Saturn Award for Best Actor, respectively. Awards and nominations Other honors References Notes Sources External links",
"Super Bowl XLIII Super Bowl XLIIIwas anAmerican footballgame between theAmerican Football Conference(AFC) championsPittsburgh Steelersand theNational Football Conference(NFC) championsArizona Cardinalsto decide theNational Football League(NFL) champion for the2008 season. The Steelers defeated the Cardinals by the score of 27–23. The game was played on February 1, 2009,atRaymond James StadiuminTampa, Florida. With this victory, the Steelers became the first team to win six Super Bowl championships. The win was also Pittsburgh's second Super Bowl victory in four years, after winningSuper Bowl XLat the end of the2005 season. The Cardinals entered the game seeking their first NFL title since1947, the longestchampionship droughtin the league. The club became an unexpected winner during the regular season, compiling a 9–7 record, and earning a spot in the playoffs with the aid of head coachKen Whisenhunt, who was the Steelers' offensive coordinator in Super Bowl XL, and the re-emergence of quarterbackKurt Warner, who was theSuper Bowl MVPinSuper Bowl XXXIVwith his former team, theSt. Louis Rams. Pittsburgh jumped to a 17–7 halftime lead, aided by linebackerJames Harrison's Super Bowl-record 100-yard interception return for a touchdown. Trailing 20–7 at the start of the fourth quarter, Arizona scored 16 consecutive points, including a safety that led to wide receiverLarry Fitzgerald's 64-yard touchdown reception, to take their first lead of the game with 2:37 remaining. But the Steelers marched 78 yards to score on wide receiverSantonio Holmes' 6-yard game-winning touchdown catch with 35 seconds left. Holmes, who caught nine passes for 131 yards and a touchdown, including four receptions for 73 yards on that final game-winning drive, was namedSuper Bowl MVP. He became the sixth wide receiver to win the award, half of whom at the time were Steelers players (Lynn SwannandHines Ward). TheNBCtelevision network broadcast attracted an average U.S. audience of 98.7 million viewers, making it the most watched Super Bowl in history at that time and the most watched Super Bowl of the 2000s.Many media outlets consider this one of the best Super Bowls from the 2000s, as well as one of the greatest Super Bowls of all time, due to the performance of both teams as well as its thrilling finale.This game was ranked No. 4 onNFL Top 10onNFL NetworkforTop 10 Greatest Games of All Timeand ranked No. 1 forTop 10 Super Bowls.As of 2022, this is the Steelers' most recent Super Bowl championship, and the last title by a Pennsylvania-based NFL team until their cross-state rivalPhiladelphia EagleswonSuper Bowl LIIin 2018. It was also the last time a Phoenix-based team reached the championship round of thefour major North American sports leaguesuntil thePhoenix Sunsmade the NBA Finals in2021. This was the last game to feature famed commentatorJohn Madden, who retired two months after the game. Background Host selection process Tampa was selected for the game site on May 25, 2005, beating out three other finalists:Atlanta,Houston, andMiami. Super Bowl XLIII was the second Super Bowl at this venue and the fourth overall in that city. In February 2008, the Tampa Bay Super Bowl Host Committee unveiled the Super Bowl XLIII logo, featuring an abstract representation of a football stadium, with blue and green colors representing the regional waterways and landscapes of Tampa Bay. Eight yards of playing field are shown, alluding to the game's status as the championship of the 2008 NFL season. In a tradition starting with theSuper Bowl XLlogo, two stars—one red, representing the AFC, and one blue, representing the NFC—are flanked on either side of the Super Bowl XLIII logo.The tagline for Super Bowl XLIII as well as the2008 NFL seasonis \"Believe In Now\". Teams The seeds of Super Bowl XLIII can be traced back to the end of the2006 season. After winningSuper Bowl XLin 2005, thePittsburgh Steelersfell to an 8–8 record the following year.At the end of 2006,Bill Cowherended his 15-year tenure as their head coach, leaving with a 149–90–1 regular season record and a 12–9 record in the playoffs. Offensive coordinatorKen Whisenhuntand assistant head coachRuss Grimmwere considered most likely to succeed Cowher in Pittsburgh. Without waiting to see if he would be hired by Pittsburgh, Whisenhunt accepted the head coaching job with the Arizona Cardinals, a team that at the time held the second-longest championship drought in U.S. sports (1947, with only theChicago Cubshaving a longer drought, winning their last championship in 1908) and had never advanced to the Super Bowl in their franchise history. In the 60 years since their last national championship, the team had won just one playoff game (20–7 over the Dallas Cowboys in the 1998 NFC Wild Card Game). The Steelers then passed over Grimm and instead hiredMinnesota Vikingsdefensive coordinatorMike Tomlin. Once Tomlin was hired by the Steelers, Grimm joined Whisenhunt in Arizona in the same position as assistant head coach as he had in Pittsburgh, and the two of them began to remodel the perennial losing club into a winner like the Steelers. Of historical note the game matched up two franchises previously merged into a single team, \"Card-Pitt\", for the1944 seasonin response to the depleted rosters duringWorld War II. Pittsburgh was going for its sixth Super Bowl win, which would place it in sole possession of the record for most Super Bowl wins, while the Cardinals were seeking their first league title since1947and only the second undisputed league championship in their history. (In1925, thePottsville Maroons(who, like Pittsburgh, were based in Pennsylvania) were fined and suspended for playing a game against theNotre Damefootball team in another NFL franchise's territory, which resulted in the NFL naming the Cardinals, then based in Chicago, NFL champions in their place, a decision Pottsville disputed).It was the third Super Bowl in history to feature two pre-expansion-era (pre-1960) teams, joiningSuper Bowl XIV(Steelersvs.Los Angeles Rams, the latter of which coincidentally also went 9–7 in the regular season) andSuper Bowl XLI(Indianapolis Coltsvs.Chicago Bears). This game also featured the oldest franchise in the NFC playing the oldest franchise in the AFC. The Cardinals were founded in 1898 as an independent amateur team in Chicago. The Steelers, founded in 1933 as the Pittsburgh Pirates, are one of only three AFC teams that pre-date the 1960 NFL season. The Cardinals and Steelers played each other twice per season from 1950 through 1969, first in theAmerican Conference(1950–52), then in the Eastern Conference (1953–66), and finally in theCentury Divisionof the Eastern Conference (1967–69). It also was the first time that two quarterbacks who previously started for a Super Bowl winning team (Kurt WarnerandBen Roethlisberger) opposed one another sinceJim Plunkett'sLos Angeles RaidersdefeatedJoe Theismann'sWashington RedskinsinSuper Bowl XVIII. Warner started for theSt. Louis RamsinSuper Bowl XXXIVandSuper Bowl XXXVI, winning the first (aided by a heads-up defensive play by linebackerMike Joneson the final play of the game) and losing the second one (the first ofTom Brady's seven in ten attempts), while Roethlisberger was the winning quarterback inSuper Bowl XL. Pittsburgh Steelers Under Tomlin's first season as head coach, the Steelers improved to a 10–6 record in 2007.Pittsburgh finished the 2008 season with the second best record in the AFC at 12–4, making the playoffs for the sixth time in the last eight seasons, and went on to earn their seventh Super Bowl trip in franchise history, breaking a three-way tie with the New England Patriots and Denver Broncos for second most Super Bowl appearances and most Super Bowl appearances by an AFC team. The Steelers excelled on defense and led the NFL in fewest points (13.9) and yards (237.2) allowed per game, while also ranking second in sacks with 51.Up front, their line was anchored by defensive endAaron Smith, who recorded 60 tackles and six sacks. Behind him two of the Steelers starting linebackers ranked among the top-ten sack leaders in the NFL,LaMarr Woodley(11.5 sacks) and Pro Bowler/NFL Defensive Player of the YearJames Harrison(16 sacks). Pro Bowl linebackerJames Farriorwas also a big contributor, recording 3.5 sacks and leading the team with 133 tackles. The Steelers secondary was led by Pro Bowl safetyTroy Polamalu, who ranked second in the NFL with a career-high seven interceptions. For the fifth year in a row the Steelers offense was led by quarterbackBen Roethlisberger,who finished the season with 3,301 passing yards and 17 touchdowns, with 15 interceptions.His top target was the Steelers all-time receiving leaderHines Ward, who recorded his fifth 1,000-yard season with 81 receptions for 1,043 yards and seven touchdowns. Other reliable receiving options includedSantonio Holmes(55 receptions for 821 yards),Nate Washington(40 receptions for 631 yards), and tight endHeath Miller(48 receptions for 514 yards). The Steelers ground game was led by two-time Pro Bowl running backWillie Parker, who had rushed for over 1,200 yards in each of his previous three seasons. Injuries in 2008 limited him to 791 yards in 11 games, but running backMewelde Mooreproved to be a solid replacement, rushing for 588 yards and catching 40 passes for 320 yards. For their efforts, Tomlin won the 2008MotorolaCoach of the Year Awardand Harrison was named the 2008GMC SierraDefensive Player of the Year.The Steelers rolled into the post-season as the AFC's second seed, behind only theTennessee Titans, who would finish 13–3 but lose in their divisional playoff game against theBaltimore Ravens. Arizona Cardinals It had been a long journey for Arizona to get to their first Super Bowl appearance. After winning the NFL championship in 1947, it would take the team half a century (and moves to two different states) before they won another postseason game in the 1998 season. And up to this point, they had not returned to the playoffs since then. Under Whisenhunt's first season as head coach, the Cardinals finished with an 8–8 recordin 2007.Arizona then started out the 2008 season strong, winning 7 of their first 10 games. But then things fell apart as the team lost 4 of their last 6, hitting a low point with a brutal 47–7 loss to theNew England Patriotsin week 16. Arizona's 34–21 win over theSeattle Seahawksin the following week was just enough for them to finish with a 9–7 record and earn the #4 seed in the playoffs, where they went on to earn their first trip to the Super Bowl in franchise history, becoming only thesecond NFL teamto do so with nine wins up to that point (the2011 New York Giantsbecame the third, winning it all). One reason for Arizona's success was the re-emergence of 37-year-old quarterbackKurt Warner. After going undrafted and spending a few years in theArena Football League, Warner became theSt. Louis Ramsstarting quarterback in1999due to a pre-season injury of starterTrent Green. He went on to lead the Rams to two Super Bowls and one Super Bowl win (in which Warner was named MVP), while also winning twoNFL MVP Awards. But in2002, Warner's production was drastically reduced by injuries and he soon lost his starting job toMarc Bulger. He eventually left the team to join theNew York Giants, but once again he lost his starting job (replaced byEli Manning) and signed on with theCardinals in 2005. For the third time, Warner lost his starting job due to mediocre performances and injuries. After the season, Arizona selectedHeisman Trophywinning quarterbackMatt Leinartwith their first round draft pick. This, combined with another mediocre performance in the 2006 season, appeared to severely limit Warner's chances of ever being a permanent starter on the team. However, early in the 2007 season, Warner was thrust into the starting lineup to replace an injured Leinart, and by the end of the team's season, he had re-emerged as one of the top quarterbacks in the league, throwing 27 touchdown passes with apasser ratingof 89.8. With his starting job on the team more secure, Warner posted one of his best seasons in 2008, throwing for 4,583 yards and 30 touchdowns, with only 14 interceptions, giving him an NFC-best 96.9 rating.His top targets were receiversLarry Fitzgerald(96 receptions, 1,431 yards, 12 touchdowns),Anquan Boldin(89 receptions, 1,038 yards, 11 touchdowns), andSteve Breaston(77 receptions, 1,006 yards, three touchdowns, 904 special teams return yards), who made the Cardinals the fifth team ever to feature three players with over 1,000 receiving yards. The Cardinals ground game was led by veteran running backEdgerrin Jamesand rookieTim Hightower. James led the team with 514 yards, while Hightower rushed for 399 and scored 10 touchdowns. He was also a reliable target out of the backfield, catching 34 passes for another 237 yards. Overall, Arizona's offense ranked fourth in yards per game (365.8) and third in scoring (422 points) in 2008. The Cardinals defense, however, had played inconsistently during the regular season, ranking just 28th in points allowed.Up front their line was anchored bydefensive linemanBertrand Berry, who recorded five sacks and forced two fumbles, along with tackleDarnell Dockett, known for his ability to blow up running plays.LinebackerKarlos Dansbywas also a solid contributor, recording four sacks, two interceptions, and two forced fumbles, while also leading the team with 119 tackles. The Cardinals secondary was led by rookiecornerbackDominique Rodgers-Cromartie(who led the team with four interceptions) andPro BowlsafetyAdrian Wilson(fourth on the team in tackles, 75). Playoffs The Steelers began their Super Bowl run with a 35–24 win over the fourth-seededSan Diego Chargers, gaining 342 yards, avoiding any turnovers, holding the ball for 36:30 (including for 14:43 in the third quarter alone, an NFL record for a single quarter), and scoring a touchdown in every quarter. Also, Parker appeared to be fully recovered from his regular season injuries, as evidenced by his career postseason high 147-yard, two-touchdown performance against the Chargers.The Steelers then went on to beat, for the third time in the season, theirAFC Northdivisionarchrivals, the sixth-seededBaltimore Ravens23–14 in theAFC Championship Game, holding them to 184 yards and forcing five turnovers. The Cardinals advanced to the Super Bowl by beating the fifth-seededAtlanta Falcons30–24, the second-seededCarolina Panthers, 33–13, and the sixth-seededPhiladelphia Eagles32–25 in theNFC Championship Game, winning more playoff games this season than they had in their franchise history previously.Warner played exceptionally well in those games, throwing for a total of 661 yards and eight touchdowns, with only two interceptions, giving him a rating of 112.1. The Cardinals also got a big performance out ofLarry Fitzgerald, who caught 23 passes for a postseason record 419 yards and five touchdowns. Meanwhile, the Cardinals' 28th-ranked defense showed major improvement in the postseason, forcing twelve turnovers in their three games. This included five interceptions and one fumble from the Panthers' Pro Bowl quarterbackJake Delhommein the divisional round. The Cardinals became the third NFL team to advance to the Super Bowl after winning three playoff games despite winning its division; theCarolina PanthersinSuper Bowl XXXVIIIand theIndianapolis ColtsinSuper Bowl XLIwere the other two. In addition, they would become the first team to advance to the Super Bowl as both a division winner and a No. 4 seed. The2000 Baltimore Ravenswere the last No. 4 seed to advance to a Super Bowl before this game, as they were the No. 4 seed in the AFC when they went on to winSuper Bowl XXXV, but were awild-cardteam before the2002 realignmentgave each conference four divisions. Super Bowl pre-game notes The AFC champion Steelers stayed at theInterContinentalTampa and held their pre-game practices at the training facility of theUniversity of South Florida Bulls. The NFC champion Cardinals were based at the GrandHyattTampa Bay and held their practices at theTampa Bay Buccaneers' training facility.Both teams arrived in the Tampa area on Monday, January 26. Also on January 26, the NFL announced that the Super Bowl game would be one of the safest places in the United States during game time. Personnel from over 20 different federal agencies were on site to assist in protecting players and fans. Pittsburgh entered the game as seven-point favorites over Arizona.Major factors for this included the view that the Steelers' defense was better than that of the Cardinals and the feeling that the AFC was an overall better conference than the NFC. The Cardinals were the designated \"home team,\" as was the case for all NFC champions in odd numbered Super Bowls. Arizona wore their red jerseys, which it has done at home since moving intoUniversity of Phoenix Stadiumin2006after predominantly wearing their white jerseysat homefor their first 18 years inArizonato combat the intense heat of September and October. As a result, the Steelers wore white jerseys for their second consecutive Super Bowl. Pittsburgh improved to 3–0 lifetime wearing white jerseys in the Super Bowl after the victory in Super Bowl XLIII (Pittsburgh would eventually lose to theGreen Bay PackersinSuper Bowl XLVwhile wearing white jerseys). The other two times the team wore white was as the \"visiting team\" against theMinnesota VikingsinSuper Bowl IX(during a time when the designated \"home\" team was required to wear their team-colored jerseys) and against theSeattle SeahawksinSuper Bowl XLdespite being the \"home team\" that season but having road success in the playoffs. In addition, teams wearing white jerseys in the Super Bowl extended their winning streak to five games, dating back toSuper Bowl XXXIX, currently the longest such streak between white and team colored jerseys in Super Bowl history. Pittsburgh also improved to 3–0 lifetime againstNFC Westteams in the Super Bowl, having previously beaten theLos Angeles RamsinSuper Bowl XIVand the Seahawks in XL. Another pre-game storyline involved backup Steelerstight end/fullbackSean McHugh. McHugh, who had spent the past three seasons with theDetroit Lions, made that team's 53-man roster at the end of the preseason, only to be released 24 hours later alongsidelinebackerAnthony Cannonin order for the Lions to make room for linebackerRyan Neceandrunning backMarcus Thomas.The Steelers promptly signed McHugh after the teamtradedcenterSean Mahanback to theTampa Bay Buccaneersin exchange for a draft pick before the start of the season. The subsequent media attention surrounding McHugh had to do with him being deemed not good enough for the Lions (a team that wouldfinish 0–16, the NFL's firstwinless seasonsince theexpansion1976 Tampa Bay Buccaneers), but good enough for a Super Bowl team such as the Steelers and being a valuable blocker forBen RoethlisbergerandWillie Parker.McHugh himself had mixed feelings about the situation, feeling bad for his former Lions teammates, but also feeling it's a little payback for the Lions for releasing him in the first place. McHugh would play in the Super Bowl as a blocker, much like his regular season role. The Cardinals became the second team to have their city/state location painted in their end zone for aSuper Bowl, as their end zone read \"Arizona Cardinals.\" InSuper Bowl XL, theSeattle Seahawksbecame the first team to have this, as their end zone read \"Seattle Seahawks.\" For all other Super Bowl teams, end zones have just featured the team nickname. This was also the first Super Bowl to have the updated NFL logo painted at midfield. Economic effects With all the cutbacks resulting from the severe economic downturn in the United States, the game was dubbed \"The Recession Bowl.\"Restaurants were slow in business and many parties,including parties hosted byPlayboyandSports Illustratedwere canceled.There were also 200 fewersports journalistscovering the game than atSuper Bowl XLIIthe previous year.According to the online brokerStubHub, tickets with a face value of $500 changed hands the week of the Super Bowl for an average $2,500—a 40% drop fromSuper Bowl XLIIin 2008 and 16% lower thanSuper Bowl XLin 2006.Ford,ChryslerandGeneral Motors, theBig Three automobile makers, decided not to purchase television advertisements following the three companies'business strugglesin 2008 and early 2009. Broadcasting Television United States The game was televised live in the United States onNBC, the network's first Super Bowl broadcast sinceSuper Bowl XXXIIat the end of the1997 season. Play-by-playannouncerAl Michaelsandcolor commentatorJohn Maddenwere in the booth, withAndrea KremerandAlex Flanaganserving assideline reporters. Madden became the first person to have announced a Super Bowl for all of the four major U.S. television networks, having called five Super Bowls forCBS, three forFox, and two forABCprior to joining NBC in2006. Meanwhile, Al Michaels was the third man to do play-by-play for a Super Bowl on NBC television (following in the footsteps ofCurt GowdyandDick Enberg). Also, Michaels (who, like Madden, had moved from ABC to NBC in 2006) was the second person to serve as a Super Bowl play-by-play announcer for two major U.S. television networks (followingPat Summerallof CBS and Fox). This would prove to be the final game Madden would call, as he announced his retirement from broadcasting on April 16, 2009. The pregame show, a record five hours long at the time, was hosted by theFootball Night in Americateam headed byBob Costas, and preceded by a two-hour special edition ofTodayhosted by the regular weekday team live from Tampa and theNFL Films—producedRoad to the Super Bowl.Matt Millenwas part of the coverage as a studio analyst. TheTodaycontribution included portions of a taped interview with PresidentBarack Obamaand pictures of troops viewing the proceedings in Iraq. The Super Bowl was one of two major professional sports championship seriesNBCbroadcast in 2009, as they would also broadcast theStanley Cup Finals. Both championship series involved teams from Pittsburgh winning championships.Mike Emrick,Eddie Olczyk, andPierre McGuirementioned this when they called the Stanley Cup Finals. The broadcast was available in1080ihigh definition. Super Bowl XLIII was also the final Super Bowl simulcast in theanalog televisionformat in the United States before the 2009 completion ofnationwide digital television transition. The transition, originally scheduled for February 17 was pushed back to June 12, the same day the Penguins won the Stanley Cup. InTucson, Arizonaand surrounding areas, the analog but not digital feed of the cable service fromComcastwasinterrupted by an unknown party, when 30 seconds fromPlayboy Enterprises-owned adult cable television channelShorteezwas broadcast to homes just afterLarry Fitzgeraldscored his fourth-quarter touchdown to give the Cardinals a 23–20 lead. Minutes before this occurred, 10 seconds of an end-credit segment fromClubJenna, another Playboy-owned channel, was shown.Comcast offered a $10 credit for customers who claimed to have seen the incident,and theFederal Communications Commission(FCC) announced that it would investigate the cause of the incident.On February 4, 2011, Tucson Police and theFBIarrested Frank Tanori Gonzalez on suspicion of fraud and computer tampering in connection with the porn incident.Gonzalez eventually pleaded guilty and was sentenced to three years of probation. The telecast was also carried to U.S. service personnel stationed around the globe via theAmerican Forces Network. Ratings With an average U.S. audience of 98.7 million viewers (and an estimated total viewership of 151.6 million), this was the third most watched Super Bowl in history, and the fourth most watched U.S. television program of any kind, trailing onlySuper Bowl XLVin 2011, which drew an average audience of 111 million;Super Bowl XLIVin 2010, average audience 106.5 million; and thefinal episode ofM*A*S*Hin 1983, average audience 106 million.However, the nationalNielsen ratingsof 42.0 was lower than the 43.3 rating for the previous year's game. The telecast drew a 53.6 rating inPittsburghand a 47.5 rating inPhoenix, first and ninth, respectively, among local markets. Advertising In addition to featuring the game's first 1-second TV ad (courtesy of Miller High Life), Super Bowl XLIII marked the first time that a 30-second commercial time slot cost up to US$3 million for the airtime alone, excluding production and talent costs.Many traditional advertisers, such asAnheuser-BuschandPepsiCo, bought multiple ads at discounted rates. None of the \"Big Three\" U.S. automakers (General Motors,Ford, andChrysler) ran advertisements during the game; coupled with Cash4Gold.com's third-quarter ad, this was seen as a sign of how deep the recession that began in fall 2008 had become. A short trailer forTransformers: Revenge of the Fallenpremiered during the Super Bowl, a debut which directorMichael Bayfirst revealed would occur in January.A preview of the upcomingStar Trekfilm also premiered during the game. However, with the weak economy, NBC was thought to have turned to companies already buying ad time for an additional purchase or two as set by the Los Angeles-based Forza Migliozzi agency, which would have eight advertisers simultaneously in one 30-second ad.SoBeandDreamWorks Animationaired a 3-D trailer for the upcoming filmMonsters vs. Aliens, along with a 3-D ad for Sobe Life Water that featuredRay LewisandMatt LightdancingSwan Lake(renamedLizard Lakefor this ad), as well as the promo for the upcoming episode ofChuckin 3-D. About 150 million \"ColorCode 3-D\" glasses were given away at grocery stores across the country for the ad.Hyundai also advertised its newGenesis Coupein two 30-second commercials.All advertising slots were sold out one day before the game, resulting in sales of $206 million. The top five ads as chosen by the USA TodaySuper Bowl Ad Meterwere: YouTube's top five in \"Ad Blitz 2009\" also saw the two Doritos ads finish first and fifth. The middle three featuredE-Trade's Singing Baby ad,CareerBuilder.com's \"The Official 2009 Super Bowl Commercial\" andPepsi Max's \"I'm Good\" finish second through fourth respectively. Adbowlresults reflected the following ranking: International An international feed featuredBob PapaandSterling Sharpeannouncing, and was seen in 230 countries (including Antarctica) over 61 networks and 34 languages.ESPN Latin Americaalso broadcast across Latin America. Radio On radio,Westwood Onehad the national English-language broadcast rights to the game in the United States and Canada. It was only made available to local affiliates as part of a 57-game package of regular season and post-season games. Stations were not allowed to stream the broadcast on their web sites.Marv AlbertandBoomer Esiasoncalled the game for the network. The teams'flagship stationsalso carried the game with their respective local announcers:WDVE-FMandWBGG-AMin Pittsburgh (withBill HillgroveandTunch Ilkinannouncing), andKTAR-AM/FMin Phoenix (withDave PaschandRon Wolfleyannouncing).Univision Radio/United Stationscarried a Spanish-language feed for Hispanophone American listeners (with Clemson Smith-Muñiz and David Crommett announcing). Sirius XM Satellite Radiocarried 13 game feeds in ten languages toSiriussubscribers, as well as toXMsubscribers with the \"Best of Sirius\" package.In addition to the four US feeds mentioned above, Sirius carried the following international feeds: FieldPass, the subscription Internet radio service provided by the league at NFL.com, carried most of these feeds, with select international feeds for free. Due to contractual restrictions, only Sirius XM and FieldPass were permitted to carry the local team broadcasts along with WDVE, WBGG, and KTAR, with the teams' other network radio affiliates instead carrying the Westwood One feed. Entertainment and other ceremonies Pregame Journeyand theBethune-Cookman University Marching Wildcatsperformed during the pre-game show, whileJennifer Hudsonsang \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" (arranged byChris Walden) in her first public appearance since the murder of her nephew, brother and mother.Hudson became the second consecutive alumna from theAmerican Idoltelevision series to perform the national anthem at a Super Bowl (Jordin Sparkssang the anthem atSuper Bowl XLII). The national anthem was translated intoAmerican Sign Languageby Kristen Santos.Following the anthem, theUnited States Air Force Thunderbirdsperformed a fly-over.John Legendperformed a short concert several hours before the game, whileFaith Hillperformed \"America the Beautiful\" prior to Hudson's performance of the national anthem. Also, thecrewofUS Airways Flight 1549were recognized on field for their actions. The NFL saluted four decades of champions during the coin toss ceremony and theVince Lombardi Trophypresentation. The coin toss featuredRoger Craig(Super Bowl XXIII, 1989),John Elway(Super Bowl XXXIII, 1999), andLynn Swann(Super Bowl XIII, 1979). Craig followed the previous year's participants and fellowSan Francisco 49ersCraig Walsh (son ofBill Walsh),Ronnie Lott,Jerry Rice, andSteve Young. GeneralDavid Petraeusperformed the actual coin toss. The Steelers called tails, but it landed on heads, so the Cardinals won the toss. Arizona deferred their choice to the second half, and the Steelers chose to receive, making it the first time in Super Bowl history that the coin toss winner kicked off to start the game. (The NFL had just changed the rule before the start of the season allowing the team that wins the coin toss to defer the choice to the second half, similar to that incollege footballandCanadian football.) By winning the toss, the Arizona Cardinals were the twelfth consecutive coin toss winner from the NFC, dating back toSuper Bowl XXXII.Joe Namath(Super Bowl III, 1969) participated in theVince Lombardi Trophypresentation and he previously participated in the coin toss inSuper Bowl XXVIII. Coincidentally, Namath—a native ofBeaver Falls, Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh—ultimately handed the trophy to his hometown team. Halftime The Super Bowl XLIII halftime show, which was sponsored by Bridgestone for the second consecutive year, featuredBruce Springsteenand theE Street Band, withthe Miami Hornsand agospel choir.Their halftime performance consisted of these songs in the following order: Each of the numbers had at least one verse removed, in order to fit the overall performance in the intended 12-minute time limit.Springsteen had turned down numerous invitations to play at the Super Bowl before this one, unsure of its legitimacy, but finally accepted after realizing the prestige value. Home video The Steelers2008 season/Super Bowl XLIII championshiphome videowent on sale onDVDon February 24, 2009. One week later on March 3, it was released onBlu-ray, making it the firstNFL Filmshome video release to be on Blu-ray Disc. Game summary First quarter The Steelers took the opening kickoff and moved down the field on a 71-yard scoring drive, with quarterbackBen Roethlisbergercompleting a 38-yard pass to wide receiverHines Wardand a 21-yard strike to tight endHeath Miller, putting the ball on the Arizona 1-yard line. The Cardinals' defense kept the Steelers' offense out of the end zone for the first two plays, but on third down, Roethlisberger appeared to score on a 1-yard quarterback draw. However, a replay challenge by Arizona determined that his knee hit the ground as he was being tackled by defensive linemanDarnell Dockettbefore he could stretch the ball over the goal line. Rather than take the risk on fourth down, Pittsburgh settled for an 18-yard field goal by kickerJeff Reedto take a 3–0 lead. The Steelers quickly forced a Cardinals punt and then drove back down the field for what would turn into more points. On the first play of their drive, Roethlisberger completed a 25-yard pass to wide receiverSantonio Holmesand followed it up with two 11-yard completions to Miller, the second of which was a 3rd-and-10 conversion. Second quarter On the second play of the second quarter, running backGary Russellwent into the end zone for a 1-yard touchdown run, increasing the Steelers' lead to 10–0. They became the first team to score on its first two drives since theDenver BroncosinSuper Bowl XXXII. On defense, Pittsburgh held Arizona to just one drive and one first down in the first quarter, while gaining 135 yards. The Cardinals responded with a nine-play, 83-yard scoring drive. First, quarterbackKurt Warnercompleted three passes to running backEdgerrin Jamesfor 26 yards, as well as two passes to wide receiverSteve Breastonfor 20. Warner then completed a 45-yard strike to wide receiverAnquan Boldinto reach the Pittsburgh 1-yard line. On the next play, Warner nearly fell over after taking the snap, but he quickly regained his balance and threw a 1-yard touchdown pass to tight endBen Patrick, cutting Arizona's deficit to 10–7. It was Patrick's only touchdown reception of the season. After an exchange of punts, Roethlisberger threw a pass that was deflected by defensive tackleBryan Robinsonand intercepted by linebackerKarlos Dansbyat the Steelers' 34-yard line just before the two-minute warning. Seven plays later, the Cardinals reached the Pittsburgh 1-yard line with a chance to take the lead before halftime. But with 18 seconds left, Warner's pass intended for Boldin was intercepted at the goal line by linebackerJames Harrison, who then took off down the sideline for the then-longest play in Super Bowl history (having since been passed byJacoby Jones' 108-yard kickoff return inSuper Bowl XLVII), a 100-yard pick-six, increasing the Steelers' lead to 17–7 at halftime. Harrison faked a blitz and quietly moved into coverage to pick off Warner's pass. A booth review was called to verify that Harrison had broken the plane, as he was tackled at the goal line by Breaston and wide receiverLarry Fitzgerald, and the ruling stood. Third quarter After forcing the Cardinals to punt to start the second half, the Steelers put together another long scoring drive. Aided by two 15-yard gains by Holmes and running backWillie Parker, as well as three personal foul penalties against the Arizona defense, including one during a field goal attempt, Pittsburgh moved the ball 79 yards in 15 plays and took 8:39 off the clock. However, despite picking up two first downs inside the Arizona 10, they were unable to get into the end zone, forcing them to settle for Reed's 21-yard field goal to increase their lead to 20–7. Fourth quarter After the teams traded punts again going into the fourth quarter, Warner led the Cardinals down the field on an eight-play, 87-yard scoring drive that took 3:57 off the clock, utilizing a no huddle offense. All eight plays of the drive were consecutive short passes by Warner, half of which were caught by Fitzgerald for a total gain of 31 yards, including a 1-yard touchdown in which Warner threw a fade pass to Fitzgerald, who made a leaping catch through tight coverage by cornerbackIke Taylor. The score cut Arizona's deficit to one possession at 20–14 with 7:33 left in the game. On the Cardinals' next possession, they reached the Pittsburgh 26-yard line, but a holding penalty pushed them nearly out of field goal range. Warner then threw three consecutive incompletions, and Arizona elected to punt rather than risk a 53-yard field goal attempt.Ben Graham's 34-yard punt pinned the Steelers back at their own 1-yard line. After being stopped for no gain on the first two plays, Roethlisberger threw a 19-yard pass to Holmes, but Steelers centerJustin Hartwigwas flagged for offensive holding in the end zone, which not only nullified the catch, but gave the Cardinals asafety, cutting the Steelers' lead to 20–16 and forcing them to punt the ball away. Pittsburgh coachMike Tomlinlater stated that giving up the safety didn't faze him, as it did not change how his team called plays for the rest of the game on either defense or offense. Taking over on their own 36-yard line after the free kick, Arizona took two plays to score, as Warner threw a pass to Fitzgerald on a post route. Fitzgerald caught the ball without breaking stride and took off down the middle of the field past the Steelers' secondary for a 64-yard touchdown reception, giving Arizona their first lead of the game, 23–20. With a chance to mount a game-tying/winning drive, Pittsburgh got the ball back on their own 22-yard line with 2:37 left in the game and two timeouts remaining. On the first play, a holding penalty pushed them back to their own 12. Roethlisberger then completed a pass to Holmes for 14 yards. After an incompletion, Roethlisberger threw it to Holmes again for 13 yards. An 11-yard reception by wide receiverNate Washingtonfollowed, and a 4-yard run by Roethlisberger forced the Steelers to burn their second timeout of the half. On the very next play, he completed a pass to Holmes, who took it 40 yards to the Cardinals' 6-yard line after safetyAaron Franciscotripped. Two plays later, Roethlisberger found running backMewelde Moorecovered in the flat, then Ward covered. He looked and then threw to Holmes, who ran a flag route in the right corner. Holmes caught the pass in the back corner of the end zone for a 6-yard touchdown reception, managing to keep both feet in bounds while landing on his toes before falling out of bounds. \"My feet never left the ground,\" said Holmes. \"All I did was extend my arms and use my toes as an extension to catch up to the ball.\"After a booth review, the touchdown stood and put the Steelers back in front with a 27–23 lead and 35 seconds remaining. Following the ensuing kickoff, Warner completed a 20-yard pass to Fitzgerald and a 13-yard pass to running backJ. J. Arrington, moving the ball to the Steelers 44. With 15 seconds left, Warner prepared to attempt aHail Mary pass, but linebackerLaMarr Woodleystrip-sacked Warner, and defensive endBrett Keiselrecovered the fumble, giving the ball back to Pittsburgh with five seconds left. Many viewers assumed that the play had not been reviewed for a possible incomplete pass, but NFL Head of OfficiatingMike Pereiralater explained that it actually was reviewed, unnoticed by the public: \"We confirmed it was a fumble. The replay assistant in the replay booth saw it was clearly a fumble. The ball got knocked loose and was rolling in his hand before it started forward. He has to have total control.\"It was the first and only Super Bowl in which Warner was involved not to be decided on the final play of the game. Roethlisberger's ensuing kneeldown secured the Steelers' sixth Super Bowl victory, surpassing theDallas CowboysandSan Francisco 49ersto set a new NFL record formost Super Bowl wins by a team. Box score atRaymond James Stadium,Tampa, Florida Statistical overview In Super Bowl XLIII, Arizona and Pittsburgh combined for the fewest rushing attempts (38) and the fewest rushing yards (91) in Super Bowl history.The Cardinals outgained the Steelers in both passing yards (374 to 234) and total yards (407 to 292), but were flagged for 11 penalties for 106 yards. Arizona'ssafetyin the fourth quarter was only the sixth one scored in Super Bowl history, the first sinceSuper Bowl XXV. Warner completed 31 of 43 passes for 377 yards and three touchdowns, with one interception. His 377 yards was the second-most in Super Bowl history behind his own record of 414 yards inSuper Bowl XXXIV. Eight years later atSuper Bowl LI,Tom Bradywould breakKurt Warner's record with 466 yards. Warner passedJoe Montanafor most career yards in Super Bowl history with 1,156 (Montana threw for 1,142 yards in four games). Brady ultimately reached 2,071 yards in seven Super Bowls. Warner became the fifth quarterback in Super Bowl history to throw three touchdown passes in defeat (the others beingRoger Staubach,Brett Favre,Jake Delhomme, andDonovan McNabb). He also became the first quarterback in Super Bowl history to have a pass intercepted and returned for a touchdown in two different Super Bowls and is also the second quarterback to throw a fourth-quarter touchdown in three different Super Bowls (Terry Bradshawthrew a fourth-quarter touchdown in all four of his Super Bowls). Warner's top target was Fitzgerald, who caught seven passes for 127 yards and two touchdowns. Fitzgerald set a single-postseason record with seven touchdown receptions, passingJerry Rice, who had six in the 1988 postseason. Fitzgerald as well as Holmes each had 100 yards receiving, marking the fourth time in Super Bowl history, one player from each team had over 100 yards in a Super Bowl.Michael IrvinandAndre Reedwere the first inSuper Bowl XXVII, followed byDeion BranchandMuhsin MuhammadinSuper Bowl XXXVIIIand Branch again a year later along withTerrell OwensinSuper Bowl XXXIX. Roethlisberger completed 21 of 30 passes for 256 yards and a touchdown, with one interception. Woodley had two sacks and a forced fumble, thus he continued setting NFL play-off records for consecutive multiple sack games by a player with 4. Arizona defensive tackleDarnell Docketthad all of Arizona's three sacks, tying theSuper Bowlrecord set byReggie WhiteinSuper Bowl XXXI. Harrison's 100-yard interception return is still the longest interception return in Super Bowl history. With this victory, the Steelers became the first team to win three Super Bowls in the same state. Their victories in Super Bowls X and XIII were both at theMiami Orange Bowl. Final statistics Sources:NFL.com Super Bowl XLIII,Super Bowl XLIII Play Finder Pit,Super Bowl XLIII Play Finder Arz,USA Today Super Bowl XLIII Play by Play Statistical comparison Individual statistics 1Completions/attempts2Carries3Long gain4Receptions5Times targeted Starting lineups Source:Hall of Fame ‡ Officials Theofficialsfor the game were: Post-game riots In Pittsburgh, mostly in theSouth SideandOakland neighborhoods,riotsbroke out on the streets after the Steelers' victory.Rioters (mostly college students) caused about $150,000 in estimated damages.More than 60 people were arrested during and after the rioting, and at least two students were suspended. Super Bowl ring The ring for the Pittsburgh Steelers was designed and made byJostensworking withDan RooneyandArt Rooney II. The designs were also shown toJames Farrior,Hines Ward,Ben RoethlisbergerandJames Harrisonbefore a final decision was made. References External links",
"Pittsburgh Pittsburgh(/ˈpɪtsbɜːrɡ/PITS-burg) is a city in and thecounty seatofAllegheny County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is thesecond-most populouscity inPennsylvania, afterPhiladelphia, and the68th-most populous cityin the U.S., with a population of 302,971 as of the2020 census. The city is located insouthwestern Pennsylvaniaat theconfluenceof theAllegheny Riverand theMonongahela River, which combine to form theOhio River.It anchors thePittsburgh metropolitan area, which had a population of 2.457 million residents and is the largest metro area in both theOhio ValleyandAppalachia, thesecond-largest in Pennsylvania, and the26th-largestin the U.S. Pittsburgh is the principal city of the greaterPittsburgh–Weirton–Steubenville combined statistical areawhich includes parts ofOhioandWest Virginia. Pittsburgh is known as \"the Steel City\" for its dominant role in thehistory of the U.S. steel industry.It developed as a vital link of theAtlantic coastandMidwest, as the mineral-richAllegheny Mountainsled to the region being contested by theFrenchandBritishEmpires,Virginians,Whiskey Rebels, andCivil War raiders.For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind onlyNew York CityandChicagoin corporate headquarters employment; it had the most U.S. stockholders per capita.Deindustrializationin the late 20th century resulted in massive layoffs amongblue-collar workersas steel and other heavy industries declined, coinciding with several Pittsburgh-based corporations moving out of the city.However, the city divested from steel and, since the 1990s, Pittsburgh has focused its energies on the healthcare, education, and technology industries. Pittsburgh is home to large medical providers, including theUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center,Allegheny Health Network, and68 colleges and universities, includingresearch and developmentleadersCarnegie Mellon Universityand theUniversity of Pittsburgh.The area has served as the federal agency headquarters forcyber defense,software engineering,robotics,energy research, and thenuclear navy.In the private sector, Pittsburgh-basedPNCis the nation's fifth-largest bank, and the city is home to tenFortune 500companies and seven of the largest 300 U.S. law firms. Other corporations that have regional headquarters and offices have helped Pittsburgh become the sixth-best area for U.S. job growth.Pittsburgh is sometimes called the \"City of Bridges\" for its446 bridges.Its rich industrial history left the area with renowned cultural institutions, including theCarnegie Museums of Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh Parks Conservancy,Pittsburgh Zoo & Aquarium,Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens, theNational Aviary, and a diversecultural district.The city's major leagueprofessional sports teamsinclude thePittsburgh Steelers,Pittsburgh Penguins, andPittsburgh Pirates. Pittsburgh is additionally whereJehovah's Witnessestraces its earliest origins, and was the host of the2009 G20 Pittsburgh summit. Etymology Pittsburgh was named in 1758, by GeneralJohn Forbes, in honor of British statesmanWilliam Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. As Forbes was aScotsman, he probably pronounced the name/ˈpɪtsbərə/PITS-bər-ə(similar toEdinburgh). Pittsburgh was incorporated as aboroughon April 22, 1794, with the following Act:\"Be it enacted by thePennsylvania State SenateandPennsylvania House of Representativesof the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ... by the authority of the same, that the said town of Pittsburgh shall be ... erected into a borough, which shall be called the borough of Pittsburgh for ever.\" From 1891 to 1911, the city's name was federally recognized as \"Pittsburg\", though use of the finalhwas retained during this period by the city government and other local organizations.After a public campaign, the federal decision to drop thehwas reversed.ThePittsburg Presscontinued spelling the city without anhuntil 1921. History Kingdom of France1690s–1763Great Britain1681–1781United States1776–present Native Americans The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by theShawneeand several other settled groups ofNative Americans.Shannopin's Townwas an 18th-centuryLenape(Delaware) town located roughly from wherePenn Avenueis today, below the mouth of Two Mile Run, from 30th Street to 39th Street. According toGeorge Croghan, the town was situated on the south bank of the Allegheny, nearly opposite what is now known as Washington's Landing, formerlyHerr's Island, in what is now theLawrencevilleneighborhood.: 289 18th century The first known European to enter the region was the French explorerRobert de La SallefromQuebecduring his 1669 expedition down theOhio River.European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century. Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year Europeanfur tradersestablished area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to uniteCanadawithFrench Louisianavia the rivers.During 1753–1754, the British hastily builtFort Prince Georgebefore a larger French force drove them off. The French builtFort Duquesnebased on LaSalle's 1669 claims. TheFrench and Indian War, the North American front of theSeven Years' War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British GeneralEdward Braddockwas dispatched with MajorGeorge Washingtonas his aide to take Fort Duquesne.The British and colonial force were defeated atBraddock's Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758. He began construction onFort Pitt, named afterWilliam Pitt the Elder, while the settlement was named \"Pittsborough\". DuringPontiac's War, a loose confederation of Native American tribeslaid siege to Fort Pittin 1763; the siege was eventually lifted after ColonelHenry Bouquetdefeated a portion of the besieging force at theBattle of Bushy Run. Bouquet strengthened the defenses of Fort Pitt the next year. During this period, the powerful nations of theIroquois Confederacy, based in New York, had maintained control of much of the Ohio Valley as hunting grounds by right of conquest after defeating other tribes. By the terms of the 1768Treaty of Fort Stanwix, thePennswere allowed to purchase the modern region from theIroquois. A 1769 survey referenced the future city as the \"Manor of Pittsburgh\".Both theColony of Virginiaand theProvince of Pennsylvaniaclaimed the region under their colonial charters until 1780, when they agreed under a federal initiative to extend theMason–Dixon linewestward, placing Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania. On March 8, 1771,Bedford County, Pennsylvaniawas created to govern the frontier. On April 16, 1771, the city's first civilian local government was created asPitt Township.William Teagarden was the first constable, and William Troop was the first clerk. Following theAmerican Revolution, the village of Pittsburgh continued to grow. One of its earliest industries was boat building for settlers of theOhio Country. In 1784, Thomas Vickroy completed a town plan which was approved by the Penn family attorney. Pittsburgh became a possession of Pennsylvania in 1785. The following year, thePittsburgh Post-Gazettewas started, and in 1787, thePittsburgh Academywas chartered. Unrest during theWhiskey Rebellionof 1794 resulted in federal troops being sent to the area. By 1797, glass manufacture began, while the population grew to around 1,400. Settlers arrived after crossing theAppalachian Mountainsor through theGreat Lakes.Fort Pitt(now Pittsburgh) at the source of the Ohio River became the main base for settlers moving into theNorthwest Territory. 19th century The federal government recognizes Pittsburgh as the starting point for theLewis and Clark Expedition.Preparations began in Pittsburgh in 1803 whenMeriwether Lewispurchased akeelboatthat would later be used to ascend theMissouri River. TheWar of 1812cut off the supply of British goods, stimulating American industry. By 1815, Pittsburgh was producing significant quantities of iron, brass, tin, and glass. On March 18, 1816, the 46-year-old local government became a city. It was served by numerous river steamboats that increased trading traffic on the rivers. In the 1830s, manyWelsh peoplefrom theMerthyrsteelworks immigrated to the city following the aftermath of theMerthyr Rising. By the 1840s, Pittsburgh was one of the largest cities west of theAllegheny Mountains. TheGreat Fire of Pittsburghdestroyed over a thousand buildings in 1845. The city rebuilt with the aid of Irish immigrants who came to escape theGreat Famine. By 1857, Pittsburgh's 1,000 factories were consuming 22 million coal bushels yearly. Coal mining and iron manufacturing attracted waves of European immigrants to the area, with the most coming fromGermany. Because Pennsylvania had been established as a free state after the Revolution, enslaved African Americans sought freedom here through escape as refugees from the South, or occasionally fleeing from travelers they were serving who stayed in the city. There were active stations of theUnderground Railroadin the city, and numerous refugees were documented as getting help from station agents and African-American workers in city hotels. The Drennen Slave Girl walked out of the Monongahela House in 1850, apparently to freedom.The Merchant's Hotel was also a place where African-American workers would advise slaves the state was free and aid them in getting to nearby stations of the Underground Railroad.Sometimes refugee slaves from the South stayed in Pittsburgh, but other times they continued North, including into Canada. Many slaves left the city and county for Canada after Congress passed the 1850Fugitive Slave Act, as it required cooperation from law enforcement even in free states and increased penalties. From 1850 to 1860, the black population in Allegheny County dropped from 3,431 to 2,725 as people headed to more safety in Canada. TheAmerican Civil Warboosted the city's economy with increased iron and armament demand by the Union.Andrew Carnegiebegan steel production in 1875 at theEdgar Thomson Steel WorksinNorth Braddock, Pennsylvania, which evolved into theCarnegie Steel Company. He adopted theBessemer processto increase production. Manufacturing was key to growth of Pittsburgh and the surrounding region. Railroad lines were built into the city along both rivers, increasing transportation access to important markets. 20th century In 1901,J. P. Morganand attorneyElbert H. GarymergedCarnegie Steel Companyand several other companies intoU.S. Steel. By 1910, Pittsburgh was thenation's eighth-largest city, accounting for between one-third and one-half of national steel output. ThePittsburgh Agreementwas subscribed in May 1918 between the Czech and Slovak nationalities, as envisioned byT. G. Masaryk, concerning the future foundation ofCzechoslovakia. The city sufferedsevere floodingin March 1936. The city's population swelled to more than a half million, attracting numerous European immigrants to its industrial jobs. By 1940, non-Hispanic whites were 90.6% of the city's population.Pittsburgh also became a main destination of the African-AmericanGreat Migrationfrom the rural South during the first half of the 20th century.Limited initially by discrimination, some 95% percent of the men became unskilled steel workers. DuringWorld War II, demand for steel increased and area mills operated 24 hours a day to produce 95 million tons of steel for the war effort.This resulted in the highest levels of air pollution in the city's almost century of industry. The city's reputation as the \"arsenal of democracy\"was being overshadowed byJames Parton's 1868 observation of Pittsburgh being \"hell with the lid off.\" Following World War II, the city launched a clean air and civic revitalization project known as the \"Renaissance,\" cleaning up the air and the rivers. The \"Renaissance II\" project followed in 1977, focused on cultural and neighborhood development. The industrial base continued to expand through the 1970s, but beginning in the early 1980s both the area's steel and electronics industries imploded during national industrial restructuring. There were massive layoffs from mill and plant closures. In the later 20th century, the area shifted its economic base to education, tourism, and services, largely based on healthcare/medicine, finance, and high technology such as robotics. Although Pittsburgh successfully shifted its economy and remained viable, the city's population has never rebounded to its industrial-era highs. While 680,000 people lived in the city proper in 1950, a combination of suburbanization and economic turbulence resulted in a decrease in city population, even as the metropolitan area population increased again. 21st century During thelate 2000s recession, Pittsburgh was economically strong, adding jobs when most cities were losing them. It was one of the few cities in the United States to see housing property values rise. Between 2006 and 2011, thePittsburghmetropolitan statistical area(MSA) experienced over 10% appreciation in housing prices, the highest appreciation of the largest 25 metropolitan statistical areas in the United States, with 22 of the largest 25 metropolitan statistical areas experiencing depreciations in housing values. In September 2009, the2009 G20 Pittsburgh summitwas held in Pittsburgh. Geography Pittsburgh has an area of 58.3 square miles (151 km2), of which 55.6 square miles (144 km2) is land and 2.8 square miles (7.3 km2), or 4.75%, is water. The80th meridian westpasses directly through the city's downtown. The city is on theAllegheny Plateau, within theecoregionof theWestern Allegheny Plateau.TheDowntownarea (also known as the Golden Triangle) sits where theAllegheny Riverflows from the northeast and theMonongahela Riverfrom the southeast to form theOhio River. The convergence is atPoint State Parkand is referred to as \"the Point.\" The city extends east to include theOaklandandShadysidesections, which are home to theUniversity of Pittsburgh,Carnegie Mellon University,Chatham University,Carnegie MuseumandLibrary, and many other educational, medical, and cultural institutions. The southern, western, and northern areas of the city are primarily residential. ManyPittsburgh neighborhoodsare steeply sloped with two-lane roads. More than a quarter of neighborhood names make reference to \"hills,\" \"heights,\" or similar features. Thesteps of Pittsburghconsist of 800 sets of outdoor public stairways with 44,645 treads and 24,090 vertical feet. They include hundreds of streets composed entirely of stairs, and many other steep streets with stairs for sidewalks.Many provide vistas of the Pittsburgh area while attracting hikers and fitness walkers. Bike and walking trails have been built to border many of the city's rivers and hollows. TheGreat Allegheny PassageandChesapeake and Ohio CanalTowpath connect the city directly to downtown Washington, D.C. (some 335 miles away) with a continuous bike/running trail. Cityscape Areas The city consists of the Downtown area, called the Golden Triangle,and four main areas surrounding it. These surrounding areas are subdivided into distinct neighborhoods (Pittsburgh has 90 neighborhoods).Relative to downtown, these areas are known as the Central, North Side/North Hills, South Side/South Hills, East End, and West End. Golden Triangle Downtown Pittsburghhas 30 skyscrapers, nine of which top 500 feet (150 m). TheU.S. Steel Toweris the tallest, at 841 ft (256 m).TheCultural Districtconsists of a 14-block area of downtown along theAllegheny River. This district contains many theaters and arts venues and is home to a growing residential segment. Most significantly, thePittsburgh Cultural Trustis embarking on RiverParc, a four-block mixed-use \"green\" community, featuring 700 residential units and multiple towers of between 20 and 30 stories. TheFirstsideportion of Downtown borders the Monongahela River, the historic Mon Wharf and hosts the distinctivePPG PlaceGothic-style glass skyscraper complex. New condo towers have been constructed and historic office towers are converted to residential use, increasing 24-hour residents. Downtown is served by thePort Authority'slight rail systemandmultiple bridgesleading north and south.It is also home toPoint Park UniversityandDuquesne Universitywhich bordersUptown. North Side The North Side is home to various neighborhoods in transition. The area was once known asAllegheny Cityand operated as its own independent city until 1907, when it was merged with Pittsburgh despite great protest from its citizens. The North Side is primarily composed of residential neighborhoods and is noteworthy for its well-constructed and architecturally interesting homes. Many buildings date from the 19th century and are constructed of brick or stone and adorned with decorative woodwork, ceramic tile, slate roofs and stained glass. The North Side is also home to attractions such asAcrisure Stadium,PNC Park,Kamin Science Center,National Aviary,Andy Warhol Museum,Mattress Factoryart museum,Children's Museum of Pittsburgh,Randyland,Penn Brewery,Allegheny Observatory, andAllegheny General Hospital. South Side The South Side was once the site of railyards and associated dense, inexpensive housing for mill and railroad workers. Starting in the late 20th century, the city undertook a Main Street program in cooperation with theNational Trust for Historic Preservation, encouraging design and landscape improvements on East Carson Street, and supporting new retail. The area has become a local Pittsburgher destination, and the value of homes in the South Side had increased in value by about 10% annually for the 10 years leading up to 2014.East Carson Street has developed as one of the most vibrant areas of the city, packed with diverse shopping, ethnic eateries, vibrant nightlife, and live music venues. In 1993, theUrban Redevelopment Authority of Pittsburghpurchased the South Side Works steel mill property. It collaborated with the community and various developers to create a master plan for a mixed-use development that included a riverfront park, office space, housing, health-care facilities, and indoor practice fields for thePittsburgh SteelersandPitt Panthers. Construction of the development began in 1998. TheSouthSide Workshas been open since 2005, featuring many stores, restaurants, offices, and the world headquarters forAmerican Eagle Outfitters. East End The East End of Pittsburgh is home to theUniversity of Pittsburgh,Carnegie Mellon University,Carlow University,Chatham University,The Carnegie Institute's Museums of Art and Natural History,Phipps Conservatory, andSoldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall. It is also home to many parks and public spaces includingMellon Park,Westinghouse Park,Schenley Park,Frick Park,The Frick Pittsburgh,Bakery Square, and thePittsburgh Zooand PPG Aquarium. The neighborhoods ofShadysideandSquirrel Hillare large, wealthy neighborhoods with some apartments and condos, and pedestrian-oriented shopping/business districts. Squirrel Hill is also known as the hub of Jewish life in Pittsburgh, home to approximately 20 synagogues.Oakland, heavily populated by undergraduate and graduate students, is home to most of the universities, and thePetersen Events Center. TheStrip Districtto the west along theAllegheny Riveris an open-air marketplace by day and a clubbing destination by night.Bloomfieldis Pittsburgh's Little Italy and is known for its Italian restaurants and grocers.Lawrencevilleis a revitalizing rowhouse neighborhood popular with artists and designers. TheHill Districtwas home to photographerCharles Harrisas well as various African-American jazz clubs.Other East End neighborhoods includePoint Breeze,Regent Square,Highland Park,Homewood,Lincoln-Lemington-Belmar,Larimer,East Hills,East Liberty,Polish Hill,Hazelwood, Garfield, Morningside, and Stanton Heights. West End The West End includesMt. Washington, with its famous view of the downtown skyline, and numerous other residential neighborhoods such asSheradenandElliott. Ethnic enclaves Many of Pittsburgh's patchwork of neighborhoods still retainethniccharacters reflecting the city's settlement history. These include: Population densities Several neighborhoods on the edges of the city are less urban, featuring tree-lined streets, yards and garages, with a more suburban character. Oakland, the South Side, the North Side, and the Golden Triangle are characterized by more density of housing, walking neighborhoods, and a more diverse, urban feel. Images Regional identity Pittsburgh falls within the borders of the Northeastern United States as defined by multiple US Government agencies. Pittsburgh is the principal city of thePittsburgh Combined Statistical Area, acombined statistical areadefined by theU.S. Census Bureau. Pittsburgh falls within the borders ofAppalachiaas defined by theAppalachian Regional Commission, and has long been characterized as the \"northern urban industrial anchor of Appalachia.\"In its post-industrial state, Pittsburgh has been characterized as the \"Paris of Appalachia\",recognizing the city's cultural, educational, healthcare, and technological resources, and is the largest city in Appalachia. Climate Under theKöppen climate classification, Pittsburgh falls within either ahot-summer humid continental climate(Dfa) if the 0 °C (32 °F) isotherm is used or ahumid subtropical climate(Cfa) if the −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm is used. Summers are hot and winters are moderately cold with wide variations in temperature. Despite this, it has one of the most pleasant summer climates between medium and large cities in the U.S.The city lies in the USDA plant hardiness zone 6b except along the rivers where the zone is 7a.The area has four distinct seasons: winters are cold and snowy, springs and falls are mild with moderate levels of sunshine, and summers are warm. As measured by percent possible sunshine, summer is by far the sunniest season, though annual sunshine is low among major US cities at well under 50%. The warmest month of the year in Pittsburgh is July, with a 24-hour average of 73.2 °F (22.9 °C). Conditions are often humid, and combined with highs reaching 90 °F (32 °C) on an average 9.5 days a year,a considerableheat indexarises. The coolest month is January, when the 24-hour average is 28.8 °F (−1.8 °C), and lows of 0 °F (−18 °C) or below can be expected on an average 2.6 nights per year.Officially, record temperatures range from −22 °F (−30 °C), onJanuary 19, 1994to 103 °F (39 °C), which occurred three times, most recently on July 16, 1988; the record cold daily maximum is −3 °F (−19 °C), which occurred three times, most recently the day of the all-time record low, while, conversely, the record warm daily minimum is 82 °F (28 °C) on July 1, 1901.Due to elevation and location on the windward side of the Appalachian Mountains, 100 °F (38 °C)+ readings are very rare, and were last seen on July 15, 1995. Average annual precipitation is 39.61 inches (1,006 mm) and precipitation is greatest in May while least in October; annual precipitation has historically ranged from 22.65 in (575 mm) in 1930 to 57.83 in (1,469 mm) in 2018.On average, December and January have the greatest number of precipitation days. Snowfall averages 44.1 inches (112 cm) per season, but has historically ranged from 8.8 in (22 cm) in 1918–19 to 80 in (200 cm) in 1950–51.There is an average of 59 clear days and 103 partly cloudy days per year, while 203 days are cloudy.In terms of annual percent-average possible sunshine received, Pittsburgh (45%) is similar toSeattle(49%). Air quality TheAmerican Lung Association's(ALA) 2023 “State of the Air” report (which included data from 2019 to 2021) showed air quality in Pittsburgh improving. The city received a passing grade for ozone pollution, going from an F to a C grade, and improving from the 46th to 54th most polluted by ozone smog. According to daily ozone air quality data provided by the EPA, from 2021 to 2024, Pittsburgh had good or moderate air quality most of the time.Then-Allegheny County executive Rich Fitzgerald said in December 2023 that they’d seen an “80 % drop in hazardous air pollutants” and that they made EPA attainment at all eight county air monitors for the first time in 2020, and then also achieved that goal in 2021, 2022, and were on track for better results in 2023. A past 2019 \"State of the Air\" report from theAmerican Lung Association(ALA) found that air quality in the Pittsburgh-New Castle-Weirton, PA-OH-WV metro area worsened compared to previous reports, not only for ozone (smog), but also for the second year in a row for both the daily and long-term measures of fine particle pollution. In 2019, outside of California, Allegheny County was the only county in the United States that recorded failing grades for all three. In a 2013 ranking of 277 metropolitan areas in the United States, theAmerican Lung Associationranked only six U.S. metro areas as having higher amounts of short-term particle pollution, and only seven U.S. metro areas having higher amounts of year-round particle pollution than Pittsburgh. For ozone (smog) pollution, Pittsburgh was ranked 24th among U.S. metro areas.The area has improved its air quality with every annual survey. The ALA's rankings have been disputed by the Allegheny County Health Department (ACHD), since data from only the worst of the region's 20 air quality monitors is considered by the ALA, without any context or averaging. The lone monitor used is immediately downwind and adjacent to U.S. Steel'sClairton Coke Works, the nation's largestcokemill, and several municipalities outside the city's jurisdiction of pollution controls, leading to possible confusion that Pittsburgh is the source or center of the emissions cited in the survey.The region's readings also reflect pollution swept in from Ohio and West Virginia. Although the county was still below the \"pass\" threshold, the report showed substantial improvement over previous decades on every air quality measure. Fewer than 15 high ozone days were reported between 2007 and 2009, and just 10 between 2008 and 2010, compared to more than 40 between 1997 and 1999.ACHD spokesman Guillermo Cole stated \"It's the best it's been in the lifetime for virtually every resident in this county ... We've seen a steady decrease in pollution levels over the past decade and certainly over the past 20, 30, 40, 50 years, or more.\" As of 2005, the city includes 31,000 trees on 900 miles of streets. A 2011 analysis of Pittsburgh's tree cover, which involved sampling more than 200 small plots throughout the city, showed a value of between $10 and $13 million in annual benefits based on theurban forestcontributions to aesthetics, energy use and air quality. Energy savings from shade, impact on city air and water quality, and the boost in property values were taken into account in the analysis. The city spends $850,000 annually on street tree planting and maintenance. Despite improvements, some studies still suggest that poor air quality in Pittsburgh is causing negative health effects. In a past study conducted between 2014 and 2016 researchers determined that children who lived in areas close to sources of pollution, such as industrial sites, experienced rates of asthma at almost 3 times the national average.The study also found that 38% of students live in areas over USEPA's 12 micrograms per cubic meter standards, while 70% live in areas over the WHO's standard of 10 micrograms per cubic meter.Several of the plants were located in or very near Pittsburgh.The study also noted that most of the effected communities were minority communities.This had led some residents in Pittsburgh to believe that the continuing effects of air pollution are a case of environmental racism. Groups such as Women for a Healthy Environment are working to address ongoing concerns surrounding air pollution in Pittsburgh.WHE does work such as policy analysis, publishing reports, and community education.In the summer of 2017, a crowd sourced air quality monitoring application, Smell PGH, was launched. As air quality is still a concern of many in the area, the app allows for users to report odd smells and informs local authorities. Water quality The local rivers continue to have pollution levels exceeding EPA limits.This is caused byfrequently overflowing untreated sewageinto local waterways, due to flood conditions and antiquated infrastructure. Pittsburgh has acombined sewersystem, where its sewage pipes contain both stormwater and wastewater. The pipes were constructed in the early 1900s, and the sewage treatment plant was built in 1959.Due to insufficient improvements over time, the city is faced with public health concerns regarding its water.As little as a tenth of an inch of rain causes runoffs from the sewage system to drain into local rivers.Nine billion gallons of untreated waste and stormwater flow into rivers, leading to health hazards and Clean Water Act violations.The local sewage authority,Allegheny County Sanitary Authority, or ALCOSAN, is operating under Consent Decree from theEPAto come up with solutions.In 2017, ALCOSAN proposed a $2 billion upgrade to the system which was approved by the EPA in 2019. Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority(PWSA) is the city's agency required to replace pipes and charge water rates. They have come under fire from both city and state authorities due to alleged mismanagement.In 2017,Mayor William Pedutoadvocated for a restructuring of the PWSA and a partially privatized water authority.Governor Wolf subsequently assigned the PWSA to be under the oversight of the Public Utilities Commission (PUC). PWSA has also been subject to criticism due to findings released in 2016 showing high levels of lead in Pittsburgh's drinking water.Although Pittsburgh's drinking water had been high in lead levels, and steadily rising, for many years, many residents blame PWSA administrative changes for the spike in lead levels.In the years prior, PWSA had hired Veolia, a Paris-based company, for consultation to help with mounting administrative difficulties.By 2015, PWSA in consultation with Veolia had laid off 23 people, including halving the laboratory staff that was responsible for testing water safety and quality.Simultaneously, PWSA in consultation with Veolia had changed what chemicals they were using to prevent metal corrosion in 2014,from soda ash to caustic soda, without consulting with Department of Environmental Protection.Anti-corrosive chemicals were being used because many of Pittsburgh's water pipes were made of lead, and adding anti-corrosive chemicals helped prevent lead from seeping into drinking water. In 2016 lead levels were as high as 27 ppb in some cases. The legal limit is 15 ppb, although there is not a safe amount of lead in drinking water.Though lead levels had been rising in previous years, they had not exceeded the legal limit.In late 2015 PWSA terminated its contracted with Veolia.In response to the high lead levels PWSA began adding orthophosphate to the water.Orthophosphate is meant to create a coating on the inside of pipes, creating a barrier to prevent lead from leaching into drinking water.PWSA has also been working to replace lead pipes, and continuing to test water for lead. There remains concern among residents over the long-term effects of this lead, particularly for children, in whom lead causes permanent damage to the brain and nervous system.Some people also believe that the high levels of lead reflect environmental racism, as black and Hispanic children in Pittsburgh experience elevated blood-lead levels at 4 times the rate of white children.Water fountains in Langley k-8 school in Sheraden were found to have the highest levels of lead of any schools in the Pittsburgh area. These levels were about 11 times the legal limit. Some residents believe this is due to Langely being a predominantly black school, with 89% of the student body being eligible for the free lunch program. Demographics 2020 census At the 2010 census, there were 305,704 people residing in Pittsburgh, a decrease of 8.6% since 2000; 66.0% of the population was White, 25.8% Black or African American, 0.2% American Indian and Alaska Native, 4.4% Asian, 0.3% Other, and 2.3% mixed; in 2020, 2.3% of Pittsburgh's population was of Hispanic or Latino American origin of any race.Non-Hispanic whiteswere 64.8% of the population in 2010,compared to 78.7% in 1970.By the2020 census, the population slightly declined further to 302,971.Its racial and ethnic makeup in 2020 was 64.7% non-Hispanic white, 23.0% Black or African American, 5.8% Asian, and 3.2% Hispanic or Latino American of any race. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the five largest European ethnic groups in Pittsburgh were German (19.7%), Irish (15.8%), Italian (11.8%), Polish (8.4%), and English (4.6%), while the metropolitan area is approximately 22% German-American, 15.4% Italian American and 11.6% Irish American. Pittsburgh has one of the largest Italian-American communities in the nation,and the fifth-largestUkrainiancommunity per the 1990 census.Pittsburgh has one of the most extensiveCroatiancommunities in the United States.Overall, the Pittsburgh metro area has one of the largest populations of Slavic Americans in the country. Pittsburgh has a sizable Black and African American population, concentrated in various neighborhoods especially in the East End. There is also a small Asian community consisting of Indian immigrants, and a small Hispanic community consisting of Mexicans and Puerto Ricans. According to a 2010Association of Religion Data Archives(ARDA) study, residents include 773,341 \"Catholics\"; 326,125 \"Mainline Protestants\"; 174,119 \"Evangelical Protestants;\" 20,976 \"Black Protestants;\" and 16,405 \"Orthodox Christians,\" with 996,826 listed as \"unclaimed\" and 16,405 as \"other\" in the metro area.A 2017 study by the Cohen Center for Modern Jewish Studies atBrandeis Universityestimated theJewish population of Greater Pittsburghwas 49,200.Pittsburgh is also cited as the location where the earliest precursor toJehovah's Witnesseswas founded byCharles Taze Russell; today the denomination makes up approximately 1% of the population based on data from thePew Research Center. According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, 78% of the population of the city identified themselves as Christians, with 42% professing attendance at a variety of churches that could be consideredProtestant, and 32% professingCatholicbeliefs. while 18% claim no religious affiliation. The same study says that other religions (including Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, and Hinduism) collectively make up about 4% of the population. In 2010, there were 143,739 households, out of which 21.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.2% were married couples living together, 16.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 48.4% were non-families. 39.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.17 and the average family size was 2.95. In the city, the population was spread out, with 19.9% under the age of 18, 14.8% from 18 to 24, 28.6% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 16.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.8 males. Themedian incomefor a household in the city was $28,588, and the median income for a family was $38,795. Males had a median income of $32,128 versus $25,500 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,816. About 15.0% of families and 20.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 27.5% of those under the age of 18 and 13.5% ages 65 or older. By the 2019American Community Survey, the median income for a household increased to $53,799.Families had a median income of $68,922; married-couple families had a median income of $93,500; and non-family households had a median income of $34,448. Pittsburgh's wealthiest suburbs within city limits areSquirrel HillandPoint Breeze, the only two areas of the city which have average household incomes over $100,000 a year. Outside of city limits,Sewickley Heightsis by a wide margin the wealthiest suburb of Pittsburgh within Allegheny County, with an average yearly household income of just over $218,000. Sewickely Heights is seen as one of Pittsburgh's wealthiest suburbs culturally as well, titles which the suburbs ofUpper St. Clair,Fox Chapel,Wexford, andWarrendalealso have been bestowed. In a 2002 study, Pittsburgh ranked 22nd of 69 urban places in the U.S. in the number of residents 25 years or older who had completed a bachelor's degree, at 31%.Pittsburgh ranked 15th of the 69 places in the number of residents 25 years or older who completed a high school degree, at 84.7%. Themetro areahas shown greater residentialracial integrationduring the last 30 years. The 2010 census ranked 18 other U.S. metros as having greater black-whitesegregation, while 32 other U.S. metros rank higher for black-white isolation. As of 2018, much of Pittsburgh's population density was concentrated in the central, southern, and eastern areas. The city limits itself have a population density of 5,513 people per square mile; its most densely populated parts areNorth Oakland(at 21,200 per square mile) andUptown Pittsburgh(at 19,869 per square mile). Outside of the city limits,DormontandMount Oliverare Pittsburgh's most densely-populated neighborhoods, with 11,167 and 9,902 people per square mile respectively. Most of Pittsburgh's immigrants are fromChina,India,KoreaandItaly. Demographic changes Since the 1940s, some demographic changes have sometimes been caused by city initiatives for redevelopment. Throughout the 1950s Pittsburgh's Lower Hill District faced massive demographic changes when 1,551, majority black, residents and 413 businesses were forced to relocate when the city of Pittsburgh used eminent domain to make space for the construction of the Civic Arena.This Civic Arena ultimately opened in 1961.The Civic Arena was built as part of one of Pittsburgh's revitalization campaigns. An auditorium in this space was initially proposed in 1947 by the Regional Planning Association and Urban Redevelopment Authority. The idea of an auditorium with a retractable roof that would house the Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera was more specifically proposed in 1953 by the Allegheny Conference on Community Redevelopment. The following year the Public Auditorium Authority of Pittsburgh and Allegheny County was formed. The Lower Hill District had been approved by the City Planning Commission in 1950.Partially as a result of the Civic arena, the whole Hill District is estimated to only have 12,000 residents now.These governmental organizations caused demographic changes through creating a mass exodus from the lower hill district for the construction of the Civic Arena. In the 1960s the Urban Redevelopment Authority attempted to redevelop East Liberty with the goal of preserving its status as a market center. Penn Center Mall was the result of this effort. In the process of constructing this mall, approximately 3,800 people were forced to relocate. This proved to be another case of government intervention resulting in demographic changes. Later on, in the early 2000s, movement of businesses into East Liberty, such as Home Depot, Whole Foods, and Google, created another demographic shift. This era of redevelopment was led by private developers who catered to what one scholar described as “Florida’s creative class.” This change continued to be supported by the Urban Redevelopment Authority; particularly by the executive director Rob Stepney, who said of the redevelopment “We had an inspired and shared vision.” When describing the result of redevelopment he said “East Liberty went from blighted and ‘keep off the grass’ to the definition of what millennials are looking for.” The Pittsburgh government’s choices during redevelopment and the resulting demographic changes have resulted in criticism and led some residents to believe that displacement was purposeful. In one article published in Public Source, a resident explains their belief that redevelopment plans are part of “deconcentration,” an effort to spread out black and low-income residents in order to prevent them from being concentrated in one place.Others worry that these demographic changes are part of government complicity in gentrification.Gentrification is a process where wealthier residents move into an area, altering it by increasing housing / renting costs and changing the market for businesses in the area. This displaces current residents who are unable to afford living in the changed neighborhood. In East Liberty, for example, people frequently cite housing units being demolished and replaced by businesses as evidence of gentrification. For example, when the East Mall public housing unit was demolished in 2009, and a Target built in its place. Economy Pittsburgh has adapted since the collapse of its century-long steel and electronics industries. The region has shifted to high technology,robotics, health care, nuclear engineering, tourism,biomedical technology, finance, education, and services. Annual payroll of the region's technology industries, when taken in aggregate, exceeded $10.8 billion in 2007,and in 2010 there were 1,600 technology companies.ANational Bureau of Economic Research2014 report named Pittsburgh the second-best U.S. city for intergenerational economic mobilityor theAmerican Dream.Reflecting the citywide shift from industry to technology, former factories have been renovated as modern office space. Google has research and technology offices in a refurbished 1918–1998Nabiscofactory, a complex known asBakery Square.Some of the factory's original equipment, such as a large dough mixer, were left standing in homage to the site's industrial roots.Pittsburgh's transition from itsindustrial heritagehas earned it praise as \"the poster child for managing industrial transition\".Other major cities in the northeast and mid-west have increasingly borrowed from Pittsburgh'smodelin order to renew their industries and economic base. The largest employer in the city is theUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center, with 48,000 employees. All hospitals, outpatient clinics, and doctor's office positions combine for 116,000 jobs, approximately 10% of the jobs in the region. An analyst recently observed of the city's medical sector: \"That's both more jobs and a higher share of the region's total employment than the steel industry represented in the 1970s.\" Education is a major economic driver in the region. The largest single employer in education is theUniversity of Pittsburgh, with 10,700 employees. TenFortune 500companies call the Pittsburgh area home.They are (in alphabetical order):Alcoa Corporation(NYSE: AA),Arconic Corporation(NYSE: ARNC),Dick's Sporting Goods(NYSE: DKS),The Kraft Heinz Company(NASDAQ: KHC),PNC Financial Services(NYSE: PNC),PPG Industries(NYSE: PPG),U.S. Steel Corporation(NYSE: X),Viatris(NASDAQ: VRTS),Wabtec Corporation(NYSE: WAB), andWESCO International(WYSE: WCC). The region is home toAurora,Allegheny Technologies,American Eagle Outfitters,Duolingo,EQT Corporation,CONSOL Energy,Howmet Aerospace,KennametalandII-VIheadquarters. Other major employers includeBNY Mellon,GlaxoSmithKline,Thermo Fisher Scientific, andLanxess. The Northeast U.S. regional headquarters forChevron Corporation,Nova Chemicals,Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu,FedEx Ground,Ariba, and theRAND Corporationcall the area home.84 Lumber,Giant Eagle,Highmark,Rue 21,General Nutrition Center(GNC), CNX Gas (CXG), andGenco Supply Chain Solutionsare major non-public companies headquartered in the region. The global impact of Pittsburgh technology and business was recently demonstrated in several key components of theBoeing 787 Dreamlinerbeing manufactured and supplied by area companies.Area retail is anchored by over 35shopping mallsand a healthy downtown retail sector, as well as boutique shops alongWalnut Street, inSquirrel Hill,LawrencevilleandStation Square. The nonprofit arts and cultural industry in Allegheny County generates $341 million in economic activity that supports over 10,000 full-time equivalent jobs with nearly $34 million in local and state taxes raised. A leader inenvironmental design, the city is home to 60 total and 10 of the world's firstgreen buildingswhile billions have been invested in the area'sMarcellusnatural gas fields.A renaissance of Pittsburgh's 116-year-old film industry—that boasts the world's firstmovie theater—has grown from the long-runningThree Rivers Film Festivalto an influx ofmajor televisionandmovie productions. includingDisneyandParamountoffices with the largest sound stage outside Los Angeles and New York City. Pittsburgh has hosted many conventions, includingINPEX, the world's largest invention trade show, since 1984;Tekko, a four-day anime convention, since 2003;Anthrocon, a furry convention, since 2006; and theDUG Eastenergy trade show since 2009. In 2015, Pittsburgh was listed among the \"eleven most livable cities in the world\" byMetropolismagazine.The Economist'sGlobal Liveability Rankingplaced Pittsburgh as the most or second-most livable city in the United States in 2005, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2018. Arts and culture Entertainment Pittsburgh has a rich history in arts and culture dating from 19th century industrialists commissioning and donating public works, such asHeinz Hall for the Performing Artsand theBenedum Center, home to thePittsburgh Symphony OrchestraandPittsburgh Opera, respectively as well as such groups as theRiver City Brass Bandand thePittsburgh Youth Symphony Orchestra. Pittsburgh has a number of small and mid-size arts organizations including thePittsburgh Irish and Classical Theatre,Quantum Theatre, theRenaissance and Baroque Society of Pittsburgh, and the early music ensembleChatham Baroque. Several choirs and singing groups are also present at the cities' universities; some of the most notable include thePitt Men's Glee Cluband theHeinz Chapel Choir. Pittsburgh Dance Counciland thePittsburgh Ballet Theaterhost a variety of dance events. Polka, folk, square, and round dancing have a long history in the city and are celebrated by theDuquesne University Tamburitzans, a multicultural academy dedicated to the preservation and presentation of folk songs and dance. Hundreds of major films have been shot partially or wholly in Pittsburgh.The Dark Knight Riseswas largely filmed in Downtown, Oakland, and the North Shore. Pittsburgh is also considered as the birthplace of the modernzombie filmgenre afterGeorge A. Romerodirected the 1968 filmNight of the Living Dead.Pittsburgh has also teamed up with a Los Angeles-based production company, and has built the largest and most advanced movie studio in theeastern United States. Pittsburgh's major art museums include theAndy Warhol Museum, theCarnegie Museum of Art,The Frick Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh Center for the Arts, theMattress Factory, and theCarnegie Museum of Natural History, which has extensive dinosaur, mineral, animal, andEgyptiancollections. TheKamin Science Centerand associatedSportsWorkshas interactive technology and science exhibits. TheSenator John Heinz History Center and Western Pennsylvania Sports Museumis a Smithsonian affiliated regional history museum in the Strip District and its associatedFort Pitt Museumis in Point State Park.Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall and Museumin Oakland houses Western Pennsylvania military exhibits from the Civil War to present. TheChildren's Museum of Pittsburghon the North Side features interactive exhibits for children. The eclecticBayernhof Music Museumis six miles (9km) from downtown whileThe Clemente Museumis in the city's Lawrenceville section. TheCathedral of Learning'sNationality Roomsshowcase pre-19th century learning environments from around the world. There are regular guided and self-guided architectural tours in numerous neighborhoods. Downtown's cultural district hosts quarterly Gallery Crawls and the annualThree Rivers Arts Festival. Pittsburgh is home to a number of art galleries and centers including theMiller Gallery at Carnegie Mellon University,University Art Galleryof the University of Pittsburgh, theAmerican Jewish Museum, and theWood Street Galleries. ThePittsburgh Zoo & Aquarium,Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens, and theNational Aviaryhave served the city for over a century. Pittsburgh is home to the amusement parkKennywood. Pittsburgh is home to one of the several state licensed casinos. TheRivers Casinois on theNorth Shorealong theOhio River, just west ofKamin Science CenterandAcrisure Stadium. Pittsburgh is home to the world's largest furry convention known asAnthrocon, which has been held annually at theDavid L. Lawrence Convention Centersince 2006. In 2024, Anthrocon drew over 17,000 visitors and has had a cumulative economic impact of $53 million over the course of its 11 years of being hosted in Pittsburgh. Lifetime's reality show,Dance Moms, is filmed at Pittsburgh's Abby Lee Dance Company. Music Pittsburgh has a long tradition ofjazz,blues, andbluegrass music. TheNational Negro Opera Companywas founded in the city as the first all African-American opera company in the United States. This led to the prominence of African-American singers likeLeontyne Pricein the world of opera. One of the greatest American musicians and composers of the 20th century,Billy Strayhorn, grew up and was educated in Pittsburgh, as was pianist/composer-arrangerMary Lou Williams, who composed and recorded an eponymous tribute to her home town in 1966,featuring vocalistLeon Thomas. Pittsburgh'sWiz Khalifais a recent artist to have a number one record. His anthem \"Black and Yellow\" (a tribute to Pittsburgh's official colors) reached number one on Billboard's \"Hot 100\"for the Week of February 19, 2011.Perry ComoandChristina Aguileraare from Pittsburgh suburbs. The city is also where the bandRusted Rootwas formed. Liz Berlin of Rusted Root owns Mr. Smalls, a popular music venue for touring national acts in Pittsburgh.Hip hop artistMac Millerwas also a Pittsburgh native, with his debut albumBlue Slide Parknamed after the localFrick Park. Manypunk rockandHardcore punkacts, such asAus RottenandAnti-Flag, originated in Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh has also seen many metal bands gain prominence in recent years,most notablyCode Orange, who were nominated for a Grammy. The city was also home to the highly influentialmath rockbandDon Caballero. Pittsburgh has emerged as a leading city in the United States'heavy metal musicscene. Ranking as the third 'most metal city' in a study conducted by MetalSucks,Pittsburgh has earned a reputation for its heavy metal community. Pittsburgh is home to over six-hundred heavy metal bands,as well as heavy metal coffee shopsand bars. The city is noted for itsdoom metal,metalcore, anddeath metalscenes. Throughout the 1990s there was anelectronic musicsubculturein Pittsburgh which likely traced its origins to similar Internetchatroom-based movements inDetroit,Cleveland,Minneapolis, and across the United States.PittsburghpromotersandDJsorganizedravesin warehouses,ice rinks, barns, and fields which eventually attracted thousands of attendees, some of whom were high school students or even younger.As the events grew more popular, they drew internationally known DJs such asAdam BeyerandRichie Hawtin.Pittsburgh rave culture itself spawned at least one well-known artist, thedrum and bassDJDieselboy, who attended theUniversity of Pittsburghbetween 1990 and 1995. Since 2012, Pittsburgh has been the home ofHot Mass, an afterhours electronic musicdance partywhich critics have compared favorably to European nightclubs and parties.Electronic music artist and DJYaejicredits Hot Mass with her \"indoctrination into nightlife\"; she regularly attended the party while studying atCarnegie Mellon University. Theatre The city's first play was produced at theold courthousein 1803and the first theater built in 1812.Collegiate companies include the University of Pittsburgh'sRepertory TheatreandKuntu Repertory Theatre, Point Park University's resident companies at itsPittsburgh Playhouse, and Carnegie Mellon University's School of Drama productions andScotch'n'Sodaorganization. The Duquesne University Red Masquers, founded in 1912, are the oldest, continuously producing theater company in Pennsylvania.The city's longest-running theater show,Friday Nite Improvs, is an improv jam that has been performed in theCathedral of Learningand other locations for 20 years. ThePittsburgh New Works Festivalutilizes local theater companies to stage productions of original one-act plays by playwrights from all parts of the country. Similarly,Future Tenshowcases new ten-minute plays.Saint Vincent Summer Theatre,Off the Wall Productions,Mountain Playhouse, The Theatre Factory, andStage Right!in nearbyLatrobe,Carnegie,Jennerstown,Trafford, andGreensburg, respectively, employ Pittsburgh actors and contribute to the culture of the region. Pittsburgh is well known for being home to the late playwright August Wilson.The August Wilson House now remains in Pittsburgh to celebrate the life and work of August Wilson, continue to produce his plays, and serve as an arts center for the Hill District, where Wilson was from. Literature Pittsburgh is the birthplace ofGertrude SteinandRachel Carson, aChatham Universitygraduate from the suburb ofSpringdale, Pennsylvania.Modern writers includePulitzer Prize-winning playwrightAugust WilsonandMichael Chabonwith his Pittsburgh-focused commentary on student and college life. Two-time Pulitzer Prize winner and recipient of thePresidential Medal of Freedom,David McCulloughwas born and raised in Pittsburgh.Annie Dillard, a Pulitzer Prize–winning writer, was born and raised in Pittsburgh. Much of her memoirAn American Childhoodtakes place in post-World War II Pittsburgh. Award-winning authorJohn Edgar Widemangrew up in Pittsburgh and has based several of his books, including the memoirBrothers and Keepers, in his hometown. PoetTerrance Hayes, winner of the 2010 National Book Award and a 2014 MacArthur Foundation Fellow, received his MFA from the University of Pittsburgh, where he is a faculty member. PoetMichael Simms, founder ofAutumn House Press, resides in the Mount Washington neighborhood of Pittsburgh. PoetSamuel John Hazo, the first poet Laureate of Pennsylvania, resides in the city. Contemporary writers from Pittsburgh includeKathleen Tessaro, author of novels such as \"Elegance,\" \"The Perfume Collector,\" and \"Rare Objects,\" whose works contribute to the city's rich literary tradition. New writers includeChris Kuzneski, who attended theUniversity of Pittsburghand mentions Pittsburgh in his works, and Pittsburgher Brian Celio, author ofCatapult Soul, who captured the Pittsburgh 'Yinzer' dialect in his writing. Pittsburgh's unique literary style extends to playwrights,as well as local graffiti and hip hop artists. Pittsburgh's position as the birthplace for community owned television and networked commercial television helped spawn the modern children's show genres exemplified byMister Rogers' Neighborhood,Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego?,Happy's Party,Cappelli & Company, andThe Children's Corner, all nationally broadcast. ThePittsburgh Dadseries has showcased thePittsburghesegenre to a global YouTube audience since 2011. The modern fantasy, macabre and science fiction genre was popularized by directorGeorge A. Romero, television'sBill Cardilleand hisChiller Theatre,director and writerRusty Cundieffand makeup effects guruTom Savini.The genre continues today with the PARSEC science fiction organization,The It's Alive Show, the annual \"Zombie Fest\",and several writer's workshops including Write or Die,Pittsburgh SouthWrites,and Pittsburgh WorldwrightswithBarton Paul Levenson,Kenneth ChiacchiaandElizabeth Humphreys Penrose. Food Pittsburgh is known for several specialties includingpierogies,kielbasa,chipped chopped hamsandwiches, andKlondike bars.In 2019, Pittsburgh was deemed \"Food City of the Year\" by the San Francisco-based restaurant and hospitality consulting firm af&co.Many restaurants were favorably mentioned, among them were Superior Motors inBraddock, Driftwood Oven inLawrenceville, Spork inBloomfield, Fish nor Fowl inGarfield, Bitter Ends Garden & Luncheonette inBloomfield, and Rolling Pepperoni inLawrenceville. Pittsburgh is home to the annualpickle-themed festivalPicklesburgh, which has been named the \"best specialtyfood festivalin America\". Local dialect The Pittsburgh English dialect, commonly calledPittsburghese, was influenced byScots-Irish, German, andEastern Europeanimmigrants and African Americans.Locals who speak the dialect are sometimes referred to as \"Yinzers\" (from the local word \"yinz\" , a blended form of \"you ones\", similar to \"y'all\" and \"you all\" in the South). Common Pittsburghese terms are: \"slippy\" (slippery), \"redd up\" (clean up), \"jagger bush\" (thorn bush), and \"gum bands\" (rubber bands). The dialect is also notable for dropping the verb \"to be\". In Pittsburghese one would say \"the car needs washed\" instead of \"needs to be washed\", \"needs washing\", or \"needs a wash.\" The dialect has some tonal similarities to other nearby regional dialects of Erie and Baltimore but is noted for its somewhatstaccatorhythms. The staccato qualities of the dialect are thought to originate either from Welsh or other European languages. The many local peculiarities have promptedThe New York Timesto describe Pittsburgh as \"theGalapagos Islandsof American dialect\".The lexicon itself contains notable loans fromPolishand other European languages; examples includebabushka,pierogi, andhalušky. Livability Pittsburgh has five city parks and several parks managed by theNature Conservancy. The largest,Frick Park, provides 664 acres (269 ha) of woodland park with extensive hiking and biking trails throughout steep valleys and wooded slopes. Birding enthusiasts visit the Clayton Hill area of Frick Park, where over 100 species of birds have been recorded. Residents living in extremely low-lying areas near the rivers or one of the 1,400 creeks and streams may have occasional floods,such as those caused when the remnants ofHurricane Ivanhit rainfall records in 2004.River flooding is relatively rare due to federal flood control efforts extensively managing locks, dams, and reservoirs.Residents living near smaller tributary streams are less protected from occasional flooding. The cost of a comprehensive flood control program for the region has been estimated at a prohibitive $50 billion. Pittsburgh has the greatest number of bars per capita in the nation. Sports Pittsburgh hosted thefirst professional football gameand thefirst World Series. In 2009, Pittsburgh won theSporting Newstitle of \"Best Sports City\" in the United Statesand, in 2013,Sperling's Best Places\"top 15 cities for baseball\".College sports also have large followings with the University of Pittsburgh in football and sharing Division I basketball fans with Robert Morris and Duquesne. Pittsburgh has a long history with its major professional sports teams—theSteelersof theNational Football League, thePenguinsof theNational Hockey League, and thePiratesofMajor League Baseball—which all share the same team colors, theofficial city colors of black and gold.Pittsburgh is the only city in the United States where this practice of sharing team colors in solidarity takes place.The black-and-gold color scheme has since become widely associated with the city and personified in its famousTerrible Towel. ThePittsburgh Riverhoundsare a professional soccer team who have been playing in Pittsburgh since they were established in 1999. They are a member of theUSL Championshipdivision, a second-tier league of US professional soccer and are in the league's Eastern Conference. The Riverhounds play their home matches atHighmark Stadium (Pennsylvania)a 5,000 seatsoccer-specific stadiumlocated in Pittsburgh'sStation Square. In keeping with the uniformity of professional sports teams in Pittsburgh, the Riverhounds colors are black and gold. \"Rails to Trails\", has converted miles of formerrail tracksto recreational trails, including aPittsburgh-Washington D.C. bike/walking trail.Severalmountain bikingtrails are within the city and suburbs,Frick Parkhas biking trails andHartwood Acres Parkhas many miles ofsingle tracktrails. Professional Major league Minor league/other **Pittsburgh's ABA franchise won the 1968 title, but the Steel City Yellow Jackets franchise is heir to it only in location. College Power 5 Other Baseball his is the perfect blend of location, history, design, comfort and baseball ... The best stadium in baseball is in Pittsburgh. ESPN ThePittsburgh Piratesbaseball team, often referred to as the Bucs or the Buccos (derived frombuccaneer), is the city's oldest professional sports franchise, having been founded in 1881, and plays in theCentral Divisionof theNational League. The Pirates are nine-time Pennant winners and five-timeWorld SeriesChampions, were in the firstWorld Series (1903)and claim two pre-World Series titles in 1901 and 1902. The Pirates play inPNC Park. Pittsburgh also has a richNegro leaguehistory, with the formerPittsburgh Crawfordsand theHomestead Grayscredited with as many as 14 league titles and 11 Hall of Famers between them in the 1930s and 1940s, while theKeystonesfielded teams in the 1920s. In addition, in 1971 the Pirates were the first Major League team to field an all-minority lineup. One sportswriter claimed, \"No city is more synonymous with black baseball than Pittsburgh.\" Since the late 20th century, the Pirates had three consecutiveNational League Championship Seriesappearances (1990–92) (going 6, 7 and 7 games each), followed by setting the MLB record for most consecutive losing seasons, with 20 from 1993 until 2012. This era was followed by three consecutive postseason appearances: the 2013National League Division Seriesand the 2014–2015 Wild Card games. TheirSeptember pennant racein 1997 featured the franchises' last no-hitter and last award forSporting News' Executive of the Year. Football The city's professional team,NFL'sPittsburgh Steelers, is named after the distribution company the Pittsburgh Steeling company established in 1927. News of the team has preempted news of elections and other events and are important to the region and itsdiaspora. The Steelers have been owned by theRooney familysince the team's founding in 1933, show consistency in coaching (only three coaches since the 1960s all with the same basic philosophy) and are noted as one of sports' most respectable franchises.The Steelers have a long waiting list for season tickets, and have sold out every home game since 1972.The team won fourSuper Bowlsin a six-year span in the 1970s, afifth Super Bowlin 2006, and a league recordsixth Super Bowlin 2009. Since the AFL-NFL merger in 1970 they have qualified for the most NFL playoff berths (28) and have played in (15) and hosted (11) the most NFL conference championship games. High school footballroutinely attract 10,000 fans per game and extensive press coverage.TheTom CruisefilmAll the Right Movesand ESPN'sBound for GlorywithDick Butkusboth filmed in the area to capture the tradition and passion of local high school football. College footballin the city dates to 1889with theDivision I(FBS)Panthersof the University of Pittsburgh posting ninenational championships, qualifying 37 total bowl games, appearing in the2018 ACC Championship Game, and winning the2021 ACC Championship Gamewhich was the program's first conference title since leaving theBig Eastfor theACCbetween the 2012 and 2013 seasons.Local universities Duquesne and Robert Morris have loyal fan bases that follow their lower(FCS)teams. Duquesne, Carnegie Mellon University, andWashington & Jefferson Collegeall posted major bowl games and AP Poll rankings from the 1920s to the 1940s as that era's equivalent of Top 25 FBS programs. Acrisure Stadium serves as home for the Steelers, Panthers, and both the suburban and city high school championships. Playoff franchisesPittsburgh Powerand Pittsburgh Gladiators competed in theArena Football Leaguein the 1980s and 2010s respectively. The Gladiators hostedArenaBowl Iin the city, competing in two, but losing both before moving toTampa, Floridaand becoming theStorm.ThePittsburgh Passionhas been the city's professional women's football team since 2002 and plays its home games atHighmark Stadium. TheEd DebartoloownedPittsburgh Maulersfeatured aHeisman Trophywinner in the mid-1980s, former superstar University of Nebraska running backMike Rozier. Hockey The NHL'sPittsburgh Penguinshave played in Pittsburgh since the team's founding in 1967. The team has won 6Eastern Conferencetitles (1991, 1992, 2008, 2009, 2016 and 2017) and 5Stanley Cupchampionships (1991, 1992, 2009, 2016 and 2017). Since 1999, Hall of Famer and back-to-back playoff MVPMario Lemieuxhas served as Penguins owner. Until moving into thePPG Paints Arenain 2010 (when it was known as Consol Energy Center), the team played their home games at the world's first retractable domed stadium, theCivic Arena, or in local parlance \"The Igloo\". Ice hockeyhas had a regional fan base since the 1890s semi-proKeystones. The city's first ice rink dates back to 1889, when there was an ice rink at the Casino inSchenley Park. From 1896 to 1956, the Exposition Building on the Allegheny River near The Point and Duquesne Gardens in Oakland offered indoor skating. The NHL awarded one of its first franchises to the city in 1924 on the strength of the back-to-back USAHA championship winningPittsburgh Yellow Jacketsfeaturing future Hall of Famers and a Stanley Cup winning coach. The NHL'sPittsburgh Piratesmade several Stanley Cup playoff runs with a future Hall of Famer before folding fromGreat Depressionfinancial pressures. Hockey survived with thePittsburgh Hornetsfarm team (1936–1967) and their seven finals appearances and three championships in 18 playoff seasons. Robert Morris Universityfields a Division I college hockey team at theIsland Sports Center. Pittsburgh has semi-pro and amateur teams such as the Pittsburgh Penguins Elite.Pro-grade ice rinks such as theRostraver Ice Garden, Mt. Lebanon Recreation Center andIceoplex at Southpointehave trained several native Pittsburgh players for NHL play. RMU hosted the city's firstFrozen Fourcollege championship in 2013 with the four PPG Paints Arena games televised byESPN. Basketball Professional basketballin Pittsburgh dates to the 1910s with teams \"Monticello\" and \"Loendi\" winningfive national titles, thePirates(1937–45 in theNBL), thePittsburgh Ironmen(1947–48NBAinaugural season), thePittsburgh Rens(1961–63), thePittsburgh Pipers(firstAmerican Basketball Associationchampionship in 1968) led by Connie Hawkins (team then moved); the Pittsburgh Condors (ABA returned in 1970–72), thePittsburgh Piranhas(CBA Finals in 1995), thePittsburgh Xplosion(2004–08) andPhantoms(2009–10) both of theABA. The city has hosted dozens of pre-season and 15 regular season \"neutral site\" NBA games, includingWilt Chamberlain's record setting performance in both consecutive field goals and field goal percentage on February 24, 1967, NBA records that still stand. The Duquesne UniversityDukesand the University of PittsburghPanthershave playedcollege basketballin the city since 1914 and 1905 respectively. Pitt and Duquesne have played the annualCity Gamesince 1932. Duquesne was the city's first team to appear in aFinal Four(1940), obtain a number oneAP Pollranking (1954),and to win a post-season national title, the1955 National Invitation Tournamenton its second straight trip to the NIT title game. Duquesne is the only college program to produce back-to-back NBA No. 1 overall draft picks with 1955's Dick Ricketts and 1956's Sihugo Green.Duquesne'sChuck Cooperwas the first African American drafted by an NBA team. The Panthers won two pre-tournament eraHelms Athletic FoundationNational Championshipsin 1928 and 1930, competed in a \"national title game\" againstLSUin 1935, and made a Final Four appearance in 1941. Pitt has won 13 conference titles, qualified for the NCAA tournament 26 times including a post season tournament every season between 1999-2000 and 2015-2016 during which time it regularly sold out thePetersen Events Center. The program has produced 27 NBA draft picks and 15 All Americans while ranking No. 1 in the nation as recently as 2009. The Petersen Events Center is home to the \"Oakland Zoo\", astudent sectionwhich is nationally recognizedfor its passionate members and perseverance through consecutive unsuccessful seasons from 2016 to 2022. The suburbanRobert Morris University's Colonialshave competed in NCAA Division I basketball since the 1970s, qualifying for the NCAA tournament in each of the last four decades (8). In the2013 National Invitation Tournamentthe Colonials notched an upset win over the defending national champions Kentucky Wildcats. Pittsburgh Panthers women's basketballhas qualified for 14 post season tournaments (including 4 NCAA tournaments) and boasts of 5 All-Americans selected 6 times with 3 WNBA players. Pitt women began play in 1914 before being reintroduced in 1970. Both Duquesne and Robert Morris also have competitive Division I women's basketball programs. Pittsburgh launched the nation's first high school all-star game in 1965.TheRoundball Classicannually featured future NBA hall of famers at the Civic Arena withESPNtelevising. The Civic Arena also hosted thechampionship tournament for the Eastern Eight Conferencefrom 1978 until 1982. Soccer TheRiverhounds, an American professionalsoccerteam, were founded in 1998. Like the major league teams in the city, the Riverhounds wear black and gold kits. The club plays in theEastern Conferenceof theUSL Championship, the second tier of the American soccer pyramid. The Riverhounds play their home games atHighmark Stadium, asoccer-specific stadiumlocated inStation Square. Golf Golfhas deep roots in the area. The oldest U.S. course in continuous use,Foxburg Country Clubdating from 1887 calls the region home.SuburbanOakmont Country Clubholds the record for most times as host for theU.S. Open(8).U.S. Women's Open(2),PGA Championships(3), andU.S. Amateurs(8) have also called Oakmont home. Golf legendsArnold Palmer,Jim Furyk, andRocco Mediatelearned the game and began their careers on Pittsburgh area courses.Suburban courses such asLaurel Valley Golf Cluband the Fox Chapel Golf Club have hosted PGA Championships (1937, 1965), theRyder Cup(1975),LPGA Championships(1957–58),Senior Players Championships(2012–14), and theSenior PGA Championship(2005). Local courses have sponsored annual major tournaments for 40 years: Professional wrestling Many notableprofessional wrestlersand promoters have hailed from the city or started their careers in Pittsburgh, includingBruno Sammartino,Kurt Angle,Shane Douglas,Corey Graves,Dominic DeNucci,Elias,Britt Bakerand many more. TheFineviewsection of Pittsburgh served as the base of the televised showStudio Wrestlingduring the 1960s.TheKeystone State Wrestling Alliance(KSWA) is aprofessional wrestling promotionwhich was founded in Pittsburgh in 2000. It is the only promotion based in Pittsburgh. It operates in the city'sLawrenceville neighborhood. The KSWA performs Monthly on Saturdays at its main venue on 51st Street. Annual sporting events Pittsburgh hosts several annual major sporting events initiated in the late 20th century, including the: The city's vibrant rivers have attracted annual world-title fishing competitions of theForrest Wood Cupin 2009 and theBassmaster Classicin 2005. Annual events continue during the winter months at area ski resorts such asBoyce Park,Seven Springs,Hidden Valley Resort,Laurel Mountain, andWisp. Ice skating rinks are enjoyed atPPG PlaceandNorth Park. Government and politics Government TheGovernment of Pittsburghis composed of theMayor of Pittsburgh, thePittsburgh City Council, and various boards and commissions. The mayor and the nine-member council each serve four-year terms. Since the 1950s theMayor's Chief of Staffhas assumed a large role in advising, long term planning, and as a \"gatekeeper\" to the mayor. City council members are chosen bypluralityelections in each of nine districts. The government's official offices are in thePittsburgh City-County Building. ThePennsylvania Supreme Courtholds sessions in Pittsburgh, as well asHarrisburgand Philadelphia. Pittsburgh is represented in thePennsylvania General Assemblyby threeSenate Districtsand nineHouse Districts. Federally, Pittsburgh is part ofPennsylvania's 12th congressional district. Politics In 2006, Council PresidentLuke Ravenstahlwas sworn in as mayor at age 26, becoming the youngest mayor in the history of any major American city. His successor,Bill Peduto, was sworn in on January 6, 2014. In November 2021, Pittsburgh elected its first African-American mayor,Ed Gainey. Prior to theAmerican Civil War, Pittsburgh was strongly abolitionist. It is considered thebirthplace of the national Republican Party,as the party held its first convention here in February 1856. From the Civil War to the 1930s, Pittsburgh was aRepublicanstronghold. The effects of theGreat Depression, combined with entrenched local GOP scandals, resulted in a shift among voters to the Democratic Party. With the exceptions of the1973and1977elections (where lifelong Democrats ran off the party ticket), Democrats have been elected consecutively to the mayor's office since the1933 election. The city's ratio of party registration is 5 to 1 Democrat. Pittsburgh is represented in thePennsylvania General Assemblyby threeSenate Districts(Lindsey Williams(D)-38,Wayne D. Fontana(D)-42, andJay Costa(D)-43) and nineHouse Districts(Aerion Abney-19, Adam Ravenstahl-20,Sara Innamorato-21,Dan Frankel-23, Martell Covington-24, Dan Deasy-27,Abigail Salisbury-34, and Harry Readshaw-36, Dan Miller-42). Federally, Pittsburgh is part ofPennsylvania's 12th congressional district, represented byDemocratSummer Leesince 2023 and also byDemocratChris Deluzio. Law enforcement The area's largest law enforcement agency is thePittsburgh Bureau of Police, with close to 850 sworn officers. The city also has separate housing and school police departments. Other agencies also provide police protection within the city because of overlapping jurisdictional boundaries. TheAllegheny County Sherifffocuses on jail andcourthousesecurity. TheAllegheny County Policeprimarily patrols county-owned parks and airports, while providing detective/investigatory functions for smaller suburbs and thePort Authority policepatrols rapid transit.Pennsylvania State PoliceTroop B provides patrols for the city and immediate suburbs. The county's lead law enforcement officer isAllegheny County District AttorneyStephen Zappalawhile theAllegheny County Medical Examinerheads forensics. Crimes of a federal nature are covered by theU.S. Attorney for Western Pennsylvania. Crime Pittsburgh annually ranks as one of America's safest big cities, in 2013 being named the 3rd \"most secure\" big city by Farmers Insurance.Amongcrime rates of the 60 largest U.S. cities, 43 had more instances of property crime while 16 had less when compared to Pittsburgh. More instances of violent crime were reported in 21 of the largest cities while 37 had less. The FBI recommends against using data for ranking.Per 100,000 persons stats (2012): At the end of 2019, the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police reported 37 murders in the city that year. In Pittsburgh, the homicide rate for African Americans is seven times the national average.Some people believe that over-reliance on law enforcement exacerbates homicide rates.There is also concern regarding the effectiveness of law enforcement in solving these cases, as 97% of unsolved cases involved a black victim.This has led certain residents to believe law enforcement to be ineffective or apathetic.This is despite an increasing police budget. In 2023, members of the Pittsburgh City Council approved an increase to the police budget by $6 million.About 6% of this money is expected to go to the Stop the Violence trust fund. This fund goes to improving parks and recreation, various non-profits, and to the office of Community Health and Safety, in effort to holistically improve the social pressures supposedly causing violence in Pittsburgh. Some people do not believe these efforts to be adequate. Certain studies, such as conducted by the Police Scorecard, rate the Pittsburgh Police Department at 37% quality (with 100% being the best). They rated Pittsburgh below the 50th percentile in the categories “police budget cost per person,” “fines / forefeitures,” “Police Presence/Over-Policing (Officers per Population),” “Force Used per Arrest,” “Racial Disparities in Deadly Force,” “Excessive Force Complaints Upheld,” “Discrimination Complaints Upheld,” “Criminal Misconduct Complaints Upheld,” “Arrest Rate for Low Level Offenses,” and “Racial Disparities in Drug Arrests.” This is 10 out of 15 categories. Education Colleges and universities Pittsburgh is home to many colleges, universities and research facilities, the most well-known of which areCarnegie Mellon University, theUniversity of Pittsburgh, andDuquesne University. Also in the city areCarlow University,Chatham University,Point Park University, theCommunity College of Allegheny County,Pittsburgh Theological Seminary,Reformed Presbyterian Theological Seminary, and thePittsburgh Institute of Mortuary Science. The campuses of Carlow, Carnegie Mellon, and the University of Pittsburgh are near each other in theOaklandneighborhood that is the city's traditional cultural center. Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) is a private research university founded byAndrew CarnegieandAndrew Mellon.CMU contains theMellon College of Science,School of Computer Science,College of Engineering,School of Business,Heinz College,College of Fine Arts, writing,Social and Decision Sciences, information systems, statistics, and psychology programs. The University of Pittsburgh, established in 1787 and popularly referred to as \"Pitt\", is astate-relatedschool with one of the nation's largest research programs.Pitt is known for theUniversity of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public and International Affairs,University of Pittsburgh School of Information Sciences,Swanson School of Engineering,University of Pittsburgh College of Business Administration,University of Pittsburgh School of Law,University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine,University of Pittsburgh School of Social Work, and other biomedical and health-related sciences. Carlow Universityis a small private Catholic university that while coeducational, has traditionally educated women.Chatham University, a liberal arts college that was founded as a woman's college but became fully coeducational in 2015,is in the Shadyside neighborhood, but also maintains a 388-acre (157 ha) Eden Hall Farm campus in theNorth Hills.Duquesne University, a private Catholic university in theBluffneighborhood and is noted for its song and dance troupe, theDuquesne University Tamburitzans, as well as programs in law, business, and pharmacy.Point Park Universitywas founded in 1961 and is well known for its Conservatory of Performing Arts and itsPittsburgh Playhouse. Primary education Pittsburgh Public Schoolsteachers are paid well relative to their peers, ranking 17th in 2000 among the 100 largest cities by population for the highest minimum salary. In 2018, the starting teacher salary offered to teachers with a BA was $46,920. The maximum annual salary for a teacher with a master's degree was $95,254. Local public schools include many charter and magnet schools, includingCity Charter High School(computer and technology focused), Pittsburgh Montessori School (formerly Homewood Montessori),Pittsburgh Gifted Center,Barack Obama Academy of International Studies 6-12,Pittsburgh Creative and Performing Arts 6–12,Pittsburgh Science and Technology Academy, theWestern Pennsylvania School for Blind Children, and theWestern Pennsylvania School for the Deaf. Private schools in Pittsburgh includeBishop Canevin High School,Central Catholic High School,Oakland Catholic High School,Winchester Thurston School,St. Edmund's Academy, Hillel Academy of Pittsburgh, Yeshiva Schools andThe Ellis School.Shady Side Academymaintains a PK–5 primary school campus in thePoint Breezeneighborhood, in addition to its 6–12 middle and upper school campuses in nearby suburbanFox Chapel. Other private institutions outside of Pittsburgh's limits includeNorth Catholic High SchoolandSeton-La Salle Catholic High School. The city also has an extensive library system, both public and university. Most notable are theCarnegie Library of Pittsburghand theUniversity of Pittsburgh's University Library System, which rank as the ninth-largest public and 18th-largest academic libraries in the nation, respectively. Media Newspapers There are two major daily newspapers in Pittsburgh: thePittsburgh Post-Gazetteand thePittsburgh Tribune-Reviewonline only (no longer in print for Pittsburgh Area). Weekly papers in the region include thePittsburgh Business Times,Pittsburgh City Paper,Pittsburgh Catholic,Pittsburgh Jewish Chronicle,The New People, and theNew Pittsburgh Courier. Independent student-written university-based newspapers includeThe Pitt Newsof theUniversity of Pittsburgh,The TartanofCarnegie Mellon University,The Duquesne DukeofDuquesne University, andThe GlobeofPoint Park University. TheUniversity of Pittsburgh School of Lawis also home toJURIST, the world's only university-based legal news service. Television The Pittsburgh metro area is served by multiple local television and radio stations. The Pittsburghdesignated market area(DMA) is the 22nd-largest in the U.S. with 1,163,150 homes (1.045% of the total U.S.).The major network television stations includeKDKA-TV2 (CBS),WTAE4 (ABC),WPXI11 (NBC),WINP-TV16 (Ion),WPKD-TV19 (Independent),WPNT22 (The CW/MyNetworkTV),WPCB40 (Cornerstone), andWPGH-TV53 (Fox). KDKA-TV, WINP-TV, and WPCB are owned-and-operated by their respective networks. WQED13 is the localPBSmember station in Pittsburgh. It was established on April 1, 1954, and was the first community-sponsored television station and the fifth public station in the United States. The station has produced much original content for PBS, includingMr. Rogers' Neighborhood, severalNational Geographicspecials, andWhere in the World is Carmen Sandiego? Radio A wide variety ofradio stationsserve the Pittsburgh market. The first wasKDKA1020 AM, also the world's first commercially licensed radio station, which began airing on November 2, 1920.Other stations includeKQV1410 AM (news),WBGG970 AM (sports),KDKA-FM93.7 FM (sports),WKST-FM96.1 FM (Top 40),WAMO-AM660 AM and 107.3 FM (urban contemporary)WBZZ100.7 FM (adult contemporary),WDVE102.5 FM (album rock),WPGB104.7 FM (Country), andWXDX105.9 FM (modern rock). There are also threepublic radio stationsin the area:WESA90.5 FM (National Public Radioaffiliate),WQED89.3 FM (classical), andWYEP91.3 FM (adult alternative). Three non-commercial stations are run byCarnegie Mellon University(WRCT88.3 FM), theUniversity of Pittsburgh(WPTS92.1 FM), andPoint Park University(WPPJ670 AM). Film Pittsburgh's 116-year-old film industry accelerated after the 2006 passage of thePennsylvania Film Production Tax Credit.According to thePittsburgh Film Office, over 124 major motion pictures have been filmed, in whole or in part, in Pittsburgh, includingThe Mothman Prophecies,Wonder Boys,Dogma,Hoffa,The Silence of the Lambs,Sudden Death,Flashdance,Southpaw,Striking Distance,Mrs. Soffel,Jack Reacher,Inspector Gadget,The Next Three Days,The Perks of Being a Wallflower,Zack and Miri Make a Porno, andFences.Pittsburgh became \"Gotham City\" in 2011 during filming ofThe Dark Knight Rises.George A. Romeroshot nearly all his films in the area, including hisLiving Deadseries. Film production in Pittsburgh has notably impacted the region's economy and job creation, largely due to the 25% tax credit incentive established in 2007.The Pittsburgh Film Office states that the film and television industry provides employment to over 10,000 people and pays over $500 million in wages in southwestern Pennsylvania.Furthermore, the industry supports over 345,000 local businesses and contributes over $41 billion to them. From 2017 to 2023, Pittsburgh has welcomed a series of major film and television productions likeFences,Mindhunter,Ma Rainey's Black Bottom,Sweet Girl, andI'm Your Woman.These productions have significantly contributed to the local economy by hiring local personnel, leasing local facilities and equipment, purchasing local goods and services, and enhancing local tourism and visibility. In addition to a thriving film industry, Pittsburgh is home to several film festivals, film schools, and organizations that encourage and promote independent and diverse filmmakers. Notable film festivals include theThree Rivers Film Festival, the Pittsburgh Shorts Film Festival, the JFilm Festival, the ReelAbilities Film Festival, and the Black Bottom Film Festival.The local film schools includePittsburgh Filmmakers,Point Park University- Cinema & Digital Arts, andUniversity of Pittsburgh- Film Studies. Moreover, Pittsburgh is developing a robust film studio infrastructure, with several sound stages and production facilities available for hire. Prominent film studios in Pittsburgh are 3 Rivers Studios, Cinelease Studios, Post Script Films, Deeplocal, and The Videohouse.There are also plans in the pipeline to develop a new film studio complex at theCarrie Furnacesite inRankinandSwissvale. Utilities The city is served byDuquesne Light, one of the original 1912 power companies founded byGeorge Westinghouse.Water service is provided by thePittsburgh Water and Sewer AuthorityandPennsylvania American Water. Natural gas is provided byEquitable Gas,Columbia Gas,Dominion Resources,Direct Energy, and Novec. Health care The two largest area health care providers are theUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center(UPMC) (since 1893) andAllegheny Health Network(since 1882). Both hospitals annually rank as among the best overall in the United States, with UPMC ranked amongU.S. News & World Report's\"Honor Roll\" every year since 2000. The first military hospital in U.S. history and the first west of the Atlantic Plain—General Edward Hand Hospital—served the area from 1777 to 1845.Since 1847, Pittsburgh has hosted the world's first \"Mercy Hospital\".This was followed by West Penn hospital in 1848, Passavant Hospital in 1849,theUniversity of Pittsburgh School of Medicinein 1883, Children's Hospital in 1887, andMagee Womens Hospitalin 1911. In 1954, Allegheny General (AGH) was among the first to administerCobalt therapy. In 1980, UPMC announced a $250 million ($1.05 billion today) expansion and also hired transplant pioneerThomas Starzl.In 1984, Allegheny General surgeons pioneered modern brain surgery. Starzl arranged the 1985 liver transplant of 5-year-old Amie Garrison as a UPMC surgery team flew toBaylor University, starting its transplant program.Also in 1985, UPMC surgeons Drs. Griffith, Hardesty, and Trento revealed a new device after a heart-lung transplant. In 1986, UPMC announced a $230 million ($639 million today) modernization. In 1996, UPMC's planned SicilyISMETTbranch was approved by the Italian government as transplant surgeons to supervise and deliver the world's third (both earlier ones done at UPMC)--and first public—cross species marrow transplant atUniversity of California, San Francisco.UPMC's Thomas Detre founded theInternational Society for Bipolar Disordersat a world medical conference in Pittsburgh in 1999. The $80 million ($142 million today)UPMC Sports Performance Complexfor thePittsburgh Panthers&Pittsburgh Steelersopened in 2000. In 2002, AGH opened its $30 million ($51.6 million today), 5-floor, 100,000 sq. ft., cancer center. The $130 million ($220 million today) 350,000 sq. ft.Hillman Cancer Centeropened in 2003 as UPMC entered into an 8-year, $420 million ($678 million today) agreement withIBMto upgrade medical technologies & health information systems. In 2009, the $600 million ($849 million today)UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburghopened. The campus was featured in world news in 2012 for several unique approaches to patient care.UPMC officially adopted inErie, Pennsylvania'sHamot Medical Centerin 2010. ThePittsburgh Penguinsannounced a state of the art training facility with UPMC in 2012.UPMC announced in 2013 it had partnered withNazarbayev Universityto help found its medical school. Health discoveries While he was a professor at theUniversity of Pittsburgh, American virologistJonas Salkdeveloped one of the first successfulpolio vaccines, which came into use in 1955. UPMC has pioneered several world firsts including the first known cystic fibrosis heart-lung transplant (1983), the world's first simultaneous liver and heart transplant operation on a child (6-year-oldStormie Jonesin 1984), the youngest heart-lung transplant (9 years old in 1985), the world's first heart-liver-kidney transplant (1989), the world's first heart-liver transplant on an infant (1997),the first pediatric heart-double lung-liver transplant (1998), the nation's first double hand transplant (2009), and the first total forearm and hand transplant (2010), as well as the state's first heart transplant (1968). The Lancetpublished a 2012 UPMC study of two 9-year quadriplegics being able to move a robotic arm by thought, to pick up objects, shake hands, and even eat. Wiring the brain around spine damage to restore arm and leg muscle function was successful using robotic arms controlled via an embedded computer to translate signals near a small group of neurons with 200 needles. Transportation Pittsburgh is acity of bridges. With 446,it has three bridges more thanVenice, Italy, which has historically held the title \"City of Bridges.\"Around 40 bridges cross the three rivers near the city. TheSmithfield Street Bridgewas the world's first lenticular truss bridge. The city'sThree Sisters Bridgesoffer a picturesque view of the city from the North. The south-western \"entrance\" to Downtown for travelers coming in fromInterstate 79and thePittsburgh International Airportis through theFort Pitt Tunneland over theFort Pitt Bridge. TheFort Duquesne BridgecarryingInterstate 279is the main gateway from Downtown to bothPNC Park,Acrisure Stadiumand theRivers Casino. ThePanhandle Bridgecarries Pittsburgh Regional Transit's Blue/Red/Silver subway lines across theMonongahela River. The renovatedJ&L Steel Companybridge has been a key traffic/running-biking trail conduit connecting theSouthside WorksandPittsburgh Technology Center. Over 2,000 bridges span the landscape of Allegheny County. Public transportation statistics Pittsburgh is served byPittsburgh Regional Transit, the 26th-largest transit agency in the country prior to theCOVID-19 pandemic. The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Pittsburgh, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 73 min. 23% of public transit riders ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 17 minutes, while 33% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 3.9 mi (6.3 km), while 11% travel for over 7.5 mi (12 km) in a single direction. Expressways and highways Locals refer to the interstates fanning out fromdowntown Pittsburghas the \"parkways.\"Interstate 376is both the \"parkway east\" connecting toInterstate 76(Pennsylvania Turnpike) and the \"parkway west\" connecting toInterstate 79, thePittsburgh International Airport, the Ohio end of the Turnpike andInterstate 80. The \"parkway north\" isInterstate 279connecting to I-79. The \"crosstown\" isInterstate 579allowing access to the heart of downtown, theLiberty Tunnelsand thePPG Paints Arena. The 45-mile-long and 70-mile-long expressway sections ofPennsylvania Route 28andU.S. Route 22also carry traffic from downtown to the northeast and western suburbs, respectively.Interstate 70, 79 and 76 (the Turnpike) roughly form a triangular-shaped \"beltway\" withInterstate 68and 80 within the media market's northern and southern limits. Turnpike spurs such as theMon–Fayette Expressway,Pennsylvania Route 576andRoute 66also help traffic flow. The non-expresswayPittsburgh/Allegheny County Belt Systemserves navigation in the region. Airports Pittsburgh International Airportprovides commercial passenger service from over 15 airlines to thePittsburgh metropolitan area.Arnold Palmer Regional Airportalso provides limited commercial passenger service and is 44 miles (71 km) east of Pittsburgh. Other airports that have or have had scheduled commercial service includeMorgantown Municipal Airport(79 miles (127 km) south of Pittsburgh),Youngstown–Warren Regional Airport(81 miles (130 km) northwest of Pittsburgh),Akron–Canton Airport(120 miles (190 km) northwest of Pittsburgh),Johnstown–Cambria County Airport(60 miles (97 km) east of Pittsburgh) andErie International Airport(123 miles (198 km) north of Pittsburgh). Intercity passenger rail and bus Amtrakprovides intercity rail service toPittsburgh Union Station, via theCapitol Limitedbetween Chicago and Washington, D.C., and thePennsylvanianto New York City. Megabus,Greyhound Lines, andFullington Trailwaysconnect Pittsburgh with distant cities by bus; Greyhound and Fullington Trailways buses stop at theGrant Street Transportation Centerintercity bus terminal. Popular destinations includePhiladelphia,New York City, andWashington, D.C. Until declines in passenger travel in the 1950s and 1960s, several stations served Pittsburgh:Baltimore & Ohio Station,Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad Station,Wabash Pittsburgh Terminaland Pittsburgh Union Station. Regional mass transit Pittsburgh Regional Transit, formerly known as the Port Authority of Allegheny County, is the region's mass transit system. While serving only a portion of the Pittsburgh area, the nation's 20th-largest metropolitan area, it is the 11th-largest transit agency in the United States.Pittsburgh Regional Transit runs a network of intracity and intercity bus routes, theMonongahela InclineFunicularrailway (more commonly known as an \"incline\") on Mount Washington, alight railsystem that runs mostly above-ground in the suburbs and underground as a subway in the city, and one of the nation's largestbuswaysystems.Pittsburgh Regional Transit owns theDuquesne Inclinebut it is operated by a non-profit preservation trust,but accepts Pittsburgh Regional Transit passes and charges PRT fares. The Bus System lines arelabeled by number and letter. These are the largest portion of Pittsburgh Regional Transit and serve on streets and designated busways. Buses serve most of the county, extending as far asPittsburgh International Airport,Monroeville,McCandless, and the borders ofWestmoreland CountyandBeaver County, Pennsylvania. Meanwhile,the light rail system(commonly known as the \"T\") runs along both new tracks and those refurbished from the streetcar era. The light rail runs fromAcrisure StadiumtoSouth Hills VillageandLibrary, taking commuters through one of two routes: one which servesCastle Shannon,Mt. Lebanon, andBeechview, and the other is an express line using railways throughOverbrook. Freight rail Pittsburgh's rail industry dates to 1851 when thePennsylvania Railroadfirst opened service between the Pittsburgh andPhiladelphia. TheBaltimore and Ohio Railroadentered the city in 1871. In 1865,Andrew Carnegieopened thePittsburgh Locomotive and Car Works, which manufactured for the industry until 1919. Carnegie also founded theUnion Railroadin 1894 for heavy freight services and it still serves the area's steel industry, whileGeorge Westinghouse'sWabtechas been a leader in rail engines and switching since 1869. Pittsburgh is home to one ofNorfolk Southern Railway's busiest freight corridors, thePittsburgh Line, and operates up to 70 trains per day through the city. The suburbanConway Rail Yard, built in 1889, was the largest freight rail center in the world from 1956 until 1980 and is today the nation's second-largest.CSX, the other major freight railroad in the eastern U.S., also hasmajor operationsaround Pittsburgh. Port ThePort of Pittsburghranks as the20th-largest portin the United States with almost 34 million short tons of river cargo for 2011, the port ranked ninth-largest in the U.S. when measured in domestic trade. Notable people Sister cities Pittsburgh'ssister citiesare: See also Explanatory notes References Further reading External links"
] | [
"List of awards and nominations received by Matthew McConaughey McConaughey at the83rd Academy Awardsin 2011 Matthew McConaugheyis an American actor and producer who rose to prominence with his role in the 1993 ensemble comedy filmDazed and Confused.The film was well received by critics.Since then, McConaughey has received various awards and nominations, including anAcademy Award, aGolden Globe, aScreen Actors Guild Award, two Critics' Choice Awards, anMTV Movie Awardand aPeople’s Choice Award. He has also been nominated for fiveTeen Choice Awardsand twoEmmys. Three years after his role inDazed and Confused, in 1996, McConaughey played the lead role of a lawyer in the movieA Time to Kill, for which he won theMTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance. His next appearances—in the science fiction dramaContact(1997), alongsideJodie Foster, and the war filmU-571(2000)—garnered him twoBlockbuster Entertainment Awardnominations. In the early 2000s, he starred in multiple romantic comedies, includingThe",
"includingThe Wedding Planner(2001) andHow to Lose a Guy in 10 Days(2003), for which he received four Teen Choice Award nominations. He received two more nominations and the People's Choice Award for Favorite Male Action Star for his role in the 2005 action-comedy filmSahara. McConaughey received theNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actorfor his role inBernie(2011) andMagic Mike(2012) and was also awarded theCritics' Choice Movie Award in the same categoryfor the latter. He played the role of a hit man in the black comedy crime filmKiller Joe(2011) for which he was awarded theSaturn Award for Best Actor. In the same year, McConaughey starred inMud(2012), which earned him theIndependent Spirit Robert Altman Award. The following year, McConaughey played lead role ofRon Woodroof, a real life AIDS patient in the 1980s, in the biopic dramaDallas Buyers Clubto critical acclaim.He won theAcademy Award,Critics' Choice Movie Award,Golden Globeand aScreen Actors Guild Awardfor his role in the",
"his role in the film. In 2014, he starred in the epic sci-fiInterstellarfor which he received a Saturn Award for Best Actor nomination. In November of the same year, he was inducted to theHollywood Walk of Fame.McConaughey co-produced and acted in the crime anthology television seriesTrue Detective, which earned him Lead Actor nominations for aScreen Actors Guild Award,Critics' Choice Television Awardand aGolden Globe. He also received two Primetime Emmy nominations, one for hisrole as an actorand other for hisrole as an executive produceras well as aProducers Guild of America Awardnomination. For his roles in the war filmFree State of JonesandGold(both 2016), he was nominated for theWomen Film Critics CircleAward for Best Actor and the Saturn Award for Best Actor, respectively. Awards and nominations Other honors References Notes Sources External links",
"Super Bowl XLIII Super Bowl XLIIIwas anAmerican footballgame between theAmerican Football Conference(AFC) championsPittsburgh Steelersand theNational Football Conference(NFC) championsArizona Cardinalsto decide theNational Football League(NFL) champion for the2008 season. The Steelers defeated the Cardinals by the score of 27–23. The game was played on February 1, 2009,atRaymond James StadiuminTampa, Florida. With this victory, the Steelers became the first team to win six Super Bowl championships. The win was also Pittsburgh's second Super Bowl victory in four years, after winningSuper Bowl XLat the end of the2005 season. The Cardinals entered the game seeking their first NFL title since1947, the longestchampionship droughtin the league. The club became an unexpected winner during the regular season, compiling a 9–7 record, and earning a spot in the playoffs with the aid of head coachKen Whisenhunt, who was the Steelers' offensive coordinator in Super Bowl XL, and the re-emergence of quarterbackKurt Warner,",
"Warner, who was theSuper Bowl MVPinSuper Bowl XXXIVwith his former team, theSt. Louis Rams. Pittsburgh jumped to a 17–7 halftime lead, aided by linebackerJames Harrison's Super Bowl-record 100-yard interception return for a touchdown. Trailing 20–7 at the start of the fourth quarter, Arizona scored 16 consecutive points, including a safety that led to wide receiverLarry Fitzgerald's 64-yard touchdown reception, to take their first lead of the game with 2:37 remaining. But the Steelers marched 78 yards to score on wide receiverSantonio Holmes' 6-yard game-winning touchdown catch with 35 seconds left. Holmes, who caught nine passes for 131 yards and a touchdown, including four receptions for 73 yards on that final game-winning drive, was namedSuper Bowl MVP. He became the sixth wide receiver to win the award, half of whom at the time were Steelers players (Lynn SwannandHines Ward). TheNBCtelevision network broadcast attracted an average U.S. audience of 98.7 million viewers, making it the most watched Super",
"most watched Super Bowl in history at that time and the most watched Super Bowl of the 2000s.Many media outlets consider this one of the best Super Bowls from the 2000s, as well as one of the greatest Super Bowls of all time, due to the performance of both teams as well as its thrilling finale.This game was ranked No. 4 onNFL Top 10onNFL NetworkforTop 10 Greatest Games of All Timeand ranked No. 1 forTop 10 Super Bowls.As of 2022, this is the Steelers' most recent Super Bowl championship, and the last title by a Pennsylvania-based NFL team until their cross-state rivalPhiladelphia EagleswonSuper Bowl LIIin 2018. It was also the last time a Phoenix-based team reached the championship round of thefour major North American sports leaguesuntil thePhoenix Sunsmade the NBA Finals in2021. This was the last game to feature famed commentatorJohn Madden, who retired two months after the game. Background Host selection process Tampa was selected for the game site on May 25, 2005, beating out three other",
"out three other finalists:Atlanta,Houston, andMiami. Super Bowl XLIII was the second Super Bowl at this venue and the fourth overall in that city. In February 2008, the Tampa Bay Super Bowl Host Committee unveiled the Super Bowl XLIII logo, featuring an abstract representation of a football stadium, with blue and green colors representing the regional waterways and landscapes of Tampa Bay. Eight yards of playing field are shown, alluding to the game's status as the championship of the 2008 NFL season. In a tradition starting with theSuper Bowl XLlogo, two stars—one red, representing the AFC, and one blue, representing the NFC—are flanked on either side of the Super Bowl XLIII logo.The tagline for Super Bowl XLIII as well as the2008 NFL seasonis \"Believe In Now\". Teams The seeds of Super Bowl XLIII can be traced back to the end of the2006 season. After winningSuper Bowl XLin 2005, thePittsburgh Steelersfell to an 8–8 record the following year.At the end of 2006,Bill Cowherended his 15-year tenure as their",
"tenure as their head coach, leaving with a 149–90–1 regular season record and a 12–9 record in the playoffs. Offensive coordinatorKen Whisenhuntand assistant head coachRuss Grimmwere considered most likely to succeed Cowher in Pittsburgh. Without waiting to see if he would be hired by Pittsburgh, Whisenhunt accepted the head coaching job with the Arizona Cardinals, a team that at the time held the second-longest championship drought in U.S. sports (1947, with only theChicago Cubshaving a longer drought, winning their last championship in 1908) and had never advanced to the Super Bowl in their franchise history. In the 60 years since their last national championship, the team had won just one playoff game (20–7 over the Dallas Cowboys in the 1998 NFC Wild Card Game). The Steelers then passed over Grimm and instead hiredMinnesota Vikingsdefensive coordinatorMike Tomlin. Once Tomlin was hired by the Steelers, Grimm joined Whisenhunt in Arizona in the same position as assistant head coach as he had in",
"coach as he had in Pittsburgh, and the two of them began to remodel the perennial losing club into a winner like the Steelers. Of historical note the game matched up two franchises previously merged into a single team, \"Card-Pitt\", for the1944 seasonin response to the depleted rosters duringWorld War II. Pittsburgh was going for its sixth Super Bowl win, which would place it in sole possession of the record for most Super Bowl wins, while the Cardinals were seeking their first league title since1947and only the second undisputed league championship in their history. (In1925, thePottsville Maroons(who, like Pittsburgh, were based in Pennsylvania) were fined and suspended for playing a game against theNotre Damefootball team in another NFL franchise's territory, which resulted in the NFL naming the Cardinals, then based in Chicago, NFL champions in their place, a decision Pottsville disputed).It was the third Super Bowl in history to feature two pre-expansion-era (pre-1960) teams, joiningSuper Bowl",
"joiningSuper Bowl XIV(Steelersvs.Los Angeles Rams, the latter of which coincidentally also went 9–7 in the regular season) andSuper Bowl XLI(Indianapolis Coltsvs.Chicago Bears). This game also featured the oldest franchise in the NFC playing the oldest franchise in the AFC. The Cardinals were founded in 1898 as an independent amateur team in Chicago. The Steelers, founded in 1933 as the Pittsburgh Pirates, are one of only three AFC teams that pre-date the 1960 NFL season. The Cardinals and Steelers played each other twice per season from 1950 through 1969, first in theAmerican Conference(1950–52), then in the Eastern Conference (1953–66), and finally in theCentury Divisionof the Eastern Conference (1967–69). It also was the first time that two quarterbacks who previously started for a Super Bowl winning team (Kurt WarnerandBen Roethlisberger) opposed one another sinceJim Plunkett'sLos Angeles RaidersdefeatedJoe Theismann'sWashington RedskinsinSuper Bowl XVIII. Warner started for theSt. Louis RamsinSuper Bowl",
"RamsinSuper Bowl XXXIVandSuper Bowl XXXVI, winning the first (aided by a heads-up defensive play by linebackerMike Joneson the final play of the game) and losing the second one (the first ofTom Brady's seven in ten attempts), while Roethlisberger was the winning quarterback inSuper Bowl XL. Pittsburgh Steelers Under Tomlin's first season as head coach, the Steelers improved to a 10–6 record in 2007.Pittsburgh finished the 2008 season with the second best record in the AFC at 12–4, making the playoffs for the sixth time in the last eight seasons, and went on to earn their seventh Super Bowl trip in franchise history, breaking a three-way tie with the New England Patriots and Denver Broncos for second most Super Bowl appearances and most Super Bowl appearances by an AFC team. The Steelers excelled on defense and led the NFL in fewest points (13.9) and yards (237.2) allowed per game, while also ranking second in sacks with 51.Up front, their line was anchored by defensive endAaron Smith, who recorded 60 tackles",
"recorded 60 tackles and six sacks. Behind him two of the Steelers starting linebackers ranked among the top-ten sack leaders in the NFL,LaMarr Woodley(11.5 sacks) and Pro Bowler/NFL Defensive Player of the YearJames Harrison(16 sacks). Pro Bowl linebackerJames Farriorwas also a big contributor, recording 3.5 sacks and leading the team with 133 tackles. The Steelers secondary was led by Pro Bowl safetyTroy Polamalu, who ranked second in the NFL with a career-high seven interceptions. For the fifth year in a row the Steelers offense was led by quarterbackBen Roethlisberger,who finished the season with 3,301 passing yards and 17 touchdowns, with 15 interceptions.His top target was the Steelers all-time receiving leaderHines Ward, who recorded his fifth 1,000-yard season with 81 receptions for 1,043 yards and seven touchdowns. Other reliable receiving options includedSantonio Holmes(55 receptions for 821 yards),Nate Washington(40 receptions for 631 yards), and tight endHeath Miller(48 receptions for 514 yards).",
"for 514 yards). The Steelers ground game was led by two-time Pro Bowl running backWillie Parker, who had rushed for over 1,200 yards in each of his previous three seasons. Injuries in 2008 limited him to 791 yards in 11 games, but running backMewelde Mooreproved to be a solid replacement, rushing for 588 yards and catching 40 passes for 320 yards. For their efforts, Tomlin won the 2008MotorolaCoach of the Year Awardand Harrison was named the 2008GMC SierraDefensive Player of the Year.The Steelers rolled into the post-season as the AFC's second seed, behind only theTennessee Titans, who would finish 13–3 but lose in their divisional playoff game against theBaltimore Ravens. Arizona Cardinals It had been a long journey for Arizona to get to their first Super Bowl appearance. After winning the NFL championship in 1947, it would take the team half a century (and moves to two different states) before they won another postseason game in the 1998 season. And up to this point, they had not returned to the playoffs",
"to the playoffs since then. Under Whisenhunt's first season as head coach, the Cardinals finished with an 8–8 recordin 2007.Arizona then started out the 2008 season strong, winning 7 of their first 10 games. But then things fell apart as the team lost 4 of their last 6, hitting a low point with a brutal 47–7 loss to theNew England Patriotsin week 16. Arizona's 34–21 win over theSeattle Seahawksin the following week was just enough for them to finish with a 9–7 record and earn the #4 seed in the playoffs, where they went on to earn their first trip to the Super Bowl in franchise history, becoming only thesecond NFL teamto do so with nine wins up to that point (the2011 New York Giantsbecame the third, winning it all). One reason for Arizona's success was the re-emergence of 37-year-old quarterbackKurt Warner. After going undrafted and spending a few years in theArena Football League, Warner became theSt. Louis Ramsstarting quarterback in1999due to a pre-season injury of starterTrent Green. He went on to lead",
"He went on to lead the Rams to two Super Bowls and one Super Bowl win (in which Warner was named MVP), while also winning twoNFL MVP Awards. But in2002, Warner's production was drastically reduced by injuries and he soon lost his starting job toMarc Bulger. He eventually left the team to join theNew York Giants, but once again he lost his starting job (replaced byEli Manning) and signed on with theCardinals in 2005. For the third time, Warner lost his starting job due to mediocre performances and injuries. After the season, Arizona selectedHeisman Trophywinning quarterbackMatt Leinartwith their first round draft pick. This, combined with another mediocre performance in the 2006 season, appeared to severely limit Warner's chances of ever being a permanent starter on the team. However, early in the 2007 season, Warner was thrust into the starting lineup to replace an injured Leinart, and by the end of the team's season, he had re-emerged as one of the top quarterbacks in the league, throwing 27 touchdown",
"27 touchdown passes with apasser ratingof 89.8. With his starting job on the team more secure, Warner posted one of his best seasons in 2008, throwing for 4,583 yards and 30 touchdowns, with only 14 interceptions, giving him an NFC-best 96.9 rating.His top targets were receiversLarry Fitzgerald(96 receptions, 1,431 yards, 12 touchdowns),Anquan Boldin(89 receptions, 1,038 yards, 11 touchdowns), andSteve Breaston(77 receptions, 1,006 yards, three touchdowns, 904 special teams return yards), who made the Cardinals the fifth team ever to feature three players with over 1,000 receiving yards. The Cardinals ground game was led by veteran running backEdgerrin Jamesand rookieTim Hightower. James led the team with 514 yards, while Hightower rushed for 399 and scored 10 touchdowns. He was also a reliable target out of the backfield, catching 34 passes for another 237 yards. Overall, Arizona's offense ranked fourth in yards per game (365.8) and third in scoring (422 points) in 2008. The Cardinals defense, however, had",
"however, had played inconsistently during the regular season, ranking just 28th in points allowed.Up front their line was anchored bydefensive linemanBertrand Berry, who recorded five sacks and forced two fumbles, along with tackleDarnell Dockett, known for his ability to blow up running plays.LinebackerKarlos Dansbywas also a solid contributor, recording four sacks, two interceptions, and two forced fumbles, while also leading the team with 119 tackles. The Cardinals secondary was led by rookiecornerbackDominique Rodgers-Cromartie(who led the team with four interceptions) andPro BowlsafetyAdrian Wilson(fourth on the team in tackles, 75). Playoffs The Steelers began their Super Bowl run with a 35–24 win over the fourth-seededSan Diego Chargers, gaining 342 yards, avoiding any turnovers, holding the ball for 36:30 (including for 14:43 in the third quarter alone, an NFL record for a single quarter), and scoring a touchdown in every quarter. Also, Parker appeared to be fully recovered from his regular season",
"his regular season injuries, as evidenced by his career postseason high 147-yard, two-touchdown performance against the Chargers.The Steelers then went on to beat, for the third time in the season, theirAFC Northdivisionarchrivals, the sixth-seededBaltimore Ravens23–14 in theAFC Championship Game, holding them to 184 yards and forcing five turnovers. The Cardinals advanced to the Super Bowl by beating the fifth-seededAtlanta Falcons30–24, the second-seededCarolina Panthers, 33–13, and the sixth-seededPhiladelphia Eagles32–25 in theNFC Championship Game, winning more playoff games this season than they had in their franchise history previously.Warner played exceptionally well in those games, throwing for a total of 661 yards and eight touchdowns, with only two interceptions, giving him a rating of 112.1. The Cardinals also got a big performance out ofLarry Fitzgerald, who caught 23 passes for a postseason record 419 yards and five touchdowns. Meanwhile, the Cardinals' 28th-ranked defense showed major",
"showed major improvement in the postseason, forcing twelve turnovers in their three games. This included five interceptions and one fumble from the Panthers' Pro Bowl quarterbackJake Delhommein the divisional round. The Cardinals became the third NFL team to advance to the Super Bowl after winning three playoff games despite winning its division; theCarolina PanthersinSuper Bowl XXXVIIIand theIndianapolis ColtsinSuper Bowl XLIwere the other two. In addition, they would become the first team to advance to the Super Bowl as both a division winner and a No. 4 seed. The2000 Baltimore Ravenswere the last No. 4 seed to advance to a Super Bowl before this game, as they were the No. 4 seed in the AFC when they went on to winSuper Bowl XXXV, but were awild-cardteam before the2002 realignmentgave each conference four divisions. Super Bowl pre-game notes The AFC champion Steelers stayed at theInterContinentalTampa and held their pre-game practices at the training facility of theUniversity of South Florida Bulls. The",
"Florida Bulls. The NFC champion Cardinals were based at the GrandHyattTampa Bay and held their practices at theTampa Bay Buccaneers' training facility.Both teams arrived in the Tampa area on Monday, January 26. Also on January 26, the NFL announced that the Super Bowl game would be one of the safest places in the United States during game time. Personnel from over 20 different federal agencies were on site to assist in protecting players and fans. Pittsburgh entered the game as seven-point favorites over Arizona.Major factors for this included the view that the Steelers' defense was better than that of the Cardinals and the feeling that the AFC was an overall better conference than the NFC. The Cardinals were the designated \"home team,\" as was the case for all NFC champions in odd numbered Super Bowls. Arizona wore their red jerseys, which it has done at home since moving intoUniversity of Phoenix Stadiumin2006after predominantly wearing their white jerseysat homefor their first 18 years inArizonato combat",
"inArizonato combat the intense heat of September and October. As a result, the Steelers wore white jerseys for their second consecutive Super Bowl. Pittsburgh improved to 3–0 lifetime wearing white jerseys in the Super Bowl after the victory in Super Bowl XLIII (Pittsburgh would eventually lose to theGreen Bay PackersinSuper Bowl XLVwhile wearing white jerseys). The other two times the team wore white was as the \"visiting team\" against theMinnesota VikingsinSuper Bowl IX(during a time when the designated \"home\" team was required to wear their team-colored jerseys) and against theSeattle SeahawksinSuper Bowl XLdespite being the \"home team\" that season but having road success in the playoffs. In addition, teams wearing white jerseys in the Super Bowl extended their winning streak to five games, dating back toSuper Bowl XXXIX, currently the longest such streak between white and team colored jerseys in Super Bowl history. Pittsburgh also improved to 3–0 lifetime againstNFC Westteams in the Super Bowl, having",
"Super Bowl, having previously beaten theLos Angeles RamsinSuper Bowl XIVand the Seahawks in XL. Another pre-game storyline involved backup Steelerstight end/fullbackSean McHugh. McHugh, who had spent the past three seasons with theDetroit Lions, made that team's 53-man roster at the end of the preseason, only to be released 24 hours later alongsidelinebackerAnthony Cannonin order for the Lions to make room for linebackerRyan Neceandrunning backMarcus Thomas.The Steelers promptly signed McHugh after the teamtradedcenterSean Mahanback to theTampa Bay Buccaneersin exchange for a draft pick before the start of the season. The subsequent media attention surrounding McHugh had to do with him being deemed not good enough for the Lions (a team that wouldfinish 0–16, the NFL's firstwinless seasonsince theexpansion1976 Tampa Bay Buccaneers), but good enough for a Super Bowl team such as the Steelers and being a valuable blocker forBen RoethlisbergerandWillie Parker.McHugh himself had mixed feelings about the",
"feelings about the situation, feeling bad for his former Lions teammates, but also feeling it's a little payback for the Lions for releasing him in the first place. McHugh would play in the Super Bowl as a blocker, much like his regular season role. The Cardinals became the second team to have their city/state location painted in their end zone for aSuper Bowl, as their end zone read \"Arizona Cardinals.\" InSuper Bowl XL, theSeattle Seahawksbecame the first team to have this, as their end zone read \"Seattle Seahawks.\" For all other Super Bowl teams, end zones have just featured the team nickname. This was also the first Super Bowl to have the updated NFL logo painted at midfield. Economic effects With all the cutbacks resulting from the severe economic downturn in the United States, the game was dubbed \"The Recession Bowl.\"Restaurants were slow in business and many parties,including parties hosted byPlayboyandSports Illustratedwere canceled.There were also 200 fewersports journalistscovering the game than",
"the game than atSuper Bowl XLIIthe previous year.According to the online brokerStubHub, tickets with a face value of $500 changed hands the week of the Super Bowl for an average $2,500—a 40% drop fromSuper Bowl XLIIin 2008 and 16% lower thanSuper Bowl XLin 2006.Ford,ChryslerandGeneral Motors, theBig Three automobile makers, decided not to purchase television advertisements following the three companies'business strugglesin 2008 and early 2009. Broadcasting Television United States The game was televised live in the United States onNBC, the network's first Super Bowl broadcast sinceSuper Bowl XXXIIat the end of the1997 season. Play-by-playannouncerAl Michaelsandcolor commentatorJohn Maddenwere in the booth, withAndrea KremerandAlex Flanaganserving assideline reporters. Madden became the first person to have announced a Super Bowl for all of the four major U.S. television networks, having called five Super Bowls forCBS, three forFox, and two forABCprior to joining NBC in2006. Meanwhile, Al Michaels was the",
"Al Michaels was the third man to do play-by-play for a Super Bowl on NBC television (following in the footsteps ofCurt GowdyandDick Enberg). Also, Michaels (who, like Madden, had moved from ABC to NBC in 2006) was the second person to serve as a Super Bowl play-by-play announcer for two major U.S. television networks (followingPat Summerallof CBS and Fox). This would prove to be the final game Madden would call, as he announced his retirement from broadcasting on April 16, 2009. The pregame show, a record five hours long at the time, was hosted by theFootball Night in Americateam headed byBob Costas, and preceded by a two-hour special edition ofTodayhosted by the regular weekday team live from Tampa and theNFL Films—producedRoad to the Super Bowl.Matt Millenwas part of the coverage as a studio analyst. TheTodaycontribution included portions of a taped interview with PresidentBarack Obamaand pictures of troops viewing the proceedings in Iraq. The Super Bowl was one of two major professional sports",
"professional sports championship seriesNBCbroadcast in 2009, as they would also broadcast theStanley Cup Finals. Both championship series involved teams from Pittsburgh winning championships.Mike Emrick,Eddie Olczyk, andPierre McGuirementioned this when they called the Stanley Cup Finals. The broadcast was available in1080ihigh definition. Super Bowl XLIII was also the final Super Bowl simulcast in theanalog televisionformat in the United States before the 2009 completion ofnationwide digital television transition. The transition, originally scheduled for February 17 was pushed back to June 12, the same day the Penguins won the Stanley Cup. InTucson, Arizonaand surrounding areas, the analog but not digital feed of the cable service fromComcastwasinterrupted by an unknown party, when 30 seconds fromPlayboy Enterprises-owned adult cable television channelShorteezwas broadcast to homes just afterLarry Fitzgeraldscored his fourth-quarter touchdown to give the Cardinals a 23–20 lead. Minutes before this occurred,",
"this occurred, 10 seconds of an end-credit segment fromClubJenna, another Playboy-owned channel, was shown.Comcast offered a $10 credit for customers who claimed to have seen the incident,and theFederal Communications Commission(FCC) announced that it would investigate the cause of the incident.On February 4, 2011, Tucson Police and theFBIarrested Frank Tanori Gonzalez on suspicion of fraud and computer tampering in connection with the porn incident.Gonzalez eventually pleaded guilty and was sentenced to three years of probation. The telecast was also carried to U.S. service personnel stationed around the globe via theAmerican Forces Network. Ratings With an average U.S. audience of 98.7 million viewers (and an estimated total viewership of 151.6 million), this was the third most watched Super Bowl in history, and the fourth most watched U.S. television program of any kind, trailing onlySuper Bowl XLVin 2011, which drew an average audience of 111 million;Super Bowl XLIVin 2010, average audience 106.5",
"audience 106.5 million; and thefinal episode ofM*A*S*Hin 1983, average audience 106 million.However, the nationalNielsen ratingsof 42.0 was lower than the 43.3 rating for the previous year's game. The telecast drew a 53.6 rating inPittsburghand a 47.5 rating inPhoenix, first and ninth, respectively, among local markets. Advertising In addition to featuring the game's first 1-second TV ad (courtesy of Miller High Life), Super Bowl XLIII marked the first time that a 30-second commercial time slot cost up to US$3 million for the airtime alone, excluding production and talent costs.Many traditional advertisers, such asAnheuser-BuschandPepsiCo, bought multiple ads at discounted rates. None of the \"Big Three\" U.S. automakers (General Motors,Ford, andChrysler) ran advertisements during the game; coupled with Cash4Gold.com's third-quarter ad, this was seen as a sign of how deep the recession that began in fall 2008 had become. A short trailer forTransformers: Revenge of the Fallenpremiered during the Super Bowl, a",
"the Super Bowl, a debut which directorMichael Bayfirst revealed would occur in January.A preview of the upcomingStar Trekfilm also premiered during the game. However, with the weak economy, NBC was thought to have turned to companies already buying ad time for an additional purchase or two as set by the Los Angeles-based Forza Migliozzi agency, which would have eight advertisers simultaneously in one 30-second ad.SoBeandDreamWorks Animationaired a 3-D trailer for the upcoming filmMonsters vs. Aliens, along with a 3-D ad for Sobe Life Water that featuredRay LewisandMatt LightdancingSwan Lake(renamedLizard Lakefor this ad), as well as the promo for the upcoming episode ofChuckin 3-D. About 150 million \"ColorCode 3-D\" glasses were given away at grocery stores across the country for the ad.Hyundai also advertised its newGenesis Coupein two 30-second commercials.All advertising slots were sold out one day before the game, resulting in sales of $206 million. The top five ads as chosen by the USA TodaySuper Bowl Ad",
"TodaySuper Bowl Ad Meterwere: YouTube's top five in \"Ad Blitz 2009\" also saw the two Doritos ads finish first and fifth. The middle three featuredE-Trade's Singing Baby ad,CareerBuilder.com's \"The Official 2009 Super Bowl Commercial\" andPepsi Max's \"I'm Good\" finish second through fourth respectively. Adbowlresults reflected the following ranking: International An international feed featuredBob PapaandSterling Sharpeannouncing, and was seen in 230 countries (including Antarctica) over 61 networks and 34 languages.ESPN Latin Americaalso broadcast across Latin America. Radio On radio,Westwood Onehad the national English-language broadcast rights to the game in the United States and Canada. It was only made available to local affiliates as part of a 57-game package of regular season and post-season games. Stations were not allowed to stream the broadcast on their web sites.Marv AlbertandBoomer Esiasoncalled the game for the network. The teams'flagship stationsalso carried the game with their respective local",
"respective local announcers:WDVE-FMandWBGG-AMin Pittsburgh (withBill HillgroveandTunch Ilkinannouncing), andKTAR-AM/FMin Phoenix (withDave PaschandRon Wolfleyannouncing).Univision Radio/United Stationscarried a Spanish-language feed for Hispanophone American listeners (with Clemson Smith-Muñiz and David Crommett announcing). Sirius XM Satellite Radiocarried 13 game feeds in ten languages toSiriussubscribers, as well as toXMsubscribers with the \"Best of Sirius\" package.In addition to the four US feeds mentioned above, Sirius carried the following international feeds: FieldPass, the subscription Internet radio service provided by the league at NFL.com, carried most of these feeds, with select international feeds for free. Due to contractual restrictions, only Sirius XM and FieldPass were permitted to carry the local team broadcasts along with WDVE, WBGG, and KTAR, with the teams' other network radio affiliates instead carrying the Westwood One feed. Entertainment and other ceremonies Pregame Journeyand",
"Pregame Journeyand theBethune-Cookman University Marching Wildcatsperformed during the pre-game show, whileJennifer Hudsonsang \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" (arranged byChris Walden) in her first public appearance since the murder of her nephew, brother and mother.Hudson became the second consecutive alumna from theAmerican Idoltelevision series to perform the national anthem at a Super Bowl (Jordin Sparkssang the anthem atSuper Bowl XLII). The national anthem was translated intoAmerican Sign Languageby Kristen Santos.Following the anthem, theUnited States Air Force Thunderbirdsperformed a fly-over.John Legendperformed a short concert several hours before the game, whileFaith Hillperformed \"America the Beautiful\" prior to Hudson's performance of the national anthem. Also, thecrewofUS Airways Flight 1549were recognized on field for their actions. The NFL saluted four decades of champions during the coin toss ceremony and theVince Lombardi Trophypresentation. The coin toss featuredRoger Craig(Super Bowl XXIII,",
"Bowl XXIII, 1989),John Elway(Super Bowl XXXIII, 1999), andLynn Swann(Super Bowl XIII, 1979). Craig followed the previous year's participants and fellowSan Francisco 49ersCraig Walsh (son ofBill Walsh),Ronnie Lott,Jerry Rice, andSteve Young. GeneralDavid Petraeusperformed the actual coin toss. The Steelers called tails, but it landed on heads, so the Cardinals won the toss. Arizona deferred their choice to the second half, and the Steelers chose to receive, making it the first time in Super Bowl history that the coin toss winner kicked off to start the game. (The NFL had just changed the rule before the start of the season allowing the team that wins the coin toss to defer the choice to the second half, similar to that incollege footballandCanadian football.) By winning the toss, the Arizona Cardinals were the twelfth consecutive coin toss winner from the NFC, dating back toSuper Bowl XXXII.Joe Namath(Super Bowl III, 1969) participated in theVince Lombardi Trophypresentation and he previously participated in",
"participated in the coin toss inSuper Bowl XXVIII. Coincidentally, Namath—a native ofBeaver Falls, Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh—ultimately handed the trophy to his hometown team. Halftime The Super Bowl XLIII halftime show, which was sponsored by Bridgestone for the second consecutive year, featuredBruce Springsteenand theE Street Band, withthe Miami Hornsand agospel choir.Their halftime performance consisted of these songs in the following order: Each of the numbers had at least one verse removed, in order to fit the overall performance in the intended 12-minute time limit.Springsteen had turned down numerous invitations to play at the Super Bowl before this one, unsure of its legitimacy, but finally accepted after realizing the prestige value. Home video The Steelers2008 season/Super Bowl XLIII championshiphome videowent on sale onDVDon February 24, 2009. One week later on March 3, it was released onBlu-ray, making it the firstNFL Filmshome video release to be on Blu-ray Disc. Game summary First quarter",
"First quarter The Steelers took the opening kickoff and moved down the field on a 71-yard scoring drive, with quarterbackBen Roethlisbergercompleting a 38-yard pass to wide receiverHines Wardand a 21-yard strike to tight endHeath Miller, putting the ball on the Arizona 1-yard line. The Cardinals' defense kept the Steelers' offense out of the end zone for the first two plays, but on third down, Roethlisberger appeared to score on a 1-yard quarterback draw. However, a replay challenge by Arizona determined that his knee hit the ground as he was being tackled by defensive linemanDarnell Dockettbefore he could stretch the ball over the goal line. Rather than take the risk on fourth down, Pittsburgh settled for an 18-yard field goal by kickerJeff Reedto take a 3–0 lead. The Steelers quickly forced a Cardinals punt and then drove back down the field for what would turn into more points. On the first play of their drive, Roethlisberger completed a 25-yard pass to wide receiverSantonio Holmesand followed it up with",
"followed it up with two 11-yard completions to Miller, the second of which was a 3rd-and-10 conversion. Second quarter On the second play of the second quarter, running backGary Russellwent into the end zone for a 1-yard touchdown run, increasing the Steelers' lead to 10–0. They became the first team to score on its first two drives since theDenver BroncosinSuper Bowl XXXII. On defense, Pittsburgh held Arizona to just one drive and one first down in the first quarter, while gaining 135 yards. The Cardinals responded with a nine-play, 83-yard scoring drive. First, quarterbackKurt Warnercompleted three passes to running backEdgerrin Jamesfor 26 yards, as well as two passes to wide receiverSteve Breastonfor 20. Warner then completed a 45-yard strike to wide receiverAnquan Boldinto reach the Pittsburgh 1-yard line. On the next play, Warner nearly fell over after taking the snap, but he quickly regained his balance and threw a 1-yard touchdown pass to tight endBen Patrick, cutting Arizona's deficit to 10–7. It",
"deficit to 10–7. It was Patrick's only touchdown reception of the season. After an exchange of punts, Roethlisberger threw a pass that was deflected by defensive tackleBryan Robinsonand intercepted by linebackerKarlos Dansbyat the Steelers' 34-yard line just before the two-minute warning. Seven plays later, the Cardinals reached the Pittsburgh 1-yard line with a chance to take the lead before halftime. But with 18 seconds left, Warner's pass intended for Boldin was intercepted at the goal line by linebackerJames Harrison, who then took off down the sideline for the then-longest play in Super Bowl history (having since been passed byJacoby Jones' 108-yard kickoff return inSuper Bowl XLVII), a 100-yard pick-six, increasing the Steelers' lead to 17–7 at halftime. Harrison faked a blitz and quietly moved into coverage to pick off Warner's pass. A booth review was called to verify that Harrison had broken the plane, as he was tackled at the goal line by Breaston and wide receiverLarry Fitzgerald, and the ruling",
"and the ruling stood. Third quarter After forcing the Cardinals to punt to start the second half, the Steelers put together another long scoring drive. Aided by two 15-yard gains by Holmes and running backWillie Parker, as well as three personal foul penalties against the Arizona defense, including one during a field goal attempt, Pittsburgh moved the ball 79 yards in 15 plays and took 8:39 off the clock. However, despite picking up two first downs inside the Arizona 10, they were unable to get into the end zone, forcing them to settle for Reed's 21-yard field goal to increase their lead to 20–7. Fourth quarter After the teams traded punts again going into the fourth quarter, Warner led the Cardinals down the field on an eight-play, 87-yard scoring drive that took 3:57 off the clock, utilizing a no huddle offense. All eight plays of the drive were consecutive short passes by Warner, half of which were caught by Fitzgerald for a total gain of 31 yards, including a 1-yard touchdown in which Warner threw a fade",
"Warner threw a fade pass to Fitzgerald, who made a leaping catch through tight coverage by cornerbackIke Taylor. The score cut Arizona's deficit to one possession at 20–14 with 7:33 left in the game. On the Cardinals' next possession, they reached the Pittsburgh 26-yard line, but a holding penalty pushed them nearly out of field goal range. Warner then threw three consecutive incompletions, and Arizona elected to punt rather than risk a 53-yard field goal attempt.Ben Graham's 34-yard punt pinned the Steelers back at their own 1-yard line. After being stopped for no gain on the first two plays, Roethlisberger threw a 19-yard pass to Holmes, but Steelers centerJustin Hartwigwas flagged for offensive holding in the end zone, which not only nullified the catch, but gave the Cardinals asafety, cutting the Steelers' lead to 20–16 and forcing them to punt the ball away. Pittsburgh coachMike Tomlinlater stated that giving up the safety didn't faze him, as it did not change how his team called plays for the rest of",
"for the rest of the game on either defense or offense. Taking over on their own 36-yard line after the free kick, Arizona took two plays to score, as Warner threw a pass to Fitzgerald on a post route. Fitzgerald caught the ball without breaking stride and took off down the middle of the field past the Steelers' secondary for a 64-yard touchdown reception, giving Arizona their first lead of the game, 23–20. With a chance to mount a game-tying/winning drive, Pittsburgh got the ball back on their own 22-yard line with 2:37 left in the game and two timeouts remaining. On the first play, a holding penalty pushed them back to their own 12. Roethlisberger then completed a pass to Holmes for 14 yards. After an incompletion, Roethlisberger threw it to Holmes again for 13 yards. An 11-yard reception by wide receiverNate Washingtonfollowed, and a 4-yard run by Roethlisberger forced the Steelers to burn their second timeout of the half. On the very next play, he completed a pass to Holmes, who took it 40 yards to the",
"it 40 yards to the Cardinals' 6-yard line after safetyAaron Franciscotripped. Two plays later, Roethlisberger found running backMewelde Moorecovered in the flat, then Ward covered. He looked and then threw to Holmes, who ran a flag route in the right corner. Holmes caught the pass in the back corner of the end zone for a 6-yard touchdown reception, managing to keep both feet in bounds while landing on his toes before falling out of bounds. \"My feet never left the ground,\" said Holmes. \"All I did was extend my arms and use my toes as an extension to catch up to the ball.\"After a booth review, the touchdown stood and put the Steelers back in front with a 27–23 lead and 35 seconds remaining. Following the ensuing kickoff, Warner completed a 20-yard pass to Fitzgerald and a 13-yard pass to running backJ. J. Arrington, moving the ball to the Steelers 44. With 15 seconds left, Warner prepared to attempt aHail Mary pass, but linebackerLaMarr Woodleystrip-sacked Warner, and defensive endBrett Keiselrecovered the",
"Keiselrecovered the fumble, giving the ball back to Pittsburgh with five seconds left. Many viewers assumed that the play had not been reviewed for a possible incomplete pass, but NFL Head of OfficiatingMike Pereiralater explained that it actually was reviewed, unnoticed by the public: \"We confirmed it was a fumble. The replay assistant in the replay booth saw it was clearly a fumble. The ball got knocked loose and was rolling in his hand before it started forward. He has to have total control.\"It was the first and only Super Bowl in which Warner was involved not to be decided on the final play of the game. Roethlisberger's ensuing kneeldown secured the Steelers' sixth Super Bowl victory, surpassing theDallas CowboysandSan Francisco 49ersto set a new NFL record formost Super Bowl wins by a team. Box score atRaymond James Stadium,Tampa, Florida Statistical overview In Super Bowl XLIII, Arizona and Pittsburgh combined for the fewest rushing attempts (38) and the fewest rushing yards (91) in Super Bowl",
"(91) in Super Bowl history.The Cardinals outgained the Steelers in both passing yards (374 to 234) and total yards (407 to 292), but were flagged for 11 penalties for 106 yards. Arizona'ssafetyin the fourth quarter was only the sixth one scored in Super Bowl history, the first sinceSuper Bowl XXV. Warner completed 31 of 43 passes for 377 yards and three touchdowns, with one interception. His 377 yards was the second-most in Super Bowl history behind his own record of 414 yards inSuper Bowl XXXIV. Eight years later atSuper Bowl LI,Tom Bradywould breakKurt Warner's record with 466 yards. Warner passedJoe Montanafor most career yards in Super Bowl history with 1,156 (Montana threw for 1,142 yards in four games). Brady ultimately reached 2,071 yards in seven Super Bowls. Warner became the fifth quarterback in Super Bowl history to throw three touchdown passes in defeat (the others beingRoger Staubach,Brett Favre,Jake Delhomme, andDonovan McNabb). He also became the first quarterback in Super Bowl history to have",
"history to have a pass intercepted and returned for a touchdown in two different Super Bowls and is also the second quarterback to throw a fourth-quarter touchdown in three different Super Bowls (Terry Bradshawthrew a fourth-quarter touchdown in all four of his Super Bowls). Warner's top target was Fitzgerald, who caught seven passes for 127 yards and two touchdowns. Fitzgerald set a single-postseason record with seven touchdown receptions, passingJerry Rice, who had six in the 1988 postseason. Fitzgerald as well as Holmes each had 100 yards receiving, marking the fourth time in Super Bowl history, one player from each team had over 100 yards in a Super Bowl.Michael IrvinandAndre Reedwere the first inSuper Bowl XXVII, followed byDeion BranchandMuhsin MuhammadinSuper Bowl XXXVIIIand Branch again a year later along withTerrell OwensinSuper Bowl XXXIX. Roethlisberger completed 21 of 30 passes for 256 yards and a touchdown, with one interception. Woodley had two sacks and a forced fumble, thus he continued",
"thus he continued setting NFL play-off records for consecutive multiple sack games by a player with 4. Arizona defensive tackleDarnell Docketthad all of Arizona's three sacks, tying theSuper Bowlrecord set byReggie WhiteinSuper Bowl XXXI. Harrison's 100-yard interception return is still the longest interception return in Super Bowl history. With this victory, the Steelers became the first team to win three Super Bowls in the same state. Their victories in Super Bowls X and XIII were both at theMiami Orange Bowl. Final statistics Sources:NFL.com Super Bowl XLIII,Super Bowl XLIII Play Finder Pit,Super Bowl XLIII Play Finder Arz,USA Today Super Bowl XLIII Play by Play Statistical comparison Individual statistics 1Completions/attempts2Carries3Long gain4Receptions5Times targeted Starting lineups Source:Hall of Fame ‡ Officials Theofficialsfor the game were: Post-game riots In Pittsburgh, mostly in theSouth SideandOakland neighborhoods,riotsbroke out on the streets after the Steelers' victory.Rioters (mostly",
"(mostly college students) caused about $150,000 in estimated damages.More than 60 people were arrested during and after the rioting, and at least two students were suspended. Super Bowl ring The ring for the Pittsburgh Steelers was designed and made byJostensworking withDan RooneyandArt Rooney II. The designs were also shown toJames Farrior,Hines Ward,Ben RoethlisbergerandJames Harrisonbefore a final decision was made. References External links",
"Pittsburgh Pittsburgh(/ˈpɪtsbɜːrɡ/PITS-burg) is a city in and thecounty seatofAllegheny County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is thesecond-most populouscity inPennsylvania, afterPhiladelphia, and the68th-most populous cityin the U.S., with a population of 302,971 as of the2020 census. The city is located insouthwestern Pennsylvaniaat theconfluenceof theAllegheny Riverand theMonongahela River, which combine to form theOhio River.It anchors thePittsburgh metropolitan area, which had a population of 2.457 million residents and is the largest metro area in both theOhio ValleyandAppalachia, thesecond-largest in Pennsylvania, and the26th-largestin the U.S. Pittsburgh is the principal city of the greaterPittsburgh–Weirton–Steubenville combined statistical areawhich includes parts ofOhioandWest Virginia. Pittsburgh is known as \"the Steel City\" for its dominant role in thehistory of the U.S. steel industry.It developed as a vital link of theAtlantic coastandMidwest, as the mineral-richAllegheny Mountainsled to the",
"Mountainsled to the region being contested by theFrenchandBritishEmpires,Virginians,Whiskey Rebels, andCivil War raiders.For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind onlyNew York CityandChicagoin corporate headquarters employment; it had the most U.S. stockholders per capita.Deindustrializationin the late 20th century resulted in massive layoffs amongblue-collar workersas steel and other heavy industries declined, coinciding with several Pittsburgh-based corporations moving out of the city.However, the city divested from steel and, since the 1990s, Pittsburgh has focused its energies on the healthcare, education, and technology industries. Pittsburgh is home to large medical providers, including theUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center,Allegheny Health Network, and68 colleges and universities, includingresearch and developmentleadersCarnegie Mellon Universityand theUniversity of Pittsburgh.The area has served as the federal agency headquarters forcyber defense,software engineering,robotics,energy",
"research, and thenuclear navy.In the private sector, Pittsburgh-basedPNCis the nation's fifth-largest bank, and the city is home to tenFortune 500companies and seven of the largest 300 U.S. law firms. Other corporations that have regional headquarters and offices have helped Pittsburgh become the sixth-best area for U.S. job growth.Pittsburgh is sometimes called the \"City of Bridges\" for its446 bridges.Its rich industrial history left the area with renowned cultural institutions, including theCarnegie Museums of Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh Parks Conservancy,Pittsburgh Zoo & Aquarium,Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens, theNational Aviary, and a diversecultural district.The city's major leagueprofessional sports teamsinclude thePittsburgh Steelers,Pittsburgh Penguins, andPittsburgh Pirates. Pittsburgh is additionally whereJehovah's Witnessestraces its earliest origins, and was the host of the2009 G20 Pittsburgh summit. Etymology Pittsburgh was named in 1758, by GeneralJohn Forbes, in honor of British",
"in honor of British statesmanWilliam Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. As Forbes was aScotsman, he probably pronounced the name/ˈpɪtsbərə/PITS-bər-ə(similar toEdinburgh). Pittsburgh was incorporated as aboroughon April 22, 1794, with the following Act:\"Be it enacted by thePennsylvania State SenateandPennsylvania House of Representativesof the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ... by the authority of the same, that the said town of Pittsburgh shall be ... erected into a borough, which shall be called the borough of Pittsburgh for ever.\" From 1891 to 1911, the city's name was federally recognized as \"Pittsburg\", though use of the finalhwas retained during this period by the city government and other local organizations.After a public campaign, the federal decision to drop thehwas reversed.ThePittsburg Presscontinued spelling the city without anhuntil 1921. History Kingdom of France1690s–1763Great Britain1681–1781United States1776–present Native Americans The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by theShawneeand",
"by theShawneeand several other settled groups ofNative Americans.Shannopin's Townwas an 18th-centuryLenape(Delaware) town located roughly from wherePenn Avenueis today, below the mouth of Two Mile Run, from 30th Street to 39th Street. According toGeorge Croghan, the town was situated on the south bank of the Allegheny, nearly opposite what is now known as Washington's Landing, formerlyHerr's Island, in what is now theLawrencevilleneighborhood.: 289 18th century The first known European to enter the region was the French explorerRobert de La SallefromQuebecduring his 1669 expedition down theOhio River.European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century. Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year Europeanfur tradersestablished area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to uniteCanadawithFrench Louisianavia the rivers.During 1753–1754, the British hastily builtFort Prince",
"builtFort Prince Georgebefore a larger French force drove them off. The French builtFort Duquesnebased on LaSalle's 1669 claims. TheFrench and Indian War, the North American front of theSeven Years' War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British GeneralEdward Braddockwas dispatched with MajorGeorge Washingtonas his aide to take Fort Duquesne.The British and colonial force were defeated atBraddock's Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758. He began construction onFort Pitt, named afterWilliam Pitt the Elder, while the settlement was named \"Pittsborough\". DuringPontiac's War, a loose confederation of Native American tribeslaid siege to Fort Pittin 1763; the siege was eventually lifted after ColonelHenry Bouquetdefeated a portion of the besieging force at theBattle of Bushy Run. Bouquet strengthened the defenses of Fort Pitt the next year. During this period, the powerful nations of theIroquois Confederacy, based in New York, had maintained control of much of the Ohio Valley as",
"the Ohio Valley as hunting grounds by right of conquest after defeating other tribes. By the terms of the 1768Treaty of Fort Stanwix, thePennswere allowed to purchase the modern region from theIroquois. A 1769 survey referenced the future city as the \"Manor of Pittsburgh\".Both theColony of Virginiaand theProvince of Pennsylvaniaclaimed the region under their colonial charters until 1780, when they agreed under a federal initiative to extend theMason–Dixon linewestward, placing Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania. On March 8, 1771,Bedford County, Pennsylvaniawas created to govern the frontier. On April 16, 1771, the city's first civilian local government was created asPitt Township.William Teagarden was the first constable, and William Troop was the first clerk. Following theAmerican Revolution, the village of Pittsburgh continued to grow. One of its earliest industries was boat building for settlers of theOhio Country. In 1784, Thomas Vickroy completed a town plan which was approved by the Penn family attorney.",
"family attorney. Pittsburgh became a possession of Pennsylvania in 1785. The following year, thePittsburgh Post-Gazettewas started, and in 1787, thePittsburgh Academywas chartered. Unrest during theWhiskey Rebellionof 1794 resulted in federal troops being sent to the area. By 1797, glass manufacture began, while the population grew to around 1,400. Settlers arrived after crossing theAppalachian Mountainsor through theGreat Lakes.Fort Pitt(now Pittsburgh) at the source of the Ohio River became the main base for settlers moving into theNorthwest Territory. 19th century The federal government recognizes Pittsburgh as the starting point for theLewis and Clark Expedition.Preparations began in Pittsburgh in 1803 whenMeriwether Lewispurchased akeelboatthat would later be used to ascend theMissouri River. TheWar of 1812cut off the supply of British goods, stimulating American industry. By 1815, Pittsburgh was producing significant quantities of iron, brass, tin, and glass. On March 18, 1816, the 46-year-old local",
"46-year-old local government became a city. It was served by numerous river steamboats that increased trading traffic on the rivers. In the 1830s, manyWelsh peoplefrom theMerthyrsteelworks immigrated to the city following the aftermath of theMerthyr Rising. By the 1840s, Pittsburgh was one of the largest cities west of theAllegheny Mountains. TheGreat Fire of Pittsburghdestroyed over a thousand buildings in 1845. The city rebuilt with the aid of Irish immigrants who came to escape theGreat Famine. By 1857, Pittsburgh's 1,000 factories were consuming 22 million coal bushels yearly. Coal mining and iron manufacturing attracted waves of European immigrants to the area, with the most coming fromGermany. Because Pennsylvania had been established as a free state after the Revolution, enslaved African Americans sought freedom here through escape as refugees from the South, or occasionally fleeing from travelers they were serving who stayed in the city. There were active stations of theUnderground Railroadin the",
"Railroadin the city, and numerous refugees were documented as getting help from station agents and African-American workers in city hotels. The Drennen Slave Girl walked out of the Monongahela House in 1850, apparently to freedom.The Merchant's Hotel was also a place where African-American workers would advise slaves the state was free and aid them in getting to nearby stations of the Underground Railroad.Sometimes refugee slaves from the South stayed in Pittsburgh, but other times they continued North, including into Canada. Many slaves left the city and county for Canada after Congress passed the 1850Fugitive Slave Act, as it required cooperation from law enforcement even in free states and increased penalties. From 1850 to 1860, the black population in Allegheny County dropped from 3,431 to 2,725 as people headed to more safety in Canada. TheAmerican Civil Warboosted the city's economy with increased iron and armament demand by the Union.Andrew Carnegiebegan steel production in 1875 at theEdgar Thomson",
"at theEdgar Thomson Steel WorksinNorth Braddock, Pennsylvania, which evolved into theCarnegie Steel Company. He adopted theBessemer processto increase production. Manufacturing was key to growth of Pittsburgh and the surrounding region. Railroad lines were built into the city along both rivers, increasing transportation access to important markets. 20th century In 1901,J. P. Morganand attorneyElbert H. GarymergedCarnegie Steel Companyand several other companies intoU.S. Steel. By 1910, Pittsburgh was thenation's eighth-largest city, accounting for between one-third and one-half of national steel output. ThePittsburgh Agreementwas subscribed in May 1918 between the Czech and Slovak nationalities, as envisioned byT. G. Masaryk, concerning the future foundation ofCzechoslovakia. The city sufferedsevere floodingin March 1936. The city's population swelled to more than a half million, attracting numerous European immigrants to its industrial jobs. By 1940, non-Hispanic whites were 90.6% of the city's",
"90.6% of the city's population.Pittsburgh also became a main destination of the African-AmericanGreat Migrationfrom the rural South during the first half of the 20th century.Limited initially by discrimination, some 95% percent of the men became unskilled steel workers. DuringWorld War II, demand for steel increased and area mills operated 24 hours a day to produce 95 million tons of steel for the war effort.This resulted in the highest levels of air pollution in the city's almost century of industry. The city's reputation as the \"arsenal of democracy\"was being overshadowed byJames Parton's 1868 observation of Pittsburgh being \"hell with the lid off.\" Following World War II, the city launched a clean air and civic revitalization project known as the \"Renaissance,\" cleaning up the air and the rivers. The \"Renaissance II\" project followed in 1977, focused on cultural and neighborhood development. The industrial base continued to expand through the 1970s, but beginning in the early 1980s both the area's steel",
"the area's steel and electronics industries imploded during national industrial restructuring. There were massive layoffs from mill and plant closures. In the later 20th century, the area shifted its economic base to education, tourism, and services, largely based on healthcare/medicine, finance, and high technology such as robotics. Although Pittsburgh successfully shifted its economy and remained viable, the city's population has never rebounded to its industrial-era highs. While 680,000 people lived in the city proper in 1950, a combination of suburbanization and economic turbulence resulted in a decrease in city population, even as the metropolitan area population increased again. 21st century During thelate 2000s recession, Pittsburgh was economically strong, adding jobs when most cities were losing them. It was one of the few cities in the United States to see housing property values rise. Between 2006 and 2011, thePittsburghmetropolitan statistical area(MSA) experienced over 10% appreciation in",
"10% appreciation in housing prices, the highest appreciation of the largest 25 metropolitan statistical areas in the United States, with 22 of the largest 25 metropolitan statistical areas experiencing depreciations in housing values. In September 2009, the2009 G20 Pittsburgh summitwas held in Pittsburgh. Geography Pittsburgh has an area of 58.3 square miles (151 km2), of which 55.6 square miles (144 km2) is land and 2.8 square miles (7.3 km2), or 4.75%, is water. The80th meridian westpasses directly through the city's downtown. The city is on theAllegheny Plateau, within theecoregionof theWestern Allegheny Plateau.TheDowntownarea (also known as the Golden Triangle) sits where theAllegheny Riverflows from the northeast and theMonongahela Riverfrom the southeast to form theOhio River. The convergence is atPoint State Parkand is referred to as \"the Point.\" The city extends east to include theOaklandandShadysidesections, which are home to theUniversity of Pittsburgh,Carnegie Mellon University,Chatham",
"University,Chatham University,Carnegie MuseumandLibrary, and many other educational, medical, and cultural institutions. The southern, western, and northern areas of the city are primarily residential. ManyPittsburgh neighborhoodsare steeply sloped with two-lane roads. More than a quarter of neighborhood names make reference to \"hills,\" \"heights,\" or similar features. Thesteps of Pittsburghconsist of 800 sets of outdoor public stairways with 44,645 treads and 24,090 vertical feet. They include hundreds of streets composed entirely of stairs, and many other steep streets with stairs for sidewalks.Many provide vistas of the Pittsburgh area while attracting hikers and fitness walkers. Bike and walking trails have been built to border many of the city's rivers and hollows. TheGreat Allegheny PassageandChesapeake and Ohio CanalTowpath connect the city directly to downtown Washington, D.C. (some 335 miles away) with a continuous bike/running trail. Cityscape Areas The city consists of the Downtown area, called",
"area, called the Golden Triangle,and four main areas surrounding it. These surrounding areas are subdivided into distinct neighborhoods (Pittsburgh has 90 neighborhoods).Relative to downtown, these areas are known as the Central, North Side/North Hills, South Side/South Hills, East End, and West End. Golden Triangle Downtown Pittsburghhas 30 skyscrapers, nine of which top 500 feet (150 m). TheU.S. Steel Toweris the tallest, at 841 ft (256 m).TheCultural Districtconsists of a 14-block area of downtown along theAllegheny River. This district contains many theaters and arts venues and is home to a growing residential segment. Most significantly, thePittsburgh Cultural Trustis embarking on RiverParc, a four-block mixed-use \"green\" community, featuring 700 residential units and multiple towers of between 20 and 30 stories. TheFirstsideportion of Downtown borders the Monongahela River, the historic Mon Wharf and hosts the distinctivePPG PlaceGothic-style glass skyscraper complex. New condo towers have been",
"towers have been constructed and historic office towers are converted to residential use, increasing 24-hour residents. Downtown is served by thePort Authority'slight rail systemandmultiple bridgesleading north and south.It is also home toPoint Park UniversityandDuquesne Universitywhich bordersUptown. North Side The North Side is home to various neighborhoods in transition. The area was once known asAllegheny Cityand operated as its own independent city until 1907, when it was merged with Pittsburgh despite great protest from its citizens. The North Side is primarily composed of residential neighborhoods and is noteworthy for its well-constructed and architecturally interesting homes. Many buildings date from the 19th century and are constructed of brick or stone and adorned with decorative woodwork, ceramic tile, slate roofs and stained glass. The North Side is also home to attractions such asAcrisure Stadium,PNC Park,Kamin Science Center,National Aviary,Andy Warhol Museum,Mattress Factoryart",
"Factoryart museum,Children's Museum of Pittsburgh,Randyland,Penn Brewery,Allegheny Observatory, andAllegheny General Hospital. South Side The South Side was once the site of railyards and associated dense, inexpensive housing for mill and railroad workers. Starting in the late 20th century, the city undertook a Main Street program in cooperation with theNational Trust for Historic Preservation, encouraging design and landscape improvements on East Carson Street, and supporting new retail. The area has become a local Pittsburgher destination, and the value of homes in the South Side had increased in value by about 10% annually for the 10 years leading up to 2014.East Carson Street has developed as one of the most vibrant areas of the city, packed with diverse shopping, ethnic eateries, vibrant nightlife, and live music venues. In 1993, theUrban Redevelopment Authority of Pittsburghpurchased the South Side Works steel mill property. It collaborated with the community and various developers to create a master",
"to create a master plan for a mixed-use development that included a riverfront park, office space, housing, health-care facilities, and indoor practice fields for thePittsburgh SteelersandPitt Panthers. Construction of the development began in 1998. TheSouthSide Workshas been open since 2005, featuring many stores, restaurants, offices, and the world headquarters forAmerican Eagle Outfitters. East End The East End of Pittsburgh is home to theUniversity of Pittsburgh,Carnegie Mellon University,Carlow University,Chatham University,The Carnegie Institute's Museums of Art and Natural History,Phipps Conservatory, andSoldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall. It is also home to many parks and public spaces includingMellon Park,Westinghouse Park,Schenley Park,Frick Park,The Frick Pittsburgh,Bakery Square, and thePittsburgh Zooand PPG Aquarium. The neighborhoods ofShadysideandSquirrel Hillare large, wealthy neighborhoods with some apartments and condos, and pedestrian-oriented shopping/business districts. Squirrel Hill is",
"Squirrel Hill is also known as the hub of Jewish life in Pittsburgh, home to approximately 20 synagogues.Oakland, heavily populated by undergraduate and graduate students, is home to most of the universities, and thePetersen Events Center. TheStrip Districtto the west along theAllegheny Riveris an open-air marketplace by day and a clubbing destination by night.Bloomfieldis Pittsburgh's Little Italy and is known for its Italian restaurants and grocers.Lawrencevilleis a revitalizing rowhouse neighborhood popular with artists and designers. TheHill Districtwas home to photographerCharles Harrisas well as various African-American jazz clubs.Other East End neighborhoods includePoint Breeze,Regent Square,Highland Park,Homewood,Lincoln-Lemington-Belmar,Larimer,East Hills,East Liberty,Polish Hill,Hazelwood, Garfield, Morningside, and Stanton Heights. West End The West End includesMt. Washington, with its famous view of the downtown skyline, and numerous other residential neighborhoods such asSheradenandElliott.",
"Ethnic enclaves Many of Pittsburgh's patchwork of neighborhoods still retainethniccharacters reflecting the city's settlement history. These include: Population densities Several neighborhoods on the edges of the city are less urban, featuring tree-lined streets, yards and garages, with a more suburban character. Oakland, the South Side, the North Side, and the Golden Triangle are characterized by more density of housing, walking neighborhoods, and a more diverse, urban feel. Images Regional identity Pittsburgh falls within the borders of the Northeastern United States as defined by multiple US Government agencies. Pittsburgh is the principal city of thePittsburgh Combined Statistical Area, acombined statistical areadefined by theU.S. Census Bureau. Pittsburgh falls within the borders ofAppalachiaas defined by theAppalachian Regional Commission, and has long been characterized as the \"northern urban industrial anchor of Appalachia.\"In its post-industrial state, Pittsburgh has been characterized as the \"Paris",
"as the \"Paris of Appalachia\",recognizing the city's cultural, educational, healthcare, and technological resources, and is the largest city in Appalachia. Climate Under theKöppen climate classification, Pittsburgh falls within either ahot-summer humid continental climate(Dfa) if the 0 °C (32 °F) isotherm is used or ahumid subtropical climate(Cfa) if the −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm is used. Summers are hot and winters are moderately cold with wide variations in temperature. Despite this, it has one of the most pleasant summer climates between medium and large cities in the U.S.The city lies in the USDA plant hardiness zone 6b except along the rivers where the zone is 7a.The area has four distinct seasons: winters are cold and snowy, springs and falls are mild with moderate levels of sunshine, and summers are warm. As measured by percent possible sunshine, summer is by far the sunniest season, though annual sunshine is low among major US cities at well under 50%. The warmest month of the year in Pittsburgh is July,",
"Pittsburgh is July, with a 24-hour average of 73.2 °F (22.9 °C). Conditions are often humid, and combined with highs reaching 90 °F (32 °C) on an average 9.5 days a year,a considerableheat indexarises. The coolest month is January, when the 24-hour average is 28.8 °F (−1.8 °C), and lows of 0 °F (−18 °C) or below can be expected on an average 2.6 nights per year.Officially, record temperatures range from −22 °F (−30 °C), onJanuary 19, 1994to 103 °F (39 °C), which occurred three times, most recently on July 16, 1988; the record cold daily maximum is −3 °F (−19 °C), which occurred three times, most recently the day of the all-time record low, while, conversely, the record warm daily minimum is 82 °F (28 °C) on July 1, 1901.Due to elevation and location on the windward side of the Appalachian Mountains, 100 °F (38 °C)+ readings are very rare, and were last seen on July 15, 1995. Average annual precipitation is 39.61 inches (1,006 mm) and precipitation is greatest in May while least in October; annual",
"in October; annual precipitation has historically ranged from 22.65 in (575 mm) in 1930 to 57.83 in (1,469 mm) in 2018.On average, December and January have the greatest number of precipitation days. Snowfall averages 44.1 inches (112 cm) per season, but has historically ranged from 8.8 in (22 cm) in 1918–19 to 80 in (200 cm) in 1950–51.There is an average of 59 clear days and 103 partly cloudy days per year, while 203 days are cloudy.In terms of annual percent-average possible sunshine received, Pittsburgh (45%) is similar toSeattle(49%). Air quality TheAmerican Lung Association's(ALA) 2023 “State of the Air” report (which included data from 2019 to 2021) showed air quality in Pittsburgh improving. The city received a passing grade for ozone pollution, going from an F to a C grade, and improving from the 46th to 54th most polluted by ozone smog. According to daily ozone air quality data provided by the EPA, from 2021 to 2024, Pittsburgh had good or moderate air quality most of the time.Then-Allegheny County",
"County executive Rich Fitzgerald said in December 2023 that they’d seen an “80 % drop in hazardous air pollutants” and that they made EPA attainment at all eight county air monitors for the first time in 2020, and then also achieved that goal in 2021, 2022, and were on track for better results in 2023. A past 2019 \"State of the Air\" report from theAmerican Lung Association(ALA) found that air quality in the Pittsburgh-New Castle-Weirton, PA-OH-WV metro area worsened compared to previous reports, not only for ozone (smog), but also for the second year in a row for both the daily and long-term measures of fine particle pollution. In 2019, outside of California, Allegheny County was the only county in the United States that recorded failing grades for all three. In a 2013 ranking of 277 metropolitan areas in the United States, theAmerican Lung Associationranked only six U.S. metro areas as having higher amounts of short-term particle pollution, and only seven U.S. metro areas having higher amounts of year-round",
"of year-round particle pollution than Pittsburgh. For ozone (smog) pollution, Pittsburgh was ranked 24th among U.S. metro areas.The area has improved its air quality with every annual survey. The ALA's rankings have been disputed by the Allegheny County Health Department (ACHD), since data from only the worst of the region's 20 air quality monitors is considered by the ALA, without any context or averaging. The lone monitor used is immediately downwind and adjacent to U.S. Steel'sClairton Coke Works, the nation's largestcokemill, and several municipalities outside the city's jurisdiction of pollution controls, leading to possible confusion that Pittsburgh is the source or center of the emissions cited in the survey.The region's readings also reflect pollution swept in from Ohio and West Virginia. Although the county was still below the \"pass\" threshold, the report showed substantial improvement over previous decades on every air quality measure. Fewer than 15 high ozone days were reported between 2007 and",
"between 2007 and 2009, and just 10 between 2008 and 2010, compared to more than 40 between 1997 and 1999.ACHD spokesman Guillermo Cole stated \"It's the best it's been in the lifetime for virtually every resident in this county ... We've seen a steady decrease in pollution levels over the past decade and certainly over the past 20, 30, 40, 50 years, or more.\" As of 2005, the city includes 31,000 trees on 900 miles of streets. A 2011 analysis of Pittsburgh's tree cover, which involved sampling more than 200 small plots throughout the city, showed a value of between $10 and $13 million in annual benefits based on theurban forestcontributions to aesthetics, energy use and air quality. Energy savings from shade, impact on city air and water quality, and the boost in property values were taken into account in the analysis. The city spends $850,000 annually on street tree planting and maintenance. Despite improvements, some studies still suggest that poor air quality in Pittsburgh is causing negative health",
"negative health effects. In a past study conducted between 2014 and 2016 researchers determined that children who lived in areas close to sources of pollution, such as industrial sites, experienced rates of asthma at almost 3 times the national average.The study also found that 38% of students live in areas over USEPA's 12 micrograms per cubic meter standards, while 70% live in areas over the WHO's standard of 10 micrograms per cubic meter.Several of the plants were located in or very near Pittsburgh.The study also noted that most of the effected communities were minority communities.This had led some residents in Pittsburgh to believe that the continuing effects of air pollution are a case of environmental racism. Groups such as Women for a Healthy Environment are working to address ongoing concerns surrounding air pollution in Pittsburgh.WHE does work such as policy analysis, publishing reports, and community education.In the summer of 2017, a crowd sourced air quality monitoring application, Smell PGH,",
"Smell PGH, was launched. As air quality is still a concern of many in the area, the app allows for users to report odd smells and informs local authorities. Water quality The local rivers continue to have pollution levels exceeding EPA limits.This is caused byfrequently overflowing untreated sewageinto local waterways, due to flood conditions and antiquated infrastructure. Pittsburgh has acombined sewersystem, where its sewage pipes contain both stormwater and wastewater. The pipes were constructed in the early 1900s, and the sewage treatment plant was built in 1959.Due to insufficient improvements over time, the city is faced with public health concerns regarding its water.As little as a tenth of an inch of rain causes runoffs from the sewage system to drain into local rivers.Nine billion gallons of untreated waste and stormwater flow into rivers, leading to health hazards and Clean Water Act violations.The local sewage authority,Allegheny County Sanitary Authority, or ALCOSAN, is operating under Consent",
"under Consent Decree from theEPAto come up with solutions.In 2017, ALCOSAN proposed a $2 billion upgrade to the system which was approved by the EPA in 2019. Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority(PWSA) is the city's agency required to replace pipes and charge water rates. They have come under fire from both city and state authorities due to alleged mismanagement.In 2017,Mayor William Pedutoadvocated for a restructuring of the PWSA and a partially privatized water authority.Governor Wolf subsequently assigned the PWSA to be under the oversight of the Public Utilities Commission (PUC). PWSA has also been subject to criticism due to findings released in 2016 showing high levels of lead in Pittsburgh's drinking water.Although Pittsburgh's drinking water had been high in lead levels, and steadily rising, for many years, many residents blame PWSA administrative changes for the spike in lead levels.In the years prior, PWSA had hired Veolia, a Paris-based company, for consultation to help with mounting administrative",
"administrative difficulties.By 2015, PWSA in consultation with Veolia had laid off 23 people, including halving the laboratory staff that was responsible for testing water safety and quality.Simultaneously, PWSA in consultation with Veolia had changed what chemicals they were using to prevent metal corrosion in 2014,from soda ash to caustic soda, without consulting with Department of Environmental Protection.Anti-corrosive chemicals were being used because many of Pittsburgh's water pipes were made of lead, and adding anti-corrosive chemicals helped prevent lead from seeping into drinking water. In 2016 lead levels were as high as 27 ppb in some cases. The legal limit is 15 ppb, although there is not a safe amount of lead in drinking water.Though lead levels had been rising in previous years, they had not exceeded the legal limit.In late 2015 PWSA terminated its contracted with Veolia.In response to the high lead levels PWSA began adding orthophosphate to the water.Orthophosphate is meant to create a coating",
"to create a coating on the inside of pipes, creating a barrier to prevent lead from leaching into drinking water.PWSA has also been working to replace lead pipes, and continuing to test water for lead. There remains concern among residents over the long-term effects of this lead, particularly for children, in whom lead causes permanent damage to the brain and nervous system.Some people also believe that the high levels of lead reflect environmental racism, as black and Hispanic children in Pittsburgh experience elevated blood-lead levels at 4 times the rate of white children.Water fountains in Langley k-8 school in Sheraden were found to have the highest levels of lead of any schools in the Pittsburgh area. These levels were about 11 times the legal limit. Some residents believe this is due to Langely being a predominantly black school, with 89% of the student body being eligible for the free lunch program. Demographics 2020 census At the 2010 census, there were 305,704 people residing in Pittsburgh, a",
"in Pittsburgh, a decrease of 8.6% since 2000; 66.0% of the population was White, 25.8% Black or African American, 0.2% American Indian and Alaska Native, 4.4% Asian, 0.3% Other, and 2.3% mixed; in 2020, 2.3% of Pittsburgh's population was of Hispanic or Latino American origin of any race.Non-Hispanic whiteswere 64.8% of the population in 2010,compared to 78.7% in 1970.By the2020 census, the population slightly declined further to 302,971.Its racial and ethnic makeup in 2020 was 64.7% non-Hispanic white, 23.0% Black or African American, 5.8% Asian, and 3.2% Hispanic or Latino American of any race. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the five largest European ethnic groups in Pittsburgh were German (19.7%), Irish (15.8%), Italian (11.8%), Polish (8.4%), and English (4.6%), while the metropolitan area is approximately 22% German-American, 15.4% Italian American and 11.6% Irish American. Pittsburgh has one of the largest Italian-American communities in the nation,and the fifth-largestUkrainiancommunity per",
"per the 1990 census.Pittsburgh has one of the most extensiveCroatiancommunities in the United States.Overall, the Pittsburgh metro area has one of the largest populations of Slavic Americans in the country. Pittsburgh has a sizable Black and African American population, concentrated in various neighborhoods especially in the East End. There is also a small Asian community consisting of Indian immigrants, and a small Hispanic community consisting of Mexicans and Puerto Ricans. According to a 2010Association of Religion Data Archives(ARDA) study, residents include 773,341 \"Catholics\"; 326,125 \"Mainline Protestants\"; 174,119 \"Evangelical Protestants;\" 20,976 \"Black Protestants;\" and 16,405 \"Orthodox Christians,\" with 996,826 listed as \"unclaimed\" and 16,405 as \"other\" in the metro area.A 2017 study by the Cohen Center for Modern Jewish Studies atBrandeis Universityestimated theJewish population of Greater Pittsburghwas 49,200.Pittsburgh is also cited as the location where the earliest precursor toJehovah's",
"toJehovah's Witnesseswas founded byCharles Taze Russell; today the denomination makes up approximately 1% of the population based on data from thePew Research Center. According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, 78% of the population of the city identified themselves as Christians, with 42% professing attendance at a variety of churches that could be consideredProtestant, and 32% professingCatholicbeliefs. while 18% claim no religious affiliation. The same study says that other religions (including Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, and Hinduism) collectively make up about 4% of the population. In 2010, there were 143,739 households, out of which 21.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.2% were married couples living together, 16.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 48.4% were non-families. 39.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.17 and the average family",
"the average family size was 2.95. In the city, the population was spread out, with 19.9% under the age of 18, 14.8% from 18 to 24, 28.6% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 16.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.8 males. Themedian incomefor a household in the city was $28,588, and the median income for a family was $38,795. Males had a median income of $32,128 versus $25,500 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,816. About 15.0% of families and 20.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 27.5% of those under the age of 18 and 13.5% ages 65 or older. By the 2019American Community Survey, the median income for a household increased to $53,799.Families had a median income of $68,922; married-couple families had a median income of $93,500; and non-family households had a median income of $34,448. Pittsburgh's wealthiest suburbs within city",
"suburbs within city limits areSquirrel HillandPoint Breeze, the only two areas of the city which have average household incomes over $100,000 a year. Outside of city limits,Sewickley Heightsis by a wide margin the wealthiest suburb of Pittsburgh within Allegheny County, with an average yearly household income of just over $218,000. Sewickely Heights is seen as one of Pittsburgh's wealthiest suburbs culturally as well, titles which the suburbs ofUpper St. Clair,Fox Chapel,Wexford, andWarrendalealso have been bestowed. In a 2002 study, Pittsburgh ranked 22nd of 69 urban places in the U.S. in the number of residents 25 years or older who had completed a bachelor's degree, at 31%.Pittsburgh ranked 15th of the 69 places in the number of residents 25 years or older who completed a high school degree, at 84.7%. Themetro areahas shown greater residentialracial integrationduring the last 30 years. The 2010 census ranked 18 other U.S. metros as having greater black-whitesegregation, while 32 other U.S. metros rank",
"U.S. metros rank higher for black-white isolation. As of 2018, much of Pittsburgh's population density was concentrated in the central, southern, and eastern areas. The city limits itself have a population density of 5,513 people per square mile; its most densely populated parts areNorth Oakland(at 21,200 per square mile) andUptown Pittsburgh(at 19,869 per square mile). Outside of the city limits,DormontandMount Oliverare Pittsburgh's most densely-populated neighborhoods, with 11,167 and 9,902 people per square mile respectively. Most of Pittsburgh's immigrants are fromChina,India,KoreaandItaly. Demographic changes Since the 1940s, some demographic changes have sometimes been caused by city initiatives for redevelopment. Throughout the 1950s Pittsburgh's Lower Hill District faced massive demographic changes when 1,551, majority black, residents and 413 businesses were forced to relocate when the city of Pittsburgh used eminent domain to make space for the construction of the Civic Arena.This Civic Arena",
"Civic Arena ultimately opened in 1961.The Civic Arena was built as part of one of Pittsburgh's revitalization campaigns. An auditorium in this space was initially proposed in 1947 by the Regional Planning Association and Urban Redevelopment Authority. The idea of an auditorium with a retractable roof that would house the Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera was more specifically proposed in 1953 by the Allegheny Conference on Community Redevelopment. The following year the Public Auditorium Authority of Pittsburgh and Allegheny County was formed. The Lower Hill District had been approved by the City Planning Commission in 1950.Partially as a result of the Civic arena, the whole Hill District is estimated to only have 12,000 residents now.These governmental organizations caused demographic changes through creating a mass exodus from the lower hill district for the construction of the Civic Arena. In the 1960s the Urban Redevelopment Authority attempted to redevelop East Liberty with the goal of preserving its status",
"its status as a market center. Penn Center Mall was the result of this effort. In the process of constructing this mall, approximately 3,800 people were forced to relocate. This proved to be another case of government intervention resulting in demographic changes. Later on, in the early 2000s, movement of businesses into East Liberty, such as Home Depot, Whole Foods, and Google, created another demographic shift. This era of redevelopment was led by private developers who catered to what one scholar described as “Florida’s creative class.” This change continued to be supported by the Urban Redevelopment Authority; particularly by the executive director Rob Stepney, who said of the redevelopment “We had an inspired and shared vision.” When describing the result of redevelopment he said “East Liberty went from blighted and ‘keep off the grass’ to the definition of what millennials are looking for.” The Pittsburgh government’s choices during redevelopment and the resulting demographic changes have resulted in",
"have resulted in criticism and led some residents to believe that displacement was purposeful. In one article published in Public Source, a resident explains their belief that redevelopment plans are part of “deconcentration,” an effort to spread out black and low-income residents in order to prevent them from being concentrated in one place.Others worry that these demographic changes are part of government complicity in gentrification.Gentrification is a process where wealthier residents move into an area, altering it by increasing housing / renting costs and changing the market for businesses in the area. This displaces current residents who are unable to afford living in the changed neighborhood. In East Liberty, for example, people frequently cite housing units being demolished and replaced by businesses as evidence of gentrification. For example, when the East Mall public housing unit was demolished in 2009, and a Target built in its place. Economy Pittsburgh has adapted since the collapse of its",
"the collapse of its century-long steel and electronics industries. The region has shifted to high technology,robotics, health care, nuclear engineering, tourism,biomedical technology, finance, education, and services. Annual payroll of the region's technology industries, when taken in aggregate, exceeded $10.8 billion in 2007,and in 2010 there were 1,600 technology companies.ANational Bureau of Economic Research2014 report named Pittsburgh the second-best U.S. city for intergenerational economic mobilityor theAmerican Dream.Reflecting the citywide shift from industry to technology, former factories have been renovated as modern office space. Google has research and technology offices in a refurbished 1918–1998Nabiscofactory, a complex known asBakery Square.Some of the factory's original equipment, such as a large dough mixer, were left standing in homage to the site's industrial roots.Pittsburgh's transition from itsindustrial heritagehas earned it praise as \"the poster child for managing industrial",
"managing industrial transition\".Other major cities in the northeast and mid-west have increasingly borrowed from Pittsburgh'smodelin order to renew their industries and economic base. The largest employer in the city is theUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center, with 48,000 employees. All hospitals, outpatient clinics, and doctor's office positions combine for 116,000 jobs, approximately 10% of the jobs in the region. An analyst recently observed of the city's medical sector: \"That's both more jobs and a higher share of the region's total employment than the steel industry represented in the 1970s.\" Education is a major economic driver in the region. The largest single employer in education is theUniversity of Pittsburgh, with 10,700 employees. TenFortune 500companies call the Pittsburgh area home.They are (in alphabetical order):Alcoa Corporation(NYSE: AA),Arconic Corporation(NYSE: ARNC),Dick's Sporting Goods(NYSE: DKS),The Kraft Heinz Company(NASDAQ: KHC),PNC Financial Services(NYSE: PNC),PPG",
"PNC),PPG Industries(NYSE: PPG),U.S. Steel Corporation(NYSE: X),Viatris(NASDAQ: VRTS),Wabtec Corporation(NYSE: WAB), andWESCO International(WYSE: WCC). The region is home toAurora,Allegheny Technologies,American Eagle Outfitters,Duolingo,EQT Corporation,CONSOL Energy,Howmet Aerospace,KennametalandII-VIheadquarters. Other major employers includeBNY Mellon,GlaxoSmithKline,Thermo Fisher Scientific, andLanxess. The Northeast U.S. regional headquarters forChevron Corporation,Nova Chemicals,Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu,FedEx Ground,Ariba, and theRAND Corporationcall the area home.84 Lumber,Giant Eagle,Highmark,Rue 21,General Nutrition Center(GNC), CNX Gas (CXG), andGenco Supply Chain Solutionsare major non-public companies headquartered in the region. The global impact of Pittsburgh technology and business was recently demonstrated in several key components of theBoeing 787 Dreamlinerbeing manufactured and supplied by area companies.Area retail is anchored by over 35shopping mallsand a healthy downtown retail sector,",
"retail sector, as well as boutique shops alongWalnut Street, inSquirrel Hill,LawrencevilleandStation Square. The nonprofit arts and cultural industry in Allegheny County generates $341 million in economic activity that supports over 10,000 full-time equivalent jobs with nearly $34 million in local and state taxes raised. A leader inenvironmental design, the city is home to 60 total and 10 of the world's firstgreen buildingswhile billions have been invested in the area'sMarcellusnatural gas fields.A renaissance of Pittsburgh's 116-year-old film industry—that boasts the world's firstmovie theater—has grown from the long-runningThree Rivers Film Festivalto an influx ofmajor televisionandmovie productions. includingDisneyandParamountoffices with the largest sound stage outside Los Angeles and New York City. Pittsburgh has hosted many conventions, includingINPEX, the world's largest invention trade show, since 1984;Tekko, a four-day anime convention, since 2003;Anthrocon, a furry convention, since 2006; and",
"since 2006; and theDUG Eastenergy trade show since 2009. In 2015, Pittsburgh was listed among the \"eleven most livable cities in the world\" byMetropolismagazine.The Economist'sGlobal Liveability Rankingplaced Pittsburgh as the most or second-most livable city in the United States in 2005, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2018. Arts and culture Entertainment Pittsburgh has a rich history in arts and culture dating from 19th century industrialists commissioning and donating public works, such asHeinz Hall for the Performing Artsand theBenedum Center, home to thePittsburgh Symphony OrchestraandPittsburgh Opera, respectively as well as such groups as theRiver City Brass Bandand thePittsburgh Youth Symphony Orchestra. Pittsburgh has a number of small and mid-size arts organizations including thePittsburgh Irish and Classical Theatre,Quantum Theatre, theRenaissance and Baroque Society of Pittsburgh, and the early music ensembleChatham Baroque. Several choirs and singing groups are also present at the cities'",
"at the cities' universities; some of the most notable include thePitt Men's Glee Cluband theHeinz Chapel Choir. Pittsburgh Dance Counciland thePittsburgh Ballet Theaterhost a variety of dance events. Polka, folk, square, and round dancing have a long history in the city and are celebrated by theDuquesne University Tamburitzans, a multicultural academy dedicated to the preservation and presentation of folk songs and dance. Hundreds of major films have been shot partially or wholly in Pittsburgh.The Dark Knight Riseswas largely filmed in Downtown, Oakland, and the North Shore. Pittsburgh is also considered as the birthplace of the modernzombie filmgenre afterGeorge A. Romerodirected the 1968 filmNight of the Living Dead.Pittsburgh has also teamed up with a Los Angeles-based production company, and has built the largest and most advanced movie studio in theeastern United States. Pittsburgh's major art museums include theAndy Warhol Museum, theCarnegie Museum of Art,The Frick Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh Center for the",
"Center for the Arts, theMattress Factory, and theCarnegie Museum of Natural History, which has extensive dinosaur, mineral, animal, andEgyptiancollections. TheKamin Science Centerand associatedSportsWorkshas interactive technology and science exhibits. TheSenator John Heinz History Center and Western Pennsylvania Sports Museumis a Smithsonian affiliated regional history museum in the Strip District and its associatedFort Pitt Museumis in Point State Park.Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall and Museumin Oakland houses Western Pennsylvania military exhibits from the Civil War to present. TheChildren's Museum of Pittsburghon the North Side features interactive exhibits for children. The eclecticBayernhof Music Museumis six miles (9km) from downtown whileThe Clemente Museumis in the city's Lawrenceville section. TheCathedral of Learning'sNationality Roomsshowcase pre-19th century learning environments from around the world. There are regular guided and self-guided architectural tours in numerous neighborhoods.",
"neighborhoods. Downtown's cultural district hosts quarterly Gallery Crawls and the annualThree Rivers Arts Festival. Pittsburgh is home to a number of art galleries and centers including theMiller Gallery at Carnegie Mellon University,University Art Galleryof the University of Pittsburgh, theAmerican Jewish Museum, and theWood Street Galleries. ThePittsburgh Zoo & Aquarium,Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens, and theNational Aviaryhave served the city for over a century. Pittsburgh is home to the amusement parkKennywood. Pittsburgh is home to one of the several state licensed casinos. TheRivers Casinois on theNorth Shorealong theOhio River, just west ofKamin Science CenterandAcrisure Stadium. Pittsburgh is home to the world's largest furry convention known asAnthrocon, which has been held annually at theDavid L. Lawrence Convention Centersince 2006. In 2024, Anthrocon drew over 17,000 visitors and has had a cumulative economic impact of $53 million over the course of its 11 years of being hosted in",
"of being hosted in Pittsburgh. Lifetime's reality show,Dance Moms, is filmed at Pittsburgh's Abby Lee Dance Company. Music Pittsburgh has a long tradition ofjazz,blues, andbluegrass music. TheNational Negro Opera Companywas founded in the city as the first all African-American opera company in the United States. This led to the prominence of African-American singers likeLeontyne Pricein the world of opera. One of the greatest American musicians and composers of the 20th century,Billy Strayhorn, grew up and was educated in Pittsburgh, as was pianist/composer-arrangerMary Lou Williams, who composed and recorded an eponymous tribute to her home town in 1966,featuring vocalistLeon Thomas. Pittsburgh'sWiz Khalifais a recent artist to have a number one record. His anthem \"Black and Yellow\" (a tribute to Pittsburgh's official colors) reached number one on Billboard's \"Hot 100\"for the Week of February 19, 2011.Perry ComoandChristina Aguileraare from Pittsburgh suburbs. The city is also where the bandRusted Rootwas",
"bandRusted Rootwas formed. Liz Berlin of Rusted Root owns Mr. Smalls, a popular music venue for touring national acts in Pittsburgh.Hip hop artistMac Millerwas also a Pittsburgh native, with his debut albumBlue Slide Parknamed after the localFrick Park. Manypunk rockandHardcore punkacts, such asAus RottenandAnti-Flag, originated in Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh has also seen many metal bands gain prominence in recent years,most notablyCode Orange, who were nominated for a Grammy. The city was also home to the highly influentialmath rockbandDon Caballero. Pittsburgh has emerged as a leading city in the United States'heavy metal musicscene. Ranking as the third 'most metal city' in a study conducted by MetalSucks,Pittsburgh has earned a reputation for its heavy metal community. Pittsburgh is home to over six-hundred heavy metal bands,as well as heavy metal coffee shopsand bars. The city is noted for itsdoom metal,metalcore, anddeath metalscenes. Throughout the 1990s there was anelectronic musicsubculturein Pittsburgh",
"Pittsburgh which likely traced its origins to similar Internetchatroom-based movements inDetroit,Cleveland,Minneapolis, and across the United States.PittsburghpromotersandDJsorganizedravesin warehouses,ice rinks, barns, and fields which eventually attracted thousands of attendees, some of whom were high school students or even younger.As the events grew more popular, they drew internationally known DJs such asAdam BeyerandRichie Hawtin.Pittsburgh rave culture itself spawned at least one well-known artist, thedrum and bassDJDieselboy, who attended theUniversity of Pittsburghbetween 1990 and 1995. Since 2012, Pittsburgh has been the home ofHot Mass, an afterhours electronic musicdance partywhich critics have compared favorably to European nightclubs and parties.Electronic music artist and DJYaejicredits Hot Mass with her \"indoctrination into nightlife\"; she regularly attended the party while studying atCarnegie Mellon University. Theatre The city's first play was produced at theold courthousein 1803and the",
"1803and the first theater built in 1812.Collegiate companies include the University of Pittsburgh'sRepertory TheatreandKuntu Repertory Theatre, Point Park University's resident companies at itsPittsburgh Playhouse, and Carnegie Mellon University's School of Drama productions andScotch'n'Sodaorganization. The Duquesne University Red Masquers, founded in 1912, are the oldest, continuously producing theater company in Pennsylvania.The city's longest-running theater show,Friday Nite Improvs, is an improv jam that has been performed in theCathedral of Learningand other locations for 20 years. ThePittsburgh New Works Festivalutilizes local theater companies to stage productions of original one-act plays by playwrights from all parts of the country. Similarly,Future Tenshowcases new ten-minute plays.Saint Vincent Summer Theatre,Off the Wall Productions,Mountain Playhouse, The Theatre Factory, andStage Right!in nearbyLatrobe,Carnegie,Jennerstown,Trafford, andGreensburg, respectively, employ Pittsburgh actors and",
"actors and contribute to the culture of the region. Pittsburgh is well known for being home to the late playwright August Wilson.The August Wilson House now remains in Pittsburgh to celebrate the life and work of August Wilson, continue to produce his plays, and serve as an arts center for the Hill District, where Wilson was from. Literature Pittsburgh is the birthplace ofGertrude SteinandRachel Carson, aChatham Universitygraduate from the suburb ofSpringdale, Pennsylvania.Modern writers includePulitzer Prize-winning playwrightAugust WilsonandMichael Chabonwith his Pittsburgh-focused commentary on student and college life. Two-time Pulitzer Prize winner and recipient of thePresidential Medal of Freedom,David McCulloughwas born and raised in Pittsburgh.Annie Dillard, a Pulitzer Prize–winning writer, was born and raised in Pittsburgh. Much of her memoirAn American Childhoodtakes place in post-World War II Pittsburgh. Award-winning authorJohn Edgar Widemangrew up in Pittsburgh and has based several of his",
"several of his books, including the memoirBrothers and Keepers, in his hometown. PoetTerrance Hayes, winner of the 2010 National Book Award and a 2014 MacArthur Foundation Fellow, received his MFA from the University of Pittsburgh, where he is a faculty member. PoetMichael Simms, founder ofAutumn House Press, resides in the Mount Washington neighborhood of Pittsburgh. PoetSamuel John Hazo, the first poet Laureate of Pennsylvania, resides in the city. Contemporary writers from Pittsburgh includeKathleen Tessaro, author of novels such as \"Elegance,\" \"The Perfume Collector,\" and \"Rare Objects,\" whose works contribute to the city's rich literary tradition. New writers includeChris Kuzneski, who attended theUniversity of Pittsburghand mentions Pittsburgh in his works, and Pittsburgher Brian Celio, author ofCatapult Soul, who captured the Pittsburgh 'Yinzer' dialect in his writing. Pittsburgh's unique literary style extends to playwrights,as well as local graffiti and hip hop artists. Pittsburgh's position as the",
"position as the birthplace for community owned television and networked commercial television helped spawn the modern children's show genres exemplified byMister Rogers' Neighborhood,Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego?,Happy's Party,Cappelli & Company, andThe Children's Corner, all nationally broadcast. ThePittsburgh Dadseries has showcased thePittsburghesegenre to a global YouTube audience since 2011. The modern fantasy, macabre and science fiction genre was popularized by directorGeorge A. Romero, television'sBill Cardilleand hisChiller Theatre,director and writerRusty Cundieffand makeup effects guruTom Savini.The genre continues today with the PARSEC science fiction organization,The It's Alive Show, the annual \"Zombie Fest\",and several writer's workshops including Write or Die,Pittsburgh SouthWrites,and Pittsburgh WorldwrightswithBarton Paul Levenson,Kenneth ChiacchiaandElizabeth Humphreys Penrose. Food Pittsburgh is known for several specialties includingpierogies,kielbasa,chipped chopped",
"chopped hamsandwiches, andKlondike bars.In 2019, Pittsburgh was deemed \"Food City of the Year\" by the San Francisco-based restaurant and hospitality consulting firm af&co.Many restaurants were favorably mentioned, among them were Superior Motors inBraddock, Driftwood Oven inLawrenceville, Spork inBloomfield, Fish nor Fowl inGarfield, Bitter Ends Garden & Luncheonette inBloomfield, and Rolling Pepperoni inLawrenceville. Pittsburgh is home to the annualpickle-themed festivalPicklesburgh, which has been named the \"best specialtyfood festivalin America\". Local dialect The Pittsburgh English dialect, commonly calledPittsburghese, was influenced byScots-Irish, German, andEastern Europeanimmigrants and African Americans.Locals who speak the dialect are sometimes referred to as \"Yinzers\" (from the local word \"yinz\" , a blended form of \"you ones\", similar to \"y'all\" and \"you all\" in the South). Common Pittsburghese terms are: \"slippy\" (slippery), \"redd up\" (clean up), \"jagger bush\" (thorn bush), and \"gum bands\"",
"and \"gum bands\" (rubber bands). The dialect is also notable for dropping the verb \"to be\". In Pittsburghese one would say \"the car needs washed\" instead of \"needs to be washed\", \"needs washing\", or \"needs a wash.\" The dialect has some tonal similarities to other nearby regional dialects of Erie and Baltimore but is noted for its somewhatstaccatorhythms. The staccato qualities of the dialect are thought to originate either from Welsh or other European languages. The many local peculiarities have promptedThe New York Timesto describe Pittsburgh as \"theGalapagos Islandsof American dialect\".The lexicon itself contains notable loans fromPolishand other European languages; examples includebabushka,pierogi, andhalušky. Livability Pittsburgh has five city parks and several parks managed by theNature Conservancy. The largest,Frick Park, provides 664 acres (269 ha) of woodland park with extensive hiking and biking trails throughout steep valleys and wooded slopes. Birding enthusiasts visit the Clayton Hill area of",
"Hill area of Frick Park, where over 100 species of birds have been recorded. Residents living in extremely low-lying areas near the rivers or one of the 1,400 creeks and streams may have occasional floods,such as those caused when the remnants ofHurricane Ivanhit rainfall records in 2004.River flooding is relatively rare due to federal flood control efforts extensively managing locks, dams, and reservoirs.Residents living near smaller tributary streams are less protected from occasional flooding. The cost of a comprehensive flood control program for the region has been estimated at a prohibitive $50 billion. Pittsburgh has the greatest number of bars per capita in the nation. Sports Pittsburgh hosted thefirst professional football gameand thefirst World Series. In 2009, Pittsburgh won theSporting Newstitle of \"Best Sports City\" in the United Statesand, in 2013,Sperling's Best Places\"top 15 cities for baseball\".College sports also have large followings with the University of Pittsburgh in football and sharing",
"and sharing Division I basketball fans with Robert Morris and Duquesne. Pittsburgh has a long history with its major professional sports teams—theSteelersof theNational Football League, thePenguinsof theNational Hockey League, and thePiratesofMajor League Baseball—which all share the same team colors, theofficial city colors of black and gold.Pittsburgh is the only city in the United States where this practice of sharing team colors in solidarity takes place.The black-and-gold color scheme has since become widely associated with the city and personified in its famousTerrible Towel. ThePittsburgh Riverhoundsare a professional soccer team who have been playing in Pittsburgh since they were established in 1999. They are a member of theUSL Championshipdivision, a second-tier league of US professional soccer and are in the league's Eastern Conference. The Riverhounds play their home matches atHighmark Stadium (Pennsylvania)a 5,000 seatsoccer-specific stadiumlocated in Pittsburgh'sStation Square. In keeping with",
"In keeping with the uniformity of professional sports teams in Pittsburgh, the Riverhounds colors are black and gold. \"Rails to Trails\", has converted miles of formerrail tracksto recreational trails, including aPittsburgh-Washington D.C. bike/walking trail.Severalmountain bikingtrails are within the city and suburbs,Frick Parkhas biking trails andHartwood Acres Parkhas many miles ofsingle tracktrails. Professional Major league Minor league/other **Pittsburgh's ABA franchise won the 1968 title, but the Steel City Yellow Jackets franchise is heir to it only in location. College Power 5 Other Baseball his is the perfect blend of location, history, design, comfort and baseball ... The best stadium in baseball is in Pittsburgh. ESPN ThePittsburgh Piratesbaseball team, often referred to as the Bucs or the Buccos (derived frombuccaneer), is the city's oldest professional sports franchise, having been founded in 1881, and plays in theCentral Divisionof theNational League. The Pirates are nine-time Pennant winners",
"Pennant winners and five-timeWorld SeriesChampions, were in the firstWorld Series (1903)and claim two pre-World Series titles in 1901 and 1902. The Pirates play inPNC Park. Pittsburgh also has a richNegro leaguehistory, with the formerPittsburgh Crawfordsand theHomestead Grayscredited with as many as 14 league titles and 11 Hall of Famers between them in the 1930s and 1940s, while theKeystonesfielded teams in the 1920s. In addition, in 1971 the Pirates were the first Major League team to field an all-minority lineup. One sportswriter claimed, \"No city is more synonymous with black baseball than Pittsburgh.\" Since the late 20th century, the Pirates had three consecutiveNational League Championship Seriesappearances (1990–92) (going 6, 7 and 7 games each), followed by setting the MLB record for most consecutive losing seasons, with 20 from 1993 until 2012. This era was followed by three consecutive postseason appearances: the 2013National League Division Seriesand the 2014–2015 Wild Card games. TheirSeptember",
"TheirSeptember pennant racein 1997 featured the franchises' last no-hitter and last award forSporting News' Executive of the Year. Football The city's professional team,NFL'sPittsburgh Steelers, is named after the distribution company the Pittsburgh Steeling company established in 1927. News of the team has preempted news of elections and other events and are important to the region and itsdiaspora. The Steelers have been owned by theRooney familysince the team's founding in 1933, show consistency in coaching (only three coaches since the 1960s all with the same basic philosophy) and are noted as one of sports' most respectable franchises.The Steelers have a long waiting list for season tickets, and have sold out every home game since 1972.The team won fourSuper Bowlsin a six-year span in the 1970s, afifth Super Bowlin 2006, and a league recordsixth Super Bowlin 2009. Since the AFL-NFL merger in 1970 they have qualified for the most NFL playoff berths (28) and have played in (15) and hosted (11) the most NFL",
"(11) the most NFL conference championship games. High school footballroutinely attract 10,000 fans per game and extensive press coverage.TheTom CruisefilmAll the Right Movesand ESPN'sBound for GlorywithDick Butkusboth filmed in the area to capture the tradition and passion of local high school football. College footballin the city dates to 1889with theDivision I(FBS)Panthersof the University of Pittsburgh posting ninenational championships, qualifying 37 total bowl games, appearing in the2018 ACC Championship Game, and winning the2021 ACC Championship Gamewhich was the program's first conference title since leaving theBig Eastfor theACCbetween the 2012 and 2013 seasons.Local universities Duquesne and Robert Morris have loyal fan bases that follow their lower(FCS)teams. Duquesne, Carnegie Mellon University, andWashington & Jefferson Collegeall posted major bowl games and AP Poll rankings from the 1920s to the 1940s as that era's equivalent of Top 25 FBS programs. Acrisure Stadium serves as home for the",
"as home for the Steelers, Panthers, and both the suburban and city high school championships. Playoff franchisesPittsburgh Powerand Pittsburgh Gladiators competed in theArena Football Leaguein the 1980s and 2010s respectively. The Gladiators hostedArenaBowl Iin the city, competing in two, but losing both before moving toTampa, Floridaand becoming theStorm.ThePittsburgh Passionhas been the city's professional women's football team since 2002 and plays its home games atHighmark Stadium. TheEd DebartoloownedPittsburgh Maulersfeatured aHeisman Trophywinner in the mid-1980s, former superstar University of Nebraska running backMike Rozier. Hockey The NHL'sPittsburgh Penguinshave played in Pittsburgh since the team's founding in 1967. The team has won 6Eastern Conferencetitles (1991, 1992, 2008, 2009, 2016 and 2017) and 5Stanley Cupchampionships (1991, 1992, 2009, 2016 and 2017). Since 1999, Hall of Famer and back-to-back playoff MVPMario Lemieuxhas served as Penguins owner. Until moving into thePPG Paints Arenain",
"Paints Arenain 2010 (when it was known as Consol Energy Center), the team played their home games at the world's first retractable domed stadium, theCivic Arena, or in local parlance \"The Igloo\". Ice hockeyhas had a regional fan base since the 1890s semi-proKeystones. The city's first ice rink dates back to 1889, when there was an ice rink at the Casino inSchenley Park. From 1896 to 1956, the Exposition Building on the Allegheny River near The Point and Duquesne Gardens in Oakland offered indoor skating. The NHL awarded one of its first franchises to the city in 1924 on the strength of the back-to-back USAHA championship winningPittsburgh Yellow Jacketsfeaturing future Hall of Famers and a Stanley Cup winning coach. The NHL'sPittsburgh Piratesmade several Stanley Cup playoff runs with a future Hall of Famer before folding fromGreat Depressionfinancial pressures. Hockey survived with thePittsburgh Hornetsfarm team (1936–1967) and their seven finals appearances and three championships in 18 playoff seasons.",
"18 playoff seasons. Robert Morris Universityfields a Division I college hockey team at theIsland Sports Center. Pittsburgh has semi-pro and amateur teams such as the Pittsburgh Penguins Elite.Pro-grade ice rinks such as theRostraver Ice Garden, Mt. Lebanon Recreation Center andIceoplex at Southpointehave trained several native Pittsburgh players for NHL play. RMU hosted the city's firstFrozen Fourcollege championship in 2013 with the four PPG Paints Arena games televised byESPN. Basketball Professional basketballin Pittsburgh dates to the 1910s with teams \"Monticello\" and \"Loendi\" winningfive national titles, thePirates(1937–45 in theNBL), thePittsburgh Ironmen(1947–48NBAinaugural season), thePittsburgh Rens(1961–63), thePittsburgh Pipers(firstAmerican Basketball Associationchampionship in 1968) led by Connie Hawkins (team then moved); the Pittsburgh Condors (ABA returned in 1970–72), thePittsburgh Piranhas(CBA Finals in 1995), thePittsburgh Xplosion(2004–08) andPhantoms(2009–10) both of theABA. The city has",
"The city has hosted dozens of pre-season and 15 regular season \"neutral site\" NBA games, includingWilt Chamberlain's record setting performance in both consecutive field goals and field goal percentage on February 24, 1967, NBA records that still stand. The Duquesne UniversityDukesand the University of PittsburghPanthershave playedcollege basketballin the city since 1914 and 1905 respectively. Pitt and Duquesne have played the annualCity Gamesince 1932. Duquesne was the city's first team to appear in aFinal Four(1940), obtain a number oneAP Pollranking (1954),and to win a post-season national title, the1955 National Invitation Tournamenton its second straight trip to the NIT title game. Duquesne is the only college program to produce back-to-back NBA No. 1 overall draft picks with 1955's Dick Ricketts and 1956's Sihugo Green.Duquesne'sChuck Cooperwas the first African American drafted by an NBA team. The Panthers won two pre-tournament eraHelms Athletic FoundationNational Championshipsin 1928 and 1930,",
"1928 and 1930, competed in a \"national title game\" againstLSUin 1935, and made a Final Four appearance in 1941. Pitt has won 13 conference titles, qualified for the NCAA tournament 26 times including a post season tournament every season between 1999-2000 and 2015-2016 during which time it regularly sold out thePetersen Events Center. The program has produced 27 NBA draft picks and 15 All Americans while ranking No. 1 in the nation as recently as 2009. The Petersen Events Center is home to the \"Oakland Zoo\", astudent sectionwhich is nationally recognizedfor its passionate members and perseverance through consecutive unsuccessful seasons from 2016 to 2022. The suburbanRobert Morris University's Colonialshave competed in NCAA Division I basketball since the 1970s, qualifying for the NCAA tournament in each of the last four decades (8). In the2013 National Invitation Tournamentthe Colonials notched an upset win over the defending national champions Kentucky Wildcats. Pittsburgh Panthers women's basketballhas",
"basketballhas qualified for 14 post season tournaments (including 4 NCAA tournaments) and boasts of 5 All-Americans selected 6 times with 3 WNBA players. Pitt women began play in 1914 before being reintroduced in 1970. Both Duquesne and Robert Morris also have competitive Division I women's basketball programs. Pittsburgh launched the nation's first high school all-star game in 1965.TheRoundball Classicannually featured future NBA hall of famers at the Civic Arena withESPNtelevising. The Civic Arena also hosted thechampionship tournament for the Eastern Eight Conferencefrom 1978 until 1982. Soccer TheRiverhounds, an American professionalsoccerteam, were founded in 1998. Like the major league teams in the city, the Riverhounds wear black and gold kits. The club plays in theEastern Conferenceof theUSL Championship, the second tier of the American soccer pyramid. The Riverhounds play their home games atHighmark Stadium, asoccer-specific stadiumlocated inStation Square. Golf Golfhas deep roots in the area. The",
"in the area. The oldest U.S. course in continuous use,Foxburg Country Clubdating from 1887 calls the region home.SuburbanOakmont Country Clubholds the record for most times as host for theU.S. Open(8).U.S. Women's Open(2),PGA Championships(3), andU.S. Amateurs(8) have also called Oakmont home. Golf legendsArnold Palmer,Jim Furyk, andRocco Mediatelearned the game and began their careers on Pittsburgh area courses.Suburban courses such asLaurel Valley Golf Cluband the Fox Chapel Golf Club have hosted PGA Championships (1937, 1965), theRyder Cup(1975),LPGA Championships(1957–58),Senior Players Championships(2012–14), and theSenior PGA Championship(2005). Local courses have sponsored annual major tournaments for 40 years: Professional wrestling Many notableprofessional wrestlersand promoters have hailed from the city or started their careers in Pittsburgh, includingBruno Sammartino,Kurt Angle,Shane Douglas,Corey Graves,Dominic DeNucci,Elias,Britt Bakerand many more. TheFineviewsection of Pittsburgh served as the",
"served as the base of the televised showStudio Wrestlingduring the 1960s.TheKeystone State Wrestling Alliance(KSWA) is aprofessional wrestling promotionwhich was founded in Pittsburgh in 2000. It is the only promotion based in Pittsburgh. It operates in the city'sLawrenceville neighborhood. The KSWA performs Monthly on Saturdays at its main venue on 51st Street. Annual sporting events Pittsburgh hosts several annual major sporting events initiated in the late 20th century, including the: The city's vibrant rivers have attracted annual world-title fishing competitions of theForrest Wood Cupin 2009 and theBassmaster Classicin 2005. Annual events continue during the winter months at area ski resorts such asBoyce Park,Seven Springs,Hidden Valley Resort,Laurel Mountain, andWisp. Ice skating rinks are enjoyed atPPG PlaceandNorth Park. Government and politics Government TheGovernment of Pittsburghis composed of theMayor of Pittsburgh, thePittsburgh City Council, and various boards and commissions. The mayor and the",
"The mayor and the nine-member council each serve four-year terms. Since the 1950s theMayor's Chief of Staffhas assumed a large role in advising, long term planning, and as a \"gatekeeper\" to the mayor. City council members are chosen bypluralityelections in each of nine districts. The government's official offices are in thePittsburgh City-County Building. ThePennsylvania Supreme Courtholds sessions in Pittsburgh, as well asHarrisburgand Philadelphia. Pittsburgh is represented in thePennsylvania General Assemblyby threeSenate Districtsand nineHouse Districts. Federally, Pittsburgh is part ofPennsylvania's 12th congressional district. Politics In 2006, Council PresidentLuke Ravenstahlwas sworn in as mayor at age 26, becoming the youngest mayor in the history of any major American city. His successor,Bill Peduto, was sworn in on January 6, 2014. In November 2021, Pittsburgh elected its first African-American mayor,Ed Gainey. Prior to theAmerican Civil War, Pittsburgh was strongly abolitionist. It is considered",
"It is considered thebirthplace of the national Republican Party,as the party held its first convention here in February 1856. From the Civil War to the 1930s, Pittsburgh was aRepublicanstronghold. The effects of theGreat Depression, combined with entrenched local GOP scandals, resulted in a shift among voters to the Democratic Party. With the exceptions of the1973and1977elections (where lifelong Democrats ran off the party ticket), Democrats have been elected consecutively to the mayor's office since the1933 election. The city's ratio of party registration is 5 to 1 Democrat. Pittsburgh is represented in thePennsylvania General Assemblyby threeSenate Districts(Lindsey Williams(D)-38,Wayne D. Fontana(D)-42, andJay Costa(D)-43) and nineHouse Districts(Aerion Abney-19, Adam Ravenstahl-20,Sara Innamorato-21,Dan Frankel-23, Martell Covington-24, Dan Deasy-27,Abigail Salisbury-34, and Harry Readshaw-36, Dan Miller-42). Federally, Pittsburgh is part ofPennsylvania's 12th congressional district, represented",
"represented byDemocratSummer Leesince 2023 and also byDemocratChris Deluzio. Law enforcement The area's largest law enforcement agency is thePittsburgh Bureau of Police, with close to 850 sworn officers. The city also has separate housing and school police departments. Other agencies also provide police protection within the city because of overlapping jurisdictional boundaries. TheAllegheny County Sherifffocuses on jail andcourthousesecurity. TheAllegheny County Policeprimarily patrols county-owned parks and airports, while providing detective/investigatory functions for smaller suburbs and thePort Authority policepatrols rapid transit.Pennsylvania State PoliceTroop B provides patrols for the city and immediate suburbs. The county's lead law enforcement officer isAllegheny County District AttorneyStephen Zappalawhile theAllegheny County Medical Examinerheads forensics. Crimes of a federal nature are covered by theU.S. Attorney for Western Pennsylvania. Crime Pittsburgh annually ranks as one of America's",
"as one of America's safest big cities, in 2013 being named the 3rd \"most secure\" big city by Farmers Insurance.Amongcrime rates of the 60 largest U.S. cities, 43 had more instances of property crime while 16 had less when compared to Pittsburgh. More instances of violent crime were reported in 21 of the largest cities while 37 had less. The FBI recommends against using data for ranking.Per 100,000 persons stats (2012): At the end of 2019, the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police reported 37 murders in the city that year. In Pittsburgh, the homicide rate for African Americans is seven times the national average.Some people believe that over-reliance on law enforcement exacerbates homicide rates.There is also concern regarding the effectiveness of law enforcement in solving these cases, as 97% of unsolved cases involved a black victim.This has led certain residents to believe law enforcement to be ineffective or apathetic.This is despite an increasing police budget. In 2023, members of the Pittsburgh City Council",
"City Council approved an increase to the police budget by $6 million.About 6% of this money is expected to go to the Stop the Violence trust fund. This fund goes to improving parks and recreation, various non-profits, and to the office of Community Health and Safety, in effort to holistically improve the social pressures supposedly causing violence in Pittsburgh. Some people do not believe these efforts to be adequate. Certain studies, such as conducted by the Police Scorecard, rate the Pittsburgh Police Department at 37% quality (with 100% being the best). They rated Pittsburgh below the 50th percentile in the categories “police budget cost per person,” “fines / forefeitures,” “Police Presence/Over-Policing (Officers per Population),” “Force Used per Arrest,” “Racial Disparities in Deadly Force,” “Excessive Force Complaints Upheld,” “Discrimination Complaints Upheld,” “Criminal Misconduct Complaints Upheld,” “Arrest Rate for Low Level Offenses,” and “Racial Disparities in Drug Arrests.” This is 10 out of 15",
"is 10 out of 15 categories. Education Colleges and universities Pittsburgh is home to many colleges, universities and research facilities, the most well-known of which areCarnegie Mellon University, theUniversity of Pittsburgh, andDuquesne University. Also in the city areCarlow University,Chatham University,Point Park University, theCommunity College of Allegheny County,Pittsburgh Theological Seminary,Reformed Presbyterian Theological Seminary, and thePittsburgh Institute of Mortuary Science. The campuses of Carlow, Carnegie Mellon, and the University of Pittsburgh are near each other in theOaklandneighborhood that is the city's traditional cultural center. Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) is a private research university founded byAndrew CarnegieandAndrew Mellon.CMU contains theMellon College of Science,School of Computer Science,College of Engineering,School of Business,Heinz College,College of Fine Arts, writing,Social and Decision Sciences, information systems, statistics, and psychology programs. The",
"programs. The University of Pittsburgh, established in 1787 and popularly referred to as \"Pitt\", is astate-relatedschool with one of the nation's largest research programs.Pitt is known for theUniversity of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public and International Affairs,University of Pittsburgh School of Information Sciences,Swanson School of Engineering,University of Pittsburgh College of Business Administration,University of Pittsburgh School of Law,University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine,University of Pittsburgh School of Social Work, and other biomedical and health-related sciences. Carlow Universityis a small private Catholic university that while coeducational, has traditionally educated women.Chatham University, a liberal arts college that was founded as a woman's college but became fully coeducational in 2015,is in the Shadyside neighborhood, but also maintains a 388-acre (157 ha) Eden Hall Farm campus in theNorth Hills.Duquesne University, a private Catholic university in theBluffneighborhood and",
"and is noted for its song and dance troupe, theDuquesne University Tamburitzans, as well as programs in law, business, and pharmacy.Point Park Universitywas founded in 1961 and is well known for its Conservatory of Performing Arts and itsPittsburgh Playhouse. Primary education Pittsburgh Public Schoolsteachers are paid well relative to their peers, ranking 17th in 2000 among the 100 largest cities by population for the highest minimum salary. In 2018, the starting teacher salary offered to teachers with a BA was $46,920. The maximum annual salary for a teacher with a master's degree was $95,254. Local public schools include many charter and magnet schools, includingCity Charter High School(computer and technology focused), Pittsburgh Montessori School (formerly Homewood Montessori),Pittsburgh Gifted Center,Barack Obama Academy of International Studies 6-12,Pittsburgh Creative and Performing Arts 6–12,Pittsburgh Science and Technology Academy, theWestern Pennsylvania School for Blind Children, and theWestern",
"and theWestern Pennsylvania School for the Deaf. Private schools in Pittsburgh includeBishop Canevin High School,Central Catholic High School,Oakland Catholic High School,Winchester Thurston School,St. Edmund's Academy, Hillel Academy of Pittsburgh, Yeshiva Schools andThe Ellis School.Shady Side Academymaintains a PK–5 primary school campus in thePoint Breezeneighborhood, in addition to its 6–12 middle and upper school campuses in nearby suburbanFox Chapel. Other private institutions outside of Pittsburgh's limits includeNorth Catholic High SchoolandSeton-La Salle Catholic High School. The city also has an extensive library system, both public and university. Most notable are theCarnegie Library of Pittsburghand theUniversity of Pittsburgh's University Library System, which rank as the ninth-largest public and 18th-largest academic libraries in the nation, respectively. Media Newspapers There are two major daily newspapers in Pittsburgh: thePittsburgh Post-Gazetteand thePittsburgh Tribune-Reviewonline only",
"only (no longer in print for Pittsburgh Area). Weekly papers in the region include thePittsburgh Business Times,Pittsburgh City Paper,Pittsburgh Catholic,Pittsburgh Jewish Chronicle,The New People, and theNew Pittsburgh Courier. Independent student-written university-based newspapers includeThe Pitt Newsof theUniversity of Pittsburgh,The TartanofCarnegie Mellon University,The Duquesne DukeofDuquesne University, andThe GlobeofPoint Park University. TheUniversity of Pittsburgh School of Lawis also home toJURIST, the world's only university-based legal news service. Television The Pittsburgh metro area is served by multiple local television and radio stations. The Pittsburghdesignated market area(DMA) is the 22nd-largest in the U.S. with 1,163,150 homes (1.045% of the total U.S.).The major network television stations includeKDKA-TV2 (CBS),WTAE4 (ABC),WPXI11 (NBC),WINP-TV16 (Ion),WPKD-TV19 (Independent),WPNT22 (The CW/MyNetworkTV),WPCB40 (Cornerstone), andWPGH-TV53 (Fox). KDKA-TV, WINP-TV, and WPCB are",
"and WPCB are owned-and-operated by their respective networks. WQED13 is the localPBSmember station in Pittsburgh. It was established on April 1, 1954, and was the first community-sponsored television station and the fifth public station in the United States. The station has produced much original content for PBS, includingMr. Rogers' Neighborhood, severalNational Geographicspecials, andWhere in the World is Carmen Sandiego? Radio A wide variety ofradio stationsserve the Pittsburgh market. The first wasKDKA1020 AM, also the world's first commercially licensed radio station, which began airing on November 2, 1920.Other stations includeKQV1410 AM (news),WBGG970 AM (sports),KDKA-FM93.7 FM (sports),WKST-FM96.1 FM (Top 40),WAMO-AM660 AM and 107.3 FM (urban contemporary)WBZZ100.7 FM (adult contemporary),WDVE102.5 FM (album rock),WPGB104.7 FM (Country), andWXDX105.9 FM (modern rock). There are also threepublic radio stationsin the area:WESA90.5 FM (National Public Radioaffiliate),WQED89.3 FM (classical), andWYEP91.3",
"andWYEP91.3 FM (adult alternative). Three non-commercial stations are run byCarnegie Mellon University(WRCT88.3 FM), theUniversity of Pittsburgh(WPTS92.1 FM), andPoint Park University(WPPJ670 AM). Film Pittsburgh's 116-year-old film industry accelerated after the 2006 passage of thePennsylvania Film Production Tax Credit.According to thePittsburgh Film Office, over 124 major motion pictures have been filmed, in whole or in part, in Pittsburgh, includingThe Mothman Prophecies,Wonder Boys,Dogma,Hoffa,The Silence of the Lambs,Sudden Death,Flashdance,Southpaw,Striking Distance,Mrs. Soffel,Jack Reacher,Inspector Gadget,The Next Three Days,The Perks of Being a Wallflower,Zack and Miri Make a Porno, andFences.Pittsburgh became \"Gotham City\" in 2011 during filming ofThe Dark Knight Rises.George A. Romeroshot nearly all his films in the area, including hisLiving Deadseries. Film production in Pittsburgh has notably impacted the region's economy and job creation, largely due to the 25% tax credit incentive established",
"established in 2007.The Pittsburgh Film Office states that the film and television industry provides employment to over 10,000 people and pays over $500 million in wages in southwestern Pennsylvania.Furthermore, the industry supports over 345,000 local businesses and contributes over $41 billion to them. From 2017 to 2023, Pittsburgh has welcomed a series of major film and television productions likeFences,Mindhunter,Ma Rainey's Black Bottom,Sweet Girl, andI'm Your Woman.These productions have significantly contributed to the local economy by hiring local personnel, leasing local facilities and equipment, purchasing local goods and services, and enhancing local tourism and visibility. In addition to a thriving film industry, Pittsburgh is home to several film festivals, film schools, and organizations that encourage and promote independent and diverse filmmakers. Notable film festivals include theThree Rivers Film Festival, the Pittsburgh Shorts Film Festival, the JFilm Festival, the ReelAbilities Film",
"ReelAbilities Film Festival, and the Black Bottom Film Festival.The local film schools includePittsburgh Filmmakers,Point Park University- Cinema & Digital Arts, andUniversity of Pittsburgh- Film Studies. Moreover, Pittsburgh is developing a robust film studio infrastructure, with several sound stages and production facilities available for hire. Prominent film studios in Pittsburgh are 3 Rivers Studios, Cinelease Studios, Post Script Films, Deeplocal, and The Videohouse.There are also plans in the pipeline to develop a new film studio complex at theCarrie Furnacesite inRankinandSwissvale. Utilities The city is served byDuquesne Light, one of the original 1912 power companies founded byGeorge Westinghouse.Water service is provided by thePittsburgh Water and Sewer AuthorityandPennsylvania American Water. Natural gas is provided byEquitable Gas,Columbia Gas,Dominion Resources,Direct Energy, and Novec. Health care The two largest area health care providers are theUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center(UPMC)",
"Center(UPMC) (since 1893) andAllegheny Health Network(since 1882). Both hospitals annually rank as among the best overall in the United States, with UPMC ranked amongU.S. News & World Report's\"Honor Roll\" every year since 2000. The first military hospital in U.S. history and the first west of the Atlantic Plain—General Edward Hand Hospital—served the area from 1777 to 1845.Since 1847, Pittsburgh has hosted the world's first \"Mercy Hospital\".This was followed by West Penn hospital in 1848, Passavant Hospital in 1849,theUniversity of Pittsburgh School of Medicinein 1883, Children's Hospital in 1887, andMagee Womens Hospitalin 1911. In 1954, Allegheny General (AGH) was among the first to administerCobalt therapy. In 1980, UPMC announced a $250 million ($1.05 billion today) expansion and also hired transplant pioneerThomas Starzl.In 1984, Allegheny General surgeons pioneered modern brain surgery. Starzl arranged the 1985 liver transplant of 5-year-old Amie Garrison as a UPMC surgery team flew toBaylor",
"team flew toBaylor University, starting its transplant program.Also in 1985, UPMC surgeons Drs. Griffith, Hardesty, and Trento revealed a new device after a heart-lung transplant. In 1986, UPMC announced a $230 million ($639 million today) modernization. In 1996, UPMC's planned SicilyISMETTbranch was approved by the Italian government as transplant surgeons to supervise and deliver the world's third (both earlier ones done at UPMC)--and first public—cross species marrow transplant atUniversity of California, San Francisco.UPMC's Thomas Detre founded theInternational Society for Bipolar Disordersat a world medical conference in Pittsburgh in 1999. The $80 million ($142 million today)UPMC Sports Performance Complexfor thePittsburgh Panthers&Pittsburgh Steelersopened in 2000. In 2002, AGH opened its $30 million ($51.6 million today), 5-floor, 100,000 sq. ft., cancer center. The $130 million ($220 million today) 350,000 sq. ft.Hillman Cancer Centeropened in 2003 as UPMC entered into an 8-year, $420 million ($678",
"$420 million ($678 million today) agreement withIBMto upgrade medical technologies & health information systems. In 2009, the $600 million ($849 million today)UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburghopened. The campus was featured in world news in 2012 for several unique approaches to patient care.UPMC officially adopted inErie, Pennsylvania'sHamot Medical Centerin 2010. ThePittsburgh Penguinsannounced a state of the art training facility with UPMC in 2012.UPMC announced in 2013 it had partnered withNazarbayev Universityto help found its medical school. Health discoveries While he was a professor at theUniversity of Pittsburgh, American virologistJonas Salkdeveloped one of the first successfulpolio vaccines, which came into use in 1955. UPMC has pioneered several world firsts including the first known cystic fibrosis heart-lung transplant (1983), the world's first simultaneous liver and heart transplant operation on a child (6-year-oldStormie Jonesin 1984), the youngest heart-lung transplant (9 years old in",
"(9 years old in 1985), the world's first heart-liver-kidney transplant (1989), the world's first heart-liver transplant on an infant (1997),the first pediatric heart-double lung-liver transplant (1998), the nation's first double hand transplant (2009), and the first total forearm and hand transplant (2010), as well as the state's first heart transplant (1968). The Lancetpublished a 2012 UPMC study of two 9-year quadriplegics being able to move a robotic arm by thought, to pick up objects, shake hands, and even eat. Wiring the brain around spine damage to restore arm and leg muscle function was successful using robotic arms controlled via an embedded computer to translate signals near a small group of neurons with 200 needles. Transportation Pittsburgh is acity of bridges. With 446,it has three bridges more thanVenice, Italy, which has historically held the title \"City of Bridges.\"Around 40 bridges cross the three rivers near the city. TheSmithfield Street Bridgewas the world's first lenticular truss bridge.",
"truss bridge. The city'sThree Sisters Bridgesoffer a picturesque view of the city from the North. The south-western \"entrance\" to Downtown for travelers coming in fromInterstate 79and thePittsburgh International Airportis through theFort Pitt Tunneland over theFort Pitt Bridge. TheFort Duquesne BridgecarryingInterstate 279is the main gateway from Downtown to bothPNC Park,Acrisure Stadiumand theRivers Casino. ThePanhandle Bridgecarries Pittsburgh Regional Transit's Blue/Red/Silver subway lines across theMonongahela River. The renovatedJ&L Steel Companybridge has been a key traffic/running-biking trail conduit connecting theSouthside WorksandPittsburgh Technology Center. Over 2,000 bridges span the landscape of Allegheny County. Public transportation statistics Pittsburgh is served byPittsburgh Regional Transit, the 26th-largest transit agency in the country prior to theCOVID-19 pandemic. The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Pittsburgh, for example to and from work, on a",
"and from work, on a weekday is 73 min. 23% of public transit riders ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 17 minutes, while 33% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 3.9 mi (6.3 km), while 11% travel for over 7.5 mi (12 km) in a single direction. Expressways and highways Locals refer to the interstates fanning out fromdowntown Pittsburghas the \"parkways.\"Interstate 376is both the \"parkway east\" connecting toInterstate 76(Pennsylvania Turnpike) and the \"parkway west\" connecting toInterstate 79, thePittsburgh International Airport, the Ohio end of the Turnpike andInterstate 80. The \"parkway north\" isInterstate 279connecting to I-79. The \"crosstown\" isInterstate 579allowing access to the heart of downtown, theLiberty Tunnelsand thePPG Paints Arena. The 45-mile-long and 70-mile-long expressway sections ofPennsylvania Route 28andU.S.",
"Route 28andU.S. Route 22also carry traffic from downtown to the northeast and western suburbs, respectively.Interstate 70, 79 and 76 (the Turnpike) roughly form a triangular-shaped \"beltway\" withInterstate 68and 80 within the media market's northern and southern limits. Turnpike spurs such as theMon–Fayette Expressway,Pennsylvania Route 576andRoute 66also help traffic flow. The non-expresswayPittsburgh/Allegheny County Belt Systemserves navigation in the region. Airports Pittsburgh International Airportprovides commercial passenger service from over 15 airlines to thePittsburgh metropolitan area.Arnold Palmer Regional Airportalso provides limited commercial passenger service and is 44 miles (71 km) east of Pittsburgh. Other airports that have or have had scheduled commercial service includeMorgantown Municipal Airport(79 miles (127 km) south of Pittsburgh),Youngstown–Warren Regional Airport(81 miles (130 km) northwest of Pittsburgh),Akron–Canton Airport(120 miles (190 km) northwest of",
"km) northwest of Pittsburgh),Johnstown–Cambria County Airport(60 miles (97 km) east of Pittsburgh) andErie International Airport(123 miles (198 km) north of Pittsburgh). Intercity passenger rail and bus Amtrakprovides intercity rail service toPittsburgh Union Station, via theCapitol Limitedbetween Chicago and Washington, D.C., and thePennsylvanianto New York City. Megabus,Greyhound Lines, andFullington Trailwaysconnect Pittsburgh with distant cities by bus; Greyhound and Fullington Trailways buses stop at theGrant Street Transportation Centerintercity bus terminal. Popular destinations includePhiladelphia,New York City, andWashington, D.C. Until declines in passenger travel in the 1950s and 1960s, several stations served Pittsburgh:Baltimore & Ohio Station,Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad Station,Wabash Pittsburgh Terminaland Pittsburgh Union Station. Regional mass transit Pittsburgh Regional Transit, formerly known as the Port Authority of Allegheny County, is the region's mass transit system. While serving",
"While serving only a portion of the Pittsburgh area, the nation's 20th-largest metropolitan area, it is the 11th-largest transit agency in the United States.Pittsburgh Regional Transit runs a network of intracity and intercity bus routes, theMonongahela InclineFunicularrailway (more commonly known as an \"incline\") on Mount Washington, alight railsystem that runs mostly above-ground in the suburbs and underground as a subway in the city, and one of the nation's largestbuswaysystems.Pittsburgh Regional Transit owns theDuquesne Inclinebut it is operated by a non-profit preservation trust,but accepts Pittsburgh Regional Transit passes and charges PRT fares. The Bus System lines arelabeled by number and letter. These are the largest portion of Pittsburgh Regional Transit and serve on streets and designated busways. Buses serve most of the county, extending as far asPittsburgh International Airport,Monroeville,McCandless, and the borders ofWestmoreland CountyandBeaver County, Pennsylvania. Meanwhile,the light rail",
"light rail system(commonly known as the \"T\") runs along both new tracks and those refurbished from the streetcar era. The light rail runs fromAcrisure StadiumtoSouth Hills VillageandLibrary, taking commuters through one of two routes: one which servesCastle Shannon,Mt. Lebanon, andBeechview, and the other is an express line using railways throughOverbrook. Freight rail Pittsburgh's rail industry dates to 1851 when thePennsylvania Railroadfirst opened service between the Pittsburgh andPhiladelphia. TheBaltimore and Ohio Railroadentered the city in 1871. In 1865,Andrew Carnegieopened thePittsburgh Locomotive and Car Works, which manufactured for the industry until 1919. Carnegie also founded theUnion Railroadin 1894 for heavy freight services and it still serves the area's steel industry, whileGeorge Westinghouse'sWabtechas been a leader in rail engines and switching since 1869. Pittsburgh is home to one ofNorfolk Southern Railway's busiest freight corridors, thePittsburgh Line, and operates up to 70 trains",
"up to 70 trains per day through the city. The suburbanConway Rail Yard, built in 1889, was the largest freight rail center in the world from 1956 until 1980 and is today the nation's second-largest.CSX, the other major freight railroad in the eastern U.S., also hasmajor operationsaround Pittsburgh. Port ThePort of Pittsburghranks as the20th-largest portin the United States with almost 34 million short tons of river cargo for 2011, the port ranked ninth-largest in the U.S. when measured in domestic trade. Notable people Sister cities Pittsburgh'ssister citiesare: See also Explanatory notes References Further reading External links"
] |
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"Mount Rainier Mount Rainier(/reɪˈnɪər/ray-NEER), also known asTahoma, is a large activestratovolcanoin theCascade Rangeof thePacific Northwestin the United States. The mountain is located inMount Rainier National Parkabout 59 miles (95 km) south-southeast ofSeattle.With an officially recognizedsummit elevation of 14,410 ft (4,392 m) at the Columbia Crest,it is the highest mountain in the U.S. state ofWashington, the mosttopographically prominentmountain in thecontiguous United States,and the tallest in theCascade Volcanic Arc. Due to its high probability of an eruption in the near future and proximity to amajor urban area, Mount Rainier is considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world, and it is on theDecade Volcanolist.The large amount of glacial ice means that Mount Rainier could produce massivelaharsthat could threaten the entirePuyallup Rivervalley and other river valleys draining Mount Rainier, including theCarbon,White,Nisqually, andCowlitz(aboveRiffe Lake).According to theUnited States Geological Survey's 2008 report, \"about 80,000 people and their homes are at risk in Mount Rainier's lahar-hazard zones.\" Between 1950 and 2018, 439,460 people climbed Mount Rainier.Approximately 84 people died in mountaineering accidents on Mount Rainier from 1947 to 2018. Name The manyIndigenous peopleswho have lived near Mount Rainier for millennia have many names for the mountain in theirvarious languages. Lushootseedspeakers have several names for Mount Rainier, includingxʷaq̓ʷandtəqʷubəʔ.xʷaq̓ʷmeans \"sky wiper\" or \"one who touches the sky\" in English.The wordtəqʷubəʔmeans \"snow-covered mountain\".təqʷubəʔhas been anglicized in many ways, including 'Tacoma' and 'Tacobet'. Cowlitzspeakers call the mountaintəx̣ʷúmaortəqʷúmen.Sahaptinspeakers call the mountainTax̱úma, which is borrowed from Cowlitz. Another anglicized name is Pooskaus. George Vancouvernamed Mount Rainier in honor of his friend, Rear AdmiralPeter Rainier.Themap of the Lewis and Clark expeditionof 1804–1806 refers to it as \"Mt. Regniere\". Although Rainier had been considered the official name of the mountain,Theodore Winthropreferred to the mountain as \"Tacoma\" in his posthumously published 1862 travel bookThe Canoe and the Saddle. For a time, both names were used interchangeably, although residents of the nearby city ofTacomapreferred Mount Tacoma. In 1890, theUnited States Board on Geographic Namesdeclared that the mountain would be known as Rainier.Following this in 1897, the Pacific Forest Reserve became the Mount Rainier Forest Reserve, and the national park was established three years later. Despite this, there was still a movement to change the mountain's name to Tacoma and Congress was still considering a resolution to change the name as late as 1924. Geographical setting Mount Rainier is the tallest mountain in Washington and the Cascade Range. This peak is located southeast of Tacoma, approximately 60 miles (97 km) south-southeast of Seattle.Mount Rainier has atopographic prominenceof 13,210 ft (4,026 m).On clear days it dominates the southeastern horizon in most of theSeattle-Tacoma metropolitan areato such an extent that locals sometimes refer to it simply as \"the Mountain\".On days of exceptional clarity, it can also be seen from as far away asCorvallis, Oregon(atMarys Peak), andVictoria, British Columbia. With 26 majorglaciersand 36 sq mi (93 km2) of permanentsnowfieldsand glaciers,Mount Rainier is the most heavilyglaciatedpeak in the lower 48 states. The summit is topped by twovolcanic craters, each more than 1,000 ft (300 m) in diameter, with the larger east crater overlapping the west crater.Geothermalheat from thevolcanokeeps areas of both crater rims free of snow and ice, and has formed the world's largest volcanicglacier cavenetwork within the ice-filled craters,with nearly 2 mi (3.2 km) of passages.A smallcrater lakeabout 130 by 30 ft (39.6 by 9.1 m) in size and 16 ft (5 m) deep, the highest in North America with a surface elevation of 14,203 ft (4,329 m), occupies the lowest portion of the west crater below more than 100 ft (30 m) of ice and is accessible only via the caves. TheCarbon,Puyallup,Mowich,Nisqually, andCowlitz Riversbegin at eponymous glaciers of Mount Rainier. The sources of theWhite RiverareWinthrop,Emmons, andFryingpan Glaciers. The White, Carbon, and Mowich join the Puyallup River, which discharges intoCommencement BayatTacoma; the Nisqually empties into Puget Sound east ofLacey; and the Cowlitz joins theColumbia RiverbetweenKelsoandLongview. Subsidiary peaks The broad top of Mount Rainier contains three named summits. The highest of these named summits is known as the Columbia Crest. The second highest summit is Point Success, 14,158 ft (4,315 m), at the southern edge of the summit plateau, atop the ridge known as Success Cleaver. It has atopographic prominenceof about 138 ft (42 m), so it is not considered a separate peak. The lowest of the three summits is Liberty Cap, 14,112 ft (4,301 m), at the northwestern edge, which overlooks Liberty Ridge, the Sunset Amphitheater, and the dramaticWillis Wall.Liberty Cap has a prominence of 492 ft (150 m), and so would qualify as a separate peak under most strictly prominence-based rules. A prominence cutoff of 400 ft (122 m) is commonly used in Washington state. High on the eastern flank of Mount Rainier is a peak known asLittle Tahoma Peak, 11,138 ft (3,395 m), an eroded remnant of the earlier, much higher, Mount Rainier. It has a prominence of 858 ft (262 m), and it is almost never climbed in direct conjunction with Columbia Crest, so it is usually considered a separate peak. If considered separately from Mount Rainier, Little Tahoma Peak would be the third highest mountain peak in Washington. Height of the mountain TheNational Park ServiceandUnited States Geological Surveycite Mount Rainier's elevation at the Columbia Crest as 14,410 ft (4,392 m).This value was taken in 1956, but was added to theNational Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929.Another commonly accepted measurement of the mountain is 14,411 ft (4,392 m) which comes from theNational Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1988. Geology Mount Rainier is a stratovolcano in theCascade Volcanic Arcthat consists oflava flows,debris flows, andpyroclasticejecta and flows. Its earlyvolcanicdeposits are estimated at more than 840,000 years old and are part of theLily Formation(about 2.9 million to 840,000 years ago). The early deposits formed a \"proto-Rainier\" or an ancestral cone prior to the present-day cone.The present cone is more than 500,000 years old. The volcano is highly eroded, with glaciers on its slopes, and appears to be made mostly ofandesite. Rainier likely once stood even higher than today at about 16,000 ft (4,900 m) before a major debrisavalancheand the resultingOsceola Mudflowapproximately 5,000 years ago.In the past, Rainier has had large debris avalanches, and has also produced enormous lahars (volcanicmudflows), due to the large amount of glacial ice present. Its lahars have reached all the way toPuget Sound, a distance of more than 30 mi (48 km). Around 5,000 years ago, a large chunk of the volcano slid away and that debris avalanche helped to produce the massive Osceola Mudflow, which went all the way to the site of present-day Tacoma and south Seattle.This massive avalanche of rock and ice removed the top 1,600 ft (500 m) of Rainier, bringing its height down to around 14,100 ft (4,300 m). About 530 to 550 years ago, theElectron Mudflowoccurred, although this was not as large-scale as the Osceola Mudflow. After the major collapse approximately 5,000 years ago, subsequent eruptions of lava andtephrabuilt up the modern summit cone until about as recently as 1,000 years ago. As many as 11Holocenetephra layers have been found. Soils on Mount Rainier are mostly gravelly ashy sandy loams developed from colluvium or glacial till mixed with volcanic tephra. Under forest cover their profiles usually have the banded appearance of a classicpodzolbut the E horizon is darker than usual. Under meadows a thick dark A horizon usually forms the topsoil. Modern activity and threat The most recent recorded volcanic activity was between 1820 and 1854, but many eyewitnesses reported eruptive activity in 1858, 1870, 1879, 1882, and 1894 as well.Additionally, the Smithsonian Institution's volcanism project records the lastvolcanic eruptionas 1450 CE. Seismic monitors have been placed in Mount Rainier National Park and on the mountain itself to monitor activity.An eruption could be deadly for all living in areas within the immediate vicinity of the volcano and effects from an eruption could be noticed fromVancouver, British ColumbiatoSan Francisco,Californiabecause of the massive amounts of ash blasting out of the volcano into the atmosphere. Mount Rainier is located in an area that itself is part of the eastern rim of thePacific Ring of Fire. This includes mountains and calderas likeMount ShastaandLassen Peakin California,Crater Lake,Three Sisters, andMount Hoodin Oregon,Mount St. Helens,Mount Adams,Glacier Peak, andMount Bakerin Washington, andMount Cayley,Mount Garibaldi,Silverthrone Caldera, andMount MeagerinBritish Columbia. Many of the above are dormant, but could return to activity, and scientists on both sides of the border gather research of the past eruptions of each in order to predict how mountains in this arc will behave and what they are capable of in the future, including Mount Rainier.Of these, two have erupted since the beginning of the twentieth century: Lassen in 1915 and St. Helens in 1980 and 2004. However, past eruptions in this volcanic arc have multiple examples ofsub-plinian eruptionsor higher: Crater Lake's last eruption as Mount Mazama was large enough to cause its cone to collapse,and Mount Rainier's closest neighbor, Mount St. Helens, produced the largest recorded eruption in the continental United States when it erupted in 1980. Statistics place the likelihood of a major eruption in the Cascade Range at 2–3 per century. Mount Rainier is listed as aDecade Volcano, or one of the 16 volcanoes on Earth with the greatest likelihood of causing loss of life and property if eruptive activity resumes.If Mount Rainier were to erupt as powerfully as Mount St. Helens did in its May 18, 1980 eruption, the effect would be cumulatively greater, because of the far more massive amounts of glacial ice locked on thevolcanocompared to Mount St. Helens,the vastly more heavily populated areas surrounding Rainier, and the fact that Mount Rainier is almost twice the size of St. Helens.Lahars from Rainier pose the most risk to life and property,as many communities lie atop older lahar deposits. According to theUnited States Geological Survey(USGS), about 150,000 people live on top of old lahar deposits of Rainier.Not only is there much ice atop the volcano, the volcano is also slowly being weakened by hydrothermal activity. According to Geoff Clayton, a geologist with a Washington State Geology firm, RH2 Engineering, a repeat of the 5000-year-oldOsceola Mudflowwould destroyEnumclaw,Orting,Kent,Auburn,Puyallup,Sumnerand all ofRenton.Such a mudflow might also reach down theDuwamishestuary and destroy parts ofdowntown Seattle, and causetsunamisin Puget Sound andLake Washington.Rainier is also capable of producingpyroclastic flowsand expelling lava.A 2012Washington State Department of Natural Resourcesestimate showed that a significant lahar could cause up to $40 billion in damage downriver. According to Kevin Scott, a scientist with the USGS: A home built in any of the probabilistically defined inundation areas on the new maps is more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a lahar than by fire... For example, a home built in an area that would be inundated every 100 years, on the average, is 27 times more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a flow than by fire. People know the danger of fire, so they buy fire insurance and they have smoke alarms, but most people are not aware of the risks of lahars, and few have applicable flood insurance. The volcanic risk is somewhat mitigated by lahar warning sirens and escape route signs inPierce County, part of theMount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System, which was implemented by theUSGSin 1998, and has been maintained by Pierce County since.The more populousKing Countyis also in the lahar area, but has no zoning restrictions due to volcanic hazard.More recently (since 2001) funding from the federal government for lahar protection in the area has dried up, leading local authorities in at-risk cities like Orting to fear a disaster similar to theArmero tragedy.To prevent against such tragedies, authorities downriver from Rainier have conducted large-scale evacuation exercises in 2019 and 2024. The most recent of these exercises, conducted on March 21, 2024, involved thePuyallup,Sumner-Bonney Lake,Orting,White River, andCarbonadoSchool Districts. During the exercise, emergency operations centers in the cities ofPuyallup,Bonney Lake, andBuckleywere activated to help the movement of school students and staff. Seismic background Typically, up to five earthquakes are recorded monthly near the summit. Swarms of five to ten shallow earthquakes over two or three days take place from time to time, predominantly in the region of 13,000 feet (4 km) below the summit. These earthquakes are thought to be caused by the circulation of hot fluids beneath Mount Rainier. Presumably, hot springs and steam vents within Mount Rainier National Park are generated by such fluids.Seismic swarms (not initiated with a mainshock) are common features at volcanoes, and are rarely associated with eruptive activity. Rainier has had several such swarms; there were days-long swarms in 2002, 2004, and 2007, two of which (2002 and 2004) included M 3.2 earthquakes. A 2009 swarm produced the largest number of events of any swarm at Rainier since seismic monitoring began over two decades earlier.Further swarms were observed in 2011 and 2021. Glaciers Glaciersare among the most conspicuous and dynamic geologic features on Mount Rainier. They erode the volcanic cone and are important sources of streamflow for several rivers, including some that provide water forhydroelectric powerandirrigation. Together with perennial snow patches, the 29 named glacial features cover about 30.41 square miles (78.8 km2) of the mountain's surface in 2015 and have an estimated volume of about 0.69 cubic miles (2.9 km3). Glaciers flow under the influence of gravity by the combined action of sliding over the rock on which they lie and bydeformation, the gradual displacement between and within individual ice crystals. Maximum speeds occur near the surface and along the centerline of the glacier. During May 1970,Nisqually Glacierwas measured moving as fast as 29 inches (74 cm) per day. Flow rates are generally greater in summer than in winter, probably due to the presence of large quantities of meltwater at the glacier base. The size of glaciers on Mount Rainier has fluctuated significantly in the past. For example, during thelast ice age, from about 25,000 to about 15,000 years ago, glaciers covered most of the area now within the boundaries of Mount Rainier National Park and extended to the perimeter of the present Puget Sound Basin. Between the 14th century and 1850, many of the glaciers on Mount Rainier advanced to their farthest extent downvalley since the last ice age. Many advances of this sort occurred worldwide during this time period known to geologists as theLittle Ice Age. During the Little Ice Age, the Nisqually Glacier advanced to a position 650 to 800 ft (200 to 240 m) downvalley from the site of theGlacier Bridge,TahomaandSouth Tahoma Glaciersmerged at the base of Glacier Island, and the terminus ofEmmons Glacierreached within 1.2 mi (1.9 km) of the White River Campground. Retreat of the Little Ice Age glacierswas slow until about 1920 when retreat became more rapid. TheWilliwakas Glacierwas noted as extinct during the 1930s. Between the height of the Little Ice Age and 1950, Mount Rainier's glaciers lost about one-quarter of their length. Beginning in 1950 and continuing through the early 1980s, however, many of the major glaciers advanced in response to relatively cooler temperatures of the mid-century. The glaciers and snowfields of Mount Rainier also lost volume during this time, except for the Frying Pan and Emmons glaciers on the east flank and the small near-peak snowfields; the greatest volume loss was concentrated from ~1750 m (north) to ~2250 m (south) elevation. The largest single volume loss is from the Carbon Glacier, although it is to the north, due to its huge area at <2000 m elevation.TheCarbon,Cowlitz, Emmons, and Nisqually Glaciers advanced during the late 1970s and early 1980s as a result of high snowfalls during the 1960s and 1970s. Since the early-1980s, however, many glaciers have been thinning and retreating and some advances have slowed.In a study using data from 2021, National Park Service scientists removed Stevens Glacier from its inventory of Mount Rainier glaciers due to its dwindling size and lack of evidence that it was moving.Using satellite data in 2022, researchers atNichols Collegedetermined that bothPyramidandVan Trumpglaciers had also ceased to exist with only fragments of ice remaining.A significant decline had been noted between 2015 and 2022. The glaciers on Mount Rainier can generate mudflows throughglacial outburst floodsnot associated with an eruption. The South Tahoma Glacier generated 30 floods in the 1980s and early 1990s, and again in August 2015. History For thousands of years, the area surrounding Mount Rainier has been inhabited by severalIndigenous peoples, who traditionallyhunted and gatheredanimals and plants in Mount Rainier's forests and high elevation meadows. These peoples and their modern-day descendants are represented today by the members of thefederally-recognized tribeswhich surround the mountain, including theNisqually Indian Tribe, theCowlitz Indian Tribe, theConfederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation, thePuyallup Tribe of Indians, and theMuckleshoot Indian Tribe, among others in the area.The archaeological record of human use of the mountain dates to over 8,500 years before present (BP). Sites related to seasonal use of Mount Rainier and its landscapes are reflected in chipped stone tool remains and settings suggesting functionally varied uses including task-specific sites, rockshelters, travel stops, and long-term base camps. Their distribution on the mountain suggest primary use of subalpine meadows and low alpine habitats that provided relatively high resource abundance during the short summer season.Evidence suggests that there existed a tradition of Native Americans setting fire to areas of the region each year as a way to encourage meadow development. The first Europeans to reach thePacific Northwestwere theSpanishwho arrived by sea in 1774 led byJuan Perez.The next year, under the direction ofJuan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, a boat was sent ashore toDestruction island.Upon landing, the crew was attacked and killed by the local indigenous population.Although attempts were made in 1792 to create a permanent Spanish settlement atNeah Bay, the project was unsuccessful and by 1795, Spain had given up on the region.Although not documented anywhere, it is likely that Spanish sailors first observed Mount Rainier while sailing in theStrait of Juan de Fuca. Upon reaching what would become California in 1579,Sir Francis Drakeclaimed the entire northwest coast of North America forEngland.This claim to the coast of the Pacific Northwest was not further explored until in 1778Captain James Cooksailed the coastline of modern-day Washington and British Columbia, stimulating a subsequent increase in English ships coming to the area as part of thefur trade.On July 22, 1793,Sir Alexander Mackenzieof the BritishNorthwest Fur Companyreached the Pacific Ocean via overland route that crossed the Rocky Mountains. The first American,John Ledyard, reached the region aboard Captain Cook's ship in 1778.By 1787, six Americans from Boston formed a company which began trading along the northwest coast.TheLewis and Clarkoverland expedition reached the northwest coast in 1805 and observed Mount Rainier for the first time in the Spring of 1806. The first documented sighting of Mt. Rainier by a European was by the crew ofCaptain George Vancouveron May 7, 1792, during theVancouver Expedition(1790–1795).On May 8, 1792, Vancouver gave the name of Mt. Rainier to the observed peak in homage to Vancouver's friendRear Admiral Peter Rainier. At the outset of the 19th century, the region where Mt. Rainier was located was claimed by Spain, the U.S., Russia, and Great Britain, with most claims being based on instances of early naval exploration of the region's coast.Spain relinquished all remaining claims to the Pacific Northwest that had not already been handed over with theLouisiana Purchasein 1819 with thepurchase and cession of Floridaby the United States.In 1824, Russia ceded all land claims south ofparallel 54°40′ northto the United States as part of theRusso-American Treaty.In 1818, the United States and the United Kingdom signed a treaty, agreeing upon the joint settlement and occupation of the Oregon country which consisted of the territory north of42°N latitude, south of54°40′N latitude, and west of theRocky Mountainsto thePacific Ocean.The1846 Oregon Treatybetween the United States and United Kingdom set new borders between British and American territory along today'sapproximate borders.In 1853, the land between theColumbia riverand the border withBritish Canadawas organized into theWashington Territory, which was the administrative status of the region at the time of the first successful ascent of Mount Rainier. In 1833,William Fraser Tolmieexplored the area looking for medicinal plants.Hazard StevensandP. B. Van Trumpreceived a hero's welcome in the streets ofOlympiaafter theirsuccessful summit climb in 1870.The first female ascent was made in 1890 byFay Fuller, accompanied by Van Trump and three other teammates. Descending from the summit in 1883, James Longmire discovered a mineral spring; this ultimately led to his establishment of a spa and hotel, drawing other visitors to the area to seek the benefits of the spring.Later, the headquarters of the national park would be established at Longmire, until flooding caused them to be relocated to Ashford.The area also became the site of features like a museum, a post office, and a gas station, with additions like a library and a gift shop soon following; many of these buildings were ultimately nominated to the national historic register of historic places.Longmire remains the second most popular place in the park.In 1924, a publication from the park described the area: \"A feature at Longmire Springs of great interest to everyone is the group of mineral springs in the little flat to the west of National Park Inn. There are some forty distinct springs, a half dozen of which are easily reached from the road. An analysis of the waters show that they all contain about the smae mineral salts but in slightly differing proportions. All the water is highly carbonated and would be classed as extremely \"hard\". Certain springs contain larger amounts of soda, iron and sulphur, giving them a distinct taste and color.\" John Muirclimbed Mount Rainier in 1888, and although he enjoyed the view, he conceded that it was best appreciated from below. Muir was one of many who advocated protecting the mountain. In 1893, the area was set aside as part of thePacific Forest Reservein order to protect its physical and economic resources, primarily timber andwatersheds. Citing the need to also protect scenery and provide for public enjoyment, railroads and local businesses urged the creation of a national park in hopes of increased tourism. On March 2, 1899, PresidentWilliam McKinleyestablished Mount Rainier National Park as America's fifthnational park. Congress dedicated the new park \"for the benefit and enjoyment of the people\"and \"... for the preservation from injury or spoliation of all timber,mineraldeposits, natural curiosities, or wonders within said park, and their retention in their natural condition.\" On June 24, 1947,Kenneth Arnoldreported seeing aformation of nine unidentified flying objectsover Mount Rainier. His description led to the term \"flying saucers\". In 1998, the United States Geological Survey began putting together theMount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning Systemto assist in theemergency evacuationof thePuyallup Rivervalley in the event of a catastrophic debris flow. It is now run by thePierce CountyDepartment of Emergency Management. Tacoma, at the mouth of the Puyallup, is only 37 mi (60 km) west of Rainier, and moderately sized towns such as Puyallup and Orting are only 27 and 20 mi (43 and 32 km) away, respectively. Mount Rainier appears on four distinct United Statespostage stampissues. In 1934, it was the 3-cent issue in a series of National Park stamps, and was also shown on asouvenir sheetissued for a philatelic convention. The following year, in 1935, both of these were reprinted byPostmaster GeneralJames A. Farleyas special issues given to officials and friends. Because of complaints by the public, \"Farley's Follies\" were reproduced in large numbers. The second stamp issue is easy to tell from the original because it isimperforate. Both stamps and souvenir sheets are widely available. The Washingtonstate quarter, which was released on April 11, 2007, features Mount Rainier and asalmon. Climbing Mountain climbingon Mount Rainier is difficult, involving traversing the largest glaciers in the U.S. south ofAlaska. Most climbers require two to three days to reach the summit, with a success rate of approximately 50%, with weather and physical conditioning of the climbers being the most common reasons for failure. About 8,000 to 13,000 people attempt the climb each year,about 90% via routes fromCamp Muiron the southeast flank,and most of the rest ascendEmmons Glaciervia Camp Schurman on the northeast. Climbing routes All climbing routes on Mount Rainier require climbers to possess some level of technical climbing skill. This includes ascending and descending the mountain with the use of technical climbing equipment such as crampons, ice axes, harnesses, and ropes. Difficulty and technical challenge of climbing Mount Rainier can vary widely between climbing routes. Routes are graded inNCCSAlpine Climbing format. Thenormal routeto the summit of Mount Rainier is the Disappointment Cleaver Route,YDSgrade II-III. As climbers on this route have access to the permanently establishedCamp Muir, it sees the significant majority of climbing traffic on the mountain. This route is also the most common commercially guided route. The term \"cleaver\" is used in the context of a rock ridge that separates two glaciers. The reason for naming this cleaver a \"disappointment\" is unrecorded, but it is thought to be due to climbers reaching it only to recognize their inability to reach the summit.An alternative route to the Disappointment Cleaver is the Ingraham Glacier Direct Route, grade II, and is often used when the Disappointment Cleaver route cannot be climbed due to poor route conditions. The Emmons Glacier Route, grade II, is an alternative to the Disappointment Cleaver route and poses a lower technical challenge to climbers. The climbers on the route can make use of Camp Schurman (9,500 ft), a glacial camp site. Camp Schurman is equipped with a solar toilet and a ranger hut. The Liberty Ridge Route, grade IV, is a considerably more challenging and objectively dangerous route than the normal route to the summit. It runs up the center of the North Face of Mount Rainier and crosses the very active Carbon Glacier. First climbed by Ome Daiber, Arnie Campbell and Jim Burrow in 1935, it is listed as one of theFifty Classic Climbs of North AmericabySteve RoperandAllen Steck. This route only accounts for approximately 2% of climbers on the mountain, but approximately 25% of its deaths. Dangers and accidents About two mountaineering deaths each year occur because of rock and ice fall, avalanche, falls, and hypothermia. These incidents are often associated with exposure to very high altitude, fatigue, dehydration, and/or poor weather.58 deaths on Mount Rainier have been reported from 1981 to 2010.Approximately 7 percent of mountaineering deaths and 6 percent of mountaineering accidents in the United States are attributed to Mount Rainier. The first known climbing death on Mount Rainier was Edgar McClure, a professor of chemistry at the University of Oregon, on July 27, 1897. During the descent in darkness, McClure stepped over the edge of the rock and slid to his death on a rocky outcrop. The spot is now known as McClure Rock. The worst mountaineering accident on Mount Rainier occurred in 1981, when ten clients and a guide died in an avalanche/ice fall on theIngraham Glacier.This was the largest number of fatalities on Mount Rainier in a single incident since 32 people were killed in a 1946 plane crash on the South Tahoma Glacier. In one of the worst disasters on the mountain in over thirty years, six climbers—two guides, and four clients—were killed on May 31, 2014, after the climbers fell 3,300 feet (1,000 m) while attempting the summit via the Liberty Ridge climbing route. Low-flying search helicopters pinged the signals from the avalanche beacons worn by the climbers, and officials concluded that there was no possible chance of survival. Searchers found tents and clothes along with rock and ice strewn across a debris field on the Carbon Glacier at 9,500 ft (2,900 m), possible evidence for a slide or avalanche in the vicinity where the team went missing, though the exact cause of the accident is unknown.The bodies of three of the client climbers were spotted on August 7, 2014, during a training flight and subsequently recovered on August 19, 2014. The bodies of the fourth client climber and two guides were never found. Outdoor recreation In addition to climbing,hiking,backcountry skiing,photography, andcampingare popular activities in the park.Hiking trails, including theWonderland Trail—a 93-mile (150 km) circumnavigation of the peak, provide access to the backcountry. Popular forwinter sportsincludesnowshoeingandcross-country skiing. Climate The summit of Mount Rainier has anice cap climate(Köppen climate classification:EF) Ecology Mount Rainier's protected status as a national park protects itsprimevalCascade ecosystem, providing a stablehabitatfor manyspeciesin the region, includingendemicfloraandfaunathat are unique to the area, such as theCascade red foxandMount Rainier lousewort.The ecosystem on the mountain is verydiverse, owing to the climate found at different elevations.Scientists track the distinct species found in theforestzone, thesubalpinezone, and thealpinezone.They have discovered more than one thousand species ofplantsandfungi.The mountain is also home to 65 species ofmammals, 5reptiles, 182birds, 14amphibians, and 14 species of nativefish, in addition to an innumerable amount ofinvertebrates. Flora Mount Rainier has regularly been described as one of the best places in the world to viewwildflowers.In the subalpine region of the mountain, the snow often stays on the ground until summer begins, limiting plants to a much shortergrowing season. This produces dramatic blooms in areas likeParadise.In 1924, the flowers were described by naturalistFloyd W. Schmoe: Mount Rainier National Park is perhaps better known the world over for these wonderful flowers than for any one feature. The mountains, the glaciers, the cascading streams and the forests may be equalled if one looks far away enough, but no park has been so favored in the way of wild flowers. Forests on the mountain span from as young as 100 years old to sections ofold growth forestthat are calculated to be 1000 years or more in age.The lower elevation consists mainly ofwestern red-cedar,Douglas fir, andwestern hemlock.Pacific silver fir,western white pine,Alaska yellow cedar, andnoble firare found further up the mountain. In the alpine level, Alaskan yellow cedar,subalpine fir, andmountain hemlockgrow. Fauna The mountain supports a wide variety of animal life, including several species that are protected on the state or federal level, like theNorthern Spotted Owl.Efforts are also being made to reintroduce native species that had locally been hunted to extinction, like thePacific fisher.There are sixty-five types of mammals living on the mountain, includingcougars,mountain goats,marmots, andelk. Commonreptiles and amphibiansincludegarter snakes,frogs, andsalamanders. There are manytypes of birdsfound throughout the different elevations on the mountain, but while some live there all year, many aremigratory. Salmon andtroutspecies use the rivers formed by theglaciers, and though the lakes stopped beingstockedin 1972, thirty lakes still have reproducing populations. See also Notes References External links University of Washington libraries and digital collections"
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"Mount Rainier Mount Rainier(/reɪˈnɪər/ray-NEER), also known asTahoma, is a large activestratovolcanoin theCascade Rangeof thePacific Northwestin the United States. The mountain is located inMount Rainier National Parkabout 59 miles (95 km) south-southeast ofSeattle.With an officially recognizedsummit elevation of 14,410 ft (4,392 m) at the Columbia Crest,it is the highest mountain in the U.S. state ofWashington, the mosttopographically prominentmountain in thecontiguous United States,and the tallest in theCascade Volcanic Arc. Due to its high probability of an eruption in the near future and proximity to amajor urban area, Mount Rainier is considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world, and it is on theDecade Volcanolist.The large amount of glacial ice means that Mount Rainier could produce massivelaharsthat could threaten the entirePuyallup Rivervalley and other river valleys draining Mount Rainier, including theCarbon,White,Nisqually, andCowlitz(aboveRiffe Lake).According to theUnited States",
"to theUnited States Geological Survey's 2008 report, \"about 80,000 people and their homes are at risk in Mount Rainier's lahar-hazard zones.\" Between 1950 and 2018, 439,460 people climbed Mount Rainier.Approximately 84 people died in mountaineering accidents on Mount Rainier from 1947 to 2018. Name The manyIndigenous peopleswho have lived near Mount Rainier for millennia have many names for the mountain in theirvarious languages. Lushootseedspeakers have several names for Mount Rainier, includingxʷaq̓ʷandtəqʷubəʔ.xʷaq̓ʷmeans \"sky wiper\" or \"one who touches the sky\" in English.The wordtəqʷubəʔmeans \"snow-covered mountain\".təqʷubəʔhas been anglicized in many ways, including 'Tacoma' and 'Tacobet'. Cowlitzspeakers call the mountaintəx̣ʷúmaortəqʷúmen.Sahaptinspeakers call the mountainTax̱úma, which is borrowed from Cowlitz. Another anglicized name is Pooskaus. George Vancouvernamed Mount Rainier in honor of his friend, Rear AdmiralPeter Rainier.Themap of the Lewis and Clark expeditionof 1804–1806 refers to it as",
"refers to it as \"Mt. Regniere\". Although Rainier had been considered the official name of the mountain,Theodore Winthropreferred to the mountain as \"Tacoma\" in his posthumously published 1862 travel bookThe Canoe and the Saddle. For a time, both names were used interchangeably, although residents of the nearby city ofTacomapreferred Mount Tacoma. In 1890, theUnited States Board on Geographic Namesdeclared that the mountain would be known as Rainier.Following this in 1897, the Pacific Forest Reserve became the Mount Rainier Forest Reserve, and the national park was established three years later. Despite this, there was still a movement to change the mountain's name to Tacoma and Congress was still considering a resolution to change the name as late as 1924. Geographical setting Mount Rainier is the tallest mountain in Washington and the Cascade Range. This peak is located southeast of Tacoma, approximately 60 miles (97 km) south-southeast of Seattle.Mount Rainier has atopographic prominenceof 13,210 ft (4,026",
"13,210 ft (4,026 m).On clear days it dominates the southeastern horizon in most of theSeattle-Tacoma metropolitan areato such an extent that locals sometimes refer to it simply as \"the Mountain\".On days of exceptional clarity, it can also be seen from as far away asCorvallis, Oregon(atMarys Peak), andVictoria, British Columbia. With 26 majorglaciersand 36 sq mi (93 km2) of permanentsnowfieldsand glaciers,Mount Rainier is the most heavilyglaciatedpeak in the lower 48 states. The summit is topped by twovolcanic craters, each more than 1,000 ft (300 m) in diameter, with the larger east crater overlapping the west crater.Geothermalheat from thevolcanokeeps areas of both crater rims free of snow and ice, and has formed the world's largest volcanicglacier cavenetwork within the ice-filled craters,with nearly 2 mi (3.2 km) of passages.A smallcrater lakeabout 130 by 30 ft (39.6 by 9.1 m) in size and 16 ft (5 m) deep, the highest in North America with a surface elevation of 14,203 ft (4,329 m), occupies the lowest",
"occupies the lowest portion of the west crater below more than 100 ft (30 m) of ice and is accessible only via the caves. TheCarbon,Puyallup,Mowich,Nisqually, andCowlitz Riversbegin at eponymous glaciers of Mount Rainier. The sources of theWhite RiverareWinthrop,Emmons, andFryingpan Glaciers. The White, Carbon, and Mowich join the Puyallup River, which discharges intoCommencement BayatTacoma; the Nisqually empties into Puget Sound east ofLacey; and the Cowlitz joins theColumbia RiverbetweenKelsoandLongview. Subsidiary peaks The broad top of Mount Rainier contains three named summits. The highest of these named summits is known as the Columbia Crest. The second highest summit is Point Success, 14,158 ft (4,315 m), at the southern edge of the summit plateau, atop the ridge known as Success Cleaver. It has atopographic prominenceof about 138 ft (42 m), so it is not considered a separate peak. The lowest of the three summits is Liberty Cap, 14,112 ft (4,301 m), at the northwestern edge, which overlooks Liberty",
"overlooks Liberty Ridge, the Sunset Amphitheater, and the dramaticWillis Wall.Liberty Cap has a prominence of 492 ft (150 m), and so would qualify as a separate peak under most strictly prominence-based rules. A prominence cutoff of 400 ft (122 m) is commonly used in Washington state. High on the eastern flank of Mount Rainier is a peak known asLittle Tahoma Peak, 11,138 ft (3,395 m), an eroded remnant of the earlier, much higher, Mount Rainier. It has a prominence of 858 ft (262 m), and it is almost never climbed in direct conjunction with Columbia Crest, so it is usually considered a separate peak. If considered separately from Mount Rainier, Little Tahoma Peak would be the third highest mountain peak in Washington. Height of the mountain TheNational Park ServiceandUnited States Geological Surveycite Mount Rainier's elevation at the Columbia Crest as 14,410 ft (4,392 m).This value was taken in 1956, but was added to theNational Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929.Another commonly accepted measurement of the",
"measurement of the mountain is 14,411 ft (4,392 m) which comes from theNational Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1988. Geology Mount Rainier is a stratovolcano in theCascade Volcanic Arcthat consists oflava flows,debris flows, andpyroclasticejecta and flows. Its earlyvolcanicdeposits are estimated at more than 840,000 years old and are part of theLily Formation(about 2.9 million to 840,000 years ago). The early deposits formed a \"proto-Rainier\" or an ancestral cone prior to the present-day cone.The present cone is more than 500,000 years old. The volcano is highly eroded, with glaciers on its slopes, and appears to be made mostly ofandesite. Rainier likely once stood even higher than today at about 16,000 ft (4,900 m) before a major debrisavalancheand the resultingOsceola Mudflowapproximately 5,000 years ago.In the past, Rainier has had large debris avalanches, and has also produced enormous lahars (volcanicmudflows), due to the large amount of glacial ice present. Its lahars have reached all the way toPuget",
"all the way toPuget Sound, a distance of more than 30 mi (48 km). Around 5,000 years ago, a large chunk of the volcano slid away and that debris avalanche helped to produce the massive Osceola Mudflow, which went all the way to the site of present-day Tacoma and south Seattle.This massive avalanche of rock and ice removed the top 1,600 ft (500 m) of Rainier, bringing its height down to around 14,100 ft (4,300 m). About 530 to 550 years ago, theElectron Mudflowoccurred, although this was not as large-scale as the Osceola Mudflow. After the major collapse approximately 5,000 years ago, subsequent eruptions of lava andtephrabuilt up the modern summit cone until about as recently as 1,000 years ago. As many as 11Holocenetephra layers have been found. Soils on Mount Rainier are mostly gravelly ashy sandy loams developed from colluvium or glacial till mixed with volcanic tephra. Under forest cover their profiles usually have the banded appearance of a classicpodzolbut the E horizon is darker than usual. Under",
"than usual. Under meadows a thick dark A horizon usually forms the topsoil. Modern activity and threat The most recent recorded volcanic activity was between 1820 and 1854, but many eyewitnesses reported eruptive activity in 1858, 1870, 1879, 1882, and 1894 as well.Additionally, the Smithsonian Institution's volcanism project records the lastvolcanic eruptionas 1450 CE. Seismic monitors have been placed in Mount Rainier National Park and on the mountain itself to monitor activity.An eruption could be deadly for all living in areas within the immediate vicinity of the volcano and effects from an eruption could be noticed fromVancouver, British ColumbiatoSan Francisco,Californiabecause of the massive amounts of ash blasting out of the volcano into the atmosphere. Mount Rainier is located in an area that itself is part of the eastern rim of thePacific Ring of Fire. This includes mountains and calderas likeMount ShastaandLassen Peakin California,Crater Lake,Three Sisters, andMount Hoodin Oregon,Mount St.",
"Oregon,Mount St. Helens,Mount Adams,Glacier Peak, andMount Bakerin Washington, andMount Cayley,Mount Garibaldi,Silverthrone Caldera, andMount MeagerinBritish Columbia. Many of the above are dormant, but could return to activity, and scientists on both sides of the border gather research of the past eruptions of each in order to predict how mountains in this arc will behave and what they are capable of in the future, including Mount Rainier.Of these, two have erupted since the beginning of the twentieth century: Lassen in 1915 and St. Helens in 1980 and 2004. However, past eruptions in this volcanic arc have multiple examples ofsub-plinian eruptionsor higher: Crater Lake's last eruption as Mount Mazama was large enough to cause its cone to collapse,and Mount Rainier's closest neighbor, Mount St. Helens, produced the largest recorded eruption in the continental United States when it erupted in 1980. Statistics place the likelihood of a major eruption in the Cascade Range at 2–3 per century. Mount Rainier is",
"Mount Rainier is listed as aDecade Volcano, or one of the 16 volcanoes on Earth with the greatest likelihood of causing loss of life and property if eruptive activity resumes.If Mount Rainier were to erupt as powerfully as Mount St. Helens did in its May 18, 1980 eruption, the effect would be cumulatively greater, because of the far more massive amounts of glacial ice locked on thevolcanocompared to Mount St. Helens,the vastly more heavily populated areas surrounding Rainier, and the fact that Mount Rainier is almost twice the size of St. Helens.Lahars from Rainier pose the most risk to life and property,as many communities lie atop older lahar deposits. According to theUnited States Geological Survey(USGS), about 150,000 people live on top of old lahar deposits of Rainier.Not only is there much ice atop the volcano, the volcano is also slowly being weakened by hydrothermal activity. According to Geoff Clayton, a geologist with a Washington State Geology firm, RH2 Engineering, a repeat of the",
"a repeat of the 5000-year-oldOsceola Mudflowwould destroyEnumclaw,Orting,Kent,Auburn,Puyallup,Sumnerand all ofRenton.Such a mudflow might also reach down theDuwamishestuary and destroy parts ofdowntown Seattle, and causetsunamisin Puget Sound andLake Washington.Rainier is also capable of producingpyroclastic flowsand expelling lava.A 2012Washington State Department of Natural Resourcesestimate showed that a significant lahar could cause up to $40 billion in damage downriver. According to Kevin Scott, a scientist with the USGS: A home built in any of the probabilistically defined inundation areas on the new maps is more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a lahar than by fire... For example, a home built in an area that would be inundated every 100 years, on the average, is 27 times more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a flow than by fire. People know the danger of fire, so they buy fire insurance and they have smoke alarms, but most people are not aware of the risks of lahars, and few have applicable",
"few have applicable flood insurance. The volcanic risk is somewhat mitigated by lahar warning sirens and escape route signs inPierce County, part of theMount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System, which was implemented by theUSGSin 1998, and has been maintained by Pierce County since.The more populousKing Countyis also in the lahar area, but has no zoning restrictions due to volcanic hazard.More recently (since 2001) funding from the federal government for lahar protection in the area has dried up, leading local authorities in at-risk cities like Orting to fear a disaster similar to theArmero tragedy.To prevent against such tragedies, authorities downriver from Rainier have conducted large-scale evacuation exercises in 2019 and 2024. The most recent of these exercises, conducted on March 21, 2024, involved thePuyallup,Sumner-Bonney Lake,Orting,White River, andCarbonadoSchool Districts. During the exercise, emergency operations centers in the cities ofPuyallup,Bonney Lake, andBuckleywere activated to help the",
"to help the movement of school students and staff. Seismic background Typically, up to five earthquakes are recorded monthly near the summit. Swarms of five to ten shallow earthquakes over two or three days take place from time to time, predominantly in the region of 13,000 feet (4 km) below the summit. These earthquakes are thought to be caused by the circulation of hot fluids beneath Mount Rainier. Presumably, hot springs and steam vents within Mount Rainier National Park are generated by such fluids.Seismic swarms (not initiated with a mainshock) are common features at volcanoes, and are rarely associated with eruptive activity. Rainier has had several such swarms; there were days-long swarms in 2002, 2004, and 2007, two of which (2002 and 2004) included M 3.2 earthquakes. A 2009 swarm produced the largest number of events of any swarm at Rainier since seismic monitoring began over two decades earlier.Further swarms were observed in 2011 and 2021. Glaciers Glaciersare among the most conspicuous and",
"conspicuous and dynamic geologic features on Mount Rainier. They erode the volcanic cone and are important sources of streamflow for several rivers, including some that provide water forhydroelectric powerandirrigation. Together with perennial snow patches, the 29 named glacial features cover about 30.41 square miles (78.8 km2) of the mountain's surface in 2015 and have an estimated volume of about 0.69 cubic miles (2.9 km3). Glaciers flow under the influence of gravity by the combined action of sliding over the rock on which they lie and bydeformation, the gradual displacement between and within individual ice crystals. Maximum speeds occur near the surface and along the centerline of the glacier. During May 1970,Nisqually Glacierwas measured moving as fast as 29 inches (74 cm) per day. Flow rates are generally greater in summer than in winter, probably due to the presence of large quantities of meltwater at the glacier base. The size of glaciers on Mount Rainier has fluctuated significantly in the past.",
"in the past. For example, during thelast ice age, from about 25,000 to about 15,000 years ago, glaciers covered most of the area now within the boundaries of Mount Rainier National Park and extended to the perimeter of the present Puget Sound Basin. Between the 14th century and 1850, many of the glaciers on Mount Rainier advanced to their farthest extent downvalley since the last ice age. Many advances of this sort occurred worldwide during this time period known to geologists as theLittle Ice Age. During the Little Ice Age, the Nisqually Glacier advanced to a position 650 to 800 ft (200 to 240 m) downvalley from the site of theGlacier Bridge,TahomaandSouth Tahoma Glaciersmerged at the base of Glacier Island, and the terminus ofEmmons Glacierreached within 1.2 mi (1.9 km) of the White River Campground. Retreat of the Little Ice Age glacierswas slow until about 1920 when retreat became more rapid. TheWilliwakas Glacierwas noted as extinct during the 1930s. Between the height of the Little Ice Age and 1950,",
"Ice Age and 1950, Mount Rainier's glaciers lost about one-quarter of their length. Beginning in 1950 and continuing through the early 1980s, however, many of the major glaciers advanced in response to relatively cooler temperatures of the mid-century. The glaciers and snowfields of Mount Rainier also lost volume during this time, except for the Frying Pan and Emmons glaciers on the east flank and the small near-peak snowfields; the greatest volume loss was concentrated from ~1750 m (north) to ~2250 m (south) elevation. The largest single volume loss is from the Carbon Glacier, although it is to the north, due to its huge area at <2000 m elevation.TheCarbon,Cowlitz, Emmons, and Nisqually Glaciers advanced during the late 1970s and early 1980s as a result of high snowfalls during the 1960s and 1970s. Since the early-1980s, however, many glaciers have been thinning and retreating and some advances have slowed.In a study using data from 2021, National Park Service scientists removed Stevens Glacier from its",
"Glacier from its inventory of Mount Rainier glaciers due to its dwindling size and lack of evidence that it was moving.Using satellite data in 2022, researchers atNichols Collegedetermined that bothPyramidandVan Trumpglaciers had also ceased to exist with only fragments of ice remaining.A significant decline had been noted between 2015 and 2022. The glaciers on Mount Rainier can generate mudflows throughglacial outburst floodsnot associated with an eruption. The South Tahoma Glacier generated 30 floods in the 1980s and early 1990s, and again in August 2015. History For thousands of years, the area surrounding Mount Rainier has been inhabited by severalIndigenous peoples, who traditionallyhunted and gatheredanimals and plants in Mount Rainier's forests and high elevation meadows. These peoples and their modern-day descendants are represented today by the members of thefederally-recognized tribeswhich surround the mountain, including theNisqually Indian Tribe, theCowlitz Indian Tribe, theConfederated Tribes",
"Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation, thePuyallup Tribe of Indians, and theMuckleshoot Indian Tribe, among others in the area.The archaeological record of human use of the mountain dates to over 8,500 years before present (BP). Sites related to seasonal use of Mount Rainier and its landscapes are reflected in chipped stone tool remains and settings suggesting functionally varied uses including task-specific sites, rockshelters, travel stops, and long-term base camps. Their distribution on the mountain suggest primary use of subalpine meadows and low alpine habitats that provided relatively high resource abundance during the short summer season.Evidence suggests that there existed a tradition of Native Americans setting fire to areas of the region each year as a way to encourage meadow development. The first Europeans to reach thePacific Northwestwere theSpanishwho arrived by sea in 1774 led byJuan Perez.The next year, under the direction ofJuan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, a boat was sent ashore",
"was sent ashore toDestruction island.Upon landing, the crew was attacked and killed by the local indigenous population.Although attempts were made in 1792 to create a permanent Spanish settlement atNeah Bay, the project was unsuccessful and by 1795, Spain had given up on the region.Although not documented anywhere, it is likely that Spanish sailors first observed Mount Rainier while sailing in theStrait of Juan de Fuca. Upon reaching what would become California in 1579,Sir Francis Drakeclaimed the entire northwest coast of North America forEngland.This claim to the coast of the Pacific Northwest was not further explored until in 1778Captain James Cooksailed the coastline of modern-day Washington and British Columbia, stimulating a subsequent increase in English ships coming to the area as part of thefur trade.On July 22, 1793,Sir Alexander Mackenzieof the BritishNorthwest Fur Companyreached the Pacific Ocean via overland route that crossed the Rocky Mountains. The first American,John Ledyard, reached the",
"reached the region aboard Captain Cook's ship in 1778.By 1787, six Americans from Boston formed a company which began trading along the northwest coast.TheLewis and Clarkoverland expedition reached the northwest coast in 1805 and observed Mount Rainier for the first time in the Spring of 1806. The first documented sighting of Mt. Rainier by a European was by the crew ofCaptain George Vancouveron May 7, 1792, during theVancouver Expedition(1790–1795).On May 8, 1792, Vancouver gave the name of Mt. Rainier to the observed peak in homage to Vancouver's friendRear Admiral Peter Rainier. At the outset of the 19th century, the region where Mt. Rainier was located was claimed by Spain, the U.S., Russia, and Great Britain, with most claims being based on instances of early naval exploration of the region's coast.Spain relinquished all remaining claims to the Pacific Northwest that had not already been handed over with theLouisiana Purchasein 1819 with thepurchase and cession of Floridaby the United States.In 1824,",
"States.In 1824, Russia ceded all land claims south ofparallel 54°40′ northto the United States as part of theRusso-American Treaty.In 1818, the United States and the United Kingdom signed a treaty, agreeing upon the joint settlement and occupation of the Oregon country which consisted of the territory north of42°N latitude, south of54°40′N latitude, and west of theRocky Mountainsto thePacific Ocean.The1846 Oregon Treatybetween the United States and United Kingdom set new borders between British and American territory along today'sapproximate borders.In 1853, the land between theColumbia riverand the border withBritish Canadawas organized into theWashington Territory, which was the administrative status of the region at the time of the first successful ascent of Mount Rainier. In 1833,William Fraser Tolmieexplored the area looking for medicinal plants.Hazard StevensandP. B. Van Trumpreceived a hero's welcome in the streets ofOlympiaafter theirsuccessful summit climb in 1870.The first female ascent was made in",
"ascent was made in 1890 byFay Fuller, accompanied by Van Trump and three other teammates. Descending from the summit in 1883, James Longmire discovered a mineral spring; this ultimately led to his establishment of a spa and hotel, drawing other visitors to the area to seek the benefits of the spring.Later, the headquarters of the national park would be established at Longmire, until flooding caused them to be relocated to Ashford.The area also became the site of features like a museum, a post office, and a gas station, with additions like a library and a gift shop soon following; many of these buildings were ultimately nominated to the national historic register of historic places.Longmire remains the second most popular place in the park.In 1924, a publication from the park described the area: \"A feature at Longmire Springs of great interest to everyone is the group of mineral springs in the little flat to the west of National Park Inn. There are some forty distinct springs, a half dozen of which are easily",
"of which are easily reached from the road. An analysis of the waters show that they all contain about the smae mineral salts but in slightly differing proportions. All the water is highly carbonated and would be classed as extremely \"hard\". Certain springs contain larger amounts of soda, iron and sulphur, giving them a distinct taste and color.\" John Muirclimbed Mount Rainier in 1888, and although he enjoyed the view, he conceded that it was best appreciated from below. Muir was one of many who advocated protecting the mountain. In 1893, the area was set aside as part of thePacific Forest Reservein order to protect its physical and economic resources, primarily timber andwatersheds. Citing the need to also protect scenery and provide for public enjoyment, railroads and local businesses urged the creation of a national park in hopes of increased tourism. On March 2, 1899, PresidentWilliam McKinleyestablished Mount Rainier National Park as America's fifthnational park. Congress dedicated the new park \"for the",
"new park \"for the benefit and enjoyment of the people\"and \"... for the preservation from injury or spoliation of all timber,mineraldeposits, natural curiosities, or wonders within said park, and their retention in their natural condition.\" On June 24, 1947,Kenneth Arnoldreported seeing aformation of nine unidentified flying objectsover Mount Rainier. His description led to the term \"flying saucers\". In 1998, the United States Geological Survey began putting together theMount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning Systemto assist in theemergency evacuationof thePuyallup Rivervalley in the event of a catastrophic debris flow. It is now run by thePierce CountyDepartment of Emergency Management. Tacoma, at the mouth of the Puyallup, is only 37 mi (60 km) west of Rainier, and moderately sized towns such as Puyallup and Orting are only 27 and 20 mi (43 and 32 km) away, respectively. Mount Rainier appears on four distinct United Statespostage stampissues. In 1934, it was the 3-cent issue in a series of National Park stamps,",
"Park stamps, and was also shown on asouvenir sheetissued for a philatelic convention. The following year, in 1935, both of these were reprinted byPostmaster GeneralJames A. Farleyas special issues given to officials and friends. Because of complaints by the public, \"Farley's Follies\" were reproduced in large numbers. The second stamp issue is easy to tell from the original because it isimperforate. Both stamps and souvenir sheets are widely available. The Washingtonstate quarter, which was released on April 11, 2007, features Mount Rainier and asalmon. Climbing Mountain climbingon Mount Rainier is difficult, involving traversing the largest glaciers in the U.S. south ofAlaska. Most climbers require two to three days to reach the summit, with a success rate of approximately 50%, with weather and physical conditioning of the climbers being the most common reasons for failure. About 8,000 to 13,000 people attempt the climb each year,about 90% via routes fromCamp Muiron the southeast flank,and most of the rest",
"most of the rest ascendEmmons Glaciervia Camp Schurman on the northeast. Climbing routes All climbing routes on Mount Rainier require climbers to possess some level of technical climbing skill. This includes ascending and descending the mountain with the use of technical climbing equipment such as crampons, ice axes, harnesses, and ropes. Difficulty and technical challenge of climbing Mount Rainier can vary widely between climbing routes. Routes are graded inNCCSAlpine Climbing format. Thenormal routeto the summit of Mount Rainier is the Disappointment Cleaver Route,YDSgrade II-III. As climbers on this route have access to the permanently establishedCamp Muir, it sees the significant majority of climbing traffic on the mountain. This route is also the most common commercially guided route. The term \"cleaver\" is used in the context of a rock ridge that separates two glaciers. The reason for naming this cleaver a \"disappointment\" is unrecorded, but it is thought to be due to climbers reaching it only to",
"reaching it only to recognize their inability to reach the summit.An alternative route to the Disappointment Cleaver is the Ingraham Glacier Direct Route, grade II, and is often used when the Disappointment Cleaver route cannot be climbed due to poor route conditions. The Emmons Glacier Route, grade II, is an alternative to the Disappointment Cleaver route and poses a lower technical challenge to climbers. The climbers on the route can make use of Camp Schurman (9,500 ft), a glacial camp site. Camp Schurman is equipped with a solar toilet and a ranger hut. The Liberty Ridge Route, grade IV, is a considerably more challenging and objectively dangerous route than the normal route to the summit. It runs up the center of the North Face of Mount Rainier and crosses the very active Carbon Glacier. First climbed by Ome Daiber, Arnie Campbell and Jim Burrow in 1935, it is listed as one of theFifty Classic Climbs of North AmericabySteve RoperandAllen Steck. This route only accounts for approximately 2% of climbers on",
"2% of climbers on the mountain, but approximately 25% of its deaths. Dangers and accidents About two mountaineering deaths each year occur because of rock and ice fall, avalanche, falls, and hypothermia. These incidents are often associated with exposure to very high altitude, fatigue, dehydration, and/or poor weather.58 deaths on Mount Rainier have been reported from 1981 to 2010.Approximately 7 percent of mountaineering deaths and 6 percent of mountaineering accidents in the United States are attributed to Mount Rainier. The first known climbing death on Mount Rainier was Edgar McClure, a professor of chemistry at the University of Oregon, on July 27, 1897. During the descent in darkness, McClure stepped over the edge of the rock and slid to his death on a rocky outcrop. The spot is now known as McClure Rock. The worst mountaineering accident on Mount Rainier occurred in 1981, when ten clients and a guide died in an avalanche/ice fall on theIngraham Glacier.This was the largest number of fatalities on",
"of fatalities on Mount Rainier in a single incident since 32 people were killed in a 1946 plane crash on the South Tahoma Glacier. In one of the worst disasters on the mountain in over thirty years, six climbers—two guides, and four clients—were killed on May 31, 2014, after the climbers fell 3,300 feet (1,000 m) while attempting the summit via the Liberty Ridge climbing route. Low-flying search helicopters pinged the signals from the avalanche beacons worn by the climbers, and officials concluded that there was no possible chance of survival. Searchers found tents and clothes along with rock and ice strewn across a debris field on the Carbon Glacier at 9,500 ft (2,900 m), possible evidence for a slide or avalanche in the vicinity where the team went missing, though the exact cause of the accident is unknown.The bodies of three of the client climbers were spotted on August 7, 2014, during a training flight and subsequently recovered on August 19, 2014. The bodies of the fourth client climber and two guides",
"and two guides were never found. Outdoor recreation In addition to climbing,hiking,backcountry skiing,photography, andcampingare popular activities in the park.Hiking trails, including theWonderland Trail—a 93-mile (150 km) circumnavigation of the peak, provide access to the backcountry. Popular forwinter sportsincludesnowshoeingandcross-country skiing. Climate The summit of Mount Rainier has anice cap climate(Köppen climate classification:EF) Ecology Mount Rainier's protected status as a national park protects itsprimevalCascade ecosystem, providing a stablehabitatfor manyspeciesin the region, includingendemicfloraandfaunathat are unique to the area, such as theCascade red foxandMount Rainier lousewort.The ecosystem on the mountain is verydiverse, owing to the climate found at different elevations.Scientists track the distinct species found in theforestzone, thesubalpinezone, and thealpinezone.They have discovered more than one thousand species ofplantsandfungi.The mountain is also home to 65 species",
"home to 65 species ofmammals, 5reptiles, 182birds, 14amphibians, and 14 species of nativefish, in addition to an innumerable amount ofinvertebrates. Flora Mount Rainier has regularly been described as one of the best places in the world to viewwildflowers.In the subalpine region of the mountain, the snow often stays on the ground until summer begins, limiting plants to a much shortergrowing season. This produces dramatic blooms in areas likeParadise.In 1924, the flowers were described by naturalistFloyd W. Schmoe: Mount Rainier National Park is perhaps better known the world over for these wonderful flowers than for any one feature. The mountains, the glaciers, the cascading streams and the forests may be equalled if one looks far away enough, but no park has been so favored in the way of wild flowers. Forests on the mountain span from as young as 100 years old to sections ofold growth forestthat are calculated to be 1000 years or more in age.The lower elevation consists mainly ofwestern red-cedar,Douglas",
"red-cedar,Douglas fir, andwestern hemlock.Pacific silver fir,western white pine,Alaska yellow cedar, andnoble firare found further up the mountain. In the alpine level, Alaskan yellow cedar,subalpine fir, andmountain hemlockgrow. Fauna The mountain supports a wide variety of animal life, including several species that are protected on the state or federal level, like theNorthern Spotted Owl.Efforts are also being made to reintroduce native species that had locally been hunted to extinction, like thePacific fisher.There are sixty-five types of mammals living on the mountain, includingcougars,mountain goats,marmots, andelk. Commonreptiles and amphibiansincludegarter snakes,frogs, andsalamanders. There are manytypes of birdsfound throughout the different elevations on the mountain, but while some live there all year, many aremigratory. Salmon andtroutspecies use the rivers formed by theglaciers, and though the lakes stopped beingstockedin 1972, thirty lakes still have reproducing populations. See also Notes",
"See also Notes References External links University of Washington libraries and digital collections"
] |
Multiple the number of Tony's won by the guest host of SNL 12/6/1997 by the number of Oscar nominations received by the 2023 film directed by Greta Gerwig. Then divide this number by the number of Grammy's won by the band behind the 1979 album "Tusk". | 12 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live_season_23 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Lane | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Nathan_Lane | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbie_(film) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accolades_received_by_Barbie_(film) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusk_(album) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleetwood_Mac#Grammy_Awards | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live_season_23', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Lane', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Nathan_Lane', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbie_(film)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accolades_received_by_Barbie_(film)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusk_(album)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleetwood_Mac#Grammy_Awards'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live_season_23",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Lane",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Nathan_Lane",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbie_(film",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accolades_received_by_Barbie_(film",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusk_(album",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleetwood_Mac#Grammy_Awards"
] | [
"Saturday Night Liveseason 23 Thetwenty-third seasonofSaturday Night Live, an Americansketch comedyseries, originally aired in the United States onNBCbetween September 27, 1997, and May9, 1998. This season saw the deaths of two former cast members. Six weeks after he came back to host,Chris Farleybecame the fifthSNLcast member to die. Influenced by his idol,John Belushi, Farley died of aspeedballoverdose at the age of 33. Two weeks after the season finale, long-time performerPhil Hartmanwas murdered by his wife who then committed suicide. Following their deaths, NBC aired twoSNLspecials as tributes to Farley and Hartman in dedication to their legacies during this season. Cast Before the season,Mark McKinneyleft the show after three seasons.Colin Quinnwas promoted to repertory status. This season is the first season to not include any featured players or new cast members. During the season, a controversy arose in whichWeekend UpdateanchorNorm Macdonaldwas removed from theUpdatesegment. Macdonald's final episode asUpdateanchor was on December 13, 1997.Quinn was then promoted to the job and anchored the segment in the next live episode, which aired January 10, 1998. Even though Macdonald still performed in sketches, he was not happy and eventually quit the show; his final appearance was on March 14, 1998. This was also the final season forJim Breueras he left the show at season's end to move on to other acting opportunities. It was also the only season to have an opening sequence that did not show any shots of New York City, instead featuring a 1950s-inspired design. Cast roster Repertory players bolddenotes Weekend Update anchor Writers Future cast member/head writerTina Feyjoins the writing staff in this season. Adam McKaycontinues as the sole head writer, whileTim Herlihyis promoted to a producer alongsideSteve Higgins. With the Sarah Michelle Gellar-hosted episode, futureParks and Recreation/The Good PlacecreatorMichael Schurjoined the writing staff. Longtime writerJim Downeyis fired coinciding withNorm Macdonaldbeing taken off ofWeekend Update.Downey is still credited as a writer until the end of the season. Episodes Specials References",
"Nathan Lane Nathan Lane(bornJoseph Lane; February 3, 1956) is an American actor. Since 1975, he has beenon stage and screenin both comedic and dramatic roles.His awardsinclude threeTony Awards, sevenDrama Desk Awards, aLaurence Olivier Award, threeEmmy Awards, and aScreen Actors Guild Award. Lane received a star on theHollywood Walk of Famein 2006 and was inducted into theAmerican Theater Hall of Famein 2008.In 2010,The New York Timeshailed Lane as being \"the greatest stage entertainer of the decade\". Lane made his professional theatre debut in 1978 in an off-Broadway production ofA Midsummer Night's Dream. During that time he also briefly appeared as one half of the comedy team of Stack and Lane, until he was cast in the 1982 Broadway revival ofNoël Coward'sPresent Laughterdirected by and starringGeorge C. Scott. That led to an extensive career onstage, where he had a long friendship and fruitful collaboration with the playwrightTerrence McNallywhich started in 1989 with theManhattan Theater Clubproduction ofThe Lisbon Traviata. A six-timeTony Awardnominee, he has won three times, forBest Actor in a Musicalfor Pseudolus inStephen Sondheim'sA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum(1996) and Max Bialystock inMel Brooks'The Producers(2001), andBest Featured Actor in a PlayforRoy CohninTony Kushner'sAngels in America(2018). His other Tony-nominated roles were inGuys and Dolls(1992),The Nance(2013), andThe Front Page(2016). Among his 25 Broadway credits areThe Man Who Came To Dinner(2000),The Odd Couple(2005),Butley(2006),Waiting for Godot(2009),The Addams Family(2010),It's Only a Play(2014),Gary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicus(2019), andPictures from Home(2023). Lane has acted in films such asThe Lion King(1994),The Birdcage(1996),Mouse Hunt(1997),The Producers(2005), andBeau is Afraid(2023). He received thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor theHulumystery comedy seriesOnly Murders in the Buildingin 2022. He was Emmy-nominated for his guest roles inFrasier,Mad About You,Modern Family, andThe Good Wife. He portrayedF. Lee Baileyin theFXminiseriesThe People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story(2016) andDominick Dunnein theNetflixanthology seriesMonsters: The Lyle and Erik Menendez Story(2024). He also acted inPenny Dreadful: City of Angels(2020) andThe Gilded Age(2022–). Early life and education Lane was bornJoseph LaneinJersey City, New Jerseyon February 3, 1956.His father Daniel Joseph Lane was a truck driver and an aspiring tenor who died in 1967 from alcoholism when Nathan was eleven.His mother Nora Veronica (Finnerty) was a housewife and secretary who suffered frombipolar disorderand died in 2000.Joseph has two older brothers Daniel Jr. and Robert.Their parents wereCatholicsand all of their grandparents wereIrishimmigrants.Joseph is named after his uncle, aJesuitpriest.Joseph attended Catholic schools in Jersey City, including Jesuit-runSt. Peter's Preparatory School, where he was voted Best Actor in 1974, and in 2011 received the Prep Hall of Fame Professional Achievement Award. Career 1978–1993: Rise to prominence Accepted toSaint Joseph's UniversityinPhiladelphiaon a drama scholarship, Joseph Lane was accompanied on what was supposed to be his first day there by his older brother Dan. Discovering that the scholarship would not cover enough of his expenses, he decided to leave, and work for a year to earn some money. His brother said, \"I remember him saying to me, 'College is for people who don't know what they want to do.'\" Because there already was a Joseph Lane registered withActors' Equity, he changed his name to Nathan after the characterNathan Detroitfrom the musicalGuys and Dolls.He moved toNew York Citywhere after a long struggle, his career began to take off, first with some brief success in the world of stand-up comedy with partner Patrick Stackand later withOff-Broadwayproductions atSecond Stage Theatre, theRoundabout Theatre, and theManhattan Theatre Club.He made hisBroadwaydebut in a 1982 revival ofNoël Coward'sPresent Laughteras Roland Maule (Drama Desk nomination) withGeorge C. Scott,Kate Burton,Dana Ivey,Bette Henritze,Elizabeth Hubbard,Jim Piddock, andChristine Lahti. His second Broadway appearance was in the 1983 musicalMerlin, starringChita Riveraand magicianDoug Henning. This was followed byWind in the WillowsasMr. Toad,Some Americans AbroadatLincoln Center, and the national tour ofNeil Simon'sBroadway Bound. Off-Broadway productions in which he appeared, includedLove(the musical version ofMurray Schisgal'sLuv),Measure for Measuredirected byJoseph Pappin Central Park, for which he received theSt. Clair Bayfield Award,The Common Pursuit,The Film Society,In a Pig's Valise,She Stoops to Conquer,The Merry Wives of WindsorandA Midsummer Night's Dream.He appeared at the Williamstown Theatre Festival inThe School for Scandaland John Guare'sMoon Over Miami.His association withStephen Sondheimbegan in 1989 with a workshop reading ofAssassins, where he playedSamuel Byck, the would-be murderer ofRichard Nixon. Lane also appeared in the television showsMiami ViceandThe Days and Nights of Molly Dodd. In 1991, Lane appeared withGeorge C. Scottagain in a revival of Paul Osborne'sOn Borrowed Timeat theCircle in the Square Theatreon Broadway.In 1992, he starred in the hit revival ofGuys and Dolls, playing Nathan Detroit, the character who lent him his name, oppositePeter GallagherandFaith Prince.For this performance, he received his firstTonynomination,as well as Drama DeskandOuter Critics Circle Awards.In 1992, he won anObie Awardfor Sustained Excellence of Performance.His professional association with his close friend the playwrightTerrence McNally, whom he met in 1987,includes roles inThe Lisbon Traviata(Drama Desk andLucille LortelAwards, and Outer Critics Circle nomination),Bad Habits,Lips Together, Teeth Apart,Love! Valour! Compassion!(Obie, Drama Desk, and Outer Critics Circle Awards),Dedication or the Stuff of Dreams,which opened in 2005 (Drama Desk nomination),The Last Mileon PBS'Great Performances, and the film version ofFrankie and Johnny. The early 1990s began a stretch of successful Broadway shows for Lane. In 1993, he portrayedSid Caesar-like Max Prince inNeil Simon'sLaughter on the 23rd Floor, inspired by Simon's early career writing sketches forYour Show of Shows.In 1996, he starred in the hit revival ofStephen Sondheim'sA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum. For his performance he won theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musicalas well as the Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle Awards.In 1998, he appeared Off-Broadway inJon Robin Baitz's revised 1984 comedy,Mizlansky/Zilinsky or 'Schmucks'. 1994–2009: Breakthrough and acclaim In 1994, Lane voicedTimon, the meerkat, inDisney's blockbuster animated filmThe Lion Kingand reprised the role in its sequels.In 1995, Lane was the voice of the meerkat in the early episodes ofTimon & Pumbaa. In 1995, he played the Cowardly Lion inThe Wizard of Oz in Concertat Lincoln Center to benefit theChildren's Defense Fund. The performance was originally broadcast on Turner Network Television (TNT). In 1996 Lane appeared in the filmThe Birdcage,for which he received his firstGolden Globenomination.The film, an American remake of the classic French farceLa Cage aux Folles, was directed byMike Nicholswith a screenplay byElaine May, and starredRobin Williams, Lane, andGene Hackman, and went on to be a big success. The Stephen Sondheim song \"Little Dream\"inThe Birdcagewas supposedly written especially for him. In 1999, he appeared withVictor Garberin the workshop of the Sondheim musicalWise Guys(later retitledRoad Show).His collaboration with Sondheim would continue when Lane revised the original book for and starred in the Broadway debut of the composer'sThe Frogsat Lincoln Center in 2004. Lane appeared in the 1997 dark comedyMouse Hunt, one of the first films to come out of the newly formed DreamWorks Studios, in which he co-starred with British comedianLee Evansand Christopher Walken. In 1999, he appeared in theEncores!concert revival ofDo Re MiatCity Center.That same year he also voiced the role of Snowbell in the family filmStuart Little, opposite hisLife With Mikeyco-starMichael J. Fox. He is known for his voice work in two Disney animated series,Teacher's PetandTimon & Pumbaa, as well asGeorge and MarthaonHBO. He receivedDaytime Emmy Awardsfor his voice performances inTeacher's PetandTimon & Pumbaa, as well as a nomination forGeorge and Martha. He hostedSaturday Night Livein 1997,and theTony Awards(once as host for the 50th anniversary telecast, and three times as co-host, withGlenn CloseandGregory Hines;Rosie O'Donnell; andMatthew Broderickrespectively).From 1998 to 1999 he starred in theNBCsitcomEncore! Encore!alongsideJoan PlowrightandGlenne Headly.The New York Timesgave a very positive review to the show's debut, writing it possessed the \"most accomplished, high-powered cast on television.\"Although the series got positive reviews it was canceled. He still won thePeople's Choice Awardthat year for Favorite New Actor in a Comedy. Lane received Emmy Award nominations for his guest appearances onFrasierandMad About Youin 1995 and 1998, respectively. Lane starred in the Roundabout revival ofThe Man Who Came to Dinneras Sheridan Whiteside, withJean SmartandHarriet Harrisin 2000.Charles Isherwood ofVarietyliked his performance, \"Nathan Lane, an actor who makes virtually every role he plays seem like a role he was born to play, is the splendidly seething, delightfully acerbic center of Jerry Zaks' splashy production of the 1939 comedy\".The production was taped and shown onPBS. That same year he starred inKenneth Branagh's film adaptation ofWilliam Shakespeare'sLove's Labour's Lost(2000). He acted in the comedyIsn't She Great(2000) oppositeBette Midler, the crime dramaTrixie(2000), and voiced a character in the animated science fiction filmTitan A.E.(2000). In 2001, he starred asMax Bialystockin the blockbuster musical version ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers. He acted alongsideMatthew Broderick. Chris Jones ofVarietywrote \"Lane's greatest contribution, though, is this performer's innate sense of pace. He's constantly propelling the show forward and giving all this nonsense a necessary sense of urgency.\"Ben BrantleyofThe New York Timespraised Lane's performance describing it as his \"most delicious performance\". He complimented Lane's and Broderick's chemistry adding \"Mr. Lane and Mr. Broderick, have the most dynamic stage chemistry sinceNatasha RichardsonmetLiam NeesoninAnna Christie.The role earned him his secondTony Award for Best Actor in a Musicalas well as Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle Awards. The next year he reprised his role as Snowbell inStuart Little 2(2002). He then appeared as Vincent Crummles in a film adaptation ofNicholas Nickleby(2002) and the cast received the Ensemble Acting award from the National Board of Review. In 2003 he starred Off-Broadway inTrumbo: Red, White, and Blacklisted.In 2004, Lane revised the libretto and portrayedDionysusin the revival ofStephen Sondheim's musicalThe Frogswhich opened at theVivian Beaumont TheateratLincoln CenteronBroadway. That same year he replacedRichard DreyfussinThe Producersin the West End. Dreyfuss was let go just a week before the show's first preview at London'sTheatre Royal Drury Lane.Lane went on to win theOlivier Awardas Best Actor in a Musical.His performance in thefilm version, opposite Broadway co-starMatthew BroderickasLeo Bloom, earned him his second nomination for theGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. In 2005, Lane rejoined Broderick for a successful limited run ofThe Odd Couple.In 2006, he took on a primarily dramatic role in a revival ofSimon Gray'sButley, having played the role to great success at TheHuntington Theater Companyin Boston in 2003.He and Broderick received adjacent stars on theHollywood Walk of Famein a joint ceremony on January 9, 2006,and were immortalized in wax as Max and Leo atMadame TussaudsMuseum in New York City on January 16, 2009.In 2008, he played the President of the United States in theDavid Mametpolitical satire,November, directed byJoe Mantello.This was followed by the critically acclaimed 2009 revival ofWaiting for Godot(Outer Critics Circle nomination)in which he playedEstragonoppositeBill Irwin'sVladimir.He was a 2008American Theatre Hall of Fameinductee.In the 2000s Lane also made guest appearances onSex and the City,Curb Your Enthusiasm,Absolutely Fabulous, and30 Rock. 2010–2019: Established actor In 2009, Lane starred in the musical version ofThe Addams FamilyasGomezin Chicago, a role he reprised on Broadway the following year, receiving Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle nominations.That year he also received a Drama League Award for Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theater. Committed to starring in a revival of theEugene O'NeillplayThe Iceman Comethat Chicago'sGoodman Theatrein 2012, Lane assumed the role of Hickey, withBrian Dennehyplaying the role of Larry Slade in a production directed by the Goodman's Artistic Director,Robert Falls.Receiving rave reviews,it won sixJeff Awards, including Best Ensemble, director, and Production,and is the most successful play to date in the theater's history. From 2010 to 2019, Lane portrayed Pepper Saltzman in theABCsitcomModern Familyfor which he received threePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesnominations. From 2012 to 2014 he played Clarke Hayden in the legal seriesThe Good Wifereceiving a nomination for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series. In the spring of 2013, Lane returned to Broadway inThe Nance, aLincoln Centerproduction of a new play byDouglas Carter Beanethat was directed byJack O'Brien.David Rooney ofThe Hollywood Reporterpraised his performance writing, \"Lane is masterful, finding new depths in a well-worn sad clown persona\" adding, \" at the very least it provides a tremendous vehicle for Lane\".He went on to receive Tony and Drama Desk Award nominations and won the Outer Critics Circle Award and the 2013 Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance.The play aired on PBSLive from Lincoln Centerin 2014. In autumn 2014, he appeared in an all-star ensemble of Terrence McNally's revised and updatedIt's Only a Play, withF. Murray Abraham,Matthew Broderick,Stockard Channing,Rupert Grint,Megan Mullally, andMicah Stock.The show became one of the biggest hits of the season.In February 2015 he reprised the role of Hickey in the Robert Falls production ofThe Iceman Comethto great acclaim at theBrooklyn Academy of Music.New York Postfilm critic Elizabeth Vincentelli wrote of his performance, \"Lane, one of his generation's most brilliant comic actors... the sweet spot between pretend perkiness and self-loathing\".He later returned to the Broadway run ofIt's Only a Play.In 2015, he received the Eugene O'Neill Theater Center Monte Cristo Award for his body of work. In March 2016, he opened the playWhite Rabbit, Red RabbitOff-Broadway. Lane playedF. Lee BaileyinThe People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story, the first season ofAmerican Crime Story, which premiered on theFXchannel in February 2016. Daniel Feinberg ofThe Hollywood Reporterdescribed his performance as \"understatedly Machiavellian\".Emily St. Jones ofVoxdeclared Lane as \"hugely enjoyable\" in the series.It received 22 Emmy nominations and went on to win thePrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Limited Series.In fall of 2016, he returned to Broadway to rave reviews in an all-star revival of Hecht and MacArthur'sThe Front Page, directed by Jack O'Brien and produced by Scott Rudin.He played the ruthless editor Walter Burns oppositeJohn Slatteryas Hildy Johnson andJohn Goodmanas Sheriff Hartman,for which he received a nomination for theTony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play. He also received nominations for Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle Awards.During this time he also guest starred on series such asDifficult People(2016) andThe Blacklist(2018). Next he playedRoy CohnwithAndrew Garfieldas Prior Walter in the revival ofAngels in America,directed byMarianne Elliottat theLyttlelton Theatreof theNational Theatre of Great Britain. Lane reprised his acclaimed portrayal on Broadway at theNeil Simon Theatre, and won the Tony, Drama Desk, and Outer Critics Circle Awards for Best Featured Actor in a Play. In March 2019, Lane starred inTaylor Mac's absurdist black comedyGary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicusat theBooth Theatredirected byGeorge C. Wolfe. The play received sevenTony Awardnominations, includingBest Play. 2020–present Lane played the role of Lewis Michener on Showtime'sPenny Dreadful: City of Angelswhich premiered April 26, 2020, and ran for one season. He has a recurring role in the Hulu seriesOnly Murders in the Building, starringSteve Martin,Martin Short, andSelena Gomez, for which he received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. That was Lane's first Primetime Emmy Award after a record-breaking seven nominations in the guest actor categories, making him the most nominated Comedy Guest Actor in Emmy history, a record he still holds after receiving his eighth nomination in 2023 in the same category.He also plays the recurring role ofWard McAllisterin the HBO period series,The Gilded Age, written byJulian Fellowes, which received a 2024Screen Actors Guild Awardnomination forOutstanding Ensemble in a Drama Seriesand a 2024 Emmy nomination for Best Drama. In 2023, Lane returned to theBroadwaystage, marking his 25thBroadway show, inPictures from Home, a play adapted from the photo memoir byLarry Sultan. Lane portrayed the father and former razor blade salesman to his son a photographer, played byDanny Burstein, who's remembering his visits with his family. Lane's wife in the play was portrayed byZoë Wanamaker. The production was directed byBartlett Sherand was helmed at theStudio 54theatre.The play received mixed reviews but praise for Lane's performance with Marilyn Stasio ofVarietywriting, \"Lane and Burstein are consummate pros, and there are considerable sparks of familial communication between the father and son they play with such warmth and understanding.\" Also in 2023, Lane co-starred inAri Aster's newA24film,Beau Is AfraidalongsideJoaquin Phoenix,Amy Ryan, andPatti LuPone.Max Ceo ofEsquirepraised Aster for the casting of Lane writing, \"There's a palpable sense that the director had seasoned character actors such as Nathan Lane in his mind while writing. He milks every dad-ish 'My dude' the script hands him\". He co-starred in another A24 film,Dicks: The Musical, formerly known as __Identical Twins, directed byLarry Charlesand written by Aaron Jackson and Josh Sharp based on theirUpright Citizens Brigademusical stage show which is a twisted take onThe Parent Trap.Jackson and Sharp play the twins with Lane andMegan Mullallyas the parents.It also featuresBowen YangandMegan Thee Stallion. The film premiered at the2023 Toronto International Film Festivalto positive reviews and won the Midnight Madness People's Choice Award. Kristy Puchko ofMashablewrote, \" who stole scenes earlier this year as a plucky papa in anotherA24movieBeau is Afraid—gives his all, committing to bit after bit\" adding \"In a career of superb comedy, he's in top form here\".He will be part of the voice cast forSpellbound, a new animated film fromSkydanceforNetflix, withRachel Zegler,Nicole Kidman,Javier Bardem,Jenifer LewisandJohn Lithgow. As well as theRyan Murphyminiseries,Monsters: The Lyle and Erik Menendez Story, asDominick Dunne.He is starring in a newHulumulti-cam comedy, Mid-Century Modern, again produced by Ryan Murphy, created by Max Mutchnick and David Kohan who are the creators of Will and Grace, and co-starring Matt Bomer, Linda Lavin, and Nathan Lee Graham. Personal life Lane says that when he told his mother at age 21 that he wasgay, she said, \"I'd rather you were dead.\" He replied, \"I knew you'd understand.\" He joked that \"once I got her head out of the oven, everything went fine.\"Hecame outpublicly in 1999 after the killing ofMatthew Shepardand has been a long-time board member of and fundraiser forBroadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS.He was honored with the Human Rights Campaign Equality Award,the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation Vito Russo Award,The Trevor Project Hero Award,and the Matthew Shepard Foundation Making A Difference Award for his work in theLGBTcommunity in 2015. Lane has made several critical statements aboutRepublican Partyfigures. He jokingly comparedPaul Ryanto theWicked Witch of the West, due to Ryan's lack of support forMedicaid.In a 2018 interview about playingRoy Cohnin the Broadway revival ofAngels in America, Lane portrayedDonald Trumpas a liar and said: \"Really, what you learn is what learned from Roy Cohn: There are certain tactics that are very familiar, that Trump picked up from him. You know, always go on the attack. The counterattack. Hit the accuser ten times harder and deflect. Never admit defeat... outright lying if all else fails.\"Lane was an active supporter ofHillary ClintonandBarack Obamahosting fundraisers for theDemocratic Party. On November 17, 2015, he married his partner of 18 years, theater producer and writer Devlin Elliott.They live inManhattanandEast Hampton, New York. Acting credits Lane has had an extensive career in film, television, and in theater. He has appeared in such films asThe Lion King(1994),The Birdcage(1996),Mouse Hunt(1997),Nicholas Nickleby(2002), and the film adaptation of the Broadway musicalThe Producers(2005). He is also known for numerous guest roles includingFrasier,Mad About You,30 Rock,Absolutely Fabulous,Curb Your Enthusiasm,The Blacklistand recurring roles onModern FamilyandThe Good Wife. He has received critical praise for his roles asF. Lee Baileyin the limited seriesThe People v. O.J. Simpson(2016) and in the 2020 Showtime seriesPenny Dreadful: City of Angelsas Det. Lewis Michener. His roles in theatre range from musical comedies,Guys and Dolls(1992),A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum(1996),The Producers(2001) andThe Addams Family(2010) to dramatic roles in the work of Terrence McNally, Jon Robin Baitz, and Simon Gray as well as revivals and new plays such asThe Odd Couple(2005),November(2008),Waiting for Godot(2009),The Nance(2013),It's Only a Play(2015),The Iceman Cometh(2015),The Front Page(2016),Angels in America(2018),Gary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicus(2019), andPictures From Home(2023). Awards and honors Lane has received sixTony Awardnominations for his work onBroadway, winning three times forA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum(1996),The Producers(2001), andAngels in America(2018). Also for his work in theatre he has received sevenDrama Desk Awards, sixOuter Critics Circle Awards, twoObies, theLucille Lortel Award, theDrama League Awardfor Outstanding Achievement in Musical Theater, the Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance forThe Nance, theTheatre World John Willis Awardfor Lifetime Achievement in the Theater, theEugene O'Neill Monte Cristo Award, theNew Dramatists Career Achievement Award, the Sir Peter Ustinov Comedy Award, and theLaurence Olivier Award. In 2024 Lane received the Stephen Sondheim Award from theSignature Theatre Companyand theHarold S. Prince Award for Lifetime Achievementfrom theDrama Desk Awards. Lane has received twoGolden Globe Awardnominations forThe BirdcageandThe Producers, theNational Board of ReviewAward for Ensemble Acting forNicholas Nickleby,and twoScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations for Best Supporting Actor and for Best Performance by a Cast forThe Birdcage, winning the latter. For his work on television Lane has received eightPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations for guest starring roles onFrasier,Mad About You,Modern Family, andThe Good Wifeand won forOnly Murders in the Building. He received twoDaytime Emmy Awardsfor his voice work inTimon & PumbaaandTeacher's Pet, as well as a nomination forGeorge and Marthafor HBO. He has received thePeople's Choice Awardfor Favorite New Actor in a Comedy and anAmerican Comedy AwardforThe Birdcageas well as a nomination forJeffrey. See also References External links",
"List of awards and nominations received by Nathan Lane This article is aList of awards and nominations received by Nathan Lane. Nathan Laneis an American actor and comedian known for his roles on stage and screen. He has received several awards including threeTony Awards, sixDrama Desk Awards, threeEmmy Awards, and aScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as a nomination for twoGolden Globe Awards. Lane has received sixTony Awardnominations receiving three wins for his performances asPseudolusin theStephen Sondheimmusical comedyA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum(1996), Max Bialystock in theMel Brookssatirical musicalThe Producers(2001), andRoy CohninTony Kushnerepic playAngels in America(2018). Lane has received elevenDrama Desk Awardnominations receiving seven wins, which includes the Harold S. Prince Award for Lifetime Achievement, as well as twoObies, theLucille Lortel Awardand sixOuter Critics Circle Awards. He also won theLaurence Olivier Awardhis performance on theWest Endstage inThe Producersin London. For his film work he has received twoGolden Globe Awardnominations for his performances inMike Nichols'The Birdcage(1996) and the film adaptation of theMel BrooksBroadwaymusicalThe Producers.He received oneScreen Actors Guild Awardwinning for Outstanding Ensemble forThe Birdcage(1996) and theNational Board of ReviewAward, also winning for Outstanding Ensemble forNicholas Nickleby. For his work on television he has received Lane has also received various awards for his work on television including aPrimetime Emmy Award, and a record breaking eight nominations in the guest actor category. He won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor playing Teddy Dimas in theHulumystery-comedy seriesOnly Murders in the Buildingin 2022. He was Emmy-nominated for playing a thief inFrasier(1995), a former lover inMad About You(1998), and Pepper Saltzman inModern Family(2011-2014). He also received twoDaytime Emmy Awardsfor voicingTimoninTimon & Pumbaa(1996) andSpot Helperman / Scott Leadready IIinTeacher's Pet(2001). Major associations Emmy Awards Golden Globe Award Screen Actors Guild Award Olivier Awards Tony Awards Theatre awards Miscellaneous awards Honorary awards References",
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"Fleetwood Mac Fleetwood Macare a British-Americanrockband formed in London in 1967 by guitarist and singerPeter Green.Green recruited drummerMick Fleetwood, guitarist and singerJeremy Spencerand bassistBob Brunning, withJohn McViereplacing Brunning a few weeks after the band's first public appearance at the1967 National Jazz & Blues FestivalinWindsor. The band became a five-piece in 1968 with the addition of guitarist and singerDanny Kirwan. Primarily aBritish bluesband in their early years, Fleetwood Mac achieved a UK number-one single in 1968 with the instrumental \"Albatross\",and had other UK top ten hits with \"Man of the World\", \"Oh Well\" (both 1969), and \"The Green Manalishi (With the Two Prong Crown)\" (1970). Green left the band in May 1970, with McVie's wifeChristine McVie(who had previously contributed to the band as a session musician) joining as an official member on vocals and keyboards two months later. Spencer and Kirwan also left in 1971 and 1972 respectively, withBob Welchreplacing Spencer, andBob WestonandDave Walkerreplacing Kirwan. By the end of 1974, Weston and Walker had been dismissed and Welch had left, leaving the band without a guitarist or male vocalist. While Fleetwood was scouting studios in Los Angeles, he heard the American folk-rock duo Buckingham Nicks, consisting of guitarist and singerLindsey Buckinghamand singerStevie Nicks. In December 1974, he asked Buckingham to join Fleetwood Mac. Buckingham agreed on the condition that Nicks could also join. The addition of Buckingham and Nicks gave the band a morepop rocksound and their 1975 albumFleetwood Mactopped theBillboard200chart in the United States. Their next album,Rumours(1977), produced four U.S. Top 10 singles and remained at number one on theBillboard200 for 31 weeks. It also reached the top spot in countries around the world and won theGrammy Award for Album of the Yearin 1978.Rumourshas sold more than 40 million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling albums in history. Although each member of the band went through a breakup (John and Christine McVie, Buckingham and Nicks, and Fleetwood and his wifeJenny Boyd) while recording the album, they continued to write and record together. The line-up remained stable through three more studio albums, but by the late 1980s began to disintegrate. After Buckingham left in 1987, he was replaced byBilly BurnetteandRick Vito, although Vito left in 1990 along with Nicks. A 1993 one-off performance for thefirst inauguration of President Bill Clintonreunited the classic 1974–1987 line-up for the first time in six years. A full-scale reunion took place four years later, and Fleetwood Mac released their fourth U.S. No. 1 album,The Dance(1997), a live album marking the 20th anniversary ofRumoursand the band's 30th anniversary. Christine McVie left in 1998 after the completion of The Dance tour. Fleetwood Mac released their final studio album,Say You Will, in 2003. Christine McVie rejoined in 2014 and joined them for theirOn With the Show Tour. In 2018, Buckingham was firedand replaced byMike Campbell, formerly ofTom Petty and the Heartbreakers, andNeil FinnofSplit EnzandCrowded House. After Christine McVie's death in 2022, Nicks said in 2024 that the band would not continue without her. Fleetwood Mac have sold more than 120 million records worldwide, making them one of theworld's best-selling bands. In 1979, they were honoured with a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame. In 1998, they were inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameand received theBrit Awardfor Outstanding Contribution to Music.In 2018, Fleetwood Mac received theMusiCares Person of the Yearaward fromthe Recording Academyin recognition of their artistic achievement in themusic industryand dedication tophilanthropy. History 1967–1970: Formation and early years Fleetwood Mac were formed in July 1967 in London, England, byPeter Greenafter he left theBritish bluesbandJohn Mayall & the Bluesbreakers. Green had previously replaced guitaristEric Claptonin the Bluesbreakersand had received critical acclaim for his work on their albumA Hard Road. Green had been in two bands withMick Fleetwood,Peter B's Loonersand the subsequentShotgun Express(which featured a youngRod Stewartas vocalist),and suggested Fleetwood as a replacement for drummerAynsley Dunbarwhen Dunbar left the Bluesbreakers to jointhe Jeff Beck Group.John Mayallagreed and Fleetwood joined the Bluesbreakers. The Bluesbreakers then consisted of Green, Fleetwood,John McVieand Mayall. Mayall gave Green free recording time as a gift, which Fleetwood, McVie and Green used to record five songs. The fifth song was an instrumental that Green named after the rhythm section, \"Fleetwood Mac\" (\"Mac\" being short for McVie). Soon after this, Green suggested to Fleetwood that they form a new band. The pair wanted McVie on bass guitar and named the band \"Fleetwood Mac\" to entice him, but McVie opted to keep his steady income with Mayall rather than take a risk with a new band. In the meantime, Green and Fleetwood teamed up with slide guitaristJeremy Spencerand bassistBob Brunning. Brunning was in the band on the understanding that he would leave if McVie agreed to join.The band made its debut on Sunday 13 August 1967 at theNational Jazz and Blues Festival(a forerunner ofthe Reading Festival), billed as \"Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac featuring Jeremy Spencer\". Brunning played only a few gigs with Fleetwood Mac.Within a few weeks of their first show, John McVie agreed to join the band as permanent bassist. Fleetwood Mac'sself-titled debut albumwas released by theBlue Horizonlabel in February 1968. The song \"Long Grey Mare\" was recorded earlier with Brunning on bass, while the rest of the album was recorded with McVie.The album was successful in the UK and reached no. 4, although no tracks were released as singles. Later in the year, the singles \"Black Magic Woman\" (later a big hit when covered bySantana) and \"Need Your Love So Bad\" were released, both going top-forty in the UK. The band's second studio album,Mr. Wonderful, was released in August 1968. The album was recorded live in the studio with miked amplifiers and a PA system, rather than being plugged into the board.The sessions featured ahorn sectionas well as friend of the band,Christine PerfectofChicken Shack, on keyboards.Later that year, Chicken Shack would score a British hit with a cover of theEtta Jamesclassic \"I'd Rather Go Blind\", with Perfect on lead vocal. Perfect was voted female artist of the year byMelody Makerin 1969 and 1970. Shortly after the release ofMr. Wonderful, 18-year-old guitaristDanny Kirwanjoined the band, making Fleetwood Mac a five-piece band with three guitarists. Kirwan was in the South London blues trio Boilerhouse with Trevor Stevens (bass) and Dave Terrey (drums).Green and Fleetwood had watched Boilerhouse rehearse in a basement boiler-room, and Green had been so impressed that he invited the band to play support slots for Fleetwood Mac. Green wanted Boilerhouse to become a professional band, but Stevens and Terrey were not prepared to turn professional, so Green tried to find another rhythm section for Kirwan by placing an ad inMelody Maker. There were over 300 applicants, but when Green and Fleetwood ran auditions at the Nag's Head in Battersea (home of theMike Vernon'sBlue HorizonClub) the hard-to-please Green could not find anyone good enough. Instead, Fleetwood invited Kirwan to join Fleetwood Mac as a third guitarist. Green was frustrated that Jeremy Spencer did not contribute to his songs. Kirwan, a talented self-taught guitarist, had a signature vibrato and a unique style that added a new dimension to the band's sound.In November 1968, with Kirwan in the band, they released their first number-one single in Europe, \"Albatross\", an instrumental with lead guitar by both Green and Kirwan.Green said later that the success of \"Albatross\" was thanks to Kirwan: \"If it wasn't for Danny, I would never have had a number one hit record.\"In January 1969, they released their first compilation albumEnglish Rose, which contained half ofMr. Wonderfulplus new songs from Kirwan. Their next and more successful compilation albumThe Pious Bird of Good Omenwas released in August and contained various singles, B-sides and tracks the band had recorded as back-up forEddie Boyd. On tour in the US in January 1969, the band recordedFleetwood Mac in Chicago(released in December as a double album) at the soon-to-closeChess RecordsStudio with some of the blues legends of Chicago, includingWillie Dixon,Buddy GuyandOtis Spann.These were Fleetwood Mac's last all-blues recordings, with the band moving more towards rock. Along with the change of style, the band was also going through label changes. Until that point, they had been on the Blue Horizon label, but with Kirwan in the band the musical possibilities had become too diverse for a blues-only label.The band signed withImmediate Recordsand released the single \"Man of the World\", which became another British and European hit. For the B-side, Spencer fronted Fleetwood Mac as \"Earl Vince and the Valiants\" and recorded \"Somebody's Gonna Get Their Head Kicked In Tonite\", typifying the more raucous rock 'n' roll side of the band. Immediate Records was in bad shape however, so the band shopped around for a new deal.The Beatleswanted the band onApple Records(Mick Fleetwood andGeorge Harrisonwere brothers-in-law), but the band's managerClifford Davisdecided to go withWarner Bros. Records(throughReprise Records, aFrank Sinatra-founded label), the label they have stayed with ever since. Under the wing of Reprise, Fleetwood Mac released their third studio album,Then Play On, in September 1969.Although the initial pressing of the American release of this album was the same as the British version, it was altered to contain the song \"Oh Well\", which featured consistently in live performances from the time of its release through 1997 and again starting in 2009.Then Play On, which saw the band broaden their style away from straight blues, was written by Kirwan and Green, plus a track each by Fleetwood and McVie.Jeremy Spencer, meanwhile, had recordeda solo albumof 1950s-style rock and roll songs, backed by the rest of the band except Green. By 1969, Green was usingLSD. During a European tour towards the end of that year, he experienced a bad acid trip at a hippie commune in Munich. Clifford Davis, the band's manager, singled out this incident as the crucial point in Green's mental decline.He said: \"The truth about Peter Green and how he ended up how he did is very simple. We were touring Europe in late 1969. When we were in Germany, Peter told me he had been invited to a party. I knew there were going to be a lot of drugs around and I suggested that he didn't go. But he went anyway and I understand from him that he took what turned out to be very bad, impure LSD. He was never the same again.\"German author and filmmakerRainer Langhansstated in his autobiography that he and his then-girlfriend, modelUschi Obermaier, met Green in Munich and invited him to their Highfisch-Kommune, where the drinks were spiked with acid.Langhans and Obermaier were planning to organise an open-air \"Bavarian Woodstock\", for which they wantedJimi HendrixandThe Rolling Stonesto be the main acts. Already in contact with Hendrix, they hoped Green would help them to get in contact with The Rolling Stones. Green's last studio recording with Fleetwood Mac was \"The Green Manalishi (With the Two Prong Crown)\" and its B-side, \"World in Harmony\". The tracks were recorded at Warner-Reprise's studios in Hollywood on the band's third US tour in April 1970, a few weeks before Green left the band.Released as a single the following month, it made No. 10 in the UK. Prior to its studio recording, the band had played the song live at theBoston Tea Partyin February 1970. Some recordings of the three Boston Tea Party gigs (5–7 February 1970) were eventually released in the 1980s as theLive in Bostonalbum. A more complete remastered three-volume compilation of these shows was released bySnapper Musicin the late 1990s.\"Green Manalishi\" was released as Green's mental stability deteriorated. He wanted the band to give all their money to charity, but the other members of the band disagreed.In April 1970, Green decided to quit the band after the completion of their European tour.His last show with Fleetwood Mac was on 20 May 1970. During that show, the band went past their allotted time and the power was shut off, although Mick Fleetwood kept drumming. 1970–1973: Transitional era The remaining four members, Fleetwood, McVie, Spencer and Kirwan, set about working on their next album. In September 1970, Fleetwood Mac released their fourth studio album,Kiln House, to generally positive reviews.Kirwan's songs on the album moved the band in a melodic rock direction, while Spencer's contributions focused on re-creating the country-tinged \"Sun Sound\" of the late 1950s.Christine Perfect, now Christine McVie following her marriage to John McVie, had retired from the music business after one unsuccessful solo album, though she contributed (uncredited) toKiln House, singing backup vocals and playing keyboards. She also drew the album cover.AfterKiln House, Fleetwood Mac were progressing and developing a new sound, and she was invited to join the band to help fill in the rhythm section.The first time she had played live with the band had been a guest appearance atBristol University, England, in May 1969, just as she was leaving Chicken Shack,while her first gig as an official member of the band was on 1 August 1970 inNew Orleans, Louisiana.In early 1971, the band released a non-album single, Danny Kirwan's \"Dragonfly\" b/w \"The Purple Dancer\" in the UK and certain European countries, but despite good notices in the press, it was not a success. In 1971,CBS Records, which now owned Fleetwood Mac's original record company Blue Horizon (except in the US and Canada), released the band's third compilation album,The Original Fleetwood Mac, containing previously unreleased material from 1967 and 1968. While on a US tour in February 1971, Jeremy Spencer said he was going out to \"get a magazine\" but never returned. After several days of frantic searching, the band discovered that Spencer had joined a religious group, theChildren of God.The band were liable for the remaining shows on the tour and asked Peter Green to step in as a replacement. Green brought along his friendNigel Watson, who played thecongas(twenty-five years later Green and Watson collaborated again to form thePeter Green Splinter Group), and insisted on playing only new material and none he had written. Green and Watson played the last week of the tour, with a show in San Bernardino on 20 February 1971 being recorded. Green did not want to re-join the band permanently and a search for a guitarist to replace Spencer began after the tour was completed. In the summer of 1971, the band held auditions for a replacement guitarist at their large country home, \"Benifold\", which they had jointly bought with their manager Davis for £23,000 (equivalent to £449,400 in 2023) prior to theKiln Housetour.A friend of the band, Judy Wong, recommended her high school friendBob Welch, who was living in Paris, France, at the time. The band held a few meetings with Welch and decided to hire him, without actually playing with him, after they heard a tape of his songs. In September 1971, the band released their fifth studio album,Future Games. As a result of Welch's arrival and Spencer's departure, the album was different from anything they had done previously, with the band moving further away from their blues rock roots towards a more melodic rock style, and vocal harmonies starting to become a key part of their sound. While it became the band's first studio album to miss the charts in the UK, it helped to expand the band's appeal in the United States. In Europe, CBS released Fleetwood Mac's firstGreatest Hitsalbum in late 1971. In 1972, six months after the release ofFuture Games, the band released their sixth studio album,Bare Trees. Mostly composed by Kirwan,Bare Treesfeatured the Welch-penned single \"Sentimental Lady\", which would be a much bigger hit for Welch five years later when he re-recorded it for his solo albumFrench Kiss, backed by Mick Fleetwood and Christine McVie.Bare Treesalso featured \"Spare Me a Little of Your Love\", a Christine McVie song that became a staple of the band's live act throughout the early to mid-1970s. While the band was doing well in the studio, their tours started to be problematic. By 1972, Kirwan had developed an alcohol dependency and was becoming alienated from Welch and the McVies. In August 1972, before a concert on a US tour, Kirwan smashed his GibsonLes Paul Customguitar and refused to go on stage. The band played the show as a quartet, after which Kirwan criticised their performance, and he was subsequently fired from the band.Fleetwood said later that the pressure had become too much for Kirwan, and he had suffered a breakdown. Following Kirwan's departure, the band recruited guitaristBob Westonand vocalistDave Walker, the latter formerly ofSavoy BrownandIdle Race.Bob Weston was well known as a slide guitarist and had known the band from his touring period withLong John Baldry. Fleetwood Mac also hired Savoy Brown's road manager, John Courage. Fleetwood, the McVies, Welch, Weston and Walker recorded the band's seventh studio album,Penguin, which was released in January 1973. After the subsequent tour the band fired Walker because they felt his vocal and performance style did not fit well with the rest of the band. The remaining five members carried on and recorded the band's eighth studio album,Mystery to Me, six months later. This album contained Welch's song \"Hypnotized\", which received airplay on the radio. WhileMystery to Meeventually received a Gold certification from theRIAA, personal problems within the band emerged. The McVies' marriage was under a lot of stress, which was aggravated by their constant working with each other and by John McVie's considerablealcohol abuse. In 1973, Weston had an affair with Fleetwood's wifeJenny Boyd, sister ofGeorge Harrison's first wifePattie Boyd. Fleetwood found out two weeks into a US tour. His devastation led to the band firing Weston and cancelling the remaining 26 dates of the tour.The last date played wasLincoln, Nebraska, on 20 October 1973.In a late-night meeting after that show, the band told their sound engineer that the tour was over and Fleetwood Mac was splitting up. 1973–1974: Name dispute and \"fake Fleetwood Mac\" In late 1973, after the collapse of the US tour, the band's manager,Clifford Davis, was left with major touring commitments to fulfill and no band.Fleetwood Mac had \"temporarily disbanded\" in Nebraska and its members had gone their separate ways.Davis was concerned that failing to complete the tour would destroy his reputation with bookers and promoters.He sent the band a letter in which he said he \"hadn't slaved for years to be brought down by the whims of irresponsible musicians\".Davis claimed that he owned the name 'Fleetwood Mac' and the right to choose the band members.He recruited members of the band Legs, which had recently issued one single under Davis's management,to tour the US in early 1974under the name \"The New Fleetwood Mac\"and perform the rescheduled dates. This band—who former vocalist Dave Walker said were \"very good\"—consisted ofElmer Gantry(Dave Terry, formerly ofVelvet Opera: vocals, guitar),Kirby Gregory(formerly ofCurved Air: guitar),Paul Martinez(formerly of theDownliners Sect: bass), John Wilkinson (also known as Dave Wilkinson:keyboards) and Australian drummer Craig Collinge (formerly ofManfred Mann Chapter Three,The Librettos,ProcessionandThird World War).The members of this group were told that Mick Fleetwood would join them on the tour to validate the use of the name.Fleetwood said later that he had not agreed to be part of the tour. The \"New Fleetwood Mac\" tour began on 16 January 1974 at theSyria MosqueinPittsburgh, Pennsylvania,and was initially successful. One of the band members said the first concert \"went down a storm\".The promoter was dubious at first but said later that the crowd had loved the band and they were \"actually really good\".More successful gigs followed, but then word got around that this was not the real Fleetwood Mac and audiences became hostile. The band was turned away from several gigs and the next six shows were pulled by promoters. The band struggled on and played further dates in the face of increasing hostility and heckling. More dates were pulled, the keyboard player quit, and after a concert inEdmontonwhere bottles were thrown at the stage, the tour collapsed. The band dissolved and the remainder of the tour was cancelled. Thelawsuitthat followed regarding who owned the rights to the name \"Fleetwood Mac\" put the real Fleetwood Mac on hiatus for almost a year. Although the band was named after Mick Fleetwood and John McVie, they had apparently signed contracts in which they had forfeited the rights to the name.Their record company,Warner Bros. Records, when appealed to, said they did not know who owned it.The dispute was eventually settled out of court, four years later, in what was described as \"a reasonable settlement not unfair to either party\".In later years Fleetwood said that, in the end, he was grateful to Davis because the lawsuit was the reason the band moved to California. Nobody from the alternative line-up was ever made a part of the real Fleetwood Mac, although some of them later played in Danny Kirwan's studio band. Gantry and Gregory went on to become members ofStretch, whose 1975 UK hit single \"Why Did You Do It?\" was written about the touring debacle.Gantry later collaborated with theAlan Parsons Project. Martinez went on to play with theDeep PurpleoffshootPaice Ashton Lord,as well asRobert Plant's backing band. 1974: Return of the authentic Fleetwood Mac While the fake Fleetwood Mac were on tour, Welch stayed in Los Angeles and connected with entertainment attorneys. He realised that Fleetwood Mac was being neglected by Warner Bros and that they would need to change their base of operation from England to America, to which the rest of the band agreed. The presence of a false Fleetwood Mac had also confused matters. Rock promoterBill Grahamwrote a letter to Warner Bros to convince them that the real Fleetwood Mac was Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie, and Bob Welch. This did not end the legal battle, but the band was able to record as Fleetwood Mac again.Instead of hiring another manager, Fleetwood Mac, having re-formed, became the only major rock band managed by the artists themselves. In September 1974, Fleetwood Mac signed a new recording contract with Warner Bros, but remained on the Reprise label. In the same month, the band released their ninth studio album,Heroes Are Hard to Find. This was the first time Fleetwood Mac had only one guitarist. While on tour, they briefly added a second keyboardist, Doug Graves, who had been an engineer onHeroes Are Hard to Find. In 1980, Christine McVie said Graves had been there to back her up, but after the first two or three concerts it was decided that she was better off without him: \"The band wanted me to expand my role and have a little more freedom, but he didn't play the same way I did.\"Keyboard player Robert (\"Bobby\") Hunt, who had been in the band Head West with Bob Welch in 1970, replaced Graves for the remaining dates on the tour but was not invited to join the band full time. By the time the tour ended (on 5 December 1974 at Cal State University), theHeroesalbum had reached a higher position on the American charts than any of the band's previous records. 1974–1987: Addition of Buckingham and Nicks, and global success In Bob Welch's words, following theHeroes are Hard to Findtour, \"the buzz that theMystery to Meband had started to create... gone. I totally exhausted by writing, singing, touring, negotiating, moving, and frankly so Mick, John and Chris. We werealldiscouraged thatHeroes done better. Something needs to change, but what? … There was also a kind of fatigue, anger and bitterness that all the work we had done hadn't really paid off and we were just all sort of shaking our heads saying 'what do we do now' … Everybody knew that we had to find some new creative juice.\"Welch himself had grown tired of the constant struggles to keep Fleetwood Mac functioning and was openly considering leaving the band. Whilst Fleetwood was checking outSound City Studiosin Los Angeles during the autumn of 1974, the house engineer,Keith Olsen, played him a track he had recorded, \"Frozen Love\", from the albumBuckingham Nicks(1973).Fleetwood liked it and was introduced to the guitarist from the band,Lindsey Buckingham, who was at Sound City that day recording demos.Fleetwood asked him to join Fleetwood Mac, and Buckingham agreed, on the condition that his music partner and girlfriend,Stevie Nicks, be included. Welch considered remaining as part of this extended lineup but opted to depart for a solo career. Buckingham and Nicks joined the band on New Year's Eve 1974. In 1975, the new line-up released their first album together, the self-titledFleetwood Mac, the band's tenth studio album overall. The album was a breakthrough for the band and became a huge hit, reaching No. 1 in the US and selling over 7 million copies. Among the hit singles from this album were Christine McVie's \"Over My Head\" and \"Say You Love Me\" and Stevie Nicks' \"Rhiannon\", as well as the much-played album track \"Landslide\", a live rendition of which became a hit twenty years later onThe Dancealbum. In 1976, the band was suffering from severe stress. With success came the end of John and Christine McVie's marriage, as well as Buckingham and Nicks's long-term romantic relationship. Fleetwood, meanwhile, was in the midst of divorce proceedings from his wife, Jenny, and had also begun an affair with Nicks.The pressure on Fleetwood Mac to release a successful follow-up album, combined with their new-found wealth, led to creative and personal tensions which were allegedly fuelled by high consumption of drugs and alcohol. The band's eleventh studio album,Rumours(the band's first release on the main Warner label after Reprise was retired and all of its acts were reassigned to the parent label), was released in February 1977. In this album, the band members laid bare the emotional turmoil they were experiencing at the time.Rumourswas critically acclaimed and won theGrammy Award for Album of the Yearin 1977. The album generated four top-ten singles: Buckingham's \"Go Your Own Way\", Nicks' US No. 1 \"Dreams\", and Christine McVie's \"Don't Stop\" and \"You Make Loving Fun\". Buckingham's \"Second Hand News\", Nicks' \"Gold Dust Woman\", and \"The Chain\" (the only song written by all five band members) also received significant radio airplay. By 2003,Rumourshad sold over 19 million copies in the US alone (certified as adiamond albumby theRIAA) and a total of 40 million copies worldwide, bringing it to eighth on thelist of best-selling albums. Fleetwood Mac supported the album with a lucrative tour. On 10 October 1979, Fleetwood Mac were honoured for their contributions to the music industry with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6608Hollywood Boulevard. Buckingham convinced Fleetwood to let his work on their next album be more experimental and to be allowed to work on tracks at home before bringing them to the rest of the band in the studio. The result of this, the band's twelfth studio albumTusk, was a 20-track double album released in 1979. It produced three hit singles: Buckingham's \"Tusk\" (US No. 8), which featured theUSC Trojan Marching Band; Christine McVie's \"Think About Me\" (US No. 20); and Nicks' six-and-a-half minute opus \"Sara\" (US No. 7). \"Sara\" was cut to four-and-a-half minutes for both the single and the first CD release of the album in the 1980s, but the full version has since been restored on the 1988Greatest Hits, the 199225 Years – The Chainbox set, 2002'sThe Very Best of Fleetwood Mac, and the 2004 remaster ofTusk. Original guitarist Peter Green also took part in the sessions ofTusk, although his playing on the Christine McVie track \"Brown Eyes\", is not credited on the album.In an interview in 2019, Fleetwood describedTuskas his \"personal favourite\" and said, \"Kudos to Lindsey … for us not doing a replica ofRumours.\" Tusksold four million copies worldwide. Fleetwood blamed the album's relative lack of commercial success on theRKOradio chain having played the album in its entirety prior to release, thereby allowing mass home taping. The band embarked on an 11-month tour to support and promoteTusk. They travelled around the world, including the US, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In Germany, they shared the bill with reggae musicianBob Marley.On this world tour, the band recorded music fortheir first live album, which was released at the end of 1980. The band's thirteenth studio album,Mirage, was released in 1982. Following 1981 solo albums by Nicks (Bella Donna), Fleetwood (The Visitor), and Buckingham (Law and Order), there was a return to a more conventional approach. Buckingham had been chided by critics, fellow band members, and music business managers for the lesser commercial success ofTusk. Recorded atChâteau d'Hérouvillein France and produced byRichard Dashut,Miragewas an attempt to recapture the huge success ofRumours. Its hits included Christine McVie's \"Hold Me\" and \"Love in Store\" (co-written byRobbie Pattonand Jim Recor, respectively), Nicks' \"Gypsy\", and Buckingham's \"Oh Diane\", which made the Top 10 in the UK. A minor hit was also scored by Buckingham's \"Can't Go Back\". In contrast to theTusk Tour, the band embarked on only a short tour of 18 American cities, with the Los Angeles show being recorded and released on video. They also headlined the firstUS Festival, on 5 September 1982, for which the band was paid $500,000 (equivalent to $1,579,000 in 2024).Miragewas certified double platinum in the US. FollowingMiragethe band went on hiatus, which allowed members to pursue solo careers. Nicks released two more solo albums (1983'sThe Wild Heartand 1985'sRock a Little). Buckingham issuedGo Insanein 1984, the same year that Christine McVie made aneponymous album(yielding the Top 10 hit \"Got a Hold on Me\" and the Top 40 hit \"Love Will Show Us How\"). All three became successful in their solo efforts, with Nicks being the most popular. During this period, Fleetwood had filed for bankruptcy, Nicks was admitted to theBetty Ford Clinicfor addiction problems, and John McVie had suffered an addiction-related seizure – all of which were attributed to the lifestyle of excess afforded to them by their worldwide success. It was rumoured that Fleetwood Mac had disbanded, but Buckingham commented that he was unhappy at allowingMirageto remain the band's last effort. The lineup featuring Fleetwood, the McVies, Buckingham, and Nicks recorded one more album, their fourteenth studio album,Tango in the Night, in 1987. The recording started off as a Buckingham solo album before becoming a full group project. The album went on to become their best-selling release sinceRumours, especially in the UK where it hit No. 1 three times in the following year. The album sold three million copies in the US and contained four hits: Christine McVie's \"Little Lies\" and \"Everywhere\" (\"Little Lies\" being co-written with her new husband, Eddy Quintela),Sandy Stewartand Nicks' \"Seven Wonders\", and Buckingham's \"Big Love\". \"Family Man\" (Buckingham andRichard Dashut) and \"Isn't It Midnight\" (Christine McVie) were also released as singles. 1987–1995: Departures of Buckingham and Nicks With a ten-week tour scheduled, Buckingham held back at the last minute, saying he felt his creativity was being stifled. A group meeting at Christine McVie's house on 7 August 1987 resulted in turmoil. Tensions were coming to a head. Fleetwood said in his autobiography that there was a physical altercation between Buckingham and Nicks. Buckingham left the band the following day.After Buckingham's departure, Fleetwood Mac added two new guitarists to the band,Billy BurnetteandRick Vito, again without auditions. Burnette was the son ofDorsey Burnetteand nephew ofJohnny Burnette, both ofThe Rock and Roll Trio. He had already worked with Fleetwood in Zoo, with Christine McVie as part of her solo band, had done some session work with Nicks, and backed Buckingham onSaturday Night Live. Fleetwood and Christine McVie had played on hisTry Mealbum in 1985. Vito, a Peter Green admirer, had played with many artists fromBonnie Raittto John Mayall, toRoger McGuinninThunderbyrdand worked with John McVie on two Mayall albums. The 1987–88 \"Shake the Cage\" tour was the first outing for this line-up. It was successful enough to warrant the release of a concert video, also titledTango in the Night, which was filmed at San Francisco'sCow Palacearena in December 1987. Capitalising on the success of theTango in the Nightalbum, the band released aGreatest Hitsalbum in 1988. It featured singles from the 1975–1988 era and included two new compositions, \"No Questions Asked\" written by Nicks and Kelly Johnston, and \"As Long as You Follow\", written by Christine McVie and Quintela. 'As Long as You Follow' was released as a single in 1988 but only made No. 43 in the US and No. 66 in the UK, although it reached No.1 on the US Adult Contemporary charts. TheGreatest Hitsalbum, which peaked at No. 3 in the UK and No. 14 in the US (though it has since sold over 8 million copies there) was dedicated by the band to Buckingham, with whom they were now reconciled. In 1990, Fleetwood Mac released their fifteenth studio album,Behind the Mask. With this album, the band veered away from the stylised sound that Buckingham had evolved during his tenure (which was also evident in his solo work) and developed a moreadult contemporarystyle with producerGreg Ladanyi. The album yielded only one Top 40 hit, Christine McVie's \"Save Me\".Behind the Maskonly achievedGoldalbum status in the US, peaking at No. 18 on theBillboardalbum chart, though it entered the UK Albums Chart at No. 1. It received mixed reviews and was seen by some music critics as a low point for the band in the absence of Buckingham (who had actually made a guest appearance playing on the title track). ButRolling Stonemagazine said that Vito and Burnette were \"the best thing to ever happen to Fleetwood Mac\".The subsequent \"Behind the Mask\" tour saw the band play sold-out shows at London's Wembley Stadium. In the final show in Los Angeles, Buckingham joined the band onstage. The two women of the band, McVie and Nicks, had decided that the tour would be their last (McVie's father had died during the tour), although both stated that they would still record with the band. In 1991, however, Nicks and Rick Vito left Fleetwood Mac altogether. In 1992, Fleetwood arranged a 4-CD box set, spanning highlights from the band's 25-year history, entitled25 Years – The Chain(a cut-down 2-CD box set,Selections from 25 Years – The Chain, was also released). A notable inclusion in the box set was \"Silver Springs\", a Nicks composition that was recorded during theRumourssessions but was omitted from the album and used as the B-side of \"Go Your Own Way\". Nicks had requested use of this track for her 1991 best-of compilationTimeSpace, but Fleetwood had refused as he had planned to include it in this collection as a rarity.The disagreement between Nicks and Fleetwood garnered press coverage and was believed to have been the main reason for Nicks leaving the band in 1991.The box set also included a new Nicks/Vito composition, \"Paper Doll\", which was released in the US as a single and produced by Buckingham and Richard Dashut.There were also two new Christine McVie compositions, \"Heart of Stone\" and\"Love Shines\". \"Love Shines\" was released as a single in the UK and elsewhere. Buckingham also contributed a new song, \"Make Me a Mask\". Fleetwood also released a deluxe hardcover companion book to coincide with the release of the box set, titledMy 25 Years in Fleetwood Mac. The volume featured notes written by Fleetwood detailing the band's 25-year history and many rare photographs. The classic 1974–1987 line-up reunited in 1993 at the request of US PresidentBill Clintonfor his firstInaugural Ball. Clinton had made Fleetwood Mac's \"Don't Stop\" his campaign theme song. His request for it to be performed at the Inauguration Ball was met with enthusiasm by the band, although this line-up had no intention of reuniting permanently. Inspired by the new interest in the band, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie, and Billy Burnette recorded another album as Fleetwood Mac, withBekka Bramlett, who had worked a year earlier with Fleetwood's Zoo, joining the band. Solo singer-songwriter/guitarist and originalTrafficmemberDave Mason, who had worked with Bekka's parentsDelaney & Bonnietwenty-five years earlier, was also added. Although she remained an official band member and would be part of the next studio album, Christine McVie chose to take a break from touring around this time. The other five members (Fleetwood, J. McVie, Burnette, Bramlett and Mason) toured in 1994, opening forCrosby, Stills, & Nash, and in 1995 as part of a package withREO SpeedwagonandPat Benatar.This tour saw the band perform classic Fleetwood Mac songs spanning the band's whole history to that point. In 1995, at a concert in Tokyo, the band was greeted by former member Jeremy Spencer, who performed a few songs with them. On 10 October 1995, Fleetwood Mac released their sixteenth studio album,Time, which was not a success. Although it hit the UK Top 50 for one week, the album had zero impact in the US. It failed to graze theBillboardTop 200 albums chart, a reversal for a band that had been a mainstay on that chart for most of the previous two decades. Shortly after the album's release, Christine McVie informed the band that the album would be her last. Bramlett and Burnette subsequently formed acountry musicduo,Bekka & Billy. 1995–2007: Reformation, reunion, and Christine McVie's departure Just weeks after disbanding Fleetwood Mac, Mick Fleetwood started working with Lindsey Buckingham again. John McVie was added to the sessions, and later Christine McVie. Stevie Nicks also enlisted Buckingham to produce a song for a soundtrack. In May 1996, Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie, and Nicks performed together at a private party inLouisville, Kentucky, prior to theKentucky Derby, withSteve Winwoodfilling in for Buckingham. A week later, theTwisterfilm soundtrack was released, which featured the Nicks-Buckingham duet \"Twisted\", with Fleetwood on drums. This eventually led to a full reunion of theRumoursline-up, which officially reformed in March 1997. The regrouped Fleetwood Mac performed a live concert on a soundstage atWarner Bros.Burbank, California, on 22 May 1997. The reconvening of this lineup spurred from Buckingham asking Fleetwood to contribute to a solo album he had been working on; he subsequently brought other members of the band to participate.Buckingham said in an interview withMojo magazineregarding the five of them coming together again that their \"chemistry was very present\".The concert was recorded and filmed, and from this performance came the 1997 live album and videoThe Dance, which brought the band back to the top of the US album charts for the first time in ten years. In addition to live performances of their most notable songs, the album also featured new songs including \"Bleed to Love Her\" and \"Temporary One\".The album was certified five million units by theRIAA.An arena tour followed theMTVpremiere ofThe Dancevideo and kept the reunited Fleetwood Mac on the road throughout much of 1997, the 20th anniversary ofRumours. With additional musicians Neale Heywood on guitar, Brett Tuggle on keyboards, Lenny Castro on percussion and Sharon Celani (who had toured with the band in the late 1980s) and Mindy Stein on backing vocals, this would be the final appearance of the classic line-up including Christine McVie for 16 years. Neale Heywood and Sharon Celani remain touring members to this day. In 1998 Fleetwood Mac were inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Members inducted included the 1968–1970 band, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Peter Green, Jeremy Spencer, and Danny Kirwan, andRumours-era members Christine McVie, Stevie Nicks, and Lindsey Buckingham. Bob Welch was not included, despite his key role in keeping the band alive during the early 1970s. TheRumours-era version of the band performed both at the induction ceremony and at the Grammy Awards programme that year. Peter Green attended the induction ceremony but did not perform with his former bandmates, opting instead to perform his composition \"Black Magic Woman\" withSantana, who were inducted the same night. Neither Jeremy Spencer nor Danny Kirwan attended. Fleetwood Mac also received the \"Outstanding Contribution to Music\" award at theBrit Awards(British Phonographic Industry Awards) the same year. Shortly after this, Christine McVie officially left the band. 2002 saw the release ofThe Very Best of Fleetwood Mac, issued as a 21-track single CD in the UK and a 40-track double CD in the US. Christine McVie's departure left Buckingham and Nicks as the two singer-songwriters on the band's seventeenth studio album,Say You Will, released in 2003 (although Christine contributed some backing vocals and keyboards as a guest). The album debuted at No.3 on theBillboard200 chart (No. 6 in the UK) and yielded chart hits with \"Peacekeeper\" and the title track, and a successful world arena tour which lasted through 2004. The tour grossed $27,711,129 and was ranked No. 21 in the top 25 grossing tours of 2004. Around 2004–05 there were rumours of a reunion of the early line-up of Fleetwood Mac involving Peter Green and Jeremy Spencer. While these two apparently remained unconvinced,in April 2006 bassist John McVie, during a question-and-answer session on thePenguinFleetwood Mac fan website, said of the reunion idea: If we could get Peter and Jeremy to do it, I'd probably, maybe, do it. I know Mick would do it in a flash. Unfortunately, I don't think there's much chance of Danny doing it. Bless his heart. In interviews given in November 2006 to support his solo albumUnder the Skin, Buckingham stated that plans for the band to reunite once more for a 2008 tour were still in the cards. Recording plans had been put on hold for the foreseeable future. In an interview Nicks gave to the UK newspaperThe Daily Telegraphin September 2007, she stated that she was unwilling to carry on with the band unless Christine McVie returned. 2008–2013: Touring activity In March 2008, it was mooted thatSheryl Crowmight work with Fleetwood Mac in 2009. Crow and Stevie Nicks had collaborated in the past and Crow had stated that Nicks had been a great teacher and inspiration to her.Later, Buckingham said that the potential collaboration with Crow had \"lost its momentum\"and the idea was abandoned. In March 2009, Fleetwood Mac started their \"Unleashed\" tour, again without Christine McVie. It was a greatest hits show, although album tracks such as \"Storms\" and \"I Know I'm Not Wrong\" were also played. During their show on 20 June 2009 inNew Orleans, Louisiana, Stevie Nicks premiered part of a new song that she had written aboutHurricane Katrina.The song was later released as \"New Orleans\" on Nicks's 2011 albumIn Your Dreamswith Mick Fleetwood on drums. In October 2009 and November, the band toured Europe, followed by Australia and New Zealand in December. In October, 2002'sThe Very Best of Fleetwood Macwas re-released in the UK, this time using the US 2-CD track listing, entering at number six on the UK Albums Chart. On 1 November 2009 a one-hour documentary,Fleetwood Mac: Don't Stop, was broadcast in the UK onBBC One, featuring recent interviews with all four current band members.During the documentary, Nicks gave a candid summary of the current state of her relationship with Buckingham, saying, \"Maybe when we're 75 and Fleetwood Mac is a distant memory, we might be friends.\" On 6 November 2009, Fleetwood Mac played the last show of the European leg of theirUnleashedtour at London'sWembley Arena. Christine McVie was in the audience. Nicks paid tribute to her from the stage to a standing ovation from the audience, saying that she thought about her former bandmate \"every day\", and dedicated that night's performance of \"Landslide\" to her. On 19 December 2009, Fleetwood Mac played the second-to-last show of theirUnleashedtour to a sell-out crowd in New Zealand, at what was intended to be a one-off event at theTSB Bowl of Brooklandsin New Plymouth. Tickets, after pre-sales, sold out within twelve minutes of public release. Another date, Sunday 20 December, was addedand also sold out. The tour grossed $84,900,000 and was ranked No. 13 in the highest grossing worldwide tours of 2009. On 19 October 2010, Fleetwood Mac played a private show at the Phoenician Hotel inScottsdale, Arizonafor TPG (Texas Pacific Group). On 3 May 2011, theFox Networkbroadcast an episode ofGleeentitled \"Rumours\" that featured six songs from the band's 1977 album.The show sparked renewed interest in the band and its most commercially successful album, andRumoursre-entered theBillboard200chart at No.11 in the same week that Nicks's solo albumIn Your Dreamsdebuted at No.6. (She was quoted byBillboardsaying that her new album was \"my own littleRumours.\") The two recordings sold about 30,000 and 52,000 units respectively. Music downloads accounted for 91 per cent of theRumourssales. The spike in sales forRumoursrepresented an increase of 1,951%. It was the highest chart entry by a previously issued album sinceThe Rolling Stones'reissue ofExile On Main St.re-entered the chart at No. 2 on 5 June 2010.In an interview in July 2012 Nicks confirmed that the band would reunite for a tour in 2013. Original Fleetwood Mac bassistBob Brunningdied on 18 October 2011 at the age of 68.Former guitarist and singerBob Westonwas found dead on 3 January 2012 at the age of 64.Former singer and guitaristBob Welchwas found dead from a self-inflicted gunshot wound on 7 June 2012 at the age of 66.Don Aaron, a spokesman at the scene, stated, \"He died from an apparent self-inflicted gunshot wound to the chest.\" A suicide note was found. Welch had been struggling with health issues and was dealing with depression. His wife discovered his body. The band's 2013 tour, which took place in 34 cities, started on 4 April inColumbus, Ohio. The band performed two new songs (\"Sad Angel\" and \"Without You\"), which Buckingham described as some of the most \"Fleetwood Mac-ey\"-sounding songs sinceMirage. \"Without You\" was rerecorded from the Buckingham-Nicks era.The band released their first new studio material in ten years,Extended Play, on 30 April 2013.The EP debuted and peaked at No. 48 in the US and produced one single, \"Sad Angel\". On 25 and 27 September 2013, the second and third nights of the band's London O2 shows, Christine McVie joined them on stage for \"Don't Stop\".\" words to us were, 'She can't just come and go,'\" Nicks recalled. \"That's important to him, but it's not so important to me... Much as Lindsey adores her – and he does; she's the only one in Fleetwood Mac he was ever really willing to listen to – he doesn't want the first-night reviews to be all about Christine's one song, rather than the set we rehearsed for two months. But it will be wonderful to have her back up there – and, from there, who knows?\" On 27 October 2013, the band cancelled their New Zealand and Australian performances after John McVie had been diagnosed with cancer so that he could undergo treatment. They said: \"We are sorry not to be able to play these Australian and New Zealand dates. We hope our Australian and New Zealand fans as well as Fleetwood Mac fans everywhere will join us in wishing John and his family all the best.\"Also in October 2013, Stevie Nicks appeared inAmerican Horror Story: Covenwith Fleetwood Mac's song \"Seven Wonders\" playing in the background.In November 2013, Christine McVie expressed interest in a return to Fleetwood Mac, and also affirmed that John McVie's prognosis was \"really good\". 2014–present: Final years On 11 January 2014, Mick Fleetwood confirmed that Christine McVie would be rejoining Fleetwood Mac.On with the Show, a 33-city North American tour, opened inMinneapolis, Minnesota, on 30 September 2014.A series of May–June 2015 arena dates in the United Kingdom went on sale on 14 November, selling out in minutes. High demand caused additional dates to be added to the tour, including an Australian leg. In January 2015, Buckingham suggested that the new album and tour might be Fleetwood Mac's last, and that the band would cease operations in 2015 or soon afterwards. He said work would continue on the new album, and solo work would be low priority for a few years.Fleetwood said the new album might take a few years to complete and that they were waiting for contributions from Nicks, who had been ambivalent about committing to a new record. In August 2016, Fleetwood said that while the band had \"a huge amount of recorded music\", virtually none of it featured Nicks. Buckingham and Christine McVie, however, had contributed many songs to the new project.Nicks explained her reluctance to record another album with Fleetwood Mac. \"Do you want to take a chance on a bunch of arguing people? And then not wanting to go on tour because you just spent a year arguing?\" On 9 June 2017, Buckingham and Christine McVie released a new album, titledLindsey Buckingham/Christine McVie, which included contributions from Mick Fleetwood and John McVie.The album was preceded by the single \"In My World\". A 38-date tour to support the album began on 21 June and concluded 16 November.Fleetwood Mac also planned to embark on another tour in 2018.The band headlined the second night of the Classic West concert on 16 July 2017 atDodger Stadiumin Los Angeles, and the second night of the Classic East concert at New York City'sCiti Fieldon 30 July 2017. In January 2018, Fleetwood Mac received theMusiCares Person of the Yearaward and reunited to perform several songs at theGrammy-hosted gala honouring them.In April 2018, the song \"Dreams\" re-entered the Hot Rock Songs chart at No. 16 after a viral meme had featured it. This chart re-entry came 40 years after the song had topped the Hot 100. The song's streaming totals also translated into 7,000 \"equivalent album units\", a jump of 12 per cent, which helpedRumoursto go from No. 21 to No. 13 on the Top Rock Albums chart. In April 2018 Buckingham departed from the group a second time, having reportedly been dismissed.The reason was said to have been a disagreement about the nature of the tour,and in particular the question of whether newer or less well-known material would be included, as Buckingham wanted.Fleetwood stated onCBS This Morningon 25 April 2018 that Buckingham would not sign off on a tour that the group had been planning for a year and a half and they had reached a disagreement. When asked if Buckingham had been fired, he said, \"We don't use that word because I think it's ugly.\" He said Buckingham's work in Fleetwood Mac would continue to be respected. In October 2018, Buckingham filed a lawsuit against Fleetwood Mac for breach of fiduciary duty, breach of oral contract, and intentional interference with prospective economic advantage, among other claims.He later reached a settlement with the band but did not reveal the specific terms that were agreed upon.Buckingham also provided his version of what had led to his departure from the band. He said that after their performance at the MusiCares event, the band's manager, Irving Azoff, had told him that, among other things, Nicks was not happy about his reaction to the intro music for their acceptance speech being \"Rhiannon\", and about the way he had allegedly \"smirked\" during her thank-you speech. Buckingham conceded the first point. \"It wasn't about it being 'Rhiannon'. It just undermined the impact of our entrance.\" Azoff subsequently told him that Nicks had given the rest of the band an ultimatum: either Buckingham went or she would. FormerTom Petty and the HeartbreakersguitaristMike CampbellandNeil FinnofCrowded Housewere named to replace Buckingham.Aside from touring, the band planned to record new music with Campbell and Finn in the future.The band's \"An Evening with Fleetwood Mac\" tour started in October 2018. The band launched the tour at the iHeartRadio Music Festival on 21 September 2018 at theT-Mobile Arenain Las Vegas. On 8 June 2018, former Fleetwood Mac guitaristDanny Kirwandied at the age of 68 in a hostel for homeless alcoholics in London, after contractingpneumoniaearlier in the year.Mojoquoted Christine McVie as saying: \"Nobody else could play like him. He was a one-off. Danny was a perfectionist; a fantastic musician and a fantastic writer.\"One of Kirwan's songs, \"Tell Me All the Things You Do\" fromKiln House, was included in the set of the \"An Evening with Fleetwood Mac\" tour. On 28 May 2020, Neil Finn, featuring Nicks and McVie with Campbell on guitar, released the song \"Find Your Way Back Home\" for the Auckland homeless shelterAuckland City Mission. Founding member Peter Green died on 25 July 2020 at the age of 73. In October 2020,Rumoursagain entered theBillboardtop 10. The album received 30.6 million streams on streaming platforms the week of 15 October, which was in part due to aviral videofeaturing the song \"Dreams\". On 30 November 2022, Christine McVie died at the age of 79.In February 2023, when asked about further activity from the band, Fleetwood replied, \"I think right now, I truly think the line in the sand has been drawn with the loss of Chris. I'd say we're done, but then we've all said that before. It's sort of unthinkable right now.\" He said the other surviving members were keeping themselves busy with musical pursuits outside the band and that he intended to do the same.In an October 2023 interview, Nicks stated that she saw no reason to continue the band after McVie's death.Upon the release of Crowded House's albumGravity Stairsin 2024, Finn expressed surprise that the online encyclopediaWikipediastill listed him as a member of Fleetwood Mac.In a 2024 interview withMojo, Nicks reiterated that the band would not continue without Christine McVie. Tours Band members Final lineup Timeline Official Touring Discography Studio albums Awards and nominations Grammy Awards Citations Sources Further reading External links"
] | [
"Saturday Night Liveseason 23 Thetwenty-third seasonofSaturday Night Live, an Americansketch comedyseries, originally aired in the United States onNBCbetween September 27, 1997, and May9, 1998. This season saw the deaths of two former cast members. Six weeks after he came back to host,Chris Farleybecame the fifthSNLcast member to die. Influenced by his idol,John Belushi, Farley died of aspeedballoverdose at the age of 33. Two weeks after the season finale, long-time performerPhil Hartmanwas murdered by his wife who then committed suicide. Following their deaths, NBC aired twoSNLspecials as tributes to Farley and Hartman in dedication to their legacies during this season. Cast Before the season,Mark McKinneyleft the show after three seasons.Colin Quinnwas promoted to repertory status. This season is the first season to not include any featured players or new cast members. During the season, a controversy arose in whichWeekend UpdateanchorNorm Macdonaldwas removed from theUpdatesegment. Macdonald's final episode",
"final episode asUpdateanchor was on December 13, 1997.Quinn was then promoted to the job and anchored the segment in the next live episode, which aired January 10, 1998. Even though Macdonald still performed in sketches, he was not happy and eventually quit the show; his final appearance was on March 14, 1998. This was also the final season forJim Breueras he left the show at season's end to move on to other acting opportunities. It was also the only season to have an opening sequence that did not show any shots of New York City, instead featuring a 1950s-inspired design. Cast roster Repertory players bolddenotes Weekend Update anchor Writers Future cast member/head writerTina Feyjoins the writing staff in this season. Adam McKaycontinues as the sole head writer, whileTim Herlihyis promoted to a producer alongsideSteve Higgins. With the Sarah Michelle Gellar-hosted episode, futureParks and Recreation/The Good PlacecreatorMichael Schurjoined the writing staff. Longtime writerJim Downeyis fired coinciding",
"fired coinciding withNorm Macdonaldbeing taken off ofWeekend Update.Downey is still credited as a writer until the end of the season. Episodes Specials References",
"Nathan Lane Nathan Lane(bornJoseph Lane; February 3, 1956) is an American actor. Since 1975, he has beenon stage and screenin both comedic and dramatic roles.His awardsinclude threeTony Awards, sevenDrama Desk Awards, aLaurence Olivier Award, threeEmmy Awards, and aScreen Actors Guild Award. Lane received a star on theHollywood Walk of Famein 2006 and was inducted into theAmerican Theater Hall of Famein 2008.In 2010,The New York Timeshailed Lane as being \"the greatest stage entertainer of the decade\". Lane made his professional theatre debut in 1978 in an off-Broadway production ofA Midsummer Night's Dream. During that time he also briefly appeared as one half of the comedy team of Stack and Lane, until he was cast in the 1982 Broadway revival ofNoël Coward'sPresent Laughterdirected by and starringGeorge C. Scott. That led to an extensive career onstage, where he had a long friendship and fruitful collaboration with the playwrightTerrence McNallywhich started in 1989 with theManhattan Theater Clubproduction",
"Clubproduction ofThe Lisbon Traviata. A six-timeTony Awardnominee, he has won three times, forBest Actor in a Musicalfor Pseudolus inStephen Sondheim'sA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum(1996) and Max Bialystock inMel Brooks'The Producers(2001), andBest Featured Actor in a PlayforRoy CohninTony Kushner'sAngels in America(2018). His other Tony-nominated roles were inGuys and Dolls(1992),The Nance(2013), andThe Front Page(2016). Among his 25 Broadway credits areThe Man Who Came To Dinner(2000),The Odd Couple(2005),Butley(2006),Waiting for Godot(2009),The Addams Family(2010),It's Only a Play(2014),Gary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicus(2019), andPictures from Home(2023). Lane has acted in films such asThe Lion King(1994),The Birdcage(1996),Mouse Hunt(1997),The Producers(2005), andBeau is Afraid(2023). He received thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor theHulumystery comedy seriesOnly Murders in the Buildingin 2022. He was Emmy-nominated for his guest roles inFrasier,Mad",
"roles inFrasier,Mad About You,Modern Family, andThe Good Wife. He portrayedF. Lee Baileyin theFXminiseriesThe People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story(2016) andDominick Dunnein theNetflixanthology seriesMonsters: The Lyle and Erik Menendez Story(2024). He also acted inPenny Dreadful: City of Angels(2020) andThe Gilded Age(2022–). Early life and education Lane was bornJoseph LaneinJersey City, New Jerseyon February 3, 1956.His father Daniel Joseph Lane was a truck driver and an aspiring tenor who died in 1967 from alcoholism when Nathan was eleven.His mother Nora Veronica (Finnerty) was a housewife and secretary who suffered frombipolar disorderand died in 2000.Joseph has two older brothers Daniel Jr. and Robert.Their parents wereCatholicsand all of their grandparents wereIrishimmigrants.Joseph is named after his uncle, aJesuitpriest.Joseph attended Catholic schools in Jersey City, including Jesuit-runSt. Peter's Preparatory School, where he was voted Best Actor in 1974, and in 2011 received the Prep",
"received the Prep Hall of Fame Professional Achievement Award. Career 1978–1993: Rise to prominence Accepted toSaint Joseph's UniversityinPhiladelphiaon a drama scholarship, Joseph Lane was accompanied on what was supposed to be his first day there by his older brother Dan. Discovering that the scholarship would not cover enough of his expenses, he decided to leave, and work for a year to earn some money. His brother said, \"I remember him saying to me, 'College is for people who don't know what they want to do.'\" Because there already was a Joseph Lane registered withActors' Equity, he changed his name to Nathan after the characterNathan Detroitfrom the musicalGuys and Dolls.He moved toNew York Citywhere after a long struggle, his career began to take off, first with some brief success in the world of stand-up comedy with partner Patrick Stackand later withOff-Broadwayproductions atSecond Stage Theatre, theRoundabout Theatre, and theManhattan Theatre Club.He made hisBroadwaydebut in a 1982 revival ofNoël",
"1982 revival ofNoël Coward'sPresent Laughteras Roland Maule (Drama Desk nomination) withGeorge C. Scott,Kate Burton,Dana Ivey,Bette Henritze,Elizabeth Hubbard,Jim Piddock, andChristine Lahti. His second Broadway appearance was in the 1983 musicalMerlin, starringChita Riveraand magicianDoug Henning. This was followed byWind in the WillowsasMr. Toad,Some Americans AbroadatLincoln Center, and the national tour ofNeil Simon'sBroadway Bound. Off-Broadway productions in which he appeared, includedLove(the musical version ofMurray Schisgal'sLuv),Measure for Measuredirected byJoseph Pappin Central Park, for which he received theSt. Clair Bayfield Award,The Common Pursuit,The Film Society,In a Pig's Valise,She Stoops to Conquer,The Merry Wives of WindsorandA Midsummer Night's Dream.He appeared at the Williamstown Theatre Festival inThe School for Scandaland John Guare'sMoon Over Miami.His association withStephen Sondheimbegan in 1989 with a workshop reading ofAssassins, where he playedSamuel Byck, the would-be",
"Byck, the would-be murderer ofRichard Nixon. Lane also appeared in the television showsMiami ViceandThe Days and Nights of Molly Dodd. In 1991, Lane appeared withGeorge C. Scottagain in a revival of Paul Osborne'sOn Borrowed Timeat theCircle in the Square Theatreon Broadway.In 1992, he starred in the hit revival ofGuys and Dolls, playing Nathan Detroit, the character who lent him his name, oppositePeter GallagherandFaith Prince.For this performance, he received his firstTonynomination,as well as Drama DeskandOuter Critics Circle Awards.In 1992, he won anObie Awardfor Sustained Excellence of Performance.His professional association with his close friend the playwrightTerrence McNally, whom he met in 1987,includes roles inThe Lisbon Traviata(Drama Desk andLucille LortelAwards, and Outer Critics Circle nomination),Bad Habits,Lips Together, Teeth Apart,Love! Valour! Compassion!(Obie, Drama Desk, and Outer Critics Circle Awards),Dedication or the Stuff of Dreams,which opened in 2005 (Drama Desk nomination),The",
"nomination),The Last Mileon PBS'Great Performances, and the film version ofFrankie and Johnny. The early 1990s began a stretch of successful Broadway shows for Lane. In 1993, he portrayedSid Caesar-like Max Prince inNeil Simon'sLaughter on the 23rd Floor, inspired by Simon's early career writing sketches forYour Show of Shows.In 1996, he starred in the hit revival ofStephen Sondheim'sA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum. For his performance he won theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musicalas well as the Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle Awards.In 1998, he appeared Off-Broadway inJon Robin Baitz's revised 1984 comedy,Mizlansky/Zilinsky or 'Schmucks'. 1994–2009: Breakthrough and acclaim In 1994, Lane voicedTimon, the meerkat, inDisney's blockbuster animated filmThe Lion Kingand reprised the role in its sequels.In 1995, Lane was the voice of the meerkat in the early episodes ofTimon & Pumbaa. In 1995, he played the Cowardly Lion inThe Wizard of Oz in Concertat Lincoln Center to benefit theChildren's",
"theChildren's Defense Fund. The performance was originally broadcast on Turner Network Television (TNT). In 1996 Lane appeared in the filmThe Birdcage,for which he received his firstGolden Globenomination.The film, an American remake of the classic French farceLa Cage aux Folles, was directed byMike Nicholswith a screenplay byElaine May, and starredRobin Williams, Lane, andGene Hackman, and went on to be a big success. The Stephen Sondheim song \"Little Dream\"inThe Birdcagewas supposedly written especially for him. In 1999, he appeared withVictor Garberin the workshop of the Sondheim musicalWise Guys(later retitledRoad Show).His collaboration with Sondheim would continue when Lane revised the original book for and starred in the Broadway debut of the composer'sThe Frogsat Lincoln Center in 2004. Lane appeared in the 1997 dark comedyMouse Hunt, one of the first films to come out of the newly formed DreamWorks Studios, in which he co-starred with British comedianLee Evansand Christopher Walken. In 1999, he",
"Walken. In 1999, he appeared in theEncores!concert revival ofDo Re MiatCity Center.That same year he also voiced the role of Snowbell in the family filmStuart Little, opposite hisLife With Mikeyco-starMichael J. Fox. He is known for his voice work in two Disney animated series,Teacher's PetandTimon & Pumbaa, as well asGeorge and MarthaonHBO. He receivedDaytime Emmy Awardsfor his voice performances inTeacher's PetandTimon & Pumbaa, as well as a nomination forGeorge and Martha. He hostedSaturday Night Livein 1997,and theTony Awards(once as host for the 50th anniversary telecast, and three times as co-host, withGlenn CloseandGregory Hines;Rosie O'Donnell; andMatthew Broderickrespectively).From 1998 to 1999 he starred in theNBCsitcomEncore! Encore!alongsideJoan PlowrightandGlenne Headly.The New York Timesgave a very positive review to the show's debut, writing it possessed the \"most accomplished, high-powered cast on television.\"Although the series got positive reviews it was canceled. He still won thePeople's",
"won thePeople's Choice Awardthat year for Favorite New Actor in a Comedy. Lane received Emmy Award nominations for his guest appearances onFrasierandMad About Youin 1995 and 1998, respectively. Lane starred in the Roundabout revival ofThe Man Who Came to Dinneras Sheridan Whiteside, withJean SmartandHarriet Harrisin 2000.Charles Isherwood ofVarietyliked his performance, \"Nathan Lane, an actor who makes virtually every role he plays seem like a role he was born to play, is the splendidly seething, delightfully acerbic center of Jerry Zaks' splashy production of the 1939 comedy\".The production was taped and shown onPBS. That same year he starred inKenneth Branagh's film adaptation ofWilliam Shakespeare'sLove's Labour's Lost(2000). He acted in the comedyIsn't She Great(2000) oppositeBette Midler, the crime dramaTrixie(2000), and voiced a character in the animated science fiction filmTitan A.E.(2000). In 2001, he starred asMax Bialystockin the blockbuster musical version ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers. He acted",
"Producers. He acted alongsideMatthew Broderick. Chris Jones ofVarietywrote \"Lane's greatest contribution, though, is this performer's innate sense of pace. He's constantly propelling the show forward and giving all this nonsense a necessary sense of urgency.\"Ben BrantleyofThe New York Timespraised Lane's performance describing it as his \"most delicious performance\". He complimented Lane's and Broderick's chemistry adding \"Mr. Lane and Mr. Broderick, have the most dynamic stage chemistry sinceNatasha RichardsonmetLiam NeesoninAnna Christie.The role earned him his secondTony Award for Best Actor in a Musicalas well as Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle Awards. The next year he reprised his role as Snowbell inStuart Little 2(2002). He then appeared as Vincent Crummles in a film adaptation ofNicholas Nickleby(2002) and the cast received the Ensemble Acting award from the National Board of Review. In 2003 he starred Off-Broadway inTrumbo: Red, White, and Blacklisted.In 2004, Lane revised the libretto and",
"the libretto and portrayedDionysusin the revival ofStephen Sondheim's musicalThe Frogswhich opened at theVivian Beaumont TheateratLincoln CenteronBroadway. That same year he replacedRichard DreyfussinThe Producersin the West End. Dreyfuss was let go just a week before the show's first preview at London'sTheatre Royal Drury Lane.Lane went on to win theOlivier Awardas Best Actor in a Musical.His performance in thefilm version, opposite Broadway co-starMatthew BroderickasLeo Bloom, earned him his second nomination for theGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. In 2005, Lane rejoined Broderick for a successful limited run ofThe Odd Couple.In 2006, he took on a primarily dramatic role in a revival ofSimon Gray'sButley, having played the role to great success at TheHuntington Theater Companyin Boston in 2003.He and Broderick received adjacent stars on theHollywood Walk of Famein a joint ceremony on January 9, 2006,and were immortalized in wax as Max and Leo atMadame TussaudsMuseum in",
"TussaudsMuseum in New York City on January 16, 2009.In 2008, he played the President of the United States in theDavid Mametpolitical satire,November, directed byJoe Mantello.This was followed by the critically acclaimed 2009 revival ofWaiting for Godot(Outer Critics Circle nomination)in which he playedEstragonoppositeBill Irwin'sVladimir.He was a 2008American Theatre Hall of Fameinductee.In the 2000s Lane also made guest appearances onSex and the City,Curb Your Enthusiasm,Absolutely Fabulous, and30 Rock. 2010–2019: Established actor In 2009, Lane starred in the musical version ofThe Addams FamilyasGomezin Chicago, a role he reprised on Broadway the following year, receiving Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle nominations.That year he also received a Drama League Award for Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theater. Committed to starring in a revival of theEugene O'NeillplayThe Iceman Comethat Chicago'sGoodman Theatrein 2012, Lane assumed the role of Hickey, withBrian Dennehyplaying the role of Larry Slade",
"role of Larry Slade in a production directed by the Goodman's Artistic Director,Robert Falls.Receiving rave reviews,it won sixJeff Awards, including Best Ensemble, director, and Production,and is the most successful play to date in the theater's history. From 2010 to 2019, Lane portrayed Pepper Saltzman in theABCsitcomModern Familyfor which he received threePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesnominations. From 2012 to 2014 he played Clarke Hayden in the legal seriesThe Good Wifereceiving a nomination for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series. In the spring of 2013, Lane returned to Broadway inThe Nance, aLincoln Centerproduction of a new play byDouglas Carter Beanethat was directed byJack O'Brien.David Rooney ofThe Hollywood Reporterpraised his performance writing, \"Lane is masterful, finding new depths in a well-worn sad clown persona\" adding, \" at the very least it provides a tremendous vehicle for Lane\".He went on to receive Tony and Drama",
"Tony and Drama Desk Award nominations and won the Outer Critics Circle Award and the 2013 Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance.The play aired on PBSLive from Lincoln Centerin 2014. In autumn 2014, he appeared in an all-star ensemble of Terrence McNally's revised and updatedIt's Only a Play, withF. Murray Abraham,Matthew Broderick,Stockard Channing,Rupert Grint,Megan Mullally, andMicah Stock.The show became one of the biggest hits of the season.In February 2015 he reprised the role of Hickey in the Robert Falls production ofThe Iceman Comethto great acclaim at theBrooklyn Academy of Music.New York Postfilm critic Elizabeth Vincentelli wrote of his performance, \"Lane, one of his generation's most brilliant comic actors... the sweet spot between pretend perkiness and self-loathing\".He later returned to the Broadway run ofIt's Only a Play.In 2015, he received the Eugene O'Neill Theater Center Monte Cristo Award for his body of work. In March 2016, he opened the playWhite Rabbit, Red",
"Rabbit, Red RabbitOff-Broadway. Lane playedF. Lee BaileyinThe People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story, the first season ofAmerican Crime Story, which premiered on theFXchannel in February 2016. Daniel Feinberg ofThe Hollywood Reporterdescribed his performance as \"understatedly Machiavellian\".Emily St. Jones ofVoxdeclared Lane as \"hugely enjoyable\" in the series.It received 22 Emmy nominations and went on to win thePrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Limited Series.In fall of 2016, he returned to Broadway to rave reviews in an all-star revival of Hecht and MacArthur'sThe Front Page, directed by Jack O'Brien and produced by Scott Rudin.He played the ruthless editor Walter Burns oppositeJohn Slatteryas Hildy Johnson andJohn Goodmanas Sheriff Hartman,for which he received a nomination for theTony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play. He also received nominations for Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle Awards.During this time he also guest starred on series such asDifficult People(2016) andThe",
"People(2016) andThe Blacklist(2018). Next he playedRoy CohnwithAndrew Garfieldas Prior Walter in the revival ofAngels in America,directed byMarianne Elliottat theLyttlelton Theatreof theNational Theatre of Great Britain. Lane reprised his acclaimed portrayal on Broadway at theNeil Simon Theatre, and won the Tony, Drama Desk, and Outer Critics Circle Awards for Best Featured Actor in a Play. In March 2019, Lane starred inTaylor Mac's absurdist black comedyGary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicusat theBooth Theatredirected byGeorge C. Wolfe. The play received sevenTony Awardnominations, includingBest Play. 2020–present Lane played the role of Lewis Michener on Showtime'sPenny Dreadful: City of Angelswhich premiered April 26, 2020, and ran for one season. He has a recurring role in the Hulu seriesOnly Murders in the Building, starringSteve Martin,Martin Short, andSelena Gomez, for which he received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. That was Lane's first Primetime Emmy Award after a",
"Emmy Award after a record-breaking seven nominations in the guest actor categories, making him the most nominated Comedy Guest Actor in Emmy history, a record he still holds after receiving his eighth nomination in 2023 in the same category.He also plays the recurring role ofWard McAllisterin the HBO period series,The Gilded Age, written byJulian Fellowes, which received a 2024Screen Actors Guild Awardnomination forOutstanding Ensemble in a Drama Seriesand a 2024 Emmy nomination for Best Drama. In 2023, Lane returned to theBroadwaystage, marking his 25thBroadway show, inPictures from Home, a play adapted from the photo memoir byLarry Sultan. Lane portrayed the father and former razor blade salesman to his son a photographer, played byDanny Burstein, who's remembering his visits with his family. Lane's wife in the play was portrayed byZoë Wanamaker. The production was directed byBartlett Sherand was helmed at theStudio 54theatre.The play received mixed reviews but praise for Lane's performance with Marilyn",
"with Marilyn Stasio ofVarietywriting, \"Lane and Burstein are consummate pros, and there are considerable sparks of familial communication between the father and son they play with such warmth and understanding.\" Also in 2023, Lane co-starred inAri Aster's newA24film,Beau Is AfraidalongsideJoaquin Phoenix,Amy Ryan, andPatti LuPone.Max Ceo ofEsquirepraised Aster for the casting of Lane writing, \"There's a palpable sense that the director had seasoned character actors such as Nathan Lane in his mind while writing. He milks every dad-ish 'My dude' the script hands him\". He co-starred in another A24 film,Dicks: The Musical, formerly known as __Identical Twins, directed byLarry Charlesand written by Aaron Jackson and Josh Sharp based on theirUpright Citizens Brigademusical stage show which is a twisted take onThe Parent Trap.Jackson and Sharp play the twins with Lane andMegan Mullallyas the parents.It also featuresBowen YangandMegan Thee Stallion. The film premiered at the2023 Toronto International Film Festivalto",
"Film Festivalto positive reviews and won the Midnight Madness People's Choice Award. Kristy Puchko ofMashablewrote, \" who stole scenes earlier this year as a plucky papa in anotherA24movieBeau is Afraid—gives his all, committing to bit after bit\" adding \"In a career of superb comedy, he's in top form here\".He will be part of the voice cast forSpellbound, a new animated film fromSkydanceforNetflix, withRachel Zegler,Nicole Kidman,Javier Bardem,Jenifer LewisandJohn Lithgow. As well as theRyan Murphyminiseries,Monsters: The Lyle and Erik Menendez Story, asDominick Dunne.He is starring in a newHulumulti-cam comedy, Mid-Century Modern, again produced by Ryan Murphy, created by Max Mutchnick and David Kohan who are the creators of Will and Grace, and co-starring Matt Bomer, Linda Lavin, and Nathan Lee Graham. Personal life Lane says that when he told his mother at age 21 that he wasgay, she said, \"I'd rather you were dead.\" He replied, \"I knew you'd understand.\" He joked that \"once I got her head out of the oven,",
"out of the oven, everything went fine.\"Hecame outpublicly in 1999 after the killing ofMatthew Shepardand has been a long-time board member of and fundraiser forBroadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS.He was honored with the Human Rights Campaign Equality Award,the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation Vito Russo Award,The Trevor Project Hero Award,and the Matthew Shepard Foundation Making A Difference Award for his work in theLGBTcommunity in 2015. Lane has made several critical statements aboutRepublican Partyfigures. He jokingly comparedPaul Ryanto theWicked Witch of the West, due to Ryan's lack of support forMedicaid.In a 2018 interview about playingRoy Cohnin the Broadway revival ofAngels in America, Lane portrayedDonald Trumpas a liar and said: \"Really, what you learn is what learned from Roy Cohn: There are certain tactics that are very familiar, that Trump picked up from him. You know, always go on the attack. The counterattack. Hit the accuser ten times harder and deflect. Never admit defeat...",
"admit defeat... outright lying if all else fails.\"Lane was an active supporter ofHillary ClintonandBarack Obamahosting fundraisers for theDemocratic Party. On November 17, 2015, he married his partner of 18 years, theater producer and writer Devlin Elliott.They live inManhattanandEast Hampton, New York. Acting credits Lane has had an extensive career in film, television, and in theater. He has appeared in such films asThe Lion King(1994),The Birdcage(1996),Mouse Hunt(1997),Nicholas Nickleby(2002), and the film adaptation of the Broadway musicalThe Producers(2005). He is also known for numerous guest roles includingFrasier,Mad About You,30 Rock,Absolutely Fabulous,Curb Your Enthusiasm,The Blacklistand recurring roles onModern FamilyandThe Good Wife. He has received critical praise for his roles asF. Lee Baileyin the limited seriesThe People v. O.J. Simpson(2016) and in the 2020 Showtime seriesPenny Dreadful: City of Angelsas Det. Lewis Michener. His roles in theatre range from musical comedies,Guys and",
"comedies,Guys and Dolls(1992),A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum(1996),The Producers(2001) andThe Addams Family(2010) to dramatic roles in the work of Terrence McNally, Jon Robin Baitz, and Simon Gray as well as revivals and new plays such asThe Odd Couple(2005),November(2008),Waiting for Godot(2009),The Nance(2013),It's Only a Play(2015),The Iceman Cometh(2015),The Front Page(2016),Angels in America(2018),Gary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicus(2019), andPictures From Home(2023). Awards and honors Lane has received sixTony Awardnominations for his work onBroadway, winning three times forA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum(1996),The Producers(2001), andAngels in America(2018). Also for his work in theatre he has received sevenDrama Desk Awards, sixOuter Critics Circle Awards, twoObies, theLucille Lortel Award, theDrama League Awardfor Outstanding Achievement in Musical Theater, the Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance forThe Nance, theTheatre World John Willis Awardfor Lifetime",
"Awardfor Lifetime Achievement in the Theater, theEugene O'Neill Monte Cristo Award, theNew Dramatists Career Achievement Award, the Sir Peter Ustinov Comedy Award, and theLaurence Olivier Award. In 2024 Lane received the Stephen Sondheim Award from theSignature Theatre Companyand theHarold S. Prince Award for Lifetime Achievementfrom theDrama Desk Awards. Lane has received twoGolden Globe Awardnominations forThe BirdcageandThe Producers, theNational Board of ReviewAward for Ensemble Acting forNicholas Nickleby,and twoScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations for Best Supporting Actor and for Best Performance by a Cast forThe Birdcage, winning the latter. For his work on television Lane has received eightPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations for guest starring roles onFrasier,Mad About You,Modern Family, andThe Good Wifeand won forOnly Murders in the Building. He received twoDaytime Emmy Awardsfor his voice work inTimon & PumbaaandTeacher's Pet, as well as a nomination forGeorge and Marthafor HBO. He has received",
"He has received thePeople's Choice Awardfor Favorite New Actor in a Comedy and anAmerican Comedy AwardforThe Birdcageas well as a nomination forJeffrey. See also References External links",
"List of awards and nominations received by Nathan Lane This article is aList of awards and nominations received by Nathan Lane. Nathan Laneis an American actor and comedian known for his roles on stage and screen. He has received several awards including threeTony Awards, sixDrama Desk Awards, threeEmmy Awards, and aScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as a nomination for twoGolden Globe Awards. Lane has received sixTony Awardnominations receiving three wins for his performances asPseudolusin theStephen Sondheimmusical comedyA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum(1996), Max Bialystock in theMel Brookssatirical musicalThe Producers(2001), andRoy CohninTony Kushnerepic playAngels in America(2018). Lane has received elevenDrama Desk Awardnominations receiving seven wins, which includes the Harold S. Prince Award for Lifetime Achievement, as well as twoObies, theLucille Lortel Awardand sixOuter Critics Circle Awards. He also won theLaurence Olivier Awardhis performance on theWest Endstage inThe Producersin",
"inThe Producersin London. For his film work he has received twoGolden Globe Awardnominations for his performances inMike Nichols'The Birdcage(1996) and the film adaptation of theMel BrooksBroadwaymusicalThe Producers.He received oneScreen Actors Guild Awardwinning for Outstanding Ensemble forThe Birdcage(1996) and theNational Board of ReviewAward, also winning for Outstanding Ensemble forNicholas Nickleby. For his work on television he has received Lane has also received various awards for his work on television including aPrimetime Emmy Award, and a record breaking eight nominations in the guest actor category. He won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor playing Teddy Dimas in theHulumystery-comedy seriesOnly Murders in the Buildingin 2022. He was Emmy-nominated for playing a thief inFrasier(1995), a former lover inMad About You(1998), and Pepper Saltzman inModern Family(2011-2014). He also received twoDaytime Emmy Awardsfor voicingTimoninTimon & Pumbaa(1996) andSpot",
"andSpot Helperman / Scott Leadready IIinTeacher's Pet(2001). Major associations Emmy Awards Golden Globe Award Screen Actors Guild Award Olivier Awards Tony Awards Theatre awards Miscellaneous awards Honorary awards References",
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"Fleetwood Mac Fleetwood Macare a British-Americanrockband formed in London in 1967 by guitarist and singerPeter Green.Green recruited drummerMick Fleetwood, guitarist and singerJeremy Spencerand bassistBob Brunning, withJohn McViereplacing Brunning a few weeks after the band's first public appearance at the1967 National Jazz & Blues FestivalinWindsor. The band became a five-piece in 1968 with the addition of guitarist and singerDanny Kirwan. Primarily aBritish bluesband in their early years, Fleetwood Mac achieved a UK number-one single in 1968 with the instrumental \"Albatross\",and had other UK top ten hits with \"Man of the World\", \"Oh Well\" (both 1969), and \"The Green Manalishi (With the Two Prong Crown)\" (1970). Green left the band in May 1970, with McVie's wifeChristine McVie(who had previously contributed to the band as a session musician) joining as an official member on vocals and keyboards two months later. Spencer and Kirwan also left in 1971 and 1972 respectively, withBob Welchreplacing Spencer,",
"Spencer, andBob WestonandDave Walkerreplacing Kirwan. By the end of 1974, Weston and Walker had been dismissed and Welch had left, leaving the band without a guitarist or male vocalist. While Fleetwood was scouting studios in Los Angeles, he heard the American folk-rock duo Buckingham Nicks, consisting of guitarist and singerLindsey Buckinghamand singerStevie Nicks. In December 1974, he asked Buckingham to join Fleetwood Mac. Buckingham agreed on the condition that Nicks could also join. The addition of Buckingham and Nicks gave the band a morepop rocksound and their 1975 albumFleetwood Mactopped theBillboard200chart in the United States. Their next album,Rumours(1977), produced four U.S. Top 10 singles and remained at number one on theBillboard200 for 31 weeks. It also reached the top spot in countries around the world and won theGrammy Award for Album of the Yearin 1978.Rumourshas sold more than 40 million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling albums in history. Although each member of the",
"each member of the band went through a breakup (John and Christine McVie, Buckingham and Nicks, and Fleetwood and his wifeJenny Boyd) while recording the album, they continued to write and record together. The line-up remained stable through three more studio albums, but by the late 1980s began to disintegrate. After Buckingham left in 1987, he was replaced byBilly BurnetteandRick Vito, although Vito left in 1990 along with Nicks. A 1993 one-off performance for thefirst inauguration of President Bill Clintonreunited the classic 1974–1987 line-up for the first time in six years. A full-scale reunion took place four years later, and Fleetwood Mac released their fourth U.S. No. 1 album,The Dance(1997), a live album marking the 20th anniversary ofRumoursand the band's 30th anniversary. Christine McVie left in 1998 after the completion of The Dance tour. Fleetwood Mac released their final studio album,Say You Will, in 2003. Christine McVie rejoined in 2014 and joined them for theirOn With the Show Tour. In 2018,",
"Show Tour. In 2018, Buckingham was firedand replaced byMike Campbell, formerly ofTom Petty and the Heartbreakers, andNeil FinnofSplit EnzandCrowded House. After Christine McVie's death in 2022, Nicks said in 2024 that the band would not continue without her. Fleetwood Mac have sold more than 120 million records worldwide, making them one of theworld's best-selling bands. In 1979, they were honoured with a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame. In 1998, they were inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameand received theBrit Awardfor Outstanding Contribution to Music.In 2018, Fleetwood Mac received theMusiCares Person of the Yearaward fromthe Recording Academyin recognition of their artistic achievement in themusic industryand dedication tophilanthropy. History 1967–1970: Formation and early years Fleetwood Mac were formed in July 1967 in London, England, byPeter Greenafter he left theBritish bluesbandJohn Mayall & the Bluesbreakers. Green had previously replaced guitaristEric Claptonin the Bluesbreakersand had",
"had received critical acclaim for his work on their albumA Hard Road. Green had been in two bands withMick Fleetwood,Peter B's Loonersand the subsequentShotgun Express(which featured a youngRod Stewartas vocalist),and suggested Fleetwood as a replacement for drummerAynsley Dunbarwhen Dunbar left the Bluesbreakers to jointhe Jeff Beck Group.John Mayallagreed and Fleetwood joined the Bluesbreakers. The Bluesbreakers then consisted of Green, Fleetwood,John McVieand Mayall. Mayall gave Green free recording time as a gift, which Fleetwood, McVie and Green used to record five songs. The fifth song was an instrumental that Green named after the rhythm section, \"Fleetwood Mac\" (\"Mac\" being short for McVie). Soon after this, Green suggested to Fleetwood that they form a new band. The pair wanted McVie on bass guitar and named the band \"Fleetwood Mac\" to entice him, but McVie opted to keep his steady income with Mayall rather than take a risk with a new band. In the meantime, Green and Fleetwood teamed up with slide",
"up with slide guitaristJeremy Spencerand bassistBob Brunning. Brunning was in the band on the understanding that he would leave if McVie agreed to join.The band made its debut on Sunday 13 August 1967 at theNational Jazz and Blues Festival(a forerunner ofthe Reading Festival), billed as \"Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac featuring Jeremy Spencer\". Brunning played only a few gigs with Fleetwood Mac.Within a few weeks of their first show, John McVie agreed to join the band as permanent bassist. Fleetwood Mac'sself-titled debut albumwas released by theBlue Horizonlabel in February 1968. The song \"Long Grey Mare\" was recorded earlier with Brunning on bass, while the rest of the album was recorded with McVie.The album was successful in the UK and reached no. 4, although no tracks were released as singles. Later in the year, the singles \"Black Magic Woman\" (later a big hit when covered bySantana) and \"Need Your Love So Bad\" were released, both going top-forty in the UK. The band's second studio album,Mr. Wonderful, was",
"Wonderful, was released in August 1968. The album was recorded live in the studio with miked amplifiers and a PA system, rather than being plugged into the board.The sessions featured ahorn sectionas well as friend of the band,Christine PerfectofChicken Shack, on keyboards.Later that year, Chicken Shack would score a British hit with a cover of theEtta Jamesclassic \"I'd Rather Go Blind\", with Perfect on lead vocal. Perfect was voted female artist of the year byMelody Makerin 1969 and 1970. Shortly after the release ofMr. Wonderful, 18-year-old guitaristDanny Kirwanjoined the band, making Fleetwood Mac a five-piece band with three guitarists. Kirwan was in the South London blues trio Boilerhouse with Trevor Stevens (bass) and Dave Terrey (drums).Green and Fleetwood had watched Boilerhouse rehearse in a basement boiler-room, and Green had been so impressed that he invited the band to play support slots for Fleetwood Mac. Green wanted Boilerhouse to become a professional band, but Stevens and Terrey were not",
"and Terrey were not prepared to turn professional, so Green tried to find another rhythm section for Kirwan by placing an ad inMelody Maker. There were over 300 applicants, but when Green and Fleetwood ran auditions at the Nag's Head in Battersea (home of theMike Vernon'sBlue HorizonClub) the hard-to-please Green could not find anyone good enough. Instead, Fleetwood invited Kirwan to join Fleetwood Mac as a third guitarist. Green was frustrated that Jeremy Spencer did not contribute to his songs. Kirwan, a talented self-taught guitarist, had a signature vibrato and a unique style that added a new dimension to the band's sound.In November 1968, with Kirwan in the band, they released their first number-one single in Europe, \"Albatross\", an instrumental with lead guitar by both Green and Kirwan.Green said later that the success of \"Albatross\" was thanks to Kirwan: \"If it wasn't for Danny, I would never have had a number one hit record.\"In January 1969, they released their first compilation albumEnglish Rose,",
"albumEnglish Rose, which contained half ofMr. Wonderfulplus new songs from Kirwan. Their next and more successful compilation albumThe Pious Bird of Good Omenwas released in August and contained various singles, B-sides and tracks the band had recorded as back-up forEddie Boyd. On tour in the US in January 1969, the band recordedFleetwood Mac in Chicago(released in December as a double album) at the soon-to-closeChess RecordsStudio with some of the blues legends of Chicago, includingWillie Dixon,Buddy GuyandOtis Spann.These were Fleetwood Mac's last all-blues recordings, with the band moving more towards rock. Along with the change of style, the band was also going through label changes. Until that point, they had been on the Blue Horizon label, but with Kirwan in the band the musical possibilities had become too diverse for a blues-only label.The band signed withImmediate Recordsand released the single \"Man of the World\", which became another British and European hit. For the B-side, Spencer fronted",
"Spencer fronted Fleetwood Mac as \"Earl Vince and the Valiants\" and recorded \"Somebody's Gonna Get Their Head Kicked In Tonite\", typifying the more raucous rock 'n' roll side of the band. Immediate Records was in bad shape however, so the band shopped around for a new deal.The Beatleswanted the band onApple Records(Mick Fleetwood andGeorge Harrisonwere brothers-in-law), but the band's managerClifford Davisdecided to go withWarner Bros. Records(throughReprise Records, aFrank Sinatra-founded label), the label they have stayed with ever since. Under the wing of Reprise, Fleetwood Mac released their third studio album,Then Play On, in September 1969.Although the initial pressing of the American release of this album was the same as the British version, it was altered to contain the song \"Oh Well\", which featured consistently in live performances from the time of its release through 1997 and again starting in 2009.Then Play On, which saw the band broaden their style away from straight blues, was written by Kirwan",
"written by Kirwan and Green, plus a track each by Fleetwood and McVie.Jeremy Spencer, meanwhile, had recordeda solo albumof 1950s-style rock and roll songs, backed by the rest of the band except Green. By 1969, Green was usingLSD. During a European tour towards the end of that year, he experienced a bad acid trip at a hippie commune in Munich. Clifford Davis, the band's manager, singled out this incident as the crucial point in Green's mental decline.He said: \"The truth about Peter Green and how he ended up how he did is very simple. We were touring Europe in late 1969. When we were in Germany, Peter told me he had been invited to a party. I knew there were going to be a lot of drugs around and I suggested that he didn't go. But he went anyway and I understand from him that he took what turned out to be very bad, impure LSD. He was never the same again.\"German author and filmmakerRainer Langhansstated in his autobiography that he and his then-girlfriend, modelUschi Obermaier, met Green in Munich and invited",
"Munich and invited him to their Highfisch-Kommune, where the drinks were spiked with acid.Langhans and Obermaier were planning to organise an open-air \"Bavarian Woodstock\", for which they wantedJimi HendrixandThe Rolling Stonesto be the main acts. Already in contact with Hendrix, they hoped Green would help them to get in contact with The Rolling Stones. Green's last studio recording with Fleetwood Mac was \"The Green Manalishi (With the Two Prong Crown)\" and its B-side, \"World in Harmony\". The tracks were recorded at Warner-Reprise's studios in Hollywood on the band's third US tour in April 1970, a few weeks before Green left the band.Released as a single the following month, it made No. 10 in the UK. Prior to its studio recording, the band had played the song live at theBoston Tea Partyin February 1970. Some recordings of the three Boston Tea Party gigs (5–7 February 1970) were eventually released in the 1980s as theLive in Bostonalbum. A more complete remastered three-volume compilation of these shows was",
"of these shows was released bySnapper Musicin the late 1990s.\"Green Manalishi\" was released as Green's mental stability deteriorated. He wanted the band to give all their money to charity, but the other members of the band disagreed.In April 1970, Green decided to quit the band after the completion of their European tour.His last show with Fleetwood Mac was on 20 May 1970. During that show, the band went past their allotted time and the power was shut off, although Mick Fleetwood kept drumming. 1970–1973: Transitional era The remaining four members, Fleetwood, McVie, Spencer and Kirwan, set about working on their next album. In September 1970, Fleetwood Mac released their fourth studio album,Kiln House, to generally positive reviews.Kirwan's songs on the album moved the band in a melodic rock direction, while Spencer's contributions focused on re-creating the country-tinged \"Sun Sound\" of the late 1950s.Christine Perfect, now Christine McVie following her marriage to John McVie, had retired from the music",
"from the music business after one unsuccessful solo album, though she contributed (uncredited) toKiln House, singing backup vocals and playing keyboards. She also drew the album cover.AfterKiln House, Fleetwood Mac were progressing and developing a new sound, and she was invited to join the band to help fill in the rhythm section.The first time she had played live with the band had been a guest appearance atBristol University, England, in May 1969, just as she was leaving Chicken Shack,while her first gig as an official member of the band was on 1 August 1970 inNew Orleans, Louisiana.In early 1971, the band released a non-album single, Danny Kirwan's \"Dragonfly\" b/w \"The Purple Dancer\" in the UK and certain European countries, but despite good notices in the press, it was not a success. In 1971,CBS Records, which now owned Fleetwood Mac's original record company Blue Horizon (except in the US and Canada), released the band's third compilation album,The Original Fleetwood Mac, containing previously unreleased",
"unreleased material from 1967 and 1968. While on a US tour in February 1971, Jeremy Spencer said he was going out to \"get a magazine\" but never returned. After several days of frantic searching, the band discovered that Spencer had joined a religious group, theChildren of God.The band were liable for the remaining shows on the tour and asked Peter Green to step in as a replacement. Green brought along his friendNigel Watson, who played thecongas(twenty-five years later Green and Watson collaborated again to form thePeter Green Splinter Group), and insisted on playing only new material and none he had written. Green and Watson played the last week of the tour, with a show in San Bernardino on 20 February 1971 being recorded. Green did not want to re-join the band permanently and a search for a guitarist to replace Spencer began after the tour was completed. In the summer of 1971, the band held auditions for a replacement guitarist at their large country home, \"Benifold\", which they had jointly bought with",
"jointly bought with their manager Davis for £23,000 (equivalent to £449,400 in 2023) prior to theKiln Housetour.A friend of the band, Judy Wong, recommended her high school friendBob Welch, who was living in Paris, France, at the time. The band held a few meetings with Welch and decided to hire him, without actually playing with him, after they heard a tape of his songs. In September 1971, the band released their fifth studio album,Future Games. As a result of Welch's arrival and Spencer's departure, the album was different from anything they had done previously, with the band moving further away from their blues rock roots towards a more melodic rock style, and vocal harmonies starting to become a key part of their sound. While it became the band's first studio album to miss the charts in the UK, it helped to expand the band's appeal in the United States. In Europe, CBS released Fleetwood Mac's firstGreatest Hitsalbum in late 1971. In 1972, six months after the release ofFuture Games, the band released",
"the band released their sixth studio album,Bare Trees. Mostly composed by Kirwan,Bare Treesfeatured the Welch-penned single \"Sentimental Lady\", which would be a much bigger hit for Welch five years later when he re-recorded it for his solo albumFrench Kiss, backed by Mick Fleetwood and Christine McVie.Bare Treesalso featured \"Spare Me a Little of Your Love\", a Christine McVie song that became a staple of the band's live act throughout the early to mid-1970s. While the band was doing well in the studio, their tours started to be problematic. By 1972, Kirwan had developed an alcohol dependency and was becoming alienated from Welch and the McVies. In August 1972, before a concert on a US tour, Kirwan smashed his GibsonLes Paul Customguitar and refused to go on stage. The band played the show as a quartet, after which Kirwan criticised their performance, and he was subsequently fired from the band.Fleetwood said later that the pressure had become too much for Kirwan, and he had suffered a breakdown. Following",
"Following Kirwan's departure, the band recruited guitaristBob Westonand vocalistDave Walker, the latter formerly ofSavoy BrownandIdle Race.Bob Weston was well known as a slide guitarist and had known the band from his touring period withLong John Baldry. Fleetwood Mac also hired Savoy Brown's road manager, John Courage. Fleetwood, the McVies, Welch, Weston and Walker recorded the band's seventh studio album,Penguin, which was released in January 1973. After the subsequent tour the band fired Walker because they felt his vocal and performance style did not fit well with the rest of the band. The remaining five members carried on and recorded the band's eighth studio album,Mystery to Me, six months later. This album contained Welch's song \"Hypnotized\", which received airplay on the radio. WhileMystery to Meeventually received a Gold certification from theRIAA, personal problems within the band emerged. The McVies' marriage was under a lot of stress, which was aggravated by their constant working with each",
"working with each other and by John McVie's considerablealcohol abuse. In 1973, Weston had an affair with Fleetwood's wifeJenny Boyd, sister ofGeorge Harrison's first wifePattie Boyd. Fleetwood found out two weeks into a US tour. His devastation led to the band firing Weston and cancelling the remaining 26 dates of the tour.The last date played wasLincoln, Nebraska, on 20 October 1973.In a late-night meeting after that show, the band told their sound engineer that the tour was over and Fleetwood Mac was splitting up. 1973–1974: Name dispute and \"fake Fleetwood Mac\" In late 1973, after the collapse of the US tour, the band's manager,Clifford Davis, was left with major touring commitments to fulfill and no band.Fleetwood Mac had \"temporarily disbanded\" in Nebraska and its members had gone their separate ways.Davis was concerned that failing to complete the tour would destroy his reputation with bookers and promoters.He sent the band a letter in which he said he \"hadn't slaved for years to be brought down by",
"be brought down by the whims of irresponsible musicians\".Davis claimed that he owned the name 'Fleetwood Mac' and the right to choose the band members.He recruited members of the band Legs, which had recently issued one single under Davis's management,to tour the US in early 1974under the name \"The New Fleetwood Mac\"and perform the rescheduled dates. This band—who former vocalist Dave Walker said were \"very good\"—consisted ofElmer Gantry(Dave Terry, formerly ofVelvet Opera: vocals, guitar),Kirby Gregory(formerly ofCurved Air: guitar),Paul Martinez(formerly of theDownliners Sect: bass), John Wilkinson (also known as Dave Wilkinson:keyboards) and Australian drummer Craig Collinge (formerly ofManfred Mann Chapter Three,The Librettos,ProcessionandThird World War).The members of this group were told that Mick Fleetwood would join them on the tour to validate the use of the name.Fleetwood said later that he had not agreed to be part of the tour. The \"New Fleetwood Mac\" tour began on 16 January 1974 at theSyria",
"1974 at theSyria MosqueinPittsburgh, Pennsylvania,and was initially successful. One of the band members said the first concert \"went down a storm\".The promoter was dubious at first but said later that the crowd had loved the band and they were \"actually really good\".More successful gigs followed, but then word got around that this was not the real Fleetwood Mac and audiences became hostile. The band was turned away from several gigs and the next six shows were pulled by promoters. The band struggled on and played further dates in the face of increasing hostility and heckling. More dates were pulled, the keyboard player quit, and after a concert inEdmontonwhere bottles were thrown at the stage, the tour collapsed. The band dissolved and the remainder of the tour was cancelled. Thelawsuitthat followed regarding who owned the rights to the name \"Fleetwood Mac\" put the real Fleetwood Mac on hiatus for almost a year. Although the band was named after Mick Fleetwood and John McVie, they had apparently signed",
"apparently signed contracts in which they had forfeited the rights to the name.Their record company,Warner Bros. Records, when appealed to, said they did not know who owned it.The dispute was eventually settled out of court, four years later, in what was described as \"a reasonable settlement not unfair to either party\".In later years Fleetwood said that, in the end, he was grateful to Davis because the lawsuit was the reason the band moved to California. Nobody from the alternative line-up was ever made a part of the real Fleetwood Mac, although some of them later played in Danny Kirwan's studio band. Gantry and Gregory went on to become members ofStretch, whose 1975 UK hit single \"Why Did You Do It?\" was written about the touring debacle.Gantry later collaborated with theAlan Parsons Project. Martinez went on to play with theDeep PurpleoffshootPaice Ashton Lord,as well asRobert Plant's backing band. 1974: Return of the authentic Fleetwood Mac While the fake Fleetwood Mac were on tour, Welch stayed in Los",
"Welch stayed in Los Angeles and connected with entertainment attorneys. He realised that Fleetwood Mac was being neglected by Warner Bros and that they would need to change their base of operation from England to America, to which the rest of the band agreed. The presence of a false Fleetwood Mac had also confused matters. Rock promoterBill Grahamwrote a letter to Warner Bros to convince them that the real Fleetwood Mac was Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie, and Bob Welch. This did not end the legal battle, but the band was able to record as Fleetwood Mac again.Instead of hiring another manager, Fleetwood Mac, having re-formed, became the only major rock band managed by the artists themselves. In September 1974, Fleetwood Mac signed a new recording contract with Warner Bros, but remained on the Reprise label. In the same month, the band released their ninth studio album,Heroes Are Hard to Find. This was the first time Fleetwood Mac had only one guitarist. While on tour, they briefly added a second",
"added a second keyboardist, Doug Graves, who had been an engineer onHeroes Are Hard to Find. In 1980, Christine McVie said Graves had been there to back her up, but after the first two or three concerts it was decided that she was better off without him: \"The band wanted me to expand my role and have a little more freedom, but he didn't play the same way I did.\"Keyboard player Robert (\"Bobby\") Hunt, who had been in the band Head West with Bob Welch in 1970, replaced Graves for the remaining dates on the tour but was not invited to join the band full time. By the time the tour ended (on 5 December 1974 at Cal State University), theHeroesalbum had reached a higher position on the American charts than any of the band's previous records. 1974–1987: Addition of Buckingham and Nicks, and global success In Bob Welch's words, following theHeroes are Hard to Findtour, \"the buzz that theMystery to Meband had started to create... gone. I totally exhausted by writing, singing, touring, negotiating, moving, and frankly",
"moving, and frankly so Mick, John and Chris. We werealldiscouraged thatHeroes done better. Something needs to change, but what? … There was also a kind of fatigue, anger and bitterness that all the work we had done hadn't really paid off and we were just all sort of shaking our heads saying 'what do we do now' … Everybody knew that we had to find some new creative juice.\"Welch himself had grown tired of the constant struggles to keep Fleetwood Mac functioning and was openly considering leaving the band. Whilst Fleetwood was checking outSound City Studiosin Los Angeles during the autumn of 1974, the house engineer,Keith Olsen, played him a track he had recorded, \"Frozen Love\", from the albumBuckingham Nicks(1973).Fleetwood liked it and was introduced to the guitarist from the band,Lindsey Buckingham, who was at Sound City that day recording demos.Fleetwood asked him to join Fleetwood Mac, and Buckingham agreed, on the condition that his music partner and girlfriend,Stevie Nicks, be included. Welch considered",
"Welch considered remaining as part of this extended lineup but opted to depart for a solo career. Buckingham and Nicks joined the band on New Year's Eve 1974. In 1975, the new line-up released their first album together, the self-titledFleetwood Mac, the band's tenth studio album overall. The album was a breakthrough for the band and became a huge hit, reaching No. 1 in the US and selling over 7 million copies. Among the hit singles from this album were Christine McVie's \"Over My Head\" and \"Say You Love Me\" and Stevie Nicks' \"Rhiannon\", as well as the much-played album track \"Landslide\", a live rendition of which became a hit twenty years later onThe Dancealbum. In 1976, the band was suffering from severe stress. With success came the end of John and Christine McVie's marriage, as well as Buckingham and Nicks's long-term romantic relationship. Fleetwood, meanwhile, was in the midst of divorce proceedings from his wife, Jenny, and had also begun an affair with Nicks.The pressure on Fleetwood Mac to release a",
"Mac to release a successful follow-up album, combined with their new-found wealth, led to creative and personal tensions which were allegedly fuelled by high consumption of drugs and alcohol. The band's eleventh studio album,Rumours(the band's first release on the main Warner label after Reprise was retired and all of its acts were reassigned to the parent label), was released in February 1977. In this album, the band members laid bare the emotional turmoil they were experiencing at the time.Rumourswas critically acclaimed and won theGrammy Award for Album of the Yearin 1977. The album generated four top-ten singles: Buckingham's \"Go Your Own Way\", Nicks' US No. 1 \"Dreams\", and Christine McVie's \"Don't Stop\" and \"You Make Loving Fun\". Buckingham's \"Second Hand News\", Nicks' \"Gold Dust Woman\", and \"The Chain\" (the only song written by all five band members) also received significant radio airplay. By 2003,Rumourshad sold over 19 million copies in the US alone (certified as adiamond albumby theRIAA) and a",
"theRIAA) and a total of 40 million copies worldwide, bringing it to eighth on thelist of best-selling albums. Fleetwood Mac supported the album with a lucrative tour. On 10 October 1979, Fleetwood Mac were honoured for their contributions to the music industry with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6608Hollywood Boulevard. Buckingham convinced Fleetwood to let his work on their next album be more experimental and to be allowed to work on tracks at home before bringing them to the rest of the band in the studio. The result of this, the band's twelfth studio albumTusk, was a 20-track double album released in 1979. It produced three hit singles: Buckingham's \"Tusk\" (US No. 8), which featured theUSC Trojan Marching Band; Christine McVie's \"Think About Me\" (US No. 20); and Nicks' six-and-a-half minute opus \"Sara\" (US No. 7). \"Sara\" was cut to four-and-a-half minutes for both the single and the first CD release of the album in the 1980s, but the full version has since been restored on the 1988Greatest Hits,",
"1988Greatest Hits, the 199225 Years – The Chainbox set, 2002'sThe Very Best of Fleetwood Mac, and the 2004 remaster ofTusk. Original guitarist Peter Green also took part in the sessions ofTusk, although his playing on the Christine McVie track \"Brown Eyes\", is not credited on the album.In an interview in 2019, Fleetwood describedTuskas his \"personal favourite\" and said, \"Kudos to Lindsey … for us not doing a replica ofRumours.\" Tusksold four million copies worldwide. Fleetwood blamed the album's relative lack of commercial success on theRKOradio chain having played the album in its entirety prior to release, thereby allowing mass home taping. The band embarked on an 11-month tour to support and promoteTusk. They travelled around the world, including the US, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In Germany, they shared the bill with reggae musicianBob Marley.On this world tour, the band recorded music fortheir first live album, which was released at",
"was released at the end of 1980. The band's thirteenth studio album,Mirage, was released in 1982. Following 1981 solo albums by Nicks (Bella Donna), Fleetwood (The Visitor), and Buckingham (Law and Order), there was a return to a more conventional approach. Buckingham had been chided by critics, fellow band members, and music business managers for the lesser commercial success ofTusk. Recorded atChâteau d'Hérouvillein France and produced byRichard Dashut,Miragewas an attempt to recapture the huge success ofRumours. Its hits included Christine McVie's \"Hold Me\" and \"Love in Store\" (co-written byRobbie Pattonand Jim Recor, respectively), Nicks' \"Gypsy\", and Buckingham's \"Oh Diane\", which made the Top 10 in the UK. A minor hit was also scored by Buckingham's \"Can't Go Back\". In contrast to theTusk Tour, the band embarked on only a short tour of 18 American cities, with the Los Angeles show being recorded and released on video. They also headlined the firstUS Festival, on 5 September 1982, for which the band was",
"which the band was paid $500,000 (equivalent to $1,579,000 in 2024).Miragewas certified double platinum in the US. FollowingMiragethe band went on hiatus, which allowed members to pursue solo careers. Nicks released two more solo albums (1983'sThe Wild Heartand 1985'sRock a Little). Buckingham issuedGo Insanein 1984, the same year that Christine McVie made aneponymous album(yielding the Top 10 hit \"Got a Hold on Me\" and the Top 40 hit \"Love Will Show Us How\"). All three became successful in their solo efforts, with Nicks being the most popular. During this period, Fleetwood had filed for bankruptcy, Nicks was admitted to theBetty Ford Clinicfor addiction problems, and John McVie had suffered an addiction-related seizure – all of which were attributed to the lifestyle of excess afforded to them by their worldwide success. It was rumoured that Fleetwood Mac had disbanded, but Buckingham commented that he was unhappy at allowingMirageto remain the band's last effort. The lineup featuring Fleetwood, the McVies,",
"the McVies, Buckingham, and Nicks recorded one more album, their fourteenth studio album,Tango in the Night, in 1987. The recording started off as a Buckingham solo album before becoming a full group project. The album went on to become their best-selling release sinceRumours, especially in the UK where it hit No. 1 three times in the following year. The album sold three million copies in the US and contained four hits: Christine McVie's \"Little Lies\" and \"Everywhere\" (\"Little Lies\" being co-written with her new husband, Eddy Quintela),Sandy Stewartand Nicks' \"Seven Wonders\", and Buckingham's \"Big Love\". \"Family Man\" (Buckingham andRichard Dashut) and \"Isn't It Midnight\" (Christine McVie) were also released as singles. 1987–1995: Departures of Buckingham and Nicks With a ten-week tour scheduled, Buckingham held back at the last minute, saying he felt his creativity was being stifled. A group meeting at Christine McVie's house on 7 August 1987 resulted in turmoil. Tensions were coming to a head. Fleetwood",
"a head. Fleetwood said in his autobiography that there was a physical altercation between Buckingham and Nicks. Buckingham left the band the following day.After Buckingham's departure, Fleetwood Mac added two new guitarists to the band,Billy BurnetteandRick Vito, again without auditions. Burnette was the son ofDorsey Burnetteand nephew ofJohnny Burnette, both ofThe Rock and Roll Trio. He had already worked with Fleetwood in Zoo, with Christine McVie as part of her solo band, had done some session work with Nicks, and backed Buckingham onSaturday Night Live. Fleetwood and Christine McVie had played on hisTry Mealbum in 1985. Vito, a Peter Green admirer, had played with many artists fromBonnie Raittto John Mayall, toRoger McGuinninThunderbyrdand worked with John McVie on two Mayall albums. The 1987–88 \"Shake the Cage\" tour was the first outing for this line-up. It was successful enough to warrant the release of a concert video, also titledTango in the Night, which was filmed at San Francisco'sCow Palacearena",
"Palacearena in December 1987. Capitalising on the success of theTango in the Nightalbum, the band released aGreatest Hitsalbum in 1988. It featured singles from the 1975–1988 era and included two new compositions, \"No Questions Asked\" written by Nicks and Kelly Johnston, and \"As Long as You Follow\", written by Christine McVie and Quintela. 'As Long as You Follow' was released as a single in 1988 but only made No. 43 in the US and No. 66 in the UK, although it reached No.1 on the US Adult Contemporary charts. TheGreatest Hitsalbum, which peaked at No. 3 in the UK and No. 14 in the US (though it has since sold over 8 million copies there) was dedicated by the band to Buckingham, with whom they were now reconciled. In 1990, Fleetwood Mac released their fifteenth studio album,Behind the Mask. With this album, the band veered away from the stylised sound that Buckingham had evolved during his tenure (which was also evident in his solo work) and developed a moreadult contemporarystyle with producerGreg Ladanyi.",
"Ladanyi. The album yielded only one Top 40 hit, Christine McVie's \"Save Me\".Behind the Maskonly achievedGoldalbum status in the US, peaking at No. 18 on theBillboardalbum chart, though it entered the UK Albums Chart at No. 1. It received mixed reviews and was seen by some music critics as a low point for the band in the absence of Buckingham (who had actually made a guest appearance playing on the title track). ButRolling Stonemagazine said that Vito and Burnette were \"the best thing to ever happen to Fleetwood Mac\".The subsequent \"Behind the Mask\" tour saw the band play sold-out shows at London's Wembley Stadium. In the final show in Los Angeles, Buckingham joined the band onstage. The two women of the band, McVie and Nicks, had decided that the tour would be their last (McVie's father had died during the tour), although both stated that they would still record with the band. In 1991, however, Nicks and Rick Vito left Fleetwood Mac altogether. In 1992, Fleetwood arranged a 4-CD box set, spanning highlights",
"spanning highlights from the band's 25-year history, entitled25 Years – The Chain(a cut-down 2-CD box set,Selections from 25 Years – The Chain, was also released). A notable inclusion in the box set was \"Silver Springs\", a Nicks composition that was recorded during theRumourssessions but was omitted from the album and used as the B-side of \"Go Your Own Way\". Nicks had requested use of this track for her 1991 best-of compilationTimeSpace, but Fleetwood had refused as he had planned to include it in this collection as a rarity.The disagreement between Nicks and Fleetwood garnered press coverage and was believed to have been the main reason for Nicks leaving the band in 1991.The box set also included a new Nicks/Vito composition, \"Paper Doll\", which was released in the US as a single and produced by Buckingham and Richard Dashut.There were also two new Christine McVie compositions, \"Heart of Stone\" and\"Love Shines\". \"Love Shines\" was released as a single in the UK and elsewhere. Buckingham also contributed a",
"also contributed a new song, \"Make Me a Mask\". Fleetwood also released a deluxe hardcover companion book to coincide with the release of the box set, titledMy 25 Years in Fleetwood Mac. The volume featured notes written by Fleetwood detailing the band's 25-year history and many rare photographs. The classic 1974–1987 line-up reunited in 1993 at the request of US PresidentBill Clintonfor his firstInaugural Ball. Clinton had made Fleetwood Mac's \"Don't Stop\" his campaign theme song. His request for it to be performed at the Inauguration Ball was met with enthusiasm by the band, although this line-up had no intention of reuniting permanently. Inspired by the new interest in the band, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie, and Billy Burnette recorded another album as Fleetwood Mac, withBekka Bramlett, who had worked a year earlier with Fleetwood's Zoo, joining the band. Solo singer-songwriter/guitarist and originalTrafficmemberDave Mason, who had worked with Bekka's parentsDelaney & Bonnietwenty-five years",
"years earlier, was also added. Although she remained an official band member and would be part of the next studio album, Christine McVie chose to take a break from touring around this time. The other five members (Fleetwood, J. McVie, Burnette, Bramlett and Mason) toured in 1994, opening forCrosby, Stills, & Nash, and in 1995 as part of a package withREO SpeedwagonandPat Benatar.This tour saw the band perform classic Fleetwood Mac songs spanning the band's whole history to that point. In 1995, at a concert in Tokyo, the band was greeted by former member Jeremy Spencer, who performed a few songs with them. On 10 October 1995, Fleetwood Mac released their sixteenth studio album,Time, which was not a success. Although it hit the UK Top 50 for one week, the album had zero impact in the US. It failed to graze theBillboardTop 200 albums chart, a reversal for a band that had been a mainstay on that chart for most of the previous two decades. Shortly after the album's release, Christine McVie informed the band that",
"the band that the album would be her last. Bramlett and Burnette subsequently formed acountry musicduo,Bekka & Billy. 1995–2007: Reformation, reunion, and Christine McVie's departure Just weeks after disbanding Fleetwood Mac, Mick Fleetwood started working with Lindsey Buckingham again. John McVie was added to the sessions, and later Christine McVie. Stevie Nicks also enlisted Buckingham to produce a song for a soundtrack. In May 1996, Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie, and Nicks performed together at a private party inLouisville, Kentucky, prior to theKentucky Derby, withSteve Winwoodfilling in for Buckingham. A week later, theTwisterfilm soundtrack was released, which featured the Nicks-Buckingham duet \"Twisted\", with Fleetwood on drums. This eventually led to a full reunion of theRumoursline-up, which officially reformed in March 1997. The regrouped Fleetwood Mac performed a live concert on a soundstage atWarner Bros.Burbank, California, on 22 May 1997. The reconvening of this lineup spurred from",
"lineup spurred from Buckingham asking Fleetwood to contribute to a solo album he had been working on; he subsequently brought other members of the band to participate.Buckingham said in an interview withMojo magazineregarding the five of them coming together again that their \"chemistry was very present\".The concert was recorded and filmed, and from this performance came the 1997 live album and videoThe Dance, which brought the band back to the top of the US album charts for the first time in ten years. In addition to live performances of their most notable songs, the album also featured new songs including \"Bleed to Love Her\" and \"Temporary One\".The album was certified five million units by theRIAA.An arena tour followed theMTVpremiere ofThe Dancevideo and kept the reunited Fleetwood Mac on the road throughout much of 1997, the 20th anniversary ofRumours. With additional musicians Neale Heywood on guitar, Brett Tuggle on keyboards, Lenny Castro on percussion and Sharon Celani (who had toured with the band in",
"with the band in the late 1980s) and Mindy Stein on backing vocals, this would be the final appearance of the classic line-up including Christine McVie for 16 years. Neale Heywood and Sharon Celani remain touring members to this day. In 1998 Fleetwood Mac were inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Members inducted included the 1968–1970 band, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Peter Green, Jeremy Spencer, and Danny Kirwan, andRumours-era members Christine McVie, Stevie Nicks, and Lindsey Buckingham. Bob Welch was not included, despite his key role in keeping the band alive during the early 1970s. TheRumours-era version of the band performed both at the induction ceremony and at the Grammy Awards programme that year. Peter Green attended the induction ceremony but did not perform with his former bandmates, opting instead to perform his composition \"Black Magic Woman\" withSantana, who were inducted the same night. Neither Jeremy Spencer nor Danny Kirwan attended. Fleetwood Mac also received the \"Outstanding",
"the \"Outstanding Contribution to Music\" award at theBrit Awards(British Phonographic Industry Awards) the same year. Shortly after this, Christine McVie officially left the band. 2002 saw the release ofThe Very Best of Fleetwood Mac, issued as a 21-track single CD in the UK and a 40-track double CD in the US. Christine McVie's departure left Buckingham and Nicks as the two singer-songwriters on the band's seventeenth studio album,Say You Will, released in 2003 (although Christine contributed some backing vocals and keyboards as a guest). The album debuted at No.3 on theBillboard200 chart (No. 6 in the UK) and yielded chart hits with \"Peacekeeper\" and the title track, and a successful world arena tour which lasted through 2004. The tour grossed $27,711,129 and was ranked No. 21 in the top 25 grossing tours of 2004. Around 2004–05 there were rumours of a reunion of the early line-up of Fleetwood Mac involving Peter Green and Jeremy Spencer. While these two apparently remained unconvinced,in April 2006 bassist",
"April 2006 bassist John McVie, during a question-and-answer session on thePenguinFleetwood Mac fan website, said of the reunion idea: If we could get Peter and Jeremy to do it, I'd probably, maybe, do it. I know Mick would do it in a flash. Unfortunately, I don't think there's much chance of Danny doing it. Bless his heart. In interviews given in November 2006 to support his solo albumUnder the Skin, Buckingham stated that plans for the band to reunite once more for a 2008 tour were still in the cards. Recording plans had been put on hold for the foreseeable future. In an interview Nicks gave to the UK newspaperThe Daily Telegraphin September 2007, she stated that she was unwilling to carry on with the band unless Christine McVie returned. 2008–2013: Touring activity In March 2008, it was mooted thatSheryl Crowmight work with Fleetwood Mac in 2009. Crow and Stevie Nicks had collaborated in the past and Crow had stated that Nicks had been a great teacher and inspiration to her.Later, Buckingham said that the",
"said that the potential collaboration with Crow had \"lost its momentum\"and the idea was abandoned. In March 2009, Fleetwood Mac started their \"Unleashed\" tour, again without Christine McVie. It was a greatest hits show, although album tracks such as \"Storms\" and \"I Know I'm Not Wrong\" were also played. During their show on 20 June 2009 inNew Orleans, Louisiana, Stevie Nicks premiered part of a new song that she had written aboutHurricane Katrina.The song was later released as \"New Orleans\" on Nicks's 2011 albumIn Your Dreamswith Mick Fleetwood on drums. In October 2009 and November, the band toured Europe, followed by Australia and New Zealand in December. In October, 2002'sThe Very Best of Fleetwood Macwas re-released in the UK, this time using the US 2-CD track listing, entering at number six on the UK Albums Chart. On 1 November 2009 a one-hour documentary,Fleetwood Mac: Don't Stop, was broadcast in the UK onBBC One, featuring recent interviews with all four current band members.During the documentary,",
"the documentary, Nicks gave a candid summary of the current state of her relationship with Buckingham, saying, \"Maybe when we're 75 and Fleetwood Mac is a distant memory, we might be friends.\" On 6 November 2009, Fleetwood Mac played the last show of the European leg of theirUnleashedtour at London'sWembley Arena. Christine McVie was in the audience. Nicks paid tribute to her from the stage to a standing ovation from the audience, saying that she thought about her former bandmate \"every day\", and dedicated that night's performance of \"Landslide\" to her. On 19 December 2009, Fleetwood Mac played the second-to-last show of theirUnleashedtour to a sell-out crowd in New Zealand, at what was intended to be a one-off event at theTSB Bowl of Brooklandsin New Plymouth. Tickets, after pre-sales, sold out within twelve minutes of public release. Another date, Sunday 20 December, was addedand also sold out. The tour grossed $84,900,000 and was ranked No. 13 in the highest grossing worldwide tours of 2009. On 19 October",
"2009. On 19 October 2010, Fleetwood Mac played a private show at the Phoenician Hotel inScottsdale, Arizonafor TPG (Texas Pacific Group). On 3 May 2011, theFox Networkbroadcast an episode ofGleeentitled \"Rumours\" that featured six songs from the band's 1977 album.The show sparked renewed interest in the band and its most commercially successful album, andRumoursre-entered theBillboard200chart at No.11 in the same week that Nicks's solo albumIn Your Dreamsdebuted at No.6. (She was quoted byBillboardsaying that her new album was \"my own littleRumours.\") The two recordings sold about 30,000 and 52,000 units respectively. Music downloads accounted for 91 per cent of theRumourssales. The spike in sales forRumoursrepresented an increase of 1,951%. It was the highest chart entry by a previously issued album sinceThe Rolling Stones'reissue ofExile On Main St.re-entered the chart at No. 2 on 5 June 2010.In an interview in July 2012 Nicks confirmed that the band would reunite for a tour in 2013. Original Fleetwood Mac",
"Fleetwood Mac bassistBob Brunningdied on 18 October 2011 at the age of 68.Former guitarist and singerBob Westonwas found dead on 3 January 2012 at the age of 64.Former singer and guitaristBob Welchwas found dead from a self-inflicted gunshot wound on 7 June 2012 at the age of 66.Don Aaron, a spokesman at the scene, stated, \"He died from an apparent self-inflicted gunshot wound to the chest.\" A suicide note was found. Welch had been struggling with health issues and was dealing with depression. His wife discovered his body. The band's 2013 tour, which took place in 34 cities, started on 4 April inColumbus, Ohio. The band performed two new songs (\"Sad Angel\" and \"Without You\"), which Buckingham described as some of the most \"Fleetwood Mac-ey\"-sounding songs sinceMirage. \"Without You\" was rerecorded from the Buckingham-Nicks era.The band released their first new studio material in ten years,Extended Play, on 30 April 2013.The EP debuted and peaked at No. 48 in the US and produced one single, \"Sad Angel\". On 25",
"\"Sad Angel\". On 25 and 27 September 2013, the second and third nights of the band's London O2 shows, Christine McVie joined them on stage for \"Don't Stop\".\" words to us were, 'She can't just come and go,'\" Nicks recalled. \"That's important to him, but it's not so important to me... Much as Lindsey adores her – and he does; she's the only one in Fleetwood Mac he was ever really willing to listen to – he doesn't want the first-night reviews to be all about Christine's one song, rather than the set we rehearsed for two months. But it will be wonderful to have her back up there – and, from there, who knows?\" On 27 October 2013, the band cancelled their New Zealand and Australian performances after John McVie had been diagnosed with cancer so that he could undergo treatment. They said: \"We are sorry not to be able to play these Australian and New Zealand dates. We hope our Australian and New Zealand fans as well as Fleetwood Mac fans everywhere will join us in wishing John and his family all the best.\"Also in",
"the best.\"Also in October 2013, Stevie Nicks appeared inAmerican Horror Story: Covenwith Fleetwood Mac's song \"Seven Wonders\" playing in the background.In November 2013, Christine McVie expressed interest in a return to Fleetwood Mac, and also affirmed that John McVie's prognosis was \"really good\". 2014–present: Final years On 11 January 2014, Mick Fleetwood confirmed that Christine McVie would be rejoining Fleetwood Mac.On with the Show, a 33-city North American tour, opened inMinneapolis, Minnesota, on 30 September 2014.A series of May–June 2015 arena dates in the United Kingdom went on sale on 14 November, selling out in minutes. High demand caused additional dates to be added to the tour, including an Australian leg. In January 2015, Buckingham suggested that the new album and tour might be Fleetwood Mac's last, and that the band would cease operations in 2015 or soon afterwards. He said work would continue on the new album, and solo work would be low priority for a few years.Fleetwood said the new album",
"said the new album might take a few years to complete and that they were waiting for contributions from Nicks, who had been ambivalent about committing to a new record. In August 2016, Fleetwood said that while the band had \"a huge amount of recorded music\", virtually none of it featured Nicks. Buckingham and Christine McVie, however, had contributed many songs to the new project.Nicks explained her reluctance to record another album with Fleetwood Mac. \"Do you want to take a chance on a bunch of arguing people? And then not wanting to go on tour because you just spent a year arguing?\" On 9 June 2017, Buckingham and Christine McVie released a new album, titledLindsey Buckingham/Christine McVie, which included contributions from Mick Fleetwood and John McVie.The album was preceded by the single \"In My World\". A 38-date tour to support the album began on 21 June and concluded 16 November.Fleetwood Mac also planned to embark on another tour in 2018.The band headlined the second night of the Classic West",
"of the Classic West concert on 16 July 2017 atDodger Stadiumin Los Angeles, and the second night of the Classic East concert at New York City'sCiti Fieldon 30 July 2017. In January 2018, Fleetwood Mac received theMusiCares Person of the Yearaward and reunited to perform several songs at theGrammy-hosted gala honouring them.In April 2018, the song \"Dreams\" re-entered the Hot Rock Songs chart at No. 16 after a viral meme had featured it. This chart re-entry came 40 years after the song had topped the Hot 100. The song's streaming totals also translated into 7,000 \"equivalent album units\", a jump of 12 per cent, which helpedRumoursto go from No. 21 to No. 13 on the Top Rock Albums chart. In April 2018 Buckingham departed from the group a second time, having reportedly been dismissed.The reason was said to have been a disagreement about the nature of the tour,and in particular the question of whether newer or less well-known material would be included, as Buckingham wanted.Fleetwood stated onCBS This Morningon",
"This Morningon 25 April 2018 that Buckingham would not sign off on a tour that the group had been planning for a year and a half and they had reached a disagreement. When asked if Buckingham had been fired, he said, \"We don't use that word because I think it's ugly.\" He said Buckingham's work in Fleetwood Mac would continue to be respected. In October 2018, Buckingham filed a lawsuit against Fleetwood Mac for breach of fiduciary duty, breach of oral contract, and intentional interference with prospective economic advantage, among other claims.He later reached a settlement with the band but did not reveal the specific terms that were agreed upon.Buckingham also provided his version of what had led to his departure from the band. He said that after their performance at the MusiCares event, the band's manager, Irving Azoff, had told him that, among other things, Nicks was not happy about his reaction to the intro music for their acceptance speech being \"Rhiannon\", and about the way he had allegedly \"smirked\"",
"allegedly \"smirked\" during her thank-you speech. Buckingham conceded the first point. \"It wasn't about it being 'Rhiannon'. It just undermined the impact of our entrance.\" Azoff subsequently told him that Nicks had given the rest of the band an ultimatum: either Buckingham went or she would. FormerTom Petty and the HeartbreakersguitaristMike CampbellandNeil FinnofCrowded Housewere named to replace Buckingham.Aside from touring, the band planned to record new music with Campbell and Finn in the future.The band's \"An Evening with Fleetwood Mac\" tour started in October 2018. The band launched the tour at the iHeartRadio Music Festival on 21 September 2018 at theT-Mobile Arenain Las Vegas. On 8 June 2018, former Fleetwood Mac guitaristDanny Kirwandied at the age of 68 in a hostel for homeless alcoholics in London, after contractingpneumoniaearlier in the year.Mojoquoted Christine McVie as saying: \"Nobody else could play like him. He was a one-off. Danny was a perfectionist; a fantastic musician and a fantastic",
"and a fantastic writer.\"One of Kirwan's songs, \"Tell Me All the Things You Do\" fromKiln House, was included in the set of the \"An Evening with Fleetwood Mac\" tour. On 28 May 2020, Neil Finn, featuring Nicks and McVie with Campbell on guitar, released the song \"Find Your Way Back Home\" for the Auckland homeless shelterAuckland City Mission. Founding member Peter Green died on 25 July 2020 at the age of 73. In October 2020,Rumoursagain entered theBillboardtop 10. The album received 30.6 million streams on streaming platforms the week of 15 October, which was in part due to aviral videofeaturing the song \"Dreams\". On 30 November 2022, Christine McVie died at the age of 79.In February 2023, when asked about further activity from the band, Fleetwood replied, \"I think right now, I truly think the line in the sand has been drawn with the loss of Chris. I'd say we're done, but then we've all said that before. It's sort of unthinkable right now.\" He said the other surviving members were keeping themselves busy with",
"busy with musical pursuits outside the band and that he intended to do the same.In an October 2023 interview, Nicks stated that she saw no reason to continue the band after McVie's death.Upon the release of Crowded House's albumGravity Stairsin 2024, Finn expressed surprise that the online encyclopediaWikipediastill listed him as a member of Fleetwood Mac.In a 2024 interview withMojo, Nicks reiterated that the band would not continue without Christine McVie. Tours Band members Final lineup Timeline Official Touring Discography Studio albums Awards and nominations Grammy Awards Citations Sources Further reading External links"
] |
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"Anthem Lights Anthem Lightsis an AmericanChristianvocalquartetwith roots inNashville,Tennesseeand atLiberty University.The group, all of whom having studied at Liberty between 2003 and 2009 without ever having met,began performing in 2007 using the name Yellow Cavalier. On May 26, 2009, they independently released their first and onlyEPusing the Yellow Cavalier name.The group'sdebut albumunder their current name was released on May 10, 2011, byReunion Records, and they tallied five subsequent full-length releases prior to being dropped by the label in 2023. Beginnings Anthem Lights began as a solo project for vocalist Chad Graham in the fall of 2007.Both he andAlan Powellwere living inLos Angeles, writing music for Graham's solo project. As the last of the vocal tracks were being finalized, both men realized that the songs they'd written were more appropriate for an ensemble than a solo act.It was then that Powell and Graham decided to alert their contacts atLiberty Universityin an effort to recruit members for what is now a singing group.Powell and Graham's contacts came to a consensus that Kyle Kupecky and Caleb Grimm would be the best candidates for the project. After receiving notifications by e-mail, Graham flew from Los Angeles to meet with Kupecky and Grimm, who gladly accepted membership. Powell joined the group at the last minute. The original name of the group was Yellow Cavalier.The group recorded one self-titled EP under this name in 2009. The EP was released independently on May 26, 2009. The group changed their name to Anthem Lights before any other projects were released. Name change The group's name changed to Anthem Lights sometime after their independent release as Yellow Cavalier. Months later, the group signed toReunion Records. Vocalist Kyle Kupecky comments about the meaning behind the name: These songs this record is our anthem to the world saying, \"Listen, we know there's a lot of darkness in this life, but in the end, light is gonna win.\" And we wanna be the light to people and just show them who the light of the world is. On February 1, 2011, Anthem Lights released theAnthem LightsEP. Although it was the second EP by the group,it was the first on Reunion Records and the first under their current name.The EP received very positive reviewsand chart success as \"Can't Shut Up,\" the first track from the EP, peaked at No. 42 onBillboard'sChristian Songschartand at No. 27 on the CHR radio charts.All of the tracks on the EP were also featured on theirdebut album, which was also self-titled.The album was released May 10, 2011. On May 7, 2012, the group announced their first lineup change with the news that Kyle Kupecky had left the group,adding later that day that they had already selected someone to replace him. One week later, on May 14, 2012, they introduced Joseph \"Joey\" Stamper as the new member during a livestream onUstream. Anthem Lights performed on the Listen to the Sound Tour.The tour washeadlinedbyBuilding 429, since the tour carried the same name as their latest album, and it featuredRevive. Anthem Lights performed on the 2011 Rock & Worship Roadshow tour along withMercyMe,Jars of Clay, andThe Afters. The albumYou Have My Heartwas released on February 4, 2014.The albumEscapewas released on October 14, 2014. On February 1, 2016, former singer-guitarist-pianist Alan Powell left the band to pursue a career in acting. On April 7, 2017, they released their fourth album,Hymns. On October 12, 2017, they released their fifth album,Painted Skies. This is their first album with Spencer Kane, a solo Christian artist formerly of the TV Series iShine Knect of TBN Studiosand a 6 time award winnerand Billboard charting indie artist. On February 2, 2018, the band released a compilation album calledBetter Together: The Mixtape, which features an acoustic version of their songBetter Together, along with solo music from each of the members, On March 16, 2018, they released their sixth album,Hymns Vol. II. Members Current members Former members Discography Studio albums Studio EPs Singles Compilation appearances References"
] | [
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Song_(2014_film",
"Anthem Lights Anthem Lightsis an AmericanChristianvocalquartetwith roots inNashville,Tennesseeand atLiberty University.The group, all of whom having studied at Liberty between 2003 and 2009 without ever having met,began performing in 2007 using the name Yellow Cavalier. On May 26, 2009, they independently released their first and onlyEPusing the Yellow Cavalier name.The group'sdebut albumunder their current name was released on May 10, 2011, byReunion Records, and they tallied five subsequent full-length releases prior to being dropped by the label in 2023. Beginnings Anthem Lights began as a solo project for vocalist Chad Graham in the fall of 2007.Both he andAlan Powellwere living inLos Angeles, writing music for Graham's solo project. As the last of the vocal tracks were being finalized, both men realized that the songs they'd written were more appropriate for an ensemble than a solo act.It was then that Powell and Graham decided to alert their contacts atLiberty Universityin an effort to recruit members",
"to recruit members for what is now a singing group.Powell and Graham's contacts came to a consensus that Kyle Kupecky and Caleb Grimm would be the best candidates for the project. After receiving notifications by e-mail, Graham flew from Los Angeles to meet with Kupecky and Grimm, who gladly accepted membership. Powell joined the group at the last minute. The original name of the group was Yellow Cavalier.The group recorded one self-titled EP under this name in 2009. The EP was released independently on May 26, 2009. The group changed their name to Anthem Lights before any other projects were released. Name change The group's name changed to Anthem Lights sometime after their independent release as Yellow Cavalier. Months later, the group signed toReunion Records. Vocalist Kyle Kupecky comments about the meaning behind the name: These songs this record is our anthem to the world saying, \"Listen, we know there's a lot of darkness in this life, but in the end, light is gonna win.\" And we wanna be the light to",
"be the light to people and just show them who the light of the world is. On February 1, 2011, Anthem Lights released theAnthem LightsEP. Although it was the second EP by the group,it was the first on Reunion Records and the first under their current name.The EP received very positive reviewsand chart success as \"Can't Shut Up,\" the first track from the EP, peaked at No. 42 onBillboard'sChristian Songschartand at No. 27 on the CHR radio charts.All of the tracks on the EP were also featured on theirdebut album, which was also self-titled.The album was released May 10, 2011. On May 7, 2012, the group announced their first lineup change with the news that Kyle Kupecky had left the group,adding later that day that they had already selected someone to replace him. One week later, on May 14, 2012, they introduced Joseph \"Joey\" Stamper as the new member during a livestream onUstream. Anthem Lights performed on the Listen to the Sound Tour.The tour washeadlinedbyBuilding 429, since the tour carried the same name as",
"the same name as their latest album, and it featuredRevive. Anthem Lights performed on the 2011 Rock & Worship Roadshow tour along withMercyMe,Jars of Clay, andThe Afters. The albumYou Have My Heartwas released on February 4, 2014.The albumEscapewas released on October 14, 2014. On February 1, 2016, former singer-guitarist-pianist Alan Powell left the band to pursue a career in acting. On April 7, 2017, they released their fourth album,Hymns. On October 12, 2017, they released their fifth album,Painted Skies. This is their first album with Spencer Kane, a solo Christian artist formerly of the TV Series iShine Knect of TBN Studiosand a 6 time award winnerand Billboard charting indie artist. On February 2, 2018, the band released a compilation album calledBetter Together: The Mixtape, which features an acoustic version of their songBetter Together, along with solo music from each of the members, On March 16, 2018, they released their sixth album,Hymns Vol. II. Members Current members Former members Discography",
"members Discography Studio albums Studio EPs Singles Compilation appearances References"
] |
Who was the president of Kenya when Uduak Amimo took a break from her talk show and the media to pursue her interest in coaching and social impact projects? | Uhuru Kenyatta | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uduak_Amimo | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Kenya | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uduak_Amimo', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Kenya'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uduak_Amimo",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Kenya"
] | [
"Uduak Amimo Uduak Amimois a journalist of Kenyan origin. She hosted the current affairs talk show, Cheche, onCitizen TV, which is part of theRoyal Media Servicesstable between 2012 and 2017. Before returning to Kenya, Amimo worked for several international media organisations, including theBBCWorld Service,Voice of Americaand Reuters. She was one of the moderators of Kenya's first presidential debates, held during the 2013 general election. Amimo serves as a trustee on the board of Uraia, a national civic education organisation. She is a Media Fellow of the African Leadership Initiative, part of the Aspen Global Leadership Network; she is a Boehm Media Fellow, a Tutu Fellow and a GSIH Fellow.She took a break from her talk show and the media in 2017, she has said, to pursue her interest in coachingand social impact projects.She is the founder of a community-based organisation, Ramani Life Group,which offers career guidance to students in under-resourced secondary schools in Kenya. She also runs a mentoring and coaching program for young professionals in communication-affiliated industries. Education Amimo begun her primary education atLavingtonPrimary School in Nairobi before spending three years atRoosevelt Elementary SchoolinIowain the United States. She then returned to St George's Primary School inNairobibefore moving to the Navy Primary and Secondary schools inNigeria. She completed her secondary education in Kenya at theBunyoreGirls High School, where she was a prefect. Amimo holds a Bachelor of Arts (Honours) in International Relations from theUnited States International Universityin Nairobi, Kenya. She was part of the team that launched the university's newspaper and soon became its editor. She also holds a Master of Arts in Journalism and Public Policy from theAmerican Universityin Washington, D.C., which she received after winning a scholarship and teaching assistantship. Career Amimo says she became a journalist to address what she felt was the negative portrayal of Africa, particularly in the international media.Her first job was as an Assistant Producer withReutersTelevision in Kenya, where she had interned in her senior year of university. She left Reuters to pursue her MA. After completing her studies, she joined the Voice of America in Washington as a radio and television host, reporter and producer in the English to Africa service. BBC She joined the BBC in 2002, as a producer and presenter with the English-language BBC African news and current affairs programmes,Network AfricaandFocus on AfricaAmimo presented, produced and edited radio programmes for the African News and Current Affairs section of the BBC World Service before becoming a Senior Producer and Presenter of the BBC African flagship programme, Focus on Africa.In 2006, Amimo was appointed Senior Editorial Adviser, supporting the Director of theBBC World Service,Nigel Chapman.She moved to Ethiopia in 2009 to become the BBC correspondent in Addis Ababa, covering both the country and the African Union.She has reported from several other African countries. She left the BBC and returned to Kenya in 2011. She took up her position at Royal Media Services in 2012. Personal life Amimo is aChristian. Her parents are from Kenya and Nigeria.Uduak, her Nigerian name meansGod's willin her father's language. Her second name Amimo is a Kenyan name. She is named after her great-grandmother on her mother's side of the family from western Kenya. She is a first-born. References",
"President of Kenya Thepresident of the Republic of Kenya(Swahili:Rais wa Jamhuri ya Kenya) is thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theRepublic of Kenya. The president is also the head of theexecutive branchof theGovernment of Kenyaand is thecommander-in-chiefof theKenya Defence Forces. The country's current president isWilliam Rutosince 13 September 2022. History On 12 December 1964, the Republic of Kenya was proclaimed, andJomo Kenyattabecame Kenya's first president. Kenya has had a total of five presidents since establishment, in successive order:Jomo Kenyatta,Daniel arap Moi,Mwai Kibaki,Uhuru Kenyatta, and the incumbent,William Ruto, who was inaugurated on 13 September 2022. Moi remains the country's longest serving president, having served for a total of 24 years. Qualifications and election to office According to the currentConstitution, if a person wishes to be elected as president, the following qualifications must be met: A candidate will be disqualified to run for presidency if they have allegiance to a foreign state or is working for the government in any capacity as a public officer. Being a public officer is not applicable to the incumbent president if running for a second term. The president is elected by popular vote in the general election held in the month of August every five years. For a presidential candidate to be declared the winner, they must have: The official residence of the president of Kenya isState House,Nairobi. The wife of the president is referred to as thefirst lady of Kenya. Term of office A president is eligible for two consecutive terms of five years each, starting from the date the president is sworn in. Roles and responsibilities The following is a summary of the roles of the president of Kenya as provided in theConstitution of Kenya: The responsibilities of the president are summarised as follows: Additionally, a person serving as president haslegal immunity, with the exception of crimes under treaties to which Kenya is party with provisions that prohibit such immunity. List of presidents Presidential standards As with most other countries, the president of Kenya has apresidential standardto signify their status as the country's head of state and government. Its design is generally based on the country'snational flag, although the president has some leeway to customise its appearance. The flag is generally displayed in notable locations associated with the president, usually alongside the national flag, such as the president's offices and the president'sofficial state car, and during notable state occasions. The presidential standards of Kenya's presidents since the country's independence have been as follows: References External links"
] | [
"Uduak Amimo Uduak Amimois a journalist of Kenyan origin. She hosted the current affairs talk show, Cheche, onCitizen TV, which is part of theRoyal Media Servicesstable between 2012 and 2017. Before returning to Kenya, Amimo worked for several international media organisations, including theBBCWorld Service,Voice of Americaand Reuters. She was one of the moderators of Kenya's first presidential debates, held during the 2013 general election. Amimo serves as a trustee on the board of Uraia, a national civic education organisation. She is a Media Fellow of the African Leadership Initiative, part of the Aspen Global Leadership Network; she is a Boehm Media Fellow, a Tutu Fellow and a GSIH Fellow.She took a break from her talk show and the media in 2017, she has said, to pursue her interest in coachingand social impact projects.She is the founder of a community-based organisation, Ramani Life Group,which offers career guidance to students in under-resourced secondary schools in Kenya. She also runs a mentoring and",
"a mentoring and coaching program for young professionals in communication-affiliated industries. Education Amimo begun her primary education atLavingtonPrimary School in Nairobi before spending three years atRoosevelt Elementary SchoolinIowain the United States. She then returned to St George's Primary School inNairobibefore moving to the Navy Primary and Secondary schools inNigeria. She completed her secondary education in Kenya at theBunyoreGirls High School, where she was a prefect. Amimo holds a Bachelor of Arts (Honours) in International Relations from theUnited States International Universityin Nairobi, Kenya. She was part of the team that launched the university's newspaper and soon became its editor. She also holds a Master of Arts in Journalism and Public Policy from theAmerican Universityin Washington, D.C., which she received after winning a scholarship and teaching assistantship. Career Amimo says she became a journalist to address what she felt was the negative portrayal of Africa, particularly",
"particularly in the international media.Her first job was as an Assistant Producer withReutersTelevision in Kenya, where she had interned in her senior year of university. She left Reuters to pursue her MA. After completing her studies, she joined the Voice of America in Washington as a radio and television host, reporter and producer in the English to Africa service. BBC She joined the BBC in 2002, as a producer and presenter with the English-language BBC African news and current affairs programmes,Network AfricaandFocus on AfricaAmimo presented, produced and edited radio programmes for the African News and Current Affairs section of the BBC World Service before becoming a Senior Producer and Presenter of the BBC African flagship programme, Focus on Africa.In 2006, Amimo was appointed Senior Editorial Adviser, supporting the Director of theBBC World Service,Nigel Chapman.She moved to Ethiopia in 2009 to become the BBC correspondent in Addis Ababa, covering both the country and the African Union.She has",
"Union.She has reported from several other African countries. She left the BBC and returned to Kenya in 2011. She took up her position at Royal Media Services in 2012. Personal life Amimo is aChristian. Her parents are from Kenya and Nigeria.Uduak, her Nigerian name meansGod's willin her father's language. Her second name Amimo is a Kenyan name. She is named after her great-grandmother on her mother's side of the family from western Kenya. She is a first-born. References",
"President of Kenya Thepresident of the Republic of Kenya(Swahili:Rais wa Jamhuri ya Kenya) is thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theRepublic of Kenya. The president is also the head of theexecutive branchof theGovernment of Kenyaand is thecommander-in-chiefof theKenya Defence Forces. The country's current president isWilliam Rutosince 13 September 2022. History On 12 December 1964, the Republic of Kenya was proclaimed, andJomo Kenyattabecame Kenya's first president. Kenya has had a total of five presidents since establishment, in successive order:Jomo Kenyatta,Daniel arap Moi,Mwai Kibaki,Uhuru Kenyatta, and the incumbent,William Ruto, who was inaugurated on 13 September 2022. Moi remains the country's longest serving president, having served for a total of 24 years. Qualifications and election to office According to the currentConstitution, if a person wishes to be elected as president, the following qualifications must be met: A candidate will be disqualified to run for presidency if they have",
"if they have allegiance to a foreign state or is working for the government in any capacity as a public officer. Being a public officer is not applicable to the incumbent president if running for a second term. The president is elected by popular vote in the general election held in the month of August every five years. For a presidential candidate to be declared the winner, they must have: The official residence of the president of Kenya isState House,Nairobi. The wife of the president is referred to as thefirst lady of Kenya. Term of office A president is eligible for two consecutive terms of five years each, starting from the date the president is sworn in. Roles and responsibilities The following is a summary of the roles of the president of Kenya as provided in theConstitution of Kenya: The responsibilities of the president are summarised as follows: Additionally, a person serving as president haslegal immunity, with the exception of crimes under treaties to which Kenya is party with provisions that",
"provisions that prohibit such immunity. List of presidents Presidential standards As with most other countries, the president of Kenya has apresidential standardto signify their status as the country's head of state and government. Its design is generally based on the country'snational flag, although the president has some leeway to customise its appearance. The flag is generally displayed in notable locations associated with the president, usually alongside the national flag, such as the president's offices and the president'sofficial state car, and during notable state occasions. The presidential standards of Kenya's presidents since the country's independence have been as follows: References External links"
] |
What year was the band leader of the group who originally performed the song sampled in Kayne West's song Power born? | 1946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Beautiful_Dark_Twisted_Fantasy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Crimson | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fripp | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Beautiful_Dark_Twisted_Fantasy', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Crimson', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fripp'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Beautiful_Dark_Twisted_Fantasy",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Crimson",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fripp"
] | [
"My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyis the fifth studio album by the American rapperKanye West. It was released byDef Jam RecordingsandRoc-A-Fella Recordson November 22, 2010. Retreating to a self-imposed exile in Hawaii after a period of controversy in 2009, following hisinterruption of Taylor Swiftat theMTV Video Music Awards, West recorded the album at Honolulu's Avex Recording Studio in a communal environment involving numerous musicians. Additional recording sessions took place at Glenwood Place Studios inBurbank, California, along with the New York City studiosElectric Ladyand Platinum Sound. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas mainly produced by West, alongside a variety of high-profile producers such asMike Dean,No I.D.,Jeff Bhasker,RZA,Bink, andDJ Frank E. Critics noted the music'smaximalistaesthetic and opulent production style that utilizes various elements from his previous work, includingsoul,pop,baroque,electro, andsymphonicsounds, as well asprogressive rockinfluences. The album's lyrics explore themes such as West's celebrity status,consumer culture, self-aggrandizement, and the idealism of theAmerican Dream. Guest vocalists includeNicki Minaj,Rihanna,Jay-Z,Pusha T,Rick Ross,Kid Cudi,John Legend,Bon Iver, andElton John. Alongside several free songs released through West's weeklyGOOD Fridaysseries, he supportedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywith four USBillboardHot 100top-40 singles, \"Power\", \"Runaway\", \"Monster\", and \"All of the Lights\". West also released an accompanyingmusicalshort film,Runaway(2010). The album was an immediate and widespread critical success, and reviewers lauded the maximalist approach. It was listed as the best album of 2010 in many publications' year-end lists.My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas awardedBest Rap Albumat the54th Annual Grammy Awardsand CD of the Year at the2011 BET Hip Hop Awards. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasydebuted at number one on the USBillboard200and theCanadian Albums Chart, while reaching the top 10 in six other countries. The album eventually achieved atriple platinumcertification in the United States from theRecording Industry Association of America, alongside sales certifications in a few other territories. It was ranked in lists as the best album of the 2010s and among the greatest of all time by several publications, includingPitchforkandRolling Stone. Background Dark Fantasywas my long, backhanded apology. You know how people give abackhanded compliment? It was a backhanded apology. It was like, all these raps, all these sonic acrobatics. I was like: \"Let me show you guys what I can do, and please accept me back. You want to have me on your shelves.\" —Kanye West, speaking toThe New York Timesin 2013 My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas conceived at Avex Recording Studio duringKanye West's self-imposed exile inOahu, Hawaiiin 2009, following a period of public-image controversy.West said that fatigue from overworking led to his controversialoutburst at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards(VMAs) when the singerTaylor Swiftwas awardedBest Female Videoat the ceremony. He was disgusted with the ensuing media response, which led to a brief hiatus from recording.He also observed at the time of the album's release that Swift never defended him in any interviews, saying she continuously \"rode the waves\" from the controversy.West had held recording sessions at the same studio for his previous album808s & Heartbreak(2008). In response to the backlash to West's behaviour, his scheduled tourFame Kills: Starring Kanye West and Lady Gagawith the singerLady Gagato promote808s & Heartbreakwas cancelled on October 1, 2009, without an official explanation.A year later, he explained toEllen DeGeneresthe incident served as motivation for his works because he felt like \"a soldier of culture\", realizing no one wants this to be his role and admitted he will continuously \"feel convicted about things that really meant stuff to culture that constantly get denied for years\".In 2013, West clarified that the album served as a backhanded apology after his MTV VMAs outburst, detailing that he used the music to become accepted again. He elaborated that a minimum of 80 percent was genuine, with the remainder \"fulfilling a perception\" for the public.West also insisted that he was not criticizingMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyand instead failed to reach satisfaction, then openly revealed his idea of the truth. Recording and production My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas recorded at Avex inHonolulu, Hawaii. Additional recording took place at Glenwood Place Studios inBurbank, California, and atElectric Lady Studiosand Platinum Sound Recording Studios in New York City.It was reported that West spent around $3 million provided by his record labelDef Jamto record the album, making it one of themost expensive albumsever made.He explained the initial recording process to Noah Callahan-Bever, the editor-in-chief ofComplexand West's then-confidant, telling him he had resided in Hawaii accompanied by his favorite producers and artists to work onMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyand provide inspiration.Various contributors engaged in sessions with West for the album, includingKid Cudi,Elton John,Rick Ross,Pusha T, andJustin Vernon.Vocals were also recorded byM.I.A.,Mos Def,Santigold, andSeal.Producers who contributed in the sessions includedQ-Tip,RZA,Pete Rock,Madlib,Statik Selektah,andDJ Premier.Madlib said he made five beats forMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy,while DJ Premier revealed his work did not make the final cut. West block-booked the three session rooms of Avex simultaneously for 24 hours a day to work onMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, until he felt it was complete. According to Callahan-Bever, when West \"hits a creative wall\", he changes to another studio room to work on a different song.Sheets of paper were posted on one side of the studio with what were known as \"Kanye Commandments\", such as \"NoTweeting\" and \"No Pictures\".West never slept a full night there, opting instead to takepower napson a studio chair or couch in 90-minute intervals when working during the night. Engineers worked a similar schedule, remaining active 24 hours a day. The heavy work ethic led to West and his crew having multi-course breakfasts each morning at hisDiamond Headresidence, cooked by in-house chefs.Later in the mornings after breakfast, West and most of the crew played games of21against locals at the HonoluluYMCAfor leisure. Kid Cudi smokedmarijuanain preparation and worked out on a treadmill, while RZA exercised in theweight room. Throughout the album's development, West enlisted other producers and musicians for opinions of its music. At the studio, they went through various conversations and contributions.Observing these discussions during a visit, Callahan-Bever noted that despite the presence of prominent musicians, \"the egos rarely clash; talks are sprawling, enlightening, and productive\" around the future, present, and past.Q-Tip described the process as \"music by committee\" and elaborated on its significance to the sessions and West's work ethic: He'll go, 'Check this out, tell me what you think.' Which speaks volumes about who he is and how he sees and views people. Every person has a voice and an idea, so he's sincerely looking to hear what you have to say—good, bad, or whatever ... When he has his beats or his rhymes, he offers them to the committee and we're all invited to dissect, strip, or add on to what he's already started. By the end of the sessions, you see how he integrates and transforms everyone's contributions, so the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. He's a real wizard at it. What he does is alchemy, really. The rapper Pusha T characterizedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyas \"a collage of sounds\" and found West's recording methods unorthodox.He explained that when the team thought they were focused on a song, West would hear the work of a record producer such asJeff Bhaskerand his attention would be captured as he went through \"his mentalRolodex\" to the most suitable point for it on the album.Expressing a similar sentiment, the rapperMalik Yusefsaid that he was mocked for his vision of incorporating collaborators from genres outsidehip hoplike John.DJ Premier recalled that West insisted to him during the production for noelectro, describing him as \"that crazy dude he's always been\" and pointing out his focus on the album's rawness. West ensured that the album's recording sessions were secretive, placing paper sheets in the studio reading \"no tweeting, no talking, no e-mailing\", and also prohibiting speaking with people outside of the location.Pusha T recalled West's attitude in an interview forRolling Stone, saying that following a leak he remembered his strictness, \"Fuck this! We're not going to ever work there again!\"In October 2010, West tweeted that the recording ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyhad been finished. Musical style The music was described asmaximalisthip hopby numerous publications, incorporatingEast Coast rap,boom bap,R&Bballads,electronic music, andprogressive rocksamples.Various writers also noticed elements from West's previous four albums.The Village Voice's Sean Fennessey thought that West had adopted the skills of his collaborators from the five years beforeMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, which he sometimes uses to an increased level. West incorporates lushsoulfrom 2004'sThe College Dropout, orchestration from 2005'sLate Registration, a rich atmosphere from 2007'sGraduation, and emotionally tired electro from808s & Heartbreak.Pitchfork's Ryan Dombal andAllMusic's Andy Kellman wroteMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyseamlessly combines elements from West's earlier albums; the latter felt that \"All of the Lights\" denotes its varied elements and \"maniacal extravagance\".David Amidon ofPopMattersobserved the pop sound ofGraduationand808s & Heartbreak. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas described as aprogressive raprecord by Carl Williott ofIdolatorandRolling Stone's Christopher R. Weingarten, with the latter noting that it came at the time oflower album budgets.The album draws elements from varied genres like progressive rock, soul, and old-school rap, moving towards a new sound.My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyfollows a dense, wide scope of styles;Al Horner fromNMEcalled it arap opera.The author Kirk Walker Graves thinks West became a collagist, who makes a bold and vulnerable work of art from \"scattered pop shards and indelible beats\". Lyrics and themes Throughout the album, West's lyrics explore themes of excess,celebrity,grandiosity,self-aggrandizement, self-doubt,romance,escapism,decadence,and sex.My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyalso openly acknowledges alcohol and drug usage more than West's previous albums.West places an introspective focus on fame, detailing the perks of power that he links toneoliberalism.The rapper addresses deep personal insecurities,although philosopher Julius Bailey writes that he embraced his narcissism in contrast to thechipmunk soulonThe College Dropout.West displays varied emotions,which range from lows to highs of the rapper's mental state.He conveys feelings of despair with his public image since808s & Heartbreak, depicting his out-of-control world.According to author Bernadette Marie Calafell, West usedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyto celebrate monstrosity after his troubled year. West ventures into theidof his own ego onMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, showing his perspective as a celebrity.He poses a risk of self-destruction with the id,while perusing any goal or girl he can and driven by the buzz ofconsumer culture, despite ultimately being unsatisfied.Ann Powersof theLos Angeles Timesdepicted the songs as \"pornographic boasts, romantic disaster stories, devil-haunted dark nights of the soul\" and perceived West as not welcome nor sure about the purpose of his presence due to the discussion ofrace.Powers felt that rather than an issue for West, it is the inherent curse of authorMichael Eric Dyson's theory of \"the exceptional black man\" whose talents are welcomed, but he is excluded for his skin color.According toRolling Stone'sRob Sheffield, the album serves as \"arock-starmanifesto\" in a world where expectations have generally lowered. Songs Tracks 1–7 The album begins with \"Dark Fantasy\", opened by rapperNicki Minajnarrating a rework ofRoald Dahl's 1982 poemCinderella,followed by a chorus includingAuto-Tuned\"oohs\" and \"ah-ah-ah-aahs\", as well as backing accents.The song introduces the themes of decadence and hedonism,with West musing how it had been planned to drink to release pain, \"But what's worse, the pain or the hangover?\"The track's lyrics contain musical and popular culture references, including fellow rapperNas, the 1820 short story \"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow\", British singerLeona Lewis, and the song \"Sex on Fire\" by Tennessee rock bandKings of Leon.\"Gorgeous\" is an upliftingblues-styled track,relying on a guitar riff juxtaposed with melodic piano.The track is seen by Graves as West's \"scattershot mission statement\" and it sees him tackling racial injustices, including comparing himself to black rights activistMalcolm Xwith the title \"Malcolm West\".\"Power\" features a dark production that relies on a sample ofKing Crimson's \"21st Century Schizoid Man\" (1969), which Fennessey found to be \"apocalyptic\" and it is accompanied by chants loosely resembling a choir.West delves into escapism on the song, mentioning his struggles with the public and narrating his vision of a career suicide. \"All of the Lights\" incorporatesdrum 'n' bassbreaks, energeticpercussion, and horn instruments.The opening lines mention thedeath of Michael Jacksonand present the narrative of a man who goes through multiple issues including abusing his lover and serving prison time.West enlisted 11 guest vocalists for the song, includingAlicia Keys,John Legend,Tony Williams, andElly Jackson; Rihanna sings thehook.In an interview withMTV, Jackson said that West designated her to layer up the vocal arrangement with other people as he simply used his favorite vocalists worldwide \"to create this really unique vocal texture on his record, but it's not the kind of thing where you can pick it out\".\"Monster\" is aposse cut,which featuresstaccatostrings that invoke paranoia and it was described by Calafell as addressing critics through exploration of their \"monstrous construction\" of West.West rap about using inappropriate methods to drown his pain and Nicki Minaj asserts her queen status on the song.The fellow posse cut \"So Appalled\" is built around piano and strings,with the performers delivering their odes to success and affirming that \"this shit is/fucking ridiculous\". Tracks 8–13 \"Devil in a New Dress\" is built on a sample ofSmokey Robinson's \"Will You Love Me Tomorrow\" (1960).The lyrics range from self-criticism to warning and lust to heartache,with its sexual and religious imagery described by one critic as \"part bedroom allure, part angelic prayer\".The song is the only track without production by West, yet features his characteristic style of manipulating the pitch and tempo of classic soul samples.\"Runaway\" contains a piano-basedmotifcomprising a series of uninterrupted descendinghalfandwhole notes,with acodathat incorporates cello at first, before a violin section and West'svocoder-singing,which isdistortionthat covers the final three minutes.West uses the song's lyrics to address public opinion and his character issues, proclaiming a toast to all with those flaws.Fennessey cited \"Runaway\" as the point inMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywhere \"self-laceration overtakes chest-beating\", while Graves is taken aback by how the song contains all of its contradictions; \"self-mythologizing, rife with hubris, assertively 'artistic' to the point of unintentional parody\". Inspired by West's two-year relationship with modelAmber Rose, \"Hell of a Life\" samplesthe Mojo Men's \"She's My Baby\" (1966) and follows a narrative of marrying a porn star that Graves calls \"pornographic anxiety\".According to Dombal, the song \"attempts to bend its centralcredo—'no more drugs for me, pussy and religion is all I need'—into a noble pursuit\".He wrote that it crosses the lines of \"fantasy and reality, sex and romance, love and religion, until no lines exist at all\".\"Blame Game\" is a low-key track that is built around a sample ofRichard D. James's piano composition \"Avril 14th\" (2001),and features additional vocals from Legend.The song focuses on a painful domestic dispute where West and a woman go back and forth aggressively,and contains a profane skit by comedianChris Rock. \"Lost in the World\" features tribal drums and prominent samples from theindie folkbandBon Iver's \"Woods\" (2009), with West applying the sample \"as the centerpiece of a catchy, communal reverie\".West enthusiastically told Bon Iver frontman Justin Vernon when listening to the song, \"Fuck, this is going to be the festival closer.\"It features several musical changes, beginning with Vernon's faint vocals,followed by4/4drums, agospelchorus,and increased tempo, and a finalmeasuredtempo.\"Lost in the World\" transitions into the closing track \"Who Will Survive in America\".It serves as the album's coda and samplesjazz poetGil Scott-Heron's \"Comment No. 1\" (1970),a surrealist piece delivered by him inspoken wordabout theAfrican American experienceand the fated idealism of the American dream.Scott-Heron's original speech is edited to an excerpt that, according to Kot, \"retains its essence, that of an African-American male\" feeling isolated from the US and his culture.By contrast, Fennessey wrote that the seriousness of thedenouementdoes not suit \"an album that is more about the self's little nightmares than some aching societal rejection\". Title and packaging My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas once titledGood Ass Joband thenDark Twisted Fantasy.On July 28, 2010, West announced on his newly registeredTwitteraccount that the former title was scrapped and he had been considering \"a couple of titles\".He expressed uncertainty about the title in September, tweeting: \"I can't decide on my album title uuuugh!!!!\"The official title,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, was announced by West on October 5, 2010;Good Ass Jobwas eventually planned as the title of a collaborative album withChance the Rapper, which never materialized. The album's artwork, designed byGeorge Condo, shows West being straddled on a couch by an armless winged female, who has fearsome features and a long, spotted tail. Both are nude, with West shown holding a beer.Bailey sees Condo's style for the cover as pop surrealist andCubistand portraying \"various aspects of West's album themes\".He also asserts that its royal red colour is \"symbolic of passion, love, anger, and, of course, blood\", marked by the starkness.According toVulturewriter Dan Kois, the mythological figure straddling West is \"a kind offragment, between asphinx, aphoenix, ahaunting ghost, aharpy\".The artwork was done at Condo's studio, after West visited for several hours and they listened to tapes of his music. Over the next few days, the painter designed eight or nine paintings for the album. Two of them were portraits of West: an extreme closeup, with mismatched eyes and four sets of teeth; a portrait showing his head, crowned and decapitated, placed sideways on a white slab, pierced by a sword. Condo also did a painting of adyspepticballerina in a black tutu and one of the crown alongside the sword in a grassy landscape.He made five covers in total, which were all included with the purchase ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy.A second cover that contains a painting of a ballerina was posted on theAmazon.compre-order page.The image was originally intended to be the cover art for \"Runaway\", but West used a photograph of a ballerina instead.Another painting,The Priest, was completed for the album by Condo, who described it as an attempt to bring depictions of religious figures into the modern world. West told Condo that he wanted a phoenix painting and after he came up with the artwork, the rapper expressed his admiration for how they both \"express ourselves with our truest vision\".According to Condo, West requested the original cover image to be provocative enough to be banned by retailers, as apublicity stunt.In October 2010, a month before the album's release, West tweeted: \"Yoooo they banned my album cover!!!!! Banned in the USA!!! They don't want me chilling on the couch with my Phoenix!\"He also suggestedWalmarthad rejected the cover and cited the case of rock bandNirvana's 1991 albumNevermind, which featured a photo of a naked baby. West questioned why the band are allowed to have someone nude on their cover, but he \"can't have a PAINTING of a monster with no arms and a polka dot tail and wings\".In response, Walmart denied the suggestion in a statement declaring the company's excitement aboutMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyand its arrival in stores.Certain retailers did not carry the original cover, with West substituting it with Condo's ballerina artwork, while some shipped copies used a pixelated version of the original. In 2015,Billboardnamed the album's artwork as the 30th best of all time. The magazine wrote that West \"matched the widescreen brilliance of the album's music with boundary-cracking art\", including a demonic image of him \"being straddled by a nude angel\".In 2017,NMElisted the cover as the seventh best album artwork of the 21st century so far. Marketing Before the release ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, West initiated the music programGOOD Fridaysthrough his website beginning August 20, 2010, offering a free download of a new song for each Friday.West tweeted that he was aware his fans needed new music, \"so I'm dropping 1 new song every weekend until Xmas\" and he explained a release could be a song by him, Jay-Z, or another artist.Titled after his imprint labelGOOD Music, the program generated considerable publicity ahead of the release ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy.Young Money Entertainmentonline marketing coordinator Karen Civil retrospectively called the program genius, detailing that West undertook a program not previously attempted and \"at a point when he was the most hated person in music, he brought excitement back with his Friday releases\".GOOD Fridays was intended to run until December 2010, but West extended it through to January 2011. On September 12, 2010, West premiered \"Runaway\" with a live performance at the2010 MTV Video Music Awards.Three weeks later, on October 2, he performed the song a second time onSaturday Night Live, along with \"Power\".On October 4, 2010, West announced the album's release date of November 22,after he had previously tweeted that he was \"contemplating my album date\".The rapper also announced that certain songs from GOOD Fridays would be included on it.My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas released by Def Jam andRoc-A-Fellaon November 22, 2010, being made available fordigital downloadon Amazon at a list price of $3.99.The deal was only offered by Amazon, while the album was simultaneously made available oniTunesand West's website linked to this release.Four singles were released from it and all reached the top 40 of the USBillboardHot 100, with thelead single\"Power\" released on July 1, 2010, charting at number 22.\"Runaway\" was released on October 4,and reached number 12, while \"Monster\" and \"All of the Lights\" were released on October 23, 2010, and January 18, 2011, respectively;they both charted at number 18. A 35-minute film entitledRunaway, featuring the titular song's officialmusic video, was directed by West and released on October 23, 2010.Filmed inPragueover a period of four days in the summer of 2010,the film stars West and modelSelita Ebanks, with the script penned byHype Williamsand the story written by West.West described the video as an overall representation of his dreams and a reflection of feelings throughout his life, including a parallel of the situation from 2009 to 2010.He explained that it is \"the story of a phoenix fallen to Earth\", whom he makes his girlfriend, though she faces discrimination and eventually \"has to burn herself alive and go back to her world\".West elaborated how he had been deeply considering the idea of a phoenix for a while and this could be parallel to his career that he \"threw aMolotov cocktail\" at in 2009, then felt the need to make acomeback\"as a better person\".At aRunawayscreening in Paris, he broke down into tears. After another screening in Los Angeles, West said that the affect his music and art has on people people inspires him to continue in his career.The film was included on a bonus DVD for the deluxe edition ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy. For initial promotion ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, West performed atMacy's Thanksgiving Day Paradein late November 2010.Following the release of the album, West performed headlining sets at several large festivals in 2011, includingSXSW,Lollapalooza,Austin City Limits,andCoachella; the latter was viewed byThe Hollywood Reporteras \"one of the great hip-hop sets of all time\". Commercial performance In its first week of release,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasydebuted at number one on the USBillboard200, selling 496,000 copies. The entry blocked Nicki Minaj's debut albumPink Fridayfrom the top spot with 375,000 sales; the week marked the first time in two years that the chart had two albums bow with over 300,000 units. It also gave West his fourth consecutive US number-one album and surpassed the 450,000 first-week sales of808s & Heartbreak, with the debut becoming the fourth-best sales week of 2010.The album's first-week digital sales of 224,000 units accounted for 45% of the total and stood as the fourth-highest digital copies for an album in a week. In its second week on theBillboard200,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasydescended six places to number seven with 108,000 copies sold, marking a 78% sales decline, while remaining abovePink Fridayby one place.As of July 2013, it had sold 1,300,000 copies in the United States, as reported byNielsen SoundScan.By June 2011, the album had sold 483,000 digital copies, ranking as the second best-selling digital rap album ever.On November 23, 2020,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas certified triple platinum by theRecording Industry Association of Americafor pushing 3,000,000 certified units in the US.According toBillboard, as of 2022,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyis one of the 15 best-performing 21st-century albums without any of its singles being chart-toppers on the Hot 100. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasybecame West's fourth number one album on theCanadian Albums Chart.It reached number four on theDanish Albumschart,and in March 2021, was certified double platinum byIFPI Danmarkfor shipments of 40,000.My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyopened at number six on theARIA Albumschart and on September 10, 2021, it was awarded a double platinum certification from theAustralian Recording Industry Associationfor over 140,000 copies shipped in Australia.The album charted within the top 10 in Norway,South Korea,New Zealand,and Switzerland.On January 22, 2021, it received a platinum certification from theBritish Phonographic Industryfor selling 300,000 units in the United Kingdom.By 2018,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyhad registered a billion streams onSpotify. Critical reception My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas met with widespread critical acclaim.AtMetacritic, which assigns anormalizedrating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received anaveragescore of 94, based on 45 reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\".The aggregatorAnyDecentMusic?gave it 8.8 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus. Numerous reviewers highlighted West's move towards maximalism. Andy Gill ofThe Independentpraised the album as \"one of pop's gaudiest, most grandiose efforts of recent years, a no holds-barred musical extravaganza\" that forgoes the concept of good taste from the beginning.Powers, writing for theLos Angeles Times, found West's artistry comparable toPablo Picasso, reaching \"the Cubist mandate of rearranging form, texture, color and space\" for suggesting newer viewpoints.The album was called a work of art and West's most lavish record in a review byTimemagazine'sDavid Browne, who said it proved again that few other artists shared his ability to adeptly mix diverse elements.Steve Jones ofUSA Todaywas impressed by West's display \"of sonic flavors — old school hip-hop, progressive rock, R&B, classical music\" for how he combines and matches these genres, concluding his only predictability is a consistent drive to make every project his best. Critics often looked at the album as being among West's best work.Rolling Stone's Sheffield saidMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasymarked West's best and most wildly inspired album, asserting that no other act was recording music as dark or maximalist; he added the rapper transgresses the conventions he had established himself for rap and pop music in the past five years.James Reed ofThe Boston Globesaid that the album is \"seamlessly his personal best\" as West becomes self-involved in the varied styles and universal themes, standing as the most original hip hop record of 2010, through his efforts to push the genre's boundaries.Christgau, inMSN Music, hailed it as a \"world-beatingreturn to form\" for the rapper.Michael Denslow ofConsequencewrote thatMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyfeatures \"nine-minute rap epics\" which break the traditionalverse–chorus formand West manages to convey an attempt at the greatest album of all time, executing this well using \"all the swagger and hype with an album that may actually bethatgood\".The Village Voice's Sean Fennessey observed that while the album cannot be perfect as listeners \"will reach to call \", West's point from the album is imperfection.He also noted the skillful engineering and sequencing, through the way each song transitions over like \"some long night out into the hazy morning after\".Pitchforkawarded the album a 10/10, the firstperfect scorethe publication had given to a new release sinceWilco'sYankee Hotel Foxtrotin 2002. Dombal from the publication highlighted West's \"blast of surreal pop excess\" that the majority of artists would not even try to create. A few reviewers were more qualified in their praise, mostly focusing on West's rapping. ForThe Guardian,Kitty Empirewas critical of his lyrics calling women \"ruthless money-grabbers\" on an otherwise \"herculean flawed near-masterpiece\".AllMusicwriter Andy Kellman found West's rapping inconsistent on \"a deeply fascinating accomplishment\" in his catalogue and one of complicated merit that is \"as fatiguing as it is invigorating, as cold-blooded as it is heart-rending, as haphazardly splattered as it is meticulously sculpted\", and maintains complexity across 70 minutes.David Amidon fromPopMattersdesired for West to utilize his rap skills fromThe College Dropoutand that the songs may be good yet he misses \"the opportunity to provide us with answers\", in spite of the lush production on one of hip hop's \"most bloated, egotistical, fantastical, flat-out amazing release\" for a while. Rankings Numerous critics and publications includedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyon their year-end top albums lists. Many named it the best album of 2010,includingBillboard,Time,Slant Magazine,Pitchfork,Rolling Stone,andSpin.My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas voted best album inThe Village Voice'sPazz & Jopcritics' poll for 2010, winning by the largest margin in the poll's history with 3,250 points.\"Power\", \"Runaway\", and \"Monster\" were voted in the top-10 of the Pazz & Jop singles list.Metacritic, which collates reviews of music albums, identified it as the best-reviewed album of 2010.The album stood as the first rap release to achieve this sinceOutkast's 2000 albumStankoniaand the sixth-highest ranking of albums released in the 2010s to have at least 15 professional reviews. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyappeared on decade-end best albums lists. In 2012,Complexincluded it on their list of \"25 Rap Albums From the Past Decade That Deserve Classic Status\".In October 2013, the magazine ranked the album as the best hip hop album of the last five years.In 2014,Pitchforknamed it the best album of the 2010s so far, with Ian Cohen writing, \"West broke the ground upon which the new decade's most brilliant architects built their masterworks;Bon Iver,Take Care,Channel Orange, andGood Kid, M.A.A.D Citydon't exist without the blueprint ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy.\"It was later ranked as the top album of the 2010s byThe A.V. Club,Billboard,andRolling Stone.Christgau namedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyas the decade's eighth-best album, saying it remains \"perversely superb\". In 2014,SpinnamedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyas the eighth best album of the past 30 years, with Dan Weiss noting it is a world combining samples,interpolations, and vocalists; he expressed that West does not believe \"one man should have all that power\" of God, yet he \"lives one hell of a life\".Six years later, Marc Hogan fromPitchforkconsidered it among the greatart popalbums of the last 20 years to \"have filled the void of full-length statements with both artistic seriousness and mass appeal that was formerly largely occupied by guitar bands\".In 2017, the staff ofHipHopDXwrote the album is \"widely considered magnum opus\" and the release that made the public's perception of him positive again.EWpickedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyas the eighth greatest album of all time in 2016, while it was ranked 21st and 17th on the lists byNMEandRolling Stonein 2013 and 2020, respectively.The album was also included in the book1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. Industry awards My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywon awards for both Album of the Year and Reader's Choice: Best Album at the 2010HipHopDXAwards, receiving over 50 percent of the vote for the latter.The album was awarded CD of the Year at the next year'sBET Hip Hop Awards, while it was nominated forOutstanding Albumat the 2011NAACP Image Awards.The album received a nomination forTop Rap Albumat the2011BillboardMusic Awards, though ultimately lost to fellow rapperEminem'sRecovery. For the54th Annual Grammy Awardsin 2012,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas awardedBest Rap Album, while \"All of the Lights\" was nominated forSong of the Year,Best Rap Song, andBest Rap/Sung Collaboration, winning in the latter two categories.However,The Recording Academy's decision not to nominateMy Beautiful Dark Twisted FantasyforAlbum of the Yearwas viewed by many media outlets as a snub,along with the rejection of West and Jay-Z's 2011 effortWatch the Thronein the category.For theLos Angeles Times, Randall Roberts pinpointed the exclusion ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy– \"the most critically acclaimed album of the year, a career-defining record\" – as a snub in favor of nominating less substantial albums.TimejournalistTourédeemed West's nominations in minor Grammy categories asbooby prizesand stated that the album was easily \"the best reviewed album in many years\", being lauded by critics \"like nothing sinceRadiohead's zenith\", while achieving success with over 1,200,000 sales.Touré explored possible reasons for the academy to snub West, including split votes betweenMy Beautiful Dark Twisted FantasyandWatch the Throneand concerns over his past controversies, but ultimately perceived \"a lack of respect for hip hop and its complexity\" from those who are into music, yet lack knowledge of this genre. Having expressed that he thought he was snubbed for major awards in the past, West responded to the Grammy nominees onstage during a concert on theWatch the Throne Tourin December 2011. West believed the snub was due to releasingWatch the ThroneandMy Beautiful Dark Fantasywithin a year of each other, feeling he \"should've just spaced it out, just a little bit more\".On the 10th anniversary ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, Will Lavin ofNMErecalled that despite winning Best Rap Album, \"it was snubbed for Best Album without so much as a nomination\".Two years later,Vibelisted the record as one of 10 rap albums snubbed of Album of the Year, with Preezy Brown mentioning this was \"a Grammy snub that's one of the more egregious in recent memory\". Track listing Track notes Sample credits Personnel Credits adapted from the album's liner notes. Musicians Production Design Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications ‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history Notes References External links",
"King Crimson King Crimsonwere an English-basedprogressive rockband formed in London in 1968. Led by guitaristRobert Fripp,they drew inspiration from a wide variety of music, incorporating elements ofclassical,jazz,folk,heavy metal,gamelan,blues,industrial,electronic,experimental musicandnew wave. They exerted a strong influence on the early 1970s progressive rock movement, including on contemporaries such asYesandGenesis, and continue to inspire subsequent generations of artists across multiple genres.The band has earned a largecult following, especially in the 21st century. Founded by Fripp,Michael Giles,Greg Lake,Ian McDonaldandPeter Sinfield, the band initially focused on a dramatic sound layered withMellotron, McDonald's saxophone and flute, Giles' complex and polyrhythmic drumming, Fripp's atmospheric guitar sound, and Lake's bass and powerful lead vocals, withgothic lyricismby Sinfield and creative directions by all members of the band. Their debut album,In the Court of the Crimson King(1969), remains their most commercially successful and influential release, with a potent mixture ofjazz, classical andexperimental music.Following the sudden simultaneous departures of McDonald and Giles (with Lake leaving very shortly afterwards), the next two albums,In the Wake of PoseidonandLizard(both 1970), were recorded during a period of instability in the band's line-up. A settled band of Fripp, Sinfield,Mel Collins,Boz BurrellandIan WallacerecordedIslandsin 1971, though in mid-1972, Fripp let go of this line-up and changed the group's instrumentation and approach, drawing from European free improvisation and developing ever more complex compositions. WithBill Bruford(formerly ofYes),John Wetton,David Cross, and brieflyJamie Muir, they reached what some saw as a creative peak onLarks' Tongues in Aspic(1973),Starless and Bible Black(1974), andRed(1974). King Crimson disbanded at the end of 1974. After seven years of inactivity, King Crimson was recreated in 1981 with another change in musical direction. The new band comprised Fripp, Bruford and two newAmericanmembers:Adrian Belew, who previously worked withDavid Bowie,Frank ZappaandTalking Heads, andTony Levin, a prolificsession musicianwho was noted for his studio and live work withPeter Gabriel. They drew influence from African music,gamelan,post-punkand New Yorkminimalism. This band lasted three years, resulting in the trio of albumsDiscipline(1981),Beat(1982) andThree of a Perfect Pair(1984). Following a decade-long hiatus, they reformed in 1994, addingPat Mastelotto, formerly ofMr. Mister, andTrey Gunnfor a sextet line-up Fripp called \"The Double Trio\". The double trio participated in another three-year cycle of activity that included the release ofThrak(1995), and multiple concert recordings. There was a hiatus between 1997 and 2000. Fripp, Belew, Mastelotto and Gunn reunited in 2000 as a moreindustrial-oriented King Crimson,called \"The Double Duo\", releasingThe Construkction of Light(2000) andThe Power to Believe(2003). After a five-year hiatus, the band addedGavin HarrisonofPorcupine Treeas a second drummer, with Levin returning in place of Gunn, for a 2008 tour celebrating the 40th anniversary of their 1968 formation. Following another hiatus (2009–2012), during which Fripp was thought to be retired, King Crimson came together again in 2013; this time as a septet (and, later, octet) with an unusual three-drumkit frontline, and new second guitarist and singerJakko Jakszyk. This version of King Crimson continued to tour from 2014 to 2021, and released multiple live albums. After the band's final show in 2021, Fripp commented that King Crimson had \"moved from sound to silence.\" History 1967–1968: Giles, Giles and Fripp In August 1967, brothersMichaelandPeter Giles, drummer and singer/bassist respectively and pro musicians in working bands since their mid-teens inDorset, England, advertised for a \"singing organist\" to join a group they were forming.Fellow Dorset musicianRobert Fripp– a guitarist who neither played organ nor sang – responded, andGiles, Giles and Frippwas born. The trio recorded several quirky singles and one eclectic album,The Cheerful Insanity of Giles, Giles and Fripp. They hovered on the edge of success, and even made a television appearance, but were never able to make a commercial breakthrough.Attempting to expand their sound, the three recruitedIan McDonaldon keyboards,reedsand woodwinds. McDonald brought along two new participants: his then-girlfriend, formerFairport ConventionsingerJudy Dyble, whose brief tenure with the group ended when the two split,and lyricist, roadie, and art strategistPeter Sinfield, with whom he had been writing songs – a partnership initiated when McDonald had said to Sinfield (regarding his band Creation), \"Peter, I have to tell you that your band is hopeless, but you write some great words. Would you like to get together on a couple of songs?\"Fripp, meanwhile, sawCloudsat theMarquee Clubin London which spurred him to incorporate classically inspired melodies into his writing, and utilise improvisation to find new ideas.No longer interested in Peter Giles' more whimsical pop songs, Fripp recommended that his old friend, fellow guitarist and singerGreg Lakecould join to replace either Peter or Fripp himself. Peter Giles later called it one of Fripp's \"cute political moves\".According to Michael Giles, his brother had become disillusioned with the band's lack of success and departed before Fripp suggested Lake to fill Peter Giles' position as bassist and singer. 1968–1970: Original lineup andIn the Court of the Crimson King The first incarnation of King Crimson—Fripp, Michael Giles, Lake, McDonald and Sinfield—was formed on 30 November 1968 with rehearsals beginning on 13 January 1969.Sinfield coined the band's name in \"a moment of pressured panic\". Sinfield had already used the term \"crimson king\" in a set of lyrics before his involvement with Giles, Giles and Fripp. Sinfield insisted that the name wasn'tBeelzebub, prince of demons, and that a \"crimson king\" was any ruler during whose reign there were \"societal rumblings\" and \"sort of the dark forces of the world\".According to Fripp, King Crimson is asynonymforBeelzebub, which is ananglicisedform of theArabicphrase \"B'il Sabab\", meaning \"the man with an aim\", to which he related.At this early point, McDonald was the primary composer, with vital contributions from Fripp and Lake, while Sinfield wrote all the lyrics on his own, and also designed and operated the band's unique stage lighting, being credited with \"words and illumination\" on the album sleeve. Inspired bythe Moody Blues, McDonald suggested the group purchase aMellotronkeyboard, and this became a key component of the early Crimson sound.Sinfield described the original Crimson thus: \"If it sounded at all popular, it was out. So it had to be complicated, it had to be more expansive chords, it had to have strange influences. If it sounded, like, too simple, we'd make it more complicated, we'd play it in 7/8 or 5/8, just to show off\". King Crimson's first live performance was atthe Speakeasy ClubinLondonon 9 April 1969 (withYesguitaristPeter Banksamong the audience).Their big breakthrough came on 5 July 1969 by playing as a support act atthe Rolling Stones'free concertinHyde Park, Londonbefore an estimated 500,000 people.The debut album,In the Court of the Crimson King, was released in October 1969 onIsland Records. Fripp would later describe it as having been \"an instant smash\" and \"New York'sacidalbum of 1970\" (notwithstanding Fripp and Giles' assertion that the band never used psychedelic drugs).Whoguitarist and composerPete Townshendcalled the album \"an uncanny masterpiece.\"The album contains Sinfield'sgothic lyricsand its sound was described as having \"dark and doom-laden visions\".Its opening track \"21st Century Schizoid Man\" was described as \"proto-metal\" and the song's lyrics criticisethe military involvement of the United States in Southeast Asia.In contrast to the blues-based hard rock of the contemporary British and American scenes, King Crimson presented a more Europeanised approach that blended antiquity and modernity.The band's music drew on a wide range of influences provided by all five group members. These elements included classical music, the psychedelic rock spearheaded byJimi Hendrix,folk,jazz, military music (partially inspired by McDonald's stint as an army musician) andfree improvisation. After playing shows across England, the band toured the US with various pop and rock acts. Their first show was atGoddard CollegeinPlainfield, Vermont. While the band found success and critical acclaim,creative tensions were already developing.Giles and McDonald, still striving to cope with King Crimson's rapid success and the realities of touring life, became uneasy with their musical direction. Although he was neither the dominant composer nor the frontman, Fripp was very much the group's driving force and spokesman, leading them into progressively darker and more intense musical areas. McDonald and Giles, now favouring a lighter and more nuanced romantic style, became increasingly uncomfortable with their position and resigned after the conclusion of the US tour in January 1970.To keep the band together, Fripp offered to resign himself, but McDonald declared that King Crimson was \"more (him) than them\" and that he and Giles should therefore be the ones to leave.McDonald later said he \"was probably not emotionally mature enough to handle it\" and made a \"rash decision to leave without consulting anyone\".The original lineup played their last show at theFillmore Westin San Francisco on 14 December 1969, a little over one year after forming.Live recordings of the band from 1969 were released in 1997 onEpitaphand in 2010 on theIn the Court of the Crimson King (1969)box set. 1970–1971:In the Wake of PoseidonandLizard King Crimson spent 1970 in a state of flux with various lineup changes, thwarted tour plans, and difficulties in finding a satisfactory musical direction while Fripp was learning and developing as a songwriter during the writing process of the next three albums.As well as guitar, Fripp took on keyboard duties, while Sinfield expanded his creative role to operating synthesizers. Following McDonald and Giles' departure, Lake, unsure of the band's future without them, began discussions withKeith Emersonofthe Niceabout possibly forming a new band together. With Fripp and Sinfield planning for recording the second King Crimson album, and Lake's position uncertain, the band's management bookedElton Johnto sing the material as a session musician, but Fripp decided against this idea after listening to hisEmpty Skyalbum.Lake agreed to stay with the band until Emerson had completed remaining commitments with the Nice, at which point he left to formEmerson, Lake and Palmer. On the resultingIn the Wake of Poseidonalbum, Lake provided all the lead vocals except on \"Cadence and Cascade\", as he left before he was able to complete this track. Fripp's old school friendGordon Haskellwas brought in to provide the vocal on the song.The sessions also included Michael and Peter Giles on drums and bass respectively,saxophonistMel Collins(formerly of the band Circus)and jazz pianistKeith Tippett.Upon its release in May 1970,In the Wake of Poseidonreached No. 4 in the UK and No. 31 in the US. It received some criticism from those who thought it sounded too similar to their first album.With no set band to perform the new material, Fripp and Sinfield kept Mel Collins and Gordon Haskell on board, with Haskell doubling as lead vocalist and bassist, andAndy McCullochjoined as drummer. In addition to saxophone, Collins would also act as occasional keyboard player and backing vocalist. Fripp and Sinfield wrote the third album,Lizard, themselves – with Haskell, Collins and McCulloch having no say in the direction of the material. In addition to the core band, several session musicians contributed to theLizardrecording, including the returning Keith Tippett, who was offered to be a member of the new lineup, but due to other commitments preferred to continue working with the band as an occasional guest musician,and two members of Tippett's band,Mark Charigoncornet, andNick Evansontrombone. Robin Miller (onoboeandcor anglais) also appeared, whileJon AndersonofYeswas brought in to sing a section of the album's title track, \"Prince Rupert Awakes\", which Fripp and Sinfield considered to be outside Haskell's natural range and style.Lizardfeatured stronger jazz and chamber-classical influences than previous albums.The album contains Sinfield's \"phantasmagorical\" lyrics, including \"Happy Family\" (an allegory of the break-up ofthe Beatles),and the title track, a suite which took up the entire second side, describing a medieval/mythological battle and its outcome. Released in December 1970,Lizardreached No. 29 in the UK and No. 113 in the US. Described retrospectively as an \"outlier\",the album had been made by a group in disagreement over method and taste. The more rhythm-and-blues-oriented Haskell and McCulloch both found the music difficult to relate to, and tedious and confusing to record. Collins disliked how his parts were composed, while both Fripp and Haskell detested Sinfield's lyrics.This lineup of the band did not survive much longer than theLizardrecording sessions. Haskell quit the band acrimoniously during initial tour rehearsals after refusing to sing live with distortion and electronic effects on his voice, and McCulloch departed soon after.With Sinfield not being a musician and Fripp having seemingly given up on the band, Collins was left to search for new members. 1971–1972:Islands After a search for a drummer to replace McCulloch,Ian Wallacewas secured. Fripp was re-energised by the addition of a new member, and he joined Collins and Wallace to audition singers and bassists. Vocalists who tried out includedBryan FerryofRoxy Musicand even one of the band's managers,John Gaydon.The position eventually went toRaymond \"Boz\" Burrell.John Wettonwas invited to join on bass, but declined in order to joinFamilyinstead.Rick Kemp(later ofSteeleye Span) rehearsed with the band, but declined the final offer to formally join.Fripp decided to teach Boz to play bass rather than continue the labored auditions. Though he had not played bass before, Burrell had played enough acoustic guitar to assist him in learning the instrument quickly. Wallace was able to further instruct Burrell in functioning on the instrument in a rhythm section.With a lineup now complete, King Crimson began touring in May 1971, the first time they had played live since the original lineup's last show on 14 December 1969. The concerts were well received, but the musical differences between Fripp and the rest of the group, and the somewhat wilder lifestyles of Collins, Wallace and Burrell, alienated the drug-free Fripp, who began to withdraw socially from his bandmates, creating further tension. In 1971, the new King Crimson formation recordedIslands. Sinfield, who favoured a softer approach, took lyrical inspiration fromHomer'sOdyssey, musical inspiration from jazz players likeMiles DavisandAhmad Jamal, and a sun-drenched trip toIbizaandFormentera.Islandsfeatured the instrumental \"Sailor's Tale\", with a droning Mellotron and Fripp's banjo-inspired guitar solo; the raunchy blues-rocker \"Ladies of the Road\", a tribute togroupieswhich featured Wallace and Collins singing Beatles-esque backing vocals; and \"Song of the Gulls\", which was developed from an earlier Fripp instrumental (\"Suite No. 1\" from Giles, Giles & Fripp's1968 album), and would be the only time the band would utilize an orchestra.Burrell disliked Sinfield's lyrics and one of the band members allegedly calledIslandsas \"an airy-fairy piece of shit\". Released in December 1971,Islandscharted at No. 30 in the UK and No. 76 in the US. Following a tour of the United States in December 1971, Fripp informed Sinfield that he could no longer work with him, and asked him to leave the band.In January 1972, the remaining band broke up acrimoniously in rehearsals, owing partially to Fripp's refusal to play a composition by Collins.He later cited this as \"quality control\", with the idea that King Crimson would perform the \"right\" kind of music. In order to fulfil touring contracts in the United States in 1972, King Crimson reformed with the intention of disbanding immediately after the tour.Recordings from various North American dates between January and February 1972 were released asEarthboundin June of that year. The album was noted for its playing style that occasionally veered towardsfunk, and Burrell'sscat singingon the improvised pieces, but was criticised for its sub-par sound quality.Further, better-quality, live recordings from this era would be released in 2002 asLadies of the Roadand in 2017 on theSailors' Tales (1970–1972)box set. By this time, the musical rift between Fripp and the rest of the band had grown very wide. Wallace, Burrell and Collins favoured improvisedbluesand funk. Fripp would later describe the 1971–1972 lineup as more of ajam bandthan an \"improvising\" band, an opinion with which Wallace disagreed. Personal relations actually improved during the tour to the point where most of the band decided to continue on, however Fripp opted to part company with the other three, restructuring King Crimson with new musicians, as he felt the other members wouldn't be fully engaged in the musical direction he had in mind. 1972–1975:Larks' Tongues in Aspic,Starless and Bible Black,Redand hiatus \"It was going to be an interesting ride when ... I wasn't given a setlist when I joined the band, more a reading list.Ouspensky,J. G. Bennett,GurdjieffandCastanedawere all hot.Wicca, personality changes, low-level magic, pyromancy – all this from the magus in the court of the Crimson King. This was going to be more than three chords and a pint of Guinness.\" —Bill Bruford. The next incarnation of King Crimson was radically different from the previous configurations. Fripp's four new recruits werefree-improvisingpercussionistJamie Muir, drummerBill Bruford, who leftYesat a commercial peak in their career in favour of the \"darker\" Crimson,bassist and vocalistJohn Wetton(who leftFamily), and violinist, keyboardist and flautistDavid Cross, whom Fripp had met when he was invited to a rehearsal of Waves, a band Cross was working in.Most of the musical compositions were collaborations between Fripp and Wetton, who each composed segments independently and fitted together those which they found compatible.With Sinfield gone, the band recruited Wetton's friendRichard Palmer-James(from the originalSupertramp) as their new lyricist.Unlike Sinfield, Palmer-James was not an official member of King Crimson, playing no part in artistic decisions, visual ideas, or sonic directions; his sole contributions to the group were his lyrics, sent via mail from his home in Germany.Following a period of rehearsals, King Crimson resumed touring on 13 October 1972 at the Zoom Club inFrankfurt,with the band's penchant for improvisation (and Muir's startling stage presence) gaining them renewed press attention. In January and February 1973, King Crimson recordedLarks' Tongues in Aspicin London which was released that March.The band's new sound was exemplified by the album'stwo-part title track– a significant change from what King Crimson had done before, the piece emphasised the sharp instrumental interplay of the band, and drew influence from modern classical music, noisy free improv, and even heavy metal riffing. The record displayed Muir's unusual approach to percussion, which included a self-modified drum kit, assorted toys, abullroarer,mbira, gongs, balloons,thunder sheetand chains. On stage, Muir also employed unpredictable, manic movements, bizarre clothing, and fake blood capsules (occasionally spit or applied to the head), becoming the sole example of such theatrical stage activity in the band's long history.The album reached No. 20 in the UK and No. 61 in the US. After a period of further touring, Muir departed in 1973, quitting the music industry altogether. Muir told King Crimson's management that he had decided a musician's life was not for him, and he had chosen to join a Scottish Buddhist monastery. He offered to serve a period of notice which the management declined. Instead of reiterating Muir's decision, the management informed the band and the public that Muir had sustained an onstage injury caused by a gong landing on his foot. With Muir gone, the remaining members reconvened in January 1974 to produceStarless and Bible Black, released in March 1974, which earned them a positiveRolling Stonereview.Though most of the album was recorded live during the band's late 1973 tour, the recordings were carefully edited and overdubbed to sound like a studio record, with \"The Great Deceiver\", \"Lament\" and the second half of \"The Night Watch\" the only tracks recorded entirely in the studio.The album reached No. 28 in the UK and No. 64 in the US. Following the album's release, the band began to divide once more, this time over performance. Musically, Fripp found himself positioned between Bruford and Wetton, who played with such force and increasing volume that Fripp once compared them to \"a flying brick wall\", and Cross, whose amplified acoustic violin was consistently being drowned out by the rhythm section, leading him to concentrate more on Mellotron and an overdriven electric piano. An increasingly frustrated Cross began to withdraw both musically and personally, with the result being that he was voted out of the group following the band's 1974 tour of Europe and America. In July 1974, Fripp, Bruford, and Wetton began recordingRed.Before recording began, Fripp, now increasingly disillusioned with the music industry, turned his attention to the works of English mysticJ.G. Bennettand had a spiritual experience in which \"the top of my head blew off\".Most of the album had been developed during live improvisations before Fripp retreated into himself and \"withdrew his opinion\", leaving Bruford and Wetton to direct the recording sessions. The album contains one live track, \"Providence\", recorded on 30 June 1974 with Cross playing violin. Several guest musicians (including former members Ian McDonald and Mel Collins) contributed to the album.Released on 6 October 1974,Redwent to No. 45 in the UK and No. 66 in the US.AllMusiccalled it \"an impressive achievement\" for a group about to disband,with \"intensely dynamic\" musical chemistry between the band members. Two months before the release ofRed, King Crimson's future looked bright (with talks regarding founder member Ian McDonald rejoining the group). However, Fripp wished not to tour as he felt increasingly disenchanted by the group and the music industry. He also felt the world was going to drastically change by 1981 and that he had to prepare for it.Despite a band meeting while touring the US in which Fripp expressed a desire to end the band,the group did not formally disband until 25 September 1974 and later Fripp announced that King Crimson had \"ceased to exist\" and was \"completely over for ever and ever\".It was later revealed that Fripp had attempted to replace himself with McDonald andSteve HackettofGenesis, but this idea was rejected by the managers.Following the band's disbanding, the live albumUSAwas released in May 1975, formed of recordings from their 1974 North American tour. It received some positive reviews,including \"a must\" for fans of the band and \"insanity you're better off having\".Issues with the tapes rendered some of Cross' playing inaudible, soEddie Jobsonof Roxy Music was hired to perform violin and keyboard overdubs in a studio; further edits were also made to allow the music to fit on a single LP.More live recordings from the 1972–1974 era would be issued asThe Night Watchin 1997, and as part of the box setsThe Great Deceiver(1992),Larks' Tongues in Aspic (1972–1973)(2012),The Road to Red (1974), andStarless (1973–1974)(both 2014). Between 1975 and 1981, King Crimson were completely inactive. 1981–1984:Discipline,Beat,Three of a Perfect Pairand second hiatus In the late autumn of 1980, having spent several years on spiritual pursuits and then gradually returning to music (playing guitar forDavid Bowie,Peter GabrielandDaryl Hall, pursuing an experimental solo career, leading instrumentalnew wavebandThe League of Gentlemen), Fripp decided to form a new \"first division\" rock group, but had no intentions of it being King Crimson.Having recruited Bill Bruford as drummer, Fripp asked singer and guitaristAdrian Belewto join,the first time Fripp would actively seek collaboration with another guitarist in a band and therefore indicative of Fripp's desire to create something unlike any of his previous work.After touring withTalking Heads, Belew agreed to join and also become the band's lyricist. Bruford's suggestion of his bassistJeff Berlinwas rejected as Fripp thought his playing was \"too busy\",so auditions were held in New York: on the third day, Fripp left after roughly three auditions, only to return several hours later withTony Levin(who got the job after playing a single chorus of \"Red\").Fripp later confessed that, had he known that Levin (whom Fripp had played with inPeter Gabriel's group) was available and interested, he would have selected him without holding auditions. Fripp named the new quartet Discipline, and they went to England to rehearse and write new material. They made their live debut atMoles ClubinBath, Somerseton 30 April 1981, and completed a short tour supported bythe Lounge Lizards.By October 1981, the band had opted to change their name to King Crimson. In 1981, King Crimson recordedDisciplinewith producerRhett Davieswho had previously worked with Belew on Talking Heads'Remain in Lightand with Fripp on Brian Eno'sAnother Green WorldandBefore and After Science. The album displayed a very different version of the band, with newer influences includingpost-punk,new wave, funk,minimalism,pointillism, world music and African percussion.With a sound described inThe New Rolling Stone Album Guideas having a \"jaw-dropping technique\" of \"knottily rhythmic, harmonically demanding workouts\".The title track \"Discipline\" was described as apostminimalistrock song.Fripp intended to create the sound of a \"rockgamelan\", with an interlocking rhythmic quality to the paired guitars that he found similar to Indonesian gamelan ensembles.Fripp concentrated on playing complex picked arpeggios, while Belew provided an arsenal of guitar sounds that \"often mimic animal noises\".In addition to bass guitar, Levin used theChapman Stick, a ten-string two-handedtapping, hybrid guitar and bass instrument which he played in an \"utterly original style\".Bruford experimented with cymbal-less acoustic kits and aSimmons SDS-Velectronic drum kit. The band's songs were shorter in comparison to previous King Crimson albums, and very much shaped by Belew's pop sensibilities and quirky approach to writing lyrics. Though the band's previous taste for improvisation was now tightly reined in, one instrumental (\"The Sheltering Sky\") emerged from group rehearsals; while the noisy, half-spoken/half-shouted \"Indiscipline\" was a partially written, part-improvised piece created in order to give Bruford a chance to escape from the strict rhythmic demands of the rest of the album.Released in September 1981,Disciplinereached No. 41 in the UK and No. 45 in the US. In June 1982, King Crimson followedDisciplinewithBeat, the first King Crimson album recorded with the same band lineup as the album preceding it.Beatis the only album where Fripp had no involvement in the original mixing; Davies and Belew undertook production duties.The album had a linked theme of theBeat Generationand its writings, reflected in song titles such as \"Neal and Jack and Me\" (inspired byNeal CassadyandJack Kerouac), \"Heartbeat\" (inspired byCarolyn Cassady's \"Heart Beat: My Life with Jack and Neal\"), \"The Howler\" (inspired byAllen Ginsberg's \"Howl\") and \"Waiting Man\" (inspired byWilliam Burroughs). The album contained themes of life on the road,existential angstand romanticism.WhileBeatwas more accessible,it had the improvised \"Requiem\", which featuredFrippertronics, a guitar technique invented byBrian Enoand Robert Fripp using atape loopsystem. RecordingBeatwas faced with tension with Belew suffering high stress levels over his duties as front man, lead singer, and principal songwriter. On one occasion, he clashed with Fripp and ordered him out of the studio.AsBeatreached No. 39 in the UK and No. 52 in the US, King Crimson resumed touring. \"Heartbeat\" was released as a single which peaked at No. 57 on theBillboardMainstream Rockchart. Around this time the band released the VHSThe Noise: Live in Frejus, a document of a show played at the Arena,Frejus, France on 27 August 1982, co-headlining with Roxy Music (whose set from the same show was also released on VHS asThe High Road). The VHS was later re-released as part of theNeal and Jack and MeDVD in 2004. King Crimson's next album,Three of a Perfect Pair, was recorded in 1983 and released in March 1984. Having encountered difficulty in both writing and determining a direction for the album, the band chose to record and call the album's first half a \"left side\" – four of the band's poppier songs plus an instrumental – and the second half a \"right side\" – experimental work, improvisations that drew influence from industrial music,plus the third part of the \"Larks' Tongues in Aspic\" series of compositions. The stress during the writing process and the tension between the band members manifested in both lyrical content and music, and the result is a \"nerve-racking\" album.The 2001 remaster of the album included the \"other side\", a collection of remixes and improvisational out-takes plus Levin's humorous song, \"The King Crimson Barbershop\".Three of a Perfect Pairpeaked at No. 30 in the UK and No. 58 in the US, with \"Three of a Perfect Pair\" and \"Sleepless\" being released as singles. A VHS document of theThree of a Perfect Pairtour,Three of a Perfect Pair: Live in Japan, was released later in 1984 (and later also included on theNeal and Jack and MeDVD). The last concert of theThree of a Perfect Pairtour, at theSpectrumin Montreal, Canada on 11 July 1984, was recorded and released in 1998 asAbsent Lovers: Live in Montreal.Further live recordings of the 1980s band would be released in 2016 as part of theOn (and off) The Road (1981–1984)box set. Despite their conflict, the musicians remained professional on stage. \"Robert broke up the group, again, for the umpteenth time, dwelling at length, I suppose, on our lack of imagination, ability, direction and a thousand other things we were doubtless missing. I suppose this only because I remember not listening to this litany of failures. Might as well quit while you're ahead, I thought.\" —Bill Bruford on the band's 1984 disbanding. Following the 1984 tour, Fripp dissolved King Crimson for the second time, exactly ten years after dissolving the previous group. Bruford and Belew expressed some frustration over this; Belew recalled the first he had heard of the split was when he read about it in a report inMusicianmagazine. 1994–1999: The Double Trio,Vrooom,THRAKand the ProjeKcts In the summer of 1991, Belew met with Fripp in England to express an interest in reviving King Crimson.One year later, Fripp established hisDiscipline Global Mobile(DGM) record label with producerDavid Singleton. Subsequently, DGM would be the primary home for Fripp's work, with larger album releases distributed to bigger record companies (initiallyVirgin records), and smaller releases handled by DGM. This afforded Fripp and his associates greater creative freedom and more control over all aspects of their work. In late 1991, Fripp asked formerJapansingerDavid Sylvianto join the new King Crimson band, but Sylvian declined the offer, though the two collaborated as Sylvian/Fripp.In June 1993, Fripp began to assemble a larger version of the band, joined by Belew and Levin from the 1980s quartet, Chapman Stick playerTrey Gunn(a veteran of Fripp's Guitar Craft courses) and drummerJerry Marotta,with whom Fripp had played withPeter Gabriel.After Sylvian/Fripp's closing concerts at theRoyal Albert Hallin December 1993,a tour that Marotta didn't participate in, Fripp decided to ask the tour's drummerPat Mastelotto, formerly ofMr. Mister, to join instead of Marotta.Bruford wound up being the last of the 1980s group to return to the band.Fripp explained that he had a vision of a \"Double Trio\" with two drummers while driving along theChalke Valleyone afternoon in 1992.Bruford later said he lobbied Fripp last minute because he believed that Crimson was very much \"his gig\", and that Fripp had come up with a philosophical explanation for utilizing both Mastelotto and himself later. One of the conditions Fripp imposed upon Bruford if he were to return was to give up all creative control to Fripp. Following rehearsals inWoodstock, New York, the group released theEPVrooomin October 1994. This revealed the new King Crimson sound, which featured the interlocking guitars of the 1980s mixed with the layered, heavier feel of the 1970s period.There was also a vague influence from theindustrial musicof that time.Many of the songs were written or finalised by Belew, and displayed stronger elements of 1960s pop than before; in particular, aBeatlesinfluence.Bruford would refer to the band as sounding like \"a dissonantShadowson steroids\".As with previous lineups, new technology was utilised, includingMIDI(extensively used as an effects filter by Belew and Gunn, and which Fripp used to replace Frippertronics with an upgraded digital version of itself called \"Soundscapes\")and the versatileWarr tap guitarwith which Gunn replaced his Stick in 1995.King Crimson toured the album from 28 September 1994 inBuenos Aires,Argentina; portions of these concerts were released on the double live CD setB'Boom: Live in Argentinain 1995. \"The meaning ofTHRAK... the first one is: a sudden and precise impact moving from direction and commitment in service of an aim ... The second definition is: 117 guitars almost hitting the same chord simultaneously. So, the albumTHRAK, what is it? 56 minutes and 37 seconds of songs and music about love, dying, redemption and mature guys who get erections.\" —Robert Fripp's press release forTHRAKand the sleeve notes toVROOOM VROOOM In October and December 1994, King Crimson recorded their eleventh studio album,THRAK.Formed mostly of revised versions of the tracks fromVrooom, plus new tracks, the album was described byQmagazine as having \"jazz-scented rock structures, characterised by noisy, angular, exquisite guitar interplay\" and an \"athletic, ever-inventive rhythm section,\"while being in tune with the sound ofalternative rockof the mid-1990s.Examples of the band's efforts to integrate their multiple elements could be heard on the accessible (but complex) songs \"Dinosaur\" and \"Sex Sleep Eat Drink Dream\", the more straightforward ballad \"One Time\", as well as \"Radio I\" and \"Radio II\"- a pair of Fripp's Soundscapes instrumentals. King Crimson resumed touring in 1995 and into 1996; dates from October and November 1995 were recorded and released on the live albumTHRaKaTTaKin May 1996, which is an hour of improvised music integrating sections from performances from the \"THRAK\" tour in the United States and Japan, mixed and arranged by Fripp's DGM partner, engineer David Singleton.A more conventional live recording from the period was later made available as the double CD releaseVrooom Vrooom(2001), while a full 1995 concert was released on VHS in 1996 asLive in Japanand re-released on DVD in 1999 asDéjà Vrooom. The double trio would be further honored by theTHRAK (1994–1997)box set in 2015. Writing rehearsals began in May 1997 inNashville, Tennessee. Fripp was dissatisfied with the quality of the new music being developed by the band; Longstanding friction and disagreements between himself and Bruford led to the latter deciding to leave King Crimson for good. The resulting bad atmosphere and the lack of workable material almost broke the band up altogether. Instead, the six members opted to work in four smaller groups (or \"fraKctalisations\", as Fripp called them) known asProjeKcts. This enabled the group to continue developing ideas and searching for a new direction without the practical difficulty (and expense) of convening all six musicians at once. From 1997 to 1999, the first four ProjeKcts played live in the United States and the United Kingdom, and released recordings that showed a high degree of free improvisation, with influences ranging from jazz, industrial,technoanddrum'n'bass.These have been collectively described by music criticJ. D. Considineas \"frequently astonishing\" but lacking in melody.After Bruford had played four dates with Projekct One in December 1997, he left King Crimson to resume working with his own jazz groupEarthworks. 1999–2003: The Double Duo,The Construkction of LightandThe Power to Believe In October 1999, King Crimson reconvened.Tony Levin was busy working as a session musician and decided to take a hiatus from the group, so the remaining members (Fripp, Belew, Gunn and Mastelotto) formed the \"Double Duo\" to write and recordThe Construkction of Lightin Belew's basement studio and garage nearNashville.Fripp was inspired by Tool's albumUndertowduring the writing process ofThe Construkction of Light.Released in May 2000, the album reached No. 129 in the UK. Most of the pieces were metallic, harsh andindustrialin sound.They featured a distinct electronic texture, a heavily processed electric drum sound from Mastelotto, Gunn taking over the bass role on Warr Guitar, and a different take on the interlocking guitar sound that the band had pioneered in the 1980s.With the exception of an industrial blues (sung by Belew through a voice changer under the pseudonym of \"Hooter J. Johnson\"), the songs were dense and complex.The album contains thefourth installmentof \"Larks' Tongues in Aspic\". It received a negative reception for lacking new ideas.The band recorded an album of improvised instrumentals at the same time, and released them under the nameProjeKct X, on the CDHeaven and Earth. King Crimson toured to support both albums, including double bill shows withTool.The tour was documented on the live albumHeavy ConstruKctionin 2000 and theHeaven & Earth (1997–2008)box set in 2019.Led ZeppelinbassistJohn Paul Jonesand his band supported Crimson on some live shows. On 9 November 2001, King Crimson released a limited edition live EP calledLevel Five,featuring three new pieces: \"Dangerous Curves\", \"Level Five\" and \"Virtuous Circle\", plus versions of \"The Construkction of Light\" and ProjeKct's \"The Deception of the Thrush\", followed by an unlisted track called \"ProjeKct 12th and X\" after one minute of silence.A second EP followed in October 2002,Happy with What You Have to Be Happy With. This featured eleven tracks (including a live version of \"Larks' Tongues in Aspic, Part IV\"). Half of the tracks were processed vocal snippets by Belew, and the songs themselves varied between Soundscapes, gamelan, heavy metal and blues. The double duo lineup released King Crimson's thirteenth album,The Power to Believe, in March 2003.Fripp described it as \"the culmination of three years of Crimsonising\".The album incorporated, reworked and retitled versions of \"Deception of the Thrush\" (\"The Power to Believe III\"); tracks from their previous two EPs; and an extract from a Fripp Soundscape with added instrumentation and vocals.The Power to Believereached No. 162 in the UK and No. 150 in the US. King Crimson toured in 2003 to support the album; recordings from it were used for the live albumEleKtrik: Live in Japan. 2003 also saw the release of the DVDEyes Wide Open, a compilation of the band's shows Live at the Shepherds Bush Empire (London, 3 July 2000) and Live in Japan (Tokyo, 16 April 2003). In November 2003, Gunn left the group to pursue solo projects and was replaced by the returning Tony Levin.The band reconvened in early 2004 for rehearsals, but nothing developed from these sessions. They went on another hiatus.At this point, Fripp was publicly reassessing his desire to work within the music industry, often citing the unsympathetic aspects of the life of a touring musician, such as \"the illusion of intimacy with celebrities\". On 21 September 2006, former King Crimson memberBoz Burrelldied of a heart attack,followed by another former member,Ian Wallace, who died of esophageal cancer on 22 February 2007. 2008: 40th Anniversary tour and third hiatus A new King Crimson formation was announced in 2007: Fripp, Belew, Levin, Mastelotto, and a new second drummer,Gavin Harrison.In August 2008, after a period of rehearsals, the five completed the band's 40th Anniversary Tour. The setlists featured no new material, drawing instead from the existing mid '70s era/Discipline-era/Double Trio/Double Duo repertoire.Additional shows were planned for 2009, but were cancelled due to scheduling clashes with Belew. King Crimson began another hiatus after the 40th Anniversary Tour.Belew continued to lobby for reviving the band, and discussed it with Fripp several times in 2009 and 2010. Among Belew's suggestions was a temporary reunion of the 1980s line-up for a thirtieth anniversary tour: an idea declined by both Fripp and Bruford, the latter commenting \"I would be highly unlikely to try to recreate the same thing, a mission I fear destined to failure.\"In December 2010, Fripp wrote that the King Crimson \"switch\" had been set to \"off\" since October 2008, citing several reasons for this decision. In August 2012, Fripp announced his retirement from the music industry, leaving the future of King Crimson uncertain. 2014–2021: The Seven-Headed Beast and Three Over Five lineups Prior to Fripp's retirement announcement, a band called Jakszyk, Fripp and Collins (and subtitled \"A King Crimson ProjeKct\") had released an album calledA Scarcity of Miraclesin 2011. The band featured guitarist and singerJakko Jakszyk(who'd previously performed King Crimson material with 21st Century Schizoid Band), Fripp and former Crimson saxophonistMel Collinsas the main players/composers, with Tony Levin playing bass and Gavin Harrison playing drums. At one point, Fripp referred to the band as \"P7\" (ProjeKct Seven).Unusually for a ProjeKct, it was based around \"finely crafted\" and \"mid-paced\" original songs derived from improvised sessions. In September 2013, Fripp announced King Crimson's return to activity with a \"very different reformation to what has gone before: seven players, four English and three American, with three drummers\".He cited several reasons to make a comeback, varying from the practical to the whimsical: \"I was becoming too happy. Time for a pointed stick.\"The new line-up drew from both the previous lineup (retaining Fripp, Levin, Harrison and Mastelotto) and theScarcity of Miraclesproject (Jakszyk and Collins), withGuitar Craftalumnus and formerR.E.M./MinistrydrummerBill Rieflinas the seventh member.Adrian Belew was not asked to take part, thus ending his 32-year tenure in King Crimson: Jakszyk took his place as singer and second guitarist.This version of the group took on the nickname of \"the Seven-Headed Beast\". This drastically revamped King Crimson had no plans to record in the studio, focussing instead on playing \"reconfigured\" versions of past material in live concerts.Looking back later at this King Crimson phase, Tony Levin would comment \"we were instructed/advised by Robert Fripp to look at the older classic King Crimson material as if we had written it. And so we did that with a lot of older material that the band had done before the '80s. We didn’t actually cover that much of the '80s material outside of a few songs.\" For the most part, this approach would remain consistent for the remainder of the band's lifetime. In early 2014, and for the first time since 1974, the band's repertoire included songs from the run of albums betweenIn The Court of the Crimson KingandLarks' Tongues in Aspicas well as reviving song material fromRed. No Adrian Belew-era songs were included in the setlist, although some instrumentals from the period were played (including items fromTHRAKandThe Power to Believe). At the same time, two brand new songs mainly written by Fripp and Jakszyk (\"Meltdown\" and \"Suitable Grounds for the Blues\") were debuted at live concerts. After rehearsing in England, King Crimson toured North America from 9 September to 6 October.Recordings from the Los Angeles dates were released asLive at the Orpheum: this included new King Crimson instrumental music in the shape of \"Banshee Legs Bell Hassle\" and \"Walk On: Monk Morph Chamber Music\". Tours across Europe, Canada, and Japan followed in the later half of 2015.A live recording from the Canadian leg of the tour was released at the end of February 2016 asLive In Toronto, which included three more new Crimson instrumental pieces (\"Threshold Soundscape\", \"Radical Action (To Unseat the Hold of Monkey Mind)\" and \"The Hell Hounds of Krim\"). A European tour was planned for 2016. Following Rieflin's decision to take a break from music, drummerJeremy StaceyofNoel Gallagher's High Flying Birdswas called in place for dates from September. A further live album,Radical Action to Unseat the Hold of Monkey Mind, was released in September 2016, drawing from 2015 concert dates of Japan, Canada and France preceding Rieflin's departure and Stacey's arrival. Further documenting the band's shuffling and evolving live set, it included one new instrumental (\"Devil Dogs of Tessellation Row\") and demonstrated that King Crimson were now incorporating material fromA Scarcity of Miracles(the title track, plus \"The Light of Day\") into the band's repertoire. On 7 December 2016, founding King Crimson memberGreg Lakedied of cancer.Another former King Crimson member,John Wetton, died ofcolon canceron 31 January 2017. On 3 January 2017, Bill Rieflin returned to King Crimson.Since the band wished to retain Jeremy Stacey, Fripp called the new lineup the \"Double Quartet Formation\", referencing four drummers.Consequently, King Crimson became an octet, with Fripp rechristening the lineup the \"Three Over Five\" (or \"Five Over Three\") Formation. Later on, Rieflin shifted his group role and became King Crimson's first full-time keyboard player. On 2 June 2017, King Crimson released a new live EP namedHeroes, featuring a cover of theDavid Bowiesong of the same name. The EP was intended as a tribute to Bowie, for whom Fripp had provided distinctive guitar work on the albums\"Heroes\"(1977) andScary Monsters (and Super Creeps)(1980).The video to King Crimson's version of \"Heroes\" won \"Video of the Year\" at the 2017Progressive Music Awards.Shortly afterwards, King Crimson embarked on a United States tour beginning on 11 June and ending on 26 November.On 3 September, Robert Fripp said that his differences with Adrian Belew had been resolved and that there were \"no current plans for (him) to come out with the current formation\" but \"the doors to the future are open.\" Belew confirmed this, adding \"it means I may be back in the band in the future at some point.\" On 14 October 2017, King Crimson released another contemporary live album,Live in Chicago, recorded on tour in June of the same year. As had been the case with its two predecessors, it included new music in the absence of a new studio album (in this case \"Bellscape & Orchestral Werning\", \"The Errors\" and \"Interlude\"). It also documented the return to the live set of material from the long-neglected 1970 albumLizard(in the form of the full \"Lizard Suite\" from the second side), as well as another live version of \"'Heroes'\" and a radically different version of the Belew-era song \"Indiscipline\". On 13 October 2017, it was announced that Bill Rieflin would be unable to join the Three Over Five Formation on the 2017 Autumn tour in the U.S. He was temporarily replaced by Seattle-basedCrafty GuitaristChris Gibson.During 2018, King Crimson performed the extensive 33-date Uncertain Times tour through the UK and Europe between 13 June and 16 November. Although the band continued their \"no new studio album\" policy, April 2018 saw the full release of another live album,Live in Vienna, compiling concert recordings from Vienna in 2016 and from Tokyo in 2015. Although the only new band piece on this occasion was the brief drum trio \"Fairy Dust of the Drumsons\", the set also included three pieces drawn from improvised Fripp/Collins/Levin introduction music and merged with Fripp soundscape music: these pieces were arranged and realised by David Singleton, reflecting similar work he'd performed forTHRaKaTTaKtwenty years earlier.On 20 October 2018, a further live album was released,Meltdown: Live in Mexico City, recorded during dates in July 2017: additions to the setlist on this album included another new drum piece (\"CatalytiKc No. 9\"), the readmission of another Belew-era song (\"Neurotica), \"Breathless\" (from Fripp's 1979 solo albumExposure), a group jam and assorted solo member \"cadenzas\". On 6 April 2019, it was announced at a press conference that Rieflin would take another break from King Crimson to attend to family matters, his place on keyboards for the 2019 50th anniversary tour taken byTheo Travis, better known as a saxophonist,Soft Machinemember and occasional duo collaborator with Robert Fripp.Although Travis joined the band for rehearsals, Fripp said on 2 May that the band had decided that it was no longer possible to have other musicians deputising for Rieflin and for this reason were \"proceed(ing) as a Seven-Headed Beast\" without Travis.Rieflin's parts were divided among other band members, with Fripp, Stacey, Jakszyk and Collins adding keyboards to their on-stage rigs, and Levin once again using the synthesizer he used during the '80s tours.Soon after on 11 June, King Crimson's entire discography was made available to stream online on all the major streaming platforms, as part of the band's 50th anniversary celebration. On 24 March 2020, Bill Rieflin died of cancer.In the same year, two other former members also passed away,Keith Tippettafter several years of illness on 14 June,andGordon Haskellfrom lung cancer on 15 October. King Crimson toured North America and then Japan in 2021.Recordings from dates on the American leg of the tour were released as the \"official bootleg\" live albumMusic Is Our Friend: Live in Washington and Albany, featuring music from across the band's lifetime plus two new Tony Levin cadenzas. 2022:In the Court of the Crimson Kingdocumentary and end of band activity Following the 2021 tour dates, King Crimson ceased activity, although without expressly announcing a breakup. Reasons cited were practical ones involving the old age of several of the members plus the rising cost of services duringthe pandemic, with no band intentions for any more tours. In August 2021, Jakszyk referred to the existence of \"about forty to fifty minutes' worth of new (King Crimson) stuff, a number of songs I've co-written with Robert and some instrumental things he's written. During the lockdown Gavin suggested, 'Why don't we record these things so we've at least got studio recordings of this material?' That doesn't mean we're going to make a new album or it's ever gonna come out, but we have started this process.\"Versions of two Fripp/Jakszyk songs originally intended for King Crimson (\"Uncertain Times\" and \"Separation\") had already emerged on Jakszyk's 2020 solo albumSecrets and Lies, with participation from Fripp, Harrison, Levin and Collins. On 9 February 2022, founding King Crimson memberIan McDonalddied of cancer. In March 2022, the documentary filmIn the Court of the Crimson Kingwas premiered at the 2022 SXSW Film Festival. Directed byToby Amiesand filmed between 2019 and 2021, it covered live and backstage activity by the then-current band but also featured a historical overview plus contributions from Crimson alumni Ian McDonald, Michael Giles, Bill Bruford, Adrian Belew and Trey Gunn (as well as prolonged interview footage with the late Bill Rieflin). Amies described the film's development as follows: “What began as a traditional documentary about the legendary band King Crimson as it turned fifty, mutated into an exploration of time, death, family, and the transcendent power of music to change lives; but with jokes.” As of 2022, with the exception of archive/curatorial matters, King Crimson have ceased activity altogether, with no plans for the future.Levin said in a late 2022 interview that, \"the sense I got from Robert was that it's over. Maybe King Crimson will speak to him in the future in some way, and will revive its head with who-knows-what line up?\" At a post-screening Q&A session forIn the Court of the Crimson King, Fripp referred to the seven-member 2021 lineup of King Crimson as \"the final incarnation\" of the band. Asked if there could ever be a lineup that did not include him, he disagreed, stating \"I see the whole. I see the music. I see the musicians. I see the audience and I see the music industry and you have to engage with all of that to have the overview. So that's the quick answer.\" Musical style King Crimson have been described musically asprogressive rock,art rock,andpost-progressive,with their earlier works being described asproto-prog.Their music was initially grounded in the rock of the 1960s, especially theacid rockandpsychedelic rockmovements. The band playedDonovan's \"Get Thy Bearings\" in concert,and were known to playthe Beatles' \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" in their rehearsals.However, for their own compositions, King Crimson (unlike the rock bands that had come before them) largely stripped away theblues-based foundations of rock music and replaced them with influences derived from classical composers. The first incarnation of King Crimson played theMarssection ofGustav Holst's suiteThe Planetslive and later the band usedMarsas a foundation for the song \"Devil's Triangle\".As a result of this influence,In the Court of the Crimson Kingis frequently viewed as the nominal starting point of the progressive rock movements.King Crimson also initially displayed strongjazzinfluences, most obviously on its signature track \"21st Century Schizoid Man\".The band also drew on Englishfolk musicfor compositions such as \"Moonchild\"and \"I Talk to the Wind.\"In the 1972 lineup, Fripp's intention was to combine the music ofJimi Hendrix,Igor StravinskyandBéla Bartók. The 1981 reunion of the band brought in even more elements, displaying the influence of funk, post-punk, new wave,gamelanmusic and late 20th century classical composers such asPhilip Glass,Steve Reich, andTerry Riley.For its 1994 reunion, King Crimson reassessed both the mid-1970s and 1980s approaches in the light of new technology, intervening music forms such aselectronica,drum'n'bassandtechno;and further developments inindustrial music, as well as expanding the band's ambient textural content via Fripp's Soundscapes looping approach. The 2013 version of the band returned, for the most part, to the band's 1960s and 1970s influences and repertoire but addressed them via current technology and rearrangements suited to a larger ensemble of more experienced musicians, while also incorporating the New Standard Tuning used by Fripp since 1984. Compositional approaches Several King Crimson compositional approaches remained constant throughout the band's lifetime. These included: Improvisation \"We're so different from each other that one night someone in the band will play something that the rest of us have never heard before and you just have to listen for a second. Then you react to his statement, usually in a different way than they would expect. It's the improvisation that makes the group amazing for me. You know, taking chances. There is no format really in which we fall into. We discover things while improvising and if they're really basically good ideas we try and work them in as new numbers, all the while keeping the improvisation thing alive and continually expanding.\" —King Crimson violinist David Cross on the mid-1970s band's approach to improvisation. King Crimson incorporated improvisation into their performances and studio recordings from the beginning, some of which was embedded into pieces such as \"Moonchild\", \"Providence\", \"Requiem\" and \"No Warning\",including passages of restrained silence, as with Bill Bruford's contribution to the improvised \"Trio\".Rather than using the standard jazz or rock \"jamming\" format for improvisation (in which one soloist at a time takes centre stage while the rest of the band lies back and plays along with established rhythm and chord changes), King Crimson improvisation consisted of musicians collectively making creative decisions and contributions as the music is being played. Individual soloing was largely eschewed; each musician was to listen to each other and to the group sound, to be able to react creatively within the group dynamic. Fripp has used the metaphor of \"magic\" to describe this process, in particular when the method works particularly well. Similarly, King Crimson's improvised music was varied in sound and the band has been able to release several box sets and albums consisting mostly or entirely of improvised music,such as theTHRaKaTTaKalbum,and the band's series ofProjeKcts.Occasionally, particular improvised pieces were recalled and reworked in different forms at different shows, becoming more and more refined and eventually appearing on official studio releases. Influence and legacy King Crimson have been influential both on the early 1970s progressive rock movement and numerous contemporary artists.GenesisandYeswere directly influenced by the band's usage of the mellotron,and many King Crimson band members were involved in other notable bands: Bruford inYes; Lake inEmerson, Lake & Palmer; McDonald inForeigner; Burrell inBad Company, and Wetton inU.K.andAsia. Canadian rock bandRush's drummerNeil Peartcredited the adventurous and innovative style ofMichael Gilesas an influence on his own approach to percussion. King Crimson's influence extends to many bands from diverse genres, especially of the 1990s and 2000s.Kurt Cobain, the frontman of the grunge bandNirvana, had stated that the albumRedhad a major influence on the sound of their final studio albumIn Utero.Toolare known to be heavily influenced by King Crimson,with vocalistMaynard James Keenanjoking on a tour with them: \"Now you know who we ripped off. Just don't tell anyone, especially the members of King Crimson.\"Modern progressive, experimental, psychedelic andindie rockbands have cited them as an influence as well, includingMGMT,the Mars Volta,Primus,Mystery Jets,Fanfarlo,Phish,andAnekdoten, who first practiced together playing King Crimson songs.Steven Wilson, the leader ofPorcupine Tree, was responsible for remixing King Crimson's back catalogue in surround sound and said that the process had an enormous influence on his solo albums,and his band was influenced by King Crimson.In November 2012the Flaming Lipsin collaboration withStardeath and White Dwarfsreleased a track-by-track reinterpretation ofIn the Court of the Crimson KingentitledPlaying Hide and Seek with the Ghosts of Dawn.Colin Newman, ofWire, said he saw King Crimson perform many times, and that they influenced him deeply.The seminalhardcore punkgroupBlack Flagacknowledge Wetton-era King Crimson as an influence on their experimental period in the mid-1980s.Melvin Gibbssaid that theRollins Bandwas influenced most by King Crimson, using similar chords.Bad Religioncites the lyrics of \"21st Century Schizoid Man\" on their single \"21st Century (Digital Boy)\" and the name of their record label,Epitaph(founded by their guitaristBrett Gurewitz), comes fromthe song of the same nameon Crimson's debut album.Living ColourguitaristVernon ReidconsideredRobert Frippas one of his guitar influences. King Crimson have frequently been cited as pioneers ofprogressive metaland as an influence on bands of this genre, includingDream Theater,Opeth,Mastodon,Between the Buried and Me,Leprous,Haken,the Ocean,Caligula's Horse,Last Chance to Reason,andIndukti.Members of metal bandsMudvayne,Voivod,Enslaved,Yob,Pyrrhon,andPallbearerhave cited King Crimson as an influence. Heavy experimental and avant-garde acts likethe Dillinger Escape Plan,Neurosis,Zeni Geva,Ancestors,andOranssi Pazuzuall cite King Crimson's influence. Other artists affected by King Crimson include video game composerNobuo Uematsu,noise musicartist Masami Akita ofMerzbow,jazz guitaristDennis ReaofLand,folktronicaexponentJuana Molina,hip hop producerRJD2,hip hop and soul composerAdrian Younge,film directorHal Hartley,and folk-pop singerIan Kelly. Golden Wind, the fifth part of the Japanese manga and anime franchiseJoJo's Bizarre Adventure, has its main antagonist, Diavolo, possess a Stand known as King Crimson. Related legacy/cover bands featuring former King Crimson members Since the early 2000s, several bands containing former, recent or current King Crimson members have toured and recorded, performing King Crimson music. Active between 2002 and 2005, the21st Century Schizoid Bandreunited several former King Crimson members who had played on the band's first four albums. The band featuredIan McDonald,Mel Collins,Peter GilesandMichael Giles(the latter subsequently replaced byIan Wallace),and was fronted byJakko Jakszyk, a decade prior to his own recruitment into King Crimson. The band engaged in several tours, played material from King Crimson's '60s and '70s catalogue, and recorded several live albums. The band disbanded upon Wallace's death in 2007. Since 2007, Tony Levin has led the trioStick Men, which also features Pat Mastelotto. The band was initially completed by Chapman Stick player Michael Bernier, replaced in 2010 by touch guitarist and former Fripp studentMarkus Reuter.This band includes (and reinterprets) King Crimson compositions in their live sets.Reuter and Mastelotto also play together as a duo (previously called \"Tuner\"), within which they have been known to rework the mid-1980s King Crimson instrumental \"Industry\" live. Starting in 2023, Reuter, Mastelotto andTrey Gunnrevived the moniker \"Tuner\" (re-styled as \"Tu-ner\") to perform music from the Double Duo era of King Crimson, plus material from each of their respective solo and combined careers. Between 2011 and 2014, Stick Men and Adrian Belew's Power Trio band (Belew plus drummer Tobias Ralph and bass playerJulie Slick)joined forces to play and tour asThe Crimson ProjeKCt, covering the music made during the '80s and '90s.Following the return of King Crimson in 2014, the Crimson ProjeKct name has been formally abandoned, but the Stick Men and the Power Trio have still performed together from time to time, usually under names like \"Belew, Levin, Mastelotto and friends\". During his solo career, including performances with the Power Trio, Adrian Belew has performed various versions of King Crimson songs. In March 2024, a new group performing the 1980s King Crimson repertoire was announced featuring former membersAdrian BelewandTony Levinalong with guitaristSteve Vaiand drummerDanny Carey. Fripp and Bruford both declined offers to join but gave their well wishes to the group. Fripp also aided them in naming the project. The band is named \"Beat\" after the 1982 album of the same name. Members Final lineup Former members Discography Citations General references External links",
"Robert Fripp Robert Fripp(born 16 May 1946) is an English musician, songwriter, record producer, and author, best known as the guitarist, founder and longest-lasting member of theprogressive rockbandKing Crimson.He has worked extensively as a session musician and collaborator, notably withDavid Bowie,Blondie,Brian Eno,Peter Gabriel,Daryl Hall,the Roches,Talking Heads, andDavid Sylvian. He also composed the startup sound ofWindows Vista, in collaboration withTucker Martineand Steve Ball.His discographyincludes contributions to more than 700 official releases. His compositions often feature unusualasymmetric rhythms, influenced by classical and folk traditions. His innovations include atape delaysystem known as \"Frippertronics\" (superseded in the 1990s by a more sophisticated digitally-based system called \"Soundscapes\") and aNew Standard Tuningsystem for guitar. Fripp is married to English singerToyah Willcox. Early life Robert Fripp was born inWimborne Minster,Dorset, England,the second child of a working-class family. His mother Edith (néeGreene; 1914–1993) was from aWelshmining family; Fripp considers himself to be half Welsh.Her earnings from working at the Bournemouth Records Office allowed his father, Arthur Henry Fripp (1910–1985) to start a business as anestate agent.In 1957, at age eleven, Fripp received a guitar for Christmas from his parents and recalled, \"Almost immediately I knew that this guitar was going to be my life\".He then took guitar lessons from Kathleen Gartell and Don Strike;Elvis Presley's guitaristScotty Mooreinspired Fripp to play rock and roll,moving on to traditional jazz at thirteen and modern jazz at fifteen. Fripp has cited jazz musiciansCharlie ParkerandCharles Mingusas musical influences during this time. In 1961, the fifteen-year-old Fripp joined his first band, the Ravens, which also includedGordon Haskellon bass. After they split in the following year, Fripp concentrated on his O-level studies and joined his father's firm as a junior negotiator. At this point, he intended to studyestate managementand, eventually, take over his father's business.However, at seventeen, Fripp decided to become a professional musician. He became the guitarist in the jazz outfit The Douglas Ward Trio, playing in theChewton Glenhotel inNew Milton, followed by a stint in the rock and roll band The League of Gentlemen, which included two former Ravens members. In 1965, Fripp left the group to attendBournemouth College, where he studied economics, economic history, and political history for his A-levels.In February 1965, Fripp went to see theDuke EllingtonOrchestra, an experience which moved him deeply.He subsequently spent three further years playing light jazz in the Majestic Dance Orchestra at Bournemouth's Majestic Hotel (replacingAndy Summers, who had left for London withZoot Money). During this time, Fripp met musicians that he would collaborate with in his career, includingJohn Wetton,Richard Palmer-James, andGreg Lake.At age 21, going back home from college late at night, Fripp tuned on toRadio Luxembourg, where he heard the last moments ofthe Beatles' \"A Day in the Life\". \"Galvanized\" by the experience, he went on to listen to the Beatles' 1967 albumSgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band,Béla Bartók'sstring quartets,Antonín Dvořák'sNew World Symphony,Jimi Hendrix'sAre You ExperiencedandJohn Mayall & the Bluesbreakers. Many years later, Fripp would recall that \"although all the dialects are different, the voice was the same... I knew I couldn't say no\".As a band leader, Fripp pointed out thatMiles Davisand Duke Ellington inspired him to seek \"constant change\". Career 1967–1974: Giles, Giles and Fripp and King Crimson In 1967, Fripp responded to an advertisement placed by Bournemouth-born brothersPeterandMichael Giles, who wanted to work with a singing organist.Though Fripp was not what they sought, his audition with them was a success and the trio relocated to London and becameGiles, Giles and Fripp. Their only studio album,The Cheerful Insanity of Giles, Giles and Fripp, was released in 1968.Despite the recruitment of two further members – singerJudy Dyble(formerly withFairport Conventionand later ofTrader Horne) and multi-instrumentalistIan McDonald– Fripp felt that he was outgrowing the eccentric pop approach favoured by Peter Giles, preferring the more ambitious compositions being written by McDonald, and the band broke up in 1968. Almost immediately, Fripp, McDonald and Michael Giles formed the first lineup of King Crimson in mid-1968, recruiting Fripp's old Bournemouth College friendGreg Lakeas lead singer and bassist and McDonald's writing partnerPeter Sinfieldas lyricist, light show designer and general creative consultant. King Crimson's debut album,In the Court of the Crimson King, was released in late 1969 to great success: drawing on rock, jazz and European folk/classical music ideas, it is now regarded as one of the most influential albums in the history ofprogressive rock.The band was tipped for stardom, but, due to growing musical differences between Fripp on one side and Giles and McDonald on the other, broke up after its first American tour in 1970. A despondent Fripp offered to leave if it would allow King Crimson to survive; however, Giles and McDonald had independently decided that the band's music was \"more Fripp's than theirs\" and that it would be better if they were the ones to leave. During the recording of the band's second albumIn the Wake of Poseidon, Greg Lake departed to formEmerson, Lake and PalmerwithKeith Emersonofthe NiceandCarl PalmerofAtomic Rooster. King Crimson issued two more albums,LizardandIslands,with Fripp and Sinfield the only constants in a regularly changing lineup variously including Gordon Haskell, woodwind playerMel Collins, drummersAndy McCullochandIan Wallaceand futureBad CompanybassistBoz Burrell, in addition to a palette of guest players. Fripp was listed as the sole composer of the band's music during this time, which built on the first album's blueprint but progressed further intojazz-rockandfree jazzwhile also taking form from Sinfield's esoteric lyrical and mythological concepts. In 1971, Fripp ousted Sinfield and took overde factoleadership of King Crimson (although he has always formally rejected the label, preferring to describe his role as \"quality control\" or \"a kind of glue\"). From this point onwards, Fripp would be the only constant member of the band, which in turn would be defined primarily by his compositional and conceptual ideas. With avant-garde percussionistJamie Muir, violinistDavid Cross, formerFamilybassist and singerJohn Wettonand formerYesdrummerBill Brufordnow in the ranks, King Crimson produced three more albums of innovative and increasinglyexperimental rock, shedding members as they progressed: beginning withLarks' Tongues in Aspic, progressing withStarless and Bible Blackafter Muir's departure and culminating inRedafter Cross was fired. Fripp formally disbanded the group in 1974, in what eventually turned out to be merely the first in a regular series of long hiatuses and further transformations. 1974–1981: Collaborations, side projects, and solo career Fripp pursued side projects during King Crimson's less active periods. He worked withKeith Tippett(and others who appeared on King Crimson records) on projects far from rock music, playing with and producingCentipede'sSeptober Energyin 1971 andOvary Lodgein 1973. During this period he also worked withVan der Graaf Generator, playing on their albumsH to He, Who Am the Only OneandPawn Hearts. He producedMatching Mole'sMatching Mole's Little Red Recordin 1972.Prior to forming theLarks-era KC, he collaborated on a spoken-word album with a woman he described as \"a witch\", but the resultingRobert Fripp & Walli Elmlark: The Cosmic Children of Rockwas never officially released. WithBrian Eno, Fripp recorded(No Pussyfooting)in 1972, andEvening Starin 1974. These experimented with several avant-garde musical techniques that were new to rock. On \"The Heavenly Music Corporation\" from No Pussyfooting, Fripp used adelaysystem using two modifiedRevoxA77 reel-to-reel tape machines. The technique went on to play a central role in Fripp's later work, and became known as \"Frippertronics\". In 1973, Fripp performed the guitar solo on \"Baby's on Fire\" from Eno's solo albumHere Come the Warm Jets. In 1975, Fripp and Eno played live shows in Europe, and Fripp also contributed guitar solos to Eno's 1975 albumAnother Green World. Fripp started what was intended as a permanent sabbatical from his musical career in 1975, during which he studied atJ. G. Bennett's International Academy for Continuous Education, becoming interested in the mystical and philosophical ideas of Bennett's teacherGeorge Gurdjieff. He returned to musical work the following year as a session guitarist onPeter Gabriel'sdebut solo album, released in 1977. Fripp toured with Gabriel to support the album, but used the pseudonym \"Dusty Rhodes\" and concealed himself on stage. Fripp also produced and played on Gabriel'ssecond albumin 1978. \"Robert is particularly skilful at keeping things fresh, and I like that a lot,\" Gabriel enthused. \"I was very interested in Robert's experimental side; that corresponded exactly to what I wanted to do on this second record… There are two(Fripp)solos: one on 'On the Air' and the other on 'White Shadow'. And then he plays on 'Exposure'. He gives the colour to this piece, being fifty per cent responsible for its construction. And he also plays classical guitar here and there. He's a musician I admire a lot, because he's one of the only ones to mix discipline and madness with so much talent.\" In 1977, Fripp played onDavid Bowie's album\"Heroes\"at Eno's invitation. Fripp soon collaborated withDaryl HallonSacred Songs. During this period, Fripp began working on solo material, with contributions from poet/lyricist Joanna Walton and several other musicians, including Eno, Gabriel, and Hall (including the latter's partner, John Oates), as well asPeter Hammill,Jerry Marotta,Phil Collins,Tony LevinandTerre Roche. This material eventually became his first solo album,Exposure, released in 1979, followed by theFrippertronicstour in the same year. While living in New York, Fripp contributed to albums and live performances byBlondie(Parallel Lines) andTalking Heads(Fear of Music), and producedThe Roches' first and third albums, which featured several of Fripp's characteristic guitar solos. A second set of sessions with Bowie producedScary Monsters (and Super Creeps), and he collaborated with Gabriel again onhis third solo album. With Blondie, Fripp appeared live on stage at the Hammersmith Odeon on 12 January 1980, participating in a cover version of Bowie's\"'Heroes'\". In 1980, Fripp would releaseGod Save the Queen/Under Heavy Manners,a project that saw two different musical approaches to Frippertronics on one LP. The \"A\" side of the record, titled \"God Save the Queen\" attempted what Fripp referred to as \"pure Frippertronics\" which is \"where Frippertronics is used alone.\"The \"B\" side of the record, titled \"Under Heavy Manners\" featured a collaboration with bassistBusta Jones, drummer Paul Duskin, andDavid Byrneof Talking Heads (as Absalm el Habib).The sounds of this side of the record featured what Fripp called \"Discotronics\" which was defined as \"that musical experience resulting at the interstice of Frippertronics and disco.\" Concurrent to this, Fripp would assemble what he called a \"second-division touring new wave instrumental dance band\"under the nameLeague of Gentlemen, with bassistSara Lee, keyboardistBarry Andrewsand drummerJohnny Elichaoff(credited as \"Johnny Toobad\"). Elichaoff was later replaced by Kevin Wilkinson. The LOG toured for the duration of 1980. In 1985 he produced the albumJourney to Inaccessible Placesby classical pianistElan Sicroff, released on theEditions E.G.label. 1981–1984: Reforming King Crimson 1981 saw the formation of a new King Crimson lineup, reuniting Fripp with Bruford and opening a new partnership with two American musicians: bassist/Chapman StickplayerTony Levin(who had played with Fripp onExposureand in the first Peter Gabriel touring band) andAdrian Belew, a singer and guitarist who had previously played with Bowie, Talking Heads andFrank Zappa. Although the band had been conceptualised under the name Discipline, it came to Fripp's attention that the other members thought the name King Crimson was more appropriate: for Fripp, King Crimson had always been \"a way of doing things\" rather than a particular group of musicians. With the more pop-inspired Belew as main songwriter (complementing Fripp as main instrumental composer) the band took on a new style incorporating influences from Indonesiangamelan,new wave, andclassical minimalism,with both guitarists experimenting extensively with guitar synthesizers.After releasing three albums (Discipline,BeatandThree of a Perfect Pair), Fripp dissolved the band in 1984. During this period Fripp made two albums withAndy SummersofThe Police. OnI Advance Masked, Fripp and Summers played all the instruments.Bewitchedwas dominated more by Summers, who produced the record and collaborated with other musicians in addition to Fripp. In 1982 Fripp produced and played guitar onKeep On Doingby the Roches.Village Voicerock criticRobert Christgauwrote that the album \"sounds so good I'm beginning to believe Robert Fripp was put on earth to produce the Roches.\" Guitar Craft Fripp was offered a teaching position at the American Society for Continuous Education (ASCE) at Claymont Court inCharles Town, West Virginiain 1984. He had been involved with the ASCE since 1978, eventually serving on its board of directors, and had long been considering the idea of teaching guitar through ideas derived from Bennett and Gurdjieff. His course, Guitar Craft, was begun in 1985, an offshoot of which was a performance group, \"the League of Crafty Guitarists\", which has released several albums. In 1986, he released the first of two collaborations with his wife,Toyah Willcox. The members of theCalifornia Guitar Trioare former members of The League of Crafty Guitarists and have also toured with King Crimson. Fripp is the patron of theGuitar Circle of Europe, which was founded in 2007,and of theSeattle Circle Guitar School, which was founded in 2010. In February 2009, Fripp recommended that Guitar Craft cease to exist on its 25th anniversary in 2010. On 1 September 2022 Fripp publishedThe Guitar Circle, a book of writings concerning Guitar Craft. Soundscapes Fripp returned to recording solo in 1994, using an updated version of the Frippertronics technique that creates loops employing digital technology instead of analogue tapes. Fripp has released a number of records that he called \"soundscapes\", including1999,Radiophonics,A Blessing of Tears,That Which Passes,November Suite,The Gates of Paradise,Love Cannot BearandAt the End of Time, as well as numerous download-only live recordings. (The samplerPie Jesuconsists of material compiled fromA Blessing of TearsandThe Gates of Paradise.) 1990s collaborations with David Sylvian and others Fripp's collaborations withDavid Sylvianfeature some of his most exuberant guitar playing. Fripp contributed to Sylvian's twenty-minute track \"Steel Cathedrals\" from hisAlchemy: An Index of Possibilitiesalbum of 1985. Then Fripp performed on several tracks from Sylvian's 1986 release,Gone to Earth. In late 1991, Fripp had asked Sylvian to join a re-forming King Crimson as a vocalist.Sylvian declined the invitation, but proposed a possible collaboration between the two that would eventually become a tour of Japan and Italy in the spring of 1992. Also in 1991, Fripp released an album with the project Sunday All Over The World, also featuring his wife Toyah Willcox, former League of Crafty Guitarists member Trey Gunn on Chapman Stick, and drummer Paul Beavis. The prior name of this band was Fripp Fripp, and they toured as such in 1988. They renamed to SAOTW, and toured again as SAOTW, in 1989. In July 1993, Sylvian and Fripp released the collaborative effortThe First Day. Other contributors were soon-to-be King Crimson memberTrey GunnonChapman Stickand Jerry Marotta (who, like Sylvian, almost became a member of King Crimson) on drums. When the group toured to promote the CD, future King Crimson memberPat Mastelottotook over the drumming spot. The live documentDamagewas released in 1994, as was the joint venture,Redemption – Approaching Silence, which featured Sylvian's ambient sound sculptures (Approaching Silence) accompanying Fripp reading his own text (Redemption). During the early and mid-1990s Fripp contributed guitar/soundscapes toLifeforms(1994) bythe Future Sound of LondonandCydonia(released 2001) bythe Orb, as well asFFWD, a collaborative effort with the latter's members. In addition, Fripp worked with Brian Eno co-writing and supplying guitar to two tracks for a CD-ROM project released in 1994 entitledHeadcandycreated by Chris Juul and Doug Jipson. Eno thought the visual aspects of the disc (video feedback effects) were very disappointing upon completion, and regretted participation. During this period, Fripp also contributed to albums byNo-Manandthe Beloved(1994'sFlowermouthand 1996'sX, respectively). He also contributed soundscapes and guitar to two albums by the UK bandIona: 1993'sBeyond These Shoresand 1996'sJourney into the Morn. 1994–2010: King Crimson redux In late 1994, Fripp re-formed the 1981 line-up of King Crimson for its fifth incarnation, adding Trey Gunn and drummer Pat Mastelotto in a configuration known as a \"double trio\". This line-up released theVROOOMEP in 1994 and theTHRAKalbum the following year. Though musically (and relatively commercially) successful, the double-trio King Crimson proved difficult to sustain in the long-term. From 1997 to 1999, the band \"fraKctalised\" into five experimental instrumental sub-groups known asProjeKcts. By 1998 Bruford had quit the band altogether: in 2000, Fripp, Belew, Gunn and Mastelotto reunited as a four-piece King Crimson. This lineup produced twoindustrial metal-influenced studio albums,the construKction of lightin 2000 andThe Power to Believe. Gunn departed at the end of 2003. Although Levin immediately returned to the band, another hiatus followed until King Crimson reappeared in 2007 with the addition ofPorcupine TreedrummerGavin Harrison. This version of the band toured the eastern United States in 2008, reassessing the 1981-2003 back catalogue and introducing lengthy duets between the two drummers. No new original material was recorded, and in 2010, Fripp announced that King Crimson were on another indefinite hiatus. Recent work: G3, Porcupine Tree, Slow Music, Theo Travis, the Humans, Jakko Jakszyk, Others In 2004, Fripp toured withJoe SatrianiandSteve Vaias part of theirG3series. He also worked atMicrosoft's studios to record the startup sound forWindows Vista. Fripp designed the soundscape and composed the melody, whileTucker Martinecreated the rhythm and Microsoft's Steve Ball added the harmonies and created the final arrangement. this interesting factoid: in addition to 200 million Vista users with the 4 note splash, an extract from the Soundscapes' Vista sessions is estimated to strike up 91% of 32 trillion times on the new MS Mail programme this year. So, one of the planet's least popular music forms will also be the planet's most sounded in 2008. This has to be some kind of a record. Fripp's online diary at dgmlive.com In late 2005 and early 2006, Fripp joinedR.E.M./Nine Inch NailsdrummerBill Rieflin's improvisational Slow Music project, along with R.E.M. guitaristPeter Buck, bassistFred Chalenor, session drummerMatt ChamberlainandHector Zazouon electronics. This collective of musicians toured the west coast of America in May 2006. In 2006 Fripp contributed his composition \"At The End Of Time\" to the Artists for Charity albumGuitarists 4 the Kids, produced by Slang Productions, to assistWorld Vision Canadain helping underprivileged children.Throughout 2006, Fripp performed many solo concerts of soundscapes in intimate settings in churches around England and Estonia.In October 2006, ProjeKct Six (Fripp and Adrian Belew) played at select venues on the east coast of the U.S.,opening for Porcupine Tree. In the same year, Fripp contributed to two songs fromPorcupine Tree'sFear of a Blank Planet(\"Way Out of Here\" and \"Nil Recurring\"). Fripp also sporadically performed as an opening act for Porcupine Tree on various tours from 2006 through 2009. In 2008, Fripp collaborated withTheo Travison an album of guitar and flute-or-saxophone duets called 'Thread', and the duo played a brief English tour in 2009 (repeating the collaboration with theFollowalbum in 2012). Also in 2009, Fripp played a concert with the bandthe Humans(which consists of his wifeToyah Willcox,Bill Rieflinand Chris Wong), appeared onJudy Dyble'sTalking With Strangers(along with Pat Mastelotto and others) and played on two tracks onJakko Jakszyk's albumThe Bruised Romantic Glee Club. In 2010, Fripp contributed a guitar solo to an extended version of the song 'Heathen Child' byGrinderman, released as a B-side on the 'Super Heathen Child' single. In 2021, the ambient/electronica album Leviathan was released. Fripp produced it and played guitar, in collaboration with BritishEDMDuoThe Grid. A Scarcity of Miracles, musical 'retirement' and new lineup of King Crimson In May 2011, Jakko Jakszyk, Robert Fripp and Mel Collins releasedA Scarcity of Miracles: A King Crimson ProjeKcton the Panegyric label. The album also featured contributions by Tony Levin and Gavin Harrison, leading to speculation that the project was a dry run for a new King Crimson lineup. In an interview published 3 August 2012, Fripp stated that he had retired from working as a professional musician, citing long-standing differences withUniversal Music Groupand stating that working within the music industry had become \"a joyless exercise in futility\".This retirement proved to be short-lived, only lasting as long as it took to come to a settlement with UMG. In his online diary entry for 6 September 2013, Fripp announced the return of King Crimson as a seven-piece unit with \"four Englishmen and three Americans\". The new lineup was Fripp, Levin, both Mastelotto and Harrison on drums, returning 1970s band member Mel Collins and two new members: Jakko Jakszyk as singer and second guitarist, and Bill Rieflin as a third drummer.This version of the band went on tour in 2014 and 2015 with a setlist reworking and reconfiguring the band's 1960s and 1970s material (plus songs fromA Scarcity of Miraclesand new compositions). In early 2016, it was announced that formerLemon Trees/Noel Gallagherdrummer Jeremy Stacey would substitute for Rieflin on that year's tour while the latter was on sabbatical. King Crimson continued touring as a seven- or eight-piece unit with Stacey as a permanent member on drums and keyboards, plus Rieflin (when available) on keyboards and \"fairy dusting\" until 2021. Rieflin last played with Crimson in 2018; he died 24 March 2020. Equipment During the early years of King Crimson (1968–74), Fripp used twoGibson Les Paulguitars from 1957 and 1959. The '57 guitar featured three humbucker pick-ups (with one volume control on the pickguard controlling the middle pick-up). In the band's 1980s era, he favoured Roland GR-303 & GR-808 guitars for both straight guitar and synth control. In subsequent years, Fripp has used customized Les Paul-style guitars byTokai, 48th St Custom, andFernandes. A signature model named for the guitarist (Crimson Guitars Robert Fripp Signature)featuresFernandes Sustainerand MIDI pickups with a Les Paul-style body. A significant difference from the Gibson Les Paul is that the signature model is built using adeep set neck tenonrather than a traditional set neck. Fripp recommended that Guitar Craft students adopt theOvation1867 Legendsteel-string acoustic guitar.\"Fripp liked the way the Ovation 1867 fitted against his body, which made it possible for him to assume the right-arm picking position he had developed using electric guitars over the years; on deeper-bodied guitars, the Frippian arm position is impossible without uncomfortable contortions\", according to Tamm.While the 1867 Legend is no longer manufactured, it influenced the design of the Guitar Craft Pro Model of Guitar Craft Guitars, which has been endorsed by Fripp. Guitar technique Fripp began playing guitar at the age of eleven.When he started, he wastone deafand had no rhythmic sense, weaknesses which led him later to comment that \"Music so wishes to be heard that it sometimes calls on unlikely characters to give it voice.\"He was also naturally left-handed but opted to play the guitar right-handed. While being taught guitar basics by his teacher Don Strike,Fripp began to develop the technique ofcrosspicking, which became one of his specialities.Fripp teaches crosspicking to his students in Guitar Craft. In 1985, Fripp began using a tuning he called \"New Standard Tuning\"(C2-G2-D3-A3-E4-G4), which would also become popularised in Guitar Craft. Fripp's guitar technique, unlike most rock guitarists of his era, is not blues-based but rather influenced byavant-garde jazzandEuropean classical music. He combines rapidalternate pickingand crosspicking with motifs employingwhole-toneordiminishedpitch structures and extendedsixteenth-notepatterns inmoto perpetuo. Rather than stand when performing, he seats himself on a stool (unusual for a performer in rock music), and by doing so was called in a May 1974 issue ofGuitar Player\"the guitarist who sits on stage\". Personal life Fripp married singer and actressToyah Willcoxon 16 May 1986 inPoole.From December 1987 until July 1999 they lived at and renovatedReddish House, the former home ofCecil Beaton, in the village ofBroad Chalkein Wiltshire. Fripp previously lived at Thornhill Cottage, Holt, Dorset (1971–1980) and Fernhill House,Witchampton(1980–1987).After Reddish House, the couple lived atEvershotOld Mansion (1999–2001). They then moved to their present home inPershore, Worcestershire.The couple have no children and have arranged their will so as to leave their assets to the establishment of a musical educational trust for children. Fripp is the patron of the Seattle Circle Guitar School in the United States and the Shallal Dance Theatre inPenzance.He also has had engagements as amotivational speaker, often at events with his sister Patricia,who is akeynote speakerand speech coach. Alfie Fripp, the last of the \"39ers\", shot down by theLuftwaffeand then held in 12 different POW camps duringWorld War II, was his uncle. Fripp is apescetarian.Nevill Drurydetails inMusic for Inner Space: Techniques for Meditation & Visualisationthat Fripp was interested in theHermetic Qabalah,Wicca,German RenaissancephilosopherParacelus, andGeorge GurdjieffviaJ. G. Bennett. During theCOVID-19 lockdowns, Fripp and Willcox uploaded many short, humorous videos toYouTube,usually covers of well-known songs, and mostly titledToyah and Robert's Sunday Lunch. According to rock and metal news websiteMetalSucks, their stories about these covers were extremely popular; their cover ofMetallica's \"Enter Sandman\" was the site's sixth-most popular story that year.The duo toured the UK in 2023, performing theSunday Lunchsongs in concert. Awards and honours Asteroid81947 Fripp, discovered byMarc BuieatCerro Tololoin 2000, was named in his honour.The officialnaming citationwas published by theMinor Planet Centeron 18 May 2019 (M.P.C.114955). Fripp is ranked 62nd onRolling Stonemagazine's 2011 list of the 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time, having been ranked 42nd byDavid Frickeon its 2003 list.Tied withAndrés Segovia, he is ranked 47th onGibson'sTop 50 guitarists of all time. Discipline Global Mobile In 1992, Fripp and producer/online content developer David Singleton co-foundedDiscipline Global Mobile(DGM) as anindependent music label. DGM releases music by Fripp, KC, related acts, and other artists in CDs and in downloadable files. A 1998Billboardprofile stated that DGM had ten staff-members inSalisbury(England) and Los Angeles (USA). DGM has an aim \"to be a model of ethical business in an industry founded on exploitation, oiled by deceit, riven with theft and fueled by greed.\"DGM insists that its artists retain all copyrights; consequently, even DGM's \"knotwork\" corporate-logo(pictured above)is owned by its designer, Steve Ball;the \"knotwork\" logo appeared earlier on the cover of later versions of theDisciplinealbum. DGM's aims were called \"exemplary\" by BillMartin (1997), who wrote that \"Fripp has done something very important for the possibilities of experimental music\" in creating DGM, which \"has played a major role in creating favorable conditions for\" King Crimson. DGM publishes an on-line diary by Fripp, who often comments on performances and on relations with fans. A moderated forum allows fans to ask questions or to leave comments. Together, Fripp's diary and the fan forum display delayed dialogs in which Fripp and fans discuss diary-entries and forum-postings. Copyright infringement complaints In 2009, Fripp released a statement claiming thatEMI& Sanctuary Universal had uploaded music to various music stores without his consent, stating \"NONE of these downloads were licensed, authorised or legitimised. that is, every single download of any KC track represents copyright violation. or, to use one syllable instead of seven, theft.\" In 2011, Fripp complained that the streaming serviceGroovesharkcontinued to stream his music despite his having delivered repeatedtakedown notices. Fripp and Grooveshark's correspondence was published byDigital Music Newsand in his diaries, which appear on the website of Discipline Global Mobile. Fripp's published exchange was included in a suit against Grooveshark byUniversal Music Group, which was filed in November 2011.UMG cited internal documents revealing that Grooveshark employees uploaded thousands of illegal copies of UMG-owned recordings.Fripp had previous experience protecting his music in litigation with music companies. Fripp has stated that he believes \"Unauthorised streaming or MP3 giveaways - it amounts to the same thing - copyright theft.\" Discography Fripp has been extremely active as a recording musician and a producer. He has contributed to more than 700 official releases. The Robert Fripp Discography Summary, compiled by John Relph, also lists 120 compilations and 315 unauthorised releases (such asbootlegs). This means that more than 1100 releases (including both official and unofficial ones, as well as both studio and live recordings) can be found with Fripp participating. Studio releases are listed here. Giles, Giles & Fripp Solo Studio albums Live albums Brian Eno David Sylvian Andy Summers The League of Gentlemen The League of Crafty Guitarists Theo Travis Other recordings Collaborations Production See also Notes References Further reading External links Robert Fripp's official website-robertfripp.com(2024) Discipline Global Mobile(DGM) -DGM Liveis a small, mobile, independent music company that aspires to Intelligence. Founded by Robert Fripp and David Singleton in 1992, its website is the home of all RF music, tour dates, diaries, news, as well as King Crimson’s, among other related artists, groups, and initiatives. Guitar Craft & The Guitar Circle-HomeRobert Fripp describes his work as Founder of Guitar Craft, and director of the associated seminars on four continents since 1985, as his ‘proper work in life’. The GC website is the online home of the living history of GC, news, GC Aphorisms, and RF writings, including new yet unpublished ones."
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"My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyis the fifth studio album by the American rapperKanye West. It was released byDef Jam RecordingsandRoc-A-Fella Recordson November 22, 2010. Retreating to a self-imposed exile in Hawaii after a period of controversy in 2009, following hisinterruption of Taylor Swiftat theMTV Video Music Awards, West recorded the album at Honolulu's Avex Recording Studio in a communal environment involving numerous musicians. Additional recording sessions took place at Glenwood Place Studios inBurbank, California, along with the New York City studiosElectric Ladyand Platinum Sound. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas mainly produced by West, alongside a variety of high-profile producers such asMike Dean,No I.D.,Jeff Bhasker,RZA,Bink, andDJ Frank E. Critics noted the music'smaximalistaesthetic and opulent production style that utilizes various elements from his previous work, includingsoul,pop,baroque,electro, andsymphonicsounds, as well asprogressive",
"well asprogressive rockinfluences. The album's lyrics explore themes such as West's celebrity status,consumer culture, self-aggrandizement, and the idealism of theAmerican Dream. Guest vocalists includeNicki Minaj,Rihanna,Jay-Z,Pusha T,Rick Ross,Kid Cudi,John Legend,Bon Iver, andElton John. Alongside several free songs released through West's weeklyGOOD Fridaysseries, he supportedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywith four USBillboardHot 100top-40 singles, \"Power\", \"Runaway\", \"Monster\", and \"All of the Lights\". West also released an accompanyingmusicalshort film,Runaway(2010). The album was an immediate and widespread critical success, and reviewers lauded the maximalist approach. It was listed as the best album of 2010 in many publications' year-end lists.My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas awardedBest Rap Albumat the54th Annual Grammy Awardsand CD of the Year at the2011 BET Hip Hop Awards. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasydebuted at number one on the USBillboard200and theCanadian Albums Chart, while",
"Albums Chart, while reaching the top 10 in six other countries. The album eventually achieved atriple platinumcertification in the United States from theRecording Industry Association of America, alongside sales certifications in a few other territories. It was ranked in lists as the best album of the 2010s and among the greatest of all time by several publications, includingPitchforkandRolling Stone. Background Dark Fantasywas my long, backhanded apology. You know how people give abackhanded compliment? It was a backhanded apology. It was like, all these raps, all these sonic acrobatics. I was like: \"Let me show you guys what I can do, and please accept me back. You want to have me on your shelves.\" —Kanye West, speaking toThe New York Timesin 2013 My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas conceived at Avex Recording Studio duringKanye West's self-imposed exile inOahu, Hawaiiin 2009, following a period of public-image controversy.West said that fatigue from overworking led to his controversialoutburst at the",
"at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards(VMAs) when the singerTaylor Swiftwas awardedBest Female Videoat the ceremony. He was disgusted with the ensuing media response, which led to a brief hiatus from recording.He also observed at the time of the album's release that Swift never defended him in any interviews, saying she continuously \"rode the waves\" from the controversy.West had held recording sessions at the same studio for his previous album808s & Heartbreak(2008). In response to the backlash to West's behaviour, his scheduled tourFame Kills: Starring Kanye West and Lady Gagawith the singerLady Gagato promote808s & Heartbreakwas cancelled on October 1, 2009, without an official explanation.A year later, he explained toEllen DeGeneresthe incident served as motivation for his works because he felt like \"a soldier of culture\", realizing no one wants this to be his role and admitted he will continuously \"feel convicted about things that really meant stuff to culture that constantly get denied for years\".In 2013,",
"for years\".In 2013, West clarified that the album served as a backhanded apology after his MTV VMAs outburst, detailing that he used the music to become accepted again. He elaborated that a minimum of 80 percent was genuine, with the remainder \"fulfilling a perception\" for the public.West also insisted that he was not criticizingMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyand instead failed to reach satisfaction, then openly revealed his idea of the truth. Recording and production My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas recorded at Avex inHonolulu, Hawaii. Additional recording took place at Glenwood Place Studios inBurbank, California, and atElectric Lady Studiosand Platinum Sound Recording Studios in New York City.It was reported that West spent around $3 million provided by his record labelDef Jamto record the album, making it one of themost expensive albumsever made.He explained the initial recording process to Noah Callahan-Bever, the editor-in-chief ofComplexand West's then-confidant, telling him he had resided in",
"he had resided in Hawaii accompanied by his favorite producers and artists to work onMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyand provide inspiration.Various contributors engaged in sessions with West for the album, includingKid Cudi,Elton John,Rick Ross,Pusha T, andJustin Vernon.Vocals were also recorded byM.I.A.,Mos Def,Santigold, andSeal.Producers who contributed in the sessions includedQ-Tip,RZA,Pete Rock,Madlib,Statik Selektah,andDJ Premier.Madlib said he made five beats forMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy,while DJ Premier revealed his work did not make the final cut. West block-booked the three session rooms of Avex simultaneously for 24 hours a day to work onMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, until he felt it was complete. According to Callahan-Bever, when West \"hits a creative wall\", he changes to another studio room to work on a different song.Sheets of paper were posted on one side of the studio with what were known as \"Kanye Commandments\", such as \"NoTweeting\" and \"No Pictures\".West never slept a full",
"never slept a full night there, opting instead to takepower napson a studio chair or couch in 90-minute intervals when working during the night. Engineers worked a similar schedule, remaining active 24 hours a day. The heavy work ethic led to West and his crew having multi-course breakfasts each morning at hisDiamond Headresidence, cooked by in-house chefs.Later in the mornings after breakfast, West and most of the crew played games of21against locals at the HonoluluYMCAfor leisure. Kid Cudi smokedmarijuanain preparation and worked out on a treadmill, while RZA exercised in theweight room. Throughout the album's development, West enlisted other producers and musicians for opinions of its music. At the studio, they went through various conversations and contributions.Observing these discussions during a visit, Callahan-Bever noted that despite the presence of prominent musicians, \"the egos rarely clash; talks are sprawling, enlightening, and productive\" around the future, present, and past.Q-Tip described the",
"described the process as \"music by committee\" and elaborated on its significance to the sessions and West's work ethic: He'll go, 'Check this out, tell me what you think.' Which speaks volumes about who he is and how he sees and views people. Every person has a voice and an idea, so he's sincerely looking to hear what you have to say—good, bad, or whatever ... When he has his beats or his rhymes, he offers them to the committee and we're all invited to dissect, strip, or add on to what he's already started. By the end of the sessions, you see how he integrates and transforms everyone's contributions, so the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. He's a real wizard at it. What he does is alchemy, really. The rapper Pusha T characterizedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyas \"a collage of sounds\" and found West's recording methods unorthodox.He explained that when the team thought they were focused on a song, West would hear the work of a record producer such asJeff Bhaskerand his attention would be captured",
"would be captured as he went through \"his mentalRolodex\" to the most suitable point for it on the album.Expressing a similar sentiment, the rapperMalik Yusefsaid that he was mocked for his vision of incorporating collaborators from genres outsidehip hoplike John.DJ Premier recalled that West insisted to him during the production for noelectro, describing him as \"that crazy dude he's always been\" and pointing out his focus on the album's rawness. West ensured that the album's recording sessions were secretive, placing paper sheets in the studio reading \"no tweeting, no talking, no e-mailing\", and also prohibiting speaking with people outside of the location.Pusha T recalled West's attitude in an interview forRolling Stone, saying that following a leak he remembered his strictness, \"Fuck this! We're not going to ever work there again!\"In October 2010, West tweeted that the recording ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyhad been finished. Musical style The music was described asmaximalisthip hopby numerous",
"hopby numerous publications, incorporatingEast Coast rap,boom bap,R&Bballads,electronic music, andprogressive rocksamples.Various writers also noticed elements from West's previous four albums.The Village Voice's Sean Fennessey thought that West had adopted the skills of his collaborators from the five years beforeMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, which he sometimes uses to an increased level. West incorporates lushsoulfrom 2004'sThe College Dropout, orchestration from 2005'sLate Registration, a rich atmosphere from 2007'sGraduation, and emotionally tired electro from808s & Heartbreak.Pitchfork's Ryan Dombal andAllMusic's Andy Kellman wroteMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyseamlessly combines elements from West's earlier albums; the latter felt that \"All of the Lights\" denotes its varied elements and \"maniacal extravagance\".David Amidon ofPopMattersobserved the pop sound ofGraduationand808s & Heartbreak. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas described as aprogressive raprecord by Carl Williott",
"by Carl Williott ofIdolatorandRolling Stone's Christopher R. Weingarten, with the latter noting that it came at the time oflower album budgets.The album draws elements from varied genres like progressive rock, soul, and old-school rap, moving towards a new sound.My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyfollows a dense, wide scope of styles;Al Horner fromNMEcalled it arap opera.The author Kirk Walker Graves thinks West became a collagist, who makes a bold and vulnerable work of art from \"scattered pop shards and indelible beats\". Lyrics and themes Throughout the album, West's lyrics explore themes of excess,celebrity,grandiosity,self-aggrandizement, self-doubt,romance,escapism,decadence,and sex.My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyalso openly acknowledges alcohol and drug usage more than West's previous albums.West places an introspective focus on fame, detailing the perks of power that he links toneoliberalism.The rapper addresses deep personal insecurities,although philosopher Julius Bailey writes that he embraced his",
"he embraced his narcissism in contrast to thechipmunk soulonThe College Dropout.West displays varied emotions,which range from lows to highs of the rapper's mental state.He conveys feelings of despair with his public image since808s & Heartbreak, depicting his out-of-control world.According to author Bernadette Marie Calafell, West usedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyto celebrate monstrosity after his troubled year. West ventures into theidof his own ego onMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, showing his perspective as a celebrity.He poses a risk of self-destruction with the id,while perusing any goal or girl he can and driven by the buzz ofconsumer culture, despite ultimately being unsatisfied.Ann Powersof theLos Angeles Timesdepicted the songs as \"pornographic boasts, romantic disaster stories, devil-haunted dark nights of the soul\" and perceived West as not welcome nor sure about the purpose of his presence due to the discussion ofrace.Powers felt that rather than an issue for West, it is the inherent",
"it is the inherent curse of authorMichael Eric Dyson's theory of \"the exceptional black man\" whose talents are welcomed, but he is excluded for his skin color.According toRolling Stone'sRob Sheffield, the album serves as \"arock-starmanifesto\" in a world where expectations have generally lowered. Songs Tracks 1–7 The album begins with \"Dark Fantasy\", opened by rapperNicki Minajnarrating a rework ofRoald Dahl's 1982 poemCinderella,followed by a chorus includingAuto-Tuned\"oohs\" and \"ah-ah-ah-aahs\", as well as backing accents.The song introduces the themes of decadence and hedonism,with West musing how it had been planned to drink to release pain, \"But what's worse, the pain or the hangover?\"The track's lyrics contain musical and popular culture references, including fellow rapperNas, the 1820 short story \"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow\", British singerLeona Lewis, and the song \"Sex on Fire\" by Tennessee rock bandKings of Leon.\"Gorgeous\" is an upliftingblues-styled track,relying on a guitar riff juxtaposed with",
"juxtaposed with melodic piano.The track is seen by Graves as West's \"scattershot mission statement\" and it sees him tackling racial injustices, including comparing himself to black rights activistMalcolm Xwith the title \"Malcolm West\".\"Power\" features a dark production that relies on a sample ofKing Crimson's \"21st Century Schizoid Man\" (1969), which Fennessey found to be \"apocalyptic\" and it is accompanied by chants loosely resembling a choir.West delves into escapism on the song, mentioning his struggles with the public and narrating his vision of a career suicide. \"All of the Lights\" incorporatesdrum 'n' bassbreaks, energeticpercussion, and horn instruments.The opening lines mention thedeath of Michael Jacksonand present the narrative of a man who goes through multiple issues including abusing his lover and serving prison time.West enlisted 11 guest vocalists for the song, includingAlicia Keys,John Legend,Tony Williams, andElly Jackson; Rihanna sings thehook.In an interview withMTV, Jackson said that West",
"said that West designated her to layer up the vocal arrangement with other people as he simply used his favorite vocalists worldwide \"to create this really unique vocal texture on his record, but it's not the kind of thing where you can pick it out\".\"Monster\" is aposse cut,which featuresstaccatostrings that invoke paranoia and it was described by Calafell as addressing critics through exploration of their \"monstrous construction\" of West.West rap about using inappropriate methods to drown his pain and Nicki Minaj asserts her queen status on the song.The fellow posse cut \"So Appalled\" is built around piano and strings,with the performers delivering their odes to success and affirming that \"this shit is/fucking ridiculous\". Tracks 8–13 \"Devil in a New Dress\" is built on a sample ofSmokey Robinson's \"Will You Love Me Tomorrow\" (1960).The lyrics range from self-criticism to warning and lust to heartache,with its sexual and religious imagery described by one critic as \"part bedroom allure, part angelic",
"part angelic prayer\".The song is the only track without production by West, yet features his characteristic style of manipulating the pitch and tempo of classic soul samples.\"Runaway\" contains a piano-basedmotifcomprising a series of uninterrupted descendinghalfandwhole notes,with acodathat incorporates cello at first, before a violin section and West'svocoder-singing,which isdistortionthat covers the final three minutes.West uses the song's lyrics to address public opinion and his character issues, proclaiming a toast to all with those flaws.Fennessey cited \"Runaway\" as the point inMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywhere \"self-laceration overtakes chest-beating\", while Graves is taken aback by how the song contains all of its contradictions; \"self-mythologizing, rife with hubris, assertively 'artistic' to the point of unintentional parody\". Inspired by West's two-year relationship with modelAmber Rose, \"Hell of a Life\" samplesthe Mojo Men's \"She's My Baby\" (1966) and follows a narrative of marrying a porn",
"of marrying a porn star that Graves calls \"pornographic anxiety\".According to Dombal, the song \"attempts to bend its centralcredo—'no more drugs for me, pussy and religion is all I need'—into a noble pursuit\".He wrote that it crosses the lines of \"fantasy and reality, sex and romance, love and religion, until no lines exist at all\".\"Blame Game\" is a low-key track that is built around a sample ofRichard D. James's piano composition \"Avril 14th\" (2001),and features additional vocals from Legend.The song focuses on a painful domestic dispute where West and a woman go back and forth aggressively,and contains a profane skit by comedianChris Rock. \"Lost in the World\" features tribal drums and prominent samples from theindie folkbandBon Iver's \"Woods\" (2009), with West applying the sample \"as the centerpiece of a catchy, communal reverie\".West enthusiastically told Bon Iver frontman Justin Vernon when listening to the song, \"Fuck, this is going to be the festival closer.\"It features several musical changes,",
"musical changes, beginning with Vernon's faint vocals,followed by4/4drums, agospelchorus,and increased tempo, and a finalmeasuredtempo.\"Lost in the World\" transitions into the closing track \"Who Will Survive in America\".It serves as the album's coda and samplesjazz poetGil Scott-Heron's \"Comment No. 1\" (1970),a surrealist piece delivered by him inspoken wordabout theAfrican American experienceand the fated idealism of the American dream.Scott-Heron's original speech is edited to an excerpt that, according to Kot, \"retains its essence, that of an African-American male\" feeling isolated from the US and his culture.By contrast, Fennessey wrote that the seriousness of thedenouementdoes not suit \"an album that is more about the self's little nightmares than some aching societal rejection\". Title and packaging My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas once titledGood Ass Joband thenDark Twisted Fantasy.On July 28, 2010, West announced on his newly registeredTwitteraccount that the former title was scrapped and he had",
"scrapped and he had been considering \"a couple of titles\".He expressed uncertainty about the title in September, tweeting: \"I can't decide on my album title uuuugh!!!!\"The official title,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, was announced by West on October 5, 2010;Good Ass Jobwas eventually planned as the title of a collaborative album withChance the Rapper, which never materialized. The album's artwork, designed byGeorge Condo, shows West being straddled on a couch by an armless winged female, who has fearsome features and a long, spotted tail. Both are nude, with West shown holding a beer.Bailey sees Condo's style for the cover as pop surrealist andCubistand portraying \"various aspects of West's album themes\".He also asserts that its royal red colour is \"symbolic of passion, love, anger, and, of course, blood\", marked by the starkness.According toVulturewriter Dan Kois, the mythological figure straddling West is \"a kind offragment, between asphinx, aphoenix, ahaunting ghost, aharpy\".The artwork was done at",
"artwork was done at Condo's studio, after West visited for several hours and they listened to tapes of his music. Over the next few days, the painter designed eight or nine paintings for the album. Two of them were portraits of West: an extreme closeup, with mismatched eyes and four sets of teeth; a portrait showing his head, crowned and decapitated, placed sideways on a white slab, pierced by a sword. Condo also did a painting of adyspepticballerina in a black tutu and one of the crown alongside the sword in a grassy landscape.He made five covers in total, which were all included with the purchase ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy.A second cover that contains a painting of a ballerina was posted on theAmazon.compre-order page.The image was originally intended to be the cover art for \"Runaway\", but West used a photograph of a ballerina instead.Another painting,The Priest, was completed for the album by Condo, who described it as an attempt to bring depictions of religious figures into the modern world.",
"the modern world. West told Condo that he wanted a phoenix painting and after he came up with the artwork, the rapper expressed his admiration for how they both \"express ourselves with our truest vision\".According to Condo, West requested the original cover image to be provocative enough to be banned by retailers, as apublicity stunt.In October 2010, a month before the album's release, West tweeted: \"Yoooo they banned my album cover!!!!! Banned in the USA!!! They don't want me chilling on the couch with my Phoenix!\"He also suggestedWalmarthad rejected the cover and cited the case of rock bandNirvana's 1991 albumNevermind, which featured a photo of a naked baby. West questioned why the band are allowed to have someone nude on their cover, but he \"can't have a PAINTING of a monster with no arms and a polka dot tail and wings\".In response, Walmart denied the suggestion in a statement declaring the company's excitement aboutMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyand its arrival in stores.Certain retailers did not",
"retailers did not carry the original cover, with West substituting it with Condo's ballerina artwork, while some shipped copies used a pixelated version of the original. In 2015,Billboardnamed the album's artwork as the 30th best of all time. The magazine wrote that West \"matched the widescreen brilliance of the album's music with boundary-cracking art\", including a demonic image of him \"being straddled by a nude angel\".In 2017,NMElisted the cover as the seventh best album artwork of the 21st century so far. Marketing Before the release ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, West initiated the music programGOOD Fridaysthrough his website beginning August 20, 2010, offering a free download of a new song for each Friday.West tweeted that he was aware his fans needed new music, \"so I'm dropping 1 new song every weekend until Xmas\" and he explained a release could be a song by him, Jay-Z, or another artist.Titled after his imprint labelGOOD Music, the program generated considerable publicity ahead of the release",
"of the release ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy.Young Money Entertainmentonline marketing coordinator Karen Civil retrospectively called the program genius, detailing that West undertook a program not previously attempted and \"at a point when he was the most hated person in music, he brought excitement back with his Friday releases\".GOOD Fridays was intended to run until December 2010, but West extended it through to January 2011. On September 12, 2010, West premiered \"Runaway\" with a live performance at the2010 MTV Video Music Awards.Three weeks later, on October 2, he performed the song a second time onSaturday Night Live, along with \"Power\".On October 4, 2010, West announced the album's release date of November 22,after he had previously tweeted that he was \"contemplating my album date\".The rapper also announced that certain songs from GOOD Fridays would be included on it.My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas released by Def Jam andRoc-A-Fellaon November 22, 2010, being made available fordigital",
"fordigital downloadon Amazon at a list price of $3.99.The deal was only offered by Amazon, while the album was simultaneously made available oniTunesand West's website linked to this release.Four singles were released from it and all reached the top 40 of the USBillboardHot 100, with thelead single\"Power\" released on July 1, 2010, charting at number 22.\"Runaway\" was released on October 4,and reached number 12, while \"Monster\" and \"All of the Lights\" were released on October 23, 2010, and January 18, 2011, respectively;they both charted at number 18. A 35-minute film entitledRunaway, featuring the titular song's officialmusic video, was directed by West and released on October 23, 2010.Filmed inPragueover a period of four days in the summer of 2010,the film stars West and modelSelita Ebanks, with the script penned byHype Williamsand the story written by West.West described the video as an overall representation of his dreams and a reflection of feelings throughout his life, including a parallel of the",
"a parallel of the situation from 2009 to 2010.He explained that it is \"the story of a phoenix fallen to Earth\", whom he makes his girlfriend, though she faces discrimination and eventually \"has to burn herself alive and go back to her world\".West elaborated how he had been deeply considering the idea of a phoenix for a while and this could be parallel to his career that he \"threw aMolotov cocktail\" at in 2009, then felt the need to make acomeback\"as a better person\".At aRunawayscreening in Paris, he broke down into tears. After another screening in Los Angeles, West said that the affect his music and art has on people people inspires him to continue in his career.The film was included on a bonus DVD for the deluxe edition ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy. For initial promotion ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, West performed atMacy's Thanksgiving Day Paradein late November 2010.Following the release of the album, West performed headlining sets at several large festivals in 2011,",
"festivals in 2011, includingSXSW,Lollapalooza,Austin City Limits,andCoachella; the latter was viewed byThe Hollywood Reporteras \"one of the great hip-hop sets of all time\". Commercial performance In its first week of release,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasydebuted at number one on the USBillboard200, selling 496,000 copies. The entry blocked Nicki Minaj's debut albumPink Fridayfrom the top spot with 375,000 sales; the week marked the first time in two years that the chart had two albums bow with over 300,000 units. It also gave West his fourth consecutive US number-one album and surpassed the 450,000 first-week sales of808s & Heartbreak, with the debut becoming the fourth-best sales week of 2010.The album's first-week digital sales of 224,000 units accounted for 45% of the total and stood as the fourth-highest digital copies for an album in a week. In its second week on theBillboard200,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasydescended six places to number seven with 108,000 copies sold, marking a 78% sales",
"marking a 78% sales decline, while remaining abovePink Fridayby one place.As of July 2013, it had sold 1,300,000 copies in the United States, as reported byNielsen SoundScan.By June 2011, the album had sold 483,000 digital copies, ranking as the second best-selling digital rap album ever.On November 23, 2020,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas certified triple platinum by theRecording Industry Association of Americafor pushing 3,000,000 certified units in the US.According toBillboard, as of 2022,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyis one of the 15 best-performing 21st-century albums without any of its singles being chart-toppers on the Hot 100. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasybecame West's fourth number one album on theCanadian Albums Chart.It reached number four on theDanish Albumschart,and in March 2021, was certified double platinum byIFPI Danmarkfor shipments of 40,000.My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyopened at number six on theARIA Albumschart and on September 10, 2021, it was awarded a double platinum",
"a double platinum certification from theAustralian Recording Industry Associationfor over 140,000 copies shipped in Australia.The album charted within the top 10 in Norway,South Korea,New Zealand,and Switzerland.On January 22, 2021, it received a platinum certification from theBritish Phonographic Industryfor selling 300,000 units in the United Kingdom.By 2018,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyhad registered a billion streams onSpotify. Critical reception My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas met with widespread critical acclaim.AtMetacritic, which assigns anormalizedrating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received anaveragescore of 94, based on 45 reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\".The aggregatorAnyDecentMusic?gave it 8.8 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus. Numerous reviewers highlighted West's move towards maximalism. Andy Gill ofThe Independentpraised the album as \"one of pop's gaudiest, most grandiose efforts of recent years, a no holds-barred",
"a no holds-barred musical extravaganza\" that forgoes the concept of good taste from the beginning.Powers, writing for theLos Angeles Times, found West's artistry comparable toPablo Picasso, reaching \"the Cubist mandate of rearranging form, texture, color and space\" for suggesting newer viewpoints.The album was called a work of art and West's most lavish record in a review byTimemagazine'sDavid Browne, who said it proved again that few other artists shared his ability to adeptly mix diverse elements.Steve Jones ofUSA Todaywas impressed by West's display \"of sonic flavors — old school hip-hop, progressive rock, R&B, classical music\" for how he combines and matches these genres, concluding his only predictability is a consistent drive to make every project his best. Critics often looked at the album as being among West's best work.Rolling Stone's Sheffield saidMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasymarked West's best and most wildly inspired album, asserting that no other act was recording music as dark or",
"music as dark or maximalist; he added the rapper transgresses the conventions he had established himself for rap and pop music in the past five years.James Reed ofThe Boston Globesaid that the album is \"seamlessly his personal best\" as West becomes self-involved in the varied styles and universal themes, standing as the most original hip hop record of 2010, through his efforts to push the genre's boundaries.Christgau, inMSN Music, hailed it as a \"world-beatingreturn to form\" for the rapper.Michael Denslow ofConsequencewrote thatMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyfeatures \"nine-minute rap epics\" which break the traditionalverse–chorus formand West manages to convey an attempt at the greatest album of all time, executing this well using \"all the swagger and hype with an album that may actually bethatgood\".The Village Voice's Sean Fennessey observed that while the album cannot be perfect as listeners \"will reach to call \", West's point from the album is imperfection.He also noted the skillful engineering and",
"engineering and sequencing, through the way each song transitions over like \"some long night out into the hazy morning after\".Pitchforkawarded the album a 10/10, the firstperfect scorethe publication had given to a new release sinceWilco'sYankee Hotel Foxtrotin 2002. Dombal from the publication highlighted West's \"blast of surreal pop excess\" that the majority of artists would not even try to create. A few reviewers were more qualified in their praise, mostly focusing on West's rapping. ForThe Guardian,Kitty Empirewas critical of his lyrics calling women \"ruthless money-grabbers\" on an otherwise \"herculean flawed near-masterpiece\".AllMusicwriter Andy Kellman found West's rapping inconsistent on \"a deeply fascinating accomplishment\" in his catalogue and one of complicated merit that is \"as fatiguing as it is invigorating, as cold-blooded as it is heart-rending, as haphazardly splattered as it is meticulously sculpted\", and maintains complexity across 70 minutes.David Amidon fromPopMattersdesired for West to",
"for West to utilize his rap skills fromThe College Dropoutand that the songs may be good yet he misses \"the opportunity to provide us with answers\", in spite of the lush production on one of hip hop's \"most bloated, egotistical, fantastical, flat-out amazing release\" for a while. Rankings Numerous critics and publications includedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyon their year-end top albums lists. Many named it the best album of 2010,includingBillboard,Time,Slant Magazine,Pitchfork,Rolling Stone,andSpin.My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas voted best album inThe Village Voice'sPazz & Jopcritics' poll for 2010, winning by the largest margin in the poll's history with 3,250 points.\"Power\", \"Runaway\", and \"Monster\" were voted in the top-10 of the Pazz & Jop singles list.Metacritic, which collates reviews of music albums, identified it as the best-reviewed album of 2010.The album stood as the first rap release to achieve this sinceOutkast's 2000 albumStankoniaand the sixth-highest ranking of albums released in",
"albums released in the 2010s to have at least 15 professional reviews. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyappeared on decade-end best albums lists. In 2012,Complexincluded it on their list of \"25 Rap Albums From the Past Decade That Deserve Classic Status\".In October 2013, the magazine ranked the album as the best hip hop album of the last five years.In 2014,Pitchforknamed it the best album of the 2010s so far, with Ian Cohen writing, \"West broke the ground upon which the new decade's most brilliant architects built their masterworks;Bon Iver,Take Care,Channel Orange, andGood Kid, M.A.A.D Citydon't exist without the blueprint ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy.\"It was later ranked as the top album of the 2010s byThe A.V. Club,Billboard,andRolling Stone.Christgau namedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyas the decade's eighth-best album, saying it remains \"perversely superb\". In 2014,SpinnamedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyas the eighth best album of the past 30 years, with Dan Weiss noting it is a world",
"it is a world combining samples,interpolations, and vocalists; he expressed that West does not believe \"one man should have all that power\" of God, yet he \"lives one hell of a life\".Six years later, Marc Hogan fromPitchforkconsidered it among the greatart popalbums of the last 20 years to \"have filled the void of full-length statements with both artistic seriousness and mass appeal that was formerly largely occupied by guitar bands\".In 2017, the staff ofHipHopDXwrote the album is \"widely considered magnum opus\" and the release that made the public's perception of him positive again.EWpickedMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasyas the eighth greatest album of all time in 2016, while it was ranked 21st and 17th on the lists byNMEandRolling Stonein 2013 and 2020, respectively.The album was also included in the book1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. Industry awards My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywon awards for both Album of the Year and Reader's Choice: Best Album at the 2010HipHopDXAwards, receiving over",
"receiving over 50 percent of the vote for the latter.The album was awarded CD of the Year at the next year'sBET Hip Hop Awards, while it was nominated forOutstanding Albumat the 2011NAACP Image Awards.The album received a nomination forTop Rap Albumat the2011BillboardMusic Awards, though ultimately lost to fellow rapperEminem'sRecovery. For the54th Annual Grammy Awardsin 2012,My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasywas awardedBest Rap Album, while \"All of the Lights\" was nominated forSong of the Year,Best Rap Song, andBest Rap/Sung Collaboration, winning in the latter two categories.However,The Recording Academy's decision not to nominateMy Beautiful Dark Twisted FantasyforAlbum of the Yearwas viewed by many media outlets as a snub,along with the rejection of West and Jay-Z's 2011 effortWatch the Thronein the category.For theLos Angeles Times, Randall Roberts pinpointed the exclusion ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy– \"the most critically acclaimed album of the year, a career-defining record\" – as a snub in favor",
"as a snub in favor of nominating less substantial albums.TimejournalistTourédeemed West's nominations in minor Grammy categories asbooby prizesand stated that the album was easily \"the best reviewed album in many years\", being lauded by critics \"like nothing sinceRadiohead's zenith\", while achieving success with over 1,200,000 sales.Touré explored possible reasons for the academy to snub West, including split votes betweenMy Beautiful Dark Twisted FantasyandWatch the Throneand concerns over his past controversies, but ultimately perceived \"a lack of respect for hip hop and its complexity\" from those who are into music, yet lack knowledge of this genre. Having expressed that he thought he was snubbed for major awards in the past, West responded to the Grammy nominees onstage during a concert on theWatch the Throne Tourin December 2011. West believed the snub was due to releasingWatch the ThroneandMy Beautiful Dark Fantasywithin a year of each other, feeling he \"should've just spaced it out, just a little bit",
"just a little bit more\".On the 10th anniversary ofMy Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, Will Lavin ofNMErecalled that despite winning Best Rap Album, \"it was snubbed for Best Album without so much as a nomination\".Two years later,Vibelisted the record as one of 10 rap albums snubbed of Album of the Year, with Preezy Brown mentioning this was \"a Grammy snub that's one of the more egregious in recent memory\". Track listing Track notes Sample credits Personnel Credits adapted from the album's liner notes. Musicians Production Design Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications ‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history Notes References External links",
"King Crimson King Crimsonwere an English-basedprogressive rockband formed in London in 1968. Led by guitaristRobert Fripp,they drew inspiration from a wide variety of music, incorporating elements ofclassical,jazz,folk,heavy metal,gamelan,blues,industrial,electronic,experimental musicandnew wave. They exerted a strong influence on the early 1970s progressive rock movement, including on contemporaries such asYesandGenesis, and continue to inspire subsequent generations of artists across multiple genres.The band has earned a largecult following, especially in the 21st century. Founded by Fripp,Michael Giles,Greg Lake,Ian McDonaldandPeter Sinfield, the band initially focused on a dramatic sound layered withMellotron, McDonald's saxophone and flute, Giles' complex and polyrhythmic drumming, Fripp's atmospheric guitar sound, and Lake's bass and powerful lead vocals, withgothic lyricismby Sinfield and creative directions by all members of the band. Their debut album,In the Court of the Crimson King(1969), remains",
"King(1969), remains their most commercially successful and influential release, with a potent mixture ofjazz, classical andexperimental music.Following the sudden simultaneous departures of McDonald and Giles (with Lake leaving very shortly afterwards), the next two albums,In the Wake of PoseidonandLizard(both 1970), were recorded during a period of instability in the band's line-up. A settled band of Fripp, Sinfield,Mel Collins,Boz BurrellandIan WallacerecordedIslandsin 1971, though in mid-1972, Fripp let go of this line-up and changed the group's instrumentation and approach, drawing from European free improvisation and developing ever more complex compositions. WithBill Bruford(formerly ofYes),John Wetton,David Cross, and brieflyJamie Muir, they reached what some saw as a creative peak onLarks' Tongues in Aspic(1973),Starless and Bible Black(1974), andRed(1974). King Crimson disbanded at the end of 1974. After seven years of inactivity, King Crimson was recreated in 1981 with another change in musical",
"change in musical direction. The new band comprised Fripp, Bruford and two newAmericanmembers:Adrian Belew, who previously worked withDavid Bowie,Frank ZappaandTalking Heads, andTony Levin, a prolificsession musicianwho was noted for his studio and live work withPeter Gabriel. They drew influence from African music,gamelan,post-punkand New Yorkminimalism. This band lasted three years, resulting in the trio of albumsDiscipline(1981),Beat(1982) andThree of a Perfect Pair(1984). Following a decade-long hiatus, they reformed in 1994, addingPat Mastelotto, formerly ofMr. Mister, andTrey Gunnfor a sextet line-up Fripp called \"The Double Trio\". The double trio participated in another three-year cycle of activity that included the release ofThrak(1995), and multiple concert recordings. There was a hiatus between 1997 and 2000. Fripp, Belew, Mastelotto and Gunn reunited in 2000 as a moreindustrial-oriented King Crimson,called \"The Double Duo\", releasingThe Construkction of Light(2000) andThe Power to Believe(2003).",
"to Believe(2003). After a five-year hiatus, the band addedGavin HarrisonofPorcupine Treeas a second drummer, with Levin returning in place of Gunn, for a 2008 tour celebrating the 40th anniversary of their 1968 formation. Following another hiatus (2009–2012), during which Fripp was thought to be retired, King Crimson came together again in 2013; this time as a septet (and, later, octet) with an unusual three-drumkit frontline, and new second guitarist and singerJakko Jakszyk. This version of King Crimson continued to tour from 2014 to 2021, and released multiple live albums. After the band's final show in 2021, Fripp commented that King Crimson had \"moved from sound to silence.\" History 1967–1968: Giles, Giles and Fripp In August 1967, brothersMichaelandPeter Giles, drummer and singer/bassist respectively and pro musicians in working bands since their mid-teens inDorset, England, advertised for a \"singing organist\" to join a group they were forming.Fellow Dorset musicianRobert Fripp– a guitarist who neither",
"who neither played organ nor sang – responded, andGiles, Giles and Frippwas born. The trio recorded several quirky singles and one eclectic album,The Cheerful Insanity of Giles, Giles and Fripp. They hovered on the edge of success, and even made a television appearance, but were never able to make a commercial breakthrough.Attempting to expand their sound, the three recruitedIan McDonaldon keyboards,reedsand woodwinds. McDonald brought along two new participants: his then-girlfriend, formerFairport ConventionsingerJudy Dyble, whose brief tenure with the group ended when the two split,and lyricist, roadie, and art strategistPeter Sinfield, with whom he had been writing songs – a partnership initiated when McDonald had said to Sinfield (regarding his band Creation), \"Peter, I have to tell you that your band is hopeless, but you write some great words. Would you like to get together on a couple of songs?\"Fripp, meanwhile, sawCloudsat theMarquee Clubin London which spurred him to incorporate classically inspired",
"inspired melodies into his writing, and utilise improvisation to find new ideas.No longer interested in Peter Giles' more whimsical pop songs, Fripp recommended that his old friend, fellow guitarist and singerGreg Lakecould join to replace either Peter or Fripp himself. Peter Giles later called it one of Fripp's \"cute political moves\".According to Michael Giles, his brother had become disillusioned with the band's lack of success and departed before Fripp suggested Lake to fill Peter Giles' position as bassist and singer. 1968–1970: Original lineup andIn the Court of the Crimson King The first incarnation of King Crimson—Fripp, Michael Giles, Lake, McDonald and Sinfield—was formed on 30 November 1968 with rehearsals beginning on 13 January 1969.Sinfield coined the band's name in \"a moment of pressured panic\". Sinfield had already used the term \"crimson king\" in a set of lyrics before his involvement with Giles, Giles and Fripp. Sinfield insisted that the name wasn'tBeelzebub, prince of demons, and that a",
"demons, and that a \"crimson king\" was any ruler during whose reign there were \"societal rumblings\" and \"sort of the dark forces of the world\".According to Fripp, King Crimson is asynonymforBeelzebub, which is ananglicisedform of theArabicphrase \"B'il Sabab\", meaning \"the man with an aim\", to which he related.At this early point, McDonald was the primary composer, with vital contributions from Fripp and Lake, while Sinfield wrote all the lyrics on his own, and also designed and operated the band's unique stage lighting, being credited with \"words and illumination\" on the album sleeve. Inspired bythe Moody Blues, McDonald suggested the group purchase aMellotronkeyboard, and this became a key component of the early Crimson sound.Sinfield described the original Crimson thus: \"If it sounded at all popular, it was out. So it had to be complicated, it had to be more expansive chords, it had to have strange influences. If it sounded, like, too simple, we'd make it more complicated, we'd play it in 7/8 or 5/8, just",
"in 7/8 or 5/8, just to show off\". King Crimson's first live performance was atthe Speakeasy ClubinLondonon 9 April 1969 (withYesguitaristPeter Banksamong the audience).Their big breakthrough came on 5 July 1969 by playing as a support act atthe Rolling Stones'free concertinHyde Park, Londonbefore an estimated 500,000 people.The debut album,In the Court of the Crimson King, was released in October 1969 onIsland Records. Fripp would later describe it as having been \"an instant smash\" and \"New York'sacidalbum of 1970\" (notwithstanding Fripp and Giles' assertion that the band never used psychedelic drugs).Whoguitarist and composerPete Townshendcalled the album \"an uncanny masterpiece.\"The album contains Sinfield'sgothic lyricsand its sound was described as having \"dark and doom-laden visions\".Its opening track \"21st Century Schizoid Man\" was described as \"proto-metal\" and the song's lyrics criticisethe military involvement of the United States in Southeast Asia.In contrast to the blues-based hard rock of the",
"hard rock of the contemporary British and American scenes, King Crimson presented a more Europeanised approach that blended antiquity and modernity.The band's music drew on a wide range of influences provided by all five group members. These elements included classical music, the psychedelic rock spearheaded byJimi Hendrix,folk,jazz, military music (partially inspired by McDonald's stint as an army musician) andfree improvisation. After playing shows across England, the band toured the US with various pop and rock acts. Their first show was atGoddard CollegeinPlainfield, Vermont. While the band found success and critical acclaim,creative tensions were already developing.Giles and McDonald, still striving to cope with King Crimson's rapid success and the realities of touring life, became uneasy with their musical direction. Although he was neither the dominant composer nor the frontman, Fripp was very much the group's driving force and spokesman, leading them into progressively darker and more intense musical",
"intense musical areas. McDonald and Giles, now favouring a lighter and more nuanced romantic style, became increasingly uncomfortable with their position and resigned after the conclusion of the US tour in January 1970.To keep the band together, Fripp offered to resign himself, but McDonald declared that King Crimson was \"more (him) than them\" and that he and Giles should therefore be the ones to leave.McDonald later said he \"was probably not emotionally mature enough to handle it\" and made a \"rash decision to leave without consulting anyone\".The original lineup played their last show at theFillmore Westin San Francisco on 14 December 1969, a little over one year after forming.Live recordings of the band from 1969 were released in 1997 onEpitaphand in 2010 on theIn the Court of the Crimson King (1969)box set. 1970–1971:In the Wake of PoseidonandLizard King Crimson spent 1970 in a state of flux with various lineup changes, thwarted tour plans, and difficulties in finding a satisfactory musical direction while",
"direction while Fripp was learning and developing as a songwriter during the writing process of the next three albums.As well as guitar, Fripp took on keyboard duties, while Sinfield expanded his creative role to operating synthesizers. Following McDonald and Giles' departure, Lake, unsure of the band's future without them, began discussions withKeith Emersonofthe Niceabout possibly forming a new band together. With Fripp and Sinfield planning for recording the second King Crimson album, and Lake's position uncertain, the band's management bookedElton Johnto sing the material as a session musician, but Fripp decided against this idea after listening to hisEmpty Skyalbum.Lake agreed to stay with the band until Emerson had completed remaining commitments with the Nice, at which point he left to formEmerson, Lake and Palmer. On the resultingIn the Wake of Poseidonalbum, Lake provided all the lead vocals except on \"Cadence and Cascade\", as he left before he was able to complete this track. Fripp's old school",
"Fripp's old school friendGordon Haskellwas brought in to provide the vocal on the song.The sessions also included Michael and Peter Giles on drums and bass respectively,saxophonistMel Collins(formerly of the band Circus)and jazz pianistKeith Tippett.Upon its release in May 1970,In the Wake of Poseidonreached No. 4 in the UK and No. 31 in the US. It received some criticism from those who thought it sounded too similar to their first album.With no set band to perform the new material, Fripp and Sinfield kept Mel Collins and Gordon Haskell on board, with Haskell doubling as lead vocalist and bassist, andAndy McCullochjoined as drummer. In addition to saxophone, Collins would also act as occasional keyboard player and backing vocalist. Fripp and Sinfield wrote the third album,Lizard, themselves – with Haskell, Collins and McCulloch having no say in the direction of the material. In addition to the core band, several session musicians contributed to theLizardrecording, including the returning Keith Tippett, who",
"Keith Tippett, who was offered to be a member of the new lineup, but due to other commitments preferred to continue working with the band as an occasional guest musician,and two members of Tippett's band,Mark Charigoncornet, andNick Evansontrombone. Robin Miller (onoboeandcor anglais) also appeared, whileJon AndersonofYeswas brought in to sing a section of the album's title track, \"Prince Rupert Awakes\", which Fripp and Sinfield considered to be outside Haskell's natural range and style.Lizardfeatured stronger jazz and chamber-classical influences than previous albums.The album contains Sinfield's \"phantasmagorical\" lyrics, including \"Happy Family\" (an allegory of the break-up ofthe Beatles),and the title track, a suite which took up the entire second side, describing a medieval/mythological battle and its outcome. Released in December 1970,Lizardreached No. 29 in the UK and No. 113 in the US. Described retrospectively as an \"outlier\",the album had been made by a group in disagreement over method and taste.",
"method and taste. The more rhythm-and-blues-oriented Haskell and McCulloch both found the music difficult to relate to, and tedious and confusing to record. Collins disliked how his parts were composed, while both Fripp and Haskell detested Sinfield's lyrics.This lineup of the band did not survive much longer than theLizardrecording sessions. Haskell quit the band acrimoniously during initial tour rehearsals after refusing to sing live with distortion and electronic effects on his voice, and McCulloch departed soon after.With Sinfield not being a musician and Fripp having seemingly given up on the band, Collins was left to search for new members. 1971–1972:Islands After a search for a drummer to replace McCulloch,Ian Wallacewas secured. Fripp was re-energised by the addition of a new member, and he joined Collins and Wallace to audition singers and bassists. Vocalists who tried out includedBryan FerryofRoxy Musicand even one of the band's managers,John Gaydon.The position eventually went toRaymond \"Boz\"",
"toRaymond \"Boz\" Burrell.John Wettonwas invited to join on bass, but declined in order to joinFamilyinstead.Rick Kemp(later ofSteeleye Span) rehearsed with the band, but declined the final offer to formally join.Fripp decided to teach Boz to play bass rather than continue the labored auditions. Though he had not played bass before, Burrell had played enough acoustic guitar to assist him in learning the instrument quickly. Wallace was able to further instruct Burrell in functioning on the instrument in a rhythm section.With a lineup now complete, King Crimson began touring in May 1971, the first time they had played live since the original lineup's last show on 14 December 1969. The concerts were well received, but the musical differences between Fripp and the rest of the group, and the somewhat wilder lifestyles of Collins, Wallace and Burrell, alienated the drug-free Fripp, who began to withdraw socially from his bandmates, creating further tension. In 1971, the new King Crimson formation recordedIslands.",
"recordedIslands. Sinfield, who favoured a softer approach, took lyrical inspiration fromHomer'sOdyssey, musical inspiration from jazz players likeMiles DavisandAhmad Jamal, and a sun-drenched trip toIbizaandFormentera.Islandsfeatured the instrumental \"Sailor's Tale\", with a droning Mellotron and Fripp's banjo-inspired guitar solo; the raunchy blues-rocker \"Ladies of the Road\", a tribute togroupieswhich featured Wallace and Collins singing Beatles-esque backing vocals; and \"Song of the Gulls\", which was developed from an earlier Fripp instrumental (\"Suite No. 1\" from Giles, Giles & Fripp's1968 album), and would be the only time the band would utilize an orchestra.Burrell disliked Sinfield's lyrics and one of the band members allegedly calledIslandsas \"an airy-fairy piece of shit\". Released in December 1971,Islandscharted at No. 30 in the UK and No. 76 in the US. Following a tour of the United States in December 1971, Fripp informed Sinfield that he could no longer work with him, and asked him to leave the",
"him to leave the band.In January 1972, the remaining band broke up acrimoniously in rehearsals, owing partially to Fripp's refusal to play a composition by Collins.He later cited this as \"quality control\", with the idea that King Crimson would perform the \"right\" kind of music. In order to fulfil touring contracts in the United States in 1972, King Crimson reformed with the intention of disbanding immediately after the tour.Recordings from various North American dates between January and February 1972 were released asEarthboundin June of that year. The album was noted for its playing style that occasionally veered towardsfunk, and Burrell'sscat singingon the improvised pieces, but was criticised for its sub-par sound quality.Further, better-quality, live recordings from this era would be released in 2002 asLadies of the Roadand in 2017 on theSailors' Tales (1970–1972)box set. By this time, the musical rift between Fripp and the rest of the band had grown very wide. Wallace, Burrell and Collins favoured",
"Collins favoured improvisedbluesand funk. Fripp would later describe the 1971–1972 lineup as more of ajam bandthan an \"improvising\" band, an opinion with which Wallace disagreed. Personal relations actually improved during the tour to the point where most of the band decided to continue on, however Fripp opted to part company with the other three, restructuring King Crimson with new musicians, as he felt the other members wouldn't be fully engaged in the musical direction he had in mind. 1972–1975:Larks' Tongues in Aspic,Starless and Bible Black,Redand hiatus \"It was going to be an interesting ride when ... I wasn't given a setlist when I joined the band, more a reading list.Ouspensky,J. G. Bennett,GurdjieffandCastanedawere all hot.Wicca, personality changes, low-level magic, pyromancy – all this from the magus in the court of the Crimson King. This was going to be more than three chords and a pint of Guinness.\" —Bill Bruford. The next incarnation of King Crimson was radically different from the previous",
"from the previous configurations. Fripp's four new recruits werefree-improvisingpercussionistJamie Muir, drummerBill Bruford, who leftYesat a commercial peak in their career in favour of the \"darker\" Crimson,bassist and vocalistJohn Wetton(who leftFamily), and violinist, keyboardist and flautistDavid Cross, whom Fripp had met when he was invited to a rehearsal of Waves, a band Cross was working in.Most of the musical compositions were collaborations between Fripp and Wetton, who each composed segments independently and fitted together those which they found compatible.With Sinfield gone, the band recruited Wetton's friendRichard Palmer-James(from the originalSupertramp) as their new lyricist.Unlike Sinfield, Palmer-James was not an official member of King Crimson, playing no part in artistic decisions, visual ideas, or sonic directions; his sole contributions to the group were his lyrics, sent via mail from his home in Germany.Following a period of rehearsals, King Crimson resumed touring on 13 October 1972",
"on 13 October 1972 at the Zoom Club inFrankfurt,with the band's penchant for improvisation (and Muir's startling stage presence) gaining them renewed press attention. In January and February 1973, King Crimson recordedLarks' Tongues in Aspicin London which was released that March.The band's new sound was exemplified by the album'stwo-part title track– a significant change from what King Crimson had done before, the piece emphasised the sharp instrumental interplay of the band, and drew influence from modern classical music, noisy free improv, and even heavy metal riffing. The record displayed Muir's unusual approach to percussion, which included a self-modified drum kit, assorted toys, abullroarer,mbira, gongs, balloons,thunder sheetand chains. On stage, Muir also employed unpredictable, manic movements, bizarre clothing, and fake blood capsules (occasionally spit or applied to the head), becoming the sole example of such theatrical stage activity in the band's long history.The album reached No. 20 in the UK",
"No. 20 in the UK and No. 61 in the US. After a period of further touring, Muir departed in 1973, quitting the music industry altogether. Muir told King Crimson's management that he had decided a musician's life was not for him, and he had chosen to join a Scottish Buddhist monastery. He offered to serve a period of notice which the management declined. Instead of reiterating Muir's decision, the management informed the band and the public that Muir had sustained an onstage injury caused by a gong landing on his foot. With Muir gone, the remaining members reconvened in January 1974 to produceStarless and Bible Black, released in March 1974, which earned them a positiveRolling Stonereview.Though most of the album was recorded live during the band's late 1973 tour, the recordings were carefully edited and overdubbed to sound like a studio record, with \"The Great Deceiver\", \"Lament\" and the second half of \"The Night Watch\" the only tracks recorded entirely in the studio.The album reached No. 28 in the UK and No.",
"in the UK and No. 64 in the US. Following the album's release, the band began to divide once more, this time over performance. Musically, Fripp found himself positioned between Bruford and Wetton, who played with such force and increasing volume that Fripp once compared them to \"a flying brick wall\", and Cross, whose amplified acoustic violin was consistently being drowned out by the rhythm section, leading him to concentrate more on Mellotron and an overdriven electric piano. An increasingly frustrated Cross began to withdraw both musically and personally, with the result being that he was voted out of the group following the band's 1974 tour of Europe and America. In July 1974, Fripp, Bruford, and Wetton began recordingRed.Before recording began, Fripp, now increasingly disillusioned with the music industry, turned his attention to the works of English mysticJ.G. Bennettand had a spiritual experience in which \"the top of my head blew off\".Most of the album had been developed during live improvisations",
"live improvisations before Fripp retreated into himself and \"withdrew his opinion\", leaving Bruford and Wetton to direct the recording sessions. The album contains one live track, \"Providence\", recorded on 30 June 1974 with Cross playing violin. Several guest musicians (including former members Ian McDonald and Mel Collins) contributed to the album.Released on 6 October 1974,Redwent to No. 45 in the UK and No. 66 in the US.AllMusiccalled it \"an impressive achievement\" for a group about to disband,with \"intensely dynamic\" musical chemistry between the band members. Two months before the release ofRed, King Crimson's future looked bright (with talks regarding founder member Ian McDonald rejoining the group). However, Fripp wished not to tour as he felt increasingly disenchanted by the group and the music industry. He also felt the world was going to drastically change by 1981 and that he had to prepare for it.Despite a band meeting while touring the US in which Fripp expressed a desire to end the band,the",
"to end the band,the group did not formally disband until 25 September 1974 and later Fripp announced that King Crimson had \"ceased to exist\" and was \"completely over for ever and ever\".It was later revealed that Fripp had attempted to replace himself with McDonald andSteve HackettofGenesis, but this idea was rejected by the managers.Following the band's disbanding, the live albumUSAwas released in May 1975, formed of recordings from their 1974 North American tour. It received some positive reviews,including \"a must\" for fans of the band and \"insanity you're better off having\".Issues with the tapes rendered some of Cross' playing inaudible, soEddie Jobsonof Roxy Music was hired to perform violin and keyboard overdubs in a studio; further edits were also made to allow the music to fit on a single LP.More live recordings from the 1972–1974 era would be issued asThe Night Watchin 1997, and as part of the box setsThe Great Deceiver(1992),Larks' Tongues in Aspic (1972–1973)(2012),The Road to Red (1974),",
"Road to Red (1974), andStarless (1973–1974)(both 2014). Between 1975 and 1981, King Crimson were completely inactive. 1981–1984:Discipline,Beat,Three of a Perfect Pairand second hiatus In the late autumn of 1980, having spent several years on spiritual pursuits and then gradually returning to music (playing guitar forDavid Bowie,Peter GabrielandDaryl Hall, pursuing an experimental solo career, leading instrumentalnew wavebandThe League of Gentlemen), Fripp decided to form a new \"first division\" rock group, but had no intentions of it being King Crimson.Having recruited Bill Bruford as drummer, Fripp asked singer and guitaristAdrian Belewto join,the first time Fripp would actively seek collaboration with another guitarist in a band and therefore indicative of Fripp's desire to create something unlike any of his previous work.After touring withTalking Heads, Belew agreed to join and also become the band's lyricist. Bruford's suggestion of his bassistJeff Berlinwas rejected as Fripp thought his playing was \"too",
"playing was \"too busy\",so auditions were held in New York: on the third day, Fripp left after roughly three auditions, only to return several hours later withTony Levin(who got the job after playing a single chorus of \"Red\").Fripp later confessed that, had he known that Levin (whom Fripp had played with inPeter Gabriel's group) was available and interested, he would have selected him without holding auditions. Fripp named the new quartet Discipline, and they went to England to rehearse and write new material. They made their live debut atMoles ClubinBath, Somerseton 30 April 1981, and completed a short tour supported bythe Lounge Lizards.By October 1981, the band had opted to change their name to King Crimson. In 1981, King Crimson recordedDisciplinewith producerRhett Davieswho had previously worked with Belew on Talking Heads'Remain in Lightand with Fripp on Brian Eno'sAnother Green WorldandBefore and After Science. The album displayed a very different version of the band, with newer influences",
"newer influences includingpost-punk,new wave, funk,minimalism,pointillism, world music and African percussion.With a sound described inThe New Rolling Stone Album Guideas having a \"jaw-dropping technique\" of \"knottily rhythmic, harmonically demanding workouts\".The title track \"Discipline\" was described as apostminimalistrock song.Fripp intended to create the sound of a \"rockgamelan\", with an interlocking rhythmic quality to the paired guitars that he found similar to Indonesian gamelan ensembles.Fripp concentrated on playing complex picked arpeggios, while Belew provided an arsenal of guitar sounds that \"often mimic animal noises\".In addition to bass guitar, Levin used theChapman Stick, a ten-string two-handedtapping, hybrid guitar and bass instrument which he played in an \"utterly original style\".Bruford experimented with cymbal-less acoustic kits and aSimmons SDS-Velectronic drum kit. The band's songs were shorter in comparison to previous King Crimson albums, and very much shaped by Belew's pop",
"by Belew's pop sensibilities and quirky approach to writing lyrics. Though the band's previous taste for improvisation was now tightly reined in, one instrumental (\"The Sheltering Sky\") emerged from group rehearsals; while the noisy, half-spoken/half-shouted \"Indiscipline\" was a partially written, part-improvised piece created in order to give Bruford a chance to escape from the strict rhythmic demands of the rest of the album.Released in September 1981,Disciplinereached No. 41 in the UK and No. 45 in the US. In June 1982, King Crimson followedDisciplinewithBeat, the first King Crimson album recorded with the same band lineup as the album preceding it.Beatis the only album where Fripp had no involvement in the original mixing; Davies and Belew undertook production duties.The album had a linked theme of theBeat Generationand its writings, reflected in song titles such as \"Neal and Jack and Me\" (inspired byNeal CassadyandJack Kerouac), \"Heartbeat\" (inspired byCarolyn Cassady's \"Heart Beat: My Life with Jack",
"My Life with Jack and Neal\"), \"The Howler\" (inspired byAllen Ginsberg's \"Howl\") and \"Waiting Man\" (inspired byWilliam Burroughs). The album contained themes of life on the road,existential angstand romanticism.WhileBeatwas more accessible,it had the improvised \"Requiem\", which featuredFrippertronics, a guitar technique invented byBrian Enoand Robert Fripp using atape loopsystem. RecordingBeatwas faced with tension with Belew suffering high stress levels over his duties as front man, lead singer, and principal songwriter. On one occasion, he clashed with Fripp and ordered him out of the studio.AsBeatreached No. 39 in the UK and No. 52 in the US, King Crimson resumed touring. \"Heartbeat\" was released as a single which peaked at No. 57 on theBillboardMainstream Rockchart. Around this time the band released the VHSThe Noise: Live in Frejus, a document of a show played at the Arena,Frejus, France on 27 August 1982, co-headlining with Roxy Music (whose set from the same show was also released on VHS asThe High",
"on VHS asThe High Road). The VHS was later re-released as part of theNeal and Jack and MeDVD in 2004. King Crimson's next album,Three of a Perfect Pair, was recorded in 1983 and released in March 1984. Having encountered difficulty in both writing and determining a direction for the album, the band chose to record and call the album's first half a \"left side\" – four of the band's poppier songs plus an instrumental – and the second half a \"right side\" – experimental work, improvisations that drew influence from industrial music,plus the third part of the \"Larks' Tongues in Aspic\" series of compositions. The stress during the writing process and the tension between the band members manifested in both lyrical content and music, and the result is a \"nerve-racking\" album.The 2001 remaster of the album included the \"other side\", a collection of remixes and improvisational out-takes plus Levin's humorous song, \"The King Crimson Barbershop\".Three of a Perfect Pairpeaked at No. 30 in the UK and No. 58 in the US, with",
"58 in the US, with \"Three of a Perfect Pair\" and \"Sleepless\" being released as singles. A VHS document of theThree of a Perfect Pairtour,Three of a Perfect Pair: Live in Japan, was released later in 1984 (and later also included on theNeal and Jack and MeDVD). The last concert of theThree of a Perfect Pairtour, at theSpectrumin Montreal, Canada on 11 July 1984, was recorded and released in 1998 asAbsent Lovers: Live in Montreal.Further live recordings of the 1980s band would be released in 2016 as part of theOn (and off) The Road (1981–1984)box set. Despite their conflict, the musicians remained professional on stage. \"Robert broke up the group, again, for the umpteenth time, dwelling at length, I suppose, on our lack of imagination, ability, direction and a thousand other things we were doubtless missing. I suppose this only because I remember not listening to this litany of failures. Might as well quit while you're ahead, I thought.\" —Bill Bruford on the band's 1984 disbanding. Following the 1984 tour,",
"the 1984 tour, Fripp dissolved King Crimson for the second time, exactly ten years after dissolving the previous group. Bruford and Belew expressed some frustration over this; Belew recalled the first he had heard of the split was when he read about it in a report inMusicianmagazine. 1994–1999: The Double Trio,Vrooom,THRAKand the ProjeKcts In the summer of 1991, Belew met with Fripp in England to express an interest in reviving King Crimson.One year later, Fripp established hisDiscipline Global Mobile(DGM) record label with producerDavid Singleton. Subsequently, DGM would be the primary home for Fripp's work, with larger album releases distributed to bigger record companies (initiallyVirgin records), and smaller releases handled by DGM. This afforded Fripp and his associates greater creative freedom and more control over all aspects of their work. In late 1991, Fripp asked formerJapansingerDavid Sylvianto join the new King Crimson band, but Sylvian declined the offer, though the two collaborated as",
"two collaborated as Sylvian/Fripp.In June 1993, Fripp began to assemble a larger version of the band, joined by Belew and Levin from the 1980s quartet, Chapman Stick playerTrey Gunn(a veteran of Fripp's Guitar Craft courses) and drummerJerry Marotta,with whom Fripp had played withPeter Gabriel.After Sylvian/Fripp's closing concerts at theRoyal Albert Hallin December 1993,a tour that Marotta didn't participate in, Fripp decided to ask the tour's drummerPat Mastelotto, formerly ofMr. Mister, to join instead of Marotta.Bruford wound up being the last of the 1980s group to return to the band.Fripp explained that he had a vision of a \"Double Trio\" with two drummers while driving along theChalke Valleyone afternoon in 1992.Bruford later said he lobbied Fripp last minute because he believed that Crimson was very much \"his gig\", and that Fripp had come up with a philosophical explanation for utilizing both Mastelotto and himself later. One of the conditions Fripp imposed upon Bruford if he were to return was to give",
"return was to give up all creative control to Fripp. Following rehearsals inWoodstock, New York, the group released theEPVrooomin October 1994. This revealed the new King Crimson sound, which featured the interlocking guitars of the 1980s mixed with the layered, heavier feel of the 1970s period.There was also a vague influence from theindustrial musicof that time.Many of the songs were written or finalised by Belew, and displayed stronger elements of 1960s pop than before; in particular, aBeatlesinfluence.Bruford would refer to the band as sounding like \"a dissonantShadowson steroids\".As with previous lineups, new technology was utilised, includingMIDI(extensively used as an effects filter by Belew and Gunn, and which Fripp used to replace Frippertronics with an upgraded digital version of itself called \"Soundscapes\")and the versatileWarr tap guitarwith which Gunn replaced his Stick in 1995.King Crimson toured the album from 28 September 1994 inBuenos Aires,Argentina; portions of these concerts were released",
"were released on the double live CD setB'Boom: Live in Argentinain 1995. \"The meaning ofTHRAK... the first one is: a sudden and precise impact moving from direction and commitment in service of an aim ... The second definition is: 117 guitars almost hitting the same chord simultaneously. So, the albumTHRAK, what is it? 56 minutes and 37 seconds of songs and music about love, dying, redemption and mature guys who get erections.\" —Robert Fripp's press release forTHRAKand the sleeve notes toVROOOM VROOOM In October and December 1994, King Crimson recorded their eleventh studio album,THRAK.Formed mostly of revised versions of the tracks fromVrooom, plus new tracks, the album was described byQmagazine as having \"jazz-scented rock structures, characterised by noisy, angular, exquisite guitar interplay\" and an \"athletic, ever-inventive rhythm section,\"while being in tune with the sound ofalternative rockof the mid-1990s.Examples of the band's efforts to integrate their multiple elements could be heard on the",
"be heard on the accessible (but complex) songs \"Dinosaur\" and \"Sex Sleep Eat Drink Dream\", the more straightforward ballad \"One Time\", as well as \"Radio I\" and \"Radio II\"- a pair of Fripp's Soundscapes instrumentals. King Crimson resumed touring in 1995 and into 1996; dates from October and November 1995 were recorded and released on the live albumTHRaKaTTaKin May 1996, which is an hour of improvised music integrating sections from performances from the \"THRAK\" tour in the United States and Japan, mixed and arranged by Fripp's DGM partner, engineer David Singleton.A more conventional live recording from the period was later made available as the double CD releaseVrooom Vrooom(2001), while a full 1995 concert was released on VHS in 1996 asLive in Japanand re-released on DVD in 1999 asDéjà Vrooom. The double trio would be further honored by theTHRAK (1994–1997)box set in 2015. Writing rehearsals began in May 1997 inNashville, Tennessee. Fripp was dissatisfied with the quality of the new music being developed",
"being developed by the band; Longstanding friction and disagreements between himself and Bruford led to the latter deciding to leave King Crimson for good. The resulting bad atmosphere and the lack of workable material almost broke the band up altogether. Instead, the six members opted to work in four smaller groups (or \"fraKctalisations\", as Fripp called them) known asProjeKcts. This enabled the group to continue developing ideas and searching for a new direction without the practical difficulty (and expense) of convening all six musicians at once. From 1997 to 1999, the first four ProjeKcts played live in the United States and the United Kingdom, and released recordings that showed a high degree of free improvisation, with influences ranging from jazz, industrial,technoanddrum'n'bass.These have been collectively described by music criticJ. D. Considineas \"frequently astonishing\" but lacking in melody.After Bruford had played four dates with Projekct One in December 1997, he left King Crimson to resume",
"Crimson to resume working with his own jazz groupEarthworks. 1999–2003: The Double Duo,The Construkction of LightandThe Power to Believe In October 1999, King Crimson reconvened.Tony Levin was busy working as a session musician and decided to take a hiatus from the group, so the remaining members (Fripp, Belew, Gunn and Mastelotto) formed the \"Double Duo\" to write and recordThe Construkction of Lightin Belew's basement studio and garage nearNashville.Fripp was inspired by Tool's albumUndertowduring the writing process ofThe Construkction of Light.Released in May 2000, the album reached No. 129 in the UK. Most of the pieces were metallic, harsh andindustrialin sound.They featured a distinct electronic texture, a heavily processed electric drum sound from Mastelotto, Gunn taking over the bass role on Warr Guitar, and a different take on the interlocking guitar sound that the band had pioneered in the 1980s.With the exception of an industrial blues (sung by Belew through a voice changer under the pseudonym of",
"the pseudonym of \"Hooter J. Johnson\"), the songs were dense and complex.The album contains thefourth installmentof \"Larks' Tongues in Aspic\". It received a negative reception for lacking new ideas.The band recorded an album of improvised instrumentals at the same time, and released them under the nameProjeKct X, on the CDHeaven and Earth. King Crimson toured to support both albums, including double bill shows withTool.The tour was documented on the live albumHeavy ConstruKctionin 2000 and theHeaven & Earth (1997–2008)box set in 2019.Led ZeppelinbassistJohn Paul Jonesand his band supported Crimson on some live shows. On 9 November 2001, King Crimson released a limited edition live EP calledLevel Five,featuring three new pieces: \"Dangerous Curves\", \"Level Five\" and \"Virtuous Circle\", plus versions of \"The Construkction of Light\" and ProjeKct's \"The Deception of the Thrush\", followed by an unlisted track called \"ProjeKct 12th and X\" after one minute of silence.A second EP followed in October 2002,Happy with",
"2002,Happy with What You Have to Be Happy With. This featured eleven tracks (including a live version of \"Larks' Tongues in Aspic, Part IV\"). Half of the tracks were processed vocal snippets by Belew, and the songs themselves varied between Soundscapes, gamelan, heavy metal and blues. The double duo lineup released King Crimson's thirteenth album,The Power to Believe, in March 2003.Fripp described it as \"the culmination of three years of Crimsonising\".The album incorporated, reworked and retitled versions of \"Deception of the Thrush\" (\"The Power to Believe III\"); tracks from their previous two EPs; and an extract from a Fripp Soundscape with added instrumentation and vocals.The Power to Believereached No. 162 in the UK and No. 150 in the US. King Crimson toured in 2003 to support the album; recordings from it were used for the live albumEleKtrik: Live in Japan. 2003 also saw the release of the DVDEyes Wide Open, a compilation of the band's shows Live at the Shepherds Bush Empire (London, 3 July 2000) and",
"3 July 2000) and Live in Japan (Tokyo, 16 April 2003). In November 2003, Gunn left the group to pursue solo projects and was replaced by the returning Tony Levin.The band reconvened in early 2004 for rehearsals, but nothing developed from these sessions. They went on another hiatus.At this point, Fripp was publicly reassessing his desire to work within the music industry, often citing the unsympathetic aspects of the life of a touring musician, such as \"the illusion of intimacy with celebrities\". On 21 September 2006, former King Crimson memberBoz Burrelldied of a heart attack,followed by another former member,Ian Wallace, who died of esophageal cancer on 22 February 2007. 2008: 40th Anniversary tour and third hiatus A new King Crimson formation was announced in 2007: Fripp, Belew, Levin, Mastelotto, and a new second drummer,Gavin Harrison.In August 2008, after a period of rehearsals, the five completed the band's 40th Anniversary Tour. The setlists featured no new material, drawing instead from the existing",
"from the existing mid '70s era/Discipline-era/Double Trio/Double Duo repertoire.Additional shows were planned for 2009, but were cancelled due to scheduling clashes with Belew. King Crimson began another hiatus after the 40th Anniversary Tour.Belew continued to lobby for reviving the band, and discussed it with Fripp several times in 2009 and 2010. Among Belew's suggestions was a temporary reunion of the 1980s line-up for a thirtieth anniversary tour: an idea declined by both Fripp and Bruford, the latter commenting \"I would be highly unlikely to try to recreate the same thing, a mission I fear destined to failure.\"In December 2010, Fripp wrote that the King Crimson \"switch\" had been set to \"off\" since October 2008, citing several reasons for this decision. In August 2012, Fripp announced his retirement from the music industry, leaving the future of King Crimson uncertain. 2014–2021: The Seven-Headed Beast and Three Over Five lineups Prior to Fripp's retirement announcement, a band called Jakszyk, Fripp and",
"Jakszyk, Fripp and Collins (and subtitled \"A King Crimson ProjeKct\") had released an album calledA Scarcity of Miraclesin 2011. The band featured guitarist and singerJakko Jakszyk(who'd previously performed King Crimson material with 21st Century Schizoid Band), Fripp and former Crimson saxophonistMel Collinsas the main players/composers, with Tony Levin playing bass and Gavin Harrison playing drums. At one point, Fripp referred to the band as \"P7\" (ProjeKct Seven).Unusually for a ProjeKct, it was based around \"finely crafted\" and \"mid-paced\" original songs derived from improvised sessions. In September 2013, Fripp announced King Crimson's return to activity with a \"very different reformation to what has gone before: seven players, four English and three American, with three drummers\".He cited several reasons to make a comeback, varying from the practical to the whimsical: \"I was becoming too happy. Time for a pointed stick.\"The new line-up drew from both the previous lineup (retaining Fripp, Levin, Harrison",
"Levin, Harrison and Mastelotto) and theScarcity of Miraclesproject (Jakszyk and Collins), withGuitar Craftalumnus and formerR.E.M./MinistrydrummerBill Rieflinas the seventh member.Adrian Belew was not asked to take part, thus ending his 32-year tenure in King Crimson: Jakszyk took his place as singer and second guitarist.This version of the group took on the nickname of \"the Seven-Headed Beast\". This drastically revamped King Crimson had no plans to record in the studio, focussing instead on playing \"reconfigured\" versions of past material in live concerts.Looking back later at this King Crimson phase, Tony Levin would comment \"we were instructed/advised by Robert Fripp to look at the older classic King Crimson material as if we had written it. And so we did that with a lot of older material that the band had done before the '80s. We didn’t actually cover that much of the '80s material outside of a few songs.\" For the most part, this approach would remain consistent for the remainder of the band's lifetime.",
"band's lifetime. In early 2014, and for the first time since 1974, the band's repertoire included songs from the run of albums betweenIn The Court of the Crimson KingandLarks' Tongues in Aspicas well as reviving song material fromRed. No Adrian Belew-era songs were included in the setlist, although some instrumentals from the period were played (including items fromTHRAKandThe Power to Believe). At the same time, two brand new songs mainly written by Fripp and Jakszyk (\"Meltdown\" and \"Suitable Grounds for the Blues\") were debuted at live concerts. After rehearsing in England, King Crimson toured North America from 9 September to 6 October.Recordings from the Los Angeles dates were released asLive at the Orpheum: this included new King Crimson instrumental music in the shape of \"Banshee Legs Bell Hassle\" and \"Walk On: Monk Morph Chamber Music\". Tours across Europe, Canada, and Japan followed in the later half of 2015.A live recording from the Canadian leg of the tour was released at the end of February 2016",
"of February 2016 asLive In Toronto, which included three more new Crimson instrumental pieces (\"Threshold Soundscape\", \"Radical Action (To Unseat the Hold of Monkey Mind)\" and \"The Hell Hounds of Krim\"). A European tour was planned for 2016. Following Rieflin's decision to take a break from music, drummerJeremy StaceyofNoel Gallagher's High Flying Birdswas called in place for dates from September. A further live album,Radical Action to Unseat the Hold of Monkey Mind, was released in September 2016, drawing from 2015 concert dates of Japan, Canada and France preceding Rieflin's departure and Stacey's arrival. Further documenting the band's shuffling and evolving live set, it included one new instrumental (\"Devil Dogs of Tessellation Row\") and demonstrated that King Crimson were now incorporating material fromA Scarcity of Miracles(the title track, plus \"The Light of Day\") into the band's repertoire. On 7 December 2016, founding King Crimson memberGreg Lakedied of cancer.Another former King Crimson member,John",
"Crimson member,John Wetton, died ofcolon canceron 31 January 2017. On 3 January 2017, Bill Rieflin returned to King Crimson.Since the band wished to retain Jeremy Stacey, Fripp called the new lineup the \"Double Quartet Formation\", referencing four drummers.Consequently, King Crimson became an octet, with Fripp rechristening the lineup the \"Three Over Five\" (or \"Five Over Three\") Formation. Later on, Rieflin shifted his group role and became King Crimson's first full-time keyboard player. On 2 June 2017, King Crimson released a new live EP namedHeroes, featuring a cover of theDavid Bowiesong of the same name. The EP was intended as a tribute to Bowie, for whom Fripp had provided distinctive guitar work on the albums\"Heroes\"(1977) andScary Monsters (and Super Creeps)(1980).The video to King Crimson's version of \"Heroes\" won \"Video of the Year\" at the 2017Progressive Music Awards.Shortly afterwards, King Crimson embarked on a United States tour beginning on 11 June and ending on 26 November.On 3 September,",
"3 September, Robert Fripp said that his differences with Adrian Belew had been resolved and that there were \"no current plans for (him) to come out with the current formation\" but \"the doors to the future are open.\" Belew confirmed this, adding \"it means I may be back in the band in the future at some point.\" On 14 October 2017, King Crimson released another contemporary live album,Live in Chicago, recorded on tour in June of the same year. As had been the case with its two predecessors, it included new music in the absence of a new studio album (in this case \"Bellscape & Orchestral Werning\", \"The Errors\" and \"Interlude\"). It also documented the return to the live set of material from the long-neglected 1970 albumLizard(in the form of the full \"Lizard Suite\" from the second side), as well as another live version of \"'Heroes'\" and a radically different version of the Belew-era song \"Indiscipline\". On 13 October 2017, it was announced that Bill Rieflin would be unable to join the Three Over Five Formation on",
"Five Formation on the 2017 Autumn tour in the U.S. He was temporarily replaced by Seattle-basedCrafty GuitaristChris Gibson.During 2018, King Crimson performed the extensive 33-date Uncertain Times tour through the UK and Europe between 13 June and 16 November. Although the band continued their \"no new studio album\" policy, April 2018 saw the full release of another live album,Live in Vienna, compiling concert recordings from Vienna in 2016 and from Tokyo in 2015. Although the only new band piece on this occasion was the brief drum trio \"Fairy Dust of the Drumsons\", the set also included three pieces drawn from improvised Fripp/Collins/Levin introduction music and merged with Fripp soundscape music: these pieces were arranged and realised by David Singleton, reflecting similar work he'd performed forTHRaKaTTaKtwenty years earlier.On 20 October 2018, a further live album was released,Meltdown: Live in Mexico City, recorded during dates in July 2017: additions to the setlist on this album included another new",
"another new drum piece (\"CatalytiKc No. 9\"), the readmission of another Belew-era song (\"Neurotica), \"Breathless\" (from Fripp's 1979 solo albumExposure), a group jam and assorted solo member \"cadenzas\". On 6 April 2019, it was announced at a press conference that Rieflin would take another break from King Crimson to attend to family matters, his place on keyboards for the 2019 50th anniversary tour taken byTheo Travis, better known as a saxophonist,Soft Machinemember and occasional duo collaborator with Robert Fripp.Although Travis joined the band for rehearsals, Fripp said on 2 May that the band had decided that it was no longer possible to have other musicians deputising for Rieflin and for this reason were \"proceed(ing) as a Seven-Headed Beast\" without Travis.Rieflin's parts were divided among other band members, with Fripp, Stacey, Jakszyk and Collins adding keyboards to their on-stage rigs, and Levin once again using the synthesizer he used during the '80s tours.Soon after on 11 June, King Crimson's",
"King Crimson's entire discography was made available to stream online on all the major streaming platforms, as part of the band's 50th anniversary celebration. On 24 March 2020, Bill Rieflin died of cancer.In the same year, two other former members also passed away,Keith Tippettafter several years of illness on 14 June,andGordon Haskellfrom lung cancer on 15 October. King Crimson toured North America and then Japan in 2021.Recordings from dates on the American leg of the tour were released as the \"official bootleg\" live albumMusic Is Our Friend: Live in Washington and Albany, featuring music from across the band's lifetime plus two new Tony Levin cadenzas. 2022:In the Court of the Crimson Kingdocumentary and end of band activity Following the 2021 tour dates, King Crimson ceased activity, although without expressly announcing a breakup. Reasons cited were practical ones involving the old age of several of the members plus the rising cost of services duringthe pandemic, with no band intentions for any more",
"for any more tours. In August 2021, Jakszyk referred to the existence of \"about forty to fifty minutes' worth of new (King Crimson) stuff, a number of songs I've co-written with Robert and some instrumental things he's written. During the lockdown Gavin suggested, 'Why don't we record these things so we've at least got studio recordings of this material?' That doesn't mean we're going to make a new album or it's ever gonna come out, but we have started this process.\"Versions of two Fripp/Jakszyk songs originally intended for King Crimson (\"Uncertain Times\" and \"Separation\") had already emerged on Jakszyk's 2020 solo albumSecrets and Lies, with participation from Fripp, Harrison, Levin and Collins. On 9 February 2022, founding King Crimson memberIan McDonalddied of cancer. In March 2022, the documentary filmIn the Court of the Crimson Kingwas premiered at the 2022 SXSW Film Festival. Directed byToby Amiesand filmed between 2019 and 2021, it covered live and backstage activity by the then-current band but also",
"band but also featured a historical overview plus contributions from Crimson alumni Ian McDonald, Michael Giles, Bill Bruford, Adrian Belew and Trey Gunn (as well as prolonged interview footage with the late Bill Rieflin). Amies described the film's development as follows: “What began as a traditional documentary about the legendary band King Crimson as it turned fifty, mutated into an exploration of time, death, family, and the transcendent power of music to change lives; but with jokes.” As of 2022, with the exception of archive/curatorial matters, King Crimson have ceased activity altogether, with no plans for the future.Levin said in a late 2022 interview that, \"the sense I got from Robert was that it's over. Maybe King Crimson will speak to him in the future in some way, and will revive its head with who-knows-what line up?\" At a post-screening Q&A session forIn the Court of the Crimson King, Fripp referred to the seven-member 2021 lineup of King Crimson as \"the final incarnation\" of the band. Asked if",
"the band. Asked if there could ever be a lineup that did not include him, he disagreed, stating \"I see the whole. I see the music. I see the musicians. I see the audience and I see the music industry and you have to engage with all of that to have the overview. So that's the quick answer.\" Musical style King Crimson have been described musically asprogressive rock,art rock,andpost-progressive,with their earlier works being described asproto-prog.Their music was initially grounded in the rock of the 1960s, especially theacid rockandpsychedelic rockmovements. The band playedDonovan's \"Get Thy Bearings\" in concert,and were known to playthe Beatles' \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" in their rehearsals.However, for their own compositions, King Crimson (unlike the rock bands that had come before them) largely stripped away theblues-based foundations of rock music and replaced them with influences derived from classical composers. The first incarnation of King Crimson played theMarssection ofGustav Holst's suiteThe",
"Holst's suiteThe Planetslive and later the band usedMarsas a foundation for the song \"Devil's Triangle\".As a result of this influence,In the Court of the Crimson Kingis frequently viewed as the nominal starting point of the progressive rock movements.King Crimson also initially displayed strongjazzinfluences, most obviously on its signature track \"21st Century Schizoid Man\".The band also drew on Englishfolk musicfor compositions such as \"Moonchild\"and \"I Talk to the Wind.\"In the 1972 lineup, Fripp's intention was to combine the music ofJimi Hendrix,Igor StravinskyandBéla Bartók. The 1981 reunion of the band brought in even more elements, displaying the influence of funk, post-punk, new wave,gamelanmusic and late 20th century classical composers such asPhilip Glass,Steve Reich, andTerry Riley.For its 1994 reunion, King Crimson reassessed both the mid-1970s and 1980s approaches in the light of new technology, intervening music forms such aselectronica,drum'n'bassandtechno;and further developments inindustrial",
"inindustrial music, as well as expanding the band's ambient textural content via Fripp's Soundscapes looping approach. The 2013 version of the band returned, for the most part, to the band's 1960s and 1970s influences and repertoire but addressed them via current technology and rearrangements suited to a larger ensemble of more experienced musicians, while also incorporating the New Standard Tuning used by Fripp since 1984. Compositional approaches Several King Crimson compositional approaches remained constant throughout the band's lifetime. These included: Improvisation \"We're so different from each other that one night someone in the band will play something that the rest of us have never heard before and you just have to listen for a second. Then you react to his statement, usually in a different way than they would expect. It's the improvisation that makes the group amazing for me. You know, taking chances. There is no format really in which we fall into. We discover things while improvising and if",
"improvising and if they're really basically good ideas we try and work them in as new numbers, all the while keeping the improvisation thing alive and continually expanding.\" —King Crimson violinist David Cross on the mid-1970s band's approach to improvisation. King Crimson incorporated improvisation into their performances and studio recordings from the beginning, some of which was embedded into pieces such as \"Moonchild\", \"Providence\", \"Requiem\" and \"No Warning\",including passages of restrained silence, as with Bill Bruford's contribution to the improvised \"Trio\".Rather than using the standard jazz or rock \"jamming\" format for improvisation (in which one soloist at a time takes centre stage while the rest of the band lies back and plays along with established rhythm and chord changes), King Crimson improvisation consisted of musicians collectively making creative decisions and contributions as the music is being played. Individual soloing was largely eschewed; each musician was to listen to each other and",
"to each other and to the group sound, to be able to react creatively within the group dynamic. Fripp has used the metaphor of \"magic\" to describe this process, in particular when the method works particularly well. Similarly, King Crimson's improvised music was varied in sound and the band has been able to release several box sets and albums consisting mostly or entirely of improvised music,such as theTHRaKaTTaKalbum,and the band's series ofProjeKcts.Occasionally, particular improvised pieces were recalled and reworked in different forms at different shows, becoming more and more refined and eventually appearing on official studio releases. Influence and legacy King Crimson have been influential both on the early 1970s progressive rock movement and numerous contemporary artists.GenesisandYeswere directly influenced by the band's usage of the mellotron,and many King Crimson band members were involved in other notable bands: Bruford inYes; Lake inEmerson, Lake & Palmer; McDonald inForeigner; Burrell inBad",
"Burrell inBad Company, and Wetton inU.K.andAsia. Canadian rock bandRush's drummerNeil Peartcredited the adventurous and innovative style ofMichael Gilesas an influence on his own approach to percussion. King Crimson's influence extends to many bands from diverse genres, especially of the 1990s and 2000s.Kurt Cobain, the frontman of the grunge bandNirvana, had stated that the albumRedhad a major influence on the sound of their final studio albumIn Utero.Toolare known to be heavily influenced by King Crimson,with vocalistMaynard James Keenanjoking on a tour with them: \"Now you know who we ripped off. Just don't tell anyone, especially the members of King Crimson.\"Modern progressive, experimental, psychedelic andindie rockbands have cited them as an influence as well, includingMGMT,the Mars Volta,Primus,Mystery Jets,Fanfarlo,Phish,andAnekdoten, who first practiced together playing King Crimson songs.Steven Wilson, the leader ofPorcupine Tree, was responsible for remixing King Crimson's back catalogue in",
"back catalogue in surround sound and said that the process had an enormous influence on his solo albums,and his band was influenced by King Crimson.In November 2012the Flaming Lipsin collaboration withStardeath and White Dwarfsreleased a track-by-track reinterpretation ofIn the Court of the Crimson KingentitledPlaying Hide and Seek with the Ghosts of Dawn.Colin Newman, ofWire, said he saw King Crimson perform many times, and that they influenced him deeply.The seminalhardcore punkgroupBlack Flagacknowledge Wetton-era King Crimson as an influence on their experimental period in the mid-1980s.Melvin Gibbssaid that theRollins Bandwas influenced most by King Crimson, using similar chords.Bad Religioncites the lyrics of \"21st Century Schizoid Man\" on their single \"21st Century (Digital Boy)\" and the name of their record label,Epitaph(founded by their guitaristBrett Gurewitz), comes fromthe song of the same nameon Crimson's debut album.Living ColourguitaristVernon ReidconsideredRobert Frippas one of his guitar",
"one of his guitar influences. King Crimson have frequently been cited as pioneers ofprogressive metaland as an influence on bands of this genre, includingDream Theater,Opeth,Mastodon,Between the Buried and Me,Leprous,Haken,the Ocean,Caligula's Horse,Last Chance to Reason,andIndukti.Members of metal bandsMudvayne,Voivod,Enslaved,Yob,Pyrrhon,andPallbearerhave cited King Crimson as an influence. Heavy experimental and avant-garde acts likethe Dillinger Escape Plan,Neurosis,Zeni Geva,Ancestors,andOranssi Pazuzuall cite King Crimson's influence. Other artists affected by King Crimson include video game composerNobuo Uematsu,noise musicartist Masami Akita ofMerzbow,jazz guitaristDennis ReaofLand,folktronicaexponentJuana Molina,hip hop producerRJD2,hip hop and soul composerAdrian Younge,film directorHal Hartley,and folk-pop singerIan Kelly. Golden Wind, the fifth part of the Japanese manga and anime franchiseJoJo's Bizarre Adventure, has its main antagonist, Diavolo, possess a Stand known as King Crimson. Related",
"Crimson. Related legacy/cover bands featuring former King Crimson members Since the early 2000s, several bands containing former, recent or current King Crimson members have toured and recorded, performing King Crimson music. Active between 2002 and 2005, the21st Century Schizoid Bandreunited several former King Crimson members who had played on the band's first four albums. The band featuredIan McDonald,Mel Collins,Peter GilesandMichael Giles(the latter subsequently replaced byIan Wallace),and was fronted byJakko Jakszyk, a decade prior to his own recruitment into King Crimson. The band engaged in several tours, played material from King Crimson's '60s and '70s catalogue, and recorded several live albums. The band disbanded upon Wallace's death in 2007. Since 2007, Tony Levin has led the trioStick Men, which also features Pat Mastelotto. The band was initially completed by Chapman Stick player Michael Bernier, replaced in 2010 by touch guitarist and former Fripp studentMarkus Reuter.This band includes (and",
"band includes (and reinterprets) King Crimson compositions in their live sets.Reuter and Mastelotto also play together as a duo (previously called \"Tuner\"), within which they have been known to rework the mid-1980s King Crimson instrumental \"Industry\" live. Starting in 2023, Reuter, Mastelotto andTrey Gunnrevived the moniker \"Tuner\" (re-styled as \"Tu-ner\") to perform music from the Double Duo era of King Crimson, plus material from each of their respective solo and combined careers. Between 2011 and 2014, Stick Men and Adrian Belew's Power Trio band (Belew plus drummer Tobias Ralph and bass playerJulie Slick)joined forces to play and tour asThe Crimson ProjeKCt, covering the music made during the '80s and '90s.Following the return of King Crimson in 2014, the Crimson ProjeKct name has been formally abandoned, but the Stick Men and the Power Trio have still performed together from time to time, usually under names like \"Belew, Levin, Mastelotto and friends\". During his solo career, including performances with",
"performances with the Power Trio, Adrian Belew has performed various versions of King Crimson songs. In March 2024, a new group performing the 1980s King Crimson repertoire was announced featuring former membersAdrian BelewandTony Levinalong with guitaristSteve Vaiand drummerDanny Carey. Fripp and Bruford both declined offers to join but gave their well wishes to the group. Fripp also aided them in naming the project. The band is named \"Beat\" after the 1982 album of the same name. Members Final lineup Former members Discography Citations General references External links",
"Robert Fripp Robert Fripp(born 16 May 1946) is an English musician, songwriter, record producer, and author, best known as the guitarist, founder and longest-lasting member of theprogressive rockbandKing Crimson.He has worked extensively as a session musician and collaborator, notably withDavid Bowie,Blondie,Brian Eno,Peter Gabriel,Daryl Hall,the Roches,Talking Heads, andDavid Sylvian. He also composed the startup sound ofWindows Vista, in collaboration withTucker Martineand Steve Ball.His discographyincludes contributions to more than 700 official releases. His compositions often feature unusualasymmetric rhythms, influenced by classical and folk traditions. His innovations include atape delaysystem known as \"Frippertronics\" (superseded in the 1990s by a more sophisticated digitally-based system called \"Soundscapes\") and aNew Standard Tuningsystem for guitar. Fripp is married to English singerToyah Willcox. Early life Robert Fripp was born inWimborne Minster,Dorset, England,the second child of a",
"second child of a working-class family. His mother Edith (néeGreene; 1914–1993) was from aWelshmining family; Fripp considers himself to be half Welsh.Her earnings from working at the Bournemouth Records Office allowed his father, Arthur Henry Fripp (1910–1985) to start a business as anestate agent.In 1957, at age eleven, Fripp received a guitar for Christmas from his parents and recalled, \"Almost immediately I knew that this guitar was going to be my life\".He then took guitar lessons from Kathleen Gartell and Don Strike;Elvis Presley's guitaristScotty Mooreinspired Fripp to play rock and roll,moving on to traditional jazz at thirteen and modern jazz at fifteen. Fripp has cited jazz musiciansCharlie ParkerandCharles Mingusas musical influences during this time. In 1961, the fifteen-year-old Fripp joined his first band, the Ravens, which also includedGordon Haskellon bass. After they split in the following year, Fripp concentrated on his O-level studies and joined his father's firm as a junior negotiator. At",
"negotiator. At this point, he intended to studyestate managementand, eventually, take over his father's business.However, at seventeen, Fripp decided to become a professional musician. He became the guitarist in the jazz outfit The Douglas Ward Trio, playing in theChewton Glenhotel inNew Milton, followed by a stint in the rock and roll band The League of Gentlemen, which included two former Ravens members. In 1965, Fripp left the group to attendBournemouth College, where he studied economics, economic history, and political history for his A-levels.In February 1965, Fripp went to see theDuke EllingtonOrchestra, an experience which moved him deeply.He subsequently spent three further years playing light jazz in the Majestic Dance Orchestra at Bournemouth's Majestic Hotel (replacingAndy Summers, who had left for London withZoot Money). During this time, Fripp met musicians that he would collaborate with in his career, includingJohn Wetton,Richard Palmer-James, andGreg Lake.At age 21, going back home from",
"back home from college late at night, Fripp tuned on toRadio Luxembourg, where he heard the last moments ofthe Beatles' \"A Day in the Life\". \"Galvanized\" by the experience, he went on to listen to the Beatles' 1967 albumSgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band,Béla Bartók'sstring quartets,Antonín Dvořák'sNew World Symphony,Jimi Hendrix'sAre You ExperiencedandJohn Mayall & the Bluesbreakers. Many years later, Fripp would recall that \"although all the dialects are different, the voice was the same... I knew I couldn't say no\".As a band leader, Fripp pointed out thatMiles Davisand Duke Ellington inspired him to seek \"constant change\". Career 1967–1974: Giles, Giles and Fripp and King Crimson In 1967, Fripp responded to an advertisement placed by Bournemouth-born brothersPeterandMichael Giles, who wanted to work with a singing organist.Though Fripp was not what they sought, his audition with them was a success and the trio relocated to London and becameGiles, Giles and Fripp. Their only studio album,The Cheerful",
"album,The Cheerful Insanity of Giles, Giles and Fripp, was released in 1968.Despite the recruitment of two further members – singerJudy Dyble(formerly withFairport Conventionand later ofTrader Horne) and multi-instrumentalistIan McDonald– Fripp felt that he was outgrowing the eccentric pop approach favoured by Peter Giles, preferring the more ambitious compositions being written by McDonald, and the band broke up in 1968. Almost immediately, Fripp, McDonald and Michael Giles formed the first lineup of King Crimson in mid-1968, recruiting Fripp's old Bournemouth College friendGreg Lakeas lead singer and bassist and McDonald's writing partnerPeter Sinfieldas lyricist, light show designer and general creative consultant. King Crimson's debut album,In the Court of the Crimson King, was released in late 1969 to great success: drawing on rock, jazz and European folk/classical music ideas, it is now regarded as one of the most influential albums in the history ofprogressive rock.The band was tipped for stardom,",
"tipped for stardom, but, due to growing musical differences between Fripp on one side and Giles and McDonald on the other, broke up after its first American tour in 1970. A despondent Fripp offered to leave if it would allow King Crimson to survive; however, Giles and McDonald had independently decided that the band's music was \"more Fripp's than theirs\" and that it would be better if they were the ones to leave. During the recording of the band's second albumIn the Wake of Poseidon, Greg Lake departed to formEmerson, Lake and PalmerwithKeith Emersonofthe NiceandCarl PalmerofAtomic Rooster. King Crimson issued two more albums,LizardandIslands,with Fripp and Sinfield the only constants in a regularly changing lineup variously including Gordon Haskell, woodwind playerMel Collins, drummersAndy McCullochandIan Wallaceand futureBad CompanybassistBoz Burrell, in addition to a palette of guest players. Fripp was listed as the sole composer of the band's music during this time, which built on the first album's",
"the first album's blueprint but progressed further intojazz-rockandfree jazzwhile also taking form from Sinfield's esoteric lyrical and mythological concepts. In 1971, Fripp ousted Sinfield and took overde factoleadership of King Crimson (although he has always formally rejected the label, preferring to describe his role as \"quality control\" or \"a kind of glue\"). From this point onwards, Fripp would be the only constant member of the band, which in turn would be defined primarily by his compositional and conceptual ideas. With avant-garde percussionistJamie Muir, violinistDavid Cross, formerFamilybassist and singerJohn Wettonand formerYesdrummerBill Brufordnow in the ranks, King Crimson produced three more albums of innovative and increasinglyexperimental rock, shedding members as they progressed: beginning withLarks' Tongues in Aspic, progressing withStarless and Bible Blackafter Muir's departure and culminating inRedafter Cross was fired. Fripp formally disbanded the group in 1974, in what eventually",
"in what eventually turned out to be merely the first in a regular series of long hiatuses and further transformations. 1974–1981: Collaborations, side projects, and solo career Fripp pursued side projects during King Crimson's less active periods. He worked withKeith Tippett(and others who appeared on King Crimson records) on projects far from rock music, playing with and producingCentipede'sSeptober Energyin 1971 andOvary Lodgein 1973. During this period he also worked withVan der Graaf Generator, playing on their albumsH to He, Who Am the Only OneandPawn Hearts. He producedMatching Mole'sMatching Mole's Little Red Recordin 1972.Prior to forming theLarks-era KC, he collaborated on a spoken-word album with a woman he described as \"a witch\", but the resultingRobert Fripp & Walli Elmlark: The Cosmic Children of Rockwas never officially released. WithBrian Eno, Fripp recorded(No Pussyfooting)in 1972, andEvening Starin 1974. These experimented with several avant-garde musical techniques that were new to rock. On",
"new to rock. On \"The Heavenly Music Corporation\" from No Pussyfooting, Fripp used adelaysystem using two modifiedRevoxA77 reel-to-reel tape machines. The technique went on to play a central role in Fripp's later work, and became known as \"Frippertronics\". In 1973, Fripp performed the guitar solo on \"Baby's on Fire\" from Eno's solo albumHere Come the Warm Jets. In 1975, Fripp and Eno played live shows in Europe, and Fripp also contributed guitar solos to Eno's 1975 albumAnother Green World. Fripp started what was intended as a permanent sabbatical from his musical career in 1975, during which he studied atJ. G. Bennett's International Academy for Continuous Education, becoming interested in the mystical and philosophical ideas of Bennett's teacherGeorge Gurdjieff. He returned to musical work the following year as a session guitarist onPeter Gabriel'sdebut solo album, released in 1977. Fripp toured with Gabriel to support the album, but used the pseudonym \"Dusty Rhodes\" and concealed himself on stage. Fripp",
"on stage. Fripp also produced and played on Gabriel'ssecond albumin 1978. \"Robert is particularly skilful at keeping things fresh, and I like that a lot,\" Gabriel enthused. \"I was very interested in Robert's experimental side; that corresponded exactly to what I wanted to do on this second record… There are two(Fripp)solos: one on 'On the Air' and the other on 'White Shadow'. And then he plays on 'Exposure'. He gives the colour to this piece, being fifty per cent responsible for its construction. And he also plays classical guitar here and there. He's a musician I admire a lot, because he's one of the only ones to mix discipline and madness with so much talent.\" In 1977, Fripp played onDavid Bowie's album\"Heroes\"at Eno's invitation. Fripp soon collaborated withDaryl HallonSacred Songs. During this period, Fripp began working on solo material, with contributions from poet/lyricist Joanna Walton and several other musicians, including Eno, Gabriel, and Hall (including the latter's partner, John Oates), as well",
"Oates), as well asPeter Hammill,Jerry Marotta,Phil Collins,Tony LevinandTerre Roche. This material eventually became his first solo album,Exposure, released in 1979, followed by theFrippertronicstour in the same year. While living in New York, Fripp contributed to albums and live performances byBlondie(Parallel Lines) andTalking Heads(Fear of Music), and producedThe Roches' first and third albums, which featured several of Fripp's characteristic guitar solos. A second set of sessions with Bowie producedScary Monsters (and Super Creeps), and he collaborated with Gabriel again onhis third solo album. With Blondie, Fripp appeared live on stage at the Hammersmith Odeon on 12 January 1980, participating in a cover version of Bowie's\"'Heroes'\". In 1980, Fripp would releaseGod Save the Queen/Under Heavy Manners,a project that saw two different musical approaches to Frippertronics on one LP. The \"A\" side of the record, titled \"God Save the Queen\" attempted what Fripp referred to as \"pure Frippertronics\" which is",
"which is \"where Frippertronics is used alone.\"The \"B\" side of the record, titled \"Under Heavy Manners\" featured a collaboration with bassistBusta Jones, drummer Paul Duskin, andDavid Byrneof Talking Heads (as Absalm el Habib).The sounds of this side of the record featured what Fripp called \"Discotronics\" which was defined as \"that musical experience resulting at the interstice of Frippertronics and disco.\" Concurrent to this, Fripp would assemble what he called a \"second-division touring new wave instrumental dance band\"under the nameLeague of Gentlemen, with bassistSara Lee, keyboardistBarry Andrewsand drummerJohnny Elichaoff(credited as \"Johnny Toobad\"). Elichaoff was later replaced by Kevin Wilkinson. The LOG toured for the duration of 1980. In 1985 he produced the albumJourney to Inaccessible Placesby classical pianistElan Sicroff, released on theEditions E.G.label. 1981–1984: Reforming King Crimson 1981 saw the formation of a new King Crimson lineup, reuniting Fripp with Bruford and opening a new",
"and opening a new partnership with two American musicians: bassist/Chapman StickplayerTony Levin(who had played with Fripp onExposureand in the first Peter Gabriel touring band) andAdrian Belew, a singer and guitarist who had previously played with Bowie, Talking Heads andFrank Zappa. Although the band had been conceptualised under the name Discipline, it came to Fripp's attention that the other members thought the name King Crimson was more appropriate: for Fripp, King Crimson had always been \"a way of doing things\" rather than a particular group of musicians. With the more pop-inspired Belew as main songwriter (complementing Fripp as main instrumental composer) the band took on a new style incorporating influences from Indonesiangamelan,new wave, andclassical minimalism,with both guitarists experimenting extensively with guitar synthesizers.After releasing three albums (Discipline,BeatandThree of a Perfect Pair), Fripp dissolved the band in 1984. During this period Fripp made two albums withAndy",
"two albums withAndy SummersofThe Police. OnI Advance Masked, Fripp and Summers played all the instruments.Bewitchedwas dominated more by Summers, who produced the record and collaborated with other musicians in addition to Fripp. In 1982 Fripp produced and played guitar onKeep On Doingby the Roches.Village Voicerock criticRobert Christgauwrote that the album \"sounds so good I'm beginning to believe Robert Fripp was put on earth to produce the Roches.\" Guitar Craft Fripp was offered a teaching position at the American Society for Continuous Education (ASCE) at Claymont Court inCharles Town, West Virginiain 1984. He had been involved with the ASCE since 1978, eventually serving on its board of directors, and had long been considering the idea of teaching guitar through ideas derived from Bennett and Gurdjieff. His course, Guitar Craft, was begun in 1985, an offshoot of which was a performance group, \"the League of Crafty Guitarists\", which has released several albums. In 1986, he released the first of two",
"the first of two collaborations with his wife,Toyah Willcox. The members of theCalifornia Guitar Trioare former members of The League of Crafty Guitarists and have also toured with King Crimson. Fripp is the patron of theGuitar Circle of Europe, which was founded in 2007,and of theSeattle Circle Guitar School, which was founded in 2010. In February 2009, Fripp recommended that Guitar Craft cease to exist on its 25th anniversary in 2010. On 1 September 2022 Fripp publishedThe Guitar Circle, a book of writings concerning Guitar Craft. Soundscapes Fripp returned to recording solo in 1994, using an updated version of the Frippertronics technique that creates loops employing digital technology instead of analogue tapes. Fripp has released a number of records that he called \"soundscapes\", including1999,Radiophonics,A Blessing of Tears,That Which Passes,November Suite,The Gates of Paradise,Love Cannot BearandAt the End of Time, as well as numerous download-only live recordings. (The samplerPie Jesuconsists of",
"Jesuconsists of material compiled fromA Blessing of TearsandThe Gates of Paradise.) 1990s collaborations with David Sylvian and others Fripp's collaborations withDavid Sylvianfeature some of his most exuberant guitar playing. Fripp contributed to Sylvian's twenty-minute track \"Steel Cathedrals\" from hisAlchemy: An Index of Possibilitiesalbum of 1985. Then Fripp performed on several tracks from Sylvian's 1986 release,Gone to Earth. In late 1991, Fripp had asked Sylvian to join a re-forming King Crimson as a vocalist.Sylvian declined the invitation, but proposed a possible collaboration between the two that would eventually become a tour of Japan and Italy in the spring of 1992. Also in 1991, Fripp released an album with the project Sunday All Over The World, also featuring his wife Toyah Willcox, former League of Crafty Guitarists member Trey Gunn on Chapman Stick, and drummer Paul Beavis. The prior name of this band was Fripp Fripp, and they toured as such in 1988. They renamed to SAOTW, and toured again as",
"and toured again as SAOTW, in 1989. In July 1993, Sylvian and Fripp released the collaborative effortThe First Day. Other contributors were soon-to-be King Crimson memberTrey GunnonChapman Stickand Jerry Marotta (who, like Sylvian, almost became a member of King Crimson) on drums. When the group toured to promote the CD, future King Crimson memberPat Mastelottotook over the drumming spot. The live documentDamagewas released in 1994, as was the joint venture,Redemption – Approaching Silence, which featured Sylvian's ambient sound sculptures (Approaching Silence) accompanying Fripp reading his own text (Redemption). During the early and mid-1990s Fripp contributed guitar/soundscapes toLifeforms(1994) bythe Future Sound of LondonandCydonia(released 2001) bythe Orb, as well asFFWD, a collaborative effort with the latter's members. In addition, Fripp worked with Brian Eno co-writing and supplying guitar to two tracks for a CD-ROM project released in 1994 entitledHeadcandycreated by Chris Juul and Doug Jipson. Eno",
"Doug Jipson. Eno thought the visual aspects of the disc (video feedback effects) were very disappointing upon completion, and regretted participation. During this period, Fripp also contributed to albums byNo-Manandthe Beloved(1994'sFlowermouthand 1996'sX, respectively). He also contributed soundscapes and guitar to two albums by the UK bandIona: 1993'sBeyond These Shoresand 1996'sJourney into the Morn. 1994–2010: King Crimson redux In late 1994, Fripp re-formed the 1981 line-up of King Crimson for its fifth incarnation, adding Trey Gunn and drummer Pat Mastelotto in a configuration known as a \"double trio\". This line-up released theVROOOMEP in 1994 and theTHRAKalbum the following year. Though musically (and relatively commercially) successful, the double-trio King Crimson proved difficult to sustain in the long-term. From 1997 to 1999, the band \"fraKctalised\" into five experimental instrumental sub-groups known asProjeKcts. By 1998 Bruford had quit the band altogether: in 2000, Fripp, Belew, Gunn and",
"Belew, Gunn and Mastelotto reunited as a four-piece King Crimson. This lineup produced twoindustrial metal-influenced studio albums,the construKction of lightin 2000 andThe Power to Believe. Gunn departed at the end of 2003. Although Levin immediately returned to the band, another hiatus followed until King Crimson reappeared in 2007 with the addition ofPorcupine TreedrummerGavin Harrison. This version of the band toured the eastern United States in 2008, reassessing the 1981-2003 back catalogue and introducing lengthy duets between the two drummers. No new original material was recorded, and in 2010, Fripp announced that King Crimson were on another indefinite hiatus. Recent work: G3, Porcupine Tree, Slow Music, Theo Travis, the Humans, Jakko Jakszyk, Others In 2004, Fripp toured withJoe SatrianiandSteve Vaias part of theirG3series. He also worked atMicrosoft's studios to record the startup sound forWindows Vista. Fripp designed the soundscape and composed the melody, whileTucker Martinecreated the rhythm",
"the rhythm and Microsoft's Steve Ball added the harmonies and created the final arrangement. this interesting factoid: in addition to 200 million Vista users with the 4 note splash, an extract from the Soundscapes' Vista sessions is estimated to strike up 91% of 32 trillion times on the new MS Mail programme this year. So, one of the planet's least popular music forms will also be the planet's most sounded in 2008. This has to be some kind of a record. Fripp's online diary at dgmlive.com In late 2005 and early 2006, Fripp joinedR.E.M./Nine Inch NailsdrummerBill Rieflin's improvisational Slow Music project, along with R.E.M. guitaristPeter Buck, bassistFred Chalenor, session drummerMatt ChamberlainandHector Zazouon electronics. This collective of musicians toured the west coast of America in May 2006. In 2006 Fripp contributed his composition \"At The End Of Time\" to the Artists for Charity albumGuitarists 4 the Kids, produced by Slang Productions, to assistWorld Vision Canadain helping underprivileged",
"underprivileged children.Throughout 2006, Fripp performed many solo concerts of soundscapes in intimate settings in churches around England and Estonia.In October 2006, ProjeKct Six (Fripp and Adrian Belew) played at select venues on the east coast of the U.S.,opening for Porcupine Tree. In the same year, Fripp contributed to two songs fromPorcupine Tree'sFear of a Blank Planet(\"Way Out of Here\" and \"Nil Recurring\"). Fripp also sporadically performed as an opening act for Porcupine Tree on various tours from 2006 through 2009. In 2008, Fripp collaborated withTheo Travison an album of guitar and flute-or-saxophone duets called 'Thread', and the duo played a brief English tour in 2009 (repeating the collaboration with theFollowalbum in 2012). Also in 2009, Fripp played a concert with the bandthe Humans(which consists of his wifeToyah Willcox,Bill Rieflinand Chris Wong), appeared onJudy Dyble'sTalking With Strangers(along with Pat Mastelotto and others) and played on two tracks onJakko Jakszyk's albumThe",
"Jakszyk's albumThe Bruised Romantic Glee Club. In 2010, Fripp contributed a guitar solo to an extended version of the song 'Heathen Child' byGrinderman, released as a B-side on the 'Super Heathen Child' single. In 2021, the ambient/electronica album Leviathan was released. Fripp produced it and played guitar, in collaboration with BritishEDMDuoThe Grid. A Scarcity of Miracles, musical 'retirement' and new lineup of King Crimson In May 2011, Jakko Jakszyk, Robert Fripp and Mel Collins releasedA Scarcity of Miracles: A King Crimson ProjeKcton the Panegyric label. The album also featured contributions by Tony Levin and Gavin Harrison, leading to speculation that the project was a dry run for a new King Crimson lineup. In an interview published 3 August 2012, Fripp stated that he had retired from working as a professional musician, citing long-standing differences withUniversal Music Groupand stating that working within the music industry had become \"a joyless exercise in futility\".This retirement proved to be",
"proved to be short-lived, only lasting as long as it took to come to a settlement with UMG. In his online diary entry for 6 September 2013, Fripp announced the return of King Crimson as a seven-piece unit with \"four Englishmen and three Americans\". The new lineup was Fripp, Levin, both Mastelotto and Harrison on drums, returning 1970s band member Mel Collins and two new members: Jakko Jakszyk as singer and second guitarist, and Bill Rieflin as a third drummer.This version of the band went on tour in 2014 and 2015 with a setlist reworking and reconfiguring the band's 1960s and 1970s material (plus songs fromA Scarcity of Miraclesand new compositions). In early 2016, it was announced that formerLemon Trees/Noel Gallagherdrummer Jeremy Stacey would substitute for Rieflin on that year's tour while the latter was on sabbatical. King Crimson continued touring as a seven- or eight-piece unit with Stacey as a permanent member on drums and keyboards, plus Rieflin (when available) on keyboards and \"fairy dusting\"",
"and \"fairy dusting\" until 2021. Rieflin last played with Crimson in 2018; he died 24 March 2020. Equipment During the early years of King Crimson (1968–74), Fripp used twoGibson Les Paulguitars from 1957 and 1959. The '57 guitar featured three humbucker pick-ups (with one volume control on the pickguard controlling the middle pick-up). In the band's 1980s era, he favoured Roland GR-303 & GR-808 guitars for both straight guitar and synth control. In subsequent years, Fripp has used customized Les Paul-style guitars byTokai, 48th St Custom, andFernandes. A signature model named for the guitarist (Crimson Guitars Robert Fripp Signature)featuresFernandes Sustainerand MIDI pickups with a Les Paul-style body. A significant difference from the Gibson Les Paul is that the signature model is built using adeep set neck tenonrather than a traditional set neck. Fripp recommended that Guitar Craft students adopt theOvation1867 Legendsteel-string acoustic guitar.\"Fripp liked the way the Ovation 1867 fitted against his",
"fitted against his body, which made it possible for him to assume the right-arm picking position he had developed using electric guitars over the years; on deeper-bodied guitars, the Frippian arm position is impossible without uncomfortable contortions\", according to Tamm.While the 1867 Legend is no longer manufactured, it influenced the design of the Guitar Craft Pro Model of Guitar Craft Guitars, which has been endorsed by Fripp. Guitar technique Fripp began playing guitar at the age of eleven.When he started, he wastone deafand had no rhythmic sense, weaknesses which led him later to comment that \"Music so wishes to be heard that it sometimes calls on unlikely characters to give it voice.\"He was also naturally left-handed but opted to play the guitar right-handed. While being taught guitar basics by his teacher Don Strike,Fripp began to develop the technique ofcrosspicking, which became one of his specialities.Fripp teaches crosspicking to his students in Guitar Craft. In 1985, Fripp began using a tuning",
"using a tuning he called \"New Standard Tuning\"(C2-G2-D3-A3-E4-G4), which would also become popularised in Guitar Craft. Fripp's guitar technique, unlike most rock guitarists of his era, is not blues-based but rather influenced byavant-garde jazzandEuropean classical music. He combines rapidalternate pickingand crosspicking with motifs employingwhole-toneordiminishedpitch structures and extendedsixteenth-notepatterns inmoto perpetuo. Rather than stand when performing, he seats himself on a stool (unusual for a performer in rock music), and by doing so was called in a May 1974 issue ofGuitar Player\"the guitarist who sits on stage\". Personal life Fripp married singer and actressToyah Willcoxon 16 May 1986 inPoole.From December 1987 until July 1999 they lived at and renovatedReddish House, the former home ofCecil Beaton, in the village ofBroad Chalkein Wiltshire. Fripp previously lived at Thornhill Cottage, Holt, Dorset (1971–1980) and Fernhill House,Witchampton(1980–1987).After Reddish House, the couple lived",
"the couple lived atEvershotOld Mansion (1999–2001). They then moved to their present home inPershore, Worcestershire.The couple have no children and have arranged their will so as to leave their assets to the establishment of a musical educational trust for children. Fripp is the patron of the Seattle Circle Guitar School in the United States and the Shallal Dance Theatre inPenzance.He also has had engagements as amotivational speaker, often at events with his sister Patricia,who is akeynote speakerand speech coach. Alfie Fripp, the last of the \"39ers\", shot down by theLuftwaffeand then held in 12 different POW camps duringWorld War II, was his uncle. Fripp is apescetarian.Nevill Drurydetails inMusic for Inner Space: Techniques for Meditation & Visualisationthat Fripp was interested in theHermetic Qabalah,Wicca,German RenaissancephilosopherParacelus, andGeorge GurdjieffviaJ. G. Bennett. During theCOVID-19 lockdowns, Fripp and Willcox uploaded many short, humorous videos toYouTube,usually covers of well-known",
"of well-known songs, and mostly titledToyah and Robert's Sunday Lunch. According to rock and metal news websiteMetalSucks, their stories about these covers were extremely popular; their cover ofMetallica's \"Enter Sandman\" was the site's sixth-most popular story that year.The duo toured the UK in 2023, performing theSunday Lunchsongs in concert. Awards and honours Asteroid81947 Fripp, discovered byMarc BuieatCerro Tololoin 2000, was named in his honour.The officialnaming citationwas published by theMinor Planet Centeron 18 May 2019 (M.P.C.114955). Fripp is ranked 62nd onRolling Stonemagazine's 2011 list of the 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time, having been ranked 42nd byDavid Frickeon its 2003 list.Tied withAndrés Segovia, he is ranked 47th onGibson'sTop 50 guitarists of all time. Discipline Global Mobile In 1992, Fripp and producer/online content developer David Singleton co-foundedDiscipline Global Mobile(DGM) as anindependent music label. DGM releases music by Fripp, KC, related acts, and other artists",
"and other artists in CDs and in downloadable files. A 1998Billboardprofile stated that DGM had ten staff-members inSalisbury(England) and Los Angeles (USA). DGM has an aim \"to be a model of ethical business in an industry founded on exploitation, oiled by deceit, riven with theft and fueled by greed.\"DGM insists that its artists retain all copyrights; consequently, even DGM's \"knotwork\" corporate-logo(pictured above)is owned by its designer, Steve Ball;the \"knotwork\" logo appeared earlier on the cover of later versions of theDisciplinealbum. DGM's aims were called \"exemplary\" by BillMartin (1997), who wrote that \"Fripp has done something very important for the possibilities of experimental music\" in creating DGM, which \"has played a major role in creating favorable conditions for\" King Crimson. DGM publishes an on-line diary by Fripp, who often comments on performances and on relations with fans. A moderated forum allows fans to ask questions or to leave comments. Together, Fripp's diary and the fan forum",
"and the fan forum display delayed dialogs in which Fripp and fans discuss diary-entries and forum-postings. Copyright infringement complaints In 2009, Fripp released a statement claiming thatEMI& Sanctuary Universal had uploaded music to various music stores without his consent, stating \"NONE of these downloads were licensed, authorised or legitimised. that is, every single download of any KC track represents copyright violation. or, to use one syllable instead of seven, theft.\" In 2011, Fripp complained that the streaming serviceGroovesharkcontinued to stream his music despite his having delivered repeatedtakedown notices. Fripp and Grooveshark's correspondence was published byDigital Music Newsand in his diaries, which appear on the website of Discipline Global Mobile. Fripp's published exchange was included in a suit against Grooveshark byUniversal Music Group, which was filed in November 2011.UMG cited internal documents revealing that Grooveshark employees uploaded thousands of illegal copies of",
"illegal copies of UMG-owned recordings.Fripp had previous experience protecting his music in litigation with music companies. Fripp has stated that he believes \"Unauthorised streaming or MP3 giveaways - it amounts to the same thing - copyright theft.\" Discography Fripp has been extremely active as a recording musician and a producer. He has contributed to more than 700 official releases. The Robert Fripp Discography Summary, compiled by John Relph, also lists 120 compilations and 315 unauthorised releases (such asbootlegs). This means that more than 1100 releases (including both official and unofficial ones, as well as both studio and live recordings) can be found with Fripp participating. Studio releases are listed here. Giles, Giles & Fripp Solo Studio albums Live albums Brian Eno David Sylvian Andy Summers The League of Gentlemen The League of Crafty Guitarists Theo Travis Other recordings Collaborations Production See also Notes References Further reading External links Robert Fripp's official",
"Fripp's official website-robertfripp.com(2024) Discipline Global Mobile(DGM) -DGM Liveis a small, mobile, independent music company that aspires to Intelligence. Founded by Robert Fripp and David Singleton in 1992, its website is the home of all RF music, tour dates, diaries, news, as well as King Crimson’s, among other related artists, groups, and initiatives. Guitar Craft & The Guitar Circle-HomeRobert Fripp describes his work as Founder of Guitar Craft, and director of the associated seminars on four continents since 1985, as his ‘proper work in life’. The GC website is the online home of the living history of GC, news, GC Aphorisms, and RF writings, including new yet unpublished ones."
] |
How many years separate the birth of Alexander Graham Bell and the birth of Charles Dickens? | 35 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens"
] | [
"Alexander Graham Bell Alexander Graham Bell(/ˈɡreɪ.əm/, bornAlexander Bell; March 3, 1847 – August 2, 1922)was a Scottish-bornCanadian-Americaninventor, scientist, and engineer who is credited with patenting the first practicaltelephone. He also co-founded theAmerican Telephone and Telegraph Company(AT&T) in 1885. Bell's father, grandfather, and brother had all been associated with work onelocutionand speech, and both his mother and wife were deaf, profoundly influencing Bell's life's work.His research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices, which eventually culminated in his being awarded the firstU.S. patentfor the telephone, on March 7, 1876.Bell considered his invention an intrusion on his real work as a scientist and refused to have a telephone in his study. Many other inventions marked Bell's later life, including groundbreaking work inoptical telecommunications,hydrofoils, andaeronautics. Bell also had a strong influence on theNational Geographic Societyand itsmagazinewhile serving as its second president from 1898 to 1903. Beyond his work in engineering, Bell had a deep interest in the emerging science ofheredity.His work in this area has been called \"the soundest, and most useful study of human heredity proposed in nineteenth-century America... Bell's most notable contribution to basic science, as distinct from invention.\" Early life Bell was born inEdinburgh,Scotland, on March 3, 1847.The family home was at South Charlotte Street, and has a stone inscription marking it as Bell's birthplace. He had two brothers: Melville James Bell (1845–1870) and Edward Charles Bell (1848–1867), both of whom died oftuberculosis.His father wasAlexander Melville Bell, aphonetician, and his mother was Eliza Grace Bell (néeSymonds).Born as just \"Alexander Bell\", at age 10 he made a plea to his father to have a middle name like his two brothers.For his 11th birthday, his father acquiesced and allowed him to adopt the name \"Graham\", chosen out of respect for Alexander Graham, aCanadianbeing treated by his father who had become a family friend.To close relatives and friends he remained \"Aleck\".Bell and his siblings attended aPresbyterian Churchin their youth. First invention As a child, Bell displayed a curiosity about his world; he gathered botanical specimens and ran experiments at an early age. His best friend was Ben Herdman, a neighbor whose family operated a flour mill. At the age of 12, Bell built a homemade device that combined rotating paddles with sets of nail brushes, creating a simpledehuskingmachine that was put into operation at the mill and used steadily for a number of years.In return, Ben's father John Herdman gave both boys the run of a small workshop in which to \"invent\". From his early years, Bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art, poetry, and music that his mother encouraged. With no formal training, he mastered the piano and became the family's pianist.Though normally quiet and introspective, he reveled in mimicry and \"voice tricks\" akin toventriloquismthat entertained family guests.Bell was also deeply affected by his mother's gradual deafness (she began to lose her hearing when he was 12), and learned a manual finger language so he could sit at her side and tap out silently the conversations swirling around the family parlor.He also developed a technique of speaking in clear, modulated tones directly into his mother's forehead, whereby she would hear him with reasonable clarity.Bell's preoccupation with his mother's deafness led him to studyacoustics. His family was long associated with the teaching of elocution: his grandfather, Alexander Bell, in London, his uncle inDublin, and his father, in Edinburgh, were all elocutionists. His father published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are still well known, especiallyThe Standard Elocutionist(1860),which appeared in Edinburgh in 1868.The Standard Elocutionistappeared in 168 British editions and sold over 250,000 copies in the United States alone. It explains methods to instructdeaf-mutes(as they were then known) to articulate words and read other people's lip movements to decipher meaning. Bell's father taught him and his brothers not only to writeVisible Speechbut to identify any symbol and its accompanying sound.Bell became so proficient that he became a part of his father's public demonstrations and astounded audiences with his abilities. He could decipher Visible Speech representing virtually every language, includingLatin,Scottish Gaelic, and evenSanskrit, accurately reciting written tracts without any prior knowledge of their pronunciation. Education As a young child, Bell, like his brothers, was schooled at home by his father. At an early age, he was enrolled at theRoyal High School, Edinburgh; he left at age 15, having completed only the first four forms.His school record was undistinguished, marked by absenteeism and lackluster grades. His main interest remained in the sciences, especially biology, while he treated other school subjects with indifference, to his father's dismay.Upon leaving school, Bell traveled to London to live with his grandfather, Alexander Bell, onHarrington Square. During the year he spent with his grandfather, a love of learning was born, with long hours spent in serious discussion and study. The elder Bell took great efforts to have his young pupil learn to speak clearly and with conviction, attributes he would need to become a teacher himself.At age 16, Bell secured a position as a \"pupil-teacher\" ofelocutionand music at Weston House Academy inElgin, Moray, Scotland. Although enrolled as a student in Latin and Greek, he instructed classes himself in return for board and £10 per session.The next year, he attended theUniversity of Edinburgh, joining his brother Melville, who had enrolled there the previous year. In 1868, not long before he departed for Canada with his family, Bell completed his matriculation exams and was accepted for admission toUniversity College London. First experiments with sound Bell's father encouraged his interest in speech and, in 1863, took his sons to see a uniqueautomatondeveloped by SirCharles Wheatstonebased on the earlier work ofBaron Wolfgang von Kempelen.The rudimentary \"mechanical man\" simulated a human voice. Bell was fascinated by the machine, and after he obtained a copy of von Kempelen's book, published in German, and had laboriously translated it, he and Melville built their own automaton head. Their father, highly interested in their project, offered to pay for any supplies and spurred the boys on with the enticement of a \"big prize\" if they were successful.While his brother constructed the throat andlarynx, Bell tackled the more difficult task of recreating a realistic skull. His efforts resulted in a remarkably lifelike head that could \"speak\", albeit only a few words.The boys would carefully adjust the \"lips\" and when abellowsforced air through thewindpipe, a very recognizableMamaensued, to the delight of neighbors who came to see the invention. Intrigued by the results of the automaton, Bell continued to experiment with a live subject, the family'sSkye Terrier, Trouve.After he taught it to growl continuously, Bell would reach into its mouth and manipulate the dog's lips andvocal cordsto produce a crude-sounding \"Ow ah oo ga ma ma\". With little convincing, visitors believed his dog could articulate \"How are you, grandmama?\"Indicative of his playful nature, his experiments convinced onlookers that they saw a \"talking dog\".These initial forays into experimentation with sound led Bell to undertake his first serious work on the transmission of sound, usingtuning forksto exploreresonance. At age 19, Bell wrote a report on his work and sent it to philologistAlexander Ellis, a colleague of his father.Ellis immediately wrote back indicating that the experiments were similar to existing work in Germany, and also lent Bell a copy ofHermann von Helmholtz's work,The Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music. Dismayed to find that groundbreaking work had already been undertaken by Helmholtz, who had conveyed vowel sounds by means of a similar tuning fork \"contraption\", Bell pored over the book. Working from his own erroneous mistranslation of a French edition,Bell fortuitously then made a deduction that would underpin all his future work on transmitting sound, reporting: \"Without knowing much about the subject, it seemed to me that if vowel sounds could be produced by electrical means, so could consonants, so could articulate speech.\" He also later remarked: \"I thought that Helmholtz had done it ... and that my failure was due only to my ignorance of electricity. It was a valuable blunder ... If I had been able to read German in those days, I might never have commenced my experiments!\" Family tragedy In 1865, when the Bell family moved to London,Bell returned to Weston House as an assistant master and, in his spare hours, continued experiments on sound using a minimum of laboratory equipment. Bell concentrated on experimenting with electricity to convey sound and later installed atelegraphwire from his room in Somerset College to that of a friend.Throughout late 1867, his health faltered mainly through exhaustion. His brother Edward was similarly affected bytuberculosis. While Bell recovered (by then referring to himself in correspondence as \"A. G. Bell\") and served the next year as an instructor at Somerset College,Bath, England, his brother's condition deteriorated. Edward never recovered. Upon his brother's death, Bell returned home in 1867. Melville had married and moved out. With aspirations to obtain a degree atUniversity College London, Bell considered his next years preparation for the degree examinations, devoting his spare time to studying. Helping his father in Visible Speech demonstrations and lectures brought Bell to Susanna E. Hull's private school for the deaf inSouth Kensington, London. His first two pupils weredeaf-mutegirls who made remarkable progress under his tutelage. While Melville seemed to achieve success on many fronts, including opening his own elocution school, applying for a patent on an invention, and starting a family, Bell continued as a teacher. In May 1870, Melville died from complications of tuberculosis, causing a family crisis. His father had also experienced a debilitating illness earlier in life and been restored to health by convalescence inNewfoundland. Bell's parents embarked upon a long-planned move when they realized that their remaining son was also sickly. Acting decisively, Alexander Melville Bell asked Bell to arrange for the sale of all the family property,conclude all his brother's affairs (Bell took on his last student, curing a pronounced lisp),and join his father and mother in setting out for the \"New World\". Reluctantly, Bell also had to conclude a relationship with Marie Eccleston, who, as he had surmised, was not prepared to leave England with him. Canada In 1870, 23-year-old Bell traveled with his parents and his brother's widow, Caroline Margaret Ottaway,toParis, Ontario,to stay with Thomas Henderson, aBaptistminister and family friend.The Bells soon purchased a farm of 10.5 acres (4.2 ha) at Tutelo Heights (now called Tutela Heights), nearBrantford, Ontario. The property consisted of an orchard, large farmhouse, stable, pigsty, hen-house, and acarriage house, which bordered theGrand River. At the homestead, Bell set up a workshop in the converted carriage house near what he called his \"dreaming place\",a large hollow nestled in trees at the back of the property above the river.Despite his frail condition upon arriving in Canada, Bell found the climate and environs to his liking and rapidly improved.He continued his interest in the study of the human voice, and when he discovered theSix Nations Reserveacross the river atOnondaga, learned theMohawk languageand translated its unwritten vocabulary into Visible Speech symbols. For his work, Bell was awarded the title of Honorary Chief and participated in a ceremony where he donned aMohawkheaddress and danced traditional dances. After setting up his workshop, Bell continued experiments based on Helmholtz's work with electricity and sound.He also modified amelodeon(a type of pump organ) to transmit its music electrically over a distance.Once the family was settled, Bell and his father made plans to establish a teaching practice and in 1871, he accompanied his father to Montreal, where Melville was offered a position to teach his System of Visible Speech. Work with deaf people Bell's father was invited bySarah Fuller, principal of the Boston School for Deaf Mutes (later to become the publicHorace Mann School for the Deaf)to introduce the Visible Speech System by providing training for Fuller's instructors, but he declined the post in favor of his son. Traveling toBostonin April 1871, Bell proved successful in training the school's instructors.He was asked to repeat the program at theAmerican Asylum for Deaf-mutesinHartford, Connecticut, and theClarke School for the DeafinNorthampton, Massachusetts. Returning home to Brantford after six months abroad, Bell continued his experiments with his \"harmonic telegraph\".The basic concept behind his device was that messages could be sent through a single wire if each was transmitted at a different pitch, but work on both the transmitter and receiver was needed. Unsure of his future, he contemplated returning to London to complete his studies, but decided to return to Boston as a teacher.His father helped him set up his private practice by contactingGardiner Greene Hubbard, the president of the Clarke School for the Deaf for a recommendation. Teaching his father's system, in October 1872, Alexander Bell opened his \"School of Vocal Physiology and Mechanics of Speech\" in Boston, which attracted a large number of deaf pupils, with his first class numbering 30 students.While he was working as a private tutor, one of his pupils wasHelen Keller, who came to him as a young child unable to see, hear, or speak. She later said that Bell dedicated his life to the penetration of that \"inhuman silence which separates and estranges\".In 1893, Keller performed the sod-breaking ceremony for the construction of Bell's newVolta Bureau, dedicated to \"the increase and diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf\". Throughout his life, Bell sought to assimilate the deaf and hard of hearing with the hearing world. He encouraged speech therapy and lipreading over sign language. He outlined this in an 1898 paperdetailing his belief that, with resources and effort, the deaf could be taught toread lipsand speak (known asoralism),enabling their integration with wider society.Members of theDeaf communityhave criticized Bell for supporting ideas that could cause the closure of dozens of deaf schools, and what some considereugenicistideas.Bell did not support a ban on deaf people marrying each other, an idea articulated by theNational Association of the Deaf (United States),but in his memoirMemoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race, he observed that if deaf people tended to marry other deaf people, this could result in the emergence of a \"deaf race\".Ultimately, in 1880, the Second International Congress on Education of the Deaf passed a resolution mandating the teaching of oral communication and banning signing in schools. Continuing experimentation In 1872, Bell became professor of Vocal Physiology and Elocution at theBoston UniversitySchool of Oratory. During this period, he alternated between Boston and Brantford, spending summers in his Canadian home. At Boston University, Bell was \"swept up\" by the excitement engendered by the many scientists and inventors living in the city. He continued his research in sound and endeavored to find a way to transmit musical notes and articulate speech, but although absorbed by his experiments, he found it difficult to devote enough time to experimentation. With days and evenings occupied by his teaching and private classes, Bell began to stay awake late into the night, running experiment after experiment in rented facilities at his boarding house. Keeping \"night owl\" hours, he worried that his work would be discovered and took great pains to lock up his notebooks and laboratory equipment. Bell had a specially made table where he could place his notes and equipment inside a locking cover.His health deteriorated as he had severe headaches.Returning to Boston in fall 1873, Bell made a far-reaching decision to concentrate on his experiments in sound. Giving up his lucrative private Boston practice, Bell retained only two students, six-year-old \"Georgie\" Sanders, deaf from birth, and 15-year-oldMabel Hubbard. Each played an important role in the next developments. Georgie's father, Thomas Sanders, a wealthy businessman, offered Bell a place to stay in nearbySalemwith Georgie's grandmother, complete with a room to \"experiment\". Although the offer was made by Georgie's mother and followed the year-long arrangement in 1872 where her son and his nurse had moved to quarters next to Bell's boarding house, it was clear that Mr. Sanders backed the proposal. The arrangement was for teacher and student to continue their work together, with free room and board thrown in.Mabel was a bright, attractive girl ten years Bell's junior who became the object of his affection. Having lost her hearing after a near-fatal bout ofscarlet feverclose to her fifth birthday,she had learned toread lipsbut her father, Gardiner Greene Hubbard, Bell's benefactor and personal friend, wanted her to work directly with her teacher. The telephone By 1874, Bell's initial work on the harmonic telegraph had entered a formative stage, with progress made both at his new Boston \"laboratory\" (a rented facility) and at his family home in Canada a big success.While working that summer in Brantford, Bell experimented with a \"phonautograph\", a pen-like machine that could draw shapes of sound waves on smoked glass by tracing their vibrations. Bell thought it might be possible to generate undulating electrical currents that corresponded to sound waves.He also thought that multiple metal reeds tuned to different frequencies like a harp would be able to convert the undulating currents back into sound. But he had no working model to demonstrate the feasibility of these ideas. In 1874, telegraph message traffic was rapidly expanding and, in the words ofWestern UnionPresidentWilliam Orton, had become \"the nervous system of commerce\". Orton had contracted with inventorsThomas EdisonandElisha Grayto find a way to send multiple telegraph messages on each telegraph line to avoid the great cost of constructing new lines.When Bell mentioned to Gardiner Hubbard and Thomas Sanders that he was working on a method of sending multiple tones on a telegraph wire using a multi-reed device, the two began to financially support Bell's experiments.Patent matters were handled by Hubbard'spatent attorney,Anthony Pollok. In March 1875, Bell and Pollok visited the scientistJoseph Henry, then the director of theSmithsonian Institution, to ask his advice on the electrical multi-reed apparatus that Bell hoped would transmit the human voice by telegraph. Henry said Bell had \"the germ of a great invention\". When Bell said that he lacked the necessary knowledge, Henry replied, \"Get it!\" That declaration greatly encouraged Bell to keep trying, even though he had neither the equipment needed to continue his experiments nor the ability to create a working model of his ideas. But a chance meeting in 1874 between Bell andThomas A. Watson, an experienced electrical designer and mechanic at the electrical machine shop of Charles Williams, changed that. With financial support from Sanders and Hubbard, Bell hired Watson as his assistant,and the two experimented withacoustic telegraphy. On June 2, 1875, Watson accidentally plucked one of the reeds and Bell, at the receiving end of the wire, heard the reed's overtones that would be necessary for transmitting speech. That demonstrated to Bell that only one reed or armature was necessary, not multiple reeds. This led to the \"gallows\"sound-powered telephone, which could transmit indistinct, voice-like sounds, but not clear speech. The race to the patent office In 1875, Bell developed anacoustic telegraphand drew up apatent applicationfor it. Since he had agreed to share U.S. profits with his investors Gardiner Hubbard and Thomas Sanders, Bell requested that an associate in Ontario,George Brown, attempt to patent it in Britain, instructing his lawyers to apply for a patent in the U.S. only after they received word from Britain (Britain issued patents only for discoveries not previously patented elsewhere). Meanwhile,Elisha Graywas also experimenting with acoustic telegraphy and thought of a way to transmit speech using a water transmitter. On February 14, 1876, Gray filed acaveatwith the U.S. Patent Office for a telephone design that used a water transmitter. That same morning, Bell's lawyer filed Bell's application with the patent office. There is considerable debate about who arrived first and Gray later challenged the primacy of Bell's patent. Bell was in Boston on February 14 and did not arrive in Washington until February 26. On March 7, 1876, theU.S. Patent Officeissued Bell patent 174,465. It covered \"the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically ... by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound\"Bell returned to Boston that day and the next day resumed work, drawing in his notebook a diagram similar to that in Gray's patent caveat. On March 10, Bell succeeded in getting his telephone to work, using a liquid transmitter similar to Gray's design. Vibration of the diaphragm caused a needle to vibrate in the water, varying theelectrical resistancein the circuit. When Bell spoke the sentence \"Mr. Watson—Come here—I want to see you\" into the liquid transmitter,Watson, listening at the receiving end in an adjoining room, heard the words clearly. Although Bell was, and still is, accused of stealing the telephone from Gray,Bell used Gray's water transmitter design only after Bell's patent had been granted, and only as aproof of conceptscientific experiment,to prove to his own satisfaction that intelligible \"articulate speech\" (Bell's words) could be electrically transmitted.After March 1876, Bell focused on improving the electromagnetic telephone and never used Gray's liquid transmitter in public demonstrations or commercial use. The examiner raised the question of priority for the variable resistance feature of the telephone before approving Bell's patent application. He told Bell that his claim for the variable resistance feature was also described in Gray's caveat. Bell pointed to a variable resistance device in his previous application in which he described a cup of mercury, not water. He had filed the mercury application at the patent office on February 25, 1875, long before Gray described the water device. In addition, Gray abandoned his caveat, and because he did not contest Bell's priority, the examiner approved Bell's patent on March 3, 1876. Gray had reinvented the variable resistance telephone, but Bell was the first to write down the idea and test it in a telephone. Thepatent examiner, Zenas Fisk Wilber, later stated in anaffidavitthat he was an alcoholic who was much in debt to Bell's lawyer,Marcellus Bailey, with whom he had served in the Civil War. He said he had shown Bailey Gray's patent caveat. Wilber also said (after Bell arrived in Washington D.C. from Boston) that he showed Bell Gray's caveat and that Bell paid him $100 (equivalent to $2,800 in 2023). Bell said they discussed the patent only in general terms, although in a letter to Gray, Bell admitted that he learned some of the technical details. Bell denied in an affidavit that he ever gave Wilber any money. Later developments On March 10, 1876, Bell used \"the instrument\" in Boston to call Thomas Watson who was in another room but out of earshot. He said, \"Mr. Watson, come here – I want to see you\" and Watson soon appeared at his side. Continuing his experiments in Brantford, Bell brought home a working model of his telephone. On August 3, 1876, from the telegraph office in Brantford, Bell sent a telegram to the village of Mount Pleasant four miles (six kilometres) away, indicating that he was ready. He made a telephone call via telegraph wires and faint voices were heard replying. The following night, he amazed guests as well as his family with a call between the Bell Homestead and the office of the Dominion Telegraph Company in Brantford along an improvised wire strung up along telegraph lines and fences, and laid through a tunnel. This time, guests at the household distinctly heard people in Brantford reading and singing. The third test, on August 10, 1876, was made via the telegraph line between Brantford and Paris, Ontario, eight miles (thirteen kilometres) away. This test is said by many sources to be the \"world's first long-distance call\".It proved that the telephone could work over long distances, at least as a one-way call. The first two-way (reciprocal) conversation over a line occurred between Cambridge and Boston (roughly 2.5 miles) on October 9, 1876.During that conversation, Bell was on Kilby Street in Boston and Watson was at the offices of the Walworth Manufacturing Company. Bell and his partners, Hubbard and Sanders, offered to sell the patent outright to Western Union for $100,000, equal to $2,861,250 today, but it did not work (according to an apocryphal story, the president of Western Union balked, countering that the telephone was nothing but a toy). Two years later, he told colleagues that if he could get the patent for $25 million (equal to $789,310,345 today), he would consider it a bargain. By then, the Bell company no longer wanted to sell the patent.Bell's investors became millionaires while he fared well from residuals and at one point had assets of nearly $1 million. Bell began a series of public demonstrations and lectures to introduce the new invention to thescientific communityas well as the general public. A short time later,his demonstration of an early telephone prototypeat the 1876Centennial ExpositioninPhiladelphiabrought the telephone to international attention.Influential visitors to the exhibition included EmperorPedro II of Brazil. One of the judges at the Exhibition,Sir William Thomson(later Lord Kelvin), a renowned Scottish scientist, described the telephone as \"the greatest by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph\". On January 14, 1878, atOsborne House, on theIsle of Wight, Bell demonstrated the device toQueen Victoria,placing calls to Cowes, Southampton, and London. These were the first publicly witnessed long-distance telephone calls in theUK. The queen found the process \"quite extraordinary\" although the sound was \"rather faint\".She later asked to buy the equipment that was used, but Bell offered to make \"a set of telephones\" specifically for her. TheBell Telephone Companywas created in 1877, and by 1886, more than 150,000 people in the U.S. owned telephones. Bell Company engineers made numerous other improvements to the telephone, which emerged as one of the most successful products ever. In 1879, the company acquired Edison's patents for thecarbon microphonefrom Western Union. This made the telephone practical for longer distances, and it was no longer necessary to shout to be heard at the receiving telephone. Pedro II of Brazil was the first person to buy stock in the Bell Telephone Company. One of the first telephones in a private residence was installed in his palace inPetrópolis, his summer retreat forty miles (sixty-four kilometres) fromRio de Janeiro. In January 1915, Bell made the first ceremonial transcontinentaltelephone call. Calling from the AT&T head office at 15 Dey Street in New York City, Bell was heard byThomas Watsonat 333 Grant Avenue in San Francisco.The New York Timesreported: On October 9, 1876, Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson talked by telephone to each other over a two-mile wire stretched between Cambridge and Boston. It was the first wire conversation ever held. Yesterday afternoon , the same two men talked by telephone to each other over a 3,400-mile wire between New York and San Francisco. Dr. Bell, the veteran inventor of the telephone, was in New York, and Mr. Watson, his former associate, was on the other side of the continent. Competitors As is sometimes common in scientific discoveries, simultaneous developments occurred, as evidenced by a number of inventors who were at work on the telephone.Over 18 years, the Bell Telephone Company faced 587 court challenges to its patents, including five that went to theU.S. Supreme Court,but none was successful in establishing priority over Bell's original patent,and the Bell Telephone Company never lost a case that had proceeded to a final trial stage.Bell's laboratory notes and family letters were the key to establishing a long lineage to his experiments.The Bell company lawyers successfully fought off myriad lawsuits generated initially around the challenges by Elisha Gray andAmos Dolbear. In personal correspondence to Bell, both Gray and Dolbear had acknowledged his prior work, which considerably weakened their later claims. On January 13, 1887, the U.S. government moved to annul the patent issued to Bell on the grounds of fraud and misrepresentation. After a series of decisions and reversals, the Bell company won a decision in the Supreme Court, though a couple of the original claims from the lower court cases were left undecided.By the time the trial had wound its way through nine years of legal battles, the U.S. prosecuting attorney had died and the two Bell patents (No. 174,465, dated March 7, 1876, and No. 186,787, dated January 30, 1877) were no longer in effect, although the presiding judges agreed to continue the proceedings due to the case's importance as aprecedent. With a change in administration and charges of conflict of interest (on both sides) arising from the original trial, theU.S. attorney generaldropped the lawsuit on November 30, 1897, leaving several issues undecidedon the merits. During a deposition filed for the 1887 trial, Italian inventorAntonio Meuccialso claimed to have created the first working model of a telephone in Italy in 1834. In 1886, in the first of three cases in which he was involved,Meucci took the stand as a witness in hope of establishing his invention's priority. Meucci's testimony was disputed due to lack of material evidence for his inventions, as his working models were purportedly lost at the laboratory ofAmerican District Telegraph(ADT) of New York, which was incorporated as a subsidiary of Western Union in 1901.Meucci's work, like that of many other inventors of the period, was based on earlier acoustic principles and, despite evidence of earlier experiments, the final case involving Meucci was eventually dropped upon Meucci's death.But due to the efforts of CongressmanVito Fossella, on June 11, 2002, theU.S. House of Representativesstated that Meucci's \"work in the invention of the telephone should be acknowledged\".This did not put an end to the still contentious issue.Some modern scholars do not agree that Bell's work on the telephone was influenced by Meucci's inventions. The value of Bell's patent was acknowledged throughout the world, and patent applications were made in most major countries. When Bell delayed the German patent application, the electrical firmSiemens & Halskeset up a rival manufacturer of Bell telephones under its own patent. Siemens produced near-identical copies of the Bell telephone without having to pay royalties.The establishment of theInternational Bell Telephone Companyin Brussels, Belgium, in 1880, as well as a series of agreements in other countries eventually consolidated a global telephone operation. The strain put on Bell by his constant appearances in court, necessitated by the legal battles, eventually resulted in his resignation from the company. Family life On July 11, 1877, a few days after theBell Telephone Companywas established, Bell marriedMabel Hubbard(1857–1923) at the Hubbard estate inCambridge, Massachusetts. His wedding present to his bride was to turn over 1,487 of his 1,497 shares in the newly formed Bell Telephone Company.Shortly thereafter, the newlyweds embarked on a year-long honeymoon in Europe. During that excursion, Bell took a handmade model of his telephone with him, making it a \"working holiday\". The courtship had begun years earlier; however, Bell waited until he was more financially secure before marrying. Although the telephone appeared to be an \"instant\" success, it was not initially a profitable venture and Bell's main sources of income were from lectures until after 1897.One unusual request exacted by his fiancée was that he use \"Alec\" rather than the family's earlier familiar name of \"Aleck\". From 1876, he would sign his name \"Alec Bell\".They had four children: The Bell family home was in Cambridge, Massachusetts, until 1880 when Bell's father-in-law bought a house in Washington, D.C.; in 1882 he bought a home in the same city for Bell's family, so they could be with him while he attended to the numerous court cases involving patent disputes. Bell was aBritish subjectthroughout his early life in Scotland and later in Canada until 1882 when he became anaturalized citizenof the United States. In 1915, he characterized his status as: \"I am not one of thosehyphenated Americanswho claim allegiance to two countries.\"Despite this declaration, Bell has been proudly claimed as a \"native son\" by all three countries he resided in: the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. By 1885, a new summer retreat was contemplated. That summer, the Bells had a vacation onCape Breton Islandin Nova Scotia, Canada, spending time at the small village ofBaddeck.Returning in 1886, Bell started building an estate on a point across from Baddeck, overlookingBras d'Or Lake.By 1889, a large house, christenedThe Lodgewas completed and two years later, a larger complex of buildings, including a new laboratory,were begun that the Bells would nameBeinn Bhreagh(Gaelic:Beautiful Mountain) after Bell's ancestralScottish highlands.Bell also built theBell Boatyardon the estate, employing up to 40 people building experimental craft as well as wartime lifeboats and workboats for theRoyal Canadian Navyand pleasure craft for the Bell family. He was an enthusiastic boater, and Bell and his family sailed or rowed a long series of vessels onBras d'Or Lake, ordering additional vessels from theH.W. Embree and Sonsboatyard inPort Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia. In his final, and some of his most productive years, Bell split his residency between Washington, D.C., where he and his family initially resided for most of the year, and Beinn Bhreagh, where they spent increasing amounts of time. Until the end of his life, Bell and his family would alternate between the two homes, butBeinn Bhreaghwould, over the next 30 years, become more than a summer home as Bell became so absorbed in his experiments that his annual stays lengthened. Both Mabel and Bell became immersed in theBaddeckcommunity and were accepted by the villagers as \"their own\".The Bells were still in residence atBeinn Bhreaghwhen theHalifax Explosionoccurred on December 6, 1917. Mabel and Bell mobilized the community to help victims in Halifax. Later inventions Although Alexander Graham Bell is most often associated with the invention of the telephone, his interests were extremely varied. According to one of his biographers,Charlotte Gray, Bell's work ranged \"unfettered across the scientific landscape\" and he often went to bed voraciously reading theEncyclopædia Britannica, scouring it for new areas of interest.The range of Bell's inventive genius is represented only in part by the 18 patents granted in his name alone and the 12 he shared with his collaborators. These included 14 for the telephone and telegraph, four for thephotophone, one for thephonograph, five for aerial vehicles, four for \"hydroairplanes\", and two forseleniumcells. Bell's inventions spanned a wide range of interests and included a metal jacket to assist in breathing, theaudiometerto detect minor hearing problems, a device to locate icebergs, investigations on how to separate salt from seawater, and work on findingalternative fuels. Bell worked extensively inmedical researchand invented techniques for teaching speech to the deaf. During hisVolta Laboratoryperiod, Bell and his associates considered impressing amagnetic fieldon a record as a means of reproducing sound. Although the trio briefly experimented with the concept, they could not develop a workable prototype. They abandoned the idea, never realizing they had glimpsed a basic principle which would one day find its application in thetape recorder, thehard discandfloppy discdrive, and othermagnetic media. Bell's own home used a primitive form of air conditioning, in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks of ice. He also anticipated modern concerns with fuel shortages and industrial pollution.Methanegas, he reasoned, could be produced from the waste of farms and factories. At his Canadian estate in Nova Scotia, he experimented withcomposting toiletsand devices to capture water from the atmosphere. In a magazine article published in 1917, he reflected on the possibility of usingsolar energyto heat houses. Photophone Bell and his assistantCharles Sumner Tainterjointly invented a wireless telephone, named aphotophone, which allowed for the transmission of both sounds and normal human conversations on a beam oflight.Both men later became full associates in theVolta Laboratory Association. On June 21, 1880, Bell's assistant transmitted a wireless voice telephone message a considerable distance, from the roof of theFranklin Schoolin Washington, D.C., to Bell at the window of his laboratory, some 700 feet (213 m) away, 19 years before the first voice radio transmissions. Bell believed the photophone's principles were his life's \"greatest achievement\", telling a reporter shortly before his death that the photophone was \"the greatest invention ever made, greater than the telephone\".The photophone was a precursor to thefiber-optic communicationsystems which achieved popular worldwide usage in the 1980s.Its master patent was issued in December 1880, many decades before the photophone's principles came into popular use. Metal detector Bell is also credited with developing one of the early versions of ametal detectorthrough the use of an induction balance, after theshootingofU.S. PresidentJames A. Garfieldin 1881. According to some accounts, the metal detector worked flawlessly in tests but did not findGuiteau's bullet, partly because the metal bed frame on which the President was lying disturbed the instrument, resulting in static.Garfield's surgeons, led by self-appointed chief physicianDoctor Willard Bliss, were skeptical of the device, and ignored Bell's requests to move the President to a bed not fitted with metal springs.Alternatively, although Bell had detected a slight sound on his first test, the bullet may have been lodged too deeply to be detected by the crude apparatus. Bell's own detailed account, presented to theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Sciencein 1882, differs in several particulars from most of the many and varied versions now in circulation, by concluding that extraneous metal was not to blame for failure to locate the bullet. Perplexed by the peculiar results he had obtained during an examination of Garfield, Bell \"proceeded to theExecutive Mansionthe next morning ... to ascertain from the surgeons whether they were perfectly sure that all metal had been removed from the neighborhood of the bed. It was then recollected that underneath the horse-hair mattress on which the President lay was another mattress composed of steel wires. Upon obtaining a duplicate, the mattress was found to consist of a sort of net of woven steel wires, with large meshes. The extent of the having been so small, as compared with the area of the bed, it seemed reasonable to conclude that the steel mattress had produced no detrimental effect.\" In a footnote, Bell adds, \"The death of President Garfield and the subsequentpost-mortemexamination, however, proved that the bullet was at too great a distance from the surface to have affected our apparatus.\" Hydrofoils The March 1906Scientific Americanarticle by American pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle ofhydrofoilsandhydroplanes. Bell considered the invention of the hydroplane as a very significant achievement. Based on information gained from that article, he began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat. Bell and assistantFrederick W. \"Casey\" Baldwinbegan hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908 as a possible aid to airplane takeoff from water. Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventorEnrico Forlaniniand began testing models. This led him and Bell to the development of practical hydrofoil watercraft. During his world tour of 1910–11, Bell and Baldwin met with Forlanini in France. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat overLake Maggiore. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to Baddeck, a number of initial concepts were built as experimental models, including theDhonnas Beag(Scottish Gaelic for 'little devil'), the first self-propelled Bell-Baldwin hydrofoil.The experimental boats were essentially proof-of-concept prototypes that culminated in the more substantialHD-4, powered byRenaultengines. A top speed of 54 miles per hour (87 km/h) was achieved, with the hydrofoil exhibiting rapid acceleration, good stability, and steering, along with the ability to take waves without difficulty.In 1913, Dr. Bell hired Walter Pinaud, a Sydney yacht designer and builder as well as the proprietor of Pinaud's Yacht Yard inWestmount, Nova Scotia, to work on the pontoons of the HD-4. Pinaud soon took over the boatyard at Bell Laboratories on Beinn Bhreagh, Bell's estate nearBaddeck, Nova Scotia. Pinaud's experience in boatbuilding enabled him to make useful design changes to the HD-4. After the First World War, work began again on the HD-4. Bell's report to theU.S. Navypermitted him to obtain two 350-horsepower (260-kilowatt) engines in July 1919. On September 9, 1919, the HD-4 set a world marine speed record of 70.86 miles per hour (114.04 kilometres per hour),a record which stood for ten years. Aeronautics In 1891, Bell had begun experiments to develop motor-powered heavier-than-air aircraft. The AEA was first formed as Bell shared the vision to fly with his wife, who advised him to seek \"young\" help as Bell was at the age of 60. In 1898, Bell experimented withtetrahedralbox kitesand wings constructed of multiple compoundtetrahedral kitescovered in maroon silk.The tetrahedral wings were namedCygnetI, II, and III, and were flown both unmanned and manned (Cygnet Icrashed during a flight carrying Selfridge) in the period from 1907 to 1912. Some of Bell's kites are on display at theAlexander Graham Bell National Historic Site. Bell was a supporter ofaerospace engineeringresearch through theAerial Experiment Association(AEA), officially formed at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, in October 1907 at the suggestion of his wifeMabeland with her financial support after the sale of some of her real estate.The AEA was headed by Bell and the founding members were four young men: AmericanGlenn H. Curtiss, a motorcycle manufacturer at the time and who held the title \"world's fastest man\", having ridden his self-constructed motor bicycle around in the shortest time, and who was later awarded theScientific American Trophyfor the first official one-kilometre flight in theWestern hemisphere, and who later became a world-renowned airplane manufacturer; LieutenantThomas Selfridge, an official observer from the U.S. Federal government and one of the few people in the army who believed that aviation was the future;Frederick W. Baldwin, the first Canadian and first British subject to pilot a public flight inHammondsport, New York; andJ. A. D. McCurdy–Baldwin and McCurdy being new engineering graduates from theUniversity of Toronto. The AEA's work progressed to heavier-than-air machines, applying their knowledge of kites to gliders. Moving to Hammondsport, the group then designed and built theRed Wing, framed in bamboo and covered in red silk and powered by a smallair-cooledengine.On March 12, 1908, overKeuka Lake, the biplane lifted off on the first public flight in North America.The innovations that were incorporated into this design included a cockpit enclosure andtail rudder(later variations on the original design would add ailerons as a means of control). One of the AEA's inventions, a practicalwingtip form of the aileron, was to become a standard component on all aircraft.TheWhite WingandJune Bugwere to follow and by the end of 1908, over 150 flights without mishap had been accomplished. However, the AEA had depleted its initial reserves and only a$15,000 grant from Mrs. Bellallowed it to continue with experiments.Lt. Selfridge had also become the first person killed in a powered heavier-than-air flight in a crash of theWright FlyeratFort Myer,Virginia, on September 17, 1908. Their final aircraft design, theSilver Dart, embodied all of the advancements found in the earlier machines. On February 23, 1909, Bell was present as theSilver Dartflown by J. A. D. McCurdy from the frozen ice of Bras d'Or made the first aircraft flight in Canada.Bell had worried that the flight was too dangerous and had arranged for a doctor to be on hand. With the successful flight, the AEA disbanded and theSilver Dartwould revert to Baldwin and McCurdy, who began the Canadian Aerodrome Company and would later demonstrate the aircraft to theCanadian Army. Heredity and genetics Bell, along with many members of the scientific community at the time, took an interest in the popular science of heredity which grew out of the publication ofCharles Darwin's bookOn the Origin of Speciesin 1859.On his estate in Nova Scotia, Bell conducted meticulously recorded breeding experiments with rams and ewes. Over the course of more than 30 years, Bell sought to produce a breed of sheep with multiple nipples that would bear twins.He specifically wanted to see if selective breeding could produce sheep with four functional nipples with enough milk for twin lambs.This interest in animal breeding caught the attention of scientists focused on the study of heredity and genetics in humans. In November 1883, Bell presented a paper at a meeting of theNational Academy of Sciencestitled \"Upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race\".The paper is a compilation of data on the hereditary aspects of deafness. Bell's research indicated that a hereditary tendency toward deafness, as indicated by the possession of deaf relatives, was an important element in determining the production of deaf offspring. He noted that the proportion of deaf children born to deaf parents was many times greater than the proportion of deaf children born to the general population.In the paper, Bell delved into social commentary and discussed hypothetical public policies to bring an end to deafness. He also criticized educational practices that segregated deaf children rather than integrated them fulling into mainstream classrooms. The paper did not propose sterilization of deaf people or prohibition on intermarriage,noting that \"We cannot dictate to men and women whom they should marry and natural selection no longer influences mankind to any great extent.\" A review of Bell's \"Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race\" appearing in an 1885 issue of the \"American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb\" states that \"Dr. Bell does not advocate legislative interference with the marriages of the deaf for several reasons one of which is that the results of such marriages have not yet been sufficiently investigated.\" The article goes on to say that \"the editorial remarks based thereon did injustice to the author.\"The paper's author concludes by saying \"A wiser way to prevent the extension of hereditary deafness, it seems to us, would be to continue the investigations which Dr. Bell has so admirable begun until the laws of the transmission of the tendency to deafness are fully understood, and then by explaining those laws to the pupils of our schools to lead them to choose their partners in marriage in such a way that deaf-mute offspring will not be the result.\" Historians have noted that Bell explicitly opposed laws regulating marriage, and never mentioned sterilization in any of his writings. Even after Bell agreed to engage with scientists conducting eugenic research, he consistently refused to support public policy that limited the rights or privileges of the deaf. Bell's interest and research on heredity attracted the interest ofCharles Davenport, a Harvard professor and head of theCold Spring Harbor Laboratory. In 1906, Davenport, who was also the founder of theAmerican Breeder's Association, approached Bell about joining a new committee on eugenics chaired byDavid Starr Jordan. In 1910, Davenport opened theEugenics Records officeat Cold Spring Harbor. To give the organization scientific credibility, Davenport set up a Board of Scientific Directors naming Bell as chairman.Other members of the board includedLuther Burbank,Roswell H. Johnson,Vernon L. Kellogg, andWilliam E. Castle. In 1921, aSecond International Congress of Eugenicswas held in New York at the Museum of Natural History and chaired by Davenport. Although Bell did not present any research or speak as part of the proceedings, he was named as honorary president as a means to attract other scientists to attend the event.A summary of the event notes that Bell was a \"pioneering investigator in the field of human heredity\". Death Bell died of complications arising fromdiabeteson August 2, 1922, at his private estate in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, at age 75.Bell had also been affected bypernicious anemia.His last view of the land he had inhabited was by moonlight on his mountain estate at 2:00 a.m.While tending to him after his long illness, Mabel, his wife, whispered, \"Don't leave me.\" By way of reply, Bell signed \"no...\", lost consciousness, and died shortly after. On learning of Bell's death, theCanadian Prime Minister,Mackenzie King, cabled Mrs. Bell, saying: My colleagues in the Government join with me in expressing to you our sense of the world's loss in the death of your distinguished husband. It will ever be a source of pride to our country that the great invention, with which his name is immortally associated, is a part of its history. On the behalf of the citizens of Canada, may I extend to you an expression of our combined gratitude and sympathy. Bell's coffin was constructed of Beinn Bhreagh pine by his laboratory staff, lined with the same red silk fabric used in his tetrahedral kite experiments. To help celebrate his life, his wife asked guests not to wear black (the traditional funeral color) while attending his service, during which soloist Jean MacDonald sang a verse ofRobert Louis Stevenson's \"Requiem\": Under a wide and starry sky,Dig the grave and let me lie.Glad did I live and gladly dieAnd I laid me down with a will. Upon the conclusion of Bell's funeral, for one minute at 6:25 p.m. Eastern Time,\"every phone on the continent of North America was silenced in honor of the man who had given to mankind the means for direct communication at a distance\". Alexander Graham Bell was buried atopBeinn Bhreaghmountain, on his estate where he had resided increasingly for the last 35 years of his life, overlookingBras d'Or Lake.He was survived by his wifeMabel, his two daughters, Elsie May and Marian, and nine of his grandchildren. Legacy and honors Honors and tributes flowed to Bell in increasing numbers as his invention became ubiquitous and his personal fame grew. Bell received numerous honorary degrees from colleges and universities to the point that the requests almost became burdensome.During his life, he also received dozens of major awards, medals, and other tributes. These included statuary monuments to both him and the new form of communication his telephone created, including theBell Telephone Memorialerected in his honor inAlexander Graham Bell Gardensin Brantford, Ontario, in 1917. A large number of Bell's writings, personal correspondence, notebooks, papers, and other documents reside in both the United StatesLibrary of Congress Manuscript Division(as theAlexander Graham Bell Family Papers),and at the Alexander Graham Bell Institute,Cape Breton University, Nova Scotia; major portions of which are available for online viewing. A number of historic sites and other marks commemorate Bell in North America and Europe, including the first telephone companies in the United States and Canada. Among the major sites are: In 1880, Bell received theVolta Prizewith a purse of 50,000French francs(approximately US$330,000 in today's dollars) for the invention of the telephone from the French government.Among the luminaries who judged wereVictor HugoandAlexandre Dumas,fils.The Volta Prize was conceived byNapoleon IIIin 1852, and named in honor ofAlessandro Volta, with Bell becoming the second recipient of the grand prize in its history.Since Bell was becoming increasingly affluent, he used his prize money to create endowment funds (the 'Volta Fund') and institutions in and around the United States capital of Washington, D.C.. These included the prestigious'Volta Laboratory Association'(1880), also known as theVolta Laboratoryand as the'Alexander Graham Bell Laboratory',and which eventually led to the Volta Bureau (1887) as a center for studies on deafness which is still in operation inGeorgetown, Washington, D.C.The Volta Laboratory became an experimental facility devoted to scientific discovery, and the very next year it improved Edison's phonograph by substituting wax for tinfoil as the recording medium and incising the recording rather than indenting it, key upgrades that Edison himself later adopted.The laboratory was also the site where he and his associate invented his \"proudest achievement\", \"thephotophone\", the \"optical telephone\" which presagedfibre optical telecommunicationswhile the Volta Bureau would later evolve into theAlexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing(the AG Bell), a leading center for the research andpedagogyof deafness. In partnership withGardiner Greene Hubbard, Bell helped establish the publicationScienceduring the early 1880s. In 1898, Bell was elected as the second president of theNational Geographic Society, serving until 1903, and was primarily responsible for the extensive use of illustrations, including photography, in the magazine.He also served for many years as a Regent of theSmithsonian Institution(1898–1922).The French government conferred on him the decoration of theLégion d'honneur(Legion of Honor); theRoyal Society of Artsin London awarded him theAlbert Medalin 1902; theUniversity of Würzburg, Bavaria, granted him a PhD, and he was awarded theFranklin Institute'sElliott Cresson Medalin 1912. He was one of the founders of theAmerican Institute of Electrical Engineersin 1884 and served as its president from 1891 to 1892. Bell was later awarded the AIEE'sEdison Medalin 1914 \"For meritorious achievement in the invention of the telephone\". Thebel(B) and the smallerdecibel(dB) areunits of measurementofsound pressure level(SPL) invented byBell Labsand named after him.Since 1976, theIEEE'sAlexander Graham Bell Medalhas been awarded to honor outstanding contributions in the field of telecommunications. In 1936, theUS Patent Officedeclared Bell first on its list of the country's greatest inventors,leading to theUS Post Officeissuing a commemorative stamp honoring Bell in 1940 as part of its'Famous Americans Series'. The First Day of Issue ceremony was held on October 28 in Boston, Massachusetts, the city where Bell spent considerable time on research and working with the deaf. The Bell stamp became very popular and sold out in little time. The stamp became, and remains to this day, the most valuable one of the series. The 150th anniversary of Bell's birth in 1997 was marked by a special issue ofcommemorative £1 banknotesfrom theRoyal Bank of Scotland. The illustrations on the reverse of the note include Bell's face in profile, his signature, and objects from Bell's life and career: users of the telephone over the ages; an audiowave signal; a diagram of a telephone receiver; geometric shapes from engineering structures; representations of sign language and the phonetic alphabet; the geese which helped him to understand flight; and the sheep which he studied to understand genetics.Additionally, the Government of Canada honored Bell in 1997 with aC$100 gold coin, in tribute also to the 150th anniversary of his birth, and with a silver dollar coin in 2009 in honor of the 100th anniversary of flight in Canada. That first flight was made by an airplane designed under Dr. Bell's tutelage, named the Silver Dart.Bell's image, and also those of his many inventions have graced paper money, coinage, and postal stamps in numerous countries worldwide for many dozens of years. Alexander Graham Bell was ranked 57th among the100 Greatest Britons(2002) in an official BBC nationwide poll,and among theTop Ten Greatest Canadians(2004), andthe 100 Greatest Americans(2005). In 2006, Bell was also named as one of the 10 greatest Scottish scientists in history after having been listed in theNational Library of Scotland's 'Scottish Science Hall of Fame'.Bell's name is still widely known and used as part of the names of dozens of educational institutes, corporate namesakes, street and place names around the world. Honorary degrees Alexander Graham Bell, who could not complete the university program of his youth, received at least a dozen honorary degrees from academic institutions, including eight honoraryLL.D.s(Doctorate of Laws), two Ph.D.s, a D.Sc., and an M.D.: Portrayal in film, television and fiction Bibliography See also References Notes Citations Further reading External links Multimedia",
"Charles Dickens Charles John Huffam Dickens(/ˈdɪkɪnz/; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an Englishnovelist,journalist,short storywriter andsocial critic. He created some of literature's best-known fictional characters, and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of theVictorian era.His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime and, by the 20th century, critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories are widely read today. Born inPortsmouth, Dickens left school at age 12 to work in a boot-blacking factory when his fatherJohnwas incarcerated in adebtors' prison. After three years, he returned to school before beginning his literary career as a journalist. Dickens edited a weekly journal for 20 years; wrote 15 novels, five novellas, hundreds of short stories and nonfiction articles; lectured and performedreadingsextensively; was an indefatigable letter writer; and campaigned vigorously forchildren's rights, education and other social reforms. Dickens's literary success began with the 1836serialpublication ofThe Pickwick Papers, a publishing phenomenon—thanks largely to the introduction of the characterSam Wellerin the fourth episode—that sparkedPickwickmerchandise and spin-offs. Within a few years, Dickens had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most of them published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the serial publication of narrative fiction, which became the dominant Victorian mode for novel publication.Cliffhangerendings in his serial publications kept readers in suspense.The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audience's reaction, and he often modified his plot and character development based on such feedback.For example, when his wife'schiropodistexpressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher inDavid Copperfieldseemed to reflect her own disabilities, Dickens improved the character with positive features.His plots were carefully constructed and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives.Masses of the illiterate poor would individually pay ahalfpennyto have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up and inspiring a new class of readers. His 1843 novellaA Christmas Carolremains especially popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every creative medium.Oliver TwistandGreat Expectationsare also frequently adapted and, like many of his novels, evoke images of early Victorian London. His 1853 novelBleak House, a satire on the judicial system, helped support a reformist movement that culminated in the1870s legal reformin England.A Tale of Two Cities(set in London and Paris) is regarded as his best-known work of historical fiction. The most famous celebrity of his era, he undertook, in response to public demand, a series of public reading tours in the later part of his career.The termDickensianis used to describe something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings, such as poor social or working conditions, or comically repulsive characters. Early life Charles Dickens was born on 7 February 1812 at 1 Mile End Terrace (now 393 Commercial Road),LandportinPortsea Island(Portsmouth),Hampshire, the second of eight children ofElizabeth Dickens(née Barrow; 1789–1863) andJohn Dickens(1785–1851). His father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam,rigger to His Majesty's Navy, gentleman and head of an established firm, to act as godfather to Charles. Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickens's novelDombey and Son(1848). In January 1815, John Dickens was called back to London, and the family moved to Norfolk Street,Fitzrovia.When Charles was four, they relocated toSheernessand thence toChatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he thought himself a \"very small and not-over-particularly-taken-care-of boy\". Charles spent time outdoors, but also read voraciously, including thepicaresque novelsofTobias SmollettandHenry Fielding, as well asRobinson CrusoeandGil Blas. He read and re-readThe Arabian Nightsand the Collected Farces ofElizabeth Inchbald.At the age of seven, he first sawJoseph Grimaldi—the father of modernclowning—perform at the Star Theatre inRochester, Kent.He later imitated Grimaldi's clowning on several occasions, and would also edit theMemoirs of Joseph Grimaldi.He retained poignant memories of childhood, helped by an excellent memory of people and events, which he used in his writing.His father's brief work as a clerk in the Navy Pay Office afforded him a few years of private education, first at adame schooland then at a school run by William Giles, adissenter, in Chatham. This period came to an end in June 1822, when John Dickens was recalled to Navy Pay Office headquarters atSomerset Houseand the family (except for Charles, who stayed behind to finish his final term at school) moved toCamden Townin London.The family had left Kent amidst rapidly mounting debts and, living beyond his means,John Dickens was forced by his creditors into theMarshalseadebtors' prisoninSouthwark, London in 1824. His wife and youngest children joined him there, as was the practice at the time. Charles, then 12 years old, boarded with Elizabeth Roylance, a family friend, at 112 College Place, Camden Town.Mrs Roylance was \"a reduced impoverished old lady, long known to our family\", whom Dickens later immortalised, \"with a few alterations and embellishments\", as \"Mrs Pipchin\" inDombey and Son. Later, he lived in a back-attic in the house of an agent for theInsolvent Court, Archibald Russell, \"a fat, good-natured, kind old gentleman ... with a quiet old wife\" and lame son, inLant Streetin Southwark.They provided the inspiration for the Garlands inThe Old Curiosity Shop. On Sundays—with his sisterFrances, free from her studies at theRoyal Academy of Music—he spent the day at the Marshalsea.Dickens later used the prison as a setting inLittle Dorrit. To pay for his board and to help his family, Dickens was forced to leave school and work ten-hour days at Warren'sBlackingWarehouse, on Hungerford Stairs, near the presentCharing Cross railway station, where he earned sixshillingsa week pasting labels on pots of boot blacking. The strenuous and often harsh working conditions made a lasting impression on Dickens and later influenced his fiction and essays, becoming the foundation of his interest in the reform of socio-economic and labour conditions, the rigours of which he believed were unfairly borne by the poor. He later wrote that he wondered \"how I could have been so easily cast away at such an age\".As he recalled toJohn Forster(fromLife of Charles Dickens): The blacking-warehouse was the last house on the left-hand side of the way, at old Hungerford Stairs. It was a crazy, tumble-down old house, abutting of course on the river, and literally overrun with rats. Its wainscoted rooms, and its rotten floors and staircase, and the old grey rats swarming down in the cellars, and the sound of their squeaking and scuffling coming up the stairs at all times, and the dirt and decay of the place, rise up visibly before me, as if I were there again. The counting-house was on the first floor, looking over the coal-barges and the river. There was a recess in it, in which I was to sit and work. My work was to cover the pots of paste-blacking; first with a piece of oil-paper, and then with a piece of blue paper; to tie them round with a string; and then to clip the paper close and neat, all round, until it looked as smart as a pot of ointment from an apothecary's shop. When a certain number of grosses of pots had attained this pitch of perfection, I was to paste on each a printed label, and then go on again with more pots. Two or three other boys were kept at similar duty down-stairs on similar wages. One of them came up, in a ragged apron and a paper cap, on the first Monday morning, to show me the trick of using the string and tying the knot. His name was Bob Fagin; and I took the liberty of using his name, long afterwards, in Oliver Twist. When the warehouse was moved to Chandos Street in the smart, busy district ofCovent Garden, the boys worked in a room in which the window gave onto the street. Small audiences gathered and watched them at work—in Dickens's biographerSimon Callow's estimation, the public display was \"a new refinement added to his misery\". A few months after his imprisonment, John Dickens's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, died and bequeathed him £450. On the expectation of this legacy, Dickens was released from prison. Under theInsolvent Debtors Act, Dickens arranged for payment of his creditors, and he and his family left the Marshalsea,for the home of Mrs Roylance. Charles's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, did not immediately support his removal from the boot-blacking warehouse. This influenced Dickens's view that a father should rule the family and a mother find her proper sphere inside the home: \"I never afterwards forgot, I never shall forget, I never can forget, that my mother was warm for my being sent back.\" His mother's failure to request his return was a factor in his dissatisfied attitude towards women. Righteous indignation stemming from his own situation and the conditions under whichworking-classpeople lived became major themes of his works, and it was this unhappy period in his youth to which he alluded in his favourite, and mostautobiographical, novel,David Copperfield:\"I had no advice, no counsel, no encouragement, no consolation, no assistance, no support, of any kind, from anyone, that I can call to mind, as I hope to go to heaven!\" Dickens was eventually sent to the Wellington House Academy inCamden Town, where he remained until March 1827, having spent about two years there. He did not consider it to be a good school: \"Much of the haphazard, desultory teaching, poor discipline punctuated by the headmaster's sadistic brutality, the seedy ushers and general run-down atmosphere, are embodied in Mr Creakle's Establishment inDavid Copperfield.\" Dickens worked at the law office of Ellis and Blackmore, attorneys, of Holborn Court,Gray's Inn, as a juniorclerkfrom May 1827 to November 1828. He was a gifted mimic and impersonated those around him: clients, lawyers and clerks. Captivated with London's theatre scene, he went to theatres obsessively: he claimed that for at least three years he went to the theatre every day.His favourite actor wasCharles Mathewsand Dickens learnt his \"monopolylogues\" (farces in which Mathews played every character) by heart.Then, having learnedGurney's system of shorthand in his spare time, he left to become a freelance reporter. A distant relative, Thomas Charlton, was a freelance reporter atDoctors' Commonsand Dickens was able to share his box there to report the legal proceedings for nearly four years. In 1830, Dickens met his first love, Maria Beadnell, thought to have been the model for the character Dora inDavid Copperfield. Maria's parents disapproved of the courtship and ended the relationship by sending her to school in Paris. Career Journalism and writing In 1832, at the age of 20, Dickens was energetic and increasingly self-confident.He enjoyed mimicry and popular entertainment, lacked a clear, specific sense of what he wanted to become, and yet knew he wanted fame. Drawn to the theatre—he became an early member of theGarrick Club—he landed an acting audition at Covent Garden, where the managerGeorge Bartleyand the actorCharles Kemblewere to see him. Dickens prepared meticulously and decided to imitate the comedian Charles Mathews, but ultimately he missed the audition because of a cold. Before another opportunity arose, he had set out on his career as a writer. In 1833, Dickens submitted his first story, \"A Dinner at Poplar Walk\", to the London periodicalMonthly Magazine.His uncle William Barrow offered him a job onThe Mirror of Parliamentand he worked in theHouse of Commonsfor the first time early in 1832. He rented rooms atFurnival's Innand worked as a political journalist, reporting onParliamentarydebates, and he travelled across Britain to cover election campaigns for theMorning Chronicle. His journalism, in the form of sketches in periodicals, formed his first collection of pieces, published in 1836:Sketches by Boz—Boz being a family nickname he employed as a pseudonym for some years.Dickens apparently adopted it from the nickname 'Moses', which he had given to his youngest brotherAugustus Dickens, after a character in Oliver Goldsmith'sThe Vicar of Wakefield. When pronounced by anyone with a head cold, \"Moses\" became \"Boses\"—later shortened toBoz.Dickens's own name was considered \"queer\" by a contemporary critic, who wrote in 1849: \"Mr Dickens, as if in revenge for his own queer name, does bestow still queerer ones upon his fictitious creations.\" Dickens contributed to and edited journals throughout his literary career.In January 1835, theMorning Chroniclelaunched an evening edition, under the editorship of theChronicle's music critic,George Hogarth. Hogarth invited him to contributeStreet Sketchesand Dickens became a regular visitor to his Fulham house—excited by Hogarth's friendship withWalter Scott(whom Dickens greatly admired) and enjoying the company of Hogarth's three daughters: Georgina, Mary and 19-year-old Catherine. Dickens made rapid progress both professionally and socially. He began a friendship withWilliam Harrison Ainsworth, the author of the highwayman novelRookwood(1834), whose bachelor salon inHarrow Roadhad become the meeting place for a set that includedDaniel Maclise,Benjamin Disraeli,Edward Bulwer-LyttonandGeorge Cruikshank. All these became his friends and collaborators, with the exception of Disraeli, and he met his first publisher, John Macrone, at the house.The success ofSketches by Bozled to a proposal from publishersChapman and Hallfor Dickens to supply text to matchRobert Seymour's engraved illustrations in a monthlyletterpress. Seymour committed suicide after the second instalment and Dickens, who wanted to write a connected series of sketches, hired \"Phiz\" to provide the engravings (which were reduced from four to two per instalment) for the story. The resulting story becameThe Pickwick Papersand, although the first few episodes were not successful, the introduction of the Cockney characterSam Wellerin the fourth episode (the first to be illustrated by Phiz) marked a sharp climb in its popularity.The final instalment sold 40,000 copies.On the impact of the character,The Paris Reviewstated, \"arguably the most historic bump in English publishing is the Sam Weller Bump.\"A publishing phenomenon,John SutherlandcalledThe Pickwick Papers\"he most important single novel of the Victorian era\".The unprecedented success led to numerous spin-offs and merchandise includingPickwickcigars, playing cards, china figurines, Sam Weller puzzles, Weller boot polish and joke books. The Sam Weller Bump testifies not merely to Dickens's comic genius but to his acumen as an \"authorpreneur\", a portmanteau he inhabited long beforeThe Economisttook it up. For a writer who made his reputation crusading against the squalor of theIndustrial Revolution, Dickens was a creature of capitalism; he used everything from the powerful new printing presses to the enhanced advertising revenues to the expansion of railroads to sell more books. Dickens ensured that his books were available in cheap bindings for the lower orders as well as in morocco-and-gilt for people of quality; his ideal readership included everyone from the pickpockets who readOliver Twistto Queen Victoria, who found it \"exceedingly interesting\". On its impact on mass culture, Nicholas Dames inThe Atlanticwrites,\"'Literature' is not a big enough category forPickwick. It defined its own, a new one that we have learned to call 'entertainment'.\"In November 1836, Dickens accepted the position of editor ofBentley's Miscellany, a position he held for three years, until he fell out with the owner.In 1836, as he finished the last instalments ofThe Pickwick Papers, he began writing the beginning instalments ofOliver Twist—writing as many as 90 pages a month—while continuing work onBentley'sand also writing four plays, the production of which he oversaw.Oliver Twist, published in 1838, became one of Dickens's better known stories and was the first Victorian novel with a childprotagonist. On 2 April 1836, after a one-year engagement, and between episodes two and three ofThe Pickwick Papers, Dickens marriedCatherine Thomson Hogarth(1815–1879), the daughter of George Hogarth, editor of theEvening Chronicle.They were married inSt Luke's Church,Chelsea, London. After a brief honeymoon inChalkin Kent, the couple returned to lodgings atFurnival's Inn.The first of theirten children, Charles, was born in January 1837 and a few months later the family set uphome in Bloomsburyat 48 Doughty Street, London (on which Charles had a three-year lease at £80 a year) from 25 March 1837 until December 1839.Dickens's younger brotherFrederickand Catherine's 17-year-old sisterMary Hogarthmoved in with them. Dickens became very attached to Mary, and she died in his arms after a brief illness in 1837. Unusually for Dickens, as a consequence of his shock, he stopped working, and he and Catherine stayed at a little farm onHampstead Heathfor a fortnight. Dickens idealised Mary; the character he fashioned after her,Rose Maylie, he found he could not now kill, as he had planned, in his fiction,and, according to Ackroyd, he drew on memories of her for his later descriptions ofLittle Nelland Florence Dombey.His grief was so great that he was unable to meet the deadline for the June instalment ofThe Pickwick Papersand had to cancel theOliver Twistinstalment that month as well.The time in Hampstead was the occasion for a growing bond between Dickens and John Forster to develop; Forster soon became his unofficial business manager and the first to read his work. His success as a novelist continued. The youngQueen Victoriaread bothOliver TwistandThe Pickwick Papers, staying up until midnight to discuss them.Nicholas Nickleby(1838–39),The Old Curiosity Shop(1840–41) and, finally, his first historical novel,Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty, as part of theMaster Humphrey's Clockseries (1840–41), were all published in monthly instalments before being made into books. In the midst of all his activity during this period, there was discontent with his publishers and John Macrone was bought off, whileRichard Bentleysigned over all his rights inOliver Twist. Other signs of a certain restlessness and discontent emerged; inBroadstairshe flirted with Eleanor Picken, the young fiancée of his solicitor's best friend and one night grabbed her and ran with her down to the sea. He declared they were both to drown there in the \"sad sea waves\". She finally got free, and afterwards kept her distance. In June 1841, he precipitously set out on a two-month tour of Scotland and then, in September 1841, telegraphed Forster that he had decided to go to America.Master Humphrey's Clockwas shut down, though Dickens was still keen on the idea of the weekly magazine, a form he liked, an appreciation that had begun with his childhood reading of the 18th-century magazinesTatlerandThe Spectator. Dickens was perturbed by the return to power of the Tories, whom he described as \"people whom, politically, I despise and abhor.\"He had been tempted to stand for theLiberalsin Reading, but decided against it due to financial straits.He wrote three anti-Tory verse satires (\"The Fine Old English Gentleman\", \"The Quack Doctor's Proclamation\", and \"Subjects for Painters\") which were published inThe Examiner. First visit to the United States On 22 January 1842, Dickens and his wife arrived inBoston, Massachusetts, aboard theRMSBritanniaduring their first trip to the United States and Canada.At this timeGeorgina Hogarth, another sister of Catherine, joined the Dickens household, now living at Devonshire Terrace,Maryleboneto care for the young family they had left behind.She remained with them as housekeeper, organiser, adviser and friend until Dickens's death in 1870.Dickens modelled the character ofAgnes Wickfieldafter Georgina and Mary. He described his impressions in atravelogue,American Notes for General Circulation. InNotes, Dickens includes a powerful condemnation of slavery which he had attacked as early asThe Pickwick Papers, correlating the emancipation of the poor in England with the abolition of slavery abroadciting newspaper accounts of runaway slaves disfigured by their masters. In spite of the abolitionist sentiments gleaned from his trip to America, some modern commentators have pointed out inconsistencies in Dickens's views on racial inequality. For instance, he has been criticised for his subsequent acquiescence in GovernorEyre's harsh crackdown during the 1860sMorant Bay rebellionin Jamaica and his failure to join other British progressives in condemning it.FromRichmond, Virginia, Dickens returned to Washington, D.C., and started a trek westward, with brief pauses in Cincinnati and Louisville, to St. Louis, Missouri. While there, he expressed a desire to see an American prairie before returning east. A group of 13 men then set out with Dickens to visit Looking Glass Prairie, a trip 30 miles intoIllinois. During his American visit, Dickens spent a month in New York City, giving lectures, raisingthe question of international copyright lawsand the pirating of his work in America.He persuaded a group of 25 writers, headed byWashington Irving, to sign a petition for him to take to Congress, but the press were generally hostile to this, saying that he should be grateful for his popularity and that it was mercenary to complain about his work being pirated. The popularity he gained caused a shift in his self-perception according to critic Kate Flint, who writes that he \"found himself a cultural commodity, and its circulation had passed out his control\", causing him to become interested in and delve into themes of public and personal personas in the next novels.She writes that he assumed a role of \"influential commentator\", publicly and in his fiction, evident in his next few books.His trip to the U.S. ended with a trip to Canada—Niagara Falls, Toronto, Kingston and Montreal—where he appeared on stage in light comedies. Return to England Soon after his return to England, Dickens began work on the first of his Christmas stories,A Christmas Carol, written in 1843, which was followed byThe Chimesin 1844 andThe Cricket on the Hearthin 1845. Of these,A Christmas Carolwas most popular and, tapping into an old tradition, did much to promote a renewed enthusiasm for the joys of Christmas in Britain and America.The seeds for the story became planted in Dickens's mind during a trip to Manchester to witness the conditions of the manufacturing workers there. This, along with scenes he had recently witnessed at the Field LaneRagged School, caused Dickens to resolve to \"strike a sledge hammer blow\" for the poor. As the idea for the story took shape and the writing began in earnest, Dickens became engrossed in the book. He later wrote that as the tale unfolded he \"wept and laughed, and wept again\" as he \"walked about the black streets of London fifteen or twenty miles many a night when all sober folks had gone to bed\". After living briefly in Italy (1844), Dickens travelled to Switzerland (1846), where he began work onDombey and Son(1846–48). This andDavid Copperfield(1849–50) mark a significant artistic break in Dickens's career as his novels became more serious in theme and more carefully planned than his early works. At about this time, he was made aware of a large embezzlement at the firm where his brother,Augustus, worked (John Chapman & Co). It had been carried out byThomas Powell, a clerk, who was on friendly terms with Dickens and who had acted as mentor to Augustus when he started work. Powell was also an author and poet and knew many of the famous writers of the day. After further fraudulent activities, Powell fled to New York and published a book calledThe Living Authors of Englandwith a chapter on Charles Dickens, who was not amused by what Powell had written. One item that seemed to have annoyed him was the assertion that he had based the character of Paul Dombey (Dombey and Son) on Thomas Chapman, one of the principal partners at John Chapman & Co. Dickens immediately sent a letter toLewis Gaylord Clark, editor of the New York literary magazineThe Knickerbocker, saying that Powell was a forger and thief. Clark published the letter in theNew-York Tribuneand several other papers picked up on the story. Powell began proceedings to sue these publications and Clark was arrested. Dickens, realising that he had acted in haste, contacted John Chapman & Co to seek written confirmation of Powell's guilt. Dickens did receive a reply confirming Powell's embezzlement, but once the directors realised this information might have to be produced in court, they refused to make further disclosures. Owing to the difficulties of providing evidence in America to support his accusations, Dickens eventually made a private settlement with Powell out of court. Philanthropy Angela Burdett Coutts, heir to the Coutts banking fortune, approached Dickens in May 1846 about setting up a home for the redemption offallen womenof the working class. Coutts envisioned a home that would replace the punitive regimes of existing institutions with a reformative environment conducive to education and proficiency in domestic household chores. After initially resisting, Dickens eventually founded the home, namedUrania Cottage, in the Lime Grove area ofShepherd's Bush, which he managed for ten years,setting the house rules, reviewing the accounts and interviewing prospective residents.Emigration and marriage were central to Dickens's agenda for the women on leaving Urania Cottage, from which it is estimated that about 100 women graduated between 1847 and 1859. Religious views As a young man, Dickens expressed a distaste for certain aspects of organised religion. In 1836, in a pamphlet titledSunday Under Three Heads, he defended the people's right to pleasure, opposing a plan to prohibit games on Sundays. \"Look into your churches—diminished congregations and scanty attendance. People have grown sullen and obstinate, and are becoming disgusted with the faith which condemns them to such a day as this, once in every seven. They display their feeling by staying away . Turn into the streets and mark the rigid gloom that reigns over everything around.\" Dickens honoured the figure ofJesus Christ.He is regarded as a professing Christian.His son,Henry Fielding Dickens, described him as someone who \"possessed deep religious convictions\". In the early 1840s, he had shown an interest inUnitarian ChristianityandRobert Browningremarked that \"Mr Dickens is an enlightened Unitarian.\"Professor Gary Colledge has written that he \"never strayed from his attachment to popular layAnglicanism\".Dickens authored a work calledThe Life of Our Lord(1846), a book about the life of Christ, written with the purpose of sharing his faith with his children and family.In a scene fromDavid Copperfield, Dickens echoedGeoffrey Chaucer's use ofLuke 23:34fromTroilus and Criseyde(Dickens held a copy in his library), withG. K. Chestertonwriting, \"among the greatcanonicalEnglish authors, Chaucer and Dickens have the most in common.\" Dickens disapproved ofRoman Catholicismand 19th-centuryevangelicalism, seeing both as extremes of Christianity and likely to limit personal expression, and was critical of what he saw as the hypocrisy of religious institutions and philosophies likespiritualism, all of which he considered deviations from the true spirit of Christianity, as shown in the book he wrote for his family in 1846.While Dickens advocated equal rights for Catholics in England, he strongly disliked how individual civil liberties were often threatened in countries where Catholicism predominated and referred to the Catholic Church as \"that curse upon the world.\"Dickens also rejected the Evangelical conviction that the Bible was the infallible word of God. His ideas on Biblical interpretation were similar to the Liberal AnglicanArthur Penrhyn Stanley's doctrine of \"progressive revelation\".Leo TolstoyandFyodor Dostoyevskyreferred to Dickens as \"that great Christian writer\". Middle years In December 1845, Dickens took up the editorship of the London-basedDaily News, a liberal paper through which Dickens hoped to advocate, in his own words, \"the Principles of Progress and Improvement, of Education and Civil and Religious Liberty and Equal Legislation.\"Among the other contributors Dickens chose to write for the paper were the radical economistThomas Hodgskinand the social reformerDouglas William Jerrold, who frequently attacked theCorn Laws.Dickens lasted only ten weeks on the job before resigning due to a combination of exhaustion and frustration with one of the paper's co-owners. A Francophile, Dickens often holidayed in France and, in a speech delivered in Paris in 1846 in French, called the French \"the first people in the universe\".During his visit to Paris, Dickens met the French literatiAlexandre Dumas,Victor Hugo,Eugène Scribe,Théophile Gautier,François-René de ChateaubriandandEugène Sue.In early 1849, Dickens started to writeDavid Copperfield. It was published between 1849 and 1850. In Dickens's biography,Life of Charles Dickens(1872),John Forsterwrote ofDavid Copperfield, \"underneath the fiction lay something of the author's life\".It was Dickens's personal favourite among his novels, as he wrote in the author's preface to the 1867 edition of the novel.Hiscollection of lettersincluded a correspondence with Mary Tyler, dated 6 November 1849, on the comedic merits ofPunch and Judy, a puppet show dominated by the anarchic clowning of Mr. Punch. In late November 1851, Dickens moved intoTavistock Housewhere he wroteBleak House(1852–53),Hard Times(1854) andLittle Dorrit(1856).It was here that he indulged in the amateur theatricals described in Forster'sLife of Charles Dickens.During this period, he worked closely with the novelist and playwrightWilkie Collins. In 1856, his income from writing allowed him to buyGads Hill PlaceinHigham, Kent. As a child, Dickens had walked past the house and dreamed of living in it. The area was also the scene of some of the events ofShakespeare'sHenry IV, Part 1and this literary connection pleased him. During this time Dickens was also the publisher, editor and a major contributor to the journalsHousehold Words(1850–1859) andAll the Year Round(1858–1870).Both journals contained a mix of fiction and non-fiction, and dealt with aspects in the culture. For example, the latter journal included Dickens' assessment ofMadame Tussaudswax museum on Baker Street, which he called \"something more than an exhibition, it is an institution.\"In 1854, at the behest ofSir John Franklin's widowLady Jane, Dickens viciously attacked Arctic explorerJohn RaeinHousehold Wordsfor his report to theAdmiralty, based on interviews with localInuit, that the members ofFranklin's lost expeditionhad resorted tocannibalism. These attacks would later be expanded on his 1856 playThe Frozen Deep, which satirises Rae and the Inuit. Twentieth-centuryarchaeologywork inKing William Islandlater confirmed that the members of the Franklin expedition resorted to cannibalism. In 1855, when Dickens's good friend and Liberal MPAusten Henry Layardformed an Administrative Reform Association to demand significant reforms of Parliament, Dickens joined and volunteered his resources in support of Layard's cause.With the exception ofLord John Russell, who was the only leading politician in whom Dickens had any faith and to whom he later dedicatedA Tale of Two Cities, Dickens believed that the political aristocracy and their incompetence were the death of England.When he and Layard were accused of fomenting class conflict, Dickens replied that the classes were already in opposition and the fault was with the aristocratic class. Dickens used his pulpit inHousehold Wordsto champion the Reform Association.He also commented on foreign affairs, declaring his support forGiuseppe GaribaldiandGiuseppe Mazzini, helping raise funds for their campaigns and stating that \"a united Italy would be of vast importance to the peace of the world, and would be a rock inLouis Napoleon's way,\" and that \"I feel for Italy almost as if I were an Italian born.\"Dickens also published dozens of writings inHousehold Wordssupportingvaccination, including multiple laudations for vaccine pioneerEdward Jenner. Following theIndian Mutiny of 1857, Dickens joined in the widespread criticism of theEast India Companyfor its role in the event, but reserved his fury for Indians, wishing that he was the commander-in-chief in India so that he would be able to \"do my utmost to exterminate the Race upon whom the stain of the late cruelties rested.\" In 1857, Dickens hired professional actresses forThe Frozen Deep, which he and hisprotégéWilkie Collinshad written. Dickens fell in love with one of the actresses,Ellen Ternan, and this passion was to last the rest of his life.In 1858, when Dickens was 45 and Ternan 18, divorce would have been scandalous for someone of his fame. After publicly accusing Catherine of not loving their children and suffering from \"a mental disorder\"—statements that disgusted his contemporaries, includingElizabeth Barrett Browning—Dickens attempted to have Catherineinstitutionalised.When his scheme failed, they separated. Catherine left, never to see her husband again, taking with her one child. Her sister Georgina, who stayed at Gads Hill, raised the other children. During this period, whilst pondering a project to give public readings for his own profit, Dickens was approached through a charitable appeal byGreat Ormond Street Hospitalto help it survive its first major financial crisis. His \"Drooping Buds\" essay inHousehold Wordsearlier on 3 April 1852 was considered by the hospital's founders to have been the catalyst for the hospital's success.Dickens, whose philanthropy was well-known, was asked by his friend, the hospital's founderCharles West, to preside over the appeal, and he threw himself into the task, heart and soul.Dickens's public readings secured sufficient funds for an endowment to put the hospital on a sound financial footing; one reading on 9 February 1858 alone raised £3,000. After separating from Catherine,Dickens undertook a series of popular and remunerative reading tours which, together with his journalism, were to absorb most of his creative energies for the next decade, in which he was to write only two novels.His first reading tour, lasting from April 1858 to February 1859, consisted of 129 appearances in 49 towns throughout England, Scotland and Ireland.Dickens's continued fascination with the theatrical world was written into the theatre scenes inNicholas Nickleby, and he found an outlet in public readings. In 1866, he undertook a series of public readings in England and Scotland, with more the following year in England and Ireland. Other works soon followed, includingA Tale of Two Cities(1859) andGreat Expectations(1861), which were resounding successes. Set in London and Paris,A Tale of Two Citiesis his best-known work of historical fiction and includes the famous opening sentence that begins with \"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.\" It is regularly touted as one of the best-selling novels of all time.Themes inGreat Expectationsinclude wealth and poverty, love and rejection, and the eventual triumph of good over evil. In early September 1860, in a field behind Gads Hill, Dickens made a bonfire of most of his correspondence; he spared only letters on business matters. Since Ellen Ternan also destroyed all of his letters to her,the extent of the affair between the two remains speculative.In the 1930s, Thomas Wright recounted that Ternan had unburdened herself to a Canon Benham and gave currency to rumours they had been lovers.Dickens's daughter, Kate Perugini, stated that the two had a son who died in infancy to biographer Gladys Storey in an interview before the former's death in 1929. Storey published her account inDickens and Daughter,though no contemporary evidence was given. On his death, Dickens settled anannuityon Ternan which made her financially independent.Claire Tomalin's bookThe Invisible Womanargues that Ternan lived with Dickens secretly for the last 13 years of his life. The book was subsequently turned into a play,Little Nell, bySimon Gray, anda 2013 film. During the same period Dickens furthered his interest in theparanormalbecoming one of the early members ofThe Ghost Club. In June 1862, he was offered £10,000 for a reading tour of Australia.He was enthusiastic, and even planned a travel book,The Uncommercial Traveller Upside Down, but ultimately decided against the tour.Two of his sons,Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson DickensandEdward Bulwer Lytton Dickens, migrated to Australia, Edward becoming a member of theParliament of New South WalesasMember for Wilcanniabetween 1889 and 1894. Later life On 9 June 1865, while returning from Paris with Ellen Ternan, Dickens was involved in theStaplehurst rail crashin Kent. The train's first seven carriages plunged off acast ironbridge that was under repair and ten passengers were killed.The onlyfirst-classcarriage to remain on the track—which was left hanging precariously off the bridge—was the one in which Dickens was travelling.For three hours before rescuers arrived, Dickens tended and comforted the wounded and the dying with a flask of brandy and a hat refreshed with water.Before leaving, he remembered the unfinished manuscript forOur Mutual Friend, and he returned to his carriage to retrieve it. Dickens later used the experience of the crash as material for his shortghost story, \"The Signal-Man\", in which the central character has a premonition of his own death in a rail crash. He also based the story on several previousrail accidents, such as theClayton Tunnel rail crashin Sussex of 1861. Dickens managed to avoid an appearance at theinquestto avoid disclosing that he had been travelling with Ternan and her mother, which would have caused a scandal.After the crash, Dickens was nervous when travelling by train and would use alternative means when available.In 1868 he wrote, \"I have sudden vague rushes of terror, even when riding in a hansom cab, which are perfectly unreasonable but quite insurmountable.\" Dickens's son, Henry, recalled, \"I have seen him sometimes in a railway carriage when there was a slight jolt. When this happened he was almost in a state of panic and gripped the seat with both hands.\" Second visit to the United States While he contemplated a second visit to the United States, the outbreak of theCivil Warin America in 1861 delayed his plans.On 9 November 1867, over two years after the war, Dickens set sail fromLiverpoolfor his second American reading tour. Landing inBoston, he devoted the rest of the month to a round of dinners with such notables asRalph Waldo Emerson,Henry Wadsworth Longfellowand his American publisher,James T. Fields. In early December, the readings began. He performed 76 readings, netting £19,000, from December 1867 to April 1868.Dickens shuttled between Boston and New York, where he gave 22 readings atSteinway Hall. Although he had started to suffer from what he called the \"true Americancatarrh\", he kept to a schedule that would have challenged a much younger man, even managing to squeeze in some sleighing inCentral Park. During his travels, he saw a change in the people and the circumstances of America. His final appearance was at a banquet the American Press held in his honour atDelmonico'son 18 April, when he promised never to denounce America again. By the end of the tour Dickens could hardly manage solid food, subsisting on champagne and eggs beaten in sherry. On 23 April he boarded theCunardlinerRussiato return to Britain,barely escaping afederal tax lienagainst the proceeds of his lecture tour. Farewell readings In 1868–69, Dickens gave a series of \"farewell readings\" in England, Scotland and Ireland, beginning on 6 October. He managed, of a contracted 100 readings, to give 75 in the provinces, with a further 12 in London.As he pressed on he was affected by giddiness and fits of paralysis. He had a stroke on 18 April 1869 in Chester.He collapsed on 22 April 1869, atPreston, Lancashire; on doctor's advice, the tour was cancelled.After further provincial readings were cancelled, he began work on his final novel,The Mystery of Edwin Drood. It was fashionable in the 1860s to 'do the slums' and, in company, Dickens visitedopium densinShadwell, where he witnessed an elderly addict called \"LaskarSal\", who formed the model for \"Opium Sal\" inEdwin Drood. After Dickens regained enough strength, he arranged, with medical approval, for a final series of readings to partly make up to his sponsors what they had lost due to his illness. There were 12 performances, on 11 January to 15 March 1870; the last at 8:00pm atSt. James's Hall, London. Though in grave health by then, he readA Christmas CarolandThe Trial from Pickwick. On 2 May, he made his last public appearance at aRoyal Academybanquet in the presence of thePrinceandPrincess of Wales, paying a special tribute on the death of his friend, illustrator Daniel Maclise. Death On 8 June 1870, Dickens had another stroke at his home after a full day's work onEdwin Drood. He never regained consciousness. The next day, he died at Gads Hill Place. Biographer Claire Tomalin has suggested Dickens was actually in Peckham when he had had the stroke and his mistress Ellen Ternan and her maids had him taken back to Gads Hill so that the public would not know the truth about their relationship.Contrary to his wish to be buried atRochester Cathedral\"in an inexpensive, unostentatious, and strictly private manner\",he was laid to rest in thePoets' CornerofWestminster Abbey. A printed epitaph circulated at the time of the funeral reads: To the Memory of Charles Dickens (England's most popular author) who died at his residence, Higham, near Rochester, Kent, 9 June 1870, aged 58 years. He was a sympathiser with the poor, the suffering, and the oppressed; and by his death, one of England's greatest writers is lost to the world. A letter from Dickens to the Clerk of thePrivy Councilin March indicates he'd been offered and accepted abaronetcy, which was not gazetted before his death.His last words were \"On the ground\" in response to his sister-in-law Georgina's request that he lie down.On Sunday, 19 June 1870, five days after Dickens was buried in the Abbey, DeanArthur Penrhyn Stanleydelivered a memorial elegy, lauding \"the genial and loving humorist whom we now mourn\", for showing by his own example \"that even in dealing with the darkest scenes and the most degraded characters, genius could still be clean, and mirth could be innocent\". Pointing to the fresh flowers that adorned the novelist's grave, Stanley assured those present that \"the spot would thenceforth be a sacred one with both the New World and the Old, as that of the representative of literature, not of this island only, but of all who speak our English tongue.\" In his will, drafted more than a year before his death, Dickens left the care of his £80,000 estate (£9,668,700 in 2023)to his long-time colleague John Forster and his \"best and truest friend\" Georgina Hogarth who, along with Dickens's two sons, also received a tax-free sum of £8,000 (equivalent to £967,000 in 2023).He confirmed his wife Catherine's annual allowance of £600 (£72,500 in 2023).He bequeathed £19 19s (£2,400 in 2023)to each servant in his employment at the time of his death. Literary style Dickens's approach to the novel is influenced by various things, including thepicaresque noveltradition,melodramaand thenovel of sensibility.According to Ackroyd, other than these, perhaps the most important literary influence on him was derived from the fables ofThe Arabian Nights.Satire andironyare central to the picaresque novel.Comedy is also an aspect of the British picaresque novel tradition ofLaurence Sterne,Henry FieldingandTobias Smollett. Fielding'sTom Joneswas a major influence on the 19th-century novelist including Dickens, who read it in his youthand named a sonHenry Fielding Dickensafter him.Influenced byGothic fiction—a literary genre that began withThe Castle of Otranto(1764) byHorace Walpole—Dickens incorporated Gothic imagery, settings and plot devices in his works.Victorian gothic moved from castles and abbeys into contemporary urban environments: in particular London, such as Dickens'sOliver TwistandBleak House. The jilted brideMiss HavishamfromGreat Expectationsis one of Dickens's best-known gothic creations; living in a ruined mansion, her bridal gown effectively doubles as her funeral shroud. No other writer had such a profound influence on Dickens asWilliam Shakespeare. On Dickens's veneration of Shakespeare,Alfred Harbagewrote inA Kind of Power: The Shakespeare-Dickens Analogy(1975) that \"No one is better qualified to recognise literary genius than a literary genius\".Regarding Shakespeare as \"the great master\" whoseplays\"were an unspeakable source of delight\", Dickens's lifelong affinity with the playwright included seeing theatrical productions of his plays in London and putting on amateur dramatics with friends in his early years.In 1838, Dickens travelled toStratford-upon-Avonand visited the house in which Shakespeare was born, leaving his autograph in the visitors' book. Dickens would draw on this experience in his next work,Nicholas Nickleby(1838–39), expressing the strength of feeling experienced by visitors to Shakespeare's birthplace: the characterMrs Wititterlystates, \"I don't know how it is, but after you've seen the place and written your name in the little book, somehow or other you seem to be inspired; it kindles up quite a fire within one.\" Dickens's writing style is marked by a profuse linguistic creativity.Satire, flourishing in his gift for caricature, is his forte. An early reviewer compared him toHogarthfor his keen practical sense of the ludicrous side of life, though his acclaimed mastery of varieties of class idiom may in fact mirror the conventions of contemporary popular theatre.Dickens worked intensively on developing arresting names for his characters that would reverberate with associations for his readers and assist the development of motifs in the storyline, giving what one critic calls an \"allegorical impetus\" to the novels' meanings.To cite one of numerous examples, the name Mr Murdstone inDavid Copperfieldconjures up twin allusions to murder and stony coldness.His literary style is also a mixture of fantasy andrealism. His satires of British aristocratic snobbery—he calls one character the \"Noble Refrigerator\"—are often popular. Comparing orphans to stocks and shares, people to tug boats or dinner-party guests to furniture are just some of Dickens's acclaimed flights of fancy. On his ability to elicit a response from his works, English screenwriterSarah Phelpswrites, \"He knew how to work an audience and how to get them laughing their heads off one minute or on the edge of their seats and holding their breath the next. The other thing about Dickens is that he loved telling stories and he loved his characters, even those horrible, mean-spirited ones.\" The author worked closely with his illustrators, supplying them with a summary of the work at the outset and thus ensuring that his characters and settings were exactly how he envisioned them. He briefed the illustrator on plans for each month's instalment so that work could begin before he wrote them.Marcus Stone, illustrator ofOur Mutual Friend, recalled that the author was always \"ready to describe down to the minutest details the personal characteristics, and ... life-history of the creations of his fancy\".Dickens employsCockney Englishin many of his works, denoting working-class Londoners. Cockney grammar appears in terms such asain't, and consonants in words are frequently omitted, as in 'ere (here) and wot (what).An example of this usage is inOliver Twist. The Artful Dodger uses cockney slang which is juxtaposed with Oliver's 'proper' English, when the Dodger repeats Oliver saying \"seven\" with \"sivin\". Characters Dickens's biographerClaire Tomalinregards him as the greatest creator of character in English fiction afterShakespeare.Dickensiancharactersare amongst the most memorable in English literature, especially so because of their typically whimsical names. The likes ofEbenezer Scrooge,Tiny Tim,Jacob MarleyandBob Cratchit(A Christmas Carol);Oliver Twist,The Artful Dodger,FaginandBill Sikes(Oliver Twist);Pip,Miss Havisham,EstellaandAbel Magwitch(Great Expectations);Sydney Carton,Charles DarnayandMadame Defarge(A Tale of Two Cities);David Copperfield,Uriah HeepandMr Micawber(David Copperfield);Daniel QuilpandNell Trent(The Old Curiosity Shop),Samuel PickwickandSam Weller(The Pickwick Papers); andWackford Squeers(Nicholas Nickleby) are so well known as to be part and parcel of popular culture, and in some cases have passed into ordinary language: ascrooge, for example, is a miser or someone who dislikes Christmas festivity. His characters were often so memorable that they took on a life of their own outside his books. \"Gamp\" became a slang expression for an umbrella from the characterMrs Gamp, and \"Pickwickian\", \"Pecksniffian\" and \"Gradgrind\" all entered dictionaries due to Dickens's original portraits of such characters who were, respectively,quixotic, hypocritical and vapidly factual. The character that made Dickens famous, Sam Weller became known for hisWellerisms—one-liners that turnproverbson their heads.Many were drawn from real life: Mrs Nickleby is based on his mother, although she did not recognise herself in the portrait,just as Mr Micawber is constructed from aspects of his father's 'rhetorical exuberance';Harold Skimpole inBleak Houseis based onJames Henry Leigh Hunt; his wife's dwarfish chiropodist recognised herself in Miss Mowcher inDavid Copperfield.Perhaps Dickens's impressions on his meeting withHans Christian Anderseninformed the delineation of Uriah Heep (a term synonymous withsycophant). Virginia Woolfmaintained that \"we remodel our psychological geography when we read Dickens\" as he produces \"characters who exist not in detail, not accurately or exactly, but abundantly in a cluster of wild yet extraordinarily revealing remarks\".T. S. Eliotwrote that Dickens \"excelled in character; in the creation of characters of greater intensity than human beings\".One \"character\" vividly drawn throughout his novels is London itself.Dickens described London as amagic lantern, inspiring the places and people in many of his novels.From thecoaching innson the outskirts of the city to the lower reaches of theThames, all aspects of the capital—Dickens's London—are described over the course of his body of work.Walking the streets (particularly around London) formed an integral part of his writing life, stoking his creativity. Dickens was known to regularly walk at least a dozen miles (19 km) per day, and once wrote, \"If I couldn't walk fast and far, I should just explode and perish.\" Autobiographical elements Authors frequently draw their portraits of characters from people they have known in real life.David Copperfieldis regarded by many as a veiled autobiography of Dickens. The scenes of interminable court cases and legal arguments inBleak Housereflect Dickens's experiences as a law clerk and court reporter, and in particular his direct experience of the law's procedural delay during 1844 when he sued publishers in Chancery for breach of copyright.Dickens's father was sent to prison for debt, and this became a common theme in many of his books, with the detailed depiction of life in theMarshalseaprison inLittle Dorritresulting from Dickens's own experiences of the institution.Lucy Stroughill, a childhood sweetheart, may have affected several of Dickens's portraits of girls such as Little Em'ly inDavid Copperfieldand Lucie Manette inA Tale of Two Cities. Dickens may have drawn on his childhood experiences, but he was also ashamed of them and would not reveal that this was where he gathered his realistic accounts of squalor. Very few knew the details of his early life until six years after his death, when John Forster published a biography on which Dickens had collaborated. Though Skimpole brutally sends upLeigh Hunt, some critics have detected in his portrait features of Dickens's own character, which he sought to exorcise by self-parody. Episodic writing A pioneer of theserialpublication of narrative fiction, Dickens wrote most of his major novels in monthly or weekly instalments in journals such asMaster Humphrey's ClockandHousehold Words, later reprinted in book form.These instalments made the stories affordable and accessible, with the audience more evenly distributed across income levels than previous.His instalment format inspired a narrative that he would explore and develop throughout his career, and the regularcliffhangersmade each new episode widely anticipated.WhenThe Old Curiosity Shopwas being serialised, American fans waited at the docks inNew York harbour, shouting out to the crew of an incoming British ship, \"Is little Nell dead?\"Dickens was able to incorporate this episodic writing style but still end up with a coherent novel at the end. He wrote, \"The thing has to be planned for presentation in these fragments, and yet for afterwards fusing together as an uninterrupted whole.\" Another important impact of Dickens's episodic writing style resulted from his exposure to the opinions of his readers and friends. His friend Forster had a significant hand in reviewing his drafts, an influence that went beyond matters of punctuation; he toned down melodramatic and sensationalist exaggerations, cut long passages (such as the episode of Quilp's drowning inThe Old Curiosity Shop), and made suggestions about plot and character. It was he who suggested that Charley Bates should be redeemed inOliver Twist. Dickens had not thought of killing Little Nell and it was Forster who advised him to entertain this possibility as necessary to his conception of the heroine. At the helm in popularising cliffhangers and serial publications in Victorian literature,Dickens's influence can also be seen in televisionsoap operasandfilm series, withThe Guardianstating that \"the DNA of Dickens's busy, episodic storytelling, delivered in instalments and rife with cliffhangers and diversions, is traceable in everything.\"His serialisation of his novels also drew comments from other writers. In Scottish authorRobert Louis Stevenson's novelThe Wrecker, Captain Nares, investigating an abandoned ship, remarked: \"See! They were writing up the log,\" said Nares, pointing to the ink-bottle. \"Caught napping, as usual. I wonder if there ever was a captain yet that lost a ship with his log-book up to date? He generally has about a month to fill up on a clean break, like Charles Dickens and his serial novels.\" Social commentary Dickens's novels were, among other things, works ofsocial commentary.Simon Callowstates, \"From the moment he started to write, he spoke for the people, and the people loved him for it.\"He was a fierce critic of the poverty andsocial stratificationofVictoriansociety. In a New York address, he expressed his belief that \"Virtue shows quite as well in rags and patches as she does in purple and fine linen\".Dickens's second novel,Oliver Twist(1839), shocked readers with its images of poverty and crime: it challenged middle class polemics about criminals, making impossible any pretence to ignorance about what poverty entailed. At a time when Britain was the major economic and political power of the world, Dickens highlighted the life of the forgotten poor and disadvantaged within society. Through his journalism he campaigned on specific issues—such assanitationand theworkhouse—but his fiction probably demonstrated its greatest prowess in changing public opinion in regard to class inequalities. He often depicted the exploitation and oppression of the poor and condemned the public officials and institutions that not only allowed such abuses to exist, but flourished as a result. His most strident indictment of this condition is inHard Times(1854), Dickens's only novel-length treatment of the industrial working class. In this work, he uses vitriol and satire to illustrate how this marginalised social stratum was termed \"Hands\" by the factory owners; that is, not really \"people\" but rather only appendages of the machines they operated. His writings inspired others, in particular journalists and political figures, to address such problems of class oppression. For example, the prison scenes inThe Pickwick Papersare claimed to have been influential in having theFleet Prisonshut down.Karl Marxasserted that Dickens \"issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicians, publicists and moralists put together\".George Bernard Shaweven remarked thatGreat Expectationswas more seditious than Marx'sDas Kapital.The exceptional popularity of Dickens's novels, even those with socially oppositional themes (Bleak House, 1853;Little Dorrit, 1857;Our Mutual Friend, 1865), not only underscored his ability to create compelling storylines and unforgettable characters, but also ensured that the Victorian public confronted issues of social justice that had commonly been ignored. It has been argued that his technique of flooding his narratives with an 'unruly superfluity of material' that, in the gradual dénouement, yields up an unsuspected order, influenced the organisation ofCharles Darwin'sOn the Origin of Species. Literary techniques Dickens is often described as using idealised characters and highly sentimental scenes to contrast with hiscaricaturesand the ugly social truths he reveals. The story of Nell Trent inThe Old Curiosity Shop(1841) was received as extremely moving by contemporary readers but viewed as ludicrously sentimental byOscar Wilde. \"One must have a heart of stone to read the death of little Nell\", he said in a famous remark, \"without dissolving into tears ... of laughter.\"G. K. Chestertonstated, \"It is not the death of little Nell, but the life of little Nell, that I object to\", arguing that the maudlin effect of his description of her life owed much to the gregarious nature of Dickens's grief, his \"despotic\" use of people's feelings to move them to tears in works like this. The question as to whether Dickens belongs to the tradition of thesentimental novelis debatable. Valerie Purton, in her bookDickens and the Sentimental Tradition, sees him continuing aspects of this tradition, and argues that his \"sentimental scenes and characters as crucial to the overall power of the novels as his darker or comic figures and scenes\", and that \"Dombey and Sonis Dickens's greatest triumph in the sentimentalist tradition\".TheEncyclopædia Britannicaonline comments that, despite \"patches of emotional excess\", such as the reported death of Tiny Tim inA Christmas Carol(1843), \"Dickens cannot really be termed a sentimental novelist\". InOliver Twist, Dickens provides readers with an idealised portrait of a boy so inherently and unrealistically good that his values are never subverted by either brutal orphanages or coerced involvement in a gang of youngpickpockets. While later novels also centre on idealised characters (Esther Summerson inBleak Houseand Amy Dorrit inLittle Dorrit), this idealism serves only to highlight Dickens's goal of poignant social commentary. Dickens's fiction, reflecting what he believed to be true of his own life, makes frequent use of coincidence, either for comic effect or to emphasise the idea of providence.For example, Oliver Twist turns out to be the lost nephew of the upper-class family that rescues him from the dangers of the pickpocket group. Such coincidences are a staple of 18th-century picaresque novels, such as Henry Fielding'sTom Jones,which Dickens enjoyed reading as a youth. Reputation Dickens was the most popular novelist of his time,and remains one of the best-known and most-read of English authors. His works have never goneout of print,and have been adapted continually for the screen since the invention of cinema,with at least 200 motion pictures and TV adaptations based on Dickens's works documented.Many of his works were adapted for the stage during his own lifetime—early productions includedThe Haunted Manwhich was performed in theWest End'sAdelphi Theatrein 1848—and, as early as 1901, the British silent filmScrooge, or, Marley's Ghostwas made byWalter R. Booth.Contemporaries such as publisherEdward Lloydcashed in on Dickens's popularity with cheap imitations of his novels, resulting in his own popular 'penny dreadfuls'. Dickens created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest British novelist of theVictorian era.From the beginning of his career in the 1830s, his achievements in English literature were compared to those of Shakespeare.Dickens's literary reputation, however, began to decline with the publication ofBleak Housein 1852–53. Philip Collins callsBleak House\"a crucial item in the history of Dickens's reputation. Reviewers and literary figures during the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s, saw a 'drear decline' in Dickens, from a writer of 'bright sunny comedy ... to dark and serious social' commentary\".The SpectatorcalledBleak House\"a heavy book to read through at once ... dull and wearisome as a serial\"; Richard Simpson, inThe Rambler, characterisedHard Timesas \"this dreary framework\";Fraser's MagazinethoughtLittle Dorrit\"decidedly the worst of his novels\".All the same, despite these \"increasing reservations amongst reviewers and the chattering classes, 'the public never deserted its favourite'\". Dickens's popular reputation remained unchanged, sales continued to rise, andHousehold Wordsand laterAll the Year Roundwere highly successful. As his career progressed, Dickens's fame and the demand for his public readings were unparalleled. In 1868,The Timeswrote, \"Amid all the variety of 'readings', those of Mr Charles Dickens stand alone.\"A Dickens biographer, Edgar Johnson, wrote: \"It was more than a reading; it was an extraordinary exhibition of acting that seized upon its auditors with a mesmeric possession.\"AuthorDavid Lodgecalled him the \"first writer to be an object of unrelenting public interest and adulation\".Juliet John backed the claim for Dickens \"to be called the first self-made global media star of the age of mass culture.\"The word \"celebrity\" first appeared in theOxford English Dictionaryin 1851, and the BBC states \"Charles Dickens was one of the first figures to be called one\".Comparing his reception at public readings to those of a contemporary pop star—the BBC compared his reception in the US toThe Beatles—The Guardianstates, \"People sometimes fainted at his shows. His performances even saw the rise of that modern phenomenon, the 'speculator' orticket tout(scalpers)—the ones in New York City escaped detection by borrowing respectable-looking hats from the waiters in nearby restaurants.\" \"Dickens's vocal impersonations of his own characters gave this truth a theatrical form: the public reading tour. No other Victorian could match him for celebrity, earnings, and sheer vocal artistry. The Victorians craved the author's multiple voices: between 1853 and his death in 1870, Dickens performed about 470 times.\" —Peter Garratt inThe Guardianon Dickens's fame and the demand for his public readings Among fellow writers, there was a range of opinions on Dickens.Poet laureate,William Wordsworth(1770–1850), thought him a \"very talkative, vulgar young person\", adding he had not read a line of his work, while novelistGeorge Meredith(1828–1909), found Dickens \"intellectually lacking\".In 1888,Leslie Stephencommented in theDictionary of National Biographythat \"if literary fame could be safely measured by popularity with the half-educated, Dickens must claim the highest position among English novelists\".Anthony Trollope'sAutobiographyfamously declared Thackeray, not Dickens, to be the greatest novelist of the age. However, bothLeo TolstoyandFyodor Dostoyevskywere admirers. Dostoyevsky commented: \"We understand Dickens in Russia, I am convinced, almost as well as the English, perhaps even with all the nuances. It may well be that we love him no less than his compatriots do. And yet how original is Dickens, and how very English!\"Tolstoy referred toDavid Copperfieldas his favourite book, and he later adopted the novel as \"a model for his own autobiographical reflections\".French writerJules Vernecalled Dickens his favourite writer, writing his novels \"stand alone, dwarfing all others by their amazing power and felicity of expression\".Dutch painterVincent van Goghwas inspired by Dickens's novels in several of his paintings, such asVincent's Chair, and in an 1889 letter to his sister stated that reading Dickens, especiallyA Christmas Carol, was one of the things that was keeping him from committing suicide.Oscar Wilde generally disparaged his depiction of character, while admiring his gift for caricature.Henry James denied him a premier position, calling him \"the greatest of superficial novelists\": Dickens failed to endow his characters with psychological depth, and the novels, \"loose baggy monsters\",betrayed a \"cavalier organisation\".Joseph Conraddescribed his own childhood in bleak Dickensian terms, noting he had \"an intense and unreasoning affection\" forBleak Housedating back to his boyhood. The novel influenced his own gloomy portrait of London inThe Secret Agent(1907).Virginia Woolfhad a love-hate relationship with Dickens, finding his novels \"mesmerizing\" while reproving him for his sentimentalism and a commonplace style. Around 1940–41, the attitude of the literary critics began to warm towards Dickens—led byGeorge OrwellinInside the Whale and Other Essays(March 1940),Edmund WilsoninThe Wound and the Bow(1941) and Humphry House inDickens and His World.However, even in 1948,F. R. Leavis, inThe Great Tradition, asserted that \"the adult mind doesn't as a rule find in Dickens a challenge to an unusual and sustained seriousness\"; Dickens was indeed a great genius, \"but the genius was that of a great entertainer\",though he later changed his opinion withDickens the Novelist(1970, withQ. D. (Queenie) Leavis): \"Our purpose\", they wrote, \"is to enforce as unanswerably as possible the conviction that Dickens was one of the greatest of creative writers\".In 1944, Soviet film director and film theoristSergei Eisensteinwrote an essay on Dickens's influence on cinema, such ascross-cutting—where two stories run alongside each other, as seen in novels such asOliver Twist. In the 1950s, \"a substantial reassessment and re-editing of the works began, and critics found his finest artistry and greatest depth to be in the later novels:Bleak House,Little DorritandGreat Expectations—and (less unanimously) inHard TimesandOur Mutual Friend\".Dickens was among the favourite authors ofRoald Dahl; the best-selling children's author would include three of Dickens's novels among those read by thetitle characterin his 1988 novelMatilda.In 2005,Paul McCartney, an avid reader of Dickens, namedNicholas Nicklebyhis favourite novel. On Dickens he states, \"I like the world that he takes me to. I like his words; I like the language\", adding, \"A lot of my stuff—it's kind of Dickensian.\"ScreenwriterJonathan Nolan's screenplay forThe Dark Knight Rises(2012) was inspired byA Tale of Two Cities, with Nolan calling the depiction of Paris in the novel \"one of the most harrowing portraits of a relatable, recognisable civilisation that completely folded to pieces\".On 7 February 2012, the 200th anniversary of Dickens's birth,Philip Womackwrote inThe Telegraph: \"Today there is no escaping Charles Dickens. Not that there has ever been much chance of that before. He has a deep, peculiar hold upon us\". Legacy Museums and festivals celebrating Dickens's life and works exist in many places with which Dickens was associated. These include theCharles Dickens Museumin London, the historic home where he wroteOliver Twist,The Pickwick PapersandNicholas Nickleby; and the Charles Dickens Birthplace Museum in Portsmouth, the house in which he was born. The original manuscripts of many of his novels, as well as printers' proofs, first editions and illustrations from the collection of Dickens's friend John Forster are held at theVictoria and Albert Museum.Dickens's will stipulated that no memorial be erected in his honour; nonetheless, a life-size bronze statue of Dickens entitledDickens and Little Nell, cast in 1890 byFrancis Edwin Elwell, stands inClark Parkin theSpruce Hillneighbourhood ofPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania. Another life-size statue of Dickens is located atCentennial ParkinSydney, Australia.In 1960 abas-reliefsculpture of Dickens, notably featuring characters from his books, was commissioned from sculptor Estcourt J Clack to adorn the office building built on the site of his former home at 1 Devonshire Terrace, London.In 2014, a life-size statue was unveiled near his birthplace in Portsmouth on the 202nd anniversary of his birth; this was supported by his great-great-grandsons, Ian andGerald Dickens. A Christmas Carolis most probably his best-known story, with frequent new adaptations. It is also the most-filmed of Dickens's stories, with many versions dating from the early years of cinema.According to the historianRonald Hutton, the current state of the observance of Christmas is largely the result of a mid-Victorian revival of the holiday spearheaded byA Christmas Carol. Dickens catalysed the emerging Christmas as a family-centred festival of generosity, in contrast to the dwindling community-based and church-centred observations, as new middle-class expectations arose.Its archetypal figures (Scrooge, Tiny Tim, the Christmas ghosts) entered into Western cultural consciousness. \"Merry Christmas\", a prominent phrase from the tale, was popularised following the appearance of the story.The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, and his exclamation\"Bah! Humbug!'\", a dismissal of the festive spirit, likewise gained currency as an idiom.The Victorian era novelistWilliam Makepeace Thackeraycalled the book \"a national benefit, and to every man and woman who reads it a personal kindness\". Dickens was commemorated on theSeries E £10 noteissued by theBank of Englandthat circulated between 1992 and 2003. His portrait appeared on the reverse of the note accompanied by a scene fromThe Pickwick Papers.The Charles Dickens Schoolis a high school in Broadstairs, Kent. A theme park,Dickens World, standing in part on the site of the formernaval dockyardwhere Dickens's father once worked in the Navy Pay Office, opened inChathamin 2007, but closed on 12 October 2016. To celebrate the 200th anniversary of the birth of Charles Dickens in 2012, theMuseum of Londonheld the UK's first major exhibition on the author in 40 years.In 2002, Dickens was number 41 in theBBC's poll of the100 Greatest Britons.American literary criticHarold Bloomplaced Dickens among thegreatest Western writers of all time.In the 2003 UK surveyThe Big Readcarried out by the BBC, five of Dickens's books were named in theTop 100. Actors who have portrayed Dickens on screen includeAnthony Hopkins,Derek Jacobi,Simon Callow,Dan StevensandRalph Fiennes, the latter playing the author inThe Invisible Woman(2013) which depicts Dickens's alleged secret love affair with Ellen Ternan which lasted for thirteen years until his death in 1870. Dickens and his publications have appeared on a number of postage stamps in countries including: the United Kingdom (1970, 1993, 2011 and 2012 issued by theRoyal Mail—their2012 collectionmarked the bicentenary of Dickens's birth),the Soviet Union (1962), Antigua, Barbuda, Botswana, Cameroon, Dubai, Fujairah, St Lucia and Turks and Caicos Islands (1970), St Vincent (1987), Nevis (2007),Alderney, Gibraltar, Jersey and Pitcairn Islands (2012), Austria (2013) and Mozambique (2014).In 1976, acrateron the planetMercurywas named in his honour. In November 2018 it was reported that a previously lost portrait of a 31-year-old Dickens, byMargaret Gillies, had been found inPietermaritzburg, South Africa. Gillies was an early supporter ofwomen's suffrageand had painted the portrait in late 1843 when Dickens, aged 31, wroteA Christmas Carol. It was exhibited, to acclaim, at theRoyal Academy of Artsin 1844.TheCharles Dickens Museumis reported to have paid £180,000 for the portrait. Works Dickens published 15 major novels, several novellas, a large number of short stories (including a number of Christmas-themed stories), a handful of plays, and several non-fiction books. Novels and novellas Dickens's novels and novellas were initially published in weekly and monthly magazines, the novels in serial format, then reprinted in standard book formats. See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links Works Organisations and portals Museums Other"
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"Alexander Graham Bell Alexander Graham Bell(/ˈɡreɪ.əm/, bornAlexander Bell; March 3, 1847 – August 2, 1922)was a Scottish-bornCanadian-Americaninventor, scientist, and engineer who is credited with patenting the first practicaltelephone. He also co-founded theAmerican Telephone and Telegraph Company(AT&T) in 1885. Bell's father, grandfather, and brother had all been associated with work onelocutionand speech, and both his mother and wife were deaf, profoundly influencing Bell's life's work.His research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices, which eventually culminated in his being awarded the firstU.S. patentfor the telephone, on March 7, 1876.Bell considered his invention an intrusion on his real work as a scientist and refused to have a telephone in his study. Many other inventions marked Bell's later life, including groundbreaking work inoptical telecommunications,hydrofoils, andaeronautics. Bell also had a strong influence on theNational Geographic Societyand",
"Societyand itsmagazinewhile serving as its second president from 1898 to 1903. Beyond his work in engineering, Bell had a deep interest in the emerging science ofheredity.His work in this area has been called \"the soundest, and most useful study of human heredity proposed in nineteenth-century America... Bell's most notable contribution to basic science, as distinct from invention.\" Early life Bell was born inEdinburgh,Scotland, on March 3, 1847.The family home was at South Charlotte Street, and has a stone inscription marking it as Bell's birthplace. He had two brothers: Melville James Bell (1845–1870) and Edward Charles Bell (1848–1867), both of whom died oftuberculosis.His father wasAlexander Melville Bell, aphonetician, and his mother was Eliza Grace Bell (néeSymonds).Born as just \"Alexander Bell\", at age 10 he made a plea to his father to have a middle name like his two brothers.For his 11th birthday, his father acquiesced and allowed him to adopt the name \"Graham\", chosen out of respect for Alexander",
"for Alexander Graham, aCanadianbeing treated by his father who had become a family friend.To close relatives and friends he remained \"Aleck\".Bell and his siblings attended aPresbyterian Churchin their youth. First invention As a child, Bell displayed a curiosity about his world; he gathered botanical specimens and ran experiments at an early age. His best friend was Ben Herdman, a neighbor whose family operated a flour mill. At the age of 12, Bell built a homemade device that combined rotating paddles with sets of nail brushes, creating a simpledehuskingmachine that was put into operation at the mill and used steadily for a number of years.In return, Ben's father John Herdman gave both boys the run of a small workshop in which to \"invent\". From his early years, Bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art, poetry, and music that his mother encouraged. With no formal training, he mastered the piano and became the family's pianist.Though normally quiet and introspective, he reveled in mimicry and \"voice",
"mimicry and \"voice tricks\" akin toventriloquismthat entertained family guests.Bell was also deeply affected by his mother's gradual deafness (she began to lose her hearing when he was 12), and learned a manual finger language so he could sit at her side and tap out silently the conversations swirling around the family parlor.He also developed a technique of speaking in clear, modulated tones directly into his mother's forehead, whereby she would hear him with reasonable clarity.Bell's preoccupation with his mother's deafness led him to studyacoustics. His family was long associated with the teaching of elocution: his grandfather, Alexander Bell, in London, his uncle inDublin, and his father, in Edinburgh, were all elocutionists. His father published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are still well known, especiallyThe Standard Elocutionist(1860),which appeared in Edinburgh in 1868.The Standard Elocutionistappeared in 168 British editions and sold over 250,000 copies in the United States",
"the United States alone. It explains methods to instructdeaf-mutes(as they were then known) to articulate words and read other people's lip movements to decipher meaning. Bell's father taught him and his brothers not only to writeVisible Speechbut to identify any symbol and its accompanying sound.Bell became so proficient that he became a part of his father's public demonstrations and astounded audiences with his abilities. He could decipher Visible Speech representing virtually every language, includingLatin,Scottish Gaelic, and evenSanskrit, accurately reciting written tracts without any prior knowledge of their pronunciation. Education As a young child, Bell, like his brothers, was schooled at home by his father. At an early age, he was enrolled at theRoyal High School, Edinburgh; he left at age 15, having completed only the first four forms.His school record was undistinguished, marked by absenteeism and lackluster grades. His main interest remained in the sciences, especially biology, while he treated",
"while he treated other school subjects with indifference, to his father's dismay.Upon leaving school, Bell traveled to London to live with his grandfather, Alexander Bell, onHarrington Square. During the year he spent with his grandfather, a love of learning was born, with long hours spent in serious discussion and study. The elder Bell took great efforts to have his young pupil learn to speak clearly and with conviction, attributes he would need to become a teacher himself.At age 16, Bell secured a position as a \"pupil-teacher\" ofelocutionand music at Weston House Academy inElgin, Moray, Scotland. Although enrolled as a student in Latin and Greek, he instructed classes himself in return for board and £10 per session.The next year, he attended theUniversity of Edinburgh, joining his brother Melville, who had enrolled there the previous year. In 1868, not long before he departed for Canada with his family, Bell completed his matriculation exams and was accepted for admission toUniversity College London. First",
"London. First experiments with sound Bell's father encouraged his interest in speech and, in 1863, took his sons to see a uniqueautomatondeveloped by SirCharles Wheatstonebased on the earlier work ofBaron Wolfgang von Kempelen.The rudimentary \"mechanical man\" simulated a human voice. Bell was fascinated by the machine, and after he obtained a copy of von Kempelen's book, published in German, and had laboriously translated it, he and Melville built their own automaton head. Their father, highly interested in their project, offered to pay for any supplies and spurred the boys on with the enticement of a \"big prize\" if they were successful.While his brother constructed the throat andlarynx, Bell tackled the more difficult task of recreating a realistic skull. His efforts resulted in a remarkably lifelike head that could \"speak\", albeit only a few words.The boys would carefully adjust the \"lips\" and when abellowsforced air through thewindpipe, a very recognizableMamaensued, to the delight of neighbors who came",
"neighbors who came to see the invention. Intrigued by the results of the automaton, Bell continued to experiment with a live subject, the family'sSkye Terrier, Trouve.After he taught it to growl continuously, Bell would reach into its mouth and manipulate the dog's lips andvocal cordsto produce a crude-sounding \"Ow ah oo ga ma ma\". With little convincing, visitors believed his dog could articulate \"How are you, grandmama?\"Indicative of his playful nature, his experiments convinced onlookers that they saw a \"talking dog\".These initial forays into experimentation with sound led Bell to undertake his first serious work on the transmission of sound, usingtuning forksto exploreresonance. At age 19, Bell wrote a report on his work and sent it to philologistAlexander Ellis, a colleague of his father.Ellis immediately wrote back indicating that the experiments were similar to existing work in Germany, and also lent Bell a copy ofHermann von Helmholtz's work,The Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the",
"Basis for the Theory of Music. Dismayed to find that groundbreaking work had already been undertaken by Helmholtz, who had conveyed vowel sounds by means of a similar tuning fork \"contraption\", Bell pored over the book. Working from his own erroneous mistranslation of a French edition,Bell fortuitously then made a deduction that would underpin all his future work on transmitting sound, reporting: \"Without knowing much about the subject, it seemed to me that if vowel sounds could be produced by electrical means, so could consonants, so could articulate speech.\" He also later remarked: \"I thought that Helmholtz had done it ... and that my failure was due only to my ignorance of electricity. It was a valuable blunder ... If I had been able to read German in those days, I might never have commenced my experiments!\" Family tragedy In 1865, when the Bell family moved to London,Bell returned to Weston House as an assistant master and, in his spare hours, continued experiments on sound using a minimum of laboratory",
"of laboratory equipment. Bell concentrated on experimenting with electricity to convey sound and later installed atelegraphwire from his room in Somerset College to that of a friend.Throughout late 1867, his health faltered mainly through exhaustion. His brother Edward was similarly affected bytuberculosis. While Bell recovered (by then referring to himself in correspondence as \"A. G. Bell\") and served the next year as an instructor at Somerset College,Bath, England, his brother's condition deteriorated. Edward never recovered. Upon his brother's death, Bell returned home in 1867. Melville had married and moved out. With aspirations to obtain a degree atUniversity College London, Bell considered his next years preparation for the degree examinations, devoting his spare time to studying. Helping his father in Visible Speech demonstrations and lectures brought Bell to Susanna E. Hull's private school for the deaf inSouth Kensington, London. His first two pupils weredeaf-mutegirls who made remarkable progress",
"remarkable progress under his tutelage. While Melville seemed to achieve success on many fronts, including opening his own elocution school, applying for a patent on an invention, and starting a family, Bell continued as a teacher. In May 1870, Melville died from complications of tuberculosis, causing a family crisis. His father had also experienced a debilitating illness earlier in life and been restored to health by convalescence inNewfoundland. Bell's parents embarked upon a long-planned move when they realized that their remaining son was also sickly. Acting decisively, Alexander Melville Bell asked Bell to arrange for the sale of all the family property,conclude all his brother's affairs (Bell took on his last student, curing a pronounced lisp),and join his father and mother in setting out for the \"New World\". Reluctantly, Bell also had to conclude a relationship with Marie Eccleston, who, as he had surmised, was not prepared to leave England with him. Canada In 1870, 23-year-old Bell traveled with his",
"traveled with his parents and his brother's widow, Caroline Margaret Ottaway,toParis, Ontario,to stay with Thomas Henderson, aBaptistminister and family friend.The Bells soon purchased a farm of 10.5 acres (4.2 ha) at Tutelo Heights (now called Tutela Heights), nearBrantford, Ontario. The property consisted of an orchard, large farmhouse, stable, pigsty, hen-house, and acarriage house, which bordered theGrand River. At the homestead, Bell set up a workshop in the converted carriage house near what he called his \"dreaming place\",a large hollow nestled in trees at the back of the property above the river.Despite his frail condition upon arriving in Canada, Bell found the climate and environs to his liking and rapidly improved.He continued his interest in the study of the human voice, and when he discovered theSix Nations Reserveacross the river atOnondaga, learned theMohawk languageand translated its unwritten vocabulary into Visible Speech symbols. For his work, Bell was awarded the title of Honorary Chief",
"of Honorary Chief and participated in a ceremony where he donned aMohawkheaddress and danced traditional dances. After setting up his workshop, Bell continued experiments based on Helmholtz's work with electricity and sound.He also modified amelodeon(a type of pump organ) to transmit its music electrically over a distance.Once the family was settled, Bell and his father made plans to establish a teaching practice and in 1871, he accompanied his father to Montreal, where Melville was offered a position to teach his System of Visible Speech. Work with deaf people Bell's father was invited bySarah Fuller, principal of the Boston School for Deaf Mutes (later to become the publicHorace Mann School for the Deaf)to introduce the Visible Speech System by providing training for Fuller's instructors, but he declined the post in favor of his son. Traveling toBostonin April 1871, Bell proved successful in training the school's instructors.He was asked to repeat the program at theAmerican Asylum for Deaf-mutesinHartford,",
"Connecticut, and theClarke School for the DeafinNorthampton, Massachusetts. Returning home to Brantford after six months abroad, Bell continued his experiments with his \"harmonic telegraph\".The basic concept behind his device was that messages could be sent through a single wire if each was transmitted at a different pitch, but work on both the transmitter and receiver was needed. Unsure of his future, he contemplated returning to London to complete his studies, but decided to return to Boston as a teacher.His father helped him set up his private practice by contactingGardiner Greene Hubbard, the president of the Clarke School for the Deaf for a recommendation. Teaching his father's system, in October 1872, Alexander Bell opened his \"School of Vocal Physiology and Mechanics of Speech\" in Boston, which attracted a large number of deaf pupils, with his first class numbering 30 students.While he was working as a private tutor, one of his pupils wasHelen Keller, who came to him as a young child unable to see,",
"unable to see, hear, or speak. She later said that Bell dedicated his life to the penetration of that \"inhuman silence which separates and estranges\".In 1893, Keller performed the sod-breaking ceremony for the construction of Bell's newVolta Bureau, dedicated to \"the increase and diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf\". Throughout his life, Bell sought to assimilate the deaf and hard of hearing with the hearing world. He encouraged speech therapy and lipreading over sign language. He outlined this in an 1898 paperdetailing his belief that, with resources and effort, the deaf could be taught toread lipsand speak (known asoralism),enabling their integration with wider society.Members of theDeaf communityhave criticized Bell for supporting ideas that could cause the closure of dozens of deaf schools, and what some considereugenicistideas.Bell did not support a ban on deaf people marrying each other, an idea articulated by theNational Association of the Deaf (United States),but in his memoirMemoir upon the",
"upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race, he observed that if deaf people tended to marry other deaf people, this could result in the emergence of a \"deaf race\".Ultimately, in 1880, the Second International Congress on Education of the Deaf passed a resolution mandating the teaching of oral communication and banning signing in schools. Continuing experimentation In 1872, Bell became professor of Vocal Physiology and Elocution at theBoston UniversitySchool of Oratory. During this period, he alternated between Boston and Brantford, spending summers in his Canadian home. At Boston University, Bell was \"swept up\" by the excitement engendered by the many scientists and inventors living in the city. He continued his research in sound and endeavored to find a way to transmit musical notes and articulate speech, but although absorbed by his experiments, he found it difficult to devote enough time to experimentation. With days and evenings occupied by his teaching and private classes, Bell began to stay",
"Bell began to stay awake late into the night, running experiment after experiment in rented facilities at his boarding house. Keeping \"night owl\" hours, he worried that his work would be discovered and took great pains to lock up his notebooks and laboratory equipment. Bell had a specially made table where he could place his notes and equipment inside a locking cover.His health deteriorated as he had severe headaches.Returning to Boston in fall 1873, Bell made a far-reaching decision to concentrate on his experiments in sound. Giving up his lucrative private Boston practice, Bell retained only two students, six-year-old \"Georgie\" Sanders, deaf from birth, and 15-year-oldMabel Hubbard. Each played an important role in the next developments. Georgie's father, Thomas Sanders, a wealthy businessman, offered Bell a place to stay in nearbySalemwith Georgie's grandmother, complete with a room to \"experiment\". Although the offer was made by Georgie's mother and followed the year-long arrangement in 1872 where her",
"in 1872 where her son and his nurse had moved to quarters next to Bell's boarding house, it was clear that Mr. Sanders backed the proposal. The arrangement was for teacher and student to continue their work together, with free room and board thrown in.Mabel was a bright, attractive girl ten years Bell's junior who became the object of his affection. Having lost her hearing after a near-fatal bout ofscarlet feverclose to her fifth birthday,she had learned toread lipsbut her father, Gardiner Greene Hubbard, Bell's benefactor and personal friend, wanted her to work directly with her teacher. The telephone By 1874, Bell's initial work on the harmonic telegraph had entered a formative stage, with progress made both at his new Boston \"laboratory\" (a rented facility) and at his family home in Canada a big success.While working that summer in Brantford, Bell experimented with a \"phonautograph\", a pen-like machine that could draw shapes of sound waves on smoked glass by tracing their vibrations. Bell thought it might",
"thought it might be possible to generate undulating electrical currents that corresponded to sound waves.He also thought that multiple metal reeds tuned to different frequencies like a harp would be able to convert the undulating currents back into sound. But he had no working model to demonstrate the feasibility of these ideas. In 1874, telegraph message traffic was rapidly expanding and, in the words ofWestern UnionPresidentWilliam Orton, had become \"the nervous system of commerce\". Orton had contracted with inventorsThomas EdisonandElisha Grayto find a way to send multiple telegraph messages on each telegraph line to avoid the great cost of constructing new lines.When Bell mentioned to Gardiner Hubbard and Thomas Sanders that he was working on a method of sending multiple tones on a telegraph wire using a multi-reed device, the two began to financially support Bell's experiments.Patent matters were handled by Hubbard'spatent attorney,Anthony Pollok. In March 1875, Bell and Pollok visited the",
"Pollok visited the scientistJoseph Henry, then the director of theSmithsonian Institution, to ask his advice on the electrical multi-reed apparatus that Bell hoped would transmit the human voice by telegraph. Henry said Bell had \"the germ of a great invention\". When Bell said that he lacked the necessary knowledge, Henry replied, \"Get it!\" That declaration greatly encouraged Bell to keep trying, even though he had neither the equipment needed to continue his experiments nor the ability to create a working model of his ideas. But a chance meeting in 1874 between Bell andThomas A. Watson, an experienced electrical designer and mechanic at the electrical machine shop of Charles Williams, changed that. With financial support from Sanders and Hubbard, Bell hired Watson as his assistant,and the two experimented withacoustic telegraphy. On June 2, 1875, Watson accidentally plucked one of the reeds and Bell, at the receiving end of the wire, heard the reed's overtones that would be necessary for transmitting speech.",
"speech. That demonstrated to Bell that only one reed or armature was necessary, not multiple reeds. This led to the \"gallows\"sound-powered telephone, which could transmit indistinct, voice-like sounds, but not clear speech. The race to the patent office In 1875, Bell developed anacoustic telegraphand drew up apatent applicationfor it. Since he had agreed to share U.S. profits with his investors Gardiner Hubbard and Thomas Sanders, Bell requested that an associate in Ontario,George Brown, attempt to patent it in Britain, instructing his lawyers to apply for a patent in the U.S. only after they received word from Britain (Britain issued patents only for discoveries not previously patented elsewhere). Meanwhile,Elisha Graywas also experimenting with acoustic telegraphy and thought of a way to transmit speech using a water transmitter. On February 14, 1876, Gray filed acaveatwith the U.S. Patent Office for a telephone design that used a water transmitter. That same morning, Bell's lawyer filed Bell's application",
"Bell's application with the patent office. There is considerable debate about who arrived first and Gray later challenged the primacy of Bell's patent. Bell was in Boston on February 14 and did not arrive in Washington until February 26. On March 7, 1876, theU.S. Patent Officeissued Bell patent 174,465. It covered \"the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically ... by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound\"Bell returned to Boston that day and the next day resumed work, drawing in his notebook a diagram similar to that in Gray's patent caveat. On March 10, Bell succeeded in getting his telephone to work, using a liquid transmitter similar to Gray's design. Vibration of the diaphragm caused a needle to vibrate in the water, varying theelectrical resistancein the circuit. When Bell spoke the sentence \"Mr. Watson—Come here—I want to see you\" into the liquid transmitter,Watson, listening at the",
"listening at the receiving end in an adjoining room, heard the words clearly. Although Bell was, and still is, accused of stealing the telephone from Gray,Bell used Gray's water transmitter design only after Bell's patent had been granted, and only as aproof of conceptscientific experiment,to prove to his own satisfaction that intelligible \"articulate speech\" (Bell's words) could be electrically transmitted.After March 1876, Bell focused on improving the electromagnetic telephone and never used Gray's liquid transmitter in public demonstrations or commercial use. The examiner raised the question of priority for the variable resistance feature of the telephone before approving Bell's patent application. He told Bell that his claim for the variable resistance feature was also described in Gray's caveat. Bell pointed to a variable resistance device in his previous application in which he described a cup of mercury, not water. He had filed the mercury application at the patent office on February 25, 1875, long",
"25, 1875, long before Gray described the water device. In addition, Gray abandoned his caveat, and because he did not contest Bell's priority, the examiner approved Bell's patent on March 3, 1876. Gray had reinvented the variable resistance telephone, but Bell was the first to write down the idea and test it in a telephone. Thepatent examiner, Zenas Fisk Wilber, later stated in anaffidavitthat he was an alcoholic who was much in debt to Bell's lawyer,Marcellus Bailey, with whom he had served in the Civil War. He said he had shown Bailey Gray's patent caveat. Wilber also said (after Bell arrived in Washington D.C. from Boston) that he showed Bell Gray's caveat and that Bell paid him $100 (equivalent to $2,800 in 2023). Bell said they discussed the patent only in general terms, although in a letter to Gray, Bell admitted that he learned some of the technical details. Bell denied in an affidavit that he ever gave Wilber any money. Later developments On March 10, 1876, Bell used \"the instrument\" in Boston to",
"in Boston to call Thomas Watson who was in another room but out of earshot. He said, \"Mr. Watson, come here – I want to see you\" and Watson soon appeared at his side. Continuing his experiments in Brantford, Bell brought home a working model of his telephone. On August 3, 1876, from the telegraph office in Brantford, Bell sent a telegram to the village of Mount Pleasant four miles (six kilometres) away, indicating that he was ready. He made a telephone call via telegraph wires and faint voices were heard replying. The following night, he amazed guests as well as his family with a call between the Bell Homestead and the office of the Dominion Telegraph Company in Brantford along an improvised wire strung up along telegraph lines and fences, and laid through a tunnel. This time, guests at the household distinctly heard people in Brantford reading and singing. The third test, on August 10, 1876, was made via the telegraph line between Brantford and Paris, Ontario, eight miles (thirteen kilometres) away. This",
"away. This test is said by many sources to be the \"world's first long-distance call\".It proved that the telephone could work over long distances, at least as a one-way call. The first two-way (reciprocal) conversation over a line occurred between Cambridge and Boston (roughly 2.5 miles) on October 9, 1876.During that conversation, Bell was on Kilby Street in Boston and Watson was at the offices of the Walworth Manufacturing Company. Bell and his partners, Hubbard and Sanders, offered to sell the patent outright to Western Union for $100,000, equal to $2,861,250 today, but it did not work (according to an apocryphal story, the president of Western Union balked, countering that the telephone was nothing but a toy). Two years later, he told colleagues that if he could get the patent for $25 million (equal to $789,310,345 today), he would consider it a bargain. By then, the Bell company no longer wanted to sell the patent.Bell's investors became millionaires while he fared well from residuals and at one point",
"and at one point had assets of nearly $1 million. Bell began a series of public demonstrations and lectures to introduce the new invention to thescientific communityas well as the general public. A short time later,his demonstration of an early telephone prototypeat the 1876Centennial ExpositioninPhiladelphiabrought the telephone to international attention.Influential visitors to the exhibition included EmperorPedro II of Brazil. One of the judges at the Exhibition,Sir William Thomson(later Lord Kelvin), a renowned Scottish scientist, described the telephone as \"the greatest by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph\". On January 14, 1878, atOsborne House, on theIsle of Wight, Bell demonstrated the device toQueen Victoria,placing calls to Cowes, Southampton, and London. These were the first publicly witnessed long-distance telephone calls in theUK. The queen found the process \"quite extraordinary\" although the sound was \"rather faint\".She later asked to buy the equipment that was used, but Bell",
"was used, but Bell offered to make \"a set of telephones\" specifically for her. TheBell Telephone Companywas created in 1877, and by 1886, more than 150,000 people in the U.S. owned telephones. Bell Company engineers made numerous other improvements to the telephone, which emerged as one of the most successful products ever. In 1879, the company acquired Edison's patents for thecarbon microphonefrom Western Union. This made the telephone practical for longer distances, and it was no longer necessary to shout to be heard at the receiving telephone. Pedro II of Brazil was the first person to buy stock in the Bell Telephone Company. One of the first telephones in a private residence was installed in his palace inPetrópolis, his summer retreat forty miles (sixty-four kilometres) fromRio de Janeiro. In January 1915, Bell made the first ceremonial transcontinentaltelephone call. Calling from the AT&T head office at 15 Dey Street in New York City, Bell was heard byThomas Watsonat 333 Grant Avenue in San",
"Grant Avenue in San Francisco.The New York Timesreported: On October 9, 1876, Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson talked by telephone to each other over a two-mile wire stretched between Cambridge and Boston. It was the first wire conversation ever held. Yesterday afternoon , the same two men talked by telephone to each other over a 3,400-mile wire between New York and San Francisco. Dr. Bell, the veteran inventor of the telephone, was in New York, and Mr. Watson, his former associate, was on the other side of the continent. Competitors As is sometimes common in scientific discoveries, simultaneous developments occurred, as evidenced by a number of inventors who were at work on the telephone.Over 18 years, the Bell Telephone Company faced 587 court challenges to its patents, including five that went to theU.S. Supreme Court,but none was successful in establishing priority over Bell's original patent,and the Bell Telephone Company never lost a case that had proceeded to a final trial stage.Bell's",
"trial stage.Bell's laboratory notes and family letters were the key to establishing a long lineage to his experiments.The Bell company lawyers successfully fought off myriad lawsuits generated initially around the challenges by Elisha Gray andAmos Dolbear. In personal correspondence to Bell, both Gray and Dolbear had acknowledged his prior work, which considerably weakened their later claims. On January 13, 1887, the U.S. government moved to annul the patent issued to Bell on the grounds of fraud and misrepresentation. After a series of decisions and reversals, the Bell company won a decision in the Supreme Court, though a couple of the original claims from the lower court cases were left undecided.By the time the trial had wound its way through nine years of legal battles, the U.S. prosecuting attorney had died and the two Bell patents (No. 174,465, dated March 7, 1876, and No. 186,787, dated January 30, 1877) were no longer in effect, although the presiding judges agreed to continue the proceedings due to",
"proceedings due to the case's importance as aprecedent. With a change in administration and charges of conflict of interest (on both sides) arising from the original trial, theU.S. attorney generaldropped the lawsuit on November 30, 1897, leaving several issues undecidedon the merits. During a deposition filed for the 1887 trial, Italian inventorAntonio Meuccialso claimed to have created the first working model of a telephone in Italy in 1834. In 1886, in the first of three cases in which he was involved,Meucci took the stand as a witness in hope of establishing his invention's priority. Meucci's testimony was disputed due to lack of material evidence for his inventions, as his working models were purportedly lost at the laboratory ofAmerican District Telegraph(ADT) of New York, which was incorporated as a subsidiary of Western Union in 1901.Meucci's work, like that of many other inventors of the period, was based on earlier acoustic principles and, despite evidence of earlier experiments, the final case",
"the final case involving Meucci was eventually dropped upon Meucci's death.But due to the efforts of CongressmanVito Fossella, on June 11, 2002, theU.S. House of Representativesstated that Meucci's \"work in the invention of the telephone should be acknowledged\".This did not put an end to the still contentious issue.Some modern scholars do not agree that Bell's work on the telephone was influenced by Meucci's inventions. The value of Bell's patent was acknowledged throughout the world, and patent applications were made in most major countries. When Bell delayed the German patent application, the electrical firmSiemens & Halskeset up a rival manufacturer of Bell telephones under its own patent. Siemens produced near-identical copies of the Bell telephone without having to pay royalties.The establishment of theInternational Bell Telephone Companyin Brussels, Belgium, in 1880, as well as a series of agreements in other countries eventually consolidated a global telephone operation. The strain put on Bell by his",
"put on Bell by his constant appearances in court, necessitated by the legal battles, eventually resulted in his resignation from the company. Family life On July 11, 1877, a few days after theBell Telephone Companywas established, Bell marriedMabel Hubbard(1857–1923) at the Hubbard estate inCambridge, Massachusetts. His wedding present to his bride was to turn over 1,487 of his 1,497 shares in the newly formed Bell Telephone Company.Shortly thereafter, the newlyweds embarked on a year-long honeymoon in Europe. During that excursion, Bell took a handmade model of his telephone with him, making it a \"working holiday\". The courtship had begun years earlier; however, Bell waited until he was more financially secure before marrying. Although the telephone appeared to be an \"instant\" success, it was not initially a profitable venture and Bell's main sources of income were from lectures until after 1897.One unusual request exacted by his fiancée was that he use \"Alec\" rather than the family's earlier familiar name",
"familiar name of \"Aleck\". From 1876, he would sign his name \"Alec Bell\".They had four children: The Bell family home was in Cambridge, Massachusetts, until 1880 when Bell's father-in-law bought a house in Washington, D.C.; in 1882 he bought a home in the same city for Bell's family, so they could be with him while he attended to the numerous court cases involving patent disputes. Bell was aBritish subjectthroughout his early life in Scotland and later in Canada until 1882 when he became anaturalized citizenof the United States. In 1915, he characterized his status as: \"I am not one of thosehyphenated Americanswho claim allegiance to two countries.\"Despite this declaration, Bell has been proudly claimed as a \"native son\" by all three countries he resided in: the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. By 1885, a new summer retreat was contemplated. That summer, the Bells had a vacation onCape Breton Islandin Nova Scotia, Canada, spending time at the small village ofBaddeck.Returning in 1886, Bell",
"in 1886, Bell started building an estate on a point across from Baddeck, overlookingBras d'Or Lake.By 1889, a large house, christenedThe Lodgewas completed and two years later, a larger complex of buildings, including a new laboratory,were begun that the Bells would nameBeinn Bhreagh(Gaelic:Beautiful Mountain) after Bell's ancestralScottish highlands.Bell also built theBell Boatyardon the estate, employing up to 40 people building experimental craft as well as wartime lifeboats and workboats for theRoyal Canadian Navyand pleasure craft for the Bell family. He was an enthusiastic boater, and Bell and his family sailed or rowed a long series of vessels onBras d'Or Lake, ordering additional vessels from theH.W. Embree and Sonsboatyard inPort Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia. In his final, and some of his most productive years, Bell split his residency between Washington, D.C., where he and his family initially resided for most of the year, and Beinn Bhreagh, where they spent increasing amounts of time. Until the end of",
"Until the end of his life, Bell and his family would alternate between the two homes, butBeinn Bhreaghwould, over the next 30 years, become more than a summer home as Bell became so absorbed in his experiments that his annual stays lengthened. Both Mabel and Bell became immersed in theBaddeckcommunity and were accepted by the villagers as \"their own\".The Bells were still in residence atBeinn Bhreaghwhen theHalifax Explosionoccurred on December 6, 1917. Mabel and Bell mobilized the community to help victims in Halifax. Later inventions Although Alexander Graham Bell is most often associated with the invention of the telephone, his interests were extremely varied. According to one of his biographers,Charlotte Gray, Bell's work ranged \"unfettered across the scientific landscape\" and he often went to bed voraciously reading theEncyclopædia Britannica, scouring it for new areas of interest.The range of Bell's inventive genius is represented only in part by the 18 patents granted in his name alone and the 12 he",
"alone and the 12 he shared with his collaborators. These included 14 for the telephone and telegraph, four for thephotophone, one for thephonograph, five for aerial vehicles, four for \"hydroairplanes\", and two forseleniumcells. Bell's inventions spanned a wide range of interests and included a metal jacket to assist in breathing, theaudiometerto detect minor hearing problems, a device to locate icebergs, investigations on how to separate salt from seawater, and work on findingalternative fuels. Bell worked extensively inmedical researchand invented techniques for teaching speech to the deaf. During hisVolta Laboratoryperiod, Bell and his associates considered impressing amagnetic fieldon a record as a means of reproducing sound. Although the trio briefly experimented with the concept, they could not develop a workable prototype. They abandoned the idea, never realizing they had glimpsed a basic principle which would one day find its application in thetape recorder, thehard discandfloppy discdrive, and",
"discdrive, and othermagnetic media. Bell's own home used a primitive form of air conditioning, in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks of ice. He also anticipated modern concerns with fuel shortages and industrial pollution.Methanegas, he reasoned, could be produced from the waste of farms and factories. At his Canadian estate in Nova Scotia, he experimented withcomposting toiletsand devices to capture water from the atmosphere. In a magazine article published in 1917, he reflected on the possibility of usingsolar energyto heat houses. Photophone Bell and his assistantCharles Sumner Tainterjointly invented a wireless telephone, named aphotophone, which allowed for the transmission of both sounds and normal human conversations on a beam oflight.Both men later became full associates in theVolta Laboratory Association. On June 21, 1880, Bell's assistant transmitted a wireless voice telephone message a considerable distance, from the roof of theFranklin Schoolin Washington, D.C., to Bell at the",
"to Bell at the window of his laboratory, some 700 feet (213 m) away, 19 years before the first voice radio transmissions. Bell believed the photophone's principles were his life's \"greatest achievement\", telling a reporter shortly before his death that the photophone was \"the greatest invention ever made, greater than the telephone\".The photophone was a precursor to thefiber-optic communicationsystems which achieved popular worldwide usage in the 1980s.Its master patent was issued in December 1880, many decades before the photophone's principles came into popular use. Metal detector Bell is also credited with developing one of the early versions of ametal detectorthrough the use of an induction balance, after theshootingofU.S. PresidentJames A. Garfieldin 1881. According to some accounts, the metal detector worked flawlessly in tests but did not findGuiteau's bullet, partly because the metal bed frame on which the President was lying disturbed the instrument, resulting in static.Garfield's surgeons, led by",
"surgeons, led by self-appointed chief physicianDoctor Willard Bliss, were skeptical of the device, and ignored Bell's requests to move the President to a bed not fitted with metal springs.Alternatively, although Bell had detected a slight sound on his first test, the bullet may have been lodged too deeply to be detected by the crude apparatus. Bell's own detailed account, presented to theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Sciencein 1882, differs in several particulars from most of the many and varied versions now in circulation, by concluding that extraneous metal was not to blame for failure to locate the bullet. Perplexed by the peculiar results he had obtained during an examination of Garfield, Bell \"proceeded to theExecutive Mansionthe next morning ... to ascertain from the surgeons whether they were perfectly sure that all metal had been removed from the neighborhood of the bed. It was then recollected that underneath the horse-hair mattress on which the President lay was another mattress",
"another mattress composed of steel wires. Upon obtaining a duplicate, the mattress was found to consist of a sort of net of woven steel wires, with large meshes. The extent of the having been so small, as compared with the area of the bed, it seemed reasonable to conclude that the steel mattress had produced no detrimental effect.\" In a footnote, Bell adds, \"The death of President Garfield and the subsequentpost-mortemexamination, however, proved that the bullet was at too great a distance from the surface to have affected our apparatus.\" Hydrofoils The March 1906Scientific Americanarticle by American pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle ofhydrofoilsandhydroplanes. Bell considered the invention of the hydroplane as a very significant achievement. Based on information gained from that article, he began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat. Bell and assistantFrederick W. \"Casey\" Baldwinbegan hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908 as a possible aid to airplane",
"aid to airplane takeoff from water. Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventorEnrico Forlaniniand began testing models. This led him and Bell to the development of practical hydrofoil watercraft. During his world tour of 1910–11, Bell and Baldwin met with Forlanini in France. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat overLake Maggiore. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to Baddeck, a number of initial concepts were built as experimental models, including theDhonnas Beag(Scottish Gaelic for 'little devil'), the first self-propelled Bell-Baldwin hydrofoil.The experimental boats were essentially proof-of-concept prototypes that culminated in the more substantialHD-4, powered byRenaultengines. A top speed of 54 miles per hour (87 km/h) was achieved, with the hydrofoil exhibiting rapid acceleration, good stability, and steering, along with the ability to take waves without difficulty.In 1913, Dr. Bell hired Walter Pinaud, a Sydney yacht designer and builder as well as the",
"as well as the proprietor of Pinaud's Yacht Yard inWestmount, Nova Scotia, to work on the pontoons of the HD-4. Pinaud soon took over the boatyard at Bell Laboratories on Beinn Bhreagh, Bell's estate nearBaddeck, Nova Scotia. Pinaud's experience in boatbuilding enabled him to make useful design changes to the HD-4. After the First World War, work began again on the HD-4. Bell's report to theU.S. Navypermitted him to obtain two 350-horsepower (260-kilowatt) engines in July 1919. On September 9, 1919, the HD-4 set a world marine speed record of 70.86 miles per hour (114.04 kilometres per hour),a record which stood for ten years. Aeronautics In 1891, Bell had begun experiments to develop motor-powered heavier-than-air aircraft. The AEA was first formed as Bell shared the vision to fly with his wife, who advised him to seek \"young\" help as Bell was at the age of 60. In 1898, Bell experimented withtetrahedralbox kitesand wings constructed of multiple compoundtetrahedral kitescovered in maroon silk.The tetrahedral",
"tetrahedral wings were namedCygnetI, II, and III, and were flown both unmanned and manned (Cygnet Icrashed during a flight carrying Selfridge) in the period from 1907 to 1912. Some of Bell's kites are on display at theAlexander Graham Bell National Historic Site. Bell was a supporter ofaerospace engineeringresearch through theAerial Experiment Association(AEA), officially formed at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, in October 1907 at the suggestion of his wifeMabeland with her financial support after the sale of some of her real estate.The AEA was headed by Bell and the founding members were four young men: AmericanGlenn H. Curtiss, a motorcycle manufacturer at the time and who held the title \"world's fastest man\", having ridden his self-constructed motor bicycle around in the shortest time, and who was later awarded theScientific American Trophyfor the first official one-kilometre flight in theWestern hemisphere, and who later became a world-renowned airplane manufacturer; LieutenantThomas Selfridge, an official",
"an official observer from the U.S. Federal government and one of the few people in the army who believed that aviation was the future;Frederick W. Baldwin, the first Canadian and first British subject to pilot a public flight inHammondsport, New York; andJ. A. D. McCurdy–Baldwin and McCurdy being new engineering graduates from theUniversity of Toronto. The AEA's work progressed to heavier-than-air machines, applying their knowledge of kites to gliders. Moving to Hammondsport, the group then designed and built theRed Wing, framed in bamboo and covered in red silk and powered by a smallair-cooledengine.On March 12, 1908, overKeuka Lake, the biplane lifted off on the first public flight in North America.The innovations that were incorporated into this design included a cockpit enclosure andtail rudder(later variations on the original design would add ailerons as a means of control). One of the AEA's inventions, a practicalwingtip form of the aileron, was to become a standard component on all aircraft.TheWhite",
"aircraft.TheWhite WingandJune Bugwere to follow and by the end of 1908, over 150 flights without mishap had been accomplished. However, the AEA had depleted its initial reserves and only a$15,000 grant from Mrs. Bellallowed it to continue with experiments.Lt. Selfridge had also become the first person killed in a powered heavier-than-air flight in a crash of theWright FlyeratFort Myer,Virginia, on September 17, 1908. Their final aircraft design, theSilver Dart, embodied all of the advancements found in the earlier machines. On February 23, 1909, Bell was present as theSilver Dartflown by J. A. D. McCurdy from the frozen ice of Bras d'Or made the first aircraft flight in Canada.Bell had worried that the flight was too dangerous and had arranged for a doctor to be on hand. With the successful flight, the AEA disbanded and theSilver Dartwould revert to Baldwin and McCurdy, who began the Canadian Aerodrome Company and would later demonstrate the aircraft to theCanadian Army. Heredity and genetics Bell, along",
"Bell, along with many members of the scientific community at the time, took an interest in the popular science of heredity which grew out of the publication ofCharles Darwin's bookOn the Origin of Speciesin 1859.On his estate in Nova Scotia, Bell conducted meticulously recorded breeding experiments with rams and ewes. Over the course of more than 30 years, Bell sought to produce a breed of sheep with multiple nipples that would bear twins.He specifically wanted to see if selective breeding could produce sheep with four functional nipples with enough milk for twin lambs.This interest in animal breeding caught the attention of scientists focused on the study of heredity and genetics in humans. In November 1883, Bell presented a paper at a meeting of theNational Academy of Sciencestitled \"Upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race\".The paper is a compilation of data on the hereditary aspects of deafness. Bell's research indicated that a hereditary tendency toward deafness, as indicated by the",
"as indicated by the possession of deaf relatives, was an important element in determining the production of deaf offspring. He noted that the proportion of deaf children born to deaf parents was many times greater than the proportion of deaf children born to the general population.In the paper, Bell delved into social commentary and discussed hypothetical public policies to bring an end to deafness. He also criticized educational practices that segregated deaf children rather than integrated them fulling into mainstream classrooms. The paper did not propose sterilization of deaf people or prohibition on intermarriage,noting that \"We cannot dictate to men and women whom they should marry and natural selection no longer influences mankind to any great extent.\" A review of Bell's \"Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race\" appearing in an 1885 issue of the \"American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb\" states that \"Dr. Bell does not advocate legislative interference with the marriages of the deaf",
"of the deaf for several reasons one of which is that the results of such marriages have not yet been sufficiently investigated.\" The article goes on to say that \"the editorial remarks based thereon did injustice to the author.\"The paper's author concludes by saying \"A wiser way to prevent the extension of hereditary deafness, it seems to us, would be to continue the investigations which Dr. Bell has so admirable begun until the laws of the transmission of the tendency to deafness are fully understood, and then by explaining those laws to the pupils of our schools to lead them to choose their partners in marriage in such a way that deaf-mute offspring will not be the result.\" Historians have noted that Bell explicitly opposed laws regulating marriage, and never mentioned sterilization in any of his writings. Even after Bell agreed to engage with scientists conducting eugenic research, he consistently refused to support public policy that limited the rights or privileges of the deaf. Bell's interest and",
"Bell's interest and research on heredity attracted the interest ofCharles Davenport, a Harvard professor and head of theCold Spring Harbor Laboratory. In 1906, Davenport, who was also the founder of theAmerican Breeder's Association, approached Bell about joining a new committee on eugenics chaired byDavid Starr Jordan. In 1910, Davenport opened theEugenics Records officeat Cold Spring Harbor. To give the organization scientific credibility, Davenport set up a Board of Scientific Directors naming Bell as chairman.Other members of the board includedLuther Burbank,Roswell H. Johnson,Vernon L. Kellogg, andWilliam E. Castle. In 1921, aSecond International Congress of Eugenicswas held in New York at the Museum of Natural History and chaired by Davenport. Although Bell did not present any research or speak as part of the proceedings, he was named as honorary president as a means to attract other scientists to attend the event.A summary of the event notes that Bell was a \"pioneering investigator in the field of",
"in the field of human heredity\". Death Bell died of complications arising fromdiabeteson August 2, 1922, at his private estate in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, at age 75.Bell had also been affected bypernicious anemia.His last view of the land he had inhabited was by moonlight on his mountain estate at 2:00 a.m.While tending to him after his long illness, Mabel, his wife, whispered, \"Don't leave me.\" By way of reply, Bell signed \"no...\", lost consciousness, and died shortly after. On learning of Bell's death, theCanadian Prime Minister,Mackenzie King, cabled Mrs. Bell, saying: My colleagues in the Government join with me in expressing to you our sense of the world's loss in the death of your distinguished husband. It will ever be a source of pride to our country that the great invention, with which his name is immortally associated, is a part of its history. On the behalf of the citizens of Canada, may I extend to you an expression of our combined gratitude and sympathy. Bell's coffin was constructed of Beinn",
"of Beinn Bhreagh pine by his laboratory staff, lined with the same red silk fabric used in his tetrahedral kite experiments. To help celebrate his life, his wife asked guests not to wear black (the traditional funeral color) while attending his service, during which soloist Jean MacDonald sang a verse ofRobert Louis Stevenson's \"Requiem\": Under a wide and starry sky,Dig the grave and let me lie.Glad did I live and gladly dieAnd I laid me down with a will. Upon the conclusion of Bell's funeral, for one minute at 6:25 p.m. Eastern Time,\"every phone on the continent of North America was silenced in honor of the man who had given to mankind the means for direct communication at a distance\". Alexander Graham Bell was buried atopBeinn Bhreaghmountain, on his estate where he had resided increasingly for the last 35 years of his life, overlookingBras d'Or Lake.He was survived by his wifeMabel, his two daughters, Elsie May and Marian, and nine of his grandchildren. Legacy and honors Honors and tributes flowed to Bell",
"flowed to Bell in increasing numbers as his invention became ubiquitous and his personal fame grew. Bell received numerous honorary degrees from colleges and universities to the point that the requests almost became burdensome.During his life, he also received dozens of major awards, medals, and other tributes. These included statuary monuments to both him and the new form of communication his telephone created, including theBell Telephone Memorialerected in his honor inAlexander Graham Bell Gardensin Brantford, Ontario, in 1917. A large number of Bell's writings, personal correspondence, notebooks, papers, and other documents reside in both the United StatesLibrary of Congress Manuscript Division(as theAlexander Graham Bell Family Papers),and at the Alexander Graham Bell Institute,Cape Breton University, Nova Scotia; major portions of which are available for online viewing. A number of historic sites and other marks commemorate Bell in North America and Europe, including the first telephone companies in the",
"companies in the United States and Canada. Among the major sites are: In 1880, Bell received theVolta Prizewith a purse of 50,000French francs(approximately US$330,000 in today's dollars) for the invention of the telephone from the French government.Among the luminaries who judged wereVictor HugoandAlexandre Dumas,fils.The Volta Prize was conceived byNapoleon IIIin 1852, and named in honor ofAlessandro Volta, with Bell becoming the second recipient of the grand prize in its history.Since Bell was becoming increasingly affluent, he used his prize money to create endowment funds (the 'Volta Fund') and institutions in and around the United States capital of Washington, D.C.. These included the prestigious'Volta Laboratory Association'(1880), also known as theVolta Laboratoryand as the'Alexander Graham Bell Laboratory',and which eventually led to the Volta Bureau (1887) as a center for studies on deafness which is still in operation inGeorgetown, Washington, D.C.The Volta Laboratory became an experimental",
"an experimental facility devoted to scientific discovery, and the very next year it improved Edison's phonograph by substituting wax for tinfoil as the recording medium and incising the recording rather than indenting it, key upgrades that Edison himself later adopted.The laboratory was also the site where he and his associate invented his \"proudest achievement\", \"thephotophone\", the \"optical telephone\" which presagedfibre optical telecommunicationswhile the Volta Bureau would later evolve into theAlexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing(the AG Bell), a leading center for the research andpedagogyof deafness. In partnership withGardiner Greene Hubbard, Bell helped establish the publicationScienceduring the early 1880s. In 1898, Bell was elected as the second president of theNational Geographic Society, serving until 1903, and was primarily responsible for the extensive use of illustrations, including photography, in the magazine.He also served for many years as a Regent of",
"as a Regent of theSmithsonian Institution(1898–1922).The French government conferred on him the decoration of theLégion d'honneur(Legion of Honor); theRoyal Society of Artsin London awarded him theAlbert Medalin 1902; theUniversity of Würzburg, Bavaria, granted him a PhD, and he was awarded theFranklin Institute'sElliott Cresson Medalin 1912. He was one of the founders of theAmerican Institute of Electrical Engineersin 1884 and served as its president from 1891 to 1892. Bell was later awarded the AIEE'sEdison Medalin 1914 \"For meritorious achievement in the invention of the telephone\". Thebel(B) and the smallerdecibel(dB) areunits of measurementofsound pressure level(SPL) invented byBell Labsand named after him.Since 1976, theIEEE'sAlexander Graham Bell Medalhas been awarded to honor outstanding contributions in the field of telecommunications. In 1936, theUS Patent Officedeclared Bell first on its list of the country's greatest inventors,leading to theUS Post Officeissuing a commemorative stamp honoring",
"stamp honoring Bell in 1940 as part of its'Famous Americans Series'. The First Day of Issue ceremony was held on October 28 in Boston, Massachusetts, the city where Bell spent considerable time on research and working with the deaf. The Bell stamp became very popular and sold out in little time. The stamp became, and remains to this day, the most valuable one of the series. The 150th anniversary of Bell's birth in 1997 was marked by a special issue ofcommemorative £1 banknotesfrom theRoyal Bank of Scotland. The illustrations on the reverse of the note include Bell's face in profile, his signature, and objects from Bell's life and career: users of the telephone over the ages; an audiowave signal; a diagram of a telephone receiver; geometric shapes from engineering structures; representations of sign language and the phonetic alphabet; the geese which helped him to understand flight; and the sheep which he studied to understand genetics.Additionally, the Government of Canada honored Bell in 1997 with aC$100",
"in 1997 with aC$100 gold coin, in tribute also to the 150th anniversary of his birth, and with a silver dollar coin in 2009 in honor of the 100th anniversary of flight in Canada. That first flight was made by an airplane designed under Dr. Bell's tutelage, named the Silver Dart.Bell's image, and also those of his many inventions have graced paper money, coinage, and postal stamps in numerous countries worldwide for many dozens of years. Alexander Graham Bell was ranked 57th among the100 Greatest Britons(2002) in an official BBC nationwide poll,and among theTop Ten Greatest Canadians(2004), andthe 100 Greatest Americans(2005). In 2006, Bell was also named as one of the 10 greatest Scottish scientists in history after having been listed in theNational Library of Scotland's 'Scottish Science Hall of Fame'.Bell's name is still widely known and used as part of the names of dozens of educational institutes, corporate namesakes, street and place names around the world. Honorary degrees Alexander Graham Bell, who",
"Graham Bell, who could not complete the university program of his youth, received at least a dozen honorary degrees from academic institutions, including eight honoraryLL.D.s(Doctorate of Laws), two Ph.D.s, a D.Sc., and an M.D.: Portrayal in film, television and fiction Bibliography See also References Notes Citations Further reading External links Multimedia",
"Charles Dickens Charles John Huffam Dickens(/ˈdɪkɪnz/; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an Englishnovelist,journalist,short storywriter andsocial critic. He created some of literature's best-known fictional characters, and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of theVictorian era.His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime and, by the 20th century, critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories are widely read today. Born inPortsmouth, Dickens left school at age 12 to work in a boot-blacking factory when his fatherJohnwas incarcerated in adebtors' prison. After three years, he returned to school before beginning his literary career as a journalist. Dickens edited a weekly journal for 20 years; wrote 15 novels, five novellas, hundreds of short stories and nonfiction articles; lectured and performedreadingsextensively; was an indefatigable letter writer; and campaigned vigorously forchildren's rights, education and other social reforms.",
"social reforms. Dickens's literary success began with the 1836serialpublication ofThe Pickwick Papers, a publishing phenomenon—thanks largely to the introduction of the characterSam Wellerin the fourth episode—that sparkedPickwickmerchandise and spin-offs. Within a few years, Dickens had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most of them published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the serial publication of narrative fiction, which became the dominant Victorian mode for novel publication.Cliffhangerendings in his serial publications kept readers in suspense.The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audience's reaction, and he often modified his plot and character development based on such feedback.For example, when his wife'schiropodistexpressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher inDavid Copperfieldseemed to reflect her own disabilities, Dickens improved the character with positive features.His",
"features.His plots were carefully constructed and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives.Masses of the illiterate poor would individually pay ahalfpennyto have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up and inspiring a new class of readers. His 1843 novellaA Christmas Carolremains especially popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every creative medium.Oliver TwistandGreat Expectationsare also frequently adapted and, like many of his novels, evoke images of early Victorian London. His 1853 novelBleak House, a satire on the judicial system, helped support a reformist movement that culminated in the1870s legal reformin England.A Tale of Two Cities(set in London and Paris) is regarded as his best-known work of historical fiction. The most famous celebrity of his era, he undertook, in response to public demand, a series of public reading tours in the later part of his career.The termDickensianis used to describe something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings,",
"and his writings, such as poor social or working conditions, or comically repulsive characters. Early life Charles Dickens was born on 7 February 1812 at 1 Mile End Terrace (now 393 Commercial Road),LandportinPortsea Island(Portsmouth),Hampshire, the second of eight children ofElizabeth Dickens(née Barrow; 1789–1863) andJohn Dickens(1785–1851). His father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam,rigger to His Majesty's Navy, gentleman and head of an established firm, to act as godfather to Charles. Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickens's novelDombey and Son(1848). In January 1815, John Dickens was called back to London, and the family moved to Norfolk Street,Fitzrovia.When Charles was four, they relocated toSheernessand thence toChatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he thought himself a \"very small",
"a \"very small and not-over-particularly-taken-care-of boy\". Charles spent time outdoors, but also read voraciously, including thepicaresque novelsofTobias SmollettandHenry Fielding, as well asRobinson CrusoeandGil Blas. He read and re-readThe Arabian Nightsand the Collected Farces ofElizabeth Inchbald.At the age of seven, he first sawJoseph Grimaldi—the father of modernclowning—perform at the Star Theatre inRochester, Kent.He later imitated Grimaldi's clowning on several occasions, and would also edit theMemoirs of Joseph Grimaldi.He retained poignant memories of childhood, helped by an excellent memory of people and events, which he used in his writing.His father's brief work as a clerk in the Navy Pay Office afforded him a few years of private education, first at adame schooland then at a school run by William Giles, adissenter, in Chatham. This period came to an end in June 1822, when John Dickens was recalled to Navy Pay Office headquarters atSomerset Houseand the family (except for Charles, who stayed",
"Charles, who stayed behind to finish his final term at school) moved toCamden Townin London.The family had left Kent amidst rapidly mounting debts and, living beyond his means,John Dickens was forced by his creditors into theMarshalseadebtors' prisoninSouthwark, London in 1824. His wife and youngest children joined him there, as was the practice at the time. Charles, then 12 years old, boarded with Elizabeth Roylance, a family friend, at 112 College Place, Camden Town.Mrs Roylance was \"a reduced impoverished old lady, long known to our family\", whom Dickens later immortalised, \"with a few alterations and embellishments\", as \"Mrs Pipchin\" inDombey and Son. Later, he lived in a back-attic in the house of an agent for theInsolvent Court, Archibald Russell, \"a fat, good-natured, kind old gentleman ... with a quiet old wife\" and lame son, inLant Streetin Southwark.They provided the inspiration for the Garlands inThe Old Curiosity Shop. On Sundays—with his sisterFrances, free from her studies at theRoyal Academy",
"at theRoyal Academy of Music—he spent the day at the Marshalsea.Dickens later used the prison as a setting inLittle Dorrit. To pay for his board and to help his family, Dickens was forced to leave school and work ten-hour days at Warren'sBlackingWarehouse, on Hungerford Stairs, near the presentCharing Cross railway station, where he earned sixshillingsa week pasting labels on pots of boot blacking. The strenuous and often harsh working conditions made a lasting impression on Dickens and later influenced his fiction and essays, becoming the foundation of his interest in the reform of socio-economic and labour conditions, the rigours of which he believed were unfairly borne by the poor. He later wrote that he wondered \"how I could have been so easily cast away at such an age\".As he recalled toJohn Forster(fromLife of Charles Dickens): The blacking-warehouse was the last house on the left-hand side of the way, at old Hungerford Stairs. It was a crazy, tumble-down old house, abutting of course on the river, and",
"on the river, and literally overrun with rats. Its wainscoted rooms, and its rotten floors and staircase, and the old grey rats swarming down in the cellars, and the sound of their squeaking and scuffling coming up the stairs at all times, and the dirt and decay of the place, rise up visibly before me, as if I were there again. The counting-house was on the first floor, looking over the coal-barges and the river. There was a recess in it, in which I was to sit and work. My work was to cover the pots of paste-blacking; first with a piece of oil-paper, and then with a piece of blue paper; to tie them round with a string; and then to clip the paper close and neat, all round, until it looked as smart as a pot of ointment from an apothecary's shop. When a certain number of grosses of pots had attained this pitch of perfection, I was to paste on each a printed label, and then go on again with more pots. Two or three other boys were kept at similar duty down-stairs on similar wages. One of them came up, in a ragged",
"up, in a ragged apron and a paper cap, on the first Monday morning, to show me the trick of using the string and tying the knot. His name was Bob Fagin; and I took the liberty of using his name, long afterwards, in Oliver Twist. When the warehouse was moved to Chandos Street in the smart, busy district ofCovent Garden, the boys worked in a room in which the window gave onto the street. Small audiences gathered and watched them at work—in Dickens's biographerSimon Callow's estimation, the public display was \"a new refinement added to his misery\". A few months after his imprisonment, John Dickens's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, died and bequeathed him £450. On the expectation of this legacy, Dickens was released from prison. Under theInsolvent Debtors Act, Dickens arranged for payment of his creditors, and he and his family left the Marshalsea,for the home of Mrs Roylance. Charles's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, did not immediately support his removal from the boot-blacking warehouse. This influenced Dickens's view",
"Dickens's view that a father should rule the family and a mother find her proper sphere inside the home: \"I never afterwards forgot, I never shall forget, I never can forget, that my mother was warm for my being sent back.\" His mother's failure to request his return was a factor in his dissatisfied attitude towards women. Righteous indignation stemming from his own situation and the conditions under whichworking-classpeople lived became major themes of his works, and it was this unhappy period in his youth to which he alluded in his favourite, and mostautobiographical, novel,David Copperfield:\"I had no advice, no counsel, no encouragement, no consolation, no assistance, no support, of any kind, from anyone, that I can call to mind, as I hope to go to heaven!\" Dickens was eventually sent to the Wellington House Academy inCamden Town, where he remained until March 1827, having spent about two years there. He did not consider it to be a good school: \"Much of the haphazard, desultory teaching, poor discipline",
"poor discipline punctuated by the headmaster's sadistic brutality, the seedy ushers and general run-down atmosphere, are embodied in Mr Creakle's Establishment inDavid Copperfield.\" Dickens worked at the law office of Ellis and Blackmore, attorneys, of Holborn Court,Gray's Inn, as a juniorclerkfrom May 1827 to November 1828. He was a gifted mimic and impersonated those around him: clients, lawyers and clerks. Captivated with London's theatre scene, he went to theatres obsessively: he claimed that for at least three years he went to the theatre every day.His favourite actor wasCharles Mathewsand Dickens learnt his \"monopolylogues\" (farces in which Mathews played every character) by heart.Then, having learnedGurney's system of shorthand in his spare time, he left to become a freelance reporter. A distant relative, Thomas Charlton, was a freelance reporter atDoctors' Commonsand Dickens was able to share his box there to report the legal proceedings for nearly four years. In 1830, Dickens met his first love,",
"met his first love, Maria Beadnell, thought to have been the model for the character Dora inDavid Copperfield. Maria's parents disapproved of the courtship and ended the relationship by sending her to school in Paris. Career Journalism and writing In 1832, at the age of 20, Dickens was energetic and increasingly self-confident.He enjoyed mimicry and popular entertainment, lacked a clear, specific sense of what he wanted to become, and yet knew he wanted fame. Drawn to the theatre—he became an early member of theGarrick Club—he landed an acting audition at Covent Garden, where the managerGeorge Bartleyand the actorCharles Kemblewere to see him. Dickens prepared meticulously and decided to imitate the comedian Charles Mathews, but ultimately he missed the audition because of a cold. Before another opportunity arose, he had set out on his career as a writer. In 1833, Dickens submitted his first story, \"A Dinner at Poplar Walk\", to the London periodicalMonthly Magazine.His uncle William Barrow offered him a job",
"offered him a job onThe Mirror of Parliamentand he worked in theHouse of Commonsfor the first time early in 1832. He rented rooms atFurnival's Innand worked as a political journalist, reporting onParliamentarydebates, and he travelled across Britain to cover election campaigns for theMorning Chronicle. His journalism, in the form of sketches in periodicals, formed his first collection of pieces, published in 1836:Sketches by Boz—Boz being a family nickname he employed as a pseudonym for some years.Dickens apparently adopted it from the nickname 'Moses', which he had given to his youngest brotherAugustus Dickens, after a character in Oliver Goldsmith'sThe Vicar of Wakefield. When pronounced by anyone with a head cold, \"Moses\" became \"Boses\"—later shortened toBoz.Dickens's own name was considered \"queer\" by a contemporary critic, who wrote in 1849: \"Mr Dickens, as if in revenge for his own queer name, does bestow still queerer ones upon his fictitious creations.\" Dickens contributed to and edited journals",
"and edited journals throughout his literary career.In January 1835, theMorning Chroniclelaunched an evening edition, under the editorship of theChronicle's music critic,George Hogarth. Hogarth invited him to contributeStreet Sketchesand Dickens became a regular visitor to his Fulham house—excited by Hogarth's friendship withWalter Scott(whom Dickens greatly admired) and enjoying the company of Hogarth's three daughters: Georgina, Mary and 19-year-old Catherine. Dickens made rapid progress both professionally and socially. He began a friendship withWilliam Harrison Ainsworth, the author of the highwayman novelRookwood(1834), whose bachelor salon inHarrow Roadhad become the meeting place for a set that includedDaniel Maclise,Benjamin Disraeli,Edward Bulwer-LyttonandGeorge Cruikshank. All these became his friends and collaborators, with the exception of Disraeli, and he met his first publisher, John Macrone, at the house.The success ofSketches by Bozled to a proposal from publishersChapman and Hallfor Dickens",
"and Hallfor Dickens to supply text to matchRobert Seymour's engraved illustrations in a monthlyletterpress. Seymour committed suicide after the second instalment and Dickens, who wanted to write a connected series of sketches, hired \"Phiz\" to provide the engravings (which were reduced from four to two per instalment) for the story. The resulting story becameThe Pickwick Papersand, although the first few episodes were not successful, the introduction of the Cockney characterSam Wellerin the fourth episode (the first to be illustrated by Phiz) marked a sharp climb in its popularity.The final instalment sold 40,000 copies.On the impact of the character,The Paris Reviewstated, \"arguably the most historic bump in English publishing is the Sam Weller Bump.\"A publishing phenomenon,John SutherlandcalledThe Pickwick Papers\"he most important single novel of the Victorian era\".The unprecedented success led to numerous spin-offs and merchandise includingPickwickcigars, playing cards, china figurines, Sam Weller puzzles,",
"Sam Weller puzzles, Weller boot polish and joke books. The Sam Weller Bump testifies not merely to Dickens's comic genius but to his acumen as an \"authorpreneur\", a portmanteau he inhabited long beforeThe Economisttook it up. For a writer who made his reputation crusading against the squalor of theIndustrial Revolution, Dickens was a creature of capitalism; he used everything from the powerful new printing presses to the enhanced advertising revenues to the expansion of railroads to sell more books. Dickens ensured that his books were available in cheap bindings for the lower orders as well as in morocco-and-gilt for people of quality; his ideal readership included everyone from the pickpockets who readOliver Twistto Queen Victoria, who found it \"exceedingly interesting\". On its impact on mass culture, Nicholas Dames inThe Atlanticwrites,\"'Literature' is not a big enough category forPickwick. It defined its own, a new one that we have learned to call 'entertainment'.\"In November 1836, Dickens accepted the",
"accepted the position of editor ofBentley's Miscellany, a position he held for three years, until he fell out with the owner.In 1836, as he finished the last instalments ofThe Pickwick Papers, he began writing the beginning instalments ofOliver Twist—writing as many as 90 pages a month—while continuing work onBentley'sand also writing four plays, the production of which he oversaw.Oliver Twist, published in 1838, became one of Dickens's better known stories and was the first Victorian novel with a childprotagonist. On 2 April 1836, after a one-year engagement, and between episodes two and three ofThe Pickwick Papers, Dickens marriedCatherine Thomson Hogarth(1815–1879), the daughter of George Hogarth, editor of theEvening Chronicle.They were married inSt Luke's Church,Chelsea, London. After a brief honeymoon inChalkin Kent, the couple returned to lodgings atFurnival's Inn.The first of theirten children, Charles, was born in January 1837 and a few months later the family set uphome in Bloomsburyat 48 Doughty",
"48 Doughty Street, London (on which Charles had a three-year lease at £80 a year) from 25 March 1837 until December 1839.Dickens's younger brotherFrederickand Catherine's 17-year-old sisterMary Hogarthmoved in with them. Dickens became very attached to Mary, and she died in his arms after a brief illness in 1837. Unusually for Dickens, as a consequence of his shock, he stopped working, and he and Catherine stayed at a little farm onHampstead Heathfor a fortnight. Dickens idealised Mary; the character he fashioned after her,Rose Maylie, he found he could not now kill, as he had planned, in his fiction,and, according to Ackroyd, he drew on memories of her for his later descriptions ofLittle Nelland Florence Dombey.His grief was so great that he was unable to meet the deadline for the June instalment ofThe Pickwick Papersand had to cancel theOliver Twistinstalment that month as well.The time in Hampstead was the occasion for a growing bond between Dickens and John Forster to develop; Forster soon became his",
"soon became his unofficial business manager and the first to read his work. His success as a novelist continued. The youngQueen Victoriaread bothOliver TwistandThe Pickwick Papers, staying up until midnight to discuss them.Nicholas Nickleby(1838–39),The Old Curiosity Shop(1840–41) and, finally, his first historical novel,Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty, as part of theMaster Humphrey's Clockseries (1840–41), were all published in monthly instalments before being made into books. In the midst of all his activity during this period, there was discontent with his publishers and John Macrone was bought off, whileRichard Bentleysigned over all his rights inOliver Twist. Other signs of a certain restlessness and discontent emerged; inBroadstairshe flirted with Eleanor Picken, the young fiancée of his solicitor's best friend and one night grabbed her and ran with her down to the sea. He declared they were both to drown there in the \"sad sea waves\". She finally got free, and afterwards kept her",
"afterwards kept her distance. In June 1841, he precipitously set out on a two-month tour of Scotland and then, in September 1841, telegraphed Forster that he had decided to go to America.Master Humphrey's Clockwas shut down, though Dickens was still keen on the idea of the weekly magazine, a form he liked, an appreciation that had begun with his childhood reading of the 18th-century magazinesTatlerandThe Spectator. Dickens was perturbed by the return to power of the Tories, whom he described as \"people whom, politically, I despise and abhor.\"He had been tempted to stand for theLiberalsin Reading, but decided against it due to financial straits.He wrote three anti-Tory verse satires (\"The Fine Old English Gentleman\", \"The Quack Doctor's Proclamation\", and \"Subjects for Painters\") which were published inThe Examiner. First visit to the United States On 22 January 1842, Dickens and his wife arrived inBoston, Massachusetts, aboard theRMSBritanniaduring their first trip to the United States and Canada.At this",
"and Canada.At this timeGeorgina Hogarth, another sister of Catherine, joined the Dickens household, now living at Devonshire Terrace,Maryleboneto care for the young family they had left behind.She remained with them as housekeeper, organiser, adviser and friend until Dickens's death in 1870.Dickens modelled the character ofAgnes Wickfieldafter Georgina and Mary. He described his impressions in atravelogue,American Notes for General Circulation. InNotes, Dickens includes a powerful condemnation of slavery which he had attacked as early asThe Pickwick Papers, correlating the emancipation of the poor in England with the abolition of slavery abroadciting newspaper accounts of runaway slaves disfigured by their masters. In spite of the abolitionist sentiments gleaned from his trip to America, some modern commentators have pointed out inconsistencies in Dickens's views on racial inequality. For instance, he has been criticised for his subsequent acquiescence in GovernorEyre's harsh crackdown during the 1860sMorant",
"the 1860sMorant Bay rebellionin Jamaica and his failure to join other British progressives in condemning it.FromRichmond, Virginia, Dickens returned to Washington, D.C., and started a trek westward, with brief pauses in Cincinnati and Louisville, to St. Louis, Missouri. While there, he expressed a desire to see an American prairie before returning east. A group of 13 men then set out with Dickens to visit Looking Glass Prairie, a trip 30 miles intoIllinois. During his American visit, Dickens spent a month in New York City, giving lectures, raisingthe question of international copyright lawsand the pirating of his work in America.He persuaded a group of 25 writers, headed byWashington Irving, to sign a petition for him to take to Congress, but the press were generally hostile to this, saying that he should be grateful for his popularity and that it was mercenary to complain about his work being pirated. The popularity he gained caused a shift in his self-perception according to critic Kate Flint, who writes",
"Flint, who writes that he \"found himself a cultural commodity, and its circulation had passed out his control\", causing him to become interested in and delve into themes of public and personal personas in the next novels.She writes that he assumed a role of \"influential commentator\", publicly and in his fiction, evident in his next few books.His trip to the U.S. ended with a trip to Canada—Niagara Falls, Toronto, Kingston and Montreal—where he appeared on stage in light comedies. Return to England Soon after his return to England, Dickens began work on the first of his Christmas stories,A Christmas Carol, written in 1843, which was followed byThe Chimesin 1844 andThe Cricket on the Hearthin 1845. Of these,A Christmas Carolwas most popular and, tapping into an old tradition, did much to promote a renewed enthusiasm for the joys of Christmas in Britain and America.The seeds for the story became planted in Dickens's mind during a trip to Manchester to witness the conditions of the manufacturing workers there.",
"workers there. This, along with scenes he had recently witnessed at the Field LaneRagged School, caused Dickens to resolve to \"strike a sledge hammer blow\" for the poor. As the idea for the story took shape and the writing began in earnest, Dickens became engrossed in the book. He later wrote that as the tale unfolded he \"wept and laughed, and wept again\" as he \"walked about the black streets of London fifteen or twenty miles many a night when all sober folks had gone to bed\". After living briefly in Italy (1844), Dickens travelled to Switzerland (1846), where he began work onDombey and Son(1846–48). This andDavid Copperfield(1849–50) mark a significant artistic break in Dickens's career as his novels became more serious in theme and more carefully planned than his early works. At about this time, he was made aware of a large embezzlement at the firm where his brother,Augustus, worked (John Chapman & Co). It had been carried out byThomas Powell, a clerk, who was on friendly terms with Dickens and who had",
"Dickens and who had acted as mentor to Augustus when he started work. Powell was also an author and poet and knew many of the famous writers of the day. After further fraudulent activities, Powell fled to New York and published a book calledThe Living Authors of Englandwith a chapter on Charles Dickens, who was not amused by what Powell had written. One item that seemed to have annoyed him was the assertion that he had based the character of Paul Dombey (Dombey and Son) on Thomas Chapman, one of the principal partners at John Chapman & Co. Dickens immediately sent a letter toLewis Gaylord Clark, editor of the New York literary magazineThe Knickerbocker, saying that Powell was a forger and thief. Clark published the letter in theNew-York Tribuneand several other papers picked up on the story. Powell began proceedings to sue these publications and Clark was arrested. Dickens, realising that he had acted in haste, contacted John Chapman & Co to seek written confirmation of Powell's guilt. Dickens did receive a",
"did receive a reply confirming Powell's embezzlement, but once the directors realised this information might have to be produced in court, they refused to make further disclosures. Owing to the difficulties of providing evidence in America to support his accusations, Dickens eventually made a private settlement with Powell out of court. Philanthropy Angela Burdett Coutts, heir to the Coutts banking fortune, approached Dickens in May 1846 about setting up a home for the redemption offallen womenof the working class. Coutts envisioned a home that would replace the punitive regimes of existing institutions with a reformative environment conducive to education and proficiency in domestic household chores. After initially resisting, Dickens eventually founded the home, namedUrania Cottage, in the Lime Grove area ofShepherd's Bush, which he managed for ten years,setting the house rules, reviewing the accounts and interviewing prospective residents.Emigration and marriage were central to Dickens's agenda for the",
"agenda for the women on leaving Urania Cottage, from which it is estimated that about 100 women graduated between 1847 and 1859. Religious views As a young man, Dickens expressed a distaste for certain aspects of organised religion. In 1836, in a pamphlet titledSunday Under Three Heads, he defended the people's right to pleasure, opposing a plan to prohibit games on Sundays. \"Look into your churches—diminished congregations and scanty attendance. People have grown sullen and obstinate, and are becoming disgusted with the faith which condemns them to such a day as this, once in every seven. They display their feeling by staying away . Turn into the streets and mark the rigid gloom that reigns over everything around.\" Dickens honoured the figure ofJesus Christ.He is regarded as a professing Christian.His son,Henry Fielding Dickens, described him as someone who \"possessed deep religious convictions\". In the early 1840s, he had shown an interest inUnitarian ChristianityandRobert Browningremarked that \"Mr",
"that \"Mr Dickens is an enlightened Unitarian.\"Professor Gary Colledge has written that he \"never strayed from his attachment to popular layAnglicanism\".Dickens authored a work calledThe Life of Our Lord(1846), a book about the life of Christ, written with the purpose of sharing his faith with his children and family.In a scene fromDavid Copperfield, Dickens echoedGeoffrey Chaucer's use ofLuke 23:34fromTroilus and Criseyde(Dickens held a copy in his library), withG. K. Chestertonwriting, \"among the greatcanonicalEnglish authors, Chaucer and Dickens have the most in common.\" Dickens disapproved ofRoman Catholicismand 19th-centuryevangelicalism, seeing both as extremes of Christianity and likely to limit personal expression, and was critical of what he saw as the hypocrisy of religious institutions and philosophies likespiritualism, all of which he considered deviations from the true spirit of Christianity, as shown in the book he wrote for his family in 1846.While Dickens advocated equal rights for Catholics",
"for Catholics in England, he strongly disliked how individual civil liberties were often threatened in countries where Catholicism predominated and referred to the Catholic Church as \"that curse upon the world.\"Dickens also rejected the Evangelical conviction that the Bible was the infallible word of God. His ideas on Biblical interpretation were similar to the Liberal AnglicanArthur Penrhyn Stanley's doctrine of \"progressive revelation\".Leo TolstoyandFyodor Dostoyevskyreferred to Dickens as \"that great Christian writer\". Middle years In December 1845, Dickens took up the editorship of the London-basedDaily News, a liberal paper through which Dickens hoped to advocate, in his own words, \"the Principles of Progress and Improvement, of Education and Civil and Religious Liberty and Equal Legislation.\"Among the other contributors Dickens chose to write for the paper were the radical economistThomas Hodgskinand the social reformerDouglas William Jerrold, who frequently attacked theCorn Laws.Dickens lasted only",
"lasted only ten weeks on the job before resigning due to a combination of exhaustion and frustration with one of the paper's co-owners. A Francophile, Dickens often holidayed in France and, in a speech delivered in Paris in 1846 in French, called the French \"the first people in the universe\".During his visit to Paris, Dickens met the French literatiAlexandre Dumas,Victor Hugo,Eugène Scribe,Théophile Gautier,François-René de ChateaubriandandEugène Sue.In early 1849, Dickens started to writeDavid Copperfield. It was published between 1849 and 1850. In Dickens's biography,Life of Charles Dickens(1872),John Forsterwrote ofDavid Copperfield, \"underneath the fiction lay something of the author's life\".It was Dickens's personal favourite among his novels, as he wrote in the author's preface to the 1867 edition of the novel.Hiscollection of lettersincluded a correspondence with Mary Tyler, dated 6 November 1849, on the comedic merits ofPunch and Judy, a puppet show dominated by the anarchic clowning of Mr. Punch. In",
"of Mr. Punch. In late November 1851, Dickens moved intoTavistock Housewhere he wroteBleak House(1852–53),Hard Times(1854) andLittle Dorrit(1856).It was here that he indulged in the amateur theatricals described in Forster'sLife of Charles Dickens.During this period, he worked closely with the novelist and playwrightWilkie Collins. In 1856, his income from writing allowed him to buyGads Hill PlaceinHigham, Kent. As a child, Dickens had walked past the house and dreamed of living in it. The area was also the scene of some of the events ofShakespeare'sHenry IV, Part 1and this literary connection pleased him. During this time Dickens was also the publisher, editor and a major contributor to the journalsHousehold Words(1850–1859) andAll the Year Round(1858–1870).Both journals contained a mix of fiction and non-fiction, and dealt with aspects in the culture. For example, the latter journal included Dickens' assessment ofMadame Tussaudswax museum on Baker Street, which he called \"something more than an exhibition,",
"than an exhibition, it is an institution.\"In 1854, at the behest ofSir John Franklin's widowLady Jane, Dickens viciously attacked Arctic explorerJohn RaeinHousehold Wordsfor his report to theAdmiralty, based on interviews with localInuit, that the members ofFranklin's lost expeditionhad resorted tocannibalism. These attacks would later be expanded on his 1856 playThe Frozen Deep, which satirises Rae and the Inuit. Twentieth-centuryarchaeologywork inKing William Islandlater confirmed that the members of the Franklin expedition resorted to cannibalism. In 1855, when Dickens's good friend and Liberal MPAusten Henry Layardformed an Administrative Reform Association to demand significant reforms of Parliament, Dickens joined and volunteered his resources in support of Layard's cause.With the exception ofLord John Russell, who was the only leading politician in whom Dickens had any faith and to whom he later dedicatedA Tale of Two Cities, Dickens believed that the political aristocracy and their incompetence were",
"incompetence were the death of England.When he and Layard were accused of fomenting class conflict, Dickens replied that the classes were already in opposition and the fault was with the aristocratic class. Dickens used his pulpit inHousehold Wordsto champion the Reform Association.He also commented on foreign affairs, declaring his support forGiuseppe GaribaldiandGiuseppe Mazzini, helping raise funds for their campaigns and stating that \"a united Italy would be of vast importance to the peace of the world, and would be a rock inLouis Napoleon's way,\" and that \"I feel for Italy almost as if I were an Italian born.\"Dickens also published dozens of writings inHousehold Wordssupportingvaccination, including multiple laudations for vaccine pioneerEdward Jenner. Following theIndian Mutiny of 1857, Dickens joined in the widespread criticism of theEast India Companyfor its role in the event, but reserved his fury for Indians, wishing that he was the commander-in-chief in India so that he would be able to \"do my",
"be able to \"do my utmost to exterminate the Race upon whom the stain of the late cruelties rested.\" In 1857, Dickens hired professional actresses forThe Frozen Deep, which he and hisprotégéWilkie Collinshad written. Dickens fell in love with one of the actresses,Ellen Ternan, and this passion was to last the rest of his life.In 1858, when Dickens was 45 and Ternan 18, divorce would have been scandalous for someone of his fame. After publicly accusing Catherine of not loving their children and suffering from \"a mental disorder\"—statements that disgusted his contemporaries, includingElizabeth Barrett Browning—Dickens attempted to have Catherineinstitutionalised.When his scheme failed, they separated. Catherine left, never to see her husband again, taking with her one child. Her sister Georgina, who stayed at Gads Hill, raised the other children. During this period, whilst pondering a project to give public readings for his own profit, Dickens was approached through a charitable appeal byGreat Ormond Street",
"Ormond Street Hospitalto help it survive its first major financial crisis. His \"Drooping Buds\" essay inHousehold Wordsearlier on 3 April 1852 was considered by the hospital's founders to have been the catalyst for the hospital's success.Dickens, whose philanthropy was well-known, was asked by his friend, the hospital's founderCharles West, to preside over the appeal, and he threw himself into the task, heart and soul.Dickens's public readings secured sufficient funds for an endowment to put the hospital on a sound financial footing; one reading on 9 February 1858 alone raised £3,000. After separating from Catherine,Dickens undertook a series of popular and remunerative reading tours which, together with his journalism, were to absorb most of his creative energies for the next decade, in which he was to write only two novels.His first reading tour, lasting from April 1858 to February 1859, consisted of 129 appearances in 49 towns throughout England, Scotland and Ireland.Dickens's continued fascination with",
"fascination with the theatrical world was written into the theatre scenes inNicholas Nickleby, and he found an outlet in public readings. In 1866, he undertook a series of public readings in England and Scotland, with more the following year in England and Ireland. Other works soon followed, includingA Tale of Two Cities(1859) andGreat Expectations(1861), which were resounding successes. Set in London and Paris,A Tale of Two Citiesis his best-known work of historical fiction and includes the famous opening sentence that begins with \"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.\" It is regularly touted as one of the best-selling novels of all time.Themes inGreat Expectationsinclude wealth and poverty, love and rejection, and the eventual triumph of good over evil. In early September 1860, in a field behind Gads Hill, Dickens made a bonfire of most of his correspondence; he spared only letters on business matters. Since Ellen Ternan also destroyed all of his letters to her,the extent of the affair",
"of the affair between the two remains speculative.In the 1930s, Thomas Wright recounted that Ternan had unburdened herself to a Canon Benham and gave currency to rumours they had been lovers.Dickens's daughter, Kate Perugini, stated that the two had a son who died in infancy to biographer Gladys Storey in an interview before the former's death in 1929. Storey published her account inDickens and Daughter,though no contemporary evidence was given. On his death, Dickens settled anannuityon Ternan which made her financially independent.Claire Tomalin's bookThe Invisible Womanargues that Ternan lived with Dickens secretly for the last 13 years of his life. The book was subsequently turned into a play,Little Nell, bySimon Gray, anda 2013 film. During the same period Dickens furthered his interest in theparanormalbecoming one of the early members ofThe Ghost Club. In June 1862, he was offered £10,000 for a reading tour of Australia.He was enthusiastic, and even planned a travel book,The Uncommercial Traveller",
"Traveller Upside Down, but ultimately decided against the tour.Two of his sons,Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson DickensandEdward Bulwer Lytton Dickens, migrated to Australia, Edward becoming a member of theParliament of New South WalesasMember for Wilcanniabetween 1889 and 1894. Later life On 9 June 1865, while returning from Paris with Ellen Ternan, Dickens was involved in theStaplehurst rail crashin Kent. The train's first seven carriages plunged off acast ironbridge that was under repair and ten passengers were killed.The onlyfirst-classcarriage to remain on the track—which was left hanging precariously off the bridge—was the one in which Dickens was travelling.For three hours before rescuers arrived, Dickens tended and comforted the wounded and the dying with a flask of brandy and a hat refreshed with water.Before leaving, he remembered the unfinished manuscript forOur Mutual Friend, and he returned to his carriage to retrieve it. Dickens later used the experience of the crash as material for his shortghost",
"for his shortghost story, \"The Signal-Man\", in which the central character has a premonition of his own death in a rail crash. He also based the story on several previousrail accidents, such as theClayton Tunnel rail crashin Sussex of 1861. Dickens managed to avoid an appearance at theinquestto avoid disclosing that he had been travelling with Ternan and her mother, which would have caused a scandal.After the crash, Dickens was nervous when travelling by train and would use alternative means when available.In 1868 he wrote, \"I have sudden vague rushes of terror, even when riding in a hansom cab, which are perfectly unreasonable but quite insurmountable.\" Dickens's son, Henry, recalled, \"I have seen him sometimes in a railway carriage when there was a slight jolt. When this happened he was almost in a state of panic and gripped the seat with both hands.\" Second visit to the United States While he contemplated a second visit to the United States, the outbreak of theCivil Warin America in 1861 delayed his",
"in 1861 delayed his plans.On 9 November 1867, over two years after the war, Dickens set sail fromLiverpoolfor his second American reading tour. Landing inBoston, he devoted the rest of the month to a round of dinners with such notables asRalph Waldo Emerson,Henry Wadsworth Longfellowand his American publisher,James T. Fields. In early December, the readings began. He performed 76 readings, netting £19,000, from December 1867 to April 1868.Dickens shuttled between Boston and New York, where he gave 22 readings atSteinway Hall. Although he had started to suffer from what he called the \"true Americancatarrh\", he kept to a schedule that would have challenged a much younger man, even managing to squeeze in some sleighing inCentral Park. During his travels, he saw a change in the people and the circumstances of America. His final appearance was at a banquet the American Press held in his honour atDelmonico'son 18 April, when he promised never to denounce America again. By the end of the tour Dickens could hardly",
"could hardly manage solid food, subsisting on champagne and eggs beaten in sherry. On 23 April he boarded theCunardlinerRussiato return to Britain,barely escaping afederal tax lienagainst the proceeds of his lecture tour. Farewell readings In 1868–69, Dickens gave a series of \"farewell readings\" in England, Scotland and Ireland, beginning on 6 October. He managed, of a contracted 100 readings, to give 75 in the provinces, with a further 12 in London.As he pressed on he was affected by giddiness and fits of paralysis. He had a stroke on 18 April 1869 in Chester.He collapsed on 22 April 1869, atPreston, Lancashire; on doctor's advice, the tour was cancelled.After further provincial readings were cancelled, he began work on his final novel,The Mystery of Edwin Drood. It was fashionable in the 1860s to 'do the slums' and, in company, Dickens visitedopium densinShadwell, where he witnessed an elderly addict called \"LaskarSal\", who formed the model for \"Opium Sal\" inEdwin Drood. After Dickens regained enough",
"regained enough strength, he arranged, with medical approval, for a final series of readings to partly make up to his sponsors what they had lost due to his illness. There were 12 performances, on 11 January to 15 March 1870; the last at 8:00pm atSt. James's Hall, London. Though in grave health by then, he readA Christmas CarolandThe Trial from Pickwick. On 2 May, he made his last public appearance at aRoyal Academybanquet in the presence of thePrinceandPrincess of Wales, paying a special tribute on the death of his friend, illustrator Daniel Maclise. Death On 8 June 1870, Dickens had another stroke at his home after a full day's work onEdwin Drood. He never regained consciousness. The next day, he died at Gads Hill Place. Biographer Claire Tomalin has suggested Dickens was actually in Peckham when he had had the stroke and his mistress Ellen Ternan and her maids had him taken back to Gads Hill so that the public would not know the truth about their relationship.Contrary to his wish to be buried atRochester",
"buried atRochester Cathedral\"in an inexpensive, unostentatious, and strictly private manner\",he was laid to rest in thePoets' CornerofWestminster Abbey. A printed epitaph circulated at the time of the funeral reads: To the Memory of Charles Dickens (England's most popular author) who died at his residence, Higham, near Rochester, Kent, 9 June 1870, aged 58 years. He was a sympathiser with the poor, the suffering, and the oppressed; and by his death, one of England's greatest writers is lost to the world. A letter from Dickens to the Clerk of thePrivy Councilin March indicates he'd been offered and accepted abaronetcy, which was not gazetted before his death.His last words were \"On the ground\" in response to his sister-in-law Georgina's request that he lie down.On Sunday, 19 June 1870, five days after Dickens was buried in the Abbey, DeanArthur Penrhyn Stanleydelivered a memorial elegy, lauding \"the genial and loving humorist whom we now mourn\", for showing by his own example \"that even in dealing with the",
"in dealing with the darkest scenes and the most degraded characters, genius could still be clean, and mirth could be innocent\". Pointing to the fresh flowers that adorned the novelist's grave, Stanley assured those present that \"the spot would thenceforth be a sacred one with both the New World and the Old, as that of the representative of literature, not of this island only, but of all who speak our English tongue.\" In his will, drafted more than a year before his death, Dickens left the care of his £80,000 estate (£9,668,700 in 2023)to his long-time colleague John Forster and his \"best and truest friend\" Georgina Hogarth who, along with Dickens's two sons, also received a tax-free sum of £8,000 (equivalent to £967,000 in 2023).He confirmed his wife Catherine's annual allowance of £600 (£72,500 in 2023).He bequeathed £19 19s (£2,400 in 2023)to each servant in his employment at the time of his death. Literary style Dickens's approach to the novel is influenced by various things, including thepicaresque",
"thepicaresque noveltradition,melodramaand thenovel of sensibility.According to Ackroyd, other than these, perhaps the most important literary influence on him was derived from the fables ofThe Arabian Nights.Satire andironyare central to the picaresque novel.Comedy is also an aspect of the British picaresque novel tradition ofLaurence Sterne,Henry FieldingandTobias Smollett. Fielding'sTom Joneswas a major influence on the 19th-century novelist including Dickens, who read it in his youthand named a sonHenry Fielding Dickensafter him.Influenced byGothic fiction—a literary genre that began withThe Castle of Otranto(1764) byHorace Walpole—Dickens incorporated Gothic imagery, settings and plot devices in his works.Victorian gothic moved from castles and abbeys into contemporary urban environments: in particular London, such as Dickens'sOliver TwistandBleak House. The jilted brideMiss HavishamfromGreat Expectationsis one of Dickens's best-known gothic creations; living in a ruined mansion, her bridal gown",
"her bridal gown effectively doubles as her funeral shroud. No other writer had such a profound influence on Dickens asWilliam Shakespeare. On Dickens's veneration of Shakespeare,Alfred Harbagewrote inA Kind of Power: The Shakespeare-Dickens Analogy(1975) that \"No one is better qualified to recognise literary genius than a literary genius\".Regarding Shakespeare as \"the great master\" whoseplays\"were an unspeakable source of delight\", Dickens's lifelong affinity with the playwright included seeing theatrical productions of his plays in London and putting on amateur dramatics with friends in his early years.In 1838, Dickens travelled toStratford-upon-Avonand visited the house in which Shakespeare was born, leaving his autograph in the visitors' book. Dickens would draw on this experience in his next work,Nicholas Nickleby(1838–39), expressing the strength of feeling experienced by visitors to Shakespeare's birthplace: the characterMrs Wititterlystates, \"I don't know how it is, but after you've seen the place and",
"seen the place and written your name in the little book, somehow or other you seem to be inspired; it kindles up quite a fire within one.\" Dickens's writing style is marked by a profuse linguistic creativity.Satire, flourishing in his gift for caricature, is his forte. An early reviewer compared him toHogarthfor his keen practical sense of the ludicrous side of life, though his acclaimed mastery of varieties of class idiom may in fact mirror the conventions of contemporary popular theatre.Dickens worked intensively on developing arresting names for his characters that would reverberate with associations for his readers and assist the development of motifs in the storyline, giving what one critic calls an \"allegorical impetus\" to the novels' meanings.To cite one of numerous examples, the name Mr Murdstone inDavid Copperfieldconjures up twin allusions to murder and stony coldness.His literary style is also a mixture of fantasy andrealism. His satires of British aristocratic snobbery—he calls one character the",
"one character the \"Noble Refrigerator\"—are often popular. Comparing orphans to stocks and shares, people to tug boats or dinner-party guests to furniture are just some of Dickens's acclaimed flights of fancy. On his ability to elicit a response from his works, English screenwriterSarah Phelpswrites, \"He knew how to work an audience and how to get them laughing their heads off one minute or on the edge of their seats and holding their breath the next. The other thing about Dickens is that he loved telling stories and he loved his characters, even those horrible, mean-spirited ones.\" The author worked closely with his illustrators, supplying them with a summary of the work at the outset and thus ensuring that his characters and settings were exactly how he envisioned them. He briefed the illustrator on plans for each month's instalment so that work could begin before he wrote them.Marcus Stone, illustrator ofOur Mutual Friend, recalled that the author was always \"ready to describe down to the minutest details",
"minutest details the personal characteristics, and ... life-history of the creations of his fancy\".Dickens employsCockney Englishin many of his works, denoting working-class Londoners. Cockney grammar appears in terms such asain't, and consonants in words are frequently omitted, as in 'ere (here) and wot (what).An example of this usage is inOliver Twist. The Artful Dodger uses cockney slang which is juxtaposed with Oliver's 'proper' English, when the Dodger repeats Oliver saying \"seven\" with \"sivin\". Characters Dickens's biographerClaire Tomalinregards him as the greatest creator of character in English fiction afterShakespeare.Dickensiancharactersare amongst the most memorable in English literature, especially so because of their typically whimsical names. The likes ofEbenezer Scrooge,Tiny Tim,Jacob MarleyandBob Cratchit(A Christmas Carol);Oliver Twist,The Artful Dodger,FaginandBill Sikes(Oliver Twist);Pip,Miss Havisham,EstellaandAbel Magwitch(Great Expectations);Sydney Carton,Charles DarnayandMadame",
"DarnayandMadame Defarge(A Tale of Two Cities);David Copperfield,Uriah HeepandMr Micawber(David Copperfield);Daniel QuilpandNell Trent(The Old Curiosity Shop),Samuel PickwickandSam Weller(The Pickwick Papers); andWackford Squeers(Nicholas Nickleby) are so well known as to be part and parcel of popular culture, and in some cases have passed into ordinary language: ascrooge, for example, is a miser or someone who dislikes Christmas festivity. His characters were often so memorable that they took on a life of their own outside his books. \"Gamp\" became a slang expression for an umbrella from the characterMrs Gamp, and \"Pickwickian\", \"Pecksniffian\" and \"Gradgrind\" all entered dictionaries due to Dickens's original portraits of such characters who were, respectively,quixotic, hypocritical and vapidly factual. The character that made Dickens famous, Sam Weller became known for hisWellerisms—one-liners that turnproverbson their heads.Many were drawn from real life: Mrs Nickleby is based on his mother, although she",
"although she did not recognise herself in the portrait,just as Mr Micawber is constructed from aspects of his father's 'rhetorical exuberance';Harold Skimpole inBleak Houseis based onJames Henry Leigh Hunt; his wife's dwarfish chiropodist recognised herself in Miss Mowcher inDavid Copperfield.Perhaps Dickens's impressions on his meeting withHans Christian Anderseninformed the delineation of Uriah Heep (a term synonymous withsycophant). Virginia Woolfmaintained that \"we remodel our psychological geography when we read Dickens\" as he produces \"characters who exist not in detail, not accurately or exactly, but abundantly in a cluster of wild yet extraordinarily revealing remarks\".T. S. Eliotwrote that Dickens \"excelled in character; in the creation of characters of greater intensity than human beings\".One \"character\" vividly drawn throughout his novels is London itself.Dickens described London as amagic lantern, inspiring the places and people in many of his novels.From thecoaching innson the outskirts of the",
"outskirts of the city to the lower reaches of theThames, all aspects of the capital—Dickens's London—are described over the course of his body of work.Walking the streets (particularly around London) formed an integral part of his writing life, stoking his creativity. Dickens was known to regularly walk at least a dozen miles (19 km) per day, and once wrote, \"If I couldn't walk fast and far, I should just explode and perish.\" Autobiographical elements Authors frequently draw their portraits of characters from people they have known in real life.David Copperfieldis regarded by many as a veiled autobiography of Dickens. The scenes of interminable court cases and legal arguments inBleak Housereflect Dickens's experiences as a law clerk and court reporter, and in particular his direct experience of the law's procedural delay during 1844 when he sued publishers in Chancery for breach of copyright.Dickens's father was sent to prison for debt, and this became a common theme in many of his books, with the detailed",
"with the detailed depiction of life in theMarshalseaprison inLittle Dorritresulting from Dickens's own experiences of the institution.Lucy Stroughill, a childhood sweetheart, may have affected several of Dickens's portraits of girls such as Little Em'ly inDavid Copperfieldand Lucie Manette inA Tale of Two Cities. Dickens may have drawn on his childhood experiences, but he was also ashamed of them and would not reveal that this was where he gathered his realistic accounts of squalor. Very few knew the details of his early life until six years after his death, when John Forster published a biography on which Dickens had collaborated. Though Skimpole brutally sends upLeigh Hunt, some critics have detected in his portrait features of Dickens's own character, which he sought to exorcise by self-parody. Episodic writing A pioneer of theserialpublication of narrative fiction, Dickens wrote most of his major novels in monthly or weekly instalments in journals such asMaster Humphrey's ClockandHousehold Words, later",
"Words, later reprinted in book form.These instalments made the stories affordable and accessible, with the audience more evenly distributed across income levels than previous.His instalment format inspired a narrative that he would explore and develop throughout his career, and the regularcliffhangersmade each new episode widely anticipated.WhenThe Old Curiosity Shopwas being serialised, American fans waited at the docks inNew York harbour, shouting out to the crew of an incoming British ship, \"Is little Nell dead?\"Dickens was able to incorporate this episodic writing style but still end up with a coherent novel at the end. He wrote, \"The thing has to be planned for presentation in these fragments, and yet for afterwards fusing together as an uninterrupted whole.\" Another important impact of Dickens's episodic writing style resulted from his exposure to the opinions of his readers and friends. His friend Forster had a significant hand in reviewing his drafts, an influence that went beyond matters of",
"beyond matters of punctuation; he toned down melodramatic and sensationalist exaggerations, cut long passages (such as the episode of Quilp's drowning inThe Old Curiosity Shop), and made suggestions about plot and character. It was he who suggested that Charley Bates should be redeemed inOliver Twist. Dickens had not thought of killing Little Nell and it was Forster who advised him to entertain this possibility as necessary to his conception of the heroine. At the helm in popularising cliffhangers and serial publications in Victorian literature,Dickens's influence can also be seen in televisionsoap operasandfilm series, withThe Guardianstating that \"the DNA of Dickens's busy, episodic storytelling, delivered in instalments and rife with cliffhangers and diversions, is traceable in everything.\"His serialisation of his novels also drew comments from other writers. In Scottish authorRobert Louis Stevenson's novelThe Wrecker, Captain Nares, investigating an abandoned ship, remarked: \"See! They were writing up",
"were writing up the log,\" said Nares, pointing to the ink-bottle. \"Caught napping, as usual. I wonder if there ever was a captain yet that lost a ship with his log-book up to date? He generally has about a month to fill up on a clean break, like Charles Dickens and his serial novels.\" Social commentary Dickens's novels were, among other things, works ofsocial commentary.Simon Callowstates, \"From the moment he started to write, he spoke for the people, and the people loved him for it.\"He was a fierce critic of the poverty andsocial stratificationofVictoriansociety. In a New York address, he expressed his belief that \"Virtue shows quite as well in rags and patches as she does in purple and fine linen\".Dickens's second novel,Oliver Twist(1839), shocked readers with its images of poverty and crime: it challenged middle class polemics about criminals, making impossible any pretence to ignorance about what poverty entailed. At a time when Britain was the major economic and political power of the world, Dickens",
"the world, Dickens highlighted the life of the forgotten poor and disadvantaged within society. Through his journalism he campaigned on specific issues—such assanitationand theworkhouse—but his fiction probably demonstrated its greatest prowess in changing public opinion in regard to class inequalities. He often depicted the exploitation and oppression of the poor and condemned the public officials and institutions that not only allowed such abuses to exist, but flourished as a result. His most strident indictment of this condition is inHard Times(1854), Dickens's only novel-length treatment of the industrial working class. In this work, he uses vitriol and satire to illustrate how this marginalised social stratum was termed \"Hands\" by the factory owners; that is, not really \"people\" but rather only appendages of the machines they operated. His writings inspired others, in particular journalists and political figures, to address such problems of class oppression. For example, the prison scenes inThe Pickwick",
"inThe Pickwick Papersare claimed to have been influential in having theFleet Prisonshut down.Karl Marxasserted that Dickens \"issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicians, publicists and moralists put together\".George Bernard Shaweven remarked thatGreat Expectationswas more seditious than Marx'sDas Kapital.The exceptional popularity of Dickens's novels, even those with socially oppositional themes (Bleak House, 1853;Little Dorrit, 1857;Our Mutual Friend, 1865), not only underscored his ability to create compelling storylines and unforgettable characters, but also ensured that the Victorian public confronted issues of social justice that had commonly been ignored. It has been argued that his technique of flooding his narratives with an 'unruly superfluity of material' that, in the gradual dénouement, yields up an unsuspected order, influenced the organisation ofCharles Darwin'sOn the Origin of Species. Literary techniques Dickens is often",
"Dickens is often described as using idealised characters and highly sentimental scenes to contrast with hiscaricaturesand the ugly social truths he reveals. The story of Nell Trent inThe Old Curiosity Shop(1841) was received as extremely moving by contemporary readers but viewed as ludicrously sentimental byOscar Wilde. \"One must have a heart of stone to read the death of little Nell\", he said in a famous remark, \"without dissolving into tears ... of laughter.\"G. K. Chestertonstated, \"It is not the death of little Nell, but the life of little Nell, that I object to\", arguing that the maudlin effect of his description of her life owed much to the gregarious nature of Dickens's grief, his \"despotic\" use of people's feelings to move them to tears in works like this. The question as to whether Dickens belongs to the tradition of thesentimental novelis debatable. Valerie Purton, in her bookDickens and the Sentimental Tradition, sees him continuing aspects of this tradition, and argues that his \"sentimental scenes",
"\"sentimental scenes and characters as crucial to the overall power of the novels as his darker or comic figures and scenes\", and that \"Dombey and Sonis Dickens's greatest triumph in the sentimentalist tradition\".TheEncyclopædia Britannicaonline comments that, despite \"patches of emotional excess\", such as the reported death of Tiny Tim inA Christmas Carol(1843), \"Dickens cannot really be termed a sentimental novelist\". InOliver Twist, Dickens provides readers with an idealised portrait of a boy so inherently and unrealistically good that his values are never subverted by either brutal orphanages or coerced involvement in a gang of youngpickpockets. While later novels also centre on idealised characters (Esther Summerson inBleak Houseand Amy Dorrit inLittle Dorrit), this idealism serves only to highlight Dickens's goal of poignant social commentary. Dickens's fiction, reflecting what he believed to be true of his own life, makes frequent use of coincidence, either for comic effect or to emphasise the idea",
"emphasise the idea of providence.For example, Oliver Twist turns out to be the lost nephew of the upper-class family that rescues him from the dangers of the pickpocket group. Such coincidences are a staple of 18th-century picaresque novels, such as Henry Fielding'sTom Jones,which Dickens enjoyed reading as a youth. Reputation Dickens was the most popular novelist of his time,and remains one of the best-known and most-read of English authors. His works have never goneout of print,and have been adapted continually for the screen since the invention of cinema,with at least 200 motion pictures and TV adaptations based on Dickens's works documented.Many of his works were adapted for the stage during his own lifetime—early productions includedThe Haunted Manwhich was performed in theWest End'sAdelphi Theatrein 1848—and, as early as 1901, the British silent filmScrooge, or, Marley's Ghostwas made byWalter R. Booth.Contemporaries such as publisherEdward Lloydcashed in on Dickens's popularity with cheap imitations",
"cheap imitations of his novels, resulting in his own popular 'penny dreadfuls'. Dickens created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest British novelist of theVictorian era.From the beginning of his career in the 1830s, his achievements in English literature were compared to those of Shakespeare.Dickens's literary reputation, however, began to decline with the publication ofBleak Housein 1852–53. Philip Collins callsBleak House\"a crucial item in the history of Dickens's reputation. Reviewers and literary figures during the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s, saw a 'drear decline' in Dickens, from a writer of 'bright sunny comedy ... to dark and serious social' commentary\".The SpectatorcalledBleak House\"a heavy book to read through at once ... dull and wearisome as a serial\"; Richard Simpson, inThe Rambler, characterisedHard Timesas \"this dreary framework\";Fraser's MagazinethoughtLittle Dorrit\"decidedly the worst of his novels\".All the same, despite these \"increasing",
"these \"increasing reservations amongst reviewers and the chattering classes, 'the public never deserted its favourite'\". Dickens's popular reputation remained unchanged, sales continued to rise, andHousehold Wordsand laterAll the Year Roundwere highly successful. As his career progressed, Dickens's fame and the demand for his public readings were unparalleled. In 1868,The Timeswrote, \"Amid all the variety of 'readings', those of Mr Charles Dickens stand alone.\"A Dickens biographer, Edgar Johnson, wrote: \"It was more than a reading; it was an extraordinary exhibition of acting that seized upon its auditors with a mesmeric possession.\"AuthorDavid Lodgecalled him the \"first writer to be an object of unrelenting public interest and adulation\".Juliet John backed the claim for Dickens \"to be called the first self-made global media star of the age of mass culture.\"The word \"celebrity\" first appeared in theOxford English Dictionaryin 1851, and the BBC states \"Charles Dickens was one of the first figures to be",
"first figures to be called one\".Comparing his reception at public readings to those of a contemporary pop star—the BBC compared his reception in the US toThe Beatles—The Guardianstates, \"People sometimes fainted at his shows. His performances even saw the rise of that modern phenomenon, the 'speculator' orticket tout(scalpers)—the ones in New York City escaped detection by borrowing respectable-looking hats from the waiters in nearby restaurants.\" \"Dickens's vocal impersonations of his own characters gave this truth a theatrical form: the public reading tour. No other Victorian could match him for celebrity, earnings, and sheer vocal artistry. The Victorians craved the author's multiple voices: between 1853 and his death in 1870, Dickens performed about 470 times.\" —Peter Garratt inThe Guardianon Dickens's fame and the demand for his public readings Among fellow writers, there was a range of opinions on Dickens.Poet laureate,William Wordsworth(1770–1850), thought him a \"very talkative, vulgar young person\",",
"young person\", adding he had not read a line of his work, while novelistGeorge Meredith(1828–1909), found Dickens \"intellectually lacking\".In 1888,Leslie Stephencommented in theDictionary of National Biographythat \"if literary fame could be safely measured by popularity with the half-educated, Dickens must claim the highest position among English novelists\".Anthony Trollope'sAutobiographyfamously declared Thackeray, not Dickens, to be the greatest novelist of the age. However, bothLeo TolstoyandFyodor Dostoyevskywere admirers. Dostoyevsky commented: \"We understand Dickens in Russia, I am convinced, almost as well as the English, perhaps even with all the nuances. It may well be that we love him no less than his compatriots do. And yet how original is Dickens, and how very English!\"Tolstoy referred toDavid Copperfieldas his favourite book, and he later adopted the novel as \"a model for his own autobiographical reflections\".French writerJules Vernecalled Dickens his favourite writer, writing his novels \"stand",
"his novels \"stand alone, dwarfing all others by their amazing power and felicity of expression\".Dutch painterVincent van Goghwas inspired by Dickens's novels in several of his paintings, such asVincent's Chair, and in an 1889 letter to his sister stated that reading Dickens, especiallyA Christmas Carol, was one of the things that was keeping him from committing suicide.Oscar Wilde generally disparaged his depiction of character, while admiring his gift for caricature.Henry James denied him a premier position, calling him \"the greatest of superficial novelists\": Dickens failed to endow his characters with psychological depth, and the novels, \"loose baggy monsters\",betrayed a \"cavalier organisation\".Joseph Conraddescribed his own childhood in bleak Dickensian terms, noting he had \"an intense and unreasoning affection\" forBleak Housedating back to his boyhood. The novel influenced his own gloomy portrait of London inThe Secret Agent(1907).Virginia Woolfhad a love-hate relationship with Dickens, finding his",
"finding his novels \"mesmerizing\" while reproving him for his sentimentalism and a commonplace style. Around 1940–41, the attitude of the literary critics began to warm towards Dickens—led byGeorge OrwellinInside the Whale and Other Essays(March 1940),Edmund WilsoninThe Wound and the Bow(1941) and Humphry House inDickens and His World.However, even in 1948,F. R. Leavis, inThe Great Tradition, asserted that \"the adult mind doesn't as a rule find in Dickens a challenge to an unusual and sustained seriousness\"; Dickens was indeed a great genius, \"but the genius was that of a great entertainer\",though he later changed his opinion withDickens the Novelist(1970, withQ. D. (Queenie) Leavis): \"Our purpose\", they wrote, \"is to enforce as unanswerably as possible the conviction that Dickens was one of the greatest of creative writers\".In 1944, Soviet film director and film theoristSergei Eisensteinwrote an essay on Dickens's influence on cinema, such ascross-cutting—where two stories run alongside each other, as seen",
"each other, as seen in novels such asOliver Twist. In the 1950s, \"a substantial reassessment and re-editing of the works began, and critics found his finest artistry and greatest depth to be in the later novels:Bleak House,Little DorritandGreat Expectations—and (less unanimously) inHard TimesandOur Mutual Friend\".Dickens was among the favourite authors ofRoald Dahl; the best-selling children's author would include three of Dickens's novels among those read by thetitle characterin his 1988 novelMatilda.In 2005,Paul McCartney, an avid reader of Dickens, namedNicholas Nicklebyhis favourite novel. On Dickens he states, \"I like the world that he takes me to. I like his words; I like the language\", adding, \"A lot of my stuff—it's kind of Dickensian.\"ScreenwriterJonathan Nolan's screenplay forThe Dark Knight Rises(2012) was inspired byA Tale of Two Cities, with Nolan calling the depiction of Paris in the novel \"one of the most harrowing portraits of a relatable, recognisable civilisation that completely folded to",
"folded to pieces\".On 7 February 2012, the 200th anniversary of Dickens's birth,Philip Womackwrote inThe Telegraph: \"Today there is no escaping Charles Dickens. Not that there has ever been much chance of that before. He has a deep, peculiar hold upon us\". Legacy Museums and festivals celebrating Dickens's life and works exist in many places with which Dickens was associated. These include theCharles Dickens Museumin London, the historic home where he wroteOliver Twist,The Pickwick PapersandNicholas Nickleby; and the Charles Dickens Birthplace Museum in Portsmouth, the house in which he was born. The original manuscripts of many of his novels, as well as printers' proofs, first editions and illustrations from the collection of Dickens's friend John Forster are held at theVictoria and Albert Museum.Dickens's will stipulated that no memorial be erected in his honour; nonetheless, a life-size bronze statue of Dickens entitledDickens and Little Nell, cast in 1890 byFrancis Edwin Elwell, stands inClark Parkin",
"inClark Parkin theSpruce Hillneighbourhood ofPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania. Another life-size statue of Dickens is located atCentennial ParkinSydney, Australia.In 1960 abas-reliefsculpture of Dickens, notably featuring characters from his books, was commissioned from sculptor Estcourt J Clack to adorn the office building built on the site of his former home at 1 Devonshire Terrace, London.In 2014, a life-size statue was unveiled near his birthplace in Portsmouth on the 202nd anniversary of his birth; this was supported by his great-great-grandsons, Ian andGerald Dickens. A Christmas Carolis most probably his best-known story, with frequent new adaptations. It is also the most-filmed of Dickens's stories, with many versions dating from the early years of cinema.According to the historianRonald Hutton, the current state of the observance of Christmas is largely the result of a mid-Victorian revival of the holiday spearheaded byA Christmas Carol. Dickens catalysed the emerging Christmas as a family-centred",
"as a family-centred festival of generosity, in contrast to the dwindling community-based and church-centred observations, as new middle-class expectations arose.Its archetypal figures (Scrooge, Tiny Tim, the Christmas ghosts) entered into Western cultural consciousness. \"Merry Christmas\", a prominent phrase from the tale, was popularised following the appearance of the story.The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, and his exclamation\"Bah! Humbug!'\", a dismissal of the festive spirit, likewise gained currency as an idiom.The Victorian era novelistWilliam Makepeace Thackeraycalled the book \"a national benefit, and to every man and woman who reads it a personal kindness\". Dickens was commemorated on theSeries E £10 noteissued by theBank of Englandthat circulated between 1992 and 2003. His portrait appeared on the reverse of the note accompanied by a scene fromThe Pickwick Papers.The Charles Dickens Schoolis a high school in Broadstairs, Kent. A theme park,Dickens World, standing in part on the site of the",
"on the site of the formernaval dockyardwhere Dickens's father once worked in the Navy Pay Office, opened inChathamin 2007, but closed on 12 October 2016. To celebrate the 200th anniversary of the birth of Charles Dickens in 2012, theMuseum of Londonheld the UK's first major exhibition on the author in 40 years.In 2002, Dickens was number 41 in theBBC's poll of the100 Greatest Britons.American literary criticHarold Bloomplaced Dickens among thegreatest Western writers of all time.In the 2003 UK surveyThe Big Readcarried out by the BBC, five of Dickens's books were named in theTop 100. Actors who have portrayed Dickens on screen includeAnthony Hopkins,Derek Jacobi,Simon Callow,Dan StevensandRalph Fiennes, the latter playing the author inThe Invisible Woman(2013) which depicts Dickens's alleged secret love affair with Ellen Ternan which lasted for thirteen years until his death in 1870. Dickens and his publications have appeared on a number of postage stamps in countries including: the United Kingdom (1970,",
"Kingdom (1970, 1993, 2011 and 2012 issued by theRoyal Mail—their2012 collectionmarked the bicentenary of Dickens's birth),the Soviet Union (1962), Antigua, Barbuda, Botswana, Cameroon, Dubai, Fujairah, St Lucia and Turks and Caicos Islands (1970), St Vincent (1987), Nevis (2007),Alderney, Gibraltar, Jersey and Pitcairn Islands (2012), Austria (2013) and Mozambique (2014).In 1976, acrateron the planetMercurywas named in his honour. In November 2018 it was reported that a previously lost portrait of a 31-year-old Dickens, byMargaret Gillies, had been found inPietermaritzburg, South Africa. Gillies was an early supporter ofwomen's suffrageand had painted the portrait in late 1843 when Dickens, aged 31, wroteA Christmas Carol. It was exhibited, to acclaim, at theRoyal Academy of Artsin 1844.TheCharles Dickens Museumis reported to have paid £180,000 for the portrait. Works Dickens published 15 major novels, several novellas, a large number of short stories (including a number of Christmas-themed stories), a",
"stories), a handful of plays, and several non-fiction books. Novels and novellas Dickens's novels and novellas were initially published in weekly and monthly magazines, the novels in serial format, then reprinted in standard book formats. See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links Works Organisations and portals Museums Other"
] |
Who won the FIFA World Cup in the year the Falklands War broke out? | Italy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falklands_War | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_FIFA_World_Cup | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falklands_War', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_FIFA_World_Cup'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falklands_War",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_FIFA_World_Cup"
] | [
"Falklands War Operation Corporate TheFalklands War(Spanish:Guerra de Malvinas) was a ten-weekundeclared warbetweenArgentinaand theUnited Kingdomin 1982 over twoBritish dependent territoriesin theSouth Atlantic: theFalkland Islandsandits territorial dependency,South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The conflict began on 2 April 1982, whenArgentina invadedandoccupied the Falkland Islands, followed by theinvasion of South Georgiathe next day. On 5 April, the British government dispatched anaval task forceto engage theArgentine NavyandAir Forcebefore making anamphibious assaulton the islands. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with an Argentinesurrenderon 14 June, returning the islands to British control. In total, 649 Argentine military personnel, 255 British military personnel, and threeFalkland Islanderswere killed during the hostilities. The conflict was a major episode in theprotracted disputeover the territories'sovereignty. Argentina asserted (and maintains) that the islands are Argentine territory,and the Argentine government thus described its military action as the reclamation of its own territory. The British government regarded the action as an invasion of a territory that had been aCrown colonysince 1841. Falkland Islanders, who have inhabited the islands since the early 19th century, are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and stronglyfavour British sovereignty. Neither state officiallydeclared war, although both governments declared the islands a war zone. The conflict had a strong effect in both countries and has been the subject of variousbooks, articles, films, and songs. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the unfavourable outcome prompted large protests against theruling military government, hastening its downfall and thedemocratisation of the country. In the United Kingdom, theConservativegovernment, bolstered by the successful outcome,was re-elected with an increased majority the following year. The cultural and political effect of the conflict has been less in the UK than in Argentina, where it has remained a common topic for discussion. Diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentinawere restored in 1989 following a meeting inMadrid, at which the two governments issued a joint statement.No change in either country's position regarding the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands was made explicit. In 1994, Argentina adopted a newconstitution,which declared the Falkland Islands as part of one of its provinces by law.However, the islands continue to operate as aself-governingBritish Overseas Territory. Prelude Failed diplomacy In 1965, theUnited Nationscalled upon Argentina and the United Kingdom to reach a settlement of the sovereignty dispute. The UKForeign and Commonwealth Office(FCO) regarded the islands as a nuisance and barrier to UK trade in South America. Therefore, while confident of British sovereignty, the FCO was prepared to cede the islands to Argentina. When news of a proposed transfer broke in 1968, elements sympathetic with the plight of the islanders were able to organise an effectiveparliamentarylobby to frustrate the FCO plans. Negotiations continued, but in general failed to make meaningful progress; the islanders steadfastly refused to consider Argentine sovereignty on one side, whilst Argentina would not compromise over sovereignty on the other.The FCO then sought to make the islands dependent on Argentina, hoping this would make the islanders more amenable to Argentine sovereignty. A Communications Agreement signed in 1971 created an airlink and later YPF, the Argentine oil company, was given a monopoly in the islands. In 1977, the British prime minister,James Callaghan, in response to heightened tensions in the region and theArgentine occupation of Southern Thule, secretly sent a force of twofrigatesand anuclear-powered submarine,HMSDreadnought, to the South Atlantic, codenamedOperation Journeyman.It is unclear whether the Argentines were aware of their presence, but British sources state that they were advised of it through informal channels. Nevertheless, talks with Argentina on Falklands sovereignty and economic cooperation opened in December of that year, though they proved inconclusive. In 1980, a new UKMinister of State for Foreign Affairs,Nicholas Ridley, went to the Falklands trying to sell the islanders the benefits of aleasebackscheme, which met with strong opposition from the islanders. On his return toLondonin December 1980, he reported to parliament but was viciously attacked at what was seen as a sellout. (It was unlikely that leaseback idea would have progressed further anyway since the British had sought a long-term lease of 99 years, whereas Argentina was pressing for a much shorter period of only thirty years.) At a private committee meeting that evening, it was reported that Ridley said: \"If we don't do something, they will invade. And there is nothing we could do.\" The Argentine junta In the period leading up to the war—and, in particular, following the transfer of power between the military dictators GeneralJorge Rafael Videlaand GeneralRoberto Eduardo Violalate in March 1981—Argentina had been in the midst of devastating economic stagnation and large-scale civil unrest against theNational Reorganization Process, themilitaryjuntathat had been governing the country since 1976. In December 1981, there was a further change in the Argentine military regime, bringing to office a newjuntaheaded by GeneralLeopoldo Galtieri(acting president), Air BrigadierBasilio Lami Dozoand AdmiralJorge Anaya. Anaya was the main architect and supporter of a military solution for the long-standing claim over the islands,expecting that the United Kingdom would never respond militarily. By opting for military action, the Galtieri government hoped to mobilise the long-standing patriotic feelings of Argentines towards the islands,diverting public attentionfrom the chronic economic problems and the ongoing human rights violations of itsDirty War,bolstering the junta's dwindling legitimacy. The newspaperLa Prensaspeculated on a step-by-step plan beginning with cutting off supplies to the islands, ending in direct actions late in 1982, if the UN talks were fruitless. The ongoing tension between the two countries over the islands increased on 19 March, when a group of Argentine scrap metal merchants (which had been infiltrated byArgentine Marines)raised theArgentine flagatSouth Georgia Island, an act that would later be seen as the first offensive action in the war. The Royal Navy ice patrol vesselHMSEndurancewas dispatched from Stanley to South Georgia on the 25th in response. The Argentine military junta, suspecting that the UK would reinforce its South Atlantic Forces, ordered theinvasion of the Falkland Islandsto be brought forward to 2 April. The UK was initially taken by surprise by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, despite repeated warnings by Royal Navy captainNicholas Barker(Commanding Officer of theEndurance) and others. Barker believed that Defence SecretaryJohn Nott's1981 Defence White Paper(in which Nott described plans to withdraw theEndurance, the UK's only naval presence in the South Atlantic) had sent a signal to the Argentines that the UK was unwilling, and would soon be unable, to defend its territories and subjects in the Falklands. Argentine invasion On 2 April 1982, Argentine forces mounted amphibious landings, known as Operation Rosario,on the Falkland Islands.The invasion was met with a fierce but brief defence organised by theFalkland Islands' GovernorSirRex Hunt, giving command to Major Mike Norman of theRoyal Marines. The garrison consisted of 68 marines and eleven navalhydrographers,assisted by 23 volunteers of theFalkland Islands Defence Force(FIDF), who had few weapons and were used as lookouts.The invasion started with the landing ofLieutenant CommanderGuillermo Sanchez-Sabarots'Amphibious Commandos Group, who attacked the empty Moody Brook barracks and then moved onGovernment HouseinStanley. When the 2ndMarine InfantryBattalion withAssault Amphibious Vehiclesarrived, the governor ordered aceasefireand surrendered.The governor, his family and the British military personnel were flown to Argentina that afternoon and later repatriated to the United Kingdom. Initial British response The British had already taken action prior to the 2 April invasion. In response to events on South Georgia, on 29 March, Ministers decided to send theRoyal Fleet Auxiliary(RFA)Fort Austinsouth from the Mediterranean to support HMSEndurance, and the nuclear-powered fleet submarineHMSSpartanfromGibraltar, withHMSSplendidordered south fromScotlandthe following day.: 75LordCarringtonhad wished to send a third submarine, but the decision was deferred due to concerns about the impact on operational commitments.Coincidentally, on 26 March, the submarineHMSSuperbleft Gibraltar and it was assumed in the press she was heading south. There has since been speculation that the effect of those reports was to panic the Argentine junta into invading the Falklands before submarines could be deployed;however, post-war research has established that the final decision to proceed was made at a junta meeting inBuenos Aireson 23 March. The following day, during a crisis meeting headed by Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher, theFirst Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff, Admiral SirHenry Leach, advised that \"Britain could and should send a task force if the islands are invaded\". On 1 April, Leach sent orders to aRoyal Navyforce carrying outexercisesin the Mediterranean to prepare to sail south. Following the invasion on 2 April, after an emergency meeting of the cabinet, approval was given to form a task force to retake the islands. This was backed in an emergency sitting of theHouse of Commonsthe next day. Word of the invasion first reached the UK from Argentine sources.AMinistry of Defenceoperative in London had a shorttelexconversation with Governor Hunt's telex operator, who confirmed that Argentines were on the island and in control.Later that day,BBCjournalistLaurie Margolisspoke with an islander atGoose Greenviaamateur radio, who confirmed the presence of a large Argentine fleet and that Argentine forces had taken control of the island.British military operations in the Falklands War were given the codenameOperation Corporate, and the commander of the task force was Admiral SirJohn Fieldhouse. Operations lasted from 1 April 1982 to 20 June 1982. On 6 April, the British Government set up aWar Cabinetto provide day-to-day political oversight of the campaign.This was the critical instrument of crisis management for the British with its remit being to \"keep under review political and military developments relating to the South Atlantic, and to report as necessary to the Defence and Overseas Policy Committee\". The War Cabinet met at least daily until it was dissolved on 12 August. Although Margaret Thatcher is described as dominating the War Cabinet,Lawrence Freedmannotes in theOfficial History of the Falklands Campaignthat she did not ignore opposition or fail to consult others. However, once a decision was reached, she \"did not look back\". United Nations Security Council Resolution 502 On 31 March 1982, the Argentine ambassador to the UN,Eduardo Roca, began attempting to garner support against a British military build-up designed to thwart earlier UN resolutions calling for both countries to resolve the Falklands dispute through discussion.: 134On 2 April, the night of the invasion, a banquet was held at Roca's official residence for the US ambassador to the UN,Jeane Kirkpatrick, and several high-ranking officials of theUnited States Department of Stateand theUnited States Department of Defense. This led British diplomats to view Kirkpatrick, who had earlier called for closer relationships with South American dictatorships, with considerable suspicion. On 1 April, London told the UK ambassador to the UN, SirAnthony Parsons, that an invasion was imminent and he should call an urgent meeting of theSecurity Councilto get a favourableresolutionagainst Argentina.Parsons had to get nine affirmative votes from the 15 Council members (not a simple majority) and to avoid a blocking vote from any of the other four permanent members. The meeting took place at 11:00am on 3 April, New York time (4:00pm in London).United Nations Security Council Resolution 502was adopted by 10 to 1 (with Panama voting against) and 4 abstentions. Significantly, theSoviet UnionandChinaboth abstained.The resolution stated: Deeply disturbed at reports of an invasion on 2 April 1982 by armed forces of Argentina;Determining that there exists a breach of the peace in the region of the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas),Demands an immediate cessation of hostilities;Demands an immediate withdrawal of all Argentine forces from the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas);Calls on the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom to seek a diplomatic solution to their differences and to respect fully the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations. This was a significant win for the UK, giving it the upper hand diplomatically. The draft resolution Parsons submitted had avoided any reference to the sovereignty dispute (which might have worked against the UK): instead it focused on Argentina's breach of Chapter VII of the UN Charter which forbids the threat or use of force to settle disputes.The resolution called for the removal only of Argentine forces: this freed Britain to retake the islands militarily, if Argentina did not leave, by exercising its right to self-defence allowed under the UN Charter.: 141 Argentine occupation TheArgentine Armyunit earmarked for the occupation was the25th Infantry Regiment, a unit of about 681 men specially trained from all theregions of Argentina; it was flown intoPort Stanley Airportas soon as the runway had been cleared.Once it became clear that the British were sending an amphibious task force, there was a general recall of reservists and twobrigadesof eight infantry regiments and their supporting units were dispatched to the islands. The total Argentine garrison numbered some 13,000 troops by the beginning of May. The conscripts born in 1963 had only recently been called-up, so they were supplemented by the recall of the previous year's intake. Brigadier GeneralMario Benjamín Menéndezwas appointed Military Governor of the Malvinas. Argentine military police arrived with detailed files on many islanders,allowing intelligence officer Major Patricio Dowling to arrest and interrogate islanders who he suspected might lead opposition to the occupation.Initially, Islanders suspected of holding anti-Argentine views were expelled,including the Luxton family(who had lived in the islands since the 1840s) and David Colville,editor of theFalklands Times. This proved to be counter-productive, as those expelled gave interviews to the press. Subsequently, fourteen other community leaders, including the senior medical officer, were interned atFox Bayon West Falkland.Concerned by Dowling's actions, senior Argentine officers had him removed from the islands.For almost a month, the civilian population ofGoose Greenwas detained in thevillage hallin \"unpleasant conditions\".Less well known are similar detentions in other outlying settlements, including one islander who died after being denied access to his medication. As the war's end approached, some troops began to place booby traps in civilian homes,defiled homes with excrement,destroyed civilian property and committed arson against civilian properties. Argentine officers andNCOshave been accused of handing out roughField punishmentto their conscript soldiers. Ration packs from the Moody Brook depot were found to have foodstuff missing according to Private Alan Craig from the 7th Regiment,and troops garrisoning Port Howard were starved,and according to Max Hastings and Simon Jenkins in their book The Battle for the Falklands (Norton, 1984), \"Attempts to go absent without leave were punished by beatings or forcing the offender to sit for hours with his naked feet in the freezing water on the mountainside.\" Private Rito Portillofrom the 1st Marine Anti-Aircraft Battalion and Private Remigio Fernándezfrom the 5th Regiment were reported to have been executed or died because of mistreatment by their own officers. Soldiers were made to signnon-disclosure documentson their return from the Islands. Shuttle diplomacy On 8 April,Alexander Haig, theUnited States Secretary of State, arrived in London on ashuttle diplomacymission fromPresidentRonald Reaganto broker a peace deal based on an interim authority taking control of the islands pending negotiations. After hearing from Thatcher that the task force would not be withdrawn unless the Argentines evacuated their troops, Haig headed for Buenos Aires.There he met the junta andNicanor Costa Méndez, the foreign minister. Haig was treated coolly and told that Argentine sovereignty must be a pre-condition of any talks. Returning to London on 11 April, he found the British cabinet in no mood for compromise. Haig flew back to Washington before returning to Buenos Aires for a final protracted round of talks. These made little progress, but just as Haig and his mission were leaving, they were told that Galtieri would meet them at the airport VIP lounge to make an important concession; however, this was cancelled at the last minute. On 30 April, the Reagan administration announced that they would be publicly supporting the United Kingdom. British task force The nuclear-powered submarineConquerorset sail from Faslane, Scotland on 4 April. The two aircraft carriersInvincibleandHermesand their escort vessels leftPortsmouth, England only a day later.On its return to Southampton from a world cruise on 7 April, the ocean linerSSCanberrawas requisitioned and set sail two days later with the3 Commando Brigadeaboard.The ocean linerQueen Elizabeth 2was also requisitioned, and leftSouthamptonon 12 May, with the5th Infantry Brigadeon board.The whole task force eventually comprised 127 ships: 43Royal Navyvessels, 22Royal Fleet Auxiliaryships, and 62merchant ships. The retaking of the Falkland Islands was considered extremely difficult. The chances of a British counter-invasion succeeding were assessed by theUS Navy, according to historianArthur L. Herman, as \"a military impossibility\".Firstly, the British were significantly constrained by the disparity in deployable air cover.The British had 42 aircraft (28Sea Harriersand 14Harrier GR.3s) available for air combat operations, against approximately 122 serviceable jet fighters, of which about 50 were used asair superiority fightersand the remainder asstrike aircraft, inArgentina's air forces during the war.Crucially, the British lackedairborne early warning and control(AEW) aircraft. Planning also considered the Argentine surface fleet and the threat posed byExocet-equipped vessels or the twoType 209 submarines. By mid-April, theRoyal Air Forcehad set up an airbase onRAF Ascension Island, co-located with Wideawake Airfield, on the mid-AtlanticBritish overseas territory ofAscension Island. They included a sizeable force ofAvro VulcanB Mk 2 bombers,Handley Page VictorK Mk 2refuelling aircraft, andMcDonnell Douglas Phantom FGR Mk 2fightersto protect them. Meanwhile, the main British naval task force arrived at Ascension to prepare for active service. A small force had already been sent south to recapture South Georgia. Encounters began in April; the British Task Force was shadowed byBoeing 707aircraft of theArgentine Air Forceduring their travel to the south.Several of these flights were intercepted by Sea Harriers outside the British-imposedTotal Exclusion Zone; the unarmed 707s were not attacked because diplomatic moves were still in progress and the UK had not yet decided to commit itself to armed force. On 23 April, a Brazilian commercialDouglas DC-10fromVARIGAirlines en route to South Africa was intercepted by British Harriers who visually identified the civilian plane. Recapture of South Georgia and the attack onSanta Fe The South Georgia force,Operation Paraquet, under the command of Major Guy Sheridan RM, consisted of Marines from42 Commando, a troop of theSpecial Air Service(SAS) andSpecial Boat Service(SBS) troops who were intended to land asreconnaissanceforces for an invasion by the Royal Marines, a total of 240 men. All were embarked onRFATidespring. First to arrive was theChurchill-classsubmarineHMSConqueroron 19 April, and the island was over-flown by aHandley Page Victoraircraft with radar-mapping equipment on 20 April, to establish that no Argentine ships were in the vicinity. The first landings of SAS and SBS troops took place on 21 April, but an ill-advised mission to establish an SAS observation post on theFortuna Glacierhad to be withdrawn after two helicopters crashed in fog and high winds. On 23 April, a submarine alert was sounded and operations were halted, withTidespringbeing withdrawn to deeper water to avoid interception. On 24 April, British forces regrouped and headed in to attack. On 25 April, after resupplying the Argentine garrison in South Georgia, the submarineARASanta Fewas spotted on the surfaceby aWestland WessexHAS Mk 3 helicopter fromHMSAntrim, which attacked the Argentine submarine withdepth charges.HMSPlymouthlaunched aWestland WaspHAS.Mk.1 helicopter, andHMSBrilliantlaunched aWestland LynxHAS Mk 2. The Lynx launched atorpedo, andstrafedthe submarine with itspintle-mountedgeneral purpose machine gun; the Wessex also fired onSanta Fewith itsGPMG. The Wasp fromHMSPlymouthas well as two other Wasps launched fromHMSEndurancefiredAS-12ASMantiship missilesat the submarine, scoring hits.Santa Fewas damaged badly enough to prevent her from diving. The crew abandoned the submarine at the jetty atKing Edward Pointon South Georgia. WithTidespringnow far out to sea and the Argentine forces augmented by the submarine's crew, Major Sheridan decided to gather the 76 men he had and make a direct assault that day. After a short forced march by the British troops and a naval bombardment demonstration by two Royal Navy vessels (AntrimandPlymouth), the Argentine forces, a total of 190 men, surrendered without resistance to the Royal Marines.The message sent from the naval force at South Georgia to London was, \"Be pleased to inform Her Majesty that theWhite Ensignflies alongside theUnion Jackin South Georgia. God Save the Queen.\" The Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, broke the news to the media, telling them to\"Just rejoice at that news, and congratulate our forces and the Marines!\" Black Buck raids On 1 May, British operations on the Falklands opened with the \"Black Buck 1\" attack (of a series of five) on the airfield at Stanley. AVulcan bomberfromAscensionflew an 8,000-nautical-mile (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) round trip, dropping conventional bombs across the runway at Stanley. The mission required repeatedaerial refuellingusing several Victor K2 tanker aircraft operating in concert, including tanker-to-tanker refuelling.The overall effect of the raids on the war is difficult to determine. The runway was cratered by only one of the twenty one bombs, but as a result, the Argentines realised that their mainland was vulnerable and fighter aircraft were redeployed from the theatre to bases further north. HistorianLawrence Freedman, who was given access to official sources, comments that the significance of the Vulcan raids remains a subject of controversy.Although they took pressure off the small Sea Harrier force, the raids were costly and used a great deal of resources. The single hit to the edge of the runway was probably the best that could have been expected. Contrary to some reports, this reduced the capability of the runway to operateMirage IIIfast jets but not other, smaller jet fighters, thePucara, and theHercules C-130. Nor did it cause the Argentine air force to deployMirage IIIsto defend the capital.Latest Argentine sources confirm that the Vulcan raids did not influence Argentina's decision to move some of its Mirage IIIs from southern Argentina to the Buenos Aires Defence Zone.This dissuasive effect was watered down when British officials made clear that there would not be strikes on air bases in Argentina. The raids were later dismissed as propaganda by Falklands veteran Commander Nigel Ward. Of the five Black Buck raids, three were against Stanley Airfield, with the other two being anti-radar missions usingShrikeanti-radiation missiles. Escalation of the air war The Falklands had only three airfields. The longest and only paved runway was at the capital,Stanley, and even that was too short to support fast jets. Therefore, the Argentines were forced to launch their major strikes from the mainland, severely hampering their efforts at forward staging,combat air patrols, andclose air supportover the islands. The effective loiter time of incoming Argentine aircraft was low, limiting the ability of fighters to protect attack aircraft, which were often compelled to attack the first target of opportunity, rather than selecting the most lucrative target. The first major Argentine strike force comprised 36 aircraft (A-4 Skyhawks,IAI Daggers,English Electric Canberras, andMirage IIIescorts), and was sent on 1 May, in the belief that the British invasion was imminent or landings had already taken place. Only a section of Grupo 6 (flying IAI Dagger aircraft) found ships, which were firing at Argentine defences near the islands. The Daggers managed to attack the ships and return safely. This greatly boosted the morale of the Argentine pilots, who now knew they could survive an attack against modern warships, protected by radar ground clutter from the islands and by using a latepop upprofile. Meanwhile, other Argentine aircraft were intercepted byBAE Sea Harriersoperating fromHMSInvincible. A Daggerand a Canberra were shot down. Combat broke out between Sea Harrier FRS Mk 1 fighters of No.801 Naval Air SquadronandMirage IIIfighters of Grupo 8. Both sides refused to fight at the other's best altitude, until two Mirages finally descended to engage. One was shot down by anAIM-9L Sidewinderair-to-air missile(AAM), while the other escaped but was damaged and without enough fuel to return to its mainland airbase. The plane made for Stanley, where it fell victim to friendly fire from the Argentine defenders. As a result of this experience, Argentine Air Force staff decided to employ A-4 Skyhawks and Daggers only as strike units, the Canberras only during the night, and Mirage IIIs (without air refuelling capability or any capable AAM) as decoys to lure away the British Sea Harriers. The decoying would be later extended with the formation of theEscuadrón Fénix, a squadron of civilian jets flying 24 hours a day, simulating strike aircraft preparing to attack the fleet. On one of these flights on 7 June, an Air ForceLearjet 35A was shot down by HMS Exeter, killing the squadron commander, Vice Commodore Rodolfo de la Colina, the highest-ranking Argentine officer to die in the war. Stanley was used as an Argentine strongpoint throughout the conflict. Despite the Black Buck and Harrier raids on Stanley airfield (no fast jets were stationed there for air defence) and overnight shelling by detached ships, it was never out of action entirely. Stanley was defended by a mixture ofsurface-to-air missile(SAM) systems (Franco-GermanRolandand BritishTigercat) and light anti-aircraft guns, including Swiss-builtOerlikon 35 mm twin cannonsand 30 mm Hispano-Suiza cannon and GermanRheinmetall 20 mm twin anti-aircraft cannons. More of the anti-aircraft guns were deployed to the airstrip at Goose Green.Lockheed Herculestransport night flights brought supplies, weapons, vehicles, and fuel, and airlifted out the wounded up until the end of the conflict. The only Argentine Hercules shot down by the British was lost on 1 June when TC-63 was intercepted by a Sea Harrier in daylightas it was searching for the British fleet north-east of the islands, after the Argentine Navy retired its lastSP-2H Neptunedue to unreliability. Various options to attack the home base of the five ArgentineÉtendardsatRío Grandewere examined and discounted (Operation Mikado); subsequently five Royal Navy submarines were lined up, submerged, on the edge of Argentina's 12-nautical-mile (22 km; 14 mi) territorial limit to provide early warning of bombing raids on the British task force. Operation Folklore was a plan to deploy two Canberra PR.9 aircraft ofNo. 39 Squadron RAF, disguised inChilean Air Forcemarkings, to the Chilean air base atPunta Arenas, with the intention of undertaking high-levelphoto-reconnaissanceflights over the Falklands;however the Canberras had reachedBelizewhen the operation was abandoned after part of the plan had been reported in the British press.Operation Acme was the deployment of a single Nimrod R.1 surveillance aircraft ofNo. 51 Squadron RAFto the Chilean base atIsla San Félixto gathersignals intelligencefrom Argentinian forces in the Falklands;three sorties were conducted, the last on 17 May narrowly avoided being shot down by the Chileans, leading to the cancellation of the operation.More successful was Operation Fingent, the placement of a Marconi S259 radar on high ground in Tierra del Fuego from where it could monitor movements at southern Argentinian air bases; the RAF crew wore civilian clothes in the guise of a sales team.Information was passed to Northwood and the Task Force by means of Operation Shutter, a US supplied SATCOM system installed at the Chilean Air Force headquarters inSantiagoand operated by two soldiers of theRoyal Corps of Signals. Sinking of ARAGeneral Belgrano On 30 April, the British government had brought into force a 200 nautical miles (370 kilometres; 230 miles) Total Exclusion Zone (TEZ) to replace the previous Maritime Exclusion Zone; aircraft as well as ships of any nation were liable to be attacked inside it, if they were aiding the Argentine occupation. AdmiralSandy Woodward's carrier battle group of twelve warships and three supply ships entered the TEZ on 1 May, shortly before the first Black Buck raid, intending to degrade Argentine air and sea forces before the arrival of the amphibious group two weeks later.In anticipation, Admiral Anaya had deployed all his available warships into three task groups. The first was centred around the aircraft carrierARAVeinticinco de Mayowith two old but missile-armed destroyers, and a second comprised three modern frigates. Both these groups were intended to approach the TEZ from the north. A third group approaching from the south was led by theSecond World War-vintage Argentinelight cruiserARAGeneral Belgrano;although old, her large guns and heavy armour made her a serious threat, and she was escorted by two modernType 42guided-missile destroyers, armed with Exocet missiles. On 1 May, the British nuclear-powered submarineHMSConqueror(one of three patrolling the TEZ) located theBelgranogroup and followed it until the following day, when it was about 12 hours away from the Task Force and just outside the Total Exclusion Zone. Admiral Woodward was aware of the Argentine carrier group approaching from the other direction and ordered the cruiser to be attacked to avoid being caught in apincer movement; he was unaware that theVeinticinco de Mayohad failed to gain enough headwind to launch her aircraft. The order to sink the cruiser was confirmed by theWar Cabinetin London and theGeneral Belgranowas hit by two torpedoes at 4 pm local time on 2 May, sinking an hour later.321 members ofGeneral Belgrano's crew, along with two civilians on board the ship, died in the incident. More than 700 men were eventually rescued from the open ocean despite cold seas and stormy weather, enduring up to 30 hours in overcrowded life rafts.The loss ofGeneral Belgranodrew heavy criticism from Latin American countries and from opponents of the war in Britain; support for the British cause wavered amongst some European allies, but the United States remained supportive. Regardless ofcontroversies over the sinking— including disagreement about the exact nature of the exclusion zone and whetherGeneral Belgranohad been returning to port at the time of the sinking — it had a crucial strategic effect: the elimination of the Argentine naval threat. After her loss, the entire Argentine fleet, with the exception of the diesel-powered submarineARASan Luis,returned to port and did not leave again during the fighting. This had the secondary effect of allowing the British to redeploy their nuclear submarines to the coast of Argentina, where they were able to provide early warning of outgoing air attacks leaving mainland bases.However, settling the controversy in 2003, the ship's captain, Hector Bonzo, stated to a documentary crew thatGeneral Belgranohad actually been manoeuvring, not sailing away from the exclusion zone, and that he had orders to sink any British ship he could find. In a separate incident later that night, British forces engaged an Argentine patrol gunboat, theARAAlferez Sobral, that was searching for the crew of an Argentine Air ForceCanberra light bombershot down on 1 May. Two Royal NavyLynxhelicopters, fromHMSCoventryandHMSGlasgow, fired fourSea Skuamissiles at her. Badly damaged and with eight crew dead,Alferez Sobralmanaged to return toPuerto Deseadotwo days later.The Canberra's crew were never found. Sinking of HMSSheffield On 4 May, two days after the sinking ofGeneral Belgrano, the British lost theType 42 destroyerHMSSheffieldto fire following anExocetmissile strike from the Argentine2nd Naval Air Fighter/Attack Squadron. Sheffieldhad been ordered forward with two other Type 42s to provide a long-range radar and medium-high altitude missilepicketfar from the British carriers. She was struck amidships, with devastating effect, ultimately killing 20 crew members and severely injuring 24 others. The ship was abandoned several hours later, gutted and deformed by fires. For four days she was kept afloat for inspections and the hope that she might attract Argentine submarines which could be hunted by helicopter. The decision was then taken to tow her to Ascension, but while under tow byHMSYarmouth, she finally sank east of the Falklands on 10 May. The incident is described in detail by Admiral Woodward in his bookOne Hundred Days, in Chapter One. Woodward was a former commanding officer ofSheffield.The destruction ofSheffield, the first Royal Navy ship sunk in action since the Second World War, had a profound impact on the War Cabinet and the British public as a whole, bringing home the fact that the conflict was now an actual shooting war. Diplomatic activity The tempo of operations increased throughout the first half of May as the United Nations' attempts to mediate a peace were rejected by the Argentines. The final British negotiating position was presented to Argentina by UN Secretary-GeneralJavier Pérez de Cuéllaron 18 May 1982. In it, the British abandoned their previous \"red-line\" that British administration of the islands should be restored on the withdrawal of Argentine forces, as supported byUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 502. Instead, it proposed a UN administrator should supervise the mutual withdrawal of both Argentine and British forces, then govern the islands in consultation with the representative institutions of the islands, including Argentines, although no Argentines lived there. Reference to \"self-determination\" of the islanders was dropped and the British proposed that future negotiations over the sovereignty of the islands should be conducted by the UN.However, the proposals were rejected by the Argentines on the same day. Special forces operations Given the threat to the British fleet posed by the Étendard-Exocet combination, plans were made to use C-130s to fly inSAStroops to attack the home base of the five Étendards atRío Grande, Tierra del Fuego. The operation was codenamed \"Mikado\". The operation was later scrapped, after acknowledging that its chances of success were limited, and replaced with a plan to use the submarineHMSOnyxto drop SBS marines several miles offshore at night for them to make their way to the coast aboard rubber inflatables and proceed to destroy Argentina's remaining Exocet stockpile - which did not exist at their objective. An SAS reconnaissance team was dispatched to carry out preparations for a seaborne infiltration. AWestland Sea Kinghelicopter carrying the assigned team took off from HMSInvincibleon the night of 17 May, but bad weather forced it to land 50 miles (80 km) from its target and the mission was aborted.The pilot flew toChile, landed south ofPunta Arenas, and dropped off the SAS team. The helicopter's crew of three then destroyed the aircraft, surrendered to Chilean police on 25 May, and were repatriated to the UK after interrogation. The discovery of the burnt-out helicopter attracted considerable international attention. Meanwhile, the SAS team crossed the border and penetrated into Argentina, but cancelled their mission after the Argentines suspected an SAS operation and deployed some 2,000 troops to search for them. The SAS men were able to return to Chile and took a civilian flight back to the UK. On 14 May, the SAS carried out araid on Pebble Islandon the Falklands, where the Argentine Navy had taken over a grass airstripmapforFMA IA 58 Pucarálight ground-attack aircraft andBeechcraft T-34 Mentors, which resulted in the destruction of several aircraft. On 15 May, SBS teams were inserted by HMSBrilliantatGrantham Soundto reconnoitre and observe the landing beaches atSan Carlos Bay.On the evening of 20 May, the day before the main landings, an SBS troop and artillery observers were landed by Wessex helicopters for an assault on an Argentine observation post at Fanning Head which overlooked the entrance of the bay; meanwhile, the SAS conducted a diversionary raid atDarwin. Air attacks In the landing zone, the limitations of the British ships' anti-aircraft defences were demonstrated in the sinking ofHMSArdenton 21 May which was hit by nine bombs,andHMSAntelopeon 24 May when attempts to defuze unexploded bombs failed.Out at sea with the carrier battle group,MVAtlantic Conveyorwas struck by an air-launched Exocet on 25 May, which caused the loss of three out of fourChinookand five Wessex helicopters as well as their maintenance equipment and facilities, together with runway-building equipment and tents. This was a severe blow from a logistical perspective. Twelve of her crew members were killed. Also lost on 25 May wasHMSCoventry, a sister toSheffield, whilst in company withHMSBroadswordafter being ordered to act as a decoy to draw away Argentine aircraft from other ships at San Carlos Bay.HMSArgonautandHMSBrilliantwere moderately damaged. Many British ships escaped being sunk because of limitations imposed by circumstances on Argentine pilots. To avoid the highest concentration of British air defences, Argentine pilots released bombs at very low altitude, and hence those bombfuzesdid not have sufficient time to arm before impact. The low release of theretarded bombs(some of which the British had sold to the Argentines years earlier) meant that many never exploded, as there was insufficient time in the air for them to arm themselves.The pilots would have been aware of this—but due to the high concentration required to avoidsurface-to-air missiles,anti-Aircraft Artillery(AAA), and BritishSea Harriers, many failed to climb to the necessary release point. The Argentine forces solved the problem by fitting improvised retarding devices, allowing the pilots to effectively employ low-level bombing attacks on 8 June. Thirteen bombs hit British ships without detonating.LordCraig, the retiredMarshal of the Royal Air Force, is said to have remarked: \"Six better fuzes and we would have lost\"althoughArdentandAntelopewere both lost despite the failure of bombs to explode, andArgonautwas put out of action. The fuzes were functioning correctly, and the bombs were simply released from too low an altitude.The Argentines lost 22 aircraft in the attacks. In his autobiographical account of the Falklands War, Admiral Woodward blamed theBBC World Servicefor disclosing information that led the Argentines to change the retarding devices on the bombs. The World Service reported the lack of detonations after receiving a briefing on the matter from aMinistry of Defenceofficial. He describes the BBC as being more concerned with being \"fearless seekers after truth\" than with the lives of British servicemen.Colonel'H'. Joneslevelled similar accusations against the BBC after they disclosed the impending British attack on Goose Green by 2 Para. On 30 May, two Super Étendards, one carrying Argentina's last remaining Exocet, escorted by fourA-4C Skyhawkseach with two 500 lb bombs, took off to attackInvincible.Argentine intelligence had sought to determine the position of the carriers from analysis of aircraft flight routes from the task force to the islands.However, the British had a standing order that all aircraft conduct a low level transit when leaving or returning to the carriers to disguise their position.This tactic compromised the Argentine attack, which focused on a group of escorts 40 miles (64 km) south of the carrier group.Two of the attacking Skyhawkswere shot down bySea Dartmissiles fired byHMSExeter,withHMSAvengerclaiming to have shot down the Exocet missile with her 4.5\" gun (although this claim is disputed).No damage was caused to any British vessels.During the war, Argentina claimed to have damagedInvincibleand continues to do so,although no evidence of any such damage has been produced or uncovered. Land battles San Carlos – \"Bomb Alley\" During the night of 21 May, the British Amphibious Task Group under the command of CommodoreMichael Clapp(Commodore, Amphibious Warfare – COMAW) mountedOperation Sutton, the amphibious landing on beaches aroundSan Carlos Water,on the northwestern coast ofEast Falklandfacing ontoFalkland Sound. The bay, known asBomb Alleyby British forces, was the scene of repeated air attacks by low-flying Argentine jets. The 4,000 men of3 Commando Brigadewere put ashore as follows:2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment(2 Para) from theROROferryNorlandand40 CommandoRoyal Marinesfrom the amphibious shipHMSFearlesswere landed at San Carlos (Blue Beach),3rd Battalion, Parachute Regiment(3 Para) from the amphibious shipHMSIntrepidwas landed atPort San Carlos(Green Beach) and45 CommandofromRFAStromnesswas landed atAjax Bay(Red Beach).Notably, the waves of eightLCUsand eightLCVPswere led by MajorEwen Southby-Tailyour, who had commanded the Falklands detachment NP8901 from March 1978 to 1979.42 Commandoon the ocean linerSSCanberrawas a tactical reserve. Units from theRoyal Artillery,Royal Engineers, etc. and armoured reconnaissance vehicles were also put ashore with the landing craft, theRound Table-classLSLandmexeflotebarges.Rapier missilelaunchers were carried as underslung loads ofSea Kingsfor rapid deployment. By dawn the next day, they had established a secure beachhead from which to conduct offensive operations.BrigadierJulian Thompsonestablished his brigade headquarters in dugouts nearSan Carlos Settlement. Goose Green From early on 27 May until 28 May, 2 Para approached and attacked Darwin and Goose Green, which was held by the Argentine 12th Infantry Regiment. 2 Para’s 500 men had naval gunfire support from HMSArrowand artillery support from 8 Commando Battery of the Royal Artillery. After a tough struggle that lasted all night and into the next day, the British won the battle; in all, 18 British and 47 Argentine soldiers were killed. A total of 961 Argentine troops (including 202 Argentine Air Force personnel of theCondorairfield) were taken prisoner. The BBC announced the taking of Goose Green on theBBC World Servicebefore it had actually happened. During this attackLieutenant ColonelH. Jones, the commanding officer of 2 Para, was killed at the head of his battalion while charging into the well-prepared Argentine positions. He was posthumously awarded theVictoria Cross. With the sizeable Argentine force at Goose Green out of the way, British forces were now able to break out of the San Carlos beachhead. On 27 May, men of 45 Cdo and 3 Para started aloaded marchacrossEast Falklandtowards the coastal settlement ofTeal Inlet. Special forces on Mount Kent Meanwhile, 42 Commando prepared to move by helicopter toMount Kent.Unbeknownst to senior British officers, the Argentine generals were determined to tie down the British troops in the Mount Kent area, and on 27 and 28 May they sent transport aircraft loaded withBlowpipesurface-to-air missiles andcommandos(602nd Commando Company and 601st National Gendarmerie Special Forces Squadron) toStanley. This operation was known asAutoimpuesta(\"Self-imposed\"). For the next week, the SAS and theMountain and Arctic Warfare Cadre(M&AWC) of3 Commando Brigadewaged intense patrol battles with patrols of the volunteers' 602nd Commando Company under MajorAldo Rico, normally second in Command of the 22nd Mountain Infantry Regiment. Throughout 30 May, Royal Air Force Harriers were active over Mount Kent. One of them, HarrierXZ963, flown by Squadron Leader Jerry Pook—in responding to a call for help from D Squadron, attacked Mount Kent's eastern lower slopes, which led to its loss through small-arms fire. Pook was subsequently awarded theDistinguished Flying Cross.On 31 May, the M&AWC defeated Argentine Special Forces at theskirmish at Top Malo House. A 13-strong Argentine Army Commando detachment (Captain José Vercesi's 1st Assault Section, 602nd Commando Company) found itself trapped in a small shepherd's house at Top Malo. The Argentine commandos fired from windows and doorways and then took refuge in a stream bed 200 metres (700 ft) from the burning house. Completely surrounded, they fought 19 M&AWC marines under Captain Rod Boswell for 45 minutes until, with their ammunition almost exhausted, they elected to surrender. Three Cadre members were badly wounded. On the Argentine side, there were two dead, including Lieutenant Ernesto Espinoza and Sergeant Mateo Sbert (who were posthumously decorated for their bravery). Only five Argentines were left unscathed. As the British secured Top Malo House, Lieutenant Fraser Haddow's M&AWC patrol came down from Malo Hill, brandishing a largeUnion Flag. One wounded Argentine soldier, Lieutenant Horacio Losito, commented that their escape route would have taken them through Haddow's position. 601st Commando tried to move forward to rescue 602nd Commando Company on Estancia Mountain. Spotted by 42 Commando, they were engaged withL16 81mm mortarsand forced to withdraw to Two Sisters mountain. The leader of 602nd Commando Company on Estancia Mountain realised his position had become untenable and after conferring with fellow officers ordered a withdrawal. The Argentine operation also saw the extensive use of helicopter support to position and extract patrols; the601st Combat Aviation Battalionalso suffered casualties. At about 11:00 am on 30 May, anAérospatiale SA 330 Pumahelicopter was brought down by a shoulder-launchedFIM-92 Stingersurface-to-air missile(SAM) fired by the SAS in the vicinity of Mount Kent. SixArgentine National GendarmerieSpecial Forces were killed and eight more wounded in the crash. As Brigadier Thompson commented: It was fortunate that I had ignored the views expressed byNorthwood HQthat reconnaissance of Mount Kent before insertion of 42 Commando was superfluous. Had D Squadron not been there, the Argentine Special Forces would have caught the Commando before de-planing and, in the darkness and confusion on a strange landing zone, inflicted heavy casualties on men and helicopters. Bluff Cove and Fitzroy By 1 June, with the arrival of a further 5,000 British troops of the 5th Infantry Brigade, the new British divisional commander, Major GeneralJeremy MooreRM, had sufficient force to start planning an offensive againstStanley. During this build-up, the Argentine air assaults on the British naval forces continued, killing 56. Of the dead, 32 were from theWelsh GuardsonRFASir GalahadandRFASir Tristramon 8 June. According to Surgeon-CommanderRick Jollyof the Falklands Field Hospital, more than 150 men suffered burns and injuries of some kind in the attack, includingSimon Weston. The Guards were sent to support an advance along the southern approach to Stanley. On 2 June, a small advance party of 2 Para moved to Swan Inlet house in a number of ArmyWestland Scouthelicopters. Telephoning ahead toFitzroy, they discovered that the area was clear of Argentines and (exceeding their authority) commandeered the one remainingRAF Chinookhelicopter to frantically ferry another contingent of 2 Para ahead toFitzroy(a settlement on Port Pleasant) andBluff Cove(a settlement on Port Fitzroy). This uncoordinated advance caused great difficulties in planning for the commanders of the combined operation, as they now found themselves with 30 miles (48 km) of indefensible positions, strung along their southern flank. Support could not be sent by air as the single remaining Chinook was already heavily oversubscribed. The soldiers could march, but their equipment and heavy supplies would need to be ferried by sea. Plans were drawn up for half the Welsh Guards to march light on the night of 2 June, whilst theScots Guardsand the second half of the Welsh Guards were to be ferried from San Carlos Water in theLanding Ship Logistics(LSL)Sir Tristramand thelanding platform dock(LPD)Intrepidon the night of 5 June.Intrepidwas planned to stay one day and unload itself and as much ofSir Tristramas possible, leaving the next evening for the relative safety of San Carlos. Escorts would be provided for this day, after whichSir Tristramwould be left to unload using aMexeflote(a powered raft) for as long as it took to finish. Political pressure from above to not risk the LPD forced CommodoreMichael Clappto alter this plan. Two lower-value LSLs would be sent, but with no suitable beaches to land on,Intrepid'slanding craftwould need to accompany them to unload. A complicated operation across several nights withIntrepidand her sister shipFearlesssailing half-way to dispatch their craft was devised. The attempted overland march by half the Welsh Guards failed, possibly as they refused to march light and attempted to carry their equipment.They returned to San Carlos and landed directly at Bluff Cove whenFearlessdispatched her landing craft.Sir Tristramsailed on the night of 6 June and was joined bySir Galahadat dawn on 7 June. Anchored 1,200 feet (370 m) apart in Port Pleasant, the landing ships were near Fitzroy, the designated landing point. The landing craft should have been able to unload the ships to that point relatively quickly, but confusion over the ordered disembarkation point (the first half of the Guards going direct to Bluff Cove) resulted in the senior Welsh Guards infantry officer aboard insisting that his troops should be ferried the far longer distance directly to Port Fitzroy/Bluff Cove. The alternative was for the infantrymen to march via the recently repaired Bluff Cove bridge (destroyed by retreating Argentinecombat engineers) to their destination, a journey of around seven miles (11 km). There are conflicting accounts of the causes for the delay in disembarking the Welsh Guards contingent. One narrative posits that onSir Galahad's stern ramp there was an argument about what to do. The officers on board were told that they could not sail to Bluff Cove in daylight. They were told that they had to get their men off ship and onto the beach as soon as possible as the ships were vulnerable to enemy aircraft. It would take 20 minutes to transport the men to shore using the LCU and Mexeflote. They would then have the choice of walking the seven miles to Bluff Cove or wait until dark to sail there. The officers on board said that they would remain on board until dark and then sail. They refused to take their men off the ship. They possibly doubted that the bridge had been repaired due to the presence on boardSir Galahadof theRoyal EngineerTroop whose job it was to repair the bridge. The Welsh Guards were keen to rejoin the rest of their Battalion, who were potentially facing the enemy without their support. They had also not seen any enemy aircraft since landing atSan Carlosand may have been overconfident in the air defences. Royal Marines MajorEwen Southby-Tailyourgave a direct order for the men to leave the ship and go to the beach; the order was ignored. However, a contemporary Royal Navy report, partially declassified in 2024, throws into question the validity of this account. The investigative report states that \"At no time was a direct order to disembark given to......by a superior officer\".Additionally, it is claimed thatSir Tristram, although receiving signals advising ofSir Galahad's arrival, failed to pass these onto the officers responsible for her unloading, who \"...had not been warned of the arrival of the ship, nor of the nature of her cargo...no preparation had been made for the timely off-load of the new arrival.\" The longer journey time of the landing craft taking the troops directly to Bluff Cove and the ambiguity over orders being issued to this effect caused an enormous delay in unloading. This had disastrous consequences, since the ships were visible to Argentine troops on Mount Harriet, some ten miles (16 km) distant.Without escorts, having not yet established their air defence, and still almost fully laden, the two LSLs in Port Pleasant were sitting targets for eight ArgentineA-4 Skyhawks. A coordinated sortie by six Daggers attacked HMSPlymouth, which had the effect of drawing off the patrolling Sea Harriers. At 17.00, the Skyhawks attacked from seaward, hittingSir Galahadwith three bombs; although none exploded, they caused fierce fires which quickly grew out of control. Two bombs hitSir Tristram, also starting fires and causing the ship to be abandoned, but the damage was not as serious. Three Sea King and a Wessex helicopter ferried the wounded to an advanced dressing station which was set up on the shore. British casualties were 48 killed and 115 wounded.Three Argentine pilots were also killed. The air strike delayed the scheduled British ground attack on Stanley by two days.The British casualties amounted to twoinfantry companies, but it was decided not to release detailed casualty figures because intelligence indicated that Argentine commanders believed that a much more severe reverse had been inflicted. However, thedisaster at Port Pleasant(although often known as Bluff Cove) would provide the world with some of the most sobering images of the war asITV Newsvideo showed helicopters hovering in thick smoke to winch survivors from the burning landing ships. Fall of Stanley On the night of 11 June, after several days of painstaking reconnaissance and logistic build-up, British forces launched a brigade-sized night attack against the heavily defended ring of high ground surrounding Stanley. Units of 3 Commando Brigade, supported by naval gunfire from several Royal Navy ships, simultaneously attacked in theBattle of Mount Harriet,Battle of Two Sisters, andBattle of Mount Longdon. Mount Harriet was taken at a cost of 2 British and 18 Argentine soldiers. At Two Sisters, the British faced both enemy resistance andfriendly firebut managed to capture their objectives. The toughest battle was atMount Longdon. British forces were bogged down by rifle, mortar, machine gun, artillery and sniper fire, and ambushes. Despite this, the British continued their advance. During this battle, 14 were killed whenHMSGlamorgan, straying too close to shore while returning from the gun line, was struck by an improvised trailer-basedExocetMM38 launcher taken from the destroyerARASeguíby Argentine Navy technicians.On the same day, SergeantIan McKayof 4 Platoon, B Company, 3 Para died in a grenade attack on an Argentine bunker; he received a posthumousVictoria Crossfor his actions.After a night of fierce fighting, all objectives were secured. Both sides suffered heavy losses. The second phase of attacks began on the night of 13 June, and the momentum of the initial assault was maintained. 2 Para, with light armour support from theBlues and Royals,captured Wireless Ridge, with the loss of 3 British and 25 Argentine lives, and the 2nd Battalion,Scots Guardscaptured Mount Tumbledown at theBattle of Mount Tumbledown, which cost 10 British and 30 Argentine lives.A simultaneous special forces raid by the SAS and SBS in fast boats to attack the oil tanks in Stanley Harbour was beaten off by anti-aircraft guns. With the last natural defence line at Mount Tumbledown breached, the Argentine town defences ofStanleybegan to falter. In the morning gloom, one company commander got lost and his junior officers became despondent. Private Santiago Carrizo of the 3rd Regiment described how a platoon commander ordered them to take up positions in the houses and \"if aKelperresists, shoot him\", but the entire company did nothing of the kind.A daylight attack on Mount William by theGurkhas, delayed from the previous night by the fighting at Tumbledown, ended in anticlimax when the Argentine positions were found to be deserted. A ceasefire was declared on 14 June andThatcher announced the commencement of surrender negotiations. The commander of the Argentine garrison in Stanley, Brigade General Mario Menéndez, surrendered to Major General Jeremy Moore the same day. Recapture of South Sandwich Islands On 20 June, the British retook theSouth Sandwich Islands, which involved accepting the surrender of theSouthern ThuleGarrison at theCorbeta Uruguay baseand declared hostilities over. Argentina had established Corbeta Uruguay in 1976, but prior to 1982 the United Kingdom had contested the existence of the Argentine base only through diplomatic channels. Foreign involvement Commonwealth The UK received political support from member countries of theCommonwealth of Nations. Australia, Canada, and New Zealand withdrew their diplomats from Buenos Aires. New Zealand The New Zealand government expelled the Argentine ambassador following the invasion. The Prime Minister,Robert Muldoon, was in London when the war broke outand in an opinion piece published inThe Timeshe said: \"The military rulers of Argentina must not be appeased … New Zealand will back Britain all the way.\" Broadcasting on theBBC World Service, he told the Falkland Islanders: \"This is Rob Muldoon. We are thinking of you and we are giving our full and total support to the British Government in its endeavours to rectify this situation and get rid of the people who have invaded your country.\"On 20 May 1982, he announced that New Zealand would makeHMNZSCanterbury, aLeander-classfrigate, available for use where the British thought fit to release a Royal Navy vessel for the Falklands.In the House of Commons afterwards,Margaret Thatchersaid: \"…the New Zealand Government and people have been absolutely magnificent in their support for this country the Falkland Islanders, for the rule of liberty and of law\". Australia Encouraged by the generous response of New Zealand, the Australian prime minister,Malcolm Fraser, was rushed into offering to cancel the intended purchase of HMSInvincible, which was quickly accepted by the British. However, this left theRoyal Australian Navywithout a replacement for their only aircraft carrier,HMASMelbourne, which was in the process of decommissioning. France The French president,François Mitterrand, declared an embargo on French arms sales and assistance to Argentina.In addition, France allowed UK aircraft and warships use of its port and airfield facilities atDakarinSenegaland France provideddissimilar aircraft trainingso that Harrier pilots could train against the French aircraft used by Argentina.French intelligence also cooperated with Britain to prevent Argentina from obtaining moreExocetmissiles on the international market.In a 2002 interview, and in reference to this support,John Nott, the then British Defence Secretary, had described France as Britain's 'greatest ally'. In 2012, it came to light that while this support was taking place, a French technical team, employed byDassaultand already in Argentina, remained there throughout the war despite the presidential decree. The team had provided material support to the Argentines, identifying and fixing faults in Exocet missile launchers. John Nott said he had known the French team was there but said its work was thought not to be of any importance. An adviser to the then French government denied any knowledge at the time that the technical team was there. The FrenchDGSEdid know the team was there as they had an informant in the team but decried any assistance the team gave: \"It's bordering on an act of treason, or disobedience to an embargo\". John Nott, when asked if he felt let down by the French said \"If you're asking me: 'Are the French duplicitous people?' the answer is: 'Of course they are, and they always have been\".Four Exocet missiles that had been ordered by Peru were prevented by the French government from being delivered by air and, after pressure from Britain who suspected that they would be passed on to Argentina, delayed their release to a Peruvian ship until the conflict was over. United States Declassified cables show the United States both felt that Thatcher had not considered diplomatic options and feared that a protracted conflict could draw theSoviet Unionon Argentina's side.The US initially tried to mediate an end to the conflict throughshuttle diplomacy, but when Argentina refused the American peace overtures, US Secretary of StateAlexander Haigannounced that the United States would prohibit arms sales to Argentina and provide material support for British operations. Both houses of theUS Congresspassed resolutions supporting the American action siding with the United Kingdom. The US provided the United Kingdom with 200Sidewindermissiles for use by the Harrier jets,eight Stinger surface-to-air missile systems,Harpoon anti-ship missilesand mortar bombs.On Ascension Island, the underground fuel tanks were empty when the British Task Force arrived in mid-April 1982 and the leading assault ship,HMSFearless, did not have enough fuel to dock when it arrived off the island. The United States diverted asupertankerto replenish both the fuel tanks of ships at anchor there and the storage tanks on the island with approximately 2,000,000 US gallons (7,600,000 L; 1,700,000 imp gal) of fuel.The Pentagon further committed to providing additional support in the event that the war dragged on into the Southern Hemisphere's winter. In that scenario, the US committed tanker aircraft to support Royal Air Force missions in Europe, releasing RAF aircraft to support operations over the Falklands. The United States allowed the United Kingdom to use American communication satellites for secure communications between submarines in the Southern Ocean and Naval HQ in Britain. The US also passed on satellite imagery (which it publicly denied) and weather forecast data to the British Fleet. US President Ronald Reagan approved the Royal Navy's request to borrow aSea Harrier-capableIwo Jima-classamphibious assault ship(the US Navy had earmarkedUSSGuam(LPH-9)for this) in the event a British aircraft carrier was lost. TheUS Navydeveloped a plan to help the British man the ship with Americanmilitary contractors, who would likely be retired sailors with knowledge of the ship's systems. Other OAS members Cuba Argentina itself was politically backed by a number of countries inLatin America(though, notably, notChile). Several members of theNon-Aligned Movementalso backed Argentina's position; notably,CubaandNicaragualed a diplomatic effort to rally non-aligned countries from Africa and Asia to Argentina's position. This initiative came as a surprise to Western observers, as Cuba had no diplomatic relations with Argentina's right-leaning military junta. British diplomats complained that Cuba had \"cynically exploited\" the crisis to pursue its normalization of relations with Latin American countries; Argentina eventually resumed relations with Cuba in 1983; Brazil did so in 1986.According toLeycester Coltman, Cuban presidentFidel Castrooffered to send troops to reinforce the Argentine garrison in the Falklands and to deploy the Cuban submarine fleet to attack British warships en route to the South Atlantic. Peru Peruattempted to purchase 12 Exocet missiles from France, to be delivered to Argentina in a failed secret operation.Peru also openly sent \"Mirages, pilots and missiles\" to Argentina during the war.That nation also supplied the Argentine forces with 40 Strela-2M shoulder-launched surface-to-air missile launchers and three experienced operators to help train in the use of those weapons.Peru had earlier transferred ten Hercules transport planes to Argentina soon after the British Task Force had set sail in April 1982.Nick van der Bijl records that, after the Argentine defeat at Goose Green,VenezuelaandGuatemalaoffered to sendparatroopersto the Falklands. Chile At the outbreak of the war,Chilewas in negotiations with Argentina for control over theBeagle Channeland feared Argentina would use similar tactics to secure the channel.During thisconflict, Argentina had already rejected two attempts at international mediation and tried to exert military pressure on Chile with an operation to occupy the disputed territory. Considering the situation, Chile refused to support the Argentine position during the warand gave support to the UK in the form of intelligence about the Argentine military and early warning intelligence on Argentine air movements.Throughout the war, Argentina was afraid of a Chilean military intervention inPatagoniaand kept some of its best mountain regiments away from the Falklands near the Chilean border as a precaution.The Chilean government also allowed the United Kingdom to requisition the refuelling vesselRFATidepool, which Chile had recently purchased and which had arrived atAricain Chile on 4 April. The ship left port soon afterwards, bound forAscension Islandthrough thePanama Canaland stopping atCuraçaoen route. Brazil At the end of May, Brazilian authorities allowed FAA Boeing 707s to refuel atRecife International Airportcarrying arms shipments fromLibya. When the British Embassy inBrasiliabecame aware of this, the BritishSecret Intelligence Servicedevised a plan to sabotage the next flight on the ground, but diplomatic pressure on the Brazilian government to observe their legal duties as aneutral countryresulted in no further flights being accepted.On 3 June, an RAF Vulcan on returning from a Black Buck raid on the Falklands, was forced to make an emergency landing atRio de Janeiro International Airportafter damage to its refuelling probe prevented it returning to Ascension Island. The Vulcan and her crew were interned and released seven days later, although an unused Shrike missile that the aircraft had been carrying was retained. Soviet Union TheSoviet Uniondescribed the Falklands as \"a disputed territory\", recognising Argentina's ambitions over the islands, and called for restraint on all sides. Soviet media frequently criticised the UK and US during the war. Significantly, however, the Soviet Union refrained from vetoing and thus made possibleUN Security CouncilResolution 502demanding the immediate withdrawal of all Argentine troops from the Falklands. However, the Soviet Union mounted some clandestine logistics operations to assist the Argentines.Days after the invasion by the Argentine forces, the Soviets launched additional intelligence satellites intolow Earth orbitcovering the southern Atlantic Ocean. Conflicting reports exist on whether Soviet ocean surveillance data might have played a role in the sinking ofHMSSheffieldandHMSCoventry. Spain Spain's position was one of ambiguity, underpinning the basic dilemma of the Spanish foreign policy regarding the articulation of relationships with Latin America and European communities.On 2 April 1982, theCouncil of Ministersissued an official note defending principles of decolonisation and against the use of force.Spain abstained in the vote of UN Security Council Resolution 502, a position that Spanish UN representativeJaime de Piniésjustified by pointing out that the resolution did not mention the underlying problem of decolonisation.The Spanish stance throughout the conflict contrasted with those of the countries in its immediate vicinity (EEC members and Portugal). Spanish authorities also foiled a covert attack by theArgentine Naval Intelligence Serviceon a British warship atGibraltar, code namedOperation Algeciras. Threefrogmen, recruited from a former anti-government insurgent group, were to plant mines on a ship's hull. The divers travelled to Spain through France, where French security services noted their military diving equipment and alerted their Spanish counterparts. They were covertly monitored as they moved from the Argentine embassy in Madrid toAlgeciras, where they were arrested on 17 May by theGuardia Civilanddeported. Portugal Portugal supported itslong-standing allyBritain and the facilities of theAzoreswere offered to the Royal Navy. EEC TheEuropean Economic Communityprovided economic support by imposingeconomic sanctionson Argentina. In a meeting onGood Friday, 9 April, at theEgmont Palace, the EEC Political Committee proposed a total import ban from Argentina. Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Luxembourg and Ireland agreed immediately; France, Germany and the Netherlands were persuaded before the meeting ended. Italy, which had close cultural ties with Argentina, consented on the next day. Other countries Ireland Ireland's position altered during the war. As a rotating member of the United Nations Security Council, it supported Resolution 502. However, on 4 May, theFianna Fáil governmentled byCharles Haugheydecided to oppose EEC sanctions and called for a ceasefire. Haughey justified this as complying withIrish neutrality. Historians have suggested it was an opportunistic appeal to anti-British sentiment and reaction to Haughey's being sidelined during the1981 republican hunger strike. The strain onBritish–Irish relationseased when Haughey's government fellin November 1982. Israel According to the bookOperation Israel, advisers fromIsrael Aerospace Industrieswere already in Argentina and continued their work during the conflict. The book also claims that Israel sold weapons anddrop tanksto Argentina in a secret operation via Peru. Sierra Leone TheGovernment of Sierra Leoneallowed British task force ships to refuel atFreetown. The Gambia VC10 transport aircraft landed atBanjulinThe Gambiawhile flying between the UK andAscension Island. Libya ThroughLibya, underMuammar Gaddafi, Argentina received 20 launchers and 60SA-7missiles (which Argentina later described as \"not effective\"), as well as machine guns, mortars and mines. To retrieve the weapons, four trips were made using two Argentine Air ForceBoeing 707swhich refuelled inRecifewith the consent of the Brazilian government. Casualties In total, 907 people were killed during the 74 days of the conflict. Additionally, there were 1,188 Argentine and 777 British injured or wounded. Argentina A total of 649 Argentine servicemen were killed: United Kingdom A total of 255 British servicemen were killed: Of the 86 Royal Navy personnel, 22 were lost inHMSArdent, 19 + 1 lost inHMSSheffield, 19 + 1 lost inHMSCoventryand 13 lost inHMSGlamorgan. Fourteen naval cooks were among the dead, the largest number from any one branch in the Royal Navy. Thirty-three of the British Army's dead came from the Welsh Guards (32 of whom died on theRFASir Galahadin theBluff Cove Air Attacks), 21 from the 3rd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment, 18 from the 2nd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment, 19 from the Special Air Service, 3 each fromRoyal SignalsandRoyal Army Medical Corpsand 8 from each of the Scots Guards and Royal Engineers. The 1st battalion/7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifleslost one man. Civilians Three civilians on the Falkland Islands were accidentally killed by British shelling during the night of 11/12 June.It was also reported thatHMS Brilliant, on an anti-submarine patrol, detected and torpedoed three whales by accident. Red Cross Box Before British offensive operations began, the British and Argentine governments agreed to establish an area on the high seas where both sides could station hospital ships without fear of attack by the other side. This area, a circle 20 nautical miles in diameter, was referred to as the Red Cross Box (48°30′S53°45′W / 48.500°S 53.750°W /-48.500; -53.750) and located about 45 miles (72 km) north ofFalkland Sound.Ultimately, the British stationed four ships (HMSHydra,HMSHeclaandHMSHeraldand the primary hospital shipSSUganda) within the box,while the Argentines stationed three (ARAAlmirante Irízar,ARABahía ParaísoandPuerto Deseado). The hospital ships were non-warships converted to serve as hospital ships.The three British naval vessels were survey vessels andUgandawas a passenger liner.Almirante Irizarwas an icebreaker,Bahia Paraisowas an Antarctic supply transport andPuerto Deseadowas a survey ship. British and Argentine vessels operating within the Box were in radio contact and there was some transfer of patients between hospital ships. For example, theUgandatransferred patients to an Argentine hospital ship on four occasions.Hydraworked withHeclaandHeraldto take casualties fromUgandatoMontevideo,Uruguay, where a fleet of Uruguayan ambulances met them.RAFVC10aircraft then flew the casualties to the UK for transfer to thePrincess Alexandra HospitalatRAF Wroughton, nearSwindon. Throughout the conflict, officials of theInternational Committee of the Red Cross(ICRC) conducted inspections to verify that all concerned were abiding by the rules of theGeneva Conventions. Argentine naval officers also inspected the British casualty ferries in the estuary of theRiver Plate. Aftermath This brief war brought many consequences for all the parties involved, besides the considerable casualty rate and largematerielloss, especially of shipping and aircraft, relative to the deployed military strengths of the opposing sides. In the United Kingdom,Margaret Thatcher's popularity increased. The success of the Falklands campaign was widely regarded as a factor in the turnaround in fortunes for theConservativegovernment, who had been trailing behind theSDP–Liberal Alliancein the opinion polls for months before the conflict began. Following the success in the Falklands, the Conservatives returned to the top of the opinion polls by a wide margin and went on to win the following year'sgeneral electionby a landslide.Subsequently, Defence Secretary Nott's proposed cuts to the Royal Navy were abandoned. The islanders had full British citizenship restored in 1983; their quality of life improved through investments made by the UK after the war and by economic liberalisation that had been stalled for fear of angering Argentina. In 1985, anew constitutionwas enacted, promoting self-government which has continued todevolvepower to the islanders. The result of the2013 Falkland Islands sovereignty referendumwas 99.8% of the electorate voting for the islands to remain a British territory, with avoter turnoutof 92%. In Argentina, defeat in the Falklands War meant that apossible war with Chilewas avoided. Further, Argentina returned to a democratic government in the1983 general election, the first free general election since 1973. It also had a major social impact, destroying the military's image as the \"moral reserve of the nation\" that they had maintained through most of the 20th century. A detailed studyof 21,432 British veterans of the war commissioned by the UK Ministry of Defence found that between 1982 and 2012, 95 had died from \"intentional self-harm and events of undetermined intent (suicides and open verdict deaths)\", a proportion lower than would be expected within the general population over the same period.However, a study of British combat veterans conducted five years after the conflict found that half of the sample group had suffered some symptoms ofpost-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD), while 22% were assessed to have the complete syndrome. \"Fortress Falklands\" In the immediate aftermath of the conflict, the British government embarked on a long-term policy of providing the islands with a viable military garrison, known informally as \"Fortress Falklands\". Initially, an aircraft carrier was kept in the area until the runway at Stanley Airport could be improved to take conventional RAF fighters. A permanent military complex with a runway designed to take long-haul airliners was constructed in the south of East Falkland,RAF Mount Pleasant, which opened in 1985; an associated deep-water port atMare Harbourwas also constructed. A small military outpost was established atKing Edward Pointon South Georgia, but it was closed in 2001. Military analysis Militarily, the Falklands conflict remains one of the largest air-naval combat operations between modern forces since the end of the Second World War. As such, it has been the subject of intense study by military analysts and historians. Significant takeaways include the vulnerability of surface ships to anti-ship missiles and submarines, the challenges of co-ordinating logistical support for long-distance projections of power, and reconfirmation of the importance of tactical air power, including helicopters. In 1986, theBBCbroadcast theHorizonprogrammeIn the Wake of HMS Sheffield, which discussed lessons learned from the conflict, and measures taken to implement them, such as incorporating greaterstealth capabilitiesand providing betterclose-in weapon systemsfor the fleet. The principal British military responses to the Falklands War were the measures adopted in theDecember 1982 Defence White Paper. Memorials There are several memorials on the Falkland Islands themselves, the most notable of which is the1982 Liberation Memorial, unveiled in 1984 on the second anniversary of the end of the war. It lists the names of the 255 British military personnel who died during the war and is located in front of the Secretariat Building in Stanley, overlookingStanley Harbour. The Memorial was funded entirely by the Islanders and is inscribed with the words \"In Memory of Those Who Liberated Us\". During the war, British dead were put into plasticbody bagsand buried in mass graves. After the war, the bodies were recovered; 14 were reburied atBlue Beach Military Cemeteryand 64 were returned to the United Kingdom. Many of the Argentine dead are buried in theArgentine Military Cemeterytwo kilometers northeast of the small settlement of Darwin, approximately 82 kilometers west of Stanley. The Argentine government declined an offer by the UK to have the bodies repatriated to Argentina. In addition to memorials on the islands, there is a memorial in the crypt ofSt Paul's Cathedral, London to the British war dead.At theNational Memorial ArboretuminStaffordshire, a Falklands War memorial was unveiled in May 2012 in a service attended by 600 veterans and their families; the names of the fallen were also inscribed on theArmed Forces Memorialat the arboretum, which commemorates all British servicemen killed in action since the end of the Second World War.A memorial to the seamen of theMerchant Navywho died in the war stands at theTower Hill MemorialinTrinity Square Gardens, London.A memorial to the Royal Marines, known as \"The Yomper\" was unveiled by Margaret Thatcher in 1992 outside the formerEastney Barracksnear Portsmouth.TheFalkland Islands Memorial ChapelatPangbourne Collegewas opened in March 2000 as a commemoration of the lives and sacrifice of all those who served and died in the South Atlantic in 1982. In Argentina, there are many memorials, museums and murals all over the country.The most important area cenotaphatPlaza San Martínin Buenos Aires,anda memorialinUshuaia, declared National Monument. Minefields In 2011 there were 113 uncleared minefields plusunexploded ordnance(UXOs) covering an area of 13 km2(3,200 acres) on the Falkland Islands. Of this area, 5.5 km2(1,400 acres) on the Murrell Peninsula were classified as being \"suspected minefields\"—the area had been heavily pastured for 25 years without incident. It was estimated that these minefields had 20,000 anti-personnel mines and 5,000 anti-tank mines. The UK reported six military personnel injured by mines or UXO in 1982, then two more in 1983. Most military accidents took place in the immediate aftermath of the conflict, while clearing minefields or trying to establish the extent of minefield perimeters, particularly where no detailed records existed. No civilian mine casualties have ever occurred on the islands, and no human casualties from mines or UXO have been reported since 1984. On 9 May 2008, the Falkland Islands Government asserted that the minefields, which represent 0.1% of the available farmland on the islands \"present no long term social or economic difficulties for the Falklands\", and that the impact of clearing the mines would cause more problems than containing them. However, the British Government, in accordance with its commitments under theMine Ban Treatyhad a commitment to clear the mines by the end of 2019. In May 2012, it was announced that 3.7 km2(1.4 sq mi) of Stanley Common (which lies between the Stanley – Mount Pleasant road and the shoreline) was made safe and had been opened to the public, opening up a 3 km (1.9 mi) stretch of coastline and a further two kilometres of shoreline alongMullet Creek. In November 2020, after a final clearance campaign by contractors from Zimbabwe,it was declared that the Falkland Islands were now free of all landmines. A celebration of the event took place on the weekend of 14 November where the final landmine was detonated. Press and publicity Argentina Selected war correspondents were regularly flown to Port Stanley in military aircraft to report on the war. Back in Buenos Aires, newspapers and magazines reported on \"the heroic actions of the largely conscript army and its successes\". Officers from the intelligence services were attached to the newspapers and 'leaked' information corroborating the official communiqués from the government. The glossy magazinesGenteandSiete Díasswelled to 60 pages with colour photographs of British warships in flames—many of them faked—and bogus eyewitness reports of the Argentine commandos' guerrilla war on South Georgia (6 May) and an already dead Pucará pilot's attack on HMSHermes(Lt. Daniel Antonio Jukic had been killed at Goose Green during a British air strike on 1 May). Most of the faked photos actually came from the tabloid press. One of the best remembered headlines was \"Estamos ganando\" (\"We're winning\") from the magazineGente, that would later use variations of it. The Argentine troops on the Falkland Islands could readGaceta Argentina—a newspaper intended to boost morale among the servicemen. Some of its untruths could easily be unveiled by the soldiers who recovered corpses. TheMalvinas causeunited the Argentines in a patriotic atmosphere that protected the junta from critics, and even opponents of the military government supported Galtieri;Ernesto Sabatosaid: In Argentina, it is not a military dictatorship that is fighting. It is the whole people, her women, her children, her old people, regardless of their political persuasion. Opponents to the regime like myself are fighting for our dignity, fighting to extricate the last vestiges of colonialism. Don't be mistaken, Europe, it is not a dictatorship that is fighting for the Malvinas; it is the whole nation. In the Argentine press, false reports that HMSHermeswas sunk and HMSInvinciblehad been damaged were circulated after the weekly magazinesGenteandLa Semanahad received information of naval action from an air force officer in the president's office.On 30 April 1982 the Argentine magazineTal Cualshowed Prime Minister Thatcher with an eyepatch and the text:Pirate, witch and assassin. Guilty!Three British reporters sent to Argentina to cover the war from the Argentine perspective were jailed until the end of the war.TheMadres de Plaza de Mayowere even exposed todeath threatsfrom ordinary people. United Kingdom Seventeen newspaper reporters, two photographers, two radio reporters and three television reporters with five technicians sailed with the Task Force to the war. TheNewspaper Publishers' Associationselected them from among 160 applicants, excluding foreign media. The hasty selection resulted in the inclusion of two journalists among the war reporters who were interested only in Queen Elizabeth II's son PrinceAndrew, who was serving in the conflict.The prince flew a helicopter on multiple missions, includingExocet missiledecoy and casualty evacuation. Merchant vessels had the civilianInmarsatuplink, which enabled writtentelexand voice report transmissions via satellite.SSCanberrahad afacsimile machinethat was used to upload 202 pictures from the South Atlantic over the course of the war. The Royal Navy leased bandwidth on the U.S.Defense Satellite Communications Systemfor worldwide communications. Television demands a thousand times the data rate of telephone, but the Ministry of Defence was unsuccessful in convincing the U.S. to allocate more bandwidth. TV producers suspected that the enquiry was half-hearted, since theVietnam Wartelevision pictures of casualties and traumatised soldiers were recognised as having negative propaganda value. However, the technology only allowed uploading a single frame per 20 minutes—and only if the military satellites were allocated 100% to television transmissions. Videotapes were shipped to Ascension Island, where a broadband satellite uplink was available, resulting in TV coverage being delayed by three weeks. The press was very dependent on the Royal Navy and wascensoredon site. Many reporters in the UK knew more about the war than those with the Task Force.Ministry of Defence press briefings in London were characterised by the restrained dictation-speed delivery of its spokesman,Ian McDonald. The Royal Navy expectedFleet Streetto conduct a Second World War-style positive news campaignbut the majority of the British media, especially the BBC, reported the war in a neutral fashion.These reporters referred to \"the British troops\" and \"the Argentinian troops\" instead of \"our lads\" and the \"Argies\".The two main tabloid papers presented opposing viewpoints: TheDaily Mirrorwas decidedly anti-war, whilstThe Sunbecame well known for headlines such as \"Stick It Up Your Junta!\", which, along with the reporting in other tabloids,led to accusations of xenophobiaandjingoism.The Sunwas criticised for its \"Gotcha\" headline following the sinking of theARAGeneral Belgrano. The British Ministry of Defence operated apsychological warfareoperation under the codename \"Moonshine\", which took the form of a spurious radio station purporting to be from a neutral South American country, but was actually in London, broadcasting to the Falklands and Argentina via a transmitter on Ascension which had been requisitioned from the BBC. Under the name ofRadio Atlántico del Sur(\"Radio South Atlantic\"), the station was operated by a small team of civilians and Spanish-speaking military officers. The first three-hour broadcast was on 19 May and a total of 47 had been made by 15 June when the operation was cancelled. There is some evidence that the Argentines attempted to jam the broadcasts and that some civilian radio receivers were confiscated from soldiers, but the results overall were difficult to assess. Cultural impact There were wide-ranging influences on popular culture in both the UK and Argentina, from the immediate postwar period to the present. The Argentine writerJorge Luis Borgesdescribed the war as \"a fight between two bald men over a comb.\"The wordsyompandExocetentered the British vernacular as a result of the war. The Falklands War also provided material for theatre, film and TV drama and influenced the output of musicians. In Argentina, the military government banned the broadcasting of music in the English language, giving way to the rise of local rock musicians, like the famous\"Trova Rosarina\" movementas well as solo musicians such asCharly García,Luis Alberto Spinetta,Fito PaezandGustavo Santaolalla. See also Notes References Bibliography Historiography Further reading External links",
"1982 FIFA World Cup The1982 FIFA World Cupwas the 12thFIFA World Cup, a quadrennialfootballtournament for men's senior national teams, and was played in Spain from 13 June to 11 July 1982. The tournament was won byItaly, who defeatedWest Germany3–1 in thefinalheld in theSantiago Bernabéu Stadiumin the capital,Madrid. It was Italy's third World Cup title, but their first since1938. The defending champions,Argentina, were eliminated in the second round (finishing third and last in their group).Algeria,Cameroon,Honduras,KuwaitandNew Zealandmade their first appearances in the finals. The tournament featured the first penalty shoot-out in World Cup competition.This was the third and last World Cup to feature two rounds ofgroup stages. It was also the third time (after1934and1966) that all four semi-finalists were European. In the first round of Group 3,HungarydefeatedEl Salvador10–1, equalling the largest margin of victory recorded in the finals (Hungary overSouth Korea9–0 in1954, andYugoslaviaoverZaire9–0 in1974). Although successful and filled with compelling and entertaining matches, this tournament also was blighted by violent fouls, some poor officiating and some overcrowded stadiums. One particular incident of note was West German goalkeeperHarald Schumacher's foul of French playerPatrick Battistonduring a semi-final match in Seville, and another was Italian player Claudio Gentile's intense and often violent match-long fouling and marking of Argentine playerDiego Maradona. FIFA changed the regulations to somewhat prevent this kind of brutality on the pitch for the subsequent tournament inMexico. Host selection Spain was chosen as the host nation by FIFA in London on 6 July 1966. Hosting rights for the 1974 and1978tournaments were awarded at the same time. West Germany and Spain agreed a deal whereby Spain would support West Germany for the 1974 tournament and West Germany would allow Spain to bid for the 1982 World Cup unopposed. At the time of Spain being selected, the country was under the dictatorship ofFrancisco Franco's regime,but his regime had ended before the start of the tournament, and the World Cup had its effects onSpanish society after the democratic transition. Qualification For the first time, the World Cup finals expanded from 16 to 24 teams. This allowed more countries to participate from Africa and Asia. Teams absent from the finals were1974and1978runners-upNetherlands(eliminated byBelgiumandFrance),Mexico(eliminated byHondurasandEl Salvador), and the three times 1970s participantsSweden(eliminated byScotlandandNorthern Ireland). Northern Ireland qualified for the first time since 1958. Belgium,Czechoslovakia,El Salvador,Englandand theSoviet Unionwere all back in the finals after 12-year absences. England had its first successful World Cup qualifying campaign in 20 years,having qualified automatically as hosts in 1966 and as defending champions in 1970, then failing to qualify in 1974 and 1978.YugoslaviaandChilewere also back after missing the 1978 tournament. Algeria,Cameroon,Honduras,Kuwait, andNew Zealandall participated in the World Cup for the first time. As of 2022, this was the last time thatEl SalvadorandKuwaitqualified for a FIFA World Cup finals, as well as the last time thatSouth Koreafailed to qualify. This is also the last time that Mexico failed to qualify by playing (they werebannedfrom the1990 FIFA World Cup qualification). This was the first time that all six confederations (AFC,CAF,CONCACAF,CONMEBOL,OFCandUEFA) sent representative teams to the tournament, which would happen again in2006and2010, and will be happening in2026:Australiawould also participate in the2010-2022tournaments, but as a representative of the AFC. There was some consideration given as to whether England, Northern Ireland, and Scotland would withdraw from the tournament because of theFalklands Warbetween Argentina and the United Kingdom.A directive issued by the British sports ministerNeil Macfarlanein April, at the start of the conflict, suggested that there should be no contact between British representative teams and Argentina.This directive was not rescinded until August, following the end of the tournament and of the hostilities.Macfarlane reported toPrime MinisterMargaret Thatcherthat some players and officials were uneasy about participating because of the casualties suffered by British forces, and the strong diplomatic ties between Argentina and Spain.FIFA later advised the British Government that there was no prospect thatArgentina(the defending champions) would be asked to withdraw,and it also became apparent that no other countries would withdraw from the tournament.It was decided byCabinet SecretaryRobert Armstrongto allow the British national teams to participate so that Argentina could not use their absence for propaganda purposes, reversing the intended effect of applying political pressure onto Argentina. List of qualified teams The following 24 teams qualified for the final tournament. Summary Format The first round was around-robingroup stage containing six groups of four teams each. Two points were awarded for a win and one for a draw, withgoal differenceused to separate teams equal on points. The top two teams in each group advanced. In the second round, the twelve remaining teams were split into four groups of three teams each, with the winner of each group progressing to the knockout semi-final stage. The composition of the groups in the second round was determined before the start of the tournament. Groups A and B were to include one team from each of Groups 1 through 6, and Groups C and D included the remaining six teams. The winners of Groups 1 and 3 were in Group A whilst the runners-up were in Group C. The winners of Groups 2 and 4 were in Group B whilst the runners-up were in Group D. The winner of Group 5 was in Group D whilst the runner-up was in Group B. The winner of Group 6 was in Group C whilst the runner-up was in Group A. Thus, Group A mirrored Group C, and Group B mirrored Group D with the winners and runners-up from the first round being placed into opposite groups in the second round. The second-round groups that mirrored each other (based on the first-round groupings) faced off against each other in the semifinals. Thus, the Group A winner played the Group C winner, and the Group B winner played the Group D winner. This meant that if two teams which played in the same first-round group both emerged from the second round, they would meet for the second time of the tournament in a semifinal match. It also guaranteed that the final match would feature two teams that had not previously played each other in the tournament. As it turned out, Italy and Poland who were both in Group 1 in the first round, each won their second-round groups and played each other in a semifinal match. First group stage In Group 1, newcomersCameroonheld bothPolandandItalyto draws, and were denied a place in the next round on the basis of having scored fewer goals than Italy (the sides had an equal goal difference). Poland and Italy qualified over Cameroon andPeru. Italian journalists andtifosicriticised their team for their uninspired performances that managed three draws; the squad was reeling from the recentSerie A scandal, where national players were suspended for match fixing and illegal betting. Group 2 saw one of the great World Cup upsets on the first day with the 2–1 victory ofAlgeriaover reigning European ChampionsWest Germany. In the final match in the group, West Germany metAustriain a match later dubbed as the \"Disgrace of Gijón\". Algeria had already played their final group game on the previous day, and West Germany and Austria knew that a West German win by 1 or 2 goals would qualify them both, while a larger German victory would qualify Algeria over Austria, and a draw or an Austrian win would eliminate the Germans. After 10 minutes of all-out attack, West Germany scored through a goal byHorst Hrubesch. After that solitary goal was scored, the two teams kicked the ball around aimlessly for the rest of the match. Chants of \"Fuera, fuera\" (\"Out, out\") were screamed by the Spanish crowd, while angry Algerian supporters wavedbanknotesat the players. This performance was widely deplored, even by the German and Austrian fans. One German fan was so upset by his team's display that he burned his German flag in disgust.Algeria protested to FIFA, who ruled that the result would stand; FIFA introduced a revised qualification system at subsequent World Cups in which the final two games in each group were played simultaneously. Group 3, where the opening ceremony and first match of the tournament took place, sawBelgiumbeat defending championsArgentina1–0. TheCamp Noustadium was the home ofBarcelona, and many fans had wanted to see the club's new signing, Argentinian starDiego Maradona, who did not perform to expectations. Both Belgium and Argentina ultimately advanced at the expense ofHungaryandEl SalvadordespiteHungary's 10–1 winover the Central American nation – which, with a total of 11 goals, is the second highest scoreline in a World Cup game (equal with Brazil's 6–5 victory over Poland in the 1938 tournament and Hungary's 8–3 victory over West Germany in the 1954 tournament). Group 4 opened withEnglandmidfielderBryan Robson's goal againstFranceafter only 27 seconds of play. England won 3–1 and qualified along with France overCzechoslovakiaandKuwait, though the tiny Gulf emirate held Czechoslovakia to a 1–1 draw. In the game between Kuwait and France, with France leading 3–1, France midfielderAlain Giressescored a goal vehemently contested by the Kuwait team, who had stopped play after hearing a piercing whistle from the stands, which they thought had come from Soviet refereeMiroslav Stupar. Play had not yet resumed when SheikhFahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, brother of thethen-Kuwaiti Emirand president of theKuwait Football Association, rushed onto the pitch to remonstrate with the referee. Stupar reversed his initial decision and disallowed the goal to the fury of the French.Maxime Bossisscored another valid goal a few minutes later and France won 4–1. In Group 5,Hondurasheld hostsSpainto a 1–1 draw.Northern Irelandwon the group outright, eliminatingYugoslaviaand beating hosts Spain 1–0; Northern Ireland had to play the majority of the second half with ten men afterMal Donaghywas dismissed. Spain narrowly avoided elimination due to a huge referee error, securing a contentious 2–1 victory over Yugoslavia, largely attributed to a disputed penalty decision. At 17 years and 41 days, Northern Ireland forwardNorman Whitesidewas the youngest player to appear in a World Cup match. Brazilwere in Group 6. WithZico,Sócrates,Falcão,Éderand others, they boasted an offensive firepower that promised a return to the glory days of1970. They beat theUSSR2–1 thanks to a 20-metre Éder goal two minutes from time, thenScotlandandNew Zealandwith four goals each. The Soviets took the group's other qualifying berth on goal difference at the expense of the Scots. Second group stage Poland opened Group A with a 3–0 defeat of Belgium thanks to aZbigniew Boniekhat-trick. The Soviet Union prevailed 1–0 in the next match over Belgium. The Poles edged out the USSR for the semi-final spot on the final day on goal difference thanks to a 0–0 draw in a politically charged match, as Poland's then-Communist government had imposed amartial lawa few months earlier to quash internal dissent. In Group B, a match between England and West Germany ended in a goalless draw. West Germany put the pressure on England in their second match by beating Spain 2–1. The home side drew 0–0 against England, denyingRon Greenwood's team a semi-final place and putting England in the same position as Cameroon, being eliminated without losing a game. In Group C, with Brazil, Argentina and Italy, in the opener, Italy prevailed 2–1 overDiego MaradonaandMario Kempes's side after a game in which Italian defendersGaetano ScireaandClaudio Gentileproved themselves equal to the task of stopping the Argentinian attack. Argentina now needed a win over Brazil on the second day, but lost 3–1 – Argentina only scoring in the last minute. Maradona kicked Brazilian playerJoão Batistain the groin and was sent off in the 85th minute. Thematch between Brazil and Italypitted Brazil's attack against Italy's defence, with the majority of the game played around the Italian area, and with the Italian midfielders and defenders returning the repeated set volleys of Brazilian shooters such asZico,SócratesandFalcão. Italian centre back Gentile was assigned to mark Brazilian striker Zico, earning a yellow card and a suspension for the semi-final.Paolo Rossiopened the scoring when he headed inAntonio Cabrini's cross with just five minutes played. Sócrates equalised for Brazil seven minutes later. In the twenty-fifth minute Rossi stepped pastJúnior, intercepted a pass fromCerezoacross the Brazilians' goal, and drilled the shot home. The Brazilians threw everything in search of another equaliser, while Italy defended bravely. On 68 minutes, Falcão collected a pass from Júnior and as Cerezo's dummy run distracted three defenders, fired home from 20 yards out. Now Italy had gained the lead twice thanks to Rossi's goals, and Brazil had come back twice; at 2–2, Brazil would have been through on goal difference, but in the 74th minute, a poor clearance from an Italian corner kick went back to the Brazilian six-yard line where Rossi andFrancesco Grazianiwere waiting. Both aimed at the same shot, Rossi connecting to get a hat trick and sending Italy into the lead for good. In the 86th minuteGiancarlo Antognoniscored an apparent fourth goal for Italy, but it was wrongly disallowed for offside. In the dying momentsDino Zoffmade a miraculous save to denyOscara goal, ensuring that Italy advanced to the semi-final. In the last group, Group D, France dispatched Austria 1–0 with a free kick goal byBernard Genghini, and then defeated Northern Ireland 4–1 to reach their first semi-final since1958. Semi-finals, third-place match and final In a re-match of the encounter in the first round, Italy beat Poland in the first semi-final through two goals from Paolo Rossi. In the game between France and West Germany, the Germans opened the scoring through aPierre Littbarskistrike in the 17th minute, and the French equalised nine minutes later with aMichel Platinipenalty. In the second half a long through ball sent French defenderPatrick Battistonracing clear towards the German goal. With both Battiston and the lone German defender trying to be the first to reach the ball, Battiston flicked it past German keeperHarald Schumacherfrom the edge of the German penalty area and Schumacher reacted by jumping up to block. Schumacher did not seem to go for the ball, however, and clattered straight into the oncoming Battiston – which left the French player unconscious and knocked two of his teeth out. Schumacher's action has been described as \"one of history's most shocking fouls\".The ball went just wide of the post and Dutch refereeCharles Corverdeemed Schumacher's tackle on Battiston not to be a foul and awarded agoal kick. Play was interrupted for several minutes while Battiston, still unconscious and with a broken jaw, was carried off the field on a stretcher. After French defenderManuel Amoroshad sent a 25-metre drive crashing onto the West German crossbar in the final minute, the match went into extra time. On 92 minutes, France's sweeperMarius Trésorfired a swerving volley under Schumacher's crossbar from ten metres out to make it 2–1. Six minutes later, an unmarkedAlain Giressedrove in an 18-metre shot off the inside of the right post to finish off a counter-attack and put France up 3–1. But West Germany would not give up. In the 102nd minute a counter-attack culminated in a cross that recent substituteKarl-Heinz Rummeniggeturned in at the near post from a difficult angle with the outside of his foot, reducing France's lead to 3–2. Then in the 108th minute Germany took a short corner and after France failed to clear, the ball was played by Germany to Littbarski whose cross toHorst Hrubeschwas headed back to the centre towardsKlaus Fischer, who was unmarked but with his back to goal. Fischer in turn volleyed the ball past French keeperJean-Luc Ettoriwith abicycle kick, levelling the scores at 3–3. The resultingpenalty shootoutwas the first at a World Cup finals. Giresse,Manfred Kaltz,Manuel Amoros,Paul BreitnerandDominique Rocheteauall converted penalties untilUli Stielikewas stopped by Ettori, giving France the advantage. But then Schumacher stepped forward, lifted the tearful Stielike from the ground, and savedDidier Six's shot. With Germany handed the lifeline they needed Littbarski converted his penalty, followed by Platini for France, and then Rummenigge for Germany as the tension mounted. France defender Maxime Bossis then had his kick parried by Schumacher who anticipated it, and Hrubesch stepped up to score and send Germany to the World Cup final yet again with a victory on penalties, 5–4. \"After I scored, my whole life passed before me – the same feeling they say you have when you are about to die, the joy of scoring in a World Cup final was immense, something I dreamed about as a kid, and my celebration was a release after realising that dream. I was born with that scream inside me, that was just the moment it came out.\" —Italian midfielderMarco Tardellion hisiconic goal celebrationfrom the 1982 World Cup Final. In the third-place match, Poland edged the French side 3–2 which matched Poland's best performance at a World Cup previously achieved in 1974. France would go on to win theEuropean Championshiptwo years later. In the final,Antonio Cabrinifired a penalty wide of goal in the first half. In the second half, Paolo Rossi scored first for the third straight game by heading home Gentile's bouncing cross at close range. Exploiting the situation, Italy scored twice more on quick counter-strikes, all the while capitalising on their defence to hold the Germans. With Gentile and Gaetano Scirea holding the centre, the Italian strikers were free to counter-punch the weakened German defence.Marco Tardelli's shot from the edge of the area beat Schumacher first, andAlessandro Altobelli, the substitute for injured strikerFrancesco Graziani, made it 3–0 at the end of a solo sprint down the right side by the stand-out wingerBruno Conti. Italy's lead appeared secure, encouraging Italian presidentSandro Pertinito wag his finger at the cameras in a playful \"not going to catch us now\" gesture. In the 83rd minute, Paul Breitner scored for West Germany, but it was only a consolation goal as Italy won 3–1 to claim their first World Cup title in 44 years, and their third in total. Records Italy became the first team to advance from the first round without winning a game, drawing all three (whileCameroonwere eliminated in the same way by virtue of having only one goal scored against Italy's two), and also the first of two World Cup winners to draw or lose three matches at the Finals (Argentina matched this by drawing two games and losing one in 2022). By winning, Italy equalled Brazil's record of winning the World Cup three times. Italy's total of twelve goals scored in seven matches set a new low for average goals scored per game by a World Cup winning side (subsequently exceeded by Spain in 2010), while Italy's aggregate goal difference of +6 for the tournament remains a record low for a champion, equalled by Spain. Italy's 40-year-old captain-goalkeeperDino Zoffbecame the oldest player to win the World Cup.This was the first World Cup in which teams from all six continental confederations participated in the finals, something that did not happen again until2006. Venues Seventeen stadiums in fourteen cities hosted the tournament, a record that stood until the 2002 tournament, which was played in twenty stadiums in two countries.The most used venue wasFC Barcelona'sCamp Noustadium, which hosted five matches, including a semi-final; it was the largest stadium used for this tournament. WithSarrià Stadiumalso hosting three matches, Barcelona was the Spanish city with the most matches in España 1982 with eight; Madrid, the nation's capital, followed with seven. This particular World Cup was organised in such a way that all of the matches of each of the six groups were assigned stadiums in cities near to each other, in order to reduce the stress of travel on the players and fans. For example, Group 1 matches were played in Vigo and A Coruña, Group 2 in Gijón and Oviedo, Group 3 in Elche and Alicante (except for the first match, which was the opening match of the tournament, which was played at the Camp Nou), Group 4 in Bilbao and Valladolid, Group 5 (which included hosts Spain) in Valencia and Zaragoza, and Group 6 in Seville and Malaga (of the three first-round matches in Seville, the first match between Brazil and the Soviet Union was played in the Pizjuán Stadium, and the other two were played in the Villamarín Stadium). Group stage matches in the milder northern cities like Bilbao or Gijón would start at 17:00, while the matches in the southern cities like Seville or Valencia would start at 21:00, in an attempt to avoid the intense southern Spanish summer heat. When the tournament went into the round-robin second round matches, all the aforementioned cities excluding Barcelona, Alicante and Seville did not host any more matches in España 1982. Both theSantiago BernabéuandVicente Calderónstadiums in Madrid and the Sarrià Stadium in Barcelona were used for the first time for this tournament for the second round matches. Madrid and Barcelona hosted the four second round group matches; Barcelona hosted Groups A and C (Camp Nou hosted all three of Group A's matches, and Sarrià did the same with Group C's matches) and Madrid hosted Groups B and D (Real Madrid's Bernabeu Stadium hosted all three of Group B's matches, andAtlético Madrid's Calderon Stadium did the same with the Group D matches) The two semi final matches were held at Camp Nou and the Pizjuán Stadium in Seville, the third largest stadium used for the tournament (one of only two España 1982 matches it hosted), the third place match was held in Alicante and the final was held at the Bernabeu, the second largest stadium used for this tournament. Match officials AFC CAF CONCACAF CONMEBOL UEFA OFC Squads For a list of all squads that appeared in the final tournament, see1982 FIFA World Cup squads. Groups Seeding The 24 qualifiers were divided into four groupings which formed the basis of the draw for the group stage. FIFA announced the six seeded teams on the day of the draw and allocated them in advance to the six groups; as had become standard, the host nation and the reigning champions were among the seeds.The seeded teams would play all their group matches at the same venue (with the exception of World Cup holders Argentina who would play in the opening game scheduled for the Camp Nou, the largest of the venues). The remaining 18 teams were split into three pots based on FIFA's assessment of the team's strength, but also taking in account geographic considerations. The seedings and group venues for those teams were tentatively agreed at an informal meeting in December 1981 but not officially confirmed until the day of the draw. FIFA executiveHermann Neubergertold the press that the seeding of England had been challenged by other nations but they were to be seeded as \"the Spanish want England to play in Bilbao for security reasons\"*.As well as security the footballing grounds that they were winners in 1966 and reached the quarter-final as holders in 1970, as the 1970 in Mexico and 1974 in West Germany tournaments were taken into consideration for seeding with West Germany seeded for their 1980 European Championship win (due to the Netherlands failing to qualify) having won in 1974. However, due to England's seeding for security reasons, if the Netherlands had qualified, West Germany would not have been seeded as West Germany were eliminated in the second group stage in 1978, while the Netherlands were runners up. Final draw On 16 January 1982, the draw was conducted at thePalacio de Congresos in Madrid, where the teams were drawn out from the three pots to be placed with the seeded teams in their predetermined groups.Firstly a draw was made to decide the order in which the three drums containing pots A, B and C would be emptied; this resulted in the order being pot B, C and A. The teams were then drawn one-by-one out of the respective pot and entered in the groups in that order. A number was then drawn to determine the team's \"position\" in the group and hence the fixtures. The only stipulation of the draw was that no group could feature two South American teams. As a result, Pot B – which contained two South American teams – was initially drawn with only the four Europeans in the pot. These first two European teams drawn from pot B were then to be immediately allocated to Groups 3 and 6 which contained the two South American seeds Argentina and Brazil. Once these two groups had been filled with the entrants from Pot B, Chile and Peru would be added to the pot and the draw would continue as normal.In the event, FIFA executivesSepp BlatterandHermann Neubergerconducting the draw initially forgot this stipulation and therefore immediately placed the first team drawn from this pot (Belgium) into Group 1, rather than Group 3 as planned, before then placing the second team drawn out (Scotland) into Group 3; they then had to correct this by moving Belgium to Group 3 and Scotland into Group 6.The ceremony suffered further embarrassment when one of the revolving drums containing the teams broke down. Results All times areCentral European Summer Time(UTC+2) First group stage The group winners and runners-up advanced to the second round. Teams were ranked on the following criteria: Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Second group stage The second round of the tournament consisted of four groups of three teams, each played at one stadium in one of Spain's two largest cities: two in Madrid and two in Barcelona. The winners of each group progressed to the semi-finals. Teams were ranked on the following criteria: Although the fixtures were provisionally determined in advance, the teams competing in each fixture depended on the result of the opening match in each group: Should a team lose their opening game of the group, that team would then have to play in the second fixture against the third team in the group and the winner would, by contrast, be rewarded by not needing to play again until the final fixture of the group and therefore gained extra recovery time. If the opening game was a draw, the predetermined order of games would proceed as planned. These regulations helped ensure that the final group games were of importance as no team could already have progressed to the semi-finals by the end of the second fixtures. The 43,000-capacity Sarria Stadium in Barcelona, used for the Group C round-robin matches between Italy, Argentina and Brazil was, unlike any of the other matches (except 1) in the other groups, severely overcrowded for all three matches. The venue was then heavily criticised for its lack of space and inability to handle such rampant crowds; although no one had foreseen such crowds at all; the Group A matches held at the nearby and much larger 121,401-capacity Camp Nou stadium never went past 65,000 and hosted all European teams; it was anticipated there would be larger crowds for the Camp Nou-hosted second round matches between Belgium, the Soviet Union and Poland. Group A Group B Group C Group D Knockout stage Semi-finals Third place play-off Final Statistics Goalscorers Paolo Rossi received theGolden Bootfor scoring six goals. In total, 146 goals were scored by 100 players, with only one of them credited as own goal. 6 goals 5 goals 4 goals 3 goals 2 goals 1 goal Own goals Red cards Awards Source: FIFA retrospective ranking In 1986, FIFA published a report that ranked all teams in each World Cup up to and including 1986, based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition.The rankings for the 1982 tournament were as follows: Branding Mascot Theofficial mascotof this World Cup wasNaranjito, a male anthropomorphisedorange, a typical fruit in Spain, wearing the kit of the host'snational team. It was designed by José María Martín and María Dolores Salto from the marketing agencyPublicidad Bellido. Its name comes fromnaranja, the Spanish word for orange, and the diminutive suffix \"-ito\". Television series Football in Action(Spanish:Fútbol en acción) is an educational animated television series about football produced byBRB InternacionalandTelevisión Española(TVE). The main character is a twelve-year-old Naranjito, who is accompanied on his adventures by his friends:Clementina(a mandarin orange), Citronio (a lemon), and Imarchi (a robot). The series talks about the rules of football and the history of the World Cup. Its 26 episodes of 25 minutes each were first aired in 1981–82 onTVE 1. Poster The official poster was designed byJoan Miró. Match ball The match ball for 1982 World Cup, manufactured byAdidas, was theTango España. References External links"
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"Falklands War Operation Corporate TheFalklands War(Spanish:Guerra de Malvinas) was a ten-weekundeclared warbetweenArgentinaand theUnited Kingdomin 1982 over twoBritish dependent territoriesin theSouth Atlantic: theFalkland Islandsandits territorial dependency,South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The conflict began on 2 April 1982, whenArgentina invadedandoccupied the Falkland Islands, followed by theinvasion of South Georgiathe next day. On 5 April, the British government dispatched anaval task forceto engage theArgentine NavyandAir Forcebefore making anamphibious assaulton the islands. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with an Argentinesurrenderon 14 June, returning the islands to British control. In total, 649 Argentine military personnel, 255 British military personnel, and threeFalkland Islanderswere killed during the hostilities. The conflict was a major episode in theprotracted disputeover the territories'sovereignty. Argentina asserted (and maintains) that the islands are Argentine",
"are Argentine territory,and the Argentine government thus described its military action as the reclamation of its own territory. The British government regarded the action as an invasion of a territory that had been aCrown colonysince 1841. Falkland Islanders, who have inhabited the islands since the early 19th century, are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and stronglyfavour British sovereignty. Neither state officiallydeclared war, although both governments declared the islands a war zone. The conflict had a strong effect in both countries and has been the subject of variousbooks, articles, films, and songs. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the unfavourable outcome prompted large protests against theruling military government, hastening its downfall and thedemocratisation of the country. In the United Kingdom, theConservativegovernment, bolstered by the successful outcome,was re-elected with an increased majority the following year. The cultural and political effect of the",
"effect of the conflict has been less in the UK than in Argentina, where it has remained a common topic for discussion. Diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentinawere restored in 1989 following a meeting inMadrid, at which the two governments issued a joint statement.No change in either country's position regarding the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands was made explicit. In 1994, Argentina adopted a newconstitution,which declared the Falkland Islands as part of one of its provinces by law.However, the islands continue to operate as aself-governingBritish Overseas Territory. Prelude Failed diplomacy In 1965, theUnited Nationscalled upon Argentina and the United Kingdom to reach a settlement of the sovereignty dispute. The UKForeign and Commonwealth Office(FCO) regarded the islands as a nuisance and barrier to UK trade in South America. Therefore, while confident of British sovereignty, the FCO was prepared to cede the islands to Argentina. When news of a proposed transfer broke in 1968,",
"broke in 1968, elements sympathetic with the plight of the islanders were able to organise an effectiveparliamentarylobby to frustrate the FCO plans. Negotiations continued, but in general failed to make meaningful progress; the islanders steadfastly refused to consider Argentine sovereignty on one side, whilst Argentina would not compromise over sovereignty on the other.The FCO then sought to make the islands dependent on Argentina, hoping this would make the islanders more amenable to Argentine sovereignty. A Communications Agreement signed in 1971 created an airlink and later YPF, the Argentine oil company, was given a monopoly in the islands. In 1977, the British prime minister,James Callaghan, in response to heightened tensions in the region and theArgentine occupation of Southern Thule, secretly sent a force of twofrigatesand anuclear-powered submarine,HMSDreadnought, to the South Atlantic, codenamedOperation Journeyman.It is unclear whether the Argentines were aware of their presence, but British",
"but British sources state that they were advised of it through informal channels. Nevertheless, talks with Argentina on Falklands sovereignty and economic cooperation opened in December of that year, though they proved inconclusive. In 1980, a new UKMinister of State for Foreign Affairs,Nicholas Ridley, went to the Falklands trying to sell the islanders the benefits of aleasebackscheme, which met with strong opposition from the islanders. On his return toLondonin December 1980, he reported to parliament but was viciously attacked at what was seen as a sellout. (It was unlikely that leaseback idea would have progressed further anyway since the British had sought a long-term lease of 99 years, whereas Argentina was pressing for a much shorter period of only thirty years.) At a private committee meeting that evening, it was reported that Ridley said: \"If we don't do something, they will invade. And there is nothing we could do.\" The Argentine junta In the period leading up to the war—and, in particular,",
"in particular, following the transfer of power between the military dictators GeneralJorge Rafael Videlaand GeneralRoberto Eduardo Violalate in March 1981—Argentina had been in the midst of devastating economic stagnation and large-scale civil unrest against theNational Reorganization Process, themilitaryjuntathat had been governing the country since 1976. In December 1981, there was a further change in the Argentine military regime, bringing to office a newjuntaheaded by GeneralLeopoldo Galtieri(acting president), Air BrigadierBasilio Lami Dozoand AdmiralJorge Anaya. Anaya was the main architect and supporter of a military solution for the long-standing claim over the islands,expecting that the United Kingdom would never respond militarily. By opting for military action, the Galtieri government hoped to mobilise the long-standing patriotic feelings of Argentines towards the islands,diverting public attentionfrom the chronic economic problems and the ongoing human rights violations of itsDirty War,bolstering",
"War,bolstering the junta's dwindling legitimacy. The newspaperLa Prensaspeculated on a step-by-step plan beginning with cutting off supplies to the islands, ending in direct actions late in 1982, if the UN talks were fruitless. The ongoing tension between the two countries over the islands increased on 19 March, when a group of Argentine scrap metal merchants (which had been infiltrated byArgentine Marines)raised theArgentine flagatSouth Georgia Island, an act that would later be seen as the first offensive action in the war. The Royal Navy ice patrol vesselHMSEndurancewas dispatched from Stanley to South Georgia on the 25th in response. The Argentine military junta, suspecting that the UK would reinforce its South Atlantic Forces, ordered theinvasion of the Falkland Islandsto be brought forward to 2 April. The UK was initially taken by surprise by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, despite repeated warnings by Royal Navy captainNicholas Barker(Commanding Officer of theEndurance) and others.",
"and others. Barker believed that Defence SecretaryJohn Nott's1981 Defence White Paper(in which Nott described plans to withdraw theEndurance, the UK's only naval presence in the South Atlantic) had sent a signal to the Argentines that the UK was unwilling, and would soon be unable, to defend its territories and subjects in the Falklands. Argentine invasion On 2 April 1982, Argentine forces mounted amphibious landings, known as Operation Rosario,on the Falkland Islands.The invasion was met with a fierce but brief defence organised by theFalkland Islands' GovernorSirRex Hunt, giving command to Major Mike Norman of theRoyal Marines. The garrison consisted of 68 marines and eleven navalhydrographers,assisted by 23 volunteers of theFalkland Islands Defence Force(FIDF), who had few weapons and were used as lookouts.The invasion started with the landing ofLieutenant CommanderGuillermo Sanchez-Sabarots'Amphibious Commandos Group, who attacked the empty Moody Brook barracks and then moved onGovernment HouseinStanley.",
"HouseinStanley. When the 2ndMarine InfantryBattalion withAssault Amphibious Vehiclesarrived, the governor ordered aceasefireand surrendered.The governor, his family and the British military personnel were flown to Argentina that afternoon and later repatriated to the United Kingdom. Initial British response The British had already taken action prior to the 2 April invasion. In response to events on South Georgia, on 29 March, Ministers decided to send theRoyal Fleet Auxiliary(RFA)Fort Austinsouth from the Mediterranean to support HMSEndurance, and the nuclear-powered fleet submarineHMSSpartanfromGibraltar, withHMSSplendidordered south fromScotlandthe following day.: 75LordCarringtonhad wished to send a third submarine, but the decision was deferred due to concerns about the impact on operational commitments.Coincidentally, on 26 March, the submarineHMSSuperbleft Gibraltar and it was assumed in the press she was heading south. There has since been speculation that the effect of those reports was to panic the",
"was to panic the Argentine junta into invading the Falklands before submarines could be deployed;however, post-war research has established that the final decision to proceed was made at a junta meeting inBuenos Aireson 23 March. The following day, during a crisis meeting headed by Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher, theFirst Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff, Admiral SirHenry Leach, advised that \"Britain could and should send a task force if the islands are invaded\". On 1 April, Leach sent orders to aRoyal Navyforce carrying outexercisesin the Mediterranean to prepare to sail south. Following the invasion on 2 April, after an emergency meeting of the cabinet, approval was given to form a task force to retake the islands. This was backed in an emergency sitting of theHouse of Commonsthe next day. Word of the invasion first reached the UK from Argentine sources.AMinistry of Defenceoperative in London had a shorttelexconversation with Governor Hunt's telex operator, who confirmed that Argentines were on the",
"were on the island and in control.Later that day,BBCjournalistLaurie Margolisspoke with an islander atGoose Greenviaamateur radio, who confirmed the presence of a large Argentine fleet and that Argentine forces had taken control of the island.British military operations in the Falklands War were given the codenameOperation Corporate, and the commander of the task force was Admiral SirJohn Fieldhouse. Operations lasted from 1 April 1982 to 20 June 1982. On 6 April, the British Government set up aWar Cabinetto provide day-to-day political oversight of the campaign.This was the critical instrument of crisis management for the British with its remit being to \"keep under review political and military developments relating to the South Atlantic, and to report as necessary to the Defence and Overseas Policy Committee\". The War Cabinet met at least daily until it was dissolved on 12 August. Although Margaret Thatcher is described as dominating the War Cabinet,Lawrence Freedmannotes in theOfficial History of the",
"History of the Falklands Campaignthat she did not ignore opposition or fail to consult others. However, once a decision was reached, she \"did not look back\". United Nations Security Council Resolution 502 On 31 March 1982, the Argentine ambassador to the UN,Eduardo Roca, began attempting to garner support against a British military build-up designed to thwart earlier UN resolutions calling for both countries to resolve the Falklands dispute through discussion.: 134On 2 April, the night of the invasion, a banquet was held at Roca's official residence for the US ambassador to the UN,Jeane Kirkpatrick, and several high-ranking officials of theUnited States Department of Stateand theUnited States Department of Defense. This led British diplomats to view Kirkpatrick, who had earlier called for closer relationships with South American dictatorships, with considerable suspicion. On 1 April, London told the UK ambassador to the UN, SirAnthony Parsons, that an invasion was imminent and he should call an urgent",
"call an urgent meeting of theSecurity Councilto get a favourableresolutionagainst Argentina.Parsons had to get nine affirmative votes from the 15 Council members (not a simple majority) and to avoid a blocking vote from any of the other four permanent members. The meeting took place at 11:00am on 3 April, New York time (4:00pm in London).United Nations Security Council Resolution 502was adopted by 10 to 1 (with Panama voting against) and 4 abstentions. Significantly, theSoviet UnionandChinaboth abstained.The resolution stated: Deeply disturbed at reports of an invasion on 2 April 1982 by armed forces of Argentina;Determining that there exists a breach of the peace in the region of the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas),Demands an immediate cessation of hostilities;Demands an immediate withdrawal of all Argentine forces from the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas);Calls on the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom to seek a diplomatic solution to their differences and to respect fully the purposes and",
"the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations. This was a significant win for the UK, giving it the upper hand diplomatically. The draft resolution Parsons submitted had avoided any reference to the sovereignty dispute (which might have worked against the UK): instead it focused on Argentina's breach of Chapter VII of the UN Charter which forbids the threat or use of force to settle disputes.The resolution called for the removal only of Argentine forces: this freed Britain to retake the islands militarily, if Argentina did not leave, by exercising its right to self-defence allowed under the UN Charter.: 141 Argentine occupation TheArgentine Armyunit earmarked for the occupation was the25th Infantry Regiment, a unit of about 681 men specially trained from all theregions of Argentina; it was flown intoPort Stanley Airportas soon as the runway had been cleared.Once it became clear that the British were sending an amphibious task force, there was a general recall of reservists and",
"of reservists and twobrigadesof eight infantry regiments and their supporting units were dispatched to the islands. The total Argentine garrison numbered some 13,000 troops by the beginning of May. The conscripts born in 1963 had only recently been called-up, so they were supplemented by the recall of the previous year's intake. Brigadier GeneralMario Benjamín Menéndezwas appointed Military Governor of the Malvinas. Argentine military police arrived with detailed files on many islanders,allowing intelligence officer Major Patricio Dowling to arrest and interrogate islanders who he suspected might lead opposition to the occupation.Initially, Islanders suspected of holding anti-Argentine views were expelled,including the Luxton family(who had lived in the islands since the 1840s) and David Colville,editor of theFalklands Times. This proved to be counter-productive, as those expelled gave interviews to the press. Subsequently, fourteen other community leaders, including the senior medical officer, were interned",
"were interned atFox Bayon West Falkland.Concerned by Dowling's actions, senior Argentine officers had him removed from the islands.For almost a month, the civilian population ofGoose Greenwas detained in thevillage hallin \"unpleasant conditions\".Less well known are similar detentions in other outlying settlements, including one islander who died after being denied access to his medication. As the war's end approached, some troops began to place booby traps in civilian homes,defiled homes with excrement,destroyed civilian property and committed arson against civilian properties. Argentine officers andNCOshave been accused of handing out roughField punishmentto their conscript soldiers. Ration packs from the Moody Brook depot were found to have foodstuff missing according to Private Alan Craig from the 7th Regiment,and troops garrisoning Port Howard were starved,and according to Max Hastings and Simon Jenkins in their book The Battle for the Falklands (Norton, 1984), \"Attempts to go absent without leave were",
"without leave were punished by beatings or forcing the offender to sit for hours with his naked feet in the freezing water on the mountainside.\" Private Rito Portillofrom the 1st Marine Anti-Aircraft Battalion and Private Remigio Fernándezfrom the 5th Regiment were reported to have been executed or died because of mistreatment by their own officers. Soldiers were made to signnon-disclosure documentson their return from the Islands. Shuttle diplomacy On 8 April,Alexander Haig, theUnited States Secretary of State, arrived in London on ashuttle diplomacymission fromPresidentRonald Reaganto broker a peace deal based on an interim authority taking control of the islands pending negotiations. After hearing from Thatcher that the task force would not be withdrawn unless the Argentines evacuated their troops, Haig headed for Buenos Aires.There he met the junta andNicanor Costa Méndez, the foreign minister. Haig was treated coolly and told that Argentine sovereignty must be a pre-condition of any talks. Returning to",
"talks. Returning to London on 11 April, he found the British cabinet in no mood for compromise. Haig flew back to Washington before returning to Buenos Aires for a final protracted round of talks. These made little progress, but just as Haig and his mission were leaving, they were told that Galtieri would meet them at the airport VIP lounge to make an important concession; however, this was cancelled at the last minute. On 30 April, the Reagan administration announced that they would be publicly supporting the United Kingdom. British task force The nuclear-powered submarineConquerorset sail from Faslane, Scotland on 4 April. The two aircraft carriersInvincibleandHermesand their escort vessels leftPortsmouth, England only a day later.On its return to Southampton from a world cruise on 7 April, the ocean linerSSCanberrawas requisitioned and set sail two days later with the3 Commando Brigadeaboard.The ocean linerQueen Elizabeth 2was also requisitioned, and leftSouthamptonon 12 May, with the5th Infantry",
"the5th Infantry Brigadeon board.The whole task force eventually comprised 127 ships: 43Royal Navyvessels, 22Royal Fleet Auxiliaryships, and 62merchant ships. The retaking of the Falkland Islands was considered extremely difficult. The chances of a British counter-invasion succeeding were assessed by theUS Navy, according to historianArthur L. Herman, as \"a military impossibility\".Firstly, the British were significantly constrained by the disparity in deployable air cover.The British had 42 aircraft (28Sea Harriersand 14Harrier GR.3s) available for air combat operations, against approximately 122 serviceable jet fighters, of which about 50 were used asair superiority fightersand the remainder asstrike aircraft, inArgentina's air forces during the war.Crucially, the British lackedairborne early warning and control(AEW) aircraft. Planning also considered the Argentine surface fleet and the threat posed byExocet-equipped vessels or the twoType 209 submarines. By mid-April, theRoyal Air Forcehad set up an airbase",
"set up an airbase onRAF Ascension Island, co-located with Wideawake Airfield, on the mid-AtlanticBritish overseas territory ofAscension Island. They included a sizeable force ofAvro VulcanB Mk 2 bombers,Handley Page VictorK Mk 2refuelling aircraft, andMcDonnell Douglas Phantom FGR Mk 2fightersto protect them. Meanwhile, the main British naval task force arrived at Ascension to prepare for active service. A small force had already been sent south to recapture South Georgia. Encounters began in April; the British Task Force was shadowed byBoeing 707aircraft of theArgentine Air Forceduring their travel to the south.Several of these flights were intercepted by Sea Harriers outside the British-imposedTotal Exclusion Zone; the unarmed 707s were not attacked because diplomatic moves were still in progress and the UK had not yet decided to commit itself to armed force. On 23 April, a Brazilian commercialDouglas DC-10fromVARIGAirlines en route to South Africa was intercepted by British Harriers who visually",
"who visually identified the civilian plane. Recapture of South Georgia and the attack onSanta Fe The South Georgia force,Operation Paraquet, under the command of Major Guy Sheridan RM, consisted of Marines from42 Commando, a troop of theSpecial Air Service(SAS) andSpecial Boat Service(SBS) troops who were intended to land asreconnaissanceforces for an invasion by the Royal Marines, a total of 240 men. All were embarked onRFATidespring. First to arrive was theChurchill-classsubmarineHMSConqueroron 19 April, and the island was over-flown by aHandley Page Victoraircraft with radar-mapping equipment on 20 April, to establish that no Argentine ships were in the vicinity. The first landings of SAS and SBS troops took place on 21 April, but an ill-advised mission to establish an SAS observation post on theFortuna Glacierhad to be withdrawn after two helicopters crashed in fog and high winds. On 23 April, a submarine alert was sounded and operations were halted, withTidespringbeing withdrawn to deeper water to avoid",
"water to avoid interception. On 24 April, British forces regrouped and headed in to attack. On 25 April, after resupplying the Argentine garrison in South Georgia, the submarineARASanta Fewas spotted on the surfaceby aWestland WessexHAS Mk 3 helicopter fromHMSAntrim, which attacked the Argentine submarine withdepth charges.HMSPlymouthlaunched aWestland WaspHAS.Mk.1 helicopter, andHMSBrilliantlaunched aWestland LynxHAS Mk 2. The Lynx launched atorpedo, andstrafedthe submarine with itspintle-mountedgeneral purpose machine gun; the Wessex also fired onSanta Fewith itsGPMG. The Wasp fromHMSPlymouthas well as two other Wasps launched fromHMSEndurancefiredAS-12ASMantiship missilesat the submarine, scoring hits.Santa Fewas damaged badly enough to prevent her from diving. The crew abandoned the submarine at the jetty atKing Edward Pointon South Georgia. WithTidespringnow far out to sea and the Argentine forces augmented by the submarine's crew, Major Sheridan decided to gather the 76 men he had and make a direct",
"and make a direct assault that day. After a short forced march by the British troops and a naval bombardment demonstration by two Royal Navy vessels (AntrimandPlymouth), the Argentine forces, a total of 190 men, surrendered without resistance to the Royal Marines.The message sent from the naval force at South Georgia to London was, \"Be pleased to inform Her Majesty that theWhite Ensignflies alongside theUnion Jackin South Georgia. God Save the Queen.\" The Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, broke the news to the media, telling them to\"Just rejoice at that news, and congratulate our forces and the Marines!\" Black Buck raids On 1 May, British operations on the Falklands opened with the \"Black Buck 1\" attack (of a series of five) on the airfield at Stanley. AVulcan bomberfromAscensionflew an 8,000-nautical-mile (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) round trip, dropping conventional bombs across the runway at Stanley. The mission required repeatedaerial refuellingusing several Victor K2 tanker aircraft operating in concert,",
"in concert, including tanker-to-tanker refuelling.The overall effect of the raids on the war is difficult to determine. The runway was cratered by only one of the twenty one bombs, but as a result, the Argentines realised that their mainland was vulnerable and fighter aircraft were redeployed from the theatre to bases further north. HistorianLawrence Freedman, who was given access to official sources, comments that the significance of the Vulcan raids remains a subject of controversy.Although they took pressure off the small Sea Harrier force, the raids were costly and used a great deal of resources. The single hit to the edge of the runway was probably the best that could have been expected. Contrary to some reports, this reduced the capability of the runway to operateMirage IIIfast jets but not other, smaller jet fighters, thePucara, and theHercules C-130. Nor did it cause the Argentine air force to deployMirage IIIsto defend the capital.Latest Argentine sources confirm that the Vulcan raids did not",
"raids did not influence Argentina's decision to move some of its Mirage IIIs from southern Argentina to the Buenos Aires Defence Zone.This dissuasive effect was watered down when British officials made clear that there would not be strikes on air bases in Argentina. The raids were later dismissed as propaganda by Falklands veteran Commander Nigel Ward. Of the five Black Buck raids, three were against Stanley Airfield, with the other two being anti-radar missions usingShrikeanti-radiation missiles. Escalation of the air war The Falklands had only three airfields. The longest and only paved runway was at the capital,Stanley, and even that was too short to support fast jets. Therefore, the Argentines were forced to launch their major strikes from the mainland, severely hampering their efforts at forward staging,combat air patrols, andclose air supportover the islands. The effective loiter time of incoming Argentine aircraft was low, limiting the ability of fighters to protect attack aircraft, which were often",
"which were often compelled to attack the first target of opportunity, rather than selecting the most lucrative target. The first major Argentine strike force comprised 36 aircraft (A-4 Skyhawks,IAI Daggers,English Electric Canberras, andMirage IIIescorts), and was sent on 1 May, in the belief that the British invasion was imminent or landings had already taken place. Only a section of Grupo 6 (flying IAI Dagger aircraft) found ships, which were firing at Argentine defences near the islands. The Daggers managed to attack the ships and return safely. This greatly boosted the morale of the Argentine pilots, who now knew they could survive an attack against modern warships, protected by radar ground clutter from the islands and by using a latepop upprofile. Meanwhile, other Argentine aircraft were intercepted byBAE Sea Harriersoperating fromHMSInvincible. A Daggerand a Canberra were shot down. Combat broke out between Sea Harrier FRS Mk 1 fighters of No.801 Naval Air SquadronandMirage IIIfighters of Grupo 8.",
"of Grupo 8. Both sides refused to fight at the other's best altitude, until two Mirages finally descended to engage. One was shot down by anAIM-9L Sidewinderair-to-air missile(AAM), while the other escaped but was damaged and without enough fuel to return to its mainland airbase. The plane made for Stanley, where it fell victim to friendly fire from the Argentine defenders. As a result of this experience, Argentine Air Force staff decided to employ A-4 Skyhawks and Daggers only as strike units, the Canberras only during the night, and Mirage IIIs (without air refuelling capability or any capable AAM) as decoys to lure away the British Sea Harriers. The decoying would be later extended with the formation of theEscuadrón Fénix, a squadron of civilian jets flying 24 hours a day, simulating strike aircraft preparing to attack the fleet. On one of these flights on 7 June, an Air ForceLearjet 35A was shot down by HMS Exeter, killing the squadron commander, Vice Commodore Rodolfo de la Colina, the highest-ranking",
"the highest-ranking Argentine officer to die in the war. Stanley was used as an Argentine strongpoint throughout the conflict. Despite the Black Buck and Harrier raids on Stanley airfield (no fast jets were stationed there for air defence) and overnight shelling by detached ships, it was never out of action entirely. Stanley was defended by a mixture ofsurface-to-air missile(SAM) systems (Franco-GermanRolandand BritishTigercat) and light anti-aircraft guns, including Swiss-builtOerlikon 35 mm twin cannonsand 30 mm Hispano-Suiza cannon and GermanRheinmetall 20 mm twin anti-aircraft cannons. More of the anti-aircraft guns were deployed to the airstrip at Goose Green.Lockheed Herculestransport night flights brought supplies, weapons, vehicles, and fuel, and airlifted out the wounded up until the end of the conflict. The only Argentine Hercules shot down by the British was lost on 1 June when TC-63 was intercepted by a Sea Harrier in daylightas it was searching for the British fleet north-east of the islands,",
"of the islands, after the Argentine Navy retired its lastSP-2H Neptunedue to unreliability. Various options to attack the home base of the five ArgentineÉtendardsatRío Grandewere examined and discounted (Operation Mikado); subsequently five Royal Navy submarines were lined up, submerged, on the edge of Argentina's 12-nautical-mile (22 km; 14 mi) territorial limit to provide early warning of bombing raids on the British task force. Operation Folklore was a plan to deploy two Canberra PR.9 aircraft ofNo. 39 Squadron RAF, disguised inChilean Air Forcemarkings, to the Chilean air base atPunta Arenas, with the intention of undertaking high-levelphoto-reconnaissanceflights over the Falklands;however the Canberras had reachedBelizewhen the operation was abandoned after part of the plan had been reported in the British press.Operation Acme was the deployment of a single Nimrod R.1 surveillance aircraft ofNo. 51 Squadron RAFto the Chilean base atIsla San Félixto gathersignals intelligencefrom Argentinian forces in",
"forces in the Falklands;three sorties were conducted, the last on 17 May narrowly avoided being shot down by the Chileans, leading to the cancellation of the operation.More successful was Operation Fingent, the placement of a Marconi S259 radar on high ground in Tierra del Fuego from where it could monitor movements at southern Argentinian air bases; the RAF crew wore civilian clothes in the guise of a sales team.Information was passed to Northwood and the Task Force by means of Operation Shutter, a US supplied SATCOM system installed at the Chilean Air Force headquarters inSantiagoand operated by two soldiers of theRoyal Corps of Signals. Sinking of ARAGeneral Belgrano On 30 April, the British government had brought into force a 200 nautical miles (370 kilometres; 230 miles) Total Exclusion Zone (TEZ) to replace the previous Maritime Exclusion Zone; aircraft as well as ships of any nation were liable to be attacked inside it, if they were aiding the Argentine occupation. AdmiralSandy Woodward's carrier",
"Woodward's carrier battle group of twelve warships and three supply ships entered the TEZ on 1 May, shortly before the first Black Buck raid, intending to degrade Argentine air and sea forces before the arrival of the amphibious group two weeks later.In anticipation, Admiral Anaya had deployed all his available warships into three task groups. The first was centred around the aircraft carrierARAVeinticinco de Mayowith two old but missile-armed destroyers, and a second comprised three modern frigates. Both these groups were intended to approach the TEZ from the north. A third group approaching from the south was led by theSecond World War-vintage Argentinelight cruiserARAGeneral Belgrano;although old, her large guns and heavy armour made her a serious threat, and she was escorted by two modernType 42guided-missile destroyers, armed with Exocet missiles. On 1 May, the British nuclear-powered submarineHMSConqueror(one of three patrolling the TEZ) located theBelgranogroup and followed it until the following day,",
"the following day, when it was about 12 hours away from the Task Force and just outside the Total Exclusion Zone. Admiral Woodward was aware of the Argentine carrier group approaching from the other direction and ordered the cruiser to be attacked to avoid being caught in apincer movement; he was unaware that theVeinticinco de Mayohad failed to gain enough headwind to launch her aircraft. The order to sink the cruiser was confirmed by theWar Cabinetin London and theGeneral Belgranowas hit by two torpedoes at 4 pm local time on 2 May, sinking an hour later.321 members ofGeneral Belgrano's crew, along with two civilians on board the ship, died in the incident. More than 700 men were eventually rescued from the open ocean despite cold seas and stormy weather, enduring up to 30 hours in overcrowded life rafts.The loss ofGeneral Belgranodrew heavy criticism from Latin American countries and from opponents of the war in Britain; support for the British cause wavered amongst some European allies, but the United",
"but the United States remained supportive. Regardless ofcontroversies over the sinking— including disagreement about the exact nature of the exclusion zone and whetherGeneral Belgranohad been returning to port at the time of the sinking — it had a crucial strategic effect: the elimination of the Argentine naval threat. After her loss, the entire Argentine fleet, with the exception of the diesel-powered submarineARASan Luis,returned to port and did not leave again during the fighting. This had the secondary effect of allowing the British to redeploy their nuclear submarines to the coast of Argentina, where they were able to provide early warning of outgoing air attacks leaving mainland bases.However, settling the controversy in 2003, the ship's captain, Hector Bonzo, stated to a documentary crew thatGeneral Belgranohad actually been manoeuvring, not sailing away from the exclusion zone, and that he had orders to sink any British ship he could find. In a separate incident later that night, British forces",
"British forces engaged an Argentine patrol gunboat, theARAAlferez Sobral, that was searching for the crew of an Argentine Air ForceCanberra light bombershot down on 1 May. Two Royal NavyLynxhelicopters, fromHMSCoventryandHMSGlasgow, fired fourSea Skuamissiles at her. Badly damaged and with eight crew dead,Alferez Sobralmanaged to return toPuerto Deseadotwo days later.The Canberra's crew were never found. Sinking of HMSSheffield On 4 May, two days after the sinking ofGeneral Belgrano, the British lost theType 42 destroyerHMSSheffieldto fire following anExocetmissile strike from the Argentine2nd Naval Air Fighter/Attack Squadron. Sheffieldhad been ordered forward with two other Type 42s to provide a long-range radar and medium-high altitude missilepicketfar from the British carriers. She was struck amidships, with devastating effect, ultimately killing 20 crew members and severely injuring 24 others. The ship was abandoned several hours later, gutted and deformed by fires. For four days she was kept afloat for",
"was kept afloat for inspections and the hope that she might attract Argentine submarines which could be hunted by helicopter. The decision was then taken to tow her to Ascension, but while under tow byHMSYarmouth, she finally sank east of the Falklands on 10 May. The incident is described in detail by Admiral Woodward in his bookOne Hundred Days, in Chapter One. Woodward was a former commanding officer ofSheffield.The destruction ofSheffield, the first Royal Navy ship sunk in action since the Second World War, had a profound impact on the War Cabinet and the British public as a whole, bringing home the fact that the conflict was now an actual shooting war. Diplomatic activity The tempo of operations increased throughout the first half of May as the United Nations' attempts to mediate a peace were rejected by the Argentines. The final British negotiating position was presented to Argentina by UN Secretary-GeneralJavier Pérez de Cuéllaron 18 May 1982. In it, the British abandoned their previous \"red-line\" that",
"\"red-line\" that British administration of the islands should be restored on the withdrawal of Argentine forces, as supported byUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 502. Instead, it proposed a UN administrator should supervise the mutual withdrawal of both Argentine and British forces, then govern the islands in consultation with the representative institutions of the islands, including Argentines, although no Argentines lived there. Reference to \"self-determination\" of the islanders was dropped and the British proposed that future negotiations over the sovereignty of the islands should be conducted by the UN.However, the proposals were rejected by the Argentines on the same day. Special forces operations Given the threat to the British fleet posed by the Étendard-Exocet combination, plans were made to use C-130s to fly inSAStroops to attack the home base of the five Étendards atRío Grande, Tierra del Fuego. The operation was codenamed \"Mikado\". The operation was later scrapped, after acknowledging that",
"acknowledging that its chances of success were limited, and replaced with a plan to use the submarineHMSOnyxto drop SBS marines several miles offshore at night for them to make their way to the coast aboard rubber inflatables and proceed to destroy Argentina's remaining Exocet stockpile - which did not exist at their objective. An SAS reconnaissance team was dispatched to carry out preparations for a seaborne infiltration. AWestland Sea Kinghelicopter carrying the assigned team took off from HMSInvincibleon the night of 17 May, but bad weather forced it to land 50 miles (80 km) from its target and the mission was aborted.The pilot flew toChile, landed south ofPunta Arenas, and dropped off the SAS team. The helicopter's crew of three then destroyed the aircraft, surrendered to Chilean police on 25 May, and were repatriated to the UK after interrogation. The discovery of the burnt-out helicopter attracted considerable international attention. Meanwhile, the SAS team crossed the border and penetrated into",
"and penetrated into Argentina, but cancelled their mission after the Argentines suspected an SAS operation and deployed some 2,000 troops to search for them. The SAS men were able to return to Chile and took a civilian flight back to the UK. On 14 May, the SAS carried out araid on Pebble Islandon the Falklands, where the Argentine Navy had taken over a grass airstripmapforFMA IA 58 Pucarálight ground-attack aircraft andBeechcraft T-34 Mentors, which resulted in the destruction of several aircraft. On 15 May, SBS teams were inserted by HMSBrilliantatGrantham Soundto reconnoitre and observe the landing beaches atSan Carlos Bay.On the evening of 20 May, the day before the main landings, an SBS troop and artillery observers were landed by Wessex helicopters for an assault on an Argentine observation post at Fanning Head which overlooked the entrance of the bay; meanwhile, the SAS conducted a diversionary raid atDarwin. Air attacks In the landing zone, the limitations of the British ships' anti-aircraft defences",
"defences were demonstrated in the sinking ofHMSArdenton 21 May which was hit by nine bombs,andHMSAntelopeon 24 May when attempts to defuze unexploded bombs failed.Out at sea with the carrier battle group,MVAtlantic Conveyorwas struck by an air-launched Exocet on 25 May, which caused the loss of three out of fourChinookand five Wessex helicopters as well as their maintenance equipment and facilities, together with runway-building equipment and tents. This was a severe blow from a logistical perspective. Twelve of her crew members were killed. Also lost on 25 May wasHMSCoventry, a sister toSheffield, whilst in company withHMSBroadswordafter being ordered to act as a decoy to draw away Argentine aircraft from other ships at San Carlos Bay.HMSArgonautandHMSBrilliantwere moderately damaged. Many British ships escaped being sunk because of limitations imposed by circumstances on Argentine pilots. To avoid the highest concentration of British air defences, Argentine pilots released bombs at very low altitude, and",
"low altitude, and hence those bombfuzesdid not have sufficient time to arm before impact. The low release of theretarded bombs(some of which the British had sold to the Argentines years earlier) meant that many never exploded, as there was insufficient time in the air for them to arm themselves.The pilots would have been aware of this—but due to the high concentration required to avoidsurface-to-air missiles,anti-Aircraft Artillery(AAA), and BritishSea Harriers, many failed to climb to the necessary release point. The Argentine forces solved the problem by fitting improvised retarding devices, allowing the pilots to effectively employ low-level bombing attacks on 8 June. Thirteen bombs hit British ships without detonating.LordCraig, the retiredMarshal of the Royal Air Force, is said to have remarked: \"Six better fuzes and we would have lost\"althoughArdentandAntelopewere both lost despite the failure of bombs to explode, andArgonautwas put out of action. The fuzes were functioning correctly, and the bombs",
"and the bombs were simply released from too low an altitude.The Argentines lost 22 aircraft in the attacks. In his autobiographical account of the Falklands War, Admiral Woodward blamed theBBC World Servicefor disclosing information that led the Argentines to change the retarding devices on the bombs. The World Service reported the lack of detonations after receiving a briefing on the matter from aMinistry of Defenceofficial. He describes the BBC as being more concerned with being \"fearless seekers after truth\" than with the lives of British servicemen.Colonel'H'. Joneslevelled similar accusations against the BBC after they disclosed the impending British attack on Goose Green by 2 Para. On 30 May, two Super Étendards, one carrying Argentina's last remaining Exocet, escorted by fourA-4C Skyhawkseach with two 500 lb bombs, took off to attackInvincible.Argentine intelligence had sought to determine the position of the carriers from analysis of aircraft flight routes from the task force to the islands.However,",
"islands.However, the British had a standing order that all aircraft conduct a low level transit when leaving or returning to the carriers to disguise their position.This tactic compromised the Argentine attack, which focused on a group of escorts 40 miles (64 km) south of the carrier group.Two of the attacking Skyhawkswere shot down bySea Dartmissiles fired byHMSExeter,withHMSAvengerclaiming to have shot down the Exocet missile with her 4.5\" gun (although this claim is disputed).No damage was caused to any British vessels.During the war, Argentina claimed to have damagedInvincibleand continues to do so,although no evidence of any such damage has been produced or uncovered. Land battles San Carlos – \"Bomb Alley\" During the night of 21 May, the British Amphibious Task Group under the command of CommodoreMichael Clapp(Commodore, Amphibious Warfare – COMAW) mountedOperation Sutton, the amphibious landing on beaches aroundSan Carlos Water,on the northwestern coast ofEast Falklandfacing ontoFalkland Sound. The",
"Sound. The bay, known asBomb Alleyby British forces, was the scene of repeated air attacks by low-flying Argentine jets. The 4,000 men of3 Commando Brigadewere put ashore as follows:2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment(2 Para) from theROROferryNorlandand40 CommandoRoyal Marinesfrom the amphibious shipHMSFearlesswere landed at San Carlos (Blue Beach),3rd Battalion, Parachute Regiment(3 Para) from the amphibious shipHMSIntrepidwas landed atPort San Carlos(Green Beach) and45 CommandofromRFAStromnesswas landed atAjax Bay(Red Beach).Notably, the waves of eightLCUsand eightLCVPswere led by MajorEwen Southby-Tailyour, who had commanded the Falklands detachment NP8901 from March 1978 to 1979.42 Commandoon the ocean linerSSCanberrawas a tactical reserve. Units from theRoyal Artillery,Royal Engineers, etc. and armoured reconnaissance vehicles were also put ashore with the landing craft, theRound Table-classLSLandmexeflotebarges.Rapier missilelaunchers were carried as underslung loads ofSea Kingsfor rapid deployment. By",
"deployment. By dawn the next day, they had established a secure beachhead from which to conduct offensive operations.BrigadierJulian Thompsonestablished his brigade headquarters in dugouts nearSan Carlos Settlement. Goose Green From early on 27 May until 28 May, 2 Para approached and attacked Darwin and Goose Green, which was held by the Argentine 12th Infantry Regiment. 2 Para’s 500 men had naval gunfire support from HMSArrowand artillery support from 8 Commando Battery of the Royal Artillery. After a tough struggle that lasted all night and into the next day, the British won the battle; in all, 18 British and 47 Argentine soldiers were killed. A total of 961 Argentine troops (including 202 Argentine Air Force personnel of theCondorairfield) were taken prisoner. The BBC announced the taking of Goose Green on theBBC World Servicebefore it had actually happened. During this attackLieutenant ColonelH. Jones, the commanding officer of 2 Para, was killed at the head of his battalion while charging into the",
"charging into the well-prepared Argentine positions. He was posthumously awarded theVictoria Cross. With the sizeable Argentine force at Goose Green out of the way, British forces were now able to break out of the San Carlos beachhead. On 27 May, men of 45 Cdo and 3 Para started aloaded marchacrossEast Falklandtowards the coastal settlement ofTeal Inlet. Special forces on Mount Kent Meanwhile, 42 Commando prepared to move by helicopter toMount Kent.Unbeknownst to senior British officers, the Argentine generals were determined to tie down the British troops in the Mount Kent area, and on 27 and 28 May they sent transport aircraft loaded withBlowpipesurface-to-air missiles andcommandos(602nd Commando Company and 601st National Gendarmerie Special Forces Squadron) toStanley. This operation was known asAutoimpuesta(\"Self-imposed\"). For the next week, the SAS and theMountain and Arctic Warfare Cadre(M&AWC) of3 Commando Brigadewaged intense patrol battles with patrols of the volunteers' 602nd Commando Company",
"Commando Company under MajorAldo Rico, normally second in Command of the 22nd Mountain Infantry Regiment. Throughout 30 May, Royal Air Force Harriers were active over Mount Kent. One of them, HarrierXZ963, flown by Squadron Leader Jerry Pook—in responding to a call for help from D Squadron, attacked Mount Kent's eastern lower slopes, which led to its loss through small-arms fire. Pook was subsequently awarded theDistinguished Flying Cross.On 31 May, the M&AWC defeated Argentine Special Forces at theskirmish at Top Malo House. A 13-strong Argentine Army Commando detachment (Captain José Vercesi's 1st Assault Section, 602nd Commando Company) found itself trapped in a small shepherd's house at Top Malo. The Argentine commandos fired from windows and doorways and then took refuge in a stream bed 200 metres (700 ft) from the burning house. Completely surrounded, they fought 19 M&AWC marines under Captain Rod Boswell for 45 minutes until, with their ammunition almost exhausted, they elected to surrender. Three",
"to surrender. Three Cadre members were badly wounded. On the Argentine side, there were two dead, including Lieutenant Ernesto Espinoza and Sergeant Mateo Sbert (who were posthumously decorated for their bravery). Only five Argentines were left unscathed. As the British secured Top Malo House, Lieutenant Fraser Haddow's M&AWC patrol came down from Malo Hill, brandishing a largeUnion Flag. One wounded Argentine soldier, Lieutenant Horacio Losito, commented that their escape route would have taken them through Haddow's position. 601st Commando tried to move forward to rescue 602nd Commando Company on Estancia Mountain. Spotted by 42 Commando, they were engaged withL16 81mm mortarsand forced to withdraw to Two Sisters mountain. The leader of 602nd Commando Company on Estancia Mountain realised his position had become untenable and after conferring with fellow officers ordered a withdrawal. The Argentine operation also saw the extensive use of helicopter support to position and extract patrols; the601st Combat",
"the601st Combat Aviation Battalionalso suffered casualties. At about 11:00 am on 30 May, anAérospatiale SA 330 Pumahelicopter was brought down by a shoulder-launchedFIM-92 Stingersurface-to-air missile(SAM) fired by the SAS in the vicinity of Mount Kent. SixArgentine National GendarmerieSpecial Forces were killed and eight more wounded in the crash. As Brigadier Thompson commented: It was fortunate that I had ignored the views expressed byNorthwood HQthat reconnaissance of Mount Kent before insertion of 42 Commando was superfluous. Had D Squadron not been there, the Argentine Special Forces would have caught the Commando before de-planing and, in the darkness and confusion on a strange landing zone, inflicted heavy casualties on men and helicopters. Bluff Cove and Fitzroy By 1 June, with the arrival of a further 5,000 British troops of the 5th Infantry Brigade, the new British divisional commander, Major GeneralJeremy MooreRM, had sufficient force to start planning an offensive againstStanley. During this",
"During this build-up, the Argentine air assaults on the British naval forces continued, killing 56. Of the dead, 32 were from theWelsh GuardsonRFASir GalahadandRFASir Tristramon 8 June. According to Surgeon-CommanderRick Jollyof the Falklands Field Hospital, more than 150 men suffered burns and injuries of some kind in the attack, includingSimon Weston. The Guards were sent to support an advance along the southern approach to Stanley. On 2 June, a small advance party of 2 Para moved to Swan Inlet house in a number of ArmyWestland Scouthelicopters. Telephoning ahead toFitzroy, they discovered that the area was clear of Argentines and (exceeding their authority) commandeered the one remainingRAF Chinookhelicopter to frantically ferry another contingent of 2 Para ahead toFitzroy(a settlement on Port Pleasant) andBluff Cove(a settlement on Port Fitzroy). This uncoordinated advance caused great difficulties in planning for the commanders of the combined operation, as they now found themselves with 30 miles (48",
"with 30 miles (48 km) of indefensible positions, strung along their southern flank. Support could not be sent by air as the single remaining Chinook was already heavily oversubscribed. The soldiers could march, but their equipment and heavy supplies would need to be ferried by sea. Plans were drawn up for half the Welsh Guards to march light on the night of 2 June, whilst theScots Guardsand the second half of the Welsh Guards were to be ferried from San Carlos Water in theLanding Ship Logistics(LSL)Sir Tristramand thelanding platform dock(LPD)Intrepidon the night of 5 June.Intrepidwas planned to stay one day and unload itself and as much ofSir Tristramas possible, leaving the next evening for the relative safety of San Carlos. Escorts would be provided for this day, after whichSir Tristramwould be left to unload using aMexeflote(a powered raft) for as long as it took to finish. Political pressure from above to not risk the LPD forced CommodoreMichael Clappto alter this plan. Two lower-value LSLs would be",
"LSLs would be sent, but with no suitable beaches to land on,Intrepid'slanding craftwould need to accompany them to unload. A complicated operation across several nights withIntrepidand her sister shipFearlesssailing half-way to dispatch their craft was devised. The attempted overland march by half the Welsh Guards failed, possibly as they refused to march light and attempted to carry their equipment.They returned to San Carlos and landed directly at Bluff Cove whenFearlessdispatched her landing craft.Sir Tristramsailed on the night of 6 June and was joined bySir Galahadat dawn on 7 June. Anchored 1,200 feet (370 m) apart in Port Pleasant, the landing ships were near Fitzroy, the designated landing point. The landing craft should have been able to unload the ships to that point relatively quickly, but confusion over the ordered disembarkation point (the first half of the Guards going direct to Bluff Cove) resulted in the senior Welsh Guards infantry officer aboard insisting that his troops should be ferried",
"should be ferried the far longer distance directly to Port Fitzroy/Bluff Cove. The alternative was for the infantrymen to march via the recently repaired Bluff Cove bridge (destroyed by retreating Argentinecombat engineers) to their destination, a journey of around seven miles (11 km). There are conflicting accounts of the causes for the delay in disembarking the Welsh Guards contingent. One narrative posits that onSir Galahad's stern ramp there was an argument about what to do. The officers on board were told that they could not sail to Bluff Cove in daylight. They were told that they had to get their men off ship and onto the beach as soon as possible as the ships were vulnerable to enemy aircraft. It would take 20 minutes to transport the men to shore using the LCU and Mexeflote. They would then have the choice of walking the seven miles to Bluff Cove or wait until dark to sail there. The officers on board said that they would remain on board until dark and then sail. They refused to take their men off",
"take their men off the ship. They possibly doubted that the bridge had been repaired due to the presence on boardSir Galahadof theRoyal EngineerTroop whose job it was to repair the bridge. The Welsh Guards were keen to rejoin the rest of their Battalion, who were potentially facing the enemy without their support. They had also not seen any enemy aircraft since landing atSan Carlosand may have been overconfident in the air defences. Royal Marines MajorEwen Southby-Tailyourgave a direct order for the men to leave the ship and go to the beach; the order was ignored. However, a contemporary Royal Navy report, partially declassified in 2024, throws into question the validity of this account. The investigative report states that \"At no time was a direct order to disembark given to......by a superior officer\".Additionally, it is claimed thatSir Tristram, although receiving signals advising ofSir Galahad's arrival, failed to pass these onto the officers responsible for her unloading, who \"...had not been warned of",
"not been warned of the arrival of the ship, nor of the nature of her cargo...no preparation had been made for the timely off-load of the new arrival.\" The longer journey time of the landing craft taking the troops directly to Bluff Cove and the ambiguity over orders being issued to this effect caused an enormous delay in unloading. This had disastrous consequences, since the ships were visible to Argentine troops on Mount Harriet, some ten miles (16 km) distant.Without escorts, having not yet established their air defence, and still almost fully laden, the two LSLs in Port Pleasant were sitting targets for eight ArgentineA-4 Skyhawks. A coordinated sortie by six Daggers attacked HMSPlymouth, which had the effect of drawing off the patrolling Sea Harriers. At 17.00, the Skyhawks attacked from seaward, hittingSir Galahadwith three bombs; although none exploded, they caused fierce fires which quickly grew out of control. Two bombs hitSir Tristram, also starting fires and causing the ship to be abandoned, but",
"be abandoned, but the damage was not as serious. Three Sea King and a Wessex helicopter ferried the wounded to an advanced dressing station which was set up on the shore. British casualties were 48 killed and 115 wounded.Three Argentine pilots were also killed. The air strike delayed the scheduled British ground attack on Stanley by two days.The British casualties amounted to twoinfantry companies, but it was decided not to release detailed casualty figures because intelligence indicated that Argentine commanders believed that a much more severe reverse had been inflicted. However, thedisaster at Port Pleasant(although often known as Bluff Cove) would provide the world with some of the most sobering images of the war asITV Newsvideo showed helicopters hovering in thick smoke to winch survivors from the burning landing ships. Fall of Stanley On the night of 11 June, after several days of painstaking reconnaissance and logistic build-up, British forces launched a brigade-sized night attack against the heavily",
"against the heavily defended ring of high ground surrounding Stanley. Units of 3 Commando Brigade, supported by naval gunfire from several Royal Navy ships, simultaneously attacked in theBattle of Mount Harriet,Battle of Two Sisters, andBattle of Mount Longdon. Mount Harriet was taken at a cost of 2 British and 18 Argentine soldiers. At Two Sisters, the British faced both enemy resistance andfriendly firebut managed to capture their objectives. The toughest battle was atMount Longdon. British forces were bogged down by rifle, mortar, machine gun, artillery and sniper fire, and ambushes. Despite this, the British continued their advance. During this battle, 14 were killed whenHMSGlamorgan, straying too close to shore while returning from the gun line, was struck by an improvised trailer-basedExocetMM38 launcher taken from the destroyerARASeguíby Argentine Navy technicians.On the same day, SergeantIan McKayof 4 Platoon, B Company, 3 Para died in a grenade attack on an Argentine bunker; he received a",
"he received a posthumousVictoria Crossfor his actions.After a night of fierce fighting, all objectives were secured. Both sides suffered heavy losses. The second phase of attacks began on the night of 13 June, and the momentum of the initial assault was maintained. 2 Para, with light armour support from theBlues and Royals,captured Wireless Ridge, with the loss of 3 British and 25 Argentine lives, and the 2nd Battalion,Scots Guardscaptured Mount Tumbledown at theBattle of Mount Tumbledown, which cost 10 British and 30 Argentine lives.A simultaneous special forces raid by the SAS and SBS in fast boats to attack the oil tanks in Stanley Harbour was beaten off by anti-aircraft guns. With the last natural defence line at Mount Tumbledown breached, the Argentine town defences ofStanleybegan to falter. In the morning gloom, one company commander got lost and his junior officers became despondent. Private Santiago Carrizo of the 3rd Regiment described how a platoon commander ordered them to take up positions in the",
"up positions in the houses and \"if aKelperresists, shoot him\", but the entire company did nothing of the kind.A daylight attack on Mount William by theGurkhas, delayed from the previous night by the fighting at Tumbledown, ended in anticlimax when the Argentine positions were found to be deserted. A ceasefire was declared on 14 June andThatcher announced the commencement of surrender negotiations. The commander of the Argentine garrison in Stanley, Brigade General Mario Menéndez, surrendered to Major General Jeremy Moore the same day. Recapture of South Sandwich Islands On 20 June, the British retook theSouth Sandwich Islands, which involved accepting the surrender of theSouthern ThuleGarrison at theCorbeta Uruguay baseand declared hostilities over. Argentina had established Corbeta Uruguay in 1976, but prior to 1982 the United Kingdom had contested the existence of the Argentine base only through diplomatic channels. Foreign involvement Commonwealth The UK received political support from member countries of",
"member countries of theCommonwealth of Nations. Australia, Canada, and New Zealand withdrew their diplomats from Buenos Aires. New Zealand The New Zealand government expelled the Argentine ambassador following the invasion. The Prime Minister,Robert Muldoon, was in London when the war broke outand in an opinion piece published inThe Timeshe said: \"The military rulers of Argentina must not be appeased … New Zealand will back Britain all the way.\" Broadcasting on theBBC World Service, he told the Falkland Islanders: \"This is Rob Muldoon. We are thinking of you and we are giving our full and total support to the British Government in its endeavours to rectify this situation and get rid of the people who have invaded your country.\"On 20 May 1982, he announced that New Zealand would makeHMNZSCanterbury, aLeander-classfrigate, available for use where the British thought fit to release a Royal Navy vessel for the Falklands.In the House of Commons afterwards,Margaret Thatchersaid: \"…the New Zealand Government and",
"Government and people have been absolutely magnificent in their support for this country the Falkland Islanders, for the rule of liberty and of law\". Australia Encouraged by the generous response of New Zealand, the Australian prime minister,Malcolm Fraser, was rushed into offering to cancel the intended purchase of HMSInvincible, which was quickly accepted by the British. However, this left theRoyal Australian Navywithout a replacement for their only aircraft carrier,HMASMelbourne, which was in the process of decommissioning. France The French president,François Mitterrand, declared an embargo on French arms sales and assistance to Argentina.In addition, France allowed UK aircraft and warships use of its port and airfield facilities atDakarinSenegaland France provideddissimilar aircraft trainingso that Harrier pilots could train against the French aircraft used by Argentina.French intelligence also cooperated with Britain to prevent Argentina from obtaining moreExocetmissiles on the international market.In",
"market.In a 2002 interview, and in reference to this support,John Nott, the then British Defence Secretary, had described France as Britain's 'greatest ally'. In 2012, it came to light that while this support was taking place, a French technical team, employed byDassaultand already in Argentina, remained there throughout the war despite the presidential decree. The team had provided material support to the Argentines, identifying and fixing faults in Exocet missile launchers. John Nott said he had known the French team was there but said its work was thought not to be of any importance. An adviser to the then French government denied any knowledge at the time that the technical team was there. The FrenchDGSEdid know the team was there as they had an informant in the team but decried any assistance the team gave: \"It's bordering on an act of treason, or disobedience to an embargo\". John Nott, when asked if he felt let down by the French said \"If you're asking me: 'Are the French duplicitous people?' the",
"people?' the answer is: 'Of course they are, and they always have been\".Four Exocet missiles that had been ordered by Peru were prevented by the French government from being delivered by air and, after pressure from Britain who suspected that they would be passed on to Argentina, delayed their release to a Peruvian ship until the conflict was over. United States Declassified cables show the United States both felt that Thatcher had not considered diplomatic options and feared that a protracted conflict could draw theSoviet Unionon Argentina's side.The US initially tried to mediate an end to the conflict throughshuttle diplomacy, but when Argentina refused the American peace overtures, US Secretary of StateAlexander Haigannounced that the United States would prohibit arms sales to Argentina and provide material support for British operations. Both houses of theUS Congresspassed resolutions supporting the American action siding with the United Kingdom. The US provided the United Kingdom with",
"United Kingdom with 200Sidewindermissiles for use by the Harrier jets,eight Stinger surface-to-air missile systems,Harpoon anti-ship missilesand mortar bombs.On Ascension Island, the underground fuel tanks were empty when the British Task Force arrived in mid-April 1982 and the leading assault ship,HMSFearless, did not have enough fuel to dock when it arrived off the island. The United States diverted asupertankerto replenish both the fuel tanks of ships at anchor there and the storage tanks on the island with approximately 2,000,000 US gallons (7,600,000 L; 1,700,000 imp gal) of fuel.The Pentagon further committed to providing additional support in the event that the war dragged on into the Southern Hemisphere's winter. In that scenario, the US committed tanker aircraft to support Royal Air Force missions in Europe, releasing RAF aircraft to support operations over the Falklands. The United States allowed the United Kingdom to use American communication satellites for secure communications between",
"between submarines in the Southern Ocean and Naval HQ in Britain. The US also passed on satellite imagery (which it publicly denied) and weather forecast data to the British Fleet. US President Ronald Reagan approved the Royal Navy's request to borrow aSea Harrier-capableIwo Jima-classamphibious assault ship(the US Navy had earmarkedUSSGuam(LPH-9)for this) in the event a British aircraft carrier was lost. TheUS Navydeveloped a plan to help the British man the ship with Americanmilitary contractors, who would likely be retired sailors with knowledge of the ship's systems. Other OAS members Cuba Argentina itself was politically backed by a number of countries inLatin America(though, notably, notChile). Several members of theNon-Aligned Movementalso backed Argentina's position; notably,CubaandNicaragualed a diplomatic effort to rally non-aligned countries from Africa and Asia to Argentina's position. This initiative came as a surprise to Western observers, as Cuba had no diplomatic relations with Argentina's",
"with Argentina's right-leaning military junta. British diplomats complained that Cuba had \"cynically exploited\" the crisis to pursue its normalization of relations with Latin American countries; Argentina eventually resumed relations with Cuba in 1983; Brazil did so in 1986.According toLeycester Coltman, Cuban presidentFidel Castrooffered to send troops to reinforce the Argentine garrison in the Falklands and to deploy the Cuban submarine fleet to attack British warships en route to the South Atlantic. Peru Peruattempted to purchase 12 Exocet missiles from France, to be delivered to Argentina in a failed secret operation.Peru also openly sent \"Mirages, pilots and missiles\" to Argentina during the war.That nation also supplied the Argentine forces with 40 Strela-2M shoulder-launched surface-to-air missile launchers and three experienced operators to help train in the use of those weapons.Peru had earlier transferred ten Hercules transport planes to Argentina soon after the British Task Force had set sail in",
"had set sail in April 1982.Nick van der Bijl records that, after the Argentine defeat at Goose Green,VenezuelaandGuatemalaoffered to sendparatroopersto the Falklands. Chile At the outbreak of the war,Chilewas in negotiations with Argentina for control over theBeagle Channeland feared Argentina would use similar tactics to secure the channel.During thisconflict, Argentina had already rejected two attempts at international mediation and tried to exert military pressure on Chile with an operation to occupy the disputed territory. Considering the situation, Chile refused to support the Argentine position during the warand gave support to the UK in the form of intelligence about the Argentine military and early warning intelligence on Argentine air movements.Throughout the war, Argentina was afraid of a Chilean military intervention inPatagoniaand kept some of its best mountain regiments away from the Falklands near the Chilean border as a precaution.The Chilean government also allowed the United Kingdom to",
"United Kingdom to requisition the refuelling vesselRFATidepool, which Chile had recently purchased and which had arrived atAricain Chile on 4 April. The ship left port soon afterwards, bound forAscension Islandthrough thePanama Canaland stopping atCuraçaoen route. Brazil At the end of May, Brazilian authorities allowed FAA Boeing 707s to refuel atRecife International Airportcarrying arms shipments fromLibya. When the British Embassy inBrasiliabecame aware of this, the BritishSecret Intelligence Servicedevised a plan to sabotage the next flight on the ground, but diplomatic pressure on the Brazilian government to observe their legal duties as aneutral countryresulted in no further flights being accepted.On 3 June, an RAF Vulcan on returning from a Black Buck raid on the Falklands, was forced to make an emergency landing atRio de Janeiro International Airportafter damage to its refuelling probe prevented it returning to Ascension Island. The Vulcan and her crew were interned and released seven days later,",
"seven days later, although an unused Shrike missile that the aircraft had been carrying was retained. Soviet Union TheSoviet Uniondescribed the Falklands as \"a disputed territory\", recognising Argentina's ambitions over the islands, and called for restraint on all sides. Soviet media frequently criticised the UK and US during the war. Significantly, however, the Soviet Union refrained from vetoing and thus made possibleUN Security CouncilResolution 502demanding the immediate withdrawal of all Argentine troops from the Falklands. However, the Soviet Union mounted some clandestine logistics operations to assist the Argentines.Days after the invasion by the Argentine forces, the Soviets launched additional intelligence satellites intolow Earth orbitcovering the southern Atlantic Ocean. Conflicting reports exist on whether Soviet ocean surveillance data might have played a role in the sinking ofHMSSheffieldandHMSCoventry. Spain Spain's position was one of ambiguity, underpinning the basic dilemma of the Spanish",
"of the Spanish foreign policy regarding the articulation of relationships with Latin America and European communities.On 2 April 1982, theCouncil of Ministersissued an official note defending principles of decolonisation and against the use of force.Spain abstained in the vote of UN Security Council Resolution 502, a position that Spanish UN representativeJaime de Piniésjustified by pointing out that the resolution did not mention the underlying problem of decolonisation.The Spanish stance throughout the conflict contrasted with those of the countries in its immediate vicinity (EEC members and Portugal). Spanish authorities also foiled a covert attack by theArgentine Naval Intelligence Serviceon a British warship atGibraltar, code namedOperation Algeciras. Threefrogmen, recruited from a former anti-government insurgent group, were to plant mines on a ship's hull. The divers travelled to Spain through France, where French security services noted their military diving equipment and alerted their Spanish",
"their Spanish counterparts. They were covertly monitored as they moved from the Argentine embassy in Madrid toAlgeciras, where they were arrested on 17 May by theGuardia Civilanddeported. Portugal Portugal supported itslong-standing allyBritain and the facilities of theAzoreswere offered to the Royal Navy. EEC TheEuropean Economic Communityprovided economic support by imposingeconomic sanctionson Argentina. In a meeting onGood Friday, 9 April, at theEgmont Palace, the EEC Political Committee proposed a total import ban from Argentina. Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Luxembourg and Ireland agreed immediately; France, Germany and the Netherlands were persuaded before the meeting ended. Italy, which had close cultural ties with Argentina, consented on the next day. Other countries Ireland Ireland's position altered during the war. As a rotating member of the United Nations Security Council, it supported Resolution 502. However, on 4 May, theFianna Fáil governmentled byCharles Haugheydecided to oppose EEC sanctions",
"EEC sanctions and called for a ceasefire. Haughey justified this as complying withIrish neutrality. Historians have suggested it was an opportunistic appeal to anti-British sentiment and reaction to Haughey's being sidelined during the1981 republican hunger strike. The strain onBritish–Irish relationseased when Haughey's government fellin November 1982. Israel According to the bookOperation Israel, advisers fromIsrael Aerospace Industrieswere already in Argentina and continued their work during the conflict. The book also claims that Israel sold weapons anddrop tanksto Argentina in a secret operation via Peru. Sierra Leone TheGovernment of Sierra Leoneallowed British task force ships to refuel atFreetown. The Gambia VC10 transport aircraft landed atBanjulinThe Gambiawhile flying between the UK andAscension Island. Libya ThroughLibya, underMuammar Gaddafi, Argentina received 20 launchers and 60SA-7missiles (which Argentina later described as \"not effective\"), as well as machine guns, mortars and mines. To",
"and mines. To retrieve the weapons, four trips were made using two Argentine Air ForceBoeing 707swhich refuelled inRecifewith the consent of the Brazilian government. Casualties In total, 907 people were killed during the 74 days of the conflict. Additionally, there were 1,188 Argentine and 777 British injured or wounded. Argentina A total of 649 Argentine servicemen were killed: United Kingdom A total of 255 British servicemen were killed: Of the 86 Royal Navy personnel, 22 were lost inHMSArdent, 19 + 1 lost inHMSSheffield, 19 + 1 lost inHMSCoventryand 13 lost inHMSGlamorgan. Fourteen naval cooks were among the dead, the largest number from any one branch in the Royal Navy. Thirty-three of the British Army's dead came from the Welsh Guards (32 of whom died on theRFASir Galahadin theBluff Cove Air Attacks), 21 from the 3rd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment, 18 from the 2nd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment, 19 from the Special Air Service, 3 each fromRoyal SignalsandRoyal Army Medical Corpsand 8 from each of",
"8 from each of the Scots Guards and Royal Engineers. The 1st battalion/7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifleslost one man. Civilians Three civilians on the Falkland Islands were accidentally killed by British shelling during the night of 11/12 June.It was also reported thatHMS Brilliant, on an anti-submarine patrol, detected and torpedoed three whales by accident. Red Cross Box Before British offensive operations began, the British and Argentine governments agreed to establish an area on the high seas where both sides could station hospital ships without fear of attack by the other side. This area, a circle 20 nautical miles in diameter, was referred to as the Red Cross Box (48°30′S53°45′W / 48.500°S 53.750°W /-48.500; -53.750) and located about 45 miles (72 km) north ofFalkland Sound.Ultimately, the British stationed four ships (HMSHydra,HMSHeclaandHMSHeraldand the primary hospital shipSSUganda) within the box,while the Argentines stationed three (ARAAlmirante Irízar,ARABahía ParaísoandPuerto",
"ParaísoandPuerto Deseado). The hospital ships were non-warships converted to serve as hospital ships.The three British naval vessels were survey vessels andUgandawas a passenger liner.Almirante Irizarwas an icebreaker,Bahia Paraisowas an Antarctic supply transport andPuerto Deseadowas a survey ship. British and Argentine vessels operating within the Box were in radio contact and there was some transfer of patients between hospital ships. For example, theUgandatransferred patients to an Argentine hospital ship on four occasions.Hydraworked withHeclaandHeraldto take casualties fromUgandatoMontevideo,Uruguay, where a fleet of Uruguayan ambulances met them.RAFVC10aircraft then flew the casualties to the UK for transfer to thePrincess Alexandra HospitalatRAF Wroughton, nearSwindon. Throughout the conflict, officials of theInternational Committee of the Red Cross(ICRC) conducted inspections to verify that all concerned were abiding by the rules of theGeneva Conventions. Argentine naval officers also inspected the",
"also inspected the British casualty ferries in the estuary of theRiver Plate. Aftermath This brief war brought many consequences for all the parties involved, besides the considerable casualty rate and largematerielloss, especially of shipping and aircraft, relative to the deployed military strengths of the opposing sides. In the United Kingdom,Margaret Thatcher's popularity increased. The success of the Falklands campaign was widely regarded as a factor in the turnaround in fortunes for theConservativegovernment, who had been trailing behind theSDP–Liberal Alliancein the opinion polls for months before the conflict began. Following the success in the Falklands, the Conservatives returned to the top of the opinion polls by a wide margin and went on to win the following year'sgeneral electionby a landslide.Subsequently, Defence Secretary Nott's proposed cuts to the Royal Navy were abandoned. The islanders had full British citizenship restored in 1983; their quality of life improved through investments made by",
"investments made by the UK after the war and by economic liberalisation that had been stalled for fear of angering Argentina. In 1985, anew constitutionwas enacted, promoting self-government which has continued todevolvepower to the islanders. The result of the2013 Falkland Islands sovereignty referendumwas 99.8% of the electorate voting for the islands to remain a British territory, with avoter turnoutof 92%. In Argentina, defeat in the Falklands War meant that apossible war with Chilewas avoided. Further, Argentina returned to a democratic government in the1983 general election, the first free general election since 1973. It also had a major social impact, destroying the military's image as the \"moral reserve of the nation\" that they had maintained through most of the 20th century. A detailed studyof 21,432 British veterans of the war commissioned by the UK Ministry of Defence found that between 1982 and 2012, 95 had died from \"intentional self-harm and events of undetermined intent (suicides and open",
"(suicides and open verdict deaths)\", a proportion lower than would be expected within the general population over the same period.However, a study of British combat veterans conducted five years after the conflict found that half of the sample group had suffered some symptoms ofpost-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD), while 22% were assessed to have the complete syndrome. \"Fortress Falklands\" In the immediate aftermath of the conflict, the British government embarked on a long-term policy of providing the islands with a viable military garrison, known informally as \"Fortress Falklands\". Initially, an aircraft carrier was kept in the area until the runway at Stanley Airport could be improved to take conventional RAF fighters. A permanent military complex with a runway designed to take long-haul airliners was constructed in the south of East Falkland,RAF Mount Pleasant, which opened in 1985; an associated deep-water port atMare Harbourwas also constructed. A small military outpost was established atKing Edward",
"atKing Edward Pointon South Georgia, but it was closed in 2001. Military analysis Militarily, the Falklands conflict remains one of the largest air-naval combat operations between modern forces since the end of the Second World War. As such, it has been the subject of intense study by military analysts and historians. Significant takeaways include the vulnerability of surface ships to anti-ship missiles and submarines, the challenges of co-ordinating logistical support for long-distance projections of power, and reconfirmation of the importance of tactical air power, including helicopters. In 1986, theBBCbroadcast theHorizonprogrammeIn the Wake of HMS Sheffield, which discussed lessons learned from the conflict, and measures taken to implement them, such as incorporating greaterstealth capabilitiesand providing betterclose-in weapon systemsfor the fleet. The principal British military responses to the Falklands War were the measures adopted in theDecember 1982 Defence White Paper. Memorials There are several",
"There are several memorials on the Falkland Islands themselves, the most notable of which is the1982 Liberation Memorial, unveiled in 1984 on the second anniversary of the end of the war. It lists the names of the 255 British military personnel who died during the war and is located in front of the Secretariat Building in Stanley, overlookingStanley Harbour. The Memorial was funded entirely by the Islanders and is inscribed with the words \"In Memory of Those Who Liberated Us\". During the war, British dead were put into plasticbody bagsand buried in mass graves. After the war, the bodies were recovered; 14 were reburied atBlue Beach Military Cemeteryand 64 were returned to the United Kingdom. Many of the Argentine dead are buried in theArgentine Military Cemeterytwo kilometers northeast of the small settlement of Darwin, approximately 82 kilometers west of Stanley. The Argentine government declined an offer by the UK to have the bodies repatriated to Argentina. In addition to memorials on the islands, there",
"the islands, there is a memorial in the crypt ofSt Paul's Cathedral, London to the British war dead.At theNational Memorial ArboretuminStaffordshire, a Falklands War memorial was unveiled in May 2012 in a service attended by 600 veterans and their families; the names of the fallen were also inscribed on theArmed Forces Memorialat the arboretum, which commemorates all British servicemen killed in action since the end of the Second World War.A memorial to the seamen of theMerchant Navywho died in the war stands at theTower Hill MemorialinTrinity Square Gardens, London.A memorial to the Royal Marines, known as \"The Yomper\" was unveiled by Margaret Thatcher in 1992 outside the formerEastney Barracksnear Portsmouth.TheFalkland Islands Memorial ChapelatPangbourne Collegewas opened in March 2000 as a commemoration of the lives and sacrifice of all those who served and died in the South Atlantic in 1982. In Argentina, there are many memorials, museums and murals all over the country.The most important area",
"most important area cenotaphatPlaza San Martínin Buenos Aires,anda memorialinUshuaia, declared National Monument. Minefields In 2011 there were 113 uncleared minefields plusunexploded ordnance(UXOs) covering an area of 13 km2(3,200 acres) on the Falkland Islands. Of this area, 5.5 km2(1,400 acres) on the Murrell Peninsula were classified as being \"suspected minefields\"—the area had been heavily pastured for 25 years without incident. It was estimated that these minefields had 20,000 anti-personnel mines and 5,000 anti-tank mines. The UK reported six military personnel injured by mines or UXO in 1982, then two more in 1983. Most military accidents took place in the immediate aftermath of the conflict, while clearing minefields or trying to establish the extent of minefield perimeters, particularly where no detailed records existed. No civilian mine casualties have ever occurred on the islands, and no human casualties from mines or UXO have been reported since 1984. On 9 May 2008, the Falkland Islands",
"Falkland Islands Government asserted that the minefields, which represent 0.1% of the available farmland on the islands \"present no long term social or economic difficulties for the Falklands\", and that the impact of clearing the mines would cause more problems than containing them. However, the British Government, in accordance with its commitments under theMine Ban Treatyhad a commitment to clear the mines by the end of 2019. In May 2012, it was announced that 3.7 km2(1.4 sq mi) of Stanley Common (which lies between the Stanley – Mount Pleasant road and the shoreline) was made safe and had been opened to the public, opening up a 3 km (1.9 mi) stretch of coastline and a further two kilometres of shoreline alongMullet Creek. In November 2020, after a final clearance campaign by contractors from Zimbabwe,it was declared that the Falkland Islands were now free of all landmines. A celebration of the event took place on the weekend of 14 November where the final landmine was detonated. Press and publicity",
"Press and publicity Argentina Selected war correspondents were regularly flown to Port Stanley in military aircraft to report on the war. Back in Buenos Aires, newspapers and magazines reported on \"the heroic actions of the largely conscript army and its successes\". Officers from the intelligence services were attached to the newspapers and 'leaked' information corroborating the official communiqués from the government. The glossy magazinesGenteandSiete Díasswelled to 60 pages with colour photographs of British warships in flames—many of them faked—and bogus eyewitness reports of the Argentine commandos' guerrilla war on South Georgia (6 May) and an already dead Pucará pilot's attack on HMSHermes(Lt. Daniel Antonio Jukic had been killed at Goose Green during a British air strike on 1 May). Most of the faked photos actually came from the tabloid press. One of the best remembered headlines was \"Estamos ganando\" (\"We're winning\") from the magazineGente, that would later use variations of it. The Argentine",
"it. The Argentine troops on the Falkland Islands could readGaceta Argentina—a newspaper intended to boost morale among the servicemen. Some of its untruths could easily be unveiled by the soldiers who recovered corpses. TheMalvinas causeunited the Argentines in a patriotic atmosphere that protected the junta from critics, and even opponents of the military government supported Galtieri;Ernesto Sabatosaid: In Argentina, it is not a military dictatorship that is fighting. It is the whole people, her women, her children, her old people, regardless of their political persuasion. Opponents to the regime like myself are fighting for our dignity, fighting to extricate the last vestiges of colonialism. Don't be mistaken, Europe, it is not a dictatorship that is fighting for the Malvinas; it is the whole nation. In the Argentine press, false reports that HMSHermeswas sunk and HMSInvinciblehad been damaged were circulated after the weekly magazinesGenteandLa Semanahad received information of naval action from an air",
"action from an air force officer in the president's office.On 30 April 1982 the Argentine magazineTal Cualshowed Prime Minister Thatcher with an eyepatch and the text:Pirate, witch and assassin. Guilty!Three British reporters sent to Argentina to cover the war from the Argentine perspective were jailed until the end of the war.TheMadres de Plaza de Mayowere even exposed todeath threatsfrom ordinary people. United Kingdom Seventeen newspaper reporters, two photographers, two radio reporters and three television reporters with five technicians sailed with the Task Force to the war. TheNewspaper Publishers' Associationselected them from among 160 applicants, excluding foreign media. The hasty selection resulted in the inclusion of two journalists among the war reporters who were interested only in Queen Elizabeth II's son PrinceAndrew, who was serving in the conflict.The prince flew a helicopter on multiple missions, includingExocet missiledecoy and casualty evacuation. Merchant vessels had the",
"vessels had the civilianInmarsatuplink, which enabled writtentelexand voice report transmissions via satellite.SSCanberrahad afacsimile machinethat was used to upload 202 pictures from the South Atlantic over the course of the war. The Royal Navy leased bandwidth on the U.S.Defense Satellite Communications Systemfor worldwide communications. Television demands a thousand times the data rate of telephone, but the Ministry of Defence was unsuccessful in convincing the U.S. to allocate more bandwidth. TV producers suspected that the enquiry was half-hearted, since theVietnam Wartelevision pictures of casualties and traumatised soldiers were recognised as having negative propaganda value. However, the technology only allowed uploading a single frame per 20 minutes—and only if the military satellites were allocated 100% to television transmissions. Videotapes were shipped to Ascension Island, where a broadband satellite uplink was available, resulting in TV coverage being delayed by three weeks. The press was",
"The press was very dependent on the Royal Navy and wascensoredon site. Many reporters in the UK knew more about the war than those with the Task Force.Ministry of Defence press briefings in London were characterised by the restrained dictation-speed delivery of its spokesman,Ian McDonald. The Royal Navy expectedFleet Streetto conduct a Second World War-style positive news campaignbut the majority of the British media, especially the BBC, reported the war in a neutral fashion.These reporters referred to \"the British troops\" and \"the Argentinian troops\" instead of \"our lads\" and the \"Argies\".The two main tabloid papers presented opposing viewpoints: TheDaily Mirrorwas decidedly anti-war, whilstThe Sunbecame well known for headlines such as \"Stick It Up Your Junta!\", which, along with the reporting in other tabloids,led to accusations of xenophobiaandjingoism.The Sunwas criticised for its \"Gotcha\" headline following the sinking of theARAGeneral Belgrano. The British Ministry of Defence operated apsychological",
"apsychological warfareoperation under the codename \"Moonshine\", which took the form of a spurious radio station purporting to be from a neutral South American country, but was actually in London, broadcasting to the Falklands and Argentina via a transmitter on Ascension which had been requisitioned from the BBC. Under the name ofRadio Atlántico del Sur(\"Radio South Atlantic\"), the station was operated by a small team of civilians and Spanish-speaking military officers. The first three-hour broadcast was on 19 May and a total of 47 had been made by 15 June when the operation was cancelled. There is some evidence that the Argentines attempted to jam the broadcasts and that some civilian radio receivers were confiscated from soldiers, but the results overall were difficult to assess. Cultural impact There were wide-ranging influences on popular culture in both the UK and Argentina, from the immediate postwar period to the present. The Argentine writerJorge Luis Borgesdescribed the war as \"a fight between two",
"fight between two bald men over a comb.\"The wordsyompandExocetentered the British vernacular as a result of the war. The Falklands War also provided material for theatre, film and TV drama and influenced the output of musicians. In Argentina, the military government banned the broadcasting of music in the English language, giving way to the rise of local rock musicians, like the famous\"Trova Rosarina\" movementas well as solo musicians such asCharly García,Luis Alberto Spinetta,Fito PaezandGustavo Santaolalla. See also Notes References Bibliography Historiography Further reading External links",
"1982 FIFA World Cup The1982 FIFA World Cupwas the 12thFIFA World Cup, a quadrennialfootballtournament for men's senior national teams, and was played in Spain from 13 June to 11 July 1982. The tournament was won byItaly, who defeatedWest Germany3–1 in thefinalheld in theSantiago Bernabéu Stadiumin the capital,Madrid. It was Italy's third World Cup title, but their first since1938. The defending champions,Argentina, were eliminated in the second round (finishing third and last in their group).Algeria,Cameroon,Honduras,KuwaitandNew Zealandmade their first appearances in the finals. The tournament featured the first penalty shoot-out in World Cup competition.This was the third and last World Cup to feature two rounds ofgroup stages. It was also the third time (after1934and1966) that all four semi-finalists were European. In the first round of Group 3,HungarydefeatedEl Salvador10–1, equalling the largest margin of victory recorded in the finals (Hungary overSouth Korea9–0 in1954, andYugoslaviaoverZaire9–0",
"in1974). Although successful and filled with compelling and entertaining matches, this tournament also was blighted by violent fouls, some poor officiating and some overcrowded stadiums. One particular incident of note was West German goalkeeperHarald Schumacher's foul of French playerPatrick Battistonduring a semi-final match in Seville, and another was Italian player Claudio Gentile's intense and often violent match-long fouling and marking of Argentine playerDiego Maradona. FIFA changed the regulations to somewhat prevent this kind of brutality on the pitch for the subsequent tournament inMexico. Host selection Spain was chosen as the host nation by FIFA in London on 6 July 1966. Hosting rights for the 1974 and1978tournaments were awarded at the same time. West Germany and Spain agreed a deal whereby Spain would support West Germany for the 1974 tournament and West Germany would allow Spain to bid for the 1982 World Cup unopposed. At the time of Spain being selected, the country was under the dictatorship",
"the dictatorship ofFrancisco Franco's regime,but his regime had ended before the start of the tournament, and the World Cup had its effects onSpanish society after the democratic transition. Qualification For the first time, the World Cup finals expanded from 16 to 24 teams. This allowed more countries to participate from Africa and Asia. Teams absent from the finals were1974and1978runners-upNetherlands(eliminated byBelgiumandFrance),Mexico(eliminated byHondurasandEl Salvador), and the three times 1970s participantsSweden(eliminated byScotlandandNorthern Ireland). Northern Ireland qualified for the first time since 1958. Belgium,Czechoslovakia,El Salvador,Englandand theSoviet Unionwere all back in the finals after 12-year absences. England had its first successful World Cup qualifying campaign in 20 years,having qualified automatically as hosts in 1966 and as defending champions in 1970, then failing to qualify in 1974 and 1978.YugoslaviaandChilewere also back after missing the 1978 tournament.",
"1978 tournament. Algeria,Cameroon,Honduras,Kuwait, andNew Zealandall participated in the World Cup for the first time. As of 2022, this was the last time thatEl SalvadorandKuwaitqualified for a FIFA World Cup finals, as well as the last time thatSouth Koreafailed to qualify. This is also the last time that Mexico failed to qualify by playing (they werebannedfrom the1990 FIFA World Cup qualification). This was the first time that all six confederations (AFC,CAF,CONCACAF,CONMEBOL,OFCandUEFA) sent representative teams to the tournament, which would happen again in2006and2010, and will be happening in2026:Australiawould also participate in the2010-2022tournaments, but as a representative of the AFC. There was some consideration given as to whether England, Northern Ireland, and Scotland would withdraw from the tournament because of theFalklands Warbetween Argentina and the United Kingdom.A directive issued by the British sports ministerNeil Macfarlanein April, at the start of the conflict, suggested that there",
"that there should be no contact between British representative teams and Argentina.This directive was not rescinded until August, following the end of the tournament and of the hostilities.Macfarlane reported toPrime MinisterMargaret Thatcherthat some players and officials were uneasy about participating because of the casualties suffered by British forces, and the strong diplomatic ties between Argentina and Spain.FIFA later advised the British Government that there was no prospect thatArgentina(the defending champions) would be asked to withdraw,and it also became apparent that no other countries would withdraw from the tournament.It was decided byCabinet SecretaryRobert Armstrongto allow the British national teams to participate so that Argentina could not use their absence for propaganda purposes, reversing the intended effect of applying political pressure onto Argentina. List of qualified teams The following 24 teams qualified for the final tournament. Summary Format The first round was",
"The first round was around-robingroup stage containing six groups of four teams each. Two points were awarded for a win and one for a draw, withgoal differenceused to separate teams equal on points. The top two teams in each group advanced. In the second round, the twelve remaining teams were split into four groups of three teams each, with the winner of each group progressing to the knockout semi-final stage. The composition of the groups in the second round was determined before the start of the tournament. Groups A and B were to include one team from each of Groups 1 through 6, and Groups C and D included the remaining six teams. The winners of Groups 1 and 3 were in Group A whilst the runners-up were in Group C. The winners of Groups 2 and 4 were in Group B whilst the runners-up were in Group D. The winner of Group 5 was in Group D whilst the runner-up was in Group B. The winner of Group 6 was in Group C whilst the runner-up was in Group A. Thus, Group A mirrored Group C, and Group B mirrored Group D",
"B mirrored Group D with the winners and runners-up from the first round being placed into opposite groups in the second round. The second-round groups that mirrored each other (based on the first-round groupings) faced off against each other in the semifinals. Thus, the Group A winner played the Group C winner, and the Group B winner played the Group D winner. This meant that if two teams which played in the same first-round group both emerged from the second round, they would meet for the second time of the tournament in a semifinal match. It also guaranteed that the final match would feature two teams that had not previously played each other in the tournament. As it turned out, Italy and Poland who were both in Group 1 in the first round, each won their second-round groups and played each other in a semifinal match. First group stage In Group 1, newcomersCameroonheld bothPolandandItalyto draws, and were denied a place in the next round on the basis of having scored fewer goals than Italy (the sides had an",
"(the sides had an equal goal difference). Poland and Italy qualified over Cameroon andPeru. Italian journalists andtifosicriticised their team for their uninspired performances that managed three draws; the squad was reeling from the recentSerie A scandal, where national players were suspended for match fixing and illegal betting. Group 2 saw one of the great World Cup upsets on the first day with the 2–1 victory ofAlgeriaover reigning European ChampionsWest Germany. In the final match in the group, West Germany metAustriain a match later dubbed as the \"Disgrace of Gijón\". Algeria had already played their final group game on the previous day, and West Germany and Austria knew that a West German win by 1 or 2 goals would qualify them both, while a larger German victory would qualify Algeria over Austria, and a draw or an Austrian win would eliminate the Germans. After 10 minutes of all-out attack, West Germany scored through a goal byHorst Hrubesch. After that solitary goal was scored, the two teams kicked",
"two teams kicked the ball around aimlessly for the rest of the match. Chants of \"Fuera, fuera\" (\"Out, out\") were screamed by the Spanish crowd, while angry Algerian supporters wavedbanknotesat the players. This performance was widely deplored, even by the German and Austrian fans. One German fan was so upset by his team's display that he burned his German flag in disgust.Algeria protested to FIFA, who ruled that the result would stand; FIFA introduced a revised qualification system at subsequent World Cups in which the final two games in each group were played simultaneously. Group 3, where the opening ceremony and first match of the tournament took place, sawBelgiumbeat defending championsArgentina1–0. TheCamp Noustadium was the home ofBarcelona, and many fans had wanted to see the club's new signing, Argentinian starDiego Maradona, who did not perform to expectations. Both Belgium and Argentina ultimately advanced at the expense ofHungaryandEl SalvadordespiteHungary's 10–1 winover the Central American",
"Central American nation – which, with a total of 11 goals, is the second highest scoreline in a World Cup game (equal with Brazil's 6–5 victory over Poland in the 1938 tournament and Hungary's 8–3 victory over West Germany in the 1954 tournament). Group 4 opened withEnglandmidfielderBryan Robson's goal againstFranceafter only 27 seconds of play. England won 3–1 and qualified along with France overCzechoslovakiaandKuwait, though the tiny Gulf emirate held Czechoslovakia to a 1–1 draw. In the game between Kuwait and France, with France leading 3–1, France midfielderAlain Giressescored a goal vehemently contested by the Kuwait team, who had stopped play after hearing a piercing whistle from the stands, which they thought had come from Soviet refereeMiroslav Stupar. Play had not yet resumed when SheikhFahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, brother of thethen-Kuwaiti Emirand president of theKuwait Football Association, rushed onto the pitch to remonstrate with the referee. Stupar reversed his initial decision and",
"decision and disallowed the goal to the fury of the French.Maxime Bossisscored another valid goal a few minutes later and France won 4–1. In Group 5,Hondurasheld hostsSpainto a 1–1 draw.Northern Irelandwon the group outright, eliminatingYugoslaviaand beating hosts Spain 1–0; Northern Ireland had to play the majority of the second half with ten men afterMal Donaghywas dismissed. Spain narrowly avoided elimination due to a huge referee error, securing a contentious 2–1 victory over Yugoslavia, largely attributed to a disputed penalty decision. At 17 years and 41 days, Northern Ireland forwardNorman Whitesidewas the youngest player to appear in a World Cup match. Brazilwere in Group 6. WithZico,Sócrates,Falcão,Éderand others, they boasted an offensive firepower that promised a return to the glory days of1970. They beat theUSSR2–1 thanks to a 20-metre Éder goal two minutes from time, thenScotlandandNew Zealandwith four goals each. The Soviets took the group's other qualifying berth on goal difference at the",
"difference at the expense of the Scots. Second group stage Poland opened Group A with a 3–0 defeat of Belgium thanks to aZbigniew Boniekhat-trick. The Soviet Union prevailed 1–0 in the next match over Belgium. The Poles edged out the USSR for the semi-final spot on the final day on goal difference thanks to a 0–0 draw in a politically charged match, as Poland's then-Communist government had imposed amartial lawa few months earlier to quash internal dissent. In Group B, a match between England and West Germany ended in a goalless draw. West Germany put the pressure on England in their second match by beating Spain 2–1. The home side drew 0–0 against England, denyingRon Greenwood's team a semi-final place and putting England in the same position as Cameroon, being eliminated without losing a game. In Group C, with Brazil, Argentina and Italy, in the opener, Italy prevailed 2–1 overDiego MaradonaandMario Kempes's side after a game in which Italian defendersGaetano ScireaandClaudio Gentileproved themselves equal",
"themselves equal to the task of stopping the Argentinian attack. Argentina now needed a win over Brazil on the second day, but lost 3–1 – Argentina only scoring in the last minute. Maradona kicked Brazilian playerJoão Batistain the groin and was sent off in the 85th minute. Thematch between Brazil and Italypitted Brazil's attack against Italy's defence, with the majority of the game played around the Italian area, and with the Italian midfielders and defenders returning the repeated set volleys of Brazilian shooters such asZico,SócratesandFalcão. Italian centre back Gentile was assigned to mark Brazilian striker Zico, earning a yellow card and a suspension for the semi-final.Paolo Rossiopened the scoring when he headed inAntonio Cabrini's cross with just five minutes played. Sócrates equalised for Brazil seven minutes later. In the twenty-fifth minute Rossi stepped pastJúnior, intercepted a pass fromCerezoacross the Brazilians' goal, and drilled the shot home. The Brazilians threw everything in search of",
"in search of another equaliser, while Italy defended bravely. On 68 minutes, Falcão collected a pass from Júnior and as Cerezo's dummy run distracted three defenders, fired home from 20 yards out. Now Italy had gained the lead twice thanks to Rossi's goals, and Brazil had come back twice; at 2–2, Brazil would have been through on goal difference, but in the 74th minute, a poor clearance from an Italian corner kick went back to the Brazilian six-yard line where Rossi andFrancesco Grazianiwere waiting. Both aimed at the same shot, Rossi connecting to get a hat trick and sending Italy into the lead for good. In the 86th minuteGiancarlo Antognoniscored an apparent fourth goal for Italy, but it was wrongly disallowed for offside. In the dying momentsDino Zoffmade a miraculous save to denyOscara goal, ensuring that Italy advanced to the semi-final. In the last group, Group D, France dispatched Austria 1–0 with a free kick goal byBernard Genghini, and then defeated Northern Ireland 4–1 to reach their first",
"reach their first semi-final since1958. Semi-finals, third-place match and final In a re-match of the encounter in the first round, Italy beat Poland in the first semi-final through two goals from Paolo Rossi. In the game between France and West Germany, the Germans opened the scoring through aPierre Littbarskistrike in the 17th minute, and the French equalised nine minutes later with aMichel Platinipenalty. In the second half a long through ball sent French defenderPatrick Battistonracing clear towards the German goal. With both Battiston and the lone German defender trying to be the first to reach the ball, Battiston flicked it past German keeperHarald Schumacherfrom the edge of the German penalty area and Schumacher reacted by jumping up to block. Schumacher did not seem to go for the ball, however, and clattered straight into the oncoming Battiston – which left the French player unconscious and knocked two of his teeth out. Schumacher's action has been described as \"one of history's most shocking",
"most shocking fouls\".The ball went just wide of the post and Dutch refereeCharles Corverdeemed Schumacher's tackle on Battiston not to be a foul and awarded agoal kick. Play was interrupted for several minutes while Battiston, still unconscious and with a broken jaw, was carried off the field on a stretcher. After French defenderManuel Amoroshad sent a 25-metre drive crashing onto the West German crossbar in the final minute, the match went into extra time. On 92 minutes, France's sweeperMarius Trésorfired a swerving volley under Schumacher's crossbar from ten metres out to make it 2–1. Six minutes later, an unmarkedAlain Giressedrove in an 18-metre shot off the inside of the right post to finish off a counter-attack and put France up 3–1. But West Germany would not give up. In the 102nd minute a counter-attack culminated in a cross that recent substituteKarl-Heinz Rummeniggeturned in at the near post from a difficult angle with the outside of his foot, reducing France's lead to 3–2. Then in the 108th minute",
"in the 108th minute Germany took a short corner and after France failed to clear, the ball was played by Germany to Littbarski whose cross toHorst Hrubeschwas headed back to the centre towardsKlaus Fischer, who was unmarked but with his back to goal. Fischer in turn volleyed the ball past French keeperJean-Luc Ettoriwith abicycle kick, levelling the scores at 3–3. The resultingpenalty shootoutwas the first at a World Cup finals. Giresse,Manfred Kaltz,Manuel Amoros,Paul BreitnerandDominique Rocheteauall converted penalties untilUli Stielikewas stopped by Ettori, giving France the advantage. But then Schumacher stepped forward, lifted the tearful Stielike from the ground, and savedDidier Six's shot. With Germany handed the lifeline they needed Littbarski converted his penalty, followed by Platini for France, and then Rummenigge for Germany as the tension mounted. France defender Maxime Bossis then had his kick parried by Schumacher who anticipated it, and Hrubesch stepped up to score and send Germany to the",
"send Germany to the World Cup final yet again with a victory on penalties, 5–4. \"After I scored, my whole life passed before me – the same feeling they say you have when you are about to die, the joy of scoring in a World Cup final was immense, something I dreamed about as a kid, and my celebration was a release after realising that dream. I was born with that scream inside me, that was just the moment it came out.\" —Italian midfielderMarco Tardellion hisiconic goal celebrationfrom the 1982 World Cup Final. In the third-place match, Poland edged the French side 3–2 which matched Poland's best performance at a World Cup previously achieved in 1974. France would go on to win theEuropean Championshiptwo years later. In the final,Antonio Cabrinifired a penalty wide of goal in the first half. In the second half, Paolo Rossi scored first for the third straight game by heading home Gentile's bouncing cross at close range. Exploiting the situation, Italy scored twice more on quick counter-strikes, all the while",
"all the while capitalising on their defence to hold the Germans. With Gentile and Gaetano Scirea holding the centre, the Italian strikers were free to counter-punch the weakened German defence.Marco Tardelli's shot from the edge of the area beat Schumacher first, andAlessandro Altobelli, the substitute for injured strikerFrancesco Graziani, made it 3–0 at the end of a solo sprint down the right side by the stand-out wingerBruno Conti. Italy's lead appeared secure, encouraging Italian presidentSandro Pertinito wag his finger at the cameras in a playful \"not going to catch us now\" gesture. In the 83rd minute, Paul Breitner scored for West Germany, but it was only a consolation goal as Italy won 3–1 to claim their first World Cup title in 44 years, and their third in total. Records Italy became the first team to advance from the first round without winning a game, drawing all three (whileCameroonwere eliminated in the same way by virtue of having only one goal scored against Italy's two), and also the first of",
"also the first of two World Cup winners to draw or lose three matches at the Finals (Argentina matched this by drawing two games and losing one in 2022). By winning, Italy equalled Brazil's record of winning the World Cup three times. Italy's total of twelve goals scored in seven matches set a new low for average goals scored per game by a World Cup winning side (subsequently exceeded by Spain in 2010), while Italy's aggregate goal difference of +6 for the tournament remains a record low for a champion, equalled by Spain. Italy's 40-year-old captain-goalkeeperDino Zoffbecame the oldest player to win the World Cup.This was the first World Cup in which teams from all six continental confederations participated in the finals, something that did not happen again until2006. Venues Seventeen stadiums in fourteen cities hosted the tournament, a record that stood until the 2002 tournament, which was played in twenty stadiums in two countries.The most used venue wasFC Barcelona'sCamp Noustadium, which hosted five",
"which hosted five matches, including a semi-final; it was the largest stadium used for this tournament. WithSarrià Stadiumalso hosting three matches, Barcelona was the Spanish city with the most matches in España 1982 with eight; Madrid, the nation's capital, followed with seven. This particular World Cup was organised in such a way that all of the matches of each of the six groups were assigned stadiums in cities near to each other, in order to reduce the stress of travel on the players and fans. For example, Group 1 matches were played in Vigo and A Coruña, Group 2 in Gijón and Oviedo, Group 3 in Elche and Alicante (except for the first match, which was the opening match of the tournament, which was played at the Camp Nou), Group 4 in Bilbao and Valladolid, Group 5 (which included hosts Spain) in Valencia and Zaragoza, and Group 6 in Seville and Malaga (of the three first-round matches in Seville, the first match between Brazil and the Soviet Union was played in the Pizjuán Stadium, and the other two were",
"the other two were played in the Villamarín Stadium). Group stage matches in the milder northern cities like Bilbao or Gijón would start at 17:00, while the matches in the southern cities like Seville or Valencia would start at 21:00, in an attempt to avoid the intense southern Spanish summer heat. When the tournament went into the round-robin second round matches, all the aforementioned cities excluding Barcelona, Alicante and Seville did not host any more matches in España 1982. Both theSantiago BernabéuandVicente Calderónstadiums in Madrid and the Sarrià Stadium in Barcelona were used for the first time for this tournament for the second round matches. Madrid and Barcelona hosted the four second round group matches; Barcelona hosted Groups A and C (Camp Nou hosted all three of Group A's matches, and Sarrià did the same with Group C's matches) and Madrid hosted Groups B and D (Real Madrid's Bernabeu Stadium hosted all three of Group B's matches, andAtlético Madrid's Calderon Stadium did the same with the",
"the same with the Group D matches) The two semi final matches were held at Camp Nou and the Pizjuán Stadium in Seville, the third largest stadium used for the tournament (one of only two España 1982 matches it hosted), the third place match was held in Alicante and the final was held at the Bernabeu, the second largest stadium used for this tournament. Match officials AFC CAF CONCACAF CONMEBOL UEFA OFC Squads For a list of all squads that appeared in the final tournament, see1982 FIFA World Cup squads. Groups Seeding The 24 qualifiers were divided into four groupings which formed the basis of the draw for the group stage. FIFA announced the six seeded teams on the day of the draw and allocated them in advance to the six groups; as had become standard, the host nation and the reigning champions were among the seeds.The seeded teams would play all their group matches at the same venue (with the exception of World Cup holders Argentina who would play in the opening game scheduled for the Camp Nou, the largest",
"Nou, the largest of the venues). The remaining 18 teams were split into three pots based on FIFA's assessment of the team's strength, but also taking in account geographic considerations. The seedings and group venues for those teams were tentatively agreed at an informal meeting in December 1981 but not officially confirmed until the day of the draw. FIFA executiveHermann Neubergertold the press that the seeding of England had been challenged by other nations but they were to be seeded as \"the Spanish want England to play in Bilbao for security reasons\"*.As well as security the footballing grounds that they were winners in 1966 and reached the quarter-final as holders in 1970, as the 1970 in Mexico and 1974 in West Germany tournaments were taken into consideration for seeding with West Germany seeded for their 1980 European Championship win (due to the Netherlands failing to qualify) having won in 1974. However, due to England's seeding for security reasons, if the Netherlands had qualified, West Germany",
"West Germany would not have been seeded as West Germany were eliminated in the second group stage in 1978, while the Netherlands were runners up. Final draw On 16 January 1982, the draw was conducted at thePalacio de Congresos in Madrid, where the teams were drawn out from the three pots to be placed with the seeded teams in their predetermined groups.Firstly a draw was made to decide the order in which the three drums containing pots A, B and C would be emptied; this resulted in the order being pot B, C and A. The teams were then drawn one-by-one out of the respective pot and entered in the groups in that order. A number was then drawn to determine the team's \"position\" in the group and hence the fixtures. The only stipulation of the draw was that no group could feature two South American teams. As a result, Pot B – which contained two South American teams – was initially drawn with only the four Europeans in the pot. These first two European teams drawn from pot B were then to be immediately allocated to",
"allocated to Groups 3 and 6 which contained the two South American seeds Argentina and Brazil. Once these two groups had been filled with the entrants from Pot B, Chile and Peru would be added to the pot and the draw would continue as normal.In the event, FIFA executivesSepp BlatterandHermann Neubergerconducting the draw initially forgot this stipulation and therefore immediately placed the first team drawn from this pot (Belgium) into Group 1, rather than Group 3 as planned, before then placing the second team drawn out (Scotland) into Group 3; they then had to correct this by moving Belgium to Group 3 and Scotland into Group 6.The ceremony suffered further embarrassment when one of the revolving drums containing the teams broke down. Results All times areCentral European Summer Time(UTC+2) First group stage The group winners and runners-up advanced to the second round. Teams were ranked on the following criteria: Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Second group stage The second round of the",
"second round of the tournament consisted of four groups of three teams, each played at one stadium in one of Spain's two largest cities: two in Madrid and two in Barcelona. The winners of each group progressed to the semi-finals. Teams were ranked on the following criteria: Although the fixtures were provisionally determined in advance, the teams competing in each fixture depended on the result of the opening match in each group: Should a team lose their opening game of the group, that team would then have to play in the second fixture against the third team in the group and the winner would, by contrast, be rewarded by not needing to play again until the final fixture of the group and therefore gained extra recovery time. If the opening game was a draw, the predetermined order of games would proceed as planned. These regulations helped ensure that the final group games were of importance as no team could already have progressed to the semi-finals by the end of the second fixtures. The 43,000-capacity Sarria",
"Sarria Stadium in Barcelona, used for the Group C round-robin matches between Italy, Argentina and Brazil was, unlike any of the other matches (except 1) in the other groups, severely overcrowded for all three matches. The venue was then heavily criticised for its lack of space and inability to handle such rampant crowds; although no one had foreseen such crowds at all; the Group A matches held at the nearby and much larger 121,401-capacity Camp Nou stadium never went past 65,000 and hosted all European teams; it was anticipated there would be larger crowds for the Camp Nou-hosted second round matches between Belgium, the Soviet Union and Poland. Group A Group B Group C Group D Knockout stage Semi-finals Third place play-off Final Statistics Goalscorers Paolo Rossi received theGolden Bootfor scoring six goals. In total, 146 goals were scored by 100 players, with only one of them credited as own goal. 6 goals 5 goals 4 goals 3 goals 2 goals 1 goal Own goals Red cards Awards Source: FIFA retrospective ranking",
"ranking In 1986, FIFA published a report that ranked all teams in each World Cup up to and including 1986, based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition.The rankings for the 1982 tournament were as follows: Branding Mascot Theofficial mascotof this World Cup wasNaranjito, a male anthropomorphisedorange, a typical fruit in Spain, wearing the kit of the host'snational team. It was designed by José María Martín and María Dolores Salto from the marketing agencyPublicidad Bellido. Its name comes fromnaranja, the Spanish word for orange, and the diminutive suffix \"-ito\". Television series Football in Action(Spanish:Fútbol en acción) is an educational animated television series about football produced byBRB InternacionalandTelevisión Española(TVE). The main character is a twelve-year-old Naranjito, who is accompanied on his adventures by his friends:Clementina(a mandarin orange), Citronio (a lemon), and Imarchi (a robot). The series talks about the rules of football and the",
"of football and the history of the World Cup. Its 26 episodes of 25 minutes each were first aired in 1981–82 onTVE 1. Poster The official poster was designed byJoan Miró. Match ball The match ball for 1982 World Cup, manufactured byAdidas, was theTango España. References External links"
] |
Which political party held the most seats in the Leeds City Council election during the year that philosopher John Wall was born? | Conservatives held the most seats in the Leeds City Council election in 1965 when John Wall was born. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wall_(philosopher) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965_Leeds_City_Council_election | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wall_(philosopher)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965_Leeds_City_Council_election'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wall_(philosopher",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965_Leeds_City_Council_election"
] | [
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"1965 Leeds City Council election The1965 municipal elections forLeedswere held on Thursday 13 May 1965,with one third of the council and an extra vacancy in Allerton to be elected. Building upon theprevious year, theConservativesfully reversed the downward trend they'd been on since1960. With a whopping 10.2%swing their way, they defeated theLabour Partyin a manner not seen since1951, with Labour's share reduced to the thirties - surpassing even their record low then. The Conservatives six gains were largely a regaining of Labour's1963 gains, with the notable exceptions ofBeeston, which they already held, andKirkstall- a first for the ward, which had been monolithically Labour since the boundary changes in 1951. The Conservatives also recoveredRoundhayfrom Labour who gained it in a by-election in 1963. Elsewhere, theLiberalscontinued their decline from the1962highs, now at near enough where they were pre-spike. In contrast, theCommunists, having steadily raised their candidates in each election since the mid-1950s were now fielding a record of 12, achieving party records in both vote and share. Turnout fell again by just over two percent on last year's figure to 34.5%. Election result The result had the following consequences for the total number of seats on the council after the elections: Ward results References"
] | [
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wall_(philosopher",
"1965 Leeds City Council election The1965 municipal elections forLeedswere held on Thursday 13 May 1965,with one third of the council and an extra vacancy in Allerton to be elected. Building upon theprevious year, theConservativesfully reversed the downward trend they'd been on since1960. With a whopping 10.2%swing their way, they defeated theLabour Partyin a manner not seen since1951, with Labour's share reduced to the thirties - surpassing even their record low then. The Conservatives six gains were largely a regaining of Labour's1963 gains, with the notable exceptions ofBeeston, which they already held, andKirkstall- a first for the ward, which had been monolithically Labour since the boundary changes in 1951. The Conservatives also recoveredRoundhayfrom Labour who gained it in a by-election in 1963. Elsewhere, theLiberalscontinued their decline from the1962highs, now at near enough where they were pre-spike. In contrast, theCommunists, having steadily raised their candidates in each election since the",
"election since the mid-1950s were now fielding a record of 12, achieving party records in both vote and share. Turnout fell again by just over two percent on last year's figure to 34.5%. Election result The result had the following consequences for the total number of seats on the council after the elections: Ward results References"
] |
The National Peace Corps Association was founded in 1979 by a United States politician. This founder then appointed the very first director of the Peace Corps, his brother-in-law. What is the first name of this director? | Robert | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Peace_Corps_Association | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sargent_Shriver | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Peace_Corps_Association', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sargent_Shriver'] | [
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sargent_Shriver"
] | [
"National Peace Corps Association National Peace Corps Association(NPCA) is a North Americannonprofit organizationsupporting thePeace CorpsAgency community. Founded in 1979, the NPCA is headquartered inWashington, D.C.,United States The NPCA maintains a database comprising around 150,000 records of volunteers,including figures such as the Peace Corps' founder,John F. Kennedy, and individuals from host countries.The NPCA has historically provided advisory support to Peace Corps volunteers. Its stated objectives include fostering a commitment to the global ideals of the Peace Corps community and advocating for the enhancement and expansion of the U.S. Peace Corps initiative. According to the Peace Corps mission statement, those ideals entail promoting \"world peace and friendship\" by fulfilling three goals: History In the mid-1970s, at conferences of global educators in theMidwest, a group of returned Peace Corps volunteers began meeting to discuss their service experiences. They adopted a Peace Corps objective that President John F. Kennedy stated in 1961: \"Come home and teach your neighbors about the communities where you served.\" Their aim was to offer returning Peace Corps volunteers in America a continuing mission and communal identity asReturned Peace Corps Volunteers(RPCVs). In 1979, this group joined with RPCV community leaders inNew YorkandWashington, D.C., to form the National Council of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers, which was incorporated in 1981. In 1993, the organization’s name was later changed to the National Peace Corps Association (NPCA). In response to theRwandan genocidein 1994, NPCA created the Emergency Response Network (ERN) of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers willing to respond to a crisis. Peace Corps DirectorMark Gearanmodeled the Crisis Corps (later renamed Peace Corps Response) after this program. In coordination with the Returned Peace Corps Volunteers of Washington, D.C., the NPCA organized 200 RPCVs to march in PresidentBarack Obama'sinaugural paradeon January 20, 2009. That same year, the NPCA launched Peace Corps Connect, an online social networking platform to help current and returning Peace Corps volunteers interact and share ideas about projects, events, careers, and advocacy issues. In 2002, the NPCA was nominated for theNobel Peace Prize, along with the Peace Corps. Advocacy Members of the NPCA continue to testify on U.S. Peace Corps legislation and key issues like safety and security. In 2005, NPCA successfully coordinated the removal of Peace Corps references from military recruitment legislation. Awards and recognition NPCA has encouraged and recognized the service of members of the Peace Corps community by awarding over 20Sargent ShriverAwards for Distinguished Humanitarian Service. Programs Peace Corps Connect is the annual conference of the Peace Corps community. Africa Rural Connect(ARC) is an online collaboration tool aiming to address some of the challenges in rural African communities. This project introduces and encourages collaboration to identify creative, new plans to deal with the fundamental problems of agricultural development and rural poverty inSub-Saharan Africa. TheBill & Melinda Gates Foundationhas awarded a grant to the ARC project as part of its Agricultural Development initiative to give millions of smallholder farmers in developing countries the tools and opportunities they need to improve their yields, raise their incomes, and improve the quality of life for themselves and their families. The RPCV Mentoring Program assists returning Peace Corps Volunteers with their transition from service. The program connects recently returned Peace Corps Volunteers with RPCV mentors one year after their service ends. Mentors provide advice, key networking contacts, share experiences and adjustment issues, offer guidance on further education, review resumes, assist with career planning, and promote resources available to RPCVs to help them transition from serving abroad to serving at home. Publications NPCA publishesWorldviewmagazine four times a year. The magazine shares the Peace Corps' perspective on global issues through articles authored by and about Peace Corps Volunteers, Returned Peace Corps volunteers, and people who \"share the global values of the Peace Corps experience\". NPCA also producesemail newsletters, including the monthlyNPCA News,GlobalEdNewson global issues, andNPCA Advocacyon action alerts and news on legislation impacting the Peace Corps community. History of conferences and events Since the year before its founding, the NPCA has planned annual events. These events include large conferences, celebrations for major Peace Corps anniversaries, and general meetings to satisfy bylaws requirements. Starting in 1990, affiliated group leaders held the NPCA Presidents' Forum in conjunction with each annual meeting atKent State University. In 2005, these meetings were renamed the \"Group Leaders' Forum.\" Affiliate Groups The network includes over 180 affiliate groups. Affiliate groups may be geographic (e.g.,ChicagoArea Peace Corps Association); based on the country of Peace Corps service (e.g., Friends of Guatemala); associated with workplaces (e.g., RPCVs atUSAID); driven by social action (e.g., Peace Corps Community for Refugees); or defined by affinity (e.g., the Peace Corps Oral History Project). Groups advocate in line with the stated goals of the organization. References External links",
"John F. Kennedy John Fitzgerald Kennedy(May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), often referred to asJFK, was an American politician who served as the 35thpresident of the United Statesfrom 1961 untilhis assassinationin 1963. He was theyoungestpersonelectedpresident.Kennedy served at the height of theCold War, and the majority of his foreign policy concerned relations with theSoviet UnionandCuba. ADemocrat, Kennedy representedMassachusettsin both houses of theUnited States Congressprior to his presidency. Born into the prominentKennedy familyinBrookline, Massachusetts, Kennedy graduated fromHarvard Universityin 1940, joining theU.S. Naval Reservethe following year. DuringWorld War II, he commandedPT boatsin thePacific theater. Kennedy's survival following the sinking ofPT-109and his rescue of his fellow sailors made him a war hero and earned theNavy and Marine Corps Medal, but left him with serious injuries. After a brief stint in journalism, Kennedy representeda working-class Boston districtin theU.S. House of Representativesfrom 1947 to 1953. He was subsequently elected to theU.S. Senate, serving as the juniorsenator for Massachusettsfrom 1953 to 1960. While in the Senate, Kennedy published his book,Profiles in Courage, which won aPulitzer Prize. Kennedy ran in the1960 presidential election. His campaign gained momentum afterthe first televised presidential debatesin American history, and he was elected president, narrowly defeatingRepublicanopponentRichard Nixon, the incumbent vice president. Kennedy's presidency saw high tensions with communist states in the Cold War. He increased the number ofAmerican military advisersinSouth Vietnam, and theStrategic Hamlet Programbegan during his presidency. In 1961, he authorized attempts to overthrow the Cuban government ofFidel Castroin the failedBay of Pigs InvasionandOperation Mongoose. In October 1962, U.S. spy planes discovered Soviet missile bases had been deployed in Cuba. The resulting period of tensions, termed theCuban Missile Crisis, nearly resulted innuclear war. In August 1961, afterEast Germantroops erected theBerlin Wall, Kennedy sent an army convoy to reassure West Berliners of U.S. support, and deliveredone of his most famous speechesin West Berlin in June 1963. In 1963, Kennedy signed the firstnuclear weapons treaty. He presided over the establishment of thePeace Corps,Alliance for Progresswith Latin America, and the continuation of theApollo programwith the goal oflanding a man on the Moonbefore 1970. He supported thecivil rights movementbut was only somewhat successful in passing hisNew Frontierdomestic policies. On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated inDallas. His vice president,Lyndon B. Johnson,assumed the presidency.Lee Harvey Oswaldwas arrested for the assassination, but he was shot and killed byJack Rubytwo days later. TheFBIand theWarren Commissionboth concluded Oswald had acted alone, butconspiracy theories about the assassinationpersist. After Kennedy's death, Congress enacted many of his proposals, including theCivil Rights Act of 1964and theRevenue Act of 1964. Kennedy ranks highly inpolls of U.S. presidentswith historians and the general public. His personal life has been the focus of considerable sustained interest following public revelations in the 1970s of his chronic health ailments andextramarital affairs. Kennedy is the most recentU.S. president to have died in office. Early life and education John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born outsideBostoninBrookline, Massachusetts, on May 29, 1917,toJoseph P. Kennedy Sr., a businessman and politician, andRose Kennedy(néeFitzgerald), a philanthropist and socialite.His paternal grandfather,P. J. Kennedy, was an East Bostonward bossandMassachusetts state legislator.Kennedy's maternal grandfather and namesake,John F. Fitzgerald, was a U.S. congressman and two-termmayor of Boston.All four of his grandparents were children of Irish immigrants.Kennedy had an older brother,Joseph Jr., and seven younger siblings:Rosemary,Kathleen,Eunice,Patricia,Robert,Jean, andEdward. Kennedy's father amassed a private fortune and establishedtrust fundsfor his nine children that guaranteed lifelong financial independence.His business kept him away from home for long stretches, but Joe Sr. was a formidable presence in his children's lives. He encouraged them to be ambitious, emphasized political discussions at the dinner table, and demanded a high level of academic achievement. John's first exposure to politics was touring theBoston wardswith his grandfather Fitzgerald during his1922failed gubernatorial campaign.With Joe Sr.'s business ventures concentrated onWall StreetandHollywoodand an outbreak ofpolioinMassachusetts, the family decided to move from Boston to theRiverdaleneighborhood of New York City in September 1927.Several years later, his brother Robert toldLookmagazine that his father left Boston because of job signs that read: \"No Irish Need Apply.\"The Kennedys spent summers and early autumns attheir homeinHyannis Port, Massachusetts, a village onCape Cod,where they swam, sailed, and played touch football.Christmas and Easter holidays were spent at theirwinter retreatinPalm Beach, Florida.In September 1930, Kennedy, 13 years old, was sent to theCanterbury SchoolinNew Milford, Connecticut, for 8th grade. In April 1931, he had anappendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury and recuperated at home. In September 1931, Kennedy started attendingChoate, a preparatory boarding school inWallingford, Connecticut.Rose had wanted John and Joe Jr. to attend aCatholic school, but Joe Sr. thought that if they were to compete in the political world, they needed to be with boys from prominentProtestantfamilies.John spent his first years at Choate in his older brother's shadow and compensated with rebellious behavior that attracted a clique. Their most notorious stunt was exploding a toilet seat with a firecracker. In the next chapel assembly, the headmaster, George St. John, brandished the toilet seat and spoke of \"muckers\" who would \"spit in our sea,\" leading Kennedy to name his group \"The Muckers Club,\" which included roommate and lifelong friendLem Billings.Kennedy graduated from Choate in June 1935, finishing 64th of 112 students.He had been the business manager of the school yearbook and was voted the \"most likely to succeed.\" Kennedy intended to study underHarold Laskiat theLondon School of Economics, as his older brother had done. Ill health forced his return to the U.S. in October 1935, when he enrolled late atPrinceton University, but had to leave after two months due to gastrointestinal illness. In September 1936, Kennedy enrolled atHarvard College.He wrote occasionally forThe Harvard Crimson, the campus newspaper, but had little involvement with campus politics, preferring to concentrate on athletics and his social life. Kennedy played football and was on the JV squad during his sophomore year, but an injury forced him off the team, and left him with back problems that plagued him for the rest of his life. He won membership in theHasty Pudding Cluband theSpee Club, one of Harvard's elite \"final clubs\". In July 1938, Kennedy sailed overseas with his older brother to work at theAmerican embassy in London, where his father was serving as PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt's ambassador to theCourt of St. James's.The following year, Kennedy traveled throughout Europe, theSoviet Union, theBalkans, and the Middle East in preparation for his Harvard senior honors thesis.He then went to Berlin, where a U.S. diplomatic representative gave him a secret message about war breaking out soon to pass on to his father, and toCzechoslovakiabefore returning to London on September 1, 1939, the day thatGermany invaded Poland; the start ofWorld War II.Two days later, the family was in theHouse of Commonsfor speeches endorsing the United Kingdom's declaration of war on Germany. Kennedy was sent as his father's representative to help with arrangements for American survivors of the torpedoing ofSSAtheniabefore flying back to the U.S. on his first transatlantic flight. While Kennedy was an upperclassman at Harvard, he began to take his studies more seriously and developed an interest inpolitical philosophy. He made thedean's listin his junior year.In 1940, Kennedy completed his thesis, \"Appeasement in Munich\", about British negotiations during theMunich Agreement. The thesis was released on July 24, under the titleWhy England Slept.The book was one of the first to offer information about the war and its origins, and quickly became a bestseller.In addition to addressing Britain's unwillingness to strengthen its military in the lead-up to the war, the book called for anAnglo-American allianceagainst the rising totalitarian powers. Kennedy became increasingly supportive of U.S. intervention in World War II, and his father's isolationist beliefs resulted in the latter's dismissal as ambassador. In 1940, Kennedy graduatedcum laudefrom Harvard with a Bachelor of Arts in government, concentrating oninternational affairs.That fall, he enrolled at theStanford Graduate School of Businessand audited classes,but he left after a semester to help his father complete his memoirs as an American ambassador. In early 1941, Kennedy toured South America. U.S. Naval Reserve (1941–1945) Kennedy planned to attendYale Law School, but canceled when American entry into World War II seemed imminent.In 1940, Kennedy attempted to enter the army'sOfficer Candidate School. Despite months of training, he was medically disqualified due to his chronic back problems. On September 24, 1941, Kennedy, with the help of the director of theOffice of Naval Intelligence(ONI) and the former navalattachéto Joe Sr., Alan Kirk, joined theUnited States Naval Reserve. He was commissioned anensignon October 26, 1941,and joined the ONI staff in Washington, D.C. In January 1942, Kennedy was assigned to the ONI field office at Headquarters,Sixth Naval District, inCharleston, South Carolina.His hope was to be the commander of aPT (patrol torpedo) boat, but his health problems seemed almost certain to prevent active duty. Kennedy's father intervened by providing misleading medical records and convincing PT officers that his presence would bring publicity to the fleet.Kennedy completed six months of training at theNaval Reserve Officer Training Schoolin Chicago and at theMotor Torpedo Boat Squadrons Training CenterinMelville, Rhode Island.His first command wasPT-101from December 7, 1942, until February 23, 1943.Unhappy to be assigned to thePanama Canal, far from the fighting, Kennedy appealed to Massachusetts senatorDavid Walsh, who arranged for him to be assigned to theSouth Pacific. CommandingPT-109andPT-59 In April 1943, Kennedy was assigned to Motor Torpedo Squadron TWO,and on April 24 he took command ofPT-109,then based onTulagiIsland in theSolomons.On the night of August 1–2, in support of theNew Georgia campaign,PT-109and fourteen other PTs were ordered to block or repel four Japanese destroyers and floatplanes carrying food, supplies, and 900 Japanese soldiers to the Vila Plantation garrison on the southern tip of the Solomon'sKolombangaraIsland. Intelligence had been sent to Kennedy's Commander Thomas G. Warfield expecting the arrival of the large Japanese naval force that would pass on the evening of August 1. Of the 24 torpedoes fired that night by eight of the American PTs, not one hit the Japanese convoy.On that moonless night, Kennedy spotted a Japanese destroyer heading north on its return from the base of Kolombangara around 2:00 a.m., and attempted to turn to attack, whenPT-109was rammed suddenly at an angle and cut in half by thedestroyerAmagiri, killingtwoPT-109crewmembers.Avoiding surrender, the remaining crew swam towardsPlum Pudding Island, 3.5 miles (5.6 km) southwest of the remains ofPT-109, on August 2.Despite re-injuring his back in the collision, Kennedy towed a badly burned crewman to the island with a life jacket strap clenched between his teeth.From there, Kennedy and his subordinate, Ensign George Ross, made forays through the coral islands, searching for help.When they encountered an English-speaking native with a canoe, Kennedy carved his location on acoconutshell and requested a boat rescue. Seven days after the collision, with the coconut message delivered, thePT-109crew were rescued. Almost immediately, thePT-109rescue became a highly publicized event. The story was chronicled by John Hersey inThe New Yorkerin 1944 (decades later it was the basis of a successfulfilm).It followed Kennedy into politics and provided a strong foundation for his appeal as a leader.Hersey portrayed Kennedy as a modest, self-deprecating hero.For his courage and leadership, Kennedy was awarded theNavy and Marine Corps Medal, and the injuries he suffered during the incident qualified him for aPurple Heart. After a month's recovery Kennedy returned to duty, commanding thePT-59. On November 2, Kennedy'sPT-59took part with two other PTs in the rescue of 40–50 marines. The59acted as a shield from shore fire as they escaped on two rescue landing craft at the base of the Warrior River atChoiseul Island, taking ten marines aboard and delivering them to safety.Under doctor's orders, Kennedy was relieved of his command on November 18, and sent to the hospital on Tulagi.By December 1943, with his health deteriorating, Kennedy left the Pacific front and arrived in San Francisco in early January 1944.After receiving treatment for his back injury at theChelsea Naval Hospitalin Massachusetts from May to December 1944, he was released from active duty.Beginning in January 1945, Kennedy spent three months recovering from his back injury atCastle Hot Springs, a resort and temporary military hospital in Arizona.On March 1, 1945, Kennedy retired from the Navy Reserve on physical disability and was honorably discharged with the full rank of lieutenant.When later asked how he became a war hero, Kennedy joked: \"It was easy. They cut my PT boat in half.\" On August 12, 1944, Kennedy's older brother,Joe Jr., a navy pilot, was killed on an air mission. His body was never recovered.The news reached the family's home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, a day later. Kennedy felt that Joe Jr.'s reckless flight was partly an effort to outdo him.To console himself, Kennedy set out to assemble a privately published book of remembrances of his brother,As We Remember Joe. Journalism (1945) In April 1945, Kennedy's father, who was a friend ofWilliam Randolph Hearst, arranged a position for his son as a special correspondent forHearst Newspapers; the assignment kept Kennedy's name in the public eye and \"expose him to journalism as a possible career.\"That May he went to Berlin as a correspondent,covering thePotsdam Conferenceand other events. U.S. House of Representatives (1947–1953) Kennedy's elder brother Joe Jr. had been thefamily's political standard-bearerand had been tapped by their father to seek the presidency. After Joe's death, the assignment fell to JFK as the second eldest.Boston mayorMaurice J. Tobindiscussed the possibility of John becoming his running mate in1946as a candidate forMassachusetts lieutenant governor, but Joe Sr. preferred a congressional campaign that could send John to Washington, where he could have national visibility. At the urging of Kennedy's father, U.S. RepresentativeJames Michael Curleyvacated his seat in the strongly Democratic11th congressional district of Massachusettsto become mayor of Boston in 1946. Kennedy established legal residency at 122 Bowdoin Street across from theMassachusetts State House.Kennedy won the Democratic primary with 42 percent of the vote, defeating nine other candidates.According to Fredrik Logevall, Joe Sr. spent hours on the phone with reporters and editors, seeking information, trading confidences, and cajoling them into publishing puff pieces on John, ones that invariably played up his war record in the Pacific. He oversaw a professional advertising campaign that ensured ads went up in just the right places the campaign had a virtual monopoly on subwayspace, and on window stickers (\"Kennedy for Congress\") for cars and homes and was the force behind the mass mailing of Hersey'sPT-109article. Though Republicans took control of the House in the1946 elections, Kennedy defeated his Republican opponent in the general election, taking 73 percent of the vote. As a congressman, Kennedy had a reputation for not taking much interest in the running of his office or his constituents' concerns, with one of the highest absenteeism rates in the House, although much was explained by illness.George Smathers, one of his few political friends at the time, claimed that he was more interested in being a writer than a politician, and at that time he suffered from extreme shyness.Kennedy found \"most of his fellow congressmen boring, preoccupied as they all seemed to be with their narrow political concerns.\" The arcane House rules and customs, which slowed legislation, exasperated him. Kennedy served in the House for six years, joining the influentialEducation and Labor Committeeand theVeterans' Affairs Committee. He concentrated his attention on international affairs, supporting theTruman Doctrineas the appropriate response to the emergingCold War. He also supportedpublic housingand opposed theLabor Management Relations Act of 1947, which restricted the power of labor unions. Though not as vocally anti-communist asJoseph McCarthy, Kennedy supported theImmigration and Nationality Act of 1952, which required communists to register with the government, and he deplored the \"loss of China.\"During a speech inSalem, Massachusettson January 30, 1949, Kennedy denounced Truman and the State Department for contributing to the \"tragic story of China whose freedom we once fought to preserve. What our young men had saved , our diplomats and our President have frittered away.\"Having served as aboy scoutduring his childhood, Kennedy was active in theBoston Councilfrom 1946 to 1955 as district vice chairman, member of the executive board, vice-president, and National Council Representative. To appeal to the largeItalian-Americanvoting bloc in Massachusetts, Kennedy delivered a speech in November 1947 supporting a $227 million aid package to Italy. He maintained that Italy was in danger from an \"onslaught of the communist minority\" and that the country was the \"initial battleground in the communist drive to capture Western Europe.\"To combat Soviet efforts to take control in Middle Eastern and Asian countries likeIndochina, Kennedy wanted the United States to develop nonmilitary techniques of resistance that would not create suspicions ofneoimperialismor add to the country's financial burden. The problem, as he saw it, was not simply to be anti-communist but to stand for something that these emerging nations would find appealing. Almost every weekend that Congress was in session, Kennedy would fly back to Massachusetts to give speeches to veteran, fraternal, and civic groups, while maintaining an index card file on individuals who might be helpful for a campaign for statewide office.Contemplating whether to run forMassachusetts governoror theU.S. Senate, Kennedy abandoned interest in the former, believing that the governor \"sat in an office, handing out sewer contracts.\" U.S. Senate (1953–1960) As early as 1949, Kennedy began preparing to run for the Senate in1952against Republican three-term incumbentHenry Cabot Lodge Jr.with the campaign slogan \"KENNEDY WILL DOMOREFOR MASSACHUSETTS\".Joe Sr. again financed his son's candidacy (persuading theBoston Postto switch its support to Kennedy by promising the publisher a $500,000 loan),while John's younger brotherRobertemerged as campaign manager.Kennedy's mother and sisters contributed as highly effective canvassers by hosting a series of \"teas\" at hotels and parlors across Massachusetts to reach out to women voters.In the presidential election, RepublicanDwight D. Eisenhowercarried Massachusetts by 208,000 votes, but Kennedy narrowly defeated Lodge by 70,000 votes for the Senate seat.The following year, he marriedJacqueline Bouvier. Kennedy underwent several spinal operations over the next two years. Often absent from the Senate, he was at times critically ill and received Catholiclast rites. During his convalescence in 1956, he publishedProfiles in Courage, a book about U.S. senators who risked their careers for their personal beliefs, for which he won thePulitzer Prize for Biographyin 1957.Rumors that this work wasghostwrittenby his close adviser andspeechwriter,Ted Sorensen, were confirmed in Sorensen's 2008 autobiography. At the start of his first term, Kennedy focused on fulfilling the promise of his campaign to do \"more for Massachusetts\" than his predecessor. Although Kennedy's and Lodge's legislative records were similarly liberal, Lodge voted for theTaft-Hartley Act of 1947and Kennedy voted against it. OnNBC'sMeet the Press, Kennedy excoriated Lodge for not doing enough to prevent the increasing migration of manufacturing jobs from Massachusetts to the South, and blamed theright-to-workprovision for giving the South an unfair advantage over Massachusetts in labor costs.In May 1953, Kennedy introduced \"The Economic Problems of New England\",a 36-point programto help Massachusetts industries such asfishing,textile manufacturing,watchmaking, andshipbuilding, as well as the Boston seaport.Kennedy's policy agenda includedprotective tariffs, preventing excessivespeculationin raw wool, stronger efforts to research and market American fish products, an increase in theFish and Wildlife Servicebudget, modernizingreserve-fleet vessels,tax incentivesto prevent further business relocations, and the development ofhydroelectricandnuclear powerin Massachusetts.Kennedy's suggestions for stimulating the region's economy appealed to both parties by offering benefits to business and labor, and promising to serve national defense. Congress would eventually enact most of the program.Kennedy, aMassachusetts Audubon Societysupporter, wanted to make sure that the shorelines ofCape Codremained unsullied by industrialization. On September 3, 1959, Kennedy co-sponsored theCape Cod National Seashorebill with his Republican colleague SenatorLeverett Saltonstall. As a senator, Kennedy quickly won a reputation for responsiveness to requests from constituents (i.e., co-sponsoring legislation to provide federal loans to help rebuild communities damaged by the1953 Worcester tornado), except on certain occasions when the national interest was at stake.In 1954, Kennedy voted in favor of theSaint Lawrence Seawaywhich would connect the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, despite opposition from Massachusetts politicians who argued that the project would hurt thePort of Bostoneconomically. In 1954, when the Senate voted to condemnJoseph McCarthyfor breaking Senate rules and abusing an Army general, Kennedy was the only Democrat not to cast a vote against him.Kennedy drafted a speech supporting the censure. However, it was not delivered because Kennedy was hospitalized for back surgery in Boston.Although Kennedy never indicated how he would have voted, the episode damaged his support among members of theliberalcommunity in the 1956 and 1960 elections. In 1956, Kennedy gained control of theMassachusetts Democratic Party,and delivered the state delegation to the party's presidential nominee,Adlai Stevenson II, at theDemocratic National Conventionin August.Stevenson let the conventionselect the vice presidential nominee. Kennedy finished second in the balloting, losing to SenatorEstes Kefauverof Tennessee, but receiving national exposure. In 1957, Kennedy joined the Senate'sSelect Committee on Labor Rackets(also known as the McClellan Committee) with his brother Robert, who was chief counsel, to investigateracketeeringin labor-management relations.The hearings attracted extensive radio and television coverage where the Kennedy brothers engaged in dramatic arguments with controversial labor leaders, includingJimmy Hoffa, of theTeamsters Union. The following year, Kennedy introduced a bill to prevent the expenditure of union dues for improper purposes or private gain; to forbid loans from union funds for illicit transactions; and to compel audits of unions, which would ensure against false financial reports.It was the first major labor relations bill to pass either house since the Taft–Hartley Act of 1947 and dealt largely with the control of union abuses exposed by the McClellan Committee but did not incorporate tough Taft–Hartley amendments requested by President Eisenhower. It survived Senate floor attempts to include Taft-Hartley amendments and passed but was rejected by the House.\"Honest union members and the general public can only regard it as a tragedy that politics has prevented the recommendations of the McClellan committee from being carried out this year,\" Kennedy announced. That same year, Kennedy joined the Senate'sForeign Relations Committee.There he supportedAlgeria's effort to gain independencefrom France and sponsored an amendment to theMutual Defense Assistance Actthat would provide aid to Soviet satellite nations. Kennedy also introduced an amendment to theNational Defense Education Actin 1959 to eliminate the requirement that aid recipients sign a loyalty oath and provide supporting affidavits. Kennedy cast a procedural vote against President Eisenhower's bill for theCivil Rights Act of 1957and this was considered by some to be an appeasement of Southern Democratic opponents of the bill.Kennedy did vote for Title III of the act, which would have given the Attorney General powers to enjoin, but Majority LeaderLyndon B. Johnsonagreed to let the provision die as a compromise measure.Kennedy also voted for the \"Jury Trial Amendment.\" Many civil rights advocates criticized that vote as one which would weaken the act.A final compromise bill, which Kennedy supported, was passed in September 1957.As a senator from Massachusetts, which lacked a sizable Black population, Kennedy was not particularly sensitive to the problems of African Americans. Robert Kennedy later reflected, \"We weren't thinking of the Negroes of Mississippi or Alabama—what should be done for them. We were thinking of what needed to be done in Massachusetts.\" Most historians and political scientists who have written about Kennedy refer to his U.S. Senate years as an interlude.According toRobert Dallek, Kennedy called being a senator \"the most corrupting job in the world.\" He complained that they were all too quick to cut deals and please campaign contributors to ensure their political futures. Kennedy, with the luxury of a rich father who could finance his campaigns, could remain independent of any special interest, except for those in his home state of Massachusetts that could align against his reelection.According toRobert Caro, Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson viewed Kennedy as a \"playboy\", describing his performance in the Senate and the House as \"pathetic\" on another occasion, saying that he was \"smart enough, but he doesn't like the grunt work\".Author John T. Shaw acknowledges that while his Senate career is not associated with acts of \"historic statesmanship\" or \"novel political thought,\" Kennedy made modest contributions as a legislator, drafting more than 300 bills to assist Massachusetts and the New England region (some of which became law). In1958, Kennedy was re-elected to the Senate, defeating his Republican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, with 73.6 percent of the vote, the largest winning margin in the history of Massachusetts politics.In the aftermath of his re-election, Kennedy began preparing to run for president by traveling throughout the U.S. with the aim of building his candidacy for 1960. 1960 presidential election On January 2, 1960, Kennedy announced his candidacy for theDemocratic presidential nomination.Though some questioned Kennedy's age and experience, his charisma and eloquence earned him numerous supporters. Kennedy faced several potential challengers, including Senate Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson,Adlai Stevenson II, and SenatorHubert Humphrey. Kennedy traveled extensively to build his support. His campaign strategy was to win several primaries to demonstrate his electability to theparty bosses, who controlled most of the delegates, and to prove to his detractors that a Catholic could win popular support.Victories over Senator Humphrey in the Wisconsin and West Virginia primaries gave Kennedy momentum as he moved on to the1960 Democratic National Conventionin Los Angeles. When Kennedy entered the convention, he had the most delegates, but not enough to ensure that he would win the nomination.Stevenson—the 1952 and 1956 presidential nominee—remained very popular, while Johnson also hoped to win the nomination with support from party leaders. Kennedy's candidacy also faced opposition from former PresidentHarry S. Truman, who was concerned about Kennedy's lack of experience. Kennedy knew that a second ballot could give the nomination to Johnson or someone else, and his well-organized campaign was able to earn the support of just enough delegates to win the presidential nomination on the first ballot. Kennedy ignored the opposition of his brother Robert, who wanted him to choose labor leaderWalter Reuther,and other liberal supporters when hechose Johnsonas his vice-presidential nominee. He believed that the Texas senator could help him win support from theSouth.In accepting the presidential nomination, Kennedy gave his well-known \"New Frontier\" speech: For the problems are not all solved and the battles are not all won—and we stand today on the edge of a New Frontier. ... But the New Frontier of which I speak is not a set of promises—it is a set of challenges. It sums up not what I intend to offer the American people, but what I intend to ask of them. At the start of the fall general election campaign, the Republican nominee and incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon held a six-point lead in the polls.Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Catholicism, theCuban Revolution, and whether the space and missile programs of the Soviet Union hadsurpassedthose of the U.S. To address fears that his being Catholic would impact his decision-making, he told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12: \"I am not the Catholic candidate for president. I am the Democratic Party candidate for president who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters—and the Church does not speak for me.\"He promised to respect theseparation of church and state, and not to allow Catholic officials to dictate public policy. The Kennedy and Nixon campaigns agreed to a series oftelevised debates.An estimated 70 million Americans, about two-thirds of the electorate, watched the first debate on September 26.Kennedy had met the day before with the producer to discuss the set design and camera placement. Nixon, just out of the hospital after a painful knee injury, did not take advantage of this opportunity and during the debate looked at the reporters asking questions and not at the camera. Kennedy wore a blue suit and shirt to cut down on glare and appeared sharply focused against the gray studio background. Nixon wore a light-colored suit that blended into the gray background; in combination with the harsh studio lighting that left Nixon perspiring, he offered a less-than-commanding presence. By contrast, Kennedy appeared relaxed, tanned, and telegenic, looking into the camera whilst answering questions.It is often claimed that television viewers overwhelmingly believed Kennedy, appearing to be the more attractive of the two, had won, while radio listeners (a smaller audience) thought Nixon had defeated him.However, only one poll split TV and radio voters like this and the methodology was poor.PollsterElmo Roperconcluded that the debates raised interest, boosted turnout, and gave Kennedy an extra two million votes, mostly as a result of the first debate.The debates are now considered a milestone in American political history—the point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role. Kennedy's campaign gained momentum after the first debate, and he pulled slightly ahead of Nixon in most polls. On Election Day, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the 20th century. In the national popular vote,by most accounts, Kennedy led Nixon by just two-tenths of one percent (49.7% to 49.5%), while in theElectoral College, he won 303 votes to Nixon's 219 (269 were needed to win).Fourteen electors from Mississippi and Alabama refused to support Kennedy because of his support for thecivil rights movement; they voted for SenatorHarry F. Byrdof Virginia, as did an elector from Oklahoma.Forty-three years old, Kennedy was theyoungest personever elected to the presidency (thoughTheodore Rooseveltwas a year younger when he succeeded to the presidency after theassassination of William McKinleyin 1901). Presidency (1961–1963) Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th president at noon on January 20, 1961. Inhis inaugural address, he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens: \"Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.\" He asked the nations of the world to join to fight what he called the \"common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself.\"He added: All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin.\" In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater internationalism: \"Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you. The address reflected Kennedy's confidence that his administration would chart a historically significant course in both domestic policy and foreign affairs. The contrast between this optimistic vision and the pressures of managing daily political realities would be one of the main tensions of the early years of his administration. Kennedy scrapped the decision-making structure of Eisenhower,preferring an organizational structure of a wheel with all the spokes leading to the president; he was willing to make the increased number of quick decisions required in such an environment.Though the cabinet remained important, Kennedy generally relied more on his staffers within theExecutive Office.In spite of concerns overnepotism, Kennedy's father insisted that Robert Kennedy becomeU.S. Attorney General, and the younger Kennedy became the \"assistant president\" who advised on all major issues. Foreign policy Cold War and flexible response Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, manifested by proxy contests in the global state of tension known as theCold War. Like his predecessors, Kennedy adopted the policy ofcontainmentto stop the spread of communism.Fearful of the possibility ofnuclear war, Kennedy implemented a defense strategy known asflexible response. This strategy relied on multiple options for responding to the Soviet Union, discouragedmassive retaliation, and encouragedmutual deterrence.In contrast to Eisenhower's warning about the perils of themilitary-industrial complex, Kennedy focused on rearmament. From 1961 to 1964 the number ofnuclear weaponsincreased by 50 percent, as did the number ofB-52bombers to deliver them. In January 1961,Soviet PremierNikita Khrushchevdeclared his support forwars of national liberation. Kennedy interpreted this step as a direct threat to the \"free world.\" Decolonization and the Congo Crisis Between 1960 and 1963,twenty-four countriesgained independence as the process ofdecolonizationcontinued. Kennedy set out to woo the leaders and people of the \"Third World,\" expanding economic aid and appointing knowledgeable ambassadors.His administration established theFood for Peaceprogram and thePeace Corpsto provide aid todeveloping countries. The Food for Peace program became a central element in American foreign policy, and eventually helped many countries to develop their economies and become commercial import customers. During the election campaign, Kennedy attacked the Eisenhower administration for losing ground on the African continent,and stressed that the U.S. should be on the side of anti-colonialism and self-determination.Kennedy considered theCongo Crisisto be among the most important foreign policy issues facing his presidency, and he supported aUN operationthat prevented the secession ofKatanga.Moïse Tshombe, leader of Katanga, declared its independence from the Congo and the Soviet Union responded by sending weapons and technicians to underwrite their struggle.On October 2, 1962, Kennedy signed United Nations bond issue bill to ensure U.S. assistance in financing UN peacekeeping operations in the Congo and elsewhere. Peace Corps In one of his first presidential acts, Kennedy signedExecutive Order10924 that officially started thePeace Corps. He named his brother-in-law,Sargent Shriver, as its first director.Through this program, Americans volunteered to help developing countries in fields like education, farming, health care, and construction.Kennedy believed that countries that received Peace Corps volunteers were less likely to succumb to a communist revolution.Tanganyika(present-dayTanzania) andGhanawere the first countries to participate.The organization grew to 5,000 members by March 1963 and 10,000 the year after.Since 1961, over 200,000 Americans have joined the Peace Corps, representing 139 countries. Vienna Summit and the Berlin Wall Kennedy anxiously anticipated a summit with Nikita Khrushchev. The proceedings for the summit got off to a problematic start when Kennedy reacted aggressively to a routine Khrushchev speech on Cold War confrontation in early 1961. The speech was intended for domestic audiences in the Soviet Union, but Kennedy interpreted it as a personal challenge. His mistake helped raise tensions going into theVienna summit.The summit would cover several topics, but both leaders knew that the most contentious issue would beBerlin, which had been divided in two with the start of the Cold War. The enclave ofWest Berlinlay within Soviet-alliedEast Germany, but was supported by the U.S. and other Western powers. The Soviets wanted to reunify Berlin under the control of East Germany, partly due to the large number of East Germans who had fled to West Berlin. On June 4, 1961, Kennedy met with Khrushchev in Vienna and left the meeting angry and disappointed that he had allowed the premier to bully him, despite the warnings he had received. Khrushchev, for his part, was impressed with the president's intelligence but thought him weak. Kennedy did succeed in conveying the bottom line to Khrushchev on the most sensitive issue before them, a proposed treaty between Moscow andEast Berlin. He made it clear that any treaty interfering with U.S. access rights in West Berlin would be regarded as an act of war.Shortly after Kennedy returned home, the Soviet Union announced its plan to sign a treaty with East Berlin, abrogating any third-party occupation rights in either sector of the city. Kennedy assumed that his only option was to prepare the country for nuclear war, which he thought had a one-in-five chance of occurring. In the weeks immediately following the summit, more than 20,000 peoplefled from East Berlinto the western sector, reacting to statements from the Soviet Union. Kennedy began intensive meetings on the Berlin issue, whereDean Achesontook the lead in recommending a military buildup alongside NATO allies.In a July 1961 speech, Kennedy announced his decision to add $3.25 billion (equivalent to $33.14 billion in 2023) to the defense budget, along with over 200,000 additional troops, stating that an attack on West Berlin would be taken as an attack on the U.S. The speech received an 85% approval rating. A month later, both the Soviet Union and East Berlin began blocking any further passage of East Germans into West Berlin and erectedbarbed-wirefences, which were quickly upgraded to theBerlin Wall. Kennedy acquiesced to the wall, though he sent Vice President Johnson to West Berlin to reaffirm U.S. commitment to the enclave's defense. In the following months, in a sign of rising Cold War tensions, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union ended a moratorium on nuclear weapon testing.A brief stand-off between U.S. and Soviet tanks occurred atCheckpoint Charliein October following a dispute over free movement of Allied personnel. Thecrisiswas defused largely through a backchannel communication the Kennedy administration had set up with Soviet spyGeorgi Bolshakov.In remarks to his aides on the Berlin Wall, Kennedy noted that \"it's not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war.\" Bay of Pigs Invasion The Eisenhower administration had created a plan to overthrowFidel Castro's regime though an invasion of Cuba by a counter-revolutionary insurgency composed of U.S.-trained, anti-CastroCuban exilesled byCIAparamilitary officers.Kennedy had campaigned on a hardline stance against Castro, and when presented with the plan that had been developed under the Eisenhower administration, he enthusiastically adopted it regardless of the risk of inflaming tensions with the Soviet Union.Kennedy approved the final invasion plan on April 4, 1961. On April 15, 1961, eight CIA-suppliedB-26bombers left Nicaragua to bomb Cuban airfields. The bombers missed many of their targets, leaving most of Castro's air force intact.On April 17, the 1,500 U.S.-trained Cuban exile invasion force, known asBrigade 2506, landed at beaches along theBay of Pigsand immediately came under heavy fire.The goal was to spark a widespread popular uprising against Castro, but no such uprising occurred.No U.S. air support was provided.The invading force was defeated within two days by theCuban Revolutionary Armed Forces;114 were killed and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors.After twenty months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for a ransom of $53 million worth of food and medicine.The incident made Castro wary of the U.S. and led him to believe that another invasion would take place. BiographerRichard Reevessaid that Kennedy focused primarily on the political repercussions of the plan rather than military considerations. When it proved unsuccessful, he was convinced that the plan was a setup to make him look bad.He took responsibility for the failure, saying, \"We got a big kick in the leg and we deserved it. But maybe we'll learn something from it.\"Kennedy's approval ratings climbed afterwards, helped in part by the vocal support given to him by Nixon and Eisenhower.He appointed Robert Kennedy to help lead a committee to examine the causes of the failure.The Kennedy administrationbanned all Cuban importsand convinced theOrganization of American States(OAS) to expel Cuba. Operation Mongoose In late 1961, the White House formed the Special Group (Augmented), headed by Robert Kennedy and includingEdward Lansdale, SecretaryRobert McNamara, and others. The group's objective—to overthrow Castro via espionage, sabotage, and other covert tactics—was never pursued.In November 1961, he authorizedOperation Mongoose.In March 1962, Kennedy rejectedOperation Northwoods, proposals forfalse flagattacks against American military and civilian targets,and blaming them on the Cuban government to gain approval for a war against Cuba. However, the administration continued to plan for an invasion of Cuba in the summer of 1962. Cuban Missile Crisis In the aftermath of the Bay of Pigs invasion, Khrushchev increased economic and military assistance to Cuba.The Soviet Union planned to allocate in Cuba 49medium-range ballistic missiles, 32intermediate-range ballistic missiles, 49 lightIl-28bombers and about 100tactical nuclear weapons.The Kennedy administration viewed the growingCuba-Soviet alliancewith alarm, fearing that it could eventually pose a threat to the U.S.On October 14, 1962, CIAU-2spy planestook photographsof the Soviets' construction of intermediate-range ballistic missile sites in Cuba. The photos were shown to Kennedy on October 16; a consensus was reached that the missiles were offensive in nature and posed an immediate nuclear threat. Kennedy faced a dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites, it might lead to nuclear war with the Soviet Union, but if the U.S. did nothing, it would be faced with the increased threat from close-range nuclear weapons (positioned approximately 90 mi (140 km) away from the Florida coast).The U.S. would also appear to the world as less committed to the defense of the Western Hemisphere. On a personal level, Kennedy needed to show resolve in reaction to Khrushchev, especially after the Vienna summit.To deal with the crisis, he formed an ad-hoc body of key advisers, later known asEXCOMM, that met secretly between October 16 and 28. More than a third ofU.S. National Security Council(NSC) members favored an unannounced air assault on the missile sites, but some saw this as \"Pearl Harborin reverse.\"There was some concern from the international community (asked in confidence) that the assault plan was an overreaction given that Eisenhower had placedPGM-19 Jupitermissiles in Italy and Turkey in 1958. It also could not be assured that the assault would be 100% effective.In concurrence with a majority vote of the NSC, Kennedy decided on anaval blockade(or \"quarantine\"). On October 22, after privately informing the cabinet and leading members of Congress about the situation, Kennedy announced the naval blockade on national television and warned that U.S. forces would seize \"offensive weapons and associated materiel\" that Soviet vessels might attempt to deliver to Cuba. The U.S. Navy would stop and inspect all Soviet ships arriving off Cuba, beginning October 24. Several Soviet ships approached the blockade line, but they stopped or reversed course.The OAS gave unanimous support to the removal of the missiles. Kennedy exchanged two sets of letters with Khrushchev, to no avail.UN Secretary GeneralU Thantrequested both parties to reverse their decisions and enter a cooling-off period. Khrushchev agreed, but Kennedy did not.Kennedy managed to preserve restraint when a Soviet missile unauthorizedly downed a U.S. Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft over Cuba, killing pilotRudolf Anderson. At the president's direction, Robert Kennedy privately informed Soviet AmbassadorAnatoly Dobryninthat the U.S. would remove the Jupiter missiles from Turkey \"within a short time after this crisis was over.\"On October 28, Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the missile sites, subject to UN inspections.The U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba and privately agreed to remove its Jupiter missiles from Italy and Turkey, which were by then obsolete and had been supplanted by submarines equipped withUGM-27 Polarismissiles. In the aftermath, aMoscow–Washington hotlinewas established to ensure clear communications between the leaders of the two countries.This crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or after, but \"the humanity\" of Khrushchev and Kennedy prevailed.The crisis improved the image of American willpower and the president's credibility. Kennedy's approval rating increased from 66% to 77% immediately thereafter. Latin America and communism Believing that \"those who make peaceful revolution impossible, will make violent revolution inevitable,\"Kennedy sought to contain the perceived threat of communism in Latin America by establishing theAlliance for Progress, which sent aid to some countries and sought greaterhuman rightsstandards in the region.In response to Kennedy's plea, Congress voted for an initial grant of $500 million in May 1961.The Alliance for Progress supported the construction of housing, schools, airports, hospitals, clinics and water-purification projects as well as the distribution of free textbooks to students.However, the program did not meet many of its goals. Massive land reform was not achieved; populations more than kept pace with gains in health and welfare; and according to one study, only 2 percent of economic growth in 1960s Latin America directly benefited the poor.U.S. presidents after Kennedy were less supportive of the program and by 1973, the permanent committee established to implement the Alliance was disbanded by the OAS. The Eisenhower administration, through the CIA, had begun formulating plans to assassinate Castro in Cuba andRafael Trujilloin theDominican Republic. When Kennedy took office, he privately instructed the CIA that any plan must includeplausible deniabilityby the U.S. His public position was in opposition.In June 1961, the Dominican Republic's leader was assassinated; in the days following, Undersecretary of StateChester Bowlesled a cautious reaction by the nation. Robert Kennedy, who saw an opportunity for the U.S., called Bowles \"a gutless bastard\" to his face. Laos After the election, Eisenhower emphasized to Kennedy that the communist threat in Southeast Asia required priority; Eisenhower consideredLaosto be \"the cork in the bottle\" in regards to the regional threat.In March 1961, Kennedy voiced a change in policy from supporting a \"free\" Laos to a \"neutral\" Laos, indicating privately thatVietnamshould be deemed America's tripwire for communism's spread in the area.Though he was unwilling to commit U.S. forces to a major military intervention in Laos, Kennedy did approveCIA activitiesdesigned to defeat Communist insurgents through bombing raids and the recruitment of theHmong people. Vietnam During his presidency, Kennedy continued policies that provided political, economic, and military support to theSouth Vietnamesegovernment.Vietnam had been divided into a communist North Vietnam and a non-communist South Vietnam after the1954 Geneva Conference, but Kennedy escalated American involvement in Vietnam in 1961 by financing theSouth Vietnam army, increasing the number of U.S.military advisorsabove the levels of the Eisenhower administration, and authorizing U.S. helicopter units to provide support to South Vietnamese forces.On January 18, 1962, Kennedy formally authorized escalated involvement when he signed the National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) – \"Subversive Insurgency (War of Liberation).\"Operation Ranch Hand, a large-scale aerial defoliation effort using the herbicideAgent Orange, began on the roadsides of South Vietnam to combatguerrilla defendants. Though Kennedy provided support for South Vietnam throughout his tenure, Vietnam remained a secondary issue for the Kennedy administration until 1963.On September 2, Kennedy declared in an interview withWalter CronkiteofCBS: In the final analysis, it is their war. They are the ones who have to win it or lose it. We can help them, we can give them equipment, we can send our men out there as advisers, but they have to win it, the people of Vietnam, against the Communists... But I don't agree with those who say we should withdraw. That would be a great mistake... made this effort to defend Europe. Now Europe is quite secure. We also have to participate—we may not like it—in the defense of Asia. Kennedy increasingly soured on the president of South Vietnam,Ngo Dinh Diem, whose violentcrackdown on Buddhist practicesgalvanized opposition to his leadership. In August 1963,Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.replacedFrederick Noltingas the U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam. Days after his arrival in South Vietnam, Lodge reported that several South Vietnamese generals sought the assent of the U.S. government to their plan of removing Diem from power. The Kennedy administration was split regarding not just the removal of Diem, but also their assessment of the military situation and the proper U.S. role in the country. After the State Department sent adiplomatic cableto Lodge that ordered him to pressure Diem to remove military authority from his brother,Ngô Đình Nhu, or face potential withdrawal of U.S. support and removal from power,Kennedy instructed Lodge to offer covert assistance to a coup d'état, excluding assassination.On November 1, 1963, a junta of senior military officers executed thecoupwhich led to thearrest and assassinations of Diem and Nhuon November 2. By November 1963, there were 16,000 American military personnel in South Vietnam, up from Eisenhower's 900 advisors;more than one hundred Americans had been killed in action and no final policy decision was made.In the aftermath of the aborted coup in September 1963, the Kennedy administration reevaluated its policies in South Vietnam. Kennedy rejected the full-scale deployment of ground soldiers but also the total withdrawal of U.S. forces.Historians disagree on whether the U.S. military presence in Vietnam would have escalated had Kennedy survived and been re-elected in 1964.Fueling the debate are statements made by Secretary of Defense McNamara in the 2003 documentary filmThe Fog of Warthat Kennedy was strongly considering pulling out of Vietnam after the 1964 election,and comments made by Kennedy administrationWhite House Counseland speechwriterTed Sorensenin a 2008 memoir suggesting that Kennedy was undecided about what policy direction to take. On October 11, 1963, Kennedy signedNSAM 263ordering the withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of the year following the third recommendation of theMcNamara–Taylor missionreport, which concluded that the training program for the South Vietnamese military had sufficiently progressed to justify the withdrawal.However, NSAM 263 also approved the first recommendation of the report to continue providing support to South Vietnam to prevent the spread of communism and until theViet Congwas suppressed, while the third recommendation suggested that even if the majority of the U.S. military objective was completed by the end of 1965 that continued presence of U.S. training personnel in more limited numbers could be necessary if the insurgency was not suppressed. West Berlin speech In 1963, Germany was enduring a time of particular vulnerability due to Soviet aggression to the east as well as the impending retirement of West German ChancellorAdenauer.At the same time, French President Charles de Gaulle was trying to build a Franco-West German counterweight to the American and Soviet spheres of influence.To Kennedy's eyes, this Franco-German cooperation seemed directed againstNATO's influence in Europe. To reinforce the U.S. alliance with West Germany, Kennedy travelled to West Germany and West Berlin in June 1963. On June 26, Kennedy toured West Berlin, culminating in a public speech at the city hall in front of hundreds of thousands of enthusiastic Berliners.He reiterated the American commitment to Germany and criticized communism and was met with an ecstatic response from the massive audience.Kennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failures of communism: \"Freedom has many difficulties, and democracy is not perfect. But we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in, to prevent them from leaving us.\" The speech is known for its famous phrase\"Ich bin ein Berliner\"(\"I am a Berliner\"). Middle East Kennedy ended the arms embargo that the Truman and Eisenhower administrations had enforced onIsraelin favor of increased security ties, becoming the founder of theU.S.-Israeli military alliance. Describing the protection of Israel as a moral and national commitment, he was the first to introduce the concept of a 'special relationship' between the U.S. and Israel.In 1962, the Kennedy administration sold Israel a major weapon system, theHawk antiaircraft missile. Historians differ as to whether Kennedy pursued security ties with Israel primarily to shore up support with Jewish-American voters, or because of his admiration of the Jewish state. In December 1961,Abd al-Karim Qasim's Iraqi government passed Public Law 80, which restricted the partially American-controlledIraq Petroleum Company(IPC)'sconcessionary holdingto those areas in which oil was actually being produced (namely, the fields atAz ZubairandKirkuk), effectively expropriating 99.5% of the IPC concession. British and U.S. officials demanded that the Kennedy administration place pressure on the Qasim regime.In April 1962, the State Department issued new guidelines on Iraq that were intended to increase American influence. Meanwhile, Kennedy instructed the CIA—under the direction ofArchibald Bulloch Roosevelt Jr.—to begin making preparations for a military coup against Qasim. The anti-imperialist and anti-communistIraqi Ba'ath Partyoverthrew and executed Qasim ina violent coupon February 8, 1963. Despite persistent rumors that the CIA orchestrated the coup, declassified documents and the testimony of former CIA officers indicate that there was no direct American involvement.The Kennedy administration was pleased with the outcome and ultimately approved a $55-million arms deal for Iraq. Ireland During his four-day visit to his ancestral home of Ireland beginning on June 26, 1963,Kennedy accepted a grant ofarmorial bearingsfrom theChief Herald of Ireland, received honorary degrees from theNational University of IrelandandTrinity College Dublin, attended a State Dinner in Dublin, and was conferred with the freedom of the towns and cities of Wexford, Cork, Dublin, Galway, and Limerick.He visited the cottage at Dunganstown, nearNew Ross, County Wexford, where his ancestors had lived before emigrating to America. Kennedy was the first foreign leader to address theHouses of the Oireachtas, the Irish parliament.Kennedy later told aides that the trip was the best four days of his life. American University speech On June 10, 1963, Kennedy, at the high point of his rhetorical powers,delivered thecommencement address at American University. Also known as \"A Strategy of Peace\", not only did Kennedy outline a plan to curb nuclear arms, but he also \"laid out a hopeful, yet realistic route for world peace at a time when the U.S. and Soviet Union faced the potential for an escalatingnuclear arms race.\"Kennedy also announced that the Soviets had expressed a desire to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, and that the U.S. had postponed planned atmospheric tests. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Troubled by the long-term dangers ofradioactive contaminationandnuclear proliferation, Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, originally conceived in Adlai Stevenson's 1956 presidential campaign.In their Vienna summit meeting in June 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy reached an informal understanding against nuclear testing, but the Soviet Union began testing nuclear weapons that September. In response, the United States conducted tests five days later.Shortly afterwards, new U.S. satellites began delivering images that made it clear that the Soviets were substantially behind the U.S. in the arms race.Nevertheless, the greater nuclear strength of the U.S. was of little value as long as the Soviet Union perceived itself to be at parity. In July 1963, Kennedy sentW. Averell Harrimanto Moscow to negotiate a treaty with the Soviets.The introductory sessions included Khrushchev, who later delegated Soviet representation toAndrei Gromyko. It quickly became clear that a comprehensive test ban would not be implemented, due largely to the reluctance of the Soviets to allow inspections to verify compliance. Ultimately, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to a limited treaty, which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but not underground. The U.S. Senate approved the treaty on September 23, 1963, and Kennedy signed it on October 7, 1963.France was quick to declare that it was free to continue developing and testing its nuclear defenses. Domestic policy New Frontier Kennedy called his domestic proposals the \"New Frontier\".However, Kennedy's small margin of victory in the 1960 election, his lack of deep connections to influential members of Congress, and his administration's focus on foreign policy hindered the passage of New Frontier policies. In 1961, Kennedy prioritized passing five bills: federal assistance for education, medical insurance for the elderly, housing legislation, federal aid to struggling areas, and an increase in the federal minimum wage.Kennedy's bill to increase thefederal minimum wageto $1.25 an hour passed in early 1961, but an amendment inserted by conservative leader from Georgia,Carl Vinson, exempted laundry workers from the law.Kennedy also won passage of theArea Redevelopment Actand the Housing Act of 1961. The Area Redevelopment Act, a $394 million program, provided federal funding to economically struggling regions (primarily inAppalachia), while the Housing Act of 1961 provided funds forurban renewalandpublic housingand authorized federalmortgage loansto those who did not qualify for public housing.Kennedy proposed a bill providing for $2.3 billion in federal educational aid to the states, with more money going to states with lowerper capita income. Though the Senate passed the education bill, it was defeated in the House by a coalition of Republicans, Southern Democrats, and Catholics.Kennedy's health insurance bill, which would have paid for hospitalization and nursing costs for the elderly, failed to pass either house of Congress.A bill that would have established theDepartment of Urban Affairs and Housingwas also defeated. In 1962, Kennedy won approval of theManpower Development and Training Act, a three-year program aimed at retraining workers displaced by new technology. Its impact onstructural unemployment, however, was minimal.At the urging of his sisterEunice, Kennedy madeintellectual disabilitiesa priority for his administration. In 1963, Congress passed theCommunity Mental Health Act, which provided funding to local mental health community centers and research facilities. Trade policy included both domestic and foreign policy. The 1962Trade Expansion Actpassed Congress by wide majorities. It authorized the president to negotiate tariff reductions on a reciprocal basis of up to 50 percent with theEuropean Common Market.The legislation paved the way for theKennedy RoundofGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Tradenegotiations, concluding on June 30, 1967, the last day before expiration of the Act. Taxes Walter Heller, who served as the chairman of the CEA, advocated for aKeynesian-style tax cut designed to help spur economic growth, and Kennedy adopted this policy.The idea was that a tax cut would stimulate consumer demand, which in turn would lead to higher economic growth, lower unemployment, and increased federal revenues.To the disappointment of liberals likeJohn Kenneth Galbraith, Kennedy's embrace of the tax cut shifted his administration's focus away from the proposed old-age health insurance program and other domestic expenditures.In January 1963, Kennedy proposed a tax cut that would reduce the top marginal tax rate from 91 to 65 percent, and lower the corporate tax rate from 52 to 47 percent. The predictions according to the Keynesian model indicated the cuts would decrease income taxes by about $10 billion and corporate taxes by about $3.5 billion. The plan included reforms designed to reduce the impact ofitemized deductions, as well as provisions to help the elderly and handicapped. Republicans and many Southern Democrats opposed the bill, calling for simultaneous reductions in expenditures, but debate continued throughout 1963.Three months after Kennedy died, Johnson pushed the plan through Congress. TheRevenue Act of 1964lowered the top individual rate to 70 percent, and the top corporate rate to 48 percent. Economy Kennedy ended a period of tight fiscal policies, loosening monetary policy to keepinterest ratesdown and to encourage growth of the economy.He presided over the first government budget to top the $100 billion mark, in 1962, and his first budget in 1961 resulted in the nation's first non-war, non-recessiondeficit.The economy, which had been through two recessions in three years and was in one when Kennedy took office, accelerated notably throughout his administration. Despite lowinflationand interest rates, theGDPhad grown by an average of only 2.2% per annum during the Eisenhower administration (scarcely more than population growth at the time), and it had declined by 1% during Eisenhower's last twelve months in office. The economy turned around and prospered during Kennedy's presidency. The GDP expanded by an average of 5.5% from early 1961 to late 1963,while inflation remained steady at around 1% and unemployment eased.Industrial production rose by 15% and motor vehicle sales increased by 40%.This sustained rate of growth in GDP and industry continued until around 1969. Kennedy was proud that his Labor Department helped keep wages steady in the steel industry, but was outraged in April 1962 whenRoger Blough, the president ofU.S. Steel, quietly informed Kennedy that his company would raise prices.In response, Attorney General Robert Kennedy began aprice-fixinginvestigation against U.S. Steel, and President Kennedy convinced other steel companies to rescind their price increases until finally even U.S. Steel, isolated and in danger of being undersold, agreed to rescind its own price increase.An editorial inThe New York Timespraised Kennedy's actions and stated that the steel industry's price increase \"imperil the economic welfare of the country by inviting a tidal wave of inflation.\"Nevertheless, the administration's Bureau of Budget reported the price increase would have caused a net gain for the GDP as well as a net budget surplus.The stock market, which had steadily declined since Kennedy's election in 1960, dropped 10% shortly after the administration's action on the steel industry took place. Civil rights movement Kennedy verbally supportedcivil rightsduring his 1960 presidential campaign; he telephonedCoretta Scott King, wife ofMartin Luther King Jr., who had been jailed while trying to integrate a department store lunch counter. Robert Kennedy called Georgia GovernorErnest Vandiverand obtained King's release from prison, which drew additional Black support to his brother's candidacy.Recognizing that conservative Southern Democrats could block legislation, Kennedy did not introduce civil rights legislation on taking office.He needed their support to pass his economic and foreign policy agendas, and to support his reelection in 1964.Kennedy did appoint many Blacks to office, including civil rights attorneyThurgood Marshallto theU.S. Court of Appeals. Kennedy believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would anger many Southern Whites and make it more difficult to pass civil rights laws in Congress, and he distanced himself from it.As articulated by Robert Kennedy, the administration's early priority was to \"keep the president out of this civil rights mess.\"Civil rights movement participants, mainly those on the front line in the South, viewed Kennedy as lukewarm,especially concerning theFreedom Riders. In May 1961, theCongress of Racial Equality, led byJames Farmer, organized integrated Freedom Rides to test a Supreme Court case ruling that declared segregation on interstate transportation illegal.The Riders were repeatedly met with mob violence, including by federal and state law enforcement officers.Kennedy assignedfederal marshalsto protect the Riders rather than using federal troops or uncooperative FBI agents.Kennedy feared sending federal troops would stir up \"hated memories ofReconstruction\" among conservative Southern whites.The Justice Department then petitioned theInterstate Commerce Commission(ICC) to adhere to federal law. By September 1961, the ICC ruled in favor of the petition. On March 6, 1961, Kennedy signedExecutive Order 10925, which required government contractors to \"take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin.\"It established thePresident's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity. In September 1962,James Meredithenrolled at the all-WhiteUniversity of Mississippibut was prevented from entering. In response, Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent 400 federal marshals.TheOle Miss riot of 1962left two dead and dozens injured, prompting Kennedy to send in 3,000 troops to quell the riot.Meredith did finally enroll in class. Kennedy regretted not sending in troops earlier and he began to doubt whether the \"evils of Reconstruction\" he had been taught or believed were true.On November 20, 1962, Kennedy signedExecutive Order 11063, which prohibited racial discrimination in federally supported housing. On June 11, 1963, Kennedy intervened when Alabama GovernorGeorge Wallaceblocked thedoorwayto theUniversity of Alabamato stop two Black students,Vivian MaloneandJames Hood, from attending. Wallace moved aside only after being confronted by Deputy Attorney GeneralNicholas Katzenbachand theAlabama National Guard, which had just been federalized by order of the president. That evening Kennedy gave his famousReport to the American People on Civil Rightsspeech on national television and radio, launching his initiative for civil rights legislation—to provide equal access to public schools and other facilities, and greater protection of voting rights. His proposals became part of theCivil Rights Act of 1964. The day ended with the murder of an NAACP leader,Medgar Evers, in Mississippi.As Kennedy had predicted, the day after his TV speech, and in reaction to it, House Majority leaderCarl Albertcalled to advise him that his two-year signature effort in Congress to combat poverty in Appalachia had been defeated, primarily by the votes of Southern Democrats and Republicans.When Arthur Schlesinger Jr. complimented Kennedy on his remarks, Kennedy bitterly replied, \"Yes, and look at what happened to area development the very next day in the House.\" He then added, \"But of course, I had to give that speech, and I'm glad that I did.\"On June 16,The New York Timespublished an editorial which argued that while Kennedy had initially \"moved too slowly and with little evidence of deep moral commitment\" in regards to civil rights he \"now demonstrate a genuine sense of urgency about eradicating racial discrimination from our national life.\" A crowd of over 250,000, predominantly African Americans, gathered in Washington for the civil rightsMarch on Washington for Jobs and Freedomon August 28, 1963. Kennedy initially opposed the march, fearing it would have a negative effect on the prospects for the civil rights bills pending in Congress. These fears were heightened just prior to the march when FBI DirectorJ. Edgar Hooverpresented Kennedy with reports that some of King's close advisers, specificallyJack O'DellandStanley Levison, were communists.When King ignored the administration's warning, Robert Kennedy authorized the FBI towiretapKing and other leaders of theSouthern Christian Leadership Conference.Although Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King's phones \"on a trial basis, for a month or so,\"Hoover extended the clearance so his men were \"unshackled\" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life they deemed worthy. The Department of Justice was assigned to coordinate the federal government's involvement in the March on Washington on August 28; several hundred thousand dollars to were channeled to the six sponsors of the March.To ensure a peaceful demonstration, the organizers and the president personally edited speeches that were inflammatory and collaborated on all aspects related to times and venues. Thousands of troops were placed on standby. Kennedy watched King's speech on TV and was very impressed. The March was considered a \"triumph of managed protest,\" and not one arrest relating to the demonstration occurred. Afterwards, the March leaders accepted an invitation to the White House to meet with Kennedy and photos were taken. Kennedy felt that the March was a victory for him as well and bolstered the chances for his civil rights bill. Three weeks later on Sunday, September 15,a bomb explodedat the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham; by the end of the day, four Black children had died in the explosion, and two others were shot to death in the aftermath.Due to this resurgent violence, the civil rights legislation underwent some drastic amendments that critically endangered any prospects for passage of the bill, to the outrage of Kennedy. He called the congressional leaders to the White House and by the following day the original bill, without the additions, had enough votes to get it out of the House committee.Gaining Republican support, SenatorEverett Dirksenpromised the legislation would be brought to a vote preventing aSenate filibuster.On July 2, 1964, the guarantees Kennedy proposed in his June 1963 speech became federal law, when President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act. Status of women During the 1960 presidential campaign, Kennedy endorsed the concept ofequal pay for equal work.In December 1961, Kennedy signed an executive order creating thePresidential Commission on the Status of Womento advise him on issues concerning the status of women.Former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt led the commission. The commission's final report was issued in October 1963; it documented the legal and cultural discrimination women in America faced and made several policy recommendations to bring about change.On June 10, 1963, Kennedy signed theEqual Pay Act of 1963, which amended theFair Labor Standards Actand abolished wage disparity based on sex. Crime Under the leadership of the attorney general, the Kennedy administration shifted the focus of the Justice Department, the FBI, and the IRS toorganized crime. Kennedy won congressional approval for five bills (i.e.,Federal Wire Actof 1961) designed to crack down on interstateracketeering, gambling, and the transportation of firearms. On March 22, 1962, Kennedy signed into law a bill abolishing the mandatory death penalty forfirst degree murderin the District of Columbia, the only remaining jurisdiction in the United States with such a penalty.The death penalty has not been applied in D.C. since 1957 and has now been abolished. Agriculture Kennedy had relatively little interest in agricultural issues, but he sought to remedy the issue of overproduction, boost the income of farmers, and lower federal expenditures on agriculture. Under the direction of Secretary of AgricultureOrville Freeman, the administration sought to limit the production of farmers, but these proposals were generally defeated in Congress. To increase demand for domestic agricultural products and help the impoverished, Kennedy launched a pilotFood Stamp programand expanded thefederal school lunch program. Native American relations Construction of theKinzua Damflooded 10,000 acres (4,000 hectares) ofSeneca nationland that they had occupied under theTreaty of 1794, and forced 600 Seneca to relocate toSalamanca, New York. Kennedy was asked by theAmerican Civil Liberties Unionto halt the project, but he declined, citing a critical need for flood control. He expressed concern about the plight of the Seneca and directed government agencies to assist in obtaining more land, damages, and assistance to mitigate their displacement. Space policy In the aftermath of the Soviet launch ofSputnik 1, the first artificial Earth satellite,NASAproposed a crewedlunar landingby the early 1970s.Funding for the program, known as theApollo program, was far from certain as Eisenhower held an ambivalent attitude.Early in his presidency, Kennedy was poised to dismantle the crewed space program, but he postponed any decision out of deference to Vice President Johnson, who had been a strong supporter of the program in the Senate.WithJerome Wiesner, Johnson was given a major role in overseeing the administration's space policy, and at Johnson's recommendation Kennedy appointedJames E. Webbto head NASA. In Kennedy'sState of the Unionaddress in 1961, he suggested international cooperation in space. Khrushchev declined, as the Soviets did not wish to reveal the status of their rocketry and space capabilities.In April 1961, Soviet cosmonautYuri Gagarinbecame the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind by the Soviet Union.Less than a month later,Alan Shepardbecame the first American to travel into space, strengthening Kennedy's confidence in NASA.The following year,John Glenn, aboard theMercurycraftFriendship 7, became the first American to orbit the Earth. In the aftermath of Gagarin's flight, as well as the failed Bay of Pigs invasion, Kennedy felt pressured to respond to the perceived erosion of American prestige. He asked Johnson to explore the feasibility of beating the Soviets to theMoon. Though he was concerned about the program's costs, Kennedy agreed to Johnson's recommendation that the U.S. commit to a crewed lunar landing as the major objective of the space program. In a May 25 speech to Congress, Kennedy declared, ... I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.Full text Though Gallup polling showed that many in the public were skeptical of the necessity of the Apollo program,members of Congress were strongly supportive in 1961 and approved a major increase in NASA's funding. Webb began reorganizing NASA, increasing its staffing level, and building two new centers: aLaunch Operations Centerfor thelarge Moon rocketnorthwest ofCape Canaveral Air Force Station, and aManned Spacecraft Centerin Houston. Kennedy took the latter occasion as an opportunity to deliver anotherspeechpromoting the space effort on September 12, 1962, in which he said: No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space. ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard.Full text On November 21, 1962, in a cabinet meeting with Webb and other officials, Kennedy explained that the Moon shot was important for reasons of international prestige, and that the expense was justified.On July 20, 1969, almost six years after Kennedy's death,Apollo 11landed the first crewed spacecraft on the Moon. Judicial appointments In 1962, Kennedy appointed justicesByron WhiteandArthur Goldbergto theSupreme Court.Additionally, Kennedy appointed 21 judges to theUnited States Courts of Appeals, and 102 judges to theUnited States district courts. Assassination Kennedy was assassinated inDallasat 12:30 p.m.Central Standard Timeon November 22, 1963.He was in Texas on a political trip to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberalsRalph YarboroughandDon Yarborough(no relation) and conservativeJohn Connally.Traveling in a presidentialmotorcadethroughDealey Plaza, he was shot once in the back, the bullet exiting via his throat, and once in the head. Kennedy was taken toParkland Hospital, where he was pronounced dead 30 minutes later, at 1:00 p.m.He was 46 years old.Lee Harvey Oswaldwas arrested for the murder of police officerJ. D. Tippitand was subsequently charged with Kennedy's assassination.He denied shooting anyone, claiming he was apatsy,and was shot dead byJack Rubyon November 24, before he could be prosecuted.Ruby was arrested and convicted for the murder of Oswald. Ruby successfully appealed his conviction but died of cancer on January 3, 1967, while the date for his new trial was being set. President Johnson quickly issued anexecutive orderto create theWarren Commission—chaired by Chief JusticeEarl Warren—to investigate the assassination. The commission concluded that Oswald acted alone in killing Kennedy and that Oswald was not part of any conspiracy.These conclusions are disputed by many.AGallup Pollin November 2013 showed 61% believed in a conspiracy, and only 30% thought that Oswald did it alone.In 1979, theU.S. House Select Committee on Assassinationsconcluded, with one third of the committee dissenting, \"that Kennedy was probably assassinated as a result of aconspiracy.\" The committee was unable to identify the other gunmen or the extent of the conspiracy. This conclusion was based largely on audio recordings of the shooting.Subsequently, investigative reports from theFBIand a specially appointedNational Academy of SciencesCommittee determined that \"reliable acoustic data do not support a conclusion that there was a second gunman.\"TheJustice Departmentconcluded \"that no persuasive evidence can be identified to support the theory of a conspiracy\". Funeral Kennedy's body was brought back to Washington. On November 23, six military pallbearers carried the flag-draped coffin into theEast Room of the White House, where he lay in repose for 24 hours.Then, the coffin was carried on a horse-drawncaissonto the Capitol to lie in state. Throughout the day and night, hundreds of thousands lined up to view the guarded casket,with a quarter million passing through the rotunda during the 18 hours of lying in state. Kennedy's funeral service was held on November 25, atSt. Matthew's CathedralinWashington, D.C.TheRequiem Masswas led byCardinalRichard Cushing, then theArchbishop of Boston.It was attended by approximately 1,200 guests, including representatives from over 90 countries.After the service, Kennedy was buried atArlington National CemeteryinArlington County, Virginia. Personal life, family, and reputation The Kennedy family is one of the most established political families in the United States, having produced a president, three senators, three ambassadors, and multiple other representatives and politicians. While a congressman, Kennedy embarked on a seven-week trip to India, Japan, Vietnam, and Israel in 1951, at which point he became close with his then 25-year-old brother Robert, as well as his 27-year-old sister Patricia. Because they were several years apart in age, the brothers had previously seen little of each other. This 25,000-mile (40,000 km) trip was the first extended time they had spent together and resulted in their becoming best friends.Robert would eventually serve as his brother'sattorney generaland closest presidential advisor;he would later run for president in1968before hisassassination, while another Kennedy brother, Ted, ran for president in1980.Kennedy's nephew and Robert's son,Robert Jr., ran for president in2024. Wife and children Kennedy met his wife,Jacqueline Lee \"Jackie\" Bouvier, when he was a congressman.Charles L. Bartlett, a journalist, introduced the pair at a dinner party.They were married on September 12, 1953, atSt. Mary's ChurchinNewport, Rhode Island.The newlyweds honeymooned in Mexico, before settling in their new home,Hickory HillinMcLean, Virginia.In 1956, they sold their Hickory Hill estate to Kennedy's brother Robert, and bought a townhouse inGeorgetown.The Kennedys also resided at an apartment inBoston, their legal residence during John's congressional career,and a summer home inCape Cod, Massachusetts. After a miscarriage in 1955 and a stillbirth in 1956 (their daughter Arabella), their daughterCarolinewas born in 1957.John Jr., nicknamed \"John-John\" by the press as a child, was born in late November 1960, 17 days after his father was elected. John Jr. died in 1999 when thesmall plane he was piloting crashed.In August 1963, Jackie gave birth to a son,Patrick. However, he died after two days due to complications from birth. Popular image Kennedy and his wife were younger than the presidents and first ladies who preceded them, and both were popular in themedia culturein ways more common to pop singers and movie stars than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of photo spreads in popular magazines. Although Eisenhower had allowed presidential press conferences to be filmed for television, Kennedy was the first president to ask for them to be broadcastliveand made good use of the medium.In 1961, theRadio-Television News Directors Associationpresented Kennedy with its highest honor, thePaul WhiteAward, in recognition of his open relationship with the media. The Kennedys invited a range of artists, writers and intellectuals to White House dinners, raising the profile of the arts in America. On the White House lawn, they established a swimming pool and tree house, while Caroline attended a preschool with 10 other children inside the home. Vaughn Meader'sFirst Familycomedy album, which parodied the president, the first lady, their family, and the administration, sold about four million copies. Health Despite a privileged youth, Kennedy was plagued by childhood diseases, includingwhooping cough,chicken pox,measles, and ear infections. These ailments compelled him to spend a considerable amount of timeconvalescing. Three months prior to his third birthday, in 1920, Kennedy came down withscarlet fever, a highly contagious and life-threatening disease, and was admitted toBoston City Hospital. During his years at Choate, Kennedy was beset by health problems that culminated with his emergency hospitalization in 1934 atYale New Haven Hospital, where doctors suspected leukemia.While sick, he became a passionate reader and also afatalist.In June 1934, he was admitted to theMayo Clinicin Minnesota; the ultimate diagnosis wascolitis.After withdrawing from Princeton University, Kennedy was hospitalized for observation atPeter Bent Brigham Hospitalin Boston. He then spent the spring of 1936 working as a ranch hand outsideBenson, ArizonaunderJack Speiden. Years after Kennedy's death, it was revealed that in September 1947, when he was 30 and in his first term in Congress, he was diagnosed by Sir Daniel Davis atThe London ClinicwithAddison's disease. Davis estimated that Kennedy would not live for another year, while Kennedy hoped he could live for ten.In 1966, White House physicianJanet Travellrevealed that Kennedy also hadhypothyroidism. The presence of twoendocrine diseasesraises the possibility that Kennedy hadautoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 2. Kennedy suffered from chronic severe back pain, for which he had surgery. His condition may have had diplomatic repercussions, as he appears to have been taking a combination of drugs to treat back pain during the 1961Vienna Summit. The combination included hormones, animal organ cells, steroids, vitamins, enzymes, and amphetamines, and possible side effects included hyperactivity,hypertension, impaired judgment, nervousness, and mood swings.Kennedy at one time was regularly seen by three doctors, one of whom,Max Jacobson, at first was unknown to the other two, as his mode of treatment was controversialand used for the most severe bouts of back pain. Into late 1961, disagreements existed among Kennedy's doctors concerning the balance of medication and exercise. Kennedy preferred the former because he was short on time and desired immediate relief.The president's primary White House physician,George G. Burkley, set up gym equipment in the White House basement, where Kennedy did stretching exercises thrice weekly.Details of these and other medical problems were not publicly disclosed during Kennedy's lifetime.Burkley realized that treatments by Jacobson and Travell, including excessive use of steroids and amphetamines, were medically inappropriate, and took action to remove Kennedy from their care. In 2002,Robert Dallekwrote an extensive history of Kennedy's health based on a collection of Kennedy-associated papers from 1955 to 1963, including X-rays and prescription records from Travell. According to Travell's records, during his presidential years Kennedy suffered from high fevers; stomach, colon, and prostate issues; abscesses; high cholesterol; and adrenal problems. Travell kept a \"Medicine Administration Record\", cataloging Kennedy's medications: injected and ingested corticosteroids for his adrenal insufficiency; procaine shots and ultrasound treatments and hot packs for his back; Lomotil, Metamucil, paregoric, phenobarbital, testosterone, and trasentine to control his diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, and weight loss; penicillin and other antibiotics for his urinary-tract infections and an abscess; andTuinalto help him sleep. Affairs and friendships Kennedy was single in the 1940s while having relationships with Danish journalistInga Arvadand actressGene Tierney.During his time as a senator, he had an affair withGunilla von Post, who later wrote that the future president tried to end his marriage to be with her before having any children with his wife.Kennedy was also reported to have had affairs withMarilyn Monroe,Judith Campbell,Mary Pinchot Meyer,Marlene Dietrich,White House internMimi Alford,and his wife'spress secretary,Pamela Turnure.There have been several conspiracy theories surrounding the deaths of Monroe and Meyer, alleging that Kennedy may have had a part in their deaths. The full extent of Kennedy's relationship with Monroe (who in 1962 famously sang \"Happy Birthday, Mr. President\" at Kennedy's birthday celebration atMadison Square Garden) is not known, though it has been reported that they spent a weekend together in March 1962 while he was staying atBing Crosby's house.Furthermore, people at the White House switchboard noted that Monroe had called Kennedy during 1962.J. Edgar Hoover, the FBI director, received reports about Kennedy's indiscretions.These included an alleged tryst with anEast Germanspy,Ellen Rometsch. According to historianMichael Beschloss, in July 1963, Hoover reportedly informed Robert Kennedy about the affair with a woman \"suspected as a Soviet intelligence agent, someone linked to East German intelligence.\" Robert reportedly took the matter sufficiently seriously to raise it with leading Democratic and Republican figures in Congress.Former Secret Service agent Larry Newman recalled \"morale problems\" that the president's indiscretions engendered within the Secret Service. Kennedy inspired affection and loyalty from the members of his team and his supporters.According to Reeves, this included \"the logistics of Kennedy's liaisons ... required secrecy and devotion rare in the annals of the energetic service demanded by successful politicians.\"Kennedy believed that his friendly relationship with members of the press would help protect him from public revelations about his sex life. Sports Kennedy was a fan ofMajor League Baseball'sBoston Red Soxand theNational Basketball Association'sBoston Celtics.Growing up on Cape Cod, Kennedy and his siblings developed a lifelong passion forsailing.He also took upgolf; playing regularly at theHyannisport Clubin Massachusetts and the Palm Beach Country Club in Florida. Religion Kennedy was the firstCatholicelected to the presidency.During his childhood, he attendedSt. Aidan's Churchin Brookline, Massachusetts, where he wasbaptizedon June 19, 1917. Historical evaluations and legacy Presidency Historians and political scientists tend torankKennedy as an above-average president, and he is usually the highest-ranking president who served less than one full term.A 2014 survey fromThe Washington Postof 162 members of theAmerican Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Kennedy 14th highest overall among the 43 persons who have been president, including then-presidentBarack Obama. The survey found Kennedy to be the most overrated U.S. president.A 2017C-SPANsurvey has Kennedy ranked among the top ten presidents.A 2023Gallup, Inc.survey showed Kennedy with a retrospective approval rating of 90 percent, the highest of all U.S. presidents in recent history.Assessments of his policies are mixed.Many of Kennedy's legislative proposals were passed after his death, during theJohnson administration, and Kennedy's death gave those proposals a powerful moral component. Kennedy came in third (behind Martin Luther King Jr. andMother Teresa) inGallup's List of Widely Admired Peopleof the 20th century.In 1961, he was awarded theLaetare Medalby theUniversity of Notre Dame, considered the most prestigious award forAmerican Catholics.He was posthumously awarded thePacem in TerrisAward(Latin: Peace on Earth) and thePresidential Medal of Freedom. Camelot The term \"Camelot\" is often used to describe his presidency, reflecting both the mythic grandeur accorded Kennedy in death and powerful nostalgia for that era of American history.According to Richard Dean Burns and Joseph M. Siracusa, the most popular theme surrounding Kennedy's legacy is its replay of the legend ofKing ArthurandCamelotfromArthurian Literature.In an interview following Kennedy's death, his widow Jacqueline mentioned his affection for the Broadway musicalCamelotand quoted its closing lines: \"Don't let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief, shining moment that was known as Camelot.\"Critics, especially historians, have mocked the Camelot myth as a distortion of Kennedy's actions, beliefs, and policies. However, in the public memory, the years of Kennedy's presidency are still seen as a brief, brilliant, and shining moment. Memorials and eponyms Examples of the extensive list include: Works Books Select speeches See also Notes References Citations The 1963 LIFE article represented the first use of the term \"Camelot\" in print and is attributed with having played a major role in establishing and fixing this image of the Kennedy Administration and period in the popular mind. Works cited Further reading External links",
"Sargent Shriver Robert Sargent Shriver Jr.(November 9, 1915 – January 18, 2011) was an American diplomat, politician, and activist. He was a member of theShriver familyby birth, and a member of theKennedy familythrough his marriage toEunice Kennedy. Shriver was the driving force behind the creation of thePeace Corps, and founded theJob Corps,Head Start,VISTA,Upward Bound,and other programs as the architect of the 1960sWar on Poverty.He was theDemocratic Party's nominee for vice president in the1972 presidential election. Born inWestminster, Maryland, Shriver attended Yale University, thenYale Law School, graduating in 1941.An opponent of U.S. entry intoWorld War II, he helped establish theAmerica First Committeebut volunteered for theUnited States Navybefore the Japaneseattack on Pearl Harbor. During the war, he served in the South Pacific, participating in theNaval Battle of Guadalcanal. After being discharged from the navy, he worked as an assistant editor forNewsweekand met Eunice Kennedy, marrying her in 1953. He worked on the 1960 presidential campaign of his brother-in-law,John F. Kennedy, and helped establish the Peace Corps after Kennedy's victory. After Kennedy's assassination, Shriver served in the administration ofLyndon B. Johnsonand helped establish several anti-poverty programs as director of theOffice of Economic Opportunityfrom October 16, 1964, to March 22, 1968.He also served as theUnited States Ambassador to Francefrom 1968 to 1970.In 1972, Democratic vice presidential nomineeThomas Eagletonresigned from the ticket, and Shriver was chosen as his replacement. The Democratic ticket ofGeorge McGovernand Shriver lost in alandslide election defeatto Republican PresidentRichard Nixonand Vice PresidentSpiro Agnew. Shriver briefly sought the1976 Democratic presidential nominationbut dropped out of the race after the first set of primaries. After leaving office, he resumed the practice of law, becoming a partner withFried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson. He also served as president of theSpecial Olympicsand was briefly a part-owner of theBaltimore Orioles. He was diagnosed withAlzheimer's diseasein 2003 and died inBethesda, Maryland, in 2011. Early life and education Robert Sargent Shriver Jr. was born inWestminster, Maryland, the younger of two sons. Shriver's parents Robert Sargent Shriver Sr. and Hilda, who had also been born with the surname Shriver, were second cousins.His elder brother was Thomas Herbert Shriver. Shriver was a member of theShriver familythat has been in Maryland since 1721 and have occupied theUnion Mills Homestead. His grandfather,Thomas Herbert Shriver, guidedJ. E. B. Stuartto the battle of Gettysburg when Thomas was just seventeen years of age. He was also a descendant ofDavid Shriver,who signed theMaryland Constitution and Bill of Rights at Maryland's Constitutional Convention of 1776. He spent his high school years atCanterbury SchoolinNew Milford, Connecticut, which he attended on a full scholarship. In his freshman year at Canterbury, he befriended future brother-in-law PresidentJohn F. Kennedy. He was on Canterbury's baseball, basketball, and football teams, became the editor of the school's newspaper, and participated in choral and debating clubs.On June 9, 2023, Shriver was inducted into the Canterbury School Athletic Hall of Fame for all three sports. After graduating fromThe Browning Schoolin 1934, Shriver spent the summer inGermanyas part of TheExperiment in International Living, returning in the fall of 1934 to enterYale University, where he was a brother in theDelta Kappa Epsilonfraternity, as well as a member of Yale'sScroll and Keysociety. Military career An early opponent of American involvement inWorld War II, Shriver was a founding member of theAmerica First Committee, an organization started in 1940 by a group ofYale Law Schoolstudents, also including future PresidentGerald Fordand future Supreme Court JusticePotter Stewart, which tried to keep the US out of the European war.Nevertheless, Shriver volunteered for theUS Navybefore theattack on Pearl Harborand said he had a duty to serve his country even if he disagreed with its policies. He spent five years on active duty, mostly in theSouth Pacific, serving aboard theUSSSouth Dakota(BB-57), reaching the rank oflieutenant commander(O-4). He was awarded aPurple Heartfor wounds he received during thebombardmentofGuadalcanal. Family life Shriver's relationship with the Kennedys began when he was working as an assistant editor atNewsweekafter his discharge from the Navy. He met Eunice Kennedy at a party in New York, and shortly afterwards, family patriarchJoseph P. Kennedy Sr.asked him to look at diary entries written by his eldest son,Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., who had died in a plane crash while he was on a military mission duringWorld War II. Shriver was later hired to manage theMerchandise Mart, part of Kennedy's business empire, in Chicago,Illinois. After a seven-year courtship, Shriver marriedEunice Kennedyon May 23, 1953, atSt. Patrick's Cathedralin New York City. She was the third daughter of Joseph Kennedy Sr. andRose Kennedy. They had five children:Robert Sargent \"Bobby\" Shriver III(born April 28, 1954),Maria Owings Shriver(born November 6, 1955),Timothy Perry Shriver(born August 29, 1959),Mark Kennedy Shriver(born February 17, 1964), andAnthony Paul Kennedy Shriver(born July 20, 1965). The Shrivers were married for 56 years, and often worked together on projects. Shriver was admitted to practice law in theDistrict of Columbia, Illinois, and New York, and at the US Supreme Court. A devoutCatholic, Shriver attended dailyMassand always carried arosaryof well-worn wooden beads.He was critical ofabortionand was a signatory to \"A New Compact of Care: Caring about Women, Caring for the Unborn\", which appeared inThe New York Timesin July 1992 and stated that \"To establish justice and to promote the general welfare, America does not need the abortion license. What America needs are policies that responsibly protect and advance the interest of mothers and their children, both before and after birth.\" Public service and political career 1950s In May 1954, Shriver was appointed to theChicago Board of Educationby Chicago mayorMartin H. Kennelly.On October 26, 1955, Shriver was chosen to serve as president of the Chicago Board of Education by a vote of the board.Shriver would serve in the position of president for five years,resigning from the position on October 10, 1960.At the time he became president of the board, he was the second-youngest individual to hold that office, being only 39.At the time,Chicago Public Schoolswas the second-largestschool districtin the United States. Shriver also served as director of the Catholic Interracial Council, a group created to advocate fordesegregationin Chicago schools. Shriver considered several runs for statewide office. His first consideration was for the Democratic nomination in the1956 Illinois gubernatorial election. Shriver had been courted by many Chicago Democrats, including MayorRichard J. Daley, but ultimately chose to stay out of the election.The primary was won by Cook County Treasurer Herbert C. Paschen who would be forced to withdraw as the nominee after becoming embroiled in scandals surrounding his work as Treasurer. District Court JudgeRichard B. Austin, was chosen as the replacement and went on to narrowly lose the election to incumbent GovernorWilliam Stratton. 1960s In 1960, Shriver once again received serious courting by Democratic leaders in both Chicago and across the state to enter the Democratic primary for the1960 Illinois gubernatorial election.Shriver even met with Mayor Daley and the Cook County Democratic Committee to gauge a possible run at Daley's urging. However his father-in-law,Joseph P. Kennedy, told Shriver he would not be able to run or else he could seriously cripple the Presidential campaign of his brother-in-law,John F. Kennedy. His father-in-law cited the oversaturation of Catholic candidates in Illinois could cost the Democrats the state in November (Kennedy, Shriver, and Daley were all Catholic). WhenJohn F. Kennedyran for president, Shriver worked as a political and organization coordinator in the Wisconsin and West Virginia primaries. During Kennedy's presidential term, Shriver founded and served as the first director of thePeace Corpsfrom March 22, 1961, to February 28, 1966. Shriver has been credited with convincing a hesitant Kennedy to contactCoretta Scott Kingafter her husband, prominent civil rights activistMartin Luther King, was jailed for civil disobedience inGeorgiain October 1960. Kennedy's phone call to Coretta Scott King was credited with helping to strengthenblacksupport for Kennedy's candidacy. AfterKennedy's assassination, Shriver continued to serve as Director of the Peace Corps and served as Special Assistant to PresidentLyndon Johnson. Under Johnson, he created theOffice of Economic Opportunityand served as its first director.He is known as the \"architect\" of the Johnson administration's \"War on Poverty\".Hired by President Johnson to be the \"salesman\" for Johnson'sWar on Povertyinitiative, Shriver initially was \"not interested in hearing about community action proposals.\" TheJob Corpsmovement was more consistent with his goals. Thus, soon after his appointment, Shriver \"moved quickly to reconsider the proposed anti-poverty initiative.\" Shriver founded numerous social programs and organizations, includingHead Start,VISTA,Job Corps, Community Action,Upward Bound, Foster Grandparents, Legal Services, the National Clearinghouse for Legal Services (now the Shriver Center), Indian and Migrant Opportunities and Neighborhood Health Services, in addition to directing the Peace Corps. He was active in theSpecial Olympics, which was founded in 1968 by his wife Eunice. Shriver was awarded thePacem in Terris Peace and Freedom Awardin 1967. It was named after a 1963encyclicalletter byPope John XXIIIthat calls upon all people of good will to secure peace among all nations.Pacem in terrisisLatinfor 'Peace on Earth'. In 1964 Shriver was considered one of the primary finalists on Johnson's shortlist to be vice president. After weighing the benefits of Shriver as the second spot on the ticket, Johnson ultimately choseHubert Humphrey. Shriver again considered running for Governor of Illinois in the1964 Illinois gubernatorial election.However, he demurred after being asked by President Johnson to stay on and continue leading the creation of many of the aforementioned War on Poverty programs that would become part of theGreat Society. In 1968, Shriver was once again seriously courted by Illinois Democrats for both the1968 Illinois gubernatorial electionagainst increasingly unpopular incumbent GovernorOtto Kerner, Jr.and the1968 United States Senate election in Illinoisagainst incumbent RepublicanEverett Dirksen. Shriver expressed little interest in serving in the Senate, not wanting to be overshadowed by his brothers-in-lawTed Kennedyand specificallyRobert Kennedy, who he had expected to run for president in 1972. To move Shriver toward a run, Daley pitched to Illinois Democratic leaders and Shriver on recruitingIllinois State TreasurerAdlai E. Stevenson IIIto run for the Senate seat with Shriver running for Governor. Shriver even received Johnson's blessing to make the run as part of Daley's \"Dream Ticket\", should he choose to do so. However, when Stevenson spoke out against the Vietnam War, Daley rejected Stevenson's candidacy and again tried to recruit Shriver for the Senate seat. Johnson had offered Shriver the post ofU.S. Ambassador to France, but asked for time to consider the offer, during which he considered his potential candidacy. When Stevenson lost Daley's support for the Senate seat and began trying to recruit Shriver again, Shriver decided to accept Johnson's offer of the Ambassadorship. Shriver served asU.S. Ambassador to Francefrom 1968 to 1970, becoming a quasi-celebrity among the French for bringing whatTimemagazine called \"a rare and welcome panache\" to the normally sedate world of international diplomacy.Upon returning to the United States in 1970, Shriver was speculated to be considering challenging incumbent Democratic GovernorMarvin Mandelfor the Democratic nomination for the1970 Maryland gubernatorial election, reports he did nothing to dissuade despite Mandel's sizable campaign fund and being the state's first Jewish Governor. Mandel had been elected by the Maryland Legislature to finish out the termSpiro Agnewhad been elected to in 1966, but resigned from after being electedVice Presidentin 1968. After traveling the state to gauge the support a potential candidacy might have, Shriver met with Mandel in the Governor's office. After emerging from the meeting, Shriver declined to be a candidate. Mandel recalled years later, \"We had a long discussion, and when it was over, he wasn't a candidate.\" Vice Presidential candidacy During the1972 Democratic National ConventioninMiami Beach, Florida,George McGovernconsidered Shriver as a vice presidential candidate, but his campaign was unable to reach Shriver, who was at the time visitingMoscow,Soviet Union.McGovern then selectedThomas Eagletoninstead, who later resigned from the Democratic ticket following revelations of past mental health treatments. Shriver replaced Eagleton on the ticket. The McGovern-Shriver ticket lost to Republican incumbentsRichard NixonandSpiro Agnew. Presidential candidacy Shriver unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in1976. In the months beforethe primariesbegan, political observers thought that Shriver would draw strength from legions of former colleagues from the Peace Corps and the War on Poverty programs, and he was even seen as an inheritor of the Kennedy legacy, but neither theory proved true.His candidacy was short-lived and he returned to private life. Life after politics Shriver was a partner of theFried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobsonlaw firm in Washington, D.C., where he specialized in international law and foreign affairs, beginning in 1971.He retired as partner in 1986 and was then namedof counselto the firm. In 1981, Shriver was appointed to the Rockefeller University Council, an organization devoted exclusively to research and graduate education in the biomedical and related sciences. In 1984, he was elected president ofSpecial Olympicsby the board of directors; as president, he directed the operation and international development of sports programs around the world. Six years later, in 1990, he was appointed chairman of the board of Special Olympics. He was an investor in theBaltimore Oriolesalong with his eldest sonBobby Shriver,Eli Jacobs, andLarry Lucchinofrom 1989to 1993. Illness and death Shriver was diagnosed withAlzheimer's diseasein 2003. In 2004, his daughter,Maria, published a children's book,What's Happening to Grandpa?, to help explain Alzheimer's to children. The book gives suggestions on how to help and to show love to an elderly person with the disease.In July 2007, Shriver's son-in-law, California GovernorArnold Schwarzenegger, speaking in favor ofstem-cell research, said that Shriver's Alzheimer's disease had advanced to the point that \"Today, he does not even recognize his wife.\"Maria Shriver discusses her father's worsening condition in a segment for the four-part 2009HBOdocumentary seriesThe Alzheimer's ProjectcalledGrandpa, Do You Know Who I Am?, including describing a moment when she decided to stop trying to correct his various delusions. On August 11, 2009, Shriver's wife of 56 years, Eunice, died at the age of 88.He attended her wake and funeral inCentervilleandHyannis, Massachusetts.Two weeks later, on August 29, 2009, he attended the funeral of her brotherTed Kennedyin Boston, Massachusetts. Shriver died on January 18, 2011, inSuburban HospitalinBethesda, Maryland, at age 95.Shriver's family released a statement calling him \"a man of giant love, energy, enthusiasm, and commitment\" who \"lived to make the world a more joyful, faithful, and compassionate place.\"PresidentBarack Obamaalso released a statement, calling Shriver \"one of the brightest lights of the greatest generation\".Aaron S. Williams, the director of the Peace Corps, said in a statement, \"The entire Peace Corps community is deeply saddened by the passing of Sargent Shriver.\" He further noted that Shriver \"served as our founder, friend, and guiding light for the past 50 years\" and that \"his legacy of idealism will live on in the work of current and future Peace Corps volunteers.\"He is buried alongside his wife Eunice at St. Francis Xavier Cemetery inCenterville, Massachusetts. Legacy In 1968, he was awarded theLaetare Medalby theUniversity of Notre Dame, the oldest and most prestigious award forAmerican Catholics. In 1993, Shriver received theFranklin D. RooseveltFreedom From Want Award. On August 8, 1994, Shriver received thePresidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian honor, from PresidentBill Clinton. In December 1993, theUniversity of Maryland, Baltimore Countycreated the Shriver Center in honor of Shriver and his wife. The center serves as the university's civic engagement, and applied learning organization. The Shriver Center also is home to the Shriver Peaceworker Program and the Shriver Living Learning Community. The Job Corps dedicated a center to his name in 1998 – the \"Shriver Job Corps Center\" – located inDevens, Massachusetts.The National Clearinghouse for Legal Services (renamed the National Center on Poverty Law in 1995) was renamed the Shriver Center in 2002 and each year awards a Sargent Shriver Award for Equal Justice. Sargent Shriver Elementary School, located inSilver Spring, Maryland, is named after him. In January 2008, a documentary film about Shriver aired onPBS, titledAmerican Idealist: The Story of Sargent Shriver. The Kennedy Shriver Aquatic Center inBethesda, Maryland, is named after him andEunice Kennedy Shriver. Following his death, Daniel Larison wrote: Shriver was an admirable, principled, and conscientious man who respected the dignity and sanctity of human life, and he also happened to be a contemporary and in-law of Kennedy. Not only did Shriver represent a \"link\" with JFK, but he represented a particular culture of white ethnic Catholic Democratic politics that has been gradually disappearing for the last fifty years. A pro-life Catholic, Shriver had been a founding member of theAmerica First Committee, and more famously he was also on the 1972 antiwar ticket with George McGovern. In short, he represented much of what was good in the Democratic Party of his time. Electoral history 1972 United States presidential election 1976 Democratic presidential primaries Portrayals in film See also References Further reading External links"
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"National Peace Corps Association National Peace Corps Association(NPCA) is a North Americannonprofit organizationsupporting thePeace CorpsAgency community. Founded in 1979, the NPCA is headquartered inWashington, D.C.,United States The NPCA maintains a database comprising around 150,000 records of volunteers,including figures such as the Peace Corps' founder,John F. Kennedy, and individuals from host countries.The NPCA has historically provided advisory support to Peace Corps volunteers. Its stated objectives include fostering a commitment to the global ideals of the Peace Corps community and advocating for the enhancement and expansion of the U.S. Peace Corps initiative. According to the Peace Corps mission statement, those ideals entail promoting \"world peace and friendship\" by fulfilling three goals: History In the mid-1970s, at conferences of global educators in theMidwest, a group of returned Peace Corps volunteers began meeting to discuss their service experiences. They adopted a Peace Corps objective",
"Corps objective that President John F. Kennedy stated in 1961: \"Come home and teach your neighbors about the communities where you served.\" Their aim was to offer returning Peace Corps volunteers in America a continuing mission and communal identity asReturned Peace Corps Volunteers(RPCVs). In 1979, this group joined with RPCV community leaders inNew YorkandWashington, D.C., to form the National Council of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers, which was incorporated in 1981. In 1993, the organization’s name was later changed to the National Peace Corps Association (NPCA). In response to theRwandan genocidein 1994, NPCA created the Emergency Response Network (ERN) of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers willing to respond to a crisis. Peace Corps DirectorMark Gearanmodeled the Crisis Corps (later renamed Peace Corps Response) after this program. In coordination with the Returned Peace Corps Volunteers of Washington, D.C., the NPCA organized 200 RPCVs to march in PresidentBarack Obama'sinaugural paradeon January 20,",
"January 20, 2009. That same year, the NPCA launched Peace Corps Connect, an online social networking platform to help current and returning Peace Corps volunteers interact and share ideas about projects, events, careers, and advocacy issues. In 2002, the NPCA was nominated for theNobel Peace Prize, along with the Peace Corps. Advocacy Members of the NPCA continue to testify on U.S. Peace Corps legislation and key issues like safety and security. In 2005, NPCA successfully coordinated the removal of Peace Corps references from military recruitment legislation. Awards and recognition NPCA has encouraged and recognized the service of members of the Peace Corps community by awarding over 20Sargent ShriverAwards for Distinguished Humanitarian Service. Programs Peace Corps Connect is the annual conference of the Peace Corps community. Africa Rural Connect(ARC) is an online collaboration tool aiming to address some of the challenges in rural African communities. This project introduces and encourages collaboration",
"collaboration to identify creative, new plans to deal with the fundamental problems of agricultural development and rural poverty inSub-Saharan Africa. TheBill & Melinda Gates Foundationhas awarded a grant to the ARC project as part of its Agricultural Development initiative to give millions of smallholder farmers in developing countries the tools and opportunities they need to improve their yields, raise their incomes, and improve the quality of life for themselves and their families. The RPCV Mentoring Program assists returning Peace Corps Volunteers with their transition from service. The program connects recently returned Peace Corps Volunteers with RPCV mentors one year after their service ends. Mentors provide advice, key networking contacts, share experiences and adjustment issues, offer guidance on further education, review resumes, assist with career planning, and promote resources available to RPCVs to help them transition from serving abroad to serving at home. Publications NPCA",
"Publications NPCA publishesWorldviewmagazine four times a year. The magazine shares the Peace Corps' perspective on global issues through articles authored by and about Peace Corps Volunteers, Returned Peace Corps volunteers, and people who \"share the global values of the Peace Corps experience\". NPCA also producesemail newsletters, including the monthlyNPCA News,GlobalEdNewson global issues, andNPCA Advocacyon action alerts and news on legislation impacting the Peace Corps community. History of conferences and events Since the year before its founding, the NPCA has planned annual events. These events include large conferences, celebrations for major Peace Corps anniversaries, and general meetings to satisfy bylaws requirements. Starting in 1990, affiliated group leaders held the NPCA Presidents' Forum in conjunction with each annual meeting atKent State University. In 2005, these meetings were renamed the \"Group Leaders' Forum.\" Affiliate Groups The network includes over 180 affiliate groups. Affiliate",
"groups. Affiliate groups may be geographic (e.g.,ChicagoArea Peace Corps Association); based on the country of Peace Corps service (e.g., Friends of Guatemala); associated with workplaces (e.g., RPCVs atUSAID); driven by social action (e.g., Peace Corps Community for Refugees); or defined by affinity (e.g., the Peace Corps Oral History Project). Groups advocate in line with the stated goals of the organization. References External links",
"John F. Kennedy John Fitzgerald Kennedy(May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), often referred to asJFK, was an American politician who served as the 35thpresident of the United Statesfrom 1961 untilhis assassinationin 1963. He was theyoungestpersonelectedpresident.Kennedy served at the height of theCold War, and the majority of his foreign policy concerned relations with theSoviet UnionandCuba. ADemocrat, Kennedy representedMassachusettsin both houses of theUnited States Congressprior to his presidency. Born into the prominentKennedy familyinBrookline, Massachusetts, Kennedy graduated fromHarvard Universityin 1940, joining theU.S. Naval Reservethe following year. DuringWorld War II, he commandedPT boatsin thePacific theater. Kennedy's survival following the sinking ofPT-109and his rescue of his fellow sailors made him a war hero and earned theNavy and Marine Corps Medal, but left him with serious injuries. After a brief stint in journalism, Kennedy representeda working-class Boston districtin theU.S. House of",
"theU.S. House of Representativesfrom 1947 to 1953. He was subsequently elected to theU.S. Senate, serving as the juniorsenator for Massachusettsfrom 1953 to 1960. While in the Senate, Kennedy published his book,Profiles in Courage, which won aPulitzer Prize. Kennedy ran in the1960 presidential election. His campaign gained momentum afterthe first televised presidential debatesin American history, and he was elected president, narrowly defeatingRepublicanopponentRichard Nixon, the incumbent vice president. Kennedy's presidency saw high tensions with communist states in the Cold War. He increased the number ofAmerican military advisersinSouth Vietnam, and theStrategic Hamlet Programbegan during his presidency. In 1961, he authorized attempts to overthrow the Cuban government ofFidel Castroin the failedBay of Pigs InvasionandOperation Mongoose. In October 1962, U.S. spy planes discovered Soviet missile bases had been deployed in Cuba. The resulting period of tensions, termed theCuban Missile Crisis, nearly",
"Crisis, nearly resulted innuclear war. In August 1961, afterEast Germantroops erected theBerlin Wall, Kennedy sent an army convoy to reassure West Berliners of U.S. support, and deliveredone of his most famous speechesin West Berlin in June 1963. In 1963, Kennedy signed the firstnuclear weapons treaty. He presided over the establishment of thePeace Corps,Alliance for Progresswith Latin America, and the continuation of theApollo programwith the goal oflanding a man on the Moonbefore 1970. He supported thecivil rights movementbut was only somewhat successful in passing hisNew Frontierdomestic policies. On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated inDallas. His vice president,Lyndon B. Johnson,assumed the presidency.Lee Harvey Oswaldwas arrested for the assassination, but he was shot and killed byJack Rubytwo days later. TheFBIand theWarren Commissionboth concluded Oswald had acted alone, butconspiracy theories about the assassinationpersist. After Kennedy's death, Congress enacted many of his proposals,",
"of his proposals, including theCivil Rights Act of 1964and theRevenue Act of 1964. Kennedy ranks highly inpolls of U.S. presidentswith historians and the general public. His personal life has been the focus of considerable sustained interest following public revelations in the 1970s of his chronic health ailments andextramarital affairs. Kennedy is the most recentU.S. president to have died in office. Early life and education John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born outsideBostoninBrookline, Massachusetts, on May 29, 1917,toJoseph P. Kennedy Sr., a businessman and politician, andRose Kennedy(néeFitzgerald), a philanthropist and socialite.His paternal grandfather,P. J. Kennedy, was an East Bostonward bossandMassachusetts state legislator.Kennedy's maternal grandfather and namesake,John F. Fitzgerald, was a U.S. congressman and two-termmayor of Boston.All four of his grandparents were children of Irish immigrants.Kennedy had an older brother,Joseph Jr., and seven younger",
"and seven younger siblings:Rosemary,Kathleen,Eunice,Patricia,Robert,Jean, andEdward. Kennedy's father amassed a private fortune and establishedtrust fundsfor his nine children that guaranteed lifelong financial independence.His business kept him away from home for long stretches, but Joe Sr. was a formidable presence in his children's lives. He encouraged them to be ambitious, emphasized political discussions at the dinner table, and demanded a high level of academic achievement. John's first exposure to politics was touring theBoston wardswith his grandfather Fitzgerald during his1922failed gubernatorial campaign.With Joe Sr.'s business ventures concentrated onWall StreetandHollywoodand an outbreak ofpolioinMassachusetts, the family decided to move from Boston to theRiverdaleneighborhood of New York City in September 1927.Several years later, his brother Robert toldLookmagazine that his father left Boston because of job signs that read: \"No Irish Need Apply.\"The Kennedys spent summers and early autumns",
"and early autumns attheir homeinHyannis Port, Massachusetts, a village onCape Cod,where they swam, sailed, and played touch football.Christmas and Easter holidays were spent at theirwinter retreatinPalm Beach, Florida.In September 1930, Kennedy, 13 years old, was sent to theCanterbury SchoolinNew Milford, Connecticut, for 8th grade. In April 1931, he had anappendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury and recuperated at home. In September 1931, Kennedy started attendingChoate, a preparatory boarding school inWallingford, Connecticut.Rose had wanted John and Joe Jr. to attend aCatholic school, but Joe Sr. thought that if they were to compete in the political world, they needed to be with boys from prominentProtestantfamilies.John spent his first years at Choate in his older brother's shadow and compensated with rebellious behavior that attracted a clique. Their most notorious stunt was exploding a toilet seat with a firecracker. In the next chapel assembly, the headmaster, George St. John, brandished",
"John, brandished the toilet seat and spoke of \"muckers\" who would \"spit in our sea,\" leading Kennedy to name his group \"The Muckers Club,\" which included roommate and lifelong friendLem Billings.Kennedy graduated from Choate in June 1935, finishing 64th of 112 students.He had been the business manager of the school yearbook and was voted the \"most likely to succeed.\" Kennedy intended to study underHarold Laskiat theLondon School of Economics, as his older brother had done. Ill health forced his return to the U.S. in October 1935, when he enrolled late atPrinceton University, but had to leave after two months due to gastrointestinal illness. In September 1936, Kennedy enrolled atHarvard College.He wrote occasionally forThe Harvard Crimson, the campus newspaper, but had little involvement with campus politics, preferring to concentrate on athletics and his social life. Kennedy played football and was on the JV squad during his sophomore year, but an injury forced him off the team, and left him with back",
"left him with back problems that plagued him for the rest of his life. He won membership in theHasty Pudding Cluband theSpee Club, one of Harvard's elite \"final clubs\". In July 1938, Kennedy sailed overseas with his older brother to work at theAmerican embassy in London, where his father was serving as PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt's ambassador to theCourt of St. James's.The following year, Kennedy traveled throughout Europe, theSoviet Union, theBalkans, and the Middle East in preparation for his Harvard senior honors thesis.He then went to Berlin, where a U.S. diplomatic representative gave him a secret message about war breaking out soon to pass on to his father, and toCzechoslovakiabefore returning to London on September 1, 1939, the day thatGermany invaded Poland; the start ofWorld War II.Two days later, the family was in theHouse of Commonsfor speeches endorsing the United Kingdom's declaration of war on Germany. Kennedy was sent as his father's representative to help with arrangements for American",
"for American survivors of the torpedoing ofSSAtheniabefore flying back to the U.S. on his first transatlantic flight. While Kennedy was an upperclassman at Harvard, he began to take his studies more seriously and developed an interest inpolitical philosophy. He made thedean's listin his junior year.In 1940, Kennedy completed his thesis, \"Appeasement in Munich\", about British negotiations during theMunich Agreement. The thesis was released on July 24, under the titleWhy England Slept.The book was one of the first to offer information about the war and its origins, and quickly became a bestseller.In addition to addressing Britain's unwillingness to strengthen its military in the lead-up to the war, the book called for anAnglo-American allianceagainst the rising totalitarian powers. Kennedy became increasingly supportive of U.S. intervention in World War II, and his father's isolationist beliefs resulted in the latter's dismissal as ambassador. In 1940, Kennedy graduatedcum laudefrom Harvard with a Bachelor of",
"with a Bachelor of Arts in government, concentrating oninternational affairs.That fall, he enrolled at theStanford Graduate School of Businessand audited classes,but he left after a semester to help his father complete his memoirs as an American ambassador. In early 1941, Kennedy toured South America. U.S. Naval Reserve (1941–1945) Kennedy planned to attendYale Law School, but canceled when American entry into World War II seemed imminent.In 1940, Kennedy attempted to enter the army'sOfficer Candidate School. Despite months of training, he was medically disqualified due to his chronic back problems. On September 24, 1941, Kennedy, with the help of the director of theOffice of Naval Intelligence(ONI) and the former navalattachéto Joe Sr., Alan Kirk, joined theUnited States Naval Reserve. He was commissioned anensignon October 26, 1941,and joined the ONI staff in Washington, D.C. In January 1942, Kennedy was assigned to the ONI field office at Headquarters,Sixth Naval District, inCharleston, South Carolina.His",
"South Carolina.His hope was to be the commander of aPT (patrol torpedo) boat, but his health problems seemed almost certain to prevent active duty. Kennedy's father intervened by providing misleading medical records and convincing PT officers that his presence would bring publicity to the fleet.Kennedy completed six months of training at theNaval Reserve Officer Training Schoolin Chicago and at theMotor Torpedo Boat Squadrons Training CenterinMelville, Rhode Island.His first command wasPT-101from December 7, 1942, until February 23, 1943.Unhappy to be assigned to thePanama Canal, far from the fighting, Kennedy appealed to Massachusetts senatorDavid Walsh, who arranged for him to be assigned to theSouth Pacific. CommandingPT-109andPT-59 In April 1943, Kennedy was assigned to Motor Torpedo Squadron TWO,and on April 24 he took command ofPT-109,then based onTulagiIsland in theSolomons.On the night of August 1–2, in support of theNew Georgia campaign,PT-109and fourteen other PTs were ordered to block or repel",
"to block or repel four Japanese destroyers and floatplanes carrying food, supplies, and 900 Japanese soldiers to the Vila Plantation garrison on the southern tip of the Solomon'sKolombangaraIsland. Intelligence had been sent to Kennedy's Commander Thomas G. Warfield expecting the arrival of the large Japanese naval force that would pass on the evening of August 1. Of the 24 torpedoes fired that night by eight of the American PTs, not one hit the Japanese convoy.On that moonless night, Kennedy spotted a Japanese destroyer heading north on its return from the base of Kolombangara around 2:00 a.m., and attempted to turn to attack, whenPT-109was rammed suddenly at an angle and cut in half by thedestroyerAmagiri, killingtwoPT-109crewmembers.Avoiding surrender, the remaining crew swam towardsPlum Pudding Island, 3.5 miles (5.6 km) southwest of the remains ofPT-109, on August 2.Despite re-injuring his back in the collision, Kennedy towed a badly burned crewman to the island with a life jacket strap clenched between",
"clenched between his teeth.From there, Kennedy and his subordinate, Ensign George Ross, made forays through the coral islands, searching for help.When they encountered an English-speaking native with a canoe, Kennedy carved his location on acoconutshell and requested a boat rescue. Seven days after the collision, with the coconut message delivered, thePT-109crew were rescued. Almost immediately, thePT-109rescue became a highly publicized event. The story was chronicled by John Hersey inThe New Yorkerin 1944 (decades later it was the basis of a successfulfilm).It followed Kennedy into politics and provided a strong foundation for his appeal as a leader.Hersey portrayed Kennedy as a modest, self-deprecating hero.For his courage and leadership, Kennedy was awarded theNavy and Marine Corps Medal, and the injuries he suffered during the incident qualified him for aPurple Heart. After a month's recovery Kennedy returned to duty, commanding thePT-59. On November 2, Kennedy'sPT-59took part with two other PTs in the",
"other PTs in the rescue of 40–50 marines. The59acted as a shield from shore fire as they escaped on two rescue landing craft at the base of the Warrior River atChoiseul Island, taking ten marines aboard and delivering them to safety.Under doctor's orders, Kennedy was relieved of his command on November 18, and sent to the hospital on Tulagi.By December 1943, with his health deteriorating, Kennedy left the Pacific front and arrived in San Francisco in early January 1944.After receiving treatment for his back injury at theChelsea Naval Hospitalin Massachusetts from May to December 1944, he was released from active duty.Beginning in January 1945, Kennedy spent three months recovering from his back injury atCastle Hot Springs, a resort and temporary military hospital in Arizona.On March 1, 1945, Kennedy retired from the Navy Reserve on physical disability and was honorably discharged with the full rank of lieutenant.When later asked how he became a war hero, Kennedy joked: \"It was easy. They cut my PT boat in",
"cut my PT boat in half.\" On August 12, 1944, Kennedy's older brother,Joe Jr., a navy pilot, was killed on an air mission. His body was never recovered.The news reached the family's home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, a day later. Kennedy felt that Joe Jr.'s reckless flight was partly an effort to outdo him.To console himself, Kennedy set out to assemble a privately published book of remembrances of his brother,As We Remember Joe. Journalism (1945) In April 1945, Kennedy's father, who was a friend ofWilliam Randolph Hearst, arranged a position for his son as a special correspondent forHearst Newspapers; the assignment kept Kennedy's name in the public eye and \"expose him to journalism as a possible career.\"That May he went to Berlin as a correspondent,covering thePotsdam Conferenceand other events. U.S. House of Representatives (1947–1953) Kennedy's elder brother Joe Jr. had been thefamily's political standard-bearerand had been tapped by their father to seek the presidency. After Joe's death, the assignment",
"the assignment fell to JFK as the second eldest.Boston mayorMaurice J. Tobindiscussed the possibility of John becoming his running mate in1946as a candidate forMassachusetts lieutenant governor, but Joe Sr. preferred a congressional campaign that could send John to Washington, where he could have national visibility. At the urging of Kennedy's father, U.S. RepresentativeJames Michael Curleyvacated his seat in the strongly Democratic11th congressional district of Massachusettsto become mayor of Boston in 1946. Kennedy established legal residency at 122 Bowdoin Street across from theMassachusetts State House.Kennedy won the Democratic primary with 42 percent of the vote, defeating nine other candidates.According to Fredrik Logevall, Joe Sr. spent hours on the phone with reporters and editors, seeking information, trading confidences, and cajoling them into publishing puff pieces on John, ones that invariably played up his war record in the Pacific. He oversaw a professional advertising campaign that ensured",
"that ensured ads went up in just the right places the campaign had a virtual monopoly on subwayspace, and on window stickers (\"Kennedy for Congress\") for cars and homes and was the force behind the mass mailing of Hersey'sPT-109article. Though Republicans took control of the House in the1946 elections, Kennedy defeated his Republican opponent in the general election, taking 73 percent of the vote. As a congressman, Kennedy had a reputation for not taking much interest in the running of his office or his constituents' concerns, with one of the highest absenteeism rates in the House, although much was explained by illness.George Smathers, one of his few political friends at the time, claimed that he was more interested in being a writer than a politician, and at that time he suffered from extreme shyness.Kennedy found \"most of his fellow congressmen boring, preoccupied as they all seemed to be with their narrow political concerns.\" The arcane House rules and customs, which slowed legislation, exasperated him.",
"exasperated him. Kennedy served in the House for six years, joining the influentialEducation and Labor Committeeand theVeterans' Affairs Committee. He concentrated his attention on international affairs, supporting theTruman Doctrineas the appropriate response to the emergingCold War. He also supportedpublic housingand opposed theLabor Management Relations Act of 1947, which restricted the power of labor unions. Though not as vocally anti-communist asJoseph McCarthy, Kennedy supported theImmigration and Nationality Act of 1952, which required communists to register with the government, and he deplored the \"loss of China.\"During a speech inSalem, Massachusettson January 30, 1949, Kennedy denounced Truman and the State Department for contributing to the \"tragic story of China whose freedom we once fought to preserve. What our young men had saved , our diplomats and our President have frittered away.\"Having served as aboy scoutduring his childhood, Kennedy was active in theBoston Councilfrom 1946 to 1955 as",
"1946 to 1955 as district vice chairman, member of the executive board, vice-president, and National Council Representative. To appeal to the largeItalian-Americanvoting bloc in Massachusetts, Kennedy delivered a speech in November 1947 supporting a $227 million aid package to Italy. He maintained that Italy was in danger from an \"onslaught of the communist minority\" and that the country was the \"initial battleground in the communist drive to capture Western Europe.\"To combat Soviet efforts to take control in Middle Eastern and Asian countries likeIndochina, Kennedy wanted the United States to develop nonmilitary techniques of resistance that would not create suspicions ofneoimperialismor add to the country's financial burden. The problem, as he saw it, was not simply to be anti-communist but to stand for something that these emerging nations would find appealing. Almost every weekend that Congress was in session, Kennedy would fly back to Massachusetts to give speeches to veteran, fraternal, and civic",
"and civic groups, while maintaining an index card file on individuals who might be helpful for a campaign for statewide office.Contemplating whether to run forMassachusetts governoror theU.S. Senate, Kennedy abandoned interest in the former, believing that the governor \"sat in an office, handing out sewer contracts.\" U.S. Senate (1953–1960) As early as 1949, Kennedy began preparing to run for the Senate in1952against Republican three-term incumbentHenry Cabot Lodge Jr.with the campaign slogan \"KENNEDY WILL DOMOREFOR MASSACHUSETTS\".Joe Sr. again financed his son's candidacy (persuading theBoston Postto switch its support to Kennedy by promising the publisher a $500,000 loan),while John's younger brotherRobertemerged as campaign manager.Kennedy's mother and sisters contributed as highly effective canvassers by hosting a series of \"teas\" at hotels and parlors across Massachusetts to reach out to women voters.In the presidential election, RepublicanDwight D. Eisenhowercarried Massachusetts by 208,000 votes, but",
"208,000 votes, but Kennedy narrowly defeated Lodge by 70,000 votes for the Senate seat.The following year, he marriedJacqueline Bouvier. Kennedy underwent several spinal operations over the next two years. Often absent from the Senate, he was at times critically ill and received Catholiclast rites. During his convalescence in 1956, he publishedProfiles in Courage, a book about U.S. senators who risked their careers for their personal beliefs, for which he won thePulitzer Prize for Biographyin 1957.Rumors that this work wasghostwrittenby his close adviser andspeechwriter,Ted Sorensen, were confirmed in Sorensen's 2008 autobiography. At the start of his first term, Kennedy focused on fulfilling the promise of his campaign to do \"more for Massachusetts\" than his predecessor. Although Kennedy's and Lodge's legislative records were similarly liberal, Lodge voted for theTaft-Hartley Act of 1947and Kennedy voted against it. OnNBC'sMeet the Press, Kennedy excoriated Lodge for not doing enough to prevent the",
"to prevent the increasing migration of manufacturing jobs from Massachusetts to the South, and blamed theright-to-workprovision for giving the South an unfair advantage over Massachusetts in labor costs.In May 1953, Kennedy introduced \"The Economic Problems of New England\",a 36-point programto help Massachusetts industries such asfishing,textile manufacturing,watchmaking, andshipbuilding, as well as the Boston seaport.Kennedy's policy agenda includedprotective tariffs, preventing excessivespeculationin raw wool, stronger efforts to research and market American fish products, an increase in theFish and Wildlife Servicebudget, modernizingreserve-fleet vessels,tax incentivesto prevent further business relocations, and the development ofhydroelectricandnuclear powerin Massachusetts.Kennedy's suggestions for stimulating the region's economy appealed to both parties by offering benefits to business and labor, and promising to serve national defense. Congress would eventually enact most of the program.Kennedy,",
"program.Kennedy, aMassachusetts Audubon Societysupporter, wanted to make sure that the shorelines ofCape Codremained unsullied by industrialization. On September 3, 1959, Kennedy co-sponsored theCape Cod National Seashorebill with his Republican colleague SenatorLeverett Saltonstall. As a senator, Kennedy quickly won a reputation for responsiveness to requests from constituents (i.e., co-sponsoring legislation to provide federal loans to help rebuild communities damaged by the1953 Worcester tornado), except on certain occasions when the national interest was at stake.In 1954, Kennedy voted in favor of theSaint Lawrence Seawaywhich would connect the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, despite opposition from Massachusetts politicians who argued that the project would hurt thePort of Bostoneconomically. In 1954, when the Senate voted to condemnJoseph McCarthyfor breaking Senate rules and abusing an Army general, Kennedy was the only Democrat not to cast a vote against him.Kennedy drafted a speech supporting the",
"supporting the censure. However, it was not delivered because Kennedy was hospitalized for back surgery in Boston.Although Kennedy never indicated how he would have voted, the episode damaged his support among members of theliberalcommunity in the 1956 and 1960 elections. In 1956, Kennedy gained control of theMassachusetts Democratic Party,and delivered the state delegation to the party's presidential nominee,Adlai Stevenson II, at theDemocratic National Conventionin August.Stevenson let the conventionselect the vice presidential nominee. Kennedy finished second in the balloting, losing to SenatorEstes Kefauverof Tennessee, but receiving national exposure. In 1957, Kennedy joined the Senate'sSelect Committee on Labor Rackets(also known as the McClellan Committee) with his brother Robert, who was chief counsel, to investigateracketeeringin labor-management relations.The hearings attracted extensive radio and television coverage where the Kennedy brothers engaged in dramatic arguments with controversial labor",
"controversial labor leaders, includingJimmy Hoffa, of theTeamsters Union. The following year, Kennedy introduced a bill to prevent the expenditure of union dues for improper purposes or private gain; to forbid loans from union funds for illicit transactions; and to compel audits of unions, which would ensure against false financial reports.It was the first major labor relations bill to pass either house since the Taft–Hartley Act of 1947 and dealt largely with the control of union abuses exposed by the McClellan Committee but did not incorporate tough Taft–Hartley amendments requested by President Eisenhower. It survived Senate floor attempts to include Taft-Hartley amendments and passed but was rejected by the House.\"Honest union members and the general public can only regard it as a tragedy that politics has prevented the recommendations of the McClellan committee from being carried out this year,\" Kennedy announced. That same year, Kennedy joined the Senate'sForeign Relations Committee.There he",
"Committee.There he supportedAlgeria's effort to gain independencefrom France and sponsored an amendment to theMutual Defense Assistance Actthat would provide aid to Soviet satellite nations. Kennedy also introduced an amendment to theNational Defense Education Actin 1959 to eliminate the requirement that aid recipients sign a loyalty oath and provide supporting affidavits. Kennedy cast a procedural vote against President Eisenhower's bill for theCivil Rights Act of 1957and this was considered by some to be an appeasement of Southern Democratic opponents of the bill.Kennedy did vote for Title III of the act, which would have given the Attorney General powers to enjoin, but Majority LeaderLyndon B. Johnsonagreed to let the provision die as a compromise measure.Kennedy also voted for the \"Jury Trial Amendment.\" Many civil rights advocates criticized that vote as one which would weaken the act.A final compromise bill, which Kennedy supported, was passed in September 1957.As a senator from Massachusetts, which",
"which lacked a sizable Black population, Kennedy was not particularly sensitive to the problems of African Americans. Robert Kennedy later reflected, \"We weren't thinking of the Negroes of Mississippi or Alabama—what should be done for them. We were thinking of what needed to be done in Massachusetts.\" Most historians and political scientists who have written about Kennedy refer to his U.S. Senate years as an interlude.According toRobert Dallek, Kennedy called being a senator \"the most corrupting job in the world.\" He complained that they were all too quick to cut deals and please campaign contributors to ensure their political futures. Kennedy, with the luxury of a rich father who could finance his campaigns, could remain independent of any special interest, except for those in his home state of Massachusetts that could align against his reelection.According toRobert Caro, Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson viewed Kennedy as a \"playboy\", describing his performance in the Senate and the House as \"pathetic\" on",
"as \"pathetic\" on another occasion, saying that he was \"smart enough, but he doesn't like the grunt work\".Author John T. Shaw acknowledges that while his Senate career is not associated with acts of \"historic statesmanship\" or \"novel political thought,\" Kennedy made modest contributions as a legislator, drafting more than 300 bills to assist Massachusetts and the New England region (some of which became law). In1958, Kennedy was re-elected to the Senate, defeating his Republican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, with 73.6 percent of the vote, the largest winning margin in the history of Massachusetts politics.In the aftermath of his re-election, Kennedy began preparing to run for president by traveling throughout the U.S. with the aim of building his candidacy for 1960. 1960 presidential election On January 2, 1960, Kennedy announced his candidacy for theDemocratic presidential nomination.Though some questioned Kennedy's age and experience, his charisma and eloquence earned him numerous supporters.",
"supporters. Kennedy faced several potential challengers, including Senate Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson,Adlai Stevenson II, and SenatorHubert Humphrey. Kennedy traveled extensively to build his support. His campaign strategy was to win several primaries to demonstrate his electability to theparty bosses, who controlled most of the delegates, and to prove to his detractors that a Catholic could win popular support.Victories over Senator Humphrey in the Wisconsin and West Virginia primaries gave Kennedy momentum as he moved on to the1960 Democratic National Conventionin Los Angeles. When Kennedy entered the convention, he had the most delegates, but not enough to ensure that he would win the nomination.Stevenson—the 1952 and 1956 presidential nominee—remained very popular, while Johnson also hoped to win the nomination with support from party leaders. Kennedy's candidacy also faced opposition from former PresidentHarry S. Truman, who was concerned about Kennedy's lack of experience. Kennedy knew that a second",
"knew that a second ballot could give the nomination to Johnson or someone else, and his well-organized campaign was able to earn the support of just enough delegates to win the presidential nomination on the first ballot. Kennedy ignored the opposition of his brother Robert, who wanted him to choose labor leaderWalter Reuther,and other liberal supporters when hechose Johnsonas his vice-presidential nominee. He believed that the Texas senator could help him win support from theSouth.In accepting the presidential nomination, Kennedy gave his well-known \"New Frontier\" speech: For the problems are not all solved and the battles are not all won—and we stand today on the edge of a New Frontier. ... But the New Frontier of which I speak is not a set of promises—it is a set of challenges. It sums up not what I intend to offer the American people, but what I intend to ask of them. At the start of the fall general election campaign, the Republican nominee and incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon held a six-point",
"held a six-point lead in the polls.Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Catholicism, theCuban Revolution, and whether the space and missile programs of the Soviet Union hadsurpassedthose of the U.S. To address fears that his being Catholic would impact his decision-making, he told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12: \"I am not the Catholic candidate for president. I am the Democratic Party candidate for president who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters—and the Church does not speak for me.\"He promised to respect theseparation of church and state, and not to allow Catholic officials to dictate public policy. The Kennedy and Nixon campaigns agreed to a series oftelevised debates.An estimated 70 million Americans, about two-thirds of the electorate, watched the first debate on September 26.Kennedy had met the day before with the producer to discuss the set design and camera placement. Nixon, just out of the",
"just out of the hospital after a painful knee injury, did not take advantage of this opportunity and during the debate looked at the reporters asking questions and not at the camera. Kennedy wore a blue suit and shirt to cut down on glare and appeared sharply focused against the gray studio background. Nixon wore a light-colored suit that blended into the gray background; in combination with the harsh studio lighting that left Nixon perspiring, he offered a less-than-commanding presence. By contrast, Kennedy appeared relaxed, tanned, and telegenic, looking into the camera whilst answering questions.It is often claimed that television viewers overwhelmingly believed Kennedy, appearing to be the more attractive of the two, had won, while radio listeners (a smaller audience) thought Nixon had defeated him.However, only one poll split TV and radio voters like this and the methodology was poor.PollsterElmo Roperconcluded that the debates raised interest, boosted turnout, and gave Kennedy an extra two million",
"extra two million votes, mostly as a result of the first debate.The debates are now considered a milestone in American political history—the point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role. Kennedy's campaign gained momentum after the first debate, and he pulled slightly ahead of Nixon in most polls. On Election Day, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the 20th century. In the national popular vote,by most accounts, Kennedy led Nixon by just two-tenths of one percent (49.7% to 49.5%), while in theElectoral College, he won 303 votes to Nixon's 219 (269 were needed to win).Fourteen electors from Mississippi and Alabama refused to support Kennedy because of his support for thecivil rights movement; they voted for SenatorHarry F. Byrdof Virginia, as did an elector from Oklahoma.Forty-three years old, Kennedy was theyoungest personever elected to the presidency (thoughTheodore Rooseveltwas a year younger when he succeeded to the presidency after",
"presidency after theassassination of William McKinleyin 1901). Presidency (1961–1963) Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th president at noon on January 20, 1961. Inhis inaugural address, he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens: \"Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.\" He asked the nations of the world to join to fight what he called the \"common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself.\"He added: All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin.\" In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater internationalism: \"Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you. The address reflected Kennedy's confidence that his administration would chart a historically",
"a historically significant course in both domestic policy and foreign affairs. The contrast between this optimistic vision and the pressures of managing daily political realities would be one of the main tensions of the early years of his administration. Kennedy scrapped the decision-making structure of Eisenhower,preferring an organizational structure of a wheel with all the spokes leading to the president; he was willing to make the increased number of quick decisions required in such an environment.Though the cabinet remained important, Kennedy generally relied more on his staffers within theExecutive Office.In spite of concerns overnepotism, Kennedy's father insisted that Robert Kennedy becomeU.S. Attorney General, and the younger Kennedy became the \"assistant president\" who advised on all major issues. Foreign policy Cold War and flexible response Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, manifested by proxy contests in the global state of tension known as",
"of tension known as theCold War. Like his predecessors, Kennedy adopted the policy ofcontainmentto stop the spread of communism.Fearful of the possibility ofnuclear war, Kennedy implemented a defense strategy known asflexible response. This strategy relied on multiple options for responding to the Soviet Union, discouragedmassive retaliation, and encouragedmutual deterrence.In contrast to Eisenhower's warning about the perils of themilitary-industrial complex, Kennedy focused on rearmament. From 1961 to 1964 the number ofnuclear weaponsincreased by 50 percent, as did the number ofB-52bombers to deliver them. In January 1961,Soviet PremierNikita Khrushchevdeclared his support forwars of national liberation. Kennedy interpreted this step as a direct threat to the \"free world.\" Decolonization and the Congo Crisis Between 1960 and 1963,twenty-four countriesgained independence as the process ofdecolonizationcontinued. Kennedy set out to woo the leaders and people of the \"Third World,\" expanding economic aid and",
"economic aid and appointing knowledgeable ambassadors.His administration established theFood for Peaceprogram and thePeace Corpsto provide aid todeveloping countries. The Food for Peace program became a central element in American foreign policy, and eventually helped many countries to develop their economies and become commercial import customers. During the election campaign, Kennedy attacked the Eisenhower administration for losing ground on the African continent,and stressed that the U.S. should be on the side of anti-colonialism and self-determination.Kennedy considered theCongo Crisisto be among the most important foreign policy issues facing his presidency, and he supported aUN operationthat prevented the secession ofKatanga.Moïse Tshombe, leader of Katanga, declared its independence from the Congo and the Soviet Union responded by sending weapons and technicians to underwrite their struggle.On October 2, 1962, Kennedy signed United Nations bond issue bill to ensure U.S. assistance in financing UN",
"in financing UN peacekeeping operations in the Congo and elsewhere. Peace Corps In one of his first presidential acts, Kennedy signedExecutive Order10924 that officially started thePeace Corps. He named his brother-in-law,Sargent Shriver, as its first director.Through this program, Americans volunteered to help developing countries in fields like education, farming, health care, and construction.Kennedy believed that countries that received Peace Corps volunteers were less likely to succumb to a communist revolution.Tanganyika(present-dayTanzania) andGhanawere the first countries to participate.The organization grew to 5,000 members by March 1963 and 10,000 the year after.Since 1961, over 200,000 Americans have joined the Peace Corps, representing 139 countries. Vienna Summit and the Berlin Wall Kennedy anxiously anticipated a summit with Nikita Khrushchev. The proceedings for the summit got off to a problematic start when Kennedy reacted aggressively to a routine Khrushchev speech on Cold War confrontation",
"War confrontation in early 1961. The speech was intended for domestic audiences in the Soviet Union, but Kennedy interpreted it as a personal challenge. His mistake helped raise tensions going into theVienna summit.The summit would cover several topics, but both leaders knew that the most contentious issue would beBerlin, which had been divided in two with the start of the Cold War. The enclave ofWest Berlinlay within Soviet-alliedEast Germany, but was supported by the U.S. and other Western powers. The Soviets wanted to reunify Berlin under the control of East Germany, partly due to the large number of East Germans who had fled to West Berlin. On June 4, 1961, Kennedy met with Khrushchev in Vienna and left the meeting angry and disappointed that he had allowed the premier to bully him, despite the warnings he had received. Khrushchev, for his part, was impressed with the president's intelligence but thought him weak. Kennedy did succeed in conveying the bottom line to Khrushchev on the most sensitive issue",
"sensitive issue before them, a proposed treaty between Moscow andEast Berlin. He made it clear that any treaty interfering with U.S. access rights in West Berlin would be regarded as an act of war.Shortly after Kennedy returned home, the Soviet Union announced its plan to sign a treaty with East Berlin, abrogating any third-party occupation rights in either sector of the city. Kennedy assumed that his only option was to prepare the country for nuclear war, which he thought had a one-in-five chance of occurring. In the weeks immediately following the summit, more than 20,000 peoplefled from East Berlinto the western sector, reacting to statements from the Soviet Union. Kennedy began intensive meetings on the Berlin issue, whereDean Achesontook the lead in recommending a military buildup alongside NATO allies.In a July 1961 speech, Kennedy announced his decision to add $3.25 billion (equivalent to $33.14 billion in 2023) to the defense budget, along with over 200,000 additional troops, stating that an attack",
"that an attack on West Berlin would be taken as an attack on the U.S. The speech received an 85% approval rating. A month later, both the Soviet Union and East Berlin began blocking any further passage of East Germans into West Berlin and erectedbarbed-wirefences, which were quickly upgraded to theBerlin Wall. Kennedy acquiesced to the wall, though he sent Vice President Johnson to West Berlin to reaffirm U.S. commitment to the enclave's defense. In the following months, in a sign of rising Cold War tensions, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union ended a moratorium on nuclear weapon testing.A brief stand-off between U.S. and Soviet tanks occurred atCheckpoint Charliein October following a dispute over free movement of Allied personnel. Thecrisiswas defused largely through a backchannel communication the Kennedy administration had set up with Soviet spyGeorgi Bolshakov.In remarks to his aides on the Berlin Wall, Kennedy noted that \"it's not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war.\"",
"better than a war.\" Bay of Pigs Invasion The Eisenhower administration had created a plan to overthrowFidel Castro's regime though an invasion of Cuba by a counter-revolutionary insurgency composed of U.S.-trained, anti-CastroCuban exilesled byCIAparamilitary officers.Kennedy had campaigned on a hardline stance against Castro, and when presented with the plan that had been developed under the Eisenhower administration, he enthusiastically adopted it regardless of the risk of inflaming tensions with the Soviet Union.Kennedy approved the final invasion plan on April 4, 1961. On April 15, 1961, eight CIA-suppliedB-26bombers left Nicaragua to bomb Cuban airfields. The bombers missed many of their targets, leaving most of Castro's air force intact.On April 17, the 1,500 U.S.-trained Cuban exile invasion force, known asBrigade 2506, landed at beaches along theBay of Pigsand immediately came under heavy fire.The goal was to spark a widespread popular uprising against Castro, but no such uprising occurred.No U.S.",
"occurred.No U.S. air support was provided.The invading force was defeated within two days by theCuban Revolutionary Armed Forces;114 were killed and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors.After twenty months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for a ransom of $53 million worth of food and medicine.The incident made Castro wary of the U.S. and led him to believe that another invasion would take place. BiographerRichard Reevessaid that Kennedy focused primarily on the political repercussions of the plan rather than military considerations. When it proved unsuccessful, he was convinced that the plan was a setup to make him look bad.He took responsibility for the failure, saying, \"We got a big kick in the leg and we deserved it. But maybe we'll learn something from it.\"Kennedy's approval ratings climbed afterwards, helped in part by the vocal support given to him by Nixon and Eisenhower.He appointed Robert Kennedy to help lead a committee to examine the causes of the",
"the causes of the failure.The Kennedy administrationbanned all Cuban importsand convinced theOrganization of American States(OAS) to expel Cuba. Operation Mongoose In late 1961, the White House formed the Special Group (Augmented), headed by Robert Kennedy and includingEdward Lansdale, SecretaryRobert McNamara, and others. The group's objective—to overthrow Castro via espionage, sabotage, and other covert tactics—was never pursued.In November 1961, he authorizedOperation Mongoose.In March 1962, Kennedy rejectedOperation Northwoods, proposals forfalse flagattacks against American military and civilian targets,and blaming them on the Cuban government to gain approval for a war against Cuba. However, the administration continued to plan for an invasion of Cuba in the summer of 1962. Cuban Missile Crisis In the aftermath of the Bay of Pigs invasion, Khrushchev increased economic and military assistance to Cuba.The Soviet Union planned to allocate in Cuba 49medium-range ballistic missiles, 32intermediate-range",
"ballistic missiles, 49 lightIl-28bombers and about 100tactical nuclear weapons.The Kennedy administration viewed the growingCuba-Soviet alliancewith alarm, fearing that it could eventually pose a threat to the U.S.On October 14, 1962, CIAU-2spy planestook photographsof the Soviets' construction of intermediate-range ballistic missile sites in Cuba. The photos were shown to Kennedy on October 16; a consensus was reached that the missiles were offensive in nature and posed an immediate nuclear threat. Kennedy faced a dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites, it might lead to nuclear war with the Soviet Union, but if the U.S. did nothing, it would be faced with the increased threat from close-range nuclear weapons (positioned approximately 90 mi (140 km) away from the Florida coast).The U.S. would also appear to the world as less committed to the defense of the Western Hemisphere. On a personal level, Kennedy needed to show resolve in reaction to Khrushchev, especially after the Vienna summit.To deal with the",
"deal with the crisis, he formed an ad-hoc body of key advisers, later known asEXCOMM, that met secretly between October 16 and 28. More than a third ofU.S. National Security Council(NSC) members favored an unannounced air assault on the missile sites, but some saw this as \"Pearl Harborin reverse.\"There was some concern from the international community (asked in confidence) that the assault plan was an overreaction given that Eisenhower had placedPGM-19 Jupitermissiles in Italy and Turkey in 1958. It also could not be assured that the assault would be 100% effective.In concurrence with a majority vote of the NSC, Kennedy decided on anaval blockade(or \"quarantine\"). On October 22, after privately informing the cabinet and leading members of Congress about the situation, Kennedy announced the naval blockade on national television and warned that U.S. forces would seize \"offensive weapons and associated materiel\" that Soviet vessels might attempt to deliver to Cuba. The U.S. Navy would stop and inspect all",
"and inspect all Soviet ships arriving off Cuba, beginning October 24. Several Soviet ships approached the blockade line, but they stopped or reversed course.The OAS gave unanimous support to the removal of the missiles. Kennedy exchanged two sets of letters with Khrushchev, to no avail.UN Secretary GeneralU Thantrequested both parties to reverse their decisions and enter a cooling-off period. Khrushchev agreed, but Kennedy did not.Kennedy managed to preserve restraint when a Soviet missile unauthorizedly downed a U.S. Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft over Cuba, killing pilotRudolf Anderson. At the president's direction, Robert Kennedy privately informed Soviet AmbassadorAnatoly Dobryninthat the U.S. would remove the Jupiter missiles from Turkey \"within a short time after this crisis was over.\"On October 28, Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the missile sites, subject to UN inspections.The U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba and privately agreed to remove its Jupiter missiles from Italy and Turkey,",
"Italy and Turkey, which were by then obsolete and had been supplanted by submarines equipped withUGM-27 Polarismissiles. In the aftermath, aMoscow–Washington hotlinewas established to ensure clear communications between the leaders of the two countries.This crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or after, but \"the humanity\" of Khrushchev and Kennedy prevailed.The crisis improved the image of American willpower and the president's credibility. Kennedy's approval rating increased from 66% to 77% immediately thereafter. Latin America and communism Believing that \"those who make peaceful revolution impossible, will make violent revolution inevitable,\"Kennedy sought to contain the perceived threat of communism in Latin America by establishing theAlliance for Progress, which sent aid to some countries and sought greaterhuman rightsstandards in the region.In response to Kennedy's plea, Congress voted for an initial grant of $500 million in May 1961.The Alliance for Progress",
"for Progress supported the construction of housing, schools, airports, hospitals, clinics and water-purification projects as well as the distribution of free textbooks to students.However, the program did not meet many of its goals. Massive land reform was not achieved; populations more than kept pace with gains in health and welfare; and according to one study, only 2 percent of economic growth in 1960s Latin America directly benefited the poor.U.S. presidents after Kennedy were less supportive of the program and by 1973, the permanent committee established to implement the Alliance was disbanded by the OAS. The Eisenhower administration, through the CIA, had begun formulating plans to assassinate Castro in Cuba andRafael Trujilloin theDominican Republic. When Kennedy took office, he privately instructed the CIA that any plan must includeplausible deniabilityby the U.S. His public position was in opposition.In June 1961, the Dominican Republic's leader was assassinated; in the days following, Undersecretary",
"Undersecretary of StateChester Bowlesled a cautious reaction by the nation. Robert Kennedy, who saw an opportunity for the U.S., called Bowles \"a gutless bastard\" to his face. Laos After the election, Eisenhower emphasized to Kennedy that the communist threat in Southeast Asia required priority; Eisenhower consideredLaosto be \"the cork in the bottle\" in regards to the regional threat.In March 1961, Kennedy voiced a change in policy from supporting a \"free\" Laos to a \"neutral\" Laos, indicating privately thatVietnamshould be deemed America's tripwire for communism's spread in the area.Though he was unwilling to commit U.S. forces to a major military intervention in Laos, Kennedy did approveCIA activitiesdesigned to defeat Communist insurgents through bombing raids and the recruitment of theHmong people. Vietnam During his presidency, Kennedy continued policies that provided political, economic, and military support to theSouth Vietnamesegovernment.Vietnam had been divided into a communist North Vietnam and a",
"North Vietnam and a non-communist South Vietnam after the1954 Geneva Conference, but Kennedy escalated American involvement in Vietnam in 1961 by financing theSouth Vietnam army, increasing the number of U.S.military advisorsabove the levels of the Eisenhower administration, and authorizing U.S. helicopter units to provide support to South Vietnamese forces.On January 18, 1962, Kennedy formally authorized escalated involvement when he signed the National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) – \"Subversive Insurgency (War of Liberation).\"Operation Ranch Hand, a large-scale aerial defoliation effort using the herbicideAgent Orange, began on the roadsides of South Vietnam to combatguerrilla defendants. Though Kennedy provided support for South Vietnam throughout his tenure, Vietnam remained a secondary issue for the Kennedy administration until 1963.On September 2, Kennedy declared in an interview withWalter CronkiteofCBS: In the final analysis, it is their war. They are the ones who have to win it or lose it. We",
"it or lose it. We can help them, we can give them equipment, we can send our men out there as advisers, but they have to win it, the people of Vietnam, against the Communists... But I don't agree with those who say we should withdraw. That would be a great mistake... made this effort to defend Europe. Now Europe is quite secure. We also have to participate—we may not like it—in the defense of Asia. Kennedy increasingly soured on the president of South Vietnam,Ngo Dinh Diem, whose violentcrackdown on Buddhist practicesgalvanized opposition to his leadership. In August 1963,Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.replacedFrederick Noltingas the U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam. Days after his arrival in South Vietnam, Lodge reported that several South Vietnamese generals sought the assent of the U.S. government to their plan of removing Diem from power. The Kennedy administration was split regarding not just the removal of Diem, but also their assessment of the military situation and the proper U.S. role in the country. After",
"the country. After the State Department sent adiplomatic cableto Lodge that ordered him to pressure Diem to remove military authority from his brother,Ngô Đình Nhu, or face potential withdrawal of U.S. support and removal from power,Kennedy instructed Lodge to offer covert assistance to a coup d'état, excluding assassination.On November 1, 1963, a junta of senior military officers executed thecoupwhich led to thearrest and assassinations of Diem and Nhuon November 2. By November 1963, there were 16,000 American military personnel in South Vietnam, up from Eisenhower's 900 advisors;more than one hundred Americans had been killed in action and no final policy decision was made.In the aftermath of the aborted coup in September 1963, the Kennedy administration reevaluated its policies in South Vietnam. Kennedy rejected the full-scale deployment of ground soldiers but also the total withdrawal of U.S. forces.Historians disagree on whether the U.S. military presence in Vietnam would have escalated had Kennedy",
"had Kennedy survived and been re-elected in 1964.Fueling the debate are statements made by Secretary of Defense McNamara in the 2003 documentary filmThe Fog of Warthat Kennedy was strongly considering pulling out of Vietnam after the 1964 election,and comments made by Kennedy administrationWhite House Counseland speechwriterTed Sorensenin a 2008 memoir suggesting that Kennedy was undecided about what policy direction to take. On October 11, 1963, Kennedy signedNSAM 263ordering the withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of the year following the third recommendation of theMcNamara–Taylor missionreport, which concluded that the training program for the South Vietnamese military had sufficiently progressed to justify the withdrawal.However, NSAM 263 also approved the first recommendation of the report to continue providing support to South Vietnam to prevent the spread of communism and until theViet Congwas suppressed, while the third recommendation suggested that even if the majority of the U.S.",
"of the U.S. military objective was completed by the end of 1965 that continued presence of U.S. training personnel in more limited numbers could be necessary if the insurgency was not suppressed. West Berlin speech In 1963, Germany was enduring a time of particular vulnerability due to Soviet aggression to the east as well as the impending retirement of West German ChancellorAdenauer.At the same time, French President Charles de Gaulle was trying to build a Franco-West German counterweight to the American and Soviet spheres of influence.To Kennedy's eyes, this Franco-German cooperation seemed directed againstNATO's influence in Europe. To reinforce the U.S. alliance with West Germany, Kennedy travelled to West Germany and West Berlin in June 1963. On June 26, Kennedy toured West Berlin, culminating in a public speech at the city hall in front of hundreds of thousands of enthusiastic Berliners.He reiterated the American commitment to Germany and criticized communism and was met with an ecstatic response from",
"response from the massive audience.Kennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failures of communism: \"Freedom has many difficulties, and democracy is not perfect. But we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in, to prevent them from leaving us.\" The speech is known for its famous phrase\"Ich bin ein Berliner\"(\"I am a Berliner\"). Middle East Kennedy ended the arms embargo that the Truman and Eisenhower administrations had enforced onIsraelin favor of increased security ties, becoming the founder of theU.S.-Israeli military alliance. Describing the protection of Israel as a moral and national commitment, he was the first to introduce the concept of a 'special relationship' between the U.S. and Israel.In 1962, the Kennedy administration sold Israel a major weapon system, theHawk antiaircraft missile. Historians differ as to whether Kennedy pursued security ties with Israel primarily to shore up support with Jewish-American voters, or because of his admiration of the Jewish",
"of the Jewish state. In December 1961,Abd al-Karim Qasim's Iraqi government passed Public Law 80, which restricted the partially American-controlledIraq Petroleum Company(IPC)'sconcessionary holdingto those areas in which oil was actually being produced (namely, the fields atAz ZubairandKirkuk), effectively expropriating 99.5% of the IPC concession. British and U.S. officials demanded that the Kennedy administration place pressure on the Qasim regime.In April 1962, the State Department issued new guidelines on Iraq that were intended to increase American influence. Meanwhile, Kennedy instructed the CIA—under the direction ofArchibald Bulloch Roosevelt Jr.—to begin making preparations for a military coup against Qasim. The anti-imperialist and anti-communistIraqi Ba'ath Partyoverthrew and executed Qasim ina violent coupon February 8, 1963. Despite persistent rumors that the CIA orchestrated the coup, declassified documents and the testimony of former CIA officers indicate that there was no direct American",
"no direct American involvement.The Kennedy administration was pleased with the outcome and ultimately approved a $55-million arms deal for Iraq. Ireland During his four-day visit to his ancestral home of Ireland beginning on June 26, 1963,Kennedy accepted a grant ofarmorial bearingsfrom theChief Herald of Ireland, received honorary degrees from theNational University of IrelandandTrinity College Dublin, attended a State Dinner in Dublin, and was conferred with the freedom of the towns and cities of Wexford, Cork, Dublin, Galway, and Limerick.He visited the cottage at Dunganstown, nearNew Ross, County Wexford, where his ancestors had lived before emigrating to America. Kennedy was the first foreign leader to address theHouses of the Oireachtas, the Irish parliament.Kennedy later told aides that the trip was the best four days of his life. American University speech On June 10, 1963, Kennedy, at the high point of his rhetorical powers,delivered thecommencement address at American University. Also known as \"A",
"Also known as \"A Strategy of Peace\", not only did Kennedy outline a plan to curb nuclear arms, but he also \"laid out a hopeful, yet realistic route for world peace at a time when the U.S. and Soviet Union faced the potential for an escalatingnuclear arms race.\"Kennedy also announced that the Soviets had expressed a desire to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, and that the U.S. had postponed planned atmospheric tests. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Troubled by the long-term dangers ofradioactive contaminationandnuclear proliferation, Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, originally conceived in Adlai Stevenson's 1956 presidential campaign.In their Vienna summit meeting in June 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy reached an informal understanding against nuclear testing, but the Soviet Union began testing nuclear weapons that September. In response, the United States conducted tests five days later.Shortly afterwards, new U.S. satellites began delivering images that made it clear that the",
"it clear that the Soviets were substantially behind the U.S. in the arms race.Nevertheless, the greater nuclear strength of the U.S. was of little value as long as the Soviet Union perceived itself to be at parity. In July 1963, Kennedy sentW. Averell Harrimanto Moscow to negotiate a treaty with the Soviets.The introductory sessions included Khrushchev, who later delegated Soviet representation toAndrei Gromyko. It quickly became clear that a comprehensive test ban would not be implemented, due largely to the reluctance of the Soviets to allow inspections to verify compliance. Ultimately, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to a limited treaty, which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but not underground. The U.S. Senate approved the treaty on September 23, 1963, and Kennedy signed it on October 7, 1963.France was quick to declare that it was free to continue developing and testing its nuclear defenses. Domestic",
"defenses. Domestic policy New Frontier Kennedy called his domestic proposals the \"New Frontier\".However, Kennedy's small margin of victory in the 1960 election, his lack of deep connections to influential members of Congress, and his administration's focus on foreign policy hindered the passage of New Frontier policies. In 1961, Kennedy prioritized passing five bills: federal assistance for education, medical insurance for the elderly, housing legislation, federal aid to struggling areas, and an increase in the federal minimum wage.Kennedy's bill to increase thefederal minimum wageto $1.25 an hour passed in early 1961, but an amendment inserted by conservative leader from Georgia,Carl Vinson, exempted laundry workers from the law.Kennedy also won passage of theArea Redevelopment Actand the Housing Act of 1961. The Area Redevelopment Act, a $394 million program, provided federal funding to economically struggling regions (primarily inAppalachia), while the Housing Act of 1961 provided funds forurban",
"funds forurban renewalandpublic housingand authorized federalmortgage loansto those who did not qualify for public housing.Kennedy proposed a bill providing for $2.3 billion in federal educational aid to the states, with more money going to states with lowerper capita income. Though the Senate passed the education bill, it was defeated in the House by a coalition of Republicans, Southern Democrats, and Catholics.Kennedy's health insurance bill, which would have paid for hospitalization and nursing costs for the elderly, failed to pass either house of Congress.A bill that would have established theDepartment of Urban Affairs and Housingwas also defeated. In 1962, Kennedy won approval of theManpower Development and Training Act, a three-year program aimed at retraining workers displaced by new technology. Its impact onstructural unemployment, however, was minimal.At the urging of his sisterEunice, Kennedy madeintellectual disabilitiesa priority for his administration. In 1963, Congress passed theCommunity",
"passed theCommunity Mental Health Act, which provided funding to local mental health community centers and research facilities. Trade policy included both domestic and foreign policy. The 1962Trade Expansion Actpassed Congress by wide majorities. It authorized the president to negotiate tariff reductions on a reciprocal basis of up to 50 percent with theEuropean Common Market.The legislation paved the way for theKennedy RoundofGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Tradenegotiations, concluding on June 30, 1967, the last day before expiration of the Act. Taxes Walter Heller, who served as the chairman of the CEA, advocated for aKeynesian-style tax cut designed to help spur economic growth, and Kennedy adopted this policy.The idea was that a tax cut would stimulate consumer demand, which in turn would lead to higher economic growth, lower unemployment, and increased federal revenues.To the disappointment of liberals likeJohn Kenneth Galbraith, Kennedy's embrace of the tax cut shifted his administration's focus away",
"focus away from the proposed old-age health insurance program and other domestic expenditures.In January 1963, Kennedy proposed a tax cut that would reduce the top marginal tax rate from 91 to 65 percent, and lower the corporate tax rate from 52 to 47 percent. The predictions according to the Keynesian model indicated the cuts would decrease income taxes by about $10 billion and corporate taxes by about $3.5 billion. The plan included reforms designed to reduce the impact ofitemized deductions, as well as provisions to help the elderly and handicapped. Republicans and many Southern Democrats opposed the bill, calling for simultaneous reductions in expenditures, but debate continued throughout 1963.Three months after Kennedy died, Johnson pushed the plan through Congress. TheRevenue Act of 1964lowered the top individual rate to 70 percent, and the top corporate rate to 48 percent. Economy Kennedy ended a period of tight fiscal policies, loosening monetary policy to keepinterest ratesdown and to encourage",
"and to encourage growth of the economy.He presided over the first government budget to top the $100 billion mark, in 1962, and his first budget in 1961 resulted in the nation's first non-war, non-recessiondeficit.The economy, which had been through two recessions in three years and was in one when Kennedy took office, accelerated notably throughout his administration. Despite lowinflationand interest rates, theGDPhad grown by an average of only 2.2% per annum during the Eisenhower administration (scarcely more than population growth at the time), and it had declined by 1% during Eisenhower's last twelve months in office. The economy turned around and prospered during Kennedy's presidency. The GDP expanded by an average of 5.5% from early 1961 to late 1963,while inflation remained steady at around 1% and unemployment eased.Industrial production rose by 15% and motor vehicle sales increased by 40%.This sustained rate of growth in GDP and industry continued until around 1969. Kennedy was proud that his Labor",
"that his Labor Department helped keep wages steady in the steel industry, but was outraged in April 1962 whenRoger Blough, the president ofU.S. Steel, quietly informed Kennedy that his company would raise prices.In response, Attorney General Robert Kennedy began aprice-fixinginvestigation against U.S. Steel, and President Kennedy convinced other steel companies to rescind their price increases until finally even U.S. Steel, isolated and in danger of being undersold, agreed to rescind its own price increase.An editorial inThe New York Timespraised Kennedy's actions and stated that the steel industry's price increase \"imperil the economic welfare of the country by inviting a tidal wave of inflation.\"Nevertheless, the administration's Bureau of Budget reported the price increase would have caused a net gain for the GDP as well as a net budget surplus.The stock market, which had steadily declined since Kennedy's election in 1960, dropped 10% shortly after the administration's action on the steel industry took",
"steel industry took place. Civil rights movement Kennedy verbally supportedcivil rightsduring his 1960 presidential campaign; he telephonedCoretta Scott King, wife ofMartin Luther King Jr., who had been jailed while trying to integrate a department store lunch counter. Robert Kennedy called Georgia GovernorErnest Vandiverand obtained King's release from prison, which drew additional Black support to his brother's candidacy.Recognizing that conservative Southern Democrats could block legislation, Kennedy did not introduce civil rights legislation on taking office.He needed their support to pass his economic and foreign policy agendas, and to support his reelection in 1964.Kennedy did appoint many Blacks to office, including civil rights attorneyThurgood Marshallto theU.S. Court of Appeals. Kennedy believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would anger many Southern Whites and make it more difficult to pass civil rights laws in Congress, and he distanced himself from it.As articulated by Robert Kennedy,",
"by Robert Kennedy, the administration's early priority was to \"keep the president out of this civil rights mess.\"Civil rights movement participants, mainly those on the front line in the South, viewed Kennedy as lukewarm,especially concerning theFreedom Riders. In May 1961, theCongress of Racial Equality, led byJames Farmer, organized integrated Freedom Rides to test a Supreme Court case ruling that declared segregation on interstate transportation illegal.The Riders were repeatedly met with mob violence, including by federal and state law enforcement officers.Kennedy assignedfederal marshalsto protect the Riders rather than using federal troops or uncooperative FBI agents.Kennedy feared sending federal troops would stir up \"hated memories ofReconstruction\" among conservative Southern whites.The Justice Department then petitioned theInterstate Commerce Commission(ICC) to adhere to federal law. By September 1961, the ICC ruled in favor of the petition. On March 6, 1961, Kennedy signedExecutive Order 10925,",
"Order 10925, which required government contractors to \"take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin.\"It established thePresident's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity. In September 1962,James Meredithenrolled at the all-WhiteUniversity of Mississippibut was prevented from entering. In response, Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent 400 federal marshals.TheOle Miss riot of 1962left two dead and dozens injured, prompting Kennedy to send in 3,000 troops to quell the riot.Meredith did finally enroll in class. Kennedy regretted not sending in troops earlier and he began to doubt whether the \"evils of Reconstruction\" he had been taught or believed were true.On November 20, 1962, Kennedy signedExecutive Order 11063, which prohibited racial discrimination in federally supported housing. On June 11, 1963, Kennedy intervened when Alabama GovernorGeorge Wallaceblocked thedoorwayto",
"thedoorwayto theUniversity of Alabamato stop two Black students,Vivian MaloneandJames Hood, from attending. Wallace moved aside only after being confronted by Deputy Attorney GeneralNicholas Katzenbachand theAlabama National Guard, which had just been federalized by order of the president. That evening Kennedy gave his famousReport to the American People on Civil Rightsspeech on national television and radio, launching his initiative for civil rights legislation—to provide equal access to public schools and other facilities, and greater protection of voting rights. His proposals became part of theCivil Rights Act of 1964. The day ended with the murder of an NAACP leader,Medgar Evers, in Mississippi.As Kennedy had predicted, the day after his TV speech, and in reaction to it, House Majority leaderCarl Albertcalled to advise him that his two-year signature effort in Congress to combat poverty in Appalachia had been defeated, primarily by the votes of Southern Democrats and Republicans.When Arthur Schlesinger",
"Arthur Schlesinger Jr. complimented Kennedy on his remarks, Kennedy bitterly replied, \"Yes, and look at what happened to area development the very next day in the House.\" He then added, \"But of course, I had to give that speech, and I'm glad that I did.\"On June 16,The New York Timespublished an editorial which argued that while Kennedy had initially \"moved too slowly and with little evidence of deep moral commitment\" in regards to civil rights he \"now demonstrate a genuine sense of urgency about eradicating racial discrimination from our national life.\" A crowd of over 250,000, predominantly African Americans, gathered in Washington for the civil rightsMarch on Washington for Jobs and Freedomon August 28, 1963. Kennedy initially opposed the march, fearing it would have a negative effect on the prospects for the civil rights bills pending in Congress. These fears were heightened just prior to the march when FBI DirectorJ. Edgar Hooverpresented Kennedy with reports that some of King's close advisers,",
"close advisers, specificallyJack O'DellandStanley Levison, were communists.When King ignored the administration's warning, Robert Kennedy authorized the FBI towiretapKing and other leaders of theSouthern Christian Leadership Conference.Although Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King's phones \"on a trial basis, for a month or so,\"Hoover extended the clearance so his men were \"unshackled\" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life they deemed worthy. The Department of Justice was assigned to coordinate the federal government's involvement in the March on Washington on August 28; several hundred thousand dollars to were channeled to the six sponsors of the March.To ensure a peaceful demonstration, the organizers and the president personally edited speeches that were inflammatory and collaborated on all aspects related to times and venues. Thousands of troops were placed on standby. Kennedy watched King's speech on TV and was very impressed. The March was considered a \"triumph",
"a \"triumph of managed protest,\" and not one arrest relating to the demonstration occurred. Afterwards, the March leaders accepted an invitation to the White House to meet with Kennedy and photos were taken. Kennedy felt that the March was a victory for him as well and bolstered the chances for his civil rights bill. Three weeks later on Sunday, September 15,a bomb explodedat the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham; by the end of the day, four Black children had died in the explosion, and two others were shot to death in the aftermath.Due to this resurgent violence, the civil rights legislation underwent some drastic amendments that critically endangered any prospects for passage of the bill, to the outrage of Kennedy. He called the congressional leaders to the White House and by the following day the original bill, without the additions, had enough votes to get it out of the House committee.Gaining Republican support, SenatorEverett Dirksenpromised the legislation would be brought to a vote preventing",
"a vote preventing aSenate filibuster.On July 2, 1964, the guarantees Kennedy proposed in his June 1963 speech became federal law, when President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act. Status of women During the 1960 presidential campaign, Kennedy endorsed the concept ofequal pay for equal work.In December 1961, Kennedy signed an executive order creating thePresidential Commission on the Status of Womento advise him on issues concerning the status of women.Former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt led the commission. The commission's final report was issued in October 1963; it documented the legal and cultural discrimination women in America faced and made several policy recommendations to bring about change.On June 10, 1963, Kennedy signed theEqual Pay Act of 1963, which amended theFair Labor Standards Actand abolished wage disparity based on sex. Crime Under the leadership of the attorney general, the Kennedy administration shifted the focus of the Justice Department, the FBI, and the IRS toorganized crime. Kennedy",
"crime. Kennedy won congressional approval for five bills (i.e.,Federal Wire Actof 1961) designed to crack down on interstateracketeering, gambling, and the transportation of firearms. On March 22, 1962, Kennedy signed into law a bill abolishing the mandatory death penalty forfirst degree murderin the District of Columbia, the only remaining jurisdiction in the United States with such a penalty.The death penalty has not been applied in D.C. since 1957 and has now been abolished. Agriculture Kennedy had relatively little interest in agricultural issues, but he sought to remedy the issue of overproduction, boost the income of farmers, and lower federal expenditures on agriculture. Under the direction of Secretary of AgricultureOrville Freeman, the administration sought to limit the production of farmers, but these proposals were generally defeated in Congress. To increase demand for domestic agricultural products and help the impoverished, Kennedy launched a pilotFood Stamp programand expanded thefederal school",
"thefederal school lunch program. Native American relations Construction of theKinzua Damflooded 10,000 acres (4,000 hectares) ofSeneca nationland that they had occupied under theTreaty of 1794, and forced 600 Seneca to relocate toSalamanca, New York. Kennedy was asked by theAmerican Civil Liberties Unionto halt the project, but he declined, citing a critical need for flood control. He expressed concern about the plight of the Seneca and directed government agencies to assist in obtaining more land, damages, and assistance to mitigate their displacement. Space policy In the aftermath of the Soviet launch ofSputnik 1, the first artificial Earth satellite,NASAproposed a crewedlunar landingby the early 1970s.Funding for the program, known as theApollo program, was far from certain as Eisenhower held an ambivalent attitude.Early in his presidency, Kennedy was poised to dismantle the crewed space program, but he postponed any decision out of deference to Vice President Johnson, who had been a strong supporter of",
"strong supporter of the program in the Senate.WithJerome Wiesner, Johnson was given a major role in overseeing the administration's space policy, and at Johnson's recommendation Kennedy appointedJames E. Webbto head NASA. In Kennedy'sState of the Unionaddress in 1961, he suggested international cooperation in space. Khrushchev declined, as the Soviets did not wish to reveal the status of their rocketry and space capabilities.In April 1961, Soviet cosmonautYuri Gagarinbecame the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind by the Soviet Union.Less than a month later,Alan Shepardbecame the first American to travel into space, strengthening Kennedy's confidence in NASA.The following year,John Glenn, aboard theMercurycraftFriendship 7, became the first American to orbit the Earth. In the aftermath of Gagarin's flight, as well as the failed Bay of Pigs invasion, Kennedy felt pressured to respond to the perceived erosion of American prestige. He asked Johnson to explore the",
"to explore the feasibility of beating the Soviets to theMoon. Though he was concerned about the program's costs, Kennedy agreed to Johnson's recommendation that the U.S. commit to a crewed lunar landing as the major objective of the space program. In a May 25 speech to Congress, Kennedy declared, ... I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.Full text Though Gallup polling showed that many in the public were skeptical of the necessity of the Apollo program,members of Congress were strongly supportive in 1961 and approved a major increase in NASA's funding. Webb began reorganizing NASA, increasing its staffing level, and building two new centers: aLaunch Operations Centerfor thelarge Moon",
"thelarge Moon rocketnorthwest ofCape Canaveral Air Force Station, and aManned Spacecraft Centerin Houston. Kennedy took the latter occasion as an opportunity to deliver anotherspeechpromoting the space effort on September 12, 1962, in which he said: No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space. ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard.Full text On November 21, 1962, in a cabinet meeting with Webb and other officials, Kennedy explained that the Moon shot was important for reasons of international prestige, and that the expense was justified.On July 20, 1969, almost six years after Kennedy's death,Apollo 11landed the first crewed spacecraft on the Moon. Judicial appointments In 1962, Kennedy appointed justicesByron WhiteandArthur Goldbergto theSupreme Court.Additionally, Kennedy appointed 21 judges to theUnited States Courts of Appeals, and 102 judges to theUnited",
"judges to theUnited States district courts. Assassination Kennedy was assassinated inDallasat 12:30 p.m.Central Standard Timeon November 22, 1963.He was in Texas on a political trip to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberalsRalph YarboroughandDon Yarborough(no relation) and conservativeJohn Connally.Traveling in a presidentialmotorcadethroughDealey Plaza, he was shot once in the back, the bullet exiting via his throat, and once in the head. Kennedy was taken toParkland Hospital, where he was pronounced dead 30 minutes later, at 1:00 p.m.He was 46 years old.Lee Harvey Oswaldwas arrested for the murder of police officerJ. D. Tippitand was subsequently charged with Kennedy's assassination.He denied shooting anyone, claiming he was apatsy,and was shot dead byJack Rubyon November 24, before he could be prosecuted.Ruby was arrested and convicted for the murder of Oswald. Ruby successfully appealed his conviction but died of cancer on January 3, 1967, while the date for his new trial was",
"his new trial was being set. President Johnson quickly issued anexecutive orderto create theWarren Commission—chaired by Chief JusticeEarl Warren—to investigate the assassination. The commission concluded that Oswald acted alone in killing Kennedy and that Oswald was not part of any conspiracy.These conclusions are disputed by many.AGallup Pollin November 2013 showed 61% believed in a conspiracy, and only 30% thought that Oswald did it alone.In 1979, theU.S. House Select Committee on Assassinationsconcluded, with one third of the committee dissenting, \"that Kennedy was probably assassinated as a result of aconspiracy.\" The committee was unable to identify the other gunmen or the extent of the conspiracy. This conclusion was based largely on audio recordings of the shooting.Subsequently, investigative reports from theFBIand a specially appointedNational Academy of SciencesCommittee determined that \"reliable acoustic data do not support a conclusion that there was a second gunman.\"TheJustice",
"gunman.\"TheJustice Departmentconcluded \"that no persuasive evidence can be identified to support the theory of a conspiracy\". Funeral Kennedy's body was brought back to Washington. On November 23, six military pallbearers carried the flag-draped coffin into theEast Room of the White House, where he lay in repose for 24 hours.Then, the coffin was carried on a horse-drawncaissonto the Capitol to lie in state. Throughout the day and night, hundreds of thousands lined up to view the guarded casket,with a quarter million passing through the rotunda during the 18 hours of lying in state. Kennedy's funeral service was held on November 25, atSt. Matthew's CathedralinWashington, D.C.TheRequiem Masswas led byCardinalRichard Cushing, then theArchbishop of Boston.It was attended by approximately 1,200 guests, including representatives from over 90 countries.After the service, Kennedy was buried atArlington National CemeteryinArlington County, Virginia. Personal life, family, and reputation The Kennedy family is one of",
"family is one of the most established political families in the United States, having produced a president, three senators, three ambassadors, and multiple other representatives and politicians. While a congressman, Kennedy embarked on a seven-week trip to India, Japan, Vietnam, and Israel in 1951, at which point he became close with his then 25-year-old brother Robert, as well as his 27-year-old sister Patricia. Because they were several years apart in age, the brothers had previously seen little of each other. This 25,000-mile (40,000 km) trip was the first extended time they had spent together and resulted in their becoming best friends.Robert would eventually serve as his brother'sattorney generaland closest presidential advisor;he would later run for president in1968before hisassassination, while another Kennedy brother, Ted, ran for president in1980.Kennedy's nephew and Robert's son,Robert Jr., ran for president in2024. Wife and children Kennedy met his wife,Jacqueline Lee \"Jackie\" Bouvier, when he was",
"when he was a congressman.Charles L. Bartlett, a journalist, introduced the pair at a dinner party.They were married on September 12, 1953, atSt. Mary's ChurchinNewport, Rhode Island.The newlyweds honeymooned in Mexico, before settling in their new home,Hickory HillinMcLean, Virginia.In 1956, they sold their Hickory Hill estate to Kennedy's brother Robert, and bought a townhouse inGeorgetown.The Kennedys also resided at an apartment inBoston, their legal residence during John's congressional career,and a summer home inCape Cod, Massachusetts. After a miscarriage in 1955 and a stillbirth in 1956 (their daughter Arabella), their daughterCarolinewas born in 1957.John Jr., nicknamed \"John-John\" by the press as a child, was born in late November 1960, 17 days after his father was elected. John Jr. died in 1999 when thesmall plane he was piloting crashed.In August 1963, Jackie gave birth to a son,Patrick. However, he died after two days due to complications from birth. Popular image Kennedy and his wife were",
"and his wife were younger than the presidents and first ladies who preceded them, and both were popular in themedia culturein ways more common to pop singers and movie stars than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of photo spreads in popular magazines. Although Eisenhower had allowed presidential press conferences to be filmed for television, Kennedy was the first president to ask for them to be broadcastliveand made good use of the medium.In 1961, theRadio-Television News Directors Associationpresented Kennedy with its highest honor, thePaul WhiteAward, in recognition of his open relationship with the media. The Kennedys invited a range of artists, writers and intellectuals to White House dinners, raising the profile of the arts in America. On the White House lawn, they established a swimming pool and tree house, while Caroline attended a preschool with 10 other children inside the home. Vaughn Meader'sFirst Familycomedy album, which parodied the president, the first lady,",
"the first lady, their family, and the administration, sold about four million copies. Health Despite a privileged youth, Kennedy was plagued by childhood diseases, includingwhooping cough,chicken pox,measles, and ear infections. These ailments compelled him to spend a considerable amount of timeconvalescing. Three months prior to his third birthday, in 1920, Kennedy came down withscarlet fever, a highly contagious and life-threatening disease, and was admitted toBoston City Hospital. During his years at Choate, Kennedy was beset by health problems that culminated with his emergency hospitalization in 1934 atYale New Haven Hospital, where doctors suspected leukemia.While sick, he became a passionate reader and also afatalist.In June 1934, he was admitted to theMayo Clinicin Minnesota; the ultimate diagnosis wascolitis.After withdrawing from Princeton University, Kennedy was hospitalized for observation atPeter Bent Brigham Hospitalin Boston. He then spent the spring of 1936 working as a ranch hand",
"as a ranch hand outsideBenson, ArizonaunderJack Speiden. Years after Kennedy's death, it was revealed that in September 1947, when he was 30 and in his first term in Congress, he was diagnosed by Sir Daniel Davis atThe London ClinicwithAddison's disease. Davis estimated that Kennedy would not live for another year, while Kennedy hoped he could live for ten.In 1966, White House physicianJanet Travellrevealed that Kennedy also hadhypothyroidism. The presence of twoendocrine diseasesraises the possibility that Kennedy hadautoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 2. Kennedy suffered from chronic severe back pain, for which he had surgery. His condition may have had diplomatic repercussions, as he appears to have been taking a combination of drugs to treat back pain during the 1961Vienna Summit. The combination included hormones, animal organ cells, steroids, vitamins, enzymes, and amphetamines, and possible side effects included hyperactivity,hypertension, impaired judgment, nervousness, and mood swings.Kennedy at",
"swings.Kennedy at one time was regularly seen by three doctors, one of whom,Max Jacobson, at first was unknown to the other two, as his mode of treatment was controversialand used for the most severe bouts of back pain. Into late 1961, disagreements existed among Kennedy's doctors concerning the balance of medication and exercise. Kennedy preferred the former because he was short on time and desired immediate relief.The president's primary White House physician,George G. Burkley, set up gym equipment in the White House basement, where Kennedy did stretching exercises thrice weekly.Details of these and other medical problems were not publicly disclosed during Kennedy's lifetime.Burkley realized that treatments by Jacobson and Travell, including excessive use of steroids and amphetamines, were medically inappropriate, and took action to remove Kennedy from their care. In 2002,Robert Dallekwrote an extensive history of Kennedy's health based on a collection of Kennedy-associated papers from 1955 to 1963,",
"from 1955 to 1963, including X-rays and prescription records from Travell. According to Travell's records, during his presidential years Kennedy suffered from high fevers; stomach, colon, and prostate issues; abscesses; high cholesterol; and adrenal problems. Travell kept a \"Medicine Administration Record\", cataloging Kennedy's medications: injected and ingested corticosteroids for his adrenal insufficiency; procaine shots and ultrasound treatments and hot packs for his back; Lomotil, Metamucil, paregoric, phenobarbital, testosterone, and trasentine to control his diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, and weight loss; penicillin and other antibiotics for his urinary-tract infections and an abscess; andTuinalto help him sleep. Affairs and friendships Kennedy was single in the 1940s while having relationships with Danish journalistInga Arvadand actressGene Tierney.During his time as a senator, he had an affair withGunilla von Post, who later wrote that the future president tried to end his marriage to be with her",
"to be with her before having any children with his wife.Kennedy was also reported to have had affairs withMarilyn Monroe,Judith Campbell,Mary Pinchot Meyer,Marlene Dietrich,White House internMimi Alford,and his wife'spress secretary,Pamela Turnure.There have been several conspiracy theories surrounding the deaths of Monroe and Meyer, alleging that Kennedy may have had a part in their deaths. The full extent of Kennedy's relationship with Monroe (who in 1962 famously sang \"Happy Birthday, Mr. President\" at Kennedy's birthday celebration atMadison Square Garden) is not known, though it has been reported that they spent a weekend together in March 1962 while he was staying atBing Crosby's house.Furthermore, people at the White House switchboard noted that Monroe had called Kennedy during 1962.J. Edgar Hoover, the FBI director, received reports about Kennedy's indiscretions.These included an alleged tryst with anEast Germanspy,Ellen Rometsch. According to historianMichael Beschloss, in July 1963, Hoover",
"July 1963, Hoover reportedly informed Robert Kennedy about the affair with a woman \"suspected as a Soviet intelligence agent, someone linked to East German intelligence.\" Robert reportedly took the matter sufficiently seriously to raise it with leading Democratic and Republican figures in Congress.Former Secret Service agent Larry Newman recalled \"morale problems\" that the president's indiscretions engendered within the Secret Service. Kennedy inspired affection and loyalty from the members of his team and his supporters.According to Reeves, this included \"the logistics of Kennedy's liaisons ... required secrecy and devotion rare in the annals of the energetic service demanded by successful politicians.\"Kennedy believed that his friendly relationship with members of the press would help protect him from public revelations about his sex life. Sports Kennedy was a fan ofMajor League Baseball'sBoston Red Soxand theNational Basketball Association'sBoston Celtics.Growing up on Cape Cod, Kennedy and his siblings",
"and his siblings developed a lifelong passion forsailing.He also took upgolf; playing regularly at theHyannisport Clubin Massachusetts and the Palm Beach Country Club in Florida. Religion Kennedy was the firstCatholicelected to the presidency.During his childhood, he attendedSt. Aidan's Churchin Brookline, Massachusetts, where he wasbaptizedon June 19, 1917. Historical evaluations and legacy Presidency Historians and political scientists tend torankKennedy as an above-average president, and he is usually the highest-ranking president who served less than one full term.A 2014 survey fromThe Washington Postof 162 members of theAmerican Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Kennedy 14th highest overall among the 43 persons who have been president, including then-presidentBarack Obama. The survey found Kennedy to be the most overrated U.S. president.A 2017C-SPANsurvey has Kennedy ranked among the top ten presidents.A 2023Gallup, Inc.survey showed Kennedy with a",
"Kennedy with a retrospective approval rating of 90 percent, the highest of all U.S. presidents in recent history.Assessments of his policies are mixed.Many of Kennedy's legislative proposals were passed after his death, during theJohnson administration, and Kennedy's death gave those proposals a powerful moral component. Kennedy came in third (behind Martin Luther King Jr. andMother Teresa) inGallup's List of Widely Admired Peopleof the 20th century.In 1961, he was awarded theLaetare Medalby theUniversity of Notre Dame, considered the most prestigious award forAmerican Catholics.He was posthumously awarded thePacem in TerrisAward(Latin: Peace on Earth) and thePresidential Medal of Freedom. Camelot The term \"Camelot\" is often used to describe his presidency, reflecting both the mythic grandeur accorded Kennedy in death and powerful nostalgia for that era of American history.According to Richard Dean Burns and Joseph M. Siracusa, the most popular theme surrounding Kennedy's legacy is its replay of the legend",
"of the legend ofKing ArthurandCamelotfromArthurian Literature.In an interview following Kennedy's death, his widow Jacqueline mentioned his affection for the Broadway musicalCamelotand quoted its closing lines: \"Don't let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief, shining moment that was known as Camelot.\"Critics, especially historians, have mocked the Camelot myth as a distortion of Kennedy's actions, beliefs, and policies. However, in the public memory, the years of Kennedy's presidency are still seen as a brief, brilliant, and shining moment. Memorials and eponyms Examples of the extensive list include: Works Books Select speeches See also Notes References Citations The 1963 LIFE article represented the first use of the term \"Camelot\" in print and is attributed with having played a major role in establishing and fixing this image of the Kennedy Administration and period in the popular mind. Works cited Further reading External links",
"Sargent Shriver Robert Sargent Shriver Jr.(November 9, 1915 – January 18, 2011) was an American diplomat, politician, and activist. He was a member of theShriver familyby birth, and a member of theKennedy familythrough his marriage toEunice Kennedy. Shriver was the driving force behind the creation of thePeace Corps, and founded theJob Corps,Head Start,VISTA,Upward Bound,and other programs as the architect of the 1960sWar on Poverty.He was theDemocratic Party's nominee for vice president in the1972 presidential election. Born inWestminster, Maryland, Shriver attended Yale University, thenYale Law School, graduating in 1941.An opponent of U.S. entry intoWorld War II, he helped establish theAmerica First Committeebut volunteered for theUnited States Navybefore the Japaneseattack on Pearl Harbor. During the war, he served in the South Pacific, participating in theNaval Battle of Guadalcanal. After being discharged from the navy, he worked as an assistant editor forNewsweekand met Eunice Kennedy, marrying her in",
"marrying her in 1953. He worked on the 1960 presidential campaign of his brother-in-law,John F. Kennedy, and helped establish the Peace Corps after Kennedy's victory. After Kennedy's assassination, Shriver served in the administration ofLyndon B. Johnsonand helped establish several anti-poverty programs as director of theOffice of Economic Opportunityfrom October 16, 1964, to March 22, 1968.He also served as theUnited States Ambassador to Francefrom 1968 to 1970.In 1972, Democratic vice presidential nomineeThomas Eagletonresigned from the ticket, and Shriver was chosen as his replacement. The Democratic ticket ofGeorge McGovernand Shriver lost in alandslide election defeatto Republican PresidentRichard Nixonand Vice PresidentSpiro Agnew. Shriver briefly sought the1976 Democratic presidential nominationbut dropped out of the race after the first set of primaries. After leaving office, he resumed the practice of law, becoming a partner withFried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson. He also served as president",
"served as president of theSpecial Olympicsand was briefly a part-owner of theBaltimore Orioles. He was diagnosed withAlzheimer's diseasein 2003 and died inBethesda, Maryland, in 2011. Early life and education Robert Sargent Shriver Jr. was born inWestminster, Maryland, the younger of two sons. Shriver's parents Robert Sargent Shriver Sr. and Hilda, who had also been born with the surname Shriver, were second cousins.His elder brother was Thomas Herbert Shriver. Shriver was a member of theShriver familythat has been in Maryland since 1721 and have occupied theUnion Mills Homestead. His grandfather,Thomas Herbert Shriver, guidedJ. E. B. Stuartto the battle of Gettysburg when Thomas was just seventeen years of age. He was also a descendant ofDavid Shriver,who signed theMaryland Constitution and Bill of Rights at Maryland's Constitutional Convention of 1776. He spent his high school years atCanterbury SchoolinNew Milford, Connecticut, which he attended on a full scholarship. In his freshman year at Canterbury,",
"year at Canterbury, he befriended future brother-in-law PresidentJohn F. Kennedy. He was on Canterbury's baseball, basketball, and football teams, became the editor of the school's newspaper, and participated in choral and debating clubs.On June 9, 2023, Shriver was inducted into the Canterbury School Athletic Hall of Fame for all three sports. After graduating fromThe Browning Schoolin 1934, Shriver spent the summer inGermanyas part of TheExperiment in International Living, returning in the fall of 1934 to enterYale University, where he was a brother in theDelta Kappa Epsilonfraternity, as well as a member of Yale'sScroll and Keysociety. Military career An early opponent of American involvement inWorld War II, Shriver was a founding member of theAmerica First Committee, an organization started in 1940 by a group ofYale Law Schoolstudents, also including future PresidentGerald Fordand future Supreme Court JusticePotter Stewart, which tried to keep the US out of the European war.Nevertheless, Shriver",
"Shriver volunteered for theUS Navybefore theattack on Pearl Harborand said he had a duty to serve his country even if he disagreed with its policies. He spent five years on active duty, mostly in theSouth Pacific, serving aboard theUSSSouth Dakota(BB-57), reaching the rank oflieutenant commander(O-4). He was awarded aPurple Heartfor wounds he received during thebombardmentofGuadalcanal. Family life Shriver's relationship with the Kennedys began when he was working as an assistant editor atNewsweekafter his discharge from the Navy. He met Eunice Kennedy at a party in New York, and shortly afterwards, family patriarchJoseph P. Kennedy Sr.asked him to look at diary entries written by his eldest son,Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., who had died in a plane crash while he was on a military mission duringWorld War II. Shriver was later hired to manage theMerchandise Mart, part of Kennedy's business empire, in Chicago,Illinois. After a seven-year courtship, Shriver marriedEunice Kennedyon May 23, 1953, atSt. Patrick's",
"atSt. Patrick's Cathedralin New York City. She was the third daughter of Joseph Kennedy Sr. andRose Kennedy. They had five children:Robert Sargent \"Bobby\" Shriver III(born April 28, 1954),Maria Owings Shriver(born November 6, 1955),Timothy Perry Shriver(born August 29, 1959),Mark Kennedy Shriver(born February 17, 1964), andAnthony Paul Kennedy Shriver(born July 20, 1965). The Shrivers were married for 56 years, and often worked together on projects. Shriver was admitted to practice law in theDistrict of Columbia, Illinois, and New York, and at the US Supreme Court. A devoutCatholic, Shriver attended dailyMassand always carried arosaryof well-worn wooden beads.He was critical ofabortionand was a signatory to \"A New Compact of Care: Caring about Women, Caring for the Unborn\", which appeared inThe New York Timesin July 1992 and stated that \"To establish justice and to promote the general welfare, America does not need the abortion license. What America needs are policies that responsibly protect and advance the",
"and advance the interest of mothers and their children, both before and after birth.\" Public service and political career 1950s In May 1954, Shriver was appointed to theChicago Board of Educationby Chicago mayorMartin H. Kennelly.On October 26, 1955, Shriver was chosen to serve as president of the Chicago Board of Education by a vote of the board.Shriver would serve in the position of president for five years,resigning from the position on October 10, 1960.At the time he became president of the board, he was the second-youngest individual to hold that office, being only 39.At the time,Chicago Public Schoolswas the second-largestschool districtin the United States. Shriver also served as director of the Catholic Interracial Council, a group created to advocate fordesegregationin Chicago schools. Shriver considered several runs for statewide office. His first consideration was for the Democratic nomination in the1956 Illinois gubernatorial election. Shriver had been courted by many Chicago Democrats, including",
"including MayorRichard J. Daley, but ultimately chose to stay out of the election.The primary was won by Cook County Treasurer Herbert C. Paschen who would be forced to withdraw as the nominee after becoming embroiled in scandals surrounding his work as Treasurer. District Court JudgeRichard B. Austin, was chosen as the replacement and went on to narrowly lose the election to incumbent GovernorWilliam Stratton. 1960s In 1960, Shriver once again received serious courting by Democratic leaders in both Chicago and across the state to enter the Democratic primary for the1960 Illinois gubernatorial election.Shriver even met with Mayor Daley and the Cook County Democratic Committee to gauge a possible run at Daley's urging. However his father-in-law,Joseph P. Kennedy, told Shriver he would not be able to run or else he could seriously cripple the Presidential campaign of his brother-in-law,John F. Kennedy. His father-in-law cited the oversaturation of Catholic candidates in Illinois could cost the Democrats the",
"the Democrats the state in November (Kennedy, Shriver, and Daley were all Catholic). WhenJohn F. Kennedyran for president, Shriver worked as a political and organization coordinator in the Wisconsin and West Virginia primaries. During Kennedy's presidential term, Shriver founded and served as the first director of thePeace Corpsfrom March 22, 1961, to February 28, 1966. Shriver has been credited with convincing a hesitant Kennedy to contactCoretta Scott Kingafter her husband, prominent civil rights activistMartin Luther King, was jailed for civil disobedience inGeorgiain October 1960. Kennedy's phone call to Coretta Scott King was credited with helping to strengthenblacksupport for Kennedy's candidacy. AfterKennedy's assassination, Shriver continued to serve as Director of the Peace Corps and served as Special Assistant to PresidentLyndon Johnson. Under Johnson, he created theOffice of Economic Opportunityand served as its first director.He is known as the \"architect\" of the Johnson administration's \"War on",
"\"War on Poverty\".Hired by President Johnson to be the \"salesman\" for Johnson'sWar on Povertyinitiative, Shriver initially was \"not interested in hearing about community action proposals.\" TheJob Corpsmovement was more consistent with his goals. Thus, soon after his appointment, Shriver \"moved quickly to reconsider the proposed anti-poverty initiative.\" Shriver founded numerous social programs and organizations, includingHead Start,VISTA,Job Corps, Community Action,Upward Bound, Foster Grandparents, Legal Services, the National Clearinghouse for Legal Services (now the Shriver Center), Indian and Migrant Opportunities and Neighborhood Health Services, in addition to directing the Peace Corps. He was active in theSpecial Olympics, which was founded in 1968 by his wife Eunice. Shriver was awarded thePacem in Terris Peace and Freedom Awardin 1967. It was named after a 1963encyclicalletter byPope John XXIIIthat calls upon all people of good will to secure peace among all nations.Pacem in terrisisLatinfor 'Peace",
"'Peace on Earth'. In 1964 Shriver was considered one of the primary finalists on Johnson's shortlist to be vice president. After weighing the benefits of Shriver as the second spot on the ticket, Johnson ultimately choseHubert Humphrey. Shriver again considered running for Governor of Illinois in the1964 Illinois gubernatorial election.However, he demurred after being asked by President Johnson to stay on and continue leading the creation of many of the aforementioned War on Poverty programs that would become part of theGreat Society. In 1968, Shriver was once again seriously courted by Illinois Democrats for both the1968 Illinois gubernatorial electionagainst increasingly unpopular incumbent GovernorOtto Kerner, Jr.and the1968 United States Senate election in Illinoisagainst incumbent RepublicanEverett Dirksen. Shriver expressed little interest in serving in the Senate, not wanting to be overshadowed by his brothers-in-lawTed Kennedyand specificallyRobert Kennedy, who he had expected to run for president in",
"for president in 1972. To move Shriver toward a run, Daley pitched to Illinois Democratic leaders and Shriver on recruitingIllinois State TreasurerAdlai E. Stevenson IIIto run for the Senate seat with Shriver running for Governor. Shriver even received Johnson's blessing to make the run as part of Daley's \"Dream Ticket\", should he choose to do so. However, when Stevenson spoke out against the Vietnam War, Daley rejected Stevenson's candidacy and again tried to recruit Shriver for the Senate seat. Johnson had offered Shriver the post ofU.S. Ambassador to France, but asked for time to consider the offer, during which he considered his potential candidacy. When Stevenson lost Daley's support for the Senate seat and began trying to recruit Shriver again, Shriver decided to accept Johnson's offer of the Ambassadorship. Shriver served asU.S. Ambassador to Francefrom 1968 to 1970, becoming a quasi-celebrity among the French for bringing whatTimemagazine called \"a rare and welcome panache\" to the normally sedate",
"the normally sedate world of international diplomacy.Upon returning to the United States in 1970, Shriver was speculated to be considering challenging incumbent Democratic GovernorMarvin Mandelfor the Democratic nomination for the1970 Maryland gubernatorial election, reports he did nothing to dissuade despite Mandel's sizable campaign fund and being the state's first Jewish Governor. Mandel had been elected by the Maryland Legislature to finish out the termSpiro Agnewhad been elected to in 1966, but resigned from after being electedVice Presidentin 1968. After traveling the state to gauge the support a potential candidacy might have, Shriver met with Mandel in the Governor's office. After emerging from the meeting, Shriver declined to be a candidate. Mandel recalled years later, \"We had a long discussion, and when it was over, he wasn't a candidate.\" Vice Presidential candidacy During the1972 Democratic National ConventioninMiami Beach, Florida,George McGovernconsidered Shriver as a vice presidential",
"a vice presidential candidate, but his campaign was unable to reach Shriver, who was at the time visitingMoscow,Soviet Union.McGovern then selectedThomas Eagletoninstead, who later resigned from the Democratic ticket following revelations of past mental health treatments. Shriver replaced Eagleton on the ticket. The McGovern-Shriver ticket lost to Republican incumbentsRichard NixonandSpiro Agnew. Presidential candidacy Shriver unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in1976. In the months beforethe primariesbegan, political observers thought that Shriver would draw strength from legions of former colleagues from the Peace Corps and the War on Poverty programs, and he was even seen as an inheritor of the Kennedy legacy, but neither theory proved true.His candidacy was short-lived and he returned to private life. Life after politics Shriver was a partner of theFried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobsonlaw firm in Washington, D.C., where he specialized in international law and foreign affairs,",
"foreign affairs, beginning in 1971.He retired as partner in 1986 and was then namedof counselto the firm. In 1981, Shriver was appointed to the Rockefeller University Council, an organization devoted exclusively to research and graduate education in the biomedical and related sciences. In 1984, he was elected president ofSpecial Olympicsby the board of directors; as president, he directed the operation and international development of sports programs around the world. Six years later, in 1990, he was appointed chairman of the board of Special Olympics. He was an investor in theBaltimore Oriolesalong with his eldest sonBobby Shriver,Eli Jacobs, andLarry Lucchinofrom 1989to 1993. Illness and death Shriver was diagnosed withAlzheimer's diseasein 2003. In 2004, his daughter,Maria, published a children's book,What's Happening to Grandpa?, to help explain Alzheimer's to children. The book gives suggestions on how to help and to show love to an elderly person with the disease.In July 2007, Shriver's son-in-law,",
"son-in-law, California GovernorArnold Schwarzenegger, speaking in favor ofstem-cell research, said that Shriver's Alzheimer's disease had advanced to the point that \"Today, he does not even recognize his wife.\"Maria Shriver discusses her father's worsening condition in a segment for the four-part 2009HBOdocumentary seriesThe Alzheimer's ProjectcalledGrandpa, Do You Know Who I Am?, including describing a moment when she decided to stop trying to correct his various delusions. On August 11, 2009, Shriver's wife of 56 years, Eunice, died at the age of 88.He attended her wake and funeral inCentervilleandHyannis, Massachusetts.Two weeks later, on August 29, 2009, he attended the funeral of her brotherTed Kennedyin Boston, Massachusetts. Shriver died on January 18, 2011, inSuburban HospitalinBethesda, Maryland, at age 95.Shriver's family released a statement calling him \"a man of giant love, energy, enthusiasm, and commitment\" who \"lived to make the world a more joyful, faithful, and compassionate",
"and compassionate place.\"PresidentBarack Obamaalso released a statement, calling Shriver \"one of the brightest lights of the greatest generation\".Aaron S. Williams, the director of the Peace Corps, said in a statement, \"The entire Peace Corps community is deeply saddened by the passing of Sargent Shriver.\" He further noted that Shriver \"served as our founder, friend, and guiding light for the past 50 years\" and that \"his legacy of idealism will live on in the work of current and future Peace Corps volunteers.\"He is buried alongside his wife Eunice at St. Francis Xavier Cemetery inCenterville, Massachusetts. Legacy In 1968, he was awarded theLaetare Medalby theUniversity of Notre Dame, the oldest and most prestigious award forAmerican Catholics. In 1993, Shriver received theFranklin D. RooseveltFreedom From Want Award. On August 8, 1994, Shriver received thePresidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian honor, from PresidentBill Clinton. In December 1993, theUniversity of Maryland,",
"of Maryland, Baltimore Countycreated the Shriver Center in honor of Shriver and his wife. The center serves as the university's civic engagement, and applied learning organization. The Shriver Center also is home to the Shriver Peaceworker Program and the Shriver Living Learning Community. The Job Corps dedicated a center to his name in 1998 – the \"Shriver Job Corps Center\" – located inDevens, Massachusetts.The National Clearinghouse for Legal Services (renamed the National Center on Poverty Law in 1995) was renamed the Shriver Center in 2002 and each year awards a Sargent Shriver Award for Equal Justice. Sargent Shriver Elementary School, located inSilver Spring, Maryland, is named after him. In January 2008, a documentary film about Shriver aired onPBS, titledAmerican Idealist: The Story of Sargent Shriver. The Kennedy Shriver Aquatic Center inBethesda, Maryland, is named after him andEunice Kennedy Shriver. Following his death, Daniel Larison wrote: Shriver was an admirable, principled, and conscientious",
"and conscientious man who respected the dignity and sanctity of human life, and he also happened to be a contemporary and in-law of Kennedy. Not only did Shriver represent a \"link\" with JFK, but he represented a particular culture of white ethnic Catholic Democratic politics that has been gradually disappearing for the last fifty years. A pro-life Catholic, Shriver had been a founding member of theAmerica First Committee, and more famously he was also on the 1972 antiwar ticket with George McGovern. In short, he represented much of what was good in the Democratic Party of his time. Electoral history 1972 United States presidential election 1976 Democratic presidential primaries Portrayals in film See also References Further reading External links"
] |
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"Dolly Parton Dolly Rebecca Parton(born January 19, 1946) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, and philanthropist, known primarily for her decades-long career incountry music. After achieving success as a songwriter for others, Parton made her album debut in 1967 withHello, I'm Dolly, which led to success during the remainder of the 1960s (both as a solo artist and with a series of duet albums withPorter Wagoner), before her sales and chart peak arrived during the 1970s and continued into the 1980s. Some of Parton's albums in the 1990s did not sell as well, but she achieved commercial success again in the new millennium and has released albums on various independent labels since 2000, including her own label, Dolly Records. With a career spanning 60 years, Parton has been described as a \"country legend\" and has sold more than 100 million records worldwide, making her one of thebest-selling music artists of all time.Parton's music includesRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA)-certified gold, platinum and multi-platinum awards. She has had 25singlesreach No.1 on theBillboardcountry music charts, a record for a female artist (tied withReba McEntire). She has 44 career Top10 country albums, a record for any artist, and she has 110 career-charted singles over the past 40 years. She has composed over 3,000 songs, including \"I Will Always Love You\" (a two-time U.S. country chart-topper, and an international hit forWhitney Houston), \"Jolene\", \"Coat of Many Colors\", and \"9to5\". As an actress, she has starred in the films9to5in 1980 andThe Best Little Whorehouse in Texasin 1982 (for each of which she earnedBest ActressGolden Globenominations) as well asRhinestonein 1984,Steel Magnoliasin 1989,Straight Talkin 1992, andJoyful Noisein 2012. Parton has received 11Grammy Awards(and 50 nominations), including the Lifetime Achievement Award. She has won tenCountry Music AssociationAwards, including Entertainer of the Year. She is one of seven female artists to win the Country Music Association's Entertainer of the Year Award. Parton has fiveAcademy of Country Music Awards(including Entertainer of the Year), fourPeople's Choice Awards, and threeAmerican Music Awards. She is also ina select groupto have received at least one nomination from theAcademy Awards, Grammy Awards,Tony Awards, andEmmy Awards. In 1999, Parton was inducted into theCountry Music Hall of Fame. In 2005, she received theNational Medal of Arts, and in 2022, she was nominated for and inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame, a nomination she had initially declined but ultimately accepted. Outside of her work in the music industry, she also co-ownsThe Dollywood Company, which manages a number of entertainment venues including theDollywoodtheme park, theSplash Countrywater park, and a number ofdinner theatrevenues such as The Dolly Parton Stampede and Pirates Voyage. She has founded a number of charitable and philanthropic organizations, chief among them being theDollywood Foundation, who manage a number of projects to bring education and poverty relief toEast Tennessee, where she was raised. Early life and career Dolly Rebecca Parton was born on January 19, 1946, in a one-room cabin on the banks of theLittle Pigeon RiverinPittman Center, Tennessee.She is the fourth of twelve children born to Avie Lee Caroline (néeOwens; 1923–2003) and Robert Lee Parton Sr. (1921–2000). Parton's middle name comes from her maternal great-great-grandmother Rebecca (née Dunn) Whitted.Parton's father, known as \"Lee\", worked in the mountains of East Tennessee, first as asharecropperand later tending his own small tobacco farm and acreage. He also worked construction jobs to supplement the farm's small income. Despite her father's illiteracy, Parton has often commented that he was one of the smartest people she has ever known with regard to business and making a profit. Parton's mother cared for their large family. Her 11 pregnancies (the tenth being twins) in 20 years made her a mother of 12 by age 35. Parton attributes her musical abilities to the influence of her mother; often in poor health, she still managed to keep house and entertain her children withSmoky Mountainfolkloreand ancientballads. HavingWelshancestors, Avie Lee knew many old ballads thatimmigrantsfrom the British Isles brought to southernAppalachiain the 18th and 19th century.Avie Lee's father, Jake Owens, was aPentecostalpreacher, and Parton and her siblings all attended church regularly. Parton has long credited her father for her business savvy, and her mother's family for her musical abilities. When Parton was a young girl, her family moved from the Pittman Center area to a farm up on nearby Locust Ridge. Most of her cherished memories of youth happened there. Today, a replica of the Locust Ridge cabin resides at Parton's namesake theme park Dollywood.The farm acreage and surrounding woodland inspired her to write the song \"My Tennessee Mountain Home\" in the 1970s. Years after the farm was sold, Parton bought it back in the late 1980s. Her brother Bobby helped with building restoration and new construction. Parton has described her family as being \"dirt poor\".Parton's father paid missionary Dr. Robert F. Thomas with a sack ofcornmealfor delivering her.Parton would write a song about Dr. Thomas when she was grown.She also outlined her family's poverty in her early songs \"Coat of Many Colors\" and \"In the Good Old Days (When Times Were Bad)\". For six or seven years, Parton and her family lived in theirrustic, one-bedroom cabin on their smallsubsistence farmon Locust Ridge.This was a predominantlyPentecostalarea located north of theGreenbrier Valley of the Great Smoky Mountains. Music played an important role in her early life. She was brought up in theChurch of God (Cleveland, Tennessee),in a congregation her grandfather, Jake Robert Owens, pastored. Her earliest public performances were in the church, beginning at age six. At seven, she started playing a homemade guitar. When she was eight, her uncle bought her first real guitar. Parton began performing as a child,singing on local radio and television programs in theEast Tennesseearea.By ten, she was appearing onThe Cas Walker Showon bothWIVK RadioandWBIR-TVinKnoxville, Tennessee. At 13, she was recording (the single \"Puppy Love\") on a small Louisiana label,Goldband Records,and appeared at theGrand Ole Opry, where she first metJohnny Cash, who encouraged her to follow her own instincts regarding her career. After graduating fromSevier County High Schoolin 1964, Parton moved to Nashville the next day.Her initial success came as a songwriter, having signed withCombine Publishingshortly after her arrival;with her frequent songwriting partner, her uncleBill Owens, she wrote several charting singles during this time, including two Top10 hits forBill Phillips: \"Put It Off Until Tomorrow,\" and \"The Company You Keep\" (1966), andSkeeter Davis's number 11 hit \"Fuel to the Flame\" (1967).Her songs were recorded by many other artists during this period, includingKitty WellsandHank Williams Jr.She signed withMonument Recordsin 1965, at age 19; she initially was pitched as abubblegum popsinger. She released a string of singles, but the only one that charted, \"Happy, Happy Birthday Baby\", did not crack theBillboardHot 100. Although she expressed a desire to record country material, Monument resisted, thinking her unique, highsopranovoice was not suited to the genre. After her composition \"Put It Off Until Tomorrow\", as recorded by Bill Phillips (with Parton, uncredited, on harmony), went to number six on the country chart in 1966, the label relented and allowed her to record country. Her first country single, \"Dumb Blonde\" (composed byCurly Putman, one of the few songs during this era that she recorded but did not write), reached number 24 on the country chart in 1967, followed by \"Something Fishy\", which went to number 17. The two songs appeared on her first full-length album,Hello, I'm Dolly. Music career 1967–1975: Country music success In 1967, musician and country music entertainerPorter Wagonerinvited Parton to join his organization, offering her a regular spot on his weeklysyndicatedtelevision programThe Porter Wagoner Show, and in his road show. As documented in her 1994 autobiography,initially, much of Wagoner's audience was unhappy thatNorma Jean, the performer whom Parton had replaced, had left the show, and was reluctant to accept Parton (sometimes chanting loudly for Norma Jean from the audience).With Wagoner's assistance, however, Parton was eventually accepted. Wagoner convinced his label,RCA Victor, to sign her. RCA decided to protect their investment by releasing her first single as aduetwith Wagoner. That song, a remake ofTom Paxton's \"The Last Thing on My Mind\", released in late 1967, reached the country Top10 in January 1968, launching a six-year streak of virtually uninterrupted Top10 singles for the pair. Parton's first solo single for RCA Victor, \"Just Because I'm a Woman\", was released in the summer of 1968 and was a moderate chart hit, reaching number 17. For the next two years, none of her solo efforts – even \"In the Good Old Days (When Times Were Bad)\", which later became a standard – were as successful as her duets with Wagoner. The duo was namedVocal Group of the Yearin 1968 by theCountry Music Association, but Parton's solo records were continually ignored. Wagoner had a significant financial stake in her future; as of 1969, he was her co-producer and owned nearly half of Owe-Par,the publishing company Parton had founded with Bill Owens. By 1970, both Parton and Wagoner had grown frustrated by her lack of solo chart success. Wagoner persuaded Parton to recordJimmie Rodgers' \"Mule Skinner Blues\", agimmickthat worked. The record shot to number three, followed closely, in February 1971, by her first number-one single, \"Joshua\". For the next two years, she had numerous solo hits – including her signature song \"Coat of Many Colors\" (number four, 1971) – in addition to her duets. Top20 singles included \"The Right Combination\" and \"Burning the Midnight Oil\" (both duets with Wagoner, 1971); \"Lost Forever in Your Kiss\" (with Wagoner), \"Touch Your Woman\" (1972), \"My Tennessee Mountain Home\" and \"Travelin' Man\" (1973). Although her solo singles and the Wagoner duets were successful, her biggest hit of this period was \"Jolene\". Released in late 1973, the song topped the country chart in February 1974 and reached the lower regions of the Hot 100 (it eventually also charted in the U.K., reaching number seven in 1976, representing Parton's first U.K. success). Parton, who had always envisioned a solo career, made the decision to leave Wagoner's organization; the pair performed their last duet concert in April 1974, and she stopped appearing on his TV show in mid-1974, although they remained affiliated. He helped produce her records through 1975.The pair continued to release duet albums, their final release being 1975'sSay Forever You'll Be Mine. In 1974, her song, \"I Will Always Love You\", written about her professional break from Wagoner, went to number one on the country chart. Around the same time,Elvis Presleyindicated that he wanted to record the song. Parton was interested until Presley's manager,Colonel Tom Parker, told her that it was standard procedure for the songwriter to sign over half of the publishing rights to any song recorded by Presley.Parton refused. That decision has been credited with helping to make her many millions of dollars in royalties from the song over the years. Parton had three solo singles reach number one on the country chart in 1974 (\"Jolene\", \"I Will Always Love You\" and \"Love Is Like a Butterfly\"), as well as the duet with Porter Wagoner, \"Please Don't Stop Loving Me\". In a 2019 episode of theSky Artsmusic seriesBrian Johnson: A Life on the Road, Parton described finding old cassette tapes and realizing that she had composed both \"Jolene\" and \"I Will Always Love You\" in the same songwriting session, telling Johnson \"Buddy, that was a good night.\" Parton again topped the singles chart in 1975 with \"The Bargain Store\". 1976–1986: Pop transition Between 1974 and 1980, Parton had a series of country hits, with eight singles reaching number one. Her influence on pop culture is reflected by the many performers covering her songs, including mainstream and crossover artists such asOlivia Newton-John,Emmylou Harris, andLinda Ronstadt. Parton began to embark on a high-profile crossover campaign, attempting to aim her music in a more mainstream direction and increase her visibility outside of the confines of country music. In 1976, she began working closely withSandy Gallin, who served as her personal manager for the next 25 years. With her 1976 albumAll I Can Do, which she co-produced with Porter Wagoner, Parton began taking more of an active role in production, and began specifically aiming her music in a more mainstream, pop direction. Her first entirely self-produced effort,New Harvest...First Gathering(1977), highlighted her pop sensibilities, both in terms of choice of songs – the album contained covers of the pop and R&B classics \"My Girl\" and \"Higher and Higher\" – and production.Though the album was well received and topped the U.S. country albums chart, neither it nor its single \"Light of a Clear Blue Morning\" made much of an impression on the pop charts. AfterNew Harvest'sdisappointing crossover performance, Parton turned to high-profile pop producerGary Kleinfor her next album. The result, 1977'sHere You Come Again, became her first million-seller, topping the country album chart and reaching number 20 on the pop chart. TheBarry Mann-Cynthia Weil-pennedtitle tracktopped the country singles chart, and became Parton's first Top10 single on the pop chart (no.3). A second single, the double A-sided \"Two Doors Down\"/\"It's All Wrong, But It's All Right\" topped the country chart and crossed over to the pop Top20. For the remainder of the 1970s and into the early 1980s, many of her subsequent singles moved up on both charts simultaneously. Her albums during this period were developed specifically for pop-crossoversuccess. In 1978, Parton won aGrammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performancefor herHere You Come Againalbum. She continued to have hits with \"Heartbreaker\" (1978), \"Baby I'm Burning\" (1979) and \"You're the Only One\" (1979)all of which charted in the popTop 40and topped the country chart. \"Sweet Summer Lovin'\" (1979) became the first Parton single in two years to not top the country chart (though it did reach the Top10). During this period, her visibility continued to increase, with multiple television appearances. A highly publicized candid interview on aBarbara Walters Specialin 1977 (timed to coincide withHere You Come Again'srelease) was followed by appearances in 1978 onCher's ABCtelevision special, and her own joint special withCarol Burnetton CBS,Dolly & Carol in Nashville. Parton served as one of three co-hosts (along withRoy ClarkandGlen Campbell) on the CBS specialFifty Years of Country Music. In 1979, Parton hosted theNBCspecialThe Seventies: An Explosion of Country Music, performed live at theFord TheatreinWashington, D.C., and whose audience included PresidentJimmy Carter. Her commercial success grew in 1980, with three consecutive country chart number-one hits: theDonna Summer-written \"Starting Over Again\", \"Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You\", and \"9to5\", which topped the country and pop charts in early 1981.She had another Top10 single that year with \"Making Plans\", a single released from a 1980album with Porter Wagoner,released as part of a lawsuit settlement between the pair. The theme song to the 1980 feature film9to5, in which she starred along withJane FondaandLily Tomlin, not only reached number one on the country chart – in February 1981 it reached number one on the pop and theadult-contemporarycharts, giving her a triple number-one hit. Parton became one of the few female country singers to have a number-one single on the country and pop charts simultaneously. It also received a nomination for anAcademy Award for Best Original Song. Her singles continued to appear consistently in the country Top10. Between 1981 and 1985, she had twelve Top10 hits; half of them hit number one. She continued to make inroads on the pop chart as well. A re-recorded version of \"I Will Always Love You\", from the feature filmThe Best Little Whorehouse in Texas(1982) scraped the Top50 that year and her duet withKenny Rogers, \"Islands in the Stream\" (written by theBee Geesand produced byBarry Gibb), spent two weeks at number one in 1983. In the mid-1980s, her record sales were still relatively strong, with \"Save the Last Dance for Me\", \"Tennessee Homesick Blues\", \"God Won't Get You\" (1984), \"Real Love\" (another duet with Kenny Rogers), \"Don't Call It Love\" (1985) and \"Think About Love\" (1986) all reaching the country Top10 (\"Tennessee Homesick Blues\" and \"Think About Love\" reached number one; \"Real Love\" also reached number one on the country chart and became a modest crossover hit). However, RCA Records did not renew her contract after it expired in 1986, and she signed withColumbia Recordsin 1987. 1987–2005: Country and bluegrass period Along withEmmylou HarrisandLinda Ronstadt, she releasedTrio(1987) to critical acclaim. The album revitalized Parton's music career, spending five weeks at number one onBillboard'sCountry Albums chart, and also reached the Top10 onBillboard'sTop200 Albums chart. It sold several million copies and produced four Top10 country hits, includingPhil Spector's \"To Know Him Is to Love Him\", which went to number one.Triowon theGrammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocaland was nominated for aGrammy Award for Album of the Year. After a further attempt at pop success withRainbow(1987), including the single \"The River Unbroken\", it ended up a commercial let-down, causing Parton to focus on recording country material.White Limozeen(1989) produced two number one hits in \"Why'd You Come in Here Lookin' Like That\" and \"Yellow Roses\". Although Parton's career appeared to be revived, it was actually just a brief revival before contemporary country music came in the early 1990s and moved most veteran artists off the charts. A duet withRicky Van Shelton, \"Rockin' Years\" (1991) reached number one, though Parton's greatest commercial fortune of the decade came when Whitney Houston recorded \"I Will Always Love You\" for the soundtrack of the feature filmThe Bodyguard(1992). Both the single and the album were massively successful. Parton's soundtrack album from the 1992 film,Straight Talk, however, was less successful. But her 1993 albumSlow Dancing with the Moonwon critical acclaim and did well on the charts, reaching number four on the country albums chart, and number 16 on theBillboard200 album chart. It would also become Platinum certified.She recorded \"The Day I Fall in Love\" as a duet withJames Ingramfor the feature filmBeethoven's 2nd(1993). The songwriters (Ingram,Carole Bayer Sager, andClif Magness) were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song, and Parton and Ingram performed the song at the awards telecast. Similar to her earlier collaborative album with Harris and Ronstadt, Parton releasedHonky Tonk Angelsin the fall of 1993 withLoretta LynnandTammy Wynette.It was certified asa gold albumby theRecording Industry Association of Americaand helped revive both Wynette and Lynn's careers. Also in 1994, Parton contributed the song \"You Gotta Be My Baby\" to the AIDS benefit albumRed Hot + Countryproduced by theRed Hot Organization.A live acoustic album,Heartsongs: Live from Home, featuring stripped-down versions of some of her hits, as well as some traditional songs, was released in late 1994. Parton's recorded music during the mid-to-late-1990s remained steady and somewhat eclectic. Her 1995 re-recording of \"I Will Always Love You\" (performed as a duet withVince Gill), from her albumSomething Specialwon the Country Music Association'sVocal Event of the Year Award. The following year,Treasures, an album of covers of 1960s/70s hits was released, and featured a diverse collection of material, including songs byMac Davis,Pete Seeger,Kris Kristofferson,Cat Stevens, andNeil Young. Her recording of Stevens' \"Peace Train\" was later re-mixed and released as a dance single, reachingBillboard'sdance singles chart. Her 1998 country-rock albumHungry Againwas made up entirely of her own compositions. Although neither of the album's two singles, \"(Why Don't More Women Sing) Honky Tonk Songs\" and \"Salt in my Tears\", charted, videos for both songs received significant airplay onCMT. A second and more contemporary collaboration with Harris and Ronstadt,Trio II, was released in early 1999. Its cover of Neil Young's song \"After the Gold Rush\" won aGrammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals. Parton also was inducted into theCountry Music Hall of Famein 1999. Parton recorded a series ofbluegrass-inspired albums, beginning withThe Grass Is Blue(1999), winning aGrammy Award for Best Bluegrass Album; andLittle Sparrow(2001), with its cover ofCollective Soul's \"Shine\" winning aGrammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance. The third,Halos & Horns(2002) included a bluegrass version of theLed Zeppelinsong \"Stairway to Heaven\". In 2005, she releasedThose Were The Daysconsisting of her interpretations of hits from thefolk-rockera of the late 1960s and early 1970s, including \"Imagine\", \"Where Do the Children Play?\", \"Crimson and Clover\", and \"Where Have All the Flowers Gone?\" 2005–2020: Touring and holiday album Parton earned her second Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song for \"Travelin' Thru\", which she wrote specifically for the feature filmTransamerica. (2005) Due to the song's (and film's) acceptance of atransgenderwoman, Parton receiveddeath threats.She returned to number one on the country chart later in 2005 by lending her distinctive harmonies to theBrad Paisleyballad, \"When I Get Where I'm Going\".In September 2007, Parton released her first single from her own record company, Dolly Records, titled, \"Better Get to Livin'\", which eventually peaked at number 48 onBillboard'sHot Country Songschart. It was followed by the studio albumBackwoods Barbie, which was released on February 26, 2008, and reached number two on the country chart. The album's debut at number 17 on the all-genreBillboard200 albums chart was the highest in her career.Backwoods Barbieproduced four additional singles, including the title track, written as part of her score for9to5: The Musical, an adaptation of her feature film. After the death ofMichael Jackson, whom Parton knew personally, she released a video in which she somberly told of her feelings on Jackson and his death. On October 27, 2009, Parton released a four-CD box set,Dolly, which featured 99 songs and spanned most of her career.She released her second live DVD and album,Live From Londonin October 2009, which was filmed during her sold-out 2008 concerts at London'sThe O2 Arena. On August 10, 2010, with longtime friendBilly Ray Cyrus, Parton released the albumBrother Clyde. Parton is featured on \"The Right Time\", which she co-wrote with Cyrus and Morris Joseph Tancredi. On January 6, 2011, Parton announced that her new album would be titledBetter Day. In February 2011, she announced that she would embark on theBetter Day World Touron July 17, 2011, with shows in northern Europe and the U.S.The album's lead-off single, \"Together You and I\", was released on May 23, 2011, andBetter Daywas released on June 28, 2011.In 2011, Parton voiced the character Dolly Gnome in the animated filmGnomeo & Juliet. On February 11, 2012, after the sudden death ofWhitney Houston, Parton stated, \"Mine is only one of the millions of hearts broken over the death of Whitney Houston. I will always be grateful and in awe of the wonderful performance she did on my song, and I can truly say from the bottom of my heart, 'Whitney, I will always love you. You will be missed.'\" In 2013, Parton joinedLulu Romanfor a re-recording of \"I Will Always Love You\" for Roman's album,At Last.In 2013, Parton and Kenny Rogers reunited for the title song of his albumYou Can't Make Old Friends. For their performance, they were nominated at the2014 Grammy AwardsforGrammy Award for Best Country Duo/Group Performance.In 2014, Parton embarked on theBlue Smoke World Tourin support of her 42nd studio album,Blue Smoke.The album was first released in Australia and New Zealand on January 31 to coincide with tour dates there in February, and reached the Top10 in both countries. It was released in the United States on May 13, and debuted at number six on theBillboard200 chart, making it her first Top10 album and her highest-charting solo album ever; it also reached the number two on the U.S. country chart. The album was released in Europe on June 9, and reached number two on the UK album chart. On June 29, 2014, Parton performed for the first time at the UKGlastonbury Festival, singing songs such as \"Jolene\", \"9to5\" and \"Coat of Many Colors\" to a crowd of more than 180,000.On March 6, 2016, Parton announced that she would be embarking on a tour in support of her new album,Pure & Simple. The tour was one of Parton's biggest tours within the United States in more than 25 years.64 dates were planned in the United States and Canada, visiting the most requested markets missed on previous tours. In the fall of 2016 she released \"Jolene\" as a single with thea cappellagroupPentatonixand performed onThe Voicewith Pentatonix and Miley Cyrus in November 2016.Also in 2016, Parton was one of thirty artists to perform on \"Forever Country\", a mash-up of the songs, \"Take Me Home, Country Roads\", \"On the Road Again\" and her own \"I Will Always Love You\". The song celebrates fifty years of theCMA Awards.At the ceremony itself, Parton was honored with the Willie Nelson Lifetime Achievement Award, which was presented byLily Tomlinand preceded by a tribute featuringJennifer Nettles,Pentatonix,Reba McEntire,Kacey Musgraves,Carrie UnderwoodandMartina McBride. In 2017, Parton appeared onRainbow, the third studio album byKeshaperforming a duet of \"Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You\". The track had been co-written by Kesha's motherPebe Sebert. It was previously a hit for Parton and was included on her 1980 albumDolly, Dolly, Dolly. She also co-wrote and provided featuring vocals on the song \"Rainbowland\" onYounger Now, the sixth album by her goddaughterMiley Cyrus. In July 2019, Parton made an unannounced appearance at theNewport Folk FestivalinRhode Island, and performed several songs accompanied bythe HighwomenandLinda Perry.In 2020, Parton received worldwide attention after posting four pictures, in which she showed how she would present herself on social media platformsLinkedIn,Facebook,InstagramandTwitter. The original post on Instagramwent viral after celebrities posted their own versions of the so-called Dolly Parton challenge on social media. On April 10, 2020, Parton re-released 93 songs from six of her classic albums:Little Sparrow,Halos & Horns,For God and Country,Better Day,Those Were The Days, andLive and Well.On May 27, 2020, Parton released a brand new song called \"When Life Is Good Again\". This song was released to help keep the spirits up of those affected by the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. She also released a music video for \"When Life Is Good Again\", which premiered onTime100talks on May 28, 2020. In 2019, Parton collaborated with Christian alternative rock duetFor King and Countryand released a version of their hit \"God Only Knows\". She followed this by recording a duet with Christian music artistZach Williamsin the song \"There Was Jesus\". In October 2020, Parton was featured on the single \"Pink\" alongsideMonica,Jordin Sparks,Sara EvansandRita Wilson. The single was released in aid ofBreast Cancer Research. Parton releasedA Holly Dolly Christmasin October 2020.On December 6,CBSaired a Christmas special, \"A Holly Dolly Christmas\", where Parton performed songs from her album. Since 2022: Rock album In early 2022, Parton was nominated for induction into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame.Parton initially declined the nomination believing that the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame was \"for the people inrock music\",but after learning that this was not the case Parton said she would accept her induction if she were chosen for the honor.In May her induction was announced, and finally on November 5, 2022, she was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.In October 2022 Parton stated in an interview that she would no longer tour, but would continue to play live shows occasionally.On December 31, 2022, Parton co-hosted NBC's New Year's specialMiley's New Year's Eve Party. On January 17, 2023, Parton announced she would release her first rock album, titledRockstar, later that year, during an interview onThe View.Lead single \"World on Fire\" was released on May 11, 2023.It went on to peak at number 1 a week later.The album was released on November 17, 2023, and features collaborations withPaul McCartney,Ringo Starr,Sting,Elton John,Sheryl Crow,Miley Cyrus, andLizzo, amongst others.The album received generally positive reviews from critics and debuted at number three on theBillboard200, becoming Parton's highest-charting solo studio album as well as topping theCountryandRock Albumscharts. The soundtrack single \"Gonna Be You\" from the movie80 for Bradywas released January 20, 2023. The song was written byDiane Warren, and performed by Dolly Parton,Belinda Carlisle,Cyndi Lauper,Debbie HarryandGloria Estefan. The official music video shows Parton, Carlisle, Lauper, and Estefan performing while wearing football jerseys similar to the ones worn by the women in the film, interspersed with clips from the film. Public image The way I look and the way I looked then was a country girl's idea of glam, just like I wrote in my \"Backwoods Barbie\" song. People wanted me to change, they thought I looked cheap. But I patterned my look after the town tramp. Everybody said, \"She's trash.\" And in my little girl mind, I thought, \"Well, that's what I'm going to be when I grow up.\" It was really like a look I was after. I wasn't a natural beauty. So, I just like to look the way I look. I'm so outgoing inside in my personality, that I need the way I look to match all of that. Dolly Parton,2022 Parton had turned down several offers to pose nude forPlayboymagazine, but did appear on the cover of the October 1978 issue wearing aPlayboy bunnyoutfit, complete with ears (the issue featured Lawrence Grobel's extensive and candid interview with Parton, representing one of her earliest high-profile interviews with the mainstream press). The association of breasts with Parton's public image is illustrated in the naming ofDolly the sheepafter her, since the sheep was cloned from a cell taken from an adult ewe'smammary gland.InMobile, Alabama, theGeneral W.K. Wilson Jr. Bridgeis commonly called \"the Dolly Parton Bridge\" due to its arches resembling her bust.The thickened appearance of the turret frontal armor of theT-72Amain battle tankled to the unofficial Army nickname \"Dolly Parton\"- and later theT-72BIsgot the \"Super Dolly Parton\" nickname. Parton is known for having undergone considerable plastic surgery.On a 2003 episode ofThe Oprah Winfrey Show, Winfrey asked what kind ofcosmetic surgeryParton had undergone. Parton replied that cosmetic surgery was imperative in keeping with her famous image.Parton has repeatedly joked about her physical image and surgeries, saying, \"It takes a lot of money to look this cheap.\"Her breasts have garnered her mentions in several songs, including \"Dolly Parton's Hits\" byBobby Braddock, \"Marty FeldmanEyes\" byBruce Baum(a parody of \"Bette Davis Eyes\"), \"No Show Jones\" byGeorge JonesandMerle Haggard, and \"Make Me Proud\" byDrake, featuringNicki Minaj.When asked about future plastic surgeries, she famously said, \"If I see something sagging, bagging or dragging, I'll get it nipped, tucked or sucked.\"Parton's feminine escapismis acknowledged in her words, \"Womanhood was a difficult thing to get a grip on in those hills, unless you were a man.\"Parton said in 2012 that she had entered a Dolly Parton lookalike contest and lost. Artistry Influences Parton, though influenced by big name stars, often credits much of her inspiration to her family and community. On her own mother Parton, in her 2020 bookSongteller: My Life in Lyrics, wrote \"So it was just natural for my mom to always be singing. My mother had that old-timey voice, and she used to sing all these songs that were brought over from the Old World. They were English, Irish, Welsh, folk songs where people tell stories.\" Parton calls her mother's voice \"haunting\". \"Lord you would feel it\", she wrote.Her biggest influence however was her Aunt Dorothy Jo: \"People often ask me who my influences were, they think I'm going to say some big names, and there were a few 'stars' I was impressed with. But my hero was my aunt Dorothy Jo. Mama's baby sister. She was not only an evangelist, she played banjo, she played guitar, and she wrote some great songs.\"Fellow singers also had an impact on Parton, describingGeorge Jonesas her \"all time favorite singer\",and recognizing her love for other artists such asKitty Wells,Roy Acuff, andRose Maddox. Musicianship Though unable to read sheet music, Parton can play many instruments, including: thedulcimer,autoharp,banjo,guitar,electric guitar,fiddle,piano,recorder, and thesaxophone.Reflecting on her multi-instrumental abilities, Parton said, \"I play some of everything. I ain't that good at none of it, but I try to sell it. I really try to lay into it.\"Parton has also used her fingernails as an instrument, most evident on her 1980 song \"9 to 5\", which she derived the beat from clacking her nails together while backstage on the set of the film9 to 5. Other ventures In 1998,Nashville Businessranked her the wealthiest country music star.As of 2017, her net worth is estimated at $500million. Songwriting Parton is a prolific songwriter, having begun by writing country music songs with strong elements offolk music, based on her upbringing in humble mountain surroundings and reflecting her family's Christian background. Her songs \"Coat of Many Colors\", \"I Will Always Love You\", and \"Jolene\", among others, have become classics. On November 4, 2003, Parton was honored as aBMI Iconat the 2003 BMI Country Awards.Parton has earned over 35 BMI Pop and Country Awards.In 2001, she was inducted into theSongwriters Hall of Fame.In a 2009 interview onCNN'sLarry King Live, she said she had written \"at least 3,000\" songs, having written seriously since the age of seven. Parton also said she writes something every day, be it a song or an idea. Parton's songwriting has been featured prominently in several films. In addition to the title song for9to5, she also recorded a second version of \"I Will Always Love You\" forThe Best Little Whorehouse in Texas(1982). The second version was a number one country hit and also reached number 53 on the pop charts. \"I Will Always Love You\" has been covered by many country artists, including Ronstadt onPrisoner In Disguise(1975), Kenny Rogers onVote for Love(1996), andLeAnn RimesonUnchained Melody: The Early Years(1997). Whitney Houston performed it onThe Bodyguardsoundtrack and her version became the best-selling hit both written and performed by a female vocalist, with worldwide sales of over twelve million copies. In addition, the song has been translated into Italian and performed by the Welsh opera singerKatherine Jenkins. As a songwriter, Parton has twice been nominated for anAcademy Award for Best Original Song, for \"9 to 5\" and \"Travelin' Thru\" (2005) from the filmTransamerica. \"Travelin' Thru\" won Best Original Song at the 2005 Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards. It was also nominated for both the 2005Golden Globe AwardforBest Original Songand the 2005Broadcast Film Critics Association Award(also known as the Critics' Choice Awards) forBest Song. A cover of \"Love Is Like A Butterfly\" byClare Torrywas used as the theme music for the British TV showButterflies. Stage musicals 9 to 5: The Musical Parton wrote the score (and Patricia Resnick the book) for9 to 5: The Musical, amusical-theateradaptationof Parton's feature film9 to 5(1980). The musical ran at theAhmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, in late 2008. It opened on Broadway at theMarquis Theatrein New York on April 30, 2009, to mixed reviews.The title track of her 2008 albumBackwoods Barbiewas written for the musical's character Doralee.Although her score (as well as the musical debut of actressAllison Janney) was praised, the show struggled, closing on September 6, 2009, after 24 previews and 148 performances. Parton received nominations forDrama Desk Award for Outstanding MusicandDrama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyricsas well as a nomination forTony Award for Best Original Score. Developing the musical was not a quick process. According to thepublic-radioprogramStudio 360(October 29, 2005),in October 2005 Parton was in the midst of composing songs for a Broadway musical theater adaptation of the film. In late June 2007,9 to 5: The Musicalwas read for industry presentations. The readings starredMegan Hilty, Allison Janney,Stephanie J. Block,Bebe Neuwirth, andMarc Kudisch.Ambassador Theatre Groupannounced a 2012 UK tour forDolly Parton's 9to5: The Musical, commencing atManchester Opera House, on October 12, 2012. Hello, I'm Dolly In June 2024, Parton announced anautobiographicalmusicalabout her life and career titledHello, I'm Dolly(named after her debut album and also a play onHello, Dolly!), with a goal of opening onBroadwayin 2026. The musical, with a co-writtenbookby Parton and Maria S. Schlatter which would feature original songs as well as her more well-known hits. Parton also revealed that she has been working on the musical for the last decade. The Dollywood Company Parton invested much of her earnings into business ventures in her native East Tennessee, notablyPigeon Forge. She is a co-owner ofThe Dollywood Company, which operates the theme parkDollywood(a formerSilver Dollar City), adinner theater,Dolly Parton's Stampede, thewaterparkDollywood's Splash Country, and the Dream More Resort and Spa, all in Pigeon Forge. Dollywood is the 24th-most-popular theme park in the United States, with three million visitors per year.The Dolly Parton's Stampede business has venues inBranson, Missouri, andMyrtle Beach, South Carolina. A former location inOrlando, Florida, closed in January 2008 after the land and building were sold to a developer.Starting in June 2011, the Myrtle Beach location became Pirates Voyage Fun, Feast and Adventure; Parton appeared for the opening, and theSouth Carolina General Assemblydeclared June 3, 2011, as Dolly Parton Day. On January 19, 2012, Parton's 66th birthday, Gaylord Opryland and Dollywood announced plans to open a $50million water and snow park, a family-friendly destination in Nashville that is open all year.On September 29, 2012, Parton officially withdrew her support for the Nashville park due to the restructuring of Gaylord Entertainment Company after its merger with Marriott International.On June 12, 2015, it was announced that the Dollywood Company had purchased the Lumberjack Feud Dinner Show in Pigeon Forge. The show, which opened in June 2011, was owned and operated by Rob Scheer until the close of the 2015 season. The new, renovated show by the Dollywood Company opened in 2016. Production work Parton was a co-owner of Sandollar Productions, withSandy Gallin, her former manager. A film and televisionproduction company, it produced the documentaryCommon Threads: Stories from the Quilt(1989), which won anAcademy Award for Best Documentary Feature; the television seriesBabes(1990–91) andBuffy the Vampire Slayer(1997–2003); and the feature filmsFather of the Bride(1991),Father of the Bride: Part II(1995)Straight Talk(1992) (in which Parton starred), andSabrina(1995), among other shows. In a 2009 interview, singerConnie Francisrevealed that Parton had been contacting her for years in an attempt to film the singer's life story. Francis turned down Parton's offers, as she was already in negotiations with singerGloria Estefanto produce the film, a collaboration now ended.After the retirement of her partner, Sandy Gallin, Parton briefly operated Dolly Parton's Southern Light Productions and in 2015 she announced her new production company would be called Dixie Pixie Productions and produce the movies-of-week in development with NBC Television andMagnolia Hill Productions. Acting career Acting breakthrough In addition to her performing appearances onThe Porter Wagoner Showin the 1960s and into the 1970s, her two self-titled television variety shows in the1970sand1980s, and onAmerican Idolin 2008 and other guest appearances, Parton has had television roles. In 1979, she received an Emmy award nomination as \"Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Variety Program\" for her guest appearance in aCherspecial.During the mid-1970s, Parton wanted to expand her audience base. Although her first attempt, the television variety showDolly!(1976–77), had high ratings, it lasted only one season, with Parton requesting to be released from her contract because of the stress it was causing on hervocal cords. (She later tried a second television variety show, also titledDolly(1987–88); it too lasted only one season). In her first feature film, Parton portrayed a secretary in a leading role withJane FondaandLily Tomlinin the comedy film9to5(1980). The movie highlights discrimination against women in the workplace and created awareness of the National Association of Working Women (9–5).She received nominations for aGolden Globe Award for Best Actress – Musical or Comedyand aGolden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actress.Parton wrote and recorded the film's title song. It received nominations for anAcademy Award for Best Songand aGolden Globe Award for Best Original Song.Released as a single, the song won both theGrammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performanceand theGrammy Award for Best Country Song. It also reached no.1 on the Hot 100 chart and it was no.78 on the \"AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs\" list released by theAmerican Film Institutein 2004.9 to 5became a major box office success, grossing over $3.9million its opening weekend, and over $103million worldwide. Parton was named Top Female Box Office Star by theMotion Picture Heraldin both 1981 and 1982 due to the film's success. In late 1981, Parton began filming her second film, themusical filmThe Best Little Whorehouse in Texas(1982).The film earned her a second nomination for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.The film was greeted with positive critical reviews and became a commercial success, earning over $69million worldwide. After a two-year hiatus from films, Parton was teamed withSylvester StalloneforRhinestone(1984). A comedy film about a country music star's efforts to mould an unknown into a music sensation, the film was a critical and financial failure, making just over $21million on a $28million budget. Continued roles In 1989, Parton returned to film acting inSteel Magnolias(1989), based on the playSteel MagnoliasbyRobert Harling. The film was popular with critics and audiences, grossing over $95million in the U.S. Parton starred in thetelevision moviesA Smoky Mountain Christmas(1986),Wild Texas Wind(1991),Unlikely Angel(1996), portraying an angel sent back to earth after a deadly car crash, andBlue Valley Songbird(1999), where her character lives through her music. She starred withJames WoodsinStraight Talk(1992), which received mixed reviews, and grossed a mild $21million at the box office. Parton's 1987 variety showDollylasted only one season. She made acameo appearanceas herself inThe Beverly Hillbillies(1993), an adaptation of the long-running TV sitcomThe Beverly Hillbillies(1962–1971).Parton has donevoice workfor animation for television series, playing herself inAlvin and the Chipmunks(episode \"Urban Chipmunk\", 1983) and the character Katrina Eloise \"Murph\" Murphy (Ms. Frizzle's first cousin) inThe Magic School Bus(episode \"The Family Holiday Special\", 1994). She also has guest-starred in several sitcoms, including a 1990 episode ofDesigning Women(episode \"The First Day of the Last Decade of the Entire Twentieth Century\") as herself, the guardian movie star of Charlene's baby.She made a guest appearance onReba(episode \"Reba's Rules of Real Estate\") portraying areal-estateagencyowner and onThe Simpsons(episode \"Sunday, Cruddy Sunday\", 1999). She appeared as herself in 2000 on the Halloween episode ofBette Midler's short-lived sitcomBette, and on episode 14 ofBabes(produced by Sandollar Productions, Parton andSandy Gallin's joint production company). She made cameo appearances on theDisney Channelas \"Aunt Dolly\", visiting Hannah and her family in fellow Tennessean and real-lifegoddaughterMiley Cyrus's seriesHannah Montana(episodes \"Good Golly, Miss Dolly\", 2006, \"I Will Always Loathe You\", 2007, and \"Kiss It All Goodbye\", 2010). She was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series. Parton appeared as an overprotective mother in the comedyFrank McKlusky, C.I.. (2002) She made a cameo appearance in the comedy filmMiss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous, starringSandra Bullock. She was featured inThe Book Lady(2008), a documentary about her campaign for children'sliteracy. Parton expected to reprise her television role as Hannah'sgodmotherin the musical comedy filmHannah Montana: The Movie(2009), but the character was omitted from the screenplay. Since 2010 Parton had a voice role in the comedyfamily filmGnomeo & Juliet(2011), an animated film withgarden gnomesaboutWilliam Shakespeare'sRomeo and Juliet. She co-starred withQueen Latifahin the musical filmJoyful Noise(2012),playing a choir director's widow who joins forces with Latifah's character, a mother of two teens, to save a small Georgia town'sgospel choir.Dolly Parton's Coat of Many Colors, a made-for-TV film based on Parton's song \"Coat of Many Colors\", and featuring narration by Parton, aired on NBC in December 2015, with child actressAlyvia Alyn Lindportraying the young Parton. Parton also had a cameo inthe sequel, which aired in November 2016. In June 2018, Parton announced an eight-part Netflix series, featuring her music career.She is its executive producer and co-star.The series, calledDolly Parton's Heartstrings, aired in November 2019.Parton is the subject of theNPRpodcastDolly Parton's America. It is hosted byJad Abumrad, who also hostsRadiolab.In December 2019, the biographical documentaryHere I Amwas added to the catalog of theNetflixstreaming service. The documentary, a co-production of Netflix and theBBC, takes its name from Parton's1971 song. In November 2020, Parton produced and starred in the Netflix musical filmDolly Parton's Christmas on the Square, which won her aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie.In November 2021, Parton was confirmed to be appearing in the final season ofGrace and Frankiein a guest-starring role, reuniting with her9 to 5co-starsLily TomlinandJane Fonda.In July 2022, Parton appeared as a simulation of herself on sci-fi showThe Orvillein the episode \"Midnight Blue\".In December 2022, Parton appeared in an NBC special titledDolly Parton's Mountain Magic Christmas. On Thanksgiving 2023, Parton performed songs during halftime at theWashington CommandersandDallas CowboysNFL football game. Personal life Family Parton is the fourth of 12 children. Her siblings are Willadeene, David Wilburn, Coy Denver, Robert Lee,Stella, Cassie Nan,Randel(deceased), Larry Gerald (deceased), twins Floyd Estel (deceased) and Frieda Estelle, andRachel. On May 30, 1966, Parton and Carl Thomas Dean (born July 20, 1942, inNashville, Tennessee) were married inRinggold, Georgia.Although Parton does not use Dean's surname professionally, she has stated that her passport reads \"Dolly Parton Dean\", and she sometimes uses Dean when signing contracts.Dean, who is retired from running anasphaltroad-paving business in Nashville, has always shunned publicity, and rarely accompanies his wife to any events. Parton has jokingly said that he has only seen her perform once. She also has said in interviews that even though it appears they spend little time together, it is simply that nobody sees him publicly. She has commented on Dean's romantic side, saying that he does spontaneous things to surprise her, and sometimes even writes poems for her.In 2011, Parton said, \"We're really very proud of our marriage. It's the first for both of us. And the last.\" On May 6, 2016, Parton announced that she and Dean would renew their vows in honor of their 50th wedding anniversary later in the month. While Parton has never had children, she and Dean helped raise several of her younger siblings in Nashville, leading her nieces and nephews to refer to them as \"Uncle Peepaw\" and \"Aunt Granny\"; the latter a moniker that later lent its name to one of Parton'sDollywoodrestaurants. Parton is also the godmother of singer-songwriter and actressMiley Cyrus. Faith Parton says that she is a committedChristian, which has influenced many of her musical releases. She talked about her liberal approach to faith in the January 2024 issue of New Humanist magazine. \"I wouldn't even say I'm religious, though I grew up with that background. But I have a lot of faith in myself and I've been so blessed to have been around great people my whole life, my Uncle Bill and my family being supportive, and all the people I met along the way.\" Philanthropy Since the mid-1980s, Parton has supported many charitable efforts, particularly in the area of literacy, primarily through herDollywood Foundation. Her literacy program, Dolly Parton's Imagination Library,which is a part of the Dollywood Foundation, was founded in honor of her father, who never learned to read or write.It mails one book per month to each enrolled child from the time of their birth until they enter kindergarten. Currently, over 1600 local communities provide the Imagination Library to almost 850,000 children each month across the U.S., Canada, the UK, Australia, and the Republic of Ireland.In February 2018, she donated her 100 millionth free book, a copy of Parton's children's picture bookCoat of Many Colors, to the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.and was honored by the Library of Congress on account of the \"charity sending out its 100 millionth book\". For her work in literacy, Parton has received various awards, includingAssociation of American PublishersHonors Award (2000),Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval(2001) (the first time the seal had been awarded to a person),American Association of School Administrators– Galaxy Award (2002), National State Teachers of the Year – Chasing Rainbows Award (2002), and Parents as Teachers National Center – Child and Family Advocacy Award (2003). On May 8, 2009, Parton gave thecommencement speechat the graduation ceremony for theUniversity of Tennessee, Knoxville's College of Arts and Sciences.During the ceremony, she received an honoraryDoctor of Humane Lettersfrom the university. It was only the second honorary degree given by the university, and in presenting the degree, the university'sChancellor,Jimmy Cheek, said, \"Because of her career not just as a musician and entertainer, but for her role as a cultural ambassador, philanthropist and lifelong advocate for education, it is fitting that she be honored with an honorary degree from the flagship educational institution of her home state.\" In 2006, Parton published a cookbook,Dolly's Dixie Fixin's: Love, Laughter and Lots of Good Food. The Dollywood Foundation, funded from Parton's profits, has been noted for bringing jobs and tax revenues to a previously depressed region. Parton also has worked to raise money for several other causes, including theAmerican Red CrossandHIV/AIDS-related charities. In December 2006, Parton pledged $500,000 toward a proposed $90million hospital and cancer center to be constructed in Sevierville in the name of Robert F. Thomas, the physician who delivered her. She announced a benefit concert to raise additional funds for the project. The concert played to about 8,000 people.That same year, Parton andEmmylou Harrisallowed use of their music in aPETAad campaign that encouraged pet owners to keep their dogs indoors rather than chained outside. In 2003, her efforts to preserve thebald eaglethrough theAmerican Eagle Foundation's sanctuary at Dollywood earned her the Partnership Award from theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.Parton received theWoodrow Wilson Award for Public Servicefrom theWoodrow Wilson International Center for Scholarsof theSmithsonian Institutionat a ceremony in Nashville on November 8, 2007. In response to the2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires, Parton was one of a number of country music artists who participated in a telethon to raise money for victims of the fires.This was held in Nashville on December 9. In addition, Parton hosted her own telethon for the victims on December 13and reportedly raised around $9million.Her fund, the \"My People Fund\", provided $1,000 a month for six months to over 900 families affected by the wildfires, finally culminating with $5,000 to each home in the final month due to increased fundraising, for a total of $10,000 per family.In 2018, the FBI honored Parton for her wildfire aid work, awarding her the 2018 Director's Community Leadership Award at a ceremony at FBI Headquarters in Washington. The honor was bestowed by Director Christopher Wray and was accepted on the Parton's behalf by David Dotson, the CEO of the Dollywood Foundation. The impact of the fund's financial relief for the 2016 wildfire victims was studied by University of Tennessee College of Social Work professor Stacia West, who examined the impact of cash transfers in poverty alleviation.West surveyed 100 recipients of the emergency relief funds in April 2017 on topics including questions on housing, financial impact, physical and emotional health, and sources of support, with a follow-up survey conducted in December 2017. West found that the \"My People Fund\", in tandem with traditional disaster response, gave families the ability to make decisions that were most beneficial to them, and concluded that unconditional cash support may be more beneficial for disaster relief than conditional financial support.The report cited the impact of the monthly financial disbursements from the \"My People Fund\" on residents' emergency savings: \"Following the monthly disbursements of unconditional cash assistance, participants were able to return to baseline financial stability reported prior to the wildfire, and improve their ability to set aside savings for hypothetical future emergencies.\" Parton has been a generous donor toVanderbilt University Medical Center(VUMC). Among her gifts was a contribution to the Monroe Carell Jr. Children's Hospital at Vanderbilt Pediatric Cancer Program in honor of a friend, ProfessorNaji Abumrad, and her niece, Hannah Dennison, who was successfully treated forleukemiaas a child at Children's Hospital. In the aftermath of 2024'sHurricane Helene, Parton announced a donation of $2 million to relief efforts, $1 million personally and another $1 million through her various businesses and the Dollywood Foundation. LGBTQ+ rights Though often politically neutral, Parton is known for her long history of openly supportingLGBTQ rights.LGBTQ+ magazinesLGBTQ NationandThe Advocatehave described her as an \"LGBTQ+ icon,\" and it was noted that she first publicly showed support forLGBTQ familiesin her 1991 song \"Family\".She also publicly came out in support ofsame-sex marriagein 2009. Moderna COVID-19 vaccine In response to theCOVID-19 pandemic, Parton donated $1million towards research atVanderbilt University Medical Centerand encouraged those who can afford it to make similar donations.She said \"I'm a very proud girl today to know I had anything at all to do with something that's going to help us through this crazy pandemic.\"Her donation funded the critical early stages of development of theModernavaccine.In March 2021, Parton wasvaccinatedagainstCOVID-19at Vanderbilt University. She labeled social media accounts of the occasion \"Dolly gets a dose of her own medicine.\"Parton strongly encouraged everyone to get vaccinated when eligible and performed a song celebrating her vaccination, set to the tune of her song \"Jolene\". Awards and honors Dolly Parton is one of the most-honored female country performers of all time. The Record Industry Association of America has certified 25 of her single or album releases as either Gold Record, Platinum Record or Multi-Platinum Record. She has had 26 songs reach no.1 on the Billboard country charts, a record for a female artist. She has 42 career Top10 country albums, a record for any artist, and 110 career-charted singles over the past forty years.As of 2012 she had written more than 3,000 songs and sold more than 100 million records, making her one of the best-selling female artists of all time.As of 2021, she had appeared on the country music charts in each of seven decades, the most of any artist. Dolly Parton has earned eleven Grammy Awards (including her 2011 Lifetime Achievement Grammy) and a total of fifty Grammy Award nominations, the second-most nominations of any female artist in the history of the prestigious awards. At theAmerican Music Awards, she has won three awards out of 18 nominations. At the Country Music Association, she has won ten awards out of 42 nominations. At theAcademy of Country Music, she has won seven awards and 39 nominations. She is one of only six female artists (includingReba McEntire,Barbara Mandrell,Shania Twain,Loretta Lynn, andTaylor Swift), to win the Country Music Association's highest honor, Entertainer of the Year (1978). She also has been nominated for twoAcademy Awardsand aTony Award. She was nominated for anEmmy Awardfor her appearance in a 1978Chertelevision special. She was awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Famefor her music in 1984, located at 6712 Hollywood Boulevard inHollywood, California; a star on the NashvilleStarWalkfor Grammy winners;and a bronze sculpture on the courthouse lawn in Sevierville. She has called that statue of herself in her hometown \"the greatest honor\", because it came from the people who knew her. Parton was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry in 1969, and in 1986 was named one ofMs. Magazine'sWomen of the Year. In 1986, she was inducted into theNashville Songwriters Hall of Fame. In 1999, Parton received country music's highest honor, an induction into the Country Music Hall of Fame.She received an honorarydoctorate degreefromCarson-Newman College(Jefferson City, Tennessee) in 1990.This was followed by induction into theNational Academy of Popular Music/Songwriters Hall of Famein 2001.In 2002, she ranked no.4 inCMT's 40 Greatest Women of Country Music. Parton was honored in 2003 with a tribute album calledJust Because I'm a Woman: Songs of Dolly Parton. The artists who recorded versions of Parton's songs includedMelissa Etheridge(\"I Will Always Love You\"),Alison Krauss(\"9 to 5\"),Shania Twain(\"Coat of Many Colors\"),Meshell Ndegeocello(\"Two Doors Down\"),Norah Jones(\"The Grass is Blue\"), andSinéad O'Connor(\"Dagger Through the Heart\"). Parton herself contributed a re-recording of the title song, originally the title song for her first RCA album in 1968. Parton was awarded theLiving Legend Medalby the U.S.Library of Congresson April 14, 2004, for her contributions to the cultural heritage of the United States.She is also the focus of a Library of Congress collection exploring the influences of country music on her life and career. The collection contains images, articles, sheet music, and more. In 2005, she was honored with theNational Medal of Arts, the highest honor given by the U.S. government for excellence in the arts. The award is presented by theU.S. President. On December 3, 2006, Parton received theKennedy Center Honorsfrom theJohn F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Artsfor her lifetime of contributions to the arts. During the show, some of country music's biggest names came to show their admiration.Carrie Underwoodperformed \"Islands in the Stream\" with Rogers, Parton's original duet partner. Krauss performed \"Jolene\" and duetted \"Coat of Many Colors\" with Twain. McEntire andReese Witherspoonalso came to pay tribute. On November 16, 2010, Parton accepted the Liseberg Applause Award, the theme park industry's most prestigious honor, on behalf of Dollywood theme park during a ceremony held at IAAPA Attractions Expo 2010 inOrlando, Florida. In 2015, a newly discovered species oflichenfound growing in the southern Appalachians was namedJapewiella dollypartonianain honor of Parton's music and her efforts to bring national and global attention to that region.In 2018, Parton received a second star on theHollywood Walk of Fame, inducted alongsideLinda RonstadtandEmmylou Harrisin recognition of their work as a trio.Parton was also recognized in theGuinness World Records2018 Edition for holding records for the Most Decades with a Top20 hit on Billboard's Hot Country Songs Chart and Most Hits on Billboard's Hot Country Songs Chart by a Female Artist.In 2020, Parton received a Grammy award for her collaboration withFor King & Countryon their song, \"God Only Knows\".In 2021, she was included on theTime100,Time's annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world.The New York Timescalled her among the three of America's Most Beloved Divas (alongsidePatti LaBelleandBarbra Streisand). Parton has turned down thePresidential Medal of Freedomtwice due to her husband's illness and the ongoing pandemic.In response to a 2021 proposal by the Tennessee legislature to erect a statue of Parton, she released a statement asking the legislature to remove the bill from consideration, saying \"Given all that is going on in the world, I don't think putting me on a pedestal is appropriate at this time.\" In late 2022, Parton received a $100-millionCourage and Civility Awardfrom the founder of Amazon,Jeff Bezos.According to Bezos, the award was given to Parton because of her charity work focused on improving children's literacy around the world. In 2023, Parton was awardedAmerican Library Association Honorary Membership. She was ranked at No. 27 onRolling Stone′s 2023 list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. Hall of Fame honors During her career, Parton has gained induction into numerous Halls of Fame. Those honors include: Discography Solo studio albums Collaborative studio albums Filmography Theatrical releases Published works See also References Bibliography Further reading External links †Honorary former member; was scheduled to be invited, but died before the invitation was extended"
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"Dolly Parton Dolly Rebecca Parton(born January 19, 1946) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, and philanthropist, known primarily for her decades-long career incountry music. After achieving success as a songwriter for others, Parton made her album debut in 1967 withHello, I'm Dolly, which led to success during the remainder of the 1960s (both as a solo artist and with a series of duet albums withPorter Wagoner), before her sales and chart peak arrived during the 1970s and continued into the 1980s. Some of Parton's albums in the 1990s did not sell as well, but she achieved commercial success again in the new millennium and has released albums on various independent labels since 2000, including her own label, Dolly Records. With a career spanning 60 years, Parton has been described as a \"country legend\" and has sold more than 100 million records worldwide, making her one of thebest-selling music artists of all time.Parton's music includesRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA)-certified gold,",
"gold, platinum and multi-platinum awards. She has had 25singlesreach No.1 on theBillboardcountry music charts, a record for a female artist (tied withReba McEntire). She has 44 career Top10 country albums, a record for any artist, and she has 110 career-charted singles over the past 40 years. She has composed over 3,000 songs, including \"I Will Always Love You\" (a two-time U.S. country chart-topper, and an international hit forWhitney Houston), \"Jolene\", \"Coat of Many Colors\", and \"9to5\". As an actress, she has starred in the films9to5in 1980 andThe Best Little Whorehouse in Texasin 1982 (for each of which she earnedBest ActressGolden Globenominations) as well asRhinestonein 1984,Steel Magnoliasin 1989,Straight Talkin 1992, andJoyful Noisein 2012. Parton has received 11Grammy Awards(and 50 nominations), including the Lifetime Achievement Award. She has won tenCountry Music AssociationAwards, including Entertainer of the Year. She is one of seven female artists to win the Country Music Association's",
"Music Association's Entertainer of the Year Award. Parton has fiveAcademy of Country Music Awards(including Entertainer of the Year), fourPeople's Choice Awards, and threeAmerican Music Awards. She is also ina select groupto have received at least one nomination from theAcademy Awards, Grammy Awards,Tony Awards, andEmmy Awards. In 1999, Parton was inducted into theCountry Music Hall of Fame. In 2005, she received theNational Medal of Arts, and in 2022, she was nominated for and inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame, a nomination she had initially declined but ultimately accepted. Outside of her work in the music industry, she also co-ownsThe Dollywood Company, which manages a number of entertainment venues including theDollywoodtheme park, theSplash Countrywater park, and a number ofdinner theatrevenues such as The Dolly Parton Stampede and Pirates Voyage. She has founded a number of charitable and philanthropic organizations, chief among them being theDollywood Foundation, who manage a number of",
"manage a number of projects to bring education and poverty relief toEast Tennessee, where she was raised. Early life and career Dolly Rebecca Parton was born on January 19, 1946, in a one-room cabin on the banks of theLittle Pigeon RiverinPittman Center, Tennessee.She is the fourth of twelve children born to Avie Lee Caroline (néeOwens; 1923–2003) and Robert Lee Parton Sr. (1921–2000). Parton's middle name comes from her maternal great-great-grandmother Rebecca (née Dunn) Whitted.Parton's father, known as \"Lee\", worked in the mountains of East Tennessee, first as asharecropperand later tending his own small tobacco farm and acreage. He also worked construction jobs to supplement the farm's small income. Despite her father's illiteracy, Parton has often commented that he was one of the smartest people she has ever known with regard to business and making a profit. Parton's mother cared for their large family. Her 11 pregnancies (the tenth being twins) in 20 years made her a mother of 12 by age 35. Parton",
"by age 35. Parton attributes her musical abilities to the influence of her mother; often in poor health, she still managed to keep house and entertain her children withSmoky Mountainfolkloreand ancientballads. HavingWelshancestors, Avie Lee knew many old ballads thatimmigrantsfrom the British Isles brought to southernAppalachiain the 18th and 19th century.Avie Lee's father, Jake Owens, was aPentecostalpreacher, and Parton and her siblings all attended church regularly. Parton has long credited her father for her business savvy, and her mother's family for her musical abilities. When Parton was a young girl, her family moved from the Pittman Center area to a farm up on nearby Locust Ridge. Most of her cherished memories of youth happened there. Today, a replica of the Locust Ridge cabin resides at Parton's namesake theme park Dollywood.The farm acreage and surrounding woodland inspired her to write the song \"My Tennessee Mountain Home\" in the 1970s. Years after the farm was sold, Parton bought it back in the",
"it back in the late 1980s. Her brother Bobby helped with building restoration and new construction. Parton has described her family as being \"dirt poor\".Parton's father paid missionary Dr. Robert F. Thomas with a sack ofcornmealfor delivering her.Parton would write a song about Dr. Thomas when she was grown.She also outlined her family's poverty in her early songs \"Coat of Many Colors\" and \"In the Good Old Days (When Times Were Bad)\". For six or seven years, Parton and her family lived in theirrustic, one-bedroom cabin on their smallsubsistence farmon Locust Ridge.This was a predominantlyPentecostalarea located north of theGreenbrier Valley of the Great Smoky Mountains. Music played an important role in her early life. She was brought up in theChurch of God (Cleveland, Tennessee),in a congregation her grandfather, Jake Robert Owens, pastored. Her earliest public performances were in the church, beginning at age six. At seven, she started playing a homemade guitar. When she was eight, her uncle bought her",
"uncle bought her first real guitar. Parton began performing as a child,singing on local radio and television programs in theEast Tennesseearea.By ten, she was appearing onThe Cas Walker Showon bothWIVK RadioandWBIR-TVinKnoxville, Tennessee. At 13, she was recording (the single \"Puppy Love\") on a small Louisiana label,Goldband Records,and appeared at theGrand Ole Opry, where she first metJohnny Cash, who encouraged her to follow her own instincts regarding her career. After graduating fromSevier County High Schoolin 1964, Parton moved to Nashville the next day.Her initial success came as a songwriter, having signed withCombine Publishingshortly after her arrival;with her frequent songwriting partner, her uncleBill Owens, she wrote several charting singles during this time, including two Top10 hits forBill Phillips: \"Put It Off Until Tomorrow,\" and \"The Company You Keep\" (1966), andSkeeter Davis's number 11 hit \"Fuel to the Flame\" (1967).Her songs were recorded by many other artists during this period,",
"during this period, includingKitty WellsandHank Williams Jr.She signed withMonument Recordsin 1965, at age 19; she initially was pitched as abubblegum popsinger. She released a string of singles, but the only one that charted, \"Happy, Happy Birthday Baby\", did not crack theBillboardHot 100. Although she expressed a desire to record country material, Monument resisted, thinking her unique, highsopranovoice was not suited to the genre. After her composition \"Put It Off Until Tomorrow\", as recorded by Bill Phillips (with Parton, uncredited, on harmony), went to number six on the country chart in 1966, the label relented and allowed her to record country. Her first country single, \"Dumb Blonde\" (composed byCurly Putman, one of the few songs during this era that she recorded but did not write), reached number 24 on the country chart in 1967, followed by \"Something Fishy\", which went to number 17. The two songs appeared on her first full-length album,Hello, I'm Dolly. Music career 1967–1975: Country music success",
"music success In 1967, musician and country music entertainerPorter Wagonerinvited Parton to join his organization, offering her a regular spot on his weeklysyndicatedtelevision programThe Porter Wagoner Show, and in his road show. As documented in her 1994 autobiography,initially, much of Wagoner's audience was unhappy thatNorma Jean, the performer whom Parton had replaced, had left the show, and was reluctant to accept Parton (sometimes chanting loudly for Norma Jean from the audience).With Wagoner's assistance, however, Parton was eventually accepted. Wagoner convinced his label,RCA Victor, to sign her. RCA decided to protect their investment by releasing her first single as aduetwith Wagoner. That song, a remake ofTom Paxton's \"The Last Thing on My Mind\", released in late 1967, reached the country Top10 in January 1968, launching a six-year streak of virtually uninterrupted Top10 singles for the pair. Parton's first solo single for RCA Victor, \"Just Because I'm a Woman\", was released in the summer of",
"in the summer of 1968 and was a moderate chart hit, reaching number 17. For the next two years, none of her solo efforts – even \"In the Good Old Days (When Times Were Bad)\", which later became a standard – were as successful as her duets with Wagoner. The duo was namedVocal Group of the Yearin 1968 by theCountry Music Association, but Parton's solo records were continually ignored. Wagoner had a significant financial stake in her future; as of 1969, he was her co-producer and owned nearly half of Owe-Par,the publishing company Parton had founded with Bill Owens. By 1970, both Parton and Wagoner had grown frustrated by her lack of solo chart success. Wagoner persuaded Parton to recordJimmie Rodgers' \"Mule Skinner Blues\", agimmickthat worked. The record shot to number three, followed closely, in February 1971, by her first number-one single, \"Joshua\". For the next two years, she had numerous solo hits – including her signature song \"Coat of Many Colors\" (number four, 1971) – in addition to her duets. Top20",
"to her duets. Top20 singles included \"The Right Combination\" and \"Burning the Midnight Oil\" (both duets with Wagoner, 1971); \"Lost Forever in Your Kiss\" (with Wagoner), \"Touch Your Woman\" (1972), \"My Tennessee Mountain Home\" and \"Travelin' Man\" (1973). Although her solo singles and the Wagoner duets were successful, her biggest hit of this period was \"Jolene\". Released in late 1973, the song topped the country chart in February 1974 and reached the lower regions of the Hot 100 (it eventually also charted in the U.K., reaching number seven in 1976, representing Parton's first U.K. success). Parton, who had always envisioned a solo career, made the decision to leave Wagoner's organization; the pair performed their last duet concert in April 1974, and she stopped appearing on his TV show in mid-1974, although they remained affiliated. He helped produce her records through 1975.The pair continued to release duet albums, their final release being 1975'sSay Forever You'll Be Mine. In 1974, her song, \"I Will Always",
"\"I Will Always Love You\", written about her professional break from Wagoner, went to number one on the country chart. Around the same time,Elvis Presleyindicated that he wanted to record the song. Parton was interested until Presley's manager,Colonel Tom Parker, told her that it was standard procedure for the songwriter to sign over half of the publishing rights to any song recorded by Presley.Parton refused. That decision has been credited with helping to make her many millions of dollars in royalties from the song over the years. Parton had three solo singles reach number one on the country chart in 1974 (\"Jolene\", \"I Will Always Love You\" and \"Love Is Like a Butterfly\"), as well as the duet with Porter Wagoner, \"Please Don't Stop Loving Me\". In a 2019 episode of theSky Artsmusic seriesBrian Johnson: A Life on the Road, Parton described finding old cassette tapes and realizing that she had composed both \"Jolene\" and \"I Will Always Love You\" in the same songwriting session, telling Johnson \"Buddy, that was",
"\"Buddy, that was a good night.\" Parton again topped the singles chart in 1975 with \"The Bargain Store\". 1976–1986: Pop transition Between 1974 and 1980, Parton had a series of country hits, with eight singles reaching number one. Her influence on pop culture is reflected by the many performers covering her songs, including mainstream and crossover artists such asOlivia Newton-John,Emmylou Harris, andLinda Ronstadt. Parton began to embark on a high-profile crossover campaign, attempting to aim her music in a more mainstream direction and increase her visibility outside of the confines of country music. In 1976, she began working closely withSandy Gallin, who served as her personal manager for the next 25 years. With her 1976 albumAll I Can Do, which she co-produced with Porter Wagoner, Parton began taking more of an active role in production, and began specifically aiming her music in a more mainstream, pop direction. Her first entirely self-produced effort,New Harvest...First Gathering(1977), highlighted her",
"highlighted her pop sensibilities, both in terms of choice of songs – the album contained covers of the pop and R&B classics \"My Girl\" and \"Higher and Higher\" – and production.Though the album was well received and topped the U.S. country albums chart, neither it nor its single \"Light of a Clear Blue Morning\" made much of an impression on the pop charts. AfterNew Harvest'sdisappointing crossover performance, Parton turned to high-profile pop producerGary Kleinfor her next album. The result, 1977'sHere You Come Again, became her first million-seller, topping the country album chart and reaching number 20 on the pop chart. TheBarry Mann-Cynthia Weil-pennedtitle tracktopped the country singles chart, and became Parton's first Top10 single on the pop chart (no.3). A second single, the double A-sided \"Two Doors Down\"/\"It's All Wrong, But It's All Right\" topped the country chart and crossed over to the pop Top20. For the remainder of the 1970s and into the early 1980s, many of her subsequent singles moved up on",
"singles moved up on both charts simultaneously. Her albums during this period were developed specifically for pop-crossoversuccess. In 1978, Parton won aGrammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performancefor herHere You Come Againalbum. She continued to have hits with \"Heartbreaker\" (1978), \"Baby I'm Burning\" (1979) and \"You're the Only One\" (1979)all of which charted in the popTop 40and topped the country chart. \"Sweet Summer Lovin'\" (1979) became the first Parton single in two years to not top the country chart (though it did reach the Top10). During this period, her visibility continued to increase, with multiple television appearances. A highly publicized candid interview on aBarbara Walters Specialin 1977 (timed to coincide withHere You Come Again'srelease) was followed by appearances in 1978 onCher's ABCtelevision special, and her own joint special withCarol Burnetton CBS,Dolly & Carol in Nashville. Parton served as one of three co-hosts (along withRoy ClarkandGlen Campbell) on the CBS specialFifty",
"CBS specialFifty Years of Country Music. In 1979, Parton hosted theNBCspecialThe Seventies: An Explosion of Country Music, performed live at theFord TheatreinWashington, D.C., and whose audience included PresidentJimmy Carter. Her commercial success grew in 1980, with three consecutive country chart number-one hits: theDonna Summer-written \"Starting Over Again\", \"Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You\", and \"9to5\", which topped the country and pop charts in early 1981.She had another Top10 single that year with \"Making Plans\", a single released from a 1980album with Porter Wagoner,released as part of a lawsuit settlement between the pair. The theme song to the 1980 feature film9to5, in which she starred along withJane FondaandLily Tomlin, not only reached number one on the country chart – in February 1981 it reached number one on the pop and theadult-contemporarycharts, giving her a triple number-one hit. Parton became one of the few female country singers to have a number-one single on the country and pop",
"the country and pop charts simultaneously. It also received a nomination for anAcademy Award for Best Original Song. Her singles continued to appear consistently in the country Top10. Between 1981 and 1985, she had twelve Top10 hits; half of them hit number one. She continued to make inroads on the pop chart as well. A re-recorded version of \"I Will Always Love You\", from the feature filmThe Best Little Whorehouse in Texas(1982) scraped the Top50 that year and her duet withKenny Rogers, \"Islands in the Stream\" (written by theBee Geesand produced byBarry Gibb), spent two weeks at number one in 1983. In the mid-1980s, her record sales were still relatively strong, with \"Save the Last Dance for Me\", \"Tennessee Homesick Blues\", \"God Won't Get You\" (1984), \"Real Love\" (another duet with Kenny Rogers), \"Don't Call It Love\" (1985) and \"Think About Love\" (1986) all reaching the country Top10 (\"Tennessee Homesick Blues\" and \"Think About Love\" reached number one; \"Real Love\" also reached number one on the country",
"one on the country chart and became a modest crossover hit). However, RCA Records did not renew her contract after it expired in 1986, and she signed withColumbia Recordsin 1987. 1987–2005: Country and bluegrass period Along withEmmylou HarrisandLinda Ronstadt, she releasedTrio(1987) to critical acclaim. The album revitalized Parton's music career, spending five weeks at number one onBillboard'sCountry Albums chart, and also reached the Top10 onBillboard'sTop200 Albums chart. It sold several million copies and produced four Top10 country hits, includingPhil Spector's \"To Know Him Is to Love Him\", which went to number one.Triowon theGrammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocaland was nominated for aGrammy Award for Album of the Year. After a further attempt at pop success withRainbow(1987), including the single \"The River Unbroken\", it ended up a commercial let-down, causing Parton to focus on recording country material.White Limozeen(1989) produced two number one hits in \"Why'd You",
"hits in \"Why'd You Come in Here Lookin' Like That\" and \"Yellow Roses\". Although Parton's career appeared to be revived, it was actually just a brief revival before contemporary country music came in the early 1990s and moved most veteran artists off the charts. A duet withRicky Van Shelton, \"Rockin' Years\" (1991) reached number one, though Parton's greatest commercial fortune of the decade came when Whitney Houston recorded \"I Will Always Love You\" for the soundtrack of the feature filmThe Bodyguard(1992). Both the single and the album were massively successful. Parton's soundtrack album from the 1992 film,Straight Talk, however, was less successful. But her 1993 albumSlow Dancing with the Moonwon critical acclaim and did well on the charts, reaching number four on the country albums chart, and number 16 on theBillboard200 album chart. It would also become Platinum certified.She recorded \"The Day I Fall in Love\" as a duet withJames Ingramfor the feature filmBeethoven's 2nd(1993). The songwriters",
"The songwriters (Ingram,Carole Bayer Sager, andClif Magness) were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song, and Parton and Ingram performed the song at the awards telecast. Similar to her earlier collaborative album with Harris and Ronstadt, Parton releasedHonky Tonk Angelsin the fall of 1993 withLoretta LynnandTammy Wynette.It was certified asa gold albumby theRecording Industry Association of Americaand helped revive both Wynette and Lynn's careers. Also in 1994, Parton contributed the song \"You Gotta Be My Baby\" to the AIDS benefit albumRed Hot + Countryproduced by theRed Hot Organization.A live acoustic album,Heartsongs: Live from Home, featuring stripped-down versions of some of her hits, as well as some traditional songs, was released in late 1994. Parton's recorded music during the mid-to-late-1990s remained steady and somewhat eclectic. Her 1995 re-recording of \"I Will Always Love You\" (performed as a duet withVince Gill), from her albumSomething Specialwon the Country Music",
"the Country Music Association'sVocal Event of the Year Award. The following year,Treasures, an album of covers of 1960s/70s hits was released, and featured a diverse collection of material, including songs byMac Davis,Pete Seeger,Kris Kristofferson,Cat Stevens, andNeil Young. Her recording of Stevens' \"Peace Train\" was later re-mixed and released as a dance single, reachingBillboard'sdance singles chart. Her 1998 country-rock albumHungry Againwas made up entirely of her own compositions. Although neither of the album's two singles, \"(Why Don't More Women Sing) Honky Tonk Songs\" and \"Salt in my Tears\", charted, videos for both songs received significant airplay onCMT. A second and more contemporary collaboration with Harris and Ronstadt,Trio II, was released in early 1999. Its cover of Neil Young's song \"After the Gold Rush\" won aGrammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals. Parton also was inducted into theCountry Music Hall of Famein 1999. Parton recorded a series ofbluegrass-inspired albums,",
"albums, beginning withThe Grass Is Blue(1999), winning aGrammy Award for Best Bluegrass Album; andLittle Sparrow(2001), with its cover ofCollective Soul's \"Shine\" winning aGrammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance. The third,Halos & Horns(2002) included a bluegrass version of theLed Zeppelinsong \"Stairway to Heaven\". In 2005, she releasedThose Were The Daysconsisting of her interpretations of hits from thefolk-rockera of the late 1960s and early 1970s, including \"Imagine\", \"Where Do the Children Play?\", \"Crimson and Clover\", and \"Where Have All the Flowers Gone?\" 2005–2020: Touring and holiday album Parton earned her second Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song for \"Travelin' Thru\", which she wrote specifically for the feature filmTransamerica. (2005) Due to the song's (and film's) acceptance of atransgenderwoman, Parton receiveddeath threats.She returned to number one on the country chart later in 2005 by lending her distinctive harmonies to theBrad Paisleyballad, \"When I Get Where",
"\"When I Get Where I'm Going\".In September 2007, Parton released her first single from her own record company, Dolly Records, titled, \"Better Get to Livin'\", which eventually peaked at number 48 onBillboard'sHot Country Songschart. It was followed by the studio albumBackwoods Barbie, which was released on February 26, 2008, and reached number two on the country chart. The album's debut at number 17 on the all-genreBillboard200 albums chart was the highest in her career.Backwoods Barbieproduced four additional singles, including the title track, written as part of her score for9to5: The Musical, an adaptation of her feature film. After the death ofMichael Jackson, whom Parton knew personally, she released a video in which she somberly told of her feelings on Jackson and his death. On October 27, 2009, Parton released a four-CD box set,Dolly, which featured 99 songs and spanned most of her career.She released her second live DVD and album,Live From Londonin October 2009, which was filmed during her sold-out",
"during her sold-out 2008 concerts at London'sThe O2 Arena. On August 10, 2010, with longtime friendBilly Ray Cyrus, Parton released the albumBrother Clyde. Parton is featured on \"The Right Time\", which she co-wrote with Cyrus and Morris Joseph Tancredi. On January 6, 2011, Parton announced that her new album would be titledBetter Day. In February 2011, she announced that she would embark on theBetter Day World Touron July 17, 2011, with shows in northern Europe and the U.S.The album's lead-off single, \"Together You and I\", was released on May 23, 2011, andBetter Daywas released on June 28, 2011.In 2011, Parton voiced the character Dolly Gnome in the animated filmGnomeo & Juliet. On February 11, 2012, after the sudden death ofWhitney Houston, Parton stated, \"Mine is only one of the millions of hearts broken over the death of Whitney Houston. I will always be grateful and in awe of the wonderful performance she did on my song, and I can truly say from the bottom of my heart, 'Whitney, I will always love you.",
"always love you. You will be missed.'\" In 2013, Parton joinedLulu Romanfor a re-recording of \"I Will Always Love You\" for Roman's album,At Last.In 2013, Parton and Kenny Rogers reunited for the title song of his albumYou Can't Make Old Friends. For their performance, they were nominated at the2014 Grammy AwardsforGrammy Award for Best Country Duo/Group Performance.In 2014, Parton embarked on theBlue Smoke World Tourin support of her 42nd studio album,Blue Smoke.The album was first released in Australia and New Zealand on January 31 to coincide with tour dates there in February, and reached the Top10 in both countries. It was released in the United States on May 13, and debuted at number six on theBillboard200 chart, making it her first Top10 album and her highest-charting solo album ever; it also reached the number two on the U.S. country chart. The album was released in Europe on June 9, and reached number two on the UK album chart. On June 29, 2014, Parton performed for the first time at the UKGlastonbury",
"the UKGlastonbury Festival, singing songs such as \"Jolene\", \"9to5\" and \"Coat of Many Colors\" to a crowd of more than 180,000.On March 6, 2016, Parton announced that she would be embarking on a tour in support of her new album,Pure & Simple. The tour was one of Parton's biggest tours within the United States in more than 25 years.64 dates were planned in the United States and Canada, visiting the most requested markets missed on previous tours. In the fall of 2016 she released \"Jolene\" as a single with thea cappellagroupPentatonixand performed onThe Voicewith Pentatonix and Miley Cyrus in November 2016.Also in 2016, Parton was one of thirty artists to perform on \"Forever Country\", a mash-up of the songs, \"Take Me Home, Country Roads\", \"On the Road Again\" and her own \"I Will Always Love You\". The song celebrates fifty years of theCMA Awards.At the ceremony itself, Parton was honored with the Willie Nelson Lifetime Achievement Award, which was presented byLily Tomlinand preceded by a tribute featuringJennifer",
"featuringJennifer Nettles,Pentatonix,Reba McEntire,Kacey Musgraves,Carrie UnderwoodandMartina McBride. In 2017, Parton appeared onRainbow, the third studio album byKeshaperforming a duet of \"Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You\". The track had been co-written by Kesha's motherPebe Sebert. It was previously a hit for Parton and was included on her 1980 albumDolly, Dolly, Dolly. She also co-wrote and provided featuring vocals on the song \"Rainbowland\" onYounger Now, the sixth album by her goddaughterMiley Cyrus. In July 2019, Parton made an unannounced appearance at theNewport Folk FestivalinRhode Island, and performed several songs accompanied bythe HighwomenandLinda Perry.In 2020, Parton received worldwide attention after posting four pictures, in which she showed how she would present herself on social media platformsLinkedIn,Facebook,InstagramandTwitter. The original post on Instagramwent viral after celebrities posted their own versions of the so-called Dolly Parton challenge on social media. On April",
"media. On April 10, 2020, Parton re-released 93 songs from six of her classic albums:Little Sparrow,Halos & Horns,For God and Country,Better Day,Those Were The Days, andLive and Well.On May 27, 2020, Parton released a brand new song called \"When Life Is Good Again\". This song was released to help keep the spirits up of those affected by the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. She also released a music video for \"When Life Is Good Again\", which premiered onTime100talks on May 28, 2020. In 2019, Parton collaborated with Christian alternative rock duetFor King and Countryand released a version of their hit \"God Only Knows\". She followed this by recording a duet with Christian music artistZach Williamsin the song \"There Was Jesus\". In October 2020, Parton was featured on the single \"Pink\" alongsideMonica,Jordin Sparks,Sara EvansandRita Wilson. The single was released in aid ofBreast Cancer Research. Parton releasedA Holly Dolly Christmasin October 2020.On December 6,CBSaired a Christmas special, \"A Holly Dolly Christmas\",",
"Dolly Christmas\", where Parton performed songs from her album. Since 2022: Rock album In early 2022, Parton was nominated for induction into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame.Parton initially declined the nomination believing that the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame was \"for the people inrock music\",but after learning that this was not the case Parton said she would accept her induction if she were chosen for the honor.In May her induction was announced, and finally on November 5, 2022, she was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.In October 2022 Parton stated in an interview that she would no longer tour, but would continue to play live shows occasionally.On December 31, 2022, Parton co-hosted NBC's New Year's specialMiley's New Year's Eve Party. On January 17, 2023, Parton announced she would release her first rock album, titledRockstar, later that year, during an interview onThe View.Lead single \"World on Fire\" was released on May 11, 2023.It went on to peak at number 1 a week later.The album was released",
"album was released on November 17, 2023, and features collaborations withPaul McCartney,Ringo Starr,Sting,Elton John,Sheryl Crow,Miley Cyrus, andLizzo, amongst others.The album received generally positive reviews from critics and debuted at number three on theBillboard200, becoming Parton's highest-charting solo studio album as well as topping theCountryandRock Albumscharts. The soundtrack single \"Gonna Be You\" from the movie80 for Bradywas released January 20, 2023. The song was written byDiane Warren, and performed by Dolly Parton,Belinda Carlisle,Cyndi Lauper,Debbie HarryandGloria Estefan. The official music video shows Parton, Carlisle, Lauper, and Estefan performing while wearing football jerseys similar to the ones worn by the women in the film, interspersed with clips from the film. Public image The way I look and the way I looked then was a country girl's idea of glam, just like I wrote in my \"Backwoods Barbie\" song. People wanted me to change, they thought I looked cheap. But I patterned my look",
"I patterned my look after the town tramp. Everybody said, \"She's trash.\" And in my little girl mind, I thought, \"Well, that's what I'm going to be when I grow up.\" It was really like a look I was after. I wasn't a natural beauty. So, I just like to look the way I look. I'm so outgoing inside in my personality, that I need the way I look to match all of that. Dolly Parton,2022 Parton had turned down several offers to pose nude forPlayboymagazine, but did appear on the cover of the October 1978 issue wearing aPlayboy bunnyoutfit, complete with ears (the issue featured Lawrence Grobel's extensive and candid interview with Parton, representing one of her earliest high-profile interviews with the mainstream press). The association of breasts with Parton's public image is illustrated in the naming ofDolly the sheepafter her, since the sheep was cloned from a cell taken from an adult ewe'smammary gland.InMobile, Alabama, theGeneral W.K. Wilson Jr. Bridgeis commonly called \"the Dolly Parton Bridge\" due to its arches",
"due to its arches resembling her bust.The thickened appearance of the turret frontal armor of theT-72Amain battle tankled to the unofficial Army nickname \"Dolly Parton\"- and later theT-72BIsgot the \"Super Dolly Parton\" nickname. Parton is known for having undergone considerable plastic surgery.On a 2003 episode ofThe Oprah Winfrey Show, Winfrey asked what kind ofcosmetic surgeryParton had undergone. Parton replied that cosmetic surgery was imperative in keeping with her famous image.Parton has repeatedly joked about her physical image and surgeries, saying, \"It takes a lot of money to look this cheap.\"Her breasts have garnered her mentions in several songs, including \"Dolly Parton's Hits\" byBobby Braddock, \"Marty FeldmanEyes\" byBruce Baum(a parody of \"Bette Davis Eyes\"), \"No Show Jones\" byGeorge JonesandMerle Haggard, and \"Make Me Proud\" byDrake, featuringNicki Minaj.When asked about future plastic surgeries, she famously said, \"If I see something sagging, bagging or dragging, I'll get it nipped, tucked or",
"nipped, tucked or sucked.\"Parton's feminine escapismis acknowledged in her words, \"Womanhood was a difficult thing to get a grip on in those hills, unless you were a man.\"Parton said in 2012 that she had entered a Dolly Parton lookalike contest and lost. Artistry Influences Parton, though influenced by big name stars, often credits much of her inspiration to her family and community. On her own mother Parton, in her 2020 bookSongteller: My Life in Lyrics, wrote \"So it was just natural for my mom to always be singing. My mother had that old-timey voice, and she used to sing all these songs that were brought over from the Old World. They were English, Irish, Welsh, folk songs where people tell stories.\" Parton calls her mother's voice \"haunting\". \"Lord you would feel it\", she wrote.Her biggest influence however was her Aunt Dorothy Jo: \"People often ask me who my influences were, they think I'm going to say some big names, and there were a few 'stars' I was impressed with. But my hero was my aunt Dorothy Jo.",
"my aunt Dorothy Jo. Mama's baby sister. She was not only an evangelist, she played banjo, she played guitar, and she wrote some great songs.\"Fellow singers also had an impact on Parton, describingGeorge Jonesas her \"all time favorite singer\",and recognizing her love for other artists such asKitty Wells,Roy Acuff, andRose Maddox. Musicianship Though unable to read sheet music, Parton can play many instruments, including: thedulcimer,autoharp,banjo,guitar,electric guitar,fiddle,piano,recorder, and thesaxophone.Reflecting on her multi-instrumental abilities, Parton said, \"I play some of everything. I ain't that good at none of it, but I try to sell it. I really try to lay into it.\"Parton has also used her fingernails as an instrument, most evident on her 1980 song \"9 to 5\", which she derived the beat from clacking her nails together while backstage on the set of the film9 to 5. Other ventures In 1998,Nashville Businessranked her the wealthiest country music star.As of 2017, her net worth is estimated at",
"is estimated at $500million. Songwriting Parton is a prolific songwriter, having begun by writing country music songs with strong elements offolk music, based on her upbringing in humble mountain surroundings and reflecting her family's Christian background. Her songs \"Coat of Many Colors\", \"I Will Always Love You\", and \"Jolene\", among others, have become classics. On November 4, 2003, Parton was honored as aBMI Iconat the 2003 BMI Country Awards.Parton has earned over 35 BMI Pop and Country Awards.In 2001, she was inducted into theSongwriters Hall of Fame.In a 2009 interview onCNN'sLarry King Live, she said she had written \"at least 3,000\" songs, having written seriously since the age of seven. Parton also said she writes something every day, be it a song or an idea. Parton's songwriting has been featured prominently in several films. In addition to the title song for9to5, she also recorded a second version of \"I Will Always Love You\" forThe Best Little Whorehouse in Texas(1982). The second version was a",
"version was a number one country hit and also reached number 53 on the pop charts. \"I Will Always Love You\" has been covered by many country artists, including Ronstadt onPrisoner In Disguise(1975), Kenny Rogers onVote for Love(1996), andLeAnn RimesonUnchained Melody: The Early Years(1997). Whitney Houston performed it onThe Bodyguardsoundtrack and her version became the best-selling hit both written and performed by a female vocalist, with worldwide sales of over twelve million copies. In addition, the song has been translated into Italian and performed by the Welsh opera singerKatherine Jenkins. As a songwriter, Parton has twice been nominated for anAcademy Award for Best Original Song, for \"9 to 5\" and \"Travelin' Thru\" (2005) from the filmTransamerica. \"Travelin' Thru\" won Best Original Song at the 2005 Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards. It was also nominated for both the 2005Golden Globe AwardforBest Original Songand the 2005Broadcast Film Critics Association Award(also known as the Critics' Choice",
"the Critics' Choice Awards) forBest Song. A cover of \"Love Is Like A Butterfly\" byClare Torrywas used as the theme music for the British TV showButterflies. Stage musicals 9 to 5: The Musical Parton wrote the score (and Patricia Resnick the book) for9 to 5: The Musical, amusical-theateradaptationof Parton's feature film9 to 5(1980). The musical ran at theAhmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, in late 2008. It opened on Broadway at theMarquis Theatrein New York on April 30, 2009, to mixed reviews.The title track of her 2008 albumBackwoods Barbiewas written for the musical's character Doralee.Although her score (as well as the musical debut of actressAllison Janney) was praised, the show struggled, closing on September 6, 2009, after 24 previews and 148 performances. Parton received nominations forDrama Desk Award for Outstanding MusicandDrama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyricsas well as a nomination forTony Award for Best Original Score. Developing the musical was not a quick process. According to",
"According to thepublic-radioprogramStudio 360(October 29, 2005),in October 2005 Parton was in the midst of composing songs for a Broadway musical theater adaptation of the film. In late June 2007,9 to 5: The Musicalwas read for industry presentations. The readings starredMegan Hilty, Allison Janney,Stephanie J. Block,Bebe Neuwirth, andMarc Kudisch.Ambassador Theatre Groupannounced a 2012 UK tour forDolly Parton's 9to5: The Musical, commencing atManchester Opera House, on October 12, 2012. Hello, I'm Dolly In June 2024, Parton announced anautobiographicalmusicalabout her life and career titledHello, I'm Dolly(named after her debut album and also a play onHello, Dolly!), with a goal of opening onBroadwayin 2026. The musical, with a co-writtenbookby Parton and Maria S. Schlatter which would feature original songs as well as her more well-known hits. Parton also revealed that she has been working on the musical for the last decade. The Dollywood Company Parton invested much of her earnings into business ventures",
"business ventures in her native East Tennessee, notablyPigeon Forge. She is a co-owner ofThe Dollywood Company, which operates the theme parkDollywood(a formerSilver Dollar City), adinner theater,Dolly Parton's Stampede, thewaterparkDollywood's Splash Country, and the Dream More Resort and Spa, all in Pigeon Forge. Dollywood is the 24th-most-popular theme park in the United States, with three million visitors per year.The Dolly Parton's Stampede business has venues inBranson, Missouri, andMyrtle Beach, South Carolina. A former location inOrlando, Florida, closed in January 2008 after the land and building were sold to a developer.Starting in June 2011, the Myrtle Beach location became Pirates Voyage Fun, Feast and Adventure; Parton appeared for the opening, and theSouth Carolina General Assemblydeclared June 3, 2011, as Dolly Parton Day. On January 19, 2012, Parton's 66th birthday, Gaylord Opryland and Dollywood announced plans to open a $50million water and snow park, a family-friendly destination in",
"destination in Nashville that is open all year.On September 29, 2012, Parton officially withdrew her support for the Nashville park due to the restructuring of Gaylord Entertainment Company after its merger with Marriott International.On June 12, 2015, it was announced that the Dollywood Company had purchased the Lumberjack Feud Dinner Show in Pigeon Forge. The show, which opened in June 2011, was owned and operated by Rob Scheer until the close of the 2015 season. The new, renovated show by the Dollywood Company opened in 2016. Production work Parton was a co-owner of Sandollar Productions, withSandy Gallin, her former manager. A film and televisionproduction company, it produced the documentaryCommon Threads: Stories from the Quilt(1989), which won anAcademy Award for Best Documentary Feature; the television seriesBabes(1990–91) andBuffy the Vampire Slayer(1997–2003); and the feature filmsFather of the Bride(1991),Father of the Bride: Part II(1995)Straight Talk(1992) (in which Parton starred),",
"Parton starred), andSabrina(1995), among other shows. In a 2009 interview, singerConnie Francisrevealed that Parton had been contacting her for years in an attempt to film the singer's life story. Francis turned down Parton's offers, as she was already in negotiations with singerGloria Estefanto produce the film, a collaboration now ended.After the retirement of her partner, Sandy Gallin, Parton briefly operated Dolly Parton's Southern Light Productions and in 2015 she announced her new production company would be called Dixie Pixie Productions and produce the movies-of-week in development with NBC Television andMagnolia Hill Productions. Acting career Acting breakthrough In addition to her performing appearances onThe Porter Wagoner Showin the 1960s and into the 1970s, her two self-titled television variety shows in the1970sand1980s, and onAmerican Idolin 2008 and other guest appearances, Parton has had television roles. In 1979, she received an Emmy award nomination as \"Outstanding Supporting Actress in a",
"Actress in a Variety Program\" for her guest appearance in aCherspecial.During the mid-1970s, Parton wanted to expand her audience base. Although her first attempt, the television variety showDolly!(1976–77), had high ratings, it lasted only one season, with Parton requesting to be released from her contract because of the stress it was causing on hervocal cords. (She later tried a second television variety show, also titledDolly(1987–88); it too lasted only one season). In her first feature film, Parton portrayed a secretary in a leading role withJane FondaandLily Tomlinin the comedy film9to5(1980). The movie highlights discrimination against women in the workplace and created awareness of the National Association of Working Women (9–5).She received nominations for aGolden Globe Award for Best Actress – Musical or Comedyand aGolden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actress.Parton wrote and recorded the film's title song. It received nominations for anAcademy Award for Best Songand aGolden Globe Award",
"aGolden Globe Award for Best Original Song.Released as a single, the song won both theGrammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performanceand theGrammy Award for Best Country Song. It also reached no.1 on the Hot 100 chart and it was no.78 on the \"AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs\" list released by theAmerican Film Institutein 2004.9 to 5became a major box office success, grossing over $3.9million its opening weekend, and over $103million worldwide. Parton was named Top Female Box Office Star by theMotion Picture Heraldin both 1981 and 1982 due to the film's success. In late 1981, Parton began filming her second film, themusical filmThe Best Little Whorehouse in Texas(1982).The film earned her a second nomination for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.The film was greeted with positive critical reviews and became a commercial success, earning over $69million worldwide. After a two-year hiatus from films, Parton was teamed withSylvester StalloneforRhinestone(1984). A comedy",
"A comedy film about a country music star's efforts to mould an unknown into a music sensation, the film was a critical and financial failure, making just over $21million on a $28million budget. Continued roles In 1989, Parton returned to film acting inSteel Magnolias(1989), based on the playSteel MagnoliasbyRobert Harling. The film was popular with critics and audiences, grossing over $95million in the U.S. Parton starred in thetelevision moviesA Smoky Mountain Christmas(1986),Wild Texas Wind(1991),Unlikely Angel(1996), portraying an angel sent back to earth after a deadly car crash, andBlue Valley Songbird(1999), where her character lives through her music. She starred withJames WoodsinStraight Talk(1992), which received mixed reviews, and grossed a mild $21million at the box office. Parton's 1987 variety showDollylasted only one season. She made acameo appearanceas herself inThe Beverly Hillbillies(1993), an adaptation of the long-running TV sitcomThe Beverly Hillbillies(1962–1971).Parton has donevoice",
"has donevoice workfor animation for television series, playing herself inAlvin and the Chipmunks(episode \"Urban Chipmunk\", 1983) and the character Katrina Eloise \"Murph\" Murphy (Ms. Frizzle's first cousin) inThe Magic School Bus(episode \"The Family Holiday Special\", 1994). She also has guest-starred in several sitcoms, including a 1990 episode ofDesigning Women(episode \"The First Day of the Last Decade of the Entire Twentieth Century\") as herself, the guardian movie star of Charlene's baby.She made a guest appearance onReba(episode \"Reba's Rules of Real Estate\") portraying areal-estateagencyowner and onThe Simpsons(episode \"Sunday, Cruddy Sunday\", 1999). She appeared as herself in 2000 on the Halloween episode ofBette Midler's short-lived sitcomBette, and on episode 14 ofBabes(produced by Sandollar Productions, Parton andSandy Gallin's joint production company). She made cameo appearances on theDisney Channelas \"Aunt Dolly\", visiting Hannah and her family in fellow Tennessean and real-lifegoddaughterMiley",
"Cyrus's seriesHannah Montana(episodes \"Good Golly, Miss Dolly\", 2006, \"I Will Always Loathe You\", 2007, and \"Kiss It All Goodbye\", 2010). She was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series. Parton appeared as an overprotective mother in the comedyFrank McKlusky, C.I.. (2002) She made a cameo appearance in the comedy filmMiss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous, starringSandra Bullock. She was featured inThe Book Lady(2008), a documentary about her campaign for children'sliteracy. Parton expected to reprise her television role as Hannah'sgodmotherin the musical comedy filmHannah Montana: The Movie(2009), but the character was omitted from the screenplay. Since 2010 Parton had a voice role in the comedyfamily filmGnomeo & Juliet(2011), an animated film withgarden gnomesaboutWilliam Shakespeare'sRomeo and Juliet. She co-starred withQueen Latifahin the musical filmJoyful Noise(2012),playing a choir director's widow who joins forces with Latifah's character, a mother of two teens, to save a small",
"to save a small Georgia town'sgospel choir.Dolly Parton's Coat of Many Colors, a made-for-TV film based on Parton's song \"Coat of Many Colors\", and featuring narration by Parton, aired on NBC in December 2015, with child actressAlyvia Alyn Lindportraying the young Parton. Parton also had a cameo inthe sequel, which aired in November 2016. In June 2018, Parton announced an eight-part Netflix series, featuring her music career.She is its executive producer and co-star.The series, calledDolly Parton's Heartstrings, aired in November 2019.Parton is the subject of theNPRpodcastDolly Parton's America. It is hosted byJad Abumrad, who also hostsRadiolab.In December 2019, the biographical documentaryHere I Amwas added to the catalog of theNetflixstreaming service. The documentary, a co-production of Netflix and theBBC, takes its name from Parton's1971 song. In November 2020, Parton produced and starred in the Netflix musical filmDolly Parton's Christmas on the Square, which won her aPrimetime Emmy Award for",
"Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie.In November 2021, Parton was confirmed to be appearing in the final season ofGrace and Frankiein a guest-starring role, reuniting with her9 to 5co-starsLily TomlinandJane Fonda.In July 2022, Parton appeared as a simulation of herself on sci-fi showThe Orvillein the episode \"Midnight Blue\".In December 2022, Parton appeared in an NBC special titledDolly Parton's Mountain Magic Christmas. On Thanksgiving 2023, Parton performed songs during halftime at theWashington CommandersandDallas CowboysNFL football game. Personal life Family Parton is the fourth of 12 children. Her siblings are Willadeene, David Wilburn, Coy Denver, Robert Lee,Stella, Cassie Nan,Randel(deceased), Larry Gerald (deceased), twins Floyd Estel (deceased) and Frieda Estelle, andRachel. On May 30, 1966, Parton and Carl Thomas Dean (born July 20, 1942, inNashville, Tennessee) were married inRinggold, Georgia.Although Parton does not use Dean's surname professionally, she has stated that her passport",
"that her passport reads \"Dolly Parton Dean\", and she sometimes uses Dean when signing contracts.Dean, who is retired from running anasphaltroad-paving business in Nashville, has always shunned publicity, and rarely accompanies his wife to any events. Parton has jokingly said that he has only seen her perform once. She also has said in interviews that even though it appears they spend little time together, it is simply that nobody sees him publicly. She has commented on Dean's romantic side, saying that he does spontaneous things to surprise her, and sometimes even writes poems for her.In 2011, Parton said, \"We're really very proud of our marriage. It's the first for both of us. And the last.\" On May 6, 2016, Parton announced that she and Dean would renew their vows in honor of their 50th wedding anniversary later in the month. While Parton has never had children, she and Dean helped raise several of her younger siblings in Nashville, leading her nieces and nephews to refer to them as \"Uncle Peepaw\" and \"Aunt",
"Peepaw\" and \"Aunt Granny\"; the latter a moniker that later lent its name to one of Parton'sDollywoodrestaurants. Parton is also the godmother of singer-songwriter and actressMiley Cyrus. Faith Parton says that she is a committedChristian, which has influenced many of her musical releases. She talked about her liberal approach to faith in the January 2024 issue of New Humanist magazine. \"I wouldn't even say I'm religious, though I grew up with that background. But I have a lot of faith in myself and I've been so blessed to have been around great people my whole life, my Uncle Bill and my family being supportive, and all the people I met along the way.\" Philanthropy Since the mid-1980s, Parton has supported many charitable efforts, particularly in the area of literacy, primarily through herDollywood Foundation. Her literacy program, Dolly Parton's Imagination Library,which is a part of the Dollywood Foundation, was founded in honor of her father, who never learned to read or write.It mails one book per month",
"one book per month to each enrolled child from the time of their birth until they enter kindergarten. Currently, over 1600 local communities provide the Imagination Library to almost 850,000 children each month across the U.S., Canada, the UK, Australia, and the Republic of Ireland.In February 2018, she donated her 100 millionth free book, a copy of Parton's children's picture bookCoat of Many Colors, to the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.and was honored by the Library of Congress on account of the \"charity sending out its 100 millionth book\". For her work in literacy, Parton has received various awards, includingAssociation of American PublishersHonors Award (2000),Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval(2001) (the first time the seal had been awarded to a person),American Association of School Administrators– Galaxy Award (2002), National State Teachers of the Year – Chasing Rainbows Award (2002), and Parents as Teachers National Center – Child and Family Advocacy Award (2003). On May 8, 2009, Parton",
"May 8, 2009, Parton gave thecommencement speechat the graduation ceremony for theUniversity of Tennessee, Knoxville's College of Arts and Sciences.During the ceremony, she received an honoraryDoctor of Humane Lettersfrom the university. It was only the second honorary degree given by the university, and in presenting the degree, the university'sChancellor,Jimmy Cheek, said, \"Because of her career not just as a musician and entertainer, but for her role as a cultural ambassador, philanthropist and lifelong advocate for education, it is fitting that she be honored with an honorary degree from the flagship educational institution of her home state.\" In 2006, Parton published a cookbook,Dolly's Dixie Fixin's: Love, Laughter and Lots of Good Food. The Dollywood Foundation, funded from Parton's profits, has been noted for bringing jobs and tax revenues to a previously depressed region. Parton also has worked to raise money for several other causes, including theAmerican Red CrossandHIV/AIDS-related charities. In",
"charities. In December 2006, Parton pledged $500,000 toward a proposed $90million hospital and cancer center to be constructed in Sevierville in the name of Robert F. Thomas, the physician who delivered her. She announced a benefit concert to raise additional funds for the project. The concert played to about 8,000 people.That same year, Parton andEmmylou Harrisallowed use of their music in aPETAad campaign that encouraged pet owners to keep their dogs indoors rather than chained outside. In 2003, her efforts to preserve thebald eaglethrough theAmerican Eagle Foundation's sanctuary at Dollywood earned her the Partnership Award from theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.Parton received theWoodrow Wilson Award for Public Servicefrom theWoodrow Wilson International Center for Scholarsof theSmithsonian Institutionat a ceremony in Nashville on November 8, 2007. In response to the2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires, Parton was one of a number of country music artists who participated in a telethon to raise money for",
"to raise money for victims of the fires.This was held in Nashville on December 9. In addition, Parton hosted her own telethon for the victims on December 13and reportedly raised around $9million.Her fund, the \"My People Fund\", provided $1,000 a month for six months to over 900 families affected by the wildfires, finally culminating with $5,000 to each home in the final month due to increased fundraising, for a total of $10,000 per family.In 2018, the FBI honored Parton for her wildfire aid work, awarding her the 2018 Director's Community Leadership Award at a ceremony at FBI Headquarters in Washington. The honor was bestowed by Director Christopher Wray and was accepted on the Parton's behalf by David Dotson, the CEO of the Dollywood Foundation. The impact of the fund's financial relief for the 2016 wildfire victims was studied by University of Tennessee College of Social Work professor Stacia West, who examined the impact of cash transfers in poverty alleviation.West surveyed 100 recipients of the emergency",
"of the emergency relief funds in April 2017 on topics including questions on housing, financial impact, physical and emotional health, and sources of support, with a follow-up survey conducted in December 2017. West found that the \"My People Fund\", in tandem with traditional disaster response, gave families the ability to make decisions that were most beneficial to them, and concluded that unconditional cash support may be more beneficial for disaster relief than conditional financial support.The report cited the impact of the monthly financial disbursements from the \"My People Fund\" on residents' emergency savings: \"Following the monthly disbursements of unconditional cash assistance, participants were able to return to baseline financial stability reported prior to the wildfire, and improve their ability to set aside savings for hypothetical future emergencies.\" Parton has been a generous donor toVanderbilt University Medical Center(VUMC). Among her gifts was a contribution to the Monroe Carell Jr.",
"Monroe Carell Jr. Children's Hospital at Vanderbilt Pediatric Cancer Program in honor of a friend, ProfessorNaji Abumrad, and her niece, Hannah Dennison, who was successfully treated forleukemiaas a child at Children's Hospital. In the aftermath of 2024'sHurricane Helene, Parton announced a donation of $2 million to relief efforts, $1 million personally and another $1 million through her various businesses and the Dollywood Foundation. LGBTQ+ rights Though often politically neutral, Parton is known for her long history of openly supportingLGBTQ rights.LGBTQ+ magazinesLGBTQ NationandThe Advocatehave described her as an \"LGBTQ+ icon,\" and it was noted that she first publicly showed support forLGBTQ familiesin her 1991 song \"Family\".She also publicly came out in support ofsame-sex marriagein 2009. Moderna COVID-19 vaccine In response to theCOVID-19 pandemic, Parton donated $1million towards research atVanderbilt University Medical Centerand encouraged those who can afford it to make similar donations.She said",
"donations.She said \"I'm a very proud girl today to know I had anything at all to do with something that's going to help us through this crazy pandemic.\"Her donation funded the critical early stages of development of theModernavaccine.In March 2021, Parton wasvaccinatedagainstCOVID-19at Vanderbilt University. She labeled social media accounts of the occasion \"Dolly gets a dose of her own medicine.\"Parton strongly encouraged everyone to get vaccinated when eligible and performed a song celebrating her vaccination, set to the tune of her song \"Jolene\". Awards and honors Dolly Parton is one of the most-honored female country performers of all time. The Record Industry Association of America has certified 25 of her single or album releases as either Gold Record, Platinum Record or Multi-Platinum Record. She has had 26 songs reach no.1 on the Billboard country charts, a record for a female artist. She has 42 career Top10 country albums, a record for any artist, and 110 career-charted singles over the past forty",
"over the past forty years.As of 2012 she had written more than 3,000 songs and sold more than 100 million records, making her one of the best-selling female artists of all time.As of 2021, she had appeared on the country music charts in each of seven decades, the most of any artist. Dolly Parton has earned eleven Grammy Awards (including her 2011 Lifetime Achievement Grammy) and a total of fifty Grammy Award nominations, the second-most nominations of any female artist in the history of the prestigious awards. At theAmerican Music Awards, she has won three awards out of 18 nominations. At the Country Music Association, she has won ten awards out of 42 nominations. At theAcademy of Country Music, she has won seven awards and 39 nominations. She is one of only six female artists (includingReba McEntire,Barbara Mandrell,Shania Twain,Loretta Lynn, andTaylor Swift), to win the Country Music Association's highest honor, Entertainer of the Year (1978). She also has been nominated for twoAcademy Awardsand aTony",
"Awardsand aTony Award. She was nominated for anEmmy Awardfor her appearance in a 1978Chertelevision special. She was awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Famefor her music in 1984, located at 6712 Hollywood Boulevard inHollywood, California; a star on the NashvilleStarWalkfor Grammy winners;and a bronze sculpture on the courthouse lawn in Sevierville. She has called that statue of herself in her hometown \"the greatest honor\", because it came from the people who knew her. Parton was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry in 1969, and in 1986 was named one ofMs. Magazine'sWomen of the Year. In 1986, she was inducted into theNashville Songwriters Hall of Fame. In 1999, Parton received country music's highest honor, an induction into the Country Music Hall of Fame.She received an honorarydoctorate degreefromCarson-Newman College(Jefferson City, Tennessee) in 1990.This was followed by induction into theNational Academy of Popular Music/Songwriters Hall of Famein 2001.In 2002, she ranked no.4 inCMT's 40 Greatest Women",
"40 Greatest Women of Country Music. Parton was honored in 2003 with a tribute album calledJust Because I'm a Woman: Songs of Dolly Parton. The artists who recorded versions of Parton's songs includedMelissa Etheridge(\"I Will Always Love You\"),Alison Krauss(\"9 to 5\"),Shania Twain(\"Coat of Many Colors\"),Meshell Ndegeocello(\"Two Doors Down\"),Norah Jones(\"The Grass is Blue\"), andSinéad O'Connor(\"Dagger Through the Heart\"). Parton herself contributed a re-recording of the title song, originally the title song for her first RCA album in 1968. Parton was awarded theLiving Legend Medalby the U.S.Library of Congresson April 14, 2004, for her contributions to the cultural heritage of the United States.She is also the focus of a Library of Congress collection exploring the influences of country music on her life and career. The collection contains images, articles, sheet music, and more. In 2005, she was honored with theNational Medal of Arts, the highest honor given by the U.S. government for excellence in the arts.",
"in the arts. The award is presented by theU.S. President. On December 3, 2006, Parton received theKennedy Center Honorsfrom theJohn F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Artsfor her lifetime of contributions to the arts. During the show, some of country music's biggest names came to show their admiration.Carrie Underwoodperformed \"Islands in the Stream\" with Rogers, Parton's original duet partner. Krauss performed \"Jolene\" and duetted \"Coat of Many Colors\" with Twain. McEntire andReese Witherspoonalso came to pay tribute. On November 16, 2010, Parton accepted the Liseberg Applause Award, the theme park industry's most prestigious honor, on behalf of Dollywood theme park during a ceremony held at IAAPA Attractions Expo 2010 inOrlando, Florida. In 2015, a newly discovered species oflichenfound growing in the southern Appalachians was namedJapewiella dollypartonianain honor of Parton's music and her efforts to bring national and global attention to that region.In 2018, Parton received a second star on",
"a second star on theHollywood Walk of Fame, inducted alongsideLinda RonstadtandEmmylou Harrisin recognition of their work as a trio.Parton was also recognized in theGuinness World Records2018 Edition for holding records for the Most Decades with a Top20 hit on Billboard's Hot Country Songs Chart and Most Hits on Billboard's Hot Country Songs Chart by a Female Artist.In 2020, Parton received a Grammy award for her collaboration withFor King & Countryon their song, \"God Only Knows\".In 2021, she was included on theTime100,Time's annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world.The New York Timescalled her among the three of America's Most Beloved Divas (alongsidePatti LaBelleandBarbra Streisand). Parton has turned down thePresidential Medal of Freedomtwice due to her husband's illness and the ongoing pandemic.In response to a 2021 proposal by the Tennessee legislature to erect a statue of Parton, she released a statement asking the legislature to remove the bill from consideration, saying \"Given all",
"saying \"Given all that is going on in the world, I don't think putting me on a pedestal is appropriate at this time.\" In late 2022, Parton received a $100-millionCourage and Civility Awardfrom the founder of Amazon,Jeff Bezos.According to Bezos, the award was given to Parton because of her charity work focused on improving children's literacy around the world. In 2023, Parton was awardedAmerican Library Association Honorary Membership. She was ranked at No. 27 onRolling Stone′s 2023 list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. Hall of Fame honors During her career, Parton has gained induction into numerous Halls of Fame. Those honors include: Discography Solo studio albums Collaborative studio albums Filmography Theatrical releases Published works See also References Bibliography Further reading External links †Honorary former member; was scheduled to be invited, but died before the invitation was extended"
] |
Which month had the third-lowest mean daily minimum temperature (recorded from 1876–1905) in the Japanese city which in 1720 was estimated to be the largest in the world? | December. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_throughout_history | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edo | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_throughout_history', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edo', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_throughout_history",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edo",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"
] | [
"List of largest cities throughout history This article lists the largesthuman settlementsin the world (by population) over time, as estimated by historians, from 7000 BC when the largest human settlement was aproto-cityin theancient Near Eastwith a population of about 1,000–2,000 people, to the year 2000 when the largest human settlement wasTokyowith 26 million. Rome,Chang'anorBaghdadmay have been the first city to have 1,000,000 people, as early as the 1st century or as late as the 8th century. Later cities that might have reached 1 million includeLuoyang,Kaifeng,Hangzhou,Jinling,Beijing, andEdo. There is wide agreement thatLondonwas the first city to reach 2 million andNew Yorkwas the first to reach 10 million. TheGreater Tokyo Areahas been the most populousmetropolitan areain the world since 1955, with more than 37.393 million residents as of 2020.Jakartais expected to overtake Tokyo by 2030, partly due to Tokyo's shrinking population. As disagreements between the sources show, any of the pre-19th century figures are uncertain, especially in ancient times. Estimating population sizes beforecensuseswere conducted is a difficult task. List of the most populous human settlements over time The following table lists the most populous human settlements by estimated population at specified points in history according to three sources:Ian Morris,George ModelskiandTertius Chandler. City names are in bold where all three sources agree. It shows the evolution of the largest settlement fromproto-citytocitytourban areatometropolitan area. See also References External links",
"Edo Edo(Japanese:江戸,lit.'\"bay-entrance\" or \"estuary\"'), alsoromanizedasJedo,YedoorYeddo, is theformer nameofTokyo. Edo, formerly ajōkamachi(castle town) centered onEdo Castlelocated inMusashi Province, became thede factocapital of Japan from 1603 as the seat of theTokugawa shogunate. Edo grew to become one of thelargest cities in the worldunder the Tokugawa. After theMeiji Restorationin 1868 theMeiji governmentrenamed Edo asTokyo(東京, \"Eastern Capital\") and relocated theEmperorfrom the historic capital ofKyototo the city. The era of Tokugawa rule in Japan from 1603 to 1868 is known as theEdo period. History Before Tokugawa Before the 10th century, there is no mention of Edo in historical records, but for a few settlements in the area. That name for the area first appears in theAzuma Kagamichronicles, being used probably since the second half of theHeian period. Edo's development started in the late 11th century with a branch of the Kanmu-Tairaclan(桓武平氏)called the Chichibu clan(秩父氏)coming from the banks of the then-Iruma River, present day upstream of the Arakawa river. A descendant of the head of the Chichibu clan settled in the area and took the name Edo Shigetsugu(江戸重継), likely based on the name used for the place, and founded theEdo clan. Shigetsugu built a fortified residence, probably around the edge of theMusashino Terrace, that would become Edo castle. Shigetsugu's son,Edo Shigenaga(江戸重長), took the Taira's side againstMinamoto no Yoritomoin 1180 but eventually surrendered to Minamoto and became agokeninfor theKamakura shogunate. At the fall of the shogunate in the 14th century, the Edo clan took the side of theSouthern Court, and its influence declined during theMuromachi period. In 1456, a vassal of the Ōgigayatsu branch of theUesugi clanstarted to build a castle on the former fortified residence of the Edo clan and took the nameŌta Dōkan. Dōkan lived in the castle until his assassination in 1486. Under Dōkan, with good water connections to Kamakura, Odawara and other parts ofKantoand the country, Edo expanded as ajōkamachi, with the castle bordering a cove (nowHibiya Park) opening intoEdo Bay, and the town developing along the Hirakawa River running into the cove, and onEdomaeto(江戸前島), the stretch of land on the eastern side of the cove (now roughly whereTokyo Stationis). Some priests and scholars fleeing Kyoto after theŌnin Warcame to Edo during that period. After the death of Dōkan, the castle became one of strongholds of the Uesugi clan, which fell to theLater Hōjō clanat thebattle of Takanawaharain 1524, during the expansion of their rule over the Kantō area. When the Hōjō clan was finally defeated byToyotomi Hideyoshiin 1590, the Kanto area was given to rule to Toyotomi's senior officerTokugawa Ieyasu, who took his residence in Edo. Tokugawa shogunate Tokugawa Ieyasuemerged as the paramount warlord of theSengoku periodfollowing his victory at theBattle of Sekigaharain October 1600. He formally founded the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603 and established his headquarters atEdo Castle. Edo became the center of political power and thede factocapital of Japan, although the historic capital ofKyotoremained thede jurecapital as the seat of the emperor. Edo grew from a fishing village inMusashi Provincein 1457 into the largestmetropolisin the world, with an estimated population of 1 million by 1721. Edo was repeatedly devastated by fires, theGreat Fire of Meirekiin 1657 being the most disastrous, with an estimated 100,000 victims and a vast portion of the city completely burnt. The population of Edo was around 300,000,and the impact of the fire was tremendous. The fire destroyed the central keep of Edo Castle, which was never rebuilt, and it influenced the urban planning afterwards to make the city more resilient, with many empty areas to break spreading fires, and wider streets. Reconstruction efforts expanded the city east of the Sumida River, and somedaimyōresidences were relocated to give more space to the city, especially in the immediate vicinity of the shogun's residence, creating a large green space beside the castle, now the Fukiage gardens of theImperial Palace. During the Edo period, there were about 100 major fires, mostly begun by accident and often quickly escalating and spreading through neighborhoods of woodennagayathat were heated with charcoal fires. In 1868, the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown in theMeiji Restorationby supporters ofEmperor Meijiand hisImperial Court in Kyoto, ending Edo's status as thede factocapital of Japan. However, the new Meiji government soon renamed Edo toTōkyō(東京, \"Eastern Capital\") and the city became the formal capital of Japan when the emperor moved his residence to the city. Urbanism Very quickly after its inception, the shogunate undertook major works in Edo that drastically changed the topography of the area, notably under the Tenka-Bushin(天下普請)nationwide program of major civil works involving the now pacifieddaimyōworkforce. The Hibiya cove facing the castle was soon filled after the arrival of Ieyasu, the Hirakawa river was diverted, and several protective moats and logistical canals were dug (including the Kanda river), to limit the risks of flooding.Landfill workson the bay began, with several areas reclaimed during the duration of the shogunate (notably the Tsukiji area). East of the city and of theSumida River, a massive network of canals was dug. Fresh water was a major issue, as direct wells would provide brackish water because of the location of the city over an estuary. The few fresh water ponds of the city were put to use, and a network of canals and underground wooden pipes bringing freshwater from the western side of the city and theTama Riverwas built. Some of this infrastructure was used until the 20th century. General layout of the city The city was laid out as a castle town around Edo Castle, which was positioned at the tip of theMusashino terrace. The area in the immediate proximity of the castle consisted of samurai anddaimyōresidences, whose families lived in Edo as part of thesankin-kōtaisystem; thedaimyōmade journeys in alternating years to Edo and used the residences for their entourages. The location of each residence was carefully attributed depending on their position astozama,shinpanorfudai. It was this extensive organization of the city for the samurai class which defined the character of Edo, particularly in contrast to the two major cities of Kyoto andOsaka, neither of which were ruled by adaimyōor had a significant samurai population. Kyoto's character was defined by the Imperial Court, thecourt nobles, its Buddhist temples and its history; Osaka was the country's commercial center, dominated by thechōninor the merchant class. On the contrary, the samurai anddaimyōresidences occupied up to 70% of the area of Edo. On the east and northeast sides of the castle lived theShomin(庶民, \"regular people\")including thechōninin a much more densely populated area than the samurai class area, organized in a series of gated communities calledmachi(町, \"town\" or \"village\"). This area,Shitamachi(下町, \"lower town\" or \"lower towns\"), was the center of urban and merchant culture. Shomin also lived along the main roads leading in and out of the city. The Sumida River, then called the Great River (大川,Ōkawa), ran on the eastern side of the city. The shogunate's official rice-storage warehousesand other official buildings were located here. TheNihonbashibridge(日本橋, lit. \"bridge of Japan\")marked the center of the city's commercial center and the starting point of thegokaidō(thus making it the de facto \"center of the country\"). Fishermen, craftsmen and other producers and retailers operated here. Shippers managed ships known astarubuneto and from Osaka and other cities, bringing goods into the city or transferring them from sea routes to river barges or land routes. The northeastern corner of the city was considered dangerous in the traditionalonmyōdōcosmology and was protected from evil by a number of temples includingSensō-jiandKan'ei-ji, one of the two tutelaryBodaijitemples of the Tokugawa. A path and a canal, a short distance north of Sensō-ji, extended west from the Sumida riverbank leading along the northern edge of the city to theYoshiwarapleasure district. Previously located near Ningyōchō, the district was rebuilt in this more remote location after the great fire of Meireki. Danzaemon, the hereditary position head ofeta,or outcasts, who performed \"unclean\" works in the city resided nearby. Temples and shrines occupied roughly 15% of the surface of the city, equivalent to the living areas of the townspeople, with however an average of one-tenth of its population. Temples and shrines were spread out over the city. Besides the large concentration in the northeast side to protect the city, the second Bodaiji of the Tokugawa,Zōjō-jioccupied a large area south of the castle. Housing Military caste The samurai anddaimyōsresidential estates varied dramatically in size depending on their status. Some daimyōs could have several of those residences in Edo. The upper residence(上屋敷,kami-yashiki), was the main residence while the lord was in Edo and was used for official duties. It was not necessarily the largest of his residences, but the most convenient to commute to the castle. The upper residence also acted as the representative embassy of the domain in Edo, connecting the shogunate and the clan. The shogunate did not exercise its investigative powers inside the precincts of the residential estate of the upper residence, which could also act as a refuge. The estate of the upper residence was attributed by the shogunate according to the status of the clan and its relation with the Shogun. The middle residence(中屋敷,naka-yashiki), a bit further from the castle, could house the heir of the lord, his servants from his fief when he was in Edo for thesankin-kotaialternate residency, or be a hiding residence if needed. The lower residence(下屋敷,shimo-yashiki), if there was any, was on the outskirts of town, more of a pleasure retreat with gardens. The lower residence could also be used as a retreat for the lord if a fire had devastated the city. Some of the powerfuldaimyōsresidences occupied vast grounds of several dozens of hectares. Maintenance and operations of those residential estates could be extremely expensive. Samurai in service of a specific clan would normally live in the residence of their lord. Thehatamotosamurais, in direct service of the Shogun, would have their own residences, usually located behind the castle on the Western side in theBanchōarea. Shonin In a strict sense of the word,chōninwere only the townspeople who owned their residence, which was actually a minority. Theshoninpopulation mainly lived in semi-collective housings callednagaya(長屋, litt. \"Long house\"), multi-rooms wooden dwellings, organized in enclosedmachi(町, \"town\" or \"village\"), with communal facilities, such as wells connected to the city's fresh water distribution system, garbage collection area and communal bathrooms. A typicalmachiwas of rectangular shape and could have a population of several hundred. Themachihad curfew for the night with closing and guarded gates calledkidomon(木戸門)opening on the main street(表通り,omote-dori)in themachi. Two floor buildings and larger shops, reserved to the higher-ranking members of the society, were facing the main street. Amachiwould typically follow a grid pattern and smaller streets,Shinmichi(新道), were opening on the main street, also with (sometimes) two-floor buildings, shop on the first floor, living quarter on the second floor, for the more well-off residents. Very narrow streets accessible through small gates calledroji(路地), would enter deeper inside themachi, where single floornagayas, theuranagayas(裏長屋, litt. \"backstreet long houses\")were located. Rentals and smaller rooms for lower rankedshoninwere located in those back housings. Edo was nicknamed the City of 808 towns(江戸八百八町,Edo happyaku yachō), depicting the large number and diversity of those communities, but the actual number was closer to 1,700 by the 18th century. Government and administration Edo's municipal government was under the responsibility of therōjū, the senior officials who oversaw the entirebakufu– the government of the Tokugawa shogunate. The administrative definition of Edo was calledGofunai(御府内, litt. \"where the government is\"). TheKanjō-bugyō(finance commissioners) were responsible for the financial matters of the shogunate,whereas theJisha-Bugyōhandled matters related to shrines and temples. TheMachi-bugyō(町奉行)weresamurai(at the very beginning of the shogunatedaimyōs, laterhatamoto) officials appointed to keep the order in the city, with the word designating both the heading magistrate, the magistrature and its organization. They were in charge of Edo's day-to-day administration, combining the role of police, judge and fire brigade. There were two offices, the South Machi-Bugyō and the North Machi-Bugyō, which had the same geographical jurisdiction in spite of their name but rotated roles on a monthly basis. Despite their extensive responsibilities, the teams of the Machi-Bugyō were rather small, with 2 offices of 125 people each. The Machi-Bugyō did not have jurisdiction over the samurai residential areas, which remained under the shogunate direct rule. The geographical jurisdiction of the Machi-Bugyō did not exactly coincide with the Gofunai, creating some complexity on the handling on the matters of the city. The Machi-bugyō oversaw the numerous Machi where shonin lived through representatives calledMachidoshiyori(町年寄). Each Machi had a Machi leader calledNanushi(名主), who reported to aMachidoshiyori(町年寄)who himself was in charge of several Machis. See also Notes References External links",
"Tokyo Tokyo(/ˈtoʊkioʊ/;Japanese:東京,Tōkyō,ⓘ), officially theTokyo Metropolis(東京都,Tōkyō-to), is thecapital of Japanandone of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of over 14 million residents as of 2023 and thesecond-most-populated capital in the world.TheGreater Tokyo Area, which includes Tokyo and parts of six neighboringprefectures, is the most-populous metropolitan area in the world, with 41 million residents as of 2024. Located at the head ofTokyo Bay, Tokyo is part of theKantō regionon the central coast ofHonshu, Japan's largest island. Tokyo serves as Japan's economic center and the seat of both theJapanese governmentand theEmperor of Japan. TheTokyo Metropolitan Governmentadministers Tokyo's central23 special wards(which formerly made upTokyo City), various commuter towns and suburbs inits western area, and two outlying island chains known as theTokyo Islands. Despite most of the world recognizing Tokyo as a city, since 1943 its governing structure has been more akin to a prefecture, with an accompanyingGovernorandAssemblytaking precedence over the smaller municipal governments which make up the metropolis. Notable special wards in Tokyo includeChiyoda, the site of theNational Diet Buildingand theTokyo Imperial Palace;Shinjuku, the city's administrative center; andShibuya, a commercial, cultural, and business hub in the city. Before the 17th century, Tokyo, then known asEdo, was mainly a fishing village. It gained political prominence in 1603 when it became the seat of theTokugawa shogunate. By the mid-18th century, Edo was among the world's largest cities, with over a million residents. Following theMeiji Restorationin 1868, the imperial capital inKyotowas moved to Edo, and the city was renamed Tokyo (lit.'Eastern Capital'). In 1923, Tokyo was damaged substantially by theGreat Kantō earthquake, and the city was later badly damaged byallied bombing raidsduringWorld War II. Beginning in the late 1940s, Tokyo underwent rapid reconstruction and expansion that contributed to the era's so-calledJapanese economic miraclein whichJapan's economypropelled to thesecond-largest in the world at the timebehindthat of the United States.As of 2023, the city is home to 29 of the world's 500 largest companies, as listed in the annualFortuneGlobal 500; the second-highest number of any city. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Tokyo became the first city in Asia to host theSummer OlympicsandParalympicsin 1964, and again in 2021, and it also hosted threeG7summits in 1979, 1986, and 1993. Tokyo is an internationalresearch and development huband an academic center withseveral major universities, including theUniversity of Tokyo, the top-ranking university in the country.Tokyo Stationis the central hub for theShinkansen, Japan's high-speed railway network, andShinjuku Stationin Tokyo is the world's busiest train station. The city is home to the world's tallest tower,Tokyo Skytree.TheTokyo Metro Ginza Line, which opened in 1927, is theoldest underground metro lineinAsia–Pacific. Tokyo's nominal gross domestic output was 113.7 trillion yen or US$1.04 trillion in FY2021 and accounted for 20.7% of the country's total economic output, which converts to 8.07 million yen or US$73,820 per capita.Including the Greater Tokyo Area, Tokyo is thesecond-largest metropolitan economy in the worldafterNew York, with a 2022 gross metropolitan product estimated at US$2.08 trillion.Although Tokyo's status as a leading global financial hub has diminished with theLost Decadessince the 1990s—when theTokyo Stock Exchangewas the world's largest, with a market capitalization about 1.5 times that of theNYSE—the city is still a large financial hub, and the TSE remains among theworld's top five major stock exchanges.Tokyo is categorized as anAlpha+ cityby theGlobalization and World Cities Research Network. The city is also recognized as one of the world's most livable ones; it was ranked fourth in the world in the 2021 edition of theGlobal Livability Ranking.Tokyo has also been ranked as the safest city in the world in multiple international surveys. Etymology Tokyo was originally known asEdo(江戸), akanjicompound of江(e, \"cove, inlet\") and戸(to, \"entrance, gate, door\").The name, which can be translated as \"estuary\", is a reference to the original settlement's location at the meeting of theSumida RiverandTokyo Bay. During theMeiji Restorationin 1868, the name of the city was changed to Tokyo(東京, from東tō\"east\", and京kyō\"capital\"), when it became the new imperial capital,in line with the East Asian tradition of including the word capital (京) in the name of the capital city (for example,Kyoto(京都),Keijō(京城),Beijing(北京),Nanjing(南京), andXijing(西京)).During the earlyMeiji period, the city was sometimes called \"Tōkei\", an alternative pronunciation for the same characters representing \"Tokyo\", making it akanji homograph. Some surviving official English documents use the spelling \"Tokei\";however, this pronunciation is now obsolete. History Pre-1869 (Edo period) Tokyo was originally a village calledEdo, part of the oldMusashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan in the late twelfth century. In 1457,Ōta DōkanbuiltEdo Castleto defend the region from theChiba clan. After Dōkan was assassinated in 1486, the castle and the area came to be possessed by several feudal lords. In 1590,Tokugawa Ieyasuwas granted theKantō regionbyToyotomi Hideyoshiand moved there from his ancestral land ofMikawa Province. He greatly expanded the castle, which was said to have been abandoned and in tatters when he moved there, and ruled the region from there. When he becameshōgun, the de facto ruler of the country, in 1603, the whole country came to be ruled from Edo. While theTokugawa shogunateruled the country in practice, theImperial House of Japanwas still the de jure ruler, and the title of shōgun was granted by the Emperor as a formality. The Imperial House was based inKyotofrom 794 to 1868, so Edo was still not the capital of Japan.During theEdo period, the city enjoyed a prolonged period of peace known as thePax Tokugawa, and in the presence of such peace, the shogunate adopted a stringent policy of seclusion, which helped to perpetuate the lack of any serious military threat to the city.The absence of war-inflicted devastation allowed Edo to devote the majority of its resources to rebuilding in the wake of the consistent fires,earthquakes, and other devastating natural disasters that plagued the city. Edo grew into one of the largest cities in the world with a population reaching one million by the 18th century. This prolonged period of seclusion however came to an end with the arrival of American CommodoreMatthew C. Perryin 1853. Commodore Perry forced the opening of the ports ofShimodaandHakodate, leading to an increase in the demand for new foreign goods and subsequently a severe rise in inflation.Social unrest mounted in the wake of these higher prices and culminated in widespread rebellions and demonstrations, especially in the form of the \"smashing\" of rice establishments.Meanwhile, supporters of the Emperor leveraged the disruption caused by widespread rebellious demonstrations to further consolidate power, which resulted in the overthrow of the last Tokugawa shōgun,Yoshinobu, in 1867.After 265 years, thePax Tokugawacame to an end. In May 1868, Edo castle was handed to the Emperor-supporting forces after negotiation (theFall of Edo). Some forces loyal to the shogunate kept fighting, but with their loss in theBattle of Uenoon 4 July 1868, the entire city came under the control of thenew government. 1869–1941 After the overthrow of theTokugawa shogunate, for the first time in a few centuries, the Emperor ceased to be a mere figurehead and became both the de facto and de jure ruler of the country.Hisoka Maejimaadvocated for the relocation of the capital functions to Tokyo, recognizing the advantages of the existing infrastructure and the vastness of theKanto Plaincompared to the relatively smallKyoto basin.After being handed over to the Meiji government, Edo was renamedTokyo(Eastern Capital) on 3 September 1868.Emperor Meijivisited the city once at the end of that year and eventually moved there in 1869. Tokyo had already been the nation's political center for nearly three centuries,and the emperor's residence made it a de facto imperial capital as well, with the former Edo Castle becoming theImperial Palace. Government ministries such as theMinistry of Financewere also relocated to Tokyo by 1871,and thefirst railway line in the countrywas opened on 14 October 1872, connectingShimbashi(Shiodome) andYokohama(Sakuragicho), which is now part of theTokaido line.The 1870s saw the establishment of other institutions and facilities that now symbolize Tokyo, such asUeno Park(1873), theUniversity of Tokyo(1877) and theTokyo Stock Exchange(1878). The rapid modernization of the country was driven from Tokyo, with its business districts such asMarunouchifilled with modern brick buildings and the railway network serving as a means to help the large influx of labour force needed to keep the development of the economy.TheCity of Tokyowas officially established on May 1, 1889. TheImperial Diet, the national legislature of the country, was established in Tokyo in 1889, and it has ever since been operating in the city. On 1 September 1923, theGreat Kanto Earthquakestruck the city, and the earthquake and subsequent fire killed an estimated 105,000 citizens. The loss amounted to 37 percent of the country's economic output.On the other hand, the destruction provided an opportunity to reconsider the planning of the city, which had changed its shape hastily after theMeiji Restoration. The high survival rate of concrete buildings promoted the transition from timber and brick architecture to modern, earthquake-proof construction.TheTokyo Metro Ginza Lineportion betweenUenoandAsakusa, the first underground railway line built outside Europe and the American continents, was completed on December 30, 1927.Although Tokyo recovered robustly from the earthquake and new cultural and liberal political movements, such asTaishō Democracy, spread, the 1930s saw an economic downturn caused by theGreat Depressionand major political turmoil. Two attempted militarycoups d'étathappened in Tokyo, theMay 15 incidentin 1932 and theFebruary 26 incidentin 1936. This turmoil eventually allowed the military wings of the government to take control of the country, leading to Japan joining theSecond World Waras anAxis power. Due to the country's political isolation on the international stage caused by itsmilitary aggression in Chinaand the increasingly unstable geopolitical situations in Europe, Тоkуо had to give up hosting the1940 Summer Olympicsin 1938.Rationingstarted in June 1940 as the nation braced itself for another world war, while the 26th Centenary of the Enthronement ofEmperor Jimmucelebrations took place on a grand scale to boost morale and increase the sense of national identity in the same year. On 8 December 1941,Japan attacked the American bases at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, entering the Second World War against theAllied Powers. The wartime regime greatly affected life in the city. 1942–1945 In 1943,Tokyo Citymerged withTokyo Prefectureto form theTokyo Metropolis(東京都,Tōkyō-to). This reorganization aimed to create a more centralized and efficient administrative structure to better manage resources, urban planning, and civil defence during wartime.The Tokyo Metropolitan Government thus became responsible for both prefectural and city functions while administering cities, towns, and villages in the suburban and rural areas. Although Japan enjoyed significant success in the initial stages of the war and rapidly expanded its sphere of influence, theDoolittle Raidon 18 April 1942, marked the first direct foreign attack on Tokyo. Although the physical damage was minimal, the raid demonstrated the vulnerability of the Japanese mainland to air attacks and boosted American morale.Large-scale Allied air bombing of cities in the Japanese home islands, including Tokyo, began in late 1944 when the US seized control of theMariana Islands. From these islands, newly developed long-rangeB-29 bomberscould conduct return journeys. The bombing of Tokyo in 1944 and 1945 is estimated to have killed between 75,000 and 200,000 civilians and left more than half of the city destroyed.The deadliest night of the war came on March 9–10, 1945, the night of the American \"Operation Meetinghouse\" raid.Nearly 700,000 incendiary bombs were dropped on the east end of the city (shitamachi, 下町), an area with a high concentration of factories and working-class houses. Two-fifths of the city were completely burned, more than 276,000 buildings were destroyed, 100,000 civilians were killed, and 110,000 more were injured.Numerous Edo and Meiji-era buildings of historical significance were destroyed, including the main building of theImperial Palace,Sensō-ji,Zōjō-ji,Sengaku-jiandKabuki-za. Between 1940 and 1945, the population of Tokyo dwindled from 6,700,000 to less than 2,800,000, as soldiers were sent to the front and children were evacuated. 1945–1972 After the war, Tokyo became the base from which theAllied Occupational Forces, underDouglas MacArthur, an American general, administered Japan for six years. The original rebuilding plan of Tokyo was based on a plan modelled after theMetropolitan Green Belt of London, devised in the 1930s but canceled due to the war.However, due to the monetary contraction policy known as theDodge Line, named afterJoseph Dodge, the neoliberal economic advisor to MacArthur, the plan had to be reduced to a minimal one focusing on transport and other infrastructure. In 1947, the 35 pre-war special wards were reorganized into thecurrent 23 wards. Tokyo did not experience fast economic growth until around 1950, when heavy industry output returned to pre-war levels.Since around the time theAllied occupation of Japanended in 1952, Tokyo's focus shifted from rebuilding to developing beyond its pre-war stature. From the 1950s onwards, Tokyo'sMetroandrailwaynetwork saw significant expansion, culminating in the launch of the world's first dedicated high-speed railway line, theShinkansen, between Tokyo and Osaka in 1964. The same year saw the development of other transport infrastructure such as theShuto Expresswayto meet the increased demand brought about by the1964 Tokyo Olympics, the first Olympic Games held in Asia. Around this time, the 31-metre height restriction, imposed on all buildings since 1920, was relaxed due to the increased demand for office buildings and advancements in earthquake-proof construction.Starting with theKasumigaseki Building(147 metres) in 1968, skyscrapers began to dominate Tokyo's skyline. During this period of rapid rebuilding, Tokyo celebrated its 500th anniversary in 1956and theOgasawara Islands, which had been under control of the US since the war ended, were returned in 1968.Ryokichi Minobe, a Marxian economist who served as the governor for 12 years starting in 1967, is remembered for his welfare state policy, including free healthcare for the elderly and financial support for households with children, and his ‘war against pollution’ policy, as well as the large government deficit they caused. 1973–present Although the1973 oil crisisput an end to the rapid post-war recovery and development of Japan's economy, its position as theworld's second-largest economy at the timehad seemed secure by that point, remaining so until 2010 when it was surpassed byChina.Tokyo's development was sustained by its status as the economic, political, and cultural hub of such a country. In 1978, after years of the intenseSanrizuka Struggle,Narita International Airportopened as the new gateway to the city, while the relatively smallHaneda Airportswitched to primarily domestic flights.West Shinjuku, which had been occupied by the vast Yodobashi Water Purification Centre until 1965, became the site of an entirely new business district characterized by skyscrapers surpassing 200 metres during this period. The American-ledPlaza Accordin 1985, which aimed to depreciate the US dollar, had a devastating effect on Japan's manufacturing sector, particularly affecting small to mid-size companies based in Tokyo.This led the government to adopt a domestic-demand-focused economic policy, ultimately causing anasset price bubble. Land redevelopment projects were planned across the city, and real estate prices skyrocketed. By 1990, the estimated value of theImperial Palacesurpassed that of the entirestate of California.TheTokyo Stock Exchangebecame the largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, with the Tokyo-basedNTTbecoming the most highly valued company globally. After the bubble burst in the early 1990s, Japan experienced a prolonged economic downturn called the \"Lost Decades\", which was charactized by extremely low or negative economic growth, deflation, stagnant asset prices.Tokyo's status as a world city is said to have depreciated greatly during these three decades. Nonetheless, Tokyo still saw new urban developments during this period. Recent projects includeEbisuGarden Place,Tennōzu Isle,Shiodome,Roppongi Hills,Shinagawa, and theMarunouchiside ofTokyo Station.Land reclamationprojects in Tokyo have also been going on for centuries. The most prominent is theOdaibaarea, now a major shopping and entertainment center. Various plans have been proposedfor transferring national government functions from Tokyo to secondary capitals in other regions of Japan, to slow down rapid development in Tokyo and revitalize economically lagging areas of the country. These plans have been controversialwithin Japan and have yet to be realized. On September 7, 2013, theIOCselected Tokyo to host the2020 Summer Olympics. Thus, Tokyo became the first Asian city to host the Olympic Games twice.However, the 2020 Olympic Games were postponed and held from July 23 to August 8, 2021, as a result of theCOVID-19 pandemic. Administration Local government UnderJapanese law, the prefecture of Tokyo is designated as ato(都), translated asmetropolis.Tokyo Prefecture is the most populous prefecture and the densest, with 6,100 inhabitants per square kilometer (16,000/sq mi); by geographic area it is the third-smallest, above onlyOsakaandKagawa. Its administrative structure is similar to that of Japan's otherprefectures. The23 special wards(特別区,tokubetsu-ku), which until 1943 constituted thecity of Tokyo, are self-governingmunicipalities, each having a mayor, a council, and the status of a city. In addition to these 23 special wards, Tokyo also includes 26 more cities (市-shi), five towns (町-chōormachi), and eight villages (村-sonor-mura), each of which has a local government. TheTokyo Metropolitan Governmentadministers the whole metropolis including the 23 special wards and the cities and towns that constitute the prefecture. It is headed by a publicly elected governor and metropolitan assembly. Itsheadquartersis inShinjukuWard. The governor of Tokyo is elected every four years. The incumbent governor,Yuriko Koike, was elected in 2016, following the resignation of her predecessor,Yoichi Masuzoe. She was re-elected in 2020 and in 2024. The legislature of the Metropolis is called theMetropolitan Assembly, and it has one house with 127 seats. The assembly is responsible for enacting and amending prefectural ordinances, approving the budget (8.5 trillion yen in fiscal 2024),and voting on important administrative appointments made by the governor, including the vice governors. Its members are also elected on a four-year cycle. Municipalities Since the completion of theGreat Mergers of Heiseiin 2001, Tokyo consists of 62municipalities: 23special wards, 26cities, 5townsand 8villages. All municipalities in Japan have a directly elected mayor and a directly elected assembly, each elected on independent four-year cycles. The 23 Special Wards cover the area that had beenTokyo Cityuntil 1943, 30 other municipalities are located in theTama area, and the remeining 9 are on Tokyo's outlying islands. Environmental policies Tokyo has enacted a measure to cut greenhouse gases. GovernorShintaro Ishiharacreated Japan's firstemissions cap system, aiming to reducegreenhouse gas emissionby a total of 25% by 2020 from the 2000 level.Tokyo is an example of anurban heat island, and the phenomenon is especially serious in its special wards.According to the Tokyo Metropolitan Government,the annual mean temperature has increased by about 3 °C (5.4 °F) over the past 100 years. Tokyo has been cited as a \"convincing example of the relationship between urban growth and climate\". In 2006, Tokyo enacted the \"10 Year Project for Green Tokyo\" to be realized by 2016. It set a goal of increasing roadside trees in Tokyo to 1 million (from 480,000), and adding 1,000 ha (2,500 acres) of green space, 88 ha (220 acres) of which will be a new park named \"Umi no Mori\" (Sea Forest) which will be on a reclaimed island inTokyo Baywhich used to be a landfill.From 2007 to 2010, 436 ha (1,080 acres) of the planned 1,000 ha of green space was created and 220,000 trees were planted, bringing the total to 700,000. As of 2014, roadside trees in Tokyo have increased to 950,000, and a further 300 ha (740 acres) of green space has been added. National government Tokyo is the seat of allthree branches of government: the legislature (National Diet), the executive (Cabinetled by thePrime Minister), and the judiciary (Supreme Court of Japan), as well as theEmperor of Japan, the head of state. Most government ministries are concentrated in theKasumigasekidistrict in Chiyoda, and the name Kasumigaseki is often used as ametonymfor theJapanese national civil service.Tokyo has 25 constituencies for theHouse of Representatives, 18 of which were won by the rulingLiberal Democratsand 7 by the main oppositionConstitutional Democratsin the2021 general election.Apart from these seats, through theTokyo proportional representation block, Tokyo sends 17 more politicians to the House of Representatives, 6 of whom were members of the ruling LDP in the 2021 election. TheTokyo at-large district, which covers the entire metropolis, sends 12 members to theHouse of Councillors. Geography The mainland portion of Tokyo lies northwest ofTokyo Bayand measures about 90 km (56 mi) east to west and 25 km (16 mi) north to south. The average elevation in Tokyo is 40 m (131 ft).Chiba Prefectureborders it to the east,Yamanashito the west,Kanagawato the south, andSaitamato the north. Mainland Tokyo is further subdivided into the special wards (occupying the eastern half) and the Tama area (多摩地域) stretching westwards. Tokyo has alatitudeof 35.65 (near the36th parallel north), which makes it more southern thanRome(41.90),Madrid(40.41),New York City(40.71) andBeijing(39.91). Within the administrative boundaries of Tokyo Metropolis are two island chains in the Pacific Ocean directly south: theIzu Islands, and theOgasawara Islands, which stretch more than 1,000 km (620 mi) away from the mainland. Because of these islands and the mountainous regions to the west, Tokyo's overall population density figures far under-represent the real figures for the urban and suburban regions of Tokyo. Climate The former city of Tokyo and the majority of Tokyo prefecture lie in thehumid subtropical climatezone (Köppen climate classification:Cfa),with hot, humid summers and mild to cool winters with occasional cold spells. The region, like much of Japan, experiences a one-monthseasonal lag. The warmest month is August, which averages 26.9 °C (80.4 °F). The coolest month is January, averaging 5.4 °C (41.7 °F). The record low temperature was −9.2 °C (15.4 °F) on January 13, 1876. The record high was 39.5 °C (103.1 °F) on July 20, 2004. The record highest low temperature is 30.3 °C (86.5 °F), on August 12, 2013, making Tokyo one of only seven observation sites in Japan that have recorded a low temperature over 30 °C (86.0 °F). Annual rainfall averages nearly 1,600 millimeters (63.0 in), with a wetter summer and a drier winter. The growing season in Tokyo lasts for about 322 days from around mid-February to early January.Snowfall is sporadic, and occurs almost annually.Tokyo often sees typhoons every year, though few are strong. The wettest month since records began in 1876 was October 2004, with 780 millimeters (30 in) of rain,including 270.5 mm (10.65 in) on the ninth of that month.The most recent of four months on record to observe no precipitation is December 1995.Annual precipitation has ranged from 879.5 mm (34.63 in) in 1984 to 2,229.6 mm (87.78 in) in 1938. See or editraw graph data. Tokyo's climate has warmed significantly since temperature records began in 1876. The western mountainous area of mainland Tokyo,Okutamaalso lies in the humid subtropical climate (Köppen classification:Cfa). The climates of Tokyo's offshore territories vary significantly from those of the city. The climate ofChichijimainOgasawara villageis on the boundary between thetropical savanna climate(Köppen classification:Aw) and thetropical rainforest climate(Köppen classification:Af). It is approximately 1,000 km (621 mi) south of theGreater Tokyo Area, resulting in much different climatic conditions. Tokyo's easternmost territory, the island ofMinamitorishimainOgasawara village, is in the tropical savanna climate zone (Köppen classification:Aw). Tokyo's Izu and Ogasawara islands are affected by an average of 5.4 typhoons a year, compared to 3.1 in mainland Kantō. Natural disasters Earthquakes Tokyo is near theboundary of three plates, making it an extremely active region for smaller quakes andslippagewhich frequently affect the urban area with swaying as if in a boat, although epicenters within mainland Tokyo (excluding Tokyo's 2,000 km (1,243 mi)–long island jurisdiction) are quite rare. It is not uncommon in the metro area to have hundreds of these minor quakes (magnitudes 4–6) that can be felt in a single year, something local residents merely brush off but can be a source of anxiety not only for foreign visitors but for Japanese from elsewhere as well. They rarely cause much damage (sometimes a few injuries) as they are either too small or far away as quakes tend to dance around the region. Particularly active are offshore regions and to a lesser extentChibaandIbaraki. Tokyo has been hit by powerfulmegathrustearthquakes in 1703, 1782, 1812, 1855, 1923, and much more indirectly (with someliquefactionin landfill zones) in2011;the frequency of direct and large quakes is a relative rarity. The1923 earthquake, with an estimated magnitude of 7.9, killed more than 100,000 people, the last time the urban area was directly hit. Volcanic eruptions Mount Fujiis about 100 km (62 mi) southwest of Tokyo. There is a low risk of eruption. The last recorded was theHōei eruptionwhich started on December 16, 1707, and ended about January 1, 1708 (16 days).During the Hōei eruption, the ash amount was 4 cm in southern Tokyo (bay area) and 2 cm to 0.5 cm in central Tokyo.Kanagawahad 16 cm to 8 cm ash andSaitama0.5 to 0 cm.If the wind blows north-east it could sendvolcanic ashto Tokyo metropolis.According to the government, less than a millimeter of the volcanic ash from a Mount Fuji eruption could cause power grid problems such as blackouts and stop trains in the Tokyo metropolitan area.A mixture of ash with rain could stick to cellphone antennas, power lines and cause temporary power outages.The affected areas would need to be evacuated. Floods Tokyo is located on theKantō Plainwith five river systems and dozens of rivers that expand during each season.Important rivers areEdogawa,Nakagawa,Arakawa,Kandagawa,MegurogawaandTamagawa.In 1947,Typhoon Kathleenstruck Tokyo, destroying 31,000 homes and killing 1,100 people.In 1958,Typhoon Idadropped 400 mm (16 in) of rain in a single week, causing streets to flood.In the 1950s and 1960s, thegovernmentinvested 6–7% of the national budget on disaster and risk reduction.A huge system of dams, levees and tunnels was constructed.The purpose is to manage heavy rain,typhonicrain, and river floods. Tokyo has currently the world's largest underground floodwater diversion facility called theMetropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel(MAOUDC).It took 13 years to build and was completed in 2006. The MAOUDC is a 6.3 km (3.9 mi) long system of tunnels, 22 meters (72 ft) underground, with 70-meter (230 ft) tall cylindrical tanks, each tank being large enough to fit a space shuttle or the Statue of Liberty.During floods, excess water is collected from rivers and drained to theEdo River.Low-lying areas ofKōtō,Edogawa,Sumida,Katsushika,TaitōandArakawanear theArakawa Riverare most at risk of flooding. Architecture Tokyo's buildings are too diverse to be characterized by any specific archtectural style, but it can be generally said that a majority of extant structures were built in the past a hundred years;twice in recent history has the metropolis been left in ruins: first in the1923 Great Kantō earthquakeand later afterextensive firebombing in World War II. Early modern (1407–1868) The oldest known extant building in Tokyo isShofukujiinHigashi-Murayama. The current building was constructed in 1407, during theMuromachi period(1336–1573).Although greatly reduced in number by later fires, earthquakes, and air raids, a considerable number of Edo-era buildings survive to this day. TheTokyo Imperial Palace, which was occupied by theTokugawa ShogunateasEdo Castleduring theEdo Period(1603–1868), has many gates and towers dating from that era, although the main palace buildings and thetenshu towerhave been lost. Numerous temple and shrine buildings in Tokyo date from this era: theUeno Toshogustill maintains the original 1651 building built by the third shogunIemitsu Tokugawa.Although partially destroyed during the Second World War,Zojo-ji, which houses the Tokugawa family mausoleum, still has grand Edo-era buildings such as the Sangedatsu gate.Kaneijihas grand 17th-century buildings such as the five-storey pagoda and the Shimizudo. TheNezu ShrineandGokokujiwere built by the fifth shogunTsunayoshi Tokugawain the late 1600s. All feudal lords (daimyo) had large Edo houses where they stayed when in Edo; at one point, these houses amounted to half the total area of Edo.None of the grand Edo-era daimyo houses still exist in Tokyo, as their vast land footprint made them easy targets for redevelopment programs for modernization during theMeiji Period. Some gardens were immune from such fates and are today open to the public;Hamarikyu(Kofu Tokugawa family),Shibarikyu(Kishu Tokugawa family),Koishikawa Korakuen(Mito Tokugawa family),Rikugien(Yanagisawa family), andHigo Hosokawa Garden(Hosokawa family). TheAkamon, which is now widely seen as a symbol of theUniversity of Tokyo, was originally built to commemorate the marriage of a shogun's daughter into theMaeda clan, one of the most affluent of the feudal lords, while the campus itself occupies their former edo estate. Modern (1869–1945) TheMeiji erasaw a rapid modernization in architectural styles as well; until theGreat Kanto Earthquakein 1923 exposed their weakness to seimic shocks, grand brick buildings were constantly built across the city.Tokyo Station(1914), theMinistry of Justice building(1895) andMistubishi building one(1894, rebuilt in 2010) are some of the few brick survivors from this period. It was regarded as fashionable by some members of theJapanese aristocracyto build their Tokyo residences in grand and modern styles, and some of these buildings still exist, although most are in private hands and open to the public on limited occasions. Aristocratic residences today open to the public include theMarquess Maeda residenceinKomaba, theBaron Iwasaki residencein Ikenohata and theBaron Furukawa residencein Nishigahara. The Great Kanto Earthquake in 1923 ushered in an era of concrete architecture.Surviving reinforced concrete buildings from this era include theMeiji Insurance Headquarters(completed in 1934), the Mitsui Headquarters (1929),Mitsukoshi Nihonbashi flagship store(1914, refurbished in 1925),Takashimaya Nihonbashi flagship store(1932),Wakoin Ginza (1932) andIsetan Shinjuku flagship store(1933). This spread of earthquake and fire-resistant architecture reached council housing too, most notably theDōjunkai apartments. The 1930s saw the rise of styles that combined characteristics of both traditional Japanese and modern designs.Chuta Itowas a leading figure in this movement, and his extant works in Tokyo includeTsukiji Hongan-ji(1934). TheImperial Crown Style, which often features Japanese-style roofs on top of elevated concrete structures, was adopted for theTokyo National Museumin Ueno and the Kudan Hall inKudanminami. Contemporary (1946–) Since the 30-metre height restriction was lifted in the 1960s, Tokyo's most dense areas have been dominated by skyscrapers. As of May 2024, there are at least 184 buildings exceeding 150 metres (492 feet) in Tokyo. Apart from these,Tokyo Tower(333m) andTokyo Sky Tree(634m) feature high-elevation observation decks; the latter is the tallest tower in both Japan and the world, and the second tallest structure in the world after theBurj KhalifainDubai.With a scheduled completion date in 2027,Torch Tower(385m) will overtakeAzabudai Hills Mori JP Tower(325.2m) as the tallest building in Tokyo. Kenzo Tangedesigned notable contemporary buildings in Tokyo, includingYoyogi National Gymnasium(1964),St. Mary's Cathedral(1967), and theTokyo Metropolitan Government Building(1991).Kisho Kurokawawas also active in the city, and his works there include theNational Art Center(2005) and theNakagin Capsule Tower(1972). Other notable contemporary buildings in Tokyo include theTokyo Dome,Mode Gakuen Cocoon Tower,Roppongi Hills,Tokyo International Forum, andAsahi Beer Hall. Demographics As of October 2012, the officialintercensal estimateshowed 13.506 million people in Tokyo, with 9.214 million living within Tokyo's 23 wards.During the daytime, the population swells by over 2.5 million as workers and students commute from adjacent areas. This effect is even more pronounced in the three central wards ofChiyoda,Chūō, andMinato, whose collective population as of the 2005 National Census was 326,000 at night, but 2.4 million during the day. According to April 2024 official estimates,Setagaya(942,003),Nerima(752,608), andOta(748,081) were the most populous wards and municipalities in Tokyo. The least inhabited of all Tokyo municipalities are remote island villages such asAogashima(150),Mikurajima(289), andToshima(306). Age structure and average age In 2021, Tokyo's average and median ages were both 45.5 years old. This is below the national median age of 49.0, placing Tokyo among the youngest regions in Japan. 16.8% of the population was below 15, while 34.6% was above 65.In the same year, the youngest municipalities in Tokyo wereMikura-jima(average age 40.72), Chuo (41.92), and Chiyoda (42.07), while the oldest includedOkutama(59.11) andMiyake(53.82). Immigration In 1889, theHome Ministryrecorded 1,375,937 people inTokyo Cityand a total of 1,694,292 people inTokyo-fu.In the same year, a total of 779 foreign nationals were recorded as residing in Tokyo. The most common nationality was English (209 residents), followed by American (182) and Chinese nationals (137). As of January 2024, Tokyo had 647,416 foreign nationals registered as residents, with China, South Korea, Vietnam, the Philippines, Nepal, Taiwan, and the United States each having more than 20,000 nationals living there as citizens.Since the COVID-19 pandemic ended, Tokyo's foreign population has increased significantly, now nearly 20% above the January 2022 population of 546,436.There is no official survey of race or place of birth as of June 2024. Dialects Japaneseis the primary language spoken throughout the metropolis, though regional and socio-economic differences can be heard. Traditionally, dialects in Tokyo are classified into two groups: the Yamanote dialect and the Shitamachi dialect. The former has traditionally been spoken in the upper- and upper-middle-class residential area of Yamanote, which includesBancho,Kojimachi,Koishikawa,Kudan,Yotsuya,Azabu, andAkasaka. During theEdo period, these neighborhoods were occupied byDaimyoand other powerfulsamuraifamilies, and the dialect evolved largely based on their way of speech. Standard Japanese pronunciation is largely based on this accent and spread across the country with the introduction ofradio. The Shitamachi dialect, in contrast, has been associated with theChōnindistrict of Shitamachi and retains many characteristics of the accents spoken there in the Edo era.However, socio-economic changes in the post-war period and the large influx of people moving from other areas have largely blurred these distinctions in recent years. It has been reported that young generations are not as aware of the differences in dialects as their parents' and grandparents' generations were. TheHachijō dialect, spoken primarily inHachijōjimaandAogashima, descended from 6th-8th centuryEastern Old Japaneseand has fewer than 1,000 speakers.Bonin Englishis a creole spoken in theOgasawara Islands, derived from English and Japanese,as the islands’ population historically consisted of people of Japanese, British, American, Hawaiian, and Polynesian origins, mostly mixed-race. Economy Tokyo's gross regional product was 113.7 trillion yen or US$1.04 trillion in FY2021 and accounted for 20.7% of the country's total economic output, which converts to 8.07 million yen or US$73,820 per capita.By sector, Wholesale and Retail was the largest contributor, accounting for 21.5% of the total output. This was followed by Real Estate (13.5%), Professional, Scientific and Technical (12.2%), Information and Communications (11.7%), Finance and Insurance (7.6%), Manufacturing (7.0%), and Healthcare (6.7%). Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery, and Mining combined accounted for less than 0.1% of the economic output.As these numbers suggest, Tokyo's economy is heavily dependent on the tertiary sector. As theGreater Tokyo Area, it has thesecond-largest metropolitan economy in the world, afterGreater New York, with a gross metropolitan product estimated at US$2 trillion. The area's economy is slightly smaller thanCanada's economywhile being slightly larger thanMexico's, according to IMF estimates from the same year. Tokyo's business districts are concentrated in four central wards:Chiyoda(Marunouchi,Otemachi,Kasumigaseki),Chuo(Nihombashi,Kyobashi,Yaesu),Minato(Shimbashi,Shiodome,Toranomon), andShinjuku(West Shinjuku). The 23 Special Wards of Tokyo had 73.5 million m2of office space as of January 2022. In 2023, 29 of theFortune Global 500companies were headquartered in Tokyo, which was the second highest concentration in the world afterBeijing.Notably, around 20 of them are based in Marunouchi, such asMUFG,Mitsubish Corp.andHitachi.Tokyo was rated by theEconomist Intelligence Unitas the most expensive (highestcost-of-living) city in the world for 14 years in a row ending in 2006, when it was replaced byOslo, and laterParis.However, years of deflation and an extremely weak yen starting in 2022 due to Japan's low interest rates made the cost of living in Tokyo 31% cheaper than inNew York Cityin 2023, which is roughly the same as inBeijingandManchesteraccording to the 2023 EIU rankings.Henley & Partnersestimated that there were 298,300 individuals with a net worth of more than US$1 million living in Tokyo in 2024, the third highest number in the world. Finance Tokyo is a major international finance center;it houses the headquarters of several of the world's largestinvestment banksand insurance companies, and serves as a hub for Japan's transportation, publishing,electronicsand broadcasting industries. During the centralized growth of Japan's economy followingWorld War II, many large firms moved their headquarters from cities such asOsaka(the historical commercial capital) to Tokyo, in an attempt to take advantage of better access to the government. Tokyo emerged as a leading internationalfinancial center(IFC) in the 1960s and has been described as one of the three \"command centers\" for theworld economy, along with New York City andLondon.In the 2020Global Financial Centers Index, Tokyo was ranked as having the fourth most competitive financial center in the world, and second most competitive in Asia (after Shanghai).Mitsubishi UFJ,Sumitomo-Mitsui Banking Corporation,Mizuho Financial Group, all among thetop 20 banks in the world by total assets in 2023, are headquartered in Tokyo. The Japanese financial market opened up slowly in 1984 and accelerated its internationalization with the \"Japanese Big Bang\" in 1998.Despite the emergence of Singapore and Hong Kong as competing financial centers, the Tokyo IFC manages to keep a prominent position in Asia. TheTokyo Stock Exchangeis Japan's largeststock exchange, and third largest in the world bymarket capitalizationand fourth largest by share turnover. In 1990 at the end of theJapanese asset price bubble, it accounted for more than 60% of the world stock market value. Media and communications Tokyo's position as the country's cultural, political and economic hub has made its media industry the largest in Japan. A majority of national media companies are headquartered in Tokyo, as well as the Asian or Japanese branches of international media companies. TheNHK, the oldest and only nation-wide public broadcaster in the country, is headquartered inShibuya. Other national broadcasters,such asTBS,Nippon Television,Fuji Television, andTV Asahi, are also based in Tokyo. Of thefive major national newspapers,The Nikkei,The Mainichi, andThe Yomiuriare headquartered in Tokyo, while the other two,The AsahiandThe Sankei, maintain head offices both in Tokyo andOsaka. Major publishers based in Tokyo includeShueisha,Kodansha,Kadokawa,Shogakukan,Bungeishunju,Shinchosha, andIwanami Shoten, with a high concentration inChiyodaandShinjuku. Dentsu,Hakuhodo, andADK Holdings, all based in Tokyo, are the country's largest advertising agencies. All three major telecommunications companies in Japan, namelyNTT(whose market capitalization was once the largest among all publicly traded companies in the world),KDDI, andSoftBank, are based in Tokyo. Tokyo is also a major hub for anime production, with major anime studios such asStudio Ghibli,Gainax,Madhouse,A-1 Pictures,MAPPA,Wit Studio,Toei, andShaftbased particularly in the west of the metropolis. Tourism In 2019, tourism accounted for slightly more than one percent of Tokyo's total economic output, with 15.18 million foreign visitors spending 1.26 trillion yen, according to the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. According to a 2022 government survey, the most visited areas in Tokyo were: Luxury hotels in Tokyo include theImperial Hotel(opened in 1890),Hotel Chinzanso Tokyo(opened in 1992),Hotel Okura Tokyo(opened in 1962),Meguro Gajoen Hotel, Conrad Tokyo, theRitz-Carlton Tokyoand Aman Tokyo. Agriculture, fishery and forestry TheToyosu Marketin Tokyo is the largest wholesale fish and seafood market in the world since it opened on October 11, 2018.It is also one of the largest wholesale food markets of any kind. It is located in theToyosuarea ofKōtōward. The Toyosu Market holds strong to the traditions of its predecessor, theTsukiji Fish MarketandNihonbashifish market, and serves some 50,000 buyers and sellers every day. Retailers, whole-sellers, auctioneers, and public citizens alike frequent the market, creating a unique microcosm of organized chaos that still continues to fuel the city and its food supply after over four centuries.Tokyo had 8,460 hectares (20,900 acres) of agricultural land as of 2003,according to theMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, placing it last among the nation's prefectures. The farmland is concentrated in Western Tokyo. Perishables such as vegetables, fruits, and flowers can be conveniently shipped to the markets in the eastern part of the prefecture. With 36% of its area covered by forest, Tokyo has extensive growths ofcryptomeriaandJapanese cypress, especially in the mountainous western communities of Akiruno, Ōme, Okutama, Hachiōji, Hinode, and Hinohara. Decreases in the price of timber, increases in the cost of production, and advancing old age among the forestry population have resulted in a decline in Tokyo's output. In addition, pollen, especially from cryptomeria, is a majorallergenfor the nearby population centers. Tokyo Bay was once a major source of fish. Most of Tokyo's fish production comes from the outer islands, such as Izu Ōshima and Hachijō-Jima.Skipjack tuna,nori, andajiare among the ocean products. Transportation Tokyo, which is the center of theGreater Tokyo Area, is Japan's largest domestic and international hub for rail and ground transportation. Public transportation within Tokyo is dominated by an extensive network of \"clean and efficient\"trains and subways run by a variety of operators, with buses, monorails and trams playing a secondary feeder role. There are up to 62 electric train lines and more than 900 train stations in Tokyo.Shibuya Crossingis the \"world's busiest pedestrian crossing\", with around 3,000 people crossing at a time. Rail Rail is the primary mode of transportation in Tokyo,which has the most extensive urban railway network in the world and an equally extensive network of surface lines.JR Eastoperates Tokyo's largest railway network, including theYamanote Lineloop that circles central Tokyo. It operates rail lines throughout the entire metropolitan area of Tokyo and the rest of northeastern Honshu. JR East is also responsible for theShinkansenhigh-speed rail lines that link Tokyo and Northeastern cities of Japan (Joetsu Shinkansen,Tohoku/Hokkaido Shinkansen,Yamagata Shinkansen,Akita Shinkansen,Hokuriku Shinkansen).TheTokaido Shinkansen, which links Tokyo andOsakaviaNagoyaandKyoto, as well as western cities beyond, is operated byJR Central. TheChuo Shinkansen, the first-ever long-distance high-speed floating maglev line currently under construction, will also be operated by JR Central. Both JR companies were created from the privatization ofJapan National Railwaysin 1987.JR Freightdoes not own any part of the railway network but operates freight trains on theJR network. Two different entities operate Tokyo's underground railway network: the privatizedTokyo Metro, which operates Tokyo Metro lines, and the governmentalTokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation, which operates Toei lines. Tokyo Metro is entirely owned by theJapanese Governmentand theTokyo Metropolitan Governmentsince it was privatized in 2004 (it was previously a public entity called theImperial Capital Rapid Transit Authorityfrom 1941 to 2004), but it is scheduled to go public in 2024.Other major railway operators in Tokyo includeOdakyu,Tokyu,Keio,Seibu,Tobu, andKeisei. Although each operator directly owns its railway lines, through services that travel across different lines owned by different operators are common. Tokyo once had an extensive tram network, with a total distance of 213 km (Tokyo Toden). However, similar to other major cities worldwide, the age of motorization since the 1950s made it considered unfit to share busy roads with cars. Today, only one line, theArakawa line, remains. Roads Tokyo has the lowest car ownership rate among all prefectures in Japan, with 0.416 cars per household compared to the national average of 1.025 per household. This is despite Tokyo being one of the most affluent areas in the country, with a nominal GDP per capita of around US$75,000.A 2021 survey found that 81% of respondents without a car were satisfied with public transport and saw no need to own one. Each road in Tokyo falls into one of the following categories depending on the type of ownership: private roads, municipal roads, metropolitan roads and expressways. As of April 1, 2022, the total length of roads in Tokyo is approximately 24,741 km (including 2,370 km of metropolitan roads), with a total area of approximately 190.31 km2(including 46.30 km2of metropolitan roads).Intercity expressways in and around Tokyo are managed byNEXCO East, while expressways that serve only within the Greater Tokyo Area (Shuto Expressway) are operated by the Metropolitan Expressway Company. Tolls are collected based on the distance travelled. The total length of the Shuto Expressway is 337.8 km, with speed limits usually set at 80 km/h or 60 km/h to reduce noise pollution and accommodate the relatively winding road shapes. Aviation The mainland portion of Tokyo is served by two international airports:Haneda AirportinŌtaandNarita International Airportin neighboringChiba Prefecture. Haneda has served as the primary airport for Tokyo since 1931. However, the Jet Age saw an exponential increase in flights, prompting the government to build a second airport. Narita was chosen as the site for this second airport in 1966, but local farmers and left-wing activists who sympathized with them protested vehemently for more than a decade (theSanrizuka Struggle), delaying the new airport's opening until 1978. Almost all international flights were transferred to Narita Airport upon its completion, and Haneda became primarily a domestic airport. The situation changed when it was decided to expand Haneda Airport and build new runways in 2001. The new runway, Runway D, was constructed partly as a pier-like structure rather than a landfilled structure to avoid obstructing the flow of water in the bay.Its opening in 2010 marked the return of international flights to Haneda, which is much closer to central Tokyo. In 2023, Haneda handled 17.9 million international passengers and 60.8 million domestic passengers,while Narita was used by 25.4 million international passengers and 7.7 million domestic passengers.According to a 2023 survey, Haneda is the fifthbusiest airport in the world by passenger traffic. Hachijō-jima(Hachijojima Airport),Kōzu-shima(Kōzushima Airport),Miyakejima(Miyakejima Airport),Nii-jima(Niijima Airport), andIzu Ōshima(Oshima Airport), located on theIzu Islands, which are governed by the Tokyo Metropolis have services to Haneda and theChōfu Airportlocated inChōfu. Water transport Water transport is the primary means of importing and exporting goods as well as connecting theTokyo Islandsto the mainland. According toLloyd's List, thePort of Tokyohandled 4,430,000 TEU of containers in 2022, making it the 46th largest port in the world.The Greater Tokyo Area is served by other major ports such as thePort of Yokohamaand thePort of Chibaas well. Takeshiba Pier (竹芝埠頭) inMinatois used byTōkai Kisen, which serves islands such asIzu Ōshima,Miyakejima,Hachijojima,Kozushima,and Ogasawara Kaiun, which serves theOgasawara Islands.Many of these islands are accessible only by ocean routes and helicopters, as they are too small or undulating for a landing ground, making these ships the primary means of inter-island transport. There are ferry routes that connect landmarks within the mainland portion of Tokyo as well; theTokyo Cruise Shipand theTokyo Mizube Lineoperate several routes between tourist attractions such asAsakusa,Hamarikyu,Odaiba, and Shinagawa Aquarium.The Symphony Cruise operates two large restaurant ships that can also be hired as party venues. Education Tokyo is the educational, academic, and cultural hub of Japan. From primary to tertiary levels, numerous educational institutions operate in the city to cater to a diverse range of pupils and students. Tertiary education Tokyo is the heartland of tertiary education in the country, home to 143 authorized universities in 2020.This number includes the nation's most prestigious and selective universities, such as, theUniversity of Tokyo(QSNational:1st),Tokyo Institute of Technology(4th),Hitotsubashi University(15th),Waseda University(9th), andKeio University(10th).Additionally,Tokyo University of the Artsis widely regarded as the most prestigious painting, sculpture, crafts, and music school in the country.TheUnited Nations University, which is the academic arm of theUnited Nations, is headquartered inShibuya, Tokyo. In 2024,QS Best Student Citiesranked Tokyo as the second-best city for university students, afterLondon.The ranking noted that Tokyo is ideal for 'those who favour total immersion in local culture rather than living in a “student bubble”', stating that despite having high-ranking universities and large global companies offering internships as well as rich culture, Tokyo still has a very low international student population ratio. Primary and secondary education At the secondary level, 429 senior high schools are located in Tokyo, six of which are national, 186 are public, and 237 are private.Some senior high schools, often prestigious national or private ones, run jointly with their affiliated junior high schools, providing six-year educational programs (Chūkō Ikkan Kyōiku). TheKaisei Academy,Komaba Junior & Senior High School, University of Tsukuba,Azabu High School, andOin Junior and Senior High School,the largest sources of successful applicants to the nation's top university, the University of Tokyo,are some examples of such. At the primary level, there are 1332 elementary schools in Tokyo. Six of them are national, 1261 are public, and 53 are private. Early-modern-established academies such asGakushuinandKeioprovide all-through educational programs from primary schools to universities, originally to cater to the needs of traditionally affluent and powerful families.There are international and ethnic schools that abide by the national curricula of their respective countries or international curricula rather than the Japanese one as well, such as theBritish School in Tokyo,Tokyo Chinese School, theAmerican School in Japan, and theTokyo International School. Learned societies Almost all major Japanese learned societies are based in Tokyo. TheJapan Academy, the country'sacademy of sciences, was established in 1879 to bring together leading scholars in various disciplines.TheJapan Art Academywas established in 1919 with a similar purpose.These two national academies are headquartered inUeno Park. The newest national academy, theScience Council of Japan, was established in 1949 with the purpose of promoting scientific research and the application of research findings to civilian life. It is located inRoppongi, Minato. Culture Museums, art galleries, libraries and zoos Tokyo is home to a wide array of museums, art galleries, and libraries, catering to various interests.Ueno Parkhas theTokyo National Museum, the country's largest museum specializing in traditional Japanese art,theNational Museum of Western Art, whose building designed byLe Corbusieris aworld heritage site,and theNational Museum of Nature and Science.Ueno Zoois also located within the park, near theShinobazu Pond. It is famous for being one of the three zoos in Japan to havegiant pandas, with a population of 4 as of May 2024.Other notable museums include theArtizon Museumin Chūō, theNational Museum of Emerging Science and Innovationin Odaiba, and theEdo-Tokyo Museumin Sumida, which provides insights into the history and culture of Tokyo. TheEdo-Tokyo Open Air Architectural Museumpreserves various buildings that have existed throughout the history of Tokyo. TheNezu Museumin Aoyama has a collection of pre-modern Japanese and East Asian art. Located near theImperial Palace, theNational Diet Library, theNational Archives, and theNational Museum of Modern Artare also notable cultural institutions. Additionally, theMori Art MuseuminRoppongiand theSumida Hokusai Museumin Sumida ward are notable for their contemporary and ukiyo-e art collections, respectively. TheSompo Museum of Artin Shinjuku is best known for owning one of Gogh'sSunflowers. TheTokyo Metropolitan Garden Art MuseuminMinatofeatures the former Tokyo House ofYasuhiko, Prince Asaka, which was built in an opulentArt Decostyle in 1933. TheRailway Museum, which used to be located inKanda, has relocated to a larger site inOmiya, Saitamaand stores 42 train carriages and locomotives of historical importance.TheTobacco and Salt Museumin Sumida has one of the world's most extensive collections of different types of tobacco and salt. Major aquariums in Tokyo include:Shinagawa Aquarium,Tokyo Sea Life Park,Sunshine AquariumandSumida Aquarium. Leisure and entertainment Tokyo offers a diverse array of leisure and entertainment options. The city is home to numerous theatres. TheNational Noh TheatreandKabuki-zaare dedicated to traditional Japanese plays. TheNew National Theatre Tokyoin Shibuya serves as a central venue for opera, ballet, contemporary dance, and drama.Other major play and concert venues include: theNational Theatre of Japan, theImperial Theatre, theMeiji-za, theNHK Hall, theTokyo Metropolitan Theatre,Tokyo Opera Cityand theTokyo International Forum. Two sports venues, theNippon Budokanand theTokyo Dome, are usually used to host concerts by popular pop artists. The nightlife district of Tokyo is centered around areas in the west of the city such asShibuya,Shinjuku, andRoppongi, with high a concentration of bars, clubs,host and hostess clubs, and live music venues.Tokyo is also known for its festivals, such as theSannō MatsuriatHie Shrine, the Sanja Festival at Asakusa Shrine, and the biennialKanda Matsuri, which features parades with elaborately decorated floats.Harajuku, located in Shibuya, is internationally famous for its youth fashion and street culture, with trendy shops, cafes, and Takeshita Street.Akihabara, known as “Electric Town”, is a hub for electronics andotaku culturesuch asanimeandcomputer games, with numerous shops selling anime, manga, and gaming merchandise.GinzaandNihombashiare two of Tokyo's most notable shopping districts. Ginza is known for its high-end shopping, featuring luxury brand stores, boutique shops, and department stores such asMitsukoshiandWako. It is also home to numerous fine dining places and art galleries, making it a cultural and commercial hub. Nihombashi, historically a center of commerce, has long-established shops and the Mitsukoshi department flagship store, Japan's first department store, founded in 1673.Jinbōchōis known for its concentration of bookstores, publishing houses, and literary cafes, and its links to a large number of famous literary figures. Modern attractions in Tokyo include theTokyo Skytreein Sumida, the tallest structure in Japan, which provides panoramic views of the city from its observation decks.Odaiba, a man-made island in Tokyo Bay, features shopping, dining and entertainment attractions such as theteamLab Planetsdigital art museum andJoypolisindoor amusement park.TheTokyo Disney Resortand its two theme parksTokyo DisneylandandTokyo DisneySeaare major destinations for family entertainment. Although these Disney theme parks bear the name Tokyo, they are in fact located in nearbyUrayasu, Chiba, just east of Tokyo. Food In November 2007,Michelinreleased their first guide for fine dining in Tokyo, awarding 191 stars in total, or about twice as many as Tokyo's nearest competitor, Paris. As of 2017, 227 restaurants in Tokyo have been awarded (92 in Paris). Twelve establishments were awarded the maximum of three stars (Paris has 10), 54 received two stars, and 161 earned one star. Recreation Natural settings for outdoor activities includeOkutamaandMount Takao, which are known for their hiking trails and scenic views.Kasai Seaside Parkprovides coastal leisure activities.Ueno Parkhouses several museums, a zoo, and is famous for its cherry blossoms.Inokashira Parkin Kichijoji features a pond, a zoo, and in its vicinity theGhibli Museum.Yoyogi Park, located near Shibuya, is popular for picnics and outdoor events.Shinjuku Gyoen National Garden,Koishikawa Korakuen Garden,Rikugien Garden,Hamarikyu Gardens,Kiyosumi Garden,Kyu Shiba Rikyu Garden,Chinzanso Garden,Happo-en Garden,Mukojima-Hyakkaen GardenandMeiji Jingu Inner Gardenare popular traditional Japanese gardens in Tokyo, some of which originally belonged to members of thekazokunobility. Botanical gardens in Tokyo include theUniversity of Tokyo'sKoishikawa Botanical Garden, theYumenoshima Tropical Greenhouse Domeand theInstitute for Nature Study Nature Reserve. National parks As of March 31, 2008, 36% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated asNatural Parks(second only toShiga Prefecture), namely theChichibu Tama Kai,Fuji-Hakone-Izu, andOgasawara National Park(the last a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site);Meiji no Mori Takao Quasi-National Park; andAkikawa Kyūryō,Hamura Kusabana Kyūryō,Sayama,Takao Jinba,Takiyama, andTama KyūryōPrefectural Natural Parks. In popular culture As the largest population center in Japan and the site of the country's largest broadcasters and studios, Tokyo is frequently the setting for manyJapanese movies, television shows, animated series' (anime),web comics,light novels,video games, and comic books (manga). In thekaiju(monster movie) genre, landmarks of Tokyo are usually destroyed by giant monsters such asGodzillaandGamera. Tokyo is also a popular foreign setting for non-Japanese media. Some Hollywood directors have turned to Tokyo as a backdrop for movies set in Japan. Postwar examples includeTokyo Joe,My Geisha,Tokyo Storyand theJames BondfilmYou Only Live Twice; recent examples includeKill Bill,The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift,Lost in Translation,Babel,Inception,The WolverineandAvengers: Endgame. Japanese authorHaruki Murakamihas based some of his novels in Tokyo (includingNorwegian Wood), andDavid Mitchell's first two novels (number9dreamandGhostwritten) featured the city. Contemporary British painterCarl Randallspent 10 years living in Tokyo as an artist, creating a body of work depicting the city's crowded streets and public spaces. Sports Tokyo, with a diverse array of sports, is home to two professional baseball clubs, theYomiuri Giantswho play at theTokyo DomeandTokyo Yakult SwallowsatMeiji-Jingu Stadium. TheJapan Sumo Associationis also headquartered in Tokyo at theRyōgoku Kokugikansumo arena where three officialsumotournaments are held annually (in January, May, and September). Soccer clubs in Tokyo includeF.C. TokyoandTokyo Verdy, both of which play atAjinomoto StadiuminChōfu, andFC Machida Zelviaat Nozuta Stadium inMachida.Rugby Unionis also played in Tokyo, with multipleJapan Rugby League Oneclubs based in the city including:Black Rams Tokyo(Setagaya),Tokyo Sungoliath(Fuchū) andToshiba Brave Lupus Tokyo(Fuchū). Basketball clubs include theHitachi SunRockers,Toyota Alvark Tokyo, andTokyo Excellence. Tokyo hosted the1964 Summer Olympics, thus becoming the first Asian city to host theSummer Games. The National Stadium, also known as theOlympic Stadium, was host to a number of international sporting events. In 2016, it was to be replaced by theNew National Stadium. With a number of world-class sports venues, Tokyo often hosts national and international sporting events such as basketball tournaments, women's volleyball tournaments, tennis tournaments, swim meets, marathons, rugby union and sevens rugby games, soccer exhibition games,judo, andkarate.Tokyo Metropolitan Gymnasium, inSendagaya,Shibuya, is a large sports complex that includes swimming pools, training rooms, and a large indoor arena. According toAround the Rings, the gymnasium has played host to the October 2011 artistic gymnastics world championships, despite the International Gymnastics Federation's initial doubt in Tokyo's ability to host the championships after the triple disaster hits Japan.Tokyo was also selected to host a number of games for the2019 Rugby World Cup, and to host the2020 Summer OlympicsandParalympics, which had to be rescheduled to the summer of 2021 due toCOVID-19 pandemic. International relations Tokyo is the founding member of theAsian Network of Major Cities 21and is a member of theCouncil of Local Authorities for International Relations. Tokyo was also a founding member of theC40 Cities Climate Leadership Group. Sister cities and states As of 2022, Tokyo hastwinningor friendship agreements with the following twelve cities and states: Friendship and cooperation agreements See also References Bibliography Further reading Guides Contemporary External links"
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"List of largest cities throughout history This article lists the largesthuman settlementsin the world (by population) over time, as estimated by historians, from 7000 BC when the largest human settlement was aproto-cityin theancient Near Eastwith a population of about 1,000–2,000 people, to the year 2000 when the largest human settlement wasTokyowith 26 million. Rome,Chang'anorBaghdadmay have been the first city to have 1,000,000 people, as early as the 1st century or as late as the 8th century. Later cities that might have reached 1 million includeLuoyang,Kaifeng,Hangzhou,Jinling,Beijing, andEdo. There is wide agreement thatLondonwas the first city to reach 2 million andNew Yorkwas the first to reach 10 million. TheGreater Tokyo Areahas been the most populousmetropolitan areain the world since 1955, with more than 37.393 million residents as of 2020.Jakartais expected to overtake Tokyo by 2030, partly due to Tokyo's shrinking population. As disagreements between the sources show, any of the pre-19th century",
"pre-19th century figures are uncertain, especially in ancient times. Estimating population sizes beforecensuseswere conducted is a difficult task. List of the most populous human settlements over time The following table lists the most populous human settlements by estimated population at specified points in history according to three sources:Ian Morris,George ModelskiandTertius Chandler. City names are in bold where all three sources agree. It shows the evolution of the largest settlement fromproto-citytocitytourban areatometropolitan area. See also References External links",
"Edo Edo(Japanese:江戸,lit.'\"bay-entrance\" or \"estuary\"'), alsoromanizedasJedo,YedoorYeddo, is theformer nameofTokyo. Edo, formerly ajōkamachi(castle town) centered onEdo Castlelocated inMusashi Province, became thede factocapital of Japan from 1603 as the seat of theTokugawa shogunate. Edo grew to become one of thelargest cities in the worldunder the Tokugawa. After theMeiji Restorationin 1868 theMeiji governmentrenamed Edo asTokyo(東京, \"Eastern Capital\") and relocated theEmperorfrom the historic capital ofKyototo the city. The era of Tokugawa rule in Japan from 1603 to 1868 is known as theEdo period. History Before Tokugawa Before the 10th century, there is no mention of Edo in historical records, but for a few settlements in the area. That name for the area first appears in theAzuma Kagamichronicles, being used probably since the second half of theHeian period. Edo's development started in the late 11th century with a branch of the Kanmu-Tairaclan(桓武平氏)called the Chichibu clan(秩父氏)coming from the banks of the",
"the banks of the then-Iruma River, present day upstream of the Arakawa river. A descendant of the head of the Chichibu clan settled in the area and took the name Edo Shigetsugu(江戸重継), likely based on the name used for the place, and founded theEdo clan. Shigetsugu built a fortified residence, probably around the edge of theMusashino Terrace, that would become Edo castle. Shigetsugu's son,Edo Shigenaga(江戸重長), took the Taira's side againstMinamoto no Yoritomoin 1180 but eventually surrendered to Minamoto and became agokeninfor theKamakura shogunate. At the fall of the shogunate in the 14th century, the Edo clan took the side of theSouthern Court, and its influence declined during theMuromachi period. In 1456, a vassal of the Ōgigayatsu branch of theUesugi clanstarted to build a castle on the former fortified residence of the Edo clan and took the nameŌta Dōkan. Dōkan lived in the castle until his assassination in 1486. Under Dōkan, with good water connections to Kamakura, Odawara and other parts ofKantoand the",
"ofKantoand the country, Edo expanded as ajōkamachi, with the castle bordering a cove (nowHibiya Park) opening intoEdo Bay, and the town developing along the Hirakawa River running into the cove, and onEdomaeto(江戸前島), the stretch of land on the eastern side of the cove (now roughly whereTokyo Stationis). Some priests and scholars fleeing Kyoto after theŌnin Warcame to Edo during that period. After the death of Dōkan, the castle became one of strongholds of the Uesugi clan, which fell to theLater Hōjō clanat thebattle of Takanawaharain 1524, during the expansion of their rule over the Kantō area. When the Hōjō clan was finally defeated byToyotomi Hideyoshiin 1590, the Kanto area was given to rule to Toyotomi's senior officerTokugawa Ieyasu, who took his residence in Edo. Tokugawa shogunate Tokugawa Ieyasuemerged as the paramount warlord of theSengoku periodfollowing his victory at theBattle of Sekigaharain October 1600. He formally founded the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603 and established his headquarters atEdo",
"headquarters atEdo Castle. Edo became the center of political power and thede factocapital of Japan, although the historic capital ofKyotoremained thede jurecapital as the seat of the emperor. Edo grew from a fishing village inMusashi Provincein 1457 into the largestmetropolisin the world, with an estimated population of 1 million by 1721. Edo was repeatedly devastated by fires, theGreat Fire of Meirekiin 1657 being the most disastrous, with an estimated 100,000 victims and a vast portion of the city completely burnt. The population of Edo was around 300,000,and the impact of the fire was tremendous. The fire destroyed the central keep of Edo Castle, which was never rebuilt, and it influenced the urban planning afterwards to make the city more resilient, with many empty areas to break spreading fires, and wider streets. Reconstruction efforts expanded the city east of the Sumida River, and somedaimyōresidences were relocated to give more space to the city, especially in the immediate vicinity of the shogun's",
"of the shogun's residence, creating a large green space beside the castle, now the Fukiage gardens of theImperial Palace. During the Edo period, there were about 100 major fires, mostly begun by accident and often quickly escalating and spreading through neighborhoods of woodennagayathat were heated with charcoal fires. In 1868, the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown in theMeiji Restorationby supporters ofEmperor Meijiand hisImperial Court in Kyoto, ending Edo's status as thede factocapital of Japan. However, the new Meiji government soon renamed Edo toTōkyō(東京, \"Eastern Capital\") and the city became the formal capital of Japan when the emperor moved his residence to the city. Urbanism Very quickly after its inception, the shogunate undertook major works in Edo that drastically changed the topography of the area, notably under the Tenka-Bushin(天下普請)nationwide program of major civil works involving the now pacifieddaimyōworkforce. The Hibiya cove facing the castle was soon filled after the arrival of Ieyasu,",
"arrival of Ieyasu, the Hirakawa river was diverted, and several protective moats and logistical canals were dug (including the Kanda river), to limit the risks of flooding.Landfill workson the bay began, with several areas reclaimed during the duration of the shogunate (notably the Tsukiji area). East of the city and of theSumida River, a massive network of canals was dug. Fresh water was a major issue, as direct wells would provide brackish water because of the location of the city over an estuary. The few fresh water ponds of the city were put to use, and a network of canals and underground wooden pipes bringing freshwater from the western side of the city and theTama Riverwas built. Some of this infrastructure was used until the 20th century. General layout of the city The city was laid out as a castle town around Edo Castle, which was positioned at the tip of theMusashino terrace. The area in the immediate proximity of the castle consisted of samurai anddaimyōresidences, whose families lived in Edo as",
"lived in Edo as part of thesankin-kōtaisystem; thedaimyōmade journeys in alternating years to Edo and used the residences for their entourages. The location of each residence was carefully attributed depending on their position astozama,shinpanorfudai. It was this extensive organization of the city for the samurai class which defined the character of Edo, particularly in contrast to the two major cities of Kyoto andOsaka, neither of which were ruled by adaimyōor had a significant samurai population. Kyoto's character was defined by the Imperial Court, thecourt nobles, its Buddhist temples and its history; Osaka was the country's commercial center, dominated by thechōninor the merchant class. On the contrary, the samurai anddaimyōresidences occupied up to 70% of the area of Edo. On the east and northeast sides of the castle lived theShomin(庶民, \"regular people\")including thechōninin a much more densely populated area than the samurai class area, organized in a series of gated communities calledmachi(町, \"town\"",
"\"town\" or \"village\"). This area,Shitamachi(下町, \"lower town\" or \"lower towns\"), was the center of urban and merchant culture. Shomin also lived along the main roads leading in and out of the city. The Sumida River, then called the Great River (大川,Ōkawa), ran on the eastern side of the city. The shogunate's official rice-storage warehousesand other official buildings were located here. TheNihonbashibridge(日本橋, lit. \"bridge of Japan\")marked the center of the city's commercial center and the starting point of thegokaidō(thus making it the de facto \"center of the country\"). Fishermen, craftsmen and other producers and retailers operated here. Shippers managed ships known astarubuneto and from Osaka and other cities, bringing goods into the city or transferring them from sea routes to river barges or land routes. The northeastern corner of the city was considered dangerous in the traditionalonmyōdōcosmology and was protected from evil by a number of temples includingSensō-jiandKan'ei-ji, one of the two",
"one of the two tutelaryBodaijitemples of the Tokugawa. A path and a canal, a short distance north of Sensō-ji, extended west from the Sumida riverbank leading along the northern edge of the city to theYoshiwarapleasure district. Previously located near Ningyōchō, the district was rebuilt in this more remote location after the great fire of Meireki. Danzaemon, the hereditary position head ofeta,or outcasts, who performed \"unclean\" works in the city resided nearby. Temples and shrines occupied roughly 15% of the surface of the city, equivalent to the living areas of the townspeople, with however an average of one-tenth of its population. Temples and shrines were spread out over the city. Besides the large concentration in the northeast side to protect the city, the second Bodaiji of the Tokugawa,Zōjō-jioccupied a large area south of the castle. Housing Military caste The samurai anddaimyōsresidential estates varied dramatically in size depending on their status. Some daimyōs could have several of those",
"several of those residences in Edo. The upper residence(上屋敷,kami-yashiki), was the main residence while the lord was in Edo and was used for official duties. It was not necessarily the largest of his residences, but the most convenient to commute to the castle. The upper residence also acted as the representative embassy of the domain in Edo, connecting the shogunate and the clan. The shogunate did not exercise its investigative powers inside the precincts of the residential estate of the upper residence, which could also act as a refuge. The estate of the upper residence was attributed by the shogunate according to the status of the clan and its relation with the Shogun. The middle residence(中屋敷,naka-yashiki), a bit further from the castle, could house the heir of the lord, his servants from his fief when he was in Edo for thesankin-kotaialternate residency, or be a hiding residence if needed. The lower residence(下屋敷,shimo-yashiki), if there was any, was on the outskirts of town, more of a pleasure retreat",
"a pleasure retreat with gardens. The lower residence could also be used as a retreat for the lord if a fire had devastated the city. Some of the powerfuldaimyōsresidences occupied vast grounds of several dozens of hectares. Maintenance and operations of those residential estates could be extremely expensive. Samurai in service of a specific clan would normally live in the residence of their lord. Thehatamotosamurais, in direct service of the Shogun, would have their own residences, usually located behind the castle on the Western side in theBanchōarea. Shonin In a strict sense of the word,chōninwere only the townspeople who owned their residence, which was actually a minority. Theshoninpopulation mainly lived in semi-collective housings callednagaya(長屋, litt. \"Long house\"), multi-rooms wooden dwellings, organized in enclosedmachi(町, \"town\" or \"village\"), with communal facilities, such as wells connected to the city's fresh water distribution system, garbage collection area and communal bathrooms. A",
"bathrooms. A typicalmachiwas of rectangular shape and could have a population of several hundred. Themachihad curfew for the night with closing and guarded gates calledkidomon(木戸門)opening on the main street(表通り,omote-dori)in themachi. Two floor buildings and larger shops, reserved to the higher-ranking members of the society, were facing the main street. Amachiwould typically follow a grid pattern and smaller streets,Shinmichi(新道), were opening on the main street, also with (sometimes) two-floor buildings, shop on the first floor, living quarter on the second floor, for the more well-off residents. Very narrow streets accessible through small gates calledroji(路地), would enter deeper inside themachi, where single floornagayas, theuranagayas(裏長屋, litt. \"backstreet long houses\")were located. Rentals and smaller rooms for lower rankedshoninwere located in those back housings. Edo was nicknamed the City of 808 towns(江戸八百八町,Edo happyaku yachō), depicting the large number and diversity of those communities, but the",
"but the actual number was closer to 1,700 by the 18th century. Government and administration Edo's municipal government was under the responsibility of therōjū, the senior officials who oversaw the entirebakufu– the government of the Tokugawa shogunate. The administrative definition of Edo was calledGofunai(御府内, litt. \"where the government is\"). TheKanjō-bugyō(finance commissioners) were responsible for the financial matters of the shogunate,whereas theJisha-Bugyōhandled matters related to shrines and temples. TheMachi-bugyō(町奉行)weresamurai(at the very beginning of the shogunatedaimyōs, laterhatamoto) officials appointed to keep the order in the city, with the word designating both the heading magistrate, the magistrature and its organization. They were in charge of Edo's day-to-day administration, combining the role of police, judge and fire brigade. There were two offices, the South Machi-Bugyō and the North Machi-Bugyō, which had the same geographical jurisdiction in spite of their name but rotated roles",
"but rotated roles on a monthly basis. Despite their extensive responsibilities, the teams of the Machi-Bugyō were rather small, with 2 offices of 125 people each. The Machi-Bugyō did not have jurisdiction over the samurai residential areas, which remained under the shogunate direct rule. The geographical jurisdiction of the Machi-Bugyō did not exactly coincide with the Gofunai, creating some complexity on the handling on the matters of the city. The Machi-bugyō oversaw the numerous Machi where shonin lived through representatives calledMachidoshiyori(町年寄). Each Machi had a Machi leader calledNanushi(名主), who reported to aMachidoshiyori(町年寄)who himself was in charge of several Machis. See also Notes References External links",
"Tokyo Tokyo(/ˈtoʊkioʊ/;Japanese:東京,Tōkyō,ⓘ), officially theTokyo Metropolis(東京都,Tōkyō-to), is thecapital of Japanandone of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of over 14 million residents as of 2023 and thesecond-most-populated capital in the world.TheGreater Tokyo Area, which includes Tokyo and parts of six neighboringprefectures, is the most-populous metropolitan area in the world, with 41 million residents as of 2024. Located at the head ofTokyo Bay, Tokyo is part of theKantō regionon the central coast ofHonshu, Japan's largest island. Tokyo serves as Japan's economic center and the seat of both theJapanese governmentand theEmperor of Japan. TheTokyo Metropolitan Governmentadministers Tokyo's central23 special wards(which formerly made upTokyo City), various commuter towns and suburbs inits western area, and two outlying island chains known as theTokyo Islands. Despite most of the world recognizing Tokyo as a city, since 1943 its governing structure has been more akin to a prefecture,",
"to a prefecture, with an accompanyingGovernorandAssemblytaking precedence over the smaller municipal governments which make up the metropolis. Notable special wards in Tokyo includeChiyoda, the site of theNational Diet Buildingand theTokyo Imperial Palace;Shinjuku, the city's administrative center; andShibuya, a commercial, cultural, and business hub in the city. Before the 17th century, Tokyo, then known asEdo, was mainly a fishing village. It gained political prominence in 1603 when it became the seat of theTokugawa shogunate. By the mid-18th century, Edo was among the world's largest cities, with over a million residents. Following theMeiji Restorationin 1868, the imperial capital inKyotowas moved to Edo, and the city was renamed Tokyo (lit.'Eastern Capital'). In 1923, Tokyo was damaged substantially by theGreat Kantō earthquake, and the city was later badly damaged byallied bombing raidsduringWorld War II. Beginning in the late 1940s, Tokyo underwent rapid reconstruction and expansion that contributed to",
"that contributed to the era's so-calledJapanese economic miraclein whichJapan's economypropelled to thesecond-largest in the world at the timebehindthat of the United States.As of 2023, the city is home to 29 of the world's 500 largest companies, as listed in the annualFortuneGlobal 500; the second-highest number of any city. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Tokyo became the first city in Asia to host theSummer OlympicsandParalympicsin 1964, and again in 2021, and it also hosted threeG7summits in 1979, 1986, and 1993. Tokyo is an internationalresearch and development huband an academic center withseveral major universities, including theUniversity of Tokyo, the top-ranking university in the country.Tokyo Stationis the central hub for theShinkansen, Japan's high-speed railway network, andShinjuku Stationin Tokyo is the world's busiest train station. The city is home to the world's tallest tower,Tokyo Skytree.TheTokyo Metro Ginza Line, which opened in 1927, is theoldest underground metro lineinAsia–Pacific.",
"lineinAsia–Pacific. Tokyo's nominal gross domestic output was 113.7 trillion yen or US$1.04 trillion in FY2021 and accounted for 20.7% of the country's total economic output, which converts to 8.07 million yen or US$73,820 per capita.Including the Greater Tokyo Area, Tokyo is thesecond-largest metropolitan economy in the worldafterNew York, with a 2022 gross metropolitan product estimated at US$2.08 trillion.Although Tokyo's status as a leading global financial hub has diminished with theLost Decadessince the 1990s—when theTokyo Stock Exchangewas the world's largest, with a market capitalization about 1.5 times that of theNYSE—the city is still a large financial hub, and the TSE remains among theworld's top five major stock exchanges.Tokyo is categorized as anAlpha+ cityby theGlobalization and World Cities Research Network. The city is also recognized as one of the world's most livable ones; it was ranked fourth in the world in the 2021 edition of theGlobal Livability Ranking.Tokyo has also been ranked as",
"also been ranked as the safest city in the world in multiple international surveys. Etymology Tokyo was originally known asEdo(江戸), akanjicompound of江(e, \"cove, inlet\") and戸(to, \"entrance, gate, door\").The name, which can be translated as \"estuary\", is a reference to the original settlement's location at the meeting of theSumida RiverandTokyo Bay. During theMeiji Restorationin 1868, the name of the city was changed to Tokyo(東京, from東tō\"east\", and京kyō\"capital\"), when it became the new imperial capital,in line with the East Asian tradition of including the word capital (京) in the name of the capital city (for example,Kyoto(京都),Keijō(京城),Beijing(北京),Nanjing(南京), andXijing(西京)).During the earlyMeiji period, the city was sometimes called \"Tōkei\", an alternative pronunciation for the same characters representing \"Tokyo\", making it akanji homograph. Some surviving official English documents use the spelling \"Tokei\";however, this pronunciation is now obsolete. History Pre-1869 (Edo period) Tokyo was originally a",
"was originally a village calledEdo, part of the oldMusashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan in the late twelfth century. In 1457,Ōta DōkanbuiltEdo Castleto defend the region from theChiba clan. After Dōkan was assassinated in 1486, the castle and the area came to be possessed by several feudal lords. In 1590,Tokugawa Ieyasuwas granted theKantō regionbyToyotomi Hideyoshiand moved there from his ancestral land ofMikawa Province. He greatly expanded the castle, which was said to have been abandoned and in tatters when he moved there, and ruled the region from there. When he becameshōgun, the de facto ruler of the country, in 1603, the whole country came to be ruled from Edo. While theTokugawa shogunateruled the country in practice, theImperial House of Japanwas still the de jure ruler, and the title of shōgun was granted by the Emperor as a formality. The Imperial House was based inKyotofrom 794 to 1868, so Edo was still not the capital of Japan.During theEdo period, the city enjoyed a",
"the city enjoyed a prolonged period of peace known as thePax Tokugawa, and in the presence of such peace, the shogunate adopted a stringent policy of seclusion, which helped to perpetuate the lack of any serious military threat to the city.The absence of war-inflicted devastation allowed Edo to devote the majority of its resources to rebuilding in the wake of the consistent fires,earthquakes, and other devastating natural disasters that plagued the city. Edo grew into one of the largest cities in the world with a population reaching one million by the 18th century. This prolonged period of seclusion however came to an end with the arrival of American CommodoreMatthew C. Perryin 1853. Commodore Perry forced the opening of the ports ofShimodaandHakodate, leading to an increase in the demand for new foreign goods and subsequently a severe rise in inflation.Social unrest mounted in the wake of these higher prices and culminated in widespread rebellions and demonstrations, especially in the form of the \"smashing\"",
"of the \"smashing\" of rice establishments.Meanwhile, supporters of the Emperor leveraged the disruption caused by widespread rebellious demonstrations to further consolidate power, which resulted in the overthrow of the last Tokugawa shōgun,Yoshinobu, in 1867.After 265 years, thePax Tokugawacame to an end. In May 1868, Edo castle was handed to the Emperor-supporting forces after negotiation (theFall of Edo). Some forces loyal to the shogunate kept fighting, but with their loss in theBattle of Uenoon 4 July 1868, the entire city came under the control of thenew government. 1869–1941 After the overthrow of theTokugawa shogunate, for the first time in a few centuries, the Emperor ceased to be a mere figurehead and became both the de facto and de jure ruler of the country.Hisoka Maejimaadvocated for the relocation of the capital functions to Tokyo, recognizing the advantages of the existing infrastructure and the vastness of theKanto Plaincompared to the relatively smallKyoto basin.After being handed over to the",
"handed over to the Meiji government, Edo was renamedTokyo(Eastern Capital) on 3 September 1868.Emperor Meijivisited the city once at the end of that year and eventually moved there in 1869. Tokyo had already been the nation's political center for nearly three centuries,and the emperor's residence made it a de facto imperial capital as well, with the former Edo Castle becoming theImperial Palace. Government ministries such as theMinistry of Financewere also relocated to Tokyo by 1871,and thefirst railway line in the countrywas opened on 14 October 1872, connectingShimbashi(Shiodome) andYokohama(Sakuragicho), which is now part of theTokaido line.The 1870s saw the establishment of other institutions and facilities that now symbolize Tokyo, such asUeno Park(1873), theUniversity of Tokyo(1877) and theTokyo Stock Exchange(1878). The rapid modernization of the country was driven from Tokyo, with its business districts such asMarunouchifilled with modern brick buildings and the railway network serving as a means to",
"as a means to help the large influx of labour force needed to keep the development of the economy.TheCity of Tokyowas officially established on May 1, 1889. TheImperial Diet, the national legislature of the country, was established in Tokyo in 1889, and it has ever since been operating in the city. On 1 September 1923, theGreat Kanto Earthquakestruck the city, and the earthquake and subsequent fire killed an estimated 105,000 citizens. The loss amounted to 37 percent of the country's economic output.On the other hand, the destruction provided an opportunity to reconsider the planning of the city, which had changed its shape hastily after theMeiji Restoration. The high survival rate of concrete buildings promoted the transition from timber and brick architecture to modern, earthquake-proof construction.TheTokyo Metro Ginza Lineportion betweenUenoandAsakusa, the first underground railway line built outside Europe and the American continents, was completed on December 30, 1927.Although Tokyo recovered robustly",
"recovered robustly from the earthquake and new cultural and liberal political movements, such asTaishō Democracy, spread, the 1930s saw an economic downturn caused by theGreat Depressionand major political turmoil. Two attempted militarycoups d'étathappened in Tokyo, theMay 15 incidentin 1932 and theFebruary 26 incidentin 1936. This turmoil eventually allowed the military wings of the government to take control of the country, leading to Japan joining theSecond World Waras anAxis power. Due to the country's political isolation on the international stage caused by itsmilitary aggression in Chinaand the increasingly unstable geopolitical situations in Europe, Тоkуо had to give up hosting the1940 Summer Olympicsin 1938.Rationingstarted in June 1940 as the nation braced itself for another world war, while the 26th Centenary of the Enthronement ofEmperor Jimmucelebrations took place on a grand scale to boost morale and increase the sense of national identity in the same year. On 8 December 1941,Japan attacked the",
"attacked the American bases at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, entering the Second World War against theAllied Powers. The wartime regime greatly affected life in the city. 1942–1945 In 1943,Tokyo Citymerged withTokyo Prefectureto form theTokyo Metropolis(東京都,Tōkyō-to). This reorganization aimed to create a more centralized and efficient administrative structure to better manage resources, urban planning, and civil defence during wartime.The Tokyo Metropolitan Government thus became responsible for both prefectural and city functions while administering cities, towns, and villages in the suburban and rural areas. Although Japan enjoyed significant success in the initial stages of the war and rapidly expanded its sphere of influence, theDoolittle Raidon 18 April 1942, marked the first direct foreign attack on Tokyo. Although the physical damage was minimal, the raid demonstrated the vulnerability of the Japanese mainland to air attacks and boosted American morale.Large-scale Allied air bombing of cities in the",
"of cities in the Japanese home islands, including Tokyo, began in late 1944 when the US seized control of theMariana Islands. From these islands, newly developed long-rangeB-29 bomberscould conduct return journeys. The bombing of Tokyo in 1944 and 1945 is estimated to have killed between 75,000 and 200,000 civilians and left more than half of the city destroyed.The deadliest night of the war came on March 9–10, 1945, the night of the American \"Operation Meetinghouse\" raid.Nearly 700,000 incendiary bombs were dropped on the east end of the city (shitamachi, 下町), an area with a high concentration of factories and working-class houses. Two-fifths of the city were completely burned, more than 276,000 buildings were destroyed, 100,000 civilians were killed, and 110,000 more were injured.Numerous Edo and Meiji-era buildings of historical significance were destroyed, including the main building of theImperial Palace,Sensō-ji,Zōjō-ji,Sengaku-jiandKabuki-za. Between 1940 and 1945, the population of Tokyo dwindled",
"of Tokyo dwindled from 6,700,000 to less than 2,800,000, as soldiers were sent to the front and children were evacuated. 1945–1972 After the war, Tokyo became the base from which theAllied Occupational Forces, underDouglas MacArthur, an American general, administered Japan for six years. The original rebuilding plan of Tokyo was based on a plan modelled after theMetropolitan Green Belt of London, devised in the 1930s but canceled due to the war.However, due to the monetary contraction policy known as theDodge Line, named afterJoseph Dodge, the neoliberal economic advisor to MacArthur, the plan had to be reduced to a minimal one focusing on transport and other infrastructure. In 1947, the 35 pre-war special wards were reorganized into thecurrent 23 wards. Tokyo did not experience fast economic growth until around 1950, when heavy industry output returned to pre-war levels.Since around the time theAllied occupation of Japanended in 1952, Tokyo's focus shifted from rebuilding to developing beyond its pre-war",
"beyond its pre-war stature. From the 1950s onwards, Tokyo'sMetroandrailwaynetwork saw significant expansion, culminating in the launch of the world's first dedicated high-speed railway line, theShinkansen, between Tokyo and Osaka in 1964. The same year saw the development of other transport infrastructure such as theShuto Expresswayto meet the increased demand brought about by the1964 Tokyo Olympics, the first Olympic Games held in Asia. Around this time, the 31-metre height restriction, imposed on all buildings since 1920, was relaxed due to the increased demand for office buildings and advancements in earthquake-proof construction.Starting with theKasumigaseki Building(147 metres) in 1968, skyscrapers began to dominate Tokyo's skyline. During this period of rapid rebuilding, Tokyo celebrated its 500th anniversary in 1956and theOgasawara Islands, which had been under control of the US since the war ended, were returned in 1968.Ryokichi Minobe, a Marxian economist who served as the governor for 12 years",
"for 12 years starting in 1967, is remembered for his welfare state policy, including free healthcare for the elderly and financial support for households with children, and his ‘war against pollution’ policy, as well as the large government deficit they caused. 1973–present Although the1973 oil crisisput an end to the rapid post-war recovery and development of Japan's economy, its position as theworld's second-largest economy at the timehad seemed secure by that point, remaining so until 2010 when it was surpassed byChina.Tokyo's development was sustained by its status as the economic, political, and cultural hub of such a country. In 1978, after years of the intenseSanrizuka Struggle,Narita International Airportopened as the new gateway to the city, while the relatively smallHaneda Airportswitched to primarily domestic flights.West Shinjuku, which had been occupied by the vast Yodobashi Water Purification Centre until 1965, became the site of an entirely new business district characterized by skyscrapers",
"by skyscrapers surpassing 200 metres during this period. The American-ledPlaza Accordin 1985, which aimed to depreciate the US dollar, had a devastating effect on Japan's manufacturing sector, particularly affecting small to mid-size companies based in Tokyo.This led the government to adopt a domestic-demand-focused economic policy, ultimately causing anasset price bubble. Land redevelopment projects were planned across the city, and real estate prices skyrocketed. By 1990, the estimated value of theImperial Palacesurpassed that of the entirestate of California.TheTokyo Stock Exchangebecame the largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, with the Tokyo-basedNTTbecoming the most highly valued company globally. After the bubble burst in the early 1990s, Japan experienced a prolonged economic downturn called the \"Lost Decades\", which was charactized by extremely low or negative economic growth, deflation, stagnant asset prices.Tokyo's status as a world city is said to have depreciated greatly",
"depreciated greatly during these three decades. Nonetheless, Tokyo still saw new urban developments during this period. Recent projects includeEbisuGarden Place,Tennōzu Isle,Shiodome,Roppongi Hills,Shinagawa, and theMarunouchiside ofTokyo Station.Land reclamationprojects in Tokyo have also been going on for centuries. The most prominent is theOdaibaarea, now a major shopping and entertainment center. Various plans have been proposedfor transferring national government functions from Tokyo to secondary capitals in other regions of Japan, to slow down rapid development in Tokyo and revitalize economically lagging areas of the country. These plans have been controversialwithin Japan and have yet to be realized. On September 7, 2013, theIOCselected Tokyo to host the2020 Summer Olympics. Thus, Tokyo became the first Asian city to host the Olympic Games twice.However, the 2020 Olympic Games were postponed and held from July 23 to August 8, 2021, as a result of theCOVID-19 pandemic. Administration Local government",
"Local government UnderJapanese law, the prefecture of Tokyo is designated as ato(都), translated asmetropolis.Tokyo Prefecture is the most populous prefecture and the densest, with 6,100 inhabitants per square kilometer (16,000/sq mi); by geographic area it is the third-smallest, above onlyOsakaandKagawa. Its administrative structure is similar to that of Japan's otherprefectures. The23 special wards(特別区,tokubetsu-ku), which until 1943 constituted thecity of Tokyo, are self-governingmunicipalities, each having a mayor, a council, and the status of a city. In addition to these 23 special wards, Tokyo also includes 26 more cities (市-shi), five towns (町-chōormachi), and eight villages (村-sonor-mura), each of which has a local government. TheTokyo Metropolitan Governmentadministers the whole metropolis including the 23 special wards and the cities and towns that constitute the prefecture. It is headed by a publicly elected governor and metropolitan assembly. Itsheadquartersis inShinjukuWard. The governor of Tokyo",
"governor of Tokyo is elected every four years. The incumbent governor,Yuriko Koike, was elected in 2016, following the resignation of her predecessor,Yoichi Masuzoe. She was re-elected in 2020 and in 2024. The legislature of the Metropolis is called theMetropolitan Assembly, and it has one house with 127 seats. The assembly is responsible for enacting and amending prefectural ordinances, approving the budget (8.5 trillion yen in fiscal 2024),and voting on important administrative appointments made by the governor, including the vice governors. Its members are also elected on a four-year cycle. Municipalities Since the completion of theGreat Mergers of Heiseiin 2001, Tokyo consists of 62municipalities: 23special wards, 26cities, 5townsand 8villages. All municipalities in Japan have a directly elected mayor and a directly elected assembly, each elected on independent four-year cycles. The 23 Special Wards cover the area that had beenTokyo Cityuntil 1943, 30 other municipalities are located in theTama area, and",
"theTama area, and the remeining 9 are on Tokyo's outlying islands. Environmental policies Tokyo has enacted a measure to cut greenhouse gases. GovernorShintaro Ishiharacreated Japan's firstemissions cap system, aiming to reducegreenhouse gas emissionby a total of 25% by 2020 from the 2000 level.Tokyo is an example of anurban heat island, and the phenomenon is especially serious in its special wards.According to the Tokyo Metropolitan Government,the annual mean temperature has increased by about 3 °C (5.4 °F) over the past 100 years. Tokyo has been cited as a \"convincing example of the relationship between urban growth and climate\". In 2006, Tokyo enacted the \"10 Year Project for Green Tokyo\" to be realized by 2016. It set a goal of increasing roadside trees in Tokyo to 1 million (from 480,000), and adding 1,000 ha (2,500 acres) of green space, 88 ha (220 acres) of which will be a new park named \"Umi no Mori\" (Sea Forest) which will be on a reclaimed island inTokyo Baywhich used to be a landfill.From 2007 to",
"2007 to 2010, 436 ha (1,080 acres) of the planned 1,000 ha of green space was created and 220,000 trees were planted, bringing the total to 700,000. As of 2014, roadside trees in Tokyo have increased to 950,000, and a further 300 ha (740 acres) of green space has been added. National government Tokyo is the seat of allthree branches of government: the legislature (National Diet), the executive (Cabinetled by thePrime Minister), and the judiciary (Supreme Court of Japan), as well as theEmperor of Japan, the head of state. Most government ministries are concentrated in theKasumigasekidistrict in Chiyoda, and the name Kasumigaseki is often used as ametonymfor theJapanese national civil service.Tokyo has 25 constituencies for theHouse of Representatives, 18 of which were won by the rulingLiberal Democratsand 7 by the main oppositionConstitutional Democratsin the2021 general election.Apart from these seats, through theTokyo proportional representation block, Tokyo sends 17 more politicians to the House of",
"to the House of Representatives, 6 of whom were members of the ruling LDP in the 2021 election. TheTokyo at-large district, which covers the entire metropolis, sends 12 members to theHouse of Councillors. Geography The mainland portion of Tokyo lies northwest ofTokyo Bayand measures about 90 km (56 mi) east to west and 25 km (16 mi) north to south. The average elevation in Tokyo is 40 m (131 ft).Chiba Prefectureborders it to the east,Yamanashito the west,Kanagawato the south, andSaitamato the north. Mainland Tokyo is further subdivided into the special wards (occupying the eastern half) and the Tama area (多摩地域) stretching westwards. Tokyo has alatitudeof 35.65 (near the36th parallel north), which makes it more southern thanRome(41.90),Madrid(40.41),New York City(40.71) andBeijing(39.91). Within the administrative boundaries of Tokyo Metropolis are two island chains in the Pacific Ocean directly south: theIzu Islands, and theOgasawara Islands, which stretch more than 1,000 km (620 mi) away from the mainland.",
"from the mainland. Because of these islands and the mountainous regions to the west, Tokyo's overall population density figures far under-represent the real figures for the urban and suburban regions of Tokyo. Climate The former city of Tokyo and the majority of Tokyo prefecture lie in thehumid subtropical climatezone (Köppen climate classification:Cfa),with hot, humid summers and mild to cool winters with occasional cold spells. The region, like much of Japan, experiences a one-monthseasonal lag. The warmest month is August, which averages 26.9 °C (80.4 °F). The coolest month is January, averaging 5.4 °C (41.7 °F). The record low temperature was −9.2 °C (15.4 °F) on January 13, 1876. The record high was 39.5 °C (103.1 °F) on July 20, 2004. The record highest low temperature is 30.3 °C (86.5 °F), on August 12, 2013, making Tokyo one of only seven observation sites in Japan that have recorded a low temperature over 30 °C (86.0 °F). Annual rainfall averages nearly 1,600 millimeters (63.0 in), with a wetter",
"in), with a wetter summer and a drier winter. The growing season in Tokyo lasts for about 322 days from around mid-February to early January.Snowfall is sporadic, and occurs almost annually.Tokyo often sees typhoons every year, though few are strong. The wettest month since records began in 1876 was October 2004, with 780 millimeters (30 in) of rain,including 270.5 mm (10.65 in) on the ninth of that month.The most recent of four months on record to observe no precipitation is December 1995.Annual precipitation has ranged from 879.5 mm (34.63 in) in 1984 to 2,229.6 mm (87.78 in) in 1938. See or editraw graph data. Tokyo's climate has warmed significantly since temperature records began in 1876. The western mountainous area of mainland Tokyo,Okutamaalso lies in the humid subtropical climate (Köppen classification:Cfa). The climates of Tokyo's offshore territories vary significantly from those of the city. The climate ofChichijimainOgasawara villageis on the boundary between thetropical savanna climate(Köppen",
"climate(Köppen classification:Aw) and thetropical rainforest climate(Köppen classification:Af). It is approximately 1,000 km (621 mi) south of theGreater Tokyo Area, resulting in much different climatic conditions. Tokyo's easternmost territory, the island ofMinamitorishimainOgasawara village, is in the tropical savanna climate zone (Köppen classification:Aw). Tokyo's Izu and Ogasawara islands are affected by an average of 5.4 typhoons a year, compared to 3.1 in mainland Kantō. Natural disasters Earthquakes Tokyo is near theboundary of three plates, making it an extremely active region for smaller quakes andslippagewhich frequently affect the urban area with swaying as if in a boat, although epicenters within mainland Tokyo (excluding Tokyo's 2,000 km (1,243 mi)–long island jurisdiction) are quite rare. It is not uncommon in the metro area to have hundreds of these minor quakes (magnitudes 4–6) that can be felt in a single year, something local residents merely brush off but can be a source of anxiety not",
"of anxiety not only for foreign visitors but for Japanese from elsewhere as well. They rarely cause much damage (sometimes a few injuries) as they are either too small or far away as quakes tend to dance around the region. Particularly active are offshore regions and to a lesser extentChibaandIbaraki. Tokyo has been hit by powerfulmegathrustearthquakes in 1703, 1782, 1812, 1855, 1923, and much more indirectly (with someliquefactionin landfill zones) in2011;the frequency of direct and large quakes is a relative rarity. The1923 earthquake, with an estimated magnitude of 7.9, killed more than 100,000 people, the last time the urban area was directly hit. Volcanic eruptions Mount Fujiis about 100 km (62 mi) southwest of Tokyo. There is a low risk of eruption. The last recorded was theHōei eruptionwhich started on December 16, 1707, and ended about January 1, 1708 (16 days).During the Hōei eruption, the ash amount was 4 cm in southern Tokyo (bay area) and 2 cm to 0.5 cm in central Tokyo.Kanagawahad 16 cm to 8 cm",
"16 cm to 8 cm ash andSaitama0.5 to 0 cm.If the wind blows north-east it could sendvolcanic ashto Tokyo metropolis.According to the government, less than a millimeter of the volcanic ash from a Mount Fuji eruption could cause power grid problems such as blackouts and stop trains in the Tokyo metropolitan area.A mixture of ash with rain could stick to cellphone antennas, power lines and cause temporary power outages.The affected areas would need to be evacuated. Floods Tokyo is located on theKantō Plainwith five river systems and dozens of rivers that expand during each season.Important rivers areEdogawa,Nakagawa,Arakawa,Kandagawa,MegurogawaandTamagawa.In 1947,Typhoon Kathleenstruck Tokyo, destroying 31,000 homes and killing 1,100 people.In 1958,Typhoon Idadropped 400 mm (16 in) of rain in a single week, causing streets to flood.In the 1950s and 1960s, thegovernmentinvested 6–7% of the national budget on disaster and risk reduction.A huge system of dams, levees and tunnels was constructed.The purpose is to",
"purpose is to manage heavy rain,typhonicrain, and river floods. Tokyo has currently the world's largest underground floodwater diversion facility called theMetropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel(MAOUDC).It took 13 years to build and was completed in 2006. The MAOUDC is a 6.3 km (3.9 mi) long system of tunnels, 22 meters (72 ft) underground, with 70-meter (230 ft) tall cylindrical tanks, each tank being large enough to fit a space shuttle or the Statue of Liberty.During floods, excess water is collected from rivers and drained to theEdo River.Low-lying areas ofKōtō,Edogawa,Sumida,Katsushika,TaitōandArakawanear theArakawa Riverare most at risk of flooding. Architecture Tokyo's buildings are too diverse to be characterized by any specific archtectural style, but it can be generally said that a majority of extant structures were built in the past a hundred years;twice in recent history has the metropolis been left in ruins: first in the1923 Great Kantō earthquakeand later afterextensive",
"afterextensive firebombing in World War II. Early modern (1407–1868) The oldest known extant building in Tokyo isShofukujiinHigashi-Murayama. The current building was constructed in 1407, during theMuromachi period(1336–1573).Although greatly reduced in number by later fires, earthquakes, and air raids, a considerable number of Edo-era buildings survive to this day. TheTokyo Imperial Palace, which was occupied by theTokugawa ShogunateasEdo Castleduring theEdo Period(1603–1868), has many gates and towers dating from that era, although the main palace buildings and thetenshu towerhave been lost. Numerous temple and shrine buildings in Tokyo date from this era: theUeno Toshogustill maintains the original 1651 building built by the third shogunIemitsu Tokugawa.Although partially destroyed during the Second World War,Zojo-ji, which houses the Tokugawa family mausoleum, still has grand Edo-era buildings such as the Sangedatsu gate.Kaneijihas grand 17th-century buildings such as the five-storey pagoda and the",
"pagoda and the Shimizudo. TheNezu ShrineandGokokujiwere built by the fifth shogunTsunayoshi Tokugawain the late 1600s. All feudal lords (daimyo) had large Edo houses where they stayed when in Edo; at one point, these houses amounted to half the total area of Edo.None of the grand Edo-era daimyo houses still exist in Tokyo, as their vast land footprint made them easy targets for redevelopment programs for modernization during theMeiji Period. Some gardens were immune from such fates and are today open to the public;Hamarikyu(Kofu Tokugawa family),Shibarikyu(Kishu Tokugawa family),Koishikawa Korakuen(Mito Tokugawa family),Rikugien(Yanagisawa family), andHigo Hosokawa Garden(Hosokawa family). TheAkamon, which is now widely seen as a symbol of theUniversity of Tokyo, was originally built to commemorate the marriage of a shogun's daughter into theMaeda clan, one of the most affluent of the feudal lords, while the campus itself occupies their former edo estate. Modern (1869–1945) TheMeiji erasaw a rapid",
"erasaw a rapid modernization in architectural styles as well; until theGreat Kanto Earthquakein 1923 exposed their weakness to seimic shocks, grand brick buildings were constantly built across the city.Tokyo Station(1914), theMinistry of Justice building(1895) andMistubishi building one(1894, rebuilt in 2010) are some of the few brick survivors from this period. It was regarded as fashionable by some members of theJapanese aristocracyto build their Tokyo residences in grand and modern styles, and some of these buildings still exist, although most are in private hands and open to the public on limited occasions. Aristocratic residences today open to the public include theMarquess Maeda residenceinKomaba, theBaron Iwasaki residencein Ikenohata and theBaron Furukawa residencein Nishigahara. The Great Kanto Earthquake in 1923 ushered in an era of concrete architecture.Surviving reinforced concrete buildings from this era include theMeiji Insurance Headquarters(completed in 1934), the Mitsui Headquarters",
"Mitsui Headquarters (1929),Mitsukoshi Nihonbashi flagship store(1914, refurbished in 1925),Takashimaya Nihonbashi flagship store(1932),Wakoin Ginza (1932) andIsetan Shinjuku flagship store(1933). This spread of earthquake and fire-resistant architecture reached council housing too, most notably theDōjunkai apartments. The 1930s saw the rise of styles that combined characteristics of both traditional Japanese and modern designs.Chuta Itowas a leading figure in this movement, and his extant works in Tokyo includeTsukiji Hongan-ji(1934). TheImperial Crown Style, which often features Japanese-style roofs on top of elevated concrete structures, was adopted for theTokyo National Museumin Ueno and the Kudan Hall inKudanminami. Contemporary (1946–) Since the 30-metre height restriction was lifted in the 1960s, Tokyo's most dense areas have been dominated by skyscrapers. As of May 2024, there are at least 184 buildings exceeding 150 metres (492 feet) in Tokyo. Apart from these,Tokyo Tower(333m) andTokyo Sky",
"andTokyo Sky Tree(634m) feature high-elevation observation decks; the latter is the tallest tower in both Japan and the world, and the second tallest structure in the world after theBurj KhalifainDubai.With a scheduled completion date in 2027,Torch Tower(385m) will overtakeAzabudai Hills Mori JP Tower(325.2m) as the tallest building in Tokyo. Kenzo Tangedesigned notable contemporary buildings in Tokyo, includingYoyogi National Gymnasium(1964),St. Mary's Cathedral(1967), and theTokyo Metropolitan Government Building(1991).Kisho Kurokawawas also active in the city, and his works there include theNational Art Center(2005) and theNakagin Capsule Tower(1972). Other notable contemporary buildings in Tokyo include theTokyo Dome,Mode Gakuen Cocoon Tower,Roppongi Hills,Tokyo International Forum, andAsahi Beer Hall. Demographics As of October 2012, the officialintercensal estimateshowed 13.506 million people in Tokyo, with 9.214 million living within Tokyo's 23 wards.During the daytime, the population swells by over",
"swells by over 2.5 million as workers and students commute from adjacent areas. This effect is even more pronounced in the three central wards ofChiyoda,Chūō, andMinato, whose collective population as of the 2005 National Census was 326,000 at night, but 2.4 million during the day. According to April 2024 official estimates,Setagaya(942,003),Nerima(752,608), andOta(748,081) were the most populous wards and municipalities in Tokyo. The least inhabited of all Tokyo municipalities are remote island villages such asAogashima(150),Mikurajima(289), andToshima(306). Age structure and average age In 2021, Tokyo's average and median ages were both 45.5 years old. This is below the national median age of 49.0, placing Tokyo among the youngest regions in Japan. 16.8% of the population was below 15, while 34.6% was above 65.In the same year, the youngest municipalities in Tokyo wereMikura-jima(average age 40.72), Chuo (41.92), and Chiyoda (42.07), while the oldest includedOkutama(59.11) andMiyake(53.82). Immigration In",
"Immigration In 1889, theHome Ministryrecorded 1,375,937 people inTokyo Cityand a total of 1,694,292 people inTokyo-fu.In the same year, a total of 779 foreign nationals were recorded as residing in Tokyo. The most common nationality was English (209 residents), followed by American (182) and Chinese nationals (137). As of January 2024, Tokyo had 647,416 foreign nationals registered as residents, with China, South Korea, Vietnam, the Philippines, Nepal, Taiwan, and the United States each having more than 20,000 nationals living there as citizens.Since the COVID-19 pandemic ended, Tokyo's foreign population has increased significantly, now nearly 20% above the January 2022 population of 546,436.There is no official survey of race or place of birth as of June 2024. Dialects Japaneseis the primary language spoken throughout the metropolis, though regional and socio-economic differences can be heard. Traditionally, dialects in Tokyo are classified into two groups: the Yamanote dialect and the Shitamachi dialect.",
"Shitamachi dialect. The former has traditionally been spoken in the upper- and upper-middle-class residential area of Yamanote, which includesBancho,Kojimachi,Koishikawa,Kudan,Yotsuya,Azabu, andAkasaka. During theEdo period, these neighborhoods were occupied byDaimyoand other powerfulsamuraifamilies, and the dialect evolved largely based on their way of speech. Standard Japanese pronunciation is largely based on this accent and spread across the country with the introduction ofradio. The Shitamachi dialect, in contrast, has been associated with theChōnindistrict of Shitamachi and retains many characteristics of the accents spoken there in the Edo era.However, socio-economic changes in the post-war period and the large influx of people moving from other areas have largely blurred these distinctions in recent years. It has been reported that young generations are not as aware of the differences in dialects as their parents' and grandparents' generations were. TheHachijō dialect, spoken primarily",
"spoken primarily inHachijōjimaandAogashima, descended from 6th-8th centuryEastern Old Japaneseand has fewer than 1,000 speakers.Bonin Englishis a creole spoken in theOgasawara Islands, derived from English and Japanese,as the islands’ population historically consisted of people of Japanese, British, American, Hawaiian, and Polynesian origins, mostly mixed-race. Economy Tokyo's gross regional product was 113.7 trillion yen or US$1.04 trillion in FY2021 and accounted for 20.7% of the country's total economic output, which converts to 8.07 million yen or US$73,820 per capita.By sector, Wholesale and Retail was the largest contributor, accounting for 21.5% of the total output. This was followed by Real Estate (13.5%), Professional, Scientific and Technical (12.2%), Information and Communications (11.7%), Finance and Insurance (7.6%), Manufacturing (7.0%), and Healthcare (6.7%). Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery, and Mining combined accounted for less than 0.1% of the economic output.As these numbers suggest,",
"numbers suggest, Tokyo's economy is heavily dependent on the tertiary sector. As theGreater Tokyo Area, it has thesecond-largest metropolitan economy in the world, afterGreater New York, with a gross metropolitan product estimated at US$2 trillion. The area's economy is slightly smaller thanCanada's economywhile being slightly larger thanMexico's, according to IMF estimates from the same year. Tokyo's business districts are concentrated in four central wards:Chiyoda(Marunouchi,Otemachi,Kasumigaseki),Chuo(Nihombashi,Kyobashi,Yaesu),Minato(Shimbashi,Shiodome,Toranomon), andShinjuku(West Shinjuku). The 23 Special Wards of Tokyo had 73.5 million m2of office space as of January 2022. In 2023, 29 of theFortune Global 500companies were headquartered in Tokyo, which was the second highest concentration in the world afterBeijing.Notably, around 20 of them are based in Marunouchi, such asMUFG,Mitsubish Corp.andHitachi.Tokyo was rated by theEconomist Intelligence Unitas the most expensive (highestcost-of-living) city",
"city in the world for 14 years in a row ending in 2006, when it was replaced byOslo, and laterParis.However, years of deflation and an extremely weak yen starting in 2022 due to Japan's low interest rates made the cost of living in Tokyo 31% cheaper than inNew York Cityin 2023, which is roughly the same as inBeijingandManchesteraccording to the 2023 EIU rankings.Henley & Partnersestimated that there were 298,300 individuals with a net worth of more than US$1 million living in Tokyo in 2024, the third highest number in the world. Finance Tokyo is a major international finance center;it houses the headquarters of several of the world's largestinvestment banksand insurance companies, and serves as a hub for Japan's transportation, publishing,electronicsand broadcasting industries. During the centralized growth of Japan's economy followingWorld War II, many large firms moved their headquarters from cities such asOsaka(the historical commercial capital) to Tokyo, in an attempt to take advantage of better access",
"of better access to the government. Tokyo emerged as a leading internationalfinancial center(IFC) in the 1960s and has been described as one of the three \"command centers\" for theworld economy, along with New York City andLondon.In the 2020Global Financial Centers Index, Tokyo was ranked as having the fourth most competitive financial center in the world, and second most competitive in Asia (after Shanghai).Mitsubishi UFJ,Sumitomo-Mitsui Banking Corporation,Mizuho Financial Group, all among thetop 20 banks in the world by total assets in 2023, are headquartered in Tokyo. The Japanese financial market opened up slowly in 1984 and accelerated its internationalization with the \"Japanese Big Bang\" in 1998.Despite the emergence of Singapore and Hong Kong as competing financial centers, the Tokyo IFC manages to keep a prominent position in Asia. TheTokyo Stock Exchangeis Japan's largeststock exchange, and third largest in the world bymarket capitalizationand fourth largest by share turnover. In 1990 at the end of",
"1990 at the end of theJapanese asset price bubble, it accounted for more than 60% of the world stock market value. Media and communications Tokyo's position as the country's cultural, political and economic hub has made its media industry the largest in Japan. A majority of national media companies are headquartered in Tokyo, as well as the Asian or Japanese branches of international media companies. TheNHK, the oldest and only nation-wide public broadcaster in the country, is headquartered inShibuya. Other national broadcasters,such asTBS,Nippon Television,Fuji Television, andTV Asahi, are also based in Tokyo. Of thefive major national newspapers,The Nikkei,The Mainichi, andThe Yomiuriare headquartered in Tokyo, while the other two,The AsahiandThe Sankei, maintain head offices both in Tokyo andOsaka. Major publishers based in Tokyo includeShueisha,Kodansha,Kadokawa,Shogakukan,Bungeishunju,Shinchosha, andIwanami Shoten, with a high concentration inChiyodaandShinjuku. Dentsu,Hakuhodo, andADK Holdings, all",
"Holdings, all based in Tokyo, are the country's largest advertising agencies. All three major telecommunications companies in Japan, namelyNTT(whose market capitalization was once the largest among all publicly traded companies in the world),KDDI, andSoftBank, are based in Tokyo. Tokyo is also a major hub for anime production, with major anime studios such asStudio Ghibli,Gainax,Madhouse,A-1 Pictures,MAPPA,Wit Studio,Toei, andShaftbased particularly in the west of the metropolis. Tourism In 2019, tourism accounted for slightly more than one percent of Tokyo's total economic output, with 15.18 million foreign visitors spending 1.26 trillion yen, according to the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. According to a 2022 government survey, the most visited areas in Tokyo were: Luxury hotels in Tokyo include theImperial Hotel(opened in 1890),Hotel Chinzanso Tokyo(opened in 1992),Hotel Okura Tokyo(opened in 1962),Meguro Gajoen Hotel, Conrad Tokyo, theRitz-Carlton Tokyoand Aman Tokyo. Agriculture, fishery and forestry",
"and forestry TheToyosu Marketin Tokyo is the largest wholesale fish and seafood market in the world since it opened on October 11, 2018.It is also one of the largest wholesale food markets of any kind. It is located in theToyosuarea ofKōtōward. The Toyosu Market holds strong to the traditions of its predecessor, theTsukiji Fish MarketandNihonbashifish market, and serves some 50,000 buyers and sellers every day. Retailers, whole-sellers, auctioneers, and public citizens alike frequent the market, creating a unique microcosm of organized chaos that still continues to fuel the city and its food supply after over four centuries.Tokyo had 8,460 hectares (20,900 acres) of agricultural land as of 2003,according to theMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, placing it last among the nation's prefectures. The farmland is concentrated in Western Tokyo. Perishables such as vegetables, fruits, and flowers can be conveniently shipped to the markets in the eastern part of the prefecture. With 36% of its area",
"36% of its area covered by forest, Tokyo has extensive growths ofcryptomeriaandJapanese cypress, especially in the mountainous western communities of Akiruno, Ōme, Okutama, Hachiōji, Hinode, and Hinohara. Decreases in the price of timber, increases in the cost of production, and advancing old age among the forestry population have resulted in a decline in Tokyo's output. In addition, pollen, especially from cryptomeria, is a majorallergenfor the nearby population centers. Tokyo Bay was once a major source of fish. Most of Tokyo's fish production comes from the outer islands, such as Izu Ōshima and Hachijō-Jima.Skipjack tuna,nori, andajiare among the ocean products. Transportation Tokyo, which is the center of theGreater Tokyo Area, is Japan's largest domestic and international hub for rail and ground transportation. Public transportation within Tokyo is dominated by an extensive network of \"clean and efficient\"trains and subways run by a variety of operators, with buses, monorails and trams playing a",
"and trams playing a secondary feeder role. There are up to 62 electric train lines and more than 900 train stations in Tokyo.Shibuya Crossingis the \"world's busiest pedestrian crossing\", with around 3,000 people crossing at a time. Rail Rail is the primary mode of transportation in Tokyo,which has the most extensive urban railway network in the world and an equally extensive network of surface lines.JR Eastoperates Tokyo's largest railway network, including theYamanote Lineloop that circles central Tokyo. It operates rail lines throughout the entire metropolitan area of Tokyo and the rest of northeastern Honshu. JR East is also responsible for theShinkansenhigh-speed rail lines that link Tokyo and Northeastern cities of Japan (Joetsu Shinkansen,Tohoku/Hokkaido Shinkansen,Yamagata Shinkansen,Akita Shinkansen,Hokuriku Shinkansen).TheTokaido Shinkansen, which links Tokyo andOsakaviaNagoyaandKyoto, as well as western cities beyond, is operated byJR Central. TheChuo Shinkansen, the first-ever long-distance",
"long-distance high-speed floating maglev line currently under construction, will also be operated by JR Central. Both JR companies were created from the privatization ofJapan National Railwaysin 1987.JR Freightdoes not own any part of the railway network but operates freight trains on theJR network. Two different entities operate Tokyo's underground railway network: the privatizedTokyo Metro, which operates Tokyo Metro lines, and the governmentalTokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation, which operates Toei lines. Tokyo Metro is entirely owned by theJapanese Governmentand theTokyo Metropolitan Governmentsince it was privatized in 2004 (it was previously a public entity called theImperial Capital Rapid Transit Authorityfrom 1941 to 2004), but it is scheduled to go public in 2024.Other major railway operators in Tokyo includeOdakyu,Tokyu,Keio,Seibu,Tobu, andKeisei. Although each operator directly owns its railway lines, through services that travel across different lines owned by different operators are",
"operators are common. Tokyo once had an extensive tram network, with a total distance of 213 km (Tokyo Toden). However, similar to other major cities worldwide, the age of motorization since the 1950s made it considered unfit to share busy roads with cars. Today, only one line, theArakawa line, remains. Roads Tokyo has the lowest car ownership rate among all prefectures in Japan, with 0.416 cars per household compared to the national average of 1.025 per household. This is despite Tokyo being one of the most affluent areas in the country, with a nominal GDP per capita of around US$75,000.A 2021 survey found that 81% of respondents without a car were satisfied with public transport and saw no need to own one. Each road in Tokyo falls into one of the following categories depending on the type of ownership: private roads, municipal roads, metropolitan roads and expressways. As of April 1, 2022, the total length of roads in Tokyo is approximately 24,741 km (including 2,370 km of metropolitan roads), with a total",
"with a total area of approximately 190.31 km2(including 46.30 km2of metropolitan roads).Intercity expressways in and around Tokyo are managed byNEXCO East, while expressways that serve only within the Greater Tokyo Area (Shuto Expressway) are operated by the Metropolitan Expressway Company. Tolls are collected based on the distance travelled. The total length of the Shuto Expressway is 337.8 km, with speed limits usually set at 80 km/h or 60 km/h to reduce noise pollution and accommodate the relatively winding road shapes. Aviation The mainland portion of Tokyo is served by two international airports:Haneda AirportinŌtaandNarita International Airportin neighboringChiba Prefecture. Haneda has served as the primary airport for Tokyo since 1931. However, the Jet Age saw an exponential increase in flights, prompting the government to build a second airport. Narita was chosen as the site for this second airport in 1966, but local farmers and left-wing activists who sympathized with them protested vehemently for",
"vehemently for more than a decade (theSanrizuka Struggle), delaying the new airport's opening until 1978. Almost all international flights were transferred to Narita Airport upon its completion, and Haneda became primarily a domestic airport. The situation changed when it was decided to expand Haneda Airport and build new runways in 2001. The new runway, Runway D, was constructed partly as a pier-like structure rather than a landfilled structure to avoid obstructing the flow of water in the bay.Its opening in 2010 marked the return of international flights to Haneda, which is much closer to central Tokyo. In 2023, Haneda handled 17.9 million international passengers and 60.8 million domestic passengers,while Narita was used by 25.4 million international passengers and 7.7 million domestic passengers.According to a 2023 survey, Haneda is the fifthbusiest airport in the world by passenger traffic. Hachijō-jima(Hachijojima Airport),Kōzu-shima(Kōzushima Airport),Miyakejima(Miyakejima Airport),Nii-jima(Niijima",
"Airport), andIzu Ōshima(Oshima Airport), located on theIzu Islands, which are governed by the Tokyo Metropolis have services to Haneda and theChōfu Airportlocated inChōfu. Water transport Water transport is the primary means of importing and exporting goods as well as connecting theTokyo Islandsto the mainland. According toLloyd's List, thePort of Tokyohandled 4,430,000 TEU of containers in 2022, making it the 46th largest port in the world.The Greater Tokyo Area is served by other major ports such as thePort of Yokohamaand thePort of Chibaas well. Takeshiba Pier (竹芝埠頭) inMinatois used byTōkai Kisen, which serves islands such asIzu Ōshima,Miyakejima,Hachijojima,Kozushima,and Ogasawara Kaiun, which serves theOgasawara Islands.Many of these islands are accessible only by ocean routes and helicopters, as they are too small or undulating for a landing ground, making these ships the primary means of inter-island transport. There are ferry routes that connect landmarks within the mainland portion of Tokyo as well;",
"of Tokyo as well; theTokyo Cruise Shipand theTokyo Mizube Lineoperate several routes between tourist attractions such asAsakusa,Hamarikyu,Odaiba, and Shinagawa Aquarium.The Symphony Cruise operates two large restaurant ships that can also be hired as party venues. Education Tokyo is the educational, academic, and cultural hub of Japan. From primary to tertiary levels, numerous educational institutions operate in the city to cater to a diverse range of pupils and students. Tertiary education Tokyo is the heartland of tertiary education in the country, home to 143 authorized universities in 2020.This number includes the nation's most prestigious and selective universities, such as, theUniversity of Tokyo(QSNational:1st),Tokyo Institute of Technology(4th),Hitotsubashi University(15th),Waseda University(9th), andKeio University(10th).Additionally,Tokyo University of the Artsis widely regarded as the most prestigious painting, sculpture, crafts, and music school in the country.TheUnited Nations University, which",
"University, which is the academic arm of theUnited Nations, is headquartered inShibuya, Tokyo. In 2024,QS Best Student Citiesranked Tokyo as the second-best city for university students, afterLondon.The ranking noted that Tokyo is ideal for 'those who favour total immersion in local culture rather than living in a “student bubble”', stating that despite having high-ranking universities and large global companies offering internships as well as rich culture, Tokyo still has a very low international student population ratio. Primary and secondary education At the secondary level, 429 senior high schools are located in Tokyo, six of which are national, 186 are public, and 237 are private.Some senior high schools, often prestigious national or private ones, run jointly with their affiliated junior high schools, providing six-year educational programs (Chūkō Ikkan Kyōiku). TheKaisei Academy,Komaba Junior & Senior High School, University of Tsukuba,Azabu High School, andOin Junior and Senior High School,the",
"High School,the largest sources of successful applicants to the nation's top university, the University of Tokyo,are some examples of such. At the primary level, there are 1332 elementary schools in Tokyo. Six of them are national, 1261 are public, and 53 are private. Early-modern-established academies such asGakushuinandKeioprovide all-through educational programs from primary schools to universities, originally to cater to the needs of traditionally affluent and powerful families.There are international and ethnic schools that abide by the national curricula of their respective countries or international curricula rather than the Japanese one as well, such as theBritish School in Tokyo,Tokyo Chinese School, theAmerican School in Japan, and theTokyo International School. Learned societies Almost all major Japanese learned societies are based in Tokyo. TheJapan Academy, the country'sacademy of sciences, was established in 1879 to bring together leading scholars in various disciplines.TheJapan Art Academywas",
"Art Academywas established in 1919 with a similar purpose.These two national academies are headquartered inUeno Park. The newest national academy, theScience Council of Japan, was established in 1949 with the purpose of promoting scientific research and the application of research findings to civilian life. It is located inRoppongi, Minato. Culture Museums, art galleries, libraries and zoos Tokyo is home to a wide array of museums, art galleries, and libraries, catering to various interests.Ueno Parkhas theTokyo National Museum, the country's largest museum specializing in traditional Japanese art,theNational Museum of Western Art, whose building designed byLe Corbusieris aworld heritage site,and theNational Museum of Nature and Science.Ueno Zoois also located within the park, near theShinobazu Pond. It is famous for being one of the three zoos in Japan to havegiant pandas, with a population of 4 as of May 2024.Other notable museums include theArtizon Museumin Chūō, theNational Museum of Emerging Science and",
"Science and Innovationin Odaiba, and theEdo-Tokyo Museumin Sumida, which provides insights into the history and culture of Tokyo. TheEdo-Tokyo Open Air Architectural Museumpreserves various buildings that have existed throughout the history of Tokyo. TheNezu Museumin Aoyama has a collection of pre-modern Japanese and East Asian art. Located near theImperial Palace, theNational Diet Library, theNational Archives, and theNational Museum of Modern Artare also notable cultural institutions. Additionally, theMori Art MuseuminRoppongiand theSumida Hokusai Museumin Sumida ward are notable for their contemporary and ukiyo-e art collections, respectively. TheSompo Museum of Artin Shinjuku is best known for owning one of Gogh'sSunflowers. TheTokyo Metropolitan Garden Art MuseuminMinatofeatures the former Tokyo House ofYasuhiko, Prince Asaka, which was built in an opulentArt Decostyle in 1933. TheRailway Museum, which used to be located inKanda, has relocated to a larger site inOmiya, Saitamaand stores 42 train",
"stores 42 train carriages and locomotives of historical importance.TheTobacco and Salt Museumin Sumida has one of the world's most extensive collections of different types of tobacco and salt. Major aquariums in Tokyo include:Shinagawa Aquarium,Tokyo Sea Life Park,Sunshine AquariumandSumida Aquarium. Leisure and entertainment Tokyo offers a diverse array of leisure and entertainment options. The city is home to numerous theatres. TheNational Noh TheatreandKabuki-zaare dedicated to traditional Japanese plays. TheNew National Theatre Tokyoin Shibuya serves as a central venue for opera, ballet, contemporary dance, and drama.Other major play and concert venues include: theNational Theatre of Japan, theImperial Theatre, theMeiji-za, theNHK Hall, theTokyo Metropolitan Theatre,Tokyo Opera Cityand theTokyo International Forum. Two sports venues, theNippon Budokanand theTokyo Dome, are usually used to host concerts by popular pop artists. The nightlife district of Tokyo is centered around areas in the west of the",
"in the west of the city such asShibuya,Shinjuku, andRoppongi, with high a concentration of bars, clubs,host and hostess clubs, and live music venues.Tokyo is also known for its festivals, such as theSannō MatsuriatHie Shrine, the Sanja Festival at Asakusa Shrine, and the biennialKanda Matsuri, which features parades with elaborately decorated floats.Harajuku, located in Shibuya, is internationally famous for its youth fashion and street culture, with trendy shops, cafes, and Takeshita Street.Akihabara, known as “Electric Town”, is a hub for electronics andotaku culturesuch asanimeandcomputer games, with numerous shops selling anime, manga, and gaming merchandise.GinzaandNihombashiare two of Tokyo's most notable shopping districts. Ginza is known for its high-end shopping, featuring luxury brand stores, boutique shops, and department stores such asMitsukoshiandWako. It is also home to numerous fine dining places and art galleries, making it a cultural and commercial hub. Nihombashi, historically a center of",
"a center of commerce, has long-established shops and the Mitsukoshi department flagship store, Japan's first department store, founded in 1673.Jinbōchōis known for its concentration of bookstores, publishing houses, and literary cafes, and its links to a large number of famous literary figures. Modern attractions in Tokyo include theTokyo Skytreein Sumida, the tallest structure in Japan, which provides panoramic views of the city from its observation decks.Odaiba, a man-made island in Tokyo Bay, features shopping, dining and entertainment attractions such as theteamLab Planetsdigital art museum andJoypolisindoor amusement park.TheTokyo Disney Resortand its two theme parksTokyo DisneylandandTokyo DisneySeaare major destinations for family entertainment. Although these Disney theme parks bear the name Tokyo, they are in fact located in nearbyUrayasu, Chiba, just east of Tokyo. Food In November 2007,Michelinreleased their first guide for fine dining in Tokyo, awarding 191 stars in total, or about twice as many",
"about twice as many as Tokyo's nearest competitor, Paris. As of 2017, 227 restaurants in Tokyo have been awarded (92 in Paris). Twelve establishments were awarded the maximum of three stars (Paris has 10), 54 received two stars, and 161 earned one star. Recreation Natural settings for outdoor activities includeOkutamaandMount Takao, which are known for their hiking trails and scenic views.Kasai Seaside Parkprovides coastal leisure activities.Ueno Parkhouses several museums, a zoo, and is famous for its cherry blossoms.Inokashira Parkin Kichijoji features a pond, a zoo, and in its vicinity theGhibli Museum.Yoyogi Park, located near Shibuya, is popular for picnics and outdoor events.Shinjuku Gyoen National Garden,Koishikawa Korakuen Garden,Rikugien Garden,Hamarikyu Gardens,Kiyosumi Garden,Kyu Shiba Rikyu Garden,Chinzanso Garden,Happo-en Garden,Mukojima-Hyakkaen GardenandMeiji Jingu Inner Gardenare popular traditional Japanese gardens in Tokyo, some of which originally belonged to members of thekazokunobility.",
"thekazokunobility. Botanical gardens in Tokyo include theUniversity of Tokyo'sKoishikawa Botanical Garden, theYumenoshima Tropical Greenhouse Domeand theInstitute for Nature Study Nature Reserve. National parks As of March 31, 2008, 36% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated asNatural Parks(second only toShiga Prefecture), namely theChichibu Tama Kai,Fuji-Hakone-Izu, andOgasawara National Park(the last a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site);Meiji no Mori Takao Quasi-National Park; andAkikawa Kyūryō,Hamura Kusabana Kyūryō,Sayama,Takao Jinba,Takiyama, andTama KyūryōPrefectural Natural Parks. In popular culture As the largest population center in Japan and the site of the country's largest broadcasters and studios, Tokyo is frequently the setting for manyJapanese movies, television shows, animated series' (anime),web comics,light novels,video games, and comic books (manga). In thekaiju(monster movie) genre, landmarks of Tokyo are usually destroyed by giant monsters such asGodzillaandGamera. Tokyo is also",
"Tokyo is also a popular foreign setting for non-Japanese media. Some Hollywood directors have turned to Tokyo as a backdrop for movies set in Japan. Postwar examples includeTokyo Joe,My Geisha,Tokyo Storyand theJames BondfilmYou Only Live Twice; recent examples includeKill Bill,The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift,Lost in Translation,Babel,Inception,The WolverineandAvengers: Endgame. Japanese authorHaruki Murakamihas based some of his novels in Tokyo (includingNorwegian Wood), andDavid Mitchell's first two novels (number9dreamandGhostwritten) featured the city. Contemporary British painterCarl Randallspent 10 years living in Tokyo as an artist, creating a body of work depicting the city's crowded streets and public spaces. Sports Tokyo, with a diverse array of sports, is home to two professional baseball clubs, theYomiuri Giantswho play at theTokyo DomeandTokyo Yakult SwallowsatMeiji-Jingu Stadium. TheJapan Sumo Associationis also headquartered in Tokyo at theRyōgoku Kokugikansumo arena where three",
"arena where three officialsumotournaments are held annually (in January, May, and September). Soccer clubs in Tokyo includeF.C. TokyoandTokyo Verdy, both of which play atAjinomoto StadiuminChōfu, andFC Machida Zelviaat Nozuta Stadium inMachida.Rugby Unionis also played in Tokyo, with multipleJapan Rugby League Oneclubs based in the city including:Black Rams Tokyo(Setagaya),Tokyo Sungoliath(Fuchū) andToshiba Brave Lupus Tokyo(Fuchū). Basketball clubs include theHitachi SunRockers,Toyota Alvark Tokyo, andTokyo Excellence. Tokyo hosted the1964 Summer Olympics, thus becoming the first Asian city to host theSummer Games. The National Stadium, also known as theOlympic Stadium, was host to a number of international sporting events. In 2016, it was to be replaced by theNew National Stadium. With a number of world-class sports venues, Tokyo often hosts national and international sporting events such as basketball tournaments, women's volleyball tournaments, tennis tournaments, swim meets, marathons, rugby union and",
"rugby union and sevens rugby games, soccer exhibition games,judo, andkarate.Tokyo Metropolitan Gymnasium, inSendagaya,Shibuya, is a large sports complex that includes swimming pools, training rooms, and a large indoor arena. According toAround the Rings, the gymnasium has played host to the October 2011 artistic gymnastics world championships, despite the International Gymnastics Federation's initial doubt in Tokyo's ability to host the championships after the triple disaster hits Japan.Tokyo was also selected to host a number of games for the2019 Rugby World Cup, and to host the2020 Summer OlympicsandParalympics, which had to be rescheduled to the summer of 2021 due toCOVID-19 pandemic. International relations Tokyo is the founding member of theAsian Network of Major Cities 21and is a member of theCouncil of Local Authorities for International Relations. Tokyo was also a founding member of theC40 Cities Climate Leadership Group. Sister cities and states As of 2022, Tokyo hastwinningor friendship agreements",
"agreements with the following twelve cities and states: Friendship and cooperation agreements See also References Bibliography Further reading Guides Contemporary External links"
] |
How many years older is the police force that covers the City of London, than the political party that came 4th in the 2019 European Parliament election in Lombardy? Write the number of years in binary | 10101110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London_Police | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_Lombardy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forza_Italia_(2013) | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London_Police', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_Lombardy', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forza_Italia_(2013)'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London_Police",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_Lombardy",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forza_Italia_(2013"
] | [
"City of London TheCity of London, also known asthe City, is acity,ceremonial countyandlocal government districtthat contains the ancient centre, and constitutes, along withCanary Wharf, the primarycentral business district(CBD) ofLondonand one of the leadingfinancial centresof the world.It constituted most of London from itssettlement by the Romansin the 1st century AD to theMiddle Ages, but the modern area referred to as London has since grown far beyond the City of London boundary.The City is now only a small part of themetropolis of Greater London, though it remains a notable part ofcentral London. The City of London is not one of theLondon boroughs, a status reserved for the other 32 districts (including Greater London's only other city, theCity of Westminster). It is also a separate ceremonial county, being anenclavesurrounded by theceremonial county of Greater London, and is the smallest ceremonial county in England. The City of London is known colloquially as theSquare Mile, as it is 1.12 sq mi (716.80 acres; 2.90 km2)in area. Both the termsthe Cityand theSquare Mileare often used asmetonymsfor the UK's trading andfinancial servicesindustries, which continue a notable history of being largely based in the City.ThenameLondonis now ordinarily used for a far wider area than just the City.Londonmost often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 Greater London boroughs, in addition to the City of London itself. Thelocal authorityfor the City, namely theCity of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council, such as being the police authority. It is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries, e.g.Hampstead Heath.The corporation is headed by theLord Mayor of the City of London(an office separate from, and much older than, theMayor of London). The Lord Mayor, as of November 2023, isMichael Mainelli.The City is made up of25 wards, with administration at the historicGuildhall. Other historic sites includeSt Paul's Cathedral,Royal Exchange,Mansion House,Old Bailey, andSmithfield Market. Although not within the City, the adjacentTower of London, built to dominate the City, is part of its old defensive perimeter. The City has responsibility for five bridges across theThamesin its capacity as trustee of theBridge House Estates:Blackfriars Bridge,Millennium Bridge,Southwark Bridge,London BridgeandTower Bridge. The City is a major business and financial centre,with both theBank of Englandand theLondon Stock Exchangebased in the City. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the world's primary business centre, and it continues to be a major meeting point for businesses.London was ranked second (after New York) in theGlobal Financial Centres Index, published in 2022. Theinsuranceindustry is concentrated in the eastern side of the city, aroundLloyd's building. Since about the 1980s, a secondary financial district has existed outside the city, at Canary Wharf, 2.5 miles (4 km) to the east. Thelegal professionhas a major presence in the northern and western sides of the City, especially in theTempleandChancery Laneareas where theInns of Courtare located, two of which (Inner TempleandMiddle Temple) fall within the City of London boundary. Primarily a business district, the City has a small resident population of 8,583 based on2021 censusfigures,but over 500,000 are employed there (as of 2019)and some estimates put the number of workers in the City to be over 1 million. About three-quarters of the jobs in the City of London are in the financial, professional, and associated business services sectors. History Origins The Roman legions established a settlement known as \"Londinium\" on the current site of the City of London around AD 43. Its bridge over the River Thames turned the city into aroad nexusand majorport, serving as a major commercial centre inRoman Britainuntil its abandonment duringthe 5th century. Archaeologist Leslie Wallace notes that, because extensive archaeological excavation has not revealed any signs of a significantpre-Romanpresence, \"arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial.\" At its height, the Roman city had a population of approximately 45,000–60,000 inhabitants. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city, with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia,continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.The Romans built the London Wall some time between AD 190 and 225. The boundaries of the Roman city were similar to those of the City of London today, though the City extends further west than Londinium'sLudgate, and the Thames was undredged and thus wider than it is today, with Londinium's shoreline slightly north of the city's present shoreline. The Romans built a bridge across the river, as early as AD 50, near to today's London Bridge. Decline By the time the London Wall was constructed, the city's fortunes were in decline, and it faced problems of plague and fire. The Roman Empire entered a long period ofinstability and decline, including theCarausian Revoltin Britain. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the city was under attack fromPicts, Scots, andSaxonraiders. The decline continued, both for Londinium and the Empire, and in AD 410 the Romans withdrew entirely from Britain. Many of the Roman public buildings in Londinium by this time had fallen into decay and disuse, and gradually after the formal withdrawal the city became almost (if not, at times, entirely) uninhabited. The centre of trade and population moved away from the walled Londinium toLundenwic(\"London market\"), a settlement to the west, roughly in the modern-dayStrand/Aldwych/Covent Gardenarea. Anglo-Saxon restoration During the Anglo-SaxonHeptarchy, the London area came in turn under the Kingdoms ofEssex,Mercia, and laterWessex, though from the mid 8th century it was frequently under threat from raids by different groups including theVikings. Bederecords that in AD 604St AugustineconsecratedMellitusas the first bishop to theAnglo-Saxonkingdom of theEast Saxonsand their king,Sæberht. Sæberht's uncle and overlord,Æthelberht, king ofKent, built a church dedicated to St Paul in London, as the seat of the new bishop.It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the same site as the later medieval and the present cathedrals. Alfred the Great,King of Wessexoccupied and began the resettlement of the old Roman walled area, in 886, and appointed his son-in-lawEarl Æthelred of Merciaover it as part of their reconquest of the Viking occupied parts of England. The refortified Anglo-Saxon settlement was known asLundenburh(\"London Fort\", aborough). The historian Asser said that \"Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more.\"Alfred's \"restoration\" entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building quays along the Thames, and laying a new city street plan. Alfred's taking of London and the rebuilding of the old Roman city was a turning point in history, not only as the permanent establishment of the City of London, but also as part of a unifying moment in early England, with Wessex becoming the dominant English kingdom and the repelling (to some degree) of the Viking occupation and raids. While London, and indeed England, were afterwards subjected to further periods of Viking and Danish raids and occupation, the establishment of the City of London and theKingdom of Englandprevailed. In the 10th century,Athelstanpermitted eightmintsto be established, compared with six in his capital,Winchester, indicating the wealth of the city. London Bridge, which had fallen into ruin following the Roman evacuation and abandonment of Londinium, was rebuilt by the Saxons, but was periodically destroyed by Viking raids and storms. As the focus of trade and population was moved back to within the old Roman walls, the older Saxon settlement of Lundenwic was largely abandoned and gained the name ofEaldwic(the \"old settlement\"). The name survives today as Aldwych (the \"old market-place\"), a name of a street and an area of the City of Westminster betweenWestminsterand the City of London. Medieval era Following theBattle of Hastings,William the Conquerormarched on London, reaching as far asSouthwark, but failed to get across London Bridge or defeat the Londoners. He eventually crossed the River Thames atWallingford, pillaging the land as he went. Rather than continuing the war,Edgar the Ætheling,Edwin of MerciaandMorcarof Northumbria surrendered atBerkhamsted. William granted the citizens of London a charter in 1075; the city was one of a few examples of the English retaining some authority. The city was not covered by theDomesday Book. William built three castles around the city, to keep Londoners subdued: Around 1132 the City was given the right to appointits own sheriffsrather than having sheriffs appointed by the monarch. London's chosen sheriffs also served as the sheriffs for the county ofMiddlesex. This meant that the City and Middlesex were regarded as one administratively for addressing crime and keeping the peace (not that the county was a dependency of the city). London's sheriffs continued to serve Middlesex until the county was given its own sheriffs again following theLocal Government Act 1888.By 1141 the whole body of the citizenry was considered to constitute a single community. This 'commune' was the origin of theCity of London Corporationand the citizens gained the right to appoint, with the king's consent, a mayor in 1189—and to directly elect the mayor from 1215. From medieval times, the city has been composed of25 ancient wards, each headed by analderman, who chairsWardmotes, which still take place at least annually. AFolkmoot, for the whole of the City held at the outdoor cross ofSt Paul's Cathedral, was formerly also held. Many of the medieval offices and traditions continue to the present day, demonstrating the unique nature of the City and itsCorporation. In 1381, thePeasants' Revoltaffected London. The rebels took the City and the Tower of London, but the rebellion ended after its leader, Wat Tyler, was killed during a confrontation that included Lord MayorWilliam Walworth. In 1450, rebel forces again occupied the City duringJack Cade's Rebellionbefore being ousted by London citizens following a bloody battle on London Bridge. In 1550, the area south of London Bridge inSouthwarkcame under the control of the City with the establishment of the ward ofBridge Without. The city was burnt severely on a number of occasions, the worst being in 1123 and in theGreat Fire of Londonin 1666. Both of these fires were referred to astheGreat Fire. After the fire of 1666, a number of plans were drawn up to remodel the city and its street pattern into arenaissance-style city with planned urban blocks, squares and boulevards. These plans were almost entirely not taken up, and the medieval street pattern re-emerged almost intact. Early modern period In the 1630s the Crown sought to have the Corporation of the City of London extend its jurisdiction to surrounding areas. In what is sometimes called the \"great refusal\", the Corporation said no to the King, which in part accounts for its unique government structure to the present. By the late 16th century, London increasingly became a major centre for banking, international trade and commerce. TheRoyal Exchangewas founded in 1565 by SirThomas Greshamas a centre of commerce for London's merchants, and gained Royal patronage in 1571. Although no longer used for its original purpose, its location at the corner ofCornhillandThreadneedle Streetcontinues to be the geographical centre of the city's core of banking and financial services, with theBank of Englandmoving to its present site in 1734, opposite the Royal Exchange. Immediately to the south of Cornhill,Lombard Streetwas the location from 1691 ofLloyd's Coffee House, which became the world-leading insurance market. London's insurance sector continues to be based in the area, particularly inLime Street. In 1708,Christopher Wren's masterpiece,St Paul's Cathedral, was completed on his birthday. The first service had been held on 2 December 1697, more than 10 years earlier. It replaced the original St Paul's, which had been completely destroyed in the Great Fire of London, and is considered to be one of the finest cathedrals in Britain and a fine example ofBaroque architecture. Growth of London The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of theIndustrial Revolution, and London's role at the centre of the evolvingBritish Empire. The urban area expanded beyond the borders of the City of London, most notably during this period towards theWest Endand Westminster. Expansion continued and became more rapid by the beginning of the 19th century, with London growing in all directions. To theEastthePort of Londongrew rapidly during the century, with the construction of many docks, needed as the Thames at the City could not cope with the volume of trade. The arrival of the railways and theTubemeant that London could expand over a much greater area. By the mid-19th century, with London still rapidly expanding in population and area, the City had already become only a small part of the wider metropolis. 19th and 20th centuries An attempt was made in 1894 with theRoyal Commission on the Amalgamation of the City and County of Londonto end the distinction between the city and the surrounding County of London, but a change of government at Westminster meant the option was not taken up. The city as a distinctpolitysurvived despite its position within the London conurbation andnumerous local government reforms. Supporting this status, the city was a specialparliamentary boroughthat elected four members to theunreformed House of Commons, who were retained after theReform Act 1832; reduced to two under theRedistribution of Seats Act 1885; and ceased to be a separate constituency under theRepresentation of the People Act 1948. Since then the city is a minority (in terms of population and area) of theCities of London and Westminster. The city's population fell rapidly in the 19th century and through most of the 20th century, as people moved outwards in all directions to London's vastsuburbs, and many residential buildings were demolished to make way for office blocks. Like many areas of London and other British cities, the City fell victim to large scale and highly destructive aerial bombing duringWorld War II, especially inthe Blitz. Whilst St Paul's Cathedral survived the onslaught, large swathes of the area did not and the particularly heavy raids of late December 1940 led to afirestormcalled theSecond Great Fire of London. There was a major rebuilding programme in the decades following the war, in some parts (such as at the Barbican) dramatically altering the urban landscape. But the destruction of the older historic fabric allowed the construction of modern and larger-scale developments, whereas in those parts not so badly affected by bomb damage the City retains its older character of smaller buildings. The street pattern, which is still largely medieval, was altered slightly in places, although there is a more recent trend of reversing some of the post-war modernist changes made, such as atPaternoster Square. The City suffered terrorist attacks including the1993 Bishopsgate bombing(IRA) and the7 July 2005 London bombings(Islamist). In response to the 1993 bombing, a system of road barriers, checkpoints and surveillance cameras referred to as the \"ring of steel\" has been maintained to control entry points to the city. The 1970s saw the construction of tall office buildings including the 600-foot (183 m), 47-storeyNatWest Tower, the first skyscraper in the UK. By the 2010s, office space development had intensified in the City, especially in the central, northern and eastern parts, with skyscrapers including30 St. Mary Axe(\"the Gherkin\"'),Leadenhall Building(\"the Cheesegrater\"),20 Fenchurch Street(\"the Walkie-Talkie\"), theBroadgate Tower, theHeron Towerand22 Bishopsgate. The main residential section of the City today is theBarbican Estate, constructed between 1965 and 1976. TheMuseum of Londonwas based there until March 2023 (due to reopen in West Smithfield in 2026),whilst a number of other services provided by the corporation are still maintained on the Barbican Estate. Governance The city has a unique political status, a legacy of its uninterrupted integrity as acorporate citysince the Anglo-Saxon period and its singular relationship with theCrown. Historically its system of government was not unusual, but it was not reformed by theMunicipal Corporations Act 1835and little changed by later reforms, so that it is the only local government in the UK where elections are not run on the basis of one vote for every adult citizen. It is administered by theCity of London Corporation, headed by theLord Mayor of London(not to be confused with the separateMayor of London, an office created only in the year 2000), which is responsible for a number of functions and has interests in land beyond the city's boundaries. Unlike other English local authorities, the corporation has two council bodies: the (now largely ceremonial)Court of Aldermenand theCourt of Common Council. TheCourt of Aldermenrepresents the wards, with each ward (irrespective of size) returning one alderman. The chief executive of the Corporation holds the ancient office ofTown Clerk of London. The city is a ceremonial county which has a Commission of Lieutenancy headed by the Lord Mayor instead of aLord-Lieutenantand hastwo Sheriffsinstead of aHigh Sheriff(seelist of Sheriffs of London), quasi-judicial offices appointed by thelivery companies, an ancient political system based on the representation and protection of trades (guilds). Senior members of the livery companies are known asliverymenand form the Common Hall, which chooses the lord mayor, the sheriffs and certain other officers. Wards The city is made up of25 wards. They are survivors of the medieval government system that allowed a very local area to exist as a self-governing unit within the wider city.They can be described as electoral/political divisions; ceremonial, geographic and administrative entities; sub-divisions of the city. Each ward has anAlderman, who until the mid-1960sheld office for life but since put themselves up for re-election at least every 6 years, and are the onlydirectly electedAldermen in theUnited Kingdom. Wards continue to have aBeadle, an ancient position which is now largely ceremonial whose main remaining function is the running of an annualWardmoteof electors, representatives and officials.At the Wardmote the ward's Alderman appoints at least one Deputy for the year ahead, and Wardmotes are also held during elections. Each ward also has a Ward Club, which is similar to aresidents' association. The wards are ancient and their number has changed three times sincetime immemorial: Following boundary changes in 1994, and later reform of the business vote in the city, there was a major boundary and electoral representation revision of the wards in 2003, and they were reviewed again in 2010 for change in 2013, though not to such a dramatic extent. The review was conducted by senior officers of the corporation and senior judges of theOld Bailey;the wards are reviewed by this process to avoidmalapportionment. The procedure of review is unique in the United Kingdom as it is not conducted by theElectoral Commissionor a local government boundary commission every 8 to 12 years, which is the case for all otherwards in Great Britain. Particular churches,livery companyhalls and other historic buildings and structures are associated with a ward, such as St Paul's Cathedral withCastle Baynard, and London Bridge with Bridge; boundary changes in 2003 removed some of these historic connections. Each ward elects analdermanto theCourt of Aldermen, andcommoners(the City equivalent of acouncillor) to theCourt of Common Councilof the corporation. Only electors who areFreemen of the City of Londonare eligible to stand. The number of commoners a ward sends to the Common Council varies from two to ten, depending on the number of electors in each ward. Since the 2003 review it has been agreed that the four more residential wards:Portsoken,Queenhithe,AldersgateandCripplegatetogether elect 20 of the 100 commoners, whereas the business-dominated remainder elect the remaining 80 commoners. 2003 and 2013 boundary changes have increased the residential emphasis of the mentioned four wards. Census data provides eight nominal rather than 25 real wards, all of varying size and population. Being subject to renaming and definition at any time, these census 'wards' are notable in that four of the eight wards accounted for 67% of the 'square mile' and held 86% of the population, and these were in fact similar to and named after four City of London wards: Elections The city has a unique electoral system. Most of its voters are representatives of businesses and other bodies that occupy premises in the city. Its ancient wards have very unequal numbers of voters. In elections, both the businesses based in the city and the residents of the City vote. The City of London Corporation was not reformed by theMunicipal Corporations Act 1835, because it had a more extensive electoral franchise than any other borough or city; in fact, it widened this further with its own equivalent legislation allowing one to become afreemanwithout being aliveryman. In 1801, the city had a population of about 130,000, but increasing development of the city as a central business district led to this falling to below 5,000 after the Second World War.It has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of theBarbican Estate. In 2009, the business vote was about 24,000, greatly exceeding residential voters.As the City of London Corporation has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, its electoral practice has become increasingly anomalous. Uniquely for city or borough elections, its elections remain independent-dominated. The business or \"non-residential vote\" was abolished in other UK local council elections by theRepresentation of the People Act 1969, but was preserved in the City of London. The principal reason given by successive UK governments for retaining this mechanism for giving businesses representation, is that the city is \"primarily a place for doing business\".About 330,000 non-residents constitute the day-time population and use most of its services, far outnumbering residents, who number around 7,000 (2011). By contrast, opponents of the retention of the business vote argue that it is a cause of institutional inertia. TheCity of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002, a private Act of Parliament,reformed the voting system and greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. Under the new system, the number of non-resident voters has doubled from 16,000 to 32,000. Previously disenfranchised firms (and other organisations) are entitled to nominate voters, in addition to those already represented, and all such bodies are now required to choose their voters in a representative fashion. Bodies employing fewer than 10 people may appoint 1 voter; those employing 10 to 50 people 1 voter for every 5 employees; those employing more than 50 people 10 voters and 1 additional voter for each 50 employees beyond the first 50. The Act also changed other aspects of an earlier act relating to elections in the city, from 1957. The Temple Inner TempleandMiddle Temple(which neighbour each other) in the western ward ofFarringdon Withoutare within the boundaries and liberties of the City, but can be thought of as independentenclaves. They are two of the few remainingliberties, an old name for a geographic division with special rights. They areextra-parochial areas,historically not governed by theCity of London Corporation(and are today regarded as local authorities for most purposes) and equally outside theecclesiastical jurisdictionof theBishop of London. Other functions Within the city, the Corporation owns and runs bothSmithfield MarketandLeadenhall Market. It owns land beyond its boundaries, includingopen spaces(parks, forests and commons) in and around Greater London, including most ofEpping ForestandHampstead Heath. The Corporation ownsOld Spitalfields MarketandBillingsgate Fish Market, in the neighbouringLondon Borough of Tower Hamlets. It owns and helps fund theOld Bailey, the Central Criminal Court forEngland and Wales, as a gift to the nation, having begun as the City and Middlesex Sessions.The Honourable The Irish Society, a body closely linked with the corporation, also owns many public spaces inNorthern Ireland. The city has its own independent police force, theCity of London Police—the Common Council (the main body of the corporation) is thepolice authority.The corporation also run theHampstead Heath Constabulary,Epping Forest Keepersand theCity of London market constabularies(whose members are no longer attested as constables but retain the historic title). The majority of Greater London is policed by theMetropolitan Police Service, based atNew Scotland Yard. The city has one hospital,St Bartholomew's Hospital, also known as 'Barts'. Founded in 1123, it is located atSmithfield, and is undergoing a long-awaited regeneration after doubts as to its continuing use during the 1990s. The city is the third largest UK patron of the arts. It oversees theBarbican Centreand subsidises several important performing arts companies. The London Port Health Authority, which is the responsibility of the corporation, is responsible for all port health functions on thetidal part of the Thames, including thePort of Londonand related seaports, andLondon City Airport.The Corporation oversees theBridge House Estates, which maintainsBlackfriars Bridge,Millennium Bridge,Southwark Bridge, London Bridge andTower Bridge. TheCity's flagflies over Tower Bridge, although neither footing is in the city. The boundary of the City The size of the city was constrained by a defensive perimeter wall, known as London Wall, which was built by the Romans in the late 2nd century to protect their strategic port city. However the boundaries of the City of London no longer coincide with the old city wall, as the City expanded its jurisdiction slightly over time. During themedievalera, the city's jurisdiction expanded westwards, crossing the historic western border of the original settlement—theRiver Fleet—alongFleet StreettoTemple Bar. The city also took in the other \"City bars\" which were situated just beyond the old walled area, such as at Holborn, Aldersgate,West Smithfield, Bishopsgate and Aldgate. These were the important entrances to the city and their control was vital in maintaining the city's special privileges over certain trades. Most of the wall has disappeared, but several sections remain visible. A section near theMuseum of Londonwas revealed after the devastation of an air raid on 29 December 1940 at the height of theBlitz. Other visible sections are atSt Alphage, and there are two sections near theTower of London. The River Fleet wascanalisedafter the Great Fire of 1666 and then in stages was bricked up and has been since the 18th century one of London's \"lost rivers or streams\", today underground as astorm drain. The boundary of the city was unchanged until minor boundary changes on 1 April 1994, when it expanded slightly to the west, north and east, taking small parcels of land from the London Boroughs of Westminster,Camden,Islington,HackneyandTower Hamlets. The main purpose of these changes was to tidy up the boundary where it had been rendered obsolete by changes in the urban landscape. In this process the city also lost small parcels of land, though there was an overall net gain (the City grew from 1.05 to 1.12 square miles). Most notably, the changes placed the (then recently developed)Broadgateestate entirely in the city. Southwark, to the south of the city on the other side of the Thames, was within the City between 1550 and 1899 as the Ward ofBridge Without, a situation connected with theGuildable Manor. The city's administrative responsibility there had in practice disappeared by the mid-Victorianperiod as various aspects of metropolitan government were extended into the neighbouring areas. Today it is part of theLondon Borough of Southwark. TheTower of Londonhas always been outside the city and comes under theLondon Borough of Tower Hamlets. Arms, motto and flag The Corporation of the City of London has a fullachievementof armorial bearings consisting of a shield on which the arms are displayed, acrestdisplayed on a helm above the shield,supporterson either side and a motto displayed on a scroll beneath the arms. Thecoat of armsis \"anciently recorded\" at theCollege of Arms. The arms consist of a silver shield bearing a red cross with a red upright sword in the first quarter. They combine the emblems of the patron saints of England and London: theCross of St Georgewith the symbol of the martyrdom ofSaint Paul.The sword is often erroneously supposed to commemorate the killing ofPeasants' RevoltleaderWat TylerbyLord Mayor of LondonWilliam Walworth. However the arms were in use some months before Tyler's death, and the tradition that Walworth's dagger is depicted may date from the late 17th century. TheLatinmotto of the city is \"Domine dirige nos\", which translates as \"Lord, direct us\". It is thought to have been adopted in the 17th century, as the earliest record of it is in 1633. Abanner of the arms(the design on the shield) is flown as aflag. Geography The City of London is thesmallest ceremonial countyof England by area and population, and the fourth most densely populated. Of the326 English districts, it is the second smallestby population, after theIsles of Scilly, and the smallestby area. It is alsothe smallest English cityby population (and in Britain, only two cities in Wales are smaller), and thesmallest in the UK by area. The elevation of the City ranges from sea level at the Thames to 21.6 metres (71 ft) at the junction of High Holborn and Chancery Lane.Two small but notable hills are within the historic core,Ludgate Hillto the west andCornhillto the east. Between them ran theWalbrook, one of the many\"lost\" rivers or streams of London(another is theFleet). Boundary Beginning in the west, where the City borders Westminster, the boundary crosses theVictoria Embankmentfrom the Thames, passes to the west ofMiddle Temple, then turns for a short distance along the Strand and nearTemple Barthen north upChancery Lane, where it borders Camden. It turns east alongHolbornto Holborn Circus and then goes northeast toCharterhouse Street. As it crossesFarringdon Roadit becomes the boundary with Islington. It continues toAldersgate, goes north, and turns east into some back streets soon after Aldersgate becomesGoswell Road, since 1994 embracing all of the corporation's Golden Lane Estate. Here, at Baltic Street West, is the most northerly extent. The boundary includes all of theBarbican Estateand continues east along Ropemaker Street and its continuation on the other side ofMoorgate, becomes South Place. It goes north, reaching the border with Hackney, then east, north, east on back streets, with Worship Street forming a northern boundary, so as to include theBroadgateestate. The boundary then turns south atNorton Folgateand becomes the border withTower Hamlets. It continues south intoBishopsgate, and takes some backstreets to Middlesex Street (Petticoat Lane) where it continues south-east then south. It then turns south-west, crossing theMinoriesso as to exclude theTower of London, and then reaches the Thames. The boundary then runs up the centre of the low-tide channel of the Thames, with the exception thatBlackfriars Bridge(including the river beneath and land at its south end) is entirely part of the City, whilst the span and southern abutment of London Bridge is part of the city for some purposes(and as such is part ofBridgeward). The boundaries are marked by black bollards bearing the city's emblem, and bydragon boundary marksat major entrances, such as Holborn and the south end of London Bridge. A more substantial monument marks the boundary atTemple Baron Fleet Street. In some places, the financial district extends slightly beyond the boundaries, notably to the north and east, into the London boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Islington, and informally these locations are regarded as being part of the \"Square Mile\". Since the 1990s the eastern fringe, extending into Hackney and Tower Hamlets, has increasingly been a focus for large office developments due to the availability of large sites compared to within the city. Gardens and public art The city has no sizeable parks within its boundary, but does have a network of a large number of gardens and small open spaces, many of them maintained by the corporation. These range from formal gardens such as the one inFinsbury Circus, containing abowling greenandbandstand, to churchyards such asSt Olave Hart Street, to water features and artwork in courtyards and pedestrianised lanes. Gardens include: There are a number of private gardens and open spaces, often within courtyards of the larger commercial developments. Two of the largest are those of theInner TempleandMiddle TempleInns of Court, in the far southwest. The Thames and its riverside walks are increasingly being valued as open space and in recent years efforts have been made to increase the ability for pedestrians to access and walk along the river. Climate The nearest weather station has historically been the London Weather Centre atKingsway/Holborn, although observations ceased in 2010. Now St. James Park provides the nearest official readings. The city has anoceanic climate(Köppen\"Cfb\") modified by theurban heat islandin the centre of London. This generally causes higher night-time minima than outlying areas. For example, the August mean minimumof 14.7 °C (58.5 °F) compares to a figure of 13.3 °C (55.9 °F) for Greenwichand Heathrowwhereas is 11.6 °C (52.9 °F) at Wisleyin the middle of several square miles ofMetropolitan Green Belt. All figures refer to the observation period 1971–2000. Accordingly, the weather station holds the record for the UK's warmest overnight minimum temperature, 24.0 °C (75.2 °F), recorded on 4 August 1990.The maximum is 37.6 °C (99.7 °F), set on 10 August 2003.The absolute minimumfor the weather station is a mere −8.2 °C (17.2 °F), compared to readings around −15.0 °C (5.0 °F) towards the edges of London. Unusually, this temperature was during a windy and snowy cold spell (mid-January 1987), rather than a cold clear night—cold air drainage is arrested due to the vast urban area surrounding the city. The station holds the record for the highest British mean monthly temperature,24.5 °C (76.1 °F) (mean maximum 29.2 °C (84.6 °F), mean minimum 19.7 °C (67.5 °F) during July 2006). However, in terms of daytime maximum temperatures, Cambridge NIABand Botanical Gardenswith a mean maximum of 29.1 °C (84.4 °F), and Heathrowwith 29.0 °C (84.2 °F) all exceeded this. Public services Police and security The city is apolice areaand has its ownpolice force, theCity of London Police, separate from theMetropolitan Police Servicecovering the majority of Greater London. The City Police previously had three police stations, atSnow Hill,Wood StreetandBishopsgate. They now only retain Bishopsgate along with an administrative headquarters at Guildhall Yard East.The force comprises 735 police officers including 273 detectives.It is the smallest territorial police force inEngland and Wales, in both geographic area and the number of police officers. Where the majority of British police forces have silver-colouredbadges, those of the City of London Police are black and gold featuring the City crest. The force has rarered and whitechequered cap bands and unique red and white striped duty arm bands on the sleeves of the tunics of constables and sergeants (red and white being the colours of the city), which in most other British police forces are black and white. City police sergeants and constables wear crestedcustodian helmetswhilst on foot patrol. These helmets do not feature eitherSt Edward's Crownor theBrunswick Star, which are used on most other police helmets inEngland and Wales. The city's position as the United Kingdom's financial centre and a critical part of the country's economy, contributing about 2.5% of the UK'sgross national product,has resulted in it becoming a target for political violence. TheProvisional IRAexploded severalbombsin the early 1990s, including the1993 Bishopsgate bombing. The area is also spoken of as a possible target foral-Qaeda. For instance, when in May 2004 the BBC'sPanoramaprogramme examined the preparedness of Britain's emergency services for a terrorist attack on the scale of the11 September 2001 attacks, they simulated a chemical explosion onBishopsgatein the east of the city. The\"Ring of Steel\"was established in the wake of the IRA bombings to guard against terrorist threats. Fire brigade The city has fire risks in many historic buildings, includingSt Paul's Cathedral,Old Bailey,Mansion House,Smithfield Market, theGuildhall, and also in numerous high-rise buildings. There is one London Fire Brigade station in the city, atDowgate, with onepumping appliance.The City relies upon stations in the surrounding London boroughs to support it at some incidents. The first fire engine is in attendance in roughly five minutes on average, the second when required in a little over five and a half minutes.There were 1,814 incidents attended in the City in 2006/2007—the lowest in Greater London. No-one died in an event arising from a fire in the four years prior to 2007. Power There ispower stationlocated inCharterhouse Streetthat also provides heat to some of the surrounding buildings. Demography TheOffice for National Statisticsrecorded the population in 2011 as 7,375;slightly higher than in theprevious census, 2001,and estimates the population as at mid-2016 to be 9,401. At the 2001 census the ethnic composition was 84.6%White, 6.8%South Asian, 2.6%Black, 2.3%Mixed, 2.0%Chineseand 1.7% were listed as \"other\".To the right is a table showing the change in population since 1801, based ondecadal censuses. The first half of the 19th century shows a population of between 120,000 and 140,000, decreasing dramatically from 1851 to 1991, with a small increase between 1991 and 2001. The only notable boundary change since the first census in 1801 occurred in 1994. The city's full-time working residents have much higher gross weekly pay than in London and Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland): £773.30 compared to £598.60 and £491.00 respectively.There is a large inequality of income between genders (£1,085.90 in men compared to £653.50 in women), and this can be explained by job type and length of employment respectively.The 2001 Census showed the city as a unique district amongst 376 districts surveyed inEnglandandWales.The city had the highest proportional population increase, one-person households, people with qualifications at degree level or higher and the highest indications of overcrowding.It recorded the lowest proportion of households with cars or vans, people who travel to work by car, married couple households and the lowest average household size: just 1.58 people.It also ranked highest within the Greater London area for the percentage of people with no religion and people who are employed. Ethnicity Economy The City of London vies with New York City'sLower Manhattanfor the distinction of the world's pre-eminent financial centre. TheLondon Stock Exchange(sharesandbonds),Lloyd's of London(insurance) and theBank of Englandare all based in the city.Over 500 banks have offices in the city. TheAlternative Investment Market, a market for trades inequitiesof smaller firms, is a recent development. In 2009, the City of London accounted for 2.4% of UK GDP. London's foreign exchange market has been described by Reuters as 'the crown jewel of London's financial sector'.Of the $3.98 trillion daily global turnover, as measured in 2009, trading in London accounted for around $1.85 trillion, or 46.7% of the total.Thepound sterling, the currency of the United Kingdom, is globally the fourth-most traded currencyand the fourth most heldreserve currency. Canary Wharf, a few miles east of the City in Tower Hamlets, which houses many banks and other institutions formerly located in the Square Mile, has since 1991 become another centre for London's financial services industry. Although growth has continued in both locations,and there have been relocations in both directions, the Corporation has come to realise that its planning policies may have been causing financial firms to choose Canary Wharf as a location. In 2022, 12.3% of City of London residents had been granted non-domicile status in order to avoid their paying tax in the UK. Headquarters Many major global companies have their headquarters in the city, includingAviva,BT Group,Lloyds Banking Group,Quilter,Prudential,Schroders,Standard Chartered,andUnilever. A number of the world's largest law firms are headquartered in the city, including four of the \"Magic Circle\" law firms (Allen & Overy,Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer,LinklatersandSlaughter & May), as well as other firms such asAshurst LLP,DLA Piper,Eversheds Sutherland,Herbert Smith FreehillsandHogan Lovells. Other sectors Whilst the financial sector, and related businesses and institutions, continue to dominate, the economy is not limited to that sector. The legal profession has a strong presence, especially in the west and north (i.e., towards theInns of Court). Retail businesses were once important, but have gradually moved to theWest End of London, though it is now Corporation policy to encourage retailing in some locations, for example atCheapsidenear St Paul's. The city has a number of visitor attractions, mainly based on its historic heritage as well as theBarbican Centreand adjacentMuseum of London, though tourism is not at present a major contributor to the city's economy or character. The city has many pubs, bars and restaurants, and the \"night-time\" economy does feature in theBishopsgatearea, towardsShoreditch. The meat marketat Smithfield, wholly within the city, continues to be one of London's main markets (the only one remaining in central London) and the country's largestmeat market. In the east isLeadenhall Market, a fresh food market that is also a visitor attraction. Retail and residential The trend for purely office development is beginning to reverse as the Corporation encourages residential use, albeit with development occurring when it arises on windfall sites. The city has a target of 90 additional dwellings per year.Some of the extra accommodation is in small pre-World War IIlisted buildings, which are not suitable for occupation by the large companies which now provide much of the city's employment. Recent residential developments include \"the Heron\", a high-rise residential building on the Milton Court site adjacent to the Barbican, and theHeron Plazadevelopment on Bishopsgate is also expected to include residential parts. Since the 1990s, the City has diversified away from near exclusive office use in other ways. For example, several hotels and the firstdepartment storeopened in the 2000s. A shopping centre was more recently opened atOne New Change,Cheapside(near St Paul's Cathedral) in October 2010, which is open seven days a week. However, large sections remain quiet at weekends, especially in the eastern section, and it is quite common to find shops,pubsand cafes closed on these days. Landmarks Historic buildings Fire, bombing and post-World War IIredevelopment have meant that the city, despite its history, has fewer intact historic structures than one might expect. Nonetheless, there remain many dozens of (mostly Victorian and Edwardian) fine buildings, typically in historicist andneoclassical style. They include theMonument to the Great Fire of London(\"the Monument\"),St Paul's Cathedral,the Guildhall, theRoyal Exchange,Dr. Johnson's House,Mansion Houseand agreat many churches, many designed bySir Christopher Wren, who also designed St Paul's. Prince Henry's Roomand2 King's Bench Walkare notable historic survivors of heavy bombing ofthe Templearea, which has largely been rebuilt to its historic form. Another example of a bomb-damaged place having been restored isStaple Innon Holborn. A few small sections of the RomanLondon Wallexist, for example near the Tower of London and in the Barbican area. Among the twentieth-centurylisted buildingsareBracken House, the first post World War II buildings in the country to be given statutory protection, and the whole of theBarbicanandGolden Lane Estate. TheTower of Londonis not in the city, but is a notable visitor attraction which brings tourists to the southeast of the city. Other landmark buildings with historical significance include theBank of England, theOld Bailey, theCustom House,Smithfield Market,Leadenhall MarketandSt Bartholomew's Hospital. Noteworthy contemporary buildings include a number of modern high-rise buildings (see section below) as well as theLloyd's building. Skyscrapers and tall buildings A growing number of tall buildings and skyscrapers are principally used by the financial sector. Almost all are situated in the eastern side aroundBishopsgate,Leadenhall StreetandFenchurch Street, in the financial core of the city. In the north there is a smaller cluster comprising theBarbican Estate's three tall residential towers and the commercialCityPointtower. In 2007, the 100 m (328 ft) tallDrapers' Gardensbuilding was demolished and replaced by a shorter tower. The city's buildings of at least 100 m (328 ft) in height are: The timeline of the tallest building in the city is as follows: Transport Rail and Tube The city is well served by theLondon Underground(\"tube\") andNational Railnetworks. Seven London Underground lines serve the city; the underground stations include: In addition,Aldgate East(),Farringdon(),Temple() andTower Hill() tube stations are all situated within metres of the City of London boundary. TheDocklands Light Railway(DLR) has two termini in the city: Bank andTower Gateway. The DLR links the City directly to theEast End. Destinations include Canary Wharf andLondon City Airport. TheElizabeth line(constructed by theCrossrailproject) runs east–west underneath the City of London. The line serves two stations in the City –Farringdonand Liverpool Street – which additionally serves the Barbican and Moorgate areas. Elizabeth line services link the City directly to destinations such as Canary Wharf,Heathrow Airport, and theM4 Corridorhigh-technology hub (servingSloughandReading). The city is served by a frequentThameslinkrail service which runs north–south through London. Thameslink services call at Farringdon,City Thameslink, and London Blackfriars. This provides the city with a direct link to key destinations across London, includingElephant & Castle,London Bridge, andSt Pancras International(for theEurostartomainland Europe). There are also regular, direct trains from these stations to major destinations acrossEast Angliaandthe South East, includingBedford,Brighton,Cambridge,Gatwick Airport,Luton Airport, andPeterborough. There are several \"London Terminals\"in the city: All stations in the city are inLondon fare zone 1. Road The nationalA1,A10A3,A4, andA40 roadroutes begin in the city. The city is in theLondon congestion chargezone, with the small exception on the eastern boundary of the sections of the A1210/A1211 that are part of theInner Ring Road. The following bridges, listed west to east (downstream), cross the River Thames:Blackfriars Bridge,Blackfriars Railway Bridge,Millennium Bridge(footbridge),Southwark Bridge,Cannon Street Railway Bridgeand London Bridge;Tower Bridgeis not in the city. The city, like most of central London, is wellserved by buses, including night buses. Two bus stations are in the city, atAldgateon the eastern boundary with Tower Hamlets, and atLiverpool Streetby the railway station. However although the London Road Traffic Act 1924 removed from existing local authorities the powers to prevent the development of road passengers transport services within the London Metropolitan Area, the City of London retained most such powers. As a consequence, neither Trolleybus nor Green Line Coach services were permitted to enter the City to pick up or set down passengers. Hence the building of Aldgate (Minories) Trolleybus and Coach station as well as the complex terminal arrangements at Parliament Hill Fields. This restriction was removed by the Transport Act 1985 Cycling Cycling infrastructurein the city is maintained by the City of London Corporation andTransport for London(TfL). TheSandander Cyclesand Beryl bike sharing systems operate in the City of London. River OneLondon River Servicespier is on the Thames in the city,Blackfriars Millennium Pier, though theTower Millennium Pierlies adjacent to the boundary near the Tower of London. One of thePort of London's 25safeguarded wharves,Walbrook Wharf, is adjacent to Cannon Street station, and is used by the corporation to transfer waste via the river. Swan Lane Pier, just upstream of London Bridge, is proposed to be replaced and upgraded for regular passenger services, planned to take place in 2012–2015. Before then, Tower Pier is to be extended. There is a public riverside walk along the river bank, part of theThames Path, which opened in stages – the route within the city was completed by the opening of a stretch atQueenhithein 2023.The walk along Walbrook Wharf is closed to pedestrians when waste is being transferred onto barges. Travel to work (by residents) According to a survey conducted in March 2011, the methods by which employed residents 16–74 get to work varied widely: 48.4% go on foot; 19.5% via light rail, (i.e.the Underground,DLR, etc.); 9.2% work mainly from home; 5.8% take the train; 5.6% travel by bus, minibus, or coach; and 5.3% go by bicycle; with just 3.4% commuting by car or van, as driver or passenger. Education The city is home to a number of higher education institutions including: theGuildhall School of Music and Drama, theCass Business School,The London Institute of Banking & Financeand parts of three of theuniversities in London: theMaughan LibraryofKing's College LondononChancery Lane, the business school ofLondon Metropolitan University, and a campus of theUniversity of Chicago Booth School of Business.The College of Lawhas its London campus inMoorgate. Part ofBarts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistryis on the Barts hospital site at West Smithfield. The city has only one directly maintained primary school,The Aldgate School(formerly Sir John Cass's Foundation Primary School) atAldgate(ages 4 to 11). It is a Voluntary-Aided (VA)Church of Englandschool, maintained by the Education Service of the City of London. City residents send their children to schools in neighbouringLocal Education Authorities, such asIslington,Tower Hamlets,WestminsterandSouthwark. The City controls three independent schools,City of London School(a boys' school) andCity of London School for Girlsin the city, and theCity of London Freemen's School(co-educational day and boarding) inAshtead, Surrey. The City of London School for Girls and City of London Freemen's School have their own preparatory departments for entrance at age seven. It is the principal sponsor of TheCity Academy, Hackney,City of London Academy Islington, andCity of London Academy, Southwark. Public libraries Libraries operated by the Corporation include three lending libraries; Barbican Library, Shoe Lane Library and Artizan Street Library and Community Centre. Membership is open to all – with one official proof of address required to join. Guildhall Library, and City Business Library are also public reference libraries, specialising in the history of London and business reference resources. Money laundering The City of London's role in illicit financial activity such asmoney launderinghas earned the financial hub sobriquets like ‘The Laundromat’ and ‘Londongrad.’ London’s role as the world’s dirty money clearing house is well-documented but efforts are being made to clean up through legislation, e.g. authorisingunexplained wealth orders. High-value properties are sought after by criminals and money launderers legitimising their gains by investing in the city’s prestigious real estate. In May 2024, the UK's then deputy foreign secretary,Andrew Mitchell, said that 40% of the dirty money in the world goes through the City of London and other crown dependencies. See also References Further reading Notes External links Listed clockwise from the West",
"City of London Police Sadiq Khan(L) Statutory Deputy MayorJoanne McCartney(L/Co) London Assembly Lord MayorPeter Estlin London boroughs(list) Vacant TheCity of London Policeis theterritorial police forceresponsible for law enforcement within theCity of London, England, including theMiddleandInnerTemples. The force responsible for law enforcement within the remainder of theLondon region, outside the city, is the much largerMetropolitan Police, a separate organisation. The City of London, which is now primarily a financial business district with a small resident population but a large commuting workforce, is the historic core of London, and has an administrative history distinct from that of the rest of the metropolis, of which its separate police force is one manifestation. The City of London area has a resident population of around 8,700, however there is also a daily influx of approximately 513,000 commuters into the city, along with thousands of tourists. Thepolice authorityis theCommon Councilof the City and, unlike other territorial forces inEngland and Wales, there is not apolice and crime commissionerreplacing that police authority by way of thePolice Reform and Social Responsibility Act 2011,but like a police and crime commissioner, the Common Council is elected. As of 2021, the force had a workforce of 1,355 including 861 full-time police officers and 494 support staff.The force is also supported by much smaller numbers ofspecial constables,police community support officers, and designated officers. The headquarters is located at theGuildhall(which also housed it from 1832 to 1840) and there is an additionalstationatBishopsgate,with former stations including Moor Lane (destroyed in theBlitzon 29 December 1940) and Cloak Lane (closed 1965). The City of London Police is the smallest territorial police force in England and Wales, both in terms of geographic area and head-count.The current commissioner (equivalent to the chief constable in non-London forces), is Peter O'Doherty, who was appointed in a temporary capacity in October 2023, and is set to become permanent commissioner in 2024, subject to royal assent. History To 1850 Traditionally the responsibility for policing in the city had been divided between day and night CityWatch, primarily under the twosheriffs. Their responsibilities were shared with thealdermen's officers – the wardbeadles– who are now purely ceremonial. It was these officers' responsibility for ensuring that the Night Watch was maintained. Policing during the day eventually came under theCity Patrol, which evolved into theCity Day Police, which was modelled on theMetropolitan Police. TheLondon City Policewas officially formed in 1832, before becoming the City of London Police with the passing of theCity of London Police Act 1839, which gave statutory approval to the force as an independent police body and headed off attempts made to merge it with the Metropolitan Police.It moved its headquarters from the corporation's Guildhall to 26Old Jewryin 1840. 1850–1989 The first officer of the force todie in the line of dutywas in 1857, followed by 31 more to date, including three killed in the 1910Houndsditch murders. The force was involved in the investigation of theJack the Rippermurders. Teams of the City of London Police have participated in the Olympic games three times in thetug of wartournament. At the1908 Summer Olympicsthey won the gold medal, beating aLiverpool City Policeteam in the final. In1912a joint City-Metropolitan Police team was beaten in the final by a Stockholm Police team. At the1920 Summer Olympicsa solely City of London Police British team regained its title, beating the Netherlands. This was the last time tug of war was an Olympic sport, which means the City of London Police is still the reigning Olympic champion. The force has had special constables since at least 1911, when 1,648 were called for duty during docks strikes. There was one day in 1918, when the only warranted officer within the city of London was a special constableSeveral regular officers of the force were killed inNazi German air raids over Londonin 1941 and 1942. 1990–2001 The early 1990s saw theIRAcarry out a number of high-profile attacks in the city as part ofthe Troubles, such as the 1992Baltic Exchange bombingand the1993 Bishopsgate bombing, resulting in huge economic and infrastructural damage. As a result, theTraffic and Environmental Zone, better known as the \"ring of steel\", was officially established in 1993 by Owen Kelly, the then City of London Police commissioner.CommanderHugh Mooresuffered a fatal heart failure in 1993 following a violent arrest. Some aspects of the ring of steel were 'stepped down' in the late 1990s following the cessation of IRA hostilities but stepped up again after theSeptember 11 terrorist attacks.The force's headquarters relocated toWood Streetin 2001. 2001–present The City of London Special Constabulary were awarded the Ferrers Trophy in 2006 for the efforts of their officers after the7 July 2005 London bombings. The award is given annually to police volunteers, for exceptional dedication and innovation. It was the first time in the award's history that an entire special constabulary received the trophy. In 2010 the same trophy was awarded to Special Constable Patrick Rarden of the Honourable Artillery Company Detachment (part of the City of London Special Constabulary) for using his banking skills and experience to help train colleagues and provide invaluable assistance to solve fraud cases.2002 saw the most recent City officer to die in the line of duty. In 2015, the City of London Police mounted unit also escorted theexhumed remains of King Richard IIIthrough thecity of LeicesterfromSt Nicholas ChurchtoLeicester Cathedral, en route to their reburial. In May 2020, City of London Police officers stopped a vehicle driven by a man who had recently been interviewed byChannel 4about a prior instance of police harassment, who they incorrectly accused of concealing drugs. After smashing his car window, officers strip-searched him, detained him for 21 hours and impounded his car.Following an investigation, City of London Police acknowledged failings in their treatment of the man, including returning the vehicle to him without first removing the broken glass, but declined to apologise and said his arrest had been lawful.In March 2021 theIndependent Office for Police Conductordered City of London Police to conduct a new investigation into the incident,which resulted in the City of London Police having to apologise to the driver and identified 'organisational and individual learning'. List of commissioners Organisation The City Police is organised into fivedirectorates: Because of theCity's role as a world financial centre, the City of London Police has developed a great deal of expertise in dealing with fraud and \"is the acknowledged lead force within the UK for economic crime investigation.\"The Economic Crime Directorate includes: Leadership structure Uniform Whereas the majority of British police forces havewhite metalcap badgesand buttons, those of the City Police arebrass. The force also have red and whitechequered sleeve and cap bands(red and white being the colours of the City of London), which in most other British police forces are black and white. In formal uniform, female officers wear a red and whitecravat. Theirhelmet(worn by male constables and sergeants) has altered little since its introduction in 1865 and has a crest instead of the white metal boss worn on the Metropolitan Police helmet. The \"helmet plate\" or badge is the City of Londoncoat of arms; this is unusual for a police force inEngland and Walesin that it does not includeSt Edward's Crown, neither does it have theBrunswick Star, which is used on most other police helmets in England and Wales. On state and ceremonial occasions, the commissioner and assistant commissioners wear a special court dress uniform with a goldaiguilletteand acocked hatadorned with whiteswan's feathers; other than on these occasions, they wear standard uniform. Equipment and vehicles City of London police officers carrywarrant cards.Like most other police forces in Great Britain, City of London police officers arenot routinely armed, but some officers have received firearms training and areauthorised firearms officers.City of London police equipment includesPAVA irritant spray, batons, and handcuffs. Many officers are also equipped with theTaserelectroshock weapon; according to the police force's reported figures, Tasers have been deployed (including drawing or \"red-dotting\") about seven times per month. In the September 2018 to September 2020 period, the City of London Police recorded 11 incidents of police officers firing Tasers on suspects. The City of London Police maintains a fleet ofpolice vehicles, including SUVs, compact cars, motorcycle, and vans, as well as onehorsebox.All of the force's response vehicles, includingarmed response vehicles(ARVs) carry adefibrillatorandfirst aidsupplies, for use in the event of an emergency. Mounted unit The City of London Police maintains amounted policeunit.In addition to regular duties, the horses of the mounted unit have been used to trample wildflower seeds at theBarbicanWildlife Garden at the request of the community wildlife gardeners.The horses' ceremonial duties include participation inTrooping the Colourand theLord Mayor's Show. Ranks The ranks from constable to chief superintendent are the same as all other British police forces. The three senior ranks are similar to those used by the Metropolitan Police. Insignia Constables and sergeants displaycollar numberson their rank badges (in the range 1 to 150 for sergeants and 151 to 999 for constables). Officers between the ranks of inspector and chief superintendent (who do not have collar numbers) display their warrant numbers instead. All officers also wear name badges with their rank and surname (e.g. Police Constable John Smith would wear a badge displaying \"Constable Smith\"). The City of London police also has a special constabulary with seven ranks of officers. As with regular officers, constables and sergeants display collar numbers on their rank badges (in the range 1001 to 1099 for sergeants and 1101 to 1299 for constables) and officers between the ranks of inspector and chief superintendent display their warrant numbers, in all cases followed by the letters \"SC\". The rank badge for a special commander is identical to that for a regular commander. Name badges are identical to those worn by regular officers (e.g. Special Sergeant Mary Jones would wear a badge displaying \"Sergeant Jones\"). As well as a PCSO rank Workforce The following is the current released workforce data. The \"chief officer\" category includes the commissioner, assistant commissioner and commanders, and the \"special constable\" category includes all special constable ranks. Special Constabulary As of December 2023 it consists of 47 volunteer officers, led by a special chief inspector, assisted by 2 special inspectors, 6 special sergeants and 38 special constables. The majority undertake duties during evenings and nights in support of the regular force in dealing with issues arising from the busy night-time economy of the city. However, other officers perform more specialist roles in the force's other directorates including supporting the National Lead Force (NLF) in the National Fraud Intelligence Bureau (NFIB) with a number of officers joining the national Cyber Volunteering initiative. In 2023 the City of London Police undertook a major restructure of the COLP Special Constabulary, with the ranks of Special Commander and Special Superintendent being abolished and the chief officer now being Special Chief Inspector who reports to the Chief Superintendent for Local Policing who in turn answers to the Commander for Ops and Security. Many officers have specialist training and perform duties as response drivers, \"Level 2\" public order officers and cycle officers. As in all forces, special constables are expected to commit to a minimum of 200 hours' duty each year, and in return receive out-of-pocket expenses and free travel on theTransport for Londonnetwork. They receive no pay. Uniform and equipment is identical to that of regular (full-time) police officers. Officers of theHonourable Artillery CompanyDetachment of Special Constabulary CLSC (originally part of theMetropolitan Special Constabularybut moved to the City force on reorganisation) wear the title \"HAC\" when in formal uniform.Special Constables have four-digit collar numbers beginning 11 or 12, and Special Sergeants have four-digit collar numbers beginning 10. Chief Officers of City of London Special Constabulary Other corporation policing bodies TheCity of London Corporation, the local authority for the city, also operates further limited policing bodies. These bodies are not part of the City of London Police: See also References External links",
"2019 European Parliament election in Lombardy The2019 European Parliament electiontook place inItalyon 26 May 2019. InLombardyLega Nordcame first with 43.4% of the vote (country-level result 34.3%) and more than 20pp than theDemocratic Party, which came second with 23.1%. TheFive Star Movementcame third with 9.3%, ahead ofForza Italia(8.7%),Brothers of Italy(5.5%),More Europe(3.1%),Green Europe(2.5%) andThe Left(1.3%). Results Source:Ministry of the Interior References",
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"City of London TheCity of London, also known asthe City, is acity,ceremonial countyandlocal government districtthat contains the ancient centre, and constitutes, along withCanary Wharf, the primarycentral business district(CBD) ofLondonand one of the leadingfinancial centresof the world.It constituted most of London from itssettlement by the Romansin the 1st century AD to theMiddle Ages, but the modern area referred to as London has since grown far beyond the City of London boundary.The City is now only a small part of themetropolis of Greater London, though it remains a notable part ofcentral London. The City of London is not one of theLondon boroughs, a status reserved for the other 32 districts (including Greater London's only other city, theCity of Westminster). It is also a separate ceremonial county, being anenclavesurrounded by theceremonial county of Greater London, and is the smallest ceremonial county in England. The City of London is known colloquially as theSquare Mile, as it is 1.12 sq mi (716.80",
"1.12 sq mi (716.80 acres; 2.90 km2)in area. Both the termsthe Cityand theSquare Mileare often used asmetonymsfor the UK's trading andfinancial servicesindustries, which continue a notable history of being largely based in the City.ThenameLondonis now ordinarily used for a far wider area than just the City.Londonmost often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 Greater London boroughs, in addition to the City of London itself. Thelocal authorityfor the City, namely theCity of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council, such as being the police authority. It is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries, e.g.Hampstead Heath.The corporation is headed by theLord Mayor of the City of London(an office separate from, and much older than, theMayor of London). The Lord Mayor, as of November 2023, isMichael Mainelli.The City is made up of25 wards, with administration at the historicGuildhall. Other historic sites",
"historic sites includeSt Paul's Cathedral,Royal Exchange,Mansion House,Old Bailey, andSmithfield Market. Although not within the City, the adjacentTower of London, built to dominate the City, is part of its old defensive perimeter. The City has responsibility for five bridges across theThamesin its capacity as trustee of theBridge House Estates:Blackfriars Bridge,Millennium Bridge,Southwark Bridge,London BridgeandTower Bridge. The City is a major business and financial centre,with both theBank of Englandand theLondon Stock Exchangebased in the City. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the world's primary business centre, and it continues to be a major meeting point for businesses.London was ranked second (after New York) in theGlobal Financial Centres Index, published in 2022. Theinsuranceindustry is concentrated in the eastern side of the city, aroundLloyd's building. Since about the 1980s, a secondary financial district has existed outside the city, at Canary Wharf, 2.5 miles (4 km) to the east.",
"(4 km) to the east. Thelegal professionhas a major presence in the northern and western sides of the City, especially in theTempleandChancery Laneareas where theInns of Courtare located, two of which (Inner TempleandMiddle Temple) fall within the City of London boundary. Primarily a business district, the City has a small resident population of 8,583 based on2021 censusfigures,but over 500,000 are employed there (as of 2019)and some estimates put the number of workers in the City to be over 1 million. About three-quarters of the jobs in the City of London are in the financial, professional, and associated business services sectors. History Origins The Roman legions established a settlement known as \"Londinium\" on the current site of the City of London around AD 43. Its bridge over the River Thames turned the city into aroad nexusand majorport, serving as a major commercial centre inRoman Britainuntil its abandonment duringthe 5th century. Archaeologist Leslie Wallace notes that, because extensive",
"because extensive archaeological excavation has not revealed any signs of a significantpre-Romanpresence, \"arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial.\" At its height, the Roman city had a population of approximately 45,000–60,000 inhabitants. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city, with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia,continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.The Romans built the London Wall some time between AD 190 and 225. The boundaries of the Roman city were similar to those of the City of London today, though the City extends further west than Londinium'sLudgate, and the Thames was undredged and thus wider than it is today, with Londinium's shoreline slightly north of the city's present shoreline. The Romans built a bridge across the river, as early as AD 50, near to today's London Bridge. Decline By the time the London Wall was constructed, the city's fortunes were in decline, and it faced problems of",
"faced problems of plague and fire. The Roman Empire entered a long period ofinstability and decline, including theCarausian Revoltin Britain. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the city was under attack fromPicts, Scots, andSaxonraiders. The decline continued, both for Londinium and the Empire, and in AD 410 the Romans withdrew entirely from Britain. Many of the Roman public buildings in Londinium by this time had fallen into decay and disuse, and gradually after the formal withdrawal the city became almost (if not, at times, entirely) uninhabited. The centre of trade and population moved away from the walled Londinium toLundenwic(\"London market\"), a settlement to the west, roughly in the modern-dayStrand/Aldwych/Covent Gardenarea. Anglo-Saxon restoration During the Anglo-SaxonHeptarchy, the London area came in turn under the Kingdoms ofEssex,Mercia, and laterWessex, though from the mid 8th century it was frequently under threat from raids by different groups including theVikings. Bederecords that in AD 604St",
"that in AD 604St AugustineconsecratedMellitusas the first bishop to theAnglo-Saxonkingdom of theEast Saxonsand their king,Sæberht. Sæberht's uncle and overlord,Æthelberht, king ofKent, built a church dedicated to St Paul in London, as the seat of the new bishop.It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the same site as the later medieval and the present cathedrals. Alfred the Great,King of Wessexoccupied and began the resettlement of the old Roman walled area, in 886, and appointed his son-in-lawEarl Æthelred of Merciaover it as part of their reconquest of the Viking occupied parts of England. The refortified Anglo-Saxon settlement was known asLundenburh(\"London Fort\", aborough). The historian Asser said that \"Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more.\"Alfred's \"restoration\" entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building quays along the Thames, and laying a new city",
"laying a new city street plan. Alfred's taking of London and the rebuilding of the old Roman city was a turning point in history, not only as the permanent establishment of the City of London, but also as part of a unifying moment in early England, with Wessex becoming the dominant English kingdom and the repelling (to some degree) of the Viking occupation and raids. While London, and indeed England, were afterwards subjected to further periods of Viking and Danish raids and occupation, the establishment of the City of London and theKingdom of Englandprevailed. In the 10th century,Athelstanpermitted eightmintsto be established, compared with six in his capital,Winchester, indicating the wealth of the city. London Bridge, which had fallen into ruin following the Roman evacuation and abandonment of Londinium, was rebuilt by the Saxons, but was periodically destroyed by Viking raids and storms. As the focus of trade and population was moved back to within the old Roman walls, the older Saxon settlement of",
"Saxon settlement of Lundenwic was largely abandoned and gained the name ofEaldwic(the \"old settlement\"). The name survives today as Aldwych (the \"old market-place\"), a name of a street and an area of the City of Westminster betweenWestminsterand the City of London. Medieval era Following theBattle of Hastings,William the Conquerormarched on London, reaching as far asSouthwark, but failed to get across London Bridge or defeat the Londoners. He eventually crossed the River Thames atWallingford, pillaging the land as he went. Rather than continuing the war,Edgar the Ætheling,Edwin of MerciaandMorcarof Northumbria surrendered atBerkhamsted. William granted the citizens of London a charter in 1075; the city was one of a few examples of the English retaining some authority. The city was not covered by theDomesday Book. William built three castles around the city, to keep Londoners subdued: Around 1132 the City was given the right to appointits own sheriffsrather than having sheriffs appointed by the monarch.",
"by the monarch. London's chosen sheriffs also served as the sheriffs for the county ofMiddlesex. This meant that the City and Middlesex were regarded as one administratively for addressing crime and keeping the peace (not that the county was a dependency of the city). London's sheriffs continued to serve Middlesex until the county was given its own sheriffs again following theLocal Government Act 1888.By 1141 the whole body of the citizenry was considered to constitute a single community. This 'commune' was the origin of theCity of London Corporationand the citizens gained the right to appoint, with the king's consent, a mayor in 1189—and to directly elect the mayor from 1215. From medieval times, the city has been composed of25 ancient wards, each headed by analderman, who chairsWardmotes, which still take place at least annually. AFolkmoot, for the whole of the City held at the outdoor cross ofSt Paul's Cathedral, was formerly also held. Many of the medieval offices and traditions continue to the present",
"to the present day, demonstrating the unique nature of the City and itsCorporation. In 1381, thePeasants' Revoltaffected London. The rebels took the City and the Tower of London, but the rebellion ended after its leader, Wat Tyler, was killed during a confrontation that included Lord MayorWilliam Walworth. In 1450, rebel forces again occupied the City duringJack Cade's Rebellionbefore being ousted by London citizens following a bloody battle on London Bridge. In 1550, the area south of London Bridge inSouthwarkcame under the control of the City with the establishment of the ward ofBridge Without. The city was burnt severely on a number of occasions, the worst being in 1123 and in theGreat Fire of Londonin 1666. Both of these fires were referred to astheGreat Fire. After the fire of 1666, a number of plans were drawn up to remodel the city and its street pattern into arenaissance-style city with planned urban blocks, squares and boulevards. These plans were almost entirely not taken up, and the medieval",
"and the medieval street pattern re-emerged almost intact. Early modern period In the 1630s the Crown sought to have the Corporation of the City of London extend its jurisdiction to surrounding areas. In what is sometimes called the \"great refusal\", the Corporation said no to the King, which in part accounts for its unique government structure to the present. By the late 16th century, London increasingly became a major centre for banking, international trade and commerce. TheRoyal Exchangewas founded in 1565 by SirThomas Greshamas a centre of commerce for London's merchants, and gained Royal patronage in 1571. Although no longer used for its original purpose, its location at the corner ofCornhillandThreadneedle Streetcontinues to be the geographical centre of the city's core of banking and financial services, with theBank of Englandmoving to its present site in 1734, opposite the Royal Exchange. Immediately to the south of Cornhill,Lombard Streetwas the location from 1691 ofLloyd's Coffee House, which became",
"House, which became the world-leading insurance market. London's insurance sector continues to be based in the area, particularly inLime Street. In 1708,Christopher Wren's masterpiece,St Paul's Cathedral, was completed on his birthday. The first service had been held on 2 December 1697, more than 10 years earlier. It replaced the original St Paul's, which had been completely destroyed in the Great Fire of London, and is considered to be one of the finest cathedrals in Britain and a fine example ofBaroque architecture. Growth of London The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of theIndustrial Revolution, and London's role at the centre of the evolvingBritish Empire. The urban area expanded beyond the borders of the City of London, most notably during this period towards theWest Endand Westminster. Expansion continued and became more rapid by the beginning of the 19th century, with London growing in all directions. To",
"all directions. To theEastthePort of Londongrew rapidly during the century, with the construction of many docks, needed as the Thames at the City could not cope with the volume of trade. The arrival of the railways and theTubemeant that London could expand over a much greater area. By the mid-19th century, with London still rapidly expanding in population and area, the City had already become only a small part of the wider metropolis. 19th and 20th centuries An attempt was made in 1894 with theRoyal Commission on the Amalgamation of the City and County of Londonto end the distinction between the city and the surrounding County of London, but a change of government at Westminster meant the option was not taken up. The city as a distinctpolitysurvived despite its position within the London conurbation andnumerous local government reforms. Supporting this status, the city was a specialparliamentary boroughthat elected four members to theunreformed House of Commons, who were retained after theReform Act 1832;",
"theReform Act 1832; reduced to two under theRedistribution of Seats Act 1885; and ceased to be a separate constituency under theRepresentation of the People Act 1948. Since then the city is a minority (in terms of population and area) of theCities of London and Westminster. The city's population fell rapidly in the 19th century and through most of the 20th century, as people moved outwards in all directions to London's vastsuburbs, and many residential buildings were demolished to make way for office blocks. Like many areas of London and other British cities, the City fell victim to large scale and highly destructive aerial bombing duringWorld War II, especially inthe Blitz. Whilst St Paul's Cathedral survived the onslaught, large swathes of the area did not and the particularly heavy raids of late December 1940 led to afirestormcalled theSecond Great Fire of London. There was a major rebuilding programme in the decades following the war, in some parts (such as at the Barbican) dramatically altering the",
"altering the urban landscape. But the destruction of the older historic fabric allowed the construction of modern and larger-scale developments, whereas in those parts not so badly affected by bomb damage the City retains its older character of smaller buildings. The street pattern, which is still largely medieval, was altered slightly in places, although there is a more recent trend of reversing some of the post-war modernist changes made, such as atPaternoster Square. The City suffered terrorist attacks including the1993 Bishopsgate bombing(IRA) and the7 July 2005 London bombings(Islamist). In response to the 1993 bombing, a system of road barriers, checkpoints and surveillance cameras referred to as the \"ring of steel\" has been maintained to control entry points to the city. The 1970s saw the construction of tall office buildings including the 600-foot (183 m), 47-storeyNatWest Tower, the first skyscraper in the UK. By the 2010s, office space development had intensified in the City, especially in the",
"especially in the central, northern and eastern parts, with skyscrapers including30 St. Mary Axe(\"the Gherkin\"'),Leadenhall Building(\"the Cheesegrater\"),20 Fenchurch Street(\"the Walkie-Talkie\"), theBroadgate Tower, theHeron Towerand22 Bishopsgate. The main residential section of the City today is theBarbican Estate, constructed between 1965 and 1976. TheMuseum of Londonwas based there until March 2023 (due to reopen in West Smithfield in 2026),whilst a number of other services provided by the corporation are still maintained on the Barbican Estate. Governance The city has a unique political status, a legacy of its uninterrupted integrity as acorporate citysince the Anglo-Saxon period and its singular relationship with theCrown. Historically its system of government was not unusual, but it was not reformed by theMunicipal Corporations Act 1835and little changed by later reforms, so that it is the only local government in the UK where elections are not run on the basis of one vote for every adult citizen. It",
"adult citizen. It is administered by theCity of London Corporation, headed by theLord Mayor of London(not to be confused with the separateMayor of London, an office created only in the year 2000), which is responsible for a number of functions and has interests in land beyond the city's boundaries. Unlike other English local authorities, the corporation has two council bodies: the (now largely ceremonial)Court of Aldermenand theCourt of Common Council. TheCourt of Aldermenrepresents the wards, with each ward (irrespective of size) returning one alderman. The chief executive of the Corporation holds the ancient office ofTown Clerk of London. The city is a ceremonial county which has a Commission of Lieutenancy headed by the Lord Mayor instead of aLord-Lieutenantand hastwo Sheriffsinstead of aHigh Sheriff(seelist of Sheriffs of London), quasi-judicial offices appointed by thelivery companies, an ancient political system based on the representation and protection of trades (guilds). Senior members of the livery",
"of the livery companies are known asliverymenand form the Common Hall, which chooses the lord mayor, the sheriffs and certain other officers. Wards The city is made up of25 wards. They are survivors of the medieval government system that allowed a very local area to exist as a self-governing unit within the wider city.They can be described as electoral/political divisions; ceremonial, geographic and administrative entities; sub-divisions of the city. Each ward has anAlderman, who until the mid-1960sheld office for life but since put themselves up for re-election at least every 6 years, and are the onlydirectly electedAldermen in theUnited Kingdom. Wards continue to have aBeadle, an ancient position which is now largely ceremonial whose main remaining function is the running of an annualWardmoteof electors, representatives and officials.At the Wardmote the ward's Alderman appoints at least one Deputy for the year ahead, and Wardmotes are also held during elections. Each ward also has a Ward Club, which is",
"Ward Club, which is similar to aresidents' association. The wards are ancient and their number has changed three times sincetime immemorial: Following boundary changes in 1994, and later reform of the business vote in the city, there was a major boundary and electoral representation revision of the wards in 2003, and they were reviewed again in 2010 for change in 2013, though not to such a dramatic extent. The review was conducted by senior officers of the corporation and senior judges of theOld Bailey;the wards are reviewed by this process to avoidmalapportionment. The procedure of review is unique in the United Kingdom as it is not conducted by theElectoral Commissionor a local government boundary commission every 8 to 12 years, which is the case for all otherwards in Great Britain. Particular churches,livery companyhalls and other historic buildings and structures are associated with a ward, such as St Paul's Cathedral withCastle Baynard, and London Bridge with Bridge; boundary changes in 2003 removed",
"in 2003 removed some of these historic connections. Each ward elects analdermanto theCourt of Aldermen, andcommoners(the City equivalent of acouncillor) to theCourt of Common Councilof the corporation. Only electors who areFreemen of the City of Londonare eligible to stand. The number of commoners a ward sends to the Common Council varies from two to ten, depending on the number of electors in each ward. Since the 2003 review it has been agreed that the four more residential wards:Portsoken,Queenhithe,AldersgateandCripplegatetogether elect 20 of the 100 commoners, whereas the business-dominated remainder elect the remaining 80 commoners. 2003 and 2013 boundary changes have increased the residential emphasis of the mentioned four wards. Census data provides eight nominal rather than 25 real wards, all of varying size and population. Being subject to renaming and definition at any time, these census 'wards' are notable in that four of the eight wards accounted for 67% of the 'square mile' and held 86% of the",
"and held 86% of the population, and these were in fact similar to and named after four City of London wards: Elections The city has a unique electoral system. Most of its voters are representatives of businesses and other bodies that occupy premises in the city. Its ancient wards have very unequal numbers of voters. In elections, both the businesses based in the city and the residents of the City vote. The City of London Corporation was not reformed by theMunicipal Corporations Act 1835, because it had a more extensive electoral franchise than any other borough or city; in fact, it widened this further with its own equivalent legislation allowing one to become afreemanwithout being aliveryman. In 1801, the city had a population of about 130,000, but increasing development of the city as a central business district led to this falling to below 5,000 after the Second World War.It has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of theBarbican Estate. In 2009, the business vote was about",
"vote was about 24,000, greatly exceeding residential voters.As the City of London Corporation has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, its electoral practice has become increasingly anomalous. Uniquely for city or borough elections, its elections remain independent-dominated. The business or \"non-residential vote\" was abolished in other UK local council elections by theRepresentation of the People Act 1969, but was preserved in the City of London. The principal reason given by successive UK governments for retaining this mechanism for giving businesses representation, is that the city is \"primarily a place for doing business\".About 330,000 non-residents constitute the day-time population and use most of its services, far outnumbering residents, who number around 7,000 (2011). By contrast, opponents of the retention of the business vote argue that it is a cause of institutional inertia. TheCity of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002, a private Act of",
"a private Act of Parliament,reformed the voting system and greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. Under the new system, the number of non-resident voters has doubled from 16,000 to 32,000. Previously disenfranchised firms (and other organisations) are entitled to nominate voters, in addition to those already represented, and all such bodies are now required to choose their voters in a representative fashion. Bodies employing fewer than 10 people may appoint 1 voter; those employing 10 to 50 people 1 voter for every 5 employees; those employing more than 50 people 10 voters and 1 additional voter for each 50 employees beyond the first 50. The Act also changed other aspects of an earlier act relating to elections in the city, from 1957. The Temple Inner TempleandMiddle Temple(which neighbour each other) in the western ward ofFarringdon Withoutare within the boundaries and liberties of the City, but can be thought of as independentenclaves. They are two of the",
"They are two of the few remainingliberties, an old name for a geographic division with special rights. They areextra-parochial areas,historically not governed by theCity of London Corporation(and are today regarded as local authorities for most purposes) and equally outside theecclesiastical jurisdictionof theBishop of London. Other functions Within the city, the Corporation owns and runs bothSmithfield MarketandLeadenhall Market. It owns land beyond its boundaries, includingopen spaces(parks, forests and commons) in and around Greater London, including most ofEpping ForestandHampstead Heath. The Corporation ownsOld Spitalfields MarketandBillingsgate Fish Market, in the neighbouringLondon Borough of Tower Hamlets. It owns and helps fund theOld Bailey, the Central Criminal Court forEngland and Wales, as a gift to the nation, having begun as the City and Middlesex Sessions.The Honourable The Irish Society, a body closely linked with the corporation, also owns many public spaces inNorthern Ireland. The city has",
"The city has its own independent police force, theCity of London Police—the Common Council (the main body of the corporation) is thepolice authority.The corporation also run theHampstead Heath Constabulary,Epping Forest Keepersand theCity of London market constabularies(whose members are no longer attested as constables but retain the historic title). The majority of Greater London is policed by theMetropolitan Police Service, based atNew Scotland Yard. The city has one hospital,St Bartholomew's Hospital, also known as 'Barts'. Founded in 1123, it is located atSmithfield, and is undergoing a long-awaited regeneration after doubts as to its continuing use during the 1990s. The city is the third largest UK patron of the arts. It oversees theBarbican Centreand subsidises several important performing arts companies. The London Port Health Authority, which is the responsibility of the corporation, is responsible for all port health functions on thetidal part of the Thames, including thePort of Londonand related",
"Londonand related seaports, andLondon City Airport.The Corporation oversees theBridge House Estates, which maintainsBlackfriars Bridge,Millennium Bridge,Southwark Bridge, London Bridge andTower Bridge. TheCity's flagflies over Tower Bridge, although neither footing is in the city. The boundary of the City The size of the city was constrained by a defensive perimeter wall, known as London Wall, which was built by the Romans in the late 2nd century to protect their strategic port city. However the boundaries of the City of London no longer coincide with the old city wall, as the City expanded its jurisdiction slightly over time. During themedievalera, the city's jurisdiction expanded westwards, crossing the historic western border of the original settlement—theRiver Fleet—alongFleet StreettoTemple Bar. The city also took in the other \"City bars\" which were situated just beyond the old walled area, such as at Holborn, Aldersgate,West Smithfield, Bishopsgate and Aldgate. These were the important entrances to the",
"entrances to the city and their control was vital in maintaining the city's special privileges over certain trades. Most of the wall has disappeared, but several sections remain visible. A section near theMuseum of Londonwas revealed after the devastation of an air raid on 29 December 1940 at the height of theBlitz. Other visible sections are atSt Alphage, and there are two sections near theTower of London. The River Fleet wascanalisedafter the Great Fire of 1666 and then in stages was bricked up and has been since the 18th century one of London's \"lost rivers or streams\", today underground as astorm drain. The boundary of the city was unchanged until minor boundary changes on 1 April 1994, when it expanded slightly to the west, north and east, taking small parcels of land from the London Boroughs of Westminster,Camden,Islington,HackneyandTower Hamlets. The main purpose of these changes was to tidy up the boundary where it had been rendered obsolete by changes in the urban landscape. In this process the city",
"process the city also lost small parcels of land, though there was an overall net gain (the City grew from 1.05 to 1.12 square miles). Most notably, the changes placed the (then recently developed)Broadgateestate entirely in the city. Southwark, to the south of the city on the other side of the Thames, was within the City between 1550 and 1899 as the Ward ofBridge Without, a situation connected with theGuildable Manor. The city's administrative responsibility there had in practice disappeared by the mid-Victorianperiod as various aspects of metropolitan government were extended into the neighbouring areas. Today it is part of theLondon Borough of Southwark. TheTower of Londonhas always been outside the city and comes under theLondon Borough of Tower Hamlets. Arms, motto and flag The Corporation of the City of London has a fullachievementof armorial bearings consisting of a shield on which the arms are displayed, acrestdisplayed on a helm above the shield,supporterson either side and a motto displayed on a",
"displayed on a scroll beneath the arms. Thecoat of armsis \"anciently recorded\" at theCollege of Arms. The arms consist of a silver shield bearing a red cross with a red upright sword in the first quarter. They combine the emblems of the patron saints of England and London: theCross of St Georgewith the symbol of the martyrdom ofSaint Paul.The sword is often erroneously supposed to commemorate the killing ofPeasants' RevoltleaderWat TylerbyLord Mayor of LondonWilliam Walworth. However the arms were in use some months before Tyler's death, and the tradition that Walworth's dagger is depicted may date from the late 17th century. TheLatinmotto of the city is \"Domine dirige nos\", which translates as \"Lord, direct us\". It is thought to have been adopted in the 17th century, as the earliest record of it is in 1633. Abanner of the arms(the design on the shield) is flown as aflag. Geography The City of London is thesmallest ceremonial countyof England by area and population, and the fourth most densely populated. Of",
"populated. Of the326 English districts, it is the second smallestby population, after theIsles of Scilly, and the smallestby area. It is alsothe smallest English cityby population (and in Britain, only two cities in Wales are smaller), and thesmallest in the UK by area. The elevation of the City ranges from sea level at the Thames to 21.6 metres (71 ft) at the junction of High Holborn and Chancery Lane.Two small but notable hills are within the historic core,Ludgate Hillto the west andCornhillto the east. Between them ran theWalbrook, one of the many\"lost\" rivers or streams of London(another is theFleet). Boundary Beginning in the west, where the City borders Westminster, the boundary crosses theVictoria Embankmentfrom the Thames, passes to the west ofMiddle Temple, then turns for a short distance along the Strand and nearTemple Barthen north upChancery Lane, where it borders Camden. It turns east alongHolbornto Holborn Circus and then goes northeast toCharterhouse Street. As it crossesFarringdon Roadit",
"Roadit becomes the boundary with Islington. It continues toAldersgate, goes north, and turns east into some back streets soon after Aldersgate becomesGoswell Road, since 1994 embracing all of the corporation's Golden Lane Estate. Here, at Baltic Street West, is the most northerly extent. The boundary includes all of theBarbican Estateand continues east along Ropemaker Street and its continuation on the other side ofMoorgate, becomes South Place. It goes north, reaching the border with Hackney, then east, north, east on back streets, with Worship Street forming a northern boundary, so as to include theBroadgateestate. The boundary then turns south atNorton Folgateand becomes the border withTower Hamlets. It continues south intoBishopsgate, and takes some backstreets to Middlesex Street (Petticoat Lane) where it continues south-east then south. It then turns south-west, crossing theMinoriesso as to exclude theTower of London, and then reaches the Thames. The boundary then runs up the centre of the low-tide",
"of the low-tide channel of the Thames, with the exception thatBlackfriars Bridge(including the river beneath and land at its south end) is entirely part of the City, whilst the span and southern abutment of London Bridge is part of the city for some purposes(and as such is part ofBridgeward). The boundaries are marked by black bollards bearing the city's emblem, and bydragon boundary marksat major entrances, such as Holborn and the south end of London Bridge. A more substantial monument marks the boundary atTemple Baron Fleet Street. In some places, the financial district extends slightly beyond the boundaries, notably to the north and east, into the London boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Islington, and informally these locations are regarded as being part of the \"Square Mile\". Since the 1990s the eastern fringe, extending into Hackney and Tower Hamlets, has increasingly been a focus for large office developments due to the availability of large sites compared to within the city. Gardens and public",
"Gardens and public art The city has no sizeable parks within its boundary, but does have a network of a large number of gardens and small open spaces, many of them maintained by the corporation. These range from formal gardens such as the one inFinsbury Circus, containing abowling greenandbandstand, to churchyards such asSt Olave Hart Street, to water features and artwork in courtyards and pedestrianised lanes. Gardens include: There are a number of private gardens and open spaces, often within courtyards of the larger commercial developments. Two of the largest are those of theInner TempleandMiddle TempleInns of Court, in the far southwest. The Thames and its riverside walks are increasingly being valued as open space and in recent years efforts have been made to increase the ability for pedestrians to access and walk along the river. Climate The nearest weather station has historically been the London Weather Centre atKingsway/Holborn, although observations ceased in 2010. Now St. James Park provides the",
"Park provides the nearest official readings. The city has anoceanic climate(Köppen\"Cfb\") modified by theurban heat islandin the centre of London. This generally causes higher night-time minima than outlying areas. For example, the August mean minimumof 14.7 °C (58.5 °F) compares to a figure of 13.3 °C (55.9 °F) for Greenwichand Heathrowwhereas is 11.6 °C (52.9 °F) at Wisleyin the middle of several square miles ofMetropolitan Green Belt. All figures refer to the observation period 1971–2000. Accordingly, the weather station holds the record for the UK's warmest overnight minimum temperature, 24.0 °C (75.2 °F), recorded on 4 August 1990.The maximum is 37.6 °C (99.7 °F), set on 10 August 2003.The absolute minimumfor the weather station is a mere −8.2 °C (17.2 °F), compared to readings around −15.0 °C (5.0 °F) towards the edges of London. Unusually, this temperature was during a windy and snowy cold spell (mid-January 1987), rather than a cold clear night—cold air drainage is arrested due to the vast urban area",
"the vast urban area surrounding the city. The station holds the record for the highest British mean monthly temperature,24.5 °C (76.1 °F) (mean maximum 29.2 °C (84.6 °F), mean minimum 19.7 °C (67.5 °F) during July 2006). However, in terms of daytime maximum temperatures, Cambridge NIABand Botanical Gardenswith a mean maximum of 29.1 °C (84.4 °F), and Heathrowwith 29.0 °C (84.2 °F) all exceeded this. Public services Police and security The city is apolice areaand has its ownpolice force, theCity of London Police, separate from theMetropolitan Police Servicecovering the majority of Greater London. The City Police previously had three police stations, atSnow Hill,Wood StreetandBishopsgate. They now only retain Bishopsgate along with an administrative headquarters at Guildhall Yard East.The force comprises 735 police officers including 273 detectives.It is the smallest territorial police force inEngland and Wales, in both geographic area and the number of police officers. Where the majority of British police",
"of British police forces have silver-colouredbadges, those of the City of London Police are black and gold featuring the City crest. The force has rarered and whitechequered cap bands and unique red and white striped duty arm bands on the sleeves of the tunics of constables and sergeants (red and white being the colours of the city), which in most other British police forces are black and white. City police sergeants and constables wear crestedcustodian helmetswhilst on foot patrol. These helmets do not feature eitherSt Edward's Crownor theBrunswick Star, which are used on most other police helmets inEngland and Wales. The city's position as the United Kingdom's financial centre and a critical part of the country's economy, contributing about 2.5% of the UK'sgross national product,has resulted in it becoming a target for political violence. TheProvisional IRAexploded severalbombsin the early 1990s, including the1993 Bishopsgate bombing. The area is also spoken of as a possible target foral-Qaeda. For",
"foral-Qaeda. For instance, when in May 2004 the BBC'sPanoramaprogramme examined the preparedness of Britain's emergency services for a terrorist attack on the scale of the11 September 2001 attacks, they simulated a chemical explosion onBishopsgatein the east of the city. The\"Ring of Steel\"was established in the wake of the IRA bombings to guard against terrorist threats. Fire brigade The city has fire risks in many historic buildings, includingSt Paul's Cathedral,Old Bailey,Mansion House,Smithfield Market, theGuildhall, and also in numerous high-rise buildings. There is one London Fire Brigade station in the city, atDowgate, with onepumping appliance.The City relies upon stations in the surrounding London boroughs to support it at some incidents. The first fire engine is in attendance in roughly five minutes on average, the second when required in a little over five and a half minutes.There were 1,814 incidents attended in the City in 2006/2007—the lowest in Greater London. No-one died in an event arising",
"in an event arising from a fire in the four years prior to 2007. Power There ispower stationlocated inCharterhouse Streetthat also provides heat to some of the surrounding buildings. Demography TheOffice for National Statisticsrecorded the population in 2011 as 7,375;slightly higher than in theprevious census, 2001,and estimates the population as at mid-2016 to be 9,401. At the 2001 census the ethnic composition was 84.6%White, 6.8%South Asian, 2.6%Black, 2.3%Mixed, 2.0%Chineseand 1.7% were listed as \"other\".To the right is a table showing the change in population since 1801, based ondecadal censuses. The first half of the 19th century shows a population of between 120,000 and 140,000, decreasing dramatically from 1851 to 1991, with a small increase between 1991 and 2001. The only notable boundary change since the first census in 1801 occurred in 1994. The city's full-time working residents have much higher gross weekly pay than in London and Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland): £773.30 compared to",
"£773.30 compared to £598.60 and £491.00 respectively.There is a large inequality of income between genders (£1,085.90 in men compared to £653.50 in women), and this can be explained by job type and length of employment respectively.The 2001 Census showed the city as a unique district amongst 376 districts surveyed inEnglandandWales.The city had the highest proportional population increase, one-person households, people with qualifications at degree level or higher and the highest indications of overcrowding.It recorded the lowest proportion of households with cars or vans, people who travel to work by car, married couple households and the lowest average household size: just 1.58 people.It also ranked highest within the Greater London area for the percentage of people with no religion and people who are employed. Ethnicity Economy The City of London vies with New York City'sLower Manhattanfor the distinction of the world's pre-eminent financial centre. TheLondon Stock Exchange(sharesandbonds),Lloyd's of",
"of London(insurance) and theBank of Englandare all based in the city.Over 500 banks have offices in the city. TheAlternative Investment Market, a market for trades inequitiesof smaller firms, is a recent development. In 2009, the City of London accounted for 2.4% of UK GDP. London's foreign exchange market has been described by Reuters as 'the crown jewel of London's financial sector'.Of the $3.98 trillion daily global turnover, as measured in 2009, trading in London accounted for around $1.85 trillion, or 46.7% of the total.Thepound sterling, the currency of the United Kingdom, is globally the fourth-most traded currencyand the fourth most heldreserve currency. Canary Wharf, a few miles east of the City in Tower Hamlets, which houses many banks and other institutions formerly located in the Square Mile, has since 1991 become another centre for London's financial services industry. Although growth has continued in both locations,and there have been relocations in both directions, the Corporation has come to",
"has come to realise that its planning policies may have been causing financial firms to choose Canary Wharf as a location. In 2022, 12.3% of City of London residents had been granted non-domicile status in order to avoid their paying tax in the UK. Headquarters Many major global companies have their headquarters in the city, includingAviva,BT Group,Lloyds Banking Group,Quilter,Prudential,Schroders,Standard Chartered,andUnilever. A number of the world's largest law firms are headquartered in the city, including four of the \"Magic Circle\" law firms (Allen & Overy,Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer,LinklatersandSlaughter & May), as well as other firms such asAshurst LLP,DLA Piper,Eversheds Sutherland,Herbert Smith FreehillsandHogan Lovells. Other sectors Whilst the financial sector, and related businesses and institutions, continue to dominate, the economy is not limited to that sector. The legal profession has a strong presence, especially in the west and north (i.e., towards theInns of Court). Retail businesses",
"Retail businesses were once important, but have gradually moved to theWest End of London, though it is now Corporation policy to encourage retailing in some locations, for example atCheapsidenear St Paul's. The city has a number of visitor attractions, mainly based on its historic heritage as well as theBarbican Centreand adjacentMuseum of London, though tourism is not at present a major contributor to the city's economy or character. The city has many pubs, bars and restaurants, and the \"night-time\" economy does feature in theBishopsgatearea, towardsShoreditch. The meat marketat Smithfield, wholly within the city, continues to be one of London's main markets (the only one remaining in central London) and the country's largestmeat market. In the east isLeadenhall Market, a fresh food market that is also a visitor attraction. Retail and residential The trend for purely office development is beginning to reverse as the Corporation encourages residential use, albeit with development occurring when it arises on",
"when it arises on windfall sites. The city has a target of 90 additional dwellings per year.Some of the extra accommodation is in small pre-World War IIlisted buildings, which are not suitable for occupation by the large companies which now provide much of the city's employment. Recent residential developments include \"the Heron\", a high-rise residential building on the Milton Court site adjacent to the Barbican, and theHeron Plazadevelopment on Bishopsgate is also expected to include residential parts. Since the 1990s, the City has diversified away from near exclusive office use in other ways. For example, several hotels and the firstdepartment storeopened in the 2000s. A shopping centre was more recently opened atOne New Change,Cheapside(near St Paul's Cathedral) in October 2010, which is open seven days a week. However, large sections remain quiet at weekends, especially in the eastern section, and it is quite common to find shops,pubsand cafes closed on these days. Landmarks Historic buildings Fire,",
"buildings Fire, bombing and post-World War IIredevelopment have meant that the city, despite its history, has fewer intact historic structures than one might expect. Nonetheless, there remain many dozens of (mostly Victorian and Edwardian) fine buildings, typically in historicist andneoclassical style. They include theMonument to the Great Fire of London(\"the Monument\"),St Paul's Cathedral,the Guildhall, theRoyal Exchange,Dr. Johnson's House,Mansion Houseand agreat many churches, many designed bySir Christopher Wren, who also designed St Paul's. Prince Henry's Roomand2 King's Bench Walkare notable historic survivors of heavy bombing ofthe Templearea, which has largely been rebuilt to its historic form. Another example of a bomb-damaged place having been restored isStaple Innon Holborn. A few small sections of the RomanLondon Wallexist, for example near the Tower of London and in the Barbican area. Among the twentieth-centurylisted buildingsareBracken House, the first post World War II buildings in the",
"II buildings in the country to be given statutory protection, and the whole of theBarbicanandGolden Lane Estate. TheTower of Londonis not in the city, but is a notable visitor attraction which brings tourists to the southeast of the city. Other landmark buildings with historical significance include theBank of England, theOld Bailey, theCustom House,Smithfield Market,Leadenhall MarketandSt Bartholomew's Hospital. Noteworthy contemporary buildings include a number of modern high-rise buildings (see section below) as well as theLloyd's building. Skyscrapers and tall buildings A growing number of tall buildings and skyscrapers are principally used by the financial sector. Almost all are situated in the eastern side aroundBishopsgate,Leadenhall StreetandFenchurch Street, in the financial core of the city. In the north there is a smaller cluster comprising theBarbican Estate's three tall residential towers and the commercialCityPointtower. In 2007, the 100 m (328 ft) tallDrapers' Gardensbuilding was demolished",
"was demolished and replaced by a shorter tower. The city's buildings of at least 100 m (328 ft) in height are: The timeline of the tallest building in the city is as follows: Transport Rail and Tube The city is well served by theLondon Underground(\"tube\") andNational Railnetworks. Seven London Underground lines serve the city; the underground stations include: In addition,Aldgate East(),Farringdon(),Temple() andTower Hill() tube stations are all situated within metres of the City of London boundary. TheDocklands Light Railway(DLR) has two termini in the city: Bank andTower Gateway. The DLR links the City directly to theEast End. Destinations include Canary Wharf andLondon City Airport. TheElizabeth line(constructed by theCrossrailproject) runs east–west underneath the City of London. The line serves two stations in the City –Farringdonand Liverpool Street – which additionally serves the Barbican and Moorgate areas. Elizabeth line services link the City directly to destinations such as Canary Wharf,Heathrow",
"Wharf,Heathrow Airport, and theM4 Corridorhigh-technology hub (servingSloughandReading). The city is served by a frequentThameslinkrail service which runs north–south through London. Thameslink services call at Farringdon,City Thameslink, and London Blackfriars. This provides the city with a direct link to key destinations across London, includingElephant & Castle,London Bridge, andSt Pancras International(for theEurostartomainland Europe). There are also regular, direct trains from these stations to major destinations acrossEast Angliaandthe South East, includingBedford,Brighton,Cambridge,Gatwick Airport,Luton Airport, andPeterborough. There are several \"London Terminals\"in the city: All stations in the city are inLondon fare zone 1. Road The nationalA1,A10A3,A4, andA40 roadroutes begin in the city. The city is in theLondon congestion chargezone, with the small exception on the eastern boundary of the sections of the A1210/A1211 that are part of theInner Ring Road. The following bridges, listed west to east",
"listed west to east (downstream), cross the River Thames:Blackfriars Bridge,Blackfriars Railway Bridge,Millennium Bridge(footbridge),Southwark Bridge,Cannon Street Railway Bridgeand London Bridge;Tower Bridgeis not in the city. The city, like most of central London, is wellserved by buses, including night buses. Two bus stations are in the city, atAldgateon the eastern boundary with Tower Hamlets, and atLiverpool Streetby the railway station. However although the London Road Traffic Act 1924 removed from existing local authorities the powers to prevent the development of road passengers transport services within the London Metropolitan Area, the City of London retained most such powers. As a consequence, neither Trolleybus nor Green Line Coach services were permitted to enter the City to pick up or set down passengers. Hence the building of Aldgate (Minories) Trolleybus and Coach station as well as the complex terminal arrangements at Parliament Hill Fields. This restriction was removed by the Transport Act",
"the Transport Act 1985 Cycling Cycling infrastructurein the city is maintained by the City of London Corporation andTransport for London(TfL). TheSandander Cyclesand Beryl bike sharing systems operate in the City of London. River OneLondon River Servicespier is on the Thames in the city,Blackfriars Millennium Pier, though theTower Millennium Pierlies adjacent to the boundary near the Tower of London. One of thePort of London's 25safeguarded wharves,Walbrook Wharf, is adjacent to Cannon Street station, and is used by the corporation to transfer waste via the river. Swan Lane Pier, just upstream of London Bridge, is proposed to be replaced and upgraded for regular passenger services, planned to take place in 2012–2015. Before then, Tower Pier is to be extended. There is a public riverside walk along the river bank, part of theThames Path, which opened in stages – the route within the city was completed by the opening of a stretch atQueenhithein 2023.The walk along Walbrook Wharf is closed to pedestrians when",
"to pedestrians when waste is being transferred onto barges. Travel to work (by residents) According to a survey conducted in March 2011, the methods by which employed residents 16–74 get to work varied widely: 48.4% go on foot; 19.5% via light rail, (i.e.the Underground,DLR, etc.); 9.2% work mainly from home; 5.8% take the train; 5.6% travel by bus, minibus, or coach; and 5.3% go by bicycle; with just 3.4% commuting by car or van, as driver or passenger. Education The city is home to a number of higher education institutions including: theGuildhall School of Music and Drama, theCass Business School,The London Institute of Banking & Financeand parts of three of theuniversities in London: theMaughan LibraryofKing's College LondononChancery Lane, the business school ofLondon Metropolitan University, and a campus of theUniversity of Chicago Booth School of Business.The College of Lawhas its London campus inMoorgate. Part ofBarts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistryis on the Barts hospital site at West",
"site at West Smithfield. The city has only one directly maintained primary school,The Aldgate School(formerly Sir John Cass's Foundation Primary School) atAldgate(ages 4 to 11). It is a Voluntary-Aided (VA)Church of Englandschool, maintained by the Education Service of the City of London. City residents send their children to schools in neighbouringLocal Education Authorities, such asIslington,Tower Hamlets,WestminsterandSouthwark. The City controls three independent schools,City of London School(a boys' school) andCity of London School for Girlsin the city, and theCity of London Freemen's School(co-educational day and boarding) inAshtead, Surrey. The City of London School for Girls and City of London Freemen's School have their own preparatory departments for entrance at age seven. It is the principal sponsor of TheCity Academy, Hackney,City of London Academy Islington, andCity of London Academy, Southwark. Public libraries Libraries operated by the Corporation include three lending libraries; Barbican",
"libraries; Barbican Library, Shoe Lane Library and Artizan Street Library and Community Centre. Membership is open to all – with one official proof of address required to join. Guildhall Library, and City Business Library are also public reference libraries, specialising in the history of London and business reference resources. Money laundering The City of London's role in illicit financial activity such asmoney launderinghas earned the financial hub sobriquets like ‘The Laundromat’ and ‘Londongrad.’ London’s role as the world’s dirty money clearing house is well-documented but efforts are being made to clean up through legislation, e.g. authorisingunexplained wealth orders. High-value properties are sought after by criminals and money launderers legitimising their gains by investing in the city’s prestigious real estate. In May 2024, the UK's then deputy foreign secretary,Andrew Mitchell, said that 40% of the dirty money in the world goes through the City of London and other crown dependencies. See also",
"See also References Further reading Notes External links Listed clockwise from the West",
"City of London Police Sadiq Khan(L) Statutory Deputy MayorJoanne McCartney(L/Co) London Assembly Lord MayorPeter Estlin London boroughs(list) Vacant TheCity of London Policeis theterritorial police forceresponsible for law enforcement within theCity of London, England, including theMiddleandInnerTemples. The force responsible for law enforcement within the remainder of theLondon region, outside the city, is the much largerMetropolitan Police, a separate organisation. The City of London, which is now primarily a financial business district with a small resident population but a large commuting workforce, is the historic core of London, and has an administrative history distinct from that of the rest of the metropolis, of which its separate police force is one manifestation. The City of London area has a resident population of around 8,700, however there is also a daily influx of approximately 513,000 commuters into the city, along with thousands of tourists. Thepolice authorityis theCommon Councilof the City",
"Councilof the City and, unlike other territorial forces inEngland and Wales, there is not apolice and crime commissionerreplacing that police authority by way of thePolice Reform and Social Responsibility Act 2011,but like a police and crime commissioner, the Common Council is elected. As of 2021, the force had a workforce of 1,355 including 861 full-time police officers and 494 support staff.The force is also supported by much smaller numbers ofspecial constables,police community support officers, and designated officers. The headquarters is located at theGuildhall(which also housed it from 1832 to 1840) and there is an additionalstationatBishopsgate,with former stations including Moor Lane (destroyed in theBlitzon 29 December 1940) and Cloak Lane (closed 1965). The City of London Police is the smallest territorial police force in England and Wales, both in terms of geographic area and head-count.The current commissioner (equivalent to the chief constable in non-London forces), is Peter O'Doherty, who was",
"O'Doherty, who was appointed in a temporary capacity in October 2023, and is set to become permanent commissioner in 2024, subject to royal assent. History To 1850 Traditionally the responsibility for policing in the city had been divided between day and night CityWatch, primarily under the twosheriffs. Their responsibilities were shared with thealdermen's officers – the wardbeadles– who are now purely ceremonial. It was these officers' responsibility for ensuring that the Night Watch was maintained. Policing during the day eventually came under theCity Patrol, which evolved into theCity Day Police, which was modelled on theMetropolitan Police. TheLondon City Policewas officially formed in 1832, before becoming the City of London Police with the passing of theCity of London Police Act 1839, which gave statutory approval to the force as an independent police body and headed off attempts made to merge it with the Metropolitan Police.It moved its headquarters from the corporation's Guildhall to 26Old Jewryin",
"to 26Old Jewryin 1840. 1850–1989 The first officer of the force todie in the line of dutywas in 1857, followed by 31 more to date, including three killed in the 1910Houndsditch murders. The force was involved in the investigation of theJack the Rippermurders. Teams of the City of London Police have participated in the Olympic games three times in thetug of wartournament. At the1908 Summer Olympicsthey won the gold medal, beating aLiverpool City Policeteam in the final. In1912a joint City-Metropolitan Police team was beaten in the final by a Stockholm Police team. At the1920 Summer Olympicsa solely City of London Police British team regained its title, beating the Netherlands. This was the last time tug of war was an Olympic sport, which means the City of London Police is still the reigning Olympic champion. The force has had special constables since at least 1911, when 1,648 were called for duty during docks strikes. There was one day in 1918, when the only warranted officer within the city of London was a",
"of London was a special constableSeveral regular officers of the force were killed inNazi German air raids over Londonin 1941 and 1942. 1990–2001 The early 1990s saw theIRAcarry out a number of high-profile attacks in the city as part ofthe Troubles, such as the 1992Baltic Exchange bombingand the1993 Bishopsgate bombing, resulting in huge economic and infrastructural damage. As a result, theTraffic and Environmental Zone, better known as the \"ring of steel\", was officially established in 1993 by Owen Kelly, the then City of London Police commissioner.CommanderHugh Mooresuffered a fatal heart failure in 1993 following a violent arrest. Some aspects of the ring of steel were 'stepped down' in the late 1990s following the cessation of IRA hostilities but stepped up again after theSeptember 11 terrorist attacks.The force's headquarters relocated toWood Streetin 2001. 2001–present The City of London Special Constabulary were awarded the Ferrers Trophy in 2006 for the efforts of their officers after the7 July 2005",
"the7 July 2005 London bombings. The award is given annually to police volunteers, for exceptional dedication and innovation. It was the first time in the award's history that an entire special constabulary received the trophy. In 2010 the same trophy was awarded to Special Constable Patrick Rarden of the Honourable Artillery Company Detachment (part of the City of London Special Constabulary) for using his banking skills and experience to help train colleagues and provide invaluable assistance to solve fraud cases.2002 saw the most recent City officer to die in the line of duty. In 2015, the City of London Police mounted unit also escorted theexhumed remains of King Richard IIIthrough thecity of LeicesterfromSt Nicholas ChurchtoLeicester Cathedral, en route to their reburial. In May 2020, City of London Police officers stopped a vehicle driven by a man who had recently been interviewed byChannel 4about a prior instance of police harassment, who they incorrectly accused of concealing drugs. After smashing his",
"After smashing his car window, officers strip-searched him, detained him for 21 hours and impounded his car.Following an investigation, City of London Police acknowledged failings in their treatment of the man, including returning the vehicle to him without first removing the broken glass, but declined to apologise and said his arrest had been lawful.In March 2021 theIndependent Office for Police Conductordered City of London Police to conduct a new investigation into the incident,which resulted in the City of London Police having to apologise to the driver and identified 'organisational and individual learning'. List of commissioners Organisation The City Police is organised into fivedirectorates: Because of theCity's role as a world financial centre, the City of London Police has developed a great deal of expertise in dealing with fraud and \"is the acknowledged lead force within the UK for economic crime investigation.\"The Economic Crime Directorate includes: Leadership structure Uniform Whereas the",
"Uniform Whereas the majority of British police forces havewhite metalcap badgesand buttons, those of the City Police arebrass. The force also have red and whitechequered sleeve and cap bands(red and white being the colours of the City of London), which in most other British police forces are black and white. In formal uniform, female officers wear a red and whitecravat. Theirhelmet(worn by male constables and sergeants) has altered little since its introduction in 1865 and has a crest instead of the white metal boss worn on the Metropolitan Police helmet. The \"helmet plate\" or badge is the City of Londoncoat of arms; this is unusual for a police force inEngland and Walesin that it does not includeSt Edward's Crown, neither does it have theBrunswick Star, which is used on most other police helmets in England and Wales. On state and ceremonial occasions, the commissioner and assistant commissioners wear a special court dress uniform with a goldaiguilletteand acocked hatadorned with whiteswan's feathers; other",
"feathers; other than on these occasions, they wear standard uniform. Equipment and vehicles City of London police officers carrywarrant cards.Like most other police forces in Great Britain, City of London police officers arenot routinely armed, but some officers have received firearms training and areauthorised firearms officers.City of London police equipment includesPAVA irritant spray, batons, and handcuffs. Many officers are also equipped with theTaserelectroshock weapon; according to the police force's reported figures, Tasers have been deployed (including drawing or \"red-dotting\") about seven times per month. In the September 2018 to September 2020 period, the City of London Police recorded 11 incidents of police officers firing Tasers on suspects. The City of London Police maintains a fleet ofpolice vehicles, including SUVs, compact cars, motorcycle, and vans, as well as onehorsebox.All of the force's response vehicles, includingarmed response vehicles(ARVs) carry adefibrillatorandfirst aidsupplies,",
"aidsupplies, for use in the event of an emergency. Mounted unit The City of London Police maintains amounted policeunit.In addition to regular duties, the horses of the mounted unit have been used to trample wildflower seeds at theBarbicanWildlife Garden at the request of the community wildlife gardeners.The horses' ceremonial duties include participation inTrooping the Colourand theLord Mayor's Show. Ranks The ranks from constable to chief superintendent are the same as all other British police forces. The three senior ranks are similar to those used by the Metropolitan Police. Insignia Constables and sergeants displaycollar numberson their rank badges (in the range 1 to 150 for sergeants and 151 to 999 for constables). Officers between the ranks of inspector and chief superintendent (who do not have collar numbers) display their warrant numbers instead. All officers also wear name badges with their rank and surname (e.g. Police Constable John Smith would wear a badge displaying \"Constable Smith\"). The City",
"Smith\"). The City of London police also has a special constabulary with seven ranks of officers. As with regular officers, constables and sergeants display collar numbers on their rank badges (in the range 1001 to 1099 for sergeants and 1101 to 1299 for constables) and officers between the ranks of inspector and chief superintendent display their warrant numbers, in all cases followed by the letters \"SC\". The rank badge for a special commander is identical to that for a regular commander. Name badges are identical to those worn by regular officers (e.g. Special Sergeant Mary Jones would wear a badge displaying \"Sergeant Jones\"). As well as a PCSO rank Workforce The following is the current released workforce data. The \"chief officer\" category includes the commissioner, assistant commissioner and commanders, and the \"special constable\" category includes all special constable ranks. Special Constabulary As of December 2023 it consists of 47 volunteer officers, led by a special chief inspector, assisted by 2",
"assisted by 2 special inspectors, 6 special sergeants and 38 special constables. The majority undertake duties during evenings and nights in support of the regular force in dealing with issues arising from the busy night-time economy of the city. However, other officers perform more specialist roles in the force's other directorates including supporting the National Lead Force (NLF) in the National Fraud Intelligence Bureau (NFIB) with a number of officers joining the national Cyber Volunteering initiative. In 2023 the City of London Police undertook a major restructure of the COLP Special Constabulary, with the ranks of Special Commander and Special Superintendent being abolished and the chief officer now being Special Chief Inspector who reports to the Chief Superintendent for Local Policing who in turn answers to the Commander for Ops and Security. Many officers have specialist training and perform duties as response drivers, \"Level 2\" public order officers and cycle officers. As in all forces, special",
"all forces, special constables are expected to commit to a minimum of 200 hours' duty each year, and in return receive out-of-pocket expenses and free travel on theTransport for Londonnetwork. They receive no pay. Uniform and equipment is identical to that of regular (full-time) police officers. Officers of theHonourable Artillery CompanyDetachment of Special Constabulary CLSC (originally part of theMetropolitan Special Constabularybut moved to the City force on reorganisation) wear the title \"HAC\" when in formal uniform.Special Constables have four-digit collar numbers beginning 11 or 12, and Special Sergeants have four-digit collar numbers beginning 10. Chief Officers of City of London Special Constabulary Other corporation policing bodies TheCity of London Corporation, the local authority for the city, also operates further limited policing bodies. These bodies are not part of the City of London Police: See also References External links",
"2019 European Parliament election in Lombardy The2019 European Parliament electiontook place inItalyon 26 May 2019. InLombardyLega Nordcame first with 43.4% of the vote (country-level result 34.3%) and more than 20pp than theDemocratic Party, which came second with 23.1%. TheFive Star Movementcame third with 9.3%, ahead ofForza Italia(8.7%),Brothers of Italy(5.5%),More Europe(3.1%),Green Europe(2.5%) andThe Left(1.3%). Results Source:Ministry of the Interior References",
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forza_Italia_(2013"
] |
How many of Ron Hutchinson's teams won League Championships while he was on them? | Of the six hockey teams that Hutchinson played on during his career, two, the Flin Flon Bombers and the Vancouver Canucks, took home League Championships during his time on the roster. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Hutchinson_(ice_hockey) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flin_Flon_Bombers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks_(WHL) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Rangers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Totems | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Checkers_(1956%E2%80%931977) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranbrook_Royals | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Hutchinson_(ice_hockey)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flin_Flon_Bombers', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks_(WHL)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Rangers', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Totems', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Checkers_(1956%E2%80%931977)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranbrook_Royals'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Hutchinson_(ice_hockey",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flin_Flon_Bombers",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks_(WHL",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Rangers",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Totems",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Checkers_(1956%E2%80%931977",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranbrook_Royals"
] | [
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Hutchinson_(ice_hockey",
"Flin Flon Bombers TheFlin Flon Bombersare a Canadianjunior ice hockeyteam inFlin Flon, a city located on theManitoba–Saskatchewanprovincial border. The Bombers are members of theSaskatchewan Junior Hockey League(SJHL), which is a member of theCanadian Junior Hockey League, and they play home games at theWhitney Forumon the Manitoba side of the city. The team's history dates back to 1927 and includes a decade-long run in the major juniorWestern Hockey Leaguein the late 1960s and 1970s. The team has won two national championships, including the1957 Memorial Cupand the 1969 James Piggott National Championship. History Early years The Bombers date back to 1927. Their trademark colours are maroon and white. The team originally played at the Flin Flon Community Club Arena until the construction of the Whitney Forum, known locally as \"the zoo\", in the 1950s.The Bombers originated as a senior team, and they competed in the Northern Saskatchewan Senior Hockey League and the Saskatchewan Senior Hockey League between 1937 and 1948. SJHL dynasty In the postwar period, the Bombers became charter members of theSaskatchewan Junior Hockey League(SJHL).The team quickly established a dynasty, winning seven league titles in a nine-year span between 1952 and 1960. The team's biggest success during this period came in the 1956–57 season. The Bombers lost only five games in the regular season. In the playoffs, the Bombers beat theHumboldt Indiansfour games to none in the semifinals, then won the final over thePrince Albert Mintosfour games to two. As SJHL champions, the Bombers then advanced to theAbbott Cupto determine the champion forWestern Canada. They defeated theEdmonton Oil Kings, a team of junior-aged players competing in theseniorCentral Alberta Hockey League, four games to two, then theThunder Bay Junior A Hockey League'sFort William Canadiensin four games to win the Abbott Cup and advance to theMemorial Cupnational tournament. As perMemorial Cuprules, the Bombers were permitted to add three players to their roster for the 1957 national playoffs, picking up goalie Lynn Davis and defencemanJean Gauthierfrom the Fort William Canadiens and centreOrland Kurtenbachfrom Prince Albert Mintos. There, they faced the Eastern Canadian championOttawa Canadiens, coached bySam Pollockand assistantScotty Bowman.The first three games were in Flin Flon, with the remaining games played inRegina, Saskatchewanwith Pollock drawing the ire of Flin Flon residents for criticizing the remoteness and size of the community.The Bombers won the series four games to three to claim the Memorial Cup championship.The win by the Bombers was considered a considerable upset over the favoured Canadiens.The team was greeted by 4,000 people when they returned to Flin Flon after the series. The 1956–57 Bombers were inducted into both theManitoba Sports Hall of Fame(1999) and the Saskatchewan Sports Hall of Fame (2009), as well as theManitoba Hockey Hall of Fame. The Bombers played in the SJHL until 1966, when the launch of theCanadian Major Junior Hockey League(CMJHL) led the SJHL to fold with several of its teams joining the new league.The Bombers spent the1966–67season in theManitoba Junior Hockey League(MJHL) instead.Led by coachPaddy Ginnelland star playersReggie LeachandBobby Clarke, who won the league scoring title, the Bombers dominated the MJHL and won theTurnbull Cupas league champions, before losing the Abbott Cup final to Port Arthur.Clarke recorded 71 goals and 183 points in 45 games, while Leach recorded 67 goals and 113 points.Ginnell was credited with turning the Bombers into a hard-working and physically tough team.The arrangement with the MJHL would last just one season, with the Bombers leaving the league in 1967. Western Canada Hockey League After its inaugural season, the CMJHL was renamed the Western Canada Junior Hockey League, which was then simplified to the Western Canada Hockey league one year later.After their one season in the MJHL, the Bombers joined the WCHL, now the top level of junior hockey in Western Canada, for the1967–68season, and they immediately built on their previous success. The Clarke-led Bombers continued to dominate, finishing in first place for the 1967–68 regular season before losing in thePresident's Cupfinals to theEstevan Bruins. The Bombers again finished in first place in the1968–69 season, going on to win that season's playoffs to become President's Cup champions, defeating theEdmonton Oil Kings.Clarke led the league in scoring both seasons, while Leach recorded 87 goals in 1967–68.As 1969 WCHL champion, the Bombers proceeded to win a national championship in 1969 by defeating theSt. Thomas Baronsof theWestern Ontario Junior A Hockey League; the best-of-seven series was unsanctioned by theCanadian Amateur Hockey Association(CAHA), which at the time had barred the WCHL from competing for the Memorial Cup. The short-livedCanadian Hockey Associationorganized an alternate championship; despite being a best-of-seven, St. Thomas withdrew from the series during the fourth game, trailing the game and the series two games to one, protesting the Bombers' violent play style—the Bombers were awarded the title.After the series, Flin Flon challenged the Memorial Cup-championMontreal Junior Canadiensto a showdown, but the Montreal club declined.The following season, with Clarke having graduated to the professional ranks, the Bombers repeated as league champions, again defeating Edmonton, with Leach leading the league in scoring. Due to the controversy surrounding the previous years series against St. Thomas, there was no national series in 1970. The growing financial demands of major junior hockey, including extensive travel, became a strain for the Bombers, who played in one of the league's smallest and most remote communities; not only was the travel difficult for the Bombers, but for any team visiting Flin Flon, which had also developed a reputation as a particularly violent team.The franchise departed Flin Flon after the1977–78 season. The franchise played three and a half seasons after leaving Flin Flon with iterations as theEdmonton Oil Kings—after the original Oil Kings departed Edmonton in 1976 due to pressure from theEdmonton Oilers—for the1978–79 season, theGreat Falls Americansfor part of1979–80before suspending operations, and theSpokane Flyersfor1980–81and start of the1981–82season before folding in December 1981. Return to Junior A In 1977, the WCHL Bombers had formed an affiliate Junior B team. The Jr. B Bombers would win the 1977–78Baldy Northcott Trophyas Manitoba Provincial Champions. When the WCHL Bombers departed to Edmonton, the Bombers' ownership retained the Junior B Bombers. The Flin Flon ownership, along with the owners of theThompson King Miners, banded together with people fromThe PasandSnow Lake, Manitobato create theNorMan Junior Hockey League(NJHL), a rival to theManitoba Junior League; the following year, the NJHL—along with the Bombers—would be promoted to Junior A status and the right to compete for a national Junior A championship.Flin Flon won NJHL titles in 1979, 1982, and 1984. For the 1984–85 season, the Bombers were granted expansion into theSaskatchewan Junior Hockey League(SJHL), which had been revived in 1968 following the 1966 demise of the original SJHL.For two seasons, due to SJHL rules requiring teams to be located in Saskatchewan, the team was re-named the Creighton Bombers after the adjacent community ofCreighton, despite Flin Flon straddling the provincial border. After two seasons, the league allowed the team to re-adopt the Flin Flon moniker. Notable alumni Season-by-season record Playoff record Northern Saskatchewan Senior Hockey League, 1937–1938 Saskatchewan Senior Hockey League, 1939–1944 North Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League, 1949–50 Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League, 1951–1966 Manitoba Junior Hockey League, 1967 Western Canada Hockey League, 1968–1978 NorMan Junior Hockey League, 1979–1984 Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League, 1985–present Player awards 1957 Memorial Cup Champions Harvey Fleming, Carl Forster, Cliff Lennartz, Barry Beatty, Mike Kardash,Duane Rupp,George Konik,Mel Pearson, Ken Willey, Rod Lee, Wayne Sproxton,Ted Hampson(captain), George Wood, Lynn Davis,Jean Gauthier,Ron Hutchinson,Orland Kurtenbach,Pat Ginnell, Doug Dawson (manager),Bobby Kirk(coach), Hec McCaig (trainer), Jim Wardle (executive), Pinkie Davie (executive), Ken Cunningham (stickboy), Rees Jones (stickboy), and Dan McCaig (mascot) were with the team through the SJHL and Abbott Cup championships, and were joined by Lynn Davis,Jean Gauthier, andOrland Kurtenbachfor the Memorial Cup national championship. Scoring champions Most Valuable Player Player of the Year Goaltender of the Year Defenceman of the Year Rookie of the Year Coach of the Year See also References External links",
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks_(WHL",
"New York Rangers TheNew York Rangersare a professionalice hockeyteam based inNew York City. The Rangers compete in theNational Hockey League(NHL) as a member of theMetropolitan Divisionin theEastern Conference. The team plays its home games atMadison Square Garden, an arena they share with theNew York Knicksof theNational Basketball Association(NBA). They are one of three NHL franchises located in theNew York metropolitan area; the others being theNew Jersey DevilsandNew York Islanders. Founded in 1926 byTex Rickard, the Rangers are one of theOriginal Sixteams that competed in the NHL before its 1967 expansion, along with theBoston Bruins,Chicago Blackhawks,Detroit Red Wings,Montreal CanadiensandToronto Maple Leafs. The team attained success early on under the guidance ofLester Patrick, who coached a team containingFrank Boucher,Murray Murdoch, andBunandBill Cookto win theStanley Cupin only their second season.They were the first NHL franchise in the United States to win the trophy, and are still the fastest true expansion team in NHL history to do so. The team won two more Stanley Cups in 1933 and 1940. Following this initial grace period, the franchise struggled between the 1940s and 1960s, wherein playoff appearances and successes were infrequent. The team enjoyed a mini-renaissance in the 1970s, where they made theStanley Cup Finalstwice, losing to the Bruins in 1972 and the Canadiens in 1979. The Rangers subsequently embraced a rebuild for much of the 1980s and early 1990s, which eventually paid dividends in 1994, where the team, led byMark Messier,Brian Leetch,Adam Graves, andMike Richter, captured their fourth Stanley Cup. The team was unable to duplicate that success in the years that followed, and entered into another period of mediocrity. They endured a franchise-record seven-year postseason drought from 1998 to 2005 and languished for the majority of the 2000s before enjoying another period of prosperity after the2004–05 NHL Lockout. After the arrival of goaltenderHenrik Lundqvist, the Rangers thrived, missing the playoffs just once between 2006 and 2017. They reached the Stanley Cup Finals in 2014, falling to theLos Angeles Kingsin five games. Several former members of the Rangers have been inducted into theHockey Hall of Fame, four of whom—Buddy O'Connor,Chuck Rayner,Andy Bathgate, and Messier—have won theHart Memorial Trophywhile playing for the team. History Early years (1926–1967) George Lewis \"Tex\" Rickard, president ofMadison Square Garden, was awarded an NHL franchise for the1926–27 seasonto compete with theNew York Americans, who had begun play at the Garden the previous season. The Americans' early success in their inaugural season exceeded expectations, leading Rickard to pursue a second team for the Garden despite promising the Amerks that they were going to be the only hockey team to play there.The new team was quickly nicknamed \"Tex's Rangers\". Rickard's franchise began play in the 1926–27 season. The first team crest was a horse sketched in blue carrying a cowboy waving a hockey stick aloft, before being changed to the familiar \"RANGERS\" in diagonal.FutureToronto Maple LeafsownerConn Smythewas hired to assemble the team, however he had a falling-out with Rickard's hockey man,Col. John S. Hammond, and was fired as manager-coach on the eve of the first season—he was paid a then-hefty $2,500 to leave. Smythe was replaced byPacific Coast Hockey Associationco-founderLester Patrick.The new team Smythe assembled turned out to be a winner. The Rangers won theAmerican Divisiontitle their first year but lost to theBoston Bruinsin the playoffs. The team's early success led to players becoming minor celebrities and fixtures in New York City'sRoaring Twentiesnightlife. It was during this time, playing at the Garden on 49th Street, blocks away fromTimes Square, that the Rangers obtained their nickname \"The Broadway Blueshirts\". On December 13, 1929, the Rangers became the first team in the NHL to travel by plane when they hired theCurtiss-Wright Corporationto fly them toTorontofor a game against the Maple Leafs, which they lost 7–6. In only theRangers' second season, they won the1928Stanley Cup, defeating theMontreal Maroonsthree games to two.One of the most memorable stories that emerged from the finals involved Patrick playing in goal at the age of 44. At the time, teams were not required to dress a backupgoaltender. When the Rangers' starting goaltender,Lorne Chabot, left a game with aneye injury, Maroonshead coachEddie Gerardvetoed Patrick's original choice for an emergency replacement,Alex Connellof theOttawa Senators, who was in attendance. An angry Patrick lined up between the pipes for two periods in Game 2 of the finals, allowing one goal to Maroons centerNels Stewart.Frank Boucherscored the game-winning goal in overtime for New York. After a loss to the Bruins in the1929 Stanley Cup Finalsand an early struggle in the early 1930s, the Rangers, led by brothersBillandBun Cookon the right and left wings, respectively, and Frank Boucher at center, defeated the Maple Leafs in the1933best-of-five finals three games to one to win their second Stanley Cup. The Rangers spent the rest of the 1930s playing close to 0.500 hockey until their next Cup win. Lester Patrick stepped down as head coach and was replaced by Frank Boucher. Intheir 1939–40 season, the Rangers finished the regular season in second place behind Boston. The two teams then met in the first round of the playoffs. The Bruins gained a two-games-to-one series lead from New York, but the Rangers recovered to win three-straight games, defeating the first-place Bruins four games to two. The Rangers' first-round victory gave them a bye until the finals. TheDetroit Red Wingsdefeated the New York Americans in their first-round best-of-three series two games to one, and the Toronto Maple Leafs ousted theChicago Black Hawkstwo games to none. The Maple Leafs then swept Detroit a best-of-three series to advance to the finals. The1940Cup Finals commenced in Madison Square Garden. In Game 1, the Rangers needed overtime to gain a 1–0 series lead, but they won game two more easily with a 6–2 victory. The series then shifted to Toronto, where the Maple Leafs won the next two games, tying the series at two games apiece. In Games 5 and 6, the Rangers won in overtime, taking the series four games to two to earn their third Stanley Cup. However, the Rangers collapsed by the mid-1940s, losing games by scores as lopsided as 15–0. In1943–44, goaltenderKen McAuleyled the league with 39 losses and 310 goals allowed in 50 games played; his 6.24 goals-against average that year remains the worst in NHL history by a goaltender playing at least 25 games in a season.They missed the playoffs for five consecutive seasons before earning the fourth and final playoff spot in1947–48. They lost in the first round and missed the playoffs again in1948–49. In the1950 Stanley Cup Finals, the Rangers were forced to play all of their games, including \"home\" games, in Toronto, while thecircuswas held at the Garden. They lost to the Detroit Red Wings in overtime in the seventh game of the finals. During this time, Red Wings ownerJames E. Norrisbecame the largest stockholder in the Garden. However, he did not buy controlling interest in the arena, which would have violated the NHL's rule against one person owning more than one team. Nonetheless, he had enough support on the board to exercise de facto control. The Rangers remained a mark of futility in the NHL for most of the remainder of theOriginal Sixera, missing the playoffs in 12 of the next 16 years. However, the team was rejuvenated in the late 1960s, symbolized by moving into thefourth version of Madison Square Gardenin 1968. A year earlier, they made the playoffs for the first time in five years on the strength of rookie goaltenderEddie Giacominand 37-year-old former 1950sMontreal Canadiensstar right wingBernie \"Boom Boom\" Geoffrion, signed out of retirement in 1966. Post-Original Six era (1967–1993) The Rangers made the finals twice in the 1970s, but lost both times to two '70s powerhouses; in six games to theBoston Bruinsin1972, who were led by such stars asBobby Orr,Phil Esposito,Ken Hodge,Johnny BucykandWayne Cashman; and in five games to the Canadiens in1979, who hadBob Gainey,Guy Lafleur,Larry Robinson,Ken Dryden,Guy LapointeandSerge Savard. The Rangers reached the1972 Stanley Cup Finalsdespite losing high-scoring centerJean Ratelle(who had been on pace over BruinPhil Espositoto become the first Ranger sinceBryan Hextallin 1942 to lead the NHL in scoring) to injury during the stretch drive of the regular season. The strength of players such asBrad Park, Jean Ratelle,Vic HadfieldandRod Gilbert(the last three constructing the famed \"GAG line\", standing for \"goal-a-game\") carried them through the playoffs. They defeated the defending-champion Canadiens in the first round and the Chicago Black Hawks in the second, but lost to the Bruins in the finals. In the 1972 playoffs, with Ratelle sidelined with a broken ankle and Gilbert hampered by injuries,Walt Tkaczukplayed a key role as the Rangers defeated the defending champion Canadiens and the previous year's finalists, the Black Hawks, to reach the Stanley Cup Finals. While the Rangers lost to the Boston Bruins in six games, Tkaczuk earned much respect for holding the Bruins' Phil Esposito without a goal in the series. The Rangers played a legendary conference semifinals series against thePhiladelphia Flyersin the1973–74playoffs, losing in seven games and becoming the first Original Six club to lose a playoff series to a 1967 expansion team. This series was noted for a Game 7 fight betweenDale Rolfeof the Rangers andDave Schultzof the Flyers.The Rangers' new rivals, theNew York Islanders, who entered the League in1972after paying a hefty territorial fee – some $4 million – to the Rangers, were their first-round opponents in the1975playoffs. After splitting the first two games, the Islanders defeated the more-established Rangers 11 seconds into overtime of the deciding Game 3, establishing a rivalry that continued to grow for years. In a blockbuster trade with theBoston Bruins, the Rangers acquired Esposito andCarol Vadnaisfrom the Bruins for Park, Ratelle andJoe Zanussiin1975, while Swedish starsAnders HedbergandUlf Nilssonjumped to the Rangers from the League's rival, theWorld Hockey Association(WHA) in1978. In the 1979 NHL playoffs, New York defeated the surging Islanders in the conference semi-finals and advanced to the1979Cup Finals, losing to the Canadiens. In the three consecutive1982through1984playoffs, the Rangers were eliminated by the rival Islanders, who went on to win the Stanley Cup each of those years. The Rangers stayed competitive through the 1980s and early 1990s, making the playoffs each year. In the1986 Stanley Cup playoffs, the Rangers, behind the play of rookie goaltenderJohn Vanbiesbrouck, upended thePatrick Division-winning Flyers in five games followed by a six-game win over theWashington Capitalsin the Patrick Division finals. Montreal, however, disposed of the Rangers in theWales Conferencefinals behind a rookie goaltender of their own,Patrick Roy. For the1986–87 season, the team acquired superstar centerMarcel Dionneafter almost 12 years with theLos Angeles Kings.In 1988, while a Ranger, Dionne moved into third place inNHL career goals scored. Dionne spent nine games in the minors before retiring during the1988–89 season. Frustration was at its peak when the1991–92 Rangerscaptured thePresidents' Trophy. They took a 2–1 series lead on the defending championPittsburgh Penguinsand then faltered in three-straight (some observers note aRon Francisslapshot from outside the blue line that eluded goaltenderMike Richteras the series' turning point).The following year, injuries and a 1–11 regular season finish landed the Rangers at the bottom of the Patrick Division after being in a playoff position for much of the season. Head coachRoger Neilsondid not finish the season. During this period, the Rangers were owned byGulf+Western, which was renamed to Paramount Communications in 1989, and sold toViacomin 1994. Viacom then sold the team toITT CorporationandCablevision, and a couple of years later, ITT sold their ownership stake to Cablevision, who owned the team until 2010, when they spun off the MSG properties as their own company. Ending the curse (1993–94) The1993–94 New York Rangers seasonwas their most successful in 54 years, as Mike Keenan coached the Rangers to the1994Stanley Cup championship, winning their fourth Cup.By the 1993–94 season, the Rangers had acquired seven players who had been part of theEdmonton Oilers' Cup-winning teams: Oilers captain (and new Rangers captain)Mark Messier,Adam Graves,Kevin Lowe,Jeff Beukeboom,Esa Tikkanen,Craig MacTavishandGlenn Anderson. Graves set a team record with 52 goals, breaking the prior record of 50 held byVic Hadfield. The Rangers clinched the Presidents' Trophy by finishing with the best record in the NHL at 52–24–8, setting a franchise record with 112 points earned. The Rangers successfully made it past the first two rounds of the playoffs, sweeping the New York Islanders, and then defeating the Washington Capitals in five games. However, in the conference finals against the third-seededNew Jersey Devils, the Rangers lost the series opener at home in double overtime, but won the next two games before the Devils defeated them 3–1 and 4–1. The series headed back to theMeadowlandsfor the sixth game, in which Messier, who had guaranteed a win to the press,scored three timesin the final period to lead the Rangers to a 4–2 win and set up a seventh game back at Madison Square Garden. The Rangers won Game 7, 2–1, whenStephane Matteauscored a goal in double overtime, leading the team to the finals for the first time since1979. Up against theVancouver Canucks, the Rangers again lost the series opener at home in overtime. The Rangers bounced back and they won the next three games, allowing the Canucks just four goals. However, the Canucks won the next two 6–3 and 4–1 to set up a seventh game, for the second consecutive series, at home.In the seventh game, the Rangers took a 2–0 first period lead, with Messier scoring later to put the Rangers up 3–1, the eventual Cup winning goal as the home team won 3–2, becoming the first (and to this date, only) player to captain two teams to the Stanley Cup.Brian Leetchbecame the first American-born player to win theConn Smythe Trophyas playoff MVP,whileAlexander Karpovtsev,Alexei Kovalev,Sergei NemchinovandSergei Zubovbecame the first Russians to have their names engraved on the Cup. Expensive acquisitions and postseason drought (1995–2005) Despite having coached the Rangers to a regular season first-place finish and the Stanley Cup victory, head coach Mike Keenan left after a dispute with general managerNeil Smith. During the lockout-shortened1994–95 season, the Rangers won their first-round series with theQuebec Nordiques, but lost in the second round of the playoffs to the Philadelphia Flyers in four games with succeeding head coachColin Campbell. General manager Neil Smith orchestrated a deal that sent Sergei Zubov and centerPetr Nedvedto Pittsburgh in exchange for defensemanUlf Samuelssonand left-wingerLuc Robitaillein the summer of 1995. The1995–96 Rangersdefeated the Canadiens in six games in the playoffs, but lost their second-round series to the Penguins in five games. The Rangers then acquiredWayne Gretzkyin 1996. Gretzky's greatest accomplishment with the Rangers was leading them to the1997 Eastern Conference finals, where they lost 4–1 to the Flyers, who were then led byEric Lindros. Mark Messier, a former Oiler teammate of Gretzky's, left in the summer of 1997 and the team failed in a bid to replace him withColorado AvalanchesuperstarJoe Sakic.The Rangers missed the playoffs for seven consecutive seasons, finishing no higher than fourth in their division. Gretzky retired at the end of the1998–99 season. In March 2000, Smith was fired along with head coachJohn Muckler, and that summer,James DolanhiredGlen Satherto replace him.By the end of the2000–01 season, the Rangers had landed a significant amount of star power. Messier had returned to New York,Theoren Fleuryjoined the Rangers after spending most of his career with theCalgary Flamesand Eric Lindros was traded to the Rangers by the Flyers.The Rangers also acquiredPavel Burelate in2001–02from theFlorida Panthers.It was also the rookie season of goalieDan Blackburn, who made theNHL All-Rookie Teameven as the Rangers fell back to last place in the Conference,and finished out of the playoffs. Later years saw other stars such as Alexei Kovalev,Jaromir Jagr,Martin RucinskyandBobby Holikadded, but in2002–03and2003–04, the team again missed the playoffs. Blackburn started strongly in 2002–03, but burned out after 17 games. He missed 2003–04 due tomononucleosisand a damaged nerve in his leftshoulder. Blackburn could not rehabilitate the damaged nerve, and was forced to retire at the age of 22.Towards the end of the2003–04 season, general manager Glen Sather finally gave in to a rebuilding process by trading away Brian Leetch, Alexei Kovalev, and eight others for numerous prospects and draft picks. With the retirements of Pavel Bure and Mark Messier, as well as Eric Lindros signing with the Toronto Maple Leafs, the post-lockout Rangers, under new head coachTom Renney, moved away from high-priced veterans towards a group of talented young players, such asPetr Prucha,Dominic MooreandBlair Betts. Henrik Lundqvist era (2005–2020) Return to the playoffs (2005–2011) The Rangers were expected to struggle during the2005–06 season, but behind stellar performances by Swedish rookie goaltenderHenrik Lundqvist, the Rangers finished the season with a record of 44–26–12, their best record since 1993–94. Jagr broke the Rangers' single-season points record with a first-period assist in a 5–1 win against the New York Islanders on March 29, 2006.The assist gave him 110 points on the season, breakingJean Ratelle's record.Less than two weeks later, on April 8, Jagr scored his 53rd goal of the season against the Boston Bruins, breaking the club record previously held by Adam Graves.Two games prior, on April 4, the Rangers defeated the Philadelphia Flyers 3–2, in a shootout, to clinch a playoff spot for the first time since1996–97.In theEastern Conference Quarterfinals, the Rangers drew a matchup with the Devils and were defeated in a four-game sweep. Jagr fell two points short of winning his sixthArt Ross Trophyas scoring champion in 2005–06 (the trophy went to theSan Jose Sharks'Joe Thornton), but Jagr did win his thirdPearson Awardas the players' choice for the most outstanding player. Realizing that the team had trouble scoring goals in the 2005–06 campaign, the Rangers signedTriple Gold Clubwinner and 12-time 30-goal scorerBrendan Shanahanto a one-year contract. On October 5, 2006, opening night of the2006–07 season, Jagr was named the first team captain since Mark Messier's retirement.Though the Rangers started slow in the first half of the 2006–07 season, the second half was dominated by the stellar goaltending of Henrik Lundqvist. On February 5, 2007, the Rangers acquired agitating forwardSean Averyin a trade with the Los Angeles Kings, which brought further intensity to the team. Despite losing several players to injury in March, the Rangers went 10–2–3 in the month and clinched a playoff berth for the second consecutive season. Facing theAtlanta Thrashersin the first round of the2007 playoffs, the Rangers swept the series. However, they were eliminated in the next round by theBuffalo Sabres. At the2007 NHL Entry Draft, the Rangers choseAlexei Cherepanov17th overall, who had been ranked by theNHL Central Scouting Bureauas the number one European skater.Despite the departure of Michael Nylander, the 2007 free agency season started with a bang for the Rangers, with the signing of two high-profile centerman;Scott Gomezon a seven-year contract, as well asChris Druryon a five-year deal.The moves, along with retaining most other key players, had been met favorably, and the Rangers made the playoffs for the third consecutive season and the second round for the second season in a row. Despite these streaks, the Rangers failed to meet expectations, losing their second-round series to the Pittsburgh Penguins. The following off-season saw the departures of captain Jaromir Jagr to the KHL, and alternate captains Martin Straka and Brendan Shanahan, who left to play in the Czech Republic and with the New Jersey Devils, respectively. Following Jagr's departure, Chris Drury was named captain on October 3, 2008. The Rangers were one of four NHL teams to open the2008–09 seasonin Europe, being featured in theVictoria Cupfinal, defeating the European Champions Cup winnerMetallurg MagnitogorskinBern, Switzerland. This was followed by two NHL regular season games against Tampa Bay inPragueon October 4 and 5, and the Rangers won both games. The Rangers tied the 1983–84 Rangers for the best start in franchise history with a 5–0 record, and set the franchise record for best start in a season through the first 13 games by going 10–2–1 for 21 points, with the 10 wins and 21 points each becoming franchise records. A successful start to the season, however, was tempered with by the news of the sudden death of 2007 first-round pick Alexei Cherepanov, which occurred during a KHL game in Russia on October 13.A disappointing second half of the season followed. After the Rangers went 2–7–3 in 12 games, coach Tom Renney was fired, with2004Stanley Cup andJack Adams AwardwinnerJohn Tortorellanamed as his replacement.The Rangers made the2009 playoffs, but lost their opening-round series to the Washington Capitals four games to three. On June 30, 2009, the Rangers traded Scott Gomez,Tom Pyatt, andMichael Bustoto the Montreal Canadiens forRyan McDonagh,Chris Higgins,Pavel Valentenko, andDoug Janik. With Gomez's salary cap hit gone, the Rangers signed superstarMarian Gaborikon the first day of free agency. In the2009–10 season, the Rangers failed to make the playoffs for the first time in five years. There was some criticism that the off-season acquisition of Gaborik had not paid off, despite Gaborik scoring 42 goals and 86 points in the season. The final two games of the season were a home-and-home against the Philadelphia Flyers, with both teams competing for the same playoff spot. The Rangers skated away with the victory in the first game, keeping their postseason hopes alive. In the second game, the Flyers peppered Henrik Lundqvist with 47 shots, but scored only once. The game went to a shootout, and the Flyers prevailed to move on to the playoffs. For the2010–11 New York Rangers season, the team waived defensemanWade Reddenand brought in several players to achieve more balanced scoring. On November 12, the Rangers unveiled the new Heritage Jersey for the first time at theice rink at Rockefeller Centerin a special ceremony featuring Rangers alumni and current players discussing the history of the storied franchise. The club wore the jersey for the first time on November 17 when they played the Boston Bruins at Madison Square Garden. The Rangers' playoff chances came down to the final day of the regular season for the second-straight year. The team defeated the New Jersey Devils and passed theCarolina Hurricanesin the standings, putting the Rangers in the playoffs after missing out the previous season. The Rangers faced Washington in the first round and lost the series in five games. It was the second time in three years that the Capitals eliminated the Rangers from the playoffs, fueling a rivalry that lasted several seasons. On May 13, 2011, Rangers forwardDerek Boogaardwas found dead in hisMinnesotaapartment.On June 29, the Rangers bought out captain Chris Drury's contract. On July 3, the Rangers signed free agentBrad Richardsto a nine-year contract.On September 12,Ryan Callahanwas named the 26th captain in the Rangers' history.He became the fifth-youngest captain in team history.Brad Richards andMarc Staalwere named alternate captains on the same day. Return to the Finals and third Presidents' Trophy (2011–2016) In the2011–12 New York Rangers season, the team finished as the top seed in the Eastern Conference, recording 51 wins and 109 points. Their leading scorer was Marian Gaborik, who finished the season with 41 goals and 76 points while playing all 82 games. In the first round of the playoffs, the Rangers faced the eighth-seeded Ottawa Senators. After falling behind 3–2 in the series, the Rangers bounced back to win Game 6 inOttawaas well as Game 7 at home. In the next round, the Rangers once again faced the Capitals. In Game 3, Gaborik scored to win 14:41 into the third overtime, giving the Rangers a 2–1 lead in the series, but Washington came back to tie the series 2–2 in Game 4. Washington was up by one during the final minutes of Game 5 whenJoel Wardcommitted a high-sticking double-minor. Richards scored to tie with just 6.6 seconds remaining, and in overtime, defenseman Marc Staal scored on the second penalty of the double-minor just 1:35 into overtime. Rangers went on to win the series 4–3, sending them to the Eastern Conference Final for the first time since 1997. In the Conference Finals, they faced the New Jersey Devils, a major divisional rival. After leading the series 2–1, the Rangers lost 3 games in a row, losing Game 6 in New Jersey with a goal by Devils forwardAdam Henriqueat 1:03 in overtime, giving the Devils a 4–2 series win and ending the Rangers' season. On July 23, 2012, the Rangers tradedBrandon Dubinsky,Artem Anisimov,Tim Erixonand a2013 first-round draft pickto theColumbus Blue Jacketsin exchange forRick Nash,Steven Delisle, and a 2013 conditional third-round pick.At the 2013NHL trade deadlineon April 3, the Rangers then traded Marian Gaborik and Steven Delisle to Columbus forDerick Brassard,Derek Dorsett,John Moore, and a 2014 sixth-round draft pick.After the Rangers were eliminated in the second round of the playoffs by Boston, management fired head coach John Tortorella, and on June 21, 2013, general manager Glen Sather formally introduced former Canucks head coachAlain Vigneaultas Tortorella's replacement. A trade late in the2013–14 seasoncontributed to the Rangers reaching the2014 Stanley Cup Finals. On March 5, 2014, the Rangers traded their captain Ryan Callahan, along with a first-round draft pick in2015, a conditional second-round pick in2014, and a conditional seventh-round pick in 2015, for Tampa Bay captainMartin St. Louis. The trade occurred both due to the Rangers' and Callahan's inability to reach a contract extension, as well as St. Louis' growing tension with the Lightning organization and subsequent request to be traded to New York. The2013–14 Rangerswere already a strong team, setting a new franchise record of 25 road game wins. New York defeated Philadelphia in seven games in the first round of the2014 playoffs, and in the next round rallied from a 3–1 series deficit for the first time in their history to defeat Pittsburgh in seven games. They then defeated the Montreal Canadiens in six games to become the Eastern Conference champions, moving on to the Cup Finals, their first visit in 20 years, to face2012championsLos Angeles Kings. The Rangers led the first two games by two goals but lost each game in overtime, and were then shut-out at home 3–0 in Game 3. The Kings outshot the Rangers in Game 4, but the Rangers staved off elimination by winning the game 2–1. They had another lead in Game 5, but after the game was tied and subsequently sent to overtime, Kings defensemanAlec Martinezscored with 5:17 left in the second overtime period to win the game for Los Angeles, 3–2, as well as the Stanley Cup. On June 20, 2014, a week after their season ended, the Rangersbought-outthe remaining six years of Brad Richards' contract in order to free upsalary cap space.On October 6, defensemanRyan McDonaghwas named the Rangers' 27th captain in team history, withDerek Stepan, Dan Girardi, Marc Staal and Martin St. Louis serving as alternates. In2014–15, the Rangers won the Presidents' Trophy for the third time in franchise history and their seventh division title by finishing with the best record in the NHL at 53–22–7. The 53 wins and 113 points both set franchise records. The team also won 28 road games in the regular season, breaking the franchise record set the previous season. In the2015 Stanley Cup playoffs, the Rangers dispatched the Pittsburgh Penguins in five games in the first round. The Rangers then came back from a 3–1 series deficit to win their second-round series against the Capitals in seven games, becoming the first team in NHL history to battle back from a 3–1 deficit in back-to-back seasons and sending the Rangers to the Eastern Conference Final for the third time in four years. However, after winning the first game against the Tampa Bay Lightning, the Rangers lost Game 2 by four goals. The two teams split the first four games of the series, but the Rangers lost Game 5 by a 2–0 scoreline at home. In Game 6, Derick Brassard scored a hat-trick and assisted on two other goals in an emphatic 7–3 Rangers victory to force Game 7 in New York.There, the Lightning shutout the Rangers 2–0, ending the Rangers' season, and marking the first occasion the Rangers had ever lost a Game 7 at home in franchise history as well as the first time they lost an elimination game at home since they lost to Buffalo in2007. On June 27, 2015, the Rangers tradedCarl Hagelinto the Anaheim Ducks,Cam Talbotand a draft pick to the Edmonton Oilers, and prospectRyan Haggertyto the Chicago Blackhawks forAntti Raanta, who replaced Talbot as Lundqvist's backup goaltender.Subsequently, on July 1,Glen Satherresigned as the general manager, withJeff Gortontaking his place to become the 11th general manager in team history.On July 2, Martin St. Louis announced his retirement.The team then re-signedJesper Fast,J. T. Miller, and Derek Stepan. The Rangers started the2015–16 seasonwith a 14–2–2 record after 18 games, including a nine-game winning streak. However, the team lost their momentum and floundered, posting a 4–7–2 record in December for only ten points. After the holiday break, the team gradually improved their play, going on a 10–3–1 run without any back-to-back losses in February. The Rangers finished the season with 101 points for back-to-back 100+ point seasons. Despite high hopes, the Rangers were eliminated in the first round of the2016 Stanley Cup playoffsby a Penguins team that would go on to win the Stanley Cup. That summer, the Rangers extended Antti Raanta's contract,signedPavel Buchnevichto an entry-level contract,and re-signed J. T. Miller,Chris Kreider, andKevin Hayes. Rebuilding (2016–2020) On July 18, 2016, the Rangers traded Derick Brassard and a 2018 seventh-round draft pick in exchange forMika Zibanejadand a 2018 second-round draft pick.The team also signedMichael Grabnerto a two-year dealand the much-anticipated college sensationJimmy Veseyto a two-year entry-level contract.The Rangers finished2016–17in fourth place in the Metropolitan Division with 102 points. In the first round of the2017 Stanley Cup playoffs, they won their series with the Montreal Canadiens in six games. In the second game of their second-round series with the Ottawa Senators, the Rangers held a two-goal lead on three different occasions, but lost in double overtime, putting themselves in a 2–0 series deficit. The team responded with consecutive 4–1 home wins in Games 3 and 4 to tie the series at two games apiece. However, the Rangers lost the next two games and were eliminated by the Senators. On June 14, 2017, the Rangers announced a buyout of Dan Girardi's contract.Just over a week later, the Rangers traded Derek Stepan and Antti Raanta to theArizona Coyotesin exchange for a first-round draft pick (seventh overall) and former first-round pickTony DeAngelo.The Rangers' management was also successful in signing top free agent defensemanKevin Shattenkirkon July 1, to a four-year deal.With injuries sidelining Shattenkirk, Kreider, and Zibanejad, the Rangers struggled to compete. By February 8, 2018, the team had a 25–24–5 record, leading the front office to issue a letter to fans announcing the Rangers would be committing to a rebuild and may \"lose some familiar faces\" in the process.Rick Nashwas traded the day before the 2018NHL trade deadlineto the Bruins for a 2018 first-round pick, a 2019 seventh-round pick,Matt Beleskey,Ryan SpoonerandRyan Lindgren. The following day, the Rangers traded captainRyan McDonaghandJ. T. Millerto theTampa Bay LightningforVladislav Namestnikov, prospectsBrett HowdenandLibor Hajek, and multiple draft picks. With the team missing the playoffs for the first time since2010, finishing under .500 for the first time since2004, and placing last in the Metropolitan Division, head coach Vigneault was fired after the conclusion of the season. On May 23,David Quinnwas hired as the team's new head coach.During the off-season, Hayes, Vesey,Brady Skjeiand Spooner all filed for salary arbitration and all of them were re-signed.Despite a mediocre2018–19 season, Gorton and his team remained committed to rebuilding the franchise. 2017 first-round draft pickFilip Chytilmade his NHL debut,and early in the season Ryan Spooner was traded to Edmonton forRyan Strome.With the trade deadline approaching and their playoff chances slim, the Rangers once again traded away veteran players, with fan-favoriteMats Zuccarellobeing sent to the Dallas Stars in exchange for two draft picksandKevin Hayesgoing to Winnipeg in exchange for a first-round pick, a conditional pick, and forwardBrendan Lemieux. The Rangers received the second overall pick in the2019 NHL Entry Draft,and subsequently used it to select forwardKaapo Kakko. On May 17, 2019, former Ranger goaltender and broadcasterJohn Davidsonresigned from his position as president of the Columbus Blue Jackets and returned to New York to become the organization's new president.Davidson and Gorton addressed the team's defensive woes by acquiring top prospectAdam Foxfrom Carolina for a pair of picks,as well as veteran defensemanJacob Trouba.The team also signed free agentArtemi Panarinto a seven-year deal on July 1.To help with salary cap restrictions, the Rangers then traded Jimmy Vesey and bought out the last two years of Shattenkirk's contract. The2019–20 seasonwas a step forward for the rebuilding Rangers; Panarin lived up expectations and earned aHart Trophynomination,rookie goaltenderIgor Shesterkinproved to be a worthy successor to aging superstar Henrik Lundqvist, Chris Kreider signed a seven-year contract extension,and Mika Zibanejad emerged as an elite forward, recording a 5-goal-game against Washington on March 5 and ending up with 41 goals in 57 games played. By early March 2020, the Rangers were within striking distance of the second wild-card position when thecoronavirus pandemichalted the regular season. In May 2020, the league announced a24-team playoff tournamentto complete the season, where the Rangers were seeded eleventh and faced the Carolina Hurricanes; the Hurricanes swept the Rangers. After being eliminated from the playoffs the Rangers were entered into the second phase of the NHL draft lottery where the team won the lottery and were awarded the first pick in the2020 NHL Entry Draft, which Gorton used to selectAlexis Lafreniere.Later in the off-season, the team traded veteran defensemanMarc Staalto the Red Wings. In September 2020, the Rangers bought out the final year ofHenrik Lundqvist's contract, ending his tenure in New York after 15 years. The Drury years (2020–present) Continued team struggles (2020–2021) On January 31, 2021, defenseman Tony DeAngelo was placed on waivers, following reports that he had an altercation with teammateAlexandar Georgievfollowing an overtime loss.According toThe Athletic,his continued \"maturity\" issues, combined with a marked decline in his play, led the Rangers to put him on the market; there were no takers. In a game against theWashington Capitalson May 3, 2021, Capitals forwardTom Wilsoncross-checkedPavel Buchnevichin the head and slammedArtemi Panarininto the ice, ending his season. Wilson, a repeat offender, was fined the league maximum of $5,000 for the incident.The Rangers organization released a statement expressing disappointment in this decision, calling head of player safetyGeorge Parros\"unfit to continue in his current role\". The NHL subsequently fined the Rangers $250,000 for their comments.Two days later, Rangers ownerJames Dolanfired presidentJohn Davidsonand general managerJeff Gorton.Despite the timing, Dolan stated the firings were not related to the Wilson incident and statement, citing \"culture\" issues within the organization.Chris Drurywas then announced as the Rangers' new president and general manager.On May 12, Drury fired head coach David Quinn,and replaced him withGerard Gallant.Despite a tumultuous season, a major bright spot was the play ofAdam Fox; he led NHL defensemen with 42 assists, finished second in points with 47, and won theJames Norris Memorial Trophy. Playoff return and fourth Presidents' Trophy (2021–present) In the2021–22 season, the Rangers finished the regular season with a record of 52–24–6, making the playoffs for the first time since 2020.For the third time in franchise history, the Rangers overcame a 3–1 series deficit, this time against thePittsburgh Penguinsin a first round matchup that concluded with a game-winning overtime goal fromArtemi Panarin. In the next round, they defeated theCarolina Hurricanesin seven games after trailing in the series 2–0 and 3–2, advancing to their first Eastern Conference Final since 2015.There they faced the back-to-back defending champions, theTampa Bay Lightning, and lost the series in six games despite having a 2–0 series lead.Igor Shesterkinwas named theVezina Trophywinner following the season. By the end of thefollowing season, the Rangers had acquiredVladimir TarasenkoandNiko Mikkolafrom theSt. Louis BluesandPatrick Kanefrom the Blackhawks.The team made the playoffs, finishing third in their division,but lost to theirriver rivals, theNew Jersey Devilsin seven games, despite a 2–0 series lead. As a result, Gallant was fired as head coach. He was replaced withPeter Laviolettefollowing the season. In the2023–24 season, the Rangers clinched their fourthPresidents' Trophy. During the2024 playoffs, they swept the Washington Capitals in the first round, then defeated the Carolina Hurricanes in the second round, but lost to the eventual Stanley Cup championFlorida Panthersin the conference finals. Uniforms The classic Rangers sweater has been in use since the franchise's foundation, with several alterations along the way. The current blue uniform has the serifed word \"RANGERS\" in red and white drop shadow arranged diagonally, with red and white stripes on the sleeves and tail. Originally, the uniform was light blue, before it switched to a darker classic Rangers \"Broadway Blue\" in 1929. In addition, the original versions neither had a drop shadow nor were serifed. During the 1946–47 season, the word \"RANGERS\" was arranged in an arch form above the sweater number. It adopted its current form the next season, along with dropshadowed numbers, except for a brief period where the city name was used, a tie-down collar was not used and the tail and sleeve stripes were separated by thin blue stripes. Red pants have been used with the uniform since the 1929–30 season. The white jerseys were first unveiled in the 1951–52 season, as part of a mandate that regulated NHL teams to have a dark home jersey and a light away jersey. Theserifedword \"RANGERS\" is also arranged diagonally, but in blue with red drop shadow. A quinticolor of blue, white and red stripes accentuate the tail and sleeves, while a blue shoulder yoke with white and red stripes completes the look. The white sweaters, with minor changes such as a tie-down collar and arched player names, have remained virtually unchanged since. During the tenure of general managerJohn Ferguson Sr., he sought to modernize the Rangers sweater by featuring rounded numbers, a darker shade of blue and the shield logo, which was unveiled in the 1976–77 season. A blue and red stripe (white and red stripe in the blue sweaters) extend from the yoke to the sleeves, while blue pants were used. However, it proved unpopular with the fans, and following the 1977–78 season it was replaced by an updated version of their classic uniforms. Ferguson used this similar design when he became GM of the originalWinnipeg Jets. The modernized classic uniforms introduced in 1978 featured some subtle changes. Both jerseys featured a V-neck collar in a red-white-red pattern, and bolder stripes on the sleeves and waistline. On the blue jersey, the red and white stripes were separated by thin blue stripes, along with the waistline stripes being raised above the hemline so that the patterns on both jerseys matched. From 1978 to 1987, the blue jersey (then the road jersey) featured \"NEW YORK\" diagonally across the front instead of the traditional \"RANGERS\" wordmark, similar to their 2010s heritage alternate jerseys.In 1997, the Rangers reverted the blue jersey's design, restoring the old striping pattern, and becoming the first team to re-introduce lace-up collars.The white jerseys followed suit in 1999,and the design was carried over to the Reebok Edge template in 2007. On October 7, 2001, the Rangers wore a modified version of their blue jerseys in a home game against theBuffalo Sabres. This design combined the current/traditional striping with the \"NEW YORK\" wordmark of the 1978–1987 uniforms. The uniforms were worn in the wake of theSeptember 11 attacks. The Rangers previously had a navy alternate jersey featuring the head of theStatue of Libertywith the team abbreviation (NYR) below in a futuristic script. Silver was used as an accent color, but the player names and numbers retain the same color schemes as the regular jerseys, except for a darker shade of blue. Other than a white version used in the 1998–99 season, this jersey was used from 1996 to 2007, and proved to be highly popular with fans. During the 2010–11 season, the Rangers debuted a heritage blue jersey as their new alternate uniform. The jersey featured a darker shade of blue, as well as a cream trim. Unlike the regular jerseys, the font of the alternate wassans-serifand did not feature a dropshadow, much like the original Rangers jersey. The Rangers wore the jerseys at home on Saturdays and when they played against Original Six teams.For the 2017–18 season, the heritage jersey was retired because of the league-wide switch to theAdidasuniform format. In the2012 NHL Winter Classic, the Rangers wore a cream jersey combining classic and current styles. A different version of the shield logo was used, while the player names were arranged in a straight line. The stripes were also lessened, giving it a minimalist, vintage look, as most Winter Classic jerseys are. For the2014 NHL Stadium Series, the Rangers used white jerseys with the city name in navy, silver and red. In addition, they feature diagonal stripes and sleeve numbers, and enlarged numbers on the back to make them more readable to spectators. The chrome version of the shield logo is placed in the left shoulder. Like the Winter Classic sweaters, player names are in a straight position. The2018 NHL Winter Classicsaw the Rangers wear a navy jersey with a combination of elements from prior uniform designs. The striping design was inspired from their current uniforms, while the white \"RANGERS\" wordmark was a nod from the team's late 1920s jerseys. A white silhouette of the Rangers' shield logo contained either the abbreviation \"N.Y.\" or the alternate captain \"A\" and captain \"C\" designations. Player names are arranged in a straight position. During the 2020–21 season, the Rangers released a \"Reverse Retro\" alternate uniform in collaboration with Adidas. The uniform featured the \"Lady Liberty\" design worn from 1996 to 2007, but with a few changes in the striping.This same design was again used for their 2022–23 \"Reverse Retro\" uniform, but the lighter Broadway Blue served as the base color while the lower sleeves were recolored red with white and navy stripes. In the 2023–24 season, the Rangers unveiled a new third jersey, bringing back the shield logo as the main crest for the first time since the 1976–1978 redesign. The navy blue-based jersey featured thin white, red and Broadway blue stripes on the sleeves, waist and socks, along with white letters. For the2024 NHL Stadium Series, the Rangers will wear white jerseys with an enlarged \"NYR\" diagonal lettering in red with blue drop shadows. Enlarged numbers also employ the same color scheme as the \"NYR\" wordmark, along with thick alternating blue and red sleeve stripes. Season-by-season record This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Rangers. For the full season-by-season history, seeList of New York Rangers seasons. Note:GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime/shootout losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against Players and personnel Current roster Updated October 9, 2024 Team captains General managers The current general manager isChris Drury, who had been named on May 5, 2021. Head coaches The current head coach isPeter Laviolettewho was hired on June 13, 2023. Team and league honors Awards and trophies The following lists the league awards which have been won by the Rangers team and its players and alumni: Stanley Cup Victoria Cup Presidents' Trophy Prince of Wales Trophy O'Brien Cup Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy Calder Memorial Trophy Conn Smythe Trophy Hart Memorial Trophy James Norris Memorial Trophy King Clancy Memorial Trophy Lady Byng Memorial Trophy Lester Patrick Trophy Lester B. Pearson Award NHL Plus-Minus Award Vezina Trophy First-round draft picks Hall of Famers The New York Rangers acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to theHockey Hall of Fame. Rangers inductees include 53 former players and ten builders of the sport.The nine individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame includes former Rangers executives, general managers, head coaches, and owners. In addition to players and builders, several broadcasters were also awarded theFoster Hewitt Memorial Awardfrom the Hockey Hall of Fame.Sal Messina, acolor commentator, was the first Rangers broadcaster to be awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award. Other Rangers broadcasters awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award includeJohn Davidson(awarded in 2009), andSam Rosen(awarded in 2016). Players Builders Retired numbers The Rangers have retired nine numbers for eleven players in their history, and the NHL retiredWayne Gretzky's No. 99 for all its member teams at the2000 NHL All-Star Game. Notes: Single-season records Source: Franchise scoring leaders These are the top-ten-point-scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season. See also References Bibliography External links",
"Seattle Totems TheSeattle Totemswere a professionalice hockeyfranchise inSeattle, Washington. Under several names prior to 1958, the franchise was a member of thePacific Coast Hockey League(renamed theWestern Hockey Leaguein 1952) between 1944 and 1974. In their last season of existence, the Totems played in theCentral Hockey Leaguein the 1974–75 season. They played their home games in theCivic Ice Arenaand later at theSeattle Center Coliseum. The Totems won three WHLLester Patrick Cupchampionships in 1959, 1967 and 1968. The Totems were one of the few American-based professional clubs to play a touring Soviet team. On December 25, 1972, the Totems lost to the Soviets 9–4.A rematch between the two teams was held on January 4, 1974, where, led by Don Westbrooke's three goals, the Totems won 8–4. Franchise history Seattle Ironmen (1944–52) After World War II, thePacific Coast Hockey League(PCHL), a major professional league on the West Coast in the 1910s and 1920s, was resurrected as asemi-professionalloop. Seattle, as a notably strong hockey town and the first city outside of Canada to host aStanley Cupchampion (the 1917Seattle Metropolitans), was granted two franchises, one of which were theSeattle Ironmen. The club had been founded as an amateur team the previous yearin the Northwest Industrial Hockey League,where they were known as theSeattle Isaacson Iron Workers. As NIHL teams were operated by war industry companies, most players for the Iron Workers additionally worked at the production lines of the U.S. Navy's Isaacson Steel plant in nearbyTukwila, Washington. When the club entered the new PCHL in its inaugural 1944–45 season, it was renamed the Seattle Ironmen and hired Frank Dotten as its new head coach. The club had modest success, finishing in first place in the 1947–48 regular season. When the league itself became fully professional for the 1948–49 season, only four of the previous season's players remained, leaving the roster to be replaced by amateur players from Tacoma and the team to finish last in its division. Over its existence, the Ironmen's most notable stars wereGordon Kerr, the team's leading scorer in those years with 235 points in 244 games,William Robinson,Eddie DartnellandJoe Bell. Among other notables for the team were futureNHLstar goaltenderAl Rollinsand legendaryPhiladelphia FlyerscoachFred Shero. The Ironmen served as inspiration for the 2022 Reverse Retro alternate uniform for the NHL'sSeattle Kraken. Seattle Bombers (1952–54) In 1952, the league changed its name to theWestern Hockey League(WHL), and the Ironmen themselves changed their name to theSeattle Bombersthe following season. The team continued to play poorly for two seasons, and the only bright spot was the debut for Seattle of the greatest minor league scorer of all time,Guyle Fielder. After two seasons of increasing travel costs—for which the Bombers received aid from the league—Seattle suspended operations for the 1955 season. Seattle Americans (1955–58) The team rejoined the WHL as theSeattle Americansthe following season, finishing in first place in 1957 led by a tremendous season by Fielder, who broke the professional single season scoring record with 122 points en route to Most Valuable Player honors and the first of four straight scoring championships for Seattle. Among other notables for the Americans wereVal Fonteyne, notable as the least penalized player of all time, future Vezina winnerCharlie Hodge, and futureNational Hockey Leaguegeneral managersEmile FrancisandKeith Allen. The team's final season as the Americans, in 1958, saw the first time the franchise would win a playoff series. Seattle Totems (1958–75) The Americans were renamed theSeattle Totemsfor the 1958–59 season, the name by which it would go for the rest of its existence. Fielder and Filion remained the team's great stars, but like many other WHL teams the Totems had very stable rosters, and players such asMarc Boileau,Gerry Leonard,Bill MacFarland,Jim Powers,Gordie Sinclairand futureNHLcoach and general managerTom McViespent many seasons each in Seattle colors. Allen was the team's coach its first seven seasons as the Totems, guiding the team to a first-place finish in 1959 and to the playoffs six out of the seven years of his tenure. The Totems played the 1974–75 season in theCentral Hockey Leagueafter the WHL folded. Terminated NHL expansion franchise On June 12, 1974, theNational Hockey League(NHL) announced that a Seattle group headed by Vince Abbey had been awarded an expansion team to begin play in the 1976–77 season.A $180,000 deposit was due by the end of 1975 and the total franchise fee was $6 million.Additionally, Abbey had to repurchase the shares in the Totems held by theVancouver Canucks, who were using the minor-league Totems as a farm club.The expansion announcement also included a franchise forDenver, and with the loss of two more of its major markets, the WHL announced on the same day that it was folding.The Totems joined the Central Hockey League for 1974–75. After missing a number of deadlines while scrambling to secure financing, the NHL threatened to pull the franchise as there were a number of other suitors in the wings.Abbey allegedly passed on an opportunity to purchase aWHAteam for $2 million during this period,and he missed an opportunity to acquire an existing franchise when thePittsburgh Penguinswere sold in abankruptcyauction for $4.4 million in June 1975. The Totems folded following the 1974–75 CHL season after acquiring $2 million in debt, leaving the city without hockey for the first time in two decades; theSeattle Breakers(now the Thunderbirds) would begin play in 1977 in the juniorWestern Canada Hockey League.After a failed attempt by Abbey to purchase theCalifornia Golden Sealsin June, the NHL pulled the expansion franchise from Seattle.Abbey filed suit against the NHL and the Canucks for anti-trust violations that he alleged prevented him from acquiring a team; it was finally settled in favor of the NHL in 1986.In 2018, the NHL again awarded Seattle an NHL team, theSeattle Kraken, which began play in 2021. Season-by-season results (1943–75) Note:GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes See also References External links",
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"Cranbrook Royals TheCranbrook Royalswere a senior men's AAA levelice hockeyteam that played in theWestern International Hockey Leaguefrom 1965 to 1987. The Cranbrook Royals won theAllan Cupas senior ice hockey champions of Canada in 1982. References This Canadian ice hockey team-related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it."
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"Flin Flon Bombers TheFlin Flon Bombersare a Canadianjunior ice hockeyteam inFlin Flon, a city located on theManitoba–Saskatchewanprovincial border. The Bombers are members of theSaskatchewan Junior Hockey League(SJHL), which is a member of theCanadian Junior Hockey League, and they play home games at theWhitney Forumon the Manitoba side of the city. The team's history dates back to 1927 and includes a decade-long run in the major juniorWestern Hockey Leaguein the late 1960s and 1970s. The team has won two national championships, including the1957 Memorial Cupand the 1969 James Piggott National Championship. History Early years The Bombers date back to 1927. Their trademark colours are maroon and white. The team originally played at the Flin Flon Community Club Arena until the construction of the Whitney Forum, known locally as \"the zoo\", in the 1950s.The Bombers originated as a senior team, and they competed in the Northern Saskatchewan Senior Hockey League and the Saskatchewan Senior Hockey League between",
"League between 1937 and 1948. SJHL dynasty In the postwar period, the Bombers became charter members of theSaskatchewan Junior Hockey League(SJHL).The team quickly established a dynasty, winning seven league titles in a nine-year span between 1952 and 1960. The team's biggest success during this period came in the 1956–57 season. The Bombers lost only five games in the regular season. In the playoffs, the Bombers beat theHumboldt Indiansfour games to none in the semifinals, then won the final over thePrince Albert Mintosfour games to two. As SJHL champions, the Bombers then advanced to theAbbott Cupto determine the champion forWestern Canada. They defeated theEdmonton Oil Kings, a team of junior-aged players competing in theseniorCentral Alberta Hockey League, four games to two, then theThunder Bay Junior A Hockey League'sFort William Canadiensin four games to win the Abbott Cup and advance to theMemorial Cupnational tournament. As perMemorial Cuprules, the Bombers were permitted to add three players to",
"three players to their roster for the 1957 national playoffs, picking up goalie Lynn Davis and defencemanJean Gauthierfrom the Fort William Canadiens and centreOrland Kurtenbachfrom Prince Albert Mintos. There, they faced the Eastern Canadian championOttawa Canadiens, coached bySam Pollockand assistantScotty Bowman.The first three games were in Flin Flon, with the remaining games played inRegina, Saskatchewanwith Pollock drawing the ire of Flin Flon residents for criticizing the remoteness and size of the community.The Bombers won the series four games to three to claim the Memorial Cup championship.The win by the Bombers was considered a considerable upset over the favoured Canadiens.The team was greeted by 4,000 people when they returned to Flin Flon after the series. The 1956–57 Bombers were inducted into both theManitoba Sports Hall of Fame(1999) and the Saskatchewan Sports Hall of Fame (2009), as well as theManitoba Hockey Hall of Fame. The Bombers played in the SJHL until 1966, when the launch of",
"when the launch of theCanadian Major Junior Hockey League(CMJHL) led the SJHL to fold with several of its teams joining the new league.The Bombers spent the1966–67season in theManitoba Junior Hockey League(MJHL) instead.Led by coachPaddy Ginnelland star playersReggie LeachandBobby Clarke, who won the league scoring title, the Bombers dominated the MJHL and won theTurnbull Cupas league champions, before losing the Abbott Cup final to Port Arthur.Clarke recorded 71 goals and 183 points in 45 games, while Leach recorded 67 goals and 113 points.Ginnell was credited with turning the Bombers into a hard-working and physically tough team.The arrangement with the MJHL would last just one season, with the Bombers leaving the league in 1967. Western Canada Hockey League After its inaugural season, the CMJHL was renamed the Western Canada Junior Hockey League, which was then simplified to the Western Canada Hockey league one year later.After their one season in the MJHL, the Bombers joined the WCHL, now the top level",
"now the top level of junior hockey in Western Canada, for the1967–68season, and they immediately built on their previous success. The Clarke-led Bombers continued to dominate, finishing in first place for the 1967–68 regular season before losing in thePresident's Cupfinals to theEstevan Bruins. The Bombers again finished in first place in the1968–69 season, going on to win that season's playoffs to become President's Cup champions, defeating theEdmonton Oil Kings.Clarke led the league in scoring both seasons, while Leach recorded 87 goals in 1967–68.As 1969 WCHL champion, the Bombers proceeded to win a national championship in 1969 by defeating theSt. Thomas Baronsof theWestern Ontario Junior A Hockey League; the best-of-seven series was unsanctioned by theCanadian Amateur Hockey Association(CAHA), which at the time had barred the WCHL from competing for the Memorial Cup. The short-livedCanadian Hockey Associationorganized an alternate championship; despite being a best-of-seven, St. Thomas withdrew from the",
"withdrew from the series during the fourth game, trailing the game and the series two games to one, protesting the Bombers' violent play style—the Bombers were awarded the title.After the series, Flin Flon challenged the Memorial Cup-championMontreal Junior Canadiensto a showdown, but the Montreal club declined.The following season, with Clarke having graduated to the professional ranks, the Bombers repeated as league champions, again defeating Edmonton, with Leach leading the league in scoring. Due to the controversy surrounding the previous years series against St. Thomas, there was no national series in 1970. The growing financial demands of major junior hockey, including extensive travel, became a strain for the Bombers, who played in one of the league's smallest and most remote communities; not only was the travel difficult for the Bombers, but for any team visiting Flin Flon, which had also developed a reputation as a particularly violent team.The franchise departed Flin Flon after the1977–78 season.",
"the1977–78 season. The franchise played three and a half seasons after leaving Flin Flon with iterations as theEdmonton Oil Kings—after the original Oil Kings departed Edmonton in 1976 due to pressure from theEdmonton Oilers—for the1978–79 season, theGreat Falls Americansfor part of1979–80before suspending operations, and theSpokane Flyersfor1980–81and start of the1981–82season before folding in December 1981. Return to Junior A In 1977, the WCHL Bombers had formed an affiliate Junior B team. The Jr. B Bombers would win the 1977–78Baldy Northcott Trophyas Manitoba Provincial Champions. When the WCHL Bombers departed to Edmonton, the Bombers' ownership retained the Junior B Bombers. The Flin Flon ownership, along with the owners of theThompson King Miners, banded together with people fromThe PasandSnow Lake, Manitobato create theNorMan Junior Hockey League(NJHL), a rival to theManitoba Junior League; the following year, the NJHL—along with the Bombers—would be promoted to Junior A status and the right to",
"and the right to compete for a national Junior A championship.Flin Flon won NJHL titles in 1979, 1982, and 1984. For the 1984–85 season, the Bombers were granted expansion into theSaskatchewan Junior Hockey League(SJHL), which had been revived in 1968 following the 1966 demise of the original SJHL.For two seasons, due to SJHL rules requiring teams to be located in Saskatchewan, the team was re-named the Creighton Bombers after the adjacent community ofCreighton, despite Flin Flon straddling the provincial border. After two seasons, the league allowed the team to re-adopt the Flin Flon moniker. Notable alumni Season-by-season record Playoff record Northern Saskatchewan Senior Hockey League, 1937–1938 Saskatchewan Senior Hockey League, 1939–1944 North Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League, 1949–50 Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League, 1951–1966 Manitoba Junior Hockey League, 1967 Western Canada Hockey League, 1968–1978 NorMan Junior Hockey League, 1979–1984 Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League, 1985–present Player",
"1985–present Player awards 1957 Memorial Cup Champions Harvey Fleming, Carl Forster, Cliff Lennartz, Barry Beatty, Mike Kardash,Duane Rupp,George Konik,Mel Pearson, Ken Willey, Rod Lee, Wayne Sproxton,Ted Hampson(captain), George Wood, Lynn Davis,Jean Gauthier,Ron Hutchinson,Orland Kurtenbach,Pat Ginnell, Doug Dawson (manager),Bobby Kirk(coach), Hec McCaig (trainer), Jim Wardle (executive), Pinkie Davie (executive), Ken Cunningham (stickboy), Rees Jones (stickboy), and Dan McCaig (mascot) were with the team through the SJHL and Abbott Cup championships, and were joined by Lynn Davis,Jean Gauthier, andOrland Kurtenbachfor the Memorial Cup national championship. Scoring champions Most Valuable Player Player of the Year Goaltender of the Year Defenceman of the Year Rookie of the Year Coach of the Year See also References External links",
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"New York Rangers TheNew York Rangersare a professionalice hockeyteam based inNew York City. The Rangers compete in theNational Hockey League(NHL) as a member of theMetropolitan Divisionin theEastern Conference. The team plays its home games atMadison Square Garden, an arena they share with theNew York Knicksof theNational Basketball Association(NBA). They are one of three NHL franchises located in theNew York metropolitan area; the others being theNew Jersey DevilsandNew York Islanders. Founded in 1926 byTex Rickard, the Rangers are one of theOriginal Sixteams that competed in the NHL before its 1967 expansion, along with theBoston Bruins,Chicago Blackhawks,Detroit Red Wings,Montreal CanadiensandToronto Maple Leafs. The team attained success early on under the guidance ofLester Patrick, who coached a team containingFrank Boucher,Murray Murdoch, andBunandBill Cookto win theStanley Cupin only their second season.They were the first NHL franchise in the United States to win the trophy, and are still the fastest",
"still the fastest true expansion team in NHL history to do so. The team won two more Stanley Cups in 1933 and 1940. Following this initial grace period, the franchise struggled between the 1940s and 1960s, wherein playoff appearances and successes were infrequent. The team enjoyed a mini-renaissance in the 1970s, where they made theStanley Cup Finalstwice, losing to the Bruins in 1972 and the Canadiens in 1979. The Rangers subsequently embraced a rebuild for much of the 1980s and early 1990s, which eventually paid dividends in 1994, where the team, led byMark Messier,Brian Leetch,Adam Graves, andMike Richter, captured their fourth Stanley Cup. The team was unable to duplicate that success in the years that followed, and entered into another period of mediocrity. They endured a franchise-record seven-year postseason drought from 1998 to 2005 and languished for the majority of the 2000s before enjoying another period of prosperity after the2004–05 NHL Lockout. After the arrival of goaltenderHenrik Lundqvist,",
"Lundqvist, the Rangers thrived, missing the playoffs just once between 2006 and 2017. They reached the Stanley Cup Finals in 2014, falling to theLos Angeles Kingsin five games. Several former members of the Rangers have been inducted into theHockey Hall of Fame, four of whom—Buddy O'Connor,Chuck Rayner,Andy Bathgate, and Messier—have won theHart Memorial Trophywhile playing for the team. History Early years (1926–1967) George Lewis \"Tex\" Rickard, president ofMadison Square Garden, was awarded an NHL franchise for the1926–27 seasonto compete with theNew York Americans, who had begun play at the Garden the previous season. The Americans' early success in their inaugural season exceeded expectations, leading Rickard to pursue a second team for the Garden despite promising the Amerks that they were going to be the only hockey team to play there.The new team was quickly nicknamed \"Tex's Rangers\". Rickard's franchise began play in the 1926–27 season. The first team crest was a horse sketched in blue carrying a",
"in blue carrying a cowboy waving a hockey stick aloft, before being changed to the familiar \"RANGERS\" in diagonal.FutureToronto Maple LeafsownerConn Smythewas hired to assemble the team, however he had a falling-out with Rickard's hockey man,Col. John S. Hammond, and was fired as manager-coach on the eve of the first season—he was paid a then-hefty $2,500 to leave. Smythe was replaced byPacific Coast Hockey Associationco-founderLester Patrick.The new team Smythe assembled turned out to be a winner. The Rangers won theAmerican Divisiontitle their first year but lost to theBoston Bruinsin the playoffs. The team's early success led to players becoming minor celebrities and fixtures in New York City'sRoaring Twentiesnightlife. It was during this time, playing at the Garden on 49th Street, blocks away fromTimes Square, that the Rangers obtained their nickname \"The Broadway Blueshirts\". On December 13, 1929, the Rangers became the first team in the NHL to travel by plane when they hired theCurtiss-Wright",
"theCurtiss-Wright Corporationto fly them toTorontofor a game against the Maple Leafs, which they lost 7–6. In only theRangers' second season, they won the1928Stanley Cup, defeating theMontreal Maroonsthree games to two.One of the most memorable stories that emerged from the finals involved Patrick playing in goal at the age of 44. At the time, teams were not required to dress a backupgoaltender. When the Rangers' starting goaltender,Lorne Chabot, left a game with aneye injury, Maroonshead coachEddie Gerardvetoed Patrick's original choice for an emergency replacement,Alex Connellof theOttawa Senators, who was in attendance. An angry Patrick lined up between the pipes for two periods in Game 2 of the finals, allowing one goal to Maroons centerNels Stewart.Frank Boucherscored the game-winning goal in overtime for New York. After a loss to the Bruins in the1929 Stanley Cup Finalsand an early struggle in the early 1930s, the Rangers, led by brothersBillandBun Cookon the right and left wings, respectively, and",
"respectively, and Frank Boucher at center, defeated the Maple Leafs in the1933best-of-five finals three games to one to win their second Stanley Cup. The Rangers spent the rest of the 1930s playing close to 0.500 hockey until their next Cup win. Lester Patrick stepped down as head coach and was replaced by Frank Boucher. Intheir 1939–40 season, the Rangers finished the regular season in second place behind Boston. The two teams then met in the first round of the playoffs. The Bruins gained a two-games-to-one series lead from New York, but the Rangers recovered to win three-straight games, defeating the first-place Bruins four games to two. The Rangers' first-round victory gave them a bye until the finals. TheDetroit Red Wingsdefeated the New York Americans in their first-round best-of-three series two games to one, and the Toronto Maple Leafs ousted theChicago Black Hawkstwo games to none. The Maple Leafs then swept Detroit a best-of-three series to advance to the finals. The1940Cup Finals commenced in",
"Finals commenced in Madison Square Garden. In Game 1, the Rangers needed overtime to gain a 1–0 series lead, but they won game two more easily with a 6–2 victory. The series then shifted to Toronto, where the Maple Leafs won the next two games, tying the series at two games apiece. In Games 5 and 6, the Rangers won in overtime, taking the series four games to two to earn their third Stanley Cup. However, the Rangers collapsed by the mid-1940s, losing games by scores as lopsided as 15–0. In1943–44, goaltenderKen McAuleyled the league with 39 losses and 310 goals allowed in 50 games played; his 6.24 goals-against average that year remains the worst in NHL history by a goaltender playing at least 25 games in a season.They missed the playoffs for five consecutive seasons before earning the fourth and final playoff spot in1947–48. They lost in the first round and missed the playoffs again in1948–49. In the1950 Stanley Cup Finals, the Rangers were forced to play all of their games, including \"home\" games, in",
"\"home\" games, in Toronto, while thecircuswas held at the Garden. They lost to the Detroit Red Wings in overtime in the seventh game of the finals. During this time, Red Wings ownerJames E. Norrisbecame the largest stockholder in the Garden. However, he did not buy controlling interest in the arena, which would have violated the NHL's rule against one person owning more than one team. Nonetheless, he had enough support on the board to exercise de facto control. The Rangers remained a mark of futility in the NHL for most of the remainder of theOriginal Sixera, missing the playoffs in 12 of the next 16 years. However, the team was rejuvenated in the late 1960s, symbolized by moving into thefourth version of Madison Square Gardenin 1968. A year earlier, they made the playoffs for the first time in five years on the strength of rookie goaltenderEddie Giacominand 37-year-old former 1950sMontreal Canadiensstar right wingBernie \"Boom Boom\" Geoffrion, signed out of retirement in 1966. Post-Original Six era",
"Six era (1967–1993) The Rangers made the finals twice in the 1970s, but lost both times to two '70s powerhouses; in six games to theBoston Bruinsin1972, who were led by such stars asBobby Orr,Phil Esposito,Ken Hodge,Johnny BucykandWayne Cashman; and in five games to the Canadiens in1979, who hadBob Gainey,Guy Lafleur,Larry Robinson,Ken Dryden,Guy LapointeandSerge Savard. The Rangers reached the1972 Stanley Cup Finalsdespite losing high-scoring centerJean Ratelle(who had been on pace over BruinPhil Espositoto become the first Ranger sinceBryan Hextallin 1942 to lead the NHL in scoring) to injury during the stretch drive of the regular season. The strength of players such asBrad Park, Jean Ratelle,Vic HadfieldandRod Gilbert(the last three constructing the famed \"GAG line\", standing for \"goal-a-game\") carried them through the playoffs. They defeated the defending-champion Canadiens in the first round and the Chicago Black Hawks in the second, but lost to the Bruins in the finals. In the 1972 playoffs, with",
"1972 playoffs, with Ratelle sidelined with a broken ankle and Gilbert hampered by injuries,Walt Tkaczukplayed a key role as the Rangers defeated the defending champion Canadiens and the previous year's finalists, the Black Hawks, to reach the Stanley Cup Finals. While the Rangers lost to the Boston Bruins in six games, Tkaczuk earned much respect for holding the Bruins' Phil Esposito without a goal in the series. The Rangers played a legendary conference semifinals series against thePhiladelphia Flyersin the1973–74playoffs, losing in seven games and becoming the first Original Six club to lose a playoff series to a 1967 expansion team. This series was noted for a Game 7 fight betweenDale Rolfeof the Rangers andDave Schultzof the Flyers.The Rangers' new rivals, theNew York Islanders, who entered the League in1972after paying a hefty territorial fee – some $4 million – to the Rangers, were their first-round opponents in the1975playoffs. After splitting the first two games, the Islanders defeated the",
"defeated the more-established Rangers 11 seconds into overtime of the deciding Game 3, establishing a rivalry that continued to grow for years. In a blockbuster trade with theBoston Bruins, the Rangers acquired Esposito andCarol Vadnaisfrom the Bruins for Park, Ratelle andJoe Zanussiin1975, while Swedish starsAnders HedbergandUlf Nilssonjumped to the Rangers from the League's rival, theWorld Hockey Association(WHA) in1978. In the 1979 NHL playoffs, New York defeated the surging Islanders in the conference semi-finals and advanced to the1979Cup Finals, losing to the Canadiens. In the three consecutive1982through1984playoffs, the Rangers were eliminated by the rival Islanders, who went on to win the Stanley Cup each of those years. The Rangers stayed competitive through the 1980s and early 1990s, making the playoffs each year. In the1986 Stanley Cup playoffs, the Rangers, behind the play of rookie goaltenderJohn Vanbiesbrouck, upended thePatrick Division-winning Flyers in five games followed by a six-game win",
"by a six-game win over theWashington Capitalsin the Patrick Division finals. Montreal, however, disposed of the Rangers in theWales Conferencefinals behind a rookie goaltender of their own,Patrick Roy. For the1986–87 season, the team acquired superstar centerMarcel Dionneafter almost 12 years with theLos Angeles Kings.In 1988, while a Ranger, Dionne moved into third place inNHL career goals scored. Dionne spent nine games in the minors before retiring during the1988–89 season. Frustration was at its peak when the1991–92 Rangerscaptured thePresidents' Trophy. They took a 2–1 series lead on the defending championPittsburgh Penguinsand then faltered in three-straight (some observers note aRon Francisslapshot from outside the blue line that eluded goaltenderMike Richteras the series' turning point).The following year, injuries and a 1–11 regular season finish landed the Rangers at the bottom of the Patrick Division after being in a playoff position for much of the season. Head coachRoger Neilsondid not finish",
"not finish the season. During this period, the Rangers were owned byGulf+Western, which was renamed to Paramount Communications in 1989, and sold toViacomin 1994. Viacom then sold the team toITT CorporationandCablevision, and a couple of years later, ITT sold their ownership stake to Cablevision, who owned the team until 2010, when they spun off the MSG properties as their own company. Ending the curse (1993–94) The1993–94 New York Rangers seasonwas their most successful in 54 years, as Mike Keenan coached the Rangers to the1994Stanley Cup championship, winning their fourth Cup.By the 1993–94 season, the Rangers had acquired seven players who had been part of theEdmonton Oilers' Cup-winning teams: Oilers captain (and new Rangers captain)Mark Messier,Adam Graves,Kevin Lowe,Jeff Beukeboom,Esa Tikkanen,Craig MacTavishandGlenn Anderson. Graves set a team record with 52 goals, breaking the prior record of 50 held byVic Hadfield. The Rangers clinched the Presidents' Trophy by finishing with the best record in the",
"best record in the NHL at 52–24–8, setting a franchise record with 112 points earned. The Rangers successfully made it past the first two rounds of the playoffs, sweeping the New York Islanders, and then defeating the Washington Capitals in five games. However, in the conference finals against the third-seededNew Jersey Devils, the Rangers lost the series opener at home in double overtime, but won the next two games before the Devils defeated them 3–1 and 4–1. The series headed back to theMeadowlandsfor the sixth game, in which Messier, who had guaranteed a win to the press,scored three timesin the final period to lead the Rangers to a 4–2 win and set up a seventh game back at Madison Square Garden. The Rangers won Game 7, 2–1, whenStephane Matteauscored a goal in double overtime, leading the team to the finals for the first time since1979. Up against theVancouver Canucks, the Rangers again lost the series opener at home in overtime. The Rangers bounced back and they won the next three games, allowing the",
"games, allowing the Canucks just four goals. However, the Canucks won the next two 6–3 and 4–1 to set up a seventh game, for the second consecutive series, at home.In the seventh game, the Rangers took a 2–0 first period lead, with Messier scoring later to put the Rangers up 3–1, the eventual Cup winning goal as the home team won 3–2, becoming the first (and to this date, only) player to captain two teams to the Stanley Cup.Brian Leetchbecame the first American-born player to win theConn Smythe Trophyas playoff MVP,whileAlexander Karpovtsev,Alexei Kovalev,Sergei NemchinovandSergei Zubovbecame the first Russians to have their names engraved on the Cup. Expensive acquisitions and postseason drought (1995–2005) Despite having coached the Rangers to a regular season first-place finish and the Stanley Cup victory, head coach Mike Keenan left after a dispute with general managerNeil Smith. During the lockout-shortened1994–95 season, the Rangers won their first-round series with theQuebec Nordiques, but lost in the",
"but lost in the second round of the playoffs to the Philadelphia Flyers in four games with succeeding head coachColin Campbell. General manager Neil Smith orchestrated a deal that sent Sergei Zubov and centerPetr Nedvedto Pittsburgh in exchange for defensemanUlf Samuelssonand left-wingerLuc Robitaillein the summer of 1995. The1995–96 Rangersdefeated the Canadiens in six games in the playoffs, but lost their second-round series to the Penguins in five games. The Rangers then acquiredWayne Gretzkyin 1996. Gretzky's greatest accomplishment with the Rangers was leading them to the1997 Eastern Conference finals, where they lost 4–1 to the Flyers, who were then led byEric Lindros. Mark Messier, a former Oiler teammate of Gretzky's, left in the summer of 1997 and the team failed in a bid to replace him withColorado AvalanchesuperstarJoe Sakic.The Rangers missed the playoffs for seven consecutive seasons, finishing no higher than fourth in their division. Gretzky retired at the end of the1998–99 season. In March",
"season. In March 2000, Smith was fired along with head coachJohn Muckler, and that summer,James DolanhiredGlen Satherto replace him.By the end of the2000–01 season, the Rangers had landed a significant amount of star power. Messier had returned to New York,Theoren Fleuryjoined the Rangers after spending most of his career with theCalgary Flamesand Eric Lindros was traded to the Rangers by the Flyers.The Rangers also acquiredPavel Burelate in2001–02from theFlorida Panthers.It was also the rookie season of goalieDan Blackburn, who made theNHL All-Rookie Teameven as the Rangers fell back to last place in the Conference,and finished out of the playoffs. Later years saw other stars such as Alexei Kovalev,Jaromir Jagr,Martin RucinskyandBobby Holikadded, but in2002–03and2003–04, the team again missed the playoffs. Blackburn started strongly in 2002–03, but burned out after 17 games. He missed 2003–04 due tomononucleosisand a damaged nerve in his leftshoulder. Blackburn could not rehabilitate the damaged nerve, and",
"damaged nerve, and was forced to retire at the age of 22.Towards the end of the2003–04 season, general manager Glen Sather finally gave in to a rebuilding process by trading away Brian Leetch, Alexei Kovalev, and eight others for numerous prospects and draft picks. With the retirements of Pavel Bure and Mark Messier, as well as Eric Lindros signing with the Toronto Maple Leafs, the post-lockout Rangers, under new head coachTom Renney, moved away from high-priced veterans towards a group of talented young players, such asPetr Prucha,Dominic MooreandBlair Betts. Henrik Lundqvist era (2005–2020) Return to the playoffs (2005–2011) The Rangers were expected to struggle during the2005–06 season, but behind stellar performances by Swedish rookie goaltenderHenrik Lundqvist, the Rangers finished the season with a record of 44–26–12, their best record since 1993–94. Jagr broke the Rangers' single-season points record with a first-period assist in a 5–1 win against the New York Islanders on March 29, 2006.The assist",
"29, 2006.The assist gave him 110 points on the season, breakingJean Ratelle's record.Less than two weeks later, on April 8, Jagr scored his 53rd goal of the season against the Boston Bruins, breaking the club record previously held by Adam Graves.Two games prior, on April 4, the Rangers defeated the Philadelphia Flyers 3–2, in a shootout, to clinch a playoff spot for the first time since1996–97.In theEastern Conference Quarterfinals, the Rangers drew a matchup with the Devils and were defeated in a four-game sweep. Jagr fell two points short of winning his sixthArt Ross Trophyas scoring champion in 2005–06 (the trophy went to theSan Jose Sharks'Joe Thornton), but Jagr did win his thirdPearson Awardas the players' choice for the most outstanding player. Realizing that the team had trouble scoring goals in the 2005–06 campaign, the Rangers signedTriple Gold Clubwinner and 12-time 30-goal scorerBrendan Shanahanto a one-year contract. On October 5, 2006, opening night of the2006–07 season, Jagr was named the",
"Jagr was named the first team captain since Mark Messier's retirement.Though the Rangers started slow in the first half of the 2006–07 season, the second half was dominated by the stellar goaltending of Henrik Lundqvist. On February 5, 2007, the Rangers acquired agitating forwardSean Averyin a trade with the Los Angeles Kings, which brought further intensity to the team. Despite losing several players to injury in March, the Rangers went 10–2–3 in the month and clinched a playoff berth for the second consecutive season. Facing theAtlanta Thrashersin the first round of the2007 playoffs, the Rangers swept the series. However, they were eliminated in the next round by theBuffalo Sabres. At the2007 NHL Entry Draft, the Rangers choseAlexei Cherepanov17th overall, who had been ranked by theNHL Central Scouting Bureauas the number one European skater.Despite the departure of Michael Nylander, the 2007 free agency season started with a bang for the Rangers, with the signing of two high-profile centerman;Scott",
"centerman;Scott Gomezon a seven-year contract, as well asChris Druryon a five-year deal.The moves, along with retaining most other key players, had been met favorably, and the Rangers made the playoffs for the third consecutive season and the second round for the second season in a row. Despite these streaks, the Rangers failed to meet expectations, losing their second-round series to the Pittsburgh Penguins. The following off-season saw the departures of captain Jaromir Jagr to the KHL, and alternate captains Martin Straka and Brendan Shanahan, who left to play in the Czech Republic and with the New Jersey Devils, respectively. Following Jagr's departure, Chris Drury was named captain on October 3, 2008. The Rangers were one of four NHL teams to open the2008–09 seasonin Europe, being featured in theVictoria Cupfinal, defeating the European Champions Cup winnerMetallurg MagnitogorskinBern, Switzerland. This was followed by two NHL regular season games against Tampa Bay inPragueon October 4 and 5, and the",
"4 and 5, and the Rangers won both games. The Rangers tied the 1983–84 Rangers for the best start in franchise history with a 5–0 record, and set the franchise record for best start in a season through the first 13 games by going 10–2–1 for 21 points, with the 10 wins and 21 points each becoming franchise records. A successful start to the season, however, was tempered with by the news of the sudden death of 2007 first-round pick Alexei Cherepanov, which occurred during a KHL game in Russia on October 13.A disappointing second half of the season followed. After the Rangers went 2–7–3 in 12 games, coach Tom Renney was fired, with2004Stanley Cup andJack Adams AwardwinnerJohn Tortorellanamed as his replacement.The Rangers made the2009 playoffs, but lost their opening-round series to the Washington Capitals four games to three. On June 30, 2009, the Rangers traded Scott Gomez,Tom Pyatt, andMichael Bustoto the Montreal Canadiens forRyan McDonagh,Chris Higgins,Pavel Valentenko, andDoug Janik. With Gomez's salary",
"With Gomez's salary cap hit gone, the Rangers signed superstarMarian Gaborikon the first day of free agency. In the2009–10 season, the Rangers failed to make the playoffs for the first time in five years. There was some criticism that the off-season acquisition of Gaborik had not paid off, despite Gaborik scoring 42 goals and 86 points in the season. The final two games of the season were a home-and-home against the Philadelphia Flyers, with both teams competing for the same playoff spot. The Rangers skated away with the victory in the first game, keeping their postseason hopes alive. In the second game, the Flyers peppered Henrik Lundqvist with 47 shots, but scored only once. The game went to a shootout, and the Flyers prevailed to move on to the playoffs. For the2010–11 New York Rangers season, the team waived defensemanWade Reddenand brought in several players to achieve more balanced scoring. On November 12, the Rangers unveiled the new Heritage Jersey for the first time at theice rink at Rockefeller",
"rink at Rockefeller Centerin a special ceremony featuring Rangers alumni and current players discussing the history of the storied franchise. The club wore the jersey for the first time on November 17 when they played the Boston Bruins at Madison Square Garden. The Rangers' playoff chances came down to the final day of the regular season for the second-straight year. The team defeated the New Jersey Devils and passed theCarolina Hurricanesin the standings, putting the Rangers in the playoffs after missing out the previous season. The Rangers faced Washington in the first round and lost the series in five games. It was the second time in three years that the Capitals eliminated the Rangers from the playoffs, fueling a rivalry that lasted several seasons. On May 13, 2011, Rangers forwardDerek Boogaardwas found dead in hisMinnesotaapartment.On June 29, the Rangers bought out captain Chris Drury's contract. On July 3, the Rangers signed free agentBrad Richardsto a nine-year contract.On September 12,Ryan",
"September 12,Ryan Callahanwas named the 26th captain in the Rangers' history.He became the fifth-youngest captain in team history.Brad Richards andMarc Staalwere named alternate captains on the same day. Return to the Finals and third Presidents' Trophy (2011–2016) In the2011–12 New York Rangers season, the team finished as the top seed in the Eastern Conference, recording 51 wins and 109 points. Their leading scorer was Marian Gaborik, who finished the season with 41 goals and 76 points while playing all 82 games. In the first round of the playoffs, the Rangers faced the eighth-seeded Ottawa Senators. After falling behind 3–2 in the series, the Rangers bounced back to win Game 6 inOttawaas well as Game 7 at home. In the next round, the Rangers once again faced the Capitals. In Game 3, Gaborik scored to win 14:41 into the third overtime, giving the Rangers a 2–1 lead in the series, but Washington came back to tie the series 2–2 in Game 4. Washington was up by one during the final minutes of Game 5 whenJoel",
"of Game 5 whenJoel Wardcommitted a high-sticking double-minor. Richards scored to tie with just 6.6 seconds remaining, and in overtime, defenseman Marc Staal scored on the second penalty of the double-minor just 1:35 into overtime. Rangers went on to win the series 4–3, sending them to the Eastern Conference Final for the first time since 1997. In the Conference Finals, they faced the New Jersey Devils, a major divisional rival. After leading the series 2–1, the Rangers lost 3 games in a row, losing Game 6 in New Jersey with a goal by Devils forwardAdam Henriqueat 1:03 in overtime, giving the Devils a 4–2 series win and ending the Rangers' season. On July 23, 2012, the Rangers tradedBrandon Dubinsky,Artem Anisimov,Tim Erixonand a2013 first-round draft pickto theColumbus Blue Jacketsin exchange forRick Nash,Steven Delisle, and a 2013 conditional third-round pick.At the 2013NHL trade deadlineon April 3, the Rangers then traded Marian Gaborik and Steven Delisle to Columbus forDerick Brassard,Derek Dorsett,John",
"Dorsett,John Moore, and a 2014 sixth-round draft pick.After the Rangers were eliminated in the second round of the playoffs by Boston, management fired head coach John Tortorella, and on June 21, 2013, general manager Glen Sather formally introduced former Canucks head coachAlain Vigneaultas Tortorella's replacement. A trade late in the2013–14 seasoncontributed to the Rangers reaching the2014 Stanley Cup Finals. On March 5, 2014, the Rangers traded their captain Ryan Callahan, along with a first-round draft pick in2015, a conditional second-round pick in2014, and a conditional seventh-round pick in 2015, for Tampa Bay captainMartin St. Louis. The trade occurred both due to the Rangers' and Callahan's inability to reach a contract extension, as well as St. Louis' growing tension with the Lightning organization and subsequent request to be traded to New York. The2013–14 Rangerswere already a strong team, setting a new franchise record of 25 road game wins. New York defeated Philadelphia in seven games in the",
"seven games in the first round of the2014 playoffs, and in the next round rallied from a 3–1 series deficit for the first time in their history to defeat Pittsburgh in seven games. They then defeated the Montreal Canadiens in six games to become the Eastern Conference champions, moving on to the Cup Finals, their first visit in 20 years, to face2012championsLos Angeles Kings. The Rangers led the first two games by two goals but lost each game in overtime, and were then shut-out at home 3–0 in Game 3. The Kings outshot the Rangers in Game 4, but the Rangers staved off elimination by winning the game 2–1. They had another lead in Game 5, but after the game was tied and subsequently sent to overtime, Kings defensemanAlec Martinezscored with 5:17 left in the second overtime period to win the game for Los Angeles, 3–2, as well as the Stanley Cup. On June 20, 2014, a week after their season ended, the Rangersbought-outthe remaining six years of Brad Richards' contract in order to free upsalary cap space.On October",
"space.On October 6, defensemanRyan McDonaghwas named the Rangers' 27th captain in team history, withDerek Stepan, Dan Girardi, Marc Staal and Martin St. Louis serving as alternates. In2014–15, the Rangers won the Presidents' Trophy for the third time in franchise history and their seventh division title by finishing with the best record in the NHL at 53–22–7. The 53 wins and 113 points both set franchise records. The team also won 28 road games in the regular season, breaking the franchise record set the previous season. In the2015 Stanley Cup playoffs, the Rangers dispatched the Pittsburgh Penguins in five games in the first round. The Rangers then came back from a 3–1 series deficit to win their second-round series against the Capitals in seven games, becoming the first team in NHL history to battle back from a 3–1 deficit in back-to-back seasons and sending the Rangers to the Eastern Conference Final for the third time in four years. However, after winning the first game against the Tampa Bay Lightning,",
"Bay Lightning, the Rangers lost Game 2 by four goals. The two teams split the first four games of the series, but the Rangers lost Game 5 by a 2–0 scoreline at home. In Game 6, Derick Brassard scored a hat-trick and assisted on two other goals in an emphatic 7–3 Rangers victory to force Game 7 in New York.There, the Lightning shutout the Rangers 2–0, ending the Rangers' season, and marking the first occasion the Rangers had ever lost a Game 7 at home in franchise history as well as the first time they lost an elimination game at home since they lost to Buffalo in2007. On June 27, 2015, the Rangers tradedCarl Hagelinto the Anaheim Ducks,Cam Talbotand a draft pick to the Edmonton Oilers, and prospectRyan Haggertyto the Chicago Blackhawks forAntti Raanta, who replaced Talbot as Lundqvist's backup goaltender.Subsequently, on July 1,Glen Satherresigned as the general manager, withJeff Gortontaking his place to become the 11th general manager in team history.On July 2, Martin St. Louis announced his retirement.The",
"his retirement.The team then re-signedJesper Fast,J. T. Miller, and Derek Stepan. The Rangers started the2015–16 seasonwith a 14–2–2 record after 18 games, including a nine-game winning streak. However, the team lost their momentum and floundered, posting a 4–7–2 record in December for only ten points. After the holiday break, the team gradually improved their play, going on a 10–3–1 run without any back-to-back losses in February. The Rangers finished the season with 101 points for back-to-back 100+ point seasons. Despite high hopes, the Rangers were eliminated in the first round of the2016 Stanley Cup playoffsby a Penguins team that would go on to win the Stanley Cup. That summer, the Rangers extended Antti Raanta's contract,signedPavel Buchnevichto an entry-level contract,and re-signed J. T. Miller,Chris Kreider, andKevin Hayes. Rebuilding (2016–2020) On July 18, 2016, the Rangers traded Derick Brassard and a 2018 seventh-round draft pick in exchange forMika Zibanejadand a 2018 second-round draft pick.The",
"draft pick.The team also signedMichael Grabnerto a two-year dealand the much-anticipated college sensationJimmy Veseyto a two-year entry-level contract.The Rangers finished2016–17in fourth place in the Metropolitan Division with 102 points. In the first round of the2017 Stanley Cup playoffs, they won their series with the Montreal Canadiens in six games. In the second game of their second-round series with the Ottawa Senators, the Rangers held a two-goal lead on three different occasions, but lost in double overtime, putting themselves in a 2–0 series deficit. The team responded with consecutive 4–1 home wins in Games 3 and 4 to tie the series at two games apiece. However, the Rangers lost the next two games and were eliminated by the Senators. On June 14, 2017, the Rangers announced a buyout of Dan Girardi's contract.Just over a week later, the Rangers traded Derek Stepan and Antti Raanta to theArizona Coyotesin exchange for a first-round draft pick (seventh overall) and former first-round pickTony",
"pickTony DeAngelo.The Rangers' management was also successful in signing top free agent defensemanKevin Shattenkirkon July 1, to a four-year deal.With injuries sidelining Shattenkirk, Kreider, and Zibanejad, the Rangers struggled to compete. By February 8, 2018, the team had a 25–24–5 record, leading the front office to issue a letter to fans announcing the Rangers would be committing to a rebuild and may \"lose some familiar faces\" in the process.Rick Nashwas traded the day before the 2018NHL trade deadlineto the Bruins for a 2018 first-round pick, a 2019 seventh-round pick,Matt Beleskey,Ryan SpoonerandRyan Lindgren. The following day, the Rangers traded captainRyan McDonaghandJ. T. Millerto theTampa Bay LightningforVladislav Namestnikov, prospectsBrett HowdenandLibor Hajek, and multiple draft picks. With the team missing the playoffs for the first time since2010, finishing under .500 for the first time since2004, and placing last in the Metropolitan Division, head coach Vigneault was fired after the",
"was fired after the conclusion of the season. On May 23,David Quinnwas hired as the team's new head coach.During the off-season, Hayes, Vesey,Brady Skjeiand Spooner all filed for salary arbitration and all of them were re-signed.Despite a mediocre2018–19 season, Gorton and his team remained committed to rebuilding the franchise. 2017 first-round draft pickFilip Chytilmade his NHL debut,and early in the season Ryan Spooner was traded to Edmonton forRyan Strome.With the trade deadline approaching and their playoff chances slim, the Rangers once again traded away veteran players, with fan-favoriteMats Zuccarellobeing sent to the Dallas Stars in exchange for two draft picksandKevin Hayesgoing to Winnipeg in exchange for a first-round pick, a conditional pick, and forwardBrendan Lemieux. The Rangers received the second overall pick in the2019 NHL Entry Draft,and subsequently used it to select forwardKaapo Kakko. On May 17, 2019, former Ranger goaltender and broadcasterJohn Davidsonresigned from his position as",
"his position as president of the Columbus Blue Jackets and returned to New York to become the organization's new president.Davidson and Gorton addressed the team's defensive woes by acquiring top prospectAdam Foxfrom Carolina for a pair of picks,as well as veteran defensemanJacob Trouba.The team also signed free agentArtemi Panarinto a seven-year deal on July 1.To help with salary cap restrictions, the Rangers then traded Jimmy Vesey and bought out the last two years of Shattenkirk's contract. The2019–20 seasonwas a step forward for the rebuilding Rangers; Panarin lived up expectations and earned aHart Trophynomination,rookie goaltenderIgor Shesterkinproved to be a worthy successor to aging superstar Henrik Lundqvist, Chris Kreider signed a seven-year contract extension,and Mika Zibanejad emerged as an elite forward, recording a 5-goal-game against Washington on March 5 and ending up with 41 goals in 57 games played. By early March 2020, the Rangers were within striking distance of the second wild-card",
"second wild-card position when thecoronavirus pandemichalted the regular season. In May 2020, the league announced a24-team playoff tournamentto complete the season, where the Rangers were seeded eleventh and faced the Carolina Hurricanes; the Hurricanes swept the Rangers. After being eliminated from the playoffs the Rangers were entered into the second phase of the NHL draft lottery where the team won the lottery and were awarded the first pick in the2020 NHL Entry Draft, which Gorton used to selectAlexis Lafreniere.Later in the off-season, the team traded veteran defensemanMarc Staalto the Red Wings. In September 2020, the Rangers bought out the final year ofHenrik Lundqvist's contract, ending his tenure in New York after 15 years. The Drury years (2020–present) Continued team struggles (2020–2021) On January 31, 2021, defenseman Tony DeAngelo was placed on waivers, following reports that he had an altercation with teammateAlexandar Georgievfollowing an overtime loss.According toThe Athletic,his continued",
"continued \"maturity\" issues, combined with a marked decline in his play, led the Rangers to put him on the market; there were no takers. In a game against theWashington Capitalson May 3, 2021, Capitals forwardTom Wilsoncross-checkedPavel Buchnevichin the head and slammedArtemi Panarininto the ice, ending his season. Wilson, a repeat offender, was fined the league maximum of $5,000 for the incident.The Rangers organization released a statement expressing disappointment in this decision, calling head of player safetyGeorge Parros\"unfit to continue in his current role\". The NHL subsequently fined the Rangers $250,000 for their comments.Two days later, Rangers ownerJames Dolanfired presidentJohn Davidsonand general managerJeff Gorton.Despite the timing, Dolan stated the firings were not related to the Wilson incident and statement, citing \"culture\" issues within the organization.Chris Drurywas then announced as the Rangers' new president and general manager.On May 12, Drury fired head coach David Quinn,and",
"David Quinn,and replaced him withGerard Gallant.Despite a tumultuous season, a major bright spot was the play ofAdam Fox; he led NHL defensemen with 42 assists, finished second in points with 47, and won theJames Norris Memorial Trophy. Playoff return and fourth Presidents' Trophy (2021–present) In the2021–22 season, the Rangers finished the regular season with a record of 52–24–6, making the playoffs for the first time since 2020.For the third time in franchise history, the Rangers overcame a 3–1 series deficit, this time against thePittsburgh Penguinsin a first round matchup that concluded with a game-winning overtime goal fromArtemi Panarin. In the next round, they defeated theCarolina Hurricanesin seven games after trailing in the series 2–0 and 3–2, advancing to their first Eastern Conference Final since 2015.There they faced the back-to-back defending champions, theTampa Bay Lightning, and lost the series in six games despite having a 2–0 series lead.Igor Shesterkinwas named theVezina Trophywinner",
"Trophywinner following the season. By the end of thefollowing season, the Rangers had acquiredVladimir TarasenkoandNiko Mikkolafrom theSt. Louis BluesandPatrick Kanefrom the Blackhawks.The team made the playoffs, finishing third in their division,but lost to theirriver rivals, theNew Jersey Devilsin seven games, despite a 2–0 series lead. As a result, Gallant was fired as head coach. He was replaced withPeter Laviolettefollowing the season. In the2023–24 season, the Rangers clinched their fourthPresidents' Trophy. During the2024 playoffs, they swept the Washington Capitals in the first round, then defeated the Carolina Hurricanes in the second round, but lost to the eventual Stanley Cup championFlorida Panthersin the conference finals. Uniforms The classic Rangers sweater has been in use since the franchise's foundation, with several alterations along the way. The current blue uniform has the serifed word \"RANGERS\" in red and white drop shadow arranged diagonally, with red and white stripes on the sleeves",
"on the sleeves and tail. Originally, the uniform was light blue, before it switched to a darker classic Rangers \"Broadway Blue\" in 1929. In addition, the original versions neither had a drop shadow nor were serifed. During the 1946–47 season, the word \"RANGERS\" was arranged in an arch form above the sweater number. It adopted its current form the next season, along with dropshadowed numbers, except for a brief period where the city name was used, a tie-down collar was not used and the tail and sleeve stripes were separated by thin blue stripes. Red pants have been used with the uniform since the 1929–30 season. The white jerseys were first unveiled in the 1951–52 season, as part of a mandate that regulated NHL teams to have a dark home jersey and a light away jersey. Theserifedword \"RANGERS\" is also arranged diagonally, but in blue with red drop shadow. A quinticolor of blue, white and red stripes accentuate the tail and sleeves, while a blue shoulder yoke with white and red stripes completes the look. The",
"the look. The white sweaters, with minor changes such as a tie-down collar and arched player names, have remained virtually unchanged since. During the tenure of general managerJohn Ferguson Sr., he sought to modernize the Rangers sweater by featuring rounded numbers, a darker shade of blue and the shield logo, which was unveiled in the 1976–77 season. A blue and red stripe (white and red stripe in the blue sweaters) extend from the yoke to the sleeves, while blue pants were used. However, it proved unpopular with the fans, and following the 1977–78 season it was replaced by an updated version of their classic uniforms. Ferguson used this similar design when he became GM of the originalWinnipeg Jets. The modernized classic uniforms introduced in 1978 featured some subtle changes. Both jerseys featured a V-neck collar in a red-white-red pattern, and bolder stripes on the sleeves and waistline. On the blue jersey, the red and white stripes were separated by thin blue stripes, along with the waistline stripes",
"waistline stripes being raised above the hemline so that the patterns on both jerseys matched. From 1978 to 1987, the blue jersey (then the road jersey) featured \"NEW YORK\" diagonally across the front instead of the traditional \"RANGERS\" wordmark, similar to their 2010s heritage alternate jerseys.In 1997, the Rangers reverted the blue jersey's design, restoring the old striping pattern, and becoming the first team to re-introduce lace-up collars.The white jerseys followed suit in 1999,and the design was carried over to the Reebok Edge template in 2007. On October 7, 2001, the Rangers wore a modified version of their blue jerseys in a home game against theBuffalo Sabres. This design combined the current/traditional striping with the \"NEW YORK\" wordmark of the 1978–1987 uniforms. The uniforms were worn in the wake of theSeptember 11 attacks. The Rangers previously had a navy alternate jersey featuring the head of theStatue of Libertywith the team abbreviation (NYR) below in a futuristic script. Silver was used",
"Silver was used as an accent color, but the player names and numbers retain the same color schemes as the regular jerseys, except for a darker shade of blue. Other than a white version used in the 1998–99 season, this jersey was used from 1996 to 2007, and proved to be highly popular with fans. During the 2010–11 season, the Rangers debuted a heritage blue jersey as their new alternate uniform. The jersey featured a darker shade of blue, as well as a cream trim. Unlike the regular jerseys, the font of the alternate wassans-serifand did not feature a dropshadow, much like the original Rangers jersey. The Rangers wore the jerseys at home on Saturdays and when they played against Original Six teams.For the 2017–18 season, the heritage jersey was retired because of the league-wide switch to theAdidasuniform format. In the2012 NHL Winter Classic, the Rangers wore a cream jersey combining classic and current styles. A different version of the shield logo was used, while the player names were arranged in a straight",
"in a straight line. The stripes were also lessened, giving it a minimalist, vintage look, as most Winter Classic jerseys are. For the2014 NHL Stadium Series, the Rangers used white jerseys with the city name in navy, silver and red. In addition, they feature diagonal stripes and sleeve numbers, and enlarged numbers on the back to make them more readable to spectators. The chrome version of the shield logo is placed in the left shoulder. Like the Winter Classic sweaters, player names are in a straight position. The2018 NHL Winter Classicsaw the Rangers wear a navy jersey with a combination of elements from prior uniform designs. The striping design was inspired from their current uniforms, while the white \"RANGERS\" wordmark was a nod from the team's late 1920s jerseys. A white silhouette of the Rangers' shield logo contained either the abbreviation \"N.Y.\" or the alternate captain \"A\" and captain \"C\" designations. Player names are arranged in a straight position. During the 2020–21 season, the Rangers released",
"Rangers released a \"Reverse Retro\" alternate uniform in collaboration with Adidas. The uniform featured the \"Lady Liberty\" design worn from 1996 to 2007, but with a few changes in the striping.This same design was again used for their 2022–23 \"Reverse Retro\" uniform, but the lighter Broadway Blue served as the base color while the lower sleeves were recolored red with white and navy stripes. In the 2023–24 season, the Rangers unveiled a new third jersey, bringing back the shield logo as the main crest for the first time since the 1976–1978 redesign. The navy blue-based jersey featured thin white, red and Broadway blue stripes on the sleeves, waist and socks, along with white letters. For the2024 NHL Stadium Series, the Rangers will wear white jerseys with an enlarged \"NYR\" diagonal lettering in red with blue drop shadows. Enlarged numbers also employ the same color scheme as the \"NYR\" wordmark, along with thick alternating blue and red sleeve stripes. Season-by-season record This is a partial list of the",
"partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Rangers. For the full season-by-season history, seeList of New York Rangers seasons. Note:GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime/shootout losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against Players and personnel Current roster Updated October 9, 2024 Team captains General managers The current general manager isChris Drury, who had been named on May 5, 2021. Head coaches The current head coach isPeter Laviolettewho was hired on June 13, 2023. Team and league honors Awards and trophies The following lists the league awards which have been won by the Rangers team and its players and alumni: Stanley Cup Victoria Cup Presidents' Trophy Prince of Wales Trophy O'Brien Cup Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy Calder Memorial Trophy Conn Smythe Trophy Hart Memorial Trophy James Norris Memorial Trophy King Clancy Memorial Trophy Lady Byng Memorial Trophy Lester Patrick Trophy Lester B. Pearson Award NHL Plus-Minus Award Vezina Trophy",
"Award Vezina Trophy First-round draft picks Hall of Famers The New York Rangers acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to theHockey Hall of Fame. Rangers inductees include 53 former players and ten builders of the sport.The nine individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame includes former Rangers executives, general managers, head coaches, and owners. In addition to players and builders, several broadcasters were also awarded theFoster Hewitt Memorial Awardfrom the Hockey Hall of Fame.Sal Messina, acolor commentator, was the first Rangers broadcaster to be awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award. Other Rangers broadcasters awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award includeJohn Davidson(awarded in 2009), andSam Rosen(awarded in 2016). Players Builders Retired numbers The Rangers have retired nine numbers for eleven players in their history, and the NHL retiredWayne Gretzky's No. 99 for all its member teams at the2000 NHL All-Star Game. Notes: Single-season records Source: Franchise",
"Source: Franchise scoring leaders These are the top-ten-point-scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season. See also References Bibliography External links",
"Seattle Totems TheSeattle Totemswere a professionalice hockeyfranchise inSeattle, Washington. Under several names prior to 1958, the franchise was a member of thePacific Coast Hockey League(renamed theWestern Hockey Leaguein 1952) between 1944 and 1974. In their last season of existence, the Totems played in theCentral Hockey Leaguein the 1974–75 season. They played their home games in theCivic Ice Arenaand later at theSeattle Center Coliseum. The Totems won three WHLLester Patrick Cupchampionships in 1959, 1967 and 1968. The Totems were one of the few American-based professional clubs to play a touring Soviet team. On December 25, 1972, the Totems lost to the Soviets 9–4.A rematch between the two teams was held on January 4, 1974, where, led by Don Westbrooke's three goals, the Totems won 8–4. Franchise history Seattle Ironmen (1944–52) After World War II, thePacific Coast Hockey League(PCHL), a major professional league on the West Coast in the 1910s and 1920s, was resurrected as asemi-professionalloop.",
"Seattle, as a notably strong hockey town and the first city outside of Canada to host aStanley Cupchampion (the 1917Seattle Metropolitans), was granted two franchises, one of which were theSeattle Ironmen. The club had been founded as an amateur team the previous yearin the Northwest Industrial Hockey League,where they were known as theSeattle Isaacson Iron Workers. As NIHL teams were operated by war industry companies, most players for the Iron Workers additionally worked at the production lines of the U.S. Navy's Isaacson Steel plant in nearbyTukwila, Washington. When the club entered the new PCHL in its inaugural 1944–45 season, it was renamed the Seattle Ironmen and hired Frank Dotten as its new head coach. The club had modest success, finishing in first place in the 1947–48 regular season. When the league itself became fully professional for the 1948–49 season, only four of the previous season's players remained, leaving the roster to be replaced by amateur players from Tacoma and the team to finish",
"the team to finish last in its division. Over its existence, the Ironmen's most notable stars wereGordon Kerr, the team's leading scorer in those years with 235 points in 244 games,William Robinson,Eddie DartnellandJoe Bell. Among other notables for the team were futureNHLstar goaltenderAl Rollinsand legendaryPhiladelphia FlyerscoachFred Shero. The Ironmen served as inspiration for the 2022 Reverse Retro alternate uniform for the NHL'sSeattle Kraken. Seattle Bombers (1952–54) In 1952, the league changed its name to theWestern Hockey League(WHL), and the Ironmen themselves changed their name to theSeattle Bombersthe following season. The team continued to play poorly for two seasons, and the only bright spot was the debut for Seattle of the greatest minor league scorer of all time,Guyle Fielder. After two seasons of increasing travel costs—for which the Bombers received aid from the league—Seattle suspended operations for the 1955 season. Seattle Americans (1955–58) The team rejoined the WHL as theSeattle",
"WHL as theSeattle Americansthe following season, finishing in first place in 1957 led by a tremendous season by Fielder, who broke the professional single season scoring record with 122 points en route to Most Valuable Player honors and the first of four straight scoring championships for Seattle. Among other notables for the Americans wereVal Fonteyne, notable as the least penalized player of all time, future Vezina winnerCharlie Hodge, and futureNational Hockey Leaguegeneral managersEmile FrancisandKeith Allen. The team's final season as the Americans, in 1958, saw the first time the franchise would win a playoff series. Seattle Totems (1958–75) The Americans were renamed theSeattle Totemsfor the 1958–59 season, the name by which it would go for the rest of its existence. Fielder and Filion remained the team's great stars, but like many other WHL teams the Totems had very stable rosters, and players such asMarc Boileau,Gerry Leonard,Bill MacFarland,Jim Powers,Gordie Sinclairand futureNHLcoach and general",
"and general managerTom McViespent many seasons each in Seattle colors. Allen was the team's coach its first seven seasons as the Totems, guiding the team to a first-place finish in 1959 and to the playoffs six out of the seven years of his tenure. The Totems played the 1974–75 season in theCentral Hockey Leagueafter the WHL folded. Terminated NHL expansion franchise On June 12, 1974, theNational Hockey League(NHL) announced that a Seattle group headed by Vince Abbey had been awarded an expansion team to begin play in the 1976–77 season.A $180,000 deposit was due by the end of 1975 and the total franchise fee was $6 million.Additionally, Abbey had to repurchase the shares in the Totems held by theVancouver Canucks, who were using the minor-league Totems as a farm club.The expansion announcement also included a franchise forDenver, and with the loss of two more of its major markets, the WHL announced on the same day that it was folding.The Totems joined the Central Hockey League for 1974–75. After missing a",
"After missing a number of deadlines while scrambling to secure financing, the NHL threatened to pull the franchise as there were a number of other suitors in the wings.Abbey allegedly passed on an opportunity to purchase aWHAteam for $2 million during this period,and he missed an opportunity to acquire an existing franchise when thePittsburgh Penguinswere sold in abankruptcyauction for $4.4 million in June 1975. The Totems folded following the 1974–75 CHL season after acquiring $2 million in debt, leaving the city without hockey for the first time in two decades; theSeattle Breakers(now the Thunderbirds) would begin play in 1977 in the juniorWestern Canada Hockey League.After a failed attempt by Abbey to purchase theCalifornia Golden Sealsin June, the NHL pulled the expansion franchise from Seattle.Abbey filed suit against the NHL and the Canucks for anti-trust violations that he alleged prevented him from acquiring a team; it was finally settled in favor of the NHL in 1986.In 2018, the NHL again awarded",
"NHL again awarded Seattle an NHL team, theSeattle Kraken, which began play in 2021. Season-by-season results (1943–75) Note:GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes See also References External links",
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Checkers_(1956%E2%80%931977",
"Cranbrook Royals TheCranbrook Royalswere a senior men's AAA levelice hockeyteam that played in theWestern International Hockey Leaguefrom 1965 to 1987. The Cranbrook Royals won theAllan Cupas senior ice hockey champions of Canada in 1982. References This Canadian ice hockey team-related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it."
] |
In the same year that HMS Holland 1 was launched, a British monarch died. How long had their predecessor ruled for? | 6 years, 11 months, 25 days. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Holland_1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_IV | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Holland_1', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1901', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_IV'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Holland_1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1901",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_IV"
] | [
"HMSHolland 1 Holland 1(orHM submarine Torpedo Boat No 1) is the firstsubmarinecommissioned by theRoyal Navy. The first in a five-boat batch of theHolland-classsubmarine, she was lost in 1913 while under tow to be scrapped following her decommissioning. Recovered in 1982, she was put on display at theRoyal Navy Submarine Museum,Gosport. Her battery bank found in the boat was discovered to be functional after being cleaned and recharged. History She was ordered in 1901 fromJohn Philip Hollandand built atBarrow-in-Furness. Her keel waslaid down4 February 1901.In order to keep the boat's construction secret, she was assembled in a building labelled \"Yacht Shed\", and the parts that had to be fabricated in the general yard were marked for \"pontoon no 1\".She waslaunchedon 2 October 1901 and dived for the first time (in an enclosed basin) on 20 March 1902.Her sea trials began in April 1902. In September 1902 she arrived atPortsmouth, along with the other completed Holland boat and theirtender,HMSHazard. Together they made up the \"First Submarine Flotilla\", commanded by CaptainReginald Bacon.Holland 1suffered an explosion 3 March 1903 that caused four injuries. On 24 October 1904, with the rest of the Holland fleet and threeA-class boats,Holland 1sailed from Portsmouth to attack a Russian fleet that had mistakenly sunk a number of British fishing vessels in the North Sea in theDogger Bank incident. The boats were recalled before any attack could take place. The submarine was decommissioned and sold in 1913 toThos. W. Wardfor £410.By the time the submarine was sold she was considered so obsolete that she was sold with all fittings intact, and the only requirement put on the purchaser was that thetorpedo tubebe put out of action. Loss While being towed to the scrapyard,Holland 1encountered very severe weather and sank about a mile and a half offEddystone Lighthouse.No one was on board the submarine at the time, and, since the submarine had been seen to be sinking earlier in the journey, the crew of the tug were ready to release the tow rope, preventing any damage to the tug. Recovery The wreck was located in 1981 by Plymouth historian Michael Pearn and she was raised in November 1982.From 1983, after coating in anti-corrosion chemicals, she was displayed at theRoyal Navy Submarine Museum. Work on restoring the submarine continued until September 1988.A talking figure was included to explain the details of the craft to visitors.However, by 1993 it was apparent that the treatment had proved inadequate. Afibreglasstank was built around her, and she was immersed insodium carbonatesolution from 1995. After four years the corrosive chloride ions had been removed, and she was able to be displayed again after restoration work. Listed as part of theNational Historic Fleet, in 2001, on her centenary, a new purpose-built climate-controlled building was opened byCountess Mountbatten. In the same year theRoyal Mailput a photo of the submarine on a 65 pence stamp.In 2011 the submarine was given anEngineering Heritage Awardby theInstitution of Mechanical Engineers The original bank of batteries, recovered with the wreckage, were submitted for testing by the original manufacturer, Chloride Industrial Batteries Ltd based inSwinton, Greater Manchester. Following the initial clean, the lead batteries were recharged and found to be in good working order. Some of the original batteries still remain in the possession of Enersys (ex-CIBL) at the Newport plant, in South Wales. See also Notes and references External links",
"1901 1901(MCMI) was acommon year starting on Tuesdayof theGregorian calendarand acommon year starting on Mondayof theJulian calendar, the 1901st year of theCommon Era(CE) andAnno Domini(AD) designations, the 901st year of the2nd millennium, the 1st year of the20th century, and the 2nd year of the1900sdecade. As of the start of 1901, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Events January February March April May June July–August September October November December Date unknown Births January February March April May June July August September October November December Deaths January–February March–April May–June July–August September–October November–December Nobel Prizes Significance of 1901 for modern computers The date of Friday December 13 20:45:52 1901 is significant for modern computers because it is the earliest date representable with a signed32-bitinteger on systems that reference time in seconds since theUnix epoch. This corresponds to -2147483648 seconds from Thursday January 1 00:00:00 1970. For the same reason, many computers are also unable to represent an earlier date. For related reasons, many computer systems suffer from theYear 2038 problem. This is when the positive number of seconds since 1970 exceeds 2147483647 (01111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 in binary) and wraps to -2147483648. Hence the computer system erroneously displays or operates on the time Friday December 13 20:45:52 1901. In this way, the year 1900 is to theYear 2000 problemas the year 1901 is to theYear 2038 problem. References Further reading",
"Queen Victoria Victoria(Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) wasQueen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandfrom 20 June 1837 untilher deathin 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days—which waslonger than those of any of her predecessors—constituted theVictorian era. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within theUnited Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of theBritish Empire. In 1876, theBritish Parliamentvoted to grant her the additional title ofEmpress of India. Victoria was the daughter ofPrince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn(the fourth son ofKing George III), andPrincess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she wasraised under close supervisionby her mother and hercomptroller,John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without survivinglegitimateissue. Victoria, aconstitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards ofpersonal morality. Victoria marriedher first cousin,Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria thesobriquet\"grandmother of Europe\". After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion,British republicanismtemporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. HerGoldenandDiamondjubileeswere times of public celebration. Victoria died atOsborne Houseon theIsle of Wight, at the age of 81. The lastBritish monarchof theHouse of Hanover, she was succeeded by her sonEdward VIIof theHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Early life Birth and ancestry Victoria's father wasPrince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son ofKing George IIIandQueen Charlotte. Until 1817, King George's only legitimate grandchild was Edward's niecePrincess Charlotte of Wales, the daughter ofGeorge, Prince Regent(who would become George IV). Princess Charlotte's death in 1817 precipitated asuccession crisisthat brought pressure on Prince Edward and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children. In 1818, the Duke of Kent marriedPrincess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl(1804–1856) andFeodora(1807–1872)—by her first marriage toEmich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brotherLeopoldwas Princess Charlotte's widower and later the firstking of Belgium. The Duke and Duchess of Kent's only child, Victoria was born at 4:15 a.m. on Monday 24 May 1819 atKensington Palacein London. Victoria was christened privately by theArchbishop of Canterbury,Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.She was baptisedAlexandrinaafter one of her godparents, TsarAlexander I of Russia, andVictoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Prince Regent. At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four eldest sons of George III: George, Prince Regent (later George IV);Frederick, Duke of York;William, Duke of Clarence(later William IV); and Victoria's father, Edward, Duke of Kent.Prince George had no surviving children, and Prince Frederick had no children; further, both were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate children. William married in 1818, in a joint ceremony with his brother Edward, but both of William's legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two months before Victoria was born. Victoria's father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. She was fourth in line while William's second daughter,Princess Elizabeth, lived, from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821. Heir presumptive Prince Frederick died in 1827, followed by George IV in 1830; their next surviving brother succeeded to the throne as William IV, and Victoria becameheir presumptive. TheRegency Act 1830made special provision for Victoria's mother to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor.King William distrusted the Duchess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria's 18th birthday, so that aregencycould be avoided. Victoria later described her childhood as \"rather melancholy\".Her mother was extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so-called \"Kensington System\", an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and domineeringcomptroller,Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the Duchess's lover.The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of her father's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them.The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William's illegitimate children.Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls and herKing Charles Spaniel,Dash.Her lessons included French, German, Italian, and Latin,but she spoke only English at home. In 1830, the Duchess and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit theMalvern Hills, stopping at towns and greatcountry housesalong the way.Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King's annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops.William compared the journeys toroyal progressesand was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir presumptive.Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for her to rest.She objected on the grounds of the King's disapproval, but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and forced Victoria to continue the tours.AtRamsgatein October 1835, Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence.While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy herprivate secretary.As a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff.Once queen, she banned him from her presence, but he remained in her mother's household. By 1836, Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her toPrince Albert,the son of his brotherErnest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged for Victoria's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit ofPrince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son ofthe Prince of Orange.Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert's company from the beginning. After the visit she wrote, \" is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful.\"Alexander, on the other hand, she described as \"very plain\". Victoria wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her \"best and kindest adviser\",to thank him \"for the prospect ofgreathappiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see.\"However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert, was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time. Accession and early reign Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and aregencywas avoided. Less than a month later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom.In her diary she wrote, \"I was awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me theArchbishop of CanterburyandLord Conynghamwere here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) andalone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and consequently thatIamQueen.\"Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again. Since 1714,Britainhad shared a monarch withHanoverin Germany, but underSalic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited the British throne, her father's unpopular younger brother,Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, becameKing of Hanover. He was Victoria's heir presumptive until she had a child. At the time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by theWhigprime ministerLord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for advice.Charles Grevillesupposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was \"passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one\", and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.Her coronationtook place on 28 June 1838 atWestminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.She became the first sovereign to take up residence atBuckingham Palaceand inherited the revenues of the duchies ofLancasterandCornwallas well as being granted acivil listallowance of £385,000 per year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts. At the start of her reign Victoria was popular,but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting,Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.Victoria believed the rumours.She hated Conroy, and despised \"that odious Lady Flora\",because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess in the Kensington System.At first, Lady Flora refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a virgin.Conroy, the Hastings family, and the oppositionToriesorganised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora.When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen.At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as \"Mrs. Melbourne\". In 1839, Melbourne resigned afterRadicalsand Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution ofJamaica. The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with theabolition of slavery.The Queen commissioned a Tory,Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of theRoyal Household, who were usually his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen'sladies of the bedchamberwere wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the \"bedchamber crisis\", Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office. Marriage and public life Though Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required bysocial conventionto live with her mother, despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother's continued reliance on Conroy.The Duchess was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother's proximity promised \"torment for many years\", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage, which Victoria called a \"schocking alternative\".Victoria showed interest in Albert's education for the future role he would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock. Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839. They felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five days after he had arrived atWindsor.They were married on 10 February 1840, in theChapel RoyalofSt James's Palace, London. Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary: I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert ... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could havehopedto have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness—really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such aHusband! ... to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before—was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life! Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion, replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half of her life.Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House inBelgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's auntPrincess Augustain 1840, the Duchess was given bothClarence HouseandFrogmore House.Through Albert's mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved. During Victoria's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the marriage, 18-year-oldEdward Oxfordattempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he later claimed, the guns had no shot.He was tried forhigh treason, foundnot guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Victoria's popularity soared, mitigating residual discontent over theHastings affairand thebedchamber crisis.Her daughter, also namedVictoria, was born on 21 November 1840. The Queen hated being pregnant,viewed breast-feeding with disgust,and thought newborn babies were ugly.Nevertheless, over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight children:Albert Edward,Alice,Alfred,Helena,Louise,Arthur,LeopoldandBeatrice. The household was largely run by Victoria's childhood governess, BaronessLouise LehzenfromHanover. Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoriaand had supported her against the Kensington System.Albert, however, thought that Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter Victoria's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria's close relationship with her ended. On 29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage alongThe Mall, London, when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route, though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected, Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis's death sentence was commuted totransportation for life,John William Beanalso tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge.Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840.Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail.In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria's carriage as it passed alongConstitution Hill, London.In 1850, the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army officer,Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years' transportation. Melbourne's support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria's reign, and in the1841 general electionthe Whigs were defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced. In 1845, Ireland was hit by apotato blight.In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as theGreat Famine.In Ireland, Victoria was labelled \"The Famine Queen\".In January 1847 she personally donated £2,000 (equivalent to between £230,000 and £8.5million in 2022)to theBritish Relief Association, more than any other individual famine relief donor,and supported theMaynooth Grantto a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.The story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day gave the same amount toBattersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century. By 1846, Peel's ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of theCorn Laws. Many Tories—by then known also asConservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel, some Tories (the free-trade orientedliberal conservative\"Peelites\"), most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced byLord John Russell. Internationally, Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain.She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and theHouse of Orleans, who were related by marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed with KingLouis Philippe IatChâteau d'Euin Normandy; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the meeting ofHenry VIII of EnglandandFrancis I of Franceon theField of the Cloth of Goldin 1520.When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign.Louis Philippe was deposed in therevolutions of 1848, and fled to exile in England.At the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety ofOsborne House,a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.Demonstrations byChartistsandIrish nationalistsfailed to attract widespread support, and the scare died down without any major disturbances.Victoria's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism. Russell's ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.She found particularly offensive theForeign Secretary,Lord Palmerston, who often acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the Queen.Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after he announced the British government's approval of PresidentLouis-Napoleon Bonaparte'scoup in Francewithout consulting the Prime Minister.The following year, President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell's administration had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led byLord Derby. In 1853, Victoria gave birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic,chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy, who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical profession, who thought it dangerous.Victoria may have hadpostnatal depressionafter many of her pregnancies.Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control. For example, about a month after Leopold's birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her \"continuance of hysterics\" over a \"miserable trifle\". In early 1855, the government ofLord Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in theCrimean War. Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister. Napoleon III, Britain's closest ally as a result of the Crimean War,visited London in April 1855, and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.Napoleon III met the couple atBoulogneand accompanied them to Paris.They visited theExposition Universelle(a successor to Albert's 1851 brainchild theGreat Exhibition) andNapoleon I's tomb atLes Invalides(to which his remains had only beenreturnedin 1840), and were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at thePalace of Versailles.This marked the first time that a reigning British monarch had been to Paris in over 400 years. On 14 January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain calledFelice Orsiniattempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister.Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port ofCherbourgon 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of theRoyal Navyin comparison to theFrench Navy.Derby's ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office. Eleven days after Orsini's assassination attempt in France, Victoria's eldest daughter marriedPrince Frederick William of Prussiain London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and her husband Albert until the bride was 17.The Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlargingPrussianstate.The Queen felt \"sick at heart\" to see her daughter leave England for Germany; \"It really makes me shudder\", she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters, \"when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too – one by one.\"Almost exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth to the Queen's first grandchild,Wilhelm, who would become the last German emperor. Widowhood and isolation In March 1861, Victoria's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through reading her mother's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply;she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for \"wickedly\" estranging her from her mother.To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief,Albert took on most of her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son,Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a few days holidaying inKillarney. In November, Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.Appalled, he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront him. By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.He was diagnosed withtyphoid feverbyWilliam Jenner, and died on 14 December 1861. Victoria was devastated.She blamed her husband's death on worry over the Prince of Wales'sphilandering. He had been \"killed by that dreadful business\", she said.She entered a state ofmourningand wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following years.Her seclusion earned her the nickname \"widow of Windsor\".Her weight increased through comfort eating, which reinforced her aversion to public appearances. Victoria's self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.She did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847,Balmoral Castle. In March 1864, a protester stuck a notice on the railings ofBuckingham Palacethat announced \"these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant's declining business\".Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public. She agreed to visit the gardens of theRoyal Horticultural SocietyatKensingtonand take a drive through London in an open carriage. Through the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland,John Brown.Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as \"Mrs. Brown\".The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movieMrs. Brown. A painting by SirEdwin Henry Landseerdepicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at theRoyal Academy, and Victoria published a book,Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands, which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly. Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended theState Opening of Parliamentfor the first time since Albert's death.The following year she supported the passing of theReform Act 1867which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men,though she was not in favour of votes for women.Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced byBenjamin Disraeli, who charmed Victoria. \"Everyone likes flattery,\" he said, \"and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel.\"With the phrase \"we authors, Ma'am\", he complimented her.Disraeli's ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his Liberal rival,William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister. Victoria found Gladstone's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were \"a public meeting rather than a woman\". In 1870 republican sentiment in Britain, fed by the Queen's seclusion, was boosted after the establishment of theThird French Republic.A republican rally inTrafalgar Squaredemanded Victoria's removal, and Radical MPs spoke against her.In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill with anabscessin her arm, whichJoseph Listersuccessfully lanced and treated with his new antisepticcarbolic acidspray.In late November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.As the tenth anniversary of her husband's death approached, her son's condition grew no better, and Victoria's distress continued.To general rejoicing, he recovered.Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving inSt Paul's Cathedralon 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided. On the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service, 17-year-old Arthur O'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MPFeargus O'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria's open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months' imprisonment,and abirching.As a result of the incident, Victoria's popularity recovered further. Empress of India After theIndian Rebellion of 1857, theBritish East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and protectorates on theIndian subcontinentwere formally incorporated into theBritish Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.She wrote of \"her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war\",and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state \"should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration\".At her behest, a reference threatening the \"undermining of native religions and customs\" was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom. In the1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed thePublic Worship Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with thepresbyterianChurch of Scotlandthan theepiscopalChurch of England.Disraeli also pushed theRoyal Titles Act 1876through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title \"Empress of India\" from 1 May 1876.The new title was proclaimed at theDelhi Durbarof 1 January 1877. On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had marriedLouis of Hesse, died ofdiphtheriainDarmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as \"almost incredible and most mysterious\".In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the birth ofPrincess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her \"poor old 60th birthday\". She felt \"aged\" by \"the loss of my beloved child\". Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during theRusso-Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with theCongress of Berlin.Disraeli's expansionist foreign policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as theAnglo-Zulu Warand theSecond Anglo-Afghan War. \"Ifweare tomaintainour position as afirst-ratePower\", she wrote, \"we must ... bePreparedforattacksandwars,somewhereorother, CONTINUALLY.\"Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: \"It is not in our custom to annexe countries\", she said, \"unless we are obliged & forced to do so.\"To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by \"fast falling tears\",and erected a memorial tablet \"placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I.\" On 2 March 1882,Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria's refusal to accept one of his poems,shot at the Queen as her carriage leftWindsor railway station.Gordon Chesney Wilsonand another schoolboy fromEton Collegestruck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a policeman.Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity,but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was \"worth being shot at—to see how much one is loved\". On 17 March 1883, Victoria fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.John Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, SirHenry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown.Ponsonby andRandall Davidson,Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair.The manuscript was destroyed.In early 1884, Victoria did publishMore Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her \"devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown\".On the day after the first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died inCannes. He was \"the dearest of my dear sons\", she lamented.The following month, Victoria's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love withPrince Henry of Battenbergat the wedding of Victoria's granddaughterPrincess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhineto Henry's brotherPrince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by their promise to remain living with and attending her. Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated.She thought his government was \"the worst I have ever had\", and blamed him for the death ofGeneral Gordonduring theSiege of Khartoum.Gladstone was replaced byLord Salisbury. Salisbury's government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone, whom she referred to as a \"half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man\".Gladstone attempted to passa bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated.Inthe ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the government switched hands again. Golden and Diamond Jubilees In 1887, theBritish EmpirecelebratedVictoria's Golden Jubilee. She marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service inWestminster Abbey.By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular.Two days later on 23 June,she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom wasAbdul Karim. He was soon promoted to \"Munshi\": teaching herUrduand acting as a clerk.Her family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the Hindus.EquerryFrederick Ponsonby(the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported toLord Elgin,Viceroy of India, \"the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do.\"Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice.Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension, on her death. Victoria's eldest daughter becameempress consort of Germanyin 1888, but she was widowed a little over three months later, and Victoria's eldest grandchild became German Emperor asWilhelm II. Victoria and Albert's hopes of a liberal Germany would go unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm believer inautocracy. Victoria thought he had \"little heart orZartgefühl – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped \". Gladstone returned to power after the1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MPHenry Labouchèreto theCabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him.In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointedLord Roseberyas prime minister.His government was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria's reign. On 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as thelongest-reigning monarch in British history. The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide withher Diamond Jubilee,which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of theColonial Secretary,Joseph Chamberlain.The prime ministers of all theself-governingDominionswere invited to London for the festivities.One reason for including the prime ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to avoid having to invite Victoria's grandson Wilhelm II, who, it was feared, might cause trouble at the event. The Queen's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the 78-year-old Queen. Declining health and death Victoria regularly holidayed in mainland Europe. In 1889, during a stay inBiarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to visit Spain by briefly crossing the border.By April 1900, theBoer Warwas so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war. In July 1900, Victoria's second son, Alfred (\"Affie\"), died. \"Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too\", she wrote in her journal. \"It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another.\" Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight.Rheumatismin her legs had rendered her disabled, and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts.Through early January, she felt \"weak and unwell\",and by mid-January she was \"drowsy dazed, confused\".Herfavourite petPomeranian, Turi, was laid on her bed as a last request.She died aged 81 on 22 January 1901, at half past six in the evening, in the presence of her eldest son, Albert Edward, and grandson Wilhelm II. Albert Edward immediately succeeded as Edward VII. In 1897, Victoria had written instructions forher funeral, which was to be military as befitting a soldier's daughter and the head of the army,and white instead of black.On 25 January, Edward VII and Wilhelm II, together with Prince Arthur, helped lift her body into the coffin.She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her physician and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers.Items ofjewelleryplaced on Victoria included the wedding ring of Brown's mother, which Brown gave Victoria in 1883.Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, inSt George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in theRoyal Mausoleum, Frogmore, atWindsor Great Park. With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days, Victoria was thelongest-reigning British monarchand thelongest-reigningqueen regnantin world history, until her great-great-granddaughterElizabeth IIsurpassed her on 9 September 2015.She was the last monarch of Britain from theHouse of Hanover; her son Edward VII belonged to her husband'sHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Legacy Reputation According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult life.From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailedjournal, which eventually encompassed 122 volumes.After Victoria's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process.Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy,Lord Eshertranscribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.Part of Victoria's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited byA. C. Benson,Hector Bolitho,George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher,Roger Fulford, andRichard Houghamong others. In her later years, Victoria was stout, dowdy, and about five feet (1.5 metres) tall, but she projected a grand image.She was unpopular during the first years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider public.Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available, such asLytton Strachey'sQueen Victoriaof 1921, are now considered out of date.The biographies written byElizabeth LongfordandCecil Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired.They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking. Through Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modernconstitutional monarchyin Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of theHouse of Commonsat the expense of theHouse of Lordsand the monarch.In 1867,Walter Bagehotwrote that the monarch only retained \"the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn\".As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the \"family monarchy\", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was solidified. Descendants and haemophilia Victoria's links with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname \"the grandmother of Europe\".Of thegrandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34 survived to adulthood. Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood-clotting diseasehaemophilia Band at least two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers.Royal haemophiliacsdescended from Victoria included her great-grandsons,Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia;Alfonso, Prince of Asturias; andInfante Gonzalo of Spain.The presence of the disease in Victoria's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led tomodern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a haemophiliac.There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always had the disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill.It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers.Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases. Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles At the end of her reign, the Queen's fullstylewas: \"Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and IrelandQueen,Defender of the Faith, Empress of India\". Honours British honours Foreign honours Arms As Sovereign, Victoria used theroyal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been borne by all of her successors on the throne. Family Issue Ancestry Family tree Notes References Citations Bibliography Primary sources Further reading External links",
"William IV William IV(William Henry; 21 August 1765 – 20 June 1837) wasKing of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and IrelandandKing of Hanoverfrom 26 June 1830 until his death in 1837. The third son ofGeorge III, William succeeded his elder brotherGeorge IV, becoming the last king and penultimate monarch of Britain'sHouse of Hanover. William served in theRoyal Navyin his youth, spending time inBritish North Americaand theCaribbean, and was later nicknamed the \"Sailor King\". In 1789, he was createdDuke of Clarence and St Andrews. Between 1791 and 1811, he cohabited with the actressDorothea Jordan, with whom he had ten children. In 1818, he marriedPrincess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen. William remained faithful to Adelaide during their marriage. In 1827, he was appointed Britain's firstLord High Admiralsince 1709. As his two elder brothers died without leavinglegitimateissue, Williaminherited the thronewhen he was 64 years old. His reign saw several reforms: thePoor Lawwas updated,child labourrestricted,slavery abolishedin nearly all of theBritish Empire, and the electoral system refashioned by the Reform Acts of 1832. Although William did not engage in politics as much as his brother or his father, he was the last British monarch to appoint a prime minister contrary to the will ofParliament. He grantedhis German kingdoma short-lived liberal constitution. William had no surviving legitimate children at the time of his death, so he was succeeded by his nieceVictoriain the United Kingdom and his brotherErnest Augustusin Hanover. Early life William was born in the early hours of the morning on 21 August 1765 atBuckingham House, the third child and son ofKing George IIIandQueen Charlotte.He had two elder brothers,George, Prince of Wales, andPrince Frederick(laterDuke of York and Albany), and was not expected to inherit the Crown. He was baptised in the Great Council Chamber ofSt James's Palaceon 20 September 1765. His godparents were the King's siblings:Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh;Prince Henry(laterDuke of Cumberland and Strathearn); andPrincess Augusta, Hereditary Duchess ofBrunswick-Wolfenbüttel. William spent most of his early life inRichmondand atKew Palace, where he was educated by private tutors.At the age of thirteen, he joined theRoyal Navyas amidshipman,inAdmiral Digby's squadron. For four years the lieutenant of his watch wasRichard Goodwin Keats, with whom he formed a life-long friendship and whom he described as the one to whom he owed all his professional knowledge.He was present at theBattle of Cape St Vincentin 1780,when theSan Juliánstruck her colours to his ship.His experiences in the navy seem to have been little different from those of other midshipmen, though in contrast to other sailors he was accompanied on board ship by a tutor. He did his share of the cookingand got arrested with his shipmates after a drunken brawl inGibraltar; he was hastily released from custody after his identity became known. William served in New York during theAmerican War of Independence, making him the only member of theBritish royal familyto visit America up to and through theAmerican Revolution. While William was in America,George Washingtonapproved a plot to kidnap him, writing: The spirit of enterprise so conspicuous in your plan for surprising in their quarters and bringing off the Prince William Henry and Admiral Digby merits applause; and you have my authority to make the attempt in any manner, and at such a time, as your judgment may direct. I am fully persuaded, that it is unnecessary to caution you against offering insult or indignity to the persons of the Prince or Admiral... The plot did not come to fruition; the British heard of it and assigned guards to William, who had until then walked around New York unescorted.In September 1781, William held court at theManhattanhome ofGovernor Robertson. In attendance were MayorDavid Mathews, Admiral Digby, andGeneral Delancey. William became a lieutenant in 1785 andcaptainofHMSPegasusthe following year,during which hespent time in the colonies of NewfoundlandandNova Scotia. Later in 1786, he was stationed in theWest IndiesunderHoratio Nelson, who wrote of William, \"in his professional line, he is superior to two-thirds, I am sure, of the list; and in attention to orders, and respect to his superior officer, I hardly know his equal.\"The two were great friends, and dined together almost nightly. At Nelson's wedding, William insisted on givingthe brideaway.Aftertouring Quebecin 1787, he was, the next year, given command of the frigateHMSAndromedaand promoted torear-admiralwhile commandingHMSValiantin 1790. William sought to be made adukelike his elder brothers, and to receive a similar parliamentary grant, but his father was reluctant. To put pressure on him, William threatened to stand for theBritish House of Commonsfor the constituency ofTotnesin Devon. Appalled at the prospect of his son making his case to the voters, the King created himDuke of Clarence and St AndrewsandEarl of Munsteron 19 May 1789,supposedly saying: \"I well know it is another vote added to the Opposition.\"William's political record was inconsistent and, like many politicians of the time, cannot be ascribed to a single party. However, he allied himself publicly with theWhigs, as did his elder brothers, who were known to be in conflict with the political positions of their father. Naval career William ceased his active service in the Royal Navy in 1790.When Britain declared war on France in 1793, he was eager to serve his country and expected to be given a command but was not, perhaps at first because he had broken his arm by falling down some stairs drunk, but later perhaps because he gave a speech in theHouse of Lordsopposing the war.The following year he spoke in favour of the war, and expected a command after his change of heart; none came. The Admiralty did not reply to his request.He did not lose hope of being appointed to an active post. In 1798 he was made an admiral, but the rank was purely nominal.Despite repeated petitions, he was never given a command throughout theNapoleonic Wars.In 1811, he was appointed to the honorary position ofAdmiral of the Fleet. In 1813, he came nearest to involvement in actual fighting, when he visited the British troops fighting in theLow Countries. Watching the bombardment ofAntwerpfrom a church steeple, he came under fire, and a bullet pierced his coat. Instead of serving at sea, William spent time in the House of Lords, where he spoke in opposition to theabolition of slavery, which still existed in the British colonies. Freedom would do the slaves little good, he argued. He had travelled widely and, in his eyes, the living standard among freemen in theHighlands and Islandsof Scotland was worse than that among slaves in theWest Indies.His experience in the Caribbean, where he \"quickly absorbed the plantation owners' views about slavery\",lent weight to his position, which was perceived as well-argued and just by some of his contemporaries.In his first speech before Parliament he called himself \"an attentive observer of the state of the negroes\" who found them well cared for and \"in a state of humble happiness\".Others thought it \"shocking that so young a man, under no bias of interest, should be earnest in continuance of the slave trade\".In his speech to the House, William insultedWilliam Wilberforce, the leading abolitionist, saying: \"the proponents of the abolition are either fanatics or hypocrites, and in one of those classes I rank Mr. Wilberforce\".On other issues he was more liberal, such as supporting moves to abolishpenal lawsagainstdissenting Christians.He also opposed efforts to bar those found guilty of adultery from remarriage. Relationships and marriage William had an illegitimate son before 1791 whose mother is unknown; the son, also called William, drowned offMadagascarinHMSBlenheimin February 1807.Caroline von Linsingen, whose father was a general in the Hanoverian infantry, claimed to have had a son, Heinrich, by William in around 1790 but William was not in Hanover at the time that she claims, and the story is considered implausible by historians. From 1791, William lived with an Irish actress,Dorothea Bland, better known by her stage name Mrs Jordan,the title \"Mrs\" being assumed at the start of her stage career to explain an inconvenient pregnancyand \"Jordan\" because she had \"crossed the water\" from Ireland to Britain.He appeared to enjoy the domesticity of his life with Mrs. Jordan, remarking to a friend: \"Mrs Jordan is a very good creature, very domestic and careful of her children. To be sure she is absurd sometimes and has her humours. But there are such things more or less in all families.\"The couple, while living quietly, enjoyed entertaining, with Mrs. Jordan writing in late 1809: \"We shall have a full and merry house this Christmas, 'tis what the dear Duke delights in.\"The King was accepting of his son's relationship with the actress (though recommending that he halve her allowance);in 1797, he created William the Ranger ofBushy Park, which included a large residence,Bushy House, for William's growing family.William used Bushy as his principal residence until he became king.His London residence,Clarence House, was constructed to the designs ofJohn Nashbetween 1825 and 1827. The couple had ten illegitimate children—five sons and five daughters—nine of whom were named after William's siblings; each was given the surname \"FitzClarence\".Their affair lasted for twenty years before ending in 1811. Mrs Jordan had no doubt about the reason for the break-up: \"Money, money, my good friend, has, I am convinced made HIM at this moment the most wretched of men\", adding, \"With all his excellent qualities, his domesticvirtues, his love for hislovelychildren, what must he not at this moment suffer?\"She was given a financial settlement of £4,400 (equivalent to £403,300 in 2023)per year and custody of her daughters on condition that she did not resume the stage. When she resumed acting in an effort to repay debts incurred by the husband of one of her daughters from a previous relationship, William took custody of the daughters and stopped paying the £1,500 (equivalent to £132,500 in 2023)designated for their maintenance. After Mrs Jordan's acting career began to fail, she fled to France to escape her creditors and died, impoverished, near Paris in 1816. Deeply in debt, William made several attempts at marrying a wealthy heiress, such asCatherine Tylney-Long, but his suits were unsuccessful.Following the death of William's niecePrincess Charlotte of Wales, then second-in-line to the British throne, in 1817, George III was left with twelve children but no legitimate grandchildren. The race was on among his sons, theroyal dukes, to marry and produce an heir. William had great advantages in this race—his two older brothers were both childless and estranged from their wives, who were both beyond childbearing age anyway, and William was the healthiest of the three.If he lived long enough, he would almost certainly ascend the British and Hanoverian thrones and have the opportunity to sire the next monarch. William's initial choices of potential wives either met with the disapproval of his eldest brother, the Prince of Wales, or turned him down. His younger brotherPrince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, was sent to Germany to scout out the available Protestant princesses; he came up withPrincess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel, but her father,Frederick, declined the match.Two months later Adolphus married Augusta himself. Eventually, however, a princess was found who was amiable, home-loving and willing to accept (even enthusiastically welcome) William's nine surviving children, several of whom had not yet reached adulthood.In the Drawing Room atKew Palaceon 11 July 1818, William marriedAdelaide of Saxe-Meiningen. William's marriage, which lasted almost twenty years until his death, was a happy one. Adelaide took both William and his finances in hand. For their first year of marriage the couple lived in economical fashion in Germany. William's debts were soon on the way to being paid, especially since Parliament had voted him an increased allowance, which he reluctantly accepted after his requests to have it increased further were refused.William is not known to have had mistresses after his marriage.The couple had two short-lived daughters and Adelaide suffered two miscarriages.Despite this, false rumours that she was pregnant persisted into William's reign—he dismissed them as \"damned stuff\". Lord High Admiral William's eldest brother, the Prince of Wales, had beenPrince Regentsince 1811 because of the mental illness of their father. In 1820, George III died and the Prince Regent became George IV. William was now second in the line of succession, preceded only by his brother Frederick. Reformed since his marriage, William walked for hours, ate relatively frugally, and the only drink he imbibed in quantity wasbarley waterflavoured with lemon.Both of his older brothers were unhealthy, and it was considered only a matter of time before he became king.When Frederick died in 1827, William, then more than 60 years old, became heir presumptive. Later that year, the incoming prime minister,George Canning, appointed him to the office ofLord High Admiral, which had been in commission (that is, exercised by a board rather than by a single individual) since 1709. While in office, William had repeated conflicts with his Council, which was composed ofAdmiraltyofficers. Things finally came to a head in 1828 when, as Lord High Admiral, he put to sea with a squadron of ships, leaving no word of where they were going, and remained away for ten days. The King requested his resignation through the prime minister,Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington; he complied. Despite the difficulties William experienced, he did considerable good as Lord High Admiral. He abolished thecat o' nine tailsfor most offences other than mutiny, attempted to improve the standard of naval gunnery, and required regular reports of the condition and preparedness of each ship. He commissioned the first steam warship and advocated the construction of more.Holding the office permitted him to make mistakes and learn from them—a process that might have been far more costly if he had not learnt before becoming king that he should act only with the advice of his councillors. William spent much of his remaining time during his brother's reign in the House of Lords. He supported theCatholic EmancipationBill against the opposition of his younger brotherErnest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, describing the latter's position on the Bill as \"infamous\", to Ernest's outrage.George IV's health was increasingly bad; it was obvious by early 1830 that he was near death. The King took his leave of William at the end of May, stating, \"God's will be done. I have injured no man. It will all rest on you then.\"William's genuine affection for his older brother could not mask his rising anticipation that he would soon be king. Reign Early reign When George IV died on 26 June 1830 without surviving legitimate issue, William succeeded him as William IV. Aged 64, he was the oldest person at that point to assume the British throne,a distinction he would hold until surpassed byCharles IIIin 2022. Unlike his extravagant brother, William was unassuming, discouraging pomp and ceremony. In contrast to George IV, who tended to spend most of his time inWindsor Castle, William was known, especially early in his reign, to walk, unaccompanied, through London orBrighton. Until theReform Crisiseroded his standing he was very popular among the people, who saw him as more approachable and down-to-earth than his brother. The King immediately proved himself a conscientious worker. The prime minister, the Duke of Wellington, stated that he had done more business with King William in ten minutes than he had with George IV in as many days.Lord Broughamdescribed him as an excellent man of business, asking enough questions to help him understand the matter—whereas George IV feared to ask questions lest he display his ignorance and George III would ask too many and then not wait for a response. The King did his best to endear himself to the people.Charlotte Williams-Wynnwrote shortly after his accession: \"Hitherto the King has been indefatigable in his efforts to make himself popular, and do good natured and amiable things in every possible instance.\"Emily Edennoted: \"He is an immense improvement on the last unforgiving animal, who died growling sulkily in his den at Windsor. This man at leastwishesto make everybody happy, and everything he has done has been benevolent.\" William dismissed his brother's French chefs and German band, replacing them with English ones to public approval. He gave much of George IV's art collection to the nation and halved the royalstud. George had begun an extensive (and expensive) renovation ofBuckingham Palace; William refused to reside there and twice tried to give the palace away, once to the Army as a barracks and once to Parliament after theHouses of Parliamentburned down in 1834.His informality could be startling: when in residence at theRoyal Pavilionin Brighton, he used to send to the hotels for a list of their guests and invite anyone he knew to dinner, urging guests not to \"bother about clothes. The Queen does nothing but embroider flowers after dinner.\" Upon taking the throne, William did not forget his nine surviving illegitimate children, creating his eldest son,George,Earl of Munsterand granting the other children the precedence of a daughter or a younger son of a marquess. Despite this his children importuned for greater opportunities, disgusting elements of the press who reported that the \"impudence and rapacity of the FitzJordans is unexampled\".The relationship between William and his sons \"was punctuated by a series of savage and, for the King at least, painful quarrels\" over money and honours.His daughters, on the other hand, proved an ornament to his court, as \"They are all, you know, pretty and lively, and make society in a way that real princesses could not.\" Reform crisis At the time, thedeath of the monarchcaused fresh Parliamentary elections and, in thegeneral election of 1830, Wellington'sTorieslost ground to the Whigs underLord Grey, though the Tories still had the largest number of seats. With the Tories bitterly divided, Wellington was defeated in the House of Commons in November, and Lord Grey formed a government. Grey pledged to reform the electoral system, which had seen few changes since the fifteenth century. The inequities in the system were great; for example, large towns such asManchesterandBirminghamelected no members (though they were part of county constituencies), while small boroughs, known asrottenorpocket boroughs—such asOld Sarumwith just seven voters—elected two members of Parliament each. Often, the rotten boroughs were controlled by great aristocrats, whose nominees were invariably elected by the constituents—who were, most often, their tenants—especially since the secret ballot was not yet used in Parliamentary elections. Landowners who controlled seats were even able to sell them to prospective candidates. When the First Reform Bill was defeated in the House of Commons in 1831, Grey's ministry urged William to dissolve Parliament, which would lead to a new general election. At first, William hesitated to exercise his prerogative powers to dissolve Parliament because elections had just been held the year before and the country was in a state of high excitement which might boil over into violence. He was, however, irritated by the conduct of the Opposition, which announced its intention to move the passage of an Address, or resolution, in the House of Lords, against dissolution. Regarding the Opposition's motion as an attack on his prerogative, and at the urgent request of Lord Grey and his ministers, the King prepared to go in person to the House of Lords andprorogueParliament.The monarch's arrival would stop all debate and prevent passage of the Address.When initially told that his horses could not be ready at such short notice, William is supposed to have said, \"Then I will go in ahackney cab!\"Coach and horses were assembled quickly and he immediately proceeded to Parliament. SaidThe Timesof the scene before William's arrival, \"It is utterly impossible to describe the scene ... The violent tones and gestures of noble Lords ... astonished the spectators, and affected the ladies who were present with visible alarm.\"Lord Londonderrybrandished a whip, threatening to thrash the Government supporters, and was held back by four of his colleagues. William hastily put on the crown, entered the Chamber, and dissolved Parliament.This forcednew elections for the House of Commons, which yielded a great victory for the reformers. But although the Commons was clearly in favour of parliamentary reform, the Lords remained implacably opposed to it. The crisis saw a brief interlude for the celebration of theKing's coronationon 8 September 1831. At first, William wished to dispense with the coronation entirely, feeling that his wearing the crown while proroguing Parliament answered any need.He was persuaded otherwise by traditionalists. He refused, however, to celebrate the coronation in the expensive way his brother had—the 1821 coronation had cost £240,000, of which £16,000 was merely to hire the jewels. At William's instructions, the Privy Council budgeted less than £30,000 for the coronation.When traditionalist Tories threatened to boycott what they called the \"Half Crown-nation\",the King retorted that they should go ahead, and that he anticipated \"greater convenience of room and less heat\". After the rejection of the Second Reform Bill by the House of Lords in October 1831, agitation for reform grew across the country; demonstrations grew violent in so-called \"Reform Riots\". In the face of popular excitement, the Grey ministry refused to accept defeat, and re-introduced the Bill, despite the continued opposition of peers in the House of Lords. Frustrated by the Lords' obdurate attitude, Grey suggested that the King create a sufficient number of new peers to ensure the passage of the Reform Bill. The King objected—though he had the power to create an unlimited number of peers, he had already created 22 new peers in his Coronation Honours.William reluctantly agreed to the creation of the number of peers sufficient \"to secure the success of the bill\".However, the King, citing the difficulties with a permanent expansion of thepeerage, told Grey that the creations must be restricted as much as possible to the eldest sons and collateral heirs of existing peers, so that the created peerages would for the most part be absorbed as subsidiary titles. This time, the Lords did not reject the bill outright, but began preparing to change its basic character through amendments. Grey and his fellow ministers decided to resign if the King did not agree to an immediate and large creation to force the bill through in its entirety.The King refused, and accepted their resignations. The King attempted to restore the Duke of Wellington to office, but Wellington had insufficient support to form a ministry and the King's popularity sank to an all-time low. Mud was slung at his carriage and he was publicly hissed. The King agreed to reappoint Grey's ministry, and to create new peers if the House of Lords continued to pose difficulties. Concerned by the threat of the creations, most of the bill's opponents abstained and the1832 Reform Actwas passed. The mob blamed William's actions on the influence of his wife and brother, and his popularity recovered. Foreign policy William distrusted foreigners, particularly anyone French,which he acknowledged as a \"prejudice\".He also felt strongly that Britain should not interfere in the internal affairs of other states, which brought him into conflict with the interventionistforeign secretary,Lord Palmerston.William supportedBelgian independenceand, after unacceptableDutchandFrench candidateswere put forward, favouredPrince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the widower of his niece Charlotte, as a candidate for the newly created Belgian throne. Though he had a reputation for tactlessness and buffoonery, William could be shrewd and diplomatic. He foresaw that the potential construction of acanal at Suezwould make good relations withEgyptvital to Britain.Later in his reign, he flattered the American ambassador at a dinner by announcing that he regretted not being \"born a free, independent American, so much did he respect that nation, which had given birth toGeorge Washington, the greatest man that ever lived\".By exercising his personal charm, William assisted in the repair of Anglo-American relations, which had been so deeply damaged during the reign of his father. King of Hanover Public perception in Germany was that Britain dictatedHanoverianpolicy. This was not the case. In 1832, Austrian chancellorKlemens von Metternichintroduced laws that curbed fledgling liberal movements in Germany. Lord Palmerston opposed this, and sought William's influence to cause the Hanoverian government to take the same position. The Hanoverian government instead agreed with Metternich, much to Palmerston's dismay, and William declined to intervene. The conflict between William and Palmerston over Hanover was renewed the following year when Metternich called a conference of the German states, to be held inVienna, and Palmerston wanted Hanover to decline the invitation. Instead, William's brotherPrince Adolphus, Viceroy of Hanover, accepted, backed fully by William.In 1833, William signed a new constitution for Hanover, which empowered the middle class, gave limited power to the lower classes, and expanded the role of the parliament. The constitution would later be revoked by his brother and successor in Hanover,King Ernest Augustus. Later reign and death For the remainder of his reign, William interfered actively in politics only once, in 1834, when he became the last British sovereign to choose a prime minister contrary to the will of Parliament. In 1834, the ministry was facing increasing unpopularity and Lord Grey retired; thehome secretary,William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, replaced him. Melbourne retained most Cabinet members, and his ministry retained an overwhelming majority in the House of Commons. Some members of the Government, however, were anathema to the King, and increasingly left-wing policies concerned him. The previous year Grey had already pushed throughlegislationreforming the ProtestantChurch of Ireland. The Church collectedtithesthroughout Ireland, supported multiple bishoprics and was wealthy. However, barely an eighth of the Irish population belonged to the Church of Ireland. In some parishes, there were no Church of Ireland members at all, but there was still a priest paid for by tithes collected from the local Catholics andPresbyterians, leading to charges that idle priests were living in luxury at the expense of Irish people living at the level of subsistence. Grey's Act had reduced the number of bishoprics by half, abolished some of the sinecures and overhauled the tithe system. Further measures to appropriate the surplus revenues of the Church of Ireland were mooted by the more radical members of the Government, includingLord John Russell.The King had an especial dislike for Russell, calling him \"a dangerous little Radical.\" In November 1834, theleader of the House of Commonsandchancellor of the Exchequer,Lord Althorp, inherited a peerage, thus removing him from the Commons to the Lords. Melbourne had to appoint a new Commons leader and a new Chancellor (who by long custom, must be drawn from the Commons), but the only candidate whom Melbourne felt suitable to replace Althorp as Commons leader was Lord John Russell, whom William (and many others) found unacceptable due to his radical politics. William claimed that the ministry had been weakened beyond repair and used the removal of Lord Althorp—who had previously indicated that he would retire from politics upon becoming a peer—as the pretext for the dismissal of the entire ministry. With Lord Melbourne gone, William chose to entrust power to a Tory, SirRobert Peel. Since Peel was then in Italy, the Duke of Wellington was provisionally appointed prime minister.When Peel returned and assumed leadership of the ministry for himself, he saw the impossibility of governing because of the Whig majority in the House of Commons. Consequently, Parliament was dissolved to forcefresh elections. Although the Tories won more seats than in theprevious election, they were still in the minority. Peel remained in office for a few months but resigned after a series of parliamentary defeats. Melbourne was reappointed as prime minister, remaining there for the rest of William's reign, and the King was forced to accept Russell as Commons leader. The King had a mixed relationship with Lord Melbourne. Melbourne's government mooted more ideas to introduce greater democracy, such as the devolution of powers to theLegislative Council of Lower Canada, which greatly alarmed the King, who feared it would eventually lead to the loss of the colony.At first, the King bitterly opposed these proposals. William exclaimed toLord Gosford, Governor General-designate of Canada: \"Mind what you are about in Canada ... mind me, my Lord, the Cabinet is not my Cabinet; they had better take care or by God, I will have them impeached.\"When William's sonAugustusenquired of his father whether the King would be entertaining duringAscot week, William gloomily replied, \"I cannot give any dinners without inviting the ministers, and I would rather see the devil than any one of them in my house.\"Nevertheless, William approved the Cabinet's recommendations for reform.Despite his disagreements with Melbourne, the King wrote warmly to congratulate the prime minister when he triumphed in the adultery case brought against him concerningCaroline Norton—he had refused to permit Melbourne to resign when the case was first brought.The King and Lord Melbourne eventually found amodus vivendi, with Melbourne applying tact and firmness when called for and William realising that his prime minister was far less radical in his politics than the King had feared. Both the King and Queen were fond of their niece,Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent. Their attempts to forge a close relationship with the girl were frustrated by the conflict between the King and Victoria's widowed mother, theDuchess of Kent and Strathearn. The King, angered at what he took to be disrespect from the Duchess to his wife, took the opportunity at what proved to be his final birthday banquet in August 1836 to settle the score. Speaking to those assembled at the banquet, who included the Duchess and Princess Victoria, William expressed his hope that he would survive until Victoria was 18 so that the Duchess would never be regent. He said, \"I trust to God that my life may be spared for nine months longer ... I should then have the satisfaction of leaving the exercise of the Royal authority to the personal authority of that young lady, heiress presumptive to the Crown, and not in the hands of a person now near me, who is surrounded by evil advisers and is herself incompetent to act with propriety in the situation in which she would be placed.\"The speech was so shocking that Victoria burst into tears, while her mother sat in silence and was only with difficulty persuaded not to leave immediately after dinner (the two left the next day). William's outburst undoubtedly contributed to Victoria's tempered view of him as \"a good old man, though eccentric and singular\".William survived, though mortally ill, to the month after Victoria's coming of age. \"Poor old man!\", Victoria wrote as he was dying, \"I feel sorry for him; he was always personally kind to me.\" William was \"very much shaken and affected\" by the death of his eldest daughter,Sophia, Lady de L'Isle and Dudley, in childbirth in April 1837.William and his eldest son, the Earl of Munster, were estranged at the time, but William hoped that a letter of condolence from Munster signalled a reconciliation. His hopes were not fulfilled and Munster, still thinking he had not been given sufficient money or patronage, remained bitter to the end. Queen Adelaide attended the dying William devotedly, not going to bed herself for more than ten days.William died in the early hours of the morning of 20 June 1837 atWindsor Castle, where he was buried in the Royal Vault atSt George's Chapel. Legacy As William had no living legitimate issue, the British throne passed to his niece Victoria, the only legitimate child ofPrince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, George III's fourth son. UnderSalic Law, a woman could not ruleHanoverand so the Hanoverian throne went to George III's fifth son, Ernest Augustus. William's death thus ended thepersonal unionof Britain and Hanover, which had persisted since 1714. The main beneficiaries of his will were his eight surviving children by Mrs Jordan.Although William is not the direct ancestor of the later monarchs of the United Kingdom, he has many notable descendants through his illegitimate children with Mrs Jordan, including British prime ministerDavid Cameron,TV presenterAdam Hart-Davis, and author and statesmanDuff Cooper. William IV had a short but eventful reign. In Britain, the Reform Crisis marked the ascendancy of the House of Commons and the corresponding decline of the House of Lords, and the King's unsuccessful attempt to remove the Melbourne ministry indicated a reduction in the political influence of the Crown and of the King's influence over the electorate. During the reign of George III, the king could have dismissed one ministry, appointed another, dissolved Parliament, and expected the electorate to vote in favour of the new administration. Such was the result of a dissolution in 1784, after the dismissal of theFox-North Coalition, and in 1807, after the dismissal ofLord Grenville. But when William dismissed the Melbourne ministry, the Tories under Peel failed to win the ensuing elections. The monarch's ability to influence the opinion of the electorate, and therefore national policy, had been reduced. None of William's successors has attempted to remove a government or to appoint another against the wishes of Parliament. William understood that as a constitutional monarch he had no power to act against the opinion of Parliament. He said, \"I have my view of things, and I tell them to my ministers. If they do not adopt them, I cannot help it. I have done my duty.\" During William's reign, the British Parliament enacted major reforms, including theFactory Act of 1833(preventing child labour), theSlavery Abolition Act 1833(emancipating slaves in the colonies), and thePoor Law Amendment Act 1834(standardising provision for the destitute).William attracted criticism both from reformers, who felt that reform did not go far enough, and from reactionaries, who felt that reform went too far. A modern interpretation sees him as failing to satisfy either political extreme by trying to find a compromise between two bitterly opposed factions, but in the process proving himself more capable as a constitutional monarch than many had supposed. Honours and arms British and Hanoverian honours Foreign honours Arms Before becoming king, William, as a son of the sovereign, was granted the use of theroyal arms(without the electoralinescutcheonin the Hanoverianquarter) in 1781, differenced by alabelof three pointsargent, the centre point bearing a crossgules, the outer points each bearing an anchorazure.In 1801 his arms altered with the royal arms, howeverthe marks of differenceremained the same. As king, William used theroyal coat of arms of the United Kingdomundifferenced: Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lionspassant guardantinpaleOr(for England); II Or a lionrampantwithin atressureflory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); overall an escutcheontierced per pale and per chevron(for Hanover), I Gules two lions passant guardant Or (for Brunswick), II Or asemyof hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure (for Lüneburg), III Gules a horsecourantArgent (for Westphalia), overall an inescutcheon Gules charged with the crown of Charlemagne Or, the whole escutcheon surmounted by a crown. Issue Ancestry Family tree See also References Sources External links"
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"HMSHolland 1 Holland 1(orHM submarine Torpedo Boat No 1) is the firstsubmarinecommissioned by theRoyal Navy. The first in a five-boat batch of theHolland-classsubmarine, she was lost in 1913 while under tow to be scrapped following her decommissioning. Recovered in 1982, she was put on display at theRoyal Navy Submarine Museum,Gosport. Her battery bank found in the boat was discovered to be functional after being cleaned and recharged. History She was ordered in 1901 fromJohn Philip Hollandand built atBarrow-in-Furness. Her keel waslaid down4 February 1901.In order to keep the boat's construction secret, she was assembled in a building labelled \"Yacht Shed\", and the parts that had to be fabricated in the general yard were marked for \"pontoon no 1\".She waslaunchedon 2 October 1901 and dived for the first time (in an enclosed basin) on 20 March 1902.Her sea trials began in April 1902. In September 1902 she arrived atPortsmouth, along with the other completed Holland boat and theirtender,HMSHazard. Together they",
"Together they made up the \"First Submarine Flotilla\", commanded by CaptainReginald Bacon.Holland 1suffered an explosion 3 March 1903 that caused four injuries. On 24 October 1904, with the rest of the Holland fleet and threeA-class boats,Holland 1sailed from Portsmouth to attack a Russian fleet that had mistakenly sunk a number of British fishing vessels in the North Sea in theDogger Bank incident. The boats were recalled before any attack could take place. The submarine was decommissioned and sold in 1913 toThos. W. Wardfor £410.By the time the submarine was sold she was considered so obsolete that she was sold with all fittings intact, and the only requirement put on the purchaser was that thetorpedo tubebe put out of action. Loss While being towed to the scrapyard,Holland 1encountered very severe weather and sank about a mile and a half offEddystone Lighthouse.No one was on board the submarine at the time, and, since the submarine had been seen to be sinking earlier in the journey, the crew of the tug",
"the crew of the tug were ready to release the tow rope, preventing any damage to the tug. Recovery The wreck was located in 1981 by Plymouth historian Michael Pearn and she was raised in November 1982.From 1983, after coating in anti-corrosion chemicals, she was displayed at theRoyal Navy Submarine Museum. Work on restoring the submarine continued until September 1988.A talking figure was included to explain the details of the craft to visitors.However, by 1993 it was apparent that the treatment had proved inadequate. Afibreglasstank was built around her, and she was immersed insodium carbonatesolution from 1995. After four years the corrosive chloride ions had been removed, and she was able to be displayed again after restoration work. Listed as part of theNational Historic Fleet, in 2001, on her centenary, a new purpose-built climate-controlled building was opened byCountess Mountbatten. In the same year theRoyal Mailput a photo of the submarine on a 65 pence stamp.In 2011 the submarine was given",
"submarine was given anEngineering Heritage Awardby theInstitution of Mechanical Engineers The original bank of batteries, recovered with the wreckage, were submitted for testing by the original manufacturer, Chloride Industrial Batteries Ltd based inSwinton, Greater Manchester. Following the initial clean, the lead batteries were recharged and found to be in good working order. Some of the original batteries still remain in the possession of Enersys (ex-CIBL) at the Newport plant, in South Wales. See also Notes and references External links",
"1901 1901(MCMI) was acommon year starting on Tuesdayof theGregorian calendarand acommon year starting on Mondayof theJulian calendar, the 1901st year of theCommon Era(CE) andAnno Domini(AD) designations, the 901st year of the2nd millennium, the 1st year of the20th century, and the 2nd year of the1900sdecade. As of the start of 1901, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Events January February March April May June July–August September October November December Date unknown Births January February March April May June July August September October November December Deaths January–February March–April May–June July–August September–October November–December Nobel Prizes Significance of 1901 for modern computers The date of Friday December 13 20:45:52 1901 is significant for modern computers because it is the earliest date representable with a signed32-bitinteger on systems that reference time in seconds since theUnix epoch. This corresponds",
"This corresponds to -2147483648 seconds from Thursday January 1 00:00:00 1970. For the same reason, many computers are also unable to represent an earlier date. For related reasons, many computer systems suffer from theYear 2038 problem. This is when the positive number of seconds since 1970 exceeds 2147483647 (01111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 in binary) and wraps to -2147483648. Hence the computer system erroneously displays or operates on the time Friday December 13 20:45:52 1901. In this way, the year 1900 is to theYear 2000 problemas the year 1901 is to theYear 2038 problem. References Further reading",
"Queen Victoria Victoria(Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) wasQueen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandfrom 20 June 1837 untilher deathin 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days—which waslonger than those of any of her predecessors—constituted theVictorian era. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within theUnited Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of theBritish Empire. In 1876, theBritish Parliamentvoted to grant her the additional title ofEmpress of India. Victoria was the daughter ofPrince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn(the fourth son ofKing George III), andPrincess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she wasraised under close supervisionby her mother and hercomptroller,John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without survivinglegitimateissue. Victoria, aconstitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence",
"to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards ofpersonal morality. Victoria marriedher first cousin,Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria thesobriquet\"grandmother of Europe\". After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion,British republicanismtemporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. HerGoldenandDiamondjubileeswere times of public celebration. Victoria died atOsborne Houseon theIsle of Wight, at the age of 81. The lastBritish monarchof theHouse of Hanover, she was succeeded by her sonEdward VIIof theHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Early life Birth and ancestry Victoria's father wasPrince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son ofKing George IIIandQueen Charlotte. Until",
"Charlotte. Until 1817, King George's only legitimate grandchild was Edward's niecePrincess Charlotte of Wales, the daughter ofGeorge, Prince Regent(who would become George IV). Princess Charlotte's death in 1817 precipitated asuccession crisisthat brought pressure on Prince Edward and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children. In 1818, the Duke of Kent marriedPrincess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl(1804–1856) andFeodora(1807–1872)—by her first marriage toEmich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brotherLeopoldwas Princess Charlotte's widower and later the firstking of Belgium. The Duke and Duchess of Kent's only child, Victoria was born at 4:15 a.m. on Monday 24 May 1819 atKensington Palacein London. Victoria was christened privately by theArchbishop of Canterbury,Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.She was baptisedAlexandrinaafter one of her godparents, TsarAlexander I of Russia, andVictoria, after her",
"after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Prince Regent. At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four eldest sons of George III: George, Prince Regent (later George IV);Frederick, Duke of York;William, Duke of Clarence(later William IV); and Victoria's father, Edward, Duke of Kent.Prince George had no surviving children, and Prince Frederick had no children; further, both were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate children. William married in 1818, in a joint ceremony with his brother Edward, but both of William's legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two months before Victoria was born. Victoria's father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather died",
"grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. She was fourth in line while William's second daughter,Princess Elizabeth, lived, from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821. Heir presumptive Prince Frederick died in 1827, followed by George IV in 1830; their next surviving brother succeeded to the throne as William IV, and Victoria becameheir presumptive. TheRegency Act 1830made special provision for Victoria's mother to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor.King William distrusted the Duchess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria's 18th birthday, so that aregencycould be avoided. Victoria later described her childhood as \"rather melancholy\".Her mother was extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so-called \"Kensington System\", an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by",
"devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and domineeringcomptroller,Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the Duchess's lover.The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of her father's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them.The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William's illegitimate children.Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls and herKing Charles Spaniel,Dash.Her lessons included French, German, Italian, and Latin,but she spoke only English at home. In 1830, the Duchess and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit theMalvern Hills, stopping at towns and greatcountry housesalong the way.Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King's annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically",
"enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops.William compared the journeys toroyal progressesand was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir presumptive.Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for her to rest.She objected on the grounds of the King's disapproval, but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and forced Victoria to continue the tours.AtRamsgatein October 1835, Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence.While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy herprivate secretary.As a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff.Once queen, she banned him from her presence, but he remained in her mother's household. By 1836, Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her",
"hoped to marry her toPrince Albert,the son of his brotherErnest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged for Victoria's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit ofPrince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son ofthe Prince of Orange.Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert's company from the beginning. After the visit she wrote, \" is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful.\"Alexander, on the other hand, she described as \"very plain\". Victoria wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her \"best and kindest adviser\",to thank him \"for",
"thank him \"for the prospect ofgreathappiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see.\"However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert, was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time. Accession and early reign Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and aregencywas avoided. Less than a month later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom.In her diary she wrote, \"I was awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me theArchbishop of CanterburyandLord Conynghamwere here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) andalone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted",
"then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and consequently thatIamQueen.\"Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again. Since 1714,Britainhad shared a monarch withHanoverin Germany, but underSalic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited the British throne, her father's unpopular younger brother,Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, becameKing of Hanover. He was Victoria's heir presumptive until she had a child. At the time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by theWhigprime ministerLord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for advice.Charles Grevillesupposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was \"passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one\", and Victoria probably",
"Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.Her coronationtook place on 28 June 1838 atWestminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.She became the first sovereign to take up residence atBuckingham Palaceand inherited the revenues of the duchies ofLancasterandCornwallas well as being granted acivil listallowance of £385,000 per year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts. At the start of her reign Victoria was popular,but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting,Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.Victoria believed the rumours.She hated Conroy, and despised \"that odious Lady Flora\",because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess in the Kensington System.At first, Lady Flora refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a virgin.Conroy,",
"be a virgin.Conroy, the Hastings family, and the oppositionToriesorganised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora.When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen.At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as \"Mrs. Melbourne\". In 1839, Melbourne resigned afterRadicalsand Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution ofJamaica. The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with theabolition of slavery.The Queen commissioned a Tory,Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of theRoyal Household, who were usually his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen'sladies of the bedchamberwere wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the \"bedchamber crisis\", Victoria,",
"crisis\", Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office. Marriage and public life Though Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required bysocial conventionto live with her mother, despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother's continued reliance on Conroy.The Duchess was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother's proximity promised \"torment for many years\", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage, which Victoria called a \"schocking alternative\".Victoria showed interest in Albert's education for the future role he would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock. Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839.",
"in October 1839. They felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five days after he had arrived atWindsor.They were married on 10 February 1840, in theChapel RoyalofSt James's Palace, London. Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary: I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert ... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could havehopedto have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness—really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such aHusband! ... to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before—was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life! Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion, replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half",
"in the first half of her life.Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House inBelgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's auntPrincess Augustain 1840, the Duchess was given bothClarence HouseandFrogmore House.Through Albert's mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved. During Victoria's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the marriage, 18-year-oldEdward Oxfordattempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he later claimed, the guns had no shot.He was tried forhigh treason, foundnot guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Victoria's popularity soared, mitigating residual discontent over theHastings affairand thebedchamber crisis.Her daughter, also namedVictoria, was born on 21 November 1840. The Queen hated being",
"Queen hated being pregnant,viewed breast-feeding with disgust,and thought newborn babies were ugly.Nevertheless, over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight children:Albert Edward,Alice,Alfred,Helena,Louise,Arthur,LeopoldandBeatrice. The household was largely run by Victoria's childhood governess, BaronessLouise LehzenfromHanover. Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoriaand had supported her against the Kensington System.Albert, however, thought that Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter Victoria's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria's close relationship with her ended. On 29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage alongThe Mall, London, when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route, though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait",
"attempt to bait Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected, Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis's death sentence was commuted totransportation for life,John William Beanalso tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge.Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840.Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail.In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria's carriage as it passed alongConstitution Hill, London.In 1850, the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army officer,Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years' transportation. Melbourne's support in the House of",
"in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria's reign, and in the1841 general electionthe Whigs were defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced. In 1845, Ireland was hit by apotato blight.In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as theGreat Famine.In Ireland, Victoria was labelled \"The Famine Queen\".In January 1847 she personally donated £2,000 (equivalent to between £230,000 and £8.5million in 2022)to theBritish Relief Association, more than any other individual famine relief donor,and supported theMaynooth Grantto a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.The story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day gave the same amount toBattersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century. By 1846, Peel's ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of theCorn Laws. Many Tories—by",
"Many Tories—by then known also asConservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel, some Tories (the free-trade orientedliberal conservative\"Peelites\"), most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced byLord John Russell. Internationally, Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain.She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and theHouse of Orleans, who were related by marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed with KingLouis Philippe IatChâteau d'Euin Normandy; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the meeting ofHenry VIII of EnglandandFrancis I of Franceon theField of the Cloth of Goldin 1520.When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign.Louis Philippe was deposed in therevolutions of 1848, and fled to exile in England.At the height of a",
"the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety ofOsborne House,a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.Demonstrations byChartistsandIrish nationalistsfailed to attract widespread support, and the scare died down without any major disturbances.Victoria's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism. Russell's ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.She found particularly offensive theForeign Secretary,Lord Palmerston, who often acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the Queen.Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after",
"was removed after he announced the British government's approval of PresidentLouis-Napoleon Bonaparte'scoup in Francewithout consulting the Prime Minister.The following year, President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell's administration had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led byLord Derby. In 1853, Victoria gave birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic,chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy, who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical profession, who thought it dangerous.Victoria may have hadpostnatal depressionafter many of her pregnancies.Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control. For example, about a month after Leopold's birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her",
"Victoria about her \"continuance of hysterics\" over a \"miserable trifle\". In early 1855, the government ofLord Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in theCrimean War. Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister. Napoleon III, Britain's closest ally as a result of the Crimean War,visited London in April 1855, and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.Napoleon III met the couple atBoulogneand accompanied them to Paris.They visited theExposition Universelle(a successor to Albert's 1851 brainchild theGreat Exhibition) andNapoleon I's tomb atLes Invalides(to which his remains had only beenreturnedin 1840), and were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at thePalace of Versailles.This marked the first time that a reigning British monarch had been to Paris in over 400 years. On 14 January 1858, an",
"14 January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain calledFelice Orsiniattempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister.Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port ofCherbourgon 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of theRoyal Navyin comparison to theFrench Navy.Derby's ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office. Eleven days after Orsini's assassination attempt in France, Victoria's eldest daughter marriedPrince Frederick William of Prussiain London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and her husband Albert until the bride was 17.The Queen and Albert",
"Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlargingPrussianstate.The Queen felt \"sick at heart\" to see her daughter leave England for Germany; \"It really makes me shudder\", she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters, \"when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too – one by one.\"Almost exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth to the Queen's first grandchild,Wilhelm, who would become the last German emperor. Widowhood and isolation In March 1861, Victoria's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through reading her mother's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply;she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for \"wickedly\" estranging her from her mother.To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief,Albert took on most of her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son,Albert",
"their son,Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a few days holidaying inKillarney. In November, Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.Appalled, he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront him. By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.He was diagnosed withtyphoid feverbyWilliam Jenner, and died on 14 December 1861. Victoria was devastated.She blamed her husband's death on worry over the Prince of Wales'sphilandering. He had been \"killed by that dreadful business\", she said.She entered a state ofmourningand wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following years.Her seclusion earned her the nickname \"widow of Windsor\".Her weight increased through comfort eating, which reinforced her aversion to public appearances. Victoria's self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy, and",
"the monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.She did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847,Balmoral Castle. In March 1864, a protester stuck a notice on the railings ofBuckingham Palacethat announced \"these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant's declining business\".Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public. She agreed to visit the gardens of theRoyal Horticultural SocietyatKensingtonand take a drive through London in an open carriage. Through the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland,John Brown.Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as \"Mrs. Brown\".The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movieMrs. Brown. A painting by SirEdwin Henry Landseerdepicting",
"Landseerdepicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at theRoyal Academy, and Victoria published a book,Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands, which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly. Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended theState Opening of Parliamentfor the first time since Albert's death.The following year she supported the passing of theReform Act 1867which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men,though she was not in favour of votes for women.Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced byBenjamin Disraeli, who charmed Victoria. \"Everyone likes flattery,\" he said, \"and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel.\"With the phrase \"we authors, Ma'am\", he complimented her.Disraeli's ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his Liberal rival,William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister. Victoria",
"minister. Victoria found Gladstone's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were \"a public meeting rather than a woman\". In 1870 republican sentiment in Britain, fed by the Queen's seclusion, was boosted after the establishment of theThird French Republic.A republican rally inTrafalgar Squaredemanded Victoria's removal, and Radical MPs spoke against her.In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill with anabscessin her arm, whichJoseph Listersuccessfully lanced and treated with his new antisepticcarbolic acidspray.In late November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.As the tenth anniversary of her husband's death approached, her son's condition grew no better, and Victoria's distress continued.To general rejoicing, he recovered.Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a",
"London and a grand service of thanksgiving inSt Paul's Cathedralon 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided. On the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service, 17-year-old Arthur O'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MPFeargus O'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria's open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months' imprisonment,and abirching.As a result of the incident, Victoria's popularity recovered further. Empress of India After theIndian Rebellion of 1857, theBritish East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and protectorates on theIndian subcontinentwere formally incorporated into theBritish Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.She wrote of \"her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war\",and insisted, urged on by",
"urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state \"should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration\".At her behest, a reference threatening the \"undermining of native religions and customs\" was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom. In the1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed thePublic Worship Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with thepresbyterianChurch of Scotlandthan theepiscopalChurch of England.Disraeli also pushed theRoyal Titles Act 1876through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title \"Empress of India\" from 1 May 1876.The new title was proclaimed at theDelhi Durbarof 1 January 1877. On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had marriedLouis of Hesse,",
"of Hesse, died ofdiphtheriainDarmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as \"almost incredible and most mysterious\".In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the birth ofPrincess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her \"poor old 60th birthday\". She felt \"aged\" by \"the loss of my beloved child\". Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during theRusso-Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with theCongress of Berlin.Disraeli's expansionist foreign policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as theAnglo-Zulu Warand theSecond Anglo-Afghan War. \"Ifweare tomaintainour position as afirst-ratePower\", she wrote, \"we must ... bePreparedforattacksandwars,somewhereorother, CONTINUALLY.\"Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: \"It is not in our custom to annexe",
"custom to annexe countries\", she said, \"unless we are obliged & forced to do so.\"To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by \"fast falling tears\",and erected a memorial tablet \"placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I.\" On 2 March 1882,Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria's refusal to accept one of his poems,shot at the Queen as her carriage leftWindsor railway station.Gordon Chesney Wilsonand another schoolboy fromEton Collegestruck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a policeman.Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity,but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was \"worth being shot at—to see how much one is loved\". On 17 March 1883, Victoria fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued",
"and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.John Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, SirHenry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown.Ponsonby andRandall Davidson,Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair.The manuscript was destroyed.In early 1884, Victoria did publishMore Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her \"devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown\".On the day after the first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died inCannes. He was \"the dearest of my dear sons\", she lamented.The following month, Victoria's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love withPrince Henry of Battenbergat the wedding of Victoria's granddaughterPrincess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhineto Henry's",
"by Rhineto Henry's brotherPrince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by their promise to remain living with and attending her. Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated.She thought his government was \"the worst I have ever had\", and blamed him for the death ofGeneral Gordonduring theSiege of Khartoum.Gladstone was replaced byLord Salisbury. Salisbury's government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone, whom she referred to as a \"half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man\".Gladstone attempted to passa bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated.Inthe ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the government switched hands again. Golden and Diamond Jubilees In 1887, theBritish EmpirecelebratedVictoria's Golden",
"Golden Jubilee. She marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service inWestminster Abbey.By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular.Two days later on 23 June,she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom wasAbdul Karim. He was soon promoted to \"Munshi\": teaching herUrduand acting as a clerk.Her family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the Hindus.EquerryFrederick Ponsonby(the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported toLord Elgin,Viceroy of India, \"the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do.\"Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice.Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension, on her death. Victoria's eldest daughter",
"eldest daughter becameempress consort of Germanyin 1888, but she was widowed a little over three months later, and Victoria's eldest grandchild became German Emperor asWilhelm II. Victoria and Albert's hopes of a liberal Germany would go unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm believer inautocracy. Victoria thought he had \"little heart orZartgefühl – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped \". Gladstone returned to power after the1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MPHenry Labouchèreto theCabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him.In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointedLord Roseberyas prime minister.His government was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria's reign. On 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as thelongest-reigning monarch in",
"monarch in British history. The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide withher Diamond Jubilee,which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of theColonial Secretary,Joseph Chamberlain.The prime ministers of all theself-governingDominionswere invited to London for the festivities.One reason for including the prime ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to avoid having to invite Victoria's grandson Wilhelm II, who, it was feared, might cause trouble at the event. The Queen's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the",
"affection for the 78-year-old Queen. Declining health and death Victoria regularly holidayed in mainland Europe. In 1889, during a stay inBiarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to visit Spain by briefly crossing the border.By April 1900, theBoer Warwas so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war. In July 1900, Victoria's second son, Alfred (\"Affie\"), died. \"Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too\", she wrote in her journal. \"It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another.\" Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight.Rheumatismin her legs had rendered her disabled, and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts.Through early January, she felt \"weak and unwell\",and by mid-January she was",
"mid-January she was \"drowsy dazed, confused\".Herfavourite petPomeranian, Turi, was laid on her bed as a last request.She died aged 81 on 22 January 1901, at half past six in the evening, in the presence of her eldest son, Albert Edward, and grandson Wilhelm II. Albert Edward immediately succeeded as Edward VII. In 1897, Victoria had written instructions forher funeral, which was to be military as befitting a soldier's daughter and the head of the army,and white instead of black.On 25 January, Edward VII and Wilhelm II, together with Prince Arthur, helped lift her body into the coffin.She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her physician and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family",
"view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers.Items ofjewelleryplaced on Victoria included the wedding ring of Brown's mother, which Brown gave Victoria in 1883.Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, inSt George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in theRoyal Mausoleum, Frogmore, atWindsor Great Park. With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days, Victoria was thelongest-reigning British monarchand thelongest-reigningqueen regnantin world history, until her great-great-granddaughterElizabeth IIsurpassed her on 9 September 2015.She was the last monarch of Britain from theHouse of Hanover; her son Edward VII belonged to her husband'sHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Legacy Reputation According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult life.From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailedjournal, which eventually encompassed 122",
"encompassed 122 volumes.After Victoria's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process.Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy,Lord Eshertranscribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.Part of Victoria's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited byA. C. Benson,Hector Bolitho,George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher,Roger Fulford, andRichard Houghamong others. In her later years, Victoria was stout, dowdy, and about five feet (1.5 metres) tall, but she projected a grand image.She was unpopular during the first years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider",
"known to the wider public.Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available, such asLytton Strachey'sQueen Victoriaof 1921, are now considered out of date.The biographies written byElizabeth LongfordandCecil Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired.They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking. Through Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modernconstitutional monarchyin Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of theHouse of Commonsat the expense of theHouse of Lordsand the monarch.In 1867,Walter Bagehotwrote that the monarch only retained \"the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn\".As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the",
"members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the \"family monarchy\", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was solidified. Descendants and haemophilia Victoria's links with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname \"the grandmother of Europe\".Of thegrandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34 survived to adulthood. Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood-clotting diseasehaemophilia Band at least two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers.Royal haemophiliacsdescended from Victoria included her great-grandsons,Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia;Alfonso, Prince of Asturias; andInfante Gonzalo of Spain.The presence of the disease in Victoria's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led tomodern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a haemophiliac.There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always had the disease, even",
"the disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill.It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers.Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases. Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles At the end of her reign, the Queen's fullstylewas: \"Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and IrelandQueen,Defender of the Faith, Empress of India\". Honours British honours Foreign honours Arms As Sovereign, Victoria used theroyal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been borne by all of her successors on the throne. Family Issue Ancestry Family tree Notes References Citations Bibliography Primary sources Further reading External links",
"William IV William IV(William Henry; 21 August 1765 – 20 June 1837) wasKing of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and IrelandandKing of Hanoverfrom 26 June 1830 until his death in 1837. The third son ofGeorge III, William succeeded his elder brotherGeorge IV, becoming the last king and penultimate monarch of Britain'sHouse of Hanover. William served in theRoyal Navyin his youth, spending time inBritish North Americaand theCaribbean, and was later nicknamed the \"Sailor King\". In 1789, he was createdDuke of Clarence and St Andrews. Between 1791 and 1811, he cohabited with the actressDorothea Jordan, with whom he had ten children. In 1818, he marriedPrincess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen. William remained faithful to Adelaide during their marriage. In 1827, he was appointed Britain's firstLord High Admiralsince 1709. As his two elder brothers died without leavinglegitimateissue, Williaminherited the thronewhen he was 64 years old. His reign saw several reforms: thePoor Lawwas updated,child labourrestricted,slavery",
"abolishedin nearly all of theBritish Empire, and the electoral system refashioned by the Reform Acts of 1832. Although William did not engage in politics as much as his brother or his father, he was the last British monarch to appoint a prime minister contrary to the will ofParliament. He grantedhis German kingdoma short-lived liberal constitution. William had no surviving legitimate children at the time of his death, so he was succeeded by his nieceVictoriain the United Kingdom and his brotherErnest Augustusin Hanover. Early life William was born in the early hours of the morning on 21 August 1765 atBuckingham House, the third child and son ofKing George IIIandQueen Charlotte.He had two elder brothers,George, Prince of Wales, andPrince Frederick(laterDuke of York and Albany), and was not expected to inherit the Crown. He was baptised in the Great Council Chamber ofSt James's Palaceon 20 September 1765. His godparents were the King's siblings:Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh;Prince",
"Edinburgh;Prince Henry(laterDuke of Cumberland and Strathearn); andPrincess Augusta, Hereditary Duchess ofBrunswick-Wolfenbüttel. William spent most of his early life inRichmondand atKew Palace, where he was educated by private tutors.At the age of thirteen, he joined theRoyal Navyas amidshipman,inAdmiral Digby's squadron. For four years the lieutenant of his watch wasRichard Goodwin Keats, with whom he formed a life-long friendship and whom he described as the one to whom he owed all his professional knowledge.He was present at theBattle of Cape St Vincentin 1780,when theSan Juliánstruck her colours to his ship.His experiences in the navy seem to have been little different from those of other midshipmen, though in contrast to other sailors he was accompanied on board ship by a tutor. He did his share of the cookingand got arrested with his shipmates after a drunken brawl inGibraltar; he was hastily released from custody after his identity became known. William served in New York during theAmerican War of",
"theAmerican War of Independence, making him the only member of theBritish royal familyto visit America up to and through theAmerican Revolution. While William was in America,George Washingtonapproved a plot to kidnap him, writing: The spirit of enterprise so conspicuous in your plan for surprising in their quarters and bringing off the Prince William Henry and Admiral Digby merits applause; and you have my authority to make the attempt in any manner, and at such a time, as your judgment may direct. I am fully persuaded, that it is unnecessary to caution you against offering insult or indignity to the persons of the Prince or Admiral... The plot did not come to fruition; the British heard of it and assigned guards to William, who had until then walked around New York unescorted.In September 1781, William held court at theManhattanhome ofGovernor Robertson. In attendance were MayorDavid Mathews, Admiral Digby, andGeneral Delancey. William became a lieutenant in 1785 andcaptainofHMSPegasusthe following",
"following year,during which hespent time in the colonies of NewfoundlandandNova Scotia. Later in 1786, he was stationed in theWest IndiesunderHoratio Nelson, who wrote of William, \"in his professional line, he is superior to two-thirds, I am sure, of the list; and in attention to orders, and respect to his superior officer, I hardly know his equal.\"The two were great friends, and dined together almost nightly. At Nelson's wedding, William insisted on givingthe brideaway.Aftertouring Quebecin 1787, he was, the next year, given command of the frigateHMSAndromedaand promoted torear-admiralwhile commandingHMSValiantin 1790. William sought to be made adukelike his elder brothers, and to receive a similar parliamentary grant, but his father was reluctant. To put pressure on him, William threatened to stand for theBritish House of Commonsfor the constituency ofTotnesin Devon. Appalled at the prospect of his son making his case to the voters, the King created himDuke of Clarence and St AndrewsandEarl of Munsteron",
"of Munsteron 19 May 1789,supposedly saying: \"I well know it is another vote added to the Opposition.\"William's political record was inconsistent and, like many politicians of the time, cannot be ascribed to a single party. However, he allied himself publicly with theWhigs, as did his elder brothers, who were known to be in conflict with the political positions of their father. Naval career William ceased his active service in the Royal Navy in 1790.When Britain declared war on France in 1793, he was eager to serve his country and expected to be given a command but was not, perhaps at first because he had broken his arm by falling down some stairs drunk, but later perhaps because he gave a speech in theHouse of Lordsopposing the war.The following year he spoke in favour of the war, and expected a command after his change of heart; none came. The Admiralty did not reply to his request.He did not lose hope of being appointed to an active post. In 1798 he was made an admiral, but the rank was purely",
"the rank was purely nominal.Despite repeated petitions, he was never given a command throughout theNapoleonic Wars.In 1811, he was appointed to the honorary position ofAdmiral of the Fleet. In 1813, he came nearest to involvement in actual fighting, when he visited the British troops fighting in theLow Countries. Watching the bombardment ofAntwerpfrom a church steeple, he came under fire, and a bullet pierced his coat. Instead of serving at sea, William spent time in the House of Lords, where he spoke in opposition to theabolition of slavery, which still existed in the British colonies. Freedom would do the slaves little good, he argued. He had travelled widely and, in his eyes, the living standard among freemen in theHighlands and Islandsof Scotland was worse than that among slaves in theWest Indies.His experience in the Caribbean, where he \"quickly absorbed the plantation owners' views about slavery\",lent weight to his position, which was perceived as well-argued and just by some of his contemporaries.In",
"contemporaries.In his first speech before Parliament he called himself \"an attentive observer of the state of the negroes\" who found them well cared for and \"in a state of humble happiness\".Others thought it \"shocking that so young a man, under no bias of interest, should be earnest in continuance of the slave trade\".In his speech to the House, William insultedWilliam Wilberforce, the leading abolitionist, saying: \"the proponents of the abolition are either fanatics or hypocrites, and in one of those classes I rank Mr. Wilberforce\".On other issues he was more liberal, such as supporting moves to abolishpenal lawsagainstdissenting Christians.He also opposed efforts to bar those found guilty of adultery from remarriage. Relationships and marriage William had an illegitimate son before 1791 whose mother is unknown; the son, also called William, drowned offMadagascarinHMSBlenheimin February 1807.Caroline von Linsingen, whose father was a general in the Hanoverian infantry, claimed to have had a son, Heinrich, by",
"a son, Heinrich, by William in around 1790 but William was not in Hanover at the time that she claims, and the story is considered implausible by historians. From 1791, William lived with an Irish actress,Dorothea Bland, better known by her stage name Mrs Jordan,the title \"Mrs\" being assumed at the start of her stage career to explain an inconvenient pregnancyand \"Jordan\" because she had \"crossed the water\" from Ireland to Britain.He appeared to enjoy the domesticity of his life with Mrs. Jordan, remarking to a friend: \"Mrs Jordan is a very good creature, very domestic and careful of her children. To be sure she is absurd sometimes and has her humours. But there are such things more or less in all families.\"The couple, while living quietly, enjoyed entertaining, with Mrs. Jordan writing in late 1809: \"We shall have a full and merry house this Christmas, 'tis what the dear Duke delights in.\"The King was accepting of his son's relationship with the actress (though recommending that he halve her allowance);in",
"her allowance);in 1797, he created William the Ranger ofBushy Park, which included a large residence,Bushy House, for William's growing family.William used Bushy as his principal residence until he became king.His London residence,Clarence House, was constructed to the designs ofJohn Nashbetween 1825 and 1827. The couple had ten illegitimate children—five sons and five daughters—nine of whom were named after William's siblings; each was given the surname \"FitzClarence\".Their affair lasted for twenty years before ending in 1811. Mrs Jordan had no doubt about the reason for the break-up: \"Money, money, my good friend, has, I am convinced made HIM at this moment the most wretched of men\", adding, \"With all his excellent qualities, his domesticvirtues, his love for hislovelychildren, what must he not at this moment suffer?\"She was given a financial settlement of £4,400 (equivalent to £403,300 in 2023)per year and custody of her daughters on condition that she did not resume the stage. When she resumed acting in",
"resumed acting in an effort to repay debts incurred by the husband of one of her daughters from a previous relationship, William took custody of the daughters and stopped paying the £1,500 (equivalent to £132,500 in 2023)designated for their maintenance. After Mrs Jordan's acting career began to fail, she fled to France to escape her creditors and died, impoverished, near Paris in 1816. Deeply in debt, William made several attempts at marrying a wealthy heiress, such asCatherine Tylney-Long, but his suits were unsuccessful.Following the death of William's niecePrincess Charlotte of Wales, then second-in-line to the British throne, in 1817, George III was left with twelve children but no legitimate grandchildren. The race was on among his sons, theroyal dukes, to marry and produce an heir. William had great advantages in this race—his two older brothers were both childless and estranged from their wives, who were both beyond childbearing age anyway, and William was the healthiest of the three.If he lived long",
"he lived long enough, he would almost certainly ascend the British and Hanoverian thrones and have the opportunity to sire the next monarch. William's initial choices of potential wives either met with the disapproval of his eldest brother, the Prince of Wales, or turned him down. His younger brotherPrince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, was sent to Germany to scout out the available Protestant princesses; he came up withPrincess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel, but her father,Frederick, declined the match.Two months later Adolphus married Augusta himself. Eventually, however, a princess was found who was amiable, home-loving and willing to accept (even enthusiastically welcome) William's nine surviving children, several of whom had not yet reached adulthood.In the Drawing Room atKew Palaceon 11 July 1818, William marriedAdelaide of Saxe-Meiningen. William's marriage, which lasted almost twenty years until his death, was a happy one. Adelaide took both William and his finances in hand. For their first year of marriage",
"year of marriage the couple lived in economical fashion in Germany. William's debts were soon on the way to being paid, especially since Parliament had voted him an increased allowance, which he reluctantly accepted after his requests to have it increased further were refused.William is not known to have had mistresses after his marriage.The couple had two short-lived daughters and Adelaide suffered two miscarriages.Despite this, false rumours that she was pregnant persisted into William's reign—he dismissed them as \"damned stuff\". Lord High Admiral William's eldest brother, the Prince of Wales, had beenPrince Regentsince 1811 because of the mental illness of their father. In 1820, George III died and the Prince Regent became George IV. William was now second in the line of succession, preceded only by his brother Frederick. Reformed since his marriage, William walked for hours, ate relatively frugally, and the only drink he imbibed in quantity wasbarley waterflavoured with lemon.Both of his older brothers",
"his older brothers were unhealthy, and it was considered only a matter of time before he became king.When Frederick died in 1827, William, then more than 60 years old, became heir presumptive. Later that year, the incoming prime minister,George Canning, appointed him to the office ofLord High Admiral, which had been in commission (that is, exercised by a board rather than by a single individual) since 1709. While in office, William had repeated conflicts with his Council, which was composed ofAdmiraltyofficers. Things finally came to a head in 1828 when, as Lord High Admiral, he put to sea with a squadron of ships, leaving no word of where they were going, and remained away for ten days. The King requested his resignation through the prime minister,Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington; he complied. Despite the difficulties William experienced, he did considerable good as Lord High Admiral. He abolished thecat o' nine tailsfor most offences other than mutiny, attempted to improve the standard of naval",
"standard of naval gunnery, and required regular reports of the condition and preparedness of each ship. He commissioned the first steam warship and advocated the construction of more.Holding the office permitted him to make mistakes and learn from them—a process that might have been far more costly if he had not learnt before becoming king that he should act only with the advice of his councillors. William spent much of his remaining time during his brother's reign in the House of Lords. He supported theCatholic EmancipationBill against the opposition of his younger brotherErnest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, describing the latter's position on the Bill as \"infamous\", to Ernest's outrage.George IV's health was increasingly bad; it was obvious by early 1830 that he was near death. The King took his leave of William at the end of May, stating, \"God's will be done. I have injured no man. It will all rest on you then.\"William's genuine affection for his older brother could not mask his rising anticipation that",
"anticipation that he would soon be king. Reign Early reign When George IV died on 26 June 1830 without surviving legitimate issue, William succeeded him as William IV. Aged 64, he was the oldest person at that point to assume the British throne,a distinction he would hold until surpassed byCharles IIIin 2022. Unlike his extravagant brother, William was unassuming, discouraging pomp and ceremony. In contrast to George IV, who tended to spend most of his time inWindsor Castle, William was known, especially early in his reign, to walk, unaccompanied, through London orBrighton. Until theReform Crisiseroded his standing he was very popular among the people, who saw him as more approachable and down-to-earth than his brother. The King immediately proved himself a conscientious worker. The prime minister, the Duke of Wellington, stated that he had done more business with King William in ten minutes than he had with George IV in as many days.Lord Broughamdescribed him as an excellent man of business, asking enough",
"asking enough questions to help him understand the matter—whereas George IV feared to ask questions lest he display his ignorance and George III would ask too many and then not wait for a response. The King did his best to endear himself to the people.Charlotte Williams-Wynnwrote shortly after his accession: \"Hitherto the King has been indefatigable in his efforts to make himself popular, and do good natured and amiable things in every possible instance.\"Emily Edennoted: \"He is an immense improvement on the last unforgiving animal, who died growling sulkily in his den at Windsor. This man at leastwishesto make everybody happy, and everything he has done has been benevolent.\" William dismissed his brother's French chefs and German band, replacing them with English ones to public approval. He gave much of George IV's art collection to the nation and halved the royalstud. George had begun an extensive (and expensive) renovation ofBuckingham Palace; William refused to reside there and twice tried to give the",
"tried to give the palace away, once to the Army as a barracks and once to Parliament after theHouses of Parliamentburned down in 1834.His informality could be startling: when in residence at theRoyal Pavilionin Brighton, he used to send to the hotels for a list of their guests and invite anyone he knew to dinner, urging guests not to \"bother about clothes. The Queen does nothing but embroider flowers after dinner.\" Upon taking the throne, William did not forget his nine surviving illegitimate children, creating his eldest son,George,Earl of Munsterand granting the other children the precedence of a daughter or a younger son of a marquess. Despite this his children importuned for greater opportunities, disgusting elements of the press who reported that the \"impudence and rapacity of the FitzJordans is unexampled\".The relationship between William and his sons \"was punctuated by a series of savage and, for the King at least, painful quarrels\" over money and honours.His daughters, on the other hand, proved an",
"hand, proved an ornament to his court, as \"They are all, you know, pretty and lively, and make society in a way that real princesses could not.\" Reform crisis At the time, thedeath of the monarchcaused fresh Parliamentary elections and, in thegeneral election of 1830, Wellington'sTorieslost ground to the Whigs underLord Grey, though the Tories still had the largest number of seats. With the Tories bitterly divided, Wellington was defeated in the House of Commons in November, and Lord Grey formed a government. Grey pledged to reform the electoral system, which had seen few changes since the fifteenth century. The inequities in the system were great; for example, large towns such asManchesterandBirminghamelected no members (though they were part of county constituencies), while small boroughs, known asrottenorpocket boroughs—such asOld Sarumwith just seven voters—elected two members of Parliament each. Often, the rotten boroughs were controlled by great aristocrats, whose nominees were invariably elected by",
"elected by the constituents—who were, most often, their tenants—especially since the secret ballot was not yet used in Parliamentary elections. Landowners who controlled seats were even able to sell them to prospective candidates. When the First Reform Bill was defeated in the House of Commons in 1831, Grey's ministry urged William to dissolve Parliament, which would lead to a new general election. At first, William hesitated to exercise his prerogative powers to dissolve Parliament because elections had just been held the year before and the country was in a state of high excitement which might boil over into violence. He was, however, irritated by the conduct of the Opposition, which announced its intention to move the passage of an Address, or resolution, in the House of Lords, against dissolution. Regarding the Opposition's motion as an attack on his prerogative, and at the urgent request of Lord Grey and his ministers, the King prepared to go in person to the House of Lords andprorogueParliament.The",
"monarch's arrival would stop all debate and prevent passage of the Address.When initially told that his horses could not be ready at such short notice, William is supposed to have said, \"Then I will go in ahackney cab!\"Coach and horses were assembled quickly and he immediately proceeded to Parliament. SaidThe Timesof the scene before William's arrival, \"It is utterly impossible to describe the scene ... The violent tones and gestures of noble Lords ... astonished the spectators, and affected the ladies who were present with visible alarm.\"Lord Londonderrybrandished a whip, threatening to thrash the Government supporters, and was held back by four of his colleagues. William hastily put on the crown, entered the Chamber, and dissolved Parliament.This forcednew elections for the House of Commons, which yielded a great victory for the reformers. But although the Commons was clearly in favour of parliamentary reform, the Lords remained implacably opposed to it. The crisis saw a brief interlude for the celebration",
"for the celebration of theKing's coronationon 8 September 1831. At first, William wished to dispense with the coronation entirely, feeling that his wearing the crown while proroguing Parliament answered any need.He was persuaded otherwise by traditionalists. He refused, however, to celebrate the coronation in the expensive way his brother had—the 1821 coronation had cost £240,000, of which £16,000 was merely to hire the jewels. At William's instructions, the Privy Council budgeted less than £30,000 for the coronation.When traditionalist Tories threatened to boycott what they called the \"Half Crown-nation\",the King retorted that they should go ahead, and that he anticipated \"greater convenience of room and less heat\". After the rejection of the Second Reform Bill by the House of Lords in October 1831, agitation for reform grew across the country; demonstrations grew violent in so-called \"Reform Riots\". In the face of popular excitement, the Grey ministry refused to accept defeat, and re-introduced the Bill,",
"the Bill, despite the continued opposition of peers in the House of Lords. Frustrated by the Lords' obdurate attitude, Grey suggested that the King create a sufficient number of new peers to ensure the passage of the Reform Bill. The King objected—though he had the power to create an unlimited number of peers, he had already created 22 new peers in his Coronation Honours.William reluctantly agreed to the creation of the number of peers sufficient \"to secure the success of the bill\".However, the King, citing the difficulties with a permanent expansion of thepeerage, told Grey that the creations must be restricted as much as possible to the eldest sons and collateral heirs of existing peers, so that the created peerages would for the most part be absorbed as subsidiary titles. This time, the Lords did not reject the bill outright, but began preparing to change its basic character through amendments. Grey and his fellow ministers decided to resign if the King did not agree to an immediate and large creation to",
"large creation to force the bill through in its entirety.The King refused, and accepted their resignations. The King attempted to restore the Duke of Wellington to office, but Wellington had insufficient support to form a ministry and the King's popularity sank to an all-time low. Mud was slung at his carriage and he was publicly hissed. The King agreed to reappoint Grey's ministry, and to create new peers if the House of Lords continued to pose difficulties. Concerned by the threat of the creations, most of the bill's opponents abstained and the1832 Reform Actwas passed. The mob blamed William's actions on the influence of his wife and brother, and his popularity recovered. Foreign policy William distrusted foreigners, particularly anyone French,which he acknowledged as a \"prejudice\".He also felt strongly that Britain should not interfere in the internal affairs of other states, which brought him into conflict with the interventionistforeign secretary,Lord Palmerston.William supportedBelgian",
"supportedBelgian independenceand, after unacceptableDutchandFrench candidateswere put forward, favouredPrince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the widower of his niece Charlotte, as a candidate for the newly created Belgian throne. Though he had a reputation for tactlessness and buffoonery, William could be shrewd and diplomatic. He foresaw that the potential construction of acanal at Suezwould make good relations withEgyptvital to Britain.Later in his reign, he flattered the American ambassador at a dinner by announcing that he regretted not being \"born a free, independent American, so much did he respect that nation, which had given birth toGeorge Washington, the greatest man that ever lived\".By exercising his personal charm, William assisted in the repair of Anglo-American relations, which had been so deeply damaged during the reign of his father. King of Hanover Public perception in Germany was that Britain dictatedHanoverianpolicy. This was not the case. In 1832, Austrian chancellorKlemens von",
"von Metternichintroduced laws that curbed fledgling liberal movements in Germany. Lord Palmerston opposed this, and sought William's influence to cause the Hanoverian government to take the same position. The Hanoverian government instead agreed with Metternich, much to Palmerston's dismay, and William declined to intervene. The conflict between William and Palmerston over Hanover was renewed the following year when Metternich called a conference of the German states, to be held inVienna, and Palmerston wanted Hanover to decline the invitation. Instead, William's brotherPrince Adolphus, Viceroy of Hanover, accepted, backed fully by William.In 1833, William signed a new constitution for Hanover, which empowered the middle class, gave limited power to the lower classes, and expanded the role of the parliament. The constitution would later be revoked by his brother and successor in Hanover,King Ernest Augustus. Later reign and death For the remainder of his reign, William interfered actively in politics only",
"in politics only once, in 1834, when he became the last British sovereign to choose a prime minister contrary to the will of Parliament. In 1834, the ministry was facing increasing unpopularity and Lord Grey retired; thehome secretary,William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, replaced him. Melbourne retained most Cabinet members, and his ministry retained an overwhelming majority in the House of Commons. Some members of the Government, however, were anathema to the King, and increasingly left-wing policies concerned him. The previous year Grey had already pushed throughlegislationreforming the ProtestantChurch of Ireland. The Church collectedtithesthroughout Ireland, supported multiple bishoprics and was wealthy. However, barely an eighth of the Irish population belonged to the Church of Ireland. In some parishes, there were no Church of Ireland members at all, but there was still a priest paid for by tithes collected from the local Catholics andPresbyterians, leading to charges that idle priests were living in",
"were living in luxury at the expense of Irish people living at the level of subsistence. Grey's Act had reduced the number of bishoprics by half, abolished some of the sinecures and overhauled the tithe system. Further measures to appropriate the surplus revenues of the Church of Ireland were mooted by the more radical members of the Government, includingLord John Russell.The King had an especial dislike for Russell, calling him \"a dangerous little Radical.\" In November 1834, theleader of the House of Commonsandchancellor of the Exchequer,Lord Althorp, inherited a peerage, thus removing him from the Commons to the Lords. Melbourne had to appoint a new Commons leader and a new Chancellor (who by long custom, must be drawn from the Commons), but the only candidate whom Melbourne felt suitable to replace Althorp as Commons leader was Lord John Russell, whom William (and many others) found unacceptable due to his radical politics. William claimed that the ministry had been weakened beyond repair and used the",
"repair and used the removal of Lord Althorp—who had previously indicated that he would retire from politics upon becoming a peer—as the pretext for the dismissal of the entire ministry. With Lord Melbourne gone, William chose to entrust power to a Tory, SirRobert Peel. Since Peel was then in Italy, the Duke of Wellington was provisionally appointed prime minister.When Peel returned and assumed leadership of the ministry for himself, he saw the impossibility of governing because of the Whig majority in the House of Commons. Consequently, Parliament was dissolved to forcefresh elections. Although the Tories won more seats than in theprevious election, they were still in the minority. Peel remained in office for a few months but resigned after a series of parliamentary defeats. Melbourne was reappointed as prime minister, remaining there for the rest of William's reign, and the King was forced to accept Russell as Commons leader. The King had a mixed relationship with Lord Melbourne. Melbourne's government",
"government mooted more ideas to introduce greater democracy, such as the devolution of powers to theLegislative Council of Lower Canada, which greatly alarmed the King, who feared it would eventually lead to the loss of the colony.At first, the King bitterly opposed these proposals. William exclaimed toLord Gosford, Governor General-designate of Canada: \"Mind what you are about in Canada ... mind me, my Lord, the Cabinet is not my Cabinet; they had better take care or by God, I will have them impeached.\"When William's sonAugustusenquired of his father whether the King would be entertaining duringAscot week, William gloomily replied, \"I cannot give any dinners without inviting the ministers, and I would rather see the devil than any one of them in my house.\"Nevertheless, William approved the Cabinet's recommendations for reform.Despite his disagreements with Melbourne, the King wrote warmly to congratulate the prime minister when he triumphed in the adultery case brought against him concerningCaroline",
"concerningCaroline Norton—he had refused to permit Melbourne to resign when the case was first brought.The King and Lord Melbourne eventually found amodus vivendi, with Melbourne applying tact and firmness when called for and William realising that his prime minister was far less radical in his politics than the King had feared. Both the King and Queen were fond of their niece,Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent. Their attempts to forge a close relationship with the girl were frustrated by the conflict between the King and Victoria's widowed mother, theDuchess of Kent and Strathearn. The King, angered at what he took to be disrespect from the Duchess to his wife, took the opportunity at what proved to be his final birthday banquet in August 1836 to settle the score. Speaking to those assembled at the banquet, who included the Duchess and Princess Victoria, William expressed his hope that he would survive until Victoria was 18 so that the Duchess would never be regent. He said, \"I trust to God that my life",
"to God that my life may be spared for nine months longer ... I should then have the satisfaction of leaving the exercise of the Royal authority to the personal authority of that young lady, heiress presumptive to the Crown, and not in the hands of a person now near me, who is surrounded by evil advisers and is herself incompetent to act with propriety in the situation in which she would be placed.\"The speech was so shocking that Victoria burst into tears, while her mother sat in silence and was only with difficulty persuaded not to leave immediately after dinner (the two left the next day). William's outburst undoubtedly contributed to Victoria's tempered view of him as \"a good old man, though eccentric and singular\".William survived, though mortally ill, to the month after Victoria's coming of age. \"Poor old man!\", Victoria wrote as he was dying, \"I feel sorry for him; he was always personally kind to me.\" William was \"very much shaken and affected\" by the death of his eldest daughter,Sophia, Lady de L'Isle",
"Lady de L'Isle and Dudley, in childbirth in April 1837.William and his eldest son, the Earl of Munster, were estranged at the time, but William hoped that a letter of condolence from Munster signalled a reconciliation. His hopes were not fulfilled and Munster, still thinking he had not been given sufficient money or patronage, remained bitter to the end. Queen Adelaide attended the dying William devotedly, not going to bed herself for more than ten days.William died in the early hours of the morning of 20 June 1837 atWindsor Castle, where he was buried in the Royal Vault atSt George's Chapel. Legacy As William had no living legitimate issue, the British throne passed to his niece Victoria, the only legitimate child ofPrince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, George III's fourth son. UnderSalic Law, a woman could not ruleHanoverand so the Hanoverian throne went to George III's fifth son, Ernest Augustus. William's death thus ended thepersonal unionof Britain and Hanover, which had persisted since 1714. The",
"since 1714. The main beneficiaries of his will were his eight surviving children by Mrs Jordan.Although William is not the direct ancestor of the later monarchs of the United Kingdom, he has many notable descendants through his illegitimate children with Mrs Jordan, including British prime ministerDavid Cameron,TV presenterAdam Hart-Davis, and author and statesmanDuff Cooper. William IV had a short but eventful reign. In Britain, the Reform Crisis marked the ascendancy of the House of Commons and the corresponding decline of the House of Lords, and the King's unsuccessful attempt to remove the Melbourne ministry indicated a reduction in the political influence of the Crown and of the King's influence over the electorate. During the reign of George III, the king could have dismissed one ministry, appointed another, dissolved Parliament, and expected the electorate to vote in favour of the new administration. Such was the result of a dissolution in 1784, after the dismissal of theFox-North Coalition, and in",
"Coalition, and in 1807, after the dismissal ofLord Grenville. But when William dismissed the Melbourne ministry, the Tories under Peel failed to win the ensuing elections. The monarch's ability to influence the opinion of the electorate, and therefore national policy, had been reduced. None of William's successors has attempted to remove a government or to appoint another against the wishes of Parliament. William understood that as a constitutional monarch he had no power to act against the opinion of Parliament. He said, \"I have my view of things, and I tell them to my ministers. If they do not adopt them, I cannot help it. I have done my duty.\" During William's reign, the British Parliament enacted major reforms, including theFactory Act of 1833(preventing child labour), theSlavery Abolition Act 1833(emancipating slaves in the colonies), and thePoor Law Amendment Act 1834(standardising provision for the destitute).William attracted criticism both from reformers, who felt that reform did not go far enough,",
"not go far enough, and from reactionaries, who felt that reform went too far. A modern interpretation sees him as failing to satisfy either political extreme by trying to find a compromise between two bitterly opposed factions, but in the process proving himself more capable as a constitutional monarch than many had supposed. Honours and arms British and Hanoverian honours Foreign honours Arms Before becoming king, William, as a son of the sovereign, was granted the use of theroyal arms(without the electoralinescutcheonin the Hanoverianquarter) in 1781, differenced by alabelof three pointsargent, the centre point bearing a crossgules, the outer points each bearing an anchorazure.In 1801 his arms altered with the royal arms, howeverthe marks of differenceremained the same. As king, William used theroyal coat of arms of the United Kingdomundifferenced: Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lionspassant guardantinpaleOr(for England); II Or a lionrampantwithin atressureflory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III",
"(for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); overall an escutcheontierced per pale and per chevron(for Hanover), I Gules two lions passant guardant Or (for Brunswick), II Or asemyof hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure (for Lüneburg), III Gules a horsecourantArgent (for Westphalia), overall an inescutcheon Gules charged with the crown of Charlemagne Or, the whole escutcheon surmounted by a crown. Issue Ancestry Family tree See also References Sources External links"
] |
In feet, subtract the diameter of the pitching plate ("rubber") in softball, from the distance between the "points" of the bases in baseball, and multiply that figure by the year that Joe DiMaggio married Marilyn Monroe. | 144,596. The distance between the points of bases in baseball is 90 feet, subtract the diameter of the pitching plate in softball (16 feet), to get 74, and multiply that by 1954. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softball | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball_field | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_DiMaggio | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softball', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball_field', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_DiMaggio'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softball",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball_field",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_DiMaggio"
] | [
"Softball Softballis a popularvariation of baseball, the difference being that it is played with a larger ball, on a smaller field, and with only underhand pitches (where the ball is released while the hand is primarily below the ball) permitted. Softball is played competitively at club levels, the college level, and theprofessional level. The game was first created in 1887 inChicagobyGeorge Hancock. There are two rule sets for softball generally:slow-pitch softballandfastpitch. Slow-pitch softball is commonly played recreationally, while women's fastpitch softball was aSummer Olympic sportand can beplayed professionally. Softball was not included in the2024 Summer Olympicsbut will return for the2028 Summer Olympics. Depending on the variety being played and the age and gender of the players, the particulars of the field and equipment will also vary. While distances between bases of 60 feet are standard across varieties, the pitcher's plate ranges from 35 to 43 feet away from home plate, and the home run fence can be 220 to 300 feet away from home plate.The ball itself is typically 11 or 12 inches (28 or 30 centimetres) in circumference, though this also depends on specifics of the competition. Softball rules vary in certain aspects from those of baseball. The game moves at a faster pace than traditional baseball due to the field being smaller and the bases and the fielders being closer to home plate. Softball is pitched underhand from flat ground, whereas baseball is pitched overhand on what they call a 'mound'. A baseball mound is typically a pile of dirt with a rectangular pitching rubber on top, where the pitcher will then throw overhand and downward to the batter. History The earliest known softball game was played inChicago, Illinois, onThanksgivingDay, 1887. It took place at the Farragut Boat Club at a gathering to hear the outcome of theYale UniversityandHarvard Universityfootballgame.When the score was announced and bets were settled, a Yale alumnus threw a boxing glove at a Harvard supporter. The Harvard fan grabbed a stick and swung at the rolled-up glove.George Hancock, a reporter there, called out \"Play ball!\" and the game began, with the boxing glove tightened into a ball, a broom handle serving as a bat. This first contest ended with a score of 41–40.The ball, being soft, was fielded barehanded. Hancock is credited as the game's inventor for his development of a 17-inch ball and an undersized bat in the next week. The Farragut Club soon set rules for the game, which spread quickly to outsiders. Envisioned as a way forbaseballplayers to maintain their skills during the winter, the sport was called \"Indoor Baseball\".Under the name of \"Indoor-Outdoor,\" the game moved outside in the next year, and the first rules were published in 1889. In 1895 Lewis Rober Sr. ofMinneapolisorganized outdoor games as exercise forfirefighters;this game was known as kitten ball (after the first team to play it), lemon ball, or diamond ball.Rober's version of the game used a ball 12 inches (30 cm) in circumference, rather than the 16-inch (41 cm) ball used by the Farragut club, and eventually the Minneapolis ball prevailed, although the dimensions of the Minneapolis diamond were passed over in favor of the dimensions of the Chicago one. Rober may not have been familiar with the Farragut Club rules.Fire Station No. 19in Minneapolis, Rober's post from 1896 to 1906, was listed on theNational Register of Historic Placesin part for its association with the sport's development.The first softball league outside the United States was organized inToronto, Ontario, in 1897. The name \"softball\" dates back to 1926. The name was coined by Walter Hakanson of theYMCAat a meeting of the National Recreation Congress.(In addition to \"indoor baseball\", \"kitten ball\", and \"diamond ball\", names for the game included \"mush ball\", and \"pumpkin ball\".) The name softball had spread across the United States by 1930.By the 1930s, similar sports with different rules and names were being played all over the United States andCanada. A tournament held in 1933 at theChicago World's Fairspurred interest in the game. By 1936, theJoint Rules Committee on Softballhad standardized the rules and naming throughout the United States. Sixteen-inch softball, also sometimes referred to as \"mush ball\" or \"super-slow pitch\" and is a direct descendant of Hancock's original game. Defensive players are not allowed to wear fielding gloves. Sixteen-inch softball is played extensively in Chicago,where devotees such as newspaper columnistMike Roykoconsider it the \"real\" game,and New Orleans. In New Orleans, sixteen-inch softball is called \"Cabbage Ball\" or \"batter ball\" and is a popular team sport in area elementary and high schools. The first cork-centered softball was created inHamilton, Ontario, Canada, byEmil \"Pops\" Kenesky. By the 1940s, fast pitch began to dominate the game. Although slow pitch was present at the1933 World's Fair, the main course of action taken was to lengthen the pitching distance. Slow pitch achieved formal recognition in 1953 when it was added to the program of theAmateur Softball Association, and within a decade had surpassed fast pitch in popularity. The first British women's softball league was established in 1953. TheNational Softball Hall of Fame and Museumwas opened inOklahoma City, United States, in 1957. In 1991, women's fast pitch softball was selected to debut at the1996 Summer Olympics.The 1996 Olympics also marked a key era in the introduction of technology in softball. The IOC funded a landmark bio-mechanical study on pitching during the games. In 2002, sixteen-inch slow pitch was written out of theInternational Softball Federation(ISF) official rules, although it is still played extensively in the United States underThe Amateur Softball Association of America, or ASA rules. The117th meetingof theInternational Olympic Committee, held inSingaporein July 2005, voted to drop softball andbaseballasOlympic sportsfor the2012 Summer Olympics.They were reinstated for the2020 Summer Olympicsheld in 2021. Other sanctioning bodies of softball are AAU, NSA, PONY,Babe Ruth League,ASA, ISC,USSSAand Triple Crown. Overview Fastpitch softball is played between two teams on a large field, with nine players (in 10u and above; 8u and below is usually played with ten players on a field at once) from one team on the field at a time. Slow-pitch softball is played with ten fielders but can be played with nine if needed. The softball field is usually composed of a dirt or brick dustinfieldthat contains the shape and running areas of a diamond and a grassoutfield. However, the field can consist of other solid and dry surfaces such as artificial turf or asphalt. There are fourbaseson the infield:First base,second base,third base, andhome plate. The bases are arranged in a square and are typically 60 feet (18 m) apart. Near the center of this square is thepitcher's circle, and within the circle is the \"rubber\", a small flat rectangular plate a foot and a half in length. The rubber distance from the plate in fastpitch can be as short as 35 feet for 10u players up to 43 feet for ages 14 and older.In slow pitch softball, the rubber distance can be 43, 46 or 50 feet depending on age level and the league one is playing in. The object of the game is to score moreruns(points) than the other team bybatting(hitting) a ball into play and running around the bases, touching each one in succession. The ball is a sphere of light material, covered with leather or synthetic material. It is 11 to 12 inches (28–30 cm) (or, rarely, 16 in or 41 cm) in circumference. The game is officiated by one or more neutralumpires. Players and umpires are generally free to ask for a brief stoppage at any time when the ball is not in play (called a time out), or immediately following a play once its outcome is clear. The game is played in usually seveninnings. Each inning is divided into atop half, in which the away team bats and tries to score runs, while the home team occupies the field and tries to record threeouts; then abottom half, when the teams' roles are reversed. Some leagues play with a reduced number of innings or with a time limit, rather than the traditional seven innings. To start play, the offense sends abattertohome plate. Thebatting ordermust be fixed at the start of the game, and players may not bat out of turn. The defense'spitcherstands atop the rubber andpitchesthe ball towards home plate using an underhand motion. In fast pitch, the pitcher is allowed to take one step back prior to releasing the ball during the forward movement. The batter attempts to hit the pitched ball with abat, a long, round, smooth stick made ofwood,metalorcomposite. If the pitcher throws threestrikesagainst a batter, then the batter is out and the next batter in the order comes up to bat. A strike is recorded any time a batter swings at and misses a pitch or when a batter hits a ballfoul(out of play). A strike is also recorded any time the batter does not swing at apitchthat crosses home plate within an area known as thestrike zone. In fast pitch, to be within the strike zone, the pitch must cross over home plate, and as it crosses it must be above the knees and slightly below the shoulders (roughly the armpit or the shirt logo). The strike zone therefore varies from batter to batter. In slow pitch, the ball must land on a carpet or marked area behind the plate, therefore standardizing the strike zone. A pitch outside the strike zone is aball. If the batter reaches four balls, the batter is awarded the first base in what is known as a \"walk\". The umpire behind home plate is the sole arbiter of balls and strikes. A foul ball may or may not result in a strikeout dependent upon what association and local league rules. However,buntinga foul ball does result in a strikeout. In some associations and leagues, bunting is not allowed and results in an out. Also, if a player has two strikes, swinging and partially hitting the ball can result in an out if the catcher manages to catch the tipped ball. The batter attempts to swing the bat and hit the ballfair(into the field of play). After a successful hit the batter becomes abase runner(or runner) and must run to first base. The defense attempts tofieldthe ball and may throw the ball freely between players, so one player can field the ball while another moves to a position to put out the runner. The defense cantagthe runner, by touching the runner with the ball while the runner is not on a base. The defense can also touch first base while in possession of the ball; in this case it is sufficient to beat the batter to first base and an actual tag of the batter is unnecessary. A runner is said to be \"thrown out\" when the play involves two or more defensive players. Runners generally cannot be put out when touching a base, but only one runner may occupy a base at any time and runners may not pass each other. When a ball is batted into play, runners generally must attempt to advance if there are no open bases behind them; for example, a runner on first base must run to second base if the batter puts the ball in play. In such a situation, the defense can throw to the base that the lead runner is attempting to take (aforce out), and the defense can then also throw to the previous base. This can result in a multiple-out play: adouble playis two outs, while atriple play, a very rare occurrence, is three outs. Runners with an open base behind them are not forced to advance and do so at their own risk; the defense must tag such runners directly to put them out rather than tagging the base. A ball hit in the air and caught before hitting the ground, in fair or foul territory, puts the batter out. A fly ball is a ball hit high and deep, apop flyis a ball hit high but short, and aline driveis a ball hit close to the horizontal. After the catch, runners must return to their original bases; if the defense throws the ball to that base before the runner returns, the runner is out as well, resulting in a double play. A runner who remains on the base until the ball is touched, or returns to the base (tags up) after the catch, may try to advance to the next base, at the risk of being tagged out between bases. As in baseball, theinfield fly ruleapplies in some game situations to prevent the defense from recording multiple force outs by deliberately dropping an easy catch. Offensive strategy is mostly just to hit the ball skillfully to let the batter reach base and advance other runners around the bases to score runs. The count of balls and strikes indicates how aggressive the batter should be. The offense may try tosacrifice, with the batter deliberately making an out in order to advance runners. Defensive strategy is more complex, as particular situations (number of outs and positions of base-runners) and particular batters call for different positioning of fielders and different tactical decisions. The defense may decide to allow a run if it can achieve one or multiple outs. Playing field The playing field is divided intofair territoryandfoul territory. Fair territory is further divided into theinfield, and theoutfield. The field is defined byfoul linesthat meet at a right angle athome plate. The minimum length of the baselines varies classification of play (see below for official measurements). A fence running between the baselines defines the limits of the field; distance from home plate to the fence varies by field. The widest part of the field is the distance between thefoul poles, which are erected where the foul lines meet the fence and are about 310 to 420 feet (94 to 128 m) apart depending on the length of the foul lines. Home plate is one corner of a diamond withbasesat each corner. The bases are cushions 15 inches (38 cm) square, of canvas or a similar material, and not more than 5 inches (13 cm) thick. The bases are usually securely fastened to the ground. The bases are numbered counterclockwise as first base, second base, and third base. Often, but not always, outside first base (that is, in foul territory) and adjacent and connected to it, there is a contrast-colored \"double base\" or \"safety base\" intended to prevent collisions between the first baseman and the runner. The runner runs for the foul portion of the double base after hitting the ball while the fielding team tries to throw the ball to the fair portion before the runner reaches the safety base. However, not all softball diamonds have these safety bases and they are much more common in women's softball than in men's. The double base is required in theU-18 Women's Softball World Cup. The infield consists of the diamond and the adjacent space in which the infielders (see below) normally play. The outfield is the remaining space between the baselines and between the outfield fence and the infield. The infield is usually \"skinned\" (dirt), while the outfield has grass in regulation competitions. Near the center of the diamond is the pitching plate, or colloquially \"rubber\". In fastpitch, a circle 16 feet (4.9 meters) in diameter known as thepitching circleis marked around the pitching plate. A field is officially required to have a warning track between 15 and 12 feet (4.6 and 3.7 meters) from the outfield fence. However, if the game is being played on a field larger than required, no warning track is required before the temporary outfield fencing. Located in foul territory outside both baselines are two coach's boxes. Each box is behind a line 15 feet (4.6 meters) long located 12 feet (3.7 meters) from each baseline. Official baseline dimensions Pitching distances Equipment Equipment required in softball includes a ball, a bat (composite, metal or wooden), gloves, uniforms and protective gear. For example, helmets for the offensive team and a helmet, shin guards, and chest protector for the defensive catcher. Also cleats, sliding shorts, face masks and knee sliders may be worn for softball. Ball Despite the sport's name, the ball is not actually soft, though it does have a lower density and greatercoefficient of restitutionthan a baseball. The size of the ball varies according to the variety played and age of the participants. The circumference for fastpitch for adults is12±0.125 in(30.5±0.3 cm), with a mass between 6.25 and 7.0 oz (177 and 198 g), while children under 12 use a ball with a circumference of11±0.125 in(27.9±0.3 cm) with a mass between 5.875 and 6.125 oz (166.6 and 173.6 g). A 12-inch circumference ball is generally used in slow pitch. (For comparison, a baseball is9 to9+1⁄4inches (229–235 mm) in circumference and has a mass between5 and5+1⁄4ounces (142–149 g).) The ball is covered in two pieces of leather or similar synthetic covering that are roughly the shape of a figure-8 and sewn together along a continuous seam. The core of the ball may be made of long fiberkapok, a mixture ofcorkandrubber, apolyurethanemixture, or another approved material. Before 1993, white balls were standard at all levels of play. In that year, a new, fluorescent optic yellow colored ball was first used in college softball.Yellow softballs have become the standard for all levels of play; white balls are also still allowed but are very uncommon today. InChicago, where softball was invented, it remains traditional to playa variant of slow-pitch with a ball 16 inches (41 centimeters) in circumference. The fielders do not wear gloves or mitts.A 16-inch softball when new is rough and hard, with hand and finger injuries to fielders frequent if they do not \"give\" when receiving a ball,but the ball \"breaks in\" slightly during a game and continues to soften over time with continued play. A well-broken-in ball is called a mush ball and is favored for informal \"pick-up\" games and when playing in limited space, such as a city street (because the ball does not go as far). A 16-inch ball is also used for wheelchair softball. Bat The bat used by the batter can be made of wood, aluminum, or composite materials such as carbon fiber. Sizes may vary but they may be no more than 34 inches (86 cm) long, 2.4 inches (6 cm) in diameter, or 38 ounces (1.1 kg) in mass.The standard barrel diameter for both slow pitch and fast pitch softball bats is2+1⁄4inches.Many players prefer a smaller barrel, which reduces mass and allows higher swing speed. Although there are a variety of bats used, there are several that are banned due to performance enhancement. For example, with a thinner wall, the ball recoils faster off the bat, allowing it to travel further. Many bats may be \"doctored\" or \"juiced\" by being end loaded, shaved, or painted. End loading of a cap refers to the addition of weight manually placed at the end of the barrel to distribute more weight at the tip. Shaving bats require machine use in order to remove the inner walls of the bat to improve elasticity.Lastly, illegal bats may be painted to resemble legal ones. Gloves All defensive players wear fielding gloves, made of leather or similar material. Gloves have webbing between the thumb and forefinger, known as the \"pocket\".Gloves used in softball are typically larger than the ones used in baseball to account for the larger ball. No glove larger than 14 in (36 cm) can be used in ASA (American Softball Association) sanctioned play. While extremely rare in recreational play, there are sometimes different size gloves for different positions on the field. Catchers and first baseman have what is called a mitt, whose pockets are larger than other gloves. These are more padded.An outfielder's glove is smaller than the catcher's, typically 12 inches to 13 inches for fast pitch softball or 12 to 15 inches for slow pitch.An infielder's glove is the smallest, typically from 11.5 inches to 13 inches.A pitcher's glove is typically 11.5 to 12.5 inches for fast pitch or 11.5 to 13 inches for slow pitch. No part of the glove is allowed to be the same color as that of the ball, including that of its seams. Pitchers are also not allowed to have any white on their gloves including the seams. The umpire has discretion to determine whether any coloring on the glove interferes with or hinders the batter from seeing the ball clearly. Uniform Each team wears a distinctive uniform. The uniform may include a cap, a shirt displaying team colors and the players' number, sliding undershorts/compression shorts (optional), socks, and pants/athletic shorts. The team is required to have all of its members wear the same uniform. Caps, visors, and headbands are optional for female players, and have to be the same color. Caps are mandatory for male players. A fielder who chooses to wear a helmet or face mask is not required to wear a cap. Many players use \"sliding shorts\", otherwise known as compression shorts in other sports. These can be outfitted with a pouch for fitting aprotective cupfor male players. These shorts also help to protect the upper thigh when sliding into a base. \"Sliders\" may also be worn for similar protection. These are somewhat padded shin guards that extend usually from the ankle to the knee of the wearer and wrap all the way around the leg(s). They protect the shin, calf, etc. from getting bruised or damaged while sliding into home plate and make it much more comfortable toslideinto the plate. Some male players use long, baseball-style pants. However, some female players now wear a shorter version of baseball pants. At the back of the uniform, an Arabic numeral from numbers 0 through 99 must be visible. Numbers such as 02 and 2 are considered identical. Also, on the back of the uniform's players' names are optional. All players are required to wear shoes. They may have cleats or spikes. The spikes must extend less than 0.75 in (19 mm) away from the sole. Rounded metal spikes are illegal, as are ones made from hard plastic or other synthetic materials. High school athletes are sometimes permitted to wear metal cleats, such as in Ohio. Many recreational leagues prohibit the use of metal cleats or spikes to reduce the possible severity of injuries when a runner slides feet-first into a fielder. At all youth (under 15) levels, in co-ed (the official terminology for mixed teams) slow pitch, and in modified pitch, metal spikes are usually not allowed. Protective equipment Helmets must be worn by batters and runners. A helmet must have two ear flaps, one on each side. Helmets and cages that are damaged or altered are forbidden. In NCAA fastpitch softball, players have the option to wear a helmet with or without a face mask. Most female travel ball teams for fastpitch softball require the batter to wear a helmet with a face mask. In male fastpitch masks are generally only used for medical reasons. In fastpitch, the catcher must wear a protective helmet with a facemask and throat protector, shin guards and body protector. Shin guards also protect the kneecap.In slow pitch, the catcher must wear a helmet, chest protector and mask at youth levels. At adult levels, there is no formal requirement for the catcher to wear a mask, although the official rules recommend it. A catcher may optionally wear a body protector in adult slow pitch. While mandatory for the pitcher in some slow pitch leagues, there is an option to wear a face mask on the field. It is recommended in lower age groups. It must be in proper condition and not damaged, altered, or the like.This is intended to prevent facial injuries. Umpires Decisions about plays are made byumpires. The number of umpires on a given game can range from a minimum of one to a maximum of seven. There is never more than one \"plate umpire\"; there can be up to three \"base umpires\", and up to a further three umpires positioned in the outfield. Most fastpitch games use a crew of two umpires (one plate umpire, one base umpire). Official umpires are often nicknamed \"blue\", because of their uniforms – in many jurisdictions, most significantly ISF, NCAA and USA Softball games, umpires wear navy blue slacks, a light powder blue shirt, and a navy baseball cap. Some umpires wear a variant of the uniform: some umpires in USA Softball wear heather gray slacks and may also wear a navy blue or powder blue shirt; umpires from theUSSSAwear red shirts with grey slacks;National Softball Association(NSA) umpires wear an official NSA white-colored umpire shirt with black pants or black shorts; NSA fastpitch umpires wear the white NSA umpires shirt and heather gray slacks. Decisions are usually indicated by both the use of hand signals, and by vocalizing the call. Safe calls are made by signaling with flat hands facing down moving away from each other, and a verbal call of \"safe\". Out calls are made by raising the right hand in a clenched fist, with a verbal call of \"out\". Strikes are called by the plate umpire, who uses the same motion as the out call with a verbal call of \"strike\". Balls are only called verbally, with no hand gesture. The umpire also has the option of not saying anything on a ball. It is understood that when he stands up, the pitch was not a strike.Foul ballsare called by extending both arms up in the air with a verbal call of \"foul ball\", while fair balls are indicated only by pointing towards fair territory with no verbal call. No signal is given for balls that are obviously foul; for closer calls that are not borderline a signal is given. All decisions made by the umpire(s) are considered to be final. Only decisions where a rule might have been misinterpreted are considered to be protest able. At some tournaments there might be a rules interpreter or Tournament Chief Umpire (TCU) (also known as the Umpire In Chief, or UIC) available to pass judgment on such protests, but it is usually up to the league or association involved to decide if the protest would be upheld. Protests are never allowed on what are considered \"judgment calls\" – balls, strikes, and fouls. As of the 2021–22 academic year, a coach of an NCAA team is allowed to protest a call made by the umpire through what is called “video review” during the game. The opposing team only has until the next pitch to initiate the protest, and they are only allowed two a game. Gameplay A softball game can last anywhere from 3 to 7innings, or 1–2 hours depending on the league, rules, and type of softball.The teams take turns batting. Officially, which team bats first is decided by a coin toss,although a league may decide otherwise at its discretion. The most common rule is that the home team bats second. Batting second is also called \"last at-bat\". Many softball players prefer to bat second because they feel they have more control in the last inning, since they have the last at-bat. In the event of a tie, extra innings are usually played until the tie is broken except in certain tournaments and championships. If the home team is leading and the road team has just finished its half of the seventh inning, the game ends because it is not necessary for the home team to bat again. In all forms of softball, the defensive team is thefielding team; the offensive team isat batorbattingand is trying to score runs. Pitching Play often, but not always, begins with the umpire saying, \"play ball\". After the batter is ready and all fielders (except the catcher) are in fair territory at their respective positions, the pitcher stands at the pitching plate and attempts to throw the ball past the batter to the catcher behind home plate. The throw, or pitch, must be made with an underhand motion. The pitcher throws the ball in or around the \"strike zone\". However, in advanced play pitcher and catcher play a psychological game trying to get the batter to guess where the next pitch is going and if it will be a strike. In other instances, such as when an extremely powerful hitter comes up to bat and they are followed by a weaker hitter, a pitcher may deliberately walk the first batter based on the calculation that the next batter will be an easy out. The strike zone is slightly different in different forms of softball. A pitch that passes through that zone is a \"strike\". A pitch at which the batter swings is also a strike, as is any hit ball that lands in foul territory that is not caught out. A pitch that is not a strike and at which the batter does not swing is known as a \"ball\". The number of balls and strikes is called the \"count\". The number of balls is always given first, as 2 and 1, 2 and 2, and so on. A count of 3 and 2 is a \"full count\" since the next ball or strike will end the batter's turn at the plate unless the ball goes foul. Slow pitch In most versions of slow pitch (including 16-inch) the pitch is lobbed so that the ball rises above the batter's head and lands on a small rectangular area on the ground behind the plate called \"the well\". Umpires will make calls based on where the ball lands behind the plate; a pitch landing in the well is a strike. These restrictions make it much easier to put the ball into play and extremely difficult to use pitching as a defensive strategy, as the physics ofprojectile motionlimit how fast a ball can be thrown under such conditions and still be called a strike. In other varieties of slow pitch (sometimes known as \"modified\"), the only restriction is that the windmill cannot be used; thus the pitching arm cannot be raised above the shoulder and both the wind-up and the release must be underhand, still allowing for moderate speed and control in pitching. Fastpitch For fastpitch softball, the traditional pitching style is a \"windmill\" motion, extending the arm above the body and releasing the ball at about hip level at maximum speeds. Strength acquired in the underhand windmill motion is based on the open-to-close hip motion. Pitches may reach high speeds. In women's fastpitch, depending on the age group, pitchers can throw from 30 to 65 mph (48 to 105 km/h) or more. The fastest pitch ever recorded was at 77 mph (124 km/h) by Monica Abbott on June 16, 2012.At the1996 Summer Olympicsone pitch reached 73.3 mph (118.0 km/h).Male pitching can reach speeds around 85 mph (137 km/h). To compare, MLB players average around 90 mph (140 km/h) but can reach speeds up to 100 mph (160 km/h).Although slower than baseball pitches, the shorter pitching distance in fastpitch results in batters having a comparable time to react to a pitch as in baseball. Throwing fastballs for speed is not always the most important factor in fastpitch softball. Pitchers can throw breaking balls that move late in their flight, fooling batters into swinging at pitches outside the strike zone or, conversely, not swinging at pitches that pass through the strike zone. These include balls that break inwards (screwball) and outwards (curveball) on right-handed batters, starting off the plate and moving into the strike zone or starting towards the strike zone and moving off the plate. There are also rise balls that break upwards, frequently starting in the strike zone and ending above it, and drop balls that break downward. Another common pitch is the change-up, an intentionally slow pitch that initially appears to be a fastball, causing the batter to swing too early and miss or foul off the pitch. Rarer is the knuckleball, which moves slowly and erratically. Pitchers use deception as a primary tactic for getting batters out as the reaction times are approximately half a second or less. At higher levels of play, pitchers aim for the inner and outer corners of the plate when throwing fastballs and breaking pitches. Pitchers also vary the location of the pitch by height to make hitting the ball even harder for the batter. Pitchers also throw knuckleballs which are generally slower and move erratically. A \"crow hop\" is an illegal pitch that occurs when the pitcher pushes with the pivot foot from somewhere other than the pitching plate. This often involves jumping from the pitching plate and replanting somewhere in front of the pitching plate. For an illegal pitch, the umpire extends his left arm straight out to the side and clenches his fist. This results in a ball being awarded to the batter, and any runners on base advancing to the next base. If the batter swings at the pitch that is deemed illegal and puts the ball in play, the offense is given the option to accept the results of the play or accept the penalty listed previously (exception: if the play results in the batter and any runners all advancing at least one base, the play stands and no option is given). The image to the right demonstrates a legal pitch as the push-off foot has not left the ground. The ball must be released simultaneously with the lead leg step. Batters The offensive team sends one \"batter\" at a time to home plate to use the bat to try to hit the pitch forward into fair territory. The order the players bat in, known as the \"batting order\", must stay the same throughout the game. Substitutes and replacements must bat in the same position as the player they are replacing. In co-ed, male and female batters must alternate. The batter stands facing the pitcher inside a \"batter's box\" (there is one on each side of the plate to compensate for either right- or left-handed batters). The bat is held with both hands, over the shoulder, and away from the pitcher (90-degree angle). The ball is usually hit with a full swinging motion in which the bat may move through more than 360 degrees. The batter usually steps forward with the front foot, the body weight shifts forward, as the batter simultaneously swings the bat. Abuntis another form of batting. There are different types, including asacrifice bunt, orslap bunt. There is also regular slapping in which a batter takes position on the left side of the plate and usually stands in the back of the box, but it is possible form anywhere. The batter takes a step back with their leading foot as the pitcher is in the middle of the windup, crosses over with their back foot and runs toward first base while they swing. There are many different types of slapping and they all vary depending on the batter and their strengths. There are half swing slaps, fake slaps, and full swing slaps. Each type of slap has a different purpose or goal. No matter what way the batter hits the ball, theymustbe inside the batter's box when the bat makes contact with the ball. If the batter steps out of the box while swinging, the batter is out. Once the ball is hit into fair territory, the runner must try to advance to first base or beyond. While running to first base, the batter is a \"batter-runner\". When she safely reaches first (see below) she becomes a \"base-runner\" or \"runner\". A batted ball hit high in the air is a \"fly ball\". A fly ball hit upward at an angle greater than 45 degrees is a \"pop fly\". A batted ball driven in the air through the infield at a height at which an infielder could play it if in the right position is a \"line drive\". A batted ball which hits the ground within the diamond is a \"ground ball\". If a batted ball hits a player or a base, it is considered to have hit the ground. A batter can also advance to first if hit by the pitch. If a batter is hit by the pitch it is a dead ball and she is rewarded first base. She must make an attempt to get out of the way and it is the umpire's judgmental call whether the batter attempted to move. If he feels the batter could have moved and avoided getting hit he or she will not reward the batter first base and the pitch will be recorded as a ball. Getting the batter out The batter is out if: the batter accrues three strikes (a \"strikeout\"); a ball hit by the batter is caught before touching the ground (a \"flyout\"); the batter goes to a base that is already tagged (\"tagged\" or \"tag play\"); a fielder holding the ball touches a base which is the only base towards which the batter may run before the batter arrives there (a \"force out\" or \"force play\"); or in certain special circumstances. There is also a not so common occurrence when the batter has two strikes and swings at strike three. If the catcher does not catch the ball, the batter has the chance to run to first base and the catcher can throw the batter out at first base. Advancing around the bases If the player hits the ball and advances to a base without a fielding error or an out being recorded, then that is called a \"base hit\". The bases must be reached in order counterclockwise, starting with first base. After hitting the ball the batter may advance as many bases as possible. An advance to first base on the one hit is a \"single\", to second base is a \"double\", to third base is a \"triple\", and to home plate is a \"home run\". Home runs are usually scored by hitting the ball over the outfield fence, but may be scored on a hit which does not go over the fence. A home run includes any ball that bounces off a fielder and goes over the fence in fair-territory (depending upon association and local league rules) or that hits the foul pole. If a batted ball bounces off a fielder (in fair territory) and goes over the fence in foul territory, or if it goes over the fence at a location that is closer than the official distance, the batter is awarded a double instead. If a runner becomes entitled to the base where another runner is standing, the latter runner must advance to the next base. For example, if a player hits the ball and there is a runner on first, the runner on first must try to advance to second because the batter-runner is entitled to first base. If the batter reaches first base without being put out, then that player can then be forced to run towards second base the next time a ball is driven into fair territory. That is because the player must vacate first base to allow the next batter to reach it, and consequently can only go to second base, where a force out may be recorded. Runners may advance at risk to be put out: on a hit by another player; after a fly ball has been caught, provided the player was touching a base at the time the ball was first touched or after; or (in fastpitch) automatically, when a pitch is delivered illegally. Runners advance without liability to be put out: when a walk advances another player to the runner's current base; or automatically in certain special circumstances described below. In the recent years, the NCAA ruleschanged when concerning the batters feet while in the box. The rule now states that as long as any part of the batter's foot is in the box the ball will stay live. It is not until the batter's entire foot is out of the box, that the play will be declared dead and the batter called out. The SEC (college ball), however, claims that if any part of the batter's foot is out of the box when she makes contact, she is out and the play is dead. Special circumstances If there is a \"wild throw\" (or \"overthrow\") in which the ball goes out of the designated play area, each runner is awarded two bases from the last base touched at the time of the throw. Retreating past a made base, negates the advance to that base. If a fielder intentionally carries a ball out of play, two bases are awarded from the time the ball leaves the field of play. If this is unintentional (fielder's momentum), the award is one base. If on a tag play, the fielder loses control (after establishing control) of the ball and it leaves the field of play, one base is awarded. If there is a \"wild pitch\" in which the ball goes out of the designated play area, each runner is awarded one base from the base occupied at the time of the pitch. In fastpitch, runners may try to steal bases by running to the next base on the pitch and reaching it before being tagged with the ball. The point at which a runner can steal a base varies. In fastpitch, the runner is allowed to begin stealing a base when the ball is released from the \"windmill\" pitching motion, but until recently, stealing was forbidden in slow pitch because a runner has the opportunity to get a larger head start while the slow pitch is making its way to the batter. As a result of rule changes initiated by the Independent Softball Association which later made its way to the Amateur Softball Association and the International Softball Federation in the 21st century, most levels of slow pitch permit stealing bases, provided the runner starts when the ball either touches the ground or crosses the plate. This rule encourages pitchers to be more responsible with the pitch and catchers to play defense, as balls which miss the catcher are now grounds to have stolen bases. No matter what level of play, all baserunners must keep one foot on a base until the pitcher throws the ball or until the ball crosses the front edge of home plate (depends on association). In fastpitch, if the catcher drops strike three (a \"passed ball\") with no less than two outs, the batter can attempt to run to first base if first base is unoccupied. The catcher must then attempt to throw the ball to first base ahead of the runner. If he or she cannot, the runner is safe. With two outs, the batter can attempt to run to first whether or not it is already occupied. Depending on the league in slow pitch only a foul ball with two strikes on the batter means the batter is out. Stealing in 16-inch softball is severely restricted, as a runner may only steal the base in front of them if it is open, and if they are thrown at,à lapickoff move or snap throw. This results in many inexperienced players being thrown or doubled off when they attempt to advance on a wild pickoff at another baserunner. Scoring runs A \"run\" is scored when a player has touched all four bases in order, proceeding counterclockwise around them. They need not be touched on the same play; a batter may remain safely on a base while play proceeds and attempt to advance on a later play. A run is not scored if the last out is a force out or occurs during the same play that the runner crosses home plate. For instance, if a runner is on third base prior to a hit, and he or she crosses home plate after an out is made, either on the batter or another runner, the run is not counted. Ending the game The team with the most runs after seven innings wins the game. The last (bottom) half of the seventh inning or any remaining part of the seventh inning is not played if the team batting second is leading. If the game is tied, play usually continues until a decision is reached, by using the international tie-breaker rules. Starting in the top of first extra inning, the batting team starts with a baserunner on second base, which is the player who is the last available to bat (in other words, the batter who last took their position in the batter's box; regardless whether they were the last out or another runner was put out). In games where one team leads by a large margin, therun ahead rulemay come into play in order to reduce any potential embarrassment of weaker teams. In fastpitch and modified pitch, a margin of 15 runs after 3 innings, 10 after 4, or 7 after 5 is sufficient for the leading team to be declared the winner. In slow pitch, the margin is 20 runs after 4 innings or 15 after 5 innings.In theNCAA, the required margin after 5 innings is 8 runs. The mercy rule takes effect at the end of an inning. Thus, if the team batting first is ahead by enough runs for the rule to come into effect, the team batting second has their half of the inning to narrow the margin. A game may be lost due to a \"forfeit\". A score of 7–0 for the team not at fault is recorded (generally one run is awarded for each inning that would have been played). A forfeit may be called due to any of these circumstances: if a team does not show up to play; if one side refuses to continue play; if a team fails to resume play after a suspension of play ends; if a team uses tactics intended to unfairly delay or hasten the game; if a player removed from the game does not leave within one minute of being instructed to do so; if a player that cannot play enters the game and one pitch has been thrown; if a team does not have, for whatever reason, enough players to continue; or if after warning by the umpire, a player continues to intentionally break the rules of the game. This last rule is rarely enforced as players who break rules after being warned are usually removed. The plate umpire may suspend play because of darkness or anything that puts players or spectators in danger. If four innings have been played and a team is in the lead, the game is recorded as it stands. If fewer than four innings have been played, the game is not considered a \"regulation\" game. Games that are not regulation or are tied when suspended are resumed from the point of suspension. If it is a championship game, it is replayed from the beginning. Team rosters may be changed. Positions There are nine players out on the field at one time in fastpitch softball and ten players in slow-pitch softball. Although the pitcher and catcher have the ball the most, each person has a specific job. In the infield there is the pitcher, catcher, first baseman, second baseman, shortstop, and third baseman. In the outfield there is a left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. In slow-pitch softball there is an extra outfielder in the outfield, who is specified as a roamer or rover. Normally, the defensive team will play with four outfielders, meaning there is a left fielder, left-center fielder, right-center fielder, and right fielder. The recent trend with tournament and league slow pitch softball play is to field five infielders instead of four outfielders. The extra infielder is commonly placed behind the pitcher on either side of second base. Pitcher Thepitcheris the individual who throws the ball from the middle of the diamond. As in baseball, fastpitch softball has a rubber used to control the pitcher's delivery. A pitcher must have both feet on the rubber at the start of their delivery but neither foot is on the rubber when the ball is released. In baseball, the rubber is on a mound of dirt as gravity is used to generate speed. In softball, the pitchers throw from within a circle and the rubber in the circle is not elevated. The circle is also used to control base runners. When the pitcher is in possession of the ball in the circle, a runner who has passed a base must either advance or return to the base. They cannot \"bait\" the pitcher to throw or they will be called out. The pitcher tries to throw the ball in thestrike zone. In order to do that, they start while having the ball in their glove, they throw their arms behind their hips, they shoot forwards with their leg, which is on the same side as their glove, and leave their glove hand there and the other arm goes around the shoulder, bends the elbow, and turns their wrist toward the third baseman, and brings their arm through at the end, flicks their wrist, (which affects the ball's speed, spin and subsequent motion), and brings the arm up, with the hand by their shoulder. They follow through with their legs turning their pitching stance into a fielding stance. They try to release the ball when they go past their hips. In softball, the pitcher uses an underarm motion to pitch the ball towards the strike zone. As soon as the pitcher makes a throw, the fielders are ready to field balls that are hit in the middle of the diamond.Pitchers usually tend to be tall, very flexible and have good upper body strength. Pitchers can be righthanded or lefthanded. The softball pitcher makes a windmill motion while throwing underhand, unlike baseball pitchers who throw overhand. Catcher Thecatcheris normally behind home plate in asquatted position(some plays may require the catcher to stand at an angle for intentional walks). At the plate the catcher is responsible for catching pitches, keeping mis pitched balls in front of the plate, calling pitches that are normally done through hand signals, picking off runners, and they are considered the leaders of the field. Catchers must know how many outs there are, the number of strikes and balls on the batter so they can relay that to their teammates. They must also know how many runners are on base and where the ball should be thrown next in the following play. Catchers are strong, need to be smart and quick on their feet, and have accurate throws so they can pick runners off at each base. Catchers should be able to have strong and muscular legs to squat for a long period of time. The gear worn by a catcher protects them from balls thrown in the dirt or wild pitches. The catcher is allowed to take off his/her mask to catch a pop fly or to watch the play. First baseman Thefirst basemanis the position to the left side of the diamond when facing home plate. The major role of the first baseman is to receive throws from other defensive players in order to get aforce playat first base. Another role they play is to make fielding plays on all balls hit towards first base. The first baseman is usually involved in every play that occurs on the field. Individuals at first base have quick hands and good reach and are always on the lookout to catch the player off base. They are also generally taller andleft-handed throwing, which gives them an extended reach. First basemen, however, can be both left- and right-handed. Just like the catcher, first basemenmay wear specific first base mitts, usually having a longer web allowing them to reach the taller throws over their head. Second baseman Thesecond basemanplays in between the first baseman and second base itself, usually closer to second base. If the ball is hit to the left side of the field, the second baseman covers second base. If the ball is hit to right field or center field, they become the cut-off for the center fielder or the right fielder depending on who the ball was hit to. If the ball is hit to the first baseman, the second baseman then is responsible for covering first. If the ball is hit to the second baseman, they either throw the ball to second if there was already a player on first, or they throw to first if there was nobody on. If there is a runner on first and the person up to bat hits the ball to the shortstop or the third baseman, the second baseman is in charge of covering second to receive the throw from the shortstop or third baseman. Then, depending on where the runner is between home and first, the second baseman makes the decision to throw the ball to first or to hold the ball. Also, in the case of a bunt, the second baseman must cover first as the first baseman runs to get the ball from the bunt, then it is often thrown back to first base. Shortstop Theshortstopfields all balls hit to the infield between the second and third bases. This individual also helps cover second and third bases, is frequently involved inforce playsanddouble plays, and often throws the ball to the catcher to throw out runners at home plate. On steals to second base (when the runner from first is advancing to second on the pitch) the shortstop usually covers. The shortstop does not cover second base only when a right-handed batter is up. In this case, the second baseman covers the steal. Most shortstops are very quick, agile and think fast. Shortstops may play in a restricted zone but are faced with many types of hits and interact closely with the second base, third base and home plate. Often double plays are due to quick thinking/reaction by the shortstop. When a ball is hit up the middle and the shortstop catches it, they will flip the ball to the second baseman for the best result. Shortstop also takes the cut off for the left field when the play is at second base. When the ball is hit to the right side of the outfield, the shortstop then covers second base. If there is a runner on first base and there is a hit down the line or in the gap to right field, the shortstop will then go for the cut to third. Meaning the runner that is going from first to second will most likely be advancing to third, and in that case, the shortstop will be the cut off for the throw from right field to third base.Shortstop can be one of the most difficult positions to play due to the number of balls being hit in that direction. Third baseman Thethird basemanis the position on the right side of the diamond when you are facing home plate. They are responsible for fielding all balls hit their way including bunts. In fact, the third baseman fields more bunts than a pitcher and first baseman do. Third base is also called the \"Hot Corner\" because the ball can pop off the bat at the fielder very fast. Third baseman must have great reflexes and be very quick on their feet because not only to they need to be quick to field a bunt but also if they are unable to predict whether the batter will bunt or hit, a ball that is hit may be a line drive to the face. It also helps if they can run fast but it is not a requirement. A third baseman must have a very strong arm so that they can throw a runner out from across the diamond. Any ball that the third baseman can get, they should. They will have more momentum towards first base when fielding the ball than a shortstop. They are also closer to first base when they cut off a slower ground ball towards shortstop. Third baseman are responsible for covering third base at all times unless the ball is hit to them. In that instance, the shortstop is responsible for third base. Third baseman must be smart, have great reflexes, have a strong accurate arm, and be quick with their hands. Outfielders Theoutfieldersare players that cover the grassy area behind the infield. Outfielders are named for their positions in the field relative to home plate. Traditional outfield positions include a left fielder, a center fielder, and a right fielder. Each player has a specific job as being an outfielder. Right fielder The right fielder's position is on the right side of the field, in the opening between the first and second basemen, when looking at the field from behind home plate. The right fielder is part of a group of two other fielders that make up the outfield. The right fielder has a multitude of jobs over the course of a softball game. Generally, outfielders act as a back-up to the infielders when they make plays or if the ball is hit past the infield. Right field has a particular job of covering the area behind first base if the ball is to be thrown in that area. Right field is meant to cover this area if the ball gets past the first baseman. This will prevent base-runners from advancing to unwanted bases. Traditionally in the game of softball, the right fielder will have the strongest arm out of the two other outfielders. The right fielder must have the strongest arm because they have the furthest possibility to throw the ball. A right fielder will throw the ball to each base more than the other outfielders will because of their position in respect to the bases. Center fielder The center fielder's position is in the middle of the outfield directly behind second base when looking at the field from behind home plate. The center fielder is part of a group of two other fielders that make up the outfield. Center fielders technically serve as the \"captains\" of the outfield. They are and should be the most vocal in effectively communicating with their outfielders. Since the outfielders are further apart from each other, it can be hard to hear each other. The center fielder covers the area behind second base if the ball is going to be thrown in that direction. By covering this area, if the ball does get past the infielder, the center fielder can prevent baserunners from advancing to unwanted bases. Within the game of softball, the center fielder is traditionally the fastest of the three outfielders. The center fielder needs to be the quickest because of the large area of field they must cover. Besides being a quick player, the center fielder must have a strong throwing arm because of the distance between the player and home plate. Left fielder The left fielder's position is on the left side of the outfield behind the third baseman when looking at the field from behind home plate. The left fielder is part of a group of two other fielders that make up the outfield. Generally, outfielders act as a back-up to the infielders when they make plays or if the ball is hit past the infield. The left fielder must field their position, but also cover the area behind third base if a ball is thrown or hit in that direction. The left fielder covers this area in the case that the ball will pass the infielders. The left fielder can then prevent the base runner from advancing to unwanted bases. Besides covering certain areas of the field, the left fielder must be the smartest of the outfielders. In the left field position, the player has full view of the field, the players, the baserunners, and the batter. The left fielder must constantly be aware of the situation on the field and know what must be done in different circumstances. More advanced levels require the left fielder to be able to field the ball during \"slap hit\" situations by playing shallow. Left fielders must also play a role in any run-down situation between third base and home plate or back up any plays that happen at third base in case of an overthrow. Designated player In fastpitch softball, it is common for teams to use a designated player in the lineup; this player, which functions like thedesignated hitterin baseball, hits in place of one of the position players but does not play defense. Unlike a designated hitter, a designated player can also become a temporary defensive substitute, and the player substituted by the designated player can return to their original position at a later point in the game. However, the only player that can be substituted as an offensive replacement (pinch runner or pinch hitter) is the defensive player the designated player originally replaced, known as the \"flex\". At any time, the designated player can be substituted back into the lineup in the place of the flex player, but once taken out, the designated player cannot take the place of any other player in the lineup. Short fielder In some leagues and organizations, four outfield players are utilized by each team. The extra outfielder is sometimes called the short fielder and plays somewhere behind second base, adjusting position based on the handedness or other characteristics of the batter, while the regular center fielder plays a considerably deeper position. The short fielder used as such can take away a batting strategy in softball, which is to hit soft liners over the pitcher. However, some teams prefer to use the fourth outfielder like the others, with the center field position being shared between two players known as the left-center fielder and the right-center fielder. In this case the four outfielders are spaced equidistantly and play at roughly the same depth. Pitch In softball, apitchis the act ofthrowingasoftballtoward home plate to start a play. All pitches are thrown from below the waist in an underhand motion. The phases of throwing include the grip, stance, windup, stride, release and follow through. Pitchersthrow a variety of pitches, each of which has a slightly different velocity, trajectory, movement, hand position, wrist position and/or arm angle. These variations are introduced to confuse the batter in various ways, and ultimately aid the defensive team in getting the batter or baserunners out. To obtain variety, and therefore enhance defensive baseball strategy, the pitcher manipulates the grip on theballat the point of release. Variations in the grip cause the seams to \"catch\" the air differently, thereby changing the trajectory of the ball, making it harder for the batter to hit. The selection of which pitch to use can depend on a wide variety of factors including the type of hitter who is being faced; whether there are any base runners; how many outs have been made in the inning; and the current score. Signaling The responsibility for selecting the type of pitch is traditionally made by thecatcherby relaying hand signals to the pitcher with the fingers. In more advanced play, coaches may give signs to batters and/or runners to initiate special plays in certain situations. A catcher may signal to a position player that they will be trying to throw the runner out. A runner on base may see the pitch sign given by the catcher and hint it to the batter using hand or body motions. Pitching styles TheInternational Softball Federation(ISF) recognizes three pitching styles: Fastpitch style The pitching distance can range between 35 feet for younger players and 43 feet for older players. Collegiate and international level pitchers pitch from 43 feet. Pitches can travel at speeds of more than 65 mph (105 km/h). \"Modified\" fastpitch style Slow-pitch style The pitching distance is 50 feet. The pitch must be lofted in such a way that it falls onto the plate in order for it to be a called strike (the ball falls into the strike-zone instead of flying through). Strikeouts are rare in slow-pitch. Pitchers strategize to pitch the ball with a high enough arc that the batter cannot hit a line-drive. The speed of the pitches ranges from 25 to 35 mph (40 to 56 km/h), resulting in plenty of reaction time. Types of pitches Fastballs The fastball is typically the first type of pitch a player will learn. Breaking balls Changeups The changeup is the stapleoff-speed pitch, usually thrown to look like a fastball but arriving much slower to the plate. Its reduced speed coupled with its deceptive delivery is meant to confuse the batter's timing. There are a variety of grips and techniques a pitcher may use to deliver a change up such as: Other off-speed pitches Recreational play Types of leagues It is estimated that 14.62 million Americans played at least one game of softball during the spring of 2015.It is played by men and women both recreationally and competitively. Softball is especially popular as a recreational activity for adults. Leagues for such play are often characterized as either \"fun leagues\", in which the outdoor exercise and player camaraderie is more important than the final result, or \"serious leagues\". The distinction is not absolute and there can be gradations within each. Softball teams are often organized around groups of employees who play in the early evening after work in the summer. In manyUS cities, adult softball teams are organized by bars and clubs, hence the popular term \"beer league\" softball. The teams can be men's, women's or co-ed, and skill levels can range from novice to elite, with league composition reflecting that. These leagues are typically either slow-pitch or modified. Co-ed recreational leagues, where men and women play on the same team, generally have provisions to keep men from dominating the game. League rules may stipulate that there must be an equal number of men and women on the team, or that batting order alternate male and female batters.Some leagues only require three women to play but they must be present on the field at all times. Others will allow a game to proceed when a team does not have the requisite number of women available but charge the batting team with an automatic out whenever the missing woman's place in the batting order comes up. Modification of rules One reason for the popularity of softball is the ease of modification of its rules, thereby allowing the game to be adapted to a variety of skill levels. For example, in some slow pitch softball leagues a batter starts at bat with a count of one ball one strike. In some leagues, the number of home runs that can be hit by a team are limited. In other leagues, stealing of bases is prohibited. Some groups allow for a more defensive game by making home plate a force out for first base. This reduces scoring evenly on both sides, and allows for some margin of error. Co-ed leagues sometimes adopt live-play rules intended to reduce gender inequality, under the assumption that men will be generally more powerful. In most co-ed or mixed gender leagues there is something called an encroachment line. This requires the outfielders to stay behind a line till the ball is hit. If an outfielder passes in front of this line before the female batter hits a fair ball, the batter will receive a single base or the result of the play, and the base runners will advance accordingly. The line will be 180 feet from home plate.One possible rule requires male batters to \"switch hit\".Some leagues even use different balls for male and female batters.While these modified rules are common, there are questions as to their place in modern adult sports. Some leagues require teams to use limited flight softballs. These softballs, when hit, will not go as far as regular softballs. Other leagues limit the number of runs which can be scored in an inning. Five is a common limit. By allowing these and other modifications, softball can be enjoyed by children, teenagers, and adults. Senior leagues with players over the age of 60 are not uncommon. An example of a rule modification is the \"offensive pitcher\" (or \"self pitch\") often found in informal games where the emphasis is on the social rather than the competitive aspects of the game. The pitcher aids the batter by attempting to give the easiest pitch to hit. There are no walks, and a batter is normally given a fixed number of pitches to attempt to hit (usually 3 or 4). The batter is considered to strike out if the batter fails to hit the ball into fair territory after the given number of pitches. The pitcher does not act as a fielder, and a rule is often made that if a batted ball touches the pitcher, the batter is out. In some leagues the number of pitches to walk or strikeout can be reduced. For instance, one strike is an out, and two balls is a walk. This is common in leagues where doubleheaders are played, or in late season leagues when reduced daylight is an issue. It results in shorter games, as players are more apt to swing, even at marginal pitches, rather than risk striking out on one pitch. Many leagues also include a second first base immediately adjacent to the main one. This is usually orange and the batter running through first base is supposed to run straight through it. This minimizes the chances of a collision. By the same token some leagues have an alternate home plate and rule that plays at home are always force plays. In these cases there is typically a white line drawn approximately 1/3 of the way down the baseline that is considered a point of no return. This is designed to reduce the \"Pickle\" which can put a great strain on the ankles and knees of older baserunners. Indoor play Despite the fact that it was originally intended to be played indoors, softball is usually played outdoors. The indoor form is sometimes calledArena Softball. Indoor softball has generally the same rules as outdoor softball. Only the wall behind the batter is considered foul territory. The other walls are considered fair. Usually, there is a small area on one of the walls in the outfield that results in a home run being awarded if the batted ball hits it. Pitching is generally a little slower because of the indoor turf, or pitched through a pitching machine at younger levels. There is no limit to the number of batters a team may have available, although only so many can bat in one inning. Some indoor facilities do not allow the use of metal cleats on the field, which are what players at the age of 14 and up generally use. Also, some tournaments may require a time limit for games. Professional leagues Women's Professional Fastpitch(WPF) is a professional women's softball league in the United States and was formerly theNational Pro Fastpitch(NPF) and then theWomen's Pro Softball League(WPSL). The WPF league launched in June 2022.In 2024, a new professional league called theAssociation of Fastpitch Professionalslaunched with 4 teams. The late 1970s to early 1980s marked a brief era formen's professional softball in the United States. International competition Softball is played in over a hundred countries around the world.The highestgoverning bodyfor the sport, theInternational Softball Federation(ISF), has 113 member countries (excluding dependent territories).The ISF holds world championships in several categories. TheAmateur Softball Associationis the National Governing Body of Softball for theUnited Statespursuant to the 1976 Amateur Sports Act. Due to the popularity of the sport, there are a multitude of governing bodies such as theUnited States Specialty Sports Association,International Softball Congressand theNational Softball Association. The ISF holds theISF Women's World Championshiptournaments in several categories. The tournament in each category is held every four years—two years from 2010. The most recent tournament was XII Women's World Championship in June, 2010. All World Championships use aPage playoff systemand are in fastpitch. There are also several World Cups held at 4-year intervals in different categories. New Zealandbecame the Men's World Champions winning the world title in 2013. Prior to that, Australia won the World Championship in 2009 and New Zealand had won the previous three tournaments before that. In the Junior Men's World Champions in 2012, Team Argentina won the world title. Summer Olympics In theWomen's Softball World Championshipsthe United States is the most dominant team, having won three of the past fourOlympic tournamentsand the past seven World Championships.The current Junior Women's World Champion is the United States. Women's softball debuted at the1996 Summer Olympicsand was removed from the program following the2008 Summer Olympics.Softball and Baseball were unable to have their sport included in the program at the2012and2016 Summer Olympics. In 2012 the heads of theInternational Softball and Baseball Federationsannounced their united effort to be included in the program in 2020. \"The proposal calls for men's baseball and women's softball to be played at a single venue during 7 to 10 days. Each tournament would feature eight teams. Baseball and softball would be two disciplines under a single sports banner. The proposal awaits formal endorsement from the congress of both federations. Other sports which sought to be included in the 2020 program, when only one spot is up for filling, were: karate, roller sports, squash, sports climbing, wakeboard and wushu. TheIOC executive boardwere to decide at their May meeting which sport to recommend for inclusion. The final decision was made in a vote of the full IOC in Buenos Aires in September 2013.Softball and Baseball were re-included in the Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo 2020, which was held in 2021.The American team had entered the gold medal match with an undefeated record, facing Japan. United States was defeated 2–0 by Japan, naming Japan the Tokyo 2020 Softball Olympic Gold Medalists. Softball was not included in the2024 Summer Olympicsbut will return for the2028 Summer Olympics. Even though the 2028 Summer Olympics will be held in LA, the softball and baseball events will be held in Oklahoma. Participating countries and areas New Zealand New Zealandis the most successful nation at men's world championship softball, having won their eighth title in 2019. TheNew Zealand women's teamhave also won a number of World Championship titles in the past. The game is widely played in New Zealand and is the second most popular summer sport behindcricket. Australia Softball is played in all states and territories in Australia and at all levels of academic education. The game is widely promoted to maintainfitness, health, personal achievements and pleasure. Australia has produced several of the world's great men's softball players, including Adam Folkard and Andrew Kirkpatrick, widely considered all-time greats in men's softball. Australia has excellent softball teams which are a reflection of its coaching, education and training system. Japan Japan has had a long tradition of softball which is played at all levels in the country. Many high schools and colleges have sports programs which include softball. Like baseball, softball in Japan is intensely competitive. Japan's win over the United States at the 2008 Olympicsreflects the advanced level of play in thisEast Asiancountry. China Since the silver medal at theAtlanta Olympics, the Chinese have now made softball a priority at all levels. Europe Softball is played in almost every country in Europe, mainly fastpitch. Every two years an open women'sEuropean fastpitch championshipis held with over twenty nationals teams. Italy and Netherlands are the best nations, and both have an almost professional championship where athletes from the US, Australia and China play. In the men's division eight to ten national teams compete for theEuropean championship, with the Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Denmark leading the way. United States In America, there are more than 1,500 college softball teams spanning five different levels: NCAA Division 1, Division 2, Division 3,NAIA, and NJCAA.There are 5 professional softball teams: the Aussie Peppers, the Chicago Bandits, the Cleveland Comets, the California Commotion, and the Canadian Wild. Competitivefastpitch softballfor girls is growing increasingly popular.All over the US, there are thousands of teams that compete year-round at tournaments. During most of these tournaments the biggest goal is not winning the tournament, but attempting to get as many college coaches as possible to observe (a) particular player or players. Competitive teams are now beginning around eight years old, if not younger. Depending on the team they can travel all over the United States or even out of the country such as to Canada, the summer and fall for many weeks and days at a time. There are many different sanctioning bodies of softball:USSSA, ASA, ISA, NSA, WSL, USFA, Triple Crown and SASL just to name a few. One of the biggest is theAmateur Softball Association(ASA). It is known as the national governing body of softball, was established in 1933 and has over 240,000 teams. The USSSA, founded in 1968 as the United States Slo-Pitch Softball Association, but renamed in 1997 to the United States Specialty Sports Association, is the only association that still has a men's major slow-pitch program alive. Currently, the USSSA program is run out of Viera, FL. The United States also has a competitive women's softball team that competes in international tournaments. They represented the US each time at the Olympics until softball was removed from the Olympics. The Amateur Softball Association of America (founded 1933) is one of the largest governing bodies for the game in the United States and sponsors annual sectional and World Series championships. Other national and regional governing bodies also exist, including the USSSA. TheWorld Baseball Softball Confederation(WBSC) regulates rules of play in more than 110 countries, including the United States and Canada; before the WBSC was formed in 2013, theInternational Softball Federation(ISF) filled this role. The USA Softball Men's Fast Pitch National Team has won five World Championships (1966, 1968, 1976, 1980 and 1988) and three other medals. In the Pan-American Games, Team USA has made the finals in all seven appearances at the Games when Men's Fast Pitch was played. See also References External links",
"Baseball field Abaseball field, also called aball fieldorbaseball diamond, is thefieldupon which the game ofbaseballis played. The term can also be used as ametonymfor abaseball park. The termsandlotis sometimes used, although this usually refers to less organized venues for activities likesandlot ball. Specifications The starting point for much of the action on the field ishome plate(officially \"home base\"), a five-sided slab of white rubber. One side is 17 inches (43 cm) long, the two adjacent sides are 8.5 inches (22 cm). The remaining two sides are approximately 11 inches (30 cm) and set at a right angle. The plate is set into the ground so that its surface is level with the field. The corner of home plate where the two 11-inch sides meet at a right angle is at one corner of a 90-foot (27.43 m) square. The dimensional specifications are technically inconsistent because the angle constraints require that the front be√2times the length of the back, which is not equal to a 17:12 ratio, but a physically built home plate will have side lengths accurate to a few hundredths of an inch.The other three corners of the square, in counterclockwise order from home plate, are calledfirst,second, andthird base. These bases are marked by canvas or rubber cushions, 18 inches (46 cm)square and 3–5 inches (7.6–12.7 cm) thick. Adjacent to each of the two parallel 8.5-inch sides is a batter's box. All the bases, including home plate, lie entirely within fair territory. Thus, any batted ball that touches those bases must necessarily be ruled a fair ball. While the first and third base bags are placed so that they lie inside the 90-foot square formed by the bases, the second base bag is placed so that its center (unlike first, third and home) coincides exactly with the \"point\" of the ninety-foot square. Thus, although the \"points\" of the bases are 90 feet apart, the physical distance between each successive pair of base markers is closer to 88 feet (26.8 m). Near the center of the square is an artificial hill known as the pitcher's mound, atop which is a white rubber slab known as the pitcher's plate, colloquially the \"rubber\". The specifications for the pitcher's mound are describedbelow. The lines from home plate to first and third bases extend to the nearest fence, stand or other obstruction and are called the foul lines. The portion of the playing field between (and including) the foul lines is fair territory; the rest is \"foul territory\". The area within the square formed by the bases is officially called the infield, though colloquially this term also includes fair territory in the vicinity of the square; fair territory outside the infield is known as the outfield. Most baseball fields are enclosed with a fence that marks the outer edge of the outfield. The fence is usually set at a distance ranging from 300 to 420 feet (90 to 130 m) from home plate. Most professional and college baseball fields have a right and left foul pole which are about 440 to 500 feet (130 to 150 m) apart.These poles are at the intersection of the foul lines and the respective ends of the outfield fence and, unless otherwise specified within theground rules, lie in fair territory. Thus, a batted ball that passes over the outfield wall in flight and touches the foul pole is a fair ball and the batter is awarded a home run. Infield A baseball infield is the square area within the four 90-foot baselines (60-foot baselines in Little League Baseball for youths 12 years old and under). The four bases are integral parts of the infield; a ball that touches any part of a base is considered a fair ball. Bases First base First base is the first of the four bases that must be touched by a runner in order to score a run for the batting team. The runner may continue running past first base in a straight line without being in jeopardy of being put out, so long as they make contact with first base and make no move or attempt to advance to second base. The first baseman is the defensive player mainly responsible for the area near first base. A first baseman is often tall.A tall first baseman has a larger range for reaching and catching errant throws. In some youth leagues and adult recreational leagues, a \"double first base\" or \"safety first base\" is used. A double first base is rectangular (rather than square), measuring 30 by 15 inches. It is normally colored white and orange (two 15 by 15 inches squares). It is placed with the white half in fair territory and the orange half in foul territory. The white half is used by the first baseman to make plays while the orange half is used by the runner. This creates a separation between the first baseman and runner, reducing the chance of injury on plays at first base. In thenumbering systemused to record defensive plays, the first baseman is assigned the number 3. Second base Second base is the second of the four bases a runner must touch in order to score a run. Second base is mainly defended by the second baseman and theshortstop. The second baseman and shortstop ideally possess quick feet and the ability to release the ball rapidly and accurately. One player will usually cover second base while the other attempts to field the ball. Both players must communicate well to be able to make adouble play. Particular agility is required of the second baseman in double play situations, which usually force the player to throw towards first base while their momentum carries them in the opposite direction. A runner on second base is said to be in \"scoring position\", since there is a higher likelihood of scoring a run from second base on a single. Since second base is the farthest from home plate, it is the most commonlystolen basein baseball. In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the second baseman is assigned the number 4, and the shortstop 6. Third base Third base is the third of the four bases a runner must touch in order to score a run. The third baseman is the defensive player mainly responsible for the area nearest third base. A third baseman ideally possesses quick reaction to batted balls and a strong arm to make the long throw to first base. In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the third baseman is assigned the number 5. Like a runner on second base, a runner on third base is said to be in \"scoring position\", since there is a higher likelihood of scoring a run on a single orsacrifice flyprovided that the third and final out is not recorded before they can reach home plate. Home base Home base, usually called \"home plate\", is the final base that a player must touch to score a run. Unlike the other bases, home plate is afive-sidedslab of white rubber that is set at ground level. Backstop In most MLB stadiums, thebackstopis at least 60 feet behind home plate and is composed of a lower solid wall and upper netting that protects spectators behind home plate fromwild pitches,passed balls, andfoul balls. In recreational fields, there is usually a tall chain-link fence that surrounds the infield and the players' bench for player safety. Baselines Baselines are straight lines between two adjacent bases. Physical baselines are not drawn between first and second or second and third bases; the foul lines serve to mark the baseline between home plate and first base, and between third base and home. Running baseline Generally,baserunnersare not required to follow the baseline. A baserunner seeking to advance more than one base typically \"rounds\" the base, following a more circular path. However, a runner's left-right motion is constrained when the defense tries totaghim. At the moment the defense begins the attempt, the baserunner's running baseline is established as a direct line from his current position to the base he is trying for. A runner straying more than three feet (1 m) away from this baseline to avoid a tag may be called out. Running lane Beginning halfway between home and first base, and ending at first base, there is a second chalk line to the right of the foul line. This second line and the part of the foul line it runs parallel to, form the running lane that defines the path in which a batter-runner must run as he is advancing to first base. Rule 6.05(k) of theOfficial Baseball Rulesstates that if a batter-runner running to first base runs outside the running lane, and \"in doing so\" interferes with the fielder taking the throw at first, then the batter-runner is automatically out. First base itself is not located in the running lane, but Rule 6.05 lets the batter-runner leave the running lane \"by means of a step, stride or slide in the immediate vicinity of first base\" to step on first base. Playing areas near home plate Batter's box The batter's box is the place where thebatterstands when ready to receive apitchfrom thepitcher. It is usually drawn inchalkon the dirt surroundinghome plate, and the insides of the boxes are watered down before each game. The chalk lines delineating the two foul lines are rarely extended through the batter's boxes. However, those lines exist conceptually for the purpose of judging a batted ball fair or foul. In addition, inside edges of the batter's boxes are often not laid-in with chalk. Similarly, though not marked, those lines continue to exist for the purpose of the rules pertaining to the batter's box and the batter's position relative thereto. There are two batter's boxes, one on each side of home plate. The batter's boxes are 4 feet (1.22 m) wide and 6 feet (1.83 m) long. The batter's boxes are centered lengthwise at the center of home plate with the inside line of each batter's box 6 inches (15 cm) from the near edge of home plate. Aright-handedbatter would stand in the batter's box on the right side of home plate from the perspective of the pitcher. A left-handed batter would stand in the batter's box to their left. A batter may only occupy one batter's box at a time and may not legally leave the batter's box after the pitcher has come set or has started their windup. Should the batter wish to leave the batter's box once the pitcher has engaged therubber, they must first ask theumpirefortime-out. Time will not be granted if the pitcher has already started their pitching motion. For playing rules relating to the batter's box, see Rules 6.05 and 6.06 of theOfficial Baseball Rules. Catcher's box The catcher's box is an area of the field behind home plate which the catcher occupies to avoid committing a balk when a pitch is thrown. Pitcher's mound In roughly the middle of the square, equidistant between first and third base, and a few feet closer to home plate than to second base, is a low artificial hill called the pitcher's mound. This is where thepitcherstands when throwing thepitch. Atop the mound is a white rubber slab, called the pitcher's plate or pitcher's rubber. It measures 6 inches (15 cm) front-to-back and 2 feet (61 cm) across, the front of which is exactly 60 feet 6 inches (18.44 m) from the rear point of home plate. This peculiar distance was set by the rule makers in 1893, not due to a clerical or surveying error as popular myth has it, but intentionally (further details underHistory). InMajor League Baseball, a regulation mound is 18 feet (5.5 m) in diameter, with the center 59 feet (18 m) from the rear point of home plate, on the line between home plate andsecond base. The front edge of thepitcher's plateorrubberis 18 inches (46 cm) behind the center of the mound, making the front edge's midpoint 60 feet 6 inches from the rear point of home plate. Six inches (15 cm) in front of the pitcher's rubber the mound begins to slope downward. The top of the rubber is to be no higher than ten inches (25 cm) above home plate. From 1903 through 1968, this height limit was set at 15 inches (38 cm), but in reality differed from ballpark to ballpark as the height was considered too difficult to enforce. A higher mound generally favors the pitcher and teams which emphasized pitching, such as theLos Angeles Dodgers, would have a slightly higher mound. With the height advantage, the pitcher gains more leverage and can put more downward velocity on the ball, making it more difficult for the batter to strike the ball squarely with thebat. After 1968, known among baseball historians as \"the year of the pitcher\", the official height of the mound was lowered from 15 inches (38 cm) to 10 inches (25 cm) in an attempt to \"increase the batting\" once again. A pitcher's mound is difficult forgroundskeepersto maintain. Usually before every game it is watered down to keep the dust from spreading. On youth and amateur baseball fields, the mound may be much different from the rule book definition due to erosion and repair attempts. Even in the major leagues, each mound gains its own character, as pitchers are allowed to kick away pieces of dirt in their way, thereby sculpting the mound a bit to their preference. The pitcher may keep arosinbag on the rear of the mound to dry off their hands. Major League Baseball teams are also permittedcleatcleaners on the back of the mound. This may be a flat grate-style plate, or simply a hand tool such as a piece of wood used to remove mud and dirt from cleats. These items are allowed to remain on the backside of the mound at the discretion of theumpire, thus reducing the probability that they will affect a live play. Grass line The grass line, where the dirt of the infield ends and the grass of the outfield begins, has no special significance to the rules of the game (except inDouble-AMinor League Baseballwhere all infielders must be on the infield dirt when the pitch is thrown as part of an experimental rule for the 2021 season),but it can influence the outcome of a game. Dirt running paths between the bases (and, at one time and still in some parks, between the pitcher and the catcher) have existed since the beginning of the game, although they were not mentioned in the rule books until around 1950, and their specifications are flexible. In addition to providing a running path, the grass lines act as a visual aid so that players,umpiresand fans may better judge distance from the center of the diamond. Occasionally the ball may take a tricky bounce off the dirt area or the edge between the dirt and the grass. MultipleWorld Serieschampionships (including 1924, 1960 and 1986) have been decided or heavily influenced by erratic hops ofground balls. Inartificial turfstadiums, infield dirt was originally only placed in three five-sided areas around the bases and in two circles around the pitcher's and batting areas, which are referred to as \"cut outs\". In this configuration, the \"grass line\" is usually designated with a white arc. This setup first appeared at Cincinnati'sRiverfront Stadiumupon its opening in 1970. Among Major League Baseball fields,Rogers Centrewas the last stadium to maintain this type of configuration and was reconfigured with a full dirt infield starting in the 2016 MLB season. In somecollege baseballparks with artificial turf fields, the entire field (along with possibly the pitcher's mound) is made up of turf, with parts of the field mainly containing dirt instead merely being clay-colored turf. Outfield Theoutfieldis made from thick grass orartificial turf. It is where theoutfieldersplay. The positions to play in the outfield areleft,center, andright field(named in relation to the batter's position; thus left field is beyond third base and right field is beyond first base). Outfields vary in size and shape depending on the overall size and shape of the playing field. The outfield stretches from the infield to the outfield wall and it contains the warning track. Outfields especially vary from Little League to major league fields. Little League outfields vary more in size than Major League outfields. Outfields often differ from infields in the specific type of grass used, but most major league outfields are grass. Warning track The warning track is the strip of dirt at the edges of the baseball field (especially in front of the home run fence and along the left and right sides of a field). Because the warning track's color and feel differ from the grass field, a fielder can remain focused on a fly ball near the fence and measure their proximity to the fence while attempting to catch the ball safely. A warning track's width is not specified in the rules. It is generally designed to give about three steps of warning to the highest-level players using the field. Typical widths run from about six feet for Little League fields to about 10–15 feet (3.0–4.6 meters) for college- or professional-level play. A warning track this wide also lets groundskeepers avoid driving maintenance vehicles on the grass. The track can be composed of finely ground rock particles such as cinders, which is why announcerBob Wolffcalled it the \"cinder path\" rather than the \"warning track\". The idea of a warning track originated inYankee Stadium, where an actual running track was built for use in track and field events. When ballpark designers saw how the track helped fielders, it soon became a feature of every ballpark. Single-minded fielders often crash into a wall trying to make a catch despite the warning track. For this reason, outfield walls are typically padded for extra safety.Wrigley Field's brick wall is covered only by ivy, which is not especially soft. However, there are pads on the walls of the tight left and right field corners in foul ground. Warning-track poweris a derogatory term for a batter who seems to have just enough power to hit the ball to the warning track for an out, but not enough to hit a home run. The term more generally refers to someone or something that is almost but not quite good enough for something. Outfield wall The outfield wall or fence is the outer boundary of the outfield. A ball passing over the wall isdead. If it passes over the wall infair territory, without touching the ground, it is a home run. The official rules do not specify the shape, height, or composition of the wall, or a specific mandatory distance from home plate (though Major League Baseball mandates a minimum distance of 250 feet (76 m) and recommends a minimum distance of 320 feet (98 m) at the foul poles and 400 feet (120 m) at center field). As a result, baseball fields can vary greatly along those lines. The wall has numbers affixed or painted on it that denote the distance from that point on the wall to home plate. In most modern major league ballparks, the wall is made of some hard material (e.g., concrete, plywood, sheet metal) with padding on the field side to protect players who may collide with the wall at high speed while trying to make a play.Chain link fencingmay also be incorporated into the wall in areas where the wall needs to be transparent, e.g., an outfieldbullpen, a spectator area behind the wall, or to protect ascoreboardincorporated into the wall. Many ballparks feature a yellow line denoting the top of the wall to aid umpires in judging whether the ball passed over the wall or if the ball is fair or foul. Foul poles Foul poles, if present, help umpires judge whether a fly ball hit above the fence line isfoul(out of play) or fair (ahome run). The poles are a vertical extension of the foul lines at the edge of the field of play. The outer edge of the foul lines and foul poles define foul territory. Both the lines and the poles are in fair territory, in contrast to American football and basketball, where the lines marking the playing boundaries are out of bounds. The minimum distance to hit a home run (along either foul line) is set by baseball rules, generally at 325 feet (99 m). Before 1931 (with the exception of a couple months in 1920)the foul lines extended indefinitely; a batter was awarded a home run only if a fly ball out of the field was fair where it landed. Now, a batted ball that leaves the field in flight is judged fair or foul at the point it leaves the field. Thus, such a fly ball passing on the fair side of a foul pole, or hitting a foul pole, is a home run regardless of where the ball goes thereafter. Foul poles are typically much higher than the top of the outfield fence or wall, and often have a narrow screen running along the fair side of the pole. This further aids the umpires' judgment, as a ball that bounces off this screen is a home run. It can still be a difficult call, especially in ballparks with no outfield stands behind the poles to provide perspective.Wrigley Fieldis notorious for arguments over long, curving flies down a foul line (most notably in left field) that sail higher than the foul pole. At Major League Baseball fields, foul poles are usually yellow. Those atCiti Fieldare orange. AtPetco Park, there is no foul pole in left field; the pole's function is served by a yellow metal strip along the corner of the Western Metal Supply Co. building. Several parks featuring advertising along the length of the foul pole, with the most prominent example being the advertising fromChick-fil-Aat both Citi Field andMinute Maid Park(serving as apun, with \"fowl\" being another term for achicken, the primary meat featured by that restaurant chain). Player preparation and coaching areas Bullpen The bullpen (sometimes referred to as simply \"the 'pen\") is the area where pitchers warm up before entering a game. Depending on the ballpark, it may be situated in foul territory along the baselines or just beyond the outfield fence. Relief pitchers usually wait in the bullpen when they have yet to play in a game, rather than in thedugoutwith the rest of the team. The starting pitcher also makes their final pregame warmups in the bullpen. Managers can call coaches in the bullpen on anin-house telephonefrom the dugout to tell a certain pitcher to begin their warmup tosses. \"Bullpen\" is also usedmetonymicallyto describe a team's collection of relief pitchers. On-deck circles There are two on-deck circles in the field, one for each team, positioned in foul ground between home plate and the respective teams' benches. The on-deck circle is where the next scheduled batter, or \"on-deck\" batter, warms up while waiting for the current batter to finish their turn. The on-deck circle is either an area composed of bare dirt; a plain circle painted onto artificial turf; or often, especially at the professional level, a mat made from artificial material, with the team or league logo painted onto it. Coach's boxes Thecoach's boxes, located behind first and third base, are where the first and third basecoachesare supposed to stand, although coaches often stand outside the box. This is permissible as long as the coach does not interfere with play and the opposing team does not object (in which case theumpireshall ensure that all coaches on both teams must abide by the boundaries of the coach's boxes). The coach's boxes are marked with chalk or paint. In the early days of baseball, the term \"coacher's box\" was used, as \"coach\" was taken to be a verb. As the term \"coach\" evolved into a noun, the name of the box also changed. History Knickerbocker Rules The basic layout of the field has been little changed since theKnickerbocker Rulesof the 1840s. Those rules specified the distance from home to second as 42 \"paces\". The dictionary definition of a \"pace\" at the time was 30 inches,yielding base paths of approximately 75 feet; however, if a \"pace\" of three feet was meant then the distance would have been 89 feet. It is not implausible that the early clubs simply stepped off the distance. 30 yards (90 feet) between the bases was first explicitly prescribed by theNABBPConvention of 1857. Through trial and error, 90 feet had been settled upon as the optimal distance. 100 feet would have given too much advantage to the defense, and 80 feet too much to the offense. The original Knickerbocker Rules did not specify the pitching distance explicitly; the 1854 Unified Rules stated \"from Home to pitcher not less than fifteen paces\". By the time major league baseball began in the 1870s, the pitcher was compelled to pitch from within a \"box\" whose front edge was 45 feet (14 m) from the \"point\" of home plate. Although they had to release the ball before crossing the line, as withbowlersincricket, they also had to start their delivery from within the box; they could not run in from the field as bowlers do. Furthermore, the pitcher had to throw underhand. By the 1880s, pitchers had mastered the underhand delivery—in fact, in 1880, there were twoperfect gameswithin a week of each other. Modern history In an attempt to \"increase the batting\", the front edge of the pitcher's box was moved back 5 feet in 1881, to 50 feet (15 m) from home plate. The size of the box was altered over the following few years. Pitchers were allowed to throw overhand starting in 1884, and that tilted the balance of power again. In 1887, the box was set at 4 feet (1.2 m) wide and 5.5 feet (1.7 m) deep, with the front edge still 50 feet from the plate. However, the pitcher was compelled to deliver the ball with their back foot at the 55.5-foot (16.9 m) line of the box, thus somewhat restricting their ability to \"power\" the ball with their overhand delivery.: 96 In 1893, the box was replaced by the pitcher's plate, although \"the box\" is still used today as a slang term for the pitcher's location on the field. Exactly 5 feet was added to the point the pitcher had to toe, again \"to increase the batting\" (and hopefully to increase attendance, as fan interest had flagged somewhat), resulting in the seemingly peculiar pitching distance of 60.5 feet (18.44 m).: 230 Some sources suggest that the pitching distance evolved from 45 to 50 to 60.5 feet. However, the first two were the \"release point\" and the third is the \"pushoff point.\" The 1893 rule change added only 5 feet to the release point, not 10.5 feet. Originally the pitcher threw from flat ground. Gradually, the raised mound was developed, somewhat returning the advantage to the pitchers. From 1893 to 1950, a stipulation was added that the mound be no more than 15 inches above the field.Before the mid-20th century, it was common for baseball fields to include a dirt pathway between the pitcher's mound and home plate. This feature is sometimes known as the \"keyhole\" due to the shape that it makes together with the mound. The keyhole was once as wide as the pitcher's box and resembled acricket pitch. Sometimes this path extended through the batting area and all the way to the backstop. Once the rounded pitcher's mound was developed, the path became more ornamental than practical, and was gradually thinned before being largely abandoned by the 1950s. In recent years some ballparks, such asComerica ParkandChase Fieldin the major leagues, have revived the feature for nostalgic reasons. From 1857 to 1867 home plate was a circular iron plate, painted or enameled white, covering \"a space equal to one square foot of surface\", i.e. with a diameter of ~13-1/2 inches.In 1868 the plate was changed to a square, 12\" on a side, originally set with the flat sides toward the pitcher and catcher; the new professionalNational Associationrotated it 45 degrees in 1871.In 1872 the rules required it to be made of white marble or stone set flush with the ground.For the rest of the century materials varied between stone, iron and wood, but at all times it was a white twelve-inch square.The pentagonal shape and the mandatory use of rubber were developed byRobert Keating, who had pitched one game for the 1887 Baltimore Orioles; the new plate was adopted by theNational Leaguein 1900. From 1861 to 1874 the center, not the back, of the plate was situated on the intersection of the foul lines, and in 1875–76 was moved entirely into foul ground with the \"pitcher's point\" at the intersection. In 1877 it was moved forward to its modern location, wholly in fair territory. There were no batters' boxes before 1874. Up until that time, the batter was required to hit with their front foot on a line passing through the center of the plate.The 1874 batters' boxes were 6 feet by 3 feet, 12 inches from the plate; the modern dimensions (6' x 4') were instituted in 1885 by the National League and the following year by theAmerican Association Maintenance Honors and awards The Sports Turf Managers Association (STMA) presents various awards each year. Starting in 2001, itsSports Turf Manager of the Year Awardshave been presented annually in the Triple-A, Double-A, Class A, and Short-Season/Rookie divisions ofMinor League Baseballand are chosen from the 16 league winners.STMA also presents the Baseball Field of the Year Award, which includes Schools and Parks, College/University and Professional categories. See also References External links",
"Joe DiMaggio As coach Joseph Paul DiMaggio(bornGiuseppe Paolo DiMaggio;; November 25, 1914 – March 8, 1999), nicknamed \"Joltin' Joe\", \"the Yankee Clipper\" and \"Joe D.\", was an Americanbaseballcenter fielderwho played his entire 13-year career inMajor League Baseballfor theNew York Yankees. Born toItalian immigrantsin California, he is widely considered one of the greatest baseball players of all time and set the record for thelongest hitting streak in major league baseball(56 games from May 15 – July 16, 1941). DiMaggio was a three-timeAmerican League(AL)Most Valuable Player Awardwinner and anAll-Starin each of his 13 seasons. During his tenure with the Yankees, the club won ten American League pennants and nineWorld Serieschampionships. His nine career World Series rings are second only to fellow YankeeYogi Berra, who won 10. At the time of his retirement after the 1951 season, he ranked fifth in careerhome runs(361) and sixth in careerslugging percentage(.579). He was inducted into theBaseball Hall of Famein 1955 and was voted the sport's greatest living player in a poll taken during baseball's centennial year of 1969.His brothersVince(1912–1986) andDom(1917–2009) also were major league center fielders. Outside of baseball, DiMaggio is also widely known for his marriage and life-long devotion toMarilyn Monroe. Early life Giuseppe Paolo DiMaggio was born on November 25, 1914, inMartinez, California,the eighth of nine children born toItalian(Sicilian) immigrants Giuseppe and Rosalia DiMaggio, fromIsola delle Femmine. His Italian birth name was Giuseppe Paolo DiMaggio. Rosalia named her son \"Giuseppe\" after his father in the hopes he would be her last child; \"Paolo\" was in honor of Giuseppe's favorite saint,Paul of Tarsus. Giuseppe was afisherman, as were generations of DiMaggios before him. DiMaggio's brother Tom toldMaury Allenthat Rosalia's father wrote to her saying Giuseppe could earn a better living in California. Giuseppe and Rosalia decided that he would go to the United States for one year: if things were better, he would send for her; if not, he would return home. After being processed onEllis Island, Giuseppe worked his way across the country, eventually settling near Rosalia's father inPittsburg, on the east side of theSan Francisco Bay Area. After four years, he had earned enough money to send for Rosalia and their daughter, who was born after he left. When Joe was a toddler, Giuseppe moved his family to theNorth Beachsection ofSan Francisco.: 18Giuseppe hoped that his five sons would become fishermen. DiMaggio recalled that he would do anything to get out of cleaning his father's boat, as the smell of dead fish nauseated him. Giuseppe called him \"lazy\" and \"good-for-nothing\". At age ten, he took up baseball, playing third base at the North Beach playground near his home. After attending Hancock Elementary and Francisco Middle School, DiMaggio dropped out ofGalileo High Schooland worked odd jobs. By 1931, DiMaggio was playing semi-pro ball. Nearing the end of the 1932 season, his brotherVince, playing for theSan Francisco Sealsof thePacific Coast League(PCL), talked his manager into letting DiMaggio fill in atshortstop. He made his professional debut on October 1, 1932, playing the last three games. In less than two years, DiMaggio made the jump from the playground to the PCL, one notch below the majors.: 34In his full rookie year, from May 27 to July 25, 1933, hehitsafely in 61 consecutive games, a PCL-record,and second-longest inMinor League Baseballhistory.\"Baseball didn't really get into my blood until I knocked off that hitting streak,\" he said. \"Getting a daily hit became more important to me than eating, drinking, or sleeping.” In 1934, DiMaggio suffered a potentially career-threatening knee injury when he toreligamentsof his right knee while stepping out of ajitney. Convinced the injury would heal, Yankees scoutBill Essickpestered his bosses to give DiMaggio another look. After he passed a physical, the team bought him for $50,000 and five players, with the Seals keeping him for the 1935 season.DiMaggiobatted.398 with 154runs batted in(RBIs) and 34 home runs. The Seals won the 1935 PCL title, and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player. Professional career New York Yankees (1936–1942, 1946–1951) DiMaggio made his Major League debut on May 3, 1936, batting ahead ofLou Gehrigin the lineup. The Yankees had not been to theWorld Seriessince1932, but they won the next four World Series. Over the course of his 13-year Major League career, DiMaggio led the Yankees to nine World Series championships, where he trails onlyYogi Berra(10) in that category. DiMaggio set a franchise record for rookies in 1936 by hitting 29 home runs. DiMaggio accomplished the feat in 138 games.His record stood for over 80 years until it was shattered byAaron Judge, who tallied 52 homers in 2017. In 1937, DiMaggio built upon his rookie season by leading the majors with 46 home runs, 151 runs scored, and 418 total bases. He also hit safely in 43 of 44 games from June 27 to August 12.He finished second in American League MVP voting in a close race withCharlie Gehringerof theDetroit Tigers. In 1939, DiMaggio was nicknamed \"the Yankee Clipper\" by Yankee's play-by-play announcerArch McDonald, when he likened DiMaggio's speed and range in the outfield to the then-newPan Americanairliner.: 152That year in August, DiMaggio recorded 53 RBIs, tyingHack Wilson's 1930 record for most in a single month.He also won his first career batting title and MVP award, as well as leading the Yankees to their fourth consecutive World Series championship. DiMaggio was pictured with his son on the cover of the inaugural issue ofSPORTmagazinein September 1946. In 1947, DiMaggio won his third MVP award and his sixth World Series with the Yankees. That year, Boston Red Sox ownerTom Yawkeyand Yankees GMLarry MacPhailverbally agreed to trade DiMaggio forTed Williams, but the trade was canceled when MacPhail refused to includeYogi Berra. In the September 1949 issue ofSPORT,Hank Greenbergsaid that DiMaggio covered so much ground in center field that the only way to get a hit against the Yankees was \"to hit 'em where Joe wasn't.\" DiMaggio also stole home five times in his career. On February 7, 1949, DiMaggio signed a contract worth $100,000 ($1,280,000 in current dollar terms) ($70,000 plus bonuses), and became the first baseball player to break $100,000 in earnings.By 1950, he was ranked the second-best center fielder by theSporting News, afterLarry Doby.After a poor 1951 season, various injuries, and a scouting report by theBrooklyn Dodgersthat was turned over to theNew York Giantsand leaked to the press, DiMaggio announced his retirement at age 37 on December 11, 1951.When remarking on his retirement to theSporting Newson December 19, 1951, he said: I feel like I have reached the stage where I can no longer produce for my club, my manager, and my teammates. I had a poor year, but even if I had hit .350, this would have been my last year. I was full of aches and pains and it had become a chore for me to play. When baseball is no longer fun, it's no longer a game, and so, I've played my last game. Through May 2009, DiMaggio was tied withMark McGwirefor third place all-time in home runs over the first two calendar years in the major leagues (77), behindPhilliesHall of FamerChuck Klein(83), andMilwaukee Brewers'Ryan Braun(79).Through 2011, he was one of seven major leaguers to have had at least four 30-homer, 100-RBI seasons in their first five years, along with Chuck Klein,Ted Williams,Ralph Kiner,Mark Teixeira,Albert Pujols, and Ryan Braun.DiMaggio holds the record for most seasons with more home runs thanstrikeouts(minimum 20 home runs), a feat he accomplished seven times, and five times consecutively from 1937 to 1941.DiMaggio could have possibly exceeded 500 home runs and 2,000 RBIs had he not served in the military duringWorld War II, causing him to miss the 1943, 1944, and 1945 seasons. DiMaggio might have had better power-hitting statistics had his home park not beenYankee Stadium. In \"The House That Ruth Built\", its nearby right field favored the Babe's left-handed power. For right-handed hitters, its deep left and center fields made home runs almost impossible.Mickey Mantlerecalled that he andWhitey Fordwitnessed many DiMaggio blasts that would have been home runs anywhere other than Yankee Stadium (Ruth himself fell victim to that problem, as he also hit many long flyouts to center).Bill Jamescalculated that DiMaggio lost more home runs due to his home park than any other player in history. Left-center field went as far back as 457 ft , whereas left-center rarely reaches 380 ft in today's ballparks.Al Gionfriddo's famous catch in the1947 World Series, which was close to the 415-foot mark in left-center, just in front of the visitors bullpen, would have been a home run in the Yankees' current ballpark and most other ballparks at that time, except perhaps the Polo Grounds, home of the New York Giants. DiMaggio hit 148 home runs in 3,360 at-bats at home versus 213 home runs in 3,461 at-bats on the road. His slugging percentage at home was .546, and on the road, it was .610. Statistician Bill Jenkinson commented on these figures: For example, Joe DiMaggio was acutely handicapped by playing at Yankee Stadium. Every time he batted in his home field during his entire career, he did so knowing that it was physically impossible for him to hit a home run to the half of the field directly in front of him. If you look at a baseball field from foul line to foul line, it has a 90-degree radius. From the power alley in the left-center field (430 in Joe's time) to the fence in the deep right-center field (407 ft), it is 45 degrees. And Joe DiMaggio never hit a single home run over the fences at Yankee Stadium in that 45-degree graveyard. It was just too far. Joe was plenty strong; he routinely hit balls in the 425-foot range. But that just wasn't good enough in the cavernous Yankee Stadium. Like Ruth, he benefited from a few easy homers each season due to the short foul line distances. But he lost many more than he gained by constantly hitting long flyouts toward center field. Whereas most sluggers perform better on their home fields, DiMaggio hit only 41 percent of his career home runs in the Bronx. He hit 148 homers at Yankee Stadium. If he had hit the same exact pattern of batted balls with a typical modern stadium as his home, he would have belted about 225 homers during his home-field career. DiMaggio became eligible for theBaseball Hall of Famein 1953 but he was not elected until 1955. The Hall of Fame rules on the post-retirement induction waiting period had been revised in the interim, extending the waiting period from one to five years, but DiMaggio andTed Lyonswere exempted from the rule. DiMaggio toldBaseball Digestin 1963 that theBrooklyn Dodgershad offered him their managerial job in 1953, but he turned it down. After being out of baseball since his retirement as an active player, DiMaggio joined the newly relocatedOakland Athleticsas a vice president in1968and1969and acoachin just the first of those two seasons. The appointment allowed him to qualify for MLB's maximumpensionallowance of which he had fallen two years short upon his retirement. During his only campaign as a coach, he helped improve the talents of players such asReggie Jackson,Sal Bando, andJoe Rudiwho became part of the team's nucleus which won three consecutive World Series in 1972, 1973, and 1974. After he resigned from the Athletics, DiMaggio was named the acting manager for the East team in theEast-West Major League Baseball Classicwhich was held in honor of the lateMartin Luther King Jr., raising charity money for King's causes. 1941 hitting streak DiMaggio's streak is the most extraordinary thing that ever happened in American sports. — Stephen Jay Gould DiMaggio's most famous achievement is his MLB record-breaking 56-gamehitting streakin 1941. The streak began on May 15, a couple of weeks before the death ofLou Gehrig—who had been DiMaggio's teammate from 1936 to 1939—when DiMaggio went one-for-four against Chicago White Sox pitcherEddie Smith.Major newspapers began to write about DiMaggio's streak early on, but as he approachedGeorge Sisler's modern-era record of 41 games, it became a national phenomenon. Initially, DiMaggio showed little interest in breaking Sisler's record, saying: \"I'm not thinking a whole lot about it... I'll either break it or I won't.\"As he approached Sisler's record, DiMaggio showed more interest, saying, \"At the start, I didn't think much about it... but naturally I'd like to get the record since I am this close.\"On June 29, 1941, DiMaggio doubled in the first game of a doubleheader against theWashington SenatorsatGriffith Stadiumto tie Sisler's record and then singled in the nightcap to extend his streak to 42. A Yankee Stadium crowd of 52,832 fans watched DiMaggio tie the all-time hitting streak record (44 games,Wee Willie Keelerin 1897) on July 1.The next day against theBoston Red Sox, he homered into Yankee Stadium's left-field stands to extend his streak to 45, setting a new record. DiMaggio recorded 67 hits in 179 at-bats during the first 45 games of his streak, while Keeler recorded 88 hits in 201 at-bats.DiMaggio continued hitting after breaking Keeler's record, reaching 50 straight games on July 11 against the St. Louis Browns.On July 17 at Cleveland'sMunicipal Stadium, DiMaggio's streak was finally snapped at 56 games, thanks in part to two backhand stops byIndiansthird basemanKen Keltner.DiMaggio batted .408 during the streak with 15 home runs and 55 RBI.The day after the streak ended DiMaggio started another streak that lasted 16 games, therefore hitting safely in 72 of 73 games.The closest anyone has come to equaling DiMaggio isPete Rose, who hit safely in 44 straight games in 1978.During the streak, DiMaggio played in seven doubleheaders. The Yankees' record during the streak was 41–13–2. Some consider DiMaggio's streaka uniquely outstanding and unbreakable recordand a statistical near-impossibility.Nobel Prize-winning physicist andsabermetricianEdward Mills Purcellcalculated that, to have the likelihood of a hitting streak of 50 games occurring in the history of baseball up to the late 1980s be greater than 50%, fifty-two .350 lifetime hitters would have to have existed instead of the actual three (Ty Cobb,Rogers Hornsby, andShoeless Joe Jackson). HisHarvardcolleagueStephen Jay Gould, citing Purcell's work, called DiMaggio's 56-game achievement \"the most extraordinary thing that ever happened in American sports\".Samuel Arbesman andSteven StrogatzofCornell Universitydisagree. They conducted 10,000 computer simulations of Major League Baseball from 1871 to 2005, 42% of which produced streaks as long or longer, with record streaks ranging from 39 to 109 games and typical record streaks between 50 and 64 games. World War II DiMaggio enlisted in theUnited States Army Air Forceson February 17, 1943, rising to the rank of sergeant. He was stationed atSanta Ana, California, Hawaii, andAtlantic City, New Jersey, as a physical education instructor.He was released on a medical discharge in September 1945, due to chronic stomach ulcers.Other than being paid $21 a month, DiMaggio's service was as comfortable as a soldier's life could be. He spent most of his military career playing for baseball teams and in exhibition games against fellow Major Leaguers and minor league players, and superiors gave him special privileges due to his prewar fame. DiMaggio ate so well from an athlete-only diet that he gained 10 pounds, and while in Hawaii he and other players mostly tanned on the beach and drank. Embarrassed by his lifestyle, DiMaggio requested that he be given a combat assignment but was turned down. Parents as \"enemy aliens\" Giuseppe and Rosalia DiMaggio, both fromIsola delle Femmine, were among the thousands of German, Japanese, and Italian immigrants classified as \"enemy aliens\" by the government after theattack on Pearl Harbor. Each was required to carry photo ID booklets at all times and was not allowed to travel outside a five-mile radius from their home without a permit. Giuseppe was barred fromSan Francisco Bay, where he had fished for decades, and his boat was seized. Rosalia became an American citizen in 1945, followed by Giuseppe in 1946. Marriages Dorothy Arnold In January 1937, DiMaggio met actressDorothy Arnoldon the set ofManhattan Merry-Go-Round, in which he had a minor role, and she was an extra. He announced their engagement on April 25, 1939, just before the Yankees were to meet thePhiladelphia Athletics.They married atSaints Peter and Paul Church, San Franciscoon November 19, 1939, as 20,000 well-wishers jammed the streets. The couple's son, Joseph Paul DiMaggio Jr. (1941–1999), was born atDoctors' Hospitalin Staten Island.Their marriage was troubled, as Arnold wanted DiMaggio to settle down and be a father to their son and a nearby husband to her; DiMaggio was more interested in the public eye.The couple divorced in 1944, while DiMaggio was on leave from the Yankees during World War II. Marilyn Monroe According to her autobiographyMy Story, co-written withBen Hecht,American actressMarilyn Monroeoriginally did not want to meet DiMaggio, fearing he was a stereotypically arrogant athlete. However, they did meet inLos Angeleswhile on ablind date.After dating for two years,they eloped atSan Francisco City Hallon January 14, 1954.Although she suffered fromendometriosis, Monroe and DiMaggio each expressed to reporters their desire to start a family. The union was troubled from the start by DiMaggio's jealousy, controlling attitude, and him physically abusing Monroe,as well as her busy life as an actress.A violent fight entailing physical assault between the couple occurred immediately after Monroe filmed the skirt-blowing scene inThe Seven Year Itchthat was filmed on September 14, 1954, in front of Manhattan's Trans-Lux 52nd Street Theater, as DiMaggio disapproved of the scene.Then20th Century Fox'sEast Coastcorrespondent Bill Kobrin told thePalm Springs Desert Sunthat it was directorBilly Wilder's idea to turn the shoot into a media circus. Monroe and DiMaggio then had a \"yelling battle\" in the theater lobby.After returning fromNew York CitytoHollywoodin October 1954, Monroe filed for divorce from DiMaggio after only nine months of marriage.However, she was devastated to leave DiMaggio, and throughout the procedures in court, she could be seen weeping openly. DiMaggio was also devastated, and wrote to Monroe, saying, \"I love you and want to be with you…There is nothing I would like better than to restore your confidence in me…My heart split even wider seeing you cry in front of all those people.\"He also wrote, “ know what your thoughts are about me, but I can tell you I love you sincerely — way deep in my heart, irregardless of anything.\"After the divorce, DiMaggio underwenttherapy, stopped drinking alcohol, and expanded his interests beyond baseball. On August 1, 1956, an International Newswire photoof DiMaggio withLee Meriwethergave rise to speculation that they were engaged, but DiMaggio biographerRichard Ben Cramerwrote that it was a rumor started by columnistWalter Winchell. Monroe biographerDonald Spotoclaimed that DiMaggio was \"very close to marrying\"1957 Miss AmericaMarian McKnight, who won the crown with a Marilyn Monroe act, but McKnight denied it.He was also linked toLiz Renay,Cleo Moore,Rita Gam,Marlene Dietrich, andGloria DeHavenduring this period, and years later toElizabeth RayandMorgan Fairchild, but he never publicly confirmed any involvement with any woman. DiMaggio reentered Monroe's life as her marriage toArthur Millerwas ending. On February 10, 1961, he secured her release fromPayne Whitney Psychiatric ClinicinManhattan. She joined him inFloridawhere he was a batting coach for theYankees. Their \"just friends\" claim did not stop remarriage rumors from flying. Reporters staked out her Manhattan apartment building.Bob Hope\"dedicated\"Best Songnominee \"The Second Time Around\" to them at the33rd Academy Awards. According toMaury Allen's biography, DiMaggio was alarmed at how Monroe had fallen in with people he felt were detrimental to her well-being. Val Monette, the owner of a military post-exchange supply company, told Allen that DiMaggio left his employ on August 1, 1962, because he had decided to ask Monroe to remarry him. Four days later, on August 5, Monroe wasfound deadin herBrentwood, Los Angeleshome after her housekeeperEunice R. Murraytelephoned Monroe's psychiatrist,Ralph Greenson. DiMaggio's son had spoken to Monroe on the phone the night of her death and said she seemed fine.Her death was deemed a probable suicide by \"Coroner to the Stars\"Thomas Noguchi. It has also been the subject ofconspiracy theories. Devastated, DiMaggio claimed Monroe's body and arranged for her funeral atWestwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery. He barred Hollywood's elite and members of theKennedy familyfrom attending the funeral, including PresidentJohn F. Kennedy. He had a half-dozen red roses delivered to her crypt three times a week for 20 years.Oftentimes, he refused to talk about her publicly or otherwise exploit their relationship, and in the rare moments when he did speak to reporters, he was unable to hold back tears. He never married again. According to DiMaggio's attorney Morris Engelberg, DiMaggio's last words were \"I'll finally get to see Marilyn.\"Though DiMaggio's brotherDominicchallenged Engelberg's version of Joe's final moments and his motives,Engleberg continuously denied those who questioned DiMaggio's last words, reporting that one night when he and a terminally ill DiMaggio were sitting together, DiMaggio told him, \"I don’t feel bad about dying. At least I’ll be with Marilyn again.\" Advertising In the 1970s, DiMaggio became a spokesman forMr. Coffee, and was the face of the electricdrip coffeemakers for over 20 years.Vincent Marotta, the CEO of North American Systems, which manufactured Mr. Coffee at the time, recruited DiMaggio for theadvertising campaign.DiMaggio's spots were successful with consumers. In a 2007 interview withThe Columbus Dispatch, Marotta joked that \"millions of kids grew up thinking Joe DiMaggio was a famous appliance salesman.\"Despite the commercials, DiMaggio rarely drankcoffeedue to ulcers;and when he did drink coffee, he preferredSankainstant coffeerather than coffee brewed by Mr. Coffee machines. In 1972, DiMaggio became a spokesman for theBowery Savings Bank. Except for a five-year hiatus in the 1980s, he regularly made commercials for them until 1992.In 1986, he became a spokesperson for Florida's Cross Keys Village, an active retirement community. Television programs Beginning in April 1952, DiMaggio had 10-minute programs on Channel 11 in New York City before and after each Yankees' home game. Episodes included interviews with guests and DiMaggio's comments about baseball. The team owned the program, with DiMaggio under contract to the Yankees. He also didJoe DiMaggio's Dugouton Channel 4 in New York City, a weekly filmed program unrelated to the pre-and post-game shows. It featured instructional sessions and quizzes for young people. Death DiMaggio was a heavy smoker for much of his adult life.He was admitted to Memorial Regional Hospital inHollywood, Florida, on October 12, 1998, for lung cancer surgery and remained there for 99 days.He returned to his home inHollywood, Florida, on January 19, 1999, where he died on March 8 at age 84. DiMaggio's attorney, Morris Engleberg reported that his last words were, \"I'll finally get to see Marilyn,\" referencing his ex-wifeMarilyn Monroe. DiMaggio's funeral was held on March 11, 1999, atSaints Peter and Paul Churchin San Francisco,and he was interred three months later atHoly Cross CemeteryinColma, California.His son also died that year, on August 6, at age 57. Legacy At his death,The New York Timescalled DiMaggio's 1941 56-game hitting streak \"perhaps the most enduring record in sports.\" According to American geneticistMary-Claire King, in the spring of 1981 DiMaggio babysat her daughter at the San Francisco airport so King could drop her mother off to her flight to Chicago. According to King, if it were not for DiMaggio's kindness, she would have almost certainly missed her own flight that was taking her and her daughter to Washington, D.C., a trip that eventually resulted in King's getting her first major grant from theNational Institutes of Healthand the discovery of the breast and ovarian cancer-causing geneBRCA1. On September 17, 1992, the doors were opened at Joe DiMaggio Children's Hospital at Memorial Regional Hospital in Hollywood, Florida, for which he raised over $4 million. On April 13, 1998, DiMaggio was given the Sports Legend Award at the 13th annualAmerican Sportscasters AssociationHall of Fame Awards Dinner in New York City. Henry Kissinger, former Secretary of State and a longtime fan of DiMaggio, made the presentation to the Yankee great. The event was one of DiMaggio's last public appearances before taking ill. Yankee Stadium's fifth monument was dedicated to DiMaggio on April 25, 1999, and theWest Side Highwaywas officially renamed The Joe DiMaggio Highway in his honor. The Yankees wore DiMaggio's number 5 on the left sleeves of their uniforms for the 1999 season. He is ranked No. 11 onThe Sporting News'list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and he was elected by fans to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Team. In addition to his number 5 being retired by theNew York Yankees, DiMaggio's number was also retired by theFlorida Marlins, who retired it in honor of their first team president,Carl Barger, who died five months before the team took the field for the first time in 1993. DiMaggio had been his favorite player. In 2000 after some negotiations,the heirs of Joe DiMaggio's estate, two granddaughters and their four children, welcomed the renaming of San Francisco's North Beach playground, the place where Joe DiMaggio first took up baseball as a boy, as the Joe DiMaggio North Beach Playground. In 2001, Major League Baseball introduced an onlinedaily fantasygame called \"Beat the Streak\" which required players to pick one or two MLB players to get a hit in a game that day. The goal was to pick correctly 57 times in a row to beat DiMaggio's record streak. As of August 2021, the prize money for beating the streak was $5.6 million; more than 4.5 million players had combined to make over 100 million attempts but none had reached even 52 consecutive hits in the game's history. In May 2006, the adopted daughters of DiMaggio's son held an auction of DiMaggio's personal items. Highlights included the ball he hit in breakingWee Willie Keeler's hitting-streak record ($63,250); his 2,000th career hit ball ($29,900); his 1947 Most Valuable Player Award ($281,750); the uniform worn in the 1951 World Series ($195,500); his Hall of Fame ring ($69,000); a photograph Marilyn autographed \"I love you Joe\" ($80,500); her passport ($115,000); and their marriage certificate ($23,000). Lot 758, DiMaggio's white 1991Mercedes 420 SEL sedan, which was a gift from the New York Yankees commemorating the 50th anniversary of DiMaggio's 1941 season, sold for $18,000. The event netted a total of $4.1 million. On August 8, 2011, theUnited States Postal Serviceannounced that an image of DiMaggio would appear on a stamp for the first time. It was issued as part of the \"Major League Baseball All-Star Stamp Series,\" which came out in July 2012. DiMaggio insisted on being introduced as the \"Greatest Living Ballplayer\" at events, including Yankee Old-Timers Day, and he once punchedBilly Crystalin the stomach for not introducing him as such. In 2013, theBob Feller Act of Valor Awardhonored DiMaggio as one of 37 Baseball Hall of Fame members for his service in the United States Army Air Force during World War II. The Joe DiMaggio Fields in his hometown ofMartinez, California, are named after him. There is a Joe DiMaggio Street inSan Antonio, Texas. Career statistics DiMaggio played in 10 World Series, winning 9. His only loss was in the1942 World Series. He batted .271 (54–199), with 27 runs scored, 8 home runs, and 30 RBI in 51 post-season games. In popular culture An American icon, DiMaggio's popularity during his career was such that he was referenced in film, television, literature, art, and music both during his career and decades after he retired. Art Cartoons, comics and graphic novels Literature Music Movies TV movies Theatre Television See also References Works cited Further reading External links"
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"Softball Softballis a popularvariation of baseball, the difference being that it is played with a larger ball, on a smaller field, and with only underhand pitches (where the ball is released while the hand is primarily below the ball) permitted. Softball is played competitively at club levels, the college level, and theprofessional level. The game was first created in 1887 inChicagobyGeorge Hancock. There are two rule sets for softball generally:slow-pitch softballandfastpitch. Slow-pitch softball is commonly played recreationally, while women's fastpitch softball was aSummer Olympic sportand can beplayed professionally. Softball was not included in the2024 Summer Olympicsbut will return for the2028 Summer Olympics. Depending on the variety being played and the age and gender of the players, the particulars of the field and equipment will also vary. While distances between bases of 60 feet are standard across varieties, the pitcher's plate ranges from 35 to 43 feet away from home plate, and the home run fence",
"the home run fence can be 220 to 300 feet away from home plate.The ball itself is typically 11 or 12 inches (28 or 30 centimetres) in circumference, though this also depends on specifics of the competition. Softball rules vary in certain aspects from those of baseball. The game moves at a faster pace than traditional baseball due to the field being smaller and the bases and the fielders being closer to home plate. Softball is pitched underhand from flat ground, whereas baseball is pitched overhand on what they call a 'mound'. A baseball mound is typically a pile of dirt with a rectangular pitching rubber on top, where the pitcher will then throw overhand and downward to the batter. History The earliest known softball game was played inChicago, Illinois, onThanksgivingDay, 1887. It took place at the Farragut Boat Club at a gathering to hear the outcome of theYale UniversityandHarvard Universityfootballgame.When the score was announced and bets were settled, a Yale alumnus threw a boxing glove at a Harvard",
"glove at a Harvard supporter. The Harvard fan grabbed a stick and swung at the rolled-up glove.George Hancock, a reporter there, called out \"Play ball!\" and the game began, with the boxing glove tightened into a ball, a broom handle serving as a bat. This first contest ended with a score of 41–40.The ball, being soft, was fielded barehanded. Hancock is credited as the game's inventor for his development of a 17-inch ball and an undersized bat in the next week. The Farragut Club soon set rules for the game, which spread quickly to outsiders. Envisioned as a way forbaseballplayers to maintain their skills during the winter, the sport was called \"Indoor Baseball\".Under the name of \"Indoor-Outdoor,\" the game moved outside in the next year, and the first rules were published in 1889. In 1895 Lewis Rober Sr. ofMinneapolisorganized outdoor games as exercise forfirefighters;this game was known as kitten ball (after the first team to play it), lemon ball, or diamond ball.Rober's version of the game used a ball 12",
"game used a ball 12 inches (30 cm) in circumference, rather than the 16-inch (41 cm) ball used by the Farragut club, and eventually the Minneapolis ball prevailed, although the dimensions of the Minneapolis diamond were passed over in favor of the dimensions of the Chicago one. Rober may not have been familiar with the Farragut Club rules.Fire Station No. 19in Minneapolis, Rober's post from 1896 to 1906, was listed on theNational Register of Historic Placesin part for its association with the sport's development.The first softball league outside the United States was organized inToronto, Ontario, in 1897. The name \"softball\" dates back to 1926. The name was coined by Walter Hakanson of theYMCAat a meeting of the National Recreation Congress.(In addition to \"indoor baseball\", \"kitten ball\", and \"diamond ball\", names for the game included \"mush ball\", and \"pumpkin ball\".) The name softball had spread across the United States by 1930.By the 1930s, similar sports with different rules and names were being played",
"were being played all over the United States andCanada. A tournament held in 1933 at theChicago World's Fairspurred interest in the game. By 1936, theJoint Rules Committee on Softballhad standardized the rules and naming throughout the United States. Sixteen-inch softball, also sometimes referred to as \"mush ball\" or \"super-slow pitch\" and is a direct descendant of Hancock's original game. Defensive players are not allowed to wear fielding gloves. Sixteen-inch softball is played extensively in Chicago,where devotees such as newspaper columnistMike Roykoconsider it the \"real\" game,and New Orleans. In New Orleans, sixteen-inch softball is called \"Cabbage Ball\" or \"batter ball\" and is a popular team sport in area elementary and high schools. The first cork-centered softball was created inHamilton, Ontario, Canada, byEmil \"Pops\" Kenesky. By the 1940s, fast pitch began to dominate the game. Although slow pitch was present at the1933 World's Fair, the main course of action taken was to lengthen the pitching",
"the pitching distance. Slow pitch achieved formal recognition in 1953 when it was added to the program of theAmateur Softball Association, and within a decade had surpassed fast pitch in popularity. The first British women's softball league was established in 1953. TheNational Softball Hall of Fame and Museumwas opened inOklahoma City, United States, in 1957. In 1991, women's fast pitch softball was selected to debut at the1996 Summer Olympics.The 1996 Olympics also marked a key era in the introduction of technology in softball. The IOC funded a landmark bio-mechanical study on pitching during the games. In 2002, sixteen-inch slow pitch was written out of theInternational Softball Federation(ISF) official rules, although it is still played extensively in the United States underThe Amateur Softball Association of America, or ASA rules. The117th meetingof theInternational Olympic Committee, held inSingaporein July 2005, voted to drop softball andbaseballasOlympic sportsfor the2012 Summer Olympics.They were",
"Olympics.They were reinstated for the2020 Summer Olympicsheld in 2021. Other sanctioning bodies of softball are AAU, NSA, PONY,Babe Ruth League,ASA, ISC,USSSAand Triple Crown. Overview Fastpitch softball is played between two teams on a large field, with nine players (in 10u and above; 8u and below is usually played with ten players on a field at once) from one team on the field at a time. Slow-pitch softball is played with ten fielders but can be played with nine if needed. The softball field is usually composed of a dirt or brick dustinfieldthat contains the shape and running areas of a diamond and a grassoutfield. However, the field can consist of other solid and dry surfaces such as artificial turf or asphalt. There are fourbaseson the infield:First base,second base,third base, andhome plate. The bases are arranged in a square and are typically 60 feet (18 m) apart. Near the center of this square is thepitcher's circle, and within the circle is the \"rubber\", a small flat rectangular plate a foot and a",
"plate a foot and a half in length. The rubber distance from the plate in fastpitch can be as short as 35 feet for 10u players up to 43 feet for ages 14 and older.In slow pitch softball, the rubber distance can be 43, 46 or 50 feet depending on age level and the league one is playing in. The object of the game is to score moreruns(points) than the other team bybatting(hitting) a ball into play and running around the bases, touching each one in succession. The ball is a sphere of light material, covered with leather or synthetic material. It is 11 to 12 inches (28–30 cm) (or, rarely, 16 in or 41 cm) in circumference. The game is officiated by one or more neutralumpires. Players and umpires are generally free to ask for a brief stoppage at any time when the ball is not in play (called a time out), or immediately following a play once its outcome is clear. The game is played in usually seveninnings. Each inning is divided into atop half, in which the away team bats and tries to score runs, while the home team",
"while the home team occupies the field and tries to record threeouts; then abottom half, when the teams' roles are reversed. Some leagues play with a reduced number of innings or with a time limit, rather than the traditional seven innings. To start play, the offense sends abattertohome plate. Thebatting ordermust be fixed at the start of the game, and players may not bat out of turn. The defense'spitcherstands atop the rubber andpitchesthe ball towards home plate using an underhand motion. In fast pitch, the pitcher is allowed to take one step back prior to releasing the ball during the forward movement. The batter attempts to hit the pitched ball with abat, a long, round, smooth stick made ofwood,metalorcomposite. If the pitcher throws threestrikesagainst a batter, then the batter is out and the next batter in the order comes up to bat. A strike is recorded any time a batter swings at and misses a pitch or when a batter hits a ballfoul(out of play). A strike is also recorded any time the batter does not",
"the batter does not swing at apitchthat crosses home plate within an area known as thestrike zone. In fast pitch, to be within the strike zone, the pitch must cross over home plate, and as it crosses it must be above the knees and slightly below the shoulders (roughly the armpit or the shirt logo). The strike zone therefore varies from batter to batter. In slow pitch, the ball must land on a carpet or marked area behind the plate, therefore standardizing the strike zone. A pitch outside the strike zone is aball. If the batter reaches four balls, the batter is awarded the first base in what is known as a \"walk\". The umpire behind home plate is the sole arbiter of balls and strikes. A foul ball may or may not result in a strikeout dependent upon what association and local league rules. However,buntinga foul ball does result in a strikeout. In some associations and leagues, bunting is not allowed and results in an out. Also, if a player has two strikes, swinging and partially hitting the ball can result in an",
"can result in an out if the catcher manages to catch the tipped ball. The batter attempts to swing the bat and hit the ballfair(into the field of play). After a successful hit the batter becomes abase runner(or runner) and must run to first base. The defense attempts tofieldthe ball and may throw the ball freely between players, so one player can field the ball while another moves to a position to put out the runner. The defense cantagthe runner, by touching the runner with the ball while the runner is not on a base. The defense can also touch first base while in possession of the ball; in this case it is sufficient to beat the batter to first base and an actual tag of the batter is unnecessary. A runner is said to be \"thrown out\" when the play involves two or more defensive players. Runners generally cannot be put out when touching a base, but only one runner may occupy a base at any time and runners may not pass each other. When a ball is batted into play, runners generally must attempt to advance if there",
"to advance if there are no open bases behind them; for example, a runner on first base must run to second base if the batter puts the ball in play. In such a situation, the defense can throw to the base that the lead runner is attempting to take (aforce out), and the defense can then also throw to the previous base. This can result in a multiple-out play: adouble playis two outs, while atriple play, a very rare occurrence, is three outs. Runners with an open base behind them are not forced to advance and do so at their own risk; the defense must tag such runners directly to put them out rather than tagging the base. A ball hit in the air and caught before hitting the ground, in fair or foul territory, puts the batter out. A fly ball is a ball hit high and deep, apop flyis a ball hit high but short, and aline driveis a ball hit close to the horizontal. After the catch, runners must return to their original bases; if the defense throws the ball to that base before the runner returns, the runner is out as well,",
"is out as well, resulting in a double play. A runner who remains on the base until the ball is touched, or returns to the base (tags up) after the catch, may try to advance to the next base, at the risk of being tagged out between bases. As in baseball, theinfield fly ruleapplies in some game situations to prevent the defense from recording multiple force outs by deliberately dropping an easy catch. Offensive strategy is mostly just to hit the ball skillfully to let the batter reach base and advance other runners around the bases to score runs. The count of balls and strikes indicates how aggressive the batter should be. The offense may try tosacrifice, with the batter deliberately making an out in order to advance runners. Defensive strategy is more complex, as particular situations (number of outs and positions of base-runners) and particular batters call for different positioning of fielders and different tactical decisions. The defense may decide to allow a run if it can achieve one or multiple outs.",
"or multiple outs. Playing field The playing field is divided intofair territoryandfoul territory. Fair territory is further divided into theinfield, and theoutfield. The field is defined byfoul linesthat meet at a right angle athome plate. The minimum length of the baselines varies classification of play (see below for official measurements). A fence running between the baselines defines the limits of the field; distance from home plate to the fence varies by field. The widest part of the field is the distance between thefoul poles, which are erected where the foul lines meet the fence and are about 310 to 420 feet (94 to 128 m) apart depending on the length of the foul lines. Home plate is one corner of a diamond withbasesat each corner. The bases are cushions 15 inches (38 cm) square, of canvas or a similar material, and not more than 5 inches (13 cm) thick. The bases are usually securely fastened to the ground. The bases are numbered counterclockwise as first base, second base, and third base. Often, but",
"base. Often, but not always, outside first base (that is, in foul territory) and adjacent and connected to it, there is a contrast-colored \"double base\" or \"safety base\" intended to prevent collisions between the first baseman and the runner. The runner runs for the foul portion of the double base after hitting the ball while the fielding team tries to throw the ball to the fair portion before the runner reaches the safety base. However, not all softball diamonds have these safety bases and they are much more common in women's softball than in men's. The double base is required in theU-18 Women's Softball World Cup. The infield consists of the diamond and the adjacent space in which the infielders (see below) normally play. The outfield is the remaining space between the baselines and between the outfield fence and the infield. The infield is usually \"skinned\" (dirt), while the outfield has grass in regulation competitions. Near the center of the diamond is the pitching plate, or colloquially \"rubber\". In",
"\"rubber\". In fastpitch, a circle 16 feet (4.9 meters) in diameter known as thepitching circleis marked around the pitching plate. A field is officially required to have a warning track between 15 and 12 feet (4.6 and 3.7 meters) from the outfield fence. However, if the game is being played on a field larger than required, no warning track is required before the temporary outfield fencing. Located in foul territory outside both baselines are two coach's boxes. Each box is behind a line 15 feet (4.6 meters) long located 12 feet (3.7 meters) from each baseline. Official baseline dimensions Pitching distances Equipment Equipment required in softball includes a ball, a bat (composite, metal or wooden), gloves, uniforms and protective gear. For example, helmets for the offensive team and a helmet, shin guards, and chest protector for the defensive catcher. Also cleats, sliding shorts, face masks and knee sliders may be worn for softball. Ball Despite the sport's name, the ball is not actually soft, though it does",
"though it does have a lower density and greatercoefficient of restitutionthan a baseball. The size of the ball varies according to the variety played and age of the participants. The circumference for fastpitch for adults is12±0.125 in(30.5±0.3 cm), with a mass between 6.25 and 7.0 oz (177 and 198 g), while children under 12 use a ball with a circumference of11±0.125 in(27.9±0.3 cm) with a mass between 5.875 and 6.125 oz (166.6 and 173.6 g). A 12-inch circumference ball is generally used in slow pitch. (For comparison, a baseball is9 to9+1⁄4inches (229–235 mm) in circumference and has a mass between5 and5+1⁄4ounces (142–149 g).) The ball is covered in two pieces of leather or similar synthetic covering that are roughly the shape of a figure-8 and sewn together along a continuous seam. The core of the ball may be made of long fiberkapok, a mixture ofcorkandrubber, apolyurethanemixture, or another approved material. Before 1993, white balls were standard at all levels of play. In that year, a new, fluorescent",
"a new, fluorescent optic yellow colored ball was first used in college softball.Yellow softballs have become the standard for all levels of play; white balls are also still allowed but are very uncommon today. InChicago, where softball was invented, it remains traditional to playa variant of slow-pitch with a ball 16 inches (41 centimeters) in circumference. The fielders do not wear gloves or mitts.A 16-inch softball when new is rough and hard, with hand and finger injuries to fielders frequent if they do not \"give\" when receiving a ball,but the ball \"breaks in\" slightly during a game and continues to soften over time with continued play. A well-broken-in ball is called a mush ball and is favored for informal \"pick-up\" games and when playing in limited space, such as a city street (because the ball does not go as far). A 16-inch ball is also used for wheelchair softball. Bat The bat used by the batter can be made of wood, aluminum, or composite materials such as carbon fiber. Sizes may vary but they may be",
"but they may be no more than 34 inches (86 cm) long, 2.4 inches (6 cm) in diameter, or 38 ounces (1.1 kg) in mass.The standard barrel diameter for both slow pitch and fast pitch softball bats is2+1⁄4inches.Many players prefer a smaller barrel, which reduces mass and allows higher swing speed. Although there are a variety of bats used, there are several that are banned due to performance enhancement. For example, with a thinner wall, the ball recoils faster off the bat, allowing it to travel further. Many bats may be \"doctored\" or \"juiced\" by being end loaded, shaved, or painted. End loading of a cap refers to the addition of weight manually placed at the end of the barrel to distribute more weight at the tip. Shaving bats require machine use in order to remove the inner walls of the bat to improve elasticity.Lastly, illegal bats may be painted to resemble legal ones. Gloves All defensive players wear fielding gloves, made of leather or similar material. Gloves have webbing between the thumb and forefinger,",
"and forefinger, known as the \"pocket\".Gloves used in softball are typically larger than the ones used in baseball to account for the larger ball. No glove larger than 14 in (36 cm) can be used in ASA (American Softball Association) sanctioned play. While extremely rare in recreational play, there are sometimes different size gloves for different positions on the field. Catchers and first baseman have what is called a mitt, whose pockets are larger than other gloves. These are more padded.An outfielder's glove is smaller than the catcher's, typically 12 inches to 13 inches for fast pitch softball or 12 to 15 inches for slow pitch.An infielder's glove is the smallest, typically from 11.5 inches to 13 inches.A pitcher's glove is typically 11.5 to 12.5 inches for fast pitch or 11.5 to 13 inches for slow pitch. No part of the glove is allowed to be the same color as that of the ball, including that of its seams. Pitchers are also not allowed to have any white on their gloves including the seams. The umpire has",
"The umpire has discretion to determine whether any coloring on the glove interferes with or hinders the batter from seeing the ball clearly. Uniform Each team wears a distinctive uniform. The uniform may include a cap, a shirt displaying team colors and the players' number, sliding undershorts/compression shorts (optional), socks, and pants/athletic shorts. The team is required to have all of its members wear the same uniform. Caps, visors, and headbands are optional for female players, and have to be the same color. Caps are mandatory for male players. A fielder who chooses to wear a helmet or face mask is not required to wear a cap. Many players use \"sliding shorts\", otherwise known as compression shorts in other sports. These can be outfitted with a pouch for fitting aprotective cupfor male players. These shorts also help to protect the upper thigh when sliding into a base. \"Sliders\" may also be worn for similar protection. These are somewhat padded shin guards that extend usually from the ankle to the",
"the ankle to the knee of the wearer and wrap all the way around the leg(s). They protect the shin, calf, etc. from getting bruised or damaged while sliding into home plate and make it much more comfortable toslideinto the plate. Some male players use long, baseball-style pants. However, some female players now wear a shorter version of baseball pants. At the back of the uniform, an Arabic numeral from numbers 0 through 99 must be visible. Numbers such as 02 and 2 are considered identical. Also, on the back of the uniform's players' names are optional. All players are required to wear shoes. They may have cleats or spikes. The spikes must extend less than 0.75 in (19 mm) away from the sole. Rounded metal spikes are illegal, as are ones made from hard plastic or other synthetic materials. High school athletes are sometimes permitted to wear metal cleats, such as in Ohio. Many recreational leagues prohibit the use of metal cleats or spikes to reduce the possible severity of injuries when a runner slides",
"a runner slides feet-first into a fielder. At all youth (under 15) levels, in co-ed (the official terminology for mixed teams) slow pitch, and in modified pitch, metal spikes are usually not allowed. Protective equipment Helmets must be worn by batters and runners. A helmet must have two ear flaps, one on each side. Helmets and cages that are damaged or altered are forbidden. In NCAA fastpitch softball, players have the option to wear a helmet with or without a face mask. Most female travel ball teams for fastpitch softball require the batter to wear a helmet with a face mask. In male fastpitch masks are generally only used for medical reasons. In fastpitch, the catcher must wear a protective helmet with a facemask and throat protector, shin guards and body protector. Shin guards also protect the kneecap.In slow pitch, the catcher must wear a helmet, chest protector and mask at youth levels. At adult levels, there is no formal requirement for the catcher to wear a mask, although the official rules recommend",
"rules recommend it. A catcher may optionally wear a body protector in adult slow pitch. While mandatory for the pitcher in some slow pitch leagues, there is an option to wear a face mask on the field. It is recommended in lower age groups. It must be in proper condition and not damaged, altered, or the like.This is intended to prevent facial injuries. Umpires Decisions about plays are made byumpires. The number of umpires on a given game can range from a minimum of one to a maximum of seven. There is never more than one \"plate umpire\"; there can be up to three \"base umpires\", and up to a further three umpires positioned in the outfield. Most fastpitch games use a crew of two umpires (one plate umpire, one base umpire). Official umpires are often nicknamed \"blue\", because of their uniforms – in many jurisdictions, most significantly ISF, NCAA and USA Softball games, umpires wear navy blue slacks, a light powder blue shirt, and a navy baseball cap. Some umpires wear a variant of the uniform: some umpires in",
"some umpires in USA Softball wear heather gray slacks and may also wear a navy blue or powder blue shirt; umpires from theUSSSAwear red shirts with grey slacks;National Softball Association(NSA) umpires wear an official NSA white-colored umpire shirt with black pants or black shorts; NSA fastpitch umpires wear the white NSA umpires shirt and heather gray slacks. Decisions are usually indicated by both the use of hand signals, and by vocalizing the call. Safe calls are made by signaling with flat hands facing down moving away from each other, and a verbal call of \"safe\". Out calls are made by raising the right hand in a clenched fist, with a verbal call of \"out\". Strikes are called by the plate umpire, who uses the same motion as the out call with a verbal call of \"strike\". Balls are only called verbally, with no hand gesture. The umpire also has the option of not saying anything on a ball. It is understood that when he stands up, the pitch was not a strike.Foul ballsare called by extending both arms up in",
"both arms up in the air with a verbal call of \"foul ball\", while fair balls are indicated only by pointing towards fair territory with no verbal call. No signal is given for balls that are obviously foul; for closer calls that are not borderline a signal is given. All decisions made by the umpire(s) are considered to be final. Only decisions where a rule might have been misinterpreted are considered to be protest able. At some tournaments there might be a rules interpreter or Tournament Chief Umpire (TCU) (also known as the Umpire In Chief, or UIC) available to pass judgment on such protests, but it is usually up to the league or association involved to decide if the protest would be upheld. Protests are never allowed on what are considered \"judgment calls\" – balls, strikes, and fouls. As of the 2021–22 academic year, a coach of an NCAA team is allowed to protest a call made by the umpire through what is called “video review” during the game. The opposing team only has until the next pitch to initiate the",
"to initiate the protest, and they are only allowed two a game. Gameplay A softball game can last anywhere from 3 to 7innings, or 1–2 hours depending on the league, rules, and type of softball.The teams take turns batting. Officially, which team bats first is decided by a coin toss,although a league may decide otherwise at its discretion. The most common rule is that the home team bats second. Batting second is also called \"last at-bat\". Many softball players prefer to bat second because they feel they have more control in the last inning, since they have the last at-bat. In the event of a tie, extra innings are usually played until the tie is broken except in certain tournaments and championships. If the home team is leading and the road team has just finished its half of the seventh inning, the game ends because it is not necessary for the home team to bat again. In all forms of softball, the defensive team is thefielding team; the offensive team isat batorbattingand is trying to score runs. Pitching Play",
"runs. Pitching Play often, but not always, begins with the umpire saying, \"play ball\". After the batter is ready and all fielders (except the catcher) are in fair territory at their respective positions, the pitcher stands at the pitching plate and attempts to throw the ball past the batter to the catcher behind home plate. The throw, or pitch, must be made with an underhand motion. The pitcher throws the ball in or around the \"strike zone\". However, in advanced play pitcher and catcher play a psychological game trying to get the batter to guess where the next pitch is going and if it will be a strike. In other instances, such as when an extremely powerful hitter comes up to bat and they are followed by a weaker hitter, a pitcher may deliberately walk the first batter based on the calculation that the next batter will be an easy out. The strike zone is slightly different in different forms of softball. A pitch that passes through that zone is a \"strike\". A pitch at which the batter swings is also a strike,",
"is also a strike, as is any hit ball that lands in foul territory that is not caught out. A pitch that is not a strike and at which the batter does not swing is known as a \"ball\". The number of balls and strikes is called the \"count\". The number of balls is always given first, as 2 and 1, 2 and 2, and so on. A count of 3 and 2 is a \"full count\" since the next ball or strike will end the batter's turn at the plate unless the ball goes foul. Slow pitch In most versions of slow pitch (including 16-inch) the pitch is lobbed so that the ball rises above the batter's head and lands on a small rectangular area on the ground behind the plate called \"the well\". Umpires will make calls based on where the ball lands behind the plate; a pitch landing in the well is a strike. These restrictions make it much easier to put the ball into play and extremely difficult to use pitching as a defensive strategy, as the physics ofprojectile motionlimit how fast a ball can be thrown under such conditions and still be called a",
"still be called a strike. In other varieties of slow pitch (sometimes known as \"modified\"), the only restriction is that the windmill cannot be used; thus the pitching arm cannot be raised above the shoulder and both the wind-up and the release must be underhand, still allowing for moderate speed and control in pitching. Fastpitch For fastpitch softball, the traditional pitching style is a \"windmill\" motion, extending the arm above the body and releasing the ball at about hip level at maximum speeds. Strength acquired in the underhand windmill motion is based on the open-to-close hip motion. Pitches may reach high speeds. In women's fastpitch, depending on the age group, pitchers can throw from 30 to 65 mph (48 to 105 km/h) or more. The fastest pitch ever recorded was at 77 mph (124 km/h) by Monica Abbott on June 16, 2012.At the1996 Summer Olympicsone pitch reached 73.3 mph (118.0 km/h).Male pitching can reach speeds around 85 mph (137 km/h). To compare, MLB players average around 90 mph (140 km/h) but can",
"(140 km/h) but can reach speeds up to 100 mph (160 km/h).Although slower than baseball pitches, the shorter pitching distance in fastpitch results in batters having a comparable time to react to a pitch as in baseball. Throwing fastballs for speed is not always the most important factor in fastpitch softball. Pitchers can throw breaking balls that move late in their flight, fooling batters into swinging at pitches outside the strike zone or, conversely, not swinging at pitches that pass through the strike zone. These include balls that break inwards (screwball) and outwards (curveball) on right-handed batters, starting off the plate and moving into the strike zone or starting towards the strike zone and moving off the plate. There are also rise balls that break upwards, frequently starting in the strike zone and ending above it, and drop balls that break downward. Another common pitch is the change-up, an intentionally slow pitch that initially appears to be a fastball, causing the batter to swing too early",
"to swing too early and miss or foul off the pitch. Rarer is the knuckleball, which moves slowly and erratically. Pitchers use deception as a primary tactic for getting batters out as the reaction times are approximately half a second or less. At higher levels of play, pitchers aim for the inner and outer corners of the plate when throwing fastballs and breaking pitches. Pitchers also vary the location of the pitch by height to make hitting the ball even harder for the batter. Pitchers also throw knuckleballs which are generally slower and move erratically. A \"crow hop\" is an illegal pitch that occurs when the pitcher pushes with the pivot foot from somewhere other than the pitching plate. This often involves jumping from the pitching plate and replanting somewhere in front of the pitching plate. For an illegal pitch, the umpire extends his left arm straight out to the side and clenches his fist. This results in a ball being awarded to the batter, and any runners on base advancing to the next base. If the",
"next base. If the batter swings at the pitch that is deemed illegal and puts the ball in play, the offense is given the option to accept the results of the play or accept the penalty listed previously (exception: if the play results in the batter and any runners all advancing at least one base, the play stands and no option is given). The image to the right demonstrates a legal pitch as the push-off foot has not left the ground. The ball must be released simultaneously with the lead leg step. Batters The offensive team sends one \"batter\" at a time to home plate to use the bat to try to hit the pitch forward into fair territory. The order the players bat in, known as the \"batting order\", must stay the same throughout the game. Substitutes and replacements must bat in the same position as the player they are replacing. In co-ed, male and female batters must alternate. The batter stands facing the pitcher inside a \"batter's box\" (there is one on each side of the plate to compensate for either right- or",
"either right- or left-handed batters). The bat is held with both hands, over the shoulder, and away from the pitcher (90-degree angle). The ball is usually hit with a full swinging motion in which the bat may move through more than 360 degrees. The batter usually steps forward with the front foot, the body weight shifts forward, as the batter simultaneously swings the bat. Abuntis another form of batting. There are different types, including asacrifice bunt, orslap bunt. There is also regular slapping in which a batter takes position on the left side of the plate and usually stands in the back of the box, but it is possible form anywhere. The batter takes a step back with their leading foot as the pitcher is in the middle of the windup, crosses over with their back foot and runs toward first base while they swing. There are many different types of slapping and they all vary depending on the batter and their strengths. There are half swing slaps, fake slaps, and full swing slaps. Each type of slap has a",
"type of slap has a different purpose or goal. No matter what way the batter hits the ball, theymustbe inside the batter's box when the bat makes contact with the ball. If the batter steps out of the box while swinging, the batter is out. Once the ball is hit into fair territory, the runner must try to advance to first base or beyond. While running to first base, the batter is a \"batter-runner\". When she safely reaches first (see below) she becomes a \"base-runner\" or \"runner\". A batted ball hit high in the air is a \"fly ball\". A fly ball hit upward at an angle greater than 45 degrees is a \"pop fly\". A batted ball driven in the air through the infield at a height at which an infielder could play it if in the right position is a \"line drive\". A batted ball which hits the ground within the diamond is a \"ground ball\". If a batted ball hits a player or a base, it is considered to have hit the ground. A batter can also advance to first if hit by the pitch. If a batter is hit by the pitch it is a dead ball and she",
"a dead ball and she is rewarded first base. She must make an attempt to get out of the way and it is the umpire's judgmental call whether the batter attempted to move. If he feels the batter could have moved and avoided getting hit he or she will not reward the batter first base and the pitch will be recorded as a ball. Getting the batter out The batter is out if: the batter accrues three strikes (a \"strikeout\"); a ball hit by the batter is caught before touching the ground (a \"flyout\"); the batter goes to a base that is already tagged (\"tagged\" or \"tag play\"); a fielder holding the ball touches a base which is the only base towards which the batter may run before the batter arrives there (a \"force out\" or \"force play\"); or in certain special circumstances. There is also a not so common occurrence when the batter has two strikes and swings at strike three. If the catcher does not catch the ball, the batter has the chance to run to first base and the catcher can throw the batter out at first base. Advancing",
"base. Advancing around the bases If the player hits the ball and advances to a base without a fielding error or an out being recorded, then that is called a \"base hit\". The bases must be reached in order counterclockwise, starting with first base. After hitting the ball the batter may advance as many bases as possible. An advance to first base on the one hit is a \"single\", to second base is a \"double\", to third base is a \"triple\", and to home plate is a \"home run\". Home runs are usually scored by hitting the ball over the outfield fence, but may be scored on a hit which does not go over the fence. A home run includes any ball that bounces off a fielder and goes over the fence in fair-territory (depending upon association and local league rules) or that hits the foul pole. If a batted ball bounces off a fielder (in fair territory) and goes over the fence in foul territory, or if it goes over the fence at a location that is closer than the official distance, the batter is awarded a double instead. If a runner",
"If a runner becomes entitled to the base where another runner is standing, the latter runner must advance to the next base. For example, if a player hits the ball and there is a runner on first, the runner on first must try to advance to second because the batter-runner is entitled to first base. If the batter reaches first base without being put out, then that player can then be forced to run towards second base the next time a ball is driven into fair territory. That is because the player must vacate first base to allow the next batter to reach it, and consequently can only go to second base, where a force out may be recorded. Runners may advance at risk to be put out: on a hit by another player; after a fly ball has been caught, provided the player was touching a base at the time the ball was first touched or after; or (in fastpitch) automatically, when a pitch is delivered illegally. Runners advance without liability to be put out: when a walk advances another player to the runner's current base; or",
"current base; or automatically in certain special circumstances described below. In the recent years, the NCAA ruleschanged when concerning the batters feet while in the box. The rule now states that as long as any part of the batter's foot is in the box the ball will stay live. It is not until the batter's entire foot is out of the box, that the play will be declared dead and the batter called out. The SEC (college ball), however, claims that if any part of the batter's foot is out of the box when she makes contact, she is out and the play is dead. Special circumstances If there is a \"wild throw\" (or \"overthrow\") in which the ball goes out of the designated play area, each runner is awarded two bases from the last base touched at the time of the throw. Retreating past a made base, negates the advance to that base. If a fielder intentionally carries a ball out of play, two bases are awarded from the time the ball leaves the field of play. If this is unintentional (fielder's momentum), the award is one base.",
"award is one base. If on a tag play, the fielder loses control (after establishing control) of the ball and it leaves the field of play, one base is awarded. If there is a \"wild pitch\" in which the ball goes out of the designated play area, each runner is awarded one base from the base occupied at the time of the pitch. In fastpitch, runners may try to steal bases by running to the next base on the pitch and reaching it before being tagged with the ball. The point at which a runner can steal a base varies. In fastpitch, the runner is allowed to begin stealing a base when the ball is released from the \"windmill\" pitching motion, but until recently, stealing was forbidden in slow pitch because a runner has the opportunity to get a larger head start while the slow pitch is making its way to the batter. As a result of rule changes initiated by the Independent Softball Association which later made its way to the Amateur Softball Association and the International Softball Federation in the 21st century, most",
"21st century, most levels of slow pitch permit stealing bases, provided the runner starts when the ball either touches the ground or crosses the plate. This rule encourages pitchers to be more responsible with the pitch and catchers to play defense, as balls which miss the catcher are now grounds to have stolen bases. No matter what level of play, all baserunners must keep one foot on a base until the pitcher throws the ball or until the ball crosses the front edge of home plate (depends on association). In fastpitch, if the catcher drops strike three (a \"passed ball\") with no less than two outs, the batter can attempt to run to first base if first base is unoccupied. The catcher must then attempt to throw the ball to first base ahead of the runner. If he or she cannot, the runner is safe. With two outs, the batter can attempt to run to first whether or not it is already occupied. Depending on the league in slow pitch only a foul ball with two strikes on the batter means the batter is out. Stealing in",
"is out. Stealing in 16-inch softball is severely restricted, as a runner may only steal the base in front of them if it is open, and if they are thrown at,à lapickoff move or snap throw. This results in many inexperienced players being thrown or doubled off when they attempt to advance on a wild pickoff at another baserunner. Scoring runs A \"run\" is scored when a player has touched all four bases in order, proceeding counterclockwise around them. They need not be touched on the same play; a batter may remain safely on a base while play proceeds and attempt to advance on a later play. A run is not scored if the last out is a force out or occurs during the same play that the runner crosses home plate. For instance, if a runner is on third base prior to a hit, and he or she crosses home plate after an out is made, either on the batter or another runner, the run is not counted. Ending the game The team with the most runs after seven innings wins the game. The last (bottom) half of the seventh inning or any",
"inning or any remaining part of the seventh inning is not played if the team batting second is leading. If the game is tied, play usually continues until a decision is reached, by using the international tie-breaker rules. Starting in the top of first extra inning, the batting team starts with a baserunner on second base, which is the player who is the last available to bat (in other words, the batter who last took their position in the batter's box; regardless whether they were the last out or another runner was put out). In games where one team leads by a large margin, therun ahead rulemay come into play in order to reduce any potential embarrassment of weaker teams. In fastpitch and modified pitch, a margin of 15 runs after 3 innings, 10 after 4, or 7 after 5 is sufficient for the leading team to be declared the winner. In slow pitch, the margin is 20 runs after 4 innings or 15 after 5 innings.In theNCAA, the required margin after 5 innings is 8 runs. The mercy rule takes effect at the end of an inning.",
"end of an inning. Thus, if the team batting first is ahead by enough runs for the rule to come into effect, the team batting second has their half of the inning to narrow the margin. A game may be lost due to a \"forfeit\". A score of 7–0 for the team not at fault is recorded (generally one run is awarded for each inning that would have been played). A forfeit may be called due to any of these circumstances: if a team does not show up to play; if one side refuses to continue play; if a team fails to resume play after a suspension of play ends; if a team uses tactics intended to unfairly delay or hasten the game; if a player removed from the game does not leave within one minute of being instructed to do so; if a player that cannot play enters the game and one pitch has been thrown; if a team does not have, for whatever reason, enough players to continue; or if after warning by the umpire, a player continues to intentionally break the rules of the game. This last rule is rarely enforced as players who break",
"players who break rules after being warned are usually removed. The plate umpire may suspend play because of darkness or anything that puts players or spectators in danger. If four innings have been played and a team is in the lead, the game is recorded as it stands. If fewer than four innings have been played, the game is not considered a \"regulation\" game. Games that are not regulation or are tied when suspended are resumed from the point of suspension. If it is a championship game, it is replayed from the beginning. Team rosters may be changed. Positions There are nine players out on the field at one time in fastpitch softball and ten players in slow-pitch softball. Although the pitcher and catcher have the ball the most, each person has a specific job. In the infield there is the pitcher, catcher, first baseman, second baseman, shortstop, and third baseman. In the outfield there is a left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. In slow-pitch softball there is an extra outfielder in the outfield, who",
"the outfield, who is specified as a roamer or rover. Normally, the defensive team will play with four outfielders, meaning there is a left fielder, left-center fielder, right-center fielder, and right fielder. The recent trend with tournament and league slow pitch softball play is to field five infielders instead of four outfielders. The extra infielder is commonly placed behind the pitcher on either side of second base. Pitcher Thepitcheris the individual who throws the ball from the middle of the diamond. As in baseball, fastpitch softball has a rubber used to control the pitcher's delivery. A pitcher must have both feet on the rubber at the start of their delivery but neither foot is on the rubber when the ball is released. In baseball, the rubber is on a mound of dirt as gravity is used to generate speed. In softball, the pitchers throw from within a circle and the rubber in the circle is not elevated. The circle is also used to control base runners. When the pitcher is in possession of the ball in the",
"of the ball in the circle, a runner who has passed a base must either advance or return to the base. They cannot \"bait\" the pitcher to throw or they will be called out. The pitcher tries to throw the ball in thestrike zone. In order to do that, they start while having the ball in their glove, they throw their arms behind their hips, they shoot forwards with their leg, which is on the same side as their glove, and leave their glove hand there and the other arm goes around the shoulder, bends the elbow, and turns their wrist toward the third baseman, and brings their arm through at the end, flicks their wrist, (which affects the ball's speed, spin and subsequent motion), and brings the arm up, with the hand by their shoulder. They follow through with their legs turning their pitching stance into a fielding stance. They try to release the ball when they go past their hips. In softball, the pitcher uses an underarm motion to pitch the ball towards the strike zone. As soon as the pitcher makes a throw, the",
"makes a throw, the fielders are ready to field balls that are hit in the middle of the diamond.Pitchers usually tend to be tall, very flexible and have good upper body strength. Pitchers can be righthanded or lefthanded. The softball pitcher makes a windmill motion while throwing underhand, unlike baseball pitchers who throw overhand. Catcher Thecatcheris normally behind home plate in asquatted position(some plays may require the catcher to stand at an angle for intentional walks). At the plate the catcher is responsible for catching pitches, keeping mis pitched balls in front of the plate, calling pitches that are normally done through hand signals, picking off runners, and they are considered the leaders of the field. Catchers must know how many outs there are, the number of strikes and balls on the batter so they can relay that to their teammates. They must also know how many runners are on base and where the ball should be thrown next in the following play. Catchers are strong, need to be smart and quick",
"be smart and quick on their feet, and have accurate throws so they can pick runners off at each base. Catchers should be able to have strong and muscular legs to squat for a long period of time. The gear worn by a catcher protects them from balls thrown in the dirt or wild pitches. The catcher is allowed to take off his/her mask to catch a pop fly or to watch the play. First baseman Thefirst basemanis the position to the left side of the diamond when facing home plate. The major role of the first baseman is to receive throws from other defensive players in order to get aforce playat first base. Another role they play is to make fielding plays on all balls hit towards first base. The first baseman is usually involved in every play that occurs on the field. Individuals at first base have quick hands and good reach and are always on the lookout to catch the player off base. They are also generally taller andleft-handed throwing, which gives them an extended reach. First basemen, however, can be both left- and",
"be both left- and right-handed. Just like the catcher, first basemenmay wear specific first base mitts, usually having a longer web allowing them to reach the taller throws over their head. Second baseman Thesecond basemanplays in between the first baseman and second base itself, usually closer to second base. If the ball is hit to the left side of the field, the second baseman covers second base. If the ball is hit to right field or center field, they become the cut-off for the center fielder or the right fielder depending on who the ball was hit to. If the ball is hit to the first baseman, the second baseman then is responsible for covering first. If the ball is hit to the second baseman, they either throw the ball to second if there was already a player on first, or they throw to first if there was nobody on. If there is a runner on first and the person up to bat hits the ball to the shortstop or the third baseman, the second baseman is in charge of covering second to receive the throw from the shortstop",
"from the shortstop or third baseman. Then, depending on where the runner is between home and first, the second baseman makes the decision to throw the ball to first or to hold the ball. Also, in the case of a bunt, the second baseman must cover first as the first baseman runs to get the ball from the bunt, then it is often thrown back to first base. Shortstop Theshortstopfields all balls hit to the infield between the second and third bases. This individual also helps cover second and third bases, is frequently involved inforce playsanddouble plays, and often throws the ball to the catcher to throw out runners at home plate. On steals to second base (when the runner from first is advancing to second on the pitch) the shortstop usually covers. The shortstop does not cover second base only when a right-handed batter is up. In this case, the second baseman covers the steal. Most shortstops are very quick, agile and think fast. Shortstops may play in a restricted zone but are faced with many types of hits and",
"types of hits and interact closely with the second base, third base and home plate. Often double plays are due to quick thinking/reaction by the shortstop. When a ball is hit up the middle and the shortstop catches it, they will flip the ball to the second baseman for the best result. Shortstop also takes the cut off for the left field when the play is at second base. When the ball is hit to the right side of the outfield, the shortstop then covers second base. If there is a runner on first base and there is a hit down the line or in the gap to right field, the shortstop will then go for the cut to third. Meaning the runner that is going from first to second will most likely be advancing to third, and in that case, the shortstop will be the cut off for the throw from right field to third base.Shortstop can be one of the most difficult positions to play due to the number of balls being hit in that direction. Third baseman Thethird basemanis the position on the right side of the diamond when you are facing",
"when you are facing home plate. They are responsible for fielding all balls hit their way including bunts. In fact, the third baseman fields more bunts than a pitcher and first baseman do. Third base is also called the \"Hot Corner\" because the ball can pop off the bat at the fielder very fast. Third baseman must have great reflexes and be very quick on their feet because not only to they need to be quick to field a bunt but also if they are unable to predict whether the batter will bunt or hit, a ball that is hit may be a line drive to the face. It also helps if they can run fast but it is not a requirement. A third baseman must have a very strong arm so that they can throw a runner out from across the diamond. Any ball that the third baseman can get, they should. They will have more momentum towards first base when fielding the ball than a shortstop. They are also closer to first base when they cut off a slower ground ball towards shortstop. Third baseman are responsible for covering third base at all times",
"base at all times unless the ball is hit to them. In that instance, the shortstop is responsible for third base. Third baseman must be smart, have great reflexes, have a strong accurate arm, and be quick with their hands. Outfielders Theoutfieldersare players that cover the grassy area behind the infield. Outfielders are named for their positions in the field relative to home plate. Traditional outfield positions include a left fielder, a center fielder, and a right fielder. Each player has a specific job as being an outfielder. Right fielder The right fielder's position is on the right side of the field, in the opening between the first and second basemen, when looking at the field from behind home plate. The right fielder is part of a group of two other fielders that make up the outfield. The right fielder has a multitude of jobs over the course of a softball game. Generally, outfielders act as a back-up to the infielders when they make plays or if the ball is hit past the infield. Right field has a",
"Right field has a particular job of covering the area behind first base if the ball is to be thrown in that area. Right field is meant to cover this area if the ball gets past the first baseman. This will prevent base-runners from advancing to unwanted bases. Traditionally in the game of softball, the right fielder will have the strongest arm out of the two other outfielders. The right fielder must have the strongest arm because they have the furthest possibility to throw the ball. A right fielder will throw the ball to each base more than the other outfielders will because of their position in respect to the bases. Center fielder The center fielder's position is in the middle of the outfield directly behind second base when looking at the field from behind home plate. The center fielder is part of a group of two other fielders that make up the outfield. Center fielders technically serve as the \"captains\" of the outfield. They are and should be the most vocal in effectively communicating with their",
"with their outfielders. Since the outfielders are further apart from each other, it can be hard to hear each other. The center fielder covers the area behind second base if the ball is going to be thrown in that direction. By covering this area, if the ball does get past the infielder, the center fielder can prevent baserunners from advancing to unwanted bases. Within the game of softball, the center fielder is traditionally the fastest of the three outfielders. The center fielder needs to be the quickest because of the large area of field they must cover. Besides being a quick player, the center fielder must have a strong throwing arm because of the distance between the player and home plate. Left fielder The left fielder's position is on the left side of the outfield behind the third baseman when looking at the field from behind home plate. The left fielder is part of a group of two other fielders that make up the outfield. Generally, outfielders act as a back-up to the infielders when they make plays or",
"they make plays or if the ball is hit past the infield. The left fielder must field their position, but also cover the area behind third base if a ball is thrown or hit in that direction. The left fielder covers this area in the case that the ball will pass the infielders. The left fielder can then prevent the base runner from advancing to unwanted bases. Besides covering certain areas of the field, the left fielder must be the smartest of the outfielders. In the left field position, the player has full view of the field, the players, the baserunners, and the batter. The left fielder must constantly be aware of the situation on the field and know what must be done in different circumstances. More advanced levels require the left fielder to be able to field the ball during \"slap hit\" situations by playing shallow. Left fielders must also play a role in any run-down situation between third base and home plate or back up any plays that happen at third base in case of an overthrow. Designated player In fastpitch",
"player In fastpitch softball, it is common for teams to use a designated player in the lineup; this player, which functions like thedesignated hitterin baseball, hits in place of one of the position players but does not play defense. Unlike a designated hitter, a designated player can also become a temporary defensive substitute, and the player substituted by the designated player can return to their original position at a later point in the game. However, the only player that can be substituted as an offensive replacement (pinch runner or pinch hitter) is the defensive player the designated player originally replaced, known as the \"flex\". At any time, the designated player can be substituted back into the lineup in the place of the flex player, but once taken out, the designated player cannot take the place of any other player in the lineup. Short fielder In some leagues and organizations, four outfield players are utilized by each team. The extra outfielder is sometimes called the short fielder and plays",
"fielder and plays somewhere behind second base, adjusting position based on the handedness or other characteristics of the batter, while the regular center fielder plays a considerably deeper position. The short fielder used as such can take away a batting strategy in softball, which is to hit soft liners over the pitcher. However, some teams prefer to use the fourth outfielder like the others, with the center field position being shared between two players known as the left-center fielder and the right-center fielder. In this case the four outfielders are spaced equidistantly and play at roughly the same depth. Pitch In softball, apitchis the act ofthrowingasoftballtoward home plate to start a play. All pitches are thrown from below the waist in an underhand motion. The phases of throwing include the grip, stance, windup, stride, release and follow through. Pitchersthrow a variety of pitches, each of which has a slightly different velocity, trajectory, movement, hand position, wrist position and/or arm",
"position and/or arm angle. These variations are introduced to confuse the batter in various ways, and ultimately aid the defensive team in getting the batter or baserunners out. To obtain variety, and therefore enhance defensive baseball strategy, the pitcher manipulates the grip on theballat the point of release. Variations in the grip cause the seams to \"catch\" the air differently, thereby changing the trajectory of the ball, making it harder for the batter to hit. The selection of which pitch to use can depend on a wide variety of factors including the type of hitter who is being faced; whether there are any base runners; how many outs have been made in the inning; and the current score. Signaling The responsibility for selecting the type of pitch is traditionally made by thecatcherby relaying hand signals to the pitcher with the fingers. In more advanced play, coaches may give signs to batters and/or runners to initiate special plays in certain situations. A catcher may signal to a position player that",
"player that they will be trying to throw the runner out. A runner on base may see the pitch sign given by the catcher and hint it to the batter using hand or body motions. Pitching styles TheInternational Softball Federation(ISF) recognizes three pitching styles: Fastpitch style The pitching distance can range between 35 feet for younger players and 43 feet for older players. Collegiate and international level pitchers pitch from 43 feet. Pitches can travel at speeds of more than 65 mph (105 km/h). \"Modified\" fastpitch style Slow-pitch style The pitching distance is 50 feet. The pitch must be lofted in such a way that it falls onto the plate in order for it to be a called strike (the ball falls into the strike-zone instead of flying through). Strikeouts are rare in slow-pitch. Pitchers strategize to pitch the ball with a high enough arc that the batter cannot hit a line-drive. The speed of the pitches ranges from 25 to 35 mph (40 to 56 km/h), resulting in plenty of reaction time. Types of pitches Fastballs",
"pitches Fastballs The fastball is typically the first type of pitch a player will learn. Breaking balls Changeups The changeup is the stapleoff-speed pitch, usually thrown to look like a fastball but arriving much slower to the plate. Its reduced speed coupled with its deceptive delivery is meant to confuse the batter's timing. There are a variety of grips and techniques a pitcher may use to deliver a change up such as: Other off-speed pitches Recreational play Types of leagues It is estimated that 14.62 million Americans played at least one game of softball during the spring of 2015.It is played by men and women both recreationally and competitively. Softball is especially popular as a recreational activity for adults. Leagues for such play are often characterized as either \"fun leagues\", in which the outdoor exercise and player camaraderie is more important than the final result, or \"serious leagues\". The distinction is not absolute and there can be gradations within each. Softball teams are often",
"teams are often organized around groups of employees who play in the early evening after work in the summer. In manyUS cities, adult softball teams are organized by bars and clubs, hence the popular term \"beer league\" softball. The teams can be men's, women's or co-ed, and skill levels can range from novice to elite, with league composition reflecting that. These leagues are typically either slow-pitch or modified. Co-ed recreational leagues, where men and women play on the same team, generally have provisions to keep men from dominating the game. League rules may stipulate that there must be an equal number of men and women on the team, or that batting order alternate male and female batters.Some leagues only require three women to play but they must be present on the field at all times. Others will allow a game to proceed when a team does not have the requisite number of women available but charge the batting team with an automatic out whenever the missing woman's place in the batting order comes up.",
"order comes up. Modification of rules One reason for the popularity of softball is the ease of modification of its rules, thereby allowing the game to be adapted to a variety of skill levels. For example, in some slow pitch softball leagues a batter starts at bat with a count of one ball one strike. In some leagues, the number of home runs that can be hit by a team are limited. In other leagues, stealing of bases is prohibited. Some groups allow for a more defensive game by making home plate a force out for first base. This reduces scoring evenly on both sides, and allows for some margin of error. Co-ed leagues sometimes adopt live-play rules intended to reduce gender inequality, under the assumption that men will be generally more powerful. In most co-ed or mixed gender leagues there is something called an encroachment line. This requires the outfielders to stay behind a line till the ball is hit. If an outfielder passes in front of this line before the female batter hits a fair ball, the batter will",
"the batter will receive a single base or the result of the play, and the base runners will advance accordingly. The line will be 180 feet from home plate.One possible rule requires male batters to \"switch hit\".Some leagues even use different balls for male and female batters.While these modified rules are common, there are questions as to their place in modern adult sports. Some leagues require teams to use limited flight softballs. These softballs, when hit, will not go as far as regular softballs. Other leagues limit the number of runs which can be scored in an inning. Five is a common limit. By allowing these and other modifications, softball can be enjoyed by children, teenagers, and adults. Senior leagues with players over the age of 60 are not uncommon. An example of a rule modification is the \"offensive pitcher\" (or \"self pitch\") often found in informal games where the emphasis is on the social rather than the competitive aspects of the game. The pitcher aids the batter by attempting to give the",
"to give the easiest pitch to hit. There are no walks, and a batter is normally given a fixed number of pitches to attempt to hit (usually 3 or 4). The batter is considered to strike out if the batter fails to hit the ball into fair territory after the given number of pitches. The pitcher does not act as a fielder, and a rule is often made that if a batted ball touches the pitcher, the batter is out. In some leagues the number of pitches to walk or strikeout can be reduced. For instance, one strike is an out, and two balls is a walk. This is common in leagues where doubleheaders are played, or in late season leagues when reduced daylight is an issue. It results in shorter games, as players are more apt to swing, even at marginal pitches, rather than risk striking out on one pitch. Many leagues also include a second first base immediately adjacent to the main one. This is usually orange and the batter running through first base is supposed to run straight through it. This minimizes the chances of a collision.",
"of a collision. By the same token some leagues have an alternate home plate and rule that plays at home are always force plays. In these cases there is typically a white line drawn approximately 1/3 of the way down the baseline that is considered a point of no return. This is designed to reduce the \"Pickle\" which can put a great strain on the ankles and knees of older baserunners. Indoor play Despite the fact that it was originally intended to be played indoors, softball is usually played outdoors. The indoor form is sometimes calledArena Softball. Indoor softball has generally the same rules as outdoor softball. Only the wall behind the batter is considered foul territory. The other walls are considered fair. Usually, there is a small area on one of the walls in the outfield that results in a home run being awarded if the batted ball hits it. Pitching is generally a little slower because of the indoor turf, or pitched through a pitching machine at younger levels. There is no limit to the number of batters a",
"number of batters a team may have available, although only so many can bat in one inning. Some indoor facilities do not allow the use of metal cleats on the field, which are what players at the age of 14 and up generally use. Also, some tournaments may require a time limit for games. Professional leagues Women's Professional Fastpitch(WPF) is a professional women's softball league in the United States and was formerly theNational Pro Fastpitch(NPF) and then theWomen's Pro Softball League(WPSL). The WPF league launched in June 2022.In 2024, a new professional league called theAssociation of Fastpitch Professionalslaunched with 4 teams. The late 1970s to early 1980s marked a brief era formen's professional softball in the United States. International competition Softball is played in over a hundred countries around the world.The highestgoverning bodyfor the sport, theInternational Softball Federation(ISF), has 113 member countries (excluding dependent territories).The ISF holds world championships in several",
"in several categories. TheAmateur Softball Associationis the National Governing Body of Softball for theUnited Statespursuant to the 1976 Amateur Sports Act. Due to the popularity of the sport, there are a multitude of governing bodies such as theUnited States Specialty Sports Association,International Softball Congressand theNational Softball Association. The ISF holds theISF Women's World Championshiptournaments in several categories. The tournament in each category is held every four years—two years from 2010. The most recent tournament was XII Women's World Championship in June, 2010. All World Championships use aPage playoff systemand are in fastpitch. There are also several World Cups held at 4-year intervals in different categories. New Zealandbecame the Men's World Champions winning the world title in 2013. Prior to that, Australia won the World Championship in 2009 and New Zealand had won the previous three tournaments before that. In the Junior Men's World Champions in 2012, Team Argentina won the",
"Argentina won the world title. Summer Olympics In theWomen's Softball World Championshipsthe United States is the most dominant team, having won three of the past fourOlympic tournamentsand the past seven World Championships.The current Junior Women's World Champion is the United States. Women's softball debuted at the1996 Summer Olympicsand was removed from the program following the2008 Summer Olympics.Softball and Baseball were unable to have their sport included in the program at the2012and2016 Summer Olympics. In 2012 the heads of theInternational Softball and Baseball Federationsannounced their united effort to be included in the program in 2020. \"The proposal calls for men's baseball and women's softball to be played at a single venue during 7 to 10 days. Each tournament would feature eight teams. Baseball and softball would be two disciplines under a single sports banner. The proposal awaits formal endorsement from the congress of both federations. Other sports which sought to be included in the 2020",
"in the 2020 program, when only one spot is up for filling, were: karate, roller sports, squash, sports climbing, wakeboard and wushu. TheIOC executive boardwere to decide at their May meeting which sport to recommend for inclusion. The final decision was made in a vote of the full IOC in Buenos Aires in September 2013.Softball and Baseball were re-included in the Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo 2020, which was held in 2021.The American team had entered the gold medal match with an undefeated record, facing Japan. United States was defeated 2–0 by Japan, naming Japan the Tokyo 2020 Softball Olympic Gold Medalists. Softball was not included in the2024 Summer Olympicsbut will return for the2028 Summer Olympics. Even though the 2028 Summer Olympics will be held in LA, the softball and baseball events will be held in Oklahoma. Participating countries and areas New Zealand New Zealandis the most successful nation at men's world championship softball, having won their eighth title in 2019. TheNew Zealand women's",
"Zealand women's teamhave also won a number of World Championship titles in the past. The game is widely played in New Zealand and is the second most popular summer sport behindcricket. Australia Softball is played in all states and territories in Australia and at all levels of academic education. The game is widely promoted to maintainfitness, health, personal achievements and pleasure. Australia has produced several of the world's great men's softball players, including Adam Folkard and Andrew Kirkpatrick, widely considered all-time greats in men's softball. Australia has excellent softball teams which are a reflection of its coaching, education and training system. Japan Japan has had a long tradition of softball which is played at all levels in the country. Many high schools and colleges have sports programs which include softball. Like baseball, softball in Japan is intensely competitive. Japan's win over the United States at the 2008 Olympicsreflects the advanced level of play in thisEast Asiancountry.",
"Asiancountry. China Since the silver medal at theAtlanta Olympics, the Chinese have now made softball a priority at all levels. Europe Softball is played in almost every country in Europe, mainly fastpitch. Every two years an open women'sEuropean fastpitch championshipis held with over twenty nationals teams. Italy and Netherlands are the best nations, and both have an almost professional championship where athletes from the US, Australia and China play. In the men's division eight to ten national teams compete for theEuropean championship, with the Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Denmark leading the way. United States In America, there are more than 1,500 college softball teams spanning five different levels: NCAA Division 1, Division 2, Division 3,NAIA, and NJCAA.There are 5 professional softball teams: the Aussie Peppers, the Chicago Bandits, the Cleveland Comets, the California Commotion, and the Canadian Wild. Competitivefastpitch softballfor girls is growing increasingly popular.All over the US,",
"over the US, there are thousands of teams that compete year-round at tournaments. During most of these tournaments the biggest goal is not winning the tournament, but attempting to get as many college coaches as possible to observe (a) particular player or players. Competitive teams are now beginning around eight years old, if not younger. Depending on the team they can travel all over the United States or even out of the country such as to Canada, the summer and fall for many weeks and days at a time. There are many different sanctioning bodies of softball:USSSA, ASA, ISA, NSA, WSL, USFA, Triple Crown and SASL just to name a few. One of the biggest is theAmateur Softball Association(ASA). It is known as the national governing body of softball, was established in 1933 and has over 240,000 teams. The USSSA, founded in 1968 as the United States Slo-Pitch Softball Association, but renamed in 1997 to the United States Specialty Sports Association, is the only association that still has a men's major slow-pitch",
"major slow-pitch program alive. Currently, the USSSA program is run out of Viera, FL. The United States also has a competitive women's softball team that competes in international tournaments. They represented the US each time at the Olympics until softball was removed from the Olympics. The Amateur Softball Association of America (founded 1933) is one of the largest governing bodies for the game in the United States and sponsors annual sectional and World Series championships. Other national and regional governing bodies also exist, including the USSSA. TheWorld Baseball Softball Confederation(WBSC) regulates rules of play in more than 110 countries, including the United States and Canada; before the WBSC was formed in 2013, theInternational Softball Federation(ISF) filled this role. The USA Softball Men's Fast Pitch National Team has won five World Championships (1966, 1968, 1976, 1980 and 1988) and three other medals. In the Pan-American Games, Team USA has made the finals in all seven appearances at the",
"appearances at the Games when Men's Fast Pitch was played. See also References External links",
"Baseball field Abaseball field, also called aball fieldorbaseball diamond, is thefieldupon which the game ofbaseballis played. The term can also be used as ametonymfor abaseball park. The termsandlotis sometimes used, although this usually refers to less organized venues for activities likesandlot ball. Specifications The starting point for much of the action on the field ishome plate(officially \"home base\"), a five-sided slab of white rubber. One side is 17 inches (43 cm) long, the two adjacent sides are 8.5 inches (22 cm). The remaining two sides are approximately 11 inches (30 cm) and set at a right angle. The plate is set into the ground so that its surface is level with the field. The corner of home plate where the two 11-inch sides meet at a right angle is at one corner of a 90-foot (27.43 m) square. The dimensional specifications are technically inconsistent because the angle constraints require that the front be√2times the length of the back, which is not equal to a 17:12 ratio, but a physically built",
"a physically built home plate will have side lengths accurate to a few hundredths of an inch.The other three corners of the square, in counterclockwise order from home plate, are calledfirst,second, andthird base. These bases are marked by canvas or rubber cushions, 18 inches (46 cm)square and 3–5 inches (7.6–12.7 cm) thick. Adjacent to each of the two parallel 8.5-inch sides is a batter's box. All the bases, including home plate, lie entirely within fair territory. Thus, any batted ball that touches those bases must necessarily be ruled a fair ball. While the first and third base bags are placed so that they lie inside the 90-foot square formed by the bases, the second base bag is placed so that its center (unlike first, third and home) coincides exactly with the \"point\" of the ninety-foot square. Thus, although the \"points\" of the bases are 90 feet apart, the physical distance between each successive pair of base markers is closer to 88 feet (26.8 m). Near the center of the square is an artificial hill",
"an artificial hill known as the pitcher's mound, atop which is a white rubber slab known as the pitcher's plate, colloquially the \"rubber\". The specifications for the pitcher's mound are describedbelow. The lines from home plate to first and third bases extend to the nearest fence, stand or other obstruction and are called the foul lines. The portion of the playing field between (and including) the foul lines is fair territory; the rest is \"foul territory\". The area within the square formed by the bases is officially called the infield, though colloquially this term also includes fair territory in the vicinity of the square; fair territory outside the infield is known as the outfield. Most baseball fields are enclosed with a fence that marks the outer edge of the outfield. The fence is usually set at a distance ranging from 300 to 420 feet (90 to 130 m) from home plate. Most professional and college baseball fields have a right and left foul pole which are about 440 to 500 feet (130 to 150 m) apart.These",
"150 m) apart.These poles are at the intersection of the foul lines and the respective ends of the outfield fence and, unless otherwise specified within theground rules, lie in fair territory. Thus, a batted ball that passes over the outfield wall in flight and touches the foul pole is a fair ball and the batter is awarded a home run. Infield A baseball infield is the square area within the four 90-foot baselines (60-foot baselines in Little League Baseball for youths 12 years old and under). The four bases are integral parts of the infield; a ball that touches any part of a base is considered a fair ball. Bases First base First base is the first of the four bases that must be touched by a runner in order to score a run for the batting team. The runner may continue running past first base in a straight line without being in jeopardy of being put out, so long as they make contact with first base and make no move or attempt to advance to second base. The first baseman is the defensive player mainly responsible",
"mainly responsible for the area near first base. A first baseman is often tall.A tall first baseman has a larger range for reaching and catching errant throws. In some youth leagues and adult recreational leagues, a \"double first base\" or \"safety first base\" is used. A double first base is rectangular (rather than square), measuring 30 by 15 inches. It is normally colored white and orange (two 15 by 15 inches squares). It is placed with the white half in fair territory and the orange half in foul territory. The white half is used by the first baseman to make plays while the orange half is used by the runner. This creates a separation between the first baseman and runner, reducing the chance of injury on plays at first base. In thenumbering systemused to record defensive plays, the first baseman is assigned the number 3. Second base Second base is the second of the four bases a runner must touch in order to score a run. Second base is mainly defended by the second baseman and theshortstop. The second baseman",
"The second baseman and shortstop ideally possess quick feet and the ability to release the ball rapidly and accurately. One player will usually cover second base while the other attempts to field the ball. Both players must communicate well to be able to make adouble play. Particular agility is required of the second baseman in double play situations, which usually force the player to throw towards first base while their momentum carries them in the opposite direction. A runner on second base is said to be in \"scoring position\", since there is a higher likelihood of scoring a run from second base on a single. Since second base is the farthest from home plate, it is the most commonlystolen basein baseball. In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the second baseman is assigned the number 4, and the shortstop 6. Third base Third base is the third of the four bases a runner must touch in order to score a run. The third baseman is the defensive player mainly responsible for the area nearest third",
"area nearest third base. A third baseman ideally possesses quick reaction to batted balls and a strong arm to make the long throw to first base. In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the third baseman is assigned the number 5. Like a runner on second base, a runner on third base is said to be in \"scoring position\", since there is a higher likelihood of scoring a run on a single orsacrifice flyprovided that the third and final out is not recorded before they can reach home plate. Home base Home base, usually called \"home plate\", is the final base that a player must touch to score a run. Unlike the other bases, home plate is afive-sidedslab of white rubber that is set at ground level. Backstop In most MLB stadiums, thebackstopis at least 60 feet behind home plate and is composed of a lower solid wall and upper netting that protects spectators behind home plate fromwild pitches,passed balls, andfoul balls. In recreational fields, there is usually a tall chain-link fence that surrounds the",
"that surrounds the infield and the players' bench for player safety. Baselines Baselines are straight lines between two adjacent bases. Physical baselines are not drawn between first and second or second and third bases; the foul lines serve to mark the baseline between home plate and first base, and between third base and home. Running baseline Generally,baserunnersare not required to follow the baseline. A baserunner seeking to advance more than one base typically \"rounds\" the base, following a more circular path. However, a runner's left-right motion is constrained when the defense tries totaghim. At the moment the defense begins the attempt, the baserunner's running baseline is established as a direct line from his current position to the base he is trying for. A runner straying more than three feet (1 m) away from this baseline to avoid a tag may be called out. Running lane Beginning halfway between home and first base, and ending at first base, there is a second chalk line to the right of the foul",
"right of the foul line. This second line and the part of the foul line it runs parallel to, form the running lane that defines the path in which a batter-runner must run as he is advancing to first base. Rule 6.05(k) of theOfficial Baseball Rulesstates that if a batter-runner running to first base runs outside the running lane, and \"in doing so\" interferes with the fielder taking the throw at first, then the batter-runner is automatically out. First base itself is not located in the running lane, but Rule 6.05 lets the batter-runner leave the running lane \"by means of a step, stride or slide in the immediate vicinity of first base\" to step on first base. Playing areas near home plate Batter's box The batter's box is the place where thebatterstands when ready to receive apitchfrom thepitcher. It is usually drawn inchalkon the dirt surroundinghome plate, and the insides of the boxes are watered down before each game. The chalk lines delineating the two foul lines are rarely extended through the batter's boxes.",
"the batter's boxes. However, those lines exist conceptually for the purpose of judging a batted ball fair or foul. In addition, inside edges of the batter's boxes are often not laid-in with chalk. Similarly, though not marked, those lines continue to exist for the purpose of the rules pertaining to the batter's box and the batter's position relative thereto. There are two batter's boxes, one on each side of home plate. The batter's boxes are 4 feet (1.22 m) wide and 6 feet (1.83 m) long. The batter's boxes are centered lengthwise at the center of home plate with the inside line of each batter's box 6 inches (15 cm) from the near edge of home plate. Aright-handedbatter would stand in the batter's box on the right side of home plate from the perspective of the pitcher. A left-handed batter would stand in the batter's box to their left. A batter may only occupy one batter's box at a time and may not legally leave the batter's box after the pitcher has come set or has started their windup. Should the batter wish",
"the batter wish to leave the batter's box once the pitcher has engaged therubber, they must first ask theumpirefortime-out. Time will not be granted if the pitcher has already started their pitching motion. For playing rules relating to the batter's box, see Rules 6.05 and 6.06 of theOfficial Baseball Rules. Catcher's box The catcher's box is an area of the field behind home plate which the catcher occupies to avoid committing a balk when a pitch is thrown. Pitcher's mound In roughly the middle of the square, equidistant between first and third base, and a few feet closer to home plate than to second base, is a low artificial hill called the pitcher's mound. This is where thepitcherstands when throwing thepitch. Atop the mound is a white rubber slab, called the pitcher's plate or pitcher's rubber. It measures 6 inches (15 cm) front-to-back and 2 feet (61 cm) across, the front of which is exactly 60 feet 6 inches (18.44 m) from the rear point of home plate. This peculiar distance was set by the rule makers in",
"the rule makers in 1893, not due to a clerical or surveying error as popular myth has it, but intentionally (further details underHistory). InMajor League Baseball, a regulation mound is 18 feet (5.5 m) in diameter, with the center 59 feet (18 m) from the rear point of home plate, on the line between home plate andsecond base. The front edge of thepitcher's plateorrubberis 18 inches (46 cm) behind the center of the mound, making the front edge's midpoint 60 feet 6 inches from the rear point of home plate. Six inches (15 cm) in front of the pitcher's rubber the mound begins to slope downward. The top of the rubber is to be no higher than ten inches (25 cm) above home plate. From 1903 through 1968, this height limit was set at 15 inches (38 cm), but in reality differed from ballpark to ballpark as the height was considered too difficult to enforce. A higher mound generally favors the pitcher and teams which emphasized pitching, such as theLos Angeles Dodgers, would have a slightly higher mound. With the height",
"With the height advantage, the pitcher gains more leverage and can put more downward velocity on the ball, making it more difficult for the batter to strike the ball squarely with thebat. After 1968, known among baseball historians as \"the year of the pitcher\", the official height of the mound was lowered from 15 inches (38 cm) to 10 inches (25 cm) in an attempt to \"increase the batting\" once again. A pitcher's mound is difficult forgroundskeepersto maintain. Usually before every game it is watered down to keep the dust from spreading. On youth and amateur baseball fields, the mound may be much different from the rule book definition due to erosion and repair attempts. Even in the major leagues, each mound gains its own character, as pitchers are allowed to kick away pieces of dirt in their way, thereby sculpting the mound a bit to their preference. The pitcher may keep arosinbag on the rear of the mound to dry off their hands. Major League Baseball teams are also permittedcleatcleaners on the back of the",
"on the back of the mound. This may be a flat grate-style plate, or simply a hand tool such as a piece of wood used to remove mud and dirt from cleats. These items are allowed to remain on the backside of the mound at the discretion of theumpire, thus reducing the probability that they will affect a live play. Grass line The grass line, where the dirt of the infield ends and the grass of the outfield begins, has no special significance to the rules of the game (except inDouble-AMinor League Baseballwhere all infielders must be on the infield dirt when the pitch is thrown as part of an experimental rule for the 2021 season),but it can influence the outcome of a game. Dirt running paths between the bases (and, at one time and still in some parks, between the pitcher and the catcher) have existed since the beginning of the game, although they were not mentioned in the rule books until around 1950, and their specifications are flexible. In addition to providing a running path, the grass lines act as a visual aid",
"act as a visual aid so that players,umpiresand fans may better judge distance from the center of the diamond. Occasionally the ball may take a tricky bounce off the dirt area or the edge between the dirt and the grass. MultipleWorld Serieschampionships (including 1924, 1960 and 1986) have been decided or heavily influenced by erratic hops ofground balls. Inartificial turfstadiums, infield dirt was originally only placed in three five-sided areas around the bases and in two circles around the pitcher's and batting areas, which are referred to as \"cut outs\". In this configuration, the \"grass line\" is usually designated with a white arc. This setup first appeared at Cincinnati'sRiverfront Stadiumupon its opening in 1970. Among Major League Baseball fields,Rogers Centrewas the last stadium to maintain this type of configuration and was reconfigured with a full dirt infield starting in the 2016 MLB season. In somecollege baseballparks with artificial turf fields, the entire field (along with possibly the",
"with possibly the pitcher's mound) is made up of turf, with parts of the field mainly containing dirt instead merely being clay-colored turf. Outfield Theoutfieldis made from thick grass orartificial turf. It is where theoutfieldersplay. The positions to play in the outfield areleft,center, andright field(named in relation to the batter's position; thus left field is beyond third base and right field is beyond first base). Outfields vary in size and shape depending on the overall size and shape of the playing field. The outfield stretches from the infield to the outfield wall and it contains the warning track. Outfields especially vary from Little League to major league fields. Little League outfields vary more in size than Major League outfields. Outfields often differ from infields in the specific type of grass used, but most major league outfields are grass. Warning track The warning track is the strip of dirt at the edges of the baseball field (especially in front of the home run fence and along the left",
"and along the left and right sides of a field). Because the warning track's color and feel differ from the grass field, a fielder can remain focused on a fly ball near the fence and measure their proximity to the fence while attempting to catch the ball safely. A warning track's width is not specified in the rules. It is generally designed to give about three steps of warning to the highest-level players using the field. Typical widths run from about six feet for Little League fields to about 10–15 feet (3.0–4.6 meters) for college- or professional-level play. A warning track this wide also lets groundskeepers avoid driving maintenance vehicles on the grass. The track can be composed of finely ground rock particles such as cinders, which is why announcerBob Wolffcalled it the \"cinder path\" rather than the \"warning track\". The idea of a warning track originated inYankee Stadium, where an actual running track was built for use in track and field events. When ballpark designers saw how the track helped",
"the track helped fielders, it soon became a feature of every ballpark. Single-minded fielders often crash into a wall trying to make a catch despite the warning track. For this reason, outfield walls are typically padded for extra safety.Wrigley Field's brick wall is covered only by ivy, which is not especially soft. However, there are pads on the walls of the tight left and right field corners in foul ground. Warning-track poweris a derogatory term for a batter who seems to have just enough power to hit the ball to the warning track for an out, but not enough to hit a home run. The term more generally refers to someone or something that is almost but not quite good enough for something. Outfield wall The outfield wall or fence is the outer boundary of the outfield. A ball passing over the wall isdead. If it passes over the wall infair territory, without touching the ground, it is a home run. The official rules do not specify the shape, height, or composition of the wall, or a specific mandatory distance",
"mandatory distance from home plate (though Major League Baseball mandates a minimum distance of 250 feet (76 m) and recommends a minimum distance of 320 feet (98 m) at the foul poles and 400 feet (120 m) at center field). As a result, baseball fields can vary greatly along those lines. The wall has numbers affixed or painted on it that denote the distance from that point on the wall to home plate. In most modern major league ballparks, the wall is made of some hard material (e.g., concrete, plywood, sheet metal) with padding on the field side to protect players who may collide with the wall at high speed while trying to make a play.Chain link fencingmay also be incorporated into the wall in areas where the wall needs to be transparent, e.g., an outfieldbullpen, a spectator area behind the wall, or to protect ascoreboardincorporated into the wall. Many ballparks feature a yellow line denoting the top of the wall to aid umpires in judging whether the ball passed over the wall or if the ball is fair or foul.",
"is fair or foul. Foul poles Foul poles, if present, help umpires judge whether a fly ball hit above the fence line isfoul(out of play) or fair (ahome run). The poles are a vertical extension of the foul lines at the edge of the field of play. The outer edge of the foul lines and foul poles define foul territory. Both the lines and the poles are in fair territory, in contrast to American football and basketball, where the lines marking the playing boundaries are out of bounds. The minimum distance to hit a home run (along either foul line) is set by baseball rules, generally at 325 feet (99 m). Before 1931 (with the exception of a couple months in 1920)the foul lines extended indefinitely; a batter was awarded a home run only if a fly ball out of the field was fair where it landed. Now, a batted ball that leaves the field in flight is judged fair or foul at the point it leaves the field. Thus, such a fly ball passing on the fair side of a foul pole, or hitting a foul pole, is a home run regardless of where",
"regardless of where the ball goes thereafter. Foul poles are typically much higher than the top of the outfield fence or wall, and often have a narrow screen running along the fair side of the pole. This further aids the umpires' judgment, as a ball that bounces off this screen is a home run. It can still be a difficult call, especially in ballparks with no outfield stands behind the poles to provide perspective.Wrigley Fieldis notorious for arguments over long, curving flies down a foul line (most notably in left field) that sail higher than the foul pole. At Major League Baseball fields, foul poles are usually yellow. Those atCiti Fieldare orange. AtPetco Park, there is no foul pole in left field; the pole's function is served by a yellow metal strip along the corner of the Western Metal Supply Co. building. Several parks featuring advertising along the length of the foul pole, with the most prominent example being the advertising fromChick-fil-Aat both Citi Field andMinute Maid Park(serving as apun, with",
"as apun, with \"fowl\" being another term for achicken, the primary meat featured by that restaurant chain). Player preparation and coaching areas Bullpen The bullpen (sometimes referred to as simply \"the 'pen\") is the area where pitchers warm up before entering a game. Depending on the ballpark, it may be situated in foul territory along the baselines or just beyond the outfield fence. Relief pitchers usually wait in the bullpen when they have yet to play in a game, rather than in thedugoutwith the rest of the team. The starting pitcher also makes their final pregame warmups in the bullpen. Managers can call coaches in the bullpen on anin-house telephonefrom the dugout to tell a certain pitcher to begin their warmup tosses. \"Bullpen\" is also usedmetonymicallyto describe a team's collection of relief pitchers. On-deck circles There are two on-deck circles in the field, one for each team, positioned in foul ground between home plate and the respective teams' benches. The on-deck circle is where the next",
"is where the next scheduled batter, or \"on-deck\" batter, warms up while waiting for the current batter to finish their turn. The on-deck circle is either an area composed of bare dirt; a plain circle painted onto artificial turf; or often, especially at the professional level, a mat made from artificial material, with the team or league logo painted onto it. Coach's boxes Thecoach's boxes, located behind first and third base, are where the first and third basecoachesare supposed to stand, although coaches often stand outside the box. This is permissible as long as the coach does not interfere with play and the opposing team does not object (in which case theumpireshall ensure that all coaches on both teams must abide by the boundaries of the coach's boxes). The coach's boxes are marked with chalk or paint. In the early days of baseball, the term \"coacher's box\" was used, as \"coach\" was taken to be a verb. As the term \"coach\" evolved into a noun, the name of the box also changed. History Knickerbocker Rules",
"Knickerbocker Rules The basic layout of the field has been little changed since theKnickerbocker Rulesof the 1840s. Those rules specified the distance from home to second as 42 \"paces\". The dictionary definition of a \"pace\" at the time was 30 inches,yielding base paths of approximately 75 feet; however, if a \"pace\" of three feet was meant then the distance would have been 89 feet. It is not implausible that the early clubs simply stepped off the distance. 30 yards (90 feet) between the bases was first explicitly prescribed by theNABBPConvention of 1857. Through trial and error, 90 feet had been settled upon as the optimal distance. 100 feet would have given too much advantage to the defense, and 80 feet too much to the offense. The original Knickerbocker Rules did not specify the pitching distance explicitly; the 1854 Unified Rules stated \"from Home to pitcher not less than fifteen paces\". By the time major league baseball began in the 1870s, the pitcher was compelled to pitch from within a \"box\" whose front",
"a \"box\" whose front edge was 45 feet (14 m) from the \"point\" of home plate. Although they had to release the ball before crossing the line, as withbowlersincricket, they also had to start their delivery from within the box; they could not run in from the field as bowlers do. Furthermore, the pitcher had to throw underhand. By the 1880s, pitchers had mastered the underhand delivery—in fact, in 1880, there were twoperfect gameswithin a week of each other. Modern history In an attempt to \"increase the batting\", the front edge of the pitcher's box was moved back 5 feet in 1881, to 50 feet (15 m) from home plate. The size of the box was altered over the following few years. Pitchers were allowed to throw overhand starting in 1884, and that tilted the balance of power again. In 1887, the box was set at 4 feet (1.2 m) wide and 5.5 feet (1.7 m) deep, with the front edge still 50 feet from the plate. However, the pitcher was compelled to deliver the ball with their back foot at the 55.5-foot (16.9 m) line of the box,",
"m) line of the box, thus somewhat restricting their ability to \"power\" the ball with their overhand delivery.: 96 In 1893, the box was replaced by the pitcher's plate, although \"the box\" is still used today as a slang term for the pitcher's location on the field. Exactly 5 feet was added to the point the pitcher had to toe, again \"to increase the batting\" (and hopefully to increase attendance, as fan interest had flagged somewhat), resulting in the seemingly peculiar pitching distance of 60.5 feet (18.44 m).: 230 Some sources suggest that the pitching distance evolved from 45 to 50 to 60.5 feet. However, the first two were the \"release point\" and the third is the \"pushoff point.\" The 1893 rule change added only 5 feet to the release point, not 10.5 feet. Originally the pitcher threw from flat ground. Gradually, the raised mound was developed, somewhat returning the advantage to the pitchers. From 1893 to 1950, a stipulation was added that the mound be no more than 15 inches above the field.Before the",
"field.Before the mid-20th century, it was common for baseball fields to include a dirt pathway between the pitcher's mound and home plate. This feature is sometimes known as the \"keyhole\" due to the shape that it makes together with the mound. The keyhole was once as wide as the pitcher's box and resembled acricket pitch. Sometimes this path extended through the batting area and all the way to the backstop. Once the rounded pitcher's mound was developed, the path became more ornamental than practical, and was gradually thinned before being largely abandoned by the 1950s. In recent years some ballparks, such asComerica ParkandChase Fieldin the major leagues, have revived the feature for nostalgic reasons. From 1857 to 1867 home plate was a circular iron plate, painted or enameled white, covering \"a space equal to one square foot of surface\", i.e. with a diameter of ~13-1/2 inches.In 1868 the plate was changed to a square, 12\" on a side, originally set with the flat sides toward the pitcher and catcher; the",
"and catcher; the new professionalNational Associationrotated it 45 degrees in 1871.In 1872 the rules required it to be made of white marble or stone set flush with the ground.For the rest of the century materials varied between stone, iron and wood, but at all times it was a white twelve-inch square.The pentagonal shape and the mandatory use of rubber were developed byRobert Keating, who had pitched one game for the 1887 Baltimore Orioles; the new plate was adopted by theNational Leaguein 1900. From 1861 to 1874 the center, not the back, of the plate was situated on the intersection of the foul lines, and in 1875–76 was moved entirely into foul ground with the \"pitcher's point\" at the intersection. In 1877 it was moved forward to its modern location, wholly in fair territory. There were no batters' boxes before 1874. Up until that time, the batter was required to hit with their front foot on a line passing through the center of the plate.The 1874 batters' boxes were 6 feet by 3 feet, 12 inches from the",
"12 inches from the plate; the modern dimensions (6' x 4') were instituted in 1885 by the National League and the following year by theAmerican Association Maintenance Honors and awards The Sports Turf Managers Association (STMA) presents various awards each year. Starting in 2001, itsSports Turf Manager of the Year Awardshave been presented annually in the Triple-A, Double-A, Class A, and Short-Season/Rookie divisions ofMinor League Baseballand are chosen from the 16 league winners.STMA also presents the Baseball Field of the Year Award, which includes Schools and Parks, College/University and Professional categories. See also References External links",
"Joe DiMaggio As coach Joseph Paul DiMaggio(bornGiuseppe Paolo DiMaggio;; November 25, 1914 – March 8, 1999), nicknamed \"Joltin' Joe\", \"the Yankee Clipper\" and \"Joe D.\", was an Americanbaseballcenter fielderwho played his entire 13-year career inMajor League Baseballfor theNew York Yankees. Born toItalian immigrantsin California, he is widely considered one of the greatest baseball players of all time and set the record for thelongest hitting streak in major league baseball(56 games from May 15 – July 16, 1941). DiMaggio was a three-timeAmerican League(AL)Most Valuable Player Awardwinner and anAll-Starin each of his 13 seasons. During his tenure with the Yankees, the club won ten American League pennants and nineWorld Serieschampionships. His nine career World Series rings are second only to fellow YankeeYogi Berra, who won 10. At the time of his retirement after the 1951 season, he ranked fifth in careerhome runs(361) and sixth in careerslugging percentage(.579). He was inducted into theBaseball Hall of",
"theBaseball Hall of Famein 1955 and was voted the sport's greatest living player in a poll taken during baseball's centennial year of 1969.His brothersVince(1912–1986) andDom(1917–2009) also were major league center fielders. Outside of baseball, DiMaggio is also widely known for his marriage and life-long devotion toMarilyn Monroe. Early life Giuseppe Paolo DiMaggio was born on November 25, 1914, inMartinez, California,the eighth of nine children born toItalian(Sicilian) immigrants Giuseppe and Rosalia DiMaggio, fromIsola delle Femmine. His Italian birth name was Giuseppe Paolo DiMaggio. Rosalia named her son \"Giuseppe\" after his father in the hopes he would be her last child; \"Paolo\" was in honor of Giuseppe's favorite saint,Paul of Tarsus. Giuseppe was afisherman, as were generations of DiMaggios before him. DiMaggio's brother Tom toldMaury Allenthat Rosalia's father wrote to her saying Giuseppe could earn a better living in California. Giuseppe and Rosalia decided that he would go to the United States",
"the United States for one year: if things were better, he would send for her; if not, he would return home. After being processed onEllis Island, Giuseppe worked his way across the country, eventually settling near Rosalia's father inPittsburg, on the east side of theSan Francisco Bay Area. After four years, he had earned enough money to send for Rosalia and their daughter, who was born after he left. When Joe was a toddler, Giuseppe moved his family to theNorth Beachsection ofSan Francisco.: 18Giuseppe hoped that his five sons would become fishermen. DiMaggio recalled that he would do anything to get out of cleaning his father's boat, as the smell of dead fish nauseated him. Giuseppe called him \"lazy\" and \"good-for-nothing\". At age ten, he took up baseball, playing third base at the North Beach playground near his home. After attending Hancock Elementary and Francisco Middle School, DiMaggio dropped out ofGalileo High Schooland worked odd jobs. By 1931, DiMaggio was playing semi-pro ball. Nearing the end of",
"Nearing the end of the 1932 season, his brotherVince, playing for theSan Francisco Sealsof thePacific Coast League(PCL), talked his manager into letting DiMaggio fill in atshortstop. He made his professional debut on October 1, 1932, playing the last three games. In less than two years, DiMaggio made the jump from the playground to the PCL, one notch below the majors.: 34In his full rookie year, from May 27 to July 25, 1933, hehitsafely in 61 consecutive games, a PCL-record,and second-longest inMinor League Baseballhistory.\"Baseball didn't really get into my blood until I knocked off that hitting streak,\" he said. \"Getting a daily hit became more important to me than eating, drinking, or sleeping.” In 1934, DiMaggio suffered a potentially career-threatening knee injury when he toreligamentsof his right knee while stepping out of ajitney. Convinced the injury would heal, Yankees scoutBill Essickpestered his bosses to give DiMaggio another look. After he passed a physical, the team bought him for $50,000 and",
"him for $50,000 and five players, with the Seals keeping him for the 1935 season.DiMaggiobatted.398 with 154runs batted in(RBIs) and 34 home runs. The Seals won the 1935 PCL title, and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player. Professional career New York Yankees (1936–1942, 1946–1951) DiMaggio made his Major League debut on May 3, 1936, batting ahead ofLou Gehrigin the lineup. The Yankees had not been to theWorld Seriessince1932, but they won the next four World Series. Over the course of his 13-year Major League career, DiMaggio led the Yankees to nine World Series championships, where he trails onlyYogi Berra(10) in that category. DiMaggio set a franchise record for rookies in 1936 by hitting 29 home runs. DiMaggio accomplished the feat in 138 games.His record stood for over 80 years until it was shattered byAaron Judge, who tallied 52 homers in 2017. In 1937, DiMaggio built upon his rookie season by leading the majors with 46 home runs, 151 runs scored, and 418 total bases. He also hit safely in 43",
"hit safely in 43 of 44 games from June 27 to August 12.He finished second in American League MVP voting in a close race withCharlie Gehringerof theDetroit Tigers. In 1939, DiMaggio was nicknamed \"the Yankee Clipper\" by Yankee's play-by-play announcerArch McDonald, when he likened DiMaggio's speed and range in the outfield to the then-newPan Americanairliner.: 152That year in August, DiMaggio recorded 53 RBIs, tyingHack Wilson's 1930 record for most in a single month.He also won his first career batting title and MVP award, as well as leading the Yankees to their fourth consecutive World Series championship. DiMaggio was pictured with his son on the cover of the inaugural issue ofSPORTmagazinein September 1946. In 1947, DiMaggio won his third MVP award and his sixth World Series with the Yankees. That year, Boston Red Sox ownerTom Yawkeyand Yankees GMLarry MacPhailverbally agreed to trade DiMaggio forTed Williams, but the trade was canceled when MacPhail refused to includeYogi Berra. In the September 1949",
"the September 1949 issue ofSPORT,Hank Greenbergsaid that DiMaggio covered so much ground in center field that the only way to get a hit against the Yankees was \"to hit 'em where Joe wasn't.\" DiMaggio also stole home five times in his career. On February 7, 1949, DiMaggio signed a contract worth $100,000 ($1,280,000 in current dollar terms) ($70,000 plus bonuses), and became the first baseball player to break $100,000 in earnings.By 1950, he was ranked the second-best center fielder by theSporting News, afterLarry Doby.After a poor 1951 season, various injuries, and a scouting report by theBrooklyn Dodgersthat was turned over to theNew York Giantsand leaked to the press, DiMaggio announced his retirement at age 37 on December 11, 1951.When remarking on his retirement to theSporting Newson December 19, 1951, he said: I feel like I have reached the stage where I can no longer produce for my club, my manager, and my teammates. I had a poor year, but even if I had hit .350, this would have been my last year. I",
"my last year. I was full of aches and pains and it had become a chore for me to play. When baseball is no longer fun, it's no longer a game, and so, I've played my last game. Through May 2009, DiMaggio was tied withMark McGwirefor third place all-time in home runs over the first two calendar years in the major leagues (77), behindPhilliesHall of FamerChuck Klein(83), andMilwaukee Brewers'Ryan Braun(79).Through 2011, he was one of seven major leaguers to have had at least four 30-homer, 100-RBI seasons in their first five years, along with Chuck Klein,Ted Williams,Ralph Kiner,Mark Teixeira,Albert Pujols, and Ryan Braun.DiMaggio holds the record for most seasons with more home runs thanstrikeouts(minimum 20 home runs), a feat he accomplished seven times, and five times consecutively from 1937 to 1941.DiMaggio could have possibly exceeded 500 home runs and 2,000 RBIs had he not served in the military duringWorld War II, causing him to miss the 1943, 1944, and 1945 seasons. DiMaggio might have had better",
"have had better power-hitting statistics had his home park not beenYankee Stadium. In \"The House That Ruth Built\", its nearby right field favored the Babe's left-handed power. For right-handed hitters, its deep left and center fields made home runs almost impossible.Mickey Mantlerecalled that he andWhitey Fordwitnessed many DiMaggio blasts that would have been home runs anywhere other than Yankee Stadium (Ruth himself fell victim to that problem, as he also hit many long flyouts to center).Bill Jamescalculated that DiMaggio lost more home runs due to his home park than any other player in history. Left-center field went as far back as 457 ft , whereas left-center rarely reaches 380 ft in today's ballparks.Al Gionfriddo's famous catch in the1947 World Series, which was close to the 415-foot mark in left-center, just in front of the visitors bullpen, would have been a home run in the Yankees' current ballpark and most other ballparks at that time, except perhaps the Polo Grounds, home of the New York Giants.",
"New York Giants. DiMaggio hit 148 home runs in 3,360 at-bats at home versus 213 home runs in 3,461 at-bats on the road. His slugging percentage at home was .546, and on the road, it was .610. Statistician Bill Jenkinson commented on these figures: For example, Joe DiMaggio was acutely handicapped by playing at Yankee Stadium. Every time he batted in his home field during his entire career, he did so knowing that it was physically impossible for him to hit a home run to the half of the field directly in front of him. If you look at a baseball field from foul line to foul line, it has a 90-degree radius. From the power alley in the left-center field (430 in Joe's time) to the fence in the deep right-center field (407 ft), it is 45 degrees. And Joe DiMaggio never hit a single home run over the fences at Yankee Stadium in that 45-degree graveyard. It was just too far. Joe was plenty strong; he routinely hit balls in the 425-foot range. But that just wasn't good enough in the cavernous Yankee Stadium. Like Ruth,",
"Stadium. Like Ruth, he benefited from a few easy homers each season due to the short foul line distances. But he lost many more than he gained by constantly hitting long flyouts toward center field. Whereas most sluggers perform better on their home fields, DiMaggio hit only 41 percent of his career home runs in the Bronx. He hit 148 homers at Yankee Stadium. If he had hit the same exact pattern of batted balls with a typical modern stadium as his home, he would have belted about 225 homers during his home-field career. DiMaggio became eligible for theBaseball Hall of Famein 1953 but he was not elected until 1955. The Hall of Fame rules on the post-retirement induction waiting period had been revised in the interim, extending the waiting period from one to five years, but DiMaggio andTed Lyonswere exempted from the rule. DiMaggio toldBaseball Digestin 1963 that theBrooklyn Dodgershad offered him their managerial job in 1953, but he turned it down. After being out of baseball since his retirement as an active",
"as an active player, DiMaggio joined the newly relocatedOakland Athleticsas a vice president in1968and1969and acoachin just the first of those two seasons. The appointment allowed him to qualify for MLB's maximumpensionallowance of which he had fallen two years short upon his retirement. During his only campaign as a coach, he helped improve the talents of players such asReggie Jackson,Sal Bando, andJoe Rudiwho became part of the team's nucleus which won three consecutive World Series in 1972, 1973, and 1974. After he resigned from the Athletics, DiMaggio was named the acting manager for the East team in theEast-West Major League Baseball Classicwhich was held in honor of the lateMartin Luther King Jr., raising charity money for King's causes. 1941 hitting streak DiMaggio's streak is the most extraordinary thing that ever happened in American sports. — Stephen Jay Gould DiMaggio's most famous achievement is his MLB record-breaking 56-gamehitting streakin 1941. The streak began on May 15, a couple of weeks",
"a couple of weeks before the death ofLou Gehrig—who had been DiMaggio's teammate from 1936 to 1939—when DiMaggio went one-for-four against Chicago White Sox pitcherEddie Smith.Major newspapers began to write about DiMaggio's streak early on, but as he approachedGeorge Sisler's modern-era record of 41 games, it became a national phenomenon. Initially, DiMaggio showed little interest in breaking Sisler's record, saying: \"I'm not thinking a whole lot about it... I'll either break it or I won't.\"As he approached Sisler's record, DiMaggio showed more interest, saying, \"At the start, I didn't think much about it... but naturally I'd like to get the record since I am this close.\"On June 29, 1941, DiMaggio doubled in the first game of a doubleheader against theWashington SenatorsatGriffith Stadiumto tie Sisler's record and then singled in the nightcap to extend his streak to 42. A Yankee Stadium crowd of 52,832 fans watched DiMaggio tie the all-time hitting streak record (44 games,Wee Willie Keelerin 1897) on July",
"1897) on July 1.The next day against theBoston Red Sox, he homered into Yankee Stadium's left-field stands to extend his streak to 45, setting a new record. DiMaggio recorded 67 hits in 179 at-bats during the first 45 games of his streak, while Keeler recorded 88 hits in 201 at-bats.DiMaggio continued hitting after breaking Keeler's record, reaching 50 straight games on July 11 against the St. Louis Browns.On July 17 at Cleveland'sMunicipal Stadium, DiMaggio's streak was finally snapped at 56 games, thanks in part to two backhand stops byIndiansthird basemanKen Keltner.DiMaggio batted .408 during the streak with 15 home runs and 55 RBI.The day after the streak ended DiMaggio started another streak that lasted 16 games, therefore hitting safely in 72 of 73 games.The closest anyone has come to equaling DiMaggio isPete Rose, who hit safely in 44 straight games in 1978.During the streak, DiMaggio played in seven doubleheaders. The Yankees' record during the streak was 41–13–2. Some consider DiMaggio's streaka",
"DiMaggio's streaka uniquely outstanding and unbreakable recordand a statistical near-impossibility.Nobel Prize-winning physicist andsabermetricianEdward Mills Purcellcalculated that, to have the likelihood of a hitting streak of 50 games occurring in the history of baseball up to the late 1980s be greater than 50%, fifty-two .350 lifetime hitters would have to have existed instead of the actual three (Ty Cobb,Rogers Hornsby, andShoeless Joe Jackson). HisHarvardcolleagueStephen Jay Gould, citing Purcell's work, called DiMaggio's 56-game achievement \"the most extraordinary thing that ever happened in American sports\".Samuel Arbesman andSteven StrogatzofCornell Universitydisagree. They conducted 10,000 computer simulations of Major League Baseball from 1871 to 2005, 42% of which produced streaks as long or longer, with record streaks ranging from 39 to 109 games and typical record streaks between 50 and 64 games. World War II DiMaggio enlisted in theUnited States Army Air Forceson February 17, 1943, rising to",
"17, 1943, rising to the rank of sergeant. He was stationed atSanta Ana, California, Hawaii, andAtlantic City, New Jersey, as a physical education instructor.He was released on a medical discharge in September 1945, due to chronic stomach ulcers.Other than being paid $21 a month, DiMaggio's service was as comfortable as a soldier's life could be. He spent most of his military career playing for baseball teams and in exhibition games against fellow Major Leaguers and minor league players, and superiors gave him special privileges due to his prewar fame. DiMaggio ate so well from an athlete-only diet that he gained 10 pounds, and while in Hawaii he and other players mostly tanned on the beach and drank. Embarrassed by his lifestyle, DiMaggio requested that he be given a combat assignment but was turned down. Parents as \"enemy aliens\" Giuseppe and Rosalia DiMaggio, both fromIsola delle Femmine, were among the thousands of German, Japanese, and Italian immigrants classified as \"enemy aliens\" by the government",
"by the government after theattack on Pearl Harbor. Each was required to carry photo ID booklets at all times and was not allowed to travel outside a five-mile radius from their home without a permit. Giuseppe was barred fromSan Francisco Bay, where he had fished for decades, and his boat was seized. Rosalia became an American citizen in 1945, followed by Giuseppe in 1946. Marriages Dorothy Arnold In January 1937, DiMaggio met actressDorothy Arnoldon the set ofManhattan Merry-Go-Round, in which he had a minor role, and she was an extra. He announced their engagement on April 25, 1939, just before the Yankees were to meet thePhiladelphia Athletics.They married atSaints Peter and Paul Church, San Franciscoon November 19, 1939, as 20,000 well-wishers jammed the streets. The couple's son, Joseph Paul DiMaggio Jr. (1941–1999), was born atDoctors' Hospitalin Staten Island.Their marriage was troubled, as Arnold wanted DiMaggio to settle down and be a father to their son and a nearby husband to her; DiMaggio was more",
"DiMaggio was more interested in the public eye.The couple divorced in 1944, while DiMaggio was on leave from the Yankees during World War II. Marilyn Monroe According to her autobiographyMy Story, co-written withBen Hecht,American actressMarilyn Monroeoriginally did not want to meet DiMaggio, fearing he was a stereotypically arrogant athlete. However, they did meet inLos Angeleswhile on ablind date.After dating for two years,they eloped atSan Francisco City Hallon January 14, 1954.Although she suffered fromendometriosis, Monroe and DiMaggio each expressed to reporters their desire to start a family. The union was troubled from the start by DiMaggio's jealousy, controlling attitude, and him physically abusing Monroe,as well as her busy life as an actress.A violent fight entailing physical assault between the couple occurred immediately after Monroe filmed the skirt-blowing scene inThe Seven Year Itchthat was filmed on September 14, 1954, in front of Manhattan's Trans-Lux 52nd Street Theater, as DiMaggio",
"as DiMaggio disapproved of the scene.Then20th Century Fox'sEast Coastcorrespondent Bill Kobrin told thePalm Springs Desert Sunthat it was directorBilly Wilder's idea to turn the shoot into a media circus. Monroe and DiMaggio then had a \"yelling battle\" in the theater lobby.After returning fromNew York CitytoHollywoodin October 1954, Monroe filed for divorce from DiMaggio after only nine months of marriage.However, she was devastated to leave DiMaggio, and throughout the procedures in court, she could be seen weeping openly. DiMaggio was also devastated, and wrote to Monroe, saying, \"I love you and want to be with you…There is nothing I would like better than to restore your confidence in me…My heart split even wider seeing you cry in front of all those people.\"He also wrote, “ know what your thoughts are about me, but I can tell you I love you sincerely — way deep in my heart, irregardless of anything.\"After the divorce, DiMaggio underwenttherapy, stopped drinking alcohol, and expanded his interests beyond",
"interests beyond baseball. On August 1, 1956, an International Newswire photoof DiMaggio withLee Meriwethergave rise to speculation that they were engaged, but DiMaggio biographerRichard Ben Cramerwrote that it was a rumor started by columnistWalter Winchell. Monroe biographerDonald Spotoclaimed that DiMaggio was \"very close to marrying\"1957 Miss AmericaMarian McKnight, who won the crown with a Marilyn Monroe act, but McKnight denied it.He was also linked toLiz Renay,Cleo Moore,Rita Gam,Marlene Dietrich, andGloria DeHavenduring this period, and years later toElizabeth RayandMorgan Fairchild, but he never publicly confirmed any involvement with any woman. DiMaggio reentered Monroe's life as her marriage toArthur Millerwas ending. On February 10, 1961, he secured her release fromPayne Whitney Psychiatric ClinicinManhattan. She joined him inFloridawhere he was a batting coach for theYankees. Their \"just friends\" claim did not stop remarriage rumors from flying. Reporters staked out her Manhattan apartment",
"Manhattan apartment building.Bob Hope\"dedicated\"Best Songnominee \"The Second Time Around\" to them at the33rd Academy Awards. According toMaury Allen's biography, DiMaggio was alarmed at how Monroe had fallen in with people he felt were detrimental to her well-being. Val Monette, the owner of a military post-exchange supply company, told Allen that DiMaggio left his employ on August 1, 1962, because he had decided to ask Monroe to remarry him. Four days later, on August 5, Monroe wasfound deadin herBrentwood, Los Angeleshome after her housekeeperEunice R. Murraytelephoned Monroe's psychiatrist,Ralph Greenson. DiMaggio's son had spoken to Monroe on the phone the night of her death and said she seemed fine.Her death was deemed a probable suicide by \"Coroner to the Stars\"Thomas Noguchi. It has also been the subject ofconspiracy theories. Devastated, DiMaggio claimed Monroe's body and arranged for her funeral atWestwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery. He barred Hollywood's elite and members of theKennedy",
"of theKennedy familyfrom attending the funeral, including PresidentJohn F. Kennedy. He had a half-dozen red roses delivered to her crypt three times a week for 20 years.Oftentimes, he refused to talk about her publicly or otherwise exploit their relationship, and in the rare moments when he did speak to reporters, he was unable to hold back tears. He never married again. According to DiMaggio's attorney Morris Engelberg, DiMaggio's last words were \"I'll finally get to see Marilyn.\"Though DiMaggio's brotherDominicchallenged Engelberg's version of Joe's final moments and his motives,Engleberg continuously denied those who questioned DiMaggio's last words, reporting that one night when he and a terminally ill DiMaggio were sitting together, DiMaggio told him, \"I don’t feel bad about dying. At least I’ll be with Marilyn again.\" Advertising In the 1970s, DiMaggio became a spokesman forMr. Coffee, and was the face of the electricdrip coffeemakers for over 20 years.Vincent Marotta, the CEO of North American",
"of North American Systems, which manufactured Mr. Coffee at the time, recruited DiMaggio for theadvertising campaign.DiMaggio's spots were successful with consumers. In a 2007 interview withThe Columbus Dispatch, Marotta joked that \"millions of kids grew up thinking Joe DiMaggio was a famous appliance salesman.\"Despite the commercials, DiMaggio rarely drankcoffeedue to ulcers;and when he did drink coffee, he preferredSankainstant coffeerather than coffee brewed by Mr. Coffee machines. In 1972, DiMaggio became a spokesman for theBowery Savings Bank. Except for a five-year hiatus in the 1980s, he regularly made commercials for them until 1992.In 1986, he became a spokesperson for Florida's Cross Keys Village, an active retirement community. Television programs Beginning in April 1952, DiMaggio had 10-minute programs on Channel 11 in New York City before and after each Yankees' home game. Episodes included interviews with guests and DiMaggio's comments about baseball. The team owned the program, with DiMaggio",
"with DiMaggio under contract to the Yankees. He also didJoe DiMaggio's Dugouton Channel 4 in New York City, a weekly filmed program unrelated to the pre-and post-game shows. It featured instructional sessions and quizzes for young people. Death DiMaggio was a heavy smoker for much of his adult life.He was admitted to Memorial Regional Hospital inHollywood, Florida, on October 12, 1998, for lung cancer surgery and remained there for 99 days.He returned to his home inHollywood, Florida, on January 19, 1999, where he died on March 8 at age 84. DiMaggio's attorney, Morris Engleberg reported that his last words were, \"I'll finally get to see Marilyn,\" referencing his ex-wifeMarilyn Monroe. DiMaggio's funeral was held on March 11, 1999, atSaints Peter and Paul Churchin San Francisco,and he was interred three months later atHoly Cross CemeteryinColma, California.His son also died that year, on August 6, at age 57. Legacy At his death,The New York Timescalled DiMaggio's 1941 56-game hitting streak \"perhaps the most",
"\"perhaps the most enduring record in sports.\" According to American geneticistMary-Claire King, in the spring of 1981 DiMaggio babysat her daughter at the San Francisco airport so King could drop her mother off to her flight to Chicago. According to King, if it were not for DiMaggio's kindness, she would have almost certainly missed her own flight that was taking her and her daughter to Washington, D.C., a trip that eventually resulted in King's getting her first major grant from theNational Institutes of Healthand the discovery of the breast and ovarian cancer-causing geneBRCA1. On September 17, 1992, the doors were opened at Joe DiMaggio Children's Hospital at Memorial Regional Hospital in Hollywood, Florida, for which he raised over $4 million. On April 13, 1998, DiMaggio was given the Sports Legend Award at the 13th annualAmerican Sportscasters AssociationHall of Fame Awards Dinner in New York City. Henry Kissinger, former Secretary of State and a longtime fan of DiMaggio, made the presentation to the",
"presentation to the Yankee great. The event was one of DiMaggio's last public appearances before taking ill. Yankee Stadium's fifth monument was dedicated to DiMaggio on April 25, 1999, and theWest Side Highwaywas officially renamed The Joe DiMaggio Highway in his honor. The Yankees wore DiMaggio's number 5 on the left sleeves of their uniforms for the 1999 season. He is ranked No. 11 onThe Sporting News'list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and he was elected by fans to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Team. In addition to his number 5 being retired by theNew York Yankees, DiMaggio's number was also retired by theFlorida Marlins, who retired it in honor of their first team president,Carl Barger, who died five months before the team took the field for the first time in 1993. DiMaggio had been his favorite player. In 2000 after some negotiations,the heirs of Joe DiMaggio's estate, two granddaughters and their four children, welcomed the renaming of San Francisco's North Beach playground, the place",
"the place where Joe DiMaggio first took up baseball as a boy, as the Joe DiMaggio North Beach Playground. In 2001, Major League Baseball introduced an onlinedaily fantasygame called \"Beat the Streak\" which required players to pick one or two MLB players to get a hit in a game that day. The goal was to pick correctly 57 times in a row to beat DiMaggio's record streak. As of August 2021, the prize money for beating the streak was $5.6 million; more than 4.5 million players had combined to make over 100 million attempts but none had reached even 52 consecutive hits in the game's history. In May 2006, the adopted daughters of DiMaggio's son held an auction of DiMaggio's personal items. Highlights included the ball he hit in breakingWee Willie Keeler's hitting-streak record ($63,250); his 2,000th career hit ball ($29,900); his 1947 Most Valuable Player Award ($281,750); the uniform worn in the 1951 World Series ($195,500); his Hall of Fame ring ($69,000); a photograph Marilyn autographed \"I love you Joe\"",
"\"I love you Joe\" ($80,500); her passport ($115,000); and their marriage certificate ($23,000). Lot 758, DiMaggio's white 1991Mercedes 420 SEL sedan, which was a gift from the New York Yankees commemorating the 50th anniversary of DiMaggio's 1941 season, sold for $18,000. The event netted a total of $4.1 million. On August 8, 2011, theUnited States Postal Serviceannounced that an image of DiMaggio would appear on a stamp for the first time. It was issued as part of the \"Major League Baseball All-Star Stamp Series,\" which came out in July 2012. DiMaggio insisted on being introduced as the \"Greatest Living Ballplayer\" at events, including Yankee Old-Timers Day, and he once punchedBilly Crystalin the stomach for not introducing him as such. In 2013, theBob Feller Act of Valor Awardhonored DiMaggio as one of 37 Baseball Hall of Fame members for his service in the United States Army Air Force during World War II. The Joe DiMaggio Fields in his hometown ofMartinez, California, are named after him. There is a Joe",
"him. There is a Joe DiMaggio Street inSan Antonio, Texas. Career statistics DiMaggio played in 10 World Series, winning 9. His only loss was in the1942 World Series. He batted .271 (54–199), with 27 runs scored, 8 home runs, and 30 RBI in 51 post-season games. In popular culture An American icon, DiMaggio's popularity during his career was such that he was referenced in film, television, literature, art, and music both during his career and decades after he retired. Art Cartoons, comics and graphic novels Literature Music Movies TV movies Theatre Television See also References Works cited Further reading External links"
] |
As of 2020, who is the longest-serving president of the university where Hannah Arendt is buried? | Leon Botstein | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannah_Arendt | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_College | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannah_Arendt', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_College'] | [
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"Hannah Arendt Hannah Arendt(/ˈɛərənt,ˈɑːr-/,USalso/əˈrɛnt/;German:ⓘ;bornJohanna Arendt; 14 October 1906 – 4 December 1975) was a German-American historian and philosopher. She was one of the most influentialpolitical theoristsof the 20th century. Her works cover a broad range of topics, but she is best known for those dealing with the nature ofwealth,powerandevil, as well as politics,direct democracy,authority,traditionandtotalitarianism. She is also remembered for the controversy surrounding thetrialofAdolf Eichmann, for her attempt to explain how ordinary people become actors in totalitarian systems, which was considered by some anapologia, and for the phrase \"the banality of evil.\" Her name appears in the names of journals,schools,scholarly prizes,humanitarian prizes, think-tanks, and streets; appears on stamps and monuments; and is attached to other cultural and institutional markers that commemorate her thought. Hannah Arendt was born to a Jewish family inLinden(now a district ofHanover, Germany) in 1906. When she was three, her family moved to theEast Prussiancapital ofKönigsbergfor her father's health care. Paul Arendt had contractedsyphilisin his youth but was thought to be in remission when Arendt was born. He died when she was seven. Arendt was raised in a politically progressive, secular family, her mother being an ardentSocial Democrat. After completing secondary education in Berlin, Arendt studied at theUniversity of MarburgunderMartin Heidegger, with whom she engaged in a romantic affair that began while she was his student.She obtained her doctorate in philosophy at theUniversity of Heidelbergin 1929. Her dissertation was titledLove and Saint Augustine, and her supervisor was theexistentialistphilosopherKarl Jaspers. Hannah Arendt marriedGünther Sternin 1929 but soon began to encounter increasingantisemitismin the 1930sNazi Germany. In 1933, the yearAdolf Hitlercame to power, Arendt was arrested and briefly imprisoned by theGestapofor performing illegal research into antisemitism. On release, she fled Germany, living in Czechoslovakia and Switzerland before settling in Paris. There she worked forYouth Aliyah, assisting young Jews to emigrate to theBritish Mandate of Palestine. She was stripped of herGerman citizenshipin 1937. Divorcing Stern that year, she then marriedHeinrich Blücherin 1940. When Germany invaded France that year she was detained by the French as analien. She escaped and made her way to the United States in 1941 via Portugal. She settled in New York, which remained her principal residence for the rest of her life. She became a writer and editor and worked for theJewish Cultural Reconstruction, becoming an American citizen in 1950. With the publication ofThe Origins of Totalitarianismin 1951, her reputation as a thinker and writer was established, and a series of works followed. These included the booksThe Human Conditionin 1958, as well asEichmann in JerusalemandOn Revolutionin 1963. She taught at many American universities while decliningtenure-trackappointments. She died suddenly of a heart attack in 1975, at the age of 69, leaving her last work,The Life of the Mind, unfinished. Early life and education (1906–1929) Family Hannah Arendt was bornJohanna Arendtin 1906, inthe Wilhelmine period. Her secular and educatedJewishfamily lived comfortably inLinden,Prussia(now a part ofHanover). They were merchants of Russian extraction fromKönigsberg.Her grandparents were members of theReform Jewishcommunity. Her paternal grandfather,Max Arendt, was a prominent businessman, local politician,and leader of the Königsberg Jewish community, a member of theCentral Organization for German Citizens of Jewish Faith(Centralverein deutscher Staatsbürger jüdischen Glaubens). Like other members of theCentralvereinhe primarily saw himself as German, disapproving ofZionistactivities includingKurt Blumenfeld, a frequent visitor and later one of Hannah's mentors. Her lifelong best-friend, Anne Mendehlsohn, was likewise connected to a dynasty of philosophers and musicians. Of Max Arendt's children, Paul Arendt was an engineer andHenriette Arendta policewoman and social worker. Hannah was the only child of Paul and Martha Arendt (née Cohn), who were married on 11 April 1902. She was named after her paternal grandmother.The Cohns had originally come to Königsberg from nearby Russian territory ofLithuaniain 1852, as refugees from antisemitism, and made their living as tea importers, J. N. Cohn & Company being the largest business in the city. The Arendts reached Germany from Russia a century earlier.Hannah's extended family contained many more women, who shared the loss of husbands and children. Hannah's parents were more educated and politically more to the left than her grandparents. The young couple wereSocial Democrats,rather than theGerman Democratsthat most of their contemporaries supported. Paul Arendt was educated at the Albertina (University of Königsberg). Though he worked as an engineer, he prided himself on his love ofClassics, with a large library that Hannah immersed herself in. Martha Cohn, a musician, had studied for three years in Paris. In the first four years of their marriage, the Arendts lived in Berlin, and were supporters of the socialist journalSocialist Monthly Bulletins(Sozialistische Monatshefte).At the time of Hannah's birth, Paul Arendt was employed by an electrical engineering firm in Linden, and they lived in a frame house on the market square (Marktplatz).They moved back to Königsberg in 1909 because of Paul's deteriorating health.He suffered from chronicsyphilisand was institutionalized in the Königsberg psychiatric hospital in 1911. For years afterward, Hannah had to have annualWRtests for congenital syphilis.He died on 30 October 1913, when Hannah was seven, leaving her mother to raise her.They lived at Hannah's grandfather's house at Tiergartenstraße 6, a leafy residential street adjacent to theKönigsberg Tiergarten, in the predominantly Jewish neighborhood ofHufen.Although Hannah's parents were non-religious, they were happy to allow Max Arendt to take Hannah to the Reform synagogue. She also received religious instruction from therabbi, Hermann Vogelstein, who would come to her school for that purpose.Her family moved in circles that included many intellectuals and professionals. It was a social circle of high standards and ideals. As she recalled it: My early intellectual formation occurred in an atmosphere where nobody paid much attention to moral questions; we were brought up under the assumption:Das Moralische versteht sich von selbst, moral conduct is a matter of course. This time was a particularly favorable period for the Jewish community in Königsberg, an important center of theHaskalah(Jewish Enlightenment).Arendt's family was thoroughlyassimilated(\"Germanized\")and she later remembered: \"With us from Germany, the word 'assimilation' received a 'deep' philosophical meaning. You can hardly realize how serious we were about it.\"Despite these conditions, the Jewish population lacked full citizenship rights, and althoughantisemitismwas not overt, it was not absent.Arendt came to define her Jewish identity negatively after encountering overt antisemitism as an adult.She came to greatly identify withRahel Varnhagen, the Prussian socialitewho desperately wanted to assimilate into German culture, only to be rejected because she was born Jewish.Arendt later said of Varnhagen that she was \"my very closest woman friend, unfortunately dead a hundred years now.\" In the last two years of theFirst World War, Hannah's mother organized social democratic discussion groups and became a follower ofRosa Luxemburgassocialist uprisings broke out across Germany.Luxemburg's writings would later influence Hannah's political thinking. In 1920, Martha Cohn married Martin Beerwald, an ironmonger and widower of four years, and they moved to his home, two blocks away, at Busoldstrasse 6,providing Hannah with improved social and financial security. Hannah was 14 at the time and acquired two older stepsisters, Clara and Eva. Education Early education Hannah Arendt's mother, who considered herselfprogressive, brought her daughter up on strictGoetheanlines. Among other things this involved the reading of Goethe's complete works, summed up asWas aber ist deine Pflicht? Die Forderung des Tages(And just what is your duty? The demands of the day).Goethe, was then considered the essential mentor ofBildung(education), the conscious formation of mind, body and spirit. The key elements were considered to be self-discipline, constructive channeling of passion, renunciation and responsibility for others. Hannah's developmental progress (Entwicklung) was carefully documented by her mother in a book, she calledUnser Kind(Our Child), measuring her against the benchmark of what was then considerednormale Entwicklung(\"normal development\"). Arendt attended kindergarten from 1910 where her precocity impressed her teachers and enrolled in theSzittnich School, Königsberg(Hufen-Oberlyzeum), on Bahnstraße in August 1913,but her studies there were interrupted by the outbreak of World War I, forcing the family to temporarily flee toBerlinon 23 August 1914, in the face of the advancing Russian army.There they stayed with her mother's younger sister, Margarethe Fürst, and her three children, while Hannah attended a girl'sLyzeumschool inBerlin-Charlottenburg. After ten weeks, when Königsberg appeared to be no longer threatened, the Arendts were able to return,where they spent the remaining war years at her grandfather's house. Arendt's precocity continued, learningancient Greekas a child,writing poetry in her teenage years,and starting both aGraecae(reading group for studying classical literature) and philosophy club at her school. She was fiercely independent in her schooling and a voracious reader,absorbing French and German literature and poetry (committing large amounts to heart) and philosophy. By the age of 14, she had readKierkegaard,Jaspers'Psychologie der WeltanschauungenandKant'sKritik der reinen Vernunft(Critique of Pure Reason). Kant, whose hometown was also Königsberg, was an important influence on her thinking, and it was Kant who had written about Königsberg that \"such a town is the right place for gaining knowledge concerning men and the world even without travelling\". Arendt attended theKönigin-Luise-Schulefor her secondary education, a girls'Gymnasiumon Landhofmeisterstraße.Most of her friends, while at school, were gifted children of Jewish professional families, generally older than her, and went on to university education. Among them wasErnst Grumach, who introduced her to his girlfriend, Anne Mendelssohn,who would become a lifelong friend. When Anne moved away, Ernst became Arendt's first romantic relationship. Higher education (1922–1929) Berlin (1922–1924) Arendt was expelled from the Luise-Schule in 1922, at the age of 15, for leading a boycott of a teacher who insulted her. Her mother sent her to Berlin to Social Democrat family friends. She lived in a student residence andauditedcourses at theUniversity of Berlin(1922–1923), including classics andChristian theologyunderRomano Guardini. She successfully sat the entrance examination (Abitur) for theUniversity of Marburg, where Ernst Grumach had studied withMartin Heidegger(appointed as a professor in 1923). Her mother had engaged a private tutor, and her aunt Frieda Arendt, a teacher, also helped, while Frieda's husband Ernst Aron provided financial tuition assistance. Marburg (1924–1926) In Berlin, Guardini had introduced her to Kierkegaard, and she resolved to make theology her major field.At Marburg (1924–1926) she studied classical languages, German literature, Protestant theology withRudolf Bultmannand philosophy withNicolai Hartmannand Heidegger.She arrived in the fall in the middle of an intellectual revolution led by the young Heidegger, of whom she was in awe, describing him as \"the hidden king reigned in the realm of thinking\". Heidegger had broken away from the intellectual movement started byEdmund Husserl, whose assistant he had been atUniversity of Freiburgbefore coming to Marburg.This was a period when Heidegger was preparing his lectures on Kant, which he would develop in the second part of hisSein und Zeit(Being and Time) in 1927 andKant und das Problem der Metaphysik(1929). In his classes, he and his students struggled with the meaning of \"Being\" as they studiedAristotle's andPlato'sSophistconcept oftruth, to which Heidegger opposed the pre-Socratic termἀλήθεια.Many years later Arendt would describe these classes, how people came to Marburg to hear him, and how, above all he imparted the idea ofDenken(\"thinking\") as activity, which she qualified as \"passionate thinking\". Arendt was restless, finding her studies neither emotionally nor intellectually satisfying. She was ready for passion, finishing her poemTrost(Consolation, 1923) with the lines: Die Stunden verrinnen,Die Tage vergehen,Es bleibt ein GewinnenDas bloße Bestehen.(The hours run down.The days pass on.One achievement remains:merely being alive.) Her encounter with Heidegger represented a dramatic departure from the past. He was handsome, a genius, romantic, and taught that thinking and \"aliveness\" were but one.The 18-year-old Arendt then began a long romantic relationship with the 35-year-old Heidegger,who was married with two young sons.Arendt later faced criticism for this because of Heidegger's support for theNazi Partyafter his election asrectorat Freiburg University in 1933. Nevertheless, he remained one of the most profound influences on her thinking,and he would later relate that she had been the inspiration for his work on passionate thinking in those days. They agreed to keep the details of the relationship a secret while preserving their letters.The relationship was unknown untilElisabeth Young-Bruehl's biography of Arendt appeared in 1982. At the time of publishing, Arendt and Heidegger were deceased but Heidegger's wife, Elfride, was still alive. The affair was not well known until 1995, whenElzbieta Ettingergained access to the sealed correspondenceand published a controversial account that was used by Arendt's detractors to cast doubt on her integrity. That account,which caused a scandal, was subsequently refuted. At Marburg, Arendt lived at Lutherstraße 4.Among her friends wasHans Jonas, a Jewish classmate. Another fellow student of Heidegger's was Jonas' friend, the Jewish philosopherGünther Siegmund Stern, who would later become her first husband.Stern had completed his doctoral dissertation with Edmund Husserl at Freiburg, and was now working on hisHabilitationthesis with Heidegger, but Arendt, involved with Heidegger, took little notice of him at the time. Die Schatten(1925) In the summer of 1925, while home at Königsberg, Arendt composed her sole autobiographical piece,Die Schatten(The Shadows), a \"description of herself\"addressed to Heidegger.In this essay, full of anguish andHeideggerian language, she reveals her insecurities relating to her femininity and Jewishness, writing abstractly in the third person.She describes a state of \"Fremdheit\" (alienation), on the one hand an abrupt loss of youth and innocence, on the other an \"Absonderlichkeit\" (strangeness), the finding of the remarkable in the banal.In her detailing of the pain of her childhood and longing for protection she shows her vulnerabilities and how her love for Heidegger had released her and once again filled her world with color and mystery. She refers to her relationship with Heidegger as \"Eine starre Hingegebenheit an ein Einziges\" (\"an unbending devotion to a unique man\").This period of intense introspection was also one of the most productive of her poetic output,such asIn sich versunken(Lost in Self-Contemplation). Freiburg and Heidelberg (1926–1929) After a year at Marburg, Arendt spent a semester at Freiburg, attending the lectures of Husserl.In 1926 she moved to theUniversity of Heidelberg, completing herdissertationin 1929 under Karl Jaspers.Jaspers, a friend of Heidegger, was the other leading figure of the then-new and revolutionaryExistenzphilosophie.Her thesis was titledDer Liebesbegriff bei Augustin: Versuch einer philosophischen Interpretation(On the concept of love in the thought ofSaint Augustine: Attempt at a philosophical interpretation).She remained a lifelong friend of Jaspers and his wife, Gertrud Mayer, developing a deep intellectual relationship with him.At Heidelberg, her circle of friends included Hans Jonas, who had also moved from Marburg to studyAugustine, working on hisAugustin und das paulinische Freiheitsproblem. Ein philosophischer Beitrag zur Genesis der christlich-abendländischen Freiheitsidee(1930),and also a group of three young philosophers:Karl Frankenstein,Erich NeumannandErwin Loewenson.Other friends and students of Jaspers were the linguistsBenno von WieseandHugo Friedrich(seen with Hannah, below), with whom she attended lectures byFriedrich Gundolfat Jaspers' suggestion and who kindled in her an interest inGerman Romanticism. She also became reacquainted, at a lecture, withKurt Blumenfeld, who introduced her to Jewish politics. At Heidelberg, she lived in the old town (Altstadt) near thecastle, at Schlossberg 16. The house was demolished in the 1960s, but the one remaining wall bears a plaque commemorating her time there. On completing her dissertation, Arendt turned to herHabilitationsschrift, initially on German Romanticism,and thereafter an academic teaching career. However 1929 was also the year of theDepressionand the end of the golden years (Goldene Zwanziger) of theWeimar Republic, which was to become increasingly unstable over its remaining four years. Arendt, as a Jew, had little if any chance of obtaining an academic appointment in Germany.Nevertheless, she completed most of the work before she was forced to leave Germany. Career Germany (1929–1933) Berlin-Potsdam (1929) In 1929, Arendt met Günther Stern again, this time in Berlin at a New Year's masked ball,and began a relationship with him.Within a month she had moved in with him in a one-room studio, shared with a dancing school inBerlin-Halensee. Then they moved to Merkurstraße 3, Nowawes,inPotsdamand were married there on 26 September.They had much in common and the marriage was welcomed by both sets of parents.In the summer, Hannah Arendt successfully applied to theNotgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaftfor a grant to support herHabilitation, which was supported by Heidegger and Jaspers among others, and in the meantime, with Günther's help was working on revisions to get her dissertation published. Wanderjahre(1929–1931) After Arendt and Stern were married, they began two years of what Christian Dries refers to as theWanderjahre(years of wandering) with the ultimately fruitless aim of having Stern accepted for an academic appointment.They lived for a while in Drewitz,a southern neighborhood of Potsdam, before moving to Heidelberg, where they lived with the Jaspers. After Heidelberg, where Stern completed the first draft of hisHabilitationthesis, the two then moved to Frankfurt where Stern hoped to finish his writing. There, Arendt participated in the university's intellectual life, attending lectures byKarl MannheimandPaul Tillich, among others.The couple collaborated intellectually, writing an article togetheronRilke'sDuino Elegies(1923)and both reviewing Mannheim'sIdeologie und Utopie(1929).The latter was Arendt's sole contribution to sociology.In both her treatment of Mannheim and Rilke, Arendt found love to be a transcendent principle \"Because there is no true transcendence in this ordered world, one also cannot exceed the world, but only succeed to higher ranks\".In Rilke she saw a latter day secular Augustine, describing theElegiesas theletzten literarischen Form religiösen Dokumentes(ultimate form of religious document). Later, she would discover the limitations of transcendent love in explaining the historical events that pushed her into political action.Another theme from Rilke that she would develop was the despair of not being heard. Reflecting on Rilke's opening lines, which she placed as an epigram at the beginning of their essay Wer, wenn ich schriee, hörte mich denn aus der Engel Ordnungen?(Who, if I cried out, would hear me among the angelic orders?) Arendt and Stern begin by stating: The paradoxical, ambiguous, and desperate situation from which standpoint theDuino Elegiesmay alone be understood has two characteristics: the absence of an echo and the knowledge of futility. The conscious renunciation of the demand to be heard, the despair at not being able to be heard, and finally the need to speak even without an answer–these are the real reasons for the darkness, asperity, and tension of the style in which poetry indicates its own possibilities and its will to form Arendt also published an article on Augustine (354–430) in theFrankfurter Zeitungto mark the 1500th anniversary of his death. She saw this article as forming a bridge between her treatment of Augustine in her dissertation and her subsequent work on Romanticism.When it became evident Stern would not succeed in obtaining an appointment,the Sterns returned to Berlin in 1931. Return to Berlin (1931–1933) In Berlin, where the couple initially lived in the predominantly Jewish area ofBayerisches Viertel(Bavarian Quarter or \"Jewish Switzerland\") in Schöneberg,Stern obtained a position as a staff-writer for the cultural supplement of theBerliner Börsen-Courier, edited byHerbert Ihering, with the help ofBertold Brecht. There he started writing using the pen name Günther Anders, i.e. \"Günther Other\".Arendt assisted Günther with his work, but the shadow of Heidegger hung over their relationship. While Günther was working on hisHabilitationsschrift, Arendt had abandoned the original subject of German Romanticism for her thesis in 1930, and turned instead toRahel Varnhagenand the question ofassimilation.Anne Mendelssohn had accidentally acquired a copy of Varnhagen's correspondence and excitedly introduced her to Arendt, donating her collection to her. A little later, Arendt's work on Romanticism led her to a study of Jewishsalonsand eventually to those of Varnhagen. In Rahel, she found qualities she felt reflected her own, particularly those of sensibility and vulnerability.Rahel, like Hannah, found her destiny in her Jewishness. Hannah Arendt would come to call Rahel Varnhagen's discovery of living with her destiny as being a \"conscious pariah\".This was a personal trait that Arendt had recognized in herself, although she did not embrace the term until later. Back in Berlin, Arendt found herself becoming more involved in politics and started studying political theory, and readingMarxandTrotsky, while developing contacts at theDeutsche Hochschule für Politik.Despite the political leanings of her mother and husband she never saw herself as a political leftist, justifying her activism as being through her Jewishness.Her increasing interest in Jewish politics and her examination of assimilation in her study of Varnhagen led her to publish her first article on Judaism,Aufklärung und Judenfrage(\"The Enlightenment and the Jewish Question\", 1932).Blumenfeld had introduced her to the \"Jewish question\", which would be his lifelong concern.Meanwhile, her views on German Romanticism were evolving. She wrote a review ofHans Weil'sDie Entstehung des deutschen Bildungsprinzips(The Origin of German Educational Principle, 1930),which dealt with the emergence ofBildungselite(educational elite) in the time of Rahel Varnhagen.At the same time she began to be occupied byMax Weber's description of the status of Jewish people within a state asPariavolk(pariahpeople) in hisWirtschaft und Gesellschaft(1922),while borrowingBernard Lazare's termparia conscient(conscious pariah)with which she identified.In both these articles she advanced the views ofJohann Herder.Another interest of hers at the time was the status of women, resulting in her 1932 reviewofAlice Rühle-Gerstel's bookDas Frauenproblem in der Gegenwart. Eine psychologische Bilanz(Contemporary Women's Issues: A psychological balance sheet).Although not a supporter of the women's movement, the review was sympathetic. At least in terms of the status of women at that time, she was skeptical of the movement's ability to achieve political change.She was also critical of the movement, because it was a women's movement, rather than contributing with men to a political movement, and abstract rather than striving for concrete goals. In this manner she echoedRosa Luxemburg. Like Luxemburg, she would later criticize Jewish movements for the same reason. Arendt consistently prioritized political over social questions. By 1932, faced with a deteriorating political situation, Arendt was deeply troubled by reports that Heidegger was speaking atNational Socialistmeetings. She wrote, asking him to deny that he was attracted to National Socialism. Heidegger replied that he did not seek to deny the rumors (which were true), and merely assured her that his feelings for her were unchanged.As a Jew in Nazi Germany, Arendt was prevented from making a living and discriminated against and confided to Anne Mendelssohn that emigration was probably inevitable. Jaspers had tried to persuade her to consider herself as a German first, a position she distanced herself from, pointing out that she was a Jew and that \"Für mich ist Deutschland die Muttersprache, die Philosophie und die Dichtung\" (For me, Germany is the mother tongue, philosophy and poetry), rather than her identity. This position puzzled Jaspers, replying \"It is strange to me that as a Jew you want to be different from the Germans\". By 1933, life for the Jewish population in Germany was becoming precarious.Adolf HitlerbecameReichskanzler(Chancellor) in January, and theReichstag was burned down(Reichstagsbrand) the following month. This led to the suspension ofcivil liberties, with attacks on the left, and, in particular, members of theKommunistische Partei Deutschlands(German Communist Party: KPD). Stern, who had communist associations, fled to Paris, but Arendt stayed on to become an activist. Knowing her time was limited, she used the apartment at Opitzstraße 6 inBerlin-Steglitzthat she had occupied with Stern since 1932 as anunderground railwayway-station for fugitives. Her rescue operation there is now recognized with a plaque on the wall. Arendt had already positioned herself as a critic of the rising Nazi Party in 1932 by publishing \"Adam-Müller-Renaissance?\"a critique of the appropriation of the life ofAdam Müllerto support right wing ideology. The beginnings of anti-Jewish laws and boycott came in the spring of 1933. Confronted with systemic antisemitism, Arendt adopted themotiv\"If one is attacked as a Jew one must defend oneself as a Jew. Not as a German, not as a world citizen, not as an upholder of the Rights of Man.\"This was Arendt's introduction of the concept of Jew as Pariah that would occupy her for the rest of her life in her Jewish writings.She took a public position by publishing part of her largely completed biography of Rahel Varnhagen as \"Originale Assimilation: Ein Nachwort zu Rahel Varnhagen 100 Todestag\" (\"Original Assimilation: An Epilogue to the One Hundredth Anniversary of Rahel Varnhagen's Death\") in theKölnische Zeitungon 7 March 1933 and a little later also inJüdische Rundschau.In the article she argues that the age of assimilation that began with Varnhagen's generation had come to an end with an official state policy of antisemitism. She opened with the declaration: Today in Germany it seems Jewishassimilationmust declare its bankruptcy. The general social antisemitism and its official legitimation affects in the first instance assimilated Jews, who can no longer protect themselves through baptism or by emphasizing their differences from Eastern Judaism. As a Jew, Arendt was anxious to inform the world of what was happening to her people in 1930–1933.She surrounded herself with Zionist activists, including Kurt Blumenfeld,Martin BuberandSalman Schocken, and started to research antisemitism. Arendt had access to thePrussian State Libraryfor her work on Varnhagen. Blumenfeld'sZionistische Vereinigung für Deutschland(Zionist Federation of Germany) persuaded her to use this access to obtain evidence of the extent of antisemitism, for a planned speech to theZionist Congressin Prague. This research was illegal at the time.Her actions led to her being denounced by a librarian for anti-state propaganda, resulting in the arrest of both Arendt and her mother by theGestapo. They served eight days in prison but her notebooks were in code and could not be deciphered, and she was released by a young, sympathetic arresting officer to await trial.This incident is the subject of the playMrs. Stern Wanders the Prussian State Library, by Jenny Lyn Bader, which premiered in 2019 in West Orange, New Jersey. Exile: France (1933–1941) Paris (1933–1940) On release, realizing the danger she was now in, Arendt and her mother fled Germanyfollowing the established escape route over theOre Mountainsby night into Czechoslovakia and on to Prague and then by train toGeneva. In Geneva, she made a conscious decision to commit herself to \"the Jewish cause\". She obtained work with a friend of her mother's at theLeague of Nations'Jewish Agency for Palestine, distributing visas and writing speeches. From Geneva the Arendts traveled to Paris in the autumn, where she was reunited with Stern, joining a stream of refugees.While Arendt had left Germany without papers, her mother had travel documents and returned to Königsberg and her husband.In Paris, she befriended Stern's cousin, theMarxistliterary critic and philosopherWalter Benjaminand also the Jewish French philosopherRaymond Aron. Arendt was now anémigrée, an exile, stateless, without papers, and had turned her back on the Germany and Germans of theNazizeit.Her legal status was precarious and she was coping with a foreign language and culture, all of which took its toll on her mentally and physically.In 1934 she started working for theZionist-funded outreach program Agriculture et Artisanat,giving lectures and organizing clothing, documents, medications and education for Jewish youth seeking to emigrate to theBritish Mandate of Palestine, mainly as agricultural workers. Initially she was employed as a secretary, and then office manager. To improve her skills she studied French,HebrewandYiddish. In this way she was able to support herself and her husband.When the organization closed in 1935, her work for Blumenfeld and the Zionists in Germany brought her into contact with the wealthy philanthropistBaroness Germaine Alice de Rothschild(born Halphen, 1884–1975),wife ofÉdouard Alphonse James de Rothschild, becoming her assistant. In this position she oversaw the baroness' contributions to Jewish charities through the ParisConsistoire, although she had little time for the family as a whole. Later in 1935, Arendt joinedYouth Aliyah(Youth immigration),an organization similar to Agriculture et Artisanat that was founded in Berlin on the day Hitler seized power. It was affiliated withHadassah,which later saved many from theHolocaust,and there Arendt eventually became Secretary-General (1935–1939).Her work with Youth Aliyah also involved finding food, clothing, social workers and lawyers, but above all, fund raising.She made her first visit toBritish Mandate of Palestinein 1935, accompanying one of these groups and meeting with her cousin Ernst Fürst there.With the Naziannexation of Austriaandinvasion of Czechoslovakiain 1938, Paris was flooded with refugees, and she became the special agent for the rescue of the children from those countries.In 1938, Arendt completed her biography of Rahel Varnhagen,although this was not published until 1957.In April 1939, following the devastatingKristallnachtpogromof November 1938, Martha Beerwald realized her daughter would not return and made the decision to leave her husband and join Arendt in Paris. One stepdaughter had died and the other had moved to England, Martin Beerwald would not leave and she no longer had any close ties to Königsberg. Heinrich Blücher In 1936, Arendt met the self-educated Berlin poet andMarxistphilosopherHeinrich Blücherin Paris.Blücher had been aSpartacistand then a founding member of the KPD, but had been expelled due to his work in theVersöhnler(Conciliator faction).Although Arendt had rejoined Stern in 1933, their marriage existed in name only, with their having separated in Berlin.She fulfilled her social obligations and used the name Hannah Stern, but the relationship effectively ended when Stern, perhaps recognizing the danger better than she, emigrated to America with his parents in 1936.In 1937, Arendt was stripped of herGerman citizenshipand she and Stern divorced. She had begun seeing more of Blücher, and eventually they began living together. It was Blücher's long political activism that began to move Arendt's thinking towards political action.Arendt and Blücher married on 16 January 1940, shortly after their divorces were finalized. Internment and escape (1940–1941) On 5 May 1940, in anticipation of theGerman invasion of Franceand theLow Countriesthat month, themilitary governor of Parisissued a proclamation ordering all \"enemy aliens\" between 17 and 55 who had come from Germany (predominantly Jews) to report separately forinternment. The women were gathered together in theVélodrome d'Hiveron 15 May, so Hannah Arendt's mother, being over 55, was allowed to stay in Paris. Arendt described the process of makingrefugeesas \"the new type of human being created by contemporary history ... put into concentration camps by their foes and into internment camps by their friends\".The men, including Blücher, were sent toCamp Vernetin southern France, close to the Spanish border. Arendt and the other women were sent toCamp Gurs, to the west ofGurs, a week later. The camp had earlier been set up to accommodaterefugees from Spain. On 22 June, Francecapitulatedand signed theCompiègne armistice, dividing the country. Gurs was in the southernVichycontrolled section. Arendt describes how, \"in the resulting chaos we succeeded in getting hold of liberation papers with which we were able to leave the camp\",which she did with about 200 of the 7,000 women held there, about four weeks later.There was noRésistancethen, but she managed to walk and hitchhike north toMontauban,nearToulousewhere she knew she would find help. Montauban had become an unofficial capital for former detainees,and Arendt's friend Lotta Sempell Klembort was staying there. Blücher's camp had been evacuated in the wake of the German advance, and he managed to escape from a forced march, making his way to Montauban, where the two of them led a fugitive life. Soon they were joined by Anne Mendelssohn and Arendt's mother. Escape from France was extremely difficult without official papers; their friendWalter Benjaminhad taken his own life after being apprehended trying to escape to Spain. One of the best-known illegal routes operated out ofMarseilles, whereVarian Fry, an American journalist, worked to raise funds, forge papers and bribe officials withHiram Bingham, the American vice-consul there. Fry and Bingham secured exit papers and American visas for thousands, and with help from Günther Stern, Arendt, her husband, and her mother managed to secure the requisite permits to travel by train in January 1941 through Spain to Lisbon, Portugal, where they rented a flat at Rua da Sociedade Farmacêutica, 6b.They eventually secured passage to New York in May on theCompanhia Colonial de Navegação's S/SGuiné II.A few months later, Fry's operations were shut down and the borders sealed. New York (1941–1975) World War II (1941–1945) Upon arriving in New York City on 22 May 1941 with very little, Hannah's family received assistance from theZionist Organization of Americaand the local German immigrant population, includingPaul Tillichand neighbors from Königsberg. They rented rooms at 317 West 95th Street and Martha Arendt joined them there in June. There was an urgent need to acquire English, and it was decided that Hannah Arendt should spend two months with an American family inWinchester, Massachusetts, through Self-Help for Refugees, in July.She found the experience difficult but formulated her early appraisal of American life,Der Grundwiderspruch des Landes ist politische Freiheit bei gesellschaftlicher Knechtschaft(The fundamental contradiction of the country is political freedom coupled with social slavery). On returning to New York, Arendt was anxious to resume writing and became active in the German-Jewish community, publishing her first article, \"From theDreyfus Affairto France Today\" (in translation from her German) in July 1941.While she was working on this article, she was looking for employment and in November 1941 was hired by the New York German-language Jewish newspaperAufbauand from 1941 to 1945, she wrote a political column for it, covering antisemitism, refugees and the need for a Jewish army. She also contributed to theMenorah Journal, a Jewish-American magazine,and other Germanémigrépublications. Arendt's first full-time salaried job came in 1944, when she became the director of research and executive director for the newly emergingCommission on European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, a project of the Conference on Jewish Relations.She was recruited \"because of her great interest in the Commission's activities, her previous experience as an administrator, and her connections with Germany\". There she compiled lists of Jewish cultural assets in Germany and Nazi occupied Europe, to aid in their recovery after the war.Together with her husband, she lived at370 Riverside Drivein New York City and atKingston, New York, where Blücher taught at nearbyBard Collegefor many years. Post-war (1945–1975) In July 1946, Arendt left her position at the Commission on European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction to become an editor atSchocken Books, which later published some of her works.In 1948, she became engaged with the campaign ofJudah Magnesfor a solution to theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict.She famously opposed the establishment of a Jewish nation-state in Palestine and initially also opposed the establishment of a binational Arab-Jewish state. Instead, she advocated for the inclusion of Palestine into a multi-ethnic federation. Only in 1948 in an effort to forestall partition did she support a binationalone-state solution.She returned to the Commission in August 1949. In her capacity as executive secretary, she traveled to Europe, where she worked in Germany, Britain and France (December 1949 to March 1950) to negotiate the return of archival material from German institutions, an experience she found frustrating, but provided regular field reports.In January 1952, she became secretary to the Board, although the work of the organization was winding downand she was simultaneously pursuing her own intellectual activities; she retained this position until her death.Arendt's work on cultural restitution provided further material for her study of totalitarianism. In the 1950s Arendt wroteThe Origins of Totalitarianism(1951),The Human Condition(1958)followed byOn Revolution(1963).Arendt began corresponding with the American authorMary McCarthy, six years her junior, in 1950 and they soon became lifelong friends.In 1950, Arendt also became anaturalized citizenof the United States.The same year, she started seeing Martin Heidegger again, and had what the American writerAdam Kirschcalled a \"quasi-romance\", lasting for two years, with the man who had previously been her mentor, teacher, and lover.During this time, Arendt defended him against critics who noted his enthusiastic membership in the Nazi Party. She portrayed Heidegger as a naïve man swept up by forces beyond his control, and pointed out that Heidegger's philosophy had nothing to do with National Socialism.She suspected that loyal followers ofHorkheimerandAdornoin Frankfurt were plotting against Heidegger. For Adorno she had a real aversion: \"Half a Jew and one of the most repugnant men I know\".According to Arendt, theFrankfurt Schoolwas willing, and quite capable of doing so, to destroy Heidegger: \"For years they have branded anti-Semitism on anyone in Germany who opposes them, or have threatened to raise such an accusation\". In 1961 she traveled toJerusalemto report onEichmann's trialforThe New Yorker. This report strongly influenced her popular recognition, and raised much controversy (seebelow). Her work was recognized by many awards, including the DanishSonning Prizein 1975 for Contributions to European Civilization. A few years later she spoke in New York City on the legitimacy of violence as a political act: \"Generally speaking, violence always rises out of impotence. It is the hope of those who have no power to find a substitute for it and this hope, I think, is in vain. Violence can destroy power, but it can never replace it.\" Teaching Arendt taught at many institutions of higher learning from 1951 onwards, but, preserving her independence, consistently refusedtenure-trackpositions. She was avisiting scholarat theUniversity of Notre Dame,University of California, Berkeley,Princeton University(where she was the first woman to be appointed a full professor in 1959) andNorthwestern University. She also taught at theUniversity of Chicagofrom 1963 to 1967, where she was a member of theCommittee on Social Thought,Yale University, where she was afellowand the Center for Advanced Studies atWesleyan University(1961–62, 1962–63). From 1967 she was a professor atthe New Schoolfor Social research inManhattan, New York City. She was elected a fellow of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1962and a member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Lettersin 1964.In 1974, Arendt was instrumental in the creation of Structured Liberal Education (SLE) atStanford University. She wrote a letter to the president of Stanford to persuade the university to enact Stanford history professor Mark Mancall's vision of a residentially-based humanities program.At the time of her death, she was University Professor ofPolitical Philosophyat The New School. Relationships In addition to her affair with Heidegger, and her two marriages, Arendt had close friendships. Since her death, her correspondence with many of them has been published, revealing much information about her thinking. To her friends she was both loyal and generous, dedicating several of her works to them.Freundschaft(friendship) she described as being one of \"tätigen Modi des Lebendigseins\" (the active modes of being alive),and, to her, friendship was central both to her life and to the concept of politics.Hans Jonas described her as having a \"genius for friendship\", and, in her own words, \"der Eros der Freundschaft\" (love of friendship). Her philosophy-based friendships were male and European, while her later American friendships were more diverse, literary, and political. Although she became an American citizen in 1950, her cultural roots remained European, and her language remained her German \"Muttersprache\" (mother tongue).She surrounded herself with German-speakingémigrés, sometimes referred to as \"The Tribe\". To her,wirkliche Menschen(real people) were \"pariahs\", not in the sense of outcasts, but in the sense of outsiders, unassimilated, with the virtue of \"social nonconformism ... thesine qua nonof intellectual achievement\", a sentiment she shared with Jaspers. Arendt always had abeste Freundin(best friend ). In her teens she had formed a lifelong relationship with herJugendfreundin, Anne Mendelssohn Weil (\"Ännchen\"). After she emigrated to America, Hilde Fränkel, Paul Tillich's secretary and mistress, filled that role until the latter died in 1950. After the war, Arendt was able to return to Germany and renew her relationship with Weil, who made several visits to New York, especially after Blücher's death in 1970. Their last meeting was inTegna, Switzerlandin 1975, shortly before Arendt's death.With Fränkel's death, Mary McCarthy became Arendt's closest friend and confidante. Final illness and death Heinrich Blücher had survived acerebral aneurysmin 1961 and remained unwell after 1963, sustaining a series of heart attacks. On 31 October 1970, he died of a massive heart attack. A devastated Arendt had previously told Mary McCarthy, \"Life without him would be unthinkable\".Arendt was also a heavy smoker and was frequently depicted with a cigarette in her hand. She sustained a near-fatal heart attack while lecturing in Scotland in May 1974, and although she recovered, she remained in poor health afterward and continued to smoke.On the evening of 4 December 1975, shortly after her 69th birthday, she had a further heart attack inher apartmentwhile entertaining friends, and was pronounced dead at the scene.Her ashes were buried alongside those of Blücher at Bard College, inAnnandale-on-Hudson, New Yorkin May 1976. After Arendt's death the title page of the final part ofThe Life of the Mind(\"Judging\") was found in her typewriter, which she had just started, consisting of the title and two epigraphs. This has subsequently been reproduced in the edited version of herLectures on Kant's Political Philosophy.(seeimage). Work Arendt wrote works onintellectual historyas a political theorist, using events and actions to develop insights into contemporarytotalitarianmovements and the threat to human freedom presented by scientific abstraction and bourgeois morality. Intellectually, she was an independent thinker, a loner, not a \"joiner,\" separating herself from schools of thought or ideology.In addition to her major texts she published anthologies, includingBetween Past and Future(1961),Men in Dark Times(1968)andCrises of the Republic(1972).She also contributed to many publications, includingThe New York Review of Books,Commonweal,DissentandThe New Yorker.She is perhaps best known for her accounts ofAdolf Eichmannand his trial,because of the intense controversy that it generated. Political theory and philosophical system While Arendt never developed a systematic political theory and her writing does not easily lend itself to categorization, the tradition of thought most closely identified with Arendt is that ofcivic republicanism, from Aristotle toTocqueville. Her political concept is centered aroundactive citizenshipthat emphasizescivic engagementand collective deliberation.She believed that no matter how bad, government could never succeed in extinguishing human freedom, despite holding that modern societies frequently retreat from democratic freedom with its inherent disorder for the relative comfort of administrative bureaucracy. Some have claimed her political legacy is her strong defence of freedom in the face of an increasingly less than free world.She does not adhere to a single systematic philosophy, but rather spans a range of subjects covering totalitarianism, revolution, the nature of freedom and the faculties of thought and judgment. While she is best known for her work on \"dark times\",the nature of totalitarianism and evil, she imbued this with a spark of hope and confidence in the nature of mankind: That even in the darkest of times we have the right to expect some illumination, and that such illumination might well come less from theories and concepts than from the uncertain, flickering, and often weak light that some men and women, in their lives and their works, will kindle under almost all circumstances and shed over the time span that was given to them.Men in Dark Times(1968) Love and Saint Augustine(1929) Arendt's doctoral thesis,Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin. Versuch einer philosophischen Interpretation(Love and Saint Augustine. Towards a philosophical interpretation), was published in 1929 and attracted critical interest, although an English translation did not appear until 1996.In this work she combined approaches of both Heidegger and Jaspers. Arendt's interpretation of love in the work of Augustine deals with three concepts, love as craving or desire (Amor qua appetitus), love in the relationship between man (creatura) and creator (Creator – Creatura), and neighborly love (Dilectio proximi). Love as craving anticipates the future, while love for the Creator deals with the remembered past. Of the three,dilectio proximiorcaritasis perceived as the most fundamental, to which the first two are oriented, which she treats asvita socialis(social life) – the second of theGreat Commandments(orGolden Rule) \"Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself\" uniting and transcending the former.Augustine's influence (and Jaspers' views on his work) persisted in Arendt's writings for the rest of her life. Amor mundi – warum ist es so schwer, die Welt zu lieben?Love of the world – why is it so difficult to love the world? —DenktagebuchI: 522 Some of theleitmotifsof her canon were apparent, introducing the concept ofNatalität(Natality) as a key condition of human existence and its role in the development of the individual,developing this further inThe Human Condition(1958).She explained that the construct of natality was implied in her discussion of new beginnings and man's elation to the Creator asnova creatura.The centrality of the theme of birth and renewal is apparent in the constant reference to Augustinian thought, and specifically the innovative nature of birth, from this, her first work, to her last,The Life of the Mind. Love is another connecting theme. In addition to the Augustinian loves expostulated in her dissertation, the phraseamor mundi(love of the world) is one often associated with Arendt and both permeates her work and was an absorbing passion throughout her work.She took the phrase from Augustine's homily on thefirst epistle of St John, \"If love of the world dwell in us\".Amor mundiwas her original title forThe Human Condition(1958),the subtitle of Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's biography (1982),the title of a collection of writing on faith in her workand is the newsletter of the Hannah Arendt Center at Bard College. The Origins of Totalitarianism(1951) Arendt's first major book,The Origins of Totalitarianism(1951),examined the roots ofStalinismandNazism, structured as three essays, \"Antisemitism\", \"Imperialism\" and \"Totalitarianism\". Arendt argues that totalitarianism was a \"novel form of government,\" that \"differs essentially from other forms of political oppression known to us such as despotism, tyranny and dictatorship\"in that it applied terror to subjugate mass populations rather than just political adversaries.Arendt also maintained that Jewry was not the operative factor in the Holocaust, but merely a convenient proxy because Nazism was about terror and consistency, not merely eradicating Jews.Arendt explained the tyranny using Kant's phrase \"radical evil\",by which their victims became \"superfluous people\".In later editions she enlarged the textto include her work on \"Ideology and Terror: A novel form of government\"and theHungarian Revolution, but then published the latter separately. Criticism ofOriginshas often focused on its portrayal of the two movements, Hitlerism and Stalinism, as equally tyrannical. Rahel Varnhagen: The Life of a Jewess(1957) Arendt'sHabilitationsschrifton Rahel Varnhagen was completed while she was living in exile in Paris in 1938, but not published till 1957, in the United Kingdom by East and West Library, part of theLeo Baeck Institute.This biography of a 19th-century Jewish socialite, formed an important step in her analysis of Jewish history and the subjects ofassimilationandemancipation, and introduced her treatment of theJewish diasporaas eitherpariahorparvenu. In addition it represents an early version of her concept of history.The book is dedicated to Anne Mendelssohn, who first drew her attention to Varnhagen.Arendt's relation to Varnhagen permeates her subsequent work. Her account of Varnhagen's life was perceived during a time of the destruction of German-Jewish culture. It partially reflects Arendt's own view of herself as a German-Jewish woman driven out of her own culture into astatelessexistence,leading to the description \"biography as autobiography\". The Human Condition(1958) In what is arguably her most influential work,The Human Condition(1958),Arendt differentiates political and social concepts, labor and work, and various forms of actions; she then explores the implications of those distinctions. Her theory of political action, corresponding to the existence of a public realm, is extensively developed in this work. Arendt argues that, while human life always evolves within societies, the social part of human nature, political life, has been intentionally realized in only a few societies as a space for individuals to achieve freedom. Conceptual categories, which attempt to bridge the gap betweenontologicaland sociological structures, are sharply delineated. While Arendt relegates labor and work to the realm of the social, she favors the human condition of action as that which is both existential and aesthetic.Of human actions, Arendt identifies two that she considers essential. These are forgiving past wrong (or unfixing the fixed past) and promising future benefit (or fixing the unfixed future). Arendt had first introduced the concept of \"natality\" in herLove and Saint Augustine(1929)and inThe Human Conditionstarts to develop this further. In this, she departs from Heidegger's emphasis on mortality. Arendt's positive message is one of the \"miracle of beginning\", the continual arrival of the new to create action, that is to alter the state of affairs brought about by previous actions.\"Men\", she wrote \"though they must die, are not born in order to die but in order to begin\". She defined her use of \"natality\" as: The miracle that saves the world, the realm of human affairs, from its normal, \"natural\" ruin is ultimately the fact of natality, in which the faculty of action is ontologically rooted. It is, in other words, the birth of new men and the new beginning, the action they are capable of by virtue of being born. Natality would go on to become a central concept of her political theory, and also what Karin Fry considers its most optimistic one. Between Past and Future(1954...1968) Between Past and Futureis an anthology of eight essays written between 1954 and 1968, dealing with a variety of different but connected philosophical subjects. These essays share the central idea that humans live between the past and the uncertain future. Man must permanently think to exist, but must learn thinking. Humans have resorted to tradition, but are abandoning respect for this tradition and culture. Arendt tries to find solutions to help humans think again, since modern philosophy has not succeeded in helping humans to live correctly. On Revolution(1963) Arendt's bookOn Revolutionpresents a comparison of two of the main revolutions of the 18th century, theAmericanandFrenchRevolutions. She goes against a common impression of both Marxist andleftistviews when she argues that France, while well-studied and often emulated, was a disaster and that the largely ignored American Revolution was a success. The turning point in the French Revolution occurred when the leaders rejected their goals of freedom to focus on compassion for the masses. In the United States, the founders never betray the goal ofConstitutio Libertatis. Arendt believes the revolutionary spirit of those men had been lost, however, and advocates a \"council system\" as an appropriate institution to regain that spirit. Men in Dark Times(1968) The anthology of essaysMen in Dark Timespresents intellectual biographies of some creative and moral figures of the 20th century, such asWalter Benjamin,Karl Jaspers,Rosa Luxemburg,Hermann Broch,Pope John XXIII, andIsak Dinesen. Crises of the Republic(1972) Crises of the Republicwas the third of Arendt's anthologies, consisting of four essays. These related essays deal with contemporary American politics and the crises it faced in the 1960s and 1970s. \"Lying in Politics\" looks for an explanation behind the administration's deception regarding theVietnam War, as revealed in thePentagon Papers. \"Civil Disobedience\" examines the opposition movements, while the final \"Thoughts on Politics and Revolution\" is a commentary, in the form of an interview on the third essay, \"On Violence\".In \"On Violence\" Arendt substantiates that violence presupposes power which she understands as a property of groups. Thus, she breaks with the predominant conception of power as derived from violence. The Life of the Mind(1978) Arendt's last major work,The Life of the Mindremained incomplete at the time of her death in 1975, but marked a return to moral philosophy. The outline of the book was based on her graduate level political philosophy class,Philosophy of the Mind, and herGifford Lecturesin Scotland.She conceived of the work as a trilogy based on the mental activities of thinking, willing, and judging. Her most recent work had focused on the first two, but went beyond this in terms ofvita activa. Her discussion of thinking was based onSocratesand his notion of thinking as a solitary dialogue between oneself, leading her to novel concepts of conscience. Arendt died suddenly five days after completing the second part, with the first page of Judging still in her typewriter, and McCarthy then edited the first two parts and provided some indication of the direction of the third.Arendt's exact intentions for the third part are unknown but she left several manuscripts (such asThinking and Moral Considerations,Some Questions on Moral PhilosophyandLectures on Kant's Political Philosophy) relating to her thoughts on the mentalfaculty of Judging. These have since been published separately. Collected works After Arendt died in 1975, her essays and notes have continued to be collected, edited and published posthumously by friends and colleagues, mainly under the editorship of Jerome Kohn, including those that give some insight into the unfinished third part ofThe Life of the Mind.Some dealt with her Jewish identity.The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age(1978),is a collection of 15 essays and letters from the period 1943–1966 on the situation of Jews in modern times, to try and throw some light on her views on the Jewish world, following the backlash toEichmann, but proved to be equally polarizing.A further collection of her writings on being Jewish was published asThe Jewish Writings(2007).Her work on moral philosophy appeared asLectures on Kant's Political Philosophy(1982) andResponsibility and Judgment(2003), and her literary works asReflections on Literature and Culture(2007). Other work includes the collection of forty, largely fugitive,essays, addresses, and reviews covering the period 1930–1954, titledEssays in Understanding 1930–1954: Formation, Exile, and Totalitarianism(1994).These presaged her monumentalThe Origins of Totalitarianism,in particularOn the Nature of Totalitarianism(1953) andThe Concern with Politics in Contemporary European Philosophical Thought(1954).However these attracted little attention. However after a new version ofOrigins of Totalitarianismappeared in 2004 followed byThe Promise of Politicsin 2005 there appeared a new interest in Arendtiana. This led to a second series of her remaining essays,Thinking Without a Banister: Essays in Understanding, 1953–1975, published in 2018.Her notebooks which form a series of memoirs, were published asDenktagebuchin 2002. Correspondence Some further insight into her thinking is provided in the continuing posthumous publication of her correspondence with many of the important figures in her life, including Karl Jaspers (1992),Mary McCarthy (1995),Heinrich Blücher (1996),Martin Heidegger (2004),Alfred Kazin(2005),Walter Benjamin (2006),Gershom Scholem(2011)andGünther Stern(2016).Other correspondences that have been published include those with women friends such as Hilde Fränkel and Anne Mendelssohnn Weil (seeRelationships). Arendt and the Eichmann trial (1961–1963) In 1960, on hearing ofAdolf Eichmann'scapture and plans forhis trial, Hannah Arendt contactedThe New Yorkerand offered to travel to Israel to cover it when it opened on 11 April 1961.Arendt was anxious to test her theories, developed inThe Origins of Totalitarianism, and see how justice would be administered to the sort of man she had written about. Also she had witnessed \"little of the Nazi regime directly\"and this was an opportunity to witness an agent of totalitarianism first hand.The offer was accepted and she attended six weeks of the five-month trial with her young Israeli cousin,Edna Brocke.On arrival she was treated as a celebrity, meeting with the trial chief judge,Moshe Landau, and the foreign minister,Golda Meir.In her subsequent 1963 report,based on her observations and transcripts,and which evolved into the bookEichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil,Arendt coined the phrase \"thebanality of evil\" to describe the Eichmann phenomenon. She, like others,was struck by his very ordinariness and the demeanor he exhibited of a small, slightly balding, bland bureaucrat, in contrast to the horrific crimes he stood accused of.He was, she wrote, \"terribly and terrifyingly normal.\"She examined the question of whetherevilis radical or simply a function of thoughtlessness, a tendency of ordinary people to obey orders and conform to mass opinion without a critical evaluation of the consequences of their actions. Arendt's argument was that Eichmann was not a monster, contrasting the immensity of his actions with the very ordinariness of the man himself. Eichmann, she stated, not only called himself a Zionist, having initially opposed the Jewish persecution, but also expected his captors to understand him. She pointed out that his actions were not driven by malice, but rather blind dedication to the regime and his need to belong, to be a \"joiner.\" On this, Arendt would later state \"Going along with the rest and wanting to say 'we' were quite enough to make the greatest of all crimes possible\".What Arendt observed during the trial was a bourgeois sales clerk who found a meaningful role for himself and a sense of importance in the Nazi movement. She noted that his addiction to clichés and use of bureaucratic morality clouded his ability to question his actions, \"to think\". This led her to set out her most debated dictum: \"the lesson that this long course in human wickedness had taught us – the lesson of the fearsome, word-and-thought-defying banality of evil.\"By stating that Eichmann did not think, she did not imply lack of conscious awareness of his actions, but by \"thinking\" she implied reflective rationality, that was lacking. Arendt was critical of the way the trial was conducted by the Israelis as a \"show trial\" with ulterior motives other than simply trying evidence and administering justice.Arendt was also critical of the way Israel depicted Eichmann's crimes as crimes against a nation-state, rather than against humanity itself.She objected to the idea that a strong Israel was necessary to protect world Jewry being again placed where \"they'll let themselves be slaughtered like sheep,\" recalling thebiblical phrase.She portrayed the prosecutor,Attorney GeneralGideon Hausner, as employing hyperbolic rhetoric in the pursuit of Prime MinisterBen-Gurion's political agenda.Arendt, who believed she could maintain her focus on moral principles in the face of outrage, became increasingly frustrated with Hausner, describing his parade of survivors as having \"no apparent bearing on the case\".She was particularly concerned that Hausner repeatedly asked \"why did you not rebel?\"rather than question the role of the Jewish leaders.On this point, Arendt argued that duringthe Holocaustsome of them cooperated with Eichmann \"almost without exception\" in the destruction of their own people. These leaders, notablyM. C. Rumkowski, constituted the Jewish Councils (Judenräte).She had expressed concerns on this point prior to the trial.She described this as a moral catastrophe. While her argument was not to allocate blame, rather she mourned what she considered a moral failure of compromising the imperative that it is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong. She describes the cooperation of the Jewish leaders in terms of a disintegration of Jewish morality: \"This role of the Jewish leaders in the destruction of their own people is undoubtedly the darkest chapter in the whole dark story\". Widely misunderstood, this caused an even greater controversy and particularly animosity toward her in the Jewish community and in Israel.For Arendt, the Eichmann trial marked a turning point in her thinking in the final decade of her life, becoming increasingly preoccupied withmoral philosophy. Reception Arendt's five-part series \"Eichmann in Jerusalem\" appeared inThe New Yorkerin February 1963some nine months after Eichmann was hanged on 31 May 1962. By this time his trial was largely forgotten in the popular mind, superseded by intervening world events.However, no other account of either Eichmann or National Socialism has aroused so much controversy.Before its publication, Arendt was considered a brilliant humanistic original political thinker.Her mentor, Karl Jaspers, however, had warned her about a possible adverse outcome, \"The Eichmann trial will be no pleasure for you. I'm afraid it cannot go well\".On publication, three controversies immediately occupied public attention: the concept of Eichmann as banal, her criticism of the role of Israel and her description of the role played by the Jewish people themselves. Arendt was profoundly shocked by the response, writing to Karl Jaspers \"People are resorting to any means to destroy my reputation ... They have spent weeks trying to find something in my past that they can hang on me\". Now she was being called arrogant, heartless and ill-informed. She was accused of being duped by Eichmann, of being a \"self-hating Jewess\", and even an enemy of Israel.Her critics includedThe Anti-Defamation Leagueand many other Jewish groups, editors of publications she was a contributor to, faculty at the universities she taught at and friends from all parts of her life.Her friend Gershom Scholem, a major scholar ofJewish mysticism, broke off relations with her, publishing their correspondence without her permission.Arendt was criticized by many Jewish public figures, who charged her with coldness and lack of sympathy for the victims of the Holocaust. Because of this lingering criticism neither this book nor any of her other works were translated into Hebrew until 1999.Arendt responded to the controversies in the book's Postscript. Although Arendt complained that she was being criticized for telling the truth – \"what a risky business to tell the truth on a factual level without theoretical and scholarly embroidery\"– the criticism was largely directed to her theorizing on the nature of mankind and evil and that ordinary people were driven to commit the inexplicable not so much by hatred and ideology as ambition, and inability to empathize. Equally problematic was the suggestion that the victims deceived themselves and complied in their own destruction.Prior to Arendt's depiction of Eichmann, his popular image had been, asThe New York Timesput it \"the most evil monster of humanity\"and as a representative of \"an atrocious crime, unparalleled in history\", \"the extermination of European Jews\".As it turned out Arendt and others were correct in pointing out that Eichmann's characterization by the prosecution as the architect and chief technician of the Holocaust was not entirely credible. While much has been made of Arendt's treatment of Eichmann, Ada Ushpiz, in her 2015 documentaryVita Activa: The Spirit of Hannah Arendt,placed it in a much broader context of the use of rationality to explain seemingly irrational historical events. Kein Mensch hat das Recht zu gehorchen In an interview withJoachim Festin 1964,Arendt was asked about Eichmann's defense that he had made Kant's principle of the duty of obedience his guiding principle all his life. Arendt replied that that was outrageous and that Eichmann was misusing Kant, by not considering the element of judgement required in assessing one's own actions – \"Kein Mensch hat bei Kant das Recht zu gehorchen\" (No man has, according to Kant, the right to obey), she stated, paraphrasing Kant. The reference was to Kant'sDie Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft(Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason 1793) in which he states: Der Satz 'man muß Gott mehr gehorchen, als den Menschen' bedeutet nur, daß, wenn die letzten etwas gebieten, was an sich böse (dem Sittengesetz unmittelbar zuwider) ist, ihnen nicht gehorcht werden darf und soll(The saying, \"We must hearken to God, rather than to man,\" signifies no more than this, viz. that should any earthly legislation enjoin something immediately contradictory of the moral law, obedience is not to be rendered) Kant clearly defines a higher moral duty than rendering merely unto Caesar. Arendt herself had written in her book \"This was outrageous, on the face of it, and also incomprehensible, since Kant's moral philosophy is so closely bound up with man's faculty of judgment, which rules out blind obedience.\"Arendt's reply to Fest was subsequently corrupted to readNiemand hat das Recht zu gehorchen(No one has the right to obey), which has been widely reproduced, although it does encapsulate an aspect of her moral philosophy. The phraseNiemand hat das Recht zu gehorchenhas become one of her iconic images, appearing on the wall of the house in which she was born (seeCommemorations), among other places.Afascistbas-reliefon thePalazzo degli Uffici Finanziari(1942), in the Piazza del Tribunale,Bolzano, Italy celebratingMussolini, readCredere, Obbedire, Combattere(Believe, Obey, Combat).In 2017 it was altered to read Hannah Arendt's original words on obedience in the three official languages of the region. The phrase has been appearing in other artistic work featuring political messages, such as the 2015 installation by Wilfried Gerstel, which has evoked the concept of resistance to dictatorship, as expressed in her essay \"Personal Responsibility under Dictatorship\" (1964). List of selected publications Bibliographies Books Articles and essays Correspondence Posthumous Collections Miscellaneous Views In 1961, while covering the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem, Arendt wrote a letter toKarl Jaspersthat Adam Kirsch described as reflecting \"pure racism\" towardSephardic Jewsfrom the Middle East andAshkenazi Jewsfrom Eastern Europe. She wrote: Fortunately, Eichmann's three judges were of German origin, indeed the best of German Jewry. Hausner is a typical Galician Jew, still European, very unsympathetic... boring... constantly making mistakes. Probably one of those people who don't know any language. Everything is organized bya police forcewhich gives me the creeps, speaks only Hebrew, andlooks Arabic. Some downright brutal types among them. They would obey any order. And outside the doors, the oriental mob, as if one were in Istanbul or some other half-Asiatic country. Although Arendt remained aZionistboth during and after World War II, she made it clear that she favored the creation of a Jewish-Arab federated state inBritish Mandate of Palestine(now Israel and thePalestinian territories), rather than a purely Jewish state. She believed that this was a way to address Jewish statelessness and to avoid the pitfalls of nationalism. Accusations of racism It was not just Arendt's analysis of the Eichmann trial that drew accusations of racism. In her 1958 essay inDissenttitledReflections on Little Rockshe expressed opposition todesegregationfollowing the 1957Little Rock Integration Crisisin Arkansas. As she explains in the preface, for a long time the magazine was reluctant to print her contribution, so far did it appear to differ from the publication's liberal values. Eventually it was printed alongside critical responses. LaterThe New Yorkerwould express similar hesitancy over the Eichmann papers. So vehement was the response that Arendt felt obliged to defend herself in a sequel.The debate over this essay has continued since.William Simmons devotes a whole section of his 2011 text on human rights (Human Rights Law and the Marginalized Other)to a critique of Arendt's position and in particular on Little Rock.While many critics feel she was fundamentally racist,many of those who have defended Arendt's position have pointed out that her concerns were for the welfare of the children, a position she maintained throughout her life. She felt that white children were being thrown into a racially disharmonious \"jungle\" to serve a broader political strategy of forcible integration. While over time Arendt conceded some ground to her critics, namely that she argued as an outsider, she remained committed to her central critique that children should not be thrust into the front-lines of geopolitical conflict. Feminism Embraced byfeministsas a pioneer in a world dominated by men up to her time, Arendt did not call herself a feminist and would be very surprised to hear herself described as a feminist,remaining opposed to the social dimensions ofWomen's Liberation, urging independence, but always keeping in mindVive la petite différence!On becoming the first woman to be appointed a professor at Princeton in 1953, the media were much engaged in this exceptional achievement, but she never wanted to be seen as an exception, either as a woman (an \"exception woman\")or a Jew, stating emphatically \"I am not disturbed at all about being a woman professor, because I am quite used to being a woman\".In 1972, discussing women's liberation, she observed \"the real question to ask is, what will we lose if we win?\".She rather enjoyed what she saw as the privileges of being feminine as opposed to feminist, \"Intensely feminine and therefore no feminist\", stated Hans Jonas.Arendt considered some professions and positions unsuitable for women, particularly those involving leadership, tellingGünter Gaus\"It just doesn't look good when a woman gives orders\".Despite these views, and having been labelled \"anti-feminist\", much space has been devoted to examining Arendt's place in relation to feminism.In the last years of her life,Virginia Heldnoted that Arendt's views evolved with the emergence of anew feminism in America in the 1970sto recognize the importance of the women's movement. Critique of human rights InThe Origins of Totalitarianism, Hannah Arendt devotes a lengthy chapter (The Decline of the Nation-State and the End of the Rights of Man)to a critical analysis of human rights, in what has been described as \"the most widely read essay on refugees ever published\".Arendt is not skeptical of the notion of political rights in general, but instead defends a national or civil conception of rights.Human rights, or the Rights of Man as they were commonly called, are universal, inalienable, and possessed simply by virtue of being human. In contrast, civil rights are possessed by virtue of belonging to a political community, most commonly by being a citizen. Arendt's primary criticism of human rights is that they are ineffectual and illusory because their enforcement is in tension with national sovereignty.She argued that since there is no political authority above that of sovereign nations, state governments have little incentive to respect human rights when such policies conflict with national interests. This can be seen most clearly by examining the treatment of refugees and other stateless people. Since the refugee has no state to secure their civil rights, the only rights they have to fall back on are human rights. In this way Arendt uses the refugee as a test case for examining human rights in isolation from civil rights. Arendt's analysis draws on the refugee upheavals in the first half of the 20th century along with her own experience as a refugee fleeing Nazi Germany. She argued that as state governments began to emphasize national identity as a prerequisite for full legal status, the number of minority resident aliens increased along with the number of stateless persons whom no state was willing to recognize legally.The two potential solutions to the refugee problem, repatriation and naturalization, both proved incapable of solving the crisis. Arendt argued that repatriation failed to solve the refugee crisis because no government was willing to take them in and claim them as their own. When refugees were forcibly deported to neighboring countries, such immigration was deemed illegal by the receiving country, and so failed to change the fundamental status of the migrants as stateless. Attempts at naturalizing and assimilating refugees also had little success. This failure was primarily the result of resistance from both state governments and the majority of citizens, since both tended to see the refugees as undesirables who threatened their national identity. Resistance to naturalization also came from the refugees themselves who resisted assimilation and attempted to maintain their own ethnic and national identities.Arendt contends that neither naturalization nor the tradition of asylum was capable of handling the sheer number of refugees. Instead of accepting some refugees with legal status, the state often responded by denaturalizing minorities who shared national or ethnic ties with stateless refugees. Arendt argues that the consistent mistreatment of refugees, most of whom were placed in internment camps, is evidence against the existence of human rights. If the notion of human rights as universal and inalienable is to be taken seriously, the rights must be realizable given the features of the modern liberal state.She concluded \"The Rights of Man, supposedly inalienable, proved to be unenforceable–even in countries whose constitutions were based upon them–whenever people appeared who were no longer citizens of any sovereign state\".Arendt contends that they are not realizable because they are in tension with at least one feature of the liberal state—national sovereignty. One of the primary ways in which a nation exercises sovereignty is through control over national borders. State governments consistently grant their citizens free movement to traverse national borders. In contrast, the movement of refugees is often restricted in the name of national interests.This restriction presents a dilemma for liberalism because liberal theorists typically are committed to both human rights and the existence of sovereign nations. In one of her most quoted passages,she puts forward the concept that human rights are little more than an abstraction: The conception of human rights based upon the assumed existence of a human being as such broke down at the very moment when those who professed to believe in it were for the first time confronted with people who had indeed lost all other qualities and specific relationships – except that they were still human. The world found nothing sacred in the abstract nakedness of being human. In popular culture Several authors have written biographies that focus on the relationship between Hannah Arendt and Martin Heidegger.In 1999, the French feminist philosopherCatherine Clémentwrote a novel,Martin and Hannah,speculating on the triangular relationship between Heidegger and the two women in his life, Arendt and Heidegger's wife Elfriede Petri. In addition to the relationships, the novel is a serious exploration of philosophical ideas, that centers on Arendt's last meeting with Heidegger in Freiburg in 1975. The scene is based on Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's description inHannah Arendt: For Love of the World(1982),but reaches back to their childhoods, and Heidegger's role in encouraging the relationship between the two women.The novel explores Heidegger's embrace of Nazism as a proxy for that of Germany and, as in Arendt's treatment of Eichmann, the difficult relationship between collective guilt and personal responsibility. Clément also brings Hannah's other mentor and confidante, Karl Jaspers, into the matrix of relationships. In 2012 the German film,Hannah Arendt, directed byMargarethe von Trottawas released. The film, withBarbara Sukowain the title role, depicted the controversy over Arendt's coverage of the Eichmann trial inThe New Yorkerand her subsequent book,Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, in which she was widely misunderstood as defending Eichmann and blaming Jewish leaders for the Holocaust.In 2015, the filmmaker Ada Ushpiz produced a documentary on Hannah Arendt,Vita Activa: The Spirit of Hannah Arendt.In the 2023 TV seriesTransatlantic, Arendt is portrayed byAlexa Karolinski. Legacy Hannah Arendt is considered one of the most influential political philosophers of the 20th century.In 1998Walter Laqueurstated \"No twentieth-century philosopher and political thinker has at the present time as wide an echo\", as philosopher, historian, sociologist and also journalist.Arendt's legacy has been described as a cult.In a 2016 review of a documentary about Arendt, the journalist A. O. Scott describes Hannah Arendt as \"of unmatched range and rigor\" as a thinker, although she is primarily known for the series of articles known asEichmann in Jerusalemthat she wrote forThe New Yorker, and in particular for the one phrase \"the banality of evil\". She shunned publicity, never expecting, as she explained to Karl Jaspers in 1951, to see herself as a \"cover girl\" on the newsstands.In Germany, there are tours available of sites associated with her life. The study of the life and work of Hannah Arendt, and of her political and philosophical theory is described asArendtian.In her will she established the Hannah Arendt Bluecher Literary Trust as the custodian of her writings and photographs.Her personal library was deposited at Bard College at the Stevenson Library in 1976, and includes approximately 4,000 books,ephemera, and pamphlets from Arendt's last apartment as well as her desk (in McCarthy House).The college has begun archiving some of the collection digitally, which is available at The Hannah Arendt Collection.Most of her papers were deposited at theLibrary of Congressand her correspondence with her German friends and mentors, such as Heidegger, Blumenfeld and Jaspers, at theDeutsches Literaturarchivin Marbach.The Library of Congress listed more than 50 books written about her in 1998, and that number has continued to grow, as have the number of scholarly articles, estimated as 1000 at that time. Her life and work is recognized by the institutions most closely associated with her teaching, by the creation of Hannah Arendt Centers at both Bard (Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities)and The New School,both in New York State. In Germany, her contributions to understanding authoritarianism is recognised by the Hannah-Arendt-Institut für Totalitarismusforschung (Hannah Arendt Institute for the Research on Totalitarianism) inDresden. There are Hannah Arendt Associations (Hannah Arendt Verein)such as the Hannah Arendt Verein für politisches Denken inBrementhat awards the annual Hannah-Arendt-Preis für politisches Denken (Hannah Arendt Prize for Political Thinking) established in 1995. InOldenburg, the Hannah Arendt Center atCarl von Ossietzky Universitywas established in 1999,and holds a large collection of her work (Hannah Arendt Archiv),and administers theinternet portalHannahArendt.net(A Journal for Political Thinking)as well as a monograph series, theHannah Arendt-Studien.In Italy, the Hannah Arendt Center for Political Studies is situated at theUniversity of Veronafor Arendtian studies. In 2017 a journal,Arendt Studies, was launched to publish articles related to the study of the life, work, and legacy of Hannah Arendt.Many places associated with her, have memorabilia of her on display, such as her student card at the University of Heidelberg (see image).2006, the centennial of her birth, saw commemorations of her work in conferences and celebrations around the world. Of the many photographic portraits of Arendt, that taken in 1944 byFred Stein(seeimage), whose work she greatly admired,has become iconic, and has been described as better known than the photographer himself,having appeared on a German postage stamp.(seeimage) Among organizations that have recognized Arendt's contributions to civilization and human rights, is theUnited Nations Refugee Agency(UNHCR). Contemporaryinterest The rise ofnativism, such as the election ofDonald Trumpin the United States,and concerns regarding an increasingly authoritarian style of governance has led to a surge of interest in Arendt and her writings,including radio broadcastsand writers, includingJeremy Adelmanand Zoe Williams,to revisit Arendt's ideas to seek the extent to which they inform our understanding of such movements,which are being described as \"Dark Times\".At the same timeAmazonreported that it had sold out of copies ofThe Origins of Totalitarianism(1951).Michiko Kakutanihas addressed what she refers to as \"the death of truth\".In her 2018 book,The Death of Truth: Notes on Falsehood in the Age of Trump, she argues that the rise of totalitarianism has been founded on the violation of truth. She begins her book with an extensive quote fromThe Origins of Totalitarianism: The ideal subject of totalitarian rule is not the convinced Nazi or the convinced communist, but people for whom the distinction between fact and fiction (i.e., the reality of experience) and the distinction between true and false (i.e., the standards of thought) no longer exist. Kakutani and others believed that Arendt's words speak not just events of a previous century but apply equally to the contemporary cultural landscapepopulated withfake newsand lies. She also draws on Arendt's essay \"Lying in Politics\" fromCrises in the Republicpointing to the lines: The historian knows how vulnerable is the whole texture of facts in which we spend our daily life; it is always in danger of being perforated by single lies or torn to shreds by the organized lying of groups, nations, or classes, or denied and distorted, often carefully covered up by reams of falsehoods or simply allowed to fall into oblivion. Facts need testimony to be remembered and trustworthy witnesses to be established in order to find a secure dwelling place in the domain of human affairs Arendt drew attention to the critical role that propaganda plays ingaslightingpopulations, Kakutani observes, citing the passage: In an ever-changing, incomprehensible world the masses had reached the point where they would, at the same time, believe everything and nothing, think that everything was possible and that nothing was true . ... The totalitarian mass leaders based their propaganda on the correct psychological assumption that, under such conditions, one could make people believe the most fantastic statements one day, and trust that if the next day they were given irrefutable proof of their falsehood, they would take refuge in cynicism; instead of deserting the leaders who had lied to them, they would protest that they had known all along that the statement was a lie and would admire the leaders for their superior tactical cleverness Arendt took a broader perspective on history than merely totalitarianism in the early 20th century, stating \"the deliberate falsehood and the outright lie have been used as legitimate means to achieve political ends since the beginning of recorded history.\"Contemporary relevance is also reflected in the increasing use of the phrase, attributed to her, \"No one has the right to obey\" to reflect that actions result from choices, and hence judgement, and that we cannot disclaim responsibility for that which we have the power to act upon.In addition those centers established to promote Arendtian studies continue to seek solutions to a wide range of contemporary issues in her writing. Arendt's teachings on obedience have also been linked to the controversial psychology experiments byStanley Milgram, that implied that ordinary people can easily be induced to commit atrocities.Milgram himself drew attention to this in 1974, stating that he was testing the theory that Eichmann like others would merely follow orders, but unlike Milgram she argued that actions involve responsibility. Arendt's theories on the political consequences of how nations deal with refugees have remained relevant and compelling. Arendt had observed first hand the displacement of large stateless and rightsless populations, treated not so much as people in need than as problems to solve, and in many cases, resist.She wrote about this in her 1943 essay \"We refugees\".Another Arendtian theme that finds an echo in contemporary society is her observation, inspired by Rilke, of the despair of not being heard, the futility of tragedy that finds no listener that can bring comfort, assurance and intervention. An example of this being gun violence in America and the resulting political inaction. In Search of the Last Agora, an illustrated documentary film by Lebanese director Rayyan Dabbous about Hannah Arendt's 1958 workThe Human Condition, was released in 2018 to mark the book's 50th anniversary. Screened at Bard College, the experimental film is described as finding \"new meaning in the political theorist's conceptions of politics, technology and society in the 1950s\", particularly in her prediction of abuses of phenomena unknown in Arendt's time, including social media, intense globalization, and obsessive celebrity culture. Commemorations Hannah Arendt's life and work continue to be commemorated in many different ways, including plaques (Gedenktafeln) indicating places she has lived. Public places and institutions bear her name,including schools.There is also a Hannah Arendt Day (Hannah Arendt Tag) in her birthplace.Objects named after her vary fromasteroidsto trainsand she has been commemorated in stamps. Museums and foundations include her name. See also Notes References Sources Articles (journals and proceedings) Rahel Varnhagen Special issues and proceedings Audiovisual Books and monographs Autobiography and biography Critical works Historical Chapters and contributions Dictionaries and encyclopedias Magazines Newspapers Theses Websites Biography and timelines Institutions, locations and organizations Hannah Arendt Center (Bard) Maps External images Further reading External links",
"Bard College Bard Collegeis aprivateliberal arts collegein the hamlet ofAnnandale-on-Hudson, in the town ofRed Hook, inNew York State. The campus overlooks theHudson RiverandCatskill Mountainswithin theHudson River Historic District—aNational Historic Landmark. Founded in 1860, the institution consists of a liberal arts college and aconservatory, as well as eight graduate programs offering over 20 graduate degrees in the arts and sciences.The college has a network of over 35 affiliated programs, institutes, and centers, spanning twelvecities, fivestates, sevencountries, and fourcontinents. History Origins and early years During much of the nineteenth century, the land since owned by Bard was mainly composed of severalcountry estates. These estates were called Blithewood, Bartlett, Sands, Cruger's Island, and Ward Manor/Almont. In 1853,John Bardand Margaret Bard purchased a part of the Blithewood estate and renamed it Annandale. John Bard was the grandson ofSamuel Bard, a prominent doctor, a founder ofColumbia University'smedical school, andphysiciantoGeorge Washington.John Bard was also the nephew of John McVickar, a professor atColumbia University. The family had strong connections with theEpiscopal Churchand Columbia. The following year, in 1854, John and Margaret established aparish schoolon their estate in order to educate the area's children. A wood-framecottage, known today as Bard Hall, served as a school on weekdays and achapelon weekends. In 1857, the Bards expanded theparishby building the Chapel of the Holy Innocents next to Bard Hall.During this time, John Bard remained in close contact with the New York leaders of the Episcopal Church. The church suggested that he found atheological college. With the promise of outside financial support, John Bard donated the unfinished chapel, and the surrounding 18 acres (7.3 ha), to the diocese in November 1858. In March 1860,St. Stephen's Collegewas founded. In 1861, construction began on the first St. Stephen's College building, a stonecollegiate Gothicdormitorycalled Aspinwall, after earlytrusteeJohn Lloyd Aspinwall, brother ofWilliam Henry Aspinwall. During its initial years, the college relied on wealthy benefactors, like trusteeCornelius Vanderbilt, for funding. The college began taking shape within four decades. In 1866, Ludlow Hall, an administrative building, was erected. Preston Hall was built in 1873 and used as a refectory. A set of four dormitories, collectively known as Stone Row, were completed in 1891. And in 1895, theGreek RevivalHoffman Memorial Library was built.The school officially changed its name to Bard College in 1934 in honor of its founder. Growth and secularization In the 20th century, social and cultural changes amongst New York'shigh societywould bring about the demise of the great estates. In 1914, Louis Hamersley purchased the fire-damaged Ward Manor/Almont estate and erected aTudor stylemansion and gatehouse, or what is today known as Ward Manor.Hamersley expanded his estate in 1926 by acquiring the abandoned Cruger's Island estate. That same year, after Hamersley's combined estate was purchased by William Ward, it was donated to charity and served as a retirement home for almost four decades. By the mid-1900s, Bard's campus significantly expanded. The Blithewood estate was donated to the college in 1951, and in 1963, Bard purchased 90 acres (36 ha) of the Ward Manor estate, including the main manor house. The rest of the Ward Manor estate became the 900-acre (360 ha) Tivoli Baysnature preserve. In 1919,Bernard Iddings Bellbecame Bard's youngest president at the age of 34. His adherence to classical education, decorum, and dress eventually clashed with the school's push towardsDeweyismand secularization, and he resigned in 1933. In 1928, Bard merged withColumbia University, serving as an undergraduate school similar toBarnard College. Under the agreement, Bard remained affiliated with the Episcopal Church and retained control of its finances. The merger raised Bard's prestige; however, it failed to provide financial support to the college during theGreat Depression.So dire was Bard's financial situation that in 1932, then-Governor of New York and College trusteeFranklin D. Rooseveltsent a telegram to the likes ofJohn D. Rockefeller Jr.,George EastmanandFrederick William Vanderbiltrequesting donations for the college. On May 26, 1933,Donald Tewksbury, a Columbia professor, was appointed dean of the college. Although dean for only four years, Tewksbury had a lasting impact on the school. Tewksbury, an educational philosopher, had extensive ideas regarding higher education. While he was dean, Tewksbury steered the college into a more secular direction and changed its name from St. Stephen's to Bard. He also placed a heavy academic emphasis on the arts, something atypical of colleges at the time, and set the foundations for Bard's Moderation and Senior Project requirement.While Tewksbury never characterized Bard's curriculum as \"progressive,\" the school would later be considered an early adopter of progressive education. In his 1943 study of early progressive colleges, titledGeneral Education in the Progressive College,Louis T. Benezetused Bard as one of his threecase studies. During the 1940s, Bard provided a haven for intellectual refugees fleeing Europe. These includedHannah Arendt, the political theorist,Stefan Hirsch, theprecisionistpainter;Felix Hirsch, the political editor of theBerliner Tageblatt; the violinist Emil Hauser; the linguistHans Marchand; the noted psychologist Werner Wolff; and the philosopherHeinrich Blücher.Arendt is buried at Bard, alongside her husband Heinrich Blücher, as is eminent novelistPhilip Roth. In 1944, as a result ofWorld War II, enrollment significantly dropped putting financial stress on the college. In order to increase enrollment, the college became co-educational, thereby severing all ties with Columbia. The college became an independent, secular, institution in 1944. Thus enrollment more than doubled, from 137 students in 1944, to 293 in 1947.In the 1950s, with the addition of the Blithewood estate and Tewksbury Hall, the college would increase its enrollment by 150 students. Late twentieth and early twenty-first century Donald FagenandWalter Becker's experiences at Bard prompted them to write the 1973 song \"My Old School\" for their rock group,Steely Dan.The song was motivated by the 1969 drug bust at Bard in which the college administration colluded.The DA involved wasG. Gordon LiddyofWatergatenotoriety.Fagen wrote another Steely Dan song, \"Rikki Don't Lose That Number\", about novelist, artist and former Bard faculty spouseRikki Ducornet. In 2020, Bard College andCentral European Universitybecame the founding members of the Open Society University Network, a collaborative global education initiative endowed with US$1 billion. As part of this new initiative, the college received a US$100 million gift from theOpen Society Foundationswhich ranks among the largest financial contributions to a U.S. institution in recent history.In 2021, philanthropistGeorge Sorosmade a $500 million endowment pledge to Bard College. It is one of the largest pledges of money ever made to higher education in the United States. In June 2021, Bard College was declared an \"undesirable institution\" in Russia, becoming the first international higher education organization to be branded with this designation.Bard president Botstein hypothesized that this tag was due their association with and funding from theOpen Society Foundationswhich was also classified as undesirable in Russia andrelated conspiracy theories about George Soros. College leaders At various times, the leaders of the college have been titled president, warden or dean.They are listed below: Campus The campus of Bard College is inAnnandale-on-Hudson, ahamletinDutchess County, New York, United States, in the town ofRed Hook. It contains more than 70 buildings with a total gross building space of 1,167,090 sq ft (108,426 m2) and was listed as a census-designated place in 2020.Campus buildings represent variedarchitectural styles, but the campus remains heavily influenced by theCollegiate GothicandPostmodernstyles. Bard's historic buildings are associated with the early development of the college and the history of the Hudson River estates (see Bard College History).During a late twentieth-century building boom, the college embraced a trend of building signature buildings designed by prominent architects likeVenturi,Gehry, andViñoly. In January 2016, Bard purchasedMontgomery Place, a 380-acre (150 ha) estate adjacent to the Bard campus, with significant historic and cultural assets. The estate consists of a historic mansion, a farm, and some 20 smaller buildings. The college purchased the property from Historic Hudson Valley, the historical preservation organization that had owned Montgomery Place since the late 1980s. The addition of this property brings Bard's total campus size to nearly 1,000 acres (400 ha) along the Hudson River inAnnandale-on-Hudson, New York. In late 2023, Bard purchased 260 acres of land adjacent to theMontgomery Placecampus inBarrytown, which used to be the campus of theUnification Theological Seminary. The property, originally owned by theLivingstonand laterAspinwallfamilies, features a mansion designed byWilliam Appleton Potter. It was acquired by theDe La Salle Brothersin 1928, who completed a largeseminaryandnormal institutethere in 1931. In turn, the property was sold in 1974 to theUnification Church.Bard intends to use the space to provide new studios for the Center for Human Rights and the Arts and administrative offices for theOpen Society University Network (OSUN), of which Bard is a founding member. The purchase of the property brings Bard's total acreage to 1260 acres (510 ha). The area around the campus first appeared as acensus-designated place(CDP) in the 2020 Census,with a population of 358. The college has an amount of housing for faculty members.School-age dependents in this faculty housing are in theRed Hook Central School District(the CDP is within this school district). Academics Rankings and awards In its 2022-2023 edition of college rankings,U.S. News & World Reportranked Bard 60th overall, 5th in \"Most Innovative Schools\", tied at 38th for \"Best Undergraduate Teaching\", tied at #70 in \"Top Performers on Social Mobility\", tied at #19 in \"First-Year Experiences\", and 19th for \"Best Value\" out of 210 \"National Liberal Arts Colleges\" in the United States. Bard's Master of Fine Arts program was ranked one of ten most influential Master of Fine Arts programs in the world byArtspace Magazinein 2023. Bard has been named a top producer of U.S.FulbrightScholars.Many Bard alumni have also been namedWatson Fellows,Critical Language Scholarshiprecipients,Davis Projects for Peacewinners,Rhodes Scholars,Marshall Scholars, andPeace Corpsfellows, among other postgraduate awards. Undergraduate programs In the undergraduate college, Bard offersBachelor of ArtsandBachelor of Sciencedegrees. There are 23 academic departments that offer over 40major programs, as well as 12 interdisciplinaryconcentrations. The college was the first in the nation to offer ahuman rightsmajor.Its most popular undergraduate majors, based on 2021 graduates, were: In the three weeks preceding their first semester, first-year students attend the Language and Thinking (L&T) program, an intensive, writing-centered introduction to the liberal arts. The interdisciplinary program, established in 1981, aims to \"cultivate habits of thoughtful reading and discussion, clear articulation, accurate self-critique, and productive collaboration.\"The program coversphilosophy,history,science,poetry,fiction, andreligion. In 2011, the core readings included works byHannah Arendt,Franz Kafka,Frans de Waal,Stephen Jay Gould,Clifford Geertz,M. NourbeSe Philip, andSophocles. The capstone of the Bard undergraduate experience is the Senior Project, commonly referred to as SPROJ amongst its students.As with moderation, this project takes different forms in different departments. Many students write a paper of around eighty pages, which is then, as with work for moderation, critiqued by a board of three professors. Arts students must organize a series of concerts, recitals, or shows, or produce substantial creative work; math and science students, as well as some social science students, undertake research projects. Undergraduate admissions For the academic year 2022-2023, Bard's acceptance rate stands at 46%. Out of the total 6,482 students who applied, 2,982 were admitted to the school.For the 2022–2023 academic year 447 students enrolled representing a yield rate of 15%. Admission trends note a 25% increase in applications in the 2022–2023 academic year.Bard does not require applicants to submit SAT or ACT test scores in order to apply.As an alternative, applicants may take an examination composed of 19 essay questions in four categories: Social Studies; Languages and Literature; Arts; and Science, Mathematics, and Computing, with applicants required to complete three 2,500-word essays covering three of the four categories.For admitted students who submitted test scores, 50% had an SAT score between 1296 and 1468 or an ACT score between 28 and 33, with a reported average GPA of 3.79. Admissions officials consider a student's GPA a very important academic factor. Honors,AP, andIBclasses are important, an applicant's high school class rank is considered, and letters of recommendation are considered very important for admissions officials at Bard. Graduate programs Bard College offers a range of postgraduate degree programs, including theBard MFA,Bard Graduate Center,Center for Curatorial Studies, Center for Human Rights and the Arts, Center for Environmental Policy, Bard MBA in Sustainability,Levy Economics Institute, and the Master of Arts in Teaching. Bard MFA Milton Avery Graduate School of the Artsis a nontraditional graduate school for interdisciplinary study in the visual and creative arts. The program takes place over two years and two months, with students residing on campus during three consecutive summers, and two winter sessions of independent study completed off campus.Notable artists and writers that have been affiliated with the Bard MFA as faculty and visiting artists includeMarina Abramovic,Eileen Myles,Paul Chan,Robert Kelly,Tony Conrad,Okkyung Lee,Yto Barrada,Carolee Schneemann,Lynne Tillman, andBen Lerner. Bard Graduate Center The Bard Graduate Center: Decorative Arts, Design History, Material Cultureis a graduate research institute and gallery located in New York City. Established in 1993, the institute offers a two-year MA program and a PhD program that began in 1998. The institute's facilities include a gallery space at 18 West 86th Street and an academic building with a library at 38 West 86th Street. Center for Curatorial Studies The Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College(CCS Bard) established in 1990, is a museum and research center dedicated to the study of contemporary art and exhibition practices from the 1960s to the present. In 1994, CCS Bard launched its (MA) Master of Arts in Curatorial Studies program.The center also hosts public events throughout the year including lectures and panel discussions on topics in contemporary art. The museum, spanning an area of 55,000 square feet, offers a variety of exhibitions accessible to the general public throughout the year. It houses two distinct collections, the CCS Bard Collection and the Marieluise Hessel collection, which has been loaned to CCS Bard on a permanent basis. Artists such asKeith Haring,Julian Schnabel,Wolfgang Tillmans,Stephen Shore, andCindy Sherman, among numerous others, are featured within these collections. The CCS Bard Library is a research collection for contemporary art with a focus on post-1960s contemporary art, curatorial practice, exhibition histories, theory, and criticism. in 2023 historianRobert Storrdonated over 25,000 volumes to the Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College, nearly doubling the total collection size to 63,000 volumes.Other noteworthy contributors includeLouise Bourgeois,Yto Barrada,Leon Golub,Jenny Holzer,Gerhard Richter, andRachel Whiteread. In 2022 CCS Bard received $50 million from a $25 million donation from the Gochman Family Foundation to form a Center for American and Indigenous Studies at CCS Bard and a matching donation of $25 million fromGeorge Soros.This followed two 2021 gifts of $25 million, one from Marieluise Hessel and a matching donation from Soros. Center for Human Rights & the Arts The Center for Human Rights & the Arts at Bard College is an interdisciplinary research institution dedicated to exploring the intersection of art and human rights. The center is affiliated with theOpen Society University Network (OSUN). The center's flagship initiative is the Master of Arts program in Human Rights & the Arts.The center includes initiatives such as resident research fellowships, research grants, artist commissions, public talks, accessible publications, and a biennial arts festival organized in partnership with theFisher Center at Bardand other OSUN institutions and art venues worldwide. Center for Environmental Policy The Center for Environmental Policy (CEP) at Bard College is a research institution offering a range of graduate degree programs focused on environmental policy, climate science, and environmental education. The CEP offers a series of graduate degrees including the Master of Science in Environmental Policy and Master of Education. In addition to these individual degree programs, CEP offers dual-degree options that allow students to combine their environmental studies with programs in law or business. Levy Economics Institute Levy Economics Instituteis a public policy think tank focused on generating public policy responses to economic problems. Through research, analysis, and informed debate, the institute aims to enable scholars and leaders from business, labor, and government to collaborate on common interest issues.The institute's findings are disseminated globally through various channels, including publications, conferences, seminars, congressional testimony, and partnerships with other nonprofits. Its research encompasses a wide range of topics, including stock-flow consistent macro modeling,fiscal policy,monetary policyandfinancial structure,financial instability,income and wealth distribution,financial regulation and governance, gender equality and time poverty, and immigration/ethnicity and social structure.The Levy Economics Institute is particularly known for its research inheterodox economics, with a focus onPost-KeynesianandMarxianeconomics. It is additionally recognized as the leading research center for the study ofModern Monetary Theory(MMT). Notable individuals that have been affiliated with the Levy Economics Institute as professors, directors, and economists includeJoseph Stiglitz,Hyman Minsky,William Julius Wilson,L. Randall Wray,Jan Kregel,Bruce C. Greenwald,Dimitri B. Papadimitriou,Lakshman Achuthan,Warren Mosler,Stephanie Kelton,Bill Mitchell, andPavlina R. Tcherneva. Endowment Bard has access to multiple, distinct endowments. Bard, along withCentral European University, is a founding member of theOpen Society University Network, endowed with $1 billion from philanthropistGeorge Soros, which is a network of universities to operate throughout the world to better prepare students for current and future global challenges through integrated teaching and research.Bard maintains its own endowment of approximately $412 million. In July 2020, Bard received a gift of $100 million from theOpen Society Foundations, which will dispense $10 million yearly over a period of ten years.In April 2021, Bard received a $500 million endowment challenge grant from George Soros. Once matched, on a five-year timeline, Bard will have an endowment of more than $1 billion. Programs, centers, and associated institutes Bard has developed several innovativegraduate programs and research institutes, including theMilton Avery Graduate School of the Arts, theLevy Economics Institutewhich began offering a Masters of Science in Economic Theory and Policy in 2014, theCenter for Curatorial Studies and Art in Contemporary Culture, the Bard Center for Environmental Policy, theBard College Conservatory of Music, the ICP-Bard Program in Advanced Photographic Studies in Manhattan,the Master of Arts in Teaching Program (MAT), theBard College Clemente Program, and theBard Graduate CenterinManhattan. In 1990, Bard College acquired, on permanent loan, art collector Marieluise Hessel's substantial collection of important contemporary artwork. In 2006, Hessel contributed another $8 million (USD) for the construction of a 17,000-square-foot addition to Bard's Center for Curatorial Studies building, in which the collection is exhibited. TheBard Prison Initiative(BPI) provides a liberal arts degree to incarcerated individuals (prison education) in five prisons in New York State, and enrolls nearly 200 students.Since federal funding for prison education programs was eliminated in 1994,BPI is one of only a small number of programs of its kind in the country. Bard awards the Bard Fiction Prize annually to \"a promising emerging writer who is an American citizen aged 39 years or younger at the time of application\". The prize is $30,000 and an appointment as writer-in-residence at the college. TheHannah ArendtCenter for Politics and Humanities is located at Bard College. The center hosts an annual public conference, offers courses, runs various related academic programs, and houses research fellows. In February 2009, Bard announced the first dual degree program between aPalestinianuniversity and an American institution of higher education. The college entered into a collaboration withAl-Quds Universityinvolving an honors college, a master's program in teaching and a model high school. In accordance with AlQuds-Bard requirements, students are not allowed to decide their major during the first year of their studies; instead, as a liberal arts college, students are advised to diverge in different classes that would allow them to decide what program they would like to take interest in as in the following year. Students are encouraged to look upon different classes to help them decide the subject they would mostly enjoy studying. Bard gives students the opportunity to dissect different programs before committing to a specific major. As a policy, throughout a student's undergraduate years, they must distribute their credits among different courses so that they can liberally experience the different courses Bard has to offer. In June 2011, Bard officially acquired theLongy School of MusicinCambridge, Massachusetts,and in November 2011, Bard took ownership of the European College of Liberal Arts inBerlin, Germany, to becomeBard College Berlin. In 2013, Bard entered into a comprehensive agreement withSoochow UniversityinSuzhou, China, that will include a joint program between theSoochow University School of Musicand the Bard College Conservatory of Music, exploration leading to the establishment of The Bard College Liberal Arts Academy at Soochow University, and student exchange. In 2020, Bard announced that through the new Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Advanced Achievement Scholars program the college will offer admission to high school juniors within 120 miles from the college based on an essay process based on the popular Bard Entrance Exam, first launched in 2013. Student life Over 120 student clubs are financed through Bard's Convocation Fund, which is distributed once a semester by an elected student body and ratified during a public forum.Bard College has one print newspaper, theBard Free Press, which was awarded a Best in Show title by theAssociated Collegiate Pressin 2013.In 2003, theBard Free Presswon Best Campus Publication inSPIN Magazine'sfirst annual Campus Awards.Student-run literary magazines include the semiannualLux, The Moderator,andSui Generis, a journal of translations and of original poetry in languages other than English.The Draft, a human rights journal, theBard Journal of the Social Sciences,Bard Science Journal, andQualia, a philosophy journal, are also student-published.Bard Papersis a privately funded literary magazine operated jointly between faculty and students. Other prominentstudent groups include: the International Students Organization (ISO), Afropulse, Latin American Student Organization (LASO), Caribbean Student Association (CSA), Asian Student Organization (ASO), Bard Musical Theatre Company (BMTC), Black Student Organization (BSO), Anti-Capitalism Feminist Coalition, Body Image Discussion Group, Self-Injury Support and Discussion, Bard Film Committee, Queer Student Association, Trans Life Collective, The Scale Project, Student Labor Dialogue, Bard Debate Union, Bard Model UN, Surrealist Training Circus, Bard Bike Co-Op, Bard Bars, Bard POC Theater Ensemble, andcollege radiostation WXBC.WXBC was founded in 1947.In 2006, WXBC was nominated for \"Station of the Year\" and \"Biggest Improvement\" in theCMJCollege Radio Awards. Bard has a strong independent music scene considering its isolation and size.The college's Old Gym was once a popular location for concerts and parties in the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s. In 2004, the Old Gym was shut down and in spring 2006 transformed into a student-run theater by students Brel Froebe, Julie Rossman, and Kell Condon.Many activities that once took place there, occur in the smaller SMOG building. SMOG is primarily used as a music venue featuring student-run bands. Athletics Bard College teams participate as a member of theNational Collegiate Athletic Association'sDivision III. The Raptors are a member of theLiberty League. Prior conference affiliations include theSkyline Conferenceand the former Hudson Valley Athletic Conference. Women's sports includebasketball,cross country,lacrosse,soccer,swimming&diving,tennis,track & field,volleyballandsquash. Men's sports includebaseball, basketball, cross country, soccer, squash, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball. One of the more popular club sports on campus isrugby.Bard College Rugby Football Club fields men's and women's teams that compete in the Tristate Conference, affiliated withNational Collegiate Rugby. Additionalclub sportsinclude:ultimate frisbee,fencing, andequestrian. Alumni and faculty Notable alumni Notable alumni of Bard include fraternal songwritersRichard M. ShermanandRobert B. Sherman,comedian and actorChevy Chase(1968);Walter BeckerandDonald FagenofSteely Dan(1969);actorsBlythe Danner(1965),Adrian Grenier,Gaby Hoffmann,,Mia Farrow(did not graduate)Jonah Hill(did not graduate),Ezra Miller(did not graduate),Griffin Gluck(Did Not Graduate) andLarry Hagman(did not graduate);filmmakersGia Coppola,Todd Haynes(MFA),Sadie Bennings(MFA),andLana Wachowski(did not graduate);photographerHerb Ritts;actor and directorChristopher Guest;songwriterBilly Steinberg;theater directorAnne Bogart;screenwriterHoward E. Koch;writerDavid Cote;comediansAdam ConoverandRaphael Bob-Waksberg;fashion designerTom Ford(did not graduate),classical composerBruce Wolosoff;journalistRonan Farrow;writer and social theoristAlbert Jay Nock;Adam Yauchof theBeastie Boys(did not graduate);and artistsTschabalala Self,andFrances Bean Cobain(did not graduate). Notable faculty Among the college's most well-known former faculty areToni Morrison,Heinrich Blücher,Hannah Arendt,Roy Lichtenstein,Mary McCarthy,.Arthur Penn,,Nathan Thrall,Vik Muniz,Mitch Epstein,Larry Fink,John Ashbery,Richard Teitelbaum,Mary Lee Settle(part time),Andre Aciman,Orhan Pamuk,Chinua Achebe,Charles Burnett,Bill T. Jones,andAlexander Soros.Notable current faculty, as of 2024,includeStephen Shore,An-My Lê,Neil Gaiman,Jeffrey GibsonGilles Peress,John Ryle,Tan Dun,Walid Raad,Daniel Mendelsohn,Thomas Chatterton Williams,Hua Hsu,Kobena Mercer,Joseph O’Neill,Ian Buruma,Judy Pfaff,Joan Tower,Walter Russell Mead,Nayland Blake,Nuruddin Farah,Mona Simpson,Sky Hopinka(MFA Faculty),Masha Gessen(visiting writer),Kelly Reichardt(artist in residence),Francine Prose(writer in residence),Susan Weber,Lauren Cornell,Ann Lauterbach,Valeria Luiselli,andTschabalala Self(visiting artist in residence). References External links"
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"Hannah Arendt Hannah Arendt(/ˈɛərənt,ˈɑːr-/,USalso/əˈrɛnt/;German:ⓘ;bornJohanna Arendt; 14 October 1906 – 4 December 1975) was a German-American historian and philosopher. She was one of the most influentialpolitical theoristsof the 20th century. Her works cover a broad range of topics, but she is best known for those dealing with the nature ofwealth,powerandevil, as well as politics,direct democracy,authority,traditionandtotalitarianism. She is also remembered for the controversy surrounding thetrialofAdolf Eichmann, for her attempt to explain how ordinary people become actors in totalitarian systems, which was considered by some anapologia, and for the phrase \"the banality of evil.\" Her name appears in the names of journals,schools,scholarly prizes,humanitarian prizes, think-tanks, and streets; appears on stamps and monuments; and is attached to other cultural and institutional markers that commemorate her thought. Hannah Arendt was born to a Jewish family inLinden(now a district ofHanover, Germany) in",
"Germany) in 1906. When she was three, her family moved to theEast Prussiancapital ofKönigsbergfor her father's health care. Paul Arendt had contractedsyphilisin his youth but was thought to be in remission when Arendt was born. He died when she was seven. Arendt was raised in a politically progressive, secular family, her mother being an ardentSocial Democrat. After completing secondary education in Berlin, Arendt studied at theUniversity of MarburgunderMartin Heidegger, with whom she engaged in a romantic affair that began while she was his student.She obtained her doctorate in philosophy at theUniversity of Heidelbergin 1929. Her dissertation was titledLove and Saint Augustine, and her supervisor was theexistentialistphilosopherKarl Jaspers. Hannah Arendt marriedGünther Sternin 1929 but soon began to encounter increasingantisemitismin the 1930sNazi Germany. In 1933, the yearAdolf Hitlercame to power, Arendt was arrested and briefly imprisoned by theGestapofor performing illegal research into antisemitism.",
"into antisemitism. On release, she fled Germany, living in Czechoslovakia and Switzerland before settling in Paris. There she worked forYouth Aliyah, assisting young Jews to emigrate to theBritish Mandate of Palestine. She was stripped of herGerman citizenshipin 1937. Divorcing Stern that year, she then marriedHeinrich Blücherin 1940. When Germany invaded France that year she was detained by the French as analien. She escaped and made her way to the United States in 1941 via Portugal. She settled in New York, which remained her principal residence for the rest of her life. She became a writer and editor and worked for theJewish Cultural Reconstruction, becoming an American citizen in 1950. With the publication ofThe Origins of Totalitarianismin 1951, her reputation as a thinker and writer was established, and a series of works followed. These included the booksThe Human Conditionin 1958, as well asEichmann in JerusalemandOn Revolutionin 1963. She taught at many American universities while",
"universities while decliningtenure-trackappointments. She died suddenly of a heart attack in 1975, at the age of 69, leaving her last work,The Life of the Mind, unfinished. Early life and education (1906–1929) Family Hannah Arendt was bornJohanna Arendtin 1906, inthe Wilhelmine period. Her secular and educatedJewishfamily lived comfortably inLinden,Prussia(now a part ofHanover). They were merchants of Russian extraction fromKönigsberg.Her grandparents were members of theReform Jewishcommunity. Her paternal grandfather,Max Arendt, was a prominent businessman, local politician,and leader of the Königsberg Jewish community, a member of theCentral Organization for German Citizens of Jewish Faith(Centralverein deutscher Staatsbürger jüdischen Glaubens). Like other members of theCentralvereinhe primarily saw himself as German, disapproving ofZionistactivities includingKurt Blumenfeld, a frequent visitor and later one of Hannah's mentors. Her lifelong best-friend, Anne Mendehlsohn, was likewise connected to a",
"connected to a dynasty of philosophers and musicians. Of Max Arendt's children, Paul Arendt was an engineer andHenriette Arendta policewoman and social worker. Hannah was the only child of Paul and Martha Arendt (née Cohn), who were married on 11 April 1902. She was named after her paternal grandmother.The Cohns had originally come to Königsberg from nearby Russian territory ofLithuaniain 1852, as refugees from antisemitism, and made their living as tea importers, J. N. Cohn & Company being the largest business in the city. The Arendts reached Germany from Russia a century earlier.Hannah's extended family contained many more women, who shared the loss of husbands and children. Hannah's parents were more educated and politically more to the left than her grandparents. The young couple wereSocial Democrats,rather than theGerman Democratsthat most of their contemporaries supported. Paul Arendt was educated at the Albertina (University of Königsberg). Though he worked as an engineer, he prided himself on his",
"himself on his love ofClassics, with a large library that Hannah immersed herself in. Martha Cohn, a musician, had studied for three years in Paris. In the first four years of their marriage, the Arendts lived in Berlin, and were supporters of the socialist journalSocialist Monthly Bulletins(Sozialistische Monatshefte).At the time of Hannah's birth, Paul Arendt was employed by an electrical engineering firm in Linden, and they lived in a frame house on the market square (Marktplatz).They moved back to Königsberg in 1909 because of Paul's deteriorating health.He suffered from chronicsyphilisand was institutionalized in the Königsberg psychiatric hospital in 1911. For years afterward, Hannah had to have annualWRtests for congenital syphilis.He died on 30 October 1913, when Hannah was seven, leaving her mother to raise her.They lived at Hannah's grandfather's house at Tiergartenstraße 6, a leafy residential street adjacent to theKönigsberg Tiergarten, in the predominantly Jewish neighborhood ofHufen.Although",
"ofHufen.Although Hannah's parents were non-religious, they were happy to allow Max Arendt to take Hannah to the Reform synagogue. She also received religious instruction from therabbi, Hermann Vogelstein, who would come to her school for that purpose.Her family moved in circles that included many intellectuals and professionals. It was a social circle of high standards and ideals. As she recalled it: My early intellectual formation occurred in an atmosphere where nobody paid much attention to moral questions; we were brought up under the assumption:Das Moralische versteht sich von selbst, moral conduct is a matter of course. This time was a particularly favorable period for the Jewish community in Königsberg, an important center of theHaskalah(Jewish Enlightenment).Arendt's family was thoroughlyassimilated(\"Germanized\")and she later remembered: \"With us from Germany, the word 'assimilation' received a 'deep' philosophical meaning. You can hardly realize how serious we were about it.\"Despite these conditions,",
"these conditions, the Jewish population lacked full citizenship rights, and althoughantisemitismwas not overt, it was not absent.Arendt came to define her Jewish identity negatively after encountering overt antisemitism as an adult.She came to greatly identify withRahel Varnhagen, the Prussian socialitewho desperately wanted to assimilate into German culture, only to be rejected because she was born Jewish.Arendt later said of Varnhagen that she was \"my very closest woman friend, unfortunately dead a hundred years now.\" In the last two years of theFirst World War, Hannah's mother organized social democratic discussion groups and became a follower ofRosa Luxemburgassocialist uprisings broke out across Germany.Luxemburg's writings would later influence Hannah's political thinking. In 1920, Martha Cohn married Martin Beerwald, an ironmonger and widower of four years, and they moved to his home, two blocks away, at Busoldstrasse 6,providing Hannah with improved social and financial security. Hannah was 14 at the",
"was 14 at the time and acquired two older stepsisters, Clara and Eva. Education Early education Hannah Arendt's mother, who considered herselfprogressive, brought her daughter up on strictGoetheanlines. Among other things this involved the reading of Goethe's complete works, summed up asWas aber ist deine Pflicht? Die Forderung des Tages(And just what is your duty? The demands of the day).Goethe, was then considered the essential mentor ofBildung(education), the conscious formation of mind, body and spirit. The key elements were considered to be self-discipline, constructive channeling of passion, renunciation and responsibility for others. Hannah's developmental progress (Entwicklung) was carefully documented by her mother in a book, she calledUnser Kind(Our Child), measuring her against the benchmark of what was then considerednormale Entwicklung(\"normal development\"). Arendt attended kindergarten from 1910 where her precocity impressed her teachers and enrolled in theSzittnich School,",
"School, Königsberg(Hufen-Oberlyzeum), on Bahnstraße in August 1913,but her studies there were interrupted by the outbreak of World War I, forcing the family to temporarily flee toBerlinon 23 August 1914, in the face of the advancing Russian army.There they stayed with her mother's younger sister, Margarethe Fürst, and her three children, while Hannah attended a girl'sLyzeumschool inBerlin-Charlottenburg. After ten weeks, when Königsberg appeared to be no longer threatened, the Arendts were able to return,where they spent the remaining war years at her grandfather's house. Arendt's precocity continued, learningancient Greekas a child,writing poetry in her teenage years,and starting both aGraecae(reading group for studying classical literature) and philosophy club at her school. She was fiercely independent in her schooling and a voracious reader,absorbing French and German literature and poetry (committing large amounts to heart) and philosophy. By the age of 14, she had readKierkegaard,Jaspers'Psychologie",
"der WeltanschauungenandKant'sKritik der reinen Vernunft(Critique of Pure Reason). Kant, whose hometown was also Königsberg, was an important influence on her thinking, and it was Kant who had written about Königsberg that \"such a town is the right place for gaining knowledge concerning men and the world even without travelling\". Arendt attended theKönigin-Luise-Schulefor her secondary education, a girls'Gymnasiumon Landhofmeisterstraße.Most of her friends, while at school, were gifted children of Jewish professional families, generally older than her, and went on to university education. Among them wasErnst Grumach, who introduced her to his girlfriend, Anne Mendelssohn,who would become a lifelong friend. When Anne moved away, Ernst became Arendt's first romantic relationship. Higher education (1922–1929) Berlin (1922–1924) Arendt was expelled from the Luise-Schule in 1922, at the age of 15, for leading a boycott of a teacher who insulted her. Her mother sent her to Berlin to Social Democrat family friends.",
"family friends. She lived in a student residence andauditedcourses at theUniversity of Berlin(1922–1923), including classics andChristian theologyunderRomano Guardini. She successfully sat the entrance examination (Abitur) for theUniversity of Marburg, where Ernst Grumach had studied withMartin Heidegger(appointed as a professor in 1923). Her mother had engaged a private tutor, and her aunt Frieda Arendt, a teacher, also helped, while Frieda's husband Ernst Aron provided financial tuition assistance. Marburg (1924–1926) In Berlin, Guardini had introduced her to Kierkegaard, and she resolved to make theology her major field.At Marburg (1924–1926) she studied classical languages, German literature, Protestant theology withRudolf Bultmannand philosophy withNicolai Hartmannand Heidegger.She arrived in the fall in the middle of an intellectual revolution led by the young Heidegger, of whom she was in awe, describing him as \"the hidden king reigned in the realm of thinking\". Heidegger had broken away from the",
"away from the intellectual movement started byEdmund Husserl, whose assistant he had been atUniversity of Freiburgbefore coming to Marburg.This was a period when Heidegger was preparing his lectures on Kant, which he would develop in the second part of hisSein und Zeit(Being and Time) in 1927 andKant und das Problem der Metaphysik(1929). In his classes, he and his students struggled with the meaning of \"Being\" as they studiedAristotle's andPlato'sSophistconcept oftruth, to which Heidegger opposed the pre-Socratic termἀλήθεια.Many years later Arendt would describe these classes, how people came to Marburg to hear him, and how, above all he imparted the idea ofDenken(\"thinking\") as activity, which she qualified as \"passionate thinking\". Arendt was restless, finding her studies neither emotionally nor intellectually satisfying. She was ready for passion, finishing her poemTrost(Consolation, 1923) with the lines: Die Stunden verrinnen,Die Tage vergehen,Es bleibt ein GewinnenDas bloße Bestehen.(The hours run",
"hours run down.The days pass on.One achievement remains:merely being alive.) Her encounter with Heidegger represented a dramatic departure from the past. He was handsome, a genius, romantic, and taught that thinking and \"aliveness\" were but one.The 18-year-old Arendt then began a long romantic relationship with the 35-year-old Heidegger,who was married with two young sons.Arendt later faced criticism for this because of Heidegger's support for theNazi Partyafter his election asrectorat Freiburg University in 1933. Nevertheless, he remained one of the most profound influences on her thinking,and he would later relate that she had been the inspiration for his work on passionate thinking in those days. They agreed to keep the details of the relationship a secret while preserving their letters.The relationship was unknown untilElisabeth Young-Bruehl's biography of Arendt appeared in 1982. At the time of publishing, Arendt and Heidegger were deceased but Heidegger's wife, Elfride, was still alive. The affair was",
"The affair was not well known until 1995, whenElzbieta Ettingergained access to the sealed correspondenceand published a controversial account that was used by Arendt's detractors to cast doubt on her integrity. That account,which caused a scandal, was subsequently refuted. At Marburg, Arendt lived at Lutherstraße 4.Among her friends wasHans Jonas, a Jewish classmate. Another fellow student of Heidegger's was Jonas' friend, the Jewish philosopherGünther Siegmund Stern, who would later become her first husband.Stern had completed his doctoral dissertation with Edmund Husserl at Freiburg, and was now working on hisHabilitationthesis with Heidegger, but Arendt, involved with Heidegger, took little notice of him at the time. Die Schatten(1925) In the summer of 1925, while home at Königsberg, Arendt composed her sole autobiographical piece,Die Schatten(The Shadows), a \"description of herself\"addressed to Heidegger.In this essay, full of anguish andHeideggerian language, she reveals her insecurities relating to",
"relating to her femininity and Jewishness, writing abstractly in the third person.She describes a state of \"Fremdheit\" (alienation), on the one hand an abrupt loss of youth and innocence, on the other an \"Absonderlichkeit\" (strangeness), the finding of the remarkable in the banal.In her detailing of the pain of her childhood and longing for protection she shows her vulnerabilities and how her love for Heidegger had released her and once again filled her world with color and mystery. She refers to her relationship with Heidegger as \"Eine starre Hingegebenheit an ein Einziges\" (\"an unbending devotion to a unique man\").This period of intense introspection was also one of the most productive of her poetic output,such asIn sich versunken(Lost in Self-Contemplation). Freiburg and Heidelberg (1926–1929) After a year at Marburg, Arendt spent a semester at Freiburg, attending the lectures of Husserl.In 1926 she moved to theUniversity of Heidelberg, completing herdissertationin 1929 under Karl Jaspers.Jaspers, a",
"Jaspers.Jaspers, a friend of Heidegger, was the other leading figure of the then-new and revolutionaryExistenzphilosophie.Her thesis was titledDer Liebesbegriff bei Augustin: Versuch einer philosophischen Interpretation(On the concept of love in the thought ofSaint Augustine: Attempt at a philosophical interpretation).She remained a lifelong friend of Jaspers and his wife, Gertrud Mayer, developing a deep intellectual relationship with him.At Heidelberg, her circle of friends included Hans Jonas, who had also moved from Marburg to studyAugustine, working on hisAugustin und das paulinische Freiheitsproblem. Ein philosophischer Beitrag zur Genesis der christlich-abendländischen Freiheitsidee(1930),and also a group of three young philosophers:Karl Frankenstein,Erich NeumannandErwin Loewenson.Other friends and students of Jaspers were the linguistsBenno von WieseandHugo Friedrich(seen with Hannah, below), with whom she attended lectures byFriedrich Gundolfat Jaspers' suggestion and who kindled in her an interest",
"in her an interest inGerman Romanticism. She also became reacquainted, at a lecture, withKurt Blumenfeld, who introduced her to Jewish politics. At Heidelberg, she lived in the old town (Altstadt) near thecastle, at Schlossberg 16. The house was demolished in the 1960s, but the one remaining wall bears a plaque commemorating her time there. On completing her dissertation, Arendt turned to herHabilitationsschrift, initially on German Romanticism,and thereafter an academic teaching career. However 1929 was also the year of theDepressionand the end of the golden years (Goldene Zwanziger) of theWeimar Republic, which was to become increasingly unstable over its remaining four years. Arendt, as a Jew, had little if any chance of obtaining an academic appointment in Germany.Nevertheless, she completed most of the work before she was forced to leave Germany. Career Germany (1929–1933) Berlin-Potsdam (1929) In 1929, Arendt met Günther Stern again, this time in Berlin at a New Year's masked ball,and began a",
"ball,and began a relationship with him.Within a month she had moved in with him in a one-room studio, shared with a dancing school inBerlin-Halensee. Then they moved to Merkurstraße 3, Nowawes,inPotsdamand were married there on 26 September.They had much in common and the marriage was welcomed by both sets of parents.In the summer, Hannah Arendt successfully applied to theNotgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaftfor a grant to support herHabilitation, which was supported by Heidegger and Jaspers among others, and in the meantime, with Günther's help was working on revisions to get her dissertation published. Wanderjahre(1929–1931) After Arendt and Stern were married, they began two years of what Christian Dries refers to as theWanderjahre(years of wandering) with the ultimately fruitless aim of having Stern accepted for an academic appointment.They lived for a while in Drewitz,a southern neighborhood of Potsdam, before moving to Heidelberg, where they lived with the Jaspers. After Heidelberg, where Stern",
"where Stern completed the first draft of hisHabilitationthesis, the two then moved to Frankfurt where Stern hoped to finish his writing. There, Arendt participated in the university's intellectual life, attending lectures byKarl MannheimandPaul Tillich, among others.The couple collaborated intellectually, writing an article togetheronRilke'sDuino Elegies(1923)and both reviewing Mannheim'sIdeologie und Utopie(1929).The latter was Arendt's sole contribution to sociology.In both her treatment of Mannheim and Rilke, Arendt found love to be a transcendent principle \"Because there is no true transcendence in this ordered world, one also cannot exceed the world, but only succeed to higher ranks\".In Rilke she saw a latter day secular Augustine, describing theElegiesas theletzten literarischen Form religiösen Dokumentes(ultimate form of religious document). Later, she would discover the limitations of transcendent love in explaining the historical events that pushed her into political action.Another theme from Rilke",
"theme from Rilke that she would develop was the despair of not being heard. Reflecting on Rilke's opening lines, which she placed as an epigram at the beginning of their essay Wer, wenn ich schriee, hörte mich denn aus der Engel Ordnungen?(Who, if I cried out, would hear me among the angelic orders?) Arendt and Stern begin by stating: The paradoxical, ambiguous, and desperate situation from which standpoint theDuino Elegiesmay alone be understood has two characteristics: the absence of an echo and the knowledge of futility. The conscious renunciation of the demand to be heard, the despair at not being able to be heard, and finally the need to speak even without an answer–these are the real reasons for the darkness, asperity, and tension of the style in which poetry indicates its own possibilities and its will to form Arendt also published an article on Augustine (354–430) in theFrankfurter Zeitungto mark the 1500th anniversary of his death. She saw this article as forming a bridge between her treatment of",
"her treatment of Augustine in her dissertation and her subsequent work on Romanticism.When it became evident Stern would not succeed in obtaining an appointment,the Sterns returned to Berlin in 1931. Return to Berlin (1931–1933) In Berlin, where the couple initially lived in the predominantly Jewish area ofBayerisches Viertel(Bavarian Quarter or \"Jewish Switzerland\") in Schöneberg,Stern obtained a position as a staff-writer for the cultural supplement of theBerliner Börsen-Courier, edited byHerbert Ihering, with the help ofBertold Brecht. There he started writing using the pen name Günther Anders, i.e. \"Günther Other\".Arendt assisted Günther with his work, but the shadow of Heidegger hung over their relationship. While Günther was working on hisHabilitationsschrift, Arendt had abandoned the original subject of German Romanticism for her thesis in 1930, and turned instead toRahel Varnhagenand the question ofassimilation.Anne Mendelssohn had accidentally acquired a copy of Varnhagen's correspondence and",
"correspondence and excitedly introduced her to Arendt, donating her collection to her. A little later, Arendt's work on Romanticism led her to a study of Jewishsalonsand eventually to those of Varnhagen. In Rahel, she found qualities she felt reflected her own, particularly those of sensibility and vulnerability.Rahel, like Hannah, found her destiny in her Jewishness. Hannah Arendt would come to call Rahel Varnhagen's discovery of living with her destiny as being a \"conscious pariah\".This was a personal trait that Arendt had recognized in herself, although she did not embrace the term until later. Back in Berlin, Arendt found herself becoming more involved in politics and started studying political theory, and readingMarxandTrotsky, while developing contacts at theDeutsche Hochschule für Politik.Despite the political leanings of her mother and husband she never saw herself as a political leftist, justifying her activism as being through her Jewishness.Her increasing interest in Jewish politics and her",
"politics and her examination of assimilation in her study of Varnhagen led her to publish her first article on Judaism,Aufklärung und Judenfrage(\"The Enlightenment and the Jewish Question\", 1932).Blumenfeld had introduced her to the \"Jewish question\", which would be his lifelong concern.Meanwhile, her views on German Romanticism were evolving. She wrote a review ofHans Weil'sDie Entstehung des deutschen Bildungsprinzips(The Origin of German Educational Principle, 1930),which dealt with the emergence ofBildungselite(educational elite) in the time of Rahel Varnhagen.At the same time she began to be occupied byMax Weber's description of the status of Jewish people within a state asPariavolk(pariahpeople) in hisWirtschaft und Gesellschaft(1922),while borrowingBernard Lazare's termparia conscient(conscious pariah)with which she identified.In both these articles she advanced the views ofJohann Herder.Another interest of hers at the time was the status of women, resulting in her 1932 reviewofAlice Rühle-Gerstel's",
"Rühle-Gerstel's bookDas Frauenproblem in der Gegenwart. Eine psychologische Bilanz(Contemporary Women's Issues: A psychological balance sheet).Although not a supporter of the women's movement, the review was sympathetic. At least in terms of the status of women at that time, she was skeptical of the movement's ability to achieve political change.She was also critical of the movement, because it was a women's movement, rather than contributing with men to a political movement, and abstract rather than striving for concrete goals. In this manner she echoedRosa Luxemburg. Like Luxemburg, she would later criticize Jewish movements for the same reason. Arendt consistently prioritized political over social questions. By 1932, faced with a deteriorating political situation, Arendt was deeply troubled by reports that Heidegger was speaking atNational Socialistmeetings. She wrote, asking him to deny that he was attracted to National Socialism. Heidegger replied that he did not seek to deny the rumors (which were",
"rumors (which were true), and merely assured her that his feelings for her were unchanged.As a Jew in Nazi Germany, Arendt was prevented from making a living and discriminated against and confided to Anne Mendelssohn that emigration was probably inevitable. Jaspers had tried to persuade her to consider herself as a German first, a position she distanced herself from, pointing out that she was a Jew and that \"Für mich ist Deutschland die Muttersprache, die Philosophie und die Dichtung\" (For me, Germany is the mother tongue, philosophy and poetry), rather than her identity. This position puzzled Jaspers, replying \"It is strange to me that as a Jew you want to be different from the Germans\". By 1933, life for the Jewish population in Germany was becoming precarious.Adolf HitlerbecameReichskanzler(Chancellor) in January, and theReichstag was burned down(Reichstagsbrand) the following month. This led to the suspension ofcivil liberties, with attacks on the left, and, in particular, members of theKommunistische",
"theKommunistische Partei Deutschlands(German Communist Party: KPD). Stern, who had communist associations, fled to Paris, but Arendt stayed on to become an activist. Knowing her time was limited, she used the apartment at Opitzstraße 6 inBerlin-Steglitzthat she had occupied with Stern since 1932 as anunderground railwayway-station for fugitives. Her rescue operation there is now recognized with a plaque on the wall. Arendt had already positioned herself as a critic of the rising Nazi Party in 1932 by publishing \"Adam-Müller-Renaissance?\"a critique of the appropriation of the life ofAdam Müllerto support right wing ideology. The beginnings of anti-Jewish laws and boycott came in the spring of 1933. Confronted with systemic antisemitism, Arendt adopted themotiv\"If one is attacked as a Jew one must defend oneself as a Jew. Not as a German, not as a world citizen, not as an upholder of the Rights of Man.\"This was Arendt's introduction of the concept of Jew as Pariah that would occupy her for the rest of her life",
"rest of her life in her Jewish writings.She took a public position by publishing part of her largely completed biography of Rahel Varnhagen as \"Originale Assimilation: Ein Nachwort zu Rahel Varnhagen 100 Todestag\" (\"Original Assimilation: An Epilogue to the One Hundredth Anniversary of Rahel Varnhagen's Death\") in theKölnische Zeitungon 7 March 1933 and a little later also inJüdische Rundschau.In the article she argues that the age of assimilation that began with Varnhagen's generation had come to an end with an official state policy of antisemitism. She opened with the declaration: Today in Germany it seems Jewishassimilationmust declare its bankruptcy. The general social antisemitism and its official legitimation affects in the first instance assimilated Jews, who can no longer protect themselves through baptism or by emphasizing their differences from Eastern Judaism. As a Jew, Arendt was anxious to inform the world of what was happening to her people in 1930–1933.She surrounded herself with Zionist",
"with Zionist activists, including Kurt Blumenfeld,Martin BuberandSalman Schocken, and started to research antisemitism. Arendt had access to thePrussian State Libraryfor her work on Varnhagen. Blumenfeld'sZionistische Vereinigung für Deutschland(Zionist Federation of Germany) persuaded her to use this access to obtain evidence of the extent of antisemitism, for a planned speech to theZionist Congressin Prague. This research was illegal at the time.Her actions led to her being denounced by a librarian for anti-state propaganda, resulting in the arrest of both Arendt and her mother by theGestapo. They served eight days in prison but her notebooks were in code and could not be deciphered, and she was released by a young, sympathetic arresting officer to await trial.This incident is the subject of the playMrs. Stern Wanders the Prussian State Library, by Jenny Lyn Bader, which premiered in 2019 in West Orange, New Jersey. Exile: France (1933–1941) Paris (1933–1940) On release, realizing the danger she was now",
"danger she was now in, Arendt and her mother fled Germanyfollowing the established escape route over theOre Mountainsby night into Czechoslovakia and on to Prague and then by train toGeneva. In Geneva, she made a conscious decision to commit herself to \"the Jewish cause\". She obtained work with a friend of her mother's at theLeague of Nations'Jewish Agency for Palestine, distributing visas and writing speeches. From Geneva the Arendts traveled to Paris in the autumn, where she was reunited with Stern, joining a stream of refugees.While Arendt had left Germany without papers, her mother had travel documents and returned to Königsberg and her husband.In Paris, she befriended Stern's cousin, theMarxistliterary critic and philosopherWalter Benjaminand also the Jewish French philosopherRaymond Aron. Arendt was now anémigrée, an exile, stateless, without papers, and had turned her back on the Germany and Germans of theNazizeit.Her legal status was precarious and she was coping with a foreign language and culture,",
"and culture, all of which took its toll on her mentally and physically.In 1934 she started working for theZionist-funded outreach program Agriculture et Artisanat,giving lectures and organizing clothing, documents, medications and education for Jewish youth seeking to emigrate to theBritish Mandate of Palestine, mainly as agricultural workers. Initially she was employed as a secretary, and then office manager. To improve her skills she studied French,HebrewandYiddish. In this way she was able to support herself and her husband.When the organization closed in 1935, her work for Blumenfeld and the Zionists in Germany brought her into contact with the wealthy philanthropistBaroness Germaine Alice de Rothschild(born Halphen, 1884–1975),wife ofÉdouard Alphonse James de Rothschild, becoming her assistant. In this position she oversaw the baroness' contributions to Jewish charities through the ParisConsistoire, although she had little time for the family as a whole. Later in 1935, Arendt joinedYouth Aliyah(Youth",
"Aliyah(Youth immigration),an organization similar to Agriculture et Artisanat that was founded in Berlin on the day Hitler seized power. It was affiliated withHadassah,which later saved many from theHolocaust,and there Arendt eventually became Secretary-General (1935–1939).Her work with Youth Aliyah also involved finding food, clothing, social workers and lawyers, but above all, fund raising.She made her first visit toBritish Mandate of Palestinein 1935, accompanying one of these groups and meeting with her cousin Ernst Fürst there.With the Naziannexation of Austriaandinvasion of Czechoslovakiain 1938, Paris was flooded with refugees, and she became the special agent for the rescue of the children from those countries.In 1938, Arendt completed her biography of Rahel Varnhagen,although this was not published until 1957.In April 1939, following the devastatingKristallnachtpogromof November 1938, Martha Beerwald realized her daughter would not return and made the decision to leave her husband and join Arendt in",
"and join Arendt in Paris. One stepdaughter had died and the other had moved to England, Martin Beerwald would not leave and she no longer had any close ties to Königsberg. Heinrich Blücher In 1936, Arendt met the self-educated Berlin poet andMarxistphilosopherHeinrich Blücherin Paris.Blücher had been aSpartacistand then a founding member of the KPD, but had been expelled due to his work in theVersöhnler(Conciliator faction).Although Arendt had rejoined Stern in 1933, their marriage existed in name only, with their having separated in Berlin.She fulfilled her social obligations and used the name Hannah Stern, but the relationship effectively ended when Stern, perhaps recognizing the danger better than she, emigrated to America with his parents in 1936.In 1937, Arendt was stripped of herGerman citizenshipand she and Stern divorced. She had begun seeing more of Blücher, and eventually they began living together. It was Blücher's long political activism that began to move Arendt's thinking towards political",
"towards political action.Arendt and Blücher married on 16 January 1940, shortly after their divorces were finalized. Internment and escape (1940–1941) On 5 May 1940, in anticipation of theGerman invasion of Franceand theLow Countriesthat month, themilitary governor of Parisissued a proclamation ordering all \"enemy aliens\" between 17 and 55 who had come from Germany (predominantly Jews) to report separately forinternment. The women were gathered together in theVélodrome d'Hiveron 15 May, so Hannah Arendt's mother, being over 55, was allowed to stay in Paris. Arendt described the process of makingrefugeesas \"the new type of human being created by contemporary history ... put into concentration camps by their foes and into internment camps by their friends\".The men, including Blücher, were sent toCamp Vernetin southern France, close to the Spanish border. Arendt and the other women were sent toCamp Gurs, to the west ofGurs, a week later. The camp had earlier been set up to accommodaterefugees from Spain. On 22",
"from Spain. On 22 June, Francecapitulatedand signed theCompiègne armistice, dividing the country. Gurs was in the southernVichycontrolled section. Arendt describes how, \"in the resulting chaos we succeeded in getting hold of liberation papers with which we were able to leave the camp\",which she did with about 200 of the 7,000 women held there, about four weeks later.There was noRésistancethen, but she managed to walk and hitchhike north toMontauban,nearToulousewhere she knew she would find help. Montauban had become an unofficial capital for former detainees,and Arendt's friend Lotta Sempell Klembort was staying there. Blücher's camp had been evacuated in the wake of the German advance, and he managed to escape from a forced march, making his way to Montauban, where the two of them led a fugitive life. Soon they were joined by Anne Mendelssohn and Arendt's mother. Escape from France was extremely difficult without official papers; their friendWalter Benjaminhad taken his own life after being apprehended",
"being apprehended trying to escape to Spain. One of the best-known illegal routes operated out ofMarseilles, whereVarian Fry, an American journalist, worked to raise funds, forge papers and bribe officials withHiram Bingham, the American vice-consul there. Fry and Bingham secured exit papers and American visas for thousands, and with help from Günther Stern, Arendt, her husband, and her mother managed to secure the requisite permits to travel by train in January 1941 through Spain to Lisbon, Portugal, where they rented a flat at Rua da Sociedade Farmacêutica, 6b.They eventually secured passage to New York in May on theCompanhia Colonial de Navegação's S/SGuiné II.A few months later, Fry's operations were shut down and the borders sealed. New York (1941–1975) World War II (1941–1945) Upon arriving in New York City on 22 May 1941 with very little, Hannah's family received assistance from theZionist Organization of Americaand the local German immigrant population, includingPaul Tillichand neighbors from",
"neighbors from Königsberg. They rented rooms at 317 West 95th Street and Martha Arendt joined them there in June. There was an urgent need to acquire English, and it was decided that Hannah Arendt should spend two months with an American family inWinchester, Massachusetts, through Self-Help for Refugees, in July.She found the experience difficult but formulated her early appraisal of American life,Der Grundwiderspruch des Landes ist politische Freiheit bei gesellschaftlicher Knechtschaft(The fundamental contradiction of the country is political freedom coupled with social slavery). On returning to New York, Arendt was anxious to resume writing and became active in the German-Jewish community, publishing her first article, \"From theDreyfus Affairto France Today\" (in translation from her German) in July 1941.While she was working on this article, she was looking for employment and in November 1941 was hired by the New York German-language Jewish newspaperAufbauand from 1941 to 1945, she wrote a political",
"wrote a political column for it, covering antisemitism, refugees and the need for a Jewish army. She also contributed to theMenorah Journal, a Jewish-American magazine,and other Germanémigrépublications. Arendt's first full-time salaried job came in 1944, when she became the director of research and executive director for the newly emergingCommission on European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, a project of the Conference on Jewish Relations.She was recruited \"because of her great interest in the Commission's activities, her previous experience as an administrator, and her connections with Germany\". There she compiled lists of Jewish cultural assets in Germany and Nazi occupied Europe, to aid in their recovery after the war.Together with her husband, she lived at370 Riverside Drivein New York City and atKingston, New York, where Blücher taught at nearbyBard Collegefor many years. Post-war (1945–1975) In July 1946, Arendt left her position at the Commission on European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction to become",
"to become an editor atSchocken Books, which later published some of her works.In 1948, she became engaged with the campaign ofJudah Magnesfor a solution to theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict.She famously opposed the establishment of a Jewish nation-state in Palestine and initially also opposed the establishment of a binational Arab-Jewish state. Instead, she advocated for the inclusion of Palestine into a multi-ethnic federation. Only in 1948 in an effort to forestall partition did she support a binationalone-state solution.She returned to the Commission in August 1949. In her capacity as executive secretary, she traveled to Europe, where she worked in Germany, Britain and France (December 1949 to March 1950) to negotiate the return of archival material from German institutions, an experience she found frustrating, but provided regular field reports.In January 1952, she became secretary to the Board, although the work of the organization was winding downand she was simultaneously pursuing her own intellectual",
"own intellectual activities; she retained this position until her death.Arendt's work on cultural restitution provided further material for her study of totalitarianism. In the 1950s Arendt wroteThe Origins of Totalitarianism(1951),The Human Condition(1958)followed byOn Revolution(1963).Arendt began corresponding with the American authorMary McCarthy, six years her junior, in 1950 and they soon became lifelong friends.In 1950, Arendt also became anaturalized citizenof the United States.The same year, she started seeing Martin Heidegger again, and had what the American writerAdam Kirschcalled a \"quasi-romance\", lasting for two years, with the man who had previously been her mentor, teacher, and lover.During this time, Arendt defended him against critics who noted his enthusiastic membership in the Nazi Party. She portrayed Heidegger as a naïve man swept up by forces beyond his control, and pointed out that Heidegger's philosophy had nothing to do with National Socialism.She suspected that loyal followers",
"loyal followers ofHorkheimerandAdornoin Frankfurt were plotting against Heidegger. For Adorno she had a real aversion: \"Half a Jew and one of the most repugnant men I know\".According to Arendt, theFrankfurt Schoolwas willing, and quite capable of doing so, to destroy Heidegger: \"For years they have branded anti-Semitism on anyone in Germany who opposes them, or have threatened to raise such an accusation\". In 1961 she traveled toJerusalemto report onEichmann's trialforThe New Yorker. This report strongly influenced her popular recognition, and raised much controversy (seebelow). Her work was recognized by many awards, including the DanishSonning Prizein 1975 for Contributions to European Civilization. A few years later she spoke in New York City on the legitimacy of violence as a political act: \"Generally speaking, violence always rises out of impotence. It is the hope of those who have no power to find a substitute for it and this hope, I think, is in vain. Violence can destroy power, but it can never",
"but it can never replace it.\" Teaching Arendt taught at many institutions of higher learning from 1951 onwards, but, preserving her independence, consistently refusedtenure-trackpositions. She was avisiting scholarat theUniversity of Notre Dame,University of California, Berkeley,Princeton University(where she was the first woman to be appointed a full professor in 1959) andNorthwestern University. She also taught at theUniversity of Chicagofrom 1963 to 1967, where she was a member of theCommittee on Social Thought,Yale University, where she was afellowand the Center for Advanced Studies atWesleyan University(1961–62, 1962–63). From 1967 she was a professor atthe New Schoolfor Social research inManhattan, New York City. She was elected a fellow of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1962and a member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Lettersin 1964.In 1974, Arendt was instrumental in the creation of Structured Liberal Education (SLE) atStanford University. She wrote a letter to the president of",
"to the president of Stanford to persuade the university to enact Stanford history professor Mark Mancall's vision of a residentially-based humanities program.At the time of her death, she was University Professor ofPolitical Philosophyat The New School. Relationships In addition to her affair with Heidegger, and her two marriages, Arendt had close friendships. Since her death, her correspondence with many of them has been published, revealing much information about her thinking. To her friends she was both loyal and generous, dedicating several of her works to them.Freundschaft(friendship) she described as being one of \"tätigen Modi des Lebendigseins\" (the active modes of being alive),and, to her, friendship was central both to her life and to the concept of politics.Hans Jonas described her as having a \"genius for friendship\", and, in her own words, \"der Eros der Freundschaft\" (love of friendship). Her philosophy-based friendships were male and European, while her later American friendships were more",
"were more diverse, literary, and political. Although she became an American citizen in 1950, her cultural roots remained European, and her language remained her German \"Muttersprache\" (mother tongue).She surrounded herself with German-speakingémigrés, sometimes referred to as \"The Tribe\". To her,wirkliche Menschen(real people) were \"pariahs\", not in the sense of outcasts, but in the sense of outsiders, unassimilated, with the virtue of \"social nonconformism ... thesine qua nonof intellectual achievement\", a sentiment she shared with Jaspers. Arendt always had abeste Freundin(best friend ). In her teens she had formed a lifelong relationship with herJugendfreundin, Anne Mendelssohn Weil (\"Ännchen\"). After she emigrated to America, Hilde Fränkel, Paul Tillich's secretary and mistress, filled that role until the latter died in 1950. After the war, Arendt was able to return to Germany and renew her relationship with Weil, who made several visits to New York, especially after Blücher's death in 1970. Their last",
"in 1970. Their last meeting was inTegna, Switzerlandin 1975, shortly before Arendt's death.With Fränkel's death, Mary McCarthy became Arendt's closest friend and confidante. Final illness and death Heinrich Blücher had survived acerebral aneurysmin 1961 and remained unwell after 1963, sustaining a series of heart attacks. On 31 October 1970, he died of a massive heart attack. A devastated Arendt had previously told Mary McCarthy, \"Life without him would be unthinkable\".Arendt was also a heavy smoker and was frequently depicted with a cigarette in her hand. She sustained a near-fatal heart attack while lecturing in Scotland in May 1974, and although she recovered, she remained in poor health afterward and continued to smoke.On the evening of 4 December 1975, shortly after her 69th birthday, she had a further heart attack inher apartmentwhile entertaining friends, and was pronounced dead at the scene.Her ashes were buried alongside those of Blücher at Bard College, inAnnandale-on-Hudson, New Yorkin May 1976.",
"Yorkin May 1976. After Arendt's death the title page of the final part ofThe Life of the Mind(\"Judging\") was found in her typewriter, which she had just started, consisting of the title and two epigraphs. This has subsequently been reproduced in the edited version of herLectures on Kant's Political Philosophy.(seeimage). Work Arendt wrote works onintellectual historyas a political theorist, using events and actions to develop insights into contemporarytotalitarianmovements and the threat to human freedom presented by scientific abstraction and bourgeois morality. Intellectually, she was an independent thinker, a loner, not a \"joiner,\" separating herself from schools of thought or ideology.In addition to her major texts she published anthologies, includingBetween Past and Future(1961),Men in Dark Times(1968)andCrises of the Republic(1972).She also contributed to many publications, includingThe New York Review of Books,Commonweal,DissentandThe New Yorker.She is perhaps best known for her accounts ofAdolf",
"accounts ofAdolf Eichmannand his trial,because of the intense controversy that it generated. Political theory and philosophical system While Arendt never developed a systematic political theory and her writing does not easily lend itself to categorization, the tradition of thought most closely identified with Arendt is that ofcivic republicanism, from Aristotle toTocqueville. Her political concept is centered aroundactive citizenshipthat emphasizescivic engagementand collective deliberation.She believed that no matter how bad, government could never succeed in extinguishing human freedom, despite holding that modern societies frequently retreat from democratic freedom with its inherent disorder for the relative comfort of administrative bureaucracy. Some have claimed her political legacy is her strong defence of freedom in the face of an increasingly less than free world.She does not adhere to a single systematic philosophy, but rather spans a range of subjects covering totalitarianism, revolution, the",
"revolution, the nature of freedom and the faculties of thought and judgment. While she is best known for her work on \"dark times\",the nature of totalitarianism and evil, she imbued this with a spark of hope and confidence in the nature of mankind: That even in the darkest of times we have the right to expect some illumination, and that such illumination might well come less from theories and concepts than from the uncertain, flickering, and often weak light that some men and women, in their lives and their works, will kindle under almost all circumstances and shed over the time span that was given to them.Men in Dark Times(1968) Love and Saint Augustine(1929) Arendt's doctoral thesis,Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin. Versuch einer philosophischen Interpretation(Love and Saint Augustine. Towards a philosophical interpretation), was published in 1929 and attracted critical interest, although an English translation did not appear until 1996.In this work she combined approaches of both Heidegger and Jaspers.",
"and Jaspers. Arendt's interpretation of love in the work of Augustine deals with three concepts, love as craving or desire (Amor qua appetitus), love in the relationship between man (creatura) and creator (Creator – Creatura), and neighborly love (Dilectio proximi). Love as craving anticipates the future, while love for the Creator deals with the remembered past. Of the three,dilectio proximiorcaritasis perceived as the most fundamental, to which the first two are oriented, which she treats asvita socialis(social life) – the second of theGreat Commandments(orGolden Rule) \"Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself\" uniting and transcending the former.Augustine's influence (and Jaspers' views on his work) persisted in Arendt's writings for the rest of her life. Amor mundi – warum ist es so schwer, die Welt zu lieben?Love of the world – why is it so difficult to love the world? —DenktagebuchI: 522 Some of theleitmotifsof her canon were apparent, introducing the concept ofNatalität(Natality) as a key condition of",
"a key condition of human existence and its role in the development of the individual,developing this further inThe Human Condition(1958).She explained that the construct of natality was implied in her discussion of new beginnings and man's elation to the Creator asnova creatura.The centrality of the theme of birth and renewal is apparent in the constant reference to Augustinian thought, and specifically the innovative nature of birth, from this, her first work, to her last,The Life of the Mind. Love is another connecting theme. In addition to the Augustinian loves expostulated in her dissertation, the phraseamor mundi(love of the world) is one often associated with Arendt and both permeates her work and was an absorbing passion throughout her work.She took the phrase from Augustine's homily on thefirst epistle of St John, \"If love of the world dwell in us\".Amor mundiwas her original title forThe Human Condition(1958),the subtitle of Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's biography (1982),the title of a collection of",
"of a collection of writing on faith in her workand is the newsletter of the Hannah Arendt Center at Bard College. The Origins of Totalitarianism(1951) Arendt's first major book,The Origins of Totalitarianism(1951),examined the roots ofStalinismandNazism, structured as three essays, \"Antisemitism\", \"Imperialism\" and \"Totalitarianism\". Arendt argues that totalitarianism was a \"novel form of government,\" that \"differs essentially from other forms of political oppression known to us such as despotism, tyranny and dictatorship\"in that it applied terror to subjugate mass populations rather than just political adversaries.Arendt also maintained that Jewry was not the operative factor in the Holocaust, but merely a convenient proxy because Nazism was about terror and consistency, not merely eradicating Jews.Arendt explained the tyranny using Kant's phrase \"radical evil\",by which their victims became \"superfluous people\".In later editions she enlarged the textto include her work on \"Ideology and Terror: A novel form",
"A novel form of government\"and theHungarian Revolution, but then published the latter separately. Criticism ofOriginshas often focused on its portrayal of the two movements, Hitlerism and Stalinism, as equally tyrannical. Rahel Varnhagen: The Life of a Jewess(1957) Arendt'sHabilitationsschrifton Rahel Varnhagen was completed while she was living in exile in Paris in 1938, but not published till 1957, in the United Kingdom by East and West Library, part of theLeo Baeck Institute.This biography of a 19th-century Jewish socialite, formed an important step in her analysis of Jewish history and the subjects ofassimilationandemancipation, and introduced her treatment of theJewish diasporaas eitherpariahorparvenu. In addition it represents an early version of her concept of history.The book is dedicated to Anne Mendelssohn, who first drew her attention to Varnhagen.Arendt's relation to Varnhagen permeates her subsequent work. Her account of Varnhagen's life was perceived during a time of the destruction of",
"the destruction of German-Jewish culture. It partially reflects Arendt's own view of herself as a German-Jewish woman driven out of her own culture into astatelessexistence,leading to the description \"biography as autobiography\". The Human Condition(1958) In what is arguably her most influential work,The Human Condition(1958),Arendt differentiates political and social concepts, labor and work, and various forms of actions; she then explores the implications of those distinctions. Her theory of political action, corresponding to the existence of a public realm, is extensively developed in this work. Arendt argues that, while human life always evolves within societies, the social part of human nature, political life, has been intentionally realized in only a few societies as a space for individuals to achieve freedom. Conceptual categories, which attempt to bridge the gap betweenontologicaland sociological structures, are sharply delineated. While Arendt relegates labor and work to the realm of the social, she",
"of the social, she favors the human condition of action as that which is both existential and aesthetic.Of human actions, Arendt identifies two that she considers essential. These are forgiving past wrong (or unfixing the fixed past) and promising future benefit (or fixing the unfixed future). Arendt had first introduced the concept of \"natality\" in herLove and Saint Augustine(1929)and inThe Human Conditionstarts to develop this further. In this, she departs from Heidegger's emphasis on mortality. Arendt's positive message is one of the \"miracle of beginning\", the continual arrival of the new to create action, that is to alter the state of affairs brought about by previous actions.\"Men\", she wrote \"though they must die, are not born in order to die but in order to begin\". She defined her use of \"natality\" as: The miracle that saves the world, the realm of human affairs, from its normal, \"natural\" ruin is ultimately the fact of natality, in which the faculty of action is ontologically rooted. It is, in other",
"It is, in other words, the birth of new men and the new beginning, the action they are capable of by virtue of being born. Natality would go on to become a central concept of her political theory, and also what Karin Fry considers its most optimistic one. Between Past and Future(1954...1968) Between Past and Futureis an anthology of eight essays written between 1954 and 1968, dealing with a variety of different but connected philosophical subjects. These essays share the central idea that humans live between the past and the uncertain future. Man must permanently think to exist, but must learn thinking. Humans have resorted to tradition, but are abandoning respect for this tradition and culture. Arendt tries to find solutions to help humans think again, since modern philosophy has not succeeded in helping humans to live correctly. On Revolution(1963) Arendt's bookOn Revolutionpresents a comparison of two of the main revolutions of the 18th century, theAmericanandFrenchRevolutions. She goes against a common",
"against a common impression of both Marxist andleftistviews when she argues that France, while well-studied and often emulated, was a disaster and that the largely ignored American Revolution was a success. The turning point in the French Revolution occurred when the leaders rejected their goals of freedom to focus on compassion for the masses. In the United States, the founders never betray the goal ofConstitutio Libertatis. Arendt believes the revolutionary spirit of those men had been lost, however, and advocates a \"council system\" as an appropriate institution to regain that spirit. Men in Dark Times(1968) The anthology of essaysMen in Dark Timespresents intellectual biographies of some creative and moral figures of the 20th century, such asWalter Benjamin,Karl Jaspers,Rosa Luxemburg,Hermann Broch,Pope John XXIII, andIsak Dinesen. Crises of the Republic(1972) Crises of the Republicwas the third of Arendt's anthologies, consisting of four essays. These related essays deal with contemporary American",
"American politics and the crises it faced in the 1960s and 1970s. \"Lying in Politics\" looks for an explanation behind the administration's deception regarding theVietnam War, as revealed in thePentagon Papers. \"Civil Disobedience\" examines the opposition movements, while the final \"Thoughts on Politics and Revolution\" is a commentary, in the form of an interview on the third essay, \"On Violence\".In \"On Violence\" Arendt substantiates that violence presupposes power which she understands as a property of groups. Thus, she breaks with the predominant conception of power as derived from violence. The Life of the Mind(1978) Arendt's last major work,The Life of the Mindremained incomplete at the time of her death in 1975, but marked a return to moral philosophy. The outline of the book was based on her graduate level political philosophy class,Philosophy of the Mind, and herGifford Lecturesin Scotland.She conceived of the work as a trilogy based on the mental activities of thinking, willing, and judging. Her most",
"judging. Her most recent work had focused on the first two, but went beyond this in terms ofvita activa. Her discussion of thinking was based onSocratesand his notion of thinking as a solitary dialogue between oneself, leading her to novel concepts of conscience. Arendt died suddenly five days after completing the second part, with the first page of Judging still in her typewriter, and McCarthy then edited the first two parts and provided some indication of the direction of the third.Arendt's exact intentions for the third part are unknown but she left several manuscripts (such asThinking and Moral Considerations,Some Questions on Moral PhilosophyandLectures on Kant's Political Philosophy) relating to her thoughts on the mentalfaculty of Judging. These have since been published separately. Collected works After Arendt died in 1975, her essays and notes have continued to be collected, edited and published posthumously by friends and colleagues, mainly under the editorship of Jerome Kohn, including those that",
"those that give some insight into the unfinished third part ofThe Life of the Mind.Some dealt with her Jewish identity.The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age(1978),is a collection of 15 essays and letters from the period 1943–1966 on the situation of Jews in modern times, to try and throw some light on her views on the Jewish world, following the backlash toEichmann, but proved to be equally polarizing.A further collection of her writings on being Jewish was published asThe Jewish Writings(2007).Her work on moral philosophy appeared asLectures on Kant's Political Philosophy(1982) andResponsibility and Judgment(2003), and her literary works asReflections on Literature and Culture(2007). Other work includes the collection of forty, largely fugitive,essays, addresses, and reviews covering the period 1930–1954, titledEssays in Understanding 1930–1954: Formation, Exile, and Totalitarianism(1994).These presaged her monumentalThe Origins of Totalitarianism,in particularOn the Nature of",
"the Nature of Totalitarianism(1953) andThe Concern with Politics in Contemporary European Philosophical Thought(1954).However these attracted little attention. However after a new version ofOrigins of Totalitarianismappeared in 2004 followed byThe Promise of Politicsin 2005 there appeared a new interest in Arendtiana. This led to a second series of her remaining essays,Thinking Without a Banister: Essays in Understanding, 1953–1975, published in 2018.Her notebooks which form a series of memoirs, were published asDenktagebuchin 2002. Correspondence Some further insight into her thinking is provided in the continuing posthumous publication of her correspondence with many of the important figures in her life, including Karl Jaspers (1992),Mary McCarthy (1995),Heinrich Blücher (1996),Martin Heidegger (2004),Alfred Kazin(2005),Walter Benjamin (2006),Gershom Scholem(2011)andGünther Stern(2016).Other correspondences that have been published include those with women friends such as Hilde Fränkel and Anne",
"Fränkel and Anne Mendelssohnn Weil (seeRelationships). Arendt and the Eichmann trial (1961–1963) In 1960, on hearing ofAdolf Eichmann'scapture and plans forhis trial, Hannah Arendt contactedThe New Yorkerand offered to travel to Israel to cover it when it opened on 11 April 1961.Arendt was anxious to test her theories, developed inThe Origins of Totalitarianism, and see how justice would be administered to the sort of man she had written about. Also she had witnessed \"little of the Nazi regime directly\"and this was an opportunity to witness an agent of totalitarianism first hand.The offer was accepted and she attended six weeks of the five-month trial with her young Israeli cousin,Edna Brocke.On arrival she was treated as a celebrity, meeting with the trial chief judge,Moshe Landau, and the foreign minister,Golda Meir.In her subsequent 1963 report,based on her observations and transcripts,and which evolved into the bookEichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil,Arendt coined the phrase",
"coined the phrase \"thebanality of evil\" to describe the Eichmann phenomenon. She, like others,was struck by his very ordinariness and the demeanor he exhibited of a small, slightly balding, bland bureaucrat, in contrast to the horrific crimes he stood accused of.He was, she wrote, \"terribly and terrifyingly normal.\"She examined the question of whetherevilis radical or simply a function of thoughtlessness, a tendency of ordinary people to obey orders and conform to mass opinion without a critical evaluation of the consequences of their actions. Arendt's argument was that Eichmann was not a monster, contrasting the immensity of his actions with the very ordinariness of the man himself. Eichmann, she stated, not only called himself a Zionist, having initially opposed the Jewish persecution, but also expected his captors to understand him. She pointed out that his actions were not driven by malice, but rather blind dedication to the regime and his need to belong, to be a \"joiner.\" On this, Arendt would later",
"Arendt would later state \"Going along with the rest and wanting to say 'we' were quite enough to make the greatest of all crimes possible\".What Arendt observed during the trial was a bourgeois sales clerk who found a meaningful role for himself and a sense of importance in the Nazi movement. She noted that his addiction to clichés and use of bureaucratic morality clouded his ability to question his actions, \"to think\". This led her to set out her most debated dictum: \"the lesson that this long course in human wickedness had taught us – the lesson of the fearsome, word-and-thought-defying banality of evil.\"By stating that Eichmann did not think, she did not imply lack of conscious awareness of his actions, but by \"thinking\" she implied reflective rationality, that was lacking. Arendt was critical of the way the trial was conducted by the Israelis as a \"show trial\" with ulterior motives other than simply trying evidence and administering justice.Arendt was also critical of the way Israel depicted Eichmann's",
"depicted Eichmann's crimes as crimes against a nation-state, rather than against humanity itself.She objected to the idea that a strong Israel was necessary to protect world Jewry being again placed where \"they'll let themselves be slaughtered like sheep,\" recalling thebiblical phrase.She portrayed the prosecutor,Attorney GeneralGideon Hausner, as employing hyperbolic rhetoric in the pursuit of Prime MinisterBen-Gurion's political agenda.Arendt, who believed she could maintain her focus on moral principles in the face of outrage, became increasingly frustrated with Hausner, describing his parade of survivors as having \"no apparent bearing on the case\".She was particularly concerned that Hausner repeatedly asked \"why did you not rebel?\"rather than question the role of the Jewish leaders.On this point, Arendt argued that duringthe Holocaustsome of them cooperated with Eichmann \"almost without exception\" in the destruction of their own people. These leaders, notablyM. C. Rumkowski, constituted the Jewish",
"the Jewish Councils (Judenräte).She had expressed concerns on this point prior to the trial.She described this as a moral catastrophe. While her argument was not to allocate blame, rather she mourned what she considered a moral failure of compromising the imperative that it is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong. She describes the cooperation of the Jewish leaders in terms of a disintegration of Jewish morality: \"This role of the Jewish leaders in the destruction of their own people is undoubtedly the darkest chapter in the whole dark story\". Widely misunderstood, this caused an even greater controversy and particularly animosity toward her in the Jewish community and in Israel.For Arendt, the Eichmann trial marked a turning point in her thinking in the final decade of her life, becoming increasingly preoccupied withmoral philosophy. Reception Arendt's five-part series \"Eichmann in Jerusalem\" appeared inThe New Yorkerin February 1963some nine months after Eichmann was hanged on 31 May 1962. By this time",
"1962. By this time his trial was largely forgotten in the popular mind, superseded by intervening world events.However, no other account of either Eichmann or National Socialism has aroused so much controversy.Before its publication, Arendt was considered a brilliant humanistic original political thinker.Her mentor, Karl Jaspers, however, had warned her about a possible adverse outcome, \"The Eichmann trial will be no pleasure for you. I'm afraid it cannot go well\".On publication, three controversies immediately occupied public attention: the concept of Eichmann as banal, her criticism of the role of Israel and her description of the role played by the Jewish people themselves. Arendt was profoundly shocked by the response, writing to Karl Jaspers \"People are resorting to any means to destroy my reputation ... They have spent weeks trying to find something in my past that they can hang on me\". Now she was being called arrogant, heartless and ill-informed. She was accused of being duped by Eichmann, of being a",
"of being a \"self-hating Jewess\", and even an enemy of Israel.Her critics includedThe Anti-Defamation Leagueand many other Jewish groups, editors of publications she was a contributor to, faculty at the universities she taught at and friends from all parts of her life.Her friend Gershom Scholem, a major scholar ofJewish mysticism, broke off relations with her, publishing their correspondence without her permission.Arendt was criticized by many Jewish public figures, who charged her with coldness and lack of sympathy for the victims of the Holocaust. Because of this lingering criticism neither this book nor any of her other works were translated into Hebrew until 1999.Arendt responded to the controversies in the book's Postscript. Although Arendt complained that she was being criticized for telling the truth – \"what a risky business to tell the truth on a factual level without theoretical and scholarly embroidery\"– the criticism was largely directed to her theorizing on the nature of mankind and evil and that",
"and evil and that ordinary people were driven to commit the inexplicable not so much by hatred and ideology as ambition, and inability to empathize. Equally problematic was the suggestion that the victims deceived themselves and complied in their own destruction.Prior to Arendt's depiction of Eichmann, his popular image had been, asThe New York Timesput it \"the most evil monster of humanity\"and as a representative of \"an atrocious crime, unparalleled in history\", \"the extermination of European Jews\".As it turned out Arendt and others were correct in pointing out that Eichmann's characterization by the prosecution as the architect and chief technician of the Holocaust was not entirely credible. While much has been made of Arendt's treatment of Eichmann, Ada Ushpiz, in her 2015 documentaryVita Activa: The Spirit of Hannah Arendt,placed it in a much broader context of the use of rationality to explain seemingly irrational historical events. Kein Mensch hat das Recht zu gehorchen In an interview withJoachim",
"withJoachim Festin 1964,Arendt was asked about Eichmann's defense that he had made Kant's principle of the duty of obedience his guiding principle all his life. Arendt replied that that was outrageous and that Eichmann was misusing Kant, by not considering the element of judgement required in assessing one's own actions – \"Kein Mensch hat bei Kant das Recht zu gehorchen\" (No man has, according to Kant, the right to obey), she stated, paraphrasing Kant. The reference was to Kant'sDie Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft(Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason 1793) in which he states: Der Satz 'man muß Gott mehr gehorchen, als den Menschen' bedeutet nur, daß, wenn die letzten etwas gebieten, was an sich böse (dem Sittengesetz unmittelbar zuwider) ist, ihnen nicht gehorcht werden darf und soll(The saying, \"We must hearken to God, rather than to man,\" signifies no more than this, viz. that should any earthly legislation enjoin something immediately contradictory of the moral law, obedience is",
"law, obedience is not to be rendered) Kant clearly defines a higher moral duty than rendering merely unto Caesar. Arendt herself had written in her book \"This was outrageous, on the face of it, and also incomprehensible, since Kant's moral philosophy is so closely bound up with man's faculty of judgment, which rules out blind obedience.\"Arendt's reply to Fest was subsequently corrupted to readNiemand hat das Recht zu gehorchen(No one has the right to obey), which has been widely reproduced, although it does encapsulate an aspect of her moral philosophy. The phraseNiemand hat das Recht zu gehorchenhas become one of her iconic images, appearing on the wall of the house in which she was born (seeCommemorations), among other places.Afascistbas-reliefon thePalazzo degli Uffici Finanziari(1942), in the Piazza del Tribunale,Bolzano, Italy celebratingMussolini, readCredere, Obbedire, Combattere(Believe, Obey, Combat).In 2017 it was altered to read Hannah Arendt's original words on obedience in the three official",
"the three official languages of the region. The phrase has been appearing in other artistic work featuring political messages, such as the 2015 installation by Wilfried Gerstel, which has evoked the concept of resistance to dictatorship, as expressed in her essay \"Personal Responsibility under Dictatorship\" (1964). List of selected publications Bibliographies Books Articles and essays Correspondence Posthumous Collections Miscellaneous Views In 1961, while covering the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem, Arendt wrote a letter toKarl Jaspersthat Adam Kirsch described as reflecting \"pure racism\" towardSephardic Jewsfrom the Middle East andAshkenazi Jewsfrom Eastern Europe. She wrote: Fortunately, Eichmann's three judges were of German origin, indeed the best of German Jewry. Hausner is a typical Galician Jew, still European, very unsympathetic... boring... constantly making mistakes. Probably one of those people who don't know any language. Everything is organized bya police forcewhich gives me the creeps,",
"me the creeps, speaks only Hebrew, andlooks Arabic. Some downright brutal types among them. They would obey any order. And outside the doors, the oriental mob, as if one were in Istanbul or some other half-Asiatic country. Although Arendt remained aZionistboth during and after World War II, she made it clear that she favored the creation of a Jewish-Arab federated state inBritish Mandate of Palestine(now Israel and thePalestinian territories), rather than a purely Jewish state. She believed that this was a way to address Jewish statelessness and to avoid the pitfalls of nationalism. Accusations of racism It was not just Arendt's analysis of the Eichmann trial that drew accusations of racism. In her 1958 essay inDissenttitledReflections on Little Rockshe expressed opposition todesegregationfollowing the 1957Little Rock Integration Crisisin Arkansas. As she explains in the preface, for a long time the magazine was reluctant to print her contribution, so far did it appear to differ from the publication's",
"the publication's liberal values. Eventually it was printed alongside critical responses. LaterThe New Yorkerwould express similar hesitancy over the Eichmann papers. So vehement was the response that Arendt felt obliged to defend herself in a sequel.The debate over this essay has continued since.William Simmons devotes a whole section of his 2011 text on human rights (Human Rights Law and the Marginalized Other)to a critique of Arendt's position and in particular on Little Rock.While many critics feel she was fundamentally racist,many of those who have defended Arendt's position have pointed out that her concerns were for the welfare of the children, a position she maintained throughout her life. She felt that white children were being thrown into a racially disharmonious \"jungle\" to serve a broader political strategy of forcible integration. While over time Arendt conceded some ground to her critics, namely that she argued as an outsider, she remained committed to her central critique that children should",
"children should not be thrust into the front-lines of geopolitical conflict. Feminism Embraced byfeministsas a pioneer in a world dominated by men up to her time, Arendt did not call herself a feminist and would be very surprised to hear herself described as a feminist,remaining opposed to the social dimensions ofWomen's Liberation, urging independence, but always keeping in mindVive la petite différence!On becoming the first woman to be appointed a professor at Princeton in 1953, the media were much engaged in this exceptional achievement, but she never wanted to be seen as an exception, either as a woman (an \"exception woman\")or a Jew, stating emphatically \"I am not disturbed at all about being a woman professor, because I am quite used to being a woman\".In 1972, discussing women's liberation, she observed \"the real question to ask is, what will we lose if we win?\".She rather enjoyed what she saw as the privileges of being feminine as opposed to feminist, \"Intensely feminine and therefore no feminist\",",
"no feminist\", stated Hans Jonas.Arendt considered some professions and positions unsuitable for women, particularly those involving leadership, tellingGünter Gaus\"It just doesn't look good when a woman gives orders\".Despite these views, and having been labelled \"anti-feminist\", much space has been devoted to examining Arendt's place in relation to feminism.In the last years of her life,Virginia Heldnoted that Arendt's views evolved with the emergence of anew feminism in America in the 1970sto recognize the importance of the women's movement. Critique of human rights InThe Origins of Totalitarianism, Hannah Arendt devotes a lengthy chapter (The Decline of the Nation-State and the End of the Rights of Man)to a critical analysis of human rights, in what has been described as \"the most widely read essay on refugees ever published\".Arendt is not skeptical of the notion of political rights in general, but instead defends a national or civil conception of rights.Human rights, or the Rights of Man as they were",
"of Man as they were commonly called, are universal, inalienable, and possessed simply by virtue of being human. In contrast, civil rights are possessed by virtue of belonging to a political community, most commonly by being a citizen. Arendt's primary criticism of human rights is that they are ineffectual and illusory because their enforcement is in tension with national sovereignty.She argued that since there is no political authority above that of sovereign nations, state governments have little incentive to respect human rights when such policies conflict with national interests. This can be seen most clearly by examining the treatment of refugees and other stateless people. Since the refugee has no state to secure their civil rights, the only rights they have to fall back on are human rights. In this way Arendt uses the refugee as a test case for examining human rights in isolation from civil rights. Arendt's analysis draws on the refugee upheavals in the first half of the 20th century along with her own",
"along with her own experience as a refugee fleeing Nazi Germany. She argued that as state governments began to emphasize national identity as a prerequisite for full legal status, the number of minority resident aliens increased along with the number of stateless persons whom no state was willing to recognize legally.The two potential solutions to the refugee problem, repatriation and naturalization, both proved incapable of solving the crisis. Arendt argued that repatriation failed to solve the refugee crisis because no government was willing to take them in and claim them as their own. When refugees were forcibly deported to neighboring countries, such immigration was deemed illegal by the receiving country, and so failed to change the fundamental status of the migrants as stateless. Attempts at naturalizing and assimilating refugees also had little success. This failure was primarily the result of resistance from both state governments and the majority of citizens, since both tended to see the refugees as",
"see the refugees as undesirables who threatened their national identity. Resistance to naturalization also came from the refugees themselves who resisted assimilation and attempted to maintain their own ethnic and national identities.Arendt contends that neither naturalization nor the tradition of asylum was capable of handling the sheer number of refugees. Instead of accepting some refugees with legal status, the state often responded by denaturalizing minorities who shared national or ethnic ties with stateless refugees. Arendt argues that the consistent mistreatment of refugees, most of whom were placed in internment camps, is evidence against the existence of human rights. If the notion of human rights as universal and inalienable is to be taken seriously, the rights must be realizable given the features of the modern liberal state.She concluded \"The Rights of Man, supposedly inalienable, proved to be unenforceable–even in countries whose constitutions were based upon them–whenever people appeared who",
"people appeared who were no longer citizens of any sovereign state\".Arendt contends that they are not realizable because they are in tension with at least one feature of the liberal state—national sovereignty. One of the primary ways in which a nation exercises sovereignty is through control over national borders. State governments consistently grant their citizens free movement to traverse national borders. In contrast, the movement of refugees is often restricted in the name of national interests.This restriction presents a dilemma for liberalism because liberal theorists typically are committed to both human rights and the existence of sovereign nations. In one of her most quoted passages,she puts forward the concept that human rights are little more than an abstraction: The conception of human rights based upon the assumed existence of a human being as such broke down at the very moment when those who professed to believe in it were for the first time confronted with people who had indeed lost all other",
"lost all other qualities and specific relationships – except that they were still human. The world found nothing sacred in the abstract nakedness of being human. In popular culture Several authors have written biographies that focus on the relationship between Hannah Arendt and Martin Heidegger.In 1999, the French feminist philosopherCatherine Clémentwrote a novel,Martin and Hannah,speculating on the triangular relationship between Heidegger and the two women in his life, Arendt and Heidegger's wife Elfriede Petri. In addition to the relationships, the novel is a serious exploration of philosophical ideas, that centers on Arendt's last meeting with Heidegger in Freiburg in 1975. The scene is based on Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's description inHannah Arendt: For Love of the World(1982),but reaches back to their childhoods, and Heidegger's role in encouraging the relationship between the two women.The novel explores Heidegger's embrace of Nazism as a proxy for that of Germany and, as in Arendt's treatment of",
"treatment of Eichmann, the difficult relationship between collective guilt and personal responsibility. Clément also brings Hannah's other mentor and confidante, Karl Jaspers, into the matrix of relationships. In 2012 the German film,Hannah Arendt, directed byMargarethe von Trottawas released. The film, withBarbara Sukowain the title role, depicted the controversy over Arendt's coverage of the Eichmann trial inThe New Yorkerand her subsequent book,Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, in which she was widely misunderstood as defending Eichmann and blaming Jewish leaders for the Holocaust.In 2015, the filmmaker Ada Ushpiz produced a documentary on Hannah Arendt,Vita Activa: The Spirit of Hannah Arendt.In the 2023 TV seriesTransatlantic, Arendt is portrayed byAlexa Karolinski. Legacy Hannah Arendt is considered one of the most influential political philosophers of the 20th century.In 1998Walter Laqueurstated \"No twentieth-century philosopher and political thinker has at the present time as",
"the present time as wide an echo\", as philosopher, historian, sociologist and also journalist.Arendt's legacy has been described as a cult.In a 2016 review of a documentary about Arendt, the journalist A. O. Scott describes Hannah Arendt as \"of unmatched range and rigor\" as a thinker, although she is primarily known for the series of articles known asEichmann in Jerusalemthat she wrote forThe New Yorker, and in particular for the one phrase \"the banality of evil\". She shunned publicity, never expecting, as she explained to Karl Jaspers in 1951, to see herself as a \"cover girl\" on the newsstands.In Germany, there are tours available of sites associated with her life. The study of the life and work of Hannah Arendt, and of her political and philosophical theory is described asArendtian.In her will she established the Hannah Arendt Bluecher Literary Trust as the custodian of her writings and photographs.Her personal library was deposited at Bard College at the Stevenson Library in 1976, and includes",
"1976, and includes approximately 4,000 books,ephemera, and pamphlets from Arendt's last apartment as well as her desk (in McCarthy House).The college has begun archiving some of the collection digitally, which is available at The Hannah Arendt Collection.Most of her papers were deposited at theLibrary of Congressand her correspondence with her German friends and mentors, such as Heidegger, Blumenfeld and Jaspers, at theDeutsches Literaturarchivin Marbach.The Library of Congress listed more than 50 books written about her in 1998, and that number has continued to grow, as have the number of scholarly articles, estimated as 1000 at that time. Her life and work is recognized by the institutions most closely associated with her teaching, by the creation of Hannah Arendt Centers at both Bard (Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities)and The New School,both in New York State. In Germany, her contributions to understanding authoritarianism is recognised by the Hannah-Arendt-Institut für",
"für Totalitarismusforschung (Hannah Arendt Institute for the Research on Totalitarianism) inDresden. There are Hannah Arendt Associations (Hannah Arendt Verein)such as the Hannah Arendt Verein für politisches Denken inBrementhat awards the annual Hannah-Arendt-Preis für politisches Denken (Hannah Arendt Prize for Political Thinking) established in 1995. InOldenburg, the Hannah Arendt Center atCarl von Ossietzky Universitywas established in 1999,and holds a large collection of her work (Hannah Arendt Archiv),and administers theinternet portalHannahArendt.net(A Journal for Political Thinking)as well as a monograph series, theHannah Arendt-Studien.In Italy, the Hannah Arendt Center for Political Studies is situated at theUniversity of Veronafor Arendtian studies. In 2017 a journal,Arendt Studies, was launched to publish articles related to the study of the life, work, and legacy of Hannah Arendt.Many places associated with her, have memorabilia of her on display, such as her student card at the University of",
"the University of Heidelberg (see image).2006, the centennial of her birth, saw commemorations of her work in conferences and celebrations around the world. Of the many photographic portraits of Arendt, that taken in 1944 byFred Stein(seeimage), whose work she greatly admired,has become iconic, and has been described as better known than the photographer himself,having appeared on a German postage stamp.(seeimage) Among organizations that have recognized Arendt's contributions to civilization and human rights, is theUnited Nations Refugee Agency(UNHCR). Contemporaryinterest The rise ofnativism, such as the election ofDonald Trumpin the United States,and concerns regarding an increasingly authoritarian style of governance has led to a surge of interest in Arendt and her writings,including radio broadcastsand writers, includingJeremy Adelmanand Zoe Williams,to revisit Arendt's ideas to seek the extent to which they inform our understanding of such movements,which are being described as \"Dark Times\".At the same",
"Times\".At the same timeAmazonreported that it had sold out of copies ofThe Origins of Totalitarianism(1951).Michiko Kakutanihas addressed what she refers to as \"the death of truth\".In her 2018 book,The Death of Truth: Notes on Falsehood in the Age of Trump, she argues that the rise of totalitarianism has been founded on the violation of truth. She begins her book with an extensive quote fromThe Origins of Totalitarianism: The ideal subject of totalitarian rule is not the convinced Nazi or the convinced communist, but people for whom the distinction between fact and fiction (i.e., the reality of experience) and the distinction between true and false (i.e., the standards of thought) no longer exist. Kakutani and others believed that Arendt's words speak not just events of a previous century but apply equally to the contemporary cultural landscapepopulated withfake newsand lies. She also draws on Arendt's essay \"Lying in Politics\" fromCrises in the Republicpointing to the lines: The historian knows how",
"historian knows how vulnerable is the whole texture of facts in which we spend our daily life; it is always in danger of being perforated by single lies or torn to shreds by the organized lying of groups, nations, or classes, or denied and distorted, often carefully covered up by reams of falsehoods or simply allowed to fall into oblivion. Facts need testimony to be remembered and trustworthy witnesses to be established in order to find a secure dwelling place in the domain of human affairs Arendt drew attention to the critical role that propaganda plays ingaslightingpopulations, Kakutani observes, citing the passage: In an ever-changing, incomprehensible world the masses had reached the point where they would, at the same time, believe everything and nothing, think that everything was possible and that nothing was true . ... The totalitarian mass leaders based their propaganda on the correct psychological assumption that, under such conditions, one could make people believe the most fantastic statements one",
"statements one day, and trust that if the next day they were given irrefutable proof of their falsehood, they would take refuge in cynicism; instead of deserting the leaders who had lied to them, they would protest that they had known all along that the statement was a lie and would admire the leaders for their superior tactical cleverness Arendt took a broader perspective on history than merely totalitarianism in the early 20th century, stating \"the deliberate falsehood and the outright lie have been used as legitimate means to achieve political ends since the beginning of recorded history.\"Contemporary relevance is also reflected in the increasing use of the phrase, attributed to her, \"No one has the right to obey\" to reflect that actions result from choices, and hence judgement, and that we cannot disclaim responsibility for that which we have the power to act upon.In addition those centers established to promote Arendtian studies continue to seek solutions to a wide range of contemporary issues in her",
"issues in her writing. Arendt's teachings on obedience have also been linked to the controversial psychology experiments byStanley Milgram, that implied that ordinary people can easily be induced to commit atrocities.Milgram himself drew attention to this in 1974, stating that he was testing the theory that Eichmann like others would merely follow orders, but unlike Milgram she argued that actions involve responsibility. Arendt's theories on the political consequences of how nations deal with refugees have remained relevant and compelling. Arendt had observed first hand the displacement of large stateless and rightsless populations, treated not so much as people in need than as problems to solve, and in many cases, resist.She wrote about this in her 1943 essay \"We refugees\".Another Arendtian theme that finds an echo in contemporary society is her observation, inspired by Rilke, of the despair of not being heard, the futility of tragedy that finds no listener that can bring comfort, assurance and",
"assurance and intervention. An example of this being gun violence in America and the resulting political inaction. In Search of the Last Agora, an illustrated documentary film by Lebanese director Rayyan Dabbous about Hannah Arendt's 1958 workThe Human Condition, was released in 2018 to mark the book's 50th anniversary. Screened at Bard College, the experimental film is described as finding \"new meaning in the political theorist's conceptions of politics, technology and society in the 1950s\", particularly in her prediction of abuses of phenomena unknown in Arendt's time, including social media, intense globalization, and obsessive celebrity culture. Commemorations Hannah Arendt's life and work continue to be commemorated in many different ways, including plaques (Gedenktafeln) indicating places she has lived. Public places and institutions bear her name,including schools.There is also a Hannah Arendt Day (Hannah Arendt Tag) in her birthplace.Objects named after her vary fromasteroidsto trainsand she has been",
"she has been commemorated in stamps. Museums and foundations include her name. See also Notes References Sources Articles (journals and proceedings) Rahel Varnhagen Special issues and proceedings Audiovisual Books and monographs Autobiography and biography Critical works Historical Chapters and contributions Dictionaries and encyclopedias Magazines Newspapers Theses Websites Biography and timelines Institutions, locations and organizations Hannah Arendt Center (Bard) Maps External images Further reading External links",
"Bard College Bard Collegeis aprivateliberal arts collegein the hamlet ofAnnandale-on-Hudson, in the town ofRed Hook, inNew York State. The campus overlooks theHudson RiverandCatskill Mountainswithin theHudson River Historic District—aNational Historic Landmark. Founded in 1860, the institution consists of a liberal arts college and aconservatory, as well as eight graduate programs offering over 20 graduate degrees in the arts and sciences.The college has a network of over 35 affiliated programs, institutes, and centers, spanning twelvecities, fivestates, sevencountries, and fourcontinents. History Origins and early years During much of the nineteenth century, the land since owned by Bard was mainly composed of severalcountry estates. These estates were called Blithewood, Bartlett, Sands, Cruger's Island, and Ward Manor/Almont. In 1853,John Bardand Margaret Bard purchased a part of the Blithewood estate and renamed it Annandale. John Bard was the grandson ofSamuel Bard, a prominent doctor, a founder ofColumbia",
"founder ofColumbia University'smedical school, andphysiciantoGeorge Washington.John Bard was also the nephew of John McVickar, a professor atColumbia University. The family had strong connections with theEpiscopal Churchand Columbia. The following year, in 1854, John and Margaret established aparish schoolon their estate in order to educate the area's children. A wood-framecottage, known today as Bard Hall, served as a school on weekdays and achapelon weekends. In 1857, the Bards expanded theparishby building the Chapel of the Holy Innocents next to Bard Hall.During this time, John Bard remained in close contact with the New York leaders of the Episcopal Church. The church suggested that he found atheological college. With the promise of outside financial support, John Bard donated the unfinished chapel, and the surrounding 18 acres (7.3 ha), to the diocese in November 1858. In March 1860,St. Stephen's Collegewas founded. In 1861, construction began on the first St. Stephen's College building, a",
"College building, a stonecollegiate Gothicdormitorycalled Aspinwall, after earlytrusteeJohn Lloyd Aspinwall, brother ofWilliam Henry Aspinwall. During its initial years, the college relied on wealthy benefactors, like trusteeCornelius Vanderbilt, for funding. The college began taking shape within four decades. In 1866, Ludlow Hall, an administrative building, was erected. Preston Hall was built in 1873 and used as a refectory. A set of four dormitories, collectively known as Stone Row, were completed in 1891. And in 1895, theGreek RevivalHoffman Memorial Library was built.The school officially changed its name to Bard College in 1934 in honor of its founder. Growth and secularization In the 20th century, social and cultural changes amongst New York'shigh societywould bring about the demise of the great estates. In 1914, Louis Hamersley purchased the fire-damaged Ward Manor/Almont estate and erected aTudor stylemansion and gatehouse, or what is today known as Ward Manor.Hamersley expanded his estate in 1926",
"his estate in 1926 by acquiring the abandoned Cruger's Island estate. That same year, after Hamersley's combined estate was purchased by William Ward, it was donated to charity and served as a retirement home for almost four decades. By the mid-1900s, Bard's campus significantly expanded. The Blithewood estate was donated to the college in 1951, and in 1963, Bard purchased 90 acres (36 ha) of the Ward Manor estate, including the main manor house. The rest of the Ward Manor estate became the 900-acre (360 ha) Tivoli Baysnature preserve. In 1919,Bernard Iddings Bellbecame Bard's youngest president at the age of 34. His adherence to classical education, decorum, and dress eventually clashed with the school's push towardsDeweyismand secularization, and he resigned in 1933. In 1928, Bard merged withColumbia University, serving as an undergraduate school similar toBarnard College. Under the agreement, Bard remained affiliated with the Episcopal Church and retained control of its finances. The merger raised Bard's",
"raised Bard's prestige; however, it failed to provide financial support to the college during theGreat Depression.So dire was Bard's financial situation that in 1932, then-Governor of New York and College trusteeFranklin D. Rooseveltsent a telegram to the likes ofJohn D. Rockefeller Jr.,George EastmanandFrederick William Vanderbiltrequesting donations for the college. On May 26, 1933,Donald Tewksbury, a Columbia professor, was appointed dean of the college. Although dean for only four years, Tewksbury had a lasting impact on the school. Tewksbury, an educational philosopher, had extensive ideas regarding higher education. While he was dean, Tewksbury steered the college into a more secular direction and changed its name from St. Stephen's to Bard. He also placed a heavy academic emphasis on the arts, something atypical of colleges at the time, and set the foundations for Bard's Moderation and Senior Project requirement.While Tewksbury never characterized Bard's curriculum as \"progressive,\" the school would",
"the school would later be considered an early adopter of progressive education. In his 1943 study of early progressive colleges, titledGeneral Education in the Progressive College,Louis T. Benezetused Bard as one of his threecase studies. During the 1940s, Bard provided a haven for intellectual refugees fleeing Europe. These includedHannah Arendt, the political theorist,Stefan Hirsch, theprecisionistpainter;Felix Hirsch, the political editor of theBerliner Tageblatt; the violinist Emil Hauser; the linguistHans Marchand; the noted psychologist Werner Wolff; and the philosopherHeinrich Blücher.Arendt is buried at Bard, alongside her husband Heinrich Blücher, as is eminent novelistPhilip Roth. In 1944, as a result ofWorld War II, enrollment significantly dropped putting financial stress on the college. In order to increase enrollment, the college became co-educational, thereby severing all ties with Columbia. The college became an independent, secular, institution in 1944. Thus enrollment more than doubled,",
"more than doubled, from 137 students in 1944, to 293 in 1947.In the 1950s, with the addition of the Blithewood estate and Tewksbury Hall, the college would increase its enrollment by 150 students. Late twentieth and early twenty-first century Donald FagenandWalter Becker's experiences at Bard prompted them to write the 1973 song \"My Old School\" for their rock group,Steely Dan.The song was motivated by the 1969 drug bust at Bard in which the college administration colluded.The DA involved wasG. Gordon LiddyofWatergatenotoriety.Fagen wrote another Steely Dan song, \"Rikki Don't Lose That Number\", about novelist, artist and former Bard faculty spouseRikki Ducornet. In 2020, Bard College andCentral European Universitybecame the founding members of the Open Society University Network, a collaborative global education initiative endowed with US$1 billion. As part of this new initiative, the college received a US$100 million gift from theOpen Society Foundationswhich ranks among the largest financial contributions",
"contributions to a U.S. institution in recent history.In 2021, philanthropistGeorge Sorosmade a $500 million endowment pledge to Bard College. It is one of the largest pledges of money ever made to higher education in the United States. In June 2021, Bard College was declared an \"undesirable institution\" in Russia, becoming the first international higher education organization to be branded with this designation.Bard president Botstein hypothesized that this tag was due their association with and funding from theOpen Society Foundationswhich was also classified as undesirable in Russia andrelated conspiracy theories about George Soros. College leaders At various times, the leaders of the college have been titled president, warden or dean.They are listed below: Campus The campus of Bard College is inAnnandale-on-Hudson, ahamletinDutchess County, New York, United States, in the town ofRed Hook. It contains more than 70 buildings with a total gross building space of 1,167,090 sq ft (108,426 m2) and was listed",
"m2) and was listed as a census-designated place in 2020.Campus buildings represent variedarchitectural styles, but the campus remains heavily influenced by theCollegiate GothicandPostmodernstyles. Bard's historic buildings are associated with the early development of the college and the history of the Hudson River estates (see Bard College History).During a late twentieth-century building boom, the college embraced a trend of building signature buildings designed by prominent architects likeVenturi,Gehry, andViñoly. In January 2016, Bard purchasedMontgomery Place, a 380-acre (150 ha) estate adjacent to the Bard campus, with significant historic and cultural assets. The estate consists of a historic mansion, a farm, and some 20 smaller buildings. The college purchased the property from Historic Hudson Valley, the historical preservation organization that had owned Montgomery Place since the late 1980s. The addition of this property brings Bard's total campus size to nearly 1,000 acres (400 ha) along the",
"(400 ha) along the Hudson River inAnnandale-on-Hudson, New York. In late 2023, Bard purchased 260 acres of land adjacent to theMontgomery Placecampus inBarrytown, which used to be the campus of theUnification Theological Seminary. The property, originally owned by theLivingstonand laterAspinwallfamilies, features a mansion designed byWilliam Appleton Potter. It was acquired by theDe La Salle Brothersin 1928, who completed a largeseminaryandnormal institutethere in 1931. In turn, the property was sold in 1974 to theUnification Church.Bard intends to use the space to provide new studios for the Center for Human Rights and the Arts and administrative offices for theOpen Society University Network (OSUN), of which Bard is a founding member. The purchase of the property brings Bard's total acreage to 1260 acres (510 ha). The area around the campus first appeared as acensus-designated place(CDP) in the 2020 Census,with a population of 358. The college has an amount of housing for faculty members.School-age",
"members.School-age dependents in this faculty housing are in theRed Hook Central School District(the CDP is within this school district). Academics Rankings and awards In its 2022-2023 edition of college rankings,U.S. News & World Reportranked Bard 60th overall, 5th in \"Most Innovative Schools\", tied at 38th for \"Best Undergraduate Teaching\", tied at #70 in \"Top Performers on Social Mobility\", tied at #19 in \"First-Year Experiences\", and 19th for \"Best Value\" out of 210 \"National Liberal Arts Colleges\" in the United States. Bard's Master of Fine Arts program was ranked one of ten most influential Master of Fine Arts programs in the world byArtspace Magazinein 2023. Bard has been named a top producer of U.S.FulbrightScholars.Many Bard alumni have also been namedWatson Fellows,Critical Language Scholarshiprecipients,Davis Projects for Peacewinners,Rhodes Scholars,Marshall Scholars, andPeace Corpsfellows, among other postgraduate awards. Undergraduate programs In the undergraduate college, Bard offersBachelor",
"Bard offersBachelor of ArtsandBachelor of Sciencedegrees. There are 23 academic departments that offer over 40major programs, as well as 12 interdisciplinaryconcentrations. The college was the first in the nation to offer ahuman rightsmajor.Its most popular undergraduate majors, based on 2021 graduates, were: In the three weeks preceding their first semester, first-year students attend the Language and Thinking (L&T) program, an intensive, writing-centered introduction to the liberal arts. The interdisciplinary program, established in 1981, aims to \"cultivate habits of thoughtful reading and discussion, clear articulation, accurate self-critique, and productive collaboration.\"The program coversphilosophy,history,science,poetry,fiction, andreligion. In 2011, the core readings included works byHannah Arendt,Franz Kafka,Frans de Waal,Stephen Jay Gould,Clifford Geertz,M. NourbeSe Philip, andSophocles. The capstone of the Bard undergraduate experience is the Senior Project, commonly referred to as SPROJ amongst",
"to as SPROJ amongst its students.As with moderation, this project takes different forms in different departments. Many students write a paper of around eighty pages, which is then, as with work for moderation, critiqued by a board of three professors. Arts students must organize a series of concerts, recitals, or shows, or produce substantial creative work; math and science students, as well as some social science students, undertake research projects. Undergraduate admissions For the academic year 2022-2023, Bard's acceptance rate stands at 46%. Out of the total 6,482 students who applied, 2,982 were admitted to the school.For the 2022–2023 academic year 447 students enrolled representing a yield rate of 15%. Admission trends note a 25% increase in applications in the 2022–2023 academic year.Bard does not require applicants to submit SAT or ACT test scores in order to apply.As an alternative, applicants may take an examination composed of 19 essay questions in four categories: Social Studies; Languages and",
"Languages and Literature; Arts; and Science, Mathematics, and Computing, with applicants required to complete three 2,500-word essays covering three of the four categories.For admitted students who submitted test scores, 50% had an SAT score between 1296 and 1468 or an ACT score between 28 and 33, with a reported average GPA of 3.79. Admissions officials consider a student's GPA a very important academic factor. Honors,AP, andIBclasses are important, an applicant's high school class rank is considered, and letters of recommendation are considered very important for admissions officials at Bard. Graduate programs Bard College offers a range of postgraduate degree programs, including theBard MFA,Bard Graduate Center,Center for Curatorial Studies, Center for Human Rights and the Arts, Center for Environmental Policy, Bard MBA in Sustainability,Levy Economics Institute, and the Master of Arts in Teaching. Bard MFA Milton Avery Graduate School of the Artsis a nontraditional graduate school for interdisciplinary",
"interdisciplinary study in the visual and creative arts. The program takes place over two years and two months, with students residing on campus during three consecutive summers, and two winter sessions of independent study completed off campus.Notable artists and writers that have been affiliated with the Bard MFA as faculty and visiting artists includeMarina Abramovic,Eileen Myles,Paul Chan,Robert Kelly,Tony Conrad,Okkyung Lee,Yto Barrada,Carolee Schneemann,Lynne Tillman, andBen Lerner. Bard Graduate Center The Bard Graduate Center: Decorative Arts, Design History, Material Cultureis a graduate research institute and gallery located in New York City. Established in 1993, the institute offers a two-year MA program and a PhD program that began in 1998. The institute's facilities include a gallery space at 18 West 86th Street and an academic building with a library at 38 West 86th Street. Center for Curatorial Studies The Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College(CCS Bard) established in 1990, is a museum",
"1990, is a museum and research center dedicated to the study of contemporary art and exhibition practices from the 1960s to the present. In 1994, CCS Bard launched its (MA) Master of Arts in Curatorial Studies program.The center also hosts public events throughout the year including lectures and panel discussions on topics in contemporary art. The museum, spanning an area of 55,000 square feet, offers a variety of exhibitions accessible to the general public throughout the year. It houses two distinct collections, the CCS Bard Collection and the Marieluise Hessel collection, which has been loaned to CCS Bard on a permanent basis. Artists such asKeith Haring,Julian Schnabel,Wolfgang Tillmans,Stephen Shore, andCindy Sherman, among numerous others, are featured within these collections. The CCS Bard Library is a research collection for contemporary art with a focus on post-1960s contemporary art, curatorial practice, exhibition histories, theory, and criticism. in 2023 historianRobert Storrdonated over 25,000",
"over 25,000 volumes to the Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College, nearly doubling the total collection size to 63,000 volumes.Other noteworthy contributors includeLouise Bourgeois,Yto Barrada,Leon Golub,Jenny Holzer,Gerhard Richter, andRachel Whiteread. In 2022 CCS Bard received $50 million from a $25 million donation from the Gochman Family Foundation to form a Center for American and Indigenous Studies at CCS Bard and a matching donation of $25 million fromGeorge Soros.This followed two 2021 gifts of $25 million, one from Marieluise Hessel and a matching donation from Soros. Center for Human Rights & the Arts The Center for Human Rights & the Arts at Bard College is an interdisciplinary research institution dedicated to exploring the intersection of art and human rights. The center is affiliated with theOpen Society University Network (OSUN). The center's flagship initiative is the Master of Arts program in Human Rights & the Arts.The center includes initiatives such as resident research fellowships,",
"fellowships, research grants, artist commissions, public talks, accessible publications, and a biennial arts festival organized in partnership with theFisher Center at Bardand other OSUN institutions and art venues worldwide. Center for Environmental Policy The Center for Environmental Policy (CEP) at Bard College is a research institution offering a range of graduate degree programs focused on environmental policy, climate science, and environmental education. The CEP offers a series of graduate degrees including the Master of Science in Environmental Policy and Master of Education. In addition to these individual degree programs, CEP offers dual-degree options that allow students to combine their environmental studies with programs in law or business. Levy Economics Institute Levy Economics Instituteis a public policy think tank focused on generating public policy responses to economic problems. Through research, analysis, and informed debate, the institute aims to enable scholars and leaders from",
"and leaders from business, labor, and government to collaborate on common interest issues.The institute's findings are disseminated globally through various channels, including publications, conferences, seminars, congressional testimony, and partnerships with other nonprofits. Its research encompasses a wide range of topics, including stock-flow consistent macro modeling,fiscal policy,monetary policyandfinancial structure,financial instability,income and wealth distribution,financial regulation and governance, gender equality and time poverty, and immigration/ethnicity and social structure.The Levy Economics Institute is particularly known for its research inheterodox economics, with a focus onPost-KeynesianandMarxianeconomics. It is additionally recognized as the leading research center for the study ofModern Monetary Theory(MMT). Notable individuals that have been affiliated with the Levy Economics Institute as professors, directors, and economists includeJoseph Stiglitz,Hyman Minsky,William Julius",
"Julius Wilson,L. Randall Wray,Jan Kregel,Bruce C. Greenwald,Dimitri B. Papadimitriou,Lakshman Achuthan,Warren Mosler,Stephanie Kelton,Bill Mitchell, andPavlina R. Tcherneva. Endowment Bard has access to multiple, distinct endowments. Bard, along withCentral European University, is a founding member of theOpen Society University Network, endowed with $1 billion from philanthropistGeorge Soros, which is a network of universities to operate throughout the world to better prepare students for current and future global challenges through integrated teaching and research.Bard maintains its own endowment of approximately $412 million. In July 2020, Bard received a gift of $100 million from theOpen Society Foundations, which will dispense $10 million yearly over a period of ten years.In April 2021, Bard received a $500 million endowment challenge grant from George Soros. Once matched, on a five-year timeline, Bard will have an endowment of more than $1 billion. Programs, centers, and associated institutes Bard has",
"institutes Bard has developed several innovativegraduate programs and research institutes, including theMilton Avery Graduate School of the Arts, theLevy Economics Institutewhich began offering a Masters of Science in Economic Theory and Policy in 2014, theCenter for Curatorial Studies and Art in Contemporary Culture, the Bard Center for Environmental Policy, theBard College Conservatory of Music, the ICP-Bard Program in Advanced Photographic Studies in Manhattan,the Master of Arts in Teaching Program (MAT), theBard College Clemente Program, and theBard Graduate CenterinManhattan. In 1990, Bard College acquired, on permanent loan, art collector Marieluise Hessel's substantial collection of important contemporary artwork. In 2006, Hessel contributed another $8 million (USD) for the construction of a 17,000-square-foot addition to Bard's Center for Curatorial Studies building, in which the collection is exhibited. TheBard Prison Initiative(BPI) provides a liberal arts degree to incarcerated individuals (prison",
"individuals (prison education) in five prisons in New York State, and enrolls nearly 200 students.Since federal funding for prison education programs was eliminated in 1994,BPI is one of only a small number of programs of its kind in the country. Bard awards the Bard Fiction Prize annually to \"a promising emerging writer who is an American citizen aged 39 years or younger at the time of application\". The prize is $30,000 and an appointment as writer-in-residence at the college. TheHannah ArendtCenter for Politics and Humanities is located at Bard College. The center hosts an annual public conference, offers courses, runs various related academic programs, and houses research fellows. In February 2009, Bard announced the first dual degree program between aPalestinianuniversity and an American institution of higher education. The college entered into a collaboration withAl-Quds Universityinvolving an honors college, a master's program in teaching and a model high school. In accordance with AlQuds-Bard",
"with AlQuds-Bard requirements, students are not allowed to decide their major during the first year of their studies; instead, as a liberal arts college, students are advised to diverge in different classes that would allow them to decide what program they would like to take interest in as in the following year. Students are encouraged to look upon different classes to help them decide the subject they would mostly enjoy studying. Bard gives students the opportunity to dissect different programs before committing to a specific major. As a policy, throughout a student's undergraduate years, they must distribute their credits among different courses so that they can liberally experience the different courses Bard has to offer. In June 2011, Bard officially acquired theLongy School of MusicinCambridge, Massachusetts,and in November 2011, Bard took ownership of the European College of Liberal Arts inBerlin, Germany, to becomeBard College Berlin. In 2013, Bard entered into a comprehensive agreement withSoochow",
"withSoochow UniversityinSuzhou, China, that will include a joint program between theSoochow University School of Musicand the Bard College Conservatory of Music, exploration leading to the establishment of The Bard College Liberal Arts Academy at Soochow University, and student exchange. In 2020, Bard announced that through the new Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Advanced Achievement Scholars program the college will offer admission to high school juniors within 120 miles from the college based on an essay process based on the popular Bard Entrance Exam, first launched in 2013. Student life Over 120 student clubs are financed through Bard's Convocation Fund, which is distributed once a semester by an elected student body and ratified during a public forum.Bard College has one print newspaper, theBard Free Press, which was awarded a Best in Show title by theAssociated Collegiate Pressin 2013.In 2003, theBard Free Presswon Best Campus Publication inSPIN Magazine'sfirst annual Campus Awards.Student-run literary",
"literary magazines include the semiannualLux, The Moderator,andSui Generis, a journal of translations and of original poetry in languages other than English.The Draft, a human rights journal, theBard Journal of the Social Sciences,Bard Science Journal, andQualia, a philosophy journal, are also student-published.Bard Papersis a privately funded literary magazine operated jointly between faculty and students. Other prominentstudent groups include: the International Students Organization (ISO), Afropulse, Latin American Student Organization (LASO), Caribbean Student Association (CSA), Asian Student Organization (ASO), Bard Musical Theatre Company (BMTC), Black Student Organization (BSO), Anti-Capitalism Feminist Coalition, Body Image Discussion Group, Self-Injury Support and Discussion, Bard Film Committee, Queer Student Association, Trans Life Collective, The Scale Project, Student Labor Dialogue, Bard Debate Union, Bard Model UN, Surrealist Training Circus, Bard Bike Co-Op, Bard Bars, Bard POC Theater",
"Bard POC Theater Ensemble, andcollege radiostation WXBC.WXBC was founded in 1947.In 2006, WXBC was nominated for \"Station of the Year\" and \"Biggest Improvement\" in theCMJCollege Radio Awards. Bard has a strong independent music scene considering its isolation and size.The college's Old Gym was once a popular location for concerts and parties in the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s. In 2004, the Old Gym was shut down and in spring 2006 transformed into a student-run theater by students Brel Froebe, Julie Rossman, and Kell Condon.Many activities that once took place there, occur in the smaller SMOG building. SMOG is primarily used as a music venue featuring student-run bands. Athletics Bard College teams participate as a member of theNational Collegiate Athletic Association'sDivision III. The Raptors are a member of theLiberty League. Prior conference affiliations include theSkyline Conferenceand the former Hudson Valley Athletic Conference. Women's sports includebasketball,cross",
"country,lacrosse,soccer,swimming&diving,tennis,track & field,volleyballandsquash. Men's sports includebaseball, basketball, cross country, soccer, squash, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball. One of the more popular club sports on campus isrugby.Bard College Rugby Football Club fields men's and women's teams that compete in the Tristate Conference, affiliated withNational Collegiate Rugby. Additionalclub sportsinclude:ultimate frisbee,fencing, andequestrian. Alumni and faculty Notable alumni Notable alumni of Bard include fraternal songwritersRichard M. ShermanandRobert B. Sherman,comedian and actorChevy Chase(1968);Walter BeckerandDonald FagenofSteely Dan(1969);actorsBlythe Danner(1965),Adrian Grenier,Gaby Hoffmann,,Mia Farrow(did not graduate)Jonah Hill(did not graduate),Ezra Miller(did not graduate),Griffin Gluck(Did Not Graduate) andLarry Hagman(did not graduate);filmmakersGia Coppola,Todd Haynes(MFA),Sadie Bennings(MFA),andLana Wachowski(did not graduate);photographerHerb Ritts;actor",
"Ritts;actor and directorChristopher Guest;songwriterBilly Steinberg;theater directorAnne Bogart;screenwriterHoward E. Koch;writerDavid Cote;comediansAdam ConoverandRaphael Bob-Waksberg;fashion designerTom Ford(did not graduate),classical composerBruce Wolosoff;journalistRonan Farrow;writer and social theoristAlbert Jay Nock;Adam Yauchof theBeastie Boys(did not graduate);and artistsTschabalala Self,andFrances Bean Cobain(did not graduate). Notable faculty Among the college's most well-known former faculty areToni Morrison,Heinrich Blücher,Hannah Arendt,Roy Lichtenstein,Mary McCarthy,.Arthur Penn,,Nathan Thrall,Vik Muniz,Mitch Epstein,Larry Fink,John Ashbery,Richard Teitelbaum,Mary Lee Settle(part time),Andre Aciman,Orhan Pamuk,Chinua Achebe,Charles Burnett,Bill T. Jones,andAlexander Soros.Notable current faculty, as of 2024,includeStephen Shore,An-My Lê,Neil Gaiman,Jeffrey GibsonGilles Peress,John Ryle,Tan Dun,Walid Raad,Daniel Mendelsohn,Thomas Chatterton Williams,Hua Hsu,Kobena Mercer,Joseph O’Neill,Ian",
"O’Neill,Ian Buruma,Judy Pfaff,Joan Tower,Walter Russell Mead,Nayland Blake,Nuruddin Farah,Mona Simpson,Sky Hopinka(MFA Faculty),Masha Gessen(visiting writer),Kelly Reichardt(artist in residence),Francine Prose(writer in residence),Susan Weber,Lauren Cornell,Ann Lauterbach,Valeria Luiselli,andTschabalala Self(visiting artist in residence). References External links"
] |
Houston, Texas had dozens of airports as of January 1, 2024. Find the three-letter IATA code of the airport in which the longest runway was exactly 7000 feet long, and rearrange those letters to match that of another airport at that time. Here are your hints: The last letter of the re-arranged code is "J". The new airport was located in China. With this information, what was the IATA code of this airport? | LNJ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airports_in_the_Greater_Houston_Area | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_airports#By_code | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airports_by_IATA_airport_code:_L | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airports_in_the_Greater_Houston_Area', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_airports#By_code', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airports_by_IATA_airport_code:_L'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airports_in_the_Greater_Houston_Area",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_airports#By_code",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airports_by_IATA_airport_code:_L"
] | [
"List of airports in the Greater Houston Area Houston, Texashas many airports due to it being the 4th largest city in theUnited States. Here are some of the airports: List",
"Lists of airports Anairportis anaerodromewith facilities for flights to take off and land. Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and acontrol tower. An airport consists of alanding area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as arunwayfor a plane to take off or ahelipad, and often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers,hangarsandterminals. An airport with a helipad for rotorcraft but no runway is called aheliport. An airport for use byseaplanesandamphibious aircraftis called aseaplane base. Such a base typically includes a stretch of open water fortakeoffsandlandings, andseaplanedocks for tying-up. Aninternational airporthas additional facilities forcustomsandimmigration. By continent Busiest airports By traffic type By continent By code IATA ICAO By elevation Other See also External links",
"List of airports by IATA airport code: L List of airportsbyIATA airport code:A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H-I-J-K-L-M-N-O-P-Q-R-S-T-U-V-W-X-Y-Z L The DST column shows the months in which Daylight Saving Time, a.k.a. Summer Time, begins and ends. A blank DST box usually indicates that the location stays on Standard Time all year, although in some cases the location stays on Summer Time all year. If a location is currently on DST, add one hour to the time in the Time column. Contents Notes References"
] | [
"List of airports in the Greater Houston Area Houston, Texashas many airports due to it being the 4th largest city in theUnited States. Here are some of the airports: List",
"Lists of airports Anairportis anaerodromewith facilities for flights to take off and land. Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and acontrol tower. An airport consists of alanding area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as arunwayfor a plane to take off or ahelipad, and often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers,hangarsandterminals. An airport with a helipad for rotorcraft but no runway is called aheliport. An airport for use byseaplanesandamphibious aircraftis called aseaplane base. Such a base typically includes a stretch of open water fortakeoffsandlandings, andseaplanedocks for tying-up. Aninternational airporthas additional facilities forcustomsandimmigration. By continent Busiest airports By traffic type By continent By code IATA ICAO By elevation Other See also External links",
"List of airports by IATA airport code: L List of airportsbyIATA airport code:A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H-I-J-K-L-M-N-O-P-Q-R-S-T-U-V-W-X-Y-Z L The DST column shows the months in which Daylight Saving Time, a.k.a. Summer Time, begins and ends. A blank DST box usually indicates that the location stays on Standard Time all year, although in some cases the location stays on Summer Time all year. If a location is currently on DST, add one hour to the time in the Time column. Contents Notes References"
] |
From 1924 to August 2024, how many times did Texas's and California's electoral colleges elect the same nominee during the presidential election? | 13 times. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_California | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Texas | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_California', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Texas'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_California",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Texas"
] | [
"Politics of California Thepolitics of theU.S. stateofCaliforniaform part of thepolitics of the United States. The politics are defined by theConstitution of California. Government California's government consists of three branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. TheCalifornia State Legislatureisbicameral. The lower house, theCalifornia State Assembly, has 80 members, and the upper house, theCalifornia State Senate, has 40 members.The executive branch is led by theGovernor of California.Thejudicial branchconsists of theSupreme Court of California, theCalifornia Courts of Appeal, and theCalifornia superior courts. Electoral system California currently uses the nonpartisan blanket primary in its elections, where candidates regardless of party, including multiple nominees from a single party, contest the ballot and the candidates with the two highest numbers of votes are entered into a general election.Some municipalities, such asSan FranciscoandBerkeley, have opted to useinstant-runoff votingfor local elections. Political parties As of 2023, the two major political parties in California that currently have representation in the State Legislature and U.S. Congress are theDemocratic Partyand theRepublican Party. There are four other parties that qualify for official ballot status: theAmerican Independent Party,Green Party,Libertarian Party, andPeace and Freedom Party.There are also other minor parties in California that are not ballot qualified including theAmerican Solidarity Party,National Partyand Reform Party. History The first presidential election the state participated in was1852. For the next few decades after theCivil War, California was a Republican-leaning but a very competitive state in presidential elections, as in voted for the nationwide winner all but thrice between statehood and 1912, with the exceptions of 1880, 1884, and 1912. Beginning with the1916 election, the state shifted into a bellwether. Between 1916 and 1948, it voted for the nationwide winner every time, and was critical to Democratic victories in 1916 and 1948, as well. Franklin Rooseveltcarried all but one county in the state in 1932, and in1936all counties. Roosevelt's third and fourth presidential elections saw him win by smaller margins. In1948, the state narrowly voted for Truman. Beginning with the1952 presidential election, California became a Republican-leaning battleground state. The Republican candidate won California in every presidential election in the next 36 years exceptthe election of 1964, often by a margin similar to the national one. In these years, the GOP nominated two Californians as presidential candidates during four presidential elections:Richard Nixonin1960,1968and1972, andRonald Reaganin1980and1984. Beginning with the1992 presidential election, California has become increasingly Democratic. The state has voted Democratic in every presidential election since then, usually by lopsided margins, and starting in 2008, Democrats have consistently gotten at least 60% of the vote. Voting patterns since 1992 have remained consistent by and large, with Democratic presidential candidates carrying the coastal counties and Republicans the inland counties, though Democrats have gained in many Southern counties as well. At the state level, California has had more mixed voting tendencies until more recently. Six of the state's first seven governors were Democrats; during subsequent decades, control of the governorship frequently shifted between the two parties. In the 20th century, 13 of the state's 20 governors were Republicans, but Democrats have held the governorship since 2011. The 2018 election marked the first time Democrats won more than two consecutive gubernatorial elections in the state's history. Northern California's inland areas and theCentral Valleyare mostlyRepublicanareas. Historically, parts of Southern California, such asOrange CountyandRiverside Countywere Republican bastions, however, they have continued to trend Democratic in recent decades, withall five congressional districts flipping Democrat in 2018.Coastal California, including theBay Area,Los Angeles,San DiegoandSacramento, is mostlyDemocratic-leaning. In the 2016 and 2020 presidential elections, Democrats won all of California's coastal counties except forDel Norte. As most of the population is in Southern California and the San Francisco Bay Area, California as a whole tends to be liberal. In 2024,The New York Timeswrote that California was undergoing a \"wave of corruption\", as multiple local politicians had been embroiled on corruption scandals where they accepted bribes and favors from political connected businesses and organizations.In a decade, 576 public officials in California were convicted on federal corruption charges. Political issues Many of California's governmental agencies, institutions, and programs have been established in theConstitution of California. Additionally, the state constitution establishes mandatory funding levels for some agencies, programs and institutions. This issue came to the forefront when GovernorArnold Schwarzeneggerand the California Legislature attempted to cut spending to close the state's multibillion-dollar budget deficits during the 2000s. Consequently, affected agencies with support from special interest groups, successfully pressed the California Supreme Court to order the restoration of funding to a number of agencies and programs which had been cut. There have been several events, manydubbed \"constitutional crises\" by their opponents, over the last thirty-two years including: Water and water rights have been notable issues due to California's limited water supply. Various parts of the state have vied for water rights. In theCalifornia Water Wars, the city of Los Angeles conflicted with farmers from Eastern California over water rights. Most water is in the north of the State, while agriculture, the largest user of stored water in California, is most prevalent in the central and southern areas. There have been various proposals to transport additional water to the south, such as thePeripheral Canal, but these proposals have failed. Land use is also divisive, with theCalifornia housing shortagebeing a significant issue. Gun controlis another divisive issue, with California having some of the most restrictivegun lawsin the United States. Federal representation Since it is the most populous state, California has the largest congressional delegation of any state, with 52 representatives and two senators. In the 118th Congress, 40 of California's seats are held by Democrats and 12 are held by Republicans: California is currently represented in the U.S. Senate by DemocratsAlex Padilla, serving since 2021, andLaphonza Butler, serving since 2023 following the death ofDianne Feinstein. California is part of theUnited States District Court for the Northern District of California, theUnited States District Court for the Central District of California, theUnited States District Court for the Southern District of California, and theUnited States District Court for the Eastern District of Californiain the federal judiciary. The district's cases are appealed to the San Francisco-basedUnited States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Notable California political figures See also References External links Archival collections Other",
"Politics of Texas For about a hundred years, from afterReconstructionuntil the 1990s, theDemocratic PartydominatedTexaspolitics, making it part of theSolid South. In a reversal of alignments, since the late 1960s, theRepublican Partyhas grown more prominent. By the 1990s, it became the state's dominant political party and remains so to this day, as Democrats have not won a statewide race sinceBob Bullockwon the 1994 Lieutenant gubernatorial election. Texas is a majority Republican state with Republicans controlling every statewide office.Texas Republicans have majorities in the State House and Senate, an entirely Republican Texas Supreme Court, control of both Senate seats in the US Congress. Texas is America's most-populous Republican state.A number of political commentators had suggested that Texas is trending Democratic since 2016, however, Republicans have continued to win every statewide office through 2022. The 19th-century culture of the state was heavily influenced by theplantationculture of theOld South,dependent onAfrican-Americanslaves, as well as thepatronsystem once prevalent (and still somewhat present) in northern Mexico and South Texas. In these societies, the government's primary role was seen as being the preservation of social order. Solving individual problems in society was seen as a local problem with the expectation that the individual with wealth should resolve his or her own issues.These influences continue to affect Texas today. In their book,Texas Politics Today 2009-2010,authors Maxwell, Crain, and Santos attribute Texas' traditionally low voter turnout among whites to these influences.But beginning in the early 20th century, voter turnout was dramatically reduced by the state legislature'sdisenfranchisementof most blacks, and many poor whites and Latinos. History Democratic dominance: 1845–mid-1990s From1848untilDwight D. Eisenhower's victory in1952, Texas voted for the Democratic candidate for president in every election except1928, when it did not support CatholicAl Smith. The Democrats were pro-slavery pre-Civil War, as Abraham Lincoln was a Republican in the North. Most Republicans were Abolitionists. In the mid-20th century1952and1956elections, the state voters joined the landslide forDwight D. Eisenhower. (Texas did not vote in 1864 and 1868 due to theCivil WarandReconstruction). In the post-Civil War era, two of the most important Republican figures in Texas were African AmericansGeorge T. RubyandNorris Wright Cuney. Ruby was a black community organizer, director in the federalFreedmen's Bureau, and leader of the GalvestonUnion League. His protégé Cuney was a person ofmixed-racedescent whose wealthy, white planter father freed him and his siblings before the Civil War and arranged for his education in Pennsylvania. Cuney returned and settled in Galveston, where he became active in theUnion Leagueand the Republican party; he rose to the leadership of the party. He became influential in Galveston and Texas politics, and is widely regarded as one of the most influential black leaders in theSouthduring the 19th century. From 1902 through 1965, Texas had virtuallydisenfranchisedmost Black, many Latino, and poor White people through the imposition of thepoll taxandwhite primaries. Across the South, Democrats controlled congressional apportionment based on total population, although they had disenfranchised the black population. TheSolid Southexercised tremendous power in Congress, and Democrats gained important committee chairmanships by seniority. They gained federal funding for infrastructure projects in their states and the region, as well as support for numerous military bases, as two examples of how they brought federal investment to the state and region. In the post-Reconstruction era, by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, theRepublican Partybecame non-competitive in the South, due to Democrat-dominated legislatures'disenfranchisementof blacks and many poor whites and Latinos. In Texas, the Democrat-dominated legislature excluded them through passage of apoll taxandwhite primary. Voter turnout in Texas declined dramatically following these disenfranchisement measures, and Southern voting turnout was far below the national average. Although black people made up 20 percent of the state population at the turn of the century, they were essentially excluded from formal politics.Republican support in Texas had been based almost exclusively in the free black communities, particularly in Galveston, and in the German counties of the ruralTexas Hill Countryinhabited byGermanimmigrants and their descendants, who had opposed slavery in the antebellum period. The German counties continued to run Republican candidates.Harry M. Wurzbachwas elected from the14th districtfrom 1920 to 1926, contesting and finally winning the election of 1928, and being re-elected in 1930. Some of the most important American political figures of the 20th century, such as PresidentLyndon B. Johnson, Vice-PresidentJohn Nance Garner, Speaker of the HouseSam Rayburn, and SenatorRalph Yarboroughwere Texas Democrats. But, the Texas Democrats were rarely united, being divided intoconservative,moderateandliberalfactions that vied with one another for power. Increasing Republican strength: 1960–1990 Beginning in the late 1960s, Republican strength increased in Texas, particularly among residents of the expanding \"country club suburbs\" aroundDallasandHouston. The election, to Congress, of Republicans such asJohn Tower, (who had switched from the Democratic Party) andGeorge H. W. Bushin 1961 and 1966, respectively, reflected this trend. Nationally, outside of the South, Democrats supported thecivil rights movementand achieved important passage of federal legislation in the mid-1960s. In the South, however, Democratic leaders had opposed changes to bring about black voting or desegregated schools and public facilities and in many places exercised resistance. Following the passage of theCivil Rights Act of 1964, southern white voters began to align with the Republican Party, a movement accelerated after the next year, when Congress passed theVoting Rights Act of 1965, providing for federal enforcement of minorities' constitutional right to vote. Voter registration and turnout increased among blacks and Latinos in Texas and other states. Unlike the rest of the South, however, Texas voters were never especially supportive of the various third-party candidacies of Southern Democrats. It was the only state in the former Confederacy to back DemocratHubert Humphreyin the1968 presidential election. During the 1980s, a number of conservative Democrats defected to the GOP, including SenatorPhil Gramm, CongressmanKent Hance, and GOP GovernorRick Perry, who was a Democrat during his time as a state lawmaker. John Tower's 1961 election to the U.S. Senate made him the first statewide GOP officeholder since Reconstruction and the disenfranchisement of black Republicans. Republican GovernorBill Clementsand SenatorPhil Gramm(also a former Democrat) were elected after him. Republicans became increasingly dominant in national elections in white-majority Texas. The last Democratic presidential candidate to win the state wasJimmy Carterin1976. In the1992 election,Bill Clintonbecame the first Democrat to win the Oval Office while losing Texas electoral votes. This result significantly reduced the power of Texas Democrats at the national level, as party leaders believed the state had become unwinnable. Republican dominance: mid-1990s–present Despite increasing Republican strength in national elections, after the 1990census, Texas Democrats still controlled both houses of the State Legislature and most statewide offices. As a result, they directed the redistricting process after the decennial census.Although Congressional Texas Democrats received an average of 45 percent of the votes, Democrats consistently had a majority in the state delegation, as they had in every election since at least the end ofReconstruction. In 1994, In the midst of theRepublican Revolution, Democratic GovernorAnn Richardslost herbid for re-electionagainst RepublicanGeorge W. Bush, ending an era in which Democrats controlled the governorship for all but eight of the past 120 years. Republicans have won the governorship ever since. In1998, Bush won re-election in a landslide victory, with Republicans sweeping to victory in all the statewide races. Republicans won the Texas Senate for the first time since Reconstruction in 1996. After the2000 census, the Republican-controlledstate Senatesought to draw a congressional district map that would guarantee a Republican majority in the state's delegation. The Democrat-controlledstate Housedesired to retain a plan similar to the existing lines. There was an impasse. With the Legislature unable to reach a compromise, the matter was settled by a panel of federal court judges, who ruled in favor of a district map that largely retained the status quo.Republicans controlled the Legislative Redistricting Board, which defines the state legislative districts, by a majority of four to one. They used their voting strength to adopt maps for the state legislature that strongly favored them, as Democrats had done before. In2002, Republicans gained control of the Texas House of Representatives for the first time since Reconstruction.The newly elected Republican legislature engaged in an unprecedented mid-decaderedistrictingplan. Democrats said that the redistricting was a blatant partisangerrymander, while Republicans argued that it was a much-needed correction of the partisan lines drawn after the 1990 census. But, the Republicans ignored the effects of nearly one million new citizens in the state, basing redistricting on 2000 census data. The result was a gain of six seats by the Republicans in the2004 elections, giving them a majority of the state's delegation for the first time since Reconstruction. In December 2005, theUS Supreme Courtagreed to hear an appeal that challenged the legality of this redistricting plan. While largely upholding the map, it ruled theEl Paso-to-San Antonio23rd District, which had been a protected majority-Latino district until the 2003 redistricting, was unconstitutionally drawn. The ruling forced nearly every district in the El Paso-San Antonio corridor to be reconfigured.Partly due to this, Democrats picked up two seats in the state in the2006 elections. In 2018, Democratic CongressmanBeto O'Rourkelost his Senate bid to the incumbentTed Cruzby 2.6%, the best result for a Democratic Senate candidate sinceLloyd Bentsenwon in 1988.O'Rourke's performance in 2018 led analysts to predict greater gains for the Democrats going into the 2020s.In the 2020 elections, Texas voted for the Republican nominee for president Donald Trump by a narrower margin than in 2016, and re-elected the Republican incumbent senator, John Cornyn. In the 2022 governor race, the Republican governorGreg Abbotteasily won reelection against Beto O'Rourke.As of the latest statewide elections in 2022, Texas is a solid Republican state. Both Texas U.S. senators are Republican, as are all statewide elected officials. Texas Republican dominance has continued unabated. Issues Capital punishment Texas has a reputation for strict \"law and order\" sentencing. Texas leads the nation in executions in raw numbers, with 578 executions from 1976 to 2022. The second-highest ranking state isOklahomaat 119.A 2002Houston Chroniclepoll of Texans found that when asked \"Do you support the death penalty?\" 69.1% responded that they did, 21.9% did not support and 9.1% were not sure or gave no answer. Secessionist sentiment Texas has a long history with secession. It was originally aSpanish province, which in 1821 seceded from Spain and helped form theFirst Mexican Empire. In 1824 Texas became a state in the newMexican republic. In 1835Antonio López de Santa Annaassumed dictatorial control over that republic and several states openly rebelled against the changes:Coahuila y Tejas(the northern part of which would become theRepublic of Texas),San Luis Potosí,Querétaro,Durango,Guanajuato,Michoacán,Yucatán,Jalisco,Nuevo León,Tamaulipas, andZacatecas. Several of these states formed their own governments: theRepublic of the Rio Grande, theRepublic of Yucatan, and the Republic of Texas. Only the Texans defeated Santa Anna and retained their independence. Some Texans believe that because it joined the United States as a country, the Texas state constitution includes the right tosecede.However, neither the ordinance ofThe Texas Annexation of 1845norThe Annexation of Texas Joint Resolution of Congress March 1, 1845included provisions giving Texas the right to secede. Texas did originally retain the right to divide into as many as five independent States,and as part of theCompromise of 1850continues to retain that right while ceding former claims westward and northward along the full length of theRio Grandein exchange for $10 million from the federal government.SeeTexas divisionism. The United States Supreme Court's primary ruling on the legality of secession involved a case brought by Texas involving a Civil War era bonds transfer.In deciding the 1869Texas v. Whitecase, the Supreme Court first addressed the issue of whether Texas had in fact seceded when it joined the Confederacy. In a 5–3 vote the Court \"held that as a matter of constitutional law, no state could leave the Union, explicitly repudiating the position of the Confederate States that the United States was a voluntary compact between sovereign states.\"In writing the majority opinion Chief JusticeSalmon Chaseopined that: When, therefore, Texas became one of the United States, she entered into an indissoluble relation. All the obligations of perpetual union, and all the guaranties of republican government in the Union, attached at once to the State. The act which consummated her admission into the Union was something more than a compact; it was the incorporation of a new member into the political body. And it was final. The union between Texas and the other States was as complete, as perpetual, and as indissoluble as the union between the original States. There was no place for reconsideration or revocation, except through revolution or through consent of the States. However, as the issue of secession per se was not the one before the court, it has been debated as to whether this reasoning is merelydictaor a binding ruling on the question.It is also worth noting that Salmon Chase was nominated by Abraham Lincoln and was a staunch anti-secessionist. It is unlikely that he or his Republican appointed court would have approved of the Confederacy and Texas' choice to join it. The state's organized secessionist movement is growing, with a notable minority of Texans holding secessionist sentiments.A 2009 poll found that 31% of Texans believe that Texas has the legal right to secede and form an independent country and 18% believe it should do so.The Texas Nationalist Movement has been working towards Texas independence for 15 years. In January 2021, State Representative Kyle Biedermann filed HB 1359, which would bring a vote for Texas independence to the citizens of Texas in November 2021. Budget Until 2010, Texas had weathered the Great Recession fairly well, buffered by its vast oil and gas industries. It avoided the housing industry meltdown and its unemployment rate continues to be below the national level. It benefited from having a two-year budget cycle, allowing officials create budget plans with more time to focus on issues of importance. However, Texas was impacted by the economic downturn just like many other states, and by 2011 was suffering from tens of billions of dollars in budget deficits. In order to deal with this deficit, a supermajority of Republicans led to a massive cost cutting spree.In order to draw new businesses to the state, Texas has developed a program of tax incentives to corporations willing to move there.These efforts, along with Texas focusing on developing their natural energy resources, has led to a surplus as Texas begins its next two year budget cycle. For FY 2011, the top Texas revenue sources by category were approximately:Federal Income: $42,159,665,863.56 Sales Tax: $21,523,984,733.17 Investments: $10,406,151,499.48 Other Revenue: $8,569,805,443.66 Licenses, Fees, Fines and Penalties: $7,741,880,095.57 As of 2008, Texas residents paid a total of $88,794 million dollars in income taxes.This does not include Federal taxes paid by Texas businesses. Besides sales tax, other taxes include franchise, insurance, natural gas, alcohol, cigarette and tobacco taxes. Texas has no personal state income tax. For FY 2011, the top Texas State Agency spending categories were approximately:Public Assistance Payments: $26,501,123,478.54 Intergovernmental Payments: $21,014,819,852.52 Interfund Transfers/Other: $12,319,487,032.40 Salaries and Wages: $8,595,912,992.82 Employee Benefits: $5,743,905,057.61 Current state political parties Federal representation Texas currently has 38House districts. In the 118th Congress, 13 of Texas's seats are held by Democrats and 25 are held by Republicans: Texas's two United States senators are RepublicansJohn CornynandTed Cruz, serving since 2002 and 2013, respectively. Texas is part of theUnited States District Court for the Western District of Texas, theUnited States District Court for the Southern District of Texas, theUnited States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, and theUnited States District Court for the Northern District of Texasin the federal judiciary. The district's cases are appealed to the New Orleans–basedUnited States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit. Notable Texas political figures See also Notes References External links"
] | [
"Politics of California Thepolitics of theU.S. stateofCaliforniaform part of thepolitics of the United States. The politics are defined by theConstitution of California. Government California's government consists of three branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. TheCalifornia State Legislatureisbicameral. The lower house, theCalifornia State Assembly, has 80 members, and the upper house, theCalifornia State Senate, has 40 members.The executive branch is led by theGovernor of California.Thejudicial branchconsists of theSupreme Court of California, theCalifornia Courts of Appeal, and theCalifornia superior courts. Electoral system California currently uses the nonpartisan blanket primary in its elections, where candidates regardless of party, including multiple nominees from a single party, contest the ballot and the candidates with the two highest numbers of votes are entered into a general election.Some municipalities, such asSan FranciscoandBerkeley, have opted to useinstant-runoff",
"useinstant-runoff votingfor local elections. Political parties As of 2023, the two major political parties in California that currently have representation in the State Legislature and U.S. Congress are theDemocratic Partyand theRepublican Party. There are four other parties that qualify for official ballot status: theAmerican Independent Party,Green Party,Libertarian Party, andPeace and Freedom Party.There are also other minor parties in California that are not ballot qualified including theAmerican Solidarity Party,National Partyand Reform Party. History The first presidential election the state participated in was1852. For the next few decades after theCivil War, California was a Republican-leaning but a very competitive state in presidential elections, as in voted for the nationwide winner all but thrice between statehood and 1912, with the exceptions of 1880, 1884, and 1912. Beginning with the1916 election, the state shifted into a bellwether. Between 1916 and 1948, it voted for the nationwide winner",
"nationwide winner every time, and was critical to Democratic victories in 1916 and 1948, as well. Franklin Rooseveltcarried all but one county in the state in 1932, and in1936all counties. Roosevelt's third and fourth presidential elections saw him win by smaller margins. In1948, the state narrowly voted for Truman. Beginning with the1952 presidential election, California became a Republican-leaning battleground state. The Republican candidate won California in every presidential election in the next 36 years exceptthe election of 1964, often by a margin similar to the national one. In these years, the GOP nominated two Californians as presidential candidates during four presidential elections:Richard Nixonin1960,1968and1972, andRonald Reaganin1980and1984. Beginning with the1992 presidential election, California has become increasingly Democratic. The state has voted Democratic in every presidential election since then, usually by lopsided margins, and starting in 2008, Democrats have consistently gotten at",
"gotten at least 60% of the vote. Voting patterns since 1992 have remained consistent by and large, with Democratic presidential candidates carrying the coastal counties and Republicans the inland counties, though Democrats have gained in many Southern counties as well. At the state level, California has had more mixed voting tendencies until more recently. Six of the state's first seven governors were Democrats; during subsequent decades, control of the governorship frequently shifted between the two parties. In the 20th century, 13 of the state's 20 governors were Republicans, but Democrats have held the governorship since 2011. The 2018 election marked the first time Democrats won more than two consecutive gubernatorial elections in the state's history. Northern California's inland areas and theCentral Valleyare mostlyRepublicanareas. Historically, parts of Southern California, such asOrange CountyandRiverside Countywere Republican bastions, however, they have continued to trend Democratic in recent",
"in recent decades, withall five congressional districts flipping Democrat in 2018.Coastal California, including theBay Area,Los Angeles,San DiegoandSacramento, is mostlyDemocratic-leaning. In the 2016 and 2020 presidential elections, Democrats won all of California's coastal counties except forDel Norte. As most of the population is in Southern California and the San Francisco Bay Area, California as a whole tends to be liberal. In 2024,The New York Timeswrote that California was undergoing a \"wave of corruption\", as multiple local politicians had been embroiled on corruption scandals where they accepted bribes and favors from political connected businesses and organizations.In a decade, 576 public officials in California were convicted on federal corruption charges. Political issues Many of California's governmental agencies, institutions, and programs have been established in theConstitution of California. Additionally, the state constitution establishes mandatory funding levels for some agencies, programs",
"agencies, programs and institutions. This issue came to the forefront when GovernorArnold Schwarzeneggerand the California Legislature attempted to cut spending to close the state's multibillion-dollar budget deficits during the 2000s. Consequently, affected agencies with support from special interest groups, successfully pressed the California Supreme Court to order the restoration of funding to a number of agencies and programs which had been cut. There have been several events, manydubbed \"constitutional crises\" by their opponents, over the last thirty-two years including: Water and water rights have been notable issues due to California's limited water supply. Various parts of the state have vied for water rights. In theCalifornia Water Wars, the city of Los Angeles conflicted with farmers from Eastern California over water rights. Most water is in the north of the State, while agriculture, the largest user of stored water in California, is most prevalent in the central and southern areas. There have",
"areas. There have been various proposals to transport additional water to the south, such as thePeripheral Canal, but these proposals have failed. Land use is also divisive, with theCalifornia housing shortagebeing a significant issue. Gun controlis another divisive issue, with California having some of the most restrictivegun lawsin the United States. Federal representation Since it is the most populous state, California has the largest congressional delegation of any state, with 52 representatives and two senators. In the 118th Congress, 40 of California's seats are held by Democrats and 12 are held by Republicans: California is currently represented in the U.S. Senate by DemocratsAlex Padilla, serving since 2021, andLaphonza Butler, serving since 2023 following the death ofDianne Feinstein. California is part of theUnited States District Court for the Northern District of California, theUnited States District Court for the Central District of California, theUnited States District Court for the Southern",
"for the Southern District of California, and theUnited States District Court for the Eastern District of Californiain the federal judiciary. The district's cases are appealed to the San Francisco-basedUnited States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Notable California political figures See also References External links Archival collections Other",
"Politics of Texas For about a hundred years, from afterReconstructionuntil the 1990s, theDemocratic PartydominatedTexaspolitics, making it part of theSolid South. In a reversal of alignments, since the late 1960s, theRepublican Partyhas grown more prominent. By the 1990s, it became the state's dominant political party and remains so to this day, as Democrats have not won a statewide race sinceBob Bullockwon the 1994 Lieutenant gubernatorial election. Texas is a majority Republican state with Republicans controlling every statewide office.Texas Republicans have majorities in the State House and Senate, an entirely Republican Texas Supreme Court, control of both Senate seats in the US Congress. Texas is America's most-populous Republican state.A number of political commentators had suggested that Texas is trending Democratic since 2016, however, Republicans have continued to win every statewide office through 2022. The 19th-century culture of the state was heavily influenced by theplantationculture of theOld",
"of theOld South,dependent onAfrican-Americanslaves, as well as thepatronsystem once prevalent (and still somewhat present) in northern Mexico and South Texas. In these societies, the government's primary role was seen as being the preservation of social order. Solving individual problems in society was seen as a local problem with the expectation that the individual with wealth should resolve his or her own issues.These influences continue to affect Texas today. In their book,Texas Politics Today 2009-2010,authors Maxwell, Crain, and Santos attribute Texas' traditionally low voter turnout among whites to these influences.But beginning in the early 20th century, voter turnout was dramatically reduced by the state legislature'sdisenfranchisementof most blacks, and many poor whites and Latinos. History Democratic dominance: 1845–mid-1990s From1848untilDwight D. Eisenhower's victory in1952, Texas voted for the Democratic candidate for president in every election except1928, when it did not support CatholicAl",
"support CatholicAl Smith. The Democrats were pro-slavery pre-Civil War, as Abraham Lincoln was a Republican in the North. Most Republicans were Abolitionists. In the mid-20th century1952and1956elections, the state voters joined the landslide forDwight D. Eisenhower. (Texas did not vote in 1864 and 1868 due to theCivil WarandReconstruction). In the post-Civil War era, two of the most important Republican figures in Texas were African AmericansGeorge T. RubyandNorris Wright Cuney. Ruby was a black community organizer, director in the federalFreedmen's Bureau, and leader of the GalvestonUnion League. His protégé Cuney was a person ofmixed-racedescent whose wealthy, white planter father freed him and his siblings before the Civil War and arranged for his education in Pennsylvania. Cuney returned and settled in Galveston, where he became active in theUnion Leagueand the Republican party; he rose to the leadership of the party. He became influential in Galveston and Texas politics, and is widely regarded as one of",
"regarded as one of the most influential black leaders in theSouthduring the 19th century. From 1902 through 1965, Texas had virtuallydisenfranchisedmost Black, many Latino, and poor White people through the imposition of thepoll taxandwhite primaries. Across the South, Democrats controlled congressional apportionment based on total population, although they had disenfranchised the black population. TheSolid Southexercised tremendous power in Congress, and Democrats gained important committee chairmanships by seniority. They gained federal funding for infrastructure projects in their states and the region, as well as support for numerous military bases, as two examples of how they brought federal investment to the state and region. In the post-Reconstruction era, by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, theRepublican Partybecame non-competitive in the South, due to Democrat-dominated legislatures'disenfranchisementof blacks and many poor whites and Latinos. In Texas, the Democrat-dominated legislature",
"legislature excluded them through passage of apoll taxandwhite primary. Voter turnout in Texas declined dramatically following these disenfranchisement measures, and Southern voting turnout was far below the national average. Although black people made up 20 percent of the state population at the turn of the century, they were essentially excluded from formal politics.Republican support in Texas had been based almost exclusively in the free black communities, particularly in Galveston, and in the German counties of the ruralTexas Hill Countryinhabited byGermanimmigrants and their descendants, who had opposed slavery in the antebellum period. The German counties continued to run Republican candidates.Harry M. Wurzbachwas elected from the14th districtfrom 1920 to 1926, contesting and finally winning the election of 1928, and being re-elected in 1930. Some of the most important American political figures of the 20th century, such as PresidentLyndon B. Johnson, Vice-PresidentJohn Nance Garner, Speaker of the",
"Speaker of the HouseSam Rayburn, and SenatorRalph Yarboroughwere Texas Democrats. But, the Texas Democrats were rarely united, being divided intoconservative,moderateandliberalfactions that vied with one another for power. Increasing Republican strength: 1960–1990 Beginning in the late 1960s, Republican strength increased in Texas, particularly among residents of the expanding \"country club suburbs\" aroundDallasandHouston. The election, to Congress, of Republicans such asJohn Tower, (who had switched from the Democratic Party) andGeorge H. W. Bushin 1961 and 1966, respectively, reflected this trend. Nationally, outside of the South, Democrats supported thecivil rights movementand achieved important passage of federal legislation in the mid-1960s. In the South, however, Democratic leaders had opposed changes to bring about black voting or desegregated schools and public facilities and in many places exercised resistance. Following the passage of theCivil Rights Act of 1964, southern white voters began to",
"voters began to align with the Republican Party, a movement accelerated after the next year, when Congress passed theVoting Rights Act of 1965, providing for federal enforcement of minorities' constitutional right to vote. Voter registration and turnout increased among blacks and Latinos in Texas and other states. Unlike the rest of the South, however, Texas voters were never especially supportive of the various third-party candidacies of Southern Democrats. It was the only state in the former Confederacy to back DemocratHubert Humphreyin the1968 presidential election. During the 1980s, a number of conservative Democrats defected to the GOP, including SenatorPhil Gramm, CongressmanKent Hance, and GOP GovernorRick Perry, who was a Democrat during his time as a state lawmaker. John Tower's 1961 election to the U.S. Senate made him the first statewide GOP officeholder since Reconstruction and the disenfranchisement of black Republicans. Republican GovernorBill Clementsand SenatorPhil Gramm(also a former",
"Gramm(also a former Democrat) were elected after him. Republicans became increasingly dominant in national elections in white-majority Texas. The last Democratic presidential candidate to win the state wasJimmy Carterin1976. In the1992 election,Bill Clintonbecame the first Democrat to win the Oval Office while losing Texas electoral votes. This result significantly reduced the power of Texas Democrats at the national level, as party leaders believed the state had become unwinnable. Republican dominance: mid-1990s–present Despite increasing Republican strength in national elections, after the 1990census, Texas Democrats still controlled both houses of the State Legislature and most statewide offices. As a result, they directed the redistricting process after the decennial census.Although Congressional Texas Democrats received an average of 45 percent of the votes, Democrats consistently had a majority in the state delegation, as they had in every election since at least the end ofReconstruction. In 1994, In",
"In 1994, In the midst of theRepublican Revolution, Democratic GovernorAnn Richardslost herbid for re-electionagainst RepublicanGeorge W. Bush, ending an era in which Democrats controlled the governorship for all but eight of the past 120 years. Republicans have won the governorship ever since. In1998, Bush won re-election in a landslide victory, with Republicans sweeping to victory in all the statewide races. Republicans won the Texas Senate for the first time since Reconstruction in 1996. After the2000 census, the Republican-controlledstate Senatesought to draw a congressional district map that would guarantee a Republican majority in the state's delegation. The Democrat-controlledstate Housedesired to retain a plan similar to the existing lines. There was an impasse. With the Legislature unable to reach a compromise, the matter was settled by a panel of federal court judges, who ruled in favor of a district map that largely retained the status quo.Republicans controlled the Legislative Redistricting Board,",
"Board, which defines the state legislative districts, by a majority of four to one. They used their voting strength to adopt maps for the state legislature that strongly favored them, as Democrats had done before. In2002, Republicans gained control of the Texas House of Representatives for the first time since Reconstruction.The newly elected Republican legislature engaged in an unprecedented mid-decaderedistrictingplan. Democrats said that the redistricting was a blatant partisangerrymander, while Republicans argued that it was a much-needed correction of the partisan lines drawn after the 1990 census. But, the Republicans ignored the effects of nearly one million new citizens in the state, basing redistricting on 2000 census data. The result was a gain of six seats by the Republicans in the2004 elections, giving them a majority of the state's delegation for the first time since Reconstruction. In December 2005, theUS Supreme Courtagreed to hear an appeal that challenged the legality of this redistricting",
"this redistricting plan. While largely upholding the map, it ruled theEl Paso-to-San Antonio23rd District, which had been a protected majority-Latino district until the 2003 redistricting, was unconstitutionally drawn. The ruling forced nearly every district in the El Paso-San Antonio corridor to be reconfigured.Partly due to this, Democrats picked up two seats in the state in the2006 elections. In 2018, Democratic CongressmanBeto O'Rourkelost his Senate bid to the incumbentTed Cruzby 2.6%, the best result for a Democratic Senate candidate sinceLloyd Bentsenwon in 1988.O'Rourke's performance in 2018 led analysts to predict greater gains for the Democrats going into the 2020s.In the 2020 elections, Texas voted for the Republican nominee for president Donald Trump by a narrower margin than in 2016, and re-elected the Republican incumbent senator, John Cornyn. In the 2022 governor race, the Republican governorGreg Abbotteasily won reelection against Beto O'Rourke.As of the latest statewide elections in 2022,",
"elections in 2022, Texas is a solid Republican state. Both Texas U.S. senators are Republican, as are all statewide elected officials. Texas Republican dominance has continued unabated. Issues Capital punishment Texas has a reputation for strict \"law and order\" sentencing. Texas leads the nation in executions in raw numbers, with 578 executions from 1976 to 2022. The second-highest ranking state isOklahomaat 119.A 2002Houston Chroniclepoll of Texans found that when asked \"Do you support the death penalty?\" 69.1% responded that they did, 21.9% did not support and 9.1% were not sure or gave no answer. Secessionist sentiment Texas has a long history with secession. It was originally aSpanish province, which in 1821 seceded from Spain and helped form theFirst Mexican Empire. In 1824 Texas became a state in the newMexican republic. In 1835Antonio López de Santa Annaassumed dictatorial control over that republic and several states openly rebelled against the changes:Coahuila y Tejas(the northern part of which",
"part of which would become theRepublic of Texas),San Luis Potosí,Querétaro,Durango,Guanajuato,Michoacán,Yucatán,Jalisco,Nuevo León,Tamaulipas, andZacatecas. Several of these states formed their own governments: theRepublic of the Rio Grande, theRepublic of Yucatan, and the Republic of Texas. Only the Texans defeated Santa Anna and retained their independence. Some Texans believe that because it joined the United States as a country, the Texas state constitution includes the right tosecede.However, neither the ordinance ofThe Texas Annexation of 1845norThe Annexation of Texas Joint Resolution of Congress March 1, 1845included provisions giving Texas the right to secede. Texas did originally retain the right to divide into as many as five independent States,and as part of theCompromise of 1850continues to retain that right while ceding former claims westward and northward along the full length of theRio Grandein exchange for $10 million from the federal government.SeeTexas divisionism. The United States",
"The United States Supreme Court's primary ruling on the legality of secession involved a case brought by Texas involving a Civil War era bonds transfer.In deciding the 1869Texas v. Whitecase, the Supreme Court first addressed the issue of whether Texas had in fact seceded when it joined the Confederacy. In a 5–3 vote the Court \"held that as a matter of constitutional law, no state could leave the Union, explicitly repudiating the position of the Confederate States that the United States was a voluntary compact between sovereign states.\"In writing the majority opinion Chief JusticeSalmon Chaseopined that: When, therefore, Texas became one of the United States, she entered into an indissoluble relation. All the obligations of perpetual union, and all the guaranties of republican government in the Union, attached at once to the State. The act which consummated her admission into the Union was something more than a compact; it was the incorporation of a new member into the political body. And it was final. The",
"it was final. The union between Texas and the other States was as complete, as perpetual, and as indissoluble as the union between the original States. There was no place for reconsideration or revocation, except through revolution or through consent of the States. However, as the issue of secession per se was not the one before the court, it has been debated as to whether this reasoning is merelydictaor a binding ruling on the question.It is also worth noting that Salmon Chase was nominated by Abraham Lincoln and was a staunch anti-secessionist. It is unlikely that he or his Republican appointed court would have approved of the Confederacy and Texas' choice to join it. The state's organized secessionist movement is growing, with a notable minority of Texans holding secessionist sentiments.A 2009 poll found that 31% of Texans believe that Texas has the legal right to secede and form an independent country and 18% believe it should do so.The Texas Nationalist Movement has been working towards Texas",
"towards Texas independence for 15 years. In January 2021, State Representative Kyle Biedermann filed HB 1359, which would bring a vote for Texas independence to the citizens of Texas in November 2021. Budget Until 2010, Texas had weathered the Great Recession fairly well, buffered by its vast oil and gas industries. It avoided the housing industry meltdown and its unemployment rate continues to be below the national level. It benefited from having a two-year budget cycle, allowing officials create budget plans with more time to focus on issues of importance. However, Texas was impacted by the economic downturn just like many other states, and by 2011 was suffering from tens of billions of dollars in budget deficits. In order to deal with this deficit, a supermajority of Republicans led to a massive cost cutting spree.In order to draw new businesses to the state, Texas has developed a program of tax incentives to corporations willing to move there.These efforts, along with Texas focusing on developing their",
"on developing their natural energy resources, has led to a surplus as Texas begins its next two year budget cycle. For FY 2011, the top Texas revenue sources by category were approximately:Federal Income: $42,159,665,863.56 Sales Tax: $21,523,984,733.17 Investments: $10,406,151,499.48 Other Revenue: $8,569,805,443.66 Licenses, Fees, Fines and Penalties: $7,741,880,095.57 As of 2008, Texas residents paid a total of $88,794 million dollars in income taxes.This does not include Federal taxes paid by Texas businesses. Besides sales tax, other taxes include franchise, insurance, natural gas, alcohol, cigarette and tobacco taxes. Texas has no personal state income tax. For FY 2011, the top Texas State Agency spending categories were approximately:Public Assistance Payments: $26,501,123,478.54 Intergovernmental Payments: $21,014,819,852.52 Interfund Transfers/Other: $12,319,487,032.40 Salaries and Wages: $8,595,912,992.82 Employee Benefits: $5,743,905,057.61 Current state political parties Federal representation",
"representation Texas currently has 38House districts. In the 118th Congress, 13 of Texas's seats are held by Democrats and 25 are held by Republicans: Texas's two United States senators are RepublicansJohn CornynandTed Cruz, serving since 2002 and 2013, respectively. Texas is part of theUnited States District Court for the Western District of Texas, theUnited States District Court for the Southern District of Texas, theUnited States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, and theUnited States District Court for the Northern District of Texasin the federal judiciary. The district's cases are appealed to the New Orleans–basedUnited States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit. Notable Texas political figures See also Notes References External links"
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"Modern Family Modern Familyis an American televisionsitcomcreated byChristopher LloydandSteven Levitan. It aired onABCfrom September 23, 2009 to April 8, 2020 for 11 seasons and 250 episodes.The series follows the lives of three diverse family set-ups living in suburbanLos Angeles, who are interrelated through their patriarch, Jay Pritchett. Lloyd and Levitan conceived the series while sharing stories of their own \"modern families.\"Modern Familyemploys anensemble castand is presented in a mockumentary style, with the characters frequentlyspeaking directly to the camerain confessional interview segments. Modern Familywas highly acclaimed by critics throughout its first few seasons. Its critical reception became more mixed as it progressed. The final season received positive reviews, and thefinale episodehad 7.37 million first-run viewers.The retrospective documentary that aired before the final episode had 6.72 million first-run viewers. The series won a total of 22 Emmy Awards, including fiveEmmy Awards for Outstanding Comedy Series, fourEmmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series(twice each forEric StonestreetandTy Burrell), and twoEmmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series(both forJulie Bowen). It also won theGolden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedyin 2011. Thebroadcast syndicationrights to the series were sold toNBCUniversal'sUSA Network, the stations ofFox Television Stations, and various other local stations in other markets for a fall 2013 premiere. The success of the series led to it being the 10th-highest revenue-generating show for 2012, earning $2.13 million an episode. Premise Modern Familyrevolves around three different types of families (nuclear,blended, andsame-sex) living in suburban Los Angeles, who are interrelated through wealthy businessman Jay Pritchett and his two adult children, Claire and Mitchell. Jay remarried a much younger woman, Gloria Delgado (née Ramirez), a passionateColombian immigrantwith whom he has a young son, Fulgencio “Joe” Joseph (born in themiddle of the fourth season), and a stepson from Gloria's previous marriage,Manuel \"Manny\" Delgado. Jay and Gloria's respective former spouses, DeDe and Javier, both also make occasional appearances in the show. Claire was a homemaker, though returned to the business world in the fifth season, eventually becoming the chief executive of her father's business, Pritchett's Closets and Blinds. She is married to Phil Dunphy, a realtor and a self-professed \"cool dad\", who is also an amateur magician and real-estate lecturer at community college. They have three children: Haley, a stereotypically ditzy teenaged girl;Alex, an intelligent and nerdy middle child;and Luke, the offbeat only son.Haley's on-and-off boyfriend, Dylan, is a permanent fixture on the show, with the two eventually marrying and having two children, Poppy and George. Mitchell is a lawyer who is in a same-sex relationship withCameron Tucker, a former music teacher who occasionally works as a substitute. The two have adopted a baby daughter, Lily, ofVietnamese origin, and are later on legally married. At the end of the show, they adopt another child, Rexford. As the show's name suggests, it depicts a modern-day extended family; many episodes are comically based on situations that many families encounter in real life. Cast and characters Main characters Family tree The characters in green have regular roles on the show. Dotted lines indicate a parental relationship through adoption or marriage, and dashed lines indicate a divorce between characters. † indicates a deceased character. The series has also had many recurring characters.Fred Willardguest starred as Phil's father Frank; he was nominated forOutstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesat the62nd Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost toNeil Patrick Harris's performance onGlee.Willard also received a posthumous nomination in the same category at the72nd Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2020.Shelley Longtoo guest starred occasionally as DeDe Pritchett, Jay's ex-wife and Claire and Mitchell's biological mother. Nathan Laneappeared as Cameron and Mitchell's flamboyant friend Pepper Saltzman; he was nominated three times for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series.Adam DeVineappeared as Andy Bailey, Jay and Gloria's \"manny\" (malenanny), Phil's assistant and Haley's ex-boyfriend.Elizabeth Banksappeared as Mitch and Cam's fun-loving friend Sal; she was nominated forOutstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Seriesat the67th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2015.Nathan Fillionalso makes an appearance as Rainer Shine, a weather forecaster, and later Haley's boyfriend. Development and production Initial development As creators Christopher Lloyd and Steven Levitan retold stories about their families, they realized that the stories could be the basis for a show. They started working on the idea of a family being observed in a mockumentary-style show.They later decided that it could be a show about three families and their experiences.It was originally calledMy American Family,and the camera crew was originally supposed to have been run by a fictitious Dutch filmmaker named Geert Floortje, who had lived as a teenaged exchange student with the Pritchetts and had developed a crush on Claire (while Mitchell had developed a crush on him). The producers later felt that this component was unnecessary, and it was scrapped. Lloyd preferred to look at the show as \"a family show done documentary-style\". Lloyd and Levitan pitched the series toCBS,NBC, and ABC (they did not pitch it toFoxbecause of issues they had with the network over a previous comedy series,Back to You, that Lloyd and Levitan also created and produced). CBS, which was not ready to make a big commitment to the single-camera style of filming, rejected the series. NBC, already broadcastingThe OfficeandParks and Recreationat the time, decided against taking on a third mockumentary-style show. ABC accepted the pitch. Thepilotepisode tested positively withfocus groups, resulting in the network ordering 13 episodes and adding it to the2009–10 fall lineupdays ahead of ABC's official schedule announcement.The series was given a full-season pickup in October 2009. Filming Principal photographytook place in Los Angeles.Many of the exteriors used are on the city'sWestside. The Dunphys' house is in theCheviot Hillsneighborhood. As of 2014,Palisades Charter High Schoolis used for the exteriors of Luke and Manny's school. Lloyd and Levitan, whose credits both includeFrasier,Wings, andJust Shoot Me!, are executive producers of the series, serving asshowrunnerandhead writerunder their Lloyd-Levitan Productions label in affiliation with20th Century Fox Television.The other original producers on the writing team were Paul Corrigan,Sameer Gardezi,Joe Lawson,Dan O'Shannon, Brad Walsh, Caroline Williams, Bill Wrubel, Danny Zuker, and Jeff Morton. Starting with the second season, Levitan and Lloyd ran the show, not as a team, but separately, with each showrunner supervising half the episodes. \"Chris and I are both strong, opinionated people, and we very, very quickly realized it doesn't make sense to sit here and debate each other and waste time,\" Levitan toldThe Hollywood Reporterin 2012. \"We often come at it from different points of view, so we said, 'Let's just switch off who has final say.'\" Litigation In the first season, the adult cast was paid a range of roughly $30,000 to $90,000 per episode.As a result of the show's success, the cast attempted to renegotiate their contracts in the summer of 2012 to obtain higher per-episode fees, but talks broke down to the point that the fourth season's firsttable readhad to be postponed. Five of the cast members (Ty Burrell,Julie Bowen,Jesse Tyler Ferguson,Eric StonestreetandSofía Vergara) retained theQuinn Emanuellaw firm and sued 20th Century Fox Television inLos Angeles County Superior Courton July 24, 2012.While not part of the lawsuit,Ed O'Neilljoined his fellow castmates in seeking raises for each to about $200,000 per episode; O'Neill had already been earning more money per episode than the other five. The lawsuit invoked the \"seven-year rule\" in California Labor Code Section 2855 (theDe Havilland Law) and requested adeclarationthat their contracts were void because they were in violation of that rule. By October 25, 2012, the conflict had been in final talks for a settlement, with plaintiffs planning thereafter to file a dismissal (which they ultimately did on November 19, 2012).The five adult cast members' salaries were increased from $55,000–$65,000 per episode to $150,000–$175,000, with increases every season, plus a percentage of residual profits.O'Neill had already been earning $200,000 an episode, so his salary was lowered to parity with his co-stars, but with a larger percentage of the back-end profits.By that August, four of the five child stars negotiated increases from $15,000–$25,000 to $70,000 per episode,with an additional $10,000 per season raise. Episodes Themes InThe New York Times,Bruce Feilercalled attention to how the show depicts the increasing way communications technology shapes the way people perceive others, even family members. \" is surely the first family comedy that incorporates its ownhashtagof simultaneous self-analysis directly into the storyline,\" he writes. \"Mark Zuckerbergmay be a greater influence onModern FamilythanNorman Lear.\" The show's writers and actors agree. \"We used to talk about how cellphones killed the sitcom because no one ever goes to anyone's house anymore\" for routine information,Abraham Higginbothamtold Feiler. \"We embrace technology so it's part of the story.\" Ty Burrell draws onFran Lebowitz's observation that there is no institution other than media.\"I had this little flash of Phil—and me—that we are parsing our personality together externally from how people perceive us.\" James Parker ofThe Atlanticcommented, \"How does one 'parent'? Who does what, which 'role'? Is Dad sufficiently dad-like and Mom enough of a mom?\" In a 2014 article inSlate, the site's podcast executive producer, Andy Bowers, a resident of Los Angeles' Westside, where the show films most of its exteriors, praised the series for its realistic depiction of life in that part of the city. Release Broadcast Modern Familywas picked up for syndication byUSA Networkfor $1.5 million per episode, along with being offered in local syndication at the same time, withFox Television Stationsthe lead station group picking up the series.It is also shown onSky ComedyandE4in theUnited Kingdom,e.tvinSouth Africa, Fox inSweden,yes ComedyinIsraelandStar WorldinIndia. The series aired onCitytvinCanadafor its first ten seasons.The network additionally obtained the syndicated strip-rights to the show when they became available. Subsequently, it moved toGlobalfor its eleventh and final season.Modern Familybegan airing onTBSsince 2023 and was picked up byNickelodeonfor itsNick at Niteblock, starting on September 10, 2024. Home media As of 2017,Modern Familyhad earned $72,226,621 from its domestic home media releases.The series was made available for streaming onHuluandPeacockin its entirety on February 3, 2021.Internationally, it was released onDisney+. Reception Ratings Since its premiere, the series has remained popular. In its first season, the show became the sixth-highest rated scripted show in America and the third-highest rated new show.Aided by winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series, the show's second season became the highest rated show on Wednesday on premiere weekand also rose 34% from the previous season among adults between the ages of 18 and 49.The show frequently ranked as television's top scripted series in adults 18–49 as well. The success of the show has been positively compared toThe Cosby Show.During the2010–2011season,Modern Familywas the highest rated scripted show in the 18–49 demographic, and the third-highest rated overall sitcom behind CBS'sThe Big Bang TheoryandTwo and a Half Men.The season also ranked first amongDVRviewers. The third-season premiere became ABC's top-rated season premiere in six years.The series' success in ratings has also led it to being credited for reviving sitcoms. In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook likesfound thatModern Family's \"audience pattern is the prototypical example of a city show — most popular in liberal, urban clusters in Boston, San Francisco, and Santa Barbara, California, and least popular in the more rural parts of Kentucky, Mississippi, and Arkansas\". Modern Familygained renewed popularity after becoming available onstreaming platforms. According to market research company Parrot Analytics, which examines consumer engagement across streaming, downloads, and social media,Modern Familyhas experienced a notable increase in interest since its debut onHuluandPeacockin 2021.For the week ending August 15, 2021,Whip Media, which tracks global TV viewership habits for nearly 1 million global users of itsTV Timeapp daily, calculated that the series placed third on its \"Binge Report\" chart, a ranking that highlights shows streamed in sessions of four or more episodes by viewers in a single day.In 2024, Parrot analytics reported thatModern Familywas among the 40 most in-demand TV shows worldwide between January 1 and August 8. While most of the top 10 shows appealed primarily to younger demographics (ages 15-31), the series attracted Millennial and Gen X viewers (32-42+).Nielsen Media Research, which records streaming viewership on U.S. television screens, estimated that the show was watched for 687 million minutes from August 12 to August 18, 2024.In October 2024, streaming analytics firm FlixPatrol, which monitors daily updated VOD charts across the globe, reported thatModern Familywas among the most viewed series on its platform, ranking second worldwide behindGrey's Anatomy. Critical response Season 1 The first season was met with critical acclaim. It scored 100%, based on 28 reviews, on review aggregator websiteRotten Tomatoes, with anaverage ratingof 8.55/10 and the critical consensus: \"Thanks to sharp writing and an eccentric but exceedingly likeable cast of characters,Modern Familysignals the triumphant return of the family comedy.\"The first season also scored 86/100, based on 27 reviews, on review aggregator websiteMetacritic, indicating \"universal acclaim\". Entertainment Weeklygave it an A−, calling it \"immediately recognizable as the best new sitcom of the fall.\"InTime's review, the show was named \"the funniest new family comedy of the year.\"It has also been compared to the 1970s seriesSoapbecause of the multiple-family aspect. Some have made comparisons toThe OfficeandParks and Recreationbecause of their mockumentary formats.BuddyTVnamed the show the second best show in 2009, saying, \"Every actor is fantastic, every family is interesting, and unlike many shows, there isn't a weak link.\"Robert Canning ofIGNgave the season an 8.9 calling it \"Great\" and saying \"Simply put,Modern Familywas one of the best new comedies of the season.\" He also praised the ensemble cast and the characters, calling them lovable.According to Metacritic, the first season was the best reviewed new broadcast television series. Modern Familydrew criticism from theLGBTcommunity for its portrayal of Cameron and Mitchell as not being physically affectionate with each other. The criticism spawned a Facebook campaign to demand that Mitchell and Cameron be allowed to kiss. In response to the controversy, producers released a statement that a season two episode would address Mitchell's discomfort withpublic displays of affection. Executive producer Levitan has said that it was unfortunate that the issue had arisen, since the show's writers had always planned on such a scene \"as part of the natural development of the show.\"The episode \"The Kiss\" eventually aired with the kiss scene in the background, which drew praise from multiple critics. Season 2 The show's second season received mostly positive reviews from critics. Season two has a rating of 88% onRotten Tomatoesbased on 16 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 8.11/10 and the consensus: \"Modern Family's sophomore season sings with ingenious sitcom structure and an ensemble in perfect comedic harmony – even if the tunes are a little familiar\".Robert Bianco ofUSA Todaygave the second season four out of four stars, saying \"Not sinceFrasierhas a sitcom offered such an ideal blend of heart and smarts, or proven itself so effortlessly adept at so many comic variations, from subtle wordplay to big-laugh slapstick to everything in between.\"In a later review Bianco stated \"as good as it was in its first year, is even better in its second\", positively comparing the characters to the characters fromThe Mary Tyler Moore Show,The Cosby Show, andFriends.During the second season,Adweeknamed the show one of the 100 Most Influential TV Shows (98th chronologically).Despite this, some critics were less favorable toward the season and described it as asophomore slump.Eric Stonestreet's acting was widely praised throughout the first season,but criticized during season two for being too contrived and \"over-the-top\";Alan Sepinwallcalled Cameron Tucker a \"whiny, overly-sensitive diva\".On the other hand, the praise for Ty Burrell's performance (as Phil Dunphy) continued. Season 3 The third season was met with critical acclaim. OnRotten Tomatoes, season three has a rating of 92% based on 13 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 8.33/10 and the consensus: \"Modern Familysettles into a well-oiled groove, consistently delivering inspired farce and making it look effortless.\"Slant Magazinereviewer Peter Swanson wrote that while the first episode was \"the type of wacky-location stunt that's usually reserved for the fifth or sixth season of a dying sitcom,\" the following episodes \"have been better... but they're still uneven\".He also criticized the writers for relying too much on \"stunt episodes and celebrity cameos, like David Cross\".He ultimately gave the season 3 out of 4 stars.James Parker ofThe Atlanticsaid, at the beginning of the third season that \"Modern Familyis very, very funny, almost ruthlessly so. It's a bit of a master class in pace and brevity. The writing isVorsprung durch Technik: hectically compressed but dramatically elegant, prodigal in its zingers and snorters but austere in its construction.\" He found it an exception to his dislike for sitcoms that do not use alaugh track.During the third season,New York TimescolumnistFrank Bruniargued that gay criticism of Cameron and Mitchell actually showed the progress gays have made toward social acceptance. \"A decade ago,\" he wrote, \" would have balked—and balked loudly—at how frequently Cameron in particular tips into limp-wristed, high-voiced caricature.\" But now, \"most gay people trust that the television audience knows we're a diverse tribe, not easily pigeonholed.Modern Familyendows us with a sort of comic banality. It's an odd kind of progress. But it's progress nonetheless.\" Season 4 The fourth season ofModern Familyreceived positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the season an approval rating of 67% based on 11 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.75/10 and the consensus: \"Modern Familystill has charm to burn and boasts a uniformly excellent cast, but the series' subversive edge has dulled\".Halfway through the season, Rachel Stein ofTelevision Without Pitywrote, \"much as I liked the pairings and some of the dialogue, is just another contrived episode of Modern Family we can cite when we talk later about how a different show should have won the 2013 Emmy for Best Comedy.\"Dalene Rovenstein ofPaste Magazinegave the season a positive review, but said a better season was possible. Season 5 The fifth season ofModern Familyalso received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, season five has a rating of 90% based on 10 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.57/10 and the consensus: \"Modern Familyreturns to its conventional roots with grace in a fifth season that delights in providing reliable laughs and rekindles the show's trademark warmth\".Reviewing the season's first eight episodes, Matthew Wolfson ofSlant Magazinewrote that the show \"appear to have finally arrived at the depressing and predictable low point toward which it been trending for the past two years.\" He also went on to say that the show had \"turned into a shrill pastiche of stereotypical characterizations and superficial banter lacking both feeling and wit\", assigning it a rating of 1.5/4 stars.Different writers forThe A.V. Clubrated, in total, a majority of the former-half episodes with a \"B−\" grade or less. One writer for the magazine, Joshua Alston, gave \"ClosetCon '13\" a \"C+\" and remarked that \"Modern Familybecomes a high-wire act when it separates its characters into three storylines with no overlap between them.\"The second half was more warmly received, with three episodes rated an \"A−\" or higher. Season 6 The show's sixth season received highly positive reviews from TV critics, with some claiming that it was an improvement over the last few seasons.This season has a rating of 100% onRotten Tomatoesbased on 7 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.67/10.Joshua Alston and Gwen IhnatThe A.V. Clubhave awarded the majority of episodes a \"B\" grade or higher – with particular praise for \"The Day We Almost Died\" and \"Closet? You'll Love It!\" – marking an improvement over the repeated \"C\" grade given throughout the previous season's former half.\"Connection Lost\" received high critical acclaim, with many praising the episode's writing, originality and \"success in transcending what could have been a gimicky episode\".In her review for \"Closet? You'll Love It!\" Gwen Ihnat ofThe A.V. Clubstated that the episode represents \"all the reasons why we still watch Modern Family\" and awarded the episode an A−.On the same site, David Kallison reviewed \"Grill, Interrupted\", saying: \"This season proves that sitcoms can survive on solid characters and solid jokes.\" Season 7 The seventh season received positive reviews from critics with many critics calling it similar to the fourth and fifth seasons. On Rotten Tomatoes, this season is rated 67% with 6 reviews and an average rating of 6.5/10.Kyle Fowle fromThe A.V. Clubhad a very mixed reaction to the season, only giving one episode an A− or higher.Fowle felt the season was frustrating, believing the season would be defined \"by its lack of character progress and overstuffed episodes.\" Later seasons The series was renewed for a 9th and 10th season on May 10, 2017.Season 9 premiered on September 27, 2017, while season 10 premiered on September 26, 2018. Seasons 8 and 9 received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics, with main criticisms directed at the lack of character development, overstuffing of episodes, and too many filler episodes per season. While the show continued to be praised for its charm, witty writing, and the cast's performances, criticism grew in these seasons, particularly from reviewers such as those atThe A.V. Club. In January 2018, Steve Levitan and Christopher Lloyd announced that season 10 would most likely be the final season, during theTelevision Critics Association's winter press tour.However, in August 2018, reports indicated that ABC was in discussions to renew the series for a potential eleventh season. Season 10 received positive reviews from critics, citing the season as a significant improvement over the last two. The series was praised for its tackling of Haley's pregnancy, the humor of Mitch and Cam looking after Cal, and its dealing with change in a positive way. Episodes \"Torn Between Two Lovers\", \"Good Grief\", and \"A Year Of Birthdays\" were particularly praised. The series was renewed for an eleventh season on January 7, 2019, which was confirmed as the final season on February 5. The last season premiered on September 25, 2019, and aired its last episode on April 8, 2020. Season 11 similarly received positive reviews. The season was praised for its themes of change and ending, and the improved humor upon the last seasons, with particular attention to episodes \"The Prescott\", \"Legacy\", \"Spuds\" and \"Finale\". Accolades Modern Familyhas won 22Primetime Emmy Awardsand 6Writers Guild of America Awards. The show also later received aGLSENRespect Awardfor its portrayal of \"positive images and storylines that reflect a diverse America, including the depiction of a family headed by a gay couple.\" In 2010,Modern Familywas nominated for five Television Critics Association Awards.To reinforce the idea of an ensemble cast, the cast all submitted themselves in the Supporting Actor and Actress categories instead of Lead Actor and Actress for the62nd Primetime Emmy Awards.The series has also been put on multiple critics' lists. In 2010, the series was listed 2nd onTime's Top Ten Best Shows of 2009,2nd onBuddyTV's Top Ten Best Shows of 2009,Jason Hughes Best TV of 2009,Modern Familywas awarded aPeabody Awardin 2009.In 2012, the show won theGolden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedyand was nominated for aBritish Academy Television Award. Every season of the show was also named one of the top 10 TV seasons of the year (from 2009 to 2012) by theAmerican Film Institute. During the2012 US presidential election, both First LadyMichelle Obama, in an interview withKal Pennat the2012 Democratic National Convention,andAnn Romney, in an interview withThe Insider,citedModern Familyas their favorite TV show. In June 2013, theWriters Guild of AmericarankedModern Familynumber 34 on a list of the 101 most well-written television series ever made.In December 2013,TV Guideranked it number 43 on its list of the 60 Best Series of all time. Emmy Awards received by cast The following is a list ofEmmynominations received by the cast of the series. Wins are highlighted inboldface. Criticism Michelle Haimoff of theChristian Science Monitorcriticized the show during its third season for only casting the women as stay-at-home moms while the husbands have highly successful careers: \"There is a difference between quirky, flawed characters and ones who are incapable of professional success. And when the latter is reliably female, it makes for sexist television. It also makes for unrealistic television.\"Late Night with Jimmy Fallonwriter Ali Waller asked her Twitter followers in 2013 \"IfModern Familyis so 'modern' then why don't any of the women have jobs?\"Other authors reinforced this criticism, claiming that stay-at-home mothers are no longer the norm in modern society.Claire later went to work in season five. According to aCNETstaffer commenting on a first-season episode: \"The wife and daughter are unable to learn how to use the remote and must be taught by the father, while the son is 'good with electronics,' even though he is thought of as the stupidest member of the family.\"Arianna Reiche fromGawkercommented on the episode \"Game Changer\" in which Gloria hides her skill at chess so her husband will not be upset at losing: \"This moment is at best a sappy quip about compromise in an often heavy-handed series, and at worst, it's a moment in a show with 9.3 million viewers, on a network owned by Disney, which explicitly validates girls and women subduing their intellect.\" Impact Adaptations Potential spinoff In June 2020, ABC Entertainment president Karey Burke discussed a spin-off ofModern Familycentered around Mitch and Cam, inspired by an idea from series co-creator and executive producer, Steven Levitan.In June 2022, star Jesse Tyler Ferguson confirmed that the script for the show's spinoff is completed. \"The script's out there and it's very good,\" he told. \"So you know, who knows? If someone wants to produce it, maybe.\"In September 2024, Eric Stonestreet stated that the spin-off \" potential anymore\" and that the time to produce it has passed, despite believing that the series would have been a \"slam dunk\". In early 2013, a spin-off series centered aroundRob Riggle's character Gil Thorpe was revealed to be in early stages of development. References External links",
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"Modern Family Modern Familyis an American televisionsitcomcreated byChristopher LloydandSteven Levitan. It aired onABCfrom September 23, 2009 to April 8, 2020 for 11 seasons and 250 episodes.The series follows the lives of three diverse family set-ups living in suburbanLos Angeles, who are interrelated through their patriarch, Jay Pritchett. Lloyd and Levitan conceived the series while sharing stories of their own \"modern families.\"Modern Familyemploys anensemble castand is presented in a mockumentary style, with the characters frequentlyspeaking directly to the camerain confessional interview segments. Modern Familywas highly acclaimed by critics throughout its first few seasons. Its critical reception became more mixed as it progressed. The final season received positive reviews, and thefinale episodehad 7.37 million first-run viewers.The retrospective documentary that aired before the final episode had 6.72 million first-run viewers. The series won a total of 22 Emmy Awards, including fiveEmmy Awards for",
"fiveEmmy Awards for Outstanding Comedy Series, fourEmmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series(twice each forEric StonestreetandTy Burrell), and twoEmmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series(both forJulie Bowen). It also won theGolden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedyin 2011. Thebroadcast syndicationrights to the series were sold toNBCUniversal'sUSA Network, the stations ofFox Television Stations, and various other local stations in other markets for a fall 2013 premiere. The success of the series led to it being the 10th-highest revenue-generating show for 2012, earning $2.13 million an episode. Premise Modern Familyrevolves around three different types of families (nuclear,blended, andsame-sex) living in suburban Los Angeles, who are interrelated through wealthy businessman Jay Pritchett and his two adult children, Claire and Mitchell. Jay remarried a much younger woman, Gloria Delgado (née Ramirez), a passionateColombian immigrantwith",
"immigrantwith whom he has a young son, Fulgencio “Joe” Joseph (born in themiddle of the fourth season), and a stepson from Gloria's previous marriage,Manuel \"Manny\" Delgado. Jay and Gloria's respective former spouses, DeDe and Javier, both also make occasional appearances in the show. Claire was a homemaker, though returned to the business world in the fifth season, eventually becoming the chief executive of her father's business, Pritchett's Closets and Blinds. She is married to Phil Dunphy, a realtor and a self-professed \"cool dad\", who is also an amateur magician and real-estate lecturer at community college. They have three children: Haley, a stereotypically ditzy teenaged girl;Alex, an intelligent and nerdy middle child;and Luke, the offbeat only son.Haley's on-and-off boyfriend, Dylan, is a permanent fixture on the show, with the two eventually marrying and having two children, Poppy and George. Mitchell is a lawyer who is in a same-sex relationship withCameron Tucker, a former music teacher who",
"music teacher who occasionally works as a substitute. The two have adopted a baby daughter, Lily, ofVietnamese origin, and are later on legally married. At the end of the show, they adopt another child, Rexford. As the show's name suggests, it depicts a modern-day extended family; many episodes are comically based on situations that many families encounter in real life. Cast and characters Main characters Family tree The characters in green have regular roles on the show. Dotted lines indicate a parental relationship through adoption or marriage, and dashed lines indicate a divorce between characters. † indicates a deceased character. The series has also had many recurring characters.Fred Willardguest starred as Phil's father Frank; he was nominated forOutstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesat the62nd Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost toNeil Patrick Harris's performance onGlee.Willard also received a posthumous nomination in the same category at the72nd Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2020.Shelley",
"in 2020.Shelley Longtoo guest starred occasionally as DeDe Pritchett, Jay's ex-wife and Claire and Mitchell's biological mother. Nathan Laneappeared as Cameron and Mitchell's flamboyant friend Pepper Saltzman; he was nominated three times for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series.Adam DeVineappeared as Andy Bailey, Jay and Gloria's \"manny\" (malenanny), Phil's assistant and Haley's ex-boyfriend.Elizabeth Banksappeared as Mitch and Cam's fun-loving friend Sal; she was nominated forOutstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Seriesat the67th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2015.Nathan Fillionalso makes an appearance as Rainer Shine, a weather forecaster, and later Haley's boyfriend. Development and production Initial development As creators Christopher Lloyd and Steven Levitan retold stories about their families, they realized that the stories could be the basis for a show. They started working on the idea of a family being observed in a mockumentary-style show.They later",
"show.They later decided that it could be a show about three families and their experiences.It was originally calledMy American Family,and the camera crew was originally supposed to have been run by a fictitious Dutch filmmaker named Geert Floortje, who had lived as a teenaged exchange student with the Pritchetts and had developed a crush on Claire (while Mitchell had developed a crush on him). The producers later felt that this component was unnecessary, and it was scrapped. Lloyd preferred to look at the show as \"a family show done documentary-style\". Lloyd and Levitan pitched the series toCBS,NBC, and ABC (they did not pitch it toFoxbecause of issues they had with the network over a previous comedy series,Back to You, that Lloyd and Levitan also created and produced). CBS, which was not ready to make a big commitment to the single-camera style of filming, rejected the series. NBC, already broadcastingThe OfficeandParks and Recreationat the time, decided against taking on a third mockumentary-style show.",
"show. ABC accepted the pitch. Thepilotepisode tested positively withfocus groups, resulting in the network ordering 13 episodes and adding it to the2009–10 fall lineupdays ahead of ABC's official schedule announcement.The series was given a full-season pickup in October 2009. Filming Principal photographytook place in Los Angeles.Many of the exteriors used are on the city'sWestside. The Dunphys' house is in theCheviot Hillsneighborhood. As of 2014,Palisades Charter High Schoolis used for the exteriors of Luke and Manny's school. Lloyd and Levitan, whose credits both includeFrasier,Wings, andJust Shoot Me!, are executive producers of the series, serving asshowrunnerandhead writerunder their Lloyd-Levitan Productions label in affiliation with20th Century Fox Television.The other original producers on the writing team were Paul Corrigan,Sameer Gardezi,Joe Lawson,Dan O'Shannon, Brad Walsh, Caroline Williams, Bill Wrubel, Danny Zuker, and Jeff Morton. Starting with the second season, Levitan and Lloyd ran the",
"and Lloyd ran the show, not as a team, but separately, with each showrunner supervising half the episodes. \"Chris and I are both strong, opinionated people, and we very, very quickly realized it doesn't make sense to sit here and debate each other and waste time,\" Levitan toldThe Hollywood Reporterin 2012. \"We often come at it from different points of view, so we said, 'Let's just switch off who has final say.'\" Litigation In the first season, the adult cast was paid a range of roughly $30,000 to $90,000 per episode.As a result of the show's success, the cast attempted to renegotiate their contracts in the summer of 2012 to obtain higher per-episode fees, but talks broke down to the point that the fourth season's firsttable readhad to be postponed. Five of the cast members (Ty Burrell,Julie Bowen,Jesse Tyler Ferguson,Eric StonestreetandSofía Vergara) retained theQuinn Emanuellaw firm and sued 20th Century Fox Television inLos Angeles County Superior Courton July 24, 2012.While not part of the lawsuit,Ed",
"of the lawsuit,Ed O'Neilljoined his fellow castmates in seeking raises for each to about $200,000 per episode; O'Neill had already been earning more money per episode than the other five. The lawsuit invoked the \"seven-year rule\" in California Labor Code Section 2855 (theDe Havilland Law) and requested adeclarationthat their contracts were void because they were in violation of that rule. By October 25, 2012, the conflict had been in final talks for a settlement, with plaintiffs planning thereafter to file a dismissal (which they ultimately did on November 19, 2012).The five adult cast members' salaries were increased from $55,000–$65,000 per episode to $150,000–$175,000, with increases every season, plus a percentage of residual profits.O'Neill had already been earning $200,000 an episode, so his salary was lowered to parity with his co-stars, but with a larger percentage of the back-end profits.By that August, four of the five child stars negotiated increases from $15,000–$25,000 to $70,000 per",
"to $70,000 per episode,with an additional $10,000 per season raise. Episodes Themes InThe New York Times,Bruce Feilercalled attention to how the show depicts the increasing way communications technology shapes the way people perceive others, even family members. \" is surely the first family comedy that incorporates its ownhashtagof simultaneous self-analysis directly into the storyline,\" he writes. \"Mark Zuckerbergmay be a greater influence onModern FamilythanNorman Lear.\" The show's writers and actors agree. \"We used to talk about how cellphones killed the sitcom because no one ever goes to anyone's house anymore\" for routine information,Abraham Higginbothamtold Feiler. \"We embrace technology so it's part of the story.\" Ty Burrell draws onFran Lebowitz's observation that there is no institution other than media.\"I had this little flash of Phil—and me—that we are parsing our personality together externally from how people perceive us.\" James Parker ofThe Atlanticcommented, \"How does one 'parent'? Who does",
"'parent'? Who does what, which 'role'? Is Dad sufficiently dad-like and Mom enough of a mom?\" In a 2014 article inSlate, the site's podcast executive producer, Andy Bowers, a resident of Los Angeles' Westside, where the show films most of its exteriors, praised the series for its realistic depiction of life in that part of the city. Release Broadcast Modern Familywas picked up for syndication byUSA Networkfor $1.5 million per episode, along with being offered in local syndication at the same time, withFox Television Stationsthe lead station group picking up the series.It is also shown onSky ComedyandE4in theUnited Kingdom,e.tvinSouth Africa, Fox inSweden,yes ComedyinIsraelandStar WorldinIndia. The series aired onCitytvinCanadafor its first ten seasons.The network additionally obtained the syndicated strip-rights to the show when they became available. Subsequently, it moved toGlobalfor its eleventh and final season.Modern Familybegan airing onTBSsince 2023 and was picked up byNickelodeonfor itsNick at",
"itsNick at Niteblock, starting on September 10, 2024. Home media As of 2017,Modern Familyhad earned $72,226,621 from its domestic home media releases.The series was made available for streaming onHuluandPeacockin its entirety on February 3, 2021.Internationally, it was released onDisney+. Reception Ratings Since its premiere, the series has remained popular. In its first season, the show became the sixth-highest rated scripted show in America and the third-highest rated new show.Aided by winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series, the show's second season became the highest rated show on Wednesday on premiere weekand also rose 34% from the previous season among adults between the ages of 18 and 49.The show frequently ranked as television's top scripted series in adults 18–49 as well. The success of the show has been positively compared toThe Cosby Show.During the2010–2011season,Modern Familywas the highest rated scripted show in the 18–49 demographic, and the third-highest rated overall",
"rated overall sitcom behind CBS'sThe Big Bang TheoryandTwo and a Half Men.The season also ranked first amongDVRviewers. The third-season premiere became ABC's top-rated season premiere in six years.The series' success in ratings has also led it to being credited for reviving sitcoms. In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook likesfound thatModern Family's \"audience pattern is the prototypical example of a city show — most popular in liberal, urban clusters in Boston, San Francisco, and Santa Barbara, California, and least popular in the more rural parts of Kentucky, Mississippi, and Arkansas\". Modern Familygained renewed popularity after becoming available onstreaming platforms. According to market research company Parrot Analytics, which examines consumer engagement across streaming, downloads, and social media,Modern Familyhas experienced a notable increase in interest since its debut onHuluandPeacockin 2021.For the week ending August 15, 2021,Whip Media, which tracks global TV",
"tracks global TV viewership habits for nearly 1 million global users of itsTV Timeapp daily, calculated that the series placed third on its \"Binge Report\" chart, a ranking that highlights shows streamed in sessions of four or more episodes by viewers in a single day.In 2024, Parrot analytics reported thatModern Familywas among the 40 most in-demand TV shows worldwide between January 1 and August 8. While most of the top 10 shows appealed primarily to younger demographics (ages 15-31), the series attracted Millennial and Gen X viewers (32-42+).Nielsen Media Research, which records streaming viewership on U.S. television screens, estimated that the show was watched for 687 million minutes from August 12 to August 18, 2024.In October 2024, streaming analytics firm FlixPatrol, which monitors daily updated VOD charts across the globe, reported thatModern Familywas among the most viewed series on its platform, ranking second worldwide behindGrey's Anatomy. Critical response Season 1 The first season was met with",
"season was met with critical acclaim. It scored 100%, based on 28 reviews, on review aggregator websiteRotten Tomatoes, with anaverage ratingof 8.55/10 and the critical consensus: \"Thanks to sharp writing and an eccentric but exceedingly likeable cast of characters,Modern Familysignals the triumphant return of the family comedy.\"The first season also scored 86/100, based on 27 reviews, on review aggregator websiteMetacritic, indicating \"universal acclaim\". Entertainment Weeklygave it an A−, calling it \"immediately recognizable as the best new sitcom of the fall.\"InTime's review, the show was named \"the funniest new family comedy of the year.\"It has also been compared to the 1970s seriesSoapbecause of the multiple-family aspect. Some have made comparisons toThe OfficeandParks and Recreationbecause of their mockumentary formats.BuddyTVnamed the show the second best show in 2009, saying, \"Every actor is fantastic, every family is interesting, and unlike many shows, there isn't a weak link.\"Robert Canning",
"Canning ofIGNgave the season an 8.9 calling it \"Great\" and saying \"Simply put,Modern Familywas one of the best new comedies of the season.\" He also praised the ensemble cast and the characters, calling them lovable.According to Metacritic, the first season was the best reviewed new broadcast television series. Modern Familydrew criticism from theLGBTcommunity for its portrayal of Cameron and Mitchell as not being physically affectionate with each other. The criticism spawned a Facebook campaign to demand that Mitchell and Cameron be allowed to kiss. In response to the controversy, producers released a statement that a season two episode would address Mitchell's discomfort withpublic displays of affection. Executive producer Levitan has said that it was unfortunate that the issue had arisen, since the show's writers had always planned on such a scene \"as part of the natural development of the show.\"The episode \"The Kiss\" eventually aired with the kiss scene in the background, which drew praise from multiple",
"from multiple critics. Season 2 The show's second season received mostly positive reviews from critics. Season two has a rating of 88% onRotten Tomatoesbased on 16 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 8.11/10 and the consensus: \"Modern Family's sophomore season sings with ingenious sitcom structure and an ensemble in perfect comedic harmony – even if the tunes are a little familiar\".Robert Bianco ofUSA Todaygave the second season four out of four stars, saying \"Not sinceFrasierhas a sitcom offered such an ideal blend of heart and smarts, or proven itself so effortlessly adept at so many comic variations, from subtle wordplay to big-laugh slapstick to everything in between.\"In a later review Bianco stated \"as good as it was in its first year, is even better in its second\", positively comparing the characters to the characters fromThe Mary Tyler Moore Show,The Cosby Show, andFriends.During the second season,Adweeknamed the show one of the 100 Most Influential TV Shows (98th chronologically).Despite this, some",
"this, some critics were less favorable toward the season and described it as asophomore slump.Eric Stonestreet's acting was widely praised throughout the first season,but criticized during season two for being too contrived and \"over-the-top\";Alan Sepinwallcalled Cameron Tucker a \"whiny, overly-sensitive diva\".On the other hand, the praise for Ty Burrell's performance (as Phil Dunphy) continued. Season 3 The third season was met with critical acclaim. OnRotten Tomatoes, season three has a rating of 92% based on 13 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 8.33/10 and the consensus: \"Modern Familysettles into a well-oiled groove, consistently delivering inspired farce and making it look effortless.\"Slant Magazinereviewer Peter Swanson wrote that while the first episode was \"the type of wacky-location stunt that's usually reserved for the fifth or sixth season of a dying sitcom,\" the following episodes \"have been better... but they're still uneven\".He also criticized the writers for relying too much on \"stunt episodes",
"on \"stunt episodes and celebrity cameos, like David Cross\".He ultimately gave the season 3 out of 4 stars.James Parker ofThe Atlanticsaid, at the beginning of the third season that \"Modern Familyis very, very funny, almost ruthlessly so. It's a bit of a master class in pace and brevity. The writing isVorsprung durch Technik: hectically compressed but dramatically elegant, prodigal in its zingers and snorters but austere in its construction.\" He found it an exception to his dislike for sitcoms that do not use alaugh track.During the third season,New York TimescolumnistFrank Bruniargued that gay criticism of Cameron and Mitchell actually showed the progress gays have made toward social acceptance. \"A decade ago,\" he wrote, \" would have balked—and balked loudly—at how frequently Cameron in particular tips into limp-wristed, high-voiced caricature.\" But now, \"most gay people trust that the television audience knows we're a diverse tribe, not easily pigeonholed.Modern Familyendows us with a sort of comic",
"a sort of comic banality. It's an odd kind of progress. But it's progress nonetheless.\" Season 4 The fourth season ofModern Familyreceived positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the season an approval rating of 67% based on 11 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.75/10 and the consensus: \"Modern Familystill has charm to burn and boasts a uniformly excellent cast, but the series' subversive edge has dulled\".Halfway through the season, Rachel Stein ofTelevision Without Pitywrote, \"much as I liked the pairings and some of the dialogue, is just another contrived episode of Modern Family we can cite when we talk later about how a different show should have won the 2013 Emmy for Best Comedy.\"Dalene Rovenstein ofPaste Magazinegave the season a positive review, but said a better season was possible. Season 5 The fifth season ofModern Familyalso received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, season five has a rating of 90% based on 10 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.57/10 and the consensus: \"Modern",
"consensus: \"Modern Familyreturns to its conventional roots with grace in a fifth season that delights in providing reliable laughs and rekindles the show's trademark warmth\".Reviewing the season's first eight episodes, Matthew Wolfson ofSlant Magazinewrote that the show \"appear to have finally arrived at the depressing and predictable low point toward which it been trending for the past two years.\" He also went on to say that the show had \"turned into a shrill pastiche of stereotypical characterizations and superficial banter lacking both feeling and wit\", assigning it a rating of 1.5/4 stars.Different writers forThe A.V. Clubrated, in total, a majority of the former-half episodes with a \"B−\" grade or less. One writer for the magazine, Joshua Alston, gave \"ClosetCon '13\" a \"C+\" and remarked that \"Modern Familybecomes a high-wire act when it separates its characters into three storylines with no overlap between them.\"The second half was more warmly received, with three episodes rated an \"A−\" or higher.",
"an \"A−\" or higher. Season 6 The show's sixth season received highly positive reviews from TV critics, with some claiming that it was an improvement over the last few seasons.This season has a rating of 100% onRotten Tomatoesbased on 7 reviews, with anaverage scoreof 7.67/10.Joshua Alston and Gwen IhnatThe A.V. Clubhave awarded the majority of episodes a \"B\" grade or higher – with particular praise for \"The Day We Almost Died\" and \"Closet? You'll Love It!\" – marking an improvement over the repeated \"C\" grade given throughout the previous season's former half.\"Connection Lost\" received high critical acclaim, with many praising the episode's writing, originality and \"success in transcending what could have been a gimicky episode\".In her review for \"Closet? You'll Love It!\" Gwen Ihnat ofThe A.V. Clubstated that the episode represents \"all the reasons why we still watch Modern Family\" and awarded the episode an A−.On the same site, David Kallison reviewed \"Grill, Interrupted\", saying: \"This season proves that",
"season proves that sitcoms can survive on solid characters and solid jokes.\" Season 7 The seventh season received positive reviews from critics with many critics calling it similar to the fourth and fifth seasons. On Rotten Tomatoes, this season is rated 67% with 6 reviews and an average rating of 6.5/10.Kyle Fowle fromThe A.V. Clubhad a very mixed reaction to the season, only giving one episode an A− or higher.Fowle felt the season was frustrating, believing the season would be defined \"by its lack of character progress and overstuffed episodes.\" Later seasons The series was renewed for a 9th and 10th season on May 10, 2017.Season 9 premiered on September 27, 2017, while season 10 premiered on September 26, 2018. Seasons 8 and 9 received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics, with main criticisms directed at the lack of character development, overstuffing of episodes, and too many filler episodes per season. While the show continued to be praised for its charm, witty writing, and the cast's performances,",
"performances, criticism grew in these seasons, particularly from reviewers such as those atThe A.V. Club. In January 2018, Steve Levitan and Christopher Lloyd announced that season 10 would most likely be the final season, during theTelevision Critics Association's winter press tour.However, in August 2018, reports indicated that ABC was in discussions to renew the series for a potential eleventh season. Season 10 received positive reviews from critics, citing the season as a significant improvement over the last two. The series was praised for its tackling of Haley's pregnancy, the humor of Mitch and Cam looking after Cal, and its dealing with change in a positive way. Episodes \"Torn Between Two Lovers\", \"Good Grief\", and \"A Year Of Birthdays\" were particularly praised. The series was renewed for an eleventh season on January 7, 2019, which was confirmed as the final season on February 5. The last season premiered on September 25, 2019, and aired its last episode on April 8, 2020. Season 11 similarly",
"Season 11 similarly received positive reviews. The season was praised for its themes of change and ending, and the improved humor upon the last seasons, with particular attention to episodes \"The Prescott\", \"Legacy\", \"Spuds\" and \"Finale\". Accolades Modern Familyhas won 22Primetime Emmy Awardsand 6Writers Guild of America Awards. The show also later received aGLSENRespect Awardfor its portrayal of \"positive images and storylines that reflect a diverse America, including the depiction of a family headed by a gay couple.\" In 2010,Modern Familywas nominated for five Television Critics Association Awards.To reinforce the idea of an ensemble cast, the cast all submitted themselves in the Supporting Actor and Actress categories instead of Lead Actor and Actress for the62nd Primetime Emmy Awards.The series has also been put on multiple critics' lists. In 2010, the series was listed 2nd onTime's Top Ten Best Shows of 2009,2nd onBuddyTV's Top Ten Best Shows of 2009,Jason Hughes Best TV of 2009,Modern Familywas awarded",
"Familywas awarded aPeabody Awardin 2009.In 2012, the show won theGolden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedyand was nominated for aBritish Academy Television Award. Every season of the show was also named one of the top 10 TV seasons of the year (from 2009 to 2012) by theAmerican Film Institute. During the2012 US presidential election, both First LadyMichelle Obama, in an interview withKal Pennat the2012 Democratic National Convention,andAnn Romney, in an interview withThe Insider,citedModern Familyas their favorite TV show. In June 2013, theWriters Guild of AmericarankedModern Familynumber 34 on a list of the 101 most well-written television series ever made.In December 2013,TV Guideranked it number 43 on its list of the 60 Best Series of all time. Emmy Awards received by cast The following is a list ofEmmynominations received by the cast of the series. Wins are highlighted inboldface. Criticism Michelle Haimoff of theChristian Science Monitorcriticized the show during its third season",
"its third season for only casting the women as stay-at-home moms while the husbands have highly successful careers: \"There is a difference between quirky, flawed characters and ones who are incapable of professional success. And when the latter is reliably female, it makes for sexist television. It also makes for unrealistic television.\"Late Night with Jimmy Fallonwriter Ali Waller asked her Twitter followers in 2013 \"IfModern Familyis so 'modern' then why don't any of the women have jobs?\"Other authors reinforced this criticism, claiming that stay-at-home mothers are no longer the norm in modern society.Claire later went to work in season five. According to aCNETstaffer commenting on a first-season episode: \"The wife and daughter are unable to learn how to use the remote and must be taught by the father, while the son is 'good with electronics,' even though he is thought of as the stupidest member of the family.\"Arianna Reiche fromGawkercommented on the episode \"Game Changer\" in which Gloria hides her skill",
"hides her skill at chess so her husband will not be upset at losing: \"This moment is at best a sappy quip about compromise in an often heavy-handed series, and at worst, it's a moment in a show with 9.3 million viewers, on a network owned by Disney, which explicitly validates girls and women subduing their intellect.\" Impact Adaptations Potential spinoff In June 2020, ABC Entertainment president Karey Burke discussed a spin-off ofModern Familycentered around Mitch and Cam, inspired by an idea from series co-creator and executive producer, Steven Levitan.In June 2022, star Jesse Tyler Ferguson confirmed that the script for the show's spinoff is completed. \"The script's out there and it's very good,\" he told. \"So you know, who knows? If someone wants to produce it, maybe.\"In September 2024, Eric Stonestreet stated that the spin-off \" potential anymore\" and that the time to produce it has passed, despite believing that the series would have been a \"slam dunk\". In early 2013, a spin-off series centered aroundRob",
"centered aroundRob Riggle's character Gil Thorpe was revealed to be in early stages of development. References External links",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Jesse_Tyler_Ferguson (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b933160e0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"
] |
What is the name of the vocalist from the first band to make it in the top 200 under the record label that produced the third studio album for Dismal Euphony? | Jens Kidman | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dismal_Euphony | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Little_Devils | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Blast | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meshuggah | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dismal_Euphony', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Little_Devils', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Blast', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meshuggah'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dismal_Euphony",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Little_Devils",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Blast",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meshuggah"
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"Dismal Euphony Dismal Euphonywas a metal band from Norway that mixed styles includinggothic metal, melodic metal,black metalandclassical music. History The history of Dismal Euphony began in 1992 in Stavanger, Norway by bassist Ole K. Helgesen and drummer Kristoffer Vold Austrheim under the name The Headless Children, a cover band ofSlayerandKreator. A year later singer Erik Borgen and guitarist Kenneth Bergsagel joined the group. They changed the name to Carnal Tomb, then Borgen left the band and Helgesen became the singer/bassist with the female voice of Linn Achre Tveit (Keltziva). Elin Overskott joined the band as a keyboard player. This was the first line-up of Dismal Euphony, officially formed in 1995. In the same year, the group composed the demoSpellbound. After this publication, they were signed byNapalm Records. Here they produced other albums likeSoria Moria slott,Autumn Leaves: The Rebellion of Tidesand theLady AblazeEP (which already features Anja Natasha as female singer). Later, Dismal Euphony joinedNuclear Blastand releasedAll Little Devils, with the new female singer Anja Natasha. Their last album isPython Zero. After this release the band split up. Band members Last known line-up Former members Discography",
"All Little Devils All Little Devilsis the third studio album by the Norwegiangothic metalbandDismal Euphony. It was released in 1999, and was the band's first album withNuclear Blast. Track listing Production Notes This 1990s metal album–related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"Nuclear Blast Nuclear Blast Recordsis a Germanrecord labelwithsubsidiariesin Germany, the United States and Brazil. It was founded in 1987 by Markus Staiger inDonzdorf. Originally releasinghardcore punkrecords, the label moved on to releasing albums bythrash metal,melodic death metal,grindcore,industrial metal,power metalandblack metalbands, as well astribute albums. It also distributes and promotes post-hardcore/metalcore labelsSharpTone Records; another post-hardcore/metalcore label,Arising Empire, was in Nuclear Blast portfolio until its acquirement by Kontor New Media in 2020. In October 2018, French independent labelBelieve Digitalacquired a majority stake in Nuclear Blast. History Nuclear Blast was formed in 1987 after founder Markus Staiger traveled throughout the United States for four weeks and saw a gig of his favorite bandBL'AST!. The label's first release was a vinyl compilation calledSenseless Death(NB 001) featuring US hardcore bands like Attitude, Sacred Denial, Impulse Manslaughter and others. Swedish bandMeshuggahbecame the first band in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack theBillboard200, landing at number 165 with their 2002 album,Nothing. Meshuggah also became the first Nuclear Blast band to be reviewed inRolling Stonemagazine. In 2004, Finnish symphonic metal bandNightwishreleasedOnceon Nuclear Blast, which rocketed to the top of the charts in multiple countries, including Finland, Germany, Norway, Greece, Sweden, Austria, and more. It became the first release in the company's history to reach number 1 on the German charts.Slayerreleased the albumRepentlessin 2015 which went to number 4 on theBillboard 200making it the highest charting Nuclear Blast release in the United States. During the 2000s and 2010s, Nuclear Blast signed many veteranthrash metalbands includingSlayer,Exodus,Testament,Anthrax,Kreator,Overkill,Sepultura,Destruction,Tankard,Death Angel,andHeathen. In 2021, Nuclear Blast founder Markus Staiger launched a new record company calledAtomic FireGmbH. In June 2022, Nuclear Blast unveiled a new logo. The logo caused some controversy when the canned water companyLiquid Deathjokingly noted its similarities with their logo (which also features a melting skull), inadvertedly leading to its designer, Justin Moll, receiving hate mail.Liquid Death quickly apologized for the joke, saying that it was not targeted at Moll but at Nuclear Blast, whose personnel had reportedly raised concerns over the new logo's similarities with Liquid Death's before it was implemented. On 23 August 2022, the video gameSaints Rowwas released, which features an in-game radio station that includes Nuclear Blast artists. Blood Blast Distribution Blood Blast Distribution is a subsidiary of Nuclear Blast that focuses solely on the distribution of extreme music. The company was founded in 2020 by Bryce Lucien, Jerome Riera, Denis Ladegaillerie and Myriam Silberstein. See also References External links",
"Meshuggah Meshuggah(/məˈʃʊɡə/)is a Swedishextreme metalband formed inUmeåin 1987. Since 2004, the band's lineup consists of founding members Jens Kidman (lead vocals) andFredrik Thordendal(lead guitar), alongside rhythm guitaristMårten Hagström, drummerTomas Haakeand bassistDick Lövgren. Since its formation, the band has released nine studio albums, sixEPsand eight music videos. Their latest studio album,Immutable, was released in April 2022 viaAtomic Fire Records. Meshuggah has become known for their innovative musical style and their complex,polymeteredsong structures andpolyrhythms. They rose to fame as a significant act in extremeunderground music, became an influence for modern metal bands, and gained acult following. The band was labelled as one of the ten most importanthard rockandheavy metalbands byRolling Stoneand as the most important band in metal byAlternative Press. In the late 2000s, the band was an inspiration for thedjentsubgenre. In 2006 and 2009, Meshuggah was nominated for two SwedishGrammis Awardsfor their albumsCatch ThirtythreeandobZen, respectively. In 2018, the band was nominated for aGrammy Awardfor their song \"Clockworks\" under the \"Best Metal Performance\" category.The band has performed in various international festivals, includingOzzfestandDownload, and embarked on theobZenworld tourfrom 2008 to 2010, and also the \"Ophidian Trek\". History Formation andContradictions Collapse(1987–1994) In 1985, guitaristFredrik Thordendalformed a band inUmeå,a university town in northern Sweden with a population of 105,000.The band, originally named Metallien, recorded a number ofdemo tapes, after which it disbanded. Thordendal, however, continued playing under a different name with new band members. Meshuggah was formed in 1987by lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist Jens Kidman,and took the name Meshuggah from theYiddishword for \"crazy\"(ultimately derived from theHebrewwordמְשׁוּגָע). Kidman found the word in an American street slang dictionary.The band recorded several demos before Kidman left, which prompted the remaining members to disband. Kidman then formed a new band, Calipash, with guitarist Thordendal, bassist Peter Nordin and drummer Niklas Lundgren.Kidman, who also played guitar,and Thordendal decided to restore the name Meshuggah for the new band. In 1989, Meshuggah released the self-titled, three-songEPMeshuggah,which is commonly known asPsykisk Testbild(a title that could be translated as \"Psychological Test-Picture\").This 12\" (30 cm) vinyl EP had only 1,000 copies released, sold by local record store Garageland.The EP's back cover features the band members with cheese doodles on their faces. After replacing drummer Niklas Lundgren withTomas Haakein 1990, Meshuggah signed a contract with German heavy metalrecord labelNuclear Blastand recorded its debut full-length album,Contradictions Collapse.The LP, originally entitled(All this because of) Greed,was released in 1991.The album received positive reviews, but was not a commercial success.Soon after, Kidman decided to concentrate on vocals,and guitaristMårten Hagström,who had already played in a band with Haake when they were in sixth grade, was recruited.The new lineup recorded the EPNoneat Tonteknik Recordings in Umeå in 1994 for release later that year.A Japanese version was also released, including lyrics printed in Japanese. During this period, Thordendal, who was working as a carpenter, severed the tip of his left middle finger, while Haake injured his hand in a router accident.As a result, the band was unable to perform for several months. Thordendal's fingertip was later reattached, and he went on to make a full recovery.TheSelfcagedEP was recorded in April and May 1994, but its release was delayed to later in 1995 due to the accidents. Destroy Erase Improve(1995–1997) In January 1995, Meshuggah undertook a short European tour organized by its record label Nuclear Blast. Afterwards, the band returned to the studio in February of that year to record the albumDestroy Erase Improveat Soundfront Studios inUppsala, with Daniel Bergstrand as a producer.Shortly thereafter, the band went on a European tour supportingMachine Headfor two months.During the tour, Nordin became ill and experiencedbalance disorderwith hisinner ear. Due to the resulting chronic dizziness and vertigo, Nordin was forced to leave the tour and travel to Sweden. Machine Head's bassistAdam Duceoffered to cover his absence; however, Meshuggah decided to continue as a four-piece. Sometimes Thordendal played bass, while other times the band performed with two guitars. In this lineup, Hagström would use apitch shifterto play his guitar at anoctavelower than usual. Destroy Erase Improvewas released in May 1995, with positive response from critics for the \"heady tempos and abstract approach\".Kidman described the album cover: \"The title fits the pictures we cut out and stole from reference books in the library.\" In mid-1995, Meshuggah had a short tour with Swedish bandClawfingerin Scandinavia and Germany. Nordin had to leave the band because of his sickness and was replaced by bassist Gustaf Hielm during the tour.In late 1995, Meshuggah went on a month-long tour withHypocrisy. During 1996 and 1997, Thordendal worked on his solo albumSol Niger Within, which was released in March 1997 in Scandinavia and in April in Japan. He also hostedMats/Morgan Band's debut. In 1997, Meshuggah recorded an unreleased demo, toured occasionally, and played a few concerts in its hometown. In May, Meshuggah moved to Stockholm to be closer to its management and the record industry in general. The EPThe True Human Designwas recorded and released in late 1997. It contained one new song entitled \"Sane\", and one live and two alternate versions ofDestroy Erase Improve's opening track \"Future Breed Machine\".Thordendal's solo albumSol Niger Withinwas simultaneously released in the United States, and Meshuggah started to plan its next album at the end of the year. ChaosphereandNothing(1998–2002) Hielm officially joined the band in January 1998 after more than two years as a session member. Nuclear Blast re-releasedContradictions Collapsewith the addition of songs from theNoneEP. In May 1998, the title of the next album,Chaosphere, was reported and recording was done throughout May and June. Immediately after recording the album, Meshuggah went on a short US tour, and the album was released later in November 1998. Chaosphere's sound is an almost complete departure from the thrash metal style of the band's previous releases. Shortly after the release, Meshuggah toured Scandinavia withEntombed. In early 1999, Meshuggah joinedSlayeron their U.S. tour.After the new album and the live performances, Meshuggah was beginning to be recognized by mainstream music, guitar, drum and metal magazines.In mid-1999, Meshuggah performed in several Swedish concerts. The band started to write some new material but reported in mid-2000 that \"songwriting isn't that dramatic, but we're getting there slowly\".While fans were waiting for the next album, a collection of demos (from thePsykisk TestbildEP), remixes and unreleased songs from theChaospheresessions were released as theRare Traxalbum.Hielm left the band in July 2001 for unclear reasons.Meshuggah joinedToolon a lengthy tour, playing for more than 100,000 people total. In March 2002, Meshuggah recorded three-track demos with programmed drums in their home studio, which were based on Haake's sampleDrumkit from Hell. The upcoming album was recorded in five to six weeks in Mayand was produced by the band at Dug-Out Studios in Uppsala and at its home studio in Stockholm.The last-minute decision to join 2002'sOzzfesttour forced the band to mix the album in two days and master it in one.Meshuggah immediately went on another US tour after finishing the recording. The albumNothingwas released in August 2002,selling 6,525 copies during its first week in the US and reaching No. 165 on theBillboard200.With this album, Meshuggah became the first band in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack theBillboard200 and also became the first band signed to Nuclear Blast to be reviewed inRolling Stonemagazine.Meshuggah's previous two releases, 1998'sChaosphereand 1995'sDestroy Erase Improve, had sold 38,773 and 30,712 copies to that date, respectively.The CD booklet ofNothinghas no liner notes, lyrics, or credits, only a hint of one word:ingenting, which is Swedish fornothing. All of this information is available on the CD-ROM.At the end of 2002, the band went on another US tour with Tooland a headlining tour of its own. IandCatch Thirtythree(2003–2006) In 2003, Hagström hinted at the direction of the band's next album by saying, \"There's only one thing I really feel that is important. We've never measured our success in terms of sales, because we're quite an extreme band. It's more that people understand where we're coming from. I get more out of a fan coming up and saying that we've totally changed their way of looking on metal music, than having like 200 kids buy it. I mean, it would be nice for the money, but that's not why we're in it. So what I'd like to see is that we keep progressing. Keeping the core of what Meshuggah has always been, but exploring the bar, so to speak.Destroy Erase Improvewas like exploring the dynamics of the band,Chaospherewas exploring the aggressiveness, the all-out side, andNothingis more of a sinister, dark, pretty slow album, actually. So honestly, now I don't know where we're going. It might be a mix of all of them.\" In February 2004, bassistDick Lövgrenjoined Meshuggah.The band then recorded and released theIEP, which contains a single, 21-minute track, released onFractured Transmitter Records.Meshuggah spent about six months in total on recording the EP.Catch Thirtythree, the only Meshuggah album on whichprogrammed drumshave been used, was released the following year in May 2005.Seven thousand copies ofCatch Thirtythreewere sold the first week, and it debuted at No. 170 on theBillboard200 chart in June 2005.The video for the track \"Shed\" was released in June, and the previous albumNothingsold approximately 80,000 copies in the United States to that date, according toNielsen SoundScan.Catch Thirtythreeearned the band aSwedish Grammynomination.In October 2005, German bandRammsteinreleased a single of their song \"Benzin\" with a remixed version by Meshuggah. In December 2005, 10 years after signing its first record deal with the publishing companyWarner/Chappell Music Scandinavia, Meshuggah extended its cooperation with the company.In November 2005, Haake said in an interview that the band was not content with the productions ofChaosphereandNothing, because, being on tour, they had little time to devote to them. A remixed and remastered version ofNothingwith rerecorded guitars was released in a custom-shaped slipcase featuring a three-dimensional hologram card on 31 October 2006, via Nuclear Blast Records. The release also includes a bonus DVD featuring the band's appearance at the Download 2005 festival and the official music videos of \"Rational Gaze\", \"Shed\" and \"New Millennium Cyanide Christ\". obZenandKoloss(2007–2013) Meshuggah returned to the studio in March 2007 to recordobZen, with recording concluding in October 2007, and the album being released in March 2008.The band spent almost a year on the album, its longest recording session yet. A significant portion of the year was spent learning to perform the songs they wrote; the recording itself took six months.obZenreached No. 59 on theBillboard200 chart, selling 11,400 U.S. copies in its first week of release and 50,000 copies after six months.WithobZen, Meshuggah received more media attention and attracted new fans.The release was followed bya world tour, which started in the U.S. and proceeded to Europe, Asia and Australia. In May 2008, Meshuggah published a music video for the song \"Bleed\", which was produced byIan McFarlandand was written, directed and edited by Mike Pecci and Ian McFarland. Killswitch Productions said: \"It's extremely cool to work with a band who is willing to allow the music and imagery to speak for itself and who does not insist on themselves being the prominent focus of the video.\" In January 2009,obZenwas nominated for the SwedishGrammisaward in the \"Best Hard Rock\" category.In February 2009, Haake announced that the band was planning a concert DVD and a studio album.In April, Meshuggah was forced to cancel its Scandinavian shows in early 2009, due to Haake'sherniated discin his lower back, which was causing problems with his right foot when playing.Haake later underwent a surgery and recovered for European summer festivals. The concert DVD entitledAlivewas released on 5 February 2010 in Europe and 9 February in North America.Thordendal started to work on a second solo album in June 2010 with theBelgiandrummerDirk Verbeuren. The seventh studio album,Koloss, was released on 23 March 2012 in Germany, on 26 March in the rest of Europe, and 27 March in North America.Kolossreached No. 17 on the Billboard Top 200, and sold 18,342 copies in its first week.In Sweden, it reached No. 12. Pitch BlackandThe Violent Sleep of Reason(2013–2018) On 5 February 2013, Meshuggah released a free two-track EP entitledPitch BlackwithScion A/V.The EP features a previously unreleased track, \"Pitch Black\", that was recorded byFredrik Thordendalin 2003 at Fear and Loathing, in Stockholm Sweden.The second track is a live recording of \"Dancers to a Discordant System\" fromobZen. The track was recorded at Distortion Fest in Eindhoven, Netherlands, on 9 December 2012. On 12 May 2016, Meshuggah released a teaser video on their YouTube page and confirmed that their next studio album was to be released in late 2016. On 28 July 2016, the title was revealed to beThe Violent Sleep of Reason, and was given a 7 October release date.The Violent Sleep of Reasonwas shortlisted byIMPALA(The Independent Music Companies Association) for the Album of the Year Award 2016, which rewards on a yearly basis the best album released on an independent European label. On 2 June 2017, Meshuggah announced that Thordendal would take a leave from touring with the band; he would be temporarily replaced byPer NilssonfromScar Symmetry.In 2018, Meshuggah received aGrammy nominationfor their song \"Clockworks\" under the \"Best Metal Performance\" category. Immutable(2019–present) In a November 2019 interview, Hagström hinted that the band had begun working on a new album.Recording started in March 2021.Later that month the band stated that Fredrik Thordendal had ended his hiatus and would be participating fully in the recording of the new album.On 28 January 2022, Meshuggah released a new song titled \"The Abysmal Eye\" taken from the band's ninth albumImmutable, which was later released on 1 April 2022 via Atomic Fire. Musical style Meshuggah's experimentation, stylistic variation and changes during its career cross several musical subgenres. Heavy metal subgenresexperimental metaloravant-garde metalare umbrella terms that enable description of the career of the band in general.Extreme metalcrosses boththrash metalanddeath metal(ortechnical death metal), which are at root of the sound of Meshuggah's music, which has also been described asgroove metal.The band has also been labelled as math metal andprogressive metal.Meshuggah also incorporates elements ofexperimental jazz.In its review ofNothing,AllMusicdescribes Meshuggah as \"masterminds of cosmic calculus metal—call it Einstein metal if you want\".Meshuggah's early output was also consideredalternative metal.Meshuggah creates a recognizable sonic imprintand distinct style. Trademarks and characteristics that define Meshuggah's sound and songwriting includepolyrhythms,polymeteredriff cycles, rhythmicsyncopation, rapidkeyandtempochanges and neo-jazzchromatics.Hagström notes that \"it doesn't really matter if something is hard to play or not. The thing is, what does it do to your mind when you listen to it? Where does it take you?\"A trademark of Thordendal isjazz fusion-like soloing and improvisation. He is also known for the usage of a \"breath controller\" device. Haake is known for hiscross-rhythmdrumming with \"jazzlike cadence\".The vocal style of Jens Kidman varies betweenhardcore-style shoutsand \"robotic\"death metal vocals. In polymeters typically used by Meshuggah, the guitars might play in odd meters such as 5/16 or 17/16, while drums play in 4/4.One particular example of Haake's use of polymeter is 4/4 against 23/16 bimeter, in which he keeps thehi-hatorchina cymbalin 4/4 time but uses thesnareanddouble bass drumsin 23/16 time.On \"Rational Gaze\" (fromNothing), Haake plays simple 4/4 time, hitting the snare on each third beat, for 16 bars. At the same time, the guitars and bass are playing the same quarter notes, albeit in a different time signature; eventually both sides meet up again at the 64th beat.Hagström notes about the polymeters, \"We've never really been into the odd time signatures we get accused of using. Everything we do is based around a 4/4 core. It's just that we arrange parts differently around that center to make it seem like something else is going on.\" Contradictions Collapse,Destroy Erase ImproveandChaosphere The early work of Meshuggah, influenced mainly byMetallica, is \"simpler and more straightforward than their more recent material, but some of their more progressive elements are present in the form of time-changes and polyrhythmics, and Fredrik Thordendal's lead playing stands out\".According toAllMusic, theirdebut albumis a relatively immature, but original, release.Double bass drumsand \"angular\" riffing also defined the early work of Meshuggah. With the groundbreakingDestroy Erase Improve, Meshuggah showedfusionof death metal, thrash metal, progressive metal.AllMusic describes the style as \"weaving hardcore-style shouts amongst deceptively (and deviously) simplestaccatoguitar riffs and insanely precise drumming—often with all three components acting in different time signatures\".Thordendal adds the melodic element with his typical lead guitarand uses his \"breath controller\" device most famously on the opening track \"Future Breed Machine\". Chaosphereincorporates typically fast,still tempo changing death metal. AllMusic compares the genre also withgrindcorefathersNapalm Death.Rockdetector states: \"Whilst fans reveled in the maze like meanderings, critics struggled to dissect and analyze, hailing Haake's unconventional use of dual 4/4 and 23/16 rhythm, Kidman's mechanical staccato bark and Thordendal's liberal usage of avant-garde jazz\". Nothing,IandCatch Thirtythree OnNothing, Meshuggah abandons the fast tempos ofChaosphereand concentrates on slow,tuned downtemposandgrooves.The album was intended to be recorded using custom-made Nevborneight-string guitars, but the prototypes were faulty so Thordendal and Hagström used down tunedIbanezseven-string guitarsinstead. This technique caused the instruments to slip out of tune during the sessions, which created additional problems.When Ibanez provided Meshuggah with special eight-string guitars with two extra-low strings that worked properly after the initial release, the band re-recorded the guitar parts forNothingand re-released it in 2006.Hagström notes that this allowed the band to go lower sonically and to attain bass sounds on guitars. TheIEP contains a single, 21-minute songof complex arrangements and was a hint of the forthcoming album, 2005'sCatch Thirtythree.The EP, which has never been played live by the band, was written and recorded during jamming sessions of Haake and Thordendal.OnCatch Thirtythree, Meshuggah again used eight-string guitars,but utilized programmed drums for the first time also for the release,with the exception of two songs from 2001's compilationRare Trax.The album was self-produced by the band and was recorded at the studio that Meshuggah shares with Clawfinger. Hagström notes, \"The eight-strings really have given us a whole new musical vocabulary to work with. Part of it is the restrictions they impose: you really can't play power chords with them; the sound just turns to mush. Instead, we concentrated on coming up with really unusual single-note parts, new tunings and chord voicings. We wanted to get as far away from any kind of conventions and traditions as we could on the album, so the guitars worked out beautifully.\" Catch Thirtythreeis one 47-minute song divided into 13 sections.It is more mid-tempo guitar riff based, and a more straightforward and experimental full-length album thanChaosphereorNothing.Nick Terry ofDecibel Magazinedescribes the album as a four-movementsymphony.Some songs still use Meshuggah's \"familiar template combining harsh vocals and nightmarish melodies over coarse, mechanically advancing, oddball tempos\", while others explore ambient sounds and quieter dynamics.The first part ofCatch Thirtythreecenters around two simple riffs.In the song \"In Death - Is Death\", the band uses a combination of noise and silence, which is in contrast with the atypical melodies on \"Dehumanization\". On \"Mind's Mirrors\", Meshuggah used electronics, programming and \"robotic voices\". \"Shed\" incorporates tribal percussion and whispered vocals. obZenandKoloss With 2008'sobZen, Meshuggah moved away from the experimentation of 2002'sNothingand 2005'sCatch Thirtythreeto return to the musical style of its previous albums, such asContradictions Collapse,Destroy Erase ImproveandChaosphere,while still maintaining its focus on musical and technical innovation. The album loses some of the quick, mathematical rhythmic changes of past releases and the melodic orchestration ofCatch Thirty-Threeand uses \"angular\" riffs,mid-tempo and common 4/4 beats.The album is a culmination of the band's previous work.Meshuggah decided to self-produce because it sought to retain artistic control over the recording and mixing process. ForobZen, Haake returned to the drum kit most notably with his performance on the song \"Bleed\".In an interview for Gravemusic.com, Haake stated, \" was a big effort for me to learn, I had to find a totally new approach to playing the double bass drums to be able to do that stuff. I had never really done anything like that before like the fast bursts that go all the way through the song basically. So I actually spent as much time practicing that track alone as I did with all of the other tracks combined. It's kind of a big feat to change your approach like that and I'm glad we were able to nail it for the album. For a while though we didn't even know if it was going to make it to the album.\"Hagström also stated, \"obZenis one of the most highly technical offerings the band has ever put to tape\".Revolver Magazineconfirms this statement: \"At first listen,obZenseems less challenging to the listener than some of the band's other records, and most of the songs flow smoothly from one syncopated passage to the next. However, careful examination reveals that the material is some of the group's most complicated\". A common quality inKolossidentified by multiple critics and outlets is the album's relatively straightforward, more groove-oriented sound, summed up byMetal Sucksas the band having \"streamlined their compositions to a great extent.\"The broad style of the record has been described as \"primal\" and featuring \"less jazzy virtuosity\" than the band's previous output.Pitchforknoted that the record's rawer production style advanced this \"tribal\" sound further.The album invokes a greater sound of menace and \"darkness\" according to Metal Injection; additionally, Jens Kidman's vocals were described as \"exponentially more anguished\" than previous works.Metal Injectionfurther compared the sound of the album's closing track \"The Last Vigil\" to works by the instrumental bandGodspeed You! Black Emperor.The record's guitar riffs have been noted as deviating somewhat from Meshuggah's earlier catalog, withSPINidentifying \"an almost bluesy swing\" in the playing style.SPINfurther elaborated on the guitar leads, comparing the solos in \"The Demon's Name is Surveillance\" and \"Marrow\" to the (non-metal) works of experimental composerPhilip Glassand jazz-guitaristAllan Holdsworthrespectively. The Violent Sleep of Reason For their eighth album, the band recorded live in studio, a production style they hadn't pursued in reportedly \"20, 25 years\".On rejecting the computerized format of recording of their previous albums, Haake said \"ObzenandKolossare great albums, but, to me, they are a little too perfect. It didn't really capture what we sounded like honestly. But where we recorded live, you get to hear the push and pull, one person might be a little ahead and the other might be a little behind. If you kill that, you can kill the energy.\"It is the first album to have no writing credit from Thordendal; the majority of the album was written by Haake and Lövgren. Method and lyrical themes Meshuggah's music is written by Thordendal, Hagström and Haake with assistance from Kidman and Lövgren. During songwriting, a member programs the drums, and records the guitar and bass via computer. He presents his idea to the other members as a finished work. Meshuggah typically adheres to the original idea and rarely changes the song afterwards.Hagström explains that each member has an idea of what the others are doing conceptually, and nobody thinks exclusively in terms of a particular instrument. Kidman does not play guitar in the band anymore, but he is involved in writing riffs.Except for when Hagström needs a soloist, he and Thordendal rarely record together. Both play guitar and bass while composing. Haake says about his songwriting, \"Sometimes I'll sample guitar parts, cut them up, pitch-shift and tweak them until I've built the riffs I want, just for demoing purposes. But most of the time I'll just present the drums, and explain my ideas for the rest of the song, sing some riffs.\"The band usesCubaseto record the tracks, and the guitars are routed through softwareamplifier modeling, because it allows them to change the amp settings even after the song was fully recorded. Approximately once a year, Haake writes most of the band's lyrics, with the exception of finished tracks. His lyrical inspirations are derived from books and films. Aside from their albumCatch Thirtythree, Meshuggah does not usually recordconcept albums, although the band prefers strong conceptual underpinnings in the background.Oftenesotericand conceptual,Meshuggah's lyrics explore themes such asexistentialism.AllMusic describesDestroy Erase Improve's lyrical focus as \"the integration of machines with organisms as humanity's next logical evolutionary step\".PopMatters' review ofNothingsingles out the lyrics from \"Rational Gaze\": \"Our light-induced image of truth—filtered blank of its substance / As our eyes won't adhere to intuitive lines / Everything examined. Separated, one thing at a time / The harder we stare the more complete the disintegration.\"Haake explains thatCatch Thirtythree's cover, title and lyrics deal with \"the paradoxes/negations/contradictions of life and death (as we see it in our finest moments of unrestrained metaphoric interpretation)\".The main theme ofobZenis \"human evil\", according to Haake. The title is a play on the words \"obscene\" and \"Zen\"; in addition, \"ob\" means \"anti\" in Latin. Therefore, the title suggests that the human species has found harmony and balance in warfare and bloodshed.Revolver Magazinefinds the lyrics of the title track fromobZenrepresentative of the entire album: \"Salvation found in vomit and blood/Where depravation, lies, corruption/War and pain is god.\" However, Haake claims, \"We don't dwell on hate and bad feelings as people. But with these songs, I think we really wanted to paint a picture lyrically that might be seen as a cautionary tale. We're going, 'Heads up. Here's what some of the parts of being human are about, and this is what we can be at our worst.' So it's more about being aware of negative feelings than actually living them all the time.\" Analysis Meshuggah has become known for its innovative musical style that evolves between each release and pushesheavy metalinto new territory, and for its technical prowess.Hagström commented: \"We try never to repeat ourselves.\"RockDetectorstated aboutDestroy Erase Improve: \"he band...stripped Metal down to the bare essentials before completely rebuilding it in a totally abstract form\".The official Meshuggah biography comments onChaosphereby noting that \"Some fans felt that Meshuggah had left their dynamic and progressive elements behind; while others thought they were only progressing naturally and focusing on their original sound.\"The band's website also describesNothingas displaying \"a very mature and convincing Meshuggah, now focusing on groove and sound...Meshuggah once again divided their fans into the 'ecstatic' and the 'slightly disappointed'\".The polyrhythms can make the music soundcacophonous, like band members are playing different songs simultaneously.Listeners perceiving a polyrhythm often either extract a composite pattern that is fitted to a metric framework, or focus on one rhythmic stream while treating others as \"noise\". Legacy Rolling Stonelabeled Meshuggah as \"one of the ten most important hard and heavy bands\",andAlternative Pressdescribed them as the \"most important band in metal\".Meshuggah has been described as virtuoso or genius-bordering musicians,\"recognized by mainstream music magazines, especially those dedicated to particular instruments\".In 2007, Meshuggah earned an in-depth analysis by the academic journalMusic Theory Spectrum.Meshuggah has found little mainstream success but is a significant act in extremeunderground music, an influence for modern metal bandsand has acult following.Meshuggah inspired the \"djent\" subgenre in progressive metal,that describes an \"elastic, syncopated guitar riff\" with its name.They were described as being \"the first djent band completely by accident\";in a 2018 interview, Hagström jokingly apologised for the band's role in creating the term, calling it a \"drunk misunderstanding\". Members Current Former Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Loudwire Music Awards Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards Revolver Music Awards Decibel Magazine IMPALA Grammy Awards Notes References External links Videos"
] | [
"Dismal Euphony Dismal Euphonywas a metal band from Norway that mixed styles includinggothic metal, melodic metal,black metalandclassical music. History The history of Dismal Euphony began in 1992 in Stavanger, Norway by bassist Ole K. Helgesen and drummer Kristoffer Vold Austrheim under the name The Headless Children, a cover band ofSlayerandKreator. A year later singer Erik Borgen and guitarist Kenneth Bergsagel joined the group. They changed the name to Carnal Tomb, then Borgen left the band and Helgesen became the singer/bassist with the female voice of Linn Achre Tveit (Keltziva). Elin Overskott joined the band as a keyboard player. This was the first line-up of Dismal Euphony, officially formed in 1995. In the same year, the group composed the demoSpellbound. After this publication, they were signed byNapalm Records. Here they produced other albums likeSoria Moria slott,Autumn Leaves: The Rebellion of Tidesand theLady AblazeEP (which already features Anja Natasha as female singer). Later, Dismal Euphony",
"Dismal Euphony joinedNuclear Blastand releasedAll Little Devils, with the new female singer Anja Natasha. Their last album isPython Zero. After this release the band split up. Band members Last known line-up Former members Discography",
"All Little Devils All Little Devilsis the third studio album by the Norwegiangothic metalbandDismal Euphony. It was released in 1999, and was the band's first album withNuclear Blast. Track listing Production Notes This 1990s metal album–related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"Nuclear Blast Nuclear Blast Recordsis a Germanrecord labelwithsubsidiariesin Germany, the United States and Brazil. It was founded in 1987 by Markus Staiger inDonzdorf. Originally releasinghardcore punkrecords, the label moved on to releasing albums bythrash metal,melodic death metal,grindcore,industrial metal,power metalandblack metalbands, as well astribute albums. It also distributes and promotes post-hardcore/metalcore labelsSharpTone Records; another post-hardcore/metalcore label,Arising Empire, was in Nuclear Blast portfolio until its acquirement by Kontor New Media in 2020. In October 2018, French independent labelBelieve Digitalacquired a majority stake in Nuclear Blast. History Nuclear Blast was formed in 1987 after founder Markus Staiger traveled throughout the United States for four weeks and saw a gig of his favorite bandBL'AST!. The label's first release was a vinyl compilation calledSenseless Death(NB 001) featuring US hardcore bands like Attitude, Sacred Denial, Impulse Manslaughter and others.",
"and others. Swedish bandMeshuggahbecame the first band in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack theBillboard200, landing at number 165 with their 2002 album,Nothing. Meshuggah also became the first Nuclear Blast band to be reviewed inRolling Stonemagazine. In 2004, Finnish symphonic metal bandNightwishreleasedOnceon Nuclear Blast, which rocketed to the top of the charts in multiple countries, including Finland, Germany, Norway, Greece, Sweden, Austria, and more. It became the first release in the company's history to reach number 1 on the German charts.Slayerreleased the albumRepentlessin 2015 which went to number 4 on theBillboard 200making it the highest charting Nuclear Blast release in the United States. During the 2000s and 2010s, Nuclear Blast signed many veteranthrash metalbands includingSlayer,Exodus,Testament,Anthrax,Kreator,Overkill,Sepultura,Destruction,Tankard,Death Angel,andHeathen. In 2021, Nuclear Blast founder Markus Staiger launched a new record company calledAtomic FireGmbH. In June",
"FireGmbH. In June 2022, Nuclear Blast unveiled a new logo. The logo caused some controversy when the canned water companyLiquid Deathjokingly noted its similarities with their logo (which also features a melting skull), inadvertedly leading to its designer, Justin Moll, receiving hate mail.Liquid Death quickly apologized for the joke, saying that it was not targeted at Moll but at Nuclear Blast, whose personnel had reportedly raised concerns over the new logo's similarities with Liquid Death's before it was implemented. On 23 August 2022, the video gameSaints Rowwas released, which features an in-game radio station that includes Nuclear Blast artists. Blood Blast Distribution Blood Blast Distribution is a subsidiary of Nuclear Blast that focuses solely on the distribution of extreme music. The company was founded in 2020 by Bryce Lucien, Jerome Riera, Denis Ladegaillerie and Myriam Silberstein. See also References External links",
"Meshuggah Meshuggah(/məˈʃʊɡə/)is a Swedishextreme metalband formed inUmeåin 1987. Since 2004, the band's lineup consists of founding members Jens Kidman (lead vocals) andFredrik Thordendal(lead guitar), alongside rhythm guitaristMårten Hagström, drummerTomas Haakeand bassistDick Lövgren. Since its formation, the band has released nine studio albums, sixEPsand eight music videos. Their latest studio album,Immutable, was released in April 2022 viaAtomic Fire Records. Meshuggah has become known for their innovative musical style and their complex,polymeteredsong structures andpolyrhythms. They rose to fame as a significant act in extremeunderground music, became an influence for modern metal bands, and gained acult following. The band was labelled as one of the ten most importanthard rockandheavy metalbands byRolling Stoneand as the most important band in metal byAlternative Press. In the late 2000s, the band was an inspiration for thedjentsubgenre. In 2006 and 2009, Meshuggah was nominated for two",
"nominated for two SwedishGrammis Awardsfor their albumsCatch ThirtythreeandobZen, respectively. In 2018, the band was nominated for aGrammy Awardfor their song \"Clockworks\" under the \"Best Metal Performance\" category.The band has performed in various international festivals, includingOzzfestandDownload, and embarked on theobZenworld tourfrom 2008 to 2010, and also the \"Ophidian Trek\". History Formation andContradictions Collapse(1987–1994) In 1985, guitaristFredrik Thordendalformed a band inUmeå,a university town in northern Sweden with a population of 105,000.The band, originally named Metallien, recorded a number ofdemo tapes, after which it disbanded. Thordendal, however, continued playing under a different name with new band members. Meshuggah was formed in 1987by lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist Jens Kidman,and took the name Meshuggah from theYiddishword for \"crazy\"(ultimately derived from theHebrewwordמְשׁוּגָע). Kidman found the word in an American street slang dictionary.The band recorded several",
"recorded several demos before Kidman left, which prompted the remaining members to disband. Kidman then formed a new band, Calipash, with guitarist Thordendal, bassist Peter Nordin and drummer Niklas Lundgren.Kidman, who also played guitar,and Thordendal decided to restore the name Meshuggah for the new band. In 1989, Meshuggah released the self-titled, three-songEPMeshuggah,which is commonly known asPsykisk Testbild(a title that could be translated as \"Psychological Test-Picture\").This 12\" (30 cm) vinyl EP had only 1,000 copies released, sold by local record store Garageland.The EP's back cover features the band members with cheese doodles on their faces. After replacing drummer Niklas Lundgren withTomas Haakein 1990, Meshuggah signed a contract with German heavy metalrecord labelNuclear Blastand recorded its debut full-length album,Contradictions Collapse.The LP, originally entitled(All this because of) Greed,was released in 1991.The album received positive reviews, but was not a commercial success.Soon",
"success.Soon after, Kidman decided to concentrate on vocals,and guitaristMårten Hagström,who had already played in a band with Haake when they were in sixth grade, was recruited.The new lineup recorded the EPNoneat Tonteknik Recordings in Umeå in 1994 for release later that year.A Japanese version was also released, including lyrics printed in Japanese. During this period, Thordendal, who was working as a carpenter, severed the tip of his left middle finger, while Haake injured his hand in a router accident.As a result, the band was unable to perform for several months. Thordendal's fingertip was later reattached, and he went on to make a full recovery.TheSelfcagedEP was recorded in April and May 1994, but its release was delayed to later in 1995 due to the accidents. Destroy Erase Improve(1995–1997) In January 1995, Meshuggah undertook a short European tour organized by its record label Nuclear Blast. Afterwards, the band returned to the studio in February of that year to record the albumDestroy Erase",
"albumDestroy Erase Improveat Soundfront Studios inUppsala, with Daniel Bergstrand as a producer.Shortly thereafter, the band went on a European tour supportingMachine Headfor two months.During the tour, Nordin became ill and experiencedbalance disorderwith hisinner ear. Due to the resulting chronic dizziness and vertigo, Nordin was forced to leave the tour and travel to Sweden. Machine Head's bassistAdam Duceoffered to cover his absence; however, Meshuggah decided to continue as a four-piece. Sometimes Thordendal played bass, while other times the band performed with two guitars. In this lineup, Hagström would use apitch shifterto play his guitar at anoctavelower than usual. Destroy Erase Improvewas released in May 1995, with positive response from critics for the \"heady tempos and abstract approach\".Kidman described the album cover: \"The title fits the pictures we cut out and stole from reference books in the library.\" In mid-1995, Meshuggah had a short tour with Swedish bandClawfingerin Scandinavia and",
"Scandinavia and Germany. Nordin had to leave the band because of his sickness and was replaced by bassist Gustaf Hielm during the tour.In late 1995, Meshuggah went on a month-long tour withHypocrisy. During 1996 and 1997, Thordendal worked on his solo albumSol Niger Within, which was released in March 1997 in Scandinavia and in April in Japan. He also hostedMats/Morgan Band's debut. In 1997, Meshuggah recorded an unreleased demo, toured occasionally, and played a few concerts in its hometown. In May, Meshuggah moved to Stockholm to be closer to its management and the record industry in general. The EPThe True Human Designwas recorded and released in late 1997. It contained one new song entitled \"Sane\", and one live and two alternate versions ofDestroy Erase Improve's opening track \"Future Breed Machine\".Thordendal's solo albumSol Niger Withinwas simultaneously released in the United States, and Meshuggah started to plan its next album at the end of the year. ChaosphereandNothing(1998–2002) Hielm officially",
"Hielm officially joined the band in January 1998 after more than two years as a session member. Nuclear Blast re-releasedContradictions Collapsewith the addition of songs from theNoneEP. In May 1998, the title of the next album,Chaosphere, was reported and recording was done throughout May and June. Immediately after recording the album, Meshuggah went on a short US tour, and the album was released later in November 1998. Chaosphere's sound is an almost complete departure from the thrash metal style of the band's previous releases. Shortly after the release, Meshuggah toured Scandinavia withEntombed. In early 1999, Meshuggah joinedSlayeron their U.S. tour.After the new album and the live performances, Meshuggah was beginning to be recognized by mainstream music, guitar, drum and metal magazines.In mid-1999, Meshuggah performed in several Swedish concerts. The band started to write some new material but reported in mid-2000 that \"songwriting isn't that dramatic, but we're getting there slowly\".While fans were",
"fans were waiting for the next album, a collection of demos (from thePsykisk TestbildEP), remixes and unreleased songs from theChaospheresessions were released as theRare Traxalbum.Hielm left the band in July 2001 for unclear reasons.Meshuggah joinedToolon a lengthy tour, playing for more than 100,000 people total. In March 2002, Meshuggah recorded three-track demos with programmed drums in their home studio, which were based on Haake's sampleDrumkit from Hell. The upcoming album was recorded in five to six weeks in Mayand was produced by the band at Dug-Out Studios in Uppsala and at its home studio in Stockholm.The last-minute decision to join 2002'sOzzfesttour forced the band to mix the album in two days and master it in one.Meshuggah immediately went on another US tour after finishing the recording. The albumNothingwas released in August 2002,selling 6,525 copies during its first week in the US and reaching No. 165 on theBillboard200.With this album, Meshuggah became the first band in the history of",
"in the history of Nuclear Blast Records to crack theBillboard200 and also became the first band signed to Nuclear Blast to be reviewed inRolling Stonemagazine.Meshuggah's previous two releases, 1998'sChaosphereand 1995'sDestroy Erase Improve, had sold 38,773 and 30,712 copies to that date, respectively.The CD booklet ofNothinghas no liner notes, lyrics, or credits, only a hint of one word:ingenting, which is Swedish fornothing. All of this information is available on the CD-ROM.At the end of 2002, the band went on another US tour with Tooland a headlining tour of its own. IandCatch Thirtythree(2003–2006) In 2003, Hagström hinted at the direction of the band's next album by saying, \"There's only one thing I really feel that is important. We've never measured our success in terms of sales, because we're quite an extreme band. It's more that people understand where we're coming from. I get more out of a fan coming up and saying that we've totally changed their way of looking on metal music, than having like 200",
"having like 200 kids buy it. I mean, it would be nice for the money, but that's not why we're in it. So what I'd like to see is that we keep progressing. Keeping the core of what Meshuggah has always been, but exploring the bar, so to speak.Destroy Erase Improvewas like exploring the dynamics of the band,Chaospherewas exploring the aggressiveness, the all-out side, andNothingis more of a sinister, dark, pretty slow album, actually. So honestly, now I don't know where we're going. It might be a mix of all of them.\" In February 2004, bassistDick Lövgrenjoined Meshuggah.The band then recorded and released theIEP, which contains a single, 21-minute track, released onFractured Transmitter Records.Meshuggah spent about six months in total on recording the EP.Catch Thirtythree, the only Meshuggah album on whichprogrammed drumshave been used, was released the following year in May 2005.Seven thousand copies ofCatch Thirtythreewere sold the first week, and it debuted at No. 170 on theBillboard200 chart in June",
"chart in June 2005.The video for the track \"Shed\" was released in June, and the previous albumNothingsold approximately 80,000 copies in the United States to that date, according toNielsen SoundScan.Catch Thirtythreeearned the band aSwedish Grammynomination.In October 2005, German bandRammsteinreleased a single of their song \"Benzin\" with a remixed version by Meshuggah. In December 2005, 10 years after signing its first record deal with the publishing companyWarner/Chappell Music Scandinavia, Meshuggah extended its cooperation with the company.In November 2005, Haake said in an interview that the band was not content with the productions ofChaosphereandNothing, because, being on tour, they had little time to devote to them. A remixed and remastered version ofNothingwith rerecorded guitars was released in a custom-shaped slipcase featuring a three-dimensional hologram card on 31 October 2006, via Nuclear Blast Records. The release also includes a bonus DVD featuring the band's appearance at the Download 2005",
"the Download 2005 festival and the official music videos of \"Rational Gaze\", \"Shed\" and \"New Millennium Cyanide Christ\". obZenandKoloss(2007–2013) Meshuggah returned to the studio in March 2007 to recordobZen, with recording concluding in October 2007, and the album being released in March 2008.The band spent almost a year on the album, its longest recording session yet. A significant portion of the year was spent learning to perform the songs they wrote; the recording itself took six months.obZenreached No. 59 on theBillboard200 chart, selling 11,400 U.S. copies in its first week of release and 50,000 copies after six months.WithobZen, Meshuggah received more media attention and attracted new fans.The release was followed bya world tour, which started in the U.S. and proceeded to Europe, Asia and Australia. In May 2008, Meshuggah published a music video for the song \"Bleed\", which was produced byIan McFarlandand was written, directed and edited by Mike Pecci and Ian McFarland. Killswitch Productions said:",
"Productions said: \"It's extremely cool to work with a band who is willing to allow the music and imagery to speak for itself and who does not insist on themselves being the prominent focus of the video.\" In January 2009,obZenwas nominated for the SwedishGrammisaward in the \"Best Hard Rock\" category.In February 2009, Haake announced that the band was planning a concert DVD and a studio album.In April, Meshuggah was forced to cancel its Scandinavian shows in early 2009, due to Haake'sherniated discin his lower back, which was causing problems with his right foot when playing.Haake later underwent a surgery and recovered for European summer festivals. The concert DVD entitledAlivewas released on 5 February 2010 in Europe and 9 February in North America.Thordendal started to work on a second solo album in June 2010 with theBelgiandrummerDirk Verbeuren. The seventh studio album,Koloss, was released on 23 March 2012 in Germany, on 26 March in the rest of Europe, and 27 March in North America.Kolossreached No. 17",
"No. 17 on the Billboard Top 200, and sold 18,342 copies in its first week.In Sweden, it reached No. 12. Pitch BlackandThe Violent Sleep of Reason(2013–2018) On 5 February 2013, Meshuggah released a free two-track EP entitledPitch BlackwithScion A/V.The EP features a previously unreleased track, \"Pitch Black\", that was recorded byFredrik Thordendalin 2003 at Fear and Loathing, in Stockholm Sweden.The second track is a live recording of \"Dancers to a Discordant System\" fromobZen. The track was recorded at Distortion Fest in Eindhoven, Netherlands, on 9 December 2012. On 12 May 2016, Meshuggah released a teaser video on their YouTube page and confirmed that their next studio album was to be released in late 2016. On 28 July 2016, the title was revealed to beThe Violent Sleep of Reason, and was given a 7 October release date.The Violent Sleep of Reasonwas shortlisted byIMPALA(The Independent Music Companies Association) for the Album of the Year Award 2016, which rewards on a yearly basis the best album released",
"best album released on an independent European label. On 2 June 2017, Meshuggah announced that Thordendal would take a leave from touring with the band; he would be temporarily replaced byPer NilssonfromScar Symmetry.In 2018, Meshuggah received aGrammy nominationfor their song \"Clockworks\" under the \"Best Metal Performance\" category. Immutable(2019–present) In a November 2019 interview, Hagström hinted that the band had begun working on a new album.Recording started in March 2021.Later that month the band stated that Fredrik Thordendal had ended his hiatus and would be participating fully in the recording of the new album.On 28 January 2022, Meshuggah released a new song titled \"The Abysmal Eye\" taken from the band's ninth albumImmutable, which was later released on 1 April 2022 via Atomic Fire. Musical style Meshuggah's experimentation, stylistic variation and changes during its career cross several musical subgenres. Heavy metal subgenresexperimental metaloravant-garde metalare umbrella terms that enable",
"terms that enable description of the career of the band in general.Extreme metalcrosses boththrash metalanddeath metal(ortechnical death metal), which are at root of the sound of Meshuggah's music, which has also been described asgroove metal.The band has also been labelled as math metal andprogressive metal.Meshuggah also incorporates elements ofexperimental jazz.In its review ofNothing,AllMusicdescribes Meshuggah as \"masterminds of cosmic calculus metal—call it Einstein metal if you want\".Meshuggah's early output was also consideredalternative metal.Meshuggah creates a recognizable sonic imprintand distinct style. Trademarks and characteristics that define Meshuggah's sound and songwriting includepolyrhythms,polymeteredriff cycles, rhythmicsyncopation, rapidkeyandtempochanges and neo-jazzchromatics.Hagström notes that \"it doesn't really matter if something is hard to play or not. The thing is, what does it do to your mind when you listen to it? Where does it take you?\"A trademark of Thordendal isjazz",
"Thordendal isjazz fusion-like soloing and improvisation. He is also known for the usage of a \"breath controller\" device. Haake is known for hiscross-rhythmdrumming with \"jazzlike cadence\".The vocal style of Jens Kidman varies betweenhardcore-style shoutsand \"robotic\"death metal vocals. In polymeters typically used by Meshuggah, the guitars might play in odd meters such as 5/16 or 17/16, while drums play in 4/4.One particular example of Haake's use of polymeter is 4/4 against 23/16 bimeter, in which he keeps thehi-hatorchina cymbalin 4/4 time but uses thesnareanddouble bass drumsin 23/16 time.On \"Rational Gaze\" (fromNothing), Haake plays simple 4/4 time, hitting the snare on each third beat, for 16 bars. At the same time, the guitars and bass are playing the same quarter notes, albeit in a different time signature; eventually both sides meet up again at the 64th beat.Hagström notes about the polymeters, \"We've never really been into the odd time signatures we get accused of using. Everything we do is based",
"we do is based around a 4/4 core. It's just that we arrange parts differently around that center to make it seem like something else is going on.\" Contradictions Collapse,Destroy Erase ImproveandChaosphere The early work of Meshuggah, influenced mainly byMetallica, is \"simpler and more straightforward than their more recent material, but some of their more progressive elements are present in the form of time-changes and polyrhythmics, and Fredrik Thordendal's lead playing stands out\".According toAllMusic, theirdebut albumis a relatively immature, but original, release.Double bass drumsand \"angular\" riffing also defined the early work of Meshuggah. With the groundbreakingDestroy Erase Improve, Meshuggah showedfusionof death metal, thrash metal, progressive metal.AllMusic describes the style as \"weaving hardcore-style shouts amongst deceptively (and deviously) simplestaccatoguitar riffs and insanely precise drumming—often with all three components acting in different time signatures\".Thordendal adds the",
"adds the melodic element with his typical lead guitarand uses his \"breath controller\" device most famously on the opening track \"Future Breed Machine\". Chaosphereincorporates typically fast,still tempo changing death metal. AllMusic compares the genre also withgrindcorefathersNapalm Death.Rockdetector states: \"Whilst fans reveled in the maze like meanderings, critics struggled to dissect and analyze, hailing Haake's unconventional use of dual 4/4 and 23/16 rhythm, Kidman's mechanical staccato bark and Thordendal's liberal usage of avant-garde jazz\". Nothing,IandCatch Thirtythree OnNothing, Meshuggah abandons the fast tempos ofChaosphereand concentrates on slow,tuned downtemposandgrooves.The album was intended to be recorded using custom-made Nevborneight-string guitars, but the prototypes were faulty so Thordendal and Hagström used down tunedIbanezseven-string guitarsinstead. This technique caused the instruments to slip out of tune during the sessions, which created additional problems.When Ibanez provided",
"Ibanez provided Meshuggah with special eight-string guitars with two extra-low strings that worked properly after the initial release, the band re-recorded the guitar parts forNothingand re-released it in 2006.Hagström notes that this allowed the band to go lower sonically and to attain bass sounds on guitars. TheIEP contains a single, 21-minute songof complex arrangements and was a hint of the forthcoming album, 2005'sCatch Thirtythree.The EP, which has never been played live by the band, was written and recorded during jamming sessions of Haake and Thordendal.OnCatch Thirtythree, Meshuggah again used eight-string guitars,but utilized programmed drums for the first time also for the release,with the exception of two songs from 2001's compilationRare Trax.The album was self-produced by the band and was recorded at the studio that Meshuggah shares with Clawfinger. Hagström notes, \"The eight-strings really have given us a whole new musical vocabulary to work with. Part of it is the restrictions they impose:",
"they impose: you really can't play power chords with them; the sound just turns to mush. Instead, we concentrated on coming up with really unusual single-note parts, new tunings and chord voicings. We wanted to get as far away from any kind of conventions and traditions as we could on the album, so the guitars worked out beautifully.\" Catch Thirtythreeis one 47-minute song divided into 13 sections.It is more mid-tempo guitar riff based, and a more straightforward and experimental full-length album thanChaosphereorNothing.Nick Terry ofDecibel Magazinedescribes the album as a four-movementsymphony.Some songs still use Meshuggah's \"familiar template combining harsh vocals and nightmarish melodies over coarse, mechanically advancing, oddball tempos\", while others explore ambient sounds and quieter dynamics.The first part ofCatch Thirtythreecenters around two simple riffs.In the song \"In Death - Is Death\", the band uses a combination of noise and silence, which is in contrast with the atypical melodies on",
"melodies on \"Dehumanization\". On \"Mind's Mirrors\", Meshuggah used electronics, programming and \"robotic voices\". \"Shed\" incorporates tribal percussion and whispered vocals. obZenandKoloss With 2008'sobZen, Meshuggah moved away from the experimentation of 2002'sNothingand 2005'sCatch Thirtythreeto return to the musical style of its previous albums, such asContradictions Collapse,Destroy Erase ImproveandChaosphere,while still maintaining its focus on musical and technical innovation. The album loses some of the quick, mathematical rhythmic changes of past releases and the melodic orchestration ofCatch Thirty-Threeand uses \"angular\" riffs,mid-tempo and common 4/4 beats.The album is a culmination of the band's previous work.Meshuggah decided to self-produce because it sought to retain artistic control over the recording and mixing process. ForobZen, Haake returned to the drum kit most notably with his performance on the song \"Bleed\".In an interview for Gravemusic.com, Haake stated, \" was a big effort for me to",
"effort for me to learn, I had to find a totally new approach to playing the double bass drums to be able to do that stuff. I had never really done anything like that before like the fast bursts that go all the way through the song basically. So I actually spent as much time practicing that track alone as I did with all of the other tracks combined. It's kind of a big feat to change your approach like that and I'm glad we were able to nail it for the album. For a while though we didn't even know if it was going to make it to the album.\"Hagström also stated, \"obZenis one of the most highly technical offerings the band has ever put to tape\".Revolver Magazineconfirms this statement: \"At first listen,obZenseems less challenging to the listener than some of the band's other records, and most of the songs flow smoothly from one syncopated passage to the next. However, careful examination reveals that the material is some of the group's most complicated\". A common quality inKolossidentified by multiple critics and",
"critics and outlets is the album's relatively straightforward, more groove-oriented sound, summed up byMetal Sucksas the band having \"streamlined their compositions to a great extent.\"The broad style of the record has been described as \"primal\" and featuring \"less jazzy virtuosity\" than the band's previous output.Pitchforknoted that the record's rawer production style advanced this \"tribal\" sound further.The album invokes a greater sound of menace and \"darkness\" according to Metal Injection; additionally, Jens Kidman's vocals were described as \"exponentially more anguished\" than previous works.Metal Injectionfurther compared the sound of the album's closing track \"The Last Vigil\" to works by the instrumental bandGodspeed You! Black Emperor.The record's guitar riffs have been noted as deviating somewhat from Meshuggah's earlier catalog, withSPINidentifying \"an almost bluesy swing\" in the playing style.SPINfurther elaborated on the guitar leads, comparing the solos in \"The Demon's Name is Surveillance\" and",
"Surveillance\" and \"Marrow\" to the (non-metal) works of experimental composerPhilip Glassand jazz-guitaristAllan Holdsworthrespectively. The Violent Sleep of Reason For their eighth album, the band recorded live in studio, a production style they hadn't pursued in reportedly \"20, 25 years\".On rejecting the computerized format of recording of their previous albums, Haake said \"ObzenandKolossare great albums, but, to me, they are a little too perfect. It didn't really capture what we sounded like honestly. But where we recorded live, you get to hear the push and pull, one person might be a little ahead and the other might be a little behind. If you kill that, you can kill the energy.\"It is the first album to have no writing credit from Thordendal; the majority of the album was written by Haake and Lövgren. Method and lyrical themes Meshuggah's music is written by Thordendal, Hagström and Haake with assistance from Kidman and Lövgren. During songwriting, a member programs the drums, and records the guitar and",
"the guitar and bass via computer. He presents his idea to the other members as a finished work. Meshuggah typically adheres to the original idea and rarely changes the song afterwards.Hagström explains that each member has an idea of what the others are doing conceptually, and nobody thinks exclusively in terms of a particular instrument. Kidman does not play guitar in the band anymore, but he is involved in writing riffs.Except for when Hagström needs a soloist, he and Thordendal rarely record together. Both play guitar and bass while composing. Haake says about his songwriting, \"Sometimes I'll sample guitar parts, cut them up, pitch-shift and tweak them until I've built the riffs I want, just for demoing purposes. But most of the time I'll just present the drums, and explain my ideas for the rest of the song, sing some riffs.\"The band usesCubaseto record the tracks, and the guitars are routed through softwareamplifier modeling, because it allows them to change the amp settings even after the song was fully",
"the song was fully recorded. Approximately once a year, Haake writes most of the band's lyrics, with the exception of finished tracks. His lyrical inspirations are derived from books and films. Aside from their albumCatch Thirtythree, Meshuggah does not usually recordconcept albums, although the band prefers strong conceptual underpinnings in the background.Oftenesotericand conceptual,Meshuggah's lyrics explore themes such asexistentialism.AllMusic describesDestroy Erase Improve's lyrical focus as \"the integration of machines with organisms as humanity's next logical evolutionary step\".PopMatters' review ofNothingsingles out the lyrics from \"Rational Gaze\": \"Our light-induced image of truth—filtered blank of its substance / As our eyes won't adhere to intuitive lines / Everything examined. Separated, one thing at a time / The harder we stare the more complete the disintegration.\"Haake explains thatCatch Thirtythree's cover, title and lyrics deal with \"the paradoxes/negations/contradictions of life and death",
"of life and death (as we see it in our finest moments of unrestrained metaphoric interpretation)\".The main theme ofobZenis \"human evil\", according to Haake. The title is a play on the words \"obscene\" and \"Zen\"; in addition, \"ob\" means \"anti\" in Latin. Therefore, the title suggests that the human species has found harmony and balance in warfare and bloodshed.Revolver Magazinefinds the lyrics of the title track fromobZenrepresentative of the entire album: \"Salvation found in vomit and blood/Where depravation, lies, corruption/War and pain is god.\" However, Haake claims, \"We don't dwell on hate and bad feelings as people. But with these songs, I think we really wanted to paint a picture lyrically that might be seen as a cautionary tale. We're going, 'Heads up. Here's what some of the parts of being human are about, and this is what we can be at our worst.' So it's more about being aware of negative feelings than actually living them all the time.\" Analysis Meshuggah has become known for its innovative musical",
"innovative musical style that evolves between each release and pushesheavy metalinto new territory, and for its technical prowess.Hagström commented: \"We try never to repeat ourselves.\"RockDetectorstated aboutDestroy Erase Improve: \"he band...stripped Metal down to the bare essentials before completely rebuilding it in a totally abstract form\".The official Meshuggah biography comments onChaosphereby noting that \"Some fans felt that Meshuggah had left their dynamic and progressive elements behind; while others thought they were only progressing naturally and focusing on their original sound.\"The band's website also describesNothingas displaying \"a very mature and convincing Meshuggah, now focusing on groove and sound...Meshuggah once again divided their fans into the 'ecstatic' and the 'slightly disappointed'\".The polyrhythms can make the music soundcacophonous, like band members are playing different songs simultaneously.Listeners perceiving a polyrhythm often either extract a composite pattern that is",
"pattern that is fitted to a metric framework, or focus on one rhythmic stream while treating others as \"noise\". Legacy Rolling Stonelabeled Meshuggah as \"one of the ten most important hard and heavy bands\",andAlternative Pressdescribed them as the \"most important band in metal\".Meshuggah has been described as virtuoso or genius-bordering musicians,\"recognized by mainstream music magazines, especially those dedicated to particular instruments\".In 2007, Meshuggah earned an in-depth analysis by the academic journalMusic Theory Spectrum.Meshuggah has found little mainstream success but is a significant act in extremeunderground music, an influence for modern metal bandsand has acult following.Meshuggah inspired the \"djent\" subgenre in progressive metal,that describes an \"elastic, syncopated guitar riff\" with its name.They were described as being \"the first djent band completely by accident\";in a 2018 interview, Hagström jokingly apologised for the band's role in creating the term, calling it a \"drunk",
"calling it a \"drunk misunderstanding\". Members Current Former Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Loudwire Music Awards Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards Revolver Music Awards Decibel Magazine IMPALA Grammy Awards Notes References External links Videos"
] |
If somebody was born on the day the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 was signed, how old would they have been while Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley were performing their Michelson-Morley experiment? | 72 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment"
] | [
"Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 TheAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814(also known as theConvention of London;Dutch:Verdrag van Londen) was signed by theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandand theSovereign Principality of the United Netherlandsin London on 13 August 1814. The treaty restored most of the territories in theMoluccasandJava that Britain had seizedin theNapoleonic Wars, but confirmed British possession of theCape Colonyon the southern tip of Africa, as well as portions ofDutch Guianain South America. It was signed byRobert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, on behalf of the British and diplomat Hendrik Fagel, on behalf of the Dutch. Terms Possessions The treaty returned the colonial possessions of the Dutch as they were at 1 January 1803, before the outbreak of theNapoleonic Warsin the Americas, Africa, and Asia, with the exception of theCape of Good Hopeand the South American settlements ofDemerara,EssequiboandBerbice, where the Dutch retained trading rights. In addition, the British ceded the island ofBancaoff the island ofSumatrain exchange for the settlement ofCochinin India and its dependencies on thecoast of Malabar. The Dutch also ceded the district ofBernagore, situated close toCalcutta, in exchange for an annual fee. Cooperation The treaty also noted a declaration of 15 June 1814 by the Dutch, that ships for theslave tradewere no longer permitted in British ports. That restriction would be extended to a ban on involvement in the slave trade by Dutch citizens. Britain also agreed to pay £1,000,000 to Sweden to resolvea claimto theCaribbeanisland ofGuadeloupe. The British and the Dutch agreed to spend £2,000,000 each on improving the defences of theLow Countries.More funds, of up to £3,000,000,are mentioned for the \"final and satisfactory settlement of the Low Countries in union with Holland.\" Disputes arising from the treaty were the subject of theAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. See also References Footnotes Bibliography",
"Michelson–Morley experiment TheMichelson–Morley experimentwas an attempt to measure the motion of theEarthrelative to theluminiferous aether,a supposed medium permeating space that was thought to be the carrier oflight waves. The experiment was performed between April and July 1887 by American physicistsAlbert A. MichelsonandEdward W. Morleyat what is nowCase Western Reserve UniversityinCleveland, Ohio, and published in November of the same year. The experiment compared thespeed of lightin perpendicular directions in an attempt to detect the relative motion of matter, including their laboratory, through the luminiferous aether, or \"aether wind\" as it was sometimes called. The result was negative, in that Michelson and Morley found no significant difference between the speed of light in the direction of movement through the presumed aether, and the speed at right angles. This result is generally considered to be the first strong evidence against someaether theories, as well as initiating a line of research that eventually led tospecial relativity, which rules out motion against an aether.Of this experiment,Albert Einsteinwrote, \"If the Michelson–Morley experiment had not brought us into serious embarrassment, no one would have regarded the relativity theory as a (halfway) redemption.\": 219 Michelson–Morley type experiments have been repeated many times with steadily increasing sensitivity. These include experiments from 1902 to 1905, and a series of experiments in the 1920s. More recently, in 2009,optical resonatorexperiments confirmed the absence of any aether wind at the 10−17level.Together with theIves–StilwellandKennedy–Thorndike experiments, Michelson–Morley type experiments form one of the fundamentaltests of special relativity. Detecting the aether Physics theories of the 19th century assumed that just as surface water waves must have a supporting substance, i.e., a \"medium\", to move across (in this case water), and audiblesoundrequires a medium to transmit its wave motions (such as air or water), so light must also require a medium, the \"luminiferous aether\", to transmit its wave motions. Because light can travel through a vacuum, it was assumed that even a vacuum must be filled with aether. Because thespeed of lightis so great, and because material bodies pass through theaetherwithout obvious friction or drag, it was assumed to have a highly unusual combination of properties. Designing experiments to investigate these properties was a high priority of 19th-century physics.: 411ff Earthorbits around theSunat a speed of around 30 km/s (18.64 mi/s), or 108,000 km/h (67,000 mph). The Earth is in motion, so two main possibilities were considered: (1) The aether is stationary and only partiallydraggedby Earth (proposed byAugustin-Jean Fresnelin 1818), or (2) the aether is completely dragged by Earth and thus shares its motion at Earth's surface (proposed bySir George Stokes, 1st Baronetin 1844).In addition,James Clerk Maxwell(1865) recognized theelectromagneticnature of light and developed what are now calledMaxwell's equations, but these equations were still interpreted as describing the motion of waves through an aether, whose state of motion was unknown. Eventually, Fresnel's idea of an (almost) stationary aether was preferred because it appeared to be confirmed by theFizeau experiment(1851) and theaberration of star light. According to the stationary and the partially dragged aether hypotheses, Earth and the aether are in relative motion, implying that a so-called \"aether wind\" (Fig. 2) should exist. Although it would be theoretically possible for the Earth's motion to match that of the aether at one moment in time, it was not possible for the Earth to remain at rest with respect to the aether at all times, because of the variation in both the direction and the speed of the motion. At any given point on the Earth's surface, the magnitude and direction of the wind would vary with time of day and season. By analyzing the return speed of light in different directions at various different times, it was thought to be possible to measure the motion of the Earth relative to the aether. The expected relative difference in the measured speed of light was quite small, given that the velocity of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun has a magnitude of about one hundredth of one percent of the speed of light.: 417ff During the mid-19th century, measurements of aether wind effects of first order, i.e., effects proportional tov/c(vbeing Earth's velocity,cthe speed of light) were thought to be possible, but no direct measurement of the speed of light was possible with the accuracy required. For instance, theFizeau wheelcould measure the speed of light to perhaps 5% accuracy, which was quite inadequate for measuring directly a first-order 0.01% change in the speed of light. A number of physicists therefore attempted to make measurements of indirect first-order effects not of the speed of light itself, but of variations in the speed of light (seeFirst order aether-drift experiments). TheHoek experiment, for example, was intended to detectinterferometricfringe shiftsdue to speed differences of oppositely propagating light waves through water at rest. The results of such experiments were all negative.This could be explained by usingFresnel's dragging coefficient, according to which the aether and thus light are partially dragged by moving matter. Partial aether-dragging would thwart attempts to measure any first order change in the speed of light. As pointed out by Maxwell (1878), only experimental arrangements capable of measuring second order effects would have any hope of detecting aether drift, i.e., effects proportional tov2/c2.Existing experimental setups, however, were not sensitive enough to measure effects of that size. 1881 and 1887 experiments Michelson experiment (1881) Michelson had a solution to the problem of how to construct a device sufficiently accurate to detect aether flow. In 1877, while teaching at his alma mater, theUnited States Naval Academyin Annapolis, Michelson conducted his first known light speed experiments as a part of a classroom demonstration. In 1881, he left active U.S. Naval service while in Germany concluding his studies. In that year, Michelson used a prototype experimental device to make several more measurements. The device he designed, later known as aMichelson interferometer, sentyellowlight from asodiumflame (for alignment), orwhitelight (for the actual observations), through ahalf-silvered mirrorthat was used to split it into two beams traveling at right angles to one another. After leaving the splitter, the beams traveled out to the ends of long arms where they were reflected back into the middle by small mirrors. They then recombined on the far side of the splitter in an eyepiece, producing a pattern of constructive and destructiveinterferencewhose transverse displacement would depend on the relative time it takes light to transit the longitudinalvs.the transverse arms. If the Earth is traveling through an aether medium, a light beam traveling parallel to the flow of that aether will take longer to reflect back and forth than would a beam traveling perpendicular to the aether, because the increase in elapsed time from traveling against the aether wind is more than the time saved by traveling with the aether wind. Michelson expected that the Earth's motion would produce afringe shiftequal to 0.04 fringes—that is, of the separation between areas of the same intensity. He did not observe the expected shift; the greatest average deviation that he measured (in the northwest direction) was only 0.018 fringes; most of his measurements were much less. His conclusion was that Fresnel's hypothesis of a stationary aether with partial aether dragging would have to be rejected, and thus he confirmed Stokes' hypothesis of complete aether dragging. However,Alfred Potier(and laterHendrik Lorentz) pointed out to Michelson that he had made an error of calculation, and that the expected fringe shift should have been only 0.02 fringes. Michelson's apparatus was subject to experimental errors far too large to say anything conclusive about the aether wind. Definitive measurement of the aether wind would require an experiment with greater accuracy and better controls than the original. Nevertheless, the prototype was successful in demonstrating that the basic method was feasible. Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) In 1885, Michelson began a collaboration withEdward Morley, spending considerable time and money to confirm with higher accuracyFizeau's 1851 experimenton Fresnel's drag coefficient,to improve on Michelson's 1881 experiment,and to establish the wavelength of light as astandard of length.At this time Michelson was professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science, and Morley was professor of chemistry at Western Reserve University (WRU), which shared a campus with the Case School on the eastern edge of Cleveland. Michelson suffered a mental health crisis in September 1885, from which he recovered by October 1885. Morley ascribed this breakdown to the intense work of Michelson during the preparation of the experiments. In 1886, Michelson and Morley successfully confirmed Fresnel's drag coefficient – this result was also considered as a confirmation of the stationary aether concept. This result strengthened their hope of finding the aether wind. Michelson and Morley created an improved version of the Michelson experiment with more than enough accuracy to detect this hypothetical effect. The experiment was performed in several periods of concentrated observations between April and July 1887, in the basement of Adelbert Dormitory of WRU (later renamed Pierce Hall, demolished in 1962). As shown in the diagram to the right, the light was repeatedly reflected back and forth along the arms of the interferometer, increasing the path length to 11 m (36 ft). At this length, the drift would be about 0.4 fringes. To make that easily detectable, the apparatus was assembled in a closed room in the basement of the heavy stone dormitory, eliminating most thermal and vibrational effects. Vibrations were further reduced by building the apparatus on top of a large block of sandstone (Fig. 1), about a foot thick and five feet (1.5 m) square, which was then floated in a circular trough of mercury. They estimated that effects of about 0.01 fringe would be detectable. Michelson and Morley and other early experimentalists using interferometric techniques in an attempt to measure the properties of the luminiferous aether, used (partially) monochromatic light only for initially setting up their equipment, always switching to white light for the actual measurements. The reason is that measurements were recorded visually. Purely monochromatic light would result in a uniform fringe pattern. Lacking modern means ofenvironmental temperature control, experimentalists struggled with continual fringe drift even when the interferometer was set up in a basement. Because the fringes would occasionally disappear due to vibrations caused by passing horse traffic, distant thunderstorms and the like, an observer could easily \"get lost\" when the fringes returned to visibility. The advantages of white light, which produced a distinctive colored fringe pattern, far outweighed the difficulties of aligning the apparatus due to its lowcoherence length. AsDayton Millerwrote, \"White light fringes were chosen for the observations because they consist of a small group of fringes having a central, sharply defined black fringe which forms a permanent zero reference mark for all readings.\"Use of partially monochromatic light (yellow sodium light) during initial alignment enabled the researchers to locate the position of equal path length, more or less easily, before switching to white light. The mercury trough allowed the device to turn with close to zero friction, so that once having given the sandstone block a single push it would slowly rotate through the entire range of possible angles to the \"aether wind\", while measurements were continuously observed by looking through the eyepiece. The hypothesis of aether drift implies that because one of the arms would inevitably turn into the direction of the wind at the same time that another arm was turning perpendicularly to the wind, an effect should be noticeable even over a period of minutes. The expectation was that the effect would be graphable as a sine wave with two peaks and two troughs per rotation of the device. This result could have been expected because during each full rotation, each arm would be parallel to the wind twice (facing into and away from the wind giving identical readings) and perpendicular to the wind twice. Additionally, due to the Earth's rotation, the wind would be expected to show periodic changes in direction and magnitude during the course of asidereal day. Because of the motion of the Earth around the Sun, the measured data were also expected to show annual variations. Most famous \"failed\" experiment After all this thought and preparation, the experiment became what has been called the most famous failed experiment in history.Instead of providing insight into the properties of the aether, Michelson and Morley's article in theAmerican Journal of Sciencereported the measurement to be as small as one-fortieth of the expected displacement (Fig. 7), but \"since the displacement is proportional to the square of the velocity\" they concluded that the measured velocity was \"probably less than one-sixth\" of the expected velocity of the Earth's motion in orbit and \"certainly less than one-fourth\".Although this small \"velocity\" was measured, it was considered far too small to be used as evidence of speed relative to the aether, and it was understood to be within the range of an experimental error that would allow the speed to actually be zero.For instance, Michelson wrote about the \"decidedly negative result\" in a letter toLord Rayleighin August 1887: The Experiments on the relative motion of the earth and ether have been completed and the result decidedly negative. The expected deviation of the interference fringes from the zero should have been 0.40 of a fringe – the maximum displacement was 0.02 and the average much less than 0.01 – and then not in the right place. As displacement is proportional to squares of the relative velocities it follows that if the ether does slip past the relative velocity is less than one sixth of the earth’s velocity. From the standpoint of the then current aether models, the experimental results were conflicting. TheFizeau experimentand its 1886 repetition by Michelson and Morley apparently confirmed the stationary aether with partial aether dragging, and refuted complete aether dragging. On the other hand, the much more precise Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) apparently confirmed complete aether dragging and refuted the stationary aether.In addition, the Michelson–Morleynull resultwas further substantiated by the null results of other second-order experiments of different kind, namely theTrouton–Noble experiment(1903) and theexperiments of Rayleigh and Brace(1902–1904). These problems and their solution led to the development of theLorentz transformationandspecial relativity. After the \"failed\" experiment Michelson and Morley ceased their aether drift measurements and started to use their newly developed technique to establish the wavelength of light as astandard of length. Light path analysis and consequences Observer resting in the aether The beam travel time in the longitudinal direction can be derived as follows:Light is sent from the source and propagates with the speed of lightc{\\textstyle c}in the aether. It passes through the half-silvered mirror at the origin atT=0{\\textstyle T=0}. The reflecting mirror is at that moment at distanceL{\\textstyle L}(the length of the interferometer arm) and is moving with velocityv{\\textstyle v}. The beam hits the mirror at timeT1{\\textstyle T_{1}}and thus travels the distancecT1{\\textstyle cT_{1}}. At this time, the mirror has traveled the distancevT1{\\textstyle vT_{1}}. ThuscT1=L+vT1{\\textstyle cT_{1}=L+vT_{1}}and consequently the travel timeT1=L/(c−v){\\textstyle T_{1}=L/(c-v)}. The same consideration applies to the backward journey, with the sign ofv{\\textstyle v}reversed, resulting incT2=L−vT2{\\textstyle cT_{2}=L-vT_{2}}andT2=L/(c+v){\\textstyle T_{2}=L/(c+v)}. The total travel timeTℓ=T1+T2{\\textstyle T_{\\ell }=T_{1}+T_{2}}is: Michelson obtained this expression correctly in 1881, however, in transverse direction he obtained the incorrect expression because he overlooked the increase in path length in the rest frame of the aether. This was corrected byAlfred Potier(1882) andHendrik Lorentz(1886). The derivation in the transverse direction can be given as follows (analogous to the derivation oftime dilationusing alight clock): The beam is propagating at the speed of lightc{\\textstyle c}and hits the mirror at timeT3{\\textstyle T_{3}}, traveling the distancecT3{\\textstyle cT_{3}}. At the same time, the mirror has traveled the distancevT3{\\textstyle vT_{3}}in thexdirection. So in order to hit the mirror, the travel path of the beam isL{\\textstyle L}in theydirection (assuming equal-length arms) andvT3{\\textstyle vT_{3}}in thexdirection. This inclined travel path follows from the transformation from the interferometer rest frame to the aether rest frame. Therefore, thePythagorean theoremgives the actual beam travel distance ofL2+(vT3)2{\\textstyle {\\sqrt {L^{2}+\\left(vT_{3}\\right)^{2}}}}. ThuscT3=L2+(vT3)2{\\textstyle cT_{3}={\\sqrt {L^{2}+\\left(vT_{3}\\right)^{2}}}}and consequently the travel timeT3=L/c2−v2{\\textstyle T_{3}=L/{\\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}, which is the same for the backward journey. The total travel timeTt=2T3{\\textstyle T_{t}=2T_{3}}is: The time difference betweenTℓ{\\displaystyle T_{\\ell }}andTt{\\displaystyle T_{t}}is given by To find the path difference, simply multiply byc{\\displaystyle c}; Δλ1=2L(11−v2c2−11−v2c2){\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\left({\\frac {1}{1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}-{\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}\\right)} The path difference is denoted byΔλ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\lambda }because the beams are out of phase by a some number of wavelengths (λ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }). To visualise this, consider taking the two beam paths along the longitudinal and transverse plane, and lying them straight (an animation of this is shown at minute 11:00,The Mechanical Universe, episode 41). One path will be longer than the other, this distance isΔλ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\lambda }. Alternatively, consider the rearrangement of the speed of light formulacΔT=Δλ{\\displaystyle c{\\Delta }T=\\Delta \\lambda }. If the relationv2/c2<<1{\\displaystyle {v^{2}}/{c^{2}}<<1}is true (if the velocity of the aether is small relative to the speed of light), then the expression can be simplified using a first order binomial expansion; (1−x)n≈1−nx{\\displaystyle (1-x)^{n}\\approx {1-nx}} So, rewriting the above in terms of powers; Δλ1=2L((1−v2c2)−1−(1−v2c2)−1/2){\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\left(\\left({1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}\\right)^{-1}-\\left(1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\\right)^{-1/2}\\right)} Applying binomial simplification; Δλ1=2L((1+v2c2)−(1+v22c2))=2Lv22c2{\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\left((1+{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}})-(1+{\\frac {v^{2}}{2c^{2}}})\\right)={2L}{\\frac {v^{2}}{2c^{2}}}} Therefore; Δλ1=Lv2c2{\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}={L}{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}} It can be seen from this derivation that aether wind manifests as a path difference. The path difference is zero only when the interferometer is aligned with or perpendicular to the aether wind, and it reaches a maximum when it is at a 45° angle. The path difference can be any fraction of the wavelength, depending on the angle and speed of the aether wind. To prove the existence of the aether, Michelson and Morley sought to find the \"fringe shift\". The idea was simple, the fringes of the interference pattern should shift when rotating it by 90° as the two beams have exchanged roles. To find the fringe shift, subtract the path difference in first orientation by the path difference in the second, then divide by thewavelength,λ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }, of light; Note the difference betweenΔλ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\lambda }, which is some number of wavelengths, andλ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }which is a single wavelength. As can be seen by this relation, fringe shift n is a unitless quantity. SinceL≈ 11 meters and λ ≈ 500nanometers, the expectedfringe shiftwasn≈ 0.44. The negative result led Michelson to the conclusion that there is no measurable aether drift.However, he never accepted this on a personal level, and the negative result haunted him for the rest of his life. Observer comoving with the interferometer If the same situation is described from the view of an observer co-moving with the interferometer, then the effect of aether wind is similar to the effect experienced by a swimmer, who tries to move with velocityc{\\textstyle c}against a river flowing with velocityv{\\textstyle v}. In the longitudinal direction the swimmer first moves upstream, so his velocity is diminished due to the river flow toc−v{\\textstyle c-v}. On his way back moving downstream, his velocity is increased toc+v{\\textstyle c+v}. This gives the beam travel timesT1{\\textstyle T_{1}}andT2{\\textstyle T_{2}}as mentioned above. In the transverse direction, the swimmer has to compensate for the river flow by moving at a certain angle against the flow direction, in order to sustain his exact transverse direction of motion and to reach the other side of the river at the correct location. This diminishes his speed toc2−v2{\\textstyle {\\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}, and gives the beam travel timeT3{\\textstyle T_{3}}as mentioned above. Mirror reflection The classical analysis predicted a relative phase shift between the longitudinal and transverse beams which in Michelson and Morley's apparatus should have been readily measurable. What is not often appreciated (since there was no means of measuring it), is that motion through the hypothetical aether should also have caused the two beams to diverge as they emerged from the interferometer by about 10−8radians. For an apparatus in motion, the classical analysis requires that the beam-splitting mirror be slightly offset from an exact 45° if the longitudinal and transverse beams are to emerge from the apparatus exactly superimposed. In the relativistic analysis, Lorentz-contraction of the beam splitter in the direction of motion causes it to become more perpendicular by precisely the amount necessary to compensate for the angle discrepancy of the two beams. Length contraction and Lorentz transformation A first step to explaining the Michelson and Morley experiment's null result was found in theFitzGerald–Lorentz contraction hypothesis, now simply called length contraction or Lorentz contraction, first proposed byGeorge FitzGerald(1889) in a letter to same journal that published the Michelson-Morley paper, as \"almost the only hypothesis that can reconcile\" the apparent contradictions. It was independently also proposed byHendrik Lorentz(1892).According to this law all objects physically contract byL/γ{\\textstyle L/\\gamma }along the line of motion (originally thought to be relative to the aether),γ=1/1−v2/c2{\\textstyle \\gamma =1/{\\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}being theLorentz factor. This hypothesis was partly motivated byOliver Heaviside's discovery in 1888 that electrostatic fields are contracting in the line of motion. But since there was no reason at that time to assume that binding forces in matter are of electric origin, length contraction of matter in motion with respect to the aether was considered anad hoc hypothesis. If length contraction ofL{\\textstyle L}is inserted into the above formula forTℓ{\\textstyle T_{\\ell }}, then the light propagation time in the longitudinal direction becomes equal to that in the transverse direction: However, length contraction is only a special case of the more general relation, according to which the transverse length is larger than the longitudinal length by the ratioγ{\\textstyle \\gamma }. This can be achieved in many ways. IfL1{\\textstyle L_{1}}is the moving longitudinal length andL2{\\textstyle L_{2}}the moving transverse length,L1′=L2′{\\textstyle L'_{1}=L'_{2}}being the rest lengths, then it is given: φ{\\textstyle \\varphi }can be arbitrarily chosen, so there are infinitely many combinations to explain the Michelson–Morley null result. For instance, ifφ=1{\\textstyle \\varphi =1}the relativistic value of length contraction ofL1{\\textstyle L_{1}}occurs, but ifφ=1/γ{\\textstyle \\varphi =1/\\gamma }then no length contraction but an elongation ofL2{\\textstyle L_{2}}occurs. This hypothesis was later extended byJoseph Larmor(1897), Lorentz (1904) andHenri Poincaré(1905), who developed the completeLorentz transformationincludingtime dilationin order to explain theTrouton–Noble experiment, theExperiments of Rayleigh and Brace, andKaufmann's experiments. It has the form It remained to define the value ofφ{\\textstyle \\varphi }, which was shown by Lorentz (1904) to be unity.In general, Poincaré (1905)demonstrated that onlyφ=1{\\textstyle \\varphi =1}allows this transformation to form agroup, so it is the only choice compatible with theprinciple of relativity,i.e.,making the stationary aether undetectable. Given this, length contraction and time dilation obtain their exact relativistic values. Special relativity Albert Einsteinformulated the theory ofspecial relativityby 1905, deriving the Lorentz transformation and thus length contraction and time dilation from the relativity postulate and the constancy of the speed of light, thus removing thead hoccharacter from the contraction hypothesis. Einstein emphasized thekinematicfoundation of the theory and the modification of the notion of space and time, with the stationary aether no longer playing any role in his theory. He also pointed out the group character of the transformation. Einstein was motivated byMaxwell's theory of electromagnetism(in the form as it was given by Lorentz in 1895) and the lack of evidence for theluminiferous aether. This allows a more elegant and intuitive explanation of the Michelson–Morley null result. In a comoving frame the null result is self-evident, since the apparatus can be considered as at rest in accordance with the relativity principle, thus the beam travel times are the same. In a frame relative to which the apparatus is moving, the same reasoning applies as described above in \"Length contraction and Lorentz transformation\", except the word \"aether\" has to be replaced by \"non-comoving inertial frame\". Einstein wrote in 1916: Although the estimated difference between these two times is exceedingly small, Michelson and Morley performed an experiment involving interference in which this difference should have been clearly detectable. But the experiment gave a negative result — a fact very perplexing to physicists. Lorentz and FitzGerald rescued the theory from this difficulty by assuming that the motion of the body relative to the æther produces a contraction of the body in the direction of motion, the amount of contraction being just sufficient to compensate for the difference in time mentioned above. Comparison with the discussion in Section 11 shows that also from the standpoint of the theory of relativity this solution of the difficulty was the right one. But on the basis of the theory of relativity the method of interpretation is incomparably more satisfactory. According to this theory there is no such thing as a \"specially favoured\" (unique) co-ordinate system to occasion the introduction of the æther-idea, and hence there can be no æther-drift, nor any experiment with which to demonstrate it. Here the contraction of moving bodies follows from the two fundamental principles of the theory, without the introduction of particular hypotheses; and as the prime factor involved in this contraction we find, not the motion in itself, to which we cannot attach any meaning, but the motion with respect to the body of reference chosen in the particular case in point. Thus for a co-ordinate system moving with the earth the mirror system of Michelson and Morley is not shortened, but it is shortened for a co-ordinate system which is at rest relatively to the sun. The extent to which the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment influenced Einstein is disputed. Alluding to some statements of Einstein, many historians argue that it played no significant role in his path to special relativity,while other statements of Einstein probably suggest that he was influenced by it.In any case, the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment helped the notion of the constancy of the speed of light gain widespread and rapid acceptance. It was later shown byHoward Percy Robertson(1949) and others(seeRobertson–Mansouri–Sexl test theory), that it is possible to derive the Lorentz transformation entirely from the combination of three experiments. First, the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that the speed of light is independent of theorientationof the apparatus, establishing the relationship between longitudinal (β) and transverse (δ) lengths. Then in 1932, Roy Kennedy and Edward Thorndike modified the Michelson–Morley experiment by making the path lengths of the split beam unequal, with one arm being very short.TheKennedy–Thorndike experimenttook place for many months as the Earth moved around the sun. Their negative result showed that the speed of light is independent of thevelocityof the apparatus in different inertial frames. In addition it established that besides length changes, corresponding time changes must also occur, i.e., it established the relationship between longitudinal lengths (β) and time changes (α). So both experiments do not provide the individual values of these quantities. This uncertainty corresponds to the undefined factorφ{\\textstyle \\varphi }as described above. It was clear due to theoretical reasons (thegroup characterof the Lorentz transformation as required by the relativity principle) that the individual values of length contraction and time dilation must assume their exact relativistic form. But a direct measurement of one of these quantities was still desirable to confirm the theoretical results. This was achieved by theIves–Stilwell experiment(1938), measuring α in accordance with time dilation. Combining this value for α with the Kennedy–Thorndike null result shows thatβmust assume the value of relativistic length contraction. Combiningβwith the Michelson–Morley null result shows thatδmust be zero. Therefore, the Lorentz transformation withφ=1{\\textstyle \\varphi =1}is an unavoidable consequence of the combination of these three experiments. Special relativity is generally considered the solution to all negative aether drift (orisotropyof the speed of light) measurements, including the Michelson–Morley null result. Many high precision measurements have been conducted as tests of special relativity andmodern searches for Lorentz violationin thephoton,electron,nucleon, orneutrinosector, all of them confirming relativity. Incorrect alternatives As mentioned above, Michelson initially believed that his experiment would confirm Stokes' theory, according to which the aether was fully dragged in the vicinity of the earth (seeAether drag hypothesis). However, complete aether drag contradicts the observedaberration of lightand was contradicted by other experiments as well. In addition, Lorentz showed in 1886 that Stokes's attempt to explain aberration is contradictory. Furthermore, the assumption that the aether is not carried in the vicinity, but onlywithinmatter, was very problematic as shown by theHammar experiment(1935). Hammar directed one leg of his interferometer through a heavy metal pipe plugged with lead. If aether were dragged by mass, it was theorized that the mass of the sealed metal pipe would have been enough to cause a visible effect. Once again, no effect was seen, so aether-drag theories are considered to be disproven. Walther Ritz'semission theory(or ballistic theory) was also consistent with the results of the experiment, not requiring aether. The theory postulates that light has always the same velocity in respect to the source.Howeverde Sitternoted that emitter theory predicted several optical effects that were not seen in observations of binary stars in which the light from the two stars could be measured in aspectrometer. If emission theory were correct, the light from the stars should experience unusual fringe shifting due to the velocity of the stars being added to the speed of the light, but no such effect could be seen. It was later shown byJ. G. Foxthat the original de Sitter experiments were flawed due toextinction,but in 1977 Brecher observed X-rays from binary star systems with similar null results.Furthermore, Filippas and Fox (1964) conducted terrestrialparticle acceleratortests specifically designed to address Fox's earlier \"extinction\" objection, the results being inconsistent with source dependence of the speed of light. Subsequent experiments Although Michelson and Morley went on to different experiments after their first publication in 1887, both remained active in the field. Other versions of the experiment were carried out with increasing sophistication.Morley was not convinced of his own results, and went on to conduct additional experiments withDayton Millerfrom 1902 to 1904. Again, the result was negative within the margins of error. Miller worked on increasingly larger interferometers, culminating in one with a 32-meter (105 ft) (effective) arm length that he tried at various sites, including on top of a mountain at theMount Wilson Observatory. To avoid the possibility of the aether wind being blocked by solid walls, his mountaintop observations used a special shed with thin walls, mainly of canvas. From noisy, irregular data, he consistently extracted a small positive signal that varied with each rotation of the device, with thesidereal day, and on a yearly basis. His measurements in the 1920s amounted to approximately 10 km/s (6.2 mi/s) instead of the nearly 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s) expected from the Earth's orbital motion alone. He remained convinced this was due topartial entrainment or aether dragging, though he did not attempt a detailed explanation. He ignored critiques demonstrating the inconsistency of his results and the refutation by theHammar experiment.Miller's findings were considered important at the time, and were discussed by Michelson,Lorentzand others at a meeting reported in 1928.There was general agreement that more experimentation was needed to check Miller's results. Miller later built a non-magnetic device to eliminatemagnetostriction, while Michelson built one of non-expandingInvarto eliminate any remaining thermal effects. Other experimenters from around the world increased accuracy, eliminated possible side effects, or both. So far, no one has been able to replicate Miller's results, and modern experimental accuracies have ruled them out.Roberts (2006) has pointed out that the primitive data reduction techniques used by Miller and other early experimenters, including Michelson and Morley, were capable ofcreatingapparent periodic signals even when none existed in the actual data. After reanalyzing Miller's original data using modern techniques of quantitative error analysis, Roberts found Miller's apparent signals to be statistically insignificant. Using a special optical arrangement involving a 1/20 wave step in one mirror, Roy J. Kennedy (1926) and K.K. Illingworth (1927) (Fig. 8) converted the task of detecting fringe shifts from the relatively insensitive one of estimating their lateral displacements to the considerably more sensitive task of adjusting the light intensity on both sides of a sharp boundary for equal luminance.If they observed unequal illumination on either side of the step, such as in Fig. 8e, they would add or remove calibrated weights from the interferometer until both sides of the step were once again evenly illuminated, as in Fig. 8d. The number of weights added or removed provided a measure of the fringe shift. Different observers could detect changes as little as 1/1500 to 1/300 of a fringe. Kennedy also carried out an experiment at Mount Wilson, finding only about 1/10 the drift measured by Miller and no seasonal effects. In 1930,Georg Joosconducted an experiment using an automated interferometer with 21-meter-long (69 ft) arms forged from pressed quartz having a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, that took continuous photographic strip recordings of the fringes through dozens of revolutions of the apparatus. Displacements of 1/1000 of a fringe could be measured on the photographic plates. No periodic fringe displacements were found, placing an upper limit to the aether wind of 1.5 km/s (0.93 mi/s). In the table below, the expected values are related to the relative speed between Earth and Sun of 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s). With respect to the speed of the solar system around the galactic center of about 220 km/s (140 mi/s), or the speed of the solar system relative to theCMB rest frameof about 370 km/s (230 mi/s), the null results of those experiments are even more obvious. Recent experiments Optical tests Optical tests of the isotropy of the speed of light became commonplace.New technologies, including the use oflasersandmasers, have significantly improved measurement precision. (In the following table, only Essen (1955), Jaseja (1964), and Shamir/Fox (1969) are experiments of Michelson–Morley type,i.e.,comparing two perpendicular beams. The other optical experiments employed different methods.) Recent optical resonator experiments During the early 21st century, there has been a resurgence in interest in performing precise Michelson–Morley type experiments using lasers, masers, cryogenicoptical resonators, etc. This is in large part due to predictions of quantum gravity that suggest that special relativity may be violated at scales accessible to experimental study. The first of these highly accurate experiments was conducted by Brillet & Hall (1979), in which they analyzed a laser frequency stabilized to a resonance of a rotating opticalFabry–Pérotcavity. They set a limit on the anisotropy of the speed of light resulting from the Earth's motions of Δc/c≈ 10−15, where Δcis the difference between the speed of light in thex- andy-directions. As of 2015, optical and microwave resonator experiments have improved this limit to Δc/c≈ 10−18. In some of them, the devices were rotated or remained stationary, and some were combined with theKennedy–Thorndike experiment. In particular, Earth's direction and velocity (ca. 368 km/s (229 mi/s)) relative to theCMB rest frameare ordinarily used as references in these searches for anisotropies. Other tests of Lorentz invariance Examples of other experiments not based on the Michelson–Morley principle, i.e., non-optical isotropy tests achieving an even higher level of precision, areClock comparison or Hughes–Drever experiments. In Drever's 1961 experiment,7Li nuclei in the ground state, which has total angular momentumJ= 3/2, were split into four equally spaced levels by a magnetic field. Each transition between a pair of adjacent levels should emit a photon of equal frequency, resulting in a single, sharp spectral line. However, since the nuclear wave functions for differentMJhave different orientations in space relative to the magnetic field, any orientation dependence, whether from an aether wind or from a dependence on the large-scale distribution of mass in space (seeMach's principle), would perturb the energy spacings between the four levels, resulting in an anomalous broadening or splitting of the line. No such broadening was observed. Modern repeats of this kind of experiment have provided some of the most accurate confirmations of the principle ofLorentz invariance. See also References Notes Experiments Bibliography (Series \"A\" references) External links"
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"Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 TheAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814(also known as theConvention of London;Dutch:Verdrag van Londen) was signed by theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandand theSovereign Principality of the United Netherlandsin London on 13 August 1814. The treaty restored most of the territories in theMoluccasandJava that Britain had seizedin theNapoleonic Wars, but confirmed British possession of theCape Colonyon the southern tip of Africa, as well as portions ofDutch Guianain South America. It was signed byRobert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, on behalf of the British and diplomat Hendrik Fagel, on behalf of the Dutch. Terms Possessions The treaty returned the colonial possessions of the Dutch as they were at 1 January 1803, before the outbreak of theNapoleonic Warsin the Americas, Africa, and Asia, with the exception of theCape of Good Hopeand the South American settlements ofDemerara,EssequiboandBerbice, where the Dutch retained trading rights. In addition, the British ceded the island",
"ceded the island ofBancaoff the island ofSumatrain exchange for the settlement ofCochinin India and its dependencies on thecoast of Malabar. The Dutch also ceded the district ofBernagore, situated close toCalcutta, in exchange for an annual fee. Cooperation The treaty also noted a declaration of 15 June 1814 by the Dutch, that ships for theslave tradewere no longer permitted in British ports. That restriction would be extended to a ban on involvement in the slave trade by Dutch citizens. Britain also agreed to pay £1,000,000 to Sweden to resolvea claimto theCaribbeanisland ofGuadeloupe. The British and the Dutch agreed to spend £2,000,000 each on improving the defences of theLow Countries.More funds, of up to £3,000,000,are mentioned for the \"final and satisfactory settlement of the Low Countries in union with Holland.\" Disputes arising from the treaty were the subject of theAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. See also References Footnotes Bibliography",
"Michelson–Morley experiment TheMichelson–Morley experimentwas an attempt to measure the motion of theEarthrelative to theluminiferous aether,a supposed medium permeating space that was thought to be the carrier oflight waves. The experiment was performed between April and July 1887 by American physicistsAlbert A. MichelsonandEdward W. Morleyat what is nowCase Western Reserve UniversityinCleveland, Ohio, and published in November of the same year. The experiment compared thespeed of lightin perpendicular directions in an attempt to detect the relative motion of matter, including their laboratory, through the luminiferous aether, or \"aether wind\" as it was sometimes called. The result was negative, in that Michelson and Morley found no significant difference between the speed of light in the direction of movement through the presumed aether, and the speed at right angles. This result is generally considered to be the first strong evidence against someaether theories, as well as initiating a line of research",
"a line of research that eventually led tospecial relativity, which rules out motion against an aether.Of this experiment,Albert Einsteinwrote, \"If the Michelson–Morley experiment had not brought us into serious embarrassment, no one would have regarded the relativity theory as a (halfway) redemption.\": 219 Michelson–Morley type experiments have been repeated many times with steadily increasing sensitivity. These include experiments from 1902 to 1905, and a series of experiments in the 1920s. More recently, in 2009,optical resonatorexperiments confirmed the absence of any aether wind at the 10−17level.Together with theIves–StilwellandKennedy–Thorndike experiments, Michelson–Morley type experiments form one of the fundamentaltests of special relativity. Detecting the aether Physics theories of the 19th century assumed that just as surface water waves must have a supporting substance, i.e., a \"medium\", to move across (in this case water), and audiblesoundrequires a medium to transmit its wave motions (such as",
"motions (such as air or water), so light must also require a medium, the \"luminiferous aether\", to transmit its wave motions. Because light can travel through a vacuum, it was assumed that even a vacuum must be filled with aether. Because thespeed of lightis so great, and because material bodies pass through theaetherwithout obvious friction or drag, it was assumed to have a highly unusual combination of properties. Designing experiments to investigate these properties was a high priority of 19th-century physics.: 411ff Earthorbits around theSunat a speed of around 30 km/s (18.64 mi/s), or 108,000 km/h (67,000 mph). The Earth is in motion, so two main possibilities were considered: (1) The aether is stationary and only partiallydraggedby Earth (proposed byAugustin-Jean Fresnelin 1818), or (2) the aether is completely dragged by Earth and thus shares its motion at Earth's surface (proposed bySir George Stokes, 1st Baronetin 1844).In addition,James Clerk Maxwell(1865) recognized theelectromagneticnature of",
"of light and developed what are now calledMaxwell's equations, but these equations were still interpreted as describing the motion of waves through an aether, whose state of motion was unknown. Eventually, Fresnel's idea of an (almost) stationary aether was preferred because it appeared to be confirmed by theFizeau experiment(1851) and theaberration of star light. According to the stationary and the partially dragged aether hypotheses, Earth and the aether are in relative motion, implying that a so-called \"aether wind\" (Fig. 2) should exist. Although it would be theoretically possible for the Earth's motion to match that of the aether at one moment in time, it was not possible for the Earth to remain at rest with respect to the aether at all times, because of the variation in both the direction and the speed of the motion. At any given point on the Earth's surface, the magnitude and direction of the wind would vary with time of day and season. By analyzing the return speed of light in different directions at",
"directions at various different times, it was thought to be possible to measure the motion of the Earth relative to the aether. The expected relative difference in the measured speed of light was quite small, given that the velocity of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun has a magnitude of about one hundredth of one percent of the speed of light.: 417ff During the mid-19th century, measurements of aether wind effects of first order, i.e., effects proportional tov/c(vbeing Earth's velocity,cthe speed of light) were thought to be possible, but no direct measurement of the speed of light was possible with the accuracy required. For instance, theFizeau wheelcould measure the speed of light to perhaps 5% accuracy, which was quite inadequate for measuring directly a first-order 0.01% change in the speed of light. A number of physicists therefore attempted to make measurements of indirect first-order effects not of the speed of light itself, but of variations in the speed of light (seeFirst order aether-drift",
"order aether-drift experiments). TheHoek experiment, for example, was intended to detectinterferometricfringe shiftsdue to speed differences of oppositely propagating light waves through water at rest. The results of such experiments were all negative.This could be explained by usingFresnel's dragging coefficient, according to which the aether and thus light are partially dragged by moving matter. Partial aether-dragging would thwart attempts to measure any first order change in the speed of light. As pointed out by Maxwell (1878), only experimental arrangements capable of measuring second order effects would have any hope of detecting aether drift, i.e., effects proportional tov2/c2.Existing experimental setups, however, were not sensitive enough to measure effects of that size. 1881 and 1887 experiments Michelson experiment (1881) Michelson had a solution to the problem of how to construct a device sufficiently accurate to detect aether flow. In 1877, while teaching at his alma mater, theUnited States",
"theUnited States Naval Academyin Annapolis, Michelson conducted his first known light speed experiments as a part of a classroom demonstration. In 1881, he left active U.S. Naval service while in Germany concluding his studies. In that year, Michelson used a prototype experimental device to make several more measurements. The device he designed, later known as aMichelson interferometer, sentyellowlight from asodiumflame (for alignment), orwhitelight (for the actual observations), through ahalf-silvered mirrorthat was used to split it into two beams traveling at right angles to one another. After leaving the splitter, the beams traveled out to the ends of long arms where they were reflected back into the middle by small mirrors. They then recombined on the far side of the splitter in an eyepiece, producing a pattern of constructive and destructiveinterferencewhose transverse displacement would depend on the relative time it takes light to transit the longitudinalvs.the transverse arms. If the Earth is",
"If the Earth is traveling through an aether medium, a light beam traveling parallel to the flow of that aether will take longer to reflect back and forth than would a beam traveling perpendicular to the aether, because the increase in elapsed time from traveling against the aether wind is more than the time saved by traveling with the aether wind. Michelson expected that the Earth's motion would produce afringe shiftequal to 0.04 fringes—that is, of the separation between areas of the same intensity. He did not observe the expected shift; the greatest average deviation that he measured (in the northwest direction) was only 0.018 fringes; most of his measurements were much less. His conclusion was that Fresnel's hypothesis of a stationary aether with partial aether dragging would have to be rejected, and thus he confirmed Stokes' hypothesis of complete aether dragging. However,Alfred Potier(and laterHendrik Lorentz) pointed out to Michelson that he had made an error of calculation, and that the expected",
"that the expected fringe shift should have been only 0.02 fringes. Michelson's apparatus was subject to experimental errors far too large to say anything conclusive about the aether wind. Definitive measurement of the aether wind would require an experiment with greater accuracy and better controls than the original. Nevertheless, the prototype was successful in demonstrating that the basic method was feasible. Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) In 1885, Michelson began a collaboration withEdward Morley, spending considerable time and money to confirm with higher accuracyFizeau's 1851 experimenton Fresnel's drag coefficient,to improve on Michelson's 1881 experiment,and to establish the wavelength of light as astandard of length.At this time Michelson was professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science, and Morley was professor of chemistry at Western Reserve University (WRU), which shared a campus with the Case School on the eastern edge of Cleveland. Michelson suffered a mental health crisis in",
"health crisis in September 1885, from which he recovered by October 1885. Morley ascribed this breakdown to the intense work of Michelson during the preparation of the experiments. In 1886, Michelson and Morley successfully confirmed Fresnel's drag coefficient – this result was also considered as a confirmation of the stationary aether concept. This result strengthened their hope of finding the aether wind. Michelson and Morley created an improved version of the Michelson experiment with more than enough accuracy to detect this hypothetical effect. The experiment was performed in several periods of concentrated observations between April and July 1887, in the basement of Adelbert Dormitory of WRU (later renamed Pierce Hall, demolished in 1962). As shown in the diagram to the right, the light was repeatedly reflected back and forth along the arms of the interferometer, increasing the path length to 11 m (36 ft). At this length, the drift would be about 0.4 fringes. To make that easily detectable, the",
"detectable, the apparatus was assembled in a closed room in the basement of the heavy stone dormitory, eliminating most thermal and vibrational effects. Vibrations were further reduced by building the apparatus on top of a large block of sandstone (Fig. 1), about a foot thick and five feet (1.5 m) square, which was then floated in a circular trough of mercury. They estimated that effects of about 0.01 fringe would be detectable. Michelson and Morley and other early experimentalists using interferometric techniques in an attempt to measure the properties of the luminiferous aether, used (partially) monochromatic light only for initially setting up their equipment, always switching to white light for the actual measurements. The reason is that measurements were recorded visually. Purely monochromatic light would result in a uniform fringe pattern. Lacking modern means ofenvironmental temperature control, experimentalists struggled with continual fringe drift even when the interferometer was set up in a",
"was set up in a basement. Because the fringes would occasionally disappear due to vibrations caused by passing horse traffic, distant thunderstorms and the like, an observer could easily \"get lost\" when the fringes returned to visibility. The advantages of white light, which produced a distinctive colored fringe pattern, far outweighed the difficulties of aligning the apparatus due to its lowcoherence length. AsDayton Millerwrote, \"White light fringes were chosen for the observations because they consist of a small group of fringes having a central, sharply defined black fringe which forms a permanent zero reference mark for all readings.\"Use of partially monochromatic light (yellow sodium light) during initial alignment enabled the researchers to locate the position of equal path length, more or less easily, before switching to white light. The mercury trough allowed the device to turn with close to zero friction, so that once having given the sandstone block a single push it would slowly rotate through the",
"rotate through the entire range of possible angles to the \"aether wind\", while measurements were continuously observed by looking through the eyepiece. The hypothesis of aether drift implies that because one of the arms would inevitably turn into the direction of the wind at the same time that another arm was turning perpendicularly to the wind, an effect should be noticeable even over a period of minutes. The expectation was that the effect would be graphable as a sine wave with two peaks and two troughs per rotation of the device. This result could have been expected because during each full rotation, each arm would be parallel to the wind twice (facing into and away from the wind giving identical readings) and perpendicular to the wind twice. Additionally, due to the Earth's rotation, the wind would be expected to show periodic changes in direction and magnitude during the course of asidereal day. Because of the motion of the Earth around the Sun, the measured data were also expected to show annual",
"to show annual variations. Most famous \"failed\" experiment After all this thought and preparation, the experiment became what has been called the most famous failed experiment in history.Instead of providing insight into the properties of the aether, Michelson and Morley's article in theAmerican Journal of Sciencereported the measurement to be as small as one-fortieth of the expected displacement (Fig. 7), but \"since the displacement is proportional to the square of the velocity\" they concluded that the measured velocity was \"probably less than one-sixth\" of the expected velocity of the Earth's motion in orbit and \"certainly less than one-fourth\".Although this small \"velocity\" was measured, it was considered far too small to be used as evidence of speed relative to the aether, and it was understood to be within the range of an experimental error that would allow the speed to actually be zero.For instance, Michelson wrote about the \"decidedly negative result\" in a letter toLord Rayleighin August 1887: The",
"August 1887: The Experiments on the relative motion of the earth and ether have been completed and the result decidedly negative. The expected deviation of the interference fringes from the zero should have been 0.40 of a fringe – the maximum displacement was 0.02 and the average much less than 0.01 – and then not in the right place. As displacement is proportional to squares of the relative velocities it follows that if the ether does slip past the relative velocity is less than one sixth of the earth’s velocity. From the standpoint of the then current aether models, the experimental results were conflicting. TheFizeau experimentand its 1886 repetition by Michelson and Morley apparently confirmed the stationary aether with partial aether dragging, and refuted complete aether dragging. On the other hand, the much more precise Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) apparently confirmed complete aether dragging and refuted the stationary aether.In addition, the Michelson–Morleynull resultwas further substantiated",
"substantiated by the null results of other second-order experiments of different kind, namely theTrouton–Noble experiment(1903) and theexperiments of Rayleigh and Brace(1902–1904). These problems and their solution led to the development of theLorentz transformationandspecial relativity. After the \"failed\" experiment Michelson and Morley ceased their aether drift measurements and started to use their newly developed technique to establish the wavelength of light as astandard of length. Light path analysis and consequences Observer resting in the aether The beam travel time in the longitudinal direction can be derived as follows:Light is sent from the source and propagates with the speed of lightc{\\textstyle c}in the aether. It passes through the half-silvered mirror at the origin atT=0{\\textstyle T=0}. The reflecting mirror is at that moment at distanceL{\\textstyle L}(the length of the interferometer arm) and is moving with velocityv{\\textstyle v}. The beam hits the mirror at timeT1{\\textstyle T_{1}}and thus",
"T_{1}}and thus travels the distancecT1{\\textstyle cT_{1}}. At this time, the mirror has traveled the distancevT1{\\textstyle vT_{1}}. ThuscT1=L+vT1{\\textstyle cT_{1}=L+vT_{1}}and consequently the travel timeT1=L/(c−v){\\textstyle T_{1}=L/(c-v)}. The same consideration applies to the backward journey, with the sign ofv{\\textstyle v}reversed, resulting incT2=L−vT2{\\textstyle cT_{2}=L-vT_{2}}andT2=L/(c+v){\\textstyle T_{2}=L/(c+v)}. The total travel timeTℓ=T1+T2{\\textstyle T_{\\ell }=T_{1}+T_{2}}is: Michelson obtained this expression correctly in 1881, however, in transverse direction he obtained the incorrect expression because he overlooked the increase in path length in the rest frame of the aether. This was corrected byAlfred Potier(1882) andHendrik Lorentz(1886). The derivation in the transverse direction can be given as follows (analogous to the derivation oftime dilationusing alight clock): The beam is propagating at the speed of lightc{\\textstyle c}and hits the mirror at timeT3{\\textstyle T_{3}}, traveling",
"T_{3}}, traveling the distancecT3{\\textstyle cT_{3}}. At the same time, the mirror has traveled the distancevT3{\\textstyle vT_{3}}in thexdirection. So in order to hit the mirror, the travel path of the beam isL{\\textstyle L}in theydirection (assuming equal-length arms) andvT3{\\textstyle vT_{3}}in thexdirection. This inclined travel path follows from the transformation from the interferometer rest frame to the aether rest frame. Therefore, thePythagorean theoremgives the actual beam travel distance ofL2+(vT3)2{\\textstyle {\\sqrt {L^{2}+\\left(vT_{3}\\right)^{2}}}}. ThuscT3=L2+(vT3)2{\\textstyle cT_{3}={\\sqrt {L^{2}+\\left(vT_{3}\\right)^{2}}}}and consequently the travel timeT3=L/c2−v2{\\textstyle T_{3}=L/{\\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}, which is the same for the backward journey. The total travel timeTt=2T3{\\textstyle T_{t}=2T_{3}}is: The time difference betweenTℓ{\\displaystyle T_{\\ell }}andTt{\\displaystyle T_{t}}is given by To find the path difference, simply multiply byc{\\displaystyle c};",
"c}; Δλ1=2L(11−v2c2−11−v2c2){\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\left({\\frac {1}{1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}-{\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}\\right)} The path difference is denoted byΔλ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\lambda }because the beams are out of phase by a some number of wavelengths (λ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }). To visualise this, consider taking the two beam paths along the longitudinal and transverse plane, and lying them straight (an animation of this is shown at minute 11:00,The Mechanical Universe, episode 41). One path will be longer than the other, this distance isΔλ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\lambda }. Alternatively, consider the rearrangement of the speed of light formulacΔT=Δλ{\\displaystyle c{\\Delta }T=\\Delta \\lambda }. If the relationv2/c2<<1{\\displaystyle {v^{2}}/{c^{2}}<<1}is true (if the velocity of the aether is small relative to the speed of light), then the expression can be simplified using a first order binomial expansion; (1−x)n≈1−nx{\\displaystyle (1-x)^{n}\\approx {1-nx}} So,",
"{1-nx}} So, rewriting the above in terms of powers; Δλ1=2L((1−v2c2)−1−(1−v2c2)−1/2){\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\left(\\left({1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}\\right)^{-1}-\\left(1-{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\\right)^{-1/2}\\right)} Applying binomial simplification; Δλ1=2L((1+v2c2)−(1+v22c2))=2Lv22c2{\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}=2L\\left((1+{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}})-(1+{\\frac {v^{2}}{2c^{2}}})\\right)={2L}{\\frac {v^{2}}{2c^{2}}}} Therefore; Δλ1=Lv2c2{\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\lambda }_{1}={L}{\\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}} It can be seen from this derivation that aether wind manifests as a path difference. The path difference is zero only when the interferometer is aligned with or perpendicular to the aether wind, and it reaches a maximum when it is at a 45° angle. The path difference can be any fraction of the wavelength, depending on the angle and speed of the aether wind. To prove the existence of the aether, Michelson and Morley sought to find the \"fringe shift\". The idea was simple, the fringes of the interference",
"of the interference pattern should shift when rotating it by 90° as the two beams have exchanged roles. To find the fringe shift, subtract the path difference in first orientation by the path difference in the second, then divide by thewavelength,λ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }, of light; Note the difference betweenΔλ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\lambda }, which is some number of wavelengths, andλ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }which is a single wavelength. As can be seen by this relation, fringe shift n is a unitless quantity. SinceL≈ 11 meters and λ ≈ 500nanometers, the expectedfringe shiftwasn≈ 0.44. The negative result led Michelson to the conclusion that there is no measurable aether drift.However, he never accepted this on a personal level, and the negative result haunted him for the rest of his life. Observer comoving with the interferometer If the same situation is described from the view of an observer co-moving with the interferometer, then the effect of aether wind is similar to the effect experienced by a swimmer,",
"by a swimmer, who tries to move with velocityc{\\textstyle c}against a river flowing with velocityv{\\textstyle v}. In the longitudinal direction the swimmer first moves upstream, so his velocity is diminished due to the river flow toc−v{\\textstyle c-v}. On his way back moving downstream, his velocity is increased toc+v{\\textstyle c+v}. This gives the beam travel timesT1{\\textstyle T_{1}}andT2{\\textstyle T_{2}}as mentioned above. In the transverse direction, the swimmer has to compensate for the river flow by moving at a certain angle against the flow direction, in order to sustain his exact transverse direction of motion and to reach the other side of the river at the correct location. This diminishes his speed toc2−v2{\\textstyle {\\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}, and gives the beam travel timeT3{\\textstyle T_{3}}as mentioned above. Mirror reflection The classical analysis predicted a relative phase shift between the longitudinal and transverse beams which in Michelson and Morley's apparatus should have been readily",
"have been readily measurable. What is not often appreciated (since there was no means of measuring it), is that motion through the hypothetical aether should also have caused the two beams to diverge as they emerged from the interferometer by about 10−8radians. For an apparatus in motion, the classical analysis requires that the beam-splitting mirror be slightly offset from an exact 45° if the longitudinal and transverse beams are to emerge from the apparatus exactly superimposed. In the relativistic analysis, Lorentz-contraction of the beam splitter in the direction of motion causes it to become more perpendicular by precisely the amount necessary to compensate for the angle discrepancy of the two beams. Length contraction and Lorentz transformation A first step to explaining the Michelson and Morley experiment's null result was found in theFitzGerald–Lorentz contraction hypothesis, now simply called length contraction or Lorentz contraction, first proposed byGeorge FitzGerald(1889) in a letter to same",
"in a letter to same journal that published the Michelson-Morley paper, as \"almost the only hypothesis that can reconcile\" the apparent contradictions. It was independently also proposed byHendrik Lorentz(1892).According to this law all objects physically contract byL/γ{\\textstyle L/\\gamma }along the line of motion (originally thought to be relative to the aether),γ=1/1−v2/c2{\\textstyle \\gamma =1/{\\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}being theLorentz factor. This hypothesis was partly motivated byOliver Heaviside's discovery in 1888 that electrostatic fields are contracting in the line of motion. But since there was no reason at that time to assume that binding forces in matter are of electric origin, length contraction of matter in motion with respect to the aether was considered anad hoc hypothesis. If length contraction ofL{\\textstyle L}is inserted into the above formula forTℓ{\\textstyle T_{\\ell }}, then the light propagation time in the longitudinal direction becomes equal to that in the transverse direction: However,",
"direction: However, length contraction is only a special case of the more general relation, according to which the transverse length is larger than the longitudinal length by the ratioγ{\\textstyle \\gamma }. This can be achieved in many ways. IfL1{\\textstyle L_{1}}is the moving longitudinal length andL2{\\textstyle L_{2}}the moving transverse length,L1′=L2′{\\textstyle L'_{1}=L'_{2}}being the rest lengths, then it is given: φ{\\textstyle \\varphi }can be arbitrarily chosen, so there are infinitely many combinations to explain the Michelson–Morley null result. For instance, ifφ=1{\\textstyle \\varphi =1}the relativistic value of length contraction ofL1{\\textstyle L_{1}}occurs, but ifφ=1/γ{\\textstyle \\varphi =1/\\gamma }then no length contraction but an elongation ofL2{\\textstyle L_{2}}occurs. This hypothesis was later extended byJoseph Larmor(1897), Lorentz (1904) andHenri Poincaré(1905), who developed the completeLorentz transformationincludingtime dilationin order to explain theTrouton–Noble experiment,",
"experiment, theExperiments of Rayleigh and Brace, andKaufmann's experiments. It has the form It remained to define the value ofφ{\\textstyle \\varphi }, which was shown by Lorentz (1904) to be unity.In general, Poincaré (1905)demonstrated that onlyφ=1{\\textstyle \\varphi =1}allows this transformation to form agroup, so it is the only choice compatible with theprinciple of relativity,i.e.,making the stationary aether undetectable. Given this, length contraction and time dilation obtain their exact relativistic values. Special relativity Albert Einsteinformulated the theory ofspecial relativityby 1905, deriving the Lorentz transformation and thus length contraction and time dilation from the relativity postulate and the constancy of the speed of light, thus removing thead hoccharacter from the contraction hypothesis. Einstein emphasized thekinematicfoundation of the theory and the modification of the notion of space and time, with the stationary aether no longer playing any role in his theory. He also pointed out",
"He also pointed out the group character of the transformation. Einstein was motivated byMaxwell's theory of electromagnetism(in the form as it was given by Lorentz in 1895) and the lack of evidence for theluminiferous aether. This allows a more elegant and intuitive explanation of the Michelson–Morley null result. In a comoving frame the null result is self-evident, since the apparatus can be considered as at rest in accordance with the relativity principle, thus the beam travel times are the same. In a frame relative to which the apparatus is moving, the same reasoning applies as described above in \"Length contraction and Lorentz transformation\", except the word \"aether\" has to be replaced by \"non-comoving inertial frame\". Einstein wrote in 1916: Although the estimated difference between these two times is exceedingly small, Michelson and Morley performed an experiment involving interference in which this difference should have been clearly detectable. But the experiment gave a negative result — a fact very",
"— a fact very perplexing to physicists. Lorentz and FitzGerald rescued the theory from this difficulty by assuming that the motion of the body relative to the æther produces a contraction of the body in the direction of motion, the amount of contraction being just sufficient to compensate for the difference in time mentioned above. Comparison with the discussion in Section 11 shows that also from the standpoint of the theory of relativity this solution of the difficulty was the right one. But on the basis of the theory of relativity the method of interpretation is incomparably more satisfactory. According to this theory there is no such thing as a \"specially favoured\" (unique) co-ordinate system to occasion the introduction of the æther-idea, and hence there can be no æther-drift, nor any experiment with which to demonstrate it. Here the contraction of moving bodies follows from the two fundamental principles of the theory, without the introduction of particular hypotheses; and as the prime factor involved",
"factor involved in this contraction we find, not the motion in itself, to which we cannot attach any meaning, but the motion with respect to the body of reference chosen in the particular case in point. Thus for a co-ordinate system moving with the earth the mirror system of Michelson and Morley is not shortened, but it is shortened for a co-ordinate system which is at rest relatively to the sun. The extent to which the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment influenced Einstein is disputed. Alluding to some statements of Einstein, many historians argue that it played no significant role in his path to special relativity,while other statements of Einstein probably suggest that he was influenced by it.In any case, the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment helped the notion of the constancy of the speed of light gain widespread and rapid acceptance. It was later shown byHoward Percy Robertson(1949) and others(seeRobertson–Mansouri–Sexl test theory), that it is possible to derive the Lorentz",
"derive the Lorentz transformation entirely from the combination of three experiments. First, the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that the speed of light is independent of theorientationof the apparatus, establishing the relationship between longitudinal (β) and transverse (δ) lengths. Then in 1932, Roy Kennedy and Edward Thorndike modified the Michelson–Morley experiment by making the path lengths of the split beam unequal, with one arm being very short.TheKennedy–Thorndike experimenttook place for many months as the Earth moved around the sun. Their negative result showed that the speed of light is independent of thevelocityof the apparatus in different inertial frames. In addition it established that besides length changes, corresponding time changes must also occur, i.e., it established the relationship between longitudinal lengths (β) and time changes (α). So both experiments do not provide the individual values of these quantities. This uncertainty corresponds to the undefined factorφ{\\textstyle",
"factorφ{\\textstyle \\varphi }as described above. It was clear due to theoretical reasons (thegroup characterof the Lorentz transformation as required by the relativity principle) that the individual values of length contraction and time dilation must assume their exact relativistic form. But a direct measurement of one of these quantities was still desirable to confirm the theoretical results. This was achieved by theIves–Stilwell experiment(1938), measuring α in accordance with time dilation. Combining this value for α with the Kennedy–Thorndike null result shows thatβmust assume the value of relativistic length contraction. Combiningβwith the Michelson–Morley null result shows thatδmust be zero. Therefore, the Lorentz transformation withφ=1{\\textstyle \\varphi =1}is an unavoidable consequence of the combination of these three experiments. Special relativity is generally considered the solution to all negative aether drift (orisotropyof the speed of light) measurements, including the Michelson–Morley null",
"null result. Many high precision measurements have been conducted as tests of special relativity andmodern searches for Lorentz violationin thephoton,electron,nucleon, orneutrinosector, all of them confirming relativity. Incorrect alternatives As mentioned above, Michelson initially believed that his experiment would confirm Stokes' theory, according to which the aether was fully dragged in the vicinity of the earth (seeAether drag hypothesis). However, complete aether drag contradicts the observedaberration of lightand was contradicted by other experiments as well. In addition, Lorentz showed in 1886 that Stokes's attempt to explain aberration is contradictory. Furthermore, the assumption that the aether is not carried in the vicinity, but onlywithinmatter, was very problematic as shown by theHammar experiment(1935). Hammar directed one leg of his interferometer through a heavy metal pipe plugged with lead. If aether were dragged by mass, it was theorized that the mass of the sealed metal pipe would have",
"pipe would have been enough to cause a visible effect. Once again, no effect was seen, so aether-drag theories are considered to be disproven. Walther Ritz'semission theory(or ballistic theory) was also consistent with the results of the experiment, not requiring aether. The theory postulates that light has always the same velocity in respect to the source.Howeverde Sitternoted that emitter theory predicted several optical effects that were not seen in observations of binary stars in which the light from the two stars could be measured in aspectrometer. If emission theory were correct, the light from the stars should experience unusual fringe shifting due to the velocity of the stars being added to the speed of the light, but no such effect could be seen. It was later shown byJ. G. Foxthat the original de Sitter experiments were flawed due toextinction,but in 1977 Brecher observed X-rays from binary star systems with similar null results.Furthermore, Filippas and Fox (1964) conducted terrestrialparticle",
"terrestrialparticle acceleratortests specifically designed to address Fox's earlier \"extinction\" objection, the results being inconsistent with source dependence of the speed of light. Subsequent experiments Although Michelson and Morley went on to different experiments after their first publication in 1887, both remained active in the field. Other versions of the experiment were carried out with increasing sophistication.Morley was not convinced of his own results, and went on to conduct additional experiments withDayton Millerfrom 1902 to 1904. Again, the result was negative within the margins of error. Miller worked on increasingly larger interferometers, culminating in one with a 32-meter (105 ft) (effective) arm length that he tried at various sites, including on top of a mountain at theMount Wilson Observatory. To avoid the possibility of the aether wind being blocked by solid walls, his mountaintop observations used a special shed with thin walls, mainly of canvas. From noisy, irregular data, he",
"irregular data, he consistently extracted a small positive signal that varied with each rotation of the device, with thesidereal day, and on a yearly basis. His measurements in the 1920s amounted to approximately 10 km/s (6.2 mi/s) instead of the nearly 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s) expected from the Earth's orbital motion alone. He remained convinced this was due topartial entrainment or aether dragging, though he did not attempt a detailed explanation. He ignored critiques demonstrating the inconsistency of his results and the refutation by theHammar experiment.Miller's findings were considered important at the time, and were discussed by Michelson,Lorentzand others at a meeting reported in 1928.There was general agreement that more experimentation was needed to check Miller's results. Miller later built a non-magnetic device to eliminatemagnetostriction, while Michelson built one of non-expandingInvarto eliminate any remaining thermal effects. Other experimenters from around the world increased accuracy, eliminated",
"eliminated possible side effects, or both. So far, no one has been able to replicate Miller's results, and modern experimental accuracies have ruled them out.Roberts (2006) has pointed out that the primitive data reduction techniques used by Miller and other early experimenters, including Michelson and Morley, were capable ofcreatingapparent periodic signals even when none existed in the actual data. After reanalyzing Miller's original data using modern techniques of quantitative error analysis, Roberts found Miller's apparent signals to be statistically insignificant. Using a special optical arrangement involving a 1/20 wave step in one mirror, Roy J. Kennedy (1926) and K.K. Illingworth (1927) (Fig. 8) converted the task of detecting fringe shifts from the relatively insensitive one of estimating their lateral displacements to the considerably more sensitive task of adjusting the light intensity on both sides of a sharp boundary for equal luminance.If they observed unequal illumination on either side of the",
"either side of the step, such as in Fig. 8e, they would add or remove calibrated weights from the interferometer until both sides of the step were once again evenly illuminated, as in Fig. 8d. The number of weights added or removed provided a measure of the fringe shift. Different observers could detect changes as little as 1/1500 to 1/300 of a fringe. Kennedy also carried out an experiment at Mount Wilson, finding only about 1/10 the drift measured by Miller and no seasonal effects. In 1930,Georg Joosconducted an experiment using an automated interferometer with 21-meter-long (69 ft) arms forged from pressed quartz having a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, that took continuous photographic strip recordings of the fringes through dozens of revolutions of the apparatus. Displacements of 1/1000 of a fringe could be measured on the photographic plates. No periodic fringe displacements were found, placing an upper limit to the aether wind of 1.5 km/s (0.93 mi/s). In the table below, the expected values",
"the expected values are related to the relative speed between Earth and Sun of 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s). With respect to the speed of the solar system around the galactic center of about 220 km/s (140 mi/s), or the speed of the solar system relative to theCMB rest frameof about 370 km/s (230 mi/s), the null results of those experiments are even more obvious. Recent experiments Optical tests Optical tests of the isotropy of the speed of light became commonplace.New technologies, including the use oflasersandmasers, have significantly improved measurement precision. (In the following table, only Essen (1955), Jaseja (1964), and Shamir/Fox (1969) are experiments of Michelson–Morley type,i.e.,comparing two perpendicular beams. The other optical experiments employed different methods.) Recent optical resonator experiments During the early 21st century, there has been a resurgence in interest in performing precise Michelson–Morley type experiments using lasers, masers, cryogenicoptical resonators, etc. This is in large",
"This is in large part due to predictions of quantum gravity that suggest that special relativity may be violated at scales accessible to experimental study. The first of these highly accurate experiments was conducted by Brillet & Hall (1979), in which they analyzed a laser frequency stabilized to a resonance of a rotating opticalFabry–Pérotcavity. They set a limit on the anisotropy of the speed of light resulting from the Earth's motions of Δc/c≈ 10−15, where Δcis the difference between the speed of light in thex- andy-directions. As of 2015, optical and microwave resonator experiments have improved this limit to Δc/c≈ 10−18. In some of them, the devices were rotated or remained stationary, and some were combined with theKennedy–Thorndike experiment. In particular, Earth's direction and velocity (ca. 368 km/s (229 mi/s)) relative to theCMB rest frameare ordinarily used as references in these searches for anisotropies. Other tests of Lorentz invariance Examples of other experiments not based on the",
"not based on the Michelson–Morley principle, i.e., non-optical isotropy tests achieving an even higher level of precision, areClock comparison or Hughes–Drever experiments. In Drever's 1961 experiment,7Li nuclei in the ground state, which has total angular momentumJ= 3/2, were split into four equally spaced levels by a magnetic field. Each transition between a pair of adjacent levels should emit a photon of equal frequency, resulting in a single, sharp spectral line. However, since the nuclear wave functions for differentMJhave different orientations in space relative to the magnetic field, any orientation dependence, whether from an aether wind or from a dependence on the large-scale distribution of mass in space (seeMach's principle), would perturb the energy spacings between the four levels, resulting in an anomalous broadening or splitting of the line. No such broadening was observed. Modern repeats of this kind of experiment have provided some of the most accurate confirmations of the principle",
"of the principle ofLorentz invariance. See also References Notes Experiments Bibliography (Series \"A\" references) External links"
] |
How tall does the flower get on the very first orchid David L. Jones (botanist) described and published in his career? | 20–30 millimetres (0.8–1 in) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pterostylis_aestiva#Description | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pterostylis_aestiva#Description'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pterostylis_aestiva#Description"
] | [
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist",
"Pterostylis aestiva Diplodium aestivum(D.L.Jones) D.L.Jones &M.A.Clem. Pterostylis aestiva, commonly known as thelong-tongued summer greenhood,is a species oforchidendemicto south-easternAustralia. As with similar greenhoods, the flowering plants differ from those which are not flowering. The non-flowering plants have a rosette of leaves flat on the ground but the flowering plants have a single flower with leaves on the flowering spike. Description Pterostylis aestivais a terrestrial,perennial,deciduous,herbwith an undergroundtuberand when not flowering, arosetteof dark bluish-green leaves, each leaf 10–30 millimetres (0.4–1 in) long and 10–15 millimetres (0.4–0.6 in) wide. Flowering plants have a single flower 20–30 millimetres (0.8–1 in) long and 7–9 millimetres (0.3–0.4 in) wide borne on a spike 150–350 millimetres (6–10 in) high with between three and five stem leaves. The flowers are dark bluish-green, white and brown. Thedorsalsepalandpetalsare fused, forming a hood or \"galea\" over thecolumn. The dorsal sepal curves forward with a thread-like tip 8–12 millimetres (0.3–0.5 in) long. Thelateralsepals are held closely against the galea, have an erect, thread-like tip 25–35 millimetres (0.98–1.4 in) long and a protrudingsinusbetween their bases. The labellum is 15–19 millimetres (0.6–0.7 in) long, about 4 millimetres (0.2 in) wide, brown, blunt, and curved and protrudes above the sinus. Flowering occurs from January to April. Taxonomy and naming Pterostylis aestivawas first formally described in 1972 byDavid Jonesfrom a specimen collected nearWulgulmerang. The description was published inMuelleria.Thespecific epithet(aestiva) is aLatinword meaning \"pertaining to summer\". Distribution and habitat The long-tongued summer greenhood grows among grasses in high rainfall forests in north-eastVictoriaandNew South Walesas far north asMount Canobolas. Use in horticulture This greenhood is easily grows in pots although plants must be kept moist during the growing season and dry when dormant. References"
] | [
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist",
"Pterostylis aestiva Diplodium aestivum(D.L.Jones) D.L.Jones &M.A.Clem. Pterostylis aestiva, commonly known as thelong-tongued summer greenhood,is a species oforchidendemicto south-easternAustralia. As with similar greenhoods, the flowering plants differ from those which are not flowering. The non-flowering plants have a rosette of leaves flat on the ground but the flowering plants have a single flower with leaves on the flowering spike. Description Pterostylis aestivais a terrestrial,perennial,deciduous,herbwith an undergroundtuberand when not flowering, arosetteof dark bluish-green leaves, each leaf 10–30 millimetres (0.4–1 in) long and 10–15 millimetres (0.4–0.6 in) wide. Flowering plants have a single flower 20–30 millimetres (0.8–1 in) long and 7–9 millimetres (0.3–0.4 in) wide borne on a spike 150–350 millimetres (6–10 in) high with between three and five stem leaves. The flowers are dark bluish-green, white and brown. Thedorsalsepalandpetalsare fused, forming a hood or \"galea\" over thecolumn. The dorsal",
"The dorsal sepal curves forward with a thread-like tip 8–12 millimetres (0.3–0.5 in) long. Thelateralsepals are held closely against the galea, have an erect, thread-like tip 25–35 millimetres (0.98–1.4 in) long and a protrudingsinusbetween their bases. The labellum is 15–19 millimetres (0.6–0.7 in) long, about 4 millimetres (0.2 in) wide, brown, blunt, and curved and protrudes above the sinus. Flowering occurs from January to April. Taxonomy and naming Pterostylis aestivawas first formally described in 1972 byDavid Jonesfrom a specimen collected nearWulgulmerang. The description was published inMuelleria.Thespecific epithet(aestiva) is aLatinword meaning \"pertaining to summer\". Distribution and habitat The long-tongued summer greenhood grows among grasses in high rainfall forests in north-eastVictoriaandNew South Walesas far north asMount Canobolas. Use in horticulture This greenhood is easily grows in pots although plants must be kept moist during the growing season and dry when dormant. References"
] |
What album by the band named 'The Band' was released on the same day as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was opened for signature? | Music from Big Pink | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Band#Discography | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_from_Big_Pink | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Band#Discography', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_from_Big_Pink'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Band#Discography",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_from_Big_Pink"
] | [
"Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Page version status This is an accepted version of this page TheTreaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as theNon-Proliferation TreatyorNPT, is an internationaltreatywhose objective is to prevent the spread ofnuclear weaponsand weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses ofnuclear energy, and to further the goal of achievingnuclear disarmamentand general and complete disarmament.Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by theEighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament, aUnited Nations-sponsored organization based inGeneva, Switzerland. Opened for signature in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970. As required by the text, after twenty-five years, NPT parties met in May 1995 and agreed to extend the treaty indefinitely.More countries are parties to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, a testament to the treaty's significance.As of August 2016, 191 states have become parties to the treaty, thoughNorth Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its withdrawal from the NPT in 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in violation of core obligations.FourUN member stateshave never accepted the NPT, three of which possess or are thought to possess nuclear weapons:India,Israel, andPakistan. In addition,South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined. The treaty definesnuclear-weapon statesas those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1 January 1967; these are the United States (1945),Russia(1949), theUnited Kingdom(1952),France(1960), andChina(1964). Four other states are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons:India,Pakistan, andNorth Koreahave openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons, whileIsraelisdeliberately ambiguousregardingits nuclear weapons status. The NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain: the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals. The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences. Even though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the signing parties decided, by consensus, to unconditionally extend the treaty indefinitely during the Review Conference in New York City on 11 May 1995, in the culmination of U.S. government efforts led by AmbassadorThomas Graham Jr. At the time the NPT was proposed, there were predictions of 25–30 nuclear weapon states within 20 years. Instead, over forty years later, five states are not parties to the NPT, and they include the only four additional states believed to possess nuclear weapons.Several additional measures have been adopted to strengthen the NPT and the broader nuclear nonproliferation regime and make it difficult for states to acquire the capability to produce nuclear weapons, including the export controls of theNuclear Suppliers Groupand the enhanced verification measures of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA)Additional Protocol. Critics argue that the NPT cannot stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons or the motivation to acquire them. They express disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads in their combined stockpile. Several high-ranking officials within the United Nations have said that they can do little to stop states usingnuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons. Treaty structure The NPT consists of a preamble and eleven articles. Although the concept of \"pillars\" is not expressed anywhere in the NPT, the treaty is nevertheless sometimes interpreted as athree-pillarsystem,with an implicit balance among them: These pillars are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. An effective nonproliferation regime whose members comply with their obligations provides an essential foundation for progress on disarmament and makes possible greater cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. With the right to access the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology comes the responsibility of nonproliferation. Progress on disarmament reinforces efforts to strengthen the nonproliferation regime and to enforce compliance with obligations, thereby also facilitating peaceful nuclear cooperation.The \"pillars\" concept has been questioned by some who believe that the NPT is, as its name suggests, principally about nonproliferation, and who worry that \"three pillars\" language misleadingly implies that the three elements have equivalent importance. First pillar: Non-proliferation Under Article I of the NPT, nuclear-weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon. Under Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes. Five states are recognized by the NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968), which also happen to be the fivepermanent members of the United Nations Security Council. These five NWS agree not to transfer \"nuclear weapons or othernuclear explosivedevices\" and \"not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce\" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to \"receive\", \"manufacture\", or \"acquire\" nuclear weapons or to \"seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons\" (Article II). NNWS parties also agree to accept safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or othernuclear explosivedevices (Article III). The five NWS parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear weapons against a non-NWS party except in response to a nuclear attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a Nuclear Weapons State. However, these undertakings have not been incorporated formally into the treaty, and the exact details have varied over time. The U.S. also had nuclear warheads targeted at North Korea, a non-NWS, from 1959 until 1991. The previous United KingdomSecretary of State for Defence,Geoff Hoon, has also explicitly invoked the possibility of the use of the country's nuclear weapons in response to a non-conventional attack by \"rogue states\".In January 2006, PresidentJacques Chiracof France indicated that an incident ofstate-sponsored terrorismon France could trigger a small-scale nuclear retaliation aimed at destroying the \"rogue state's\" power centers. Security provided by extendednuclear deterrenceor anuclear umbrellahave been a factor limiting incentives for some NNWS to acquire nuclear weapons. Second pillar: Disarmament Under Article VI of the NPT, all Parties undertake to pursue good-faith negotiations on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race, to nuclear disarmament, and to general and complete disarmament. Article VI of the NPT represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon states. The NPT's preamble contains language affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthen international trust so as to create someday the conditions for a halt to the production of nuclear weapons, and treaty on general and complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular, nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles from national arsenals. The wording of the NPT's Article VI arguably imposes only a vague obligation on all NPT signatories to move in the general direction of nuclear and total disarmament, saying, \"Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament.\"Under this interpretation, Article VI does not strictly require all signatories to actually conclude a disarmament treaty. Rather, it only requires them \"to negotiate in good faith\". On the other hand, some governments, especially non-nuclear-weapon states belonging to theNon-Aligned Movement, have interpreted Article VI's language as constituting a formal and specific obligation on the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, and argue that these states have failed to meet their obligation.TheInternational Court of Justice(ICJ), in itsadvisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, issued 8 July 1996, unanimously interprets the text of Article VI as implying that There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. The ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament. Critics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in thepost–Cold War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals. Other observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament.No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which has led to the elimination of thousands of weapons and delivery systems—could eventually make the possession of nuclear weapons more attractive by increasing the perceived strategic value of a small arsenal. As one U.S. official and NPT expert warned in 2007, \"logic suggests that as the number of nuclear weapons decreases, the 'marginal utility' of a nuclear weapon as an instrument of military power increases. At the extreme, which it is precisely disarmament's hope to create, the strategic utility of even one or two nuclear weapons would be huge.\" Third pillar: Peaceful use of nuclear energy NPT Article IV acknowledges the right of all Parties to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and to benefit from international cooperation in this area, in conformity with their nonproliferation obligations. Article IV also encourages such cooperation.This so-called third pillar provides for the transfer of nuclear technology and materials to NPT Parties for peaceful purposes in the development of civilian nuclear energy programs in those countries, subject to IAEA safeguards to demonstrate that their nuclear programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons. As the commercially popularlight water reactornuclear power stationuses enriched uranium fuel, it follows that states must be able either to enrich uranium or purchase it on an international market.Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency, has called the spread of enrichment and reprocessing capabilities the \"Achilles' heel\" of the nuclear nonproliferation regime. As of 2007, 13 states have an enrichment capability. During the 1960s and 1970s many states, almost 60, were supplied withresearch reactorsfuelled by weapon gradehighly enriched uranium(HEU) through the United StatesAtoms for Peaceprogram and a similar Soviet Union program.In the 1980s a program to convert HEU research reactors to use low enriched fuel was started in the United States due to proliferation concerns.However 26 states possessed more than 1 kg of civilian HEU in 2015,and as of 2016 the stocks of HEU for civilian research were 60 tonnes, with 74 research reactors still using HEU. Because the availability of fissile material has long been considered the principal obstacle to, and \"pacing element\" for, a country's nuclear weapons development effort, it was declared a major emphasis of U.S. policy in 2004 to prevent the further spread of uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing (a.k.a. \"ENR\") technology.Countries possessing ENR capabilities, it is feared, have what is in effect the option of using this capability to produce fissile material for weapons use on demand, thus giving them what has been termed a \"virtual\" nuclear weapons program.The degree to which NPT members have a \"right\" to ENR technology notwithstanding its potentially grave proliferation implications, therefore, is at the cutting edge of policy and legal debates surrounding the meaning of Article IV and its relation to Articles I, II, and III of the treaty. Countries that have become Parties to the NPT as non-nuclear-weapon States have a strong record of not building nuclear weapons, although some tried and one eventually left the NPT and acquired nuclear weapons. Iraq was found by the IAEA to have violated its safeguards obligations and subject to punitive sanctions by theUN Security Council. North Korea never came into compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement and was cited repeatedly for these violations,and later withdrew from the NPT and tested multiple nuclear devices. Iran was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards obligations in an unusual non-consensus decision because it \"failed in a number of instances over an extended period of time\" to report aspects of its enrichment program.In 1991, Romania reported previously undeclared nuclear activities by the former regime and the IAEA reported this non-compliance to the Security Council for information only. Libya pursued a clandestine nuclear weapons program before abandoning it in December 2003. The IAEA reported Syria's safeguards non-compliance to the UN Security Council, which did not take action. In some regions, the fact that all neighbors are verifiably free of nuclear weapons reduces any pressure individual states might feel to build those weapons themselves, even if neighbors are known to have peaceful nuclear energy programs that might otherwise be suspicious. In this, the treaty works as designed. In 2004,Mohamed ElBaradeisaid that by some estimates thirty-five to forty states could have the knowledge to develop nuclear weapons. Key articles Article I:Each nuclear-weapons state (NWS) undertakes not to transfer, to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices. Article II: Each non-NWS party undertakes not to receive, from any source, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices; not to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices; and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture. Article III: Each non-NWS party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the IAEA for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear material in all of the state's peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. Article IV: 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all the Parties to the Treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty. 2. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world. Article VI: Each party \"undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a Treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control\". Article IX: \"For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967.\" Article X: Establishes the right to withdraw from the Treaty giving 3 months' notice. It also establishes the duration of the Treaty (25 years before 1995 Extension Initiative). History The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that theCold Wardeterrent relationship between just the United States and theSoviet Unionwas fragile. Having more nuclear-weapon states would reduce security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, escalation in tensions, and nuclear conflict. Moreover, since theuse of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasakiin 1945, it has been apparent that the development of nuclear capabilities by States could enable them to divert technology and materials for weapons purposes. Thus, the problem of preventing such diversions became a central issue in discussions on peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Initial efforts, which began in 1946, to create an international system enabling all States to have access to nuclear technology under appropriate safeguards, were terminated in 1949 without the achievement of this objective, due to serious political differences between the major Powers. By then, both the United States and the former Soviet Union had tested nuclear weapons, and were beginning to build their stockpiles. In December 1953, US PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower, in his \"Atoms for Peace\" proposal, presented to the eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly, urged that an international organization be established to disseminate peaceful nuclear technology, while guarding against development of weapons capabilities in additional countries. His proposal resulted in 1957 in the establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which was charged with the dual responsibility for promotion and control of nuclear technology. IAEA technical activities began in 1958. An interim safeguards system for small nuclear reactors, put in place in 1961, was replaced in 1964 by a system covering larger installations and, over the following years, was expanded to include additional nuclear facilities. In recent years, efforts to strengthen the effectiveness and improve the efficiency of the IAEA safeguards system culminated in the approval of the Model Additional Protocol by the IAEA Board of Governors in May 1997. Within the framework of the United Nations, the principle of nuclear non-proliferation was addressed in negotiations as early as 1957. The NPT process was launched byFrank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958. The NPT gained significant momentum in the early 1960s. The structure of a treaty to uphold nuclear non-proliferation as a norm of international behaviour had become clear by the mid-1960s, and by 1968 final agreement had been reached on a Treaty that would prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons, enable cooperation for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament. It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the firstState to sign. Accession became nearly universal after the end of theCold Warand of South Africanapartheid. In 1992, The People's Republic of China and France acceded to the NPT, the last of the five nuclear powers recognized by the treaty to do so. The treaty provided, in article X, for a conference to be convened 25 years after its entry into force to decide whether the treaty should continue in force indefinitely, or be extended for an additional fixed period or periods. Accordingly, at the NPT Review and Extension Conference in May 1995, state parties to the treaty agreed—without a vote—on the treaty's indefinite extension, and decided that review conferences should continue to be held every five years. After Brazil acceded to the NPT in 1998, the only remaining non-nuclear-weapon state which had not signed was Cuba, which joined the NPT (and theTreaty of TlatelolcoNWFZ) in 2002. Several NPT states parties have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs. South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, but has since renounced it and acceded to the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nucleararsenal; after this, the remaining African countries signed the treaty. Theformer Soviet Republicswhere nuclear weapons had been based, namely Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, transferred those weapons to Russia and joined the NPT by 1994 following the signature of theBudapest Memorandum on Security Assurances. Successor states from theBreakup of YugoslaviaandDissolution of Czechoslovakiaalso joined the treaty soon after their independence. Montenegro and East Timor were the last countries to accede to the treaty on their independence in 2006 and 2003; the only other country to accede in the 21st century was Cuba in 2002. The three Micronesian countries inCompact of Free Associationwith the USA joined the NPT in 1995, along with Vanuatu. Major South American countries Argentina, Chile, and Brazil joined in 1995 and 1998. Arabian Peninsula countries included Saudi Arabia and Bahrain in 1988, Qatar and Kuwait in 1989, UAE in 1995, and Oman in 1997. The European states ofMonacoandAndorrajoined in 1995–6. Also acceding in the 1990s were Myanmar in 1992 and Guyana in 1993. United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing At the time the treaty was being negotiated,NATOhad in place secretnuclear weapons sharingagreements whereby the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended \"unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling\", so there is no breach of the NPT.These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including theSoviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time. As of 2005, it is estimated that the United States still provides about 180 tacticalB61 nuclear bombsfor use byBelgium,Germany,Italy, theNetherlandsandTurkeyunder these NATO agreements.Many states, and theNon-Aligned Movement, now argue this violates Articles I and II of the treaty, and are applying diplomatic pressure to terminate these agreements. They point out that the pilots and other staff of the \"non-nuclear\" NATO states practice handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and non-U.S. warplanes have been adapted to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs which must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its \"nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political\". U.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuadingWest Germanynot to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with theWarsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S. hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route.(West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.) Preparations for Russia's weapon deployment in Belarus On 27 February 2022, shortly after the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine,a referendumwas staged in Belarus to remove a constitutional prohibition on basing nuclear weapons on its territory.On 25 June 2022, President of BelarusLukashenkomet Russian PresidentPutinto discuss the deployment of Russian short-range nuclear-capable missiles on the territory of Belarus. The transfer of nuclear warheads would require a further decision, possibly after a number of years, and could be tied to future NATO decisions. In Belarus, Russia plans to deploy nuclear-capableIskander-Mmissile systems.Both conventional and nuclear versions of the missile would be provided under the plans.Additionally, Putin said that he would facilitate the modifications necessary for BelarusianSu-25bombers to carry nuclear missiles. On 14 June 2023, president Lukashenko said that Russia had started moving tactical nuclear weapons into Belarus's territory.The Russian president had said the weapons were moved \"as a deterrence measure\" against threats to Russian statehood, and would not be controlled by Belarus.NATO saw no evidence in a change in Russia's nuclear position,while Ukrainian intelligence said that not a single warhead had yet been transferred. Non-parties Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon programs, and Israel has a long-standingpolicy of deliberate ambiguitywith regards to its nuclear program (seeList of states with nuclear weapons). India India has detonated nuclear devices,firstin 1974 andagainin 1998.It is estimated to have enough fissile material for more than 150 warheadsand was among the few countries to have ano first usepolicy, a pledge not to use nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons, however India's formerNSAShivshankar Menonsignaled a significant shift from \"no first use\" to \"no first use against non-nuclear weapon states\" in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of theNational Defence CollegeinNew Delhion 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India's \"strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence\". India argues that the NPT creates a club of \"nuclear haves\" and a larger group of \"nuclear have-nots\" by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid. India's then External Affairs MinisterPranab Mukherjeesaid during a visit to Tokyo in 2007: \"If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment.\"Although there have been unofficial discussions on creating a South Asian nuclear weapons free zone, including India and Pakistan, this is considered to be highly unlikely for the foreseeable future. In early March 2006, India and the United States finalized an agreement, in the face of criticism in both countries, to restart cooperation on civilian nuclear technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22 nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them underIAEAsafeguards.Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the IAEA, welcomed the deal by calling India \"an important partner in the non-proliferation regime.\" In December 2006,United States Congressapproved theUnited States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act, endorsing a deal that was forged during Prime MinisterManmohan Singh's visit to the United States in July 2005 and cemented during President Bush's visit to India earlier in 2006. The legislation allows for the transfer of civilian nuclear material to India. Despite its status outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, nuclear cooperation with India was permitted on the basis of its clean non-proliferation record, and India's need for energy fueled by its rapid industrialization and a billion-plus population. On 1 August 2008, the IAEA approved the India Safeguards Agreementand on 6 September 2008, India was granted the waiver at the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) meeting held in Vienna, Austria. The consensus was arrived after overcoming misgivings expressed by Austria, Ireland and New Zealand and is an unprecedented step in giving exemption to a country, which has not signed the NPT and theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty(CTBT).While India could commence nuclear trade with other willing countries.The U.S. Congress approved this agreement and President Bush signed it on 8 October 2008. When China announced expanded nuclear cooperation with Pakistan in 2010, proponents ofarms controldenounced both the deals, claiming that they weakened the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT. As of January 2011, Australia, atop three uranium producer and home to world's largest known reserves, had continued its refusal to export uranium to India despite diplomatic pressure from India. In November 2011, Australian Prime MinisterJulia Gillardannounced a desire to allow exports to India,a policy change which was authorized by her party's national conference in December.The following month, Gillard overturned Australia's long-standing ban on exporting uranium to India.She further said, \"We should take a decision in the national interest, a decision about strengthening our strategic partnership with India in this the Asian century,\" and said that any agreement to sell uranium to India would include strict safeguards to ensure it would only be used for civilian purposes, and not end up in nuclear weapons. On 5 September 2014Tony Abbott, Gillard's successor as Australian Prime Minister, sealed a civil nuclear deal to sell uranium to India. \"We signed a nuclear cooperation agreement because Australia trusts India to do the right thing in this area, as it has been doing in other areas,\" Abbott told reporters after he and Indian Prime MinisterNarendra Modisigned a pact to sell uranium for peaceful power generation. Pakistan In May 1998, following India'snuclear testsearlier that month, Pakistan conducted two sets of nuclear tests, theChagai-IandChagai-II. Although there is little confirmed information in public, as of 2015, Pakistan was estimated to have as many as 120 warheads.According to analyses of theCarnegie Endowment for International Peaceand theStimson Center, Pakistan has enough fissile material for 350 warheads. Pakistani officials argue that the NPT is discriminatory. When asked at a briefing in 2015 whether Islamabad would sign the NPT if Washington requested it,Foreign SecretaryAizaz Ahmad Chaudhrywas quoted as responding \"It is a discriminatory treaty. Pakistan has the right to defend itself, so Pakistan will not sign the NPT. Why should we?\"Until 2010, Pakistan had always maintained the position that it would sign the NPT if India did so. In 2010, Pakistan abandoned this historic position and stated that it would join the NPT only as a recognized nuclear-weapon state. The NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Pakistan, with very narrow exceptions, since it does not have full-scope IAEA safeguards (i.e. safeguards on all its nuclear activities). Pakistan has sought to reach an agreement similar to that with India,but these efforts have been rebuffed by the United States and other NSG members, on the grounds that Pakistan's track record as a nuclear proliferator makes it impossible for it to have any sort of nuclear deal in the near future. By 2010, China reportedly signed a civil nuclear agreement with Pakistan, using the justification that the deal was \"peaceful\".The British government criticized this, on the grounds that 'the time is not yet right for a civil nuclear deal with Pakistan'.China did not seek formal approval from thenuclear suppliers group, and claimed instead that its cooperation with Pakistan was \"grandfathered\" when China joined the NSG, a claim that was disputed by other NSG members.Pakistanapplied for membership on 19 May 2016,supported by Turkey and ChinaHowever, many NSG members opposed Pakistan's membership bid due to its track record, including the illicit procurement network of Pakistani scientist A.Q. Khan, which aided the nuclear programs of Iran, Libya and North Korea.Pakistani officials reiterated the request in August 2016. Israel Israel has a long-standingpolicy of deliberate ambiguitywith regards to its nuclear program (seeList of countries with nuclear weapons). Israel has been developing nuclear technology at itsDimonasite in theNegevsince 1958, and some nonproliferation analysts estimate that Israel may have stockpiled between 100 and 200 warheads using reprocessed plutonium. The position on the NPT is explained in terms of \"Israeli exceptionality\", a term coined by ProfessorGerald M. Steinberg, in reference to the perception that the country's small size, overall vulnerability, as well as the history of deep hostility and large-scale attacks by neighboring states, require a deterrent capability. The Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny possession of nuclear weapons, although this is now regarded as an open secret after Israeli junior nuclear technicianMordechai Vanunu—subsequently arrested and sentenced for treason by Israel—published evidence about the program to the BritishSunday Timesin 1986. On 18 September 2009, the General Conference of theInternational Atomic Energy Agencycalled on Israel to open its nuclear facilities to IAEA inspection and adhere to the non-proliferation treaty as part of a resolution on \"Israeli nuclear capabilities\", which passed by a narrow margin of 49–45 with 16 abstentions. The chief Israeli delegate stated that \"Israel will not co-operate in any matter with this resolution.\"However, similar resolutions were defeated in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015.As with Pakistan, the NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Israel. Other states North Korea North Korea acceded to the treaty on 12 December 1985 in order to obtain assistance from the Soviet Union in the construction of fourlight-water reactors, but was ruled be in noncompliance with its IAEA safeguards agreement after a series of inspections in 1992-93 which determined that North Korea had not fully declared its history of reprocessing spent fuel at theYongbyon nuclear facility.North Korea responded by announcing its intent to withdraw from the treaty on 12 March 1993, and PresidentBill Clintonresponded by announcing sanctions and considering military action. The crisis ended with theAgreed Frameworknegotiated by former US PresidentJimmy Carterin which North Korea agreed to an IAEA-monitored freeze of plutonium production facilities and construction of new reactors in exchange for two light-water reactors andheavy fuel oilshipments through the US-ledKorean Peninsula Energy Development Organizationconsortium. North Korea also abandoned its withdrawal from the NPT. During the late 1990s and the early 2000s critics of the agreement, as well as Clinton's successorGeorge W. Bush, expressed skepticism on North Korean compliance to the Agreed Framework. During 2002 negotiations US Assistant Secretary of StateJames A. Kellyaccused North Korea of a secret highly enriched uranium program; North Korean First Vice Foreign MinisterKang Sok-juand Vice Foreign MinisterKim Kye-gwanresponded by denying the allegations but asserting that North Korea had a right to nuclear weapons. The U.S. subsequently halted fuel oil shipments to North Korea in December 2002 and the DPRK government again gave notice of withdrawal from NPT on 10 January 2003.The withdrawal became effective 10 April 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty. In April 2003, North Korea agreed to the multilateralsix-party talksto find a diplomatic solution to the issue hosted byChinaand including the United States,South Korea,Russia, andJapan. North Korea initially demanded resumption of fuel shipments, while the United States demanded the \"complete, verifiable, and irreversible dismantlement\" of the North Korean nuclear program.On 10 February 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks. \"We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self-defence to cope with the Bush administration's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK ,\" a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue.Six-party talks resumed in July 2005. On 19 September 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors. The difficult issue of the supply oflight water reactorsto replace North Korea'sindigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions.On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT.The six-party talks eventually collapsed before a final agreement could be negotiated after theU.S. State DepartmentsanctionedBanco Delta Asiaunder Section 311 of thePatriot Actfor money-laundering involving North Korean accounts. On 2 October 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test \"in the future\", although it did not state when.On Monday, 9 October 2006 at 01:35:28 (UTC) theUnited States Geological Surveydetected a magnitude 4.3seismic event70 km (43 mi) north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test.The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completeda successful underground testof a nuclear fission device. AfterUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1718imposed sanctions on North Korea, the six-party talks resumed. In February 2007 the parties agreed to the Initial Actions for the Implementation for the Joint Statement in which North Korea would dismantle its nuclear weapons programs, including the Yongbyon reactor, in exchange for the return of frozen funds at Banco Delta Asia and foreign energy assistance.However, the agreement failed due to verification problems and North Korea fully withdrew from the six-party talks in 2009 after the other members condemned the2009 North Korean missile tests, expelling all US and IAEA inspectors from the country.The UN responded by adoptingUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1874expanding the sanctions regime. In 2007, reports from Washington suggested that the 2002CIAreports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence.On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations, there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok-ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan's then-President Musharraf revealed that theA.Q. Khanproliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U.S. officials to the effect that evidence obtained in dismantlingLibya's WMD programspoints toward North Korea as the source for Libya'suranium hexafluoride(UF6)—which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment.North Korea formally announced the existence of a uranium enrichment program in September 2009. In 2011, after rising tensions over the North Korean nuclear program, theROKSCheonansinking, and thebombardment of Yeonpyeong, North Korea began to express interest in returning to the six-party talks. Bilateral negotiations between North Korea and the United States after thedeath of Kim Jong-illed to the 29 February 2012 \"Leap Day Agreement\" in which North Korea would agree to allow IAEA inspections and resume the six-party talks. However, these diplomatic gains were quickly undercut by launching theUnha-3rocket, leading the United States to suspend food aid.North Korea conducted further nuclear tests in2013,January 2016,September 2016, and2017, and announced that it was developing miniaturized warheads andintercontinental ballistic missiles. It also claimed that it had successfully detonatedthermonuclear weaponsin the January 2016 and 2017 tests. The North Korean nuclear weapons development led to the2017–2018 North Korea crisiswhich nearly led to war, with both North Korean Supreme LeaderKim Jong-unand US PresidentDonald Trumpthreatening military action. The crisis was averted after a series of meetings between Kim Jong-un, US Secretary of StateMike Pompeo, and South Korean PresidentMoon Jae-infinally culminating with the2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summitbetween Trump and Kim, the first face-to-face meeting between the US and North Korean heads of state.The IAEA has called for North Korea to rejoin it and the NPT since 2013. Iran Iran is a party to the NPT since 1970 but was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement, and the status of its nuclear program remains in dispute. In November 2003IAEADirector GeneralMohamed ElBaradeireported that Iran had repeatedly and over an extended period failed to meet its safeguards obligations under the NPT with respect to: After about two years of EU3-led diplomatic efforts and Iran temporarily suspending its enrichment program,the IAEA Board of Governors, acting under Article XII.C of the IAEA Statute, found in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions that these failures constituted non-compliance with the IAEA safeguards agreement.This was reported to theUN Security Councilin 2006,after which the Security Council passed a resolution demanding that Iran suspend its enrichment.Instead, Iran resumed its enrichment program. The IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran, and is continuing its work on verifying the absence of undeclared activities.In February 2008, the IAEA also reported that it was working to address \"alleged studies\" of weaponization, based on documents provided by certain Member States, which those states claimed originated from Iran. Iran rejected the allegations as \"baseless\" and the documents as \"fabrications\".In June 2009, the IAEA reported that Iran had not \"cooperated with the Agency in connection with the remaining issues ... which need to be clarified to exclude the possibility of military dimensions to Iran's nuclear program.\" The United States concluded that Iran violated its Article III NPT safeguards obligations, and further argued based on circumstantial evidence that Iran's enrichment program was for weapons purposes and therefore violated Iran's Article II nonproliferation obligations.The November 2007 USNational Intelligence Estimate(NIE) later concluded that Iran had halted an active nuclear weapons program in the fall of 2003 and that it had remained halted as of mid-2007. The NIE's \"Key Judgments\", however, also made clear that what Iran had actually stopped in 2003 was only \"nuclear weapon design and weaponization work and covert uranium conversion-related and uranium enrichment-related work\"-namely, those aspects of Iran's nuclear weapons effort that had not by that point already been leaked to the press and become the subject of IAEA investigations. Since Iran's uranium enrichment program at Natanz—and its continuing work on a heavy water reactor at Arak that would be ideal for plutonium production—began secretly years before in conjunction with the very weaponization work the NIE discussed and for the purpose of developing nuclear weapons, many observers find Iran's continued development of fissile material production capabilities distinctly worrying. Particularly because fissile material availability has long been understood to be the principal obstacle to nuclear weapons development and the primary \"pacing element\" for a weapons program, the fact that Iran has reportedly suspended weaponization work may not mean very much.As The Bush Administration's Director of National Intelligence (DNI)Mike McConnellput it in 2008, the aspects of its work that Iran allegedly suspended were thus \"probably the least significant part of the program.\" Iran stated it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it had \"constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency\".Iran also stated that its enrichment program has been part of its civilian nuclear energy program, which is allowed under Article IV of the NPT. The Non-Aligned Movement has welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. Early during his tenure asUnited Nations Secretary General, between 2007 and 2016,Ban Ki-moonwelcomed the continued dialogue between Iran and the IAEA. He urged a peaceful resolution of the issue. In April 2010, during the signing of the U.S.-RussiaNew STARTTreaty, President Obama said that the United States, Russia, and other nations were demanding that Iran face consequences for failing to fulfill its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, saying \"We will not tolerate actions that flout the NPT, risk an arms race in a vital region, and threaten the credibility of the international community and our collective security.\" In 2015, Iran negotiated a nuclear deal with theP5+1, a group of countries that consisted of thefive permanent members of the UN Security Council(China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) plus Germany. On 14 July 2015, the P5+1 and Iran concluded theJoint Comprehensive Plan of Action, lifting sanctions on Iran in exchange for constraints and on Iran's nuclear activities and increased verification by the IAEA. On 8 May 2018, PresidentDonald Trumpwithdrew the United States from the JCPOAand reimposedsanctions on Iran. South Africa South Africa is the only country that developed nuclear weapons by itself and later dismantled them—unlike the formerSovietstatesUkraine,BelarusandKazakhstan, which inherited nuclear weapons from the formerUSSRand also acceded to the NPT as non-nuclear weapon states. During the days ofapartheid, the South African government developed a deep fear of both a black uprising and the threat of communism. This led to the development of a secret nuclear weapons program as an ultimate deterrent. South Africa has a large supply of uranium, which is mined in the country's gold mines. The government built a nuclear research facility atPelindabanearPretoriawhere uranium was enriched to fuel grade for theKoeberg Nuclear Power Stationas well as weapon grade for bomb production. In 1991, after international pressure and when a change of government was imminent, South African Ambassador to the United StatesHarry Schwarzsigned the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 1993, the then presidentFrederik Willem de Klerkopenly admitted that the country had developed a limited nuclear weapon capability. These weapons were subsequently dismantled beforeSouth Africaacceded to the NPT and opened itself up to IAEA inspection. In 1994, the IAEA completed its work and declared that the country had fully dismantled its nuclear weapons program. Libya Libya had signed (in 1968) and ratified (in 1975) the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and was subject to IAEA nuclear safeguards inspections, but undertook a secret nuclear weapons development program in violation of its NPT obligations, using material and technology provided by theA.Q. Khanproliferation network—including actual nuclear weapons designs allegedly originating in China. Libya began secret negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom in March 2003 over potentially eliminating itsWMD programs. In October 2003, Libya was embarrassed by the interdiction of a shipment of Pakistani-designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia, also as part of A. Q. Khan's proliferation ring. In December 2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to eliminate all its WMD programs, and permitted U.S. and British teams (as well as IAEA inspectors) into the country to assist this process and verify its completion. The nuclear weapons designs, gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment, and other equipment—including prototypes for improvedSCUD ballistic missiles—were removed from Libya by the United States. (Libyan chemical weapons stocks and chemical bombs were also destroyed on site with international verification, with Libya joining theChemical Weapons Convention.) Libya's non-compliance with its IAEA safeguards was reported to the U.N. Security Council, but with no action taken, as Libya's return to compliance with safeguards and Article II of the NPT was welcomed. In 2011, the Libyan government ofMuammar al-Gaddafiwas overthrown in theLibyan Civil Warwith the assistance of amilitary interventionbyNATO forcesacting under the auspices ofUN Security Council Resolution 1973. Gaddafi's downfall 8 years after thedisarmament of Libya, in which Gaddafi agreed to eliminate Libya's nuclear weapons program, has been repeatedly cited by North Korea, which views Gaddafi's fate as a \"cautionary tale\" that influences North Korea's decision to maintain and intensifyits nuclear weapons program and arsenaldespite pressure to denuclearize. Syria Syria is a state party to the NPT since 1969 and has a limited civil nuclear program. Before the advent of theSyrian Civil Warit was known to operate only one small Chinese-built research reactor, SRR-1. Despite being a proponent of a Weapons of Mass Destruction Free Zone in the Middle East the country was accused of pursuing a military nuclear program with a reported nuclear facility in a desertDeir ez-Zor Governorate. The reactor's components had likely been designed and manufactured in North Korea, with the reactor's striking similarity in shape and size to the North Korean Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. That information alarmed Israeli military and intelligence to such a degree that the idea of a targeted airstrike was conceived. It resulted inOperation Orchard, that took place on 6 September 2007 and saw as many as eightIsraeli Air Forceaircraft taking part. The Israeli government is said to have bounced the idea of the operation off of the US Bush administration, although the latter declined to participate. The nuclear reactor was destroyed in the attack, which also killed about ten North Korean workers. The attack did not cause an international outcry or any serious Syrian retaliatory moves as both parties tried to keep it secret: Despite a half-century state of war declared by surrounding states, Israel did not want publicity as regards its breach of the ceasefire, while Syria was not willing to acknowledge its clandestine nuclear program. Ukraine Ukraine acceded to the NPT in 1994 as a non-nuclear-weapon state, and committed to remove all nuclear weapons from its territory. In recognition of Ukraine's decision, the UK, the United States and Russia provided security assurances to Ukraine under theBudapest Memorandumof 1994. In 1993, political scientistJohn Mearsheimerargued that the United States should encourage Ukraine to retain anuclear deterrentagainst potential Russian expansion, and to reduce the danger of war.After theRussian invasion of 2014Andreas Umland, an analyst from the Swedish Institute of International Affairs, argued that Ukraine had been unwise to give up its arsenal, as Russia breaking the treaty only had limited consequences, and demonstrated that only a nuclear arsenal guarantees a country's sovereignty in the face of aggression from a nuclear power.However, Mariana Budjeryn of Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center, argued that it was unclear whether Ukraine's nuclear arsenal would have kept it safe from Russian aggression. Establishing operative control and maintaining the missiles would have been challenging for Ukraine, which might have faced sanctions had it refused to give up its arsenal. Leaving the treaty Article X allows a state to leave the treaty if \"extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country\", giving three months' (ninety days') notice. The state is required to give reasons for leaving the NPT in this notice. NATOstates argue that when there is a state of \"general war\" the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATOnuclear weapons sharingpolicy. NATO's argument is based on the phrase \"the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war\" in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding.SeeUnited States–NATO nuclear weapons sharingabove. North Korea has also caused an uproar by its use of this provision of the treaty. Article X.1 only requires a state to give three months' notice in total, and does not provide for other states to question a state's interpretation of \"supreme interests of its country\". In 1993, North Korea gave notice to withdraw from the NPT. However, after 89 days, North Korea reached agreement with the United States to freeze its nuclear program under theAgreed Frameworkand \"suspended\" its withdrawal notice. In October 2002, the United States accused North Korea of violating the Agreed Framework by pursuing a secret uranium enrichment program, and suspended shipments of heavy fuel oil under that agreement. In response, North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors, disabled IAEA equipment, and, on 10 January 2003, announced that it was ending the suspension of its previous NPT withdrawal notification. North Korea said that only one more day's notice was sufficient for withdrawal from the NPT, as it had given 89 days before. The IAEA Board of Governors rejected this interpretation.Most countries held that a new three-months withdrawal notice was required, and some questioned whether North Korea's notification met the \"extraordinary events\" and \"supreme interests\" requirements of the treaty. The Joint Statement of 19 September 2005 at the end of the Fourth Round of theSix-Party Talkscalled for North Korea to \"return\" to the NPT, implicitly acknowledging that it had withdrawn. Recent and coming events The main outcome of the 2000 Conference was the adoption by consensus of a comprehensive Final Document,which included among other things \"practical steps for the systematic and progressive efforts\" to implement the disarmament provisions of the NPT, commonly referred to as theThirteen Steps. On 18 July 2005, US President George W. Bush met Indian Prime MinisterManmohan Singhand declared that he would work to change US law and international rules to permit trade in US civilian nuclear technology with India.At the time, British columnistGeorge Monbiotargued that the U.S.-India nuclear deal, in combination with US attempts to deny Iran (an NPT signatory) civilian nuclear fuel-making technology, might destroy the NPT regime. In the first half of 2010, it was strongly believed that China had signed a civilian nuclear deal with Pakistan claiming that the deal was \"peaceful\". Arms controladvocates criticised the reportedChina-Pakistan dealas they did in case ofU.S.-India dealclaiming that both the deals violate the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT.Some reports asserted that the deal was a strategic move by China to balance US influence inSouth-Asia. According to a report published byU.S. Department of Defensein 2001, China had provided Pakistan withnuclear materialsand has given critical technological assistance in the construction of Pakistan's nuclear weapons development facilities, in violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, of which China even then was a signatory. At the Seventh Review Conference in May 2005,there were stark differences between the United States, which wanted the conference to focus on non-proliferation, especially on its allegations against Iran, and most other countries, who emphasized the lack of seriousnuclear disarmamentby the nuclear powers. Thenon-aligned countriesreiterated their position emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament. The2010 Review Conferencewas held in May 2010 in New York City, and adopted a final document that included a summary by the Review Conference President, AmbassadorLibran Capactulanof the Philippines, and an Action Plan that was adopted by consensus.The 2010 conference was generally considered a success because it reached consensus where the previous Review Conference in 2005 ended in disarray. Many attributed the success of the 2010 conference toU.S. PresidentBarack Obama's commitment to nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament. Some have warned that this success raised unrealistically high expectations that could lead to failure at the next Review Conference in 2015. The \"Global Summit on Nuclear Security\" took place 12–13 April 2010. The summit was proposed byPresident Obama in Pragueand was intended to strengthen the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in conjunction with theProliferation Security Initiativeand theGlobal Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism.Forty seven states and three international organizations took part in the summit,which issued a communiquéand a work plan.For further information see2010 Nuclear Security Summit. In a major policy speech at theBrandenburg GateinBerlinon 19 June 2013, Obama outlined plans to further reduce the number of warheads in theU.S. nuclear arsenal.According toForeign Policy, Obama proposed a \"one-third reduction in strategic nuclear warheads—on top of the cuts already required by theNew STARTtreaty—bringing the number of deployed warheads to about 1,000\".Obama is seeking to \"negotiate these reductions withRussiato continue to move beyondCold Warnuclear postures,\" according to briefing documents provided toForeign Policy.In the same speech, Obama emphasized his administration's efforts to isolate any nuclear weapons capabilities emanating fromIranandNorth Korea. He also called for a renewed bipartisan effort in theUnited States Congressto ratify theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treatyand called on countries to negotiate a new treaty to end the production offissile materialfornuclear weapons. On 24 April 2014, it was announced that the nation of theMarshall Islandshas brought suit in The Hague against the United States, the former Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel seeking to have the disarmament provisions of the NPT enforced. The 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was held at the United Nations in New York from 27 April to 22 May 2015 and presided over by Ambassador Taous Feroukhi of Algeria. The Treaty, particularly article VIII, paragraph 3, envisages a review of the operation of the Treaty every five years, a provision which was reaffirmed by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference and the 2000 NPT Review Conference. At the 2015 NPT Review Conference, States parties examined the implementation of the Treaty's provisions since 2010. Despite intensive consultations, the Conference was not able to reach agreement on the substantive part of the draft Final Document. The Tenth Review Conference convened 1–26 August 2022, after a two-year postponement due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, and concluded without adopting a final document. Contentious negotiations came close to consensus on a text, but ultimately Russia blocked consensus over issues related toits invasion of Ukraine, including references to the safety of theZaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plantin the draft text. On June 23, 2023, The US Department of State issued a statementthat the United States hosted the meeting on June 13–14 in Cairo among the five nuclear weapons states, describing it as \"an ongoing exchange in the context of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).\" Criticism and responses Over the years the NPT has come to be seen by many Third World states as \"a conspiracy of the nuclear 'haves' to keep the nuclear 'have-nots' in their place\".This argument has roots in Article VI of the treaty which \"obligates the nuclear weapons states to liquidate their nuclear stockpiles and pursue complete disarmament. The non-nuclear states see no signs of this happening\".Some argue that the NWS have not fully complied with their disarmament obligations under Article VI of the NPT.Some countries such as India have criticized the NPT, because it \"discriminated against states not possessing nuclear weapons on 1 January 1967,\" while Iran and numerous Arab states have criticized Israel for not signing the NPT.There has been disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads (as of February 2021) among them. As notedabove, the International Court of Justice, in itsadvisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that \"there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control\".Some critics of the nuclear-weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons. The United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that, since the end of the Cold War, it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons, and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons.U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear warheads. By the time accelerated dismantlement efforts ordered by President George W. Bush were completed, the U.S. arsenal was less than a quarter of its size at the end of the Cold War, and smaller than it had been at any point since the Eisenhower administration, well before the drafting of the NPT. The United States has also purchased many thousands of weapons' worth of uranium formerly in Soviet nuclear weapons for conversion into reactor fuel.As a consequence of this latter effort, it has been estimated that the equivalent of one lightbulb in every ten in the United States is powered by nuclear fuel removed from warheads previously targeted at the United States and its allies during the Cold War. The U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation agreed that nonproliferation and disarmament are linked, noting that they can be mutually reinforcing but also that growing proliferation risks create an environment that makes disarmament more difficult.The United Kingdom,Franceand Russialikewise defend their nuclear disarmament records, and the five NPT NWS issued a joint statement in 2008 reaffirming their Article VI disarmament commitments. According to Thomas Reed and Danny Stillman, the \"NPT has one giant loophole\": Article IV gives each non-nuclear weapon state the \"inalienable right\" to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power.A \"number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states usingnuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons\".A 2009 United Nations report said that: The revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons. According to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not authorized to do so under the NPT, have not paid a significant price for their pursuit of weapons capabilities. Also, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals made by NPT signatories, notably the United States. Based on concerns over the slow pace of nuclear disarmament and the continued reliance on nuclear weapons in military and security concepts, doctrines and policies, theTreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weaponswas adopted in July 2017 and was subsequently opened for signature on 20 September 2017. Entering into force on 22 January 2021,it prohibits each state party from the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as assistance to those activities. It reaffirms in its preamble the vital role of the full and effective implementation of the NPT. Ineffective enforcement ofterritorial integrityandrule of lawin the 21st centurycould undermine the credibility of the security assurances that are part of the current global nuclear order. See also References External links",
"The Band The Bandwas a Canadian-Americanrockband formed inToronto, Ontario, in 1967. It consisted of CanadiansRick Danko(bass, guitar, vocals, fiddle),Garth Hudson(organ, keyboards, accordion, saxophone),Richard Manuel(piano, drums, vocals),Robbie Robertson(guitar, vocals, piano, percussion), and AmericanLevon Helm(drums, vocals, mandolin, guitar, bass). The Band's music combined elements ofAmericana,folk, rock,jazzandcountry, which influenced artists such asGeorge Harrison,Elton John,the Grateful Dead,Eric ClaptonandWilco. Between 1958 and 1963, the group was known as the Hawks, a backing band forrockabillysingerRonnie Hawkins. In the mid-1960s, they gained recognition for being the backing group forBob Dylan, with his1966 concert tourbeing notable as Dylan's first with an electric band. After leaving Dylan and changing their name to The Band, they released several records to critical and popular acclaim, most notably their 1968 debut,Music from Big Pinkand its succeeding album, 1969'sThe Band. According toAllMusic,Music from Big Pink's influence on several generations of musicians has been substantial:Pink FloydmemberRoger Watersdeemed it the \"second-most influential record in the history of rock and roll\",and music journalistAl Aronowitzcalled it \"country soul ... a sound never heard before\".Their most popular songs included \"The Weight\" (1968), \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\" (1969), and \"Up on Cripple Creek\" (1969). The Band performed their farewell concert on November 25, 1976. Footage from the event was released in 1978 as theconcert filmThe Last Waltz, directed byMartin Scorsese. It would be the last performance of the original five members. After five years apart, Danko, Hudson, Helm, and Manuel reunited in 1983 for a reunion tour without Robertson, as he had taken up a new career as a producer and composer for film soundtracks. Manuel died in 1986, but the remaining three members would continue to tour and occasionally release new albums of studio material until 1999, when, upon the death of Danko, the remaining members decided to break up for good. Helm would go on to have a successful solo career, winning multipleGrammy Awardsin the folk and Americana categories until his 2012 death, while Hudson worked as a featured session musician. Robertson died in 2023, leaving Hudson as the only living member of the original lineup. Music critic Bruce Eder described The Band as \"one of the most popular and influential rock groups in the world, their music embraced by critics ... as seriously as the music ofthe Beatlesandthe Rolling Stones.\"The Band was inducted into theCanadian Music Hall of Famein 1989 and theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994.In 2004,Rolling Stoneranked them 50th on its list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\",and ranked \"The Weight\" 41st on its list of the \"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\".In 2008, the group received theGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award.In 2014, they were inducted intoCanada's Walk of Fame. History 1957–1964: The Hawks The future members of The Band first played together as the Hawks, the backing group forToronto-basedrockabillysingerRonnie Hawkins.Levon Helmbegan playing with the group in 1957, then became their fulltime drummer after graduating from high school in 1958. Helm journeyed with Hawkins fromArkansasto Ontario, where they were joined byRobbie Robertson,Rick Danko,Richard Manuel, and finallyGarth Hudson. Latter-day Band memberStan Szelestwas also in the group at that time. Hawkins's act was popular in and around Toronto and nearby Hamilton,and he had an effective way of eliminating his musical competition: when a promising band appeared, Hawkins would hire their best musicians for his own group; Robertson, Danko, and Manuel came under Hawkins's tutelage this way. While most of the Hawks were eager to join Hawkins's group, getting Hudson to join was more difficult. Having earned a college degree, Hudson planned on a career as a music teacher, and was only interested in playing rock music only as a hobby. The Hawks admired his wild, full-bore organ style and asked him repeatedly to join. Hudson finally agreed, under the condition that the Hawks each pay him $10 per week to be their instructor and purchase a new state-of-the-artLowrey organ; all music theory questions were directed to Hudson. There is a view thatjazzis 'evil' because it comes from evil people, but actually the greatest priests on 52nd Street, and on the streets of New York City were the musicians. They were doing the greatest healing work. And they knew how to punch through music which would cure and make people feel good. —Garth Hudson inThe Last Waltz With Hawkins, they recorded a few singles in this period and became well known as the best rock group in the thriving Toronto music scene. Hawkins regularly convened all-night rehearsals following long club shows, with the result that the young musicians quickly developed great technical prowess on their instruments. In late 1963, the group split from Hawkins over personal differences. They had grown tired of playing the same songs so often and wanted to perform original material, and they were also wary of Hawkins's heavy-handed leadership. He would fine the Hawks if they brought their girlfriends to the clubs (fearing it might reduce the numbers of \"available\" girls who came to performances) or if they smokedmarijuana. Robertson later said, \"Eventually, built us up to the point where we outgrew his music and had to leave. He shot himself in the foot, really, by sharpening us into such a crackerjack band that we had to go on out into the world, because we knew what his vision was for himself, and we were all younger and more ambitious musically.\" Upon leaving Hawkins, the group was briefly known as the Levon Helm Sextet, with a sixth member, saxophonist Jerry Penfound, and then as Levon and the Hawks after Penfound's departure. In 1965, they released a single on Ware Records under the name the Canadian Squires, but they returned as Levon and the Hawks for a recording session forAtcolater that year.Also in 1965, Helm and the band met blues singer and harmonica playerSonny Boy Williamson. They wanted to record with him, offering to become his backing band, but Williamson died not long after their meeting. Later in 1965, American musicianBob Dylanhired the group as his backing band for his U.S. tour in 1965 andworld tour in 1966.Following the 1966 tour, the group moved with help from Dylan and his manager,Albert Grossman, toSaugerties, New York, where they made the informal 1967 recordings that becameThe Basement Tapes, the basis for their 1968 debut album,Music from Big Pink. Because they were always referred to simply as \"the band\" to various frontmen and the locals in Woodstock, Helm said the name \"The Band\" worked well when the group came into its own.The group decided on it as their official name began performing as under it in from 1968 onward. Dylan continued to collaborate with The Band over the course of their career, most notably in a joint1974 tour. 1965–1967: With Bob Dylan In late summer 1965, Bob Dylan was looking for a backup band for his first U.S. \"electric\" tour. Levon and the Hawks were recommended by blues singerJohn P. Hammond, who earlier that year had recorded with Helm, Hudson and Robertson on hisVanguardalbumSo Many Roads.Around the same time, one of their friends from Toronto, Mary Martin, was working as secretary to Dylan's manager,Albert Grossman. She told Dylan to visit the group at Le Coq d'Or Tavern, a club onYonge Street, in Toronto—though Robertson recollects it was the Friar's Tavern, just down the street.Her advice to Dylan: \"Yougottasee these guys.\" After hearing The Band play and meeting with Robertson, Dylan invited Helm and Robertson to join his backing band. After two concerts backing Dylan, Helm and Robertson told Dylan of their loyalty to their bandmates and told him that they would continue with him only if he hired all of the Hawks. Dylan accepted and invited Levon and the Hawks to tour with him. The group was receptive to the offer, knowing it could give them the wider exposure they craved. They thought of themselves as a tightly rehearsed rock andrhythm and bluesgroup and knew Dylan mostly from his early acoustic folk and protest music. Furthermore, they had little inkling of how internationally popular Dylan had become. With Dylan, the Hawks played a series of concerts from September 1965 through May 1966, billed as \"Bob Dylan and the Band\". The tours were marked by Dylan's reportedly copious use ofamphetamines. Some, though not all, of the Hawks joined in the excesses.Most of the concerts were met with heckling and disapproval fromfolk musicpurists. Helm was so affected by the negative reception that he left the tour after a little more than one month and sat out the rest of that year's concerts, as well as the world tour in 1966.Helm spent much of this period working on an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico. During and between tours, Dylan and the Hawks attempted several recording sessions, but with less than satisfying results. Sessions in October and November yielded just one usablesingle(\"Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window?\"), and two days of recording in January 1966 for what was intended to be Dylan's next album,Blonde on Blonde, resulted in \"One of Us Must Know (Sooner or Later)\", which was released as a single a few weeks later and was subsequently selected for the album.On \"One of Us Must Know\", Dylan was backed by drummerBobby Gregg, bassist Danko (orBill Lee),guitarist Robbie Robertson, pianistPaul Griffin, andAl Kooper(who was more a guitarist than an organist) playing organ.Frustrated by the slow progress in the New York studio, Dylan accepted the suggestion of producerBob Johnstonand moved the recording sessions to Nashville. In Nashville, Robertson's guitar was prominent on theBlonde on Blonderecordings, especially in the song \"Leopard-Skin Pill-Box Hat\", but the other members of the Hawks did not attend the sessions. During the European leg of their 1966 world tour,Mickey Jonesreplaced Sandy Konikoff on drums. Dylan and the Hawks played at theFree Trade HallinManchesteron May 17, 1966. The gig became legendary when, near the end of Dylan's electric set, an audience member shouted \"Judas!\" After a pause, Dylan replied, \"I don't believe you. You're a liar!\" He then turned to the Hawks and said, \"Play it fucking loud!\" With that, they launched into an acidic version of \"Like a Rolling Stone\". The Manchester performance was widelybootlegged(and mistakenly placed at theRoyal Albert Hall). In a 1971 review forCreem, criticDave Marshwrote, \"My response is that crystallization of everything that is rock'n'roll music, at its finest, was to allow my jaw to drop, my body to move, to leap out of the chair ... It is an experience that one desires simply to share, to play over and over again for those he knows thirst for such pleasure. If I speak in an almost worshipful sense about this music, it is not because I have lost perspective, it is precisely because I have found it, within music, yes, that was made five years ago. But it is there and unignorable.\"When the concert finally saw an official release asThe Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966, The \"Royal Albert Hall\" Concertin 1998, criticRichie Unterbergerdeclared the record \"an important document of rock history.\" On July 29, 1966, while on a break from touring, Dylan was injured in a motorcycle accident that precipitated his retreat into semi-seclusion inWoodstock,New York.For a while, the Hawks returned to the bar and roadhouse touring circuit, sometimes backing other singers, including a brief stint withTiny Tim. Dylan invited the Hawks to join him in Woodstock in February 1967,and Danko, Hudson, and Manuel rented a large pink house, which they named \"Big Pink\", in nearbyWest Saugerties, New York. The next month (initially without Helm) they commenced recording a much-bootlegged and influential series of demos, initially at Dylan's house in Woodstock and later at Big Pink, which were released partially on LP asThe Basement Tapesin 1975 andin full in 2014. A track-by-track review of the bootleg was detailed byJann WennerinRolling Stone, in which the band members were explicitly named and given the collective name \"the Crackers\".While Helm was not involved in the initial recording, he did perform in later sessions and in overdubs recorded in 1975 before the album's release. 1968–1972: Initial success withMusic from Big Pinkself-titled album The sessions with Dylan ended in October 1967, with Helm having rejoined the group by that time, and the Hawks began writing their own songs at Big Pink. When they went into the recording studio, they still did not have a name for themselves. Stories vary as to the manner in which they ultimately adopted the name \"The Band\". InThe Last Waltz, Manuel claimed that they wanted to call themselves either \"theHonkies\" or \"theCrackers\" (which they used when backing Dylan for a January 1968 concert tribute toWoody Guthrie), but these names were vetoed by their record label; Robertson suggests that during their time with Dylan everyone just referred to them as \"the band\" and the name stuck. Initially they disliked the moniker, but eventually they grew to like it, thinking it both humble and presumptuous. In 1969,Rolling Stonereferred to them as \"the band from Big Pink\". Their debut album,Music from Big Pinkwas released in July 1968 and was widely acclaimed. It included three songs written or co-written by Dylan (\"This Wheel's on Fire\", \"Tears of Rage\" and \"I Shall Be Released\") as well as \"The Weight\", which became one of their best-known songs after it was used in the 1969 filmEasy Rider. While a thematic continuity ran through the music, the musical style varied from song to song. In early 1969, after the success ofMusic from Big Pink, The Band went on tour, starting with an appearance atWinterland Ballroom. They performed at theWoodstock Festival(their performance was not included in the famedWoodstockfilm because of legal complications), and later that year they performed with Dylan at the UKIsle of Wight Festival(several songs from which were subsequently included on Dylan'sSelf Portraitalbum). That same year, they left for Los Angeles to record their follow-up,The Band(1969). From their rustic appearance on the cover to the songs and arrangements within, the album stood in contrast to other popular music of the day. Several other artists made similar stylistic moves about the same time, notably Dylan, onJohn Wesley Harding, which was written during theBasement Tapessessions, andthe Byrds, onSweetheart of the Rodeo, which featured twoBasement Tapescovers.The Bandfeatured songs that evoked old-time rural America, from theCivil Warin \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\" to theunionizationof farm workers in \"King Harvest (Has Surely Come)\". These first two records were produced byJohn Simon, who was practically a group member: he aided inarrangementsin addition to playing occasional piano andtuba. Simon reported that he was often asked about the distinctivehorn sectionsfeatured so effectively on the first two albums: people wanted to know how they had achieved such memorable sounds. Simon stated that, besides Hudson (an accomplished saxophonist), the others had only rudimentary horn skills, and achieved their sound simply by creatively using their limited technique. Rolling Stonelavished praise on The Band in this era, giving them more attention than perhaps any other group in the magazine's history;Greil Marcus's articles contributed to The Band's mystique. The Band was also featured on the cover ofTime(January 12, 1970), the first rock group after the Beatles, over two years earlier, to achieve this rare distinction.David Attie's unused photographs for this cover—among the very few studio portraits taken during the Band's prime—have only recently been discovered, and were featured in Daniel Roher'sRobbie RobertsondocumentaryOnce Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, as well as having their own four-page spread inHarvey Kubernikand Ken Kubernik's “The Story of the Band: FromBig PinktoThe Last Waltz” (Sterling Publishing, 2018). A critical and commercial triumph,The Band, along with works by the Byrds andthe Flying Burrito Brothers, established a musical template (dubbedcountry rock) that paved the way to theEagles. BothBig PinkandThe Bandalso influenced their musical contemporaries.Eric ClaptonandGeorge Harrisoncited The Band as a major influence on their musical direction in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Clapton later revealed that he wanted to join the group.While he never did join, he recruited all of the members of The Band as well as other roots rock performers for his 1976 albumNo Reason to Cry. Following their second album, The Band embarked on their first tour as a lead act. The anxiety of fame was clear, as the group's songs turned to darker themes of fear and alienation: the influence on their next work is self-explanatory.Stage Fright(1970) was engineered by musician-engineer-producerTodd Rundgrenand recorded on a theatre stage in Woodstock. As with their previous, self-titled record, Robertson was credited with most of the songwriting. Initial critical reaction was positive, but it was seen as a disappointment from the previous two albums for various reasons. After recordingStage Fright, The Band was among the acts participating in theFestival Express, an all-star rock concert tour of Canada by train that also includedJanis Joplin, theGrateful Deadand future Band memberRichard Bell(at the time he was a member of Joplin's band). In the concert documentary film, released in 2003, Danko can be seen participating in a drunken jam session withJerry Garcia,Bob Weir,John Dawson, and Joplin while singing \"Ain't No More Cane\". At about this time, Robertson began exerting greater control over The Band, a point of contention between him and Helm. Helm charges Robertson withauthoritarianismand greed, while Robertson suggests his increased efforts in guiding the group were largely because Danko, Helm, and Manuel were becoming more unreliable due to their heroin usage.Robertson insists he did his best to coax Manuel into writing more songs, only to see him descend into addiction. Despite mounting problems among the group members, The Band forged ahead with their next album,Cahoots(1971).Cahootsfeatured Dylan's \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\", \"4% Pantomime\" (withVan Morrison), and \"Life Is a Carnival\", the last featuring a horn arrangement byAllen Toussaint. Toussaint's contribution was a critical addition to The Band's next project, and the group would later record two songs written by Toussaint: \"Holy Cow\" onMoondog Matineeand \"You See Me\" onJubilation. In late December 1971, The Band recorded the live albumRock of Ages, which was released in the summer of 1972. OnRock of Ages, they were bolstered by the addition of a horn section, with arrangements written by Toussaint. Dylan appeared on stage onNew Year's Eveand performed four songs with the group, including a version of \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\". 1973–1975: Move to Shangri-La In 1973, The Band released thecovers albumMoondog Matinee. There was no tour in support of the album, which garnered mixed reviews. However, on July 28, 1973, they played at the legendarySummer Jam at Watkins Glen, a massive concert that took place at the Grand Prix Raceway outsideWatkins Glen, New York. The event, which was attended by over 600,000 fans, also featured the Grateful Dead andthe Allman Brothers Band. It was during this event that discussions began about a possible tour with Bob Dylan, who had moved toMalibu, California,along with Robertson. By late 1973, Danko, Helm, Hudson and Manuel had joined them, and the first order of business was backing Dylan on his albumPlanet Waves. The album was released concurrently with their joint 1974 tour, in which they played 40 shows in North America during January and February 1974. Later that year, the tour was documented on the live albumBefore the Flood,. During this time, The Band brought inPlanet WavesproducerRob Frabonito help design a music studio for the group. By 1975, the studio,Shangri-La, was completed. That year, The Band recorded and releasedNorthern Lights – Southern Cross, their first album of all-new material since 1971. All eight songs were written solely by Robertson. Despite comparatively poor record sales, the album is favored by critics and fans. Levon Helm regards this album highly in his book,This Wheel's on Fire: \"It was the best album we had done sinceThe Band.\" The album also produced more experimentation from Hudson, switching to synthesizers, showcased on \"Jupiter Hollow\". 1976–1978:The Last Waltz By the mid-1970s, Robbie Robertson was weary of touring. AfterNorthern Lights – Southern Crossfailed to meet commercial expectations, much of the group's 1976 tour was confined to theaters and smaller arenas in secondary markets (including theSanta Cruz Civic Auditorium, theLong Island Arenaand the Champlain Valley Expo inEssex Junction, Vermont), culminating in an opening slot for the ascendantZZ Topat theNashville Fairgroundsin September.In early September, Richard Manuel suffered a severe neck injury in a boating accident in Texas,prompting Robertson to urge The Band to retire from live performances after staging a massive \"farewell concert\" known asThe Last Waltz. Following an October 30 appearance onSaturday Night Live, the event, includingturkey dinnerfor the audience of 5,000, was held on November 25 (Thanksgiving Day) of 1976 at theWinterland BallroominSan Francisco,California,and featured a horn section with arrangements by Allen Toussaint and an allstar lineup of guests, including Canadian artistsJoni MitchellandNeil Young. Two of the guests were fundamental to The Band's existence and growth: Ronnie Hawkins and Bob Dylan. Other guests they admired (and in most cases had worked with before) includedMuddy Waters,Dr. John, Van Morrison,Ringo Starr, Eric Clapton,Ron Wood,Bobby Charles,Neil Diamond, andPaul Butterfield. The concert was filmed by Robertson's friend, filmmakerMartin Scorsese. In 1977, The Band released their seventh studio albumIslands, which fulfilled their record contract with Capitol so that a plannedLast Waltzfilm and album could be released on theWarner Bros.label.Islandscontained a mix of originals and covers, and was the last with The Band's original lineup. That same year, the group recorded soundstage performances with country singerEmmylou Harris(\"Evangeline\") and gospel-soul groupthe Staple Singers(\"The Weight\"); Scorsese combined these new performances—as well as interviews he had conducted with the group—with the 1976 concert footage. The resultingconcert film–documentarywas released in 1978, along with athree-LP soundtrack. Helm later wrote aboutThe Last Waltzin his autobiography,This Wheel's on Fire, in which he made the case that it had been primarily Robbie Robertson's project and that Robertson had forced The Band's breakup on the rest of the group.Robertson offered a different take in a 1986 interview: \"I made my big statement. I did the movie, I made a three-record album about it—and if this is only my statement, not theirs, I'll accept that. They're saying, 'Well, that was really his trip, not our trip.' Well, fine. I'll take the best music film that's ever been made, and make it my statement. I don't have any problems with that. None at all.\" The original quintet would perform together one last time: on March 1, 1978 after the late set of a Rick Danko solo show atThe Roxy, the group performed \"Stage Fright\", \"The Shape I'm In\", and \"The Weight\" for an encore.Although the members of the group intended to continue working on studio projects, they drifted apart after the release ofIslandsin March 1977. 1983–1989: Reformation and the death of Richard Manuel The Band resumed touring in 1983 without Robertson. Accomplished musician from Woodstock, NY, Jim Weider became lead guitarist. Robertson had found success with a solo career and as aHollywoodmusic producer. As a result of their diminished popularity, they performed in theaters and clubs as headliners and took support slots in larger venues for onetime peers such as the Grateful Dead andCrosby, Stills and Nash. After a performance inWinter Park, Florida, on March 4, 1986, Manuelhanged himself, aged 42, in his motel room.He had suffered for many years from alcoholism and drug addiction and had been clean and sober for several years beginning in 1978 but had begun drinking and using drugs again by 1984.Manuel's position as pianist was filled by old friend Stan Szelest (who died not long after) and then by Richard Bell. Bell had played with Ronnie Hawkins after the departure of the original Hawks, and was best known from his days as a member of Janis Joplin'sFull Tilt Boogie Band. The Band was inducted into theCanadian Music Hall of Fameat the1989 Juno Awards, where Robertson was reunited with original members Danko and Hudson. With Canadian country rock superstarsBlue Rodeoas a back-up band,Music Expresscalled the 1989 Juno appearance a symbolic \"passing of the torch\" from The Band to Blue Rodeo. 1990–1999: Return to final recording and the death of Rick Danko In 1990, Capitol Records began to re-release the records from the 1970s.The remaining three members continued to tour and record albums with a succession of musicians filling Manuel's and Robertson's roles. The Band appeared atBob Dylan's 30th anniversary concertin New York City in October 1992, where they performed their version of Dylan's \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\". In 1993, the group released their eighth studio album,Jericho. Without Robbie Robertson as primary lyricist, much of thesongwritingfor the album came from outside of the group. Also that year, The Band, along with Ronnie Hawkins, Bob Dylan, and other performers, appeared at U.S. PresidentBill Clinton's 1993 \"Blue Jean Bash\" inauguration party. In 1994, The Band performed atWoodstock '94. Later that year Robertson appeared with Danko and Hudson as the Band for the second time since the original group broke up. The occasion was the induction of The Band into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Helm, who had been at odds with Robertson for years over accusations of stolen songwriting credits, did not attend.In February 1996, The Band withthe Cricketsrecorded \"Not Fade Away\", released on thetribute albumNot Fade Away (Remembering Buddy Holly). The Band released two more albums afterJericho:High on the Hog(1996) andJubilation(1998), the latter of which included guest appearances by Eric Clapton andJohn Hiatt. Helm was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1998 and was unable to sing for several years but he eventually regained the use of his voice. In 1998, the group revealed they were working on a follow-up album toJubilationthat has not been released. The final song the group recorded together was their 1999 version of Bob Dylan's \"One Too Many Mornings\", which they contributed to the Dylan tribute albumTangled Up in Blues. On December 10, 1999, Rick Danko died in his sleep at the age of 55. Following his death, The Band broke up for good. The final configuration of the group included Richard Bell (piano), Randy Ciarlante (drums), and Jim Weider (guitar). 2000–present In 2002, Robertson bought all other former members' financial interests in the group (with the exception of Helm's),giving him major control of the presentation of the group's material, including latter-day compilations. Richard Bell died ofmultiple myelomain June 2007. The Band received a Lifetime AchievementGrammy Awardon February 9, 2008,but there was no reunion of former members. In honor of the event, Helm held aMidnight Ramblein Woodstock.He continued to perform and released several albums. On April 17, 2012, it was announced via Helm's official website that he was in the \"final stages of cancer\";he died two days later. In December 2020, it was announced that the third album of The Band,Stage Fright, would get an expanded reissue. The album has alternate versions of some songs. Robbie Robertson died at the age of 80 on August 9, 2023, after battling prostate cancer.With Robertson's death, Garth Hudson is the last living original member of the group. Members' other endeavours In 1977, Rick Danko released hiseponymousdebut solo album, which featured the other four members of The Band on various tracks. In 1984, Danko joined members of theByrds, the Flying Burrito Brothers, and others in the huge touring company that made up \"The Byrds Twenty-Year Celebration\". Several members of the tour performed solo songs to start the show, including Danko, who performed \"Mystery Train\". Danko also released two collaboraive albums withEric AndersenandJonas Fjeld, along with some live and compilation albums in the 1990s and 2000s; many of the latter records were produced by Aaron L. Hurwitz and are on the Breeze Hill/Woodstock Records Label. In the late 1970s and 1980s, Helm released several solo albums and toured with a band called Levon Helm and the RCO Allstars. He also began an acting career with his role asLoretta Lynn's father inCoal Miner's Daughter. Helm received praise for his narration and supporting role oppositeSam Shepardin 1983'sThe Right Stuff. In 1997, a CD by Levon Helm and the Crowmatix,Souvenir, was released.Beginning sometime in the 1990s, Helm regularly performed Midnight Ramble concerts at his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, and toured.In 2007 Helm released a new album, an homage to his southern roots calledDirt Farmer, which was awarded aGrammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Albumon February 9, 2008.Electric Dirtfollowed in 2009 and won the inauguralGrammy Award for Best Americana Album. His 2011 live albumRamble at the Rymanwon in the same category. After he left The Band, Robbie Robertson became amusic producerand wrote film soundtracks (including acting as music supervisor for several of Scorsese's films) before beginning a solo career with hisDaniel Lanois-producedeponymous albumin 1987. Robertson continued mostly scoring films until his death in 2023. Hudson has released two solo CDs,The Sea to the Northin 2001, produced by Aaron (Professor Louie) Hurwitz, andLive at the Wolfin 2005, both featuring his wife, Maud, on vocals. He has also kept busy as an in-demand studio musician. He is featured extensively on recordings of theCalland country-indie star Neko Case. Hudson contributed an original electronic score to anoff-Broadwayproduction ofDragon Slayers, written byStanley Keyesand directed byBrad Maysin 1986 at theUnion Square Theatrein New York, which was restaged with a new cast in Los Angeles in 1990. In 2010, Hudson releasedGarth Hudson Presents: A Canadian Celebration of The Band, featuring Canadian artists covering songs that were recorded by The Band. In 2012,Jim WeiderlaunchedThe Weight Band, performing covers of The Band's music, alongside former members of theLevon HelmBand andRick DankoGroup. The Weight Band performed in a nationally broadcastPBSspecial, Infinity Hall Live,featuring new music. Following the show, the band announced a self-titled album of new music. The Weight Band also hosts Camp Cripple Creek, which celebrates the legacy of the Woodstock Sound. Past guests have includedJackie Greene,Music from Big Pinkproducer John Simon andJohn Sebastian. Manuel had few projects outside The Band; he and the rest of The Band contributed to Eric Clapton's 1976 albumNo Reason to Cry. It included an original composition by Manuel and featured his vocals and drumming on several tracks. Manuel later worked on several film scores with Hudson and Robertson, includingRaging BullandThe Color of Money.Whispering Pines: Live at the Getawaywas released in 2002. Musical style The Band's music fused many elements: although primarily incorporating oldcountry musicand earlyrock and roll, therhythm sectionoften was reminiscent ofStax- orMotown-style rhythm and blues, and Robertson citesCurtis Mayfieldand theStaple Singersas major influences, resulting in asynthesisof manymusical genres. Singers Manuel, Danko, and Helm each brought a distinctive voice to The Band: Helm'sSouthernaccent was prevalent in his raw and powerful vocals, Danko sang tenor with a distinctively choppy enunciation, and Manuel alternated between falsetto and a soulful baritone. The singers regularly blended inharmonies. Though the singing was more or less evenly shared among the three, both Danko and Helm have stated that they saw Manuel as The Band's \"lead\" singer. Every member was a multi-instrumentalist. There was little instrument-switching when they played live, but when recording, the musicians could make up different configurations in service of the songs. Hudson in particular was able to coax a wide range oftimbresfrom hisLowrey organ. Helm's drumming was often praised: critic Jon Carroll declared that Helm was \"the only drummer who can make you cry,\" while prolific session drummerJim Keltneradmits to appropriating several of Helm's techniques.Producer John Simon is often cited as a \"sixth member\" of The Band for producing and playing onMusic from Big Pink, co-producing and playing onThe Band, and playing on other songs up through The Band's 1993 reunion albumJericho. Copyright controversy Robertson is credited as writer or co-writer of the majority of The Band's songs and, as a result, has received most of the songwriting royalties generated from the music. This would become a point of contention, especially for Helm. In his 1993 autobiography,This Wheel's on Fire: Levon Helm and the Story of the Band, Helm disputed the validity of the songwriting credits as listed on the albums and explained that the Band's songs were developed in collaboration with all members. Danko concurred with Helm: \"I think Levon's book hits the nail on the head about where Robbie and Albert Grossman and some of those people went wrong and when The Band stopped being The Band ... I'm truly friends with everybody but, hey—it could happen to Levon, too. When people take themselves too seriously and believe too much in their own bullshit, they usually get in trouble.\"Robertson denied that Helm had written any of the songs attributed to Robertson.The studio albums recorded by Levon Helm as a solo artist—Levon Helm(1978),American Son,Levon Helm(1982),Dirt Farmer, andElectric Dirt—contain only one song crediting him as songwriter (\"Growin' Trade\", co-written withLarry Campbell). Legacy The Band has influenced numerous bands, songwriters and performers, including the Grateful Dead, Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young,Led Zeppelin,Elvis Costello,Elton John,Phish,andPink Floyd.The albumMusic from Big Pink, in particular, is credited with contributing to Clapton's decision to leave thesupergroupCream. In his introduction of The Band during the Bob Dylan 30th Anniversary Concert, Clapton announced that in 1968 he had heard the album, \"and it changed my life.\"The bandNazarethtook their name from a line in \"The Weight\". GuitaristRichard Thompsonhas acknowledged the album's influence onFairport Convention'sLiege and Lief, and journalist John Harris has suggested that The Band's debut also influenced the spirit of the Beatles' back-to-basics albumLet It Beas well as the Rolling Stones' string of roots-infused albums that began withBeggars Banquet.George Harrison said that his song \"All Things Must Pass\" was heavily influenced by The Band and that, while writing the song, he imagined Levon Helm singing it.Meanwhile, the \"The Weight\" has been covered numerous times, and in various musical styles. In a 1969 interview, Robbie Robertson remarked on the group's influence, \"We certainly didn't want everybody to go out and get a banjo and a fiddle player. We were trying to calm things down a bit though. What we're going to do now is go toMuscle Shoals, Alabama, and record four sides, fourpsychedelicsongs. Total freak-me songs. Just to show that we have no hard feelings. Just pretty good rock and roll.\" In the 1990s, a new generation of bands influenced by The Band began to gain popularity, includingCounting Crows,the Wallflowers, andthe Black Crowes. Counting Crows indicated this influence with their tribute to the lateRichard Manuel, \"If I Could Give All My Love (Richard Manuel Is Dead)\", from their albumHard Candy. TheBlack Crowesfrequently cover songs by The Band during live performances, such as \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\", which appears on their DVD/CDFreak 'n' Roll into the Fog.They have also recorded at Helm's studio in Woodstock. The inspiration for the classic rock-influenced bandThe Hold Steadycame while members Craig Finn and Tad Kubler were watchingThe Last Waltz.Rick Danko and Robbie Robertson are name-checked in the lyrics of \"The Swish\" from the Hold Steady's 2004 debut albumAlmost Killed Me.Also that year,southern rock-revivalistsDrive-By Truckersreleased theJason Isbellpenned track \"Danko/Manuel\" on the albumThe Dirty South. The Band also inspired Grace Potter, ofGrace Potter and the Nocturnals, to form the band in 2002. In an interview with the Montreal Gazette, Potter said, \"The Band blew my mind. I thought if this is what Matt meant when he said 'Let's start a rock 'n' roll band,' ... that was the kind of rock 'n' roll band I could believe in.\" A tribute album, entitledEndless Highway: The Music of the Band, released in January 2007, included contributions fromMy Morning Jacket,Death Cab for Cutie,Gomez,Guster,Bruce Hornsby,Jack JohnsonandALO,Lee Ann Womack, the Allman Brothers Band,Blues Traveler,Jakob Dylan,Rosanne Cash, and others. Members ofWilco,Clap Your Hands Say Yeah,the Shins,Dr Dog,Yellowbirds,Ween,Furthur, and other bands stagedThe Complete Last Waltzin 2012 and 2013.Their performances included all 41 songs from the original 1976 concert in sequence, even those edited out of the film. Musical directorSam Cohenof Yellowbirds claims \"the movie is pretty ingrained in me. I've watched it probably 100 times.\" An incarnation of the Band's legacy, The Weight Band, originated inside the barn of Levon Helm in 2012 when Jim Weider and Randy Ciarlante, both former members of The Band, were performing \"Songs of the Band\" withGarth Hudson,Jimmy Vivinoand Byron Isaacs. In July 2017, PBS'sInfinity HallLive program began airing a televised performance by The Weight Band, featuring Band covers and new music by the band. Every year on the Wednesday before and the Friday after Thanksgiving, Dayton, Ohio NPR affiliateWYSOandThe Dayton Art Institutehost a tribute toThe Last Waltz.Frequently selling out, the show features more than 30 local musicians. A similar event takes place annually in Madison, Wisconsin, on the Saturday night after Thanksgiving. The Band are the subjects of the 2019 documentary filmOnce Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, which premiered at the2019 Toronto International Film Festival. The Band is the subject of an extensive historical podcast,The Band: A History, currently covering the entire history of the group. Members Additional musicians Line-ups Disbanded Timeline Discography withBob Dylan See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links",
"Music from Big Pink Music from Big Pinkis the debutstudio albumby Canadian-Americanrockbandthe Band.Released on July 1, 1968, byCapitol Records, it employs a distinctive blend ofcountry,rock,folk,classical,R&B,blues, andsoul. The album's title refers to a house inWest Saugerties, New Yorkcalled \"Big Pink\", which was shared by bassist/singerRick Danko, pianist/singerRichard Manueland organistGarth Hudsonand in which the album's music was partly composed. The album itself was recorded in studios in New York and Los Angeles in 1968,and followed the band's stint backing ofBob Dylanon his1966 tour(as the Hawks) and time spent together in upstate New York recording material that was officially released in 1975 asThe Basement Tapes, also with Dylan. Thecover artworkis a painting by Dylan. In 2000, the album was rereleased with additional outtakes from the recording sessions, and in 2018, a \"50th Anniversary Super Deluxe\" edition was released with a new stereo mix byBob Clearmountain. Background and Big Pink house The Band's members included Danko, Manuel, Hudson, guitaristRobbie Robertsonand drummer/singerLevon Helm. They began to create their distinctive sound during 1967 when they improvised and recorded withBob Dylana huge number of cover songs and original Dylan materialin the basement of a pink house inWest Saugerties, New York, located at 56 Parnassus Lane (formerly 2188 Stoll Road). The house was built by Ottmar Gramms, who bought the land in 1952. The house was newly built whenRick Dankofound it as a rental. Danko moved in along withGarth HudsonandRichard Manuelin February 1967. The house became known locally as \"Big Pink\" for its pinksiding. The house was subsequently sold by Gramms in 1977, and since 1998, it has been a private residence. Widelybootleggedat the time, initially asGreat White Wonderin July 1969, some of the recordings Dylan and the Band made were officially released in 1975 onThe Basement Tapes, and then in their totality in 2014 onThe Bootleg Series Vol. 11: The Basement Tapes Complete. By the end of 1967, the Band felt it was time to step out of Dylan's shadow and make their own statement. Recording The Band's managerAlbert Grossman(who was also Dylan's manager) approachedCapitol Recordsto secure a record deal for a group still informally described as \"Dylan's backing band\". Alan Livingston at Capitol signed the Band, initially under the name the Crackers. Armed with news of a recording deal for the group, they luredLevon Helmback from the oil rigs where he had been working to Woodstock where he took up his crucial position in the Band, singing and playing drums. Helm's return coincided with a ferment of activity in Big Pink as the embryonic Band not only recorded with Dylan but also began to write their own songs. After meeting with producerJohn Simon, the Band started to record their debut album inManhattanatA&R Studios, at 799 7th Avenue in the early months of 1968. The Band recorded \"Tears of Rage\", \"Chest Fever\", \"We Can Talk\", \"This Wheel's On Fire\" and \"The Weight\" in two sessions. Robertson has said that when Simon asked them how they wanted it to sound, they replied, \"Just like it did in the basement.\" Capitol, pleased with the initial recording session, suggested that the group move toLos Angelesto finish recording their first album atCapitol Studios. They also cut some material atGold Star StudiosonSanta Monica Boulevard. The songs onBig Pinkrecorded in L.A. were \"In A Station\", \"To Kingdom Come\", \"Lonesome Suzie\", \"Long Black Veil\" and \"I Shall Be Released\". Artwork Dylan offered to sing on the album, but ultimately realized it was important for the Band to make their own statement. Instead, Dylan signified his presence by contributing a cover painting.Barney Hoskynshas written that it is significant the painting depicts six musicians. The cover ofMusic from Big Pinkwas intended to establish the group as having a different outlook from thepsychedelic cultureof 1968. PhotographerElliott Landyflew toTorontoto photograph the assembled Danko, Manuel, Robertson, and Hudson families on the Danko chicken farm. A photo was inserted of Diamond and Nell Helm, who lived inArkansas. The photo appeared on the cover with the caption \"Next of Kin\".The overall design of the sleeve is byMilton Glaser(who also did the poster that was packed with the 1967Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits). Reception The initial reception to the album was positive.It received praise for the organic quality of the instrumentation, which had been recorded live withoutoverdubbing.InRolling Stone,Al Kooper's rave review ofBig Pinkended with the words, \"This album was recorded in approximately two weeks. There are people who will work their lives away in vain and not touch it.\"This helped to draw public attention to it (Rolling Stoneeven referred to them as \"the band from Big Pink\"instead of just \"the Band\"). The fact that Bob Dylan wrote one and co-wrote two of the songs on the album also attracted attention.Robert Christgauwas less enthusiastic inThe Village Voice, crediting the music's original evocation of \"country-soul feeling without imitating it\" and the \"human roughness around the edges\",yet stating that he \"always admired that album\" but \"from a distance\". In 1968, \"The Weight\" peaked at No. 63 onBillboard's Hot 100 singles chart in the US. The song was a bigger hit elsewhere, peaking at No. 35 in Canada, and No. 21 in the UK. The album peaked at No. 18 inCanadaand reached No. 30 onBillboard'sPop Albumschart in 1968, and then recharted as a No. 8 hit on the Top Internet Albums chart in 2000. \"The Weight\" gained widespread popularity from the Band's performance of it atWoodstockon August 17, 1969, and due partially to its inclusion in the filmEasy Rider, though it was omitted from the soundtrack because of licensing issues. A cover version by the bandSmithwas included on the soundtrack album instead. The laid-back feel of the album attracted the attention of other major artists. For example,Eric Claptoncites the album'sroots rockstyle as what convinced him to quitCream, and engageDelaney and Bonnieand friends as \"Derek and the Dominos\" on hisdebut solo album.George Harrisonwas also impressed by the album's musicianship and sense of camaraderie, andRoger WatersofPink Floydcalled it the second \"most influential record in the history of rock and roll\", afterthe Beatles'Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, and said that it \"affected Pink Floyd deeply, deeply, deeply\". According toTerry Burrows, the album spawned theAmericanagenre,while music academic Chris Smith said its songs laid the groundwork for roots rock music. Music from Big Pinkwas voted No. 452 in the third edition ofColin Larkin'sAll Time Top 1000 Albums(2000).In 2003, it was ranked 34th onRolling Stone's list ofthe 500 greatest albums of all time,a ranking it maintained on the magazine's 2012 revised list,before dropping to number 100 in a 2020 revised list.OnMetacritic, the expanded 50th anniversary edition of the album has an aggregate score of 99 out of 100, based on seven reviews, a rating that the website defines as indicating \"universal acclaim\". Re-releases The originalLP recordissue included a gatefold cover in 1968, duplicated 40 years later in 2008 as a remastered 180 gm LP. Oncompact disc, it was remastered as agold CDin 1989, as aDVD-audioin 2001 and as a remastered numbered editionSACDin 2009. On August 29, 2000, it was reissued byEMI Recordsas a standard compact disc with ninebonus tracks. In 2012,Mobile Fidelityreleased a remastered, numbered, limited edition, Half-speed Mastering from the originalmaster tapes, 180g LP pressed at RTI. In 2018, a 50th Anniversary Edition was released with an entirely new stereo mix and 5.1 mix byBob Clearmountain, mastered byBob Ludwig. It also included some of the additional tracks from the 2000 re-release, and a new vocal-only mix of \"I Shall Be Released\". Track listing Personnel The Band Additional personnel 2018 remix References Sources External links"
] | [
"Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Page version status This is an accepted version of this page TheTreaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as theNon-Proliferation TreatyorNPT, is an internationaltreatywhose objective is to prevent the spread ofnuclear weaponsand weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses ofnuclear energy, and to further the goal of achievingnuclear disarmamentand general and complete disarmament.Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by theEighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament, aUnited Nations-sponsored organization based inGeneva, Switzerland. Opened for signature in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970. As required by the text, after twenty-five years, NPT parties met in May 1995 and agreed to extend the treaty indefinitely.More countries are parties to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, a testament to the treaty's significance.As of August 2016, 191 states have become parties",
"have become parties to the treaty, thoughNorth Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its withdrawal from the NPT in 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in violation of core obligations.FourUN member stateshave never accepted the NPT, three of which possess or are thought to possess nuclear weapons:India,Israel, andPakistan. In addition,South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined. The treaty definesnuclear-weapon statesas those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1 January 1967; these are the United States (1945),Russia(1949), theUnited Kingdom(1952),France(1960), andChina(1964). Four other states are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons:India,Pakistan, andNorth Koreahave openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons, whileIsraelisdeliberately ambiguousregardingits nuclear weapons status. The NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain: the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and",
"nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals. The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences. Even though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the signing parties decided, by consensus, to unconditionally extend the treaty indefinitely during the Review Conference in New York City on 11 May 1995, in the culmination of U.S. government efforts led by AmbassadorThomas Graham Jr. At the time the NPT was proposed, there were predictions of 25–30 nuclear weapon states within 20 years. Instead, over forty years later, five states are not parties to the NPT, and they include the only four additional states believed to possess nuclear weapons.Several additional measures have been adopted to strengthen the NPT and the broader nuclear nonproliferation regime and make it difficult for",
"it difficult for states to acquire the capability to produce nuclear weapons, including the export controls of theNuclear Suppliers Groupand the enhanced verification measures of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA)Additional Protocol. Critics argue that the NPT cannot stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons or the motivation to acquire them. They express disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads in their combined stockpile. Several high-ranking officials within the United Nations have said that they can do little to stop states usingnuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons. Treaty structure The NPT consists of a preamble and eleven articles. Although the concept of \"pillars\" is not expressed anywhere in the NPT, the treaty is nevertheless sometimes interpreted as athree-pillarsystem,with an implicit balance among them: These pillars are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. An effective",
"An effective nonproliferation regime whose members comply with their obligations provides an essential foundation for progress on disarmament and makes possible greater cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. With the right to access the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology comes the responsibility of nonproliferation. Progress on disarmament reinforces efforts to strengthen the nonproliferation regime and to enforce compliance with obligations, thereby also facilitating peaceful nuclear cooperation.The \"pillars\" concept has been questioned by some who believe that the NPT is, as its name suggests, principally about nonproliferation, and who worry that \"three pillars\" language misleadingly implies that the three elements have equivalent importance. First pillar: Non-proliferation Under Article I of the NPT, nuclear-weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state in the",
"state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon. Under Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes. Five states are recognized by the NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968), which also happen to be the fivepermanent members of the United Nations Security Council. These five NWS agree not to transfer \"nuclear weapons or othernuclear explosivedevices\" and \"not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce\" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to",
"I). NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to \"receive\", \"manufacture\", or \"acquire\" nuclear weapons or to \"seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons\" (Article II). NNWS parties also agree to accept safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or othernuclear explosivedevices (Article III). The five NWS parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear weapons against a non-NWS party except in response to a nuclear attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a Nuclear Weapons State. However, these undertakings have not been incorporated formally into the treaty, and the exact details have varied over time. The U.S. also had nuclear warheads targeted at North Korea, a non-NWS, from 1959 until 1991. The previous United KingdomSecretary of State for Defence,Geoff Hoon, has also explicitly invoked the possibility of the use of the country's nuclear weapons in response to a",
"in response to a non-conventional attack by \"rogue states\".In January 2006, PresidentJacques Chiracof France indicated that an incident ofstate-sponsored terrorismon France could trigger a small-scale nuclear retaliation aimed at destroying the \"rogue state's\" power centers. Security provided by extendednuclear deterrenceor anuclear umbrellahave been a factor limiting incentives for some NNWS to acquire nuclear weapons. Second pillar: Disarmament Under Article VI of the NPT, all Parties undertake to pursue good-faith negotiations on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race, to nuclear disarmament, and to general and complete disarmament. Article VI of the NPT represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon states. The NPT's preamble contains language affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthen international trust so as to create someday the conditions for a halt to the",
"for a halt to the production of nuclear weapons, and treaty on general and complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular, nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles from national arsenals. The wording of the NPT's Article VI arguably imposes only a vague obligation on all NPT signatories to move in the general direction of nuclear and total disarmament, saying, \"Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament.\"Under this interpretation, Article VI does not strictly require all signatories to actually conclude a disarmament treaty. Rather, it only requires them \"to negotiate in good faith\". On the other hand, some governments, especially non-nuclear-weapon states belonging to theNon-Aligned Movement, have interpreted Article VI's language as constituting a formal and specific obligation on the",
"obligation on the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, and argue that these states have failed to meet their obligation.TheInternational Court of Justice(ICJ), in itsadvisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, issued 8 July 1996, unanimously interprets the text of Article VI as implying that There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. The ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament. Critics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in thepost–Cold War era, has",
"War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals. Other observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament.No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which has led to the elimination of thousands of weapons and delivery systems—could eventually make the possession of nuclear weapons more attractive by increasing the perceived strategic value of a small arsenal. As one U.S. official and NPT expert warned in 2007,",
"warned in 2007, \"logic suggests that as the number of nuclear weapons decreases, the 'marginal utility' of a nuclear weapon as an instrument of military power increases. At the extreme, which it is precisely disarmament's hope to create, the strategic utility of even one or two nuclear weapons would be huge.\" Third pillar: Peaceful use of nuclear energy NPT Article IV acknowledges the right of all Parties to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and to benefit from international cooperation in this area, in conformity with their nonproliferation obligations. Article IV also encourages such cooperation.This so-called third pillar provides for the transfer of nuclear technology and materials to NPT Parties for peaceful purposes in the development of civilian nuclear energy programs in those countries, subject to IAEA safeguards to demonstrate that their nuclear programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons. As the commercially popularlight water reactornuclear power stationuses",
"power stationuses enriched uranium fuel, it follows that states must be able either to enrich uranium or purchase it on an international market.Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency, has called the spread of enrichment and reprocessing capabilities the \"Achilles' heel\" of the nuclear nonproliferation regime. As of 2007, 13 states have an enrichment capability. During the 1960s and 1970s many states, almost 60, were supplied withresearch reactorsfuelled by weapon gradehighly enriched uranium(HEU) through the United StatesAtoms for Peaceprogram and a similar Soviet Union program.In the 1980s a program to convert HEU research reactors to use low enriched fuel was started in the United States due to proliferation concerns.However 26 states possessed more than 1 kg of civilian HEU in 2015,and as of 2016 the stocks of HEU for civilian research were 60 tonnes, with 74 research reactors still using HEU. Because the availability of fissile material has long been considered",
"been considered the principal obstacle to, and \"pacing element\" for, a country's nuclear weapons development effort, it was declared a major emphasis of U.S. policy in 2004 to prevent the further spread of uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing (a.k.a. \"ENR\") technology.Countries possessing ENR capabilities, it is feared, have what is in effect the option of using this capability to produce fissile material for weapons use on demand, thus giving them what has been termed a \"virtual\" nuclear weapons program.The degree to which NPT members have a \"right\" to ENR technology notwithstanding its potentially grave proliferation implications, therefore, is at the cutting edge of policy and legal debates surrounding the meaning of Article IV and its relation to Articles I, II, and III of the treaty. Countries that have become Parties to the NPT as non-nuclear-weapon States have a strong record of not building nuclear weapons, although some tried and one eventually left the NPT and acquired nuclear weapons.",
"nuclear weapons. Iraq was found by the IAEA to have violated its safeguards obligations and subject to punitive sanctions by theUN Security Council. North Korea never came into compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement and was cited repeatedly for these violations,and later withdrew from the NPT and tested multiple nuclear devices. Iran was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards obligations in an unusual non-consensus decision because it \"failed in a number of instances over an extended period of time\" to report aspects of its enrichment program.In 1991, Romania reported previously undeclared nuclear activities by the former regime and the IAEA reported this non-compliance to the Security Council for information only. Libya pursued a clandestine nuclear weapons program before abandoning it in December 2003. The IAEA reported Syria's safeguards non-compliance to the UN Security Council, which did not take action. In some regions, the fact that all neighbors are verifiably free of nuclear weapons",
"of nuclear weapons reduces any pressure individual states might feel to build those weapons themselves, even if neighbors are known to have peaceful nuclear energy programs that might otherwise be suspicious. In this, the treaty works as designed. In 2004,Mohamed ElBaradeisaid that by some estimates thirty-five to forty states could have the knowledge to develop nuclear weapons. Key articles Article I:Each nuclear-weapons state (NWS) undertakes not to transfer, to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices. Article II: Each non-NWS party undertakes not to receive, from any source, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices; not to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices; and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture. Article III: Each non-NWS party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the IAEA for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear material in",
"nuclear material in all of the state's peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. Article IV: 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all the Parties to the Treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty. 2. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with due",
"Treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world. Article VI: Each party \"undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a Treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control\". Article IX: \"For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967.\" Article X: Establishes the right to withdraw from the Treaty giving 3 months' notice. It also establishes the duration of the Treaty (25 years before 1995 Extension Initiative). History The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that theCold Wardeterrent relationship between just the United States and theSoviet Unionwas fragile. Having more nuclear-weapon states would reduce security",
"reduce security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, escalation in tensions, and nuclear conflict. Moreover, since theuse of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasakiin 1945, it has been apparent that the development of nuclear capabilities by States could enable them to divert technology and materials for weapons purposes. Thus, the problem of preventing such diversions became a central issue in discussions on peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Initial efforts, which began in 1946, to create an international system enabling all States to have access to nuclear technology under appropriate safeguards, were terminated in 1949 without the achievement of this objective, due to serious political differences between the major Powers. By then, both the United States and the former Soviet Union had tested nuclear weapons, and were beginning to build their stockpiles. In December 1953, US PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower, in his \"Atoms for Peace\" proposal, presented to",
"presented to the eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly, urged that an international organization be established to disseminate peaceful nuclear technology, while guarding against development of weapons capabilities in additional countries. His proposal resulted in 1957 in the establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which was charged with the dual responsibility for promotion and control of nuclear technology. IAEA technical activities began in 1958. An interim safeguards system for small nuclear reactors, put in place in 1961, was replaced in 1964 by a system covering larger installations and, over the following years, was expanded to include additional nuclear facilities. In recent years, efforts to strengthen the effectiveness and improve the efficiency of the IAEA safeguards system culminated in the approval of the Model Additional Protocol by the IAEA Board of Governors in May 1997. Within the framework of the United Nations, the principle of nuclear",
"of nuclear non-proliferation was addressed in negotiations as early as 1957. The NPT process was launched byFrank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958. The NPT gained significant momentum in the early 1960s. The structure of a treaty to uphold nuclear non-proliferation as a norm of international behaviour had become clear by the mid-1960s, and by 1968 final agreement had been reached on a Treaty that would prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons, enable cooperation for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament. It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the firstState to sign. Accession became nearly universal after the end of theCold Warand of South Africanapartheid. In 1992, The People's Republic of China and France acceded to the NPT, the last of the five nuclear powers recognized by the treaty to do so. The treaty provided, in article X, for a conference to be convened 25 years after its entry into force to decide whether the",
"decide whether the treaty should continue in force indefinitely, or be extended for an additional fixed period or periods. Accordingly, at the NPT Review and Extension Conference in May 1995, state parties to the treaty agreed—without a vote—on the treaty's indefinite extension, and decided that review conferences should continue to be held every five years. After Brazil acceded to the NPT in 1998, the only remaining non-nuclear-weapon state which had not signed was Cuba, which joined the NPT (and theTreaty of TlatelolcoNWFZ) in 2002. Several NPT states parties have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs. South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, but has since renounced it and acceded to the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nucleararsenal; after this, the remaining African countries signed the treaty. Theformer Soviet Republicswhere nuclear weapons had been based, namely Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, transferred those weapons to Russia and joined the NPT by 1994 following",
"by 1994 following the signature of theBudapest Memorandum on Security Assurances. Successor states from theBreakup of YugoslaviaandDissolution of Czechoslovakiaalso joined the treaty soon after their independence. Montenegro and East Timor were the last countries to accede to the treaty on their independence in 2006 and 2003; the only other country to accede in the 21st century was Cuba in 2002. The three Micronesian countries inCompact of Free Associationwith the USA joined the NPT in 1995, along with Vanuatu. Major South American countries Argentina, Chile, and Brazil joined in 1995 and 1998. Arabian Peninsula countries included Saudi Arabia and Bahrain in 1988, Qatar and Kuwait in 1989, UAE in 1995, and Oman in 1997. The European states ofMonacoandAndorrajoined in 1995–6. Also acceding in the 1990s were Myanmar in 1992 and Guyana in 1993. United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing At the time the treaty was being negotiated,NATOhad in place secretnuclear weapons sharingagreements whereby the United States",
"the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended \"unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling\", so there is no breach of the NPT.These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including theSoviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time. As of 2005, it is estimated that the United States still provides about 180 tacticalB61 nuclear bombsfor use byBelgium,Germany,Italy, theNetherlandsandTurkeyunder these NATO agreements.Many states, and theNon-Aligned Movement, now argue this violates Articles I and II of the treaty, and are applying",
"and are applying diplomatic pressure to terminate these agreements. They point out that the pilots and other staff of the \"non-nuclear\" NATO states practice handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and non-U.S. warplanes have been adapted to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs which must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its \"nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political\". U.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuadingWest Germanynot to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with theWarsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S. hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs,",
"weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route.(West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.) Preparations for Russia's weapon deployment in Belarus On 27 February 2022, shortly after the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine,a referendumwas staged in Belarus to remove a constitutional prohibition on basing nuclear weapons on its territory.On 25 June 2022, President of BelarusLukashenkomet Russian PresidentPutinto discuss the deployment of Russian short-range nuclear-capable missiles on the territory of Belarus. The transfer of nuclear warheads would require a further decision, possibly after a number of years, and could be tied to future NATO decisions. In Belarus, Russia plans to deploy",
"plans to deploy nuclear-capableIskander-Mmissile systems.Both conventional and nuclear versions of the missile would be provided under the plans.Additionally, Putin said that he would facilitate the modifications necessary for BelarusianSu-25bombers to carry nuclear missiles. On 14 June 2023, president Lukashenko said that Russia had started moving tactical nuclear weapons into Belarus's territory.The Russian president had said the weapons were moved \"as a deterrence measure\" against threats to Russian statehood, and would not be controlled by Belarus.NATO saw no evidence in a change in Russia's nuclear position,while Ukrainian intelligence said that not a single warhead had yet been transferred. Non-parties Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon programs, and Israel has a long-standingpolicy of deliberate ambiguitywith regards to its nuclear program (seeList of states with nuclear weapons). India",
"weapons). India India has detonated nuclear devices,firstin 1974 andagainin 1998.It is estimated to have enough fissile material for more than 150 warheadsand was among the few countries to have ano first usepolicy, a pledge not to use nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons, however India's formerNSAShivshankar Menonsignaled a significant shift from \"no first use\" to \"no first use against non-nuclear weapon states\" in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of theNational Defence CollegeinNew Delhion 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India's \"strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence\". India argues that the NPT creates a club of \"nuclear haves\" and a larger group of \"nuclear have-nots\" by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid. India's then External Affairs MinisterPranab Mukherjeesaid",
"Mukherjeesaid during a visit to Tokyo in 2007: \"If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment.\"Although there have been unofficial discussions on creating a South Asian nuclear weapons free zone, including India and Pakistan, this is considered to be highly unlikely for the foreseeable future. In early March 2006, India and the United States finalized an agreement, in the face of criticism in both countries, to restart cooperation on civilian nuclear technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22 nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them underIAEAsafeguards.Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the IAEA, welcomed the deal by calling India \"an important partner in the non-proliferation regime.\" In December 2006,United States Congressapproved theUnited States-India",
"States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act, endorsing a deal that was forged during Prime MinisterManmohan Singh's visit to the United States in July 2005 and cemented during President Bush's visit to India earlier in 2006. The legislation allows for the transfer of civilian nuclear material to India. Despite its status outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, nuclear cooperation with India was permitted on the basis of its clean non-proliferation record, and India's need for energy fueled by its rapid industrialization and a billion-plus population. On 1 August 2008, the IAEA approved the India Safeguards Agreementand on 6 September 2008, India was granted the waiver at the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) meeting held in Vienna, Austria. The consensus was arrived after overcoming misgivings expressed by Austria, Ireland and New Zealand and is an unprecedented step in giving exemption to a country, which has not signed the NPT and theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty(CTBT).While India could",
"India could commence nuclear trade with other willing countries.The U.S. Congress approved this agreement and President Bush signed it on 8 October 2008. When China announced expanded nuclear cooperation with Pakistan in 2010, proponents ofarms controldenounced both the deals, claiming that they weakened the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT. As of January 2011, Australia, atop three uranium producer and home to world's largest known reserves, had continued its refusal to export uranium to India despite diplomatic pressure from India. In November 2011, Australian Prime MinisterJulia Gillardannounced a desire to allow exports to India,a policy change which was authorized by her party's national conference in December.The following month, Gillard overturned Australia's long-standing ban on exporting uranium to India.She further said, \"We should take a decision in the national interest, a decision about strengthening our strategic partnership with India in this",
"with India in this the Asian century,\" and said that any agreement to sell uranium to India would include strict safeguards to ensure it would only be used for civilian purposes, and not end up in nuclear weapons. On 5 September 2014Tony Abbott, Gillard's successor as Australian Prime Minister, sealed a civil nuclear deal to sell uranium to India. \"We signed a nuclear cooperation agreement because Australia trusts India to do the right thing in this area, as it has been doing in other areas,\" Abbott told reporters after he and Indian Prime MinisterNarendra Modisigned a pact to sell uranium for peaceful power generation. Pakistan In May 1998, following India'snuclear testsearlier that month, Pakistan conducted two sets of nuclear tests, theChagai-IandChagai-II. Although there is little confirmed information in public, as of 2015, Pakistan was estimated to have as many as 120 warheads.According to analyses of theCarnegie Endowment for International Peaceand theStimson Center, Pakistan has enough fissile",
"has enough fissile material for 350 warheads. Pakistani officials argue that the NPT is discriminatory. When asked at a briefing in 2015 whether Islamabad would sign the NPT if Washington requested it,Foreign SecretaryAizaz Ahmad Chaudhrywas quoted as responding \"It is a discriminatory treaty. Pakistan has the right to defend itself, so Pakistan will not sign the NPT. Why should we?\"Until 2010, Pakistan had always maintained the position that it would sign the NPT if India did so. In 2010, Pakistan abandoned this historic position and stated that it would join the NPT only as a recognized nuclear-weapon state. The NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Pakistan, with very narrow exceptions, since it does not have full-scope IAEA safeguards (i.e. safeguards on all its nuclear activities). Pakistan has sought to reach an agreement similar to that with India,but these efforts have been rebuffed by the United States and other NSG members, on the grounds that Pakistan's track",
"Pakistan's track record as a nuclear proliferator makes it impossible for it to have any sort of nuclear deal in the near future. By 2010, China reportedly signed a civil nuclear agreement with Pakistan, using the justification that the deal was \"peaceful\".The British government criticized this, on the grounds that 'the time is not yet right for a civil nuclear deal with Pakistan'.China did not seek formal approval from thenuclear suppliers group, and claimed instead that its cooperation with Pakistan was \"grandfathered\" when China joined the NSG, a claim that was disputed by other NSG members.Pakistanapplied for membership on 19 May 2016,supported by Turkey and ChinaHowever, many NSG members opposed Pakistan's membership bid due to its track record, including the illicit procurement network of Pakistani scientist A.Q. Khan, which aided the nuclear programs of Iran, Libya and North Korea.Pakistani officials reiterated the request in August 2016. Israel Israel has a long-standingpolicy of deliberate",
"of deliberate ambiguitywith regards to its nuclear program (seeList of countries with nuclear weapons). Israel has been developing nuclear technology at itsDimonasite in theNegevsince 1958, and some nonproliferation analysts estimate that Israel may have stockpiled between 100 and 200 warheads using reprocessed plutonium. The position on the NPT is explained in terms of \"Israeli exceptionality\", a term coined by ProfessorGerald M. Steinberg, in reference to the perception that the country's small size, overall vulnerability, as well as the history of deep hostility and large-scale attacks by neighboring states, require a deterrent capability. The Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny possession of nuclear weapons, although this is now regarded as an open secret after Israeli junior nuclear technicianMordechai Vanunu—subsequently arrested and sentenced for treason by Israel—published evidence about the program to the BritishSunday Timesin 1986. On 18 September 2009, the General Conference of",
"Conference of theInternational Atomic Energy Agencycalled on Israel to open its nuclear facilities to IAEA inspection and adhere to the non-proliferation treaty as part of a resolution on \"Israeli nuclear capabilities\", which passed by a narrow margin of 49–45 with 16 abstentions. The chief Israeli delegate stated that \"Israel will not co-operate in any matter with this resolution.\"However, similar resolutions were defeated in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015.As with Pakistan, the NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Israel. Other states North Korea North Korea acceded to the treaty on 12 December 1985 in order to obtain assistance from the Soviet Union in the construction of fourlight-water reactors, but was ruled be in noncompliance with its IAEA safeguards agreement after a series of inspections in 1992-93 which determined that North Korea had not fully declared its history of reprocessing spent fuel at theYongbyon nuclear facility.North Korea responded by announcing its",
"by announcing its intent to withdraw from the treaty on 12 March 1993, and PresidentBill Clintonresponded by announcing sanctions and considering military action. The crisis ended with theAgreed Frameworknegotiated by former US PresidentJimmy Carterin which North Korea agreed to an IAEA-monitored freeze of plutonium production facilities and construction of new reactors in exchange for two light-water reactors andheavy fuel oilshipments through the US-ledKorean Peninsula Energy Development Organizationconsortium. North Korea also abandoned its withdrawal from the NPT. During the late 1990s and the early 2000s critics of the agreement, as well as Clinton's successorGeorge W. Bush, expressed skepticism on North Korean compliance to the Agreed Framework. During 2002 negotiations US Assistant Secretary of StateJames A. Kellyaccused North Korea of a secret highly enriched uranium program; North Korean First Vice Foreign MinisterKang Sok-juand Vice Foreign MinisterKim Kye-gwanresponded by denying the allegations",
"the allegations but asserting that North Korea had a right to nuclear weapons. The U.S. subsequently halted fuel oil shipments to North Korea in December 2002 and the DPRK government again gave notice of withdrawal from NPT on 10 January 2003.The withdrawal became effective 10 April 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty. In April 2003, North Korea agreed to the multilateralsix-party talksto find a diplomatic solution to the issue hosted byChinaand including the United States,South Korea,Russia, andJapan. North Korea initially demanded resumption of fuel shipments, while the United States demanded the \"complete, verifiable, and irreversible dismantlement\" of the North Korean nuclear program.On 10 February 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks. \"We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self-defence to cope with the",
"to cope with the Bush administration's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK ,\" a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue.Six-party talks resumed in July 2005. On 19 September 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors. The difficult issue of the supply oflight water reactorsto replace North Korea'sindigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions.On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT.The six-party talks eventually collapsed before a final agreement could be negotiated after theU.S. State DepartmentsanctionedBanco Delta Asiaunder Section 311 of thePatriot Actfor money-laundering",
"money-laundering involving North Korean accounts. On 2 October 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test \"in the future\", although it did not state when.On Monday, 9 October 2006 at 01:35:28 (UTC) theUnited States Geological Surveydetected a magnitude 4.3seismic event70 km (43 mi) north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test.The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completeda successful underground testof a nuclear fission device. AfterUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1718imposed sanctions on North Korea, the six-party talks resumed. In February 2007 the parties agreed to the Initial Actions for the Implementation for the Joint Statement in which North Korea would dismantle its nuclear weapons programs, including the Yongbyon reactor, in exchange for the return of frozen funds at Banco Delta Asia and foreign energy assistance.However, the agreement failed due to verification problems and North",
"problems and North Korea fully withdrew from the six-party talks in 2009 after the other members condemned the2009 North Korean missile tests, expelling all US and IAEA inspectors from the country.The UN responded by adoptingUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1874expanding the sanctions regime. In 2007, reports from Washington suggested that the 2002CIAreports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence.On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations, there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok-ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan's then-President Musharraf revealed that theA.Q. Khanproliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment.",
"uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U.S. officials to the effect that evidence obtained in dismantlingLibya's WMD programspoints toward North Korea as the source for Libya'suranium hexafluoride(UF6)—which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment.North Korea formally announced the existence of a uranium enrichment program in September 2009. In 2011, after rising tensions over the North Korean nuclear program, theROKSCheonansinking, and thebombardment of Yeonpyeong, North Korea began to express interest in returning to the six-party talks. Bilateral negotiations between North Korea and the United States after thedeath of Kim Jong-illed to the 29 February 2012 \"Leap Day Agreement\" in which North Korea would agree to allow IAEA inspections and resume the six-party talks. However, these diplomatic gains were quickly undercut by launching theUnha-3rocket, leading the United States to suspend food aid.North Korea",
"aid.North Korea conducted further nuclear tests in2013,January 2016,September 2016, and2017, and announced that it was developing miniaturized warheads andintercontinental ballistic missiles. It also claimed that it had successfully detonatedthermonuclear weaponsin the January 2016 and 2017 tests. The North Korean nuclear weapons development led to the2017–2018 North Korea crisiswhich nearly led to war, with both North Korean Supreme LeaderKim Jong-unand US PresidentDonald Trumpthreatening military action. The crisis was averted after a series of meetings between Kim Jong-un, US Secretary of StateMike Pompeo, and South Korean PresidentMoon Jae-infinally culminating with the2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summitbetween Trump and Kim, the first face-to-face meeting between the US and North Korean heads of state.The IAEA has called for North Korea to rejoin it and the NPT since 2013. Iran Iran is a party to the NPT since 1970 but was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement, and the",
"agreement, and the status of its nuclear program remains in dispute. In November 2003IAEADirector GeneralMohamed ElBaradeireported that Iran had repeatedly and over an extended period failed to meet its safeguards obligations under the NPT with respect to: After about two years of EU3-led diplomatic efforts and Iran temporarily suspending its enrichment program,the IAEA Board of Governors, acting under Article XII.C of the IAEA Statute, found in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions that these failures constituted non-compliance with the IAEA safeguards agreement.This was reported to theUN Security Councilin 2006,after which the Security Council passed a resolution demanding that Iran suspend its enrichment.Instead, Iran resumed its enrichment program. The IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran, and is continuing its work on verifying the absence of undeclared activities.In February 2008, the IAEA also reported that it was working to address \"alleged",
"to address \"alleged studies\" of weaponization, based on documents provided by certain Member States, which those states claimed originated from Iran. Iran rejected the allegations as \"baseless\" and the documents as \"fabrications\".In June 2009, the IAEA reported that Iran had not \"cooperated with the Agency in connection with the remaining issues ... which need to be clarified to exclude the possibility of military dimensions to Iran's nuclear program.\" The United States concluded that Iran violated its Article III NPT safeguards obligations, and further argued based on circumstantial evidence that Iran's enrichment program was for weapons purposes and therefore violated Iran's Article II nonproliferation obligations.The November 2007 USNational Intelligence Estimate(NIE) later concluded that Iran had halted an active nuclear weapons program in the fall of 2003 and that it had remained halted as of mid-2007. The NIE's \"Key Judgments\", however, also made clear that what Iran had actually stopped in 2003 was",
"stopped in 2003 was only \"nuclear weapon design and weaponization work and covert uranium conversion-related and uranium enrichment-related work\"-namely, those aspects of Iran's nuclear weapons effort that had not by that point already been leaked to the press and become the subject of IAEA investigations. Since Iran's uranium enrichment program at Natanz—and its continuing work on a heavy water reactor at Arak that would be ideal for plutonium production—began secretly years before in conjunction with the very weaponization work the NIE discussed and for the purpose of developing nuclear weapons, many observers find Iran's continued development of fissile material production capabilities distinctly worrying. Particularly because fissile material availability has long been understood to be the principal obstacle to nuclear weapons development and the primary \"pacing element\" for a weapons program, the fact that Iran has reportedly suspended weaponization work may not mean very much.As The Bush",
"much.As The Bush Administration's Director of National Intelligence (DNI)Mike McConnellput it in 2008, the aspects of its work that Iran allegedly suspended were thus \"probably the least significant part of the program.\" Iran stated it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it had \"constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency\".Iran also stated that its enrichment program has been part of its civilian nuclear energy program, which is allowed under Article IV of the NPT. The Non-Aligned Movement has welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. Early during his tenure asUnited Nations Secretary General, between 2007 and 2016,Ban Ki-moonwelcomed the continued dialogue between Iran and the IAEA. He urged a peaceful resolution of the issue. In April 2010, during the signing of the U.S.-RussiaNew STARTTreaty,",
"STARTTreaty, President Obama said that the United States, Russia, and other nations were demanding that Iran face consequences for failing to fulfill its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, saying \"We will not tolerate actions that flout the NPT, risk an arms race in a vital region, and threaten the credibility of the international community and our collective security.\" In 2015, Iran negotiated a nuclear deal with theP5+1, a group of countries that consisted of thefive permanent members of the UN Security Council(China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) plus Germany. On 14 July 2015, the P5+1 and Iran concluded theJoint Comprehensive Plan of Action, lifting sanctions on Iran in exchange for constraints and on Iran's nuclear activities and increased verification by the IAEA. On 8 May 2018, PresidentDonald Trumpwithdrew the United States from the JCPOAand reimposedsanctions on Iran. South Africa South Africa is the only country that developed nuclear weapons by",
"nuclear weapons by itself and later dismantled them—unlike the formerSovietstatesUkraine,BelarusandKazakhstan, which inherited nuclear weapons from the formerUSSRand also acceded to the NPT as non-nuclear weapon states. During the days ofapartheid, the South African government developed a deep fear of both a black uprising and the threat of communism. This led to the development of a secret nuclear weapons program as an ultimate deterrent. South Africa has a large supply of uranium, which is mined in the country's gold mines. The government built a nuclear research facility atPelindabanearPretoriawhere uranium was enriched to fuel grade for theKoeberg Nuclear Power Stationas well as weapon grade for bomb production. In 1991, after international pressure and when a change of government was imminent, South African Ambassador to the United StatesHarry Schwarzsigned the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 1993, the then presidentFrederik Willem de Klerkopenly admitted that the country had developed a limited",
"developed a limited nuclear weapon capability. These weapons were subsequently dismantled beforeSouth Africaacceded to the NPT and opened itself up to IAEA inspection. In 1994, the IAEA completed its work and declared that the country had fully dismantled its nuclear weapons program. Libya Libya had signed (in 1968) and ratified (in 1975) the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and was subject to IAEA nuclear safeguards inspections, but undertook a secret nuclear weapons development program in violation of its NPT obligations, using material and technology provided by theA.Q. Khanproliferation network—including actual nuclear weapons designs allegedly originating in China. Libya began secret negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom in March 2003 over potentially eliminating itsWMD programs. In October 2003, Libya was embarrassed by the interdiction of a shipment of Pakistani-designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia, also as part of A. Q. Khan's proliferation ring. In December 2003, Libya",
"2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to eliminate all its WMD programs, and permitted U.S. and British teams (as well as IAEA inspectors) into the country to assist this process and verify its completion. The nuclear weapons designs, gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment, and other equipment—including prototypes for improvedSCUD ballistic missiles—were removed from Libya by the United States. (Libyan chemical weapons stocks and chemical bombs were also destroyed on site with international verification, with Libya joining theChemical Weapons Convention.) Libya's non-compliance with its IAEA safeguards was reported to the U.N. Security Council, but with no action taken, as Libya's return to compliance with safeguards and Article II of the NPT was welcomed. In 2011, the Libyan government ofMuammar al-Gaddafiwas overthrown in theLibyan Civil Warwith the assistance of amilitary interventionbyNATO forcesacting under the auspices ofUN Security Council Resolution 1973. Gaddafi's downfall 8 years after",
"8 years after thedisarmament of Libya, in which Gaddafi agreed to eliminate Libya's nuclear weapons program, has been repeatedly cited by North Korea, which views Gaddafi's fate as a \"cautionary tale\" that influences North Korea's decision to maintain and intensifyits nuclear weapons program and arsenaldespite pressure to denuclearize. Syria Syria is a state party to the NPT since 1969 and has a limited civil nuclear program. Before the advent of theSyrian Civil Warit was known to operate only one small Chinese-built research reactor, SRR-1. Despite being a proponent of a Weapons of Mass Destruction Free Zone in the Middle East the country was accused of pursuing a military nuclear program with a reported nuclear facility in a desertDeir ez-Zor Governorate. The reactor's components had likely been designed and manufactured in North Korea, with the reactor's striking similarity in shape and size to the North Korean Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. That information alarmed Israeli military and",
"military and intelligence to such a degree that the idea of a targeted airstrike was conceived. It resulted inOperation Orchard, that took place on 6 September 2007 and saw as many as eightIsraeli Air Forceaircraft taking part. The Israeli government is said to have bounced the idea of the operation off of the US Bush administration, although the latter declined to participate. The nuclear reactor was destroyed in the attack, which also killed about ten North Korean workers. The attack did not cause an international outcry or any serious Syrian retaliatory moves as both parties tried to keep it secret: Despite a half-century state of war declared by surrounding states, Israel did not want publicity as regards its breach of the ceasefire, while Syria was not willing to acknowledge its clandestine nuclear program. Ukraine Ukraine acceded to the NPT in 1994 as a non-nuclear-weapon state, and committed to remove all nuclear weapons from its territory. In recognition of Ukraine's decision, the UK, the United",
"the UK, the United States and Russia provided security assurances to Ukraine under theBudapest Memorandumof 1994. In 1993, political scientistJohn Mearsheimerargued that the United States should encourage Ukraine to retain anuclear deterrentagainst potential Russian expansion, and to reduce the danger of war.After theRussian invasion of 2014Andreas Umland, an analyst from the Swedish Institute of International Affairs, argued that Ukraine had been unwise to give up its arsenal, as Russia breaking the treaty only had limited consequences, and demonstrated that only a nuclear arsenal guarantees a country's sovereignty in the face of aggression from a nuclear power.However, Mariana Budjeryn of Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center, argued that it was unclear whether Ukraine's nuclear arsenal would have kept it safe from Russian aggression. Establishing operative control and maintaining the missiles would have been challenging for Ukraine, which might have faced sanctions had it refused to give up its arsenal.",
"up its arsenal. Leaving the treaty Article X allows a state to leave the treaty if \"extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country\", giving three months' (ninety days') notice. The state is required to give reasons for leaving the NPT in this notice. NATOstates argue that when there is a state of \"general war\" the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATOnuclear weapons sharingpolicy. NATO's argument is based on the phrase \"the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war\" in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding.SeeUnited States–NATO nuclear weapons sharingabove. North Korea has also caused an uproar by its use of this provision of the",
"provision of the treaty. Article X.1 only requires a state to give three months' notice in total, and does not provide for other states to question a state's interpretation of \"supreme interests of its country\". In 1993, North Korea gave notice to withdraw from the NPT. However, after 89 days, North Korea reached agreement with the United States to freeze its nuclear program under theAgreed Frameworkand \"suspended\" its withdrawal notice. In October 2002, the United States accused North Korea of violating the Agreed Framework by pursuing a secret uranium enrichment program, and suspended shipments of heavy fuel oil under that agreement. In response, North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors, disabled IAEA equipment, and, on 10 January 2003, announced that it was ending the suspension of its previous NPT withdrawal notification. North Korea said that only one more day's notice was sufficient for withdrawal from the NPT, as it had given 89 days before. The IAEA Board of Governors rejected this interpretation.Most",
"interpretation.Most countries held that a new three-months withdrawal notice was required, and some questioned whether North Korea's notification met the \"extraordinary events\" and \"supreme interests\" requirements of the treaty. The Joint Statement of 19 September 2005 at the end of the Fourth Round of theSix-Party Talkscalled for North Korea to \"return\" to the NPT, implicitly acknowledging that it had withdrawn. Recent and coming events The main outcome of the 2000 Conference was the adoption by consensus of a comprehensive Final Document,which included among other things \"practical steps for the systematic and progressive efforts\" to implement the disarmament provisions of the NPT, commonly referred to as theThirteen Steps. On 18 July 2005, US President George W. Bush met Indian Prime MinisterManmohan Singhand declared that he would work to change US law and international rules to permit trade in US civilian nuclear technology with India.At the time, British columnistGeorge Monbiotargued that the",
"that the U.S.-India nuclear deal, in combination with US attempts to deny Iran (an NPT signatory) civilian nuclear fuel-making technology, might destroy the NPT regime. In the first half of 2010, it was strongly believed that China had signed a civilian nuclear deal with Pakistan claiming that the deal was \"peaceful\". Arms controladvocates criticised the reportedChina-Pakistan dealas they did in case ofU.S.-India dealclaiming that both the deals violate the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT.Some reports asserted that the deal was a strategic move by China to balance US influence inSouth-Asia. According to a report published byU.S. Department of Defensein 2001, China had provided Pakistan withnuclear materialsand has given critical technological assistance in the construction of Pakistan's nuclear weapons development facilities, in violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, of which China even then was a signatory. At the Seventh Review Conference in May",
"Conference in May 2005,there were stark differences between the United States, which wanted the conference to focus on non-proliferation, especially on its allegations against Iran, and most other countries, who emphasized the lack of seriousnuclear disarmamentby the nuclear powers. Thenon-aligned countriesreiterated their position emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament. The2010 Review Conferencewas held in May 2010 in New York City, and adopted a final document that included a summary by the Review Conference President, AmbassadorLibran Capactulanof the Philippines, and an Action Plan that was adopted by consensus.The 2010 conference was generally considered a success because it reached consensus where the previous Review Conference in 2005 ended in disarray. Many attributed the success of the 2010 conference toU.S. PresidentBarack Obama's commitment to nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament. Some have warned that this success raised unrealistically high expectations that could lead to failure at",
"lead to failure at the next Review Conference in 2015. The \"Global Summit on Nuclear Security\" took place 12–13 April 2010. The summit was proposed byPresident Obama in Pragueand was intended to strengthen the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in conjunction with theProliferation Security Initiativeand theGlobal Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism.Forty seven states and three international organizations took part in the summit,which issued a communiquéand a work plan.For further information see2010 Nuclear Security Summit. In a major policy speech at theBrandenburg GateinBerlinon 19 June 2013, Obama outlined plans to further reduce the number of warheads in theU.S. nuclear arsenal.According toForeign Policy, Obama proposed a \"one-third reduction in strategic nuclear warheads—on top of the cuts already required by theNew STARTtreaty—bringing the number of deployed warheads to about 1,000\".Obama is seeking to \"negotiate these reductions withRussiato continue to move beyondCold Warnuclear postures,\" according",
"according to briefing documents provided toForeign Policy.In the same speech, Obama emphasized his administration's efforts to isolate any nuclear weapons capabilities emanating fromIranandNorth Korea. He also called for a renewed bipartisan effort in theUnited States Congressto ratify theComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treatyand called on countries to negotiate a new treaty to end the production offissile materialfornuclear weapons. On 24 April 2014, it was announced that the nation of theMarshall Islandshas brought suit in The Hague against the United States, the former Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel seeking to have the disarmament provisions of the NPT enforced. The 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was held at the United Nations in New York from 27 April to 22 May 2015 and presided over by Ambassador Taous Feroukhi of Algeria. The Treaty, particularly article VIII, paragraph 3,",
"VIII, paragraph 3, envisages a review of the operation of the Treaty every five years, a provision which was reaffirmed by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference and the 2000 NPT Review Conference. At the 2015 NPT Review Conference, States parties examined the implementation of the Treaty's provisions since 2010. Despite intensive consultations, the Conference was not able to reach agreement on the substantive part of the draft Final Document. The Tenth Review Conference convened 1–26 August 2022, after a two-year postponement due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, and concluded without adopting a final document. Contentious negotiations came close to consensus on a text, but ultimately Russia blocked consensus over issues related toits invasion of Ukraine, including references to the safety of theZaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plantin the draft text. On June 23, 2023, The US Department of State issued a statementthat the United States hosted the meeting on June 13–14 in Cairo among the five",
"among the five nuclear weapons states, describing it as \"an ongoing exchange in the context of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).\" Criticism and responses Over the years the NPT has come to be seen by many Third World states as \"a conspiracy of the nuclear 'haves' to keep the nuclear 'have-nots' in their place\".This argument has roots in Article VI of the treaty which \"obligates the nuclear weapons states to liquidate their nuclear stockpiles and pursue complete disarmament. The non-nuclear states see no signs of this happening\".Some argue that the NWS have not fully complied with their disarmament obligations under Article VI of the NPT.Some countries such as India have criticized the NPT, because it \"discriminated against states not possessing nuclear weapons on 1 January 1967,\" while Iran and numerous Arab states have criticized Israel for not signing the NPT.There has been disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have",
"states still have 13,400 warheads (as of February 2021) among them. As notedabove, the International Court of Justice, in itsadvisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that \"there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control\".Some critics of the nuclear-weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons. The United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that, since the end of the Cold War, it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons, and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of",
"whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons.U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear warheads. By the time accelerated dismantlement efforts ordered by President George W. Bush were completed, the U.S. arsenal was less than a quarter of its size at the end of the Cold War, and smaller than it had been at any point since the Eisenhower administration, well before the drafting of the NPT. The United States has also purchased many thousands of weapons' worth of uranium formerly in Soviet nuclear weapons for conversion into reactor fuel.As a consequence of this latter effort, it has been estimated that the equivalent of one lightbulb in every ten in the United States is powered by nuclear fuel removed from warheads previously targeted at the United States and its allies during the Cold War. The U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation agreed that nonproliferation and disarmament are linked, noting that they",
"noting that they can be mutually reinforcing but also that growing proliferation risks create an environment that makes disarmament more difficult.The United Kingdom,Franceand Russialikewise defend their nuclear disarmament records, and the five NPT NWS issued a joint statement in 2008 reaffirming their Article VI disarmament commitments. According to Thomas Reed and Danny Stillman, the \"NPT has one giant loophole\": Article IV gives each non-nuclear weapon state the \"inalienable right\" to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power.A \"number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states usingnuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons\".A 2009 United Nations report said that: The revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable",
"are directly usable in nuclear weapons. According to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not authorized to do so under the NPT, have not paid a significant price for their pursuit of weapons capabilities. Also, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals made by NPT signatories, notably the United States. Based on concerns over the slow pace of nuclear disarmament and the continued reliance on nuclear weapons in military and security concepts, doctrines and policies, theTreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weaponswas adopted in July 2017 and was subsequently opened for signature on 20 September 2017. Entering into force on 22 January 2021,it prohibits each state party from the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as assistance to those activities. It reaffirms in its preamble the vital role of the full and effective implementation of the NPT. Ineffective enforcement ofterritorial",
"ofterritorial integrityandrule of lawin the 21st centurycould undermine the credibility of the security assurances that are part of the current global nuclear order. See also References External links",
"The Band The Bandwas a Canadian-Americanrockband formed inToronto, Ontario, in 1967. It consisted of CanadiansRick Danko(bass, guitar, vocals, fiddle),Garth Hudson(organ, keyboards, accordion, saxophone),Richard Manuel(piano, drums, vocals),Robbie Robertson(guitar, vocals, piano, percussion), and AmericanLevon Helm(drums, vocals, mandolin, guitar, bass). The Band's music combined elements ofAmericana,folk, rock,jazzandcountry, which influenced artists such asGeorge Harrison,Elton John,the Grateful Dead,Eric ClaptonandWilco. Between 1958 and 1963, the group was known as the Hawks, a backing band forrockabillysingerRonnie Hawkins. In the mid-1960s, they gained recognition for being the backing group forBob Dylan, with his1966 concert tourbeing notable as Dylan's first with an electric band. After leaving Dylan and changing their name to The Band, they released several records to critical and popular acclaim, most notably their 1968 debut,Music from Big Pinkand its succeeding album, 1969'sThe Band. According",
"Band. According toAllMusic,Music from Big Pink's influence on several generations of musicians has been substantial:Pink FloydmemberRoger Watersdeemed it the \"second-most influential record in the history of rock and roll\",and music journalistAl Aronowitzcalled it \"country soul ... a sound never heard before\".Their most popular songs included \"The Weight\" (1968), \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\" (1969), and \"Up on Cripple Creek\" (1969). The Band performed their farewell concert on November 25, 1976. Footage from the event was released in 1978 as theconcert filmThe Last Waltz, directed byMartin Scorsese. It would be the last performance of the original five members. After five years apart, Danko, Hudson, Helm, and Manuel reunited in 1983 for a reunion tour without Robertson, as he had taken up a new career as a producer and composer for film soundtracks. Manuel died in 1986, but the remaining three members would continue to tour and occasionally release new albums of studio material until 1999, when,",
"until 1999, when, upon the death of Danko, the remaining members decided to break up for good. Helm would go on to have a successful solo career, winning multipleGrammy Awardsin the folk and Americana categories until his 2012 death, while Hudson worked as a featured session musician. Robertson died in 2023, leaving Hudson as the only living member of the original lineup. Music critic Bruce Eder described The Band as \"one of the most popular and influential rock groups in the world, their music embraced by critics ... as seriously as the music ofthe Beatlesandthe Rolling Stones.\"The Band was inducted into theCanadian Music Hall of Famein 1989 and theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994.In 2004,Rolling Stoneranked them 50th on its list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\",and ranked \"The Weight\" 41st on its list of the \"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\".In 2008, the group received theGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award.In 2014, they were inducted intoCanada's Walk of Fame. History 1957–1964: The Hawks The",
"The Hawks The future members of The Band first played together as the Hawks, the backing group forToronto-basedrockabillysingerRonnie Hawkins.Levon Helmbegan playing with the group in 1957, then became their fulltime drummer after graduating from high school in 1958. Helm journeyed with Hawkins fromArkansasto Ontario, where they were joined byRobbie Robertson,Rick Danko,Richard Manuel, and finallyGarth Hudson. Latter-day Band memberStan Szelestwas also in the group at that time. Hawkins's act was popular in and around Toronto and nearby Hamilton,and he had an effective way of eliminating his musical competition: when a promising band appeared, Hawkins would hire their best musicians for his own group; Robertson, Danko, and Manuel came under Hawkins's tutelage this way. While most of the Hawks were eager to join Hawkins's group, getting Hudson to join was more difficult. Having earned a college degree, Hudson planned on a career as a music teacher, and was only interested in playing rock music only as a",
"music only as a hobby. The Hawks admired his wild, full-bore organ style and asked him repeatedly to join. Hudson finally agreed, under the condition that the Hawks each pay him $10 per week to be their instructor and purchase a new state-of-the-artLowrey organ; all music theory questions were directed to Hudson. There is a view thatjazzis 'evil' because it comes from evil people, but actually the greatest priests on 52nd Street, and on the streets of New York City were the musicians. They were doing the greatest healing work. And they knew how to punch through music which would cure and make people feel good. —Garth Hudson inThe Last Waltz With Hawkins, they recorded a few singles in this period and became well known as the best rock group in the thriving Toronto music scene. Hawkins regularly convened all-night rehearsals following long club shows, with the result that the young musicians quickly developed great technical prowess on their instruments. In late 1963, the group split from Hawkins over",
"from Hawkins over personal differences. They had grown tired of playing the same songs so often and wanted to perform original material, and they were also wary of Hawkins's heavy-handed leadership. He would fine the Hawks if they brought their girlfriends to the clubs (fearing it might reduce the numbers of \"available\" girls who came to performances) or if they smokedmarijuana. Robertson later said, \"Eventually, built us up to the point where we outgrew his music and had to leave. He shot himself in the foot, really, by sharpening us into such a crackerjack band that we had to go on out into the world, because we knew what his vision was for himself, and we were all younger and more ambitious musically.\" Upon leaving Hawkins, the group was briefly known as the Levon Helm Sextet, with a sixth member, saxophonist Jerry Penfound, and then as Levon and the Hawks after Penfound's departure. In 1965, they released a single on Ware Records under the name the Canadian Squires, but they returned as Levon and the",
"as Levon and the Hawks for a recording session forAtcolater that year.Also in 1965, Helm and the band met blues singer and harmonica playerSonny Boy Williamson. They wanted to record with him, offering to become his backing band, but Williamson died not long after their meeting. Later in 1965, American musicianBob Dylanhired the group as his backing band for his U.S. tour in 1965 andworld tour in 1966.Following the 1966 tour, the group moved with help from Dylan and his manager,Albert Grossman, toSaugerties, New York, where they made the informal 1967 recordings that becameThe Basement Tapes, the basis for their 1968 debut album,Music from Big Pink. Because they were always referred to simply as \"the band\" to various frontmen and the locals in Woodstock, Helm said the name \"The Band\" worked well when the group came into its own.The group decided on it as their official name began performing as under it in from 1968 onward. Dylan continued to collaborate with The Band over the course of their career, most",
"their career, most notably in a joint1974 tour. 1965–1967: With Bob Dylan In late summer 1965, Bob Dylan was looking for a backup band for his first U.S. \"electric\" tour. Levon and the Hawks were recommended by blues singerJohn P. Hammond, who earlier that year had recorded with Helm, Hudson and Robertson on hisVanguardalbumSo Many Roads.Around the same time, one of their friends from Toronto, Mary Martin, was working as secretary to Dylan's manager,Albert Grossman. She told Dylan to visit the group at Le Coq d'Or Tavern, a club onYonge Street, in Toronto—though Robertson recollects it was the Friar's Tavern, just down the street.Her advice to Dylan: \"Yougottasee these guys.\" After hearing The Band play and meeting with Robertson, Dylan invited Helm and Robertson to join his backing band. After two concerts backing Dylan, Helm and Robertson told Dylan of their loyalty to their bandmates and told him that they would continue with him only if he hired all of the Hawks. Dylan accepted and invited Levon and the",
"Levon and the Hawks to tour with him. The group was receptive to the offer, knowing it could give them the wider exposure they craved. They thought of themselves as a tightly rehearsed rock andrhythm and bluesgroup and knew Dylan mostly from his early acoustic folk and protest music. Furthermore, they had little inkling of how internationally popular Dylan had become. With Dylan, the Hawks played a series of concerts from September 1965 through May 1966, billed as \"Bob Dylan and the Band\". The tours were marked by Dylan's reportedly copious use ofamphetamines. Some, though not all, of the Hawks joined in the excesses.Most of the concerts were met with heckling and disapproval fromfolk musicpurists. Helm was so affected by the negative reception that he left the tour after a little more than one month and sat out the rest of that year's concerts, as well as the world tour in 1966.Helm spent much of this period working on an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico. During and between tours, Dylan and the Hawks attempted",
"the Hawks attempted several recording sessions, but with less than satisfying results. Sessions in October and November yielded just one usablesingle(\"Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window?\"), and two days of recording in January 1966 for what was intended to be Dylan's next album,Blonde on Blonde, resulted in \"One of Us Must Know (Sooner or Later)\", which was released as a single a few weeks later and was subsequently selected for the album.On \"One of Us Must Know\", Dylan was backed by drummerBobby Gregg, bassist Danko (orBill Lee),guitarist Robbie Robertson, pianistPaul Griffin, andAl Kooper(who was more a guitarist than an organist) playing organ.Frustrated by the slow progress in the New York studio, Dylan accepted the suggestion of producerBob Johnstonand moved the recording sessions to Nashville. In Nashville, Robertson's guitar was prominent on theBlonde on Blonderecordings, especially in the song \"Leopard-Skin Pill-Box Hat\", but the other members of the Hawks did not attend the sessions. During the",
"During the European leg of their 1966 world tour,Mickey Jonesreplaced Sandy Konikoff on drums. Dylan and the Hawks played at theFree Trade HallinManchesteron May 17, 1966. The gig became legendary when, near the end of Dylan's electric set, an audience member shouted \"Judas!\" After a pause, Dylan replied, \"I don't believe you. You're a liar!\" He then turned to the Hawks and said, \"Play it fucking loud!\" With that, they launched into an acidic version of \"Like a Rolling Stone\". The Manchester performance was widelybootlegged(and mistakenly placed at theRoyal Albert Hall). In a 1971 review forCreem, criticDave Marshwrote, \"My response is that crystallization of everything that is rock'n'roll music, at its finest, was to allow my jaw to drop, my body to move, to leap out of the chair ... It is an experience that one desires simply to share, to play over and over again for those he knows thirst for such pleasure. If I speak in an almost worshipful sense about this music, it is not because I have lost",
"because I have lost perspective, it is precisely because I have found it, within music, yes, that was made five years ago. But it is there and unignorable.\"When the concert finally saw an official release asThe Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966, The \"Royal Albert Hall\" Concertin 1998, criticRichie Unterbergerdeclared the record \"an important document of rock history.\" On July 29, 1966, while on a break from touring, Dylan was injured in a motorcycle accident that precipitated his retreat into semi-seclusion inWoodstock,New York.For a while, the Hawks returned to the bar and roadhouse touring circuit, sometimes backing other singers, including a brief stint withTiny Tim. Dylan invited the Hawks to join him in Woodstock in February 1967,and Danko, Hudson, and Manuel rented a large pink house, which they named \"Big Pink\", in nearbyWest Saugerties, New York. The next month (initially without Helm) they commenced recording a much-bootlegged and influential series of demos, initially at Dylan's house in",
"at Dylan's house in Woodstock and later at Big Pink, which were released partially on LP asThe Basement Tapesin 1975 andin full in 2014. A track-by-track review of the bootleg was detailed byJann WennerinRolling Stone, in which the band members were explicitly named and given the collective name \"the Crackers\".While Helm was not involved in the initial recording, he did perform in later sessions and in overdubs recorded in 1975 before the album's release. 1968–1972: Initial success withMusic from Big Pinkself-titled album The sessions with Dylan ended in October 1967, with Helm having rejoined the group by that time, and the Hawks began writing their own songs at Big Pink. When they went into the recording studio, they still did not have a name for themselves. Stories vary as to the manner in which they ultimately adopted the name \"The Band\". InThe Last Waltz, Manuel claimed that they wanted to call themselves either \"theHonkies\" or \"theCrackers\" (which they used when backing Dylan for a January 1968 concert",
"1968 concert tribute toWoody Guthrie), but these names were vetoed by their record label; Robertson suggests that during their time with Dylan everyone just referred to them as \"the band\" and the name stuck. Initially they disliked the moniker, but eventually they grew to like it, thinking it both humble and presumptuous. In 1969,Rolling Stonereferred to them as \"the band from Big Pink\". Their debut album,Music from Big Pinkwas released in July 1968 and was widely acclaimed. It included three songs written or co-written by Dylan (\"This Wheel's on Fire\", \"Tears of Rage\" and \"I Shall Be Released\") as well as \"The Weight\", which became one of their best-known songs after it was used in the 1969 filmEasy Rider. While a thematic continuity ran through the music, the musical style varied from song to song. In early 1969, after the success ofMusic from Big Pink, The Band went on tour, starting with an appearance atWinterland Ballroom. They performed at theWoodstock Festival(their performance was not included in the",
"not included in the famedWoodstockfilm because of legal complications), and later that year they performed with Dylan at the UKIsle of Wight Festival(several songs from which were subsequently included on Dylan'sSelf Portraitalbum). That same year, they left for Los Angeles to record their follow-up,The Band(1969). From their rustic appearance on the cover to the songs and arrangements within, the album stood in contrast to other popular music of the day. Several other artists made similar stylistic moves about the same time, notably Dylan, onJohn Wesley Harding, which was written during theBasement Tapessessions, andthe Byrds, onSweetheart of the Rodeo, which featured twoBasement Tapescovers.The Bandfeatured songs that evoked old-time rural America, from theCivil Warin \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\" to theunionizationof farm workers in \"King Harvest (Has Surely Come)\". These first two records were produced byJohn Simon, who was practically a group member: he aided inarrangementsin addition to playing",
"addition to playing occasional piano andtuba. Simon reported that he was often asked about the distinctivehorn sectionsfeatured so effectively on the first two albums: people wanted to know how they had achieved such memorable sounds. Simon stated that, besides Hudson (an accomplished saxophonist), the others had only rudimentary horn skills, and achieved their sound simply by creatively using their limited technique. Rolling Stonelavished praise on The Band in this era, giving them more attention than perhaps any other group in the magazine's history;Greil Marcus's articles contributed to The Band's mystique. The Band was also featured on the cover ofTime(January 12, 1970), the first rock group after the Beatles, over two years earlier, to achieve this rare distinction.David Attie's unused photographs for this cover—among the very few studio portraits taken during the Band's prime—have only recently been discovered, and were featured in Daniel Roher'sRobbie RobertsondocumentaryOnce Were Brothers: Robbie",
"Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, as well as having their own four-page spread inHarvey Kubernikand Ken Kubernik's “The Story of the Band: FromBig PinktoThe Last Waltz” (Sterling Publishing, 2018). A critical and commercial triumph,The Band, along with works by the Byrds andthe Flying Burrito Brothers, established a musical template (dubbedcountry rock) that paved the way to theEagles. BothBig PinkandThe Bandalso influenced their musical contemporaries.Eric ClaptonandGeorge Harrisoncited The Band as a major influence on their musical direction in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Clapton later revealed that he wanted to join the group.While he never did join, he recruited all of the members of The Band as well as other roots rock performers for his 1976 albumNo Reason to Cry. Following their second album, The Band embarked on their first tour as a lead act. The anxiety of fame was clear, as the group's songs turned to darker themes of fear and alienation: the influence on their next work is",
"their next work is self-explanatory.Stage Fright(1970) was engineered by musician-engineer-producerTodd Rundgrenand recorded on a theatre stage in Woodstock. As with their previous, self-titled record, Robertson was credited with most of the songwriting. Initial critical reaction was positive, but it was seen as a disappointment from the previous two albums for various reasons. After recordingStage Fright, The Band was among the acts participating in theFestival Express, an all-star rock concert tour of Canada by train that also includedJanis Joplin, theGrateful Deadand future Band memberRichard Bell(at the time he was a member of Joplin's band). In the concert documentary film, released in 2003, Danko can be seen participating in a drunken jam session withJerry Garcia,Bob Weir,John Dawson, and Joplin while singing \"Ain't No More Cane\". At about this time, Robertson began exerting greater control over The Band, a point of contention between him and Helm. Helm charges Robertson withauthoritarianismand greed,",
"greed, while Robertson suggests his increased efforts in guiding the group were largely because Danko, Helm, and Manuel were becoming more unreliable due to their heroin usage.Robertson insists he did his best to coax Manuel into writing more songs, only to see him descend into addiction. Despite mounting problems among the group members, The Band forged ahead with their next album,Cahoots(1971).Cahootsfeatured Dylan's \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\", \"4% Pantomime\" (withVan Morrison), and \"Life Is a Carnival\", the last featuring a horn arrangement byAllen Toussaint. Toussaint's contribution was a critical addition to The Band's next project, and the group would later record two songs written by Toussaint: \"Holy Cow\" onMoondog Matineeand \"You See Me\" onJubilation. In late December 1971, The Band recorded the live albumRock of Ages, which was released in the summer of 1972. OnRock of Ages, they were bolstered by the addition of a horn section, with arrangements written by Toussaint. Dylan appeared on stage",
"appeared on stage onNew Year's Eveand performed four songs with the group, including a version of \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\". 1973–1975: Move to Shangri-La In 1973, The Band released thecovers albumMoondog Matinee. There was no tour in support of the album, which garnered mixed reviews. However, on July 28, 1973, they played at the legendarySummer Jam at Watkins Glen, a massive concert that took place at the Grand Prix Raceway outsideWatkins Glen, New York. The event, which was attended by over 600,000 fans, also featured the Grateful Dead andthe Allman Brothers Band. It was during this event that discussions began about a possible tour with Bob Dylan, who had moved toMalibu, California,along with Robertson. By late 1973, Danko, Helm, Hudson and Manuel had joined them, and the first order of business was backing Dylan on his albumPlanet Waves. The album was released concurrently with their joint 1974 tour, in which they played 40 shows in North America during January and February 1974. Later that year,",
"Later that year, the tour was documented on the live albumBefore the Flood,. During this time, The Band brought inPlanet WavesproducerRob Frabonito help design a music studio for the group. By 1975, the studio,Shangri-La, was completed. That year, The Band recorded and releasedNorthern Lights – Southern Cross, their first album of all-new material since 1971. All eight songs were written solely by Robertson. Despite comparatively poor record sales, the album is favored by critics and fans. Levon Helm regards this album highly in his book,This Wheel's on Fire: \"It was the best album we had done sinceThe Band.\" The album also produced more experimentation from Hudson, switching to synthesizers, showcased on \"Jupiter Hollow\". 1976–1978:The Last Waltz By the mid-1970s, Robbie Robertson was weary of touring. AfterNorthern Lights – Southern Crossfailed to meet commercial expectations, much of the group's 1976 tour was confined to theaters and smaller arenas in secondary markets (including theSanta Cruz Civic",
"theSanta Cruz Civic Auditorium, theLong Island Arenaand the Champlain Valley Expo inEssex Junction, Vermont), culminating in an opening slot for the ascendantZZ Topat theNashville Fairgroundsin September.In early September, Richard Manuel suffered a severe neck injury in a boating accident in Texas,prompting Robertson to urge The Band to retire from live performances after staging a massive \"farewell concert\" known asThe Last Waltz. Following an October 30 appearance onSaturday Night Live, the event, includingturkey dinnerfor the audience of 5,000, was held on November 25 (Thanksgiving Day) of 1976 at theWinterland BallroominSan Francisco,California,and featured a horn section with arrangements by Allen Toussaint and an allstar lineup of guests, including Canadian artistsJoni MitchellandNeil Young. Two of the guests were fundamental to The Band's existence and growth: Ronnie Hawkins and Bob Dylan. Other guests they admired (and in most cases had worked with before) includedMuddy Waters,Dr. John, Van",
"John, Van Morrison,Ringo Starr, Eric Clapton,Ron Wood,Bobby Charles,Neil Diamond, andPaul Butterfield. The concert was filmed by Robertson's friend, filmmakerMartin Scorsese. In 1977, The Band released their seventh studio albumIslands, which fulfilled their record contract with Capitol so that a plannedLast Waltzfilm and album could be released on theWarner Bros.label.Islandscontained a mix of originals and covers, and was the last with The Band's original lineup. That same year, the group recorded soundstage performances with country singerEmmylou Harris(\"Evangeline\") and gospel-soul groupthe Staple Singers(\"The Weight\"); Scorsese combined these new performances—as well as interviews he had conducted with the group—with the 1976 concert footage. The resultingconcert film–documentarywas released in 1978, along with athree-LP soundtrack. Helm later wrote aboutThe Last Waltzin his autobiography,This Wheel's on Fire, in which he made the case that it had been primarily Robbie Robertson's project and that",
"project and that Robertson had forced The Band's breakup on the rest of the group.Robertson offered a different take in a 1986 interview: \"I made my big statement. I did the movie, I made a three-record album about it—and if this is only my statement, not theirs, I'll accept that. They're saying, 'Well, that was really his trip, not our trip.' Well, fine. I'll take the best music film that's ever been made, and make it my statement. I don't have any problems with that. None at all.\" The original quintet would perform together one last time: on March 1, 1978 after the late set of a Rick Danko solo show atThe Roxy, the group performed \"Stage Fright\", \"The Shape I'm In\", and \"The Weight\" for an encore.Although the members of the group intended to continue working on studio projects, they drifted apart after the release ofIslandsin March 1977. 1983–1989: Reformation and the death of Richard Manuel The Band resumed touring in 1983 without Robertson. Accomplished musician from Woodstock, NY, Jim Weider became lead",
"Weider became lead guitarist. Robertson had found success with a solo career and as aHollywoodmusic producer. As a result of their diminished popularity, they performed in theaters and clubs as headliners and took support slots in larger venues for onetime peers such as the Grateful Dead andCrosby, Stills and Nash. After a performance inWinter Park, Florida, on March 4, 1986, Manuelhanged himself, aged 42, in his motel room.He had suffered for many years from alcoholism and drug addiction and had been clean and sober for several years beginning in 1978 but had begun drinking and using drugs again by 1984.Manuel's position as pianist was filled by old friend Stan Szelest (who died not long after) and then by Richard Bell. Bell had played with Ronnie Hawkins after the departure of the original Hawks, and was best known from his days as a member of Janis Joplin'sFull Tilt Boogie Band. The Band was inducted into theCanadian Music Hall of Fameat the1989 Juno Awards, where Robertson was reunited with original",
"with original members Danko and Hudson. With Canadian country rock superstarsBlue Rodeoas a back-up band,Music Expresscalled the 1989 Juno appearance a symbolic \"passing of the torch\" from The Band to Blue Rodeo. 1990–1999: Return to final recording and the death of Rick Danko In 1990, Capitol Records began to re-release the records from the 1970s.The remaining three members continued to tour and record albums with a succession of musicians filling Manuel's and Robertson's roles. The Band appeared atBob Dylan's 30th anniversary concertin New York City in October 1992, where they performed their version of Dylan's \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\". In 1993, the group released their eighth studio album,Jericho. Without Robbie Robertson as primary lyricist, much of thesongwritingfor the album came from outside of the group. Also that year, The Band, along with Ronnie Hawkins, Bob Dylan, and other performers, appeared at U.S. PresidentBill Clinton's 1993 \"Blue Jean Bash\" inauguration party. In 1994, The Band",
"In 1994, The Band performed atWoodstock '94. Later that year Robertson appeared with Danko and Hudson as the Band for the second time since the original group broke up. The occasion was the induction of The Band into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Helm, who had been at odds with Robertson for years over accusations of stolen songwriting credits, did not attend.In February 1996, The Band withthe Cricketsrecorded \"Not Fade Away\", released on thetribute albumNot Fade Away (Remembering Buddy Holly). The Band released two more albums afterJericho:High on the Hog(1996) andJubilation(1998), the latter of which included guest appearances by Eric Clapton andJohn Hiatt. Helm was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1998 and was unable to sing for several years but he eventually regained the use of his voice. In 1998, the group revealed they were working on a follow-up album toJubilationthat has not been released. The final song the group recorded together was their 1999 version of Bob Dylan's \"One Too Many Mornings\", which",
"Mornings\", which they contributed to the Dylan tribute albumTangled Up in Blues. On December 10, 1999, Rick Danko died in his sleep at the age of 55. Following his death, The Band broke up for good. The final configuration of the group included Richard Bell (piano), Randy Ciarlante (drums), and Jim Weider (guitar). 2000–present In 2002, Robertson bought all other former members' financial interests in the group (with the exception of Helm's),giving him major control of the presentation of the group's material, including latter-day compilations. Richard Bell died ofmultiple myelomain June 2007. The Band received a Lifetime AchievementGrammy Awardon February 9, 2008,but there was no reunion of former members. In honor of the event, Helm held aMidnight Ramblein Woodstock.He continued to perform and released several albums. On April 17, 2012, it was announced via Helm's official website that he was in the \"final stages of cancer\";he died two days later. In December 2020, it was announced that the third album of",
"the third album of The Band,Stage Fright, would get an expanded reissue. The album has alternate versions of some songs. Robbie Robertson died at the age of 80 on August 9, 2023, after battling prostate cancer.With Robertson's death, Garth Hudson is the last living original member of the group. Members' other endeavours In 1977, Rick Danko released hiseponymousdebut solo album, which featured the other four members of The Band on various tracks. In 1984, Danko joined members of theByrds, the Flying Burrito Brothers, and others in the huge touring company that made up \"The Byrds Twenty-Year Celebration\". Several members of the tour performed solo songs to start the show, including Danko, who performed \"Mystery Train\". Danko also released two collaboraive albums withEric AndersenandJonas Fjeld, along with some live and compilation albums in the 1990s and 2000s; many of the latter records were produced by Aaron L. Hurwitz and are on the Breeze Hill/Woodstock Records Label. In the late 1970s and 1980s, Helm",
"and 1980s, Helm released several solo albums and toured with a band called Levon Helm and the RCO Allstars. He also began an acting career with his role asLoretta Lynn's father inCoal Miner's Daughter. Helm received praise for his narration and supporting role oppositeSam Shepardin 1983'sThe Right Stuff. In 1997, a CD by Levon Helm and the Crowmatix,Souvenir, was released.Beginning sometime in the 1990s, Helm regularly performed Midnight Ramble concerts at his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, and toured.In 2007 Helm released a new album, an homage to his southern roots calledDirt Farmer, which was awarded aGrammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Albumon February 9, 2008.Electric Dirtfollowed in 2009 and won the inauguralGrammy Award for Best Americana Album. His 2011 live albumRamble at the Rymanwon in the same category. After he left The Band, Robbie Robertson became amusic producerand wrote film soundtracks (including acting as music supervisor for several of Scorsese's films) before beginning a solo",
"beginning a solo career with hisDaniel Lanois-producedeponymous albumin 1987. Robertson continued mostly scoring films until his death in 2023. Hudson has released two solo CDs,The Sea to the Northin 2001, produced by Aaron (Professor Louie) Hurwitz, andLive at the Wolfin 2005, both featuring his wife, Maud, on vocals. He has also kept busy as an in-demand studio musician. He is featured extensively on recordings of theCalland country-indie star Neko Case. Hudson contributed an original electronic score to anoff-Broadwayproduction ofDragon Slayers, written byStanley Keyesand directed byBrad Maysin 1986 at theUnion Square Theatrein New York, which was restaged with a new cast in Los Angeles in 1990. In 2010, Hudson releasedGarth Hudson Presents: A Canadian Celebration of The Band, featuring Canadian artists covering songs that were recorded by The Band. In 2012,Jim WeiderlaunchedThe Weight Band, performing covers of The Band's music, alongside former members of theLevon HelmBand andRick DankoGroup. The Weight",
"The Weight Band performed in a nationally broadcastPBSspecial, Infinity Hall Live,featuring new music. Following the show, the band announced a self-titled album of new music. The Weight Band also hosts Camp Cripple Creek, which celebrates the legacy of the Woodstock Sound. Past guests have includedJackie Greene,Music from Big Pinkproducer John Simon andJohn Sebastian. Manuel had few projects outside The Band; he and the rest of The Band contributed to Eric Clapton's 1976 albumNo Reason to Cry. It included an original composition by Manuel and featured his vocals and drumming on several tracks. Manuel later worked on several film scores with Hudson and Robertson, includingRaging BullandThe Color of Money.Whispering Pines: Live at the Getawaywas released in 2002. Musical style The Band's music fused many elements: although primarily incorporating oldcountry musicand earlyrock and roll, therhythm sectionoften was reminiscent ofStax- orMotown-style rhythm and blues, and Robertson citesCurtis Mayfieldand",
"Mayfieldand theStaple Singersas major influences, resulting in asynthesisof manymusical genres. Singers Manuel, Danko, and Helm each brought a distinctive voice to The Band: Helm'sSouthernaccent was prevalent in his raw and powerful vocals, Danko sang tenor with a distinctively choppy enunciation, and Manuel alternated between falsetto and a soulful baritone. The singers regularly blended inharmonies. Though the singing was more or less evenly shared among the three, both Danko and Helm have stated that they saw Manuel as The Band's \"lead\" singer. Every member was a multi-instrumentalist. There was little instrument-switching when they played live, but when recording, the musicians could make up different configurations in service of the songs. Hudson in particular was able to coax a wide range oftimbresfrom hisLowrey organ. Helm's drumming was often praised: critic Jon Carroll declared that Helm was \"the only drummer who can make you cry,\" while prolific session drummerJim Keltneradmits to appropriating",
"to appropriating several of Helm's techniques.Producer John Simon is often cited as a \"sixth member\" of The Band for producing and playing onMusic from Big Pink, co-producing and playing onThe Band, and playing on other songs up through The Band's 1993 reunion albumJericho. Copyright controversy Robertson is credited as writer or co-writer of the majority of The Band's songs and, as a result, has received most of the songwriting royalties generated from the music. This would become a point of contention, especially for Helm. In his 1993 autobiography,This Wheel's on Fire: Levon Helm and the Story of the Band, Helm disputed the validity of the songwriting credits as listed on the albums and explained that the Band's songs were developed in collaboration with all members. Danko concurred with Helm: \"I think Levon's book hits the nail on the head about where Robbie and Albert Grossman and some of those people went wrong and when The Band stopped being The Band ... I'm truly friends with everybody but, hey—it",
"but, hey—it could happen to Levon, too. When people take themselves too seriously and believe too much in their own bullshit, they usually get in trouble.\"Robertson denied that Helm had written any of the songs attributed to Robertson.The studio albums recorded by Levon Helm as a solo artist—Levon Helm(1978),American Son,Levon Helm(1982),Dirt Farmer, andElectric Dirt—contain only one song crediting him as songwriter (\"Growin' Trade\", co-written withLarry Campbell). Legacy The Band has influenced numerous bands, songwriters and performers, including the Grateful Dead, Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young,Led Zeppelin,Elvis Costello,Elton John,Phish,andPink Floyd.The albumMusic from Big Pink, in particular, is credited with contributing to Clapton's decision to leave thesupergroupCream. In his introduction of The Band during the Bob Dylan 30th Anniversary Concert, Clapton announced that in 1968 he had heard the album, \"and it changed my life.\"The bandNazarethtook their name from a line",
"name from a line in \"The Weight\". GuitaristRichard Thompsonhas acknowledged the album's influence onFairport Convention'sLiege and Lief, and journalist John Harris has suggested that The Band's debut also influenced the spirit of the Beatles' back-to-basics albumLet It Beas well as the Rolling Stones' string of roots-infused albums that began withBeggars Banquet.George Harrison said that his song \"All Things Must Pass\" was heavily influenced by The Band and that, while writing the song, he imagined Levon Helm singing it.Meanwhile, the \"The Weight\" has been covered numerous times, and in various musical styles. In a 1969 interview, Robbie Robertson remarked on the group's influence, \"We certainly didn't want everybody to go out and get a banjo and a fiddle player. We were trying to calm things down a bit though. What we're going to do now is go toMuscle Shoals, Alabama, and record four sides, fourpsychedelicsongs. Total freak-me songs. Just to show that we have no hard feelings. Just pretty good rock and",
"good rock and roll.\" In the 1990s, a new generation of bands influenced by The Band began to gain popularity, includingCounting Crows,the Wallflowers, andthe Black Crowes. Counting Crows indicated this influence with their tribute to the lateRichard Manuel, \"If I Could Give All My Love (Richard Manuel Is Dead)\", from their albumHard Candy. TheBlack Crowesfrequently cover songs by The Band during live performances, such as \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\", which appears on their DVD/CDFreak 'n' Roll into the Fog.They have also recorded at Helm's studio in Woodstock. The inspiration for the classic rock-influenced bandThe Hold Steadycame while members Craig Finn and Tad Kubler were watchingThe Last Waltz.Rick Danko and Robbie Robertson are name-checked in the lyrics of \"The Swish\" from the Hold Steady's 2004 debut albumAlmost Killed Me.Also that year,southern rock-revivalistsDrive-By Truckersreleased theJason Isbellpenned track \"Danko/Manuel\" on the albumThe Dirty South. The Band also inspired Grace",
"also inspired Grace Potter, ofGrace Potter and the Nocturnals, to form the band in 2002. In an interview with the Montreal Gazette, Potter said, \"The Band blew my mind. I thought if this is what Matt meant when he said 'Let's start a rock 'n' roll band,' ... that was the kind of rock 'n' roll band I could believe in.\" A tribute album, entitledEndless Highway: The Music of the Band, released in January 2007, included contributions fromMy Morning Jacket,Death Cab for Cutie,Gomez,Guster,Bruce Hornsby,Jack JohnsonandALO,Lee Ann Womack, the Allman Brothers Band,Blues Traveler,Jakob Dylan,Rosanne Cash, and others. Members ofWilco,Clap Your Hands Say Yeah,the Shins,Dr Dog,Yellowbirds,Ween,Furthur, and other bands stagedThe Complete Last Waltzin 2012 and 2013.Their performances included all 41 songs from the original 1976 concert in sequence, even those edited out of the film. Musical directorSam Cohenof Yellowbirds claims \"the movie is pretty ingrained in me. I've watched it probably 100 times.\" An incarnation of",
"An incarnation of the Band's legacy, The Weight Band, originated inside the barn of Levon Helm in 2012 when Jim Weider and Randy Ciarlante, both former members of The Band, were performing \"Songs of the Band\" withGarth Hudson,Jimmy Vivinoand Byron Isaacs. In July 2017, PBS'sInfinity HallLive program began airing a televised performance by The Weight Band, featuring Band covers and new music by the band. Every year on the Wednesday before and the Friday after Thanksgiving, Dayton, Ohio NPR affiliateWYSOandThe Dayton Art Institutehost a tribute toThe Last Waltz.Frequently selling out, the show features more than 30 local musicians. A similar event takes place annually in Madison, Wisconsin, on the Saturday night after Thanksgiving. The Band are the subjects of the 2019 documentary filmOnce Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, which premiered at the2019 Toronto International Film Festival. The Band is the subject of an extensive historical podcast,The Band: A History, currently covering the entire",
"covering the entire history of the group. Members Additional musicians Line-ups Disbanded Timeline Discography withBob Dylan See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links",
"Music from Big Pink Music from Big Pinkis the debutstudio albumby Canadian-Americanrockbandthe Band.Released on July 1, 1968, byCapitol Records, it employs a distinctive blend ofcountry,rock,folk,classical,R&B,blues, andsoul. The album's title refers to a house inWest Saugerties, New Yorkcalled \"Big Pink\", which was shared by bassist/singerRick Danko, pianist/singerRichard Manueland organistGarth Hudsonand in which the album's music was partly composed. The album itself was recorded in studios in New York and Los Angeles in 1968,and followed the band's stint backing ofBob Dylanon his1966 tour(as the Hawks) and time spent together in upstate New York recording material that was officially released in 1975 asThe Basement Tapes, also with Dylan. Thecover artworkis a painting by Dylan. In 2000, the album was rereleased with additional outtakes from the recording sessions, and in 2018, a \"50th Anniversary Super Deluxe\" edition was released with a new stereo mix byBob Clearmountain. Background and Big Pink house",
"and Big Pink house The Band's members included Danko, Manuel, Hudson, guitaristRobbie Robertsonand drummer/singerLevon Helm. They began to create their distinctive sound during 1967 when they improvised and recorded withBob Dylana huge number of cover songs and original Dylan materialin the basement of a pink house inWest Saugerties, New York, located at 56 Parnassus Lane (formerly 2188 Stoll Road). The house was built by Ottmar Gramms, who bought the land in 1952. The house was newly built whenRick Dankofound it as a rental. Danko moved in along withGarth HudsonandRichard Manuelin February 1967. The house became known locally as \"Big Pink\" for its pinksiding. The house was subsequently sold by Gramms in 1977, and since 1998, it has been a private residence. Widelybootleggedat the time, initially asGreat White Wonderin July 1969, some of the recordings Dylan and the Band made were officially released in 1975 onThe Basement Tapes, and then in their totality in 2014 onThe Bootleg Series Vol. 11: The Basement",
"11: The Basement Tapes Complete. By the end of 1967, the Band felt it was time to step out of Dylan's shadow and make their own statement. Recording The Band's managerAlbert Grossman(who was also Dylan's manager) approachedCapitol Recordsto secure a record deal for a group still informally described as \"Dylan's backing band\". Alan Livingston at Capitol signed the Band, initially under the name the Crackers. Armed with news of a recording deal for the group, they luredLevon Helmback from the oil rigs where he had been working to Woodstock where he took up his crucial position in the Band, singing and playing drums. Helm's return coincided with a ferment of activity in Big Pink as the embryonic Band not only recorded with Dylan but also began to write their own songs. After meeting with producerJohn Simon, the Band started to record their debut album inManhattanatA&R Studios, at 799 7th Avenue in the early months of 1968. The Band recorded \"Tears of Rage\", \"Chest Fever\", \"We Can Talk\", \"This Wheel's On Fire\"",
"Wheel's On Fire\" and \"The Weight\" in two sessions. Robertson has said that when Simon asked them how they wanted it to sound, they replied, \"Just like it did in the basement.\" Capitol, pleased with the initial recording session, suggested that the group move toLos Angelesto finish recording their first album atCapitol Studios. They also cut some material atGold Star StudiosonSanta Monica Boulevard. The songs onBig Pinkrecorded in L.A. were \"In A Station\", \"To Kingdom Come\", \"Lonesome Suzie\", \"Long Black Veil\" and \"I Shall Be Released\". Artwork Dylan offered to sing on the album, but ultimately realized it was important for the Band to make their own statement. Instead, Dylan signified his presence by contributing a cover painting.Barney Hoskynshas written that it is significant the painting depicts six musicians. The cover ofMusic from Big Pinkwas intended to establish the group as having a different outlook from thepsychedelic cultureof 1968. PhotographerElliott Landyflew toTorontoto photograph the",
"photograph the assembled Danko, Manuel, Robertson, and Hudson families on the Danko chicken farm. A photo was inserted of Diamond and Nell Helm, who lived inArkansas. The photo appeared on the cover with the caption \"Next of Kin\".The overall design of the sleeve is byMilton Glaser(who also did the poster that was packed with the 1967Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits). Reception The initial reception to the album was positive.It received praise for the organic quality of the instrumentation, which had been recorded live withoutoverdubbing.InRolling Stone,Al Kooper's rave review ofBig Pinkended with the words, \"This album was recorded in approximately two weeks. There are people who will work their lives away in vain and not touch it.\"This helped to draw public attention to it (Rolling Stoneeven referred to them as \"the band from Big Pink\"instead of just \"the Band\"). The fact that Bob Dylan wrote one and co-wrote two of the songs on the album also attracted attention.Robert Christgauwas less enthusiastic inThe Village",
"inThe Village Voice, crediting the music's original evocation of \"country-soul feeling without imitating it\" and the \"human roughness around the edges\",yet stating that he \"always admired that album\" but \"from a distance\". In 1968, \"The Weight\" peaked at No. 63 onBillboard's Hot 100 singles chart in the US. The song was a bigger hit elsewhere, peaking at No. 35 in Canada, and No. 21 in the UK. The album peaked at No. 18 inCanadaand reached No. 30 onBillboard'sPop Albumschart in 1968, and then recharted as a No. 8 hit on the Top Internet Albums chart in 2000. \"The Weight\" gained widespread popularity from the Band's performance of it atWoodstockon August 17, 1969, and due partially to its inclusion in the filmEasy Rider, though it was omitted from the soundtrack because of licensing issues. A cover version by the bandSmithwas included on the soundtrack album instead. The laid-back feel of the album attracted the attention of other major artists. For example,Eric Claptoncites the album'sroots rockstyle as what",
"rockstyle as what convinced him to quitCream, and engageDelaney and Bonnieand friends as \"Derek and the Dominos\" on hisdebut solo album.George Harrisonwas also impressed by the album's musicianship and sense of camaraderie, andRoger WatersofPink Floydcalled it the second \"most influential record in the history of rock and roll\", afterthe Beatles'Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, and said that it \"affected Pink Floyd deeply, deeply, deeply\". According toTerry Burrows, the album spawned theAmericanagenre,while music academic Chris Smith said its songs laid the groundwork for roots rock music. Music from Big Pinkwas voted No. 452 in the third edition ofColin Larkin'sAll Time Top 1000 Albums(2000).In 2003, it was ranked 34th onRolling Stone's list ofthe 500 greatest albums of all time,a ranking it maintained on the magazine's 2012 revised list,before dropping to number 100 in a 2020 revised list.OnMetacritic, the expanded 50th anniversary edition of the album has an aggregate score of 99 out of 100, based",
"out of 100, based on seven reviews, a rating that the website defines as indicating \"universal acclaim\". Re-releases The originalLP recordissue included a gatefold cover in 1968, duplicated 40 years later in 2008 as a remastered 180 gm LP. Oncompact disc, it was remastered as agold CDin 1989, as aDVD-audioin 2001 and as a remastered numbered editionSACDin 2009. On August 29, 2000, it was reissued byEMI Recordsas a standard compact disc with ninebonus tracks. In 2012,Mobile Fidelityreleased a remastered, numbered, limited edition, Half-speed Mastering from the originalmaster tapes, 180g LP pressed at RTI. In 2018, a 50th Anniversary Edition was released with an entirely new stereo mix and 5.1 mix byBob Clearmountain, mastered byBob Ludwig. It also included some of the additional tracks from the 2000 re-release, and a new vocal-only mix of \"I Shall Be Released\". Track listing Personnel The Band Additional personnel 2018 remix References Sources External links"
] |
How many letters were in the name of the first single by the artist who played the first concert at Principality Stadium? | 12 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Stadium | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_concerts_at_the_Millennium_Stadium | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manic_Street_Preachers | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Stadium', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_concerts_at_the_Millennium_Stadium', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manic_Street_Preachers'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Stadium",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_concerts_at_the_Millennium_Stadium",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manic_Street_Preachers"
] | [
"Millennium Stadium TheMillennium Stadium(Welsh:Stadiwm y Mileniwm), known since 2016 as thePrincipality Stadium(Welsh:Stadiwm Principality) for sponsorship reasons, is thenational stadiumofWales. Located inCardiff, it is the home of theWales national rugby union teamand has also heldWales national football teamgames. Initially built to host the1999 Rugby World Cupand replacing theNational Stadium, it has gone on to host many other large-scale events, such as theTsunami Relief Cardiffconcert, theSuper Special StageofWales Rally Great Britain, theSpeedway Grand Prix of Great Britainandvarious concerts. It also hostedFA Cup,League CupandFootball League play-offfinals whileWembley Stadiumwas being redeveloped between 2001 and 2006, as well as football matches during the2012 Summer Olympics. The stadium is owned by Millennium Stadium plc, asubsidiary companyof theWelsh Rugby Union(WRU).The architects wereBligh Lobb Sports Architecture. The structural engineers wereWS Atkinsand the building contractor wasLaing. The total construction cost of the stadium was£121 million,of which theMillennium Commissionfunded £46 million. The Millennium Stadium opened in June 1999and its first major event was an internationalrugby unionmatch on 26 June 1999, whenWalesbeatSouth Africain atest matchby 29–19 before a crowd of 29,000.With a totalseating capacityof 73,931, it is the largest stadium in Wales and the fourth largest (and second largest outsideLondon) in theUnited Kingdomby total capacity. In addition, it is the third-largest stadium in theSix Nations Championshipbehind theStade de FranceandTwickenham. It is also the second-largest stadium in the world with a fullyretractable roofand was the second stadium in Europe to have this feature.Listed as acategory four stadiumbyUEFA, the stadium was chosen as the venue for the2017 UEFA Champions League Final, which took place on 3 June 2017.In 2015, the Welsh Rugby Union announced a 10-year sponsorship deal with thePrincipality Building Societythat saw the stadium renamed as the \"Principality Stadium\" from early 2016. History Background Until 1969,Cardiff RFCandWalesboth played their home matches on the same pitch atCardiff Arms Park, but all this changed in the 1969–70 season.As a result of an agreement betweenCardiff Athletic Cluband the WRU, theNational Stadiumproject established that a new stadium for international matches and events was required, with Cardiff RFC moving to a new, purpose-built stadium on the original cricket ground at the site of the former Cardiff Arms Park stadium.By 7 April 1984 the National Stadium was officially opened. However, in 1994, a committee was set up to consider redeveloping the National Stadium, and by 1995 the WRU had been chosen to host the 1999 Rugby World Cup. In 1995, the National Stadium, which was designed in 1962,only had a capacity of 53,000; other nations' stadia, such asTwickenham(England) with a capacity of 75,000, andMurrayfield Stadium(Scotland) with a capacity of 67,000, had overtaken it. France was also about to build theStade de France, which would have a capacity of more than 80,000 for the1998 FIFA World Cup.The original capacity of the National Stadium was 65,000, but this had been reduced to 53,000, due to theTaylor Report. 11,000 of 53,000 capacity was on the EastTerraceand the conversion to anall-seater stadiumwould have reduced the stadium capacity still further to just 47,500. In addition to the problems of capacity, the National Stadium was also very well hidden by the neighbouring buildings to the south in Park Street, Wood Street and to the east in Westgate Street, and also by Cardiff Rugby Ground in the north. It was only fully visible from across theRiver Taffin the west. Access to the ground was also very restricted with the main entrance being a narrow opening in Westgate Street to the east which was shared by both vehicles and spectators alike. The options for the new stadium included adding a third tier to the existing National Stadium, or moving to a new site. This last option was discounted because it would have required a vast car parking facility, and that would have put severe short-term pressures on the local transport infrastructure, creating traffic jams and pollution.The committee eventually chose a new stadium on the same site but with considerable increase in its capacity. It would also involve moving the alignment of the stadium from west–east to north–south. This was the option supported by theMillennium Commission. It would become the fourth redevelopment of the Cardiff Arms Park site.It was also decided that the new stadium should have a sliding roof to accommodate a multi-use venue, with a grass pitch for rugby and football.The only other sliding roofs in Europe at the time were at two Dutch stadia – theAmsterdam Arena, completed in 1996 with a capacity of 50,000;andGelredomeinArnhem, a 30,000-capacity ground built from 1996 to 1998. To remain on the Arms Park site, additional space had to be found to allow safe access and to provide room for the increased capacity and improved facilities. This was achieved by the purchase of adjacent buildings to the south and east and by the construction of a new £6 million River Walk by theRiver Taffon the western side of the stadium. By 1999, the Millennium Stadium had replaced the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park, as the national stadium of Wales for rugby union and association football international matches. Cardiff RFC continued as before to play at Cardiff Arms Park rugby ground, which had replaced the cricket ground in 1969. Construction The stadium was designed by a team led by Rod Sheard at Lobb Sport Architecture,who later merged withHOK Sportto becomePopulous. The building contractor wasLaingand the structural engineers were WS Atkins. Mike Otlet of WS Atkins designed the stadium's retractable roof,which was constructed by Kelsey Roofing Industries.Cimolai S.p.A. from Italy fabricated and erected the 72 steel plane frames for the stands and all the 4,500 components of the roof. Construction involved the demolition of a number of buildings, primarily the existing National Stadium (Cardiff Arms Park),Wales Empire Pool(swimming pool) in Wood Street, Cardiff Empire Telephone Exchange building (owned byBT) in Park Street, the newly builtTerritorial Auxiliary & Volunteer Reservebuilding in Park Street, and theSocial Securityoffices in Westgate Street. The stadium was built by Laing in 1999 on the site of the National Stadium, with the head of construction being Steve Ager.It was built for the1999 Rugby World Cup, for which Wales was the main host,with seven of the 41 matches, including the final, being played at the stadium. The total construction cost of the stadium was £121 million,which was funded by private investment and £46 million of public funds from the Millennium Commission,the sale ofdebenturesto supporters (which offered guaranteed tickets in exchange for an interest-free loan) and loans. The development left the WRU heavily in debt. The Millennium Stadium was named as such in recognition of the Millennium Commission's contribution to the building. The stadium was first used for a major event on 26 June 1999, when Wales played South Africa in a rugby union test match before a crowd of 29,000. Wales won 29–19: the first time they had ever beaten the Springboks. 2016 renaming On 8 September 2015 it was announced that the Millennium Stadium would be renamed Principality Stadium as the result of a 10-year naming rights deal with thePrincipality Building Society.Some fans expressed opposition on social media. On 22 January 2016, the Millennium Stadium was officially renamed as the Principality Stadium.The new name, written bilingually (\"Stadiwm Principality Stadium\") and covering 114 square metres (1,230 sq ft) of the upper stadium, was lit up at a special evening ceremony, to be followed by a festival to encourage grassroots rugby.The change of name also meant a change of logo for the Millennium Stadium. There were three designs shortlisted, and a panel, which included the former Wales international captainRyan Jonesand staff and members of the WRU and Principality Building Society, chose the final design.A spokesperson for the WRU said: \"The new stadium logo takes its inspiration from the venue's iconic architecture; four spires, curved frontage and fully retractable roof.\" Features The all-seater stadium has the capacity for 74,500 supporters and features a retractable roof, only the second stadium of its type in Europe, and the largest football stadium in the world with this feature, by capacity.Additional seating is sometimes added for special events such as a rugby Test against the New ZealandAll Blacks, or for theFA Cup Final. The current record attendance is set at just over 78,000, recorded at theAnthony JoshuavCarlos Takamfight, on 28 October 2017, in which Joshua successfully retained his WBA, IBF and IBO titles. The natural grass turf was made up of a modular system installed byGreenTech ITM.It features built in irrigation and drainage. The pitch itself was laid on top of some 7,412 pallets that could be moved so the stadium could be used for concerts, exhibitions and other events. In May 2014, after much trouble with disease and stability, the surface was removed and replaced with a more resilient interwoven sand basedDessopitch. The four ends of the ground are called the North Stand, the West Stand, the South Stand and the BT Stand (east).The South Stand was previously known as the Hyder Stand,untilHyderwas sold. The stadium has three tiers of seating with the exception of the North Stand, which has two tiers. The lower tier holds 23,154 spectators, the middle tier holding 15,626 and the upper tier holding 35,151 spectators. The stadium was slightly restricted in size due to its proximity to Cardiff Rugby Club's home in the adjacent smaller stadium within Cardiff Arms Park. The WRU were unable to secure enough funding to include the North Stand in the new stadium and theMillennium Commissionwould not allow any of its funds to be used in any way for the construction of a new stadium for Cardiff RFC.The WRU held talks withCardiff RFCto see if it would be possible for the club to either move or secure funding for theCardiff Arms Parkto be re-developed, but these were unsuccessful. The stadium thus had to be completed with a break in its bowl structure in the North Stand, known colloquially as Glanmor's Gap, afterGlanmor Griffiths, then chairman of the WRU and now a former president. Thesuperstructureof the stadium is based around four 90.3-metre (296 ft) masts. The stadium was built from 56,000 tonnes of concrete and steel, and has 124 hospitality suites and 7 hospitality lounges,22 bars, 7 restaurants, 17 first aid points, 12 escalators and 7 lifts.The stadium has 7 gates for access to the site; Gate 1 is from the River Walk via Castle Street (to the north), Gates 2 and 3 are via Westgate Street (to the east), Gate 4 which was renamed Gatland's Gate (Welsh:Gât Gatland) in honour ofWarren Gatlandin November 2019, is for team-coaches, celebrity limousines and other uses via Westgate Street,Gate 5 is via Park Street (to the south) and Gates 6 and 7 are via the Millennium Plaza (also to the south). Any future renovation to the stadium will involve replacing the old North Stand of the former National Stadium with a new one similar to the three existing stands of the new Millennium Stadium. This will make the stadium bowl-shaped and will increase its capacity to around 80,000. It will resolve the existing problems of deteriorating concrete quality on the old structure in the north stand.However the WRU has been more resistant to the proposal in recent years, stating that the concrete has not been deteriorating in recent years meaning the cost of replacing Glanmor's Gap would not justify the limited increase in capacity it would provide. In each of the stadium's bars, so-called \"joy machines\" can pour 12 pints in less than 20 seconds. During a Wales versus France match, 63,000 fans drank 77,184 pints of beer, almost double the 44,000 pints drunk by a similar number of fans at a game atTwickenham.The stadium has a residenthawknamed \"Dad\", who is employed to drive seagulls and pigeons out of the stadium. In 2005 the stadium installed an \"Arena Partition Drape System\" – a 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m × 35 m (30 ft × 115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1 million cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, theMillennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the thenWales Tourist Board.The curtain was supplied by Blackout. In May 2015, the chairman of the WRU,Gareth Davies, announced that the stadium would be fitted with new seats, replacing the original seats from 1999 at a cost of £4 million to £5 million, which would be completed by 2018. In addition a new £3.1 million Desso hybrid pitch will beinstalled. In February 2019, the stadium increased its disabled capacity from 168 to 214 at a cost of around £100,000. As a result, the overall capacity of the stadium was reduced from 74,500 to 73,931. Statue of Sir Tasker Watkins A statue of SirTasker Watkins, the former WRU president between 1993 and 2004, was commissioned to stand outside Gate 3 of the stadium. The bronze statue, 9 feet (2.7 m) tall, was sculpted byLlantwit Majorbased sculptor Roger Andrews. TheWelsh Governmentcontributed £50,000, as didCardiff Council.It was officially unveiled on 15 November 2009 by his daughter, Lady Mair Griffith-Williams. Usage As well as international rugby union and association football, the Millennium Stadium has hosted a variety of sports, including,rugby league(including theChallenge CupFinal on three occasions between 2003 and 2005, the opening ceremony of the2013 Rugby League World CupandWelsh Rugby League internationals),speedway,boxing, theWales Rally Great Britainstage of theWorld Rally Championship,Monster Jamandindoor cricket. The indoor cricket match between The Brits and a Rest of the World team for the Pertemps Power Cricket Cup, which took place on 4 and 5 October 2002. Rugby union The stadium is the home of theWelsh rugby union team, who play all of their home fixtures at the venue. These games include those during theSix Nations, as well as theAutumn Internationalsagainst nations from theSouthern Hemisphere. Apart from the national team, the stadium has also hosted theEuropean Rugby Champions Cupfinals on five occasions. In total, the site, including theNational Stadium, has hosted the final of the European Rugby Champions Cup on seven occasions. The stadium has also been used forCeltic Leaguegames, and the semi-finals of theAnglo-Welsh Cupin2006and2007. Since 2013, the Millennium Stadium has hostedJudgement Day, a double-header between the four WelshUnited Rugby Championshipteams. The 2016 edition had 68,262 spectators, the highest in the history of the league. The stadium hosted the first match in the2005 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealandwhen they drew 25–25 againstArgentinain a warm-up test match. Welsh Varsity rugby matches On 30 March 2011, the stadium hosted theWelsh Varsityrugby match for the first time in the history of the match between the senior teams ofCardiff UniversityandSwansea University. The stadium is used alternating years withLiberty Stadiumin Swansea. The Welsh Varsity event celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2016. Rugby World Cup The Welsh Rugby Union hosted the1999 Rugby World Cupwith the Final being played at the stadium. The stadium also hosted 3 pool matches and 1 quarter-final match (New Zealand 18–20 France) of the2007 Rugby World Cup. On 15 October 2011, the stadium was open toWelsh Rugby Unionfans free of charge, providing that they wear red so that they could watch a live screening of the2011 Rugby World Cupsemi-final betweenWalesandFrancethat was played atEden Park,Auckland, New Zealand. The match was screened on the stadium's existing large screens, on all of their television screens and on a screen that was brought in for the occasion. The same was done for theBronze FinalbetweenWalesandAustraliawhich saw Wales defeated and take fourth place. The stadium hosted six pool matches, including two featuring Wales, and two quarter-final matches during the2015 Rugby World Cup. Rugby league The stadium first hostedrugby leaguefootball during the2000 World Cup: a double header featuringCook IslandsversusLebanonandWalesversusNew Zealandthat attracted a crowd of 17,612. It was again used as Wales' home ground during the2002 New Zealand rugby league tour of Great Britain and Francewhen they again hosted the Kiwis this time attracting 8,746 spectators. The Stadium has hosted threeChallenge CupFinals, which are usually played at Wembley, from 2003 to 2005. In2003theBradford Bullsdefeated theLeeds Rhinos22–20 in front of 71,212 fans.St. HelensdefeatedWigan36–16 in2004in front of 73,734 fans, whileHull F.C.defeated Leeds 25–24 in2005in front of 74,213 fans, the largest rugby league crowd at the stadium. Also, in 2007 the stadium hosted the inauguralMillennium Magicweekend. This was a two-day event in May when an entire round ofSuper Leaguematches were played, three games on the Saturday and three games on the Sunday. The event was deemed a success by the sport's governing body, theRFL, and second Millennium Magic event took place in May 2008, although the 2009 and 2010 events were held at Murrayfield Stadium and were renamed Magic Weekend. In 2011, Magic Weekend moved back to Cardiff with the opening round of Super League being played. On 26 October 2013, the Millennium Stadium hosted the opening ceremony and the first two fixtures of the2013 Rugby League World Cup: a double-header featuring Wales againstItalyandEnglandagainst title favourites and eventual tournament championsAustralia.This double header produced an overall attendance of 45,052, which is an international rugby league record at the stadium. Association football From 2000 to 2009, the stadium was the almost-permanent home of Welsh football. Thenationalteam played the vast majority of home matches at the Millennium Stadium, with a handful offriendly matchesonce or twice a year at theRacecourse Ground, WrexhamorLiberty Stadium, Swansea.The first Welsh football game at the stadium was played against Finland in 2000,and drew a then-record home crowd for Welsh football of over 66,000.This has since been beaten on several occasions. However, since 2010, the majority of home games have been played at the smallerCardiff City Stadium, the home ofCardiff City.Wales have only played at the stadium twice since 2009; in 2011 againstEnglandand in 2018 againstSpain. While the Millennium Stadium was under construction, the originalWembley Stadiumhad hosted the Welsh rugby team during the building of the new ground. The favour was returned from 2001 while the newWembley Stadiumwas being built,with the Millennium hosting: The stadium became notorious for an apparent \"away team hoodoo\"; the first 11 major cup finals were all won by the teams occupying the home dressing room.Stoke City beat Brentford 2–0 in 2002 to end the \"hoodoo\", after Paul Darby carried out afeng shuiblessing. Liverpoolwere the first team to win theFA Cupat the Millennium Stadium in 2001 after beatingArsenal2–1.They were also the first team to win theLeague Cupat the Stadium, defeatingBirmingham Cityin apenalty shoot-outearlier that year.In 2003, Liverpool won theLeague Cupfor the seventh time in their history thanks to a 2–0 win over Manchester United in the final at the stadium. Liverpool also won thelast FA Cup Finalat the Millennium Stadium in 2006, beatingWest Ham United3–1 in a penalty shoot-out that followed a 3–3 draw afterextra timein what was billed as 'the best cup final of the modern era'. The Football League Third Division play-offs in 2003 sawAFC BournemouthbeatLincoln City5–2. In this game, Bournemouth set a new record for the most goals scored by one team in a single match at the stadium. This record has since been matched but not beaten.The last domestic cup match played was whenDoncaster RoversbeatBristol Rovers3–2 after extra time in theFootball League TrophyFinal on 1 April 2007. In 2001, theFootball Association of Wales(FAW) confirmed that they had bid to host the2003 UEFA Champions League Final. The stadium had recently been rated as a five-star stadium byUEFA, making it one of the favorites to host the match,but the final was eventually awarded toOld Trafford, the home ofManchester United. It was suggested that the stadium would have been one of the venues of a proposedUEFA Euro 2016championship hosted jointly by Wales andScotland.However, the bid did not reach the formal UEFA selection stage, having been abandoned by the Welsh and Scottish Football Associations for financial reasons.In April 2014, the FAW did submit a formal bid to host three group matches and either a round of 16 match or a quarter-final atEuro 2020, which UEFA planned to host at 13 venues across Europe.When the host venues were voted on in September 2014, the Millennium Stadium lost out by a single vote behind Glasgow'sHampden Park, a decision that FAW chief executive Jonathan Ford put down to UEFA politics.The stadium, however, would be selected forUEFA Euro 2028. On 30 June 2015, the Millennium Stadium was chosen as the venue for the2017 UEFA Champions League Final.UEFA rules meant it could not be branded as the Principality Stadium during the event, resulting in all titles and logos – as well as those of other non-UEFA sponsors – being covered or removed for the duration.The game was played on 3 June 2017 between Italian clubJuventusand Spanish clubReal Madrid, in a repeat of the1998 final; Real Madrid won the match 4–1. When London was selected as the host city for the2012 Summer Olympics, the Millennium Stadium was named as one of the six venues for thefootball competition.It had the distinction of hosting the opening event of the Games – a 1–0 win for theGreat Britain women's teamagainstNew Zealand– as well as four other group games and a quarter-final in the women's tournament, and three group games, a quarter-final and the bronze medal match in the men's. Boxing There have been five nights of boxing at the stadium.On 8 July 2006 whenMatt SkeltonbeatDanny Williamsfor the Commonwealth heavyweight title.On 7 April 2007,Joe CalzaghebeatPeter Manfredoto retain hisWBOsuper middleweight belt.On 3 November 2007,Calzaghe beat Mikkel Kesslerto retain his WBO super middleweight belt and win theWBAandWBCsuper middleweight titles. On 28 October 2017Anthony Joshuasuccessfully retained his WBA (Super),IBFandIBOheavyweight titles againstmandatory challengerCarlos Takamwith a 10th round stoppage. On 31 March 2018, it hosted the World heavyweight unification fight between Anthony Joshua, holder of theWBAand IBF belts, andJoseph Parker, holder of theWBObelt.Joshua beat Parkeron points. Motorsports In 2001, it staged its first ever motorsport event, hosting theSpeedway Grand Prix of Great Britain, and has done so every year since, attracting a record crowd of 44,150 in 2010.The temporarymotorcycle speedwaytrack is 278 metres (304 yards) in length and with sections of the stadiums lower seating bowl covered, the capacity of the stadium for the Grand Prix is set at 62,500. In September 2005 the stadium was host to the first ever indoor stage of theWorld Rally Championshipduring theWales Rally Great Britain. The lower tier of the stadium was removed to create a figure-of-eight course.In addition to this, the stadium has also hostedSupercrossevents.In October 2007, the stadium first hosted the UK leg of theMonster Jamtrucks Europe tour, and returned in June 2008, again in 2009, 2010, 2016, 2018 and 2019. Film The stadium has been used on numerous occasions as a venue for shooting film and television productions. Scenes from the 2001 Hindi filmKabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...were filmed there. Between 2004 and 2011, the stadium was used several times as a filming location for episodes of theBBCscience fiction televisionseriesDoctor Who.The 2005 episode \"Dalek\" was shot primarily on location at the stadium,using its underground areas to represent a bunker inUtah, US, in the year 2012. The location shooting for the episode took place during October and November 2004. The underground areas of the stadium were used again in August 2005 to film Mission Control scenes for theDoctor WhoChristmas special, \"The Christmas Invasion\",and again the following year to film scenes in the underground corridors of Torchwood in \"The Runaway Bride\" episode, broadcast on Christmas Day 2006.Shots of the Stormcage Facility in whichRiver Songis incarcerated in series 5 and 6 ofDoctor Whoare also in the stadium, filmed between October 2010 and January 2011. The stadium has also been used as a location for the filming of Doctor Who spin-offThe Sarah Jane Adventures. The 2010 story, \"Death of the Doctor\", included corridor scenes for theUNITheadquarters that were filmed underground at the Millennium Stadium. TheWembley Stadiumscene in the film28 Weeks Laterwas actually filmed at the Millennium Stadium. Although the outside is footage of Wembley, the inside is all filmed in Cardiff. The visual effects team on the film edited the footage to make it look more like Wembley. Sébastien Foucanjumped over the gap of the opening of the stadium roof in theparkourdocumentary \"Jump Britain\". Eventing The inauguralExpress Eventing International Cuptook place at the stadium on 30 November 2008. The three-event competition made up ofdressage,cross-countryandshow jumpingall took place over the one day. The event was won byOliver Townend. Concerts The stadium has also been used for a variety of musical events, including theManic Street Preachersconcert held onMillenniumEve,and, on the following day, a recording of theBBC'sSongs of Praise, which attracted an attendance of 60,000.Tina Turnerperformed a sold-out concert at the stadium during her highly successfulTwenty Four Seven Tourin 2000.Welsh rockersStereophonicshave played two sold-out shows at the stadium: In July 2001 as part of their two-day \"A Day at the Races\" festival which would later be released to DVD and in 2003, shortly after the departure of the lateStuart Cable. American rock bandBon Joviplayed the venue during theOne Wild Night Tourin 2001.At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted atsunami relief concertin aid of the victims of the2004 Indian Ocean earthquakeandtsunami, withEric Claptonheadlining the event.The stadium has also been host toMadonnaon two occasions, the first in July 2006 when she opened the UK leg of herConfessions Tour,and most recently in August 2008 when she kicked off herSticky & Sweet Tourat the stadium.Other performers who have played at the stadium includeRobbie Williamsas part of hisWeddings, Barmitzvahs & Stadiums Tour,U2as part of theirVertigo Tour,Red Hot Chili Peppersas part of theirBy the Way tour,The Rolling Stonesas part of theirA Bigger Bang Tour,R.E.M.as part of theirMonstertour and again for theirAround the Suntour. Paul McCartneyalso played at the stadium as part of hisUp and Coming Tour,andThe Policeperformed there as part of theirReunion Tour.In late 2005,Oasisplayed at the stadium during theirDon't Believe the Truth Tourand again on theirDig Out Your Soul Tourin 2009.In 2008, the stadium hostedNeil DiamondandBruce Springsteenwith theE Street Bandas part of theirMagic Tour,On 22 August 2009, U2 again played at the stadium, as part of their European leg of theirU2 360° Tour,playing to a record-breaking concert attendance of 73,354.On 17 May 2023,Beyoncéperformed at the stadium as part of herRenaissance World Tour.Taylor Swiftplayed at the stadium on 18 June 2024 as part ofThe Eras Tour.In 2024, it was announcedOasiswould play at the stadium on the 4th and 5th of July 2025 as part of their UK and Ireland Reunion tour. Conferences The stadium offersconferencing facilitiesvia the foodservice organisationCompass Group.The facilities consist of six individually designed lounges and 124 pitch-facing executive box suites. In addition to business events, the facilities are also available for dinners, banquets, balls, parties and weddings receptions. Temporary hospital On 28 March 2020 it was announced that the stadium was to be converted at a cost of £8 million into a temporary field hospital to accommodate up to 2000 patients of theCOVID-19 pandemic, at the same time as theExcel Centre, London,NEC, Birmingham, and theManchester Central Convention Complex.By the weekend of 11–12 April 2020, it had a capacity of 330 beds. Professional wrestling On 12 April 2022, Americanprofessional wrestlingcompanyWWEannounced that it would hold a major event at Millennium Stadium on 3 September, and opened pre-registration for tickets. The event was announced as being WWE's largest show in the UK sinceSummerSlamat theoriginal Wembley Stadiumin 1992.On 29 April 2022, it was announced that the event would be titledClash at the Castle, in reference to nearbyCardiff Castle.The event attracted over 59,000 ticket pre-sale registrations, a company record. See also Notes References External links",
"List of concerts at the Millennium Stadium Concerts have been held at theMillennium StadiuminCardiff,Wales, since the stadium's opening in 1999. The musicians who have played at the stadium includeTina Turner,Beyoncé,Spice Girls,The Rolling Stones,Rod Stewart,Paul McCartney,MadonnaandRihanna. The highest concert audience at the stadium was 73,354, who sawU2in 2009.In 2018Ed Sheeranperformed for a record-breaking 4 nights at the Stadium on his÷ Tour.The stadium's total seating capacity for sporting events is 73,434. History The first concert held was onNew Year's Eve1999 when theManic Street Preachersheadlined Manic Millennium, followed two days later by a concert for theBBC'sSongs of Praiseprogramme, withCliff Richardperforming his UK number-one single \"The Millennium Prayer\". This event attracted an attendance of 66,000. During 2003, the stadium established a new in-house promotions and events department to attract major concerts to the stadium, taking over from SJM Concerts. The stadium's General Manager Paul Sergeant at the time said of the change, \"We looked at the current way our business was run, (and) realized that if we do it ourselves and have direct contact with the event owners and promoters...we will be able to offer an improved service\". At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted aTsunami Relief Cardiff, a tsunami relief concert, in aid of victims of the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, withEric Claptonheadlining the event. On 22 August 2009, U2 played at the stadium as part of their European leg of theirU2 360° Tour, playing to a record-breaking concert attendance for a concert at the stadium of 73,354. In 2005 the stadium installed an \"Arena Partition Drape System\" – a 1,100 kg black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m (30 ft) x 35 m (115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1m cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, theMillennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the thenWales Tourist Board.The curtain was supplied by Blackout Ltd. It was feared that music concerts and sporting events would take business away from local shops. However, David Hughes Lewis, chairman of Cardiff Retail Partnership, said in 2005 that \"Despite initial concerns that major events in the Millennium Stadium hit trading in the shops, it now believed such events had a positive impact...When people come to Cardiff for the concerts, they more often than not arrive the night before and they'll spend the morning shopping\". Concerts See also Notes External links Media related toConcerts at the Millennium Stadiumat Wikimedia Commons",
"Manic Street Preachers Manic Street Preachers, also known simply asthe Manics, are a Welshrockband formed inBlackwood, Caerphilly, in 1986. The band consists ofNicky Wire(bass guitar, lyrics) and cousinsJames Dean Bradfield(lead vocals, lead guitar) andSean Moore(drums, percussion, soundscapes). They form a key part of the 1990s WelshCool Cymrucultural movement. Following the release of their debut single \"Suicide Alley\" in 1988, Manic Street Preachers became a quartet with the addition ofRichey Edwardsas co-lyricist and rhythm guitarist. The band's early albums were in apunkvein, eventually broadening to a greateralternative rocksound.Their early combination of androgynousglamimagery and lyrics about \"culture, alienation, boredom and despair\" gained them a loyal following. Manic Street Preachers' first charting single was \"Motown Junk\" in 1991, followed by their debut album,Generation Terrorists, in February 1992. The band's next two albums wereGold Against the Soulin 1993 andThe Holy Biblein 1994,the latter being the last album with Edwards, who disappeared in February 1995 and was legallypresumed deadin 2008.The band continued as a trio, and achieved commercial success with the albumsEverything Must Go(1996) andThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours(1998). The Manics have headlined festivals includingGlastonbury,T in the Park,V FestivalandReading, winning elevenNME Awards, eightQ Awardsand fourBRIT Awards.They were nominated for theMercury Prizein 1996 and 1999, and have had one nomination for theMTV Europe Music Awards. The band has sold more than ten million albums worldwide.The Manics have two number-one singles in the UK charts: \"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\" (1998) and \"The Masses Against the Classes\" (2000), as well as two number-one albums:This Is My Truth Tell Me YoursandThe Ultra Vivid Lament(2021).From 1991 to 2010, the band recorded 33 consecutive top 40 singles in the UK. History Formation and early years (1986–1991) Manic Street Preachers formed in 1986 atOakdale Comprehensive School,Blackwood,South Wales, which all the band members attended.Bradfield and the slightly older Moore are cousins and shared bunk beds in the Bradfield family home after Moore's parents divorced. During the band's early years, Bradfield, alongside the classically trained Moore, primarily wrote the music while Wire focused on the lyrics. Some of their earliest performances were held at theBlackwood Miners Welfare Institutein the town.The origin of the band's name remains unclear, but the most often-told story relates that Bradfield while busking one day inCardiff, got into an altercation with someone (sometimes said to be a homeless man)who asked him \"What are you, boyo, some kind of manic street preacher?\" Original bassist Flicker (Miles Woodward) left the band in early 1988, reportedly because he believed that the band were moving away from their punk roots.The band continued as a three-piece, with Wire switching from guitar to bass,and in 1988 they released their first single, \"Suicide Alley\". Despite its recording quality, this single provides an early insight into both Bradfield's guitar work and Moore's live drumming.The Manics intended to restore revolution torock and rollat a time when Britain was dominated byshoegazeand acid house.TheNMEgave \"Suicide Alley\" an enthusiastic review, citing a press release by Richey Edwards: \"We are as far away from anything in the '80s as possible.\" After the release of \"Suicide Alley,\" Edwards joined the band on rhythm guitar and contributed to lyrics alongside Wire. Edwards also designed record sleeves and artwork and drove the band to and from gigs. In 1990 the Manic Street Preachers signed a deal with labelDamaged Goods Recordsfor oneEP. The four-trackNew Art Riot E.P.attracted as much media interest for its attacks on fellow musicians as for the actual music.With the help of Hall or Nothing management, the Manics signed toindielabelHeavenly Records. The band recorded their first single for the label, entitled \"Motown Junk\". Their next single, \"You Love Us\", sampledKrzysztof Penderecki's \"Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima\" as well asIggy Pop. The video featured Nicky Wire indragasMarilyn Monroeand contained visual references to the filmBetty Blueand toAleister Crowley. On 15 May 1991, during an interview with then-NMEjournalistSteve Lamacqfollowing a gig at Norwich Arts Centre, Edwards carved the phrase \"4REAL\" into his arm with a razor blade in a bid to prove the sincerity of the band.He was taken to hospital and received seventeen stitches.NMEsubsequently ran a full-page story on the incident, including a phone interview with Richey on his motivations for doing it. A recording of the editorial meeting discussing whether or not they could publish the image was included as a b-side on the band's 1992 charity singleTheme from M.A.S.H. (Suicide Is Painless), featuring Lamacq, the then-editor ofNMEDanny KellyandJames Brown(who went on to editLoadedand the British version ofGQ). As a result of their controversial behaviour, the Manics quickly became favourites of the British music press, which helped them build a dedicated following.Columbia RecordsofSony Music UKsigned the band shortly afterwards and they began work on their debut album. Richey Edwards era:Generation TerroriststoThe Holy Bible(1992–1995) The band's debut album,Generation Terrorists, was released in 1992 on theColumbia Recordsimprint. The record contained six singles and sold 250,000 copies.The liner notes contained a literary quote for each of the album's eighteen songs and the album lasted just over seventy minutes. The album's lyrics are politicised like those ofthe ClashandPublic Enemy,with the album's songs regularly switching from a critical focus on globalcapitalismto more personal tales of despair and the struggles of youth. Other tracks combine personal and political themes; \"Nat West-Barclays-Midlands-Lloyds\" was written as a critique of overseas banking credit policies, but also concernedRichey Edwards' issues involving overdrafts and refused loans.The single \"Motorcycle Emptiness\", meanwhile, criticisesconsumerismas a \"shallow dream\"that makes human life overtly commercialised.\"Little Baby Nothing\", a duet betweenTraci Lordsand Bradfield, was described by Priya Elan of theNMEas a \"perfect snapshot of innocence bodysnatched and twisted\". The band also made a cover version of the song \"Suicide Is Painless\" which peaked at number 7 in the UK charts, spending 3 weeks in the Top 10, and giving the band their first ever Top 10 hit single. The group's second album,Gold Against the Soul, had a more commercial,grungysound. It was released to mixed reviews but performed well, reaching number eight in the UK album chart. The band stated that the choice to work withDave Eringaagain was important for this album.The band have describedGold Against the Soulas their least favourite album and the period surrounding the album as being the most unfocused of their career. The band's vocalist and guitaristJames Dean Bradfieldhas said \"All we wanted to do was go under the corporate wing. We thought we could ignore it but you do get affected.\" By early 1994, Edwards' difficultiesbecame worse and began to affect the other band members as well as himself.He was admitted intoThe Prioryin 1994 to overcome his problems and the band played a few festivals as a three-piece to pay for his treatment.During one such three-piece performance at Reading '94, James played Richey's black Gibson as a mark of respect (although James later commented that he regretted playing Richey's guitar). The group's next album,The Holy Bible, was released in August to critical acclaim, but sold poorly. The album displayed yet another musical and aesthetic change for the band, largely featuring army/navy uniforms. Musically,The Holy Biblemarks a shift from themodern rocksound of their first two albums,Generation TerroristsandGold Against the Soul.In addition to the album'salternative rocksound the album incorporates various elements from other musical genres, such ashard rock,British punk,post-punk,new wave,industrial,art rockandgothic rock. Lyrically the album deals with subjects including prostitution, Americanconsumerism, Britishimperialism,freedom of speech,the Holocaust,serial killers, thedeath penalty, political revolution, childhood,fascismand suicide.According toQ: \"the tone of the album is by turns bleak, angry and resigned\".There was also an element of autobiographic subjects, like in the song \"4st 7lb\" where the lyrics clearly tackle Richey's own experience with anorexia. The song was named after 4stones7pounds, or 63 pounds (29 kg), because it is the weight below which death is saidto be medically unavoidable for an anorexic sufferer. The title \"The Holy Bible\" was chosen by Edwards to reflect an idea, according to Bradfield, that \"everything on there has to be perfection\".Interviewed at the end of 1994, Edwards said: \"The way religions choose to speak their truth to the public has always been to beat them down I think that if a Holy Bible is true, it should be about the way the world is and that's what I think my lyrics are about. doesn't pretend things don't exist\". In support of the album the band appeared onTop of the Pops, performing its first single, \"Faster\", which reached No. 16. The performance was extremely controversial at the time, as the band were all dressed in army regalia. Bradfield wore a \"terrorist-style\"balaclava. At the time, the band was told by theBBCthat they had received the most complaints ever.The album eventually has sold over 600,000 copies worldwide. In April and May 1994 the band first performed songs fromThe Holy Bibleat concerts in Thailand and Portugal and at a benefit concert for theAnti-Nazi LeagueatBrockwell Park, London.In June, they played theGlastonbury Festival.In July and August, without Richey Edwards, they playedT in the Parkin Scotland, the Alte Wartesaal inCologne, theParkpopFestival inThe Hagueand theReading Festival.During September, October and December there was a headline tour of the UK and Ireland and two tours in mainland Europe withSuedeandTherapy?.In December, three nights at theLondon Astoriaended with the band smashing up their equipment and the venue's lighting rig, causing £26,000 worth of damage. The disappearance of Richey Edwards Edwards disappeared on 1 February 1995, on the day when he andJames Dean Bradfieldwere due to fly to the US on a promotional tour.In the two weeks before his disappearance, Edwards withdrew £200 a day from his bank account, which totalled £2,800 by the day of the scheduled flight.He checked out of the Embassy Hotel inBayswater Road, London, at seven in the morning, and then drove to his apartment inCardiff, Wales.In the two weeks that followed he was apparently spotted in theNewportpassport office,and theNewport bus station.On 7 February, a taxi driver from Newport supposedly picked up Edwards from the King's Hotel in Newport, and drove him around the valleys, including Blackwood (Edwards' home as a child). The passenger got off at theSevern View service stationnearAustand paid the £68 fare in cash. On 14 February, Edwards'Vauxhall Cavalierreceived a parking ticket at the Severn View service station and on 17 February, the vehicle was reported as abandoned. Police discovered the battery to be flat, with evidence that the car had been lived in.Due to theservice station's proximity to theSevern Bridge(which has been a renowned suicide location in the past)it was widely believed that he took his own life by jumping from the bridge. Manic Street Preachers was put on hold for six months and disbanding the group was seriously considered, but with the blessing of Edwards' family, the other members continued.Edwards was legally \"presumed dead\" in 2008, to enable his parents to administer his estate.The band continue to set up a microphone for Edwards at every live performance. Everything Must GotoLifeblood(1996–2006) The first album without Edwards,Everything Must Go, was released on 20 May 1996. The band had chosen to work with new producerMike Hedges, mainly for his work onSiouxsie and the Banshees' single \"Swimming Horses\" that Bradfield rated highly.Everything Must Godebuted on theUK Albums Chartat number 2, so far the album has goneTriple Platinumin the UK and is their most successful album to date, spending 103 weeks in the Top 100 with the album still in the Top 5 a year after its release.Containing five songs either written or co-written by Edwards the album was released to overwhelmingly positive reviews. The No. 2 hit single \"A Design for Life\" was the first to be written and released by the band following the disappearance of Richey Edwards the previous year.James Dean Bradfield later recalled that the lyric had been a fusion of two sets of lyrics-\"Design for Life\" and \"Pure Motive\"-sent to him from Wales by bassist Nicky Wire, while he was living inShepherd's Bush. The music was written \"in about ten minutes\" and Bradfield felt a sense of euphoria with the result.The song was credited with having \"rescued the band\" from the despair felt after the disappearance of Edwards, with Wire describing the song as \"a bolt of light from a severely dark place\". The album was shortlisted for the 1996Mercury Prizeaward for best album and won the band twoBrit Awardsfor Best British Band and Best British Album,as well as yielding the hit singles \"Australia\", \"Everything Must Go\" and \"Kevin Carter\". The album has sold over two million copies around the world, and it is still considered one of the finest releases of the decade,a classic album from the 1990sand frequently voted in polls in the category of best albums of all time by many publications.The success of Everything Must Go at the 1997Brit Awardsensured that sales of their earlier albumsGeneration Terrorists,Gold Against the SoulandThe Holy Bibleenjoyed a late surge; the band's debut sold an extra 110,000 copies. In 1997 the band performed a special gig at theManchester Arenafor more than 20,000 people. Bassist Nicky Wire said that was the moment he knew that the band had \"made it\".The recording was released as aVHSvideo on 29 September 1997 and has only been reissued on DVD in Japan. The band's next album,This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours(1998), was the first number 1 of the band in the UK, remaining at the top of the albums chart for 3 weeks,selling 136,000 copies in the first week and spending a total of 74 weeks in the Album Chart.The title is a quotation taken from a speech given byAneurin Bevan, aLabour Partypolitician from Wales.The cover photograph was taken onBlack Rock SandsnearPorthmadog, Wales.Around the world the album also peaked at number 1 in countries like Sweden and Ireland, and it sold over five million copies worldwide. With their fifth album, the group also had a No. 1 single, \"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\". The song's theme is taken from theSpanish Civil War, and the idealism ofWelshvolunteers who joined theleft-wingInternational Brigadesfighting for theSpanish RepublicagainstFrancisco Franco's military rebels. The song takes its name from aRepublicanposter of the time, displaying a photograph of a young child killed by theNationalistsunder a sky of bombers with the stark warning \"If you tolerate this, your children will be next\" written at the bottom.The song is in theGuinness World Recordsas the number one single with the longest title without brackets.The album also included the hit singles \"You Stole the Sun from My Heart\", \"Tsunami\" and \"The Everlasting\". The Manics won Best British Band and Album awards at the BRIT Awards in 1999.This Is My Truth Tell Me Yourswas also shortlisted for the 1999Mercury Prizeand the band received a further nomination in the category of Best UK & Ireland Act in the 1999MTV Europe Music Awards, where the band performed live the singleIf You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next. In theNME Awardsin 1999, the band won every single big prize, Best Band, Best Album, Best Live Act, Best Single and Best Video, as well as the Best Band in the World Today award in theQ Awards1998. After headliningGlastonbury Festival,T in the ParkandV Festival, the band played theLeaving the 20th Centuryconcert at theMillennium Stadiumin Cardiff on 31 December 1999, the first concert to be held there, with 57,000 people attending and the final song being broadcast around the world by satellite as part of2000 Today. The concert is available onVHSandDVD. Subtitled English lyrics, available as an extra, contain errors when compared to the official lyrics in the band's album booklets and in between some of the tracks there are interview clips where the band discusses their history and the songs. In 2000, they released the limited edition single \"The Masses Against the Classes\". Despite receiving little promotion, the single sold 76,000 copies in its first week and reached number one in theUK Singles Charton 16 January 2000, beating \"U Know What's Up\" byDonell Jonesto the top. The catalogue entry for the single was deleted (removed from wholesale supply) on the day of release, but the song nevertheless spent 9 weeks in the UK chart. In 2001, they became the first popular Western rock band to play in Cuba (at theKarl Marx Theatre) and met with PresidentFidel Castro. Their concert and trip to Cuba was documented and then released as a DVD entitledLouder Than War. At this concert, they revealed many tracks from their upcoming sixth album,Know Your Enemy, which was released on 19 March. Theleft-wingpolitical convictions of the Manic Street Preachers are apparent in many of the album's songs, such as \"Baby Elián\" as they comment on the strained relations between the United States and Cuba as seen in theElián Gonzálezaffair, a hot topic around the album's release. The band also pays tribute to singer and civil rights activistPaul Robesonin the song \"Let Robeson Sing\", but the song \"Ocean Spray\", which was a single, was written entirely by James about his mother's battle with cancer. The first singles from the album, \"So Why So Sad\" and \"Found That Soul\", were both released on the same day. The final single \"Let Robeson Sing\" was released later. The Manics also headlinedReading and Leeds Festival. The greatest hits (plus remixes) albumForever Delayedwas released in 2002, containing two new songs, \"Door to the River\" and the single \"There by the Grace of God\". Several songs were edited for length (\"Motorcycle Emptiness,\" \"You Love Us\", \"Australia,\" \"Everything Must Go,\" \"Little Baby Nothing,\" and \"The Everlasting\") so that more tracks could fit onto the CD (though not listed as edits in the liner notes). TheForever DelayedDVD was released in 2002 together with the greatest hits CD and photo book that bear the same name, and features all the promo music videos from the start of the band's career released before the DVD. Along with the promo videos, there is a selection of 14 remix videos, where the visual material is taken from clips of the other promo videos as well as backdrop visuals from the band's live concerts. The album peaked and debuted on theUK Albums Chartat #4. An album ofB-sides, rarities, and cover versions was released in 2003 entitledLipstick Traces (A Secret History of Manic Street Preachers), which contains the last song the band worked on with Edwards. The album received a far more positive reception from fans than theForever Delayedgreatest hits album, which was heavily criticised for favouring the band's more commercially successful singles. The only recurring criticism ofLipstick Traceswas the exclusion of the fan favourite \"Patrick Bateman\", from the \"La Tristesse Durera (Scream to a Sigh)\" single. The band explained that it was excluded mainly because it was almost seven minutes long and simply would not fit on the album. The band's seventh studio album,Lifeblood, was released on 1 November 2004 and reached No. 13 on the UK album chart. Critical response to the album was mixed. The album was more introspective and more focused on the past, Wire talked about the ghosts that haunted this record and stated that the record was a retrospective: \"The main themes are death and solitude and ghosts. Being haunted by history and being haunted by your own past. Sleep is beautiful for me. I hate dreaming because it ruins ten hours of bliss. I had a lot of bad dreams when Richey first disappeared. Not ugly dreams, but nagging things. Until we wrote 'Design for Life', it was six months of misery.Lifeblooddoesn't seek to exorcise Edwards' ghost, though, just admits that there are no answers\".Tony Viscontihelped the band produce three songs on the album, which was followed by a UK arena tour in December 2004. \"Empty Souls\" and \"The Love of Richard Nixon\" were the two singles released from the album, both reaching No. 2 in the UK. A tenth-anniversary edition ofThe Holy Biblewas released on 6 December 2004, which included a digitally remastered version of the original album, a rare U.S. mix (which the band themselves have admitted to preferring to the original UK mix)and a DVD of live performances and extras including a band interview. In April 2005, the band played several shows as the Past-Present-Future tour—announced as their last for at least two years. The band released an EP entitledGod Save the Manicswith only a limited number of copies available and given out to fans as they arrived at the venue. After all the copies were gone, the band made the EP available as a free download on their website.In September, the band contributed the new track \"Leviathan\" to theWar Childcharity albumHelp!: A Day in the Life. In 2006 the band received the prize for the Q Merit Award in theQ Awards2006 and also the 10th-anniversary edition ofEverything Must Gowas released on 6 November. It included the original album, demos, B-sides, remixes, rehearsals and alternate takes of the album's songs, spread out over two CDs. An additional DVD, featuring music videos, live performances, TV appearances, a 45-minute documentary on the making of the album, and two films byPatrick Jones, completed the three-disc set. In the 10th-anniversary edition, the band itself claims that they're still fond of the record, and Wire goes further saying: \"I think it's our best record, I am not afraid to say that.\" Send Away the TigerstoNational Treasures(2007–2012) The band's eighth studio album,Send Away the Tigers, was released on 7 May 2007 onColumbia Records. It entered the official UK album charts at No. 2. Critical response to the album was largely positive, with some critics hailing the album as the band's best in a decade. A free download of a song entitled \"Underdogs\" from the album was made available through the group's website on 19 March 2007.The first official single released from the album was \"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\", featuringCardigansvocalistNina Persson. According to singer Bradfield, the title was the last line of a suicide note left by the friend of someone close to the group.The second single, \"Autumnsong\", and a third, \"Indian Summer\", were released in August. \"Indian Summer\" peaked at number 22, making it the first Manics single not to chart in the Top 20 since 1994's \"She Is Suffering\". The album sleeve features a quotation fromWyndham Lewis: \"When a man is young, he is usually a revolutionary of some kind. So here I am, speaking of my revolution\". A Christmas single, \"The Ghosts of Christmas\", was released as a free download on the band's official website throughout December 2007 and January 2008. In February 2008, the band were presented with the God-Like Geniuses Award at theNME Awardsceremony. The ninth Manics album,Journal for Plague Lovers, was released on 18 May 2009 and features lyrics left behind by Edwards. Wire commented in an interview that \"there was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice.\"The album was released to positive critical reviews and reached No. 3 on the UK Album Chart. However, the cover of the album generated some controversy, with the top four UKsupermarketsstocking the CD in a plain slipcase, as the cover was deemed \"inappropriate\". Several tracks refer to Edwards' time in a couple of hospitals in 1994. Bradfield commented thatJournal for Plague Loverswas an attempt to finally secure the legacy of their former memberRichey Edwardsand the result was that, during the recording process, it was as close to feeling his presence since his disappearance: \"There was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice. That was part of the whole thing of letting enough time lapse. Once we actually got into the studio, it almost felt as if we were a full band; it as close to him being in the room again as possible.\" The band's tenth albumPostcards from a Young Manwas recorded with producerDave Eringaand was mixed in America byChris Lord-Alge.The album cover art uses a black and white photograph of British actorTim Roth.The first single from the album, \"(It's Not War) Just the End of Love\", was released on 13 September.The album was supported by the Manics' most extensive tour of the UK to date,starting in Glasgow on 29 September 2010.British Sea Powerwere the support act for the band on the tour. Two further singles were released from the album—the McCulloch-featuring \"Some Kind of Nothingness\" and the title track \"Postcards from a Young Man\". \"Some Kind of Nothingness\" peaked at No. 44 in the UK making it the first-ever Manics single to not make the Top 40 since they signed to Sony in 1991. National Treasures – The Complete Singleswas released on 31 October 2011, preceded by the release of the single \"This Is the Day\", a cover of the song bythe The.On 17 December 2011, the group performed 'A Night of National Treasures' atO2Arenain London to celebrate the band's 25 years to date, and enter into a period of hiatus where the eleventh album was written. The band performed all 38 singles, with around 20,000 people in attendance, as well as guest performers includingNina Perssonfromthe Cardiganswho sings with the band on the single \"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\" andGruff RhysfromSuper Furry Animalswho sang with the band that night on the trackLet Robeson Sing.In April and May 2012, the band embarked on a European greatest hits tour.The compilation was voted byNMEmagazine as the best re issue of 2011, beatingNirvana's deluxe and super deluxe edition ofNevermindto the top spot. Despite the \"complete singles\" title,National Treasuresdoes not contain every Manic Street Preachers single. Notable omissions are the band's very first single, \"Suicide Alley\" (1989), \"Strip It Down\" from theNew Art RiotEP (1990), for which the band's first promotional video was made,and \"You Love Us (Heavenly Version)\" (1991). For singles originally released as double-A sides, only one song is included: therefore from \"Love's Sweet Exile/Repeat\" (1992) and \"Faster/P.C.P.\" (1994), only the first of each pair are included. A film-interview-documentary about their albumGeneration Terroristswas screened on Saturday 20 October 2012 at Chapter Arts Centre as part of theSŵnFestival, with all profits donated to Young Promoters Network.The film was made available in the 20th-anniversary re-issue ofGeneration Terrorists. Rewind the FilmtoThe Ultra Vivid Lament(2013–present) In May 2013, the band announced an Australasian tour for June and July, that would see them play their first-ever show in New Zealand.This tour coincided with the British and Irish Lions rugby tour to Australia and the Melbourne concert on the eve of the 2nd Test featured Lions' centre Jamie Roberts as a guest guitarist on \"You Love Us\". In May 2013 the Manics released information about their most recent recording sessions, saying that they had enough material for two albums; the first would be almost exclusively without electric guitars.The name of the first album and title track was revealed to beRewind the Filmon 8 July.In a statement, the band announced, \"(If) this record has a relation in the Manics back catalogue, it's probably the sedate coming of age that wasThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours.\"The band also stated viaTwitter, \"MSP were in the great Hansa Studios in January with Alex Silva (who recordedThe Holy Biblewith us). Berlin was inspirational...Seanbeen playing afrench hornin the studio today—sounding wonderful.\"The lead single of the album, \"Show Me the Wonder\", was released on 9 September 2013 to a positive critical reception. The album itself was released on 16 September 2013 and reached No. 4 on the UK Album Chart. The second single of the album \"Anthem for a Lost Cause\" was released on 25 November 2013. The other album,Futurology, the band's twelfth studio album, was released on 7 July 2014 and it received immediate critical acclaim. The lead single from the album, \"Walk Me to the Bridge\", was released as a digital download on the day of the announcement, on 28 April.The album sold about 20,000 copies in its first week and reached No. 2 on theUK Albums Chart. The title track, \"Futurology\", was the second and final single released from the album on 22 September, the video debuted onYouTubeon 10 August. The video was directed by theBritish Academy of Film and Television ArtswinnerKieran Evans, who worked with the band on videos from their previous effortRewind the Film. The band promoted the album with a tour around the UK and Europe from March to May 2014, they also made appearances in festivals likeT in the Parkin Scotland andGlastonbury Festivalin the summer. In December 2014, the band touredThe Holy Bible, playing it in full for the very first time, to coincide with its 20th anniversary reissue.After the tour in the UK, the Manics tookThe Holy Bibletour to North America, in April 2015, they played in Washington DC, Toronto, New York, Boston, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago.They also played in theCardiff Castleon 5 June 2015 with 10,000 fans attending the gig, it was broadcast nationwide by BBC Two Wales.In theNME Awards2015, the album won \"Reissue of the Year\". In November 2015, the Manic Street Preachers announced that they were going to celebrate the 20th anniversary of their 1996 albumEverything Must Go, with their biggest headline show since 1999, in theLiberty Stadium, inSwanseaon 28 May 2016, featuring special guests likeSuper Furry Animals. The album was performed in full, with Nicky Wire teasing \"B-sides, rarities and curios, greatest hits and a few brand-new songs\".Before the final show in Swansea the band played:Liverpool,Echo Arena(13 May),Birmingham,Genting Arena(14 May),London,Royal Albert Hall(16–17 May),Leeds,First Direct Arena(20 May) andGlasgow, theSSE Hydro(21 May).In early 2016 the band announced the European tour ofEverything Must Go, they played across Europe, in Finland, Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany. The band announced in March 2016 that they would be releasing a theme song for the Wales national team ahead of theUEFA Euro 2016tournament in the summer, entitled \"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\", it was released on 20 May, featuring also a video with the band and the Welsh team, the Manics tweeted: \"It's with great pride we can announce the Manics are providing the official Wales Euro 2016 song – 'Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)'\". All profits from the song went to the Princes Gate Trust and Tenovus Cancer Care.On 8 July the band was at theCardiff City Stadiumto give a home welcome to the Wales football national team after they were knocked out of theUEFA Euro 2016by Portugal in the semi-finals, the band played a few songs in the stadium including the official theme song \"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\".On the next night, 9 July, the Manics headlined a night at the Cornwall'sEden Project,and later the band managed to secure a new recording studio nearNewport, Wales. The city's council ensured that only the band can use the studio, there would be an increase on-site parking and a series of soundproofing measures to ensure nearby properties aren't disturbed by noise.To end the summer, the Manics went on to headline another two festivals, Wasa Open Air in Finland in mid-Augustand in late August theVictorious Festivalin Portsmouth.The band also received a nomination in the 25th British Academy Cymru Awards for the best live outside broadcast after their 2015 gig in the Cardiff Castle, celebrating the 20th anniversary ofThe Holy Bible. In February 2017 the band revealed a teaser trailer for a documentary entitledEscape from History, charting the band's journey fromThe Holy Bible, through to the disappearance of lyricist and guitarist Richey Edwards, to the huge success ofEverything Must Go. The documentary aired onSky Artson 15 April.The band also stated that they would release an album later in that year. The band released a special edition of their albumSend Away the Tigerson 12 May. 2017 marks the 10th anniversary of the record and the Manics said that \"this is a very important album\" in their career. The special edition featured a remastered album as well asB-sidesand rarities spread over two discs, plus a DVD which features the band's 2007 Glastonbury performance, rehearsal footage, an album track-by-track, and promo videos. On 17 November 2017, the band announced that their thirteenth album,Resistance Is Futile, would be released on 13 April 2018.After much delay, the band wrote \"The main themes of 'Resistance Is Futile' are memory and loss; forgotten history; confused reality and art as a hiding place and inspiration\", the band say in a statement. \"It's obsessively melodic—in many ways referencing both the naive energy of 'Generation Terrorists' and the orchestral sweep of 'Everything Must Go'. After delay and difficulties getting started, the record has come together really quickly over the last few months through a surge of creativity and some old school hard work.\" It is the first album to be recorded at the \"Door to the River\" studio. In January 2018, Manic Street Preachers signed a publishing contract withWarner/Chappell Music, leaving their longtime homeSony/ATV Music Publishing. On the album, the Manics launched their first single \"International Blue\" as a download on 8 December 2017.The second single \"Distant Colours\" was released, also as a download, on 16 February 2018.About the first single the band said that there was certain naive energy and widescreen melancholia on the song that is reflected through the whole album, comparing it to \"Motorcycle Emptiness\". Furthermore, the album focused on \"(...)things that make your life feel a little bit better. Rather than my internalised misery, I tried to put a sense of optimism into the lyrics by writing about things that we find really inspiring.\" Said Wire, taking inspiration fromDavid Bowieand seen as almost an escape and a wave of optimism, just like the previous album was described. On the other hand, \"Distant Colours\" was written by James Dean Bradfield, rather than Nicky Wire, and inspired by disenchantment and Nye Bevan's old Labour. He said: \"Musically, the verse is downcast and melancholic and the chorus is an explosion of disillusionment and tears.\"The third single \"Dylan & Caitlin\" was released as a download on 9 March 2018.The fourth single \"Liverpool Revisited\" is about a magical day in the city, Nicky added that: \"It was on the Everything Must Go (anniversary) tour and I got up really early at sunrise to walk around Liverpool, polaroid camera in hand on a balmy day. It sounds clichéd I know, but Liverpool in the sun does take on a hypnotic quality, with the Mersey and the stone.\"The band also revealed that they were to supportGuns N' Rosesduring their summer tour.The fifth and final single, \"Hold Me Like a Heaven\", was released as a download on 4 May 2018.Wire said that the song was inspired musically byDavid Bowie's \"Ashes to Ashes\", something that the band wanted to write about, and Nicky thinks that this the closest that the band is going to get, sharing also that lyrics were informed by the work ofPhilip Larkin. The album sold around 24,000 copies in the first week, entering theUK Albums Chartat number 2,despite being number 1 during the week.It was the highest new entry on the chart, and on physical sales the album peaked at number 1, both onCDandvinyl. In October 2018, the band announced a twentieth-anniversary collector's edition re-release ofThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours. It was made available on digital, CD, and vinyl, with the CD edition featuring bonus demos, live rehearsal recordings, remixes, and B-sides. The album was launched on 7 December 2018 and to promote it, the band went on tour in Spring and Summer 2019, performing the album in full alongside other content. In March 2020, the Manics announced a deluxe reissue of theirGold Against the Soulalbum for release on 12 June 2020. Bonus content included previously unreleased demos, B-sides from the era, remixes, and a live recording, while the CD was released alongside a book of unseen photographs from the era with handwritten annotations and lyrics from the band.The next day, the unnamed follow-up album toResistance Is Futile, their fourteenth overall, was confirmed toNMEalongside Bradfield's second solo album. The group's album, including a track called \"Orwellian\", was described as \"expansive\" and is due for release in Summer 2021. On 14 May 2021, the Manics announced the title of their fourteenth studio album:The Ultra Vivid Lament.The first single from the album, \"Orwellian\", was released on the same day.\"The Secret He Had Missed\", the second single from the album, was released on 16 July 2021.The Ultra Vivid Lamentwas released on 10 September 2021 and received generally positive reviews from critics: onMetacritic, the album has aweighted averagescore of 78 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".The album sold 27,000 copies in the first week, granting the band their second UK Number 1 album as they narrowly beatStepsto the number 1 spot. In May and June 2022, Manic Street Preachers opened forThe Killersin some of their UK tour dates. In September 2022, the Manics announced a co-headlining tour of United States and Canada withSuedefor November 2022, which would be the first time the two bands would share the stage since they toured Europe together in 1994. On 24 June 2023, the band played theGlastonbury Festival. Speaking to the Other Stage crowd, Nicky Wire said: \"The first time we played was 1994 and it was the four of us, we had the one and only Richard Edwards with us, oh yes, we had a f**king blast. Everything that could go wrong did go wrong, it was f**king fun you know.\" All four band members were honoured with amuralin their hometown of Blackwood in April 2024, designed by street artist Paul Shepherd. Collaborations and covers The band released a split single in 1992 withthe Fatima Mansions, a rock cover of \"Suicide Is Painless\", which became their first UK Top 10 hit.They have recorded many cover versions of songs by other artists, primarily asB-sidesfor their own singles. Bands and artists to whom the group have paid tribute in this way includethe Clash,Guns N' Roses,Alice Cooper,Happy Mondays,McCarthy,Chuck Berry,FacesandNirvana. The band's first musical appearance since Edwards' departure was recording a cover of \"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\" forThe Help Album, a charity effort in 1995 in support of aid efforts in war-tornBosniaandHerzegovina. The Lightning Seeds' song \"Waiting for Today to Happen\", from their fifth album,Dizzy Heights(1996), was written by Nicky Wire andIan Broudie. That same year, James Dean Bradfield andDave EringaproducedNorthern Uproar's first single, \"Rollercoaster/Rough Boys\". The808 Statesong \"Lopez\" (1997) features lyrics by Wire and vocals by Bradfield.It is featured on their greatest hits album,808:88:98.Kylie Minogue's sixth album,Impossible Princess(1997), features two songs co-written and produced by the Manics: \"Some Kind of Bliss\" (Bradfield, Minogue and Sean Moore) and \"I Don't Need Anyone\" (Bradfield, Jones and Minogue) were produced by Bradfield and Dave Eringa.Bradfield provided backing vocals, bass guitar and production for theMassive Attacksong \"Inertia Creeps\" (1998), which features on their successful third album,Mezzanine.Patrick Jones's album of poetry set to music,Commemoration and Amnesia(1999), features two songs with music written by Bradfield: the title track and \"The Guerilla Tapestry\". Bradfield plays the guitar on both songs. Furthermore, the track \"Hiraeth\" features a section called \"Spoken Word\", in which Nicky Wire talks about Welsh identity. In February 2006, the band contributed a cover version of \"The Instrumental\" to the albumStill Unravished: A Tribute to the June Brides. In February 2008, the Manics coveredRihanna's hit pop song \"Umbrella\". Their version appeared on a CD titledNME Awards 2008given away free with a special souvenir box-set issue ofNMEmagazine, which went on sale 27 February. Additionally, the Manics' version of the song was made available oniTunesfrom 5 March 2008.Despite being chart-eligible (it reached number 47 in the UK),the release was not intended as an official single.Two further versions (the Acoustic and Grand Slam mixes) were later made available on iTunes and now comprise a three-trackUmbrella EP. James Dean Bradfield and Nicky Wire contributed an original song, \"The Girl from Tiger Bay\", toShirley Bassey's 2009 studio album,The Performance. Musical style and influences Manic Street Preachers' music has been variously described asalternative rock,Britpop,hard rockglam rock,pop rock,punk metal,andpunk rock. The band have stated thatthe Clashwere \"probably our biggest influence of all\". When they saw them on television, \"we thought it was fantastic and got really excited. They were the catalyst for us\".In addition, they have cited artists includingGuns N' Roses,Alice in Chains,Red Hot Chili Peppers,PiL,Skids,Gang of Four,Sex Pistols,Magazine,Bruce Springsteen,theNew York Dolls,Girls Against Boys,Anna Meredith,Wire,Julia Holter,Rush,Felt,Simple Minds,ABBA,the Associates, andTalk Talkas influences on their music. Bradfield's guitar hero is guitaristJohn McGeoch: \"He taught me, you can have that rock'n'roll swagger, but still build something into it that's really unsettling, and can cut like a razor blade\". Though the band's first albumGeneration Terroristswas mostly politically charged glam-rock mixed with punk influences, their style shifted towards a darker sound onGold Against the Soul. WhenThe Holy Biblewas released, the Manic Street Preachers had incorporatedpost-punkinto their musical style, starting many songs on the album with either recordings of interviews or quotes, or clean, reverberated guitar sounds before abruptly changing tempo and engaging distortion. AfterEdwards' disappearance in 1995, the bands sound has become less dissonant and more appealing to a broader mainstream audience. Following albums have been described as string driven and slower-paced than their early work. Alluding to the band's early relationship with Britpop, Cam Lindsay of Canadian music publicationExclaim!opined that \"Britpop was rising, the Manics were offering the polar opposite: a bleak, uncompromising work that wanted nothing to do with the party\". Members Current members Former members Current touring musicians Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Best Art Vinyl Awards TheBest Art Vinyl Awardsare yearly awards established in 2005 by Art Vinyl Ltd to celebrate the best album artwork of the past year. NME Awards TheNME Awardsis an annual music award show in the United Kingdom. Q Awards TheQ Awardsare the UK's annual music awards run by the music magazineQ. Žebřík Music Awards References Sources External links"
] | [
"Millennium Stadium TheMillennium Stadium(Welsh:Stadiwm y Mileniwm), known since 2016 as thePrincipality Stadium(Welsh:Stadiwm Principality) for sponsorship reasons, is thenational stadiumofWales. Located inCardiff, it is the home of theWales national rugby union teamand has also heldWales national football teamgames. Initially built to host the1999 Rugby World Cupand replacing theNational Stadium, it has gone on to host many other large-scale events, such as theTsunami Relief Cardiffconcert, theSuper Special StageofWales Rally Great Britain, theSpeedway Grand Prix of Great Britainandvarious concerts. It also hostedFA Cup,League CupandFootball League play-offfinals whileWembley Stadiumwas being redeveloped between 2001 and 2006, as well as football matches during the2012 Summer Olympics. The stadium is owned by Millennium Stadium plc, asubsidiary companyof theWelsh Rugby Union(WRU).The architects wereBligh Lobb Sports Architecture. The structural engineers wereWS Atkinsand the building contractor wasLaing. The",
"wasLaing. The total construction cost of the stadium was£121 million,of which theMillennium Commissionfunded £46 million. The Millennium Stadium opened in June 1999and its first major event was an internationalrugby unionmatch on 26 June 1999, whenWalesbeatSouth Africain atest matchby 29–19 before a crowd of 29,000.With a totalseating capacityof 73,931, it is the largest stadium in Wales and the fourth largest (and second largest outsideLondon) in theUnited Kingdomby total capacity. In addition, it is the third-largest stadium in theSix Nations Championshipbehind theStade de FranceandTwickenham. It is also the second-largest stadium in the world with a fullyretractable roofand was the second stadium in Europe to have this feature.Listed as acategory four stadiumbyUEFA, the stadium was chosen as the venue for the2017 UEFA Champions League Final, which took place on 3 June 2017.In 2015, the Welsh Rugby Union announced a 10-year sponsorship deal with thePrincipality Building Societythat saw the stadium renamed",
"the stadium renamed as the \"Principality Stadium\" from early 2016. History Background Until 1969,Cardiff RFCandWalesboth played their home matches on the same pitch atCardiff Arms Park, but all this changed in the 1969–70 season.As a result of an agreement betweenCardiff Athletic Cluband the WRU, theNational Stadiumproject established that a new stadium for international matches and events was required, with Cardiff RFC moving to a new, purpose-built stadium on the original cricket ground at the site of the former Cardiff Arms Park stadium.By 7 April 1984 the National Stadium was officially opened. However, in 1994, a committee was set up to consider redeveloping the National Stadium, and by 1995 the WRU had been chosen to host the 1999 Rugby World Cup. In 1995, the National Stadium, which was designed in 1962,only had a capacity of 53,000; other nations' stadia, such asTwickenham(England) with a capacity of 75,000, andMurrayfield Stadium(Scotland) with a capacity of 67,000, had overtaken it. France was also",
"it. France was also about to build theStade de France, which would have a capacity of more than 80,000 for the1998 FIFA World Cup.The original capacity of the National Stadium was 65,000, but this had been reduced to 53,000, due to theTaylor Report. 11,000 of 53,000 capacity was on the EastTerraceand the conversion to anall-seater stadiumwould have reduced the stadium capacity still further to just 47,500. In addition to the problems of capacity, the National Stadium was also very well hidden by the neighbouring buildings to the south in Park Street, Wood Street and to the east in Westgate Street, and also by Cardiff Rugby Ground in the north. It was only fully visible from across theRiver Taffin the west. Access to the ground was also very restricted with the main entrance being a narrow opening in Westgate Street to the east which was shared by both vehicles and spectators alike. The options for the new stadium included adding a third tier to the existing National Stadium, or moving to a new site. This",
"to a new site. This last option was discounted because it would have required a vast car parking facility, and that would have put severe short-term pressures on the local transport infrastructure, creating traffic jams and pollution.The committee eventually chose a new stadium on the same site but with considerable increase in its capacity. It would also involve moving the alignment of the stadium from west–east to north–south. This was the option supported by theMillennium Commission. It would become the fourth redevelopment of the Cardiff Arms Park site.It was also decided that the new stadium should have a sliding roof to accommodate a multi-use venue, with a grass pitch for rugby and football.The only other sliding roofs in Europe at the time were at two Dutch stadia – theAmsterdam Arena, completed in 1996 with a capacity of 50,000;andGelredomeinArnhem, a 30,000-capacity ground built from 1996 to 1998. To remain on the Arms Park site, additional space had to be found to allow safe access and to provide",
"and to provide room for the increased capacity and improved facilities. This was achieved by the purchase of adjacent buildings to the south and east and by the construction of a new £6 million River Walk by theRiver Taffon the western side of the stadium. By 1999, the Millennium Stadium had replaced the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park, as the national stadium of Wales for rugby union and association football international matches. Cardiff RFC continued as before to play at Cardiff Arms Park rugby ground, which had replaced the cricket ground in 1969. Construction The stadium was designed by a team led by Rod Sheard at Lobb Sport Architecture,who later merged withHOK Sportto becomePopulous. The building contractor wasLaingand the structural engineers were WS Atkins. Mike Otlet of WS Atkins designed the stadium's retractable roof,which was constructed by Kelsey Roofing Industries.Cimolai S.p.A. from Italy fabricated and erected the 72 steel plane frames for the stands and all the 4,500 components of the",
"components of the roof. Construction involved the demolition of a number of buildings, primarily the existing National Stadium (Cardiff Arms Park),Wales Empire Pool(swimming pool) in Wood Street, Cardiff Empire Telephone Exchange building (owned byBT) in Park Street, the newly builtTerritorial Auxiliary & Volunteer Reservebuilding in Park Street, and theSocial Securityoffices in Westgate Street. The stadium was built by Laing in 1999 on the site of the National Stadium, with the head of construction being Steve Ager.It was built for the1999 Rugby World Cup, for which Wales was the main host,with seven of the 41 matches, including the final, being played at the stadium. The total construction cost of the stadium was £121 million,which was funded by private investment and £46 million of public funds from the Millennium Commission,the sale ofdebenturesto supporters (which offered guaranteed tickets in exchange for an interest-free loan) and loans. The development left the WRU heavily in debt. The Millennium",
"The Millennium Stadium was named as such in recognition of the Millennium Commission's contribution to the building. The stadium was first used for a major event on 26 June 1999, when Wales played South Africa in a rugby union test match before a crowd of 29,000. Wales won 29–19: the first time they had ever beaten the Springboks. 2016 renaming On 8 September 2015 it was announced that the Millennium Stadium would be renamed Principality Stadium as the result of a 10-year naming rights deal with thePrincipality Building Society.Some fans expressed opposition on social media. On 22 January 2016, the Millennium Stadium was officially renamed as the Principality Stadium.The new name, written bilingually (\"Stadiwm Principality Stadium\") and covering 114 square metres (1,230 sq ft) of the upper stadium, was lit up at a special evening ceremony, to be followed by a festival to encourage grassroots rugby.The change of name also meant a change of logo for the Millennium Stadium. There were three designs shortlisted,",
"shortlisted, and a panel, which included the former Wales international captainRyan Jonesand staff and members of the WRU and Principality Building Society, chose the final design.A spokesperson for the WRU said: \"The new stadium logo takes its inspiration from the venue's iconic architecture; four spires, curved frontage and fully retractable roof.\" Features The all-seater stadium has the capacity for 74,500 supporters and features a retractable roof, only the second stadium of its type in Europe, and the largest football stadium in the world with this feature, by capacity.Additional seating is sometimes added for special events such as a rugby Test against the New ZealandAll Blacks, or for theFA Cup Final. The current record attendance is set at just over 78,000, recorded at theAnthony JoshuavCarlos Takamfight, on 28 October 2017, in which Joshua successfully retained his WBA, IBF and IBO titles. The natural grass turf was made up of a modular system installed byGreenTech ITM.It features built in",
"features built in irrigation and drainage. The pitch itself was laid on top of some 7,412 pallets that could be moved so the stadium could be used for concerts, exhibitions and other events. In May 2014, after much trouble with disease and stability, the surface was removed and replaced with a more resilient interwoven sand basedDessopitch. The four ends of the ground are called the North Stand, the West Stand, the South Stand and the BT Stand (east).The South Stand was previously known as the Hyder Stand,untilHyderwas sold. The stadium has three tiers of seating with the exception of the North Stand, which has two tiers. The lower tier holds 23,154 spectators, the middle tier holding 15,626 and the upper tier holding 35,151 spectators. The stadium was slightly restricted in size due to its proximity to Cardiff Rugby Club's home in the adjacent smaller stadium within Cardiff Arms Park. The WRU were unable to secure enough funding to include the North Stand in the new stadium and theMillennium Commissionwould",
"Commissionwould not allow any of its funds to be used in any way for the construction of a new stadium for Cardiff RFC.The WRU held talks withCardiff RFCto see if it would be possible for the club to either move or secure funding for theCardiff Arms Parkto be re-developed, but these were unsuccessful. The stadium thus had to be completed with a break in its bowl structure in the North Stand, known colloquially as Glanmor's Gap, afterGlanmor Griffiths, then chairman of the WRU and now a former president. Thesuperstructureof the stadium is based around four 90.3-metre (296 ft) masts. The stadium was built from 56,000 tonnes of concrete and steel, and has 124 hospitality suites and 7 hospitality lounges,22 bars, 7 restaurants, 17 first aid points, 12 escalators and 7 lifts.The stadium has 7 gates for access to the site; Gate 1 is from the River Walk via Castle Street (to the north), Gates 2 and 3 are via Westgate Street (to the east), Gate 4 which was renamed Gatland's Gate (Welsh:Gât Gatland) in honour",
"Gatland) in honour ofWarren Gatlandin November 2019, is for team-coaches, celebrity limousines and other uses via Westgate Street,Gate 5 is via Park Street (to the south) and Gates 6 and 7 are via the Millennium Plaza (also to the south). Any future renovation to the stadium will involve replacing the old North Stand of the former National Stadium with a new one similar to the three existing stands of the new Millennium Stadium. This will make the stadium bowl-shaped and will increase its capacity to around 80,000. It will resolve the existing problems of deteriorating concrete quality on the old structure in the north stand.However the WRU has been more resistant to the proposal in recent years, stating that the concrete has not been deteriorating in recent years meaning the cost of replacing Glanmor's Gap would not justify the limited increase in capacity it would provide. In each of the stadium's bars, so-called \"joy machines\" can pour 12 pints in less than 20 seconds. During a Wales versus France match,",
"France match, 63,000 fans drank 77,184 pints of beer, almost double the 44,000 pints drunk by a similar number of fans at a game atTwickenham.The stadium has a residenthawknamed \"Dad\", who is employed to drive seagulls and pigeons out of the stadium. In 2005 the stadium installed an \"Arena Partition Drape System\" – a 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m × 35 m (30 ft × 115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1 million cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, theMillennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the thenWales Tourist Board.The curtain was supplied by Blackout. In May 2015, the chairman of the WRU,Gareth Davies, announced that the stadium would be fitted with new seats, replacing the original seats from 1999 at a cost of £4 million",
"cost of £4 million to £5 million, which would be completed by 2018. In addition a new £3.1 million Desso hybrid pitch will beinstalled. In February 2019, the stadium increased its disabled capacity from 168 to 214 at a cost of around £100,000. As a result, the overall capacity of the stadium was reduced from 74,500 to 73,931. Statue of Sir Tasker Watkins A statue of SirTasker Watkins, the former WRU president between 1993 and 2004, was commissioned to stand outside Gate 3 of the stadium. The bronze statue, 9 feet (2.7 m) tall, was sculpted byLlantwit Majorbased sculptor Roger Andrews. TheWelsh Governmentcontributed £50,000, as didCardiff Council.It was officially unveiled on 15 November 2009 by his daughter, Lady Mair Griffith-Williams. Usage As well as international rugby union and association football, the Millennium Stadium has hosted a variety of sports, including,rugby league(including theChallenge CupFinal on three occasions between 2003 and 2005, the opening ceremony of the2013 Rugby League World",
"Rugby League World CupandWelsh Rugby League internationals),speedway,boxing, theWales Rally Great Britainstage of theWorld Rally Championship,Monster Jamandindoor cricket. The indoor cricket match between The Brits and a Rest of the World team for the Pertemps Power Cricket Cup, which took place on 4 and 5 October 2002. Rugby union The stadium is the home of theWelsh rugby union team, who play all of their home fixtures at the venue. These games include those during theSix Nations, as well as theAutumn Internationalsagainst nations from theSouthern Hemisphere. Apart from the national team, the stadium has also hosted theEuropean Rugby Champions Cupfinals on five occasions. In total, the site, including theNational Stadium, has hosted the final of the European Rugby Champions Cup on seven occasions. The stadium has also been used forCeltic Leaguegames, and the semi-finals of theAnglo-Welsh Cupin2006and2007. Since 2013, the Millennium Stadium has hostedJudgement Day, a double-header between the four",
"between the four WelshUnited Rugby Championshipteams. The 2016 edition had 68,262 spectators, the highest in the history of the league. The stadium hosted the first match in the2005 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealandwhen they drew 25–25 againstArgentinain a warm-up test match. Welsh Varsity rugby matches On 30 March 2011, the stadium hosted theWelsh Varsityrugby match for the first time in the history of the match between the senior teams ofCardiff UniversityandSwansea University. The stadium is used alternating years withLiberty Stadiumin Swansea. The Welsh Varsity event celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2016. Rugby World Cup The Welsh Rugby Union hosted the1999 Rugby World Cupwith the Final being played at the stadium. The stadium also hosted 3 pool matches and 1 quarter-final match (New Zealand 18–20 France) of the2007 Rugby World Cup. On 15 October 2011, the stadium was open toWelsh Rugby Unionfans free of charge, providing that they wear red so that they could watch a live screening of the2011",
"of the2011 Rugby World Cupsemi-final betweenWalesandFrancethat was played atEden Park,Auckland, New Zealand. The match was screened on the stadium's existing large screens, on all of their television screens and on a screen that was brought in for the occasion. The same was done for theBronze FinalbetweenWalesandAustraliawhich saw Wales defeated and take fourth place. The stadium hosted six pool matches, including two featuring Wales, and two quarter-final matches during the2015 Rugby World Cup. Rugby league The stadium first hostedrugby leaguefootball during the2000 World Cup: a double header featuringCook IslandsversusLebanonandWalesversusNew Zealandthat attracted a crowd of 17,612. It was again used as Wales' home ground during the2002 New Zealand rugby league tour of Great Britain and Francewhen they again hosted the Kiwis this time attracting 8,746 spectators. The Stadium has hosted threeChallenge CupFinals, which are usually played at Wembley, from 2003 to 2005. In2003theBradford Bullsdefeated theLeeds",
"theLeeds Rhinos22–20 in front of 71,212 fans.St. HelensdefeatedWigan36–16 in2004in front of 73,734 fans, whileHull F.C.defeated Leeds 25–24 in2005in front of 74,213 fans, the largest rugby league crowd at the stadium. Also, in 2007 the stadium hosted the inauguralMillennium Magicweekend. This was a two-day event in May when an entire round ofSuper Leaguematches were played, three games on the Saturday and three games on the Sunday. The event was deemed a success by the sport's governing body, theRFL, and second Millennium Magic event took place in May 2008, although the 2009 and 2010 events were held at Murrayfield Stadium and were renamed Magic Weekend. In 2011, Magic Weekend moved back to Cardiff with the opening round of Super League being played. On 26 October 2013, the Millennium Stadium hosted the opening ceremony and the first two fixtures of the2013 Rugby League World Cup: a double-header featuring Wales againstItalyandEnglandagainst title favourites and eventual tournament championsAustralia.This",
"double header produced an overall attendance of 45,052, which is an international rugby league record at the stadium. Association football From 2000 to 2009, the stadium was the almost-permanent home of Welsh football. Thenationalteam played the vast majority of home matches at the Millennium Stadium, with a handful offriendly matchesonce or twice a year at theRacecourse Ground, WrexhamorLiberty Stadium, Swansea.The first Welsh football game at the stadium was played against Finland in 2000,and drew a then-record home crowd for Welsh football of over 66,000.This has since been beaten on several occasions. However, since 2010, the majority of home games have been played at the smallerCardiff City Stadium, the home ofCardiff City.Wales have only played at the stadium twice since 2009; in 2011 againstEnglandand in 2018 againstSpain. While the Millennium Stadium was under construction, the originalWembley Stadiumhad hosted the Welsh rugby team during the building of the new ground. The favour was returned from",
"was returned from 2001 while the newWembley Stadiumwas being built,with the Millennium hosting: The stadium became notorious for an apparent \"away team hoodoo\"; the first 11 major cup finals were all won by the teams occupying the home dressing room.Stoke City beat Brentford 2–0 in 2002 to end the \"hoodoo\", after Paul Darby carried out afeng shuiblessing. Liverpoolwere the first team to win theFA Cupat the Millennium Stadium in 2001 after beatingArsenal2–1.They were also the first team to win theLeague Cupat the Stadium, defeatingBirmingham Cityin apenalty shoot-outearlier that year.In 2003, Liverpool won theLeague Cupfor the seventh time in their history thanks to a 2–0 win over Manchester United in the final at the stadium. Liverpool also won thelast FA Cup Finalat the Millennium Stadium in 2006, beatingWest Ham United3–1 in a penalty shoot-out that followed a 3–3 draw afterextra timein what was billed as 'the best cup final of the modern era'. The Football League Third Division play-offs in 2003 sawAFC",
"in 2003 sawAFC BournemouthbeatLincoln City5–2. In this game, Bournemouth set a new record for the most goals scored by one team in a single match at the stadium. This record has since been matched but not beaten.The last domestic cup match played was whenDoncaster RoversbeatBristol Rovers3–2 after extra time in theFootball League TrophyFinal on 1 April 2007. In 2001, theFootball Association of Wales(FAW) confirmed that they had bid to host the2003 UEFA Champions League Final. The stadium had recently been rated as a five-star stadium byUEFA, making it one of the favorites to host the match,but the final was eventually awarded toOld Trafford, the home ofManchester United. It was suggested that the stadium would have been one of the venues of a proposedUEFA Euro 2016championship hosted jointly by Wales andScotland.However, the bid did not reach the formal UEFA selection stage, having been abandoned by the Welsh and Scottish Football Associations for financial reasons.In April 2014, the FAW did submit a formal",
"did submit a formal bid to host three group matches and either a round of 16 match or a quarter-final atEuro 2020, which UEFA planned to host at 13 venues across Europe.When the host venues were voted on in September 2014, the Millennium Stadium lost out by a single vote behind Glasgow'sHampden Park, a decision that FAW chief executive Jonathan Ford put down to UEFA politics.The stadium, however, would be selected forUEFA Euro 2028. On 30 June 2015, the Millennium Stadium was chosen as the venue for the2017 UEFA Champions League Final.UEFA rules meant it could not be branded as the Principality Stadium during the event, resulting in all titles and logos – as well as those of other non-UEFA sponsors – being covered or removed for the duration.The game was played on 3 June 2017 between Italian clubJuventusand Spanish clubReal Madrid, in a repeat of the1998 final; Real Madrid won the match 4–1. When London was selected as the host city for the2012 Summer Olympics, the Millennium Stadium was named as one of the",
"named as one of the six venues for thefootball competition.It had the distinction of hosting the opening event of the Games – a 1–0 win for theGreat Britain women's teamagainstNew Zealand– as well as four other group games and a quarter-final in the women's tournament, and three group games, a quarter-final and the bronze medal match in the men's. Boxing There have been five nights of boxing at the stadium.On 8 July 2006 whenMatt SkeltonbeatDanny Williamsfor the Commonwealth heavyweight title.On 7 April 2007,Joe CalzaghebeatPeter Manfredoto retain hisWBOsuper middleweight belt.On 3 November 2007,Calzaghe beat Mikkel Kesslerto retain his WBO super middleweight belt and win theWBAandWBCsuper middleweight titles. On 28 October 2017Anthony Joshuasuccessfully retained his WBA (Super),IBFandIBOheavyweight titles againstmandatory challengerCarlos Takamwith a 10th round stoppage. On 31 March 2018, it hosted the World heavyweight unification fight between Anthony Joshua, holder of theWBAand IBF belts, andJoseph",
"belts, andJoseph Parker, holder of theWBObelt.Joshua beat Parkeron points. Motorsports In 2001, it staged its first ever motorsport event, hosting theSpeedway Grand Prix of Great Britain, and has done so every year since, attracting a record crowd of 44,150 in 2010.The temporarymotorcycle speedwaytrack is 278 metres (304 yards) in length and with sections of the stadiums lower seating bowl covered, the capacity of the stadium for the Grand Prix is set at 62,500. In September 2005 the stadium was host to the first ever indoor stage of theWorld Rally Championshipduring theWales Rally Great Britain. The lower tier of the stadium was removed to create a figure-of-eight course.In addition to this, the stadium has also hostedSupercrossevents.In October 2007, the stadium first hosted the UK leg of theMonster Jamtrucks Europe tour, and returned in June 2008, again in 2009, 2010, 2016, 2018 and 2019. Film The stadium has been used on numerous occasions as a venue for shooting film and television productions. Scenes",
"productions. Scenes from the 2001 Hindi filmKabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...were filmed there. Between 2004 and 2011, the stadium was used several times as a filming location for episodes of theBBCscience fiction televisionseriesDoctor Who.The 2005 episode \"Dalek\" was shot primarily on location at the stadium,using its underground areas to represent a bunker inUtah, US, in the year 2012. The location shooting for the episode took place during October and November 2004. The underground areas of the stadium were used again in August 2005 to film Mission Control scenes for theDoctor WhoChristmas special, \"The Christmas Invasion\",and again the following year to film scenes in the underground corridors of Torchwood in \"The Runaway Bride\" episode, broadcast on Christmas Day 2006.Shots of the Stormcage Facility in whichRiver Songis incarcerated in series 5 and 6 ofDoctor Whoare also in the stadium, filmed between October 2010 and January 2011. The stadium has also been used as a location for the filming of Doctor Who",
"of Doctor Who spin-offThe Sarah Jane Adventures. The 2010 story, \"Death of the Doctor\", included corridor scenes for theUNITheadquarters that were filmed underground at the Millennium Stadium. TheWembley Stadiumscene in the film28 Weeks Laterwas actually filmed at the Millennium Stadium. Although the outside is footage of Wembley, the inside is all filmed in Cardiff. The visual effects team on the film edited the footage to make it look more like Wembley. Sébastien Foucanjumped over the gap of the opening of the stadium roof in theparkourdocumentary \"Jump Britain\". Eventing The inauguralExpress Eventing International Cuptook place at the stadium on 30 November 2008. The three-event competition made up ofdressage,cross-countryandshow jumpingall took place over the one day. The event was won byOliver Townend. Concerts The stadium has also been used for a variety of musical events, including theManic Street Preachersconcert held onMillenniumEve,and, on the following day, a recording of theBBC'sSongs of Praise,",
"of Praise, which attracted an attendance of 60,000.Tina Turnerperformed a sold-out concert at the stadium during her highly successfulTwenty Four Seven Tourin 2000.Welsh rockersStereophonicshave played two sold-out shows at the stadium: In July 2001 as part of their two-day \"A Day at the Races\" festival which would later be released to DVD and in 2003, shortly after the departure of the lateStuart Cable. American rock bandBon Joviplayed the venue during theOne Wild Night Tourin 2001.At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted atsunami relief concertin aid of the victims of the2004 Indian Ocean earthquakeandtsunami, withEric Claptonheadlining the event.The stadium has also been host toMadonnaon two occasions, the first in July 2006 when she opened the UK leg of herConfessions Tour,and most recently in August 2008 when she kicked off herSticky & Sweet Tourat the stadium.Other performers who have played at the stadium includeRobbie Williamsas part of hisWeddings, Barmitzvahs & Stadiums Tour,U2as part of",
"Tour,U2as part of theirVertigo Tour,Red Hot Chili Peppersas part of theirBy the Way tour,The Rolling Stonesas part of theirA Bigger Bang Tour,R.E.M.as part of theirMonstertour and again for theirAround the Suntour. Paul McCartneyalso played at the stadium as part of hisUp and Coming Tour,andThe Policeperformed there as part of theirReunion Tour.In late 2005,Oasisplayed at the stadium during theirDon't Believe the Truth Tourand again on theirDig Out Your Soul Tourin 2009.In 2008, the stadium hostedNeil DiamondandBruce Springsteenwith theE Street Bandas part of theirMagic Tour,On 22 August 2009, U2 again played at the stadium, as part of their European leg of theirU2 360° Tour,playing to a record-breaking concert attendance of 73,354.On 17 May 2023,Beyoncéperformed at the stadium as part of herRenaissance World Tour.Taylor Swiftplayed at the stadium on 18 June 2024 as part ofThe Eras Tour.In 2024, it was announcedOasiswould play at the stadium on the 4th and 5th of July 2025 as part of their UK and Ireland",
"UK and Ireland Reunion tour. Conferences The stadium offersconferencing facilitiesvia the foodservice organisationCompass Group.The facilities consist of six individually designed lounges and 124 pitch-facing executive box suites. In addition to business events, the facilities are also available for dinners, banquets, balls, parties and weddings receptions. Temporary hospital On 28 March 2020 it was announced that the stadium was to be converted at a cost of £8 million into a temporary field hospital to accommodate up to 2000 patients of theCOVID-19 pandemic, at the same time as theExcel Centre, London,NEC, Birmingham, and theManchester Central Convention Complex.By the weekend of 11–12 April 2020, it had a capacity of 330 beds. Professional wrestling On 12 April 2022, Americanprofessional wrestlingcompanyWWEannounced that it would hold a major event at Millennium Stadium on 3 September, and opened pre-registration for tickets. The event was announced as being WWE's largest show in the UK sinceSummerSlamat",
"sinceSummerSlamat theoriginal Wembley Stadiumin 1992.On 29 April 2022, it was announced that the event would be titledClash at the Castle, in reference to nearbyCardiff Castle.The event attracted over 59,000 ticket pre-sale registrations, a company record. See also Notes References External links",
"List of concerts at the Millennium Stadium Concerts have been held at theMillennium StadiuminCardiff,Wales, since the stadium's opening in 1999. The musicians who have played at the stadium includeTina Turner,Beyoncé,Spice Girls,The Rolling Stones,Rod Stewart,Paul McCartney,MadonnaandRihanna. The highest concert audience at the stadium was 73,354, who sawU2in 2009.In 2018Ed Sheeranperformed for a record-breaking 4 nights at the Stadium on his÷ Tour.The stadium's total seating capacity for sporting events is 73,434. History The first concert held was onNew Year's Eve1999 when theManic Street Preachersheadlined Manic Millennium, followed two days later by a concert for theBBC'sSongs of Praiseprogramme, withCliff Richardperforming his UK number-one single \"The Millennium Prayer\". This event attracted an attendance of 66,000. During 2003, the stadium established a new in-house promotions and events department to attract major concerts to the stadium, taking over from SJM Concerts. The stadium's General Manager",
"General Manager Paul Sergeant at the time said of the change, \"We looked at the current way our business was run, (and) realized that if we do it ourselves and have direct contact with the event owners and promoters...we will be able to offer an improved service\". At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted aTsunami Relief Cardiff, a tsunami relief concert, in aid of victims of the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, withEric Claptonheadlining the event. On 22 August 2009, U2 played at the stadium as part of their European leg of theirU2 360° Tour, playing to a record-breaking concert attendance for a concert at the stadium of 73,354. In 2005 the stadium installed an \"Arena Partition Drape System\" – a 1,100 kg black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m (30 ft) x 35 m (115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1m cost",
"use. The £1m cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, theMillennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the thenWales Tourist Board.The curtain was supplied by Blackout Ltd. It was feared that music concerts and sporting events would take business away from local shops. However, David Hughes Lewis, chairman of Cardiff Retail Partnership, said in 2005 that \"Despite initial concerns that major events in the Millennium Stadium hit trading in the shops, it now believed such events had a positive impact...When people come to Cardiff for the concerts, they more often than not arrive the night before and they'll spend the morning shopping\". Concerts See also Notes External links Media related toConcerts at the Millennium Stadiumat Wikimedia Commons",
"Manic Street Preachers Manic Street Preachers, also known simply asthe Manics, are a Welshrockband formed inBlackwood, Caerphilly, in 1986. The band consists ofNicky Wire(bass guitar, lyrics) and cousinsJames Dean Bradfield(lead vocals, lead guitar) andSean Moore(drums, percussion, soundscapes). They form a key part of the 1990s WelshCool Cymrucultural movement. Following the release of their debut single \"Suicide Alley\" in 1988, Manic Street Preachers became a quartet with the addition ofRichey Edwardsas co-lyricist and rhythm guitarist. The band's early albums were in apunkvein, eventually broadening to a greateralternative rocksound.Their early combination of androgynousglamimagery and lyrics about \"culture, alienation, boredom and despair\" gained them a loyal following. Manic Street Preachers' first charting single was \"Motown Junk\" in 1991, followed by their debut album,Generation Terrorists, in February 1992. The band's next two albums wereGold Against the Soulin 1993 andThe Holy Biblein 1994,the latter",
"1994,the latter being the last album with Edwards, who disappeared in February 1995 and was legallypresumed deadin 2008.The band continued as a trio, and achieved commercial success with the albumsEverything Must Go(1996) andThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours(1998). The Manics have headlined festivals includingGlastonbury,T in the Park,V FestivalandReading, winning elevenNME Awards, eightQ Awardsand fourBRIT Awards.They were nominated for theMercury Prizein 1996 and 1999, and have had one nomination for theMTV Europe Music Awards. The band has sold more than ten million albums worldwide.The Manics have two number-one singles in the UK charts: \"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\" (1998) and \"The Masses Against the Classes\" (2000), as well as two number-one albums:This Is My Truth Tell Me YoursandThe Ultra Vivid Lament(2021).From 1991 to 2010, the band recorded 33 consecutive top 40 singles in the UK. History Formation and early years (1986–1991) Manic Street Preachers formed in 1986 atOakdale",
"in 1986 atOakdale Comprehensive School,Blackwood,South Wales, which all the band members attended.Bradfield and the slightly older Moore are cousins and shared bunk beds in the Bradfield family home after Moore's parents divorced. During the band's early years, Bradfield, alongside the classically trained Moore, primarily wrote the music while Wire focused on the lyrics. Some of their earliest performances were held at theBlackwood Miners Welfare Institutein the town.The origin of the band's name remains unclear, but the most often-told story relates that Bradfield while busking one day inCardiff, got into an altercation with someone (sometimes said to be a homeless man)who asked him \"What are you, boyo, some kind of manic street preacher?\" Original bassist Flicker (Miles Woodward) left the band in early 1988, reportedly because he believed that the band were moving away from their punk roots.The band continued as a three-piece, with Wire switching from guitar to bass,and in 1988 they released their first",
"their first single, \"Suicide Alley\". Despite its recording quality, this single provides an early insight into both Bradfield's guitar work and Moore's live drumming.The Manics intended to restore revolution torock and rollat a time when Britain was dominated byshoegazeand acid house.TheNMEgave \"Suicide Alley\" an enthusiastic review, citing a press release by Richey Edwards: \"We are as far away from anything in the '80s as possible.\" After the release of \"Suicide Alley,\" Edwards joined the band on rhythm guitar and contributed to lyrics alongside Wire. Edwards also designed record sleeves and artwork and drove the band to and from gigs. In 1990 the Manic Street Preachers signed a deal with labelDamaged Goods Recordsfor oneEP. The four-trackNew Art Riot E.P.attracted as much media interest for its attacks on fellow musicians as for the actual music.With the help of Hall or Nothing management, the Manics signed toindielabelHeavenly Records. The band recorded their first single for the label, entitled \"Motown",
"entitled \"Motown Junk\". Their next single, \"You Love Us\", sampledKrzysztof Penderecki's \"Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima\" as well asIggy Pop. The video featured Nicky Wire indragasMarilyn Monroeand contained visual references to the filmBetty Blueand toAleister Crowley. On 15 May 1991, during an interview with then-NMEjournalistSteve Lamacqfollowing a gig at Norwich Arts Centre, Edwards carved the phrase \"4REAL\" into his arm with a razor blade in a bid to prove the sincerity of the band.He was taken to hospital and received seventeen stitches.NMEsubsequently ran a full-page story on the incident, including a phone interview with Richey on his motivations for doing it. A recording of the editorial meeting discussing whether or not they could publish the image was included as a b-side on the band's 1992 charity singleTheme from M.A.S.H. (Suicide Is Painless), featuring Lamacq, the then-editor ofNMEDanny KellyandJames Brown(who went on to editLoadedand the British version ofGQ). As a result of their",
"a result of their controversial behaviour, the Manics quickly became favourites of the British music press, which helped them build a dedicated following.Columbia RecordsofSony Music UKsigned the band shortly afterwards and they began work on their debut album. Richey Edwards era:Generation TerroriststoThe Holy Bible(1992–1995) The band's debut album,Generation Terrorists, was released in 1992 on theColumbia Recordsimprint. The record contained six singles and sold 250,000 copies.The liner notes contained a literary quote for each of the album's eighteen songs and the album lasted just over seventy minutes. The album's lyrics are politicised like those ofthe ClashandPublic Enemy,with the album's songs regularly switching from a critical focus on globalcapitalismto more personal tales of despair and the struggles of youth. Other tracks combine personal and political themes; \"Nat West-Barclays-Midlands-Lloyds\" was written as a critique of overseas banking credit policies, but also concernedRichey Edwards'",
"Edwards' issues involving overdrafts and refused loans.The single \"Motorcycle Emptiness\", meanwhile, criticisesconsumerismas a \"shallow dream\"that makes human life overtly commercialised.\"Little Baby Nothing\", a duet betweenTraci Lordsand Bradfield, was described by Priya Elan of theNMEas a \"perfect snapshot of innocence bodysnatched and twisted\". The band also made a cover version of the song \"Suicide Is Painless\" which peaked at number 7 in the UK charts, spending 3 weeks in the Top 10, and giving the band their first ever Top 10 hit single. The group's second album,Gold Against the Soul, had a more commercial,grungysound. It was released to mixed reviews but performed well, reaching number eight in the UK album chart. The band stated that the choice to work withDave Eringaagain was important for this album.The band have describedGold Against the Soulas their least favourite album and the period surrounding the album as being the most unfocused of their career. The band's vocalist and guitaristJames Dean",
"guitaristJames Dean Bradfieldhas said \"All we wanted to do was go under the corporate wing. We thought we could ignore it but you do get affected.\" By early 1994, Edwards' difficultiesbecame worse and began to affect the other band members as well as himself.He was admitted intoThe Prioryin 1994 to overcome his problems and the band played a few festivals as a three-piece to pay for his treatment.During one such three-piece performance at Reading '94, James played Richey's black Gibson as a mark of respect (although James later commented that he regretted playing Richey's guitar). The group's next album,The Holy Bible, was released in August to critical acclaim, but sold poorly. The album displayed yet another musical and aesthetic change for the band, largely featuring army/navy uniforms. Musically,The Holy Biblemarks a shift from themodern rocksound of their first two albums,Generation TerroristsandGold Against the Soul.In addition to the album'salternative rocksound the album incorporates various elements",
"various elements from other musical genres, such ashard rock,British punk,post-punk,new wave,industrial,art rockandgothic rock. Lyrically the album deals with subjects including prostitution, Americanconsumerism, Britishimperialism,freedom of speech,the Holocaust,serial killers, thedeath penalty, political revolution, childhood,fascismand suicide.According toQ: \"the tone of the album is by turns bleak, angry and resigned\".There was also an element of autobiographic subjects, like in the song \"4st 7lb\" where the lyrics clearly tackle Richey's own experience with anorexia. The song was named after 4stones7pounds, or 63 pounds (29 kg), because it is the weight below which death is saidto be medically unavoidable for an anorexic sufferer. The title \"The Holy Bible\" was chosen by Edwards to reflect an idea, according to Bradfield, that \"everything on there has to be perfection\".Interviewed at the end of 1994, Edwards said: \"The way religions choose to speak their truth to the public has always been to beat them",
"been to beat them down I think that if a Holy Bible is true, it should be about the way the world is and that's what I think my lyrics are about. doesn't pretend things don't exist\". In support of the album the band appeared onTop of the Pops, performing its first single, \"Faster\", which reached No. 16. The performance was extremely controversial at the time, as the band were all dressed in army regalia. Bradfield wore a \"terrorist-style\"balaclava. At the time, the band was told by theBBCthat they had received the most complaints ever.The album eventually has sold over 600,000 copies worldwide. In April and May 1994 the band first performed songs fromThe Holy Bibleat concerts in Thailand and Portugal and at a benefit concert for theAnti-Nazi LeagueatBrockwell Park, London.In June, they played theGlastonbury Festival.In July and August, without Richey Edwards, they playedT in the Parkin Scotland, the Alte Wartesaal inCologne, theParkpopFestival inThe Hagueand theReading Festival.During September, October",
"September, October and December there was a headline tour of the UK and Ireland and two tours in mainland Europe withSuedeandTherapy?.In December, three nights at theLondon Astoriaended with the band smashing up their equipment and the venue's lighting rig, causing £26,000 worth of damage. The disappearance of Richey Edwards Edwards disappeared on 1 February 1995, on the day when he andJames Dean Bradfieldwere due to fly to the US on a promotional tour.In the two weeks before his disappearance, Edwards withdrew £200 a day from his bank account, which totalled £2,800 by the day of the scheduled flight.He checked out of the Embassy Hotel inBayswater Road, London, at seven in the morning, and then drove to his apartment inCardiff, Wales.In the two weeks that followed he was apparently spotted in theNewportpassport office,and theNewport bus station.On 7 February, a taxi driver from Newport supposedly picked up Edwards from the King's Hotel in Newport, and drove him around the valleys, including Blackwood",
"including Blackwood (Edwards' home as a child). The passenger got off at theSevern View service stationnearAustand paid the £68 fare in cash. On 14 February, Edwards'Vauxhall Cavalierreceived a parking ticket at the Severn View service station and on 17 February, the vehicle was reported as abandoned. Police discovered the battery to be flat, with evidence that the car had been lived in.Due to theservice station's proximity to theSevern Bridge(which has been a renowned suicide location in the past)it was widely believed that he took his own life by jumping from the bridge. Manic Street Preachers was put on hold for six months and disbanding the group was seriously considered, but with the blessing of Edwards' family, the other members continued.Edwards was legally \"presumed dead\" in 2008, to enable his parents to administer his estate.The band continue to set up a microphone for Edwards at every live performance. Everything Must GotoLifeblood(1996–2006) The first album without Edwards,Everything Must Go, was",
"Must Go, was released on 20 May 1996. The band had chosen to work with new producerMike Hedges, mainly for his work onSiouxsie and the Banshees' single \"Swimming Horses\" that Bradfield rated highly.Everything Must Godebuted on theUK Albums Chartat number 2, so far the album has goneTriple Platinumin the UK and is their most successful album to date, spending 103 weeks in the Top 100 with the album still in the Top 5 a year after its release.Containing five songs either written or co-written by Edwards the album was released to overwhelmingly positive reviews. The No. 2 hit single \"A Design for Life\" was the first to be written and released by the band following the disappearance of Richey Edwards the previous year.James Dean Bradfield later recalled that the lyric had been a fusion of two sets of lyrics-\"Design for Life\" and \"Pure Motive\"-sent to him from Wales by bassist Nicky Wire, while he was living inShepherd's Bush. The music was written \"in about ten minutes\" and Bradfield felt a sense of euphoria",
"a sense of euphoria with the result.The song was credited with having \"rescued the band\" from the despair felt after the disappearance of Edwards, with Wire describing the song as \"a bolt of light from a severely dark place\". The album was shortlisted for the 1996Mercury Prizeaward for best album and won the band twoBrit Awardsfor Best British Band and Best British Album,as well as yielding the hit singles \"Australia\", \"Everything Must Go\" and \"Kevin Carter\". The album has sold over two million copies around the world, and it is still considered one of the finest releases of the decade,a classic album from the 1990sand frequently voted in polls in the category of best albums of all time by many publications.The success of Everything Must Go at the 1997Brit Awardsensured that sales of their earlier albumsGeneration Terrorists,Gold Against the SoulandThe Holy Bibleenjoyed a late surge; the band's debut sold an extra 110,000 copies. In 1997 the band performed a special gig at theManchester Arenafor more than",
"Arenafor more than 20,000 people. Bassist Nicky Wire said that was the moment he knew that the band had \"made it\".The recording was released as aVHSvideo on 29 September 1997 and has only been reissued on DVD in Japan. The band's next album,This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours(1998), was the first number 1 of the band in the UK, remaining at the top of the albums chart for 3 weeks,selling 136,000 copies in the first week and spending a total of 74 weeks in the Album Chart.The title is a quotation taken from a speech given byAneurin Bevan, aLabour Partypolitician from Wales.The cover photograph was taken onBlack Rock SandsnearPorthmadog, Wales.Around the world the album also peaked at number 1 in countries like Sweden and Ireland, and it sold over five million copies worldwide. With their fifth album, the group also had a No. 1 single, \"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\". The song's theme is taken from theSpanish Civil War, and the idealism ofWelshvolunteers who joined theleft-wingInternational",
"Brigadesfighting for theSpanish RepublicagainstFrancisco Franco's military rebels. The song takes its name from aRepublicanposter of the time, displaying a photograph of a young child killed by theNationalistsunder a sky of bombers with the stark warning \"If you tolerate this, your children will be next\" written at the bottom.The song is in theGuinness World Recordsas the number one single with the longest title without brackets.The album also included the hit singles \"You Stole the Sun from My Heart\", \"Tsunami\" and \"The Everlasting\". The Manics won Best British Band and Album awards at the BRIT Awards in 1999.This Is My Truth Tell Me Yourswas also shortlisted for the 1999Mercury Prizeand the band received a further nomination in the category of Best UK & Ireland Act in the 1999MTV Europe Music Awards, where the band performed live the singleIf You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next. In theNME Awardsin 1999, the band won every single big prize, Best Band, Best Album, Best Live Act, Best Single and Best",
"Single and Best Video, as well as the Best Band in the World Today award in theQ Awards1998. After headliningGlastonbury Festival,T in the ParkandV Festival, the band played theLeaving the 20th Centuryconcert at theMillennium Stadiumin Cardiff on 31 December 1999, the first concert to be held there, with 57,000 people attending and the final song being broadcast around the world by satellite as part of2000 Today. The concert is available onVHSandDVD. Subtitled English lyrics, available as an extra, contain errors when compared to the official lyrics in the band's album booklets and in between some of the tracks there are interview clips where the band discusses their history and the songs. In 2000, they released the limited edition single \"The Masses Against the Classes\". Despite receiving little promotion, the single sold 76,000 copies in its first week and reached number one in theUK Singles Charton 16 January 2000, beating \"U Know What's Up\" byDonell Jonesto the top. The catalogue entry for the single was",
"for the single was deleted (removed from wholesale supply) on the day of release, but the song nevertheless spent 9 weeks in the UK chart. In 2001, they became the first popular Western rock band to play in Cuba (at theKarl Marx Theatre) and met with PresidentFidel Castro. Their concert and trip to Cuba was documented and then released as a DVD entitledLouder Than War. At this concert, they revealed many tracks from their upcoming sixth album,Know Your Enemy, which was released on 19 March. Theleft-wingpolitical convictions of the Manic Street Preachers are apparent in many of the album's songs, such as \"Baby Elián\" as they comment on the strained relations between the United States and Cuba as seen in theElián Gonzálezaffair, a hot topic around the album's release. The band also pays tribute to singer and civil rights activistPaul Robesonin the song \"Let Robeson Sing\", but the song \"Ocean Spray\", which was a single, was written entirely by James about his mother's battle with cancer. The first singles from",
"first singles from the album, \"So Why So Sad\" and \"Found That Soul\", were both released on the same day. The final single \"Let Robeson Sing\" was released later. The Manics also headlinedReading and Leeds Festival. The greatest hits (plus remixes) albumForever Delayedwas released in 2002, containing two new songs, \"Door to the River\" and the single \"There by the Grace of God\". Several songs were edited for length (\"Motorcycle Emptiness,\" \"You Love Us\", \"Australia,\" \"Everything Must Go,\" \"Little Baby Nothing,\" and \"The Everlasting\") so that more tracks could fit onto the CD (though not listed as edits in the liner notes). TheForever DelayedDVD was released in 2002 together with the greatest hits CD and photo book that bear the same name, and features all the promo music videos from the start of the band's career released before the DVD. Along with the promo videos, there is a selection of 14 remix videos, where the visual material is taken from clips of the other promo videos as well as backdrop visuals from",
"visuals from the band's live concerts. The album peaked and debuted on theUK Albums Chartat #4. An album ofB-sides, rarities, and cover versions was released in 2003 entitledLipstick Traces (A Secret History of Manic Street Preachers), which contains the last song the band worked on with Edwards. The album received a far more positive reception from fans than theForever Delayedgreatest hits album, which was heavily criticised for favouring the band's more commercially successful singles. The only recurring criticism ofLipstick Traceswas the exclusion of the fan favourite \"Patrick Bateman\", from the \"La Tristesse Durera (Scream to a Sigh)\" single. The band explained that it was excluded mainly because it was almost seven minutes long and simply would not fit on the album. The band's seventh studio album,Lifeblood, was released on 1 November 2004 and reached No. 13 on the UK album chart. Critical response to the album was mixed. The album was more introspective and more focused on the past, Wire talked about",
"Wire talked about the ghosts that haunted this record and stated that the record was a retrospective: \"The main themes are death and solitude and ghosts. Being haunted by history and being haunted by your own past. Sleep is beautiful for me. I hate dreaming because it ruins ten hours of bliss. I had a lot of bad dreams when Richey first disappeared. Not ugly dreams, but nagging things. Until we wrote 'Design for Life', it was six months of misery.Lifeblooddoesn't seek to exorcise Edwards' ghost, though, just admits that there are no answers\".Tony Viscontihelped the band produce three songs on the album, which was followed by a UK arena tour in December 2004. \"Empty Souls\" and \"The Love of Richard Nixon\" were the two singles released from the album, both reaching No. 2 in the UK. A tenth-anniversary edition ofThe Holy Biblewas released on 6 December 2004, which included a digitally remastered version of the original album, a rare U.S. mix (which the band themselves have admitted to preferring to the original",
"to the original UK mix)and a DVD of live performances and extras including a band interview. In April 2005, the band played several shows as the Past-Present-Future tour—announced as their last for at least two years. The band released an EP entitledGod Save the Manicswith only a limited number of copies available and given out to fans as they arrived at the venue. After all the copies were gone, the band made the EP available as a free download on their website.In September, the band contributed the new track \"Leviathan\" to theWar Childcharity albumHelp!: A Day in the Life. In 2006 the band received the prize for the Q Merit Award in theQ Awards2006 and also the 10th-anniversary edition ofEverything Must Gowas released on 6 November. It included the original album, demos, B-sides, remixes, rehearsals and alternate takes of the album's songs, spread out over two CDs. An additional DVD, featuring music videos, live performances, TV appearances, a 45-minute documentary on the making of the album, and two films",
"and two films byPatrick Jones, completed the three-disc set. In the 10th-anniversary edition, the band itself claims that they're still fond of the record, and Wire goes further saying: \"I think it's our best record, I am not afraid to say that.\" Send Away the TigerstoNational Treasures(2007–2012) The band's eighth studio album,Send Away the Tigers, was released on 7 May 2007 onColumbia Records. It entered the official UK album charts at No. 2. Critical response to the album was largely positive, with some critics hailing the album as the band's best in a decade. A free download of a song entitled \"Underdogs\" from the album was made available through the group's website on 19 March 2007.The first official single released from the album was \"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\", featuringCardigansvocalistNina Persson. According to singer Bradfield, the title was the last line of a suicide note left by the friend of someone close to the group.The second single, \"Autumnsong\", and a third, \"Indian Summer\", were",
"Summer\", were released in August. \"Indian Summer\" peaked at number 22, making it the first Manics single not to chart in the Top 20 since 1994's \"She Is Suffering\". The album sleeve features a quotation fromWyndham Lewis: \"When a man is young, he is usually a revolutionary of some kind. So here I am, speaking of my revolution\". A Christmas single, \"The Ghosts of Christmas\", was released as a free download on the band's official website throughout December 2007 and January 2008. In February 2008, the band were presented with the God-Like Geniuses Award at theNME Awardsceremony. The ninth Manics album,Journal for Plague Lovers, was released on 18 May 2009 and features lyrics left behind by Edwards. Wire commented in an interview that \"there was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice.\"The album was released to positive critical reviews and reached No. 3 on the UK Album Chart. However, the cover of the album generated some controversy, with the top four UKsupermarketsstocking the CD in a plain",
"the CD in a plain slipcase, as the cover was deemed \"inappropriate\". Several tracks refer to Edwards' time in a couple of hospitals in 1994. Bradfield commented thatJournal for Plague Loverswas an attempt to finally secure the legacy of their former memberRichey Edwardsand the result was that, during the recording process, it was as close to feeling his presence since his disappearance: \"There was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice. That was part of the whole thing of letting enough time lapse. Once we actually got into the studio, it almost felt as if we were a full band; it as close to him being in the room again as possible.\" The band's tenth albumPostcards from a Young Manwas recorded with producerDave Eringaand was mixed in America byChris Lord-Alge.The album cover art uses a black and white photograph of British actorTim Roth.The first single from the album, \"(It's Not War) Just the End of Love\", was released on 13 September.The album was supported by the Manics' most extensive tour of",
"extensive tour of the UK to date,starting in Glasgow on 29 September 2010.British Sea Powerwere the support act for the band on the tour. Two further singles were released from the album—the McCulloch-featuring \"Some Kind of Nothingness\" and the title track \"Postcards from a Young Man\". \"Some Kind of Nothingness\" peaked at No. 44 in the UK making it the first-ever Manics single to not make the Top 40 since they signed to Sony in 1991. National Treasures – The Complete Singleswas released on 31 October 2011, preceded by the release of the single \"This Is the Day\", a cover of the song bythe The.On 17 December 2011, the group performed 'A Night of National Treasures' atO2Arenain London to celebrate the band's 25 years to date, and enter into a period of hiatus where the eleventh album was written. The band performed all 38 singles, with around 20,000 people in attendance, as well as guest performers includingNina Perssonfromthe Cardiganswho sings with the band on the single \"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\"",
"Is Not Enough\" andGruff RhysfromSuper Furry Animalswho sang with the band that night on the trackLet Robeson Sing.In April and May 2012, the band embarked on a European greatest hits tour.The compilation was voted byNMEmagazine as the best re issue of 2011, beatingNirvana's deluxe and super deluxe edition ofNevermindto the top spot. Despite the \"complete singles\" title,National Treasuresdoes not contain every Manic Street Preachers single. Notable omissions are the band's very first single, \"Suicide Alley\" (1989), \"Strip It Down\" from theNew Art RiotEP (1990), for which the band's first promotional video was made,and \"You Love Us (Heavenly Version)\" (1991). For singles originally released as double-A sides, only one song is included: therefore from \"Love's Sweet Exile/Repeat\" (1992) and \"Faster/P.C.P.\" (1994), only the first of each pair are included. A film-interview-documentary about their albumGeneration Terroristswas screened on Saturday 20 October 2012 at Chapter Arts Centre as part of theSŵnFestival,",
"of theSŵnFestival, with all profits donated to Young Promoters Network.The film was made available in the 20th-anniversary re-issue ofGeneration Terrorists. Rewind the FilmtoThe Ultra Vivid Lament(2013–present) In May 2013, the band announced an Australasian tour for June and July, that would see them play their first-ever show in New Zealand.This tour coincided with the British and Irish Lions rugby tour to Australia and the Melbourne concert on the eve of the 2nd Test featured Lions' centre Jamie Roberts as a guest guitarist on \"You Love Us\". In May 2013 the Manics released information about their most recent recording sessions, saying that they had enough material for two albums; the first would be almost exclusively without electric guitars.The name of the first album and title track was revealed to beRewind the Filmon 8 July.In a statement, the band announced, \"(If) this record has a relation in the Manics back catalogue, it's probably the sedate coming of age that wasThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours.\"The",
"Tell Me Yours.\"The band also stated viaTwitter, \"MSP were in the great Hansa Studios in January with Alex Silva (who recordedThe Holy Biblewith us). Berlin was inspirational...Seanbeen playing afrench hornin the studio today—sounding wonderful.\"The lead single of the album, \"Show Me the Wonder\", was released on 9 September 2013 to a positive critical reception. The album itself was released on 16 September 2013 and reached No. 4 on the UK Album Chart. The second single of the album \"Anthem for a Lost Cause\" was released on 25 November 2013. The other album,Futurology, the band's twelfth studio album, was released on 7 July 2014 and it received immediate critical acclaim. The lead single from the album, \"Walk Me to the Bridge\", was released as a digital download on the day of the announcement, on 28 April.The album sold about 20,000 copies in its first week and reached No. 2 on theUK Albums Chart. The title track, \"Futurology\", was the second and final single released from the album on 22 September, the video",
"the video debuted onYouTubeon 10 August. The video was directed by theBritish Academy of Film and Television ArtswinnerKieran Evans, who worked with the band on videos from their previous effortRewind the Film. The band promoted the album with a tour around the UK and Europe from March to May 2014, they also made appearances in festivals likeT in the Parkin Scotland andGlastonbury Festivalin the summer. In December 2014, the band touredThe Holy Bible, playing it in full for the very first time, to coincide with its 20th anniversary reissue.After the tour in the UK, the Manics tookThe Holy Bibletour to North America, in April 2015, they played in Washington DC, Toronto, New York, Boston, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago.They also played in theCardiff Castleon 5 June 2015 with 10,000 fans attending the gig, it was broadcast nationwide by BBC Two Wales.In theNME Awards2015, the album won \"Reissue of the Year\". In November 2015, the Manic Street Preachers announced that they were going to celebrate the",
"to celebrate the 20th anniversary of their 1996 albumEverything Must Go, with their biggest headline show since 1999, in theLiberty Stadium, inSwanseaon 28 May 2016, featuring special guests likeSuper Furry Animals. The album was performed in full, with Nicky Wire teasing \"B-sides, rarities and curios, greatest hits and a few brand-new songs\".Before the final show in Swansea the band played:Liverpool,Echo Arena(13 May),Birmingham,Genting Arena(14 May),London,Royal Albert Hall(16–17 May),Leeds,First Direct Arena(20 May) andGlasgow, theSSE Hydro(21 May).In early 2016 the band announced the European tour ofEverything Must Go, they played across Europe, in Finland, Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany. The band announced in March 2016 that they would be releasing a theme song for the Wales national team ahead of theUEFA Euro 2016tournament in the summer, entitled \"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\", it was released on 20 May, featuring also a video with the band and the Welsh team, the Manics tweeted: \"It's with",
"tweeted: \"It's with great pride we can announce the Manics are providing the official Wales Euro 2016 song – 'Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)'\". All profits from the song went to the Princes Gate Trust and Tenovus Cancer Care.On 8 July the band was at theCardiff City Stadiumto give a home welcome to the Wales football national team after they were knocked out of theUEFA Euro 2016by Portugal in the semi-finals, the band played a few songs in the stadium including the official theme song \"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\".On the next night, 9 July, the Manics headlined a night at the Cornwall'sEden Project,and later the band managed to secure a new recording studio nearNewport, Wales. The city's council ensured that only the band can use the studio, there would be an increase on-site parking and a series of soundproofing measures to ensure nearby properties aren't disturbed by noise.To end the summer, the Manics went on to headline another two festivals, Wasa Open Air in Finland in mid-Augustand in late August",
"in late August theVictorious Festivalin Portsmouth.The band also received a nomination in the 25th British Academy Cymru Awards for the best live outside broadcast after their 2015 gig in the Cardiff Castle, celebrating the 20th anniversary ofThe Holy Bible. In February 2017 the band revealed a teaser trailer for a documentary entitledEscape from History, charting the band's journey fromThe Holy Bible, through to the disappearance of lyricist and guitarist Richey Edwards, to the huge success ofEverything Must Go. The documentary aired onSky Artson 15 April.The band also stated that they would release an album later in that year. The band released a special edition of their albumSend Away the Tigerson 12 May. 2017 marks the 10th anniversary of the record and the Manics said that \"this is a very important album\" in their career. The special edition featured a remastered album as well asB-sidesand rarities spread over two discs, plus a DVD which features the band's 2007 Glastonbury performance, rehearsal",
"rehearsal footage, an album track-by-track, and promo videos. On 17 November 2017, the band announced that their thirteenth album,Resistance Is Futile, would be released on 13 April 2018.After much delay, the band wrote \"The main themes of 'Resistance Is Futile' are memory and loss; forgotten history; confused reality and art as a hiding place and inspiration\", the band say in a statement. \"It's obsessively melodic—in many ways referencing both the naive energy of 'Generation Terrorists' and the orchestral sweep of 'Everything Must Go'. After delay and difficulties getting started, the record has come together really quickly over the last few months through a surge of creativity and some old school hard work.\" It is the first album to be recorded at the \"Door to the River\" studio. In January 2018, Manic Street Preachers signed a publishing contract withWarner/Chappell Music, leaving their longtime homeSony/ATV Music Publishing. On the album, the Manics launched their first single \"International Blue\" as a",
"Blue\" as a download on 8 December 2017.The second single \"Distant Colours\" was released, also as a download, on 16 February 2018.About the first single the band said that there was certain naive energy and widescreen melancholia on the song that is reflected through the whole album, comparing it to \"Motorcycle Emptiness\". Furthermore, the album focused on \"(...)things that make your life feel a little bit better. Rather than my internalised misery, I tried to put a sense of optimism into the lyrics by writing about things that we find really inspiring.\" Said Wire, taking inspiration fromDavid Bowieand seen as almost an escape and a wave of optimism, just like the previous album was described. On the other hand, \"Distant Colours\" was written by James Dean Bradfield, rather than Nicky Wire, and inspired by disenchantment and Nye Bevan's old Labour. He said: \"Musically, the verse is downcast and melancholic and the chorus is an explosion of disillusionment and tears.\"The third single \"Dylan & Caitlin\" was",
"& Caitlin\" was released as a download on 9 March 2018.The fourth single \"Liverpool Revisited\" is about a magical day in the city, Nicky added that: \"It was on the Everything Must Go (anniversary) tour and I got up really early at sunrise to walk around Liverpool, polaroid camera in hand on a balmy day. It sounds clichéd I know, but Liverpool in the sun does take on a hypnotic quality, with the Mersey and the stone.\"The band also revealed that they were to supportGuns N' Rosesduring their summer tour.The fifth and final single, \"Hold Me Like a Heaven\", was released as a download on 4 May 2018.Wire said that the song was inspired musically byDavid Bowie's \"Ashes to Ashes\", something that the band wanted to write about, and Nicky thinks that this the closest that the band is going to get, sharing also that lyrics were informed by the work ofPhilip Larkin. The album sold around 24,000 copies in the first week, entering theUK Albums Chartat number 2,despite being number 1 during the week.It was the highest new",
"was the highest new entry on the chart, and on physical sales the album peaked at number 1, both onCDandvinyl. In October 2018, the band announced a twentieth-anniversary collector's edition re-release ofThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours. It was made available on digital, CD, and vinyl, with the CD edition featuring bonus demos, live rehearsal recordings, remixes, and B-sides. The album was launched on 7 December 2018 and to promote it, the band went on tour in Spring and Summer 2019, performing the album in full alongside other content. In March 2020, the Manics announced a deluxe reissue of theirGold Against the Soulalbum for release on 12 June 2020. Bonus content included previously unreleased demos, B-sides from the era, remixes, and a live recording, while the CD was released alongside a book of unseen photographs from the era with handwritten annotations and lyrics from the band.The next day, the unnamed follow-up album toResistance Is Futile, their fourteenth overall, was confirmed toNMEalongside",
"toNMEalongside Bradfield's second solo album. The group's album, including a track called \"Orwellian\", was described as \"expansive\" and is due for release in Summer 2021. On 14 May 2021, the Manics announced the title of their fourteenth studio album:The Ultra Vivid Lament.The first single from the album, \"Orwellian\", was released on the same day.\"The Secret He Had Missed\", the second single from the album, was released on 16 July 2021.The Ultra Vivid Lamentwas released on 10 September 2021 and received generally positive reviews from critics: onMetacritic, the album has aweighted averagescore of 78 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".The album sold 27,000 copies in the first week, granting the band their second UK Number 1 album as they narrowly beatStepsto the number 1 spot. In May and June 2022, Manic Street Preachers opened forThe Killersin some of their UK tour dates. In September 2022, the Manics announced a co-headlining tour of United States and Canada",
"States and Canada withSuedefor November 2022, which would be the first time the two bands would share the stage since they toured Europe together in 1994. On 24 June 2023, the band played theGlastonbury Festival. Speaking to the Other Stage crowd, Nicky Wire said: \"The first time we played was 1994 and it was the four of us, we had the one and only Richard Edwards with us, oh yes, we had a f**king blast. Everything that could go wrong did go wrong, it was f**king fun you know.\" All four band members were honoured with amuralin their hometown of Blackwood in April 2024, designed by street artist Paul Shepherd. Collaborations and covers The band released a split single in 1992 withthe Fatima Mansions, a rock cover of \"Suicide Is Painless\", which became their first UK Top 10 hit.They have recorded many cover versions of songs by other artists, primarily asB-sidesfor their own singles. Bands and artists to whom the group have paid tribute in this way includethe Clash,Guns N' Roses,Alice Cooper,Happy",
"Cooper,Happy Mondays,McCarthy,Chuck Berry,FacesandNirvana. The band's first musical appearance since Edwards' departure was recording a cover of \"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\" forThe Help Album, a charity effort in 1995 in support of aid efforts in war-tornBosniaandHerzegovina. The Lightning Seeds' song \"Waiting for Today to Happen\", from their fifth album,Dizzy Heights(1996), was written by Nicky Wire andIan Broudie. That same year, James Dean Bradfield andDave EringaproducedNorthern Uproar's first single, \"Rollercoaster/Rough Boys\". The808 Statesong \"Lopez\" (1997) features lyrics by Wire and vocals by Bradfield.It is featured on their greatest hits album,808:88:98.Kylie Minogue's sixth album,Impossible Princess(1997), features two songs co-written and produced by the Manics: \"Some Kind of Bliss\" (Bradfield, Minogue and Sean Moore) and \"I Don't Need Anyone\" (Bradfield, Jones and Minogue) were produced by Bradfield and Dave Eringa.Bradfield provided backing vocals, bass guitar and production for",
"and production for theMassive Attacksong \"Inertia Creeps\" (1998), which features on their successful third album,Mezzanine.Patrick Jones's album of poetry set to music,Commemoration and Amnesia(1999), features two songs with music written by Bradfield: the title track and \"The Guerilla Tapestry\". Bradfield plays the guitar on both songs. Furthermore, the track \"Hiraeth\" features a section called \"Spoken Word\", in which Nicky Wire talks about Welsh identity. In February 2006, the band contributed a cover version of \"The Instrumental\" to the albumStill Unravished: A Tribute to the June Brides. In February 2008, the Manics coveredRihanna's hit pop song \"Umbrella\". Their version appeared on a CD titledNME Awards 2008given away free with a special souvenir box-set issue ofNMEmagazine, which went on sale 27 February. Additionally, the Manics' version of the song was made available oniTunesfrom 5 March 2008.Despite being chart-eligible (it reached number 47 in the UK),the release was not intended as an official",
"as an official single.Two further versions (the Acoustic and Grand Slam mixes) were later made available on iTunes and now comprise a three-trackUmbrella EP. James Dean Bradfield and Nicky Wire contributed an original song, \"The Girl from Tiger Bay\", toShirley Bassey's 2009 studio album,The Performance. Musical style and influences Manic Street Preachers' music has been variously described asalternative rock,Britpop,hard rockglam rock,pop rock,punk metal,andpunk rock. The band have stated thatthe Clashwere \"probably our biggest influence of all\". When they saw them on television, \"we thought it was fantastic and got really excited. They were the catalyst for us\".In addition, they have cited artists includingGuns N' Roses,Alice in Chains,Red Hot Chili Peppers,PiL,Skids,Gang of Four,Sex Pistols,Magazine,Bruce Springsteen,theNew York Dolls,Girls Against Boys,Anna Meredith,Wire,Julia Holter,Rush,Felt,Simple Minds,ABBA,the Associates, andTalk Talkas influences on their music. Bradfield's guitar hero is",
"guitar hero is guitaristJohn McGeoch: \"He taught me, you can have that rock'n'roll swagger, but still build something into it that's really unsettling, and can cut like a razor blade\". Though the band's first albumGeneration Terroristswas mostly politically charged glam-rock mixed with punk influences, their style shifted towards a darker sound onGold Against the Soul. WhenThe Holy Biblewas released, the Manic Street Preachers had incorporatedpost-punkinto their musical style, starting many songs on the album with either recordings of interviews or quotes, or clean, reverberated guitar sounds before abruptly changing tempo and engaging distortion. AfterEdwards' disappearance in 1995, the bands sound has become less dissonant and more appealing to a broader mainstream audience. Following albums have been described as string driven and slower-paced than their early work. Alluding to the band's early relationship with Britpop, Cam Lindsay of Canadian music publicationExclaim!opined that \"Britpop was rising, the",
"was rising, the Manics were offering the polar opposite: a bleak, uncompromising work that wanted nothing to do with the party\". Members Current members Former members Current touring musicians Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Best Art Vinyl Awards TheBest Art Vinyl Awardsare yearly awards established in 2005 by Art Vinyl Ltd to celebrate the best album artwork of the past year. NME Awards TheNME Awardsis an annual music award show in the United Kingdom. Q Awards TheQ Awardsare the UK's annual music awards run by the music magazineQ. Žebřík Music Awards References Sources External links"
] |
As of 1st November 2023, Which two South African drivers took part in the Formula One the year in which a micro-nation claimed territory off the coast of Suffolk, England? | Dave Charlton and Luki Botha | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_micronations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Formula_One_season#Teams_and_drivers | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_micronations', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Formula_One_season#Teams_and_drivers'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_micronations",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Formula_One_season#Teams_and_drivers"
] | [
"List of micronations \\ Micronations, sometimes also referred to asmodel countriesandnew country projects, are small,self-proclaimedentities that assert their sovereignty as independent states but which are not acknowledged as such by any of therecognised sovereign states, or by any supranational organization. They should not be confused withmicrostates, which are recognised independent states of a small size, nor should they be confused withunrecognised states, which are of more geopolitical significance because they exercise clear control of actual territory to the exclusion of widely recognized countries. Motivations for the creation of micronations include theoretical experimentation, political protest, artistic expression, personal entertainment and the conduct of criminal activity.: 4 The following is a list of notable micronations. Current Former Proposed See also References Notes Citations",
"1967 Formula One season The1967 Formula One seasonwas the 21st season ofFIAFormula Onemotor racing. It featured the 18thWorld Championship of Drivers, the 10thInternational Cup for F1 Manufacturers, and six non-championship races open to Formula One cars. The World Championship was contested over eleven races between 2 January and 22 October 1967. Denny Hulmewon the Drivers' Championship in aBrabham-Repco.Brabham was also awarded the International Cup for F1 Manufacturers.As of 2023, this is the only championship won by aNew Zealand driver. Hulme also became the first driver in World Championship history to win the title without having scored apole positionduring the season. Lorenzo Bandinicrashed during theMonaco Grand Prix. Losing an early lead of the race and trying to get back to the front, theFerraridriver clipped the chicane at the harbour front and then hit a hiddenmooring. The car turned over and exploded in flames. It tookmarshalsseveral minutes to extricate Bandini from the burning wreck and three days later, theItaliandied.BritishdriverBob Andersondied during a test atSilverstone. HisBrabhamslid off the track in wet conditions and hit a marshals post, suffering seriouschestandneckinjuries and later dying inhospital. Teams and drivers The followingteamsanddriverscompeted in the 1967FIAWorld Championship. A pink background denotes additionalFormula 2entrants to the German Grand Prix on the very long Nürburgring track. Team and driver changes Mid-season changes Calendar Calendar changes Regulation changes AfterLorenzo Bandini's fatal accident, theFIAbanned circuit organisers from usingstraw balesalong the trackandTVcrews from flying theirhelicopterstoo low, as both had contributed to the fire flaring up. Championship report Rounds 1 to 4 Coming down from his third World Championship in1966,Jack Brabhamstarted this year off as well, with apole positionat theSouth African Grand Prix. TeammateDenny Hulmestarted second and two-time World ChampionJim Clarklined up in third in hisLotus. Hulme took the lead at the start, while Clark fell back to sixth. In a race of attrition, the crowd sawRhodesiandriverJohn Lovetake the lead. When he had to stop for extra fuel, however, it wasPedro Rodríguezwho won in hisCooper. Love finished second, ahead ofJohn Surteesin aHonda. Hulme and Brabham finished several laps down but still in the points, since there were just six classified finishers in total. From 1967 to1969, there was four months between the first and second race of the championship, and most teams would usually run the first race with old designs, or not even participate. This year,Ferrari,McLarenandMatrastarted their year with theMonaco Grand Prix. Lotus had planned to run revolutionary newCosworths, but they were not ready in time.Jack Brabhamscoredpole positionlike in South Africa, but again lost the lead at the start, this time to long-time Ferrari driverLorenzo Bandini. Before long, Hulme took over at the front and increased his lead to 15 seconds. Desperately trying to get closer, Bandini struck the barrier in thechicaneat theharbourfront and mounted thestraw bales. The car landed upside down and exploded in flames. Bandini would succumbed to his injuries three days later. Hulme won the race, one lap ahead ofGraham Hill(Lotus) and two ahead ofChris Amon(Ferrari). Like in the first race, there were just six finishers. When Lotus could finally run the new Cosworth engines in theDutch Grand Prix, their pace was significantly better than before and Hill snatched pole position. A surprisingDan Gurneyin theEaglestarted second, reigning champion Brabham in third. After drivers had to avoid a wanderingmarshalon the grid, the positions at the front remained rather the same, until Gurney made a pit stop. Hill's engine suddenly seized on lap 11, but teammate Clark was charging, getting up to second on lap 15 and taking the lead from Brabham on the next lap. He kept increasing his lead with a second per lap and easily won, ahead of the teammates Brabham and Hulme. Behind them finished the three Ferraris. Qualifying for theBelgian Grand Prixended up with quite the same drivers at the front, except Brabham could only manage seventh. Clark, Gurney and Hill occupied the front row. Clark was the only one of the three with a good start, however. During the first lap,Mike Parkescrashed his Ferrari and was thrown out. He broke alegandwristand would not return to Formula One. At the front of the field, Clark was followed byStewart(BRM) and Amon (Ferrari), before Amon fell back and Gurney took third. Then, Clark had to pit to change aspark plugand Stewart ran into trouble with his gearbox, and Gurney took the lead. After setting a new lap record, theAmericandriver won, over a minute ahead of Stewart and Amon. Four different winners led to a close fight at the top of the Drivers' Championship.Denny Hulme(Brabham) was first with 16 points, ahead ofPedro Rodríguez(Cooper) andChris Amon(Ferrari) with 11. In the battle for the Manufacturers' Cup, Brabham had scored 18 points, ahead of Cooper (14) and Ferrari (11). Rounds 5 to 7 For theFrench Grand Prix, the front row consisted of1962championGraham Hill(Lotus), triple World ChampionJack Brabham(Brabham) and winner of the last race,Dan Gurney(Eagle). But after just 5 laps, it was fourth-startingJim Clarkwho led the field. Before the race reached half distance, however, both Lotuses had retired. TheCosworthengines deemed fast but unreliable. After Gurney retired as well with a fuel leak, which left Brabham and his teammateHulmeto finish first and second.Jackie Stewartfinished third in hisBRM, a lap down on the leader. For the third time this year, there were just six classified finishers. TheBritish Grand Prixwas run atSilverstoneand saw the green-and-yellow Lotuses (Clark ahead of Hill) qualifying in front of the green-and-gold Brabhams (Brabham ahead of Hulme). The Lotus duo gained a big lead over the rest, before Hill took the lead on lap 26. When a screw in hissuspensionfailed, however, he had to pit on lap 55, and his engine seized ten laps later. Clark took a comfortable win, ahead of Hulme andAmon, theFerraridriver having passed Brabham four laps from the end. Duringpracticefor theGerman Grand Prix, Hill crashed and wrote off his Lotus, while escaping uninjured. Clark clinchedpole position, ahead of Hulme andFormula TwodriverJacky Ickx. (Traditionally, the F2 race would be run at the same time as the Grand Prix. F2 drivers would not be eligible to score points for the F1 championship.) At the start, Clark and Hulme led away, withBruce McLarenstealing third. On lap 3, Clark's right-rear wheel was deflating slowly and he had to back off. Dan Gurney inherited the lead after McLaren retired with an oil leak. TheAmericanset a new lap record, despite an extra chicane having been added to the circuit, and increased his lead over Hulme to over 40 seconds. On lap 13, however, his Eagle's drive shaft broke and cut through an oil pipe, handing Hulme a lucky victory, ahead of teammate Brabham and Ferrari driver Amon. In the Drivers' Championship,Denny Hulme(Brabham) was leading with 37 points, ahead ofJack Brabham(Brabham) with 25 points andJim Clark(Lotus) andChris Amon(Ferrari) in a shared third place with 19 points. Brabham was leading the championship for the Manufacturers' Cup with 42 points, ahead ofCoopperwith 21 and Lotus and Ferrari in a shared third place with 19 points. Rounds 8 to 11 TheCanadian Grand Prixwas on the championship calendar for the first time and was supposed to be a one-off in celebration ofCanada's 100 years of independence, but the popularity of the event would result in F1 returning toMosport Parkseven more years and the Canadian GP still being featured on the calendar today.Jim Clark(Lotus)qualifiedonpole position, ahead of teammateGraham Hilland championship leaderDenny Hulme(Brabham). It had been a rainy night, but a clear morning, which led to most of theGoodyearrunners starting onintermediate tyres, while most of theFirestonestarted ondries. During thewarm-up lap, the rain returned and it caused a treacherous first lap, with the Goodyear times at an advantage. Hulme took the lead off of Clark, andBruce McLarengot by the pole-sitter into second place. The track was now drying and around a quarter of the race, the dry-runners regained their advantage. Clark retook second place and began to catch Hulme at over a second a lap. On lap 58, he was there and immediately went by into the lead, but right at that moment, the rain returned. Clark's engine got soaked and cut out, while Hulme desperatly needed cleangogglesso chose topit. This leftJack Brabham, second in the championship, free to win the race, over a minute ahead of teammate Hulme and at least a lap ahead of the race.Dan Gurneyfinished third in theEagle. Qualifying for theItalian Grand Prixwas disrupted by rain, but the result was not surprising: Clark scored his fifth pole position of the year, ahead of Brabham and McLaren. Hulme started in sixth. Themarshalstarting the race used a different procedure to what the drivers were used to, which led to half of the grid essentially doing afalse start, but no penalties were issued. Brabham took the lead before Gurney grabbed it later in the lap, whileHilland Clark followed them. On lap 3, Clark was already back in the lead, but then suffered a slowpuncture. With the pole-sitter in the pits and Gurney's engine having broken, as it had done so many times, it was Hulme who took over the lead. Brabham and Hill formed a close trio with him and the lead swapped hands a couple of times. Clark had a lost a full lap with his pit stop, but managed to unlap himself with two thirds of the race still to go, and quickly set a new lap record. Hulme retired with an overheating engine and Hill took advantage from Clark'sslipstreamto open up the gap to Brabham at two seconds per lap, until on lap 58, his engine exploded. His rivals' retirements, topped with his maniacal pace, brought Clark up to second place, with leader Brabham in his sights andHondadriverJohn Surteesin third place, the1964champion this time being the one to benefit from Clark's tow. On lap 60, Clark grabbed the lead and gained a three-second advantage, until he dramatically ran out of fuel. Surtees took the lead and was side-by-side with Brabham going into the last corner. Brabham dove to the inside but slid wide. Surtees crossed back and took the flag with a margin of just 0.2 seconds. It would be Honda's last win until2006. Clark coasted over the line in third place. The Brabham duo (Hulme and Brabham) were leading the championship but the Lotus duo (Hill and Clark) that occupied the first row for theUnited States Grand Prix. Gurney had started beside them, took second place at the start and even started pressuring the leader. After just 24 laps, however, the home hero retired with a broken suspension, but the Lotuses were showing better pace anyway. Clark took over the lead when Hill suffered issues with hisclutch. This gaveFerraridriverChris Amona chance for second place, but his engine ran out of oil with 12 laps to go. Clark would take a comfortable victory, but two laps from the end, his right-rear suspension broke. By slowing down and managing to keep the car on track, Hill could not catch up in time, and Clark took the chequered flag. One could say it was the summary of the season: the Lotuses were unreliable and finished less than half of the races, but if they did, they were so fast that they lapped the rest of the field. This time, it was Hulme who finished in third, a lap down. Going into the final race, theMexican Grand Prix, Hulme had a lead of five points in the standings, so if Brabham wanted to do anything about it, he needed to win and for his teammate to finish fifth or lower. Clark started again on pole position, with Brabham and Hulme down in fifth and sixth, respectively. Hill shortly took the lead, but Clark grabbed it back and grew his advantage to seven seconds. Hulme was comfortably hanging back six seconds behind Brabham. Hill retired when hisdrive shaftbroke and had damaged his engine, and the race settled down. Clark set a new lap record and lapped everyone but Brabham in second. Hulme finished third, enough to win the title. Denny Hulme(Brabham, 51 points) won his first and only championship, ahead of teammateJack Brabham(46) andJim Clark(Lotus, 41). Hulme is the only champion to date fromNew Zealand, and the first of two drivers to win the title without achieving a pole position in the season. OnlyNiki Laudawould repeat this feat in1984. The Brabham team (63 points) also won the Manufacturers' Cup, ahead of Lotus (44) andCooper(28). Results and standings Grands Prix Scoring system Points were awarded to the top six classified finishers. Formula 2 cars were not eligible for Championship points. The International Cup for F1 Manufacturers only counted the points of the highest-finishing driver for each race. For both the Championship and the Cup, the best five results from rounds 1-6 and the best four results from rounds 7-11 were counted. Numbers without parentheses are championship points; numbers in parentheses are total points scored. Points were awarded in the following system: World Drivers' Championship standings International Cup for F1 Manufacturers standings Non-championship races Other Formula One races held in 1967, which did not count towards the World Championship. Notes and references External links"
] | [
"List of micronations \\ Micronations, sometimes also referred to asmodel countriesandnew country projects, are small,self-proclaimedentities that assert their sovereignty as independent states but which are not acknowledged as such by any of therecognised sovereign states, or by any supranational organization. They should not be confused withmicrostates, which are recognised independent states of a small size, nor should they be confused withunrecognised states, which are of more geopolitical significance because they exercise clear control of actual territory to the exclusion of widely recognized countries. Motivations for the creation of micronations include theoretical experimentation, political protest, artistic expression, personal entertainment and the conduct of criminal activity.: 4 The following is a list of notable micronations. Current Former Proposed See also References Notes Citations",
"1967 Formula One season The1967 Formula One seasonwas the 21st season ofFIAFormula Onemotor racing. It featured the 18thWorld Championship of Drivers, the 10thInternational Cup for F1 Manufacturers, and six non-championship races open to Formula One cars. The World Championship was contested over eleven races between 2 January and 22 October 1967. Denny Hulmewon the Drivers' Championship in aBrabham-Repco.Brabham was also awarded the International Cup for F1 Manufacturers.As of 2023, this is the only championship won by aNew Zealand driver. Hulme also became the first driver in World Championship history to win the title without having scored apole positionduring the season. Lorenzo Bandinicrashed during theMonaco Grand Prix. Losing an early lead of the race and trying to get back to the front, theFerraridriver clipped the chicane at the harbour front and then hit a hiddenmooring. The car turned over and exploded in flames. It tookmarshalsseveral minutes to extricate Bandini from the burning wreck and three",
"wreck and three days later, theItaliandied.BritishdriverBob Andersondied during a test atSilverstone. HisBrabhamslid off the track in wet conditions and hit a marshals post, suffering seriouschestandneckinjuries and later dying inhospital. Teams and drivers The followingteamsanddriverscompeted in the 1967FIAWorld Championship. A pink background denotes additionalFormula 2entrants to the German Grand Prix on the very long Nürburgring track. Team and driver changes Mid-season changes Calendar Calendar changes Regulation changes AfterLorenzo Bandini's fatal accident, theFIAbanned circuit organisers from usingstraw balesalong the trackandTVcrews from flying theirhelicopterstoo low, as both had contributed to the fire flaring up. Championship report Rounds 1 to 4 Coming down from his third World Championship in1966,Jack Brabhamstarted this year off as well, with apole positionat theSouth African Grand Prix. TeammateDenny Hulmestarted second and two-time World ChampionJim Clarklined up in third in hisLotus. Hulme",
"in hisLotus. Hulme took the lead at the start, while Clark fell back to sixth. In a race of attrition, the crowd sawRhodesiandriverJohn Lovetake the lead. When he had to stop for extra fuel, however, it wasPedro Rodríguezwho won in hisCooper. Love finished second, ahead ofJohn Surteesin aHonda. Hulme and Brabham finished several laps down but still in the points, since there were just six classified finishers in total. From 1967 to1969, there was four months between the first and second race of the championship, and most teams would usually run the first race with old designs, or not even participate. This year,Ferrari,McLarenandMatrastarted their year with theMonaco Grand Prix. Lotus had planned to run revolutionary newCosworths, but they were not ready in time.Jack Brabhamscoredpole positionlike in South Africa, but again lost the lead at the start, this time to long-time Ferrari driverLorenzo Bandini. Before long, Hulme took over at the front and increased his lead to 15 seconds. Desperately trying to get",
"trying to get closer, Bandini struck the barrier in thechicaneat theharbourfront and mounted thestraw bales. The car landed upside down and exploded in flames. Bandini would succumbed to his injuries three days later. Hulme won the race, one lap ahead ofGraham Hill(Lotus) and two ahead ofChris Amon(Ferrari). Like in the first race, there were just six finishers. When Lotus could finally run the new Cosworth engines in theDutch Grand Prix, their pace was significantly better than before and Hill snatched pole position. A surprisingDan Gurneyin theEaglestarted second, reigning champion Brabham in third. After drivers had to avoid a wanderingmarshalon the grid, the positions at the front remained rather the same, until Gurney made a pit stop. Hill's engine suddenly seized on lap 11, but teammate Clark was charging, getting up to second on lap 15 and taking the lead from Brabham on the next lap. He kept increasing his lead with a second per lap and easily won, ahead of the teammates Brabham and Hulme. Behind",
"and Hulme. Behind them finished the three Ferraris. Qualifying for theBelgian Grand Prixended up with quite the same drivers at the front, except Brabham could only manage seventh. Clark, Gurney and Hill occupied the front row. Clark was the only one of the three with a good start, however. During the first lap,Mike Parkescrashed his Ferrari and was thrown out. He broke alegandwristand would not return to Formula One. At the front of the field, Clark was followed byStewart(BRM) and Amon (Ferrari), before Amon fell back and Gurney took third. Then, Clark had to pit to change aspark plugand Stewart ran into trouble with his gearbox, and Gurney took the lead. After setting a new lap record, theAmericandriver won, over a minute ahead of Stewart and Amon. Four different winners led to a close fight at the top of the Drivers' Championship.Denny Hulme(Brabham) was first with 16 points, ahead ofPedro Rodríguez(Cooper) andChris Amon(Ferrari) with 11. In the battle for the Manufacturers' Cup, Brabham had scored 18",
"had scored 18 points, ahead of Cooper (14) and Ferrari (11). Rounds 5 to 7 For theFrench Grand Prix, the front row consisted of1962championGraham Hill(Lotus), triple World ChampionJack Brabham(Brabham) and winner of the last race,Dan Gurney(Eagle). But after just 5 laps, it was fourth-startingJim Clarkwho led the field. Before the race reached half distance, however, both Lotuses had retired. TheCosworthengines deemed fast but unreliable. After Gurney retired as well with a fuel leak, which left Brabham and his teammateHulmeto finish first and second.Jackie Stewartfinished third in hisBRM, a lap down on the leader. For the third time this year, there were just six classified finishers. TheBritish Grand Prixwas run atSilverstoneand saw the green-and-yellow Lotuses (Clark ahead of Hill) qualifying in front of the green-and-gold Brabhams (Brabham ahead of Hulme). The Lotus duo gained a big lead over the rest, before Hill took the lead on lap 26. When a screw in hissuspensionfailed, however, he had to pit on lap",
"had to pit on lap 55, and his engine seized ten laps later. Clark took a comfortable win, ahead of Hulme andAmon, theFerraridriver having passed Brabham four laps from the end. Duringpracticefor theGerman Grand Prix, Hill crashed and wrote off his Lotus, while escaping uninjured. Clark clinchedpole position, ahead of Hulme andFormula TwodriverJacky Ickx. (Traditionally, the F2 race would be run at the same time as the Grand Prix. F2 drivers would not be eligible to score points for the F1 championship.) At the start, Clark and Hulme led away, withBruce McLarenstealing third. On lap 3, Clark's right-rear wheel was deflating slowly and he had to back off. Dan Gurney inherited the lead after McLaren retired with an oil leak. TheAmericanset a new lap record, despite an extra chicane having been added to the circuit, and increased his lead over Hulme to over 40 seconds. On lap 13, however, his Eagle's drive shaft broke and cut through an oil pipe, handing Hulme a lucky victory, ahead of teammate Brabham and",
"Brabham and Ferrari driver Amon. In the Drivers' Championship,Denny Hulme(Brabham) was leading with 37 points, ahead ofJack Brabham(Brabham) with 25 points andJim Clark(Lotus) andChris Amon(Ferrari) in a shared third place with 19 points. Brabham was leading the championship for the Manufacturers' Cup with 42 points, ahead ofCoopperwith 21 and Lotus and Ferrari in a shared third place with 19 points. Rounds 8 to 11 TheCanadian Grand Prixwas on the championship calendar for the first time and was supposed to be a one-off in celebration ofCanada's 100 years of independence, but the popularity of the event would result in F1 returning toMosport Parkseven more years and the Canadian GP still being featured on the calendar today.Jim Clark(Lotus)qualifiedonpole position, ahead of teammateGraham Hilland championship leaderDenny Hulme(Brabham). It had been a rainy night, but a clear morning, which led to most of theGoodyearrunners starting onintermediate tyres, while most of theFirestonestarted ondries. During",
"ondries. During thewarm-up lap, the rain returned and it caused a treacherous first lap, with the Goodyear times at an advantage. Hulme took the lead off of Clark, andBruce McLarengot by the pole-sitter into second place. The track was now drying and around a quarter of the race, the dry-runners regained their advantage. Clark retook second place and began to catch Hulme at over a second a lap. On lap 58, he was there and immediately went by into the lead, but right at that moment, the rain returned. Clark's engine got soaked and cut out, while Hulme desperatly needed cleangogglesso chose topit. This leftJack Brabham, second in the championship, free to win the race, over a minute ahead of teammate Hulme and at least a lap ahead of the race.Dan Gurneyfinished third in theEagle. Qualifying for theItalian Grand Prixwas disrupted by rain, but the result was not surprising: Clark scored his fifth pole position of the year, ahead of Brabham and McLaren. Hulme started in sixth. Themarshalstarting the race used a",
"the race used a different procedure to what the drivers were used to, which led to half of the grid essentially doing afalse start, but no penalties were issued. Brabham took the lead before Gurney grabbed it later in the lap, whileHilland Clark followed them. On lap 3, Clark was already back in the lead, but then suffered a slowpuncture. With the pole-sitter in the pits and Gurney's engine having broken, as it had done so many times, it was Hulme who took over the lead. Brabham and Hill formed a close trio with him and the lead swapped hands a couple of times. Clark had a lost a full lap with his pit stop, but managed to unlap himself with two thirds of the race still to go, and quickly set a new lap record. Hulme retired with an overheating engine and Hill took advantage from Clark'sslipstreamto open up the gap to Brabham at two seconds per lap, until on lap 58, his engine exploded. His rivals' retirements, topped with his maniacal pace, brought Clark up to second place, with leader Brabham in his sights",
"in his sights andHondadriverJohn Surteesin third place, the1964champion this time being the one to benefit from Clark's tow. On lap 60, Clark grabbed the lead and gained a three-second advantage, until he dramatically ran out of fuel. Surtees took the lead and was side-by-side with Brabham going into the last corner. Brabham dove to the inside but slid wide. Surtees crossed back and took the flag with a margin of just 0.2 seconds. It would be Honda's last win until2006. Clark coasted over the line in third place. The Brabham duo (Hulme and Brabham) were leading the championship but the Lotus duo (Hill and Clark) that occupied the first row for theUnited States Grand Prix. Gurney had started beside them, took second place at the start and even started pressuring the leader. After just 24 laps, however, the home hero retired with a broken suspension, but the Lotuses were showing better pace anyway. Clark took over the lead when Hill suffered issues with hisclutch. This gaveFerraridriverChris Amona chance for",
"Amona chance for second place, but his engine ran out of oil with 12 laps to go. Clark would take a comfortable victory, but two laps from the end, his right-rear suspension broke. By slowing down and managing to keep the car on track, Hill could not catch up in time, and Clark took the chequered flag. One could say it was the summary of the season: the Lotuses were unreliable and finished less than half of the races, but if they did, they were so fast that they lapped the rest of the field. This time, it was Hulme who finished in third, a lap down. Going into the final race, theMexican Grand Prix, Hulme had a lead of five points in the standings, so if Brabham wanted to do anything about it, he needed to win and for his teammate to finish fifth or lower. Clark started again on pole position, with Brabham and Hulme down in fifth and sixth, respectively. Hill shortly took the lead, but Clark grabbed it back and grew his advantage to seven seconds. Hulme was comfortably hanging back six seconds behind Brabham.",
"behind Brabham. Hill retired when hisdrive shaftbroke and had damaged his engine, and the race settled down. Clark set a new lap record and lapped everyone but Brabham in second. Hulme finished third, enough to win the title. Denny Hulme(Brabham, 51 points) won his first and only championship, ahead of teammateJack Brabham(46) andJim Clark(Lotus, 41). Hulme is the only champion to date fromNew Zealand, and the first of two drivers to win the title without achieving a pole position in the season. OnlyNiki Laudawould repeat this feat in1984. The Brabham team (63 points) also won the Manufacturers' Cup, ahead of Lotus (44) andCooper(28). Results and standings Grands Prix Scoring system Points were awarded to the top six classified finishers. Formula 2 cars were not eligible for Championship points. The International Cup for F1 Manufacturers only counted the points of the highest-finishing driver for each race. For both the Championship and the Cup, the best five results from rounds 1-6 and the best four results",
"best four results from rounds 7-11 were counted. Numbers without parentheses are championship points; numbers in parentheses are total points scored. Points were awarded in the following system: World Drivers' Championship standings International Cup for F1 Manufacturers standings Non-championship races Other Formula One races held in 1967, which did not count towards the World Championship. Notes and references External links"
] |
The Brihadeeswarar Temple was built by an Indian emperor. The emperor’s only sister‘s husband is a king of another Dynasty. Name the Dynasty and state how many known kings ruled within that Dynasty. | Bana Kingdom. 10 Kings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajaraja_I | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundavai_Pir%C4%81ttiy%C4%81r | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bana_Kingdom | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajaraja_I', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundavai_Pir%C4%81ttiy%C4%81r', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bana_Kingdom'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajaraja_I",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundavai_Pir%C4%81ttiy%C4%81r",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bana_Kingdom"
] | [
"Brihadisvara Temple Brihadishvara Temple, calledRajarajesvaram(lit.'Lord ofRajaraja') by its builder, and known locally asThanjai Periya Kovil(lit.'Thanjavur Big Temple') andPeruvudaiyar Kovil, is aShaiviteHindu templebuilt in aChola architecturalstylelocated on the south bank of theCauveryriver inThanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India.It is one of thelargest Hindu templesand an exemplar ofTamil architecture.It is also calledDakshina Meru(Meruof theSouth).Built byCholaemperorRajaraja Ibetween 1003 and 1010 CE, the temple is a part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Siteknown as the \"Great Living Chola Temples\", along with the Chola-eraGangaikonda Cholapuram templeandAiravatesvara temple, which are about 70 kilometres (43 mi) and 40 kilometres (25 mi) to its northeast respectively. The original monuments of this 11th-century temple were built around a moat. It includedgopura, the main temple, its massive tower, inscriptions, frescoes, and sculptures predominantly related toShaivism, but also ofVaishnavismandShaktism. The temple was damaged in its history and some artwork is now missing. Additional mandapam and monuments were added in the centuries that followed. The temple now stands amidst fortified walls that were added after the16th century. Built using granite, thevimanatower above the shrine is one of the tallest in South India.The temple has a massive colonnadedprakara(corridor) and one of the largest Shivalingasin India.It is also famed for the quality of its sculpture, as well as being the location that commissioned the brassNataraja, Shiva as the lord of dance, in the 11th century. The complex includes shrines forNandi,Parvati,Murugan,Ganesha, Sabhapati,Dakshinamurti,Chandeshvara,Varahi, Thiyagarajar of Thiruvarur,SiddharKaruvoorarand others.The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. Nomenclature Rajaraja Chola, who commissioned the temple, called it Rajarajeshvaram (Rajarājeśvaram), literally \"the temple of the god of Rajaraja\".A later inscription in the Brihannayaki shrine calls the temple's deity Periya Udaiya Nayanar, which appears to be the source of the modern names Brihadisvara and Peruvudaiyar Kovil. Location The Peruvudaiyar Templeis located in the city ofThanjavur, about 350 kilometres (220 mi) southwest ofChennai. The city is connected daily to other major cities by the network of Indian Railways, Tamil Nadu bus services and theNational Highways67,45C,226and226 Extn.The nearest airport with regular services isTiruchirappalli International Airport(IATA: TRZ), about 55 kilometres (34 mi) away. The city and the temple though inland, are at the start of theKaveri Riverdelta, thus with access to theBay of Bengaland through it to theIndian Ocean. Along with the temples, the Tamil people completed the first major irrigation network in the 11th century for agriculture, for movement of goods and to control the water flow through the urban center. History A spectrum ofdravidiantemple styles continued to develop from the fifth to the ninth century over theChalukyaera rule as evidenced inAihole,BadamiandPattadakal, and then with thePallavaera as witnessed atMamallapuramand other monuments. Thereafter, between 850 and 1280,Cholasemerged as the dominant dynasty.The early Chola period saw a greater emphasis on securing their geopolitical boundaries and less emphasis on architecture. In the tenth century, within the Chola empire emerged features such as the multifacetedcolumnswith projecting squarecapitals. This, states George Michell, signaled the start of the new Chola style.This South Indian style is most fully realized both in scale and detail in the Brihadeshwara temple built between 1003 and 1010 by the Chola kingRajaraja I. Additions, renovations and repairs The main temple along with its gopurams is from the early 11th century. The temple also saw additions, renovations, and repairs over the next 1,000 years. The raids and wars, particularly between MuslimSultanswho controlledMaduraiandHindu kingswho controlled Thanjavur caused damage.These were repaired by Hindu dynasties that regained control. In some cases, the rulers attempted to renovate the temple with faded paintings, by ordering new murals on top of the older ones. In other cases, they sponsored the addition of shrines. The significant shrines ofKartikeya(Murugan),Parvati(Amman) andNandiare from the 16th and 17th-century Nayaka era.Similarly theDakshinamurtishrine was built later.It was well maintained byMarathasof Thanjavur. Description Architecture The Peruvudaiyar temple's plan and development utilizes theaxialandsymmetricalgeometryrules.It is classified as Perunkoil (also called Madakkoil), a big temple built on a higher platform of a natural or man-made mounds.The temple complex is a rectangle that is almost two stacked squares, covering 240.79 metres (790.0 ft) east to west, and 121.92 metres (400.0 ft) north to south. In this space are five main sections: the sanctum with the towering superstructure (sri vimana), the Nandi hall in front (Nandi-mandapam) and in between these the main community hall (mukhamandapam), the great gathering hall (mahamandapam) and the pavilion that connects the great hall with the sanctum (Antrala). The temple complex integrates a large pillared and covered veranda (prakara) in its spacious courtyard, with a perimeter of about 450 metres (1,480 ft) for circumambulation. Outside this pillared veranda there are two walls of enclosure, the outer one being defensive and added in 1777 by the French colonial forces with gun-holes with the temple serving as an arsenal. They made the outer wall high, isolating the temple complex area. On its east end is the original main gopuram or gateway that isbarrel vaulted. It is less than half the size of the main temple'svimana. Additional structures were added to the original temple after the 11th century, such as a mandapa in its northeast corner and additional gopurams (gateways) on its perimeters to allow people to enter and leave from multiple locations.Some of the shrines and structures were added during the Pandya, Nayaka, Vijayanagara and Maratha era, before the colonial era started, and these builders respected the original plans and symmetry rules. Inside the original temple courtyard, along with the main sanctum and Nandi-mandapam are two major shrines, one for Kartikeya and for Parvati. The complex has additional smaller shrines. The Peruvudaiyar temple continued the Hindu temple traditions of South India by adopting architectural and decorative elements, but its scale significantly exceeded the temples constructed before the 11th century. The Chola era architects and artisans innovated the expertise to scale up and build, particularly with heavy stone and to accomplish the 63.4 metres (208 ft) high toweringvimana. The temple faces east, and once had a water moat around it. This has been filled up. The fortified wall now runs around this moat. The two walls have ornate gateways called the gopurams. These are made from stone and display entablature. The main gateways are on the east side. The first one is called theKeralantakan tiruvasal, which means the \"sacred gate of the Keralantakan\". The word Keralantakan was the surname of king Rajaraja who built it. About a 100 metres (330 ft) ahead is the inner courtyard gopuram called theRajarajan tiruvasal. This is more decorated than theKeralantakan tiruvasal, such as with itsadhishthanamrelief work narrating scenes from thePuranasand other Hindu texts.The inner eastern gopuram leads to a vast courtyard, in which the shrines are all signed to east–west and north-west cardinal directions. The complex can be entered either on one axis through a five-storygopuramor with a second access directly to the huge main quadrangle through a smaller free-standing gopuram. The gopuram of the main entrance is 30 m high, smaller than the vimana.The main temple-related monuments and the great tower is in the middle of this courtyard.Around the main temple that is dedicated to Shiva, are smaller shrines, most of which are aligned axially. These are dedicated to his consortParvati, his sonsMuruganandGanesha, Nandi,Varahi, Karuvur deva (theguruof Rajaraja Chola), Chandeshvara and Nataraja.The Nandi mandapam has a monolithic seated bull facing the sanctum. In between them are stairs leading to a columned porch and community gathering hall, then an inner mandapa connecting to thepradakshina patha, or circumambulation path. TheNandi(bull) facing the mukh-mandapam weighs about 25 tonnes.It is made of a single stone and is about 2 m in height, 6 m in length and 2.5 m in width. The image of Nandi is a monolithic one and is one of the largest in the country. Preservation & Restoration As a world heritage monument, the temple and the premises comes under theArchaeological Survey of India(ASI) which falls under the Ministry of Culture of the Government of India, to ensure safety, preservation and restoration. The surrounding facilities have been upgraded to create an ambience worthy of the grandeur of this ancient marvel with lighting, signage and facilities for devotees and visitors. The lighting of the monument is designed to enhance the natural color of the stone along with the sculptural forms adorning all corners of the temple. The restoration has been undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India that commissionedSheila Sri PrakashIndianarchitectanddesignerto lead the design. Sanctum and the Sri-vimana The sanctum is at the center of the western square. It is surrounded by massive walls that are divided into levels by sharply cut sculptures andpilastersproviding deep bays and recesses. Each side of the sanctuary has a bay with iconography.The interior of thesanctum sanctorumhosts an image of the primary deity, Shiva, in the form of a huge stonelinga. It is called Karuvarai, a Tamil word that means \"womb chamber\". This space is calledgarbha grihain other parts of India. Only priests are allowed to enter this inner-most chamber. In theTamizhanstyle, the sanctum takes the form of a miniaturevimana. It has the inner wall together with the outer wall creating a path around the sanctum for circumambulation (pradakshina). The entrance is highly decorated. The inside chamber is the sanctum sanctorum, which houses the brihad linga. The mainVimana(Shikhara) is a massive 16 storeys tower of which 13 are tapering squares. It dominates the main quadrangle. It sits above a 30.18 metres (99.0 ft) sided square.The tower is elaboratelyarticulatedwithPilaster, piers (a raised structure), and attachedcolumnswhich are placed rhythmically covering every surface of the vimana. Deities and Natya Sastra dance mudras The temple is dedicated to Shiva in the form of a hugelinga, his abstract aniconic representation. It is 29 feet (8.7 m) high, occupying two storeys of the sanctum.It is one of the largest monolithic linga sculptures in India. The Shaivism temple celebrates all major Hindu traditions by including the primary deities of theVaishnavismandShaktismtradition in the great mandapa of the main temple. The distribution of the deities is generally symmetric, except for the east entrance side which provide for the door and walkway. In addition to the main deities, each side provides fordvarapalas (guardians), and various other sculptures. The vestibule has three stone sculptures that is intricately carved, and mural paintings.The ground floor level sanctum walls have the following sculptures: On the second floor, Shiva'sTripurantakaform in different postures is depicted corresponding to these sculptures. Above these floors, thesri-vimanatowers above in thirteen storeys (talas). Above these storeys is a single square block of granite weight 80 tons, and 7.77 metres (25.5 ft) side. On top of this block, at its corners are Nandi pairs each about 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 in) by 1.68 metres (5 ft 6 in) in dimension. Above the center of this granite block rises thegriva, thesikharaand the finial (stupi) of Tamil Hindu temple architecture. Thisstupiis 3.81 metres (12.5 ft) in height, and was originally covered with gold (no longer). Thesikharaat the top is cupola-shaped and weighs 25 tons.Each storey of this tower is decorated withkutasandsalas. The shrinking squares tower architecture of this temple differs from the tower at the Chola temple at Gangaikondasolisvaram, because this is straight in contrast to the latter which is curvilinear. The temple's sri-vimana magnitude has made it a towering landmark for the city.The upper storey corridor wall of theaditalais carved with 81 of the 108 dancekaranas – postures ofNatya Sastra. This text is the basis of theBharathanatyam, the classical dance of Tamil Nadu. The 27 unrepresentedkaranasare blank blocks of stone, and it is unclear why these were not carved. The 81 postures carved suggest the significance of this classical Indian dance form by early 11th century. The garbhagriha is square and sits on aplinth. This is moulded and 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) thick. It consists ofupapithamandadhishthanam, respectively 140 cm and 360 cm thick. Mandapa The two mandapa, namelymaha-mandapaandmukha-mandapa, are square plan structures axially aligned between the sanctum and theNandi mandapa. Themaha-mandapahas six pillars on each side.This too has artwork. The Vitankar and Rajaraja I bronze are here, but these were added much later. Themaha-mandapais flanked by two giant stone dvarapalas. It is linked to themukha-mandapaby stairs. The entrance of themukha-mandapaalso has dvarapalas. With the mandapa are eight small shrines fordikpalas, or guardian deities of each direction such asAgni,Indra,Varuna,Kuberaand others. These were installed during the rule of Chola king Rajendra I. Inscriptions indicate that this area also had other iconography from major Hindu traditions during the Chola era, but these are now missing. The original eight shrines included those forSurya(the sun god),Saptamatrikas(seven mothers), Ganesha, Murugan,Jyeshtha,Chandra(the moon god), Chandeshvara and Bhairava.Similarly, in the western wall cella was a massive granite Ganesha built during Rajaraja I era, but who is now found in thetiruch-churru-maligai(southern veranda). Of the Shaktism tradition's seven mothers, onlyVarahisurvives in a broken form. Her remnants are now found in a small modern era brick \"Varahi shrine\" in the southern side of the courtyard. The original version of the others along with their original Chola shrines are missing. Murals The temple has an underneath layer of Chola frescoes on the sanctum walls along the circumambulatory pathway. These frescoes which cover floor to ceiling, were discovered in 1931 by S. K. Govindasami of theAnnamalai University.The painters used natural pigments and infused it into the wet limestone layer as it was setting in. The Chola frescoes were largely of Shaivism themes. These were restored in the 2000s.The total Chola fresco area is about 670 square metres (7,200 sq ft), of which about 112 square metres (1,210 sq ft) had been uncovered as of 2010 in a method that preserves both paintings, a technique developed by Archaeological Survey of India.The frescoes narrate Hindu mythology.According to Balasubrahmanyam, most frescoes are related to Shiva, but the 11th century Chola frescoes also show Vishnu, Durga and others, as well as scenes of Chola royalty, courtly and common life. The later constructions, additions and modifications to the temple curtailed the amount of natural light inside the temple. The frescoes were thus photographed in a limited way and interpreted. According to Sriraman, a complete imaging with better photographic equipment suggests that these historic interpretations were incorrect.For example, a fresco that was previously interpreted as Dakshinamurti Shiva is actually a secular scene of a royalgurumeditating under a banyan tree. On the tree are shown peacocks, birds, monkeys, squirrels and owls, plus a cobra. The animals and birds are shown as worried of the cobra, the ones closer to the snake are shown to be more worried.Other parts of the panel similarly show a court listening to a saint. Other show women in different dresses in different dancemudra. Some of the paintings in the sanctum sanctorum and the walls in the passage had been damaged because of the soot that had deposited on them once upon a time. Owing to the continuous exposure to smoke and soot from the lamps and burning of camphor in the sanctum sanctorum over a period of centuries certain parts of the Chola paintings on the circumambulatory passage walls had been badly damaged.TheArchaeological Survey of India, for the first time in the world, used its unique de-stucco process to restore 16 Nayak paintings, which were superimposed on 1000-year-old Chola frescoes.These 400-year-old paintings have been mounted on fibre glass boards, displayed at a separate pavilion. Inscriptions The temple walls have numerous inscriptions in Tamil and Grantha scripts. Many of these begin with customary Sanskrit and Tamil language historical introduction to the king who authorized it, and predominant number of them discuss gifts to the temple or temple personnel, in some cases residents of the city.The temple complex has sixty four inscriptions ofRajaraja Chola I, twenty nine inscriptions ofRajendra Chola I, one each ofVikrama Chola,Kulottunga IandRajamahendra(Rajendra II), three of a probablePandyanking, two ofNayakarulers namely, Achyutappa Nayaka and Mallapa Nayaka. Temple personnel An inscription on the north wall of enclosure, dated 1011 CE, gives a detailed accounts of people employed and supported by the temple. The inscription gives their wages, roles and names. It includes over 600 names including those ofpriests, lamp lighters, washermen,tailors,jewelers,potters,carpenters, sacred parasol bearers, dance gurus,dancing girls,singers, male and femalemusicians, superintendents of performance artists, accountants among others. Their wages was in parcels of land, so their temple employment was likely part-time. The temple employeddevadasiswho were dancers and singers of devotional hymns. Among its numerous inscriptions are frequent gifts that state, \"to provide for worship, for food to assembly ofsannyasis(monks or ascetics) and for repairs\". According to George Michell, the Thanjavur temple was a major charity institution in its history. It provides free meal for pilgrims, devotees and wayfarers on a daily basis. On the days of Hindu festivals, these meals were elaborate and whenbrahminswere particularly invited and fed. Millennium commemoration Built in the year 1010 CE by Chola emperor Rajaraja I in Thanjavur, the temple is popularly known as the Big Temple. It turned 1,000 years old in September 2010. To celebrate the 1000th year of the grand structure, the state government and the town held many cultural events. It was to recall the 275th day of his 25th regal year (1010 CE) when Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) handed over a gold-platedkalasam(copper pot orfinial) for the final consecration to crown thevimana, the 59.82-metre tall tower above the sanctum. Bharathanatyam Yajna To mark the occasion, the state government organised aBharathanatyamYajna, classical dance show under noted dancerPadma Subramaniam. It was jointly organised by the Association of Bharatanatyam Artistes of India (ABHAI) and the Brhan Natyanjali Trust, Thanjavur. To mark the 1000th anniversary of the building, 1,000 dancers from New Delhi,Mumbai,Pune, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Kerala, Singapore, Malaysia and the US danced in concert to the recorded 11 verses of divine musicThiruvisaippa(ninth volume ofThirumurai) composed by Karuvur deva (the guru of Rajaraja). The small town turned into a cultural hub for two days beginning 26 September 2010 as street performers and dancers performed throughout the town. Commemorative stamps and coins On 26 September 2010 (Big Temple's fifth day of millennium celebrations), as a recognition of Big Temple's contribution to the country's cultural, architectural, epigraphical history, a special₹5 postage stamp featuring the 66 metres (216 ft) tall giantRaja Gopuramwas released byIndia Post. TheReserve Bank of Indiacommemorated the event by releasing a₹5 coin with the model of temple embossed on it.A Raja,Cabinet Minister of Communications and Information Technologyreleased the esteemed Brihadeeswarar temple special stamp, the first of which was received byG K Vasan,Cabinet Minister of Shipping. Mumbai Mintissued Rs 1,000 Commemorative Coin with the same picture as on the Rs 5 coin. It was the first 1,000 Rupees coin to be released in the Republic of India coinage. This coin was a Non Circulative Legal Tender (NCLT). On 1 April 1954, the Reserve Bank of India released a₹1,000 currency note featuring a panoramic view of the Brihadeeswar temple marking its cultural heritage and significance. In 1975, the then government led by Prime MinisterIndira Gandhidemonetisedall₹1,000 currency notes in an effort to curtailblack money. These notes are now popular among collectors. In 2010, the then Tamil Nadu chief minister,M Karunanidhirenamed SemmaiRice, a type of high productivity paddy variant, asRaja Rajan-1,000to mark the millennial year of the constructor of the temple, Rajaraja Chola. Reception The temple \"testifies the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting\".The temple finds mention in many of the contemporary works of the period likeMuvar UlaandKalingathuparani. According to Chatterjee, theDravidian architectureattained its supreme form of expression in the temple and it successor, theBrihadeeswarar Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.The temple has been declared as a heritage monument by the Government of India and administered by theArchaeological Survey of Indiaas a protected monument. The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. The temple was declared as aWorld Heritage SitebyUNESCO, along with the Brihadeeswara Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram andAiravatesvara templeatDarasuramthat are referred as theGreat Living Chola Temples.These three temples have similarities, but each has unique design and sculptural elements.All of the three temples were built by the Cholas between the 10th and 12th centuries CE and they have continued to be supported and used by Hindus. The temples are classified as \"Great Living\" as the temples are active in cultural, pilgrimage and worship practises in modern times. Cultural events The Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur is the site of annual dance festivals around February, around theMahashivratri. Major classical Indian dance form artists, as well as regional teams, perform their repertoire at this Brahan Natyanjali festival over 10 days. Car festival TheTemple carwas rolled out on its trial run from opposite toSri Ramartemple on 20 April 2015 witnessed by a large number of people.Nine days later, the maiden procession of the temple car was held. This was the first such procession in this temple held in the past hundred years, according to news reports. Novels Kalki Krishnamurthy, a renowned Tamil novelist, has written a historical novel namedPonniyin Selvan, based on the life ofRajaraja.Balakumaran, another Tamil author has written a novel namedUdaiyarthemed on the life of Rajaraja I and the construction of the temple. Administration The temple is currently administered and managed byBabaji Bhonsle, the head of theThanjavur Maratharoyal family. He serves as the hereditary trustee of the palace Devasthanam which continues to manage 88Cholatemples including the Brihadeeswara temple.Tamilgroups have been unsuccessfully petitioning theTamil Nadugovernment to revoke these rights as he is not ofCholaor Tamil lineage. According to one of the protesters, who also happens to be the coordinator of the Big Temple Rights Retrieval Committee, Babaji Bhonsle is also not the legal heir of the Maratha kings of Thanjavur. Gallery The temple features many sculptures, reliefs and murals: See also Notes References Bibliography External links",
"Rajaraja I Rajaraja I(Middle Tamil:Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ;Classical Sanskrit:Rājarāja Śōḷa; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014),also known asRajaraja the Great, was aCholaemperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He is known for his conquests ofSouth Indiaand parts ofSri Lanka, and increasing Chola influence across theIndian Ocean. Rajaraja's empire encompassed vast territories, including regions of thePandya country, theChera country, and northernSri Lanka. He also extended his influence over strategic islands such asLakshadweep,Thiladhunmaduluatoll, and parts of theMaldivesin theIndian Ocean. His conquests weren't limited to the south; he also launched successful campaigns against theWestern Gangasand theWestern Chalukyas, extending Chola authority as far as theTungabhadra River. In the east, Rajaraja faced fierce opposition from theTelugu Cholaking Jata Choda Bhima over control ofVengi. This region held significant strategic importance due to its access to resources and trade routes. The conflict between the two rulers intensified as they vied for dominance in the region, resulting in significant battles and shifting allegiances. Rajaraja I also left a significant mark through his architectural and cultural achievements. He commissioned the construction of theRajarajeshwaram Templein the Chola capital ofThanjavur, which is revered as one of the most prominent examples of medieval South Indian architectural style.Additionally, during his reign, important Tamil literary works by poets such as Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were gathered and compiled into a single collection known as the Thirumurai. This earned him the title of 'Thirumurai Kanda Cholar,' meaning The One Who Found Thirumurai.He initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known asvalanadus.Rajaraja died in 1014 CE, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I. Early life Rajaraja was a son of the Chola kingParantaka II(alias Sundara) and queen Vanavan Mahadevi.According to theThiruvalangaducopper-plate inscription, his birth name was Arun Mozhi Varman, literally \"The Word of Sun Clan\".He was born around 947 CE in theAipassimonth, on the day ofSadhayamstar.TheGovernment of Tamil Nadurecognizes his birthdate as 3 November 947.He had an elder brother –Aditha II,and an elder sister –Kundavai. Rajaraja's ascension ended a period of rival claims to the throne, following the death of his great-grandfatherParantaka I. After Parantaka I, his elder sonGandaradityaascended the throne. At the time of Gandaraditya's death, his sonMadhurantakanwas a minor, so the throne passed on to Parantaka I's younger sonArinjaya. Arinjaya died soon and was succeeded by his son Parantaka II, also known as Sundara Chola. It was decided that the throne would pass on to Madhurantakan after Sundara: this decision was most probably that of Sundara himself, although theThiruvalangaduinscription of Rajaraja's sonRajendra Iclaims that it was made by Rajaraja. Aditha died under mysterious circumstances; inscriptions hint at him being assassinated. Sundara died soon after, clearing the way for Madhurantakan to be king under the title Uttama Chola. After the death of Uttama, Rajaraja finally ascended the throne in June–July 985.Known as Arumoḷi Varman until this point, he adopted theregnal nameRajaraja, which means \"King among Kings\". Military conquests When Rajaraja came into power, he inherited a kingdom that was only centered around the Thanjavur-Tiruchirappalli region, which was the heart of traditional Chola territory.However, this kingdom was not very large, and it was still recovering from attacks by the Rashtrakutas in previous years. Rajaraja changed this by transforming the kingdom into a well-organized empire with a powerful army and navy. Under his rule, the northern kingdom of Vengi became closely allied with the Cholas, and their influence expanded along the eastern coast all the way up to Kalinga in the north. In the Thanjavur inscriptions, various regiments are noted. These regiments were organized into units of elephants, cavalry, and infantry. Each of these units operated independently and had the authority to give gifts or construct temples as they saw fit. Against Kandalur Salai Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions commemorate a significant triumph at Kandalur Salai, located in present-day Kerala, around 988 CE. He is acclaimed as \"Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta,\" which translates to 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'. He is hailed as \"Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta,\" meaning 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'Originally, this area was under the control of the Ay chief, who served as a vassal to the Pandya king of Madurai. However, it remains uncertain whether warriors from the Chera or Pandya dynasties were involved in this conflict.The Thiruvalangadu inscription suggests that Rajaraja's general captured Vizhinjam (Viḷinam), which could have been part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. It appears that this engagement involved the Chola navy, or possibly a joint operation involving both the navy and the army. Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas Rajaraja's inscriptions begin to appear inKanyakumari districtin the 990s and inThiruvananthapuram districtin the early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century.The Senur inscription dated to 1005 CE, attributed to Rajaraja, records his military achievements. It mentions the destruction of the Pandya capital, Madurai, as well as the conquest of several regions. These include defeating the formidable rulers of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumals of Makotai).Certain triumphs in the region of Malainadu were possibly achieved by Prince Rajendra Chola I on behalf of his father, Rajaraja Chola. Following his victory over the Pandyas, Rajaraja assumed the title of Pandya Kulashani, which translates to 'Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas.' As a result of his conquest, the territory of the Pandyas became recognized as \"Rajaraja Mandalam\" or \"Rajaraja Pandinadu.\"When recounting Rajaraja's military expedition in Trisanku Kastha (the southern region), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I mentions the capture of a certain royal figure named Amarabhujanga.However, the specific identity of this individual—whether he was a prince of the Pandya dynasty, a general serving the Pandya king, or a prince of the Kongu Chera dynasty—remains a matter of debate and has not been conclusively resolved.According to theKongu Desa Rajakkal,a historical record of the Kongu Nadu region, it is suggested that this general eventually changed his loyalty to Rajaraja. He is said to have participated in the ritual ofkanakabhisheka,where gold is poured over the Chola king, symbolizing an act of royal anointment or coronation. Once Rajaraja had consolidated his authority in the southern regions, he took on the title of Mummudi Chola. This title, which means \"three Crowned,\" symbolized his power over three important Tamil kingdoms: the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras. Conquest of Sri Lanka During the reign of King Mahinda V, the Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura experienced a significant military revolt around the year 982 AD, primarily as a consequence of the monarch's economic policies. The armed forces of the Anuradhapura capital predominantly consisted of Tamil mercenaries recruited from coastal regions. By 882 CE, tensions escalated into a full-fledged uprising led by these mercenaries, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The ensuing turmoil compelled the vulnerable Sinhala ruler to seek refuge in the Rohana principality, thereby plunging the capital city of Anuradhapura into an extended period of civil unrest lasting approximately eleven years, marked by widespread disorder and lawlessness. The disruption of central governance exacerbated the financial strain on the kingdom, particularly in meeting the obligations to the Tamil mercenaries. Consequently, the mercenaries, feeling aggrieved and disillusioned, turned their allegiance towards the Chola empire. This strategic shift left Anuradhapura vulnerable to the incursions of the Chola forces, who exploited the internal strife to mount invasions in the year 993. These events, documented in historical sources, underscore the intricate interplay of economic policies, military dynamics, and regional power struggles during this period in the history of Anuradhapura. In 993 CE, Rajaraja achieved the conquest of Anuradhapura, known as Pihiti rata in local context, situated in Sri Lanka.This territory was subsequently designated as Ila-mandalam in Chola historical records.The military campaign led to the sacking of Anuradhapura by the Chola army, resulting in the acquisition of the northern portion of Sri Lanka by the Chola empire. As part of their administrative efforts, the Cholas established a provincial capital at the strategic military outpost of Polonnaruwa, renaming it Jananathamangalam in honor of Rajaraja's title. Under Chola administration, the official Tali Kumaran oversaw the construction of a significant Shiva temple known as Rajarajeshwara, meaning \"Lord of Rajaraja,\" within the town of Mahatirtha, now recognized as modern-day Mantota. Consequently, Mahatirtha was renamed Rajarajapura in commemoration of the Chola monarch's conquest and establishment of authority in the region. To commemorate their victory, the Chola administrator Tali Kumaran supervised the construction of a notable Shiva temple named Rajarajeshwara, signifying \"Lord of Rajaraja,\" within the precincts of Mahatirtha. Presently acknowledged as modern Mantota, this temple assumed a pivotal role as a representation of Chola hegemony and religious fervor. The transformation of Mahatirtha into Rajarajapura, in homage to the Chola sovereign, further underscores the symbolic and cultural import of the Chola conquest of Anuradhapura and their subsequent governance in the northern expanse of Sri Lanka. The Thiruvalangadu Plates directly compare Raja Raja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama: \"Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka using sharp-edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka.\" In 1017 CE, Rajaraja's successor, Rajendra I, finalized the Chola conquest of Sri Lanka.The Chola reign over Sri Lanka persisted until 1070, when Vijayabahu I successfully vanquished and expelled them from the island. Chalukyan conflict In 998 CE, Rajaraja annexed Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi (present-day Karnataka).During this campaign, Raja Chola subdued the Nolambas, who were previously vassals of the Ganga dynasty.These territories were initially under the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas, who had been defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973 CE. Consequently, the Cholas found themselves in direct conflict with the Chalukyas.An inscription ofIrivabedanga Satyashrayafrom Dharwar describes him as a vassal of the Western Chalukyas and acknowledges the Chola onslaught. An inscription attributed to Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accuses Rajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara, blurring the ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by the Dharmasastras.Historians such as James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn interpret this confrontation as indicative of personal animosity between the rulers of the Chola and Chalukya kingdoms, akin to historical conflicts between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi. By the year 1004 CE, Rajaraja had successfully conquered the Gangavadi province.He established control over the western part of Gangavadi, ruled by the Changalvas, and over Kodagu, governed by the Kongalvas, who were then made vassals of the Chola Empire.Panchavan Maraya, a Chola general, played a significant role in defeating the Changalvas in the battle of Ponnasoge and was duly rewarded with the territory of Arkalgud Yelusuvira-7000 and the esteemed title of Kshatriyasikhamani.Similarly, in recognition of the valor displayed by Manya, a Kongalva leader, the estate of Malambi (Coorg) was granted to them, along with the title of Kshatriyasikhamani. Meanwhile, the Vengi kingdom was under the rule of Jata Choda Bhima, a member of the Eastern Chalukyas Dynasty.However, Rajaraja emerged victorious in battle against Bhima, and Saktivarman was appointed as a viceroy under the Chola Dynasty.Despite a brief period of Bhima's recapture ofKanchiin 1001 CE, Rajaraja swiftly restored Saktivarman to power, even expelling and eliminating an Andhra king named Bhima.Notably, Rajaraja cemented an alliance between the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom by arranging the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to the next viceroy of Vengi, Vimaladitya. This strategic union ensured the future succession of Rajaraja's descendants to the throne of theeastern Chalukya kingdom. Hoysala conflicts There were hostile encounters between the Cholas and theHoysalas, a group who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas.An inscription from the Gopalakrishna temple atNarasipur, dated to 1006, records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killedHoysalagenerals and a minister identified as Naganna.Additionally, a similar inscription inChannapatnadescribes Rajaraja defeating theHoysalas. Kalinga conquest The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi.This conquest marked the northern boundary of the Chola Empire at that time and established their control over the entirety of South and South-East India. Conquest of Kuda-malai-nadu In multiple historical accounts, there are mentions of King Rajaraja's conquest of a place called \"Kuda-malai-nadu\" around the year 1000 CE.In certain inscriptions found in Karnataka, the term \"Kudagu-malai-nadu\" is used instead of \"Kuda-malai-nadu.\" Scholars generally believe that this region corresponds to Coorg (Kudagu). The king's conquest of Malainadu is described in the Vikrama Chola Ula, where it is said that he achieved it in just one day, crossing 18 mountain passes.According to the Kulottunga Chola Ula, King Rajaraja was depicted as beheading 18 people and burning down Udagai.Additionally, the Kalingathupparani references the establishment of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the seizure of Udagai, and the plundering of several elephants from the area.The Tiruppalanam inscription from 999 CE records the king's offering of an idol obtained as spoils from Malainadu. Naval expedition \"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe.\" One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the islands ofMaldives(\"the Ancient Islands of the Sea Numbering 1200\").The naval campaign was a demonstration of the Chola naval power in the Indian Ocean. The Cholas controlled the area aroundBay of BengalwithNagapattinamas the main port. TheChola Navyalso played a major role in the invasion ofSri Lanka.The success of Rajaraja allowed his sonRajendra Cholato lead theChola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupyingKadaram. Personal life Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi.He had at least three daughters and two sons. The older son, Rajendra, was born to Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār.The younger son was named Araiyan Rajarajan, and the identiey of his mother is unknown.He had his first daughterKundavaiwith Lokamadev who eventually marriedChalukyaprince Vimaladithan.Rajaraja had two other daughters.. Rajaraja died in 1014 CE in theTamil monthof Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I. Administration Before the reign of Rajaraja I, portions of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers.Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganization of the empire into units known as valanadus.From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign ofVikrama Cholain 1133 CE, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials.This led to the king exercising closer control over the different parts of the empire.Rajaraja strengthened the local self-governments and installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission toChina.Furthermore, his elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples. Officials Rajendra Chola Iwas appointed as a co-regent towards the end of Rajaraja's reign. He held the position of supreme commander over the northern and northwestern territories. Under Raja Chola's rule, there was a notable expansion of the administrative system, resulting in a greater number of offices and officials documented in Chola records compared to previous eras.Villavan Muvendavelan, one of the top officials of Rajaraja figures in many of his inscriptions.The names of other officials found in the inscriptions are theBanaprince Narasimhavarman, a general SenapathiKrishnan Raman, the Samanta chiefVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys. Religious policy Rajaraja was a follower ofShaivismdenomination ofHinduismbut he also dedicated several temples toVishnu. TheChudamani Vihara, aBuddhistmonastery, was constructed in the 11th century CE inNagapattinam. It was named Chudamani or Chulamani Vihara after King Sri Mara's father. The monastery was built by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman, with the support of Rajaraja I.According to the small Leyden grant, this Vihara was known as Rajaraja-perumpalli during the reign of Kulottunga I.Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara. Rajaraja called himselfShivapada Shekhara(IAST: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, \"the one who places his crown at the feet ofShiva\". Arts and architecture Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts ofThevaramin his court.He sought the help ofNambi Andar Nambi.It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct inThillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.Thebrahmanas(Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.Rajaraja thus became known asTirumurai Kanda Cholanmeaning one who saved theTirumurai. In his workNambiyandar Nambi PuranamaliasTirumurai Kanda Puranam, Nambi identifies his patron asRasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan, that isking Rajaraja, the best of the race ofAbhaya.At that time, Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.Nambi organized the hymns of three saint poets—Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar—as the first seven books. He included Manickavasagar's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, and the hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book. The Tirumandiram of Tirumular was designated as the 10th book, while 40 hymns by 12 other poets constituted the 11th book. Additionally, Nambi added Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi, the sacred anthathi of the labors of the 63 nayanar saints, along with his own hymns as the 12th book.The initial seven books were later recognized as Tevaram.With the addition of Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) as the twelfth book, the entire Saiva canon became known as Tirumurai, the holy scripture. Consequently, Saiva literature now encompasses approximately 600 years of religious, philosophical, and literary development. There are no existing contemporary portraits or statues of Rajaraja. The bronze figure purportedly depicting him at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of recent origin. Brihadisvara Temple During 1010 CE, Rajaraja built the Brihadisvara Temple inThanjavurand dedicated it to LordShiva. The temple, also known asPeriya Kovil,RajaRajeswara TempleandRajarajeswaram, and the capital were centres of both religious and economic activity.The temple, which turned 1000 years old in 2010, is one of the largest temples in India and is an example ofDravidian architectureof theChola period.Along withGangaikonda Cholapuramtemple andAiravatesvara temple, Brihadisvara is part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Siteknown as the \"Great Living Chola Temples\". The temple tower, called thevimanam, stands at a remarkable height of 216 feet (66 meters), making it the tallest in the world. At the very top sits the Kumbam, a bulbous structure, which is carved entirely from a single rock and weighs approximately 80 tons.At the entrance stands a sizable statue of Nandi, the sacred bull, carved from a single rock, measuring about 16 feet in length and 13 feet in height. The entire temple structure is crafted from granite, obtained from sources located approximately 60 kilometers to the west of the temple. This temple is widely renowned as one of the premier tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. Coins Prior to Rajaraja's reign, Chola coins featured the tiger emblem on the obverse, along with the fish and bow emblems representing the Pandya and Chera Dynasties, while the reverse side displayed the name of the King. However, a new type of coin emerged during Rajaraja's rule. These new coins showcased the figure of the standing king on the obverse side, while the reverse side depicted a seated goddess.The coins spread across much of southern India and were copied by Sri Lankan kings. Inscriptions Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone. An inscription inTamilfromMulbagalinKarnatakashows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such aMeikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows: Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses the river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves. Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished. Another inscription from the Gramardhanathesvara temple in the southern area ofArcot, dating back to the seventh year of the king, mentions the fifteenth year of his predecessor, Uttama Choladeva. Uttama Choladeva is described in the inscription as the son of Sembiyan-Madeviyar. In popular culture See also References Bibliography External links",
"Kundavai Pirāttiyār Kundavai Pirattiyar, commonly known mononymously asKundavai, was aCholaIndian princess who lived in the tenth century inSouth India.She was the daughter ofParantaka IIand Vanavan Mahadevi.She was born inTirukoilurand was the elder sister of Chola emperorRajaraja I. She had title asIlaiyapirātti Kundavai Nachiyar. However, when her husbandVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevanwas crowned king in his hometownBana kingdom, she did not accept the offer to become queen of the kingdom and remained as the princess ofTanjore. Life Kundavai (also transliterated as Kundhavai or Kunthavai) was born in 945 CE. She was the only daughter of the Chola kingParantaka IIand queen Vanavan Mahadevi. She had an elder brother –Aditha Chola II, and a younger brother –Raja Raja Chola I. Kundavai marriedVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, a member of theBana dynasty, a feudatory of theCholasmentioned in theTanjoreinscriptions.He was also the commander of the Chola infantry that fought inSri Lankain the days ofRajaraja l. The territory under his authority was known as 'Vallavaraiyanadu', and occasionally 'Brahmadesam'. Along with her great-auntSembiyan Mahadevi, Kundavai brought up her nephew,Rajendra I, who was the son ofRajaraja IandThiripuvana Madeviyar, princess ofKodumbalur. Rajendra I spent most of his childhood inPazhaiyaraiwith Kundavai and Sembiyan Mahadevi. In popular culture Kundavai is celebrated as mentor toRajaraja I. Her influence continued into the next generation as she helped rearRajendra Chola. Uniquely for her era, where royal women were used to forge alliances, Kundavai's father allowed her to exercise her free will, whereupon the princess resolved to stay in the Chola kingdom all her life. Esteemed throughout the Chola realm for her taste and learning, Kundavai was requested to look after the daughters of other royal clans, tutoring them in art, music, and literature. Life and works Kundavai commissioned many temples forTirthankars,VishnuandSiva. She revered many Jain Monks and Vedantic seers .She features inCholainscriptions. ..vessels and ornaments made of gold, silver and pearl and presented to the temples of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar, Iravikulamanikka-Iswara and Kundavai Jinalaya, built by the princess Parantakan Kundavai Pirattiyar, daughter of Ponmaligaittunjiyadevar(Parantaka Sundara Chola). She is believed to have built many Jain temples but at least two Jain temples have inscriptions that records to have been built by her, one atRajarajeswaramlater known asDarasuramand the other atTirumalai.She built a hospital after her father named Vinnagar athura salai atThanjavurand donated extensive lands for its maintenance.She made lavish donations to theBrihadeeswarar TempleatThanjavurduring the reign of her younger brotherRajaraja Chola Iand her nephewRajendra Chola I. One of the inscriptions reads: Records gift of sheep for lamps to the temple of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar by princess Pirantakan-Kundavai-Pirattiyar. Also mentioned is the senapati, Mummudi-Chola Brahmamarayar who was in charge of the management of the temple Some of the images or idols set up by princess Kundavai include: Here is an excerpt from the 29th year of Rajaraja that lists some of her gifts toBrihadeeswarar Temple: Hail! Prosperity! Until the twenty-ninth year (of the reign) of Ko-Rajakesarivarman alias Sri-Rajarajadeva who..-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva and the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar..gave three thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was a quarter superior in fineness to the (gold standard called) dandavani, and one thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was one (degree) inferior in fineness to the dandavani, – altogether, five thousand karanju of gold. Hail ! Prosperity! Until the third year (of the reign) of Ko-Parakesarivarman, alias the lord Sri-Rajendra-Soradeva,-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva (and) the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar gave-..One sacred girdle (tiruppattigai), (containing) ninety-seven karanju and a half, four manjadi and nine-tenths of gold. Six hundred and sixty-seven large and small diamonds with smooth edges, set (into it), – including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed two karanju and a quarter and six-tenths (of a manjadi). Eighty-three large and small rubies, viz., twenty-two halahalam of superior quality, twenty halahalam, twenty smooth rubies, nine bluish rubies, two sattam and ten unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white specks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed ten karanju and three-quarters, three manjadi and two-tenths. Two hundred and twelve pearls, strung or sewn on, – including round pearls, roundish pearls, polished pearls, small pearls, nimbolam, ambumudu, (pearls) of brilliant water and of red water, such as had been polished while still adhering to the shall, (and pearls with) lines, stains, red dots, white specks and wrinkles, – weighed eighteen karanju and two manjadi. Altogether, (the girdle) weighed one hundred and twenty-nine karanju and seven-tenths (of a manadi), corresponding to a value of four thousand and five hundred kasu..One ring for the foot of the goddess, (containing) seventy-one karanju and a half and two manjadi of gold. Four hundred and fifty-nine diamonds, set (into it), viz., four hundred and fifty diamonds with smooth edges, and nine small square diamonds with smooth edges, including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed (one) karanju and a half, three manjadi and nine-tenths. Thirty-nine large and small rubies, viz., ten halahalam of superior quality, eight halahalam, nine smooth rubies, three bluish rubies and nine unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white speeks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed three karanju and three-quarters, three manjadi and six-tenths. Altogether, (the ring) weighed seventy-seventy-seven karanju, four manjadi and (one) kunri, corresponding to a value of a five hundred kasu. Kundavai spent the last days of her life with her nephewRajendra Iat the palace inPazhaiyarai. ..run-tiru-amudu sëd-arulavaum ăga nellu padin kalam-āga ōrādaikku nellu nūrru irubadin kalamum udaiyār sri-Rājarājadēvarkku mun pirand-arulina sri ālvār sri-Kundavai Pirāttiyār pirand-arulina avitta-tirunālāl tingal oru nāl tiru-vilā elund-arulavu. In popular culture See also References Further reading",
"Bana kingdom TheBanaorVanawas a dynasty based in South India, who claimed descent from kingMahabali. The dynasty takes its name from Bana, the son of Mahabali. The Banas faced opposition from several neighbouring dynasties and served some major dynasties such as theChalukyasCholasandPandyasas feudatories, sometimes after they were subjugated by them. They also served asSamantasto some dynasties. The Banas had their capital at various places at different times, includingKolarandGudimallam.The Banas were a nativeKannadaruling dynasty. History The earliest mention of the Banas in authentic historical records is in the middle of the fourth century AD, and as the feudatories of theSatavahanaand earlyPallavas. But from the actual literature history (Mysore State Gazetteer 1968), The Mahavalis or Brihadbanas who ruled the present Kolar andChikkaballapurdistricts ofKarnatakaare the descendants of King Banasura or King Bana, son of King Mahabali. King Brihadbana was the grandson of Mahabali. Last known ruling king of this generation was King Sambayya. They were in constant conflicts withNolambasand Western Gangas of the Kolar region. They had Vaidumbas as their allies. They had the present day Avani region (a village in Kolar District) as their capital. The Bana dynasty had a distinctive emblem, featuring a black flag and a bull crest. An inscription discovered in Mulbagal Taluk dating back to the year 339 AD, written in Sanskrit, begins by praising Shiva, whose throne is said to be on the mountain peak called Nandi. This peak is believed to be the present-day Nandidurga, which is considered to personify Nandi, the bull of Shiva. The inscription documents the grant of the village of Mudiyanur (also known as Chudagrama, a Sanskritized form of Mudiyanur) to 25 Brahmins by Vadhuvallabha-Malladeva-Nandivarma, the son of Vijayaditya Deva and grandson of Nandivarma, a notable figure from Mahabali's dynasty. The king, who was in the town of Avanya (Avani), is credited with bringing prosperity to the Bana dynasty and has been compared to Bodhisattva. The Banas seem to have been a strong power almost until the decline at the end of the 9th century. In the battle of Soremati about 874, Banas they, together with the Vaidumbas, are said to have defeated theGangasand theNolambas. Further, their inscriptions of 898, 905 and 909 A.D. mention no overlord. But all the same, the Banas had adversaries on all sides, and their power was continually being undermined since the close of the 9th century. They ultimately appear to have lost their independence by the first half of the 1Oth century at the latest. If theNolambaking Mahendra (c. 870-897) is described as the cunning king who has ended the Mahabali family, theCholakingViranarayana or Parantakaclaims in 921 to have uprooted by force two Bana kings and conferred the title of Banadhiraja on theGangaprince Prithvipathi II, who helped him in this task. In 961, which is the date of the latest Bana inscription in this district, we find one King Sambayya ruling a small district under the Pallava king Iriva or Dilipa. But the Banas did not disappear altogether from the political history, as is evident from the references to them in some later literary works and inscriptions. Stray Bana records have been found outside this district, particularly in the south, as late as the first quarter of the 16th century AD. The history of the Banas, who, during a period of more than a thousand years, moved from district to district, from the Andhra-desha in the north to the Pandya country in the far south where they were governors of Madurai under thePandyakings, is particularly interesting in that it illustrates the long survival of a dynasty by migrations. Boundaries The Bana kingdom was made up of various regions at different points in time and was known by the following names: In Medieval South India TheWestern Ganga dynastyking, Prithivipati II was conferred the title \"lord of the Banas\" byParantaka ICholaafter he defeated the Banas. After the Chola King, Parantaka I deprived the Banas of their Andhrapatha kingdom between 909 and 916 AD, the Banas were subsequently found ruling various parts, such as Nellore, Guntur and Anantapur, as chieftains in medieval Andhra. In Nellore An inscription discovered in Sannamur revealed the existence of a Bana dynasty that ruled the northern part of Nellore district in the 11th century AD. The Bana king at that time was named Aggaparaju (also known as Aggraparaju alias Aggappa), who claimed his descent from Mahabali and asserted lordship over Paravipura and Nandagiri. While nothing is known about his predecessors, it is believed that Aggappa may have ruled as a vassal of the Chalukya prince, Vimaladitya. In Konidena Churrabali I or Churaballiraja I of the Banas was ruling in Konidena in the 12th century AD. Churaballi II alias Churabbiraju II, served as a Mahamandaleshwara and bore a long prasasti and titles similar to that of Aggapparaju. Hence it is suggested that he was a descendant of Aggappa Raju. Churabbiraju's only record from Konidena dated 1151 AD mentions him as \"Mahamandalesvara Berbaha Churraballi Raju\". His epithets mention he belonged to Vashista gotra. He claimed lordship over Paravipura and Nandagiri and ruled in a part ofKammanadu. Other Banas Brihatphala Based on the copper plates of Jayavarman Brihat-Phalayana, it has been suggested that Brihat-Phala means the same as Brihad-Bana, where 'phala' and 'bana' both have the same meaning as 'arrowhead'.The Brihat-phalayanas ruled in regions around Masulipatnam around the 3rd century AD.Additionally, the Saka Mahakshatrapas of Ujjain claimed Brihatphala (Bahaphala) gotra and were linked with the Ikshvakus.A record of theIkshvakusof the Guntur-Krishna region mentions that a queen named Varma Bhatarika, the wife of Maharaja Ehuvula Chantamula, and daughter-in-law of Maharaja Chantamula, is said to have belonged to Bahapala (that is, Brihat-phala or Brihatphalayana) gotra and is said to have been the daughter of a Mahakshatrapa.It may therefore be surmised that Brihatphala was possibly used as a gotra name to indicate descent from Brihad-Bana. Bana kings Some Bana kings mentioned in various historical sources are: In Sangam literature An ancient Tamil poem of theSangam period, describes a scene in front of a Vanar Palace thus: Poets are leaving the palace with plenty of gifts from the King, while the arrested rulers of smaller regions of the kingdom, who have failed to pay tribute to the King and waiting for the King's pardon happen to see the poets leaving with expensive gifts which are actually things seized by the King from them. One of them, seeing the gifts, says that it is his horse that one the poet takes away, while another one points out to his elephant, similarly and so on goes the poem, capturing the might of ancient Vanars. This poem explains the wealth and power of Southern Vanars.Kalki, in hishistoric novelPonniyin Selvan, describes a scene in which the protagonist,Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, who he claims to be of Vanar descent, broods over the fall of his clan, singing this poem. Titles The Bana Chieftains held various titles in different regions and at different times, including Vanar, Vanara, Vanavarayar, Vanakovarayar, Ponparappinan, and some claimed titles such as \"Vaana-Kulothoman,\" \"Ganga-kula-uthaman,\" and \"Kaangeyar,\" among others. See also References"
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"Brihadisvara Temple Brihadishvara Temple, calledRajarajesvaram(lit.'Lord ofRajaraja') by its builder, and known locally asThanjai Periya Kovil(lit.'Thanjavur Big Temple') andPeruvudaiyar Kovil, is aShaiviteHindu templebuilt in aChola architecturalstylelocated on the south bank of theCauveryriver inThanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India.It is one of thelargest Hindu templesand an exemplar ofTamil architecture.It is also calledDakshina Meru(Meruof theSouth).Built byCholaemperorRajaraja Ibetween 1003 and 1010 CE, the temple is a part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Siteknown as the \"Great Living Chola Temples\", along with the Chola-eraGangaikonda Cholapuram templeandAiravatesvara temple, which are about 70 kilometres (43 mi) and 40 kilometres (25 mi) to its northeast respectively. The original monuments of this 11th-century temple were built around a moat. It includedgopura, the main temple, its massive tower, inscriptions, frescoes, and sculptures predominantly related toShaivism, but also ofVaishnavismandShaktism. The temple",
"The temple was damaged in its history and some artwork is now missing. Additional mandapam and monuments were added in the centuries that followed. The temple now stands amidst fortified walls that were added after the16th century. Built using granite, thevimanatower above the shrine is one of the tallest in South India.The temple has a massive colonnadedprakara(corridor) and one of the largest Shivalingasin India.It is also famed for the quality of its sculpture, as well as being the location that commissioned the brassNataraja, Shiva as the lord of dance, in the 11th century. The complex includes shrines forNandi,Parvati,Murugan,Ganesha, Sabhapati,Dakshinamurti,Chandeshvara,Varahi, Thiyagarajar of Thiruvarur,SiddharKaruvoorarand others.The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. Nomenclature Rajaraja Chola, who commissioned the temple, called it Rajarajeshvaram (Rajarājeśvaram), literally \"the temple of the god of Rajaraja\".A later inscription in the Brihannayaki shrine calls",
"shrine calls the temple's deity Periya Udaiya Nayanar, which appears to be the source of the modern names Brihadisvara and Peruvudaiyar Kovil. Location The Peruvudaiyar Templeis located in the city ofThanjavur, about 350 kilometres (220 mi) southwest ofChennai. The city is connected daily to other major cities by the network of Indian Railways, Tamil Nadu bus services and theNational Highways67,45C,226and226 Extn.The nearest airport with regular services isTiruchirappalli International Airport(IATA: TRZ), about 55 kilometres (34 mi) away. The city and the temple though inland, are at the start of theKaveri Riverdelta, thus with access to theBay of Bengaland through it to theIndian Ocean. Along with the temples, the Tamil people completed the first major irrigation network in the 11th century for agriculture, for movement of goods and to control the water flow through the urban center. History A spectrum ofdravidiantemple styles continued to develop from the fifth to the ninth century over theChalukyaera rule",
"theChalukyaera rule as evidenced inAihole,BadamiandPattadakal, and then with thePallavaera as witnessed atMamallapuramand other monuments. Thereafter, between 850 and 1280,Cholasemerged as the dominant dynasty.The early Chola period saw a greater emphasis on securing their geopolitical boundaries and less emphasis on architecture. In the tenth century, within the Chola empire emerged features such as the multifacetedcolumnswith projecting squarecapitals. This, states George Michell, signaled the start of the new Chola style.This South Indian style is most fully realized both in scale and detail in the Brihadeshwara temple built between 1003 and 1010 by the Chola kingRajaraja I. Additions, renovations and repairs The main temple along with its gopurams is from the early 11th century. The temple also saw additions, renovations, and repairs over the next 1,000 years. The raids and wars, particularly between MuslimSultanswho controlledMaduraiandHindu kingswho controlled Thanjavur caused damage.These were",
"damage.These were repaired by Hindu dynasties that regained control. In some cases, the rulers attempted to renovate the temple with faded paintings, by ordering new murals on top of the older ones. In other cases, they sponsored the addition of shrines. The significant shrines ofKartikeya(Murugan),Parvati(Amman) andNandiare from the 16th and 17th-century Nayaka era.Similarly theDakshinamurtishrine was built later.It was well maintained byMarathasof Thanjavur. Description Architecture The Peruvudaiyar temple's plan and development utilizes theaxialandsymmetricalgeometryrules.It is classified as Perunkoil (also called Madakkoil), a big temple built on a higher platform of a natural or man-made mounds.The temple complex is a rectangle that is almost two stacked squares, covering 240.79 metres (790.0 ft) east to west, and 121.92 metres (400.0 ft) north to south. In this space are five main sections: the sanctum with the towering superstructure (sri vimana), the Nandi hall in front (Nandi-mandapam) and in",
"and in between these the main community hall (mukhamandapam), the great gathering hall (mahamandapam) and the pavilion that connects the great hall with the sanctum (Antrala). The temple complex integrates a large pillared and covered veranda (prakara) in its spacious courtyard, with a perimeter of about 450 metres (1,480 ft) for circumambulation. Outside this pillared veranda there are two walls of enclosure, the outer one being defensive and added in 1777 by the French colonial forces with gun-holes with the temple serving as an arsenal. They made the outer wall high, isolating the temple complex area. On its east end is the original main gopuram or gateway that isbarrel vaulted. It is less than half the size of the main temple'svimana. Additional structures were added to the original temple after the 11th century, such as a mandapa in its northeast corner and additional gopurams (gateways) on its perimeters to allow people to enter and leave from multiple locations.Some of the shrines and structures were",
"and structures were added during the Pandya, Nayaka, Vijayanagara and Maratha era, before the colonial era started, and these builders respected the original plans and symmetry rules. Inside the original temple courtyard, along with the main sanctum and Nandi-mandapam are two major shrines, one for Kartikeya and for Parvati. The complex has additional smaller shrines. The Peruvudaiyar temple continued the Hindu temple traditions of South India by adopting architectural and decorative elements, but its scale significantly exceeded the temples constructed before the 11th century. The Chola era architects and artisans innovated the expertise to scale up and build, particularly with heavy stone and to accomplish the 63.4 metres (208 ft) high toweringvimana. The temple faces east, and once had a water moat around it. This has been filled up. The fortified wall now runs around this moat. The two walls have ornate gateways called the gopurams. These are made from stone and display entablature. The main gateways are",
"main gateways are on the east side. The first one is called theKeralantakan tiruvasal, which means the \"sacred gate of the Keralantakan\". The word Keralantakan was the surname of king Rajaraja who built it. About a 100 metres (330 ft) ahead is the inner courtyard gopuram called theRajarajan tiruvasal. This is more decorated than theKeralantakan tiruvasal, such as with itsadhishthanamrelief work narrating scenes from thePuranasand other Hindu texts.The inner eastern gopuram leads to a vast courtyard, in which the shrines are all signed to east–west and north-west cardinal directions. The complex can be entered either on one axis through a five-storygopuramor with a second access directly to the huge main quadrangle through a smaller free-standing gopuram. The gopuram of the main entrance is 30 m high, smaller than the vimana.The main temple-related monuments and the great tower is in the middle of this courtyard.Around the main temple that is dedicated to Shiva, are smaller shrines, most of which are aligned",
"which are aligned axially. These are dedicated to his consortParvati, his sonsMuruganandGanesha, Nandi,Varahi, Karuvur deva (theguruof Rajaraja Chola), Chandeshvara and Nataraja.The Nandi mandapam has a monolithic seated bull facing the sanctum. In between them are stairs leading to a columned porch and community gathering hall, then an inner mandapa connecting to thepradakshina patha, or circumambulation path. TheNandi(bull) facing the mukh-mandapam weighs about 25 tonnes.It is made of a single stone and is about 2 m in height, 6 m in length and 2.5 m in width. The image of Nandi is a monolithic one and is one of the largest in the country. Preservation & Restoration As a world heritage monument, the temple and the premises comes under theArchaeological Survey of India(ASI) which falls under the Ministry of Culture of the Government of India, to ensure safety, preservation and restoration. The surrounding facilities have been upgraded to create an ambience worthy of the grandeur of this ancient marvel with",
"ancient marvel with lighting, signage and facilities for devotees and visitors. The lighting of the monument is designed to enhance the natural color of the stone along with the sculptural forms adorning all corners of the temple. The restoration has been undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India that commissionedSheila Sri PrakashIndianarchitectanddesignerto lead the design. Sanctum and the Sri-vimana The sanctum is at the center of the western square. It is surrounded by massive walls that are divided into levels by sharply cut sculptures andpilastersproviding deep bays and recesses. Each side of the sanctuary has a bay with iconography.The interior of thesanctum sanctorumhosts an image of the primary deity, Shiva, in the form of a huge stonelinga. It is called Karuvarai, a Tamil word that means \"womb chamber\". This space is calledgarbha grihain other parts of India. Only priests are allowed to enter this inner-most chamber. In theTamizhanstyle, the sanctum takes the form of a miniaturevimana. It",
"miniaturevimana. It has the inner wall together with the outer wall creating a path around the sanctum for circumambulation (pradakshina). The entrance is highly decorated. The inside chamber is the sanctum sanctorum, which houses the brihad linga. The mainVimana(Shikhara) is a massive 16 storeys tower of which 13 are tapering squares. It dominates the main quadrangle. It sits above a 30.18 metres (99.0 ft) sided square.The tower is elaboratelyarticulatedwithPilaster, piers (a raised structure), and attachedcolumnswhich are placed rhythmically covering every surface of the vimana. Deities and Natya Sastra dance mudras The temple is dedicated to Shiva in the form of a hugelinga, his abstract aniconic representation. It is 29 feet (8.7 m) high, occupying two storeys of the sanctum.It is one of the largest monolithic linga sculptures in India. The Shaivism temple celebrates all major Hindu traditions by including the primary deities of theVaishnavismandShaktismtradition in the great mandapa of the main temple.",
"of the main temple. The distribution of the deities is generally symmetric, except for the east entrance side which provide for the door and walkway. In addition to the main deities, each side provides fordvarapalas (guardians), and various other sculptures. The vestibule has three stone sculptures that is intricately carved, and mural paintings.The ground floor level sanctum walls have the following sculptures: On the second floor, Shiva'sTripurantakaform in different postures is depicted corresponding to these sculptures. Above these floors, thesri-vimanatowers above in thirteen storeys (talas). Above these storeys is a single square block of granite weight 80 tons, and 7.77 metres (25.5 ft) side. On top of this block, at its corners are Nandi pairs each about 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 in) by 1.68 metres (5 ft 6 in) in dimension. Above the center of this granite block rises thegriva, thesikharaand the finial (stupi) of Tamil Hindu temple architecture. Thisstupiis 3.81 metres (12.5 ft) in height, and was",
"in height, and was originally covered with gold (no longer). Thesikharaat the top is cupola-shaped and weighs 25 tons.Each storey of this tower is decorated withkutasandsalas. The shrinking squares tower architecture of this temple differs from the tower at the Chola temple at Gangaikondasolisvaram, because this is straight in contrast to the latter which is curvilinear. The temple's sri-vimana magnitude has made it a towering landmark for the city.The upper storey corridor wall of theaditalais carved with 81 of the 108 dancekaranas – postures ofNatya Sastra. This text is the basis of theBharathanatyam, the classical dance of Tamil Nadu. The 27 unrepresentedkaranasare blank blocks of stone, and it is unclear why these were not carved. The 81 postures carved suggest the significance of this classical Indian dance form by early 11th century. The garbhagriha is square and sits on aplinth. This is moulded and 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) thick. It consists ofupapithamandadhishthanam, respectively 140 cm and 360 cm",
"140 cm and 360 cm thick. Mandapa The two mandapa, namelymaha-mandapaandmukha-mandapa, are square plan structures axially aligned between the sanctum and theNandi mandapa. Themaha-mandapahas six pillars on each side.This too has artwork. The Vitankar and Rajaraja I bronze are here, but these were added much later. Themaha-mandapais flanked by two giant stone dvarapalas. It is linked to themukha-mandapaby stairs. The entrance of themukha-mandapaalso has dvarapalas. With the mandapa are eight small shrines fordikpalas, or guardian deities of each direction such asAgni,Indra,Varuna,Kuberaand others. These were installed during the rule of Chola king Rajendra I. Inscriptions indicate that this area also had other iconography from major Hindu traditions during the Chola era, but these are now missing. The original eight shrines included those forSurya(the sun god),Saptamatrikas(seven mothers), Ganesha, Murugan,Jyeshtha,Chandra(the moon god), Chandeshvara and Bhairava.Similarly, in the western wall cella was a",
"wall cella was a massive granite Ganesha built during Rajaraja I era, but who is now found in thetiruch-churru-maligai(southern veranda). Of the Shaktism tradition's seven mothers, onlyVarahisurvives in a broken form. Her remnants are now found in a small modern era brick \"Varahi shrine\" in the southern side of the courtyard. The original version of the others along with their original Chola shrines are missing. Murals The temple has an underneath layer of Chola frescoes on the sanctum walls along the circumambulatory pathway. These frescoes which cover floor to ceiling, were discovered in 1931 by S. K. Govindasami of theAnnamalai University.The painters used natural pigments and infused it into the wet limestone layer as it was setting in. The Chola frescoes were largely of Shaivism themes. These were restored in the 2000s.The total Chola fresco area is about 670 square metres (7,200 sq ft), of which about 112 square metres (1,210 sq ft) had been uncovered as of 2010 in a method that preserves both",
"that preserves both paintings, a technique developed by Archaeological Survey of India.The frescoes narrate Hindu mythology.According to Balasubrahmanyam, most frescoes are related to Shiva, but the 11th century Chola frescoes also show Vishnu, Durga and others, as well as scenes of Chola royalty, courtly and common life. The later constructions, additions and modifications to the temple curtailed the amount of natural light inside the temple. The frescoes were thus photographed in a limited way and interpreted. According to Sriraman, a complete imaging with better photographic equipment suggests that these historic interpretations were incorrect.For example, a fresco that was previously interpreted as Dakshinamurti Shiva is actually a secular scene of a royalgurumeditating under a banyan tree. On the tree are shown peacocks, birds, monkeys, squirrels and owls, plus a cobra. The animals and birds are shown as worried of the cobra, the ones closer to the snake are shown to be more worried.Other parts of the",
"parts of the panel similarly show a court listening to a saint. Other show women in different dresses in different dancemudra. Some of the paintings in the sanctum sanctorum and the walls in the passage had been damaged because of the soot that had deposited on them once upon a time. Owing to the continuous exposure to smoke and soot from the lamps and burning of camphor in the sanctum sanctorum over a period of centuries certain parts of the Chola paintings on the circumambulatory passage walls had been badly damaged.TheArchaeological Survey of India, for the first time in the world, used its unique de-stucco process to restore 16 Nayak paintings, which were superimposed on 1000-year-old Chola frescoes.These 400-year-old paintings have been mounted on fibre glass boards, displayed at a separate pavilion. Inscriptions The temple walls have numerous inscriptions in Tamil and Grantha scripts. Many of these begin with customary Sanskrit and Tamil language historical introduction to the king who authorized it,",
"who authorized it, and predominant number of them discuss gifts to the temple or temple personnel, in some cases residents of the city.The temple complex has sixty four inscriptions ofRajaraja Chola I, twenty nine inscriptions ofRajendra Chola I, one each ofVikrama Chola,Kulottunga IandRajamahendra(Rajendra II), three of a probablePandyanking, two ofNayakarulers namely, Achyutappa Nayaka and Mallapa Nayaka. Temple personnel An inscription on the north wall of enclosure, dated 1011 CE, gives a detailed accounts of people employed and supported by the temple. The inscription gives their wages, roles and names. It includes over 600 names including those ofpriests, lamp lighters, washermen,tailors,jewelers,potters,carpenters, sacred parasol bearers, dance gurus,dancing girls,singers, male and femalemusicians, superintendents of performance artists, accountants among others. Their wages was in parcels of land, so their temple employment was likely part-time. The temple employeddevadasiswho were dancers and",
"were dancers and singers of devotional hymns. Among its numerous inscriptions are frequent gifts that state, \"to provide for worship, for food to assembly ofsannyasis(monks or ascetics) and for repairs\". According to George Michell, the Thanjavur temple was a major charity institution in its history. It provides free meal for pilgrims, devotees and wayfarers on a daily basis. On the days of Hindu festivals, these meals were elaborate and whenbrahminswere particularly invited and fed. Millennium commemoration Built in the year 1010 CE by Chola emperor Rajaraja I in Thanjavur, the temple is popularly known as the Big Temple. It turned 1,000 years old in September 2010. To celebrate the 1000th year of the grand structure, the state government and the town held many cultural events. It was to recall the 275th day of his 25th regal year (1010 CE) when Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) handed over a gold-platedkalasam(copper pot orfinial) for the final consecration to crown thevimana, the 59.82-metre tall tower above the",
"tower above the sanctum. Bharathanatyam Yajna To mark the occasion, the state government organised aBharathanatyamYajna, classical dance show under noted dancerPadma Subramaniam. It was jointly organised by the Association of Bharatanatyam Artistes of India (ABHAI) and the Brhan Natyanjali Trust, Thanjavur. To mark the 1000th anniversary of the building, 1,000 dancers from New Delhi,Mumbai,Pune, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Kerala, Singapore, Malaysia and the US danced in concert to the recorded 11 verses of divine musicThiruvisaippa(ninth volume ofThirumurai) composed by Karuvur deva (the guru of Rajaraja). The small town turned into a cultural hub for two days beginning 26 September 2010 as street performers and dancers performed throughout the town. Commemorative stamps and coins On 26 September 2010 (Big Temple's fifth day of millennium celebrations), as a recognition of Big Temple's contribution to the country's cultural, architectural, epigraphical history, a special₹5 postage stamp featuring",
"stamp featuring the 66 metres (216 ft) tall giantRaja Gopuramwas released byIndia Post. TheReserve Bank of Indiacommemorated the event by releasing a₹5 coin with the model of temple embossed on it.A Raja,Cabinet Minister of Communications and Information Technologyreleased the esteemed Brihadeeswarar temple special stamp, the first of which was received byG K Vasan,Cabinet Minister of Shipping. Mumbai Mintissued Rs 1,000 Commemorative Coin with the same picture as on the Rs 5 coin. It was the first 1,000 Rupees coin to be released in the Republic of India coinage. This coin was a Non Circulative Legal Tender (NCLT). On 1 April 1954, the Reserve Bank of India released a₹1,000 currency note featuring a panoramic view of the Brihadeeswar temple marking its cultural heritage and significance. In 1975, the then government led by Prime MinisterIndira Gandhidemonetisedall₹1,000 currency notes in an effort to curtailblack money. These notes are now popular among collectors. In 2010, the then Tamil Nadu chief",
"Tamil Nadu chief minister,M Karunanidhirenamed SemmaiRice, a type of high productivity paddy variant, asRaja Rajan-1,000to mark the millennial year of the constructor of the temple, Rajaraja Chola. Reception The temple \"testifies the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting\".The temple finds mention in many of the contemporary works of the period likeMuvar UlaandKalingathuparani. According to Chatterjee, theDravidian architectureattained its supreme form of expression in the temple and it successor, theBrihadeeswarar Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.The temple has been declared as a heritage monument by the Government of India and administered by theArchaeological Survey of Indiaas a protected monument. The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. The temple was declared as aWorld Heritage SitebyUNESCO, along with the Brihadeeswara Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram andAiravatesvara templeatDarasuramthat are referred as theGreat Living",
"as theGreat Living Chola Temples.These three temples have similarities, but each has unique design and sculptural elements.All of the three temples were built by the Cholas between the 10th and 12th centuries CE and they have continued to be supported and used by Hindus. The temples are classified as \"Great Living\" as the temples are active in cultural, pilgrimage and worship practises in modern times. Cultural events The Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur is the site of annual dance festivals around February, around theMahashivratri. Major classical Indian dance form artists, as well as regional teams, perform their repertoire at this Brahan Natyanjali festival over 10 days. Car festival TheTemple carwas rolled out on its trial run from opposite toSri Ramartemple on 20 April 2015 witnessed by a large number of people.Nine days later, the maiden procession of the temple car was held. This was the first such procession in this temple held in the past hundred years, according to news reports. Novels Kalki",
"Novels Kalki Krishnamurthy, a renowned Tamil novelist, has written a historical novel namedPonniyin Selvan, based on the life ofRajaraja.Balakumaran, another Tamil author has written a novel namedUdaiyarthemed on the life of Rajaraja I and the construction of the temple. Administration The temple is currently administered and managed byBabaji Bhonsle, the head of theThanjavur Maratharoyal family. He serves as the hereditary trustee of the palace Devasthanam which continues to manage 88Cholatemples including the Brihadeeswara temple.Tamilgroups have been unsuccessfully petitioning theTamil Nadugovernment to revoke these rights as he is not ofCholaor Tamil lineage. According to one of the protesters, who also happens to be the coordinator of the Big Temple Rights Retrieval Committee, Babaji Bhonsle is also not the legal heir of the Maratha kings of Thanjavur. Gallery The temple features many sculptures, reliefs and murals: See also Notes References Bibliography External links",
"Rajaraja I Rajaraja I(Middle Tamil:Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ;Classical Sanskrit:Rājarāja Śōḷa; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014),also known asRajaraja the Great, was aCholaemperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He is known for his conquests ofSouth Indiaand parts ofSri Lanka, and increasing Chola influence across theIndian Ocean. Rajaraja's empire encompassed vast territories, including regions of thePandya country, theChera country, and northernSri Lanka. He also extended his influence over strategic islands such asLakshadweep,Thiladhunmaduluatoll, and parts of theMaldivesin theIndian Ocean. His conquests weren't limited to the south; he also launched successful campaigns against theWestern Gangasand theWestern Chalukyas, extending Chola authority as far as theTungabhadra River. In the east, Rajaraja faced fierce opposition from theTelugu Cholaking Jata Choda Bhima over control ofVengi. This region held significant strategic importance due to its access to resources and trade routes. The conflict between the",
"between the two rulers intensified as they vied for dominance in the region, resulting in significant battles and shifting allegiances. Rajaraja I also left a significant mark through his architectural and cultural achievements. He commissioned the construction of theRajarajeshwaram Templein the Chola capital ofThanjavur, which is revered as one of the most prominent examples of medieval South Indian architectural style.Additionally, during his reign, important Tamil literary works by poets such as Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were gathered and compiled into a single collection known as the Thirumurai. This earned him the title of 'Thirumurai Kanda Cholar,' meaning The One Who Found Thirumurai.He initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known asvalanadus.Rajaraja died in 1014 CE, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I. Early life Rajaraja was a son of the Chola kingParantaka II(alias Sundara) and queen Vanavan",
"and queen Vanavan Mahadevi.According to theThiruvalangaducopper-plate inscription, his birth name was Arun Mozhi Varman, literally \"The Word of Sun Clan\".He was born around 947 CE in theAipassimonth, on the day ofSadhayamstar.TheGovernment of Tamil Nadurecognizes his birthdate as 3 November 947.He had an elder brother –Aditha II,and an elder sister –Kundavai. Rajaraja's ascension ended a period of rival claims to the throne, following the death of his great-grandfatherParantaka I. After Parantaka I, his elder sonGandaradityaascended the throne. At the time of Gandaraditya's death, his sonMadhurantakanwas a minor, so the throne passed on to Parantaka I's younger sonArinjaya. Arinjaya died soon and was succeeded by his son Parantaka II, also known as Sundara Chola. It was decided that the throne would pass on to Madhurantakan after Sundara: this decision was most probably that of Sundara himself, although theThiruvalangaduinscription of Rajaraja's sonRajendra Iclaims that it was made by Rajaraja. Aditha died",
"Aditha died under mysterious circumstances; inscriptions hint at him being assassinated. Sundara died soon after, clearing the way for Madhurantakan to be king under the title Uttama Chola. After the death of Uttama, Rajaraja finally ascended the throne in June–July 985.Known as Arumoḷi Varman until this point, he adopted theregnal nameRajaraja, which means \"King among Kings\". Military conquests When Rajaraja came into power, he inherited a kingdom that was only centered around the Thanjavur-Tiruchirappalli region, which was the heart of traditional Chola territory.However, this kingdom was not very large, and it was still recovering from attacks by the Rashtrakutas in previous years. Rajaraja changed this by transforming the kingdom into a well-organized empire with a powerful army and navy. Under his rule, the northern kingdom of Vengi became closely allied with the Cholas, and their influence expanded along the eastern coast all the way up to Kalinga in the north. In the Thanjavur inscriptions, various",
"various regiments are noted. These regiments were organized into units of elephants, cavalry, and infantry. Each of these units operated independently and had the authority to give gifts or construct temples as they saw fit. Against Kandalur Salai Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions commemorate a significant triumph at Kandalur Salai, located in present-day Kerala, around 988 CE. He is acclaimed as \"Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta,\" which translates to 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'. He is hailed as \"Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta,\" meaning 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai.'Originally, this area was under the control of the Ay chief, who served as a vassal to the Pandya king of Madurai. However, it remains uncertain whether warriors from the Chera or Pandya dynasties were involved in this conflict.The Thiruvalangadu inscription suggests that Rajaraja's general captured Vizhinjam (Viḷinam), which could have been part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. It appears that this engagement involved the Chola navy,",
"the Chola navy, or possibly a joint operation involving both the navy and the army. Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas Rajaraja's inscriptions begin to appear inKanyakumari districtin the 990s and inThiruvananthapuram districtin the early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century.The Senur inscription dated to 1005 CE, attributed to Rajaraja, records his military achievements. It mentions the destruction of the Pandya capital, Madurai, as well as the conquest of several regions. These include defeating the formidable rulers of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumals of Makotai).Certain triumphs in the region of Malainadu were possibly achieved by Prince Rajendra Chola I on behalf of his father, Rajaraja Chola. Following his victory over the Pandyas, Rajaraja assumed the title of Pandya Kulashani, which translates to 'Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas.' As a result of his conquest, the territory of the Pandyas became",
"the Pandyas became recognized as \"Rajaraja Mandalam\" or \"Rajaraja Pandinadu.\"When recounting Rajaraja's military expedition in Trisanku Kastha (the southern region), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I mentions the capture of a certain royal figure named Amarabhujanga.However, the specific identity of this individual—whether he was a prince of the Pandya dynasty, a general serving the Pandya king, or a prince of the Kongu Chera dynasty—remains a matter of debate and has not been conclusively resolved.According to theKongu Desa Rajakkal,a historical record of the Kongu Nadu region, it is suggested that this general eventually changed his loyalty to Rajaraja. He is said to have participated in the ritual ofkanakabhisheka,where gold is poured over the Chola king, symbolizing an act of royal anointment or coronation. Once Rajaraja had consolidated his authority in the southern regions, he took on the title of Mummudi Chola. This title, which means \"three Crowned,\" symbolized his power over three important",
"three important Tamil kingdoms: the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras. Conquest of Sri Lanka During the reign of King Mahinda V, the Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura experienced a significant military revolt around the year 982 AD, primarily as a consequence of the monarch's economic policies. The armed forces of the Anuradhapura capital predominantly consisted of Tamil mercenaries recruited from coastal regions. By 882 CE, tensions escalated into a full-fledged uprising led by these mercenaries, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The ensuing turmoil compelled the vulnerable Sinhala ruler to seek refuge in the Rohana principality, thereby plunging the capital city of Anuradhapura into an extended period of civil unrest lasting approximately eleven years, marked by widespread disorder and lawlessness. The disruption of central governance exacerbated the financial strain on the kingdom, particularly in meeting the obligations to the Tamil mercenaries. Consequently, the mercenaries, feeling aggrieved",
"feeling aggrieved and disillusioned, turned their allegiance towards the Chola empire. This strategic shift left Anuradhapura vulnerable to the incursions of the Chola forces, who exploited the internal strife to mount invasions in the year 993. These events, documented in historical sources, underscore the intricate interplay of economic policies, military dynamics, and regional power struggles during this period in the history of Anuradhapura. In 993 CE, Rajaraja achieved the conquest of Anuradhapura, known as Pihiti rata in local context, situated in Sri Lanka.This territory was subsequently designated as Ila-mandalam in Chola historical records.The military campaign led to the sacking of Anuradhapura by the Chola army, resulting in the acquisition of the northern portion of Sri Lanka by the Chola empire. As part of their administrative efforts, the Cholas established a provincial capital at the strategic military outpost of Polonnaruwa, renaming it Jananathamangalam in honor of Rajaraja's title. Under",
"title. Under Chola administration, the official Tali Kumaran oversaw the construction of a significant Shiva temple known as Rajarajeshwara, meaning \"Lord of Rajaraja,\" within the town of Mahatirtha, now recognized as modern-day Mantota. Consequently, Mahatirtha was renamed Rajarajapura in commemoration of the Chola monarch's conquest and establishment of authority in the region. To commemorate their victory, the Chola administrator Tali Kumaran supervised the construction of a notable Shiva temple named Rajarajeshwara, signifying \"Lord of Rajaraja,\" within the precincts of Mahatirtha. Presently acknowledged as modern Mantota, this temple assumed a pivotal role as a representation of Chola hegemony and religious fervor. The transformation of Mahatirtha into Rajarajapura, in homage to the Chola sovereign, further underscores the symbolic and cultural import of the Chola conquest of Anuradhapura and their subsequent governance in the northern expanse of Sri Lanka. The Thiruvalangadu Plates directly compare",
"directly compare Raja Raja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama: \"Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka using sharp-edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka.\" In 1017 CE, Rajaraja's successor, Rajendra I, finalized the Chola conquest of Sri Lanka.The Chola reign over Sri Lanka persisted until 1070, when Vijayabahu I successfully vanquished and expelled them from the island. Chalukyan conflict In 998 CE, Rajaraja annexed Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi (present-day Karnataka).During this campaign, Raja Chola subdued the Nolambas, who were previously vassals of the Ganga dynasty.These territories were initially under the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas, who had been defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973 CE. Consequently, the Cholas found themselves in direct conflict with the Chalukyas.An inscription",
"inscription ofIrivabedanga Satyashrayafrom Dharwar describes him as a vassal of the Western Chalukyas and acknowledges the Chola onslaught. An inscription attributed to Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accuses Rajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara, blurring the ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by the Dharmasastras.Historians such as James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn interpret this confrontation as indicative of personal animosity between the rulers of the Chola and Chalukya kingdoms, akin to historical conflicts between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi. By the year 1004 CE, Rajaraja had successfully conquered the Gangavadi province.He established control over the western part of Gangavadi, ruled by the Changalvas, and over Kodagu, governed by the Kongalvas, who were then made vassals of the Chola Empire.Panchavan Maraya, a Chola",
"Maraya, a Chola general, played a significant role in defeating the Changalvas in the battle of Ponnasoge and was duly rewarded with the territory of Arkalgud Yelusuvira-7000 and the esteemed title of Kshatriyasikhamani.Similarly, in recognition of the valor displayed by Manya, a Kongalva leader, the estate of Malambi (Coorg) was granted to them, along with the title of Kshatriyasikhamani. Meanwhile, the Vengi kingdom was under the rule of Jata Choda Bhima, a member of the Eastern Chalukyas Dynasty.However, Rajaraja emerged victorious in battle against Bhima, and Saktivarman was appointed as a viceroy under the Chola Dynasty.Despite a brief period of Bhima's recapture ofKanchiin 1001 CE, Rajaraja swiftly restored Saktivarman to power, even expelling and eliminating an Andhra king named Bhima.Notably, Rajaraja cemented an alliance between the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom by arranging the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to the next viceroy of Vengi, Vimaladitya. This strategic union",
"strategic union ensured the future succession of Rajaraja's descendants to the throne of theeastern Chalukya kingdom. Hoysala conflicts There were hostile encounters between the Cholas and theHoysalas, a group who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas.An inscription from the Gopalakrishna temple atNarasipur, dated to 1006, records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killedHoysalagenerals and a minister identified as Naganna.Additionally, a similar inscription inChannapatnadescribes Rajaraja defeating theHoysalas. Kalinga conquest The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi.This conquest marked the northern boundary of the Chola Empire at that time and established their control over the entirety of South and South-East India. Conquest of Kuda-malai-nadu In multiple historical accounts, there are mentions of King Rajaraja's conquest of a place called \"Kuda-malai-nadu\" around the year 1000 CE.In certain inscriptions found in Karnataka, the term \"Kudagu-malai-nadu\" is used instead of",
"is used instead of \"Kuda-malai-nadu.\" Scholars generally believe that this region corresponds to Coorg (Kudagu). The king's conquest of Malainadu is described in the Vikrama Chola Ula, where it is said that he achieved it in just one day, crossing 18 mountain passes.According to the Kulottunga Chola Ula, King Rajaraja was depicted as beheading 18 people and burning down Udagai.Additionally, the Kalingathupparani references the establishment of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the seizure of Udagai, and the plundering of several elephants from the area.The Tiruppalanam inscription from 999 CE records the king's offering of an idol obtained as spoils from Malainadu. Naval expedition \"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China,",
"Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe.\" One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the islands ofMaldives(\"the Ancient Islands of the Sea Numbering 1200\").The naval campaign was a demonstration of the Chola naval power in the Indian Ocean. The Cholas controlled the area aroundBay of BengalwithNagapattinamas the main port. TheChola Navyalso played a major role in the invasion ofSri Lanka.The success of Rajaraja allowed his sonRajendra Cholato lead theChola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupyingKadaram. Personal life Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi.He had at least three daughters and two sons. The older son, Rajendra, was born to Thiripuvāna",
"born to Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār.The younger son was named Araiyan Rajarajan, and the identiey of his mother is unknown.He had his first daughterKundavaiwith Lokamadev who eventually marriedChalukyaprince Vimaladithan.Rajaraja had two other daughters.. Rajaraja died in 1014 CE in theTamil monthof Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I. Administration Before the reign of Rajaraja I, portions of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers.Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganization of the empire into units known as valanadus.From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign ofVikrama Cholain 1133 CE, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials.This led to the king exercising closer control over the different parts of the empire.Rajaraja strengthened the local self-governments and installed a system of audit and control by which the",
"by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission toChina.Furthermore, his elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples. Officials Rajendra Chola Iwas appointed as a co-regent towards the end of Rajaraja's reign. He held the position of supreme commander over the northern and northwestern territories. Under Raja Chola's rule, there was a notable expansion of the administrative system, resulting in a greater number of offices and officials documented in Chola records compared to previous eras.Villavan Muvendavelan, one of the top officials of Rajaraja figures in many of his inscriptions.The names of other officials found in the inscriptions are theBanaprince Narasimhavarman, a general SenapathiKrishnan Raman, the Samanta chiefVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys.",
"land surveys. Religious policy Rajaraja was a follower ofShaivismdenomination ofHinduismbut he also dedicated several temples toVishnu. TheChudamani Vihara, aBuddhistmonastery, was constructed in the 11th century CE inNagapattinam. It was named Chudamani or Chulamani Vihara after King Sri Mara's father. The monastery was built by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman, with the support of Rajaraja I.According to the small Leyden grant, this Vihara was known as Rajaraja-perumpalli during the reign of Kulottunga I.Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara. Rajaraja called himselfShivapada Shekhara(IAST: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, \"the one who places his crown at the feet ofShiva\". Arts and architecture Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts ofThevaramin his court.He sought the help ofNambi Andar Nambi.It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of",
"the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct inThillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.Thebrahmanas(Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.Rajaraja thus became known asTirumurai Kanda Cholanmeaning one who saved theTirumurai. In his workNambiyandar Nambi PuranamaliasTirumurai Kanda Puranam, Nambi identifies his patron asRasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan, that isking Rajaraja, the best of the race ofAbhaya.At that time, Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.Nambi organized the hymns of three saint poets—Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar—as the first seven books. He included Manickavasagar's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, and the hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book. The Tirumandiram of Tirumular was",
"of Tirumular was designated as the 10th book, while 40 hymns by 12 other poets constituted the 11th book. Additionally, Nambi added Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi, the sacred anthathi of the labors of the 63 nayanar saints, along with his own hymns as the 12th book.The initial seven books were later recognized as Tevaram.With the addition of Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) as the twelfth book, the entire Saiva canon became known as Tirumurai, the holy scripture. Consequently, Saiva literature now encompasses approximately 600 years of religious, philosophical, and literary development. There are no existing contemporary portraits or statues of Rajaraja. The bronze figure purportedly depicting him at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of recent origin. Brihadisvara Temple During 1010 CE, Rajaraja built the Brihadisvara Temple inThanjavurand dedicated it to LordShiva. The temple, also known asPeriya Kovil,RajaRajeswara TempleandRajarajeswaram, and the capital were centres of both religious and economic",
"and economic activity.The temple, which turned 1000 years old in 2010, is one of the largest temples in India and is an example ofDravidian architectureof theChola period.Along withGangaikonda Cholapuramtemple andAiravatesvara temple, Brihadisvara is part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Siteknown as the \"Great Living Chola Temples\". The temple tower, called thevimanam, stands at a remarkable height of 216 feet (66 meters), making it the tallest in the world. At the very top sits the Kumbam, a bulbous structure, which is carved entirely from a single rock and weighs approximately 80 tons.At the entrance stands a sizable statue of Nandi, the sacred bull, carved from a single rock, measuring about 16 feet in length and 13 feet in height. The entire temple structure is crafted from granite, obtained from sources located approximately 60 kilometers to the west of the temple. This temple is widely renowned as one of the premier tourist attractions inTamil Nadu. Coins Prior to Rajaraja's reign, Chola coins featured the",
"coins featured the tiger emblem on the obverse, along with the fish and bow emblems representing the Pandya and Chera Dynasties, while the reverse side displayed the name of the King. However, a new type of coin emerged during Rajaraja's rule. These new coins showcased the figure of the standing king on the obverse side, while the reverse side depicted a seated goddess.The coins spread across much of southern India and were copied by Sri Lankan kings. Inscriptions Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone. An inscription inTamilfromMulbagalinKarnatakashows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such aMeikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows: Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property,",
"exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses the river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves. Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were",
"The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished. Another inscription from the Gramardhanathesvara temple in the southern area ofArcot, dating back to the seventh year of the king, mentions the fifteenth year of his predecessor, Uttama Choladeva. Uttama Choladeva is described in the inscription as the son of Sembiyan-Madeviyar. In popular culture See also References Bibliography External links",
"Kundavai Pirāttiyār Kundavai Pirattiyar, commonly known mononymously asKundavai, was aCholaIndian princess who lived in the tenth century inSouth India.She was the daughter ofParantaka IIand Vanavan Mahadevi.She was born inTirukoilurand was the elder sister of Chola emperorRajaraja I. She had title asIlaiyapirātti Kundavai Nachiyar. However, when her husbandVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevanwas crowned king in his hometownBana kingdom, she did not accept the offer to become queen of the kingdom and remained as the princess ofTanjore. Life Kundavai (also transliterated as Kundhavai or Kunthavai) was born in 945 CE. She was the only daughter of the Chola kingParantaka IIand queen Vanavan Mahadevi. She had an elder brother –Aditha Chola II, and a younger brother –Raja Raja Chola I. Kundavai marriedVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, a member of theBana dynasty, a feudatory of theCholasmentioned in theTanjoreinscriptions.He was also the commander of the Chola infantry that fought inSri Lankain the days ofRajaraja l. The",
"ofRajaraja l. The territory under his authority was known as 'Vallavaraiyanadu', and occasionally 'Brahmadesam'. Along with her great-auntSembiyan Mahadevi, Kundavai brought up her nephew,Rajendra I, who was the son ofRajaraja IandThiripuvana Madeviyar, princess ofKodumbalur. Rajendra I spent most of his childhood inPazhaiyaraiwith Kundavai and Sembiyan Mahadevi. In popular culture Kundavai is celebrated as mentor toRajaraja I. Her influence continued into the next generation as she helped rearRajendra Chola. Uniquely for her era, where royal women were used to forge alliances, Kundavai's father allowed her to exercise her free will, whereupon the princess resolved to stay in the Chola kingdom all her life. Esteemed throughout the Chola realm for her taste and learning, Kundavai was requested to look after the daughters of other royal clans, tutoring them in art, music, and literature. Life and works Kundavai commissioned many temples forTirthankars,VishnuandSiva. She revered many Jain Monks and Vedantic",
"Monks and Vedantic seers .She features inCholainscriptions. ..vessels and ornaments made of gold, silver and pearl and presented to the temples of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar, Iravikulamanikka-Iswara and Kundavai Jinalaya, built by the princess Parantakan Kundavai Pirattiyar, daughter of Ponmaligaittunjiyadevar(Parantaka Sundara Chola). She is believed to have built many Jain temples but at least two Jain temples have inscriptions that records to have been built by her, one atRajarajeswaramlater known asDarasuramand the other atTirumalai.She built a hospital after her father named Vinnagar athura salai atThanjavurand donated extensive lands for its maintenance.She made lavish donations to theBrihadeeswarar TempleatThanjavurduring the reign of her younger brotherRajaraja Chola Iand her nephewRajendra Chola I. One of the inscriptions reads: Records gift of sheep for lamps to the temple of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar by princess Pirantakan-Kundavai-Pirattiyar. Also mentioned is the senapati, Mummudi-Chola Brahmamarayar",
"Brahmamarayar who was in charge of the management of the temple Some of the images or idols set up by princess Kundavai include: Here is an excerpt from the 29th year of Rajaraja that lists some of her gifts toBrihadeeswarar Temple: Hail! Prosperity! Until the twenty-ninth year (of the reign) of Ko-Rajakesarivarman alias Sri-Rajarajadeva who..-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva and the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar..gave three thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was a quarter superior in fineness to the (gold standard called) dandavani, and one thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was one (degree) inferior in fineness to the dandavani, – altogether, five thousand karanju of gold. Hail ! Prosperity! Until the third year (of the reign) of Ko-Parakesarivarman, alias the lord Sri-Rajendra-Soradeva,-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva (and) the great queen of",
"the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar gave-..One sacred girdle (tiruppattigai), (containing) ninety-seven karanju and a half, four manjadi and nine-tenths of gold. Six hundred and sixty-seven large and small diamonds with smooth edges, set (into it), – including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed two karanju and a quarter and six-tenths (of a manjadi). Eighty-three large and small rubies, viz., twenty-two halahalam of superior quality, twenty halahalam, twenty smooth rubies, nine bluish rubies, two sattam and ten unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white specks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed ten karanju and three-quarters, three manjadi and two-tenths. Two hundred and twelve pearls, strung or sewn on, – including round pearls, roundish pearls, polished pearls, small pearls, nimbolam, ambumudu, (pearls) of brilliant water and of red water, such as had been polished while still adhering to the shall,",
"to the shall, (and pearls with) lines, stains, red dots, white specks and wrinkles, – weighed eighteen karanju and two manjadi. Altogether, (the girdle) weighed one hundred and twenty-nine karanju and seven-tenths (of a manadi), corresponding to a value of four thousand and five hundred kasu..One ring for the foot of the goddess, (containing) seventy-one karanju and a half and two manjadi of gold. Four hundred and fifty-nine diamonds, set (into it), viz., four hundred and fifty diamonds with smooth edges, and nine small square diamonds with smooth edges, including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed (one) karanju and a half, three manjadi and nine-tenths. Thirty-nine large and small rubies, viz., ten halahalam of superior quality, eight halahalam, nine smooth rubies, three bluish rubies and nine unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white speeks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed three karanju and three-quarters,",
"and three-quarters, three manjadi and six-tenths. Altogether, (the ring) weighed seventy-seventy-seven karanju, four manjadi and (one) kunri, corresponding to a value of a five hundred kasu. Kundavai spent the last days of her life with her nephewRajendra Iat the palace inPazhaiyarai. ..run-tiru-amudu sëd-arulavaum ăga nellu padin kalam-āga ōrādaikku nellu nūrru irubadin kalamum udaiyār sri-Rājarājadēvarkku mun pirand-arulina sri ālvār sri-Kundavai Pirāttiyār pirand-arulina avitta-tirunālāl tingal oru nāl tiru-vilā elund-arulavu. In popular culture See also References Further reading",
"Bana kingdom TheBanaorVanawas a dynasty based in South India, who claimed descent from kingMahabali. The dynasty takes its name from Bana, the son of Mahabali. The Banas faced opposition from several neighbouring dynasties and served some major dynasties such as theChalukyasCholasandPandyasas feudatories, sometimes after they were subjugated by them. They also served asSamantasto some dynasties. The Banas had their capital at various places at different times, includingKolarandGudimallam.The Banas were a nativeKannadaruling dynasty. History The earliest mention of the Banas in authentic historical records is in the middle of the fourth century AD, and as the feudatories of theSatavahanaand earlyPallavas. But from the actual literature history (Mysore State Gazetteer 1968), The Mahavalis or Brihadbanas who ruled the present Kolar andChikkaballapurdistricts ofKarnatakaare the descendants of King Banasura or King Bana, son of King Mahabali. King Brihadbana was the grandson of Mahabali. Last known ruling king of",
"ruling king of this generation was King Sambayya. They were in constant conflicts withNolambasand Western Gangas of the Kolar region. They had Vaidumbas as their allies. They had the present day Avani region (a village in Kolar District) as their capital. The Bana dynasty had a distinctive emblem, featuring a black flag and a bull crest. An inscription discovered in Mulbagal Taluk dating back to the year 339 AD, written in Sanskrit, begins by praising Shiva, whose throne is said to be on the mountain peak called Nandi. This peak is believed to be the present-day Nandidurga, which is considered to personify Nandi, the bull of Shiva. The inscription documents the grant of the village of Mudiyanur (also known as Chudagrama, a Sanskritized form of Mudiyanur) to 25 Brahmins by Vadhuvallabha-Malladeva-Nandivarma, the son of Vijayaditya Deva and grandson of Nandivarma, a notable figure from Mahabali's dynasty. The king, who was in the town of Avanya (Avani), is credited with bringing prosperity to the Bana dynasty",
"to the Bana dynasty and has been compared to Bodhisattva. The Banas seem to have been a strong power almost until the decline at the end of the 9th century. In the battle of Soremati about 874, Banas they, together with the Vaidumbas, are said to have defeated theGangasand theNolambas. Further, their inscriptions of 898, 905 and 909 A.D. mention no overlord. But all the same, the Banas had adversaries on all sides, and their power was continually being undermined since the close of the 9th century. They ultimately appear to have lost their independence by the first half of the 1Oth century at the latest. If theNolambaking Mahendra (c. 870-897) is described as the cunning king who has ended the Mahabali family, theCholakingViranarayana or Parantakaclaims in 921 to have uprooted by force two Bana kings and conferred the title of Banadhiraja on theGangaprince Prithvipathi II, who helped him in this task. In 961, which is the date of the latest Bana inscription in this district, we find one King Sambayya ruling",
"Sambayya ruling a small district under the Pallava king Iriva or Dilipa. But the Banas did not disappear altogether from the political history, as is evident from the references to them in some later literary works and inscriptions. Stray Bana records have been found outside this district, particularly in the south, as late as the first quarter of the 16th century AD. The history of the Banas, who, during a period of more than a thousand years, moved from district to district, from the Andhra-desha in the north to the Pandya country in the far south where they were governors of Madurai under thePandyakings, is particularly interesting in that it illustrates the long survival of a dynasty by migrations. Boundaries The Bana kingdom was made up of various regions at different points in time and was known by the following names: In Medieval South India TheWestern Ganga dynastyking, Prithivipati II was conferred the title \"lord of the Banas\" byParantaka ICholaafter he defeated the Banas. After the Chola King,",
"the Chola King, Parantaka I deprived the Banas of their Andhrapatha kingdom between 909 and 916 AD, the Banas were subsequently found ruling various parts, such as Nellore, Guntur and Anantapur, as chieftains in medieval Andhra. In Nellore An inscription discovered in Sannamur revealed the existence of a Bana dynasty that ruled the northern part of Nellore district in the 11th century AD. The Bana king at that time was named Aggaparaju (also known as Aggraparaju alias Aggappa), who claimed his descent from Mahabali and asserted lordship over Paravipura and Nandagiri. While nothing is known about his predecessors, it is believed that Aggappa may have ruled as a vassal of the Chalukya prince, Vimaladitya. In Konidena Churrabali I or Churaballiraja I of the Banas was ruling in Konidena in the 12th century AD. Churaballi II alias Churabbiraju II, served as a Mahamandaleshwara and bore a long prasasti and titles similar to that of Aggapparaju. Hence it is suggested that he was a descendant of Aggappa Raju.",
"of Aggappa Raju. Churabbiraju's only record from Konidena dated 1151 AD mentions him as \"Mahamandalesvara Berbaha Churraballi Raju\". His epithets mention he belonged to Vashista gotra. He claimed lordship over Paravipura and Nandagiri and ruled in a part ofKammanadu. Other Banas Brihatphala Based on the copper plates of Jayavarman Brihat-Phalayana, it has been suggested that Brihat-Phala means the same as Brihad-Bana, where 'phala' and 'bana' both have the same meaning as 'arrowhead'.The Brihat-phalayanas ruled in regions around Masulipatnam around the 3rd century AD.Additionally, the Saka Mahakshatrapas of Ujjain claimed Brihatphala (Bahaphala) gotra and were linked with the Ikshvakus.A record of theIkshvakusof the Guntur-Krishna region mentions that a queen named Varma Bhatarika, the wife of Maharaja Ehuvula Chantamula, and daughter-in-law of Maharaja Chantamula, is said to have belonged to Bahapala (that is, Brihat-phala or Brihatphalayana) gotra and is said to have been the daughter of a",
"the daughter of a Mahakshatrapa.It may therefore be surmised that Brihatphala was possibly used as a gotra name to indicate descent from Brihad-Bana. Bana kings Some Bana kings mentioned in various historical sources are: In Sangam literature An ancient Tamil poem of theSangam period, describes a scene in front of a Vanar Palace thus: Poets are leaving the palace with plenty of gifts from the King, while the arrested rulers of smaller regions of the kingdom, who have failed to pay tribute to the King and waiting for the King's pardon happen to see the poets leaving with expensive gifts which are actually things seized by the King from them. One of them, seeing the gifts, says that it is his horse that one the poet takes away, while another one points out to his elephant, similarly and so on goes the poem, capturing the might of ancient Vanars. This poem explains the wealth and power of Southern Vanars.Kalki, in hishistoric novelPonniyin Selvan, describes a scene in which the protagonist,Vallavaraiyan",
"Vandiyadevan, who he claims to be of Vanar descent, broods over the fall of his clan, singing this poem. Titles The Bana Chieftains held various titles in different regions and at different times, including Vanar, Vanara, Vanavarayar, Vanakovarayar, Ponparappinan, and some claimed titles such as \"Vaana-Kulothoman,\" \"Ganga-kula-uthaman,\" and \"Kaangeyar,\" among others. See also References"
] |
Of the 3 largest canary islands, which has the hottest mean temperature in July as of 2024? | Tenerife | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenerife | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuerteventura | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Canaria | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenerife', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuerteventura', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Canaria'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenerife",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuerteventura",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Canaria"
] | [
"Canary Islands TheCanary Islands(/kəˈnɛəri/,Spanish:Canarias,Spanish:), also known informally asthe Canaries, are a Spanish region,autonomous communityandarchipelagoin theAtlantic Ocean. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are 100 kilometres (62 miles) west ofMoroccoand theWestern Sahara. They are the southernmost of theautonomous communities of Spain. The islands have a population of 2.2 million people and are the most populousspecial territory of the European Union. The seven main islands are, from largest to smallest in area,Tenerife,Fuerteventura,Gran Canaria,Lanzarote,La Palma,La Gomera, andEl Hierro. The only other populated island isLa Graciosa, which administratively is dependent on Lanzarote. The archipelago includes many smaller islands and islets, includingAlegranza,Isla de Lobos,Montaña Clara,Roque del Oeste, andRoque del Este. It includes a number of rocks, includingGarachicoandAnaga. In ancient times, the island chain was often referred to as \"the Fortunate Isles\".The Canary Islands are the southernmost region ofSpain, and the largest and most populous archipelago ofMacaronesia.Because of their location, the Canary Islands have historically been considered a link between the four continents ofAfrica,North America,South America, andEurope. In 2023, the Canary Islands had a population of 2,236,013,with a density of 299 inhabitants per km2, making it the seventh most populous autonomous community of Spain. The population is mostly concentrated in the two capital islands: around 43% on the island of Tenerife and 40% on the island of Gran Canaria. The Canary Islands, especially Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote, are a major tourist destination, with over 16 million visitors in 2023.This is due to their beaches,subtropical climate, and important natural attractions, especiallyMaspalomasinGran Canariaand MountTeide, aWorld Heritage SiteinTenerife. Mount Teide is thehighest peak in Spainand the3rd tallest volcano in the world, measured from its base on the ocean floor.The islands have warm summers and winters warm enough for the climate to be technically tropical at sea level.The amount of precipitation and the level of maritime moderation vary depending on location and elevation. The archipelago includes green areas as well as semi-desert. The islands' high mountains are ideal for astronomical observation, because they lie above thetemperature inversionlayer. As a result, the archipelago has two professional astronomical observatories: theTeide Observatoryon Tenerife, andRoque de los Muchachos Observatoryon La Palma. In 1927, theProvince of Canary Islandswas split into two provinces. In 1982, the autonomous community of the Canary Islands was established. The cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canariaare, jointly, the capitals of the islands.Those cities are also, respectively, the capitals of theprovincesofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has been the largest city in the Canaries since 1768, except for a brief period in the 1910s.Between the1833 territorial division of Spainand 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, it was ordered by decree that the capital of the Canary Islands would be shared between two cities, and this arrangement persists to the present day.The third largest city in the Canary Islands isSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, another World Heritage Site on Tenerife. During theAge of Sail, the islands were the main stopover forSpanish galleonsduring theSpanish colonisation of the Americas, which sailed that far south in order to catch the prevailing northeasterlytrade winds. Etymology The nameIslas Canariasis likely derived from the Latin nameCanariae Insulae, meaning \"Islands of the Dogs\", perhaps because monk seals or sea dogs were abundant, a name that was evidently generalized from the ancient name of one of these islands,Canaria– presumably Gran Canaria. According to the historianPliny the Elder, the islandCanariacontained \"vast multitudes of dogs of very large size\".The connection to dogs is retained in their depiction on the islands' coat-of-arms. Other theories speculate that the name comes from theNukkariBerber tribe living in the Moroccan Atlas, named in Roman sources asCanarii, though Pliny again mentions the relation of this term with dogs. The name of the islands is not derived from thecanary bird; rather, the birds are named after the islands. Islands From west to east, the Canary Islands areEl Hierro,La Palma,La Gomera,Tenerife,Gran Canaria,Fuerteventura,Lanzarote, andLa Graciosa. North of Lanzarote are the islets ofMontaña Clara,Alegranza,Roque del EsteandRoque del Oeste, belonging to theChinijo Archipelago. Northeast of Fuerteventura is the islet ofLobos. There are a series of small adjacent rocks in the Canary Islands: theRoques de Anaga,Garachicoand Fasnia in Tenerife, and Salmor and Bonanza in El Hierro. El Hierro El Hierro, the westernmost island, covers 268.71 km2(103.75 sq mi). It is the second smallest of the major islands, and the least populous with 10,798 inhabitants. The whole island was declared a Reserve of the Biosphere in 2000. Its capital isValverde. Also known as Ferro, it was once the westernmost known land in the world. Ancient European geographers such as Ptolemy recognised the island as theprime meridianof longitude. That remained so until the 19th century, when it was displaced by the onepassing through Greenwich. Fuerteventura Fuerteventura, with a surface of 1,660 km2(640 sq mi), is the second largest island of the archipelago. It has been declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCO. It is the oldest of the islands being more eroded. Its highest point is the Peak of the Bramble, at a height of 807 metres (2,648 feet). Its capital isPuerto del Rosario. Gran Canaria Gran Canaria has 846,717 inhabitants. The capital,Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, with 377,203 inhabitants, is the most populous city and shares the status of capital of the Canaries with Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Gran Canaria's surface area is 1,560 km2(600 sq mi). Roque Nublo 1,813 metres (5,948 feet) and Pico de las Nieves (\"Peak of Snow\") 1,949 metres (6,394 feet) are located in the center of the island. On the south of the island are the Maspalomas Dunes (Gran Canaria). La Gomera La Gomera (informally known as 'Isla Colombina') has an area of 369.76 km2(142.77 sq mi) and is the second least populous island with 21,136 inhabitants. It has been declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCO. Geologically it is one of the oldest of the archipelago. The insular capital isSan Sebastian de La Gomera.Garajonay National Parkis located on the island. Lanzarote Lanzarote is the easternmost island and one of the oldest of the archipelago, and it has shown evidence of recent volcanic activity. It has a surface of 845.94 km2(326.62 sq mi), and a population of 149,183 inhabitants, including the adjacent islets of the Chinijo Archipelago. The capital isArrecife, with 56,834 inhabitants. Chinijo Archipelago The Chinijo Archipelago includes the islandsLa Graciosa,Alegranza,Montaña Clara,Roque del EsteandRoque del Oeste. It has a surface of 40.8 km2(15.8 sq mi), and only La Graciosa is populated, with 658 inhabitants. With 29 km2(11 sq mi), La Graciosa is the largest island of the Chinijo Archipelago and the smallest inhabited island of the Canaries. La Palma La Palma, with 81,863 inhabitants covering an area of 708.32 km2(273.48 sq mi), is in its entirety a biosphere reserve. For long it showed no signs of volcanic activity, even though the volcanoTeneguíaentered into eruption last in 1971. On 19 September 2021, the volcanicCumbre Viejaon the islanderupted.It is the second-highest island of the Canaries, with the Roque de los Muchachos at 2,423 metres (7,949 feet) as its highest point.Santa Cruz de La Palma, known to those on the island as simply \"Santa Cruz\", is its capital. Tenerife Tenerife is, with its area of 2,034 km2(785 sq mi), the most extensive island of the Canary Islands. With 904,713 inhabitants, it is the most populated island of the archipelago and Spain. Two of the islands' principal cities are located on it: the capital,Santa Cruz de TenerifeandSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, a World Heritage Site.San Cristóbal de La Laguna, the second city of the island, is home to the oldest university in the Canary Islands, theUniversity of La Laguna.Teide, with its 3,715 metres (12,188 feet) is the highest peak ofSpainand aWorld Heritage Site.Tenerifeis the site of theworst air disasterin the history of aviation, in which 583 people were killed in the collision of twoBoeing 747son 27 March 1977. La Graciosa Graciosa Island or commonly La Graciosa is a volcanic island in the Canary Islands of Spain, located 2 km (1.2 mi) north of the island of Lanzarote across the Strait of El Río. It was formed by the Canary hotspot. The island is part of the Chinijo Archipelago and the Chinijo Archipelago Natural Park (Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo). It is administered by the municipality of Teguise. In 2018, La Graciosa was declared asthe eighth Canary Islandby theSpanish Senate,though it is not recognized as such by the Canarian administration. It is administratively dependent on the island of Lanzarote. It is the smallest and least populated of the main islands, with about 700 people. Data Physical geography Tenerifeis the largest and most populous island of the archipelago.Gran Canaria, with 865,070 inhabitants, is both the Canary Islands' second most populous island, and the third most populous one in Spain after Tenerife (966,354 inhabitants) andMajorca(896,038 inhabitants).The island ofFuerteventurais the second largest in the archipelago and located 100 km (62 mi) from the African coast. The islands form theMacaronesiaecoregionwith theAzores,Cape Verde,Madeira, and theSavage Isles.The Canary Islands is the largest and most populated archipelago of the Macaronesia region.The archipelago has seven large and several smaller islands, all of which are volcanic in origin. According to the position of the islands with respect to the north-easttrade winds, the climate can be mild and wet or very dry. Several native species formlaurisilvaforests. The individual islands in the Canary archipelago tend to have distinctmicroclimates. Those islands such asEl Hierro,La PalmaandLa Gomeralying to the west of the archipelago have a climate which is influenced by the moistCanary Current. They are well vegetated even at low levels and have extensive tracts of sub-tropical laurisilva forest. Travelling east toward the African coast, the influence of the current diminishes, and the islands become increasingly arid.FuerteventuraandLanzarote, the islands which are closest to the African mainland, are effectively desert or semi-desert. Gran Canariais known as a \"continent in miniature\" for its diverse landscapes likeMaspalomasandRoque Nublo. The north ofTenerifelies under the influence of the moist Atlantic winds and is well vegetated. The south of the island around the tourist resorts ofPlaya de las AméricasandLos Cristianosis arid. The island rises to almost 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above sea level. At altitude, in the cool relatively wet climate, forests of the endemic pinePinus canariensisthrive. Many of the plant species in the Canary Islands, like the Canary Island pine and thedragon tree,Dracaena dracoare endemic, as noted bySabin BerthelotandPhilip Barker Webbin their work,L'Histoire Naturelle des Îles Canaries(1835–50). Climate The climate is warmsubtropical/tropicaland generallyarid, moderated by the sea and in summer by thetrade winds.There are a number ofmicroclimatesand the classifications range mainly fromsemi-deserttodesert. The majority of the Canary Islands have ahot desert climate(BWh) and ahot semi-desert climate(BSh) within theKöppensystem, caused partly due to the coolCanary Current.A subtropical humid climate, which is very influenced by the ocean, is in the middle of the islands ofLa Gomera,TenerifeandLa Palma, wherelaurisilvacloud forests grow. Geology The seven major islands, one minor island, and several small islets were originally volcanic islands, formed by theCanary hotspot.The Canary Islands is the only place in Spain wherevolcanic eruptionshave been recorded during theModern Era, with some volcanoes still active (El Hierro, 2011).Volcanic islands such as those in the Canary chain often have steep ocean cliffs caused by catastrophic debris avalanches andlandslides.The island chain's most recent eruption occurred atCumbre Vieja, a volcanic ridge on La Palma,in 2021. TheTeidevolcanoon Tenerife is the highest mountain in Spain, and the third tallest volcano on Earth on a volcanic ocean island.All the islands except La Gomera have been active in the last million years. Four of them, Lanzarote, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro, have historical records of eruptions since European discovery.The islands rise from Jurassicoceanic crustassociated with the opening of the Atlantic. Underwatermagmatismbegan during the Cretaceous, and continued to the present day. The current islands reached the ocean's surface during theMiocene. The islands were once considered as a distinct physiographic section of theAtlas Mountainsprovince, which is part of the larger African Alpine System division, but are now recognized as being related to a magmatic hot spot. In the summer of 2011, a series of low-magnitude earthquakes occurred beneath El Hierro. These had a linear trend of northeast–southwest. In October a submarine eruption occurred about2 km (1+1⁄4mi) south of Restinga. This eruption produced gases and pumice, but no explosive activity was reported. The following table shows the highest mountains in each of the islands: Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Canary Islands are the birdSerinus canaria(canary) and thePhoenix canariensispalm. National parks Four of Spain's thirteen national parks are located in the Canary Islands, more than any other autonomous community. Two of these have been declaredUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesand the other two are part ofBiosphere Reserves. The parks are: Teide National Parkis the oldest and largest national park in the Canary Islands and one of the oldest in Spain. Located in the geographic centre of the island of Tenerife, it is the most visited national park in Spain. In 2010, it became the most visited national park in Europe and second worldwide.The park's highlight is theTeidevolcano. Standing at an altitude of 3,715 metres (12,188 ft),it is the highest elevation in Spain and the third largest volcano on Earth from its base. In 2007, the Teide National Park was declared one of the12 Treasures of Spain. Politics Governance The regional executive body, theParliament of the Canary Islands, is presided over byFernando Clavijo Batlle(Canarian Coalition), the currentPresident of the Canary Islands. The members of the regional legislature, theParliament of the Canary Islands, has 70 elected legislators. Thelast regional electiontook place in May 2023. The islands have 14 seats in theSpanish Senate. Of these, 11 seats are directly elected, 3 for Gran Canaria, 3 for Tenerife, and 1 each for Lanzarote (including La Graciosa), Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro. The other 3 are appointed by the regional legislature. Political geography TheAutonomous Community of the Canary Islandshas twoprovinces(provincias),Las PalmasandSanta Cruz de Tenerife, whose capitals,Las Palmas de Gran CanariaandSanta Cruz de Tenerife, are capitals of the autonomous community. Each of the seven major islands are ruled by an island council named aCabildo Insular. Each island is subdivided into smallermunicipalities(municipios).Las Palmas is divided into 34 municipalities, andSanta Cruz de Tenerife is divided into 54 municipalities. The international boundary of the Canaries is disputed inMorocco-Spain relations. In 2022 the UN declared the Canary Island's territorial waters as being Moroccan coast and Morocco has authorisedgas and oil explorationin what the Canary Islands states to be Canarian territorial waters andWestern Saharawaters.Morocco's official position is that international laws regarding territorial limits do not authorise Spain to claim seabed boundaries based on the territory of the Canaries, since the Canary Islands enjoy a large degree of autonomy. In fact, the islands do not enjoy any special degree of autonomy, as each one of the Spanish regions is considered anautonomous community, with equal status to the European ones. Under theLaw of the Sea, the only islands not granted territorial waters or anexclusive economic zone(EEZ) are those that are not fit for human habitation, or do not have an economic life of their own, which is not the case of the Canary Islands. Canarian nationalism There are some pro-independence political parties, like theNational Congress of the Canaries(CNC) and thePopular Front of the Canary Islands. Their popular support is almost insignificant, with no presence in either the autonomous parliament or thecabildos insulares.In a 2012 study by theCentro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, when asked about national identity, the majority of respondents from the Canary Islands (53.8%) considered themselves Spanish and Canarian in equal measures, followed by 24% who consider themselves more Canarian than Spanish. 6.1% of the respondents considered themselves only Canarian, and 7% considered themselves only Spanish. Defense The defense of the territory is the responsibility of theSpanish Armed Forces. Components of theArmy,Navy,Air Forceand theCivil Guardare based in the territory. History Ancient and pre-Hispanic times Before the arrival of humans, the Canaries were inhabited by prehistoric animals including the giant lizard (Gallotia goliath), theTenerifeandGran Canaria giant rats,and giant tortoises,Geochelone burchardiandGeochelone vulcanica. Although the original settlement of what are now called the Canary Islands is not entirely clear, linguistic, genetic, and archaeological analyses indicate thatindigenouspeoples were living on the Canary Islands at least 2,000 years ago, possibly 3,000, and that they shared a common origin with theBerberson the nearby North African coast.Reaching the islands may have taken place using several small boats, landing on the easternmost islands Lanzarote and Fuerteventura. These groups came to be known collectively as theGuanches, althoughGuancheshad been the name for only the indigenous inhabitants of Tenerife. According to a 2024 study by the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, there is archaeological evidence that the Romans were the first to colonise the islands, during the period from the 1st centuryBCEto the 1st century CE. There was no overlap with the occupation by the people who were inhabiting the islands at the time of the Spanish conquest, who had first arrived sometime between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE. As José Farrujia describes, 'The indigenous Canarians lived mainly in natural caves, usually near the coast, 300 to 500 metres (1,000 to 1,600 ft) above sea level. These caves were sometimes isolated but more commonly formed settlements, with burial caves nearby'.Archaeological work has uncovered a rich culture visible through artefacts ofceramics, human figures, fishing, hunting and farming tools, plant fibre clothing and vessels, as well as cave paintings. At Lomo de los Gatos on Gran Canaria, a site occupied from 1,600 years ago up until the 1960s, round stone houses, complex burial sites, and associated artefacts have been found.Across the islands are thousands ofLibyco-Berberalphabet inscriptions scattered and they have been extensively documented by many linguists. The social structure of indigenous Canarians encompassed \"a system ofmatrilinealdescent in most of the islands, in which inheritance was passed on via the female line. Social status and wealth were hereditary and determined the individual's position in the social pyramid, which consisted of the king, the relatives of the king, the lower nobility, villeins, plebeians, and finally executioners, butchers, embalmers, and prisoners\". Their religion wasanimist, centring on the sun and moon, as well as natural features such as mountains. Exploration The islands may have been visited by thePhoenicians, theGreeks, and theCarthaginians. KingJuba II, CaesarAugustus'sNumidianprotégé, is credited with discovering the islands for the Western world. According toPliny the Elder, Juba found the islands uninhabited, but found \"a small temple of stone\" and \"some traces of buildings\".Juba dispatched a naval contingent to re-open the dye production facility atMogadorin what is now western Morocco in the early first centuryAD.That same naval force was subsequently sent on an exploration of the Canary Islands, using Mogador as their mission base. The names given by Romans to the individual islands wereNinguariaorNivaria(Tenerife),Canaria(Gran Canaria),PluvialiaorInvale(Lanzarote),Ombrion(La Palma),Planasia(Fuerteventura),IunoniaorJunonia(El Hierro) andCapraria(La Gomera). From the 14th century onward, numerous visits were made by sailors fromMajorca,Portugal, andGenoa.Lancelotto Malocellosettled on Lanzarote in 1312. The Majorcans established amissionwith a bishop in the islands that lasted from 1350 to 1400. Castilian conquest In 1402, the Castilian colonisation of the islands began with the expedition of the French explorersJean de BéthencourtandGadifer de la Salle, nobles andvassalsofHenry III of Castile, to Lanzarote. From there, they went on to conquer Fuerteventura (1405) and El Hierro. These invasions were \"brutal cultural and military clashes between the indigenous population and the Castilians\" lasting over a century due to formidable resistance by indigenous Canarians.ProfessorMohamed Adhikarihas defined the conquest of the islands as agenocideof theGuanches. Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands, but still recognised King Henry III as his overlord. It was not a simple military enterprise, given the aboriginal resistance on some islands. Neither was it politically, since the particular interests of the nobility (determined to strengthen their economic and political power through the acquisition of the islands) conflicted with those of the states, particularly Castile, which were in the midst of territorial expansion and in a process of strengthening of the crown against the nobility. Historians distinguish two periods in the conquest of the Canary Islands: Aristocratic conquest(conquista señorial): This refers to the early conquests carried out by the nobility, for their own benefit and without the direct participation of the Crown of Castile, which merely granted rights of conquest in exchange for pacts of vassalage between the noble conqueror and the Crown. One can identify within this period an early phase known as the Betancurian or Norman conquest, carried out byJean de Bethencourt(who was originally from Normandy) andGadifer de la Sallebetween 1402 and 1405, which involved the islands ofLanzarote,El Hierro, andFuerteventura. The subsequent phase is known as the Castilian conquest, carried out by Castilian nobles who acquired, through purchases, assignments and marriages, the previously conquered islands and also incorporated the island ofLa Gomeraaround 1450. Royal conquest(conquista realenga): This defines the conquest between 1478 and 1496, carried out directly by the Crown of Castile, during the reign of theCatholic Monarchs, who armed and partly financed the conquest of those islands which were still unconquered:Gran Canaria,La PalmaandTenerife. This phase of the conquest came to an end in the year 1496, with the dominion of the island of Tenerife, bringing the entire Canarian Archipelago under the control of the Crown of Castile. Béthencourt also established a base on the island of La Gomera, but it would be many years before the island was fully conquered. The natives of La Gomera, and of Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La Palma, resisted the Castilian invaders for almost a century. In 1448, Maciot de Béthencourt sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's PrinceHenry the Navigator, an action that was accepted by neither the natives nor the Castilians. DespitePope Nicholas Vruling that the Canary Islands were under Portuguese control, the crisis swelled to a revolt which lasted until 1459 with the final expulsion of the Portuguese. In 1479, Portugal and Castile signed theTreaty of Alcáçovas, which settled disputes between Castile and Portugal over the control of the Atlantic. This treaty recognized Castilian control of the Canary Islands but also confirmed Portuguese possession of theAzores,Madeira, and theCape Verde islands, and gave the Portuguese rights to any further islands or lands in the Atlantic that might be discovered. The Castilians continued to dominate the islands, but due to the topography and the resistance of the native Guanches, they did not achieve complete control until 1496, when Tenerife and La Palma were finally subdued byAlonso Fernández de Lugo. As a result of this \"the native pre-Hispanic population declined quickly due to war, epidemics, and slavery\".The Canaries were incorporated into theKingdom of Castile. After the conquest and the introduction of slavery After the conquest, the Castilians imposed a new economic model, based on single-crop cultivation: firstsugarcane; then wine, an important item of trade withEngland. Gran Canaria was conquered by theCrown of Castileon 6 March 1480, and Tenerife was conquered in 1496, and each had its own governor. There has been speculation that the abundance ofRoccella tinctoriaon the Canary Islands offered a profit motive forJean de Béthencourtduring his conquest of the islands. Lichen has been used for centuries to make dyes. This includes royal purple colors derived fromR. tinctoria, also known as orseille. The objective of the Spanish Crown to convert the islands into a powerhouse of cultivation required a much larger labour force. This was attained through a brutal practice of enslavement, not only of indigenous Canarians but large numbers of Africans who were forcibly taken from North and Sub-Saharan Africa.Whilst the first slave plantations in the Atlantic region were acrossMadeira,Cape Verde, and the Canary Islands, it was only the Canary Islands which had an indigenous population and were therefore invaded rather than newly occupied. This agriculture industry was largely based on sugarcane and the Castilians converted large swaths of the landscape for sugarcane production, and the processing and manufacturing of sugar, facilitated by enslaved labourers.The cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canariabecame a stopping point for the Spanish traders, as well asconquistadors, and missionaries on their way to theNew World. This trade route brought great wealth to the Castilian social sectors of the islands and soon were attracting merchants and adventurers from all over Europe. As the wealth grew, enslaved African workers were also forced into demeaning domestic roles for the rich Castilians on the islands such as servants in their houses. Research on the skeletons of some of these enslaved workers from the burial site of Finca Clavijo on Gran Canaria have showed that 'all of the adults buried in Finca Clavijo undertook extensive physical activity that involved significant stress on the spine and appendicular skeleton' that result from relentless hard labour, akin to the physical abnormalities found with enslaved peoples from other sugarcane plantations around the world.These findings of the physical strain that the enslaved at Finca Clavijo were subjected to in order to provide wealth for the Spanish elite has inspired a poem by British writerRalph Hoyte, entitledClose to the Bone. As a result of the huge wealth generated, magnificent palaces and churches were built on La Palma during this busy, prosperous period. The Church of El Salvador survives as one of the island's finest examples of the architecture of the 16th century. Civilian architecture survives in forms such asCasas de los Sánchez-OchandoorCasa Quintana. The Canaries' wealth invited attacks bypiratesandprivateers.OttomanTurkishadmiraland privateerKemal Reisventured into the Canaries in 1501, whileMurat Reis the Eldercaptured Lanzarote in 1585. The most severe attack took place in 1599, during theDutch Revolt. ADutchfleet of 74 ships and 12,000 men, commanded byPieter van der Does, attacked the capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (the city had 3,500 of Gran Canaria's 8,545 inhabitants). The Dutch attacked the Castillo de la Luz, which guarded the harbor. The Canarians evacuated civilians from the city, and the Castillo surrendered (but not the city). The Dutch moved inland, but Canarian cavalry drove them back to Tamaraceite, near the city. The Dutch then laid siege to the city, demanding the surrender of all its wealth. They received 12 sheep and 3 calves. Furious, the Dutch sent 4,000 soldiers to attack the Council of the Canaries, who were sheltering in the village of Santa Brígida. Three hundred Canarian soldiers ambushed the Dutch in the village of Monte Lentiscal, killing 150 and forcing the rest to retreat. The Dutch concentrated on Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, attempting to burn it down. The Dutch pillagedMaspalomas, on the southern coast of Gran Canaria,San Sebastiánon La Gomera, andSanta Cruzon La Palma, but eventually gave up the siege of Las Palmas and withdrew. In 1618 theBarbary piratesfrom North Africa attacked Lanzarote and La Gomera taking 1000 captives to be sold asslaves.Another noteworthy attack occurred in 1797, whenSanta Cruz de Tenerifewas attacked by a British fleet underHoratio Nelsonon 25 July. The British were repulsed, losing almost 400 men. It was during this battle that Nelson lost his right arm. 18th to 19th century The sugar-based economy of the islands faced stiff competition from Spain'sCaribbeancolonies. Low sugar prices in the 19th century caused severe recessions on the islands. A new cash crop,cochineal(cochinilla), came into cultivation during this time, reinvigorating the islands' economy. During this time the Canarian-American trade was developed, in which Canarian products such as cochineal, sugarcane and rum were sold in American ports such asVeracruz,Campeche,La GuairaandHavana, among others. By the end of the 18th century, Canary Islanders had already emigrated to Spanish American territories, such asHavana,Veracruz, andSanto Domingo,San Antonio, TexasandSt. Bernard Parish, Louisiana.These economic difficulties spurred mass emigration during the 19th and first half of the 20th century, primarily to the Americas. Between 1840 and 1890 as many as 40,000 Canary Islanders emigrated toVenezuela. Also, thousands of Canarians moved toPuerto Ricowhere the Spanish monarchy felt that Canarians would adapt to island life better than other immigrants from the mainland of Spain. Deeply entrenched traditions, such as the Mascaras Festival in the town ofHatillo, Puerto Rico, are an example of Canarian culture still preserved in Puerto Rico. Similarly, many thousands of Canarians emigrated to the shores ofCuba.During theSpanish–American Warof 1898, the Spanish fortified the islands against a possible American attack, but no such event took place. Romantic period and scientific expeditions Sirera and Renn (2004)distinguish two different types of expeditions, or voyages, during the period 1770–1830, which they term \"the Romantic period\": First are \"expeditions financed by the States, closely related with the official scientific Institutions. characterised by having strict scientific objectives (and inspired by) the spirit of Illustration and progress\". In this type of expedition, Sirera and Renn include the following travellers: The second type of expedition identified by Sirera and Renn is one that took place starting from more or less private initiatives. Among these, the key exponents were the following: Sirera and Renn identify the period 1770–1830 as one in which \"In a panorama dominated until that moment by France and England enters with strength and brio Germany of the Romantic period whose presence in the islands will increase\". Early 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, the British introduced a newcash-crop, thebanana, the export of which was controlled by companies such asFyffes. 30 November 1833 theProvince of Canary Islandshad been created with the capital being declared as Santa Cruz de Tenerife.The rivalry between the cities of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife for the capital of the islands led to the division of thearchipelagointo two provinces on 23 September 1927. During the time of theSecond Spanish Republic,Marxistandanarchistworkers' movements began to develop, led by figures such as Jose Miguel Perez andGuillermo Ascanio. However, outside of a few municipalities, these organisations were a minority and fell easily to Nationalist forces during theSpanish Civil War. Franco regime In 1936,Francisco Francowas appointed General Commandant of the Canaries. He joined the military revolt of 17 July which began theSpanish Civil War. Franco quickly took control of the archipelago, except for a few points of resistance on La Palma and in the town ofVallehermoso, on La Gomera. Though there was never a war in the islands, the post-war suppression of political dissent on the Canaries was most severe. During the Second World War,Winston Churchillprepared plans for the British seizure of the Canary Islands as anaval base, in the event ofGibraltarbeing invaded from the Spanish mainland.The planned operation was known asOperation Pilgrim. Opposition to Franco's regime did not begin to organise until the late 1950s, which experienced an upheaval of parties such as theCommunist Party of Spainand the formation of various nationalist, leftist parties. During theIfni War, the Franco regime set upconcentration campson the islands toextrajudicially imprisonthose in Western Sahara suspected of disloyalty to Spain, many of whom were colonial troops recruited on the spot but were later deemed to be potentialfifth columnistsand deported to the Canary Islands. These camps were characterised by the use of forced labour for infrastructure projects and highly unsanitary conditions resulting in the widespread occurrence oftuberculosis. Self-governance After the death of Franco, there was a pro-independence armed movement based inAlgeria, theMovement for the Independence and Self-determination of the Canaries Archipelago(MAIAC). In 1968, theOrganisation of African Unityrecognized the MAIAC as a legitimateAfrican independence movement, and declared the Canary Islands as an African territory still under foreign rule. After the establishment of a democraticconstitutional monarchyin Spain,autonomywas granted to the Canaries via a law passed in 1982, with a newly established autonomous devolved government and parliament. In 1983, the first autonomous elections were held. TheSpanish Socialist Workers' Party(PSOE) won. Capitals At present, the Canary Islands is the only autonomous community in Spain that has two capitals:Santa Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canaria, since theStatute of Autonomy of the Canary Islandswas created in 1982. The political capital of the archipelago did not exist as such until the nineteenth century. The first cities founded by theEuropeansat the time of the conquest of the Canary Islands in the 15th century were:Telde(inGran Canaria),San Marcial del Rubicón(inLanzarote) andBetancuria(inFuerteventura). These cities boasted the first European institutions present in the archipelago, includingCatholicbishoprics.Although, because the period of splendor of these cities developed before the total conquest of the archipelago and its incorporation into theCrown of Castilenever had a political and real control of the entire Canary archipelago. The function of a Canarian city with full jurisdiction for the entire archipelago only exists after the conquest of the Canary Islands, although originallyde facto, that is, without legal and real meaning and linked to the headquarters of theCanary Islands General Captaincy. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria was the first city that exercised this function. This is because the residence of the Captain General of the Canary Islands was in this city during part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.In May 1661, the Captain General of the Canary Islands,Jerónimo de Benavente y Quiñones, moved the headquarters of the captaincy to the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Lagunaon the island ofTenerife.This was due to the fact that this island since the conquest was the most populated, productive and with the highest economic expectations.La Laguna would be considered thede factocapital of the archipelagountil the official status of the capital of Canary Islands in the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife was confirmed in the 19th century, due in part to the constant controversies and rivalries between the bourgeoisies of San Cristóbal de La Laguna and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria for the economic, political and institutional hegemony of the archipelago. Already in 1723, the Captain General of the Canary IslandsLorenzo Fernandez de Villavicenciohad moved the headquarters of the General Captaincy of the Canary Islands from San Cristóbal de La Laguna to Santa Cruz de Tenerife. This decision continued without pleasing the society of the island of Gran Canaria.It would be after the creation of theProvince of Canary Islandsin November 1833 in which Santa Cruz would become the first fully official capital of the Canary Islands (De jureand not ofde factoas happened previously).Santa Cruz de Tenerife would be the capital of the Canary archipelago until during the Government of GeneralPrimo de Riverain 1927 the Province of Canary Islands was split in two provinces:Las Palmaswith capital in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, andSanta Cruz de Tenerifewith capital in the homonymous city. Finally, with the Statute of Autonomy of the Canary Islands in 1982 and the creation of the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands, the capital of the archipelago between Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife is fixed, which is how it remains today. Demographics The Canary Islands have a population of 2,153,389 inhabitants (2019), making it the eighth most populous of Spain'sautonomous communities.The total area of the archipelago is 7,493 km2(2,893 sq mi),resulting in a population density of 287.4 inhabitants per square kilometre. The population of the islands according to the 2019 data are: The Canary Islands have become home to many European residents, mainly coming from Italy, Germany and the UK. Because of the vast immigration to Venezuela and Cuba during the second half of the 20th century and the later return to the Canary Islands of these people along with their families, there are many residents whose country of origin wasVenezuela(66,593) orCuba(41,807). Since the 1990s, manyillegal migrantshave reached the Canary Islands,MelillaandCeuta, using them as entry points to the EU. Canarian Spanish TheSpanish languagevariety that is typical and conventional in the Canary Islands is usually called theCanarian Spanish,Canarian dialectorCanarian speech, and is used by the approximately two million Spanish speakers who live in the Canary Islands. It is a dialect variety that falls within what has been called the \"Atlantic variety\", similar to those of Spanish-speaking America, and also to those of the south of the Iberian Peninsula, especially western Andalusia. The dialect most similar to the Canarian dialect, given the historical link between both areas, is the Caribbean dialect, spoken in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic), and the coast of theCaribbean Sea(Venezuela, northern Colombia, and Panama). In addition, lexically, the Canarian dialect is widely influenced by thePortuguese language, from which a certain part of its lexicon is derived. Religion TheCatholic Churchhas been the majority religion in the archipelago for more than five centuries, ever since theConquest of the Canary Islands. There are also several other religious communities. Roman Catholic Church The overwhelming majority of native Canarians areRoman Catholic(76.7%)with various smaller foreign-born populations of other Christian beliefs such asProtestants. The appearance of theVirgin of Candelaria(Patron of Canary Islands) was credited with moving the Canary Islands toward Christianity. Two Catholic saints were born in the Canary Islands:Peter of Saint Joseph de BetancurandJosé de Anchieta.Both born on the island of Tenerife, they were respectively missionaries inGuatemalaandBrazil. The Canary Islands are divided into two Catholic dioceses, each governed by a bishop: Other religions Separate from the overwhelming Catholic majority are a minority ofMuslims.Among the followers ofIslam, theIslamic Federation of the Canary Islandsexists to represent the Islamic community in the Canary Islands as well as to provide practical support to members of the Islamic community.For its part, there is also theEvangelical Council of the Canary Islandsin the archipelago. Other religious faiths represented includeJehovah's Witnesses,The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saintsas well asHinduism.Minority religions are also present such as theChurch of the Guanche Peoplewhich is classified as aneo-pagannative religion.Also present areBuddhism,Judaism,Baháʼí,African religion,andChinese religions. Statistics The distribution of beliefs in 2012 according to the CIS Barometer Autonomy was as follows: Population genetics Economy and environment The economy is based primarilyon tourism, which makes up 32% of the GDP. The Canaries receive about 12 million tourists per year. Construction makes up nearly 20% of the GDP and tropical agriculture, primarily bananas and tobacco, are grown for export to Europe and the Americas. Ecologists are concerned that the resources, especially in the morearidislands, are beingoverexploitedbut there are still many agricultural resources liketomatoes,potatoes,onions,cochineal,sugarcane,grapes,vines,dates,oranges,lemons,figs,wheat,barley,maize,apricots,peachesandalmonds. Water resources are also being overexploited, due to the high water usage by tourists.Also, some islands (such as Gran Canaria and Tenerife)overexploit the ground water. This is done in such degree that, according to European and Spanish legal regulations, the current situation is not acceptable. To address the problems, good governance and a change in the water use paradigm have been proposed. These solutions depend largely oncontrolling water useand on demand management. As this is administratively difficult and politically unpalatable, most action is currently directed at increasing the public offer of water through import from outside; a decision which is economically, politically and environmentally questionable. To bring in revenue for environmental protection, innovation, training and water sanitation atourist taxwas considered in 2018, along with a doubling of theecotaxand restrictions on holiday rents in the zones with the greatest pressure of demand. The economy is€25 billion (2001 GDP figures). The islands experienced continuous growth during a 20-year period, up until 2001, at a rate of approximately 5% annually. This growth was fueled mainly by huge amounts offoreign direct investment, mostly to develop tourism real estate (hotels and apartments), and European Funds (near €11 billion in the period from 2000 to 2007), since the Canary Islands are labelled Region Objective 1 (eligible for euro structural funds).Additionally, the EU allows the Canary Islands Government to offer special tax concessions for investors who incorporate under the Zona Especial Canaria (ZEC) regime and create more than five jobs. Spain gave permission in August 2014 forRepsoland its partners to exploreoilandnatural gasprospects off the Canary Islands, involving an investment of €7.5 billion over four years, to commence at the end of 2016. Repsol at the time said the area could ultimately produce 100,000 barrels of oil a day, which would meet 10 percent of Spain's energy needs.However, the analysis of samples obtained did not show the necessary volume nor quality to consider future extraction, and the project was scrapped. Despite currently having very high dependence on fossil fuels, research on the renewable energy potential concluded that a high potential for renewable energy technologies exists on the archipelago. This, in such extent even that a scenario pathway to 100% renewable energy supply by 2050 has been put forward. The Canary Islands have great natural attractions, climate andbeachesmake the islands a major tourist destination, being visited each year by about 12 million people (11,986,059 in 2007, noting 29% ofBritons, 22% of Spanish (from outside the Canaries), and 21% ofGermans). Among the islands, Tenerife has the largest number of tourists received annually, followed by Gran Canaria and Lanzarote.The archipelago's principal tourist attraction is theTeide National Park(in Tenerife) where the highest mountain in Spain and third largestvolcanoin the world (MountTeide), receives over 2.8 million visitors annually. The combination of high mountains, proximity to Europe, and clean air has made theRoque de los Muchachospeak (on La Palma island) a leading location fortelescopeslike theGrantecan. The islands, as an autonomous region of Spain, are in theEuropean Unionand theSchengen Area. They are in theEuropean Union Customs Unionbut outside theVATarea.Instead of VAT there is a local Sales Tax (IGIC) which has a general rate of 7%, an increased tax rate of 13.5%, a reduced tax rate of 3% and a zero tax rate for certain basic need products and services. Consequently, some products are subject to additional VAT if being exported from the islands into mainland Spain or the rest of the EU. Canarian time isWestern European Time(WET), orGMT. In summer, one hour ahead of GMT. Canarian time is one hour behind mainland Spain, and the same time as the UK, Ireland and mainland Portugal all year round. Tourism statistics The number of tourists who visited the Canary Islands in 2018 was 16,150,054. In 2019, there were 15,589,290 arrivals. GDP statistics The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the Canary Islands in 2015 was €40,923 million, €19,222 per capita. The figures by island are as follows: Transport The Canary Islands have eight airports altogether, two of the main ports of Spain, and an extensive network ofautopistas(highways) and other roads. For a road map see multimap.Traffic congestionis sometimes a problem in Tenerife and on Grand Canaria. Largeferryboats and fast ferries link most of the islands. Both types can transport large numbers of passengers, cargo, and vehicles. Fast ferries are made of aluminium and powered by modern and efficient diesel engines, while conventional ferries have a steel hull and are powered by heavy oil. Fast ferries travel in excess of 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph); conventional ferries travel in excess of 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph), but are slower than fast ferries.A typical ferry ride between La Palma and Tenerife may take up to eight hours or more while a fast ferry takes about two and a half hours and between Tenerife and Gran Canaria can be about one hour. The largest airport is theGran Canaria Airport. Tenerife has two airports,Tenerife North AirportandTenerife South Airport.The island of Tenerife gathers the highest passenger movement of all the Canary Islands through its two airports.The two main islands (Tenerife and Gran Canaria) receive the greatest number of passengers.Tenerife 6,204,499 passengers and Gran Canaria 5,011,176 passengers. Theport of Las Palmasis first in freight traffic in the islands,while theport of Santa Cruz de Tenerifeis the first fishing port with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Spanish government publication Statistical Yearbook of State Ports. Similarly, it is the second port in Spain as regards ship traffic, only surpassed by thePort of AlgecirasBay.The port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. The port ofLos Cristianos(Tenerife) has the greatest number of passengers recorded in the Canary Islands, followed by the port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife.The Port of Las Palmas is the third port in the islands in passengers and first in number of vehicles transported. TheSS Americawas beached at the Canary islands on 18 January 1994. However, the ocean liner broke apart after the course of several years and eventually sank beneath the surface. Rail transport TheTenerife Tramopened in 2007 and is currently the only one in the Canary Islands, travelling between the cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Three more railway lines are being planned for the Canary Islands: Airports Ports Health TheServicio Canario de Saludis an autonomous body of administrative nature attached to the Ministry responsible for Health of the Government of the Canary Islands. Wildlife Fauna The bird life includes European and African species, such as theblack-bellied sandgrouse,Canary, Graja, a subspecies ofred-billed choughendemic to La Palma,Gran Canaria blue chaffinch,Tenerife blue chaffinch,Canary Islands chiffchaff,Fuerteventura chat,Tenerife goldcrest,La Palma chaffinch,Canarian Egyptian vulture,Bolle's pigeon,Laurel pigeon,Plain swift, andHoubara bustard. Terrestrial fauna includes theEl Hierro giant lizard,Tachina canariensis,La Gomera giant lizard, and theLa Palma giant lizard. Mammals include theCanarian shrew,Canary big-eared bat, theAlgerian hedgehog, and the more recently introducedmouflon. Extinct fauna The Canary Islands were previously inhabited by a variety of endemic animals, such as extinct giant lizards (Gallotia goliath), giant tortoises (Centrochelys burchardiandC. vulcanica),andTenerifeandGran Canariagiant rats (Canariomys bravoiandC. tamarani),among others. Extinct birds known only fromPleistoceneandHoloceneage bones include theCanary Islands quail(Coturnix gomerae),Dune shearwater(Puffinus holeae),Lava shearwater(P. olsoni),Trias greenfinch(Chloris triasi),Slender-billed greenfinch(C. aurelioi) and theLong-legged bunting(Emberiza alcoveri). Marine life Themarine lifefound in the Canary Islands is also varied, being a combination ofNorth Atlantic,Mediterraneanandendemicspecies. In recent years, the increasing popularity of bothscuba divingandunderwater photographyhave provided biologists with much new information on the marine life of the islands. Fish species found in the islands include many species ofshark,ray,moray eel,bream,jack,grunt,scorpionfish,triggerfish,grouper,goby, andblenny. In addition, there are many invertebrate species, includingsponge,jellyfish,anemone,crab,mollusc,sea urchin,starfish,sea cucumberandcoral. There are a total of five different species ofmarine turtlethat are sighted periodically in the islands, the most common of these being theendangeredloggerhead sea turtle.The other four are thegreen sea turtle,hawksbill sea turtle,leatherback sea turtleandKemp's ridley sea turtle. Currently, there are no signs that any of these species breed in the islands, and so those seen in the water are usuallymigrating. However, it is believed that some of these species may have bred in the islands in the past, and there are records of several sightings of leatherback sea turtle on beaches in Fuerteventura, adding credibility to the theory. Marine mammals include the large varieties ofcetaceansincluding rare and not well-known species (see more details in theMarine life of the Canary Islands).Hooded sealshave also been known to be vagrant in the Canary Islands every now and then. The Canary Islands were also formerly home to a population of the rarestpinnipedin the world, theMediterranean monk seal. Native flora gallery Holidays Some holidays of those celebrated in the Canary Islands are international and national, others are regional holidays and others are of insular character. The official day of the autonomous community isCanary Islands Dayon 30 May. The anniversary of the first session of theParliament of the Canary Islands, based in the city ofSanta Cruz de Tenerife, held on 30 May 1983, is commemorated with this day. The common festive calendar throughout the Canary Islands is as follows: In addition, each of the islands has an island festival, in which it is a holiday only on that specific island. These are the festivities of island patrons saints of each island. Organized chronologically are: The most famous festivals of the Canary Islands is the carnival. It is the most famous and international festival of the archipelago. The carnival is celebrated in all the islands and all its municipalities, perhaps the two busiest are those of the two Canarian capitals; theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife(Tourist Festival of International Interest) and theCarnival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. It is celebrated on the streets between the months of February and March. But the rest of the islands of the archipelago have their carnivals with their own traditions among which stand out: The Festival of the Carneros ofEl Hierro, the Festival of the Diabletes ofTeguiseinLanzarote, Los Indianos deLa Palma, the Carnival ofSan Sebastián de La Gomeraand the Carnival ofPuerto del RosarioinFuerteventura. Science and technology In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14ground stationsin theManned Space Flight Network(MSFN) to support theNASAspace program.Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including theApollo 11Moon landings andSkylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of theESAnetwork. Because of the remote location, a number ofastronomical observatoriesare located in the archipelago, including theTeide Observatoryon Tenerife, theRoque de los Muchachos Observatoryon La Palma, and theTemisas Astronomical Observatoryon Gran Canaria. Tenerife is the home of theInstituto de Astrofísica de Canarias(Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González (Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at theUniversity of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). The latter is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\"), located in various parts of Spain. The Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands) is based in Tenerife. Sports A unique form of wrestling known asCanarian wrestling(lucha canaria) has opponents stand in a special area called a \"terrero\" and try to throw each other to the ground using strength and quick movements. Another sport is the \"game of the sticks\" (palo canario) where opponents fence with long sticks. This may have come about from the shepherds of the islands who would challenge each other using their long walking sticks. Furthermore, there is theshepherd's jump(salto del pastor). This involves using a long stick to vault over an open area. This sport possibly evolved from the shepherd's need to occasionally get over an open area in the hills as they were tending their sheep. The two mainfootballteams in the archipelago are: theCD Tenerife(founded in 1912) andUD Las Palmas(founded in 1949). As of the 2023/2024 season, UD Las Palmas plays in La Liga, the top tier of Spanish football. CD Tenerife however plays in The Segunda Divisón. When in the same division, the clubs contest theCanary Islands derby. There are smaller clubs also playing in the mainlandSpanish football league system, most notablyUD LanzaroteandCD Laguna, although no other Canarian clubs have played in the top flight. The mountainous terrain of the Canary Islands also caters to the growing popularity ofultra runningandultramarathonsas host of annual competitive long-distance events includingCajaMar Tenerife BluetrailonTenerife,TransvulcaniaonLa Palma,TransgrancanariaonGran Canaria, and the HalfMarathon des SablesonFuerteventura. A yearlyIronman Triathlonhas been taking place onLanzarotesince 1992. Notable athletes See also History Geography Culture References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links",
"Tenerife Tenerife(/ˌtɛnəˈriːf/TEN-ə-REEF;Spanish:ⓘ; formerly spelledTeneriffe) is the largest and most populous island of theCanary Islands.It is home to 42.9% of the total population of thearchipelago.With a land area of 2,034.38 square kilometres (785.48 sq mi) and a population of 948,815 inhabitants as of January 2023,it is also the most populous island ofSpainand ofMacaronesia. Approximately five million tourists visit Tenerife each year; it is the most visited island in the archipelago.It is one of the most important tourist destinations in Spainand the world,hosting one of the world's largestcarnivals, theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The capital of the island,Santa Cruz de Tenerife, is also the seat of the island council (cabildo insular). That city andLas Palmas de Gran Canariaare the co-capitals of theautonomous communityof theCanary Islands. The two cities are both home to governmental institutions, such as the offices of the presidency and the ministries. This has been the arrangement since 1927, when the Crown ordered it. (After the1833 territorial division of Spain, until 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands).Santa Cruz contains the modernAuditorio de Tenerife, the architectural symbol of the Canary Islands. The island is home to theUniversity of La Laguna. Founded in 1792 inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, it is the oldest university in the Canaries. The city of La Laguna is aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. It is the second most populous city on the island, and the third most populous in the archipelago. It was the capital of the Canary Islands before Santa Cruz replaced it in 1833.Tenerife is served by two airports;Tenerife North AirportandTenerife South Airport. Teide National Park, located in the center of the island, is also a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site. It includesMount Teide, which has the highest elevation in Spain, and the highest elevation among all the islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It is also the third-largest volcano in the world, when measured from its base.Another geographical feature of the island, theMacizo de Anaga(massif), has been designated as a UNESCOBiosphere Reservesince 2015.Tenerife also has the largest number ofendemicspecies in Europe. Toponymy The name 'Tenerife' likely comes fromTamazight, but there is no consensus on its correct interpretation. The island'sindigenous people, theGuancheBerbers, referred to the island asAchinetorChenetintheir language(variant spellings are found in the literature). According toPliny the Younger,BerberkingJuba IIsent an expedition to the Canary Islands andMadeira; he named the Canary Islands for the particularly ferocious dogs (canaria) on the island.Juba II and theancient Romanscalled the island of TenerifeNivaria, from theLatinwordnix(nsg.;gsg.nivis,npl.nives), meaning \"snow\", after the snow-covered peak of the Mount Teide volcano.Later maps dating to the 14th and 15th century, drawn by mapmakers such as Bontier and Le Verrier, called the islandIsla del Infierno, (\"Hell Island\"), due to Mount Teide's volcanic eruptions and other volcanic activity. Although the name given to the island by theBenahoaritas(the indigenous peoples of La Palma) was derived from the wordsteni(\"mountain\") andife(\"white\"),after the island was colonized by the Spanish the name was modified by Spanish phonology: the letter \"r\" was added to link the two words, producing the single word Tenerife. However, throughout history, other explanations for the origin of island's name have been proposed. For example, the 17th-century historiansJuan Núñez de la PeñaandTomás Arias Marín de Cubas, among others, suggested that the indigenous peoples might have named the island for the famous Guanche king,Tinerfe, nicknamed \"the Great\", who ruled Tenerife before theCanary Islandswere conquered byCastile. Demonym The formaldemonymused to refer to the people of Tenerife isTinerfeño/a; also used colloquially is the termchicharrero/a.In modern society, the latter term is generally applied only to inhabitants of the capital, Santa Cruz. The termchicharrerowas once aderogatoryterm used by the people ofLa Lagunawhen it was the capital, to refer to the poorer inhabitants and fishermen of Santa Cruz. The fishermen typically caughtmackereland other residents atepotatoes, assumed to be of low quality by the elite of La Laguna.As Santa Cruz grew in commerce and status, it replaced La Laguna as capital of Tenerife in 1833 during the reign ofFernando VII. Then the inhabitants of Santa Cruz used the former insult to identify as residents of the new capital, at La Laguna's expense. History The earliest known human settlement in the islands, dating to around 200BCE, was established byBerbersknown as theGuanches.However, theCave of the Guanchesin the northern municipality ofIcod de los Vinoshas provided the oldest chronologies of the Canary Islands, with dates around the sixth century BCE. In terms of technology, the Guanches can be placed among the peoples of theStone Age, although scholars often reject this classification because of its ambiguity. Guanche culture was more advanced culturally, possibly because of Berber cultural features imported from North Africa, but less technologically advanced due to the scarcity of raw materials, especially minerals that would have allowed for the extraction and working of metals. The main activity was gathering food from nature; though fishing and shellfish collection were supplemented with some agricultural practices. As for religion andcosmology, the Guanches werepolytheistic, with further widespread belief in anastral cult. They also had ananimisticreligiosity that sacralized certain places, mainly rocks and mountains. Although the Guanches worshiped many gods and ancestral spirits, among the most important wereAchamán(the god of the sky and supreme creator),Chaxiraxi(the mother goddess, identified later with theVirgin of Candelaria),Magec(the god of the sun), andGuayota(the demon who is the main cause of evil). Especially significant was the cult of the dead, which practiced themummificationof corpses. In addition, smallanthropomorphicandzoomorphicstone and clay figurines of the kind typically associated with rituals have been found on the island. Scholars believe they were used as idols, the most prominent of which is the so-calledIdol of Guatimac, which is thought to represent a genius or protective spirit. Territorial organisation before the conquest (The Guanches) The title ofmenceywas given to the monarch or king of the Guanches of Tenerife, who governed amenceyatoor kingdom. This role was later referred to as a \"captainship\" by the conquerors.Tinerfe \"the Great\", son of themenceySunta, governed the island from Adeje in the south. However, upon his death, his nine children rebelled and argued bitterly about how to divide the island. Two independentachimenceyatoswere created on the island, and the island was divided into ninemenceyatos. Themenceyeswithin them formed what would be similar to municipalities today.Themenceyatosand theirmenceyes(ordered by the names of descendants of Tinerfe who ruled them) were the following: The achimenceyato ofPunta del Hidalgowas governed by Aguahuco, a \"poor noble\" who was an illegitimate son of Tinerfe and Zebenzui. Spanish conquest Tenerife was the last island of the Canaries to be conquered and the one that took the longest time to submit to the Castilian troops. Although the traditional dates of the conquest of Tenerife are established between 1494 (landing of Alonso Fernández de Lugo) and 1496 (the complete conquest of the island), attempts to annex the island of Tenerife to theCrown of Castiledate back at least to 1464. In 1464,Diego Garcia de Herrera, Lord of the Canary Islands, took symbolic possession of the island in theBarranco del Bufadero(Ravine of the Bufadero),signing a peace treaty with the Guanche chiefs (menceyes) which allowed themenceyAnaga to build a fortified tower on Guanche land, where the Guanches and the Spanish held periodic treaty talks until the Guanches demolished it around 1472. In 1492 the governor of Gran Canaria Francisco Maldonado organized a raid that ended in disaster for the Spaniards when they were defeated by Anaga's warriors. In December 1493, the Catholic monarchs, Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, grantedAlonso Fernández de Lugothe right to conquer Tenerife. Coming fromGran Canariain April 1494, the conqueror landed on the coast of present-day Santa Cruz de Tenerife in May, and disembarked with about 2,000 men on foot and 200 on horseback.After taking the fort, the army prepared to move inland, later capturing the native kings of Tenerife and presenting them toIsabella and Ferdinand. Themenceyesof Tenerife had differing responses to the conquest. They divided into theside of peace(Spanish:bando de paz) and theside of war(Spanish:bando de guerra). The first included themenceyatosof Anaga, Güímar, Abona and Adeje. The second group consisted of the people of Tegueste, Tacoronte, Taoro, Icoden and Daute. Those opposed to the conquest fought the invaders tenaciously, resisting their rule for two years. Castillian forces under theAdelantado(\"military governor\") de Lugo suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Guanches in theFirst Battle of Acentejoon 31 May 1494, but defeated them at theSecond Battle of Acentejoon 25 December 1494. The Guanches were eventually overcome by superior technology and the arms of the invaders, and surrendered to the Crown of Castile in 1496. Spanish rule Many of the natives died from new infectious diseases, such asinfluenzaand probablysmallpox, to which they lacked resistance or acquiredimmunity. The new colonists intermarried with the local native population. For a century after the conquest, many new colonists settled on the island, including immigrants from the diverse territories of the growingSpanish Empire, such asFlanders, Italy, and Germany. As the population grew, it cleared Tenerife's pine forests for fuel and to make fields for agriculture for crops both for local consumption and for export.Sugar canewas introduced in the 1520s as a commodity crop on major plantations; it was a labor-intensive crop in all phases of cultivation and processing. In the following centuries, planters cultivated wine grapes,cochinealfor making dyes, andplantainsfor use and export. Trade with the Americas In the commerce of the Canary Islands with the Americas of the 18th century, Tenerife was the hegemonic island, since it exceeded 50% of the number of ships and 60% of the tonnage. In the islands ofLa PalmaandGran Canaria, the percentage was around 19% for the first and 7% for the second.The volume of traffic between the Indies and the Canary Islands was unknown, but was very important and concentrated almost exclusively in Tenerife. Among the products that are exported werecochineal,rumandsugar cane, which were landed mainly in the ports of the Americas such asLa Guaira,Havana,CampecheandVeracruz. Many sailors from Tenerife joined this transcontinental maritime trade, among which the corsairAmaro Rodríguez Felipe, more commonly known asAmaro Pargo, Juan Pedro Dujardín and Bernardo de Espinosa, both companions of Amaro Pargo, among others. Emigration to the Americas Tenerife, like the other islands, has maintained a close relationship with Latin America, as both were part of the Spanish Empire. From the start of the colonization of theNew World, many Spanish expeditions stopped at the island for supplies on their way to the Americas. They also recruited manytinerfeñosfor their crews, who formed an integral part of the conquest expeditions. Others joined ships in search of better prospects. It is also important to note the exchange in plant and animal species that made those voyages. After a century and a half of relative growth, based on thegrape growingsector, numerous families emigrated, especially toVenezuelaandCuba. TheCrownwanted to encourage population of underdeveloped zones in the Americas to pre-empt the occupation by foreign forces, as had happened with the English inJamaicaand the French in theGuianasand westernHispaniola(which the French renamed as Saint-Domingue). Canary Islanders, including manytinerfeños,left for the New World. The success in cultivation of new crops of the Americas, such ascocoain Venezuela and tobacco in Cuba, contributed to the population exodus from towns such as Buenavista del Norte, Vilaflor, or El Sauzal in the late 17th century. The village ofSan Carlos de Tenerifewas founded in 1684 by Canary Islanders onSanto Domingo. The people from Tenerife were recruited for settlement to build up the town from encroachment by French colonists established in the western side of Hispaniola. Between 1720 and 1730, the Crown moved 176 families, including manytinerfeños,to the Caribbean island ofPuerto Rico. In 1726, about 25 island families migrated to the Americas to collaborate on the foundation ofMontevideo. Four years later, in 1730, another group left that foundedSan Antoniothe following year in what becameTexas. Between 1777 and 1783, more islanders emigrated from Santa Cruz de Tenerife to settle in what becameSt. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, during the period when Spain ruled this former French territory west of the Mississippi River. Some groups went to Western or Spanish Florida. Tenerife saw the arrival of theFirst FleettoBotany Bayin June 1787, which consisted of 11 ships that departed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The Fleet consisted of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and sixconvict shipscarrying between 1,000 and 1,500 convicts, marines, seamen, civil officers and free people (accounts differ on the numbers), and a vast quantity of stores. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz at Tenerife. Here, fresh water, vegetables and meat were brought on board. Commander of the fleet, Capt.Arthur Phillipand the chief officers were entertained by the local governor, while one convict tried unsuccessfully to escape. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents. In June 1799, the Prussian-born naturalistAlexander von Humboldtspent five full days on Tenerife on the first leg of his soon world-famous American journey (1799–1804) and climbed the Pico del Teide. Emigration to the Americas (mainly Cuba and Venezuela) continued during the 19th and early 20th century, due to the lack of economic opportunity and the relative isolation of the Canary Islands. Since the late 20th century, island protectionist economic laws and a strong development in the tourism industry have strengthened the economy and attracted new migrants. Tenerife has received numerous new residents, including the \"return\" of many descendants of some islanders who had departed five centuries before. Military history The most notable conflict was theBritish invasion of Tenerifein 1797.On 25 July 1797, AdmiralHoratio Nelsonlaunched an attack at Santa Cruz de Tenerife, now the capital of the island. After a ferocious fight which resulted in many casualties, GeneralAntonio Gutiérrez de Otero y Santayanaorganized a defense to repel the invaders. Whilst leading a landing party, Nelson was seriously wounded in his right arm by grapeshot or a musket ball, necessitating amputation of most of the arm.Legend tells that he was wounded by the Spanish cannonTiger(Spanish:Tigre) as he was trying to disembark on the Paso Alto coast. On 5 September 1797, the British attempted another attack in the Puerto Santiago region, which was repelled by the inhabitants ofSantiago del Teide. Some threw rocks at the British from the heights of the cliffs ofLos Gigantes. The island was also attacked by British commandersRobert Blake,Walter Raleigh,John HawkinsandWoodes Rogers. Modern history From 1833 to 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, the government ordered that the capital be shared withLas Palmas, as it remains at present.This change in status has encouraged development in Las Palmas. Tourists began visiting Tenerife from Spain, the United Kingdom, and northern Europe in large numbers in the 1890s. They especially were attracted to the destinations of the northern towns ofPuerto de la Cruzand Santa Cruz de Tenerife.Independent shipping business, such as the Yeoward Brothers Shipping Line, helped boost the tourist industry during this time, adding to ships that carried passengers.The naturalistAlexander von Humboldtascended the peak of Mount Teide and remarked on the beauty of the island. Before his rise to power,Francisco Francowas posted to Tenerife in March 1936 by a Republican government wary of his influence and political leanings. However, Franco received information and in Gran Canaria agreed to collaborate in the military coup that would result in theSpanish Civil War; the Canaries fell to the Nationalists in July 1936. In the 1950s, the misery of the post-war years caused thousands of the island's inhabitants to emigrate toCubaand other parts of Latin America. Tenerife was the site of the deadliest accident ever in commercial aviation. TheTenerife airport disasteroccurred on 27 March 1977 when twoBoeing 747s,KLMFlight 4805 andPan AmFlight 1736 collided on the runway atLos Rodeos Airportin heavy fog conditions, causing the deaths of 583 passengers and crew. A few years later,Dan Air Flight 1008crashed into a mountain while on approach to Tenerife North, killing 146 people. The plane was travelling too close to an Iberia Air turboprop plane and was asked to go into a holding pattern. At the beginning of the 21st century, the so-calledRiada de Tenerife of 2002took place on 31 March of that year. It was a phenomenon of cold drop characterized by the repeated fall of torrential rains accompanied by thunder and lightning, affecting themetropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerifeand extending in the NE direction towards theSan Andrésarea.The rains caused 8 dead, 12 missing and dozens of injured.In addition to the human losses, the flood caused considerable material damage, 70,000 people without light as well as the total or partial destruction of at least 400 homes. The losses were calculated at 90 million euros. In November 2005, Tenerife was the Canary Island most affected byTropical Storm Delta. Winds of 140 km/h were recorded on the coast and almost 250 km/h on theTeide, Tenerife's summit. Geography The oldest mountain ranges in Tenerife rose from the Atlantic Ocean by volcanic eruption which gave birth to the island around twelve million years ago.The island as it is today was formed three million years ago by the fusion of three islands made up of the mountain ranges ofAnaga,TenoandValle de San Lorenzo,due to volcanic activity fromTeide. The volcano is visible from most parts of the island today, and the crater is 17 kilometres (11 miles) long at some points. Tenerife is the largest island of the Canary Islands and theMacaronesiaregion. Climate Tenerife is characterized by a generally dry, warm climate. The island has 2 main different climatic areas (as byKöppen climate classification) yet it actually has 5 different climatic areas. Global climate change has had a major impact on the island, with diminishing rainfall and hot, dry winds affecting vegetation and contributing to an increasing propensity to being subject to forest fires. On August 15, 2023, a forest fire determined to be caused by arson necessitated the evacuation of 12,000 residents within a week. The main climates are the hot semi-arid/arid climate (Köppen:BShandBWh) and thesubtropicalMediterranean Climate(Köppen:CsbandCsa) inland or at higher altitudes. The low altitude/coastal areas of the island have average temperatures of 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) in the winter months and 24–26 °C (75–79 °F) in the summer months. There is a high annual total of days of sunshine and low precipitation in the coastal areas. The inland/high altitude areas, such asLa Laguna, receive much more precipitation and are generally cloudier, as well as the temperatures have a considerable difference, with an average of 13–14 °C (55–57 °F) in the winter and 20–21 °C (68–70 °F) in the summer. The moderate climate of Tenerife is controlled to a great extent by thetrade winds, whosehumidityis condensed principally over the north and northeast of the island, creating cloud banks that range between 600 and 1,800 metres (2,000 and 5,900 feet) in height. The cold sea currents of the Canary Islands also have a cooling effect on the coasts and its beaches, while the topography of the landscape plays a role in climatic differences on the island with its many valleys. The moderating effect of the marine air makes extreme heat a rare occurrence and frost an impossibility at sea level. The lowest recorded temperature in central Santa Cruz is 8.1 °C (46.6 °F), the coldest month on record still had a relatively mild average temperature of 15.8 °C (60.4 °F).Summer temperatures are highest in August, with an average high of 29 °C (84 °F) in Santa Cruz, similar to those of places as far north asBarcelonaandMajorca, because of the greater maritime influence. At a higher elevation inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, the climate transitions to aMediterranean climatewith higher precipitation amounts and lower temperatures year round. The climate of Santa Cruz is very typical of the Canaries, albeit only slightly warmer than theclimateof Las Palmas. Major climatic contrasts on the island are evident, especially during the winter months when it is possible to enjoy the warm sunshine on the coast and experience snow within kilometres, 3,000 metres (10,000 feet)above sea levelon ElTeide.There are also major contrasts at low altitude, where the climate ranges fromarid(KöppenBWh) on the southeastern side represented by Santa Cruz de Tenerife toMediterranean(Csa/Csb) on the northwestern side in Buena Vista del Norte and La Orotava. The center of the island is characterized by forests because of the much higher precipitation, mostlyCanary Island pineforests in theTeide National Parkat altitudes from 1,300 to 2,100 metres (4,300 to 6,900 ft).Subtropicalcloud forestscharacterised bylaurisilvaare commonly found in the Anaga National Park and Monte de Agua in the Teno Rural Park, with altitudes from 600 to 1,000 metres (2,000 to 3,300 ft) and annual averages from 15 to 19 °C (59 to 66 °F) and 600 to 1,200 metres (2,000 to 3,900 ft) in the latter. The north and south of Tenerife similarly have different climatic characteristics because of therain shadoweffect. The windward northwestern side of the island receives 73 percent of all precipitation on the island, and the relative humidity of the air is superior and the insolation inferior. The pluviometric maximums are registered on the windward side at an average altitude of between 1,000 and 1,200 metres (3,300 and 3,900 feet), almost exclusively in theLa Orotavamountain range.Although climatic differences in rainfall and sunshine on the island exist, overall annualprecipitationis low and the summer months from May to September are normally completely dry. Rainfall, similar to that ofSouthern California, can also be extremely erratic from one year to another. Water The volcanic ground of Tenerife, which is of aporousand permeable character, is generally the reason why the soil is able to maximise the absorption of water on an island of low rainfall, withcondensationin forested areas and frost deposition on the summit of the island also contributory causes. Given the irregularity of precipitation and geological conditions on the island, dam construction has been avoided, so most of the water (90 percent) comes fromwellsand from water galleries (horizontal tunnels bored into the volcano) of which there are thousands on the island, important systems that serve to extract its hydrological resources.These tunnels are very hazardous, with pockets of volcanic gas orcarbon dioxide, causing rapid death. Pollution and air quality The Canary Islands have low levels of air pollution thanks to the lack of factories and industry and the trade winds which naturally move away contaminated air from the islands. According to official data offered by the Health and Industry Ministry in Spain, Tenerife is one of the cleanest places in the country with an air pollution index below the national average.Despite this, there are still agents which affect pollution levels in the island, the mainpolluting agentsbeing therefinery at Santa Cruz, thethermal powerplants atLas CaletillasandGranadilla, and road traffic, increased by the high level of tourism in the island. In addition on the island of Tenerife like on La Palma light pollution must be also controlled, to help theastrophysical observatorieslocated in the island's summits.Water is generally of a very high quality, and all the beaches of the island of Tenerife have been catalogued by the Ministry of Health and Consumption as waters suitable for bathing. Geology Tenerife is a rugged volcanic island, sculpted by successive eruptions throughout its history. There are four historically recorded volcanic eruptions, none of which has led to casualties. The first occurred in 1704, when the Arafo, Fasnia and Siete Fuentes volcanoes erupted simultaneously. Two years later, in 1706, the greatest eruption occurred at Trevejo. This volcano produced great quantities oflavawhich buried the city and port ofGarachico. The last eruption of the 18th century happened in 1798 at Cañadas de Teide, inChahorra. The most recent eruption-in 1909-formed the Chinyero cinder cone in the municipality ofSantiago del Teide. The island is located between 28° and 29° N and the 16° and 17° W meridian. It is situated north of theTropic of Cancer, occupying a central position between the other Canary Islands ofGran Canaria,La GomeraandLa Palma. The island is about 300 km (186 mi) from the African coast, and approximately 1,000 km (621 mi) from theIberian Peninsula.Tenerife is the largest island of the Canary Islands archipelago, with a surface area of 2,034.38 km2(785 sq mi)and has the longest coastline, amounting to 342 km (213 mi). In addition, the highest point, Mount Teide, with an elevation of 3,715 m (12,188 ft)above sea levelis the highest point in all of Spain,is also the third largest volcano in the world from its base in the bottom of the sea. For this reason, Tenerife is the10th-highest island worldwide. It comprises about 200 small barren islets or large rocks includingRoques de Anaga,Roque de Garachico, andFasniaadding a further 213,835 m2(2,301,701 sq ft) to the total area. Origins and geological formation Tenerife is a volcanic island that has built up from the ocean floor during the last 20 million years. Underwater fissural eruptions producedpillow lava, which are produced by the rapid cooling of the magma when it comes in contact with water, obtaining their peculiar shape. This pillow-lava accumulated, constructing the base of the island underneath the sea. As this accumulation approached the surface of the water, gases erupted from the magma due to the reduction of the surrounding pressure. The volcanic eruptions became more violent and had a more explosive character, and resulted in the forming of peculiar geological fragments. After long-term accumulation of these fragments, the birth of the island occurred at the end of theMiocene epoch. The zones on Tenerife known asMacizo de Teno,Macizo de AnagaandMacizo de Adejewere formed seven million years ago; these formations are called theAncient Basaltic SeriesorSeries I. These zones were actually three separate islands lying in what is now the extreme west, east, and south of Tenerife. A second volcanic cycle called thePost-Miocene FormationsorLatest Series II, III, IVbegan three million years ago. This was a much more intense volcanic cycle, which united the Macizo de Teno, Macizo de Anaga and Macizo de Adeje into one island. This new structure, called thePre-Cañadas Structure(Edificio pre-Cañadas), would be the foundation for what is called theCañadas Structure I. The Cañadas Structure I experienced various collapses and emitted explosive material that produced the area known asBandas del sur(in the present-day south-southeast of Tenerife). Subsequently, upon the ruins of Cañadas Structure I emergedCañadas Structure II, which was 2,500 metres (8,200 ft)above sea leveland emerged with intense explosive activity. About one million years ago, the Dorsal Range (Cordillera Dorsal) emerged by means of fissural volcanic activity occurring amidst the remains of the older Ancient Basaltic Series (Series I). This Dorsal Range emerged as the highest and the longest volcanic structure in the Canary Islands; it was 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) high and 25 kilometres (16 mi) long. About 800,000 years ago, two gravitationallandslidesoccurred, giving rise to the present-day valleys of La Orotava and Güímar.Finally, around 200,000 years ago, the giant Icod landslide occurred followed by eruptions that raised thePico Viejo-Teidein the centre of the island, over theLas Cañadas caldera. Orography and landscape The uneven and steeporographyof the island and its variety of climates has resulted in a diversity of landscapes and geographical and geological formations, from the Teide National Park with its extensivepineforests, juxtaposed against the volcanic landscape at the summit of Teide andMalpaís de Güímar, to the Acantilados de Los Gigantes (Cliffs of the Giants) with its vertical precipices. Semidesert areas exist in the south with drought-resistant plants. Other areas range from those protected and enclosed in mountains such as Montaña Roja and Montaña Pelada, the valleys and forests with subtropical vegetation and climate, to those with deep gorges and precipices such as at Anaga and Teno. Central heights The principal structures in Tenerife, make the central highlands, with the Teide–Pico Viejocomplex and the Las Cañadas areas as most prominent. It comprises a semi-calderaof about 130 km2(50 sq mi) in area, originated by several geological processes explained under theOrigin and formationsection. The area is partially occupied by the Teide-Pico Viejo strato-volcano and completed by the materials emitted in the different eruptions that took place. A known formation calledLos Azulejos, composed by green-tinted rocks were created by hydrothermal processes. South of La Caldera isGuajara Mountain, which has an elevation of 2,718 metres (8,917 feet), rising above Teide National Park. At the bottom, is anendorheic basinflanked with very fine sedimentary material which has been deposited from its volcanic processes, and is known as Llano de Ucanca. The peak ofTeide, at 3,715 metres (12,188 feet)above sea leveland more than 7,500 metres (24,606 feet) above the ocean floor, is the highest point of the island, Spanish territory and in the Atlantic Ocean. The volcano is the third largest on the planet, and its central location,substantial size, looming silhouette in the distance and its snowy landscape in winter give it a unique nature.The original settlers considered Teide a god and Teide was a place of worship. In 1954, the whole area around it was declared anational park, with further expansion later on. In addition, in June 2007 it was recognised byUNESCOas aWorld Heritage site.To the west lies the volcanoPico Viejo(Old Peak). On one side of it, is the volcano Chahorra o Narices del Teide, where the last eruption occurred in the vicinity of Mount Teide in 1798. The Teide is one of the 16Decade Volcanoesidentified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. Tallest mountains on Tenerife: Massifs The Anaga massif (Macizo de Anaga), at the northeastern end of the island, has an irregular and rugged topographical profile where, despite its generally modest elevations, the Cruz de Taborno reaches a height of 1,024 metres (3,360 feet). Due to the age of its material (5.7 million years), its deep erosive processes, and the dense network ofdikespiercing the massif, its surface exposes numerous outcroppings of bothphonoliticandtrachyticorigin. A large number of steep-walled gorges are present, penetrating deeply into the terrain. Vertical cuts dominate the Anagan coast, with infrequent beaches of rocks or black sand between them; the few that exist generally coincide with the mouths of gorges. The Teno massif (Macizo de Teno) is located on the northwestern edge of the island. Like Anaga, it includes an area of outcroppings and deep gorges formed by erosion. However, the materials here are older (about 7.4 million years old). Mount Gala represents its highest elevation at 1,342 metres (4,403 feet). The most unusual landscape of this massif is found on its southern coast, where theAcantilados de Los Gigantes(\"Cliffs of the Giants\") present vertical walls reaching heights of 500 metres (1,600 feet) in some places. The Adeje massif (Macizo de Adeje) is situated on the southern tip of the island. Its main landmark is the Roque del Conde (\"Count's Rock\"), with an elevation of 1,001 metres (3,284 feet). This massif is not as impressive as the others due to its diminished initial structure, since in addition to with the site's greater geologic age it has experienced severe erosion of its material, thereby losing its original appearance and extent. Dorsals The Dorsal mountainridgeorDorsal of Pedro Gilcovers the area from the start at Mount La Esperanza, at a height of about 750 m (2,461 ft), to the center of the island, near theCaldera de Las Cañadas, with Izaña, as its highest point at 2,390 m (7,841 ft) (MSLP). These mountains have been created due to basaltic fissural volcanism through one of the axis that gave birth to the vulcanism of this area. The Abeque Dorsal was formed by a chain of volcanoes that join the Teno with the central insular peak of Teide-Pico Viejo starting from another of the three axis of Tenerife's geological structures. On this dorsal we find the historic volcano of Chinyero whose last eruption happened in 1909. The South Dorsal orDorsal of Adejeis part of the last of the structural axis. The remains of this massive rock show the primordial land, also showing the alignment of small volcanic cones and rocks around this are in Tenerife's South. Valleys and ravines Valleysare another of the island's features. The most important areValle de La OrotavaandValle de Güímar, both formed by the mass sliding of great quantities of material towards the sea, creating a depression of the land. Other valleys tend to be between hills formed by deposits of sediments from nearby slopes, or simply wide ravines which in their evolution have become typical valleys. Tenerife has a large number of ravines, which are a characteristic element of the landscape, caused by erosion fromsurface runoffover a long period. Notable ravines include Ruiz, Fasnia and Güímar,Infierno, and Erques, all of which have been designated protected natural areas by Canarian institutions. Coastline The coasts of Tenerife are typically rugged and steep, particularly on the north of the island. However, the island has 67.14 kilometres (41.72 miles) of beaches, such as the one atEl Médano, surpassed only in this respect by the island ofFuerteventura.There are many black sand pebble beaches on the northern coast, while on the south and south-west coast of the island, the beaches have typically much finer and clearer sand with lighter tones. Volcanic tubes Lava tubesare volcanic caves usually in the form of tunnels formed within lava flows more or less fluid reogenética duration of the activity. Among the many existing volcanic tubes on the island stands out theCueva del Viento, located in the northern town ofIcod de los Vinos, which is the largest volcanic tunnel in theEuropean Unionand one of the largest in the world, for a long time considered the largest in the world. Flora and fauna The island of Tenerife has a remarkableecosystem diversityin spite of its small surface area, which is a consequence of the special environmental conditions on the island, where its distinct orography modifies the general climatic conditions at a local level, producing a significant variety ofmicroclimates. This diversity of microclimates allows some 1400 species of plants to exist on the island, with well over 100 of these endemic to Tenerife.The fauna of Tenerife includes some 400 species of fish, 56 birds, five reptiles, two amphibians, 13 land mammals, thousands of invertebrates, and several species of sea turtles and cetaceans. The vegetation of Tenerife can be divided into six major zones that are directly related to altitude and the direction in which they face. Prehistoric fauna Before the arrival of humans, the Canary Islands were inhabited by certain endemic animals, now mostly extinct. These animals reachedlarger than usual sizes, because of a phenomenon calledisland gigantism. Among these species, the best known in Tenerife were: Protected natural areas Nearly half of the island territory (48.6 percent),is under protection from theRed Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos(Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,a total of 43 are located in Tenerife, the most protected island in the group.The network has criteria which places areas under its observation under eight different categories of protection, all of them are represented in Tenerife. Aside fromParque Nacional del Teide, it counts the Parque Natural de Canarias (Crown Forest), two rural parks (Anaga and Teno), four integral natural reserves, six special natural reserves, a total of fourteen natural monuments, nine protected landscapes and up to six sites of scientific interest. Also located on the islandMacizo de Anagasince 2015 isBiosphere Reserveand is the place that has the largest number of endemic species in Europe. In contrast to the land-based protected areas, Tenerife also boasts significant marine protected natural areas. Among these is the Zona de Especial Conservación Teno-Rasca (Teno-Rasca Special Area of Conservation), a marine protected area established in 2013.This marine protected area off the coast of Tenerife is known for its ecological significance and biodiversity, including resident populations of cetaceans such as bottlenose dolphins and pilot whales.It is also known as the Tenerife-La Gomera Marine Area and became the first European designated Whale Heritage Area in January 2021. Administration Law and order Tenerife island's government resides with theCabildo Insular de Tenerifelocated at the Plaza de España at the island's capital city (Palacio Insular de Tenerife). The political Canary organization does not have a provincial government body but instead each island has its own government at their ownCabildo. Since its creation in March 1913 it has a series of capabilities and duties, stated in the Canary Autonomy Statutes (Spanish:Estatuto de Autonomía de Canarias) and regulated by Law 14/1990, of 26 July 1990, of theRégimen Jurídico de las Administraciones Públicas de Canarias. The Cabildo is composed of the following administrative offices; Presidency, Legislative Body, Government Council, Informative Commissions, Spokesman's office. Government Tenerife is an autonomous territory of Spain. The island has a tiered-government system and a special status within the European Union in which it holds lower tax rates compared to other regions. Santa Cruz is the seat of half of the regional government departments and parliament and it is there that the governor is elected by the Canarian people. Afterwards, they are appointed by Madrid. There are fifteen members of parliament who work together in passing legislation, organising budgets and improving the economy. Municipalities The island, itself part of aSpanish provincenamedSanta Cruz de Tenerife, is divided administratively into 31 municipalities. Only three municipalities are landlocked:Tegueste,El TanqueandVilaflor. Vilaflor is the municipality with the highest altitude in the Canaries (its capital is 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) high). The largest municipality with an area of 207.31 square kilometres (80.04 square miles) is La Orotava, which covers much of the Teide National Park. The smallest town on the island and of the archipelago isPuerto de la Cruz, with an area of just 8.73 square kilometres (3 square miles). It is also common to find internal division, in that some cities make up a metropolitan area within a municipality, notably the cities of Santa Cruz and La Laguna. Below is an alphabetical list of all the municipalities on the island: Counties The counties of Tenerife have no official recognition, but there is a consensus among geographers about them: Flags and heraldry TheFlag of Tenerifewas originally adopted in 1845 by the navy at its base in the Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Later, and at present, this flag represents all the island of Tenerife. It was approved by theCabildo Insular de Tenerifeand the Order of the Government of the Canary Islands on 9 May 1989 and published on 22 May in the government report of the Canary Islands and made official. Thecoat-of-armsof Tenerife was granted by royal decree on 23 March 1510 byFerdinand IIatMadridin the name ofJoan I, Queen of Castile. The coat-of-arms has a field of gold, with an image ofSaint Michael(patron saintof the island) above a mountain depicted in brownish, natural colors. Flames erupt from the mountain, symbolizing El Teide. Below this mountain is depicted the island itself inverton top of blue and silver waves. To the right there is a castle ingules, and to the left, a lionrampantin gules. The shield that the Cabildo Insular, or Island Government, uses is slightly different from that used by the city government of La Laguna, which uses a motto in the arms' border and also includes some palm branches. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Tenerife are the birdblue chaffinch(Fringilla teydea) and theCanary Islands dragon tree(Dracaena draco) tree. Demographics According to INE data as at 1 January 2023, Tenerife has the largest population of the seven Canary Islands and was the most populated island of Spain with 948,815 officially estimated inhabitants,of whom about 22.0 percent (208,906) lived in the capital, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and 40 percent in the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz–La Laguna.Santa Cruz de Tenerife and the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Lagunaare physically one urban area, so that together (and including Tegueste) they have a population of 379,857 inhabitants. Tenerife has two other metropolitan areas recognized by theMinistry of Development; theTenerife South metropolitan areawith 194,774 inhabitants (2019) and theLa Orotava Valley metropolitan areawith 108,721 inhabitants (2019). After the city of Santa Cruz the major towns and municipalities as at the start of 2023 areSan Cristóbal de La Laguna(159,576),Arona(86,497),Granadilla de Abona(55,505),Adeje(50,523),La Orotava(42,667),Los Realejos(37,543), andPuerto de la Cruz(31,396). All other municipalities have fewer than 30,000 inhabitants, the smallest municipality beingVilaflorwith a population of 1,850. The island has high rates of resident population not registered in population censuses, primarily tourists. This has made several sources point out that more than one million inhabitants actually live on the island of Tenerife today.The island is also the most multicultural in the archipelago, with the highest number of registered foreigners (44.9% of registered in Canary Islands), which represent 14% of the total population of the island.Tenerife stands out in the context of the archipelago, by also concentrating the largest presence of non-EU foreign population. Tenerife has three large population areas that are very different and distributed: The Metropolitan Zone, the South Zone and the North Zone. With several protected natural parks — 48.6% of the territory — and an urban swarm around the island, in the last half century the insular coastal platform has become a highly urbanized metropolitan system. The high level of population in a relatively small territory — more than 900,000 inhabitants in just over 2,000 km2(770 sq mi) — and the strong urbanization have turned the island of Tenerife, in the words of architect Federico García Barba; on an \"island-city\" or \"island-ring\". Recently Tenerife has experienced population growth significantly higher than the national average. In 1990, there were 663,306 registered inhabitants, which increased to 709,365 in 2000, an increase of 46,059 or an annual growth of 0.69 percent. However, between 2000 and 2007, the population rose by 155,705 to 865,070, an annual increase of 3.14 percent. These results reflect the general trend in Spain where, since 2000, immigration has reversed the general slowdown in population growth, following the collapse in the birth rate from 1976. However, since 2001 the overall growth rate in Spain has been around 1.7 percent per year, compared with 3.14 percent on Tenerife, one of the largest increases in the country. Economy Tenerife is the economic capital of the Canary Islands.At present, Tenerife is the island with the highest GDP in the Canary Islands.Even though Tenerife's economy is highly specialized in theservice sector, which makes 78% of its total production capacity, the importance of the rest of the economic sectors is key to its production development. In this sense, the primary sector, which only represents 1.98% of the total product, groups activities that are important to the sustainable development of the island's economy. The energy sector which contributes 2.85% has a primary role in the development of renewable energy sources. The industrial sector which shares in 5.80% is a growing activity in the island, vis-a-vis the new possibilities created by technological advances. Finally, the construction sector with 11.29% of the total production has a strategic priority, because it is a sector with relative stability which permits multiple possibilities of development and employment opportunities. Tourism Tourism is the most prominent industry in the Canaries, which are one of the major tourist destinations in the world. Tenerife is the most visited island in the archipelagoand one of the most important tourist destinations in Spain. In 2014, 11,473,600 foreign tourists came to the Canary Islands. Tenerife had 4,171,384 arrivals that year, excluding the numbers for Spanish tourists which make up an additional 30% of total arrivals. According to last year's Canarian Statistics Centre's (ISTAC) Report on Tourism the greatest number of tourists from any one country come from the United Kingdom, with more than 3,980,000 tourists in 2014. In second place comes Germany followed by Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, France, Ireland, Belgium, Italy, Denmark, Finland, Switzerland, Poland, Russia and Austria. Tourism is more prevalent in the south of the island, which is hotter and drier and has many well developed resorts such asPlaya de las AmericasandLos Cristianos. More recently coastal development has spread northwards from Playa de las Americas and now encompasses the former small enclave of La Caleta. According to theMoratoriaact passed by the Canarian Parliament in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, no more hotels will be built on the island unless they are classified as 5 star-quality and comprise different services such as golf courses or convention facilities. This act was passed with the goal of improving the standard of tourism service and promoting environmentally conscious development. The area known asCosta Adejehas many facilities and leisure opportunities such as shopping centres, golf courses, restaurants, water parks (the most well-known beingSiam Park), animal parks, and a theatre suitable for musicals or a convention centre.There are many boats offering whale watching tours from the harbour of Puerto Colon. The deep waters off the coast of Costa Adeje are home to several pods ofpilot whales. In the more lush and green north of the island, the main focus of development for tourism has been in the town ofPuerto de la Cruz. Puerto de la Cruz is home to theSeaWorld-owned zoo,Loro Parque,which has been accused of mistreatment of animals in its captivity, includingorcasand is currently boycotted by major travel agents includingThomas Cook. In the 19th century large numbers of foreign tourists came, especially British, showing interest in the agriculture of the islands. With the world wars, the tourism sector weakened, but the second half of the 20th century brought renewed interest. Initial emphasis was on Puerto de la Cruz, and for all the attractions that the Valle de la Orotava offered. By 1980, tourism was focused in south Tenerife. The emphasis was on cities like Arona or Adeje, shifting to tourist centres like Los Cristianos or Playa de Las Americas, which now house 65% of the hotels on the island. Tenerife receives more than 5 million tourists every year; of the Сanary islands Tenerife is the most popular. Currently, the municipality ofAdejein the south of the island has the highest concentration of 5 star hotels in Europeand also has what is considered the best luxury hotel in Spain according toWorld Travel Awards. Agriculture and fishing Since tourism dominates the Tenerifan economy, the service sector is the largest. Industry and commerce contribute 40% of the non-tourist economy.Agriculture contributes less than 10% of the island's GDP, but its contribution is vital as it also generates indirect benefits by maintaining the rural appearance of the island and supporting Tenerifan cultural values. Agriculture is centred on the northern slopes, and is affected by altitude as well as orientation: in the coastal zone, tomatoes and bananas are cultivated, these high yield products are for export to mainland Spain and the rest of Europe; in the drier intermediate zone, potatoes, tobacco and maize are grown, whilst in the south, onions are important. Bananas are a particularly important crop, as Tenerife grows more bananas than the other Canary Islands, with a current annual production of about 150,000 tons, down from the peak production of 200,000 tons in 1986. More than 90% of the total is destined for the international market, and banana growing occupies about 4200 hectares.After the banana the most important crops are, in order of importance, tomatoes, grapes, potatoes and flowers. Fishing is also a major contributor to the Tenerifan economy, as the Canaries are Spain's second most important fishing grounds. Energy As of 2009, Tenerife had 910 MW of electrical generation capacity, which is mostly powered from petroleum-derived fuels. The island had 37 MW of wind turbines and 79 MW of solar panels. Industry and commerce Commerce in Tenerife plays a significant role in the economy, representing almost 20% of the GDP, with the commercial center Santa Cruz de Tenerife generating most of the earnings. Although there are a diversity of industrial estates that exist on the island, the most important industrial activity is petroleum, representing 10% of the island's GDP, again largely due to the capital Santa Cruz de Tenerife with its refinery. It provides petroleum products not only to the Canaries archipelago but is also an active in the markets of the Iberian Peninsula, Africa and South America. Main sights Monuments Historical sights in the island, especially from the time after the conquest, include theCathedral of San Cristóbal de La Laguna, theChurch of the Conception of La Lagunaand theChurch of the Conceptionin the capital. TheBasílica de Nuestra Senora de la Candelariacan be found on the island (Patron of Canary Islands). Also on the island are the defensive castles located in the village ofSan Andrés, as well as many others throughout the island. TheAuditorio de Tenerife, one of the most modern in Spain, can be found at the entry port to the capital (in the southern part of Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife). Near the Auditorio de Tenerife are El Castillo Negro and El Parque Marítimo. TheTorres de Santa Cruzare two twin skyscrapers 120 metres (390 feet) high (the highest residential buildings in Spain and the tallest skyscrapers in the Canary Islands). Archeological sites The island also has severalarchaeological sitesof Guanche time (prior to the conquest), which generally are cave paintings that are scattered throughout the island, but most are found in the south of the island. Archaeological sites on the island include theCave of the Guanches, where the oldest remains in the archipelago have been found,dating to the 6th century BC,and theCaves of Don Gaspar, where the finding of plant debris in the form of carbonized seeds indicates that the Guanches practiced agriculture on the island.Both deposits are in the town ofIcod de los Vinos. Also noteworthy on the island is theEstación solar de Masca(Masca Solar Station), which was an aboriginal sanctuary for the celebration of rites related to fertility and the request for rainwater. This is located in the municipality ofBuenavista del Norte. Other archaeological sites include that of Los Cambados and that of El Barranco del Rey both inArona.One could also highlight theCueva de Achbinico(first shrine Marian of the Canary Islands, Guanche vintage-Spanish). In addition there are some buildings calledGüímar Pyramids, whose origin is uncertain. There are also traces that reveal thePunicpresence on the island, as in the wake commonly called \"Stone of the Guanches\" in the town ofTaganana. This archaeological site consists of a structure formed by a stone block, large, outdoor, featuring rock carvings on its surface. Among these is the presence of a representation of theCarthaginiangoddessTanit,represented by a bottle-shaped symbol surrounded by cruciform motifs. It is thought that the monument was originally an altar of sacrifice linked to those found in theSemiticfield and then reused forAboriginal ritual of mummification. Culture and arts Literature In the 16th and 17th centuries, Antonio de Viana, a native of La Laguna, composed the epic poemAntigüedades de las Islas Afortunadas(Antiquities of the Fortunate Isles), a work of value to anthropologists, since it sheds light on Canarian life of the time.The Enlightenment reached Tenerife, and literary and artistic figures of this era includeJosé Viera y Clavijo,Tomás de Iriarte y Oropesa, Ángel Guimerá y Jorge, Mercedes Pinto andDomingo Pérez Minik, amongst others. Painting During the course of the 16th century, several painters flourished in La Laguna, as well as in other places on the island, includingGarachico, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Orotava andPuerto de la Cruz. Cristóbal Hernández de Quintana and Gaspar de Quevedo, considered the best Canarian painters of the 17th century, were natives of La Orotava, and their art can be found in churches on Tenerife. The work ofLuis de la Cruz y Ríoscan be found in the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia, in Puerto de la Cruz. Born in 1775, he became court painter toFerdinand VII of Spainand was also a miniaturist, and achieved a favorable position in the royal court. He was known there by the nickname of \"El Canario.\" The landscape painter Valentín Sanz (born 1849) was a native of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and theMuseo Municipal de Bellas Artes de Santa Cruzdisplays many of his works. This museum also contains the works ofJuan Rodríguez Botas(1880–1917), considered the first Canarianimpressionist. Frescoes by theexpressionistMariano de Cossío can be found in the church of Santo Domingo, in La Laguna. The watercolorist Francisco Bonnín Guerín (born 1874) was a native of Santa Cruz, and founded a school to encourage the arts.Óscar Domínguezwas born in La Laguna in 1906 and is famed for his versatility. He belonged to thesurrealistschool, and invented the technique known asdecalcomania. Sculpture The arrival from Seville ofMartín de Andújar Cantos, an architect and sculptor brought new sculpting techniques of the Seville school, which were passed down to his students, includingBlas García Ravelo, a native of Garachico. He had been trained by the master sculptorJuan Martínez Montañés. Other notable sculptors from the 17th and 18th centuries includeSebastián Fernández Méndez,Lázaro González de Ocampo,José Rodríguez de la Oliva, and most importantly,Fernando Estévez, a native of La Orotava and a student of Luján Pérez. Estévez contributed an extensive collection of religious images and woodcarvings, found in numerous churches of Tenerife, such as the Principal Parish ofSaint James the Great(Parroquia Matriz del Apóstol Santiago), inLos Realejos; in the Cathedral of La Laguna; theIglesia de la Concepciónin La Laguna; the basilica ofCandelaria, and various churches in La Orotava. Music An important musician from Tenerife is Teobaldo Power y Lugo Viña, a native of Santa Cruz and a pianist and composer, and author of theCantos Canarios.The Hymn of the Canary Islands takes its melody from theArrorró, or Lullaby, from Power y Lugo Viña'sCantos Canarios. Folkloric music has also flourished on the island, and, as in the rest of the islands, is characterized by the use of theCanarian Timple, the guitar,bandurria,laúd, and various percussion instruments. Local folkloric groups such as Los Sabandeños work to save Tenerife's musical forms in the face of increasing cultural pressure from the mainland. Tenerife is the home to the types of songs called theisa,folía,tajaraste, andmalagueña, which are a cross of ancient Guanche songs and those ofAndalusiaand Latin America. Architecture Tenerife is characterized by an architecture whose best representatives are the local manor houses and also the most humble and common dwellings. This style, while influenced by those of Andalusia and Portugal, nevertheless had a very particular and native character. Of the manor houses, the best examples can be found in La Orotava and in La Laguna, characterized by their balconies and by the existence of interior patios and the widespread use of the wood known aspino tea(\"pitch pine\"). These houses are characterized by simple façades and wooden lattices with little ornamentation.There are sash windows and it is customary for the chairs inside the house to rest back-to-back to the windows. The interior patios function like real gardens that serve to give extra light to the rooms, which are connected via the patio by galleries frequently crowned by wood and stone. Gadgets like stills, water pumps, benches and counters, are elements that frequently form part of these patios. Traditional houses generally have two storeys, with rough walls of variegated colours. Sometimes the continuity of these walls is interrupted by the presence of stone blocks that are used for ornamental purposes. The government buildings and religious structures were built according to the changing styles of each century. The urban nuclei of La Orotava and La Laguna have been declared national historical-artistic monuments. In recent years, various governments have spearheaded the concept of developing architectural projects, sometimes ostentatious ones, designed by renowned architects–for example, the remodeling of thePlaza de Españain Santa Cruz de Tenerife by the Swiss architectsHerzog & de Meuron. Other examples include the Playa de Las Teresitas project by the Frenchman Dominique Perrault; the center known as Magma Arte & Congresos; the Torres de Santa Cruz; and theAuditorio de Tenerife(\"Auditorium of Tenerife\"). The latter, by the SpaniardSantiago Calatrava, lies to the east of the Parque Marítimo (\"Maritime Park\"), in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and is characterized by its sail-like structure, which evokes a boat, and has become a symbol for the city and island,which makes Santa Cruz de Tenerife one of the Spanish cities with the most futuristic buildings. Crafts Distinctive representatives of craftsmanship on the island areTenerife lace(calado canario), which is drawn workembroidery, and the intricatedoiliesknown asrosetas, orrosetteembroidery, particularly fromVilaflor. The lace, often made for table linen, is produced by the intricate and slow embroidering of a stretched piece of cloth, which is rigidly attached to a wooden frame and is finished with illustrations or patterns using threads that are crossed over and wound around thefijadores, or pins stuck in a small support made of cloth.These decorated, small pieces are afterwards joined, to produce distinct designs and pieces of cloth. Another Tenerife-based industry is cabinetwork. The north of the island produced various master craftsman who created distinctive balconies, celosias, doors, and windows, as well as furniture consisting of pieces made in fine wood. Basketmaking using palm-leaves was also an important industry. Other materials are chestnut tree branches stripped of their leaves andbanana treefibre (known locally asla badana). Pottery has a long history harking back to the production of ceramics by the Guanches. The Guanches were unfamiliar with thepotter's wheel, and used hand-worked clay, which gave their pottery a distinctive look. Pottery was used to produce domestic objects such as pots and grills, or ornamental pieces such as bead collars or the objects known aspintaderas, which were pieces of pottery used to decorate other vessels. Traditional celebrations Carnival of Santa Cruz Perhaps the most important festival of Tenerife, popular both on a national and international level, is theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, which has been declared a Festival of International Tourist Interest (Fiesta de Interés Turístico Internacional).The carnival is celebrated in many locations in the north and south of the island, but is largest in scope in the city of Santa Cruz.Contests are celebrated, and the carnival includes bands of street musicians (murgas), groups of minstrels (rondallas de Tenerife), masquerades (comparsas), and various associations (agrupaciones). Once the Queen of the festival is elected, the first part of the carnival ends, and thereafter begins the actual street carnival, in which large numbers of people gather in the centre of Santa Cruz, with the carnival lasting ten days. Pilgrimages (Romerías) The most traditional and widespread religious festivals on the islands are the pilgrimages orromerías.These events, which incorporate Christian and non-Christian elements, are celebrated by various means: with wagons andfloats, plowing teams and livestock, in honor of thepatron saintof a particular place. The processions are accompanied by local dances, local dishes, folkloric activities, local arts and crafts, local sports, and the wearing of traditional dress of Tenerife (trajes de mago). The origins of these events can be attributed to the parties and celebrations held by the richest classes of the island, who would gather to venerate their patron saints, to which they attributed good harvests, fertile lands, plentiful rainfall, the curing of sicknesses and ending of epidemics, etc. They would thus give homage to these saints by consuming and sharing the fruits of their harvest, which included the locally cultivated wines. These have developed into processions to mark festivals dedicated toSaint MarkinTegueste, where the wagons are decorated with the fruits of the earth (seeds, cereals, flowers, etc.); toSaint Isidore the Laborerin Los Realejos; to Saint Isidore the Laborer andMaria Torribia(Saint Mary of the Head) in La Orotava; theRomería Regional de San Benito Abadin La Laguna;Virgin of Candelariain Candelaria;Saint Rochin Garachico;Saint AugustineinArafo; and theRomería del Socorroin Güímar. Holiday of the Virgin of Candelaria TheVirgin of Candelariais the patron of the Canary Islands; a feast is held in her honor two times a year, in February and August. TheRomeria-Offering to the Virgin of Candelaria is celebrated every 15 August in this event is a tradition that representations of all municipalities of the island and also of all the Canary archipelago come to make offerings to their patron. Another significant act of the feast of the Virgin of Candelaria is called \"Walk to Candelaria\" held on the night of 14 to 15 August in which thefaithful make pilgrimage on foot from various parts of the island, even coming from other islands to arrive atVilla Mariana de Candelaria. On 2 February we celebrate the feast of the Candelaria. Also on this day come to town many devotees of the Virgin. During the February festivities, the so-called \"Procesión de Las Candelas\" (Candlelight Procession) stands out, in which the faithful accompany the Virgin in the dark of the night lit only by candles and praying the rosary. Holiday of the Cristo de La Laguna It is celebrated every 14 September in honor of a much venerated image of Christ in the Archipelago, theCristo de La Laguna, is held in the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Every 9 September, the venerated image of Christ is lowered in public from the main altar of its Royal Sanctuary, after which, the faithful kiss the feet of the image. The image is solemnly transferred in procession to the Cathedral of La Laguna on the afternoon of that day, where it remains for several days, until 14 September, which is the main day, when it is transferred back to its Sanctuary. Corpus Christi The religious festival ofCorpus Christiis particularly important, and is traditionally celebrated with floral carpets laid in the streets. Particularly noteworthy are the celebrations in La Orotava where a very large carpet, or tapestry, of different coloured volcanic soils, covers the Plaza del Ayuntamiento (town square). These soils are taken from theParque Nacional del Teide, and after the celebration, are returned, to preserve the National Park. The celebration of Corpus Christi in Orotava has been declared of Important Cultural Interest among the official Traditional Activities of the Island. Easter Among the numerous other celebrations that define Tenerifan culture, Easter remains the most important. This is celebrated across the island, but is particularly notable in the municipalities of La Laguna, La Orotava and Los Realejos, where elaborate processions take place on Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter Sunday, or \"Resurrection Sunday\". Holy Week in the city of San Cristobal de la Laguna is the largest of the Canary Islands. Religion As with the rest of Spain, Tenerife is largelyCatholic.However, the practice of other religions and denominations has increasingly expanded on the island due to tourism and immigration, asIslam,Hinduism,Buddhism,Evangelicalism,JudaismandAfro-American religion.Minority religions are stationed in the island:Chinese Religions,Baháʼíand the neopaganism native form, theChurch of the Guanche People,among others. Christianity and Judaism arrived in the island with the Spanish conquest. An important Catholic festival is the celebration of thefeast dayassociated with theVirgin of Candelaria,patron saintof the Canary Islands, who represents the union of the Guanche and Spanish cultures.The Guanches became devoted to aBlack Madonnathat Christian missionaries fromLanzaroteandFuerteventuraleft on a beach near the present-day Villa Mariana de Candelaria, which gave rise to the legends and stories associated with the Virgin. These legends fueled the cult of the Virgin and thepilgrimages to Candelariathat have existed to this day on the island. Another cult to the Virgin Mary exists in the form ofOur Lady of Los Remedios(la Virgen de Los Remedios), who is patron of the island and Catholic diocese of Tenerife (Diócesis Nivariense). In Tenerife were born twoCatholicsaintswho were of the greatest missionaries in the Americas:Peter of Saint Joseph BetancurandJosé de Anchieta. The first was a missionary inGuatemalaand founder ofOrder of Our Lady of Bethlehem(the first religious order of the Americas), the second was a missionary in Brazil, and was one of the founders ofSão Pauloand ofRio de Janeiro. It also highlights the figure of the mysticMary of Jesus de León y Delgado. This nun died with a reputation for holiness and is highly revered throughout the Canary Islands. Her body is intact in the Convent of Santa Catalina de Siena inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Principal Catholic places of worship on the island include: Other important churches include the Church of the Conception in La Orotava (Iglesia de la Concepción); the churches of San Agustín and Santo Domingo in La Orotava; the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia in Puerto de la Cruz; the church of San Marcos in Icod de los Vinos; the church of Santa Ana in Garachico; and theChurch of the Conception (Iglesia de la Concepción) in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first saint of Tenerifeand Canary IslandswasSaint Peter of Saint Joseph Betancur, born in the town ofVilaflor, Tenerife. His main shrine is theCave of Santo Hermano PedroinGranadilla de Abona, near the coast, where he lived in his youth. This cave is considered one of the most important pilgrimage spots of the Canary Islands. Another notable building on the island is theMasonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, generally considered the finest example of Masonic temple architecture in Spain;it was the Masonic center of the country until the military occupation of the island by theFranco regime. The headquarters of theIslamic Federation of the Canary Islandsis in Tenerife; the organization was founded to unite the Muslim communities of the Canary Islands in a common association.For its part, the headquarters of the Evangelical Council of the Canary Islands is also on the island. Education Formal educationin Tenerife began with thereligious orders. In 1530, theDominican Orderestablished a chair of philosophy at the convent ofLa Concepción de La Laguna. Still, until well into the 18th century Tenerife was largely without institutions of education. Such institutions finally began to develop thanks to the work of the Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País (\"Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Country\"), which established several schools in San Cristóbal de La Laguna. The first of these was an institute of secondary education established in 1846 to fill the gap left by the closure of the Universidad de San Fernando (seeUniversity of La Laguna). An 1850 annex to this building was the Escuela Normal Elemental, the archipelago's first teachers' college or normal school, which became the Escuela Normal Superior de Magisterio from 1866 onward. These were the only institutions of higher education until the dictatorMiguel Primo de Riveracreated several institutions. A turning point came around the time of the rise of theSecond Spanish Republic. From 1929 to 1933 the number of schools nearly doubled. Shortly after this, though, the start of theSpanish Civil Warand the following dictatorship ofFrancisco Francoconstituted a considerable reversal. Education in the hands of religious orders had a certain importance on the island until the 1970 Ley General de Educación (\"General Law of Education\") shifted the balance from religiously based education to public education. Public schools continued their advance during and after the post-FrancoSpanish transition to democracy. Tenerife today has 301 centers of childhood education (preschools), 297 primary schools, 140 secondary schools and 86post-secondaryschools.There are also five universities orpost-graduateschools, theUniversity of La Laguna, theUniversidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia(National University of Distance Learning), theUniversidad Internacional Menéndez Pelayo(Menéndez Pelayo International University), theUniversidad Alfonso X el Sabio(University of Alfonso X the Wise) and theUniversidad de Vic(Escuela Universitaria de Turismo de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, \"University School of Tourism of Santa Cruz de Tenerife\"). The largest of these is the University of La Laguna. TheUniversidad Europea de Canarias(European University of the Canary Islands) is located in La Orotava and is the first private university in the Canary Islands. Science and research While Tenerife is not prominent in the history of scientific and academic research, it is the home of theInstituto de Astrofísica de Canarias(Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-OrgánicaAntonio González(Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at the University of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). This last is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\"), located in various parts of Spain. Puerto de la Cruz has the Instituto de Estudos Hispánicos de Canarias (Institute of Hispanic Studies of the Canaries), attached to Madrid's Instituto de Cultura Hispánica. In La Laguna is the Canarian delegation of theConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas(CSIC, Superior Council of Scientific Investigations), the Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (Canarian Institute of Agrarian Investigation), the Instituto de Estudios Canarios (Canarian Institute of Studies) and theCentro Internacional para la Conservación del Patrimonio(the International Center of the Conservation of Patrimony). Other research facilities in Tenerife are the Instituto Tecnológico de Canarias, the Instituto Vulcanológico de Canarias, the Asociación Industrial de Canarias, the Instituto Tecnológico de Energías Renovables (Technological Institute of Renewable Energy) and the Instituto Oceanográfico de Canarias in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Museums The island boasts a variety of museums of different natures, under dominion of a variety of institutions. Perhaps the most developed are those belonging to theOrganismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros,which include the following: Independent of the Organismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros are: Media Along with many Spanish-language radio and TV stations, Tenerife has two official English-language radio stations.Coast FMbroadcasts a mix of adult contemporary music and is the only local news service to broadcast in English. As the larger of the two stations, Coast FM can be heard across Tenerife and much of the Canary Islands from its transmitters on 106.6, 92.2 and 89.4. Energy FM is a non-stop music station that also broadcasts local news and information on the hour. Transport and communications The island of Tenerife is served byTenerife North Airport(GCXO) andTenerife South Airport(GCTS). Tenerife North Airport, the smaller of the two, is located near the metropolitan area Santa Cruz-La Laguna (423,000 inhabitants). It serves inter-insular flights as well as national and European flights. Tenerife South Airport (south) is the busiest Airport in Tenerife, ranking 7th in Spain. It typically serves the mass of regular and vacation charter flights constantly arriving from most of Europe. The other way to arrive on Tenerife is by ferry, either to Santa Cruz de Tenerife or Los Cristianos, near Playa de Las Américas. A network consisting of two fast, toll-free motorways (TF1 and TF5) encircles nearly the entire island, linking all the main towns and resorts with the metropolitan area. The exception is in the West, from Adeje to Icod de los Vinos, which is traversed by a smaller winding mountain road. However, plans are in progress to complete the motorway, which caused a heavy debate between the environmentalists and the local businessmen. Away from the major motorways, there is a network of secondary and communal roads, varying from wide to steep, winding narrow roads, mainly unlit and often with drops on either side of the main carriageway surface. Public transport on the island is provided by an extensive network of buses and run byTITSA, who operate a fleet of modern, air-conditioned buses.TITSA buses cover most of the island and they are fairly frequent. For more than one journey, customers can purchase a TenMascontactless smart cardfor €2, which can be topped up with up to €100 travel credit. Using the TenMas card provides a discount over cash fares, and, for Tenerife residents, a card allowing unlimited travel for a monthly fee is also available.The card can be purchased and topped up at bus stations and many newsagents. It is also valid on the tram in the capital, Santa Cruz (See Below). A hire car is sometimes a good option for discovering the remote wilderness regions, although TITSA operate reliable bus services in the remotest spots, such as the Teno Massif via Masca (355), and up the Anaga mountains (247). TITSA operate two daily services up Mount Teide – from Puerto de la Cruz (348) and from Los Christianos/Las Americas (342) up to the Teide Parador, Teleferico cable car, Montana Blanca and El Portillo. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz,Sixtand TopCar. The metropolitan Area formed by Santa Cruz and La Laguna is served by theTranvía de Tenerife(Tenerife Tram) which opened in early 2007, after 3 years of intensive works. The fairly lengthy line from Santa Cruz up the hill to La Laguna serves almost 20 stops. A second line within La Laguna was added in 2009. Roads The main means of transportation in Tenerife is by highways. The most important of these are theAutopista del Surand theAutopista del Norte(the North and South Motorways), which run from the metropolitan zone to the south and north, respectively. These two motorways are connected by means of theAutovía de Interconexión Norte-Surin the outskirts of the metropolitan zone. Within the network of roads on the island of Tenerife there are other minor roads that used to include the highway from San Andres and Santa Cruz (Holy Cross in English). Also planned is the construction of a bypass road north of the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Laguna. This aims to provide dual cores toGuamasaandAcorán, by way ofLos Baldíos,Centenero,Llano del Moro,El Sobradillo,El Tablero, andEl Chorrillo, among other neighbourhoods. The route will be approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) long and will cost an estimated 190 million euros (270 million in American dollars). Airports Tenerife is most easily reached by air. There are two airports:Tenerife South Airport, in the south, andTenerife North Airport, near Santa Cruz. Overall, Tenerife has the highest annual passenger count and the greatest number of arrivals in Canary Islands, made more popular by the frequency of cheap flights from many European destinations. Tenerife North Airport and Tenerife South Airport together account for the highest passenger numbers in the Islands with some 14 million passengers annually (AENA report). Of the two airports on the island, Tenerife South is the most popular tourist destination. Ports Besides air transport, Tenerife has two principal maritime ports: thePort of Santa Cruz de Tenerife(Puerto de Santa Cruz), which serves the various capitals of the Canary Islands, especially those in the west; and thePort of Los Cristianos(Puerto de Los Cristianos), which serves the various island capitals of the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first port also has passenger services, which connect with the mainland port ofCádiz(and vice versa). In 2017, a large important port was opened in the south of the island, thePort of Granadilla, and another one is planned in the west, inFonsalía.The Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is the first fishing port in the Canary Islands with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Statistical Yearbook of the State Ports 2006 (the latest of which is changing). Following this report is the largest port number of passengers recorded. Similarly, the second port of Spain moving ship and loaded into cars, only surpassed by thePort of AlgecirasBay.In the port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. Buses (guaguas) Tenerife has an extensive system of buses, which are calledguaguasin the Canary Islands. The bus system is used both within the cities and also connects most of the towns and cities of the island. There are bus stations in all of the major towns, such as theIntercambiador de Transportes de Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Taxis There is a well-regulated taxi service on the island. Tramway Since 2007, theTenerife TramconnectsSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLa Lagunathrough the suburb of Taco. There are 20 stops and it covers a distance of 12.5 km (7.8 mi) in 37 minutes. It calls at some points of interest including Tenerife's two major hospitals, the university complex of Guajara, and a number of museums and theatres. Concerning its power supply, it will support development of further wind farms to provide it with 100 percent clean energy. Railway plans By 2005, plans for a light-rail network linking the capital with the South had been approved by both theTenerife Counciland the Canary Islands Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government stalled on budget issues.The original intent was to establish two railway systems that would serve the northern and southern sides of the island connecting these with the capital.By March 2011, these intentions had been replaced by advanced plans for a single 80 km (50 mi)high-speed railline, the \"South Train\" which would connectSanta Cruz de TenerifewithAdejevia Santa Maria de Añaza,Candelaria, San Isidro,Tenerife South Airport, and a main stopover station atAdejewhich would be designed to service up to 25,000 passengers per day. Trains would run every 15 minutes during rush hours, and would achieve speeds up to 220 km/h (137 mph). The project, which involves 9 tunnels, 12 false tunnels (together 22.1 km) and 33 viaducts (8.3 km) has been budgeted at EUR 1.7 bn. It has met staunch opposition from local environmentalists.An alternate plan for a high-speedTransrapid maglevhas also been put forward. Tourist train Atourist train(Tren Turístico) serves Costa Adeje to Los Cristianos with several stops including in Playa de las Americas. Cableway Sports On the island of Tenerife, a large number of sports are practised, both outdoors and indoors in the various facilities available throughout the island. The sports are numerous – Diving, Rock Climbing, Walking, Cycling, Sailing, Golf, Surfing, Go-Karting, Paragliding– the all year round weather makes it ideal for a wide variety of outdoor sports. There are also many indoor sporting facilities including fully equipped including 'Tenerife Top Training' centre in Adeje on the South of the Island. Its most well-known sports team isfootballclubCD Tenerifebased in Santa Cruz. The club has spent time in the Spanish top flight, but have in recent decades primarily played in the second division of Spanish football. Also worth mentioning is theultramarathonCajaMar Tenerife Bluetrail, the highest race in Spain and second in Europe,with the participation of several countries and great international repercussions. Healthcare The main hospitals on the island are theHospital Universitario de Canariasand theHospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria. Both are third-level hospitals, with specialist facilities that serve all of the Canary Islands.They are both affiliated with the education and research network of theUniversidad de La Laguna. However, they belong to different bodies, since the first one is under the directives of theServicio Canario de la Salud(Canarian Health Service).The Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria it is the largest hospital complex in the Canary Islands. In addition, two large new hospitals have recently been built in the north and south areas of the island, located in the municipalities ofIcod de los VinosandAronarespectively. TheHospital del Norte de Tenerife(Tenerife North Hospital) opened in 2012 and theHospital del Sur de Tenerife(Tenerife South Hospital) opened in 2015.These centers will function, according to their classification, as second level hospitals, with services of hospitalization, advanced diagnosis, ambulances and emergencies, and rehabilitation, etc. There are also a total of 39 centers of primary care and specialized clinics which complete the sanitary infrastructure of Tenerife. Gastronomy Fish Due to the geographic situation of Tenerife, the island enjoys an abundance of fish of various kinds. The species that are consumed the most are theCombtooth blennies(viejas), as well assea bream(sama),red porgy(bocinegro),gold lined bream(salema),grouper(mero), and various and abundant types ofThunnus. TheAtlantic mackerel(caballa),sardine(sardine), andJack mackerels(chicharros) are also consumed frequently.Moray eels(morenas) are also eaten, usually fried. Most seafood is cooked simply, usually boiled, or prepared \"a la espalda\" (cut into two equally shaped pieces along the spine) or \"a la sal\" (baked in salt). These dishes are usually accompanied bymojo(a local sauce) and wrinkly potatoes. Meat The typical festive meat dish of marinated porktacosis a very popular dish prepared for town festivities inventorrillos, bars and private homes.Rabbit insalmorejo, goat, beef, pork and poultry are regularly consumed. Canarian wrinkly potatoes The fish dishes along with the meats are often accompanied bywrinkly potatoes(papas arrugadas). This is a typical Canarian dish which simply refers to the way the cooked potatoes look. They are boiled in their skins, in water with much salt, and the water is allowed to evaporate, leaving a salty crust. Mojos Mojo, a word probably of Portuguese origin, describes a typical Canarian sauce, served as an accompaniment to food. The sauces come in a variety of colours, flavours and textures, and are usually served cold, often in separate dishes, for the diner to choose how much to apply. Green mojo usually includes coriander, parsley, and garlic; whilst red mojo is piquant, and made from a mix of hot and sweet peppers. A wide variety of other ingredients are also used, including; almonds, cheese, saffron and fried bread.Mojos are served with most meat, and some fish, dishes, and are often used on potatoes, or bread is dipped into them. Cheeses Tenerife exports about 3,400 tons of cheese per year, representing about 50 percent of the output of the island, and about 25 percent of the entire Canary Islands. After the conquest of the Canary Islands, one of the first commercial activities to be started was cheese production. The sale of cheese provided the inhabitants with an income and cheese was even used as a form of currency for exchange and sale, becoming a crucial product in agricultural areas of the island. Cheese grew to become one of the most commonly produced and consumed products on the island and is regularly served as part of a starter course or as a snack. Farms at Arico, La Orotava and Teno produced a variety of cheeses, including soft cheeses, cured, smoked and were mostly handmade. Today the main product isgoat cheese, although certain amounts are made from sheep's or cow's milk, and according to theRegistro General Sanitario de Alimentos, the general health registry, around 75 differentcottage cheesesare produced.The cheeses of the Canaries have generally received good international reviews, noted for their sweetness which differentiates them from certain other European cheeses.In particular, Tenerifan cured goats cheese was awarded best cheese in the world final of the 2008World Cheese Awardsheld inDublin, Ireland. Cheeses from Tenerife now have a quality mark promoted by theFundación Tenerife Rural, to standardize their quality in an attempt to publicize the qualities of the cheese and improve its marketing. Gofio Gofiois one of the more traditional elements of cooking on the island, It is made withcereal grainsthat are roasted and then ground. Increasingly used to make a gofio on the island is wheat although there are other types, and they are often made withchickpeas. Relatively common is a mixed-type with wheat. It was served as main food to theguancheseven before the Spanish conquest. In later times of scarcity or famine it was a staple of the popular Canarian diet. Today it is eaten as a main dish (gofio escaldado) or an accompaniment to different dishes, meats, fishes, soups, desserts. Some famous cooks have even made gofio ice cream, receiving good comments from the critics. Confectionery Confectionery in Tenerife is represented and strongly influenced by La Palma, with confections likebienmesabe,leche asada,Príncipe Alberto,frangollo,huevos moles, andquesillo. Wines Viticulturein the archipelago, and especially in Tenerife dates back to the conquest, when the settlers brought a variety of vines to plant. In the 16th and 17th centuries, wine production played an important role in the economy, and many families were dedicated to the culture and business. Of special mention ismalvasía canary, considered the best wine of Tenerife and at the time one of the most desired wines in the world, being shipped across to the major warehouses of Europe and America.Writers such asWilliam ShakespeareandWalter Scottmake reference to the wine in some of their works.Tenerife has 5 main wine growing regions. These includeAbona,Valle de Güímar,Valle de La Orotava,Tacoronte-AcentejoandYcoden-Daute-Isora. This typical gastronomy is served in popular establishments known asguachinches, opening day is the day ofSan Andrés, 30 November, also known as the young wine festivalFestival de Vino Joven. The wine of the new harvest is traditionally served with roasted chestnuts, maturing at the same time, and grilled sardines, thus the season normally lasts from late autumn until early spring. Tenerife in popular culture Cities The city ofBrisbanein Queensland, Australia, has a historical inner suburb namedTeneriffe, named by one of the first European landowners in the area, James Gibbon, because it reminded him ofMount Teide. Other cities in the world whose name has its origins in the island are:Tenerife, Magdalena, a town and municipality in Colombia;San Carlos de Tenerife, a city in the Dominican Republic. Cinema Over the last few years,Tenerife has become a popular filming location, being featured in several Hollywood blockbusters.Some of the most important films made on the island are: Music Likewise, the island has been home to several musical recordings and as a scenic setting for music videos: Video games In literature Literary works featuring Tenerife includeThe CompanionandThe Man from the Sea, both byAgatha Christie;La cueva de las mil momiasbyAlberto Vazquez-Figueroa;Thieves' PicnicbyLeslie Charteris;El Sarcófago de las tres llavesby Pompeyo Reina Moreno;andAtentadoby Mariano Gambín. International relations Tenerife istwinnedwith: See also References External links",
"Fuerteventura Fuerteventura(Spanish:ⓘ) is one of theCanary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, geographically part ofMacaronesia, and politically part ofSpain. It is located 97 km (60 mi) away from the coast ofNorth Africa. The island was declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCOin 2009. Fuerteventura belongs toProvince of Las Palmas,one of the two provinces that form the autonomous community of the Canary Islands. The island's capital isPuerto del Rosario, where the Insule Council is found, the government of the island. Fuerteventura had 124,152 inhabitants (as of 2023), the fourth largest population of the Canary Islands and the third of the province. At 1,659.74 km2(640.83 sq mi),it is the second largest of the Canary Islands, afterTenerife.From a geological point of view, Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the archipelago. Toponymy The island's name is a compound formed by the Spanish wordsfuerte(either \"strong\" or \"fort\") andventura(\"fortune\"). Traditionally, Fuerteventura's name has been regarded as a reference to the strong winds (fuertes vientosin Spanish) around the island coastline, and the resulting danger to nautical adventurers. However, it might have referred instead (or also) to wealth, luck or destiny. In 1339 the Mallorcan navigatorAngelino Dulcert, in thePlanisferio de Angelino Dulcert, referred to the island as \"Forte Ventura\". Another theory is that the island's name derives from \"Fortunatae Insulae\" (Fortunate Islands), the name by which the Romans knew the Canary Islands. Theindigenousname of the island, before its conquest in the 15th century, was Erbania, divided into two regions (Jandía and Maxorata), from which the name majorero (originally majo or maxo) derives. However, it has been suggested that, at some point, Maxorata (which meant \"the children of the country\") was the aboriginaltoponymof the entire island. History Precolonial history The first settlers of Fuerteventura are believed to have come from North Africa. The wordMahorero(Majorero) orMahois still used today to describe the people of Fuerteventura and is derived from the ancient word 'mahos', a type of goatskin shoe worn by these original inhabitants. They lived in caves and semi-subterranean dwellings, some of which have been excavated, revealing remnants of early tools and pottery. In antiquity, the island was originally known asPlanaria, in reference to the flatness of most of its terrain. Phoeniciansettlers landed in Fuerteventura andLanzarote. Several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions to the islands were organized around 1340, followed by Moors and European slave traders. At the end of the Iberian conquest, the island was divided into twoGuancheskingdoms, one adhering to King Guize and the other to King Ayoze. The territories of these kingdoms were calledMaxorata(in the North) andJandía(in the South) respectively. They were separated by a wall, which traversed the La Pared isthmus. Some remains have been preserved. The ancient name for the island, Erbania, is derived from this wall's name. The conquest The island's conquest began in earnest in 1402, commanded by French knights and crusadersJean de BéthencourtandGadifer de la Salle.They arrived with only 63 sailors out of the original 283, as many had deserted along the way. After arriving and settling inLanzarote, the invaders made some first excursions to the neighboring islands. In 1404, Bethencourt and Gadifer foundedBetancuria, on the West coast, the first settlement on the island. After numerous difficulties, Gadifer took charge of the invasion, while Bethencourt returned to Spain to seek the recognition and support of theCastilian king. In 1405, de Béthencourt completed his conquest of the island, establishing its capital in Betancuria (Puerto Rosario took over the mantle as island capital in 1835). In 1424 PopeMartin V, through theBetancuriaBrief, edicted the establishment of theBishopric of Fuerteventura, which encompassed all theCanary Islandssave for the island ofLanzarote.The origin of this bishopric is directly related to the events that occurred after theGreat Schism(1378–1417), in that the bishop ofSan Marcial del RubicónofLanzarote(at the time, the only diocese in the Canary Islands) did not recognize the papacy of Martin V, and instead adhered toanti-PopeBenedict XIII. TheBishopric of Fuerteventurawas based in theParish of Santa María de Betancuria, bestowing upon the latter the status of Grant Cathedral. After the reabsorbtion of theDiocese of San Marcial del Rubicónby the papacy of Pope Martin V, the Bishopric of Fuerteventura was abolished in 1431, only seven years after it was created. The first censusrecorded a population of some 1,200 inhabitants. The population increased gradually thereafter. In 1476 the territory became theSeñorío Territorial de Fuerteventura, subjected to theCatholic Monarchs.In later years, the island was invaded by the Spanish, French and the English. 2nd conquest of Fuerteventura Over time, the island endured numerous raids. ABerber-led expedition invaded in 1593, sweeping as far inland as the capital. Various castles were built along the coastline, to protect against these type of attacks. The population was moved inland as a second protective measure. Because of the raids, a firstCaptain Generalwas dispatched to Fuerteventura, accompanied by a number ofSergeants Major, to defend the island in the name of the Crown. At that time, Betancuria became the religious capital of the island. Two majorattackstook place in 1740, within a month of each other. Two separate bands of English privateers attempted to loot the town of Tuineje. These attacks were however successfully averted by the local population and the island's militia. This successful repelling of the invaders is celebrated at a re-enactment that takes place in Gran Tarajal every year in October. The island's garrison was officially instated in 1708. Its colonel assumed the title ofGovernor at Arms, a hereditary, lifelong appointment which has remained in the Sánchez-Dumpiérrez family. In time, this family increasingly garnered power over the other islands through alliances with the family of Arias de Saavedra and the Lady of Fuerteventura.During the same year theAssistant Parish ofLa OlivaandPájarawas created, to become operational in 1711. On 17 December 1790, theAssistant Parish ofTuinejewas created, which became a new parish division on 23 June 1792 under the bishop Tavira, with lands including part of the Jandía peninsular, and with a population of 1,670 inhabitants. 1780 saw the start of a barrilla plantation industry. To the present In 1852, a free trade zone was extended byIsabella IIto the Canary Islands. Military island rule, which began in 1708, was finally dissolved in 1859, andPuerto de Cabras(nowPuerto del Rosario) - the only municipal seat on the coast - became the new capital. The Canary Islands obtained self-governance in 1912. In 1927, Fuerteventura andLanzarotebecame part of the province ofGran Canaria. The seat of the island's government (cabildo insular) is located inPuerto del Rosario. A total of 118,574 people lived on the island in 2018. By the 1940s the island had an airport (just west ofPuerto del Rosarioon the road to Tindaya, still visible today). Mass tourism began to arrive in the mid-1960s, facilitated by the construction ofFuerteventura AirportatEl Matorraland the first tourist hotels. The island's proximity (a mere 100 km) to the West African coast and the fact that it is part of theSchengenterritory make it a prime target destination for undocumented immigrants. However, many have perished while attempting the crossing. Flag The flag of Fuerteventura is in proportions 1:2, divided vertically, green to thehoistand white to thefly end, with the coat of arms of the island in the centre. Coat of arms The coat of arms of Fuerteventura was prescribed by a Decree adopted on 15 October 1998 by the Government of the Canary Islands and published on 11 November 1998 in the official gazette of the Canary Islands, No. 142, pp. 13,432–13,433. It was adopted on 24 April 1998 by the Island Council and validated on 18 September 1998 by the Heraldry Commission of the Canary Islands. The heraldic description is \"per paleandper fess. First,gules, a castle or,masonedsable, its gate and windowsazure. Second,argent, lion gules, crowned, armed andlanguedor. Third, silver, three fesseschequygules and or, in four rows, each one charged with a fess or.Borduregules, with eightsaltiresor.Ensignedwith aroyal crown, open.\" According to José Manuel Erbez (Banderas y escudos de Canarias, 2007), the coat of arms is based on the arms of the island's provincial militia. The upper quarters represent Castile (symbolized by a castle) and León (symbolized by a lion). The lower quarter alludes to the Saavedra family; various members of this family were lords of Fuerteventura. Geography Environment The elongated island is 100 km (62 mi) long and 31 km (19 mi) wide. It has an area of 1,660 km2(641 sq mi). Located just 100 km (62 mi) off the coast of North Africa, it is the second biggest of the islands, after Tenerife, and has the longest white sand beaches in the archipelago. The island is a destination for sun, beach and watersports enthusiasts. It lies at the same latitude as Florida and Mexico and temperatures rarely fall below 18 °C (64 °F) or rise above 32 °C (90 °F). It counts 152 separate beaches along its seaboard — 50 km (31 mi) of white sand and 25 km (16 mi) of black volcanic shingle. The highest point in Fuerteventura is Pico de la Zarza (807 m) in the southwestern part of the island. Geographical features includeIstmo de la Paredwhich is 5 km (3 mi) wide and is the narrowest part of Fuerteventura. The island is divided into two parts, the northern portion which isMaxorataand the southwestern part called the Jandía peninsula. Climate Fuerteventura has ahot desert climate(Köppen:BWh).The climate is mild, but mostly windy, throughout the year. The island is hence referred to asthe island of eternal spring. The sea regulates air temperature, diverting hotSaharawinds away from the island. The island's name in English translates as \"strong fortune\" or \"strong wind\", the Spanish word for wind beingviento. During the winter months, temperatures average a high of 22 °C (72 °F) and a low of around 15 °C (59 °F), whereas during the summer a mean high of 28 °C (82 °F) and a low of 20 °C (68 °F) can be expected. Precipitation is about 147 mm (6 in) per year, most of which falls in autumn and winter. December is the month with highest rainfall. A sandstorm known as theCalima(similar to theSiroccowind, which blows to the North of the Sahara, to Europe) may blow from the Sahara Desert to the Northwest, and can cause high temperatures, low visibility and drying air. Temperatures during this phenomenon rise temporarily by approximately 10 degrees Celsius. The wind brings in fine red dust, The fine white sand is not blown in from Sahara, It is made up of dead coral reef and local seabed upheaval. Visibility can drop to between 100 and 200 m (328.08 and 656.17ft) or even lower, and together with very warm temperatures, it can even bring Africanlocuststo the island. Hydrology In the winter months, up to 80% of the rainwater flows unused into the ocean, as there is no vegetation to capture the water (also due to overgrazing by free-ranging goats near the coast). The mountain forests, which were still present in the 19th century, were all chopped down. Instead, there are many desalination plants (running on electricity) which produce the required amount of freshwater on the island. The tourists on the island use about double the amount of water as the native inhabitants of Fuerteventura. Causes are the filling of swimming pools, watering hotel gardens and washing towels. Geology Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the Canary Islands dating back 20 million years to a volcanic eruption from theCanary hotspot.The majority of the island was created about 5 million years ago and since then has been eroded by wind and precipitation. On the seabed off the west coast of the island rests an enormous slab of bedrock 22 km (14 mi) long and 11 km (7 mi) wide, which appears to have slid off the island largely intact at some point in prehistory, similar to the predicted future collapse ofCumbre Vieja, a geological fault on another Canary Island,La Palma. The last volcanic activity in Fuerteventura occurred between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. Beaches Fuerteventura was chosen among 500 European destinations by the Quality Coast International Certification Program of the European Coastal and Marine Union as one of the most attractive tourist destinations for visitors interested in cultural heritage, environment and sustainability. The best beaches to visit are Playa de Cofete, Playas de Jandia, Playas de Corralejo, Playa de Ajuy, and Playas de El Cotillo. Wildlife The island is home to one of the two surviving populations of the threatenedCanarian Egyptian vulture. It is also inhabited by many wild dogs and cats. On the barren, rocky land there areBarbary ground squirrelsandgeckos. Fuerteventura also hosts several migratory and nesting birds. The island has significant populations of thecollared dove, commonswiftsand severalfinchspecies especially in the vicinity of holiday developments. Despite its arid climate, the island is also home to a surprisingly large insect fauna. Butterflies which commonly occur on the island include the clouded yellow (Colias hyale) and the bath white (Pontia daplidice) which feeds onxerophyticcruciferae. The island is also home to the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) and its close African relativeDanaus chrysippus. Around holiday developments such asCaleta de Fuste, water is relatively abundant, anddragonflyspecies including the blue emperor (Anax imperator) and the scarlet darter (Crocothemis erythraea) can be found. The island's sand dunes and shoreline are home to a number ofbeeandwaspspecies including the largeeumenidcaterpillar hunting wasp,Delta dimidiatipenneand the blue banded bee (Amegilla canifrons). Hawkmothsalso occur on the island. One of the more notable species isHyles tithymaliwhich feeds on endemic spurges such asEuphorbia regis-jubae.Acherontia atropos, the deaths-head hawkmoth also occurs on the island presumably feeding on members of theSolanaceae, for example,Datura innoxiaandNicotiana glaucawhich are common weeds in the vicinity of human habitation. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Fuerteventura areChlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae(hubara or houbara) andEuphorbia handiensis(Cardón de Jandía). Demographics Population The island had a population of 124,152 at the start of 2023.Throughout its long history, Fuerteventura has suffered from apopulation declinedue to the economic situation and the climate, which have made it into a desert island. However, the development of tourism during the 1980s has caused the population to grow year on year since then, doubling it in a little less than a decade. In 2005, with 86,642 registered inhabitants,the Fuerteventura population was formed by the following: Comparing this data with the 2001 census shows that the number of permanent residents born on the island has increased by just 3,000. The number who have moved in from abroad has increased by 22,910, making this the biggest contributor to population growth in recent years. Education The island has 116 schools,with a total of 14,337 pupils.Of these, 45 are primary schools, ten are secondary schools, six are forBaccalaureatestudents and four are vocational colleges. Fuerteventura also has a centre linked with theNational University of Distance Education, offering courses in many subjects including economics, business studies, law, history and tourism. Administration Fuerteventura is governed by the Island Department of the Government of Spain, which holds the rank of a Government Subdepartment. The government building is located in the centre of the capital city. This institution is charged with representing the Government of Spain on the island, and managing all the functions that are not under control of the Canarian Government. This includes the following public services: Since 30 June 2007, the island's governor has been Eustaquio Juan Santana Gil.4 Island Council of Fuerteventura (Cabildo) The councils, formed as part of the Councils Act of 1912, administer theCanary Islandsand have two principal functions. On one hand, they perform services for the Autonomous Community, and on the other, they are the local government centre for the island. In the 2003 elections, Mario Cabrera González was elected as president representing theCanarian Coalition, with 31.02% of the votes, followed by theSpanish Socialist Workers' Partywith 27.53%, represented by the Vice President Domingo Fuentes Curbelo. Municipalities Fuerteventura is part of theProvince of Las Palmas. The island is divided into sixmunicipalities, as follows: In turn, these municipalities are organised into two associations: theMancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Norte de Fuerteventuraformed from La Oliva and Puerto del Rosario, and the remaining municipalities make up theMancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Sur de Fuerteventura. All municipalities are ruled by a town council, and are members of the FECAM (Federation of Canarian Municipalities). They are governed by the basic legislation of the local regime and their respective organic rules. About 100 individual settlements are distributed through these municipalities. The largest not being municipal seats areCorralejo(in La Oliva; pop. 10,714 in 2023),Morro Jable(in Pájara; pop. 8,245)Gran Tarajal(in Tuineje; pop. 7,584), andCosta Calma(in Pájara; pop. 5,704), all coastal localities of recent development. A nearby islet,Islote de Lobos, is close to Corralejo and part of the municipality ofLa Oliva. Economy Both Fuerteventura andLanzarotewould have been the main exporters of wheat and cereals to the central islands of the archipelago during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries;TenerifeandGran Canaria.However, this trade was of little benefit to the inhabitants of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (because the landowners of the islands profited from this activity), leading to periods of famine, resulting in some of the population of the islands moving to Tenerife and Gran Canaria to try to improve their lives. Therefore, the island of Tenerife became the main focus of attraction formajorerosandlanzaroteños, hence the feeling of union that has always existed amongst these islands. The economy of Fuerteventura is mainly based on tourism. Primary tourist areas are located around the existing towns ofCorralejoin the north andMorro JableinJandia, plus the purely tourist development ofCaleta de Fuste, south ofPuerto del Rosario. Other main industries are fishing and agriculture (cereals and vegetables). The famousMajorero cheeseis locally made from the milk of the indigenousmajoreragoat. In 2009, Fuerteventura recorded the highest EU regional unemployment rate at a NUTS3 level, at 29.2 percent. Tourism The first tourist hotel was built in 1965 followed by the construction ofFuerteventura Airportat El Matorral, heralding the dawn of a new era for the island. Fuerteventura, with its 3,000 sunshine hours a year, was placed firmly on the world stage as a major European holiday destination.While having fully developed tourist facilities, the island has not experienced the overdevelopment found on some other islands.Nonetheless, it remains a destination for predominantly but not exclusively European tourists. The summerTrade Windsand winter swells of the Atlantic make this a year-round surfers' paradise, with more exposed areas on the north and west shores such asCorralejoand El Cotillo proving most popular. Wind surfing takes places at locations around the island. Sailors, scuba divers and big-game fishermen are all drawn to these clear blue Atlantic waters where whales, dolphins, marlin and turtles are all common sights. With many hills present throughout the Island, hikers are also attracted to this Island. Sandy beaches are found in many locations. Western beaches, such as those around El Cotillo, can experience strong surf. The beaches adjoining the extensive sand dunes east ofCorralejoare popular, as are the more protected extensive sandy shores of the Playa de Sotavento de Jandia on the southeastern coast betweenCosta Calmaand the Morro Jable. Naked sun bathing and swimming are the norm almost on all beaches. Much of the interior, with its large plains, lavascapes and volcanic mountains, consists of protected areas, although there are organised tours and vehicular access across them. Art and culture Traditional holidays Like the rest of the Canaries, Carnival is traditionally one of the biggest festivals celebrated on the island. It is celebrated in different ways in all the towns during February and March. These festivities have a different theme each year. They include activities such as parades and galas to choose the carnival king. Concerts and festivals There are many concerts and festivals held in the auditoriums, such as the Festival of Canarian Music. They are also held in smaller venues across the island, featuring bands such as Estopa, Van Gogh's Ear, and King Afrhica. Festival Internacional de Cometas/InternationalKiteFestival is held on the second week of November each year centering on the Corralejo Beaches. It attracts kitefliers and kite surfers from all over Europe. It is popular because the winds are warm and constant and the beaches become filled with hundreds of colourful kites of all shapes and sizes. Auditoriums Fuerteventura has three auditoriums. These are used for all types of performing art. They are also used for non-artistic purposes, such as conferences, charity galas and political meetings. Central library The Central Library of the Island is located in Antigua's city centre, in the public university. In addition to providing the traditional library services, it has a 180-seat multipurpose room, air conditioning, a wifi zone, and a multimedia room used for seminars, presentations, film festivals etc. Museums and exhibition spaces The island has several museums with different themes and plenty of exhibition spaces, both public and private. These include: Sculpture park In addition to the museums, the capitalPuerto del Rosariohas an open-air sculpture park consisting of around 100 sculptures by different artists scattered across the city. Most of them were created for the International Symposium of Sculpture celebrated annually since 2001. During the festival, artists come from all over the world to erect their sculptures in the open air, in full view of passers by. Main sights Sites of interest includeCorralejoand El Jable to the north which are made up of fine sandduneswhilst the south is filled with long beaches and remote bays. The constant winds blowing onto the beaches provide a paradise forwindsurfing.Surfingis common on the west and north coasts where there are large waves. Windsurfing is common around Corralejo and Playas de Sotavento and wave sailing (windsurfing on the waves) on the coast along the northern half of the island. El Cotillo is a small fishing village in the north-west of the Island famous for a very long beach to the south of the village and few very calm beaches to the north. The northern beaches frequented by snorkeling enthusiasts and sun worshippers alike are referred to as lakes by the locals. AtCofeteon the western side of Jandía a remote and imposing house –Villa Winter– looks out to sea across wide beaches. It was reputedly built by a Mr Winter on land given byGeneralisimo Franco. For a time, the beaches were home to a popular accidental attraction. On 18 January 1994 theUnited States Linesocean linerSSAmerican Star(formerAmerica, USSWest Point,Australis) was beached in Playa de Garcey during a severe storm. Within a year, she broke in two and later lost her stern. By 2007 the rest of the severely deteriorated ship had collapsed onto her port side, gradually keeling over further and almost completely submerged. By 2008–2012, most of the remains finally slipped below the surface. Food The cuisine is fairly basic due to the customs and climate conditions. They share this simplicity with the other Canary islands, and similarly to them, they use a large quantity offish. They also use whatever they can grow in the near-barren land. This includespapas arrugadas, a dish of wrinkled potatoes usually served withmojo, which is a hot pepper sauce or withpuchero canario, a meat stew. Seafood is prepared in many ways traditionally, such as pejines (salted fish),jareas,orsancocho(a type of stew) made from fish, generally thegrouper,corvina or sama, boiled after salting, and served with mojo, potatoes, orgofio(a type of grain). People are also very keen on themusselsandlimpetscollected on the island's coasts. They also use meat such asbeefandporkto make different dishes or simply to for braising, but their main meat isgoat, both from the kids and from the older animals. They eat the goat roasted or stewed. Goats are not only useful for their meat – the Fuerteventurans also use themilkto make the cheesemajorero, which has won many prizes. The majorero is mostly made of goats milk, and occasionally it is up to 15%ewesmilk. It is cured inpimentooil or gofio meal. Majorero andpalmero cheeseare the only two Canarian cheeses withprotected denomination of origin. Transport and communications The main methods of arriving and departing the islands are by flying and by ferry. Airports The airport is the main access point to the island. It is situated in El Matorral, 5 km (3.1 mi) southwest of the capital city Puerto del Rosario. The airport has flight connections to over 80 destinations worldwide, and over 5.6 million passengers passed through it in 2016. In 1994, the new airport terminal was constructed. In December 2009, the new facilities of the arrivals terminal of Fuerteventura Airport were inaugurated, tripling the space available in the old facilities. Up to 4000 passengers per hour can be served concurrently thanks to the new facilities. Notably,Binter Canariasserves the airport as the regional airline connecting passengers acrossCanary Islands. Ports Maritime communications are made from four ports: Puerto del Rosario, Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. Cargo operations are the main activity of the island's main port in Puerto del Rosario, although its facilities allow the docking of tourist cruises including a ferry from Gran Canaria. Passenger traffic is mainly channeled through Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. The port of Corralejo connects the island with Lanzarote. The port of Gran Tarajal connects the island with Gran Canaria and Morro Jable connects the island with Gran Canaria and Tenerife. Roads There are two highways on the island: FV-1 and FV-2. The FV-1, together with the FV-2, is part of the major construction project of the north–south motorway on Fuerteventura. The FV-1 begins in the north, in the town of Corralejo and ends in the island's capital Puerto del Rosario. FV-1 is part dual carriageway and part single carriageway. In the past, the FV-1 also ran through the Corralejo Dune Nature Reserve. In order to direct through traffic out of the nature reserve, the dual carriageway bypass around the nature reserve was opened in 2017 as the first section of the motorway after three years of construction, plus five years of construction delay. The road through nature reserve was renamed FV-104. FV-2 connects Morro Jable and Puerto del Rosario. Between La Lajita and Morro Jable, FV-2 is a dual carriageway highway. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar, Hertz, Sixt and TopCar. Sport Many sports are commonly played in Fuerteventura, both in the open air and in sports centres across the island. Native sports These are the Canarian sports found on the island: Canarian wrestling The wrestling takes place in a ring of sand called theterrero. Inside it, the two contestants try to knock each other over. Fuerteventura has 14 terreros distributed through all the towns except Betancuria. The island also has a school wrestling league organized by the council and a programme to promote this sport in clubs. Twelve wrestling schools participate in this, based in Antigua, Costa Calma, El Matorral, La Lajita, Lajares, Las Playitas, Morro Jable, Puerto del Rosario, Tefía, Tetir, Unión Sur and Villaverde. Juego del Palo Juego del Palois a Canarian martial art which literally translates as \"game of the stick\". It is played by two players both armed with sticks. They aim to defeat each other without making contact with their opponent's body. The origin of this game is unclear. All we know is that it is based on a method of combat used by the precolonial Canarian people. Fuerteventura has the following Palo clubs: Canarian boules This is a similar game to the FrenchPétanquewhich is actually played very little on the island, although there are a few teams and courts. Basically the game consists of scoring points by throwing a ball to get it as near as possible to an object called amingueorboliche. It is played on a rectangular sand or earth pitch which is 18 to 25 m (59.1–82.0 ft) long and 3.5 to 6 m (11.5–19.7 ft) wide. Watersports The sea and climate conditions make the island the perfect place for a huge variety of watersports. Surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing Many types of surfing are popular on the island, includingtraditional surfing,windsurfing(where the board is propelled by a sail) and most recentlykitesurfing. The island has many schools and courses dedicated to teaching these sports. The sports where Fuerteventura has the most impact internationally are windsurfing and kitesurfing, mainly due to the International Windsurfing and Kiteboarding Championship. This has run since 1985 and is held at Playas de Sotavento in Pájara municipality. Many important wind and kitesurfing figures compete in this championship, such as the several-times world windsurfing championBjörn DunkerbeckandGisela Pulido, the very young kiteboarding champion fromTarifa. Many Canarian windsurfers are on the Canarian Waveriders circuit, which has been based inCorralejosince 2005. Diving Diving schools are just as frequent as surfing ones, all around the coast of Fuerteventura. Unlike the other islands of the archipelago, Fuerteventura has a shelf which at some points goes up to 30 km (19 mi), making it an ideal place to practice this sport. Two of the most useful points for diving are the coast offPlaya del Matorralin the South, and the zone betweenLobos Islandand Corralejo in the north. It is here in Corralejo that the International Sea and Submarine Photography Festival takes places, known as Fimarsub Corralejo – Lobos. During the festival there are beginners' lessons, professional dives, lessons in underwater photography, screenings and other events related to the sport. Swimming There are many swimming pools on the island but the most obvious place to swim is in the open sea. There is an annual swim from Lobos Island to Fuerteventura, held every year since 1999. The event attracts amateur swimmers from all over the Canaries and Spain, and also swimming professionals such asDavid MecaandMaarten van der Weijden, the paralympist Jesús Collado Alarcón who won gold medals for 100m backstroke and butterfly in Athens 2004, and Xavi Torres Ramis, the paralympic champion in Barcelona 1992, Sydney and Atlanta. Sailing The island holds competitions involving different types of boat, such as thelateenand theOptimist. An interesting event is the Tour of Fuerteventura by Kayak, which is organised as a series of stages rather than a competition, and is an easy way to explore the island. Fishing The most notable competition here is the Gran Tarajal Fishing Open. Other sports Since 2004 the Marcha Ciclotourista has been held inLa Olivaand the Criterium Ciclista has been held in Corralejo (also part of the La Oliva municipality) since 2005. Participants includeEuskaltel–Euskadi,T-Mobileand a team fromOrbea. These competitions have contributed to local interest in the sport and the first professional local team, theFuerteventura–Canarias, was formed, initially run by Óscar Guerrero, director ofKaiku, although they have not competed for the past few seasons. There are variousmotocrosscircuits on the island, includingLos Alaresin Antigua andIsla de FuerteventurainPuerto del Rosariomunicipality. They hold regular trials, some of which form part of the Canarian Regional Motocross Championship. Throughout the year there are gravel rally races. Two are part of the Canarian Dirt Rally Championship. These are the Antiguan Rally and the La Oliva Rally. The island's mainfootballclubs areCD Union PuertoandCD Cotillo, who play in Group XII of the SpanishTercera División RFEF. The resort Playitas on the south coast is since around 2008 equipped with a 50 m (160 ft) swimming pool and has become a destination fortriathlontraining camps for Europeans. An annual race called Challenge Fuerteventura is held there on the half ironman distance. People See also References External links",
"Gran Canaria Gran Canaria(UK:/ˌɡrænkəˈnɛəriə,-ˈnɑːr-/,US:/ˌɡrɑːnkəˈnɑːriə,-ˈnɛər-/;Spanish:ⓘ), alsoGrand Canary Island, is the third-largest and second-most-populous island of theCanary Islands,anarchipelagooff the Atlantic coast ofNorthwest Africaand is part of Spain. As of 2023the island had a population of 862,893 that constitutes approximately 40% of the population of the archipelago.Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, the capital of the island, is the biggest city of the Canary Islands and the ninth of Spain. Gran Canaria is located in the Atlantic Ocean in a region known asMacaronesiaabout 150 kilometres (93 mi) off the northwestern coast of Africa and about 1,350 km (840 mi) from Europe.With an area of 1,560 km2(600 sq mi)and an altitude of 1,956 m (6,417 ft) atMorro de la Agujereada, Gran Canaria is the third largest island of the archipelago in both area and altitude. Gran Canaria is also the third most populated island in Spain. History Inantiquity, Gran Canaria was populated by the North AfricanCanarii, who may have arrived as early as 500 BC.In themedieval period, after over a century of European incursions and attempts at conquest, the island was conquered on 29 April 1483, by theCrown of Castile, underQueen Isabella I. The Canarian queenAbencharawas captured and imprisoned by the Spanish during the conquest. The conquest succeeded after a war that lasted five years, and it was an important step towards the expansion of the unified Spain. The capital city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canariawas founded on 24 June 1478, under the name \"Real de Las Palmas\", byJuan Rejón, head of the invadingCastilianarmy. In 1492,Christopher Columbusanchored in thePort of Las Palmas(and spent some time on the island) on his first trip to the Americas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is, jointly withSanta Cruz de Tenerife, the capital of theautonomous communityof the Canary Islands. Much of Iberian migration to the island consisted ofconversosof Jewish origin. On 27 March 1977, a bomb went off in Gran Canaria Airport, the main airport on the island. Flights were diverted to the nearby Tenerife Airport: this led to theTenerife airport disaster. Etymology Plinyclaimed that the island was named for the dogs on the island, of which two were presented as a gift toJuba, King ofMauretania.This opinion is disputed as when the Europeans arrived on the island, no dogs were found.Another source suggested the way the natives ate fish was doglike and this was the reason for its name.A more plausible assumption is that the islands name derives from the people Canario or Canarii living near theAtlas mountain range.Jean de Béthencourtnamed the islandGranCanaria as the people on the island were valorous opponents to hisconquest. Geography Gran Canaria is located in theCanary Islandsarchipelago southeast ofTenerifeand west ofFuerteventura. The island is ofvolcanicorigin, mostly made offissure vents. It has a round shape, with a diameter of approximately 50 km (31 mi) and a surface area of 1,560 km2(600 sq mi). Gran Canaria's maximum elevation is 1,956 metres (6,417 ft) atMorro de la Agujereada, although the nearbyPico de las Nieveshas traditionally been considered the island's tallest peak. The coastline measures 236 km. Geology About 80% of the volume of the island was formed during theMioceneperiod eruptions, between 14 and 9 million years ago.This is called the \"Old Cycle\" and is estimated to have lasted some 200,000 years and have emitted about 1,000 km3(240 cu mi), mostly of fissuralalkali basalt. This cycle continued with the emission oftrachytes,phonolitesandperalkalinerocks.This period was followed by one of erosion, which lasted some 4 million years. A second cycle of volcanic eruptions, known as the \"Roque Nublo cycle\", took place between 4.5 and 3.4 million years ago. This shorter cycle emitted about 100 km3(24 cu mi). Most of the inland peaks were formed by erosion from these materials. This period also started with fissural basalts, but ended with violent eruptions ofpyroclastic flows. Some phonolitic features, like the Risco Blanco, were also formed in its last stages. The third or recent cycle is held to have started some 2.8 million years ago and is considered to be still active. The last eruptions are held to have occurred some 2000 years ago. The changes in volume and, therefore, weight of the island have also caused the island to rise above the previous sea level during erosive periods and to sink during eruptive periods. Some of these \"fossil beaches\" can be seen in the cliff faces of the more eroded northern coast. Climate According to theKöppen climate classification, Gran Canaria is considered to have ahot desert climate (BWh)due to its severe lack of precipitation. Gran Canaria has consistent warm temperatures in spring, summer and autumn, and mild winters. Gran Canaria is noted for its rich variety ofmicroclimates. Generally speaking though, the average daytime high ranges from 20 °C (68 °F) in winter to 26 °C (79 °F) in summer. Some cool nights occur in winter, but lows below 10 °C (50 °F) are unknown near the coast. Inland the climate is still mild but mountainous areas see the occasional frost or snow. Annual rainfall averages 228 mm (9.0 in), most of this falling in the cooler months, with July, August and September normally rainless. Rainfall is unevenly distributed through the island with some areas being much drier than others. Cloud cover and sunshine is often quite variable during the cooler months, and there can be several rather cloudy days at times in winter. Summers are generally quite sunny however, with the south of the island being most favoured. Vegetation Until the conquest, Gran Canaria had extensive forests, but then suffered extensivedeforestationas a result of continuous logging, land divisions and other intensive uses. This reduced the forest cover to just 56,000 hectares (140,000 acres),making the island the most deforested of the Canary Islands.However, in the twentieth century reforestation of the ridge of the island was begun, recovering some of the lost forest mass. Much of the summit of the island is forested mostly due toreforestation. Governance Gran Canaria is in theautonomous communityof theCanary Islands(Islas Canarias). It lies within theProvince of Las Palmas, aSpanish provincewhich consists of the eastern part of the Canary Islands community.Las Palmas de Gran Canariais the provincial capital, one of the two capitals of the Canary Islands along withSanta Cruz de Tenerife. The island of Gran Canaria is governed by theCabildo insular de Gran Canaria.Gran Canaria Island itself is divided into twenty-one smallermunicipalities: The island has a population at the start of 2023 of 862,893 - with 380,863 of those in the capital city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canaria. Gran Canaria is the second most populous island of the Canary Islands, afterTenerife. Transportation Roads Gran Canaria has roads encircling the whole island and extending into the mountain areas. In the late 20th century, its dual carriageway, among the first in the Canary Islands, were opened and run around Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, and were later extended to the north coast and the airport and subsequently to the south coast in response to increased tourist traffic. The only highway of Gran Canaria areGC1. Dual carriageway isGC2, andGC31,GC4andGC5. The western and the north-western parts, with the fewest inhabitants, are linked only with main roads. Buses Public transport around Gran Canaria is provided by an extensive bus network, known in the local dialect asguaguas. TheAutoridad Única del Transporte de Gran Canaria(Gran Canaria Transport Authority, TGC) manages the network and operates a number of bus stations across the island, including San Telmo and Santa Catalina bus stations in Las Palmas, Maspalomas and Galdar.Bus tickets may be purchased with cash, and AUTGC also operates acontactlesselectronic ticketcalled the TransGC Card, which is valid across the whole network. Inter-urban bus services across the island are operated by the Global bus company.Global was created in 2000 after the merger of two bus companies, Utinsa (which operated in the north of the island) and Salcai (the bus operator for the south).Local bus services in Las Palmas are run by the municipal bus company,Guaguas Municipales de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Airport Gran Canaria Airport(IATA: LPA) is the only commercial airport on the island. The large number of aircraft and passengers passing through it each year make it one of the busiest in Spain. Gran Canaria is also responsible for all air traffic control in the Canaries. By destination island, Gran Canaria is the second island that congregates the largest number of passengers in the Canary Islands.Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are:Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz, Sixt and TopCar. Sea ports The most important ports in the island are the Port of Las Palmas(Puerto de la Luz),in the city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canaria;Arguineguín, which exportscementfrom a large factory; andArinaga, located in the main industrial zone of Canaries and one of the major ones of Spain. The main passenger ports are the Port of La Luz, whereTrasmediterráneaoperates a weekly ferry route toCádizon the Spanish mainland,and thePort of Las Nieves, located inAgaeteon the west side of the island, whereFred Olsen Expressoperates acatamaranferry service toSanta Cruz de Tenerife. Train Plans for aTren de Gran Canariarailway network linking the capital with the south have been approved by both theGran Canaria Cabildoand the autonomous Canary Islands' Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government hinges now on budget. The planned 57 km (35 mi) railway line would run between Las Palmas and Meloneras, with the section in the capital running entirely underground as far as the suburb of Jinámar. The line is planned to have 11 stations, including an underground station at Gran Canaria Airport. The scheme was first announced in 2009, with a planned operational date in 2015. A public company calledFerrocarriles de Gran Canariahas been formed by the Cabildo's Gran Canaria Transport Authority. Plans were still being discussed in 2018. Agriculture Gran Canaria agriculture is unique among the Canaries islands in that it was traditionally dominated by plantations, with much of these being grains as well assugarcane, rather than by stock-breeding.Thecaves of Valerón(aproperty of cultural interestin the \"archaeological site\" category) in the municipality ofSanta María de Guíabears testimony of it by being the largest pre-Hispanic collective granary of the Canaries. Tourism This island is called a \"miniature continent\" due to the different climates and variety of landscapes found, with long beaches and dunes of white sand, contrasting with green ravines and picturesque villages.A third of the island is under protection as aBiosphere ReservebyUNESCO. The number of annual visitors was 3.6 million in 2014 (of which 450.000 Spaniards).It is the second island in the archipelago in number of annual tourists, after Tenerife.Most of the tourists visit the southern part of the island. The north tends to be cooler, while the south is warmer and sunny. The east coast of the island is flat, dotted with beaches, while the western coast is rockier and mountainous. The island possesses 32 Natural Protected Spaces,notably the Rural Park of Nublo, The Doramas Jungle, the Azuaje Ravine, Tamadaba, Pino Santo, etc. In the south there is a large bird park,Palmitos Park, as well as many beach resort communities. Resorts are concentrated in the central eastern part of the southern coast in theMaspalomasarea, which includes the towns ofSan Agustín,Playa del InglésandMeloneras. TheMaspalomas Dunesare located between Playa del Inglés (\"The Englishman's Beach\") and the distinctive 19th centuryMaspalomas lighthouse. Playa del Ingles is home to the Yumbo Centre,which was opened in 1982 and has almost 200 shops, including bars, restaurants, cafes, fashion boutiques, electronic outlets and jewellery stores. In Tarajalillo, an Aeroclub exists from where tourist flights can be taken over the island. Still further to the west along the southern shore, in the Municipality of Mogán, are the communities ofPuerto RicoandPuerto de Mogán, a village referred to as \"Little Venice\" on account of its many canals. Other attractions include Cocodrilos Park,Roque Nublo(an 80 m monolith),Cenobio de Valerónwith more than 350 storage cavities,Painted cave of Galdarthe most important archaeological park in Canary Islands, or the botanical gardensJardín Canario(in Tafira Alta) andCactualdea(inLa Aldea de San Nicolás). El Dedo de Dios, or \"God's Finger\", was a rocky spire jutting from the sea inPuerto de las Nieves, and was previously the signature attraction of the Canary Islands until it was destroyed bytropical storm Deltathat crossed the archipelago in November 2005. Other well-known rock formations are El Cura (also known as El Fraile), The Frog (La Rana),Roque Bentayga, the Roque de Gando, and the Peñón Bermejo. Traditionally, the highest peak of the island has been considered to be thePico de las Nieves, at 1,949 metres (6,394 ft); however,Morro de la Agujereadais taller, at 1,956 metres (6,417 ft). The capital city isLas Palmas de Gran Canaria.Las Canterasbeach, a protected area and diving zone, lies in the heart of the city. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is also known for its annualcarnaval. It was the first stop of Christopher Columbus' expedition on his way back from the Americas,a commemoration of which is the Hermitage of San Antonio Abad, where the navigator prayed, and theCasa de Colón. Other attractions in the capital city include theMuseo Canario(the most important archaeology museum in the archipelago), the cathedral and thePlaza del Espíritu Santo. InTerorthe shrine ofVirgen del Pino(\"Virgin of the Pine\"), patron saint of Gran Canaria, can be found. Its feast is celebrated on 8 September. The town ofAgüimes, on the eastern part of the island, has been carefully restored and its town centre, centered on its old church and a peaceful square, now evokes the quiet living of a traditional Canarian town. The district also has some of the best preserved cave dwellings, in the protected area of theGuayadeque ravine, where even the church has been built into the mountainside and visitors can find a number of popular cave restaurants. The district also includes the most renowned scuba diving area on the island: the marine reserve at theplaya de El Cabrónjust outside the town of Arinaga. Other important towns areTelde, known among other things for theirsurfschools in Salinetas, Vecindario (within the municipality of Santa Lucía de Tirajana) andGáldar, that contains an important diving zone. InArucasthere is a Neogothic temple, popularly known as \"Arucas' Cathedral\", as well as a large fertile plain where bananas are grown. InGáldarand its surroundings there is also a banana-growing plain and some remarkable archaeological remains,such as thePainted cave of Galdaror thecenobio de Valerón's communal silos, ancient tombs (among which thenecropolis of Maipés), and the port of Sardina del Norte (one of the island's ports where, as in Las Palmas',Christopher Columbusused to get supplies for his ships). Heading west along the southern coast is the fishing city ofArguineguínin theMunicipality of Mogán. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Gran Canaria are theCanary MastiffandEuphorbia canariensis(Cardón) Beaches Protected natural areas Nearly half of the island territory — 667 km2(258 sq mi) (42.7% of island) — is under protection from the Red Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos (Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,a total of 33 are located in Gran Canaria, the second most protected island in the group.There are seven different categories of protection: Music Science and technology In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14ground stationsin theManned Space Flight Network(MSFN) to support theNASAspace program.Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including theApollo 11Moon landings andSkylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of theESAnetwork. Sports The island is home toCB Gran Canaria– a basketball club playing inLiga ACBat theGran Canaria Arena, with a capacity of 11,000. The island is also home toUD Las Palmas– a football club playing inLa Ligaat theEstadio de Gran Canaria, with a capacity of 32,392.Professional Windsurfers Association(PWA) holds its annual competitions at Pozo - Pozo Izquierdo: This spot, which is situated in the municipal area of Santa Lucía, is internationally famous on account of the ideal windsurfing conditions, the wind being ever present. See also Bibliography Geology of Gran Canaria References External links"
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"Canary Islands TheCanary Islands(/kəˈnɛəri/,Spanish:Canarias,Spanish:), also known informally asthe Canaries, are a Spanish region,autonomous communityandarchipelagoin theAtlantic Ocean. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are 100 kilometres (62 miles) west ofMoroccoand theWestern Sahara. They are the southernmost of theautonomous communities of Spain. The islands have a population of 2.2 million people and are the most populousspecial territory of the European Union. The seven main islands are, from largest to smallest in area,Tenerife,Fuerteventura,Gran Canaria,Lanzarote,La Palma,La Gomera, andEl Hierro. The only other populated island isLa Graciosa, which administratively is dependent on Lanzarote. The archipelago includes many smaller islands and islets, includingAlegranza,Isla de Lobos,Montaña Clara,Roque del Oeste, andRoque del Este. It includes a number of rocks, includingGarachicoandAnaga. In ancient times, the island chain was often referred to as \"the Fortunate Isles\".The Canary",
"Isles\".The Canary Islands are the southernmost region ofSpain, and the largest and most populous archipelago ofMacaronesia.Because of their location, the Canary Islands have historically been considered a link between the four continents ofAfrica,North America,South America, andEurope. In 2023, the Canary Islands had a population of 2,236,013,with a density of 299 inhabitants per km2, making it the seventh most populous autonomous community of Spain. The population is mostly concentrated in the two capital islands: around 43% on the island of Tenerife and 40% on the island of Gran Canaria. The Canary Islands, especially Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote, are a major tourist destination, with over 16 million visitors in 2023.This is due to their beaches,subtropical climate, and important natural attractions, especiallyMaspalomasinGran Canariaand MountTeide, aWorld Heritage SiteinTenerife. Mount Teide is thehighest peak in Spainand the3rd tallest volcano in the world, measured from its base",
"from its base on the ocean floor.The islands have warm summers and winters warm enough for the climate to be technically tropical at sea level.The amount of precipitation and the level of maritime moderation vary depending on location and elevation. The archipelago includes green areas as well as semi-desert. The islands' high mountains are ideal for astronomical observation, because they lie above thetemperature inversionlayer. As a result, the archipelago has two professional astronomical observatories: theTeide Observatoryon Tenerife, andRoque de los Muchachos Observatoryon La Palma. In 1927, theProvince of Canary Islandswas split into two provinces. In 1982, the autonomous community of the Canary Islands was established. The cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canariaare, jointly, the capitals of the islands.Those cities are also, respectively, the capitals of theprovincesofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has been the largest city in the Canaries since",
"the Canaries since 1768, except for a brief period in the 1910s.Between the1833 territorial division of Spainand 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, it was ordered by decree that the capital of the Canary Islands would be shared between two cities, and this arrangement persists to the present day.The third largest city in the Canary Islands isSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, another World Heritage Site on Tenerife. During theAge of Sail, the islands were the main stopover forSpanish galleonsduring theSpanish colonisation of the Americas, which sailed that far south in order to catch the prevailing northeasterlytrade winds. Etymology The nameIslas Canariasis likely derived from the Latin nameCanariae Insulae, meaning \"Islands of the Dogs\", perhaps because monk seals or sea dogs were abundant, a name that was evidently generalized from the ancient name of one of these islands,Canaria– presumably Gran Canaria. According to the historianPliny the Elder, the",
"the Elder, the islandCanariacontained \"vast multitudes of dogs of very large size\".The connection to dogs is retained in their depiction on the islands' coat-of-arms. Other theories speculate that the name comes from theNukkariBerber tribe living in the Moroccan Atlas, named in Roman sources asCanarii, though Pliny again mentions the relation of this term with dogs. The name of the islands is not derived from thecanary bird; rather, the birds are named after the islands. Islands From west to east, the Canary Islands areEl Hierro,La Palma,La Gomera,Tenerife,Gran Canaria,Fuerteventura,Lanzarote, andLa Graciosa. North of Lanzarote are the islets ofMontaña Clara,Alegranza,Roque del EsteandRoque del Oeste, belonging to theChinijo Archipelago. Northeast of Fuerteventura is the islet ofLobos. There are a series of small adjacent rocks in the Canary Islands: theRoques de Anaga,Garachicoand Fasnia in Tenerife, and Salmor and Bonanza in El Hierro. El Hierro El Hierro, the westernmost island, covers 268.71 km2(103.75",
"268.71 km2(103.75 sq mi). It is the second smallest of the major islands, and the least populous with 10,798 inhabitants. The whole island was declared a Reserve of the Biosphere in 2000. Its capital isValverde. Also known as Ferro, it was once the westernmost known land in the world. Ancient European geographers such as Ptolemy recognised the island as theprime meridianof longitude. That remained so until the 19th century, when it was displaced by the onepassing through Greenwich. Fuerteventura Fuerteventura, with a surface of 1,660 km2(640 sq mi), is the second largest island of the archipelago. It has been declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCO. It is the oldest of the islands being more eroded. Its highest point is the Peak of the Bramble, at a height of 807 metres (2,648 feet). Its capital isPuerto del Rosario. Gran Canaria Gran Canaria has 846,717 inhabitants. The capital,Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, with 377,203 inhabitants, is the most populous city and shares the status of capital of the Canaries with",
"the Canaries with Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Gran Canaria's surface area is 1,560 km2(600 sq mi). Roque Nublo 1,813 metres (5,948 feet) and Pico de las Nieves (\"Peak of Snow\") 1,949 metres (6,394 feet) are located in the center of the island. On the south of the island are the Maspalomas Dunes (Gran Canaria). La Gomera La Gomera (informally known as 'Isla Colombina') has an area of 369.76 km2(142.77 sq mi) and is the second least populous island with 21,136 inhabitants. It has been declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCO. Geologically it is one of the oldest of the archipelago. The insular capital isSan Sebastian de La Gomera.Garajonay National Parkis located on the island. Lanzarote Lanzarote is the easternmost island and one of the oldest of the archipelago, and it has shown evidence of recent volcanic activity. It has a surface of 845.94 km2(326.62 sq mi), and a population of 149,183 inhabitants, including the adjacent islets of the Chinijo Archipelago. The capital isArrecife, with 56,834 inhabitants. Chinijo",
"Chinijo Archipelago The Chinijo Archipelago includes the islandsLa Graciosa,Alegranza,Montaña Clara,Roque del EsteandRoque del Oeste. It has a surface of 40.8 km2(15.8 sq mi), and only La Graciosa is populated, with 658 inhabitants. With 29 km2(11 sq mi), La Graciosa is the largest island of the Chinijo Archipelago and the smallest inhabited island of the Canaries. La Palma La Palma, with 81,863 inhabitants covering an area of 708.32 km2(273.48 sq mi), is in its entirety a biosphere reserve. For long it showed no signs of volcanic activity, even though the volcanoTeneguíaentered into eruption last in 1971. On 19 September 2021, the volcanicCumbre Viejaon the islanderupted.It is the second-highest island of the Canaries, with the Roque de los Muchachos at 2,423 metres (7,949 feet) as its highest point.Santa Cruz de La Palma, known to those on the island as simply \"Santa Cruz\", is its capital. Tenerife Tenerife is, with its area of 2,034 km2(785 sq mi), the most extensive island of the Canary Islands. With",
"Islands. With 904,713 inhabitants, it is the most populated island of the archipelago and Spain. Two of the islands' principal cities are located on it: the capital,Santa Cruz de TenerifeandSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, a World Heritage Site.San Cristóbal de La Laguna, the second city of the island, is home to the oldest university in the Canary Islands, theUniversity of La Laguna.Teide, with its 3,715 metres (12,188 feet) is the highest peak ofSpainand aWorld Heritage Site.Tenerifeis the site of theworst air disasterin the history of aviation, in which 583 people were killed in the collision of twoBoeing 747son 27 March 1977. La Graciosa Graciosa Island or commonly La Graciosa is a volcanic island in the Canary Islands of Spain, located 2 km (1.2 mi) north of the island of Lanzarote across the Strait of El Río. It was formed by the Canary hotspot. The island is part of the Chinijo Archipelago and the Chinijo Archipelago Natural Park (Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo). It is administered by the",
"administered by the municipality of Teguise. In 2018, La Graciosa was declared asthe eighth Canary Islandby theSpanish Senate,though it is not recognized as such by the Canarian administration. It is administratively dependent on the island of Lanzarote. It is the smallest and least populated of the main islands, with about 700 people. Data Physical geography Tenerifeis the largest and most populous island of the archipelago.Gran Canaria, with 865,070 inhabitants, is both the Canary Islands' second most populous island, and the third most populous one in Spain after Tenerife (966,354 inhabitants) andMajorca(896,038 inhabitants).The island ofFuerteventurais the second largest in the archipelago and located 100 km (62 mi) from the African coast. The islands form theMacaronesiaecoregionwith theAzores,Cape Verde,Madeira, and theSavage Isles.The Canary Islands is the largest and most populated archipelago of the Macaronesia region.The archipelago has seven large and several smaller islands, all of which are",
"all of which are volcanic in origin. According to the position of the islands with respect to the north-easttrade winds, the climate can be mild and wet or very dry. Several native species formlaurisilvaforests. The individual islands in the Canary archipelago tend to have distinctmicroclimates. Those islands such asEl Hierro,La PalmaandLa Gomeralying to the west of the archipelago have a climate which is influenced by the moistCanary Current. They are well vegetated even at low levels and have extensive tracts of sub-tropical laurisilva forest. Travelling east toward the African coast, the influence of the current diminishes, and the islands become increasingly arid.FuerteventuraandLanzarote, the islands which are closest to the African mainland, are effectively desert or semi-desert. Gran Canariais known as a \"continent in miniature\" for its diverse landscapes likeMaspalomasandRoque Nublo. The north ofTenerifelies under the influence of the moist Atlantic winds and is well vegetated. The south of the",
"The south of the island around the tourist resorts ofPlaya de las AméricasandLos Cristianosis arid. The island rises to almost 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above sea level. At altitude, in the cool relatively wet climate, forests of the endemic pinePinus canariensisthrive. Many of the plant species in the Canary Islands, like the Canary Island pine and thedragon tree,Dracaena dracoare endemic, as noted bySabin BerthelotandPhilip Barker Webbin their work,L'Histoire Naturelle des Îles Canaries(1835–50). Climate The climate is warmsubtropical/tropicaland generallyarid, moderated by the sea and in summer by thetrade winds.There are a number ofmicroclimatesand the classifications range mainly fromsemi-deserttodesert. The majority of the Canary Islands have ahot desert climate(BWh) and ahot semi-desert climate(BSh) within theKöppensystem, caused partly due to the coolCanary Current.A subtropical humid climate, which is very influenced by the ocean, is in the middle of the islands ofLa Gomera,TenerifeandLa Palma,",
"Palma, wherelaurisilvacloud forests grow. Geology The seven major islands, one minor island, and several small islets were originally volcanic islands, formed by theCanary hotspot.The Canary Islands is the only place in Spain wherevolcanic eruptionshave been recorded during theModern Era, with some volcanoes still active (El Hierro, 2011).Volcanic islands such as those in the Canary chain often have steep ocean cliffs caused by catastrophic debris avalanches andlandslides.The island chain's most recent eruption occurred atCumbre Vieja, a volcanic ridge on La Palma,in 2021. TheTeidevolcanoon Tenerife is the highest mountain in Spain, and the third tallest volcano on Earth on a volcanic ocean island.All the islands except La Gomera have been active in the last million years. Four of them, Lanzarote, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro, have historical records of eruptions since European discovery.The islands rise from Jurassicoceanic crustassociated with the opening of the Atlantic. Underwatermagmatismbegan",
"during the Cretaceous, and continued to the present day. The current islands reached the ocean's surface during theMiocene. The islands were once considered as a distinct physiographic section of theAtlas Mountainsprovince, which is part of the larger African Alpine System division, but are now recognized as being related to a magmatic hot spot. In the summer of 2011, a series of low-magnitude earthquakes occurred beneath El Hierro. These had a linear trend of northeast–southwest. In October a submarine eruption occurred about2 km (1+1⁄4mi) south of Restinga. This eruption produced gases and pumice, but no explosive activity was reported. The following table shows the highest mountains in each of the islands: Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Canary Islands are the birdSerinus canaria(canary) and thePhoenix canariensispalm. National parks Four of Spain's thirteen national parks are located in the Canary Islands, more than any other autonomous community. Two of these have been",
"of these have been declaredUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesand the other two are part ofBiosphere Reserves. The parks are: Teide National Parkis the oldest and largest national park in the Canary Islands and one of the oldest in Spain. Located in the geographic centre of the island of Tenerife, it is the most visited national park in Spain. In 2010, it became the most visited national park in Europe and second worldwide.The park's highlight is theTeidevolcano. Standing at an altitude of 3,715 metres (12,188 ft),it is the highest elevation in Spain and the third largest volcano on Earth from its base. In 2007, the Teide National Park was declared one of the12 Treasures of Spain. Politics Governance The regional executive body, theParliament of the Canary Islands, is presided over byFernando Clavijo Batlle(Canarian Coalition), the currentPresident of the Canary Islands. The members of the regional legislature, theParliament of the Canary Islands, has 70 elected legislators. Thelast regional electiontook place in May",
"place in May 2023. The islands have 14 seats in theSpanish Senate. Of these, 11 seats are directly elected, 3 for Gran Canaria, 3 for Tenerife, and 1 each for Lanzarote (including La Graciosa), Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro. The other 3 are appointed by the regional legislature. Political geography TheAutonomous Community of the Canary Islandshas twoprovinces(provincias),Las PalmasandSanta Cruz de Tenerife, whose capitals,Las Palmas de Gran CanariaandSanta Cruz de Tenerife, are capitals of the autonomous community. Each of the seven major islands are ruled by an island council named aCabildo Insular. Each island is subdivided into smallermunicipalities(municipios).Las Palmas is divided into 34 municipalities, andSanta Cruz de Tenerife is divided into 54 municipalities. The international boundary of the Canaries is disputed inMorocco-Spain relations. In 2022 the UN declared the Canary Island's territorial waters as being Moroccan coast and Morocco has authorisedgas and oil explorationin",
"oil explorationin what the Canary Islands states to be Canarian territorial waters andWestern Saharawaters.Morocco's official position is that international laws regarding territorial limits do not authorise Spain to claim seabed boundaries based on the territory of the Canaries, since the Canary Islands enjoy a large degree of autonomy. In fact, the islands do not enjoy any special degree of autonomy, as each one of the Spanish regions is considered anautonomous community, with equal status to the European ones. Under theLaw of the Sea, the only islands not granted territorial waters or anexclusive economic zone(EEZ) are those that are not fit for human habitation, or do not have an economic life of their own, which is not the case of the Canary Islands. Canarian nationalism There are some pro-independence political parties, like theNational Congress of the Canaries(CNC) and thePopular Front of the Canary Islands. Their popular support is almost insignificant, with no presence in either the autonomous",
"the autonomous parliament or thecabildos insulares.In a 2012 study by theCentro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, when asked about national identity, the majority of respondents from the Canary Islands (53.8%) considered themselves Spanish and Canarian in equal measures, followed by 24% who consider themselves more Canarian than Spanish. 6.1% of the respondents considered themselves only Canarian, and 7% considered themselves only Spanish. Defense The defense of the territory is the responsibility of theSpanish Armed Forces. Components of theArmy,Navy,Air Forceand theCivil Guardare based in the territory. History Ancient and pre-Hispanic times Before the arrival of humans, the Canaries were inhabited by prehistoric animals including the giant lizard (Gallotia goliath), theTenerifeandGran Canaria giant rats,and giant tortoises,Geochelone burchardiandGeochelone vulcanica. Although the original settlement of what are now called the Canary Islands is not entirely clear, linguistic, genetic, and archaeological",
"and archaeological analyses indicate thatindigenouspeoples were living on the Canary Islands at least 2,000 years ago, possibly 3,000, and that they shared a common origin with theBerberson the nearby North African coast.Reaching the islands may have taken place using several small boats, landing on the easternmost islands Lanzarote and Fuerteventura. These groups came to be known collectively as theGuanches, althoughGuancheshad been the name for only the indigenous inhabitants of Tenerife. According to a 2024 study by the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, there is archaeological evidence that the Romans were the first to colonise the islands, during the period from the 1st centuryBCEto the 1st century CE. There was no overlap with the occupation by the people who were inhabiting the islands at the time of the Spanish conquest, who had first arrived sometime between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE. As José Farrujia describes, 'The indigenous Canarians lived mainly in natural caves, usually near the",
"usually near the coast, 300 to 500 metres (1,000 to 1,600 ft) above sea level. These caves were sometimes isolated but more commonly formed settlements, with burial caves nearby'.Archaeological work has uncovered a rich culture visible through artefacts ofceramics, human figures, fishing, hunting and farming tools, plant fibre clothing and vessels, as well as cave paintings. At Lomo de los Gatos on Gran Canaria, a site occupied from 1,600 years ago up until the 1960s, round stone houses, complex burial sites, and associated artefacts have been found.Across the islands are thousands ofLibyco-Berberalphabet inscriptions scattered and they have been extensively documented by many linguists. The social structure of indigenous Canarians encompassed \"a system ofmatrilinealdescent in most of the islands, in which inheritance was passed on via the female line. Social status and wealth were hereditary and determined the individual's position in the social pyramid, which consisted of the king, the relatives of the",
"relatives of the king, the lower nobility, villeins, plebeians, and finally executioners, butchers, embalmers, and prisoners\". Their religion wasanimist, centring on the sun and moon, as well as natural features such as mountains. Exploration The islands may have been visited by thePhoenicians, theGreeks, and theCarthaginians. KingJuba II, CaesarAugustus'sNumidianprotégé, is credited with discovering the islands for the Western world. According toPliny the Elder, Juba found the islands uninhabited, but found \"a small temple of stone\" and \"some traces of buildings\".Juba dispatched a naval contingent to re-open the dye production facility atMogadorin what is now western Morocco in the early first centuryAD.That same naval force was subsequently sent on an exploration of the Canary Islands, using Mogador as their mission base. The names given by Romans to the individual islands wereNinguariaorNivaria(Tenerife),Canaria(Gran Canaria),PluvialiaorInvale(Lanzarote),Ombrion(La",
"Palma),Planasia(Fuerteventura),IunoniaorJunonia(El Hierro) andCapraria(La Gomera). From the 14th century onward, numerous visits were made by sailors fromMajorca,Portugal, andGenoa.Lancelotto Malocellosettled on Lanzarote in 1312. The Majorcans established amissionwith a bishop in the islands that lasted from 1350 to 1400. Castilian conquest In 1402, the Castilian colonisation of the islands began with the expedition of the French explorersJean de BéthencourtandGadifer de la Salle, nobles andvassalsofHenry III of Castile, to Lanzarote. From there, they went on to conquer Fuerteventura (1405) and El Hierro. These invasions were \"brutal cultural and military clashes between the indigenous population and the Castilians\" lasting over a century due to formidable resistance by indigenous Canarians.ProfessorMohamed Adhikarihas defined the conquest of the islands as agenocideof theGuanches. Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands, but still recognised King Henry III as his overlord. It was not a",
"It was not a simple military enterprise, given the aboriginal resistance on some islands. Neither was it politically, since the particular interests of the nobility (determined to strengthen their economic and political power through the acquisition of the islands) conflicted with those of the states, particularly Castile, which were in the midst of territorial expansion and in a process of strengthening of the crown against the nobility. Historians distinguish two periods in the conquest of the Canary Islands: Aristocratic conquest(conquista señorial): This refers to the early conquests carried out by the nobility, for their own benefit and without the direct participation of the Crown of Castile, which merely granted rights of conquest in exchange for pacts of vassalage between the noble conqueror and the Crown. One can identify within this period an early phase known as the Betancurian or Norman conquest, carried out byJean de Bethencourt(who was originally from Normandy) andGadifer de la Sallebetween",
"de la Sallebetween 1402 and 1405, which involved the islands ofLanzarote,El Hierro, andFuerteventura. The subsequent phase is known as the Castilian conquest, carried out by Castilian nobles who acquired, through purchases, assignments and marriages, the previously conquered islands and also incorporated the island ofLa Gomeraaround 1450. Royal conquest(conquista realenga): This defines the conquest between 1478 and 1496, carried out directly by the Crown of Castile, during the reign of theCatholic Monarchs, who armed and partly financed the conquest of those islands which were still unconquered:Gran Canaria,La PalmaandTenerife. This phase of the conquest came to an end in the year 1496, with the dominion of the island of Tenerife, bringing the entire Canarian Archipelago under the control of the Crown of Castile. Béthencourt also established a base on the island of La Gomera, but it would be many years before the island was fully conquered. The natives of La Gomera, and of Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La",
"Tenerife, and La Palma, resisted the Castilian invaders for almost a century. In 1448, Maciot de Béthencourt sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's PrinceHenry the Navigator, an action that was accepted by neither the natives nor the Castilians. DespitePope Nicholas Vruling that the Canary Islands were under Portuguese control, the crisis swelled to a revolt which lasted until 1459 with the final expulsion of the Portuguese. In 1479, Portugal and Castile signed theTreaty of Alcáçovas, which settled disputes between Castile and Portugal over the control of the Atlantic. This treaty recognized Castilian control of the Canary Islands but also confirmed Portuguese possession of theAzores,Madeira, and theCape Verde islands, and gave the Portuguese rights to any further islands or lands in the Atlantic that might be discovered. The Castilians continued to dominate the islands, but due to the topography and the resistance of the native Guanches, they did not achieve complete control until 1496, when Tenerife",
"1496, when Tenerife and La Palma were finally subdued byAlonso Fernández de Lugo. As a result of this \"the native pre-Hispanic population declined quickly due to war, epidemics, and slavery\".The Canaries were incorporated into theKingdom of Castile. After the conquest and the introduction of slavery After the conquest, the Castilians imposed a new economic model, based on single-crop cultivation: firstsugarcane; then wine, an important item of trade withEngland. Gran Canaria was conquered by theCrown of Castileon 6 March 1480, and Tenerife was conquered in 1496, and each had its own governor. There has been speculation that the abundance ofRoccella tinctoriaon the Canary Islands offered a profit motive forJean de Béthencourtduring his conquest of the islands. Lichen has been used for centuries to make dyes. This includes royal purple colors derived fromR. tinctoria, also known as orseille. The objective of the Spanish Crown to convert the islands into a powerhouse of cultivation required a much larger labour",
"much larger labour force. This was attained through a brutal practice of enslavement, not only of indigenous Canarians but large numbers of Africans who were forcibly taken from North and Sub-Saharan Africa.Whilst the first slave plantations in the Atlantic region were acrossMadeira,Cape Verde, and the Canary Islands, it was only the Canary Islands which had an indigenous population and were therefore invaded rather than newly occupied. This agriculture industry was largely based on sugarcane and the Castilians converted large swaths of the landscape for sugarcane production, and the processing and manufacturing of sugar, facilitated by enslaved labourers.The cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canariabecame a stopping point for the Spanish traders, as well asconquistadors, and missionaries on their way to theNew World. This trade route brought great wealth to the Castilian social sectors of the islands and soon were attracting merchants and adventurers from all over Europe. As the wealth",
"As the wealth grew, enslaved African workers were also forced into demeaning domestic roles for the rich Castilians on the islands such as servants in their houses. Research on the skeletons of some of these enslaved workers from the burial site of Finca Clavijo on Gran Canaria have showed that 'all of the adults buried in Finca Clavijo undertook extensive physical activity that involved significant stress on the spine and appendicular skeleton' that result from relentless hard labour, akin to the physical abnormalities found with enslaved peoples from other sugarcane plantations around the world.These findings of the physical strain that the enslaved at Finca Clavijo were subjected to in order to provide wealth for the Spanish elite has inspired a poem by British writerRalph Hoyte, entitledClose to the Bone. As a result of the huge wealth generated, magnificent palaces and churches were built on La Palma during this busy, prosperous period. The Church of El Salvador survives as one of the island's finest",
"the island's finest examples of the architecture of the 16th century. Civilian architecture survives in forms such asCasas de los Sánchez-OchandoorCasa Quintana. The Canaries' wealth invited attacks bypiratesandprivateers.OttomanTurkishadmiraland privateerKemal Reisventured into the Canaries in 1501, whileMurat Reis the Eldercaptured Lanzarote in 1585. The most severe attack took place in 1599, during theDutch Revolt. ADutchfleet of 74 ships and 12,000 men, commanded byPieter van der Does, attacked the capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (the city had 3,500 of Gran Canaria's 8,545 inhabitants). The Dutch attacked the Castillo de la Luz, which guarded the harbor. The Canarians evacuated civilians from the city, and the Castillo surrendered (but not the city). The Dutch moved inland, but Canarian cavalry drove them back to Tamaraceite, near the city. The Dutch then laid siege to the city, demanding the surrender of all its wealth. They received 12 sheep and 3 calves. Furious, the Dutch sent 4,000 soldiers to",
"4,000 soldiers to attack the Council of the Canaries, who were sheltering in the village of Santa Brígida. Three hundred Canarian soldiers ambushed the Dutch in the village of Monte Lentiscal, killing 150 and forcing the rest to retreat. The Dutch concentrated on Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, attempting to burn it down. The Dutch pillagedMaspalomas, on the southern coast of Gran Canaria,San Sebastiánon La Gomera, andSanta Cruzon La Palma, but eventually gave up the siege of Las Palmas and withdrew. In 1618 theBarbary piratesfrom North Africa attacked Lanzarote and La Gomera taking 1000 captives to be sold asslaves.Another noteworthy attack occurred in 1797, whenSanta Cruz de Tenerifewas attacked by a British fleet underHoratio Nelsonon 25 July. The British were repulsed, losing almost 400 men. It was during this battle that Nelson lost his right arm. 18th to 19th century The sugar-based economy of the islands faced stiff competition from Spain'sCaribbeancolonies. Low sugar prices in the 19th century caused",
"19th century caused severe recessions on the islands. A new cash crop,cochineal(cochinilla), came into cultivation during this time, reinvigorating the islands' economy. During this time the Canarian-American trade was developed, in which Canarian products such as cochineal, sugarcane and rum were sold in American ports such asVeracruz,Campeche,La GuairaandHavana, among others. By the end of the 18th century, Canary Islanders had already emigrated to Spanish American territories, such asHavana,Veracruz, andSanto Domingo,San Antonio, TexasandSt. Bernard Parish, Louisiana.These economic difficulties spurred mass emigration during the 19th and first half of the 20th century, primarily to the Americas. Between 1840 and 1890 as many as 40,000 Canary Islanders emigrated toVenezuela. Also, thousands of Canarians moved toPuerto Ricowhere the Spanish monarchy felt that Canarians would adapt to island life better than other immigrants from the mainland of Spain. Deeply entrenched traditions, such as the Mascaras",
"as the Mascaras Festival in the town ofHatillo, Puerto Rico, are an example of Canarian culture still preserved in Puerto Rico. Similarly, many thousands of Canarians emigrated to the shores ofCuba.During theSpanish–American Warof 1898, the Spanish fortified the islands against a possible American attack, but no such event took place. Romantic period and scientific expeditions Sirera and Renn (2004)distinguish two different types of expeditions, or voyages, during the period 1770–1830, which they term \"the Romantic period\": First are \"expeditions financed by the States, closely related with the official scientific Institutions. characterised by having strict scientific objectives (and inspired by) the spirit of Illustration and progress\". In this type of expedition, Sirera and Renn include the following travellers: The second type of expedition identified by Sirera and Renn is one that took place starting from more or less private initiatives. Among these, the key exponents were the following: Sirera and",
"Sirera and Renn identify the period 1770–1830 as one in which \"In a panorama dominated until that moment by France and England enters with strength and brio Germany of the Romantic period whose presence in the islands will increase\". Early 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, the British introduced a newcash-crop, thebanana, the export of which was controlled by companies such asFyffes. 30 November 1833 theProvince of Canary Islandshad been created with the capital being declared as Santa Cruz de Tenerife.The rivalry between the cities of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife for the capital of the islands led to the division of thearchipelagointo two provinces on 23 September 1927. During the time of theSecond Spanish Republic,Marxistandanarchistworkers' movements began to develop, led by figures such as Jose Miguel Perez andGuillermo Ascanio. However, outside of a few municipalities, these organisations were a minority and fell easily to Nationalist forces during theSpanish",
"during theSpanish Civil War. Franco regime In 1936,Francisco Francowas appointed General Commandant of the Canaries. He joined the military revolt of 17 July which began theSpanish Civil War. Franco quickly took control of the archipelago, except for a few points of resistance on La Palma and in the town ofVallehermoso, on La Gomera. Though there was never a war in the islands, the post-war suppression of political dissent on the Canaries was most severe. During the Second World War,Winston Churchillprepared plans for the British seizure of the Canary Islands as anaval base, in the event ofGibraltarbeing invaded from the Spanish mainland.The planned operation was known asOperation Pilgrim. Opposition to Franco's regime did not begin to organise until the late 1950s, which experienced an upheaval of parties such as theCommunist Party of Spainand the formation of various nationalist, leftist parties. During theIfni War, the Franco regime set upconcentration campson the islands toextrajudicially imprisonthose",
"imprisonthose in Western Sahara suspected of disloyalty to Spain, many of whom were colonial troops recruited on the spot but were later deemed to be potentialfifth columnistsand deported to the Canary Islands. These camps were characterised by the use of forced labour for infrastructure projects and highly unsanitary conditions resulting in the widespread occurrence oftuberculosis. Self-governance After the death of Franco, there was a pro-independence armed movement based inAlgeria, theMovement for the Independence and Self-determination of the Canaries Archipelago(MAIAC). In 1968, theOrganisation of African Unityrecognized the MAIAC as a legitimateAfrican independence movement, and declared the Canary Islands as an African territory still under foreign rule. After the establishment of a democraticconstitutional monarchyin Spain,autonomywas granted to the Canaries via a law passed in 1982, with a newly established autonomous devolved government and parliament. In 1983, the first autonomous elections were",
"elections were held. TheSpanish Socialist Workers' Party(PSOE) won. Capitals At present, the Canary Islands is the only autonomous community in Spain that has two capitals:Santa Cruz de TenerifeandLas Palmas de Gran Canaria, since theStatute of Autonomy of the Canary Islandswas created in 1982. The political capital of the archipelago did not exist as such until the nineteenth century. The first cities founded by theEuropeansat the time of the conquest of the Canary Islands in the 15th century were:Telde(inGran Canaria),San Marcial del Rubicón(inLanzarote) andBetancuria(inFuerteventura). These cities boasted the first European institutions present in the archipelago, includingCatholicbishoprics.Although, because the period of splendor of these cities developed before the total conquest of the archipelago and its incorporation into theCrown of Castilenever had a political and real control of the entire Canary archipelago. The function of a Canarian city with full jurisdiction for the entire archipelago only",
"archipelago only exists after the conquest of the Canary Islands, although originallyde facto, that is, without legal and real meaning and linked to the headquarters of theCanary Islands General Captaincy. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria was the first city that exercised this function. This is because the residence of the Captain General of the Canary Islands was in this city during part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.In May 1661, the Captain General of the Canary Islands,Jerónimo de Benavente y Quiñones, moved the headquarters of the captaincy to the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Lagunaon the island ofTenerife.This was due to the fact that this island since the conquest was the most populated, productive and with the highest economic expectations.La Laguna would be considered thede factocapital of the archipelagountil the official status of the capital of Canary Islands in the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife was confirmed in the 19th century, due in part to the constant controversies and rivalries",
"and rivalries between the bourgeoisies of San Cristóbal de La Laguna and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria for the economic, political and institutional hegemony of the archipelago. Already in 1723, the Captain General of the Canary IslandsLorenzo Fernandez de Villavicenciohad moved the headquarters of the General Captaincy of the Canary Islands from San Cristóbal de La Laguna to Santa Cruz de Tenerife. This decision continued without pleasing the society of the island of Gran Canaria.It would be after the creation of theProvince of Canary Islandsin November 1833 in which Santa Cruz would become the first fully official capital of the Canary Islands (De jureand not ofde factoas happened previously).Santa Cruz de Tenerife would be the capital of the Canary archipelago until during the Government of GeneralPrimo de Riverain 1927 the Province of Canary Islands was split in two provinces:Las Palmaswith capital in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, andSanta Cruz de Tenerifewith capital in the homonymous city. Finally, with the",
"Finally, with the Statute of Autonomy of the Canary Islands in 1982 and the creation of the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands, the capital of the archipelago between Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife is fixed, which is how it remains today. Demographics The Canary Islands have a population of 2,153,389 inhabitants (2019), making it the eighth most populous of Spain'sautonomous communities.The total area of the archipelago is 7,493 km2(2,893 sq mi),resulting in a population density of 287.4 inhabitants per square kilometre. The population of the islands according to the 2019 data are: The Canary Islands have become home to many European residents, mainly coming from Italy, Germany and the UK. Because of the vast immigration to Venezuela and Cuba during the second half of the 20th century and the later return to the Canary Islands of these people along with their families, there are many residents whose country of origin wasVenezuela(66,593) orCuba(41,807). Since the 1990s,",
"Since the 1990s, manyillegal migrantshave reached the Canary Islands,MelillaandCeuta, using them as entry points to the EU. Canarian Spanish TheSpanish languagevariety that is typical and conventional in the Canary Islands is usually called theCanarian Spanish,Canarian dialectorCanarian speech, and is used by the approximately two million Spanish speakers who live in the Canary Islands. It is a dialect variety that falls within what has been called the \"Atlantic variety\", similar to those of Spanish-speaking America, and also to those of the south of the Iberian Peninsula, especially western Andalusia. The dialect most similar to the Canarian dialect, given the historical link between both areas, is the Caribbean dialect, spoken in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic), and the coast of theCaribbean Sea(Venezuela, northern Colombia, and Panama). In addition, lexically, the Canarian dialect is widely influenced by thePortuguese language, from which a certain part of its lexicon is derived.",
"lexicon is derived. Religion TheCatholic Churchhas been the majority religion in the archipelago for more than five centuries, ever since theConquest of the Canary Islands. There are also several other religious communities. Roman Catholic Church The overwhelming majority of native Canarians areRoman Catholic(76.7%)with various smaller foreign-born populations of other Christian beliefs such asProtestants. The appearance of theVirgin of Candelaria(Patron of Canary Islands) was credited with moving the Canary Islands toward Christianity. Two Catholic saints were born in the Canary Islands:Peter of Saint Joseph de BetancurandJosé de Anchieta.Both born on the island of Tenerife, they were respectively missionaries inGuatemalaandBrazil. The Canary Islands are divided into two Catholic dioceses, each governed by a bishop: Other religions Separate from the overwhelming Catholic majority are a minority ofMuslims.Among the followers ofIslam, theIslamic Federation of the Canary Islandsexists to represent the Islamic",
"the Islamic community in the Canary Islands as well as to provide practical support to members of the Islamic community.For its part, there is also theEvangelical Council of the Canary Islandsin the archipelago. Other religious faiths represented includeJehovah's Witnesses,The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saintsas well asHinduism.Minority religions are also present such as theChurch of the Guanche Peoplewhich is classified as aneo-pagannative religion.Also present areBuddhism,Judaism,Baháʼí,African religion,andChinese religions. Statistics The distribution of beliefs in 2012 according to the CIS Barometer Autonomy was as follows: Population genetics Economy and environment The economy is based primarilyon tourism, which makes up 32% of the GDP. The Canaries receive about 12 million tourists per year. Construction makes up nearly 20% of the GDP and tropical agriculture, primarily bananas and tobacco, are grown for export to Europe and the Americas. Ecologists are concerned that the resources,",
"that the resources, especially in the morearidislands, are beingoverexploitedbut there are still many agricultural resources liketomatoes,potatoes,onions,cochineal,sugarcane,grapes,vines,dates,oranges,lemons,figs,wheat,barley,maize,apricots,peachesandalmonds. Water resources are also being overexploited, due to the high water usage by tourists.Also, some islands (such as Gran Canaria and Tenerife)overexploit the ground water. This is done in such degree that, according to European and Spanish legal regulations, the current situation is not acceptable. To address the problems, good governance and a change in the water use paradigm have been proposed. These solutions depend largely oncontrolling water useand on demand management. As this is administratively difficult and politically unpalatable, most action is currently directed at increasing the public offer of water through import from outside; a decision which is economically, politically and environmentally questionable. To bring in revenue for",
"in revenue for environmental protection, innovation, training and water sanitation atourist taxwas considered in 2018, along with a doubling of theecotaxand restrictions on holiday rents in the zones with the greatest pressure of demand. The economy is€25 billion (2001 GDP figures). The islands experienced continuous growth during a 20-year period, up until 2001, at a rate of approximately 5% annually. This growth was fueled mainly by huge amounts offoreign direct investment, mostly to develop tourism real estate (hotels and apartments), and European Funds (near €11 billion in the period from 2000 to 2007), since the Canary Islands are labelled Region Objective 1 (eligible for euro structural funds).Additionally, the EU allows the Canary Islands Government to offer special tax concessions for investors who incorporate under the Zona Especial Canaria (ZEC) regime and create more than five jobs. Spain gave permission in August 2014 forRepsoland its partners to exploreoilandnatural gasprospects off the Canary",
"off the Canary Islands, involving an investment of €7.5 billion over four years, to commence at the end of 2016. Repsol at the time said the area could ultimately produce 100,000 barrels of oil a day, which would meet 10 percent of Spain's energy needs.However, the analysis of samples obtained did not show the necessary volume nor quality to consider future extraction, and the project was scrapped. Despite currently having very high dependence on fossil fuels, research on the renewable energy potential concluded that a high potential for renewable energy technologies exists on the archipelago. This, in such extent even that a scenario pathway to 100% renewable energy supply by 2050 has been put forward. The Canary Islands have great natural attractions, climate andbeachesmake the islands a major tourist destination, being visited each year by about 12 million people (11,986,059 in 2007, noting 29% ofBritons, 22% of Spanish (from outside the Canaries), and 21% ofGermans). Among the islands, Tenerife has the",
"Tenerife has the largest number of tourists received annually, followed by Gran Canaria and Lanzarote.The archipelago's principal tourist attraction is theTeide National Park(in Tenerife) where the highest mountain in Spain and third largestvolcanoin the world (MountTeide), receives over 2.8 million visitors annually. The combination of high mountains, proximity to Europe, and clean air has made theRoque de los Muchachospeak (on La Palma island) a leading location fortelescopeslike theGrantecan. The islands, as an autonomous region of Spain, are in theEuropean Unionand theSchengen Area. They are in theEuropean Union Customs Unionbut outside theVATarea.Instead of VAT there is a local Sales Tax (IGIC) which has a general rate of 7%, an increased tax rate of 13.5%, a reduced tax rate of 3% and a zero tax rate for certain basic need products and services. Consequently, some products are subject to additional VAT if being exported from the islands into mainland Spain or the rest of the EU. Canarian time isWestern",
"time isWestern European Time(WET), orGMT. In summer, one hour ahead of GMT. Canarian time is one hour behind mainland Spain, and the same time as the UK, Ireland and mainland Portugal all year round. Tourism statistics The number of tourists who visited the Canary Islands in 2018 was 16,150,054. In 2019, there were 15,589,290 arrivals. GDP statistics The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the Canary Islands in 2015 was €40,923 million, €19,222 per capita. The figures by island are as follows: Transport The Canary Islands have eight airports altogether, two of the main ports of Spain, and an extensive network ofautopistas(highways) and other roads. For a road map see multimap.Traffic congestionis sometimes a problem in Tenerife and on Grand Canaria. Largeferryboats and fast ferries link most of the islands. Both types can transport large numbers of passengers, cargo, and vehicles. Fast ferries are made of aluminium and powered by modern and efficient diesel engines, while conventional ferries have a steel hull",
"have a steel hull and are powered by heavy oil. Fast ferries travel in excess of 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph); conventional ferries travel in excess of 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph), but are slower than fast ferries.A typical ferry ride between La Palma and Tenerife may take up to eight hours or more while a fast ferry takes about two and a half hours and between Tenerife and Gran Canaria can be about one hour. The largest airport is theGran Canaria Airport. Tenerife has two airports,Tenerife North AirportandTenerife South Airport.The island of Tenerife gathers the highest passenger movement of all the Canary Islands through its two airports.The two main islands (Tenerife and Gran Canaria) receive the greatest number of passengers.Tenerife 6,204,499 passengers and Gran Canaria 5,011,176 passengers. Theport of Las Palmasis first in freight traffic in the islands,while theport of Santa Cruz de Tenerifeis the first fishing port with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Spanish government publication",
"publication Statistical Yearbook of State Ports. Similarly, it is the second port in Spain as regards ship traffic, only surpassed by thePort of AlgecirasBay.The port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. The port ofLos Cristianos(Tenerife) has the greatest number of passengers recorded in the Canary Islands, followed by the port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife.The Port of Las Palmas is the third port in the islands in passengers and first in number of vehicles transported. TheSS Americawas beached at the Canary islands on 18 January 1994. However, the ocean liner broke apart after the course of several years and eventually sank beneath the surface. Rail transport TheTenerife Tramopened in 2007 and is currently the only one in the Canary Islands, travelling between the cities ofSanta Cruz de TenerifeandSan Cristóbal de La Laguna.",
"de La Laguna. Three more railway lines are being planned for the Canary Islands: Airports Ports Health TheServicio Canario de Saludis an autonomous body of administrative nature attached to the Ministry responsible for Health of the Government of the Canary Islands. Wildlife Fauna The bird life includes European and African species, such as theblack-bellied sandgrouse,Canary, Graja, a subspecies ofred-billed choughendemic to La Palma,Gran Canaria blue chaffinch,Tenerife blue chaffinch,Canary Islands chiffchaff,Fuerteventura chat,Tenerife goldcrest,La Palma chaffinch,Canarian Egyptian vulture,Bolle's pigeon,Laurel pigeon,Plain swift, andHoubara bustard. Terrestrial fauna includes theEl Hierro giant lizard,Tachina canariensis,La Gomera giant lizard, and theLa Palma giant lizard. Mammals include theCanarian shrew,Canary big-eared bat, theAlgerian hedgehog, and the more recently introducedmouflon. Extinct fauna The Canary Islands were previously inhabited by a variety of endemic animals, such as extinct giant",
"as extinct giant lizards (Gallotia goliath), giant tortoises (Centrochelys burchardiandC. vulcanica),andTenerifeandGran Canariagiant rats (Canariomys bravoiandC. tamarani),among others. Extinct birds known only fromPleistoceneandHoloceneage bones include theCanary Islands quail(Coturnix gomerae),Dune shearwater(Puffinus holeae),Lava shearwater(P. olsoni),Trias greenfinch(Chloris triasi),Slender-billed greenfinch(C. aurelioi) and theLong-legged bunting(Emberiza alcoveri). Marine life Themarine lifefound in the Canary Islands is also varied, being a combination ofNorth Atlantic,Mediterraneanandendemicspecies. In recent years, the increasing popularity of bothscuba divingandunderwater photographyhave provided biologists with much new information on the marine life of the islands. Fish species found in the islands include many species ofshark,ray,moray eel,bream,jack,grunt,scorpionfish,triggerfish,grouper,goby, andblenny. In addition, there are many invertebrate species,",
"species, includingsponge,jellyfish,anemone,crab,mollusc,sea urchin,starfish,sea cucumberandcoral. There are a total of five different species ofmarine turtlethat are sighted periodically in the islands, the most common of these being theendangeredloggerhead sea turtle.The other four are thegreen sea turtle,hawksbill sea turtle,leatherback sea turtleandKemp's ridley sea turtle. Currently, there are no signs that any of these species breed in the islands, and so those seen in the water are usuallymigrating. However, it is believed that some of these species may have bred in the islands in the past, and there are records of several sightings of leatherback sea turtle on beaches in Fuerteventura, adding credibility to the theory. Marine mammals include the large varieties ofcetaceansincluding rare and not well-known species (see more details in theMarine life of the Canary Islands).Hooded sealshave also been known to be vagrant in the Canary Islands every now and then. The Canary Islands were also formerly home",
"also formerly home to a population of the rarestpinnipedin the world, theMediterranean monk seal. Native flora gallery Holidays Some holidays of those celebrated in the Canary Islands are international and national, others are regional holidays and others are of insular character. The official day of the autonomous community isCanary Islands Dayon 30 May. The anniversary of the first session of theParliament of the Canary Islands, based in the city ofSanta Cruz de Tenerife, held on 30 May 1983, is commemorated with this day. The common festive calendar throughout the Canary Islands is as follows: In addition, each of the islands has an island festival, in which it is a holiday only on that specific island. These are the festivities of island patrons saints of each island. Organized chronologically are: The most famous festivals of the Canary Islands is the carnival. It is the most famous and international festival of the archipelago. The carnival is celebrated in all the islands and all its municipalities,",
"its municipalities, perhaps the two busiest are those of the two Canarian capitals; theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife(Tourist Festival of International Interest) and theCarnival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. It is celebrated on the streets between the months of February and March. But the rest of the islands of the archipelago have their carnivals with their own traditions among which stand out: The Festival of the Carneros ofEl Hierro, the Festival of the Diabletes ofTeguiseinLanzarote, Los Indianos deLa Palma, the Carnival ofSan Sebastián de La Gomeraand the Carnival ofPuerto del RosarioinFuerteventura. Science and technology In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14ground stationsin theManned Space Flight Network(MSFN) to support theNASAspace program.Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including theApollo 11Moon landings andSkylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of",
"as part of theESAnetwork. Because of the remote location, a number ofastronomical observatoriesare located in the archipelago, including theTeide Observatoryon Tenerife, theRoque de los Muchachos Observatoryon La Palma, and theTemisas Astronomical Observatoryon Gran Canaria. Tenerife is the home of theInstituto de Astrofísica de Canarias(Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González (Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at theUniversity of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades",
"de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). The latter is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\"), located in various parts of Spain. The Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands) is based in Tenerife. Sports A unique form of wrestling known asCanarian wrestling(lucha canaria) has opponents stand in a special area called a \"terrero\" and try to throw each other to the ground using strength and quick movements. Another sport is the \"game of the sticks\" (palo canario) where opponents fence with long sticks. This may have come about from the shepherds of the islands who would challenge each other using their long walking sticks. Furthermore, there is theshepherd's jump(salto del pastor). This involves using a long stick to vault over an open area. This sport possibly evolved from the shepherd's need to occasionally get over an open area",
"over an open area in the hills as they were tending their sheep. The two mainfootballteams in the archipelago are: theCD Tenerife(founded in 1912) andUD Las Palmas(founded in 1949). As of the 2023/2024 season, UD Las Palmas plays in La Liga, the top tier of Spanish football. CD Tenerife however plays in The Segunda Divisón. When in the same division, the clubs contest theCanary Islands derby. There are smaller clubs also playing in the mainlandSpanish football league system, most notablyUD LanzaroteandCD Laguna, although no other Canarian clubs have played in the top flight. The mountainous terrain of the Canary Islands also caters to the growing popularity ofultra runningandultramarathonsas host of annual competitive long-distance events includingCajaMar Tenerife BluetrailonTenerife,TransvulcaniaonLa Palma,TransgrancanariaonGran Canaria, and the HalfMarathon des SablesonFuerteventura. A yearlyIronman Triathlonhas been taking place onLanzarotesince 1992. Notable athletes See also History Geography Culture",
"Geography Culture References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links",
"Tenerife Tenerife(/ˌtɛnəˈriːf/TEN-ə-REEF;Spanish:ⓘ; formerly spelledTeneriffe) is the largest and most populous island of theCanary Islands.It is home to 42.9% of the total population of thearchipelago.With a land area of 2,034.38 square kilometres (785.48 sq mi) and a population of 948,815 inhabitants as of January 2023,it is also the most populous island ofSpainand ofMacaronesia. Approximately five million tourists visit Tenerife each year; it is the most visited island in the archipelago.It is one of the most important tourist destinations in Spainand the world,hosting one of the world's largestcarnivals, theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The capital of the island,Santa Cruz de Tenerife, is also the seat of the island council (cabildo insular). That city andLas Palmas de Gran Canariaare the co-capitals of theautonomous communityof theCanary Islands. The two cities are both home to governmental institutions, such as the offices of the presidency and the ministries. This has been the arrangement since",
"arrangement since 1927, when the Crown ordered it. (After the1833 territorial division of Spain, until 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands).Santa Cruz contains the modernAuditorio de Tenerife, the architectural symbol of the Canary Islands. The island is home to theUniversity of La Laguna. Founded in 1792 inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, it is the oldest university in the Canaries. The city of La Laguna is aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. It is the second most populous city on the island, and the third most populous in the archipelago. It was the capital of the Canary Islands before Santa Cruz replaced it in 1833.Tenerife is served by two airports;Tenerife North AirportandTenerife South Airport. Teide National Park, located in the center of the island, is also a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site. It includesMount Teide, which has the highest elevation in Spain, and the highest elevation among all the islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It is also the third-largest volcano in the world, when",
"in the world, when measured from its base.Another geographical feature of the island, theMacizo de Anaga(massif), has been designated as a UNESCOBiosphere Reservesince 2015.Tenerife also has the largest number ofendemicspecies in Europe. Toponymy The name 'Tenerife' likely comes fromTamazight, but there is no consensus on its correct interpretation. The island'sindigenous people, theGuancheBerbers, referred to the island asAchinetorChenetintheir language(variant spellings are found in the literature). According toPliny the Younger,BerberkingJuba IIsent an expedition to the Canary Islands andMadeira; he named the Canary Islands for the particularly ferocious dogs (canaria) on the island.Juba II and theancient Romanscalled the island of TenerifeNivaria, from theLatinwordnix(nsg.;gsg.nivis,npl.nives), meaning \"snow\", after the snow-covered peak of the Mount Teide volcano.Later maps dating to the 14th and 15th century, drawn by mapmakers such as Bontier and Le Verrier, called the islandIsla del Infierno, (\"Hell",
"Infierno, (\"Hell Island\"), due to Mount Teide's volcanic eruptions and other volcanic activity. Although the name given to the island by theBenahoaritas(the indigenous peoples of La Palma) was derived from the wordsteni(\"mountain\") andife(\"white\"),after the island was colonized by the Spanish the name was modified by Spanish phonology: the letter \"r\" was added to link the two words, producing the single word Tenerife. However, throughout history, other explanations for the origin of island's name have been proposed. For example, the 17th-century historiansJuan Núñez de la PeñaandTomás Arias Marín de Cubas, among others, suggested that the indigenous peoples might have named the island for the famous Guanche king,Tinerfe, nicknamed \"the Great\", who ruled Tenerife before theCanary Islandswere conquered byCastile. Demonym The formaldemonymused to refer to the people of Tenerife isTinerfeño/a; also used colloquially is the termchicharrero/a.In modern society, the latter term is generally applied only to",
"applied only to inhabitants of the capital, Santa Cruz. The termchicharrerowas once aderogatoryterm used by the people ofLa Lagunawhen it was the capital, to refer to the poorer inhabitants and fishermen of Santa Cruz. The fishermen typically caughtmackereland other residents atepotatoes, assumed to be of low quality by the elite of La Laguna.As Santa Cruz grew in commerce and status, it replaced La Laguna as capital of Tenerife in 1833 during the reign ofFernando VII. Then the inhabitants of Santa Cruz used the former insult to identify as residents of the new capital, at La Laguna's expense. History The earliest known human settlement in the islands, dating to around 200BCE, was established byBerbersknown as theGuanches.However, theCave of the Guanchesin the northern municipality ofIcod de los Vinoshas provided the oldest chronologies of the Canary Islands, with dates around the sixth century BCE. In terms of technology, the Guanches can be placed among the peoples of theStone Age, although scholars often",
"scholars often reject this classification because of its ambiguity. Guanche culture was more advanced culturally, possibly because of Berber cultural features imported from North Africa, but less technologically advanced due to the scarcity of raw materials, especially minerals that would have allowed for the extraction and working of metals. The main activity was gathering food from nature; though fishing and shellfish collection were supplemented with some agricultural practices. As for religion andcosmology, the Guanches werepolytheistic, with further widespread belief in anastral cult. They also had ananimisticreligiosity that sacralized certain places, mainly rocks and mountains. Although the Guanches worshiped many gods and ancestral spirits, among the most important wereAchamán(the god of the sky and supreme creator),Chaxiraxi(the mother goddess, identified later with theVirgin of Candelaria),Magec(the god of the sun), andGuayota(the demon who is the main cause of evil). Especially significant was the",
"significant was the cult of the dead, which practiced themummificationof corpses. In addition, smallanthropomorphicandzoomorphicstone and clay figurines of the kind typically associated with rituals have been found on the island. Scholars believe they were used as idols, the most prominent of which is the so-calledIdol of Guatimac, which is thought to represent a genius or protective spirit. Territorial organisation before the conquest (The Guanches) The title ofmenceywas given to the monarch or king of the Guanches of Tenerife, who governed amenceyatoor kingdom. This role was later referred to as a \"captainship\" by the conquerors.Tinerfe \"the Great\", son of themenceySunta, governed the island from Adeje in the south. However, upon his death, his nine children rebelled and argued bitterly about how to divide the island. Two independentachimenceyatoswere created on the island, and the island was divided into ninemenceyatos. Themenceyeswithin them formed what would be similar to municipalities",
"to municipalities today.Themenceyatosand theirmenceyes(ordered by the names of descendants of Tinerfe who ruled them) were the following: The achimenceyato ofPunta del Hidalgowas governed by Aguahuco, a \"poor noble\" who was an illegitimate son of Tinerfe and Zebenzui. Spanish conquest Tenerife was the last island of the Canaries to be conquered and the one that took the longest time to submit to the Castilian troops. Although the traditional dates of the conquest of Tenerife are established between 1494 (landing of Alonso Fernández de Lugo) and 1496 (the complete conquest of the island), attempts to annex the island of Tenerife to theCrown of Castiledate back at least to 1464. In 1464,Diego Garcia de Herrera, Lord of the Canary Islands, took symbolic possession of the island in theBarranco del Bufadero(Ravine of the Bufadero),signing a peace treaty with the Guanche chiefs (menceyes) which allowed themenceyAnaga to build a fortified tower on Guanche land, where the Guanches and the Spanish held periodic",
"held periodic treaty talks until the Guanches demolished it around 1472. In 1492 the governor of Gran Canaria Francisco Maldonado organized a raid that ended in disaster for the Spaniards when they were defeated by Anaga's warriors. In December 1493, the Catholic monarchs, Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, grantedAlonso Fernández de Lugothe right to conquer Tenerife. Coming fromGran Canariain April 1494, the conqueror landed on the coast of present-day Santa Cruz de Tenerife in May, and disembarked with about 2,000 men on foot and 200 on horseback.After taking the fort, the army prepared to move inland, later capturing the native kings of Tenerife and presenting them toIsabella and Ferdinand. Themenceyesof Tenerife had differing responses to the conquest. They divided into theside of peace(Spanish:bando de paz) and theside of war(Spanish:bando de guerra). The first included themenceyatosof Anaga, Güímar, Abona and Adeje. The second group consisted of the people of Tegueste,",
"people of Tegueste, Tacoronte, Taoro, Icoden and Daute. Those opposed to the conquest fought the invaders tenaciously, resisting their rule for two years. Castillian forces under theAdelantado(\"military governor\") de Lugo suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Guanches in theFirst Battle of Acentejoon 31 May 1494, but defeated them at theSecond Battle of Acentejoon 25 December 1494. The Guanches were eventually overcome by superior technology and the arms of the invaders, and surrendered to the Crown of Castile in 1496. Spanish rule Many of the natives died from new infectious diseases, such asinfluenzaand probablysmallpox, to which they lacked resistance or acquiredimmunity. The new colonists intermarried with the local native population. For a century after the conquest, many new colonists settled on the island, including immigrants from the diverse territories of the growingSpanish Empire, such asFlanders, Italy, and Germany. As the population grew, it cleared Tenerife's pine forests for fuel and",
"for fuel and to make fields for agriculture for crops both for local consumption and for export.Sugar canewas introduced in the 1520s as a commodity crop on major plantations; it was a labor-intensive crop in all phases of cultivation and processing. In the following centuries, planters cultivated wine grapes,cochinealfor making dyes, andplantainsfor use and export. Trade with the Americas In the commerce of the Canary Islands with the Americas of the 18th century, Tenerife was the hegemonic island, since it exceeded 50% of the number of ships and 60% of the tonnage. In the islands ofLa PalmaandGran Canaria, the percentage was around 19% for the first and 7% for the second.The volume of traffic between the Indies and the Canary Islands was unknown, but was very important and concentrated almost exclusively in Tenerife. Among the products that are exported werecochineal,rumandsugar cane, which were landed mainly in the ports of the Americas such asLa Guaira,Havana,CampecheandVeracruz. Many sailors from",
"Many sailors from Tenerife joined this transcontinental maritime trade, among which the corsairAmaro Rodríguez Felipe, more commonly known asAmaro Pargo, Juan Pedro Dujardín and Bernardo de Espinosa, both companions of Amaro Pargo, among others. Emigration to the Americas Tenerife, like the other islands, has maintained a close relationship with Latin America, as both were part of the Spanish Empire. From the start of the colonization of theNew World, many Spanish expeditions stopped at the island for supplies on their way to the Americas. They also recruited manytinerfeñosfor their crews, who formed an integral part of the conquest expeditions. Others joined ships in search of better prospects. It is also important to note the exchange in plant and animal species that made those voyages. After a century and a half of relative growth, based on thegrape growingsector, numerous families emigrated, especially toVenezuelaandCuba. TheCrownwanted to encourage population of underdeveloped zones in the Americas to",
"in the Americas to pre-empt the occupation by foreign forces, as had happened with the English inJamaicaand the French in theGuianasand westernHispaniola(which the French renamed as Saint-Domingue). Canary Islanders, including manytinerfeños,left for the New World. The success in cultivation of new crops of the Americas, such ascocoain Venezuela and tobacco in Cuba, contributed to the population exodus from towns such as Buenavista del Norte, Vilaflor, or El Sauzal in the late 17th century. The village ofSan Carlos de Tenerifewas founded in 1684 by Canary Islanders onSanto Domingo. The people from Tenerife were recruited for settlement to build up the town from encroachment by French colonists established in the western side of Hispaniola. Between 1720 and 1730, the Crown moved 176 families, including manytinerfeños,to the Caribbean island ofPuerto Rico. In 1726, about 25 island families migrated to the Americas to collaborate on the foundation ofMontevideo. Four years later, in 1730, another group left that",
"group left that foundedSan Antoniothe following year in what becameTexas. Between 1777 and 1783, more islanders emigrated from Santa Cruz de Tenerife to settle in what becameSt. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, during the period when Spain ruled this former French territory west of the Mississippi River. Some groups went to Western or Spanish Florida. Tenerife saw the arrival of theFirst FleettoBotany Bayin June 1787, which consisted of 11 ships that departed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The Fleet consisted of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and sixconvict shipscarrying between 1,000 and 1,500 convicts, marines, seamen, civil officers and free people (accounts differ on the numbers), and a vast quantity of stores. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz at Tenerife. Here, fresh water, vegetables and meat were brought on board. Commander of the fleet, Capt.Arthur Phillipand the chief officers were",
"chief officers were entertained by the local governor, while one convict tried unsuccessfully to escape. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents. In June 1799, the Prussian-born naturalistAlexander von Humboldtspent five full days on Tenerife on the first leg of his soon world-famous American journey (1799–1804) and climbed the Pico del Teide. Emigration to the Americas (mainly Cuba and Venezuela) continued during the 19th and early 20th century, due to the lack of economic opportunity and the relative isolation of the Canary Islands. Since the late 20th century, island protectionist economic laws and a strong development in the tourism industry have strengthened the economy and attracted new migrants. Tenerife has received numerous new residents, including the \"return\" of many descendants of some islanders who had departed five centuries before. Military history The most notable conflict was theBritish invasion of",
"invasion of Tenerifein 1797.On 25 July 1797, AdmiralHoratio Nelsonlaunched an attack at Santa Cruz de Tenerife, now the capital of the island. After a ferocious fight which resulted in many casualties, GeneralAntonio Gutiérrez de Otero y Santayanaorganized a defense to repel the invaders. Whilst leading a landing party, Nelson was seriously wounded in his right arm by grapeshot or a musket ball, necessitating amputation of most of the arm.Legend tells that he was wounded by the Spanish cannonTiger(Spanish:Tigre) as he was trying to disembark on the Paso Alto coast. On 5 September 1797, the British attempted another attack in the Puerto Santiago region, which was repelled by the inhabitants ofSantiago del Teide. Some threw rocks at the British from the heights of the cliffs ofLos Gigantes. The island was also attacked by British commandersRobert Blake,Walter Raleigh,John HawkinsandWoodes Rogers. Modern history From 1833 to 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, the",
"In 1927, the government ordered that the capital be shared withLas Palmas, as it remains at present.This change in status has encouraged development in Las Palmas. Tourists began visiting Tenerife from Spain, the United Kingdom, and northern Europe in large numbers in the 1890s. They especially were attracted to the destinations of the northern towns ofPuerto de la Cruzand Santa Cruz de Tenerife.Independent shipping business, such as the Yeoward Brothers Shipping Line, helped boost the tourist industry during this time, adding to ships that carried passengers.The naturalistAlexander von Humboldtascended the peak of Mount Teide and remarked on the beauty of the island. Before his rise to power,Francisco Francowas posted to Tenerife in March 1936 by a Republican government wary of his influence and political leanings. However, Franco received information and in Gran Canaria agreed to collaborate in the military coup that would result in theSpanish Civil War; the Canaries fell to the Nationalists in July 1936.",
"in July 1936. In the 1950s, the misery of the post-war years caused thousands of the island's inhabitants to emigrate toCubaand other parts of Latin America. Tenerife was the site of the deadliest accident ever in commercial aviation. TheTenerife airport disasteroccurred on 27 March 1977 when twoBoeing 747s,KLMFlight 4805 andPan AmFlight 1736 collided on the runway atLos Rodeos Airportin heavy fog conditions, causing the deaths of 583 passengers and crew. A few years later,Dan Air Flight 1008crashed into a mountain while on approach to Tenerife North, killing 146 people. The plane was travelling too close to an Iberia Air turboprop plane and was asked to go into a holding pattern. At the beginning of the 21st century, the so-calledRiada de Tenerife of 2002took place on 31 March of that year. It was a phenomenon of cold drop characterized by the repeated fall of torrential rains accompanied by thunder and lightning, affecting themetropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerifeand extending in the NE direction",
"in the NE direction towards theSan Andrésarea.The rains caused 8 dead, 12 missing and dozens of injured.In addition to the human losses, the flood caused considerable material damage, 70,000 people without light as well as the total or partial destruction of at least 400 homes. The losses were calculated at 90 million euros. In November 2005, Tenerife was the Canary Island most affected byTropical Storm Delta. Winds of 140 km/h were recorded on the coast and almost 250 km/h on theTeide, Tenerife's summit. Geography The oldest mountain ranges in Tenerife rose from the Atlantic Ocean by volcanic eruption which gave birth to the island around twelve million years ago.The island as it is today was formed three million years ago by the fusion of three islands made up of the mountain ranges ofAnaga,TenoandValle de San Lorenzo,due to volcanic activity fromTeide. The volcano is visible from most parts of the island today, and the crater is 17 kilometres (11 miles) long at some points. Tenerife is the largest island",
"the largest island of the Canary Islands and theMacaronesiaregion. Climate Tenerife is characterized by a generally dry, warm climate. The island has 2 main different climatic areas (as byKöppen climate classification) yet it actually has 5 different climatic areas. Global climate change has had a major impact on the island, with diminishing rainfall and hot, dry winds affecting vegetation and contributing to an increasing propensity to being subject to forest fires. On August 15, 2023, a forest fire determined to be caused by arson necessitated the evacuation of 12,000 residents within a week. The main climates are the hot semi-arid/arid climate (Köppen:BShandBWh) and thesubtropicalMediterranean Climate(Köppen:CsbandCsa) inland or at higher altitudes. The low altitude/coastal areas of the island have average temperatures of 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) in the winter months and 24–26 °C (75–79 °F) in the summer months. There is a high annual total of days of sunshine and low precipitation in the coastal areas. The",
"coastal areas. The inland/high altitude areas, such asLa Laguna, receive much more precipitation and are generally cloudier, as well as the temperatures have a considerable difference, with an average of 13–14 °C (55–57 °F) in the winter and 20–21 °C (68–70 °F) in the summer. The moderate climate of Tenerife is controlled to a great extent by thetrade winds, whosehumidityis condensed principally over the north and northeast of the island, creating cloud banks that range between 600 and 1,800 metres (2,000 and 5,900 feet) in height. The cold sea currents of the Canary Islands also have a cooling effect on the coasts and its beaches, while the topography of the landscape plays a role in climatic differences on the island with its many valleys. The moderating effect of the marine air makes extreme heat a rare occurrence and frost an impossibility at sea level. The lowest recorded temperature in central Santa Cruz is 8.1 °C (46.6 °F), the coldest month on record still had a relatively mild average temperature of",
"temperature of 15.8 °C (60.4 °F).Summer temperatures are highest in August, with an average high of 29 °C (84 °F) in Santa Cruz, similar to those of places as far north asBarcelonaandMajorca, because of the greater maritime influence. At a higher elevation inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna, the climate transitions to aMediterranean climatewith higher precipitation amounts and lower temperatures year round. The climate of Santa Cruz is very typical of the Canaries, albeit only slightly warmer than theclimateof Las Palmas. Major climatic contrasts on the island are evident, especially during the winter months when it is possible to enjoy the warm sunshine on the coast and experience snow within kilometres, 3,000 metres (10,000 feet)above sea levelon ElTeide.There are also major contrasts at low altitude, where the climate ranges fromarid(KöppenBWh) on the southeastern side represented by Santa Cruz de Tenerife toMediterranean(Csa/Csb) on the northwestern side in Buena Vista del Norte and La Orotava. The center of",
"The center of the island is characterized by forests because of the much higher precipitation, mostlyCanary Island pineforests in theTeide National Parkat altitudes from 1,300 to 2,100 metres (4,300 to 6,900 ft).Subtropicalcloud forestscharacterised bylaurisilvaare commonly found in the Anaga National Park and Monte de Agua in the Teno Rural Park, with altitudes from 600 to 1,000 metres (2,000 to 3,300 ft) and annual averages from 15 to 19 °C (59 to 66 °F) and 600 to 1,200 metres (2,000 to 3,900 ft) in the latter. The north and south of Tenerife similarly have different climatic characteristics because of therain shadoweffect. The windward northwestern side of the island receives 73 percent of all precipitation on the island, and the relative humidity of the air is superior and the insolation inferior. The pluviometric maximums are registered on the windward side at an average altitude of between 1,000 and 1,200 metres (3,300 and 3,900 feet), almost exclusively in theLa Orotavamountain range.Although",
"range.Although climatic differences in rainfall and sunshine on the island exist, overall annualprecipitationis low and the summer months from May to September are normally completely dry. Rainfall, similar to that ofSouthern California, can also be extremely erratic from one year to another. Water The volcanic ground of Tenerife, which is of aporousand permeable character, is generally the reason why the soil is able to maximise the absorption of water on an island of low rainfall, withcondensationin forested areas and frost deposition on the summit of the island also contributory causes. Given the irregularity of precipitation and geological conditions on the island, dam construction has been avoided, so most of the water (90 percent) comes fromwellsand from water galleries (horizontal tunnels bored into the volcano) of which there are thousands on the island, important systems that serve to extract its hydrological resources.These tunnels are very hazardous, with pockets of volcanic gas orcarbon dioxide,",
"orcarbon dioxide, causing rapid death. Pollution and air quality The Canary Islands have low levels of air pollution thanks to the lack of factories and industry and the trade winds which naturally move away contaminated air from the islands. According to official data offered by the Health and Industry Ministry in Spain, Tenerife is one of the cleanest places in the country with an air pollution index below the national average.Despite this, there are still agents which affect pollution levels in the island, the mainpolluting agentsbeing therefinery at Santa Cruz, thethermal powerplants atLas CaletillasandGranadilla, and road traffic, increased by the high level of tourism in the island. In addition on the island of Tenerife like on La Palma light pollution must be also controlled, to help theastrophysical observatorieslocated in the island's summits.Water is generally of a very high quality, and all the beaches of the island of Tenerife have been catalogued by the Ministry of Health and Consumption as",
"and Consumption as waters suitable for bathing. Geology Tenerife is a rugged volcanic island, sculpted by successive eruptions throughout its history. There are four historically recorded volcanic eruptions, none of which has led to casualties. The first occurred in 1704, when the Arafo, Fasnia and Siete Fuentes volcanoes erupted simultaneously. Two years later, in 1706, the greatest eruption occurred at Trevejo. This volcano produced great quantities oflavawhich buried the city and port ofGarachico. The last eruption of the 18th century happened in 1798 at Cañadas de Teide, inChahorra. The most recent eruption-in 1909-formed the Chinyero cinder cone in the municipality ofSantiago del Teide. The island is located between 28° and 29° N and the 16° and 17° W meridian. It is situated north of theTropic of Cancer, occupying a central position between the other Canary Islands ofGran Canaria,La GomeraandLa Palma. The island is about 300 km (186 mi) from the African coast, and approximately 1,000 km (621 mi) from",
"km (621 mi) from theIberian Peninsula.Tenerife is the largest island of the Canary Islands archipelago, with a surface area of 2,034.38 km2(785 sq mi)and has the longest coastline, amounting to 342 km (213 mi). In addition, the highest point, Mount Teide, with an elevation of 3,715 m (12,188 ft)above sea levelis the highest point in all of Spain,is also the third largest volcano in the world from its base in the bottom of the sea. For this reason, Tenerife is the10th-highest island worldwide. It comprises about 200 small barren islets or large rocks includingRoques de Anaga,Roque de Garachico, andFasniaadding a further 213,835 m2(2,301,701 sq ft) to the total area. Origins and geological formation Tenerife is a volcanic island that has built up from the ocean floor during the last 20 million years. Underwater fissural eruptions producedpillow lava, which are produced by the rapid cooling of the magma when it comes in contact with water, obtaining their peculiar shape. This pillow-lava accumulated,",
"accumulated, constructing the base of the island underneath the sea. As this accumulation approached the surface of the water, gases erupted from the magma due to the reduction of the surrounding pressure. The volcanic eruptions became more violent and had a more explosive character, and resulted in the forming of peculiar geological fragments. After long-term accumulation of these fragments, the birth of the island occurred at the end of theMiocene epoch. The zones on Tenerife known asMacizo de Teno,Macizo de AnagaandMacizo de Adejewere formed seven million years ago; these formations are called theAncient Basaltic SeriesorSeries I. These zones were actually three separate islands lying in what is now the extreme west, east, and south of Tenerife. A second volcanic cycle called thePost-Miocene FormationsorLatest Series II, III, IVbegan three million years ago. This was a much more intense volcanic cycle, which united the Macizo de Teno, Macizo de Anaga and Macizo de Adeje into one island. This new",
"island. This new structure, called thePre-Cañadas Structure(Edificio pre-Cañadas), would be the foundation for what is called theCañadas Structure I. The Cañadas Structure I experienced various collapses and emitted explosive material that produced the area known asBandas del sur(in the present-day south-southeast of Tenerife). Subsequently, upon the ruins of Cañadas Structure I emergedCañadas Structure II, which was 2,500 metres (8,200 ft)above sea leveland emerged with intense explosive activity. About one million years ago, the Dorsal Range (Cordillera Dorsal) emerged by means of fissural volcanic activity occurring amidst the remains of the older Ancient Basaltic Series (Series I). This Dorsal Range emerged as the highest and the longest volcanic structure in the Canary Islands; it was 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) high and 25 kilometres (16 mi) long. About 800,000 years ago, two gravitationallandslidesoccurred, giving rise to the present-day valleys of La Orotava and Güímar.Finally, around 200,000 years ago,",
"200,000 years ago, the giant Icod landslide occurred followed by eruptions that raised thePico Viejo-Teidein the centre of the island, over theLas Cañadas caldera. Orography and landscape The uneven and steeporographyof the island and its variety of climates has resulted in a diversity of landscapes and geographical and geological formations, from the Teide National Park with its extensivepineforests, juxtaposed against the volcanic landscape at the summit of Teide andMalpaís de Güímar, to the Acantilados de Los Gigantes (Cliffs of the Giants) with its vertical precipices. Semidesert areas exist in the south with drought-resistant plants. Other areas range from those protected and enclosed in mountains such as Montaña Roja and Montaña Pelada, the valleys and forests with subtropical vegetation and climate, to those with deep gorges and precipices such as at Anaga and Teno. Central heights The principal structures in Tenerife, make the central highlands, with the Teide–Pico Viejocomplex and the Las Cañadas",
"and the Las Cañadas areas as most prominent. It comprises a semi-calderaof about 130 km2(50 sq mi) in area, originated by several geological processes explained under theOrigin and formationsection. The area is partially occupied by the Teide-Pico Viejo strato-volcano and completed by the materials emitted in the different eruptions that took place. A known formation calledLos Azulejos, composed by green-tinted rocks were created by hydrothermal processes. South of La Caldera isGuajara Mountain, which has an elevation of 2,718 metres (8,917 feet), rising above Teide National Park. At the bottom, is anendorheic basinflanked with very fine sedimentary material which has been deposited from its volcanic processes, and is known as Llano de Ucanca. The peak ofTeide, at 3,715 metres (12,188 feet)above sea leveland more than 7,500 metres (24,606 feet) above the ocean floor, is the highest point of the island, Spanish territory and in the Atlantic Ocean. The volcano is the third largest on the planet, and its",
"the planet, and its central location,substantial size, looming silhouette in the distance and its snowy landscape in winter give it a unique nature.The original settlers considered Teide a god and Teide was a place of worship. In 1954, the whole area around it was declared anational park, with further expansion later on. In addition, in June 2007 it was recognised byUNESCOas aWorld Heritage site.To the west lies the volcanoPico Viejo(Old Peak). On one side of it, is the volcano Chahorra o Narices del Teide, where the last eruption occurred in the vicinity of Mount Teide in 1798. The Teide is one of the 16Decade Volcanoesidentified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. Tallest mountains on Tenerife: Massifs The Anaga massif (Macizo de Anaga), at the northeastern end of the island, has an irregular and rugged topographical",
"topographical profile where, despite its generally modest elevations, the Cruz de Taborno reaches a height of 1,024 metres (3,360 feet). Due to the age of its material (5.7 million years), its deep erosive processes, and the dense network ofdikespiercing the massif, its surface exposes numerous outcroppings of bothphonoliticandtrachyticorigin. A large number of steep-walled gorges are present, penetrating deeply into the terrain. Vertical cuts dominate the Anagan coast, with infrequent beaches of rocks or black sand between them; the few that exist generally coincide with the mouths of gorges. The Teno massif (Macizo de Teno) is located on the northwestern edge of the island. Like Anaga, it includes an area of outcroppings and deep gorges formed by erosion. However, the materials here are older (about 7.4 million years old). Mount Gala represents its highest elevation at 1,342 metres (4,403 feet). The most unusual landscape of this massif is found on its southern coast, where theAcantilados de Los",
"de Los Gigantes(\"Cliffs of the Giants\") present vertical walls reaching heights of 500 metres (1,600 feet) in some places. The Adeje massif (Macizo de Adeje) is situated on the southern tip of the island. Its main landmark is the Roque del Conde (\"Count's Rock\"), with an elevation of 1,001 metres (3,284 feet). This massif is not as impressive as the others due to its diminished initial structure, since in addition to with the site's greater geologic age it has experienced severe erosion of its material, thereby losing its original appearance and extent. Dorsals The Dorsal mountainridgeorDorsal of Pedro Gilcovers the area from the start at Mount La Esperanza, at a height of about 750 m (2,461 ft), to the center of the island, near theCaldera de Las Cañadas, with Izaña, as its highest point at 2,390 m (7,841 ft) (MSLP). These mountains have been created due to basaltic fissural volcanism through one of the axis that gave birth to the vulcanism of this area. The Abeque Dorsal was formed by a chain of volcanoes",
"chain of volcanoes that join the Teno with the central insular peak of Teide-Pico Viejo starting from another of the three axis of Tenerife's geological structures. On this dorsal we find the historic volcano of Chinyero whose last eruption happened in 1909. The South Dorsal orDorsal of Adejeis part of the last of the structural axis. The remains of this massive rock show the primordial land, also showing the alignment of small volcanic cones and rocks around this are in Tenerife's South. Valleys and ravines Valleysare another of the island's features. The most important areValle de La OrotavaandValle de Güímar, both formed by the mass sliding of great quantities of material towards the sea, creating a depression of the land. Other valleys tend to be between hills formed by deposits of sediments from nearby slopes, or simply wide ravines which in their evolution have become typical valleys. Tenerife has a large number of ravines, which are a characteristic element of the landscape, caused by erosion",
"caused by erosion fromsurface runoffover a long period. Notable ravines include Ruiz, Fasnia and Güímar,Infierno, and Erques, all of which have been designated protected natural areas by Canarian institutions. Coastline The coasts of Tenerife are typically rugged and steep, particularly on the north of the island. However, the island has 67.14 kilometres (41.72 miles) of beaches, such as the one atEl Médano, surpassed only in this respect by the island ofFuerteventura.There are many black sand pebble beaches on the northern coast, while on the south and south-west coast of the island, the beaches have typically much finer and clearer sand with lighter tones. Volcanic tubes Lava tubesare volcanic caves usually in the form of tunnels formed within lava flows more or less fluid reogenética duration of the activity. Among the many existing volcanic tubes on the island stands out theCueva del Viento, located in the northern town ofIcod de los Vinos, which is the largest volcanic tunnel in theEuropean Unionand one",
"Unionand one of the largest in the world, for a long time considered the largest in the world. Flora and fauna The island of Tenerife has a remarkableecosystem diversityin spite of its small surface area, which is a consequence of the special environmental conditions on the island, where its distinct orography modifies the general climatic conditions at a local level, producing a significant variety ofmicroclimates. This diversity of microclimates allows some 1400 species of plants to exist on the island, with well over 100 of these endemic to Tenerife.The fauna of Tenerife includes some 400 species of fish, 56 birds, five reptiles, two amphibians, 13 land mammals, thousands of invertebrates, and several species of sea turtles and cetaceans. The vegetation of Tenerife can be divided into six major zones that are directly related to altitude and the direction in which they face. Prehistoric fauna Before the arrival of humans, the Canary Islands were inhabited by certain endemic animals, now mostly extinct.",
"now mostly extinct. These animals reachedlarger than usual sizes, because of a phenomenon calledisland gigantism. Among these species, the best known in Tenerife were: Protected natural areas Nearly half of the island territory (48.6 percent),is under protection from theRed Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos(Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,a total of 43 are located in Tenerife, the most protected island in the group.The network has criteria which places areas under its observation under eight different categories of protection, all of them are represented in Tenerife. Aside fromParque Nacional del Teide, it counts the Parque Natural de Canarias (Crown Forest), two rural parks (Anaga and Teno), four integral natural reserves, six special natural reserves, a total of fourteen natural monuments, nine protected landscapes and up to six sites of scientific interest. Also located on the islandMacizo de",
"the islandMacizo de Anagasince 2015 isBiosphere Reserveand is the place that has the largest number of endemic species in Europe. In contrast to the land-based protected areas, Tenerife also boasts significant marine protected natural areas. Among these is the Zona de Especial Conservación Teno-Rasca (Teno-Rasca Special Area of Conservation), a marine protected area established in 2013.This marine protected area off the coast of Tenerife is known for its ecological significance and biodiversity, including resident populations of cetaceans such as bottlenose dolphins and pilot whales.It is also known as the Tenerife-La Gomera Marine Area and became the first European designated Whale Heritage Area in January 2021. Administration Law and order Tenerife island's government resides with theCabildo Insular de Tenerifelocated at the Plaza de España at the island's capital city (Palacio Insular de Tenerife). The political Canary organization does not have a provincial government body but instead each island has its",
"each island has its own government at their ownCabildo. Since its creation in March 1913 it has a series of capabilities and duties, stated in the Canary Autonomy Statutes (Spanish:Estatuto de Autonomía de Canarias) and regulated by Law 14/1990, of 26 July 1990, of theRégimen Jurídico de las Administraciones Públicas de Canarias. The Cabildo is composed of the following administrative offices; Presidency, Legislative Body, Government Council, Informative Commissions, Spokesman's office. Government Tenerife is an autonomous territory of Spain. The island has a tiered-government system and a special status within the European Union in which it holds lower tax rates compared to other regions. Santa Cruz is the seat of half of the regional government departments and parliament and it is there that the governor is elected by the Canarian people. Afterwards, they are appointed by Madrid. There are fifteen members of parliament who work together in passing legislation, organising budgets and improving the economy.",
"the economy. Municipalities The island, itself part of aSpanish provincenamedSanta Cruz de Tenerife, is divided administratively into 31 municipalities. Only three municipalities are landlocked:Tegueste,El TanqueandVilaflor. Vilaflor is the municipality with the highest altitude in the Canaries (its capital is 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) high). The largest municipality with an area of 207.31 square kilometres (80.04 square miles) is La Orotava, which covers much of the Teide National Park. The smallest town on the island and of the archipelago isPuerto de la Cruz, with an area of just 8.73 square kilometres (3 square miles). It is also common to find internal division, in that some cities make up a metropolitan area within a municipality, notably the cities of Santa Cruz and La Laguna. Below is an alphabetical list of all the municipalities on the island: Counties The counties of Tenerife have no official recognition, but there is a consensus among geographers about them: Flags and heraldry TheFlag of",
"heraldry TheFlag of Tenerifewas originally adopted in 1845 by the navy at its base in the Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Later, and at present, this flag represents all the island of Tenerife. It was approved by theCabildo Insular de Tenerifeand the Order of the Government of the Canary Islands on 9 May 1989 and published on 22 May in the government report of the Canary Islands and made official. Thecoat-of-armsof Tenerife was granted by royal decree on 23 March 1510 byFerdinand IIatMadridin the name ofJoan I, Queen of Castile. The coat-of-arms has a field of gold, with an image ofSaint Michael(patron saintof the island) above a mountain depicted in brownish, natural colors. Flames erupt from the mountain, symbolizing El Teide. Below this mountain is depicted the island itself inverton top of blue and silver waves. To the right there is a castle ingules, and to the left, a lionrampantin gules. The shield that the Cabildo Insular, or Island Government, uses is slightly different from that used by the city",
"used by the city government of La Laguna, which uses a motto in the arms' border and also includes some palm branches. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Tenerife are the birdblue chaffinch(Fringilla teydea) and theCanary Islands dragon tree(Dracaena draco) tree. Demographics According to INE data as at 1 January 2023, Tenerife has the largest population of the seven Canary Islands and was the most populated island of Spain with 948,815 officially estimated inhabitants,of whom about 22.0 percent (208,906) lived in the capital, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and 40 percent in the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz–La Laguna.Santa Cruz de Tenerife and the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Lagunaare physically one urban area, so that together (and including Tegueste) they have a population of 379,857 inhabitants. Tenerife has two other metropolitan areas recognized by theMinistry of Development; theTenerife South metropolitan areawith 194,774 inhabitants (2019) and theLa Orotava Valley metropolitan",
"Valley metropolitan areawith 108,721 inhabitants (2019). After the city of Santa Cruz the major towns and municipalities as at the start of 2023 areSan Cristóbal de La Laguna(159,576),Arona(86,497),Granadilla de Abona(55,505),Adeje(50,523),La Orotava(42,667),Los Realejos(37,543), andPuerto de la Cruz(31,396). All other municipalities have fewer than 30,000 inhabitants, the smallest municipality beingVilaflorwith a population of 1,850. The island has high rates of resident population not registered in population censuses, primarily tourists. This has made several sources point out that more than one million inhabitants actually live on the island of Tenerife today.The island is also the most multicultural in the archipelago, with the highest number of registered foreigners (44.9% of registered in Canary Islands), which represent 14% of the total population of the island.Tenerife stands out in the context of the archipelago, by also concentrating the largest presence of non-EU foreign population. Tenerife has",
"Tenerife has three large population areas that are very different and distributed: The Metropolitan Zone, the South Zone and the North Zone. With several protected natural parks — 48.6% of the territory — and an urban swarm around the island, in the last half century the insular coastal platform has become a highly urbanized metropolitan system. The high level of population in a relatively small territory — more than 900,000 inhabitants in just over 2,000 km2(770 sq mi) — and the strong urbanization have turned the island of Tenerife, in the words of architect Federico García Barba; on an \"island-city\" or \"island-ring\". Recently Tenerife has experienced population growth significantly higher than the national average. In 1990, there were 663,306 registered inhabitants, which increased to 709,365 in 2000, an increase of 46,059 or an annual growth of 0.69 percent. However, between 2000 and 2007, the population rose by 155,705 to 865,070, an annual increase of 3.14 percent. These results reflect the general",
"reflect the general trend in Spain where, since 2000, immigration has reversed the general slowdown in population growth, following the collapse in the birth rate from 1976. However, since 2001 the overall growth rate in Spain has been around 1.7 percent per year, compared with 3.14 percent on Tenerife, one of the largest increases in the country. Economy Tenerife is the economic capital of the Canary Islands.At present, Tenerife is the island with the highest GDP in the Canary Islands.Even though Tenerife's economy is highly specialized in theservice sector, which makes 78% of its total production capacity, the importance of the rest of the economic sectors is key to its production development. In this sense, the primary sector, which only represents 1.98% of the total product, groups activities that are important to the sustainable development of the island's economy. The energy sector which contributes 2.85% has a primary role in the development of renewable energy sources. The industrial sector which",
"sector which shares in 5.80% is a growing activity in the island, vis-a-vis the new possibilities created by technological advances. Finally, the construction sector with 11.29% of the total production has a strategic priority, because it is a sector with relative stability which permits multiple possibilities of development and employment opportunities. Tourism Tourism is the most prominent industry in the Canaries, which are one of the major tourist destinations in the world. Tenerife is the most visited island in the archipelagoand one of the most important tourist destinations in Spain. In 2014, 11,473,600 foreign tourists came to the Canary Islands. Tenerife had 4,171,384 arrivals that year, excluding the numbers for Spanish tourists which make up an additional 30% of total arrivals. According to last year's Canarian Statistics Centre's (ISTAC) Report on Tourism the greatest number of tourists from any one country come from the United Kingdom, with more than 3,980,000 tourists in 2014. In second place",
"In second place comes Germany followed by Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, France, Ireland, Belgium, Italy, Denmark, Finland, Switzerland, Poland, Russia and Austria. Tourism is more prevalent in the south of the island, which is hotter and drier and has many well developed resorts such asPlaya de las AmericasandLos Cristianos. More recently coastal development has spread northwards from Playa de las Americas and now encompasses the former small enclave of La Caleta. According to theMoratoriaact passed by the Canarian Parliament in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, no more hotels will be built on the island unless they are classified as 5 star-quality and comprise different services such as golf courses or convention facilities. This act was passed with the goal of improving the standard of tourism service and promoting environmentally conscious development. The area known asCosta Adejehas many facilities and leisure opportunities such as shopping centres, golf courses, restaurants, water parks (the most well-known",
"most well-known beingSiam Park), animal parks, and a theatre suitable for musicals or a convention centre.There are many boats offering whale watching tours from the harbour of Puerto Colon. The deep waters off the coast of Costa Adeje are home to several pods ofpilot whales. In the more lush and green north of the island, the main focus of development for tourism has been in the town ofPuerto de la Cruz. Puerto de la Cruz is home to theSeaWorld-owned zoo,Loro Parque,which has been accused of mistreatment of animals in its captivity, includingorcasand is currently boycotted by major travel agents includingThomas Cook. In the 19th century large numbers of foreign tourists came, especially British, showing interest in the agriculture of the islands. With the world wars, the tourism sector weakened, but the second half of the 20th century brought renewed interest. Initial emphasis was on Puerto de la Cruz, and for all the attractions that the Valle de la Orotava offered. By 1980, tourism was focused in south",
"focused in south Tenerife. The emphasis was on cities like Arona or Adeje, shifting to tourist centres like Los Cristianos or Playa de Las Americas, which now house 65% of the hotels on the island. Tenerife receives more than 5 million tourists every year; of the Сanary islands Tenerife is the most popular. Currently, the municipality ofAdejein the south of the island has the highest concentration of 5 star hotels in Europeand also has what is considered the best luxury hotel in Spain according toWorld Travel Awards. Agriculture and fishing Since tourism dominates the Tenerifan economy, the service sector is the largest. Industry and commerce contribute 40% of the non-tourist economy.Agriculture contributes less than 10% of the island's GDP, but its contribution is vital as it also generates indirect benefits by maintaining the rural appearance of the island and supporting Tenerifan cultural values. Agriculture is centred on the northern slopes, and is affected by altitude as well as orientation: in the",
"orientation: in the coastal zone, tomatoes and bananas are cultivated, these high yield products are for export to mainland Spain and the rest of Europe; in the drier intermediate zone, potatoes, tobacco and maize are grown, whilst in the south, onions are important. Bananas are a particularly important crop, as Tenerife grows more bananas than the other Canary Islands, with a current annual production of about 150,000 tons, down from the peak production of 200,000 tons in 1986. More than 90% of the total is destined for the international market, and banana growing occupies about 4200 hectares.After the banana the most important crops are, in order of importance, tomatoes, grapes, potatoes and flowers. Fishing is also a major contributor to the Tenerifan economy, as the Canaries are Spain's second most important fishing grounds. Energy As of 2009, Tenerife had 910 MW of electrical generation capacity, which is mostly powered from petroleum-derived fuels. The island had 37 MW of wind turbines and 79 MW of",
"and 79 MW of solar panels. Industry and commerce Commerce in Tenerife plays a significant role in the economy, representing almost 20% of the GDP, with the commercial center Santa Cruz de Tenerife generating most of the earnings. Although there are a diversity of industrial estates that exist on the island, the most important industrial activity is petroleum, representing 10% of the island's GDP, again largely due to the capital Santa Cruz de Tenerife with its refinery. It provides petroleum products not only to the Canaries archipelago but is also an active in the markets of the Iberian Peninsula, Africa and South America. Main sights Monuments Historical sights in the island, especially from the time after the conquest, include theCathedral of San Cristóbal de La Laguna, theChurch of the Conception of La Lagunaand theChurch of the Conceptionin the capital. TheBasílica de Nuestra Senora de la Candelariacan be found on the island (Patron of Canary Islands). Also on the island are the defensive castles",
"defensive castles located in the village ofSan Andrés, as well as many others throughout the island. TheAuditorio de Tenerife, one of the most modern in Spain, can be found at the entry port to the capital (in the southern part of Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife). Near the Auditorio de Tenerife are El Castillo Negro and El Parque Marítimo. TheTorres de Santa Cruzare two twin skyscrapers 120 metres (390 feet) high (the highest residential buildings in Spain and the tallest skyscrapers in the Canary Islands). Archeological sites The island also has severalarchaeological sitesof Guanche time (prior to the conquest), which generally are cave paintings that are scattered throughout the island, but most are found in the south of the island. Archaeological sites on the island include theCave of the Guanches, where the oldest remains in the archipelago have been found,dating to the 6th century BC,and theCaves of Don Gaspar, where the finding of plant debris in the form of carbonized seeds indicates that the Guanches",
"that the Guanches practiced agriculture on the island.Both deposits are in the town ofIcod de los Vinos. Also noteworthy on the island is theEstación solar de Masca(Masca Solar Station), which was an aboriginal sanctuary for the celebration of rites related to fertility and the request for rainwater. This is located in the municipality ofBuenavista del Norte. Other archaeological sites include that of Los Cambados and that of El Barranco del Rey both inArona.One could also highlight theCueva de Achbinico(first shrine Marian of the Canary Islands, Guanche vintage-Spanish). In addition there are some buildings calledGüímar Pyramids, whose origin is uncertain. There are also traces that reveal thePunicpresence on the island, as in the wake commonly called \"Stone of the Guanches\" in the town ofTaganana. This archaeological site consists of a structure formed by a stone block, large, outdoor, featuring rock carvings on its surface. Among these is the presence of a representation of",
"a representation of theCarthaginiangoddessTanit,represented by a bottle-shaped symbol surrounded by cruciform motifs. It is thought that the monument was originally an altar of sacrifice linked to those found in theSemiticfield and then reused forAboriginal ritual of mummification. Culture and arts Literature In the 16th and 17th centuries, Antonio de Viana, a native of La Laguna, composed the epic poemAntigüedades de las Islas Afortunadas(Antiquities of the Fortunate Isles), a work of value to anthropologists, since it sheds light on Canarian life of the time.The Enlightenment reached Tenerife, and literary and artistic figures of this era includeJosé Viera y Clavijo,Tomás de Iriarte y Oropesa, Ángel Guimerá y Jorge, Mercedes Pinto andDomingo Pérez Minik, amongst others. Painting During the course of the 16th century, several painters flourished in La Laguna, as well as in other places on the island, includingGarachico, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Orotava andPuerto de la Cruz. Cristóbal Hernández de Quintana",
"de Quintana and Gaspar de Quevedo, considered the best Canarian painters of the 17th century, were natives of La Orotava, and their art can be found in churches on Tenerife. The work ofLuis de la Cruz y Ríoscan be found in the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia, in Puerto de la Cruz. Born in 1775, he became court painter toFerdinand VII of Spainand was also a miniaturist, and achieved a favorable position in the royal court. He was known there by the nickname of \"El Canario.\" The landscape painter Valentín Sanz (born 1849) was a native of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and theMuseo Municipal de Bellas Artes de Santa Cruzdisplays many of his works. This museum also contains the works ofJuan Rodríguez Botas(1880–1917), considered the first Canarianimpressionist. Frescoes by theexpressionistMariano de Cossío can be found in the church of Santo Domingo, in La Laguna. The watercolorist Francisco Bonnín Guerín (born 1874) was a native of Santa Cruz, and founded a school to encourage the arts.Óscar",
"the arts.Óscar Domínguezwas born in La Laguna in 1906 and is famed for his versatility. He belonged to thesurrealistschool, and invented the technique known asdecalcomania. Sculpture The arrival from Seville ofMartín de Andújar Cantos, an architect and sculptor brought new sculpting techniques of the Seville school, which were passed down to his students, includingBlas García Ravelo, a native of Garachico. He had been trained by the master sculptorJuan Martínez Montañés. Other notable sculptors from the 17th and 18th centuries includeSebastián Fernández Méndez,Lázaro González de Ocampo,José Rodríguez de la Oliva, and most importantly,Fernando Estévez, a native of La Orotava and a student of Luján Pérez. Estévez contributed an extensive collection of religious images and woodcarvings, found in numerous churches of Tenerife, such as the Principal Parish ofSaint James the Great(Parroquia Matriz del Apóstol Santiago), inLos Realejos; in the Cathedral of La Laguna; theIglesia de la Concepciónin La Laguna; the",
"La Laguna; the basilica ofCandelaria, and various churches in La Orotava. Music An important musician from Tenerife is Teobaldo Power y Lugo Viña, a native of Santa Cruz and a pianist and composer, and author of theCantos Canarios.The Hymn of the Canary Islands takes its melody from theArrorró, or Lullaby, from Power y Lugo Viña'sCantos Canarios. Folkloric music has also flourished on the island, and, as in the rest of the islands, is characterized by the use of theCanarian Timple, the guitar,bandurria,laúd, and various percussion instruments. Local folkloric groups such as Los Sabandeños work to save Tenerife's musical forms in the face of increasing cultural pressure from the mainland. Tenerife is the home to the types of songs called theisa,folía,tajaraste, andmalagueña, which are a cross of ancient Guanche songs and those ofAndalusiaand Latin America. Architecture Tenerife is characterized by an architecture whose best representatives are the local manor houses and also the most humble and common",
"humble and common dwellings. This style, while influenced by those of Andalusia and Portugal, nevertheless had a very particular and native character. Of the manor houses, the best examples can be found in La Orotava and in La Laguna, characterized by their balconies and by the existence of interior patios and the widespread use of the wood known aspino tea(\"pitch pine\"). These houses are characterized by simple façades and wooden lattices with little ornamentation.There are sash windows and it is customary for the chairs inside the house to rest back-to-back to the windows. The interior patios function like real gardens that serve to give extra light to the rooms, which are connected via the patio by galleries frequently crowned by wood and stone. Gadgets like stills, water pumps, benches and counters, are elements that frequently form part of these patios. Traditional houses generally have two storeys, with rough walls of variegated colours. Sometimes the continuity of these walls is interrupted by the",
"interrupted by the presence of stone blocks that are used for ornamental purposes. The government buildings and religious structures were built according to the changing styles of each century. The urban nuclei of La Orotava and La Laguna have been declared national historical-artistic monuments. In recent years, various governments have spearheaded the concept of developing architectural projects, sometimes ostentatious ones, designed by renowned architects–for example, the remodeling of thePlaza de Españain Santa Cruz de Tenerife by the Swiss architectsHerzog & de Meuron. Other examples include the Playa de Las Teresitas project by the Frenchman Dominique Perrault; the center known as Magma Arte & Congresos; the Torres de Santa Cruz; and theAuditorio de Tenerife(\"Auditorium of Tenerife\"). The latter, by the SpaniardSantiago Calatrava, lies to the east of the Parque Marítimo (\"Maritime Park\"), in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and is characterized by its sail-like structure, which evokes a boat, and has become a",
"and has become a symbol for the city and island,which makes Santa Cruz de Tenerife one of the Spanish cities with the most futuristic buildings. Crafts Distinctive representatives of craftsmanship on the island areTenerife lace(calado canario), which is drawn workembroidery, and the intricatedoiliesknown asrosetas, orrosetteembroidery, particularly fromVilaflor. The lace, often made for table linen, is produced by the intricate and slow embroidering of a stretched piece of cloth, which is rigidly attached to a wooden frame and is finished with illustrations or patterns using threads that are crossed over and wound around thefijadores, or pins stuck in a small support made of cloth.These decorated, small pieces are afterwards joined, to produce distinct designs and pieces of cloth. Another Tenerife-based industry is cabinetwork. The north of the island produced various master craftsman who created distinctive balconies, celosias, doors, and windows, as well as furniture consisting of pieces made in fine wood.",
"made in fine wood. Basketmaking using palm-leaves was also an important industry. Other materials are chestnut tree branches stripped of their leaves andbanana treefibre (known locally asla badana). Pottery has a long history harking back to the production of ceramics by the Guanches. The Guanches were unfamiliar with thepotter's wheel, and used hand-worked clay, which gave their pottery a distinctive look. Pottery was used to produce domestic objects such as pots and grills, or ornamental pieces such as bead collars or the objects known aspintaderas, which were pieces of pottery used to decorate other vessels. Traditional celebrations Carnival of Santa Cruz Perhaps the most important festival of Tenerife, popular both on a national and international level, is theCarnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, which has been declared a Festival of International Tourist Interest (Fiesta de Interés Turístico Internacional).The carnival is celebrated in many locations in the north and south of the island, but is largest in",
"but is largest in scope in the city of Santa Cruz.Contests are celebrated, and the carnival includes bands of street musicians (murgas), groups of minstrels (rondallas de Tenerife), masquerades (comparsas), and various associations (agrupaciones). Once the Queen of the festival is elected, the first part of the carnival ends, and thereafter begins the actual street carnival, in which large numbers of people gather in the centre of Santa Cruz, with the carnival lasting ten days. Pilgrimages (Romerías) The most traditional and widespread religious festivals on the islands are the pilgrimages orromerías.These events, which incorporate Christian and non-Christian elements, are celebrated by various means: with wagons andfloats, plowing teams and livestock, in honor of thepatron saintof a particular place. The processions are accompanied by local dances, local dishes, folkloric activities, local arts and crafts, local sports, and the wearing of traditional dress of Tenerife (trajes de mago). The origins of these",
"origins of these events can be attributed to the parties and celebrations held by the richest classes of the island, who would gather to venerate their patron saints, to which they attributed good harvests, fertile lands, plentiful rainfall, the curing of sicknesses and ending of epidemics, etc. They would thus give homage to these saints by consuming and sharing the fruits of their harvest, which included the locally cultivated wines. These have developed into processions to mark festivals dedicated toSaint MarkinTegueste, where the wagons are decorated with the fruits of the earth (seeds, cereals, flowers, etc.); toSaint Isidore the Laborerin Los Realejos; to Saint Isidore the Laborer andMaria Torribia(Saint Mary of the Head) in La Orotava; theRomería Regional de San Benito Abadin La Laguna;Virgin of Candelariain Candelaria;Saint Rochin Garachico;Saint AugustineinArafo; and theRomería del Socorroin Güímar. Holiday of the Virgin of Candelaria TheVirgin of Candelariais the patron of the Canary Islands; a",
"Canary Islands; a feast is held in her honor two times a year, in February and August. TheRomeria-Offering to the Virgin of Candelaria is celebrated every 15 August in this event is a tradition that representations of all municipalities of the island and also of all the Canary archipelago come to make offerings to their patron. Another significant act of the feast of the Virgin of Candelaria is called \"Walk to Candelaria\" held on the night of 14 to 15 August in which thefaithful make pilgrimage on foot from various parts of the island, even coming from other islands to arrive atVilla Mariana de Candelaria. On 2 February we celebrate the feast of the Candelaria. Also on this day come to town many devotees of the Virgin. During the February festivities, the so-called \"Procesión de Las Candelas\" (Candlelight Procession) stands out, in which the faithful accompany the Virgin in the dark of the night lit only by candles and praying the rosary. Holiday of the Cristo de La Laguna It is celebrated every 14 September",
"every 14 September in honor of a much venerated image of Christ in the Archipelago, theCristo de La Laguna, is held in the city ofSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Every 9 September, the venerated image of Christ is lowered in public from the main altar of its Royal Sanctuary, after which, the faithful kiss the feet of the image. The image is solemnly transferred in procession to the Cathedral of La Laguna on the afternoon of that day, where it remains for several days, until 14 September, which is the main day, when it is transferred back to its Sanctuary. Corpus Christi The religious festival ofCorpus Christiis particularly important, and is traditionally celebrated with floral carpets laid in the streets. Particularly noteworthy are the celebrations in La Orotava where a very large carpet, or tapestry, of different coloured volcanic soils, covers the Plaza del Ayuntamiento (town square). These soils are taken from theParque Nacional del Teide, and after the celebration, are returned, to preserve the National",
"the National Park. The celebration of Corpus Christi in Orotava has been declared of Important Cultural Interest among the official Traditional Activities of the Island. Easter Among the numerous other celebrations that define Tenerifan culture, Easter remains the most important. This is celebrated across the island, but is particularly notable in the municipalities of La Laguna, La Orotava and Los Realejos, where elaborate processions take place on Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter Sunday, or \"Resurrection Sunday\". Holy Week in the city of San Cristobal de la Laguna is the largest of the Canary Islands. Religion As with the rest of Spain, Tenerife is largelyCatholic.However, the practice of other religions and denominations has increasingly expanded on the island due to tourism and immigration, asIslam,Hinduism,Buddhism,Evangelicalism,JudaismandAfro-American religion.Minority religions are stationed in the island:Chinese Religions,Baháʼíand the neopaganism native form, theChurch of the Guanche",
"of the Guanche People,among others. Christianity and Judaism arrived in the island with the Spanish conquest. An important Catholic festival is the celebration of thefeast dayassociated with theVirgin of Candelaria,patron saintof the Canary Islands, who represents the union of the Guanche and Spanish cultures.The Guanches became devoted to aBlack Madonnathat Christian missionaries fromLanzaroteandFuerteventuraleft on a beach near the present-day Villa Mariana de Candelaria, which gave rise to the legends and stories associated with the Virgin. These legends fueled the cult of the Virgin and thepilgrimages to Candelariathat have existed to this day on the island. Another cult to the Virgin Mary exists in the form ofOur Lady of Los Remedios(la Virgen de Los Remedios), who is patron of the island and Catholic diocese of Tenerife (Diócesis Nivariense). In Tenerife were born twoCatholicsaintswho were of the greatest missionaries in the Americas:Peter of Saint Joseph BetancurandJosé de Anchieta. The first was a",
"The first was a missionary inGuatemalaand founder ofOrder of Our Lady of Bethlehem(the first religious order of the Americas), the second was a missionary in Brazil, and was one of the founders ofSão Pauloand ofRio de Janeiro. It also highlights the figure of the mysticMary of Jesus de León y Delgado. This nun died with a reputation for holiness and is highly revered throughout the Canary Islands. Her body is intact in the Convent of Santa Catalina de Siena inSan Cristóbal de La Laguna. Principal Catholic places of worship on the island include: Other important churches include the Church of the Conception in La Orotava (Iglesia de la Concepción); the churches of San Agustín and Santo Domingo in La Orotava; the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia in Puerto de la Cruz; the church of San Marcos in Icod de los Vinos; the church of Santa Ana in Garachico; and theChurch of the Conception (Iglesia de la Concepción) in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first saint of Tenerifeand Canary IslandswasSaint Peter of",
"Peter of Saint Joseph Betancur, born in the town ofVilaflor, Tenerife. His main shrine is theCave of Santo Hermano PedroinGranadilla de Abona, near the coast, where he lived in his youth. This cave is considered one of the most important pilgrimage spots of the Canary Islands. Another notable building on the island is theMasonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, generally considered the finest example of Masonic temple architecture in Spain;it was the Masonic center of the country until the military occupation of the island by theFranco regime. The headquarters of theIslamic Federation of the Canary Islandsis in Tenerife; the organization was founded to unite the Muslim communities of the Canary Islands in a common association.For its part, the headquarters of the Evangelical Council of the Canary Islands is also on the island. Education Formal educationin Tenerife began with thereligious orders. In 1530, theDominican Orderestablished a chair of philosophy at the convent ofLa Concepción de La Laguna. Still,",
"La Laguna. Still, until well into the 18th century Tenerife was largely without institutions of education. Such institutions finally began to develop thanks to the work of the Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País (\"Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Country\"), which established several schools in San Cristóbal de La Laguna. The first of these was an institute of secondary education established in 1846 to fill the gap left by the closure of the Universidad de San Fernando (seeUniversity of La Laguna). An 1850 annex to this building was the Escuela Normal Elemental, the archipelago's first teachers' college or normal school, which became the Escuela Normal Superior de Magisterio from 1866 onward. These were the only institutions of higher education until the dictatorMiguel Primo de Riveracreated several institutions. A turning point came around the time of the rise of theSecond Spanish Republic. From 1929 to 1933 the number of schools nearly doubled. Shortly after this, though, the start of",
"the start of theSpanish Civil Warand the following dictatorship ofFrancisco Francoconstituted a considerable reversal. Education in the hands of religious orders had a certain importance on the island until the 1970 Ley General de Educación (\"General Law of Education\") shifted the balance from religiously based education to public education. Public schools continued their advance during and after the post-FrancoSpanish transition to democracy. Tenerife today has 301 centers of childhood education (preschools), 297 primary schools, 140 secondary schools and 86post-secondaryschools.There are also five universities orpost-graduateschools, theUniversity of La Laguna, theUniversidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia(National University of Distance Learning), theUniversidad Internacional Menéndez Pelayo(Menéndez Pelayo International University), theUniversidad Alfonso X el Sabio(University of Alfonso X the Wise) and theUniversidad de Vic(Escuela Universitaria de Turismo de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, \"University",
"\"University School of Tourism of Santa Cruz de Tenerife\"). The largest of these is the University of La Laguna. TheUniversidad Europea de Canarias(European University of the Canary Islands) is located in La Orotava and is the first private university in the Canary Islands. Science and research While Tenerife is not prominent in the history of scientific and academic research, it is the home of theInstituto de Astrofísica de Canarias(Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-OrgánicaAntonio González(Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at the University of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales",
"y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). This last is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\"), located in various parts of Spain. Puerto de la Cruz has the Instituto de Estudos Hispánicos de Canarias (Institute of Hispanic Studies of the Canaries), attached to Madrid's Instituto de Cultura Hispánica. In La Laguna is the Canarian delegation of theConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas(CSIC, Superior Council of Scientific Investigations), the Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (Canarian Institute of Agrarian Investigation), the Instituto de Estudios Canarios (Canarian Institute of Studies) and theCentro Internacional para la Conservación del Patrimonio(the International Center of the Conservation of Patrimony). Other research facilities in Tenerife are the Instituto",
"are the Instituto Tecnológico de Canarias, the Instituto Vulcanológico de Canarias, the Asociación Industrial de Canarias, the Instituto Tecnológico de Energías Renovables (Technological Institute of Renewable Energy) and the Instituto Oceanográfico de Canarias in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Museums The island boasts a variety of museums of different natures, under dominion of a variety of institutions. Perhaps the most developed are those belonging to theOrganismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros,which include the following: Independent of the Organismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros are: Media Along with many Spanish-language radio and TV stations, Tenerife has two official English-language radio stations.Coast FMbroadcasts a mix of adult contemporary music and is the only local news service to broadcast in English. As the larger of the two stations, Coast FM can be heard across Tenerife and much of the Canary Islands from its transmitters on 106.6, 92.2 and 89.4. Energy FM is a non-stop music station that also",
"station that also broadcasts local news and information on the hour. Transport and communications The island of Tenerife is served byTenerife North Airport(GCXO) andTenerife South Airport(GCTS). Tenerife North Airport, the smaller of the two, is located near the metropolitan area Santa Cruz-La Laguna (423,000 inhabitants). It serves inter-insular flights as well as national and European flights. Tenerife South Airport (south) is the busiest Airport in Tenerife, ranking 7th in Spain. It typically serves the mass of regular and vacation charter flights constantly arriving from most of Europe. The other way to arrive on Tenerife is by ferry, either to Santa Cruz de Tenerife or Los Cristianos, near Playa de Las Américas. A network consisting of two fast, toll-free motorways (TF1 and TF5) encircles nearly the entire island, linking all the main towns and resorts with the metropolitan area. The exception is in the West, from Adeje to Icod de los Vinos, which is traversed by a smaller winding mountain road.",
"mountain road. However, plans are in progress to complete the motorway, which caused a heavy debate between the environmentalists and the local businessmen. Away from the major motorways, there is a network of secondary and communal roads, varying from wide to steep, winding narrow roads, mainly unlit and often with drops on either side of the main carriageway surface. Public transport on the island is provided by an extensive network of buses and run byTITSA, who operate a fleet of modern, air-conditioned buses.TITSA buses cover most of the island and they are fairly frequent. For more than one journey, customers can purchase a TenMascontactless smart cardfor €2, which can be topped up with up to €100 travel credit. Using the TenMas card provides a discount over cash fares, and, for Tenerife residents, a card allowing unlimited travel for a monthly fee is also available.The card can be purchased and topped up at bus stations and many newsagents. It is also valid on the tram in the capital, Santa Cruz (See",
"Santa Cruz (See Below). A hire car is sometimes a good option for discovering the remote wilderness regions, although TITSA operate reliable bus services in the remotest spots, such as the Teno Massif via Masca (355), and up the Anaga mountains (247). TITSA operate two daily services up Mount Teide – from Puerto de la Cruz (348) and from Los Christianos/Las Americas (342) up to the Teide Parador, Teleferico cable car, Montana Blanca and El Portillo. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz,Sixtand TopCar. The metropolitan Area formed by Santa Cruz and La Laguna is served by theTranvía de Tenerife(Tenerife Tram) which opened in early 2007, after 3 years of intensive works. The fairly lengthy line from Santa Cruz up the hill to La Laguna serves almost 20 stops. A second line within La Laguna was added in 2009. Roads The main means of transportation in Tenerife is by highways. The most important of these are theAutopista",
"are theAutopista del Surand theAutopista del Norte(the North and South Motorways), which run from the metropolitan zone to the south and north, respectively. These two motorways are connected by means of theAutovía de Interconexión Norte-Surin the outskirts of the metropolitan zone. Within the network of roads on the island of Tenerife there are other minor roads that used to include the highway from San Andres and Santa Cruz (Holy Cross in English). Also planned is the construction of a bypass road north of the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Laguna. This aims to provide dual cores toGuamasaandAcorán, by way ofLos Baldíos,Centenero,Llano del Moro,El Sobradillo,El Tablero, andEl Chorrillo, among other neighbourhoods. The route will be approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) long and will cost an estimated 190 million euros (270 million in American dollars). Airports Tenerife is most easily reached by air. There are two airports:Tenerife South Airport, in the south, andTenerife North Airport, near",
"North Airport, near Santa Cruz. Overall, Tenerife has the highest annual passenger count and the greatest number of arrivals in Canary Islands, made more popular by the frequency of cheap flights from many European destinations. Tenerife North Airport and Tenerife South Airport together account for the highest passenger numbers in the Islands with some 14 million passengers annually (AENA report). Of the two airports on the island, Tenerife South is the most popular tourist destination. Ports Besides air transport, Tenerife has two principal maritime ports: thePort of Santa Cruz de Tenerife(Puerto de Santa Cruz), which serves the various capitals of the Canary Islands, especially those in the west; and thePort of Los Cristianos(Puerto de Los Cristianos), which serves the various island capitals of the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first port also has passenger services, which connect with the mainland port ofCádiz(and vice versa). In 2017, a large important port was opened in the south of the",
"in the south of the island, thePort of Granadilla, and another one is planned in the west, inFonsalía.The Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is the first fishing port in the Canary Islands with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Statistical Yearbook of the State Ports 2006 (the latest of which is changing). Following this report is the largest port number of passengers recorded. Similarly, the second port of Spain moving ship and loaded into cars, only surpassed by thePort of AlgecirasBay.In the port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. Buses (guaguas) Tenerife has an extensive system of buses, which are calledguaguasin the Canary Islands. The bus system is used both within the cities and also connects most of the towns and cities of the island. There are bus stations in all of the major towns, such as",
"towns, such as theIntercambiador de Transportes de Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Taxis There is a well-regulated taxi service on the island. Tramway Since 2007, theTenerife TramconnectsSanta Cruz de TenerifeandLa Lagunathrough the suburb of Taco. There are 20 stops and it covers a distance of 12.5 km (7.8 mi) in 37 minutes. It calls at some points of interest including Tenerife's two major hospitals, the university complex of Guajara, and a number of museums and theatres. Concerning its power supply, it will support development of further wind farms to provide it with 100 percent clean energy. Railway plans By 2005, plans for a light-rail network linking the capital with the South had been approved by both theTenerife Counciland the Canary Islands Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government stalled on budget issues.The original intent was to establish two railway systems that would serve the northern and southern sides of the island connecting these with the capital.By March 2011, these",
"March 2011, these intentions had been replaced by advanced plans for a single 80 km (50 mi)high-speed railline, the \"South Train\" which would connectSanta Cruz de TenerifewithAdejevia Santa Maria de Añaza,Candelaria, San Isidro,Tenerife South Airport, and a main stopover station atAdejewhich would be designed to service up to 25,000 passengers per day. Trains would run every 15 minutes during rush hours, and would achieve speeds up to 220 km/h (137 mph). The project, which involves 9 tunnels, 12 false tunnels (together 22.1 km) and 33 viaducts (8.3 km) has been budgeted at EUR 1.7 bn. It has met staunch opposition from local environmentalists.An alternate plan for a high-speedTransrapid maglevhas also been put forward. Tourist train Atourist train(Tren Turístico) serves Costa Adeje to Los Cristianos with several stops including in Playa de las Americas. Cableway Sports On the island of Tenerife, a large number of sports are practised, both outdoors and indoors in the various facilities available throughout",
"throughout the island. The sports are numerous – Diving, Rock Climbing, Walking, Cycling, Sailing, Golf, Surfing, Go-Karting, Paragliding– the all year round weather makes it ideal for a wide variety of outdoor sports. There are also many indoor sporting facilities including fully equipped including 'Tenerife Top Training' centre in Adeje on the South of the Island. Its most well-known sports team isfootballclubCD Tenerifebased in Santa Cruz. The club has spent time in the Spanish top flight, but have in recent decades primarily played in the second division of Spanish football. Also worth mentioning is theultramarathonCajaMar Tenerife Bluetrail, the highest race in Spain and second in Europe,with the participation of several countries and great international repercussions. Healthcare The main hospitals on the island are theHospital Universitario de Canariasand theHospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria. Both are third-level hospitals, with specialist facilities that serve all of the Canary",
"all of the Canary Islands.They are both affiliated with the education and research network of theUniversidad de La Laguna. However, they belong to different bodies, since the first one is under the directives of theServicio Canario de la Salud(Canarian Health Service).The Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria it is the largest hospital complex in the Canary Islands. In addition, two large new hospitals have recently been built in the north and south areas of the island, located in the municipalities ofIcod de los VinosandAronarespectively. TheHospital del Norte de Tenerife(Tenerife North Hospital) opened in 2012 and theHospital del Sur de Tenerife(Tenerife South Hospital) opened in 2015.These centers will function, according to their classification, as second level hospitals, with services of hospitalization, advanced diagnosis, ambulances and emergencies, and rehabilitation, etc. There are also a total of 39 centers of primary care and specialized clinics which complete the sanitary",
"the sanitary infrastructure of Tenerife. Gastronomy Fish Due to the geographic situation of Tenerife, the island enjoys an abundance of fish of various kinds. The species that are consumed the most are theCombtooth blennies(viejas), as well assea bream(sama),red porgy(bocinegro),gold lined bream(salema),grouper(mero), and various and abundant types ofThunnus. TheAtlantic mackerel(caballa),sardine(sardine), andJack mackerels(chicharros) are also consumed frequently.Moray eels(morenas) are also eaten, usually fried. Most seafood is cooked simply, usually boiled, or prepared \"a la espalda\" (cut into two equally shaped pieces along the spine) or \"a la sal\" (baked in salt). These dishes are usually accompanied bymojo(a local sauce) and wrinkly potatoes. Meat The typical festive meat dish of marinated porktacosis a very popular dish prepared for town festivities inventorrillos, bars and private homes.Rabbit insalmorejo, goat, beef, pork and poultry are regularly consumed. Canarian wrinkly potatoes The fish dishes",
"The fish dishes along with the meats are often accompanied bywrinkly potatoes(papas arrugadas). This is a typical Canarian dish which simply refers to the way the cooked potatoes look. They are boiled in their skins, in water with much salt, and the water is allowed to evaporate, leaving a salty crust. Mojos Mojo, a word probably of Portuguese origin, describes a typical Canarian sauce, served as an accompaniment to food. The sauces come in a variety of colours, flavours and textures, and are usually served cold, often in separate dishes, for the diner to choose how much to apply. Green mojo usually includes coriander, parsley, and garlic; whilst red mojo is piquant, and made from a mix of hot and sweet peppers. A wide variety of other ingredients are also used, including; almonds, cheese, saffron and fried bread.Mojos are served with most meat, and some fish, dishes, and are often used on potatoes, or bread is dipped into them. Cheeses Tenerife exports about 3,400 tons of cheese per year, representing about",
"representing about 50 percent of the output of the island, and about 25 percent of the entire Canary Islands. After the conquest of the Canary Islands, one of the first commercial activities to be started was cheese production. The sale of cheese provided the inhabitants with an income and cheese was even used as a form of currency for exchange and sale, becoming a crucial product in agricultural areas of the island. Cheese grew to become one of the most commonly produced and consumed products on the island and is regularly served as part of a starter course or as a snack. Farms at Arico, La Orotava and Teno produced a variety of cheeses, including soft cheeses, cured, smoked and were mostly handmade. Today the main product isgoat cheese, although certain amounts are made from sheep's or cow's milk, and according to theRegistro General Sanitario de Alimentos, the general health registry, around 75 differentcottage cheesesare produced.The cheeses of the Canaries have generally received good international",
"good international reviews, noted for their sweetness which differentiates them from certain other European cheeses.In particular, Tenerifan cured goats cheese was awarded best cheese in the world final of the 2008World Cheese Awardsheld inDublin, Ireland. Cheeses from Tenerife now have a quality mark promoted by theFundación Tenerife Rural, to standardize their quality in an attempt to publicize the qualities of the cheese and improve its marketing. Gofio Gofiois one of the more traditional elements of cooking on the island, It is made withcereal grainsthat are roasted and then ground. Increasingly used to make a gofio on the island is wheat although there are other types, and they are often made withchickpeas. Relatively common is a mixed-type with wheat. It was served as main food to theguancheseven before the Spanish conquest. In later times of scarcity or famine it was a staple of the popular Canarian diet. Today it is eaten as a main dish (gofio escaldado) or an accompaniment to different dishes,",
"different dishes, meats, fishes, soups, desserts. Some famous cooks have even made gofio ice cream, receiving good comments from the critics. Confectionery Confectionery in Tenerife is represented and strongly influenced by La Palma, with confections likebienmesabe,leche asada,Príncipe Alberto,frangollo,huevos moles, andquesillo. Wines Viticulturein the archipelago, and especially in Tenerife dates back to the conquest, when the settlers brought a variety of vines to plant. In the 16th and 17th centuries, wine production played an important role in the economy, and many families were dedicated to the culture and business. Of special mention ismalvasía canary, considered the best wine of Tenerife and at the time one of the most desired wines in the world, being shipped across to the major warehouses of Europe and America.Writers such asWilliam ShakespeareandWalter Scottmake reference to the wine in some of their works.Tenerife has 5 main wine growing regions. These includeAbona,Valle de Güímar,Valle de La",
"Güímar,Valle de La Orotava,Tacoronte-AcentejoandYcoden-Daute-Isora. This typical gastronomy is served in popular establishments known asguachinches, opening day is the day ofSan Andrés, 30 November, also known as the young wine festivalFestival de Vino Joven. The wine of the new harvest is traditionally served with roasted chestnuts, maturing at the same time, and grilled sardines, thus the season normally lasts from late autumn until early spring. Tenerife in popular culture Cities The city ofBrisbanein Queensland, Australia, has a historical inner suburb namedTeneriffe, named by one of the first European landowners in the area, James Gibbon, because it reminded him ofMount Teide. Other cities in the world whose name has its origins in the island are:Tenerife, Magdalena, a town and municipality in Colombia;San Carlos de Tenerife, a city in the Dominican Republic. Cinema Over the last few years,Tenerife has become a popular filming location, being featured in several Hollywood blockbusters.Some of the most",
"of the most important films made on the island are: Music Likewise, the island has been home to several musical recordings and as a scenic setting for music videos: Video games In literature Literary works featuring Tenerife includeThe CompanionandThe Man from the Sea, both byAgatha Christie;La cueva de las mil momiasbyAlberto Vazquez-Figueroa;Thieves' PicnicbyLeslie Charteris;El Sarcófago de las tres llavesby Pompeyo Reina Moreno;andAtentadoby Mariano Gambín. International relations Tenerife istwinnedwith: See also References External links",
"Fuerteventura Fuerteventura(Spanish:ⓘ) is one of theCanary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, geographically part ofMacaronesia, and politically part ofSpain. It is located 97 km (60 mi) away from the coast ofNorth Africa. The island was declared abiosphere reservebyUNESCOin 2009. Fuerteventura belongs toProvince of Las Palmas,one of the two provinces that form the autonomous community of the Canary Islands. The island's capital isPuerto del Rosario, where the Insule Council is found, the government of the island. Fuerteventura had 124,152 inhabitants (as of 2023), the fourth largest population of the Canary Islands and the third of the province. At 1,659.74 km2(640.83 sq mi),it is the second largest of the Canary Islands, afterTenerife.From a geological point of view, Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the archipelago. Toponymy The island's name is a compound formed by the Spanish wordsfuerte(either \"strong\" or \"fort\") andventura(\"fortune\"). Traditionally, Fuerteventura's name has been regarded as a",
"been regarded as a reference to the strong winds (fuertes vientosin Spanish) around the island coastline, and the resulting danger to nautical adventurers. However, it might have referred instead (or also) to wealth, luck or destiny. In 1339 the Mallorcan navigatorAngelino Dulcert, in thePlanisferio de Angelino Dulcert, referred to the island as \"Forte Ventura\". Another theory is that the island's name derives from \"Fortunatae Insulae\" (Fortunate Islands), the name by which the Romans knew the Canary Islands. Theindigenousname of the island, before its conquest in the 15th century, was Erbania, divided into two regions (Jandía and Maxorata), from which the name majorero (originally majo or maxo) derives. However, it has been suggested that, at some point, Maxorata (which meant \"the children of the country\") was the aboriginaltoponymof the entire island. History Precolonial history The first settlers of Fuerteventura are believed to have come from North Africa. The wordMahorero(Majorero) orMahois still used",
"orMahois still used today to describe the people of Fuerteventura and is derived from the ancient word 'mahos', a type of goatskin shoe worn by these original inhabitants. They lived in caves and semi-subterranean dwellings, some of which have been excavated, revealing remnants of early tools and pottery. In antiquity, the island was originally known asPlanaria, in reference to the flatness of most of its terrain. Phoeniciansettlers landed in Fuerteventura andLanzarote. Several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions to the islands were organized around 1340, followed by Moors and European slave traders. At the end of the Iberian conquest, the island was divided into twoGuancheskingdoms, one adhering to King Guize and the other to King Ayoze. The territories of these kingdoms were calledMaxorata(in the North) andJandía(in the South) respectively. They were separated by a wall, which traversed the La Pared isthmus. Some remains have been preserved. The ancient name for the island, Erbania, is derived from this",
"derived from this wall's name. The conquest The island's conquest began in earnest in 1402, commanded by French knights and crusadersJean de BéthencourtandGadifer de la Salle.They arrived with only 63 sailors out of the original 283, as many had deserted along the way. After arriving and settling inLanzarote, the invaders made some first excursions to the neighboring islands. In 1404, Bethencourt and Gadifer foundedBetancuria, on the West coast, the first settlement on the island. After numerous difficulties, Gadifer took charge of the invasion, while Bethencourt returned to Spain to seek the recognition and support of theCastilian king. In 1405, de Béthencourt completed his conquest of the island, establishing its capital in Betancuria (Puerto Rosario took over the mantle as island capital in 1835). In 1424 PopeMartin V, through theBetancuriaBrief, edicted the establishment of theBishopric of Fuerteventura, which encompassed all theCanary Islandssave for the island ofLanzarote.The origin of this bishopric",
"of this bishopric is directly related to the events that occurred after theGreat Schism(1378–1417), in that the bishop ofSan Marcial del RubicónofLanzarote(at the time, the only diocese in the Canary Islands) did not recognize the papacy of Martin V, and instead adhered toanti-PopeBenedict XIII. TheBishopric of Fuerteventurawas based in theParish of Santa María de Betancuria, bestowing upon the latter the status of Grant Cathedral. After the reabsorbtion of theDiocese of San Marcial del Rubicónby the papacy of Pope Martin V, the Bishopric of Fuerteventura was abolished in 1431, only seven years after it was created. The first censusrecorded a population of some 1,200 inhabitants. The population increased gradually thereafter. In 1476 the territory became theSeñorío Territorial de Fuerteventura, subjected to theCatholic Monarchs.In later years, the island was invaded by the Spanish, French and the English. 2nd conquest of Fuerteventura Over time, the island endured numerous raids. ABerber-led expedition",
"expedition invaded in 1593, sweeping as far inland as the capital. Various castles were built along the coastline, to protect against these type of attacks. The population was moved inland as a second protective measure. Because of the raids, a firstCaptain Generalwas dispatched to Fuerteventura, accompanied by a number ofSergeants Major, to defend the island in the name of the Crown. At that time, Betancuria became the religious capital of the island. Two majorattackstook place in 1740, within a month of each other. Two separate bands of English privateers attempted to loot the town of Tuineje. These attacks were however successfully averted by the local population and the island's militia. This successful repelling of the invaders is celebrated at a re-enactment that takes place in Gran Tarajal every year in October. The island's garrison was officially instated in 1708. Its colonel assumed the title ofGovernor at Arms, a hereditary, lifelong appointment which has remained in the Sánchez-Dumpiérrez family.",
"family. In time, this family increasingly garnered power over the other islands through alliances with the family of Arias de Saavedra and the Lady of Fuerteventura.During the same year theAssistant Parish ofLa OlivaandPájarawas created, to become operational in 1711. On 17 December 1790, theAssistant Parish ofTuinejewas created, which became a new parish division on 23 June 1792 under the bishop Tavira, with lands including part of the Jandía peninsular, and with a population of 1,670 inhabitants. 1780 saw the start of a barrilla plantation industry. To the present In 1852, a free trade zone was extended byIsabella IIto the Canary Islands. Military island rule, which began in 1708, was finally dissolved in 1859, andPuerto de Cabras(nowPuerto del Rosario) - the only municipal seat on the coast - became the new capital. The Canary Islands obtained self-governance in 1912. In 1927, Fuerteventura andLanzarotebecame part of the province ofGran Canaria. The seat of the island's government (cabildo insular) is",
"insular) is located inPuerto del Rosario. A total of 118,574 people lived on the island in 2018. By the 1940s the island had an airport (just west ofPuerto del Rosarioon the road to Tindaya, still visible today). Mass tourism began to arrive in the mid-1960s, facilitated by the construction ofFuerteventura AirportatEl Matorraland the first tourist hotels. The island's proximity (a mere 100 km) to the West African coast and the fact that it is part of theSchengenterritory make it a prime target destination for undocumented immigrants. However, many have perished while attempting the crossing. Flag The flag of Fuerteventura is in proportions 1:2, divided vertically, green to thehoistand white to thefly end, with the coat of arms of the island in the centre. Coat of arms The coat of arms of Fuerteventura was prescribed by a Decree adopted on 15 October 1998 by the Government of the Canary Islands and published on 11 November 1998 in the official gazette of the Canary Islands, No. 142, pp. 13,432–13,433. It was",
"It was adopted on 24 April 1998 by the Island Council and validated on 18 September 1998 by the Heraldry Commission of the Canary Islands. The heraldic description is \"per paleandper fess. First,gules, a castle or,masonedsable, its gate and windowsazure. Second,argent, lion gules, crowned, armed andlanguedor. Third, silver, three fesseschequygules and or, in four rows, each one charged with a fess or.Borduregules, with eightsaltiresor.Ensignedwith aroyal crown, open.\" According to José Manuel Erbez (Banderas y escudos de Canarias, 2007), the coat of arms is based on the arms of the island's provincial militia. The upper quarters represent Castile (symbolized by a castle) and León (symbolized by a lion). The lower quarter alludes to the Saavedra family; various members of this family were lords of Fuerteventura. Geography Environment The elongated island is 100 km (62 mi) long and 31 km (19 mi) wide. It has an area of 1,660 km2(641 sq mi). Located just 100 km (62 mi) off the coast of North Africa, it is the",
"Africa, it is the second biggest of the islands, after Tenerife, and has the longest white sand beaches in the archipelago. The island is a destination for sun, beach and watersports enthusiasts. It lies at the same latitude as Florida and Mexico and temperatures rarely fall below 18 °C (64 °F) or rise above 32 °C (90 °F). It counts 152 separate beaches along its seaboard — 50 km (31 mi) of white sand and 25 km (16 mi) of black volcanic shingle. The highest point in Fuerteventura is Pico de la Zarza (807 m) in the southwestern part of the island. Geographical features includeIstmo de la Paredwhich is 5 km (3 mi) wide and is the narrowest part of Fuerteventura. The island is divided into two parts, the northern portion which isMaxorataand the southwestern part called the Jandía peninsula. Climate Fuerteventura has ahot desert climate(Köppen:BWh).The climate is mild, but mostly windy, throughout the year. The island is hence referred to asthe island of eternal spring. The sea regulates air temperature,",
"air temperature, diverting hotSaharawinds away from the island. The island's name in English translates as \"strong fortune\" or \"strong wind\", the Spanish word for wind beingviento. During the winter months, temperatures average a high of 22 °C (72 °F) and a low of around 15 °C (59 °F), whereas during the summer a mean high of 28 °C (82 °F) and a low of 20 °C (68 °F) can be expected. Precipitation is about 147 mm (6 in) per year, most of which falls in autumn and winter. December is the month with highest rainfall. A sandstorm known as theCalima(similar to theSiroccowind, which blows to the North of the Sahara, to Europe) may blow from the Sahara Desert to the Northwest, and can cause high temperatures, low visibility and drying air. Temperatures during this phenomenon rise temporarily by approximately 10 degrees Celsius. The wind brings in fine red dust, The fine white sand is not blown in from Sahara, It is made up of dead coral reef and local seabed upheaval. Visibility can drop to between 100 and 200 m",
"100 and 200 m (328.08 and 656.17ft) or even lower, and together with very warm temperatures, it can even bring Africanlocuststo the island. Hydrology In the winter months, up to 80% of the rainwater flows unused into the ocean, as there is no vegetation to capture the water (also due to overgrazing by free-ranging goats near the coast). The mountain forests, which were still present in the 19th century, were all chopped down. Instead, there are many desalination plants (running on electricity) which produce the required amount of freshwater on the island. The tourists on the island use about double the amount of water as the native inhabitants of Fuerteventura. Causes are the filling of swimming pools, watering hotel gardens and washing towels. Geology Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the Canary Islands dating back 20 million years to a volcanic eruption from theCanary hotspot.The majority of the island was created about 5 million years ago and since then has been eroded by wind and precipitation. On",
"precipitation. On the seabed off the west coast of the island rests an enormous slab of bedrock 22 km (14 mi) long and 11 km (7 mi) wide, which appears to have slid off the island largely intact at some point in prehistory, similar to the predicted future collapse ofCumbre Vieja, a geological fault on another Canary Island,La Palma. The last volcanic activity in Fuerteventura occurred between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. Beaches Fuerteventura was chosen among 500 European destinations by the Quality Coast International Certification Program of the European Coastal and Marine Union as one of the most attractive tourist destinations for visitors interested in cultural heritage, environment and sustainability. The best beaches to visit are Playa de Cofete, Playas de Jandia, Playas de Corralejo, Playa de Ajuy, and Playas de El Cotillo. Wildlife The island is home to one of the two surviving populations of the threatenedCanarian Egyptian vulture. It is also inhabited by many wild dogs and cats. On the barren, rocky",
"the barren, rocky land there areBarbary ground squirrelsandgeckos. Fuerteventura also hosts several migratory and nesting birds. The island has significant populations of thecollared dove, commonswiftsand severalfinchspecies especially in the vicinity of holiday developments. Despite its arid climate, the island is also home to a surprisingly large insect fauna. Butterflies which commonly occur on the island include the clouded yellow (Colias hyale) and the bath white (Pontia daplidice) which feeds onxerophyticcruciferae. The island is also home to the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) and its close African relativeDanaus chrysippus. Around holiday developments such asCaleta de Fuste, water is relatively abundant, anddragonflyspecies including the blue emperor (Anax imperator) and the scarlet darter (Crocothemis erythraea) can be found. The island's sand dunes and shoreline are home to a number ofbeeandwaspspecies including the largeeumenidcaterpillar hunting wasp,Delta dimidiatipenneand the blue banded",
"the blue banded bee (Amegilla canifrons). Hawkmothsalso occur on the island. One of the more notable species isHyles tithymaliwhich feeds on endemic spurges such asEuphorbia regis-jubae.Acherontia atropos, the deaths-head hawkmoth also occurs on the island presumably feeding on members of theSolanaceae, for example,Datura innoxiaandNicotiana glaucawhich are common weeds in the vicinity of human habitation. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Fuerteventura areChlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae(hubara or houbara) andEuphorbia handiensis(Cardón de Jandía). Demographics Population The island had a population of 124,152 at the start of 2023.Throughout its long history, Fuerteventura has suffered from apopulation declinedue to the economic situation and the climate, which have made it into a desert island. However, the development of tourism during the 1980s has caused the population to grow year on year since then, doubling it in a little less than a decade. In 2005, with 86,642",
"2005, with 86,642 registered inhabitants,the Fuerteventura population was formed by the following: Comparing this data with the 2001 census shows that the number of permanent residents born on the island has increased by just 3,000. The number who have moved in from abroad has increased by 22,910, making this the biggest contributor to population growth in recent years. Education The island has 116 schools,with a total of 14,337 pupils.Of these, 45 are primary schools, ten are secondary schools, six are forBaccalaureatestudents and four are vocational colleges. Fuerteventura also has a centre linked with theNational University of Distance Education, offering courses in many subjects including economics, business studies, law, history and tourism. Administration Fuerteventura is governed by the Island Department of the Government of Spain, which holds the rank of a Government Subdepartment. The government building is located in the centre of the capital city. This institution is charged with representing the",
"representing the Government of Spain on the island, and managing all the functions that are not under control of the Canarian Government. This includes the following public services: Since 30 June 2007, the island's governor has been Eustaquio Juan Santana Gil.4 Island Council of Fuerteventura (Cabildo) The councils, formed as part of the Councils Act of 1912, administer theCanary Islandsand have two principal functions. On one hand, they perform services for the Autonomous Community, and on the other, they are the local government centre for the island. In the 2003 elections, Mario Cabrera González was elected as president representing theCanarian Coalition, with 31.02% of the votes, followed by theSpanish Socialist Workers' Partywith 27.53%, represented by the Vice President Domingo Fuentes Curbelo. Municipalities Fuerteventura is part of theProvince of Las Palmas. The island is divided into sixmunicipalities, as follows: In turn, these municipalities are organised into two associations: theMancomunidad de",
"theMancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Norte de Fuerteventuraformed from La Oliva and Puerto del Rosario, and the remaining municipalities make up theMancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Sur de Fuerteventura. All municipalities are ruled by a town council, and are members of the FECAM (Federation of Canarian Municipalities). They are governed by the basic legislation of the local regime and their respective organic rules. About 100 individual settlements are distributed through these municipalities. The largest not being municipal seats areCorralejo(in La Oliva; pop. 10,714 in 2023),Morro Jable(in Pájara; pop. 8,245)Gran Tarajal(in Tuineje; pop. 7,584), andCosta Calma(in Pájara; pop. 5,704), all coastal localities of recent development. A nearby islet,Islote de Lobos, is close to Corralejo and part of the municipality ofLa Oliva. Economy Both Fuerteventura andLanzarotewould have been the main exporters of wheat and cereals to the central islands of the archipelago during the 16th, 17th and 18th",
"16th, 17th and 18th centuries;TenerifeandGran Canaria.However, this trade was of little benefit to the inhabitants of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (because the landowners of the islands profited from this activity), leading to periods of famine, resulting in some of the population of the islands moving to Tenerife and Gran Canaria to try to improve their lives. Therefore, the island of Tenerife became the main focus of attraction formajorerosandlanzaroteños, hence the feeling of union that has always existed amongst these islands. The economy of Fuerteventura is mainly based on tourism. Primary tourist areas are located around the existing towns ofCorralejoin the north andMorro JableinJandia, plus the purely tourist development ofCaleta de Fuste, south ofPuerto del Rosario. Other main industries are fishing and agriculture (cereals and vegetables). The famousMajorero cheeseis locally made from the milk of the indigenousmajoreragoat. In 2009, Fuerteventura recorded the highest EU regional unemployment rate at",
"rate at a NUTS3 level, at 29.2 percent. Tourism The first tourist hotel was built in 1965 followed by the construction ofFuerteventura Airportat El Matorral, heralding the dawn of a new era for the island. Fuerteventura, with its 3,000 sunshine hours a year, was placed firmly on the world stage as a major European holiday destination.While having fully developed tourist facilities, the island has not experienced the overdevelopment found on some other islands.Nonetheless, it remains a destination for predominantly but not exclusively European tourists. The summerTrade Windsand winter swells of the Atlantic make this a year-round surfers' paradise, with more exposed areas on the north and west shores such asCorralejoand El Cotillo proving most popular. Wind surfing takes places at locations around the island. Sailors, scuba divers and big-game fishermen are all drawn to these clear blue Atlantic waters where whales, dolphins, marlin and turtles are all common sights. With many hills present throughout the",
"throughout the Island, hikers are also attracted to this Island. Sandy beaches are found in many locations. Western beaches, such as those around El Cotillo, can experience strong surf. The beaches adjoining the extensive sand dunes east ofCorralejoare popular, as are the more protected extensive sandy shores of the Playa de Sotavento de Jandia on the southeastern coast betweenCosta Calmaand the Morro Jable. Naked sun bathing and swimming are the norm almost on all beaches. Much of the interior, with its large plains, lavascapes and volcanic mountains, consists of protected areas, although there are organised tours and vehicular access across them. Art and culture Traditional holidays Like the rest of the Canaries, Carnival is traditionally one of the biggest festivals celebrated on the island. It is celebrated in different ways in all the towns during February and March. These festivities have a different theme each year. They include activities such as parades and galas to choose the carnival king.",
"the carnival king. Concerts and festivals There are many concerts and festivals held in the auditoriums, such as the Festival of Canarian Music. They are also held in smaller venues across the island, featuring bands such as Estopa, Van Gogh's Ear, and King Afrhica. Festival Internacional de Cometas/InternationalKiteFestival is held on the second week of November each year centering on the Corralejo Beaches. It attracts kitefliers and kite surfers from all over Europe. It is popular because the winds are warm and constant and the beaches become filled with hundreds of colourful kites of all shapes and sizes. Auditoriums Fuerteventura has three auditoriums. These are used for all types of performing art. They are also used for non-artistic purposes, such as conferences, charity galas and political meetings. Central library The Central Library of the Island is located in Antigua's city centre, in the public university. In addition to providing the traditional library services, it has a 180-seat multipurpose",
"multipurpose room, air conditioning, a wifi zone, and a multimedia room used for seminars, presentations, film festivals etc. Museums and exhibition spaces The island has several museums with different themes and plenty of exhibition spaces, both public and private. These include: Sculpture park In addition to the museums, the capitalPuerto del Rosariohas an open-air sculpture park consisting of around 100 sculptures by different artists scattered across the city. Most of them were created for the International Symposium of Sculpture celebrated annually since 2001. During the festival, artists come from all over the world to erect their sculptures in the open air, in full view of passers by. Main sights Sites of interest includeCorralejoand El Jable to the north which are made up of fine sandduneswhilst the south is filled with long beaches and remote bays. The constant winds blowing onto the beaches provide a paradise forwindsurfing.Surfingis common on the west and north coasts where there are large waves.",
"are large waves. Windsurfing is common around Corralejo and Playas de Sotavento and wave sailing (windsurfing on the waves) on the coast along the northern half of the island. El Cotillo is a small fishing village in the north-west of the Island famous for a very long beach to the south of the village and few very calm beaches to the north. The northern beaches frequented by snorkeling enthusiasts and sun worshippers alike are referred to as lakes by the locals. AtCofeteon the western side of Jandía a remote and imposing house –Villa Winter– looks out to sea across wide beaches. It was reputedly built by a Mr Winter on land given byGeneralisimo Franco. For a time, the beaches were home to a popular accidental attraction. On 18 January 1994 theUnited States Linesocean linerSSAmerican Star(formerAmerica, USSWest Point,Australis) was beached in Playa de Garcey during a severe storm. Within a year, she broke in two and later lost her stern. By 2007 the rest of the severely deteriorated ship had collapsed onto",
"had collapsed onto her port side, gradually keeling over further and almost completely submerged. By 2008–2012, most of the remains finally slipped below the surface. Food The cuisine is fairly basic due to the customs and climate conditions. They share this simplicity with the other Canary islands, and similarly to them, they use a large quantity offish. They also use whatever they can grow in the near-barren land. This includespapas arrugadas, a dish of wrinkled potatoes usually served withmojo, which is a hot pepper sauce or withpuchero canario, a meat stew. Seafood is prepared in many ways traditionally, such as pejines (salted fish),jareas,orsancocho(a type of stew) made from fish, generally thegrouper,corvina or sama, boiled after salting, and served with mojo, potatoes, orgofio(a type of grain). People are also very keen on themusselsandlimpetscollected on the island's coasts. They also use meat such asbeefandporkto make different dishes or simply to for braising, but their main meat isgoat, both from",
"isgoat, both from the kids and from the older animals. They eat the goat roasted or stewed. Goats are not only useful for their meat – the Fuerteventurans also use themilkto make the cheesemajorero, which has won many prizes. The majorero is mostly made of goats milk, and occasionally it is up to 15%ewesmilk. It is cured inpimentooil or gofio meal. Majorero andpalmero cheeseare the only two Canarian cheeses withprotected denomination of origin. Transport and communications The main methods of arriving and departing the islands are by flying and by ferry. Airports The airport is the main access point to the island. It is situated in El Matorral, 5 km (3.1 mi) southwest of the capital city Puerto del Rosario. The airport has flight connections to over 80 destinations worldwide, and over 5.6 million passengers passed through it in 2016. In 1994, the new airport terminal was constructed. In December 2009, the new facilities of the arrivals terminal of Fuerteventura Airport were inaugurated, tripling the space",
"tripling the space available in the old facilities. Up to 4000 passengers per hour can be served concurrently thanks to the new facilities. Notably,Binter Canariasserves the airport as the regional airline connecting passengers acrossCanary Islands. Ports Maritime communications are made from four ports: Puerto del Rosario, Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. Cargo operations are the main activity of the island's main port in Puerto del Rosario, although its facilities allow the docking of tourist cruises including a ferry from Gran Canaria. Passenger traffic is mainly channeled through Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. The port of Corralejo connects the island with Lanzarote. The port of Gran Tarajal connects the island with Gran Canaria and Morro Jable connects the island with Gran Canaria and Tenerife. Roads There are two highways on the island: FV-1 and FV-2. The FV-1, together with the FV-2, is part of the major construction project of the north–south motorway on Fuerteventura. The FV-1",
"The FV-1 begins in the north, in the town of Corralejo and ends in the island's capital Puerto del Rosario. FV-1 is part dual carriageway and part single carriageway. In the past, the FV-1 also ran through the Corralejo Dune Nature Reserve. In order to direct through traffic out of the nature reserve, the dual carriageway bypass around the nature reserve was opened in 2017 as the first section of the motorway after three years of construction, plus five years of construction delay. The road through nature reserve was renamed FV-104. FV-2 connects Morro Jable and Puerto del Rosario. Between La Lajita and Morro Jable, FV-2 is a dual carriageway highway. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar, Hertz, Sixt and TopCar. Sport Many sports are commonly played in Fuerteventura, both in the open air and in sports centres across the island. Native sports These are the Canarian sports found on the island: Canarian wrestling The wrestling takes place in a",
"takes place in a ring of sand called theterrero. Inside it, the two contestants try to knock each other over. Fuerteventura has 14 terreros distributed through all the towns except Betancuria. The island also has a school wrestling league organized by the council and a programme to promote this sport in clubs. Twelve wrestling schools participate in this, based in Antigua, Costa Calma, El Matorral, La Lajita, Lajares, Las Playitas, Morro Jable, Puerto del Rosario, Tefía, Tetir, Unión Sur and Villaverde. Juego del Palo Juego del Palois a Canarian martial art which literally translates as \"game of the stick\". It is played by two players both armed with sticks. They aim to defeat each other without making contact with their opponent's body. The origin of this game is unclear. All we know is that it is based on a method of combat used by the precolonial Canarian people. Fuerteventura has the following Palo clubs: Canarian boules This is a similar game to the FrenchPétanquewhich is actually played very little on",
"very little on the island, although there are a few teams and courts. Basically the game consists of scoring points by throwing a ball to get it as near as possible to an object called amingueorboliche. It is played on a rectangular sand or earth pitch which is 18 to 25 m (59.1–82.0 ft) long and 3.5 to 6 m (11.5–19.7 ft) wide. Watersports The sea and climate conditions make the island the perfect place for a huge variety of watersports. Surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing Many types of surfing are popular on the island, includingtraditional surfing,windsurfing(where the board is propelled by a sail) and most recentlykitesurfing. The island has many schools and courses dedicated to teaching these sports. The sports where Fuerteventura has the most impact internationally are windsurfing and kitesurfing, mainly due to the International Windsurfing and Kiteboarding Championship. This has run since 1985 and is held at Playas de Sotavento in Pájara municipality. Many important wind and kitesurfing figures compete",
"figures compete in this championship, such as the several-times world windsurfing championBjörn DunkerbeckandGisela Pulido, the very young kiteboarding champion fromTarifa. Many Canarian windsurfers are on the Canarian Waveriders circuit, which has been based inCorralejosince 2005. Diving Diving schools are just as frequent as surfing ones, all around the coast of Fuerteventura. Unlike the other islands of the archipelago, Fuerteventura has a shelf which at some points goes up to 30 km (19 mi), making it an ideal place to practice this sport. Two of the most useful points for diving are the coast offPlaya del Matorralin the South, and the zone betweenLobos Islandand Corralejo in the north. It is here in Corralejo that the International Sea and Submarine Photography Festival takes places, known as Fimarsub Corralejo – Lobos. During the festival there are beginners' lessons, professional dives, lessons in underwater photography, screenings and other events related to the sport. Swimming There are many swimming",
"are many swimming pools on the island but the most obvious place to swim is in the open sea. There is an annual swim from Lobos Island to Fuerteventura, held every year since 1999. The event attracts amateur swimmers from all over the Canaries and Spain, and also swimming professionals such asDavid MecaandMaarten van der Weijden, the paralympist Jesús Collado Alarcón who won gold medals for 100m backstroke and butterfly in Athens 2004, and Xavi Torres Ramis, the paralympic champion in Barcelona 1992, Sydney and Atlanta. Sailing The island holds competitions involving different types of boat, such as thelateenand theOptimist. An interesting event is the Tour of Fuerteventura by Kayak, which is organised as a series of stages rather than a competition, and is an easy way to explore the island. Fishing The most notable competition here is the Gran Tarajal Fishing Open. Other sports Since 2004 the Marcha Ciclotourista has been held inLa Olivaand the Criterium Ciclista has been held in Corralejo (also part of the",
"(also part of the La Oliva municipality) since 2005. Participants includeEuskaltel–Euskadi,T-Mobileand a team fromOrbea. These competitions have contributed to local interest in the sport and the first professional local team, theFuerteventura–Canarias, was formed, initially run by Óscar Guerrero, director ofKaiku, although they have not competed for the past few seasons. There are variousmotocrosscircuits on the island, includingLos Alaresin Antigua andIsla de FuerteventurainPuerto del Rosariomunicipality. They hold regular trials, some of which form part of the Canarian Regional Motocross Championship. Throughout the year there are gravel rally races. Two are part of the Canarian Dirt Rally Championship. These are the Antiguan Rally and the La Oliva Rally. The island's mainfootballclubs areCD Union PuertoandCD Cotillo, who play in Group XII of the SpanishTercera División RFEF. The resort Playitas on the south coast is since around 2008 equipped with a 50 m (160 ft) swimming pool and has become a",
"and has become a destination fortriathlontraining camps for Europeans. An annual race called Challenge Fuerteventura is held there on the half ironman distance. People See also References External links",
"Gran Canaria Gran Canaria(UK:/ˌɡrænkəˈnɛəriə,-ˈnɑːr-/,US:/ˌɡrɑːnkəˈnɑːriə,-ˈnɛər-/;Spanish:ⓘ), alsoGrand Canary Island, is the third-largest and second-most-populous island of theCanary Islands,anarchipelagooff the Atlantic coast ofNorthwest Africaand is part of Spain. As of 2023the island had a population of 862,893 that constitutes approximately 40% of the population of the archipelago.Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, the capital of the island, is the biggest city of the Canary Islands and the ninth of Spain. Gran Canaria is located in the Atlantic Ocean in a region known asMacaronesiaabout 150 kilometres (93 mi) off the northwestern coast of Africa and about 1,350 km (840 mi) from Europe.With an area of 1,560 km2(600 sq mi)and an altitude of 1,956 m (6,417 ft) atMorro de la Agujereada, Gran Canaria is the third largest island of the archipelago in both area and altitude. Gran Canaria is also the third most populated island in Spain. History Inantiquity, Gran Canaria was populated by the North AfricanCanarii,",
"AfricanCanarii, who may have arrived as early as 500 BC.In themedieval period, after over a century of European incursions and attempts at conquest, the island was conquered on 29 April 1483, by theCrown of Castile, underQueen Isabella I. The Canarian queenAbencharawas captured and imprisoned by the Spanish during the conquest. The conquest succeeded after a war that lasted five years, and it was an important step towards the expansion of the unified Spain. The capital city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canariawas founded on 24 June 1478, under the name \"Real de Las Palmas\", byJuan Rejón, head of the invadingCastilianarmy. In 1492,Christopher Columbusanchored in thePort of Las Palmas(and spent some time on the island) on his first trip to the Americas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is, jointly withSanta Cruz de Tenerife, the capital of theautonomous communityof the Canary Islands. Much of Iberian migration to the island consisted ofconversosof Jewish origin. On 27 March 1977, a bomb went off in Gran Canaria Airport, the",
"Airport, the main airport on the island. Flights were diverted to the nearby Tenerife Airport: this led to theTenerife airport disaster. Etymology Plinyclaimed that the island was named for the dogs on the island, of which two were presented as a gift toJuba, King ofMauretania.This opinion is disputed as when the Europeans arrived on the island, no dogs were found.Another source suggested the way the natives ate fish was doglike and this was the reason for its name.A more plausible assumption is that the islands name derives from the people Canario or Canarii living near theAtlas mountain range.Jean de Béthencourtnamed the islandGranCanaria as the people on the island were valorous opponents to hisconquest. Geography Gran Canaria is located in theCanary Islandsarchipelago southeast ofTenerifeand west ofFuerteventura. The island is ofvolcanicorigin, mostly made offissure vents. It has a round shape, with a diameter of approximately 50 km (31 mi) and a surface area of 1,560 km2(600 sq mi). Gran Canaria's",
"mi). Gran Canaria's maximum elevation is 1,956 metres (6,417 ft) atMorro de la Agujereada, although the nearbyPico de las Nieveshas traditionally been considered the island's tallest peak. The coastline measures 236 km. Geology About 80% of the volume of the island was formed during theMioceneperiod eruptions, between 14 and 9 million years ago.This is called the \"Old Cycle\" and is estimated to have lasted some 200,000 years and have emitted about 1,000 km3(240 cu mi), mostly of fissuralalkali basalt. This cycle continued with the emission oftrachytes,phonolitesandperalkalinerocks.This period was followed by one of erosion, which lasted some 4 million years. A second cycle of volcanic eruptions, known as the \"Roque Nublo cycle\", took place between 4.5 and 3.4 million years ago. This shorter cycle emitted about 100 km3(24 cu mi). Most of the inland peaks were formed by erosion from these materials. This period also started with fissural basalts, but ended with violent eruptions ofpyroclastic flows. Some",
"flows. Some phonolitic features, like the Risco Blanco, were also formed in its last stages. The third or recent cycle is held to have started some 2.8 million years ago and is considered to be still active. The last eruptions are held to have occurred some 2000 years ago. The changes in volume and, therefore, weight of the island have also caused the island to rise above the previous sea level during erosive periods and to sink during eruptive periods. Some of these \"fossil beaches\" can be seen in the cliff faces of the more eroded northern coast. Climate According to theKöppen climate classification, Gran Canaria is considered to have ahot desert climate (BWh)due to its severe lack of precipitation. Gran Canaria has consistent warm temperatures in spring, summer and autumn, and mild winters. Gran Canaria is noted for its rich variety ofmicroclimates. Generally speaking though, the average daytime high ranges from 20 °C (68 °F) in winter to 26 °C (79 °F) in summer. Some cool nights occur in winter, but lows",
"in winter, but lows below 10 °C (50 °F) are unknown near the coast. Inland the climate is still mild but mountainous areas see the occasional frost or snow. Annual rainfall averages 228 mm (9.0 in), most of this falling in the cooler months, with July, August and September normally rainless. Rainfall is unevenly distributed through the island with some areas being much drier than others. Cloud cover and sunshine is often quite variable during the cooler months, and there can be several rather cloudy days at times in winter. Summers are generally quite sunny however, with the south of the island being most favoured. Vegetation Until the conquest, Gran Canaria had extensive forests, but then suffered extensivedeforestationas a result of continuous logging, land divisions and other intensive uses. This reduced the forest cover to just 56,000 hectares (140,000 acres),making the island the most deforested of the Canary Islands.However, in the twentieth century reforestation of the ridge of the island was begun,",
"island was begun, recovering some of the lost forest mass. Much of the summit of the island is forested mostly due toreforestation. Governance Gran Canaria is in theautonomous communityof theCanary Islands(Islas Canarias). It lies within theProvince of Las Palmas, aSpanish provincewhich consists of the eastern part of the Canary Islands community.Las Palmas de Gran Canariais the provincial capital, one of the two capitals of the Canary Islands along withSanta Cruz de Tenerife. The island of Gran Canaria is governed by theCabildo insular de Gran Canaria.Gran Canaria Island itself is divided into twenty-one smallermunicipalities: The island has a population at the start of 2023 of 862,893 - with 380,863 of those in the capital city ofLas Palmas de Gran Canaria. Gran Canaria is the second most populous island of the Canary Islands, afterTenerife. Transportation Roads Gran Canaria has roads encircling the whole island and extending into the mountain areas. In the late 20th century, its dual carriageway, among",
"carriageway, among the first in the Canary Islands, were opened and run around Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, and were later extended to the north coast and the airport and subsequently to the south coast in response to increased tourist traffic. The only highway of Gran Canaria areGC1. Dual carriageway isGC2, andGC31,GC4andGC5. The western and the north-western parts, with the fewest inhabitants, are linked only with main roads. Buses Public transport around Gran Canaria is provided by an extensive bus network, known in the local dialect asguaguas. TheAutoridad Única del Transporte de Gran Canaria(Gran Canaria Transport Authority, TGC) manages the network and operates a number of bus stations across the island, including San Telmo and Santa Catalina bus stations in Las Palmas, Maspalomas and Galdar.Bus tickets may be purchased with cash, and AUTGC also operates acontactlesselectronic ticketcalled the TransGC Card, which is valid across the whole network. Inter-urban bus services across the island are operated",
"island are operated by the Global bus company.Global was created in 2000 after the merger of two bus companies, Utinsa (which operated in the north of the island) and Salcai (the bus operator for the south).Local bus services in Las Palmas are run by the municipal bus company,Guaguas Municipales de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Airport Gran Canaria Airport(IATA: LPA) is the only commercial airport on the island. The large number of aircraft and passengers passing through it each year make it one of the busiest in Spain. Gran Canaria is also responsible for all air traffic control in the Canaries. By destination island, Gran Canaria is the second island that congregates the largest number of passengers in the Canary Islands.Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are:Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz, Sixt and TopCar. Sea ports The most important ports in the island are the Port of Las Palmas(Puerto de la Luz),in the city ofLas Palmas de Gran",
"Palmas de Gran Canaria;Arguineguín, which exportscementfrom a large factory; andArinaga, located in the main industrial zone of Canaries and one of the major ones of Spain. The main passenger ports are the Port of La Luz, whereTrasmediterráneaoperates a weekly ferry route toCádizon the Spanish mainland,and thePort of Las Nieves, located inAgaeteon the west side of the island, whereFred Olsen Expressoperates acatamaranferry service toSanta Cruz de Tenerife. Train Plans for aTren de Gran Canariarailway network linking the capital with the south have been approved by both theGran Canaria Cabildoand the autonomous Canary Islands' Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government hinges now on budget. The planned 57 km (35 mi) railway line would run between Las Palmas and Meloneras, with the section in the capital running entirely underground as far as the suburb of Jinámar. The line is planned to have 11 stations, including an underground station at Gran Canaria Airport. The scheme was first",
"scheme was first announced in 2009, with a planned operational date in 2015. A public company calledFerrocarriles de Gran Canariahas been formed by the Cabildo's Gran Canaria Transport Authority. Plans were still being discussed in 2018. Agriculture Gran Canaria agriculture is unique among the Canaries islands in that it was traditionally dominated by plantations, with much of these being grains as well assugarcane, rather than by stock-breeding.Thecaves of Valerón(aproperty of cultural interestin the \"archaeological site\" category) in the municipality ofSanta María de Guíabears testimony of it by being the largest pre-Hispanic collective granary of the Canaries. Tourism This island is called a \"miniature continent\" due to the different climates and variety of landscapes found, with long beaches and dunes of white sand, contrasting with green ravines and picturesque villages.A third of the island is under protection as aBiosphere ReservebyUNESCO. The number of annual visitors was 3.6 million in 2014 (of",
"million in 2014 (of which 450.000 Spaniards).It is the second island in the archipelago in number of annual tourists, after Tenerife.Most of the tourists visit the southern part of the island. The north tends to be cooler, while the south is warmer and sunny. The east coast of the island is flat, dotted with beaches, while the western coast is rockier and mountainous. The island possesses 32 Natural Protected Spaces,notably the Rural Park of Nublo, The Doramas Jungle, the Azuaje Ravine, Tamadaba, Pino Santo, etc. In the south there is a large bird park,Palmitos Park, as well as many beach resort communities. Resorts are concentrated in the central eastern part of the southern coast in theMaspalomasarea, which includes the towns ofSan Agustín,Playa del InglésandMeloneras. TheMaspalomas Dunesare located between Playa del Inglés (\"The Englishman's Beach\") and the distinctive 19th centuryMaspalomas lighthouse. Playa del Ingles is home to the Yumbo Centre,which was opened in 1982 and has almost 200 shops,",
"almost 200 shops, including bars, restaurants, cafes, fashion boutiques, electronic outlets and jewellery stores. In Tarajalillo, an Aeroclub exists from where tourist flights can be taken over the island. Still further to the west along the southern shore, in the Municipality of Mogán, are the communities ofPuerto RicoandPuerto de Mogán, a village referred to as \"Little Venice\" on account of its many canals. Other attractions include Cocodrilos Park,Roque Nublo(an 80 m monolith),Cenobio de Valerónwith more than 350 storage cavities,Painted cave of Galdarthe most important archaeological park in Canary Islands, or the botanical gardensJardín Canario(in Tafira Alta) andCactualdea(inLa Aldea de San Nicolás). El Dedo de Dios, or \"God's Finger\", was a rocky spire jutting from the sea inPuerto de las Nieves, and was previously the signature attraction of the Canary Islands until it was destroyed bytropical storm Deltathat crossed the archipelago in November 2005. Other well-known rock formations are El Cura (also",
"are El Cura (also known as El Fraile), The Frog (La Rana),Roque Bentayga, the Roque de Gando, and the Peñón Bermejo. Traditionally, the highest peak of the island has been considered to be thePico de las Nieves, at 1,949 metres (6,394 ft); however,Morro de la Agujereadais taller, at 1,956 metres (6,417 ft). The capital city isLas Palmas de Gran Canaria.Las Canterasbeach, a protected area and diving zone, lies in the heart of the city. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is also known for its annualcarnaval. It was the first stop of Christopher Columbus' expedition on his way back from the Americas,a commemoration of which is the Hermitage of San Antonio Abad, where the navigator prayed, and theCasa de Colón. Other attractions in the capital city include theMuseo Canario(the most important archaeology museum in the archipelago), the cathedral and thePlaza del Espíritu Santo. InTerorthe shrine ofVirgen del Pino(\"Virgin of the Pine\"), patron saint of Gran Canaria, can be found. Its feast is celebrated on 8 September.",
"on 8 September. The town ofAgüimes, on the eastern part of the island, has been carefully restored and its town centre, centered on its old church and a peaceful square, now evokes the quiet living of a traditional Canarian town. The district also has some of the best preserved cave dwellings, in the protected area of theGuayadeque ravine, where even the church has been built into the mountainside and visitors can find a number of popular cave restaurants. The district also includes the most renowned scuba diving area on the island: the marine reserve at theplaya de El Cabrónjust outside the town of Arinaga. Other important towns areTelde, known among other things for theirsurfschools in Salinetas, Vecindario (within the municipality of Santa Lucía de Tirajana) andGáldar, that contains an important diving zone. InArucasthere is a Neogothic temple, popularly known as \"Arucas' Cathedral\", as well as a large fertile plain where bananas are grown. InGáldarand its surroundings there is also a banana-growing plain",
"plain and some remarkable archaeological remains,such as thePainted cave of Galdaror thecenobio de Valerón's communal silos, ancient tombs (among which thenecropolis of Maipés), and the port of Sardina del Norte (one of the island's ports where, as in Las Palmas',Christopher Columbusused to get supplies for his ships). Heading west along the southern coast is the fishing city ofArguineguínin theMunicipality of Mogán. Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Gran Canaria are theCanary MastiffandEuphorbia canariensis(Cardón) Beaches Protected natural areas Nearly half of the island territory — 667 km2(258 sq mi) (42.7% of island) — is under protection from the Red Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos (Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,a total of 33 are located in Gran Canaria, the second most protected island in the group.There are seven different categories of protection: Music",
"protection: Music Science and technology In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14ground stationsin theManned Space Flight Network(MSFN) to support theNASAspace program.Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including theApollo 11Moon landings andSkylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of theESAnetwork. Sports The island is home toCB Gran Canaria– a basketball club playing inLiga ACBat theGran Canaria Arena, with a capacity of 11,000. The island is also home toUD Las Palmas– a football club playing inLa Ligaat theEstadio de Gran Canaria, with a capacity of 32,392.Professional Windsurfers Association(PWA) holds its annual competitions at Pozo - Pozo Izquierdo: This spot, which is situated in the municipal area of Santa Lucía, is internationally famous on account of the ideal windsurfing conditions, the wind being ever present. See also Bibliography Geology of Gran Canaria References External",
"References External links"
] |
American author Joan Didion's second fiction novel has a film adaptation. The director of this film is the uncle of a famous pop singer This pop singer once famously sang a song with lyrics describing a combustible-containing device. This song received nominations for Best Pop Solo Performance and Record of the Year at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards. This song was inspired by another book. What is the name of the song and the book that inspired it? | Firework by Katy Perry was inspired by "On the Road" by Jack Kerouac | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Didion | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays_(film) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Perry | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katy_Perry | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Katy_Perry#Awards_and_nominations | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | Post processing | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Didion', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays_(film)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Perry', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katy_Perry', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Katy_Perry#Awards_and_nominations'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Didion",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_as_It_Lays_(film",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Perry",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katy_Perry",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Katy_Perry#Awards_and_nominations"
] | [
"Joan Didion Joan Didion(/ˈdɪdiən/; December 5, 1934 – December 23, 2021) was an American writer and journalist. She is considered one of the pioneers ofNew Journalism, along withGay Talese,Hunter S. Thompson, andTom Wolfe. Didion's career began in the 1950s after she won an essay contest sponsored byVoguemagazine.She would go on to publish essays inThe Saturday Evening Post,Life,Esquire,The New York Review of Books, andThe New Yorker. Her writing during the 1960s through the late 1970s engaged audiences in the realities of thecounterculture of the 1960s, the Hollywood lifestyle, and the history and culture ofCalifornia. Didion's political writing in the 1980s and 1990s concentrated on the subtext of political rhetoric andthe United States's foreign policy in Latin America.In 1991, she wrote the earliest mainstream media article to suggest that theCentral Park Fivehad been wrongfully convicted.With her husbandJohn Gregory Dunne, Didion wrote multiple screenplays, includingThe Panic in Needle Park(1971),A Star Is Born(1976), andUp Close & Personal(1996). In 2005, she won theNational Book Award for Nonfictionand was a finalist for both theNational Book Critics Circle Awardand thePulitzer PrizeforThe Year of Magical Thinking, a memoir of the year following the sudden death of her husband. She later adapted the book into a play that premiered on Broadway in 2007. In 2013, she was awarded theNational Humanities Medalby presidentBarack Obama.Didion was profiled in the 2017NetflixdocumentaryThe Center Will Not Hold, directed by her nephewGriffin Dunne. Early life and education Didion was born on December 5, 1934, inSacramento, California,to Eduene (née Jerrett) and Frank Reese Didion.She had one brother, five years her junior, James Jerrett Didion, who became a real estate executive.Didion recalled writing things down as early as age five,although she said she never saw herself as a writer until after her work had been published. She identified as a \"shy, bookish child,\" an avid reader, who pushed herself to overcome social anxiety through acting and public speaking. During her adolescence, she would type outErnest Hemingway's works to learn how his sentence structures worked. Didion's early education was nontraditional. She attended kindergarten and first grade, but, because her father was a finance officer in theArmy Air Corpsand the family constantly relocated, she did not attend school regularly.In 1943 or early 1944, her family returned toSacramento, and her father went to Detroit to negotiate defense contracts forWorld War II. Didion wrote in her 2003 memoirWhere I Was Fromthat moving so often made her feel as if she were a perpetual outsider. Didion received a B.A. in English fromUniversity of California, Berkeley, in 1956.During her senior year, she won first place in the \"Prix de Paris\" essay contest, sponsored byVogue,and was awarded a job as aresearch assistantat the magazine. The topic of her winning essay was the San Francisco architectWilliam Wurster. Career Vogue During her seven years atVogue, from 1956 to 1964, Didion worked her way up from promotional copywriter to associate feature editor.Mademoisellepublished Didion's article \"Berkeley’s Giant: The University of California\" in January 1960.While atVogue, and homesick for California, she wrote her first novel,Run, River(1963), about a Sacramento family as it comes apart.Writer and friendJohn Gregory Dunnehelped her edit the book.John—the younger brother of author, businessman, and television mystery show hostDominick Dunne—was writing forTimemagazine at the time. He and Didion married in 1964. The couple moved to Los Angeles in 1964, intending to stay only temporarily, but California remained their home for the next 20 years. In 1966, they adopted a daughter, whom they named Quintana Roo Dunne.The couple wrote many newsstand-magazine assignments. \"She and Dunne started doing that work with an eye to covering the bills, and then a little more,\" Nathan Heller reported inThe New Yorker. \"Their Postrates allowed them to rent a tumbledown Hollywood mansion, buy a banana-coloredCorvette Stingray, raise a child, and dine well.\" In Los Angeles, they settled inLos Felizfrom 1963 to 1971, and then, after living inMalibufor eight years, she and Dunne moved toBrentwood Park, a quiet, affluent, residential neighborhood. Slouching Towards Bethlehem In 1968, Didion published her first nonfiction book,Slouching Towards Bethlehem, a collection of magazine pieces about her experiences in California.Cited as an example ofNew Journalism, it used novel-like writing to cover the non-fiction realities ofhippiecounterculture.She wrote from a personal perspective, adding her own feelings and memories to situations, inventing details and quotes to make the stories more vivid, and using metaphors to give the reader a better understanding of the disordered subjects of her essays: politicians, artists, or just people living an American life.The New York Timescharacterized the \"grace, sophistication, nuance, irony\" of her writing. 1970s Didion's novelPlay It as It Lays, set in Hollywood, was published in 1970, andA Book of Common Prayerappeared in 1977. In 1979, she publishedThe White Album, another collection of her magazine pieces fromLife,Esquire,The Saturday Evening Post,The New York Times, andThe New York Review of Books.InThe White Album's title essay, Didion documented an episode she experienced in the summer of 1968. After undergoing psychiatric evaluation, she was diagnosed as having had an attack ofvertigoand nausea. After periods of partial blindness in 1972, she was diagnosed withmultiple sclerosis, but remained in remission throughout her life.In her essay entitled \"In Bed,\" Didion explained that she experienced chronicmigraines. Dunne and Didion worked closely for most of their careers. Much of their writing is therefore intertwined. They co-wrote a number of screenplays, including a1972 film adaptationof her novelPlay It as It Laysthat starredAnthony PerkinsandTuesday Weldand the screenplay for the 1976 film ofA Star is Born.They also spent several years adapting the biography of journalistJessica Savitchinto the 1996Robert RedfordandMichelle Pfeifferfilm,Up Close & Personal. 1980s and 1990s Didion's book-length essaySalvador(1983) was written after a two-week trip to El Salvador with her husband. The next year, she published the novelDemocracy, the story of a long, but unrequited love affair between a wealthy heiress and an older man, aCIAofficer, against the background of theCold Warand theVietnam War. Her 1987 nonfiction bookMiamilooked at the different communities in that city.In 1988, the couple moved from California to New York City. In a prescientNew York Review of Bookspiece of 1991, a year after the various trials of theCentral Park Five, Didion dissected serious flaws in the prosecution's case, making her the earliest mainstream writer to view the guilty verdicts as miscarriages of justice.She suggested the defendants were found guilty because of a sociopolitical narrative with racial overtones that clouded the judgment of the court. In 1992, Didion publishedAfter Henry, a collection of twelve geographical essays and a personal memorial for Henry Robbins, who was Didion's friend and editor until his death in 1979.She publishedThe Last Thing He Wanted, a romantic thriller, in 1996. The Year of Magical Thinking In 2003, Didion's daughter Quintana Roo Dunne developedpneumoniathat progressed toseptic shockand she was comatose in an intensive-care unit when Didion's husband suddenly died of a heart attack on December 30.Didion delayed his funeral arrangements for approximately three months until Quintana was well enough to attend. On October 4, 2004, Didion began writingThe Year of Magical Thinking, a narrative of her response to the death of her husband and the severe illness of their daughter. She finished the manuscript 88 days later on New Year's Eve.Written at the age of 70, this was her first nonfiction book that was not a collection of magazine assignments.She said that she found the subsequent book-tour process very therapeutic during her period of mourning.Documenting the grief she experienced after the sudden death of her husband, the book was called a \"masterpiece of two genres: memoir and investigative journalism\" and won several awards. Visiting Los Angeles after her father's funeral, Quintana fell at the airport, hit her head on the pavement and required brain surgery forhematoma.After progressing toward recovery in 2004, Quintana died of acutepancreatitison August 26, 2005, aged 39, during Didion's New York promotion forThe Year of Magical Thinking.Didion wrote about Quintana's death in the 2011 bookBlue Nights. 2000s Didion was living in an apartment on East 71st Street inManhattanin 2005.Everyman's LibrarypublishedWe Tell Ourselves Stories in Order to Live, a 2006 compendium of much of Didion's writing, including the full content of her first seven published nonfiction books (Slouching Towards Bethlehem,The White Album,Salvador,Miami,After Henry,Political Fictions, andWhere I Was From), with an introduction by her contemporary, the criticJohn Leonard. Didion began working with English playwright and directorDavid Hareon a one-woman stage adaptation ofThe Year of Magical Thinkingin 2007. Produced byScott Rudin, the Broadway play featuredVanessa Redgrave. Although Didion was hesitant to write for the theater, she eventually found the genre, which was new to her, exciting. Didion wrote early drafts of the screenplay for an untitledHBObiopic directed byRobert BentononKatharine Graham. Sources say it may trace the paper's reporting on theWatergatescandal. Later works In 2011,KnopfpublishedBlue Nights, a memoir about aging that also focused on Didion's relationship with her late daughter.More generally, the book deals with the anxieties Didion experienced about adopting and raising a child, as well as the aging process. A photograph of Didion shot byJuergen Tellerwas used as part of the 2015 spring-summer campaign of the luxury French fashion brandCéline, while previously the clothing companyGaphad featured her in a 1989 campaign.Didion's nephewGriffin Dunnedirected a 2017Netflixdocumentary about her,Joan Didion: The Center Will Not Hold.In it, Didion discusses her writing and personal life, including the deaths of her husband and daughter, adding context to her booksThe Year of Magical ThinkingandBlue Nights. In 2021, Didion publishedLet Me Tell You What I Mean, a collection of 12 essays she wrote between 1968 and 2000. Death Didion died from complications ofParkinson's diseaseat her home in Manhattan on December 23, 2021, at the age of 87. Writing style and themes Didion viewed the structure of the sentence as essential to her work. In theNew York Timesarticle \"Why I Write\" (1976),Didion remarked, \"To shift the structure of a sentence alters the meaning of that sentence, as definitely and inflexibly as the position of a camera alters the meaning of the object photographed... The arrangement of the words matters, and the arrangement you want can be found in the picture in your mind... The picture tells you how to arrange the words and the arrangement of the words tells you, or tells me, what's going on in the picture.\" Didion was heavily influenced by Ernest Hemingway, whose writing taught her the importance of how sentences work in a text. Her other influences includedGeorge EliotandHenry James, who wrote \"perfect, indirect, complicated sentences\". Didion was also an observer of journalists,believing the difference between the process of fiction and nonfiction is the element of discovery that takes place in nonfiction, which happens not during the writing, but during the research. Rituals were a part of Didion's creative process. At the end of the day, she would take a break from writing to remove herself from the \"pages\",saying that without the distance, she could not make proper edits. She would end her day by cutting out and editing prose, not reviewing the work until the following day. She would sleep in the same room as her work, saying: \"That's one reason I go home to Sacramento to finish things. Somehow the book doesn't leave you when you're right next to it.\" In a notorious 1980 essay, \"Joan Didion: Only Disconnect,\"Barbara Grizzuti Harrisoncalled Didion a \"neurasthenicCher\" whose style was \"a bag of tricks\" and whose \"subject is always herself\".In 2011,New Yorkmagazine reported that the Harrison criticism \"still gets her (Didion's) hackles up, decades later\". CriticHilton Alssuggested that Didion is reread often \"because of the honesty of the voice.\" Personal life For several years in her 20s, Didion was in a relationship withNoel E. Parmentel Jr., a political pundit and figure on the New York literary and cultural scene.According to Didion's husband, John Gregory Dunne, he actually met her through Parmentel, and Didion and Dunne remained friends for six years before embarking on a romantic relationship. As he later recalled, when they shared a celebratory lunch after Dunne finished reading the galleys for her first novel,Run, River, \"while er other was out of town, it happened.\"Didion and Dunne subsequently married in January 1964 and remained together until his death from a heart attack in 2003. Breaking a long-held silence on Didion, whose work he had championed and for which he found publishers, Parmentel was interviewed for a 1996 article inNew Yorkmagazine.He had been angered in the 1970s by what he felt was a thinly veiled portrait of him in Didion's novelA Book of Common Prayer. In 1966, while living in Los Angeles, she and John adopted a daughter, whom they named Quintana Roo Dunne. A Republican in her early years, Didion later drifted toward the Democratic Party, \"without ever quite endorsing core beliefs.\" As late as 2011, she smoked precisely five cigarettes per day. Awards and honors TheJoan Didion: What She MeansExhibition TheHammer MuseumatUniversity of California, Los Angeles, organized the exhibitionJoan Didion: What She Means. Curated byThe New Yorkercontributor and writerHilton Als, the group show was on view from 2022 and is scheduled to travel to thePérez Art Museum Miamiin 2023.Joan Didion: What She Meanspays homage to the writer and thinker through the lens of nearly 50 modern and contemporary international artists such asFélix González-TorrestoBetye Saar,Vija Celmins,Maren Hassinger,Silke Otto-Knapp,John Koch,Ed Ruscha,Pat Steir, among others. Published works Fiction Nonfiction Screenplays and plays References Further reading External links",
"Play It as It Lays Play It as It Laysis a 1970 novel by American writerJoan Didion.Timemagazine included the novel in its list of the \"100 Best English-Language Novels from 1923 to 2005\".The novel has been credited for helping define modern American Fictionand has been described as an \"instant classic\".It is known for depicting thenihilismand the illusory glamor of life inHollywood,as well as capturing the landscape and culture of 1960sLos Angeles. The book was adapted intoa 1972 filmstarringTuesday Weldas Maria andAnthony Perkinsas BZ. Didion co-wrote the screenplay with her husband,John Gregory Dunne. Plot 31-year-old Maria Wyeth's story begins as she is recovering from an implied mental breakdown in apsychiatric hospitalin the Los Angeles area. Her journey oscillates between dizzying and domestic, as her acting career slows and her personal life collapses. Her story is revealed thoughflashbacksandflash forwards. Maria contrasts her life in Los Angeles with her childhood in Silver Wells,Nevada, a small town so inconsequential that it no longer exists. The daughter of a neurotic mother and a gambling father, who bet on a mine and lost, Maria moves to New York to become an actress. In New York, Maria works temporarily as a model and meets Ivan Costello, a psychopathic blackmailer who has no hesitation exploiting Maria. In New York, Maria receives news of her mother's death in a car wreck, possibly a suicide. Her father dies soon after, leaving useless mineral rights to his business partner and friend Benny Austin. Maria withdraws from acting and modeling, splits up with Ivan, and eventually meets Carter and moves to Hollywood. Later, we find that she and Carter have a four-year-old daughter Kate. Kate is in a treatment facility for an unspecified \"aberrant chemical in her brain\".Maria loves Kate, as indicated by her tender descriptions, her frequent hospital visits, and her determination \"to get her out\". When Maria discovers she is pregnant, she is unsure if her husband, Carter or her lover, Les Goodwin, is the father and she tells Carter the truth. Carter urges Maria to have anabortion, and suggests that if she chooses to have the child, he will take fullcustodyof their daughter. Set in a time before thelegalization of abortion, Maria must find a doctor who will perform an illegal abortion. Maria follows steps to covertly contact and visit the only doctor who does \"clean work\" in Los Angeles. Maria has an illegal abortion, performed withlocal anesthetic, in a house where there are newspapers on the floor. Feeling distress after her abortion, Maria begins to have vivid nightmares about dying infants and rattlesnakes. An inevitable divorce, and the ensuing social chaos bring Maria to indulge in self-destructive behavior. Maria disengages from her social world as she plunges into long days of compulsive driving, wanderingSouthern California's freeways, through motels and casinos, drinking and chancing sexual encounters with actors and ex-lovers. After a series of disasters for Maria, infidelity among her friends adds further chaos to her life. The plot reaches a climax when Maria's friend BZ commitssuicidein her presence, choosing tooverdoseon sleeping pills (Seconal) and Maria does not stop him, despite fully understanding what he is doing. Before overdosing, he offers to share his pills with Maria, implying that he could help her die by suicide as well. Maria chooses not to take the pills, and does not stop BZ as he proceeds to swallow them. His final words are \"hold onto me\", after which they fall asleep on the bed together. Maria awakens to the sound of BZ's wife, Helene screaming as she discovers his dead body next to Maria. Maria ignores the screaming and holds tighter onto BZ's lifeless hand. In not preventing his suicide, Maria is blamed for his death by her friends. Maria isinstitutionalizedfor her inaction in stopping BZ's suicide, under doctors' and friends' assumption that she must have been disconnected from reality at the time the suicide occurred. It is implied that Maria doesn't try to escape her position, but accepts it apathetically. Her institutionalization can be seen as her choice to withdraw from the outside world, rather than a consequence of an actual mental illness or breakdown.From her hospital, Maria turns her visitors away, and plans for a day she might see her daughter again. Background and publication Play It as It Layswas authorJoan Didion's second novel, after her debutRun, Riverwas published in 1963. Didion gained public attention for her non-fiction collectionSlouching Towards Bethlehemin 1968.Published on July 13, 1970, byFarrar, Straus & Giroux,Didion said about the novel, \"I didn't think it was going to make it And suddenly it did make it, in a minor way. And from that time on I had more confidence.\" The book bears some resemblance to Didion's life, as Didion also had a daughter with a psychological disorder and drove the same car as Maria, a yellowCorvette Stingray.Like the protagonist, Didion lived in New York before moving to California.However, Didion asserted that the book was not autobiographical. Themes Life as a game This theme occurs frequently throughout the novel, especially in reference togamblingandcasino games.Having grown up aroundcasinoswith her gambling father, Maria sees life as a game in which every player chooses astrategy, or chooses to stop playing.Describing her upbringing she says, \"My father advised me that life itself was a crap game: it was one of the two lessons I learned as a child. The other was that overturning a rock was apt to reveal a rattlesnake. As lessons go those two seem to hold up, but not to apply.\" The title of the book,Play it as it Laysis a reference to advice from Maria's father on playingcraps: \"it goes as it lays, don't do it the hard way\", an idiom with meaning similar to \"playing with the cards you are dealt\". At the exposition of the novel, Maria describes the recent events of life as such, \"I was holding all theaces, but what was the game?\". Furthermore, social interactions can be seen as a kind of game. Maria tries to be a good \"player\" when she speaks to her doctors: \"There are only certain facts, I say, trying again to be an agreeable player of the game.\" Deathcan be seen as the choice to stop playing the game of life. As he is about to commit suicide, BZ says to Maria, \"you're still playing Some day you'll wake up and you just won't feel like playing\". By choosing to die, BZ decides to stop playing. Meanwhile Maria references her choice to keep living, and continuing to \"play\" the game of life despite its meaninglessness, in the famous quote: \"I know what 'nothing' means, and keep on playing.\" Nihilism Throughout the novel Maria and other characters reveal a belief in the meaninglessness of life. This theme may be ascribed todepressionwhich the characters experience, to the emptiness of working in Hollywood or as an overarching philosophical theme on life. Many scenes in the book can be seen as an encounter with absurdity and nothingness,as Maria has odd encounters with strangers whom she never sees again. Maria's dark view of life is revealed in quotes such as, \"Maria did not particularly believe in rewards, only in punishments, swift and personal.\" The concept ofnothingoccurs in many contexts, such as Maria marking \"nothing applies\" on her hospital documents, and repeating this thought when revisiting memories of her past. When speaking to Benny about their now-destroyed hometown, Maria says, \"there is no Silver Wells\", suggesting that finding meaning in past memories is futile.The line \"Maria said nothing\" occurs repeatedly in several dialogues, suggesting that Maria considers it pointless to explain herself to others. Maria does not try to find greater meaning in suffering, nor does she ask questions about why suffering occurs and if there is a purpose to it. This view is presented in her opening monologue, \"Carter and Helene still ask questions. I used to ask questions, and I got the answer: nothing. The answer is 'nothing.'\" Depiction of Los Angeles Play It As It Laysis considered a classic Los Angeles novel, containing manyliterary motifsassociated with Los Angeles andCalifornia. Driving, Cars and the Freeway Theinterstate freewayplays an important part in both thesettingand the plot of the novel, as the protagonist spends her days driving on the freeway as a form ofescapism, a motif that is popular in Los Angeles novels. Los Angeles, known as \"a city on wheels\",has a unique identity as a city designed for cars, due to its flat terrain and relatively late urbanization. The philosophical themes of the novel have been described as \"freeway existentialism\"as Maria goes on drives without a destination in mind. Maria fulfills the literary trope of a drifter, a common trope in Los Angeles novels, where protagonists are often depicted driving, either as a way to chase their dreams or to escape their problems.Driving a fast car on the open road is often considered a literary symbol of the illusion of freedom, which is easily achieved in Southern California, where there is a well developed, multi-lane freeway. Some of the plot developments occur while driving. For instance Maria informs Carter that she is pregnant when they are driving on the freeway. When driving to the house where her illegal abortion is to occur, Maria and the man in the \"duck pants\" discuss their cars, which brings a sense of normalcy and relief to Maria, \"In the past few minutes he had significantly altered her perception of reality: she saw now that she was not a woman on her way to have an abortion. She was a woman parking a Corvette while a man in white pants talked about buying a Camaro. There was no more to it than that.\" An ongoing theme is that Maria avoids her problems by driving away from them, and as she sinks deeper into a nihilistic depression, she drives further distances, driving between California and Nevada. Disillusionment in Hollywood Didion is often credited for capturing the atmosphere of Hollywood in the 1960s.Play It As it Laysdepicts Hollywood as a \"broken paradise\" as seen from the point of view of a disenchanted actress,in contrast to the more common,utopianview of Hollywood.The novel depicts the scheming, exploitation, and elitism common in thefilm industryat that time. In the same way that movie makers manufacture stories, the characters in the film industry manufacture their own image to attain status and fame. Though themes ofnarcissismandself-destructionamong the wealthy are old themes, seen in novels such asThe Great Gatsby, the focus on the inner workings of movie production at the end ofGolden Era Hollywood, establishPlay It As It Laysas a classic Los Angeles novel. Maria's acting career is on the decline because she walked away from amovie set, damaging her reputation in an industry where reputation is highly important. This leads her to become more detached and apathetic to the social culture around her, and she begins to disregard social conventions and isolate herself from her acquaintances, rejecting invitations to parties and choosing to be alone instead. Many dialogues between Maria and other characters portray the superficiality and strategy associated with the film industry, as characters choose words carefully to achieve an aim or to avoid direct communication. The few dialogues which depict genuine, heartfelt interactions stand out, such as BZ telling Maria, \"hold onto me\" before overdosing. Criticism Reception Considered a classic work of American fiction, the novel has received largely positive reviews from literary critics, but often draws mixed reviews from the public due to its bleak content and unlikableprotagonist.The plot has been described by critics as having \"cinematic nihilism\",and being a \"ruthless dissection of American life in the 1960s.\" It has been positively described as a \"terrifying book.\"In a review of the novel,Joseph Epsteindescribed Joan Didion as a novelist: \"her vision is dark, her views are bleak, but she is richly talented.\"J. Frakes, reviewing the novel in theBook Worldcolumn ofThe Washington Post,described the novel as a \"scathing novel, distilling venom in tiny drops, revealing devastation in a sneer and fear in a handful of atomic dust.\"Library Journaldescribed it as, \"intelligent, well-structured, witty, irresistibly relentless.\" Didion's writing style in this novel has been applauded for breaking from literary tradition and making use of a precise, minimalist style,composed of short chapters, some of which are only a few sentences long, leaving the page mostly blank. The style has been described as \"short, laser-focused chapters that come in hot and burn out just as quickly like a firework.\" In popular culture The novel continues to be a prominent work inpopular culture. The book has been referenced in the Netflix television series,You.In a 2023 survey among writers by the LA Times,Play It As It Layswas voted the third most popular LA book.Literary Hublisted the novel in its list of10 Essential Books That Capture Los Angeles in All Its Sublime, Beautiful Darkness.The independent editorial websiteBook Riot, included the novel in its list,10 of the Best Books About Los Angeles,describing Didion, \"when people think of Los Angeles authors, Joan Didion is almost always the first name that pops into their minds.\"The novel is frequently listed as a popular Los Angeles novel by popular culture websites. Adaptation The book was adapted intoa 1972 filmdirected byFrank Perry, starringTuesday Weldas Maria andAnthony Perkinsas BZ.Didion co-wrote the screenplay with her husband,John Gregory Dunne. Notes References External links",
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"Frank Perry Frank Joseph Perry Jr.(August 21, 1930 – August 29, 1995) was an American stage director and filmmaker. His 1962 independent filmDavid and Lisaearned anAcademy Award nomination for Best DirectorandBest Adapted Screenplay(written by his then-wifeEleanor Perry). The couple collaborated on five more films, includingThe Swimmer,Diary of a Mad Housewife, and theEmmy Award–nominatedA Christmas Memory, based on a short story byTruman Capote. Perry went on to form Corsair Pictures, privately financed byUnited Artists Theatres, which producedMiss FirecrackerandA Shock to the System, then folded.His later films includeMommie Dearestand the documentaryOn the Bridge, about his battle withprostate cancer. Early life Frank Joseph Perry Jr. was born inNew York Cityto stockbroker Frank Joseph Perry Sr. (1905–1969) and Pauline E. Schwab (1908–1965), who worked atAlcoholics Anonymous.As a teenager, Frank Jr. began pursuing his interest in the theater with a job as a parking lot attendant for the Westport Country Playhouse in nearbyWestport, Connecticut. He attended theUniversity of Miami. Frank also studied underLee Strasbergin New York. He produced several plays at Westport Country Playhouse and then turned for a time to producing television documentaries. Career A veteran of the Korean War, he returned to the entertainment industry after being discharged and made his directorial debut in 1962 with the low-budget drama filmDavid and Lisa. Based on the novel byTheodore Isaac Rubin, the screenplay was written by his wife,Eleanor Rosenfeld, who received a nomination for anAcademy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay. A character study of two emotionally disturbed teenagers, the film was successful at the box office and met with much critical acclaim, earning him a nomination for anAcademy Award for Directing. Both Perrys would eventually join the select group of non-actors awarded membership inActors Studio.Perry went on to direct and produce a number of films, many based on literary sources or with strong literary associations, includingThe Swimmer, (1968) based on aJohn Cheeverstory,Last Summer(1969), andTrilogy(1969), written byTruman Capote. Perry is known for his character studies, such asDiary of a Mad Housewife(1970). That film earned aBest Actress Oscarnomination forCarrie Snodgress, andPlay It as It Lays(1972), starringTuesday Weld, brought her aGolden GlobeBest Actress nomination. Both of these films Perry produced and directed, but he is probably best remembered for directing the biographical dramaMommie Dearest, an adaptation of a biography by actressJoan Crawford's adoptive daughter. The film became a cult classic despite mixed reviews from critics; it also won theRazzie Awardfor worst picture, and Frank Perry was nominated for worst director, while actressFaye Dunawayreceived the Razzie for her performance. Some of Perry's film-related material and personal papers are held at the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives, a collection to which scholars and media experts from around the world today have full access. Personal life and death In 1958, Frank married his first wife Eleanor, who was 15 years his senior and had two children, William and Ann, from a previous marriage. Frank and Eleanor collaborated on many screen projects, including screenwriting the Academy Award-nominated 1962David and Lisa(an adaptation of the novella of the same name) which came about due to Eleanor's daughter Ann bringing the novella to her mother's attention.They divorced in 1971 on grounds of incompatibility.In 1979, Eleanor Perry wrote the novelBlue Pages,based on their relationship. She died of cancer two years later, at age 66. In 1977, Perry marriedBarbara Goldsmith, founding editor ofNew Yorkmagazine and book author (Little Gloria...Happy at Last), whom he divorced in 1992. Soon after, he married his Aspen ski instructor, 22-years-younger Virginia Brush Ford, on June 15, 1992. His sister is pastor Mary Christine Perry, the wife of pastor Maurice Keith Hudson and mother of singersKaty Perryand David Hudson. Perry died ofprostate canceron August 29, 1995, eight days after his 65th birthday, atMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Centerin Manhattan.His final film,On the Bridge(1992), is an autobiographical documentary about his illness. His ashes were scattered on the mountains of Aspen, Colorado, where he lived the last three years of his life. Filmography Film Television References Further reading External links",
"Katy Perry Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson(born October 25, 1984), known professionally asKaty Perry, is an American singer, songwriter, and television personality. Perry is one of thebest-selling music artists of all time, having sold over 143 million units worldwide. She is known for her influence onpop musicand hercampstyle, being dubbed the \"Queen of Camp\" byVogueandRolling Stone.Billboardranked her fourth on its \"Greatest of All Time Pop Songs Artists\" list and twenty-fifth on their \"Greatest Pop Stars of the 21st Century\" list. At 16, Perry released agospelrecord titledKaty Hudson(2001) underRed Hill Records, which was commercially unsuccessful. She moved to Los Angeles at 17 to venture intosecularmusic, and later adopted the stage name \"Katy Perry\" from her mother's maiden name. She recorded an album while signed toColumbia Records, but was dropped before signing toCapitol Records. Perry rose to fame withOne of the Boys(2008), apop rockrecord containing her debut single \"I Kissed a Girl\" and follow-up single \"Hot n Cold\", which reached number one and three on the U.S.BillboardHot 100respectively. Thedisco-influenced pop albumTeenage Dream(2010) spawned five U.S. number one singles—\"California Gurls\", \"Teenage Dream\", \"Firework\", \"E.T.\", and \"Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)\"— the only album by a female singer to do so. The album's reissue titledTeenage Dream: The Complete Confection(2012) produced the U.S. number one single \"Part of Me\". Her empowerment-themed albumPrism(2013) had two U.S. number one singles, \"Roar\" and \"Dark Horse\". Both their respective music videos made her the first artist to have multiple videos reach one billion views onVevoandYouTube. Afterwards, Perry released the albumsWitness(2017) andSmile(2020) and embarked on her Las Vegasconcert residencytitledPlay(2021–2023). She released her seventh studio album, titled143, in 2024. Perry has the second-most U.S.diamond certified singlesfor any female artist (6). She has receivedvarious accolades, including aBillboardSpotlight Award, fourGuinness World Records, fiveBillboardMusic Awards, fiveAmerican Music Awards, aBrit Award, aJuno Award, and theMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Award. Outside of music, she released an autobiographical documentary titledKaty Perry: Part of Mein 2012, voicedSmurfetteinThe Smurfsfilm series, and launched her own shoe line Katy Perry Collections in 2017. Perry served as a judge onAmerican Idolfrom thesixteenth seasonin 2018 to thetwenty-second seasonin 2024.Forbesranked her as theworld's highest-paid female musicianin 2015 and 2018. With an estimated net worth of $350 million, she isone of the world's wealthiest musicians. Life and career 1984–1999: Early life and family Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson was born on October 25, 1984, inSanta Barbara, California, toPentecostalpastors Mary Christine (née Perry) and Maurice Keith Hudson.Both of her parents turned to religion after a \"wild youth\".Perry has English, German, Irish, and Portuguese ancestry.Through her mother, she is a niece of film directorFrank Perry.She has a younger brother named David, who is also a singer,and an older sister, Angela. From ages three to 11, Perry frequently moved across the country as her very strict parents set up churches before settling again in Santa Barbara. Growing up, she attended religious schools and camps, including Paradise Valley Christian School inArizonaand Santa Barbara Christian School in California during herelementary years.The family struggled financially,sometimes usingfood stampsand eating food from the food bank which also fed the congregation at her parents' church. Growing up, Perry and her siblings were not allowed to eat the cerealLucky Charmsas the word \"luck\" reminded their mother ofLucifer, and were also required to calldeviled eggs\"angeled eggs\".Perry primarily listened togospel music,as secular music was generally discouraged in the family's home. She discovered popular music through CDs she sneaked from her friends.Perry later recalled a story about how a friend of hers played \"You Oughta Know\" byAlanis Morissette, which impacted her songwriting and singing. While not strictly identifying as religious, she has stated, \"I pray all the time – for self-control, for humility.\"Wanting to be like her sister Angela, Perry began singing by practicing with her sister's cassette tapes. She performed the tracks in front of her parents, who let her take vocal lessons like Angela was doing at the time. She begantrainingat age nineand was incorporated into her parents' ministry,singing in church from ages nine to 17.At 13, Perry was given her first guitar for her birthday,and publicly performed songs she wrote.She tried to \"be a bit like the typical Californian girl\" while growing up, and started rollerskating, skateboarding, and surfing as a teenager. Her brother David described her as a \"tomboy\" during her adolescence, which Perry talks about on her song \"One of the Boys\".She took dancing lessons and learned how toswing,Lindy Hop, andjitterbug.Perry completed herGeneral Educational Development(GED) requirements early at age 15,during her first year of high school,and leftDos Pueblos High Schoolto pursue a music career. 2000–2006: Career beginnings,Katy Hudson, andFingerprints Perry briefly had vocal lessons with a woman named Agatha Danoffin facilities rented from theMusic Academy of the West.Her singing caught the attention of rock artists Steve Thomas andJennifer KnappfromNashville, Tennessee, who brought her there to improve her writing skills.In Nashville, she started recordingdemosand learned how to write songs and play guitar.Perry signed withRed Hill Recordsand recorded her debut album, acontemporary Christianrecord titledKaty Hudson, which was released on March 6, 2001. She also went on tour that year as part ofPhil Joel's Strangely Normal Tourand embarked on other performances of her own in the United States.Katy Hudsonreceived mixed reviews from critics and was commercially unsuccessful, selling an estimated 200 copies before the label ceased operations in December.Transitioning from gospel music to secular music, Perry started working with producerGlen Ballard,and moved to Los Angeles at age 17.She opted to work with Ballard due to his past work with Alanis Morissette, one of her major inspirations. In 2003, she briefly performed as Katheryn Perry, to avoid confusion with actressKate Hudson, and later adopted the stage name \"Katy Perry\", using her mother's maiden name.In 2010, she recalled that \"Thinking of You\" was one of the first songs she wrote after moving to Los Angeles.Perry would also perform at theHotel Café, performing new music while she was between record labels. In 2004, she signed to Ballard's label, Java Records, which was then affiliated withThe Island Def Jam Music Group. Perry began work on a solo record due for release in March 2005, but the record was shelved after Java was dropped.Ballard then introduced her toTim Devine, anA&Rexecutive atColumbia Records, and she was signed as a solo artist. By November 2006, Perry had finished writing and recording material for her Columbia debut titledFingerprints(with some of the material from this time appearing onOne of the Boys) which was planned for release in 2007.Some of the material fromFingerprintsthat did not make it onOne of the Boyswas given to other artists, such as \"I Do Not Hook Up\" and \"Long Shot\" toKelly Clarksonand \"Rock God\" toSelena Gomez & the Scene. Perry worked with songwriters includingDesmond Child,Greg Wells,Butch Walker,Scott Cutler,Anne Preven,the Matrix,Kara DioGuardi,Max Martin, andDr. Luke.In addition, after Devine suggested that songwriting team the Matrix become a \"real group\", she recorded an album,The Matrix, with them.The Matrixwas planned for release in 2004 but was cancelled due to creative differences. It was released in 2009 after the release ofOne of the Boys.Perry was dropped from Columbia in 2006 asFingerprintsneared completion. After the label dropped her, she worked at an independent A&R company, Taxi Music. Perry had minor success prior to her breakthrough. One of the songs she had recorded for her album with Ballard, \"Simple\", was featured on the soundtrack to the 2005 filmThe Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants.Perry provided backing vocals onMick Jagger's song \"Old Habits Die Hard\",which was included on the soundtrack to the 2004 filmAlfie.In September 2004,Blendernamed her \"The Next Big Thing\".She recorded background vocals onP.O.D.'s single \"Goodbye for Now\", was featured at the end of its music video in 2006, and performed it with them onThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno.That year, Perry also appeared in the music video for \"Learn to Fly\" byCarbon Leaf, and played the love interest of her then-boyfriend,Gym Class Heroeslead singerTravie McCoy, in the band's music video for \"Cupid's Chokehold\". 2007–2009: Breakthrough withOne of the Boys After Columbia dropped Perry,Angelica Cob-Baehler, then a publicity executive at the label, brought Perry's demos toVirgin RecordschairmanJason Flom. Flom was convinced that she could be a breakthrough star and she was signed toCapitol Recordsin April 2007. The label arranged for her to work with Dr. Luke to add an \"undeniable smash\" to her existing material.Perry and Dr. Luke co-wrote the songs \"I Kissed a Girl\" and \"Hot n Cold\" for her second albumOne of the Boys. A campaign was started with the November 2007 release of the video to \"Ur So Gay\", a song aimed at introducing her to the music market.Adigital EP of the same namewas also released that month.Madonnahelped publicize the song by praising it on theJohnJay & Richradio show in April 2008,stating \"Ur So Gay\" was her \"favorite song\" at the time.In March 2008, Perry made a cameo appearance as a club singer in theWildfireepisode \"Life's Too Short\"and appeared as herself during a photo shoot that June onThe Young and the Restlessfor the show's magazineRestless Style. Perry released her first single with Capitol, \"I Kissed a Girl\", on April 28, 2008,as the lead single fromOne of the Boys. The first station to pick up the song wasWRVWin Nashville, who were inundated with enthusiastic calls the first three days they played it.The track reached number one on the USBillboardHot 100.\"I Kissed a Girl\" created controversy among both religious andLGBTgroups. The former criticized its homosexual theme, while the latter accused her of usingbi-curiosityto sell records. In response to speculation that her parents opposed her music and career, Perry toldMTVthat they had no problems with her success.One of the Boys, released on June 17, 2008, garnered mixed critical reviews and reached number nine on the USBillboard200.The album went on to sell 7 million copies worldwide.\"Hot n Cold\" was released the following Septemberand became the album's second successful single, reaching number three on theBillboardHot 100while topping charts in Germany,Canada,the Netherlandsand Austria.Later singles \"Thinking of You\" and \"Waking Up in Vegas\" were released in 2009and reached the top 30 of the Hot 100.The Matrix's self-titled debut album, which Perry had recorded with the band in 2004, was released ontoiTuneson January 27, 2009, as a result of her solo success. After finishing the 2008Warped Tour,Perry hosted the2008 MTV Europe Music Awardsin November 2008, where she won the award forBest New Act.At the2009 Brit Awards, she also won the award forInternational Female Solo Artist.Perry embarked on her first headlining world tour, theHello Katy Tour, from January to November 2009 to supportOne of the Boys.On August 4, 2009, she performed as opening act for one date ofNo Doubt's2009 Summer Tour.Perry also hosted the2009 MTV Europe Music Awardsin November 2009, becoming the first person to host two consecutive ceremonies of the European awards.On July 22, 2009, Perry recorded a live album titledMTV Unplugged, which featuredacousticperformances of five tracks fromOne of the Boysas well as one new song, \"Brick by Brick\", and a cover ofFountains of Wayne's \"Hackensack\".It was released on November 17, 2009.Perry also appeared on two singles with other artists; she was featured on a remix ofColorado-based band3OH!3's song \"Starstrukk\" in September 2009,and on a duet withTimbalandentitled \"If We Ever Meet Again\", from his albumShock Value II, three months later.TheGuinness World Recordsrecognized her in its 2010 edition as the \"Best Start on the U.S. Digital Chart by a Female Artist\", for digital single sales of over two million copies. After Perry and Travie McCoy split up in December 2008,they briefly reconciled before she ended their relationship in 2009.Perry met her future husbandRussell Brandin the summer of 2009 while filming a cameo appearance for his filmGet Him to the Greek. Her scene, in which the two kiss, does not appear in the film.She began dating Brand after meeting him again that September at the2009 MTV Video Music Awards.The couple became engaged on December 31, 2009, while vacationing inRajasthan, India. 2010–2012:Teenage Dreamand marriage After serving as a guest judge onAmerican Idol,Perry released \"California Gurls\" featuringSnoop Doggon May 7, 2010.The song was the lead single from her third studio album,Teenage Dream, and reached number one on theBillboardHot 100 in June.She also served as a guest judge onBritishThe X Factorlater that monthbefore releasing the album's second single, \"Teenage Dream\", in July.\"Teenage Dream\" reached number one on theBillboardHot 100 in September.Released on August 24, 2010,Teenage Dreamdebuted at number one on theBillboard200,and received mixed reviews from music critics.It has since sold 6 million copies worldwide.Teenage Dreamwould go on to win the 2011Juno Award for International Album of the Year.In October, \"Firework\" was released as the album's third single.It became the album's third consecutive number one on theBillboardHot 100 on December 8, 2010. \"E.T.\" featuringKanye Westwas released as the fourth single fromTeenage Dreamon February 16, 2011.It topped theBillboardHot 100 for five non-consecutive weeks, makingTeenage Dreamthe ninth album in history to produce four number one singles on the chart.\"Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)\" followed as the fifth single in June,and Perry became the first female artist to achieve five number-oneBillboardHot 100 songs from one album when the single topped that chart on August 17, and the second artist afterMichael Jacksonwith his albumBad.For this record, she received an honoraryAmerican Music Awardin November 2011and a 2013 Guinness World Record.On September 7, she set a new record by becoming the first artist to spend 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the Hot 100.After \"The One That Got Away\" was released as the album's sixth single in October,Teenage Dreambecame the third album to spawn six top-five songs on theBillboardHot 100 afterRhythm Nation 1814byJanet JacksonandFaithbyGeorge Michael.The song peaked at number three in the USand number two in Canada. On January 5, 2012, Perry was named the sixth best-selling digital artist in the United States, with sales of 37.6 million units according toNielsen SoundScan.That month, she became the first artist to have four songs sell over 5 million digital units when \"E.T.\" reached that mark along with \"Firework\", \"California Gurls\", and \"Hot N Cold\".On February 13, Capitol released the lead single fromTeenage Dream: The Complete Confection, \"Part of Me\", which debuted at number one on theBillboardHot 100 and became Perry's seventh single overall to top the chart.Teenage Dream: The Complete Confectionwas released on March 23,and serves as a reissue ofTeenage Dream.\"Wide Awake\" was released on May 22 as the re-release's second single,peaking at number two on theBillboardHot 100and number one in Canadaand New Zealand. Perry embarked on her second tour, theCalifornia Dreams Tour, in support ofTeenage Dreamfrom February 2011 to January 2012.The tour grossed $59.5 million globallyand won her the award forBest Live Actat the2011 MTV Europe Music Awards.On September 23, 2011, she performed on the opening day of the 2011Rock in Riofestival along withElton JohnandRihanna.In September 2010, Perry was scheduled to appear on the 41st-season premiere ofSesame Street. After her scene was uploaded to YouTube, viewers criticized Perry's exposedcleavage. Four days before the scheduled airing,Sesame Workshopannounced that the segment would not air on television, but would still be available to watch online.Perry subsequently mocked the controversy onSaturday Night Live, where she was a musical guest and wore anElmo-themed shirt showing large amounts of cleavage during one skit. In December 2010, Perry playedMoe Szyslak's girlfriend in the live-action segment from a Christmas episode ofThe Simpsonstitled \"The Fight Before Christmas\".In February 2011, she made a guest appearance on theHow I Met Your Motherepisode \"Oh Honey\", playing a woman known as Honey.The role won her thePeople's Choice Award for Favorite TV Guest Starin January 2012.She made her film debut in the 3D family motion pictureThe SmurfsasSmurfetteon July 29, 2011. The film was a financial success worldwide,while critics gave mostly negative reviews.She hostedSaturday Night Liveon December 10, 2011, withRobynas the episode's musical guest. Perry's work on the episode received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised her performance in the episode'sdigital shortfeaturing her andAndy Samberg.In March 2012, she guest starred as a prison security guard named Rikki on theRaising Hopeepisode \"Single White Female Role Model\".On July 5, 2012, Perry's autobiographical documentaryKaty Perry: Part of Mewas released to theaters throughParamount Pictures.The film received positive reviewsand grossed $32.7 million worldwide at the box office. Perry began to venture into business when she endorsed her first fragrance, Purr, in November 2010. Her second fragrance, Meow!, was released in December 2011. Both perfumes were released throughNordstromdepartment stores.Electronic Artsrecruited her to promote their new expansion pack forThe Sims 3: Showtime,before releasing a separatestuff packfeaturing Perry-inspired furniture, outfits, and hairstyles, titledThe Sims 3: Katy Perry's Sweet Treats, in June 2012.The following month, she became the spokesperson and ambassador forPopchipsand made an investment in the company.Billboarddubbed her as their \"Woman of the Year\" for 2012. She married Russell Brand on October 23, 2010, in a traditionalHinduceremonynear theRanthambhore tiger sanctuaryinRajasthan, India.On December 30, 2011, Brand announced that they were divorcing after 14 months of marriage.Perry later stated that conflicting career schedules and his desire to have children before she was ready led to the end of their marriageand that he never spoke to her again after sending a text message that he was divorcing her,while Brand asserted that he divorced her due to her commercial success and reluctance to engage in activism.She was initially distraught over their divorce and said that she contemplated suicide.Since they married without aprenuptial agreement, he was eligible to claim half of the estimated $44 million she earned during their marriage, but declined.Perry began a relationship with singerJohn Mayerin August 2012, the year her marriage with Brand had ended. 2013–2015:Prismand Super Bowl XLIX halftime show In November 2012, Perry began work on her fourth album,Prism.She toldBillboard, \"I know exactly the record I want to make next. I know the artwork, the coloring and the tone\" and \"I even know what type of tour I'm doing next. I'll be very pleased if the vision I have in my head becomes a reality.\"After initially tellingL'Uomo Voguein June 2012 that she planned to have \"darker elements\" inPrismfollowing the end of her marriage, the singer revealed to MTV during the2013 MTV Video Music Awardsthat she changed the album's direction after periods of self-reflection. Perry commented \"I felt very prismatic\", which inspired the album's name.\"Roar\" was released as the lead single fromPrismon August 10, 2013.It was promoted at the MTV Video Music Awards and reached number one on theBillboardHot 100.\"Unconditionally\" followed as the second single fromPrismon October 16, 2013,and peaked at number 14 in the United States. Prismwas released on October 18, 2013, and has sold 4 million copies as of August 2015.It received favorable reviews from criticsand debuted at number one on theBillboard200 chart.Four days later, Perry performed the songs from the album at theiHeartRadioTheater in Los Angeles.\"Dark Horse\" withJuicy Jwas released as the album's third single in December, and became her ninth U.S. number-one single the following month.In 2014, \"Birthday\" and \"This Is How We Do\" respectively followed as the album's fourth and fifth singles,and reached the top 25 on the Hot 100.Prior to ending her relationship with Mayer in February 2014,she recorded and co-wrote a duet with him titled \"Who You Love\" for his albumParadise Valley. The song was released on August 12, 2013.Perry's third headlining tour, thePrismatic World Tour, began in May 2014and concluded in October 2015.It sold almost 2 million tickets and grossed $204.3 million worldwideand won Perry the award for \"Top Package\" at the 2014BillboardTouring Awards.She also performed at the 2015 Rock in Rio festival on September 27, 2015. On November 23, 2014, theNFLannounced that Perry would perform at theSuper Bowl XLIX halftime showon February 1, 2015.Lenny KravitzandMissy Elliottserved as special guests for the show.Her performance was critically acclaimed,and theGuinness World Recordsannounced two days after the singer's halftime show that it garnered 118.5 million viewers in the United States, becoming the most watched and highest rated show in Super Bowl history. The viewership was higher than the game itself, which was viewed by an audience of 114.4 million. TheInternational Federation of the Phonographic Industry(IFPI) ranked her fifth on the list of Top Global Recording Artists of 2013.On June 26, 2014, she was declared the Top Certified Digital Artist Ever by theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) for certified sales of 72 million digital singles in the United States.In May 2014, a portrait of Perry by painterMark Rydenwas featured in his exhibition \"The Gay 90s\", and shown at theKohn Galleryin Los Angeles. Along with several other artists, she also recorded a cover version of the song \"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)\" on a limited-edition concept album titledThe Gay Nineties Old Tyme Music: Daisy Bellto accompany the exhibition.That month, a portrait of Perry by artistWill Cottonwas included in the United StatesNational Portrait Gallery.On November 23, 2015, Perry starred inH&M's holiday advertising campaign, for which she wrote and recorded a song titled \"Every Day Is a Holiday\".On June 17, 2014, Perry announced that she had founded her own record label under Capitol Records, titled Metamorphosis Music.Ferraswas the first artist to get signed to her label, and Perry served as an executive producer onhis self-titled EP. She also recorded a duet with him on the EP, titled \"Legends Never Die\".The label was later renamedUnsub Records. Outside of her music career, Perry reprised her role as Smurfette inThe Smurfs 2, which was released in theaters on July 31, 2013.Like its predecessor,The Smurfs 2was a financial successbut was panned by critics.In March 2014, she made a guest appearance playing herself in the episode \"Blisteritos Presents Dad Academy Graduation Congraduritos Red Carpet Viewing Party\" of theKroll Show.Killer Queen was released as her third fragrance in August 2013 throughCotyIn January 2014, she became a guest curator of Madonna'sArt for Freedominitiative.In March 2015, she appeared inBrand: A Second Coming, a documentary following her ex-husband Russell Brand's transition from comedy work to activism,and released a concert film titledKaty Perry: The Prismatic World TourthroughEpix, which took place during her tour of the same name.Perry also made a cameo appearance in the music video for Madonna's song \"Bitch I'm Madonna\" in June 2015.The following month, she released another fragrance with Coty, entitled Mad Potion.In September 2015, she appeared in the documentariesKaty Perry: Making of the Pepsi Super Bowl Halftime Show, which followed Perry's preparation for her Super Bowl performance,andJeremy Scott: The People's Designer, which followed the life and career of designerJeremy Scott.Perry released a mobile app titledKaty Perry Popin December 2015 throughGlu Mobilewhere her character helps players become famous musicians.She described it as \"the most fun, colorful world that helps guide your musical dreams\". 2016–2018:WitnessandAmerican Idol Perry started writing songs for her new album in June 2016,and recorded an anthem forNBC Sports's coverage of the2016 Summer Olympicstitled \"Rise\", which was released the following month. Perry chose to release it as a standalone track rather than save it for her album \"because now more than ever, there is a need for our world to unite\". NBC also felt its message spoke \"directly to the spirit of the Olympics and its athletes\" for its inspirational themes.The song reached number one in Australiaand number eleven in the United States. In August 2016, Perry stated that she aspired to create material \"that connects and relates and inspires\"and toldRyan Seacrestthat she was \"not rushing\" her fifth album, adding \"I'm just having a lot of fun, but experimenting and trying different producers, and different collaborators, and different styles\".On February 10, 2017, Perry released the album's lead single \"Chained to the Rhythm\" featuringSkip Marley.It reached number one in Hungaryand number four in the United States.The track was also streamed over three million times onSpotifywithin 24 hours, breaking the music streaming service's record at the time for the highest first-day streaming for a single track by a female artist.The album's second single, \"Bon Appétit\" withMigos, was released that April.Its third single, \"Swish Swish\", featuredNicki Minajand followed the next month.They respectively peaked at numbers 59 and 46 in the United States,and made the top 15 in Canada. The album, titledWitness, was released on June 9, 2017, to mixed reviews,and debuted at number one in the United States.To accompany the album's release, Perry broadcast herself on YouTube for four days with a live-stream titledKaty Perry Live: Witness World Wide, concluding with a live concert on June 12.The live-stream generated over 49 million views from 190 countries.She also embarked onWitness: The Tour, which began in September 2017 and ended in August 2018.On June 15, 2017,Calvin Harrisreleased a song titled \"Feels\" from his albumFunk Wav Bounces Vol. 1, which featured Perry,Big Sean, andPharrell Williams.The song went on to reach number one in the United Kingdom. Perry subsequently recorded a cover of theDear Evan Hansensong \"Waving Through a Window\" for the deluxe edition of thecast recording, which was released on November 2, 2018.The show's creatorsBenj PasekandJustin Paulhad requested Perry to cover the song to promote the musical's national tour and bring awareness to mental health.Later that month, Perry released \"Cozy Little Christmas\".She also recorded the song \"Immortal Flame\" for the gameFinal Fantasy Brave Exvius, and had aplayable charactermodeled after her. Outside of recording music, Perry appeared as herself in the filmZoolander 2, which was released in February 2016.In February 2017, the singer launched a shoe line titled \"Katy Perry Collections\".Her shoes are available on her website, Katy Perry Collections, and at retailers such asDillard'sandWalmart.The following August, she hosted the2017 MTV Video Music Awards.Perry was signed for a $25-million salary to serve as a judge on thesixteenth seasonofAmerican Idol, which premiered in March 2018.Perry began a relationship withOrlando Bloomin early 2016, and the couple got engaged on February 14, 2019. 2019–2020:Smileand motherhood At the61st Annual Grammy Awards, Perry performed \"Here You Come Again\", alongsideDolly PartonandKacey Musgraves, as part of a tribute to Parton.Four days later, she released a song called \"365\", with DJZedd.In April, Perry was included on a remix ofDaddy Yankee's song \"Con Calma\", featuringSnow.She followed this with the singles \"Never Really Over\" on May 31, \"Small Talk\" on August 9, and \"Harleys in Hawaii\" on October 16.\"Never Really Over\" in particular received critical acclaim. In June 2019, Perry appeared in the music video ofTaylor Swift's \"You Need to Calm Down\".In July, a jury in California returned a verdict following a week-long trial that Perry's song \"Dark Horse\" had copiedFlame's 2008 song \"Joyful Noise\" after he filed acopyright lawsuitalleging that it used his track's beat without permission;the verdict was later overturned.After the initial verdict, the jury ordered her to pay him $550,000.The next month, Josh Kloss, Perry's co-star in the \"Teenage Dream\" music video, accused her of sexual misconduct.In anInstagrampost, Kloss alleged that, during a party at a skating rink, Perry pulled on his sweatpants and underwear, exposing his penis to her male friends. He also said her management prevented him from speaking about his time with the singer. Johnny Wujek, the creative director of said party defended Perry, saying that she \"would never do something like that\" and accused Kloss of having an \"ongoing obsession\" with her.After initially refraining from responding to this, believing it would have detracted from theMe Too movement, Perry has also denied Kloss's claims. Following the release of her single \"Never Worn White\" in March 2020, Perry revealed in the accompanying music video that she was expecting her first child with Bloom.\"Daisies\", the lead single from her sixth album, was released on May 15, 2020. Its second single \"Smile\" followed two months later.The album, also titledSmile, was released on August 28, 2020.Two days before its distribution, she gave birth to a daughter named Daisy Dove Bloom.The album received mixed reviews,and debuted at number five in the United States.Perry further promoted the album with four compilation EPs:Camp Katy,Empowered,Scorpio SZN,andCosmic Energy.These EPs were followed by the single \"Not the End of the World\" in December 2020, which had a music video in whichZooey Deschanelimpersonates Perry.Additionally she collaborated with various artists to create two remixes ofSmilealbum tracks.Tiëstoremix of \"Resilient\" featuringAitanawas released in November 2020, while Bruno Martini remix of \"Cry About It Later\" featuringLuísa Sonzawas released in April 2021. 2021–2023: Play residency On January 20, 2021, Perry performed \"Firework\" at theCelebrating Americaconcert during theinauguration of Joe Biden.Four months later, she released a new single, \"Electric\", a collaboration withPokémonas part of its 25th anniversary.That December, Perry followed this with \"When I'm Gone\", a collaboration with Swedish DJAlessothat made her the third person to reach number one on Croatia's ARC 100 list across three different decades followingLady GagaandColdplay. Perry began hosting aconcert residencynamedPlayatResorts World Las Vegason December 29, 2021.The show's inception happened during theCOVID-19 lockdownswith Perry being inspired byHoney, I Shrunk the Kids,Pee-wee's Playhouse, andPee-wee's Big Adventure. She described it as \"larger than life\" and \"the kookiest, most camp show I've ever put together.\"The show has received critical acclaimwith Melinda Sheckells ofBillboardsaying that Play's \"sold-out opening night is part fantasy, part hallucination and thoroughly camp.In addition to a sold out opening night, theSanta Barbara Independentreported that Perry's contract deal for the residency was worth $168 million.It concluded on November 4, 2023,and grossed $46.4 million. In September 2021,Varietypaid tribute to and honored Perry in their \"Power of Women\" issue, where she discussed her career, motherhood, andphilanthropy.As a nominee, she attended theVariety2021 \"Power of Women\" dinner.On her 37th birthday the next month, Perry guest hostedThe Ellen DeGeneres Showand starred in a holiday advertisement forGap Inc.which featured her singing \"All You Need Is Love\" bythe Beatles. A full version of her cover was released on streaming platforms the same day.In January 2022, she and Morgan McLachlan established De Soi, a company which produces and sellsnon-alcoholicapéritifs. Both wanted a beverage that \"would mellow the mind, minus the buzz\" when creating it. Along withThomas Rhett, Perry recorded a country pop duet titled \"Where We Started\" for hisalbum of the same namethat was released on April 1, 2022.The next month, it was announced Perry would create music for the soundtrack to Jeremy Zag's animated musical filmMelodyand voice its title character.She also became the new face forJust Eat's,SkipTheDishes',Lieferando's, andMenulog's advertisements and created a new remix of their jingle.On June 8, 2022, Perry was awarded with the Key toLas Vegas, the same day it was marked as Katy Perry day. Perry collaborated with the tech companyApple Inc.starring in advertisements for theirGarageBandmusic software where users could have \"Remix Sessions\" featuring her song, \"Harleys in Hawaii\". On the collab, she stated in August 2022: \"'Harleys in Hawaii' has lived so many different lives\" as well as that there was \"so much opportunity to remix this song, and I can't wait to hear all the GarageBand evolutions with this Apple collab.\"Perry performed at the May 2023Coronation ConcertofCharles IIIatWindsor Castle.Four months later, she sold her music rights to Litmus Music for an estimated $225 million. 2024:143 During an appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!in February 2024, Perry announced her exit fromAmerican Idolfollowing the conclusion of thetwenty-second season, wanting to \"go out and feel that pulse to my own beat\" and release new music after being \"in the studio for a while\". The season premiered later that month,and concluded the following May.She released \"Woman's World\", the first single from her seventh album, on July 11, 2024.One day before the track's premiere, Perry revealed the album is be titled143and that would be released on September 20 of the same year.She described the album as \"super high energy, it's super summer, it's very high BPM\" and \"just full of so much joy, so much love, so much light\".On September 11, Perry received theMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Awardat the2024 MTV Video Music Awards.She performed during the 2024 Rock in Rio festival on the day of143's release.Eight days later, she will headline the pre-game entertainment at Australia's2024 AFL Grand Final. Artistry Influences Perry cites her sister Angela as the woman who has had the most influence on her.During the early stages of her career, Perry's musical style gravitated towards gospel and she aspired to be as successful asAmy Grant.At age 15, she heard \"Killer Queen\" byQueen, which inspired her to pursue a music career.She cites the band's frontman,Freddie Mercury, as her biggest influence and expressed how the \"combination of his sarcastic approach to writing lyrics and his 'I don't give a fuck' attitude\" inspired her music.She paid homage to the band by naming her third fragrance Killer Queen.Perry describedthe Beach Boysand their albumPet Soundsas having a considerable influence on her music: \"Pet Soundsis one of my favorite records and it influenced pretty much all of my songwriting. All of the melody choices that I make are because ofPet Sounds.\"The singer also holds the Beatles' albumThe Beatlesin high esteem, and described these two albums as \"the only things I listened to for probably two years straight.\" She cites Alanis Morissette and her 1995 albumJagged Little Pillas a significant musical inspiration, stating in 2012: \"Jagged Little Pillwas the most perfect female record ever made. There's a song for anyone on that record; I relate to all those songs. They're still so timeless.\" Additionally, Perry borrows influence fromFlaming RedbyPatty Griffinand10 Cent WingsbyJonatha Brooke.Perry's autobiographical documentaryKaty Perry: Part of Mewas largely influenced byMadonna: Truth or Dare. She admires Madonna's ability to reinvent herself, saying \"I want to evolve like Madonna\". Perry namesBjörkas an influence, particularly admiring her \"willingness to always be taking chances\".Other artists who Perry has cited as influences includeStevie Nicks,ABBA,the Cardigans,Whitney Houston,Cyndi Lauper,Ace of Base,3OH!3,CeCe Peniston,C+C Music Factory,Black Box,Crystal Waters,Mariah Carey,Heart, Joni Mitchell,Paul Simon,Imogen Heap,Rufus Wainwright,Pink,andGwen Stefani.\"Firework\" was inspired by a passage in the bookOn the RoadbyJack Kerouacin which the author compares people who are full of life to fireworks that shoot across the sky and make people watch in awe.Her second concert tour, the California Dreams Tour, was reminiscent ofAlice's Adventures in WonderlandandThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz.She also credits the 1996 filmThe Craftfor inspiring her song \"Dark Horse\",andEckhart Tolle's bookThe Power of Nowfor influencingPrism. Musical style and themes \"When I am in between records, sometimes I doubt myself. I'll be like 'Did I just get lucky, or did I mass-manipulate the world into thinking that seven songs were worth a number-one position?' And then I go back into the studio and I start writing, and the true essential oil of who I am comes bubbling back up and reminds me that it's always been inside of me, that nobody can take this away no matter what comment anyone makes.\" —Perry on her confidence as a songwriter Although Perry's music incorporates elements of pop, rock, anddisco,Katy Hudsoncontains gospel. Her subsequent releases,One of the BoysandTeenage Dream, involve themes of sex and love.One of the Boysis apop rockrecord, whileTeenage Dreamfeatures disco influences.Perry's fourth album,Prism, is significantly influenced by dance and pop music. Lyrically, the album addresses relationships, self-reflection, and everyday life.Her fifth studio effortWitnessis anelectropopalbum that she described as a \"360-degree liberation\" record, with themes including political liberation, sexual liberation, and liberation from negativity.Many of her songs, particularly onTeenage Dream, reflect on love between teenagers;Wmagazine described the album's sexual innuendos as \"irresistible hook-laden melodies\".Self-empowerment is a common theme in Perry's music. Perry has described herself as a \"singer-songwriter masquerading as a pop star\"and maintains that honest songwriting is very important to her. She toldMarie Claire: \"I feel like my secret magic trick that separates me from a lot of my peers is the bravery to be vulnerable and truthful and honest. I think you become more relatable when you're vulnerable.\"Actress and comedianKristen Wiigcommented that \"as easy, breezy, and infectious as Perry's songs can be, beneath the surface lurks a sea of mixed emotions, jumbled motives, and contradictory impulses complicated enough to fill aCarole Kingrecord.\"According toGreg Kotof theChicago Tribune, \"being taken seriously may be Perry's greatest challenge yet.\"In 2013,The New York Timeslabeled her \"the most potent pop star of the day – her hits are relatable with just a hint of experimentation\".Randall Roberts of theLos Angeles Timescriticized her use of idioms and metaphors in her lyrics and for frequent \"clichés\".Throughout her career, Perry has also co-written songs recorded by other artists, includingLesley Roy,Kelly Clarkson,Jessie James Decker,Selena Gomez & the Scene,Britney Spears,Iggy Azalea,Rita Ora,Nicki Minaj, andAriana Grande. Voice Perry possesses acontraltovocal range.Her singing has received both praise and criticism. Betty Clarke ofThe Guardiancommented that her \"powerful voice is hard-edged\"whileRob SheffieldfromRolling Stonedescribed Perry's vocals onTeenage Dreamas \"processedstaccatoblips\".Darren Harvey ofmusicOMHcompared Perry's vocals onOne of the Boysto Alanis Morissette's, both possessing a \"perky voice shifting octaves mid-syllable\".Alex Miller fromNMEfelt that \"Perry's problem is often her voice\" onOne of the Boys, stating that \"somewhere along the line someone convinced her she was like, well, a ballsy rock chick\".Conversely, Bernadette McNulty fromThe Daily Telegraphpraised her \"rock chick voice\" in a review of a concert promotingPrism. Public image On social media, Perry surpassedJustin Bieberas the most followed person onTwitterin November 2013.She won the 2015 Guinness World Record for most Twitter followers,and became the first person to gain 100 million followers on the site in June 2017.Keith Caulfield ofBillboardstated that Perry is \"the rare celebrity who seems to have enormous popularity but genuine ground-level interaction with her adoring KatyCats.\"With over 106 million Twitter followers, she is the second-most followed woman on the site, and the sixth most followed musician across social media with a combined total of over 385 million followers acrossFacebook, Instagram, and Twitter.In June 2017,Timemagazine listed Perry among its \"25 Most Influential People on the Internet\" of the year, writing that her live-stream forWitnesswas \"blazing a trail\" for being \"the closest any major entertainer has come to giving fans the kind of 'real' intimacy that social media purports to provide\". Perry has been described as asex symbol;GQlabeled her a \"full-on male fantasy\",whileEllewrote her body looked \"as though sketched by a teenage boy\".Vicecalled her a\"'serious' popstar/woman/sex symbol\".She was placed at number one on theMaximHot 100 in 2010 as the \"most beautiful woman in the world\", with editor Joe Levy describing her as a \"triple – no quadruple – kind of hot\".Men's Healthreaders voted her the \"sexiest woman of 2013\".In November 2010, Perry toldHarper's Bazaarthat she was proud of and satisfied with her figure. Perry's fashion often incorporates humor, bright colors, and food-related themessuch as her characteristic spinning peppermint swirl dress.Voguedescribed her as \"never exactly one to shy away from the outrageous or the extreme in any realm\", and called her the \"Queen ofCamp\",whileGlamournamed her the \"queen of quirk\".In February 2009, Perry toldSeventeenthat her fashion style was \"a bit of a concoction of different things\" and stated she enjoyed humor in her clothing.She has also described herself as having \"multipersonality disorder\" for fashion.Perry lists Gwen Stefani,Shirley Manson,Chloë Sevigny,Daphne Guinness,Natalie Portman, and the fictional characterLolitaas her style icons.In 2022,Elledubbed her as \"thekitsch-loving pop star renowned for her uniquely experimental style\", whileVoguedescribed her style as \"synonymous with outrageous, eye-catching ensembles that lean towards the theatrical\". During the 2017 launch of her shoe collection, Katy Perry Collections, she said about shoes: \"When I first got to L.A., I cultivated my style on a budget, always shopping at thrift stores or vintage stores. ... Once, I found these flats that looked likeDalmatian dogs. They had ears that moved and a tongue that stuck out. They were such a conversation piece. That's what is so great about fashion. ... It's a form of communication. You don't have to start a smoking habit to start talking to someone. You can just wear cool shoes. It's an icebreaker.\" Legacy Several media outlets such asBillboardandGlamourhave referred to her as the \"Queen of Pop\", while others likeVogue,Rolling Stone, andInStylehave dubbed Perry the \"Queen of Camp\".Andrew Unterberger ofBillboarddescribedTeenage Dream\"one of the defining LPs from a new golden age in mega-pop\"while Christopher Rosa ofGlamournamed her as an influence to thepopsound and style of the 2010s, adding that her singles are \"some of the most recognizable, iconic, and impactful hits in pop history.\"Perry was named \"one of the last decade's most reliable and successful hitmakers\" by theOfficial Charts Companyin 2022. Additionally, Perry was included inGlamour's \"104 Women Who Defined the Decade in Pop Culture\" list of the 2010s. It stated Perry \"did more than just break chart records. She was one of the driving forces behind the sound of pop radio in the 2010s\" for her tracks that were \"glossy, booming, sugary-sweet, and undeniably catchy.\"Varietyincluded Perry in theirVariety500 list of the most influential business leaders, calling her a \"global phenomenon\" and a \"dedicated artist and tireless self-promoter who has leveraged chart-topping hits, sold-out stadium shows, and staggering endorsement deals to become one of the richest and most influential pop stars alive.\"A 2017 journal published byPsychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Artsstudying structural patterns in the melodies ofearwormsongs compiled lists ofcatchiesttracks from 3,000 participants, in which Perry's \"California Gurls\" ranked number six.She has been called a \"gay icon\" by Taylor Henderson ofOut, noting how \"I Kissed a Girl\" helped fans explore their sexuality and how Perry openly embraced theLGBTQ+ community. Perry's music has been described byOutas having a \"lasting legacy\", with American singersFletchersampling \"I Kissed a Girl\" andOlivia RodrigoreferencingTeenage Dreamon \"Brutal\".Additionally, other artists such asHalseyandAriana Grandehave praised Perry's work, with Halsey callingTeenage Dreamthe \"perfect pop album\" and Grande saying \"The One That Got Away\" is \"one of the biggest and most perfectly written pop songs ever from one of the best pop albums of all time.\" Other ventures Philanthropy Perry has supported various charitable organizations and causes throughout her career. She has contributed to organizations aimed at improving the lives and welfare of children in particular. In April 2013, she joinedUNICEFto assist children in Madagascar with education and nutrition.On December 3, 2013, she was officially named aUNICEF Goodwill Ambassador, \"with a special focus on engaging young people in the agency's work to improve the lives of the world's most vulnerable children and adolescents.\"She arranged for a portion of the money generated from tickets to her Prismatic World Tour to go to UNICEF.In September 2010, she helped build and design the Boys Hope/Girls Hope foundation shelter for youth in Baltimore, Maryland along withRaven-Symoné,Shaquille O'Neal, and the cast ofExtreme Makeover: Home Edition.In 2010, Perry andNicki Minajperformed a cover of \"Girls Just Want to Have Fun\" for service members during the 2010VH1Divas Salute the Troops concert. She has also supported children's education and well-being. All profits from sales of the albumThe Gay Nineties Old Tyme Music: Daisy Bell, which includes her rendition of \"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)\", were donated to the charityLittle Kids Rock, which supports musical education in underprivileged elementary schools.In June 2014, she teamed up withStaples Inc.for a project entitled \"Make Roar Happen\" which donated $1 million toDonorsChoose, an organization that supports teachers and funds classroom resources in public schools.In May 2016, she worked with UNICEF to improve child care quality in Vietnam, hoping to \"break the cycle of poverty and drastically improve children's health, education and well-being\".The following month, UNICEF announced that Perry would receive theAudrey HepburnHumanitarian Award \"for her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in support of the world's most vulnerable children\" at their annual Snowflake Ball in November.All Spotify streams of her 2021 cover of \"All You Need Is Love\" will generate $1 in donations for the charityBaby2Baby. Perry has supported organizations aimed at aiding people suffering with diseases including cancer andHIV/AIDS. During the 2008 Warped Tour, she had a cast made of her breasts to raise money for theKeep A Breast Foundation.She hosted and performed at the We Can Survive concert along withBonnie McKee,Kacey Musgraves,Sara Bareilles,Ellie Goulding, and duoTegan and Saraat the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles, California, on October 23, 2013. The concert's profits were donated toYoung Survival Coalition, an organization aiding breast cancer in young women.In June 2009, she designed an item of clothing forH&M's \"Fashion Against AIDS\" campaign, which raises money for HIV/AIDS awareness projects.On February 26, 2017, she served as a co-chair alongside various celebrities such asBeyoncé,Lea Michele,Jim Carrey,Jared Leto, andKevin Spaceyfor the 25th AnnualElton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party, a fundraiser for HIV/AIDS healthcare. The proceeds from Perry's single \"Part of Me\" were donated to the charityMusiCares, which helps musicians in times of need.During her California Dreams Tour, she raised over $175,000 for the Tickets-For-Charity fundraiser. The money was divided between three charities: theChildren's Health Fund(CHF), Generosity Water, andThe Humane Society of the United States. On her 27th birthday, Perry set up a donations page for theSociety for the Prevention of Cruelty to AnimalsAuckland,and set up a similar page benefiting theDavid Lynch Foundationfor her 28th birthday.On March 29, 2014, she helped raise $2.4 million for theMuseum of Contemporary Artin Los Angeles along with other celebrities such asRyan Seacrest,Pharrell Williams,Tim Allen,Lisa Edelstein, andRiley Keough. Perry performed at theOne Love Manchesterbenefit concert for the victims of the 2017Manchester Arena bombing, among various performers including its organizerAriana Grande, which was broadcast live on June 4, 2017, on radio and television stations around the world.In March 2018, Perry announcedWitness: Coming Home, a benefit concert that was held in her hometown of Santa Barbara on May 19, 2018. The concert benefited those recovering from the aftermath of the2017 California wildfiresand2018 Southern California mudflows. Perry partnered with the Santa Barbara Foundation, the 93108 Fund and The 805 UndocuFund, organizations which help in assisting members of the community in the Santa Barbara area through grants and various philanthropic efforts. Activism and political views Perry has publicly advocated forLGBT rightsand admitted that she wrote \"I Kissed a Girl\" about her ownbisexualexperiences with other women. In 2017, she received a Nation Equality Award fromHuman Rights Campaignfor \"using her powerful voice and international platform to speak out for LGBTQ equality\".During her acceptance speech, she discussed having bisexual experiences, her fluid sexuality, and thanked theLGBTQ+ community.In anOutinterview in 2021, she was heralded as a \"gay icon\" with \"I Kissed a Girl\" being called a \"bonafide queer anthem\". Perry continued to thank the LGBTQ+ community in the same interview, saying: \"I came from a very sheltered upbringing where it wasn't okay to be friends with anyone from that community. And now that is my community.\" She also mentioned \"I wouldn't have survived without the community and it's amazing how full circle it's come and how much growth has happened since I started.\"Tomás Mier ofRolling Stoneremarked Perry \"championed queer folks, especiallydrag queens, throughout her career.\" She dedicated the music video to her song \"Firework\" to theIt Gets Better Project.In June 2012, Perry expressed her hopes for LGBT equality, commenting \"hopefully, we will look back at this moment and think like we do now concerning civil rightsissues. We'll just shake our heads in disbelief, saying, 'Thank God we've evolved.' That would be my prayer for the future.\"In December 2012, Perry was awarded the Trevor Hero Award byThe Trevor Projectfor her work and activism on behalf of LGBT youth. Perry identifies as afeminist,and appeared in April 2013 in a video clip for the \"Chime for Change\" campaign that aimed to spread female empowerment.She has also said that America's lack of freehealth caredrove her \"absolutely crazy\".Following theshooting at the Pulse nightclub in Orlandoin June 2016, Perry and nearly 200 other artists and executives in music signed an open letter organized byBillboardaddressed toUnited States Congressdemanding increasedgun controlin the United States. Through Twitter and by performing at rallies, Perry supported PresidentBarack Obamain his run for re-election and praised his support forsame-sex marriageand LGBT equality.She performed at three rallies for Obama, in Los Angeles, Las Vegas, and Wisconsin, singing a rendition of \"Let's Stay Together\" as well as a number of her songs. During her Las Vegas performance she wore a dress made to replicate a voting ballot, with Obama's box filled in.On Twitter, she encouraged her followers to vote for Obama. In August 2013, Perry voiced criticism ofTony Abbott, then-leader of conservativeLiberal Party of Australiaand candidate forPrime Minister of Australia, due to his opposition to gay marriage and told Abbott, \"I love you as a human being but I can't give you my vote.\"; the statement came after Abbott expressed pride at learning of Perry's then-upcoming performance in Australia.In April 2014, she publicly supportedMarianne Williamsonin her campaign forCalifornia's 33rd congressional districtby attending a political press event.She endorsedKamala Harrisin theUnited States Senate election in California, and organized a fundraiser for Harris at her home in Los Angeles in November 2016.Perry also publicly endorsed former Secretary of StateHillary Clintonfor president in2016.She performed alongsideElton Johnat a fundraising concert for Clinton in New York City in March 2016.Perry also spoke and performed at the2016 Democratic National Conventionin support of Clinton.Four years later, she supportedJoe Bidenand Kamala Harris during the2020 United States presidential election, praising the latter as a leader who had \"experience we desperately need right now\" and believed that the former \"choosing her as his running mate is already a testament to his decision making\".In 2022, Perry posted a picture of herself voting for conservative candidateRick Carusoin the2022 Los Angeles mayoral election, for which she was heavily criticized by Democrats. Achievements Throughout her career, Perry has won fiveAmerican Music Awards,fourteenPeople's Choice Awards,fourGuinness World Records,aBrit Award,and aJuno Award.In September 2012,Billboarddubbed her the \"Woman of the Year\".From May 2010 to September 2011, the singer spent a record-breaking 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of theBillboardHot 100.Teenage Dreambecame the first album by a female artist to produce five number-oneBillboardHot 100 singles, and the second album overall after Michael Jackson'sBad.In the United States, she has accumulated nine number-one singles on theBillboardHot 100, her most recent being \"Dark Horse\",and holds the record for having 18 consecutive number-one songs on theBillboardDance Club Songschart. Billboardalso named her the 15th most successful dance club artist of all time.The magazine additionally ranked her fourth on its \"Greatest of All Time Pop Songs Artists\" list and twenty-fifth on the \"Greatest Pop Stars of the 21st Century\" list,includedTeenage DreamandPrismamong its \"Greatest of All TimeBillboard 200Albums by Women\" list,and ranked \"Dark Horse\" at number 100 on its \"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs\"as well as one of its \"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs by Women\" along with \"E.T.\", \"Firework\", and \"California Gurls\".In June 2015, her music video for \"Dark Horse\" became the first video by a female artist to reach 1 billion views on Vevo.The following month, her music video for \"Roar\" reached 1 billion views on Vevo, making her the first artist to have multiple videos with 1 billion views. With 143 million records sold globally, Perry isone of the best-selling music artists of all time.She was declared the Top Global Female Recording Artist of 2013 by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI).According to RIAA, Perry is the ninthtop digital singles artistin the United States, with 121.5 million certified song units in the country including on-demand streamsand also has 19 million certified album units, totaling 129.5 million certified units in the United States.She also became the first artist to have three songs receive Diamond certifications from the RIAA in 2017 with \"Dark Horse\", \"Firework\", and \"Roar\".All three of them and \"E.T.\", \"California Gurls\", and \"Hot n Cold\" have each sold over 5 million digital copies.Six years later, the RIAA certified \"California Gurls\" as her fourthdiamond-certifiedsingle in the U.S., breaking her tie with Lady Gaga as the female artist with the most diamond singles there.Perry's albumsOne of the Boys,Teenage Dream,Prism,Witness, andSmilehave individually surpassed one billion streams onSpotify. In 2011,Forbesranked her third on their \"Top-Earning Women In Music\" list with earnings of $44 millionand fifth on their 2012 list with $45 million.She subsequently ranked seventh on the 2013Forbeslist for \"Top-Earning Women In Music\" with $39 million earned,and fifth on their 2014 list with $40 million.With earnings of $135 million,Forbesalso ranked Perry number one on their 2015 \"Top-Earning Women In Music\" list as well as the \"World's Highest-Paid Musicians\" and declared her the highest earning female celebrity in 2015, placing her at number 3 on theForbesCelebrity 100 list.In 2016, the magazine estimated her net worth was $125 million,and ranked her number six on their list of \"Highest-Paid Women in Music\" with earnings of $41 million.The following year, she was ranked number nine on the list with $33 million.In 2018, she topped its \"Highest-Paid Women in Music\" listing and ranked at number four on the \"Highest-Paid Female Celebrities\" list, with earnings of $83 million.Perry subsequently was placed at number four on the 2019 \"Highest-Paid Women in Music\" listings, with $57.5 million.Later that year, with earnings of $530 million throughout the 2010s, the magazine also ranked her as the ninth-highest-earning musician of the decade.Perry is one of thewealthiest musical artists; during September 2023,Forbessurmised she had a net worth of $340 million.This increased to $350 million the following May, where Perry was included on the magazine's 2024 list of \"America's Richest Self-Made Women\". Discography Filmography Tours and residency Headlining tours Co-headlining tours Residency See also Notes References Citations Sources External links",
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"Joan Didion Joan Didion(/ˈdɪdiən/; December 5, 1934 – December 23, 2021) was an American writer and journalist. She is considered one of the pioneers ofNew Journalism, along withGay Talese,Hunter S. Thompson, andTom Wolfe. Didion's career began in the 1950s after she won an essay contest sponsored byVoguemagazine.She would go on to publish essays inThe Saturday Evening Post,Life,Esquire,The New York Review of Books, andThe New Yorker. Her writing during the 1960s through the late 1970s engaged audiences in the realities of thecounterculture of the 1960s, the Hollywood lifestyle, and the history and culture ofCalifornia. Didion's political writing in the 1980s and 1990s concentrated on the subtext of political rhetoric andthe United States's foreign policy in Latin America.In 1991, she wrote the earliest mainstream media article to suggest that theCentral Park Fivehad been wrongfully convicted.With her husbandJohn Gregory Dunne, Didion wrote multiple screenplays, includingThe Panic in Needle Park(1971),A Star",
"Park(1971),A Star Is Born(1976), andUp Close & Personal(1996). In 2005, she won theNational Book Award for Nonfictionand was a finalist for both theNational Book Critics Circle Awardand thePulitzer PrizeforThe Year of Magical Thinking, a memoir of the year following the sudden death of her husband. She later adapted the book into a play that premiered on Broadway in 2007. In 2013, she was awarded theNational Humanities Medalby presidentBarack Obama.Didion was profiled in the 2017NetflixdocumentaryThe Center Will Not Hold, directed by her nephewGriffin Dunne. Early life and education Didion was born on December 5, 1934, inSacramento, California,to Eduene (née Jerrett) and Frank Reese Didion.She had one brother, five years her junior, James Jerrett Didion, who became a real estate executive.Didion recalled writing things down as early as age five,although she said she never saw herself as a writer until after her work had been published. She identified as a \"shy, bookish child,\" an avid reader, who pushed",
"reader, who pushed herself to overcome social anxiety through acting and public speaking. During her adolescence, she would type outErnest Hemingway's works to learn how his sentence structures worked. Didion's early education was nontraditional. She attended kindergarten and first grade, but, because her father was a finance officer in theArmy Air Corpsand the family constantly relocated, she did not attend school regularly.In 1943 or early 1944, her family returned toSacramento, and her father went to Detroit to negotiate defense contracts forWorld War II. Didion wrote in her 2003 memoirWhere I Was Fromthat moving so often made her feel as if she were a perpetual outsider. Didion received a B.A. in English fromUniversity of California, Berkeley, in 1956.During her senior year, she won first place in the \"Prix de Paris\" essay contest, sponsored byVogue,and was awarded a job as aresearch assistantat the magazine. The topic of her winning essay was the San Francisco architectWilliam Wurster. Career Vogue",
"Career Vogue During her seven years atVogue, from 1956 to 1964, Didion worked her way up from promotional copywriter to associate feature editor.Mademoisellepublished Didion's article \"Berkeley’s Giant: The University of California\" in January 1960.While atVogue, and homesick for California, she wrote her first novel,Run, River(1963), about a Sacramento family as it comes apart.Writer and friendJohn Gregory Dunnehelped her edit the book.John—the younger brother of author, businessman, and television mystery show hostDominick Dunne—was writing forTimemagazine at the time. He and Didion married in 1964. The couple moved to Los Angeles in 1964, intending to stay only temporarily, but California remained their home for the next 20 years. In 1966, they adopted a daughter, whom they named Quintana Roo Dunne.The couple wrote many newsstand-magazine assignments. \"She and Dunne started doing that work with an eye to covering the bills, and then a little more,\" Nathan Heller reported inThe New Yorker. \"Their Postrates",
"\"Their Postrates allowed them to rent a tumbledown Hollywood mansion, buy a banana-coloredCorvette Stingray, raise a child, and dine well.\" In Los Angeles, they settled inLos Felizfrom 1963 to 1971, and then, after living inMalibufor eight years, she and Dunne moved toBrentwood Park, a quiet, affluent, residential neighborhood. Slouching Towards Bethlehem In 1968, Didion published her first nonfiction book,Slouching Towards Bethlehem, a collection of magazine pieces about her experiences in California.Cited as an example ofNew Journalism, it used novel-like writing to cover the non-fiction realities ofhippiecounterculture.She wrote from a personal perspective, adding her own feelings and memories to situations, inventing details and quotes to make the stories more vivid, and using metaphors to give the reader a better understanding of the disordered subjects of her essays: politicians, artists, or just people living an American life.The New York Timescharacterized the \"grace, sophistication, nuance, irony\"",
"nuance, irony\" of her writing. 1970s Didion's novelPlay It as It Lays, set in Hollywood, was published in 1970, andA Book of Common Prayerappeared in 1977. In 1979, she publishedThe White Album, another collection of her magazine pieces fromLife,Esquire,The Saturday Evening Post,The New York Times, andThe New York Review of Books.InThe White Album's title essay, Didion documented an episode she experienced in the summer of 1968. After undergoing psychiatric evaluation, she was diagnosed as having had an attack ofvertigoand nausea. After periods of partial blindness in 1972, she was diagnosed withmultiple sclerosis, but remained in remission throughout her life.In her essay entitled \"In Bed,\" Didion explained that she experienced chronicmigraines. Dunne and Didion worked closely for most of their careers. Much of their writing is therefore intertwined. They co-wrote a number of screenplays, including a1972 film adaptationof her novelPlay It as It Laysthat starredAnthony PerkinsandTuesday Weldand the",
"Weldand the screenplay for the 1976 film ofA Star is Born.They also spent several years adapting the biography of journalistJessica Savitchinto the 1996Robert RedfordandMichelle Pfeifferfilm,Up Close & Personal. 1980s and 1990s Didion's book-length essaySalvador(1983) was written after a two-week trip to El Salvador with her husband. The next year, she published the novelDemocracy, the story of a long, but unrequited love affair between a wealthy heiress and an older man, aCIAofficer, against the background of theCold Warand theVietnam War. Her 1987 nonfiction bookMiamilooked at the different communities in that city.In 1988, the couple moved from California to New York City. In a prescientNew York Review of Bookspiece of 1991, a year after the various trials of theCentral Park Five, Didion dissected serious flaws in the prosecution's case, making her the earliest mainstream writer to view the guilty verdicts as miscarriages of justice.She suggested the defendants were found guilty because of a",
"guilty because of a sociopolitical narrative with racial overtones that clouded the judgment of the court. In 1992, Didion publishedAfter Henry, a collection of twelve geographical essays and a personal memorial for Henry Robbins, who was Didion's friend and editor until his death in 1979.She publishedThe Last Thing He Wanted, a romantic thriller, in 1996. The Year of Magical Thinking In 2003, Didion's daughter Quintana Roo Dunne developedpneumoniathat progressed toseptic shockand she was comatose in an intensive-care unit when Didion's husband suddenly died of a heart attack on December 30.Didion delayed his funeral arrangements for approximately three months until Quintana was well enough to attend. On October 4, 2004, Didion began writingThe Year of Magical Thinking, a narrative of her response to the death of her husband and the severe illness of their daughter. She finished the manuscript 88 days later on New Year's Eve.Written at the age of 70, this was her first nonfiction book that was not a",
"book that was not a collection of magazine assignments.She said that she found the subsequent book-tour process very therapeutic during her period of mourning.Documenting the grief she experienced after the sudden death of her husband, the book was called a \"masterpiece of two genres: memoir and investigative journalism\" and won several awards. Visiting Los Angeles after her father's funeral, Quintana fell at the airport, hit her head on the pavement and required brain surgery forhematoma.After progressing toward recovery in 2004, Quintana died of acutepancreatitison August 26, 2005, aged 39, during Didion's New York promotion forThe Year of Magical Thinking.Didion wrote about Quintana's death in the 2011 bookBlue Nights. 2000s Didion was living in an apartment on East 71st Street inManhattanin 2005.Everyman's LibrarypublishedWe Tell Ourselves Stories in Order to Live, a 2006 compendium of much of Didion's writing, including the full content of her first seven published nonfiction books (Slouching Towards",
"(Slouching Towards Bethlehem,The White Album,Salvador,Miami,After Henry,Political Fictions, andWhere I Was From), with an introduction by her contemporary, the criticJohn Leonard. Didion began working with English playwright and directorDavid Hareon a one-woman stage adaptation ofThe Year of Magical Thinkingin 2007. Produced byScott Rudin, the Broadway play featuredVanessa Redgrave. Although Didion was hesitant to write for the theater, she eventually found the genre, which was new to her, exciting. Didion wrote early drafts of the screenplay for an untitledHBObiopic directed byRobert BentononKatharine Graham. Sources say it may trace the paper's reporting on theWatergatescandal. Later works In 2011,KnopfpublishedBlue Nights, a memoir about aging that also focused on Didion's relationship with her late daughter.More generally, the book deals with the anxieties Didion experienced about adopting and raising a child, as well as the aging process. A photograph of Didion shot byJuergen Tellerwas used as part of",
"used as part of the 2015 spring-summer campaign of the luxury French fashion brandCéline, while previously the clothing companyGaphad featured her in a 1989 campaign.Didion's nephewGriffin Dunnedirected a 2017Netflixdocumentary about her,Joan Didion: The Center Will Not Hold.In it, Didion discusses her writing and personal life, including the deaths of her husband and daughter, adding context to her booksThe Year of Magical ThinkingandBlue Nights. In 2021, Didion publishedLet Me Tell You What I Mean, a collection of 12 essays she wrote between 1968 and 2000. Death Didion died from complications ofParkinson's diseaseat her home in Manhattan on December 23, 2021, at the age of 87. Writing style and themes Didion viewed the structure of the sentence as essential to her work. In theNew York Timesarticle \"Why I Write\" (1976),Didion remarked, \"To shift the structure of a sentence alters the meaning of that sentence, as definitely and inflexibly as the position of a camera alters the meaning of the object",
"of the object photographed... The arrangement of the words matters, and the arrangement you want can be found in the picture in your mind... The picture tells you how to arrange the words and the arrangement of the words tells you, or tells me, what's going on in the picture.\" Didion was heavily influenced by Ernest Hemingway, whose writing taught her the importance of how sentences work in a text. Her other influences includedGeorge EliotandHenry James, who wrote \"perfect, indirect, complicated sentences\". Didion was also an observer of journalists,believing the difference between the process of fiction and nonfiction is the element of discovery that takes place in nonfiction, which happens not during the writing, but during the research. Rituals were a part of Didion's creative process. At the end of the day, she would take a break from writing to remove herself from the \"pages\",saying that without the distance, she could not make proper edits. She would end her day by cutting out and editing prose, not",
"editing prose, not reviewing the work until the following day. She would sleep in the same room as her work, saying: \"That's one reason I go home to Sacramento to finish things. Somehow the book doesn't leave you when you're right next to it.\" In a notorious 1980 essay, \"Joan Didion: Only Disconnect,\"Barbara Grizzuti Harrisoncalled Didion a \"neurasthenicCher\" whose style was \"a bag of tricks\" and whose \"subject is always herself\".In 2011,New Yorkmagazine reported that the Harrison criticism \"still gets her (Didion's) hackles up, decades later\". CriticHilton Alssuggested that Didion is reread often \"because of the honesty of the voice.\" Personal life For several years in her 20s, Didion was in a relationship withNoel E. Parmentel Jr., a political pundit and figure on the New York literary and cultural scene.According to Didion's husband, John Gregory Dunne, he actually met her through Parmentel, and Didion and Dunne remained friends for six years before embarking on a romantic relationship. As he later",
"As he later recalled, when they shared a celebratory lunch after Dunne finished reading the galleys for her first novel,Run, River, \"while er other was out of town, it happened.\"Didion and Dunne subsequently married in January 1964 and remained together until his death from a heart attack in 2003. Breaking a long-held silence on Didion, whose work he had championed and for which he found publishers, Parmentel was interviewed for a 1996 article inNew Yorkmagazine.He had been angered in the 1970s by what he felt was a thinly veiled portrait of him in Didion's novelA Book of Common Prayer. In 1966, while living in Los Angeles, she and John adopted a daughter, whom they named Quintana Roo Dunne. A Republican in her early years, Didion later drifted toward the Democratic Party, \"without ever quite endorsing core beliefs.\" As late as 2011, she smoked precisely five cigarettes per day. Awards and honors TheJoan Didion: What She MeansExhibition TheHammer MuseumatUniversity of California, Los Angeles, organized the",
"organized the exhibitionJoan Didion: What She Means. Curated byThe New Yorkercontributor and writerHilton Als, the group show was on view from 2022 and is scheduled to travel to thePérez Art Museum Miamiin 2023.Joan Didion: What She Meanspays homage to the writer and thinker through the lens of nearly 50 modern and contemporary international artists such asFélix González-TorrestoBetye Saar,Vija Celmins,Maren Hassinger,Silke Otto-Knapp,John Koch,Ed Ruscha,Pat Steir, among others. Published works Fiction Nonfiction Screenplays and plays References Further reading External links",
"Play It as It Lays Play It as It Laysis a 1970 novel by American writerJoan Didion.Timemagazine included the novel in its list of the \"100 Best English-Language Novels from 1923 to 2005\".The novel has been credited for helping define modern American Fictionand has been described as an \"instant classic\".It is known for depicting thenihilismand the illusory glamor of life inHollywood,as well as capturing the landscape and culture of 1960sLos Angeles. The book was adapted intoa 1972 filmstarringTuesday Weldas Maria andAnthony Perkinsas BZ. Didion co-wrote the screenplay with her husband,John Gregory Dunne. Plot 31-year-old Maria Wyeth's story begins as she is recovering from an implied mental breakdown in apsychiatric hospitalin the Los Angeles area. Her journey oscillates between dizzying and domestic, as her acting career slows and her personal life collapses. Her story is revealed thoughflashbacksandflash forwards. Maria contrasts her life in Los Angeles with her childhood in Silver Wells,Nevada, a small town",
"a small town so inconsequential that it no longer exists. The daughter of a neurotic mother and a gambling father, who bet on a mine and lost, Maria moves to New York to become an actress. In New York, Maria works temporarily as a model and meets Ivan Costello, a psychopathic blackmailer who has no hesitation exploiting Maria. In New York, Maria receives news of her mother's death in a car wreck, possibly a suicide. Her father dies soon after, leaving useless mineral rights to his business partner and friend Benny Austin. Maria withdraws from acting and modeling, splits up with Ivan, and eventually meets Carter and moves to Hollywood. Later, we find that she and Carter have a four-year-old daughter Kate. Kate is in a treatment facility for an unspecified \"aberrant chemical in her brain\".Maria loves Kate, as indicated by her tender descriptions, her frequent hospital visits, and her determination \"to get her out\". When Maria discovers she is pregnant, she is unsure if her husband, Carter or her lover, Les",
"or her lover, Les Goodwin, is the father and she tells Carter the truth. Carter urges Maria to have anabortion, and suggests that if she chooses to have the child, he will take fullcustodyof their daughter. Set in a time before thelegalization of abortion, Maria must find a doctor who will perform an illegal abortion. Maria follows steps to covertly contact and visit the only doctor who does \"clean work\" in Los Angeles. Maria has an illegal abortion, performed withlocal anesthetic, in a house where there are newspapers on the floor. Feeling distress after her abortion, Maria begins to have vivid nightmares about dying infants and rattlesnakes. An inevitable divorce, and the ensuing social chaos bring Maria to indulge in self-destructive behavior. Maria disengages from her social world as she plunges into long days of compulsive driving, wanderingSouthern California's freeways, through motels and casinos, drinking and chancing sexual encounters with actors and ex-lovers. After a series of disasters for Maria,",
"for Maria, infidelity among her friends adds further chaos to her life. The plot reaches a climax when Maria's friend BZ commitssuicidein her presence, choosing tooverdoseon sleeping pills (Seconal) and Maria does not stop him, despite fully understanding what he is doing. Before overdosing, he offers to share his pills with Maria, implying that he could help her die by suicide as well. Maria chooses not to take the pills, and does not stop BZ as he proceeds to swallow them. His final words are \"hold onto me\", after which they fall asleep on the bed together. Maria awakens to the sound of BZ's wife, Helene screaming as she discovers his dead body next to Maria. Maria ignores the screaming and holds tighter onto BZ's lifeless hand. In not preventing his suicide, Maria is blamed for his death by her friends. Maria isinstitutionalizedfor her inaction in stopping BZ's suicide, under doctors' and friends' assumption that she must have been disconnected from reality at the time the suicide occurred. It is implied",
"It is implied that Maria doesn't try to escape her position, but accepts it apathetically. Her institutionalization can be seen as her choice to withdraw from the outside world, rather than a consequence of an actual mental illness or breakdown.From her hospital, Maria turns her visitors away, and plans for a day she might see her daughter again. Background and publication Play It as It Layswas authorJoan Didion's second novel, after her debutRun, Riverwas published in 1963. Didion gained public attention for her non-fiction collectionSlouching Towards Bethlehemin 1968.Published on July 13, 1970, byFarrar, Straus & Giroux,Didion said about the novel, \"I didn't think it was going to make it And suddenly it did make it, in a minor way. And from that time on I had more confidence.\" The book bears some resemblance to Didion's life, as Didion also had a daughter with a psychological disorder and drove the same car as Maria, a yellowCorvette Stingray.Like the protagonist, Didion lived in New York before moving to",
"before moving to California.However, Didion asserted that the book was not autobiographical. Themes Life as a game This theme occurs frequently throughout the novel, especially in reference togamblingandcasino games.Having grown up aroundcasinoswith her gambling father, Maria sees life as a game in which every player chooses astrategy, or chooses to stop playing.Describing her upbringing she says, \"My father advised me that life itself was a crap game: it was one of the two lessons I learned as a child. The other was that overturning a rock was apt to reveal a rattlesnake. As lessons go those two seem to hold up, but not to apply.\" The title of the book,Play it as it Laysis a reference to advice from Maria's father on playingcraps: \"it goes as it lays, don't do it the hard way\", an idiom with meaning similar to \"playing with the cards you are dealt\". At the exposition of the novel, Maria describes the recent events of life as such, \"I was holding all theaces, but what was the game?\". Furthermore, social",
"Furthermore, social interactions can be seen as a kind of game. Maria tries to be a good \"player\" when she speaks to her doctors: \"There are only certain facts, I say, trying again to be an agreeable player of the game.\" Deathcan be seen as the choice to stop playing the game of life. As he is about to commit suicide, BZ says to Maria, \"you're still playing Some day you'll wake up and you just won't feel like playing\". By choosing to die, BZ decides to stop playing. Meanwhile Maria references her choice to keep living, and continuing to \"play\" the game of life despite its meaninglessness, in the famous quote: \"I know what 'nothing' means, and keep on playing.\" Nihilism Throughout the novel Maria and other characters reveal a belief in the meaninglessness of life. This theme may be ascribed todepressionwhich the characters experience, to the emptiness of working in Hollywood or as an overarching philosophical theme on life. Many scenes in the book can be seen as an encounter with absurdity and nothingness,as",
"and nothingness,as Maria has odd encounters with strangers whom she never sees again. Maria's dark view of life is revealed in quotes such as, \"Maria did not particularly believe in rewards, only in punishments, swift and personal.\" The concept ofnothingoccurs in many contexts, such as Maria marking \"nothing applies\" on her hospital documents, and repeating this thought when revisiting memories of her past. When speaking to Benny about their now-destroyed hometown, Maria says, \"there is no Silver Wells\", suggesting that finding meaning in past memories is futile.The line \"Maria said nothing\" occurs repeatedly in several dialogues, suggesting that Maria considers it pointless to explain herself to others. Maria does not try to find greater meaning in suffering, nor does she ask questions about why suffering occurs and if there is a purpose to it. This view is presented in her opening monologue, \"Carter and Helene still ask questions. I used to ask questions, and I got the answer: nothing. The answer is",
"The answer is 'nothing.'\" Depiction of Los Angeles Play It As It Laysis considered a classic Los Angeles novel, containing manyliterary motifsassociated with Los Angeles andCalifornia. Driving, Cars and the Freeway Theinterstate freewayplays an important part in both thesettingand the plot of the novel, as the protagonist spends her days driving on the freeway as a form ofescapism, a motif that is popular in Los Angeles novels. Los Angeles, known as \"a city on wheels\",has a unique identity as a city designed for cars, due to its flat terrain and relatively late urbanization. The philosophical themes of the novel have been described as \"freeway existentialism\"as Maria goes on drives without a destination in mind. Maria fulfills the literary trope of a drifter, a common trope in Los Angeles novels, where protagonists are often depicted driving, either as a way to chase their dreams or to escape their problems.Driving a fast car on the open road is often considered a literary symbol of the illusion of freedom,",
"of freedom, which is easily achieved in Southern California, where there is a well developed, multi-lane freeway. Some of the plot developments occur while driving. For instance Maria informs Carter that she is pregnant when they are driving on the freeway. When driving to the house where her illegal abortion is to occur, Maria and the man in the \"duck pants\" discuss their cars, which brings a sense of normalcy and relief to Maria, \"In the past few minutes he had significantly altered her perception of reality: she saw now that she was not a woman on her way to have an abortion. She was a woman parking a Corvette while a man in white pants talked about buying a Camaro. There was no more to it than that.\" An ongoing theme is that Maria avoids her problems by driving away from them, and as she sinks deeper into a nihilistic depression, she drives further distances, driving between California and Nevada. Disillusionment in Hollywood Didion is often credited for capturing the atmosphere of Hollywood in the",
"of Hollywood in the 1960s.Play It As it Laysdepicts Hollywood as a \"broken paradise\" as seen from the point of view of a disenchanted actress,in contrast to the more common,utopianview of Hollywood.The novel depicts the scheming, exploitation, and elitism common in thefilm industryat that time. In the same way that movie makers manufacture stories, the characters in the film industry manufacture their own image to attain status and fame. Though themes ofnarcissismandself-destructionamong the wealthy are old themes, seen in novels such asThe Great Gatsby, the focus on the inner workings of movie production at the end ofGolden Era Hollywood, establishPlay It As It Laysas a classic Los Angeles novel. Maria's acting career is on the decline because she walked away from amovie set, damaging her reputation in an industry where reputation is highly important. This leads her to become more detached and apathetic to the social culture around her, and she begins to disregard social conventions and isolate herself from",
"herself from her acquaintances, rejecting invitations to parties and choosing to be alone instead. Many dialogues between Maria and other characters portray the superficiality and strategy associated with the film industry, as characters choose words carefully to achieve an aim or to avoid direct communication. The few dialogues which depict genuine, heartfelt interactions stand out, such as BZ telling Maria, \"hold onto me\" before overdosing. Criticism Reception Considered a classic work of American fiction, the novel has received largely positive reviews from literary critics, but often draws mixed reviews from the public due to its bleak content and unlikableprotagonist.The plot has been described by critics as having \"cinematic nihilism\",and being a \"ruthless dissection of American life in the 1960s.\" It has been positively described as a \"terrifying book.\"In a review of the novel,Joseph Epsteindescribed Joan Didion as a novelist: \"her vision is dark, her views are bleak, but she is richly talented.\"J.",
"richly talented.\"J. Frakes, reviewing the novel in theBook Worldcolumn ofThe Washington Post,described the novel as a \"scathing novel, distilling venom in tiny drops, revealing devastation in a sneer and fear in a handful of atomic dust.\"Library Journaldescribed it as, \"intelligent, well-structured, witty, irresistibly relentless.\" Didion's writing style in this novel has been applauded for breaking from literary tradition and making use of a precise, minimalist style,composed of short chapters, some of which are only a few sentences long, leaving the page mostly blank. The style has been described as \"short, laser-focused chapters that come in hot and burn out just as quickly like a firework.\" In popular culture The novel continues to be a prominent work inpopular culture. The book has been referenced in the Netflix television series,You.In a 2023 survey among writers by the LA Times,Play It As It Layswas voted the third most popular LA book.Literary Hublisted the novel in its list of10 Essential Books That",
"Books That Capture Los Angeles in All Its Sublime, Beautiful Darkness.The independent editorial websiteBook Riot, included the novel in its list,10 of the Best Books About Los Angeles,describing Didion, \"when people think of Los Angeles authors, Joan Didion is almost always the first name that pops into their minds.\"The novel is frequently listed as a popular Los Angeles novel by popular culture websites. Adaptation The book was adapted intoa 1972 filmdirected byFrank Perry, starringTuesday Weldas Maria andAnthony Perkinsas BZ.Didion co-wrote the screenplay with her husband,John Gregory Dunne. Notes References External links",
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"Frank Perry Frank Joseph Perry Jr.(August 21, 1930 – August 29, 1995) was an American stage director and filmmaker. His 1962 independent filmDavid and Lisaearned anAcademy Award nomination for Best DirectorandBest Adapted Screenplay(written by his then-wifeEleanor Perry). The couple collaborated on five more films, includingThe Swimmer,Diary of a Mad Housewife, and theEmmy Award–nominatedA Christmas Memory, based on a short story byTruman Capote. Perry went on to form Corsair Pictures, privately financed byUnited Artists Theatres, which producedMiss FirecrackerandA Shock to the System, then folded.His later films includeMommie Dearestand the documentaryOn the Bridge, about his battle withprostate cancer. Early life Frank Joseph Perry Jr. was born inNew York Cityto stockbroker Frank Joseph Perry Sr. (1905–1969) and Pauline E. Schwab (1908–1965), who worked atAlcoholics Anonymous.As a teenager, Frank Jr. began pursuing his interest in the theater with a job as a parking lot attendant for the Westport Country",
"Westport Country Playhouse in nearbyWestport, Connecticut. He attended theUniversity of Miami. Frank also studied underLee Strasbergin New York. He produced several plays at Westport Country Playhouse and then turned for a time to producing television documentaries. Career A veteran of the Korean War, he returned to the entertainment industry after being discharged and made his directorial debut in 1962 with the low-budget drama filmDavid and Lisa. Based on the novel byTheodore Isaac Rubin, the screenplay was written by his wife,Eleanor Rosenfeld, who received a nomination for anAcademy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay. A character study of two emotionally disturbed teenagers, the film was successful at the box office and met with much critical acclaim, earning him a nomination for anAcademy Award for Directing. Both Perrys would eventually join the select group of non-actors awarded membership inActors Studio.Perry went on to direct and produce a number of films, many based on literary sources or with",
"sources or with strong literary associations, includingThe Swimmer, (1968) based on aJohn Cheeverstory,Last Summer(1969), andTrilogy(1969), written byTruman Capote. Perry is known for his character studies, such asDiary of a Mad Housewife(1970). That film earned aBest Actress Oscarnomination forCarrie Snodgress, andPlay It as It Lays(1972), starringTuesday Weld, brought her aGolden GlobeBest Actress nomination. Both of these films Perry produced and directed, but he is probably best remembered for directing the biographical dramaMommie Dearest, an adaptation of a biography by actressJoan Crawford's adoptive daughter. The film became a cult classic despite mixed reviews from critics; it also won theRazzie Awardfor worst picture, and Frank Perry was nominated for worst director, while actressFaye Dunawayreceived the Razzie for her performance. Some of Perry's film-related material and personal papers are held at the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives, a collection to which scholars and media experts from",
"media experts from around the world today have full access. Personal life and death In 1958, Frank married his first wife Eleanor, who was 15 years his senior and had two children, William and Ann, from a previous marriage. Frank and Eleanor collaborated on many screen projects, including screenwriting the Academy Award-nominated 1962David and Lisa(an adaptation of the novella of the same name) which came about due to Eleanor's daughter Ann bringing the novella to her mother's attention.They divorced in 1971 on grounds of incompatibility.In 1979, Eleanor Perry wrote the novelBlue Pages,based on their relationship. She died of cancer two years later, at age 66. In 1977, Perry marriedBarbara Goldsmith, founding editor ofNew Yorkmagazine and book author (Little Gloria...Happy at Last), whom he divorced in 1992. Soon after, he married his Aspen ski instructor, 22-years-younger Virginia Brush Ford, on June 15, 1992. His sister is pastor Mary Christine Perry, the wife of pastor Maurice Keith Hudson and mother of",
"and mother of singersKaty Perryand David Hudson. Perry died ofprostate canceron August 29, 1995, eight days after his 65th birthday, atMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Centerin Manhattan.His final film,On the Bridge(1992), is an autobiographical documentary about his illness. His ashes were scattered on the mountains of Aspen, Colorado, where he lived the last three years of his life. Filmography Film Television References Further reading External links",
"Katy Perry Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson(born October 25, 1984), known professionally asKaty Perry, is an American singer, songwriter, and television personality. Perry is one of thebest-selling music artists of all time, having sold over 143 million units worldwide. She is known for her influence onpop musicand hercampstyle, being dubbed the \"Queen of Camp\" byVogueandRolling Stone.Billboardranked her fourth on its \"Greatest of All Time Pop Songs Artists\" list and twenty-fifth on their \"Greatest Pop Stars of the 21st Century\" list. At 16, Perry released agospelrecord titledKaty Hudson(2001) underRed Hill Records, which was commercially unsuccessful. She moved to Los Angeles at 17 to venture intosecularmusic, and later adopted the stage name \"Katy Perry\" from her mother's maiden name. She recorded an album while signed toColumbia Records, but was dropped before signing toCapitol Records. Perry rose to fame withOne of the Boys(2008), apop rockrecord containing her debut single \"I Kissed a Girl\" and follow-up single",
"follow-up single \"Hot n Cold\", which reached number one and three on the U.S.BillboardHot 100respectively. Thedisco-influenced pop albumTeenage Dream(2010) spawned five U.S. number one singles—\"California Gurls\", \"Teenage Dream\", \"Firework\", \"E.T.\", and \"Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)\"— the only album by a female singer to do so. The album's reissue titledTeenage Dream: The Complete Confection(2012) produced the U.S. number one single \"Part of Me\". Her empowerment-themed albumPrism(2013) had two U.S. number one singles, \"Roar\" and \"Dark Horse\". Both their respective music videos made her the first artist to have multiple videos reach one billion views onVevoandYouTube. Afterwards, Perry released the albumsWitness(2017) andSmile(2020) and embarked on her Las Vegasconcert residencytitledPlay(2021–2023). She released her seventh studio album, titled143, in 2024. Perry has the second-most U.S.diamond certified singlesfor any female artist (6). She has receivedvarious accolades, including aBillboardSpotlight Award,",
"Award, fourGuinness World Records, fiveBillboardMusic Awards, fiveAmerican Music Awards, aBrit Award, aJuno Award, and theMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Award. Outside of music, she released an autobiographical documentary titledKaty Perry: Part of Mein 2012, voicedSmurfetteinThe Smurfsfilm series, and launched her own shoe line Katy Perry Collections in 2017. Perry served as a judge onAmerican Idolfrom thesixteenth seasonin 2018 to thetwenty-second seasonin 2024.Forbesranked her as theworld's highest-paid female musicianin 2015 and 2018. With an estimated net worth of $350 million, she isone of the world's wealthiest musicians. Life and career 1984–1999: Early life and family Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson was born on October 25, 1984, inSanta Barbara, California, toPentecostalpastors Mary Christine (née Perry) and Maurice Keith Hudson.Both of her parents turned to religion after a \"wild youth\".Perry has English, German, Irish, and Portuguese ancestry.Through her mother, she is a niece of film directorFrank",
"film directorFrank Perry.She has a younger brother named David, who is also a singer,and an older sister, Angela. From ages three to 11, Perry frequently moved across the country as her very strict parents set up churches before settling again in Santa Barbara. Growing up, she attended religious schools and camps, including Paradise Valley Christian School inArizonaand Santa Barbara Christian School in California during herelementary years.The family struggled financially,sometimes usingfood stampsand eating food from the food bank which also fed the congregation at her parents' church. Growing up, Perry and her siblings were not allowed to eat the cerealLucky Charmsas the word \"luck\" reminded their mother ofLucifer, and were also required to calldeviled eggs\"angeled eggs\".Perry primarily listened togospel music,as secular music was generally discouraged in the family's home. She discovered popular music through CDs she sneaked from her friends.Perry later recalled a story about how a friend of hers played",
"of hers played \"You Oughta Know\" byAlanis Morissette, which impacted her songwriting and singing. While not strictly identifying as religious, she has stated, \"I pray all the time – for self-control, for humility.\"Wanting to be like her sister Angela, Perry began singing by practicing with her sister's cassette tapes. She performed the tracks in front of her parents, who let her take vocal lessons like Angela was doing at the time. She begantrainingat age nineand was incorporated into her parents' ministry,singing in church from ages nine to 17.At 13, Perry was given her first guitar for her birthday,and publicly performed songs she wrote.She tried to \"be a bit like the typical Californian girl\" while growing up, and started rollerskating, skateboarding, and surfing as a teenager. Her brother David described her as a \"tomboy\" during her adolescence, which Perry talks about on her song \"One of the Boys\".She took dancing lessons and learned how toswing,Lindy Hop, andjitterbug.Perry completed herGeneral",
"herGeneral Educational Development(GED) requirements early at age 15,during her first year of high school,and leftDos Pueblos High Schoolto pursue a music career. 2000–2006: Career beginnings,Katy Hudson, andFingerprints Perry briefly had vocal lessons with a woman named Agatha Danoffin facilities rented from theMusic Academy of the West.Her singing caught the attention of rock artists Steve Thomas andJennifer KnappfromNashville, Tennessee, who brought her there to improve her writing skills.In Nashville, she started recordingdemosand learned how to write songs and play guitar.Perry signed withRed Hill Recordsand recorded her debut album, acontemporary Christianrecord titledKaty Hudson, which was released on March 6, 2001. She also went on tour that year as part ofPhil Joel's Strangely Normal Tourand embarked on other performances of her own in the United States.Katy Hudsonreceived mixed reviews from critics and was commercially unsuccessful, selling an estimated 200 copies before the label ceased operations",
"ceased operations in December.Transitioning from gospel music to secular music, Perry started working with producerGlen Ballard,and moved to Los Angeles at age 17.She opted to work with Ballard due to his past work with Alanis Morissette, one of her major inspirations. In 2003, she briefly performed as Katheryn Perry, to avoid confusion with actressKate Hudson, and later adopted the stage name \"Katy Perry\", using her mother's maiden name.In 2010, she recalled that \"Thinking of You\" was one of the first songs she wrote after moving to Los Angeles.Perry would also perform at theHotel Café, performing new music while she was between record labels. In 2004, she signed to Ballard's label, Java Records, which was then affiliated withThe Island Def Jam Music Group. Perry began work on a solo record due for release in March 2005, but the record was shelved after Java was dropped.Ballard then introduced her toTim Devine, anA&Rexecutive atColumbia Records, and she was signed as a solo artist. By November 2006, Perry",
"2006, Perry had finished writing and recording material for her Columbia debut titledFingerprints(with some of the material from this time appearing onOne of the Boys) which was planned for release in 2007.Some of the material fromFingerprintsthat did not make it onOne of the Boyswas given to other artists, such as \"I Do Not Hook Up\" and \"Long Shot\" toKelly Clarksonand \"Rock God\" toSelena Gomez & the Scene. Perry worked with songwriters includingDesmond Child,Greg Wells,Butch Walker,Scott Cutler,Anne Preven,the Matrix,Kara DioGuardi,Max Martin, andDr. Luke.In addition, after Devine suggested that songwriting team the Matrix become a \"real group\", she recorded an album,The Matrix, with them.The Matrixwas planned for release in 2004 but was cancelled due to creative differences. It was released in 2009 after the release ofOne of the Boys.Perry was dropped from Columbia in 2006 asFingerprintsneared completion. After the label dropped her, she worked at an independent A&R company, Taxi Music. Perry had minor",
"Perry had minor success prior to her breakthrough. One of the songs she had recorded for her album with Ballard, \"Simple\", was featured on the soundtrack to the 2005 filmThe Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants.Perry provided backing vocals onMick Jagger's song \"Old Habits Die Hard\",which was included on the soundtrack to the 2004 filmAlfie.In September 2004,Blendernamed her \"The Next Big Thing\".She recorded background vocals onP.O.D.'s single \"Goodbye for Now\", was featured at the end of its music video in 2006, and performed it with them onThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno.That year, Perry also appeared in the music video for \"Learn to Fly\" byCarbon Leaf, and played the love interest of her then-boyfriend,Gym Class Heroeslead singerTravie McCoy, in the band's music video for \"Cupid's Chokehold\". 2007–2009: Breakthrough withOne of the Boys After Columbia dropped Perry,Angelica Cob-Baehler, then a publicity executive at the label, brought Perry's demos toVirgin RecordschairmanJason Flom. Flom was convinced that",
"was convinced that she could be a breakthrough star and she was signed toCapitol Recordsin April 2007. The label arranged for her to work with Dr. Luke to add an \"undeniable smash\" to her existing material.Perry and Dr. Luke co-wrote the songs \"I Kissed a Girl\" and \"Hot n Cold\" for her second albumOne of the Boys. A campaign was started with the November 2007 release of the video to \"Ur So Gay\", a song aimed at introducing her to the music market.Adigital EP of the same namewas also released that month.Madonnahelped publicize the song by praising it on theJohnJay & Richradio show in April 2008,stating \"Ur So Gay\" was her \"favorite song\" at the time.In March 2008, Perry made a cameo appearance as a club singer in theWildfireepisode \"Life's Too Short\"and appeared as herself during a photo shoot that June onThe Young and the Restlessfor the show's magazineRestless Style. Perry released her first single with Capitol, \"I Kissed a Girl\", on April 28, 2008,as the lead single fromOne of the Boys. The first station",
"The first station to pick up the song wasWRVWin Nashville, who were inundated with enthusiastic calls the first three days they played it.The track reached number one on the USBillboardHot 100.\"I Kissed a Girl\" created controversy among both religious andLGBTgroups. The former criticized its homosexual theme, while the latter accused her of usingbi-curiosityto sell records. In response to speculation that her parents opposed her music and career, Perry toldMTVthat they had no problems with her success.One of the Boys, released on June 17, 2008, garnered mixed critical reviews and reached number nine on the USBillboard200.The album went on to sell 7 million copies worldwide.\"Hot n Cold\" was released the following Septemberand became the album's second successful single, reaching number three on theBillboardHot 100while topping charts in Germany,Canada,the Netherlandsand Austria.Later singles \"Thinking of You\" and \"Waking Up in Vegas\" were released in 2009and reached the top 30 of the Hot 100.The Matrix's",
"100.The Matrix's self-titled debut album, which Perry had recorded with the band in 2004, was released ontoiTuneson January 27, 2009, as a result of her solo success. After finishing the 2008Warped Tour,Perry hosted the2008 MTV Europe Music Awardsin November 2008, where she won the award forBest New Act.At the2009 Brit Awards, she also won the award forInternational Female Solo Artist.Perry embarked on her first headlining world tour, theHello Katy Tour, from January to November 2009 to supportOne of the Boys.On August 4, 2009, she performed as opening act for one date ofNo Doubt's2009 Summer Tour.Perry also hosted the2009 MTV Europe Music Awardsin November 2009, becoming the first person to host two consecutive ceremonies of the European awards.On July 22, 2009, Perry recorded a live album titledMTV Unplugged, which featuredacousticperformances of five tracks fromOne of the Boysas well as one new song, \"Brick by Brick\", and a cover ofFountains of Wayne's \"Hackensack\".It was released on November 17,",
"on November 17, 2009.Perry also appeared on two singles with other artists; she was featured on a remix ofColorado-based band3OH!3's song \"Starstrukk\" in September 2009,and on a duet withTimbalandentitled \"If We Ever Meet Again\", from his albumShock Value II, three months later.TheGuinness World Recordsrecognized her in its 2010 edition as the \"Best Start on the U.S. Digital Chart by a Female Artist\", for digital single sales of over two million copies. After Perry and Travie McCoy split up in December 2008,they briefly reconciled before she ended their relationship in 2009.Perry met her future husbandRussell Brandin the summer of 2009 while filming a cameo appearance for his filmGet Him to the Greek. Her scene, in which the two kiss, does not appear in the film.She began dating Brand after meeting him again that September at the2009 MTV Video Music Awards.The couple became engaged on December 31, 2009, while vacationing inRajasthan, India. 2010–2012:Teenage Dreamand marriage After serving as a guest judge",
"as a guest judge onAmerican Idol,Perry released \"California Gurls\" featuringSnoop Doggon May 7, 2010.The song was the lead single from her third studio album,Teenage Dream, and reached number one on theBillboardHot 100 in June.She also served as a guest judge onBritishThe X Factorlater that monthbefore releasing the album's second single, \"Teenage Dream\", in July.\"Teenage Dream\" reached number one on theBillboardHot 100 in September.Released on August 24, 2010,Teenage Dreamdebuted at number one on theBillboard200,and received mixed reviews from music critics.It has since sold 6 million copies worldwide.Teenage Dreamwould go on to win the 2011Juno Award for International Album of the Year.In October, \"Firework\" was released as the album's third single.It became the album's third consecutive number one on theBillboardHot 100 on December 8, 2010. \"E.T.\" featuringKanye Westwas released as the fourth single fromTeenage Dreamon February 16, 2011.It topped theBillboardHot 100 for five non-consecutive weeks,",
"weeks, makingTeenage Dreamthe ninth album in history to produce four number one singles on the chart.\"Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)\" followed as the fifth single in June,and Perry became the first female artist to achieve five number-oneBillboardHot 100 songs from one album when the single topped that chart on August 17, and the second artist afterMichael Jacksonwith his albumBad.For this record, she received an honoraryAmerican Music Awardin November 2011and a 2013 Guinness World Record.On September 7, she set a new record by becoming the first artist to spend 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the Hot 100.After \"The One That Got Away\" was released as the album's sixth single in October,Teenage Dreambecame the third album to spawn six top-five songs on theBillboardHot 100 afterRhythm Nation 1814byJanet JacksonandFaithbyGeorge Michael.The song peaked at number three in the USand number two in Canada. On January 5, 2012, Perry was named the sixth best-selling digital artist in the United States, with sales",
"States, with sales of 37.6 million units according toNielsen SoundScan.That month, she became the first artist to have four songs sell over 5 million digital units when \"E.T.\" reached that mark along with \"Firework\", \"California Gurls\", and \"Hot N Cold\".On February 13, Capitol released the lead single fromTeenage Dream: The Complete Confection, \"Part of Me\", which debuted at number one on theBillboardHot 100 and became Perry's seventh single overall to top the chart.Teenage Dream: The Complete Confectionwas released on March 23,and serves as a reissue ofTeenage Dream.\"Wide Awake\" was released on May 22 as the re-release's second single,peaking at number two on theBillboardHot 100and number one in Canadaand New Zealand. Perry embarked on her second tour, theCalifornia Dreams Tour, in support ofTeenage Dreamfrom February 2011 to January 2012.The tour grossed $59.5 million globallyand won her the award forBest Live Actat the2011 MTV Europe Music Awards.On September 23, 2011, she performed on the opening day of",
"the opening day of the 2011Rock in Riofestival along withElton JohnandRihanna.In September 2010, Perry was scheduled to appear on the 41st-season premiere ofSesame Street. After her scene was uploaded to YouTube, viewers criticized Perry's exposedcleavage. Four days before the scheduled airing,Sesame Workshopannounced that the segment would not air on television, but would still be available to watch online.Perry subsequently mocked the controversy onSaturday Night Live, where she was a musical guest and wore anElmo-themed shirt showing large amounts of cleavage during one skit. In December 2010, Perry playedMoe Szyslak's girlfriend in the live-action segment from a Christmas episode ofThe Simpsonstitled \"The Fight Before Christmas\".In February 2011, she made a guest appearance on theHow I Met Your Motherepisode \"Oh Honey\", playing a woman known as Honey.The role won her thePeople's Choice Award for Favorite TV Guest Starin January 2012.She made her film debut in the 3D family motion pictureThe",
"motion pictureThe SmurfsasSmurfetteon July 29, 2011. The film was a financial success worldwide,while critics gave mostly negative reviews.She hostedSaturday Night Liveon December 10, 2011, withRobynas the episode's musical guest. Perry's work on the episode received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised her performance in the episode'sdigital shortfeaturing her andAndy Samberg.In March 2012, she guest starred as a prison security guard named Rikki on theRaising Hopeepisode \"Single White Female Role Model\".On July 5, 2012, Perry's autobiographical documentaryKaty Perry: Part of Mewas released to theaters throughParamount Pictures.The film received positive reviewsand grossed $32.7 million worldwide at the box office. Perry began to venture into business when she endorsed her first fragrance, Purr, in November 2010. Her second fragrance, Meow!, was released in December 2011. Both perfumes were released throughNordstromdepartment stores.Electronic Artsrecruited her to promote their new expansion",
"their new expansion pack forThe Sims 3: Showtime,before releasing a separatestuff packfeaturing Perry-inspired furniture, outfits, and hairstyles, titledThe Sims 3: Katy Perry's Sweet Treats, in June 2012.The following month, she became the spokesperson and ambassador forPopchipsand made an investment in the company.Billboarddubbed her as their \"Woman of the Year\" for 2012. She married Russell Brand on October 23, 2010, in a traditionalHinduceremonynear theRanthambhore tiger sanctuaryinRajasthan, India.On December 30, 2011, Brand announced that they were divorcing after 14 months of marriage.Perry later stated that conflicting career schedules and his desire to have children before she was ready led to the end of their marriageand that he never spoke to her again after sending a text message that he was divorcing her,while Brand asserted that he divorced her due to her commercial success and reluctance to engage in activism.She was initially distraught over their divorce and said that she contemplated",
"she contemplated suicide.Since they married without aprenuptial agreement, he was eligible to claim half of the estimated $44 million she earned during their marriage, but declined.Perry began a relationship with singerJohn Mayerin August 2012, the year her marriage with Brand had ended. 2013–2015:Prismand Super Bowl XLIX halftime show In November 2012, Perry began work on her fourth album,Prism.She toldBillboard, \"I know exactly the record I want to make next. I know the artwork, the coloring and the tone\" and \"I even know what type of tour I'm doing next. I'll be very pleased if the vision I have in my head becomes a reality.\"After initially tellingL'Uomo Voguein June 2012 that she planned to have \"darker elements\" inPrismfollowing the end of her marriage, the singer revealed to MTV during the2013 MTV Video Music Awardsthat she changed the album's direction after periods of self-reflection. Perry commented \"I felt very prismatic\", which inspired the album's name.\"Roar\" was released as the lead single",
"as the lead single fromPrismon August 10, 2013.It was promoted at the MTV Video Music Awards and reached number one on theBillboardHot 100.\"Unconditionally\" followed as the second single fromPrismon October 16, 2013,and peaked at number 14 in the United States. Prismwas released on October 18, 2013, and has sold 4 million copies as of August 2015.It received favorable reviews from criticsand debuted at number one on theBillboard200 chart.Four days later, Perry performed the songs from the album at theiHeartRadioTheater in Los Angeles.\"Dark Horse\" withJuicy Jwas released as the album's third single in December, and became her ninth U.S. number-one single the following month.In 2014, \"Birthday\" and \"This Is How We Do\" respectively followed as the album's fourth and fifth singles,and reached the top 25 on the Hot 100.Prior to ending her relationship with Mayer in February 2014,she recorded and co-wrote a duet with him titled \"Who You Love\" for his albumParadise Valley. The song was released on August 12,",
"on August 12, 2013.Perry's third headlining tour, thePrismatic World Tour, began in May 2014and concluded in October 2015.It sold almost 2 million tickets and grossed $204.3 million worldwideand won Perry the award for \"Top Package\" at the 2014BillboardTouring Awards.She also performed at the 2015 Rock in Rio festival on September 27, 2015. On November 23, 2014, theNFLannounced that Perry would perform at theSuper Bowl XLIX halftime showon February 1, 2015.Lenny KravitzandMissy Elliottserved as special guests for the show.Her performance was critically acclaimed,and theGuinness World Recordsannounced two days after the singer's halftime show that it garnered 118.5 million viewers in the United States, becoming the most watched and highest rated show in Super Bowl history. The viewership was higher than the game itself, which was viewed by an audience of 114.4 million. TheInternational Federation of the Phonographic Industry(IFPI) ranked her fifth on the list of Top Global Recording Artists of 2013.On June",
"of 2013.On June 26, 2014, she was declared the Top Certified Digital Artist Ever by theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) for certified sales of 72 million digital singles in the United States.In May 2014, a portrait of Perry by painterMark Rydenwas featured in his exhibition \"The Gay 90s\", and shown at theKohn Galleryin Los Angeles. Along with several other artists, she also recorded a cover version of the song \"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)\" on a limited-edition concept album titledThe Gay Nineties Old Tyme Music: Daisy Bellto accompany the exhibition.That month, a portrait of Perry by artistWill Cottonwas included in the United StatesNational Portrait Gallery.On November 23, 2015, Perry starred inH&M's holiday advertising campaign, for which she wrote and recorded a song titled \"Every Day Is a Holiday\".On June 17, 2014, Perry announced that she had founded her own record label under Capitol Records, titled Metamorphosis Music.Ferraswas the first artist to get signed to her label, and",
"to her label, and Perry served as an executive producer onhis self-titled EP. She also recorded a duet with him on the EP, titled \"Legends Never Die\".The label was later renamedUnsub Records. Outside of her music career, Perry reprised her role as Smurfette inThe Smurfs 2, which was released in theaters on July 31, 2013.Like its predecessor,The Smurfs 2was a financial successbut was panned by critics.In March 2014, she made a guest appearance playing herself in the episode \"Blisteritos Presents Dad Academy Graduation Congraduritos Red Carpet Viewing Party\" of theKroll Show.Killer Queen was released as her third fragrance in August 2013 throughCotyIn January 2014, she became a guest curator of Madonna'sArt for Freedominitiative.In March 2015, she appeared inBrand: A Second Coming, a documentary following her ex-husband Russell Brand's transition from comedy work to activism,and released a concert film titledKaty Perry: The Prismatic World TourthroughEpix, which took place during her tour of the same",
"tour of the same name.Perry also made a cameo appearance in the music video for Madonna's song \"Bitch I'm Madonna\" in June 2015.The following month, she released another fragrance with Coty, entitled Mad Potion.In September 2015, she appeared in the documentariesKaty Perry: Making of the Pepsi Super Bowl Halftime Show, which followed Perry's preparation for her Super Bowl performance,andJeremy Scott: The People's Designer, which followed the life and career of designerJeremy Scott.Perry released a mobile app titledKaty Perry Popin December 2015 throughGlu Mobilewhere her character helps players become famous musicians.She described it as \"the most fun, colorful world that helps guide your musical dreams\". 2016–2018:WitnessandAmerican Idol Perry started writing songs for her new album in June 2016,and recorded an anthem forNBC Sports's coverage of the2016 Summer Olympicstitled \"Rise\", which was released the following month. Perry chose to release it as a standalone track rather than save it for her album",
"it for her album \"because now more than ever, there is a need for our world to unite\". NBC also felt its message spoke \"directly to the spirit of the Olympics and its athletes\" for its inspirational themes.The song reached number one in Australiaand number eleven in the United States. In August 2016, Perry stated that she aspired to create material \"that connects and relates and inspires\"and toldRyan Seacrestthat she was \"not rushing\" her fifth album, adding \"I'm just having a lot of fun, but experimenting and trying different producers, and different collaborators, and different styles\".On February 10, 2017, Perry released the album's lead single \"Chained to the Rhythm\" featuringSkip Marley.It reached number one in Hungaryand number four in the United States.The track was also streamed over three million times onSpotifywithin 24 hours, breaking the music streaming service's record at the time for the highest first-day streaming for a single track by a female artist.The album's second single, \"Bon Appétit\"",
"\"Bon Appétit\" withMigos, was released that April.Its third single, \"Swish Swish\", featuredNicki Minajand followed the next month.They respectively peaked at numbers 59 and 46 in the United States,and made the top 15 in Canada. The album, titledWitness, was released on June 9, 2017, to mixed reviews,and debuted at number one in the United States.To accompany the album's release, Perry broadcast herself on YouTube for four days with a live-stream titledKaty Perry Live: Witness World Wide, concluding with a live concert on June 12.The live-stream generated over 49 million views from 190 countries.She also embarked onWitness: The Tour, which began in September 2017 and ended in August 2018.On June 15, 2017,Calvin Harrisreleased a song titled \"Feels\" from his albumFunk Wav Bounces Vol. 1, which featured Perry,Big Sean, andPharrell Williams.The song went on to reach number one in the United Kingdom. Perry subsequently recorded a cover of theDear Evan Hansensong \"Waving Through a Window\" for the deluxe edition of",
"deluxe edition of thecast recording, which was released on November 2, 2018.The show's creatorsBenj PasekandJustin Paulhad requested Perry to cover the song to promote the musical's national tour and bring awareness to mental health.Later that month, Perry released \"Cozy Little Christmas\".She also recorded the song \"Immortal Flame\" for the gameFinal Fantasy Brave Exvius, and had aplayable charactermodeled after her. Outside of recording music, Perry appeared as herself in the filmZoolander 2, which was released in February 2016.In February 2017, the singer launched a shoe line titled \"Katy Perry Collections\".Her shoes are available on her website, Katy Perry Collections, and at retailers such asDillard'sandWalmart.The following August, she hosted the2017 MTV Video Music Awards.Perry was signed for a $25-million salary to serve as a judge on thesixteenth seasonofAmerican Idol, which premiered in March 2018.Perry began a relationship withOrlando Bloomin early 2016, and the couple got engaged on February 14,",
"on February 14, 2019. 2019–2020:Smileand motherhood At the61st Annual Grammy Awards, Perry performed \"Here You Come Again\", alongsideDolly PartonandKacey Musgraves, as part of a tribute to Parton.Four days later, she released a song called \"365\", with DJZedd.In April, Perry was included on a remix ofDaddy Yankee's song \"Con Calma\", featuringSnow.She followed this with the singles \"Never Really Over\" on May 31, \"Small Talk\" on August 9, and \"Harleys in Hawaii\" on October 16.\"Never Really Over\" in particular received critical acclaim. In June 2019, Perry appeared in the music video ofTaylor Swift's \"You Need to Calm Down\".In July, a jury in California returned a verdict following a week-long trial that Perry's song \"Dark Horse\" had copiedFlame's 2008 song \"Joyful Noise\" after he filed acopyright lawsuitalleging that it used his track's beat without permission;the verdict was later overturned.After the initial verdict, the jury ordered her to pay him $550,000.The next month, Josh Kloss, Perry's co-star in the",
"co-star in the \"Teenage Dream\" music video, accused her of sexual misconduct.In anInstagrampost, Kloss alleged that, during a party at a skating rink, Perry pulled on his sweatpants and underwear, exposing his penis to her male friends. He also said her management prevented him from speaking about his time with the singer. Johnny Wujek, the creative director of said party defended Perry, saying that she \"would never do something like that\" and accused Kloss of having an \"ongoing obsession\" with her.After initially refraining from responding to this, believing it would have detracted from theMe Too movement, Perry has also denied Kloss's claims. Following the release of her single \"Never Worn White\" in March 2020, Perry revealed in the accompanying music video that she was expecting her first child with Bloom.\"Daisies\", the lead single from her sixth album, was released on May 15, 2020. Its second single \"Smile\" followed two months later.The album, also titledSmile, was released on August 28, 2020.Two days",
"28, 2020.Two days before its distribution, she gave birth to a daughter named Daisy Dove Bloom.The album received mixed reviews,and debuted at number five in the United States.Perry further promoted the album with four compilation EPs:Camp Katy,Empowered,Scorpio SZN,andCosmic Energy.These EPs were followed by the single \"Not the End of the World\" in December 2020, which had a music video in whichZooey Deschanelimpersonates Perry.Additionally she collaborated with various artists to create two remixes ofSmilealbum tracks.Tiëstoremix of \"Resilient\" featuringAitanawas released in November 2020, while Bruno Martini remix of \"Cry About It Later\" featuringLuísa Sonzawas released in April 2021. 2021–2023: Play residency On January 20, 2021, Perry performed \"Firework\" at theCelebrating Americaconcert during theinauguration of Joe Biden.Four months later, she released a new single, \"Electric\", a collaboration withPokémonas part of its 25th anniversary.That December, Perry followed this with \"When I'm Gone\", a",
"\"When I'm Gone\", a collaboration with Swedish DJAlessothat made her the third person to reach number one on Croatia's ARC 100 list across three different decades followingLady GagaandColdplay. Perry began hosting aconcert residencynamedPlayatResorts World Las Vegason December 29, 2021.The show's inception happened during theCOVID-19 lockdownswith Perry being inspired byHoney, I Shrunk the Kids,Pee-wee's Playhouse, andPee-wee's Big Adventure. She described it as \"larger than life\" and \"the kookiest, most camp show I've ever put together.\"The show has received critical acclaimwith Melinda Sheckells ofBillboardsaying that Play's \"sold-out opening night is part fantasy, part hallucination and thoroughly camp.In addition to a sold out opening night, theSanta Barbara Independentreported that Perry's contract deal for the residency was worth $168 million.It concluded on November 4, 2023,and grossed $46.4 million. In September 2021,Varietypaid tribute to and honored Perry in their \"Power of Women\" issue, where she",
"issue, where she discussed her career, motherhood, andphilanthropy.As a nominee, she attended theVariety2021 \"Power of Women\" dinner.On her 37th birthday the next month, Perry guest hostedThe Ellen DeGeneres Showand starred in a holiday advertisement forGap Inc.which featured her singing \"All You Need Is Love\" bythe Beatles. A full version of her cover was released on streaming platforms the same day.In January 2022, she and Morgan McLachlan established De Soi, a company which produces and sellsnon-alcoholicapéritifs. Both wanted a beverage that \"would mellow the mind, minus the buzz\" when creating it. Along withThomas Rhett, Perry recorded a country pop duet titled \"Where We Started\" for hisalbum of the same namethat was released on April 1, 2022.The next month, it was announced Perry would create music for the soundtrack to Jeremy Zag's animated musical filmMelodyand voice its title character.She also became the new face forJust Eat's,SkipTheDishes',Lieferando's, andMenulog's advertisements and created a",
"and created a new remix of their jingle.On June 8, 2022, Perry was awarded with the Key toLas Vegas, the same day it was marked as Katy Perry day. Perry collaborated with the tech companyApple Inc.starring in advertisements for theirGarageBandmusic software where users could have \"Remix Sessions\" featuring her song, \"Harleys in Hawaii\". On the collab, she stated in August 2022: \"'Harleys in Hawaii' has lived so many different lives\" as well as that there was \"so much opportunity to remix this song, and I can't wait to hear all the GarageBand evolutions with this Apple collab.\"Perry performed at the May 2023Coronation ConcertofCharles IIIatWindsor Castle.Four months later, she sold her music rights to Litmus Music for an estimated $225 million. 2024:143 During an appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!in February 2024, Perry announced her exit fromAmerican Idolfollowing the conclusion of thetwenty-second season, wanting to \"go out and feel that pulse to my own beat\" and release new music after being \"in the studio",
"\"in the studio for a while\". The season premiered later that month,and concluded the following May.She released \"Woman's World\", the first single from her seventh album, on July 11, 2024.One day before the track's premiere, Perry revealed the album is be titled143and that would be released on September 20 of the same year.She described the album as \"super high energy, it's super summer, it's very high BPM\" and \"just full of so much joy, so much love, so much light\".On September 11, Perry received theMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Awardat the2024 MTV Video Music Awards.She performed during the 2024 Rock in Rio festival on the day of143's release.Eight days later, she will headline the pre-game entertainment at Australia's2024 AFL Grand Final. Artistry Influences Perry cites her sister Angela as the woman who has had the most influence on her.During the early stages of her career, Perry's musical style gravitated towards gospel and she aspired to be as successful asAmy Grant.At age 15, she heard \"Killer Queen\"",
"\"Killer Queen\" byQueen, which inspired her to pursue a music career.She cites the band's frontman,Freddie Mercury, as her biggest influence and expressed how the \"combination of his sarcastic approach to writing lyrics and his 'I don't give a fuck' attitude\" inspired her music.She paid homage to the band by naming her third fragrance Killer Queen.Perry describedthe Beach Boysand their albumPet Soundsas having a considerable influence on her music: \"Pet Soundsis one of my favorite records and it influenced pretty much all of my songwriting. All of the melody choices that I make are because ofPet Sounds.\"The singer also holds the Beatles' albumThe Beatlesin high esteem, and described these two albums as \"the only things I listened to for probably two years straight.\" She cites Alanis Morissette and her 1995 albumJagged Little Pillas a significant musical inspiration, stating in 2012: \"Jagged Little Pillwas the most perfect female record ever made. There's a song for anyone on that record; I relate to all those",
"relate to all those songs. They're still so timeless.\" Additionally, Perry borrows influence fromFlaming RedbyPatty Griffinand10 Cent WingsbyJonatha Brooke.Perry's autobiographical documentaryKaty Perry: Part of Mewas largely influenced byMadonna: Truth or Dare. She admires Madonna's ability to reinvent herself, saying \"I want to evolve like Madonna\". Perry namesBjörkas an influence, particularly admiring her \"willingness to always be taking chances\".Other artists who Perry has cited as influences includeStevie Nicks,ABBA,the Cardigans,Whitney Houston,Cyndi Lauper,Ace of Base,3OH!3,CeCe Peniston,C+C Music Factory,Black Box,Crystal Waters,Mariah Carey,Heart, Joni Mitchell,Paul Simon,Imogen Heap,Rufus Wainwright,Pink,andGwen Stefani.\"Firework\" was inspired by a passage in the bookOn the RoadbyJack Kerouacin which the author compares people who are full of life to fireworks that shoot across the sky and make people watch in awe.Her second concert tour, the California Dreams Tour, was reminiscent ofAlice's",
"ofAlice's Adventures in WonderlandandThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz.She also credits the 1996 filmThe Craftfor inspiring her song \"Dark Horse\",andEckhart Tolle's bookThe Power of Nowfor influencingPrism. Musical style and themes \"When I am in between records, sometimes I doubt myself. I'll be like 'Did I just get lucky, or did I mass-manipulate the world into thinking that seven songs were worth a number-one position?' And then I go back into the studio and I start writing, and the true essential oil of who I am comes bubbling back up and reminds me that it's always been inside of me, that nobody can take this away no matter what comment anyone makes.\" —Perry on her confidence as a songwriter Although Perry's music incorporates elements of pop, rock, anddisco,Katy Hudsoncontains gospel. Her subsequent releases,One of the BoysandTeenage Dream, involve themes of sex and love.One of the Boysis apop rockrecord, whileTeenage Dreamfeatures disco influences.Perry's fourth album,Prism, is significantly influenced by",
"influenced by dance and pop music. Lyrically, the album addresses relationships, self-reflection, and everyday life.Her fifth studio effortWitnessis anelectropopalbum that she described as a \"360-degree liberation\" record, with themes including political liberation, sexual liberation, and liberation from negativity.Many of her songs, particularly onTeenage Dream, reflect on love between teenagers;Wmagazine described the album's sexual innuendos as \"irresistible hook-laden melodies\".Self-empowerment is a common theme in Perry's music. Perry has described herself as a \"singer-songwriter masquerading as a pop star\"and maintains that honest songwriting is very important to her. She toldMarie Claire: \"I feel like my secret magic trick that separates me from a lot of my peers is the bravery to be vulnerable and truthful and honest. I think you become more relatable when you're vulnerable.\"Actress and comedianKristen Wiigcommented that \"as easy, breezy, and infectious as Perry's songs can be, beneath the surface",
"beneath the surface lurks a sea of mixed emotions, jumbled motives, and contradictory impulses complicated enough to fill aCarole Kingrecord.\"According toGreg Kotof theChicago Tribune, \"being taken seriously may be Perry's greatest challenge yet.\"In 2013,The New York Timeslabeled her \"the most potent pop star of the day – her hits are relatable with just a hint of experimentation\".Randall Roberts of theLos Angeles Timescriticized her use of idioms and metaphors in her lyrics and for frequent \"clichés\".Throughout her career, Perry has also co-written songs recorded by other artists, includingLesley Roy,Kelly Clarkson,Jessie James Decker,Selena Gomez & the Scene,Britney Spears,Iggy Azalea,Rita Ora,Nicki Minaj, andAriana Grande. Voice Perry possesses acontraltovocal range.Her singing has received both praise and criticism. Betty Clarke ofThe Guardiancommented that her \"powerful voice is hard-edged\"whileRob SheffieldfromRolling Stonedescribed Perry's vocals onTeenage Dreamas \"processedstaccatoblips\".Darren",
"Harvey ofmusicOMHcompared Perry's vocals onOne of the Boysto Alanis Morissette's, both possessing a \"perky voice shifting octaves mid-syllable\".Alex Miller fromNMEfelt that \"Perry's problem is often her voice\" onOne of the Boys, stating that \"somewhere along the line someone convinced her she was like, well, a ballsy rock chick\".Conversely, Bernadette McNulty fromThe Daily Telegraphpraised her \"rock chick voice\" in a review of a concert promotingPrism. Public image On social media, Perry surpassedJustin Bieberas the most followed person onTwitterin November 2013.She won the 2015 Guinness World Record for most Twitter followers,and became the first person to gain 100 million followers on the site in June 2017.Keith Caulfield ofBillboardstated that Perry is \"the rare celebrity who seems to have enormous popularity but genuine ground-level interaction with her adoring KatyCats.\"With over 106 million Twitter followers, she is the second-most followed woman on the site, and the sixth most followed musician across",
"musician across social media with a combined total of over 385 million followers acrossFacebook, Instagram, and Twitter.In June 2017,Timemagazine listed Perry among its \"25 Most Influential People on the Internet\" of the year, writing that her live-stream forWitnesswas \"blazing a trail\" for being \"the closest any major entertainer has come to giving fans the kind of 'real' intimacy that social media purports to provide\". Perry has been described as asex symbol;GQlabeled her a \"full-on male fantasy\",whileEllewrote her body looked \"as though sketched by a teenage boy\".Vicecalled her a\"'serious' popstar/woman/sex symbol\".She was placed at number one on theMaximHot 100 in 2010 as the \"most beautiful woman in the world\", with editor Joe Levy describing her as a \"triple – no quadruple – kind of hot\".Men's Healthreaders voted her the \"sexiest woman of 2013\".In November 2010, Perry toldHarper's Bazaarthat she was proud of and satisfied with her figure. Perry's fashion often incorporates humor, bright colors, and",
"bright colors, and food-related themessuch as her characteristic spinning peppermint swirl dress.Voguedescribed her as \"never exactly one to shy away from the outrageous or the extreme in any realm\", and called her the \"Queen ofCamp\",whileGlamournamed her the \"queen of quirk\".In February 2009, Perry toldSeventeenthat her fashion style was \"a bit of a concoction of different things\" and stated she enjoyed humor in her clothing.She has also described herself as having \"multipersonality disorder\" for fashion.Perry lists Gwen Stefani,Shirley Manson,Chloë Sevigny,Daphne Guinness,Natalie Portman, and the fictional characterLolitaas her style icons.In 2022,Elledubbed her as \"thekitsch-loving pop star renowned for her uniquely experimental style\", whileVoguedescribed her style as \"synonymous with outrageous, eye-catching ensembles that lean towards the theatrical\". During the 2017 launch of her shoe collection, Katy Perry Collections, she said about shoes: \"When I first got to L.A., I cultivated my style on a",
"my style on a budget, always shopping at thrift stores or vintage stores. ... Once, I found these flats that looked likeDalmatian dogs. They had ears that moved and a tongue that stuck out. They were such a conversation piece. That's what is so great about fashion. ... It's a form of communication. You don't have to start a smoking habit to start talking to someone. You can just wear cool shoes. It's an icebreaker.\" Legacy Several media outlets such asBillboardandGlamourhave referred to her as the \"Queen of Pop\", while others likeVogue,Rolling Stone, andInStylehave dubbed Perry the \"Queen of Camp\".Andrew Unterberger ofBillboarddescribedTeenage Dream\"one of the defining LPs from a new golden age in mega-pop\"while Christopher Rosa ofGlamournamed her as an influence to thepopsound and style of the 2010s, adding that her singles are \"some of the most recognizable, iconic, and impactful hits in pop history.\"Perry was named \"one of the last decade's most reliable and successful hitmakers\" by theOfficial Charts",
"theOfficial Charts Companyin 2022. Additionally, Perry was included inGlamour's \"104 Women Who Defined the Decade in Pop Culture\" list of the 2010s. It stated Perry \"did more than just break chart records. She was one of the driving forces behind the sound of pop radio in the 2010s\" for her tracks that were \"glossy, booming, sugary-sweet, and undeniably catchy.\"Varietyincluded Perry in theirVariety500 list of the most influential business leaders, calling her a \"global phenomenon\" and a \"dedicated artist and tireless self-promoter who has leveraged chart-topping hits, sold-out stadium shows, and staggering endorsement deals to become one of the richest and most influential pop stars alive.\"A 2017 journal published byPsychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Artsstudying structural patterns in the melodies ofearwormsongs compiled lists ofcatchiesttracks from 3,000 participants, in which Perry's \"California Gurls\" ranked number six.She has been called a \"gay icon\" by Taylor Henderson ofOut, noting how \"I",
"noting how \"I Kissed a Girl\" helped fans explore their sexuality and how Perry openly embraced theLGBTQ+ community. Perry's music has been described byOutas having a \"lasting legacy\", with American singersFletchersampling \"I Kissed a Girl\" andOlivia RodrigoreferencingTeenage Dreamon \"Brutal\".Additionally, other artists such asHalseyandAriana Grandehave praised Perry's work, with Halsey callingTeenage Dreamthe \"perfect pop album\" and Grande saying \"The One That Got Away\" is \"one of the biggest and most perfectly written pop songs ever from one of the best pop albums of all time.\" Other ventures Philanthropy Perry has supported various charitable organizations and causes throughout her career. She has contributed to organizations aimed at improving the lives and welfare of children in particular. In April 2013, she joinedUNICEFto assist children in Madagascar with education and nutrition.On December 3, 2013, she was officially named aUNICEF Goodwill Ambassador, \"with a special focus on engaging young people in",
"young people in the agency's work to improve the lives of the world's most vulnerable children and adolescents.\"She arranged for a portion of the money generated from tickets to her Prismatic World Tour to go to UNICEF.In September 2010, she helped build and design the Boys Hope/Girls Hope foundation shelter for youth in Baltimore, Maryland along withRaven-Symoné,Shaquille O'Neal, and the cast ofExtreme Makeover: Home Edition.In 2010, Perry andNicki Minajperformed a cover of \"Girls Just Want to Have Fun\" for service members during the 2010VH1Divas Salute the Troops concert. She has also supported children's education and well-being. All profits from sales of the albumThe Gay Nineties Old Tyme Music: Daisy Bell, which includes her rendition of \"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)\", were donated to the charityLittle Kids Rock, which supports musical education in underprivileged elementary schools.In June 2014, she teamed up withStaples Inc.for a project entitled \"Make Roar Happen\" which donated $1 million",
"donated $1 million toDonorsChoose, an organization that supports teachers and funds classroom resources in public schools.In May 2016, she worked with UNICEF to improve child care quality in Vietnam, hoping to \"break the cycle of poverty and drastically improve children's health, education and well-being\".The following month, UNICEF announced that Perry would receive theAudrey HepburnHumanitarian Award \"for her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in support of the world's most vulnerable children\" at their annual Snowflake Ball in November.All Spotify streams of her 2021 cover of \"All You Need Is Love\" will generate $1 in donations for the charityBaby2Baby. Perry has supported organizations aimed at aiding people suffering with diseases including cancer andHIV/AIDS. During the 2008 Warped Tour, she had a cast made of her breasts to raise money for theKeep A Breast Foundation.She hosted and performed at the We Can Survive concert along withBonnie McKee,Kacey Musgraves,Sara Bareilles,Ellie Goulding, and",
"Goulding, and duoTegan and Saraat the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles, California, on October 23, 2013. The concert's profits were donated toYoung Survival Coalition, an organization aiding breast cancer in young women.In June 2009, she designed an item of clothing forH&M's \"Fashion Against AIDS\" campaign, which raises money for HIV/AIDS awareness projects.On February 26, 2017, she served as a co-chair alongside various celebrities such asBeyoncé,Lea Michele,Jim Carrey,Jared Leto, andKevin Spaceyfor the 25th AnnualElton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party, a fundraiser for HIV/AIDS healthcare. The proceeds from Perry's single \"Part of Me\" were donated to the charityMusiCares, which helps musicians in times of need.During her California Dreams Tour, she raised over $175,000 for the Tickets-For-Charity fundraiser. The money was divided between three charities: theChildren's Health Fund(CHF), Generosity Water, andThe Humane Society of the United States. On her 27th birthday, Perry set up a donations page for",
"donations page for theSociety for the Prevention of Cruelty to AnimalsAuckland,and set up a similar page benefiting theDavid Lynch Foundationfor her 28th birthday.On March 29, 2014, she helped raise $2.4 million for theMuseum of Contemporary Artin Los Angeles along with other celebrities such asRyan Seacrest,Pharrell Williams,Tim Allen,Lisa Edelstein, andRiley Keough. Perry performed at theOne Love Manchesterbenefit concert for the victims of the 2017Manchester Arena bombing, among various performers including its organizerAriana Grande, which was broadcast live on June 4, 2017, on radio and television stations around the world.In March 2018, Perry announcedWitness: Coming Home, a benefit concert that was held in her hometown of Santa Barbara on May 19, 2018. The concert benefited those recovering from the aftermath of the2017 California wildfiresand2018 Southern California mudflows. Perry partnered with the Santa Barbara Foundation, the 93108 Fund and The 805 UndocuFund, organizations which help in",
"which help in assisting members of the community in the Santa Barbara area through grants and various philanthropic efforts. Activism and political views Perry has publicly advocated forLGBT rightsand admitted that she wrote \"I Kissed a Girl\" about her ownbisexualexperiences with other women. In 2017, she received a Nation Equality Award fromHuman Rights Campaignfor \"using her powerful voice and international platform to speak out for LGBTQ equality\".During her acceptance speech, she discussed having bisexual experiences, her fluid sexuality, and thanked theLGBTQ+ community.In anOutinterview in 2021, she was heralded as a \"gay icon\" with \"I Kissed a Girl\" being called a \"bonafide queer anthem\". Perry continued to thank the LGBTQ+ community in the same interview, saying: \"I came from a very sheltered upbringing where it wasn't okay to be friends with anyone from that community. And now that is my community.\" She also mentioned \"I wouldn't have survived without the community and it's amazing how full circle",
"how full circle it's come and how much growth has happened since I started.\"Tomás Mier ofRolling Stoneremarked Perry \"championed queer folks, especiallydrag queens, throughout her career.\" She dedicated the music video to her song \"Firework\" to theIt Gets Better Project.In June 2012, Perry expressed her hopes for LGBT equality, commenting \"hopefully, we will look back at this moment and think like we do now concerning civil rightsissues. We'll just shake our heads in disbelief, saying, 'Thank God we've evolved.' That would be my prayer for the future.\"In December 2012, Perry was awarded the Trevor Hero Award byThe Trevor Projectfor her work and activism on behalf of LGBT youth. Perry identifies as afeminist,and appeared in April 2013 in a video clip for the \"Chime for Change\" campaign that aimed to spread female empowerment.She has also said that America's lack of freehealth caredrove her \"absolutely crazy\".Following theshooting at the Pulse nightclub in Orlandoin June 2016, Perry and nearly 200 other",
"nearly 200 other artists and executives in music signed an open letter organized byBillboardaddressed toUnited States Congressdemanding increasedgun controlin the United States. Through Twitter and by performing at rallies, Perry supported PresidentBarack Obamain his run for re-election and praised his support forsame-sex marriageand LGBT equality.She performed at three rallies for Obama, in Los Angeles, Las Vegas, and Wisconsin, singing a rendition of \"Let's Stay Together\" as well as a number of her songs. During her Las Vegas performance she wore a dress made to replicate a voting ballot, with Obama's box filled in.On Twitter, she encouraged her followers to vote for Obama. In August 2013, Perry voiced criticism ofTony Abbott, then-leader of conservativeLiberal Party of Australiaand candidate forPrime Minister of Australia, due to his opposition to gay marriage and told Abbott, \"I love you as a human being but I can't give you my vote.\"; the statement came after Abbott expressed pride at learning of",
"at learning of Perry's then-upcoming performance in Australia.In April 2014, she publicly supportedMarianne Williamsonin her campaign forCalifornia's 33rd congressional districtby attending a political press event.She endorsedKamala Harrisin theUnited States Senate election in California, and organized a fundraiser for Harris at her home in Los Angeles in November 2016.Perry also publicly endorsed former Secretary of StateHillary Clintonfor president in2016.She performed alongsideElton Johnat a fundraising concert for Clinton in New York City in March 2016.Perry also spoke and performed at the2016 Democratic National Conventionin support of Clinton.Four years later, she supportedJoe Bidenand Kamala Harris during the2020 United States presidential election, praising the latter as a leader who had \"experience we desperately need right now\" and believed that the former \"choosing her as his running mate is already a testament to his decision making\".In 2022, Perry posted a picture of herself voting for",
"herself voting for conservative candidateRick Carusoin the2022 Los Angeles mayoral election, for which she was heavily criticized by Democrats. Achievements Throughout her career, Perry has won fiveAmerican Music Awards,fourteenPeople's Choice Awards,fourGuinness World Records,aBrit Award,and aJuno Award.In September 2012,Billboarddubbed her the \"Woman of the Year\".From May 2010 to September 2011, the singer spent a record-breaking 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of theBillboardHot 100.Teenage Dreambecame the first album by a female artist to produce five number-oneBillboardHot 100 singles, and the second album overall after Michael Jackson'sBad.In the United States, she has accumulated nine number-one singles on theBillboardHot 100, her most recent being \"Dark Horse\",and holds the record for having 18 consecutive number-one songs on theBillboardDance Club Songschart. Billboardalso named her the 15th most successful dance club artist of all time.The magazine additionally ranked her fourth on its",
"her fourth on its \"Greatest of All Time Pop Songs Artists\" list and twenty-fifth on the \"Greatest Pop Stars of the 21st Century\" list,includedTeenage DreamandPrismamong its \"Greatest of All TimeBillboard 200Albums by Women\" list,and ranked \"Dark Horse\" at number 100 on its \"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs\"as well as one of its \"Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs by Women\" along with \"E.T.\", \"Firework\", and \"California Gurls\".In June 2015, her music video for \"Dark Horse\" became the first video by a female artist to reach 1 billion views on Vevo.The following month, her music video for \"Roar\" reached 1 billion views on Vevo, making her the first artist to have multiple videos with 1 billion views. With 143 million records sold globally, Perry isone of the best-selling music artists of all time.She was declared the Top Global Female Recording Artist of 2013 by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI).According to RIAA, Perry is the ninthtop digital singles artistin the United States,",
"the United States, with 121.5 million certified song units in the country including on-demand streamsand also has 19 million certified album units, totaling 129.5 million certified units in the United States.She also became the first artist to have three songs receive Diamond certifications from the RIAA in 2017 with \"Dark Horse\", \"Firework\", and \"Roar\".All three of them and \"E.T.\", \"California Gurls\", and \"Hot n Cold\" have each sold over 5 million digital copies.Six years later, the RIAA certified \"California Gurls\" as her fourthdiamond-certifiedsingle in the U.S., breaking her tie with Lady Gaga as the female artist with the most diamond singles there.Perry's albumsOne of the Boys,Teenage Dream,Prism,Witness, andSmilehave individually surpassed one billion streams onSpotify. In 2011,Forbesranked her third on their \"Top-Earning Women In Music\" list with earnings of $44 millionand fifth on their 2012 list with $45 million.She subsequently ranked seventh on the 2013Forbeslist for \"Top-Earning Women In Music\"",
"Women In Music\" with $39 million earned,and fifth on their 2014 list with $40 million.With earnings of $135 million,Forbesalso ranked Perry number one on their 2015 \"Top-Earning Women In Music\" list as well as the \"World's Highest-Paid Musicians\" and declared her the highest earning female celebrity in 2015, placing her at number 3 on theForbesCelebrity 100 list.In 2016, the magazine estimated her net worth was $125 million,and ranked her number six on their list of \"Highest-Paid Women in Music\" with earnings of $41 million.The following year, she was ranked number nine on the list with $33 million.In 2018, she topped its \"Highest-Paid Women in Music\" listing and ranked at number four on the \"Highest-Paid Female Celebrities\" list, with earnings of $83 million.Perry subsequently was placed at number four on the 2019 \"Highest-Paid Women in Music\" listings, with $57.5 million.Later that year, with earnings of $530 million throughout the 2010s, the magazine also ranked her as the ninth-highest-earning musician",
"musician of the decade.Perry is one of thewealthiest musical artists; during September 2023,Forbessurmised she had a net worth of $340 million.This increased to $350 million the following May, where Perry was included on the magazine's 2024 list of \"America's Richest Self-Made Women\". Discography Filmography Tours and residency Headlining tours Co-headlining tours Residency See also Notes References Citations Sources External links",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Katy_Perry (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93cc2da0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"
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Which of these series was published earliest? Wedding Peach, Tokyo Mew Mew, Sailor Moon | Sailor Moon | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor_Moon | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_Peach | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Mew_Mew | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor_Moon', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_Peach', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Mew_Mew'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor_Moon",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_Peach",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Mew_Mew"
] | [
"Sailor Moon Sailor Moon(Japanese:美少女戦士セーラームーン,Hepburn:Bishōjo Senshi Sērā Mūn, originally translated asPretty Soldier Sailor Moonand later asPretty Guardian Sailor Moon)is a Japanesemangaseries written and illustrated byNaoko Takeuchi. It was originally serialized inKodansha'sshōjomangamagazineNakayoshifrom 1991 to 1997; the 60 individual chapters (later reorganized into 52), along with several side stories, were compiled in 18volumes. The series follows the adventures of a schoolgirl namedUsagi Tsukinoas she transforms into the eponymous character to search for a magical artifact, the \"Legendary Silver Crystal\"(「幻の銀水晶」,Maboroshi no Ginsuishō,lit.\"Phantom Silver Crystal\"). She leads a group of comrades, the Sailor Soldiers, called Sailor Guardians in later editions, as they battle against villains to prevent the theft of the Silver Crystal and the destruction of theSolar System. The manga was adapted intoan anime seriesproduced byToei Animationand broadcast in Japan from 1992 to 1997.Toei also developed three animated feature films, a television special, and three short films based on the anime. A live-action television adaptation,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon, aired from 2003 to 2004, and a second anime series,Sailor Moon Crystal, begansimulcastingin 2014. The manga series was licensed for an English language release byKodansha Comicsin North America, and in Australia and New Zealand by Random House Australia. The entire anime series has been licensed byViz Mediafor an English language release in North America and byMadman Entertainmentin Australia and New Zealand. Since its release,Sailor Moonhas received universal acclaim, with praise for its art, characterization, and humor. The manga has sold over 46 million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling manga series, as well as one of the best-sellingshōjomangaseries of all time.The franchise has also generated$2.5 billionin worldwide merchandise sales. Plot One day inJuban,Tokyo, amiddle-schoolstudent namedUsagi TsukinobefriendsLuna, a talking black cat who gives her a magical brooch enabling her to transform into Sailor Moon: a guardian destined to saveEarthfrom the forces of evil. Luna and Usagi assemble a team of fellow Sailor Guardians to find their princess and the Silver Crystal. They encounter the studious Ami Mizuno, who awakens asSailor Mercury; Rei Hino, a localShintoshrine maidenwho awakens asSailor Mars; Makoto Kino, a tall and strong transfer student who awakens asSailor Jupiter; and Minako Aino, a young aspiringidolwho had awakened asSailor Venusa few months prior, accompanied by her talking feline companionArtemis. Additionally, they befriend Mamoru Chiba, a high school student who assists them on occasion asTuxedo Mask. In the first arc, the group battles theDark Kingdom, those members attempt to find the Silver Crystal and free an imprisoned, evil entity called Queen Metaria. Usagi and her team discover that in their previous lives, they were members of the ancient Moon Kingdom in a period of time called the Silver Millennium. The Dark Kingdom waged war against them, destroying the Moon Kingdom. Its rulerQueen Serenitysent her daughter Princess Serenity,reincarnatedas Usagi, along with her protectors the Sailor Guardians, their feline advisers Luna and Artemis, and the princess's true love Prince Endymion, who in turn was reborn as Mamoru. At the beginning of the second arc, the Sailor Guardians meet Usagi and Mamoru's future daughterChibiusa, who arrives from a 30th-century version of Tokyo known as \"Crystal Tokyo\", which is ruled by Neo Queen Serenity, Usagi of the future and has been attacked by the group of villains known as theBlack Moon Clan. During their journey, Sailor Moon and her friends meetSailor Pluto, Guardian of the Time-Space Door. During the climactic battle of the arc, Sailor Pluto dies trying to save the sailor soldiers and Chibiusa was brainwashed by the enemy and turned into the Black Lady, but was eventually reformed and awakens as a Guardian herself—Sailor Chibi Moon. The third arc introduces car-racer Haruka Tenoh and violinist Michiru Kaioh, who appear asSailor UranusandSailor Neptune, whose duty is to guard the Solar System against external threats. Physics student Setsuna Meioh, Sailor Pluto's reincarnation, joins Uranus and Neptune in their mission to kill a mysterious girl named Hotaru Tomoe, whom they identify as the Guardian of DestructionSailor Saturn. However, when Saturn awakens she joins the final fight against the main antagonists of the arc, theDeath Busters, sacrificing her life in the process. With her newly obtained powers as Super Sailor Moon, Usagi restores the Earth and Hotaru is reincarnated as a baby. The fourth arc explores the Sailor Guardians' dreams and nightmares when the villainous groupDead Moon Circusexploits the Guardians' deepest fears, invades Elysion (which hosts the Earth's Golden Kingdom), and captures itshigh priestHelios, who turned into a Pegasus and tried to ask Guardians for help. This storyline also addresses Mamoru's relevance as protector of the Earth and owner of the Golden Crystal, the sacred stone of the Golden Kingdom. Mamoru and all ten of the reunited Guardians combine their powers, enabling Usagi to transform into Eternal Sailor Moon and defeat Dead Moon's leader,Queen Nehelenia. In the final arc theSailor Starlightsfrom the Planet Kinmoku, their rulerPrincess Kakyuu, and the mysterious little girlChibi-Chibijoin Usagi in her fight againstShadow Galactica, a group of both corrupted and false Sailor Guardians and led bySailor Galaxia, who have been rampaging across the galaxy and killing other Sailor Guardians to steal their Star Seeds, Sailor Crystals—the essence of their lives. After Mamoru and all of the main Solar System Guardians are killed by Shadow Galactica, Usagi travels to the Galaxy Cauldron, the birthplace of all Star Seeds of theMilky Way, in an attempt to revive her loved ones and to confrontChaos, the source of all strife in the galaxy. Production Creation ofSailor Moon Naoko Takeuchi, after working onNami Akimoto's 1991 mangaMiracle Girls, redevelopedSailor Moonfrom her 1991 manga serialCodename: Sailor V, which was first published on August 20, 1991, and featured Sailor Venus as the main protagonist.Takeuchi wanted to create a story with a theme about girls in outer space. While discussing with her editor Fumio Osano, he suggested the addition ofSailor fuku.WhenCodename: Sailor Vwas proposed for adaptation into an anime byToei Animation, Takeuchi redeveloped the concept so Sailor Venus became a member of a team.The resulting manga series became a fusion of the popular magical girl genre and theSuper Sentaiseries, of which Takeuchi was a fan.Recurring motifs includeastronomy,astrology,gemology,Greco-Roman mythology,Japanese elemental themes,: 286teen fashions,and schoolgirl antics. Takeuchi said discussions with Kodansha originally envisaged a single story arc;the storyline was developed in meetings a year before serialization began.: 93After completing the arc, Toei and Kodansha asked Takeuchi to continue the series. She wrote four more story arcs,which were often published simultaneously with the five corresponding seasons of the anime adaptation. The anime ran one or two months behind the manga.: 93As a result, the anime follows the storyline of the manga fairly closely, although there are deviations.Takeuchi later said because Toei's production staff were mostly male, she feels the anime has \"a slightmale perspective.\" Takeuchi later said she planned to kill off the protagonists, but Osano rejected the notion and said, \" is ashōjomanga!\" When the anime adaptation was produced, the protagonists were killed in the final battle with the Dark Kingdom, although they were revived. Takeuchi resented that she was unable to do that in her version.Takeuchi also intended for theSailor Moonanime adaptation to last for one season, but due to the immense popularity, Toei asked Takeuchi to continue the series. At first, she struggled to develop another storyline to extend the series. While discussing with Osano, he suggested the inclusion of Usagi's daughter from the future, Chibiusa. Westernization After theSailor Moonanime was released in North America and dubbed in English, fans and academics alike noted that the dub had westernizedSailor Moonfrom how it had been released in Japan. In the 1995 English version ofSailor Moon, the westernization of the characters is seen in how a majority of the character names are changed from Japanese to English names.Sailor Moon's civilian name, Usagi Tsukino, is turned into Serena.The love interest of Sailor Moon, Mamoru Chiba, is turned into Darien Shields.Other examples of westernization (or at least Americanization) referenced bySailor Moon's audience were things like flipping scenes of traffic to have carsdrive on the right side of the roadalong with the English dub changing any conversations between characters that contained lesser-known (in the United States at the time) Japanese cultural references.According toBandai America, the company in charge of Sailor Moon merchandise in the western hemisphere, the approach to advertisingSailor Moonwas to make the show and super-heroine \"'culturally appropriate' for the American market\". Media Manga Written and illustrated byNaoko Takeuchi,Sailor Moonwas serialized in the monthly manga anthologyNakayoshifrom December 28, 1991, to February 3, 1997.The side-stories were serialized simultaneously inRunRun—another of Kodansha's manga magazines.The 52 individual chapters were published in 18tankōbonvolumes byKodanshafrom July 6, 1992, to April 4, 1997.In 2003, the chapters were re-released in a collection of 12shinzōbanvolumes to coincide with the release of thelive-action series.The manga was retitledPretty Guardian Sailor Moonand included new cover art,and revised dialogue and illustrations. The ten individual short stories were also released in two volumes.In 2013, the chapters were once again re-released in 10kanzenbanvolumes to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary, which includes digitally remastered artwork, new covers and color artwork from itsNakayoshirun.The books have been enlarged from the typical Japanese manga size to A5.The short stories were republished in two volumes, with the order of the stories shuffled.Codename: Sailor Vwas also included in the third edition. TheSailor Moonmanga was initially licensed for an English release by Mixx (laterTokyopop) in North America. The manga was first published as a serial inMixxZinebeginning in 1997, but was later removed from the magazine and made into a separate, low print monthly comic to finish the first, second and third arcs. At the same time, the fourth and fifth arcs were printed in a secondary magazine calledSmile.Pages from the Tokyopop version of the manga ran daily in the Japanimation Station, a service accessible to users ofAmerica Online.The series was later collected into a three-part graphic novel series spanning eighteen volumes, which were published from December 1, 1998, to September 18, 2001.In May 2005, Tokyopop's license to theSailor Moonmanga expired, and its edition went out of print. In 2011,Kodansha Comicsannounced they had acquired the license for theSailor Moonmanga and its lead-in seriesCodename: Sailor Vin English.They published the twelve volumes ofSailor Moonsimultaneously with the two-volume edition ofCodename Sailor Vfrom September 2011 to July 2013.The first of the two related short story volumes was published on September 10, 2013;the second was published on November 26, 2013.AtAnime Expo2017, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-releaseSailor Moonin an \"Eternal Edition\", featuring a new English translation, new cover artwork by Takeuchi, and color pages from the manga's original run, printed on extra-large premium paper.The first Eternal Edition volume was published on September 11, 2018;the tenth and final volume was published on October 20, 2020.On July 1, 2019, Kondasha Comics began releasing the Eternal Editions digitally,following an announcement the day before about the series being released digitally in ten different languages.In November 2020, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-release theSailor Moonmanga again as part of their \"Naoko Takeuchi Collection\".The company described the new edition as a \"more affordable, portable\" version of the Eternal Edition. The first volume was published on April 5, 2022. Sailor Moonhas also been licensed in other English-speaking countries. In the United Kingdom, the volumes are distributed by Turnaround Publisher Services.In Australia, the manga is distributed by Penguin Books Australia. The manga has been licensed in Russia andCISfor distribution by XL Media publishing company. The first volume was released in 2018. Anime series Overview Sailor Moon Toei Animation produced an anime television series based on the 52 manga chapters, also titledPretty Soldier Sailor Moon.Junichi Satodirected the first season,Kunihiko Ikuharatook over second through fourth season, andTakuya Igarashidirected the fifth and final season.The series premiered in Japan onTV Asahion March 7, 1992, and ran for 200 episodes until its conclusion on February 8, 1997. Upon its release, the show quickly rose to be Toei Animation's highest ranked TV series.Most of the international versions, including the English adaptations, are titledSailor Moon. Sailor Moon Crystal On July 6, 2012, Kodansha and Toei Animation announced that it would commence production of a new anime adaptation ofSailor Moon, calledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystal, for a simultaneous worldwide release in 2013 as part of the series's 20th anniversary celebrations,and stated that it would be a closer adaptation of the manga than the first anime.Crystalpremiered on July 5, 2014, and new episodes would air on the first and third Saturdays of each month.New cast were announced, along withKotono Mitsuishireprising her role as Sailor Moon.The first two seasons were released together, covering their corresponding arcs of the manga (Dark KingdomandBlack Moon). A third season based on theInfinityarc on the manga premiered on Japanese television on April 4, 2016, known asDeath Bustersarc in this adaptation.Munehisa Sakaidirected the first and second season, whileChiaki Kondirected the third season. Films and television specials Three animated theatrical feature films based on the originalSailor Moonseries have been released in Japan:Sailor Moon R: The Moviein 1993, followed bySailor Moon S: The Moviein 1994, andSailor Moon SuperS: The Moviein 1995. The films are side-stories that do not correlate with the timeline of the original series. A one-hour television special was aired on TV Asahi in Japan on April 8, 1995.Kunihiko Ikuharadirected the first film, while the latter two were directed by Hiroki Shibata. In 1997, an article inVarietystated thatThe Walt Disney Companywas interested in originally acquiring the rights toSailor Moonas a live action film to be directed byStanley Tong&Geena Davisset to star as Queen Beryl, along withWinona Ryder&Elisabeth Shueplanning to star in the film.After Disney put the project onturnaround,Universal Picturesacquired the film rights. In 2017, it was revealed thatPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystalanime's fourth season would be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, adapting theDreamarc from the manga.On June 30, 2019, it was announced that the title of the films will bePretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie.The first film was originally to be released on September 11, 2020,but was postponed and released on January 8, 2021, and the second film was released on February 11, 2021.Chiaki Konreturned fromCrystal's third season to direct the two films. In 2022, it was announced that a sequel toPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie, covering theStarsarc of the manga would also be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, titledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Cosmos The Movie. The two films are directed by Tomoya Takahashi, and was released on June 9 and 30, 2023. Companion books There have been numerous companion books toSailor Moon. Kodansha released some of these books for each of the five story arcs, collectively called theOriginal Picture Collection. The books contain cover art, promotional material and other work by Takeuchi. Many of the drawings are accompanied by comments on the way she developed her ideas, created each picture and commentary on the anime interpretation of her story.Another picture collection,Volume Infinity, was released as a self-published, limited-edition artbook after the end of the series in 1997. This art book includes drawings by Takeuchi and her friends, her staff, and many of the voice actors who worked on the anime. In 1999, Kodansha published theMaterials Collection; this contained development sketches and notes for nearly every character in the manga, and for some characters that never appeared. Each drawing includes notes by Takeuchi about costume pieces, the mentality of the characters and her feelings about them. It also includes timelines for the story arcs and for the real-life release of products and materials relating to the anime and manga. A short story,Parallel Sailor Moonis also featured, celebrating theyear of the rabbit. Novels Sailor Moonwas also adapted for publication as novels and released in 1998. The first book was written byStuart J. Levy. The following novels were written by Lianne Sentar. Stage musicals In mid-1993, the first musical theater production based onSailor Moonpremiered, starringAnza Ohyamaas Sailor Moon. Thirty such musicals in all have been produced, with one in pre-production. The shows' stories include anime-inspired plotlines and original material. Music from the series has been released on about 20 memorial albums.The popularity of the musicals has been cited as a reason behind the production of the live-action television series,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon. During the original run musicals ran in the winter and summer of each year, with summer musicals staged at theSunshineTheater in theIkebukuroarea of Tokyo. In the winter, musicals toured to other large cities in Japan, includingOsaka,Fukuoka,Nagoya,Shizuoka,Kanazawa,Sendai,Saga,Oita,YamagataandFukushima.The final incarnation of the first run,New Legend of Kaguya Island (Revised Edition)(新・かぐや島伝説 <改訂版>,Shin Kaguyashima Densetsu (Kaiteban)), went on stage in January 2005, following which,Bandaiofficially put the series on a hiatus.On June 2, 2013, Fumio Osano announced on his Twitter page that theSailor Moonmusicals would begin again in September 2013.The 20th anniversary showLa Reconquistaran from September 13 to 23 at Shibuya's AiiA Theater Tokyo, with Satomi Ōkubo as Sailor Moon. Satomi Ōkubo reprised the role in the 2014 productionPetite Étrangèrewhich ran from August 21 to September 7, 2014, again at AiiA Theater Tokyo. Live-action film & series Cancelled Disney film adaptation During the 1990s,Disneywas going to adapt Sailor Moon into a film under theWalt Disney Picturesbanner but it was cancelled immediately. Unrealized American adaptation In 1993, Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, Bandai and Toon Makers, Inc. conceptualized their own version ofSailor Moon, which was half live-action and half Western-style animation.Toon Makers produced a 17-minuteproof of conceptpilot and a two-minute music video, both of which were directed by Rocky Solotoff, who also worked on the pilot's script.Renaissance-Atlantic presented the concept to Toei, but it was turned down as their concept would have cost significantly more than simply exporting and dubbing the anime adaptation.The companies' work is believed by Solotoff to have been handed over to Raymond Iacovacci, one of the producers on the project, who stored the pilot script and animation cels in a storage facility.The logo created for the pilot was kept for the English dub, and Bandai released a \"Moon Cycle\" as part of its merchandise for the show, based on vehicles designed for the pilot. The project was rediscovered in 1998 when the music video was screened at theAnime Expoconvention in Los Angeles,where it was met with laughter by onlookers.A congoer recorded the music video and the audience response, which would later resurface on video sites such asYouTube.The pilot and the music video would go on to be discussed at conventions such as the 2011Gen Conand 2012Anime Expo.It was given the monikers of \"Toon Makers' Sailor Moon\"and \"Saban Moon\" despite having no connection withSaban Entertainmentsave for Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, which worked with the company onPower Rangers.The proof of concept video was widely considered to belost mediaand director Solotoff reported that he was frequently contacted by people searching for the pilot.In 2012 multiple animation cels from the pilot, along with the script, surfaced on the internet after a storage locker, believed to be the one owned by Iacovacci, was sold. In 1998, Frank Ward, along with his company Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, tried to revive the idea of doing a live-action series based on Sailor Moon, this time calledTeam Angel, without the involvement of Toon Makers. A 2-minute reel was produced and sent to Bandai America, but was also rejected. In August 2022, the proof of concept was showcased for the first time onYouTubein a documentary by Ray Mona. Ray Mona obtained both the pilot and its music video, as well and its related materials, from theLibrary of Congress. Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon In 2003,Toei Companyproduced a Japanese live-actionSailor Moontelevision series using the new translated English title ofPretty Guardian Sailor Moon. Its 49 episodes were broadcast onChubu-Nippon Broadcastingfrom October 4, 2003, to September 25, 2004.Pretty Guardian Sailor MoonfeaturedMiyuu Sawaias Usagi Tsukino,Rika Izumi(credited as Chisaki Hama) as Ami Mizuno,Keiko Kitagawaas Rei Hino,Mew Azamaas Makoto Kino,Ayaka Komatsuas Minako Aino,Jouji Shibueas Mamoru Chiba,Keiko Hanreprising her voice role as Luna from the original anime andKappei Yamaguchivoicing Artemis. The series was an alternate retelling of the Dark Kingdom arc, adding a storyline different from that in the manga and first anime series, with original characters and new plot developments.In addition to the main episodes, twodirect-to-videoreleases appeared after the show ended its television broadcast. \"Special Act\" is set four years after the main storyline ends, and shows the wedding of the two main characters. \"Act Zero\" is a prequel showing the origins ofSailor Vand Tuxedo Mask. Video games TheSailor Moonfranchise has spawned several video games across various genres and platforms. Most were made by Bandai and its subsidy Angel; others were produced byBanpresto. The early games wereside-scrolling fighters; later ones were uniquepuzzle games, orversus fighting games.Another Storywas a turn-basedrole-playing video game.The onlySailor Moongame produced outside Japan, 3VR New Media'sThe 3D Adventures of Sailor Moon, went on sale in North America in 1997, They were developed in association withDIC Entertainment, which held the rights to the game and the TV series.A video game calledSailor Moon: La Luna Splende(Sailor Moon: The Moon Shines) was released on March 16, 2011, for theNintendo DS. Tabletop games The Dyskami Publishing Company releasedSailor Moon Crystal Dice Challenge, created byJames Ernestof Cheapass Games and based on theButton Mentabletop game in 2017, andSailor Moon Crystal Truth or Bluffin 2018. Theme park attractions A Sailor Moon attraction,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D, was announced forUniversal Studios Japan.It featured Sailor Moon and the Inner Guardians arriving at the theme park, only to discover and stop the Youma's plan from stealing people's energies. The attraction ran from March 16 through July 24, 2018. The sequel attraction,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D: Moon Palace arc, ran from May 31, 2019, to August 25, 2019. It featured all 10 Sailor Guardians and Super Sailor Moon. In January 2022, a new attraction was announced titledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D ~Moon Palace arc~ Deluxe. The attraction features the same storyline as the last and feature the Sailor Guardians in their princess forms. It ran from March 4, 2022, to August 28, 2022. Ice skating show An ice skating show ofSailor Moonwas announced on June 30, 2019, starringEvgenia Medvedevaas the lead.The name for the ice-skating show was announced asPretty Guardian Sailor Moon: Prism on Ice, as well as the additional casts, withAnzafrom the firstSailor Moonmusicals to play Queen Serenity, and the main voice actresses of theSailor Moon Crystalanime series to voice their individual characters. Takuya Hiramatsu from the musicals was to write the screenplay, Yuka Sato and Benji Schwimmer were to be in charge of choreography, and Akiko Kosaka & Gesshoku Kaigi were to write the music for the show.The show was set to debut in early June 2020, but was first postponed to June 2021, and later to June 2022, due to theCOVID-19 pandemic,and finally cancelled on February 23, 2023, due to an\"unstable world situation\". Idol group An idol pop group namedSG5, short for Sailor Guardians 5, was announced in June 2022. Early plans to form the group began in 2020, with the official lineup and overall concept finalized in 2022. As part of the process, the group had to seek the approval of Naoko Takeuchi by performing in front of her and giving a presentation. Four of the group members, Sayaka, Ruri, Miyuu, andKaede, had previously performed together as part of the idol groupHappiness. The group was officially debuted in July 2022 at Anime Expo and is co-managed by LDH Japan Inc. and Three Six Zero.On March 1, 2023, SG5 released their debut single \"Firetruck\" on streaming platforms alongside a music video with references to the manga. Reception Sailor Moonis one of the most popular manga series of all time and continues to enjoy high readership worldwide. More than one million copies of itstankōbonvolumes had been sold in Japan by the end of 1995.: 95It has been described as iconic.By the series's 20th anniversary in 2012, the manga had sold over 35 million copies in over fifty countries,and the franchise has generated$2.5 billionin worldwidemerchandisesales as of 1996.By 1995, Sailor Moon toys used to bring in more than $250 million per year in Japan.The manga won theKodansha Manga Awardin 1993 forshōjo.The English adaptations of both the manga and the anime series became the first successfulshōjotitle in the United States.The character of Sailor Moon is recognized as one of the most important and popularfemale superheroesof all time. Sailor Moonhas also become popular internationally.Sailor Moonwas broadcast in Spain and France beginning in December 1993; these became the first countries outside Japan to broadcast the series.It was later aired in Russia, South Korea, the Philippines, China, Italy, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia and Hong Kong, before North America picked up the franchise for adaptation. In the Philippines,Sailor Moonwas one ofits carrier network's main draws, helping it to become the third-biggest network in the country.: 10–11In 2001, theSailor Moonmanga was Tokyopop's best selling property, outselling the next-best selling titles by at least a factor of 1.5.InDiamond Comic Distributors's May 1999 \"Graphic Novel and Trade Paperback\" category,Sailor MoonVolume 3 was the best-selling comic book in the United States. Academic Timothy J. Craig attributesSailor Moon's international success to three things. First was the show's magical girl transformation of ordinary characters into superheroes. Second was the ability of marketers to establish the international audience's connection to characters despite their culture being Japanese. The third was that the main superhero was female, something which was still rare in pop culture in countries like the United States during the 1990s. In his 2007 bookManga: The Complete Guide,Jason Thompsongave the manga series three stars out of four. He enjoyed the blending ofshōnenandshōjostyles and said the combat scenes seemed heavily influenced bySaint Seiya, but shorter and less bloody. He also said the manga itself appeared similar toSuper Sentaitelevision shows. Thompson found the series fun and entertaining, but said the repetitive plot lines were a detriment to the title, which the increasing quality of art could not make up for; even so, he called the series \"sweet, effective entertainment.\"Thompson said although the audience forSailor Moonis both male and female, Takeuchi does not use excessivefanservicefor males, which would run the risk of alienating her female audience. Thompson said fight scenes are not physical and \"boil down to their purest form of a clash of wills\", which he says \"makes thematic sense\" for the manga. Comparing the manga and anime, Sylvain Durand said the manga artwork is \"gorgeous\", but its storytelling is more compressed and erratic and the anime has more character development. Durand said \"the sense of tragedy is greater\" in the manga's telling of the \"fall of the Silver Millennium,\" giving more detail about the origins of the Four Kings of Heaven and on Usagi's final battle against Queen Beryl and Metaria. Durand said the anime omits information that makes the story easy to understand, but judges the anime as more \"coherent\" with a better balance of comedy and tragedy, whereas the manga is \"more tragic\" and focused on Usagi and Mamoru's romance. For the week of September 11, 2011, to September 17, 2011, the first volume of the re-releasedSailor Moonmanga was the best-selling manga onThe New York TimesManga Best Sellers list, with the first volume ofCodename: Sailor Vin second place.The first print run of the first volume sold out after four weeks. In English-speaking countries,Sailor Moondeveloped a cult following among anime fans and male university students.Patrick Drazen says theInternetwas a new medium that fans used to communicate and played a role in the popularity ofSailor Moon.: 281Fans could use the Internet to communicate about the series, organize campaigns to returnSailor Moonto U.S. broadcast, to share information about episodes that had not yet aired, or to writefan fiction.Gemma Cox ofNeomagazinesaid part of the series's allure was that fans communicated via the Internet about the differences between the dub and the original version. Cultural impact and legacy With their dynamic heroines and action-oriented plots, many creditSailor Moonfor reinvigorating the magical girl genre. After its success, many similar magical girl series, includingMagic Knight Rayearth,Wedding Peach,Nurse Angel Ririka SOS,Saint Tail,Cyber Team in Akihabara,Corrector YuiandPretty Cure, emerged.: 199Sailor Moonhas been called \"the biggest breakthrough\" in English-dubbed anime until 1995, when it premiered onYTV,: 10–11and \"the pinnacle of little kidshōjoanime\".Cultural anthropologistRachel Thornsaid that soon afterSailor Moon,shōjomanga started appearing in book shops instead of fandom-dominated comic shops.The series are credited as beginning a wider movement of girls taking upshōjomanga.Canadian librarianGilles Poitrasdefines a generation of anime fans as those who were introduced to anime bySailor Moonin the 1990s, saying they were both much younger than other fans and were also mostly female. HistorianFred Pattencredits Takeuchi with popularizing the concept of aSuper Sentai-like team of magical girls,and Paul Gravett credits the series with revitalizing the magical girl genre itself.A reviewer forTHEMAnime Reviewsalso credited the anime series with changing the genre—its heroine must use her powers to fight evil, not simply have fun as previous magical girls had done.The series has also been compared toMighty Morphin Power Rangers,Buffy the Vampire Slayer,: 281andSabrina the Teenage Witch.Sailor Moon also influenced the development ofMiraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir,W.I.T.C.H.,Winx Club,LoliRock,Star vs. the Forces of Evil,Steven Universe, andTotally Spies!. Inwestern culture,Sailor Moonis sometimes associated with thefeministandGirl Powermovements and with empowering its viewers,especially regarding the \"credible, charismatic and independent\" characterizations of the Sailor Guardians.AlthoughSailor Moonis regarded as empowering to women and feminism in concept, through the aggressive nature and strong personalities of the Sailor Guardians,it is a specific type of feminist concept where \"traditional feminine ideals incorporated into characters that act in traditionally male capacities\".While the Sailor Guardians are strong, independent fighters who thwart evil—which is generally a masculine stereotype—they are also ideally feminized in the transformation of the Sailor Guardians from teenage girls into magical girls. The most notable hyper-feminine features of the Sailor Guardians—and most other females in Japanese girls' comics—are the girls' thin bodies, long legs, and, in particular, round, orb-like eyes.Eyes are commonly known as the primal source within characters where emotion is evoked—sensitive characters have larger eyes than insensitive ones.The stereotypical role of women in Japanese culture is to undertake romantic and loving feelings;therefore, the prevalence of hyper-feminine qualities like the openness of the female eye in Japanese girls' comics is clearly exhibited inSailor Moon. Thus,Sailor Moonemphasizes a type of feminist model by combining traditional masculine action with traditional female affection and sexuality through the Sailor Guardians. Merchandise Since the early 2000s,Toei Animationhas collaborated with various different brands to create merchandise outside of children's demographic.On February 20, 2020,ColourPopreleased aSailor Mooninspired makeup collection.Celebrating the 25th anniversary ofSailor Moonin the U.S., streetwear brand KITH released clothing like hoodies and t-shirts withSailor Moongraphics on them.In honor ofSailor Moon's 30th anniversary, brands likeSanrio,Uniqlo, and Maison de FLEUR announced a collaboration in January 2022. References External links",
"Wedding Peach Wedding Peach(Japanese:愛天使伝説ウェディングピーチ,Hepburn:Ai Tenshi Densetsu Wedingu Pīchi, literally \"Legend of the Angel of Love: Wedding Peach\")is ashōjomangawritten bySukehiro Tomitaand illustrated byNao Yazawathat was originally serialized inShogakukan'sCiaomagazine. InNorth America, it was translated and published byVIZ Mediain its entirety, consisting of six volumes. The manga was later adapted into ananimetelevision seriesdirected byKunihiko Yuyamathat ran for 51 episodes onTV Tokyo, from April 5, 1995 to March 27, 1996 as well as 2omakesAi Tenshi Robot Wedding PeachandAi Tenshi Sentaiand a 4-episodeOVAsequel (Wedding Peach DX) in 1996. In 2004,Wedding Peach Young Lovewas released, a compilation ofWedding Peachstories made specifically for the monthly magazineShogaku Sannensei(\"Elementary School Third-Grader\"). To better fit the magazine's target audience, the \"Young Love\" version of Wedding Peach features younger-looking characters, less complex storylines, and simpler dialogue. Plot Momoko Hanasaki, along with her friends Yuri Tanima and Hinagiku Tamano, are members of the newspaper club where they mostly cover the school's soccer team. They all have a crush on the star player Kazuya Yanagiba. On their way home from school one day, the trio are attacked by adevilby the name of Pluie who is a servant to the high ruler of the devil world, Raindevila. When her friends are hypnotized into attacking Momoko, a beautiful man comes down from the sky named Limone. He is from theangelworld and gives Momoko a compact case. Opening the compact, she is told by thegoddessAphrodite, the ruler of the angel world, that she is one of the legendary Love Angels, Wedding Peach. Momoko transforms into Wedding Peach and manages to snap her friends out of Pluie's control. Over the course of the story, Yuri and Hinagiku and later Scarlet O'Hara also find out that they are also love angels and the three (later four) must protect the humans from the devils and defeat Raindevila. Media Manga The manga was written and illustrated by Nao Yazawa. It was serialized theShogakukan'sCiaomagazine from March 1994 to April 1996. Shogakukan released the manga in six volumes from September 1994 to April 1996.Viz Medialicensed the manga in North America and released the manga from July 10, 2003 to May 26, 2004. The series is now out-of-print. Anime An anime television series premiered onTV Tokyoon April 5, 1995 to March 27, 1996 and ran for 51 episodes. The anime was directed byKunihiko Yuyamaand was co-produced byKSSandOLM, Inc.A four-episodeOVAseries, titledWedding Peach DX (Deluxe)was released from November 1996 to March 1997.ADV Filmslicensed the anime in 2003 and released the anime in tenDVDs. Theme Songs Opening Themes Ending Themes Episodes Wedding Peach Wedding Peach DX Omake Games ASuper Famicomgame was released only in Japan in 1995. In the game, the player plays as one of the three main girls (either Momoko, Yuri or Hinagiku) to compete with the others in a series of mini games. The ultimate goal is to win the right to ask the guy that all three girls are in love with (Yanagiba) to the school dance. The game has a three player option as well, where two other people can play the other two girls. Wedding Peachgames have also been released for theGame Boy(Jama-P Panic!- 1995),PC-98(Wedding Peach- 1996), andPlayStation(Wedding Peach - Doki Doki Oiro-naoshi Fashion Dai-sakusen- 1996). References External links",
"Tokyo Mew Mew Tokyo Mew Mew(Japanese:東京ミュウミュウ,Hepburn:Tōkyō Myū Myū)is a Japanesemangaseries created and written byReiko Yoshidaand illustrated byMia Ikumi. It was originally serialized inKodansha'sshōjomangamagazineNakayoshifrom September 2000 to February 2003, with its chapters collected in seventankōbonvolumes by Kodansha. It focuses on five girls infused with the DNA of endangered animals which gives them special powers and allows them to transform into \"Mew Mews\". Led by Ichigo Momomiya, the girls protect Earth from aliens who wish to \"reclaim\" it. The series was adapted into a fifty-two episodeanimeseries produced byTV Aichi, We've Inc. & Tokyu Agency and animated byPierrot. The anime aired in Japan from April 6, 2002, to March 29, 2003 onTXNaffiliates. A two-volume sequel to the manga,Tokyo Mew Mew à la Mode, was serialized inNakayoshifrom April 2003 to February 2004. The sequel introduces a new character, Berry Shirayuki, who becomes the temporary leader of the Mew Mews. The series would inspire twovideo games: apuzzleadventure gameforGame Boy Advance, and arole-playing video gamefor thePlayStation. Tokyopoporiginally licensedTokyo Mew Mewfor English-language publication in North America, and would release both the original series andà la Mode.Kodansha Comicswould publish a newly translated version of the manga in September 2011.4Kids Entertainmentlicensed the anime series for North American broadcast under the titleMew Mew Power, and produced aneditedEnglish-languagelocalization. The first twenty-three episodes of the series would air on4Kids TVin the United States, with three additional episodes airing onYTVin Canada. 4Kids was unable to license the remaining 26 episodes of the series or release the series on home video. Tokyo Mew Mewwas well received by English-language readers, with critics praising the manga for being a \"cute and entertaining\" series with \"free-flowing style and character designs\". Several volumes of the manga series appeared in the Top 50 sales lists for graphic novels in their respective months of release. The anime series received high ratings in Japan, whileMew Mew Powerwould become 4Kids' highest-rated show during its American broadcast, and be licensed for regional release in several other countries. In 2020, a second, two-chapter sequel calledTokyo Mew Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas released, featuring the main characters with updated designs; and as well as a spinoff, titledTokyo Mew Mew Olé!, which features a new team of male Mew Mews. In addition, anew anime adaptationof the series,Tokyo Mew Mew New, was announced; the series aired from July to September 2022. A second season premiered in April 2023. Plot InTokyo,Japan, a young girl namedIchigo Momomiyaattends anendangered speciesexhibit with her \"crush\"Masaya Aoyama. After an earthquake, Ichigo and four other girls are bathed in a strange light. A cat appears before Ichigo, then merges with her. The next day, she begins acting like a cat and making cat puns. After meetingRyou ShiroganeandKeiichirou Akasaka, Ichigo learns that she was infused with the DNA of theIriomote cat. Ryou and Keiichirou explain that this allows her to transform into Mew Ichigo, a powerful heroiccat girl. She is ordered to defeat Chimera Animas—alien parasites which infect animals and turn them into monsters. Ryou and Keiichirou instruct Ichigo to find the four other girls from the exhibit—the remaining Mew Mews. The first Mew Mew Ichigo encounters areMinto Aizawa, a spoiled, wealthy girl and ballerina who is infused with the genes of theblue lorikeet;Retasu Midorikawa, a shy but smart girl who endures constant bullying from three girls and absorbs the genes of thefinless porpoise; a hyper and yet young girl namedBu-Ling Huangwho receives the genes of thegolden lion tamarin; andZakuro Fujiwara, a professional actress and model infused with the genes of thegray wolf. The five Mew Mews battle the Chimera Animas and their alien controllersQuiche,PieandTart. Quiche falls in love with Ichigo where he tries to gain her love despite the fact that he is trying to eliminate the other Mew Mews. Pie and Tart later join Quiche in trying to destroy the Mew Mews. As the fighting intensifies, the Mew Mews are tasked with finding \"Mew Aqua\", a material created from pure water that contains immense power for combating the alien attacks and can be sensed by the Mew Mews. During a battle with Quiche at an aquarium, Ichigo is in danger of losing when the mysteriousBlue Knightappears and rescues her. He returns periodically throughout the series, protecting Ichigo from various dangers. It is later revealed that the Blue Knight is in fact Masaya. Shortly after this discovery, Masaya collapses and transforms again. This time, he transforms into Deep Blue, the alien leader who wants to destroy humanity. After explaining to Ichigo that Masaya was a false form for temporary use, Deep Blue attacks the Mew Mews. Pie and Tart try to stop the other mew mews while Ichigo goes after Deep Blue. He and Quiche battle and Deep Blue wins. Masaya's personality briefly reappears and he uses the Mew Aqua inside Deep Blue to save Ichigo and Tokyo, killing himself in the process. Devastated over his loss, Ichigo pours her power into Masaya to save his life, losing her own in the process. Masaya kisses her, changing her back to a human and revives her. Ryou gives Pie the remaining Mew Aqua to save the aliens' world, after which Quiche, Pie, and Tart say their goodbyes and return to their own world. Sequels Tokyo Mew Mew à La Mode Ichigo and Masaya move to England to study endangered species. The remaining Mew Mews continue to eliminate the Chimera Animas left behind by the aliens. They face a new threat in the form of theSaint Rose Crusaders: Humans withsupernatural abilitieswho desire to conquer the world and create a \"utopia\" while taking over the remaining Chimera Animas. Berry Shirayukibecomes the sixth Mew Mew and temporarily takes Ichigo's place as the leader. Berry is the first Mew Mew to be infused with the DNA of twoendangered species, theAndean mountain catand theAmami rabbit. As one of the strongest Mew Mews, Berry is targeted by two of the Crusaders, who attack her at school. Ichigo returns to provide assistance during this battle. For their final attack, two Crusadershypnotizethe citizens of Tokyo and set them against the Mew Mews. Berry and her childhood friendTasuku Megurouse their newfound feelings of love to reverse the hypnosis and cause a change of heart in the Crusaders. Production Mia Ikumispent a year designing theTokyo Mew Mewmangabefore the release of the first volume in February 2001.The story she originally presented to her editors,Tokyo Black Cat Girl, featured a heroine named Hime Azumi. An intergalactic police officer named Masha gave her the ability to transform into a cat-girl and asked her to aid him in defeating alien invaders called the Bugs.After the production team decided to focus on five female superheroes, Ikumi was asked to reconstruct the lead character. She had reservations about the changes, as the character was originally designed for a more dramatic series. AsTokyo Mew Mewbecame a viable project, Kodansha hiredReiko Yoshidato be the series' scenario writer and story supervisor.Yoshida and two other editors determined each volume's plot, created a scenario by addingstage directionsand dialogue, and presented it to Ikumi. Ikumi added her own ideas and changes, creating themanuscript'sfirst draft, which was taken to the publishers for final review and approval. This differs from most manga series, in which the manga writer also creates the scenarios and stories before submitting to their editor for approval. After the first volume's release, a two-dayTokyo Mew Mewfestival was held during theGolden Week holiday—a week-long span in late April and early May during which four public holidays occur—to promote the series. Events included aTokyo Mew Mewart gallery and the release of new merchandise. Ikumi, the series' artist, created a special poster for the event, featuring all twelve characters. She alsocosplayedas characters from the series, asMinto Aizawaon one day andRetasu Midorikawaon the other. Media Manga Written byReiko Yoshidaand illustrated byMia Ikumi,Tokyo Mew Mewwas first serialized inNakayoshimagazine between September 2000 and February 2003. The twenty-nine chapters were then compiled into seventankōbonvolumes byKodansha. The first volume was released on February 1, 2001, with the final volume released April 4, 2003.In April 2003, a sequel calledTokyo Mew Mew à la Modepremiered inNakayoshi. Running until February 2004 and written solely by Mia Ikumi, the sequel was published as two volumes.In December 2019, an additional spinoff calledTokyo Mew Mew Olé!made by Madoka Seizuki began running inNakayoshi. The spinoff focuses on a new team of male Mew Mews.The manga ended in August 2022,and was compiled into seven volumes. A short, 2-chapter manga sequel of the original series made by the original creators titledTokyo Mew Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas published between December 2019 and January 2020.It was Ikumi's final manga before her death in March 2022. Tokyo Mew MewandTokyo Mew Mew à la Modeare licensed for an English-language release in North America byTokyopop. The first volume of the main series was released on June 1, 2004, with volumes released subsequently until the seventh volume was published on December 15, 2005.The two volumes ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Modewere released on June 7 and September 13, 2005, respectively.Unlike the Japanese releases, each Tokyopop chapter is named.The main series is licensed for an English language release in Singapore byChuang Yi.Carlsen Comicshas licensed the series, through its regional divisions, and released the series in German, Danish and Swedish.The series is also licensed for regional language releases in French byPika Édition, in Polish byJaponica Polonica Fantastica, and in Finnish bySangatsu Manga.Tokyo Mew Mewwas one of the first manga series released in Spanish in North America by Public Square Books.Kodansha Comicsreleased an omnibus version of the series, featuring a new translation in September 2011. Anime Pierrot,TV Aichi, Tokyu Agency and We've Inc. adaptedTokyo Mew Mewinto a fifty-two episode anime series, directed by Noriyuki Abe. Broadcast onTXNaffiliates, the series premiered on April 6, 2002, and aired weekly until its conclusion on March 29, 2003.Most of the music for the series was produced by Shin Yoshimura and composed byTakayuki Negishi. Two pieces of theme music were also used for the anime series. \"My Sweet Heart\", performed byRika Komatsu, was the series opening theme. The ending theme \"Koi wa A La Mode\" is performed by the fivevoice actorswho play the Mew Mews. In Japan, the series was released across nineRegion 2DVDvolumes. The ninth volume included a bonus DVD containing extra content.At some point during the TV broadcast, AEON changed its name to We've. Tokyo Mew Mewwas later licensed for an English-language dubbed release by4Kids Entertainment. In its announcement about the series, 4Kids originally noted that the show would be renamed toHollywood Mew Mewand that they would be heavily editing and localizing episodes so that viewers would not recognize its Japanese origins.Subsequent 4Kids press releases about the series referred to the new series asThe Mew Mewsand its original nameTokyo Mew Mew.When the series premiered on4Kids TVon February 19, 2005, it aired under the name asMew Mew Power. Characters and episodes were renamed, scenes were cut and storylines were modified. The music was replaced with a new score provided byBear in the Big Blue HouseandThe Book of Poohcomposer, Julian Harris, and the opening theme was replaced with the song \"Team Up\", performed byBree Sharpand Mollie Weaver.Twenty-six episodes ofMew Mew Poweraired on4Kids TVin the United States because 4Kids was unable to get amerchandisingdeal for the series and the English dub had stopped production.The 4Kids episodes aired onYTVin Canada and on thePop Girlsatellitetelevision channelin the United Kingdom; these included three dubbed episodes not broadcast in the United States. AlthoughMew Mew Powerhas not been released tohome videoin North America, ten of the 4Kids episodes have been released toRegion 4DVD in Australia and New Zealand byMagna Pacificand all twenty-six 4Kids episodes were released toRegion 2DVD in South Africa.Mew Mew Powerwas licensed for regional airing in French by Arès Films, which released nine dubbed 4Kids episodes to DVD in February 2006 as a single volume through Warner Home Vidéo France. The French dub aired onTélétoonas part of their Code F block.The company also licensed the remaining twenty-six episodes of the series that 4Kids had not obtained, releasing them in two DVD box sets through AK Vidéo. A new anime adaptation titledTokyo Mew Mew Newwas announced to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary.It was later revealed that the adaptation will be animated byYumeta CompanyandGraphinica, and directed by Takahiro Natori, with Yuka Yamada handling the series' scripts, Satoshi Ishino designing the characters, andYasuharu Takanashicomposing the music. New cast members were chosen to play the Mew Mews through a public audition held in Q2 2020,and they will also be promoting as anidol groupnamed Smewthie as their characters.The new series premiered on July 6, 2022, on TV Tokyo.Sentai Filmworkshas licensed the series outside of Asia and was streamed onHidive. A second season ofTokyo Mew Mew Newwas announced at the end of the final episode on September 21, 2022. It premiered in April 2023. Video games Two video games based on theTokyo Mew Mewseries were launched in 2002 byTakara. The first,Hamepane Tokyo Mew Mew(はめパネ 東京ミュウミュウ,Hamepane Tōkyō Myū Myū), apuzzleadventure gamefor theGame Boy Advance, was released in Japan on July 11, 2002. The second title,Tōkyō Mew Mew – Enter the New Mew Mew! – Serve Everyone Together(東京ミュウミュウ 登場 新ミュウミュウ！みんないっしょにご奉仕するにゃん,Tōkyō Myū Myū – Tōjō Shin Myū Myū! Minna Issho ni Gohōshi suru Nyan), was released in Japan on December 5, 2002. It is aPlayStationturn-basedrole-playing video game in which the player controls a new Mew Mew, Ringo Akai(赤井 りんご,Akai Ringo), as well as the original five heroines. They must defend Ringo's island from Quiche, the Chimera Animas and a new alien named Gateau du Roi(ガトー·デュ·ロワ,Gatō dyu Rowa).Both Ringo Akai and Gateau were created by the manga's artist, Mia Ikumi, following design specifications from Takara. The game uses voice actors from the anime series, with the two new characters voiced byTaeko KawataandRyōtarō Okiayu, respectively. Ikumi was pleased with how both characters turned out and expressed a desire to use Ringo as a regular character in a future manga series.Ringo later joined the other Mew Mews in thePetite Mew Mewbonus story in the second volume ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Mode. CDs Multiple music and characterCDshave been released for theTokyo Mew Mew seriesbyKing Records. The first, a CD single, contained the full andkaraokeversions of \"Koi wa A La Mode\", performed by the fivevoice actorswho played the Mew Mews, and a second song performed bySaki Nakajima, who voices Ichigo. On July 24, 2002, a five-disclimited editioncollector's box set was released containing character songs for each of the Mew Mews, performed by their respective voice actors and aremixof \"Koi wa A La Mode\".The individual character song discs were released as standalone CDs on September 4, 2002.An additional character CD set, containing remixed versions of two songs from each individual album, followed on December 25, 2002.A second character CD for Ichigo, containing five new tracks performed by Nakajima, was released on February 26, 2003. The first full anime soundtrack,Tokyo Mew Mew Original Soundtrackwas released on September 25, 2002, byNEC. The CD included the series opening and ending themes and twenty-seven pieces of series background music.NEC released a secondsoundtrackon January 22, 2003; it contains the opening and closing themes, along with an additional twenty-nine tracks of background music.On March 26, 2003, two \"best of\" CDs were released for the anime series:Tokyo Mew Mew Super Best Hit – Cafe Mew Mew sideandTokyo Mew Mew Super Best Hit – Tokyo Mew Mew side. Each CD includes ten of the series' \"most popular\" musical pieces. Reception TheTokyo Mew Mewmanga series was well received by English-speaking audiences. In March and April 2003, the first volume sold an estimated 1,597 and 1,746 copies respectively. This put the volume at the low end of the top 50 sales for each month.By 2004, with most of the series released, it became a mild success for licensor Tokyopop.It was ranked 16th on the list of Manga Top 50 for the first quarter of 2004 in theICv2 Retailers Guide to Anime/Manga, based on sales from both mainstream bookstores andcomic bookshops.Sales of the sixth and seventh volumes dropped slightly; however, both were among the top 100 best-selling graphic novels in March and May 2004.The first volume ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Modedebuted 63rd on the list of top 100 best-selling graphic novels of May 2005, with nearly double the sales figures of the last volume of the main series.On the Nielsen Bookscan charts, the volume debuted at rank 39 before quickly climbing to the 14th spot.The second volume ofà la Modesaw similar success, debuting in the 69th slot before advancing to the 12th position, a result of theMew Mew Powershow appearing on4Kids TV. Tokyo Mew Mewwas generally well received by reviewers, who described it as cute and entertaining.ThoughAnimeFringe'sPatrick King notes that it is not a very intellectual series and that it avoids complex plot points, he lauded it as engrossing \"brain candy\" and an \"endearing action-romance\" that has no \"delusions of grandeur\".Critics praised the artwork in bothTokyo Mew Mewand the sequelTokyo Mew Mew à La Mode. Ikumi's \"free flowing\" style and character designs were seen as a perfect fit for the series.Criticism of Ikumi's art focused on images which regularly spilled out of panel borders and speech bubbles with ambiguous speakers.Patrick King ofAnimefringestated: \"one of the most attractive aspects of Tokyo Mew Mew is easily Mia Ikumi's ultra-cute artwork. Big eyes, cat ears, fuzzy tails, and short skirts all come together in a cuteness combo that's hard to resist.\"According to Carlo Santos ofAnime News Network, \"Mia Ikumi's artwork is perfectly suited to the story, and it is not even all that wispy and frilly compared to othershōjomaterial. Like many budding manga artist, Ikumi's greatest strength is in carefully posed character portraits, and her prolific use of tones creates unique effects while also sidestepping the challenge of backgrounds.\" Over allTokyo Mew Mew à La Modehad more mixed reviews. Critics praised it for being a modern manga that typifies themagical girlformula, highlighting both its strengths and weaknesses.Mike Dungan, of Mania Entertainment, considered the original series to be \"quite charming\" and felt thatà la Modewas a good continuation of the series with the \"same fun and excitement\" as its predecessor.Others felt Berry was an overly shallow heroine and that the sequel offered nothing new for readers with the Saint Rose Crusaders' costumes and plans being nothing more than concepts borrowed fromSailor Moon. Janet Crocker, Shannon Fay and Chris Istel ofAnimefringecriticizedà la Modefor having the character Duke, the main villain of the arc, dressed in a white robe similar to those used by the white supremacy group, theKu Klux Klan.Garrity feltà La Modewas a vehicle for referencingTokyo Mew Mewfandom and merchandise and that Berry was a \"transparent wish-fulfillment protagonist\". The anime adaptation has been compared toSailor MoonandYes! PreCure 5due to both having female protagonists, five original team members with signature colors and powers, and similar plot lines, as have many magical girl series.Tokyo Mew Mewreceived high ratings in Japan with extensive merchandizing tie ins and marketing events to promote the series.The announcement of 4Kids licensing the anime series drew negative reactions from English-speaking in the U.S. fans, due to 4Kids' practice of removing cultural elements from their English-dubbed adaptations. Several fans would campaign to have the company to release an uncut version of the anime series.Overall viewer reception toMew Mew Powerwould be mixed,but the show would become the block's highest-rated program at the start of the Fall 2005 season.Despite this, the series was never released to DVD in North America.Mew Mew Powerwould be licensed for broadcast in France, Latin America, Australia, New Zealand, Portugal, Brazil, Albania, Serbia, Croatia, Turkey, Greece, South Africa, Denmark, the Netherlands, Bulgaria and Israel. Notes References Further reading External links"
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"Sailor Moon Sailor Moon(Japanese:美少女戦士セーラームーン,Hepburn:Bishōjo Senshi Sērā Mūn, originally translated asPretty Soldier Sailor Moonand later asPretty Guardian Sailor Moon)is a Japanesemangaseries written and illustrated byNaoko Takeuchi. It was originally serialized inKodansha'sshōjomangamagazineNakayoshifrom 1991 to 1997; the 60 individual chapters (later reorganized into 52), along with several side stories, were compiled in 18volumes. The series follows the adventures of a schoolgirl namedUsagi Tsukinoas she transforms into the eponymous character to search for a magical artifact, the \"Legendary Silver Crystal\"(「幻の銀水晶」,Maboroshi no Ginsuishō,lit.\"Phantom Silver Crystal\"). She leads a group of comrades, the Sailor Soldiers, called Sailor Guardians in later editions, as they battle against villains to prevent the theft of the Silver Crystal and the destruction of theSolar System. The manga was adapted intoan anime seriesproduced byToei Animationand broadcast in Japan from 1992 to 1997.Toei also developed three",
"developed three animated feature films, a television special, and three short films based on the anime. A live-action television adaptation,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon, aired from 2003 to 2004, and a second anime series,Sailor Moon Crystal, begansimulcastingin 2014. The manga series was licensed for an English language release byKodansha Comicsin North America, and in Australia and New Zealand by Random House Australia. The entire anime series has been licensed byViz Mediafor an English language release in North America and byMadman Entertainmentin Australia and New Zealand. Since its release,Sailor Moonhas received universal acclaim, with praise for its art, characterization, and humor. The manga has sold over 46 million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling manga series, as well as one of the best-sellingshōjomangaseries of all time.The franchise has also generated$2.5 billionin worldwide merchandise sales. Plot One day inJuban,Tokyo, amiddle-schoolstudent namedUsagi TsukinobefriendsLuna, a",
"a talking black cat who gives her a magical brooch enabling her to transform into Sailor Moon: a guardian destined to saveEarthfrom the forces of evil. Luna and Usagi assemble a team of fellow Sailor Guardians to find their princess and the Silver Crystal. They encounter the studious Ami Mizuno, who awakens asSailor Mercury; Rei Hino, a localShintoshrine maidenwho awakens asSailor Mars; Makoto Kino, a tall and strong transfer student who awakens asSailor Jupiter; and Minako Aino, a young aspiringidolwho had awakened asSailor Venusa few months prior, accompanied by her talking feline companionArtemis. Additionally, they befriend Mamoru Chiba, a high school student who assists them on occasion asTuxedo Mask. In the first arc, the group battles theDark Kingdom, those members attempt to find the Silver Crystal and free an imprisoned, evil entity called Queen Metaria. Usagi and her team discover that in their previous lives, they were members of the ancient Moon Kingdom in a period of time called the Silver",
"called the Silver Millennium. The Dark Kingdom waged war against them, destroying the Moon Kingdom. Its rulerQueen Serenitysent her daughter Princess Serenity,reincarnatedas Usagi, along with her protectors the Sailor Guardians, their feline advisers Luna and Artemis, and the princess's true love Prince Endymion, who in turn was reborn as Mamoru. At the beginning of the second arc, the Sailor Guardians meet Usagi and Mamoru's future daughterChibiusa, who arrives from a 30th-century version of Tokyo known as \"Crystal Tokyo\", which is ruled by Neo Queen Serenity, Usagi of the future and has been attacked by the group of villains known as theBlack Moon Clan. During their journey, Sailor Moon and her friends meetSailor Pluto, Guardian of the Time-Space Door. During the climactic battle of the arc, Sailor Pluto dies trying to save the sailor soldiers and Chibiusa was brainwashed by the enemy and turned into the Black Lady, but was eventually reformed and awakens as a Guardian herself—Sailor Chibi Moon. The third",
"Moon. The third arc introduces car-racer Haruka Tenoh and violinist Michiru Kaioh, who appear asSailor UranusandSailor Neptune, whose duty is to guard the Solar System against external threats. Physics student Setsuna Meioh, Sailor Pluto's reincarnation, joins Uranus and Neptune in their mission to kill a mysterious girl named Hotaru Tomoe, whom they identify as the Guardian of DestructionSailor Saturn. However, when Saturn awakens she joins the final fight against the main antagonists of the arc, theDeath Busters, sacrificing her life in the process. With her newly obtained powers as Super Sailor Moon, Usagi restores the Earth and Hotaru is reincarnated as a baby. The fourth arc explores the Sailor Guardians' dreams and nightmares when the villainous groupDead Moon Circusexploits the Guardians' deepest fears, invades Elysion (which hosts the Earth's Golden Kingdom), and captures itshigh priestHelios, who turned into a Pegasus and tried to ask Guardians for help. This storyline also addresses Mamoru's",
"addresses Mamoru's relevance as protector of the Earth and owner of the Golden Crystal, the sacred stone of the Golden Kingdom. Mamoru and all ten of the reunited Guardians combine their powers, enabling Usagi to transform into Eternal Sailor Moon and defeat Dead Moon's leader,Queen Nehelenia. In the final arc theSailor Starlightsfrom the Planet Kinmoku, their rulerPrincess Kakyuu, and the mysterious little girlChibi-Chibijoin Usagi in her fight againstShadow Galactica, a group of both corrupted and false Sailor Guardians and led bySailor Galaxia, who have been rampaging across the galaxy and killing other Sailor Guardians to steal their Star Seeds, Sailor Crystals—the essence of their lives. After Mamoru and all of the main Solar System Guardians are killed by Shadow Galactica, Usagi travels to the Galaxy Cauldron, the birthplace of all Star Seeds of theMilky Way, in an attempt to revive her loved ones and to confrontChaos, the source of all strife in the galaxy. Production Creation ofSailor Moon Naoko",
"ofSailor Moon Naoko Takeuchi, after working onNami Akimoto's 1991 mangaMiracle Girls, redevelopedSailor Moonfrom her 1991 manga serialCodename: Sailor V, which was first published on August 20, 1991, and featured Sailor Venus as the main protagonist.Takeuchi wanted to create a story with a theme about girls in outer space. While discussing with her editor Fumio Osano, he suggested the addition ofSailor fuku.WhenCodename: Sailor Vwas proposed for adaptation into an anime byToei Animation, Takeuchi redeveloped the concept so Sailor Venus became a member of a team.The resulting manga series became a fusion of the popular magical girl genre and theSuper Sentaiseries, of which Takeuchi was a fan.Recurring motifs includeastronomy,astrology,gemology,Greco-Roman mythology,Japanese elemental themes,: 286teen fashions,and schoolgirl antics. Takeuchi said discussions with Kodansha originally envisaged a single story arc;the storyline was developed in meetings a year before serialization began.: 93After completing the",
"completing the arc, Toei and Kodansha asked Takeuchi to continue the series. She wrote four more story arcs,which were often published simultaneously with the five corresponding seasons of the anime adaptation. The anime ran one or two months behind the manga.: 93As a result, the anime follows the storyline of the manga fairly closely, although there are deviations.Takeuchi later said because Toei's production staff were mostly male, she feels the anime has \"a slightmale perspective.\" Takeuchi later said she planned to kill off the protagonists, but Osano rejected the notion and said, \" is ashōjomanga!\" When the anime adaptation was produced, the protagonists were killed in the final battle with the Dark Kingdom, although they were revived. Takeuchi resented that she was unable to do that in her version.Takeuchi also intended for theSailor Moonanime adaptation to last for one season, but due to the immense popularity, Toei asked Takeuchi to continue the series. At first, she struggled to develop another",
"to develop another storyline to extend the series. While discussing with Osano, he suggested the inclusion of Usagi's daughter from the future, Chibiusa. Westernization After theSailor Moonanime was released in North America and dubbed in English, fans and academics alike noted that the dub had westernizedSailor Moonfrom how it had been released in Japan. In the 1995 English version ofSailor Moon, the westernization of the characters is seen in how a majority of the character names are changed from Japanese to English names.Sailor Moon's civilian name, Usagi Tsukino, is turned into Serena.The love interest of Sailor Moon, Mamoru Chiba, is turned into Darien Shields.Other examples of westernization (or at least Americanization) referenced bySailor Moon's audience were things like flipping scenes of traffic to have carsdrive on the right side of the roadalong with the English dub changing any conversations between characters that contained lesser-known (in the United States at the time) Japanese cultural",
"Japanese cultural references.According toBandai America, the company in charge of Sailor Moon merchandise in the western hemisphere, the approach to advertisingSailor Moonwas to make the show and super-heroine \"'culturally appropriate' for the American market\". Media Manga Written and illustrated byNaoko Takeuchi,Sailor Moonwas serialized in the monthly manga anthologyNakayoshifrom December 28, 1991, to February 3, 1997.The side-stories were serialized simultaneously inRunRun—another of Kodansha's manga magazines.The 52 individual chapters were published in 18tankōbonvolumes byKodanshafrom July 6, 1992, to April 4, 1997.In 2003, the chapters were re-released in a collection of 12shinzōbanvolumes to coincide with the release of thelive-action series.The manga was retitledPretty Guardian Sailor Moonand included new cover art,and revised dialogue and illustrations. The ten individual short stories were also released in two volumes.In 2013, the chapters were once again re-released in 10kanzenbanvolumes to",
"to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary, which includes digitally remastered artwork, new covers and color artwork from itsNakayoshirun.The books have been enlarged from the typical Japanese manga size to A5.The short stories were republished in two volumes, with the order of the stories shuffled.Codename: Sailor Vwas also included in the third edition. TheSailor Moonmanga was initially licensed for an English release by Mixx (laterTokyopop) in North America. The manga was first published as a serial inMixxZinebeginning in 1997, but was later removed from the magazine and made into a separate, low print monthly comic to finish the first, second and third arcs. At the same time, the fourth and fifth arcs were printed in a secondary magazine calledSmile.Pages from the Tokyopop version of the manga ran daily in the Japanimation Station, a service accessible to users ofAmerica Online.The series was later collected into a three-part graphic novel series spanning eighteen volumes, which were published from",
"were published from December 1, 1998, to September 18, 2001.In May 2005, Tokyopop's license to theSailor Moonmanga expired, and its edition went out of print. In 2011,Kodansha Comicsannounced they had acquired the license for theSailor Moonmanga and its lead-in seriesCodename: Sailor Vin English.They published the twelve volumes ofSailor Moonsimultaneously with the two-volume edition ofCodename Sailor Vfrom September 2011 to July 2013.The first of the two related short story volumes was published on September 10, 2013;the second was published on November 26, 2013.AtAnime Expo2017, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-releaseSailor Moonin an \"Eternal Edition\", featuring a new English translation, new cover artwork by Takeuchi, and color pages from the manga's original run, printed on extra-large premium paper.The first Eternal Edition volume was published on September 11, 2018;the tenth and final volume was published on October 20, 2020.On July 1, 2019, Kondasha Comics began releasing the Eternal Editions",
"Eternal Editions digitally,following an announcement the day before about the series being released digitally in ten different languages.In November 2020, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-release theSailor Moonmanga again as part of their \"Naoko Takeuchi Collection\".The company described the new edition as a \"more affordable, portable\" version of the Eternal Edition. The first volume was published on April 5, 2022. Sailor Moonhas also been licensed in other English-speaking countries. In the United Kingdom, the volumes are distributed by Turnaround Publisher Services.In Australia, the manga is distributed by Penguin Books Australia. The manga has been licensed in Russia andCISfor distribution by XL Media publishing company. The first volume was released in 2018. Anime series Overview Sailor Moon Toei Animation produced an anime television series based on the 52 manga chapters, also titledPretty Soldier Sailor Moon.Junichi Satodirected the first season,Kunihiko Ikuharatook over second through fourth",
"through fourth season, andTakuya Igarashidirected the fifth and final season.The series premiered in Japan onTV Asahion March 7, 1992, and ran for 200 episodes until its conclusion on February 8, 1997. Upon its release, the show quickly rose to be Toei Animation's highest ranked TV series.Most of the international versions, including the English adaptations, are titledSailor Moon. Sailor Moon Crystal On July 6, 2012, Kodansha and Toei Animation announced that it would commence production of a new anime adaptation ofSailor Moon, calledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystal, for a simultaneous worldwide release in 2013 as part of the series's 20th anniversary celebrations,and stated that it would be a closer adaptation of the manga than the first anime.Crystalpremiered on July 5, 2014, and new episodes would air on the first and third Saturdays of each month.New cast were announced, along withKotono Mitsuishireprising her role as Sailor Moon.The first two seasons were released together, covering their",
"covering their corresponding arcs of the manga (Dark KingdomandBlack Moon). A third season based on theInfinityarc on the manga premiered on Japanese television on April 4, 2016, known asDeath Bustersarc in this adaptation.Munehisa Sakaidirected the first and second season, whileChiaki Kondirected the third season. Films and television specials Three animated theatrical feature films based on the originalSailor Moonseries have been released in Japan:Sailor Moon R: The Moviein 1993, followed bySailor Moon S: The Moviein 1994, andSailor Moon SuperS: The Moviein 1995. The films are side-stories that do not correlate with the timeline of the original series. A one-hour television special was aired on TV Asahi in Japan on April 8, 1995.Kunihiko Ikuharadirected the first film, while the latter two were directed by Hiroki Shibata. In 1997, an article inVarietystated thatThe Walt Disney Companywas interested in originally acquiring the rights toSailor Moonas a live action film to be directed byStanley Tong&Geena",
"Tong&Geena Davisset to star as Queen Beryl, along withWinona Ryder&Elisabeth Shueplanning to star in the film.After Disney put the project onturnaround,Universal Picturesacquired the film rights. In 2017, it was revealed thatPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystalanime's fourth season would be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, adapting theDreamarc from the manga.On June 30, 2019, it was announced that the title of the films will bePretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie.The first film was originally to be released on September 11, 2020,but was postponed and released on January 8, 2021, and the second film was released on February 11, 2021.Chiaki Konreturned fromCrystal's third season to direct the two films. In 2022, it was announced that a sequel toPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie, covering theStarsarc of the manga would also be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, titledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon Cosmos The Movie. The two films are directed by Tomoya",
"directed by Tomoya Takahashi, and was released on June 9 and 30, 2023. Companion books There have been numerous companion books toSailor Moon. Kodansha released some of these books for each of the five story arcs, collectively called theOriginal Picture Collection. The books contain cover art, promotional material and other work by Takeuchi. Many of the drawings are accompanied by comments on the way she developed her ideas, created each picture and commentary on the anime interpretation of her story.Another picture collection,Volume Infinity, was released as a self-published, limited-edition artbook after the end of the series in 1997. This art book includes drawings by Takeuchi and her friends, her staff, and many of the voice actors who worked on the anime. In 1999, Kodansha published theMaterials Collection; this contained development sketches and notes for nearly every character in the manga, and for some characters that never appeared. Each drawing includes notes by Takeuchi about costume pieces, the",
"costume pieces, the mentality of the characters and her feelings about them. It also includes timelines for the story arcs and for the real-life release of products and materials relating to the anime and manga. A short story,Parallel Sailor Moonis also featured, celebrating theyear of the rabbit. Novels Sailor Moonwas also adapted for publication as novels and released in 1998. The first book was written byStuart J. Levy. The following novels were written by Lianne Sentar. Stage musicals In mid-1993, the first musical theater production based onSailor Moonpremiered, starringAnza Ohyamaas Sailor Moon. Thirty such musicals in all have been produced, with one in pre-production. The shows' stories include anime-inspired plotlines and original material. Music from the series has been released on about 20 memorial albums.The popularity of the musicals has been cited as a reason behind the production of the live-action television series,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon. During the original run musicals ran in the",
"musicals ran in the winter and summer of each year, with summer musicals staged at theSunshineTheater in theIkebukuroarea of Tokyo. In the winter, musicals toured to other large cities in Japan, includingOsaka,Fukuoka,Nagoya,Shizuoka,Kanazawa,Sendai,Saga,Oita,YamagataandFukushima.The final incarnation of the first run,New Legend of Kaguya Island (Revised Edition)(新・かぐや島伝説 <改訂版>,Shin Kaguyashima Densetsu (Kaiteban)), went on stage in January 2005, following which,Bandaiofficially put the series on a hiatus.On June 2, 2013, Fumio Osano announced on his Twitter page that theSailor Moonmusicals would begin again in September 2013.The 20th anniversary showLa Reconquistaran from September 13 to 23 at Shibuya's AiiA Theater Tokyo, with Satomi Ōkubo as Sailor Moon. Satomi Ōkubo reprised the role in the 2014 productionPetite Étrangèrewhich ran from August 21 to September 7, 2014, again at AiiA Theater Tokyo. Live-action film & series Cancelled Disney film adaptation During the 1990s,Disneywas going to adapt Sailor",
"to adapt Sailor Moon into a film under theWalt Disney Picturesbanner but it was cancelled immediately. Unrealized American adaptation In 1993, Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, Bandai and Toon Makers, Inc. conceptualized their own version ofSailor Moon, which was half live-action and half Western-style animation.Toon Makers produced a 17-minuteproof of conceptpilot and a two-minute music video, both of which were directed by Rocky Solotoff, who also worked on the pilot's script.Renaissance-Atlantic presented the concept to Toei, but it was turned down as their concept would have cost significantly more than simply exporting and dubbing the anime adaptation.The companies' work is believed by Solotoff to have been handed over to Raymond Iacovacci, one of the producers on the project, who stored the pilot script and animation cels in a storage facility.The logo created for the pilot was kept for the English dub, and Bandai released a \"Moon Cycle\" as part of its merchandise for the show, based on vehicles",
"based on vehicles designed for the pilot. The project was rediscovered in 1998 when the music video was screened at theAnime Expoconvention in Los Angeles,where it was met with laughter by onlookers.A congoer recorded the music video and the audience response, which would later resurface on video sites such asYouTube.The pilot and the music video would go on to be discussed at conventions such as the 2011Gen Conand 2012Anime Expo.It was given the monikers of \"Toon Makers' Sailor Moon\"and \"Saban Moon\" despite having no connection withSaban Entertainmentsave for Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, which worked with the company onPower Rangers.The proof of concept video was widely considered to belost mediaand director Solotoff reported that he was frequently contacted by people searching for the pilot.In 2012 multiple animation cels from the pilot, along with the script, surfaced on the internet after a storage locker, believed to be the one owned by Iacovacci, was sold. In 1998, Frank Ward, along with his",
"along with his company Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, tried to revive the idea of doing a live-action series based on Sailor Moon, this time calledTeam Angel, without the involvement of Toon Makers. A 2-minute reel was produced and sent to Bandai America, but was also rejected. In August 2022, the proof of concept was showcased for the first time onYouTubein a documentary by Ray Mona. Ray Mona obtained both the pilot and its music video, as well and its related materials, from theLibrary of Congress. Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon In 2003,Toei Companyproduced a Japanese live-actionSailor Moontelevision series using the new translated English title ofPretty Guardian Sailor Moon. Its 49 episodes were broadcast onChubu-Nippon Broadcastingfrom October 4, 2003, to September 25, 2004.Pretty Guardian Sailor MoonfeaturedMiyuu Sawaias Usagi Tsukino,Rika Izumi(credited as Chisaki Hama) as Ami Mizuno,Keiko Kitagawaas Rei Hino,Mew Azamaas Makoto Kino,Ayaka Komatsuas Minako Aino,Jouji Shibueas Mamoru Chiba,Keiko",
"Mamoru Chiba,Keiko Hanreprising her voice role as Luna from the original anime andKappei Yamaguchivoicing Artemis. The series was an alternate retelling of the Dark Kingdom arc, adding a storyline different from that in the manga and first anime series, with original characters and new plot developments.In addition to the main episodes, twodirect-to-videoreleases appeared after the show ended its television broadcast. \"Special Act\" is set four years after the main storyline ends, and shows the wedding of the two main characters. \"Act Zero\" is a prequel showing the origins ofSailor Vand Tuxedo Mask. Video games TheSailor Moonfranchise has spawned several video games across various genres and platforms. Most were made by Bandai and its subsidy Angel; others were produced byBanpresto. The early games wereside-scrolling fighters; later ones were uniquepuzzle games, orversus fighting games.Another Storywas a turn-basedrole-playing video game.The onlySailor Moongame produced outside Japan, 3VR New Media'sThe 3D",
"New Media'sThe 3D Adventures of Sailor Moon, went on sale in North America in 1997, They were developed in association withDIC Entertainment, which held the rights to the game and the TV series.A video game calledSailor Moon: La Luna Splende(Sailor Moon: The Moon Shines) was released on March 16, 2011, for theNintendo DS. Tabletop games The Dyskami Publishing Company releasedSailor Moon Crystal Dice Challenge, created byJames Ernestof Cheapass Games and based on theButton Mentabletop game in 2017, andSailor Moon Crystal Truth or Bluffin 2018. Theme park attractions A Sailor Moon attraction,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D, was announced forUniversal Studios Japan.It featured Sailor Moon and the Inner Guardians arriving at the theme park, only to discover and stop the Youma's plan from stealing people's energies. The attraction ran from March 16 through July 24, 2018. The sequel attraction,Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D: Moon Palace arc, ran from May 31, 2019, to August 25, 2019. It",
"August 25, 2019. It featured all 10 Sailor Guardians and Super Sailor Moon. In January 2022, a new attraction was announced titledPretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D ~Moon Palace arc~ Deluxe. The attraction features the same storyline as the last and feature the Sailor Guardians in their princess forms. It ran from March 4, 2022, to August 28, 2022. Ice skating show An ice skating show ofSailor Moonwas announced on June 30, 2019, starringEvgenia Medvedevaas the lead.The name for the ice-skating show was announced asPretty Guardian Sailor Moon: Prism on Ice, as well as the additional casts, withAnzafrom the firstSailor Moonmusicals to play Queen Serenity, and the main voice actresses of theSailor Moon Crystalanime series to voice their individual characters. Takuya Hiramatsu from the musicals was to write the screenplay, Yuka Sato and Benji Schwimmer were to be in charge of choreography, and Akiko Kosaka & Gesshoku Kaigi were to write the music for the show.The show was set to debut in early June",
"debut in early June 2020, but was first postponed to June 2021, and later to June 2022, due to theCOVID-19 pandemic,and finally cancelled on February 23, 2023, due to an\"unstable world situation\". Idol group An idol pop group namedSG5, short for Sailor Guardians 5, was announced in June 2022. Early plans to form the group began in 2020, with the official lineup and overall concept finalized in 2022. As part of the process, the group had to seek the approval of Naoko Takeuchi by performing in front of her and giving a presentation. Four of the group members, Sayaka, Ruri, Miyuu, andKaede, had previously performed together as part of the idol groupHappiness. The group was officially debuted in July 2022 at Anime Expo and is co-managed by LDH Japan Inc. and Three Six Zero.On March 1, 2023, SG5 released their debut single \"Firetruck\" on streaming platforms alongside a music video with references to the manga. Reception Sailor Moonis one of the most popular manga series of all time and continues to enjoy high",
"to enjoy high readership worldwide. More than one million copies of itstankōbonvolumes had been sold in Japan by the end of 1995.: 95It has been described as iconic.By the series's 20th anniversary in 2012, the manga had sold over 35 million copies in over fifty countries,and the franchise has generated$2.5 billionin worldwidemerchandisesales as of 1996.By 1995, Sailor Moon toys used to bring in more than $250 million per year in Japan.The manga won theKodansha Manga Awardin 1993 forshōjo.The English adaptations of both the manga and the anime series became the first successfulshōjotitle in the United States.The character of Sailor Moon is recognized as one of the most important and popularfemale superheroesof all time. Sailor Moonhas also become popular internationally.Sailor Moonwas broadcast in Spain and France beginning in December 1993; these became the first countries outside Japan to broadcast the series.It was later aired in Russia, South Korea, the Philippines, China, Italy, Taiwan, Thailand,",
"Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia and Hong Kong, before North America picked up the franchise for adaptation. In the Philippines,Sailor Moonwas one ofits carrier network's main draws, helping it to become the third-biggest network in the country.: 10–11In 2001, theSailor Moonmanga was Tokyopop's best selling property, outselling the next-best selling titles by at least a factor of 1.5.InDiamond Comic Distributors's May 1999 \"Graphic Novel and Trade Paperback\" category,Sailor MoonVolume 3 was the best-selling comic book in the United States. Academic Timothy J. Craig attributesSailor Moon's international success to three things. First was the show's magical girl transformation of ordinary characters into superheroes. Second was the ability of marketers to establish the international audience's connection to characters despite their culture being Japanese. The third was that the main superhero was female, something which was still rare in pop culture in countries like the United States during the 1990s. In his 2007",
"1990s. In his 2007 bookManga: The Complete Guide,Jason Thompsongave the manga series three stars out of four. He enjoyed the blending ofshōnenandshōjostyles and said the combat scenes seemed heavily influenced bySaint Seiya, but shorter and less bloody. He also said the manga itself appeared similar toSuper Sentaitelevision shows. Thompson found the series fun and entertaining, but said the repetitive plot lines were a detriment to the title, which the increasing quality of art could not make up for; even so, he called the series \"sweet, effective entertainment.\"Thompson said although the audience forSailor Moonis both male and female, Takeuchi does not use excessivefanservicefor males, which would run the risk of alienating her female audience. Thompson said fight scenes are not physical and \"boil down to their purest form of a clash of wills\", which he says \"makes thematic sense\" for the manga. Comparing the manga and anime, Sylvain Durand said the manga artwork is \"gorgeous\", but its storytelling is more",
"is more compressed and erratic and the anime has more character development. Durand said \"the sense of tragedy is greater\" in the manga's telling of the \"fall of the Silver Millennium,\" giving more detail about the origins of the Four Kings of Heaven and on Usagi's final battle against Queen Beryl and Metaria. Durand said the anime omits information that makes the story easy to understand, but judges the anime as more \"coherent\" with a better balance of comedy and tragedy, whereas the manga is \"more tragic\" and focused on Usagi and Mamoru's romance. For the week of September 11, 2011, to September 17, 2011, the first volume of the re-releasedSailor Moonmanga was the best-selling manga onThe New York TimesManga Best Sellers list, with the first volume ofCodename: Sailor Vin second place.The first print run of the first volume sold out after four weeks. In English-speaking countries,Sailor Moondeveloped a cult following among anime fans and male university students.Patrick Drazen says theInternetwas a new",
"a new medium that fans used to communicate and played a role in the popularity ofSailor Moon.: 281Fans could use the Internet to communicate about the series, organize campaigns to returnSailor Moonto U.S. broadcast, to share information about episodes that had not yet aired, or to writefan fiction.Gemma Cox ofNeomagazinesaid part of the series's allure was that fans communicated via the Internet about the differences between the dub and the original version. Cultural impact and legacy With their dynamic heroines and action-oriented plots, many creditSailor Moonfor reinvigorating the magical girl genre. After its success, many similar magical girl series, includingMagic Knight Rayearth,Wedding Peach,Nurse Angel Ririka SOS,Saint Tail,Cyber Team in Akihabara,Corrector YuiandPretty Cure, emerged.: 199Sailor Moonhas been called \"the biggest breakthrough\" in English-dubbed anime until 1995, when it premiered onYTV,: 10–11and \"the pinnacle of little kidshōjoanime\".Cultural anthropologistRachel Thornsaid that soon",
"Thornsaid that soon afterSailor Moon,shōjomanga started appearing in book shops instead of fandom-dominated comic shops.The series are credited as beginning a wider movement of girls taking upshōjomanga.Canadian librarianGilles Poitrasdefines a generation of anime fans as those who were introduced to anime bySailor Moonin the 1990s, saying they were both much younger than other fans and were also mostly female. HistorianFred Pattencredits Takeuchi with popularizing the concept of aSuper Sentai-like team of magical girls,and Paul Gravett credits the series with revitalizing the magical girl genre itself.A reviewer forTHEMAnime Reviewsalso credited the anime series with changing the genre—its heroine must use her powers to fight evil, not simply have fun as previous magical girls had done.The series has also been compared toMighty Morphin Power Rangers,Buffy the Vampire Slayer,: 281andSabrina the Teenage Witch.Sailor Moon also influenced the development ofMiraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir,W.I.T.C.H.,Winx",
"Club,LoliRock,Star vs. the Forces of Evil,Steven Universe, andTotally Spies!. Inwestern culture,Sailor Moonis sometimes associated with thefeministandGirl Powermovements and with empowering its viewers,especially regarding the \"credible, charismatic and independent\" characterizations of the Sailor Guardians.AlthoughSailor Moonis regarded as empowering to women and feminism in concept, through the aggressive nature and strong personalities of the Sailor Guardians,it is a specific type of feminist concept where \"traditional feminine ideals incorporated into characters that act in traditionally male capacities\".While the Sailor Guardians are strong, independent fighters who thwart evil—which is generally a masculine stereotype—they are also ideally feminized in the transformation of the Sailor Guardians from teenage girls into magical girls. The most notable hyper-feminine features of the Sailor Guardians—and most other females in Japanese girls' comics—are the girls' thin bodies, long legs, and, in",
"long legs, and, in particular, round, orb-like eyes.Eyes are commonly known as the primal source within characters where emotion is evoked—sensitive characters have larger eyes than insensitive ones.The stereotypical role of women in Japanese culture is to undertake romantic and loving feelings;therefore, the prevalence of hyper-feminine qualities like the openness of the female eye in Japanese girls' comics is clearly exhibited inSailor Moon. Thus,Sailor Moonemphasizes a type of feminist model by combining traditional masculine action with traditional female affection and sexuality through the Sailor Guardians. Merchandise Since the early 2000s,Toei Animationhas collaborated with various different brands to create merchandise outside of children's demographic.On February 20, 2020,ColourPopreleased aSailor Mooninspired makeup collection.Celebrating the 25th anniversary ofSailor Moonin the U.S., streetwear brand KITH released clothing like hoodies and t-shirts withSailor Moongraphics on them.In honor ofSailor",
"honor ofSailor Moon's 30th anniversary, brands likeSanrio,Uniqlo, and Maison de FLEUR announced a collaboration in January 2022. References External links",
"Wedding Peach Wedding Peach(Japanese:愛天使伝説ウェディングピーチ,Hepburn:Ai Tenshi Densetsu Wedingu Pīchi, literally \"Legend of the Angel of Love: Wedding Peach\")is ashōjomangawritten bySukehiro Tomitaand illustrated byNao Yazawathat was originally serialized inShogakukan'sCiaomagazine. InNorth America, it was translated and published byVIZ Mediain its entirety, consisting of six volumes. The manga was later adapted into ananimetelevision seriesdirected byKunihiko Yuyamathat ran for 51 episodes onTV Tokyo, from April 5, 1995 to March 27, 1996 as well as 2omakesAi Tenshi Robot Wedding PeachandAi Tenshi Sentaiand a 4-episodeOVAsequel (Wedding Peach DX) in 1996. In 2004,Wedding Peach Young Lovewas released, a compilation ofWedding Peachstories made specifically for the monthly magazineShogaku Sannensei(\"Elementary School Third-Grader\"). To better fit the magazine's target audience, the \"Young Love\" version of Wedding Peach features younger-looking characters, less complex storylines, and simpler dialogue. Plot Momoko",
"Plot Momoko Hanasaki, along with her friends Yuri Tanima and Hinagiku Tamano, are members of the newspaper club where they mostly cover the school's soccer team. They all have a crush on the star player Kazuya Yanagiba. On their way home from school one day, the trio are attacked by adevilby the name of Pluie who is a servant to the high ruler of the devil world, Raindevila. When her friends are hypnotized into attacking Momoko, a beautiful man comes down from the sky named Limone. He is from theangelworld and gives Momoko a compact case. Opening the compact, she is told by thegoddessAphrodite, the ruler of the angel world, that she is one of the legendary Love Angels, Wedding Peach. Momoko transforms into Wedding Peach and manages to snap her friends out of Pluie's control. Over the course of the story, Yuri and Hinagiku and later Scarlet O'Hara also find out that they are also love angels and the three (later four) must protect the humans from the devils and defeat Raindevila. Media Manga The manga was",
"Manga The manga was written and illustrated by Nao Yazawa. It was serialized theShogakukan'sCiaomagazine from March 1994 to April 1996. Shogakukan released the manga in six volumes from September 1994 to April 1996.Viz Medialicensed the manga in North America and released the manga from July 10, 2003 to May 26, 2004. The series is now out-of-print. Anime An anime television series premiered onTV Tokyoon April 5, 1995 to March 27, 1996 and ran for 51 episodes. The anime was directed byKunihiko Yuyamaand was co-produced byKSSandOLM, Inc.A four-episodeOVAseries, titledWedding Peach DX (Deluxe)was released from November 1996 to March 1997.ADV Filmslicensed the anime in 2003 and released the anime in tenDVDs. Theme Songs Opening Themes Ending Themes Episodes Wedding Peach Wedding Peach DX Omake Games ASuper Famicomgame was released only in Japan in 1995. In the game, the player plays as one of the three main girls (either Momoko, Yuri or Hinagiku) to compete with the others in a series of mini games. The ultimate",
"games. The ultimate goal is to win the right to ask the guy that all three girls are in love with (Yanagiba) to the school dance. The game has a three player option as well, where two other people can play the other two girls. Wedding Peachgames have also been released for theGame Boy(Jama-P Panic!- 1995),PC-98(Wedding Peach- 1996), andPlayStation(Wedding Peach - Doki Doki Oiro-naoshi Fashion Dai-sakusen- 1996). References External links",
"Tokyo Mew Mew Tokyo Mew Mew(Japanese:東京ミュウミュウ,Hepburn:Tōkyō Myū Myū)is a Japanesemangaseries created and written byReiko Yoshidaand illustrated byMia Ikumi. It was originally serialized inKodansha'sshōjomangamagazineNakayoshifrom September 2000 to February 2003, with its chapters collected in seventankōbonvolumes by Kodansha. It focuses on five girls infused with the DNA of endangered animals which gives them special powers and allows them to transform into \"Mew Mews\". Led by Ichigo Momomiya, the girls protect Earth from aliens who wish to \"reclaim\" it. The series was adapted into a fifty-two episodeanimeseries produced byTV Aichi, We've Inc. & Tokyu Agency and animated byPierrot. The anime aired in Japan from April 6, 2002, to March 29, 2003 onTXNaffiliates. A two-volume sequel to the manga,Tokyo Mew Mew à la Mode, was serialized inNakayoshifrom April 2003 to February 2004. The sequel introduces a new character, Berry Shirayuki, who becomes the temporary leader of the Mew Mews. The series would inspire",
"would inspire twovideo games: apuzzleadventure gameforGame Boy Advance, and arole-playing video gamefor thePlayStation. Tokyopoporiginally licensedTokyo Mew Mewfor English-language publication in North America, and would release both the original series andà la Mode.Kodansha Comicswould publish a newly translated version of the manga in September 2011.4Kids Entertainmentlicensed the anime series for North American broadcast under the titleMew Mew Power, and produced aneditedEnglish-languagelocalization. The first twenty-three episodes of the series would air on4Kids TVin the United States, with three additional episodes airing onYTVin Canada. 4Kids was unable to license the remaining 26 episodes of the series or release the series on home video. Tokyo Mew Mewwas well received by English-language readers, with critics praising the manga for being a \"cute and entertaining\" series with \"free-flowing style and character designs\". Several volumes of the manga series appeared in the Top 50 sales lists for graphic",
"lists for graphic novels in their respective months of release. The anime series received high ratings in Japan, whileMew Mew Powerwould become 4Kids' highest-rated show during its American broadcast, and be licensed for regional release in several other countries. In 2020, a second, two-chapter sequel calledTokyo Mew Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas released, featuring the main characters with updated designs; and as well as a spinoff, titledTokyo Mew Mew Olé!, which features a new team of male Mew Mews. In addition, anew anime adaptationof the series,Tokyo Mew Mew New, was announced; the series aired from July to September 2022. A second season premiered in April 2023. Plot InTokyo,Japan, a young girl namedIchigo Momomiyaattends anendangered speciesexhibit with her \"crush\"Masaya Aoyama. After an earthquake, Ichigo and four other girls are bathed in a strange light. A cat appears before Ichigo, then merges with her. The next day, she begins acting like a cat and making cat puns. After meetingRyou ShiroganeandKeiichirou",
"Akasaka, Ichigo learns that she was infused with the DNA of theIriomote cat. Ryou and Keiichirou explain that this allows her to transform into Mew Ichigo, a powerful heroiccat girl. She is ordered to defeat Chimera Animas—alien parasites which infect animals and turn them into monsters. Ryou and Keiichirou instruct Ichigo to find the four other girls from the exhibit—the remaining Mew Mews. The first Mew Mew Ichigo encounters areMinto Aizawa, a spoiled, wealthy girl and ballerina who is infused with the genes of theblue lorikeet;Retasu Midorikawa, a shy but smart girl who endures constant bullying from three girls and absorbs the genes of thefinless porpoise; a hyper and yet young girl namedBu-Ling Huangwho receives the genes of thegolden lion tamarin; andZakuro Fujiwara, a professional actress and model infused with the genes of thegray wolf. The five Mew Mews battle the Chimera Animas and their alien controllersQuiche,PieandTart. Quiche falls in love with Ichigo where he tries to gain her love despite the",
"love despite the fact that he is trying to eliminate the other Mew Mews. Pie and Tart later join Quiche in trying to destroy the Mew Mews. As the fighting intensifies, the Mew Mews are tasked with finding \"Mew Aqua\", a material created from pure water that contains immense power for combating the alien attacks and can be sensed by the Mew Mews. During a battle with Quiche at an aquarium, Ichigo is in danger of losing when the mysteriousBlue Knightappears and rescues her. He returns periodically throughout the series, protecting Ichigo from various dangers. It is later revealed that the Blue Knight is in fact Masaya. Shortly after this discovery, Masaya collapses and transforms again. This time, he transforms into Deep Blue, the alien leader who wants to destroy humanity. After explaining to Ichigo that Masaya was a false form for temporary use, Deep Blue attacks the Mew Mews. Pie and Tart try to stop the other mew mews while Ichigo goes after Deep Blue. He and Quiche battle and Deep Blue wins. Masaya's",
"Blue wins. Masaya's personality briefly reappears and he uses the Mew Aqua inside Deep Blue to save Ichigo and Tokyo, killing himself in the process. Devastated over his loss, Ichigo pours her power into Masaya to save his life, losing her own in the process. Masaya kisses her, changing her back to a human and revives her. Ryou gives Pie the remaining Mew Aqua to save the aliens' world, after which Quiche, Pie, and Tart say their goodbyes and return to their own world. Sequels Tokyo Mew Mew à La Mode Ichigo and Masaya move to England to study endangered species. The remaining Mew Mews continue to eliminate the Chimera Animas left behind by the aliens. They face a new threat in the form of theSaint Rose Crusaders: Humans withsupernatural abilitieswho desire to conquer the world and create a \"utopia\" while taking over the remaining Chimera Animas. Berry Shirayukibecomes the sixth Mew Mew and temporarily takes Ichigo's place as the leader. Berry is the first Mew Mew to be infused with the DNA of twoendangered",
"of twoendangered species, theAndean mountain catand theAmami rabbit. As one of the strongest Mew Mews, Berry is targeted by two of the Crusaders, who attack her at school. Ichigo returns to provide assistance during this battle. For their final attack, two Crusadershypnotizethe citizens of Tokyo and set them against the Mew Mews. Berry and her childhood friendTasuku Megurouse their newfound feelings of love to reverse the hypnosis and cause a change of heart in the Crusaders. Production Mia Ikumispent a year designing theTokyo Mew Mewmangabefore the release of the first volume in February 2001.The story she originally presented to her editors,Tokyo Black Cat Girl, featured a heroine named Hime Azumi. An intergalactic police officer named Masha gave her the ability to transform into a cat-girl and asked her to aid him in defeating alien invaders called the Bugs.After the production team decided to focus on five female superheroes, Ikumi was asked to reconstruct the lead character. She had reservations about",
"reservations about the changes, as the character was originally designed for a more dramatic series. AsTokyo Mew Mewbecame a viable project, Kodansha hiredReiko Yoshidato be the series' scenario writer and story supervisor.Yoshida and two other editors determined each volume's plot, created a scenario by addingstage directionsand dialogue, and presented it to Ikumi. Ikumi added her own ideas and changes, creating themanuscript'sfirst draft, which was taken to the publishers for final review and approval. This differs from most manga series, in which the manga writer also creates the scenarios and stories before submitting to their editor for approval. After the first volume's release, a two-dayTokyo Mew Mewfestival was held during theGolden Week holiday—a week-long span in late April and early May during which four public holidays occur—to promote the series. Events included aTokyo Mew Mewart gallery and the release of new merchandise. Ikumi, the series' artist, created a special poster for the event,",
"for the event, featuring all twelve characters. She alsocosplayedas characters from the series, asMinto Aizawaon one day andRetasu Midorikawaon the other. Media Manga Written byReiko Yoshidaand illustrated byMia Ikumi,Tokyo Mew Mewwas first serialized inNakayoshimagazine between September 2000 and February 2003. The twenty-nine chapters were then compiled into seventankōbonvolumes byKodansha. The first volume was released on February 1, 2001, with the final volume released April 4, 2003.In April 2003, a sequel calledTokyo Mew Mew à la Modepremiered inNakayoshi. Running until February 2004 and written solely by Mia Ikumi, the sequel was published as two volumes.In December 2019, an additional spinoff calledTokyo Mew Mew Olé!made by Madoka Seizuki began running inNakayoshi. The spinoff focuses on a new team of male Mew Mews.The manga ended in August 2022,and was compiled into seven volumes. A short, 2-chapter manga sequel of the original series made by the original creators titledTokyo Mew Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas",
"Mew 2020 Re-Turnwas published between December 2019 and January 2020.It was Ikumi's final manga before her death in March 2022. Tokyo Mew MewandTokyo Mew Mew à la Modeare licensed for an English-language release in North America byTokyopop. The first volume of the main series was released on June 1, 2004, with volumes released subsequently until the seventh volume was published on December 15, 2005.The two volumes ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Modewere released on June 7 and September 13, 2005, respectively.Unlike the Japanese releases, each Tokyopop chapter is named.The main series is licensed for an English language release in Singapore byChuang Yi.Carlsen Comicshas licensed the series, through its regional divisions, and released the series in German, Danish and Swedish.The series is also licensed for regional language releases in French byPika Édition, in Polish byJaponica Polonica Fantastica, and in Finnish bySangatsu Manga.Tokyo Mew Mewwas one of the first manga series released in Spanish in North America by",
"in North America by Public Square Books.Kodansha Comicsreleased an omnibus version of the series, featuring a new translation in September 2011. Anime Pierrot,TV Aichi, Tokyu Agency and We've Inc. adaptedTokyo Mew Mewinto a fifty-two episode anime series, directed by Noriyuki Abe. Broadcast onTXNaffiliates, the series premiered on April 6, 2002, and aired weekly until its conclusion on March 29, 2003.Most of the music for the series was produced by Shin Yoshimura and composed byTakayuki Negishi. Two pieces of theme music were also used for the anime series. \"My Sweet Heart\", performed byRika Komatsu, was the series opening theme. The ending theme \"Koi wa A La Mode\" is performed by the fivevoice actorswho play the Mew Mews. In Japan, the series was released across nineRegion 2DVDvolumes. The ninth volume included a bonus DVD containing extra content.At some point during the TV broadcast, AEON changed its name to We've. Tokyo Mew Mewwas later licensed for an English-language dubbed release by4Kids",
"release by4Kids Entertainment. In its announcement about the series, 4Kids originally noted that the show would be renamed toHollywood Mew Mewand that they would be heavily editing and localizing episodes so that viewers would not recognize its Japanese origins.Subsequent 4Kids press releases about the series referred to the new series asThe Mew Mewsand its original nameTokyo Mew Mew.When the series premiered on4Kids TVon February 19, 2005, it aired under the name asMew Mew Power. Characters and episodes were renamed, scenes were cut and storylines were modified. The music was replaced with a new score provided byBear in the Big Blue HouseandThe Book of Poohcomposer, Julian Harris, and the opening theme was replaced with the song \"Team Up\", performed byBree Sharpand Mollie Weaver.Twenty-six episodes ofMew Mew Poweraired on4Kids TVin the United States because 4Kids was unable to get amerchandisingdeal for the series and the English dub had stopped production.The 4Kids episodes aired onYTVin Canada and on",
"Canada and on thePop Girlsatellitetelevision channelin the United Kingdom; these included three dubbed episodes not broadcast in the United States. AlthoughMew Mew Powerhas not been released tohome videoin North America, ten of the 4Kids episodes have been released toRegion 4DVD in Australia and New Zealand byMagna Pacificand all twenty-six 4Kids episodes were released toRegion 2DVD in South Africa.Mew Mew Powerwas licensed for regional airing in French by Arès Films, which released nine dubbed 4Kids episodes to DVD in February 2006 as a single volume through Warner Home Vidéo France. The French dub aired onTélétoonas part of their Code F block.The company also licensed the remaining twenty-six episodes of the series that 4Kids had not obtained, releasing them in two DVD box sets through AK Vidéo. A new anime adaptation titledTokyo Mew Mew Newwas announced to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary.It was later revealed that the adaptation will be animated byYumeta CompanyandGraphinica, and directed by",
"and directed by Takahiro Natori, with Yuka Yamada handling the series' scripts, Satoshi Ishino designing the characters, andYasuharu Takanashicomposing the music. New cast members were chosen to play the Mew Mews through a public audition held in Q2 2020,and they will also be promoting as anidol groupnamed Smewthie as their characters.The new series premiered on July 6, 2022, on TV Tokyo.Sentai Filmworkshas licensed the series outside of Asia and was streamed onHidive. A second season ofTokyo Mew Mew Newwas announced at the end of the final episode on September 21, 2022. It premiered in April 2023. Video games Two video games based on theTokyo Mew Mewseries were launched in 2002 byTakara. The first,Hamepane Tokyo Mew Mew(はめパネ 東京ミュウミュウ,Hamepane Tōkyō Myū Myū), apuzzleadventure gamefor theGame Boy Advance, was released in Japan on July 11, 2002. The second title,Tōkyō Mew Mew – Enter the New Mew Mew! – Serve Everyone Together(東京ミュウミュウ 登場 新ミュウミュウ！みんないっしょにご奉仕するにゃん,Tōkyō Myū Myū – Tōjō Shin Myū Myū! Minna Issho",
"Myū! Minna Issho ni Gohōshi suru Nyan), was released in Japan on December 5, 2002. It is aPlayStationturn-basedrole-playing video game in which the player controls a new Mew Mew, Ringo Akai(赤井 りんご,Akai Ringo), as well as the original five heroines. They must defend Ringo's island from Quiche, the Chimera Animas and a new alien named Gateau du Roi(ガトー·デュ·ロワ,Gatō dyu Rowa).Both Ringo Akai and Gateau were created by the manga's artist, Mia Ikumi, following design specifications from Takara. The game uses voice actors from the anime series, with the two new characters voiced byTaeko KawataandRyōtarō Okiayu, respectively. Ikumi was pleased with how both characters turned out and expressed a desire to use Ringo as a regular character in a future manga series.Ringo later joined the other Mew Mews in thePetite Mew Mewbonus story in the second volume ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Mode. CDs Multiple music and characterCDshave been released for theTokyo Mew Mew seriesbyKing Records. The first, a CD single, contained the full",
"contained the full andkaraokeversions of \"Koi wa A La Mode\", performed by the fivevoice actorswho played the Mew Mews, and a second song performed bySaki Nakajima, who voices Ichigo. On July 24, 2002, a five-disclimited editioncollector's box set was released containing character songs for each of the Mew Mews, performed by their respective voice actors and aremixof \"Koi wa A La Mode\".The individual character song discs were released as standalone CDs on September 4, 2002.An additional character CD set, containing remixed versions of two songs from each individual album, followed on December 25, 2002.A second character CD for Ichigo, containing five new tracks performed by Nakajima, was released on February 26, 2003. The first full anime soundtrack,Tokyo Mew Mew Original Soundtrackwas released on September 25, 2002, byNEC. The CD included the series opening and ending themes and twenty-seven pieces of series background music.NEC released a secondsoundtrackon January 22, 2003; it contains the opening and",
"the opening and closing themes, along with an additional twenty-nine tracks of background music.On March 26, 2003, two \"best of\" CDs were released for the anime series:Tokyo Mew Mew Super Best Hit – Cafe Mew Mew sideandTokyo Mew Mew Super Best Hit – Tokyo Mew Mew side. Each CD includes ten of the series' \"most popular\" musical pieces. Reception TheTokyo Mew Mewmanga series was well received by English-speaking audiences. In March and April 2003, the first volume sold an estimated 1,597 and 1,746 copies respectively. This put the volume at the low end of the top 50 sales for each month.By 2004, with most of the series released, it became a mild success for licensor Tokyopop.It was ranked 16th on the list of Manga Top 50 for the first quarter of 2004 in theICv2 Retailers Guide to Anime/Manga, based on sales from both mainstream bookstores andcomic bookshops.Sales of the sixth and seventh volumes dropped slightly; however, both were among the top 100 best-selling graphic novels in March and May 2004.The first",
"May 2004.The first volume ofTokyo Mew Mew à la Modedebuted 63rd on the list of top 100 best-selling graphic novels of May 2005, with nearly double the sales figures of the last volume of the main series.On the Nielsen Bookscan charts, the volume debuted at rank 39 before quickly climbing to the 14th spot.The second volume ofà la Modesaw similar success, debuting in the 69th slot before advancing to the 12th position, a result of theMew Mew Powershow appearing on4Kids TV. Tokyo Mew Mewwas generally well received by reviewers, who described it as cute and entertaining.ThoughAnimeFringe'sPatrick King notes that it is not a very intellectual series and that it avoids complex plot points, he lauded it as engrossing \"brain candy\" and an \"endearing action-romance\" that has no \"delusions of grandeur\".Critics praised the artwork in bothTokyo Mew Mewand the sequelTokyo Mew Mew à La Mode. Ikumi's \"free flowing\" style and character designs were seen as a perfect fit for the series.Criticism of Ikumi's art focused on",
"art focused on images which regularly spilled out of panel borders and speech bubbles with ambiguous speakers.Patrick King ofAnimefringestated: \"one of the most attractive aspects of Tokyo Mew Mew is easily Mia Ikumi's ultra-cute artwork. Big eyes, cat ears, fuzzy tails, and short skirts all come together in a cuteness combo that's hard to resist.\"According to Carlo Santos ofAnime News Network, \"Mia Ikumi's artwork is perfectly suited to the story, and it is not even all that wispy and frilly compared to othershōjomaterial. Like many budding manga artist, Ikumi's greatest strength is in carefully posed character portraits, and her prolific use of tones creates unique effects while also sidestepping the challenge of backgrounds.\" Over allTokyo Mew Mew à La Modehad more mixed reviews. Critics praised it for being a modern manga that typifies themagical girlformula, highlighting both its strengths and weaknesses.Mike Dungan, of Mania Entertainment, considered the original series to be \"quite charming\" and felt",
"charming\" and felt thatà la Modewas a good continuation of the series with the \"same fun and excitement\" as its predecessor.Others felt Berry was an overly shallow heroine and that the sequel offered nothing new for readers with the Saint Rose Crusaders' costumes and plans being nothing more than concepts borrowed fromSailor Moon. Janet Crocker, Shannon Fay and Chris Istel ofAnimefringecriticizedà la Modefor having the character Duke, the main villain of the arc, dressed in a white robe similar to those used by the white supremacy group, theKu Klux Klan.Garrity feltà La Modewas a vehicle for referencingTokyo Mew Mewfandom and merchandise and that Berry was a \"transparent wish-fulfillment protagonist\". The anime adaptation has been compared toSailor MoonandYes! PreCure 5due to both having female protagonists, five original team members with signature colors and powers, and similar plot lines, as have many magical girl series.Tokyo Mew Mewreceived high ratings in Japan with extensive merchandizing tie ins and",
"tie ins and marketing events to promote the series.The announcement of 4Kids licensing the anime series drew negative reactions from English-speaking in the U.S. fans, due to 4Kids' practice of removing cultural elements from their English-dubbed adaptations. Several fans would campaign to have the company to release an uncut version of the anime series.Overall viewer reception toMew Mew Powerwould be mixed,but the show would become the block's highest-rated program at the start of the Fall 2005 season.Despite this, the series was never released to DVD in North America.Mew Mew Powerwould be licensed for broadcast in France, Latin America, Australia, New Zealand, Portugal, Brazil, Albania, Serbia, Croatia, Turkey, Greece, South Africa, Denmark, the Netherlands, Bulgaria and Israel. Notes References Further reading External links"
] |
How old was Lucy Lawless when season six of Xena: Warrior Princess first aired? | 32 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Xena:_Warrior_Princess_episodes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Lawless | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Xena:_Warrior_Princess_episodes', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Lawless'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Xena:_Warrior_Princess_episodes",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Lawless"
] | [
"List ofXena: Warrior Princessepisodes Xena: Warrior Princessis an Americantelevision seriesthat was created byRobert Tapertand John Schulian.Xenais ahistorical fantasyset primarily inancient Greece, although it has a flexible time setting and occasionally featuresOriental,EgyptianandMedievalelements. The flexible fantasy framework of the show accommodates a considerable range of theatrical styles, from highmelodramatoslapstickcomedy, from whimsical andmusicalto all-outactionandadventure. While the show is typically set in ancient times, its themes are essentially modern and it investigates the ideas of taking responsibility for past misdeeds, the value of human life, personal liberty and sacrifice, and friendship. The show often addresses ethical dilemmas, such as the morality ofpacifism; however, the storylines rarely seek to provide unequivocal solutions. The character of Xena debuted on March 13, 1995, on the TV seriesHercules: The Legendary Journeys. Three episodes featuring Xena, collectively calledThe Xena Trilogy, initially aired as part of the first season ofHercules: The Legendary Journeys.Xena's own series began on September 4, 1995.The series ran for six seasons and 134 episodes until its final episode aired on June 23, 2001. The series won anEmmy Awardin 2001, and was ranked in #10 in TV Guide's Top 25 Cult TV Shows of All Time. Series overview Episodes Introductory episodes (1995) The program and its namesake character are introduced during the first season ofHercules: The Legendary Journeys. TheHercules: The Legendary Journeysepisodes, \"The Warrior Princess\", \"The Gauntlet\" and \"Unchained Heart\", served aspilot episodesfor the show. Season 1 (1995–96) Season 2 (1996–97) Season 3 (1997–98) Season 4 (1998–99) Season 5 (1999–2000) Season 6 (2000–01) Home media release References External links",
"Lucy Lawless Lucille Frances LawlessMNZM(néeRyan; born 29 March 1968) is a New Zealand actress. She is best known for her roles asXenain the television seriesXena: Warrior Princess, asD'Anna Bierson the re-imaginedBattlestar Galacticaseries, andLucretiain the television seriesSpartacus: Blood and Sandand associated series. Since 2019, she has starred as Alexa in the television seriesMy Life Is Murder. Lawless had recurring roles as Diane Lewis-Swanson on theNBCsitcomParks and Recreation(2012–2014), and asCountess Palatine Ingrid Von Marburgon theWGN Americasupernatural seriesSalem(2015). She also starred as Ruby on theStarzhorror-comedy seriesAsh vs Evil Dead(2015–2018). Early life and education Lucille Frances \"Lucy\" Ryan was born on 29 March 1968in theAucklandsuburb ofMount Albertto teacher Julie Ryan (née Haynes) and Mount Albert's mayor, bankerFrank Ryan.She is the fifth of six siblings (four brothers and one sister). She has described her family as \"this big, sprawlingIrish Catholicfamily\",and while filming in Ireland for theDiscovery Channelin 2004, toldIreland on Sundaythat her father's family originated inQuilty, County Clare, Ireland. Her first musical was at age 10and she began acting in secondary school. She attendedMarist College, Auckland, and began studies atAuckland Universityin languages.At 18, she went on her \"overseas experience\", travelling through Europe and Australia with her future husband, Garth Lawless.At 21, she won the 1989 Mrs New Zealand competition. Lawless has said she suffered frombulimiaas a child, but was able to overcome the illness. Acting career Lawless's television debut was in the New Zealand sketch-comedy series,Funny Business. Then she studied drama at theWilliam Davis Centre for Actors StudyinVancouver, Canada. In 1994, Lawless appeared inHercules and the Amazon Women, that became the television pilot forHercules: The Legendary Journeys. Inthat episode, she played a man-hating Amazon named Lysia. She went on to play another character, Lyla, in the first-season episode \"As Darkness Falls\". Xena: Warrior Princess Lawless received her best-known role as a heroic warrior woman namedXenain the first season ofHercules. She first appeared in the episode \"The Warrior Princess\" which aired in March 1995. R. J. Stewart dramatised the teleplay from a story thatRobert G. \"Rob\" Tapertcommissioned John Schulian to write. The character became a fan favourite.Vanessa Angelwas originally cast in the role, but she fell ill and was unable to travel to New Zealand for shooting. To differentiate between Xena and the similar Lysia, Lawless's hair, previously an ash blonde, was dyed black. She also wore a much darker costume. Lawless returned as Xena in two more episodes of the first season ofHercules, which portrayed her turn from villainess to a good, heroic character. The character was popular enough that aspin-offseries was created:Xena: Warrior Princessdebuted on 4 September 1995.Xena: Warrior Princess, like its parent programme, was a huge hit and achieved high ratings and cultural significance, lasting six seasons. The series brought Lawless an immense amount of attention and she became an international celebrity. While taping an appearance onThe Tonight Show with Jay Lenoin October 1996, Lawless suffered a fractured pelvis when the horse she was riding lost its footing in the studio car park. She made a complete recovery, but several episodes of the second season ofXenawere rewritten to focus on background characters to minimise the time Lawless was needed on set. Other acting work Lawless first appeared onBroadwayin September 1997 in theGreaserevival, as the \"bad girl\" character Betty Rizzo. She wanted to play the lead role of Sandy and later stated her belief that the producers typecast her to play \"bad girls\" following her success as Xena. She said the Sandy character was very similar to her sheltered childhood, growing up in New Zealand with many protective older brothers. From 2005 to 2009, she had a recurring role in the television seriesBattlestar Galactica. Lawless appeared as D'Anna Biers, a reporter with the Fleet News Service who worked on a critical documentary about the crew of theGalacticaand was later revealed to beHumanoid Cylonmodel Number Three. Lawless has also performed as avoice actorin several animated features: In 2008, Lawless voiced the animated character ofDiana Prince/Wonder Womanin the direct-to-video superhero animated filmJustice League: The New Frontier, adapted from theDC Comicslimited series.In 2014, Lawless voiced the militaristic \"Queen of the Ants\" in the American animated television seriesAdventure Timeon theCartoon Network. In 2007, Lawless was to appear as one of the leads in the ensemble cast of theABCtelevision series,Football Wives, based on the popular British seriesFootballers' Wives. The series did not continue past the pilot episode, but the network extended the options on its contracts with Lawless and the other actors slated to star in the series, includingGabrielle Union,Kiele Sanchez,Ving Rhames, andJames Van Der Beek. Lawless returned to television on 10 November 2008 in a guest-starring role on theCBStelevision seriesCSI: Miami, in a Season 7 episode, \"Cheating Death\", playing a madam with connections to a murder and helpingHoratio \"H\" Cainewith his inquiries. In 2009, Lawless appeared in two episodes of the final season ofThe L Wordas Sergeant Marybeth Duffy.She played a role in theAdam SandlermovieBedtime Storiesreleased December 2008.Also in 2008, Lawless appeared with her formerXenastuntwomanZoë BellinSony(Crackle)'s new web seriesAngel of Death, written byEd Brubaker, which debuted online in early 2009.In 2009, Lawless guest-starred in theHBOseriesFlight of the Conchordsas Paula, assistant to thePrime Minister of New Zealand. Lawless co-starred in theStarzoriginal seriesSpartacus: Blood and Sand.The show was based on the life ofSpartacus, the famous gladiator, and the slave revolt he led, and was produced by long-timeXenaproducersSam Raimiand\"Rob\" Tapert, her own husband. Lawless played the role ofLucretia, the wife ofLentulus Batiatus, who were both the owners of a gladiatorludus, which also saw Lawless doingnude scenesfor the first time. Lawless won the 2011Saturn Awardas Best Supporting Actress for her role as Lucretia inSpartacus: Blood and Sand. Lawless reprised her role as Lucretia inSpartacus: Gods of the Arena, which chronicled life in the Ludus before Spartacus's arrival, and she also returned for the sequelSpartacus: Vengeance. Lawless provided the voice ofGoldmoonforDragonlance: Dragons of Autumn Twilight, a direct-to-DVD animated movie based on thenovelof the same name. From 2012 to 2014, she had a recurring role on the NBC seriesParks and Recreationas Diane, the love interest and eventual wife ofRon Swanson. In 2014, Lawless guest-starred inAgents of S.H.I.E.L.D.asIsabelle Hartleyin theseason two premiere,and reprised the role later in episode 15 of season two, \"One Door Closes\".In 2015, Lawless landed the recurring guest role ofCountess Palatine Ingrid Von MarburginWGN America'sSalem. Countess Marburg is presented as one of the last remaining survivors of the legendary line of ancient German witches. The series ended in 2017.In March 2015, it was announced that she would be portraying the role of Ruby inStarzhorror-comedy seriesAsh vs Evil Dead. The series ended in 2018. In 2019, Lawless began playing Alexa Crowe, a private investigator inMy Life Is Murder. TheAcorn TVseries began in 2019 and reached its third season in 2022. Filmmaking In 2023, Lawless co-wrote and directedNever Look Away, a film based on the life of New Zealand-bornCNNphotojournalist and camerawomanMargaret Moth. The film had its world premiere in the World Cinema Documentary Competition section of the 40thSundance Film FestivalinPark CityandSalt Lake City,Utah, in January 2024,and has gone on to feature at several other film festivals in 2024. Music Lawless, who has a background in musical theatre, played Betty Rizzo on Broadway in a production ofGreasein 1997.She continued to sing during the run ofXena, even contributing dirge music of her own composition; this made it into the episode \"The Path Not Taken\" as the dirge \"Burial\", which she sang for the first time in the episode. Two musically-oriented episodes, \"The Bitter Suite\" and \"Lyre, Lyre, Heart's on Fire\", also showcased not only her singing but also that of some of her castmates. (See alsoList ofXena: Warrior Princessepisodesfor details.) Lawless was encouraged to resume her singing career after being a contestant onCelebrity Duets, which she finished as runner-up toAlfonso Ribeiro.She made her solo debut at theRoxyin Hollywood, a venue of 500 seats, on 13 January 2007, with a sold-out crowd for consecutive concerts. LGBT rights icon Xena's ambiguous romantic relationship with travelling companionGabrielle(Renee O'Connor)led to Lawless becoming a lesbian icon, a role of which she has said she is proud.She has said that during the years she was playing the role, she had been undecided on the nature of the relationship,but in a 2003 interview withLesbian Newsmagazine, she said that after viewing the series finale, she had come to see Xena and Gabrielle's relationship as definitely gay, adding \"they're married, man\".This reputation became cemented after her \"graphic lesbian sex scenes\" inSpartacus: Gods of the Arena.She has appeared atgay prideevents such as theSydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras. For her support ofLGBT rights, including her public support for same-sex marriage,Lawless was given the Star 100–Ally of the Year award at the Australian LGBTI Awards ceremony in 2017. Other activities Lawless is a member of the board of trustees of the StarShip Foundation, the charity arm of theStarship Children's Healthwhich is part of the Auckland District Health Board.It is set up to provide additional equipment, support and help to staff, patients and families.She helps fundraising for the organisation. She recentlysat for the New Zealand television seriesThe Sitting,an arts series where celebrity portraits are produced during an interview session, with the portraits later auctioned for charity. Since 2006, 21 September marks \"Lucy Lawless Feel the Love Day/Week\". The day, organised by the Official Lucy Lawless Fan Club, begins a week of charitable acts and donations by fans in honour and support of Lawless. In May 2009 Lawless became a \"climate ambassador\" for theGreenpeace\"Sign On\" campaign. In February 2012, she and six other Greenpeace activists boarded an oil drilling ship atPort Taranaki, and remained on it for 77 hours to stop it leaving for theArcticwhere it was going to take part inoil exploration.She was subsequently arrested and charged with burglary, which carried an imprisonment term of up to 10 years if convicted.She pleaded guilty on 14 June 2012 to trespass charges regarding the February incident. Lawless said she intended for now to remain involved with Greenpeace.In February 2013, Lawless and the other six activists were each sentenced to pay a fine of NZ$651 and undertake 120 hours ofcommunity service. The judge denied the NZ$545,000 in reparations thatShell Todd Oil Serviceshad sought from the activists. Following the sentencing, Lawless said: \"I consider it a great victory that the court has struck down the reparation demand from Shell, which I think was absolutely ludicrous.\" Personal life In 1988, she became pregnant from her boyfriend Garth Lawless while working with him in the Australianoutback. They married inKalgoorlie, Western Australia, that year, then returned to New Zealand where their daughter was born. They divorced in 1995. On 28 March 1998, Lawless marriedXena'sexecutive producer, Pacific Renaissance Pictures CEORobert TapertatSt. Monica Catholic ChurchinSanta Monica, California.They have two sons. Recognition and awards In the2004 Queen's Birthday Honours, Lawless was appointed aMember of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to entertainment and the community. AstronomerMichael E. Brownnicknamed his newly discovereddwarf planet\"Xena\";its then-provisional designation being2003 UB313. When this object was initially determined to be larger thanPluto, it gained international attention and forced a year-long debate among astronomers as to thedefinition of a planet. (Observations made byNew Horizonssubsequently found Pluto to be marginally larger than the object, which was ultimately namedEris.) The object's nickname \"Xena\" was used in the press.New Scientistmagazine polled the public on their preferred final name for the so-called tenth planet; \"Xena\" ranked number 4.Lawless called Brown in December 2005 to thank him for his \"senseless act of beauty\", and claimed that she \"never dared hope would stick\".Eventually, both it and Pluto were deemed not to be true planets, and were instead classified as dwarf planets. Although \"Xena\" is now officially known as Eris, Brown made an indirect tribute to Lawless by naming Eris's moonDysnomiaafterthe Greek goddess of lawlessness. Awards and nominations Filmography Film Television Video games Stage Discography References External links"
] | [
"List ofXena: Warrior Princessepisodes Xena: Warrior Princessis an Americantelevision seriesthat was created byRobert Tapertand John Schulian.Xenais ahistorical fantasyset primarily inancient Greece, although it has a flexible time setting and occasionally featuresOriental,EgyptianandMedievalelements. The flexible fantasy framework of the show accommodates a considerable range of theatrical styles, from highmelodramatoslapstickcomedy, from whimsical andmusicalto all-outactionandadventure. While the show is typically set in ancient times, its themes are essentially modern and it investigates the ideas of taking responsibility for past misdeeds, the value of human life, personal liberty and sacrifice, and friendship. The show often addresses ethical dilemmas, such as the morality ofpacifism; however, the storylines rarely seek to provide unequivocal solutions. The character of Xena debuted on March 13, 1995, on the TV seriesHercules: The Legendary Journeys. Three episodes featuring Xena, collectively calledThe",
"calledThe Xena Trilogy, initially aired as part of the first season ofHercules: The Legendary Journeys.Xena's own series began on September 4, 1995.The series ran for six seasons and 134 episodes until its final episode aired on June 23, 2001. The series won anEmmy Awardin 2001, and was ranked in #10 in TV Guide's Top 25 Cult TV Shows of All Time. Series overview Episodes Introductory episodes (1995) The program and its namesake character are introduced during the first season ofHercules: The Legendary Journeys. TheHercules: The Legendary Journeysepisodes, \"The Warrior Princess\", \"The Gauntlet\" and \"Unchained Heart\", served aspilot episodesfor the show. Season 1 (1995–96) Season 2 (1996–97) Season 3 (1997–98) Season 4 (1998–99) Season 5 (1999–2000) Season 6 (2000–01) Home media release References External links",
"Lucy Lawless Lucille Frances LawlessMNZM(néeRyan; born 29 March 1968) is a New Zealand actress. She is best known for her roles asXenain the television seriesXena: Warrior Princess, asD'Anna Bierson the re-imaginedBattlestar Galacticaseries, andLucretiain the television seriesSpartacus: Blood and Sandand associated series. Since 2019, she has starred as Alexa in the television seriesMy Life Is Murder. Lawless had recurring roles as Diane Lewis-Swanson on theNBCsitcomParks and Recreation(2012–2014), and asCountess Palatine Ingrid Von Marburgon theWGN Americasupernatural seriesSalem(2015). She also starred as Ruby on theStarzhorror-comedy seriesAsh vs Evil Dead(2015–2018). Early life and education Lucille Frances \"Lucy\" Ryan was born on 29 March 1968in theAucklandsuburb ofMount Albertto teacher Julie Ryan (née Haynes) and Mount Albert's mayor, bankerFrank Ryan.She is the fifth of six siblings (four brothers and one sister). She has described her family as \"this big, sprawlingIrish Catholicfamily\",and while",
"while filming in Ireland for theDiscovery Channelin 2004, toldIreland on Sundaythat her father's family originated inQuilty, County Clare, Ireland. Her first musical was at age 10and she began acting in secondary school. She attendedMarist College, Auckland, and began studies atAuckland Universityin languages.At 18, she went on her \"overseas experience\", travelling through Europe and Australia with her future husband, Garth Lawless.At 21, she won the 1989 Mrs New Zealand competition. Lawless has said she suffered frombulimiaas a child, but was able to overcome the illness. Acting career Lawless's television debut was in the New Zealand sketch-comedy series,Funny Business. Then she studied drama at theWilliam Davis Centre for Actors StudyinVancouver, Canada. In 1994, Lawless appeared inHercules and the Amazon Women, that became the television pilot forHercules: The Legendary Journeys. Inthat episode, she played a man-hating Amazon named Lysia. She went on to play another character, Lyla, in the first-season",
"in the first-season episode \"As Darkness Falls\". Xena: Warrior Princess Lawless received her best-known role as a heroic warrior woman namedXenain the first season ofHercules. She first appeared in the episode \"The Warrior Princess\" which aired in March 1995. R. J. Stewart dramatised the teleplay from a story thatRobert G. \"Rob\" Tapertcommissioned John Schulian to write. The character became a fan favourite.Vanessa Angelwas originally cast in the role, but she fell ill and was unable to travel to New Zealand for shooting. To differentiate between Xena and the similar Lysia, Lawless's hair, previously an ash blonde, was dyed black. She also wore a much darker costume. Lawless returned as Xena in two more episodes of the first season ofHercules, which portrayed her turn from villainess to a good, heroic character. The character was popular enough that aspin-offseries was created:Xena: Warrior Princessdebuted on 4 September 1995.Xena: Warrior Princess, like its parent programme, was a huge hit and achieved high",
"and achieved high ratings and cultural significance, lasting six seasons. The series brought Lawless an immense amount of attention and she became an international celebrity. While taping an appearance onThe Tonight Show with Jay Lenoin October 1996, Lawless suffered a fractured pelvis when the horse she was riding lost its footing in the studio car park. She made a complete recovery, but several episodes of the second season ofXenawere rewritten to focus on background characters to minimise the time Lawless was needed on set. Other acting work Lawless first appeared onBroadwayin September 1997 in theGreaserevival, as the \"bad girl\" character Betty Rizzo. She wanted to play the lead role of Sandy and later stated her belief that the producers typecast her to play \"bad girls\" following her success as Xena. She said the Sandy character was very similar to her sheltered childhood, growing up in New Zealand with many protective older brothers. From 2005 to 2009, she had a recurring role in the television",
"in the television seriesBattlestar Galactica. Lawless appeared as D'Anna Biers, a reporter with the Fleet News Service who worked on a critical documentary about the crew of theGalacticaand was later revealed to beHumanoid Cylonmodel Number Three. Lawless has also performed as avoice actorin several animated features: In 2008, Lawless voiced the animated character ofDiana Prince/Wonder Womanin the direct-to-video superhero animated filmJustice League: The New Frontier, adapted from theDC Comicslimited series.In 2014, Lawless voiced the militaristic \"Queen of the Ants\" in the American animated television seriesAdventure Timeon theCartoon Network. In 2007, Lawless was to appear as one of the leads in the ensemble cast of theABCtelevision series,Football Wives, based on the popular British seriesFootballers' Wives. The series did not continue past the pilot episode, but the network extended the options on its contracts with Lawless and the other actors slated to star in the series, includingGabrielle",
"includingGabrielle Union,Kiele Sanchez,Ving Rhames, andJames Van Der Beek. Lawless returned to television on 10 November 2008 in a guest-starring role on theCBStelevision seriesCSI: Miami, in a Season 7 episode, \"Cheating Death\", playing a madam with connections to a murder and helpingHoratio \"H\" Cainewith his inquiries. In 2009, Lawless appeared in two episodes of the final season ofThe L Wordas Sergeant Marybeth Duffy.She played a role in theAdam SandlermovieBedtime Storiesreleased December 2008.Also in 2008, Lawless appeared with her formerXenastuntwomanZoë BellinSony(Crackle)'s new web seriesAngel of Death, written byEd Brubaker, which debuted online in early 2009.In 2009, Lawless guest-starred in theHBOseriesFlight of the Conchordsas Paula, assistant to thePrime Minister of New Zealand. Lawless co-starred in theStarzoriginal seriesSpartacus: Blood and Sand.The show was based on the life ofSpartacus, the famous gladiator, and the slave revolt he led, and was produced by long-timeXenaproducersSam",
"Raimiand\"Rob\" Tapert, her own husband. Lawless played the role ofLucretia, the wife ofLentulus Batiatus, who were both the owners of a gladiatorludus, which also saw Lawless doingnude scenesfor the first time. Lawless won the 2011Saturn Awardas Best Supporting Actress for her role as Lucretia inSpartacus: Blood and Sand. Lawless reprised her role as Lucretia inSpartacus: Gods of the Arena, which chronicled life in the Ludus before Spartacus's arrival, and she also returned for the sequelSpartacus: Vengeance. Lawless provided the voice ofGoldmoonforDragonlance: Dragons of Autumn Twilight, a direct-to-DVD animated movie based on thenovelof the same name. From 2012 to 2014, she had a recurring role on the NBC seriesParks and Recreationas Diane, the love interest and eventual wife ofRon Swanson. In 2014, Lawless guest-starred inAgents of S.H.I.E.L.D.asIsabelle Hartleyin theseason two premiere,and reprised the role later in episode 15 of season two, \"One Door Closes\".In 2015, Lawless landed the recurring guest",
"the recurring guest role ofCountess Palatine Ingrid Von MarburginWGN America'sSalem. Countess Marburg is presented as one of the last remaining survivors of the legendary line of ancient German witches. The series ended in 2017.In March 2015, it was announced that she would be portraying the role of Ruby inStarzhorror-comedy seriesAsh vs Evil Dead. The series ended in 2018. In 2019, Lawless began playing Alexa Crowe, a private investigator inMy Life Is Murder. TheAcorn TVseries began in 2019 and reached its third season in 2022. Filmmaking In 2023, Lawless co-wrote and directedNever Look Away, a film based on the life of New Zealand-bornCNNphotojournalist and camerawomanMargaret Moth. The film had its world premiere in the World Cinema Documentary Competition section of the 40thSundance Film FestivalinPark CityandSalt Lake City,Utah, in January 2024,and has gone on to feature at several other film festivals in 2024. Music Lawless, who has a background in musical theatre, played Betty Rizzo on Broadway in a",
"on Broadway in a production ofGreasein 1997.She continued to sing during the run ofXena, even contributing dirge music of her own composition; this made it into the episode \"The Path Not Taken\" as the dirge \"Burial\", which she sang for the first time in the episode. Two musically-oriented episodes, \"The Bitter Suite\" and \"Lyre, Lyre, Heart's on Fire\", also showcased not only her singing but also that of some of her castmates. (See alsoList ofXena: Warrior Princessepisodesfor details.) Lawless was encouraged to resume her singing career after being a contestant onCelebrity Duets, which she finished as runner-up toAlfonso Ribeiro.She made her solo debut at theRoxyin Hollywood, a venue of 500 seats, on 13 January 2007, with a sold-out crowd for consecutive concerts. LGBT rights icon Xena's ambiguous romantic relationship with travelling companionGabrielle(Renee O'Connor)led to Lawless becoming a lesbian icon, a role of which she has said she is proud.She has said that during the years she was playing the role,",
"playing the role, she had been undecided on the nature of the relationship,but in a 2003 interview withLesbian Newsmagazine, she said that after viewing the series finale, she had come to see Xena and Gabrielle's relationship as definitely gay, adding \"they're married, man\".This reputation became cemented after her \"graphic lesbian sex scenes\" inSpartacus: Gods of the Arena.She has appeared atgay prideevents such as theSydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras. For her support ofLGBT rights, including her public support for same-sex marriage,Lawless was given the Star 100–Ally of the Year award at the Australian LGBTI Awards ceremony in 2017. Other activities Lawless is a member of the board of trustees of the StarShip Foundation, the charity arm of theStarship Children's Healthwhich is part of the Auckland District Health Board.It is set up to provide additional equipment, support and help to staff, patients and families.She helps fundraising for the organisation. She recentlysat for the New Zealand television",
"Zealand television seriesThe Sitting,an arts series where celebrity portraits are produced during an interview session, with the portraits later auctioned for charity. Since 2006, 21 September marks \"Lucy Lawless Feel the Love Day/Week\". The day, organised by the Official Lucy Lawless Fan Club, begins a week of charitable acts and donations by fans in honour and support of Lawless. In May 2009 Lawless became a \"climate ambassador\" for theGreenpeace\"Sign On\" campaign. In February 2012, she and six other Greenpeace activists boarded an oil drilling ship atPort Taranaki, and remained on it for 77 hours to stop it leaving for theArcticwhere it was going to take part inoil exploration.She was subsequently arrested and charged with burglary, which carried an imprisonment term of up to 10 years if convicted.She pleaded guilty on 14 June 2012 to trespass charges regarding the February incident. Lawless said she intended for now to remain involved with Greenpeace.In February 2013, Lawless and the other six activists",
"other six activists were each sentenced to pay a fine of NZ$651 and undertake 120 hours ofcommunity service. The judge denied the NZ$545,000 in reparations thatShell Todd Oil Serviceshad sought from the activists. Following the sentencing, Lawless said: \"I consider it a great victory that the court has struck down the reparation demand from Shell, which I think was absolutely ludicrous.\" Personal life In 1988, she became pregnant from her boyfriend Garth Lawless while working with him in the Australianoutback. They married inKalgoorlie, Western Australia, that year, then returned to New Zealand where their daughter was born. They divorced in 1995. On 28 March 1998, Lawless marriedXena'sexecutive producer, Pacific Renaissance Pictures CEORobert TapertatSt. Monica Catholic ChurchinSanta Monica, California.They have two sons. Recognition and awards In the2004 Queen's Birthday Honours, Lawless was appointed aMember of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to entertainment and the community.",
"and the community. AstronomerMichael E. Brownnicknamed his newly discovereddwarf planet\"Xena\";its then-provisional designation being2003 UB313. When this object was initially determined to be larger thanPluto, it gained international attention and forced a year-long debate among astronomers as to thedefinition of a planet. (Observations made byNew Horizonssubsequently found Pluto to be marginally larger than the object, which was ultimately namedEris.) The object's nickname \"Xena\" was used in the press.New Scientistmagazine polled the public on their preferred final name for the so-called tenth planet; \"Xena\" ranked number 4.Lawless called Brown in December 2005 to thank him for his \"senseless act of beauty\", and claimed that she \"never dared hope would stick\".Eventually, both it and Pluto were deemed not to be true planets, and were instead classified as dwarf planets. Although \"Xena\" is now officially known as Eris, Brown made an indirect tribute to Lawless by naming Eris's moonDysnomiaafterthe Greek",
"Greek goddess of lawlessness. Awards and nominations Filmography Film Television Video games Stage Discography References External links"
] |
I'm trying to show my daughter some of the movies I grew up with. There's one a really want to show her but I can't remember the name of it. I remember that the male lead also played Fred in a live action Scooby Doo movie and the main girl was in this crazy anti-drug commercial in the 90s where she used a pan to destroy a bunch of things in a kitchen and said "This is your brain on drugs...". The movie is about a guy who makes a bet with his friend that he can turn an unpopular girl into prom queen. Can you tell me the name of the film? | *She's All That* | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooby-Doo_(film) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie_Prinze_Jr. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Drugs | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachael_Leigh_Cook | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_All_That | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooby-Doo_(film)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie_Prinze_Jr.', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Drugs', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachael_Leigh_Cook', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_All_That'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooby-Doo_(film",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie_Prinze_Jr.",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Drugs",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachael_Leigh_Cook",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She%27s_All_That"
] | [
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooby-Doo_(film",
"Freddie Prinze Jr. Freddie James Prinze Jr.(born March 8, 1976)is an American actor. He has starred in films such asI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and itssequel(1998),She's All That(1999),Down to You,Boys and Girls(both 2000),Summer Catch(2001),Scooby-Doo(2002), andScooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed(2004). Alongside recurring roles onBoston Legal(2004) and24(2010), Prinze starred on the self-titledABCsitcomFreddie(2005–2006)—which he co-created and executive produced—and voicedKanan Jarrusin theDisney XDseriesStar Wars Rebels(2014–2018). He is the only child of actor and comedianFreddie Prinze. Early life Freddie James Prinze Jr. was born in Los Angeles on March 8, 1976, the only child of Katherine Elaine Prinze (néeCochran) and actor andstand-up comedianFreddie Prinze. On January 29, 1977, Freddie Prinze died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound, after which Prinze Jr. relocated with his mother toAlbuquerque, New Mexico.Prinze was raised Catholic.His paternal grandmother was from Puerto Ricoand he is fluent in Spanish.Prinze had \"enjoyed acting in school productions\" as a child and participated in Albuquerque Children's Theatre, though he originally planned to become a civil engineer before getting roles onFamily MattersandThe Watcher.Soon after that he sawNeil Patrick Harrisat his high school getting kids excited about getting into acting, and he decided to do that.After graduating fromLa Cueva High Schoolin 1994, Prinze moved to Los Angeles to audition for television roles. Career Television and film Prinze was cast in a guest role on the ABC TV seriesFamily Mattersin 1995. He then appeared in a few programs and made-for-TV movies, before making his motion picture debut inTo Gillian on Her 37th Birthdayin 1996. In subsequent years, Prinze appeared in youth-oriented moviesI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and its sequelI Still Know What You Did Last Summer(1998), made him known to teenage audiences. His first leading role, the romantic comedyShe's All That(1999), grossed $63 million in the United States. Subsequently, he had leading roles inWing Commander(1999),Down to You(2000),Boys and Girls(2000),Head over Heels(2001), andSummer Catch(2001), most of which were disliked by criticsand had moderate box office success. He playedFred Jonesin the 2002live-action film versionof the popular cartoonScooby-Doo, and reprised the role in the 2004 sequel,Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed, both alongside his wifeSarah Michelle Gellarand along withMatthew LillardandLinda Cardellini. He guest starred on the popular NBC showFriendsas a sensitive male nanny named Sandy on the series' 200th episode. He took the role of Sandy afterTom Hankscould not do it due to scheduling.He also appeared asDonny Crane, a character believed to beDenny Crane's son in the ABC legal drama-comedyBoston Legal. Prinze starred in his own televisionsitcom, titledFreddie. The sitcom is said to depict some actual events from his life, and was cancelled after one season in May 2006. He guest starred onGeorge Lopezfor a crossover withFreddie. In 2004, Prinze accepted a special award fromTV Landon behalf of his late father. He thanked his father's former co-starDella Reesefor her continued advice and support. In 2006, he lent his voice to the character of Pi in the animated filmShark Bait. Also in 2007, he lent his voice to the character of Rick inHappily N'Ever Afteralong with his wife Gellar,Wallace Shawn,Andy Dick,George Carlin, andSigourney Weaver. In 2008, he auditioned forJigsawinPunisher: War Zone, but was not given the part at the decision ofLionsgate Studios. He later was the voice of the titular character in the animated movieDelgo.In 2010, Prinze guest starred onPsychas Dennis, a grade school friend ofShawn SpencerandBurton Guster. In March 2019, Prinze was cast asNancy Drew's father, Carson Drew, inThe CWmysterypilotNancy Drew, but was later replaced byScott Wolf.He also voiced the future version of Tim and Jim Possible in theKim PossiblemovieKim Possible: A Sitch in Time. In March 2009, it was announced that Prinze had signed on to star as Bradley, aka Ultimatum, in the ABC showNo Heroics, a U.S. remake of theBritish show of the same name.The show was not picked up, but Prinze was cast as a series regular forthe eighth seasonof the television show24; he playedCole Ortiz, a newCTUoperative. In 2021, Prinze joined therebootofPunky BrewsteronPeacock, playing the title character's ex-husband. Other work He voiced a pilot in aVatta's War: Trading in Dangergraphic audio book. Prinze voiced different characters inBioWarevideo games:LieutenantJames VegainMass Effect 3andThe Iron BullinDragon Age: Inquisition.He returned to the role of James Vega again for the animated feature filmMass Effect: Paragon Lost, dubbed byFUNimation. From 2014 until 2018, he was the voice of Kanan Jarrus, one of the last survivingJedi Knights, on theDisney XDseriesStar Wars Rebels.He reprised the role for the opening scene of the pilot episode of theDisney+seriesThe Bad Batchin May 2021.In March, 2023, he launched a new podcast,That Was Pretty Scary, with cohost Jon Lee Brody. Professional wrestling Work with WWE (2008–2009, 2010–2012) Prinze is aWWEfan and was seen on television in attendance at the March 2008WrestleMania XXIVpay-per-viewand its precedingHall of Fameceremony. He also made acameoon an episode ofThe Dirt Sheet, an online program hosted by wrestlersJohn Morrison and The Miz.He had created an official profile on WWE's \"Universe\" blog community where he would regularly write his thoughts about the current goings-on in the world of the WWE. His relationship with the company was furthered when he was hired as a member of the creative staff to contribute to weekly television and pay-per-view programming for theSmackDownbrand.It was reported on February 22, 2009 that Prinze and WWE had parted ways, but in January 2021, Prinze explained that he had actually chosen to leave the company at that time. On August 17, 2009, Prinze appeared onRawas aspecial guest host, where he was assaulted by thenWWE ChampionRandy Ortonafter refusing to bail Orton out of histag team matchwithJohn Cena, who was due to challenge him in the upcomingSummerSlam.Prinze later returned to the program and got his payback during Orton's match with Cena againstBig ShowandChris Jericho, by setting up alumberjack matchinvolvingMark Henry,Primo,Evan Bourne,Kofi Kingston,MVP, andJamie Noble. Prinze returned to WWE on October 1, 2010 in a role as a producer and director.On the November 1, 2010 episode ofMonday Night Raw, Prinze made an on-screen appearance asVince McMahon's doctor, adream sequencescene that coincided withLinda McMahon's attempt to win a seat in the Senate for the state of Connecticut.Prinze left WWE for a second time due to a comment made byStone Cold Steve Austinto a contestant while taping an episode of the fifth season ofWWE Tough Enough. Podcast (since 2021) In November 2021, Prinze started his own podcastWrestling With Freddiewith cohostJeff Dye. Premier Streaming Network In April 2023, Freddie Prinze Jr. joined the ownership team of Premier Streaming Network, a streaming platform focused on wrestling, sports, and entertainment content. MyFandom Sports App In June 2024, Freddie Prinze Jr. was announced as part of the ownership team behind MyFandom, an iOS app co-founded by brothers Fred and Josh Shernoff. MyFandom allows sports fans to contribute personal media to a collective archive of sporting events, creating a user-generated historical record while enabling individuals to curate their own attendance history. Personal life Prinze dated actressKimberly McCulloughfrom 1996 until 1999. He married actressSarah Michelle Gellaron September 1, 2002, inPuerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico. The couple met several years before, while filmingI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997),started dating in 2000 and were engaged in April 2001. They co-starred inScooby-Doo(2002),Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed(2004),Happily N'Ever After(2006), andStar Wars Rebels(2014–2018). Gellar made a non-speaking cameo in Prinze's filmShe's All That(1999). They have two children together: a daughter born September 2009, and a son born September 2012,and live in Los Angeles. Prinze is an avid practitioner ofBrazilian jiu-jitsuand has reached the rank of purple belt in the sport, having been promoted under Jean Jacques Machado. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Podcasts Awards and nominations See also References External links",
"This Is Your Brain on Drugs This Is Your Brain on Drugswas a large-scaleUSanti-narcoticscampaign byPartnership for a Drug-Free America(PDFA) launched in 1987, that used three televisedpublic service announcements(PSAs) and a related poster campaign. 1987 version The 30-second version of the first PSA, from 1987, shows a man (played byJohn Roselius) in a kitchen who asks if there is anyone out there who still does not understand the dangers of drug abuse. He holds up an egg and says, \"This is your brain,\" before motioning to afrying panand adding, \"This is drugs.\" He then cracks open the egg, fries the contents, and says, \"This is your brain on drugs.\" Finally, he looks up at the camera and asks, \"Any questions?\" In contrast, the 10-second and 15-second versions simply show a close-up of an egg dropping into a frying pan. This is accompanied by a voice-over saying in the 15-second version: \"Okay, last time. This is drugs. This is your brain on drugs. Any questions?\" The 10-second version omits the first sentence. The PSA, titled \"Frying Pan\" (a.k.a. \"Fried Egg\" and \"Any Questions?\"), was conceived by art directors Scot Fletcher and Rick Bell, copywriter Larre Johnson and creative director Paul Keye atLos Angeles-based agency keye/donna/pearlstein. It was directed byJoe Pytkathrough his ownVenice-based production company Pytka Productions and produced by agency producer Harvey Greenberg, Pytka executive producer Jane McCann and Pytka producer John Turney.Anthony Marinelliscored the shorter versions. 1997 version The second PSA, from 1997,featured 18-year-old actressRachael Leigh Cook, who, as before, holds up an egg and says, \"this is your brain\", before lifting up a frying pan with the words, \"and this isheroin\", after which she places the egg on a kitchen counter—\"this is what happens to your brain after snorting heroin\"—and slams the pan down on it. She lifts the pan back up, saying, \"and this is what your body goes through\", in reference to the remnants of the smashed egg now dripping from the bottom of the pan and down her arm. Cook then says, \"Wait, It's not over yet\", and proceeds to smash everything in the kitchen with the frying pan in a rage, yelling \"this is what your family goes through! And your friends! And your money! And your job! And your self-respect! And your future!\" She ends with \"And your life\". Cook then drops the pan on the counter and says, \"Any questions?\" This PSA, likewise titled \"Frying Pan\", was conceived by art director Doug Hill, copywriter Ken Cills and creative director Graham Turner atNew York-based agency Margeotes/Fertitta & Partners. It was directed by Eden Tyler through New York-based production company Zooma Zooma, produced by agency producer Ed Kleban and Zooma Zooma producer Joseph Mantegna and edited byJay NelsonatSanta Monica-based Avenue Edit. 2016 version The third PSA, from 2016, is a loose remake which shows an egg in a human hand, stating \"This is your brain\", alongside a frying pan that the other hand is pointing to, stating, \"This is drugs.\" The egg is then cracked and fried into the pan, with the narration, \"This is your brain on drugs. Any questions?\" This is followed by scenes of teens, some of whom state, \"Um, yeah, I have questions\", \"Prescription drugs aren't as bad as street drugs, right?\", \"Weed's legal, isn't it?\", \"Drinking is worse than smoking weed. Isn't it?\", \"Why is heroin so addictive?\", \"Molly just makes you feel happy\", \"I have questions\", \"Mom, Dad, did you ever try drugs?\" The narrator returns to say, \"They're going to ask. Be ready.\" 2017 War on Drugs Critique version In 2017, Rachael Leigh Cook used imagery from the This is Your Brain on Drugs commercials in a PSA by theDrug Policy Alliance. The PSA critiqued thewar on drugsand its contribution to mass incarceration,structural racismand poverty. The ad was posted toYouTubeon April 20, 2017 in recognition of4/20. Analysis TV Guidenamed the commercial one of the top one hundred television advertisements of all time,andEntertainment Weeklynamed it the 8th best commercial of all time. Impact Consumerism A poster produced in the early 1990s called \"Famous Brains on Drugs\" parodied the concept by having eggs appear in the frying pan in forms intended to remind the viewer of certain people. For instance, a pan labeled \"Saddam Hussein\" had an egg with acrosshairover it, and a pan labeled \"Milli Vanilli\" contained a box of imitation eggs.There have also been parody T-shirts, such as versions based onThe Simpsons(\"This is your brain on donuts\", showing an X-ray ofHomer Simpson's head) and theYankees–Red Sox rivalry(shirts targeted to both allegiances of the famed rivalry), among others. In media This Is Your Brain on Drugs has been widely parodied in various forms, including aSaturday Night Liveskit which parodied the PSA, adding \"with a side of bacon\" to the commercial's tagline. Television In an episode of the sitcomRoseanne, the title character reenacts the PSA while having a conversation with one of her children about drugs. In Living Colorparodied the PSA withOprah Winfrey, played byKim Wayans. In the eighteenth episode of the fourth season of the sitcomMarried... with Children, \"What Goes Around Comes Around\" (1990), the characterAl Bundytakes an egg, says \"This is your brain,\" then says \"This is your brain on marriage,\" drops it on the ground, and asks, \"Any questions?\" An episode of the teen seriesBeverly Hills, 90210ends with the charactersBrandonandBrenda Walshacting out the PSA with their friends in their favorite diner. After the show, the actual 30-second commercial aired, andJason Priestleydelivered his own anti-drug message on the air. PBS Kidsdid a parody of the famous PSA as well, in a short titled \"This is your brain on books\", in which a gold egg falls on a frying pan with books on it, then falls into a human brain, in which he thinks about composing, computing, and creating, ending it all with \"Any questions?\". The second version was satirized in the series premiere of the animated television sketch showRobot Chicken, \"Junk in the Trunk\" (2005). Rachael Leigh Cook (who provided thevoice acting) goes on a psychopathic rampage, destroying everything she encounters, ending eventually with her smashing herself in the head and falling down a building. In the tenth episode of the second season of the TV seriesBreaking Bad, \"Over\" (2009), the characterJesse Pinkmanreferences the commercial, frying one egg and accompanying it with \"this is your brain\", while adding another egg and accompanying it with \"this is your brain on drugs\". In the sixteenth episode of the ABC sitcomThe Goldbergs, \"Muscles Mirsky\", references the PSA while Beverly is making breakfast. To promote season 2 ofRiverdaleon Netflix,Camila Mendes, who plays Veronica Lodge, re-stages the 1997 version PSA, which featured actor Rachael Leigh Cook. The promotion is shot-for-shot, except that a burger is used in place of an egg, and instead of talking about heroin, she talks about Jingle Jangle. Films In the filmBatman Forever(1995), the character theRiddlerparodies the commercial saying, \"This is your brain on the box. This is my brain on the box. Does anybody else feel like a fried egg?!\" The 1991 film sequelFreddy's Dead: The Final Nightmarespoofed the PSA by havingJohnny Depp(whose acting career began with the originalA Nightmare on Elm Streetmovie) perform the skit. The PSA goes on as normal untilRobert Englund(who playsFreddy Krueger) hits Depp with the frying pan and says, \"Yeah! What areyouon? Looks like a frying pan and some eggs to me.\" Music The cover ofPrimus' 1990 albumFrizzle Fryshowed a sculpture of a brain melting in a frying pan and was meant to be a play on the commercial. Englishvirtual bandGorillazused the PSA in the music video for their 2017 single \"Sleeping Powder\". The teaser for the 2019 \"No Drug Like Me\" music video byCarly Rae Jepsenre-stages the 1997 version PSA, which featured actor Rachael Leigh Cook. The music video forDemi Lovato's 2022 single \"Substance\" features a recreation of the PSA. Books The title of thepopular sciencebookThis Is Your Brain On Music: The Science of a Human Obsession(2006) byDaniel Levitinis a nod to the PSA. Other media A 2011CBS CaresPSA parodied this in talking aboutsunburn, which showed a slice of uncookedbaconthat accompanied a voice saying \"This is your skin\", and a slice of it was then placed in a frying pan, cooking it, stating \"This is your skin in the sun\", and then follows it by a shot of a sun in which the voice says \"Any questions?\", accompanied by the phrase \"Save your bacon. Usesunscreen.\" superimposed over the sun. The Nostalgia Criticplaced the ad at number three on his \"Top 11 Drug PSAs\" list, noting that everyone he knew had a \"witty retort\" to the commercial's signature \"any questions?\" After demonstrating a few comebacks, he then watches Rachael Leigh Cook's version of the PSA, responding to her manic performance with a shocked \"What the hell kind of drugs areyouon?\" In 2012, two PSAs based on the PDFA campaign were released byTea PartyactivistHerman Cain. The violent death of a goldfish and a rabbit were supposed to represent what PresidentObama'sstimulus plandid to theAmerican economy. Rob DenBlyker, one of the creators of the webcomicCyanide & Happiness, parodied the commercial in a 2013 installment where a father, after re-enacting the commercial, admits to his son that he himself is on drugs. \"But I don't see how that's relevant\", he adds. A 2021 commercial forKraft Singlesparodied the PSA as well, which showed melting butter whenAlfonso Ribeirosays \"This is your brain\", then puts a slice of bread when he says \"This is bread\", followed by two slices of Kraft Singles when he says \"These are delicious Kraft Singles\" followed by Ribeiro saying \"Any questions?\" and his daughter responding with \"Yes, do you have to make every meal this boring?\". In the 2005 video gameTony Hawk's American Wasteland, when the player attempts to go beyond the open world map, the game prevents them from doing so, often placing a message such as \"Out of bounds!\" or \"Who loaned you that skateboard?\". One of the messages is \"This is your brain on drugs!\" Criticism TheAmerican Egg Boardtook issue with the PSA, claiming that eggs were being correlated with the unhealthiness of drug use. The board worried that young children might misinterpret the TV message and believe that eggs were harmful. ComedianBill Hicksspoke negatively about the commercial frequently during his stand-up routine, claiming \"I've seen a lot of weird shit on drugs, I've never ever ever ever ever looked at an egg and thought it was a fucking brain.\" See also References External links",
"Rachael Leigh Cook Rachael Leigh Cook(born October 4, 1979) is an American actress and model. She has starred in the filmsThe Baby-Sitters Club(1995),She's All That(1999), andJosie and the Pussycats(2001), and in the television seriesInto the WestandPerception. She is also the voice behind various characters inRobot ChickenandTifa Lockhartin theFinal Fantasyseries, starting with the English version of the filmFinal Fantasy VII: Advent Children. Since 2016, her television appearances have primarily beenmade-for-TV movieson theHallmark Channel. Early life Rachael Leigh Cook was born on October 4, 1979,inMinneapolis, Minnesota, the daughter of Thomas Howard Cook, asocial workerand formerstand-up comedian, and JoAnn, a cooking instructor andweaver.She is of part English and Italian descent. Cook first appeared in apublic service announcementforfoster careat seven years of age and began working as achildprint modelat the age of 10, including nationwide advertisements forTargetand appearing on the boxes ofMilk-Bonedog biscuits. She attendedClara Barton Open School,Laurel Springs School, andMinneapolis South High School. Career Cook began auditioning for acting work at age 14.She made her screen debut as an actress in the 1995 filmThe Baby-Sitters Club. She also played a role in the adventure filmTom and Huck, released in December 1995. In 1996, her modeling agency sent her to star in a short film,26 Summer Street. In 1997, Cook appeared in a leading role in the filmCountry Justiceas a 15-year-oldrapevictim who is impregnated by her rapist. In 1999, Cook starred in her breakout role in thesleeper hitfilmShe's All That,aromantic comedythat so far is the most financially successful film of her career. In 2000, she starred oppositeElijah Woodin the well-receivedThe Bumblebee Flies Anyway. She took the lead role in 2001'sJosie and the Pussycats, which turned out to be abox office failure, although it has since become acult classic. In 2000, she was thecover girlfor the U.S. March/April issue ofFHM. She also starred in themusic videoforNew Found Glory's 2000 single \"Dressed to Kill\".In 2002, she was ranked No. 26 inStuffmagazine's \"102 Sexiest Women in the World\". In 2003, she starred in the film11:14as Cheri. She also appeared as a main cast member in the 2005 televisionminiseriesInto the Westproduced bySteven Spielberg. In 2006, she appeared in the music video forDaniel Powter's \"Love You Lately\". In 2007, Cook was seen in the big screen adaptation ofNancy Drew. She played the female lead in the independent sports dramaThe Final Season. She has appeared in numerous episodes of theSeth GreencomediesTitan MaximumandRobot Chicken. In 2008, she guest-starred asAbigail Lytarin two third-season episodes of theUSA NetworkseriesPsych. She reprised the role in thefollowing season. In February 2010, Cook signed on to play the female lead role inFox TV's comedy pilotNirvana.She had a role in the Western horror filmVampire, theEnglish-languagefeature debut ofJapanesedirectorIwai Shunji.In 2012, Cook signed on to play the female lead role in theTNTcrime dramaseriesPerceptionoppositeEric McCormack. She starred in the independent filmBroken Kingdom, which was directed by her husbandDaniel Gillies. She also appeared in aFunny or Diesketch withChad Michael Murray. Cook starred in theHallmark Channeloriginal filmSummer Lovein 2016.In the same year, she starred in another Hallmark film,AutumnIn the Vineyard, followed by its sequelSummer in the Vineyardin 2017.2017 also saw Cook develop, star and executive produce the Hallmark Channel filmFrozen in Love, which was broadcast in January 2018 as part of the channel's 'Winterfest' season of programming. Cook provided the voice for Chelsea Cunningham on theKids' WBanimated seriesBatman Beyondand in the animated filmBatman Beyond: Return of the Joker. Cook voicedTifa Lockhartin thevideo gamesKingdom Hearts II,Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VIIandDissidia 012 Final Fantasy, as well as the filmFinal Fantasy VII Advent Children. In 2011, she voiced the character of Jaesa Willsaam in the MMO game,Star Wars: The Old Republic. Cook's latest voice-over role is for the video gameYakuzain which she voices the role of Reina. In 2020 Cook appeared in the fifteenth season ofCriminal Mindsplaying the role of Max in the final episodes of the series. Cook owns her own production company, Ben's Sister Productions (in reference to her younger brother Ben Cook). She produced and starred in the filmLove, Guaranteed, which debuted onNetflixon September 3, 2020. Public service Cook first gained national attention in 1997, when she was featured in an updatedThis Is Your Brain on Drugspublic service announcement(PSA) television advertisement, in which she proceeds to destroy a kitchen with afrying pan. In 2011, she was selected by theObama administrationas a Champion of Change for Arts Education. In June 2012, she began to award a small scholarship to students between ages 14 and 19. The scholarship helps pay for career classes, mentoring programs, and other school fees. In 2017, Rachael Leigh Cook reprised her \"This Is Your Brain on Drugs\" role twenty years later for a PSA by theDrug Policy Alliancecritiquing theWar on Drugsand its contribution to mass incarceration,structural racismand poverty. The ad was posted toYouTubeon April 20, 2017, in recognition of4/20. Personal life Cook married New Zealand-Canadian actorDaniel Gillieson August 8, 2004,“We got engaged after dating for maybe five months and we got married a couple of months after that.”They have two children: a daughter born in September 2013and a son born in April 2015.The couple separated in June 2019 and divorced in 2021. Cook is avegetarian. Filmography Film Television Music videos Video games Awards and nominations References External links",
"She's All That She's All Thatis a 1999 Americanteenromantic comedy filmdirected byRobert Iscove. It starsFreddie Prinze Jr.,Rachael Leigh Cook,Matthew Lillard, andPaul Walker. After being dumped by his girlfriend, Zack Siler boasts he could make any girl at his high school popular. It is a modern adaptation ofGeorge Bernard Shaw's playPygmalionandGeorge Cukor's 1964 filmMy Fair Lady. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the performances of the lead actors, but were critical of the script. It was one of the most popularteen filmsof the late 1990s and reached No. 1 at the box office in its first week of release. It went on to earn $103 million worldwide.After featuring in the film, the song \"Kiss Me\" reached No. 2 onBillboard'sHot 100and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 weeks. A gender-swapped remake, titledHe's All That, was released on August 27, 2021, byNetflix. Plot Zack Siler is the big man on campus at his Southern California high school. After returning from spring break, he finds out his girlfriend, Taylor, has cheated on him with areality TVstar, Brock. After Zack and Taylor's breakup, he consoles himself by claiming that she is replaceable with any girl in the school. Zack's friend Dean disagrees and bets Zack to turn any random girl from school into thepromqueen in six weeks. He accepts, so Dean chooses Laney Boggs, an awkward and unpopular art student. Zack attempts to befriend Laney, but she pointedly ignores his advances until he asks for her help with art. She reluctantly invites him to a small theater lounge where she will perform. Intending to deter him, Laney volunteers Zack to perform onstage. He manages to improvise a routine with hishacky sack. Laney is impressed but still rejects him when Zack attempts to charm her again. When Zack shows up at her house, Laney reluctantly agrees to go to the beach with him and his friends, and they invite her to apartylater. Laney says she's busy, but Zack persuades her to go. He enlists his sister, Mack, to give her amakeover. At the party, Taylor, who is embarrassed by Brock and jealous of Laney, publicly humiliates her, bringing her to tears. Laney is surprised to be nominated for prom queen, along with Taylor. Zack then goes by her house and asks about her mother, who died when Laney was young, and talks about his father, who is pressuring him to go toDartmouthforcollege. Zack leans in to kiss Laney but pulls back when she jokes that it is just to get her vote for prom king. The next day, Zack defends Laney's brother, Simon, from bullies in the cafeteria. After a falling out with Zack, Dean asks Laney to be his prom date. Taylor is humiliated when Brock dumps her, so she cozies up to Zack. When he turns her down, she tells him that Dean has already asked Laney to the prom. When Zack confronts him, Dean reveals the bet, forcing a public confession from Zack. A furious Laney rushes from the room, refusing to speak to Zack. Unable to reconcile with Laney, Zack takes his sister to the prom. After some persuading from her father, a disheartened Laney agrees to go with Dean. At the dance, Dean boasts of his plan to seduce Laney. Laney's friend Jesse overhears, and he and Mack rush to warn Zack, who has taken the stage with Taylor as Prom King and Queen. Zack rushes after Laney, who has already left with Dean. Laney returns home to find Zack is there. She explains how she avoided Dean's advances with a fog horn. Zack confesses his true feelings, and they share a dance and kiss by the pool. Laney asks Zack about the bet, and he says mysteriously he will honor the terms. On the day of graduation he appears onstage nude except for cap and a soccer ball, getting applause from the crowd and a smile from Laney. Cast Production Casting The film had an ensemble cast of up-and-coming actors, includingKieran Culkin,OscarwinnerAnna Paquin,Jodi Lyn O'Keefe, musicianUsher Raymond,Gabrielle Unionin her film debut,Dulé Hill, andLil' Kim.ProducerRichard N. Gladsteinnoted, \"There were other films that you could've seen them in, but they weren't usually the leads in those films.\"According to directorRobert Iscove,Miramaxco-headHarvey Weinsteinwas very involved in script development and casting, and was able to get great actors in very small parts as a personal favor. Iscove saidJosh Hartnettwas considered for the role of Zack Siler, and many actresses were considered for the role of Laney Boggs, includingMena Suvari,Leelee Sobieski, andJordana Brewster. Kevin Pollaksaid he signed up for the movie in part because he was impressed withFreddie Prinze Jr.’s performance inThe House of Yesa few years earlier and was interested in working with him. Writing R. Lee Fleming Jr. is officially credited as the sole screenwriter for the film. In a 2002 interview,M. Night Shyamalanstated that hepolishedthe screenplay while adaptingStuart Littleand writing aspec scriptforThe Sixth Sense. This was also confirmed in the film's audio commentary by Iscove. In 2013, Shyamalan claimed that, rather than simply polishing Fleming's original script, he actuallyghost-wrotethe film.This was disputed by Fleming.Jack Lechner (who served as Miramax's head of development in the late 1990s) confirmed that technically both Shyamalan and Fleming contributed to the script: Fleming wrote the initial script that Miramax bought, while Shyamalan did an uncredited rewrite (doing more than \"a polish\") that got the film green-lit. Lechner reiterated that content from both writers was included in the final cut of the film.Producer Richard N. Gladstein said that the script \"was pretty much done\" already, but that Shyamalan's changes \"helped enormously with the relationship with Kevin Pollak \".Iscove attributed the performance art piece and the hacky sack sequence to Shyamalan.Fleming attributed the line \"Am I a fucking bet?\" to Shyamalan.Fleming included various pop culture references in his script: Laney Boggs was named after two characters played byWinona Ryder, Kim Boggs fromEdward Scissorhandsand Laney Pierce fromReality Bites;the characters Zack and Taylor were named after two of the three members of the bandHanson.Pollak constantly guessingJeopardy!answers incorrectly is a running joke, which he previously did in the 1997 filmTruth or Consequences, N.M.. The idea was in Fleming's script but Pollak expanded and improvised his answers. Iscove was influenced by the movies ofJohn Hughesand was trying do something different for the '90s generation that would still resonate. He stressed the importance of the story having a heart, how Zack had to be worthy of Laney, and how Laney had to learn to be more open.The story was rewritten to better fit Prinze Jr. and make Zack a more sympathetic character with his own challenges.Iscove was well aware that it was implausible to suggestRachael Leigh Cookwas ugly, but said it was standard practice in Hollywood to cast \"the beautiful girl\" and that it requires the audience to suspend their disbelief: \"You either go along with it or you don't go along with it.\" Comparing Laney's transformation to that ofClark Kent into Superman, Iscove said casting the role was more about finding an actor who had the range to give the necessary performance. Filming Filming took place from August 6, 1998, to September 28, 1998, in various California locations.The high school scenes were shot atTorrance High School, where television seriesBuffy the Vampire SlayerandBeverly Hills, 90210were previously filmed. Iscove was also a choreographer and wanted to expand and embellish the prom scenes, while also showing the Weinsteins how musical numbers could work in films. The dance scene was choreographed byAdam Shankmanat the request of the film's co-producer Jennifer Gibgot, who is Shankman's sister. Shankman was assisted byAnne Fletcher. Shankman was concerned about the scene not tonally meshing with the rest of the film, but Iscove persisted. Test audiences did not understand why the dance scene was happening, soBob Weinsteinasked for a reshoot with Usher to link the scene.Shankman also worked withMatthew Lillardon his solo dance scenes. Costume designer Denise Wingate said, \"We had no budget so we had to be really creative—everything in that prom scene was white, black, and gold, and we got it all fromThe Salvation Armyand just completely reworked it.\" Having majored in psychology, Wingate tried to explore the possible reasons for the characters’ wardrobe. Wingate concluded that Laney wore clothes like armor after the death of her mother, but also wanted to express herself as an artist, resulting in a mix of vintage clothes, overalls, aprons, and various quirky t-shirts. The falafel restaurant hat was created on short notice with items picked up from aMichaelscraft store. Laney's transformation was reflected in the red dress, which demonstrated \"a bold statement of her dressing in a color that was so different than anything we’d seen her in before.\"Leigh Cook recalled \"feeling really self-conscious” in the scene where she first descends the stairs in the dress. There were two versions of the red dress: a stunt double dress reserved for the scene when Laney falls down in a driveway outside a party, and a second smaller dress, which left Cook holding her breath trying to get through the scene quickly. Soundtrack The song \"Kiss Me\" was used as the main theme song. The film's box office success helped \"Kiss Me\" to gain widespread mainstream attention and chart success. It climbed to No. 2 onBillboard'sHot 100list, and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 straight weeks and No. 4 in the UK and New Zealand. The film was released in Italy with the title \"Kiss Me\". Reception Critical response On review aggregatorRotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 41% based on 63 reviews, with an average rating of 5/10. The website's critics consensus states: \"Despite its charming young leads,She's All Thatcan't overcome its predictable, inconsistently funny script.\"OnMetacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". It was the last movie to be reviewed byGene Siskelbefore his death in February 1999. Siskel gave a positive review and wrote, \"Rachael Leigh Cook, as Laney, the plain Jane object of the makeover, is forced to demonstrate the biggest emotional range as a character, and she is equal to the assignment.\"Roger Ebertsuggested: \"To give the movie credit, it's as bored with the underlying plot as we are. Even the prom queen election is only a backdrop for more interesting material, asShe's All Thatexplores differences in class and style, and peppers its screenplay with very funny little moments.\" Ebert says it \"is not a great movie, but it has its moments\", giving it 2.5 out of 4 stars.Stephen HoldenofThe New York Timespraised Cook for her performance, comparing her toWinona Ryder, saying, \"Unlike so many actors playing smart young people, she actually projects some intelligence along with a sly sense of comedy.\" Mick LaSalleof theSan Francisco Chroniclecalls it \"About one idea short of being an excellent teenage romance. As it stands it's a pleasing but routine effort.\" LaSalle criticized the film for running out of plot about halfway, saying the \"story line is stretched to the breaking point. In one instance, director Robert Iscove stops the action for a long dance sequence, set at the prom, that has nothing to do with anything.\" He commented the film is \"intermittently funny\" and praised Matthew Lillard's performance, calling it the best thing in the picture. Geoff Berkshire ofVarietywas critical of the lack of originality, and wrote, \"Suggesting that Miramax needs to putKevin Williamsonon permanent retainer if it's going to remain in the teen-pics field,She's All Thatnotably fails to bring to comedy the insight that the Williamson-pennedScreambrought so memorably to horror\". Berkshire was positive about the two leads, saying \"appealing young actors come off as competent, nothing more, given a context that can't be transcended.\" He described the direction as \"nothing to be ashamed of here, but nothing of any distinction, either\", and noted the soundtrack as a not unexpected plus.Jane Ganahl of theSan Francisco Examinerwrote, \"And once, just once, I'd love to see a teen flick that doesn't send out a message to young girls that to be acceptable, you have to conform. I liked the artist girl much better before.\" William Thomas ofEmpirecriticized the film, saying that despite a few scenes, \"The rest is just breezy propaganda for American high school fascism\", and \"The most worrying thing aboutShe's All Thatis its message. The 'ugly duckling' (specs, dungarees, art-lover) must conform (she gets a makeover and the boys notice her \"bobos\" for the first time) to fit in.\" Box office She's All Thatpremiered on January 19, 1999 at the Mann Festival Theater inWestwood, Los Angeles.The film went into general release on January 29. The film was released in Italy with the title \"Kiss Me\". The film reached No. 1 at the box office in the first week of its release, grossing $16.1 million over theSuper Bowlopening weekend.It earned $63.4 million in the United States and $39.8 million at international box offices, totaling $103.2 million worldwide against a production budget between $7–10 million.Miramax spent a further $18 million on television advertising to promote the film. Accolades The film won eight awards, and was nominated for five others. Remake In September 2020, a gender-swapped remake of the film was announced, titledHe's All That, withMark Watersto direct, original screenwriter R. Lee Fleming Jr. to write, and starringAddison RaeandTanner Buchanan.That October,Myra Molloy,Madison Pettis,Peyton Meyer,Isabella Crovetti, and Annie Jacob were cast. In December 2020,Rachael Leigh Cookjoined the cast to portray Rae's character's mother. It has been confirmed that Cook's character is unrelated to her original character.He's All Thatwas released on August 27, 2021, byNetflix. Notes References External links"
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"Freddie Prinze Jr. Freddie James Prinze Jr.(born March 8, 1976)is an American actor. He has starred in films such asI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and itssequel(1998),She's All That(1999),Down to You,Boys and Girls(both 2000),Summer Catch(2001),Scooby-Doo(2002), andScooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed(2004). Alongside recurring roles onBoston Legal(2004) and24(2010), Prinze starred on the self-titledABCsitcomFreddie(2005–2006)—which he co-created and executive produced—and voicedKanan Jarrusin theDisney XDseriesStar Wars Rebels(2014–2018). He is the only child of actor and comedianFreddie Prinze. Early life Freddie James Prinze Jr. was born in Los Angeles on March 8, 1976, the only child of Katherine Elaine Prinze (néeCochran) and actor andstand-up comedianFreddie Prinze. On January 29, 1977, Freddie Prinze died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound, after which Prinze Jr. relocated with his mother toAlbuquerque, New Mexico.Prinze was raised Catholic.His paternal grandmother was from Puerto Ricoand he is",
"Ricoand he is fluent in Spanish.Prinze had \"enjoyed acting in school productions\" as a child and participated in Albuquerque Children's Theatre, though he originally planned to become a civil engineer before getting roles onFamily MattersandThe Watcher.Soon after that he sawNeil Patrick Harrisat his high school getting kids excited about getting into acting, and he decided to do that.After graduating fromLa Cueva High Schoolin 1994, Prinze moved to Los Angeles to audition for television roles. Career Television and film Prinze was cast in a guest role on the ABC TV seriesFamily Mattersin 1995. He then appeared in a few programs and made-for-TV movies, before making his motion picture debut inTo Gillian on Her 37th Birthdayin 1996. In subsequent years, Prinze appeared in youth-oriented moviesI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997) and its sequelI Still Know What You Did Last Summer(1998), made him known to teenage audiences. His first leading role, the romantic comedyShe's All That(1999), grossed $63 million in",
"$63 million in the United States. Subsequently, he had leading roles inWing Commander(1999),Down to You(2000),Boys and Girls(2000),Head over Heels(2001), andSummer Catch(2001), most of which were disliked by criticsand had moderate box office success. He playedFred Jonesin the 2002live-action film versionof the popular cartoonScooby-Doo, and reprised the role in the 2004 sequel,Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed, both alongside his wifeSarah Michelle Gellarand along withMatthew LillardandLinda Cardellini. He guest starred on the popular NBC showFriendsas a sensitive male nanny named Sandy on the series' 200th episode. He took the role of Sandy afterTom Hankscould not do it due to scheduling.He also appeared asDonny Crane, a character believed to beDenny Crane's son in the ABC legal drama-comedyBoston Legal. Prinze starred in his own televisionsitcom, titledFreddie. The sitcom is said to depict some actual events from his life, and was cancelled after one season in May 2006. He guest starred onGeorge Lopezfor a",
"onGeorge Lopezfor a crossover withFreddie. In 2004, Prinze accepted a special award fromTV Landon behalf of his late father. He thanked his father's former co-starDella Reesefor her continued advice and support. In 2006, he lent his voice to the character of Pi in the animated filmShark Bait. Also in 2007, he lent his voice to the character of Rick inHappily N'Ever Afteralong with his wife Gellar,Wallace Shawn,Andy Dick,George Carlin, andSigourney Weaver. In 2008, he auditioned forJigsawinPunisher: War Zone, but was not given the part at the decision ofLionsgate Studios. He later was the voice of the titular character in the animated movieDelgo.In 2010, Prinze guest starred onPsychas Dennis, a grade school friend ofShawn SpencerandBurton Guster. In March 2019, Prinze was cast asNancy Drew's father, Carson Drew, inThe CWmysterypilotNancy Drew, but was later replaced byScott Wolf.He also voiced the future version of Tim and Jim Possible in theKim PossiblemovieKim Possible: A Sitch in Time. In March 2009, it",
"In March 2009, it was announced that Prinze had signed on to star as Bradley, aka Ultimatum, in the ABC showNo Heroics, a U.S. remake of theBritish show of the same name.The show was not picked up, but Prinze was cast as a series regular forthe eighth seasonof the television show24; he playedCole Ortiz, a newCTUoperative. In 2021, Prinze joined therebootofPunky BrewsteronPeacock, playing the title character's ex-husband. Other work He voiced a pilot in aVatta's War: Trading in Dangergraphic audio book. Prinze voiced different characters inBioWarevideo games:LieutenantJames VegainMass Effect 3andThe Iron BullinDragon Age: Inquisition.He returned to the role of James Vega again for the animated feature filmMass Effect: Paragon Lost, dubbed byFUNimation. From 2014 until 2018, he was the voice of Kanan Jarrus, one of the last survivingJedi Knights, on theDisney XDseriesStar Wars Rebels.He reprised the role for the opening scene of the pilot episode of theDisney+seriesThe Bad Batchin May 2021.In March, 2023, he",
"March, 2023, he launched a new podcast,That Was Pretty Scary, with cohost Jon Lee Brody. Professional wrestling Work with WWE (2008–2009, 2010–2012) Prinze is aWWEfan and was seen on television in attendance at the March 2008WrestleMania XXIVpay-per-viewand its precedingHall of Fameceremony. He also made acameoon an episode ofThe Dirt Sheet, an online program hosted by wrestlersJohn Morrison and The Miz.He had created an official profile on WWE's \"Universe\" blog community where he would regularly write his thoughts about the current goings-on in the world of the WWE. His relationship with the company was furthered when he was hired as a member of the creative staff to contribute to weekly television and pay-per-view programming for theSmackDownbrand.It was reported on February 22, 2009 that Prinze and WWE had parted ways, but in January 2021, Prinze explained that he had actually chosen to leave the company at that time. On August 17, 2009, Prinze appeared onRawas aspecial guest host, where he was assaulted",
"he was assaulted by thenWWE ChampionRandy Ortonafter refusing to bail Orton out of histag team matchwithJohn Cena, who was due to challenge him in the upcomingSummerSlam.Prinze later returned to the program and got his payback during Orton's match with Cena againstBig ShowandChris Jericho, by setting up alumberjack matchinvolvingMark Henry,Primo,Evan Bourne,Kofi Kingston,MVP, andJamie Noble. Prinze returned to WWE on October 1, 2010 in a role as a producer and director.On the November 1, 2010 episode ofMonday Night Raw, Prinze made an on-screen appearance asVince McMahon's doctor, adream sequencescene that coincided withLinda McMahon's attempt to win a seat in the Senate for the state of Connecticut.Prinze left WWE for a second time due to a comment made byStone Cold Steve Austinto a contestant while taping an episode of the fifth season ofWWE Tough Enough. Podcast (since 2021) In November 2021, Prinze started his own podcastWrestling With Freddiewith cohostJeff Dye. Premier Streaming Network In April 2023,",
"In April 2023, Freddie Prinze Jr. joined the ownership team of Premier Streaming Network, a streaming platform focused on wrestling, sports, and entertainment content. MyFandom Sports App In June 2024, Freddie Prinze Jr. was announced as part of the ownership team behind MyFandom, an iOS app co-founded by brothers Fred and Josh Shernoff. MyFandom allows sports fans to contribute personal media to a collective archive of sporting events, creating a user-generated historical record while enabling individuals to curate their own attendance history. Personal life Prinze dated actressKimberly McCulloughfrom 1996 until 1999. He married actressSarah Michelle Gellaron September 1, 2002, inPuerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico. The couple met several years before, while filmingI Know What You Did Last Summer(1997),started dating in 2000 and were engaged in April 2001. They co-starred inScooby-Doo(2002),Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed(2004),Happily N'Ever After(2006), andStar Wars Rebels(2014–2018). Gellar made a",
"Gellar made a non-speaking cameo in Prinze's filmShe's All That(1999). They have two children together: a daughter born September 2009, and a son born September 2012,and live in Los Angeles. Prinze is an avid practitioner ofBrazilian jiu-jitsuand has reached the rank of purple belt in the sport, having been promoted under Jean Jacques Machado. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Podcasts Awards and nominations See also References External links",
"This Is Your Brain on Drugs This Is Your Brain on Drugswas a large-scaleUSanti-narcoticscampaign byPartnership for a Drug-Free America(PDFA) launched in 1987, that used three televisedpublic service announcements(PSAs) and a related poster campaign. 1987 version The 30-second version of the first PSA, from 1987, shows a man (played byJohn Roselius) in a kitchen who asks if there is anyone out there who still does not understand the dangers of drug abuse. He holds up an egg and says, \"This is your brain,\" before motioning to afrying panand adding, \"This is drugs.\" He then cracks open the egg, fries the contents, and says, \"This is your brain on drugs.\" Finally, he looks up at the camera and asks, \"Any questions?\" In contrast, the 10-second and 15-second versions simply show a close-up of an egg dropping into a frying pan. This is accompanied by a voice-over saying in the 15-second version: \"Okay, last time. This is drugs. This is your brain on drugs. Any questions?\" The 10-second version omits the first",
"omits the first sentence. The PSA, titled \"Frying Pan\" (a.k.a. \"Fried Egg\" and \"Any Questions?\"), was conceived by art directors Scot Fletcher and Rick Bell, copywriter Larre Johnson and creative director Paul Keye atLos Angeles-based agency keye/donna/pearlstein. It was directed byJoe Pytkathrough his ownVenice-based production company Pytka Productions and produced by agency producer Harvey Greenberg, Pytka executive producer Jane McCann and Pytka producer John Turney.Anthony Marinelliscored the shorter versions. 1997 version The second PSA, from 1997,featured 18-year-old actressRachael Leigh Cook, who, as before, holds up an egg and says, \"this is your brain\", before lifting up a frying pan with the words, \"and this isheroin\", after which she places the egg on a kitchen counter—\"this is what happens to your brain after snorting heroin\"—and slams the pan down on it. She lifts the pan back up, saying, \"and this is what your body goes through\", in reference to the remnants of the smashed egg now dripping",
"egg now dripping from the bottom of the pan and down her arm. Cook then says, \"Wait, It's not over yet\", and proceeds to smash everything in the kitchen with the frying pan in a rage, yelling \"this is what your family goes through! And your friends! And your money! And your job! And your self-respect! And your future!\" She ends with \"And your life\". Cook then drops the pan on the counter and says, \"Any questions?\" This PSA, likewise titled \"Frying Pan\", was conceived by art director Doug Hill, copywriter Ken Cills and creative director Graham Turner atNew York-based agency Margeotes/Fertitta & Partners. It was directed by Eden Tyler through New York-based production company Zooma Zooma, produced by agency producer Ed Kleban and Zooma Zooma producer Joseph Mantegna and edited byJay NelsonatSanta Monica-based Avenue Edit. 2016 version The third PSA, from 2016, is a loose remake which shows an egg in a human hand, stating \"This is your brain\", alongside a frying pan that the other hand is pointing to, stating,",
"to, stating, \"This is drugs.\" The egg is then cracked and fried into the pan, with the narration, \"This is your brain on drugs. Any questions?\" This is followed by scenes of teens, some of whom state, \"Um, yeah, I have questions\", \"Prescription drugs aren't as bad as street drugs, right?\", \"Weed's legal, isn't it?\", \"Drinking is worse than smoking weed. Isn't it?\", \"Why is heroin so addictive?\", \"Molly just makes you feel happy\", \"I have questions\", \"Mom, Dad, did you ever try drugs?\" The narrator returns to say, \"They're going to ask. Be ready.\" 2017 War on Drugs Critique version In 2017, Rachael Leigh Cook used imagery from the This is Your Brain on Drugs commercials in a PSA by theDrug Policy Alliance. The PSA critiqued thewar on drugsand its contribution to mass incarceration,structural racismand poverty. The ad was posted toYouTubeon April 20, 2017 in recognition of4/20. Analysis TV Guidenamed the commercial one of the top one hundred television advertisements of all time,andEntertainment Weeklynamed it",
"Weeklynamed it the 8th best commercial of all time. Impact Consumerism A poster produced in the early 1990s called \"Famous Brains on Drugs\" parodied the concept by having eggs appear in the frying pan in forms intended to remind the viewer of certain people. For instance, a pan labeled \"Saddam Hussein\" had an egg with acrosshairover it, and a pan labeled \"Milli Vanilli\" contained a box of imitation eggs.There have also been parody T-shirts, such as versions based onThe Simpsons(\"This is your brain on donuts\", showing an X-ray ofHomer Simpson's head) and theYankees–Red Sox rivalry(shirts targeted to both allegiances of the famed rivalry), among others. In media This Is Your Brain on Drugs has been widely parodied in various forms, including aSaturday Night Liveskit which parodied the PSA, adding \"with a side of bacon\" to the commercial's tagline. Television In an episode of the sitcomRoseanne, the title character reenacts the PSA while having a conversation with one of her children about drugs. In Living",
"drugs. In Living Colorparodied the PSA withOprah Winfrey, played byKim Wayans. In the eighteenth episode of the fourth season of the sitcomMarried... with Children, \"What Goes Around Comes Around\" (1990), the characterAl Bundytakes an egg, says \"This is your brain,\" then says \"This is your brain on marriage,\" drops it on the ground, and asks, \"Any questions?\" An episode of the teen seriesBeverly Hills, 90210ends with the charactersBrandonandBrenda Walshacting out the PSA with their friends in their favorite diner. After the show, the actual 30-second commercial aired, andJason Priestleydelivered his own anti-drug message on the air. PBS Kidsdid a parody of the famous PSA as well, in a short titled \"This is your brain on books\", in which a gold egg falls on a frying pan with books on it, then falls into a human brain, in which he thinks about composing, computing, and creating, ending it all with \"Any questions?\". The second version was satirized in the series premiere of the animated television sketch",
"television sketch showRobot Chicken, \"Junk in the Trunk\" (2005). Rachael Leigh Cook (who provided thevoice acting) goes on a psychopathic rampage, destroying everything she encounters, ending eventually with her smashing herself in the head and falling down a building. In the tenth episode of the second season of the TV seriesBreaking Bad, \"Over\" (2009), the characterJesse Pinkmanreferences the commercial, frying one egg and accompanying it with \"this is your brain\", while adding another egg and accompanying it with \"this is your brain on drugs\". In the sixteenth episode of the ABC sitcomThe Goldbergs, \"Muscles Mirsky\", references the PSA while Beverly is making breakfast. To promote season 2 ofRiverdaleon Netflix,Camila Mendes, who plays Veronica Lodge, re-stages the 1997 version PSA, which featured actor Rachael Leigh Cook. The promotion is shot-for-shot, except that a burger is used in place of an egg, and instead of talking about heroin, she talks about Jingle Jangle. Films In the filmBatman",
"In the filmBatman Forever(1995), the character theRiddlerparodies the commercial saying, \"This is your brain on the box. This is my brain on the box. Does anybody else feel like a fried egg?!\" The 1991 film sequelFreddy's Dead: The Final Nightmarespoofed the PSA by havingJohnny Depp(whose acting career began with the originalA Nightmare on Elm Streetmovie) perform the skit. The PSA goes on as normal untilRobert Englund(who playsFreddy Krueger) hits Depp with the frying pan and says, \"Yeah! What areyouon? Looks like a frying pan and some eggs to me.\" Music The cover ofPrimus' 1990 albumFrizzle Fryshowed a sculpture of a brain melting in a frying pan and was meant to be a play on the commercial. Englishvirtual bandGorillazused the PSA in the music video for their 2017 single \"Sleeping Powder\". The teaser for the 2019 \"No Drug Like Me\" music video byCarly Rae Jepsenre-stages the 1997 version PSA, which featured actor Rachael Leigh Cook. The music video forDemi Lovato's 2022 single \"Substance\" features a",
"features a recreation of the PSA. Books The title of thepopular sciencebookThis Is Your Brain On Music: The Science of a Human Obsession(2006) byDaniel Levitinis a nod to the PSA. Other media A 2011CBS CaresPSA parodied this in talking aboutsunburn, which showed a slice of uncookedbaconthat accompanied a voice saying \"This is your skin\", and a slice of it was then placed in a frying pan, cooking it, stating \"This is your skin in the sun\", and then follows it by a shot of a sun in which the voice says \"Any questions?\", accompanied by the phrase \"Save your bacon. Usesunscreen.\" superimposed over the sun. The Nostalgia Criticplaced the ad at number three on his \"Top 11 Drug PSAs\" list, noting that everyone he knew had a \"witty retort\" to the commercial's signature \"any questions?\" After demonstrating a few comebacks, he then watches Rachael Leigh Cook's version of the PSA, responding to her manic performance with a shocked \"What the hell kind of drugs areyouon?\" In 2012, two PSAs based on the PDFA campaign were",
"PDFA campaign were released byTea PartyactivistHerman Cain. The violent death of a goldfish and a rabbit were supposed to represent what PresidentObama'sstimulus plandid to theAmerican economy. Rob DenBlyker, one of the creators of the webcomicCyanide & Happiness, parodied the commercial in a 2013 installment where a father, after re-enacting the commercial, admits to his son that he himself is on drugs. \"But I don't see how that's relevant\", he adds. A 2021 commercial forKraft Singlesparodied the PSA as well, which showed melting butter whenAlfonso Ribeirosays \"This is your brain\", then puts a slice of bread when he says \"This is bread\", followed by two slices of Kraft Singles when he says \"These are delicious Kraft Singles\" followed by Ribeiro saying \"Any questions?\" and his daughter responding with \"Yes, do you have to make every meal this boring?\". In the 2005 video gameTony Hawk's American Wasteland, when the player attempts to go beyond the open world map, the game prevents them from doing so, often",
"doing so, often placing a message such as \"Out of bounds!\" or \"Who loaned you that skateboard?\". One of the messages is \"This is your brain on drugs!\" Criticism TheAmerican Egg Boardtook issue with the PSA, claiming that eggs were being correlated with the unhealthiness of drug use. The board worried that young children might misinterpret the TV message and believe that eggs were harmful. ComedianBill Hicksspoke negatively about the commercial frequently during his stand-up routine, claiming \"I've seen a lot of weird shit on drugs, I've never ever ever ever ever looked at an egg and thought it was a fucking brain.\" See also References External links",
"Rachael Leigh Cook Rachael Leigh Cook(born October 4, 1979) is an American actress and model. She has starred in the filmsThe Baby-Sitters Club(1995),She's All That(1999), andJosie and the Pussycats(2001), and in the television seriesInto the WestandPerception. She is also the voice behind various characters inRobot ChickenandTifa Lockhartin theFinal Fantasyseries, starting with the English version of the filmFinal Fantasy VII: Advent Children. Since 2016, her television appearances have primarily beenmade-for-TV movieson theHallmark Channel. Early life Rachael Leigh Cook was born on October 4, 1979,inMinneapolis, Minnesota, the daughter of Thomas Howard Cook, asocial workerand formerstand-up comedian, and JoAnn, a cooking instructor andweaver.She is of part English and Italian descent. Cook first appeared in apublic service announcementforfoster careat seven years of age and began working as achildprint modelat the age of 10, including nationwide advertisements forTargetand appearing on the boxes",
"on the boxes ofMilk-Bonedog biscuits. She attendedClara Barton Open School,Laurel Springs School, andMinneapolis South High School. Career Cook began auditioning for acting work at age 14.She made her screen debut as an actress in the 1995 filmThe Baby-Sitters Club. She also played a role in the adventure filmTom and Huck, released in December 1995. In 1996, her modeling agency sent her to star in a short film,26 Summer Street. In 1997, Cook appeared in a leading role in the filmCountry Justiceas a 15-year-oldrapevictim who is impregnated by her rapist. In 1999, Cook starred in her breakout role in thesleeper hitfilmShe's All That,aromantic comedythat so far is the most financially successful film of her career. In 2000, she starred oppositeElijah Woodin the well-receivedThe Bumblebee Flies Anyway. She took the lead role in 2001'sJosie and the Pussycats, which turned out to be abox office failure, although it has since become acult classic. In 2000, she was thecover girlfor the U.S. March/April issue ofFHM.",
"issue ofFHM. She also starred in themusic videoforNew Found Glory's 2000 single \"Dressed to Kill\".In 2002, she was ranked No. 26 inStuffmagazine's \"102 Sexiest Women in the World\". In 2003, she starred in the film11:14as Cheri. She also appeared as a main cast member in the 2005 televisionminiseriesInto the Westproduced bySteven Spielberg. In 2006, she appeared in the music video forDaniel Powter's \"Love You Lately\". In 2007, Cook was seen in the big screen adaptation ofNancy Drew. She played the female lead in the independent sports dramaThe Final Season. She has appeared in numerous episodes of theSeth GreencomediesTitan MaximumandRobot Chicken. In 2008, she guest-starred asAbigail Lytarin two third-season episodes of theUSA NetworkseriesPsych. She reprised the role in thefollowing season. In February 2010, Cook signed on to play the female lead role inFox TV's comedy pilotNirvana.She had a role in the Western horror filmVampire, theEnglish-languagefeature debut ofJapanesedirectorIwai Shunji.In 2012, Cook",
"2012, Cook signed on to play the female lead role in theTNTcrime dramaseriesPerceptionoppositeEric McCormack. She starred in the independent filmBroken Kingdom, which was directed by her husbandDaniel Gillies. She also appeared in aFunny or Diesketch withChad Michael Murray. Cook starred in theHallmark Channeloriginal filmSummer Lovein 2016.In the same year, she starred in another Hallmark film,AutumnIn the Vineyard, followed by its sequelSummer in the Vineyardin 2017.2017 also saw Cook develop, star and executive produce the Hallmark Channel filmFrozen in Love, which was broadcast in January 2018 as part of the channel's 'Winterfest' season of programming. Cook provided the voice for Chelsea Cunningham on theKids' WBanimated seriesBatman Beyondand in the animated filmBatman Beyond: Return of the Joker. Cook voicedTifa Lockhartin thevideo gamesKingdom Hearts II,Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VIIandDissidia 012 Final Fantasy, as well as the filmFinal Fantasy VII Advent Children. In 2011, she voiced the",
"she voiced the character of Jaesa Willsaam in the MMO game,Star Wars: The Old Republic. Cook's latest voice-over role is for the video gameYakuzain which she voices the role of Reina. In 2020 Cook appeared in the fifteenth season ofCriminal Mindsplaying the role of Max in the final episodes of the series. Cook owns her own production company, Ben's Sister Productions (in reference to her younger brother Ben Cook). She produced and starred in the filmLove, Guaranteed, which debuted onNetflixon September 3, 2020. Public service Cook first gained national attention in 1997, when she was featured in an updatedThis Is Your Brain on Drugspublic service announcement(PSA) television advertisement, in which she proceeds to destroy a kitchen with afrying pan. In 2011, she was selected by theObama administrationas a Champion of Change for Arts Education. In June 2012, she began to award a small scholarship to students between ages 14 and 19. The scholarship helps pay for career classes, mentoring programs, and other",
"programs, and other school fees. In 2017, Rachael Leigh Cook reprised her \"This Is Your Brain on Drugs\" role twenty years later for a PSA by theDrug Policy Alliancecritiquing theWar on Drugsand its contribution to mass incarceration,structural racismand poverty. The ad was posted toYouTubeon April 20, 2017, in recognition of4/20. Personal life Cook married New Zealand-Canadian actorDaniel Gillieson August 8, 2004,“We got engaged after dating for maybe five months and we got married a couple of months after that.”They have two children: a daughter born in September 2013and a son born in April 2015.The couple separated in June 2019 and divorced in 2021. Cook is avegetarian. Filmography Film Television Music videos Video games Awards and nominations References External links",
"She's All That She's All Thatis a 1999 Americanteenromantic comedy filmdirected byRobert Iscove. It starsFreddie Prinze Jr.,Rachael Leigh Cook,Matthew Lillard, andPaul Walker. After being dumped by his girlfriend, Zack Siler boasts he could make any girl at his high school popular. It is a modern adaptation ofGeorge Bernard Shaw's playPygmalionandGeorge Cukor's 1964 filmMy Fair Lady. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the performances of the lead actors, but were critical of the script. It was one of the most popularteen filmsof the late 1990s and reached No. 1 at the box office in its first week of release. It went on to earn $103 million worldwide.After featuring in the film, the song \"Kiss Me\" reached No. 2 onBillboard'sHot 100and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 weeks. A gender-swapped remake, titledHe's All That, was released on August 27, 2021, byNetflix. Plot Zack Siler is the big man on campus at his Southern California high school. After returning from spring break, he finds out his",
"he finds out his girlfriend, Taylor, has cheated on him with areality TVstar, Brock. After Zack and Taylor's breakup, he consoles himself by claiming that she is replaceable with any girl in the school. Zack's friend Dean disagrees and bets Zack to turn any random girl from school into thepromqueen in six weeks. He accepts, so Dean chooses Laney Boggs, an awkward and unpopular art student. Zack attempts to befriend Laney, but she pointedly ignores his advances until he asks for her help with art. She reluctantly invites him to a small theater lounge where she will perform. Intending to deter him, Laney volunteers Zack to perform onstage. He manages to improvise a routine with hishacky sack. Laney is impressed but still rejects him when Zack attempts to charm her again. When Zack shows up at her house, Laney reluctantly agrees to go to the beach with him and his friends, and they invite her to apartylater. Laney says she's busy, but Zack persuades her to go. He enlists his sister, Mack, to give her amakeover.",
"give her amakeover. At the party, Taylor, who is embarrassed by Brock and jealous of Laney, publicly humiliates her, bringing her to tears. Laney is surprised to be nominated for prom queen, along with Taylor. Zack then goes by her house and asks about her mother, who died when Laney was young, and talks about his father, who is pressuring him to go toDartmouthforcollege. Zack leans in to kiss Laney but pulls back when she jokes that it is just to get her vote for prom king. The next day, Zack defends Laney's brother, Simon, from bullies in the cafeteria. After a falling out with Zack, Dean asks Laney to be his prom date. Taylor is humiliated when Brock dumps her, so she cozies up to Zack. When he turns her down, she tells him that Dean has already asked Laney to the prom. When Zack confronts him, Dean reveals the bet, forcing a public confession from Zack. A furious Laney rushes from the room, refusing to speak to Zack. Unable to reconcile with Laney, Zack takes his sister to the prom. After some persuading",
"some persuading from her father, a disheartened Laney agrees to go with Dean. At the dance, Dean boasts of his plan to seduce Laney. Laney's friend Jesse overhears, and he and Mack rush to warn Zack, who has taken the stage with Taylor as Prom King and Queen. Zack rushes after Laney, who has already left with Dean. Laney returns home to find Zack is there. She explains how she avoided Dean's advances with a fog horn. Zack confesses his true feelings, and they share a dance and kiss by the pool. Laney asks Zack about the bet, and he says mysteriously he will honor the terms. On the day of graduation he appears onstage nude except for cap and a soccer ball, getting applause from the crowd and a smile from Laney. Cast Production Casting The film had an ensemble cast of up-and-coming actors, includingKieran Culkin,OscarwinnerAnna Paquin,Jodi Lyn O'Keefe, musicianUsher Raymond,Gabrielle Unionin her film debut,Dulé Hill, andLil' Kim.ProducerRichard N. Gladsteinnoted, \"There were other films that you could've seen",
"you could've seen them in, but they weren't usually the leads in those films.\"According to directorRobert Iscove,Miramaxco-headHarvey Weinsteinwas very involved in script development and casting, and was able to get great actors in very small parts as a personal favor. Iscove saidJosh Hartnettwas considered for the role of Zack Siler, and many actresses were considered for the role of Laney Boggs, includingMena Suvari,Leelee Sobieski, andJordana Brewster. Kevin Pollaksaid he signed up for the movie in part because he was impressed withFreddie Prinze Jr.’s performance inThe House of Yesa few years earlier and was interested in working with him. Writing R. Lee Fleming Jr. is officially credited as the sole screenwriter for the film. In a 2002 interview,M. Night Shyamalanstated that hepolishedthe screenplay while adaptingStuart Littleand writing aspec scriptforThe Sixth Sense. This was also confirmed in the film's audio commentary by Iscove. In 2013, Shyamalan claimed that, rather than simply polishing",
"simply polishing Fleming's original script, he actuallyghost-wrotethe film.This was disputed by Fleming.Jack Lechner (who served as Miramax's head of development in the late 1990s) confirmed that technically both Shyamalan and Fleming contributed to the script: Fleming wrote the initial script that Miramax bought, while Shyamalan did an uncredited rewrite (doing more than \"a polish\") that got the film green-lit. Lechner reiterated that content from both writers was included in the final cut of the film.Producer Richard N. Gladstein said that the script \"was pretty much done\" already, but that Shyamalan's changes \"helped enormously with the relationship with Kevin Pollak \".Iscove attributed the performance art piece and the hacky sack sequence to Shyamalan.Fleming attributed the line \"Am I a fucking bet?\" to Shyamalan.Fleming included various pop culture references in his script: Laney Boggs was named after two characters played byWinona Ryder, Kim Boggs fromEdward Scissorhandsand Laney Pierce fromReality",
"Pierce fromReality Bites;the characters Zack and Taylor were named after two of the three members of the bandHanson.Pollak constantly guessingJeopardy!answers incorrectly is a running joke, which he previously did in the 1997 filmTruth or Consequences, N.M.. The idea was in Fleming's script but Pollak expanded and improvised his answers. Iscove was influenced by the movies ofJohn Hughesand was trying do something different for the '90s generation that would still resonate. He stressed the importance of the story having a heart, how Zack had to be worthy of Laney, and how Laney had to learn to be more open.The story was rewritten to better fit Prinze Jr. and make Zack a more sympathetic character with his own challenges.Iscove was well aware that it was implausible to suggestRachael Leigh Cookwas ugly, but said it was standard practice in Hollywood to cast \"the beautiful girl\" and that it requires the audience to suspend their disbelief: \"You either go along with it or you don't go along with it.\" Comparing",
"with it.\" Comparing Laney's transformation to that ofClark Kent into Superman, Iscove said casting the role was more about finding an actor who had the range to give the necessary performance. Filming Filming took place from August 6, 1998, to September 28, 1998, in various California locations.The high school scenes were shot atTorrance High School, where television seriesBuffy the Vampire SlayerandBeverly Hills, 90210were previously filmed. Iscove was also a choreographer and wanted to expand and embellish the prom scenes, while also showing the Weinsteins how musical numbers could work in films. The dance scene was choreographed byAdam Shankmanat the request of the film's co-producer Jennifer Gibgot, who is Shankman's sister. Shankman was assisted byAnne Fletcher. Shankman was concerned about the scene not tonally meshing with the rest of the film, but Iscove persisted. Test audiences did not understand why the dance scene was happening, soBob Weinsteinasked for a reshoot with Usher to link the",
"Usher to link the scene.Shankman also worked withMatthew Lillardon his solo dance scenes. Costume designer Denise Wingate said, \"We had no budget so we had to be really creative—everything in that prom scene was white, black, and gold, and we got it all fromThe Salvation Armyand just completely reworked it.\" Having majored in psychology, Wingate tried to explore the possible reasons for the characters’ wardrobe. Wingate concluded that Laney wore clothes like armor after the death of her mother, but also wanted to express herself as an artist, resulting in a mix of vintage clothes, overalls, aprons, and various quirky t-shirts. The falafel restaurant hat was created on short notice with items picked up from aMichaelscraft store. Laney's transformation was reflected in the red dress, which demonstrated \"a bold statement of her dressing in a color that was so different than anything we’d seen her in before.\"Leigh Cook recalled \"feeling really self-conscious” in the scene where she first descends the stairs in",
"the stairs in the dress. There were two versions of the red dress: a stunt double dress reserved for the scene when Laney falls down in a driveway outside a party, and a second smaller dress, which left Cook holding her breath trying to get through the scene quickly. Soundtrack The song \"Kiss Me\" was used as the main theme song. The film's box office success helped \"Kiss Me\" to gain widespread mainstream attention and chart success. It climbed to No. 2 onBillboard'sHot 100list, and stayed in the Top 10 for 16 straight weeks and No. 4 in the UK and New Zealand. The film was released in Italy with the title \"Kiss Me\". Reception Critical response On review aggregatorRotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 41% based on 63 reviews, with an average rating of 5/10. The website's critics consensus states: \"Despite its charming young leads,She's All Thatcan't overcome its predictable, inconsistently funny script.\"OnMetacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 32 critics,",
"on 32 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". It was the last movie to be reviewed byGene Siskelbefore his death in February 1999. Siskel gave a positive review and wrote, \"Rachael Leigh Cook, as Laney, the plain Jane object of the makeover, is forced to demonstrate the biggest emotional range as a character, and she is equal to the assignment.\"Roger Ebertsuggested: \"To give the movie credit, it's as bored with the underlying plot as we are. Even the prom queen election is only a backdrop for more interesting material, asShe's All Thatexplores differences in class and style, and peppers its screenplay with very funny little moments.\" Ebert says it \"is not a great movie, but it has its moments\", giving it 2.5 out of 4 stars.Stephen HoldenofThe New York Timespraised Cook for her performance, comparing her toWinona Ryder, saying, \"Unlike so many actors playing smart young people, she actually projects some intelligence along with a sly sense of comedy.\" Mick LaSalleof theSan Francisco Chroniclecalls it",
"Chroniclecalls it \"About one idea short of being an excellent teenage romance. As it stands it's a pleasing but routine effort.\" LaSalle criticized the film for running out of plot about halfway, saying the \"story line is stretched to the breaking point. In one instance, director Robert Iscove stops the action for a long dance sequence, set at the prom, that has nothing to do with anything.\" He commented the film is \"intermittently funny\" and praised Matthew Lillard's performance, calling it the best thing in the picture. Geoff Berkshire ofVarietywas critical of the lack of originality, and wrote, \"Suggesting that Miramax needs to putKevin Williamsonon permanent retainer if it's going to remain in the teen-pics field,She's All Thatnotably fails to bring to comedy the insight that the Williamson-pennedScreambrought so memorably to horror\". Berkshire was positive about the two leads, saying \"appealing young actors come off as competent, nothing more, given a context that can't be transcended.\" He described the",
"He described the direction as \"nothing to be ashamed of here, but nothing of any distinction, either\", and noted the soundtrack as a not unexpected plus.Jane Ganahl of theSan Francisco Examinerwrote, \"And once, just once, I'd love to see a teen flick that doesn't send out a message to young girls that to be acceptable, you have to conform. I liked the artist girl much better before.\" William Thomas ofEmpirecriticized the film, saying that despite a few scenes, \"The rest is just breezy propaganda for American high school fascism\", and \"The most worrying thing aboutShe's All Thatis its message. The 'ugly duckling' (specs, dungarees, art-lover) must conform (she gets a makeover and the boys notice her \"bobos\" for the first time) to fit in.\" Box office She's All Thatpremiered on January 19, 1999 at the Mann Festival Theater inWestwood, Los Angeles.The film went into general release on January 29. The film was released in Italy with the title \"Kiss Me\". The film reached No. 1 at the box office in the first week",
"in the first week of its release, grossing $16.1 million over theSuper Bowlopening weekend.It earned $63.4 million in the United States and $39.8 million at international box offices, totaling $103.2 million worldwide against a production budget between $7–10 million.Miramax spent a further $18 million on television advertising to promote the film. Accolades The film won eight awards, and was nominated for five others. Remake In September 2020, a gender-swapped remake of the film was announced, titledHe's All That, withMark Watersto direct, original screenwriter R. Lee Fleming Jr. to write, and starringAddison RaeandTanner Buchanan.That October,Myra Molloy,Madison Pettis,Peyton Meyer,Isabella Crovetti, and Annie Jacob were cast. In December 2020,Rachael Leigh Cookjoined the cast to portray Rae's character's mother. It has been confirmed that Cook's character is unrelated to her original character.He's All Thatwas released on August 27, 2021, byNetflix. Notes References External links"
] |
How many times taller is the 7th highest mountain the world than Novake, Poljčane in Slovenia? Round your answer to one decimal place. | 31.5 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novake,_Polj%C4%8Dane | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains_on_Earth | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novake,_Polj%C4%8Dane', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains_on_Earth'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novake,_Polj%C4%8Dane",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains_on_Earth"
] | [
"Novake, Poljčane Novake(pronounced) is avillageon the left bank of theDravinja Riverin theMunicipality of Poljčanein northeasternSlovenia. The area belongs to the traditional region ofStyria. It is now included with the rest of the municipality in theDrava Statistical Region. References External links This article about the Municipality ofPoljčaneinSloveniais astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"List of highest mountains on Earth There are at least 108mountainson Earth withelevationsof 7,200 m (23,600 ft; 4.5 mi) or greater abovesea level. Of these, 14 are more than 8,000 m (26,000 ft; 5.0 mi).The vast majority of these mountains are located on the edge of theIndian PlateandEurasian PlateinChina,India,Nepal, andPakistan. The dividing line between a mountain with multiple peaks and separate mountains is not always clear (see alsoHighest unclimbed mountain). A popular and intuitive way to distinguish mountains from subsidiary peaks is by their height above the highest saddle connecting it to a higher summit, a measure calledtopographic prominenceor re-ascent (the higher summit is called the \"parent peak\"). A common definition of a mountain is a summit with 300 m (980 ft) prominence. Alternatively, a relative prominence (prominence/height) is used (usually 7–8%) to reflect that in higher mountain ranges everything is on a larger scale. The table below lists the highest 100 summits with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) prominence, approximating a 7% relative prominence. A drawback of a prominence-based list is that it may exclude well-known or spectacular mountains that are connected via a high ridge to a taller summit, such asEiger,NuptseorAnnapurna IV. A few such peaks and mountains with nearly sufficient prominence are included in this list, and given a rank of \"S\". It is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. As an extreme example,Ulugh Muztaghon the northTibetan Plateauis often listed as 7,723 m (25,338 ft) to 7,754 m (25,440 ft), but appears to be only 6,973 m (22,877 ft) to 6,987 m (22,923 ft). Some mountains differ by more than 100 m (330 ft) on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements ofMount Everestrange from 8,840 m (29,003 ft) to 8,849 m (29,032 ft). These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights. Though some parts of the world, especially the most mountainous parts, have never been thoroughly mapped, it is unlikely that any mountains this high have been overlooked, becausesynthetic aperture radarcan andhas beenused to measure elevations of most otherwise inaccessible places. Still, heights or prominences may be revised, so that the order of the list may change and even new mountains could enter the list over time. To be safe, the list has been extended to include all 7,200 m (23,622 ft) peaks. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, butDenali,Mount KilimanjaroandNanga Parbatare possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this considerationMauna Kea(4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is theworld's tallest mountain andvolcano, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from thePacific Oceanfloor.Mount LamlamonGuamis periodically claimed to be among the world's highest mountains because it is adjacent to theMariana Trench; the most extreme claim is that, measured fromChallenger Deep313 kilometres (194 mi) away, Mount Lamlam is 11,530 metres (37,820 ft) tall.Ojos del Saladohas the greatest rise onEarth: 13,420 m (44,029 ft) vertically to the summitfrom the bottom of theAtacama Trench, which is about 560 km (350 mi) away, although most of this rise is not part of the mountain. The highest mountains are also not generally the most voluminous.Mauna Loa(4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 5,200 km2or 2,000 sq mi) and volume (about 42,000 km3or 10,000 cu mi), although, due to the intergrade oflavafromKilauea,HualalaiandMauna Kea, the volume can only be estimated based on surface area and height of the edifice.Mount Kilimanjarois the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (635 km2or 245 sq mi) and volume (4,793 km3or 1,150 cu mi).Mount Loganis the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (311 km2or 120 sq mi). The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because theshape of the Earthis not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several kilometres farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit ofChimborazo,Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit ofPeru's tallest mountain,Huascarán, is another contender.Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 km (1.2 mi) less than that of Everest. Geographical distribution Download coordinates as: Almost all mountains in the list are located in theHimalayaandKarakoramranges to the south and west of the Tibetan plateau. All peaks 7,000 m (23,000 ft) or higher are located inEast,CentralorSouth Asiain a rectangle edged byNoshaq(7,492 m or 24,580 ft) on theAfghanistan–Pakistan borderin the west,Jengish Chokusu(Tuōmù'ěr Fēng, 7,439 m or 24,406 ft) on theKyrgyzstan–Xinjiangborder to the north,Gongga Shan(Minya Konka, 7,556 m or 24,790 ft) inSichuanto the east, andKabru(7,412 m or 24,318 ft) on theSikkim–Nepalborder to the south. As of December 2018, the highest peaks on four of the mountains—Gangkhar Puensum,Labuche Kang III,Karjiang, andTongshanjiabu, all located inBhutanorChina—have not been ascended. The most recent peak to have its first ever ascent isSaser Kangri II East, inIndia, on 24 August 2011. The highest mountainoutside of AsiaisAconcagua(6,961 m or 22,838 ft), the 189th highest in the world. List of world's highest peaks Gallery See also Notes References Sources External links"
] | [
"Novake, Poljčane Novake(pronounced) is avillageon the left bank of theDravinja Riverin theMunicipality of Poljčanein northeasternSlovenia. The area belongs to the traditional region ofStyria. It is now included with the rest of the municipality in theDrava Statistical Region. References External links This article about the Municipality ofPoljčaneinSloveniais astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"List of highest mountains on Earth There are at least 108mountainson Earth withelevationsof 7,200 m (23,600 ft; 4.5 mi) or greater abovesea level. Of these, 14 are more than 8,000 m (26,000 ft; 5.0 mi).The vast majority of these mountains are located on the edge of theIndian PlateandEurasian PlateinChina,India,Nepal, andPakistan. The dividing line between a mountain with multiple peaks and separate mountains is not always clear (see alsoHighest unclimbed mountain). A popular and intuitive way to distinguish mountains from subsidiary peaks is by their height above the highest saddle connecting it to a higher summit, a measure calledtopographic prominenceor re-ascent (the higher summit is called the \"parent peak\"). A common definition of a mountain is a summit with 300 m (980 ft) prominence. Alternatively, a relative prominence (prominence/height) is used (usually 7–8%) to reflect that in higher mountain ranges everything is on a larger scale. The table below lists the highest 100 summits with at least 500 m",
"with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) prominence, approximating a 7% relative prominence. A drawback of a prominence-based list is that it may exclude well-known or spectacular mountains that are connected via a high ridge to a taller summit, such asEiger,NuptseorAnnapurna IV. A few such peaks and mountains with nearly sufficient prominence are included in this list, and given a rank of \"S\". It is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. As an extreme example,Ulugh Muztaghon the northTibetan Plateauis often listed as 7,723 m (25,338 ft) to 7,754 m (25,440 ft), but appears to be only 6,973 m (22,877 ft) to 6,987 m (22,923 ft). Some mountains differ by more than 100 m (330 ft) on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements ofMount Everestrange",
"Everestrange from 8,840 m (29,003 ft) to 8,849 m (29,032 ft). These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights. Though some parts of the world, especially the most mountainous parts, have never been thoroughly mapped, it is unlikely that any mountains this high have been overlooked, becausesynthetic aperture radarcan andhas beenused to measure elevations of most otherwise inaccessible places. Still, heights or prominences may be revised, so that the order of the list may change and even new mountains could enter the list over time. To be safe, the list has been extended to include all 7,200 m (23,622 ft) peaks. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, butDenali,Mount KilimanjaroandNanga Parbatare possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this considerationMauna Kea(4,207 m (13,802",
"Kea(4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is theworld's tallest mountain andvolcano, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from thePacific Oceanfloor.Mount LamlamonGuamis periodically claimed to be among the world's highest mountains because it is adjacent to theMariana Trench; the most extreme claim is that, measured fromChallenger Deep313 kilometres (194 mi) away, Mount Lamlam is 11,530 metres (37,820 ft) tall.Ojos del Saladohas the greatest rise onEarth: 13,420 m (44,029 ft) vertically to the summitfrom the bottom of theAtacama Trench, which is about 560 km (350 mi) away, although most of this rise is not part of the mountain. The highest mountains are also not generally the most voluminous.Mauna Loa(4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 5,200 km2or 2,000 sq mi) and volume (about 42,000 km3or 10,000 cu mi), although, due to the intergrade oflavafromKilauea,HualalaiandMauna Kea, the volume can only be estimated based on surface area and height of the edifice.Mount",
"the edifice.Mount Kilimanjarois the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (635 km2or 245 sq mi) and volume (4,793 km3or 1,150 cu mi).Mount Loganis the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (311 km2or 120 sq mi). The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because theshape of the Earthis not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several kilometres farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit ofChimborazo,Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit ofPeru's tallest mountain,Huascarán, is another contender.Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 km (1.2 mi) less than that of Everest. Geographical distribution Download coordinates as: Almost all mountains in the list are located in theHimalayaandKarakoramranges to the south and west of the Tibetan plateau. All peaks 7,000 m (23,000 ft) or higher are located",
"higher are located inEast,CentralorSouth Asiain a rectangle edged byNoshaq(7,492 m or 24,580 ft) on theAfghanistan–Pakistan borderin the west,Jengish Chokusu(Tuōmù'ěr Fēng, 7,439 m or 24,406 ft) on theKyrgyzstan–Xinjiangborder to the north,Gongga Shan(Minya Konka, 7,556 m or 24,790 ft) inSichuanto the east, andKabru(7,412 m or 24,318 ft) on theSikkim–Nepalborder to the south. As of December 2018, the highest peaks on four of the mountains—Gangkhar Puensum,Labuche Kang III,Karjiang, andTongshanjiabu, all located inBhutanorChina—have not been ascended. The most recent peak to have its first ever ascent isSaser Kangri II East, inIndia, on 24 August 2011. The highest mountainoutside of AsiaisAconcagua(6,961 m or 22,838 ft), the 189th highest in the world. List of world's highest peaks Gallery See also Notes References Sources External links"
] |
Of the four main characters on Seinfeld, which actor is the oldest? | Michael Richards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinfeld | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Seinfeld | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Alexander | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Louis-Dreyfus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Richards | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinfeld', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Seinfeld', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Alexander', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Louis-Dreyfus', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Richards'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinfeld",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Seinfeld",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Alexander",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Louis-Dreyfus",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Richards"
] | [
"Seinfeld Seinfeld(/ˈsaɪnfɛld/SYNE-feld) is an Americantelevision sitcomcreated byLarry DavidandJerry Seinfeldthat originally aired onNBCfrom July 5, 1989, to May 14, 1998, with a total of nine seasons consisting of180 episodes. Itsensemble caststars Seinfeld as afictionalized version of himselfand focuses on his personal life with three of his friends: best friendGeorge Costanza(Jason Alexander), former girlfriendElaine Benes(Julia Louis-Dreyfus), and neighbor from across the hall,Cosmo Kramer(Michael Richards). Seinfeldis set mostly in and around the titular character's apartment inManhattan'sUpper West SideinNew York City. It has been described as \"a show about nothing\", often focusing on theminutiae of daily life.Interspersed in all episodes of the first seven seasons are moments ofstand-up comedyfrom the fictional Jerry Seinfeld, frequently related to the episode's events. As a rising comedian in the late 1980s, Jerry Seinfeld was presented with an opportunity to create a show with NBC. He asked Larry David, a fellow comedian and friend, to help create a premise for a sitcom.The series was produced by West-Shapiro Productions andCastle Rock Entertainmentand distributed byColumbia Pictures Television.It was largely written by David and Seinfeld and scriptwriters. A favorite among critics, the series led theNielsen ratingsin Seasons 6 and 9 and finished among the top two (along withERof the same network) every year from 1994 to 1998. Only two other shows—I Love LucyandThe Andy Griffith Show—finished their runs at the top of the ratings. Seinfeldis widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential shows of all time. It has been ranked among television's best shows in publications such asEntertainment Weekly,Rolling StoneandTV Guide.Its most renowned episodes include \"The Chinese Restaurant\", \"The Soup Nazi\", \"The Parking Garage\",\"The Marine Biologist\", and \"The Contest\".In 2013, theWriters Guild of Americavoted it the second best-written TV series of all time (second toThe Sopranos).E!named it the \"Number 1 reason the '90s ruled\".Quotes from numerous episodes have become catchphrases in popular culture. Production Conception Seinfeldbegan as a 23-minute pilot titled \"The Seinfeld Chronicles\". Created byJerry SeinfeldandLarry David, developed by NBC executive Rick Ludwin, and produced byCastle Rock Entertainment, it was a mix of Seinfeld's stand-up comedy routines and idiosyncratic, conversational scenes focusing on mundane aspects of everyday life like laundry, the buttoning of the top button on one's shirt, and the effort by men to interpret the intent of women spending the night in Seinfeld's apartment. The pilot was filmed at Stage 8 ofDesilu Cahuengastudios, the same studio whereThe Dick Van Dyke Showwas filmed (seen by the crew as a good omen),and was recorded at Ren-Mar Studios inHollywood.The pilot was first screened to a group of two dozen NBC executives inBurbank, California, in early 1989. It did not yield the explosion of laughter garnered by the pilots for the decade's previous NBC successes likeThe Cosby ShowandThe Golden Girls.Brandon Tartikoffwas not convinced the show would work. A Jewish man from New York himself, Tartikoff characterized it as \"Too New York, too Jewish\" (a sentiment which would also lead to the Cosmo character's later surname change from the more Jewish-sounding Kessler to Kramer).Test audiences were even harsher. NBC's practice at the time was to recruit 400 households by phone to ask them to evaluate pilots it aired on an unused channel on its cable system. An NBC research department memo summarized the pilot's performance among the respondents as \"weak,\" whichWarren Littlefield, then second-in-command in NBC's entertainment division, called \"a dagger to the heart.\"Comments included, \"You can't get too excited about two guys going to the laundromat,\" \"Jerry's loser friend George isn't a forceful character,\" \"Jerry needs a stronger supporting cast,\" and \"Why are they interrupting the stand-up for these stupid stories?\"Seinfeld and David did not see the memo for several years, but after they became aware of it, they hung it in a bathroom on the set. Seinfeld comments, \"We thought, if someone goes in to use this bathroom, this is something they should see. It fits that moment.\" Around the time the show's pilot was filmed, Castle Rock Entertainment, which produced the show, had also produced another pilot for NBC that featuredAnn Jillianin her almost-similarly eponymous TV series. WhenThe Seinfeld Chroniclestested poorly with audiences, Castle Rock focused on Jillian's series, which tested better with audiences and received a full-season order.Ann Jillianlasted only a single season of 13 episodes and was off the air by the end of 1990. First seasons When NBC announced its 1989–90 (primetime) schedule in May 1989,The Seinfeld Chronicleswas not included, but the show's supporters did not give up. The pilot first aired on July 5, 1989, and finished second in its time slot against the CBS police dramaJake and the Fatman,receiving aNielsen ratingof 10.9/19.The ratings did not exhibit the regional skew Tartikoff predicted, much to the encouragement of the show's supporters. Ludwin canceled one of theBob Hopespecials budgeted for that season so the entertainment division had the money to order four more episodes ofThe Seinfeld Chronicles, which formed the rest ofthe show's first season(the series was by then retitled toSeinfeld)—a move without whichChicago TribunecolumnistPhil Rosenthallater said there \"would be noSeinfeld\".Although this was a very low order number for a new series—and the smallest sitcom order in TV history—Castle Rock failed to find any other buyers when it shopped the show to other networks, and accepted the order.Seinfelddid not return to the airwaves until May 30, 1990, and it was another three years before it became a Top 5-rated show. Preston Beckman, in charge of NBC's research department at the time, reminisced, \"The show was different. Nobody had seen anything like it. It wasn't unusual for poor-testing shows to get on the air, but it was very rare that they became hits.\" When the program was first repeated on July 5, 1990, it received a rating of 13.9/26. These ratings were high enough to secure a second season.NBC research showed that the show was popular with young male adults, a demographic sought after by advertisers. This gave NBC an incentive to keep broadcasting the show.One DVD reviewer, Britt Gillette, wrote that \"this initial episode exhibits the flashes of brilliance that madeSeinfelda cultural phenomenon.\" Filming Other than the pilot, the series was filmed atCBS Studio CenterinStudio City, Los Angeles. The first three seasons were filmed on Soundstage 19; it then moved to the larger Stage 9 for the remainder of its production.Despite numerous establishing shots taken in New York City,all scenes of the actors walking in New York were also filmed at CBS Studio Center, on their New York Streetbacklot.Street scenes and park scenes were filmed in the CBS Studio Centre's New York Street and Central Park backlots, respectively. A source of problems for the cast was the small sets, especially that of Jerry's apartment; Alexander noted, \"If you knew you were doing a series for nine years, you would never build that set.\" Adding to the problem was that the scripts contained only minimal physical direction, leaving the actors needing help to come up with actions to perform while speaking. Eventually, they got into a routine of directing each other on how to make their movements look natural. Alexander said this helped them build chemistry with each other. Filming usually went long, as the cast and Larry David were perfectionists. If a joke did not elicit the desired reaction, they rewrote it and performed it again. In at least one case, \"The Marine Biologist,\" this led to David writing an entirely new scene requiring Alexander to memorize a monologue in only a matter of minutes.Laugh tracks were used only for matching shots, not for artificially adding laughter. Various locations used for establishing shots included Tom's Restaurant at 112th Street and Broadway (Monk's Cafe), Midtown West's Roosevelt Hospital (recurring exterior emergency room scene and indoor scenes in 'The Junior Mint' and 'The Bris'), Cornell Medical Centre at 525 East 68th Street, 22-39 37th Street, Queens (The Costanza's house), the Taconic State Parkway exit to the Hopewell Junction, Dutchess County, New York (driving scene in 'The Bubble Boy'), and the Amagansett farmers market, Long Island ('The Hamptons'). The exterior shot used for Jerry's New York apartment building was actually located at 757 S New Hampshire Avenue, Los Angeles. The real-life exterior of Pendant Publishing, Elaine's workplace, is located at 1325 Ave of the Americas, New York. The live stand-up comedy performed by Seinfeld at the beginning of most episodes was truly filmed at The Improv, a comedy club at 358 West 44th Street, Manhattan; though it closed in 1993, another comedy club operates at the site today.TheYankee Stadiumexterior seen in the show has now been demolished. Most office building establishing shots are real businesses and locations. Various real street locations can be gleaned from the car windows during driving scenes. By the final season, each episode of the series cost $3 million to $3.5 million. More than 120 episodes make reference to theSupermanfranchise.Teri Hatcher, who played Lois Lane onLois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, plays Jerry's girlfriend Sidra.Paula Marshall, who played Christina Riley ontheSuperboyTV series, portrays the journalist Sharon, who Jerry says reminds him of Lois Lane.Sherman Howard, who played Lex Luthor onSuperboy, portrays Roy. Superman logos and figurines frequently appear in Jerry's apartment. Seinfeld and Superman later appear in an American Express commercial. The show was written by David and Seinfeld, along with writers who includedLarry Charles,Peter Mehlman,Gregg Kavet,Carol Leifer,David Mandel,Jeff Schaffer,Steve Koren,Jennifer Crittenden,Tom Gammill,Max Pross,Dan O'Keefe,Charlie Rubin,Marjorie Gross,Alec Berg,Elaine Pope, andSpike Feresten. Series overview Plotlines ManySeinfeldepisodes are based on the writers' real-life experiences, with the experiences reinterpreted for the characters' storylines. For example, George's storyline in \"The Revenge\" is based on Larry David's experience atSaturday Night Live.\"The Contest\" is also based on David's experiences. \"The Smelly Car\" storyline is based on Peter Mehlman's lawyer friend, who could not get a bad smell out of his car. \"The Strike\" is based on Dan O'Keefe's dad, who made up his own holiday:Festivus.Other stories take a variety of turns. \"The Chinese Restaurant\" consists of George, Jerry, and Elaine waiting for a table throughout the entire episode.\"The Boyfriend\", revolving aroundKeith Hernandez, extends through two episodes. \"The Betrayal\" is famous for usingreverse chronologyand was inspired by a similar plot device in aHarold Pinterplay,Betrayal.Some stories were inspired by headlines and rumors, as explained in the DVD features \"Notes About Nothing\", \"Inside Look\" and \"Audio Commentary.\" In \"The Maestro,\" Kramer's lawsuit is roughly similar to theMcDonald's coffee case.\"The Outing\" is based primarily on rumors that Larry Charles heard about Jerry Seinfeld's sexuality. Themes The series was often described as \"a show about nothing.\"However, in 2014, Seinfeld stated: \"The pitch for the show, the real pitch, when Larry and I went to NBC in 1988, was we want to show how a comedian gets his material. The show \"about nothing\" was just a joke in an episode many years later, and Larry and I to this day are surprised that it caught on as a way that people describe the show because, to us, it's the opposite of that.\"David similarly commented: \"I like taking the worst qualities that a person has and trying to make something funny out of it. Doesn't everybody do terrible things and have terrible thoughts? Just by trying to be as funny, you're going to deal with a lot of things that are real, so the show's really about something. The whole thing about the show being about nothing is ridiculous.\" Much of the show's humor is based upon repeated use of irony, incongruity, and (oftentimes unfortunate) coincidences. Additionally, guest characters are frequently introduced with little to no context, with a humorous focus on the atypical names of these characters, which often contain alliteration. In keeping with Seinfeld's reputation as a clean comedian,though the show frequently contains dialogue around sexual themes, the show notably avoids using almost all explicit sexual terminology. Notably, in the popular episode \"The Contest,\" whose plot line concerns a contest amongst the main characters to see which one can go the longest without masturbating, the word 'masturbation' is never mentioned.Seinfeldbroke several conventions of mainstream television. David is credited with refusing to follow a predictable sitcom formula that would have a romantic relationship develop between Jerry and Elaine. The show offers no growth or reconciliation to its characters and eschews sentimentality.An episode is typically driven by humor interspersed with the superficial conflicts of characters with peculiar dispositions. Many episodes revolve around the characters' involvement in the lives of others, with typically disastrous results. On the set, the notion that the characters should not develop or improve throughout the series was expressed as the \"no hugging, no learning\" rule.The characters are \"thirty-something singles with vague identities, no roots, and conscious indifference to morals.\"Also unlike most sitcoms, there are no moments ofpathos; the audience is never made to feel sorry for any of the characters. Even Susan's death in \"The Invitations\" elicits no genuine emotions from anybody in the show.Seinfelddoes not shy away from making light of tough topics, from death to illness to disability. The show frequently engages in fourth-wall-breaking humor and self-satire. One such example is thestory arc, where the characters promote a TV sitcom series namedJerry. Theshow within a show,Jerrywas much likeSeinfeldin that it was \"about nothing,\" and Seinfeld played himself. The fictionalJerrywas launched in the Season 4 finale, but unlikeSeinfeld, it wasn't picked up as a series.Jerryis one of many examples ofmetafictionin the show. There are no fewer than 22 fictional movies featured, likeRochelle, Rochelle.Because of these several elements,Seinfeldbecame the first TV series sinceMonty Python's Flying Circusto be widely described aspostmodern. Seinfeld is an avidAbbott and Costellofan and has citedThe Abbott and Costello Showas an influence onSeinfeld: \"Everybody on the show knows I'm a fan. We're always joking about how we do stuff from their show. George and I will often get into a riff that has the rhythm from the old Abbott and Costello shows. And sometimes, I'll hit George in the chest the way Abbott would hit Costello.\" The series includes numerous references to the team. George Costanza's middle name is \"Louis\", after Costello.\"The Old Man\" episode features a cantankerous character named \"Sid Fields\" as a tribute to the landlord on the team's TV show. Kramer's friend is named Mickey Abbott. A copywriter for the J. Peterman catalog is named Eddie Sherman, after the team's longtime agent. In Episode 30, Kramer hears the famous Abbott and Costello line, \"His father was a mudder. His mother was a mudder.\" Catchphrases Many terms were coined, popularized, or re-popularized in the series' run and have become part of popular culture,including \"Yada, yada, yada\",\"No soup for you!\", \"Master of my domain\", and \"Not that there's anything wrong with that.\" The lexicon of Seinfeldian code words and recurring phrases that evolved around particular episodes is referred to asSeinlanguage, which is also the title of Jerry Seinfeld's best-selling book on humor.These terms include \"man hands\", \"shrinkage\", \"regift\", and \"double dip\". Consumer products A recurring feature ofSeinfeldwas its inclusion of specific products, especiallycandy, as plot points. These might be a central feature of a plot (e.g.,Junior Mints,Twix,Chuckles,Jujyfruits, bite-sizeThree Musketeers,Snickers,Chunky,Oh Henry!,Drake'sCoffee Cake andPEZ), or an association of candy with a guest character (e.g.Oh Henry!bars) or simply a conversational aside (e.g.,Chuckles,Clark Bar,Twinkies). A large number of non-candy products were also featured throughout the series. The show's creators claim that they weren't engaging in a product placement strategy for commercial gain. One motivation for the use of real-world products, entirely unrelated to commercial considerations, is the comedy value of funny-sounding phrases and words. \"I knew I wanted Kramer to think of watching the operation like going to see a movie,\" explainedSeinfeldwriter/producer Andy Robin in an interview published inThe Hollywood Reporter. \"At first, I thought maybe a piece of popcorn falls into the patient. I ran that by my brother, and he said, 'No, Junior Mints are just funnier.'\" Many advertisers capitalized on the popularity ofSeinfeld.American Expresscreated awebisodewhere Jerry Seinfeld and an animatedSuperman(voiced byPatrick Warburton, who played the role of Puddy) starred in its commercial. The makers of theToday Spongecreated the \"Spongeworthy\" game on their website, inspired by \"The Sponge.\" An advertisement featured Jason Alexander in aChryslercommercial. In this, Alexander acts much like his character George, and his relationship withLee Iacoccaplays on George's relationship with Steinbrenner. Similarly, Michael Richards was the focus of a series of advertisements forVodafone, which ran inAustralia, where he dressed and acted precisely like Kramer, including the trademark bumbling pratfalls. In addition, the show occasionally incorporated fictional products like aScotchbrand called \"Hennigan's\" (a blend of \"Hennessy\" and \"Brannigans\") and acanned meatproduct called \"Beef-a-reeno\" (a parody of \"Beef-a-roni\"). Music A signature ofSeinfeldis its theme music. Composed byJonathan Wolff, it consists of distinct solosampledelectric bassriffs that open the show and connect the scenes, often accompanied bybeatboxing.The bass music eventually replaced the original piano/synth music by Jep Epstein when it was played again after the first broadcast ofthe pilot episode. The show lacked a traditional title track and the riffs were played over the first moments of dialogue or action. They vary throughout each episode and are played in an improvised funk style, matching the timing of Seinfeld's stand-up comedy delivery or transitions in the editing. An additional musical theme with an ensemble, led by a synthesized mid-range brass instrument, ends each episode. In \"The Note,\" the first episode of Season 3, the bumper music featured ascattingfemale jazz singer who sang a phrase that sounded like the tuneEasy To Beat. Jerry Seinfeld and executive producer Larry David both liked Wolff's additions, and three episodes were produced with this new style of music. However, they had neglected to inform NBC and Castle Rock executives of the change, and when the season premiere aired, the executives were surprised and unimpressed and requested that they return to the original style. The subsequent two episodes were redone, leaving this episode as the only one with additional music elements.In the commentary of \"The Note,\" Louis-Dreyfus facetiously suggests it was removed because the perceived lyric related closely to the low ratings at the time.In the final three seasons, the bits were tweaked slightly with more frantic rhythms; a bass guitar was added in addition to the sampled bass from earlier seasons. Throughout the show, the main theme could be restyled in different ways depending on the episode. For instance, in \"The Betrayal,\" part of which takes place in India, the theme is heard played on asitar. The soundtrack was given a digital release on July 2, 2021. All music is composed by Jonathan Wolff. Cast and characters Main characters Recurring characters Many characters have made multiple appearances, notably Jerry's parents, Morty and Helen Seinfeld, who reside in Florida; George's parents, the overbearing Frank and Estelle Costanza; George's on-again, off-again fiancée Susan Ross; Jerry'sUncle Leo; Elaine's variety of bosses, Mr. Lippman, Mr. Pitt and J. Peterman; Elaine's on-again, off-again boyfriend David Puddy; and Kramer's friend,Newman, a mail carrier who lives in the same building and is Jerry's nemesis. In addition to recurring characters,Seinfeldfeatures numerous celebrities who appear as themselves or as girlfriends, boyfriends, bosses, and other acquaintances. A number of actresses made guest appearances as Seinfeld's love interests in single episodes: Episodes Compared to other family and groupsitcomsof the era,Seinfeldstood out. The principal characters are not related by family or work-associated connections but remain distinctly close friends throughout the series. Many characters were based primarily on Seinfeld's and David's real-life acquaintances. Two prominent recurring characters were fictional depictions of actual well-known people:Jacopo Petermanof theJ. Petermancatalog (based onJohn Peterman)andGeorge Steinbrenner, owner of theNew York Yankees.Many characters were introduced as new writers got involved withSeinfeld. Other characters based on real people include theSoup NaziandJackie Chiles, who was based onJohnnie Cochran. Episodes have separate plot strands, but the characters' stories often intertwine at the end. The narratives reveal the creators' \"consistent efforts to maintain the intimacy\" among the small cast of characters. The show maintains a strong sense ofcontinuity, as characters and plots from past episodes are often referenced or expanded on. Occasionally, story arcs span multiple episodes or entire seasons, such asSeason 4, which revolves around thepilotpitch to NBC by Jerry and George. Another example is Jerry's girlfriend Vanessa, who appears in \"The Stake Out\" and with whom he ends the relationship when things do not work out in \"The Stock Tip\".Larry David, the head writer and executive producer for the first seven seasons, was praised for keeping a close eye on minor details and ensuring the main characters' lives remained consistent and believable.Curb Your Enthusiasm, David's later comedy series, also had an overarching plot for all but the first season. A major difference betweenSeinfeldand the sitcoms that preceded it is that the principal characters never learn from their mistakes. In effect, they are indifferent and even callous toward the outside world and sometimes one another. Amantraof the show's producers was \"No hugging, no learning.\"Entertainment Weekly's TV criticKen Tuckerhas described them as \"a group dynamic rooted in jealousy, rage, insecurity, despair, hopelessness, and a touching lack of faith in one's fellow human beings.\"This leads to very few happy endings, except at somebody else's expense. More often in every episode, situations resolve with characters getting a justly deservedcomeuppance. Seasons 1–3 The show premiered asThe Seinfeld Chronicleson July 5, 1989. After it aired, a pickup by NBC seemed unlikely, and the show was offered toFox, which declined to pick it up.Rick Ludwin, head of late night and special events for NBC, however, diverted money from his budget by canceling aBob Hope television special, and the next four episodes were filmed.These episodes were highly rated as they followed summer re-runs ofCheerson Thursdays at 9:30 p.m., and the series was finally picked up. At one point, NBC considered airing these episodes on Saturdays at 10:30 p.m. but gave the slot to a short-lived sitcom calledFMinstead. The series was renamed simplySeinfeldas a precautionary measure due to the failure of the short-lived 1990ABCseries with a similarly sounding title,The Marshall Chronicles.After airing the remaining four episodes of its first season the summer of 1990, NBC ordered 13 more episodes. David believed that he and Seinfeld had no more stories to tell and advised Seinfeld to turn down the order, but Seinfeld agreed to the additional episodes.Season 2 was bumped off its scheduled premiere of January 16, 1991, due to the outbreak of thePersian Gulf War. It settled into a regular time slot on Wednesdays at 9:30 p.m. and eventually flipped with veteran seriesNight Courtto 9 p.m. TV critics championedSeinfeldin its early seasons, even as it was slow to cultivate a substantial audience. For the first three seasons, Jerry's stand-up comedy act would bookend at the beginning and end of each episode, even functioning as transitions during the show. A few episodes set a benchmark for later seasons. \"The Deal\" establishes Jerry and Elaine's relationship by setting rules about having sex while remaining friends.\"The Parking Garage\" was the first episode shot with no audience for the episode and, after \"The Chinese Restaurant\", to not show Jerry's apartment.\"The Keys\" contains a crossover toCBSshowMurphy Brown, marking the first such cooperation between rival networks.\"The Busboy\" introduces George, Kramer and Elaine as having their own storylines for the first time. Although Castle Rock Entertainment's Glenn Padnick thought Seinfeld was too generous, showcasing his co-stars' comedic talent became a trademark throughout the series. Larry Charles wrote an episode for Season 2, \"The Bet,\" in which Elaine buys a gun from Kramer's friend. This episode was not filmed because the content was deemed unacceptable, and it was replaced by the episode \"The Phone Message\".\"The Stranded,\" which aired during Season 3, was initially intended for Season 2. At the beginning of this episode, Jerry clears up the continuity error over George's real estate job. Seasons 4–5 Season 4 marked the sitcom's entry into theNielsen ratingsTop 30. It contains several of the most popular episodes, such as \"The Bubble Boy\" in which George and the bubble boy argue overTrivial Pursuit,and \"The Junior Mint\" in which Jerry and Kramer accidentally fumble a mint in the operating room.This was the first season to use a story arc of Jerry and George creating their own sitcom,Jerry. Also, at this time, the use of Jerry's stand-up act slowly declined, and the stand-up segment in the middle ofSeinfeldepisodes was cut. Much publicity followed the controversial episode \"The Contest,\" anEmmy Award-winning episode written by David, whose subject matter was considered inappropriate for prime-time network TV. To circumvent this taboo, the word \"masturbation\" was never used in the script, instead substituted for by a variety of oblique references.Midway through that season,Seinfeldwas moved from its original 9:00 p.m. time slot on Wednesdays to 9:30 p.m. on Thursdays, followingCheersagain, which gave the show even more popularity. Ratings also sparked the move, asTim Allen's sitcomHome Improvementon ABC had aired at the same time, andHome Improvementkept beatingSeinfeldin the ratings. NBC moved the series afterTed Dansonannounced the end ofCheersandSeinfeldquickly surpassed the ratings of the 9:00 p.m.Cheersreruns that spring.The show won an Emmy Award forOutstanding Comedy Seriesin 1993, beating out its family-oriented, time-slot competitorHome Improvement, which was only in its second season on rival network ABC. Season 5 was an even bigger ratings hit, consisting of popular episodes, such as \"The Puffy Shirt\" in which Jerry feels embarrassed wearing a \"pirate\" shirt onThe Today Show,\"The Non-Fat Yogurt\" featuringRudy Giuliani, theRepublicanthen-mayor-elect of New York,and \"The Opposite\" in which George, doing the opposite of what his instincts tell him he should do, lands a job with the New York Yankees and Elaine leaves \"Pendant Publishing\" because of a comedy of errors that led to its demise. Another story arc has George returning to live with his parents. Amid the story arc, Kramer creates and promotes hiscoffee table book.The show was again nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series, but lost to theCheersspin-offFrasier, then in its first season.Seinfeldwas nominated for the same award every year for its entire run but, after its win at the45th Primetime Emmy Awardsin 1994, always lost toFrasier, which went on to win a record 39 Emmy Awards in its 11-season run. Seasons 6–7 In Season 6,Andy AckermanreplacedTom Cheronesas director of the show. The series remained well regarded and produced some of its most famous episodes, such as \"The Beard\", in which Jerry is put through a lie detector test to make him admit that he watchedMelrose Place;\"The Switch\", in which Kramer's mom, Babs, reveals that his first name is Cosmo;and \"The Understudy\", in which Elaine meets J. Peterman for the first time.Story arcs used in this season were Elaine working as a personal assistant to her eccentric boss Justin Pitt and George's parents' temporary separation. This was the first season in whichSeinfeldreached No. 1 in the Nielsen Ratings. The use of Jerry's stand-up act declined, and the end stand-up segment no longer appeared because the storylines for all four characters grew denser. In Season 7, a story arc involved George getting engaged to his ex-girlfriend, Susan Ross, after the pilotJerryproved unsuccessful. In it, George spends most of the season regretting and trying to get out of the engagement. Along with the regular half-hour episodes, two notable one-hour episodes were \"The Cadillac,\" in which George plans to date award-winning actressMarisa Tomei,and \"The Bottle Deposit,\" with Elaine and Sue Ellen Mischke participating in a bidding war to buy JFK's golf clubs in an auction. Seasons 8–9 Seinfeld'sfinal two seasons were considered distinct from the earlier seasons. Most noticeably, David left the writing crew (but returned to write \"The Finale\" in 1998), resulting in Seinfeld taking over David's duties asshowrunner, and, under the direction of a new writing staff,Seinfeldbecame a faster-paced show. The show no longer contained extracts of Jerry performing stand-up comedy—Jerry had no time or energy for this with his new responsibilities—and storylines occasionally delved into fantasy and broad humor. For example, in \"The Bizarro Jerry\", Elaine is torn between exact opposites of her friends and Jerry dates a woman who has the now-famous \"man hands\".Some notable episodes from Season 8 include \"The Little Kicks\" showing Elaine's horrible dancing,and \"The Chicken Roaster\" which portrays theKenny Rogers Roasterschicken restaurant which opened during that time.A story arc in this season involves Peterman going toBurmain \"The Foundation\"until he recovered from a nervous breakdown in \"The Money\",followed by Elaine writing Peterman's biography in \"The Van Buren Boys\",which leads to Kramer's parody of Kenny Kramer's Reality Tour seen in \"The Muffin Tops\". The final season included episodes like \"The Merv Griffin Show\" in which Kramer converts his apartment into a talk-show studio and plays the character of talk-show host,\"The Betrayal\" that presents in reverse chronological order what happened to Sue Ellen's wedding in India, and \"The Frogger\" in which George pushes aFroggermachine across the street, mimicking the action of the game itself.The last season included a story arc in which Elaine has an on/off relationship withPuddy. Despite the enormous popularity and willingness of the cast to return for a tenth season, Seinfeld decided to end the show after Season 9, believing he would thereby be able to ensure the show would maintain its quality and go out on top.NBC offered Seinfeld $110 million—a record $5 million an episode for a 22-episode tenth season—but he declined. A major controversy caused in the ninth season was the accidental burning of aPuerto Rican flagby Kramer in \"The Puerto Rican Day.\" This scene caused a furor among Puerto Ricans, and as a result, NBC showed this episode only once. Seinfeld defused the protestors by not letting this episode continue in syndication, as revealed in \"Inside Look\" on DVD.However, the episode would be added to the syndicated rerun package several years later uncut. Series finale After nine years on the air, NBC and Seinfeld announced on December 25, 1997, that the series would end production the following spring in 1998. The announcement made the front page of the major New York newspapers, includingThe New York Times.Seinfeld was featured on the cover ofTimemagazine's first issue of 1998.The series ended with a 75-minute episode (cut to 60 minutes insyndication, in two parts) written by co-creator and ex-executive producer Larry David, which aired on May 14, 1998. Before the finale, a 45-minute retrospective clip show, \"The Chronicle,\" was aired. The retrospective was expanded to an hour after the original airing and aired again on NBC as an hour-long episode, and has since aired in syndication. It was the first episode since the finale of Season 7, \"The Invitations,\" to feature opening and closing stand-up comedy acts by Seinfeld. The finale was filmed before an audience of NBC executives and friends of the show. The press and public were shut out of the taping to keep its plot secret; those who attended the shoot of the final episode were required to sign written \"vows of silence.\"The secrecy only seemed to increase speculation about how the series would end. The episode's producers gave false information to the media, spreading a rumor about Newman ending up in the hospital and Jerry and Elaine sitting in a chapel, presumably to marry. The final episode enjoyed a historic audience,estimated at 76.3 million viewers(58% of all viewers that night) making it the fourth-most watched regular series finale in U.S. TV history, behindM*A*S*H,Cheers, andThe Fugitive.However, the finale received mixed reviews from critics and fans of the show. The finale poked fun at the many rumors that were circulating, seeming to move into multiple supposed plots before settling on its actual storyline—a lengthy trial where the gang is prosecuted for violating a \"Duty to Rescue\" law and sentenced to prison terms. According toForbesmagazine, Seinfeld's earnings from the show in 1998 came to US$267 million, including syndication earnings.He refused NBC's offer of $5 million per episode, or over $100 million total, to continue into a tenth season. The offer NBC made to Seinfeld was over three times higher per episode than anyone on TV had ever been offered before.Seinfeld told the network that he was not married nor had children, and wished to focus on his personal life.As reported in July 2007, he was the second-highest earner in the TV industry, earning at the time $60 million a year.The episode became the first to command over $1 million a minute for advertising—a mark previously attained only by theSuper Bowl. Reception and legacy Elizabeth Magnotta and Alexandra Strohl analyze the success ofSeinfeldwith recourse to theincongruity theoryof humor: \"The Incongruity Theory claims that humor is created out of a violation of an expectation. For humor to result from this unexpected result, the event must have an appropriate emotional climate, comprised of the setting, characters, prior discourse, relationships of the characters, and the topic.\"Specifically, Magnotta and Strohl focus on \"The Marine Biologist,\" where George is embroiled in yet another lie, and on \"The Red Dot,\" where George tries to save a few dollars at Elaine's expense by giving her a marked-downcashmeresweater. In \"TranslatingSeinfeld,\" Jennifer Armstrong notes thatSeinfeldis less famous among non-English speakers as its unique style of humor is \"too cultural and word-based to make for easy translation.\"Carol Iannone sums up the legacy of this American hit in herModern Agearticle \"Seinfeld: The Politically Incorrect Comedy\" when she says, \"It may be the first situation comedy truly to achieve the status of art\".Nod Miller, of theUniversity of East London, has discussed the self-referential qualities of the show: Seinfeld is suffused withpostmodernthemes. To begin with, the boundary between reality and fiction is frequently blurred: this is illustrated in the central device of having Jerry Seinfeld play the character Jerry Seinfeld. In the show's fourth season, several episodes revolved around the narrative of Jerry and George (whose character is co-creator Larry David's alter ego) pitching 'a show about nothing' based on the everyday life of a stand-up comedian to NBC. By all accounts, the fictional NBC executives' reaction mirrored the initial responses of those who eventually commissioned Seinfeld. The fourth season ends with'The Pilot', an episode focusing on the casting, taping, and screening of the show-within-the-show,Jerry. This episode also neatly illustrates the self-referential quality, which is one of Seinfeld's hallmarks. The series finale was so replete with references to earlier shows that it could have been more comprehensible to those not already well-versed in the personae and preoccupations of the Seinfeld universe. William Irwinhas edited an anthology of scholarly essays on philosophy inSeinfeld and Philosophy: A Book about Everything and Nothing. Some entries include \"The Jerry Problem and theSocratic Problem,\" \"George's Failed Quest forHappiness: An Aristotelian Analysis,\" \"Elaine's Moral Character,\" \"Kramer the 'Seducer'\", \"Making Something Out of Nothing: Seinfeld,Sophistryand the Tao,\" \"Seinfeld,Subjectivity, andSartre,\" \"Mr. Peterman, theWicked Witch of the West, and Me,\" and \"Minimally Decent Samaritans and Uncommon Law.\" U.S. television ratings Awards and honors Seinfeldhas received awards and nominations in various categories throughout the mid-1990s. It was awarded theEmmyfor Outstanding Comedy Series in 1993,Golden Globe Awardfor Best TV Series (Comedy) in 1994, andScreen Actors Guild Awardfor Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 1995, 1997 and 1998.Apart from these, the show was also nominated for an Emmy award from 1992 to 1998 for Outstanding Comedy Series, Golden Globe award from 1994 to 1998 for Best TV-Series (Comedy), and Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series from 1995 to 1998. The show even received thePeabody Awardin 1993. TV Guidenamed it thegreatest TV show of all timein 2002,and in 2013, the magazine ranked it as the second-greatest TV show.A 2015The Hollywood Reportersurvey of 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people namedSeinfeldas their #5 favorite show.In 2022,Rolling StonerankedSeinfeldas the sixth-greatest TV show of all time.In 2023,VarietyrankedSeinfeldas the eighth-greatest TV show of all time. Distribution Free streaming serviceChannel 4has been runningSeinfeldin its original 4:3 format since February 2020.On April 29, 2015, it was officially announced, duringHulu'supfrontspresentation inNew York, that all nine seasons ofSeinfeldwouldstreamon the platform starting in June 2015.The deal was for around $130 million to $180 million.On May 20, 2015,Huluannounced that every episode would be available starting June 24, 2015.Hulu's streaming rights for the series expired on June 23, 2021.In January 2017,Amazonacquired the UK rights to all seasons ofSeinfeldfor itsAmazon Prime Videostreaming service. On November 8, 2016, the Australian streaming serviceStanannounced viaTwitterthat later in the week all episodes would be available to stream for the first time in Australia.All episodes were available from November 11, 2016, with the remastered versions of all episodes on the service featuring HD and Widescreen enhancements.The widescreen offered was cropped from the original 4:3 format negatives, thus resulting in better visual quality than the previously available DVD version, however, the top and bottom portions of the frame were cut out to achieve the widescreen aspect ratio. In April 2020, all seasons ofSeinfeldwere also made available on-demand via pay television serviceFoxtel, as well as its internet-based alternativeFoxtel Now. In September 2019,NetflixandSony Picturesannounced that Netflix had acquired the exclusive global streaming rights forSeinfeld, starting on October 1, 2021, superseding the above Hulu and Amazon rights. As of 2023, Netflix's version ofSeinfeldis available in4K resolution.The transition was criticized as the show, initially displayed in 4:3 aspect ratio, had been converted to 16:9, resulting in some gags getting cropped, similarly to howThe Simpsonswas initially rendered onDisney+.Netflix has yet to comment on this situation. VHS and DVD releases The hour-long, two-partclip showepisode \"The Highlights of 100\" became the firstSeinfeldepisode available on home video when it was released onVHSin 1995 by food companyGeneral Mills.Sony Pictures Home Entertainment(formerly Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment) released all nine seasons ofSeinfeldonDVDin Regions 1, 2, and 4 between 2004 and 2007.On November 6, 2007,Seinfeld: The Complete Serieswas released on DVD. The complete series box set includes a 2007 \"roundtable\" reunion of the four main cast members and Larry David; only highlights of this were also included in the Season 9 set. The first complete series box set in Australia (Region 4) was released on October 24, 2007. The second boxset was released on December 2, 2008, and was a Collectible Fridge design packaging. On August 5, 2009,another Limited-Edition boxset was released, similar to the first boxset but does not include the book and the packaging was slightly different. On November 23, 2011,an additional Limited-Edition boxset was released. On November 14, 2018,aFestivus Celebration Editionwas released which contained napkins and cups, playing cards and thumb wrestle gadgets. On August 12, 2020,yet anotherComplete Seriesboxset was released. Syndication According toBarry Meyer, chairman ofWarner Bros. Entertainment(parent company of Castle Rock Entertainment),Seinfeldmade $2.7 billion through June 2010 throughoff-network syndicationand cable syndication.As of February 2017the show had made an estimated $4.06 billion in syndication.Steve Bannon, who invested in the show, later said, \"We calculated what it would get us if it made it to syndication. We were wrong by a factor of five\".In September 2019, it was announced thatViacom(nowParamount Global) had acquired cable syndication rights to the series fromTBS, with it airing onComedy Centralbeginning in October 2021,Nick at Nitefrom May 31, 2022, until November 12, 2022, andTV Landsince February 11, 2023. High-definition versions There are twohigh-definitionversions ofSeinfeld. The first is that of the network TV (non-syndicated) versions in the original aspect ratio of 4:3 that were downscaled for the DVD releases. Clips from this high-definition version in its upscale were seen onNBCduringThe Seinfeld Storyspecial.Syndicated broadcast stations and the cable networksTBSandComedy Central(and alsoFox) began airing the syndicated version ofSeinfeldin HD. Unlike the version used for the DVD, Sony Pictures cropped the top and bottom parts of the frame while restoring previously cropped images on the sides from the35mm filmsource to use the entire 16:9 frame. AfterSeinfeld Another scene On the November 1, 2007, episode ofThe Daily Show with Jon Stewart, Jerry Seinfeld mentioned the possibility of shooting one last scene after the characters leave jail. He mentioned that he was too busy to do it at the time, but did not announce what the scene would entail, as its production is not a certainty.In a commentary from the final seasonDVD, Seinfeld outlines that he and Jason Alexander spoke about this scene being in Monk's Cafe, with George saying \"That was brutal\" about the foursome's stint in prison. On an episode ofSaturday Night Livethat Jerry Seinfeld hosted on October 2, 1999, a sketch was produced that showed what life was like for Jerry behind bars after being transferred to the fictional prison portrayed on theHBOseriesOz.The roughly four-minute sketch shows the opening credits for the HBO series with clips of Jerry mixed in doing various activities around the prison. The sketch continues and mixes in different storylines from bothOzandSeinfeldand has Jerry interacting with various characters from the show in his typical quick-witted, sarcastic way. TheSeinfeld\"curse\" Louis-Dreyfus, Alexander, and Richards have all tried to launch new sitcoms as title-role characters. Almost every show was canceled quickly, usually within the first season. This gave rise to the termSeinfeld curse: the failure of a sitcom starring one of the three, despite the conventional wisdom that each person'sSeinfeldpopularity should almost guarantee a strong, built-in audience for the actor's new show. Shows specifically cited regarding theSeinfeld curseare Julia Louis-Dreyfus'sWatching Ellie, Jason Alexander'sBob PattersonandListen Up, and Michael Richards'The Michael Richards Show. This phenomenon was mentioned throughout the second season ofLarry David's HBO programCurb Your Enthusiasm, which aired in 2001. In real life, David has repeatedly dismissed the idea of a curse, saying, \"It's so completely idiotic. It's very hard to have a successful sitcom.\" The success of Louis-Dreyfus in the 2006–2010CBSsitcomThe New Adventures of Old Christine, which included winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesin 2006, led many to believe that she had broken the curse.In her acceptance speech, Louis-Dreyfus held up her award and exclaimed, \"I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this, baby!\"The show producedenough episodesto air inrerunsinsyndicationfor several years, something the other shows did not achieve.TheSaturday Night Liveepisode hosted by Louis-Dreyfus made references to the curse. Nevertheless, the series' ratings declined soon after, and it was canceled after the fifth season. She went on to win six further Emmys (for Lead Actress in a Comedy Series) for her acclaimed performance as Vice PresidentSelina Meyerin the HBO comedy seriesVeep. Curb Your Enthusiasm Early in March 2009, it was announced that theSeinfeldcast would reunite forseason sevenofCurb Your Enthusiasm.The cast first appeared in the third episode of the season, all playing fictional versions of themselves. The season-long story is that Larry David tries to initiate aSeinfeldreunion show as a ploy to win back his ex-wife, Cheryl. Along with the four main characters, someSeinfeldsupporting actors likeWayne Knight,Estelle HarrisandSteve Hytnerappeared in the ninth episode at a table read for the reunion show. Although much dialogue inCurb Your Enthusiasmis improvised, the plot was scripted, and theSeinfeldspecial that aired within the show was scripted and directed bySeinfeldregularAndy Ackerman, making this the first time sinceSeinfeldwent off the air that the central cast appeared together in a scripted show. Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee Jerry Seinfeld, Jason Alexander, and Wayne Knight, playing their respectiveSeinfeldcharacters, appeared in a spot presented during halftime ofSuper Bowl XLVIIIon February 2, 2014.Foxcame up with the idea of doing such a spot, due in part to the Super Bowl's location being New York City adjacent that year.An uncut version appeared onCrackle.comimmediately afterward, as an episode ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffeetitled \"The Over-Cheer,\" establishing Seinfeld's character on the series as an older version of hisSeinfeldcharacter.Although the spot was used to advertise Seinfeld's web series, it was not considered a commercial, as Sony, which produces the series, did not pay for it.While Seinfeld indicated that the webisode would probably be the last cast reunion, saying, \"I have a feeling you've seen the final coda on that very unique experience,\"since then,Michael RichardsandJulia Louis-Dreyfushave also appeared in episodes. Notes References General references External links",
"Jerry Seinfeld Jerome Allen Seinfeld(/ˈsaɪnfɛld/SYNE-feld; born April 29, 1954) is an Americanstand-up comedian, actor, writer, and producer. As a stand-up comedian, Seinfeld specializes inobservational comedy. Seinfeld has receivednumerous accoladesincluding aPrimetime Emmy Award, aGolden Globe Awards, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for fourGrammy Awards. In 2004,Comedy Centralnamed him the 12th-greatest stand-up comedian of all time.In 2017,Rolling Stonenamed him the 7th-greatest stand-up comedian of all time. Seinfeld gained stardom playinga semi-fictionalized version of himselfin theNBCsitcomSeinfeld(1989–1998), which he co-created and wrote withLarry David. Seinfeld earned aGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedyin 1995. The show is one of the most acclaimed and popular sitcoms of all time.He has since created and produced the reality seriesThe Marriage Ref(2010–2011), and created and hosted the web seriesComedians in Cars Getting Coffee(2012–2019), the latter of which earned him threeWebby Awards. He also co-produced, co-wrote, and starred in theDreamWorksanimated filmBee Movie(2007) and theNetflixcomedyUnfrosted(2024). He has released four standup specials his first beingStand-Up Confidential(1987) followed byI'm Telling You for the Last Time(1998),Jerry Before Seinfeld(2017) and23 Hours to Kill(2020). Seinfeld has also written three books starting withSeinLanguage(1993), followed by the children's bookHalloween(2002), and the comedic compilation bookIs This Anything?(2020). He is an avid fan ofcoffeeandautomobiles. He practicestranscendental meditation. He is married to author and philanthropistJessica Seinfeld, with whom he has three children. Early life and education Seinfeld was born on April 29, 1954,to a Jewish family inBrooklyn, New York City.His father, Kalmen Seinfeld,a sign painter, was from Hungary and collected jokes that he heard while serving inWorld War II.His mother, Betty (née Hosni)and her parents, Selim and Salha Hosni,wereMizrahi JewsfromAleppo,Syria. Their nationality was stated as Turkish when they immigrated in 1917, as Syria was under theOttoman Empire.Seinfeld has an older sister, Carolyn.Salha's mother Garez Dayan, Seinfeld's great-grandmother, was a member of the Dayan rabbinic family, who claim ancestry back to theMedievalExilarchs, and from the Exilarchs back to the BiblicalKing David.Seinfeld's second cousin isalternative metalmusician and actorEvan Seinfeld.Seinfeld grew up inMassapequa, New York, and attendedMassapequa High SchoolonLong Island.At 16, he spent timevolunteeringinKibbutzSa'arin Israel.He attended theState University of New York at Oswego, and transferred after his second year toQueens College, City University of New York, from which he graduated in 1976 with a degree in communications and theater. Career 1976–1987: Rise to prominence Seinfeld developed an interest instand-up comedyafter brief stints in college productions. He appeared onopen-micnights at Budd Friedman's Improv Club while attendingQueens College.After graduation in 1976, he tried out at an open-mic night at New York City'sCatch a Rising Star, which led to an appearance in aRodney DangerfieldHBOspecial.In 1980, he had a small recurring role on the sitcomBenson, playing Frankie, a mail-delivery boy who had comedy routines that no one wanted to hear. Seinfeld was abruptly fired from the show due to creative differences.Seinfeld said that he was not told he had been fired until he arrived for a read-through session and found that there was no script for him.In January 1981, he performed stand-up onAn Evening at the Improv.In May, Seinfeld made an appearance onThe Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, impressingCarsonand the audience, leading to frequent appearances on that show and others, includingLate Night with David Letterman.On September 5, 1987, his first one-hour specialStand-Up Confidentialaired live onHBO. 1988–1998:Seinfeldand stardom Seinfeld createdThe Seinfeld ChronicleswithLarry Davidin 1988 forNBC. It was renamedSeinfeldto avoid confusion with the short-lived teen sitcomThe Marshall Chronicles. By its third season,Seinfeldhad become the most watched sitcom on American television. The final episode aired in 1998, and the show has been a popularsyndicatedre-run ever since. NBC offered Seinfeld $110 million—a record $5 million an episode for a 22-episode tenth season—but he declined.Along with Seinfeld, the show starredSaturday Night LivealumnaJulia Louis-Dreyfusand established actorsMichael RichardsandJason Alexander. Alexander played George, a caricature ofLarry David. Seinfeld is the only actor to appear in every episode. 1998–2010: Established career After he ended his sitcom, Seinfeld moved back toNew York Cityand returned to stand-up comedy instead of staying inLos Angelesand furthering his acting career. In 1998, he went on tour and recorded a comedy special, titledI'm Telling You for the Last Time. The process of developing and performing new material at clubs around the world was chronicled in a 2002 documentary,Comedian, which also featured fellow comicOrny Adamsand was directed by Christian Charles. Seinfeld has written several books, mostly archives of past routines. In the late 1990s,Apple Computercame up with the advertising slogan \"Think different\" and produced a 60-second commercial to promote the slogan. This commercial showed people who were able to \"think differently,\" such asAlbert Einstein,Mahatma Gandhi,Martin Luther King Jr., and many others. It was later cut short to 30 seconds and altered such that Seinfeld was included at the end, although he had not been in the original cut. This shorter version of the commercial aired only once, during theseries finaleofSeinfeld. In 2004, Seinfeld appeared in two commercialwebisodespromotingAmerican Express, titledThe Adventures of Seinfeld & Superman.In these, Seinfeld appeared with a cartoon rendering ofSuperman, to whom reference was made in numerous episodes ofSeinfeldas Seinfeld's hero, voiced byPatrick Warburton(characterDavid PuddyonSeinfeld). The webisodes were directed byBarry Levinsonand aired briefly on television. Seinfeld and \"Superman\" were also interviewed byMatt Lauerin a specially recorded interview for theTodayshow. On November 18, 2004, Seinfeld appeared at theNational Museum of American Historyto donate the \"puffy shirt\" he wore in theSeinfeldepisodeof the same name. He also gave a speech when presenting the \"puffy shirt,\" saying humorously that \"This is the most embarrassing moment of my life.\"On May 13, 2006, Seinfeld had a cameo appearance onSaturday Night Liveas host Julia Louis-Dreyfus' assassin. Louis-Dreyfus in her opening monologue mentioned the \"Seinfeld curse.\" While talking about how ridiculous the \"curse\" was, astage lightsuddenly fell next to her. The camera moved to acatwalkabove the stage where Seinfeld was standing, holding a large pair of bolt cutters. He angrily muttered, \"Damn it!\" upset that it did not hit her. Louis-Dreyfus continued to say that she is indeed not cursed. On February 25, 2007, Seinfeld appeared at the79th Academy Awardsas the presenter for \"Best Documentary.\" Before announcing the nominations, he did a monologue about the unspoken agreement between movie theater owners and movie patrons.On October 4, 2007, Seinfeld made a guest appearance as himself in the30 Rockepisode \"SeinfeldVision.\"On February 24, 2008, at the80th Academy Awards, Seinfeld appeared as thevoiceof hisBee Movieanimated character Barry, presentingBest Animated Short Film. Before announcing the nominees, he showed a montage of film clips featuring bees, saying that they were some of his early work (as Barry). On June 2, 2008, amidst his spring 2008 tour, Seinfeld performed in his hometown of New York City for a one-night-only show at theHammerstein Ballroomto benefitStand Up for a Cure, a charity aidinglung cancerresearch atMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. In August 2008, theAssociated Pressreported that Jerry Seinfeld would be the pitchman forWindows Vista, as part of a $300-million advertising campaign by Microsoft. The ads, which were intended to create interest for Windows in support of the subsequent \"I'm a PC\" advertisements, began airing in mid-September 2008. They were cut from television after three installments; Microsoft opted to continue with the \"I'm a PC\" advertisementsand run the Seinfeld ads on the Microsoft website as a series of longer advertisements.In March 2009, it was announced that Seinfeld and the entire cast ofSeinfeldwould be appearing for a reunion in Larry David's HBO seriesCurb Your Enthusiasm. The fictional reunion took place in theseventh season'sfinaleand starred most of the original cast, includingJulia Louis-Dreyfus,Jason Alexander,Michael Richards, in a multiple-episode arc.Seinfeld appeared on an episode of theStarzoriginal seriesHead Case. As was the case in many of his previous guest appearances on sitcoms, he played himself. InAustralia, Seinfeld appeared on a series of advertisements for theGreater Building Society, abuilding societybased inNew South Walesand southeasternQueensland.His appearance in these ads was highly publicized and considered a coup for the society, being the third time Seinfeld had appeared in a television commercial.The advertisements were filmed in Cedarhurst,Long Island, with the street designed to emulate Beaumont Street inHamilton, where the Greater's head offices are located.Seinfeld also wrote the scripts for the 15 advertisements that were filmed. The ads largely aired in the Northern New South Wales television market, where the society has most of its branches. Seinfeld was the first guest onJay Leno's talk showThe Jay Leno Show, which premiered on September 14, 2009. Seinfeld was featured onSaturday Night Live'sWeekend Updatesketch to do the \"Really!?!\" segment withSeth Meyers. He executive produced and regularly appeared as a panelist inThe Marriage Ref. On August 30, 2010, Seinfeld made a surprise guest appearance onThe Howard Stern Show, ending the feud the two had in the early 1990s. Seinfeld toured the U.S. in 2011 and made his first stand-up appearance in theUnited Kingdomin 11 years. In July 2011, he was a surprise guest onThe Daily Show, helpingJon Stewartto suppress his urge to tell \"cheap\" \"Michele Bachmann's husband acts gay\" jokes.Seinfeld also launched a personal archives website at JerrySeinfeld.com and appeared in theHBOspecialTalking Funnywith fellow comediansChris Rock,Louis C.K., andRicky Gervaisin the same year. 2011–present: Talk show and expansion In 2012, Seinfeld started a web series titledComedians in Cars Getting Coffee, in which he would pick up a fellow comedian in a different car each episode and take them out for coffee and conversation. The show originally aired on theCracklestreaming service and then was bought byNetflix. The initial series consisted of ten episodes lasting from 7 to 25 minutes each. The show has continued to get high-profile guests such asAlec Baldwin,Mel Brooks,Bill Burr,Dave Chappelle,Louis C.K.,Larry David,Ellen DeGeneres,Tina Fey,David Letterman,Jerry Lewis,Steve Martin,John Mulaney,Eddie Murphy,Carl Reiner,Don Rickles,Chris Rock,Howard Stern, andJon Stewart.The show has also hostedSeinfeldalumsLarry David,Julia Louis-Dreyfus,Jason Alexander, andMichael Richards. Season seven featured its most high-profile guest, then-PresidentBarack Obama.In a farewell tribute video for the Obamas before the President left office, Seinfeld stated, \"That knocking on theOval Officewindow. That probably was the peak of my entire existence.\" In 2014, Seinfeld toldDavid Lettermanhe invitedWoody Allento be on the show but hadn't heard back.That same year he also revealedJoan Riverswas supposed to be a guest on the show before she died due to a botched medical procedure.Seinfeld signed a deal withNetflixin January 2017 that included placingSeinfeldandComedians in Cars Getting Coffeeon their streaming service as well as two new Seinfeld stand-up specials and the development of scripted and non-scripted comedy programming.As part of the deal, all episodes ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffeewere made available on the streaming service, in addition to a new 24-episode season.The series was nominated for fivePrimetime Emmy Awardsand won threeWebby Awards. It's very important to know what you don't like. A big part of innovation is saying, \"You know what I'm really sick of?\" For me, that was talk shows where music plays, somebody walks out to a desk, shakes hands with the host, and sits down. \"How are you?\" \"You look great.\" I'm also sick of people who are really there to sell their show or product. \"What am I really sick of?\" is where innovation begins. –Seinfeld, talking about his process of innovation. In June 2013, Seinfeld appeared on rapperWale's albumThe Gifted, on the song \"Outro About Nothing.\"Seinfeld received coverage for his speech at the 2014Clio Awardsceremony, where he received an honorary award, as media reporters said that he \"mocked\" and \"ripped apart\" the advertising industry; his statement that \"I love advertising because I love lying\" received particular attention.In 2014, Seinfeld hosted the specialDon Rickles: One Night Onlyat theApollo Theatre. The event celebratedDon Ricklesand his career, but also served as a roast among friends. Those who participated in the event includedJon Stewart,David Letterman,Tina Fey,Amy Poehler,Nathan Lane,Regis Philbin,Robert De Niro, andMartin Scorsese.On February 15, 2015, Seinfeld made a guest appearance on theSaturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special, where he hosted the \"Questions from the Audience\" segment, which included cameos fromMichael Douglas,John Goodman,James Franco,Larry David,Ellen Cleghorne,Dakota Johnson,Tim Meadows,Bob Odenkirk, andSarah Palin(who Seinfeld initially mistook forTina Fey).On May 20, 2015, Seinfeld made a guest appearance onDavid Letterman's finalLate Showepisode. Seinfeld joined guests includingAlec Baldwin,Barbara Walters,Steve Martin,Jim Carrey,Chris Rock,Julia Louis-Dreyfus,Peyton Manning,Tina Fey, andBill Murraywho all participated in The Top Ten List segment, \"Things I've Always Wanted to Say to Dave.\" In January 2017, Seinfeld went onThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallonand joinedDave ChappelleandJimmy Fallonin honoring outgoing First LadyMichelle Obama, and played a game ofCatchphrase, which Obama and Fallon won to Seinfeld's dismay.On September 19, 2017, Netflix released the stand-up comedy specialJerry Before Seinfeld. It follows Seinfeld as he returns for a stand-up routine at theNew York Citycomedy club,Comic Strip Live, which started his career.It is intercut with documentary clips and his stand-up special. It was later released as an LP, CD and download album, and was nominated for a 2018Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album.In 2020, it was announced that Netflix would be releasing Seinfeld's first original stand-up special in 22 years,23 Hours to Kill. The special premiered on May 5.In October 2020, Seinfeld joinedSteve Martinin a discussion about comedy atThe New Yorker Festival. They discussed subjects ranging from the creative process,Netflix, andThe Oscars, to their comedy backgrounds, and the future of comedy during theCOVID-19 pandemic. In 2024 he directed, co-wrote, and produced in theNetflixcomedy filmUnfrosted, a satirical spoof about the creation ofPop-Tarts. Seinfeld also starred in the film alongsideMelissa McCarthy,Jim Gaffigan, andHugh Grant. The film earned mixed reviews withThe Hollywood Reporterwriting the film received a \"sharply divided reaction from critics\".The New York Timeslabeled it a \"Critic's Pick\" with Anne Nicholson describing it as a \"full-fledged, fully ridiculous feature comedy targeted to the audience’s sweet-and-salty dopamine receptors\".David Ehrlich ofIndieWirewrote that the \"comedy never heats up\" and \"it’s a movie about so many different things at once that it comes to feel like a movie about nothing\".Seinfeld appeared as a guest onJohn Mulaney Presents: Everybody's in LAwhere he joked that it was \"the weirdesttalk showI've ever been on in my life\".He also embarked on a new tour starting with his first show in Singapore in June 2024followed by a number of stops in Australia and North America.Seinfeld returned toCurb Your Enthusiasmin its final season reuniting withLarry Davidwhere they poked fun at the controversial ending ofSeinfeld. Ben Travers ofIndieWirewrote, \"If theCurbfinale is meant to rewrite theSeinfeldending in any way, it’s during that first scene between Jerry and Larry. They’re playing out the kind of scene they used to write for Jerry and George, and getting that silly, joyful spark between two TV legends — even for a moment — is pure bliss\". Books Seinfeld wrote the bookSeinLanguage, released in 1993. Written as his television show was first rising in popularity, it is primarily an adaptation of his stand-up material. The title comes from an article inEntertainment Weeklylisting the numerous catchphrases for which the show was responsible.In 2002, he wrote thechildren's bookHalloween. The book was illustrated by James Bennett.Seinfeld wrote the forewords toTed L. Nancy'sLetters from a Nutseries of books andEd Broth'sStories from a Moron.Seinfeld also wrote the foreword to thePeanut Butter & Co.Cookbook. In October 2020, Seinfeld released his new bookIs This Anything?. The book chronicles Seinfeld's 45 years working in comedy and contains many of his best bits that span from various decades. Influences Seinfeld has stated, \"On theMount Rushmoreof stand-up comedy, there are four faces, in my opinion:Richard Pryor,George Carlin,Bill Cosby, andDon Rickles.\"Seinfeld has also cited as his influencesJean Shepherd,Mad Magazine,Jonathan Winters,Jerry Lewis,Robert Klein, andAbbott and Costello.He stated, \"Monty Pythonwas a gigantic influence on me. They were just about silly, funny things that meant nothing, and that’s the stuff I love. There’s a wonderful childlike freedom in those kinds of things.\" In theNetflixcomedy special,Jerry Before Seinfeld, he displayed his personal comedy albums collection from when he was a teenager.These albums included: In an interview withEntertainment Weekly, Seinfeld stated his five favorite films areThe Heartbreak Kid(1972),The Graduate(1967),The In-Laws(1979),A Night at the Opera(1935), andGlengarry Glen Ross(1992). Those influenced by Seinfeld includeJohn Mulaney,Ellen DeGeneres,Jim Gaffigan,Judd Apatow,Issa Rae,Nate Bargatze,andMark Normand.OnThe Late Show with Stephen Colbert,Steve Martindescribed Seinfeld as one of his \"retro heroes\" saying \" a guy who came up behind me and is better than I am. I think he's fantastic, I love to listen to him, he almost puts me at peace. I love to listen to him talk\". Personal life Seinfeld is a fan of theNew York Mets, and periodically callsSteve Somers' show onWFAN-AM, asports talk radiostation, as \"Jerry from Queens.\"Seinfeld called four innings of a Mets game onSportsNet New Yorkon June 23, 2010, reuniting with analystKeith Hernandez, who appeared in theSeinfeldtwo-part episode entitled \"The Boyfriend.\"According to Seinfeld, he thinks about baseball \"all day\" and has said \"when I think of retirement, all I would think of is going to a baseball game every day.\" Seinfeld is left-handed and the first joke he ever wrote was about the topic.In a 2014 interview withNBC News, he made statements suggesting that he believed he was on theautism spectrum.However, following criticism for his allegedself-diagnosis, he later clarified that he is not autistic and had been commenting on a play about the condition that he \"related to on some level.\" Relationships and marriage Years beforeSeinfeldwas created, Seinfeld datedCarol Leifer.She was a fellow comedian, and one of the inspirations for theSeinfeldcharacterElaine Benes.On national television with sex therapist and talk show host Dr.Ruth Westheimer, he mentioned that he was engaged in 1984 but called it off. In May 1993, days after his 39th birthday, Seinfeld met 17-year-oldShoshanna Lonsteinin Central Park.After a brief conversation, Lonstein gave Seinfeld her phone number.Lonstein was still a senior in high school and would turn 18 at the end of that month.Seinfeld and Lonstein dated for approximately four years, until 1997.She transferred fromGeorge Washington UniversitytoUCLA, in part to be with him, and cited constant press coverage and missing New York City as reasons for the relationship ending. The age difference led to intense media scrutiny. While Seinfeld was a guest onHoward Stern's talk show, Stern said, \"so, you sit in Central Park and have a candy bar on a string and pull it when the girls come?\" at which point Seinfeld replied, \"she's not 17, definitely not.\"A few months later, in his second Howard Stern interview, Seinfeld insisted, \"I didn't realize she was so young. This is the only girl I ever went out with who was that young. I wasn't dating her. We just went to a restaurant, and that was it.\"Early in their relationship,Spymagazine referred to Lonstein as \"a legal voter\". In an October 1993Playboyinterview, Seinfeld described the reactions to the relationship as ranging \"from horrified to just busting buttons with pride that they know me\", noting that his female acquaintances had overall reacted more negatively than his male ones. He said that his assistant \"was so mad\" she punched him, whereas his mother was \"thrilled\". He concluded, \"if she's 18, if she's intelligent, that's fine\".In March 1994, Seinfeld again defended their age difference in an interview withPeople, stating that \"Shoshanna is a person, not an age.\"Julia Louis-Dreyfus said in a 1998New Yorkinterview that she was in favor of the relationship, as \"it was a happy one for him\", and added that she did not believe there was anything wrong with it. In August 1998, while at a Reebok Sports Club, Seinfeld metJessica Sklar, apublic relationsexecutive forTommy Hilfigerwho had just returned from a three-week honeymoon inItalywith then-husband Eric Nederlander, a theatrical producer and scion of atheater-owning family. Unaware of Sklar's marital status, Seinfeld invited her out. When Sklar eventually told Seinfeld about her relationship situation, she said, \"I told him I didn't think this was the right time for me to be involved with anybody.\" Two months later, Sklar filed for divorce and began dating Seinfeld. The pair married on December 25, 1999.ComedianGeorge Wallacewas the best man at the wedding.After the nuptials, Jerry and Jessica Seinfeld boughtBilly Joel's house inAmagansett,Long Island, for US$32 million after news of the couple's interest in the property became public in 2000.The Seinfelds have a daughter and two sons. Wealth and charity In 1999, Seinfeld auctioned a Breitling Chronomat watch as part of the \"Famous Faces, Watch Auction For Charity\" event in New York City. This watch sold for $11,000.In 2001, Jerry and Jessica Seinfeld created the charitable organizationThe Good+Foundationafter their first child was born. Good+Foundation grants donations of products and services to programs that have demonstrated a capacity to address family poverty in three focus areas: supporting new mothers, investing in early childhood, and engaging fathers. GOOD+ Foundation has donated over $42M worth of items through its partner network across the United States.Seinfeld has also participated inJon Stewart's charity event,Night of Too Many Stars. According toForbesmagazine, Seinfeld's cumulative earnings fromSeinfeldas of 2004 was $267 million, placing him at the top of the celebrity earnings list that year.He turned down $5 million per episode, for 22 episodes, to continue the show for a 10th season.Seinfeld earned $100 million from syndication deals and stand-up performances in 2004, and $60 million in 2006.He also earned $10 million for appearing withBill GatesinMicrosoft's 2008 advertisements forWindows.Between June 2008 and June 2009, Seinfeld earned $85 million, making him the world's highest-paid comedian during those 12 months.In 2013,Forbesdocumented Seinfeld's annual income as $32 million.In mid-2013, Seinfeld disputedForbes'sclaims regarding his income and net worth onThe Howard Stern Show.Seinfeld was ranked byForbesthe highest-paid comedian for 2015, the second-highest-paid in 2016, and the highest-paid again in 2017.Seinfeld's income between June 2016 and June 2017 was $69 million. In 2024,Bloombergdeclared Seinfeld a billionaire, with a net worth standing at more than $1 billion, thanks to various syndication deals his sitcom signed, with $465 million coming from those deals. Automobiles Seinfeld is an automobile enthusiast and collector, and he owns a collection of about 150 cars, including a largePorschecollection.He rented a hangar at theSanta Monica AirportinSanta Monica, California, for an extended period during the 1990s for storage of some of the vehicles in the collection.In 2002, Seinfeld purchased property on theUpper West SideofManhattaninNew York Citywhere he built a $1.4 million two-story garage to store part of his Porsche collection on the East Coast.One tally has Seinfeld owning 43 Porsches.Paul Bannister has written that Seinfeld's collection includesPorsche 911sfrom various years, 10Porsche Boxsterseach painted a different color, and the 1955Porsche 550 Spyder, the same model and pearl-grey color that actorJames Deanhad been driving before he crashed that car and subsequently died. TheDiscovery Channeltelevision showChasing Classic Carsclaimed that Seinfeld owns the first and last produced air-cooled Porsche 911s. The centerpiece is a $700,000Porsche 959, one of only 337 built. He was originally not allowed to drive it, because the car was \"notstreet legal.\" U.S. emissions and crash tests had not been performed for the model because Porsche refused to donate four Porsche 959s for destruction tests. Seinfeld imported the car \"for exhibition purposes,\" on the stipulation that it may never be driven on U.S. roads.The car was made U.S. street legal in 1999 under the \"Show or Display\" federal law.Seinfeld wrote an article for the February 2004 issue ofAutomobile, reviewing thePorsche Carrera GT. In 2008, Seinfeld was involved in a car accident when the brakes on his 1967Fiat 500failed and, to avoid an intersection, he pulled the emergency brake while turning sharply, ultimately causing the car to flip onto its side. No one was hurt. Coffee machines A coffee aficionado, Seinfeld owns multipleespresso machines, including the $17,000 Elektra Belle Epoqueand two machines manufactured by Slayer andBreville.Seinfeld described his single-group Slayer machine, which costs upwards of $8,500, as a \"beautiful machine.\"WhenNPRasked him about the influence ofcoffee culture in the U.S., Seinfeld responded in 2013: I never liked and I didn't understand it and I used to do a lot of stuff in my stand-up set in the '80s and '90s about how I don't 'get' coffee. And then something happened about five years ago. I started touring a lot, and we would have these great big, fun breakfasts in the hotel and just seemed to go really well . , I've just started this espresso thing. In a May 2024GQinterview titled \"10 Things Jerry Seinfeld Can't Live Without\", Seinfeld revealed that aBialettimoka potis one of his must-haves. He described the process of making coffee with a moka pot as complex and time-consuming, but a pleasurable way to \"waste time\". Religion and politics Seinfeld is Jewish and has incorporated elements of hisJewish identityin his work.Although he shared that his mother was born into a large family of Syrian Orthodox Jews, he admitted to being non-religious himself.Seinfeld stated that he took aScientologycourse when he was in his 20s; he said that he found it interesting but that he did not pursue it any further. Seinfeld expressed support forIsraelduring theIsrael–Hamas war, saying \"I will always stand with Israel and the Jewish people.\"Seinfeld and his family previously drew criticism, travelling to the West Bank in 2018 to participate in a terrorism simulation camp.Seinfeld also visited the headquarters ofAbducted and Missing Families Forumwhere he met with representatives of the families and with abductees who returned from Hamas captivity, and listened to their stories.On May 12, 2024, Seinfeld gave acommencement addressand received an honorary degree atDuke University. During his speech, a number of students booed, wavedPalestinian flagsand walked out in protest.In June 2024, Seinfeld was heckled by protesters during a comedy show inSydney, Australia. Seinfeld responded joking, \"You’re really influencing everyone here. We’re all on your side now, because you’ve made your point so well, and in the right venue, you’ve come to the right place for a political conversation\". Seinfeld has made several political contributions, including toGeorge W. Bush's andAl Gore's presidential campaigns in2000, and subsequently to fourDemocratic Partyprimary candidates in 2000 and2004. Seinfeld has expressed his distaste forpolitical correctnessandwokeculture. In 2015, Seinfeld stated that he avoids performing on college campuses because students have become too easily offended by his comedic routines.In a 2024 interview withThe New Yorker, Seinfeld claimed political correctness was destroying comedy, saying, “This is the result of theextreme leftand PC crap, and people worrying so much about offending other people. When you write a script and it goes into four or five different hands, committees, groups — 'Here's our thought about this joke' — well, that's the end of your comedy.”Months later, he walked back those comments on the \"Breaking Bread\" podcast, stating \"I don't think, as I said, 'the extreme left' has done anything to inhibit the art of comedy. I'm taking that back officially.\" Seinfeld said he regrets his previous comments because changing cultural attitudes are \"not business.\" Transcendental Meditation In December 2012, Seinfeld said that he had been practicingTranscendental Meditationfor 40 years. He promoted the use of the technique in the treatment ofpost-traumatic stress disorderwithBob Rothof theDavid Lynch Foundationin December 2012 onGood Morning America,and also appeared at a 2009 David Lynch Foundation benefit for TM, at whichPaul McCartneyandRingo Starrappeared.On November 5, 2015, the David Lynch Foundation organized a benefit concert at New York City'sCarnegie Hallcalled \"Change Begins Within\" to promote transcendental meditation for stress control. \"It's been the greatest companion technique of living that I've ever come across, and I'm thrilled to be part of this movement that seems to have really been reinvigorated by Bob andDavid Lynch,\" Seinfeld said. \"I would do anything that I could to promote it in the world, because I think it's the greatest thing as a life tool, as a work tool and just making things make sense.\" Filmography Film Television Music videos Video games Directing Writing Writing credits forSeinfeld The list below only includes episodes mainly written by Seinfeld, as he (and Larry David in Seasons 1 through 7) rewrote the drafts for each episode. Comedy releases Stand-up specials Stand-up appearances References Awards and nominations Over his career he has receivednumerous accoladesincluding aPrimetime Emmy Award, aGolden Globe Award, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for fourGrammy Awards. Seinfeld has received an HonoraryDoctorate of Humane Lettersfrom Queens College (1994)as well as an HonoraryDoctor of ArtsfromDuke University(2024) Discography Bibliography References External links",
"Jason Alexander Jay Scott Greenspan(born September 23, 1959),known professionally asJason Alexander, is an American actor and comedian. Over the course of his career he has received anEmmy Awardand aTony Awardas well as nominations for fourGolden Globe Awards. He gained stardom for his role asGeorge Costanzain theNBCsitcomSeinfeld(1989–1998), for which he won aScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Seriesand was nominated for seven consecutivePrimetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Seriesand fourGolden Globe Awards for Best Supporting Actor in Television. Alexander made hisBroadwaydebut originating the role of Joe inStephen Sondheim'sMerrily We Roll Alongin 1981. He remained active on Broadway acting in the musicalsThe Rinkin 1984,Personalsin 1985, and theNeil SimonplayBroadway Boundin 1986. He then starred inJerome Robbins' Broadwayin 1989, for which he won theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He appeared in the Los Angeles production ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers. He was the artistic director of \"Reprise! Broadway's Best in Los Angeles\", where he has directed musicals. His film roles includePretty Woman(1990),Coneheads(1993),North(1994),The Last Supper(1995),Dunston Checks In(1996),Denial(1998),Shallow Hal(2001), andWild Card(2015). He voiced thegargoyleHugo in the Disney filmThe Hunchback of Notre Dame(1996) and the2002 sequelas well as the titular role inDuckman(1994–1997). For his role inDream On(1994) he was nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. He also acted inCurb Your Enthusiasm(2001, 2009), andThe Marvelous Mrs. Maisel(2019). Early life and education Greenspan was born inNewark, New Jerseyto a Jewish family, the son of Ruth Minnie (née Simon), a nurse and health care administrator, and Alexander B. Greenspan, an accounting manager. Greenspan later borrowed his father's first name to create his stage name, Jason Alexander. Alexander grew up inMaplewoodandLivingston, New Jersey, and is a 1977 graduate ofLivingston High School.Interested in magic from an early age, he initially hoped to be a magician, but while attending a magic camp was told that his hands were too small for card magic. He became interested in theater, eventually realizing, \"Wait a minute—the whole thing's an illusion. Nothing up there is real\" and that theater itself was \"a magic trick\". He then decided to pursue a theater career. After high school, he studied theater atBoston University. He wanted to pursue classical acting, but a professor redirected him toward comedy after noticing his physique, remarking, \"I know your heart and soul areHamlet, but you will never play Hamlet.\"Alexander left Boston University without a degree after his third year to take a full-time acting job in New York City. The university awarded him an honorary degree in 1995. Career 1980–1999: Broadway debut andSeinfeld Alexander began his acting career on the New York stage and is an accomplished singer and dancer. Alexander made his film debut in 1981 in the summer campslasher filmThe Burning. OnBroadwayhe appeared inStephen Sondheim'sMerrily We Roll Alongin 1981,Kander&Ebb'sThe Rinkin 1984,Neil Simon'sBroadway Boundin 1986,Accomplicein 1990, andJerome Robbins' Broadwayin 1989, for which he garnered the 1989Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical.Frank RichofThe New York Timeswrote of his performance \"Jason Alexander, the evening's delightful narrator, accomplishes the seemingly impossible: he banishes the memory ofZero Mostelfrom the role ofPseudolusinA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum\". In addition to his roles as an insensitive, money-hungry lawyer inPretty Womanin 1990, Alexander has appeared inJacob's Ladderin 1990,The Last Supperin 1995,Dunston Checks Inin 1996,Love! Valour! Compassion!in 1997, andLove and Action in Chicagoin 1999. Alexander starred in several commercials during the 1980s. Among them were commercials forHershey's Kiss; Delta Goldpotato chips;Miller Litebeer;McDonald'sMcDLThamburger;Pabst Blue Ribbonbeer;Levi's501 jeans;Sony WatchmanTV; andWestern Unionwire transfer.BeforeSeinfeld, Alexander appeared in commercials for John Deere and McDonald's and in the short-livedCBSsitcomEverything's Relative(1987). Alexander is best known as one of the key cast members of the award-winning television sitcomSeinfeld, where he played the bumblingGeorge Costanza(Jerry Seinfeld's character's best friend since childhood). He was nominated for sevenPrimetime Emmy Awardsand fourGolden Globe Awardsfor the role, but did not win any, mainly due to his co-starMichael Richardswinning for his role asCosmo Kramer. He did, however, win the 1995Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series. Concurrently with hisSeinfeldrole, he had a part in the ABC sitcomDinosaursas Al \"Sexual\" Harris (who frequently engaged insexual harassment) as well as other characters from 1991 to 1994. Alexander voiced the lead character in the animated seriesDuckman(1994–1997) and voicedCatbert, the evil director of human resources, in the short-lived animated seriesDilbertfrom 1999 to 2000, based on the then-popular comic strip.In January 1995, he did a commercial forRold Goldpretzels to be broadcast during theSuper Bowl. The commercial depicts him withFrasierdog Eddie jumping out of an airplane with a parachute over the stadium. After the commercial, the audience is brought back to a supposedly live feed of the playing field hearing startled sports commentators as Alexander and the dog land in the field to wild applause. Alexander appeared in the 1995 TV version of theBroadwaymusicalBye Bye Birdie, as Conrad Birdie's agent, Albert Peterson. He guest-starred in episode 8 of the 1996 variety showMuppets Tonight.He voiced thegargoyleHugo inDisney's 1996animated filmThe Hunchback of Notre Dameand its direct-to-video sequel,The Hunchback of Notre Dame II. Alexander voiced the characterAbis Malin the 1994 filmThe Return of Jafarand the 1994-1995TV seriesbased on the 1992 filmAladdin. In 1997, he appeared inCinderella, a remake ofRodgers and Hammerstein's Cinderella,alongsideWhitney Houston,Brandy Norwood, andWhoopi Goldberg. His other Disney voice work includesHouse of Mousein 2001 and the 2012 video gameKingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance.He has dabbled in directing, starting with 1996'sFor Better or Worseand 1999'sJust Looking. In 1999, Alexander presided over theNew York Friars Club Roastevent honoringJerry Stiller, who played his father onSeinfeld; it featured appearances byKevin JamesandPatton Oswalt, both Stiller's costars onThe King of Queens. Alexander appeared in the 1999Star Trek: Voyagerepisode \"Think Tank\" as Kurros, a genius alien trying to getSeven of Nineto serve on his ship. 2000–2009: Solo-lead sitcoms and return to theatre Despite a successful career in film and stage, Alexander did not repeat hisSeinfeld-level of success in television. The year 2001 marked his appearance as inept womanizer Mauricio inShallow Haland his first post-Seinfeldreturn to prime-time television: the heavily promoted but short-livedABCsitcomBob Patterson, which was canceled after five episodes. Alexander partially blames the show's failure on the country's mood after9/11.Alexander made cameo appearances as himself in 2001 in the second season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm, and he appeared in the show's seventh season with his three principalSeinfeldco-stars.He was featured in theFriends2001 episode \"The One Where Rosita Dies\" as Earl, a suicidalsupply manager.Phoebecalls him trying to sell himtoner, learns about his problem, and tries to persuade him not to commit suicide. This is referenced in an episode ofMalcolm in the Middlewhere Alexander appears as Leonard, a neurotic and critical loner. He describes himself as \"free\" and says he makes money \"selling toner over the phone\". Later in the episode, he is repeatedly harassed by a man named George. He appeared in \"One Night at Mercy\", the first episode of the short-lived2002 revival ofThe Twilight Zone, playingDeath. He played the toymakerA.C. Gilbertin the 2002 filmThe Man Who Saved Christmas. He appeared inKentucky Fried Chicken(KFC) commercials in 2002, including one withBarry Bondsof theSan Francisco Giantsand another withTrista RehnofThe Bachelorette. It was rumored that he quit doing these commercials due to KFC suppliers andslaughterhouses' allegedcruelty to animals, but he denied that in an interview withAdweek, saying, \"That'sPETAbullcrap. I loved working for KFC. I was targeted by PETA to broker something between them. I think KFC really stepped up to the plate; unfortunately PETA did not.\" In 2007, Alexander appeared in a commercial for theASPCAthat aired on cable TV stations.In 2018, Alexander portrayedColonel Sandersin commercials forKFC, reprising his role from the 2002 campaign. In 2003, he was cast oppositeMartin Shortin the Los Angeles production ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers.He appeared withKelsey Grammerin the 2004musical adaptationofCharles Dickens'sA Christmas Carol, asJacob Marley. Alexander's second chance as a TV series lead, theCBSsitcomListen Up(2004–05), also fell short of a second season. Alexander was the principal executive producer of the series, based very loosely on the life of the popular sports-media personalityTony Kornheiser. He performed on theFamily Guy: Live in Vegas2005 album. Alexander continued to appear in live stage shows, includingBarbra Streisand's memorable birthday party in 2005 for Stephen Sondheim at the Hollywood Bowl, where he performed selections fromSweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet StreetwithAngela Lansbury.He featured in the 2005Monkepisode \"Mr. Monk and the Other Detective\" as Monk's rival,Marty Eels. In a 2006 appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!, Alexander demonstrated several self-defense techniques. Also that year, he hosted thePBS\"A Capitol Fourth\" celebrations in Washington, D.C., singing, dancing, and playing tuned drums. Alexander was featured as a recurring cast member in the second season ofEverybody Hates Chris. He hosted theComedy Central Roast of William Shatner. He was the artistic director of Reprise Theatre Company in Los Angeles from 2007 until it went defunct in 2013,where he previously directedSunday in the Park with George, and directed its 2007 revival ofDamn Yankees.In 2007, Alexander was a guest star in the third episode of theimprov comedyseriesThank God You're Here. He has been a frequent guest and panelist onBill Maher'sPolitically Incorrectin 1995, 1997 and 2000andReal Timein 2006, 2009 and 2012;Hollywood Squaresin 1999, 2002 and 2004;theLate Late Showin 2003, 2012, 2014 and 2015, withCraig Kilborn,Craig Ferguson, andJames Corden;Late Show with David Lettermanin 1989, 2000, and 2002;The Late Show with Stephen Colbertin 2015;andThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallonin 2015.In 2008, Alexander guest-starred in theseason fourepisode \"Masterpiece\" of theCBSshowCriminal Mindsas Professor Rothschild,a well-educatedserial killerobsessed with theFibonacci sequencewho sends the team into a race against time to save his last victims.He returned in the same season to direct the episode \"Conflicted\", featuring the actorJackson Rathbone. Alexander hosted the LOL Sudbury opening night gala inSudbury, Ontario, Canada in 2008, which was simulcast throughout Canada at 60 Cineplex theaters, a first for any comedy festival. He has lent his voice to several episodes of theTwilight Zone Radio Dramas. In 2008 and again in 2009, Alexander frontedJason Alexander's Comedy Spectacular, a routine exclusive to Australia. The show consists of stand-up and improvisation and incorporates Alexander's musical talent. He is backed up by several well-known Australian comedians. His first time performing a similar show of this nature was in 2006'sJason Alexander's Comedy Christmas. In February/March 2010, Alexander starred in his show,The Donny Clay Experience, at thePlanet Hollywood ResortinLas Vegas,Nevada. Donny Clay, whom he has portrayed in a tour of the United States and Orillia, Ontario, is aself-helpguru in a similar mold to hisBob Pattersoncharacter. In 2009, he playedJosephin theThomas Nelsonaudio Bible productionThe Word of Promise. The project featured a large ensemble of actors, includingJim Caviezel,Lou Gossett Jr.,John Rhys-Davies,Jon Voight,Gary Sinise,Christopher McDonald,Marisa Tomei, andJohn Schneider.In 2009, Alexander had a small role in the filmHachi: A Dog's Taleas a train station manager. 2010–present He starred asCosmoin the 2011 live action filmA Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner!. In 2011, Alexander was the guest star in an episode ofHarry's Law, playing a high school teacher bringing a wrongful dismissal suit.In 2015, he replacedLarry Davidas the lead in David'sBroadwayplayFish in the Dark.He co-starred oppositeSherie Rene Scottin the 2017 world premiere ofJohn Patrick Shanley'sThe Portuguese Kidat theManhattan Theatre Club.In 2018, Alexander played Olix the bartender inThe Orville.The same year, he portrayed Gene Lundy, a drama teacher, on two episodes ofYoung Sheldon. In 2020, 2021 and 2022, he reprised the role of Gene Lundy on one episode. In 2019, Alexander appeared onThe Marvelous Mrs. Maiselas Asher Friedman, a blacklisted Broadway playwright who is an old friend of Midge Maisel's father Abe Weissman.He won theDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Original Song for \"The Bad Guys?\" onBrainwashed By Toons(2020). In 2020, Alexander hosted theSaturday Night Seder, an online Passover Seder that featured many celebrities and benefited theCDC Foundation. From February 2023 he co-presentedReally? No, Really?, a weekly podcast in which he, co-host Peter Tilden, and their guests attempt to find answers \"to life’s most baffling, intriguing, confusing and annoying questions\".In July 2023, he made his Broadway directing debut with Sandy Rustin's comedyThe Cottage. The cast includesEric McCormack,Laura Bell BundyandLilli Cooper.In 2023, on the December 21 primetime CBS specialDick Van Dyke: 98 Years of Magic, Alexander performed two songs in conjunction with dance-performers and closed the show with a spoken tribute to Van Dyke. Personal life Alexander has been married to Daena E. Title, cousin of directorStacy Title, since May 31, 1982.They have two sons, Gabrieland Noah. Alexander performed amentalismand magic act atThe Magic Castlein Hollywood, California, from April 24 to 30, 2006, and he was later named The Academy of Magical Arts Parlor Magician of the Year for this act. He won the academy's Junior Achievement Award in 1989. Charity Alexander was the national spokesman for theSclerodermaFoundation, a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those who are afflicted.In summer 2005, he appeared withLee Iacoccain ads forDaimlerChrysler. Iacocca did the ads as part of a way to raise money forDenise Faustman's research onautoimmunity.Iacocca and Alexander both have loved ones whose lives have been adversely affected by autoimmunity. Alexander competed on televised poker shows and in various tournaments. He appeared twice onBravo'sCelebrity Poker Showdown, winning the final table of the 8th season. Alexander won the $500,000 prize for the charity of his choice, TheUnited Way of America, to help benefit the New Orleans area. Alexander played in the2007 World Series of Pokermain event, but he was eliminated on the second day. He returned in 2009, making it to day 3 of the event and finishing in the top 30% of the field. Alexander has appeared on NBC'sPoker After Darkin the \"Celebrities and Mentors\" episode, finishing in 6th place after being eliminated by professional poker playerGavin Smith. He signed withPokerStars, where he plays under the screen name \"J. Alexander\". In 2021, Alexander competed in a virtual National Poker Tournament, hosted by theChildren's Tumor Foundation, to raise money forNeurofibromatosisresearch. Political views Alexander has been a prominent public supporter of theOneVoiceinitiative, which seeks out opinions from moderateIsraelisandPalestinianswho want to achieve a mutual peace agreement, through what it states is the silent majority of Israelis and Palestinians. This has been criticised by The Electronic Intifada as \"promoting what many Palestinians see as \"a false peace that fails to address the structural injustices driving the conflict\", and as a fake peace group which \"manufactures consent for Israeli apartheid\".OnReal Time with Bill Maher, he said he had visitedIsraelmany times and spoke about progress toward peace he had observed. On December 6, 2012 Alexander emceed his thirdgala event for non-profit groupFriends of the Israel Defense Forces, a charity supporting theIsrael Defense Forces.MusicianStevie Wondercancelled his performance at the event following a recommendation from the UN,and a public petition fromBoycott, Divestment and Sanctions(BDS) requesting that he not attend the event.Alexander who was interviewed at the event by Jewish News Syndicate stated he supported theOneVoice Movement, and acknowledged an occupation of Palestine and called for a two-state solution,which was later criticised by Roz Rothstein, CEO of the pro-Israel education group StandWithUs.When asked about the IDF, Alexander stated that they were humane and noble, stating \"some of the finest, most humane, most admirable, most noble-serving soldiers that I've ever seen\" and that \"there can never be any doubt that I am also an advocate for Israel\".When asked about why he had repeatedly emceed the event, Alexander stated: \"They don’t understand first of all what is, and they see it as just a blanket support for Israeli military, and they don’t understand how I can say that I’m an advocate for both sides,” he said. “And given the fact that there are eyes on this event tonight, I thought it was important to get up and say, 'This is why I can advocate for this group and I can advocate for Israel, and I’m not blind to the fact that we’re in conflict, and I hold everyone equally accountable, and I hold everyone equally to my heart.'\" On November 6, 2015 he again emceed an event at theThe Beverly Hilton Hotelin California, which raised $31 million for the, \"provid educational, cultural and recreational programs and facilities for IDF soldiers.\" Alexander is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.Alexander supportssame-sex marriageand anassault weapons ban.In 2020, he campaigned for theTexas Democratswith formerSeinfeldcolleaguesJulia Louis-Dreyfusand Larry David.He endorsedBarack Obamain2012andJoe Bidenin2020.Alexander has been an outspoken critic of theTrump administrationand he has ridiculedDonald Trumpover his dancing.He has calledRepublican PartysenatorTed Cruza jerk from the \"jerk store\" in reference to a joke fromSeinfeld. Acting credits Film Television Theatre Music videos Video games Director Awards and nominations References External links",
"Julia Louis-Dreyfus Julia Scarlett Elizabeth Louis-Dreyfus(/ˌluːiˈdraɪfəs/LOO-eeDRY-fəs; born January 13, 1961) is an American actress and comedian. Often described as one of the greatest performers in television history,she is widely known for her roles as various characters onSaturday Night Live(1982–1985),Elaine BenesonSeinfeld(1990–1998),Christine CampbellonThe New Adventures of Old Christine(2006–2010), andSelina MeyeronVeep(2012–2019). Herlist of accoladesmakes her one of the most award-winning actresses in American television history,and she has received morePrimetime Emmy Awardsand moreScreen Actors Guild Awardsthan any other performer. Louis-Dreyfus was born in New York City, the daughter of the French billionaireGérard Louis-Dreyfus, and entered comedy as a performer with thePractical Theatre CompanyinChicago. This led to her being cast in the sketch showSaturday Night Live. Her breakthrough came in 1990 with her debut at the start of a nine-season run onSeinfeld, which became one of the most critically and commercially successful sitcoms. In addition to leading roles onThe New Adventures of Old ChristineandVeep, she has made guest appearances on shows such asArrested Development,Curb Your Enthusiasm, and30 Rock. On film, Louis-Dreyfus has had supporting film roles inHannah and Her Sisters(1986),National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation(1989),Deconstructing Harry(1997), andYou People(2023), and leading film roles inEnough Said(2013),Downhill(2020),You Hurt My Feelings(2023), andTuesday(2023). Her voice acting work includesA Bug's Life(1998),Planes(2013), andOnward(2020). Since 2021 she has playedValentina Allegra de Fontainein theMarvel Cinematic Universe. Louis-Dreyfus has received 11 Primetime Emmy Awards (eight for acting and three for producing) in addition to nine Screen Actors Guild Awards and oneGolden Globe Award. She received a star on theHollywood Walk of Famein 2010 and was inducted into theTelevision Academy Hall of Famein 2014. She was named as one ofTimemagazine's100 most influential people in the worldin 2016.She has also received numerous honors including theMark Twain Prize for American Humorin 2018 and theNational Medal of Artsin 2021. Early life Julia Scarlett Elizabeth Louis-Dreyfuswas born inNew York Cityon January 13, 1961.Her mother, Judith (née LeFever), is an American writer andspecial needs educator.Her father,Gérard Louis-Dreyfus(1932–2016), was a French billionaire who served as chairman of theLouis Dreyfus Company. Her paternal grandfather,Pierre Louis-Dreyfus(1908–2011), was president of theLouis Dreyfus Groupcommodities and shipping conglomerate.He was a member of aJewishfamily fromAlsace,and served as acavalryofficer and member of theFrench ResistanceduringWorld War II.Louis-Dreyfus is the great-great-granddaughter of French businessmanLéopold Louis-Dreyfus(1833–1915), founder of the Louis Dreyfus Group, which members of her family still control.She is the fifth cousin four times removed ofAlfred Dreyfus(1859–1935) of the infamousDreyfus affair.Robert Louis-Dreyfus(1946–2009), her father's second cousin, was the CEO ofAdidasand owner of the soccer teamOlympique de Marseille.Julia's paternal grandmother was the daughter of aBrazilian-Jewishfather (whose family wasDutch,English, andPolish). In 1962, a year after her birth, Louis-Dreyfus' parents divorced. She has said that she first noticed her penchant for comedy after sticking raisins up her nose at the age of three, which first made her mother laugh but then led to an emergency hospital visit.After moving toWashington, D.C., when Louis-Dreyfus was four, her mother married L. Thompson Bowles, dean of theGeorge Washington University Medical School;Louis-Dreyfus gained a half-sister,Lauren Bowles, also an actress. Due to her stepfather's work withProject HOPE, she spent her childhood in several U.S. states and countries such asColombia,Sri Lanka, andTunisia.In 1979, she graduated from the all-girlsHolton-Arms SchoolinBethesda, Maryland.She later said of the school, \"There were things I did in school that, had there been boys in the classroom, I would have been less motivated to do. For instance, I was president of the honor society.\" Louis-Dreyfus attendedNorthwestern UniversityinEvanston, Illinois, where she was a member of theDelta Gammasorority. She studied theatre and performed in theMee-Ow Show, a student-run improv and sketch comedy revue, before dropping out during her junior year to take a job atSaturday Night Live.In 2007, she received an honorary doctor of arts degree from Northwestern University. Career 1982–1989: Early career andSaturday Night Live As part of her comedic training, Louis-Dreyfus appeared inThe Second City, one of the best-known improvisational theatre groups. It was her performance withThe Practical Theatre Companyat their \"Golden 50th Anniversary Jubilee\" that led to her being asked to join the cast ofNBC'sSaturday Night Liveat the age of 21. Louis-Dreyfus subsequently became a cast member onSaturday Night Livefrom 1982 to 1985, the youngest female cast member in the history of the program at that time.It was during her third and final year onSNLthat she met writerLarry Davidduring his only year on the show.David later co-createdSeinfeld.Louis-Dreyfus has commented that her casting onSNLwas a \"Cinderella-getting-to-go-to-the-ball kind of experience\";however, she has also admitted that at times it was often quite tense, stating that she \"didn't know how to navigate the waters of show business in general and specifically doing a live sketch-comedy show\". Recurring characters onSaturday Night Live Following her 1985 departure fromSNL, Louis-Dreyfus appeared in several films, includingHannah and Her Sisters(1986) byWoody Allen,Soul Man(1986), andNational Lampoon's Christmas Vacation(1989), in which she starred alongside fellowSNLalumnusChevy Chase. In 1987, Louis-Dreyfus appeared in the NBC sitcom pilotThe Art of Being Nick, an intended spin-off fromFamily TiesstarringScott Valentine. When the pilot did not make it to series, Louis-Dreyfus was retained by producerGary David Goldbergfor a role on his new sitcomDay by Day, as the sarcastic and materialistic neighbor, Eileen Swift. Premiering in early 1988,Day by Dayaired for two seasons on NBC before being cancelled. 1990–1998:Seinfeldand widespread recognition In the early 1990s, Louis-Dreyfus became famous for the role ofElaine Beneson NBC'sSeinfeld. She played the role for nine seasons, appearing in all but three episodes.One of the episodes that she did not appear in was the pilot episode, \"The Seinfeld Chronicles\", because her character was not initially intended to be a part of the series. It was only after the first episode thatNBCexecutives felt the show was too male-centric and demanded that creatorsLarry DavidandJerry Seinfeldadd a woman to the cast. It was revealed in the commentary on the DVD package that the addition of a female character was the condition for commissioning the show. Louis-Dreyfus won the role over several other actresses who also eventually enjoyed TV success, includingPatricia HeatonandMegan Mullally.On the \"Notes About Nothing\" featurette on theDVDpackage, Seinfeld says that Louis-Dreyfus's ability to eat a peanutM&Mwithout breaking the peanut described her: \"She cracks you up without breaking your nuts.\" Louis-Dreyfus garnered critical acclaim for her performance on the series, and she was a regular winner and nominee at television award shows throughout the 1990s. Her performance earned her twoGolden Globe Awardnominations, winning once in 1994, nineScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, winning one in 1995 and two in both 1997 and 1998, and sevenAmerican Comedy Awards, winning five times in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997 and 1998. In 1996, she won thePrimetime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, an award she was nominated for on seven occasions from 1992 to 1998. After receiving the award, Louis-Dreyfus said the win was a \"shocker\", and that after being in both positions, it was \"much better to win than to lose.\" In 1998, Jerry Seinfeld decided to end the series after nine seasons. Theseries finaleaired on May 14 and was one of the most-watched TV events in history, with over 76 million viewers tuning in.During her time onSeinfeld,she appeared in several films, including the comedy filmsFathers' Day(1997), oppositeRobin WilliamsandBilly Crystal, andWoody Allen'sDeconstructing Harry(1997). 1999–2004: Post-Seinfeld Following a voice role in the highly successfulPixarfilmA Bug's Life(1998), Louis-Dreyfus lent her voice asSnake's girlfriend Gloria inThe Simpsonsepisode \"A Hunka Hunka Burns in Love\". In 2001, she made several special guest appearances onSeinfeldco-creatorLarry David's showCurb Your Enthusiasm, playing herself fictionally trying to break the \"curse\" by planning to star in a show in which she would play an actress affected by aSeinfeld-like curse. After several years away from a regular TV job, Louis-Dreyfus began a new single-camera sitcom,Watching Ellie, which premiered on NBC in February 2002. The series was created by husbandBrad Halland co-starredSteve Carelland Louis-Dreyfus's half-sisterLauren Bowles. The initial premise of the show was to present viewers with a \"slice of life\" from the goings-on and happenings of the life of Ellie Riggs, a Southern California jazz singer. The first season included a 22-minute countdown kept digitally in the lower left-hand corner of the screen, which many critics panned, claiming it was useless and \"did nothing for the show.\"Overall, the show received mixed reviews but debuted strongly with over 16 million viewers tuning in for the series premiere, and maintained an average audience of about 10 million viewers per week. When the series returned for a second season in the spring of 2003, it suffered a decline in viewership, averaging around eight million viewers per week. The show had undergone a drastic stylistic change between the production of seasons one and two. The first season was filmed in the single-camera format, but the second season was presented as a traditional multicamera sitcom filmed in front of a live studio audience.With dwindling viewership and failing to retain the numbers from itsFrasierlead-in, the series was cancelled by NBC in May 2003. Following NBC's cancellation ofWatching Ellie, the media began circulating rumors of a so-called \"Seinfeldcurse\", which claimed that none of the formerSeinfeldactors could ever achieve success again in the television industry. Louis-Dreyfus dismissed the rumor as \"a made-up thing by the media\",whileSeinfeldco-creator Larry David asserted that the curse was \"completely idiotic.\"Louis-Dreyfus was interested in the role ofSusan MayeronDesperate Housewives, the role that ultimately went toTeri Hatcher.Instead, Louis-Dreyfus scored a recurring guest role as Maggie Lizer, the deceitful prosecutor and love interest ofMichael Bluthon the Emmy-winning comedyArrested Development, from 2004 to 2005. 2005–2010:The New Adventures of Old Christine In 2005, Louis-Dreyfus was cast in the title role of a new CBS sitcom,The New Adventures of Old Christine.The series and its concept were created by writer and producer ofWill & Grace, Kari Lizer. The series told the story of Christine Campbell, a single mother who manages to maintain a fantastic relationship with her ex-husband while running a women's gym. The series debuted on CBS in March 2006 to an audience of 15 million and was initially a ratings winner for the network. Louis-Dreyfus received considerable critical acclaim for her performance on the show, with Brian Lowry ofVarietystating that Louis-Dreyfus broke the so-called \"Seinfeldcurse with one of the best conventional half-hours to come along in a while.\"Alessandra Stanley fromThe New York Timesasserted that Louis-Dreyfus's performance on the series proved she is \"one of the funniest women on network television.\"Louis-Dreyfus also earned the 2006Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her performance in the first season. Referring to thecurse, she stated in her acceptance speech, \"I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this, baby!\"Throughout the course of the series, she received five consecutiveEmmy Awardnominations, three consecutiveSatellite Awardnominations, twoScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, and a nomination for aGolden Globe Award. In 2007, she also received two nominations for aPeople's Choice Awarddue to her return to popularity, thanks to the success ofOld Christine. In May 2006, Louis-Dreyfus hosted an episode ofSaturday Night Live, becoming the first female former cast member to return to the show as a host.In the episode, she appeared with herSeinfeldco-starsJason AlexanderandJerry Seinfeldin her opening monologue, parodying the so-called \"Seinfeldcurse\".After a successful reception of her 2006 episode, Louis-Dreyfus again hostedSNLon March 17, 2007, and April 17, 2016. Louis-Dreyfus reprised her role as Gloria in twoSimpsonsepisodes: 2007's \"I Don't Wanna Know Why the Caged Bird Sings\" and 2008's \"Sex, Pies and Idiot Scrapes\". In the fall of 2009, she appeared with the rest of the cast ofSeinfeldin four episodes of the seventh season ofLarry David's sitcomCurb Your Enthusiasm. The reunion shows received much media attention, and the episode received strong ratings for the series. In 2009, Louis-Dreyfus was granted the honorary award for Legacy of Laughter at theTV Land Awards. Previous winners had includedLucille BallandMike Myers. She was presented with the award by friendAmy Poehler. The following year, Louis-Dreyfus received the 2,407th star on theHollywood Walk of Fameon May 4, 2010, for her remarkable contribution to the broadcast television industry as both an actress and a comedian. Originally, the star was set with Louis-Dreyfus's name spelled incorrectly. It was missing both the 'o' and the hyphen in her last name.The star was corrected and the misspelled portion was removed and presented to her.Celebrity guests at the event included past and current colleagues from throughout her career, includingClark Gregg, Larry David,Eric McCormack, and Jason Alexander. Old Christinewas cancelled by CBS on May 18, 2010, after 5 years.Discussions were held with ABC to revive the show but they never came to fruition.In the spring of 2010, Louis-Dreyfus guest-starred several times in the third season of the web seriesWeb Therapy, starringLisa Kudrow. Louis-Dreyfus played the sister of the main character, Fiona Wallice, who gives her therapy online. When the series made the transition to cable television on theShowtimenetwork, Louis-Dreyfus's appearance from the web series was included in the second season, airing in July 2012.In fall 2010, Louis-Dreyfus made a guest appearance on the live episode of30 Rock, playingTina Fey's role ofLiz Lemonin the cutaway shots. Louis-Dreyfus was among severalSaturday Night Livealumni appearing in the episode, includingRachel Dratch,Bill Hader, and regularsTracy Morganand Fey herself. Louis-Dreyfus also starred in a \"Women of SNL\" special on November 1, 2010, on NBC. 2011–2019:Veepand acclaim In May and June 2011, Louis-Dreyfus teamed up with husband Brad Hall for her first short film,Picture Paris. This was the first time the couple had collaborated since their early-2000s NBC comedyWatching Ellie. Hall wrote and directed the film, while Louis-Dreyfus played the lead role of an ordinary woman with an extraordinary obsession with the city of Paris. The film premiered on January 29, 2012, at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival, and has received considerable critical acclaim.It made its television premiere on HBO on December 17, 2012. In early 2011, HBO confirmed that Louis-Dreyfus had been cast in the lead role of U.S. Vice President Selina Meyer in a new satirical comedy series titledVeep. The series was commissioned for a first season of eight episodes. In addition to her starring role, Louis-Dreyfus would also be a producer.In preparation for her role, Louis-Dreyfus spoke withAl Goreand another former vice president,senators, speechwriters, chiefs of staffs of various offices, and schedulers.Louis-Dreyfus commended HBO for allowing the cast and crew to engage in a \"protracted pre-production process\", which included a six-week rehearsal period before filming began. The first season was filmed in the fall of 2011, inBaltimore, and the series premiered on April 22, 2012.The premiere episode was met with high praise from critics, particularly for Louis-Dreyfus' performance.The Hollywood Reporterasserted the character of Selina Meyer was her \"best post-Seinfeld role\" to date and claimed she gives \"an Emmy-worthy effort\",while theLos Angeles Timescontended the series demonstrates she is \"one of the medium's great comediennes.\"Following the success of the first season, Louis-Dreyfus was named by theHuffington Postas one of the funniest people of 2012, asserting that she is the \"most magnetic and naturally funny woman on TV since Mary Tyler Moore.\" For her performance onVeep, Louis-Dreyfus received several accolades, most notably seven nominations for thePrimetime Emmy AwardsforOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesbetween 2012 and 2019, winning the award six times.These Emmy wins forVeep, following previous wins forSeinfeldandThe New Adventures of Old Christine, resulted in her becoming the only woman to win an acting award for three separate comedy series.Her sixth win in 2016 surpassed the record previously held byMary Tyler MooreandCandice Bergenfor the most wins in that category.In 2017, her sixth consecutive win, and eighth acting win, overall made her the performer with the most Emmys for the same role in the same series, surpassingCandice BergenandDon Knotts, and put her in a tie withCloris Leachmanfor the most Emmys ever won by a performer.She was also nominated as one of the producers forVeepin thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Seriescategory for all seven seasons, winning the award in 2015, 2016 and 2017 for the fourth, fifth and sixth seasons respectively.Louis-Dreyfus also received fiveCritics' Choice Television Awardnominations, winning twice in 2013 and 2014, tenScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, winning twice in 2014 and 2017, and fiveTelevision Critics Association Awardnominations, winning once in 2014. Her performance additionally garnered her fiveSatellite Awardnominations and five consecutiveGolden Globe Awardnominations. Louis-Dreyfus lent her voice to the 2013 animated filmPlanes, in the role of Rochelle. To date, the film has grossed well over $200 million at the box office worldwide.She also starred in the filmEnough Said, directed byNicole Holofcener, which was released on September 18, 2013.This marked her debut as a lead actress in a full-length feature film. The film garnered rave reviews from film critics, ranking among the best-reviewed films of 2013. The websiteRotten Tomatoesgives the film a score of 96% based on 152 reviews, many of them praising Louis-Dreyfus's performance.She received several Best Actress nominations including for theGolden Globe Awardsand theCritics' Choice Movie Awards. Another review aggregation website, Metacritic, gave the film a score of 78 out of 100, based on 44 critics, signifying \"generally favorable reviews\". Since December 2014, Louis-Dreyfus has appeared in a series of television commercials forOld Navy.In 2015 she acted in theComedy Centralsketch seriesInside Amy SchumeralongsideTina FeyandPatricia Arquette, playing a version of themselves giving advice on aging toAmy Schumer. Dreyfus said of the experience \"I started to feel unbelievably paranoid that I was making fun of myself and wondering, was this really happening to me? Like, how meta is this moment in my life? I started to have a kind of soul-searching crisis in the middle of the day. And I didn't know well enough to bring it up, so I was just trying to be a good sport even though I was dying a little bit on the inside.\"On April 16, 2016, she returned toSaturday Night Liveserving as host for the third time with musical guestNick Jonas. During the episode's cold open, she reprised her role of Elaine Benes fromSeinfeld. 2020–present: Career expansion In 2020, Louis-Dreyfus headlined the comedy-dramaDownhill, oppositeWill Ferrell. The film premiered at the2020 Sundance Film Festivaland was theatrically released on February 14.Next, she voiced a suburban elf mother inPixar'sOnwardoppositeTom HollandandChris Pratt. The film was released on March 6, 2020. In January 2020, Louis-Dreyfus signed a multi-year deal withApple TV+. Under the deal, she will develop new projects for Apple TV+ as both an executive producer and star.The following year Louis-Dreyfus appeared in theDisney+seriesThe Falcon and the Winter Soldier(2021) asValentina Allegra de Fontaine, which is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, though she was originally intended to debut in the filmBlack Widow(where she appears in the post credit scene).She reprised the role inBlack Panther: Wakanda Forever(2022), and will also appear in the upcoming filmThunderbolts*(2025). In 2022 she was a guest on theNetflixshowMy Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman. In 2023 she reunited withNicole Holofcenerstarring in theA24independent comedy filmYou Hurt My Feelings. Dreyfus produced the film and acted alongsideTobias Menzies,Michaela Watkins,Arian MoayedandJeannie Berlin. The film premiered at theSundance Film Festivalto positive reviews.Peter Bradshawpraised her performance writing, \"Louis-Dreyfus is such a superb comic performer that it is interesting seeing her take on something low-key\".That same year she portrayed a liberal Jewish mother in theNetflixromantic comedyYou People(2023). She also starred in the A24 filmTuesday, directed by Daina Oniunas-Pusić,which premiered at the 2023Telluride Film Festival. In 2023, Louis-Dreyfus became host of the podcastWiser Than Me.On the show, she interviews women older than her on their lived experience and earned wisdom. Guests have includedJane Fonda,Carol Burnett,Isabel AllendeandAmy Tan. The show, produced byLemonada Media, was named Apple's Best Podcast of the Year in 2023.Among her season two guests, Louis-Dreyfus interviewsBillie Jean King,Patti Smith, andJulie Andrews. Reception Louis-Dreyfus is widely regarded as one of the finest comedic actresses of her generation.Jake Coyle of theLubbock Avalanche-Journalsaid \"Few comediennes have both her gift for physical comedy ... vocal precision\".According to the journalistMolly Ball, Louis-Dreyfus has played mostly \"funny, self-centered women who are compelling despite often being ill-behaved\". Louis-Dreyfus said she had turned playing unlikeable people into a career.Ball said: \"She has also left an indelible cultural mark, expanding the possibilities for women in comedy–and maybe in politics and public life as well.\" Personal life Louis-Dreyfus' maternal half-sister,Lauren Bowles, is also an actress. She also has two paternal half-sisters, Phoebeand Emma. Emma died in August 2018. While at Northwestern University, Louis-Dreyfus met her future husband, theSaturday Night LivecomedianBrad Hall.They married in 1987 and have two sons.Their older son, Henry Hall, is a singer-songwriter who has performed onThe Tonight Show.Their younger son,Charlie Hall, is an actor.Her first pregnancy ended in a miscarriage. Louis-Dreyfus said she respects \"women who are not afraid of making themselves look bad or foolish to get a laugh\" and cites her acting idols asLucille Ball,Mary Tyler Moore,Madeline Kahn,Teri Garr,Valerie Harper, andCloris Leachman.The actressTina Feysaid that Louis-Dreyfus inspired her characterLiz Lemonon the NBC comedy series30 Rock. On September 28, 2017, Louis-Dreyfus announced that she had been diagnosed withbreast cancer, which she discovered the day after winning aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her role inVeep.She said: \"One in eight women get breast cancer. Today, I'm the one. The good news is that I have the most glorious group of supportive and caring family and friends, and fantastic insurance through my union. The bad news is that not all women are so lucky, so let's fight all cancers and makeuniversal healthcarea reality.\"On October 18, 2018, she announced on an episode ofJimmy Kimmel Live!that she was cancer-free.Louis-Dreyfus was raised Catholic but moved towards agnosticism; she said she had no \"traditional religious affiliation\". Advocacy and politics Louis-Dreyfus supportedAl Gore's 2000 U.S. presidential bid andBarack Obama's bid for the presidency in both 2008and 2012.She appeared in a video that urged Obama to reject the proposal of theKeystone XL pipeline, arguing that if the pipeline ever were to leak, it would cause massive pollution across the U.S.She has voiced her concern for several environmental issues and has raised millions forHeal the Bay, theNatural Resources Defense Council, and theTrust for Public Land. She also worked for the successful passage of Proposition O, which allocated $500 million for cleaning up the Los Angeleswater supply. In October 2010, before theU.S. Senate election in California, Louis-Dreyfus starred in a humorousBarbara Boxerad regardingenergy policy.During the2016 Democratic National Convention, she supportedHillary Clintonin that year'spresidential election.In her acceptance speech at the 2017Screen Actors Guild Awards, she denounced PresidentDonald Trump'sexecutive order, referred to as the \"Muslim ban\", as \"un-American\" and said, \"My father fled religious persecution inNazi-occupied France.\" Louis-Dreyfusemceedthe final night of the2020 Democratic National Convention, endorsingJoe Biden.She has also published information regarding voting by mailand urged all Americans to vote.Louis-Dreyfus endorsed RepresentativeKaren Bassin the2022 Los Angeles mayoral election, in various social media posts. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Julia Louis-Dreyfus has won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesseven times: once for her role onThe New Adventures of Old Christine(2006) and six consecutive awards for playingSelina MeyeronVeep(2012–17), as well asOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesonce forSeinfeld(1996). As of 2017, she holds the record for the most Primetime Emmy awards as an actor for the same role and is tied with fellow Northwestern University alumCloris Leachmanfor the most acting Primetime Emmy awards (with eight). She has also been nominated for nineGolden Globe Awards, winning one for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film for her role asElaine Beneson Seinfeld (1995). She has also been nominated for twenty-oneScreen Actors Guild Awardsand has won five for individual performance (nine altogether) for her work onSeinfeld(1997–98) andVeep(2014, 2017–18). In 2016, she won the Crossover Talent award at the 4th Annual American Reality Television Awards. In 2018 she was the twentieth recipient of theMark Twain Prize for American Humor. In 2023, the podcast she hosts,Wiser Than Me, won Apple's Best Podcast of the Year. References External links",
"Michael Richards Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Michael Anthony Richards(born July 24, 1949) is an American actor and former stand-up comedian. He achieved global recognition for starring asCosmo Krameron the NBC television sitcomSeinfeldfrom 1989 to 1998. He began his career as a stand-up comedian, first entering the national spotlight when he was featured onBilly Crystal's first cable TV special, and went on to become a series regular onABC'sFridays. From 1989 to 1998, he played Cosmo Kramer onSeinfeld, three times receiving thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. During the run ofSeinfeld, he made a guest appearance inMad About You, reprising his role as Kramer. Richards also made numerous guest appearances on a variety of television shows, such asCheers. His film credits includeSo I Married an Axe Murderer,Airheads,Young Doctors in Love,Problem Child,Coneheads,UHF, andTrial and Error, one of his few starring roles. In 2000, he starred in his own sitcom,The Michael Richards Show, which was canceled after only two months. Afterwards, Richards returned to stand-up. In 2006, he was filmed going on a racist tirade against hecklers while performing at theLaugh FactoryinCalifornia. After the tape was obtained and released byTMZ,significant backlash and media coverage led to Richards retiring from stand-up in early 2007. In 2009, he appeared as himself in theseventh seasonofCurb Your Enthusiasmalongside his fellowSeinfeldcast members for the first time since the show’sfinale. In 2013, he portrayed Frank in the sitcomKirstie, which was canceled after one season.He most recently played Daddy Hogwood in the 2019 romantic comedyFaith, Hope & Love. Early life Richards was born inCulver City, California, to aCatholicfamily.He is the son of Phyllis (née Nardozzi), amedical recordslibrarian. As a child Richards was told his father was William Richards, anelectrical engineer,who died in a car crash when Michael was two.He later learned his mother's pregnancy was the result of a sexual assault, and she had considered abortion and adoption before deciding to raise him as a single mom. Richards was also raised by a grandmother who suffered fromschizophrenia. Richards graduated fromThousand Oaks High School. In 1968, he appeared as a contestant onThe Dating Game, but was not chosen for the date. He wasdraftedinto theUnited States Armyin 1970. He trained as a medic and was stationed inWest Germanywhere he was a member of a theatrical group called The Training Road Show.He became interested in performing after taking a theatrical class in seventh grade. After being honorably discharged, Richards used the benefits of theG.I. Billto enroll in theCalifornia Institute of the Artsand earned aBachelor of Artsin drama fromthe Evergreen State Collegein 1975.He also had a short-livedimprovact withEd Begley Jr.During this period, he enrolled atLos Angeles Valley Collegeand continued to appear in student productions. Career 1979–1989: Early career Richards got his big TV break in 1979, appearing inBilly Crystal's first cable TV special. In 1980, he began as one of the cast members onABC'sFridaystelevision show, whereLarry Davidwas a fellow cast member and writer. It includeda famous instancein whichAndy Kaufmanrefused to deliver his scripted lines, leading Richards to bring thecue cardson screen to Kaufman, who responded by throwing his drink into Richards' face, causing a small riot (Richards later claimed he was in on the joke).The filmMan on the Moonfeatured a re-enactment of theAndy Kaufman incidentwhere Richards was portrayed by actorNorm Macdonald. In 1981, he appeared in theIt's a Livingepisode \"Desperate Hours\".In 1986, Richards had a minor role in the cult satirical TV miniseriesFresno, playing one of a pair of inept criminal henchmen. That same year he auditioned to playAl Bundyin the TV seriesMarried... with Children, but he was passed over forEd O'Neill.In 1989, Richards had a supporting role in\"Weird Al\" Yankovic's comedy filmUHFas janitor Stanley Spadowski. On television, he appeared inMiami Viceas an unscrupulousbookie; inSt. Elsewhereas a television producer making a documentary about Dr. Mark Craig; inCheersas a character trying to collect on an old bet withSam Malone; and made several guest appearances withJay Lenoas an accident-prone fitness expert. According to an interview with executive producer David Hoberman, ABC first conceived the seriesMonkas a procedural police comedy with anInspector Clouseau-like character suffering fromobsessive-compulsive disorder. Hoberman said ABC wanted Richards to playAdrian Monk, but he turned it down. 1989–2005:Seinfeldand rise to prominence In 1989, Richards was cast asCosmo Kramerin theNBCtelevision seriesSeinfeld, created by fellowFridayscast memberLarry Davidand comedianJerry Seinfeld. Although it got off to a slow start, by the mid-1990s it had become one of the most popularsitcomsin television history. It ended its nine-year run in 1998 at No. 1 in theNielsen ratings. InSeinfeld, Kramer is the neighbor across the hall of the show'seponymous character, and is usually referred to only by his last name. His first name, Cosmo, was revealed in the sixth-season episode \"The Switch\". Richards won more Emmys than any otherSeinfeldcast member, taking home the award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 1993, 1994, and 1997 for his role as Kramer. When referring to speculation that he would launch aspin-offtoSeinfeldabout Kramer, Richards said he was not interested in doing so.During the run ofSeinfeld, Richards made cameo appearances in several TV shows; he played himself in Episode2 of Season1 \"The Flirt Episode\" (1992) of theHBOseriesThe Larry Sanders Show. He also had acameo rolein the comedy thriller filmSo I Married an Axe Murderer, credited as \"insensitive man\". In 1996, Richards made a cameo in Epcot'sEllen's Energy Adventure, where he portrayed a caveman discovering fire. He played radio station employee Doug Beech inAirheads, and co-starred withJeff Danielsas an actor pretending to be a lawyer in 1997'sTrial and Error. He also made guest appearances onMiami Vice,Night CourtandCheers. In 2000, two years after the end ofSeinfeld, Richards began work on a new series for NBC, his first major project sinceSeinfeld's finale.The Michael Richards Show, for which Richards received co-writer and co-executive producercredits, was conceived as a comedy/mystery starring Richards as a bumbling private investigator. When the first pilot failed with test audiences, NBC ordered that the show be retooled into a more conventional, office-based sitcom before its premiere. After a few weeks of poor ratings and negative reviews, it was canceled. Critics said the show was too \"Kramer-esque\" and Richards invoked the so-called \"Seinfeldcurse\" as to why the show failed. Starting in 2004, he and his fellowSeinfeldcast members provided interviews and audio commentaries for theSeinfeldDVDs. Richards stepped down from providing audio commentary after Season5, though he continued to provide interviews. 2006–2012: Laugh Factory incident and aftermath During a performance on November 17, 2006, at theLaugh Factoryin Hollywood, California, Richards launched into a racist rant in response to repeated heckling and interruptions from a small group of Black and Hispanic audience members. Richards was recorded shouting \"He's anigger!\" several times and making references tolynchingand theJim Crow laws.Kyle Doss, a member of the group that Richards addressed, said the group had arrived in the middle of the performance and were \"being a little loud.\" According to Doss: said, \"Look at the stupid Mexicans and blacks being loud up there.\" That's the first thing he said. And then he kept on with his bit. And, then, after a while, I told him, \"My friend doesn't think you're funny.\" And then when I told him that, that's when he flipped me off and said, \"F-you N-word.\" And that's how it all started. The incident remained unknown to the larger public for three days until acellphonevideo filmed by a member of the audience was obtained and released byTMZ. On November 20, after the video made rounds around the news,Jerry Seinfeldinvited Richards via satellite during a broadcast of theLate Show with David Letterman, where Richards was recorded saying: \"I'm not doing too good. I lost my temper on stage; I was at a comedy club trying to do my act and I got heckled and I took it badly and went into a rage. And, uh, said some pretty, uh, nasty things to some Afro-Americans.\"Many studio audience members laughed as Richards began his unscripted explanation and apology, thinking it was abit, leading Seinfeld to reprimand them, saying: \"Stop laughing. It's not funny.\" Richards said he had been trying to defuse the heckling by being even more outrageous, but it had backfired. He later called civil rights leadersAl SharptonandJesse Jacksonto apologize.He also appeared as a guest on Jackson's syndicated radio show.Doss stated that he did not accept Richards's apology, saying: \"If he wanted to apologize, he could have contacted ... one of us out of the group. But, he didn't. He apologized on camera just because the tape got out.\" AGalluppoll conducted in late November found that Richards was then the most unpopularSeinfeldcast member, with just 41 percent viewing him positively; by contrast, otherSeinfeldcast members' favorability ratings were in the 60s and 70s.The same poll also found that 45 percent of non-whites expressed a negative view of Richards due to the incident.The incident was parodied on several TV shows, includingMad TV,Family Guy,South Park,Extras, andMonday Night Raw. In the ninth episode of the seventh season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm, Richards appeared as himself and poked fun at the incident. In 2008, rapperWalereferenced the incident and used recordings of the incident, as well as Richard's apology, in the song \"The Kramer\" onThe Mixtape About Nothingalbum. One year following the incident, Richards voiced character Bud Ditchwater in the animated filmBee Movie, which starred and was produced byJerry Seinfeld. In 2009, Richards and the other mainSeinfeldcast members appeared in the seventh season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm.In 2012, he appeared in the comedy web seriesComedians in Cars Getting Coffee, hosted by Seinfeld, in which he remarked on the 2006 incident.In the episode, Richards explained that the outburst still haunted him, and was a major reason for his retirement from stand-up. 2013–present: Recent years In 2013, Richards was cast to play Frank in the sitcomKirstie, costarringKirstie AlleyandRhea Perlman. It premiered onTV Landon December 4, 2013and was canceled after one season.In 2014, Richards appeared as the president of Crackle in a trailer for Season5 ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffee. Seinfeld said the trailer's storyline would be expanded on in one of the episodes. In 2019, Richards played Daddy Hogwood in the romantic comedyFaith, Hope & LovestarringPeta Murgatroydand Robert Krantz. In June 2024Richards released a memoir entitledEntrances and Exits. Personal life Richards was married to Cathleen Lyons, a familytherapist, for 18 years. They have one daughter, Sophia. They separated in 1992 and divorced the following year. In 2010, Richards married his girlfriend Beth Skipp. They have been together since 2002 and have one son, Antonio. Richards is aFreemason. Richards revealed in his 2024 memoirEntrances and Exitsthat he survived stage 1 prostate cancer in 2018 via a surgical removal of his entire prostate. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Bibliography References External links"
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"Seinfeld Seinfeld(/ˈsaɪnfɛld/SYNE-feld) is an Americantelevision sitcomcreated byLarry DavidandJerry Seinfeldthat originally aired onNBCfrom July 5, 1989, to May 14, 1998, with a total of nine seasons consisting of180 episodes. Itsensemble caststars Seinfeld as afictionalized version of himselfand focuses on his personal life with three of his friends: best friendGeorge Costanza(Jason Alexander), former girlfriendElaine Benes(Julia Louis-Dreyfus), and neighbor from across the hall,Cosmo Kramer(Michael Richards). Seinfeldis set mostly in and around the titular character's apartment inManhattan'sUpper West SideinNew York City. It has been described as \"a show about nothing\", often focusing on theminutiae of daily life.Interspersed in all episodes of the first seven seasons are moments ofstand-up comedyfrom the fictional Jerry Seinfeld, frequently related to the episode's events. As a rising comedian in the late 1980s, Jerry Seinfeld was presented with an opportunity to create a show with NBC. He asked Larry",
"NBC. He asked Larry David, a fellow comedian and friend, to help create a premise for a sitcom.The series was produced by West-Shapiro Productions andCastle Rock Entertainmentand distributed byColumbia Pictures Television.It was largely written by David and Seinfeld and scriptwriters. A favorite among critics, the series led theNielsen ratingsin Seasons 6 and 9 and finished among the top two (along withERof the same network) every year from 1994 to 1998. Only two other shows—I Love LucyandThe Andy Griffith Show—finished their runs at the top of the ratings. Seinfeldis widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential shows of all time. It has been ranked among television's best shows in publications such asEntertainment Weekly,Rolling StoneandTV Guide.Its most renowned episodes include \"The Chinese Restaurant\", \"The Soup Nazi\", \"The Parking Garage\",\"The Marine Biologist\", and \"The Contest\".In 2013, theWriters Guild of Americavoted it the second best-written TV series of all time (second toThe",
"time (second toThe Sopranos).E!named it the \"Number 1 reason the '90s ruled\".Quotes from numerous episodes have become catchphrases in popular culture. Production Conception Seinfeldbegan as a 23-minute pilot titled \"The Seinfeld Chronicles\". Created byJerry SeinfeldandLarry David, developed by NBC executive Rick Ludwin, and produced byCastle Rock Entertainment, it was a mix of Seinfeld's stand-up comedy routines and idiosyncratic, conversational scenes focusing on mundane aspects of everyday life like laundry, the buttoning of the top button on one's shirt, and the effort by men to interpret the intent of women spending the night in Seinfeld's apartment. The pilot was filmed at Stage 8 ofDesilu Cahuengastudios, the same studio whereThe Dick Van Dyke Showwas filmed (seen by the crew as a good omen),and was recorded at Ren-Mar Studios inHollywood.The pilot was first screened to a group of two dozen NBC executives inBurbank, California, in early 1989. It did not yield the explosion of laughter garnered by the",
"garnered by the pilots for the decade's previous NBC successes likeThe Cosby ShowandThe Golden Girls.Brandon Tartikoffwas not convinced the show would work. A Jewish man from New York himself, Tartikoff characterized it as \"Too New York, too Jewish\" (a sentiment which would also lead to the Cosmo character's later surname change from the more Jewish-sounding Kessler to Kramer).Test audiences were even harsher. NBC's practice at the time was to recruit 400 households by phone to ask them to evaluate pilots it aired on an unused channel on its cable system. An NBC research department memo summarized the pilot's performance among the respondents as \"weak,\" whichWarren Littlefield, then second-in-command in NBC's entertainment division, called \"a dagger to the heart.\"Comments included, \"You can't get too excited about two guys going to the laundromat,\" \"Jerry's loser friend George isn't a forceful character,\" \"Jerry needs a stronger supporting cast,\" and \"Why are they interrupting the stand-up for these stupid",
"for these stupid stories?\"Seinfeld and David did not see the memo for several years, but after they became aware of it, they hung it in a bathroom on the set. Seinfeld comments, \"We thought, if someone goes in to use this bathroom, this is something they should see. It fits that moment.\" Around the time the show's pilot was filmed, Castle Rock Entertainment, which produced the show, had also produced another pilot for NBC that featuredAnn Jillianin her almost-similarly eponymous TV series. WhenThe Seinfeld Chroniclestested poorly with audiences, Castle Rock focused on Jillian's series, which tested better with audiences and received a full-season order.Ann Jillianlasted only a single season of 13 episodes and was off the air by the end of 1990. First seasons When NBC announced its 1989–90 (primetime) schedule in May 1989,The Seinfeld Chronicleswas not included, but the show's supporters did not give up. The pilot first aired on July 5, 1989, and finished second in its time slot against the CBS police",
"the CBS police dramaJake and the Fatman,receiving aNielsen ratingof 10.9/19.The ratings did not exhibit the regional skew Tartikoff predicted, much to the encouragement of the show's supporters. Ludwin canceled one of theBob Hopespecials budgeted for that season so the entertainment division had the money to order four more episodes ofThe Seinfeld Chronicles, which formed the rest ofthe show's first season(the series was by then retitled toSeinfeld)—a move without whichChicago TribunecolumnistPhil Rosenthallater said there \"would be noSeinfeld\".Although this was a very low order number for a new series—and the smallest sitcom order in TV history—Castle Rock failed to find any other buyers when it shopped the show to other networks, and accepted the order.Seinfelddid not return to the airwaves until May 30, 1990, and it was another three years before it became a Top 5-rated show. Preston Beckman, in charge of NBC's research department at the time, reminisced, \"The show was different. Nobody had seen anything",
"had seen anything like it. It wasn't unusual for poor-testing shows to get on the air, but it was very rare that they became hits.\" When the program was first repeated on July 5, 1990, it received a rating of 13.9/26. These ratings were high enough to secure a second season.NBC research showed that the show was popular with young male adults, a demographic sought after by advertisers. This gave NBC an incentive to keep broadcasting the show.One DVD reviewer, Britt Gillette, wrote that \"this initial episode exhibits the flashes of brilliance that madeSeinfelda cultural phenomenon.\" Filming Other than the pilot, the series was filmed atCBS Studio CenterinStudio City, Los Angeles. The first three seasons were filmed on Soundstage 19; it then moved to the larger Stage 9 for the remainder of its production.Despite numerous establishing shots taken in New York City,all scenes of the actors walking in New York were also filmed at CBS Studio Center, on their New York Streetbacklot.Street scenes and park scenes were",
"park scenes were filmed in the CBS Studio Centre's New York Street and Central Park backlots, respectively. A source of problems for the cast was the small sets, especially that of Jerry's apartment; Alexander noted, \"If you knew you were doing a series for nine years, you would never build that set.\" Adding to the problem was that the scripts contained only minimal physical direction, leaving the actors needing help to come up with actions to perform while speaking. Eventually, they got into a routine of directing each other on how to make their movements look natural. Alexander said this helped them build chemistry with each other. Filming usually went long, as the cast and Larry David were perfectionists. If a joke did not elicit the desired reaction, they rewrote it and performed it again. In at least one case, \"The Marine Biologist,\" this led to David writing an entirely new scene requiring Alexander to memorize a monologue in only a matter of minutes.Laugh tracks were used only for matching shots, not",
"matching shots, not for artificially adding laughter. Various locations used for establishing shots included Tom's Restaurant at 112th Street and Broadway (Monk's Cafe), Midtown West's Roosevelt Hospital (recurring exterior emergency room scene and indoor scenes in 'The Junior Mint' and 'The Bris'), Cornell Medical Centre at 525 East 68th Street, 22-39 37th Street, Queens (The Costanza's house), the Taconic State Parkway exit to the Hopewell Junction, Dutchess County, New York (driving scene in 'The Bubble Boy'), and the Amagansett farmers market, Long Island ('The Hamptons'). The exterior shot used for Jerry's New York apartment building was actually located at 757 S New Hampshire Avenue, Los Angeles. The real-life exterior of Pendant Publishing, Elaine's workplace, is located at 1325 Ave of the Americas, New York. The live stand-up comedy performed by Seinfeld at the beginning of most episodes was truly filmed at The Improv, a comedy club at 358 West 44th Street, Manhattan; though it closed in 1993,",
"it closed in 1993, another comedy club operates at the site today.TheYankee Stadiumexterior seen in the show has now been demolished. Most office building establishing shots are real businesses and locations. Various real street locations can be gleaned from the car windows during driving scenes. By the final season, each episode of the series cost $3 million to $3.5 million. More than 120 episodes make reference to theSupermanfranchise.Teri Hatcher, who played Lois Lane onLois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, plays Jerry's girlfriend Sidra.Paula Marshall, who played Christina Riley ontheSuperboyTV series, portrays the journalist Sharon, who Jerry says reminds him of Lois Lane.Sherman Howard, who played Lex Luthor onSuperboy, portrays Roy. Superman logos and figurines frequently appear in Jerry's apartment. Seinfeld and Superman later appear in an American Express commercial. The show was written by David and Seinfeld, along with writers who includedLarry Charles,Peter Mehlman,Gregg Kavet,Carol",
"Kavet,Carol Leifer,David Mandel,Jeff Schaffer,Steve Koren,Jennifer Crittenden,Tom Gammill,Max Pross,Dan O'Keefe,Charlie Rubin,Marjorie Gross,Alec Berg,Elaine Pope, andSpike Feresten. Series overview Plotlines ManySeinfeldepisodes are based on the writers' real-life experiences, with the experiences reinterpreted for the characters' storylines. For example, George's storyline in \"The Revenge\" is based on Larry David's experience atSaturday Night Live.\"The Contest\" is also based on David's experiences. \"The Smelly Car\" storyline is based on Peter Mehlman's lawyer friend, who could not get a bad smell out of his car. \"The Strike\" is based on Dan O'Keefe's dad, who made up his own holiday:Festivus.Other stories take a variety of turns. \"The Chinese Restaurant\" consists of George, Jerry, and Elaine waiting for a table throughout the entire episode.\"The Boyfriend\", revolving aroundKeith Hernandez, extends through two episodes. \"The Betrayal\" is famous for usingreverse chronologyand was inspired by a similar plot",
"by a similar plot device in aHarold Pinterplay,Betrayal.Some stories were inspired by headlines and rumors, as explained in the DVD features \"Notes About Nothing\", \"Inside Look\" and \"Audio Commentary.\" In \"The Maestro,\" Kramer's lawsuit is roughly similar to theMcDonald's coffee case.\"The Outing\" is based primarily on rumors that Larry Charles heard about Jerry Seinfeld's sexuality. Themes The series was often described as \"a show about nothing.\"However, in 2014, Seinfeld stated: \"The pitch for the show, the real pitch, when Larry and I went to NBC in 1988, was we want to show how a comedian gets his material. The show \"about nothing\" was just a joke in an episode many years later, and Larry and I to this day are surprised that it caught on as a way that people describe the show because, to us, it's the opposite of that.\"David similarly commented: \"I like taking the worst qualities that a person has and trying to make something funny out of it. Doesn't everybody do terrible things and have terrible",
"and have terrible thoughts? Just by trying to be as funny, you're going to deal with a lot of things that are real, so the show's really about something. The whole thing about the show being about nothing is ridiculous.\" Much of the show's humor is based upon repeated use of irony, incongruity, and (oftentimes unfortunate) coincidences. Additionally, guest characters are frequently introduced with little to no context, with a humorous focus on the atypical names of these characters, which often contain alliteration. In keeping with Seinfeld's reputation as a clean comedian,though the show frequently contains dialogue around sexual themes, the show notably avoids using almost all explicit sexual terminology. Notably, in the popular episode \"The Contest,\" whose plot line concerns a contest amongst the main characters to see which one can go the longest without masturbating, the word 'masturbation' is never mentioned.Seinfeldbroke several conventions of mainstream television. David is credited with refusing to",
"with refusing to follow a predictable sitcom formula that would have a romantic relationship develop between Jerry and Elaine. The show offers no growth or reconciliation to its characters and eschews sentimentality.An episode is typically driven by humor interspersed with the superficial conflicts of characters with peculiar dispositions. Many episodes revolve around the characters' involvement in the lives of others, with typically disastrous results. On the set, the notion that the characters should not develop or improve throughout the series was expressed as the \"no hugging, no learning\" rule.The characters are \"thirty-something singles with vague identities, no roots, and conscious indifference to morals.\"Also unlike most sitcoms, there are no moments ofpathos; the audience is never made to feel sorry for any of the characters. Even Susan's death in \"The Invitations\" elicits no genuine emotions from anybody in the show.Seinfelddoes not shy away from making light of tough topics, from death to illness",
"death to illness to disability. The show frequently engages in fourth-wall-breaking humor and self-satire. One such example is thestory arc, where the characters promote a TV sitcom series namedJerry. Theshow within a show,Jerrywas much likeSeinfeldin that it was \"about nothing,\" and Seinfeld played himself. The fictionalJerrywas launched in the Season 4 finale, but unlikeSeinfeld, it wasn't picked up as a series.Jerryis one of many examples ofmetafictionin the show. There are no fewer than 22 fictional movies featured, likeRochelle, Rochelle.Because of these several elements,Seinfeldbecame the first TV series sinceMonty Python's Flying Circusto be widely described aspostmodern. Seinfeld is an avidAbbott and Costellofan and has citedThe Abbott and Costello Showas an influence onSeinfeld: \"Everybody on the show knows I'm a fan. We're always joking about how we do stuff from their show. George and I will often get into a riff that has the rhythm from the old Abbott and Costello shows. And sometimes, I'll hit",
"sometimes, I'll hit George in the chest the way Abbott would hit Costello.\" The series includes numerous references to the team. George Costanza's middle name is \"Louis\", after Costello.\"The Old Man\" episode features a cantankerous character named \"Sid Fields\" as a tribute to the landlord on the team's TV show. Kramer's friend is named Mickey Abbott. A copywriter for the J. Peterman catalog is named Eddie Sherman, after the team's longtime agent. In Episode 30, Kramer hears the famous Abbott and Costello line, \"His father was a mudder. His mother was a mudder.\" Catchphrases Many terms were coined, popularized, or re-popularized in the series' run and have become part of popular culture,including \"Yada, yada, yada\",\"No soup for you!\", \"Master of my domain\", and \"Not that there's anything wrong with that.\" The lexicon of Seinfeldian code words and recurring phrases that evolved around particular episodes is referred to asSeinlanguage, which is also the title of Jerry Seinfeld's best-selling book on humor.These",
"book on humor.These terms include \"man hands\", \"shrinkage\", \"regift\", and \"double dip\". Consumer products A recurring feature ofSeinfeldwas its inclusion of specific products, especiallycandy, as plot points. These might be a central feature of a plot (e.g.,Junior Mints,Twix,Chuckles,Jujyfruits, bite-sizeThree Musketeers,Snickers,Chunky,Oh Henry!,Drake'sCoffee Cake andPEZ), or an association of candy with a guest character (e.g.Oh Henry!bars) or simply a conversational aside (e.g.,Chuckles,Clark Bar,Twinkies). A large number of non-candy products were also featured throughout the series. The show's creators claim that they weren't engaging in a product placement strategy for commercial gain. One motivation for the use of real-world products, entirely unrelated to commercial considerations, is the comedy value of funny-sounding phrases and words. \"I knew I wanted Kramer to think of watching the operation like going to see a movie,\" explainedSeinfeldwriter/producer Andy Robin in an interview published inThe",
"published inThe Hollywood Reporter. \"At first, I thought maybe a piece of popcorn falls into the patient. I ran that by my brother, and he said, 'No, Junior Mints are just funnier.'\" Many advertisers capitalized on the popularity ofSeinfeld.American Expresscreated awebisodewhere Jerry Seinfeld and an animatedSuperman(voiced byPatrick Warburton, who played the role of Puddy) starred in its commercial. The makers of theToday Spongecreated the \"Spongeworthy\" game on their website, inspired by \"The Sponge.\" An advertisement featured Jason Alexander in aChryslercommercial. In this, Alexander acts much like his character George, and his relationship withLee Iacoccaplays on George's relationship with Steinbrenner. Similarly, Michael Richards was the focus of a series of advertisements forVodafone, which ran inAustralia, where he dressed and acted precisely like Kramer, including the trademark bumbling pratfalls. In addition, the show occasionally incorporated fictional products like aScotchbrand called \"Hennigan's\"",
"called \"Hennigan's\" (a blend of \"Hennessy\" and \"Brannigans\") and acanned meatproduct called \"Beef-a-reeno\" (a parody of \"Beef-a-roni\"). Music A signature ofSeinfeldis its theme music. Composed byJonathan Wolff, it consists of distinct solosampledelectric bassriffs that open the show and connect the scenes, often accompanied bybeatboxing.The bass music eventually replaced the original piano/synth music by Jep Epstein when it was played again after the first broadcast ofthe pilot episode. The show lacked a traditional title track and the riffs were played over the first moments of dialogue or action. They vary throughout each episode and are played in an improvised funk style, matching the timing of Seinfeld's stand-up comedy delivery or transitions in the editing. An additional musical theme with an ensemble, led by a synthesized mid-range brass instrument, ends each episode. In \"The Note,\" the first episode of Season 3, the bumper music featured ascattingfemale jazz singer who sang a phrase that sounded like",
"that sounded like the tuneEasy To Beat. Jerry Seinfeld and executive producer Larry David both liked Wolff's additions, and three episodes were produced with this new style of music. However, they had neglected to inform NBC and Castle Rock executives of the change, and when the season premiere aired, the executives were surprised and unimpressed and requested that they return to the original style. The subsequent two episodes were redone, leaving this episode as the only one with additional music elements.In the commentary of \"The Note,\" Louis-Dreyfus facetiously suggests it was removed because the perceived lyric related closely to the low ratings at the time.In the final three seasons, the bits were tweaked slightly with more frantic rhythms; a bass guitar was added in addition to the sampled bass from earlier seasons. Throughout the show, the main theme could be restyled in different ways depending on the episode. For instance, in \"The Betrayal,\" part of which takes place in India, the theme is heard",
"the theme is heard played on asitar. The soundtrack was given a digital release on July 2, 2021. All music is composed by Jonathan Wolff. Cast and characters Main characters Recurring characters Many characters have made multiple appearances, notably Jerry's parents, Morty and Helen Seinfeld, who reside in Florida; George's parents, the overbearing Frank and Estelle Costanza; George's on-again, off-again fiancée Susan Ross; Jerry'sUncle Leo; Elaine's variety of bosses, Mr. Lippman, Mr. Pitt and J. Peterman; Elaine's on-again, off-again boyfriend David Puddy; and Kramer's friend,Newman, a mail carrier who lives in the same building and is Jerry's nemesis. In addition to recurring characters,Seinfeldfeatures numerous celebrities who appear as themselves or as girlfriends, boyfriends, bosses, and other acquaintances. A number of actresses made guest appearances as Seinfeld's love interests in single episodes: Episodes Compared to other family and groupsitcomsof the era,Seinfeldstood out. The principal",
"out. The principal characters are not related by family or work-associated connections but remain distinctly close friends throughout the series. Many characters were based primarily on Seinfeld's and David's real-life acquaintances. Two prominent recurring characters were fictional depictions of actual well-known people:Jacopo Petermanof theJ. Petermancatalog (based onJohn Peterman)andGeorge Steinbrenner, owner of theNew York Yankees.Many characters were introduced as new writers got involved withSeinfeld. Other characters based on real people include theSoup NaziandJackie Chiles, who was based onJohnnie Cochran. Episodes have separate plot strands, but the characters' stories often intertwine at the end. The narratives reveal the creators' \"consistent efforts to maintain the intimacy\" among the small cast of characters. The show maintains a strong sense ofcontinuity, as characters and plots from past episodes are often referenced or expanded on. Occasionally, story arcs span multiple episodes or entire",
"episodes or entire seasons, such asSeason 4, which revolves around thepilotpitch to NBC by Jerry and George. Another example is Jerry's girlfriend Vanessa, who appears in \"The Stake Out\" and with whom he ends the relationship when things do not work out in \"The Stock Tip\".Larry David, the head writer and executive producer for the first seven seasons, was praised for keeping a close eye on minor details and ensuring the main characters' lives remained consistent and believable.Curb Your Enthusiasm, David's later comedy series, also had an overarching plot for all but the first season. A major difference betweenSeinfeldand the sitcoms that preceded it is that the principal characters never learn from their mistakes. In effect, they are indifferent and even callous toward the outside world and sometimes one another. Amantraof the show's producers was \"No hugging, no learning.\"Entertainment Weekly's TV criticKen Tuckerhas described them as \"a group dynamic rooted in jealousy, rage, insecurity, despair,",
"despair, hopelessness, and a touching lack of faith in one's fellow human beings.\"This leads to very few happy endings, except at somebody else's expense. More often in every episode, situations resolve with characters getting a justly deservedcomeuppance. Seasons 1–3 The show premiered asThe Seinfeld Chronicleson July 5, 1989. After it aired, a pickup by NBC seemed unlikely, and the show was offered toFox, which declined to pick it up.Rick Ludwin, head of late night and special events for NBC, however, diverted money from his budget by canceling aBob Hope television special, and the next four episodes were filmed.These episodes were highly rated as they followed summer re-runs ofCheerson Thursdays at 9:30 p.m., and the series was finally picked up. At one point, NBC considered airing these episodes on Saturdays at 10:30 p.m. but gave the slot to a short-lived sitcom calledFMinstead. The series was renamed simplySeinfeldas a precautionary measure due to the failure of the short-lived 1990ABCseries with a",
"with a similarly sounding title,The Marshall Chronicles.After airing the remaining four episodes of its first season the summer of 1990, NBC ordered 13 more episodes. David believed that he and Seinfeld had no more stories to tell and advised Seinfeld to turn down the order, but Seinfeld agreed to the additional episodes.Season 2 was bumped off its scheduled premiere of January 16, 1991, due to the outbreak of thePersian Gulf War. It settled into a regular time slot on Wednesdays at 9:30 p.m. and eventually flipped with veteran seriesNight Courtto 9 p.m. TV critics championedSeinfeldin its early seasons, even as it was slow to cultivate a substantial audience. For the first three seasons, Jerry's stand-up comedy act would bookend at the beginning and end of each episode, even functioning as transitions during the show. A few episodes set a benchmark for later seasons. \"The Deal\" establishes Jerry and Elaine's relationship by setting rules about having sex while remaining friends.\"The Parking Garage\" was the",
"Garage\" was the first episode shot with no audience for the episode and, after \"The Chinese Restaurant\", to not show Jerry's apartment.\"The Keys\" contains a crossover toCBSshowMurphy Brown, marking the first such cooperation between rival networks.\"The Busboy\" introduces George, Kramer and Elaine as having their own storylines for the first time. Although Castle Rock Entertainment's Glenn Padnick thought Seinfeld was too generous, showcasing his co-stars' comedic talent became a trademark throughout the series. Larry Charles wrote an episode for Season 2, \"The Bet,\" in which Elaine buys a gun from Kramer's friend. This episode was not filmed because the content was deemed unacceptable, and it was replaced by the episode \"The Phone Message\".\"The Stranded,\" which aired during Season 3, was initially intended for Season 2. At the beginning of this episode, Jerry clears up the continuity error over George's real estate job. Seasons 4–5 Season 4 marked the sitcom's entry into theNielsen ratingsTop 30. It contains",
"30. It contains several of the most popular episodes, such as \"The Bubble Boy\" in which George and the bubble boy argue overTrivial Pursuit,and \"The Junior Mint\" in which Jerry and Kramer accidentally fumble a mint in the operating room.This was the first season to use a story arc of Jerry and George creating their own sitcom,Jerry. Also, at this time, the use of Jerry's stand-up act slowly declined, and the stand-up segment in the middle ofSeinfeldepisodes was cut. Much publicity followed the controversial episode \"The Contest,\" anEmmy Award-winning episode written by David, whose subject matter was considered inappropriate for prime-time network TV. To circumvent this taboo, the word \"masturbation\" was never used in the script, instead substituted for by a variety of oblique references.Midway through that season,Seinfeldwas moved from its original 9:00 p.m. time slot on Wednesdays to 9:30 p.m. on Thursdays, followingCheersagain, which gave the show even more popularity. Ratings also sparked the move, asTim",
"the move, asTim Allen's sitcomHome Improvementon ABC had aired at the same time, andHome Improvementkept beatingSeinfeldin the ratings. NBC moved the series afterTed Dansonannounced the end ofCheersandSeinfeldquickly surpassed the ratings of the 9:00 p.m.Cheersreruns that spring.The show won an Emmy Award forOutstanding Comedy Seriesin 1993, beating out its family-oriented, time-slot competitorHome Improvement, which was only in its second season on rival network ABC. Season 5 was an even bigger ratings hit, consisting of popular episodes, such as \"The Puffy Shirt\" in which Jerry feels embarrassed wearing a \"pirate\" shirt onThe Today Show,\"The Non-Fat Yogurt\" featuringRudy Giuliani, theRepublicanthen-mayor-elect of New York,and \"The Opposite\" in which George, doing the opposite of what his instincts tell him he should do, lands a job with the New York Yankees and Elaine leaves \"Pendant Publishing\" because of a comedy of errors that led to its demise. Another story arc has George returning to live with his",
"to live with his parents. Amid the story arc, Kramer creates and promotes hiscoffee table book.The show was again nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series, but lost to theCheersspin-offFrasier, then in its first season.Seinfeldwas nominated for the same award every year for its entire run but, after its win at the45th Primetime Emmy Awardsin 1994, always lost toFrasier, which went on to win a record 39 Emmy Awards in its 11-season run. Seasons 6–7 In Season 6,Andy AckermanreplacedTom Cheronesas director of the show. The series remained well regarded and produced some of its most famous episodes, such as \"The Beard\", in which Jerry is put through a lie detector test to make him admit that he watchedMelrose Place;\"The Switch\", in which Kramer's mom, Babs, reveals that his first name is Cosmo;and \"The Understudy\", in which Elaine meets J. Peterman for the first time.Story arcs used in this season were Elaine working as a personal assistant to her eccentric boss Justin Pitt and George's parents' temporary",
"parents' temporary separation. This was the first season in whichSeinfeldreached No. 1 in the Nielsen Ratings. The use of Jerry's stand-up act declined, and the end stand-up segment no longer appeared because the storylines for all four characters grew denser. In Season 7, a story arc involved George getting engaged to his ex-girlfriend, Susan Ross, after the pilotJerryproved unsuccessful. In it, George spends most of the season regretting and trying to get out of the engagement. Along with the regular half-hour episodes, two notable one-hour episodes were \"The Cadillac,\" in which George plans to date award-winning actressMarisa Tomei,and \"The Bottle Deposit,\" with Elaine and Sue Ellen Mischke participating in a bidding war to buy JFK's golf clubs in an auction. Seasons 8–9 Seinfeld'sfinal two seasons were considered distinct from the earlier seasons. Most noticeably, David left the writing crew (but returned to write \"The Finale\" in 1998), resulting in Seinfeld taking over David's duties asshowrunner, and,",
"asshowrunner, and, under the direction of a new writing staff,Seinfeldbecame a faster-paced show. The show no longer contained extracts of Jerry performing stand-up comedy—Jerry had no time or energy for this with his new responsibilities—and storylines occasionally delved into fantasy and broad humor. For example, in \"The Bizarro Jerry\", Elaine is torn between exact opposites of her friends and Jerry dates a woman who has the now-famous \"man hands\".Some notable episodes from Season 8 include \"The Little Kicks\" showing Elaine's horrible dancing,and \"The Chicken Roaster\" which portrays theKenny Rogers Roasterschicken restaurant which opened during that time.A story arc in this season involves Peterman going toBurmain \"The Foundation\"until he recovered from a nervous breakdown in \"The Money\",followed by Elaine writing Peterman's biography in \"The Van Buren Boys\",which leads to Kramer's parody of Kenny Kramer's Reality Tour seen in \"The Muffin Tops\". The final season included episodes like \"The Merv Griffin",
"\"The Merv Griffin Show\" in which Kramer converts his apartment into a talk-show studio and plays the character of talk-show host,\"The Betrayal\" that presents in reverse chronological order what happened to Sue Ellen's wedding in India, and \"The Frogger\" in which George pushes aFroggermachine across the street, mimicking the action of the game itself.The last season included a story arc in which Elaine has an on/off relationship withPuddy. Despite the enormous popularity and willingness of the cast to return for a tenth season, Seinfeld decided to end the show after Season 9, believing he would thereby be able to ensure the show would maintain its quality and go out on top.NBC offered Seinfeld $110 million—a record $5 million an episode for a 22-episode tenth season—but he declined. A major controversy caused in the ninth season was the accidental burning of aPuerto Rican flagby Kramer in \"The Puerto Rican Day.\" This scene caused a furor among Puerto Ricans, and as a result, NBC showed this episode only once.",
"episode only once. Seinfeld defused the protestors by not letting this episode continue in syndication, as revealed in \"Inside Look\" on DVD.However, the episode would be added to the syndicated rerun package several years later uncut. Series finale After nine years on the air, NBC and Seinfeld announced on December 25, 1997, that the series would end production the following spring in 1998. The announcement made the front page of the major New York newspapers, includingThe New York Times.Seinfeld was featured on the cover ofTimemagazine's first issue of 1998.The series ended with a 75-minute episode (cut to 60 minutes insyndication, in two parts) written by co-creator and ex-executive producer Larry David, which aired on May 14, 1998. Before the finale, a 45-minute retrospective clip show, \"The Chronicle,\" was aired. The retrospective was expanded to an hour after the original airing and aired again on NBC as an hour-long episode, and has since aired in syndication. It was the first episode since the finale",
"since the finale of Season 7, \"The Invitations,\" to feature opening and closing stand-up comedy acts by Seinfeld. The finale was filmed before an audience of NBC executives and friends of the show. The press and public were shut out of the taping to keep its plot secret; those who attended the shoot of the final episode were required to sign written \"vows of silence.\"The secrecy only seemed to increase speculation about how the series would end. The episode's producers gave false information to the media, spreading a rumor about Newman ending up in the hospital and Jerry and Elaine sitting in a chapel, presumably to marry. The final episode enjoyed a historic audience,estimated at 76.3 million viewers(58% of all viewers that night) making it the fourth-most watched regular series finale in U.S. TV history, behindM*A*S*H,Cheers, andThe Fugitive.However, the finale received mixed reviews from critics and fans of the show. The finale poked fun at the many rumors that were circulating, seeming to move into",
"to move into multiple supposed plots before settling on its actual storyline—a lengthy trial where the gang is prosecuted for violating a \"Duty to Rescue\" law and sentenced to prison terms. According toForbesmagazine, Seinfeld's earnings from the show in 1998 came to US$267 million, including syndication earnings.He refused NBC's offer of $5 million per episode, or over $100 million total, to continue into a tenth season. The offer NBC made to Seinfeld was over three times higher per episode than anyone on TV had ever been offered before.Seinfeld told the network that he was not married nor had children, and wished to focus on his personal life.As reported in July 2007, he was the second-highest earner in the TV industry, earning at the time $60 million a year.The episode became the first to command over $1 million a minute for advertising—a mark previously attained only by theSuper Bowl. Reception and legacy Elizabeth Magnotta and Alexandra Strohl analyze the success ofSeinfeldwith recourse to",
"recourse to theincongruity theoryof humor: \"The Incongruity Theory claims that humor is created out of a violation of an expectation. For humor to result from this unexpected result, the event must have an appropriate emotional climate, comprised of the setting, characters, prior discourse, relationships of the characters, and the topic.\"Specifically, Magnotta and Strohl focus on \"The Marine Biologist,\" where George is embroiled in yet another lie, and on \"The Red Dot,\" where George tries to save a few dollars at Elaine's expense by giving her a marked-downcashmeresweater. In \"TranslatingSeinfeld,\" Jennifer Armstrong notes thatSeinfeldis less famous among non-English speakers as its unique style of humor is \"too cultural and word-based to make for easy translation.\"Carol Iannone sums up the legacy of this American hit in herModern Agearticle \"Seinfeld: The Politically Incorrect Comedy\" when she says, \"It may be the first situation comedy truly to achieve the status of art\".Nod Miller, of theUniversity of",
"of theUniversity of East London, has discussed the self-referential qualities of the show: Seinfeld is suffused withpostmodernthemes. To begin with, the boundary between reality and fiction is frequently blurred: this is illustrated in the central device of having Jerry Seinfeld play the character Jerry Seinfeld. In the show's fourth season, several episodes revolved around the narrative of Jerry and George (whose character is co-creator Larry David's alter ego) pitching 'a show about nothing' based on the everyday life of a stand-up comedian to NBC. By all accounts, the fictional NBC executives' reaction mirrored the initial responses of those who eventually commissioned Seinfeld. The fourth season ends with'The Pilot', an episode focusing on the casting, taping, and screening of the show-within-the-show,Jerry. This episode also neatly illustrates the self-referential quality, which is one of Seinfeld's hallmarks. The series finale was so replete with references to earlier shows that it could have been more",
"have been more comprehensible to those not already well-versed in the personae and preoccupations of the Seinfeld universe. William Irwinhas edited an anthology of scholarly essays on philosophy inSeinfeld and Philosophy: A Book about Everything and Nothing. Some entries include \"The Jerry Problem and theSocratic Problem,\" \"George's Failed Quest forHappiness: An Aristotelian Analysis,\" \"Elaine's Moral Character,\" \"Kramer the 'Seducer'\", \"Making Something Out of Nothing: Seinfeld,Sophistryand the Tao,\" \"Seinfeld,Subjectivity, andSartre,\" \"Mr. Peterman, theWicked Witch of the West, and Me,\" and \"Minimally Decent Samaritans and Uncommon Law.\" U.S. television ratings Awards and honors Seinfeldhas received awards and nominations in various categories throughout the mid-1990s. It was awarded theEmmyfor Outstanding Comedy Series in 1993,Golden Globe Awardfor Best TV Series (Comedy) in 1994, andScreen Actors Guild Awardfor Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 1995, 1997 and 1998.Apart from",
"and 1998.Apart from these, the show was also nominated for an Emmy award from 1992 to 1998 for Outstanding Comedy Series, Golden Globe award from 1994 to 1998 for Best TV-Series (Comedy), and Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series from 1995 to 1998. The show even received thePeabody Awardin 1993. TV Guidenamed it thegreatest TV show of all timein 2002,and in 2013, the magazine ranked it as the second-greatest TV show.A 2015The Hollywood Reportersurvey of 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people namedSeinfeldas their #5 favorite show.In 2022,Rolling StonerankedSeinfeldas the sixth-greatest TV show of all time.In 2023,VarietyrankedSeinfeldas the eighth-greatest TV show of all time. Distribution Free streaming serviceChannel 4has been runningSeinfeldin its original 4:3 format since February 2020.On April 29, 2015, it was officially announced, duringHulu'supfrontspresentation inNew York, that all nine seasons ofSeinfeldwouldstreamon the",
"the platform starting in June 2015.The deal was for around $130 million to $180 million.On May 20, 2015,Huluannounced that every episode would be available starting June 24, 2015.Hulu's streaming rights for the series expired on June 23, 2021.In January 2017,Amazonacquired the UK rights to all seasons ofSeinfeldfor itsAmazon Prime Videostreaming service. On November 8, 2016, the Australian streaming serviceStanannounced viaTwitterthat later in the week all episodes would be available to stream for the first time in Australia.All episodes were available from November 11, 2016, with the remastered versions of all episodes on the service featuring HD and Widescreen enhancements.The widescreen offered was cropped from the original 4:3 format negatives, thus resulting in better visual quality than the previously available DVD version, however, the top and bottom portions of the frame were cut out to achieve the widescreen aspect ratio. In April 2020, all seasons ofSeinfeldwere also made available on-demand via",
"on-demand via pay television serviceFoxtel, as well as its internet-based alternativeFoxtel Now. In September 2019,NetflixandSony Picturesannounced that Netflix had acquired the exclusive global streaming rights forSeinfeld, starting on October 1, 2021, superseding the above Hulu and Amazon rights. As of 2023, Netflix's version ofSeinfeldis available in4K resolution.The transition was criticized as the show, initially displayed in 4:3 aspect ratio, had been converted to 16:9, resulting in some gags getting cropped, similarly to howThe Simpsonswas initially rendered onDisney+.Netflix has yet to comment on this situation. VHS and DVD releases The hour-long, two-partclip showepisode \"The Highlights of 100\" became the firstSeinfeldepisode available on home video when it was released onVHSin 1995 by food companyGeneral Mills.Sony Pictures Home Entertainment(formerly Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment) released all nine seasons ofSeinfeldonDVDin Regions 1, 2, and 4 between 2004 and 2007.On November 6,",
"2007.On November 6, 2007,Seinfeld: The Complete Serieswas released on DVD. The complete series box set includes a 2007 \"roundtable\" reunion of the four main cast members and Larry David; only highlights of this were also included in the Season 9 set. The first complete series box set in Australia (Region 4) was released on October 24, 2007. The second boxset was released on December 2, 2008, and was a Collectible Fridge design packaging. On August 5, 2009,another Limited-Edition boxset was released, similar to the first boxset but does not include the book and the packaging was slightly different. On November 23, 2011,an additional Limited-Edition boxset was released. On November 14, 2018,aFestivus Celebration Editionwas released which contained napkins and cups, playing cards and thumb wrestle gadgets. On August 12, 2020,yet anotherComplete Seriesboxset was released. Syndication According toBarry Meyer, chairman ofWarner Bros. Entertainment(parent company of Castle Rock Entertainment),Seinfeldmade $2.7",
"$2.7 billion through June 2010 throughoff-network syndicationand cable syndication.As of February 2017the show had made an estimated $4.06 billion in syndication.Steve Bannon, who invested in the show, later said, \"We calculated what it would get us if it made it to syndication. We were wrong by a factor of five\".In September 2019, it was announced thatViacom(nowParamount Global) had acquired cable syndication rights to the series fromTBS, with it airing onComedy Centralbeginning in October 2021,Nick at Nitefrom May 31, 2022, until November 12, 2022, andTV Landsince February 11, 2023. High-definition versions There are twohigh-definitionversions ofSeinfeld. The first is that of the network TV (non-syndicated) versions in the original aspect ratio of 4:3 that were downscaled for the DVD releases. Clips from this high-definition version in its upscale were seen onNBCduringThe Seinfeld Storyspecial.Syndicated broadcast stations and the cable networksTBSandComedy Central(and alsoFox) began airing the syndicated",
"the syndicated version ofSeinfeldin HD. Unlike the version used for the DVD, Sony Pictures cropped the top and bottom parts of the frame while restoring previously cropped images on the sides from the35mm filmsource to use the entire 16:9 frame. AfterSeinfeld Another scene On the November 1, 2007, episode ofThe Daily Show with Jon Stewart, Jerry Seinfeld mentioned the possibility of shooting one last scene after the characters leave jail. He mentioned that he was too busy to do it at the time, but did not announce what the scene would entail, as its production is not a certainty.In a commentary from the final seasonDVD, Seinfeld outlines that he and Jason Alexander spoke about this scene being in Monk's Cafe, with George saying \"That was brutal\" about the foursome's stint in prison. On an episode ofSaturday Night Livethat Jerry Seinfeld hosted on October 2, 1999, a sketch was produced that showed what life was like for Jerry behind bars after being transferred to the fictional prison portrayed on",
"prison portrayed on theHBOseriesOz.The roughly four-minute sketch shows the opening credits for the HBO series with clips of Jerry mixed in doing various activities around the prison. The sketch continues and mixes in different storylines from bothOzandSeinfeldand has Jerry interacting with various characters from the show in his typical quick-witted, sarcastic way. TheSeinfeld\"curse\" Louis-Dreyfus, Alexander, and Richards have all tried to launch new sitcoms as title-role characters. Almost every show was canceled quickly, usually within the first season. This gave rise to the termSeinfeld curse: the failure of a sitcom starring one of the three, despite the conventional wisdom that each person'sSeinfeldpopularity should almost guarantee a strong, built-in audience for the actor's new show. Shows specifically cited regarding theSeinfeld curseare Julia Louis-Dreyfus'sWatching Ellie, Jason Alexander'sBob PattersonandListen Up, and Michael Richards'The Michael Richards Show. This phenomenon was mentioned",
"was mentioned throughout the second season ofLarry David's HBO programCurb Your Enthusiasm, which aired in 2001. In real life, David has repeatedly dismissed the idea of a curse, saying, \"It's so completely idiotic. It's very hard to have a successful sitcom.\" The success of Louis-Dreyfus in the 2006–2010CBSsitcomThe New Adventures of Old Christine, which included winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesin 2006, led many to believe that she had broken the curse.In her acceptance speech, Louis-Dreyfus held up her award and exclaimed, \"I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this, baby!\"The show producedenough episodesto air inrerunsinsyndicationfor several years, something the other shows did not achieve.TheSaturday Night Liveepisode hosted by Louis-Dreyfus made references to the curse. Nevertheless, the series' ratings declined soon after, and it was canceled after the fifth season. She went on to win six further Emmys (for Lead Actress in a Comedy",
"Actress in a Comedy Series) for her acclaimed performance as Vice PresidentSelina Meyerin the HBO comedy seriesVeep. Curb Your Enthusiasm Early in March 2009, it was announced that theSeinfeldcast would reunite forseason sevenofCurb Your Enthusiasm.The cast first appeared in the third episode of the season, all playing fictional versions of themselves. The season-long story is that Larry David tries to initiate aSeinfeldreunion show as a ploy to win back his ex-wife, Cheryl. Along with the four main characters, someSeinfeldsupporting actors likeWayne Knight,Estelle HarrisandSteve Hytnerappeared in the ninth episode at a table read for the reunion show. Although much dialogue inCurb Your Enthusiasmis improvised, the plot was scripted, and theSeinfeldspecial that aired within the show was scripted and directed bySeinfeldregularAndy Ackerman, making this the first time sinceSeinfeldwent off the air that the central cast appeared together in a scripted show. Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee Jerry Seinfeld, Jason",
"Seinfeld, Jason Alexander, and Wayne Knight, playing their respectiveSeinfeldcharacters, appeared in a spot presented during halftime ofSuper Bowl XLVIIIon February 2, 2014.Foxcame up with the idea of doing such a spot, due in part to the Super Bowl's location being New York City adjacent that year.An uncut version appeared onCrackle.comimmediately afterward, as an episode ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffeetitled \"The Over-Cheer,\" establishing Seinfeld's character on the series as an older version of hisSeinfeldcharacter.Although the spot was used to advertise Seinfeld's web series, it was not considered a commercial, as Sony, which produces the series, did not pay for it.While Seinfeld indicated that the webisode would probably be the last cast reunion, saying, \"I have a feeling you've seen the final coda on that very unique experience,\"since then,Michael RichardsandJulia Louis-Dreyfushave also appeared in episodes. Notes References General references External links",
"Jerry Seinfeld Jerome Allen Seinfeld(/ˈsaɪnfɛld/SYNE-feld; born April 29, 1954) is an Americanstand-up comedian, actor, writer, and producer. As a stand-up comedian, Seinfeld specializes inobservational comedy. Seinfeld has receivednumerous accoladesincluding aPrimetime Emmy Award, aGolden Globe Awards, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for fourGrammy Awards. In 2004,Comedy Centralnamed him the 12th-greatest stand-up comedian of all time.In 2017,Rolling Stonenamed him the 7th-greatest stand-up comedian of all time. Seinfeld gained stardom playinga semi-fictionalized version of himselfin theNBCsitcomSeinfeld(1989–1998), which he co-created and wrote withLarry David. Seinfeld earned aGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedyin 1995. The show is one of the most acclaimed and popular sitcoms of all time.He has since created and produced the reality seriesThe Marriage Ref(2010–2011), and created and hosted the web seriesComedians in Cars Getting",
"in Cars Getting Coffee(2012–2019), the latter of which earned him threeWebby Awards. He also co-produced, co-wrote, and starred in theDreamWorksanimated filmBee Movie(2007) and theNetflixcomedyUnfrosted(2024). He has released four standup specials his first beingStand-Up Confidential(1987) followed byI'm Telling You for the Last Time(1998),Jerry Before Seinfeld(2017) and23 Hours to Kill(2020). Seinfeld has also written three books starting withSeinLanguage(1993), followed by the children's bookHalloween(2002), and the comedic compilation bookIs This Anything?(2020). He is an avid fan ofcoffeeandautomobiles. He practicestranscendental meditation. He is married to author and philanthropistJessica Seinfeld, with whom he has three children. Early life and education Seinfeld was born on April 29, 1954,to a Jewish family inBrooklyn, New York City.His father, Kalmen Seinfeld,a sign painter, was from Hungary and collected jokes that he heard while serving inWorld War II.His mother, Betty (née Hosni)and her parents,",
"her parents, Selim and Salha Hosni,wereMizrahi JewsfromAleppo,Syria. Their nationality was stated as Turkish when they immigrated in 1917, as Syria was under theOttoman Empire.Seinfeld has an older sister, Carolyn.Salha's mother Garez Dayan, Seinfeld's great-grandmother, was a member of the Dayan rabbinic family, who claim ancestry back to theMedievalExilarchs, and from the Exilarchs back to the BiblicalKing David.Seinfeld's second cousin isalternative metalmusician and actorEvan Seinfeld.Seinfeld grew up inMassapequa, New York, and attendedMassapequa High SchoolonLong Island.At 16, he spent timevolunteeringinKibbutzSa'arin Israel.He attended theState University of New York at Oswego, and transferred after his second year toQueens College, City University of New York, from which he graduated in 1976 with a degree in communications and theater. Career 1976–1987: Rise to prominence Seinfeld developed an interest instand-up comedyafter brief stints in college productions. He appeared onopen-micnights at Budd",
"at Budd Friedman's Improv Club while attendingQueens College.After graduation in 1976, he tried out at an open-mic night at New York City'sCatch a Rising Star, which led to an appearance in aRodney DangerfieldHBOspecial.In 1980, he had a small recurring role on the sitcomBenson, playing Frankie, a mail-delivery boy who had comedy routines that no one wanted to hear. Seinfeld was abruptly fired from the show due to creative differences.Seinfeld said that he was not told he had been fired until he arrived for a read-through session and found that there was no script for him.In January 1981, he performed stand-up onAn Evening at the Improv.In May, Seinfeld made an appearance onThe Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, impressingCarsonand the audience, leading to frequent appearances on that show and others, includingLate Night with David Letterman.On September 5, 1987, his first one-hour specialStand-Up Confidentialaired live onHBO. 1988–1998:Seinfeldand stardom Seinfeld createdThe Seinfeld ChronicleswithLarry",
"ChronicleswithLarry Davidin 1988 forNBC. It was renamedSeinfeldto avoid confusion with the short-lived teen sitcomThe Marshall Chronicles. By its third season,Seinfeldhad become the most watched sitcom on American television. The final episode aired in 1998, and the show has been a popularsyndicatedre-run ever since. NBC offered Seinfeld $110 million—a record $5 million an episode for a 22-episode tenth season—but he declined.Along with Seinfeld, the show starredSaturday Night LivealumnaJulia Louis-Dreyfusand established actorsMichael RichardsandJason Alexander. Alexander played George, a caricature ofLarry David. Seinfeld is the only actor to appear in every episode. 1998–2010: Established career After he ended his sitcom, Seinfeld moved back toNew York Cityand returned to stand-up comedy instead of staying inLos Angelesand furthering his acting career. In 1998, he went on tour and recorded a comedy special, titledI'm Telling You for the Last Time. The process of developing and performing new material at",
"new material at clubs around the world was chronicled in a 2002 documentary,Comedian, which also featured fellow comicOrny Adamsand was directed by Christian Charles. Seinfeld has written several books, mostly archives of past routines. In the late 1990s,Apple Computercame up with the advertising slogan \"Think different\" and produced a 60-second commercial to promote the slogan. This commercial showed people who were able to \"think differently,\" such asAlbert Einstein,Mahatma Gandhi,Martin Luther King Jr., and many others. It was later cut short to 30 seconds and altered such that Seinfeld was included at the end, although he had not been in the original cut. This shorter version of the commercial aired only once, during theseries finaleofSeinfeld. In 2004, Seinfeld appeared in two commercialwebisodespromotingAmerican Express, titledThe Adventures of Seinfeld & Superman.In these, Seinfeld appeared with a cartoon rendering ofSuperman, to whom reference was made in numerous episodes ofSeinfeldas Seinfeld's",
"Seinfeld's hero, voiced byPatrick Warburton(characterDavid PuddyonSeinfeld). The webisodes were directed byBarry Levinsonand aired briefly on television. Seinfeld and \"Superman\" were also interviewed byMatt Lauerin a specially recorded interview for theTodayshow. On November 18, 2004, Seinfeld appeared at theNational Museum of American Historyto donate the \"puffy shirt\" he wore in theSeinfeldepisodeof the same name. He also gave a speech when presenting the \"puffy shirt,\" saying humorously that \"This is the most embarrassing moment of my life.\"On May 13, 2006, Seinfeld had a cameo appearance onSaturday Night Liveas host Julia Louis-Dreyfus' assassin. Louis-Dreyfus in her opening monologue mentioned the \"Seinfeld curse.\" While talking about how ridiculous the \"curse\" was, astage lightsuddenly fell next to her. The camera moved to acatwalkabove the stage where Seinfeld was standing, holding a large pair of bolt cutters. He angrily muttered, \"Damn it!\" upset that it did not hit her. Louis-Dreyfus continued to",
"continued to say that she is indeed not cursed. On February 25, 2007, Seinfeld appeared at the79th Academy Awardsas the presenter for \"Best Documentary.\" Before announcing the nominations, he did a monologue about the unspoken agreement between movie theater owners and movie patrons.On October 4, 2007, Seinfeld made a guest appearance as himself in the30 Rockepisode \"SeinfeldVision.\"On February 24, 2008, at the80th Academy Awards, Seinfeld appeared as thevoiceof hisBee Movieanimated character Barry, presentingBest Animated Short Film. Before announcing the nominees, he showed a montage of film clips featuring bees, saying that they were some of his early work (as Barry). On June 2, 2008, amidst his spring 2008 tour, Seinfeld performed in his hometown of New York City for a one-night-only show at theHammerstein Ballroomto benefitStand Up for a Cure, a charity aidinglung cancerresearch atMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. In August 2008, theAssociated Pressreported that Jerry Seinfeld would be the",
"would be the pitchman forWindows Vista, as part of a $300-million advertising campaign by Microsoft. The ads, which were intended to create interest for Windows in support of the subsequent \"I'm a PC\" advertisements, began airing in mid-September 2008. They were cut from television after three installments; Microsoft opted to continue with the \"I'm a PC\" advertisementsand run the Seinfeld ads on the Microsoft website as a series of longer advertisements.In March 2009, it was announced that Seinfeld and the entire cast ofSeinfeldwould be appearing for a reunion in Larry David's HBO seriesCurb Your Enthusiasm. The fictional reunion took place in theseventh season'sfinaleand starred most of the original cast, includingJulia Louis-Dreyfus,Jason Alexander,Michael Richards, in a multiple-episode arc.Seinfeld appeared on an episode of theStarzoriginal seriesHead Case. As was the case in many of his previous guest appearances on sitcoms, he played himself. InAustralia, Seinfeld appeared on a series of advertisements",
"of advertisements for theGreater Building Society, abuilding societybased inNew South Walesand southeasternQueensland.His appearance in these ads was highly publicized and considered a coup for the society, being the third time Seinfeld had appeared in a television commercial.The advertisements were filmed in Cedarhurst,Long Island, with the street designed to emulate Beaumont Street inHamilton, where the Greater's head offices are located.Seinfeld also wrote the scripts for the 15 advertisements that were filmed. The ads largely aired in the Northern New South Wales television market, where the society has most of its branches. Seinfeld was the first guest onJay Leno's talk showThe Jay Leno Show, which premiered on September 14, 2009. Seinfeld was featured onSaturday Night Live'sWeekend Updatesketch to do the \"Really!?!\" segment withSeth Meyers. He executive produced and regularly appeared as a panelist inThe Marriage Ref. On August 30, 2010, Seinfeld made a surprise guest appearance onThe Howard Stern",
"onThe Howard Stern Show, ending the feud the two had in the early 1990s. Seinfeld toured the U.S. in 2011 and made his first stand-up appearance in theUnited Kingdomin 11 years. In July 2011, he was a surprise guest onThe Daily Show, helpingJon Stewartto suppress his urge to tell \"cheap\" \"Michele Bachmann's husband acts gay\" jokes.Seinfeld also launched a personal archives website at JerrySeinfeld.com and appeared in theHBOspecialTalking Funnywith fellow comediansChris Rock,Louis C.K., andRicky Gervaisin the same year. 2011–present: Talk show and expansion In 2012, Seinfeld started a web series titledComedians in Cars Getting Coffee, in which he would pick up a fellow comedian in a different car each episode and take them out for coffee and conversation. The show originally aired on theCracklestreaming service and then was bought byNetflix. The initial series consisted of ten episodes lasting from 7 to 25 minutes each. The show has continued to get high-profile guests such asAlec Baldwin,Mel Brooks,Bill",
"Brooks,Bill Burr,Dave Chappelle,Louis C.K.,Larry David,Ellen DeGeneres,Tina Fey,David Letterman,Jerry Lewis,Steve Martin,John Mulaney,Eddie Murphy,Carl Reiner,Don Rickles,Chris Rock,Howard Stern, andJon Stewart.The show has also hostedSeinfeldalumsLarry David,Julia Louis-Dreyfus,Jason Alexander, andMichael Richards. Season seven featured its most high-profile guest, then-PresidentBarack Obama.In a farewell tribute video for the Obamas before the President left office, Seinfeld stated, \"That knocking on theOval Officewindow. That probably was the peak of my entire existence.\" In 2014, Seinfeld toldDavid Lettermanhe invitedWoody Allento be on the show but hadn't heard back.That same year he also revealedJoan Riverswas supposed to be a guest on the show before she died due to a botched medical procedure.Seinfeld signed a deal withNetflixin January 2017 that included placingSeinfeldandComedians in Cars Getting Coffeeon their streaming service as well as two new Seinfeld stand-up specials and the development of",
"the development of scripted and non-scripted comedy programming.As part of the deal, all episodes ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffeewere made available on the streaming service, in addition to a new 24-episode season.The series was nominated for fivePrimetime Emmy Awardsand won threeWebby Awards. It's very important to know what you don't like. A big part of innovation is saying, \"You know what I'm really sick of?\" For me, that was talk shows where music plays, somebody walks out to a desk, shakes hands with the host, and sits down. \"How are you?\" \"You look great.\" I'm also sick of people who are really there to sell their show or product. \"What am I really sick of?\" is where innovation begins. –Seinfeld, talking about his process of innovation. In June 2013, Seinfeld appeared on rapperWale's albumThe Gifted, on the song \"Outro About Nothing.\"Seinfeld received coverage for his speech at the 2014Clio Awardsceremony, where he received an honorary award, as media reporters said that he \"mocked\" and \"ripped",
"and \"ripped apart\" the advertising industry; his statement that \"I love advertising because I love lying\" received particular attention.In 2014, Seinfeld hosted the specialDon Rickles: One Night Onlyat theApollo Theatre. The event celebratedDon Ricklesand his career, but also served as a roast among friends. Those who participated in the event includedJon Stewart,David Letterman,Tina Fey,Amy Poehler,Nathan Lane,Regis Philbin,Robert De Niro, andMartin Scorsese.On February 15, 2015, Seinfeld made a guest appearance on theSaturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special, where he hosted the \"Questions from the Audience\" segment, which included cameos fromMichael Douglas,John Goodman,James Franco,Larry David,Ellen Cleghorne,Dakota Johnson,Tim Meadows,Bob Odenkirk, andSarah Palin(who Seinfeld initially mistook forTina Fey).On May 20, 2015, Seinfeld made a guest appearance onDavid Letterman's finalLate Showepisode. Seinfeld joined guests includingAlec Baldwin,Barbara Walters,Steve Martin,Jim Carrey,Chris Rock,Julia",
"Rock,Julia Louis-Dreyfus,Peyton Manning,Tina Fey, andBill Murraywho all participated in The Top Ten List segment, \"Things I've Always Wanted to Say to Dave.\" In January 2017, Seinfeld went onThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallonand joinedDave ChappelleandJimmy Fallonin honoring outgoing First LadyMichelle Obama, and played a game ofCatchphrase, which Obama and Fallon won to Seinfeld's dismay.On September 19, 2017, Netflix released the stand-up comedy specialJerry Before Seinfeld. It follows Seinfeld as he returns for a stand-up routine at theNew York Citycomedy club,Comic Strip Live, which started his career.It is intercut with documentary clips and his stand-up special. It was later released as an LP, CD and download album, and was nominated for a 2018Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album.In 2020, it was announced that Netflix would be releasing Seinfeld's first original stand-up special in 22 years,23 Hours to Kill. The special premiered on May 5.In October 2020, Seinfeld joinedSteve Martinin a discussion",
"a discussion about comedy atThe New Yorker Festival. They discussed subjects ranging from the creative process,Netflix, andThe Oscars, to their comedy backgrounds, and the future of comedy during theCOVID-19 pandemic. In 2024 he directed, co-wrote, and produced in theNetflixcomedy filmUnfrosted, a satirical spoof about the creation ofPop-Tarts. Seinfeld also starred in the film alongsideMelissa McCarthy,Jim Gaffigan, andHugh Grant. The film earned mixed reviews withThe Hollywood Reporterwriting the film received a \"sharply divided reaction from critics\".The New York Timeslabeled it a \"Critic's Pick\" with Anne Nicholson describing it as a \"full-fledged, fully ridiculous feature comedy targeted to the audience’s sweet-and-salty dopamine receptors\".David Ehrlich ofIndieWirewrote that the \"comedy never heats up\" and \"it’s a movie about so many different things at once that it comes to feel like a movie about nothing\".Seinfeld appeared as a guest onJohn Mulaney Presents: Everybody's in LAwhere he joked that it",
"he joked that it was \"the weirdesttalk showI've ever been on in my life\".He also embarked on a new tour starting with his first show in Singapore in June 2024followed by a number of stops in Australia and North America.Seinfeld returned toCurb Your Enthusiasmin its final season reuniting withLarry Davidwhere they poked fun at the controversial ending ofSeinfeld. Ben Travers ofIndieWirewrote, \"If theCurbfinale is meant to rewrite theSeinfeldending in any way, it’s during that first scene between Jerry and Larry. They’re playing out the kind of scene they used to write for Jerry and George, and getting that silly, joyful spark between two TV legends — even for a moment — is pure bliss\". Books Seinfeld wrote the bookSeinLanguage, released in 1993. Written as his television show was first rising in popularity, it is primarily an adaptation of his stand-up material. The title comes from an article inEntertainment Weeklylisting the numerous catchphrases for which the show was responsible.In 2002, he wrote",
"2002, he wrote thechildren's bookHalloween. The book was illustrated by James Bennett.Seinfeld wrote the forewords toTed L. Nancy'sLetters from a Nutseries of books andEd Broth'sStories from a Moron.Seinfeld also wrote the foreword to thePeanut Butter & Co.Cookbook. In October 2020, Seinfeld released his new bookIs This Anything?. The book chronicles Seinfeld's 45 years working in comedy and contains many of his best bits that span from various decades. Influences Seinfeld has stated, \"On theMount Rushmoreof stand-up comedy, there are four faces, in my opinion:Richard Pryor,George Carlin,Bill Cosby, andDon Rickles.\"Seinfeld has also cited as his influencesJean Shepherd,Mad Magazine,Jonathan Winters,Jerry Lewis,Robert Klein, andAbbott and Costello.He stated, \"Monty Pythonwas a gigantic influence on me. They were just about silly, funny things that meant nothing, and that’s the stuff I love. There’s a wonderful childlike freedom in those kinds of things.\" In theNetflixcomedy special,Jerry Before Seinfeld, he",
"Before Seinfeld, he displayed his personal comedy albums collection from when he was a teenager.These albums included: In an interview withEntertainment Weekly, Seinfeld stated his five favorite films areThe Heartbreak Kid(1972),The Graduate(1967),The In-Laws(1979),A Night at the Opera(1935), andGlengarry Glen Ross(1992). Those influenced by Seinfeld includeJohn Mulaney,Ellen DeGeneres,Jim Gaffigan,Judd Apatow,Issa Rae,Nate Bargatze,andMark Normand.OnThe Late Show with Stephen Colbert,Steve Martindescribed Seinfeld as one of his \"retro heroes\" saying \" a guy who came up behind me and is better than I am. I think he's fantastic, I love to listen to him, he almost puts me at peace. I love to listen to him talk\". Personal life Seinfeld is a fan of theNew York Mets, and periodically callsSteve Somers' show onWFAN-AM, asports talk radiostation, as \"Jerry from Queens.\"Seinfeld called four innings of a Mets game onSportsNet New Yorkon June 23, 2010, reuniting with analystKeith Hernandez, who appeared in",
"who appeared in theSeinfeldtwo-part episode entitled \"The Boyfriend.\"According to Seinfeld, he thinks about baseball \"all day\" and has said \"when I think of retirement, all I would think of is going to a baseball game every day.\" Seinfeld is left-handed and the first joke he ever wrote was about the topic.In a 2014 interview withNBC News, he made statements suggesting that he believed he was on theautism spectrum.However, following criticism for his allegedself-diagnosis, he later clarified that he is not autistic and had been commenting on a play about the condition that he \"related to on some level.\" Relationships and marriage Years beforeSeinfeldwas created, Seinfeld datedCarol Leifer.She was a fellow comedian, and one of the inspirations for theSeinfeldcharacterElaine Benes.On national television with sex therapist and talk show host Dr.Ruth Westheimer, he mentioned that he was engaged in 1984 but called it off. In May 1993, days after his 39th birthday, Seinfeld met 17-year-oldShoshanna Lonsteinin",
"Lonsteinin Central Park.After a brief conversation, Lonstein gave Seinfeld her phone number.Lonstein was still a senior in high school and would turn 18 at the end of that month.Seinfeld and Lonstein dated for approximately four years, until 1997.She transferred fromGeorge Washington UniversitytoUCLA, in part to be with him, and cited constant press coverage and missing New York City as reasons for the relationship ending. The age difference led to intense media scrutiny. While Seinfeld was a guest onHoward Stern's talk show, Stern said, \"so, you sit in Central Park and have a candy bar on a string and pull it when the girls come?\" at which point Seinfeld replied, \"she's not 17, definitely not.\"A few months later, in his second Howard Stern interview, Seinfeld insisted, \"I didn't realize she was so young. This is the only girl I ever went out with who was that young. I wasn't dating her. We just went to a restaurant, and that was it.\"Early in their relationship,Spymagazine referred to Lonstein as \"a legal",
"as \"a legal voter\". In an October 1993Playboyinterview, Seinfeld described the reactions to the relationship as ranging \"from horrified to just busting buttons with pride that they know me\", noting that his female acquaintances had overall reacted more negatively than his male ones. He said that his assistant \"was so mad\" she punched him, whereas his mother was \"thrilled\". He concluded, \"if she's 18, if she's intelligent, that's fine\".In March 1994, Seinfeld again defended their age difference in an interview withPeople, stating that \"Shoshanna is a person, not an age.\"Julia Louis-Dreyfus said in a 1998New Yorkinterview that she was in favor of the relationship, as \"it was a happy one for him\", and added that she did not believe there was anything wrong with it. In August 1998, while at a Reebok Sports Club, Seinfeld metJessica Sklar, apublic relationsexecutive forTommy Hilfigerwho had just returned from a three-week honeymoon inItalywith then-husband Eric Nederlander, a theatrical producer and scion of",
"and scion of atheater-owning family. Unaware of Sklar's marital status, Seinfeld invited her out. When Sklar eventually told Seinfeld about her relationship situation, she said, \"I told him I didn't think this was the right time for me to be involved with anybody.\" Two months later, Sklar filed for divorce and began dating Seinfeld. The pair married on December 25, 1999.ComedianGeorge Wallacewas the best man at the wedding.After the nuptials, Jerry and Jessica Seinfeld boughtBilly Joel's house inAmagansett,Long Island, for US$32 million after news of the couple's interest in the property became public in 2000.The Seinfelds have a daughter and two sons. Wealth and charity In 1999, Seinfeld auctioned a Breitling Chronomat watch as part of the \"Famous Faces, Watch Auction For Charity\" event in New York City. This watch sold for $11,000.In 2001, Jerry and Jessica Seinfeld created the charitable organizationThe Good+Foundationafter their first child was born. Good+Foundation grants donations of products and",
"of products and services to programs that have demonstrated a capacity to address family poverty in three focus areas: supporting new mothers, investing in early childhood, and engaging fathers. GOOD+ Foundation has donated over $42M worth of items through its partner network across the United States.Seinfeld has also participated inJon Stewart's charity event,Night of Too Many Stars. According toForbesmagazine, Seinfeld's cumulative earnings fromSeinfeldas of 2004 was $267 million, placing him at the top of the celebrity earnings list that year.He turned down $5 million per episode, for 22 episodes, to continue the show for a 10th season.Seinfeld earned $100 million from syndication deals and stand-up performances in 2004, and $60 million in 2006.He also earned $10 million for appearing withBill GatesinMicrosoft's 2008 advertisements forWindows.Between June 2008 and June 2009, Seinfeld earned $85 million, making him the world's highest-paid comedian during those 12 months.In 2013,Forbesdocumented Seinfeld's",
"Seinfeld's annual income as $32 million.In mid-2013, Seinfeld disputedForbes'sclaims regarding his income and net worth onThe Howard Stern Show.Seinfeld was ranked byForbesthe highest-paid comedian for 2015, the second-highest-paid in 2016, and the highest-paid again in 2017.Seinfeld's income between June 2016 and June 2017 was $69 million. In 2024,Bloombergdeclared Seinfeld a billionaire, with a net worth standing at more than $1 billion, thanks to various syndication deals his sitcom signed, with $465 million coming from those deals. Automobiles Seinfeld is an automobile enthusiast and collector, and he owns a collection of about 150 cars, including a largePorschecollection.He rented a hangar at theSanta Monica AirportinSanta Monica, California, for an extended period during the 1990s for storage of some of the vehicles in the collection.In 2002, Seinfeld purchased property on theUpper West SideofManhattaninNew York Citywhere he built a $1.4 million two-story garage to store part of his Porsche collection",
"Porsche collection on the East Coast.One tally has Seinfeld owning 43 Porsches.Paul Bannister has written that Seinfeld's collection includesPorsche 911sfrom various years, 10Porsche Boxsterseach painted a different color, and the 1955Porsche 550 Spyder, the same model and pearl-grey color that actorJames Deanhad been driving before he crashed that car and subsequently died. TheDiscovery Channeltelevision showChasing Classic Carsclaimed that Seinfeld owns the first and last produced air-cooled Porsche 911s. The centerpiece is a $700,000Porsche 959, one of only 337 built. He was originally not allowed to drive it, because the car was \"notstreet legal.\" U.S. emissions and crash tests had not been performed for the model because Porsche refused to donate four Porsche 959s for destruction tests. Seinfeld imported the car \"for exhibition purposes,\" on the stipulation that it may never be driven on U.S. roads.The car was made U.S. street legal in 1999 under the \"Show or Display\" federal law.Seinfeld wrote an",
"wrote an article for the February 2004 issue ofAutomobile, reviewing thePorsche Carrera GT. In 2008, Seinfeld was involved in a car accident when the brakes on his 1967Fiat 500failed and, to avoid an intersection, he pulled the emergency brake while turning sharply, ultimately causing the car to flip onto its side. No one was hurt. Coffee machines A coffee aficionado, Seinfeld owns multipleespresso machines, including the $17,000 Elektra Belle Epoqueand two machines manufactured by Slayer andBreville.Seinfeld described his single-group Slayer machine, which costs upwards of $8,500, as a \"beautiful machine.\"WhenNPRasked him about the influence ofcoffee culture in the U.S., Seinfeld responded in 2013: I never liked and I didn't understand it and I used to do a lot of stuff in my stand-up set in the '80s and '90s about how I don't 'get' coffee. And then something happened about five years ago. I started touring a lot, and we would have these great big, fun breakfasts in the hotel and just seemed to go really",
"seemed to go really well . , I've just started this espresso thing. In a May 2024GQinterview titled \"10 Things Jerry Seinfeld Can't Live Without\", Seinfeld revealed that aBialettimoka potis one of his must-haves. He described the process of making coffee with a moka pot as complex and time-consuming, but a pleasurable way to \"waste time\". Religion and politics Seinfeld is Jewish and has incorporated elements of hisJewish identityin his work.Although he shared that his mother was born into a large family of Syrian Orthodox Jews, he admitted to being non-religious himself.Seinfeld stated that he took aScientologycourse when he was in his 20s; he said that he found it interesting but that he did not pursue it any further. Seinfeld expressed support forIsraelduring theIsrael–Hamas war, saying \"I will always stand with Israel and the Jewish people.\"Seinfeld and his family previously drew criticism, travelling to the West Bank in 2018 to participate in a terrorism simulation camp.Seinfeld also visited the",
"also visited the headquarters ofAbducted and Missing Families Forumwhere he met with representatives of the families and with abductees who returned from Hamas captivity, and listened to their stories.On May 12, 2024, Seinfeld gave acommencement addressand received an honorary degree atDuke University. During his speech, a number of students booed, wavedPalestinian flagsand walked out in protest.In June 2024, Seinfeld was heckled by protesters during a comedy show inSydney, Australia. Seinfeld responded joking, \"You’re really influencing everyone here. We’re all on your side now, because you’ve made your point so well, and in the right venue, you’ve come to the right place for a political conversation\". Seinfeld has made several political contributions, including toGeorge W. Bush's andAl Gore's presidential campaigns in2000, and subsequently to fourDemocratic Partyprimary candidates in 2000 and2004. Seinfeld has expressed his distaste forpolitical correctnessandwokeculture. In 2015, Seinfeld stated that he",
"stated that he avoids performing on college campuses because students have become too easily offended by his comedic routines.In a 2024 interview withThe New Yorker, Seinfeld claimed political correctness was destroying comedy, saying, “This is the result of theextreme leftand PC crap, and people worrying so much about offending other people. When you write a script and it goes into four or five different hands, committees, groups — 'Here's our thought about this joke' — well, that's the end of your comedy.”Months later, he walked back those comments on the \"Breaking Bread\" podcast, stating \"I don't think, as I said, 'the extreme left' has done anything to inhibit the art of comedy. I'm taking that back officially.\" Seinfeld said he regrets his previous comments because changing cultural attitudes are \"not business.\" Transcendental Meditation In December 2012, Seinfeld said that he had been practicingTranscendental Meditationfor 40 years. He promoted the use of the technique in the treatment",
"in the treatment ofpost-traumatic stress disorderwithBob Rothof theDavid Lynch Foundationin December 2012 onGood Morning America,and also appeared at a 2009 David Lynch Foundation benefit for TM, at whichPaul McCartneyandRingo Starrappeared.On November 5, 2015, the David Lynch Foundation organized a benefit concert at New York City'sCarnegie Hallcalled \"Change Begins Within\" to promote transcendental meditation for stress control. \"It's been the greatest companion technique of living that I've ever come across, and I'm thrilled to be part of this movement that seems to have really been reinvigorated by Bob andDavid Lynch,\" Seinfeld said. \"I would do anything that I could to promote it in the world, because I think it's the greatest thing as a life tool, as a work tool and just making things make sense.\" Filmography Film Television Music videos Video games Directing Writing Writing credits forSeinfeld The list below only includes episodes mainly written by Seinfeld, as he (and Larry David in Seasons 1",
"David in Seasons 1 through 7) rewrote the drafts for each episode. Comedy releases Stand-up specials Stand-up appearances References Awards and nominations Over his career he has receivednumerous accoladesincluding aPrimetime Emmy Award, aGolden Globe Award, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for fourGrammy Awards. Seinfeld has received an HonoraryDoctorate of Humane Lettersfrom Queens College (1994)as well as an HonoraryDoctor of ArtsfromDuke University(2024) Discography Bibliography References External links",
"Jason Alexander Jay Scott Greenspan(born September 23, 1959),known professionally asJason Alexander, is an American actor and comedian. Over the course of his career he has received anEmmy Awardand aTony Awardas well as nominations for fourGolden Globe Awards. He gained stardom for his role asGeorge Costanzain theNBCsitcomSeinfeld(1989–1998), for which he won aScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Seriesand was nominated for seven consecutivePrimetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Seriesand fourGolden Globe Awards for Best Supporting Actor in Television. Alexander made hisBroadwaydebut originating the role of Joe inStephen Sondheim'sMerrily We Roll Alongin 1981. He remained active on Broadway acting in the musicalsThe Rinkin 1984,Personalsin 1985, and theNeil SimonplayBroadway Boundin 1986. He then starred inJerome Robbins' Broadwayin 1989, for which he won theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He appeared in the Los Angeles",
"in the Los Angeles production ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers. He was the artistic director of \"Reprise! Broadway's Best in Los Angeles\", where he has directed musicals. His film roles includePretty Woman(1990),Coneheads(1993),North(1994),The Last Supper(1995),Dunston Checks In(1996),Denial(1998),Shallow Hal(2001), andWild Card(2015). He voiced thegargoyleHugo in the Disney filmThe Hunchback of Notre Dame(1996) and the2002 sequelas well as the titular role inDuckman(1994–1997). For his role inDream On(1994) he was nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. He also acted inCurb Your Enthusiasm(2001, 2009), andThe Marvelous Mrs. Maisel(2019). Early life and education Greenspan was born inNewark, New Jerseyto a Jewish family, the son of Ruth Minnie (née Simon), a nurse and health care administrator, and Alexander B. Greenspan, an accounting manager. Greenspan later borrowed his father's first name to create his stage name, Jason Alexander. Alexander grew up",
"Alexander grew up inMaplewoodandLivingston, New Jersey, and is a 1977 graduate ofLivingston High School.Interested in magic from an early age, he initially hoped to be a magician, but while attending a magic camp was told that his hands were too small for card magic. He became interested in theater, eventually realizing, \"Wait a minute—the whole thing's an illusion. Nothing up there is real\" and that theater itself was \"a magic trick\". He then decided to pursue a theater career. After high school, he studied theater atBoston University. He wanted to pursue classical acting, but a professor redirected him toward comedy after noticing his physique, remarking, \"I know your heart and soul areHamlet, but you will never play Hamlet.\"Alexander left Boston University without a degree after his third year to take a full-time acting job in New York City. The university awarded him an honorary degree in 1995. Career 1980–1999: Broadway debut andSeinfeld Alexander began his acting career on the New York stage and is an",
"stage and is an accomplished singer and dancer. Alexander made his film debut in 1981 in the summer campslasher filmThe Burning. OnBroadwayhe appeared inStephen Sondheim'sMerrily We Roll Alongin 1981,Kander&Ebb'sThe Rinkin 1984,Neil Simon'sBroadway Boundin 1986,Accomplicein 1990, andJerome Robbins' Broadwayin 1989, for which he garnered the 1989Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical.Frank RichofThe New York Timeswrote of his performance \"Jason Alexander, the evening's delightful narrator, accomplishes the seemingly impossible: he banishes the memory ofZero Mostelfrom the role ofPseudolusinA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum\". In addition to his roles as an insensitive, money-hungry lawyer inPretty Womanin 1990, Alexander has appeared inJacob's Ladderin 1990,The Last Supperin 1995,Dunston Checks Inin 1996,Love! Valour! Compassion!in 1997, andLove and Action in Chicagoin 1999. Alexander starred in several commercials during the 1980s. Among them were commercials forHershey's Kiss; Delta Goldpotato",
"Delta Goldpotato chips;Miller Litebeer;McDonald'sMcDLThamburger;Pabst Blue Ribbonbeer;Levi's501 jeans;Sony WatchmanTV; andWestern Unionwire transfer.BeforeSeinfeld, Alexander appeared in commercials for John Deere and McDonald's and in the short-livedCBSsitcomEverything's Relative(1987). Alexander is best known as one of the key cast members of the award-winning television sitcomSeinfeld, where he played the bumblingGeorge Costanza(Jerry Seinfeld's character's best friend since childhood). He was nominated for sevenPrimetime Emmy Awardsand fourGolden Globe Awardsfor the role, but did not win any, mainly due to his co-starMichael Richardswinning for his role asCosmo Kramer. He did, however, win the 1995Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series. Concurrently with hisSeinfeldrole, he had a part in the ABC sitcomDinosaursas Al \"Sexual\" Harris (who frequently engaged insexual harassment) as well as other characters from 1991 to 1994. Alexander voiced the lead",
"voiced the lead character in the animated seriesDuckman(1994–1997) and voicedCatbert, the evil director of human resources, in the short-lived animated seriesDilbertfrom 1999 to 2000, based on the then-popular comic strip.In January 1995, he did a commercial forRold Goldpretzels to be broadcast during theSuper Bowl. The commercial depicts him withFrasierdog Eddie jumping out of an airplane with a parachute over the stadium. After the commercial, the audience is brought back to a supposedly live feed of the playing field hearing startled sports commentators as Alexander and the dog land in the field to wild applause. Alexander appeared in the 1995 TV version of theBroadwaymusicalBye Bye Birdie, as Conrad Birdie's agent, Albert Peterson. He guest-starred in episode 8 of the 1996 variety showMuppets Tonight.He voiced thegargoyleHugo inDisney's 1996animated filmThe Hunchback of Notre Dameand its direct-to-video sequel,The Hunchback of Notre Dame II. Alexander voiced the characterAbis Malin the 1994 filmThe",
"the 1994 filmThe Return of Jafarand the 1994-1995TV seriesbased on the 1992 filmAladdin. In 1997, he appeared inCinderella, a remake ofRodgers and Hammerstein's Cinderella,alongsideWhitney Houston,Brandy Norwood, andWhoopi Goldberg. His other Disney voice work includesHouse of Mousein 2001 and the 2012 video gameKingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance.He has dabbled in directing, starting with 1996'sFor Better or Worseand 1999'sJust Looking. In 1999, Alexander presided over theNew York Friars Club Roastevent honoringJerry Stiller, who played his father onSeinfeld; it featured appearances byKevin JamesandPatton Oswalt, both Stiller's costars onThe King of Queens. Alexander appeared in the 1999Star Trek: Voyagerepisode \"Think Tank\" as Kurros, a genius alien trying to getSeven of Nineto serve on his ship. 2000–2009: Solo-lead sitcoms and return to theatre Despite a successful career in film and stage, Alexander did not repeat hisSeinfeld-level of success in television. The year 2001 marked his appearance as",
"his appearance as inept womanizer Mauricio inShallow Haland his first post-Seinfeldreturn to prime-time television: the heavily promoted but short-livedABCsitcomBob Patterson, which was canceled after five episodes. Alexander partially blames the show's failure on the country's mood after9/11.Alexander made cameo appearances as himself in 2001 in the second season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm, and he appeared in the show's seventh season with his three principalSeinfeldco-stars.He was featured in theFriends2001 episode \"The One Where Rosita Dies\" as Earl, a suicidalsupply manager.Phoebecalls him trying to sell himtoner, learns about his problem, and tries to persuade him not to commit suicide. This is referenced in an episode ofMalcolm in the Middlewhere Alexander appears as Leonard, a neurotic and critical loner. He describes himself as \"free\" and says he makes money \"selling toner over the phone\". Later in the episode, he is repeatedly harassed by a man named George. He appeared in \"One Night at Mercy\", the",
"at Mercy\", the first episode of the short-lived2002 revival ofThe Twilight Zone, playingDeath. He played the toymakerA.C. Gilbertin the 2002 filmThe Man Who Saved Christmas. He appeared inKentucky Fried Chicken(KFC) commercials in 2002, including one withBarry Bondsof theSan Francisco Giantsand another withTrista RehnofThe Bachelorette. It was rumored that he quit doing these commercials due to KFC suppliers andslaughterhouses' allegedcruelty to animals, but he denied that in an interview withAdweek, saying, \"That'sPETAbullcrap. I loved working for KFC. I was targeted by PETA to broker something between them. I think KFC really stepped up to the plate; unfortunately PETA did not.\" In 2007, Alexander appeared in a commercial for theASPCAthat aired on cable TV stations.In 2018, Alexander portrayedColonel Sandersin commercials forKFC, reprising his role from the 2002 campaign. In 2003, he was cast oppositeMartin Shortin the Los Angeles production ofMel Brooks'sThe Producers.He appeared withKelsey Grammerin the",
"Grammerin the 2004musical adaptationofCharles Dickens'sA Christmas Carol, asJacob Marley. Alexander's second chance as a TV series lead, theCBSsitcomListen Up(2004–05), also fell short of a second season. Alexander was the principal executive producer of the series, based very loosely on the life of the popular sports-media personalityTony Kornheiser. He performed on theFamily Guy: Live in Vegas2005 album. Alexander continued to appear in live stage shows, includingBarbra Streisand's memorable birthday party in 2005 for Stephen Sondheim at the Hollywood Bowl, where he performed selections fromSweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet StreetwithAngela Lansbury.He featured in the 2005Monkepisode \"Mr. Monk and the Other Detective\" as Monk's rival,Marty Eels. In a 2006 appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!, Alexander demonstrated several self-defense techniques. Also that year, he hosted thePBS\"A Capitol Fourth\" celebrations in Washington, D.C., singing, dancing, and playing tuned drums. Alexander was featured as a",
"was featured as a recurring cast member in the second season ofEverybody Hates Chris. He hosted theComedy Central Roast of William Shatner. He was the artistic director of Reprise Theatre Company in Los Angeles from 2007 until it went defunct in 2013,where he previously directedSunday in the Park with George, and directed its 2007 revival ofDamn Yankees.In 2007, Alexander was a guest star in the third episode of theimprov comedyseriesThank God You're Here. He has been a frequent guest and panelist onBill Maher'sPolitically Incorrectin 1995, 1997 and 2000andReal Timein 2006, 2009 and 2012;Hollywood Squaresin 1999, 2002 and 2004;theLate Late Showin 2003, 2012, 2014 and 2015, withCraig Kilborn,Craig Ferguson, andJames Corden;Late Show with David Lettermanin 1989, 2000, and 2002;The Late Show with Stephen Colbertin 2015;andThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallonin 2015.In 2008, Alexander guest-starred in theseason fourepisode \"Masterpiece\" of theCBSshowCriminal Mindsas Professor Rothschild,a well-educatedserial",
"well-educatedserial killerobsessed with theFibonacci sequencewho sends the team into a race against time to save his last victims.He returned in the same season to direct the episode \"Conflicted\", featuring the actorJackson Rathbone. Alexander hosted the LOL Sudbury opening night gala inSudbury, Ontario, Canada in 2008, which was simulcast throughout Canada at 60 Cineplex theaters, a first for any comedy festival. He has lent his voice to several episodes of theTwilight Zone Radio Dramas. In 2008 and again in 2009, Alexander frontedJason Alexander's Comedy Spectacular, a routine exclusive to Australia. The show consists of stand-up and improvisation and incorporates Alexander's musical talent. He is backed up by several well-known Australian comedians. His first time performing a similar show of this nature was in 2006'sJason Alexander's Comedy Christmas. In February/March 2010, Alexander starred in his show,The Donny Clay Experience, at thePlanet Hollywood ResortinLas Vegas,Nevada. Donny Clay, whom he has",
"Clay, whom he has portrayed in a tour of the United States and Orillia, Ontario, is aself-helpguru in a similar mold to hisBob Pattersoncharacter. In 2009, he playedJosephin theThomas Nelsonaudio Bible productionThe Word of Promise. The project featured a large ensemble of actors, includingJim Caviezel,Lou Gossett Jr.,John Rhys-Davies,Jon Voight,Gary Sinise,Christopher McDonald,Marisa Tomei, andJohn Schneider.In 2009, Alexander had a small role in the filmHachi: A Dog's Taleas a train station manager. 2010–present He starred asCosmoin the 2011 live action filmA Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner!. In 2011, Alexander was the guest star in an episode ofHarry's Law, playing a high school teacher bringing a wrongful dismissal suit.In 2015, he replacedLarry Davidas the lead in David'sBroadwayplayFish in the Dark.He co-starred oppositeSherie Rene Scottin the 2017 world premiere ofJohn Patrick Shanley'sThe Portuguese Kidat theManhattan Theatre Club.In 2018, Alexander played Olix the bartender inThe Orville.The",
"inThe Orville.The same year, he portrayed Gene Lundy, a drama teacher, on two episodes ofYoung Sheldon. In 2020, 2021 and 2022, he reprised the role of Gene Lundy on one episode. In 2019, Alexander appeared onThe Marvelous Mrs. Maiselas Asher Friedman, a blacklisted Broadway playwright who is an old friend of Midge Maisel's father Abe Weissman.He won theDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Original Song for \"The Bad Guys?\" onBrainwashed By Toons(2020). In 2020, Alexander hosted theSaturday Night Seder, an online Passover Seder that featured many celebrities and benefited theCDC Foundation. From February 2023 he co-presentedReally? No, Really?, a weekly podcast in which he, co-host Peter Tilden, and their guests attempt to find answers \"to life’s most baffling, intriguing, confusing and annoying questions\".In July 2023, he made his Broadway directing debut with Sandy Rustin's comedyThe Cottage. The cast includesEric McCormack,Laura Bell BundyandLilli Cooper.In 2023, on the December 21 primetime CBS specialDick",
"CBS specialDick Van Dyke: 98 Years of Magic, Alexander performed two songs in conjunction with dance-performers and closed the show with a spoken tribute to Van Dyke. Personal life Alexander has been married to Daena E. Title, cousin of directorStacy Title, since May 31, 1982.They have two sons, Gabrieland Noah. Alexander performed amentalismand magic act atThe Magic Castlein Hollywood, California, from April 24 to 30, 2006, and he was later named The Academy of Magical Arts Parlor Magician of the Year for this act. He won the academy's Junior Achievement Award in 1989. Charity Alexander was the national spokesman for theSclerodermaFoundation, a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those who are afflicted.In summer 2005, he appeared withLee Iacoccain ads forDaimlerChrysler. Iacocca did the ads as part of a way to raise money forDenise Faustman's research onautoimmunity.Iacocca and Alexander both have loved ones whose lives have been adversely affected by",
"affected by autoimmunity. Alexander competed on televised poker shows and in various tournaments. He appeared twice onBravo'sCelebrity Poker Showdown, winning the final table of the 8th season. Alexander won the $500,000 prize for the charity of his choice, TheUnited Way of America, to help benefit the New Orleans area. Alexander played in the2007 World Series of Pokermain event, but he was eliminated on the second day. He returned in 2009, making it to day 3 of the event and finishing in the top 30% of the field. Alexander has appeared on NBC'sPoker After Darkin the \"Celebrities and Mentors\" episode, finishing in 6th place after being eliminated by professional poker playerGavin Smith. He signed withPokerStars, where he plays under the screen name \"J. Alexander\". In 2021, Alexander competed in a virtual National Poker Tournament, hosted by theChildren's Tumor Foundation, to raise money forNeurofibromatosisresearch. Political views Alexander has been a prominent public supporter of theOneVoiceinitiative,",
"which seeks out opinions from moderateIsraelisandPalestinianswho want to achieve a mutual peace agreement, through what it states is the silent majority of Israelis and Palestinians. This has been criticised by The Electronic Intifada as \"promoting what many Palestinians see as \"a false peace that fails to address the structural injustices driving the conflict\", and as a fake peace group which \"manufactures consent for Israeli apartheid\".OnReal Time with Bill Maher, he said he had visitedIsraelmany times and spoke about progress toward peace he had observed. On December 6, 2012 Alexander emceed his thirdgala event for non-profit groupFriends of the Israel Defense Forces, a charity supporting theIsrael Defense Forces.MusicianStevie Wondercancelled his performance at the event following a recommendation from the UN,and a public petition fromBoycott, Divestment and Sanctions(BDS) requesting that he not attend the event.Alexander who was interviewed at the event by Jewish News Syndicate stated he supported",
"stated he supported theOneVoice Movement, and acknowledged an occupation of Palestine and called for a two-state solution,which was later criticised by Roz Rothstein, CEO of the pro-Israel education group StandWithUs.When asked about the IDF, Alexander stated that they were humane and noble, stating \"some of the finest, most humane, most admirable, most noble-serving soldiers that I've ever seen\" and that \"there can never be any doubt that I am also an advocate for Israel\".When asked about why he had repeatedly emceed the event, Alexander stated: \"They don’t understand first of all what is, and they see it as just a blanket support for Israeli military, and they don’t understand how I can say that I’m an advocate for both sides,” he said. “And given the fact that there are eyes on this event tonight, I thought it was important to get up and say, 'This is why I can advocate for this group and I can advocate for Israel, and I’m not blind to the fact that we’re in conflict, and I hold everyone equally",
"everyone equally accountable, and I hold everyone equally to my heart.'\" On November 6, 2015 he again emceed an event at theThe Beverly Hilton Hotelin California, which raised $31 million for the, \"provid educational, cultural and recreational programs and facilities for IDF soldiers.\" Alexander is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.Alexander supportssame-sex marriageand anassault weapons ban.In 2020, he campaigned for theTexas Democratswith formerSeinfeldcolleaguesJulia Louis-Dreyfusand Larry David.He endorsedBarack Obamain2012andJoe Bidenin2020.Alexander has been an outspoken critic of theTrump administrationand he has ridiculedDonald Trumpover his dancing.He has calledRepublican PartysenatorTed Cruza jerk from the \"jerk store\" in reference to a joke fromSeinfeld. Acting credits Film Television Theatre Music videos Video games Director Awards and nominations References External links",
"Julia Louis-Dreyfus Julia Scarlett Elizabeth Louis-Dreyfus(/ˌluːiˈdraɪfəs/LOO-eeDRY-fəs; born January 13, 1961) is an American actress and comedian. Often described as one of the greatest performers in television history,she is widely known for her roles as various characters onSaturday Night Live(1982–1985),Elaine BenesonSeinfeld(1990–1998),Christine CampbellonThe New Adventures of Old Christine(2006–2010), andSelina MeyeronVeep(2012–2019). Herlist of accoladesmakes her one of the most award-winning actresses in American television history,and she has received morePrimetime Emmy Awardsand moreScreen Actors Guild Awardsthan any other performer. Louis-Dreyfus was born in New York City, the daughter of the French billionaireGérard Louis-Dreyfus, and entered comedy as a performer with thePractical Theatre CompanyinChicago. This led to her being cast in the sketch showSaturday Night Live. Her breakthrough came in 1990 with her debut at the start of a nine-season run onSeinfeld, which became one of the most",
"one of the most critically and commercially successful sitcoms. In addition to leading roles onThe New Adventures of Old ChristineandVeep, she has made guest appearances on shows such asArrested Development,Curb Your Enthusiasm, and30 Rock. On film, Louis-Dreyfus has had supporting film roles inHannah and Her Sisters(1986),National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation(1989),Deconstructing Harry(1997), andYou People(2023), and leading film roles inEnough Said(2013),Downhill(2020),You Hurt My Feelings(2023), andTuesday(2023). Her voice acting work includesA Bug's Life(1998),Planes(2013), andOnward(2020). Since 2021 she has playedValentina Allegra de Fontainein theMarvel Cinematic Universe. Louis-Dreyfus has received 11 Primetime Emmy Awards (eight for acting and three for producing) in addition to nine Screen Actors Guild Awards and oneGolden Globe Award. She received a star on theHollywood Walk of Famein 2010 and was inducted into theTelevision Academy Hall of Famein 2014. She was named as one ofTimemagazine's100",
"ofTimemagazine's100 most influential people in the worldin 2016.She has also received numerous honors including theMark Twain Prize for American Humorin 2018 and theNational Medal of Artsin 2021. Early life Julia Scarlett Elizabeth Louis-Dreyfuswas born inNew York Cityon January 13, 1961.Her mother, Judith (née LeFever), is an American writer andspecial needs educator.Her father,Gérard Louis-Dreyfus(1932–2016), was a French billionaire who served as chairman of theLouis Dreyfus Company. Her paternal grandfather,Pierre Louis-Dreyfus(1908–2011), was president of theLouis Dreyfus Groupcommodities and shipping conglomerate.He was a member of aJewishfamily fromAlsace,and served as acavalryofficer and member of theFrench ResistanceduringWorld War II.Louis-Dreyfus is the great-great-granddaughter of French businessmanLéopold Louis-Dreyfus(1833–1915), founder of the Louis Dreyfus Group, which members of her family still control.She is the fifth cousin four times removed ofAlfred Dreyfus(1859–1935) of the",
"of the infamousDreyfus affair.Robert Louis-Dreyfus(1946–2009), her father's second cousin, was the CEO ofAdidasand owner of the soccer teamOlympique de Marseille.Julia's paternal grandmother was the daughter of aBrazilian-Jewishfather (whose family wasDutch,English, andPolish). In 1962, a year after her birth, Louis-Dreyfus' parents divorced. She has said that she first noticed her penchant for comedy after sticking raisins up her nose at the age of three, which first made her mother laugh but then led to an emergency hospital visit.After moving toWashington, D.C., when Louis-Dreyfus was four, her mother married L. Thompson Bowles, dean of theGeorge Washington University Medical School;Louis-Dreyfus gained a half-sister,Lauren Bowles, also an actress. Due to her stepfather's work withProject HOPE, she spent her childhood in several U.S. states and countries such asColombia,Sri Lanka, andTunisia.In 1979, she graduated from the all-girlsHolton-Arms SchoolinBethesda, Maryland.She later said of the school,",
"said of the school, \"There were things I did in school that, had there been boys in the classroom, I would have been less motivated to do. For instance, I was president of the honor society.\" Louis-Dreyfus attendedNorthwestern UniversityinEvanston, Illinois, where she was a member of theDelta Gammasorority. She studied theatre and performed in theMee-Ow Show, a student-run improv and sketch comedy revue, before dropping out during her junior year to take a job atSaturday Night Live.In 2007, she received an honorary doctor of arts degree from Northwestern University. Career 1982–1989: Early career andSaturday Night Live As part of her comedic training, Louis-Dreyfus appeared inThe Second City, one of the best-known improvisational theatre groups. It was her performance withThe Practical Theatre Companyat their \"Golden 50th Anniversary Jubilee\" that led to her being asked to join the cast ofNBC'sSaturday Night Liveat the age of 21. Louis-Dreyfus subsequently became a cast member onSaturday Night Livefrom 1982",
"Night Livefrom 1982 to 1985, the youngest female cast member in the history of the program at that time.It was during her third and final year onSNLthat she met writerLarry Davidduring his only year on the show.David later co-createdSeinfeld.Louis-Dreyfus has commented that her casting onSNLwas a \"Cinderella-getting-to-go-to-the-ball kind of experience\";however, she has also admitted that at times it was often quite tense, stating that she \"didn't know how to navigate the waters of show business in general and specifically doing a live sketch-comedy show\". Recurring characters onSaturday Night Live Following her 1985 departure fromSNL, Louis-Dreyfus appeared in several films, includingHannah and Her Sisters(1986) byWoody Allen,Soul Man(1986), andNational Lampoon's Christmas Vacation(1989), in which she starred alongside fellowSNLalumnusChevy Chase. In 1987, Louis-Dreyfus appeared in the NBC sitcom pilotThe Art of Being Nick, an intended spin-off fromFamily TiesstarringScott Valentine. When the pilot did not",
"the pilot did not make it to series, Louis-Dreyfus was retained by producerGary David Goldbergfor a role on his new sitcomDay by Day, as the sarcastic and materialistic neighbor, Eileen Swift. Premiering in early 1988,Day by Dayaired for two seasons on NBC before being cancelled. 1990–1998:Seinfeldand widespread recognition In the early 1990s, Louis-Dreyfus became famous for the role ofElaine Beneson NBC'sSeinfeld. She played the role for nine seasons, appearing in all but three episodes.One of the episodes that she did not appear in was the pilot episode, \"The Seinfeld Chronicles\", because her character was not initially intended to be a part of the series. It was only after the first episode thatNBCexecutives felt the show was too male-centric and demanded that creatorsLarry DavidandJerry Seinfeldadd a woman to the cast. It was revealed in the commentary on the DVD package that the addition of a female character was the condition for commissioning the show. Louis-Dreyfus won the role over several other",
"over several other actresses who also eventually enjoyed TV success, includingPatricia HeatonandMegan Mullally.On the \"Notes About Nothing\" featurette on theDVDpackage, Seinfeld says that Louis-Dreyfus's ability to eat a peanutM&Mwithout breaking the peanut described her: \"She cracks you up without breaking your nuts.\" Louis-Dreyfus garnered critical acclaim for her performance on the series, and she was a regular winner and nominee at television award shows throughout the 1990s. Her performance earned her twoGolden Globe Awardnominations, winning once in 1994, nineScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, winning one in 1995 and two in both 1997 and 1998, and sevenAmerican Comedy Awards, winning five times in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997 and 1998. In 1996, she won thePrimetime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, an award she was nominated for on seven occasions from 1992 to 1998. After receiving the award, Louis-Dreyfus said the win was a \"shocker\", and that after being in both positions,",
"in both positions, it was \"much better to win than to lose.\" In 1998, Jerry Seinfeld decided to end the series after nine seasons. Theseries finaleaired on May 14 and was one of the most-watched TV events in history, with over 76 million viewers tuning in.During her time onSeinfeld,she appeared in several films, including the comedy filmsFathers' Day(1997), oppositeRobin WilliamsandBilly Crystal, andWoody Allen'sDeconstructing Harry(1997). 1999–2004: Post-Seinfeld Following a voice role in the highly successfulPixarfilmA Bug's Life(1998), Louis-Dreyfus lent her voice asSnake's girlfriend Gloria inThe Simpsonsepisode \"A Hunka Hunka Burns in Love\". In 2001, she made several special guest appearances onSeinfeldco-creatorLarry David's showCurb Your Enthusiasm, playing herself fictionally trying to break the \"curse\" by planning to star in a show in which she would play an actress affected by aSeinfeld-like curse. After several years away from a regular TV job, Louis-Dreyfus began a new single-camera",
"a new single-camera sitcom,Watching Ellie, which premiered on NBC in February 2002. The series was created by husbandBrad Halland co-starredSteve Carelland Louis-Dreyfus's half-sisterLauren Bowles. The initial premise of the show was to present viewers with a \"slice of life\" from the goings-on and happenings of the life of Ellie Riggs, a Southern California jazz singer. The first season included a 22-minute countdown kept digitally in the lower left-hand corner of the screen, which many critics panned, claiming it was useless and \"did nothing for the show.\"Overall, the show received mixed reviews but debuted strongly with over 16 million viewers tuning in for the series premiere, and maintained an average audience of about 10 million viewers per week. When the series returned for a second season in the spring of 2003, it suffered a decline in viewership, averaging around eight million viewers per week. The show had undergone a drastic stylistic change between the production of seasons one and two. The first",
"and two. The first season was filmed in the single-camera format, but the second season was presented as a traditional multicamera sitcom filmed in front of a live studio audience.With dwindling viewership and failing to retain the numbers from itsFrasierlead-in, the series was cancelled by NBC in May 2003. Following NBC's cancellation ofWatching Ellie, the media began circulating rumors of a so-called \"Seinfeldcurse\", which claimed that none of the formerSeinfeldactors could ever achieve success again in the television industry. Louis-Dreyfus dismissed the rumor as \"a made-up thing by the media\",whileSeinfeldco-creator Larry David asserted that the curse was \"completely idiotic.\"Louis-Dreyfus was interested in the role ofSusan MayeronDesperate Housewives, the role that ultimately went toTeri Hatcher.Instead, Louis-Dreyfus scored a recurring guest role as Maggie Lizer, the deceitful prosecutor and love interest ofMichael Bluthon the Emmy-winning comedyArrested Development, from 2004 to 2005. 2005–2010:The",
"2005. 2005–2010:The New Adventures of Old Christine In 2005, Louis-Dreyfus was cast in the title role of a new CBS sitcom,The New Adventures of Old Christine.The series and its concept were created by writer and producer ofWill & Grace, Kari Lizer. The series told the story of Christine Campbell, a single mother who manages to maintain a fantastic relationship with her ex-husband while running a women's gym. The series debuted on CBS in March 2006 to an audience of 15 million and was initially a ratings winner for the network. Louis-Dreyfus received considerable critical acclaim for her performance on the show, with Brian Lowry ofVarietystating that Louis-Dreyfus broke the so-called \"Seinfeldcurse with one of the best conventional half-hours to come along in a while.\"Alessandra Stanley fromThe New York Timesasserted that Louis-Dreyfus's performance on the series proved she is \"one of the funniest women on network television.\"Louis-Dreyfus also earned the 2006Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress",
"Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her performance in the first season. Referring to thecurse, she stated in her acceptance speech, \"I'm not somebody who really believes in curses, but curse this, baby!\"Throughout the course of the series, she received five consecutiveEmmy Awardnominations, three consecutiveSatellite Awardnominations, twoScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, and a nomination for aGolden Globe Award. In 2007, she also received two nominations for aPeople's Choice Awarddue to her return to popularity, thanks to the success ofOld Christine. In May 2006, Louis-Dreyfus hosted an episode ofSaturday Night Live, becoming the first female former cast member to return to the show as a host.In the episode, she appeared with herSeinfeldco-starsJason AlexanderandJerry Seinfeldin her opening monologue, parodying the so-called \"Seinfeldcurse\".After a successful reception of her 2006 episode, Louis-Dreyfus again hostedSNLon March 17, 2007, and April 17, 2016. Louis-Dreyfus reprised her role as Gloria in",
"role as Gloria in twoSimpsonsepisodes: 2007's \"I Don't Wanna Know Why the Caged Bird Sings\" and 2008's \"Sex, Pies and Idiot Scrapes\". In the fall of 2009, she appeared with the rest of the cast ofSeinfeldin four episodes of the seventh season ofLarry David's sitcomCurb Your Enthusiasm. The reunion shows received much media attention, and the episode received strong ratings for the series. In 2009, Louis-Dreyfus was granted the honorary award for Legacy of Laughter at theTV Land Awards. Previous winners had includedLucille BallandMike Myers. She was presented with the award by friendAmy Poehler. The following year, Louis-Dreyfus received the 2,407th star on theHollywood Walk of Fameon May 4, 2010, for her remarkable contribution to the broadcast television industry as both an actress and a comedian. Originally, the star was set with Louis-Dreyfus's name spelled incorrectly. It was missing both the 'o' and the hyphen in her last name.The star was corrected and the misspelled portion was removed and presented",
"and presented to her.Celebrity guests at the event included past and current colleagues from throughout her career, includingClark Gregg, Larry David,Eric McCormack, and Jason Alexander. Old Christinewas cancelled by CBS on May 18, 2010, after 5 years.Discussions were held with ABC to revive the show but they never came to fruition.In the spring of 2010, Louis-Dreyfus guest-starred several times in the third season of the web seriesWeb Therapy, starringLisa Kudrow. Louis-Dreyfus played the sister of the main character, Fiona Wallice, who gives her therapy online. When the series made the transition to cable television on theShowtimenetwork, Louis-Dreyfus's appearance from the web series was included in the second season, airing in July 2012.In fall 2010, Louis-Dreyfus made a guest appearance on the live episode of30 Rock, playingTina Fey's role ofLiz Lemonin the cutaway shots. Louis-Dreyfus was among severalSaturday Night Livealumni appearing in the episode, includingRachel Dratch,Bill Hader, and",
"Hader, and regularsTracy Morganand Fey herself. Louis-Dreyfus also starred in a \"Women of SNL\" special on November 1, 2010, on NBC. 2011–2019:Veepand acclaim In May and June 2011, Louis-Dreyfus teamed up with husband Brad Hall for her first short film,Picture Paris. This was the first time the couple had collaborated since their early-2000s NBC comedyWatching Ellie. Hall wrote and directed the film, while Louis-Dreyfus played the lead role of an ordinary woman with an extraordinary obsession with the city of Paris. The film premiered on January 29, 2012, at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival, and has received considerable critical acclaim.It made its television premiere on HBO on December 17, 2012. In early 2011, HBO confirmed that Louis-Dreyfus had been cast in the lead role of U.S. Vice President Selina Meyer in a new satirical comedy series titledVeep. The series was commissioned for a first season of eight episodes. In addition to her starring role, Louis-Dreyfus would also be a producer.In",
"be a producer.In preparation for her role, Louis-Dreyfus spoke withAl Goreand another former vice president,senators, speechwriters, chiefs of staffs of various offices, and schedulers.Louis-Dreyfus commended HBO for allowing the cast and crew to engage in a \"protracted pre-production process\", which included a six-week rehearsal period before filming began. The first season was filmed in the fall of 2011, inBaltimore, and the series premiered on April 22, 2012.The premiere episode was met with high praise from critics, particularly for Louis-Dreyfus' performance.The Hollywood Reporterasserted the character of Selina Meyer was her \"best post-Seinfeld role\" to date and claimed she gives \"an Emmy-worthy effort\",while theLos Angeles Timescontended the series demonstrates she is \"one of the medium's great comediennes.\"Following the success of the first season, Louis-Dreyfus was named by theHuffington Postas one of the funniest people of 2012, asserting that she is the \"most magnetic and naturally funny woman on",
"funny woman on TV since Mary Tyler Moore.\" For her performance onVeep, Louis-Dreyfus received several accolades, most notably seven nominations for thePrimetime Emmy AwardsforOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesbetween 2012 and 2019, winning the award six times.These Emmy wins forVeep, following previous wins forSeinfeldandThe New Adventures of Old Christine, resulted in her becoming the only woman to win an acting award for three separate comedy series.Her sixth win in 2016 surpassed the record previously held byMary Tyler MooreandCandice Bergenfor the most wins in that category.In 2017, her sixth consecutive win, and eighth acting win, overall made her the performer with the most Emmys for the same role in the same series, surpassingCandice BergenandDon Knotts, and put her in a tie withCloris Leachmanfor the most Emmys ever won by a performer.She was also nominated as one of the producers forVeepin thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Seriescategory for all seven seasons, winning the award",
"winning the award in 2015, 2016 and 2017 for the fourth, fifth and sixth seasons respectively.Louis-Dreyfus also received fiveCritics' Choice Television Awardnominations, winning twice in 2013 and 2014, tenScreen Actors Guild Awardnominations, winning twice in 2014 and 2017, and fiveTelevision Critics Association Awardnominations, winning once in 2014. Her performance additionally garnered her fiveSatellite Awardnominations and five consecutiveGolden Globe Awardnominations. Louis-Dreyfus lent her voice to the 2013 animated filmPlanes, in the role of Rochelle. To date, the film has grossed well over $200 million at the box office worldwide.She also starred in the filmEnough Said, directed byNicole Holofcener, which was released on September 18, 2013.This marked her debut as a lead actress in a full-length feature film. The film garnered rave reviews from film critics, ranking among the best-reviewed films of 2013. The websiteRotten Tomatoesgives the film a score of 96% based on 152 reviews, many of them",
"many of them praising Louis-Dreyfus's performance.She received several Best Actress nominations including for theGolden Globe Awardsand theCritics' Choice Movie Awards. Another review aggregation website, Metacritic, gave the film a score of 78 out of 100, based on 44 critics, signifying \"generally favorable reviews\". Since December 2014, Louis-Dreyfus has appeared in a series of television commercials forOld Navy.In 2015 she acted in theComedy Centralsketch seriesInside Amy SchumeralongsideTina FeyandPatricia Arquette, playing a version of themselves giving advice on aging toAmy Schumer. Dreyfus said of the experience \"I started to feel unbelievably paranoid that I was making fun of myself and wondering, was this really happening to me? Like, how meta is this moment in my life? I started to have a kind of soul-searching crisis in the middle of the day. And I didn't know well enough to bring it up, so I was just trying to be a good sport even though I was dying a little bit on the inside.\"On April 16, 2016,",
"April 16, 2016, she returned toSaturday Night Liveserving as host for the third time with musical guestNick Jonas. During the episode's cold open, she reprised her role of Elaine Benes fromSeinfeld. 2020–present: Career expansion In 2020, Louis-Dreyfus headlined the comedy-dramaDownhill, oppositeWill Ferrell. The film premiered at the2020 Sundance Film Festivaland was theatrically released on February 14.Next, she voiced a suburban elf mother inPixar'sOnwardoppositeTom HollandandChris Pratt. The film was released on March 6, 2020. In January 2020, Louis-Dreyfus signed a multi-year deal withApple TV+. Under the deal, she will develop new projects for Apple TV+ as both an executive producer and star.The following year Louis-Dreyfus appeared in theDisney+seriesThe Falcon and the Winter Soldier(2021) asValentina Allegra de Fontaine, which is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, though she was originally intended to debut in the filmBlack Widow(where she appears in the post credit scene).She reprised the role",
"reprised the role inBlack Panther: Wakanda Forever(2022), and will also appear in the upcoming filmThunderbolts*(2025). In 2022 she was a guest on theNetflixshowMy Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman. In 2023 she reunited withNicole Holofcenerstarring in theA24independent comedy filmYou Hurt My Feelings. Dreyfus produced the film and acted alongsideTobias Menzies,Michaela Watkins,Arian MoayedandJeannie Berlin. The film premiered at theSundance Film Festivalto positive reviews.Peter Bradshawpraised her performance writing, \"Louis-Dreyfus is such a superb comic performer that it is interesting seeing her take on something low-key\".That same year she portrayed a liberal Jewish mother in theNetflixromantic comedyYou People(2023). She also starred in the A24 filmTuesday, directed by Daina Oniunas-Pusić,which premiered at the 2023Telluride Film Festival. In 2023, Louis-Dreyfus became host of the podcastWiser Than Me.On the show, she interviews women older than her on their lived experience and",
"experience and earned wisdom. Guests have includedJane Fonda,Carol Burnett,Isabel AllendeandAmy Tan. The show, produced byLemonada Media, was named Apple's Best Podcast of the Year in 2023.Among her season two guests, Louis-Dreyfus interviewsBillie Jean King,Patti Smith, andJulie Andrews. Reception Louis-Dreyfus is widely regarded as one of the finest comedic actresses of her generation.Jake Coyle of theLubbock Avalanche-Journalsaid \"Few comediennes have both her gift for physical comedy ... vocal precision\".According to the journalistMolly Ball, Louis-Dreyfus has played mostly \"funny, self-centered women who are compelling despite often being ill-behaved\". Louis-Dreyfus said she had turned playing unlikeable people into a career.Ball said: \"She has also left an indelible cultural mark, expanding the possibilities for women in comedy–and maybe in politics and public life as well.\" Personal life Louis-Dreyfus' maternal half-sister,Lauren Bowles, is also an actress. She also has two paternal half-sisters,",
"half-sisters, Phoebeand Emma. Emma died in August 2018. While at Northwestern University, Louis-Dreyfus met her future husband, theSaturday Night LivecomedianBrad Hall.They married in 1987 and have two sons.Their older son, Henry Hall, is a singer-songwriter who has performed onThe Tonight Show.Their younger son,Charlie Hall, is an actor.Her first pregnancy ended in a miscarriage. Louis-Dreyfus said she respects \"women who are not afraid of making themselves look bad or foolish to get a laugh\" and cites her acting idols asLucille Ball,Mary Tyler Moore,Madeline Kahn,Teri Garr,Valerie Harper, andCloris Leachman.The actressTina Feysaid that Louis-Dreyfus inspired her characterLiz Lemonon the NBC comedy series30 Rock. On September 28, 2017, Louis-Dreyfus announced that she had been diagnosed withbreast cancer, which she discovered the day after winning aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor her role inVeep.She said: \"One in eight women get breast cancer. Today, I'm the one. The",
"I'm the one. The good news is that I have the most glorious group of supportive and caring family and friends, and fantastic insurance through my union. The bad news is that not all women are so lucky, so let's fight all cancers and makeuniversal healthcarea reality.\"On October 18, 2018, she announced on an episode ofJimmy Kimmel Live!that she was cancer-free.Louis-Dreyfus was raised Catholic but moved towards agnosticism; she said she had no \"traditional religious affiliation\". Advocacy and politics Louis-Dreyfus supportedAl Gore's 2000 U.S. presidential bid andBarack Obama's bid for the presidency in both 2008and 2012.She appeared in a video that urged Obama to reject the proposal of theKeystone XL pipeline, arguing that if the pipeline ever were to leak, it would cause massive pollution across the U.S.She has voiced her concern for several environmental issues and has raised millions forHeal the Bay, theNatural Resources Defense Council, and theTrust for Public Land. She also worked for the successful",
"for the successful passage of Proposition O, which allocated $500 million for cleaning up the Los Angeleswater supply. In October 2010, before theU.S. Senate election in California, Louis-Dreyfus starred in a humorousBarbara Boxerad regardingenergy policy.During the2016 Democratic National Convention, she supportedHillary Clintonin that year'spresidential election.In her acceptance speech at the 2017Screen Actors Guild Awards, she denounced PresidentDonald Trump'sexecutive order, referred to as the \"Muslim ban\", as \"un-American\" and said, \"My father fled religious persecution inNazi-occupied France.\" Louis-Dreyfusemceedthe final night of the2020 Democratic National Convention, endorsingJoe Biden.She has also published information regarding voting by mailand urged all Americans to vote.Louis-Dreyfus endorsed RepresentativeKaren Bassin the2022 Los Angeles mayoral election, in various social media posts. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Julia Louis-Dreyfus has won thePrimetime Emmy Award for",
"Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Seriesseven times: once for her role onThe New Adventures of Old Christine(2006) and six consecutive awards for playingSelina MeyeronVeep(2012–17), as well asOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesonce forSeinfeld(1996). As of 2017, she holds the record for the most Primetime Emmy awards as an actor for the same role and is tied with fellow Northwestern University alumCloris Leachmanfor the most acting Primetime Emmy awards (with eight). She has also been nominated for nineGolden Globe Awards, winning one for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film for her role asElaine Beneson Seinfeld (1995). She has also been nominated for twenty-oneScreen Actors Guild Awardsand has won five for individual performance (nine altogether) for her work onSeinfeld(1997–98) andVeep(2014, 2017–18). In 2016, she won the Crossover Talent award at the 4th Annual American Reality Television Awards. In 2018 she was the twentieth recipient of",
"recipient of theMark Twain Prize for American Humor. In 2023, the podcast she hosts,Wiser Than Me, won Apple's Best Podcast of the Year. References External links",
"Michael Richards Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Michael Anthony Richards(born July 24, 1949) is an American actor and former stand-up comedian. He achieved global recognition for starring asCosmo Krameron the NBC television sitcomSeinfeldfrom 1989 to 1998. He began his career as a stand-up comedian, first entering the national spotlight when he was featured onBilly Crystal's first cable TV special, and went on to become a series regular onABC'sFridays. From 1989 to 1998, he played Cosmo Kramer onSeinfeld, three times receiving thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. During the run ofSeinfeld, he made a guest appearance inMad About You, reprising his role as Kramer. Richards also made numerous guest appearances on a variety of television shows, such asCheers. His film credits includeSo I Married an Axe Murderer,Airheads,Young Doctors in Love,Problem Child,Coneheads,UHF, andTrial and Error, one of his few starring roles. In 2000, he starred in",
"2000, he starred in his own sitcom,The Michael Richards Show, which was canceled after only two months. Afterwards, Richards returned to stand-up. In 2006, he was filmed going on a racist tirade against hecklers while performing at theLaugh FactoryinCalifornia. After the tape was obtained and released byTMZ,significant backlash and media coverage led to Richards retiring from stand-up in early 2007. In 2009, he appeared as himself in theseventh seasonofCurb Your Enthusiasmalongside his fellowSeinfeldcast members for the first time since the show’sfinale. In 2013, he portrayed Frank in the sitcomKirstie, which was canceled after one season.He most recently played Daddy Hogwood in the 2019 romantic comedyFaith, Hope & Love. Early life Richards was born inCulver City, California, to aCatholicfamily.He is the son of Phyllis (née Nardozzi), amedical recordslibrarian. As a child Richards was told his father was William Richards, anelectrical engineer,who died in a car crash when Michael was two.He later learned",
"later learned his mother's pregnancy was the result of a sexual assault, and she had considered abortion and adoption before deciding to raise him as a single mom. Richards was also raised by a grandmother who suffered fromschizophrenia. Richards graduated fromThousand Oaks High School. In 1968, he appeared as a contestant onThe Dating Game, but was not chosen for the date. He wasdraftedinto theUnited States Armyin 1970. He trained as a medic and was stationed inWest Germanywhere he was a member of a theatrical group called The Training Road Show.He became interested in performing after taking a theatrical class in seventh grade. After being honorably discharged, Richards used the benefits of theG.I. Billto enroll in theCalifornia Institute of the Artsand earned aBachelor of Artsin drama fromthe Evergreen State Collegein 1975.He also had a short-livedimprovact withEd Begley Jr.During this period, he enrolled atLos Angeles Valley Collegeand continued to appear in student productions. Career 1979–1989: Early",
"1979–1989: Early career Richards got his big TV break in 1979, appearing inBilly Crystal's first cable TV special. In 1980, he began as one of the cast members onABC'sFridaystelevision show, whereLarry Davidwas a fellow cast member and writer. It includeda famous instancein whichAndy Kaufmanrefused to deliver his scripted lines, leading Richards to bring thecue cardson screen to Kaufman, who responded by throwing his drink into Richards' face, causing a small riot (Richards later claimed he was in on the joke).The filmMan on the Moonfeatured a re-enactment of theAndy Kaufman incidentwhere Richards was portrayed by actorNorm Macdonald. In 1981, he appeared in theIt's a Livingepisode \"Desperate Hours\".In 1986, Richards had a minor role in the cult satirical TV miniseriesFresno, playing one of a pair of inept criminal henchmen. That same year he auditioned to playAl Bundyin the TV seriesMarried... with Children, but he was passed over forEd O'Neill.In 1989, Richards had a supporting role in\"Weird Al\" Yankovic's",
"Al\" Yankovic's comedy filmUHFas janitor Stanley Spadowski. On television, he appeared inMiami Viceas an unscrupulousbookie; inSt. Elsewhereas a television producer making a documentary about Dr. Mark Craig; inCheersas a character trying to collect on an old bet withSam Malone; and made several guest appearances withJay Lenoas an accident-prone fitness expert. According to an interview with executive producer David Hoberman, ABC first conceived the seriesMonkas a procedural police comedy with anInspector Clouseau-like character suffering fromobsessive-compulsive disorder. Hoberman said ABC wanted Richards to playAdrian Monk, but he turned it down. 1989–2005:Seinfeldand rise to prominence In 1989, Richards was cast asCosmo Kramerin theNBCtelevision seriesSeinfeld, created by fellowFridayscast memberLarry Davidand comedianJerry Seinfeld. Although it got off to a slow start, by the mid-1990s it had become one of the most popularsitcomsin television history. It ended its nine-year run in 1998 at No. 1 in",
"in 1998 at No. 1 in theNielsen ratings. InSeinfeld, Kramer is the neighbor across the hall of the show'seponymous character, and is usually referred to only by his last name. His first name, Cosmo, was revealed in the sixth-season episode \"The Switch\". Richards won more Emmys than any otherSeinfeldcast member, taking home the award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 1993, 1994, and 1997 for his role as Kramer. When referring to speculation that he would launch aspin-offtoSeinfeldabout Kramer, Richards said he was not interested in doing so.During the run ofSeinfeld, Richards made cameo appearances in several TV shows; he played himself in Episode2 of Season1 \"The Flirt Episode\" (1992) of theHBOseriesThe Larry Sanders Show. He also had acameo rolein the comedy thriller filmSo I Married an Axe Murderer, credited as \"insensitive man\". In 1996, Richards made a cameo in Epcot'sEllen's Energy Adventure, where he portrayed a caveman discovering fire. He played radio station employee Doug Beech",
"employee Doug Beech inAirheads, and co-starred withJeff Danielsas an actor pretending to be a lawyer in 1997'sTrial and Error. He also made guest appearances onMiami Vice,Night CourtandCheers. In 2000, two years after the end ofSeinfeld, Richards began work on a new series for NBC, his first major project sinceSeinfeld's finale.The Michael Richards Show, for which Richards received co-writer and co-executive producercredits, was conceived as a comedy/mystery starring Richards as a bumbling private investigator. When the first pilot failed with test audiences, NBC ordered that the show be retooled into a more conventional, office-based sitcom before its premiere. After a few weeks of poor ratings and negative reviews, it was canceled. Critics said the show was too \"Kramer-esque\" and Richards invoked the so-called \"Seinfeldcurse\" as to why the show failed. Starting in 2004, he and his fellowSeinfeldcast members provided interviews and audio commentaries for theSeinfeldDVDs. Richards stepped down from providing",
"down from providing audio commentary after Season5, though he continued to provide interviews. 2006–2012: Laugh Factory incident and aftermath During a performance on November 17, 2006, at theLaugh Factoryin Hollywood, California, Richards launched into a racist rant in response to repeated heckling and interruptions from a small group of Black and Hispanic audience members. Richards was recorded shouting \"He's anigger!\" several times and making references tolynchingand theJim Crow laws.Kyle Doss, a member of the group that Richards addressed, said the group had arrived in the middle of the performance and were \"being a little loud.\" According to Doss: said, \"Look at the stupid Mexicans and blacks being loud up there.\" That's the first thing he said. And then he kept on with his bit. And, then, after a while, I told him, \"My friend doesn't think you're funny.\" And then when I told him that, that's when he flipped me off and said, \"F-you N-word.\" And that's how it all started. The incident remained unknown",
"remained unknown to the larger public for three days until acellphonevideo filmed by a member of the audience was obtained and released byTMZ. On November 20, after the video made rounds around the news,Jerry Seinfeldinvited Richards via satellite during a broadcast of theLate Show with David Letterman, where Richards was recorded saying: \"I'm not doing too good. I lost my temper on stage; I was at a comedy club trying to do my act and I got heckled and I took it badly and went into a rage. And, uh, said some pretty, uh, nasty things to some Afro-Americans.\"Many studio audience members laughed as Richards began his unscripted explanation and apology, thinking it was abit, leading Seinfeld to reprimand them, saying: \"Stop laughing. It's not funny.\" Richards said he had been trying to defuse the heckling by being even more outrageous, but it had backfired. He later called civil rights leadersAl SharptonandJesse Jacksonto apologize.He also appeared as a guest on Jackson's syndicated radio show.Doss stated that",
"stated that he did not accept Richards's apology, saying: \"If he wanted to apologize, he could have contacted ... one of us out of the group. But, he didn't. He apologized on camera just because the tape got out.\" AGalluppoll conducted in late November found that Richards was then the most unpopularSeinfeldcast member, with just 41 percent viewing him positively; by contrast, otherSeinfeldcast members' favorability ratings were in the 60s and 70s.The same poll also found that 45 percent of non-whites expressed a negative view of Richards due to the incident.The incident was parodied on several TV shows, includingMad TV,Family Guy,South Park,Extras, andMonday Night Raw. In the ninth episode of the seventh season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm, Richards appeared as himself and poked fun at the incident. In 2008, rapperWalereferenced the incident and used recordings of the incident, as well as Richard's apology, in the song \"The Kramer\" onThe Mixtape About Nothingalbum. One year following the incident, Richards voiced",
"Richards voiced character Bud Ditchwater in the animated filmBee Movie, which starred and was produced byJerry Seinfeld. In 2009, Richards and the other mainSeinfeldcast members appeared in the seventh season ofCurb Your Enthusiasm.In 2012, he appeared in the comedy web seriesComedians in Cars Getting Coffee, hosted by Seinfeld, in which he remarked on the 2006 incident.In the episode, Richards explained that the outburst still haunted him, and was a major reason for his retirement from stand-up. 2013–present: Recent years In 2013, Richards was cast to play Frank in the sitcomKirstie, costarringKirstie AlleyandRhea Perlman. It premiered onTV Landon December 4, 2013and was canceled after one season.In 2014, Richards appeared as the president of Crackle in a trailer for Season5 ofComedians in Cars Getting Coffee. Seinfeld said the trailer's storyline would be expanded on in one of the episodes. In 2019, Richards played Daddy Hogwood in the romantic comedyFaith, Hope & LovestarringPeta Murgatroydand Robert",
"Robert Krantz. In June 2024Richards released a memoir entitledEntrances and Exits. Personal life Richards was married to Cathleen Lyons, a familytherapist, for 18 years. They have one daughter, Sophia. They separated in 1992 and divorced the following year. In 2010, Richards married his girlfriend Beth Skipp. They have been together since 2002 and have one son, Antonio. Richards is aFreemason. Richards revealed in his 2024 memoirEntrances and Exitsthat he survived stage 1 prostate cancer in 2018 via a surgical removal of his entire prostate. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Bibliography References External links"
] |
Who was the head coach of the team that won the Superbowl the year that the show Law & Order: SVU was released? | Mike Shanahan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_%26_Order:_Special_Victims_Unit | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Super_Bowl_champions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_Denver_Broncos_season | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_%26_Order:_Special_Victims_Unit', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Super_Bowl_champions', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_Denver_Broncos_season'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_%26_Order:_Special_Victims_Unit",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Super_Bowl_champions",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_Denver_Broncos_season"
] | [
"Law & Order: Special Victims Unit Law & Order: Special Victims Unit(often shortened toLaw & Order: SVUorSVU) is an Americanpolice proceduralcrime dramatelevision series created byDick WolfforNBC. The first spin-off ofLaw & Order, it starsMariska Hargitayas Detective (ultimately promoted toCaptain)Olivia Benson, now the commanding officer of theSpecial Victims Unitafter originally having been Stabler's partner in a fictionalized version of theNew York City Police Department, andChristopher Melonias DetectiveElliot Stabler(until Meloni left the series in 2011 after 12 seasons).Law & Order: Special Victims Unitfollows the detectives of the Special Victims Unit as they investigate and prosecute sexually based crimes. Some of the episodes are loosely based on real crimes that have received media attention. The series, produced byWolf EntertainmentandUniversal Television, premiered on September 20, 1999. After the premiere of its 21st season in September 2019, the series became thelongest-running primetime live-action series on American television.Since the end of the original run of the mainLaw & Orderseries in 2010,SVUhas been the only live-action primetime series that debuted in the 1990s that has remained in continuous production.The23rd seasonpremiered on September 23, 2021,during which the show aired its milestone 500th episode.As of May 16, 2024,Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas aired 551 original episodes, well surpassing theepisode count of the originalLaw & Orderseries. In terms of all-time episode count for a primetime scripted series,SVUnow ranks fourth behindThe Simpsons(with 768 episodes),Gunsmoke(with 635 episodes), andLassie(with 591 episodes).The 25th season premiered on January 18, 2024,and on March 21, 2024, NBC announced that it renewed the series for its 26th season, which premiered on October 3, 2024. The series has received108 award nominations, winning 33 awards. Hargitay was the first regular cast member on anyLaw & Orderseries to win anEmmy Awardwhen she won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Seriesin 2006. Premise In the criminal justice system, sexually based offenses are considered especially heinous. In New York City, the dedicated detectives who investigate these vicious felonies are members of an elite squad known as the Special Victims Unit. These are their stories. – Opening narration spoken bySteven Zirnkilton Based out of the NYPDNew York City Police Department's 16th precinct in Manhattan,Law & Order: Special Victims Unitdelves into the dark side of the New York underworld as the detectives of a new elite squad, theSpecial Victims Unit(SVU for short), investigate and prosecute various sexually oriented crimes, including rape, child sexual abuse, human trafficking and domestic violence. They also investigate the abuses of children, the disabled and elderly victims of non-sexual crimes who require specialist handling, all while trying to balance the effects of the investigation on their own lives as they try not to let the dark side of these crimes affect them. Its stories also touch on the political and societal issues associated with gender identity, sexual preferences, and equality rights. While the victim is often murdered, this is not always the case, and victims frequently play prominent roles in episodes. The unit also works with the Manhattan District Attorney's office as they prosecute cases and seek justice for SVU's victims and survivors with precision and a passion to win and bring closure to the intense investigations. The series often uses stories that are \"ripped from the headlines\" or based on real crimes. Such episodes take a real crime and fictionalize it by changing some details. Cast and characters Originally, the show focused around the detective pairing ofElliot Stabler(Christopher Meloni) andOlivia Benson(Mariska Hargitay). Stabler is a seasoned veteran of the unit who has seen it all and tries his best to protect his family from the horrors he has seen in his career. Meanwhile, Benson's difficult past as the child of a rape victim is the reason she joined the unit. Backing them up are DetectiveJohn Munch(Richard Belzer) and his first partner,Brian Cassidy(Dean Winters). Munch is a transfer from Baltimore's homicide unit, who brings his acerbic wit, conspiracy theories, and street-honed investigative skills; Cassidy is young and eager to learn from his fellow detectives. These two detective teams received support from DetectivesMonique Jeffries(Michelle Hurd) and Ken Briscoe (Chris Orbach).After thirteen episodes, Cassidy gets transferred to the narcotics division because of his inability to work well on the cases and the fact that they reminded him too much of his childhood abuse. As a result, Jeffries gets partnered up with Munch for the remainder of season one and Briscoe was phased out. In the beginning of season two, Jeffries leaves the unit following an incident with the Morris Commission and Munch gets permanently partnered up with DetectiveOdafin \"Fin\" Tutuola(Ice-T), whose unique yet sometimes vulgar sense of humor and investigative experience make him a formidable match for Munch. Brooklyn SVU DetectiveChester Lake(Adam Beach) would assist on several Manhattan cases during the eighth season and then join during season nine; Lake would then depart at the season's end after being arrested for murdering a crooked cop who had gotten away with rape. These detectives were supervised by veteran CaptainDonald Cragen(Dann Florek), who oversaw the team for seasons 1–15 and was previously the commanding officer of the Manhattan North Homicide precinct on the first 3 seasons ofLaw & Order. Cragen's tough-but-supportive approach to the team's complex cases guides the squad through the challenges they face every day. Also assisting the Special Victims Unit, is FBI Special Agent Dr. George Huang (BD Wong) who helps keep the officers sane in a field that could drive ordinary people mad, whilst also serving as the squad's resident criminal profiler, his insights into the criminal mind have often helped the officers to crack the toughest perps. The team also works withMedical ExaminerDr. Melinda Warner (Tamara Tunie), who has become an integral part of the unit, and her personal skills have contributed to the unit's high success rate in closing cases. The unit did not receive a full-time assistant district attorney until season two, whenAlexandra Cabot(Stephanie March) was assigned to work with the detectives.After Cabot enters the Witness Protection Program after almost being killed in a hit in season five, she was replaced byCasey Novak(Diane Neal), who remained as the ADA until the end of season nine, when she was censured for violating due process while trying to bring a rapist cop (the same one that Lake would end up murdering) to justice.Kim Greylek(Michaela McManus) became the permanent ADA in the season ten premiere, until Cabot made a return midway through that season when Greylek returned to the Justice Department in Washington, D.C. Cabot remained the ADA through the second half of season 10. After Cabot's departure, the ADA void was filled by Sonya Paxton (Christine Lahti) and Jo Marlowe (Sharon Stone) until the conclusion of season 11. Gillian Hardwicke (Melissa Sagemiller) served as the SVU's ADA during season 12, while Novak would return for a guest appearance after completing her suspension near the end of the season. Paxton would also return for one more appearance in the season, during which she is brutally murdered by a rapist/murderer, but manages to leave behind vital evidence to assure his conviction. In season 13, both Cabot and Novak returned as ADAs. From the beginning of season 14, ADARafael Barba(Raúl Esparza) was SVU's prosecutor, until leaving halfway through season 19 following the death of an infant. Chicago Justice'sPeter Stone(Philip Winchester) became SVU's ADA afterChicago Justicewas canceled after only one season. At the end of season 20, Stone decided to leave due to some of the cases being too much for him to handle. From there, former SVU DetectiveDominick Carisi Jr.(Peter Scanavino) takes his place at the start of season 21. In season 13, big changes happen when Stabler retires in the aftermath of the season 12 finale, until he reappeared in season 22, which led him to join NYPD's Organized Crime Control Bureau inLaw & Order: Organized Crime. Huang also departed at the same time after being reassigned to Oklahoma City, but has returned for occasional guest appearances. DetectivesNick Amaro(Danny Pino) andAmanda Rollins(Kelli Giddish) joined the team filling the void left by Stabler. Amaro brought empathy to his cases while dealing with a stressful home life, while Rollins had dogged persistence and instincts help her close cases, but also secrets from her past that could derail her career. During season 15, both Munch and Cragen retired from the NYPD, leaving Benson, after being promoted to Sergeant, to take control of the unit; she would later be promoted to Lieutenant at the start of season 17 and then Captain at the start of season 21. Season 16 was another period of change with the introduction of Carisi at the beginning and the departure of Amaro at the end, with the latter relocating to California to be near his moved children after being wounded in the line of duty and learning that previous instances of misconduct have cost him any chance for advancement in the department. Also introduced in season 16 was Deputy Chief William Dodds (Peter Gallagher), who served as commanding officer for the Special Victims Units in all five boroughs of New York. Dodds' son Mike (Andy Karl) transfers into Special Victims as Sergeant in season 17, becoming Benson's second-in-command until his death at the end of the season; Fin later passes the Sergeant's exam during season 18 and is officially promoted in Mike's place in season 19. Following Carisi's move to the DA's office in season 21, Vice Officer Katriona \"Kat\" Tamin (Jamie Gray Hyder) joined the team after assisting on several cases, eventually getting promoted to detective. Dodds also departed the series at the start of the season due to some issues in the case regarding a mogul raping countless women, allowing new deputy chief Christian Garland (Demore Barnes) to take his place. At the start of season 23, Tamin and Garland both resigned from the NYPD after becoming disillusioned with the legal system's failures and the systemic bias within the department, with Tamin being replaced by Detective Joe Velasco (Octavio Pisano). Chief Tommy McGrath (Terry Serpico) took over Garland's position until he could find a permanent deputy chief for SVU. At the beginning of season 24, Detective Grace Muncy (Molly Burnett) joined SVU after solving a case that involves a teenage Dominican gang, while Rollins resigned from SVU and the NYPD halfway through the season after accepting an offer from Carisi's old colleague to teach atFordham University. SVU also brought in Detectives Terry Bruno (Kevin Kane) and Tonie Churlish (Jasmine Batchelor) from their Brooklyn counterparts. Muncy later departed at the end of the season to work on a DEA task force and Churlish also left during the same time. In season 25, McGrath was replaced as chief after crossing multiple lines in his interference with his daughter's rape case, and IAB Captain Renee Curry (Aime Donna Kelly) joined SVU in hopes of making changes. Shortly afterwards, FBI agent Shannah Sykes (Jordana Spiro) was put on loan to SVU after helping them rescue abducted girl Maddie Flynn.Sykes later left SVU at the season's end after solving the case of her missing sister, which ended up hitting her too close to home, and at the start of season 26, former Homicide detective Kate Silva (Juliana Aidén Martinez) joins the unit. Additionally, Rollins, after consulting on several cases following her departure, returns to the NYPD with a promotion to Sergeant and assignment as CO of the department's Intelligence Unit. Production Development The idea forLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitoriginated with the 1986 \"preppie murder\" case ofRobert Chambers, who strangled and killed a woman he dated, Jennifer Levin, duringwhat he claimed was consensual \"rough sex\"inManhattan'sCentral Park. The crime inspiredDick Wolfto write the story for theseason oneepisode ofLaw & Ordertitled \"Kiss the Girls and Make Them Die\". After writing the episode, Wolf wanted to go deeper into the psychology of crimes to examine the role ofhuman sexuality. The original title of the show wasSex Crimes.Initially, there was concern among the producers that, shouldSex Crimesfail, identifying the new show with theLaw & Orderfranchise could affect the original show. Additionally,Ted Kotcheffwanted to create a new series that was not dependent upon the original series for success. Wolf felt, however, that it was important and commercially desirable to have \"Law & Order\" in the title, and he initially proposed the title of the show beLaw & Order: Sex Crimes.Barry Diller, then head ofStudios USA, was concerned about the title, however, and it was changed toLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitto reflect the actual unit of theNew York City Police Department(NYPD) that handles sexually-based offenses. Executive producerNeal BaerleftLaw & Order: SVUasshowrunnerat the end ofseason twelve, after eleven years (seasons 2–12) on the show, in order to sign a three-year deal withCBS Studios.Baer was replaced by formerLaw & Order: Criminal IntentshowrunnerWarren Leight.In March 2015, it was announced that Warren Leight signed a three-year deal withSony Pictures Television, that will allow him to work onSVUone more season, its seventeenth.It was announced on March 10, 2016, that originalLaw & Orderveteran producer Rick Eid would take Leight's place as showrunner starting in season 18. Creator Dick Wolf commented toThe Hollywood Reporter, \"I'm extremely pleased that Rick had decided to rejoin the family and hope that he will be here for years to come.\"During post-production of season 18, following the announcement thatSVUwas renewed for a nineteenth season, it was revealed that Rick Eid departed the series. He will be taking over another Dick Wolf/NBC series,Chicago P.D. It was announced on May 25, 2017, that originalLaw & OrderandLaw & Order: Criminal IntentshowrunnerMichael S. Chernuchinwould be reprising his role starting on season nineteen. Chernuchin was also co-creator and executive producing showrunner ofChicago Justice, another Wolf-related show that was canceled by NBC at the end of the 2016–17 TV season.On April 22, 2019, it was announced that Leight would return as showrunner for the series' twenty-first season.On May 3, 2022, Leight announced that he would not be returning for the twenty-fourth season. Casting Casting for the lead characters ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitoccurred in the spring of 1999. Dick Wolf, along with officials from NBC and Studios USA were at the final auditions for the two leads atRockefeller Center. The last round had been narrowed down to seven finalists. For the female lead, DetectiveOlivia Benson, actressesSamantha Mathis,Reiko Aylesworth, andMariska Hargitaywere being considered. For the male role, DetectiveElliot Stabler, the finalists wereTim Matheson,John Slattery,Nick Chinlund, andChristopher Meloni. Hargitay and Meloni had auditioned in the final round together and, after the actors left, there was a moment of dead silence, after which Wolf blurted out, \"Oh well. There's no doubt who we should choose—Hargitay and Meloni.\" Wolf believed the duo had the perfect chemistry together from the first time he saw them together, and they ended up being his first choice.Garth Ancier, then head of NBC Entertainment, agreed, and the rest of the panel assembled began voicing their assent. The first actor to be cast for the show wasDann Florek. Florek had originated the character of CaptainDon Cragenin the 1990 pilot forLaw & Order, and played the character for the show's first three seasons until he was fired on the orders of network executives, who wanted to add female characters to the all-male primary cast, but he maintained a friendly relationship with Wolf, and went on to direct three episodes of the original series as well as to occasionally guest star on the show. Shortly after Florek reprised his role forExiled: A Law & Order Movie, he received a call to be onSex Crimes.Initially reluctant, he eventually agreed to star on the show as Cragen on the assurance that he would not be asked to audition for the role. Shortly after the cancellation ofHomicide: Life on the Street,Richard Belzerheard thatBenjamin Bratthad leftLaw & Order. Belzer requested his manager to call Wolf and pitch the idea for Belzer's character fromHomicide, DetectiveJohn Munch, to become the new partner ofJerry Orbach's character, DetectiveLennie Briscoe, since they had previously teamed in threeHomicidecrossovers. Wolf loved the idea, but had already castJesse L. Martinas Briscoe's new partner, DetectiveEd Green. The idea was reconfigured, but to have Munch onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitinstead.Since the character of Munch was inspired byDavid Simon's depiction of Detective Sergeant Jay Landsman and developed forHomicidebyTom FontanaandBarry Levinson, the addition of Munch to the cast required the consent of all three. The appropriate agreements were reached and, while Fontana and Levinson agreed to waive their royalty rights, contracts with Simon required that he be paid royalties for any new show in which Munch is a main character; as a result, Simon receives royalties every time Munch appears in an episode of the show. Dean Winterswas cast as Munch's partner,Brian Cassidy, at the insistence of Belzer. Belzer looked at Winters as a sort of little brother, and told Wolf, \"Well, I'll do this new show of yours,SVU, only if you make Dean Winters my partner.\"Wolf did make Winters Belzer's partner, but he was contractually obligated to his other show at the time, theHBOdramaOz. Since the role onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitwas only initially meant to be a few episodes, Winters was forced to leave when it was time to filmOzagain. Winters returned for the season 13 finale, \"Rhodium Nights\", reprising his role as Cassidy. He also appeared (as Cassidy) on the two-part season 14 premiere \"Lost Reputation\"/\"Above Suspicion\".He subsequently became a recurring character into season 15. The void left by Winters's departure was filled for the remainder of the season byMichelle Hurdas DetectiveMonique Jeffries, a character who Wolf promised that, despite starting out as a minor character with one scene in the pilot, would eventually develop. Hurd left the show at the beginning of season two to join the cast ofLeap Years.Munch's permanent partner came in the form ofrapper-turned-actorIce-T, who had previously worked with Wolf onNew York UndercoverandExiled. Ice-T originally agreed to do only four episodes ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, but he quickly gained affection for the ensemble nature of the cast. He relocated to New York City before his four-episode contract was up and remained with the show as Munch's permanent partner, DetectiveOdafin \"Fin\" Tutuola. Initially, the show focused exclusively on the police work of the detectives in the Special Victims Unit of the 16th precinct, with members of the District Attorney's office occasionally appearing as guest roles crossing over from the originalLaw & Order. From season two onwards, the format was changed to be more faithful to the originalLaw & Orderconcept by including court cases.Stephanie Marchhad little television experience before being cast onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, nor did she watch much TV. Nevertheless, March was cast as Assistant District AttorneyAlexandra Cabotat the beginning of season two but still believed that, due to the grim nature of the series, it would be short-lived. She stayed with the series for three seasons, however, and left when she believed she had reached the natural conclusion of the character's development. She would later reprise the character as a guest appearance in season six and as a regular character on the short-lived Wolf series,Conviction, where she was promised more to do.Diane Nealhad previously guest-starred onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitin season three before being cast as Cabot's replacement,Casey Novak, in season five. Neal remained with the show through the end of season nine,after which she was replaced byMichaela McManus. March returned to the show in the tenth season (after McManus' departure from the cast) whenNeal Baerproposed Cabot receive a character arc to revitalize the second part of the season, which would continue through season eleven. Tamara Tuniewas cast asmedical examinerMelinda Warnerin season two after working with Wolf previously onNew York Undercover,Feds, andLaw & Order. Warner was initially arecurring characterbut became a regular character in season seven, and Tunie was added to the opening credits at that time.When initially cast as Warner, Tunie was appearing as attorney Jessica Griffin on theCBSdaytime soap operaAs the World Turns. From 2000 to 2007 (and again briefly in 2009), she appeared on both series simultaneously. In 2002, she also appeared on theFoxespionage-themed drama series24, in the recurring role of CTU Acting Director Alberta Green.BD Wongwas asked to film four episodes as Dr.George Huang, aFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI)forensic psychiatristandcriminal profileron loan to the Special Victims Unit. After his four episodes, he was asked to stay on with the show. After he starred inBury My Heart at Wounded Kneeand guest-starred as DetectiveChester Lakein the eighth season, Wolf felt thatAdam Beachwould be a good addition to the cast and asked him to be a permanent member beginning with the ninth season. Although Beach felt the role was a \"dream role\", the character proved unpopular with fans who felt that he was designed to gradually write out either Richard Belzer or Ice-T. Feeling there were too many police characters on the show, Beach left the show after only one season.Michaela McManuswas originally felt to be too young for the role of anAssistant District Attorney(ADA) before being cast as ADAKim Greylekin the tenth season. McManus, months removed from a recurring role onOne Tree Hill, remained with the series only half a season, however, before departing for unspecified reasons. Paula Pattonjoined the cast asADA Mikka Von. She replacedStephanie March.However, Patton dropped out after one episode to filmMission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol, and was replaced byMelissa Sagemillerin the recurring role of ADAGillian Hardwicke. Before the end of season twelve, Mariska Hargitay asked for a lighter workload. As a way of writing her out of certain episodes, a plan to have her character promoted to a supervisory role was discussed.At the end of season twelve, Christopher Meloni departed the cast, unable to reach agreement on a new contract. Warren Leight became the new showrunner during this same year and signed on before he knew that Meloni would be leaving the cast.The second major departure to be announced in 2011 was that of BD Wong. On July 17, Wong announced onTwitterthat, \"I actually do not return for season 13, I am jumping toAwake! It's awesome!\" Wong added, \"I don't know if or when I'll be back onSVU! It was amazing to have such a cool job for 11 years and to be a real NY Actor.\" Wong reprised his role as Dr. Huang in season 13's episode \"Father Dearest\". In June 2011, it was announced thatKelli GiddishandDanny Pinowould join the cast as new series regulars.Weeks later, it was announced that Stephanie March and Diane Neal would be reprising their roles as ADA Alexandra Cabot and ADA Casey Novak, respectively.The launch of season 13 was marked with a retooling of the show that Warren Leight referred to as \"SVU 2.0\".Changes that accompanied this included Tamara Tunie's being bumped from the main cast to a guest-starring role and recurring actorJoel de la Fuente's not appearing for the first time since 2002. Of the latter change, Warren Leight said, \"those scenes can be dry\" and hiredGilbert Gottfriedas a more comedic replacement. In season 14,Raúl Esparzajoined the cast in a recurring capacity as ADARafael Barbaand prior to the season 15 premiere, Esparza was promoted to a series regular. Also in season 15, Belzer departed the cast in the fifth episode, \"Wonderland Story\", in which Sgt. Munch retired from the NYPD and took a job in the DA's office as an investigator. Later in the season, Captain Cragen announced his departure from the NYPD, which made newly promoted Sgt. Benson the temporary squad commander. In leaving the cast, Florek ended a 400-episode run as Captain Cragen. In season 16,Peter Scanavinojoined the series, first in a recurring role for episodes 1–3 and then was promoted to the main cast in episode 5, with Kelli Giddish, Danny Pino, Ice-T and Raúl Esparza. On May 20, 2015, it was revealed that Danny Pino would be leaving the cast after the season 16 finale \"Surrendering Noah\". In August 2017, it was announced thatPhilip Winchesterwould recur in season 19 as ADAPeter Stone, his character fromChicago P.D.andChicago Justice, who is the son ofBenjamin Stone, the first ADA on the originalLaw & Orderseries.It was later also announced thatBrooke Shieldswas enlisted to assume a major recurring role (Sheila Porter, maternal grandmother of Noah Porter-Benson, Olivia's adopted son) starting in season 19 of the long-running dramatic series.On February 7, 2018, Raúl Esparza left the series after six seasons.His role was taken over by Winchester. Upon being renewed for its twenty-first season, it was announced that Winchester would be departing the series after the twentieth season. In March 2019, it was announced that the show would come back for season 21, making it thelongest-running primetime U.S. live-action series in the history of television.On March 29, 2019, it was revealed that Winchester would not return for season 21. He tweeted the same day about his departure from the show.On May 16, 2019, the season finale aired and Winchester took to Twitter to thank the cast and crew for the send-off.After recurring for several episodes in season 21 as Vice Officer Katriona Tamin,Jamie Gray Hyderjoined the cast as a regular, starting in episode 8.On October 6, 2020,Demore Barnes, who had recurred throughout season 21 as new Deputy Chief Christian Garland, was upgraded to regular status for season 22.On September 3, 2021, it was announced that Hyder and Barnes would both depart the series following the two-hour season 23 premiere.On October 13, 2021,Octavio Pisano, who had guest starred since the start of the season, was promoted to regular status.On August 24, 2022, it was announced that Kelli Giddish would leave the series during the first half of season 24. On November 10, 2022,Molly Burnett, who initially appeared in a recurring capacity for the first six episodes, was promoted to series regular beginning with the seventh episode.On November 28, 2023, it was announced that Kelli Giddish will come back for the premiere episode of season 25, which will be her second time reappearing after the season 24 finale.On July 22, 2024, it was reported that Kevin Kane, who portrays Terry Bruno, would be promoted to a series regular for the show's twenty-sixth season, after recurring the previous two seasons.On August 7, 2024, it was announced that Juliana Aidén Martinez, who will portray newcomer, Kate Silva, was added as a series regular ahead of the season premiere. Salaries By season twelve, both Mariska Hargitay and Christopher Meloni had become among the highest-paid lead actors on a drama, with each earning nearly $400,000 per episode, a salary thatTV Guidesaid was exceeded only byHouse'sHugh Laurie.During season sixteen, Hargitay was reported to be earning $450,000 per episode, or $10,350,000 per season.In season seventeen, her salary increased to $500,000 per episode. Filming and location Many exterior scenes ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitare filmed on location in New York City, Wolf's hometown, throughout all five ofNew York City's boroughs.Fort Lee, New Jerseyserved as the filming location for DetectiveElliot Stabler's residence inQueens, New York. When searching for a place to film the interiors of the show, the producers found that there were no suitable studio spaces available in New York City. As a result, a space was chosen at NBC's Central Archives building in nearbyNorth Bergen, New Jersey, 53,000 square feet (4,900 m2) of stage area that had been left unused for some time.The Archives building was used for police station and courtroom scenes,with various other locations inHudson Countyused for other scenes, such as a scene shot at the Meadowlands Parkway inSecaucusin 2010. The production left New Jersey for New York in 2010, however, when New Jersey GovernorChris Christiesuspended the tax credits for film and television production for the Fiscal Year 2011 to close budget gaps.The show moved into the studio space atChelsea Piersthat had been occupied by the originalLaw & Orderseries until its cancellation in May 2010. Episodes Release Broadcast Law & Order: SVUairs onNBCin the United States. With the season eleven premiere on September 23, 2009, the series vacated its Tuesday 10 p.m. ET slot as NBC began a nightly prime-time series hosted byJay Leno. The new time slot became Wednesday nights at 9:00 p.m. ET on NBC, withCTVstill airingSVUon Tuesdays at 10:00 in Canada.After the2010 Winter Olympicson March 3, 2010, the time slot again changed to Wednesdays at 10 p.m. ET, where it stayed until the twelfth season.For the 12th season,SVUmoved back to 9:00 p.m. to lead in the newestLaw & Orderspin-off,Law & Order: LA,until it was pulled from the network in January 2011 to be retooled.SVUmoved back to 10:00 p.m. on January 12, 2011, until the end of the 13th season.With season 14,SVUmoved back to 9:00 p.m. after a two-hour season premiere event on September 26, 2012.Beginning with Season 20,SVUwould air on Thursday nights at 10 p.m., after NBC decided to devote their entire Wednesday primetime lineup to theChicago Med,PD, andFiretrilogy. It marked the first time ever thatLaw & Order: SVUwould hold this timeslot on Thursday nights.Starting with season 22,SVUmoved to 9 p.m., with offshootLaw & Order: Organized Crimetaking its old slot. From season 21,Law & Order: Special Victims Unitairs onSky Witnessin the United Kingdom.Beginning from season 23, it moved from CTV toCityTVin Canada, simulcasting with NBC.Law & Order: Special Victims Unitairs onRock Entertainmentin Southeast Asia. Streaming PeacockandHulucurrently have all seasons (1–24) available. The latest 5 episodes can be watched for free on NBC.comand the NBC app.Outside of SVOD and NBC platforms, most episodes (outside of seasons 2–4 in the United States for unknown reasons) can be found onelectronic sell-throughplatforms such asiTunesandAmazon Prime Video.The series is available for streaming onPeacockalong withChicago Fire,Chicago P.D.,Chicago Med,Law & OrderandLaw & Order: Criminal Intent.Seasons 1–22 are available for streaming in Australia on Amazon Prime Video. In Brazil, seasons 11 to 13 are available on Amazon Prime Video, and seasons 1–22 are available on Globoplay, although seasons 15–22 require a subscription expansion or cable access to UniversalTV.In 2024, selected seasons returned toNetflixin certain regions including the UK, Europe, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America. Syndication As of January 2024, the series is rerun on fellowNBCUniversalnetworkUSA, as well as onIon TelevisionandMyNetworkTVstations. The series also briefly ran onSyfyin 2006. In 2008,Foxobtained rights to airLaw & Order: SVUon Fox-owned TV stations, and began doing so in the fall of 2009. Reception Ratings In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook likesfound thatSVU's popularity was \"atypical: generally slightly more popular in rural areas and the South, but largely restricted to the eastern half of the country. It is most popular inAlbany, N.Y.; least in Colorado and Utah\". Awards and honors Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas received many awards and award nominations.Mariska Hargitayhas twice been nominated for aGolden Globe Awardand won once in 2005. The show has been nominated numerous times for theEmmy Award.Mariska Hargitayhas been nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category eight years in a row beginning in 2004 and won the Emmy in 2006.Christopher Meloniwas nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series category in 2006.Robin Williamswas nominated in the Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2008. The series was nominated in the category Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series forJane AlexanderandTracy Pollanin 2000,Martha Plimptonin 2002,Barbara Barriein 2003,Mare WinninghamandMarlee Matlinin 2004,Amanda PlummerandAngela Lansburyin 2005,Marcia Gay HardenandLeslie Caronin 2007,Cynthia Nixonin 2008,Ellen Burstyn,Brenda Blethyn, andCarol Burnettin 2009, andAnn-Margretin 2010. The series won the award for Plummer in 2005, Caron in 2007, Nixon in 2008, Burstyn in 2009, and Ann-Margret in 2010. Critical reception Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas been well received among critics. The show holds an average score of 88% onRotten Tomatoes.In 2014, Joshua Alston ofThe A.V. Clubdescribed it as \"most improved, and that uptick in quality is all the more admirable.Ilana Kaplan ofThe New York Timeswrote that the series, the longest-running drama in primetime history, and Mariska Hargitay as Olivia Benson is a person of repose of real life victims and survivors. Hargitay quoted: \"It became very apparent to me early how much, culturally, we needed this character who relentlessly fights and advocates for women and for survivors, and who does it with compassion,\" she said through tears. \"Somebody who is unequivocally committed to righting wrongs, who believes survivors, who's aware of the healing in it.\"The site ofMetacriticgive a score of 66% on 25 critics review. Russian adaptation In 2007, the Russian production company Studio 2B purchased the rights to create an adaptation ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitfor Russian television. TitledLaw & Order: Division of Field Investigation,the series stars Alisa Bogart and Vica Fiorelia. It follows a unit of investigators in Moscow whose job is to investigate crimes of a sexual nature. The series aired onNTVuntil 2010 and was produced by Pavel Korchagin, Felix Kleiman and Edward Verzbovski and directed by Dmitry Brusnikin. The screenplays were written by Sergei Kuznvetsov, Elena Karavaeshnikova, and Maya Shapovalova. Spin-off On March 31, 2020, it was announced that NBC had ordered an untitled spin-off series to launch in the 2020–21 television season, withChristopher Melonireprising his role asElliot Stabler. Meloni leftSVUin 2011. The series order consists of 13 episodes.On June 2, 2020, it was announced that the series would be calledLaw & Order: Organized Crimeand writer Craig Gore had been fired.When NBC announced its fall schedule on June 16,Organized Crimewas the only new show on the schedule, slotted for Thursdays at 10/9c.However, the series was later delayed to 2021.On October 2, 2020, it was announced thatMatt Olmsteadwould be stepping down as showrunner and a replacement was not announced at the time.On December 9, 2020, it was announced thatIlene Chaikenhas joined as showrunner after her overall deal withUniversal Television.Dylan McDermottwas announced on January 27, 2021, as joining the cast in an unspecified role.On February 2, 2021,Tamara Taylorwas cast in an undisclosed role.On February 4, 2021, it was announced that the series would premiere on April 1, 2021, in a two-hour crossover event. Explanatory notes References Citations General and cited references External links",
"List of Super Bowl champions TheSuper Bowlis the annualAmerican footballgame that determines the champion of theNational Football League(NFL). The game culminates aseasonthat begins in the previous calendar year, and is the conclusion of theNFL playoffs. The winner receives theVince Lombardi Trophy. The contest is held in an American city, chosen three to four years beforehand,usually at warm-weather sites ordomed stadiums.Since January 1971, the winner of theAmerican Football Conference (AFC) Championship Gamehas faced the winner of theNational Football Conference (NFC) Championship Gamein the culmination of the NFL playoffs. Before the1970 mergerbetween theAmerican Football League(AFL) and theNational Football League(NFL), the two leagues met in four such contests. The first two were marketed as the \"AFL–NFL World Championship Game\", but were also casually referred to as \"the Super Bowl game\" during the television broadcast.Super Bowl IIIin January 1969 was the first such game that carried the \"Super Bowl\" moniker in official marketing; the names \"Super Bowl I\" and \"Super Bowl II\" were retroactively applied to the first two games. A total of 20 franchises, including teams that have relocated to another city or changed their name, have won the Super Bowl.There are fourNFL teamsthat have never appeared in a Super Bowl: theCleveland Browns,Detroit Lions,Jacksonville Jaguars, andHouston Texans, though both the Browns (1950,1954,1955,1964) and Lions (1935,1952,1953,1957) had wonNFL Championship Gamesprior to the creation of the Super Bowl in the1966 season. The1972 Dolphinscapped off the onlyperfect seasoninNFL historywith their victory inSuper Bowl VII. Only two franchises have ever won the Super Bowl while hosting at their home stadiums: theTampa Bay BuccaneersinSuper Bowl LVand theLos Angeles RamsinSuper Bowl LVI. Super Bowl championship games Numbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows: WIndicates a team that made the playoffs as awild cardteam (rather than by winning a division). Upcoming games Consecutive wins Eight franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls, one of which (Pittsburgh) has accomplished it twice: Although no franchise to date has won three Super Bowls in a row, several have had eras of sustained success, nearly accomplishing athree-peat: Consecutive losses Three franchises have lost consecutive Super Bowls: Consecutive appearances TheBuffalo Billshave the most consecutive appearances with four from 1990 to 1993. TheMiami Dolphins(1971–1973) andNew England Patriots(2016–2018) are the only other teams to have at least three consecutive appearances. All three teams with three or more consecutive Super Bowl appearances are in theAFC Eastdivision. Including those three, 11 teams have at least two consecutive appearances. TheDallas Cowboysare the only team with three separate streaks (1970–1971, 1977–1978, and 1992–1993). TheGreen Bay Packers,Pittsburgh Steelers,Denver Broncos,and New England Patriots have each had two separate consecutive appearances. TheKansas City Chiefsare the most recent team to appear in consecutive Super Bowls, playing inSuper Bowl LVIIandSuper Bowl LVIII. The full listing of teams with consecutive appearances is below in order of first occurrence; winning games are inbold: Super Bowl rematches The following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl: Super Bowl records by franchise In the sortable table below, franchises are ordered first by number of wins, followed by the total number of appearances, and finally by the total number of points scored for the franchise throughout all appearances. Included in the table are all of the team names that each franchise has had since the 1966 season, a.k.a. the start of the Super Bowl era. Teams with Super Bowl appearances but no victories Eight teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning. In descending order of number of appearances and then years since their last appearance, they are: Teams with no Super Bowl appearances or long active droughts Four current teams have never reached the Super Bowl (shown inboldbelow). Two of them (Jacksonville and Houston) joined the NFL relatively recently, and there are an additional eight teams whose Super Bowl appearance droughts began prior to 2002 (the year Houston joined the NFL). The other two teams that have never appeared in a Super Bowl (Cleveland and Detroit) both heldNFL league championshipsprior toSuper Bowl Iin the1966 NFL season.Teams are listed below according to the length of their current Super Bowl droughts (as of the end of the 2023 season, after Super Bowl LVIII): See also Explanatory notes References External links",
"1998 Denver Broncos season The1998 seasonwas theDenver Broncos' 29th in theNational Football League(NFL) and their 39th overall. The Broncos entered the season as thedefending Super Bowl championsand looked to become only the fifth team in league history to win consecutive Super Bowls. Finishing with a record of 12–4 the previous year, the Broncos improved on that mark by two wins and tiedthe Atlanta Falconsfor second best record at 14–2. They won their first thirteen games, the best start since theunbeaten1972 Dolphins. After 16 seasons,John Elwayretired following the Super Bowl. He finished his Broncos career with 51,475 yards passing and 300 touchdowns. UntilPeyton Manningwon inSuper Bowl 50, Elway stood as the only Broncos quarterback to win a Super Bowl. However, Elway even played a large role in that victory as thegeneral managerand president of football operations for the Broncos. Running backTerrell Davisset a team single season rushing mark. His final total was 2,008 yards, making him only the fourth player to rush forover 2,000 yards in single season. A multi-year investigation from 2001 to 2005 revealed that between 1996 and 1998, the team had cheated the salary cap by deferring other money to Elway and Davis outside of the team’s salary. Denver claimed it gave them no competitive advantage. The team was subsequently fined nearly two million dollars and were forced to give up two third-round picks in the2002and2005drafts. In 2007, the 1998 Broncos were ranked as the 12th greatest Super Bowl champions on theNFL Network's documentary seriesAmerica's Game: The Super Bowl Champions. They ranked #14 on the 100 greatest teams of all time presented by the NFL on its 100th anniversary. Offseason NFL draft Staff Front office Head coaches Offensive coaches Special teams coaches Strength and conditioning Roster Running backs(RB) Wide receivers(WR) Tight ends(TE) Defensive linemen(DL) Defensive backs(DB){{{defensive_back}}} Special teams 53 active, 3 inactive, 5 practice squadReserved Rookies in italics Season summary The Broncos won their first 13 games of the season. There was much speculation that they might finish 19–0and the Broncos were featured on the cover ofSports Illustrated. However, they were upset bythe New York Giants(who would end another attempt at a 19–0 seasonnine seasons later) in week 15 by a score of 20–16. They finished the regular season 14–2 after losing tothe Dolphinsin their first encounter with that team since1985. They finished first in theAFC Westand won their divisional playoff game againstthe Miami Dolphins38–3 for their first win over the Dolphins since1968.They then won theAFC Championshipover theBill ParcellscoachedNew York Jets23–10 after coming back from a 10–0 deficit. Many had expected Denver to playthe Minnesota Vikings, the team with the number one record that year at 15–1, in the Super Bowl. However, the Vikings lost theNFC Championship Gametothe Atlanta Falconsin overtime. The Broncos defeated the Falcons 34–19 in Super Bowl XXXIII. Elway was theSuper Bowl MVPand Davis rushed for over 100 yards. It was Elway's last game, and Denver would not reach the Super Bowl again untilthe 2013 season. Preseason Regular season Schedule Standings Playoffs AFC Divisional Game vs. Miami Dolphins atMile High Stadium,Denver, Colorado First quarter Second quarter Third quarter Fourth quarter Dolphins Broncos Turnovers: AFC Championship game vs. New York Jets atMile High Stadium,Denver, Colorado First quarter Second quarter Third quarter Fourth quarter Jets Broncos Turnovers: Despite a subpar performance from quarterbackJohn Elway, the Broncos came from a ten-point deficit to score twenty three unanswered points, thanks in large part to the Jets turning the ball over an astonishing six times. Super Bowl XXXIII: vs. Atlanta Falcons atPro Player Stadium,Miami, Florida The Denver Broncos become the third team in the last 9 years to repeat as Super Bowl champions, along with theSan Francisco 49ersand theDallas Cowboys.John Elwaywas voted Super Bowl MVP. Statistics Team stats The Broncos had 3,808yardspassing, sixth in the league. They had 2,468 yards rushing, second in the league and 26 rushing touchdowns, first in the league. They had 6,276 total yards, third best. They gave up 3,983 passing yards, a low 28 out of 30 in the NFL, but were third in rushing yards given up with 1,287. They gave up 5,270 yards, 12th in the NFL. They scored 501 points, second in the league and gave up 309, eighth fewest in the league. The Broncos’ 14–2 record remains their best regular season record (most wins and equal fewest losses) in franchise history. Player stats For the season Elway threw for 2,806 yards, 22 touchdowns and ten interceptions. Davis rushed for 2,008 yards and 21 touchdowns.Rod Smithhad 86 receptions for 1,222 yards and six touchdowns.Ed McCaffreyhad 64 receptions for 1,053 yards.Shannon Sharpehad 64 receptions for 768 yards.Jason Elamkicked 23 out of 27 field goals and 58 out of 58 extra points including a 63-yard field goal to tie Tom Dempsey with the longest field goal in NFL history at that time. This record has since been eclipsed by another Denver Bronco inMatt Prater, and once again byJustin Tucker. Steve Atwater, Davis, Elway,Tony Jones,Mark Schlereth, McCaffrey,Tom Nalen,Bill Romanowski, and Sharpe made thePro Bowl. Awards and records Milestones References External links"
] | [
"Law & Order: Special Victims Unit Law & Order: Special Victims Unit(often shortened toLaw & Order: SVUorSVU) is an Americanpolice proceduralcrime dramatelevision series created byDick WolfforNBC. The first spin-off ofLaw & Order, it starsMariska Hargitayas Detective (ultimately promoted toCaptain)Olivia Benson, now the commanding officer of theSpecial Victims Unitafter originally having been Stabler's partner in a fictionalized version of theNew York City Police Department, andChristopher Melonias DetectiveElliot Stabler(until Meloni left the series in 2011 after 12 seasons).Law & Order: Special Victims Unitfollows the detectives of the Special Victims Unit as they investigate and prosecute sexually based crimes. Some of the episodes are loosely based on real crimes that have received media attention. The series, produced byWolf EntertainmentandUniversal Television, premiered on September 20, 1999. After the premiere of its 21st season in September 2019, the series became thelongest-running primetime",
"primetime live-action series on American television.Since the end of the original run of the mainLaw & Orderseries in 2010,SVUhas been the only live-action primetime series that debuted in the 1990s that has remained in continuous production.The23rd seasonpremiered on September 23, 2021,during which the show aired its milestone 500th episode.As of May 16, 2024,Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas aired 551 original episodes, well surpassing theepisode count of the originalLaw & Orderseries. In terms of all-time episode count for a primetime scripted series,SVUnow ranks fourth behindThe Simpsons(with 768 episodes),Gunsmoke(with 635 episodes), andLassie(with 591 episodes).The 25th season premiered on January 18, 2024,and on March 21, 2024, NBC announced that it renewed the series for its 26th season, which premiered on October 3, 2024. The series has received108 award nominations, winning 33 awards. Hargitay was the first regular cast member on anyLaw & Orderseries to win anEmmy Awardwhen she won thePrimetime",
"won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Seriesin 2006. Premise In the criminal justice system, sexually based offenses are considered especially heinous. In New York City, the dedicated detectives who investigate these vicious felonies are members of an elite squad known as the Special Victims Unit. These are their stories. – Opening narration spoken bySteven Zirnkilton Based out of the NYPDNew York City Police Department's 16th precinct in Manhattan,Law & Order: Special Victims Unitdelves into the dark side of the New York underworld as the detectives of a new elite squad, theSpecial Victims Unit(SVU for short), investigate and prosecute various sexually oriented crimes, including rape, child sexual abuse, human trafficking and domestic violence. They also investigate the abuses of children, the disabled and elderly victims of non-sexual crimes who require specialist handling, all while trying to balance the effects of the investigation on their own lives as they try not to let",
"they try not to let the dark side of these crimes affect them. Its stories also touch on the political and societal issues associated with gender identity, sexual preferences, and equality rights. While the victim is often murdered, this is not always the case, and victims frequently play prominent roles in episodes. The unit also works with the Manhattan District Attorney's office as they prosecute cases and seek justice for SVU's victims and survivors with precision and a passion to win and bring closure to the intense investigations. The series often uses stories that are \"ripped from the headlines\" or based on real crimes. Such episodes take a real crime and fictionalize it by changing some details. Cast and characters Originally, the show focused around the detective pairing ofElliot Stabler(Christopher Meloni) andOlivia Benson(Mariska Hargitay). Stabler is a seasoned veteran of the unit who has seen it all and tries his best to protect his family from the horrors he has seen in his career. Meanwhile,",
"career. Meanwhile, Benson's difficult past as the child of a rape victim is the reason she joined the unit. Backing them up are DetectiveJohn Munch(Richard Belzer) and his first partner,Brian Cassidy(Dean Winters). Munch is a transfer from Baltimore's homicide unit, who brings his acerbic wit, conspiracy theories, and street-honed investigative skills; Cassidy is young and eager to learn from his fellow detectives. These two detective teams received support from DetectivesMonique Jeffries(Michelle Hurd) and Ken Briscoe (Chris Orbach).After thirteen episodes, Cassidy gets transferred to the narcotics division because of his inability to work well on the cases and the fact that they reminded him too much of his childhood abuse. As a result, Jeffries gets partnered up with Munch for the remainder of season one and Briscoe was phased out. In the beginning of season two, Jeffries leaves the unit following an incident with the Morris Commission and Munch gets permanently partnered up with DetectiveOdafin \"Fin\"",
"\"Fin\" Tutuola(Ice-T), whose unique yet sometimes vulgar sense of humor and investigative experience make him a formidable match for Munch. Brooklyn SVU DetectiveChester Lake(Adam Beach) would assist on several Manhattan cases during the eighth season and then join during season nine; Lake would then depart at the season's end after being arrested for murdering a crooked cop who had gotten away with rape. These detectives were supervised by veteran CaptainDonald Cragen(Dann Florek), who oversaw the team for seasons 1–15 and was previously the commanding officer of the Manhattan North Homicide precinct on the first 3 seasons ofLaw & Order. Cragen's tough-but-supportive approach to the team's complex cases guides the squad through the challenges they face every day. Also assisting the Special Victims Unit, is FBI Special Agent Dr. George Huang (BD Wong) who helps keep the officers sane in a field that could drive ordinary people mad, whilst also serving as the squad's resident criminal profiler, his insights",
"his insights into the criminal mind have often helped the officers to crack the toughest perps. The team also works withMedical ExaminerDr. Melinda Warner (Tamara Tunie), who has become an integral part of the unit, and her personal skills have contributed to the unit's high success rate in closing cases. The unit did not receive a full-time assistant district attorney until season two, whenAlexandra Cabot(Stephanie March) was assigned to work with the detectives.After Cabot enters the Witness Protection Program after almost being killed in a hit in season five, she was replaced byCasey Novak(Diane Neal), who remained as the ADA until the end of season nine, when she was censured for violating due process while trying to bring a rapist cop (the same one that Lake would end up murdering) to justice.Kim Greylek(Michaela McManus) became the permanent ADA in the season ten premiere, until Cabot made a return midway through that season when Greylek returned to the Justice Department in Washington, D.C. Cabot",
"D.C. Cabot remained the ADA through the second half of season 10. After Cabot's departure, the ADA void was filled by Sonya Paxton (Christine Lahti) and Jo Marlowe (Sharon Stone) until the conclusion of season 11. Gillian Hardwicke (Melissa Sagemiller) served as the SVU's ADA during season 12, while Novak would return for a guest appearance after completing her suspension near the end of the season. Paxton would also return for one more appearance in the season, during which she is brutally murdered by a rapist/murderer, but manages to leave behind vital evidence to assure his conviction. In season 13, both Cabot and Novak returned as ADAs. From the beginning of season 14, ADARafael Barba(Raúl Esparza) was SVU's prosecutor, until leaving halfway through season 19 following the death of an infant. Chicago Justice'sPeter Stone(Philip Winchester) became SVU's ADA afterChicago Justicewas canceled after only one season. At the end of season 20, Stone decided to leave due to some of the cases being too much for",
"being too much for him to handle. From there, former SVU DetectiveDominick Carisi Jr.(Peter Scanavino) takes his place at the start of season 21. In season 13, big changes happen when Stabler retires in the aftermath of the season 12 finale, until he reappeared in season 22, which led him to join NYPD's Organized Crime Control Bureau inLaw & Order: Organized Crime. Huang also departed at the same time after being reassigned to Oklahoma City, but has returned for occasional guest appearances. DetectivesNick Amaro(Danny Pino) andAmanda Rollins(Kelli Giddish) joined the team filling the void left by Stabler. Amaro brought empathy to his cases while dealing with a stressful home life, while Rollins had dogged persistence and instincts help her close cases, but also secrets from her past that could derail her career. During season 15, both Munch and Cragen retired from the NYPD, leaving Benson, after being promoted to Sergeant, to take control of the unit; she would later be promoted to Lieutenant at the start of",
"at the start of season 17 and then Captain at the start of season 21. Season 16 was another period of change with the introduction of Carisi at the beginning and the departure of Amaro at the end, with the latter relocating to California to be near his moved children after being wounded in the line of duty and learning that previous instances of misconduct have cost him any chance for advancement in the department. Also introduced in season 16 was Deputy Chief William Dodds (Peter Gallagher), who served as commanding officer for the Special Victims Units in all five boroughs of New York. Dodds' son Mike (Andy Karl) transfers into Special Victims as Sergeant in season 17, becoming Benson's second-in-command until his death at the end of the season; Fin later passes the Sergeant's exam during season 18 and is officially promoted in Mike's place in season 19. Following Carisi's move to the DA's office in season 21, Vice Officer Katriona \"Kat\" Tamin (Jamie Gray Hyder) joined the team after assisting on several",
"on several cases, eventually getting promoted to detective. Dodds also departed the series at the start of the season due to some issues in the case regarding a mogul raping countless women, allowing new deputy chief Christian Garland (Demore Barnes) to take his place. At the start of season 23, Tamin and Garland both resigned from the NYPD after becoming disillusioned with the legal system's failures and the systemic bias within the department, with Tamin being replaced by Detective Joe Velasco (Octavio Pisano). Chief Tommy McGrath (Terry Serpico) took over Garland's position until he could find a permanent deputy chief for SVU. At the beginning of season 24, Detective Grace Muncy (Molly Burnett) joined SVU after solving a case that involves a teenage Dominican gang, while Rollins resigned from SVU and the NYPD halfway through the season after accepting an offer from Carisi's old colleague to teach atFordham University. SVU also brought in Detectives Terry Bruno (Kevin Kane) and Tonie Churlish (Jasmine",
"Churlish (Jasmine Batchelor) from their Brooklyn counterparts. Muncy later departed at the end of the season to work on a DEA task force and Churlish also left during the same time. In season 25, McGrath was replaced as chief after crossing multiple lines in his interference with his daughter's rape case, and IAB Captain Renee Curry (Aime Donna Kelly) joined SVU in hopes of making changes. Shortly afterwards, FBI agent Shannah Sykes (Jordana Spiro) was put on loan to SVU after helping them rescue abducted girl Maddie Flynn.Sykes later left SVU at the season's end after solving the case of her missing sister, which ended up hitting her too close to home, and at the start of season 26, former Homicide detective Kate Silva (Juliana Aidén Martinez) joins the unit. Additionally, Rollins, after consulting on several cases following her departure, returns to the NYPD with a promotion to Sergeant and assignment as CO of the department's Intelligence Unit. Production Development The idea forLaw & Order: Special",
"& Order: Special Victims Unitoriginated with the 1986 \"preppie murder\" case ofRobert Chambers, who strangled and killed a woman he dated, Jennifer Levin, duringwhat he claimed was consensual \"rough sex\"inManhattan'sCentral Park. The crime inspiredDick Wolfto write the story for theseason oneepisode ofLaw & Ordertitled \"Kiss the Girls and Make Them Die\". After writing the episode, Wolf wanted to go deeper into the psychology of crimes to examine the role ofhuman sexuality. The original title of the show wasSex Crimes.Initially, there was concern among the producers that, shouldSex Crimesfail, identifying the new show with theLaw & Orderfranchise could affect the original show. Additionally,Ted Kotcheffwanted to create a new series that was not dependent upon the original series for success. Wolf felt, however, that it was important and commercially desirable to have \"Law & Order\" in the title, and he initially proposed the title of the show beLaw & Order: Sex Crimes.Barry Diller, then head ofStudios USA, was",
"ofStudios USA, was concerned about the title, however, and it was changed toLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitto reflect the actual unit of theNew York City Police Department(NYPD) that handles sexually-based offenses. Executive producerNeal BaerleftLaw & Order: SVUasshowrunnerat the end ofseason twelve, after eleven years (seasons 2–12) on the show, in order to sign a three-year deal withCBS Studios.Baer was replaced by formerLaw & Order: Criminal IntentshowrunnerWarren Leight.In March 2015, it was announced that Warren Leight signed a three-year deal withSony Pictures Television, that will allow him to work onSVUone more season, its seventeenth.It was announced on March 10, 2016, that originalLaw & Orderveteran producer Rick Eid would take Leight's place as showrunner starting in season 18. Creator Dick Wolf commented toThe Hollywood Reporter, \"I'm extremely pleased that Rick had decided to rejoin the family and hope that he will be here for years to come.\"During post-production of season 18, following the",
"18, following the announcement thatSVUwas renewed for a nineteenth season, it was revealed that Rick Eid departed the series. He will be taking over another Dick Wolf/NBC series,Chicago P.D. It was announced on May 25, 2017, that originalLaw & OrderandLaw & Order: Criminal IntentshowrunnerMichael S. Chernuchinwould be reprising his role starting on season nineteen. Chernuchin was also co-creator and executive producing showrunner ofChicago Justice, another Wolf-related show that was canceled by NBC at the end of the 2016–17 TV season.On April 22, 2019, it was announced that Leight would return as showrunner for the series' twenty-first season.On May 3, 2022, Leight announced that he would not be returning for the twenty-fourth season. Casting Casting for the lead characters ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitoccurred in the spring of 1999. Dick Wolf, along with officials from NBC and Studios USA were at the final auditions for the two leads atRockefeller Center. The last round had been narrowed down to seven",
"down to seven finalists. For the female lead, DetectiveOlivia Benson, actressesSamantha Mathis,Reiko Aylesworth, andMariska Hargitaywere being considered. For the male role, DetectiveElliot Stabler, the finalists wereTim Matheson,John Slattery,Nick Chinlund, andChristopher Meloni. Hargitay and Meloni had auditioned in the final round together and, after the actors left, there was a moment of dead silence, after which Wolf blurted out, \"Oh well. There's no doubt who we should choose—Hargitay and Meloni.\" Wolf believed the duo had the perfect chemistry together from the first time he saw them together, and they ended up being his first choice.Garth Ancier, then head of NBC Entertainment, agreed, and the rest of the panel assembled began voicing their assent. The first actor to be cast for the show wasDann Florek. Florek had originated the character of CaptainDon Cragenin the 1990 pilot forLaw & Order, and played the character for the show's first three seasons until he was fired on the orders of network",
"orders of network executives, who wanted to add female characters to the all-male primary cast, but he maintained a friendly relationship with Wolf, and went on to direct three episodes of the original series as well as to occasionally guest star on the show. Shortly after Florek reprised his role forExiled: A Law & Order Movie, he received a call to be onSex Crimes.Initially reluctant, he eventually agreed to star on the show as Cragen on the assurance that he would not be asked to audition for the role. Shortly after the cancellation ofHomicide: Life on the Street,Richard Belzerheard thatBenjamin Bratthad leftLaw & Order. Belzer requested his manager to call Wolf and pitch the idea for Belzer's character fromHomicide, DetectiveJohn Munch, to become the new partner ofJerry Orbach's character, DetectiveLennie Briscoe, since they had previously teamed in threeHomicidecrossovers. Wolf loved the idea, but had already castJesse L. Martinas Briscoe's new partner, DetectiveEd Green. The idea was reconfigured, but",
"reconfigured, but to have Munch onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitinstead.Since the character of Munch was inspired byDavid Simon's depiction of Detective Sergeant Jay Landsman and developed forHomicidebyTom FontanaandBarry Levinson, the addition of Munch to the cast required the consent of all three. The appropriate agreements were reached and, while Fontana and Levinson agreed to waive their royalty rights, contracts with Simon required that he be paid royalties for any new show in which Munch is a main character; as a result, Simon receives royalties every time Munch appears in an episode of the show. Dean Winterswas cast as Munch's partner,Brian Cassidy, at the insistence of Belzer. Belzer looked at Winters as a sort of little brother, and told Wolf, \"Well, I'll do this new show of yours,SVU, only if you make Dean Winters my partner.\"Wolf did make Winters Belzer's partner, but he was contractually obligated to his other show at the time, theHBOdramaOz. Since the role onLaw & Order: Special Victims",
"Special Victims Unitwas only initially meant to be a few episodes, Winters was forced to leave when it was time to filmOzagain. Winters returned for the season 13 finale, \"Rhodium Nights\", reprising his role as Cassidy. He also appeared (as Cassidy) on the two-part season 14 premiere \"Lost Reputation\"/\"Above Suspicion\".He subsequently became a recurring character into season 15. The void left by Winters's departure was filled for the remainder of the season byMichelle Hurdas DetectiveMonique Jeffries, a character who Wolf promised that, despite starting out as a minor character with one scene in the pilot, would eventually develop. Hurd left the show at the beginning of season two to join the cast ofLeap Years.Munch's permanent partner came in the form ofrapper-turned-actorIce-T, who had previously worked with Wolf onNew York UndercoverandExiled. Ice-T originally agreed to do only four episodes ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, but he quickly gained affection for the ensemble nature of the cast. He",
"of the cast. He relocated to New York City before his four-episode contract was up and remained with the show as Munch's permanent partner, DetectiveOdafin \"Fin\" Tutuola. Initially, the show focused exclusively on the police work of the detectives in the Special Victims Unit of the 16th precinct, with members of the District Attorney's office occasionally appearing as guest roles crossing over from the originalLaw & Order. From season two onwards, the format was changed to be more faithful to the originalLaw & Orderconcept by including court cases.Stephanie Marchhad little television experience before being cast onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, nor did she watch much TV. Nevertheless, March was cast as Assistant District AttorneyAlexandra Cabotat the beginning of season two but still believed that, due to the grim nature of the series, it would be short-lived. She stayed with the series for three seasons, however, and left when she believed she had reached the natural conclusion of the character's",
"of the character's development. She would later reprise the character as a guest appearance in season six and as a regular character on the short-lived Wolf series,Conviction, where she was promised more to do.Diane Nealhad previously guest-starred onLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitin season three before being cast as Cabot's replacement,Casey Novak, in season five. Neal remained with the show through the end of season nine,after which she was replaced byMichaela McManus. March returned to the show in the tenth season (after McManus' departure from the cast) whenNeal Baerproposed Cabot receive a character arc to revitalize the second part of the season, which would continue through season eleven. Tamara Tuniewas cast asmedical examinerMelinda Warnerin season two after working with Wolf previously onNew York Undercover,Feds, andLaw & Order. Warner was initially arecurring characterbut became a regular character in season seven, and Tunie was added to the opening credits at that time.When initially cast as",
"initially cast as Warner, Tunie was appearing as attorney Jessica Griffin on theCBSdaytime soap operaAs the World Turns. From 2000 to 2007 (and again briefly in 2009), she appeared on both series simultaneously. In 2002, she also appeared on theFoxespionage-themed drama series24, in the recurring role of CTU Acting Director Alberta Green.BD Wongwas asked to film four episodes as Dr.George Huang, aFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI)forensic psychiatristandcriminal profileron loan to the Special Victims Unit. After his four episodes, he was asked to stay on with the show. After he starred inBury My Heart at Wounded Kneeand guest-starred as DetectiveChester Lakein the eighth season, Wolf felt thatAdam Beachwould be a good addition to the cast and asked him to be a permanent member beginning with the ninth season. Although Beach felt the role was a \"dream role\", the character proved unpopular with fans who felt that he was designed to gradually write out either Richard Belzer or Ice-T. Feeling there were too",
"there were too many police characters on the show, Beach left the show after only one season.Michaela McManuswas originally felt to be too young for the role of anAssistant District Attorney(ADA) before being cast as ADAKim Greylekin the tenth season. McManus, months removed from a recurring role onOne Tree Hill, remained with the series only half a season, however, before departing for unspecified reasons. Paula Pattonjoined the cast asADA Mikka Von. She replacedStephanie March.However, Patton dropped out after one episode to filmMission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol, and was replaced byMelissa Sagemillerin the recurring role of ADAGillian Hardwicke. Before the end of season twelve, Mariska Hargitay asked for a lighter workload. As a way of writing her out of certain episodes, a plan to have her character promoted to a supervisory role was discussed.At the end of season twelve, Christopher Meloni departed the cast, unable to reach agreement on a new contract. Warren Leight became the new showrunner during",
"showrunner during this same year and signed on before he knew that Meloni would be leaving the cast.The second major departure to be announced in 2011 was that of BD Wong. On July 17, Wong announced onTwitterthat, \"I actually do not return for season 13, I am jumping toAwake! It's awesome!\" Wong added, \"I don't know if or when I'll be back onSVU! It was amazing to have such a cool job for 11 years and to be a real NY Actor.\" Wong reprised his role as Dr. Huang in season 13's episode \"Father Dearest\". In June 2011, it was announced thatKelli GiddishandDanny Pinowould join the cast as new series regulars.Weeks later, it was announced that Stephanie March and Diane Neal would be reprising their roles as ADA Alexandra Cabot and ADA Casey Novak, respectively.The launch of season 13 was marked with a retooling of the show that Warren Leight referred to as \"SVU 2.0\".Changes that accompanied this included Tamara Tunie's being bumped from the main cast to a guest-starring role and recurring actorJoel de la Fuente's",
"de la Fuente's not appearing for the first time since 2002. Of the latter change, Warren Leight said, \"those scenes can be dry\" and hiredGilbert Gottfriedas a more comedic replacement. In season 14,Raúl Esparzajoined the cast in a recurring capacity as ADARafael Barbaand prior to the season 15 premiere, Esparza was promoted to a series regular. Also in season 15, Belzer departed the cast in the fifth episode, \"Wonderland Story\", in which Sgt. Munch retired from the NYPD and took a job in the DA's office as an investigator. Later in the season, Captain Cragen announced his departure from the NYPD, which made newly promoted Sgt. Benson the temporary squad commander. In leaving the cast, Florek ended a 400-episode run as Captain Cragen. In season 16,Peter Scanavinojoined the series, first in a recurring role for episodes 1–3 and then was promoted to the main cast in episode 5, with Kelli Giddish, Danny Pino, Ice-T and Raúl Esparza. On May 20, 2015, it was revealed that Danny Pino would be leaving the cast",
"be leaving the cast after the season 16 finale \"Surrendering Noah\". In August 2017, it was announced thatPhilip Winchesterwould recur in season 19 as ADAPeter Stone, his character fromChicago P.D.andChicago Justice, who is the son ofBenjamin Stone, the first ADA on the originalLaw & Orderseries.It was later also announced thatBrooke Shieldswas enlisted to assume a major recurring role (Sheila Porter, maternal grandmother of Noah Porter-Benson, Olivia's adopted son) starting in season 19 of the long-running dramatic series.On February 7, 2018, Raúl Esparza left the series after six seasons.His role was taken over by Winchester. Upon being renewed for its twenty-first season, it was announced that Winchester would be departing the series after the twentieth season. In March 2019, it was announced that the show would come back for season 21, making it thelongest-running primetime U.S. live-action series in the history of television.On March 29, 2019, it was revealed that Winchester would not return for season",
"return for season 21. He tweeted the same day about his departure from the show.On May 16, 2019, the season finale aired and Winchester took to Twitter to thank the cast and crew for the send-off.After recurring for several episodes in season 21 as Vice Officer Katriona Tamin,Jamie Gray Hyderjoined the cast as a regular, starting in episode 8.On October 6, 2020,Demore Barnes, who had recurred throughout season 21 as new Deputy Chief Christian Garland, was upgraded to regular status for season 22.On September 3, 2021, it was announced that Hyder and Barnes would both depart the series following the two-hour season 23 premiere.On October 13, 2021,Octavio Pisano, who had guest starred since the start of the season, was promoted to regular status.On August 24, 2022, it was announced that Kelli Giddish would leave the series during the first half of season 24. On November 10, 2022,Molly Burnett, who initially appeared in a recurring capacity for the first six episodes, was promoted to series regular beginning",
"regular beginning with the seventh episode.On November 28, 2023, it was announced that Kelli Giddish will come back for the premiere episode of season 25, which will be her second time reappearing after the season 24 finale.On July 22, 2024, it was reported that Kevin Kane, who portrays Terry Bruno, would be promoted to a series regular for the show's twenty-sixth season, after recurring the previous two seasons.On August 7, 2024, it was announced that Juliana Aidén Martinez, who will portray newcomer, Kate Silva, was added as a series regular ahead of the season premiere. Salaries By season twelve, both Mariska Hargitay and Christopher Meloni had become among the highest-paid lead actors on a drama, with each earning nearly $400,000 per episode, a salary thatTV Guidesaid was exceeded only byHouse'sHugh Laurie.During season sixteen, Hargitay was reported to be earning $450,000 per episode, or $10,350,000 per season.In season seventeen, her salary increased to $500,000 per episode. Filming and location Many",
"and location Many exterior scenes ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitare filmed on location in New York City, Wolf's hometown, throughout all five ofNew York City's boroughs.Fort Lee, New Jerseyserved as the filming location for DetectiveElliot Stabler's residence inQueens, New York. When searching for a place to film the interiors of the show, the producers found that there were no suitable studio spaces available in New York City. As a result, a space was chosen at NBC's Central Archives building in nearbyNorth Bergen, New Jersey, 53,000 square feet (4,900 m2) of stage area that had been left unused for some time.The Archives building was used for police station and courtroom scenes,with various other locations inHudson Countyused for other scenes, such as a scene shot at the Meadowlands Parkway inSecaucusin 2010. The production left New Jersey for New York in 2010, however, when New Jersey GovernorChris Christiesuspended the tax credits for film and television production for the Fiscal Year 2011 to close",
"Year 2011 to close budget gaps.The show moved into the studio space atChelsea Piersthat had been occupied by the originalLaw & Orderseries until its cancellation in May 2010. Episodes Release Broadcast Law & Order: SVUairs onNBCin the United States. With the season eleven premiere on September 23, 2009, the series vacated its Tuesday 10 p.m. ET slot as NBC began a nightly prime-time series hosted byJay Leno. The new time slot became Wednesday nights at 9:00 p.m. ET on NBC, withCTVstill airingSVUon Tuesdays at 10:00 in Canada.After the2010 Winter Olympicson March 3, 2010, the time slot again changed to Wednesdays at 10 p.m. ET, where it stayed until the twelfth season.For the 12th season,SVUmoved back to 9:00 p.m. to lead in the newestLaw & Orderspin-off,Law & Order: LA,until it was pulled from the network in January 2011 to be retooled.SVUmoved back to 10:00 p.m. on January 12, 2011, until the end of the 13th season.With season 14,SVUmoved back to 9:00 p.m. after a two-hour season premiere event on September",
"event on September 26, 2012.Beginning with Season 20,SVUwould air on Thursday nights at 10 p.m., after NBC decided to devote their entire Wednesday primetime lineup to theChicago Med,PD, andFiretrilogy. It marked the first time ever thatLaw & Order: SVUwould hold this timeslot on Thursday nights.Starting with season 22,SVUmoved to 9 p.m., with offshootLaw & Order: Organized Crimetaking its old slot. From season 21,Law & Order: Special Victims Unitairs onSky Witnessin the United Kingdom.Beginning from season 23, it moved from CTV toCityTVin Canada, simulcasting with NBC.Law & Order: Special Victims Unitairs onRock Entertainmentin Southeast Asia. Streaming PeacockandHulucurrently have all seasons (1–24) available. The latest 5 episodes can be watched for free on NBC.comand the NBC app.Outside of SVOD and NBC platforms, most episodes (outside of seasons 2–4 in the United States for unknown reasons) can be found onelectronic sell-throughplatforms such asiTunesandAmazon Prime Video.The series is available for",
"is available for streaming onPeacockalong withChicago Fire,Chicago P.D.,Chicago Med,Law & OrderandLaw & Order: Criminal Intent.Seasons 1–22 are available for streaming in Australia on Amazon Prime Video. In Brazil, seasons 11 to 13 are available on Amazon Prime Video, and seasons 1–22 are available on Globoplay, although seasons 15–22 require a subscription expansion or cable access to UniversalTV.In 2024, selected seasons returned toNetflixin certain regions including the UK, Europe, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America. Syndication As of January 2024, the series is rerun on fellowNBCUniversalnetworkUSA, as well as onIon TelevisionandMyNetworkTVstations. The series also briefly ran onSyfyin 2006. In 2008,Foxobtained rights to airLaw & Order: SVUon Fox-owned TV stations, and began doing so in the fall of 2009. Reception Ratings In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook likesfound thatSVU's popularity was \"atypical: generally slightly more popular in rural areas and",
"in rural areas and the South, but largely restricted to the eastern half of the country. It is most popular inAlbany, N.Y.; least in Colorado and Utah\". Awards and honors Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas received many awards and award nominations.Mariska Hargitayhas twice been nominated for aGolden Globe Awardand won once in 2005. The show has been nominated numerous times for theEmmy Award.Mariska Hargitayhas been nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category eight years in a row beginning in 2004 and won the Emmy in 2006.Christopher Meloniwas nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series category in 2006.Robin Williamswas nominated in the Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2008. The series was nominated in the category Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series forJane AlexanderandTracy Pollanin 2000,Martha Plimptonin 2002,Barbara Barriein 2003,Mare WinninghamandMarlee Matlinin 2004,Amanda PlummerandAngela Lansburyin 2005,Marcia Gay HardenandLeslie",
"Gay HardenandLeslie Caronin 2007,Cynthia Nixonin 2008,Ellen Burstyn,Brenda Blethyn, andCarol Burnettin 2009, andAnn-Margretin 2010. The series won the award for Plummer in 2005, Caron in 2007, Nixon in 2008, Burstyn in 2009, and Ann-Margret in 2010. Critical reception Law & Order: Special Victims Unithas been well received among critics. The show holds an average score of 88% onRotten Tomatoes.In 2014, Joshua Alston ofThe A.V. Clubdescribed it as \"most improved, and that uptick in quality is all the more admirable.Ilana Kaplan ofThe New York Timeswrote that the series, the longest-running drama in primetime history, and Mariska Hargitay as Olivia Benson is a person of repose of real life victims and survivors. Hargitay quoted: \"It became very apparent to me early how much, culturally, we needed this character who relentlessly fights and advocates for women and for survivors, and who does it with compassion,\" she said through tears. \"Somebody who is unequivocally committed to righting wrongs, who believes",
"who believes survivors, who's aware of the healing in it.\"The site ofMetacriticgive a score of 66% on 25 critics review. Russian adaptation In 2007, the Russian production company Studio 2B purchased the rights to create an adaptation ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unitfor Russian television. TitledLaw & Order: Division of Field Investigation,the series stars Alisa Bogart and Vica Fiorelia. It follows a unit of investigators in Moscow whose job is to investigate crimes of a sexual nature. The series aired onNTVuntil 2010 and was produced by Pavel Korchagin, Felix Kleiman and Edward Verzbovski and directed by Dmitry Brusnikin. The screenplays were written by Sergei Kuznvetsov, Elena Karavaeshnikova, and Maya Shapovalova. Spin-off On March 31, 2020, it was announced that NBC had ordered an untitled spin-off series to launch in the 2020–21 television season, withChristopher Melonireprising his role asElliot Stabler. Meloni leftSVUin 2011. The series order consists of 13 episodes.On June 2, 2020, it was",
"2, 2020, it was announced that the series would be calledLaw & Order: Organized Crimeand writer Craig Gore had been fired.When NBC announced its fall schedule on June 16,Organized Crimewas the only new show on the schedule, slotted for Thursdays at 10/9c.However, the series was later delayed to 2021.On October 2, 2020, it was announced thatMatt Olmsteadwould be stepping down as showrunner and a replacement was not announced at the time.On December 9, 2020, it was announced thatIlene Chaikenhas joined as showrunner after her overall deal withUniversal Television.Dylan McDermottwas announced on January 27, 2021, as joining the cast in an unspecified role.On February 2, 2021,Tamara Taylorwas cast in an undisclosed role.On February 4, 2021, it was announced that the series would premiere on April 1, 2021, in a two-hour crossover event. Explanatory notes References Citations General and cited references External links",
"List of Super Bowl champions TheSuper Bowlis the annualAmerican footballgame that determines the champion of theNational Football League(NFL). The game culminates aseasonthat begins in the previous calendar year, and is the conclusion of theNFL playoffs. The winner receives theVince Lombardi Trophy. The contest is held in an American city, chosen three to four years beforehand,usually at warm-weather sites ordomed stadiums.Since January 1971, the winner of theAmerican Football Conference (AFC) Championship Gamehas faced the winner of theNational Football Conference (NFC) Championship Gamein the culmination of the NFL playoffs. Before the1970 mergerbetween theAmerican Football League(AFL) and theNational Football League(NFL), the two leagues met in four such contests. The first two were marketed as the \"AFL–NFL World Championship Game\", but were also casually referred to as \"the Super Bowl game\" during the television broadcast.Super Bowl IIIin January 1969 was the first such game that carried the \"Super Bowl\"",
"the \"Super Bowl\" moniker in official marketing; the names \"Super Bowl I\" and \"Super Bowl II\" were retroactively applied to the first two games. A total of 20 franchises, including teams that have relocated to another city or changed their name, have won the Super Bowl.There are fourNFL teamsthat have never appeared in a Super Bowl: theCleveland Browns,Detroit Lions,Jacksonville Jaguars, andHouston Texans, though both the Browns (1950,1954,1955,1964) and Lions (1935,1952,1953,1957) had wonNFL Championship Gamesprior to the creation of the Super Bowl in the1966 season. The1972 Dolphinscapped off the onlyperfect seasoninNFL historywith their victory inSuper Bowl VII. Only two franchises have ever won the Super Bowl while hosting at their home stadiums: theTampa Bay BuccaneersinSuper Bowl LVand theLos Angeles RamsinSuper Bowl LVI. Super Bowl championship games Numbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows: WIndicates a team that made the",
"team that made the playoffs as awild cardteam (rather than by winning a division). Upcoming games Consecutive wins Eight franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls, one of which (Pittsburgh) has accomplished it twice: Although no franchise to date has won three Super Bowls in a row, several have had eras of sustained success, nearly accomplishing athree-peat: Consecutive losses Three franchises have lost consecutive Super Bowls: Consecutive appearances TheBuffalo Billshave the most consecutive appearances with four from 1990 to 1993. TheMiami Dolphins(1971–1973) andNew England Patriots(2016–2018) are the only other teams to have at least three consecutive appearances. All three teams with three or more consecutive Super Bowl appearances are in theAFC Eastdivision. Including those three, 11 teams have at least two consecutive appearances. TheDallas Cowboysare the only team with three separate streaks (1970–1971, 1977–1978, and 1992–1993). TheGreen Bay Packers,Pittsburgh Steelers,Denver Broncos,and New",
"Broncos,and New England Patriots have each had two separate consecutive appearances. TheKansas City Chiefsare the most recent team to appear in consecutive Super Bowls, playing inSuper Bowl LVIIandSuper Bowl LVIII. The full listing of teams with consecutive appearances is below in order of first occurrence; winning games are inbold: Super Bowl rematches The following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl: Super Bowl records by franchise In the sortable table below, franchises are ordered first by number of wins, followed by the total number of appearances, and finally by the total number of points scored for the franchise throughout all appearances. Included in the table are all of the team names that each franchise has had since the 1966 season, a.k.a. the start of the Super Bowl era. Teams with Super Bowl appearances but no victories Eight teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning. In descending order of number of appearances and then years since their last",
"since their last appearance, they are: Teams with no Super Bowl appearances or long active droughts Four current teams have never reached the Super Bowl (shown inboldbelow). Two of them (Jacksonville and Houston) joined the NFL relatively recently, and there are an additional eight teams whose Super Bowl appearance droughts began prior to 2002 (the year Houston joined the NFL). The other two teams that have never appeared in a Super Bowl (Cleveland and Detroit) both heldNFL league championshipsprior toSuper Bowl Iin the1966 NFL season.Teams are listed below according to the length of their current Super Bowl droughts (as of the end of the 2023 season, after Super Bowl LVIII): See also Explanatory notes References External links",
"1998 Denver Broncos season The1998 seasonwas theDenver Broncos' 29th in theNational Football League(NFL) and their 39th overall. The Broncos entered the season as thedefending Super Bowl championsand looked to become only the fifth team in league history to win consecutive Super Bowls. Finishing with a record of 12–4 the previous year, the Broncos improved on that mark by two wins and tiedthe Atlanta Falconsfor second best record at 14–2. They won their first thirteen games, the best start since theunbeaten1972 Dolphins. After 16 seasons,John Elwayretired following the Super Bowl. He finished his Broncos career with 51,475 yards passing and 300 touchdowns. UntilPeyton Manningwon inSuper Bowl 50, Elway stood as the only Broncos quarterback to win a Super Bowl. However, Elway even played a large role in that victory as thegeneral managerand president of football operations for the Broncos. Running backTerrell Davisset a team single season rushing mark. His final total was 2,008 yards, making him only the fourth",
"him only the fourth player to rush forover 2,000 yards in single season. A multi-year investigation from 2001 to 2005 revealed that between 1996 and 1998, the team had cheated the salary cap by deferring other money to Elway and Davis outside of the team’s salary. Denver claimed it gave them no competitive advantage. The team was subsequently fined nearly two million dollars and were forced to give up two third-round picks in the2002and2005drafts. In 2007, the 1998 Broncos were ranked as the 12th greatest Super Bowl champions on theNFL Network's documentary seriesAmerica's Game: The Super Bowl Champions. They ranked #14 on the 100 greatest teams of all time presented by the NFL on its 100th anniversary. Offseason NFL draft Staff Front office Head coaches Offensive coaches Special teams coaches Strength and conditioning Roster Running backs(RB) Wide receivers(WR) Tight ends(TE) Defensive linemen(DL) Defensive backs(DB){{{defensive_back}}} Special teams 53 active, 3 inactive, 5 practice squadReserved Rookies",
"Rookies in italics Season summary The Broncos won their first 13 games of the season. There was much speculation that they might finish 19–0and the Broncos were featured on the cover ofSports Illustrated. However, they were upset bythe New York Giants(who would end another attempt at a 19–0 seasonnine seasons later) in week 15 by a score of 20–16. They finished the regular season 14–2 after losing tothe Dolphinsin their first encounter with that team since1985. They finished first in theAFC Westand won their divisional playoff game againstthe Miami Dolphins38–3 for their first win over the Dolphins since1968.They then won theAFC Championshipover theBill ParcellscoachedNew York Jets23–10 after coming back from a 10–0 deficit. Many had expected Denver to playthe Minnesota Vikings, the team with the number one record that year at 15–1, in the Super Bowl. However, the Vikings lost theNFC Championship Gametothe Atlanta Falconsin overtime. The Broncos defeated the Falcons 34–19 in Super Bowl XXXIII. Elway was",
"XXXIII. Elway was theSuper Bowl MVPand Davis rushed for over 100 yards. It was Elway's last game, and Denver would not reach the Super Bowl again untilthe 2013 season. Preseason Regular season Schedule Standings Playoffs AFC Divisional Game vs. Miami Dolphins atMile High Stadium,Denver, Colorado First quarter Second quarter Third quarter Fourth quarter Dolphins Broncos Turnovers: AFC Championship game vs. New York Jets atMile High Stadium,Denver, Colorado First quarter Second quarter Third quarter Fourth quarter Jets Broncos Turnovers: Despite a subpar performance from quarterbackJohn Elway, the Broncos came from a ten-point deficit to score twenty three unanswered points, thanks in large part to the Jets turning the ball over an astonishing six times. Super Bowl XXXIII: vs. Atlanta Falcons atPro Player Stadium,Miami, Florida The Denver Broncos become the third team in the last 9 years to repeat as Super Bowl champions, along with theSan Francisco 49ersand theDallas Cowboys.John Elwaywas voted Super Bowl",
"voted Super Bowl MVP. Statistics Team stats The Broncos had 3,808yardspassing, sixth in the league. They had 2,468 yards rushing, second in the league and 26 rushing touchdowns, first in the league. They had 6,276 total yards, third best. They gave up 3,983 passing yards, a low 28 out of 30 in the NFL, but were third in rushing yards given up with 1,287. They gave up 5,270 yards, 12th in the NFL. They scored 501 points, second in the league and gave up 309, eighth fewest in the league. The Broncos’ 14–2 record remains their best regular season record (most wins and equal fewest losses) in franchise history. Player stats For the season Elway threw for 2,806 yards, 22 touchdowns and ten interceptions. Davis rushed for 2,008 yards and 21 touchdowns.Rod Smithhad 86 receptions for 1,222 yards and six touchdowns.Ed McCaffreyhad 64 receptions for 1,053 yards.Shannon Sharpehad 64 receptions for 768 yards.Jason Elamkicked 23 out of 27 field goals and 58 out of 58 extra points including a 63-yard field goal to tie Tom",
"goal to tie Tom Dempsey with the longest field goal in NFL history at that time. This record has since been eclipsed by another Denver Bronco inMatt Prater, and once again byJustin Tucker. Steve Atwater, Davis, Elway,Tony Jones,Mark Schlereth, McCaffrey,Tom Nalen,Bill Romanowski, and Sharpe made thePro Bowl. Awards and records Milestones References External links"
] |
How many days after the United States release of the record holder for largest sweep at the 2004 Oscars was the death of that movie's cinematographer? | 4149 days | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Academy_Award_records | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings:_The_Return_of_the_King | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lesnie | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Academy_Award_records', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings:_The_Return_of_the_King', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lesnie'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Academy_Award_records",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings:_The_Return_of_the_King",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lesnie"
] | [
"List of Academy Award records Thislist ofAcademy Awardrecordsis current as of the96th Academy Awards, with the ceremony taking place on March 10, 2024. Most awards or nominations Awards for Acting and Directing Debuts These people won Academy Awards for their debut performances in film: These people won Academy Awards for their directing debuts: Big Five Winners Three films have received theBig Five Academy Awards:Best Picture,Director,Actor,Actress, and Screenplay (OriginalorAdapted; all won for Best Adapted Screenplay). Most Consecutive Awards in Each Category Academy Award firsts United States Doraibu mai kā(Japanese) Age-related records Film records Acting records Shortest and Longest Academy Award Winning and Nominated Performances Miscellaneous records Oscar speeches Tied winners There have been six two-way ties Clean sweep The following films with at least two nominations won all of their categories. See also References External links",
"The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingis a 2003epichigh fantasyadventure filmdirected byPeter Jacksonfrom a screenplay byFran Walsh,Philippa Boyens, and Jackson. It is based on 1955'sThe Return of the King, the third volume of the novelThe Lord of the RingsbyJ. R. R. Tolkien. The sequel to 2002'sThe Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, the film is the third and final instalment inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy. It features an ensemble cast includingElijah Wood,Ian McKellen,Liv Tyler,Viggo Mortensen,Sean Astin,Cate Blanchett,John Rhys-Davies,Bernard Hill,Billy Boyd,Dominic Monaghan,Orlando Bloom,Hugo Weaving,Miranda Otto,David Wenham,Karl Urban,John Noble,Andy Serkis,Ian Holm, andSean Bean. Continuing the plot of the previous film,Frodo,SamandGollummake their final way toward Mount Doom to destroy theOne Ring, unaware of Gollum's true intentions, whileMerry,Pippin,Gandalf,Aragorn,Legolas,Gimliand their allies join forces againstSauronand his legions fromMordor. The Return of the Kingwas financed and distributed by American studioNew Line Cinema, butfilmed and editedentirely in Jackson's native New Zealand,concurrentlywith the other two parts of the trilogy. It premiered on 1 December 2003 at theEmbassy TheatreinWellingtonand was then released on 17 December 2003 in the US and 18 December 2003 in New Zealand. The film was acclaimed by critics and audiences, who considered it a landmark in filmmaking and the fantasy film genre, and a satisfying conclusion to the trilogy, with praise for the visual effects, performances, action sequences, direction, screenplay,musical score, costume design, emotional depth, scope, and story. It grossed over $1.1 billion worldwide, becoming thehighest-grossing film of 2003, thesecond-highest-grossing film of all timeduring its run, and the highest-grossing film ever released by New Line Cinema. Like the previous films in the trilogy,The Return of the Kingis widely recognised as one of thegreatest and most influential films ever made. The filmreceived numerous accolades; at the76th Academy Awards, it won all eleven awards for which it was nominated, includingBest Picture, the first fantasy film to do so and tying with 1959'sBen-Hurand 1997'sTitanicas themovie with the most Academy Award wins. It also became the second film series whose entries have all wonBest Visual Effects, after theoriginalStar Warstrilogy. Plot ThehobbitDéagol discovers theOne Ringin a river while fishing with his cousinSméagol. The Ring immediately ensnares Sméagol's mind, and he kills his cousin for it. Increasingly corrupted physically and mentally, he retreats into theMisty Mountainsand becomes known as Gollum. Centuries later, during theWar of the Ring,GandalfleadsAragorn,Legolas,Gimli, and KingThéodenofRohantoIsengard, where they reunite withMerryandPippin. Gandalf retrieves Saruman'spalantír, and the group returns to Edoras to celebratetheir victory at Helm's Deep.Pippin looks into the palantír, seeingSauronanda burning tree. Gandalf deduces that the enemy plans to attackGondor's capitalMinas Tirith; he rides there to warn Gondor's corrupt stewardDenethor. Pippin, who accompanies him, swears fealty to Denethor, whose now-dead heirBoromirhad saved his life;on Gandalf's instruction, Pippin triggers the lighting ofthe beacons, which call for help from Rohan. Frodo, who carries the Ring, andSamcontinue their journey towardsMordor, unaware that Gollum, now their guide, plans to betray them and take the Ring for himself. The trio witness theWitch-king of Angmar, lord of the nineNazgûl, setting off towards Gondor with his army ofOrcs. Gollum frames Sam for eating food supplies and desiring the Ring; Frodo is deceived and orders Sam to go home. As King Théoden gathers his army,Elrondtells Aragorn thatArwenis dying, having refused to leave Middle-earth. Elrond gives AragornAndúril, reforged from the shards of KingElendil's swordNarsil, and urges him to claim Gondor's throne, to which he is heir. Aragorn travels thePaths of the Deadwith Legolas and Gimli and pledges to release the ghosts there from their curse should they come to Gondor's aid. Gollum tricks Frodo into venturing alone into the giant spiderShelob's lair. Frodo narrowly escapes and confronts Gollum, who falls down a chasm after a scuffle. Shelob discovers, paralyses, and binds Frodo, but is wounded and driven away by a returning Sam. Sam mourns Frodo's apparent death and takes the Ring, but then realizes his mistake when Orcs take Frodo captive. He rescues Frodo within Mordor and the two continue towardsMount Doom. Denethor sends his younger son,Faramir, on a suicide charge. Faramir returns gravely wounded; believing him dead, Denethor falls into madness. Gandalf marshals the defenders, but the enormous Orc army breaks into the city. Denethor attempts to burn himself and Faramir on apyre, but Pippin alerts Gandalf and they rescue Faramir. Denethor, set ablaze, jumps to his death. Théoden arrives and leads his army against the Orcs. Despite initial success in theensuing battle, they are decimated by theOliphaunt-ridingHaradrimand the Witch-king mortally wounds Théoden; however, his nieceÉowynslays the Witch-king with Merry's help before Théoden dies in his niece's arms. Aragorn arrives with his Army of the Dead, who overcome Sauron's forces. Their oath fulfilled, the Dead are released from their curse. Aragorn decides to march on Mordor to distract Sauron from Frodo and Sam; all of Sauron's remaining forces marchto meet Aragorn's diversion, allowing the hobbits to reach Mount Doom. Gollum, having survived his fall, attacks, but Frodo enters the mountain. There, he succumbs to the Ring's power, putting it on his finger. Gollum bites Frodo's finger off and reclaims the Ring, leading to a scuffle before they stumble off the ledge. Frodo clings to the ledge and Sam pulls him up while Gollum falls into the lava with the Ring, destroying it and vanquishing Sauron once and for all. The lands of Mordor collapse into the earth, destroying the Orc army. Frodo and Sam narrowly escape the erupting Mount Doom and are saved by Gandalf with the help ofeagles. The surviving Fellowship is happily reunited in Minas Tirith. Aragorn is crowned King of Gondor and marries Arwen; they and everyone else present bow to the hobbits. The hobbits return home to theShire, where Sam marries Rosie Cotton. Four years later, Frodo, still plagued bytraumaand the pain of his wound inflicted by the Witch-king, departs Middle-earth for theUndying Landswith his uncleBilbo, Gandalf, and the Elves. He leaves Sam theRed Book of Westmarch, which details their adventures. Cast Like the preceding films in the trilogy,The Return of the Kinghas anensemble cast,and some of the cast and their respective characters include: There arecameosfromPeter Jackson,Richard Taylor, Gino Acevedo,Rick PorrasandAndrew Lesnieon the Corsair ship, although all of them but Jackson appear only in the Extended Edition. Jackson also has another unofficial cameo, as Sam's hand stepping into view when he confronts Shelob.Sean Astin's daughter played Sam and Rosie's older daughter Elanor in the last scene of the film; in the same scene,Sarah McLeod's daughter plays their younger son. Jackson's children also cameo as Gondorian extras, whileChristian Riversplayed a Gondorian soldier guarding the Beacon Pippin lights, and is later seen wounded.Royd Tolkiencameos as a Ranger inOsgiliath,while in the Extended EditionHoward Shoreappears as a celebrating soldier at Edoras. Additionally, four of the designers ofThe Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Gameare featured as Rohirrim at the Pelennor.At the end of the film, during the closing credits, each cast member gets a sketched portrait morphed with the real photograph beside their name, which were sketched byAlan Lee, an idea suggested byIan McKellen. Comparison to the source material As with all of Peter Jackson's movie adaptions ofThe Lord of the Rings, many events, timelines, and geographic distances are compressed or simplified. Most major events from the books are included, though some are significantly altered. Some events and details seen in the film are not found in the books. The film version ofThe Return of the Kingcontains major scenes from the middle of Tolkien'sThe Two Towers, such as the attack by Shelob and thepalantírsubplot, as Jackson realigned events of the film to fit the timeline from the book's Appendices, rather than theinterlaced order of the main narrative.However, the plot of the second half ofBook IIIis either completely omitted (chapter \"The Road to Isengard\") or only shown in one scene (chapter \"The Voice of Saruman\").Saruman's murder byGríma(seen only in the Extended Edition) is moved into the Isengard visit because of the cutting of theScouring of the Shire. The basis of Elrond and Arwen's subplot arguing about Arwen's fate is derived from the Appendices, but it is largely extended in the film, as is Arwen and Elrond's relevance to the story. In the film, overwhelming grief over the death of Boromir has driven Denethor to despair, and he has given up any hope of defeating Sauron before Gandalf arrives in Minas Tirith. Thus, the muster of Gondor is absent from the film. In the book, he has already ordered the lighting of the beacons before Gandalf's arrival, while he refuses to light them in the film, and the sequence where Pippin secretly lights them himself was invented for the movie. The film only hints at Denethor's use of thepalantírwhich drives him mad, information revealed in the Pyre scene, which includes Shadowfax and is more violent than the book. Aware of the very long distance between Rath Dínen and the front of the out-thrust battlement, Jackson has Denethor jump off the Citadel in addition to burning himself on the Pyre, one of the earliest changes. The muster of Rohan, and the subplot in which the Rohirrim are aided by the primitiveDrúedainduring their journey to the besieged Gondor are excised from the film. TheRed Arrowbrought by a messenger from Gondor to ask for Rohan's aid is absent. Éowyn's presence on the battlefield is unknown to the reader until she takes off her helmet, but in the film the audience is aware, as it would have been difficult to haveMiranda Ottoplaying a man.When hope seems lost, Gandalf comforts Pippin by telling him of the Undying Lands, based on a descriptive passage in the book's final chapter. The film altered the circumstances of Théoden's death; his death speech, in which he names Éomer the new king in the book, is trimmed and delivered to Éowyn instead of Merry, with an earlier scene in the Extended Edition even implying that Éowyn is next in line for the throne. Théoden's rallying speech (\"To death!\") before the initial charge in the film is spoken by Éomer in the book when he believes that both Théoden and Éowyn have been killed in combat with the Witch King. The Extended Edition presents shortened scenes from the book's chapters in theHouses of Healing: The Warden, the talk ofAthelas, the comical conversation with the herb-master, the womanIorethand her saying about a King's healing hands and the subsequent realising of Aragorn's true identity are left out altogether. The romance that develops between Éowyn and Faramir during their recoveries in the Houses of Healing is largely cut, presumably to keep the focus on Aragorn and Arwen; the subplot is briefly referenced in the Extended Edition, with a scene where the two hold hands. Gollum's fall into the lava of Mount Doom was rewritten for the film, as the writers felt that simply having Gollum slip and fall was anticlimactic. Originally, an even greater deviation was planned: Frodo would heroically push Gollum over the ledge to destroy him and the Ring, but the production team realised that that would make it look as if Frodo was murdering Gollum. Instead, they had Frodo and Gollum struggle for possession of the Ring. In addition to the absent footage from the film are the other major attacks by Sauron on various regions of Middle-earth, referenced only briefly in the main text ofThe Return of the King,and expanded upon in the Appendices; the invasion of Rohan by the Orcs ofMoria, the attacks on Lothlórien and theWoodland RealmofThranduilby the forces ofDol Guldur, and the attack on Dale and theLonely Mountainby a force ofEasterlings, events hinted at in a comment by Legolas in the book. There are several changes in the Battle of the Black Gate: Merry is not present there in the book, Pippin does not kill a troll as he does in the novel (instead, Aragorn fights one), the eagles fight and defeat some of the mounted Nazgûl, and Aragorn kills theMouth of Sauronin the extended edition of the film but not in the book. Although the film runs for another approximately 20 minutes after the climactic Downfall of Barad-dûr, many following events from the book are omitted or altered in the film. Aragorn's coronation takes place in form of a great ceremony in the Citadel of Minas Tirith, opposed to the book, where Aragorn is crowned in his tent on the Pelennor Fields before entering the city. Omitted entirely are the camp at theField of Cormallen, Aragorn's business in Minas Tirith, Aragorn and Arwen's wedding,GaladrielandCelebornbeing present at the ceremonies and their subsequent travelling along with the company, Théoden's funeral at Edoras, the complete journey back to theShirewith stops at Rivendell and Bree, and the Scouring of the Shire, which was seen by the screenwriters as anticlimactic.The film also left out the character epilogues: For example, Samwise Gamgee stayed in the Shire when Gandalf and Frodo went to Valinor, during which time he would make changes and additions to theRed Book of Westmarch, which he inherited from Frodo, just as in the film, in which he would add a section titled \"Herb Lore of The Shire\", which was a section on Pipeweed, the plant Hobbits and other folk of Middle Earth, like Gandalf, would smoke through pipes, as well as various poems. Shortly after his contribution to the Red Book, he served seven consecutive seven year terms as mayor of the Shire, during which he had children with Rosie Cotton who each took the last name of \"Gardner\" after their father's planting of the Mallorn Tree that replaced the Party Tree, which was destroyed during the Scouring. He did, however, go to Valinor after Rosie died, and before he did, he gave the Red Book to Elanor, one of his daughters. The books also expanded on Aragorn's time as king of Gondor andArnorpost-reuniting, and reveals that Arwen accepted a life as a mortal, and died shortly after Aragorn. Merry and Pippin also returned to the Shire, but unlike Sam and Frodo, they didn't eventually journey to Valinor. Merry inherited his father's title as \"Master of Buckland\" and despite the perils he and Pippin endured that almost cost them their lives, Merry still had his adventurous spirit. He also reviewed many gifts from Eomer and his sister, Eowyn, and helped the Hobbits learn more about lands beyond the Shire through scholarly articles. He even returned to Rivendell multiple times. When he and Pippin died, they were buried beside their friends, Aragorn and Arwen in Minas Tirith, where they spent some of their final days after a stint in Rohan. Legolas and Gimli make and keep promises in the books to show the other important places to them: first, Gimli shows Legolas the caverns of Aglarond, which Legolas is stunned by, then they walk in the Fangorn Forest, where they then make their way to Isengard where they bid farewell to the Fellowship, after which, they would each go back to their own lands, with Gimli even founding a Dwarven colony in the Glittering Caves. They would, however, reunite to help with the rebuilding and improving of Minas Tirith. They would be the last of the Fellowship to sail for Valinor, departing after the death of their friend Aragorn, Legolas would build a ship for him and Gimli to sail to Valinor. Lastly, Frodo would serve as Deputy Mayor of The Shire until a wound caused by a stab from the Witch King which flared up every year on the anniversary of said stabbing forced him to resign, after which, he would sail to Valinor to receive healing and peace for the rest of his days. Production The production ofThe Lord of the Ringsseries was the first where three separate entries were written and shot simultaneously (excludingpick up shoots). Peter Jackson foundThe Return of the Kingthe easiest of the films to make, because it contained the climax of the story.The Return of the Kingwas originally the second of two planned films underMiramax Filmsfrom January 1997 to August 1998,and more or less in its finished structure as the first film was to end with the Battle of Helm's Deep inThe Two Towers.Filming took place under multiple units across New Zealand, between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000, with pick up shoots for six weeks in 2003 before the film's release. Design Jackson'sMiddle-earthwas primarily designed by Alan Lee andJohn Howe, who had earlier illustrated editions of Tolkien's books. It was created byWeta Workshop, who handled all the trilogy's weapons, armour, miniatures, prosthetics, and creatures; the Art Department built the sets. Richard Taylor headed Weta, whileGrant MajorandDan Hennahorganised the planning and building. The city of Minas Tirith, glimpsed briefly in both the previous two films, is seen fully in this film, and with it the Gondorian civilisation. The enormous soundstage was built at Dry Creek Quarry, outsideWellington, from theHelm's Deepset. That set's gate became Minas Tirith's second, while the Hornburg exterior became that of the Extended Edition's scene where Gandalf confronts the Witch-king. New structures included the 8m tall Gate, with broken and unbroken versions, with a working opening and closing mechanism, with its engravings inspired by theBaptistry of San Giovanni. There were also four levels of streets with heraldic motifs for every house, as inspired bySiena. The Citadel's exterior was in the Stone Street Studios backlot, usingforced perspective. It contained the witheredWhite Tree, built from polystyrene by Brian Massey and the Greens Department with real branches, influenced by ancient and gnarled Lebaneseolivetrees. The interior was within a three-storey former factory in Wellington, its colours influenced byCharlemagne's Chapel, with a throne for Denethor carved from stone, and polystyrene statues of past kings. The Gondorian armour is designed to represent an evolution from theNúmenóreansof the first film's prologue, with a simplified sea bird motif. 16th-century Italian and German armour served as inspiration,while civilians wear silver and blacks as designed by Ngila Dickson, continuing an ancient/medievalMediterranean Basinlook. Minas Morgul, the Staircase and Tower of Cirith Ungol as well as Shelob's Lair were designed by Howe, with the Morgul road using forced perspective into a bluescreened miniature. Howe's design of Minas Morgul was inspired from the experience of having awisdom toothpulled out: in the same way, the Orcs have put their twisted designs on to a former Gondorian city.Cirith Ungol was based on Tolkien's design, but when Richard Taylor felt it as \"boring\", it was redesigned with more tipping angles.The interior set, like Minas Tirith, was built as a few multiple levels that numerous camera takes would suggest a larger structure. The third film introduces the enormous spider Shelob. Shelob was designed in 1999,with the body based on atunnelweb spiderand the head with numerous growths selected by Peter Jackson's children from one of many sculpts. Jackson himself took great joy in planning the sequence, being anarachnophobehimself.Shelob's Lair was inspired by sandstone and sculpted from the existing Caverns of Isengard set. The Return of the Kingalso brings into focus the Dead Men of Dunharrow and the evil Haradrim from the south of Middle-earth, men who ride themûmakil. The Dead Men have a Celtic influence, as well as lines and symmetry to reflect their morbid state,while their underground city is influenced byPetra.The Haradrim were highly influenced by African culture, until Philippa Boyens expressed concern over the possibility of offensiveness, so the finished characters instead bear influence fromKiribati, in terms of weaving armour from bamboo, and the Aztecs, in use of jewellery. Also built was a single deadmûmak.Other minor cultures include the Corsairs, with an exotic, swarthy look, and the Grey Havens, Elven structures adapted to stone, with influence fromJ. M. W. Turnerpaintings. Principal photography The Return of the Kingwas shot during 2000, though Astin's coverage from Gollum's attempt to separate Frodo and Sam was filmed on 24 November 1999, when floods inQueenstowninterrupted the focus onThe Fellowship of the Ring.Some of the earliest scenes shot for the film were in fact shot last.Hobbiton, home of the Hobbits, was shot in January 2000 with early scenes fromThe Fellowship of the Ring, with the exterior shot at aMatamatafarm, while interior scenes were shot at Stone Street Studios in Wellington,shared with the Grey Havens sequence. Due to the high emotions of filming the scene, the cast were in despair when they were required to shoot it three times, due to a continuity flaw in Astin's costume, and then negatives producing out-of-focus reels.Also shared with the previous films was the Rivendell interior in May. The Battle of the Black Gate was filmed in Aprilat theRangipo Desert, a former minefield.New Zealand soldiers were hired as extras while guides were on the lookout for unexploded mines. Also a cause for concern were Monaghan and Boyd's scale doubles during a charge sequence. In the meantime, Wood, Astin and Serkis filmed atMount Ruapehufor the Mount Doom exteriors. In particular, they spent two hours shooting Sam lifting Frodo on to his back with cross-camera coverage. Scenes shot in June were the Paths of the Dead across various locations, includingPutangirua Pinnacles.In July the crew shot some Shelob scenes, and in August and September time was spent on the scenes in Isengard. Monaghan and Boyd tried numerous takes of their entrance, stressing the word \"weed\" as they smokedpipe-weed. Christopher Lee spent his part of his scene mostly alone, though McKellen and Hill arrived on the first day for a few lines to help. Edoras exteriors were shot in October. The Ride of the Rohirrim, where Théoden leads the charge into the Orc army, was filmed inTwizelwith 150 extras on horseback. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields has more extensive use ofcomputer-generated imagery, in contrast to the more extensive use of live action in theBattle of Helm's Deepin the second film. Also filmed were the attempts by Faramir to recaptureOsgiliath,as were scenes in the city itself.At this point production was very hectic, with Jackson moving around ten units per day, and production finally wrapped on the Minas Tirith sets, as well as second units shooting parts of the siege. Just as the Hobbit actors' first scene was hiding from a Ringwraith under a tree, their last scene was thebluescreenedreaction shot of the inhabitants of Minas Tirith bowing to them. Pick-ups The 2003 pick-ups were filmed in the Wellington studio car park, with many parts of sets and blue-screens used to finish off scenes, which the design team had to work 24 hours to get the right sets ready for a particular day.The shoot continued for two months, and became an emotional time of farewells for the cast and crew. The film has the most extensive list of re-shoots given for the trilogy. Jackson took his time to re-shoot Aragorn's coronation, rushed into a single day under the supervision of second unit directorGeoff Murphyon 21 December 2000. Jackson also re-shot scenes in and around Mount Doom,and Théoden's death, right after Bernard Hill was meant to wrap. There was also the new character of Gothmog. This was a major new design addition for the film, as Jackson felt the Mordor Orcs were \"pathetic\" compared to theUruk-haiof the second film after watching assembly cuts, and thus Weta Workshop created grotesque new \"über Orcs\" as antagonists for the audience to focus on. Rivers redesigned the Witch-king; all his scenes were re-shot, because of confusion from non-readers over whether or not Sauron was on the battlefield. With the positive response to Bloom, Legolas was given a fight with amûmak,and Shore appeared in a cameo during Legolas and Gimli's drinking game at Edoras.The final scenes shot were Aragorn escaping the Skull avalanche, and Frodo finishing his book. The cast also received various props associated with their characters, althoughJohn Rhys-Daviesburned his final Gimli prosthetic.Viggo Mortensenheadbuttedthe stunt team goodbye.Pick-ups ended on 27 June 2003. Scenes shot afterwards included various live-action shots of Riders for the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and a reaction shot of Serkis as Gollum finally realises Frodo intends to destroy the Ring, shot in Jackson's house.For the Extended DVD, in March 2004 Jackson created a few shots of skulls rolling over for the avalanche scene; this was the final piece of footage ever shot for the trilogy, and Jackson noted that it must be the first time a director had shot scenes for a film after it had already won the Oscar. Editing Post-productionbegan in November 2002, with the completion of the 4½ hour assembly cut of the film thatAnnie Collinshad been completing over 2001 and 2002, from 4-hour dailies. For example, Théoden leading the charge went from 150 minutes of takes to a finished 90 seconds.Jackson reunited with longtime collaboratorJamie Selkirkto edit the final film. LikeThe Two Towers, they would have to deal with multiple storylines, and Jackson paid attention to each storyline at a time before deciding where to intercut. Most importantly they spent three weeks working on the last 45 minutes of the film,for appropriate intercutting and leaving out scenes such as the Mouth of Sauron, and the fates of characters like Legolas, Gimli, Éowyn and Faramir.The film inherited scenes originally planned to go into the second film, including the reforging ofNarsil, Gollum's backstory, and Saruman's exit. But the Saruman scene posed a structural problem: killing off the second film's villain when the plot has Sauron as the main villain.Despite pick-ups and dubs, the scene was cut, causing controversy with fans and Saruman actor Christopher Lee, as well as a petition to restore the scene.Lee nonetheless contributed to the DVDs and was at theCopenhagenpremiere, although he said he would never understand the reason for the cut and his relationship with Jackson was chilly.They would, however, later reconcile upon Lee's casting in Jackson'sHobbitfilms. Jackson only had a lock on 5 out of 10 reels, and had to churn out 3 reels in 3 weeks to help finish the film. It was finally completed on 12 November 2003.Jackson never had a chance to view the film in full due to the hectic schedule, and only saw the film from beginning to end on 1 December at the Wellington premiere; according toElijah Wood, his response was \"yup, it's good, pretty good\". Visual effects The Return of the Kingcontains 1,489 visual effect shots, nearly three times the number from the first film and almost twice that of the second. As with the two previous films,Jim Rygielserved as the visual effects supervisor. Visual effects work began withAlan Leeand Mark Lewis compositing various photographs of New Zealand landscape to create the digital arena of thePelennor Fieldsin November 2002. Jackson and Rivers used computers to plan the enormous battle up until February 2003, when the shots were shown to Weta Digital. To their astonishment, 60 planned shots had gone up to 250, and 50,000 characters were now 200,000.Nevertheless, they pressed on, soon delivering 100 shots a week, 20 a day, and as the deadline neared within the last two months, often working until 2 am. For the battle, they recorded 450 motions for theMASSIVEdigital horses (though deaths were animated), and also had to deal with late additions in the film, such as Trolls bursting through Minas Tirith's gates as well as the creatures that pull Grond to the gate,and redoing a shot of twomûmakilÉomer takes down that had originally taken six months in two days. On a similar note of digital creatures, Shelob's head sculpture was scanned by a Canadian company for 10 times more detail than Weta had previously been able to capture. Like the previous films, there are also extensive morphs between digital doubles for the actors. This time, there was Sam falling off Shelob, where the morph takes place as Astin hits the ground. Legolas attacking amûmakrequired numerous transitions to and fro, and Gollum's shots of him having recovered the One Ring and falling into the Crack of Doom were fully animated.For the latter scene, as well as the scene in which Mount Doom erupts and Frodo and Sam escape from the volcano, the help of the companyNext Limit Technologiesand their softwareRealFlowwas required to simulate thelava. The King of the Dead is played by an actor in prosthetics, and his head occasionally morphs to a more skull-like digital version, depending on the character's mood. The Mouth of Sauron also had his mouth enlarged 200% for unsettling effect. The Return of the Kingalso has practical effects. In the Pyre of Denethor sequence, as the Steward of Gondor throws Pippin out of the Tomb,John Noblethrew asize doublenamed Fon onto a prostrateBilly Boyd, who immediately pushed his head into camera to complete the illusion. A few burning torches were also reflected off a plate of glass and into the camera for when Gandalf's horse Shadowfax kicks Denethor onto the pyre. Because of Jackson's requirement for complete representation of his fantasy world, numerous miniatures were built, such as 1:72 scale miniature of Minas Tirith, which rises 7m high and is 6.5m indiameter. 1:14 scale sections of the city were also required, and the Extended Edition scene of the collapsing City of the Dead has 80,000 small skulls, amounting in total to a single cubic meter.The miniatures team concluded in November with the Black Gate, after 1000 days of shooting, and the final digital effects shot done was the Ring's destruction, on 25 November. Sound effects The Sound department spent the early part of the year searching for the right sounds. ATasmanian devilwas used to create Shelob's shriek, which in turn gave inspiration for Weta's animators, while themûmakilsound is the beginning and end of a lion roar. Human screams and a donkey screech were mixed into Sauron's fall and broken glass was used for the collapsing sounds. For missile trading during Minas Tirith's siege, construction workers dropped actual 2 ton stone blocks previously lifted by a construction crane. Mixing began at a new studio on 15 August, although unfinished building work caused some annoyances.The mixers finished on 15 November, after three months of non-stop work. Score The music, as for the rest of the trilogy, was composed by Shore. He watched the assembly cut of the film,and had to write seven minutes of music per day to keep up with the schedule.The score sees the full introduction of the Gondor theme, originally heard during Boromir's speeches at theCouncil of ElrondinThe Fellowship of the Ringand at Osgiliath inThe Two Towers'Extended Edition. Shore also used the Gondor theme with the new ascending coda (which is unique to this film) in his score for the trailer of the film. The score features theLondon Philharmonic Orchestra,London Voices, theLondon Oratory School Scholaand featured vocal soloists. The score is the most expansive of the three: scoring effectively the entire movie length, not including additional music written for the trailer and various alternate versions released to the public. It also uses the biggest forces in the series: sections of the score call for two sets of timpani, eight trumpets(and possibly a similar increase in the size of the horn, trombone and tuba section, as well), 85 singers in the mixed choirwith additional players for all-male and all-female sections, over fifty in the boy choir and many instrumentalist \"bands\" playing Celtic and eastern instruments such as tin whistle or pan flute, on stage or off of it.One piece of music required an instrument invented and crafted especially for the film: a fiddle with four pairs of strings instead of single strings. Actors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen and Liv Tyler also contributed to the film's music. Boyd sings on screen as Faramir charges towards Osgiliath, Mortensen sings on screen as he is crowned King, and in the Extended Edition Tyler sings as Aragorn heals Éowyn.Renée Fleming, Ben Del Maestro,Sissel KyrkjebøandJames Galwaycontribute to the soundtrack as featured soloists. Fleming sings as Arwen has a vision of her son, and when Gollum recovers the One Ring. Del Maestro sings when Gandalf lights his staff to save fleeing Gondorian soldiers from Osgiliath as the Nazgûl attack and as the eagles arrive at the Black Gates. Galway plays the flute and whistle as Frodo and Sam climb Mount Doom and as they return to the shire. Sissel sings \"Asea Aranion\", which was originally meant to score the Houses of Healing scene. The end title song, \"Into the West\", was composed by Shore with lyrics by Fran Walsh.Annie Lennox(formerly ofEurythmics) performed it and also received songwriting credit. The song was partially inspired by the premature death from cancer of a young New Zealand filmmaker namedCameron Duncanwho had befriended Peter Jackson. Release Theatrical After two years of attention and acclaim since the release ofThe Fellowship of the Ring, audience and critical anticipation for the final entry was extremely high. The world premiere was held in Wellington'sEmbassy Theatre, on 1 December 2003, and was attended by the director and many of the stars. It was estimated that over 100,000 people lined the streets, more than a quarter of the city's population. Home media The theatrical edition of the film was released onVHSand DVD on 25 May 2004 byNew Line Home Entertainment.The DVD was a 2-disc set with extras on the second disc. The theatrical DVD sets for the two previous films were released eight months after the films were released, butReturn of the King's set was completed in five because it did not have to market a sequel (the previous films had to wait for footage of their sequels to become available for a ten-minute preview). However, it contained a seven-minute trailer of the entire trilogy. The Return of the Kingfollowed the precedent set by its predecessors by releasing an Extended Edition (251 minutes) on 14 December 2004 in the UK and US, with new editing and added special effects and music, along with four commentaries and six hours of supplementary material.The final ten minutes comprises a listing of the charter members of the official fan club who had paid for three-year charter membership. A collectors' box set was also released, which included the Extended Set plus a sculpture of Minas Tirith and a bonus 50-minute music documentary DVD,Howard Shore: Creating The Lord of the Rings Symphony: A Composer's Journey Through Middle-earth. The DVD has aDTS-ESsoundtrack. The DVD also features two humorousEaster Eggs, one where Dominic Monaghan plays a German interviewer with Elijah Wood via satellite and another whereVince VaughnandBen Stillerattempt to convince Jackson to make a sequel, originally shown at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards. Both can be accessed via a Ring icon on the last page of both Disc 1 and 2's scene indexes. In August 2006, a Limited Edition ofThe Return of the Kingwas released. This Limited Edition contains two discs; the first is atwo-sided DVDcontaining both the Theatrical and Extended editions of the film. The second disc is a bonus disc that contains a new behind-the-scenes documentary. The theatricalBlu-rayrelease was released in the United States on the sixth of April 2010, though only as part of the complete trilogy release disc.The individual Blu-ray disc ofThe Return of the Kingwas released on the fourteenth of September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy.The Extended Edition was released in the United States in June 2011.It has a runtime of 263 minutes. The Return of the Kingwas released inUltra HD Blu-rayon 30 November 2020 in the United Kingdom and on 1 December 2020 in the United States, along with the other films of the trilogy, including both the theatrical and the extended editions of the films. Reception Box office The Return of the Kingearned $377 million in the United States and Canada and $763.7 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.141 billion in its initial release.In the weekend of 20–22 February 2004, the film crossed the $1 billion mark,making it the second film in history to do so, afterTitanicin 1998. Worldwide, it is the27th highest-grossing film of all timewhen not adjusted for inflation,thehighest-grossing film of 2003,thesecond highest-grossing film of the 2000s, the highest-grossing entry inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy, and the highest-grossing film ever to be released byNew Line Cinema.It held the record asTime Warner's highest-grossing film worldwide for eight years until it was surpassed byHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2in 2011.Box Office Mojoestimates that the film had sold over 61 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run. In the US and Canada, it is the 27th highest-grossing film,the highest-grossing 2003 film,and the highest-grossing entry inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy.The film set an opening Wednesday record with $34 million.This record was first surpassed bySpider-Man 2in 2004 and ranks as the seventh largest Wednesday opening.Additionally, it was ranked as the highest December opening day, holding that record for less than a decade before getting dethroned byThe Hobbit: An Unexpected Journeyin 2012.The film opened a day earlier for a midnight showing and accounted for about $8 million. This was nearly twice the first-day total ofThe Fellowship of the Ring— which earned $18.2 million on its opening day in 2001 — as well as a significant increase overThe Two Towers— which earned $26.1 million on its debut in 2002. Part of the grosses came from the Trilogy Tuesday event, in which the Extended Editions of the two previous films were played on 16 December before the first midnight screening. For two years,The Return of the Kingwould hold the record for having the highest midnight screenings gross until 2005 when it was given toStar Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith.The film went on to make an opening weekend of $72.6 million making it the second-highest opening weekend for a New Line Cinema film, behindAustin Powers in Goldmember.In addition, it had the third largest opening weekend of that year, afterThe Matrix ReloadedandX2.With a total gross of $125.1 million, the film had the biggest five-day Wednesday opening of all time, surpassing the previous record held byStar Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.The next year, this record would be beaten byShrek 2.Its Friday-Sunday opening weekend was a record-high for December (first surpassed byI Am Legend).The film also set single-day records for Christmas Day and New Year's Day (both first surpassed byMeet the Fockers). Outside the US and Canada, it is the 17th highest-grossing film,the highest-grossing 2003 filmand the highest-grossing film of the series.On its first day (Wednesday, 17 December 2003), the film earned $23.5 million from 19 countriesand it set an opening-weekend record outside the US and Canada with $125.9 million during the five-day weekend as a whole. The combined total gross increased to $250.1 million, making it the highest worldwide opening weekend at the time, knocking outThe Matrix Revolutions.It set opening-day records in thirteen of them, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Greece, Switzerland, Scandinavia (as well as separately in Sweden, Finland, Norway and Denmark), Mexico, Chile and Puerto Rico.It set opening-weekend records in the United Kingdom ($26.5 million in five days), Germany, Spain, Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland. In Singapore, it surpassedFinding Nemoto become the country's top-grossing film.In New Zealand, where filming took place, the film set opening day, opening weekend, single-day, Friday gross, Saturday gross and Sunday gross records with $1.7 million in four days. The substantial increase in initial box office totals caused optimistic studio executives to forecast thatThe Return of the Kingwould surpassThe Two Towersin total earnings. If this proved to be true, then this would be the first blockbuster trilogy for each successive film to earn more at the box office than its predecessor, when all three films were blockbuster successes.The Return of the Kinghas helpedThe Lord of the Ringsfranchise to become the highest-grossing motion picture trilogy worldwide of all time with over $2.9 billion beating other notable series such as the originalStar Wars Trilogy, and became New Line's highest grossing release. Following subsequent reissues, the film has grossed $381.9 million in the United States and Canada and $769.2 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $1.151billion. These figures do not include income from DVD sales, TV rights, etc. It has been estimatedthat the gross income from non-box office sales and merchandise has been at least equal to the box office for all three films. If this is so, the total gross income for the trilogy would be in the region of $6 billion following an investment of $300 million ($426 million including marketing costs). Critical response On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes,The Return of the Kingholds an approval rating of 94% based on 282 reviews, with an average rating of 8.70/10. The website's critics consensus reads, \"Visually breathtaking and emotionally powerful,The Lord of the Rings - The Return of the Kingis a moving and satisfying conclusion to a great trilogy.\"Metacritic, which uses aweighted average, gives the film a score of 94 out of 100 based on 41 reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film a rare average grade of \"A+\" on an A+ to F scale,the highest grade in the trilogy. Alan Morrison ofEmpiregave the film a perfect score of five stars. In his review, he called the film \"the resounding climax to a landmark in cinema history\" and praised how Peter Jackson had \"kept the momentum of the series rolling on and on through the traditionally 'difficult' middle part and 'weak' finale, delivering a climax to the story that's neater and more affecting than what Tolkien managed on the printed page.\" Morrison also mentioned how fans of the films \"who have walked beside these heroes every step of the way on such a long journey deserve the emotional pay-off as well as the action peaks, and they will be genuinely touched as the final credits roll.\"Elvis MitchellforThe New York Timeslauded the acting, the craft of the technical crew, and Jackson's direction, describingThe Return of the Kingas \"a meticulous and prodigious vision made by a director who was not hamstrung by heavy use of computer special-effects imagery.\"Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesgave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying that it is \"such a crowning achievement, such a visionary use of all the tools of special effects, such a pure spectacle, that it can be enjoyed even by those who have not seen the first two films.\" Talking about the whole trilogy, Ebert said that he admired it \"more as a whole than in its parts\", and thatThe Return of the KingcertifiedThe Lord of the Ringsas \"a work of bold ambition in a time of cinematic timidity\".In his review forThe Times, James Christopher praisedThe Return of the Kingas \"everything a Ring fan could possibly wish for, and much more\", and describedThe Lord of the Ringsas \"the greatest film trilogy ever mounted, with some of the most amazing action sequences committed to celluloid\".Nev Pierce for theBBCgave the film five stars out of five, judging it to be the best chapter of the trilogy, since it combined \"the 'ooh' factor ofFellowshipwith the zippy action ofTowers\". Pierce describedThe Return of the Kingas \"Majestic, moving, and immense\", and \"an astonishing piece of storytelling\".Philip French, reviewing it forThe Observer, lauded the narrative force, the battle scenes, the language, and the visual style of the film, which he related to \"the swirling battle paintings ofAlbrecht Altdorfer\" and \"Claude Lorrain's elegiac paintings of maritime departures inspired by classical poets.\" French wrote about the whole trilogy \"Jackson'sLord of the Ringsis indeed a very fine achievement, moving, involving and, to many people, even inspiring. It redeems the debased cinematic notion of the epic.\" In her review forEntertainment Weekly,Lisa Schwarzbaumgave the film an A grade, and wrote \"The conclusion of Peter Jackson's masterwork is passionate and literate, detailed and expansive, and it's conceived with a risk-taking flair for old-fashioned movie magic at its most precious ... as he has done throughout, the director paces scenes of action, intimacy, and even panoramic, geographical grandeur ... with the control of a superb choreographer.\". Schwarzbaum also said of the whole series \"I can't think of another film trilogy that ends in such glory, or another monumental work of sustained storytelling that surges ahead with so much inventiveness and ardor.\"Richard CorlissofTimenamedThe Return of the Kingthe best film of the yearand described the whole trilogy as \"The film event of the millennium\".Joe Morgenstern, forThe Wall Street Journal, wrote \"Never has a filmmaker aimed higher, or achieved more. The third and last installment of the screen epic based on J.R.R. Tolkien's literary classic redefines -- steeply upward -- the very notion of a major motion picture.\"Peter Bradshaw, who had been less enthusiastic about the first two chapters of the trilogy,gaveThe Return of the Kingfour stars out of five in his review forThe Guardian, commenting \"I started the series an atheist and finished an agnostic\". Bradshaw wrote of the film \"Technically it really is superb\", and commented \"Hours after watching the film, I can close my eyes and see those incredible battle scenes pulsing and throbbing in my skull ... MaybeKurosawa'sbattles will one day be described as proto-Jacksonian\". Some critics had negative opinions of the film. Tom Charity observes inTime Out, \"Some story strands are crudely abbreviated; others fail to develop elements that were already well-established. Given the inordinate running time, it's hard to avoid the feeling that we've already been here, done this.\"Jonathan Romney noted inThe Independent, \"here's something not quite palatable about all these intrepid, largely beautiful Europeans boldly fending off the nameless, numberless hordes from the other side of the world, legions of dark-skinned sans-culottes with tribal drums. ... Aside from this, there's plenty to be offended by on an aesthetic level: the film's self-important solemnity, its hyperbolic over-insistence. ... here are no empty spaces, no gaps for thought, no real stimulus to the viewer's imagination. The film has no idea when to stop, either, with its multiple codas and final dying fall into beatific cosiness.\"And Antonia Quirke in theEvening Standardopined, \"Viggo Mortensen's Aragorn is the good king of the title, and while the actor may look fetching in a crown and cloak, he doesn't have half of the gravitas of Sean Bean's Boromir in the first film. Director Peter Jackson has been all but deified for his work on this particular ring cycle, but there is not much personality behind the camera here, merely rampant enthusiasm.\" The most common criticism ofThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingwas its running time, particularly the epilogue; even rave reviews for the film commented on its length.Joel SiegelofGood Morning Americasaid in his review for the film (which he gave an 'A'): \"If it didn't take forty-five minutes to end, it'd be my best picture of the year. As it is, it's just one of the great achievements in film history.\" In February 2004, a few months following release, the film was voted eighth onEmpire's100 Greatest Movies of All Time, compiled from readers' top ten lists. This forced the magazine to abandon its policy of only allowing films being older than a year to be eligible.In 2007,Total FilmnamedThe Return of the Kingthe third best film of the past decade (Total Film's publication time), behindThe MatrixandFight Club. Accolades The film was nominated for elevenAcademy Awards:Best Picture,Best Director,Best Adapted Screenplay,Best Original Score,Best Original Song,Best Visual Effects,Best Art Direction,Best Costume Design,Best Make-up,Best Sound MixingandBest Film Editing. At the76th Academy Awardsin 2004, the film won all the categories for which it was nominated and it shares the record for highest Academy Award totals along withTitanic(which also starred Bernard Hill) andBen-Hur, and holding the record for the highest clean sweep at the Oscars, surpassing the nine awards earned by bothGigiandThe Last Emperor.It was the first fantasy film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. It also was the last movie for 14 years to win the Academy Award for Best Picture without being chosen as one of the top ten films of the year by theNational Board of Review, until the release ofThe Shape of Waterin 2017. The film won fourGolden Globes(including Best Picture for Drama and Best Director),fiveBAFTAs, twoMTV Movie Awards, twoGrammy Awards, nineSaturn Awards, theNew York Film Critics Circleaward for Best Picture, theNebula Award for Best Script, and theHugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form. See also Notes References External links",
"Andrew Lesnie Andrew LesnieACSASC(1 January 1956 – 27 April 2015) was an Australiancinematographer. He was best known as the cinematographer forThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy(2001–2003) and its prequelThe Hobbittrilogy(2012–2014), both directed by New Zealand directorPeter Jackson. He received theAcademy Award for Best Cinematographyfor his work onThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ringin 2002. Early life Lesnie was born in Sydney, New South Wales, on 1 January 1956,the son of Shirley (Lithgow) and Allan Lesnie, who worked for the family's company, butcher suppliers Harry Lesnie Pty Ltd. He was educated atSydney Grammar School. Andrew was well liked and popular at school. Lesnie finished 6th form and hisHigher School Certificatein 1974.He started his career in 1978 as an assistant camera operator on the filmPatrick(1978) while he was still in school atAustralian Film, Television and Radio School(AFTRS).sd His first job after graduation in 1979 was as a cameraman on theLogie Award-winning Australian magazine-style afternoon TV showSimon Townsend's Wonder World. Simon Townsend gave Lesnie almost daily opportunities to develop his craft with little restriction over a wide variety of stories and situations, and to experiment with camera and lighting techniques in hundreds of locations and situations. After two years of working on the show, Lesnie moved on to numerous Australian film and television productions, including the mini-seriesBodyline. Later, he worked as a second camera assistant on the filmThe Killing of Angel Street(1981). Lesnie would then go on to develop his craft as he photographed films such asStations(1983),The Delinquents(1989),Temptation of the Monk(1993), andSpider and Rose(1994). Career Lesnie's work began receiving major attention after the release of the anthropomorphic pig storyBabe(1995) and its sequel,Babe: Pig in the City. He was director of photography onPeter Jackson'sLord of the Ringstrilogy, and received anOscarfor his work onThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ringin 2002. Since then, he filmed several other Jackson-directed films, includingKing KongandThe Lovely Bones, and also filmedThe Hobbitfilmsdirected by Jackson. The Lord of the Ringstrilogy (2001–03) Lesnie used motion picture camera companyArri'sArriflex 435,Arriflex 535, andArriCam Studio35mmfilm cameras for the trilogy. He usedCarl ZeissUltra Prime Lenses andKodak's 5279 (tungsten-balanced) film stock to photograph the films. Lesnie planned far ahead into the production withPeter Jacksonwith previsualisation programs to help establish frame sizes and angles, as well as construction of sets.During filming, Lesnie emphasised earthy colours in the makeup and wardrobe of the cast and extras. At the acceptance speech for his Oscar win forFellowship of the Ring, Lesnie dedicated his acceptance to chief lighting technicianBrian Bansgrove, who he described as a major contributor to the quality of the film's cinematography. The Hobbittrilogy (2012–14) For production, Lesnie usedRed Digital Cinema's Epic cameras as well asCarl ZeissUltra Prime Lenses to photograph the film.Jacksonand Lesnie decided to shoot the film in 3D with as many as 15stereoscopiccamera rigs (2 cameras each) with3ality.They also decided to shoot the film in an uncommon frame rate of 48 frames per second versus the industry standard of 24 frames per second. This would make Lesnie the first cinematographer to employ such a method that claims to induce more clarity, reduce motion blur, and make 3D easier to watch. The Water Diviner Lesnie's final film,The Water Diviner, directed by and starringRussell Crowe, was released in Australia in December 2014 and in America in April 2015, one week before his death. Personal life and death Lesnie lived on Sydney's north coast. He was a member of both theAustralian Cinematographers Societyand theAmerican Society of Cinematographers. Lesnie died of a heart attack in his Sydney home on 27 April 2015, after having suffered from a heart condition for half a year. Filmography Film Documentary film Short film Feature film Television TV movies Awards and nominations References External links"
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"List of Academy Award records Thislist ofAcademy Awardrecordsis current as of the96th Academy Awards, with the ceremony taking place on March 10, 2024. Most awards or nominations Awards for Acting and Directing Debuts These people won Academy Awards for their debut performances in film: These people won Academy Awards for their directing debuts: Big Five Winners Three films have received theBig Five Academy Awards:Best Picture,Director,Actor,Actress, and Screenplay (OriginalorAdapted; all won for Best Adapted Screenplay). Most Consecutive Awards in Each Category Academy Award firsts United States Doraibu mai kā(Japanese) Age-related records Film records Acting records Shortest and Longest Academy Award Winning and Nominated Performances Miscellaneous records Oscar speeches Tied winners There have been six two-way ties Clean sweep The following films with at least two nominations won all of their categories. See also References External links",
"The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingis a 2003epichigh fantasyadventure filmdirected byPeter Jacksonfrom a screenplay byFran Walsh,Philippa Boyens, and Jackson. It is based on 1955'sThe Return of the King, the third volume of the novelThe Lord of the RingsbyJ. R. R. Tolkien. The sequel to 2002'sThe Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, the film is the third and final instalment inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy. It features an ensemble cast includingElijah Wood,Ian McKellen,Liv Tyler,Viggo Mortensen,Sean Astin,Cate Blanchett,John Rhys-Davies,Bernard Hill,Billy Boyd,Dominic Monaghan,Orlando Bloom,Hugo Weaving,Miranda Otto,David Wenham,Karl Urban,John Noble,Andy Serkis,Ian Holm, andSean Bean. Continuing the plot of the previous film,Frodo,SamandGollummake their final way toward Mount Doom to destroy theOne Ring, unaware of Gollum's true intentions, whileMerry,Pippin,Gandalf,Aragorn,Legolas,Gimliand their allies join forces againstSauronand his legions fromMordor.",
"legions fromMordor. The Return of the Kingwas financed and distributed by American studioNew Line Cinema, butfilmed and editedentirely in Jackson's native New Zealand,concurrentlywith the other two parts of the trilogy. It premiered on 1 December 2003 at theEmbassy TheatreinWellingtonand was then released on 17 December 2003 in the US and 18 December 2003 in New Zealand. The film was acclaimed by critics and audiences, who considered it a landmark in filmmaking and the fantasy film genre, and a satisfying conclusion to the trilogy, with praise for the visual effects, performances, action sequences, direction, screenplay,musical score, costume design, emotional depth, scope, and story. It grossed over $1.1 billion worldwide, becoming thehighest-grossing film of 2003, thesecond-highest-grossing film of all timeduring its run, and the highest-grossing film ever released by New Line Cinema. Like the previous films in the trilogy,The Return of the Kingis widely recognised as one of thegreatest and most",
"and most influential films ever made. The filmreceived numerous accolades; at the76th Academy Awards, it won all eleven awards for which it was nominated, includingBest Picture, the first fantasy film to do so and tying with 1959'sBen-Hurand 1997'sTitanicas themovie with the most Academy Award wins. It also became the second film series whose entries have all wonBest Visual Effects, after theoriginalStar Warstrilogy. Plot ThehobbitDéagol discovers theOne Ringin a river while fishing with his cousinSméagol. The Ring immediately ensnares Sméagol's mind, and he kills his cousin for it. Increasingly corrupted physically and mentally, he retreats into theMisty Mountainsand becomes known as Gollum. Centuries later, during theWar of the Ring,GandalfleadsAragorn,Legolas,Gimli, and KingThéodenofRohantoIsengard, where they reunite withMerryandPippin. Gandalf retrieves Saruman'spalantír, and the group returns to Edoras to celebratetheir victory at Helm's Deep.Pippin looks into the palantír, seeingSauronanda burning",
"burning tree. Gandalf deduces that the enemy plans to attackGondor's capitalMinas Tirith; he rides there to warn Gondor's corrupt stewardDenethor. Pippin, who accompanies him, swears fealty to Denethor, whose now-dead heirBoromirhad saved his life;on Gandalf's instruction, Pippin triggers the lighting ofthe beacons, which call for help from Rohan. Frodo, who carries the Ring, andSamcontinue their journey towardsMordor, unaware that Gollum, now their guide, plans to betray them and take the Ring for himself. The trio witness theWitch-king of Angmar, lord of the nineNazgûl, setting off towards Gondor with his army ofOrcs. Gollum frames Sam for eating food supplies and desiring the Ring; Frodo is deceived and orders Sam to go home. As King Théoden gathers his army,Elrondtells Aragorn thatArwenis dying, having refused to leave Middle-earth. Elrond gives AragornAndúril, reforged from the shards of KingElendil's swordNarsil, and urges him to claim Gondor's throne, to which he is heir. Aragorn travels thePaths of",
"travels thePaths of the Deadwith Legolas and Gimli and pledges to release the ghosts there from their curse should they come to Gondor's aid. Gollum tricks Frodo into venturing alone into the giant spiderShelob's lair. Frodo narrowly escapes and confronts Gollum, who falls down a chasm after a scuffle. Shelob discovers, paralyses, and binds Frodo, but is wounded and driven away by a returning Sam. Sam mourns Frodo's apparent death and takes the Ring, but then realizes his mistake when Orcs take Frodo captive. He rescues Frodo within Mordor and the two continue towardsMount Doom. Denethor sends his younger son,Faramir, on a suicide charge. Faramir returns gravely wounded; believing him dead, Denethor falls into madness. Gandalf marshals the defenders, but the enormous Orc army breaks into the city. Denethor attempts to burn himself and Faramir on apyre, but Pippin alerts Gandalf and they rescue Faramir. Denethor, set ablaze, jumps to his death. Théoden arrives and leads his army against the Orcs. Despite",
"the Orcs. Despite initial success in theensuing battle, they are decimated by theOliphaunt-ridingHaradrimand the Witch-king mortally wounds Théoden; however, his nieceÉowynslays the Witch-king with Merry's help before Théoden dies in his niece's arms. Aragorn arrives with his Army of the Dead, who overcome Sauron's forces. Their oath fulfilled, the Dead are released from their curse. Aragorn decides to march on Mordor to distract Sauron from Frodo and Sam; all of Sauron's remaining forces marchto meet Aragorn's diversion, allowing the hobbits to reach Mount Doom. Gollum, having survived his fall, attacks, but Frodo enters the mountain. There, he succumbs to the Ring's power, putting it on his finger. Gollum bites Frodo's finger off and reclaims the Ring, leading to a scuffle before they stumble off the ledge. Frodo clings to the ledge and Sam pulls him up while Gollum falls into the lava with the Ring, destroying it and vanquishing Sauron once and for all. The lands of Mordor collapse into the earth,",
"into the earth, destroying the Orc army. Frodo and Sam narrowly escape the erupting Mount Doom and are saved by Gandalf with the help ofeagles. The surviving Fellowship is happily reunited in Minas Tirith. Aragorn is crowned King of Gondor and marries Arwen; they and everyone else present bow to the hobbits. The hobbits return home to theShire, where Sam marries Rosie Cotton. Four years later, Frodo, still plagued bytraumaand the pain of his wound inflicted by the Witch-king, departs Middle-earth for theUndying Landswith his uncleBilbo, Gandalf, and the Elves. He leaves Sam theRed Book of Westmarch, which details their adventures. Cast Like the preceding films in the trilogy,The Return of the Kinghas anensemble cast,and some of the cast and their respective characters include: There arecameosfromPeter Jackson,Richard Taylor, Gino Acevedo,Rick PorrasandAndrew Lesnieon the Corsair ship, although all of them but Jackson appear only in the Extended Edition. Jackson also has another unofficial cameo, as Sam's",
"cameo, as Sam's hand stepping into view when he confronts Shelob.Sean Astin's daughter played Sam and Rosie's older daughter Elanor in the last scene of the film; in the same scene,Sarah McLeod's daughter plays their younger son. Jackson's children also cameo as Gondorian extras, whileChristian Riversplayed a Gondorian soldier guarding the Beacon Pippin lights, and is later seen wounded.Royd Tolkiencameos as a Ranger inOsgiliath,while in the Extended EditionHoward Shoreappears as a celebrating soldier at Edoras. Additionally, four of the designers ofThe Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Gameare featured as Rohirrim at the Pelennor.At the end of the film, during the closing credits, each cast member gets a sketched portrait morphed with the real photograph beside their name, which were sketched byAlan Lee, an idea suggested byIan McKellen. Comparison to the source material As with all of Peter Jackson's movie adaptions ofThe Lord of the Rings, many events, timelines, and geographic distances are compressed or",
"are compressed or simplified. Most major events from the books are included, though some are significantly altered. Some events and details seen in the film are not found in the books. The film version ofThe Return of the Kingcontains major scenes from the middle of Tolkien'sThe Two Towers, such as the attack by Shelob and thepalantírsubplot, as Jackson realigned events of the film to fit the timeline from the book's Appendices, rather than theinterlaced order of the main narrative.However, the plot of the second half ofBook IIIis either completely omitted (chapter \"The Road to Isengard\") or only shown in one scene (chapter \"The Voice of Saruman\").Saruman's murder byGríma(seen only in the Extended Edition) is moved into the Isengard visit because of the cutting of theScouring of the Shire. The basis of Elrond and Arwen's subplot arguing about Arwen's fate is derived from the Appendices, but it is largely extended in the film, as is Arwen and Elrond's relevance to the story. In the film, overwhelming grief",
"overwhelming grief over the death of Boromir has driven Denethor to despair, and he has given up any hope of defeating Sauron before Gandalf arrives in Minas Tirith. Thus, the muster of Gondor is absent from the film. In the book, he has already ordered the lighting of the beacons before Gandalf's arrival, while he refuses to light them in the film, and the sequence where Pippin secretly lights them himself was invented for the movie. The film only hints at Denethor's use of thepalantírwhich drives him mad, information revealed in the Pyre scene, which includes Shadowfax and is more violent than the book. Aware of the very long distance between Rath Dínen and the front of the out-thrust battlement, Jackson has Denethor jump off the Citadel in addition to burning himself on the Pyre, one of the earliest changes. The muster of Rohan, and the subplot in which the Rohirrim are aided by the primitiveDrúedainduring their journey to the besieged Gondor are excised from the film. TheRed Arrowbrought by a messenger",
"by a messenger from Gondor to ask for Rohan's aid is absent. Éowyn's presence on the battlefield is unknown to the reader until she takes off her helmet, but in the film the audience is aware, as it would have been difficult to haveMiranda Ottoplaying a man.When hope seems lost, Gandalf comforts Pippin by telling him of the Undying Lands, based on a descriptive passage in the book's final chapter. The film altered the circumstances of Théoden's death; his death speech, in which he names Éomer the new king in the book, is trimmed and delivered to Éowyn instead of Merry, with an earlier scene in the Extended Edition even implying that Éowyn is next in line for the throne. Théoden's rallying speech (\"To death!\") before the initial charge in the film is spoken by Éomer in the book when he believes that both Théoden and Éowyn have been killed in combat with the Witch King. The Extended Edition presents shortened scenes from the book's chapters in theHouses of Healing: The Warden, the talk ofAthelas, the comical",
"the comical conversation with the herb-master, the womanIorethand her saying about a King's healing hands and the subsequent realising of Aragorn's true identity are left out altogether. The romance that develops between Éowyn and Faramir during their recoveries in the Houses of Healing is largely cut, presumably to keep the focus on Aragorn and Arwen; the subplot is briefly referenced in the Extended Edition, with a scene where the two hold hands. Gollum's fall into the lava of Mount Doom was rewritten for the film, as the writers felt that simply having Gollum slip and fall was anticlimactic. Originally, an even greater deviation was planned: Frodo would heroically push Gollum over the ledge to destroy him and the Ring, but the production team realised that that would make it look as if Frodo was murdering Gollum. Instead, they had Frodo and Gollum struggle for possession of the Ring. In addition to the absent footage from the film are the other major attacks by Sauron on various regions of Middle-earth,",
"of Middle-earth, referenced only briefly in the main text ofThe Return of the King,and expanded upon in the Appendices; the invasion of Rohan by the Orcs ofMoria, the attacks on Lothlórien and theWoodland RealmofThranduilby the forces ofDol Guldur, and the attack on Dale and theLonely Mountainby a force ofEasterlings, events hinted at in a comment by Legolas in the book. There are several changes in the Battle of the Black Gate: Merry is not present there in the book, Pippin does not kill a troll as he does in the novel (instead, Aragorn fights one), the eagles fight and defeat some of the mounted Nazgûl, and Aragorn kills theMouth of Sauronin the extended edition of the film but not in the book. Although the film runs for another approximately 20 minutes after the climactic Downfall of Barad-dûr, many following events from the book are omitted or altered in the film. Aragorn's coronation takes place in form of a great ceremony in the Citadel of Minas Tirith, opposed to the book, where Aragorn is crowned in",
"is crowned in his tent on the Pelennor Fields before entering the city. Omitted entirely are the camp at theField of Cormallen, Aragorn's business in Minas Tirith, Aragorn and Arwen's wedding,GaladrielandCelebornbeing present at the ceremonies and their subsequent travelling along with the company, Théoden's funeral at Edoras, the complete journey back to theShirewith stops at Rivendell and Bree, and the Scouring of the Shire, which was seen by the screenwriters as anticlimactic.The film also left out the character epilogues: For example, Samwise Gamgee stayed in the Shire when Gandalf and Frodo went to Valinor, during which time he would make changes and additions to theRed Book of Westmarch, which he inherited from Frodo, just as in the film, in which he would add a section titled \"Herb Lore of The Shire\", which was a section on Pipeweed, the plant Hobbits and other folk of Middle Earth, like Gandalf, would smoke through pipes, as well as various poems. Shortly after his contribution to the Red Book, he",
"to the Red Book, he served seven consecutive seven year terms as mayor of the Shire, during which he had children with Rosie Cotton who each took the last name of \"Gardner\" after their father's planting of the Mallorn Tree that replaced the Party Tree, which was destroyed during the Scouring. He did, however, go to Valinor after Rosie died, and before he did, he gave the Red Book to Elanor, one of his daughters. The books also expanded on Aragorn's time as king of Gondor andArnorpost-reuniting, and reveals that Arwen accepted a life as a mortal, and died shortly after Aragorn. Merry and Pippin also returned to the Shire, but unlike Sam and Frodo, they didn't eventually journey to Valinor. Merry inherited his father's title as \"Master of Buckland\" and despite the perils he and Pippin endured that almost cost them their lives, Merry still had his adventurous spirit. He also reviewed many gifts from Eomer and his sister, Eowyn, and helped the Hobbits learn more about lands beyond the Shire through scholarly",
"through scholarly articles. He even returned to Rivendell multiple times. When he and Pippin died, they were buried beside their friends, Aragorn and Arwen in Minas Tirith, where they spent some of their final days after a stint in Rohan. Legolas and Gimli make and keep promises in the books to show the other important places to them: first, Gimli shows Legolas the caverns of Aglarond, which Legolas is stunned by, then they walk in the Fangorn Forest, where they then make their way to Isengard where they bid farewell to the Fellowship, after which, they would each go back to their own lands, with Gimli even founding a Dwarven colony in the Glittering Caves. They would, however, reunite to help with the rebuilding and improving of Minas Tirith. They would be the last of the Fellowship to sail for Valinor, departing after the death of their friend Aragorn, Legolas would build a ship for him and Gimli to sail to Valinor. Lastly, Frodo would serve as Deputy Mayor of The Shire until a wound caused by a stab from",
"by a stab from the Witch King which flared up every year on the anniversary of said stabbing forced him to resign, after which, he would sail to Valinor to receive healing and peace for the rest of his days. Production The production ofThe Lord of the Ringsseries was the first where three separate entries were written and shot simultaneously (excludingpick up shoots). Peter Jackson foundThe Return of the Kingthe easiest of the films to make, because it contained the climax of the story.The Return of the Kingwas originally the second of two planned films underMiramax Filmsfrom January 1997 to August 1998,and more or less in its finished structure as the first film was to end with the Battle of Helm's Deep inThe Two Towers.Filming took place under multiple units across New Zealand, between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000, with pick up shoots for six weeks in 2003 before the film's release. Design Jackson'sMiddle-earthwas primarily designed by Alan Lee andJohn Howe, who had earlier illustrated editions of",
"editions of Tolkien's books. It was created byWeta Workshop, who handled all the trilogy's weapons, armour, miniatures, prosthetics, and creatures; the Art Department built the sets. Richard Taylor headed Weta, whileGrant MajorandDan Hennahorganised the planning and building. The city of Minas Tirith, glimpsed briefly in both the previous two films, is seen fully in this film, and with it the Gondorian civilisation. The enormous soundstage was built at Dry Creek Quarry, outsideWellington, from theHelm's Deepset. That set's gate became Minas Tirith's second, while the Hornburg exterior became that of the Extended Edition's scene where Gandalf confronts the Witch-king. New structures included the 8m tall Gate, with broken and unbroken versions, with a working opening and closing mechanism, with its engravings inspired by theBaptistry of San Giovanni. There were also four levels of streets with heraldic motifs for every house, as inspired bySiena. The Citadel's exterior was in the Stone Street Studios backlot,",
"Studios backlot, usingforced perspective. It contained the witheredWhite Tree, built from polystyrene by Brian Massey and the Greens Department with real branches, influenced by ancient and gnarled Lebaneseolivetrees. The interior was within a three-storey former factory in Wellington, its colours influenced byCharlemagne's Chapel, with a throne for Denethor carved from stone, and polystyrene statues of past kings. The Gondorian armour is designed to represent an evolution from theNúmenóreansof the first film's prologue, with a simplified sea bird motif. 16th-century Italian and German armour served as inspiration,while civilians wear silver and blacks as designed by Ngila Dickson, continuing an ancient/medievalMediterranean Basinlook. Minas Morgul, the Staircase and Tower of Cirith Ungol as well as Shelob's Lair were designed by Howe, with the Morgul road using forced perspective into a bluescreened miniature. Howe's design of Minas Morgul was inspired from the experience of having awisdom toothpulled out:",
"toothpulled out: in the same way, the Orcs have put their twisted designs on to a former Gondorian city.Cirith Ungol was based on Tolkien's design, but when Richard Taylor felt it as \"boring\", it was redesigned with more tipping angles.The interior set, like Minas Tirith, was built as a few multiple levels that numerous camera takes would suggest a larger structure. The third film introduces the enormous spider Shelob. Shelob was designed in 1999,with the body based on atunnelweb spiderand the head with numerous growths selected by Peter Jackson's children from one of many sculpts. Jackson himself took great joy in planning the sequence, being anarachnophobehimself.Shelob's Lair was inspired by sandstone and sculpted from the existing Caverns of Isengard set. The Return of the Kingalso brings into focus the Dead Men of Dunharrow and the evil Haradrim from the south of Middle-earth, men who ride themûmakil. The Dead Men have a Celtic influence, as well as lines and symmetry to reflect their morbid state,while",
"morbid state,while their underground city is influenced byPetra.The Haradrim were highly influenced by African culture, until Philippa Boyens expressed concern over the possibility of offensiveness, so the finished characters instead bear influence fromKiribati, in terms of weaving armour from bamboo, and the Aztecs, in use of jewellery. Also built was a single deadmûmak.Other minor cultures include the Corsairs, with an exotic, swarthy look, and the Grey Havens, Elven structures adapted to stone, with influence fromJ. M. W. Turnerpaintings. Principal photography The Return of the Kingwas shot during 2000, though Astin's coverage from Gollum's attempt to separate Frodo and Sam was filmed on 24 November 1999, when floods inQueenstowninterrupted the focus onThe Fellowship of the Ring.Some of the earliest scenes shot for the film were in fact shot last.Hobbiton, home of the Hobbits, was shot in January 2000 with early scenes fromThe Fellowship of the Ring, with the exterior shot at aMatamatafarm, while interior",
"while interior scenes were shot at Stone Street Studios in Wellington,shared with the Grey Havens sequence. Due to the high emotions of filming the scene, the cast were in despair when they were required to shoot it three times, due to a continuity flaw in Astin's costume, and then negatives producing out-of-focus reels.Also shared with the previous films was the Rivendell interior in May. The Battle of the Black Gate was filmed in Aprilat theRangipo Desert, a former minefield.New Zealand soldiers were hired as extras while guides were on the lookout for unexploded mines. Also a cause for concern were Monaghan and Boyd's scale doubles during a charge sequence. In the meantime, Wood, Astin and Serkis filmed atMount Ruapehufor the Mount Doom exteriors. In particular, they spent two hours shooting Sam lifting Frodo on to his back with cross-camera coverage. Scenes shot in June were the Paths of the Dead across various locations, includingPutangirua Pinnacles.In July the crew shot some Shelob scenes, and in",
"scenes, and in August and September time was spent on the scenes in Isengard. Monaghan and Boyd tried numerous takes of their entrance, stressing the word \"weed\" as they smokedpipe-weed. Christopher Lee spent his part of his scene mostly alone, though McKellen and Hill arrived on the first day for a few lines to help. Edoras exteriors were shot in October. The Ride of the Rohirrim, where Théoden leads the charge into the Orc army, was filmed inTwizelwith 150 extras on horseback. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields has more extensive use ofcomputer-generated imagery, in contrast to the more extensive use of live action in theBattle of Helm's Deepin the second film. Also filmed were the attempts by Faramir to recaptureOsgiliath,as were scenes in the city itself.At this point production was very hectic, with Jackson moving around ten units per day, and production finally wrapped on the Minas Tirith sets, as well as second units shooting parts of the siege. Just as the Hobbit actors' first scene was hiding from a",
"was hiding from a Ringwraith under a tree, their last scene was thebluescreenedreaction shot of the inhabitants of Minas Tirith bowing to them. Pick-ups The 2003 pick-ups were filmed in the Wellington studio car park, with many parts of sets and blue-screens used to finish off scenes, which the design team had to work 24 hours to get the right sets ready for a particular day.The shoot continued for two months, and became an emotional time of farewells for the cast and crew. The film has the most extensive list of re-shoots given for the trilogy. Jackson took his time to re-shoot Aragorn's coronation, rushed into a single day under the supervision of second unit directorGeoff Murphyon 21 December 2000. Jackson also re-shot scenes in and around Mount Doom,and Théoden's death, right after Bernard Hill was meant to wrap. There was also the new character of Gothmog. This was a major new design addition for the film, as Jackson felt the Mordor Orcs were \"pathetic\" compared to theUruk-haiof the second film after",
"second film after watching assembly cuts, and thus Weta Workshop created grotesque new \"über Orcs\" as antagonists for the audience to focus on. Rivers redesigned the Witch-king; all his scenes were re-shot, because of confusion from non-readers over whether or not Sauron was on the battlefield. With the positive response to Bloom, Legolas was given a fight with amûmak,and Shore appeared in a cameo during Legolas and Gimli's drinking game at Edoras.The final scenes shot were Aragorn escaping the Skull avalanche, and Frodo finishing his book. The cast also received various props associated with their characters, althoughJohn Rhys-Daviesburned his final Gimli prosthetic.Viggo Mortensenheadbuttedthe stunt team goodbye.Pick-ups ended on 27 June 2003. Scenes shot afterwards included various live-action shots of Riders for the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and a reaction shot of Serkis as Gollum finally realises Frodo intends to destroy the Ring, shot in Jackson's house.For the Extended DVD, in March 2004 Jackson",
"March 2004 Jackson created a few shots of skulls rolling over for the avalanche scene; this was the final piece of footage ever shot for the trilogy, and Jackson noted that it must be the first time a director had shot scenes for a film after it had already won the Oscar. Editing Post-productionbegan in November 2002, with the completion of the 4½ hour assembly cut of the film thatAnnie Collinshad been completing over 2001 and 2002, from 4-hour dailies. For example, Théoden leading the charge went from 150 minutes of takes to a finished 90 seconds.Jackson reunited with longtime collaboratorJamie Selkirkto edit the final film. LikeThe Two Towers, they would have to deal with multiple storylines, and Jackson paid attention to each storyline at a time before deciding where to intercut. Most importantly they spent three weeks working on the last 45 minutes of the film,for appropriate intercutting and leaving out scenes such as the Mouth of Sauron, and the fates of characters like Legolas, Gimli, Éowyn and",
"Gimli, Éowyn and Faramir.The film inherited scenes originally planned to go into the second film, including the reforging ofNarsil, Gollum's backstory, and Saruman's exit. But the Saruman scene posed a structural problem: killing off the second film's villain when the plot has Sauron as the main villain.Despite pick-ups and dubs, the scene was cut, causing controversy with fans and Saruman actor Christopher Lee, as well as a petition to restore the scene.Lee nonetheless contributed to the DVDs and was at theCopenhagenpremiere, although he said he would never understand the reason for the cut and his relationship with Jackson was chilly.They would, however, later reconcile upon Lee's casting in Jackson'sHobbitfilms. Jackson only had a lock on 5 out of 10 reels, and had to churn out 3 reels in 3 weeks to help finish the film. It was finally completed on 12 November 2003.Jackson never had a chance to view the film in full due to the hectic schedule, and only saw the film from beginning to end on 1 December at",
"on 1 December at the Wellington premiere; according toElijah Wood, his response was \"yup, it's good, pretty good\". Visual effects The Return of the Kingcontains 1,489 visual effect shots, nearly three times the number from the first film and almost twice that of the second. As with the two previous films,Jim Rygielserved as the visual effects supervisor. Visual effects work began withAlan Leeand Mark Lewis compositing various photographs of New Zealand landscape to create the digital arena of thePelennor Fieldsin November 2002. Jackson and Rivers used computers to plan the enormous battle up until February 2003, when the shots were shown to Weta Digital. To their astonishment, 60 planned shots had gone up to 250, and 50,000 characters were now 200,000.Nevertheless, they pressed on, soon delivering 100 shots a week, 20 a day, and as the deadline neared within the last two months, often working until 2 am. For the battle, they recorded 450 motions for theMASSIVEdigital horses (though deaths were animated), and",
"were animated), and also had to deal with late additions in the film, such as Trolls bursting through Minas Tirith's gates as well as the creatures that pull Grond to the gate,and redoing a shot of twomûmakilÉomer takes down that had originally taken six months in two days. On a similar note of digital creatures, Shelob's head sculpture was scanned by a Canadian company for 10 times more detail than Weta had previously been able to capture. Like the previous films, there are also extensive morphs between digital doubles for the actors. This time, there was Sam falling off Shelob, where the morph takes place as Astin hits the ground. Legolas attacking amûmakrequired numerous transitions to and fro, and Gollum's shots of him having recovered the One Ring and falling into the Crack of Doom were fully animated.For the latter scene, as well as the scene in which Mount Doom erupts and Frodo and Sam escape from the volcano, the help of the companyNext Limit Technologiesand their softwareRealFlowwas required to",
"required to simulate thelava. The King of the Dead is played by an actor in prosthetics, and his head occasionally morphs to a more skull-like digital version, depending on the character's mood. The Mouth of Sauron also had his mouth enlarged 200% for unsettling effect. The Return of the Kingalso has practical effects. In the Pyre of Denethor sequence, as the Steward of Gondor throws Pippin out of the Tomb,John Noblethrew asize doublenamed Fon onto a prostrateBilly Boyd, who immediately pushed his head into camera to complete the illusion. A few burning torches were also reflected off a plate of glass and into the camera for when Gandalf's horse Shadowfax kicks Denethor onto the pyre. Because of Jackson's requirement for complete representation of his fantasy world, numerous miniatures were built, such as 1:72 scale miniature of Minas Tirith, which rises 7m high and is 6.5m indiameter. 1:14 scale sections of the city were also required, and the Extended Edition scene of the collapsing City of the Dead has",
"of the Dead has 80,000 small skulls, amounting in total to a single cubic meter.The miniatures team concluded in November with the Black Gate, after 1000 days of shooting, and the final digital effects shot done was the Ring's destruction, on 25 November. Sound effects The Sound department spent the early part of the year searching for the right sounds. ATasmanian devilwas used to create Shelob's shriek, which in turn gave inspiration for Weta's animators, while themûmakilsound is the beginning and end of a lion roar. Human screams and a donkey screech were mixed into Sauron's fall and broken glass was used for the collapsing sounds. For missile trading during Minas Tirith's siege, construction workers dropped actual 2 ton stone blocks previously lifted by a construction crane. Mixing began at a new studio on 15 August, although unfinished building work caused some annoyances.The mixers finished on 15 November, after three months of non-stop work. Score The music, as for the rest of the trilogy, was composed",
"was composed by Shore. He watched the assembly cut of the film,and had to write seven minutes of music per day to keep up with the schedule.The score sees the full introduction of the Gondor theme, originally heard during Boromir's speeches at theCouncil of ElrondinThe Fellowship of the Ringand at Osgiliath inThe Two Towers'Extended Edition. Shore also used the Gondor theme with the new ascending coda (which is unique to this film) in his score for the trailer of the film. The score features theLondon Philharmonic Orchestra,London Voices, theLondon Oratory School Scholaand featured vocal soloists. The score is the most expansive of the three: scoring effectively the entire movie length, not including additional music written for the trailer and various alternate versions released to the public. It also uses the biggest forces in the series: sections of the score call for two sets of timpani, eight trumpets(and possibly a similar increase in the size of the horn, trombone and tuba section, as well), 85",
"as well), 85 singers in the mixed choirwith additional players for all-male and all-female sections, over fifty in the boy choir and many instrumentalist \"bands\" playing Celtic and eastern instruments such as tin whistle or pan flute, on stage or off of it.One piece of music required an instrument invented and crafted especially for the film: a fiddle with four pairs of strings instead of single strings. Actors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen and Liv Tyler also contributed to the film's music. Boyd sings on screen as Faramir charges towards Osgiliath, Mortensen sings on screen as he is crowned King, and in the Extended Edition Tyler sings as Aragorn heals Éowyn.Renée Fleming, Ben Del Maestro,Sissel KyrkjebøandJames Galwaycontribute to the soundtrack as featured soloists. Fleming sings as Arwen has a vision of her son, and when Gollum recovers the One Ring. Del Maestro sings when Gandalf lights his staff to save fleeing Gondorian soldiers from Osgiliath as the Nazgûl attack and as the eagles arrive at the Black",
"arrive at the Black Gates. Galway plays the flute and whistle as Frodo and Sam climb Mount Doom and as they return to the shire. Sissel sings \"Asea Aranion\", which was originally meant to score the Houses of Healing scene. The end title song, \"Into the West\", was composed by Shore with lyrics by Fran Walsh.Annie Lennox(formerly ofEurythmics) performed it and also received songwriting credit. The song was partially inspired by the premature death from cancer of a young New Zealand filmmaker namedCameron Duncanwho had befriended Peter Jackson. Release Theatrical After two years of attention and acclaim since the release ofThe Fellowship of the Ring, audience and critical anticipation for the final entry was extremely high. The world premiere was held in Wellington'sEmbassy Theatre, on 1 December 2003, and was attended by the director and many of the stars. It was estimated that over 100,000 people lined the streets, more than a quarter of the city's population. Home media The theatrical edition of the film was",
"of the film was released onVHSand DVD on 25 May 2004 byNew Line Home Entertainment.The DVD was a 2-disc set with extras on the second disc. The theatrical DVD sets for the two previous films were released eight months after the films were released, butReturn of the King's set was completed in five because it did not have to market a sequel (the previous films had to wait for footage of their sequels to become available for a ten-minute preview). However, it contained a seven-minute trailer of the entire trilogy. The Return of the Kingfollowed the precedent set by its predecessors by releasing an Extended Edition (251 minutes) on 14 December 2004 in the UK and US, with new editing and added special effects and music, along with four commentaries and six hours of supplementary material.The final ten minutes comprises a listing of the charter members of the official fan club who had paid for three-year charter membership. A collectors' box set was also released, which included the Extended Set plus a sculpture",
"plus a sculpture of Minas Tirith and a bonus 50-minute music documentary DVD,Howard Shore: Creating The Lord of the Rings Symphony: A Composer's Journey Through Middle-earth. The DVD has aDTS-ESsoundtrack. The DVD also features two humorousEaster Eggs, one where Dominic Monaghan plays a German interviewer with Elijah Wood via satellite and another whereVince VaughnandBen Stillerattempt to convince Jackson to make a sequel, originally shown at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards. Both can be accessed via a Ring icon on the last page of both Disc 1 and 2's scene indexes. In August 2006, a Limited Edition ofThe Return of the Kingwas released. This Limited Edition contains two discs; the first is atwo-sided DVDcontaining both the Theatrical and Extended editions of the film. The second disc is a bonus disc that contains a new behind-the-scenes documentary. The theatricalBlu-rayrelease was released in the United States on the sixth of April 2010, though only as part of the complete trilogy release disc.The individual",
"disc.The individual Blu-ray disc ofThe Return of the Kingwas released on the fourteenth of September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy.The Extended Edition was released in the United States in June 2011.It has a runtime of 263 minutes. The Return of the Kingwas released inUltra HD Blu-rayon 30 November 2020 in the United Kingdom and on 1 December 2020 in the United States, along with the other films of the trilogy, including both the theatrical and the extended editions of the films. Reception Box office The Return of the Kingearned $377 million in the United States and Canada and $763.7 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.141 billion in its initial release.In the weekend of 20–22 February 2004, the film crossed the $1 billion mark,making it the second film in history to do so, afterTitanicin 1998. Worldwide, it is the27th highest-grossing film of all timewhen not adjusted for inflation,thehighest-grossing film of",
"film of 2003,thesecond highest-grossing film of the 2000s, the highest-grossing entry inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy, and the highest-grossing film ever to be released byNew Line Cinema.It held the record asTime Warner's highest-grossing film worldwide for eight years until it was surpassed byHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2in 2011.Box Office Mojoestimates that the film had sold over 61 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run. In the US and Canada, it is the 27th highest-grossing film,the highest-grossing 2003 film,and the highest-grossing entry inThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy.The film set an opening Wednesday record with $34 million.This record was first surpassed bySpider-Man 2in 2004 and ranks as the seventh largest Wednesday opening.Additionally, it was ranked as the highest December opening day, holding that record for less than a decade before getting dethroned byThe Hobbit: An Unexpected Journeyin 2012.The film opened a day earlier for a midnight showing and accounted for",
"and accounted for about $8 million. This was nearly twice the first-day total ofThe Fellowship of the Ring— which earned $18.2 million on its opening day in 2001 — as well as a significant increase overThe Two Towers— which earned $26.1 million on its debut in 2002. Part of the grosses came from the Trilogy Tuesday event, in which the Extended Editions of the two previous films were played on 16 December before the first midnight screening. For two years,The Return of the Kingwould hold the record for having the highest midnight screenings gross until 2005 when it was given toStar Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith.The film went on to make an opening weekend of $72.6 million making it the second-highest opening weekend for a New Line Cinema film, behindAustin Powers in Goldmember.In addition, it had the third largest opening weekend of that year, afterThe Matrix ReloadedandX2.With a total gross of $125.1 million, the film had the biggest five-day Wednesday opening of all time, surpassing the previous",
"the previous record held byStar Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.The next year, this record would be beaten byShrek 2.Its Friday-Sunday opening weekend was a record-high for December (first surpassed byI Am Legend).The film also set single-day records for Christmas Day and New Year's Day (both first surpassed byMeet the Fockers). Outside the US and Canada, it is the 17th highest-grossing film,the highest-grossing 2003 filmand the highest-grossing film of the series.On its first day (Wednesday, 17 December 2003), the film earned $23.5 million from 19 countriesand it set an opening-weekend record outside the US and Canada with $125.9 million during the five-day weekend as a whole. The combined total gross increased to $250.1 million, making it the highest worldwide opening weekend at the time, knocking outThe Matrix Revolutions.It set opening-day records in thirteen of them, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Greece, Switzerland, Scandinavia (as well as",
"(as well as separately in Sweden, Finland, Norway and Denmark), Mexico, Chile and Puerto Rico.It set opening-weekend records in the United Kingdom ($26.5 million in five days), Germany, Spain, Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland. In Singapore, it surpassedFinding Nemoto become the country's top-grossing film.In New Zealand, where filming took place, the film set opening day, opening weekend, single-day, Friday gross, Saturday gross and Sunday gross records with $1.7 million in four days. The substantial increase in initial box office totals caused optimistic studio executives to forecast thatThe Return of the Kingwould surpassThe Two Towersin total earnings. If this proved to be true, then this would be the first blockbuster trilogy for each successive film to earn more at the box office than its predecessor, when all three films were blockbuster successes.The Return of the Kinghas helpedThe Lord of the Ringsfranchise to become the highest-grossing motion picture trilogy worldwide of all time with over $2.9",
"time with over $2.9 billion beating other notable series such as the originalStar Wars Trilogy, and became New Line's highest grossing release. Following subsequent reissues, the film has grossed $381.9 million in the United States and Canada and $769.2 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $1.151billion. These figures do not include income from DVD sales, TV rights, etc. It has been estimatedthat the gross income from non-box office sales and merchandise has been at least equal to the box office for all three films. If this is so, the total gross income for the trilogy would be in the region of $6 billion following an investment of $300 million ($426 million including marketing costs). Critical response On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes,The Return of the Kingholds an approval rating of 94% based on 282 reviews, with an average rating of 8.70/10. The website's critics consensus reads, \"Visually breathtaking and emotionally powerful,The Lord of the Rings - The Return of the",
"- The Return of the Kingis a moving and satisfying conclusion to a great trilogy.\"Metacritic, which uses aweighted average, gives the film a score of 94 out of 100 based on 41 reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film a rare average grade of \"A+\" on an A+ to F scale,the highest grade in the trilogy. Alan Morrison ofEmpiregave the film a perfect score of five stars. In his review, he called the film \"the resounding climax to a landmark in cinema history\" and praised how Peter Jackson had \"kept the momentum of the series rolling on and on through the traditionally 'difficult' middle part and 'weak' finale, delivering a climax to the story that's neater and more affecting than what Tolkien managed on the printed page.\" Morrison also mentioned how fans of the films \"who have walked beside these heroes every step of the way on such a long journey deserve the emotional pay-off as well as the action peaks, and they will be genuinely touched as the final credits roll.\"Elvis",
"credits roll.\"Elvis MitchellforThe New York Timeslauded the acting, the craft of the technical crew, and Jackson's direction, describingThe Return of the Kingas \"a meticulous and prodigious vision made by a director who was not hamstrung by heavy use of computer special-effects imagery.\"Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesgave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying that it is \"such a crowning achievement, such a visionary use of all the tools of special effects, such a pure spectacle, that it can be enjoyed even by those who have not seen the first two films.\" Talking about the whole trilogy, Ebert said that he admired it \"more as a whole than in its parts\", and thatThe Return of the KingcertifiedThe Lord of the Ringsas \"a work of bold ambition in a time of cinematic timidity\".In his review forThe Times, James Christopher praisedThe Return of the Kingas \"everything a Ring fan could possibly wish for, and much more\", and describedThe Lord of the Ringsas \"the greatest film trilogy ever mounted, with",
"ever mounted, with some of the most amazing action sequences committed to celluloid\".Nev Pierce for theBBCgave the film five stars out of five, judging it to be the best chapter of the trilogy, since it combined \"the 'ooh' factor ofFellowshipwith the zippy action ofTowers\". Pierce describedThe Return of the Kingas \"Majestic, moving, and immense\", and \"an astonishing piece of storytelling\".Philip French, reviewing it forThe Observer, lauded the narrative force, the battle scenes, the language, and the visual style of the film, which he related to \"the swirling battle paintings ofAlbrecht Altdorfer\" and \"Claude Lorrain's elegiac paintings of maritime departures inspired by classical poets.\" French wrote about the whole trilogy \"Jackson'sLord of the Ringsis indeed a very fine achievement, moving, involving and, to many people, even inspiring. It redeems the debased cinematic notion of the epic.\" In her review forEntertainment Weekly,Lisa Schwarzbaumgave the film an A grade, and wrote \"The conclusion of Peter",
"conclusion of Peter Jackson's masterwork is passionate and literate, detailed and expansive, and it's conceived with a risk-taking flair for old-fashioned movie magic at its most precious ... as he has done throughout, the director paces scenes of action, intimacy, and even panoramic, geographical grandeur ... with the control of a superb choreographer.\". Schwarzbaum also said of the whole series \"I can't think of another film trilogy that ends in such glory, or another monumental work of sustained storytelling that surges ahead with so much inventiveness and ardor.\"Richard CorlissofTimenamedThe Return of the Kingthe best film of the yearand described the whole trilogy as \"The film event of the millennium\".Joe Morgenstern, forThe Wall Street Journal, wrote \"Never has a filmmaker aimed higher, or achieved more. The third and last installment of the screen epic based on J.R.R. Tolkien's literary classic redefines -- steeply upward -- the very notion of a major motion picture.\"Peter Bradshaw, who had been less",
"who had been less enthusiastic about the first two chapters of the trilogy,gaveThe Return of the Kingfour stars out of five in his review forThe Guardian, commenting \"I started the series an atheist and finished an agnostic\". Bradshaw wrote of the film \"Technically it really is superb\", and commented \"Hours after watching the film, I can close my eyes and see those incredible battle scenes pulsing and throbbing in my skull ... MaybeKurosawa'sbattles will one day be described as proto-Jacksonian\". Some critics had negative opinions of the film. Tom Charity observes inTime Out, \"Some story strands are crudely abbreviated; others fail to develop elements that were already well-established. Given the inordinate running time, it's hard to avoid the feeling that we've already been here, done this.\"Jonathan Romney noted inThe Independent, \"here's something not quite palatable about all these intrepid, largely beautiful Europeans boldly fending off the nameless, numberless hordes from the other side of the world,",
"side of the world, legions of dark-skinned sans-culottes with tribal drums. ... Aside from this, there's plenty to be offended by on an aesthetic level: the film's self-important solemnity, its hyperbolic over-insistence. ... here are no empty spaces, no gaps for thought, no real stimulus to the viewer's imagination. The film has no idea when to stop, either, with its multiple codas and final dying fall into beatific cosiness.\"And Antonia Quirke in theEvening Standardopined, \"Viggo Mortensen's Aragorn is the good king of the title, and while the actor may look fetching in a crown and cloak, he doesn't have half of the gravitas of Sean Bean's Boromir in the first film. Director Peter Jackson has been all but deified for his work on this particular ring cycle, but there is not much personality behind the camera here, merely rampant enthusiasm.\" The most common criticism ofThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingwas its running time, particularly the epilogue; even rave reviews for the film commented on",
"film commented on its length.Joel SiegelofGood Morning Americasaid in his review for the film (which he gave an 'A'): \"If it didn't take forty-five minutes to end, it'd be my best picture of the year. As it is, it's just one of the great achievements in film history.\" In February 2004, a few months following release, the film was voted eighth onEmpire's100 Greatest Movies of All Time, compiled from readers' top ten lists. This forced the magazine to abandon its policy of only allowing films being older than a year to be eligible.In 2007,Total FilmnamedThe Return of the Kingthe third best film of the past decade (Total Film's publication time), behindThe MatrixandFight Club. Accolades The film was nominated for elevenAcademy Awards:Best Picture,Best Director,Best Adapted Screenplay,Best Original Score,Best Original Song,Best Visual Effects,Best Art Direction,Best Costume Design,Best Make-up,Best Sound MixingandBest Film Editing. At the76th Academy Awardsin 2004, the film won all the categories for which it",
"for which it was nominated and it shares the record for highest Academy Award totals along withTitanic(which also starred Bernard Hill) andBen-Hur, and holding the record for the highest clean sweep at the Oscars, surpassing the nine awards earned by bothGigiandThe Last Emperor.It was the first fantasy film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. It also was the last movie for 14 years to win the Academy Award for Best Picture without being chosen as one of the top ten films of the year by theNational Board of Review, until the release ofThe Shape of Waterin 2017. The film won fourGolden Globes(including Best Picture for Drama and Best Director),fiveBAFTAs, twoMTV Movie Awards, twoGrammy Awards, nineSaturn Awards, theNew York Film Critics Circleaward for Best Picture, theNebula Award for Best Script, and theHugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form. See also Notes References External links",
"Andrew Lesnie Andrew LesnieACSASC(1 January 1956 – 27 April 2015) was an Australiancinematographer. He was best known as the cinematographer forThe Lord of the Ringstrilogy(2001–2003) and its prequelThe Hobbittrilogy(2012–2014), both directed by New Zealand directorPeter Jackson. He received theAcademy Award for Best Cinematographyfor his work onThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ringin 2002. Early life Lesnie was born in Sydney, New South Wales, on 1 January 1956,the son of Shirley (Lithgow) and Allan Lesnie, who worked for the family's company, butcher suppliers Harry Lesnie Pty Ltd. He was educated atSydney Grammar School. Andrew was well liked and popular at school. Lesnie finished 6th form and hisHigher School Certificatein 1974.He started his career in 1978 as an assistant camera operator on the filmPatrick(1978) while he was still in school atAustralian Film, Television and Radio School(AFTRS).sd His first job after graduation in 1979 was as a cameraman on theLogie Award-winning Australian",
"Australian magazine-style afternoon TV showSimon Townsend's Wonder World. Simon Townsend gave Lesnie almost daily opportunities to develop his craft with little restriction over a wide variety of stories and situations, and to experiment with camera and lighting techniques in hundreds of locations and situations. After two years of working on the show, Lesnie moved on to numerous Australian film and television productions, including the mini-seriesBodyline. Later, he worked as a second camera assistant on the filmThe Killing of Angel Street(1981). Lesnie would then go on to develop his craft as he photographed films such asStations(1983),The Delinquents(1989),Temptation of the Monk(1993), andSpider and Rose(1994). Career Lesnie's work began receiving major attention after the release of the anthropomorphic pig storyBabe(1995) and its sequel,Babe: Pig in the City. He was director of photography onPeter Jackson'sLord of the Ringstrilogy, and received anOscarfor his work onThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship",
"The Fellowship of the Ringin 2002. Since then, he filmed several other Jackson-directed films, includingKing KongandThe Lovely Bones, and also filmedThe Hobbitfilmsdirected by Jackson. The Lord of the Ringstrilogy (2001–03) Lesnie used motion picture camera companyArri'sArriflex 435,Arriflex 535, andArriCam Studio35mmfilm cameras for the trilogy. He usedCarl ZeissUltra Prime Lenses andKodak's 5279 (tungsten-balanced) film stock to photograph the films. Lesnie planned far ahead into the production withPeter Jacksonwith previsualisation programs to help establish frame sizes and angles, as well as construction of sets.During filming, Lesnie emphasised earthy colours in the makeup and wardrobe of the cast and extras. At the acceptance speech for his Oscar win forFellowship of the Ring, Lesnie dedicated his acceptance to chief lighting technicianBrian Bansgrove, who he described as a major contributor to the quality of the film's cinematography. The Hobbittrilogy (2012–14) For production, Lesnie usedRed Digital",
"usedRed Digital Cinema's Epic cameras as well asCarl ZeissUltra Prime Lenses to photograph the film.Jacksonand Lesnie decided to shoot the film in 3D with as many as 15stereoscopiccamera rigs (2 cameras each) with3ality.They also decided to shoot the film in an uncommon frame rate of 48 frames per second versus the industry standard of 24 frames per second. This would make Lesnie the first cinematographer to employ such a method that claims to induce more clarity, reduce motion blur, and make 3D easier to watch. The Water Diviner Lesnie's final film,The Water Diviner, directed by and starringRussell Crowe, was released in Australia in December 2014 and in America in April 2015, one week before his death. Personal life and death Lesnie lived on Sydney's north coast. He was a member of both theAustralian Cinematographers Societyand theAmerican Society of Cinematographers. Lesnie died of a heart attack in his Sydney home on 27 April 2015, after having suffered from a heart condition for half a year. Filmography",
"a year. Filmography Film Documentary film Short film Feature film Television TV movies Awards and nominations References External links"
] |
What was the first elected position of the official that was in the office before Steven C. Johnson became the 42nd Kansas State Treasurer? | Wichita School Board member | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_State_Treasurer | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Rogers_(politician)#Career | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_State_Treasurer', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Rogers_(politician)#Career'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_State_Treasurer",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Rogers_(politician)#Career"
] | [
"Kansas State Treasurer TheState Treasurer of Kansasis the chief custodian of Kansas's cash deposits, monies from bond sales, and other securities and collateral and directs the investments of those assets. The Treasurer provides for the safe and efficient operation of state government through effective banking, investment, and cash management. The treasurer oversees an office that currently handles over $20 billion and an annual operating budget of $3.5 million. Key programs in the office are Bonds Services, Cash Management, Unclaimed Property, the Ag Loan and Housing Loan Deposit Programs and the Kansas 529 Education Savings Program, which has more than 143,000 accounts with total assets of over $2.7 billion. The Treasurer's office is a fee-funded agency. The treasurer also serves as a member of the Kansas Public Employee's Retirement System (KPERS) and the Pooled Money Investment Board. Divisions Office holders Territorial Treasurers State Treasurers References External links",
"Lynn Rogers (politician) Lynn Wayne Rogers(born September 11, 1958) is an American politician and businessman who served as the 41stKansas State Treasurerfrom 2021 to 2023. He previously served as the 51stlieutenant governor of Kansasfrom 2019 to 2021. ADemocrat, he had previously served on the board ofWichita Public Schoolsfrom 2001 to 2017,and in theKansas Senaterepresenting the25th districtin westWichitafrom 2017 to 2019. Early life and education Rogers was born on September 11, 1958, inFremont, Nebraska.Raised byRepublicanparents, he grew up on a largehogfarm in rural Nebraska. His grandfather was acounty commissioner, and his father served on a local school board. Rogers earned aBachelor of Artsdegree inbusiness administrationfrom theUniversity of Nebraska–Lincolnin 1980. Career After graduating from college, Rogers began working as a marketing specialist forCitibankSavings.After working for Citibank inChicago, he moved with his wife toWichita, Kansasin 1985,where he accepted a marketing position with theFarm Credit Bankof Wichita.In 1993, Rogers became a vice president withCoBankFarm Credit Leasing, where he would remain until his election to theKansas Senatein 2016. School district politics In the 1990s, as a parent of a public school student, Rogers was active in a Wichita-areaParent-teacher organization(PTO), and aided fundraising for theWichita Public Schools, including the district's bond drive in 2000.Rogers' first elected office was as a member of theWichita School Board, where he served from 2001 to 2018. During his tenure on the school board, Rogers switched his affiliation from the Republican Party to theDemocratic Party, citing frustration with Republicans in attempts to gut support for the public schools. Kansas Senate In 2016, he was elected to theKansas Senate's 25th district, replacing outgoing Republican SenatorMichael O'Donnell, who vacated the seat to run forSedgwick County Commissioner. In his time as a senator, Rogers worked to \"reverse theBrownback-Colyertax experiment and invest more in our schools.\"Rogers focused primarily on education, agricultural and banking issues. In the Kansas Senate, senatorLaura Kellysat at the desk next to his, and became his mentor. Lieutenant governor On May 24, 2018, Senator Kelly announced that she had selected Rogers as her running mate in the2018 Kansas gubernatorial election.On November 6, 2018, Kelly and Rogers defeated the Republican gubernatorial ticket ofKris KobachandWink Hartman, as well as the independent ticket ofGreg OrmanandJohn Doll.Rogers became the first lieutenant governor from Wichita since fellow DemocratThomas Dockingserved in the 1980s. In addition to representing Kansas in official visits to other states, Rogers has spent much of his tenure traveling extensively throughout the state, engaging in political outreach, and visiting over half of the state's 105 counties. Kansas Treasurer In December 2020, GovernorLaura Kellyannounced that she had selected Rogers to replaceJake LaTurnerasKansas State Treasurerafter LaTurner was elected to theUnited States House of Representatives. Rogers assumed office on January 2, 2021, withDavid Tolandsucceeding him as Lieutenant Governor.He ran for a full term in2022, losing to Republican State RepresentativeSteven C. Johnson. Personal life Rogers is married to Kris Rogers. They have grown children, including a son who serves as a staff attorney for theOklahoma Supreme Court. They have a daughter who teaches in theKansas Cityarea, and another son \"involved in arts community.\" References External links"
] | [
"Kansas State Treasurer TheState Treasurer of Kansasis the chief custodian of Kansas's cash deposits, monies from bond sales, and other securities and collateral and directs the investments of those assets. The Treasurer provides for the safe and efficient operation of state government through effective banking, investment, and cash management. The treasurer oversees an office that currently handles over $20 billion and an annual operating budget of $3.5 million. Key programs in the office are Bonds Services, Cash Management, Unclaimed Property, the Ag Loan and Housing Loan Deposit Programs and the Kansas 529 Education Savings Program, which has more than 143,000 accounts with total assets of over $2.7 billion. The Treasurer's office is a fee-funded agency. The treasurer also serves as a member of the Kansas Public Employee's Retirement System (KPERS) and the Pooled Money Investment Board. Divisions Office holders Territorial Treasurers State Treasurers References External links",
"Lynn Rogers (politician) Lynn Wayne Rogers(born September 11, 1958) is an American politician and businessman who served as the 41stKansas State Treasurerfrom 2021 to 2023. He previously served as the 51stlieutenant governor of Kansasfrom 2019 to 2021. ADemocrat, he had previously served on the board ofWichita Public Schoolsfrom 2001 to 2017,and in theKansas Senaterepresenting the25th districtin westWichitafrom 2017 to 2019. Early life and education Rogers was born on September 11, 1958, inFremont, Nebraska.Raised byRepublicanparents, he grew up on a largehogfarm in rural Nebraska. His grandfather was acounty commissioner, and his father served on a local school board. Rogers earned aBachelor of Artsdegree inbusiness administrationfrom theUniversity of Nebraska–Lincolnin 1980. Career After graduating from college, Rogers began working as a marketing specialist forCitibankSavings.After working for Citibank inChicago, he moved with his wife toWichita, Kansasin 1985,where he accepted a marketing position with",
"position with theFarm Credit Bankof Wichita.In 1993, Rogers became a vice president withCoBankFarm Credit Leasing, where he would remain until his election to theKansas Senatein 2016. School district politics In the 1990s, as a parent of a public school student, Rogers was active in a Wichita-areaParent-teacher organization(PTO), and aided fundraising for theWichita Public Schools, including the district's bond drive in 2000.Rogers' first elected office was as a member of theWichita School Board, where he served from 2001 to 2018. During his tenure on the school board, Rogers switched his affiliation from the Republican Party to theDemocratic Party, citing frustration with Republicans in attempts to gut support for the public schools. Kansas Senate In 2016, he was elected to theKansas Senate's 25th district, replacing outgoing Republican SenatorMichael O'Donnell, who vacated the seat to run forSedgwick County Commissioner. In his time as a senator, Rogers worked to \"reverse theBrownback-Colyertax experiment",
"experiment and invest more in our schools.\"Rogers focused primarily on education, agricultural and banking issues. In the Kansas Senate, senatorLaura Kellysat at the desk next to his, and became his mentor. Lieutenant governor On May 24, 2018, Senator Kelly announced that she had selected Rogers as her running mate in the2018 Kansas gubernatorial election.On November 6, 2018, Kelly and Rogers defeated the Republican gubernatorial ticket ofKris KobachandWink Hartman, as well as the independent ticket ofGreg OrmanandJohn Doll.Rogers became the first lieutenant governor from Wichita since fellow DemocratThomas Dockingserved in the 1980s. In addition to representing Kansas in official visits to other states, Rogers has spent much of his tenure traveling extensively throughout the state, engaging in political outreach, and visiting over half of the state's 105 counties. Kansas Treasurer In December 2020, GovernorLaura Kellyannounced that she had selected Rogers to replaceJake LaTurnerasKansas State Treasurerafter",
"Treasurerafter LaTurner was elected to theUnited States House of Representatives. Rogers assumed office on January 2, 2021, withDavid Tolandsucceeding him as Lieutenant Governor.He ran for a full term in2022, losing to Republican State RepresentativeSteven C. Johnson. Personal life Rogers is married to Kris Rogers. They have grown children, including a son who serves as a staff attorney for theOklahoma Supreme Court. They have a daughter who teaches in theKansas Cityarea, and another son \"involved in arts community.\" References External links"
] |
As of August 3, 2024, what is the sum of the birth years of every tennis player to both represent the country that tennis was first played and complete a Grand Slam. | 5980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanne_Whiley | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Reid_(tennis) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfie_Hewett | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanne_Whiley', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Reid_(tennis)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfie_Hewett'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanne_Whiley",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Reid_(tennis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfie_Hewett"
] | [
"Tennis Tennisis aracket sportthat is played either individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses atennis racketstrung with a cord to strike a hollow rubberballcovered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent'scourt. The object of the game is to manoeuvre the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player unable to return the ball validly will not gain apoint, while the opposite player will. Playable at all levels of society and at all ages, tennis can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, includingwheelchair users. The original forms of tennis developed inFranceduring the lateMiddle Ages.The modern form of tennis originated inBirmingham, England, in the late 19th century aslawn tennis.It had close connections to various field (lawn) games such ascroquetandbowlsas well as to the older racket sport today calledreal tennis. The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that until 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times,and the adoption of thetiebreakin the 1970s.A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point-challenge system, which allows a player to contest theline callof a point, a system known asHawk-Eye. Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is a popular worldwide spectator sport.The fourGrand Slamtournaments (also referred to as the majors) are especially popular and are considered the highest level of competition for the sport. These tournaments are theAustralian Open, played onhardcourts; theFrench Open, played on redclay courts;Wimbledon, played ongrass courts; and theUS Open, also played on hardcourts.Additionally, tennis was one of the originalOlympic sports, and has been consistently competed in theSummer Olympic Gamessince1988. History Predecessors Historians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in 12th-century northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm of the hand.Louis X of Francewas a keen player ofjeu de paume(\"game of the palm\"), which evolved intoreal tennis, and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris \"around the end of the 13th century\".In due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe.In June 1316 atVincennes, Val-de-Marne, and following a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of eitherpneumoniaorpleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning.Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player known by name.Another of the early enthusiasts of the game was KingCharles V of France, who had a court set up at theLouvre Palace. It was not until the 16th century thatracketscame into use and the game began to be called \"tennis\", from the French termtenez, which can be translated as \"hold!\", \"receive!\" or \"take!\", aninterjectionused as a call from the server to his opponent.It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors, where the ball could be hit off the wall.Henry VIII of Englandwas a big fan of this game, which is now known asreal tennis. An epitaph inSt Michael's Church, Coventry, writtenc.1705, read, in part: Here lyes an old toss'd Tennis Ball:Was racketted, from spring to fall,With so much heat and so much hast,Time's arm for shame grew tyred at last. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England. The invention of the firstlawn mowerin Britain in 1830 is believed to have been a catalyst for the preparation of modern-style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and others. Origins of the modern game Between 1859 and 1865,Harry Gem, a solicitor, and his friendAugurio Pereradeveloped a game that combined elements ofracquetsand the Basque ball gamepelota, which they played on Perera'scroquetlawn inBirmingham, England.In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis club on Avenue Road,Leamington Spa.This is where \"lawn tennis\" was used as the name of an activity by a club for the first time. InTennis: A Cultural History, Heiner Gillmeister reveals that on 8 December 1874, British army officerWalter Clopton Wingfieldwrote to Harry Gem, commenting that he (Wingfield) had been experimenting with his version of lawn tennis \"for a year and a half\".In December 1873, Wingfield designed and patented a game which he calledsphairistikè(Greek:σφαιριστική, meaning \"ball-playing\"), and which was soon known simply as \"sticky\" – for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his friend's estate ofNantclwyd Hall, inLlanelidan, Wales.According toR. D. C.Evans, turfgrassagronomist, \"Sports historians all agree that deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis.\"According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield \"popularized this game enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game – and most importantly you had his rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874.\"The world's oldest annual tennis tournament took place at Leamington Lawn Tennis Club in Birmingham in 1874.This was three years before theAll England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Clubwould hold its first championships at Wimbledon, in 1877. The first Championships culminated in a significant debate on how to standardise the rules. In the United States in 1874,Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned fromBermudawith asphairistikèset. She became fascinated by the game of tennis after watching British army officers play.She laid out a tennis court at theStaten Island Cricket Clubat Camp Washington,Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York. The first American National championship was played there in September 1880. An Englishman named O.E. Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100, by defeating CanadianI. F. Hellmuth.There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York. On 21 May 1881, the oldest nationwide tennis organization in the worldwas formed, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now theUnited States Tennis Association) in order to standardize the rules and organize competitions.The US National Men's Singles Championship, now theUS Open, was first held in 1881 at theNewport Casino,Newport, Rhode Island.The US National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 inPhiladelphia. Tennis also became popular in France, where theFrench Championshipsdate to 1891, although until 1925 they were open only to tennis players who were members of French clubs.Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open and theAustralian Open(dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis.Together, these four events are called the Majors orSlams(a term borrowed frombridgerather thanbaseball). In 1913, the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF), now theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF), was founded and established three official tournaments as the major championships of the day. TheWorld Grass Court Championshipswere awarded to Great Britain. TheWorld Hard Court Championshipswere awarded to France; the term \"hard court\" was used for clay courts at the time. Some tournaments were held in Belgium instead. And theWorld Covered Court Championshipsfor indoor courts were awarded annually; Sweden, France, Great Britain, Denmark, Switzerland and Spain each hosted the tournament.At a meeting held on 16 March 1923 in Paris, the title \"World Championship\" was dropped and a new category of \"Official Championship\" was created for events in Great Britain, France, the US and Australia– today's Grand Slam events.The impact on the four recipient nations to replace the \"world championships\" with \"official championships\" was simple in a general sense: each became a major nation of the federation with enhanced voting power, and each now operated a major event. The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the ILTF have remained largely stable in the ensuing 80 years, the one major change being the addition of thetiebreaksystem designed byJimmy Van Alen.That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the1924 Games, but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts of then ITF presidentPhilippe Chatrier, ITF general secretary David Gray and ITF vice president Pablo Llorens, with support fromInternational Olympic CommitteepresidentJuan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming, and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full-medal sport atSeoulin 1988. TheDavis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.The analogous competition for women's national teams, theFed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF. In 1926, promoterC. C. Pyleestablished the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.The most notable of these early professionals were the AmericanVinnie Richardsand the FrenchwomanSuzanne Lenglen.Playersturned prowould no longer be permitted to compete in the major (amateur) tournaments. In 1968, commercial pressures and rumours of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating theOpen Era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis.With the beginning of the Open Era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its middle-class English-speaking image(although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists). In 1954, Van Alen founded theInternational Tennis Hall of Fame, a nonprofit museum in Newport, Rhode Island.The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Equipment Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only aracketand balls. Rackets The components of a tennis racket include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and strings were ofanimal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power. Meanwhile, technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added durability. Under modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to the following guidelines; The rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches (81 cm) until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches (74 cm). Many companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are three of the most commonly used brands; however, many more companies exist.The same companies sponsor players to use these rackets in the hopes that the company name will become better known by the public. Strings There are multiple types of tennis strings, including natural gut and synthetic stings made from materials such asnylon,kevlar, orpolyester. Natural gut The first type of tennis strings available were natural gut strings, introduced by Babolat. They were the only type used until synthetic strings were introduced in the 1950s. Natural gut strings are still used frequently by players such as Roger Federer. They are made fromcowintestines, and provide increased power, and are easier on the arm than most strings. Synthetic Most synthetic strings are made from monofilament or multifiliament nylon strings. Monofilament strings are cheap to buy, and are used widely by many recreational level players for their all round performance, while multifilament strings are created to mimic natural gut more closely by weaving together fibres, but are generally more expensive than their monofilament counterparts.Polyester strings allow for more spin on the ball than any other string, due to their firm strings, while keeping control of the ball, and this is why many players use them, especially higher player ones.Kevlar tennis strings are highly durable, and are mostly used by players that frequently break strings, because they maintain tension well, but these strings can be stiff on the arm. Hybrid strings Hybrid stringing is when a tennis racket is strung with two different strings for the mains (the vertical strings) and the crosses (the horizontal strings). This is most commonly done with two different strings that are made of different materials, but can also be done with two different types of the same string. A notable example of a player using hybrid strings is Roger Federer, using natural gut strings in his mains and polyester strings in his crosses. Balls Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and stuffed with feathers.Modern tennis balls are made of hollowvulcanized rubberwith afeltcoating. Traditionally white, the predominant colour was gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight,deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as 65.41–68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 in). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 g (1.98 and 2.10 oz).Tennis balls were traditionally manufactured in the United States and Europe. Although the process of producing the balls has remained virtually unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of manufacturing now takes place in theFar East. The relocation is due to cheaperlabour costsand materials in the region.Tournaments that are played under the ITF Rules of Tennis must use balls that are approved by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and be named on the official ITF list of approved tennis balls. Manner of play Court Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78feet(23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (11 m) for doubles matches.Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by either a cord or metal cable of diameter no greater than0.8 cm (1⁄3in).The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.91 m) high in the centre.The net posts are 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side. The modern tennis court owes its design to MajorWalter Clopton Wingfield. In 1873, Wingfield patented a court much the same as the current one for hisstické tennis(sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with thehourglassshape of his court changed to a rectangle. Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces.Grass,clay, andhard courtsof concrete or asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood flooring having been historically used.Artificial turfcourts can also be found. Lines The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the centre of each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or the centre mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines; they are the boundaries for doubles matches. The lines to the inside of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines, and are the boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles alley, playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the centre of a player's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve. The line dividing the service line in two is called the centre line or centre service line. The boxes this centre line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player's position, they have to hit the ball into one of these when serving.A ball is out only if none of it has hit the area inside the lines, or the line, upon its first bounce. All lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (25 and 51 mm) in width, with the exception of the baseline which can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide, although in practice it is often the same width as the others. Play of a single point The players or teams start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated theserver, and the opposing player is thereceiver. The choice to be server or receiver in the first game and the choice of ends is decided by a coin toss before the warm-up starts. Service alternates game by game between the two players or teams. For each point, the server starts behind the baseline, between the centre mark and the sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server willserve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server. For a service to be legal, the ball must travel over the net without touching it into the diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is aletornet service, which is void, and the server retakes that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a \"foot fault\" when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the centre mark before the ball is hit. If the second service, after a fault, is also a fault, the serverdouble faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service. A legal service starts arally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of a player hitting the ball so that it falls in the server's court, before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel over or round the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is considered a legal return as long as it crosses into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point. Scoring Game, set, match Game Agameconsists of a sequence ofpointsplayed with the same player serving. A game is won by the first player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are described as \"love\", \"15\", \"30\", and \"40\", respectively. If at least three points have been scored by each player, making the player's scores equal at 40 apiece, the score is not called out as \"40–40\", but rather as \"deuce\". If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his opponent, the score of the game is \"advantage\" for the player in the lead. During informal games, advantage can also be called \"ad in\" or \"van in\" when the serving player is ahead, and \"ad out\" or \"van out\" when the receiving player is ahead; alternatively, either player may simply call out \"my ad\" or \"your ad\". The score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving player's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., \"15–love\") after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score. Set Asetconsists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game (tying the set 6–6) atiebreakis played. A tiebreak, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A tiebreak game can be won by scoring at least seven points and at least two points more than the opponent. In a tiebreak, two players serve by 'ABBA' system which has been proven to be fair.If a tiebreak is not played, the set is referred to as anadvantage set, where the set continues without limit until one player leads by a two-game margin. A \"love set\" means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a \"jam donut\" in the US.In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, e.g. \"6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5\". Match Amatchconsists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a best of three or fivesetssystem. On the professional circuit, men play best-of-five-set matches at all fourGrand Slamtournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of theOlympic Gamesand best-of-three-set matches at all other tournaments, while women play best-of-three-set matches at all tournaments. The first player to win two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the match.Only in the final sets of matches at the Olympic Games andFed Cupare tiebreaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player has a two-game lead, occasionally leading to someremarkably long matches. In tournament play, the chairumpireannounces the end of the match with the well-known phrase \"Game, set, match\" followed by the winning person's or team's name. Special point terms Game point Agame pointoccurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40–love, the player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play. Break point Abreak pointoccurs if the receiver, not theserver, has a chance to win the game with the next point. Break points are of particular importance becauseservingis generally considered advantageous, with servers being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver who has one (score of 30–40 or advantage), two (score of 15–40) or three (score of love–40) consecutive chances to win the game hasbreak point,double break pointortriple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to haveconvertedtheir break point. If the receiver fails to win their break point it is called afailure to convert.Winning break points, and thus the game, is also referred to asbreaking serve, as the receiver has disrupted, orbrokenthe natural advantage of the server. If in the following game the previous server also wins a break point it is referred to asbreaking back. Except wheretiebreaksapply, at least one break of serve is required to win a set (otherwise a two-game lead would never occur). Rule variations Another, however informal, tennis format is calledCanadian doubles. This involves three players, with one person playing against a doubles team. The single player gets to utilize the alleys normally reserved only for a doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as for a regular game. This format is not sanctioned by any official body. \"Australian doubles\", another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, is played with similar rules to theCanadian doublesstyle, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game, each player taking a turn at playing alone against the other two. As such, each player plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with the singles player always serving. Scoring styles vary, but one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break serve. Wheelchair tenniscan be played by able-bodied players as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility. An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and able-bodied matches. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair player and an able-bodied player (referred to as \"one-up, one-down\"), or for a wheelchair player to play against an able-bodied player. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the wheelchair users only. Match play Continuity A tennis match is intended to be continuous.Because stamina is a relevant factor, arbitrary delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point.This is increased to 90 seconds when the players change ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a 2-minute break is permitted between sets.Other than this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as rain, damaged footwear, damaged racket, or the need to retrieve an errant ball. Should a player be deemed to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire may initially give a warning followed by subsequent penalties of \"point\", \"game\", and default of the match for the player who is consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit. In the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and each player at the same end of the court as when rain halted play, or as close to the same relative compass point if play is resumed on a different court. Ball changes Balls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, inATPandWTAtournaments, they are changed after every nine games with the first change occurring after only seven games, because the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm-up.InITFtournaments likeFed Cup, the balls are changed after every eleven games (rather than nine) with the first change occurring after only nine games (instead of seven). An exception is that a ball change may not take place at the beginning of a tiebreaker, in which case the ball change is delayed until the beginning of the second game of the next set.As a courtesy to the receiver, the server will often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new balls are used as a reminder that they are using new balls. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain), then the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes. On-court coaching A recent rule change is to allow coaching on court on a limited basis during a match.This has been introduced in women's tennis forWTA Tourevents in 2009 and allows the player to request her coach once per set. Stance Stance refers to the way a player prepares themselves in order to best be able to return a shot. Essentially, it enables them to move quickly in order to achieve a particular stroke. There are four main stances in modern tennis: open, semi-open, closed, and neutral. All four stances involve the player crouching in some manner: as well as being a more efficient striking posture, it allows them toisometrically preloadtheir muscles in order to play the stroke more dynamically. What stance is selected is strongly influenced by shot selection. A player may quickly alter their stance depending on the circumstances and the type of shot they intend to play. Any given stance also alters dramatically based upon the actual playing of the shot with dynamic movements and shifts of body weight occurring. Open stance This is the most common stance in tennis. The player's feet are placed parallel to the net. They may be pointing sideways, directly at the net or diagonally towards it. This stance allows for a high degree of torso rotation which can add significant power to the stroke. This process is sometimes likened to the coiling and uncoiling of a spring. i.e. the torso is rotated as a means of preloading the muscular system in preparation for playing the stroke: this is the coiling phase. When the stroke is played the torso rotates to face forwards again, called uncoiling, and adds significant power to the stroke. A disadvantage of this stance is that it does not always allow ‘for proper weight transfer and maintenance of balance’when making powerful strokes. It is commonly used for forehand strokes; double-handed backhands can also be made effectively from it. Semi-open stance This stance is somewhere between open and closed and is a very flexible stance. The feet are aligned diagonally towards the net. It allows for a lot of shoulder rotation and the torso can be coiled, before being uncoiled into the shot in order to increase the power of the shot. It is commonly used in modern tennis especially by ‘top professional players on the forehand’.Two-handed backhands can also be employed from this stance. Closed stance The closed stance is the least commonly used of the three main stances. One foot is placed further towards the net with the other foot further from it; there is a diagonal alignment between the feet. It allows for effective torso rotation in order to increase the power of the shot. It is usually used to play backhand shots and it is rare to see forehand shots played from it. A stroke from this stance may entail the rear foot coming completely off the floor with bodyweight being transferred entirely to the front foot. Neutral stance This is sometimes also referred to as the square stance. One foot is positioned closer to the net and ahead of the other which is behind and in line with it. Both feet are aligned at a 90 degree angle to the net. The neutral stance is often taught early because ‘It allows beginners to learn about shifting weight and rotation of the body.’Forehands and backhands may be made from it. Shots Competent tennis players have eight basic shots in their repertoire: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley, half-volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob. Grip A grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots during a match. The grip affects the angle of the racket face when it hits the ball and influences the pace, spin, and placement of the shot. Players use various grips during play, including the Continental (The \"Handshake Grip\"), Eastern (either semi-eastern or full eastern, usually used for backhands), and Western (semi-western or full western, usually for forehand grips) grips. Most players change grips during a match depending on what shot they are hitting; for example, slice shots and serves call for a Continental grip. Serve A serve (or, more formally, a \"service\") in tennis is a shot to start a point. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it (usually near the apex of its trajectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without touching the net. The serve may be hit under- or overhand although underhand serving remains a rarity.If the ball hits the net on the first serve and bounces over into the correct diagonal box then it is called a \"let\" and the server gets two more additional serves to get it in. There can also be a let if the server serves the ball and the receiver isn't prepared.If the server misses his or her first serve and gets a let on the second serve, then they get one more try to get the serve in the box. Experienced players strive to master the conventional overhand serve to maximize its power and placement. The server may employ different types of serve including flat serve, topspin serve, slice serve, and kick (American twist) serve. A reverse type of spin serve is hit in a manner that spins the ball opposite the natural spin of the server, the spin direction depending upon right- or left-handedness. If the ball is spinning counterclockwise, it will curve right from the hitter's point of view and curve left if spinning clockwise. Some servers are content to use the serve simply to initiate the point; however, advanced players often try to hit a winning shot with their serve. A winning serve that is not touched by the opponent is called an \"ace\". Forehand For a right-handed player, the forehand is a stroke that begins on the right side of the body, continues across the body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body. There are variousgripsfor executing the forehand, and their popularity has fluctuated over the years. The most important ones are thecontinental, theeastern, thesemi-western, and thewestern. For a number of years, the small, frail 1920s playerBill Johnstonwas considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high using awesterngrip. Few top players used thewesterngrip after the 1920s, but in the latter part of the 20th century, as shot-making techniques and equipment changed radically, thewesternforehand made a strong comeback and is now used by many modern players. No matter which grip is used, most forehands are generally executed with one hand holding the racket, but there have been fine players with two-handed forehands. In the 1940s and 50s, the Ecuadorian/American playerPancho Seguraused a two-handed forehand to achieve a devastating effect against larger, more powerful players. Players such asMonica Selesor France'sFabrice SantoroandMarion Bartoliare also notable players known for their two-handed forehands. Backhand For right-handed players, the backhand is a stroke that begins on the left side of their body, continues across their body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the right side of their body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally considered more difficult to master than the forehand. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one hand, using either aneasternor acontinentalgrip. The first notable players to use two hands were the 1930s AustraliansVivian McGrathandJohn Bromwich, but they were lone exceptions. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s asBjörn Borg,Chris Evert,Jimmy Connors, and laterMats WilanderandMarat Safinused it to great effect, and it is now used by a large number of the world's best players, includingNovak Djokovic,Rafael NadalandSerena Williams. Two hands give the player more control, while one hand can generate a slice shot, applying backspin on the ball to produce a low trajectory bounce. Reach is also limited with the two-handed shot. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time,Don Budge, had a powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that imparted topspin onto the ball.Ken Rosewall, another player noted for his one-handed backhand, used a very accurate slice backhand through the 1950s and 1960s. A small number of players, notablyMonica Seles, use two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides. Other shots Avolleyis a shot returned to the opponent in mid-air before the ball bounces, generally performed near the net, and is usually made with a stiff-wristed punching motion to hit the ball into an open area of the opponent's court. Thehalf volleyis made by hitting the ball on the rise just after it has bounced, also generally in the vicinity of the net, and played with the racket close to the ground.Theswinging volleyis hit out of the air as the player approaches the net. It is an offensive shot used to take preparation time away from the opponent, as it returns the ball into the opponent's court much faster than a standard volley. From a poor defensive position on the baseline, thelobcan be used as either an offensive or defensive weapon, hitting the ball high and deep into the opponent's court to either enable the lobber to get into better defensive position or to win the point outright by hitting it over the opponent's head. If the lob is not hit deeply enough into the other court, however, an opponent near the net may then hit anoverhead smash, a hard, serve-like shot, to try to end the point. A difficult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob over the backhand side of a player. When the contact point is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand, most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball or sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand sky-hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful execution of any of these alternatives requires balance and timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play. If their opponent is deep in their court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpecteddrop shot, by softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to \"skid\" upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even backwards towards the net, thus making it even more difficult to return. Tournaments Tournaments are often organized by gender and number of players. Common tournament configurations include men's singles, women's singles, and doubles, where two players play on each side of the net. Tournaments may be organized for specific age groups, with upper age limits for youth and lower age limits for senior players. Example of this include theOrange BowlandLes Petits Asjunior tournaments. There are also tournaments for players with disabilities, such aswheelchair tennisand deaf tennis.In the fourGrand Slamtournaments, the singles draws are limited to 128 players for each gender. Most large tournamentsseedplayers, but players may also be matched by their skill level. According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a rating that is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. For example, theUnited States Tennis Associationadministers the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP), which rates players between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2 point increments. Average club players under this system would rate 3.0–4.5 while world class players would be 7.0 on this scale. Grand Slam tournaments The fourGrand Slamtournaments are considered to be the most prestigious tennis events in the world. They are held annually and comprise, in chronological order, theAustralian Open, theFrench Open,Wimbledon, and theUS Open. Apart from theOlympic Games,Davis Cup,Fed Cup, andHopman Cup, they are the only tournaments regulated by theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF).The ITF's national associations,Tennis Australia(Australian Open), theFédération Française de Tennis(French Open), theLawn Tennis Association(Wimbledon) and theUnited States Tennis Association(US Open) are delegated the responsibility to organize these events. Aside from the historical significance of these events, they also carry larger prize funds than any other tour event and are worth double the number of ranking points to the champion than in the next echelon of tournaments, theATP Masters 1000(men) andPremier events(women).Another distinguishing feature is the number of players in the singles draw. There are 128, more than any other professional tennis tournament. This draw is composed of 32 seeded players, other players ranked in the world's top 100, qualifiers, and players who receive invitations throughwild cards. Grand Slam men's tournaments have best-of-five set matches while the women play best-of-three. Grand Slam tournaments are among the small number of events that last two weeks, the others being theIndian Wells Mastersand theMiami Masters. Currently, the Grand Slam tournaments are the only tour events that havemixed doublescontests. Grand Slam tournaments are held in conjunction with wheelchair tennis tournaments andjunior tenniscompetitions. These tournaments also contain their own idiosyncrasies. For example, players at Wimbledon are required to wear predominantly white.Andre Agassichose to skip Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 citing the event's traditionalism, particularly its \"predominantly white\" dress code.Wimbledon has its own particular methods for disseminating tickets, often leading tennis fans to follow complex procedures to obtain tickets. Men's tournament structure Masters Series TheATP Masters 1000is a group of nine tournaments that form the second-highest echelon in men's tennis. Each event is held annually, and a win at one of these events is worth 1000 ranking points. When theATP, led byHamilton Jordan, began running the men's tour in 1990, the directors designated the top nine tournaments, outside of theGrand Slamevents, as \"Super 9\" events.In 2000 this became the Tennis Masters Series and in 2004 the ATP Masters Series. In November at the end of the tennis year, the world's top eight players compete in theATP Finals, a tournament with a rotating locale. It is currently held in Turin. In August 2007 the ATP announced major changes to the tour that were introduced in 2009. The Masters Series was renamed to the \"ATP Masters 1000\", the addition of the number 1000 referring to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of each tournament. Contrary to earlier plans, the number of tournaments was not reduced from nine to eight and theMonte-Carlo Mastersremains part of the series although, unlike the other events, it does not have a mandatory player commitment. TheHamburg Mastershas been downgraded to a 500-point event. TheMadrid Mastersmoved to May and onto clay courts, and a new tournament inShanghaitook over Madrid's former indoor October slot. As of 2011 six of the nine \"1000\" level tournaments are combined ATP andWTAevents. 500 and 250 series The third and fourth tier of men's tennis tournaments are formed by theATP 500 series, consisting of 11 tournaments, and theATP 250 serieswith 40 tournaments.Like theATP Masters 1000, these events offer various amounts of prize money and the numbers refer to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of a tournament.TheDubai Tennis Championshipsoffer the largest financial incentive to players, with total prize money of US$2,313,975 (2012).These series have various draws of 28, 32, 48 and 56 for singles and 16 and 24 for doubles. It is mandatory for leading players to enter at least four 500 events, including at least one after the US Open. Challenger Tour and Futures tournaments TheChallenger Tourfor men is the lowest level of tournament administered by theATP. It is composed of about 150 events and, as a result, features a more diverse range of countries hosting events.The majority of players use the Challenger Series at the beginning of their career to work their way up the rankings.Andre Agassi, between winning Grand Slam tournaments, plummeted to World No. 141 and used Challenger Series events for match experience and to progress back up the rankings.The Challenger Series offers prize funds of between US$25,000 and US$150,000. Below the Challenger Tour are the Futures tournaments, events on theITF Men's Circuit. These tournaments also contribute towards a player'sATP rankingspoints. Futures Tournaments offer prize funds of between US$10,000 and US$15,000.Approximately 530 Futures Tournaments are played each year. Women's tournament structure In 2021, the WTA rebranded, resembling the men's tournament series, and also providing extra simplicity for fans and consumers. The numbers do not indicate ranking points, or prize money, but is a system to help define different levels of women's tennis. WTA 1000 TheWTA 1000 Tournaments(formerly thePremierMandatory and Premier 5 Tournaments), are a series of seven tournaments that are part of the second-highest tier in women's tennis. 500 and 250 Series The third and fourth tier of women's tennis tournaments are formed from theWTA 500 Series(formerly Premier 700), with fifteen tournaments, and theWTA 250 Series(formerly International), consisting of thirty tournaments. WTA 125 TheWTA 125 Series(formerly 125K Series), is the lowest tier of women's tennis, with fourteen tournaments. Players Professional players Professional tennis players enjoy the same relative perks as most top sports personalities: clothing, equipment and endorsements. Like players of other individual sports such asgolf, they are not salaried, but must play and finish highly in tournaments to obtain prize money. In recent years,professional tennis players have been mocked by tabloids and fans for the involuntary or deliberate noise caused by players'grunting. This controversy has spurred the Grand Slam Committee, the International Tennis Association, and the Women's Tennis Association to teach players techniques to avoid grunting. Singles and doubles professional careers While players are gradually less competitive in singles by their late 20s and early 30s, they can still continue competitively in doubles (as instanced byMartina NavratilovaandJohn McEnroe, who won doubles titles in their 40s). In the Open Era, several female players such asMartina Navratilova,Margaret Court,Martina Hingis,Serena Williams, andVenus Williams(the latter two sisters playing together) have been prolific at both singles and doubles events throughout their careers.John McEnroeis one of the very few professional male players to be top ranked in both singles and doubles at the same time,andYevgeny Kafelnikovis the most recent male player to win multiple Grand Slams in both singles and doubles during the same period of his career. In terms of public attention and earnings (see below), singles champions have far surpassed their doubles counterparts. The Open Era, particularly the men's side, has seen many top-ranked singles players that only sparingly compete in doubles, while having \"doubles specialists\" who are typically being eliminated early in the singles draw but do well in the doubles portion of a tournament. Notable doubles pairings includeThe Woodies(Todd WoodbridgeandMark Woodforde) and theBryan brothers(identical twin brothersRobert Charles \"Bob\" BryanandMichael Carl \"Mike\" Bryan). Woodbridge has disliked the term \"doubles 'specialists'\", saying that he and Woodforde \"set a singles schedule and doubles fitted in around that\", although later in Woodbridge's career he focused exclusively on doubles as his singles ranking fell too low that it was no longer financially viable to recover at that age. Woodbridge noted that while top singles players earn enough that they do not need to nor want to play doubles, he suggested that lower-ranked singles players outside the Top Ten should play doubles to earn more playing time and money. Olympics The Olympics doubles tennis tournament necessitates that both members of a doubles pairing be from the same country, hence several top professional pairs such asJamie MurrayandBruno Soarescannot compete in the Olympics. Top-ranked singles players that are usually rivals on the professional circuit, such asBoris BeckerandMichael Stich, andRoger FedererandStan Wawrinkahave formed a rare doubles partnership for the Olympics. Unlike professional tennis tournaments (see below) where singles players receive much more prize money than doubles players, an Olympic medal for both singles and doubles has similar prestige. The Olympics is more of a priority for doubles champions while singles champions often skip the tournament.While the ATP has voted for Olympic results to count towards player ranking points, WTA players voted against it. For the2000 Olympics,Lisa Raymondwas passed over for Team USA in favour ofSerena Williamsby captainBillie Jean King, even though Raymond was the top-ranked doubles player in the world at the time, and Raymond unsuccessfully challenged the selection. Prize money In professional tennis tournaments such asWimbledon, the singles competition receives the most prize money and coverage, followed by doubles, and then mixed doubles usually receive the lowest monetary awards.For instance in theUS Openas of 2018, the men's and women's singles prize money (US$40,912,000) accounts for 80.9 percent of total player base compensation, while men's and women's doubles (US$6,140,840), men's and women's singles qualifying (US$3,008,000), and mixed doubles (US$505,000) account for 12.1 percent, 5.9 percent, and 1.0 percent, respectively. The singles winner receives US$3,800,000, while the doubles winning pair receives $700,000 and the mixed doubles winning pair receives US$155,000. Grand Slam tournament winners The following players have won at least five singles titles atGrand Slam tournaments(active players inbold): Greatest male players A frequent topic of discussion among tennis fans and commentators is who was the greatest male singles player of all time. By a large margin, anAssociated Presspoll in 1950 namedBill Tildenas the greatest player of the first half of the 20th century.From 1920 to 1930, Tilden won singles titles atWimbledonthree times and theUS Championshipsseven times. In 1938, however,Donald Budgebecame the first person to win all four major singles titles during the same calendar year, theGrand Slam, and won six consecutive major titles in 1937 and 1938. Tilden called Budge \"the finest player 365 days a year that ever lived.\"In his 1979 autobiography,Jack Kramersaid that, based on consistent play, Budge was the greatest player ever.Some observers, however, also felt that Kramer deserved consideration for the title. Kramer was among the few who dominated amateur and professional tennis during the late 1940s and early 1950s.Tony Traberthas said that of the players he saw before the start of theOpen Era, Kramer was the best male champion. By the 1960s, Budge and others had addedPancho GonzalesandLew Hoadto the list of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever.Gonzales said about Hoad, \"When Lew's game was at its peak nobody could touch him. ... I think his game was the best game ever. Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with the most natural tennis physique.\" Before and during the Open Era,Rod Laverremains the only male player in history to have won the calendar year Grand Slam twice in 1962 and 1969and also the calendar year Professional Grand Slam in 1967. Jimmy Connors,Björn Borg, andJohn McEnroehad a fierce rivalry in the late 1970s and early 1980s that propelled \"the men's game to new heights of popularity\".Connors had a long and prolific career and holds theOpen Era men's singles recordsof 109 titles including eight Grand Slams, 1,557 matches played, and 1,274 match wins. Borg was regarded by his contemporaries as among the greatest ever, having a calm court demeanor and unrivalled physical conditioning, winning six French Opens and five straight Wimbledon titles, retiring at age 26 when he was still in his prime. McEnroe attained the No. 1 ranking in bothsinglesanddoubles, finishing his career with 77 singles and 78 doubles titles; this remains thehighest men's combined totalof theOpen Era. TheAgassi–Sampras rivalryshowcased the two best players in the 1990s.Sampras had a precise and powerful serve while Agassi was considered to be one of the best service returners in the history of the game.By the early 2000s,Pete Samprashad won a then-record of 14 Grand Slam titles which was by far the most among his contemporaries. Sampras also held the record for most weeks at No. 1 with 286 until it was broken a decade later by Federer and Djokovic after that.Andre Agassi, was the first player to complete theCareer Grand Slamon all modern three surfaces (hard, grass, and clay courts) as previous winners of Grand Slam tournaments played in an era of grass and clay only (Rod Laver and Ken Rosewall also won majorPro tournamentson the three surfaces). Agassi also is the only player to win all four Grand Slam titles along with theyear-end championshipsand theolympics. Both Sampras and Agassi are regarded to be among the greatest players of all time. By the early twenty-first century, the 'Big Three' ofRoger Federer,Rafael NadalandNovak Djokovichave dominated men's singles tennis for two decades,collectively winning 66majorsingles tournaments; Djokovic with an all-time record 24 titles, Nadal with 22 and Federer with 20. They have been ranked asworld No. 1sin singles for a total 947 weeks (equivalent to 18 years); Djokovic for a record 428 weeks, Federer for 310, and Nadal for 209. Greatest female players As with the men there are frequent discussions about who is the greatest female singles player of all time withSteffi Graf,Martina NavratilovaandSerena Williamsbeing the three players most often nominated. In March 2012 the Tennis Channel published a combined list of the 100 greatest men and women tennis players of all time.It ranked Steffi Graf as the greatest female player (in 3rd place overall), followed byMartina Navratilova(4th place) andMargaret Court(8th place). The rankings were determined by an international panel. Sportswriter John Wertheim ofSports Illustratedstated in an article in July 2010 thatSerena Williamsis the greatest female tennis player ever with the argument that \"Head-to-head, on a neutral surface (i.e. hard courts), everyone at their best, I can't help feeling that she crushes the other legends.\".In a reaction to this article Yahoo sports blog Busted Racket published a list of the top-10 women's tennis players of all time placing Martina Navratilova in first spot.This top-10 list was similar to the one published in June 2008 by the Bleacher Report who also ranked Martina Navratilova as the top female player of all time. Steffi Graf is considered by some to be the greatest female player.Billie Jean Kingsaid in 1999, \"Steffi is definitely the greatest women's tennis player of all time.\"Martina Navratilovahas included Graf on her list of great players.In December 1999, Graf was named the greatest female tennis player of the 20th century by a panel of experts assembled by theAssociated Press.Tennis writer Steve Flink, in his bookThe Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century, named her as the best female player of the 20th century, directly followed by Martina Navratilova. Tennismagazine selected Martina Navratilova as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005.Tennis historian and journalistBud Collinshas called Navratilova \"arguably, the greatest player of all time.\"Billie Jean Kingsaid about Navratilova in 2006, \"She's the greatest singles, doubles and mixed doubles player who's ever lived.\" In 2018, aTennis.companel selected Serena Williams as thegreatest female tennis player in the Open Era.In May 2020, the Tennis Channel ranked Williams as the greatest female tennis player of all time. In November 2018, Tennis.com polled its readers to choose the greatest women's tennis player of all time and Graf came in first.In July 2020, The Guardian polled its readers to determine the greatest female tennis player of the past 50 years, and Graf was the clear favorite, picking up nearly twice as many votes as any other player. Officials In most professional play and some amateur competition, there is an officiating head judge or chairumpire(usually referred to simply as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations. The umpire may be assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball has landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults. There also may be a net judge who determines whether the ball has touched the net during service. The umpire has the right to overrule a line judge or a net judge if the umpire is sure that a clear mistake has been made. In past tournaments, line judges tasked with calling the serve were sometimes assisted byelectronic sensorsthat beeped to indicate an out-of-bounds serve; one such system was called \"Cyclops\".Cyclops has since largely been replaced by theHawk-Eyesystem.In professional tournaments using this system, players are allowed three unsuccessful appeals per set, plus one additional appeal in the tiebreak to challenge closeline callsby means of anelectronic review. TheUS Open,Miami Masters,US Open Series, andWorld Team Tennisstarted using this challenge system in 2006 and theAustralian OpenandWimbledonintroduced the system in 2007.In clay-court matches, such as at theFrench Open, a call may be questioned by reference to the mark left by the ball's impact on the court surface. The referee, who is usually located off the court, is the final authority about tennis rules. When called to the court by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change the umpire's decision on a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the court during play, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision. (This would only happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup matches, not at the World Group level, when a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair.) Junior tennis In tennis, a junior is a player under 18 who is still legally protected by a parent or guardian. Players on the main adult tour who are under 18 must have documents signed by a parent or guardian. These players, however, are still eligible to play in junior tournaments. TheInternational Tennis Federation(ITF) conducts a junior tour that allows juniors to establish a world ranking and anAssociation of Tennis Professionals(ATP) orWomen's Tennis Association(WTA) ranking. Most juniors who enter the international circuit do so by progressing through ITF, Satellite, Future, and Challenger tournaments before entering the main circuit. The latter three circuits also have adults competing in them. Some juniors, however, such as AustralianLleyton Hewittand FrenchmanGaël Monfils, have catapulted directly from the junior tour to the ATP tour by dominating the junior scene or by taking advantage of opportunities given to them to participate in professional tournaments. In 2004, the ITF implemented a new rankings scheme to encourage greater participation in doubles, by combining two rankings (singles and doubles) into one combined tally.Junior tournaments do not offerprize moneyexcept for theGrand Slam tournaments, which are the most prestigious junior events. Juniors may earn income from tennis by participating in the Future, Satellite, or Challenger tours. Tournaments are broken up into different tiers offering different amounts of ranking points, culminating with Grade A. Leading juniors are allowed to participate for their nation in theJunior Fed Cup and Davis Cupcompetitions. To succeed in tennis often means having to begin playing at a young age. To facilitate and nurture a junior's growth in tennis, almost all tennis playing nations have developed a junior development system. Juniors develop their play through a range of tournaments on all surfaces, accommodating all different standards of play. Talented juniors may also receive sponsorships from governing bodies or private institutions. Injuries Muscle strain is one of the most common injuries in tennis.When an isolated large-energy appears during the muscle contraction and at the same time body weight apply huge amount of pressure to the lengthened muscle,muscle straincan occur.Inflammation and bleeding are triggered when muscle strain occurs, which can result in redness, pain and swelling.Overuse is also common in tennis players of all levels.Muscle,cartilage,nerves,bursae,ligamentsandtendonsmay be damaged from overuse. The repetitive use of a particular muscle without time for repair and recovery is the most common cause of injury. In popular culture See also References Further reading External links",
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"Jordanne Whiley Jordanne Joyce WhileyMBE(born 11 June 1992) is a British retired wheelchair tennis player. Aged 14, she became Britain's youngest ever national women's singles champion inwheelchair tennis.She hasosteogenesis imperfectaas does her father,Keith, who was also a Paralympian and won a bronze medal in 1984 in New York.As well as the2015 US Openin wheelchair singles, Whiley has won 9 Grand Slam doubles titles, and she & JapaneseYui Kamijiare the fourth team in women's wheelchair doubles (as well as the most recent players) to complete theCalendar Year Grand Slam.Whiley was appointedMember of the Order of the British Empire(MBE) in the2015 Queens Birthday Honourslist for services to wheelchair tennis. Career Junior In 2006 at the age of 14 Whiley claimed her first senior main draw titles when she won the singles and doubles at the Cardiff Wheelchair Tennis tournament, also winning the girls title.At the end of 2006 Whiley had moved up from 112 to 48 in the rankings and had won junior titles in Poland and the Netherlands.Whiley won two awards at the British Wheelchair Tennis Association awards: Most improved female player and players' player of the year.Whiley created history in 2007 when she defeated Katharine Kruger in Tarbes. She became the first Briton to claim the Cruyff Foundation Wheelchair Juniors Masters title, Whiley also claimed the doubles title with Louise Hunt.Following on from the Masters success Whiley won her second senior title at the North West Challenge.Whiley followed this up by becoming the youngest national British Champion and winning the doubles title as well.Whiley then successfully defended her Cardiff wheelchair tennis tournament titles.In 2008 Whiley successfully defended her Masters titles; defeating Emmy Kaiser in the singles before partnering Hunt to back to back doubles titles.The following week Whiley claimed her first international title the Sion Indoor.Whiley then successfully defended both titles at the North West Challenge.She was named in the team for the 2008 Paralympic Games. Senior In 2012, she reached the finals of Women's wheelchair doubles at Wimbledon.She competed forGreat Britain at the 2012 Summer Paralympicswhere she shared a bronze withLucy Shukerinwomen's doubles.Whiley and Shuker won another bronze medal at the2016 Summer Paralympics, where Whiley was eliminated in the women's singles quarterfinals. Whiley and her partnerYui Kamijiof Japan achieved a calendar Grand Slam by winning the wheelchair doubles at the Australian Open (beating the Dutch pairMarjolein BuisandJiske Griffioen), the French Open, Wimbledon and the US Open (overcoming Griffioen and fellow DutchwomanAniek van Kootin all three finals). They finished the year by adding the Masters crown after defeating Louise Hunt and Katharina Kruger in the final. However, despite the absence of van Koot and Griffioen the pair did not go undefeated throughout the tournament as they lost to Marjolein Buis and Michaela Spaanstra during the round robin group stage. Whiley and Kamiji are four times doubles champions atWimbledon, and Whiley was 11 weeks pregnant when they won their 4th title, in 2017.Whiley did not participate at the Championships in 2018, after giving birth to her son, earlier that year. She planned a comeback in late 2018.In the 2020 season, she won the Australian Open and US Open doubles titles. In June 2021 she andLucy Shukerwere among six tennis players named to represent the UK at the postponed2020 Paralympicsin Tokyo.Shuker and Whiley won the silver medal in thewomen's doubles,with Whiley winning bronze in thewomen's singles. Grand Slam performance timelines Wheelchair singles Wheelchair doubles References External links",
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"Alfie Hewett Alfie HewettOBE(born 6 December 1997 in Norwich, Norfolk) is a British professionalwheelchair tennisplayer.He is the current world No. 1 in both singles and doubles. He has won a total of 30 Grand Slam titles, with 9 singles and 21 doubles titles. Hewett is a 30-timemajorchampion, having won nine titles in singles and 21 in doubles, the latter all partneringGordon Reid. The pair completed theGrand Slamin 2021, becoming the first to do so in wheelchair men's doubles sinceStéphane Houdetin 2014. Hewett wonParalympicgold inmen's doublesat the2024 Summer Paralympics, and is a three-time silver medalist. He won theWheelchair Tennis Mastersin both singles and doubles in 2017, 2021 and 2023. Hewett was born with a congenital heart defect that required surgery at six months, and suffered fromLegg–Calvé–Perthes disease, a condition that inhibits blood flow from the pelvis to the hip joint. His ability to walk was severely impaired and from the age of six he has been a wheelchair user. Though able to walk, Hewett is not fully mobile in the conventional sense and cannot do able-bodied sports. Tennis career Hewett attendedAcle High Schooland went on to study Sport and Exercise Science atCity College Norwich. In July 2016 Hewett won the2016 Wimbledon Championships – Wheelchair men's doubles, alongsideGordon Reid, coming back from a set down to win against the French pairStéphane HoudetandNicolas Peifer. He won a silver medal in the men's singles event atRio 2016and silver in the doubles event with Reid, who beat him in the singles final. In May 2017 Hewett won his firstGrand Slamin singles at theFrench Open, beatingGustavo FernándezofArgentinain three sets, despite losing the first to love. In July 2017, in a repeat of the final a year earlier, Hewett won the2017 Wimbledon Championships – Wheelchair men's doubles, alongside Reid, winning in three sets against Houdet and Peifer. Hewett won the 2017NEC Wheelchair Tennis Mastersin Loughborough, UK. He ended 2017 ranked No 2 in the world, then a career-high. On 29 January 2018 Hewett became the world number 1. In March 2018 Hewett won his first Super Series singles title at the Cajun Classic in Baton Rouge, USA. On 2 September 2018 he claimed his second Super Series title at the US Open USTA Wheelchair Championships inSt. Louis. Later that month Hewett won the singles title at theUS Openas well as the doubles title with Reid. In September 2019 he successfully defended both his singles and, with Reid, doubles titles at the US Open. In 2020 Hewett won theFrench Opensingles title in three sets againstJoachim Gérardand partnered Reid to win all three available Grand Slam doubles titles at theAustralian Open, US Open and French Open, with the Wimbledon Championships cancelled due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. After winning a silver medal in themen's doubleswith Reid at the2020 Summer Paralympicsand losing the bronze medalsingles matchto Reid, world number 2Hewett spoke about his Paralympic future being \"out of his hands\",due to a review into whether his disability is severe enough to qualify him to play in a wheelchair under the 2019 revision ofInternational Tennis Federationrules.Hewett was allowed to continue his tennis career after an alteration to the new ITF rules in November 2021. Hewett was appointed Officer of theOrder of the British Empire(OBE) in the2023 Birthday Honoursfor services to tennis. Hewett kicked off 2024 by winning a fifth Australian Open doubles title in a row with Reid.In May 2024 Hewett was part of the Great Britain team which won the World Team Cup for a second successive year beating Spain 2-0 in the final of the event held in Turkey. It was the team's fourth win in the competition since 2015. Hewett and Reid won a fifth straightFrench Openin June with a 6-1 6-4 victory over second-seeded Japanese duo Takuya Miki and Tokito Oda in the final. At the2024 Wimbledon Championships, Hewett defeatedMartín de la Puentein the final, 6–2, 6–3, to complete the singlescareer Grand Slam.He and Reid also won doubles title, defeatingTakuya MikiandTokito Odain the final, 6–4, 7–6(7–2). Hewett won the doubles gold medal at the 2024 Summer Paralympics in Paris, France. He lost in Paralympic wheelchair tennis men's singles final. Career statistics Grand Slam performance timelines Wheelchair singles Wheelchair doubles Grand Slam tournament finals Wheelchair singles: 18 (9 titles, 9 runner-ups) Wheelchair doubles: 27 (21 titles, 6 runner-ups) References External links"
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"Tennis Tennisis aracket sportthat is played either individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses atennis racketstrung with a cord to strike a hollow rubberballcovered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent'scourt. The object of the game is to manoeuvre the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player unable to return the ball validly will not gain apoint, while the opposite player will. Playable at all levels of society and at all ages, tennis can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, includingwheelchair users. The original forms of tennis developed inFranceduring the lateMiddle Ages.The modern form of tennis originated inBirmingham, England, in the late 19th century aslawn tennis.It had close connections to various field (lawn) games such ascroquetandbowlsas well as to the older racket sport today calledreal tennis. The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the 1890s.",
"since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that until 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times,and the adoption of thetiebreakin the 1970s.A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point-challenge system, which allows a player to contest theline callof a point, a system known asHawk-Eye. Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is a popular worldwide spectator sport.The fourGrand Slamtournaments (also referred to as the majors) are especially popular and are considered the highest level of competition for the sport. These tournaments are theAustralian Open, played onhardcourts; theFrench Open, played on redclay courts;Wimbledon, played ongrass courts; and theUS Open, also played on hardcourts.Additionally, tennis was one of the originalOlympic sports, and has been consistently competed in theSummer Olympic Gamessince1988. History Predecessors Historians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in",
"origin lay in 12th-century northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm of the hand.Louis X of Francewas a keen player ofjeu de paume(\"game of the palm\"), which evolved intoreal tennis, and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris \"around the end of the 13th century\".In due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe.In June 1316 atVincennes, Val-de-Marne, and following a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of eitherpneumoniaorpleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning.Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player known by name.Another of the early enthusiasts of the game was KingCharles V of France, who had a court set up at theLouvre Palace. It was not until the 16th century thatracketscame into use and the",
"into use and the game began to be called \"tennis\", from the French termtenez, which can be translated as \"hold!\", \"receive!\" or \"take!\", aninterjectionused as a call from the server to his opponent.It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors, where the ball could be hit off the wall.Henry VIII of Englandwas a big fan of this game, which is now known asreal tennis. An epitaph inSt Michael's Church, Coventry, writtenc.1705, read, in part: Here lyes an old toss'd Tennis Ball:Was racketted, from spring to fall,With so much heat and so much hast,Time's arm for shame grew tyred at last. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England. The invention of the firstlawn mowerin Britain in 1830 is believed to have been a catalyst for the preparation of modern-style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most",
"lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and others. Origins of the modern game Between 1859 and 1865,Harry Gem, a solicitor, and his friendAugurio Pereradeveloped a game that combined elements ofracquetsand the Basque ball gamepelota, which they played on Perera'scroquetlawn inBirmingham, England.In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis club on Avenue Road,Leamington Spa.This is where \"lawn tennis\" was used as the name of an activity by a club for the first time. InTennis: A Cultural History, Heiner Gillmeister reveals that on 8 December 1874, British army officerWalter Clopton Wingfieldwrote to Harry Gem, commenting that he (Wingfield) had been experimenting with his version of lawn tennis \"for a year and a half\".In December 1873, Wingfield designed and patented a game which he calledsphairistikè(Greek:σφαιριστική, meaning \"ball-playing\"), and which was soon known simply as \"sticky\" – for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his friend's estate ofNantclwyd",
"estate ofNantclwyd Hall, inLlanelidan, Wales.According toR. D. C.Evans, turfgrassagronomist, \"Sports historians all agree that deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis.\"According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield \"popularized this game enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game – and most importantly you had his rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874.\"The world's oldest annual tennis tournament took place at Leamington Lawn Tennis Club in Birmingham in 1874.This was three years before theAll England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Clubwould hold its first championships at Wimbledon, in 1877. The first Championships culminated in a significant debate on how to standardise the rules. In the United States in",
"United States in 1874,Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned fromBermudawith asphairistikèset. She became fascinated by the game of tennis after watching British army officers play.She laid out a tennis court at theStaten Island Cricket Clubat Camp Washington,Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York. The first American National championship was played there in September 1880. An Englishman named O.E. Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100, by defeating CanadianI. F. Hellmuth.There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York. On 21 May 1881, the oldest nationwide tennis organization in the worldwas formed, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now theUnited States Tennis Association) in order to standardize the rules and organize competitions.The US National Men's Singles Championship, now theUS Open, was first held in 1881 at theNewport",
"1881 at theNewport Casino,Newport, Rhode Island.The US National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 inPhiladelphia. Tennis also became popular in France, where theFrench Championshipsdate to 1891, although until 1925 they were open only to tennis players who were members of French clubs.Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open and theAustralian Open(dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis.Together, these four events are called the Majors orSlams(a term borrowed frombridgerather thanbaseball). In 1913, the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF), now theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF), was founded and established three official tournaments as the major championships of the day. TheWorld Grass Court Championshipswere awarded to Great Britain. TheWorld Hard Court Championshipswere awarded to France; the term \"hard court\" was used for clay courts at the time. Some tournaments were held in Belgium instead. And theWorld Covered Court",
"Covered Court Championshipsfor indoor courts were awarded annually; Sweden, France, Great Britain, Denmark, Switzerland and Spain each hosted the tournament.At a meeting held on 16 March 1923 in Paris, the title \"World Championship\" was dropped and a new category of \"Official Championship\" was created for events in Great Britain, France, the US and Australia– today's Grand Slam events.The impact on the four recipient nations to replace the \"world championships\" with \"official championships\" was simple in a general sense: each became a major nation of the federation with enhanced voting power, and each now operated a major event. The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the ILTF have remained largely stable in the ensuing 80 years, the one major change being the addition of thetiebreaksystem designed byJimmy Van Alen.That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the1924 Games, but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the",
"was credited by the efforts of then ITF presidentPhilippe Chatrier, ITF general secretary David Gray and ITF vice president Pablo Llorens, with support fromInternational Olympic CommitteepresidentJuan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming, and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full-medal sport atSeoulin 1988. TheDavis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.The analogous competition for women's national teams, theFed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF. In 1926, promoterC. C. Pyleestablished the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.The most notable of these early professionals were the AmericanVinnie Richardsand the FrenchwomanSuzanne Lenglen.Playersturned prowould no longer be permitted to compete in the major (amateur) tournaments. In 1968, commercial pressures and rumours of some",
"and rumours of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating theOpen Era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis.With the beginning of the Open Era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its middle-class English-speaking image(although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists). In 1954, Van Alen founded theInternational Tennis Hall of Fame, a nonprofit museum in Newport, Rhode Island.The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Equipment Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only aracketand balls. Rackets The components of a tennis racket include a",
"racket include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and strings were ofanimal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power. Meanwhile, technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added durability. Under modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to the following guidelines; The rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches (81 cm) until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches (74 cm). Many",
"(74 cm). Many companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are three of the most commonly used brands; however, many more companies exist.The same companies sponsor players to use these rackets in the hopes that the company name will become better known by the public. Strings There are multiple types of tennis strings, including natural gut and synthetic stings made from materials such asnylon,kevlar, orpolyester. Natural gut The first type of tennis strings available were natural gut strings, introduced by Babolat. They were the only type used until synthetic strings were introduced in the 1950s. Natural gut strings are still used frequently by players such as Roger Federer. They are made fromcowintestines, and provide increased power, and are easier on the arm than most strings. Synthetic Most synthetic strings are made from monofilament or multifiliament nylon strings. Monofilament strings are cheap to buy, and are used widely by many recreational level players for their",
"players for their all round performance, while multifilament strings are created to mimic natural gut more closely by weaving together fibres, but are generally more expensive than their monofilament counterparts.Polyester strings allow for more spin on the ball than any other string, due to their firm strings, while keeping control of the ball, and this is why many players use them, especially higher player ones.Kevlar tennis strings are highly durable, and are mostly used by players that frequently break strings, because they maintain tension well, but these strings can be stiff on the arm. Hybrid strings Hybrid stringing is when a tennis racket is strung with two different strings for the mains (the vertical strings) and the crosses (the horizontal strings). This is most commonly done with two different strings that are made of different materials, but can also be done with two different types of the same string. A notable example of a player using hybrid strings is Roger Federer, using natural gut",
"using natural gut strings in his mains and polyester strings in his crosses. Balls Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and stuffed with feathers.Modern tennis balls are made of hollowvulcanized rubberwith afeltcoating. Traditionally white, the predominant colour was gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight,deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as 65.41–68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 in). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 g (1.98 and 2.10 oz).Tennis balls were traditionally manufactured in the United States and Europe. Although the process of producing the balls has remained virtually unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of manufacturing now takes place in theFar East. The relocation is due to cheaperlabour costsand materials in the",
"materials in the region.Tournaments that are played under the ITF Rules of Tennis must use balls that are approved by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and be named on the official ITF list of approved tennis balls. Manner of play Court Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78feet(23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (11 m) for doubles matches.Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by either a cord or metal cable of diameter no greater than0.8 cm (1⁄3in).The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.91 m) high in the centre.The net posts are 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side. The modern tennis court owes its design to MajorWalter Clopton",
"MajorWalter Clopton Wingfield. In 1873, Wingfield patented a court much the same as the current one for hisstické tennis(sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with thehourglassshape of his court changed to a rectangle. Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces.Grass,clay, andhard courtsof concrete or asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood flooring having been historically used.Artificial turfcourts can also be found. Lines The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the centre of each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or the centre mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines; they are the boundaries for doubles matches. The lines to the inside of the doubles",
"of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines, and are the boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles alley, playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the centre of a player's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve. The line dividing the service line in two is called the centre line or centre service line. The boxes this centre line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player's position, they have to hit the ball into one of these when serving.A ball is out only if none of it has hit the area inside the lines, or the line, upon its first bounce. All lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (25 and 51 mm) in width, with the exception of the baseline which can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide, although in",
"wide, although in practice it is often the same width as the others. Play of a single point The players or teams start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated theserver, and the opposing player is thereceiver. The choice to be server or receiver in the first game and the choice of ends is decided by a coin toss before the warm-up starts. Service alternates game by game between the two players or teams. For each point, the server starts behind the baseline, between the centre mark and the sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server willserve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server. For a service to be legal, the ball must travel over the net without touching it into the diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is aletornet service, which is void, and the server retakes that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always",
"and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a \"foot fault\" when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the centre mark before the ball is hit. If the second service, after a fault, is also a fault, the serverdouble faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service. A legal service starts arally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of a player hitting the ball so that it falls in the server's court, before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel over or round the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is considered a legal return as long as it crosses into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses",
"legal return loses the point. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point. Scoring Game, set, match Game Agameconsists of a sequence ofpointsplayed with the same player serving. A game is won by the first player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are described as \"love\", \"15\", \"30\", and \"40\", respectively. If at least three points have been scored by each player, making the player's scores equal at 40 apiece, the score is not called out as \"40–40\", but rather as \"deuce\". If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his opponent, the score of the game is \"advantage\" for the player in the lead. During informal games, advantage can also be called \"ad in\" or \"van in\" when the serving player is ahead, and \"ad out\" or \"van out\" when the receiving player is ahead;",
"player is ahead; alternatively, either player may simply call out \"my ad\" or \"your ad\". The score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving player's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., \"15–love\") after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score. Set Asetconsists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game (tying the set 6–6) atiebreakis played. A tiebreak, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A tiebreak game can be",
"game can be won by scoring at least seven points and at least two points more than the opponent. In a tiebreak, two players serve by 'ABBA' system which has been proven to be fair.If a tiebreak is not played, the set is referred to as anadvantage set, where the set continues without limit until one player leads by a two-game margin. A \"love set\" means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a \"jam donut\" in the US.In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, e.g. \"6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5\". Match Amatchconsists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a best of three or fivesetssystem. On the professional circuit, men play best-of-five-set matches at all fourGrand Slamtournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of theOlympic Gamesand best-of-three-set matches at all other tournaments, while women play best-of-three-set matches at all tournaments. The first",
"The first player to win two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the match.Only in the final sets of matches at the Olympic Games andFed Cupare tiebreaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player has a two-game lead, occasionally leading to someremarkably long matches. In tournament play, the chairumpireannounces the end of the match with the well-known phrase \"Game, set, match\" followed by the winning person's or team's name. Special point terms Game point Agame pointoccurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40–love, the player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring",
"of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play. Break point Abreak pointoccurs if the receiver, not theserver, has a chance to win the game with the next point. Break points are of particular importance becauseservingis generally considered advantageous, with servers being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver who has one (score of 30–40 or advantage), two (score of 15–40) or three (score of love–40) consecutive chances to win the game hasbreak point,double break pointortriple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to haveconvertedtheir break point. If the receiver fails to win their break point it is called afailure to convert.Winning break points, and thus the game, is also referred to asbreaking serve, as the receiver has disrupted, orbrokenthe natural advantage of the server. If in the following game the previous server also wins a break point it",
"a break point it is referred to asbreaking back. Except wheretiebreaksapply, at least one break of serve is required to win a set (otherwise a two-game lead would never occur). Rule variations Another, however informal, tennis format is calledCanadian doubles. This involves three players, with one person playing against a doubles team. The single player gets to utilize the alleys normally reserved only for a doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as for a regular game. This format is not sanctioned by any official body. \"Australian doubles\", another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, is played with similar rules to theCanadian doublesstyle, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game, each player taking a turn at playing alone against the other two. As such, each player plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with the singles player always serving. Scoring styles vary, but one popular",
"but one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break serve. Wheelchair tenniscan be played by able-bodied players as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility. An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and able-bodied matches. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair player and an able-bodied player (referred to as \"one-up, one-down\"), or for a wheelchair player to play against an able-bodied player. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the wheelchair users only. Match play Continuity A tennis match is intended to be continuous.Because stamina is a relevant factor, arbitrary delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point.This is increased to 90 seconds when the players change ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a",
"game), and a 2-minute break is permitted between sets.Other than this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as rain, damaged footwear, damaged racket, or the need to retrieve an errant ball. Should a player be deemed to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire may initially give a warning followed by subsequent penalties of \"point\", \"game\", and default of the match for the player who is consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit. In the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and each player at the same end of the court as when rain halted play, or as close to the same relative compass point if play is resumed on a different court. Ball changes Balls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, inATPandWTAtournaments, they are changed after every nine games with the first change occurring after only seven games, because the",
"games, because the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm-up.InITFtournaments likeFed Cup, the balls are changed after every eleven games (rather than nine) with the first change occurring after only nine games (instead of seven). An exception is that a ball change may not take place at the beginning of a tiebreaker, in which case the ball change is delayed until the beginning of the second game of the next set.As a courtesy to the receiver, the server will often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new balls are used as a reminder that they are using new balls. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain), then the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes. On-court coaching A recent rule change is to allow coaching on court on a limited basis during a match.This has been introduced in",
"been introduced in women's tennis forWTA Tourevents in 2009 and allows the player to request her coach once per set. Stance Stance refers to the way a player prepares themselves in order to best be able to return a shot. Essentially, it enables them to move quickly in order to achieve a particular stroke. There are four main stances in modern tennis: open, semi-open, closed, and neutral. All four stances involve the player crouching in some manner: as well as being a more efficient striking posture, it allows them toisometrically preloadtheir muscles in order to play the stroke more dynamically. What stance is selected is strongly influenced by shot selection. A player may quickly alter their stance depending on the circumstances and the type of shot they intend to play. Any given stance also alters dramatically based upon the actual playing of the shot with dynamic movements and shifts of body weight occurring. Open stance This is the most common stance in tennis. The player's feet are placed parallel to",
"placed parallel to the net. They may be pointing sideways, directly at the net or diagonally towards it. This stance allows for a high degree of torso rotation which can add significant power to the stroke. This process is sometimes likened to the coiling and uncoiling of a spring. i.e. the torso is rotated as a means of preloading the muscular system in preparation for playing the stroke: this is the coiling phase. When the stroke is played the torso rotates to face forwards again, called uncoiling, and adds significant power to the stroke. A disadvantage of this stance is that it does not always allow ‘for proper weight transfer and maintenance of balance’when making powerful strokes. It is commonly used for forehand strokes; double-handed backhands can also be made effectively from it. Semi-open stance This stance is somewhere between open and closed and is a very flexible stance. The feet are aligned diagonally towards the net. It allows for a lot of shoulder rotation and the torso can be coiled, before",
"be coiled, before being uncoiled into the shot in order to increase the power of the shot. It is commonly used in modern tennis especially by ‘top professional players on the forehand’.Two-handed backhands can also be employed from this stance. Closed stance The closed stance is the least commonly used of the three main stances. One foot is placed further towards the net with the other foot further from it; there is a diagonal alignment between the feet. It allows for effective torso rotation in order to increase the power of the shot. It is usually used to play backhand shots and it is rare to see forehand shots played from it. A stroke from this stance may entail the rear foot coming completely off the floor with bodyweight being transferred entirely to the front foot. Neutral stance This is sometimes also referred to as the square stance. One foot is positioned closer to the net and ahead of the other which is behind and in line with it. Both feet are aligned at a 90 degree angle to the net. The neutral",
"net. The neutral stance is often taught early because ‘It allows beginners to learn about shifting weight and rotation of the body.’Forehands and backhands may be made from it. Shots Competent tennis players have eight basic shots in their repertoire: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley, half-volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob. Grip A grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots during a match. The grip affects the angle of the racket face when it hits the ball and influences the pace, spin, and placement of the shot. Players use various grips during play, including the Continental (The \"Handshake Grip\"), Eastern (either semi-eastern or full eastern, usually used for backhands), and Western (semi-western or full western, usually for forehand grips) grips. Most players change grips during a match depending on what shot they are hitting; for example, slice shots and serves call for a Continental grip. Serve A serve (or, more formally, a \"service\") in tennis is a shot to start a point.",
"to start a point. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it (usually near the apex of its trajectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without touching the net. The serve may be hit under- or overhand although underhand serving remains a rarity.If the ball hits the net on the first serve and bounces over into the correct diagonal box then it is called a \"let\" and the server gets two more additional serves to get it in. There can also be a let if the server serves the ball and the receiver isn't prepared.If the server misses his or her first serve and gets a let on the second serve, then they get one more try to get the serve in the box. Experienced players strive to master the conventional overhand serve to maximize its power and placement. The server may employ different types of serve including flat serve, topspin serve, slice serve, and kick (American twist) serve. A reverse type of spin serve is hit in a manner that spins the ball opposite the natural spin of the",
"natural spin of the server, the spin direction depending upon right- or left-handedness. If the ball is spinning counterclockwise, it will curve right from the hitter's point of view and curve left if spinning clockwise. Some servers are content to use the serve simply to initiate the point; however, advanced players often try to hit a winning shot with their serve. A winning serve that is not touched by the opponent is called an \"ace\". Forehand For a right-handed player, the forehand is a stroke that begins on the right side of the body, continues across the body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body. There are variousgripsfor executing the forehand, and their popularity has fluctuated over the years. The most important ones are thecontinental, theeastern, thesemi-western, and thewestern. For a number of years, the small, frail 1920s playerBill Johnstonwas considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high using awesterngrip.",
"using awesterngrip. Few top players used thewesterngrip after the 1920s, but in the latter part of the 20th century, as shot-making techniques and equipment changed radically, thewesternforehand made a strong comeback and is now used by many modern players. No matter which grip is used, most forehands are generally executed with one hand holding the racket, but there have been fine players with two-handed forehands. In the 1940s and 50s, the Ecuadorian/American playerPancho Seguraused a two-handed forehand to achieve a devastating effect against larger, more powerful players. Players such asMonica Selesor France'sFabrice SantoroandMarion Bartoliare also notable players known for their two-handed forehands. Backhand For right-handed players, the backhand is a stroke that begins on the left side of their body, continues across their body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the right side of their body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally considered more difficult to",
"more difficult to master than the forehand. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one hand, using either aneasternor acontinentalgrip. The first notable players to use two hands were the 1930s AustraliansVivian McGrathandJohn Bromwich, but they were lone exceptions. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s asBjörn Borg,Chris Evert,Jimmy Connors, and laterMats WilanderandMarat Safinused it to great effect, and it is now used by a large number of the world's best players, includingNovak Djokovic,Rafael NadalandSerena Williams. Two hands give the player more control, while one hand can generate a slice shot, applying backspin on the ball to produce a low trajectory bounce. Reach is also limited with the two-handed shot. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time,Don Budge, had a powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that imparted topspin onto the ball.Ken Rosewall, another player noted for his one-handed backhand, used a very accurate slice",
"very accurate slice backhand through the 1950s and 1960s. A small number of players, notablyMonica Seles, use two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides. Other shots Avolleyis a shot returned to the opponent in mid-air before the ball bounces, generally performed near the net, and is usually made with a stiff-wristed punching motion to hit the ball into an open area of the opponent's court. Thehalf volleyis made by hitting the ball on the rise just after it has bounced, also generally in the vicinity of the net, and played with the racket close to the ground.Theswinging volleyis hit out of the air as the player approaches the net. It is an offensive shot used to take preparation time away from the opponent, as it returns the ball into the opponent's court much faster than a standard volley. From a poor defensive position on the baseline, thelobcan be used as either an offensive or defensive weapon, hitting the ball high and deep into the opponent's court to either enable the lobber to get into better",
"to get into better defensive position or to win the point outright by hitting it over the opponent's head. If the lob is not hit deeply enough into the other court, however, an opponent near the net may then hit anoverhead smash, a hard, serve-like shot, to try to end the point. A difficult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob over the backhand side of a player. When the contact point is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand, most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball or sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand sky-hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful execution of any of these alternatives requires balance and timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play. If their opponent is deep in their court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpecteddrop shot, by softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the",
"the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to \"skid\" upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even backwards towards the net, thus making it even more difficult to return. Tournaments Tournaments are often organized by gender and number of players. Common tournament configurations include men's singles, women's singles, and doubles, where two players play on each side of the net. Tournaments may be organized for specific age groups, with upper age limits for youth and lower age limits for senior players. Example of this include theOrange BowlandLes Petits Asjunior tournaments. There are also tournaments for players with disabilities, such aswheelchair tennisand deaf tennis.In the fourGrand Slamtournaments, the singles draws are limited to 128 players for each gender. Most large tournamentsseedplayers, but players may also be matched by their skill level.",
"their skill level. According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a rating that is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. For example, theUnited States Tennis Associationadministers the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP), which rates players between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2 point increments. Average club players under this system would rate 3.0–4.5 while world class players would be 7.0 on this scale. Grand Slam tournaments The fourGrand Slamtournaments are considered to be the most prestigious tennis events in the world. They are held annually and comprise, in chronological order, theAustralian Open, theFrench Open,Wimbledon, and theUS Open. Apart from theOlympic Games,Davis Cup,Fed Cup, andHopman Cup, they are the only tournaments regulated by theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF).The ITF's national associations,Tennis Australia(Australian Open), theFédération Française de Tennis(French Open), theLawn Tennis Association(Wimbledon) and theUnited States Tennis",
"States Tennis Association(US Open) are delegated the responsibility to organize these events. Aside from the historical significance of these events, they also carry larger prize funds than any other tour event and are worth double the number of ranking points to the champion than in the next echelon of tournaments, theATP Masters 1000(men) andPremier events(women).Another distinguishing feature is the number of players in the singles draw. There are 128, more than any other professional tennis tournament. This draw is composed of 32 seeded players, other players ranked in the world's top 100, qualifiers, and players who receive invitations throughwild cards. Grand Slam men's tournaments have best-of-five set matches while the women play best-of-three. Grand Slam tournaments are among the small number of events that last two weeks, the others being theIndian Wells Mastersand theMiami Masters. Currently, the Grand Slam tournaments are the only tour events that havemixed doublescontests. Grand Slam tournaments",
"Slam tournaments are held in conjunction with wheelchair tennis tournaments andjunior tenniscompetitions. These tournaments also contain their own idiosyncrasies. For example, players at Wimbledon are required to wear predominantly white.Andre Agassichose to skip Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 citing the event's traditionalism, particularly its \"predominantly white\" dress code.Wimbledon has its own particular methods for disseminating tickets, often leading tennis fans to follow complex procedures to obtain tickets. Men's tournament structure Masters Series TheATP Masters 1000is a group of nine tournaments that form the second-highest echelon in men's tennis. Each event is held annually, and a win at one of these events is worth 1000 ranking points. When theATP, led byHamilton Jordan, began running the men's tour in 1990, the directors designated the top nine tournaments, outside of theGrand Slamevents, as \"Super 9\" events.In 2000 this became the Tennis Masters Series and in 2004 the ATP Masters Series. In",
"Masters Series. In November at the end of the tennis year, the world's top eight players compete in theATP Finals, a tournament with a rotating locale. It is currently held in Turin. In August 2007 the ATP announced major changes to the tour that were introduced in 2009. The Masters Series was renamed to the \"ATP Masters 1000\", the addition of the number 1000 referring to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of each tournament. Contrary to earlier plans, the number of tournaments was not reduced from nine to eight and theMonte-Carlo Mastersremains part of the series although, unlike the other events, it does not have a mandatory player commitment. TheHamburg Mastershas been downgraded to a 500-point event. TheMadrid Mastersmoved to May and onto clay courts, and a new tournament inShanghaitook over Madrid's former indoor October slot. As of 2011 six of the nine \"1000\" level tournaments are combined ATP andWTAevents. 500 and 250 series The third and fourth tier of men's tennis tournaments are",
"tournaments are formed by theATP 500 series, consisting of 11 tournaments, and theATP 250 serieswith 40 tournaments.Like theATP Masters 1000, these events offer various amounts of prize money and the numbers refer to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of a tournament.TheDubai Tennis Championshipsoffer the largest financial incentive to players, with total prize money of US$2,313,975 (2012).These series have various draws of 28, 32, 48 and 56 for singles and 16 and 24 for doubles. It is mandatory for leading players to enter at least four 500 events, including at least one after the US Open. Challenger Tour and Futures tournaments TheChallenger Tourfor men is the lowest level of tournament administered by theATP. It is composed of about 150 events and, as a result, features a more diverse range of countries hosting events.The majority of players use the Challenger Series at the beginning of their career to work their way up the rankings.Andre Agassi, between winning Grand Slam tournaments,",
"Slam tournaments, plummeted to World No. 141 and used Challenger Series events for match experience and to progress back up the rankings.The Challenger Series offers prize funds of between US$25,000 and US$150,000. Below the Challenger Tour are the Futures tournaments, events on theITF Men's Circuit. These tournaments also contribute towards a player'sATP rankingspoints. Futures Tournaments offer prize funds of between US$10,000 and US$15,000.Approximately 530 Futures Tournaments are played each year. Women's tournament structure In 2021, the WTA rebranded, resembling the men's tournament series, and also providing extra simplicity for fans and consumers. The numbers do not indicate ranking points, or prize money, but is a system to help define different levels of women's tennis. WTA 1000 TheWTA 1000 Tournaments(formerly thePremierMandatory and Premier 5 Tournaments), are a series of seven tournaments that are part of the second-highest tier in women's tennis. 500 and 250 Series The third and fourth tier of",
"and fourth tier of women's tennis tournaments are formed from theWTA 500 Series(formerly Premier 700), with fifteen tournaments, and theWTA 250 Series(formerly International), consisting of thirty tournaments. WTA 125 TheWTA 125 Series(formerly 125K Series), is the lowest tier of women's tennis, with fourteen tournaments. Players Professional players Professional tennis players enjoy the same relative perks as most top sports personalities: clothing, equipment and endorsements. Like players of other individual sports such asgolf, they are not salaried, but must play and finish highly in tournaments to obtain prize money. In recent years,professional tennis players have been mocked by tabloids and fans for the involuntary or deliberate noise caused by players'grunting. This controversy has spurred the Grand Slam Committee, the International Tennis Association, and the Women's Tennis Association to teach players techniques to avoid grunting. Singles and doubles professional careers While players are gradually",
"are gradually less competitive in singles by their late 20s and early 30s, they can still continue competitively in doubles (as instanced byMartina NavratilovaandJohn McEnroe, who won doubles titles in their 40s). In the Open Era, several female players such asMartina Navratilova,Margaret Court,Martina Hingis,Serena Williams, andVenus Williams(the latter two sisters playing together) have been prolific at both singles and doubles events throughout their careers.John McEnroeis one of the very few professional male players to be top ranked in both singles and doubles at the same time,andYevgeny Kafelnikovis the most recent male player to win multiple Grand Slams in both singles and doubles during the same period of his career. In terms of public attention and earnings (see below), singles champions have far surpassed their doubles counterparts. The Open Era, particularly the men's side, has seen many top-ranked singles players that only sparingly compete in doubles, while having \"doubles specialists\" who are",
"who are typically being eliminated early in the singles draw but do well in the doubles portion of a tournament. Notable doubles pairings includeThe Woodies(Todd WoodbridgeandMark Woodforde) and theBryan brothers(identical twin brothersRobert Charles \"Bob\" BryanandMichael Carl \"Mike\" Bryan). Woodbridge has disliked the term \"doubles 'specialists'\", saying that he and Woodforde \"set a singles schedule and doubles fitted in around that\", although later in Woodbridge's career he focused exclusively on doubles as his singles ranking fell too low that it was no longer financially viable to recover at that age. Woodbridge noted that while top singles players earn enough that they do not need to nor want to play doubles, he suggested that lower-ranked singles players outside the Top Ten should play doubles to earn more playing time and money. Olympics The Olympics doubles tennis tournament necessitates that both members of a doubles pairing be from the same country, hence several top professional pairs such asJamie",
"pairs such asJamie MurrayandBruno Soarescannot compete in the Olympics. Top-ranked singles players that are usually rivals on the professional circuit, such asBoris BeckerandMichael Stich, andRoger FedererandStan Wawrinkahave formed a rare doubles partnership for the Olympics. Unlike professional tennis tournaments (see below) where singles players receive much more prize money than doubles players, an Olympic medal for both singles and doubles has similar prestige. The Olympics is more of a priority for doubles champions while singles champions often skip the tournament.While the ATP has voted for Olympic results to count towards player ranking points, WTA players voted against it. For the2000 Olympics,Lisa Raymondwas passed over for Team USA in favour ofSerena Williamsby captainBillie Jean King, even though Raymond was the top-ranked doubles player in the world at the time, and Raymond unsuccessfully challenged the selection. Prize money In professional tennis tournaments such asWimbledon, the singles",
"the singles competition receives the most prize money and coverage, followed by doubles, and then mixed doubles usually receive the lowest monetary awards.For instance in theUS Openas of 2018, the men's and women's singles prize money (US$40,912,000) accounts for 80.9 percent of total player base compensation, while men's and women's doubles (US$6,140,840), men's and women's singles qualifying (US$3,008,000), and mixed doubles (US$505,000) account for 12.1 percent, 5.9 percent, and 1.0 percent, respectively. The singles winner receives US$3,800,000, while the doubles winning pair receives $700,000 and the mixed doubles winning pair receives US$155,000. Grand Slam tournament winners The following players have won at least five singles titles atGrand Slam tournaments(active players inbold): Greatest male players A frequent topic of discussion among tennis fans and commentators is who was the greatest male singles player of all time. By a large margin, anAssociated Presspoll in 1950 namedBill Tildenas the",
"Tildenas the greatest player of the first half of the 20th century.From 1920 to 1930, Tilden won singles titles atWimbledonthree times and theUS Championshipsseven times. In 1938, however,Donald Budgebecame the first person to win all four major singles titles during the same calendar year, theGrand Slam, and won six consecutive major titles in 1937 and 1938. Tilden called Budge \"the finest player 365 days a year that ever lived.\"In his 1979 autobiography,Jack Kramersaid that, based on consistent play, Budge was the greatest player ever.Some observers, however, also felt that Kramer deserved consideration for the title. Kramer was among the few who dominated amateur and professional tennis during the late 1940s and early 1950s.Tony Traberthas said that of the players he saw before the start of theOpen Era, Kramer was the best male champion. By the 1960s, Budge and others had addedPancho GonzalesandLew Hoadto the list of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever.Gonzales",
"ever.Gonzales said about Hoad, \"When Lew's game was at its peak nobody could touch him. ... I think his game was the best game ever. Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with the most natural tennis physique.\" Before and during the Open Era,Rod Laverremains the only male player in history to have won the calendar year Grand Slam twice in 1962 and 1969and also the calendar year Professional Grand Slam in 1967. Jimmy Connors,Björn Borg, andJohn McEnroehad a fierce rivalry in the late 1970s and early 1980s that propelled \"the men's game to new heights of popularity\".Connors had a long and prolific career and holds theOpen Era men's singles recordsof 109 titles including eight Grand Slams, 1,557 matches played, and 1,274 match wins. Borg was regarded by his contemporaries as among the greatest ever, having a calm court demeanor and unrivalled physical conditioning, winning six French Opens",
"six French Opens and five straight Wimbledon titles, retiring at age 26 when he was still in his prime. McEnroe attained the No. 1 ranking in bothsinglesanddoubles, finishing his career with 77 singles and 78 doubles titles; this remains thehighest men's combined totalof theOpen Era. TheAgassi–Sampras rivalryshowcased the two best players in the 1990s.Sampras had a precise and powerful serve while Agassi was considered to be one of the best service returners in the history of the game.By the early 2000s,Pete Samprashad won a then-record of 14 Grand Slam titles which was by far the most among his contemporaries. Sampras also held the record for most weeks at No. 1 with 286 until it was broken a decade later by Federer and Djokovic after that.Andre Agassi, was the first player to complete theCareer Grand Slamon all modern three surfaces (hard, grass, and clay courts) as previous winners of Grand Slam tournaments played in an era of grass and clay only (Rod Laver and Ken Rosewall also won majorPro tournamentson",
"tournamentson the three surfaces). Agassi also is the only player to win all four Grand Slam titles along with theyear-end championshipsand theolympics. Both Sampras and Agassi are regarded to be among the greatest players of all time. By the early twenty-first century, the 'Big Three' ofRoger Federer,Rafael NadalandNovak Djokovichave dominated men's singles tennis for two decades,collectively winning 66majorsingles tournaments; Djokovic with an all-time record 24 titles, Nadal with 22 and Federer with 20. They have been ranked asworld No. 1sin singles for a total 947 weeks (equivalent to 18 years); Djokovic for a record 428 weeks, Federer for 310, and Nadal for 209. Greatest female players As with the men there are frequent discussions about who is the greatest female singles player of all time withSteffi Graf,Martina NavratilovaandSerena Williamsbeing the three players most often nominated. In March 2012 the Tennis Channel published a combined list of the 100 greatest men and women tennis players of all",
"players of all time.It ranked Steffi Graf as the greatest female player (in 3rd place overall), followed byMartina Navratilova(4th place) andMargaret Court(8th place). The rankings were determined by an international panel. Sportswriter John Wertheim ofSports Illustratedstated in an article in July 2010 thatSerena Williamsis the greatest female tennis player ever with the argument that \"Head-to-head, on a neutral surface (i.e. hard courts), everyone at their best, I can't help feeling that she crushes the other legends.\".In a reaction to this article Yahoo sports blog Busted Racket published a list of the top-10 women's tennis players of all time placing Martina Navratilova in first spot.This top-10 list was similar to the one published in June 2008 by the Bleacher Report who also ranked Martina Navratilova as the top female player of all time. Steffi Graf is considered by some to be the greatest female player.Billie Jean Kingsaid in 1999, \"Steffi is definitely the greatest women's tennis player of all",
"player of all time.\"Martina Navratilovahas included Graf on her list of great players.In December 1999, Graf was named the greatest female tennis player of the 20th century by a panel of experts assembled by theAssociated Press.Tennis writer Steve Flink, in his bookThe Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century, named her as the best female player of the 20th century, directly followed by Martina Navratilova. Tennismagazine selected Martina Navratilova as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005.Tennis historian and journalistBud Collinshas called Navratilova \"arguably, the greatest player of all time.\"Billie Jean Kingsaid about Navratilova in 2006, \"She's the greatest singles, doubles and mixed doubles player who's ever lived.\" In 2018, aTennis.companel selected Serena Williams as thegreatest female tennis player in the Open Era.In May 2020, the Tennis Channel ranked Williams as the greatest female tennis player of all time. In November 2018, Tennis.com polled its readers to",
"its readers to choose the greatest women's tennis player of all time and Graf came in first.In July 2020, The Guardian polled its readers to determine the greatest female tennis player of the past 50 years, and Graf was the clear favorite, picking up nearly twice as many votes as any other player. Officials In most professional play and some amateur competition, there is an officiating head judge or chairumpire(usually referred to simply as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations. The umpire may be assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball has landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults. There also may be a net judge who determines whether the ball has touched the net during service. The umpire has the right to overrule a line judge or a net judge if the umpire is sure that a clear mistake has been made. In past tournaments, line judges tasked with calling the serve were",
"the serve were sometimes assisted byelectronic sensorsthat beeped to indicate an out-of-bounds serve; one such system was called \"Cyclops\".Cyclops has since largely been replaced by theHawk-Eyesystem.In professional tournaments using this system, players are allowed three unsuccessful appeals per set, plus one additional appeal in the tiebreak to challenge closeline callsby means of anelectronic review. TheUS Open,Miami Masters,US Open Series, andWorld Team Tennisstarted using this challenge system in 2006 and theAustralian OpenandWimbledonintroduced the system in 2007.In clay-court matches, such as at theFrench Open, a call may be questioned by reference to the mark left by the ball's impact on the court surface. The referee, who is usually located off the court, is the final authority about tennis rules. When called to the court by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change the umpire's decision on a",
"decision on a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the court during play, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision. (This would only happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup matches, not at the World Group level, when a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair.) Junior tennis In tennis, a junior is a player under 18 who is still legally protected by a parent or guardian. Players on the main adult tour who are under 18 must have documents signed by a parent or guardian. These players, however, are still eligible to play in junior tournaments. TheInternational Tennis Federation(ITF) conducts a junior tour that allows juniors to establish a world ranking and anAssociation of Tennis Professionals(ATP) orWomen's Tennis Association(WTA) ranking. Most juniors who enter the international circuit do so by progressing through ITF, Satellite, Future, and Challenger tournaments before entering the main circuit. The latter three circuits also have adults competing in them. Some juniors, however,",
"juniors, however, such as AustralianLleyton Hewittand FrenchmanGaël Monfils, have catapulted directly from the junior tour to the ATP tour by dominating the junior scene or by taking advantage of opportunities given to them to participate in professional tournaments. In 2004, the ITF implemented a new rankings scheme to encourage greater participation in doubles, by combining two rankings (singles and doubles) into one combined tally.Junior tournaments do not offerprize moneyexcept for theGrand Slam tournaments, which are the most prestigious junior events. Juniors may earn income from tennis by participating in the Future, Satellite, or Challenger tours. Tournaments are broken up into different tiers offering different amounts of ranking points, culminating with Grade A. Leading juniors are allowed to participate for their nation in theJunior Fed Cup and Davis Cupcompetitions. To succeed in tennis often means having to begin playing at a young age. To facilitate and nurture a junior's growth in tennis,",
"growth in tennis, almost all tennis playing nations have developed a junior development system. Juniors develop their play through a range of tournaments on all surfaces, accommodating all different standards of play. Talented juniors may also receive sponsorships from governing bodies or private institutions. Injuries Muscle strain is one of the most common injuries in tennis.When an isolated large-energy appears during the muscle contraction and at the same time body weight apply huge amount of pressure to the lengthened muscle,muscle straincan occur.Inflammation and bleeding are triggered when muscle strain occurs, which can result in redness, pain and swelling.Overuse is also common in tennis players of all levels.Muscle,cartilage,nerves,bursae,ligamentsandtendonsmay be damaged from overuse. The repetitive use of a particular muscle without time for repair and recovery is the most common cause of injury. In popular culture See also References Further reading External links",
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"Jordanne Whiley Jordanne Joyce WhileyMBE(born 11 June 1992) is a British retired wheelchair tennis player. Aged 14, she became Britain's youngest ever national women's singles champion inwheelchair tennis.She hasosteogenesis imperfectaas does her father,Keith, who was also a Paralympian and won a bronze medal in 1984 in New York.As well as the2015 US Openin wheelchair singles, Whiley has won 9 Grand Slam doubles titles, and she & JapaneseYui Kamijiare the fourth team in women's wheelchair doubles (as well as the most recent players) to complete theCalendar Year Grand Slam.Whiley was appointedMember of the Order of the British Empire(MBE) in the2015 Queens Birthday Honourslist for services to wheelchair tennis. Career Junior In 2006 at the age of 14 Whiley claimed her first senior main draw titles when she won the singles and doubles at the Cardiff Wheelchair Tennis tournament, also winning the girls title.At the end of 2006 Whiley had moved up from 112 to 48 in the rankings and had won junior titles in Poland",
"titles in Poland and the Netherlands.Whiley won two awards at the British Wheelchair Tennis Association awards: Most improved female player and players' player of the year.Whiley created history in 2007 when she defeated Katharine Kruger in Tarbes. She became the first Briton to claim the Cruyff Foundation Wheelchair Juniors Masters title, Whiley also claimed the doubles title with Louise Hunt.Following on from the Masters success Whiley won her second senior title at the North West Challenge.Whiley followed this up by becoming the youngest national British Champion and winning the doubles title as well.Whiley then successfully defended her Cardiff wheelchair tennis tournament titles.In 2008 Whiley successfully defended her Masters titles; defeating Emmy Kaiser in the singles before partnering Hunt to back to back doubles titles.The following week Whiley claimed her first international title the Sion Indoor.Whiley then successfully defended both titles at the North West Challenge.She was named in the team",
"named in the team for the 2008 Paralympic Games. Senior In 2012, she reached the finals of Women's wheelchair doubles at Wimbledon.She competed forGreat Britain at the 2012 Summer Paralympicswhere she shared a bronze withLucy Shukerinwomen's doubles.Whiley and Shuker won another bronze medal at the2016 Summer Paralympics, where Whiley was eliminated in the women's singles quarterfinals. Whiley and her partnerYui Kamijiof Japan achieved a calendar Grand Slam by winning the wheelchair doubles at the Australian Open (beating the Dutch pairMarjolein BuisandJiske Griffioen), the French Open, Wimbledon and the US Open (overcoming Griffioen and fellow DutchwomanAniek van Kootin all three finals). They finished the year by adding the Masters crown after defeating Louise Hunt and Katharina Kruger in the final. However, despite the absence of van Koot and Griffioen the pair did not go undefeated throughout the tournament as they lost to Marjolein Buis and Michaela Spaanstra during the round robin group stage. Whiley",
"group stage. Whiley and Kamiji are four times doubles champions atWimbledon, and Whiley was 11 weeks pregnant when they won their 4th title, in 2017.Whiley did not participate at the Championships in 2018, after giving birth to her son, earlier that year. She planned a comeback in late 2018.In the 2020 season, she won the Australian Open and US Open doubles titles. In June 2021 she andLucy Shukerwere among six tennis players named to represent the UK at the postponed2020 Paralympicsin Tokyo.Shuker and Whiley won the silver medal in thewomen's doubles,with Whiley winning bronze in thewomen's singles. Grand Slam performance timelines Wheelchair singles Wheelchair doubles References External links",
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"Alfie Hewett Alfie HewettOBE(born 6 December 1997 in Norwich, Norfolk) is a British professionalwheelchair tennisplayer.He is the current world No. 1 in both singles and doubles. He has won a total of 30 Grand Slam titles, with 9 singles and 21 doubles titles. Hewett is a 30-timemajorchampion, having won nine titles in singles and 21 in doubles, the latter all partneringGordon Reid. The pair completed theGrand Slamin 2021, becoming the first to do so in wheelchair men's doubles sinceStéphane Houdetin 2014. Hewett wonParalympicgold inmen's doublesat the2024 Summer Paralympics, and is a three-time silver medalist. He won theWheelchair Tennis Mastersin both singles and doubles in 2017, 2021 and 2023. Hewett was born with a congenital heart defect that required surgery at six months, and suffered fromLegg–Calvé–Perthes disease, a condition that inhibits blood flow from the pelvis to the hip joint. His ability to walk was severely impaired and from the age of six he has been a wheelchair user. Though able to walk,",
"able to walk, Hewett is not fully mobile in the conventional sense and cannot do able-bodied sports. Tennis career Hewett attendedAcle High Schooland went on to study Sport and Exercise Science atCity College Norwich. In July 2016 Hewett won the2016 Wimbledon Championships – Wheelchair men's doubles, alongsideGordon Reid, coming back from a set down to win against the French pairStéphane HoudetandNicolas Peifer. He won a silver medal in the men's singles event atRio 2016and silver in the doubles event with Reid, who beat him in the singles final. In May 2017 Hewett won his firstGrand Slamin singles at theFrench Open, beatingGustavo FernándezofArgentinain three sets, despite losing the first to love. In July 2017, in a repeat of the final a year earlier, Hewett won the2017 Wimbledon Championships – Wheelchair men's doubles, alongside Reid, winning in three sets against Houdet and Peifer. Hewett won the 2017NEC Wheelchair Tennis Mastersin Loughborough, UK. He ended 2017 ranked No 2 in the world, then a",
"the world, then a career-high. On 29 January 2018 Hewett became the world number 1. In March 2018 Hewett won his first Super Series singles title at the Cajun Classic in Baton Rouge, USA. On 2 September 2018 he claimed his second Super Series title at the US Open USTA Wheelchair Championships inSt. Louis. Later that month Hewett won the singles title at theUS Openas well as the doubles title with Reid. In September 2019 he successfully defended both his singles and, with Reid, doubles titles at the US Open. In 2020 Hewett won theFrench Opensingles title in three sets againstJoachim Gérardand partnered Reid to win all three available Grand Slam doubles titles at theAustralian Open, US Open and French Open, with the Wimbledon Championships cancelled due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. After winning a silver medal in themen's doubleswith Reid at the2020 Summer Paralympicsand losing the bronze medalsingles matchto Reid, world number 2Hewett spoke about his Paralympic future being \"out of his hands\",due to a review into",
"to a review into whether his disability is severe enough to qualify him to play in a wheelchair under the 2019 revision ofInternational Tennis Federationrules.Hewett was allowed to continue his tennis career after an alteration to the new ITF rules in November 2021. Hewett was appointed Officer of theOrder of the British Empire(OBE) in the2023 Birthday Honoursfor services to tennis. Hewett kicked off 2024 by winning a fifth Australian Open doubles title in a row with Reid.In May 2024 Hewett was part of the Great Britain team which won the World Team Cup for a second successive year beating Spain 2-0 in the final of the event held in Turkey. It was the team's fourth win in the competition since 2015. Hewett and Reid won a fifth straightFrench Openin June with a 6-1 6-4 victory over second-seeded Japanese duo Takuya Miki and Tokito Oda in the final. At the2024 Wimbledon Championships, Hewett defeatedMartín de la Puentein the final, 6–2, 6–3, to complete the singlescareer Grand Slam.He and Reid also won doubles",
"also won doubles title, defeatingTakuya MikiandTokito Odain the final, 6–4, 7–6(7–2). Hewett won the doubles gold medal at the 2024 Summer Paralympics in Paris, France. He lost in Paralympic wheelchair tennis men's singles final. Career statistics Grand Slam performance timelines Wheelchair singles Wheelchair doubles Grand Slam tournament finals Wheelchair singles: 18 (9 titles, 9 runner-ups) Wheelchair doubles: 27 (21 titles, 6 runner-ups) References External links"
] |
How old was the United States Air Force when the 317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was inactivated, rounded to the nearest year? | 22 years old | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/317th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/317th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/317th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"
] | [
"317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron The317th Fighter Interceptor Squadronis an inactiveUnited States Air Forceunit, last assigned toAerospace Defense Command, atElmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, where it was inactivated on 31 December 1969. Thesquadronwas first activated as the317th Fighter SquadronduringWorld War II. After training in the United States, it deployed to North Africa. In combat operations in theMediterranean Theater of Operations. It was withdrawn from combat from September to December 1943 while it equipped with different aircraft and moved from Africa to Italy. It earned twoDistinguished Unit Citationsbefore returning to the United States for inactivation. The squadron returned to service as anair defenseunit in 1947, serving in that role until inactivated in 1969. History World War II Thesquadronwas first organized atMitchel Field, New York on 3 August 1942 as one of the three original squadrons of the325th Fighter Group, but moved the same day toHillsgrove Army Air Field, Rhode Island. It equipped withCurtiss P-40 Warhawksand trained for combat at Hillsgrove until late January 1943, when it began to deploy overseas. The squadron arrived in theMediterranean Theater of Operationsin February and was established at its first combat station,Tafaraoui Airfield, Algeria by 28 February 1943. It flew its first combat mission on 17 April. It escortedmedium bombers. It flewstrafingmissions and flew sweeps over the Mediterranean Sea from bases in Algeria and Tunisia. The squadron participated in the defeat ofAxisforces in Tunisia. It participated in the reduction ofPantelleriaand inOperation Husky, the invasion and conquest of Sicily. On 30 July, the 325th Group used diversionary tactics to lure a superior number of enemy planes into the air over Sardinia, destroying more than half of them. The squadron was awarded its firstDistinguished Unit Citationfor this action. In late September 1943, the squadron was withdrawn from combat to convert toRepublic P-47 Thunderboltsand prepare to move to the Italian peninsula. By early December 1943, the squadron began to operate its Thunderbolts fromFoggia Airfield, Italy, flying its first mission with the new plane on 14 December. However, it only operated the P-47 for a short period, converting toNorth American P-51 Mustangsin March 1944, and moving toLesina Airfield, Italy on the 29th of the month. However, on 30 January it flew its \"T-Bolts\" more than 300 miles at very low altitude to make a surprise attack on Germaninterceptorsdefending airdromes nearVillorba. The severe losses it inflicted on the defending forces enabledheavy bombersto attack vital targets in the area without encountering serious opposition. This action resulted in the second award of the Distinguished Unit Citation to the squadron. It escorted the heavy bombers ofFifteenth Air Forceon long range missions against theDaimler Benzfactory inBerlin, theMesserschmittfactory inRegensburgandoil refineriesnearVienna. It also flew escort for attacks on other targets, such asairfieldsandmarshalling yardsandlines of communicationin Italy, France, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Romania. It also protectedreconnaissance aircraftand strafed trains, vehicles and airfields. The squadron continued operations until May 1945. The 317th was credited with the destruction of 209 enemy aircraft in air to air combat.AfterV-E Day, it moved toVincenzo Airfield, Italy, remaining there until October, when it returned to the United States and was inactivated atCamp Kilmer, New Jersey on 28 October. Air Defense Command In May 1947, the squadron was reactivated atMitchel Field, New York and equipped withNorthrop P-61 Black Widows. it moved toMoses Lake Air Force Base, Washington, the squadron was re-equipped with the newNorth American F-82 Twin Mustangin October 1948. The squadron was assigned for the defense of theHanford Nuclear Reservationin Eastern Washington. One month later it was reassigned toHamilton Air Force Base, California, and in April 1950, returned toMcChord Air Force Base, Washington. In 1951. the squadron was redesignated as the317th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, a component of the25th Air Division,Air Defense Command, During the period between 1947 and 1956. the 317th flew the F-82. theLockheed F-94 Starfire, and theNorth American F-86D Sabreinterceptor. In 1955 and 1956, atVincent Air Force Base, Yuma, Arizona, flying the F-86D, the 317th engaged in airborne rocket competition, breaking all records previously set. In August 1956 the squadron was selected as the best air defense unit in the Air Force and was awarded the Hughes Trophy, In addition, the squadron received its first Outstanding Unit Award for high combat readiness for the period of 1953 through 1956. In November 1956, the 317th began transitioning into theConvair F-102 Delta Dagger. Alaskan Air Command In November 1956, the 317th began transitioning into the F-102A Delta Dagger, becoming the second squadron to receive the new delta-winged supersonic aircraft. In August 1957, the 317th was reassigned in force, toElmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, where it assumed air defense mission of the southern portion ofAlaskaand the northwestern approaches to the United States. In the summer of 1960. the449th Fighter-Interceptor Squadronwas inactivated andLadd Air Force Basewas closed. leaving the entire Alaska air defense mission to the 317th. To carry out this mission, the squadron was authorized 40 aircraft and 60 pilots. The squadron received its secondAir Force Outstanding Unit Awardfor maintaining full combat readiness during and after the1964 Alaska earthquakeon 27 March 1964. In the summer of 1965, the 317th was reduced to 29 aircraft and the manning reduced accordingly, but the air defense mission remained the same. In October 1965, the squadron was awarded the Hughes Trophy for the second time, and a third Air Force Outstanding Unit Award for combat readiness. In December 1969, due to budget reductions, the 317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was inactivated. Lineage Assignments Stations Aircraft Awards and campaigns See also References Bibliography This article incorporatespublic domain materialfrom theAir Force Historical Research Agency",
"United States Air Force TheUnited States Air Force(USAF) is theairservice branchof theUnited States Armed Forces, and is one of the eightuniformed services of the United States.Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part of theUnited States ArmySignal Corps, the USAF was established as a separate branch of the United States Armed Forces in 1947 with the enactment of theNational Security Act of 1947. It is the second youngest branch of the United States Armed Forcesand the fourth inorder of precedence. The United States Air Force articulates its core missions asair supremacy,global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance,rapid global mobility,global strike, andcommand and control. The United States Air Force is a military service branch organized within theDepartment of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of theDepartment of Defense. The Air Force through the Department of the Air Force is headed by the civilianSecretary of the Air Force, who reports to theSecretary of Defenseand is appointed by the President withSenateconfirmation. The highest-ranking military officer in the Air Force is theChief of Staff of the Air Force, who exercises supervision over Air Force units and serves as one of theJoint Chiefs of Staff. As directed by the Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Air Force, certain Air Force components are assigned tounified combatant commands. Combatant commanders are delegated operational authority of the forces assigned to them, while the Secretary of the Air Force and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force retain administrative authority over their members. Along with conducting independent air operations, the United States Air Force providesair supportfor land and naval forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2020, the service operates approximately 5,500military aircraftand approximately 400ICBMs.The world's largest air force, it has a $179.7 billion budgetand is the second largest service branch of the U.S. Armed Forces, with 321,848active duty airmen,147,879 civilian personnel,68,927reserveairmen,105,104Air National Guardairmen,and approximately 65,000Civil Air Patrolauxiliarists. Mission, vision, and functions Missions According to theNational Security Act of 1947(61Stat. 502), which created the USAF: Section 9062 of Title 10 US Code defines the purpose of the USAF as: Core missions The five core missions of the Air Force have not changed dramatically since the Air Force became independent in 1947, but they have evolved and are now articulated as air superiority, global integrated ISR (intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance), rapid global mobility, global strike, and command and control. The purpose of all of these core missions is to provide what the Air Force states as global vigilance, global reach, and global power. Air superiority Air superiority is \"that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, air, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force\" (JP 1-02). Offensive Counter-Air(OCA) is defined as \"offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible\" (JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense. Defensive Counter-Air(DCA) is defined as \"all the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate or attack through friendly airspace\" (JP 1-02). In concert with OCA operations, a major goal of DCA operations is to provide an area from which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active defense is \"the employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to the enemy\" (JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and airborne threat defense and encompasses point defense, area defense, and high-value airborne asset defense. Passive defense is \"measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize the effects of damage caused by hostile action without the intention of taking the initiative\" (JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouflage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility, counter-measures, and stealth. Airspace control is \"a process used to increase operational effectiveness by promoting the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace\" (JP 1-02). It promotes the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace, mitigates the risk of fratricide, enhances both offensive and defensive operations, and permits greater agility of air operations as a whole. It both deconflicts and facilitates the integration of joint air operations. Global integrated ISR Global integrated intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across the globe to conduct current and future operations. Planning and directing is \"the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies\" (JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision-makers. Collection is \"the acquisition of information and the provision of this information to processing elements\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to obtain required information to satisfy intelligence needs (via use of sources and methods in all domains). Collection activities span the Range of Military Operations (ROMO). Processing and exploitation is \"the conversion of collected information into forms suitable to the production of intelligence\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to transform, extract, and make available collected information suitable for further analysis or action across the ROMO. Analysis and production is \"the conversion of processed information into intelligence through the integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of all source data and the preparation of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated user requirements\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to integrate, evaluate, and interpret information from available sources to create a finished intelligence product for presentation or dissemination to enable increased situational awareness. Dissemination and integration is \"the delivery of intelligence to users in a suitable form and the application of the intelligence to appropriate missions, tasks, and functions\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to present information and intelligence products across the ROMO enabling understanding of the operational environment to military and national decision-makers. Rapid global mobility Rapid global mobility is the timely deployment, employment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It provides joint military forces the capability to move from place to place while retaining the ability to fulfill their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the initiative through speed and surprise. Airlift is \"operations to transport and deliver forces andmaterielthrough the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives\" (Annex 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis. Air refueling is \"the refueling of an aircraft in flight by another aircraft\" (JP 1-02). Air refueling extends presence, increases range, and serves as a force multiplier. It allows air assets to more rapidly reach any trouble spot around the world with less dependence on forward staging bases or overflight/landing clearances. Air refueling significantly expands the options available to a commander by increasing the range, payload, persistence, and flexibility of receiver aircraft. Aeromedical evacuation is \"the movement of patients under medical supervision to and between medical treatment facilities by air transportation\" (JP 1-02). JP 4-02, Health Service Support, further defines it as \"the fixed wing movement of regulated casualties to and between medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained explicitly for this mission.\" Aeromedical evacuation forces can operate as far forward asfixed-wing aircraftare able to conduct airland operations. Global strike Global precision attack is the ability to hold at risk or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and precise effects across multiple domains. Strategic attack is defined as \"offensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives. These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or will to engage in conflict, and may achieve strategic objectives without necessarily having to achieve operational objectives as a precondition\" (Annex 3–70, Strategic Attack). Air Interdiction is defined as \"air operations conducted to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC objectives. Air Interdiction is conducted at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of friendly forces is not required\" (Annex 3-03, Counterland Operations). Close Air Support is defined as \"air action by fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces\" (JP 1-02). This can be as a pre-planned event or on demand from an alert posture (ground or airborne). It can be conducted across the ROMO. The purpose of nuclear deterrence operations (NDO) is to operate, maintain, and secure nuclear forces to achieve an assured capability to deter an adversary from taking action against vital US interests. In the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. The sub-elements of this function are: Assure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from the Air Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike operations mission as well as from specific actions taken to assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD and delivering them contributes to promoting security and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains and presents credible deterrent capabilities through successful visible demonstrations and exercises that assure allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries from actions that threaten US national security or the populations, and deploy military forces of the US, its allies, and friends. Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level and lead to a rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either theContinental United States, within a theater of operations, or both to effectively deter the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using a variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and effectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and military importance, destructive power, and the potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments. In conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, the Air Force achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. This program applies to materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to the safety, security, and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use (aBroken Arrow incident). The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control, communications; effective nuclear weapons security; and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. Command and control Command and control is \"the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission\" (JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives. At the strategic level command and control, the US determines national or multinational security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. These national objectives in turn provide the direction for developing overall military objectives, which are used to develop the objectives and strategy for each theater. At the operational level command and control, campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, sustained, and assessed to accomplish strategic goals within theaters or areas of operations. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic and operational objectives. Tactical Level Command and Control is where individual battles and engagements are fought. The tactical level of war deals with how forces are employed, and the specifics of how engagements are conducted and targets attacked. The goal of tactical level C2 is to achieve commander's intent and desired effects by gaining and keeping offensive initiative. History The origins of the United States Air Force can be traced back to theUnion Army Balloon Corpsof theAmerican Civil War. The Union Balloon Corps, established by aeronautThaddeus S. C. Lowe, provided aerial reconnaissance for theUnion Army. This early use of balloons for military purposes marked the beginning of modern aerial warfare and set the stage for the development of the United States Air Force. TheU.S. War Departmentcreated the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force, as a part of the U.S. Army, on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual independence 40 years later. InWorld War II, almost 68,000 U.S. airmen died helping to win the war, with only the infantry suffering more casualties.In practice, theU.S. Army Air Forces(USAAF) was virtually independent of theArmyduring World War II, and in virtually every way functioned as an independent service branch, but airmen still pressed for formal independence.TheNational Security Act of 1947was signed on 26 July 1947, which established theDepartment of the Air Force, but it was not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force,W. Stuart Symington, was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed as an independent service branch. The act created theNational Military Establishment(renamedDepartment of Defensein 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely theDepartment of the Army, theDepartment of the Navy, and the newly created Department of the Air Force.Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army Air Forces and its predecessor organizations (for land-based operations), theNavy(for sea-based operations fromaircraft carriersandamphibiousaircraft), and theMarine Corps(for close air support of Marine Corps operations). The 1940s proved to be important for military aviation in other ways as well. In 1947, Air Force CaptainChuck Yeagerbroke the sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America. Antecedents The predecessor organizations in the Army of today's Air Force are: 21st century During the early 2000s, two USAF aircraft procurement projects took longer than expected, theKC-XandF-35programs. As a result, the USAF was setting new records for average aircraft age. Since 2005, the USAF has placed a strong focus on the improvement ofBasic Military Training(BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a simulated combat environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle the massive obstacle courses along with the BEAST, the other portions include defending and protecting their base of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI) act as mentors and opposing forces in a deployment exercise.In November 2022, the USAF announced that it will discontinue BEAST and replace it with another deployment training program called PACER FORGE. In 2007, the USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty personnel to 316,000.The size of the active duty force in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was at the end of the firstGulf Warin 1991.However, the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 personnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of combatant commanders and associated mission requirements.These same constraints have seen a sharp reduction in flight hours for crew training since 2005and the Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Personnel directing Airmen's Time Assessments. On 5 June 2008,Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted the resignations of both theSecretary of the Air Force,Michael Wynne, and theChief of Staff of the Air Force,GeneralT. Michael Moseley. In his decision to fire both men Gates cited \"systemic issues associated with... declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance\".Left unmentioned by Gates was that he had repeatedly clashed with Wynne and Moseley over other important non-nuclear related issues to the service.This followed an investigation into two incidents involving mishandling ofnuclear weapons: specifically anuclear weapons incidentaboard a B-52 flight betweenMinot AFBandBarksdale AFB, and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan.To put more emphasis on nuclear assets, the USAF established the nuclear-focusedAir Force Global Strike Commandon 24 October 2008, which later assumed control of all USAF bomber aircraft. On 26 June 2009, the USAF released a force structure plan that cut fighter aircraft and shifted resources to better support nuclear, irregular and information warfare.On 23 July 2009, The USAF released their Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) Flight Plan, detailing Air Force UAS plans through 2047.One third of the planes that the USAF planned to buy in the future were to be unmanned.According to Air Force Chief Scientist,Greg Zacharias, the USAF anticipates having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s, hypersonicunmanned aerial vehicles(also known as remotely-piloted vehicles, or RPAs) by the 2030s and recoverable hypersonic RPAs aircraft by the 2040s.The USAF intends to deploy aSixth-generation jet fighterby the mid-2030s. On 22 October 2023, the USAF conducted its first-ever trilateral exercise with theSouth KoreanandJapaneseair forces near the Korean Peninsula.On 29 November 2023, a USAFBell Boeing V-22 Ospreycrashed in the Japan island of Yakushima killing 1 airman. In 2024, citing theSupreme Court's ruling inLoper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo, the Air Force refused to comply with anEPAorder that they develop a cleanup plan for drinking water aroundTucson, Arizonaafter the region's groundwater was contaminated byPFASrunoff from nearby Air Force bases. Conflicts The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts and operations using military air operations. The USAF possesses the lineage and heritage of its predecessor organizations, which played a pivotal role in U.S. military operations since 1907: In addition since the USAF dwarfs all other U.S. and allied air components, it often provides support for allied forces in conflicts to which the United States is otherwise not involved, such as the2013 French campaign in Mali. Humanitarian operations The USAF has also taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following: Culture The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily driven by pilots, at first those piloting bombers (driven originally by theBomber Mafia), followed by fighters (Fighter Mafia). In response to a2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident, Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted in June 2009 the resignations ofSecretary of the Air ForceMichael Wynneand theChief of Staff of the Air ForceGeneralT. Michael Moseley. Moseley's successor, GeneralNorton A. Schwartz, a former airlift and special operations pilot, was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot.The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps. In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals in the Air Force'smissile launch officercommunity, Secretary of the Air ForceDeborah Lee Jamesadmitted that there remained a \"systemic problem\" in the USAF's management of the nuclear mission. Daniel L. Magruder Jr. defines USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory.Major GeneralCharles J. Dunlap Jr.adds that the U.S. Air Force's culture also includes anegalitarianismbred from officers perceiving themselves as their service's principal \"warriors\" working with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard crew of their aircraft. Air Force officers have never felt they needed the formal social \"distance\" from their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its officers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being primarily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted force did go into harm's way, such as crew members of multi-crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat different kind of officer/enlisted relationship than exists elsewhere in the military. Cultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in neededUAVoperators.In spite of demand for UAVs or drones to provide round the clock coverage for American troops during the Iraq War,the USAF did not establish a new career field for piloting them until the last year of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA training syllabus again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training,and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of drone programs.Paul Scharre has reported that the cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept both services from adopting each other's drone handling innovations. Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from theRoyal Air Force(e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as theU.S. Army Air Service,U.S. Army Air Corpsand theU.S. Army Air Forces. Some of these traditions range from \"Friday Name Tags\" in flying units to an annual \"Mustache Month\".The use of\"challenge coins\"dates back to World War I when a member of one of the aero squadrons bought his entire unit medallions with their emblem,while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force is the \"roof stomp\", practiced by Airmen to welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a retirement. Organization Administrative organization TheDepartment of the Air Forceis one of three military departments within theDepartment of Defense, and is managed by the civilianSecretary of the Air Force, under the authority, direction, and control of theSecretary of Defense. The senior officials in theOffice of the Secretaryare theUnder Secretary of the Air Force, fourAssistant Secretaries of the Air Forceand theGeneral Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with theadvice and consentof theSenate. The senior uniformed leadership in theAir Staffis made up of theChief of Staff of the Air Forceand theVice Chief of Staff of the Air Force. The directly subordinate commands and units are namedField Operating Agency(FOA),Direct Reporting Unit(DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating Agency. TheMajor Command(MAJCOM) is the superior hierarchical level of command. Including theAir Force Reserve Command, as of 30 September 2006, USAF has ten major commands. TheNumbered Air Force(NAF) is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, followed by Operational Command (now unused),Air Division(also now unused),Wing,Group,Squadron, and Flight. Air Force structure and organization Headquarters, United States Air Force(HQ USAF): The major components of the U.S. Air Force, as of 28 August 2015, are the following: The USAF, including its Air Reserve Component (e.g., Air Force Reserve + Air National Guard), possesses a total of 302 flying squadrons. Installations Operational organization The organizational structure as shown above is responsible for the peacetime organization, equipping, and training of air units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) directs theSecretary of the Air Force(SECAF) to execute a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their administrative alignment to the operational command of aRegionalCombatant commander(CCDR).In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency toUSTRANSCOMunless chopped to a Regional CCDR. Air Expeditionary Task Force \"Chopped\" units are referred to asforces. The top-level structure of these forces is theAir Expeditionary Task Force(AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of air forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in theCCMD's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the preponderance of air forces in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will also serve as theJoint Forces Air Component Commander(JFACC). Commander, Air Force Forces The Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the senior USAF officer responsible for the employment of air power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission. Air Operations Center TheAir Operations Center(AOC) is the JFACC'sCommand and Control(C2) center. Several AOCs have been established throughout the Air Force worldwide. These centers are responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives. Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons The AETF generates air power to support CCMD objectives fromAir Expeditionary Wings(AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions. Personnel The classification of any USAF job for officers or enlisted airmen is theAir Force Specialty Code(AFSC). AFSCs range from officer specialties such as pilot,combat systems officer,special tactics, nuclear and missile operations, intelligence, cyberspace operations, judge advocate general (JAG), medical doctor, nurse or other fields, to various enlisted specialties. The latter range from flight combat operations such as loadmaster, to working in a dining facility to ensure that Airmen are properly fed. There are additional occupational fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties,enlisted aircrew, communication systems, cyberspace operations, avionics technicians, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations,security forces, and search and rescue specialties. Beyond combat flight crew personnel, other combat USAF AFSCs areSpecial Tactics Officer,Explosive Ordnance Disposal(EOD),Combat Rescue Officer,Pararescue,Security Forces,Combat Control,Tactical Air Control Party,Special Operations Weather Technician. Nearly all enlisted career fields are \"entry level\", meaning that the USAF provides all training. Some enlistees are able to choose a particular field, or at least a field before actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC at Basic Military Training (BMT). After BMT, new enlisted airmen attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Education and Training Command, is responsible for nearly all enlisted technical training. Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 (Services) has 29 days of tech school training,while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is one year of training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over ten separate divisions, sometimes taking students close to two years to complete. Officer technical training conducted by Second Air Force can also vary by AFSC, while flight training for aeronautically rated officers conducted by AETC's Nineteenth Air Force can last well in excess of one year. USAF rank is divided betweenenlistedairmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from the enlisted Airman Basic (E-1) to the commissioned officer rank of General (O-10), however in times of war officers may be appointed to the higher grade of General of the Air Force. Enlisted promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval while officer promotions are based on time-in-grade and a promotion selection board. Promotions among enlisted personnel and non-commissioned officers are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons.Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five stars.General of the Air ForceHenry \"Hap\" Arnoldis the only individual in the history of the US Air Force to attain the rank of five-star general. As of 30 June 2017, 70% of the Air Force is White, 15% Black and 4.8% Asian. The average age is 35 and 21% of its members are female. Commissioned officers The commissioned officer ranks of the USAF are divided into three categories:company grade officers,field grade officers, andgeneral officers. Company grade officers are those officers in pay grades O-1 to O-3, while field grade officers are those in pay grades O-4 to O-6, and general officers are those in pay grades of O-7 and above. Air Force officer promotions are governed by theDefense Officer Personnel Management Actof 1980 and its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act (ROPMA) for officers in the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard.DOPMA also establishes limits on the number of officers that can serve at any given time in the Air Force. Currently, promotion from second lieutenant to first lieutenant is virtually guaranteed after two years of satisfactory service. The promotion from first lieutenant to captain is competitive after successfully completing another two years of service, with a selection rate varying between 99% and 100%. Promotion to major through major general is through a formal selection board process, while promotions to lieutenant general and general are contingent upon nomination to specific general officer positions and subject to U.S. Senate approval. During the board process, an officer's record is reviewed by a selection board at the Air Force Personnel Center atRandolph Air Force Basein San Antonio, Texas. At the 10 to 11-year mark, captains will take part in a selection board to major. If not selected, they will meet a follow-on board to determine if they will be allowed to remain in the Air Force. Promotion from major to lieutenant colonel is similar and occurs approximately between the fourteen year and the fifteen year mark, where a certain percentage of majors will be in zone (i.e., \"on time\") or above zone (i.e., \"late\") for promotion to lieutenant colonel.This process will repeat at the 18-year mark to the 21-year mark for promotion to full colonel. The Air Force has the largest ratio of general officers to total strength of all of the U.S. Armed Forces and this ratio has continued to increase even as the force has shrunk from its Cold War highs. Warrant officers Although provisions were made inTitle 10 of the United States Codefor theSecretary of the Air Forceto appoint warrant officers, the Air Force had not usedwarrant officergrades for many years, and, along with the Space Force, were the onlyU.S. Armed Servicesnot to do so until 2024. The Air Force inherited warrant officer ranks from theArmyat its inception in 1947. The Air Force stopped appointing warrant officers in 1959,the same year the first promotions were made to the new top enlisted grade,Chief Master Sergeant. The remaining warrant officers were slowly phased out. The last active duty Air Force warrant officer, CWO4 James H. Long, retired in 1980, and the last Air Force Reserve warrant officer, CWO4 Bob Barrow, retired in 1992.Upon his retirement, he was honorarily promoted to CWO5, the only person in the Air Force ever to hold this grade.Since Barrow's retirement, the Air Force warrant officer ranks, while still authorized by law, were not used. It was announced at the AFA Warfare Symposium on 12 February 2024, that warrant officer ranks in the cyber and information technology fields would be reintroduced, beginning in FY25. It was stated that this effort was to retain talent in these technical fields for airmen who did not wish to pursue a leadership path.The Air Force initially wanted a class of 30 warrant officers that would begin training by the summer 2024.By the end of July 2024, 78 Airmen were selected to be among the first Air Force warrant officers in over 66 years, more than double than originally estimated.The 78 Airmen will be spread out across three training classes, with the first starting in October 2024. Enlisted airmen Enlisted airmen havepay gradesfrom E-1 (entry level) to E-9 (senior enlisted).While all USAF personnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to asairmen, in the same manner that allArmypersonnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to assoldiers, the term also refers to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4, which are below the level ofnon-commissioned officers(NCOs). Above the pay grade of E-4 (i.e., pay grades E-5 through E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are further subdivided into \"NCOs\" (pay grades E-5 and E-6) and \"senior NCOs\" (pay grades E-7 through E-9); the term \"junior NCO\" is sometimes used to refer to staff sergeants and technical sergeants (pay grades E-5 and E-6). The USAF, along with theUS Space Force, are the only branches of the U.S. military where NCO status is achieved when an enlisted person reaches the pay grade of E-5. In all other branches, NCO status is generally achieved at the pay grade of E-4 (e.g., acorporalin the ArmyandMarine Corps,Petty Officer Third Classin theNavyandCoast Guard). The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 1991 with an E-4 being either a senior airman wearing three stripes without a star or a sergeant (referred to as \"buck sergeant\"), which was noted by the presence of the central star and considered an NCO. Despite not being an NCO, a senior airman who has completedAirman Leadership Schoolcan be a supervisor according to the AFI 36–2618. Uniforms The first USAF dress uniform, in 1947, was dubbed and patented \"Uxbridgeblue\" after \"Uxbridge 1683 blue\", developed at the former Bachman-Uxbridge Worsted Company.The current service dress uniform, which was adopted in 1994, consists of a three-button coat with decorative pockets, matching trousers, and either a service cap or flight cap, all in Shade 1620, \"Air Force blue\" (a darker purplish-blue).This is worn with a light blue shirt (shade 1550) and shade 1620 herringbone patterned necktie. Silver \"U.S.\" pins are worn on the collar of the coat, with a surrounding silver ring for enlisted airmen. Enlisted airmen wear sleeve rank on both the jacket and shirt, while officers wear metal rank insignia pinned onto the epaulet loops on the coat, and Air Force blue slide-on epaulet loops on the shirt. USAF personnel assigned to base honor guard duties wear, for certain occasions, a modified version of the standard service dress uniform that includes silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the addition of a ceremonial belt (if necessary), service cap with silver trim and Hap Arnold Device (instead of the seal of the United States worn on the regular cap), and a silver aiguillette placed on the left shoulder seam and all devices and accoutrements. TheAirman Combat Uniform(ACU) in theOperational Camouflage Pattern(OCP) replaced the previousAirman Battle Uniform(ABU) on 1 October 2018. Awards and badges In addition to basic uniform clothing,various badgesare used by the USAF to indicate a billet assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-basedawards. Over time,various badgeshave been discontinued and are no longer distributed. Training All enlisted Airmen attendBasic Military Training(BMT) atLackland Air Force BaseinSan Antonio, Texas for7+1⁄2weeks.Individuals who have prior service of over 24 months of active duty in the other service branches who seek to enlist in the Air Force must go through a 10-day Air Force familiarization course rather than enlisted BMT, however prior service opportunities are severely limited. Officers may be commissioned upon graduation from theUnited States Air Force Academy, upon graduation from another college or university through theAir Force Reserve Officer Training Corps(AFROTC) program, or through theAir Force Officer Training School(OTS). OTS, located atMaxwell Air Force BaseinMontgomery, Alabamasince 1993, in turn encompasses two separate commissioning programs: Basic Officer Training (BOT), which is for officer candidates for the Regular Air Force and the Air Force Reserve; and theAcademy of Military Science(AMS), which is for officer candidates of the Air National Guard. The Air Force also provides Commissioned Officer Training (COT) for officers of all three components who are direct-commissioned into medicine, law, religion, biological sciences, or healthcare administration. COT is fully integrated into the OTS program and today encompasses extensive coursework as well as field exercises in leadership, confidence, fitness, and deployed-environment operations. Air Force Fitness Test The US Air Force Fitness Test (AFFT) is designed to test the abdominal circumference, muscular strength/endurance and cardiovascular respiratory fitness of airmen in the USAF. As part of theFit to Fightprogram, the USAF adopted a more stringent physical fitness assessment; the new fitness program was put into effect on 1 June 2010. The annual ergo-cycle test which the USAF had used for several years had been replaced in 2004. In the AFFT, Airmen are given a score based on performance consisting of four components: waist circumference, the sit-up, the push-up, and a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run. Airmen can potentially earn a score of 100, with the run counting as 60%, waist circumference as 20%, and both strength tests counting as 10% each. A passing score is 75 points. Effective 1 July 2010, the AFFT is administered by the base Fitness Assessment Cell (FAC), and is required twice a year. Personnel earning a score over 90% may test once a year. Additionally, only meeting the minimum standards on each one of these tests will not get you a passing score of 75%, and failing any one component will result in a failure for the entire test. Aircraft inventory The U.S. Air Force has a total force of approximately 5,500 aircraft.Of these, an estimated 4,131 are in active service.Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while theU.S. Navymaintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army and Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer toUnited States military aircraft designation systems. The various aircraft of the Air Force include: A – Attack The attack aircraftof the USAF are designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as close air support for, and in proximity to, U.S. ground forces. The proximity to friendly forces require precision strikes from these aircraft that are not always possible with bomber aircraft. Their role is tactical rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear. Current USAF attack aircraft are operated by Air Combat Command, Pacific Air Forces, and Air Force Special Operations Command. On 1 August 2022,USSOCOMselected the Air Tractor-L3Harris AT-802U Sky Warden as a result of theArmed Overwatchprogram, awarding an indefinite quantity contract (IDIQ) to deliver as many as 75 aircraft. B – Bomber US Air Force bombers are strategic weapons, primarily used for long range strike missions with either conventional or nuclear ordnance. Traditionally used for attacking strategic targets, today many bombers are also used in the tactical mission, such as providing close air support for ground forces and tactical interdiction missions.All Air Force bombers are under Global Strike Command. The service's B-2A aircraft entered service in the 1990s, its B-1B aircraft in the 1980s and its current B-52H aircraft in the early 1960s. TheB-52 Stratofortressairframe design is over 60 years old and the B-52H aircraft currently in the active inventory were all built between 1960 and 1962. The B-52H is scheduled to remain in service for another 30 years, which would keep the airframe in service for nearly 90 years, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft. TheB-21is projected to replace the B-52 and parts of the B-1B force by the mid-2020s. C – Cargo/Transport Cargo aircraft are typically used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations around the world, usually outside of the commercial flight routes in uncontrolled airspace. The workhorses of the USAF airlift forces are theC-130 Hercules,C-17 Globemaster III, andC-5 Galaxy. The CV-22 is used by the Air Force for special operations. It conducts long-range, special operations missions, and is equipped with extra fuel tanks and terrain-following radar. Some aircraft serve specialized cargo and transport roles such as executive or embassy support (C-12), Antarctic support (LC-130H), and AFSOC support (C-27J and C-146A). Although most of the US Air Force's cargo aircraft were specially designed with the Air Force in mind, some aircraft such as the C-12 Huron (Beechcraft Super King Air) and C-146 (Dornier 328) are militarized conversions of existing civilian aircraft. Transport aircraft are operated by Air Mobility Command, Air Force Special Operations Command, and United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces Africa. E – Special Electronic The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent an advantage in theEMSand ensure friendly, unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. Electronic warfare aircraft are used to keep airspaces friendly, and send critical information to anyone who needs it. They are often called \"the eye in the sky\". The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include electronic warfare and jamming (EC-130H), psychological operations and communications (EC-130J), airborne early warning and control (E-3), airborne command post (E-4B), range control (E-9A), and communications relay (E-11A, EQ-4B). F – Fighter The fighter aircraft of the USAF are small, fast, and maneuverable military aircraft primarily used for air-to-air combat. Many of these fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as fighter-bombers (e.g., theF-16 Fighting Falcon); the term \"fighter\" is also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft, such as theF-117 Nighthawk. Other missions include interception of bombers and other fighters, reconnaissance, and patrol. The F-16 is currently used by the USAF Air Demonstration squadron, theThunderbirds, while a small number of both man-rated and non-man-ratedF-4 Phantom IIare retained as QF-4 aircraft for use as full-scale aerial targets (FSATs) or as part of the USAF Heritage Flight program. These extant QF-4 aircraft are being replaced in the FSAT role by early model F-16 aircraft converted to QF-16 configuration. The USAF had 2,025 fighters in service as of September 2012. H – Search and rescue These aircraft are used forsearch and rescueandcombat search and rescueon land or sea. The HC-130N/P aircraft are being replaced by newer HC-130J models. HH-60W are replacement aircraft for \"G\" models that have been lost in combat operations or accidents. New HH-60W helicopters are under development to replace both the \"G\" and \"W\" model Pave Hawks. The Air Force also has four HH-60U \"Ghost Hawks\", which are converted \"M\" variants. They are based out ofArea 51. K – Tanker The USAF's KC-135 and KC-46 aerial refueling aircraft are based on civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom, and can be equipped with \"probe and drogue\" refueling systems. Air-to-air refueling is extensively used in large-scale operations and also used in normal operations; fighters, bombers, and cargo aircraft rely heavily on the lesser-known \"tanker\" aircraft. This makes these aircraft an essential part of the Air Force's global mobility and the U.S. force projection. TheKC-10A Extenderwas retired in 2024.TheKC-46A Pegasusbegan to be delivered to USAF units in 2019. M – Multi-mission Specialized multi-mission aircraft provide support for global special operations missions. These aircraft conduct infiltration, exfiltration, resupply, and refueling forSOFteams from improvised or otherwise short runways. The MC-130J is currently being fielded to replace \"H\" and \"P\" models used by U.S. Special Operations Command. The MC-12W is used in the \"intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance\" (ISR) role. Initial generations of RPAs were primarily surveillance aircraft, but some were fitted with weaponry (such as the MQ-1 Predator, which used AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles). An armed RPA is known as an \"unmanned combat aerial vehicle\" (UCAV). R – Reconnaissance The reconnaissance aircraft of the USAF are used for monitoring enemy activity, originally carrying no armament. Although the U-2 is designated as a \"utility\" aircraft, it is a reconnaissance platform. The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include general monitoring, ballistic missile monitoring (RC-135S), electronic intelligence gathering (RC-135U), signal intelligence gathering (RC-135V/W), and high altitude surveillance (U-2). Several unmanned remotely controlled reconnaissance aircraft (RPAs), have been developed and deployed. Recently, the RPAs have been seen to offer the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting machines that can be used without risk to aircrews. T – Trainer The Air Force's trainer aircraft are used to train pilots, combat systems officers, and other aircrew in their duties. TG – Trainer gliders Several gliders are used by the USAF, primarily used for cadet flying training at the U.S. Air Force Academy. U – Utility Utility aircraft are used basically for what they are needed for at the time. For example, aHueymay be used to transport personnel around a large base or launch site, while it can also be used for evacuation. These aircraft are all around use aircraft. V – VIP staff transport These aircraft are used for the transportation of Very Important Persons (VIPs). Notable people include the president, vice president, cabinet secretaries, government officials (e.g., senators and representatives), the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and other key personnel. W – Weather reconnaissance These aircraft are used to study meteorological events such as hurricanes and typhoons. Undesignated foreign aircraft See also Notes References External links Official Other"
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"317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron The317th Fighter Interceptor Squadronis an inactiveUnited States Air Forceunit, last assigned toAerospace Defense Command, atElmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, where it was inactivated on 31 December 1969. Thesquadronwas first activated as the317th Fighter SquadronduringWorld War II. After training in the United States, it deployed to North Africa. In combat operations in theMediterranean Theater of Operations. It was withdrawn from combat from September to December 1943 while it equipped with different aircraft and moved from Africa to Italy. It earned twoDistinguished Unit Citationsbefore returning to the United States for inactivation. The squadron returned to service as anair defenseunit in 1947, serving in that role until inactivated in 1969. History World War II Thesquadronwas first organized atMitchel Field, New York on 3 August 1942 as one of the three original squadrons of the325th Fighter Group, but moved the same day toHillsgrove Army Air Field, Rhode Island. It",
"Rhode Island. It equipped withCurtiss P-40 Warhawksand trained for combat at Hillsgrove until late January 1943, when it began to deploy overseas. The squadron arrived in theMediterranean Theater of Operationsin February and was established at its first combat station,Tafaraoui Airfield, Algeria by 28 February 1943. It flew its first combat mission on 17 April. It escortedmedium bombers. It flewstrafingmissions and flew sweeps over the Mediterranean Sea from bases in Algeria and Tunisia. The squadron participated in the defeat ofAxisforces in Tunisia. It participated in the reduction ofPantelleriaand inOperation Husky, the invasion and conquest of Sicily. On 30 July, the 325th Group used diversionary tactics to lure a superior number of enemy planes into the air over Sardinia, destroying more than half of them. The squadron was awarded its firstDistinguished Unit Citationfor this action. In late September 1943, the squadron was withdrawn from combat to convert toRepublic P-47 Thunderboltsand prepare to move",
"prepare to move to the Italian peninsula. By early December 1943, the squadron began to operate its Thunderbolts fromFoggia Airfield, Italy, flying its first mission with the new plane on 14 December. However, it only operated the P-47 for a short period, converting toNorth American P-51 Mustangsin March 1944, and moving toLesina Airfield, Italy on the 29th of the month. However, on 30 January it flew its \"T-Bolts\" more than 300 miles at very low altitude to make a surprise attack on Germaninterceptorsdefending airdromes nearVillorba. The severe losses it inflicted on the defending forces enabledheavy bombersto attack vital targets in the area without encountering serious opposition. This action resulted in the second award of the Distinguished Unit Citation to the squadron. It escorted the heavy bombers ofFifteenth Air Forceon long range missions against theDaimler Benzfactory inBerlin, theMesserschmittfactory inRegensburgandoil refineriesnearVienna. It also flew escort for attacks on other targets, such",
"other targets, such asairfieldsandmarshalling yardsandlines of communicationin Italy, France, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Romania. It also protectedreconnaissance aircraftand strafed trains, vehicles and airfields. The squadron continued operations until May 1945. The 317th was credited with the destruction of 209 enemy aircraft in air to air combat.AfterV-E Day, it moved toVincenzo Airfield, Italy, remaining there until October, when it returned to the United States and was inactivated atCamp Kilmer, New Jersey on 28 October. Air Defense Command In May 1947, the squadron was reactivated atMitchel Field, New York and equipped withNorthrop P-61 Black Widows. it moved toMoses Lake Air Force Base, Washington, the squadron was re-equipped with the newNorth American F-82 Twin Mustangin October 1948. The squadron was assigned for the defense of theHanford Nuclear Reservationin Eastern Washington. One month later it was reassigned toHamilton Air Force Base, California, and in April",
"and in April 1950, returned toMcChord Air Force Base, Washington. In 1951. the squadron was redesignated as the317th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, a component of the25th Air Division,Air Defense Command, During the period between 1947 and 1956. the 317th flew the F-82. theLockheed F-94 Starfire, and theNorth American F-86D Sabreinterceptor. In 1955 and 1956, atVincent Air Force Base, Yuma, Arizona, flying the F-86D, the 317th engaged in airborne rocket competition, breaking all records previously set. In August 1956 the squadron was selected as the best air defense unit in the Air Force and was awarded the Hughes Trophy, In addition, the squadron received its first Outstanding Unit Award for high combat readiness for the period of 1953 through 1956. In November 1956, the 317th began transitioning into theConvair F-102 Delta Dagger. Alaskan Air Command In November 1956, the 317th began transitioning into the F-102A Delta Dagger, becoming the second squadron to receive the new delta-winged supersonic aircraft.",
"aircraft. In August 1957, the 317th was reassigned in force, toElmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, where it assumed air defense mission of the southern portion ofAlaskaand the northwestern approaches to the United States. In the summer of 1960. the449th Fighter-Interceptor Squadronwas inactivated andLadd Air Force Basewas closed. leaving the entire Alaska air defense mission to the 317th. To carry out this mission, the squadron was authorized 40 aircraft and 60 pilots. The squadron received its secondAir Force Outstanding Unit Awardfor maintaining full combat readiness during and after the1964 Alaska earthquakeon 27 March 1964. In the summer of 1965, the 317th was reduced to 29 aircraft and the manning reduced accordingly, but the air defense mission remained the same. In October 1965, the squadron was awarded the Hughes Trophy for the second time, and a third Air Force Outstanding Unit Award for combat readiness. In December 1969, due to budget reductions, the 317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was",
"Squadron was inactivated. Lineage Assignments Stations Aircraft Awards and campaigns See also References Bibliography This article incorporatespublic domain materialfrom theAir Force Historical Research Agency",
"United States Air Force TheUnited States Air Force(USAF) is theairservice branchof theUnited States Armed Forces, and is one of the eightuniformed services of the United States.Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part of theUnited States ArmySignal Corps, the USAF was established as a separate branch of the United States Armed Forces in 1947 with the enactment of theNational Security Act of 1947. It is the second youngest branch of the United States Armed Forcesand the fourth inorder of precedence. The United States Air Force articulates its core missions asair supremacy,global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance,rapid global mobility,global strike, andcommand and control. The United States Air Force is a military service branch organized within theDepartment of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of theDepartment of Defense. The Air Force through the Department of the Air Force is headed by the civilianSecretary of the Air Force, who reports to theSecretary of",
"to theSecretary of Defenseand is appointed by the President withSenateconfirmation. The highest-ranking military officer in the Air Force is theChief of Staff of the Air Force, who exercises supervision over Air Force units and serves as one of theJoint Chiefs of Staff. As directed by the Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Air Force, certain Air Force components are assigned tounified combatant commands. Combatant commanders are delegated operational authority of the forces assigned to them, while the Secretary of the Air Force and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force retain administrative authority over their members. Along with conducting independent air operations, the United States Air Force providesair supportfor land and naval forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2020, the service operates approximately 5,500military aircraftand approximately 400ICBMs.The world's largest air force, it has a $179.7 billion budgetand is the second largest service branch of the U.S. Armed",
"of the U.S. Armed Forces, with 321,848active duty airmen,147,879 civilian personnel,68,927reserveairmen,105,104Air National Guardairmen,and approximately 65,000Civil Air Patrolauxiliarists. Mission, vision, and functions Missions According to theNational Security Act of 1947(61Stat. 502), which created the USAF: Section 9062 of Title 10 US Code defines the purpose of the USAF as: Core missions The five core missions of the Air Force have not changed dramatically since the Air Force became independent in 1947, but they have evolved and are now articulated as air superiority, global integrated ISR (intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance), rapid global mobility, global strike, and command and control. The purpose of all of these core missions is to provide what the Air Force states as global vigilance, global reach, and global power. Air superiority Air superiority is \"that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its",
"the former and its related land, sea, air, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force\" (JP 1-02). Offensive Counter-Air(OCA) is defined as \"offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible\" (JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense. Defensive Counter-Air(DCA) is defined as \"all the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate or attack through friendly airspace\" (JP 1-02). In concert with OCA operations, a major goal of DCA operations is to provide an area from which forces can",
"which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active defense is \"the employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to the enemy\" (JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and airborne threat defense and encompasses point defense, area defense, and high-value airborne asset defense. Passive defense is \"measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize the effects of damage caused by hostile action without the intention of taking the initiative\" (JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouflage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility, counter-measures, and stealth. Airspace control is \"a process used to increase operational effectiveness by promoting the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace\" (JP 1-02). It promotes the safe,",
"promotes the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace, mitigates the risk of fratricide, enhances both offensive and defensive operations, and permits greater agility of air operations as a whole. It both deconflicts and facilitates the integration of joint air operations. Global integrated ISR Global integrated intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across the globe to conduct current and future operations. Planning and directing is \"the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies\" (JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination",
"and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision-makers. Collection is \"the acquisition of information and the provision of this information to processing elements\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to obtain required information to satisfy intelligence needs (via use of sources and methods in all domains). Collection activities span the Range of Military Operations (ROMO). Processing and exploitation is \"the conversion of collected information into forms suitable to the production of intelligence\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to transform, extract, and make available collected information suitable for further analysis or action across the ROMO. Analysis and production is \"the conversion of processed information into intelligence through the integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of all source data and the preparation of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated user requirements\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability",
"the ability to integrate, evaluate, and interpret information from available sources to create a finished intelligence product for presentation or dissemination to enable increased situational awareness. Dissemination and integration is \"the delivery of intelligence to users in a suitable form and the application of the intelligence to appropriate missions, tasks, and functions\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to present information and intelligence products across the ROMO enabling understanding of the operational environment to military and national decision-makers. Rapid global mobility Rapid global mobility is the timely deployment, employment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It provides joint military forces the capability to move from place to place while retaining the ability to fulfill their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach foreign or domestic",
"foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the initiative through speed and surprise. Airlift is \"operations to transport and deliver forces andmaterielthrough the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives\" (Annex 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis. Air refueling is \"the refueling of an aircraft in flight by another aircraft\" (JP 1-02). Air refueling extends presence, increases range, and serves as a force multiplier. It allows air assets to more rapidly reach any trouble spot around the world with less dependence on forward staging bases or overflight/landing clearances. Air refueling",
"Air refueling significantly expands the options available to a commander by increasing the range, payload, persistence, and flexibility of receiver aircraft. Aeromedical evacuation is \"the movement of patients under medical supervision to and between medical treatment facilities by air transportation\" (JP 1-02). JP 4-02, Health Service Support, further defines it as \"the fixed wing movement of regulated casualties to and between medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained explicitly for this mission.\" Aeromedical evacuation forces can operate as far forward asfixed-wing aircraftare able to conduct airland operations. Global strike Global precision attack is the ability to hold at risk or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and precise effects across multiple domains. Strategic attack is defined as \"offensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives.",
"objectives. These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or will to engage in conflict, and may achieve strategic objectives without necessarily having to achieve operational objectives as a precondition\" (Annex 3–70, Strategic Attack). Air Interdiction is defined as \"air operations conducted to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC objectives. Air Interdiction is conducted at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of friendly forces is not required\" (Annex 3-03, Counterland Operations). Close Air Support is defined as \"air action by fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces\" (JP 1-02). This can be as a pre-planned event or on demand from an alert",
"from an alert posture (ground or airborne). It can be conducted across the ROMO. The purpose of nuclear deterrence operations (NDO) is to operate, maintain, and secure nuclear forces to achieve an assured capability to deter an adversary from taking action against vital US interests. In the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. The sub-elements of this function are: Assure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from the Air Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike operations mission as well as from specific actions taken to assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD and delivering them contributes to promoting security and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains and presents credible deterrent capabilities",
"capabilities through successful visible demonstrations and exercises that assure allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries from actions that threaten US national security or the populations, and deploy military forces of the US, its allies, and friends. Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level and lead to a rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either theContinental United States, within",
"States, within a theater of operations, or both to effectively deter the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using a variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and effectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and military importance, destructive power, and the potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments. In conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, the Air",
"or Energy, the Air Force achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. This program applies to materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to the safety, security, and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use (aBroken Arrow incident). The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control, communications; effective nuclear weapons security; and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. Command and control Command and control is \"the exercise of authority and",
"of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission\" (JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives. At the strategic level command and control, the US determines national or multinational security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. These national objectives in turn provide the direction for developing overall military objectives, which are used to develop the objectives and strategy for each theater. At the operational",
"At the operational level command and control, campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, sustained, and assessed to accomplish strategic goals within theaters or areas of operations. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic and operational objectives. Tactical Level Command and Control is where individual battles and engagements are fought. The tactical level of war deals with how forces are employed, and the specifics of how engagements are conducted and targets attacked. The goal of tactical level C2 is to achieve commander's intent and desired effects by gaining and keeping offensive initiative. History The origins of the United States Air Force can be traced back to theUnion Army Balloon Corpsof theAmerican Civil War. The Union Balloon Corps, established by aeronautThaddeus S. C. Lowe, provided aerial reconnaissance for theUnion Army. This early use of balloons for",
"use of balloons for military purposes marked the beginning of modern aerial warfare and set the stage for the development of the United States Air Force. TheU.S. War Departmentcreated the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force, as a part of the U.S. Army, on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual independence 40 years later. InWorld War II, almost 68,000 U.S. airmen died helping to win the war, with only the infantry suffering more casualties.In practice, theU.S. Army Air Forces(USAAF) was virtually independent of theArmyduring World War II, and in virtually every way functioned as an independent service branch, but airmen still pressed for formal independence.TheNational Security Act of 1947was signed on 26 July 1947, which established theDepartment of the Air Force, but it was not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force,W. Stuart Symington, was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed",
"officially formed as an independent service branch. The act created theNational Military Establishment(renamedDepartment of Defensein 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely theDepartment of the Army, theDepartment of the Navy, and the newly created Department of the Air Force.Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army Air Forces and its predecessor organizations (for land-based operations), theNavy(for sea-based operations fromaircraft carriersandamphibiousaircraft), and theMarine Corps(for close air support of Marine Corps operations). The 1940s proved to be important for military aviation in other ways as well. In 1947, Air Force CaptainChuck Yeagerbroke the sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America. Antecedents The predecessor organizations in the Army of today's Air Force are: 21st century During the early 2000s, two USAF aircraft procurement projects took longer than",
"took longer than expected, theKC-XandF-35programs. As a result, the USAF was setting new records for average aircraft age. Since 2005, the USAF has placed a strong focus on the improvement ofBasic Military Training(BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a simulated combat environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle the massive obstacle courses along with the BEAST, the other portions include defending and protecting their base of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI) act as mentors and opposing forces in a deployment exercise.In November 2022, the USAF announced that it will discontinue BEAST and replace it with another deployment training program called PACER FORGE. In 2007, the USAF",
"In 2007, the USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty personnel to 316,000.The size of the active duty force in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was at the end of the firstGulf Warin 1991.However, the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 personnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of combatant commanders and associated mission requirements.These same constraints have seen a sharp reduction in flight hours for crew training since 2005and the Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Personnel directing Airmen's Time Assessments. On 5 June 2008,Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted the resignations of both theSecretary of the Air Force,Michael Wynne, and theChief of Staff of the Air Force,GeneralT. Michael Moseley. In his decision to fire both men Gates cited \"systemic issues associated with... declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance\".Left unmentioned by Gates",
"by Gates was that he had repeatedly clashed with Wynne and Moseley over other important non-nuclear related issues to the service.This followed an investigation into two incidents involving mishandling ofnuclear weapons: specifically anuclear weapons incidentaboard a B-52 flight betweenMinot AFBandBarksdale AFB, and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan.To put more emphasis on nuclear assets, the USAF established the nuclear-focusedAir Force Global Strike Commandon 24 October 2008, which later assumed control of all USAF bomber aircraft. On 26 June 2009, the USAF released a force structure plan that cut fighter aircraft and shifted resources to better support nuclear, irregular and information warfare.On 23 July 2009, The USAF released their Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) Flight Plan, detailing Air Force UAS plans through 2047.One third of the planes that the USAF planned to buy in the future were to be unmanned.According to Air Force Chief Scientist,Greg Zacharias, the USAF",
"Zacharias, the USAF anticipates having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s, hypersonicunmanned aerial vehicles(also known as remotely-piloted vehicles, or RPAs) by the 2030s and recoverable hypersonic RPAs aircraft by the 2040s.The USAF intends to deploy aSixth-generation jet fighterby the mid-2030s. On 22 October 2023, the USAF conducted its first-ever trilateral exercise with theSouth KoreanandJapaneseair forces near the Korean Peninsula.On 29 November 2023, a USAFBell Boeing V-22 Ospreycrashed in the Japan island of Yakushima killing 1 airman. In 2024, citing theSupreme Court's ruling inLoper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo, the Air Force refused to comply with anEPAorder that they develop a cleanup plan for drinking water aroundTucson, Arizonaafter the region's groundwater was contaminated byPFASrunoff from nearby Air Force bases. Conflicts The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts and operations using military air operations. The USAF possesses the lineage and heritage of its",
"and heritage of its predecessor organizations, which played a pivotal role in U.S. military operations since 1907: In addition since the USAF dwarfs all other U.S. and allied air components, it often provides support for allied forces in conflicts to which the United States is otherwise not involved, such as the2013 French campaign in Mali. Humanitarian operations The USAF has also taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following: Culture The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily driven by pilots, at first those piloting bombers (driven originally by theBomber Mafia), followed by fighters (Fighter Mafia). In response to a2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident, Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted in June 2009 the resignations ofSecretary of the Air ForceMichael Wynneand theChief of Staff of the Air ForceGeneralT. Michael Moseley. Moseley's successor, GeneralNorton A. Schwartz, a former airlift and special operations pilot, was",
"pilot, was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot.The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps. In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals in the Air Force'smissile launch officercommunity, Secretary of the Air ForceDeborah Lee Jamesadmitted that there remained a \"systemic problem\" in the USAF's management of the nuclear mission. Daniel L. Magruder Jr. defines USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory.Major GeneralCharles J. Dunlap Jr.adds that the U.S. Air Force's culture also includes anegalitarianismbred from officers perceiving themselves as their service's principal \"warriors\" working with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard crew of their aircraft. Air Force officers have never felt they needed the",
"they needed the formal social \"distance\" from their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its officers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being primarily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted force did go into harm's way, such as crew members of multi-crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat different kind of officer/enlisted relationship than exists elsewhere in the military. Cultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in neededUAVoperators.In spite of demand for UAVs or drones to provide round the clock coverage for American troops during the Iraq War,the USAF did not establish a new career field for piloting them until the last year of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA",
"changed its RPA training syllabus again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training,and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of drone programs.Paul Scharre has reported that the cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept both services from adopting each other's drone handling innovations. Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from theRoyal Air Force(e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as theU.S. Army Air Service,U.S. Army Air Corpsand theU.S. Army Air Forces. Some of these traditions range from \"Friday Name Tags\" in flying units to an annual \"Mustache Month\".The use of\"challenge coins\"dates back to World War I when a member of one of the aero squadrons bought his entire unit medallions with their emblem,while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force is the \"roof stomp\", practiced by Airmen to welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a",
"event, such as a retirement. Organization Administrative organization TheDepartment of the Air Forceis one of three military departments within theDepartment of Defense, and is managed by the civilianSecretary of the Air Force, under the authority, direction, and control of theSecretary of Defense. The senior officials in theOffice of the Secretaryare theUnder Secretary of the Air Force, fourAssistant Secretaries of the Air Forceand theGeneral Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with theadvice and consentof theSenate. The senior uniformed leadership in theAir Staffis made up of theChief of Staff of the Air Forceand theVice Chief of Staff of the Air Force. The directly subordinate commands and units are namedField Operating Agency(FOA),Direct Reporting Unit(DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating Agency. TheMajor Command(MAJCOM) is the superior hierarchical level of command. Including theAir Force Reserve Command, as of 30 September 2006, USAF has ten major commands. TheNumbered Air",
"TheNumbered Air Force(NAF) is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, followed by Operational Command (now unused),Air Division(also now unused),Wing,Group,Squadron, and Flight. Air Force structure and organization Headquarters, United States Air Force(HQ USAF): The major components of the U.S. Air Force, as of 28 August 2015, are the following: The USAF, including its Air Reserve Component (e.g., Air Force Reserve + Air National Guard), possesses a total of 302 flying squadrons. Installations Operational organization The organizational structure as shown above is responsible for the peacetime organization, equipping, and training of air units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) directs theSecretary of the Air Force(SECAF) to execute a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their administrative alignment to the operational command of aRegionalCombatant commander(CCDR).In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE",
"PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency toUSTRANSCOMunless chopped to a Regional CCDR. Air Expeditionary Task Force \"Chopped\" units are referred to asforces. The top-level structure of these forces is theAir Expeditionary Task Force(AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of air forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in theCCMD's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the preponderance of air forces in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will",
"the COMAFFOR will also serve as theJoint Forces Air Component Commander(JFACC). Commander, Air Force Forces The Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the senior USAF officer responsible for the employment of air power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission. Air Operations Center TheAir Operations Center(AOC) is the JFACC'sCommand and Control(C2) center. Several AOCs have been established throughout the Air Force worldwide. These centers are responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives. Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons The AETF generates air power to support CCMD objectives fromAir Expeditionary Wings(AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these",
"recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions. Personnel The classification of any USAF job for officers or enlisted airmen is theAir Force Specialty Code(AFSC). AFSCs range from officer specialties such as pilot,combat systems officer,special tactics, nuclear and missile operations, intelligence, cyberspace operations, judge advocate general (JAG), medical doctor, nurse or other fields, to various enlisted specialties. The latter range from flight combat operations such as loadmaster, to working in a dining facility to ensure that Airmen are properly fed. There are additional occupational fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties,enlisted aircrew, communication systems, cyberspace operations, avionics technicians, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations,security forces, and search and rescue specialties. Beyond combat",
"Beyond combat flight crew personnel, other combat USAF AFSCs areSpecial Tactics Officer,Explosive Ordnance Disposal(EOD),Combat Rescue Officer,Pararescue,Security Forces,Combat Control,Tactical Air Control Party,Special Operations Weather Technician. Nearly all enlisted career fields are \"entry level\", meaning that the USAF provides all training. Some enlistees are able to choose a particular field, or at least a field before actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC at Basic Military Training (BMT). After BMT, new enlisted airmen attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Education and Training Command, is responsible for nearly all enlisted technical training. Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 (Services) has 29 days of tech school training,while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is one year of training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over ten separate divisions, sometimes taking students",
"taking students close to two years to complete. Officer technical training conducted by Second Air Force can also vary by AFSC, while flight training for aeronautically rated officers conducted by AETC's Nineteenth Air Force can last well in excess of one year. USAF rank is divided betweenenlistedairmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from the enlisted Airman Basic (E-1) to the commissioned officer rank of General (O-10), however in times of war officers may be appointed to the higher grade of General of the Air Force. Enlisted promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval while officer promotions are based on time-in-grade and a promotion selection board. Promotions among enlisted personnel and non-commissioned officers are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons.Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five stars.General of",
"stars.General of the Air ForceHenry \"Hap\" Arnoldis the only individual in the history of the US Air Force to attain the rank of five-star general. As of 30 June 2017, 70% of the Air Force is White, 15% Black and 4.8% Asian. The average age is 35 and 21% of its members are female. Commissioned officers The commissioned officer ranks of the USAF are divided into three categories:company grade officers,field grade officers, andgeneral officers. Company grade officers are those officers in pay grades O-1 to O-3, while field grade officers are those in pay grades O-4 to O-6, and general officers are those in pay grades of O-7 and above. Air Force officer promotions are governed by theDefense Officer Personnel Management Actof 1980 and its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act (ROPMA) for officers in the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard.DOPMA also establishes limits on the number of officers that can serve at any given time in the Air Force. Currently, promotion from second lieutenant to",
"lieutenant to first lieutenant is virtually guaranteed after two years of satisfactory service. The promotion from first lieutenant to captain is competitive after successfully completing another two years of service, with a selection rate varying between 99% and 100%. Promotion to major through major general is through a formal selection board process, while promotions to lieutenant general and general are contingent upon nomination to specific general officer positions and subject to U.S. Senate approval. During the board process, an officer's record is reviewed by a selection board at the Air Force Personnel Center atRandolph Air Force Basein San Antonio, Texas. At the 10 to 11-year mark, captains will take part in a selection board to major. If not selected, they will meet a follow-on board to determine if they will be allowed to remain in the Air Force. Promotion from major to lieutenant colonel is similar and occurs approximately between the fourteen year and the fifteen year mark, where a certain",
"where a certain percentage of majors will be in zone (i.e., \"on time\") or above zone (i.e., \"late\") for promotion to lieutenant colonel.This process will repeat at the 18-year mark to the 21-year mark for promotion to full colonel. The Air Force has the largest ratio of general officers to total strength of all of the U.S. Armed Forces and this ratio has continued to increase even as the force has shrunk from its Cold War highs. Warrant officers Although provisions were made inTitle 10 of the United States Codefor theSecretary of the Air Forceto appoint warrant officers, the Air Force had not usedwarrant officergrades for many years, and, along with the Space Force, were the onlyU.S. Armed Servicesnot to do so until 2024. The Air Force inherited warrant officer ranks from theArmyat its inception in 1947. The Air Force stopped appointing warrant officers in 1959,the same year the first promotions were made to the new top enlisted grade,Chief Master Sergeant. The remaining warrant officers were slowly phased",
"were slowly phased out. The last active duty Air Force warrant officer, CWO4 James H. Long, retired in 1980, and the last Air Force Reserve warrant officer, CWO4 Bob Barrow, retired in 1992.Upon his retirement, he was honorarily promoted to CWO5, the only person in the Air Force ever to hold this grade.Since Barrow's retirement, the Air Force warrant officer ranks, while still authorized by law, were not used. It was announced at the AFA Warfare Symposium on 12 February 2024, that warrant officer ranks in the cyber and information technology fields would be reintroduced, beginning in FY25. It was stated that this effort was to retain talent in these technical fields for airmen who did not wish to pursue a leadership path.The Air Force initially wanted a class of 30 warrant officers that would begin training by the summer 2024.By the end of July 2024, 78 Airmen were selected to be among the first Air Force warrant officers in over 66 years, more than double than originally estimated.The 78 Airmen will be",
"78 Airmen will be spread out across three training classes, with the first starting in October 2024. Enlisted airmen Enlisted airmen havepay gradesfrom E-1 (entry level) to E-9 (senior enlisted).While all USAF personnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to asairmen, in the same manner that allArmypersonnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to assoldiers, the term also refers to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4, which are below the level ofnon-commissioned officers(NCOs). Above the pay grade of E-4 (i.e., pay grades E-5 through E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are further subdivided into \"NCOs\" (pay grades E-5 and E-6) and \"senior NCOs\" (pay grades E-7 through E-9); the term \"junior NCO\" is sometimes used to refer to staff sergeants and technical sergeants (pay grades E-5 and E-6). The USAF, along with theUS Space Force, are the only branches of the U.S. military where NCO status is achieved when an enlisted person reaches the pay grade of E-5. In all other branches, NCO status is",
"NCO status is generally achieved at the pay grade of E-4 (e.g., acorporalin the ArmyandMarine Corps,Petty Officer Third Classin theNavyandCoast Guard). The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 1991 with an E-4 being either a senior airman wearing three stripes without a star or a sergeant (referred to as \"buck sergeant\"), which was noted by the presence of the central star and considered an NCO. Despite not being an NCO, a senior airman who has completedAirman Leadership Schoolcan be a supervisor according to the AFI 36–2618. Uniforms The first USAF dress uniform, in 1947, was dubbed and patented \"Uxbridgeblue\" after \"Uxbridge 1683 blue\", developed at the former Bachman-Uxbridge Worsted Company.The current service dress uniform, which was adopted in 1994, consists of a three-button coat with decorative pockets, matching trousers, and either a service cap or flight cap, all in Shade 1620, \"Air Force blue\" (a darker purplish-blue).This is worn with a light blue shirt (shade 1550) and shade 1620 herringbone",
"1620 herringbone patterned necktie. Silver \"U.S.\" pins are worn on the collar of the coat, with a surrounding silver ring for enlisted airmen. Enlisted airmen wear sleeve rank on both the jacket and shirt, while officers wear metal rank insignia pinned onto the epaulet loops on the coat, and Air Force blue slide-on epaulet loops on the shirt. USAF personnel assigned to base honor guard duties wear, for certain occasions, a modified version of the standard service dress uniform that includes silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the addition of a ceremonial belt (if necessary), service cap with silver trim and Hap Arnold Device (instead of the seal of the United States worn on the regular cap), and a silver aiguillette placed on the left shoulder seam and all devices and accoutrements. TheAirman Combat Uniform(ACU) in theOperational Camouflage Pattern(OCP) replaced the previousAirman Battle Uniform(ABU) on 1 October 2018. Awards and badges In addition to basic uniform clothing,various badgesare used",
"badgesare used by the USAF to indicate a billet assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-basedawards. Over time,various badgeshave been discontinued and are no longer distributed. Training All enlisted Airmen attendBasic Military Training(BMT) atLackland Air Force BaseinSan Antonio, Texas for7+1⁄2weeks.Individuals who have prior service of over 24 months of active duty in the other service branches who seek to enlist in the Air Force must go through a 10-day Air Force familiarization course rather than enlisted BMT, however prior service opportunities are severely limited. Officers may be commissioned upon graduation from theUnited States Air Force Academy, upon graduation from another college or university through theAir Force Reserve Officer Training Corps(AFROTC) program, or through theAir Force Officer Training School(OTS). OTS, located atMaxwell Air Force BaseinMontgomery, Alabamasince 1993, in turn encompasses two separate commissioning",
"commissioning programs: Basic Officer Training (BOT), which is for officer candidates for the Regular Air Force and the Air Force Reserve; and theAcademy of Military Science(AMS), which is for officer candidates of the Air National Guard. The Air Force also provides Commissioned Officer Training (COT) for officers of all three components who are direct-commissioned into medicine, law, religion, biological sciences, or healthcare administration. COT is fully integrated into the OTS program and today encompasses extensive coursework as well as field exercises in leadership, confidence, fitness, and deployed-environment operations. Air Force Fitness Test The US Air Force Fitness Test (AFFT) is designed to test the abdominal circumference, muscular strength/endurance and cardiovascular respiratory fitness of airmen in the USAF. As part of theFit to Fightprogram, the USAF adopted a more stringent physical fitness assessment; the new fitness program was put into effect on 1 June 2010. The annual ergo-cycle test",
"ergo-cycle test which the USAF had used for several years had been replaced in 2004. In the AFFT, Airmen are given a score based on performance consisting of four components: waist circumference, the sit-up, the push-up, and a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run. Airmen can potentially earn a score of 100, with the run counting as 60%, waist circumference as 20%, and both strength tests counting as 10% each. A passing score is 75 points. Effective 1 July 2010, the AFFT is administered by the base Fitness Assessment Cell (FAC), and is required twice a year. Personnel earning a score over 90% may test once a year. Additionally, only meeting the minimum standards on each one of these tests will not get you a passing score of 75%, and failing any one component will result in a failure for the entire test. Aircraft inventory The U.S. Air Force has a total force of approximately 5,500 aircraft.Of these, an estimated 4,131 are in active service.Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while",
"naming, while theU.S. Navymaintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army and Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer toUnited States military aircraft designation systems. The various aircraft of the Air Force include: A – Attack The attack aircraftof the USAF are designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as close air support for, and in proximity to, U.S. ground forces. The proximity to friendly forces require precision strikes from these aircraft that are not always possible with bomber aircraft. Their role is tactical rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear. Current USAF attack aircraft are operated by Air Combat Command, Pacific Air Forces, and Air Force Special Operations Command. On 1 August 2022,USSOCOMselected the Air Tractor-L3Harris AT-802U Sky Warden as a result of theArmed Overwatchprogram,",
"Overwatchprogram, awarding an indefinite quantity contract (IDIQ) to deliver as many as 75 aircraft. B – Bomber US Air Force bombers are strategic weapons, primarily used for long range strike missions with either conventional or nuclear ordnance. Traditionally used for attacking strategic targets, today many bombers are also used in the tactical mission, such as providing close air support for ground forces and tactical interdiction missions.All Air Force bombers are under Global Strike Command. The service's B-2A aircraft entered service in the 1990s, its B-1B aircraft in the 1980s and its current B-52H aircraft in the early 1960s. TheB-52 Stratofortressairframe design is over 60 years old and the B-52H aircraft currently in the active inventory were all built between 1960 and 1962. The B-52H is scheduled to remain in service for another 30 years, which would keep the airframe in service for nearly 90 years, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft. TheB-21is projected to replace the B-52 and",
"the B-52 and parts of the B-1B force by the mid-2020s. C – Cargo/Transport Cargo aircraft are typically used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations around the world, usually outside of the commercial flight routes in uncontrolled airspace. The workhorses of the USAF airlift forces are theC-130 Hercules,C-17 Globemaster III, andC-5 Galaxy. The CV-22 is used by the Air Force for special operations. It conducts long-range, special operations missions, and is equipped with extra fuel tanks and terrain-following radar. Some aircraft serve specialized cargo and transport roles such as executive or embassy support (C-12), Antarctic support (LC-130H), and AFSOC support (C-27J and C-146A). Although most of the US Air Force's cargo aircraft were specially designed with the Air Force in mind, some aircraft such as the C-12 Huron (Beechcraft Super King Air) and C-146 (Dornier 328) are militarized conversions of existing civilian aircraft.",
"civilian aircraft. Transport aircraft are operated by Air Mobility Command, Air Force Special Operations Command, and United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces Africa. E – Special Electronic The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent an advantage in theEMSand ensure friendly, unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. Electronic warfare aircraft are used to keep airspaces friendly, and send critical information to anyone who needs it. They are often called \"the eye in the sky\". The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include electronic warfare and jamming (EC-130H), psychological operations and communications (EC-130J), airborne early warning and control (E-3), airborne command post (E-4B), range control (E-9A), and communications relay (E-11A, EQ-4B). F – Fighter The fighter aircraft of the USAF are small, fast, and maneuverable military aircraft primarily used for air-to-air combat. Many of these fighters have secondary",
"have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as fighter-bombers (e.g., theF-16 Fighting Falcon); the term \"fighter\" is also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft, such as theF-117 Nighthawk. Other missions include interception of bombers and other fighters, reconnaissance, and patrol. The F-16 is currently used by the USAF Air Demonstration squadron, theThunderbirds, while a small number of both man-rated and non-man-ratedF-4 Phantom IIare retained as QF-4 aircraft for use as full-scale aerial targets (FSATs) or as part of the USAF Heritage Flight program. These extant QF-4 aircraft are being replaced in the FSAT role by early model F-16 aircraft converted to QF-16 configuration. The USAF had 2,025 fighters in service as of September 2012. H – Search and rescue These aircraft are used forsearch and rescueandcombat search and rescueon land or sea. The HC-130N/P aircraft are being replaced by newer HC-130J models. HH-60W are replacement aircraft for \"G\" models",
"for \"G\" models that have been lost in combat operations or accidents. New HH-60W helicopters are under development to replace both the \"G\" and \"W\" model Pave Hawks. The Air Force also has four HH-60U \"Ghost Hawks\", which are converted \"M\" variants. They are based out ofArea 51. K – Tanker The USAF's KC-135 and KC-46 aerial refueling aircraft are based on civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom, and can be equipped with \"probe and drogue\" refueling systems. Air-to-air refueling is extensively used in large-scale operations and also used in normal operations; fighters, bombers, and cargo aircraft rely heavily on the lesser-known \"tanker\" aircraft. This makes these aircraft an essential part of the Air Force's global mobility and the U.S. force projection. TheKC-10A Extenderwas retired in 2024.TheKC-46A Pegasusbegan to be delivered to USAF units in 2019. M – Multi-mission Specialized multi-mission aircraft provide support for global",
"support for global special operations missions. These aircraft conduct infiltration, exfiltration, resupply, and refueling forSOFteams from improvised or otherwise short runways. The MC-130J is currently being fielded to replace \"H\" and \"P\" models used by U.S. Special Operations Command. The MC-12W is used in the \"intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance\" (ISR) role. Initial generations of RPAs were primarily surveillance aircraft, but some were fitted with weaponry (such as the MQ-1 Predator, which used AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles). An armed RPA is known as an \"unmanned combat aerial vehicle\" (UCAV). R – Reconnaissance The reconnaissance aircraft of the USAF are used for monitoring enemy activity, originally carrying no armament. Although the U-2 is designated as a \"utility\" aircraft, it is a reconnaissance platform. The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include general monitoring, ballistic missile monitoring (RC-135S), electronic intelligence gathering",
"gathering (RC-135U), signal intelligence gathering (RC-135V/W), and high altitude surveillance (U-2). Several unmanned remotely controlled reconnaissance aircraft (RPAs), have been developed and deployed. Recently, the RPAs have been seen to offer the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting machines that can be used without risk to aircrews. T – Trainer The Air Force's trainer aircraft are used to train pilots, combat systems officers, and other aircrew in their duties. TG – Trainer gliders Several gliders are used by the USAF, primarily used for cadet flying training at the U.S. Air Force Academy. U – Utility Utility aircraft are used basically for what they are needed for at the time. For example, aHueymay be used to transport personnel around a large base or launch site, while it can also be used for evacuation. These aircraft are all around use aircraft. V – VIP staff transport These aircraft are used for the transportation of Very Important Persons (VIPs). Notable people include the president,",
"the president, vice president, cabinet secretaries, government officials (e.g., senators and representatives), the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and other key personnel. W – Weather reconnaissance These aircraft are used to study meteorological events such as hurricanes and typhoons. Undesignated foreign aircraft See also Notes References External links Official Other"
] |
Emma Stone was the highest paid actress in 2017. How much did breakthrough movie for the highest paid actress 6 years after Emma Stone make in its theatrical run? | $406.9 million | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Stone | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest-paid_film_actors | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margot_Robbie | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolf_of_Wall_Street_(2013_film) | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Stone', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest-paid_film_actors', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margot_Robbie', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolf_of_Wall_Street_(2013_film)'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Stone",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest-paid_film_actors",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margot_Robbie",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolf_of_Wall_Street_(2013_film"
] | [
"Emma Stone Emily Jean\"Emma\"Stone(born November 6, 1988) is an American actress and producer.Her accoladesinclude twoAcademy Awards, twoBritish Academy Film Awards, and twoGolden Globe Awards. In 2017, she was theworld's highest-paid actressand named byTimemagazine as one of the100 most influential people in the world. Stone began acting as a child in a theater production ofThe Wind in the Willowsin 2000. As a teenager, she relocated to Los Angeles and made her television debut inIn Search of the New Partridge Family(2004), a reality show that produced only an unsold pilot. After small television roles, she appeared in a series of well-received teen comedy films, such asSuperbad(2007),Zombieland(2009), andEasy A(2010), which was Stone's first leading role. Following this breakthrough, she starred in the romantic comedyCrazy, Stupid, Love(2011) and the period dramaThe Help(2011), and gained wider recognition asGwen Stacyin the 2012 superhero filmThe Amazing Spider-Manandits 2014 sequel. Stone received nominations for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actressfor playing a recovering drug addict inBirdman(2014) and portrayingAbigail MashaminThe Favourite(2018). The latter marked her first of many collaborations with directorYorgos Lanthimos. She won twoAcademy Awards for Best Actress, for her roles as an aspiring actress in the romantic musicalLa La Land(2016) and a resurrected suicide victim in Lanthimos' comic fantasy filmPoor Things(2023). She also portrayed tennis playerBillie Jean KinginBattle of the Sexes(2017) and thetitle roleinCruella(2021). On television, she starred in the dark comedy miniseriesManiac(2018) andThe Curse(2023). OnBroadway, Stone has starred asSally Bowlesin a revival of the musicalCabaret(2014–2015). She and her husband,Dave McCary, founded the production companyFruit Treein 2020, under which they have produced the filmsWhen You Finish Saving the World(2022),Problemista(2023), andI Saw the TV Glow(2024). Early life Stone was born on November 6, 1988, inScottsdale, Arizona, to Jeffrey Charles Stone, the founder and CEO of a general-contracting company, and Krista Jean Stone (néeYeager), a homemaker.She lived on the grounds of theCamelback Innresort from ages 12 to 15.She has a younger brother, Spencer.Her paternal grandfather, Conrad Ostberg Sten, was from a Swedish family thatanglicizedtheir surname to \"Stone\". She also has German, English, Scottish, and Irish ancestry. As an infant, Stone hadbaby colicand cried frequently. She consequently developednodulesand calluses on her vocal cords while she was a child.Stone has described herself as \"loud\" and \"bossy\" while growing up.She was educated at Sequoya Elementary School and attendedCocopah Middle Schoolfor sixth grade. Stone did not like school, though once said that her controlling nature meant that \"I made sure I got allA's\".She sufferedpanic attacksandanxietyas a child,and said they caused a decline in her social skills.Stone underwent therapy but said it was her participation in local theater plays that helped cure the attacks, recalling: The first time I had a panic attack I was sitting in my friend's house, and I thought the house was burning down. I called my mom and she brought me home, and for the next three years it just would not stop. I would go to the nurse at lunch most days and just wring my hands. I would ask my mom to tell me exactly how the day was going to be, then ask again 30 seconds later. I just needed to know that no one was going to die and nothing was going to change. Stone wanted to act since age four;she wanted a career insketch comedyinitially, but shifted her focus to musical theater, and took vocal lessons for several years.Her acting debut, at age 11, came in a stage production ofThe Wind in the Willows, playing Otter.Stone washomeschooledfor two years, during which time she appeared in 16 productions at Phoenix'sValley Youth Theatre—includingThe Princess and the Pea,Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, andJoseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat—and performed with the theater'simprovisational comedytroupe.Around this time, she traveled to Los Angeles and auditioned unsuccessfully for a role onNickelodeon'sAll That.Her parents later sent her for private acting lessons with a local acting coach, who had worked at theWilliam Morris Agencyin the 1970s. Stone attendedXavier College Preparatory—an all-girlCatholic high school—as a freshman, but dropped out after one semester to become an actress.She prepared aPowerPointpresentation for her parents titled \"Project Hollywood\" (featuringMadonna's 2003 song \"Hollywood\") to convince them to let her move to California to pursue an acting career.In January 2004, she moved with her mother to an apartment in Los Angeles. She recalled, \"I went up for every single show on theDisney Channeland auditioned to play the daughter on every single sitcom\", adding, \"I ended up getting none.\"Between auditions for roles, she enrolled in online high-school classes and worked part-time at a dog-treat bakery. Career Career beginnings (2004–2009) When Stone registered for theScreen Actors Guildat age 16, the name \"Emily Stone\" was already taken, and she briefly went by \"Riley Stone\".She made her television debut as Laurie Partridge on theVH1talent competition reality showIn Search of the New Partridge Family(2004). The resulting show, retitledThe New Partridge Family(2004), remained an unsold pilot.After guest-starring in the television showsMedium(2005) andMalcolm in the Middle(2006), she decided to change her stage name to \"Emma\"—chosen in honor ofEmma Buntonof theSpice Girls—as she struggled to adapt to the name Riley.She next appeared inLouis C.K.'sHBOseriesLucky Louie(2006),and unsuccessfully auditioned to star asClaire Bennetin the NBC science fiction dramaHeroes(2007), later calling this her \"rock bottom\" experience.In April 2007, she playedViolet Trimblein the Fox action dramaDrive, but the show was canceled after seven episodes. Stone made her feature film debut inGreg Mottola's comedySuperbad(2007), co-starringMichael CeraandJonah Hill. The film tells the story of two high school students who go through a series of comic misadventures after they plan to buy alcohol for a party. To play Hill's romantic interest, she dyed her hair red.A reviewer forThe Hollywood Reporterfound her \"appealing\", but felt that her role was poorly written.Stone has described the experience of acting in her first film as \"amazing ... very different than other experiences I've had since then\".The film was a commercial success, and earned her theYoung Hollywood Awardfor Exciting New Face. The next year, Stone starred in the comedyThe Rocker(2008) as Amelia Stone, the \"straight face\"bass guitaristin a band; she learned to play the bass for the role.The actress, who has called herself \"a big smiler and laugher\", said she found it difficult to play a character whose personality was so different from her own. The film and her performance received negative reviews from critics and was a commercial failure.Her next release, the romantic comedyThe House Bunny, performed better at the box office, becoming a moderate commercial success.The film saw her play the president of a sorority, and perform acover versionofthe Waitresses' 1982 song \"I Know What Boys Like\".Reviews were generally negative,but Stone was praised,withTV Guide's Ken Fox writing that she \"is well on her way to becoming a star\". Stone appeared in three films released in 2009. The first of these was oppositeMatthew McConaughey,Jennifer GarnerandMichael DouglasinMark Waters'sGhosts of Girlfriends Past. Loosely based onCharles Dickens's 1843novellaA Christmas Carol, the romantic comedy has her playing a ghost who haunts her former boyfriend. Critical reaction to the film was negative, but it was a modest commercial success.Her most financially profitable venture that year wasRuben Fleischer's $102.3 million-grossing horror comedy filmZombieland,in which she featured alongsideJesse Eisenberg,Woody HarrelsonandAbigail Breslin. In the film, she appeared as a con artist and survivor of azombie apocalypse, in a role which Chris Hewitt ofEmpiremagazine thought was \"somewhat underwritten.\"In a more positive review, Tim Robey ofThe Daily Telegraphcalled \"the hugely promising Stone a tough cookie who projects the aura of being wiser than her years\".Stone's third release in 2009 wasKieran and Michelle Mulroney'sPaper Man, a comedy-drama which disappointed critics. Rise to prominence (2010–2013) Stone voiced anAustralian ShepherdinMarmaduke(2010), a comedy from directorTom Deybased onBrad Anderson'slong-running comic strip of the same name.Her breakthrough came the same year with a starring role inEasy A, a teen comedy directed byWill Gluck.Partially based onNathaniel Hawthorne's 1850 novelThe Scarlet Letter, the film tells the story of Olive Penderghast (Stone), a high school student who becomes embroiled in a comic sex scandal after a false rumor circulates that she is sexuallypromiscuous. Stone read the script before the project was optioned for production, and pursued it with her manager while production details were being finalized. She found the script \"so different and unique from anything I'd read before\", calling it \"funny and sweet\".When Stone discovered that the film had begun production, she met with Gluck, expressing her enthusiasm for the project. A few months later, the audition process started and she met again with Gluck, becoming one of the first actresses to audition.The film received positive critical reviews, and Stone's performance was considered its prime asset.Anna Smith ofTime Outwrote, \"Stone gives a terrific performance, her knowing drawl implying intellect and indifference with underlying warmth.\"The film was a commercial success, grossing $75 million against its $8 million budget.Stone was nominated for aBAFTA Rising Star Awardand aGolden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy, and won theMTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance. In October 2010, Stone hosted an episode of NBC's sketch comedySaturday Night Live; her appearances included a sketch playing off her resemblance toLindsay Lohan.Stone called it \"the greatest week of my life\".She hosted again in 2011, appeared in an episode in 2014, and inits 40th anniversary specialin 2015.A brief appearance in the sex comedyFriends with Benefits(2011) reunited her with Gluck.She followed this with a supporting role inGlenn FicarraandJohn Requa's romantic comedyCrazy, Stupid, Love(2011) alongsideSteve Carell,Ryan GoslingandJulianne Moore. The film featured her as a law school graduate, and the love interest of Gosling's character. Despite finding \"some inevitable collapses into convention\" in the film, Drew McWeeny ofHitFixwrote that Stone \"ties the whole film together\".At the2012 Teen Choice Awards, she won theChoice Movie Actress – Comedyaward for her performance in the film.Crazy, Stupid, Lovewas a box office success, grossing $142.9 million worldwide against a production budget of $50 million. Dismayed at beingtypecastas \"the sarcastic interest of the guy\", Stone co-starred withViola DavisinTate Taylor's period dramaThe Help(2011), a film she found challenging.The film is based onKathryn Stockett's2009 novel of the same nameand is set in 1960sJackson, Mississippi. She met with Taylor to express a desire to work on the film. The director said, \" was completely awkward and dorky, with her raspy voice, and she sat down and we got a little intoxicated and had a blast, and I just thought, 'God! God! This is Skeeter.\"She was cast as Eugenia \"Skeeter\" Phelan, an aspiring writer learning about the lives of the African-American maids. In preparation for the part, she learned to speak in aSouthern accentand educated herself on theCivil Rights Movementthrough literature and film.With a worldwide gross of $216 million against a $25 million budget,The Helpbecame Stone's highest-grossing film to that point.The film, and her performance, received positive reviews from critics. Writing forEmpire, Anna Smith thought Stone was \"well-meaning and hugely likable\" despite finding flaws in the character.The film was nominated for anAcademy Award for Best Picture,and won Best Ensemble Cast from theWomen Film Critics Circleand theBroadcast Film Critics Association. Stone turned down a role in the action comedy21 Jump Streetafter signing on toMarc Webb's 2012 filmThe Amazing Spider-Man, arebootofSam Raimi'sSpider-Manseries.She portrayedGwen Stacy, the love interest of thetitular superhero(played byAndrew Garfield).Stone returned to her natural blonde hair color for the role, having dyed it red previously.She admitted to having never read the comics, and therefore felt responsible to educate herself about Spider-Man: \"My experience was with the Sam Raimi movies ... I always assumed thatMary Janewas his first love\",adding that she was only familiar with Stacy's character as portrayed byBryce Dallas HowardinSpider-Man 3.The Amazing Spider-Manwas a commercial success and was theseventh highest-grossing film of the yearwith global revenues of $757.9 million.Entertainment Weekly'sLisa Schwarzbaumfound Stone to be \"irresistible\",andIan FreerofEmpirewas particularly impressed with Stone's and Garfield's performances.At the annualPeople's Choice Awardsceremony, she was nominated for three awards, including Favorite Movie Actress.Later that year, Stone voiced a role in the crime-based video gameSleeping Dogs, which earned her aSpike Video Game Award. Stone began 2013 with a voice role in theDreamWorks AnimationfilmThe Croods, which was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Animated Feature.This followed with an appearance inMovie 43, ananthology filmwhich consists of 16 short stories—she played the title role in the segment entitled \"Veronica\".She next starred alongside Ryan Gosling andSean Pennin Ruben Fleischer'sGangster Squad(2013), a crime thriller set in Los Angeles during the 1940s.A. O. ScottofThe New York Timesdismissed the film as \"a hectic jumble of fedoras and zoot suits\", but praised Stone's pairing with Gosling. Established actress (2014–2017) In 2014, Stone reprised the role of Gwen Stacy inThe Amazing Spider-Man 2. She believed that her character did not depend on the film's protagonist, asserting: \"She saves him more than he saves her. She's incredibly helpful to Spider-Man ... He's the muscle, she's the brains.\"Her performance was well received by critics;anEmpirereviewer commended her for standing out in the film, writing, \"Stone is theHeath Ledgerof this series, doing something unexpected with an easily dismissed supporting character.\"The role won her the Favorite Movie Actress award at the2015 Kids' Choice Awards.Later that year, Stone took on a role inWoody Allen's romantic comedyMagic in the Moonlight, a modest commercial success.A. O. Scott criticized her role, and pairing withColin Firth, describing it as \"the kind of pedantic nonsense that is meant to signify superior intellect\". The black comedyBirdman, directed byAlejandro González Iñárritu, was Stone's final film release of 2014. Co-starringMichael KeatonandEdward Norton, it featured her as Sam Thomson, the recovering-addict daughter of actor Riggan Thomson (Keaton), who becomes his assistant. Iñárritu created the character based on his experience with his daughter.Birdmanwas critically acclaimed,and was the most successful film at the87th Academy Awards; it was nominated for nine awards, winning four, including Best Picture.The Movie Networkdeemed it one of Stone's best performances to date, andRobbie CollinofThe Daily Telegraphfound her to be \"superb\" and \"tremendous\" in her role, while also highlighting her monologue in the film which he believed to have been \"delivered like a knitting needle to the gut.\"She receivedAcademy,BAFTA,Golden Globe, andSAG Awardnominations. From November 2014 to February 2015, Stone starred in a revival of theBroadwaymusicalCabaretasSally Bowles, taking over the role fromMichelle Williams.Deeming it \"the most nerve-racking thing ever\", Stone listened to a French radio station to mentally prepare herself for the role.Marilyn StasioofVarietywas critical of her singing abilities and found her performance to be \"a bit narrow as an emotional platform, but a smart choice for her acting skills, the perfect fit for her sharp intelligence and kinetic energy.\"Both of Stone's 2015 films—the romantic comedyAloha, and the dramaIrrational Man—were critical and commercial failures, and her roles were panned by critics.InCameron Crowe'sAloha, she played the role of an air force pilot alongsideBradley Cooper, and in Woody Allen'sIrrational Man, she played the love interest ofJoaquin Phoenix's character, a philosophy professor. The former wascontroversialforwhitewashingthe cast, as Stone's character was meant to be of Asian, Hawaiian, and Swedish descent. She later regretted taking part in the project, acknowledging whitewashing as a widespread problem in Hollywood.Despite the backlash, Stone was nominated for Choice Movie Actress – Comedy at the2015 Teen Choice Awards.She also appeared in the music video forWill Butler's single \"Anna\". During her run onCabaret, Stone met filmmakerDamien Chazelle, who, impressed with her performance, cast her in his musical comedy-dramaLa La Land.The project, which marked her third collaboration with Gosling, starred Stone as Mia Dolan, an aspiring actress living in Los Angeles.Stone borrowed several real-life experiences for her character, and in preparation, watchedThe Umbrellas of Cherbourgand films ofFred Astaire and Ginger Rogers.For thefilm's soundtrack, she recorded six songs.La La Landserved as the opening film at the2016 Venice Film Festival, where it generated critical acclaim and earned Stone theVolpi Cup for Best Actress.It emerged as a commercial success, with a worldwide gross of over $440 million against a production budget of $30 million.Peter BradshawofThe Guardianwrote that \"Stone has never been better: superbly smart, witty, vulnerable, her huge doe eyes radiating intelligence even, or especially, when they are filling with tears.\"For her performance, Stone won theAcademy,Golden Globe,SAG, andBAFTAAward for Best Actress. Stone's sole release of 2017 wasBattle of the Sexes, based on the 1973eponymous matchbetween tennis playersBillie Jean King(Stone) andBobby Riggs(Steve Carell). In preparation, Stone met with King, watched old footage and interviews of her, worked with a dialect coach to speak in King's accent, and drank high-calorie protein shakes to gain 15 pounds (6.8 kg).The film premiered to positive reviews at the2017 Toronto International Film Festival, and certain critics considered Stone's performance to be the finest of her career.Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianpraised her for playing against type, and for being \"strong\" and \"convincing\" in the part.Even so, the film earned less than its $25 million budget.Stone received her fourth Golden Globe nomination for it, and attended the ceremony with King. Films with Yorgos Lanthimos and professional expansion (2018–present) In 2018, Stone andRachel WeiszplayedAbigail MashamandSarah Churchill, two cousins fighting for the affection ofQueen Anne(Olivia Colman), inYorgos Lanthimos's historical comedy-dramaThe Favourite. She found it challenging to be an American among an all-British cast, and struggled with mastering her character's accent.The film premiered at the75th Venice International Film Festivalto critical acclaim.Michael Nordine ofIndieWirepraised Stone for taking on such a bold role following the success ofLa La Land, and termed the three lead actresses \"a majestic triumvirate in a period piece that's as tragic as it is hilarious.\"Stone then executive-produced and starred in theNetflixdark comedy miniseriesManiac(2018), directed byCary Joji Fukunaga. It featured Stone and Jonah Hill as two strangers whose lives are transformed due to a mysterious pharmaceutical trial. An admirer of Fukunaga's work, she agreed to the project without reading the script.Judy Berman ofTimemagazine was impressed with Stone and Hill for their growth as actors sinceSuperbadand noted the complexity in their performances.Stone received her fifth Golden Globe nomination and third Oscar nomination forThe Favourite, and additionally earned SAG nominations for bothManiacandThe Favourite.That same year, Stone appeared inPaul McCartney's music video for his song \"Who Cares\". Stone reprised her role as Wichita inZombieland: Double Tap(2019), the sequel to 2009'sZombieland, which received mixed reviews and grossed $125 million worldwide.She narrated the Netflix documentary seriesThe Mind, Explained(2019) and reprised the voice role of Eep inThe Croods: A New Age(2020), the sequel to 2013'sThe Croods.In 2021, Stone playedCruella de Vil(originated byGlenn Closein the previous live-action adaptations) inCraig Gillespie's crime comedyCruella, a Disney live-action based on the 1961 animationOne Hundred and One Dalmatians. Starring oppositeEmma Thompson, Stone also served as an executive producer of the film alongside Close.The film was released in US theaters and onDisney+ Premier Accessto positive reviews and grossed $233 million worldwide against its $100 million budget.Justin ChangofLos Angeles Timeswrote that despite the film's flawed screenplay, Stone was \"wholly committed, glammed-to-the-nines\"; Chang favorably compared it with her performance inThe Favourite, adding that she \"nailed every nuance as another lowly young woman turned ambitious schemer\".ForCruella, Stone garnered another Golden Globe nomination. In 2020, Stone and her husband,Dave McCary, launched the production companyFruit Tree.Their first project was the independent filmWhen You Finish Saving the World, which marked Jesse Eisenberg's feature directorial debut.The film premiered at the2022 Sundance Film Festival, and had modest reviews.The company's next release was the comedyProblemista, directed byJulio Torres.It premiered at the 2023South by Southwest, and was initially scheduled to be released that year, but was delayed due to the2023 SAG-AFTRA strike.Both films were produced in collaboration withA24. Continuing her collaboration with Lanthimos, Stone starred in his short filmBleat(2022) and feature filmPoor Things(2023).The latter, a fantasy coming-of-age film, is based on thenovel of the same namebyAlasdair Gray.Stone also produced the film, in which she starred as Bella, a young Victorian woman who is crudely resurrected after her suicide. She found the experience of playing a character liberated of societal pressures to be \"extremely freeing\",and she performed nudity and several sex scenes in it.David Rooney ofThe Hollywood Reporterwrote that Stone \"gorges on it in a fearless performance that traces an expansive arc most actors could only dream about\", and particularly praised her ability to perform physical comedy.Stephanie ZacharekofTimetermed her performance \"wonderful—vital, exploratory, almost lunar in its perfect oddness\".Stone next executive produced and starred in theShowtimesatirical comedy seriesThe Curse.She played Whitney, an influencer who hosts anHGTVshow with her husband.Commenting on her achievements of the year,BBC Culture'sCaryn Jamesopined that \"Stone has quickly moved past Hollywood stardom to claim serious artistic credentials\".She received two more Golden Globe nominations for Best Actress for her performances inPoor ThingsandThe Curse, winning for the former.Also forPoor Things, she won her second Academy Award and BAFTA for Best Actress in addition to a Best Picture nomination. The2024 Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of two films produced by Stone for Fruit Tree — the horror filmI Saw the TV Glowand Eisenberg's second directorial,A Real Pain.In her fourth collaboration with Lanthimos, Stone played three characters in hisabsurdistanthology filmKinds of Kindness, which premiered at the2024 Cannes Film Festival.She will next star inAri Aster'scontemporary WesternfilmEddingtonand in Lanthimos'Bugonia, a remake of the South Korean filmSave the Green Planet!. Reception and acting style Commenting on her performance inThe Help, Kirk Honeycutt ofThe Hollywood Reportercalled her \"one of our very best young actresses\".Time's Daniel D'Addario stated in 2015 that Stone \"appears to have fairly limited options\" and choosing roles in independent films by \"less established directors would represent a substantive risk\".Analyzing her on-screen persona, Jessica Kiang ofIndieWirenoted that Stone \"usually the approachable, down-to-earth, girl-next-door type, in person she demonstrates many of those qualities too, along with an absolute refusal to take herself too seriously.\"Biographer Karen Hollinger wrote that at the beginning of her career, Stone was often labeled a \"staringénue\", a perceived limitation she escaped despite not being a classically trained actress as she \"crafted a brilliant career based on performative skills, careful choice of roles and distinctive personality\".In a 2024 analysis of Stone's career trajectory,IndieWiresuggested that from breakout roles to acclaimed performances in indie films, Stone is positioned as a potential new movie star in Hollywood's evolving landscape. In 2008, Stone toppedSaturday Night Magazine's Top 20 Rising Stars Under 30 and was included in a similar list compiled byMoviefone.LoveFilmplaced her on their list of 2010 Top 20 Actresses Under 30, and her performance inEasy Awas included inTime's Top 10 Everything of 2010.She appeared in the 2013Celebrity 100list, a compilation of the 100 most powerful people in the world, as selected annually byForbes. The magazine reported that she had earned $16 million from June 2012 to June 2013.That same year, she was ranked first in the magazine's Top 10 Best Value Stars.In 2015,Forbespublished that she had become one of the world's highest-paid actresses with earnings of $6.5 million.The magazine ranked her theworld's highest-paid actresstwo years later with annual earnings of $26 million.In 2017, she was included onTime's annual list of the100 most influential people in the world. Stone has been described as a style icon, with her hair, eyes, and husky voice listed as her trademark features.Voguecredits the actress for her \"sophisticated, perfectly put-together looks\", writing that \"her charisma, both on-screen and off-, has charmed many\" and for her embrace of \"Old Hollywood Glamour\".Bee Shapiro ofThe New York Timescalled Stone a \"likable ... spunky, talented, self-deprecating and slightly goofy\" actress who is diverse in her fashion choices.In 2009, she was featured onFHM's100 Sexiest Women in the WorldandMaxim's Hot 100;the latter also placed her on the list on three other occasions—2010, 2011, and 2014.In 2011, she featured onVictoria's Secret's list of \"What is Sexy?\" as the Sexiest Actress.She was mentioned in other media outlet listings that year, includingPeople's 100 Most Beautiful Women, each ofFHM's andFHM Australia's 100 Sexiest Women in the World, andMen's Health's 100 Hottest Women.She was ranked sixth onEmpire's list of the 100 Sexiest Movie Stars in 2013.Stone was named the best-dressed woman of 2012 byVogueand was included on similar listings byGlamourin 2013 and 2015, andPeoplein 2014. Personal life Stone moved from Los Angeles toGreenwich Village,New York, in 2009.In 2016, she moved back to Los Angeles.Despite significant media attention, she refuses to publicly discuss her personal life. Concerned with living a normal life, Stone has said she dislikes receiving paparazzi attention outside her home.She has expressed her fondness for her profession,and has citedDiane Keatonas an acting influence, calling her \"one of the most covered-up actresses of all time\". Stone has a close relationship with her family.She says, \"I am blessed with a great family and great people around me that would be able to kick me in the shins if I ever for one minute got lost up in the clouds. I've been really lucky in that sense.\" Stone dated herPaper Manco-starKieran Culkinfor two years. In 2011, she started dating herAmazing Spider-Manco-star Andrew Garfield for four years.Their relationship was reported in the media with various speculations; the pair refused to speak publicly about it, though they made several appearances together. In 2014, on an occasion in New York City, Stone and Garfield encouraged paparazzi to visit websites that spread awareness of causes such asautism.In 2015, they were reported to have broken up. Stone metSaturday Night Livesegment directorDave McCaryon December 3, 2016, while hosting the show. They began dating the following year. On December 4, 2019, they announced their engagement. They married in a private ceremony in September 2020.In January 2021, they were reported to be expecting their first child together.In March 2021, Stone gave birth to their daughter named Louise Jean.As of 2021, the family lives inAustin, Texas.In 2022, Stone sold her house inMalibu, Californiafor $4.425 million,and in 2024, she sold herLos Angeleshome for $4 million. Stone has said she suffers fromasthma, which she discovered after having difficulty breathing while filmingEasy A.Her mother was diagnosed withtriple-negative breast cancerand cured in 2008.Stone and her mother celebrated by getting tattoos of birds' feet, designed byPaul McCartney, a reference tothe Beatlessong \"Blackbird\", which she and her mother love.Stone is a supporter ofPlanned Parenthood, and attended the2017 Academy Awardswearing a Planned Parenthood pin on her dress. Philanthropy Stone appeared in aRevloncampaign that promoted breast cancer awareness.In 2011, she appeared in a collaborative video betweenStar WarsandStand Up to Cancerto raise funds for cancer research.From 2012 to 2014, she hosted theEntertainment Industry Foundation's Revlon Run/Walk, which helps fight women's cancer. Stone and three other celebrities were present at the 2012Nickelodeon HALO Awards, a TV special that profiled four teenagers who are \"Helping And Leading Others\" (HALO).She attended the 2014Earth Hour, a worldwide movement for the planet organized by theWorld Wide Fund for Nature.In 2015, she was part of a fundraising event in support of theMotion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the film and television industries with limited or no resources.In 2018, she collaborated with 300 women in Hollywood to set up theTime's Upinitiative to protect women fromsexual harassmentand discrimination. Acting credits and awards According to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes and the box-office siteBox Office Mojo, Stone's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful films areSuperbad(2007),Zombieland(2009),Easy A(2010),Crazy, Stupid, Love(2011),The Help(2011),The Amazing Spider-Man(2012),The Amazing Spider-Man 2(2014),Birdman(2014),La La Land(2016),Battle of the Sexes(2017),The Favourite(2018),Cruella(2021), andPoor Things(2023). Stone has been recognized by theAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciencesfor the following: She has also been nominated for fiveBritish Academy Film Awards: BAFTA Rising Star Award, Best Supporting Actress forBirdmanandThe Favourite, and Best Actress in a Leading Role forLa La LandandPoor Things, winning for the last two.Her other awards include twoGolden Globe Awardsfor Best Actress in a Comedy or Musical forLa La LandandPoor Things,theScreen Actors Guild Awardfor Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role and the Volpi Cup for Best Actress at Venice Film Festival, both forLa La Land. See also Notes References Literary sources External links",
"List of highest-paid film actors While the highest-paidfilm actorscan command multi-million-dollar salaries, actors can potentially earn substantially more by deferring all or part of their salary against a percentage of the film's gross, known within the industry as a \"profit participation\" deal. Highest earnings for a single production Since not all salaries are made public, this is a non-definitive list of actors who have received $30 million or more as compensation for their services in a single production. Occasionally an actor's fee may cover multiple films, and they are included on the list if the films were filmed as a back-to-back production (for example, Keanu Reeves and theMatrixsequels). The figures are given at theirnominal value, since earnings from profit-based deals are accumulated over many years, making it unfeasible to adjust forinflation. Forbespublishes yearly lists of the highest-paid actors and actresses based on total earnings from 1 June the previous year to 1 June the current year. Highest annual earnings Forbespublishes yearly lists of the highest-paid actors and actresses based on total earnings from 1 June the previous year to 1 June the current year. See also References",
"Margot Robbie Margot Elise Robbie(/ˈmɑːrɡoʊˈrɒbi/MAR-gohROB-ee; born 2 July 1990) is an Australian actress and producer.Her workincludes bothblockbusterandindependent films, andher accoladesinclude nominations for threeAcademy Awards, sixBAFTA Awardsand fourGolden Globe Awards.Timenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the worldin 2017, andForbesnamed her theworld's highest-paid actressin 2023. Born and raised inQueensland, Robbie began her career in 2008 on the television seriesNeighbours, on which she was a regular until 2011. After moving to the United States, she led the television seriesPan Am(2011–2012) and had her breakthrough in 2013 withMartin Scorsese’s comedy filmThe Wolf of Wall Street. She achieved wider recognition with starring roles asJane PorterinThe Legend of Tarzan(2016), and asHarley Quinnin theDC Extended Universefilms beginning withSuicide Squad(2016). Robbie received critical acclaim and a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Actressfor her portrayal of figure skaterTonya Hardingin the biopicI, Tonya(2017). This acclaim continued for her performances asQueen Elizabeth IinMary Queen of Scots(2018),Sharon TateinOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood(2019), and aFox Newsemployee inBombshell(2019). The last of these earned her a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Robbie has since starred as an aspiring actress in the period filmBabylon(2022) andthe titular fashion dollin the fantasy comedyBarbie(2023), which emerged as her highest-grossing release and, as its producer, earned her a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture. Robbie and her husband, filmmakerTom Ackerley, co-founded the production companyLuckyChap Entertainmentin 2014, under which they have produced several films, includingI, Tonya,Promising Young Woman(2020),Barbie, andSaltburn(2023), as well as theHuluseriesDollface(2019–2022) and theNetflixminiseriesMaid(2021). Early life and education Margot Elise Robbie was born on 2 July 1990 inDalby, Queensland, to Doug Robbie, a former farm-owner andsugarcanetycoon, and Sarie Kessler, aphysiotherapist.She is the second youngest of four; older siblings Anya and Lachlan and younger brother Cameron.Her parents separated when she was five.Robbie and her siblings were raised by their single mother and had minimal contact with their father. The family spent the majority of Robbie's upbringing on her grandparents'Currumbin Valleyfarmin theGold Coast hinterland.An energetic child, Robbie often put on shows in her house. She was enrolled in acircus schoolby her mother, where she excelled intrapeze, in which she received a certificate at age eight.In high school, Robbie studied drama atSomerset College.As a teenager, she worked three jobs: she tended a bar, cleaned houses, and worked atSubway.After graduation, with a few commercials and independent thriller films on her résumé, Robbie relocated toMelbourneto begin acting professionally. Career 2008–2012: Early work andNeighbours Robbie's first acting roles came when she was in high school. She starred in two low-budget independent thriller films, calledVigilanteandI.C.U., both released years later. She described the experience of being on afilm setas \"a dream come true\".She made her television debut in a 2008 guest role as Caitlin Brentford in the drama seriesCity Homicideand followed this with a two-episode arc in the children's television seriesThe Elephant Princess, in which she starred alongsideLiam Hemsworth. With agent encouragement at the time and as Robbie recalled onThe Graham Norton Show,she calledFremantleMediaon a daily basis. \"One day, I got put through by accident to the casting director for Neighbours,\" and she said, \"I'm in town working on something.\" The casting director asked how old she was, and she responded \"seventeen.\" She was told, \"We're looking for exactly that, come in and audition\"for the television soap operaNeighbours. In June 2008, she began playingDonna Freedman, a role that was meant to be a guest character, but Robbie was promoted to the regular cast after she made her debut.In her three-year stint on the soap, she received twoLogie Awardnominations. Shortly after arriving in America, Robbie landed the role of Laura Cameron, a newly trained flight attendant in the period drama seriesPan Am(2011). The series premiered to high ratings and positive reviews but was cancelled after one season due to falling ratings. 2013–2015: Breakthrough Robbie next appeared inRichard Curtis' romantic comedyAbout Time(2013), co-starringDomhnall GleesonandRachel McAdams. It tells the story of a young man with the ability to time travel who tries to change his past in hopes of improving his future. To play Gleeson's unattainable teenage love interest, she adopted a British accent.The film was a modest commercial success.Robbie's breakthrough came the same year with the role ofNaomi Lapaglia, the wife of protagonistJordan Belfort, inMartin Scorsese's biographical black comedyThe Wolf of Wall Street. In her audition for the role, Robbie improvised a slap on co-starLeonardo DiCaprioduring a fight scene which ultimately won her the part.The film and her performance received positive reviews; she was particularly praised for her on-screenBrooklyn accent.CriticSasha Stonewrote of Robbie's performance, \"She's Scorsese's best blonde bombshell discovery sinceCathy MoriartyinRaging Bull. Robbie is funny, hard and kills every scene she's in.\"The Wolf of Wall Streetwas a box office success, grossing $392 million worldwide, making it Scorsese's highest-grossing film to date.Robbie was nominated for theMTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performanceand won theEmpire Award for Best Newcomer. She later said that the fame and attention the movie brought her led her to consider quitting acting, but her mother was philosophical about her profession and explained to her that it was probably too late to quit. She fully understood and stuck with it.With the aim to produce more female-driven projects, Robbie and her future husband, Tom Ackerley, and their respective longtime friends Sophia Kerr and Josey McNamara, started their own production companyLuckyChap Entertainment. The company was founded in 2014 and its name was inspired byCharlie Chaplin. Robbie appeared in four films released in 2015. The first of these was oppositeWill SmithinGlenn FicarraandJohn Requa's $158.8 million-grossing romantic comedy-drama filmFocus. In the film, she played an inexperiencedgrifterlearning the craft from Smith's character; she learned how topickpocketfromApollo Robbinsfor the role.Reviews of the film were generally mixed, but Robbie's performance was praised;Peter TraversofRolling Stonewrote, \"Robbie is wow and then some. Even whenFocusfumbles, deals a winning hand.\"She was nominated for theRising Star Awardat the68th British Academy Film Awards.Her next appearance was alongsideMichelle WilliamsandKristin Scott ThomasinSaul Dibb's war romantic dramaSuite Française, a film based on the second part ofIrène Némirovsky's 2004novel of the same name. In the film, she played a woman falling for a German soldier during theGerman occupation of France during World War II, a role which Leslie Felperin ofThe Hollywood Reporterfound \"underwritten\". She followed this withCraig Zobel's post-apocalyptic dramaZ for ZachariahoppositeChris PineandChiwetel Ejiofor, in her first leading role. Partially based onRobert C. O'Brien'sbook of the same name, the film follows Ann Burden (Robbie) as she finds herself in an emotionally charged love triangle with the last known survivors of a disaster that wipes out most of civilization. In preparation for the film, Robbie dyed her hair brown and learned to speak in anAppalachianaccent.The film received positive reviews, and Robbie's performance was widely praised, with Drew McWeeny ofHitFixasserting that \"Robbie's work here establishes her as one of the very best actresses in her age range today.\"Her fourth release of 2015 was acameo appearanceinAdam McKay's comedy-dramaThe Big Short, in which she breaks thefourth wallto explainsubprime mortgageswhile in a bathtub.The Big Shortwas a commercial and critical success and Robbie's cameo became atrending topicsix years later, in the wake of theGameStop short squeeze, as her explanation provided reference points for what was happening with the GameStop and related stocks. 2016–2018: Worldwide recognition In 2016, Robbie reunited with Ficarra and Requa, playing a Britishwar correspondentin the film adaptation ofThe Taliban Shuffle, calledWhiskey Tango Foxtrot, co-starringTina FeyandMartin Freeman.Later that year, Robbie took on the part ofJane PorterinDavid Yates's adventure filmThe Legend of Tarzan. She was adamant about not losing weight and ensuring the role was not adamsel in distresslike in previousTarzanadaptations.Reviews of the film were generally unfavourable,butManohla DargisofThe New York Timescredited Robbie for \"holding her own\" in her supporting role alongside the all-male cast withAlexander SkarsgårdandSamuel L. Jackson. Robbie became the first person to portrayDC ComicsvillainHarley Quinninlive-actionwhen she signed on toDavid Ayer's 2016 superhero filmSuicide Squadalongside anensemble castthat included Will Smith,Jared LetoandViola Davis. She admitted to having never read the comics, but felt a huge responsibility to do the character justice and satisfy the fans.Robbie began preparing for the role of thesupervillainesssix months prior to the film shoot; her schedule consisted ofgymnastics,boxing,aerial silktraining and learning how to hold her breath underwater for five minutes. She performed the majority of her own stunts in the film.Suicide Squadwas a commercial success and wastenth-highest-grossing film of 2016with global revenues of $746.8 million, and Robbie's performance was considered its prime asset.Writing forTime,Stephanie Zacharekfound Robbie to be \"a criminally appealing actress, likable in just about every way\" despite finding flaws in the characterandChristopher OrrofThe Atlanticcalled her performance \"genuinely terrific\".At the annualPeople's Choice Awardsceremony, she won theFavorite Action Movie Actressaward and was also awarded theCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in an Action Movie.In October 2016, Robbie hosted theseason 42premiere ofNBC's late-night sketch comedySaturday Night Live; her appearances included a parody ofIvanka Trump.The series logged its strongest season premiere ratings in eight years.Robbie collaborated with Domhnall Gleeson inSimon Curtis'Goodbye Christopher Robin(2017), a biographical drama about the lives ofWinnie-the-PoohcreatorA. A. Milneand his family. The film, and her performance, received modest reviews and was a commercial failure. Her final release of 2017 and LuckyChap Entertainment's first release wasCraig Gillespie's sports black comedyI, Tonya, based on the life of American figure skaterTonya Harding(Robbie) and her connection to the1994 assaulton rivalNancy Kerrigan. In preparation, Robbie met with Harding, watched old footage and interviews of her, worked with a voice coach to speak in Harding'sPacific Northwestaccent and vocal timbre at different ages, and underwent several months of rigorous skating instruction with choreographerSarah Kawahara.I, Tonyapremiered at the2017 Toronto International Film Festivalto critical acclaim.James Luxford ofMetrodeemed it Robbie's best performance to date, andMark KermodeofThe Observerwrote, \"Margot Robbie's performance in this satirical, postmodern tale of the disgraced star is a tour-de-force tornado that balances finely nuanced character development with impressively punchy physicality\".She received numerous accolades for her performance, including nominations for anAcademy Award, aBAFTA Award, aGolden Globe Award, aScreen Actors Guild Awardand aCritics' Choice Movie Award, all for Best Actress. Robbie began 2018 with the voice role ofFlopsy RabbitinPeter Rabbit, an animated comedy from directorWill Gluck, which is based on theBeatrix Potterbook series. The animated feature was a box office success, grossing $351.3 million worldwide against a production budget of $50 million.Her next two 2018 films—the neo-noir thrillerTerminaland comedy-horrorSlaughterhouse Rulez—were critical and commercial failures. The historical dramaMary Queen of Scots, directed byJosie Rourke, was her final release of 2018. The film featuredSaoirse Ronanas thetitular characterand Robbie as her cousinQueen Elizabeth I, and it chronicles the1569 conflict between their two countries. Robbie had initially turned down the role for being \"terrified\" of not living up to the history of portrayals of the Queen.Before each day of shooting, she spent three hours in the make-up chair while a prosthetic nose, painted on boils and blisters were applied.Critics dismissed the film for its screenplay and several historical inaccuracies, but praised the performances of Robbie and Ronan.Yolanda Machado ofTheWrapwrote, \"ow down to Ronan and Robbie for taking two legendarily complex characters, and completely owning both roles. Ronan's fiery Mary and Robbie's emotionally complex Elizabeth truly reign divine on screen.\"For her portrayal, Robbie received nominations for aBAFTA Awardand for aScreen Actors Guild Award. 2019–present: Established actress and producer Robbie's first release of 2019 was the LuckyChap Entertainment productionDreamland, a poorly received period crime thriller set during the 1930sDust Bowl.She began executive producing the comedy seriesDollface, which streamed onHulufrom 2019 to 2022.Robbie was filmmakerQuentin Tarantino's only choice to portray the late actressSharon Tatein his period filmOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood, starring Leonardo DiCaprio andBrad Pitt.With theTate–LaBianca murdersserving as a backdrop, the film tells the story of a fadingcharacter actor(DiCaprio) and hisstunt double(Pitt) as they navigateNew Hollywoodin 1969 Los Angeles.Feeling \"an enormous sense of responsibility\", Robbie prepared for the role by meeting Tate's family members and friends, watching all of her films and reading the autobiography by Tate's then-husband,Roman Polanski.Once Upon a Time in Hollywoodpremiered at the2019 Cannes Film Festivalto critical acclaim, and was a commercial success with a worldwide gross of $374.3 million.Despite many bemoaning Robbie's lack of lines in the film,Robbie CollinofThe Daily Telegraphhighlighted a scene with Robbie in the cinema, which he found to be the film's \"most delightful\" scene. Also in 2019, she starred as Kayla Pospisil, acomposite characterbased on severalFox Newsemployees, inJay Roach's dramaBombshell. Co-starringCharlize TheronandNicole Kidman, the film recounts stories of various female personnel at the news network and their sexual harassment by the network's chairmanRoger Ailes.Robbie based her character's accent onKatherine Harris.The film received positive reviews;Kenneth Turanof theLos Angeles Timeswrote, \"Robbie at her best, the arc of her story is so crushing that it stays with you the longest.\"For her performances inOnce Upon a Time in HollywoodandBombshell, she received two nominations for theBAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role,and for the latter she received nominations for anAcademy Award, aGolden Globeand a Screen Actors Guild Award; all in the Best Supporting Actress category. Robbie began the new decade by reprising the role of Harley Quinn inCathy Yan'sBirds of Prey(2020). Determined to make a female ensemble action film, she pitched the idea for the film toWarner Bros.in 2015. Robbie spent the subsequent three years developing the project under her production company, making a concerted effort to hire a female director and screenwriter.Birds of Prey, along with Robbie's performance, gained generally positive reviews;Ian FreerofEmpirewrote that \"theMVPis Robbie, who lends Harley charming quirk and believable menace, hinting at Harley's inner life without reams of dialogue.\"She received two nominations at the46th People's Choice Awards. Robbie served as a producer onPromising Young Woman(2020), a comedy thriller by writer-directorEmerald Fennell, starringCarey Mulliganas a woman who seeks to avenge the rape and death of her best friend. The film received acclaim,earning a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.In 2021, Robbie reprised her voice role as Flopsy Rabbit inPeter Rabbit 2: The Runaway, which received mixed reviews and grossed $153.8 million worldwide.She also made her third outing as Quinn in thestandalone sequelThe Suicide Squad, written and directed byJames Gunn. Due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, the film was simultaneously released theatrically and on the streaming serviceHBO Max.Owen Gleibermanpraised Robbie's \"delectable performance\" in it.She also served as an executive producer for theNetflixminiseriesMaid. In 2022, Robbie reprised her role as Donna Freedman for thefinal episodeofNeighbours.She starred alongside an ensemble cast inDavid O. Russell's period comedyAmsterdam, based on the 1933Business Plot.The film emerged as a critical and commercial failure.In her second film release of the year, she played Nellie LaRoy, an actress inspired by silent movie starClara Bow, inDamien Chazelle's comedy-dramaBabylon. In preparation, she studied the works of Bow and researched her traumatic childhood.She described LaRoy as \"the most physically and emotionally draining character I've ever played\".The film polarized critics and had poor box office returns, though her performance received praise;Caryn JamesofBBC Cultureopined, \"Robbie's bold, charismatic performance makes Nellie a daring, endlessly spiraling, sympathetic figure\".She received another Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress,although the underperformance of her two major releases that year led some commentators to brand her as \"box office poison\" at the time. In the following year, Robbie had a single scene inWes Anderson's ensemble comedy filmAsteroid City.Chris Hewitt of theStar Tribunedescribed her \"impassioned acting in her lone scene\" as \"perfectly judged\".The fantasy comedyBarbie, co-starringRyan GoslingasKen, was her next film release.As producer, Robbie bought the rights fromMattelfor a film about theeponymous fashion dollin 2018.She hiredGreta Gerwigto write and direct the film, and took on the title role herself afterGal Gadotdeclined her offer.In preparation, Gerwig and Robbie watched oldTechnicolormusicals such asThe Red Shoes(1948) andThe Umbrellas of Cherbourg(1964).Varietyreported that Robbie earned $12.5 million for the role, the highest for an actress in Hollywood that year.Vulture'sAlison Willmore took note of how much Robbie fit the part, and commended her for combining both \"heartbreaking earnestness\" and \"humor\" in her performance.With a worldwide gross of over $1.4 billion,Barbieemerged as Robbie's highest-grossing release.She received further BAFTA and Golden Globe nominations for her performance, in addition to a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture. Also in 2023, Robbie produced Fennell's second directorial,Saltburn.The2024 Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of her next production,Megan Park's comedy filmMy Old Ass.Robbie will next star alongsideColin FarrellinKogonada's filmA Big Bold Beautiful JourneyandJacob Elordiin Emerald Fennell'sWuthering Heights, adapted fromthe novel. Personal life Despite significant media attention, Robbie rarely discusses her personal life.Robbie moved from Melbourne toWilliamsburg, Brooklyn, in the early 2010s, having previously shared a flat withNeighboursco-starAshleigh Brewer.During that period, she became an avid ice hockey fan; she supports theNew York Rangersand previously playedright wingin an amateur ice hockey league. Robbie met British assistant directorTom Ackerleyon the set ofSuite Françaisein 2013.In 2014, she moved to London with Ackerley and LuckyChap Entertainment co-founders Sophia Kerr and Josey McNamara. Later that year, Robbie and Ackerley began a romantic relationship.In December 2016, they married in a private wedding ceremony inByron Bay, Australia.The couple reside inVenice Beach, California.Her pregnancy was confirmed by the media via multiple sources in July 2024. Other work Robbie has been a vocal supporter ofhuman rights,women's rights,gender equalityandLGBTrights.Through LuckyChap Entertainment, she and her co-founders focus on promoting female stories from female storytellers, whether it would be writers, directors, producers or all the above.In 2014, she was part of a fundraising event in support of theMotion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the film and television industries with limited or no resources; she joined the same event on two other occasions, in 2018 and 2020.In 2015, she helped raise $12 million through theBGC Global Charity Dayfundraising event, which donates money to different charities around the world.In 2016, Robbie joined other celebrities andUN Refugee Agencystaff in a petition aiming to gather public support for the growing number of families forced to flee conflict and persecution worldwide.Later in the year, she joinedOxfam's \"I Hear You\" project, which was designed to amplify the personal stories of the world's most vulnerable refugees and donated more than $50.000 toUNICEF's \"Children First\" campaign, in support of refugee children. In October 2016, while hostingSaturday Night Live, Robbie made a stand forsame-sex marriagein her native Australia wearing a T-shirt that read \"Say 'I Do' Down Under\", with a map of the country in rainbow colors. A year later, she joined fellow actorChris Hemsworthin advocating for the same purpose.In 2018, she pledged to support theTime's Upinitiative to protect women from harassment and discrimination.In April 2021, Robbie was announced as the recipient of the inaugural RAD Impact Award, for inspiring purpose with her philanthropy. She chose to share the prize withYoungcare, a charity she had previously worked with, and therefore an impact donation was made to fund a project benefiting young people with extensive care needs. Public image Robbie is known for starring in both high-profile, mainstream productions and low-budget independent films, in which she has been able to display both her dramatic and comedic range. For her role inThe Wolf of Wall Street,Vanity Fairnamed her one of its breakthrough actors of 2013.In 2017, she appeared on the annualForbes30 Under 30list, a compilation of the brightest young entrepreneurs, innovators and game changers in the world and was included on a similar list compiled byThe Hollywood Reporter.That same year,Timenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the world; herThe Wolf of Wall Streetdirector Martin Scorsese penned the article in the magazine, referring to Robbie as having \"a unique audacity that surprises and challenges and just burns like a brand into every character she plays. Margot is stunning in all she is and all she does, and she will astonish us forever.\"In 2019,Forbesranked her among the world's highest-paid actresses, with annual earnings of $23.5 million, andThe Hollywood Reporterlisted her among the 100 most powerful people in entertainment.In 2021, she was named one of the 100 most influential women in entertainment byThe Hollywood Reporter.In December 2023, Robbie has been listed inThe Hollywood Reporter’s 2023 Women in Entertainment Power 100.In 2024, she was named byForbesas theworld's highest-paid actressin 2023, with earnings of $78 million. Voguehas named her \"one of the most glamorous starlets\" and she was ranked as one of the best-dressed women in 2018 and 2019 by luxury fashion retailerNet-a-Porter.In 2014 and 2016, she featured onAskMen's Top 99 Women, ranking among the top ten each year.Also in 2016, Robbie was placed at number one onFHM's \"100 Sexiest Women in the World\" list.Since 2016, she has been chosen as the ambassador for brands such asCalvin Klein,NissanandChanel.She was the last brand ambassador picked byKarl Lagerfeldbefore his death in February 2019.She is the latest ambassador ofChanel No 5. Filmography and awards According to the review aggregator siteRotten Tomatoes, Robbie's most positively reviewed films areThe Wolf of Wall Street(2013),Z for Zachariah(2015),Suite Française(2015),I, Tonya(2017),Once Upon a Time in Hollywood(2019),Birds of Prey(2020),The Suicide Squad(2021), andBarbie(2023). Explanatory notes References Further reading External links",
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] | [
"Emma Stone Emily Jean\"Emma\"Stone(born November 6, 1988) is an American actress and producer.Her accoladesinclude twoAcademy Awards, twoBritish Academy Film Awards, and twoGolden Globe Awards. In 2017, she was theworld's highest-paid actressand named byTimemagazine as one of the100 most influential people in the world. Stone began acting as a child in a theater production ofThe Wind in the Willowsin 2000. As a teenager, she relocated to Los Angeles and made her television debut inIn Search of the New Partridge Family(2004), a reality show that produced only an unsold pilot. After small television roles, she appeared in a series of well-received teen comedy films, such asSuperbad(2007),Zombieland(2009), andEasy A(2010), which was Stone's first leading role. Following this breakthrough, she starred in the romantic comedyCrazy, Stupid, Love(2011) and the period dramaThe Help(2011), and gained wider recognition asGwen Stacyin the 2012 superhero filmThe Amazing Spider-Manandits 2014 sequel. Stone received",
"Stone received nominations for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actressfor playing a recovering drug addict inBirdman(2014) and portrayingAbigail MashaminThe Favourite(2018). The latter marked her first of many collaborations with directorYorgos Lanthimos. She won twoAcademy Awards for Best Actress, for her roles as an aspiring actress in the romantic musicalLa La Land(2016) and a resurrected suicide victim in Lanthimos' comic fantasy filmPoor Things(2023). She also portrayed tennis playerBillie Jean KinginBattle of the Sexes(2017) and thetitle roleinCruella(2021). On television, she starred in the dark comedy miniseriesManiac(2018) andThe Curse(2023). OnBroadway, Stone has starred asSally Bowlesin a revival of the musicalCabaret(2014–2015). She and her husband,Dave McCary, founded the production companyFruit Treein 2020, under which they have produced the filmsWhen You Finish Saving the World(2022),Problemista(2023), andI Saw the TV Glow(2024). Early life Stone was born on November 6, 1988,",
"November 6, 1988, inScottsdale, Arizona, to Jeffrey Charles Stone, the founder and CEO of a general-contracting company, and Krista Jean Stone (néeYeager), a homemaker.She lived on the grounds of theCamelback Innresort from ages 12 to 15.She has a younger brother, Spencer.Her paternal grandfather, Conrad Ostberg Sten, was from a Swedish family thatanglicizedtheir surname to \"Stone\". She also has German, English, Scottish, and Irish ancestry. As an infant, Stone hadbaby colicand cried frequently. She consequently developednodulesand calluses on her vocal cords while she was a child.Stone has described herself as \"loud\" and \"bossy\" while growing up.She was educated at Sequoya Elementary School and attendedCocopah Middle Schoolfor sixth grade. Stone did not like school, though once said that her controlling nature meant that \"I made sure I got allA's\".She sufferedpanic attacksandanxietyas a child,and said they caused a decline in her social skills.Stone underwent therapy but said it was her participation in",
"participation in local theater plays that helped cure the attacks, recalling: The first time I had a panic attack I was sitting in my friend's house, and I thought the house was burning down. I called my mom and she brought me home, and for the next three years it just would not stop. I would go to the nurse at lunch most days and just wring my hands. I would ask my mom to tell me exactly how the day was going to be, then ask again 30 seconds later. I just needed to know that no one was going to die and nothing was going to change. Stone wanted to act since age four;she wanted a career insketch comedyinitially, but shifted her focus to musical theater, and took vocal lessons for several years.Her acting debut, at age 11, came in a stage production ofThe Wind in the Willows, playing Otter.Stone washomeschooledfor two years, during which time she appeared in 16 productions at Phoenix'sValley Youth Theatre—includingThe Princess and the Pea,Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, andJoseph and the Amazing Technicolor",
"Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat—and performed with the theater'simprovisational comedytroupe.Around this time, she traveled to Los Angeles and auditioned unsuccessfully for a role onNickelodeon'sAll That.Her parents later sent her for private acting lessons with a local acting coach, who had worked at theWilliam Morris Agencyin the 1970s. Stone attendedXavier College Preparatory—an all-girlCatholic high school—as a freshman, but dropped out after one semester to become an actress.She prepared aPowerPointpresentation for her parents titled \"Project Hollywood\" (featuringMadonna's 2003 song \"Hollywood\") to convince them to let her move to California to pursue an acting career.In January 2004, she moved with her mother to an apartment in Los Angeles. She recalled, \"I went up for every single show on theDisney Channeland auditioned to play the daughter on every single sitcom\", adding, \"I ended up getting none.\"Between auditions for roles, she enrolled in online high-school classes and worked part-time at a",
"part-time at a dog-treat bakery. Career Career beginnings (2004–2009) When Stone registered for theScreen Actors Guildat age 16, the name \"Emily Stone\" was already taken, and she briefly went by \"Riley Stone\".She made her television debut as Laurie Partridge on theVH1talent competition reality showIn Search of the New Partridge Family(2004). The resulting show, retitledThe New Partridge Family(2004), remained an unsold pilot.After guest-starring in the television showsMedium(2005) andMalcolm in the Middle(2006), she decided to change her stage name to \"Emma\"—chosen in honor ofEmma Buntonof theSpice Girls—as she struggled to adapt to the name Riley.She next appeared inLouis C.K.'sHBOseriesLucky Louie(2006),and unsuccessfully auditioned to star asClaire Bennetin the NBC science fiction dramaHeroes(2007), later calling this her \"rock bottom\" experience.In April 2007, she playedViolet Trimblein the Fox action dramaDrive, but the show was canceled after seven episodes. Stone made her feature film debut inGreg",
"film debut inGreg Mottola's comedySuperbad(2007), co-starringMichael CeraandJonah Hill. The film tells the story of two high school students who go through a series of comic misadventures after they plan to buy alcohol for a party. To play Hill's romantic interest, she dyed her hair red.A reviewer forThe Hollywood Reporterfound her \"appealing\", but felt that her role was poorly written.Stone has described the experience of acting in her first film as \"amazing ... very different than other experiences I've had since then\".The film was a commercial success, and earned her theYoung Hollywood Awardfor Exciting New Face. The next year, Stone starred in the comedyThe Rocker(2008) as Amelia Stone, the \"straight face\"bass guitaristin a band; she learned to play the bass for the role.The actress, who has called herself \"a big smiler and laugher\", said she found it difficult to play a character whose personality was so different from her own. The film and her performance received negative reviews from critics and was",
"critics and was a commercial failure.Her next release, the romantic comedyThe House Bunny, performed better at the box office, becoming a moderate commercial success.The film saw her play the president of a sorority, and perform acover versionofthe Waitresses' 1982 song \"I Know What Boys Like\".Reviews were generally negative,but Stone was praised,withTV Guide's Ken Fox writing that she \"is well on her way to becoming a star\". Stone appeared in three films released in 2009. The first of these was oppositeMatthew McConaughey,Jennifer GarnerandMichael DouglasinMark Waters'sGhosts of Girlfriends Past. Loosely based onCharles Dickens's 1843novellaA Christmas Carol, the romantic comedy has her playing a ghost who haunts her former boyfriend. Critical reaction to the film was negative, but it was a modest commercial success.Her most financially profitable venture that year wasRuben Fleischer's $102.3 million-grossing horror comedy filmZombieland,in which she featured alongsideJesse Eisenberg,Woody",
"Eisenberg,Woody HarrelsonandAbigail Breslin. In the film, she appeared as a con artist and survivor of azombie apocalypse, in a role which Chris Hewitt ofEmpiremagazine thought was \"somewhat underwritten.\"In a more positive review, Tim Robey ofThe Daily Telegraphcalled \"the hugely promising Stone a tough cookie who projects the aura of being wiser than her years\".Stone's third release in 2009 wasKieran and Michelle Mulroney'sPaper Man, a comedy-drama which disappointed critics. Rise to prominence (2010–2013) Stone voiced anAustralian ShepherdinMarmaduke(2010), a comedy from directorTom Deybased onBrad Anderson'slong-running comic strip of the same name.Her breakthrough came the same year with a starring role inEasy A, a teen comedy directed byWill Gluck.Partially based onNathaniel Hawthorne's 1850 novelThe Scarlet Letter, the film tells the story of Olive Penderghast (Stone), a high school student who becomes embroiled in a comic sex scandal after a false rumor circulates that she is sexuallypromiscuous.",
"Stone read the script before the project was optioned for production, and pursued it with her manager while production details were being finalized. She found the script \"so different and unique from anything I'd read before\", calling it \"funny and sweet\".When Stone discovered that the film had begun production, she met with Gluck, expressing her enthusiasm for the project. A few months later, the audition process started and she met again with Gluck, becoming one of the first actresses to audition.The film received positive critical reviews, and Stone's performance was considered its prime asset.Anna Smith ofTime Outwrote, \"Stone gives a terrific performance, her knowing drawl implying intellect and indifference with underlying warmth.\"The film was a commercial success, grossing $75 million against its $8 million budget.Stone was nominated for aBAFTA Rising Star Awardand aGolden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy, and won theMTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance. In October 2010,",
"In October 2010, Stone hosted an episode of NBC's sketch comedySaturday Night Live; her appearances included a sketch playing off her resemblance toLindsay Lohan.Stone called it \"the greatest week of my life\".She hosted again in 2011, appeared in an episode in 2014, and inits 40th anniversary specialin 2015.A brief appearance in the sex comedyFriends with Benefits(2011) reunited her with Gluck.She followed this with a supporting role inGlenn FicarraandJohn Requa's romantic comedyCrazy, Stupid, Love(2011) alongsideSteve Carell,Ryan GoslingandJulianne Moore. The film featured her as a law school graduate, and the love interest of Gosling's character. Despite finding \"some inevitable collapses into convention\" in the film, Drew McWeeny ofHitFixwrote that Stone \"ties the whole film together\".At the2012 Teen Choice Awards, she won theChoice Movie Actress – Comedyaward for her performance in the film.Crazy, Stupid, Lovewas a box office success, grossing $142.9 million worldwide against a production budget of $50",
"budget of $50 million. Dismayed at beingtypecastas \"the sarcastic interest of the guy\", Stone co-starred withViola DavisinTate Taylor's period dramaThe Help(2011), a film she found challenging.The film is based onKathryn Stockett's2009 novel of the same nameand is set in 1960sJackson, Mississippi. She met with Taylor to express a desire to work on the film. The director said, \" was completely awkward and dorky, with her raspy voice, and she sat down and we got a little intoxicated and had a blast, and I just thought, 'God! God! This is Skeeter.\"She was cast as Eugenia \"Skeeter\" Phelan, an aspiring writer learning about the lives of the African-American maids. In preparation for the part, she learned to speak in aSouthern accentand educated herself on theCivil Rights Movementthrough literature and film.With a worldwide gross of $216 million against a $25 million budget,The Helpbecame Stone's highest-grossing film to that point.The film, and her performance, received positive reviews from critics. Writing",
"critics. Writing forEmpire, Anna Smith thought Stone was \"well-meaning and hugely likable\" despite finding flaws in the character.The film was nominated for anAcademy Award for Best Picture,and won Best Ensemble Cast from theWomen Film Critics Circleand theBroadcast Film Critics Association. Stone turned down a role in the action comedy21 Jump Streetafter signing on toMarc Webb's 2012 filmThe Amazing Spider-Man, arebootofSam Raimi'sSpider-Manseries.She portrayedGwen Stacy, the love interest of thetitular superhero(played byAndrew Garfield).Stone returned to her natural blonde hair color for the role, having dyed it red previously.She admitted to having never read the comics, and therefore felt responsible to educate herself about Spider-Man: \"My experience was with the Sam Raimi movies ... I always assumed thatMary Janewas his first love\",adding that she was only familiar with Stacy's character as portrayed byBryce Dallas HowardinSpider-Man 3.The Amazing Spider-Manwas a commercial success and was theseventh",
"and was theseventh highest-grossing film of the yearwith global revenues of $757.9 million.Entertainment Weekly'sLisa Schwarzbaumfound Stone to be \"irresistible\",andIan FreerofEmpirewas particularly impressed with Stone's and Garfield's performances.At the annualPeople's Choice Awardsceremony, she was nominated for three awards, including Favorite Movie Actress.Later that year, Stone voiced a role in the crime-based video gameSleeping Dogs, which earned her aSpike Video Game Award. Stone began 2013 with a voice role in theDreamWorks AnimationfilmThe Croods, which was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Animated Feature.This followed with an appearance inMovie 43, ananthology filmwhich consists of 16 short stories—she played the title role in the segment entitled \"Veronica\".She next starred alongside Ryan Gosling andSean Pennin Ruben Fleischer'sGangster Squad(2013), a crime thriller set in Los Angeles during the 1940s.A. O. ScottofThe New York Timesdismissed the film as \"a hectic jumble of fedoras and",
"of fedoras and zoot suits\", but praised Stone's pairing with Gosling. Established actress (2014–2017) In 2014, Stone reprised the role of Gwen Stacy inThe Amazing Spider-Man 2. She believed that her character did not depend on the film's protagonist, asserting: \"She saves him more than he saves her. She's incredibly helpful to Spider-Man ... He's the muscle, she's the brains.\"Her performance was well received by critics;anEmpirereviewer commended her for standing out in the film, writing, \"Stone is theHeath Ledgerof this series, doing something unexpected with an easily dismissed supporting character.\"The role won her the Favorite Movie Actress award at the2015 Kids' Choice Awards.Later that year, Stone took on a role inWoody Allen's romantic comedyMagic in the Moonlight, a modest commercial success.A. O. Scott criticized her role, and pairing withColin Firth, describing it as \"the kind of pedantic nonsense that is meant to signify superior intellect\". The black comedyBirdman, directed byAlejandro González",
"González Iñárritu, was Stone's final film release of 2014. Co-starringMichael KeatonandEdward Norton, it featured her as Sam Thomson, the recovering-addict daughter of actor Riggan Thomson (Keaton), who becomes his assistant. Iñárritu created the character based on his experience with his daughter.Birdmanwas critically acclaimed,and was the most successful film at the87th Academy Awards; it was nominated for nine awards, winning four, including Best Picture.The Movie Networkdeemed it one of Stone's best performances to date, andRobbie CollinofThe Daily Telegraphfound her to be \"superb\" and \"tremendous\" in her role, while also highlighting her monologue in the film which he believed to have been \"delivered like a knitting needle to the gut.\"She receivedAcademy,BAFTA,Golden Globe, andSAG Awardnominations. From November 2014 to February 2015, Stone starred in a revival of theBroadwaymusicalCabaretasSally Bowles, taking over the role fromMichelle Williams.Deeming it \"the most nerve-racking thing ever\", Stone",
"thing ever\", Stone listened to a French radio station to mentally prepare herself for the role.Marilyn StasioofVarietywas critical of her singing abilities and found her performance to be \"a bit narrow as an emotional platform, but a smart choice for her acting skills, the perfect fit for her sharp intelligence and kinetic energy.\"Both of Stone's 2015 films—the romantic comedyAloha, and the dramaIrrational Man—were critical and commercial failures, and her roles were panned by critics.InCameron Crowe'sAloha, she played the role of an air force pilot alongsideBradley Cooper, and in Woody Allen'sIrrational Man, she played the love interest ofJoaquin Phoenix's character, a philosophy professor. The former wascontroversialforwhitewashingthe cast, as Stone's character was meant to be of Asian, Hawaiian, and Swedish descent. She later regretted taking part in the project, acknowledging whitewashing as a widespread problem in Hollywood.Despite the backlash, Stone was nominated for Choice Movie Actress – Comedy at",
"Actress – Comedy at the2015 Teen Choice Awards.She also appeared in the music video forWill Butler's single \"Anna\". During her run onCabaret, Stone met filmmakerDamien Chazelle, who, impressed with her performance, cast her in his musical comedy-dramaLa La Land.The project, which marked her third collaboration with Gosling, starred Stone as Mia Dolan, an aspiring actress living in Los Angeles.Stone borrowed several real-life experiences for her character, and in preparation, watchedThe Umbrellas of Cherbourgand films ofFred Astaire and Ginger Rogers.For thefilm's soundtrack, she recorded six songs.La La Landserved as the opening film at the2016 Venice Film Festival, where it generated critical acclaim and earned Stone theVolpi Cup for Best Actress.It emerged as a commercial success, with a worldwide gross of over $440 million against a production budget of $30 million.Peter BradshawofThe Guardianwrote that \"Stone has never been better: superbly smart, witty, vulnerable, her huge doe eyes radiating",
"doe eyes radiating intelligence even, or especially, when they are filling with tears.\"For her performance, Stone won theAcademy,Golden Globe,SAG, andBAFTAAward for Best Actress. Stone's sole release of 2017 wasBattle of the Sexes, based on the 1973eponymous matchbetween tennis playersBillie Jean King(Stone) andBobby Riggs(Steve Carell). In preparation, Stone met with King, watched old footage and interviews of her, worked with a dialect coach to speak in King's accent, and drank high-calorie protein shakes to gain 15 pounds (6.8 kg).The film premiered to positive reviews at the2017 Toronto International Film Festival, and certain critics considered Stone's performance to be the finest of her career.Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianpraised her for playing against type, and for being \"strong\" and \"convincing\" in the part.Even so, the film earned less than its $25 million budget.Stone received her fourth Golden Globe nomination for it, and attended the ceremony with King. Films with Yorgos Lanthimos and professional",
"and professional expansion (2018–present) In 2018, Stone andRachel WeiszplayedAbigail MashamandSarah Churchill, two cousins fighting for the affection ofQueen Anne(Olivia Colman), inYorgos Lanthimos's historical comedy-dramaThe Favourite. She found it challenging to be an American among an all-British cast, and struggled with mastering her character's accent.The film premiered at the75th Venice International Film Festivalto critical acclaim.Michael Nordine ofIndieWirepraised Stone for taking on such a bold role following the success ofLa La Land, and termed the three lead actresses \"a majestic triumvirate in a period piece that's as tragic as it is hilarious.\"Stone then executive-produced and starred in theNetflixdark comedy miniseriesManiac(2018), directed byCary Joji Fukunaga. It featured Stone and Jonah Hill as two strangers whose lives are transformed due to a mysterious pharmaceutical trial. An admirer of Fukunaga's work, she agreed to the project without reading the script.Judy Berman ofTimemagazine",
"ofTimemagazine was impressed with Stone and Hill for their growth as actors sinceSuperbadand noted the complexity in their performances.Stone received her fifth Golden Globe nomination and third Oscar nomination forThe Favourite, and additionally earned SAG nominations for bothManiacandThe Favourite.That same year, Stone appeared inPaul McCartney's music video for his song \"Who Cares\". Stone reprised her role as Wichita inZombieland: Double Tap(2019), the sequel to 2009'sZombieland, which received mixed reviews and grossed $125 million worldwide.She narrated the Netflix documentary seriesThe Mind, Explained(2019) and reprised the voice role of Eep inThe Croods: A New Age(2020), the sequel to 2013'sThe Croods.In 2021, Stone playedCruella de Vil(originated byGlenn Closein the previous live-action adaptations) inCraig Gillespie's crime comedyCruella, a Disney live-action based on the 1961 animationOne Hundred and One Dalmatians. Starring oppositeEmma Thompson, Stone also served as an executive producer of the",
"producer of the film alongside Close.The film was released in US theaters and onDisney+ Premier Accessto positive reviews and grossed $233 million worldwide against its $100 million budget.Justin ChangofLos Angeles Timeswrote that despite the film's flawed screenplay, Stone was \"wholly committed, glammed-to-the-nines\"; Chang favorably compared it with her performance inThe Favourite, adding that she \"nailed every nuance as another lowly young woman turned ambitious schemer\".ForCruella, Stone garnered another Golden Globe nomination. In 2020, Stone and her husband,Dave McCary, launched the production companyFruit Tree.Their first project was the independent filmWhen You Finish Saving the World, which marked Jesse Eisenberg's feature directorial debut.The film premiered at the2022 Sundance Film Festival, and had modest reviews.The company's next release was the comedyProblemista, directed byJulio Torres.It premiered at the 2023South by Southwest, and was initially scheduled to be released that year, but was",
"that year, but was delayed due to the2023 SAG-AFTRA strike.Both films were produced in collaboration withA24. Continuing her collaboration with Lanthimos, Stone starred in his short filmBleat(2022) and feature filmPoor Things(2023).The latter, a fantasy coming-of-age film, is based on thenovel of the same namebyAlasdair Gray.Stone also produced the film, in which she starred as Bella, a young Victorian woman who is crudely resurrected after her suicide. She found the experience of playing a character liberated of societal pressures to be \"extremely freeing\",and she performed nudity and several sex scenes in it.David Rooney ofThe Hollywood Reporterwrote that Stone \"gorges on it in a fearless performance that traces an expansive arc most actors could only dream about\", and particularly praised her ability to perform physical comedy.Stephanie ZacharekofTimetermed her performance \"wonderful—vital, exploratory, almost lunar in its perfect oddness\".Stone next executive produced and starred in theShowtimesatirical",
"comedy seriesThe Curse.She played Whitney, an influencer who hosts anHGTVshow with her husband.Commenting on her achievements of the year,BBC Culture'sCaryn Jamesopined that \"Stone has quickly moved past Hollywood stardom to claim serious artistic credentials\".She received two more Golden Globe nominations for Best Actress for her performances inPoor ThingsandThe Curse, winning for the former.Also forPoor Things, she won her second Academy Award and BAFTA for Best Actress in addition to a Best Picture nomination. The2024 Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of two films produced by Stone for Fruit Tree — the horror filmI Saw the TV Glowand Eisenberg's second directorial,A Real Pain.In her fourth collaboration with Lanthimos, Stone played three characters in hisabsurdistanthology filmKinds of Kindness, which premiered at the2024 Cannes Film Festival.She will next star inAri Aster'scontemporary WesternfilmEddingtonand in Lanthimos'Bugonia, a remake of the South Korean filmSave the Green Planet!. Reception",
"Planet!. Reception and acting style Commenting on her performance inThe Help, Kirk Honeycutt ofThe Hollywood Reportercalled her \"one of our very best young actresses\".Time's Daniel D'Addario stated in 2015 that Stone \"appears to have fairly limited options\" and choosing roles in independent films by \"less established directors would represent a substantive risk\".Analyzing her on-screen persona, Jessica Kiang ofIndieWirenoted that Stone \"usually the approachable, down-to-earth, girl-next-door type, in person she demonstrates many of those qualities too, along with an absolute refusal to take herself too seriously.\"Biographer Karen Hollinger wrote that at the beginning of her career, Stone was often labeled a \"staringénue\", a perceived limitation she escaped despite not being a classically trained actress as she \"crafted a brilliant career based on performative skills, careful choice of roles and distinctive personality\".In a 2024 analysis of Stone's career trajectory,IndieWiresuggested that from breakout",
"that from breakout roles to acclaimed performances in indie films, Stone is positioned as a potential new movie star in Hollywood's evolving landscape. In 2008, Stone toppedSaturday Night Magazine's Top 20 Rising Stars Under 30 and was included in a similar list compiled byMoviefone.LoveFilmplaced her on their list of 2010 Top 20 Actresses Under 30, and her performance inEasy Awas included inTime's Top 10 Everything of 2010.She appeared in the 2013Celebrity 100list, a compilation of the 100 most powerful people in the world, as selected annually byForbes. The magazine reported that she had earned $16 million from June 2012 to June 2013.That same year, she was ranked first in the magazine's Top 10 Best Value Stars.In 2015,Forbespublished that she had become one of the world's highest-paid actresses with earnings of $6.5 million.The magazine ranked her theworld's highest-paid actresstwo years later with annual earnings of $26 million.In 2017, she was included onTime's annual list of the100 most influential",
"most influential people in the world. Stone has been described as a style icon, with her hair, eyes, and husky voice listed as her trademark features.Voguecredits the actress for her \"sophisticated, perfectly put-together looks\", writing that \"her charisma, both on-screen and off-, has charmed many\" and for her embrace of \"Old Hollywood Glamour\".Bee Shapiro ofThe New York Timescalled Stone a \"likable ... spunky, talented, self-deprecating and slightly goofy\" actress who is diverse in her fashion choices.In 2009, she was featured onFHM's100 Sexiest Women in the WorldandMaxim's Hot 100;the latter also placed her on the list on three other occasions—2010, 2011, and 2014.In 2011, she featured onVictoria's Secret's list of \"What is Sexy?\" as the Sexiest Actress.She was mentioned in other media outlet listings that year, includingPeople's 100 Most Beautiful Women, each ofFHM's andFHM Australia's 100 Sexiest Women in the World, andMen's Health's 100 Hottest Women.She was ranked sixth onEmpire's list of the 100",
"list of the 100 Sexiest Movie Stars in 2013.Stone was named the best-dressed woman of 2012 byVogueand was included on similar listings byGlamourin 2013 and 2015, andPeoplein 2014. Personal life Stone moved from Los Angeles toGreenwich Village,New York, in 2009.In 2016, she moved back to Los Angeles.Despite significant media attention, she refuses to publicly discuss her personal life. Concerned with living a normal life, Stone has said she dislikes receiving paparazzi attention outside her home.She has expressed her fondness for her profession,and has citedDiane Keatonas an acting influence, calling her \"one of the most covered-up actresses of all time\". Stone has a close relationship with her family.She says, \"I am blessed with a great family and great people around me that would be able to kick me in the shins if I ever for one minute got lost up in the clouds. I've been really lucky in that sense.\" Stone dated herPaper Manco-starKieran Culkinfor two years. In 2011, she started dating herAmazing",
"dating herAmazing Spider-Manco-star Andrew Garfield for four years.Their relationship was reported in the media with various speculations; the pair refused to speak publicly about it, though they made several appearances together. In 2014, on an occasion in New York City, Stone and Garfield encouraged paparazzi to visit websites that spread awareness of causes such asautism.In 2015, they were reported to have broken up. Stone metSaturday Night Livesegment directorDave McCaryon December 3, 2016, while hosting the show. They began dating the following year. On December 4, 2019, they announced their engagement. They married in a private ceremony in September 2020.In January 2021, they were reported to be expecting their first child together.In March 2021, Stone gave birth to their daughter named Louise Jean.As of 2021, the family lives inAustin, Texas.In 2022, Stone sold her house inMalibu, Californiafor $4.425 million,and in 2024, she sold herLos Angeleshome for $4 million. Stone has said she suffers",
"said she suffers fromasthma, which she discovered after having difficulty breathing while filmingEasy A.Her mother was diagnosed withtriple-negative breast cancerand cured in 2008.Stone and her mother celebrated by getting tattoos of birds' feet, designed byPaul McCartney, a reference tothe Beatlessong \"Blackbird\", which she and her mother love.Stone is a supporter ofPlanned Parenthood, and attended the2017 Academy Awardswearing a Planned Parenthood pin on her dress. Philanthropy Stone appeared in aRevloncampaign that promoted breast cancer awareness.In 2011, she appeared in a collaborative video betweenStar WarsandStand Up to Cancerto raise funds for cancer research.From 2012 to 2014, she hosted theEntertainment Industry Foundation's Revlon Run/Walk, which helps fight women's cancer. Stone and three other celebrities were present at the 2012Nickelodeon HALO Awards, a TV special that profiled four teenagers who are \"Helping And Leading Others\" (HALO).She attended the 2014Earth Hour, a worldwide movement for",
"movement for the planet organized by theWorld Wide Fund for Nature.In 2015, she was part of a fundraising event in support of theMotion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the film and television industries with limited or no resources.In 2018, she collaborated with 300 women in Hollywood to set up theTime's Upinitiative to protect women fromsexual harassmentand discrimination. Acting credits and awards According to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes and the box-office siteBox Office Mojo, Stone's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful films areSuperbad(2007),Zombieland(2009),Easy A(2010),Crazy, Stupid, Love(2011),The Help(2011),The Amazing Spider-Man(2012),The Amazing Spider-Man 2(2014),Birdman(2014),La La Land(2016),Battle of the Sexes(2017),The Favourite(2018),Cruella(2021), andPoor Things(2023). Stone has been recognized by theAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciencesfor the following: She has also been nominated for fiveBritish Academy Film Awards: BAFTA Rising Star",
"BAFTA Rising Star Award, Best Supporting Actress forBirdmanandThe Favourite, and Best Actress in a Leading Role forLa La LandandPoor Things, winning for the last two.Her other awards include twoGolden Globe Awardsfor Best Actress in a Comedy or Musical forLa La LandandPoor Things,theScreen Actors Guild Awardfor Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role and the Volpi Cup for Best Actress at Venice Film Festival, both forLa La Land. See also Notes References Literary sources External links",
"List of highest-paid film actors While the highest-paidfilm actorscan command multi-million-dollar salaries, actors can potentially earn substantially more by deferring all or part of their salary against a percentage of the film's gross, known within the industry as a \"profit participation\" deal. Highest earnings for a single production Since not all salaries are made public, this is a non-definitive list of actors who have received $30 million or more as compensation for their services in a single production. Occasionally an actor's fee may cover multiple films, and they are included on the list if the films were filmed as a back-to-back production (for example, Keanu Reeves and theMatrixsequels). The figures are given at theirnominal value, since earnings from profit-based deals are accumulated over many years, making it unfeasible to adjust forinflation. Forbespublishes yearly lists of the highest-paid actors and actresses based on total earnings from 1 June the previous year to 1 June the current year.",
"the current year. Highest annual earnings Forbespublishes yearly lists of the highest-paid actors and actresses based on total earnings from 1 June the previous year to 1 June the current year. See also References",
"Margot Robbie Margot Elise Robbie(/ˈmɑːrɡoʊˈrɒbi/MAR-gohROB-ee; born 2 July 1990) is an Australian actress and producer.Her workincludes bothblockbusterandindependent films, andher accoladesinclude nominations for threeAcademy Awards, sixBAFTA Awardsand fourGolden Globe Awards.Timenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the worldin 2017, andForbesnamed her theworld's highest-paid actressin 2023. Born and raised inQueensland, Robbie began her career in 2008 on the television seriesNeighbours, on which she was a regular until 2011. After moving to the United States, she led the television seriesPan Am(2011–2012) and had her breakthrough in 2013 withMartin Scorsese’s comedy filmThe Wolf of Wall Street. She achieved wider recognition with starring roles asJane PorterinThe Legend of Tarzan(2016), and asHarley Quinnin theDC Extended Universefilms beginning withSuicide Squad(2016). Robbie received critical acclaim and a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Actressfor her portrayal of figure",
"portrayal of figure skaterTonya Hardingin the biopicI, Tonya(2017). This acclaim continued for her performances asQueen Elizabeth IinMary Queen of Scots(2018),Sharon TateinOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood(2019), and aFox Newsemployee inBombshell(2019). The last of these earned her a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Robbie has since starred as an aspiring actress in the period filmBabylon(2022) andthe titular fashion dollin the fantasy comedyBarbie(2023), which emerged as her highest-grossing release and, as its producer, earned her a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture. Robbie and her husband, filmmakerTom Ackerley, co-founded the production companyLuckyChap Entertainmentin 2014, under which they have produced several films, includingI, Tonya,Promising Young Woman(2020),Barbie, andSaltburn(2023), as well as theHuluseriesDollface(2019–2022) and theNetflixminiseriesMaid(2021). Early life and education Margot Elise Robbie was born on 2 July 1990 inDalby, Queensland, to Doug",
"Queensland, to Doug Robbie, a former farm-owner andsugarcanetycoon, and Sarie Kessler, aphysiotherapist.She is the second youngest of four; older siblings Anya and Lachlan and younger brother Cameron.Her parents separated when she was five.Robbie and her siblings were raised by their single mother and had minimal contact with their father. The family spent the majority of Robbie's upbringing on her grandparents'Currumbin Valleyfarmin theGold Coast hinterland.An energetic child, Robbie often put on shows in her house. She was enrolled in acircus schoolby her mother, where she excelled intrapeze, in which she received a certificate at age eight.In high school, Robbie studied drama atSomerset College.As a teenager, she worked three jobs: she tended a bar, cleaned houses, and worked atSubway.After graduation, with a few commercials and independent thriller films on her résumé, Robbie relocated toMelbourneto begin acting professionally. Career 2008–2012: Early work andNeighbours Robbie's first acting roles came",
"acting roles came when she was in high school. She starred in two low-budget independent thriller films, calledVigilanteandI.C.U., both released years later. She described the experience of being on afilm setas \"a dream come true\".She made her television debut in a 2008 guest role as Caitlin Brentford in the drama seriesCity Homicideand followed this with a two-episode arc in the children's television seriesThe Elephant Princess, in which she starred alongsideLiam Hemsworth. With agent encouragement at the time and as Robbie recalled onThe Graham Norton Show,she calledFremantleMediaon a daily basis. \"One day, I got put through by accident to the casting director for Neighbours,\" and she said, \"I'm in town working on something.\" The casting director asked how old she was, and she responded \"seventeen.\" She was told, \"We're looking for exactly that, come in and audition\"for the television soap operaNeighbours. In June 2008, she began playingDonna Freedman, a role that was meant to be a guest character, but",
"character, but Robbie was promoted to the regular cast after she made her debut.In her three-year stint on the soap, she received twoLogie Awardnominations. Shortly after arriving in America, Robbie landed the role of Laura Cameron, a newly trained flight attendant in the period drama seriesPan Am(2011). The series premiered to high ratings and positive reviews but was cancelled after one season due to falling ratings. 2013–2015: Breakthrough Robbie next appeared inRichard Curtis' romantic comedyAbout Time(2013), co-starringDomhnall GleesonandRachel McAdams. It tells the story of a young man with the ability to time travel who tries to change his past in hopes of improving his future. To play Gleeson's unattainable teenage love interest, she adopted a British accent.The film was a modest commercial success.Robbie's breakthrough came the same year with the role ofNaomi Lapaglia, the wife of protagonistJordan Belfort, inMartin Scorsese's biographical black comedyThe Wolf of Wall Street. In her audition for the",
"audition for the role, Robbie improvised a slap on co-starLeonardo DiCaprioduring a fight scene which ultimately won her the part.The film and her performance received positive reviews; she was particularly praised for her on-screenBrooklyn accent.CriticSasha Stonewrote of Robbie's performance, \"She's Scorsese's best blonde bombshell discovery sinceCathy MoriartyinRaging Bull. Robbie is funny, hard and kills every scene she's in.\"The Wolf of Wall Streetwas a box office success, grossing $392 million worldwide, making it Scorsese's highest-grossing film to date.Robbie was nominated for theMTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performanceand won theEmpire Award for Best Newcomer. She later said that the fame and attention the movie brought her led her to consider quitting acting, but her mother was philosophical about her profession and explained to her that it was probably too late to quit. She fully understood and stuck with it.With the aim to produce more female-driven projects, Robbie and her future",
"and her future husband, Tom Ackerley, and their respective longtime friends Sophia Kerr and Josey McNamara, started their own production companyLuckyChap Entertainment. The company was founded in 2014 and its name was inspired byCharlie Chaplin. Robbie appeared in four films released in 2015. The first of these was oppositeWill SmithinGlenn FicarraandJohn Requa's $158.8 million-grossing romantic comedy-drama filmFocus. In the film, she played an inexperiencedgrifterlearning the craft from Smith's character; she learned how topickpocketfromApollo Robbinsfor the role.Reviews of the film were generally mixed, but Robbie's performance was praised;Peter TraversofRolling Stonewrote, \"Robbie is wow and then some. Even whenFocusfumbles, deals a winning hand.\"She was nominated for theRising Star Awardat the68th British Academy Film Awards.Her next appearance was alongsideMichelle WilliamsandKristin Scott ThomasinSaul Dibb's war romantic dramaSuite Française, a film based on the second part ofIrène Némirovsky's",
"Némirovsky's 2004novel of the same name. In the film, she played a woman falling for a German soldier during theGerman occupation of France during World War II, a role which Leslie Felperin ofThe Hollywood Reporterfound \"underwritten\". She followed this withCraig Zobel's post-apocalyptic dramaZ for ZachariahoppositeChris PineandChiwetel Ejiofor, in her first leading role. Partially based onRobert C. O'Brien'sbook of the same name, the film follows Ann Burden (Robbie) as she finds herself in an emotionally charged love triangle with the last known survivors of a disaster that wipes out most of civilization. In preparation for the film, Robbie dyed her hair brown and learned to speak in anAppalachianaccent.The film received positive reviews, and Robbie's performance was widely praised, with Drew McWeeny ofHitFixasserting that \"Robbie's work here establishes her as one of the very best actresses in her age range today.\"Her fourth release of 2015 was acameo appearanceinAdam McKay's comedy-dramaThe Big Short, in",
"Big Short, in which she breaks thefourth wallto explainsubprime mortgageswhile in a bathtub.The Big Shortwas a commercial and critical success and Robbie's cameo became atrending topicsix years later, in the wake of theGameStop short squeeze, as her explanation provided reference points for what was happening with the GameStop and related stocks. 2016–2018: Worldwide recognition In 2016, Robbie reunited with Ficarra and Requa, playing a Britishwar correspondentin the film adaptation ofThe Taliban Shuffle, calledWhiskey Tango Foxtrot, co-starringTina FeyandMartin Freeman.Later that year, Robbie took on the part ofJane PorterinDavid Yates's adventure filmThe Legend of Tarzan. She was adamant about not losing weight and ensuring the role was not adamsel in distresslike in previousTarzanadaptations.Reviews of the film were generally unfavourable,butManohla DargisofThe New York Timescredited Robbie for \"holding her own\" in her supporting role alongside the all-male cast withAlexander SkarsgårdandSamuel L.",
"L. Jackson. Robbie became the first person to portrayDC ComicsvillainHarley Quinninlive-actionwhen she signed on toDavid Ayer's 2016 superhero filmSuicide Squadalongside anensemble castthat included Will Smith,Jared LetoandViola Davis. She admitted to having never read the comics, but felt a huge responsibility to do the character justice and satisfy the fans.Robbie began preparing for the role of thesupervillainesssix months prior to the film shoot; her schedule consisted ofgymnastics,boxing,aerial silktraining and learning how to hold her breath underwater for five minutes. She performed the majority of her own stunts in the film.Suicide Squadwas a commercial success and wastenth-highest-grossing film of 2016with global revenues of $746.8 million, and Robbie's performance was considered its prime asset.Writing forTime,Stephanie Zacharekfound Robbie to be \"a criminally appealing actress, likable in just about every way\" despite finding flaws in the characterandChristopher OrrofThe Atlanticcalled her",
"Atlanticcalled her performance \"genuinely terrific\".At the annualPeople's Choice Awardsceremony, she won theFavorite Action Movie Actressaward and was also awarded theCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in an Action Movie.In October 2016, Robbie hosted theseason 42premiere ofNBC's late-night sketch comedySaturday Night Live; her appearances included a parody ofIvanka Trump.The series logged its strongest season premiere ratings in eight years.Robbie collaborated with Domhnall Gleeson inSimon Curtis'Goodbye Christopher Robin(2017), a biographical drama about the lives ofWinnie-the-PoohcreatorA. A. Milneand his family. The film, and her performance, received modest reviews and was a commercial failure. Her final release of 2017 and LuckyChap Entertainment's first release wasCraig Gillespie's sports black comedyI, Tonya, based on the life of American figure skaterTonya Harding(Robbie) and her connection to the1994 assaulton rivalNancy Kerrigan. In preparation, Robbie met with Harding, watched old",
"watched old footage and interviews of her, worked with a voice coach to speak in Harding'sPacific Northwestaccent and vocal timbre at different ages, and underwent several months of rigorous skating instruction with choreographerSarah Kawahara.I, Tonyapremiered at the2017 Toronto International Film Festivalto critical acclaim.James Luxford ofMetrodeemed it Robbie's best performance to date, andMark KermodeofThe Observerwrote, \"Margot Robbie's performance in this satirical, postmodern tale of the disgraced star is a tour-de-force tornado that balances finely nuanced character development with impressively punchy physicality\".She received numerous accolades for her performance, including nominations for anAcademy Award, aBAFTA Award, aGolden Globe Award, aScreen Actors Guild Awardand aCritics' Choice Movie Award, all for Best Actress. Robbie began 2018 with the voice role ofFlopsy RabbitinPeter Rabbit, an animated comedy from directorWill Gluck, which is based on theBeatrix Potterbook series. The animated",
"The animated feature was a box office success, grossing $351.3 million worldwide against a production budget of $50 million.Her next two 2018 films—the neo-noir thrillerTerminaland comedy-horrorSlaughterhouse Rulez—were critical and commercial failures. The historical dramaMary Queen of Scots, directed byJosie Rourke, was her final release of 2018. The film featuredSaoirse Ronanas thetitular characterand Robbie as her cousinQueen Elizabeth I, and it chronicles the1569 conflict between their two countries. Robbie had initially turned down the role for being \"terrified\" of not living up to the history of portrayals of the Queen.Before each day of shooting, she spent three hours in the make-up chair while a prosthetic nose, painted on boils and blisters were applied.Critics dismissed the film for its screenplay and several historical inaccuracies, but praised the performances of Robbie and Ronan.Yolanda Machado ofTheWrapwrote, \"ow down to Ronan and Robbie for taking two legendarily complex characters, and",
"characters, and completely owning both roles. Ronan's fiery Mary and Robbie's emotionally complex Elizabeth truly reign divine on screen.\"For her portrayal, Robbie received nominations for aBAFTA Awardand for aScreen Actors Guild Award. 2019–present: Established actress and producer Robbie's first release of 2019 was the LuckyChap Entertainment productionDreamland, a poorly received period crime thriller set during the 1930sDust Bowl.She began executive producing the comedy seriesDollface, which streamed onHulufrom 2019 to 2022.Robbie was filmmakerQuentin Tarantino's only choice to portray the late actressSharon Tatein his period filmOnce Upon a Time in Hollywood, starring Leonardo DiCaprio andBrad Pitt.With theTate–LaBianca murdersserving as a backdrop, the film tells the story of a fadingcharacter actor(DiCaprio) and hisstunt double(Pitt) as they navigateNew Hollywoodin 1969 Los Angeles.Feeling \"an enormous sense of responsibility\", Robbie prepared for the role by meeting Tate's family members and",
"family members and friends, watching all of her films and reading the autobiography by Tate's then-husband,Roman Polanski.Once Upon a Time in Hollywoodpremiered at the2019 Cannes Film Festivalto critical acclaim, and was a commercial success with a worldwide gross of $374.3 million.Despite many bemoaning Robbie's lack of lines in the film,Robbie CollinofThe Daily Telegraphhighlighted a scene with Robbie in the cinema, which he found to be the film's \"most delightful\" scene. Also in 2019, she starred as Kayla Pospisil, acomposite characterbased on severalFox Newsemployees, inJay Roach's dramaBombshell. Co-starringCharlize TheronandNicole Kidman, the film recounts stories of various female personnel at the news network and their sexual harassment by the network's chairmanRoger Ailes.Robbie based her character's accent onKatherine Harris.The film received positive reviews;Kenneth Turanof theLos Angeles Timeswrote, \"Robbie at her best, the arc of her story is so crushing that it stays with you the longest.\"For",
"the longest.\"For her performances inOnce Upon a Time in HollywoodandBombshell, she received two nominations for theBAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role,and for the latter she received nominations for anAcademy Award, aGolden Globeand a Screen Actors Guild Award; all in the Best Supporting Actress category. Robbie began the new decade by reprising the role of Harley Quinn inCathy Yan'sBirds of Prey(2020). Determined to make a female ensemble action film, she pitched the idea for the film toWarner Bros.in 2015. Robbie spent the subsequent three years developing the project under her production company, making a concerted effort to hire a female director and screenwriter.Birds of Prey, along with Robbie's performance, gained generally positive reviews;Ian FreerofEmpirewrote that \"theMVPis Robbie, who lends Harley charming quirk and believable menace, hinting at Harley's inner life without reams of dialogue.\"She received two nominations at the46th People's Choice Awards. Robbie served as a producer",
"as a producer onPromising Young Woman(2020), a comedy thriller by writer-directorEmerald Fennell, starringCarey Mulliganas a woman who seeks to avenge the rape and death of her best friend. The film received acclaim,earning a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.In 2021, Robbie reprised her voice role as Flopsy Rabbit inPeter Rabbit 2: The Runaway, which received mixed reviews and grossed $153.8 million worldwide.She also made her third outing as Quinn in thestandalone sequelThe Suicide Squad, written and directed byJames Gunn. Due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, the film was simultaneously released theatrically and on the streaming serviceHBO Max.Owen Gleibermanpraised Robbie's \"delectable performance\" in it.She also served as an executive producer for theNetflixminiseriesMaid. In 2022, Robbie reprised her role as Donna Freedman for thefinal episodeofNeighbours.She starred alongside an ensemble cast inDavid O. Russell's period comedyAmsterdam, based on the 1933Business Plot.The film emerged as a",
"film emerged as a critical and commercial failure.In her second film release of the year, she played Nellie LaRoy, an actress inspired by silent movie starClara Bow, inDamien Chazelle's comedy-dramaBabylon. In preparation, she studied the works of Bow and researched her traumatic childhood.She described LaRoy as \"the most physically and emotionally draining character I've ever played\".The film polarized critics and had poor box office returns, though her performance received praise;Caryn JamesofBBC Cultureopined, \"Robbie's bold, charismatic performance makes Nellie a daring, endlessly spiraling, sympathetic figure\".She received another Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress,although the underperformance of her two major releases that year led some commentators to brand her as \"box office poison\" at the time. In the following year, Robbie had a single scene inWes Anderson's ensemble comedy filmAsteroid City.Chris Hewitt of theStar Tribunedescribed her \"impassioned acting in her lone scene\" as \"perfectly",
"as \"perfectly judged\".The fantasy comedyBarbie, co-starringRyan GoslingasKen, was her next film release.As producer, Robbie bought the rights fromMattelfor a film about theeponymous fashion dollin 2018.She hiredGreta Gerwigto write and direct the film, and took on the title role herself afterGal Gadotdeclined her offer.In preparation, Gerwig and Robbie watched oldTechnicolormusicals such asThe Red Shoes(1948) andThe Umbrellas of Cherbourg(1964).Varietyreported that Robbie earned $12.5 million for the role, the highest for an actress in Hollywood that year.Vulture'sAlison Willmore took note of how much Robbie fit the part, and commended her for combining both \"heartbreaking earnestness\" and \"humor\" in her performance.With a worldwide gross of over $1.4 billion,Barbieemerged as Robbie's highest-grossing release.She received further BAFTA and Golden Globe nominations for her performance, in addition to a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Picture. Also in 2023, Robbie produced Fennell's second",
"Fennell's second directorial,Saltburn.The2024 Sundance Film Festivalmarked the release of her next production,Megan Park's comedy filmMy Old Ass.Robbie will next star alongsideColin FarrellinKogonada's filmA Big Bold Beautiful JourneyandJacob Elordiin Emerald Fennell'sWuthering Heights, adapted fromthe novel. Personal life Despite significant media attention, Robbie rarely discusses her personal life.Robbie moved from Melbourne toWilliamsburg, Brooklyn, in the early 2010s, having previously shared a flat withNeighboursco-starAshleigh Brewer.During that period, she became an avid ice hockey fan; she supports theNew York Rangersand previously playedright wingin an amateur ice hockey league. Robbie met British assistant directorTom Ackerleyon the set ofSuite Françaisein 2013.In 2014, she moved to London with Ackerley and LuckyChap Entertainment co-founders Sophia Kerr and Josey McNamara. Later that year, Robbie and Ackerley began a romantic relationship.In December 2016, they married in a private wedding",
"a private wedding ceremony inByron Bay, Australia.The couple reside inVenice Beach, California.Her pregnancy was confirmed by the media via multiple sources in July 2024. Other work Robbie has been a vocal supporter ofhuman rights,women's rights,gender equalityandLGBTrights.Through LuckyChap Entertainment, she and her co-founders focus on promoting female stories from female storytellers, whether it would be writers, directors, producers or all the above.In 2014, she was part of a fundraising event in support of theMotion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the film and television industries with limited or no resources; she joined the same event on two other occasions, in 2018 and 2020.In 2015, she helped raise $12 million through theBGC Global Charity Dayfundraising event, which donates money to different charities around the world.In 2016, Robbie joined other celebrities andUN Refugee Agencystaff in a petition aiming to gather public support for the growing number of families forced to flee",
"forced to flee conflict and persecution worldwide.Later in the year, she joinedOxfam's \"I Hear You\" project, which was designed to amplify the personal stories of the world's most vulnerable refugees and donated more than $50.000 toUNICEF's \"Children First\" campaign, in support of refugee children. In October 2016, while hostingSaturday Night Live, Robbie made a stand forsame-sex marriagein her native Australia wearing a T-shirt that read \"Say 'I Do' Down Under\", with a map of the country in rainbow colors. A year later, she joined fellow actorChris Hemsworthin advocating for the same purpose.In 2018, she pledged to support theTime's Upinitiative to protect women from harassment and discrimination.In April 2021, Robbie was announced as the recipient of the inaugural RAD Impact Award, for inspiring purpose with her philanthropy. She chose to share the prize withYoungcare, a charity she had previously worked with, and therefore an impact donation was made to fund a project benefiting young people with",
"young people with extensive care needs. Public image Robbie is known for starring in both high-profile, mainstream productions and low-budget independent films, in which she has been able to display both her dramatic and comedic range. For her role inThe Wolf of Wall Street,Vanity Fairnamed her one of its breakthrough actors of 2013.In 2017, she appeared on the annualForbes30 Under 30list, a compilation of the brightest young entrepreneurs, innovators and game changers in the world and was included on a similar list compiled byThe Hollywood Reporter.That same year,Timenamed her one of the100 most influential people in the world; herThe Wolf of Wall Streetdirector Martin Scorsese penned the article in the magazine, referring to Robbie as having \"a unique audacity that surprises and challenges and just burns like a brand into every character she plays. Margot is stunning in all she is and all she does, and she will astonish us forever.\"In 2019,Forbesranked her among the world's highest-paid actresses, with",
"actresses, with annual earnings of $23.5 million, andThe Hollywood Reporterlisted her among the 100 most powerful people in entertainment.In 2021, she was named one of the 100 most influential women in entertainment byThe Hollywood Reporter.In December 2023, Robbie has been listed inThe Hollywood Reporter’s 2023 Women in Entertainment Power 100.In 2024, she was named byForbesas theworld's highest-paid actressin 2023, with earnings of $78 million. Voguehas named her \"one of the most glamorous starlets\" and she was ranked as one of the best-dressed women in 2018 and 2019 by luxury fashion retailerNet-a-Porter.In 2014 and 2016, she featured onAskMen's Top 99 Women, ranking among the top ten each year.Also in 2016, Robbie was placed at number one onFHM's \"100 Sexiest Women in the World\" list.Since 2016, she has been chosen as the ambassador for brands such asCalvin Klein,NissanandChanel.She was the last brand ambassador picked byKarl Lagerfeldbefore his death in February 2019.She is the latest ambassador",
"latest ambassador ofChanel No 5. Filmography and awards According to the review aggregator siteRotten Tomatoes, Robbie's most positively reviewed films areThe Wolf of Wall Street(2013),Z for Zachariah(2015),Suite Française(2015),I, Tonya(2017),Once Upon a Time in Hollywood(2019),Birds of Prey(2020),The Suicide Squad(2021), andBarbie(2023). Explanatory notes References Further reading External links",
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] |
What award was won in 2003 by the Swiss architecture firm that designed Roche Tower? | The Stirling Prize. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_Tower | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herzog_%26_de_Meuron | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_Tower', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herzog_%26_de_Meuron'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_Tower",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herzog_%26_de_Meuron"
] | [
"Roche Tower Roche Tower(German:Roche-Turm) is anofficeskyscraperin theSwisscity ofBasel. At 178 metres (584 ft), it is the secondtallest building in the country. The building, also known as \"Building 1\" (German:Bau 1), was financed by pharmaceutical companyHoffmann-La Rocheand designed byHerzog & de Meuron. It cost 550 millionSwiss francsto build. The entire construction ensemble, including the 205 m (673 ft)\"Building 2\"research facility completed in 2022, was expected to cost three billion francs in total. When finished on 18 September 2015, Roche Tower overtookPrime TowerinZürichas Switzerland's tallest building, the latter having held the record for four years. Strict planning laws mean there are few skyscrapers in the country.For the construction of the building,measures against earthquakeswere envisioned and it stands on 143 pillars ofreinforced concrete.It is supposed to endure an earthquake of 6.9 on theRichter scaleand therefore surpass the security regulations by the government. References External links 47°33′30″N7°36′27″E / 47.5583°N 7.6076°E /47.5583; 7.6076 This article about a Swiss building or structure is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"Herzog & de Meuron Herzog & de Meuron Basel Ltd.is a Swiss architecture firm headquartered inBasel(Switzerland), founded byJacques Herzogand Pierre de Meuron. In addition to their architectural practice, Herzog and de Meuron served as professors atETH Zürichfrom 1999 to 2018, where they co-founded ETH Studio Basel in 1999 alongside architects Roger Diener and Marcel Meili within the department of architecture. They have also held teaching roles as visiting professors at theHarvard University Graduate School of Design, with Jacques Herzog serving as a visiting tutor at theCornell University College of Architecture, Art, and Planning. History Herzog & de Meuron was founded in Basel in 1978.In 2001, Herzog & de Meuron were awarded thePritzker Prize, the highest honor in architecture. Jury chairmanJ. Carter Browncommented, \"One is hard put to think of any architects in history that have addressed theintegumentof architecture with greater imagination and virtuosity\", in reference to HdM's use of exterior materials and treatments, such as silkscreened glass. Architecture critic and Pritzker jurorAda Louise Huxtablesummarized HdM's approach stating, \"They refine the traditions of modernism to elemental simplicity while transforming materials and surfaces through the exploration of new treatments and techniques.\"The firm was listed as \"one of the most admired design companies in the world\" in The New York Times Magazine in 2006.\" As part of the urban development project known as HafenCity, the Hamburg government approved the construction of the Elbe Philharmonic designed by Herzog & de Meuron. On a former warehouse in the port of Hamburg, rises a huge glass sail that houses a large concert hall, offices, and a hotel, while the former warehouse is used as a parking structure. The inaugural concert was held in January 2017. Selected projects Since 2022 Completed Exhibitions Selected publications Complete works (Birkhäuser) Source: Portfolios (special editions on Herzog & de Meuron) Single project monographs Teaching/research Exhibition catalogues, critical readings and focus statements Awards Style There have been a lot of discussions about whether Herzog & de Meuron has a specific style. Even though people have tried to describe an 'H&dM style', the office always declines to have one: In an interview, founding partner Jacques Herzog stated that Herzog & de Meuron \"never aspired to anything that might be called a typical style of our own. To this day, we do not want to of iconic buildings that would instantly communicate \"Herzog & de Meuron\" – as opposed to the new, specific location that can be created and communicated by a building. In that respect it's not wise to represent a style or a certain taste. We say that over and over again not out of modesty or to castigate ourselves but because we want to maintain our independence and because we are curious about new possibilities.\" Their recent work atPradaTokyo, theBarcelonaForum Building, and theBeijing National Stadiumfor the2008 Olympic Gamessuggest a changing attitude.The shapes and forms of some of the works suggest art glass and objects d'art that one would see on a coffee table, like anart decoashtray or quirky container for chocolates – a building becomes a blown-up version of desk art because the computer can do it, mimic the plasticity of the medium, and make it possible as a feat of engineering. Ethics Herzog & de Meuron have faced criticism for their vision for migrant workers in Beijing during the construction of theBeijing National Stadium. In a July 2008 interview with the German magazineDer Spiegel, Jacques Herzog was criticised for not having done more to ensure the conditions under which migrant workers constructed the stadium by the interviewer, to which Jacques Herzog responded that the influence of the architect on the construction process is declining rapidly. On the other hand, some scholars, such asDeyan Sudjic, have stated that the very building of the stadium sent a signal from the Western architecture firm to the Chinese government to change societal norms.However, others have argued that this statement would go with any stadium design, decreasing the potential of the signal. References External links"
] | [
"Roche Tower Roche Tower(German:Roche-Turm) is anofficeskyscraperin theSwisscity ofBasel. At 178 metres (584 ft), it is the secondtallest building in the country. The building, also known as \"Building 1\" (German:Bau 1), was financed by pharmaceutical companyHoffmann-La Rocheand designed byHerzog & de Meuron. It cost 550 millionSwiss francsto build. The entire construction ensemble, including the 205 m (673 ft)\"Building 2\"research facility completed in 2022, was expected to cost three billion francs in total. When finished on 18 September 2015, Roche Tower overtookPrime TowerinZürichas Switzerland's tallest building, the latter having held the record for four years. Strict planning laws mean there are few skyscrapers in the country.For the construction of the building,measures against earthquakeswere envisioned and it stands on 143 pillars ofreinforced concrete.It is supposed to endure an earthquake of 6.9 on theRichter scaleand therefore surpass the security regulations by the government. References External",
"References External links 47°33′30″N7°36′27″E / 47.5583°N 7.6076°E /47.5583; 7.6076 This article about a Swiss building or structure is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"Herzog & de Meuron Herzog & de Meuron Basel Ltd.is a Swiss architecture firm headquartered inBasel(Switzerland), founded byJacques Herzogand Pierre de Meuron. In addition to their architectural practice, Herzog and de Meuron served as professors atETH Zürichfrom 1999 to 2018, where they co-founded ETH Studio Basel in 1999 alongside architects Roger Diener and Marcel Meili within the department of architecture. They have also held teaching roles as visiting professors at theHarvard University Graduate School of Design, with Jacques Herzog serving as a visiting tutor at theCornell University College of Architecture, Art, and Planning. History Herzog & de Meuron was founded in Basel in 1978.In 2001, Herzog & de Meuron were awarded thePritzker Prize, the highest honor in architecture. Jury chairmanJ. Carter Browncommented, \"One is hard put to think of any architects in history that have addressed theintegumentof architecture with greater imagination and virtuosity\", in reference to HdM's use of exterior materials",
"exterior materials and treatments, such as silkscreened glass. Architecture critic and Pritzker jurorAda Louise Huxtablesummarized HdM's approach stating, \"They refine the traditions of modernism to elemental simplicity while transforming materials and surfaces through the exploration of new treatments and techniques.\"The firm was listed as \"one of the most admired design companies in the world\" in The New York Times Magazine in 2006.\" As part of the urban development project known as HafenCity, the Hamburg government approved the construction of the Elbe Philharmonic designed by Herzog & de Meuron. On a former warehouse in the port of Hamburg, rises a huge glass sail that houses a large concert hall, offices, and a hotel, while the former warehouse is used as a parking structure. The inaugural concert was held in January 2017. Selected projects Since 2022 Completed Exhibitions Selected publications Complete works (Birkhäuser) Source: Portfolios (special editions on Herzog & de Meuron) Single project",
"Single project monographs Teaching/research Exhibition catalogues, critical readings and focus statements Awards Style There have been a lot of discussions about whether Herzog & de Meuron has a specific style. Even though people have tried to describe an 'H&dM style', the office always declines to have one: In an interview, founding partner Jacques Herzog stated that Herzog & de Meuron \"never aspired to anything that might be called a typical style of our own. To this day, we do not want to of iconic buildings that would instantly communicate \"Herzog & de Meuron\" – as opposed to the new, specific location that can be created and communicated by a building. In that respect it's not wise to represent a style or a certain taste. We say that over and over again not out of modesty or to castigate ourselves but because we want to maintain our independence and because we are curious about new possibilities.\" Their recent work atPradaTokyo, theBarcelonaForum Building, and theBeijing National Stadiumfor the2008",
"Stadiumfor the2008 Olympic Gamessuggest a changing attitude.The shapes and forms of some of the works suggest art glass and objects d'art that one would see on a coffee table, like anart decoashtray or quirky container for chocolates – a building becomes a blown-up version of desk art because the computer can do it, mimic the plasticity of the medium, and make it possible as a feat of engineering. Ethics Herzog & de Meuron have faced criticism for their vision for migrant workers in Beijing during the construction of theBeijing National Stadium. In a July 2008 interview with the German magazineDer Spiegel, Jacques Herzog was criticised for not having done more to ensure the conditions under which migrant workers constructed the stadium by the interviewer, to which Jacques Herzog responded that the influence of the architect on the construction process is declining rapidly. On the other hand, some scholars, such asDeyan Sudjic, have stated that the very building of the stadium sent a signal from the Western",
"from the Western architecture firm to the Chinese government to change societal norms.However, others have argued that this statement would go with any stadium design, decreasing the potential of the signal. References External links"
] |
A 1986 song by Peter Gabriel shares the name with a tool. What is the name of the tool and how does it look? | Sledgehammer: A tool with a large, flat, often metal head, attached to a long handle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_(album) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sledgehammer | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_(album)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sledgehammer'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_(album",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sledgehammer"
] | [
"Peter Gabriel Peter Brian Gabriel(born 13 February 1950) is an English singer, songwriter and human rights activist. He was the original lead singer of theprogressive rockbandGenesis.After leaving the band in 1975, he launched a solo career with \"Solsbury Hill\" as his first single. His fifth studio album,So(1986), is his best-selling release and is certified triple platinum in the UK and five times platinum in the US. The album's most successful single, \"Sledgehammer\", won a record nineMTV Awardsat the1987 MTV Video Music Awardsand, according to a report in 2011, it wasMTV's most played music video of all time. Gabriel has been a champion ofworld musicfor much of his career. He co-founded theWOMADfestival in 1982.He has continued to focus on producing and promoting world music through hisReal World Recordslabel. He has pioneered digital distribution methods for music, co-foundingOD2, one of the first online music download services.Gabriel has also been involved in numerous humanitarian efforts. In 1980, he released the anti-apartheidsingle \"Biko\".He has participated in several human-rights benefit concerts, includingAmnesty International'sHuman Rights Now!tour in 1988, and co-founded theWitnesshuman rights organisation in 1992.Gabriel developedThe ElderswithRichard Branson, which was launched byNelson Mandelain 2007. Gabriel has won threeBrit Awards—winning Best British Male in 1987,sixGrammy Awards,thirteenMTV Video Music Awards, the first Pioneer Award at theBT Digital Music Awards,theQmagazine Lifetime Achievement,theIvor Novello Awardfor Lifetime Achievement,and thePolar Music Prize.He was made aBMIIcon at the 57th annual BMI London Awards for his \"influence on generations of music makers\".In recognition of his many years of human rights activism, he received theMan of Peaceaward from theNobel Peace Prizelaureates in 2006,andTimemagazine named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2008.AllMusicdescribed Gabriel as \"one of rock's most ambitious, innovative musicians, as well as one of its most political\".He was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a member of Genesis in 2010,and as a solo artist in 2014.In March 2015, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from theUniversity of South Australiain recognition of his achievements in music. Early life Peter Brian Gabriel was born on 13 February 1950 inChobham,Surrey, England, son of Ralph Parton Gabriel (1912–2012) and Edith Irene (1921–2016), daughter of Colonel Edward Allen, chairman of theCivil Service Department Storeon theStrand, London. Gabriel's father was an electrical engineer and dairy farm-owner from a long-established family of London timber importers and merchants, and his mother was from a musical family. Gabriel was raised at Deep Pool Farm, Coxhill, a Victorian manor just outside Chobham.His great-great-great-uncle,Sir Thomas Gabriel, 1st Baronet, wasLord Mayor of Londonfrom 1866 to 1877.Gabriel attended Cable House, a private primary school inWoking, Surrey, followed by St Andrews Preparatory School for Boys inHorsell, Surrey.During his time at the latter, his teachers noticed his singing talent, but he opted for piano lessons from his mother and developed an interest in drumming. At age 10, he purchased a floor tom-tom. Gabriel remarked of his early influences, \"Hymnsplayed quite a large part. They were the closest I came tosoul musicbefore I discovered soul music. There are certain hymns that you can scream your lungs out on, and I used to love that. It was great when you used to get the old shivers down the back.\"At age 12, Gabriel wrote his first song, \"Sammy the Slug\". Around this time, an aunt gave him money for professional singing lessons, but he used it to buythe Beatles' debut studio albumPlease Please Me(1963).In September 1963, he started atCharterhouse, apublic schoolinGodalming, Surrey.There, he was a drummer and vocalist for his first band: thetrad jazzoutfit the Milords (or M'Lords). This was followed by a holiday band called the Spoken Word,which recorded anacetatein 1966.Gabriel played drums in both these bands, and his schoolmateMike Rutherfordcommented in 1985 that \"Pete was - and still is, I think - a frustrated drummer.\" In 1965, Gabriel formedGarden Wallwith school friendsTony Bankson piano, Johnny Trapman on trumpet, andChris Stewarton drums.Banks had started at Charterhouse at the same time as Gabriel; the two were uninterested in school activities but bonded over music and started to write songs. At a final concert before they broke up, Gabriel, dressed in akaftanand beads, showered the audience with petals he had picked from neighbouring gardens. Career 1967–1975: Genesis In April 1967, after Garden Wall had disbanded, Gabriel and Banks were invited by fellow pupilsAnthony PhillipsandMike Rutherfordto work on ademotape of songs.Gabriel and Banks contributed \"She Is Beautiful\", the first song they wrote together. The tape was sent to former Charterhouse pupil turned musicianJonathan King, who was immediately enthusiastic, largely due to Gabriel's vocals. He signed the group and suggested a band name of Gabriel's Angels, but it was unpopular with the other members. They settled on King's other suggestion,Genesis. After King suggested they stick to more straightforward pop, Gabriel and Banks wrote \"The Silent Sun\" as a pastiche of theBee Gees, one of King's favourite bands. It became Genesis's first single, released in 1968.It was included on their debut studio album,From Genesis to Revelation(1968). After the commercial failure ofFrom Genesis to Revelation, the band went their separate ways, and Gabriel continued his studies at Charterhouse.In September 1969, Gabriel, Banks, Rutherford and Phillips decided to drop their plans and make Genesis a full-time working band. In early 1970, Gabriel played the flute onMona Bone JakonbyCat Stevens. The second studio album by Genesis,Trespass(1970), marked Gabriel expanding his musical output with the flute, accordion, tambourine and bass drum, and incorporating hissoul musicinfluences. Gabriel explained that he was driven to play these instruments because he was uncomfortable with doing nothing during instrumental sections.He would have preferred to play keyboard instruments, but \"Tony was extraordinarily possessive about the keyboards. I'd done a bit of flute at school, I always liked the sound, and a little bit of oboe (I was an even worse oboe player, but it made a couple of good noises now and again). Then the bass drum was something physical, visual, that I could kick hard and occasionally it was in time!\"The album sold little and at one point, Gabriel secured a place atLondon School of Film Techniquebecause Genesis \"seemed to be dying.\"Genesis recruited guitaristSteve Hackettand drummerPhil Collins. Gabriel began growing in confidence as a frontman, and during an encore performance of \"The Knife\" on 19 June 1971, he took a running jump into the audience, expecting them to catch him, only for them to instead move out of the way and leave him to land on the floor, breaking an ankle. He consequently had to perform Genesis's next several shows with a wheelchair and crutches.Also during theTrespasstour, he started to recite stories to introduce numbers as a way to cover the silence between songs while the band tuned their instruments, or while technical faults were being fixed.These stories were all improvised on the spot, and evolved as the tour went along.The opener of their next studio album,Nursery Cryme(1971), \"The Musical Box\", was their first song in which Gabriel incorporated a story and characters into the lyrics; the lyrics to previous story-based Genesis songs such as \"White Mountain\" and \"One-Eyed Hound\" were all written by other members of the group.Gabriel was the primary writer of \"Harold the Barrel\", another story song onNursery Cryme, with Collins helping him on the lyrics. The shows featuringFoxtrot(1972) marked a key development in Gabriel's stage performance. During a gig inDublinin September 1972, he disappeared from the set during the instrumental section of \"The Musical Box\" and reappeared in his wife's red dress and a fox's head, mimicking the album's cover. The idea of the fox costume had been suggested to him byPaul Conroyand Glen Colson, employees of Genesis's record label,Charisma Records.Gabriel said he consulted the rest of Genesis about the fox costume but grew tired of arguing about it, but the other members all maintained that nothing was said about it beforehand and that when Gabriel came out in costume they initially mistook him for a fan invading the stage.The incident received front-page coverage inMelody Maker, giving them national exposure which allowed the group to double their performance fee.One of Gabriel's stories was printed on the liner notes of their live album,Genesis Live(1973). By late 1973, following the success ofSelling England by the Pound(1973), which centred on English themes and literary and materialistic references, a typical Genesis show had Gabriel wear fluorescent make-up, a cape, and bat wings for \"Watcher of the Skies\", a helmet, chest plate, and a shield for \"Dancing with the Moonlit Knight\", acrown of thornsand a flower mask for \"Supper's Ready\", and an old man mask for \"The Musical Box\". Gabriel continued to continued to fight for involvement with Genesis's keyboards throughout his time with the group, and following a lengthy argument with Banks, he was allowed to play a minor keyboard part on \"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)\", only for this part to be left out of the mix.\"I Know What I Like\" became Genesis's first hit single, reaching number 21 in theUK Singles Chart. The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway(1974) was Gabriel's final studio album with Genesis. He devised its story of the spiritual journey of Rael, a Puerto Rican youth living in New York City, and insisted upon writing all the lyrics himself, whereas on previous albums the lyrics had been divided among all the members of Genesis.Tensions increased during this period, and Gabriel split with the band to pursue a film project withWilliam Friedkin, only to rejoin a week later.Matters were complicated further with the difficult birth of Gabriel's first daughter, resulting in periods of time away from the band. The other members complained that Gabriel was showing a lack of commitment to the band. Gabriel saw this as a \"really unsympathetic handling of my dealing with a family crisis\" and said it caused a breakdown in his relationships with the rest of Genesis; Rutherford later admitted that they had been overly fixated on their music and were very unhelpful in what must have been a difficult time for Gabriel.Gabriel was late to deliver the lyrics, but has denied that he was too busy to write much music for the album and relied on contributions from Banks and Rutherford.Banks corroborated that Gabriel was the primary composer of theLambsongs \"The Carpet Crawlers\" and \"The Chamber of 32 Doors\" and the sole composer of \"Counting Out Time\". During a stop in Cleveland, Ohio, early into the album's tour, Gabriel informed the band of his intention to leave at its conclusion.Rutherford recalled that they all \"could see it coming.\"Music critics often focused their reviews on Gabriel's theatrics and took the band's musical performance as secondary, which irritated the rest of the band.The tour ended in May 1975, after which Gabriel wrote a piece for the press on 15 August, entitled \"Out, Angels Out\", about his departure, his disillusion with the business, and his desire to spend time with his family.The news stunned fans of the group and left commentators wondering if the band could survive without him.His exit resulted in drummerPhil Collinsreluctantly taking over on lead vocals after 400 singers were fruitlessly auditioned. 1975–1985: Solo debut with four self-titled albums Gabriel described his break from the music business as his \"learning period\", during which he took piano and music lessons. He had recorded demos by the end of 1975, the fruits of a period of writing around 20 songs with his friend Martin Hall.After preparing material for a studio album Gabriel recorded his solo debut,Peter Gabriel, in 1976 and 1977 in Toronto and London, with producerBob Ezrin. Gabriel did not title his first four studio albums. All were labelledPeter Gabriel, using the same typeface, with designs byHipgnosis. \"The idea is to do it like a magazine, which will only come out once a year,\" he remarked in 1978. \"So it's the same title, the same lettering in the same place; only the photo is different.\"Each album has, however, been given a nickname by fans, usually relating to the album cover. Peter Gabriel(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 1: Car) was released in February 1977 and reached No. 7 in the UK and No. 38 in the US. Itslead single, \"Solsbury Hill\", is an autobiographical song about a spiritual experience on top ofSolsbury Hillin Somerset. \"It's about being prepared to lose what you have for what you might get ...\" said Gabriel. \"It's about letting go.\"Gabriel toured the album with an 80-date tour from March to November 1977 with a band that included guitaristRobert FrippofKing Crimsonoften playing off stage and introduced as \"Dusty Rhodes\". In late 1977, Gabriel started recording thesecondPeter Gabrielstudio album(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 2: Scratch) in the Netherlands, with Fripp as producer. Its \"Mother of Violence\" was written by Gabriel and his first wife Jill. Released in June 1978, the album went to No. 10 in the UK and No. 45 in the US. Gabriel's tour for the album lasted from August to December 1978. On this tour, Gabriel and his band shaved their heads. Gabriel recorded thethirdPeter Gabrielstudio album(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 3: Melt) in England in 1979. He developed an interest in African music anddrum machinesand later hailed the record as his artistic breakthrough. Gabriel banned the use of cymbals on the album in order to grant more sonic space for instruments like keyboards and synths. This resulted in the creation of the distinctivegated reverb,a noise processing technique which came about while recording drums on \"Intruder\", one of the tracks featuringPhil Collins. Collins implemented the reverb to great effect on his debut solo single \"In the Air Tonight\" and it has since became a signature sound of the 1980s and beyond. Upon completionAtlantic Records, Gabriel's US distributor who had released his first two albums, refused to put outPeter Gabriel 3: Meltas they thought it was not commercial enough. Gabriel signed arecording contractwithMercury Records.Released in May 1980, the album went to No. 1 in the UK for three weeks. In the US, it peaked at No. 22. The single \"Games Without Frontiers\" went to No. 4 and \"Biko\" went to No. 36 in the UK. After a handful of shows in 1979, Gabriel toured the album from February to October 1980. The tour marked Gabriel's first successful instance ofcrowd surfing(following his failed June 1971 attempt when touring with Genesis) when he fell back into the audience in a crucifix position. The stunt became a staple of his live shows. OnPeter Gabrielfour(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 4: Security), Gabriel took on greater responsibility over the production than before. He recorded it in 1981 and 1982, solely on digital tape, with a mobile studio parked at his home,Ashcombe House, in Somerset. Gabriel utilized aFairlight CMIdigitalsamplingsynthesizer and incorporated electronic instrumentation with sampling world beat percussion. \"Over the course of the last two albums,\" he observed, \"I've got back into a rhythm consciousness. And the writing—particularly with the invention of these drum machines—is fantastic. You can store in their memories rhythms that interest you and excite you. And then the groove will carry on without you, and the groove will be exactly what you want it to be, rather than what a drummer thinks is appropriate for what you're doing.\" The fourthPeter Gabriel, released in September 1982, hit No. 6 in the UK and No. 28 in the US. The second single, \"Shock the Monkey\", became Gabriel's first top 40 hit in the US, reaching No. 29. To handle American distribution, Gabriel signed withGeffen Records, which—initially unbeknown to Gabriel—titled the albumSecurityto differentiate it from the first three. Gabriel's 1982 tour lasted a year and became his first to make a profit.Recordings from the tour were released on Gabriel's debut live release,Plays Live(1983). Gabriel produced versions of the third and fourthPeter Gabrielalbums with German lyrics. The third consisted of the studio recordings, overdubbed with new vocals. The fourth was remixed, with several tracks extended or altered. In 1983, Gabriel developed the soundtrack forAlan Parker's drama filmBirdy(1984), co-produced withDaniel Lanois. This consisted of new material, without lyrics, as well as remixed instrumentals from his previous studio album. 1985–1997:SoandUs After finishing the soundtrack toBirdy, Gabriel shifted his musical focus from rhythm and texture, as heard onPeter Gabrielfour andBirdy, towards more straightforward songs.In 1985, he recorded his fifth studio album,So(also co-produced with Lanois).Sowas released in May 1986 and reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 2 in the US. It remains Gabriel's best-selling album with over five million copies sold in the US alone.It produced one of Gabriel's signature songs, that has become a concert staple:In Your Eyes, with a distinctive vocal appearance byYoussou N'Dour, and three UK top 20 singles: \"Sledgehammer\", \"Big Time\" and \"Don't Give Up\", a duet withKate Bush. The first went to No. 1 on the USBillboardHot 100, Gabriel's only single of his career to do so. It knocked \"Invisible Touch\" by Genesis, his former band, out of the top spot, which was also their only US number one hit. In the UK, the single went to No. 4.In 1990,Rolling StonerankedSoat No. 14 on its list of \"Top 100 Albums of the Eighties\". \"Sledgehammer\" was particularly successful, dealing with sex and sexual relations through lyrical innuendos. Its famed music video was a collaboration between directorStephen R. Johnson,Aardman Animations,and theBrothers Quayand won a record nineMTV Video Music Awardsin 1987.In 1998, it was named MTV's number one animated video of all time.Soearned Gabriel two wins at the1987Brit Awardsfor Best British Male Solo Artist and Best British Video (for \"Sledgehammer\").He was nominated for fourGrammy Awards:Best Male Rock Vocal Performance,Song of the Year, andRecord of the Yearfor \"Sledgehammer\", andAlbum of the YearforSo.Gabriel toured worldwide to supportSowith the This Way Up Tour, from November 1986 to October 1987. In 1988, Gabriel became involved as composer forMartin Scorsese's filmThe Last Temptation of Christ(1988). Scorsese had contacted Gabriel about the project since 1983 and wished, according to Gabriel, to present \"the struggle between the humanity and divinity of Christ in a powerful and original way\".Gabriel used musicians fromWOMADto perform instrumental pieces with focus on rhythm and African, Middle Eastern and European textures, using theNational Sound Archivein London for additional inspiration.The initial plan had dedicated ten weeks for recording before it was cut to three, leaving Gabriel unable to finish all the pieces he originally wanted to record.When the film was finished, Gabriel worked on the soundtrack for an additional four months to develop more of his unfinished ideas. Its soundtrack was released asPassionin June 1989. It won Gabriel aGrammy AwardforBest New Age Performanceand a nomination for aGolden GlobeforBest Original Score – Motion Picture. In 1990, Gabriel put out his first compilation album,Shaking the Tree: Sixteen Golden Greats, which sold 2 million copies in the US. Up until 1989, Gabriel was managed byGail Colson.From 1989 to 1992, Gabriel recorded his follow-up toSo, titledUs. The album saw Gabriel address personal themes, including his failed first marriage, psychotherapy, and the growing distance between him and his eldest daughter at the time. Gabriel's introspection within the context of the albumUscan be seen in the first single release \"Digging in the Dirt\" directed by John Downer. Accompanied by a video featuring Gabriel covered in snails and various foliage, this song made reference to the psychotherapy which had taken up much of Gabriel's time since the previous studio album. Gabriel describes his struggle to get through to his daughter in \"Come Talk to Me\" directed byMatt Mahurin, which featured backing vocals bySinéad O'Connor. O'Connor also lent vocals to \"Blood of Eden\", directed byNichola Bruceand Michael Coulson, the third single to be released from the album, and once again dealing with relationship struggles, this time going right back toAdam's rib for inspiration. The album is one of Gabriel's most personal. It met with less success thanSo, reaching No. 2 in the album chart on both sides of the Atlantic, and making modest chart impact with the singles \"Digging in the Dirt\" and the funkier \"Steam\", which evoked memories of \"Sledgehammer\". Gabriel followed the release of the album with theSecret World Tour, first using touring keyboardist Joy Askew to sing O'Connor's part, then O'Connor herself for a few months.O'Connor quit the tour, and was replaced byPaula Cole, the latter appearing on the tour recordings: a double albumSecret World Live, and a concert video also calledSecret World Live, both released in 1994.The film received the 1996Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video, naming director Francois Girard and producer Robert Warr. Gabriel employed an innovative approach in the marketing of theUsalbum. Not wishing to feature only images of himself, he asked artist filmmakersNichola Bruceand Michael Coulson to co-ordinate a marketing campaign using contemporary artists. Artists such asHelen Chadwick,Rebecca Horn,Nils-Udo,Andy Goldsworthy,David MachandYayoi Kusamacollaborated to create original artworks for each song on the multi-million-selling CD. Coulson and Bruce documented the process on Hi-8 video. Bruce left Real World and Coulson continued with the campaign, using the documentary background material as the basis for a promotional EPK, the long-form videoAll About Usand the interactive CD-ROMXplora1: Peter Gabriel's Secret World. Gabriel won three moreGrammy Awards, all in the Music Video category. He won theGrammy Award for Best Short Form Music Videoin 1993 and 1994 for the videos to \"Digging in the Dirt\" and \"Steam\", respectively. Gabriel also won the 1996Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Videofor hisSecret World Livevideo. 1997–2009:OVOandUp In 1997, Gabriel was invited to participate in the direction and soundtrack of theMillennium Dome Show, a live multimedia performance staged in theMillennium Domein London throughout 2000.Gabriel said the team were given free rein, which contributed to the various problems they encountered with it, such as a lack of proper budgeting. He also felt that management, while succeeding to get the building finished on time, failed to understand the artistic side of the show and its content.Gabriel's soundtrack was released asOVOin June 2000.The Story of OVOwas released in the CD-booklet-shapedcomic bookwhich was part of the CD edition with the title \"OVO The Millennium Show\". Around that same time, the Genesis greatest hits album,Turn It On Again: The Hits(1999), featured Gabriel sharing vocals withPhil Collinson a new version of \"The Carpet Crawlers\" entitled \"The Carpet Crawlers 1999\", produced byTrevor Horn. In 2002 he stuck with soundtrack work for his next project, scoring for the Australian filmRabbit-Proof Fence(2002) withworldbeatmusic. Released in June 2002,Long Walk Home: Music from the Rabbit-Proof Fencereceived a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Original Score – Motion Picture. Later in 2002,Up, Gabriel's first full-length studio album in a decade, was released in September 2002. He started work on it in 1995 before production halted three years later to focus time on other projects and collaborations. Work resumed in 2000, by which time Gabriel had 130 potential songs for the album, and spent almost two years on it before management atVirgin Recordspushed Gabriel to complete it.Upreached No. 9 in the US and No. 11 in the UK, and supported with a world tour with a band that included Gabriel's daughter Melanie on backing vocals. The tour was documented with two live DVDs:Growing Up Live(2003) andStill Growing Up: Live & Unwrapped(2005). In 2004, Gabriel met with his former Genesis bandmates to discuss the possibility of stagingThe Lamb Lies Down on Broadway(1974) as a reunion tour. He ultimately dismissed the idea, paving the way for Banks, Rutherford and Collins to organise theTurn It On Again: The Tour. Gabriel produced and performed at theEden Project Live 8 concertin July 2005. He joinedCat Stevenson stage to perform \"Wild World\" duringNelson Mandela's46664concert. In 2005,FIFAasked Gabriel and Brian Eno to organise an opening ceremony for the2006 FIFA World Cupin Germany, but FIFA cancelled the idea in January 2006. At the opening ceremony of the2006 Winter OlympicsinTurin, Gabriel performedJohn Lennon's \"Imagine\". In November 2006, the Seventh World Summit ofNobel Peace Laureatesin Rome presented Gabriel with theMan of Peaceaward. The award, presented by former General Secretary of the USSR and Nobel Peace Prize winnerMikhail GorbachevandWalter Veltroni, Mayor of Rome, was an acknowledgement of Gabriel's extensive contribution and work on behalf of human rights and peace. The award was presented in the Giulio Cesare Hall of the Campidoglio in Rome. At the end of the year, he was awarded theQmagazine Lifetime Achievement Award, presented to him by American musicianMoby. In an interview published in the magazine to accompany the award, Gabriel's contribution to music was described as \"vast and enduring.\" Gabriel took on a project with theBBC World Service's competition \"The Next Big Thing\" to find the world's best young band. Gabriel judged the final six young artists withWilliam Orbit,Geoff TravisandAngélique Kidjo. In June 2008, Gabriel releasedBig Blue Ball, an album of various artists collaborating with each other at his Real World Studios across three summers in the 1990s. He planned its release in the US without assistance from a label; he raised £2 million towards the recording and distribution of the album withIngenious Mediawith the worldwide release handled throughWarner Bros. Records.Gabriel appeared on a nationwide tour for the album in 2009. Gabriel was a judge for the 6th and 8th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists. Gabriel contributed to thePixarfilmWALL-Esoundtrack in 2008 withThomas Newman, including the film's closing song, \"Down to Earth\", for which they received theGrammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. The song was also nominated for aGolden Globe Award for Best Original Songand anAcademy Award for Best Original Song. In February 2009, Gabriel announced that he would not be performing on the2008 Academy Awardstelecast because producers of the show were limiting his performance of \"Down to Earth\" fromWALL-Eto 90 seconds. According to Gabriel, his window was reduced to 65 seconds.John Legendand theSoweto Gospel Choirperformed the song in his stead. Gabriel's 2009 tour appearances included Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Venezuela. His first ever performance in Peru was held in Lima on 20 March 2009, during his second visit to the country. On 25 July 2009, he played at WOMAD Charlton Park, his only European performance of the year, to promote Witness. The show included two tracks from the then-forthcomingScratch My Back:Paul Simon's \"The Boy in the Bubble\" andthe Magnetic Fields' \"The Book of Love\". 2009–2019:Scratch My Back,New Bloodand further side projects In 2009, Gabriel recordedScratch My Back, an album of cover songs by various artists includingDavid Bowie,Lou Reed,Arcade Fire,Radiohead,Regina SpektorandNeil Young. The original concept was for Gabriel to cover an artists' song if they, in turn, covered one of his for an album simultaneously released asI'll Scratch Yours, but several participants later declined or were late to deliver and it was placed on hold.Gabriel avoided using drums and guitar in favour of orchestral arrangements, and altered his usual songwriting method by finishing the vocals first and then the song, for which he collaborated withJohn Metcalfe.Released in February 2010,Scratch My Backreached No. 12 in the UK. Gabriel toured worldwide with the New Blood Tour from March 2010 to July 2012 with a 54-piece orchestra and his daughterMelanieand Norwegian singer-songwriterAne Brunon backing vocals. The follow-up,And I'll Scratch Yours, was released in September 2013. During the New Blood Tour, Gabriel decided to expand on theScratch My Backconcept and, with Metcalfe's assistance, re-record a collection of his own songs with an orchestra. The result,New Blood, was released in October 2011. In September 2012, Gabriel kicked off hisBack to Front Tourwhich featuredSo(1986) performed in its entirety with the original musicians who played on the album, to mark its 25th anniversary.When the opening leg finished a month later, Gabriel took one year off to travel the world with his children.The tour resumed with a European leg from September 2013 to December 2014. In 2014, Gabriel was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a solo artist byColdplayfrontmanChris Martin. They performed Gabriel's \"Washing of the Water\" together. Gabriel performed \"Heroes\" byDavid Bowiewith an orchestra at a concert in Berlin to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the fall of theBerlin Wallin November 2014. In 2016, he was featured on the song \"A.I.\" by American pop rock bandOneRepublicfrom their fourth studio albumOh My My. In June 2016, Gabriel released the single \"I'm Amazing\". The song was written several years prior, in part as a tribute to boxerMuhammad Ali.That month, he embarked on a joint tour withStingtitled The Rock Paper Scissors North American Tour. Gabriel re-emerged in 2019 with the release ofRated PG, a compilation of songs that were created for film soundtracks throughout his career. The song selection spans over 30 years and includes tracks that had never been released on an official Gabriel album previously, including \"Down to Earth\" (fromWALL-E) and \"That'll Do\" (fromBabe: Pig in the City), an Oscar-nominated collaboration withRandy Newman. Initially only released on vinyl forRecord Store Dayon 13 April, the album was eventually released on digital streaming services later that month.Later that same year, Gabriel issued another digital release on 13 September titledFlotsam and Jetsam, a collection ofB-sides, remixes and rarities that span Gabriel's entire solo career from 1976 to 2016, including his first solo recording, a cover ofthe Beatles' song \"Strawberry Fields Forever\". 2022–present:I/Oand possible follow-up album By 2002, Gabriel had been continually working on what he had given the tentative title ofI/O, his tenth studio album, which he had begun work on as early as 1995.It was originally set to be released 18 months afterUp, but touring pushed the release far away.He did an interview withRolling Stonein 2005 stating that he had 150 songs in various stages.From 2013 to 2016, he posted regularly on social media about recording the new album.In 2019, he spoke onBBC Radio 6about how he had taken a hiatus from making music due to his wife being sick, but he had begun to return to it now that she had recovered.In 2021, he was interviewed multiple times about his new album, and revealed that he had been recording withManu Katché,Tony LevinandDavid Rhodeson 17 new songs.He posted multiple photos to his Facebook and Instagram of these sessions.In June 2022, Katché told the French magazineL'Illustréthat the album was nearly complete and would be released later that year, pending an official announcement. In November 2022, Gabriel announced his upcoming \"I/O The Tour\" for the spring of 2023 across several European cities, with later dates to be confirmed for the North America leg of the tour for the late summer/fall of 2023.This announcement also confirmed the name of the upcoming album to be stylised asI/O. The first single from the album, \"Panopticom\", was released digitally on 6 January 2023.A new piece from the album will be released on the date of each full moon in 2023,as well as a different mix of the song on each new moon in 2023, starting with the Dark Side Mix of \"Panopticom\".On 5 February, Gabriel released \"The Court\", the second single from the album. On 7 March, Gabriel released the third single, \"Playing for Time\". A basic arrangement of the song featuring only Gabriel on piano and Levin on bass had already opened the shows on theBack to Front Tour, by the name of \"Daddy Long Legs\".The title track \"I/O\" was the fourth single released on 6 April. On 5 May, Peter Gabriel released the fifth single from the album, \"Four Kinds of Horses\", a track which is a collaboration withBrian EnoandRichard Russell. The sixth single, \"Road to Joy\", was released on 4 June. Six more singles were released, separately, within the next six months—\"So Much\", \"Olive Tree\", \"Love Can Heal\", \"This Is Home\", \"And Still\" and \"Live and Let Live\"—beforeI/Owas finally released on 1 December 2023. One day prior toI/O's release, Gabriel toldThe New York Timesthat he does not expect a follow-up album (which he described as his \"brain project\") to take another 21 years, saying that \"there's a lot of stuff in the can\" but added that the material is not yet finished. Additionally, Gabriel stated in his November 2023 Full Moon update video that the track \"What Lies Ahead\" will be on \"the next record\".He performed \"What Lies Ahead\" several times in 2023 and it was a contender forI/O. Artistry Stylistically, Gabriel's music has been alternately described by music writers asprogressive rock,art rock,art pop,worldbeat,post-progressiveandprogressive soul.According toRolling Stonejournalist Ryan Reed, Gabriel has developed in all as an \"art-rock innovator, soul-pop craftsman, 'world music' ambassador\" over the course of his career,while music scholar Gregg Akkermann argues that, despite his progressive rock origins, he has \"managed to attract fans from across the spectrum: prog rock, alternative rock, world beat, blue-eyed soul, dance music, the college crowd, the teens, Americans and Europeans\".More broadly,AllMusic'sStephen Thomas Erlewinesays Gabriel emerged during the 1980s as \"one of rock's most ambitious, innovative musicians\", as well as \"an international pop star\". Gabriel has worked with a relatively stable crew of musicians and recording engineers throughout his solo career. Bass andStickplayerTony Levinhas performed on every Gabriel studio album and every live tour except forScratch My Back(2010), the soundtracksPassion(1989) andLong Walk Home(2002), and the New Blood Tour. GuitaristDavid Rhodeshas been Gabriel's guitarist of choice since 1979. Prior toSo(1986),Jerry Marottawas Gabriel's preferred drummer, both in the studio and on the road. (For theSoandUsalbums and tours Marotta was replaced byManu Katché, who was then replaced byGed Lynchon parts of theUpalbum and all of the subsequent tour). Gabriel is known for choosing top-flight collaborators, from co-producers such as Ezrin, Fripp, Lillywhite and Lanois to musicians such asNatalie Merchant,Elizabeth Fraser,L. Shankar,Trent Reznor,Youssou N'Dour,Larry Fast,Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan,Sinéad O'Connor,Kate Bush,Ane Brun,Paula Cole,John Giblin,Dave Gregory,Peter Hammill,Papa Wemba,Manu Katché,Bayete,Milton Nascimento,Phil Collins,Stewart CopelandandOneRepublic. Over the years, Gabriel has collaborated with singerKate Bushseveral times; Bush provided backing vocals for Gabriel's \"Games Without Frontiers\" and \"No Self Control\" in 1980, and female lead vocal for \"Don't Give Up\" (a top 10 hit in the UK) in 1986, and Gabriel appeared on her television special. Their duet ofRoy Harper's \"Another Day\" was discussed for release as a single, but never appeared. He also collaborated withavant-gardeartistLaurie Andersonon two versions of her composition \"Excellent Birds\"—one for her second albumMister Heartbreak(1984),and another version called \"This is the Picture (Excellent Birds)\", which appeared oncassetteand CD versions ofSo. Gabriel sang (along withJim KerrofSimple Minds) on \"Everywhere I Go\", fromthe Call's 1986 studio album,Reconciled. OnToni Childs' 1994 studio album,The Woman's Boat, Gabriel sang on the track, \"I Met a Man\". In 1998, Gabriel appeared on the soundtrack ofBabe: Pig in the Cityas the lead vocalist of the song \"That'll Do\", written byRandy Newman. The song was nominated for anAcademy Award, and Gabriel and Newman performed it at the following year's Oscar telecast. He performed a similar soundtrack appearance for the 2004 filmShall We Dance?, singing acover versionof \"The Book of Love\" bythe Magnetic Fields. In 1987, Gabriel appeared onRobbie Robertson'sself-titled solo studio album, singing on \"Fallen Angel\"; co-wrote twoTom Robinsonsingles; and appeared onJoni Mitchell's 1988 studio albumChalk Mark in a Rain Storm, on the opening track \"My Secret Place\". In 2001, Gabriel contributed lead vocals to the song \"When You're Falling\" onAfro Celt Sound System'sVolume 3: Further in Time.In the summer of 2003, Gabriel performed in Ohio with a guest performance by Uzbek singerSevara Nazarkhan. Gabriel collaborated on tracks with electronic musicianBT, who also worked on theOVOsoundtrack with him. The tracks were never released, as the computers they were contained on were stolen from BT's home in California. He also sang the lyrics forDeep Foreston their theme song for the movieStrange Days(1995). In addition, Gabriel has appeared onAngelique Kidjo's 2007 studio albumDjin Djin, singing on the song \"Salala\". Gabriel has recorded a cover of theVampire Weekendsingle \"Cape Cod Kwassa Kwassa\" withHot Chip, where his name is mentioned several times in the chorus. He substitutes the original line \"But this feels so unnatural / Peter Gabriel too / This feels so unnatural/ Peter Gabriel too\" with \"It feels so unnatural / Peter Gabriel too / and it feels so unnatural / to sing your own name.\" Gabriel collaborated withArcade Fireon their 2022 studio album,We. He sang backing vocals on the track \"Unconditional II (Race and Religion)\". WOMAD and other projects Gabriel's interest inworld musicwas first apparent on his third solo studio album. According to Spencer Kornhaber inThe Atlanticin 2019: \"When Peter Gabriel moved toward 'world music' four decades ago, he not only evangelized sounds that were novel to Western pop. He also set a radio template: majestic, with flourishes meant to read as 'exotic,' and lyrics meant to change lives.\"This influence has increased over time, and he is the driving force behind theWorld of Music, Arts and Dance(WOMAD) movement. Gabriel said: The first time I really got into music from another culture was as a result of the shifting ofRadio 4, which I used to wake up to. I'd lost it onmedium waveand was groping around in the morning on the dial, trying to find something that I could listen to, and came across a Dutch radio station who were playing the soundtrack from some obscureStanley Bakermovie calledDingaka. That had quite a lot of stuff from—I think it was—Ghana. I can't remember now, but it really moved me. One of the songs I heard on that was a thing called 'Shosholoza', which I recorded on the b-side of the 'Biko' single. Gabriel created theReal World Studiosand record label to facilitate the creation and distribution of such music by various artists, and he has worked to educate Western culture about such musicians asYungchen Lhamo,Nusrat Fateh Ali KhanandYoussou N'dour. He has a longstanding interest in human rights and launchedWitness,a charity that trains human rights activists to use video and online technologies to expose human rights abuses. In 2006, his work with WITNESS and his long-standing support of peace and human rights causes was recognised by theNobel Peace PrizeLaureates with theMan of Peaceaward. In the 1990s, with Steve Nelson of Brilliant Media and director Michael Coulson, he developed advanced multimedia CD-ROM-based entertainment projects, creatingXplora(the world's largest-selling music CD-ROM), and subsequently theEVECD-ROM.EVEwas a music and art adventure game directed by Michael Coulson and co-produced by theStarwaveCorporation in Seattle; it won the Milia d'Or award Grand Prize at the Cannes in 1996. In 1990, Gabriel lent his backing vocals to Ugandan political exileGeoffrey Oryema's \"Land of Anaka\", appearing on Oryema's first studio albumExile, released on Gabriel's Real World label. In 1994, Gabriel starred inBreck Eisner's short filmReconas a detective who enters the minds of murder victims to find their killer's identity. Gabriel helped pioneer a new realm of musical interaction in 2001, visitingGeorgia State University's Language Research Center to participate in keyboard jam sessions withbonoboapes from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. (This experience inspired the song \"Animal Nation\", which was performed on Gabriel's 2002 \"Growing Up\" tour and was featured on theGrowing Up LiveDVD andThe Wild Thornberrys Moviesoundtrack.) Gabriel's desire to bring attention to the intelligence of primates also took the form of ApeNet, a project that aimed to link great apes through the internet, enabling the first interspecies internet communication. He was one of the founders of on Demand Distribution (OD2), one of the first online music download services. Prior to its closure in 2009, its technology had been used by over 100 music download sites including MSN Music UK, MyCokeMusic, Planet Internet (KPN), Wanadoo and CD WOW!. OD2 was bought by US company Loudeye in June 2004 and subsequently by Finnish mobile giantNokiain October 2006 for $60 million. Gabriel is co-founder (withBrian Eno) of a musicians union called Mudda, short for \"magnificent union of digitally downloading artists.\" In 2000, Gabriel collaborated withZucchero,Anggunand others in a charity for kids withAIDS. Erick Benzi wrote words and music and Patrick Bruel, Stephan Eicher, Faudel, Lokua Kanza, Laam, Nourith, Axelle Red have accepted to sing it. In 2003, Gabriel contributed a song for the video gameUru: Ages Beyond Myst.In 2004, Gabriel contributed another song (\"Curtains\") and contributed voice work on another game in theMystfranchise,Myst IV: Revelation. In June 2005, Gabriel and broadcast industry entrepreneurDavid EngelkepurchasedSolid State Logic, a manufacturer of mixing consoles and digital audio workstations.In 2017, the company was sold to theAudiotonixGroup. In May 2008, Gabriel'sReal World Studios, in partnership withBowers & Wilkins, started the Bowers & Wilkins Music Club—later known as Society of Sound—a subscription-based music retail site. Albums are currently available in eitherApple LosslessorFLACformat. He is one of the founding supporters of the annual global eventAsteroid Day. Activist for humanitarian causes In 1986, he started what has become a longstanding association withAmnesty International, becoming a pioneering participant in all 28 of Amnesty'sHuman rights concerts—a series of music events and tours staged by the US Section of Amnesty International between 1986 and 1998. He performed during the six-concertA Conspiracy of HopeUS tour in June 1986; the twenty-concertHuman Rights Now!world tour in 1988; theChile: Embrace of Hope Concertin 1990 and atThe Paris Concert for Amnesty Internationalin 1998. He also performed in Amnesty'sSecret Policeman's Ballbenefit shows in collaboration with other artists and friends such as Lou Reed,David GilmourofPink Floydand Youssou N'Dour; Gabriel closed those concerts performing his anti-apartheidanthem \"Biko\".He spoke of his support for Amnesty onNBC'sToday Showin 1986. Inspired by the social activism he encountered in his work with Amnesty, in 1992, Gabriel co-foundedWITNESS, a non-profit organisation that equips, trains and supports locally based organisations worldwide to use video and the internet in human rights documentation and advocacy. In 1995, Gabriel and Cape Verdean human rights activistVera Duartewere awarded theNorth–South Prizein its inaugural year. In the late 1990s, Gabriel and entrepreneurRichard Bransondiscussed withNelson Mandelatheir idea of a small, dedicated group of leaders, working objectively and without any vested personal interest to solve difficult global conflicts. On 18 July 2007, inJohannesburg, South Africa, Nelson Mandela announced the formation of a new group,The Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th birthday.Kofi Annanserved as Chair of the Elders andGro Harlem Brundtlandas deputy chair. The other members of the group areMartti Ahtisaari,Ela Bhatt,Lakhdar Brahimi,Fernando Henrique Cardoso,Jimmy Carter,Hina Jilani,Graça Machel,Mary RobinsonandErnesto Zedillo.Desmond Tutuwas an Honorary Elder, as was Nelson Mandela. The Elders is independently funded by a group of donors, including Branson and Gabriel. The Elders use their collective skills to catalyse peaceful resolutions to long-standing conflicts, articulate new approaches to global issues that are causing or may later cause immense human suffering, and share wisdom by helping to connect voices all over the world. They work together to consider carefully which specific issues to approach. In November 2007, Gabriel's non-profit group WITNESS launched The Hub, a participatory media site for human rights. In September 2008, Gabriel was named as the recipient of Amnesty International's 2008Ambassador of Conscience Award. In the same month, he receivedQuadrigaUnited We Careaward of Werkstatt Deutschland along withBoris Tadić,Eckart Höflingand Wikipedia. The award was presented to him byQueen Silvia of Sweden. In 2010, Gabriel lent his support to the campaign to releaseSakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani, an Iranian Azeri woman who was sentenced to death by stoning after being convicted of committing adultery. In December 2013, Gabriel posted a video message in tribute to the deceased former South African president and anti-apartheid leaderNelson Mandela. Gabriel was quoted: To come out of 27 years in jail and to immediately set about building a Rainbow Nation with your sworn enemy is a unique and extraordinary example of courage and forgiveness. In this case, Mandela had seen many of his people beaten, imprisoned and murdered, yet he was still willing to trust the humanity and idealism of those who had been the oppressors, without whom he knew he could not achieve an almostpeaceful transition of power. There is no other example of such inspirational leadership in my lifetime. Gabriel has criticisedAir Francefor their continued transport of monkeys to laboratories. In a letter to the airline, Gabriel wrote that in laboratories, \"primates are violently force-fed chemicals, inflicted with brain damage, crippled, addicted to cocaine or alcohol, deprived of food and water, or psychologically tormented and ultimately killed.\" In March 2014, Gabriel publicly supported #withsyria, a campaign to rally support for victims of theSyrian Civil War. In November 2014, Gabriel, along withPussy RiotandIron & Winesupported Hong Kong protesters atHong Kong's Lennon Wallin their efforts. In March 2015, Gabriel was awarded an honorary doctorate by theUniversity of South Australiain recognition of his commitment to creativity and its transformational power in building peace and understanding. He composed the song \"The Veil\" forOliver Stone's filmSnowden(2016). Political views Gabriel has been described as one of rock's most political musicians byAllMusic.In 1992, on the 20th anniversary of theBloody Sundaymassacre, Gabriel joinedPeter Hain,Jeremy Corbyn,Tony Benn,Ken Loach,John PilgerandAdrian Mitchellin voicing his support for a demonstration in London calling for British withdrawal fromNorthern Ireland. At the1997 general election, he declared his support for theLabour Party, which won that election by a landslide after 18 years out of power, led byTony Blair.In 1998, he was named in a list of the biggest private financial donors to Labour.He subsequently distanced himself from the Labour government following Tony Blair's support forGeorge W. Bushand Britain's involvement in theIraq War, which he strongly opposed.Gabriel later explained his decision for funding Labour, saying, \"after all those years ofThatcher, that was the only time I've put money into a political party because I wanted to help get rid of theTorygovernment of that time.\" In 2005, Gabriel gave aGreen Party of England and Walesgeneral election candidate special permission to record a cover of his song \"Don't Give Up\" for his campaign.In 2010,The Guardiandescribed Gabriel as \"a staunch advocate ofproportional representation.\"In 2013, he stated that he had become more interested in online petitioning organisations to effect change than traditional party politics. In 2012, Gabriel condemned the use of his music by the Americanconservative talk radiopersonalityRush Limbaughduringa controversial segment in which Limbaugh vilifiedGeorgetown Universitylaw studentSandra Fluke. A statement on behalf of Gabriel read: \"Peter was appalled to learn that his music was linked to Rush Limbaugh's extraordinary attack on Sandra Fluke. It is obvious from anyone that knows Peter's work that he would never approve such a use. He has asked his representatives to make sure his music is withdrawn and especially from these unfair, aggressive and ignorant comments.\" In 2016, Gabriel supported the UK's continued membership of theEuropean Unionin thereferendum on the issue. Gabriel has declared his support for thetwo-state solutionto theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict. In 2014, he contributed songs to a new compilation album to raise funds for humanitarian organisations aiding Palestinian Arabs inGaza. Gabriel was quoted: \"I am certain that Israelis and Palestinians will both benefit from a two-state solution based on the 1967 borders. We have watched Palestinians suffer for too long, especially in Gaza. I am not, and never was, anti-Israeli oranti-Semitic, but I oppose the policy of the Israeli government, oppose injustice and oppose the occupation ... I am proud to be one of the voices asking the Israeli government: 'Where is the two-state solution that you wanted so much?' and clearly say that enough is enough.\"In 2019, Gabriel was among 50 artists who urged theBBCto ask for theEurovision Song Contestto be moved out of Israel, citing human rights concerns.In 2023, Gabriel signed theArtists4Ceasefireopen letter to PresidentJoe Bidencalling for a ceasefire during theIsraeli bombardment of Gaza. Gabriel has been in support of theArmenian genociderecognition.In October 2020, he posted a message on social media in support ofArmeniaandArtsakhin regards to theNagorno-Karabakh war. He said, \"The fighting that has now broken out between Azerbaijan and Armenia is really horrific and we need to lobby whoever we can to encourage a ceasefire, but hearing reports that PresidentErdoğanhas now lined up 80,000 Turkish troops on the Armenian border is a terrifying prospect, full of the dark echoes of history.\" In popular culture Gabriel's music featured prominently on the popular 1980s television showMiami Vice. The songs include \"The Rhythm of the Heat\" and \"Biko\" (from \"Evan\"), \"Red Rain\" (from \"Stone's War\"), \"Mercy Street\" (from \"Killshot\"), \"Sledgehammer\" (from \"Better Living Through Chemistry\"), \"We Do What We're Told (Milgram's 37)\" (from \"Forgive Us Our Debts\" and \"Deliver Us from Evil\") and \"Don't Give Up\" (from \"Redemption in Blood\"). With seven songs used total, Gabriel had the most music featured by a solo artist in the series, and he is the only artist to have had a song used in four of Vice's five seasons. Five of the nine tracks on his most popular albumSo(1986) were used in the series. Gabriel’s song \"In Your Eyes\" features twice in the teen romance dramaSay Anything(1989). It is the song playing on Lloyd Dobler’s boombox as he serenades Diane, creating the film’s most iconic scene. Gabriel's cover ofDavid Bowie's \"Heroes\" was featured in the fourth season finale ofBig Love, as well as the first season and the ending scene ofStranger Thingsseason 3 and the ending credits ofLone Survivor. The song also features in 'Children of Mars', a 2020 episode of the web seriesStar Trek: Short Treks. A series of spoof documentaries about the fictitious rock starBrian Pernwere based loosely on Gabriel. In 2021, Northern Irish post-punk band Invaderband released their second studio album entitled 'Peter Gabriel'.The sleeve was a painting of Gabriel byLuke Haines. Personal life Gabriel has married twice and has four children. In 1971, at age 21, he married Jill Moore, daughter of BaronPhilip Moore.They had two daughters,one of whom, Anna-Marie, is a filmmaker who filmed and directed Gabriel's live DVDsGrowing Up on Tour: A Family Portrait(2003),Still Growing Up: Live & Unwrapped(2005) and some of his music videos. Melanie is a musician who had been a backing vocalist in her father's band in 2002–2011. Both daughters appear in the final sequence of the video for their father's song \"Sledgehammer\". Gabriel's marriage became increasingly strained, culminating in Moore's affair withDavid Lord, the co-producer of Gabriel'sfourth studio album. After the coupledivorcedin 1987, Gabriel fell into a period of depression and attended therapy sessions for six years. For a time after his divorce, Gabriel lived with American actressRosanna Arquette.In 2021, Irish singerSinéad O'Connorsaid that she maintained an on-and-off relationship with Gabriel in the wake of his divorce. She ended the relationship because of her frustration with his lack of commitment, which inspired her single \"Thank You for Hearing Me\". Gabriel married Meabh Flynn in 2002, with whom he has two sons. Gabriel has resided inWiltshirefor many years and runsReal World StudiosfromBox, Wiltshire. He previously lived in the Woolley Valley nearBath, Somerset. In 2010, he joined a campaign to stop agricultural development in the valley, which had also inspired his first solo single, \"Solsbury Hill\", in 1977. Discography Studio albums Soundtracks Awards and nominations See also References Citations Works cited External links",
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"Sledgehammer Asledgehammeris atoolwith a large, flat, oftenmetalhead, attached to a long handle. The long handle combined with a heavy head allows the sledgehammer to gather momentum during a swing and apply a largeforcecompared to hammers designed to drive nails. Along with themallet, it shares the ability to distribute force over a wide area. This is in contrast to other types ofhammers, which concentrate force in a relatively small area. Etymology The word sledgehammer is derived from the Old-English \"slægan\", which, in its first sense, means \"to strike violently\". The English words \"slag\", \"slay\", and \"slog\" arecognates. Uses The handle can range from 50 centimetres (1 ft 8 in) to a full 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) long, depending on the mass of the head.The head mass is usually 1 to 9 kilograms (2.2 to 19.8 lb). Modern heavy duty sledgehammers come with 10-to-20-pound (4.5–9.1 kg) heads. Sledgehammers usually require two hands and a swinging motion involving the entiretorso, in contrast to smallerhammersused for driving innails. The combination of a long swinging range, and heavy head, increases the force of the resulting impact. Sledgehammers are often used indemolitionwork, for breaking throughdrywallormasonrywalls. Sledgehammers were formerly widely used inminingoperations, particularlyhand steel, but are rarely used in modern mining. Sledgehammers are also used when substantial force is necessary to dislodge a trapped object (often infarmoroil fieldwork), or for fracturing concrete. Another common use is for driving fence posts into the ground. Sledgehammers are used by police forces in raids on property to gain entry by force, commonly through doors. They were and still are commonly used by blacksmiths to shape heavy sections of iron. The BritishSAScounter terroristteam used sledgehammers to gain access to rooms during the 1980Iranian Embassy Siege. However, today they use a tool called a \"dynamic hammer\". Another use of sledgehammers is for driving railroad spikes into woodensleepersduring rail construction. When the two ends of theUnion Pacificrailroad were joined atPromontory, Utah,Leland Stanfordhammered agolden spikeinto a sleeper with a silver hammer.Sledges used to drive spikes for rails had curved headsthat came down to a \"beak\" that was only about one inch across. The shape meant that drivers needed to be accurate, and spot where the spike hit was often not much larger than a small coin, as anything larger would hit the plate or the sleeper. The curved head kept the handle away from the rail, as the spikes were driven with the rail between the spike and the driver. These are often calledspike mauls. Drilling hammer Adrilling hammer,club hammer,lump hammer,crack hammer,mini-sledgeorthor hammeris a small sledgehammer whose relatively light weight and short handle allow one-handed use.It is useful for light demolition work, driving masonry nails, and for use with a steelchiselwhen cutting stone or metal.In this last application, its weight drives the chisel more deeply into the material being cut than lighter hammers. Club hammers are common on the British inland waterways for driving mooring pins into the towpath or canal bank. Scouts BSAhas adopted the shorter sledgehammer, commonly referred to as an engineer's hammer,as an unofficial tool referred to as the scout hammer, as a complement to the pocket knife and hand axe. The handle is 12–18 inches (30–46 cm) long with a head weighing 2 to 6 lb (0.91–2.72 kg). The hammer is used for a variety of purposes such as driving tent stakes, establishing temporary fencing using wood or metal rebar, splitting wood in conjunction with a wedge, or straightening all that is bent. Post maul Post mauls are similar to sledgehammers in shape, but are meant to drive wooden fence posts or tree stakes into the earth. Newer mauls have broad, flat circular faces that are significantly larger in diameter than the body of the head (where the handle attaches). Older post mauls are significantly larger than sledgehammers like their newer counterparts except the outside diameter (body) of older post maul designs remained the same large diameter as that of the faces of the hammer from one side to the other side. Sledgehammers usually have octagonal faces that are the same diameter or slightly smaller than the body of the head, and they are not nearly as large in overall diameter as a post maul. References External links"
] | [
"Peter Gabriel Peter Brian Gabriel(born 13 February 1950) is an English singer, songwriter and human rights activist. He was the original lead singer of theprogressive rockbandGenesis.After leaving the band in 1975, he launched a solo career with \"Solsbury Hill\" as his first single. His fifth studio album,So(1986), is his best-selling release and is certified triple platinum in the UK and five times platinum in the US. The album's most successful single, \"Sledgehammer\", won a record nineMTV Awardsat the1987 MTV Video Music Awardsand, according to a report in 2011, it wasMTV's most played music video of all time. Gabriel has been a champion ofworld musicfor much of his career. He co-founded theWOMADfestival in 1982.He has continued to focus on producing and promoting world music through hisReal World Recordslabel. He has pioneered digital distribution methods for music, co-foundingOD2, one of the first online music download services.Gabriel has also been involved in numerous humanitarian efforts. In 1980, he",
"In 1980, he released the anti-apartheidsingle \"Biko\".He has participated in several human-rights benefit concerts, includingAmnesty International'sHuman Rights Now!tour in 1988, and co-founded theWitnesshuman rights organisation in 1992.Gabriel developedThe ElderswithRichard Branson, which was launched byNelson Mandelain 2007. Gabriel has won threeBrit Awards—winning Best British Male in 1987,sixGrammy Awards,thirteenMTV Video Music Awards, the first Pioneer Award at theBT Digital Music Awards,theQmagazine Lifetime Achievement,theIvor Novello Awardfor Lifetime Achievement,and thePolar Music Prize.He was made aBMIIcon at the 57th annual BMI London Awards for his \"influence on generations of music makers\".In recognition of his many years of human rights activism, he received theMan of Peaceaward from theNobel Peace Prizelaureates in 2006,andTimemagazine named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2008.AllMusicdescribed Gabriel as \"one of rock's most ambitious, innovative musicians, as well",
"musicians, as well as one of its most political\".He was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a member of Genesis in 2010,and as a solo artist in 2014.In March 2015, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from theUniversity of South Australiain recognition of his achievements in music. Early life Peter Brian Gabriel was born on 13 February 1950 inChobham,Surrey, England, son of Ralph Parton Gabriel (1912–2012) and Edith Irene (1921–2016), daughter of Colonel Edward Allen, chairman of theCivil Service Department Storeon theStrand, London. Gabriel's father was an electrical engineer and dairy farm-owner from a long-established family of London timber importers and merchants, and his mother was from a musical family. Gabriel was raised at Deep Pool Farm, Coxhill, a Victorian manor just outside Chobham.His great-great-great-uncle,Sir Thomas Gabriel, 1st Baronet, wasLord Mayor of Londonfrom 1866 to 1877.Gabriel attended Cable House, a private primary school inWoking, Surrey, followed by St Andrews",
"by St Andrews Preparatory School for Boys inHorsell, Surrey.During his time at the latter, his teachers noticed his singing talent, but he opted for piano lessons from his mother and developed an interest in drumming. At age 10, he purchased a floor tom-tom. Gabriel remarked of his early influences, \"Hymnsplayed quite a large part. They were the closest I came tosoul musicbefore I discovered soul music. There are certain hymns that you can scream your lungs out on, and I used to love that. It was great when you used to get the old shivers down the back.\"At age 12, Gabriel wrote his first song, \"Sammy the Slug\". Around this time, an aunt gave him money for professional singing lessons, but he used it to buythe Beatles' debut studio albumPlease Please Me(1963).In September 1963, he started atCharterhouse, apublic schoolinGodalming, Surrey.There, he was a drummer and vocalist for his first band: thetrad jazzoutfit the Milords (or M'Lords). This was followed by a holiday band called the Spoken Word,which",
"Spoken Word,which recorded anacetatein 1966.Gabriel played drums in both these bands, and his schoolmateMike Rutherfordcommented in 1985 that \"Pete was - and still is, I think - a frustrated drummer.\" In 1965, Gabriel formedGarden Wallwith school friendsTony Bankson piano, Johnny Trapman on trumpet, andChris Stewarton drums.Banks had started at Charterhouse at the same time as Gabriel; the two were uninterested in school activities but bonded over music and started to write songs. At a final concert before they broke up, Gabriel, dressed in akaftanand beads, showered the audience with petals he had picked from neighbouring gardens. Career 1967–1975: Genesis In April 1967, after Garden Wall had disbanded, Gabriel and Banks were invited by fellow pupilsAnthony PhillipsandMike Rutherfordto work on ademotape of songs.Gabriel and Banks contributed \"She Is Beautiful\", the first song they wrote together. The tape was sent to former Charterhouse pupil turned musicianJonathan King, who was immediately enthusiastic,",
"enthusiastic, largely due to Gabriel's vocals. He signed the group and suggested a band name of Gabriel's Angels, but it was unpopular with the other members. They settled on King's other suggestion,Genesis. After King suggested they stick to more straightforward pop, Gabriel and Banks wrote \"The Silent Sun\" as a pastiche of theBee Gees, one of King's favourite bands. It became Genesis's first single, released in 1968.It was included on their debut studio album,From Genesis to Revelation(1968). After the commercial failure ofFrom Genesis to Revelation, the band went their separate ways, and Gabriel continued his studies at Charterhouse.In September 1969, Gabriel, Banks, Rutherford and Phillips decided to drop their plans and make Genesis a full-time working band. In early 1970, Gabriel played the flute onMona Bone JakonbyCat Stevens. The second studio album by Genesis,Trespass(1970), marked Gabriel expanding his musical output with the flute, accordion, tambourine and bass drum, and incorporating hissoul",
"hissoul musicinfluences. Gabriel explained that he was driven to play these instruments because he was uncomfortable with doing nothing during instrumental sections.He would have preferred to play keyboard instruments, but \"Tony was extraordinarily possessive about the keyboards. I'd done a bit of flute at school, I always liked the sound, and a little bit of oboe (I was an even worse oboe player, but it made a couple of good noises now and again). Then the bass drum was something physical, visual, that I could kick hard and occasionally it was in time!\"The album sold little and at one point, Gabriel secured a place atLondon School of Film Techniquebecause Genesis \"seemed to be dying.\"Genesis recruited guitaristSteve Hackettand drummerPhil Collins. Gabriel began growing in confidence as a frontman, and during an encore performance of \"The Knife\" on 19 June 1971, he took a running jump into the audience, expecting them to catch him, only for them to instead move out of the way and leave him to land on the",
"him to land on the floor, breaking an ankle. He consequently had to perform Genesis's next several shows with a wheelchair and crutches.Also during theTrespasstour, he started to recite stories to introduce numbers as a way to cover the silence between songs while the band tuned their instruments, or while technical faults were being fixed.These stories were all improvised on the spot, and evolved as the tour went along.The opener of their next studio album,Nursery Cryme(1971), \"The Musical Box\", was their first song in which Gabriel incorporated a story and characters into the lyrics; the lyrics to previous story-based Genesis songs such as \"White Mountain\" and \"One-Eyed Hound\" were all written by other members of the group.Gabriel was the primary writer of \"Harold the Barrel\", another story song onNursery Cryme, with Collins helping him on the lyrics. The shows featuringFoxtrot(1972) marked a key development in Gabriel's stage performance. During a gig inDublinin September 1972, he disappeared from the set",
"from the set during the instrumental section of \"The Musical Box\" and reappeared in his wife's red dress and a fox's head, mimicking the album's cover. The idea of the fox costume had been suggested to him byPaul Conroyand Glen Colson, employees of Genesis's record label,Charisma Records.Gabriel said he consulted the rest of Genesis about the fox costume but grew tired of arguing about it, but the other members all maintained that nothing was said about it beforehand and that when Gabriel came out in costume they initially mistook him for a fan invading the stage.The incident received front-page coverage inMelody Maker, giving them national exposure which allowed the group to double their performance fee.One of Gabriel's stories was printed on the liner notes of their live album,Genesis Live(1973). By late 1973, following the success ofSelling England by the Pound(1973), which centred on English themes and literary and materialistic references, a typical Genesis show had Gabriel wear fluorescent make-up, a",
"make-up, a cape, and bat wings for \"Watcher of the Skies\", a helmet, chest plate, and a shield for \"Dancing with the Moonlit Knight\", acrown of thornsand a flower mask for \"Supper's Ready\", and an old man mask for \"The Musical Box\". Gabriel continued to continued to fight for involvement with Genesis's keyboards throughout his time with the group, and following a lengthy argument with Banks, he was allowed to play a minor keyboard part on \"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)\", only for this part to be left out of the mix.\"I Know What I Like\" became Genesis's first hit single, reaching number 21 in theUK Singles Chart. The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway(1974) was Gabriel's final studio album with Genesis. He devised its story of the spiritual journey of Rael, a Puerto Rican youth living in New York City, and insisted upon writing all the lyrics himself, whereas on previous albums the lyrics had been divided among all the members of Genesis.Tensions increased during this period, and Gabriel split with the band",
"split with the band to pursue a film project withWilliam Friedkin, only to rejoin a week later.Matters were complicated further with the difficult birth of Gabriel's first daughter, resulting in periods of time away from the band. The other members complained that Gabriel was showing a lack of commitment to the band. Gabriel saw this as a \"really unsympathetic handling of my dealing with a family crisis\" and said it caused a breakdown in his relationships with the rest of Genesis; Rutherford later admitted that they had been overly fixated on their music and were very unhelpful in what must have been a difficult time for Gabriel.Gabriel was late to deliver the lyrics, but has denied that he was too busy to write much music for the album and relied on contributions from Banks and Rutherford.Banks corroborated that Gabriel was the primary composer of theLambsongs \"The Carpet Crawlers\" and \"The Chamber of 32 Doors\" and the sole composer of \"Counting Out Time\". During a stop in Cleveland, Ohio, early into the",
"early into the album's tour, Gabriel informed the band of his intention to leave at its conclusion.Rutherford recalled that they all \"could see it coming.\"Music critics often focused their reviews on Gabriel's theatrics and took the band's musical performance as secondary, which irritated the rest of the band.The tour ended in May 1975, after which Gabriel wrote a piece for the press on 15 August, entitled \"Out, Angels Out\", about his departure, his disillusion with the business, and his desire to spend time with his family.The news stunned fans of the group and left commentators wondering if the band could survive without him.His exit resulted in drummerPhil Collinsreluctantly taking over on lead vocals after 400 singers were fruitlessly auditioned. 1975–1985: Solo debut with four self-titled albums Gabriel described his break from the music business as his \"learning period\", during which he took piano and music lessons. He had recorded demos by the end of 1975, the fruits of a period of writing around 20",
"writing around 20 songs with his friend Martin Hall.After preparing material for a studio album Gabriel recorded his solo debut,Peter Gabriel, in 1976 and 1977 in Toronto and London, with producerBob Ezrin. Gabriel did not title his first four studio albums. All were labelledPeter Gabriel, using the same typeface, with designs byHipgnosis. \"The idea is to do it like a magazine, which will only come out once a year,\" he remarked in 1978. \"So it's the same title, the same lettering in the same place; only the photo is different.\"Each album has, however, been given a nickname by fans, usually relating to the album cover. Peter Gabriel(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 1: Car) was released in February 1977 and reached No. 7 in the UK and No. 38 in the US. Itslead single, \"Solsbury Hill\", is an autobiographical song about a spiritual experience on top ofSolsbury Hillin Somerset. \"It's about being prepared to lose what you have for what you might get ...\" said Gabriel. \"It's about letting go.\"Gabriel toured the album with an",
"the album with an 80-date tour from March to November 1977 with a band that included guitaristRobert FrippofKing Crimsonoften playing off stage and introduced as \"Dusty Rhodes\". In late 1977, Gabriel started recording thesecondPeter Gabrielstudio album(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 2: Scratch) in the Netherlands, with Fripp as producer. Its \"Mother of Violence\" was written by Gabriel and his first wife Jill. Released in June 1978, the album went to No. 10 in the UK and No. 45 in the US. Gabriel's tour for the album lasted from August to December 1978. On this tour, Gabriel and his band shaved their heads. Gabriel recorded thethirdPeter Gabrielstudio album(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 3: Melt) in England in 1979. He developed an interest in African music anddrum machinesand later hailed the record as his artistic breakthrough. Gabriel banned the use of cymbals on the album in order to grant more sonic space for instruments like keyboards and synths. This resulted in the creation of the distinctivegated reverb,a noise processing",
"noise processing technique which came about while recording drums on \"Intruder\", one of the tracks featuringPhil Collins. Collins implemented the reverb to great effect on his debut solo single \"In the Air Tonight\" and it has since became a signature sound of the 1980s and beyond. Upon completionAtlantic Records, Gabriel's US distributor who had released his first two albums, refused to put outPeter Gabriel 3: Meltas they thought it was not commercial enough. Gabriel signed arecording contractwithMercury Records.Released in May 1980, the album went to No. 1 in the UK for three weeks. In the US, it peaked at No. 22. The single \"Games Without Frontiers\" went to No. 4 and \"Biko\" went to No. 36 in the UK. After a handful of shows in 1979, Gabriel toured the album from February to October 1980. The tour marked Gabriel's first successful instance ofcrowd surfing(following his failed June 1971 attempt when touring with Genesis) when he fell back into the audience in a crucifix position. The stunt became a staple of",
"became a staple of his live shows. OnPeter Gabrielfour(a.k.a.Peter Gabriel 4: Security), Gabriel took on greater responsibility over the production than before. He recorded it in 1981 and 1982, solely on digital tape, with a mobile studio parked at his home,Ashcombe House, in Somerset. Gabriel utilized aFairlight CMIdigitalsamplingsynthesizer and incorporated electronic instrumentation with sampling world beat percussion. \"Over the course of the last two albums,\" he observed, \"I've got back into a rhythm consciousness. And the writing—particularly with the invention of these drum machines—is fantastic. You can store in their memories rhythms that interest you and excite you. And then the groove will carry on without you, and the groove will be exactly what you want it to be, rather than what a drummer thinks is appropriate for what you're doing.\" The fourthPeter Gabriel, released in September 1982, hit No. 6 in the UK and No. 28 in the US. The second single, \"Shock the Monkey\", became Gabriel's first top 40",
"first top 40 hit in the US, reaching No. 29. To handle American distribution, Gabriel signed withGeffen Records, which—initially unbeknown to Gabriel—titled the albumSecurityto differentiate it from the first three. Gabriel's 1982 tour lasted a year and became his first to make a profit.Recordings from the tour were released on Gabriel's debut live release,Plays Live(1983). Gabriel produced versions of the third and fourthPeter Gabrielalbums with German lyrics. The third consisted of the studio recordings, overdubbed with new vocals. The fourth was remixed, with several tracks extended or altered. In 1983, Gabriel developed the soundtrack forAlan Parker's drama filmBirdy(1984), co-produced withDaniel Lanois. This consisted of new material, without lyrics, as well as remixed instrumentals from his previous studio album. 1985–1997:SoandUs After finishing the soundtrack toBirdy, Gabriel shifted his musical focus from rhythm and texture, as heard onPeter Gabrielfour andBirdy, towards more straightforward",
"straightforward songs.In 1985, he recorded his fifth studio album,So(also co-produced with Lanois).Sowas released in May 1986 and reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 2 in the US. It remains Gabriel's best-selling album with over five million copies sold in the US alone.It produced one of Gabriel's signature songs, that has become a concert staple:In Your Eyes, with a distinctive vocal appearance byYoussou N'Dour, and three UK top 20 singles: \"Sledgehammer\", \"Big Time\" and \"Don't Give Up\", a duet withKate Bush. The first went to No. 1 on the USBillboardHot 100, Gabriel's only single of his career to do so. It knocked \"Invisible Touch\" by Genesis, his former band, out of the top spot, which was also their only US number one hit. In the UK, the single went to No. 4.In 1990,Rolling StonerankedSoat No. 14 on its list of \"Top 100 Albums of the Eighties\". \"Sledgehammer\" was particularly successful, dealing with sex and sexual relations through lyrical innuendos. Its famed music video was a collaboration between",
"between directorStephen R. Johnson,Aardman Animations,and theBrothers Quayand won a record nineMTV Video Music Awardsin 1987.In 1998, it was named MTV's number one animated video of all time.Soearned Gabriel two wins at the1987Brit Awardsfor Best British Male Solo Artist and Best British Video (for \"Sledgehammer\").He was nominated for fourGrammy Awards:Best Male Rock Vocal Performance,Song of the Year, andRecord of the Yearfor \"Sledgehammer\", andAlbum of the YearforSo.Gabriel toured worldwide to supportSowith the This Way Up Tour, from November 1986 to October 1987. In 1988, Gabriel became involved as composer forMartin Scorsese's filmThe Last Temptation of Christ(1988). Scorsese had contacted Gabriel about the project since 1983 and wished, according to Gabriel, to present \"the struggle between the humanity and divinity of Christ in a powerful and original way\".Gabriel used musicians fromWOMADto perform instrumental pieces with focus on rhythm and African, Middle Eastern and European textures, using",
"textures, using theNational Sound Archivein London for additional inspiration.The initial plan had dedicated ten weeks for recording before it was cut to three, leaving Gabriel unable to finish all the pieces he originally wanted to record.When the film was finished, Gabriel worked on the soundtrack for an additional four months to develop more of his unfinished ideas. Its soundtrack was released asPassionin June 1989. It won Gabriel aGrammy AwardforBest New Age Performanceand a nomination for aGolden GlobeforBest Original Score – Motion Picture. In 1990, Gabriel put out his first compilation album,Shaking the Tree: Sixteen Golden Greats, which sold 2 million copies in the US. Up until 1989, Gabriel was managed byGail Colson.From 1989 to 1992, Gabriel recorded his follow-up toSo, titledUs. The album saw Gabriel address personal themes, including his failed first marriage, psychotherapy, and the growing distance between him and his eldest daughter at the time. Gabriel's introspection within the context of the",
"the context of the albumUscan be seen in the first single release \"Digging in the Dirt\" directed by John Downer. Accompanied by a video featuring Gabriel covered in snails and various foliage, this song made reference to the psychotherapy which had taken up much of Gabriel's time since the previous studio album. Gabriel describes his struggle to get through to his daughter in \"Come Talk to Me\" directed byMatt Mahurin, which featured backing vocals bySinéad O'Connor. O'Connor also lent vocals to \"Blood of Eden\", directed byNichola Bruceand Michael Coulson, the third single to be released from the album, and once again dealing with relationship struggles, this time going right back toAdam's rib for inspiration. The album is one of Gabriel's most personal. It met with less success thanSo, reaching No. 2 in the album chart on both sides of the Atlantic, and making modest chart impact with the singles \"Digging in the Dirt\" and the funkier \"Steam\", which evoked memories of \"Sledgehammer\". Gabriel followed the",
"followed the release of the album with theSecret World Tour, first using touring keyboardist Joy Askew to sing O'Connor's part, then O'Connor herself for a few months.O'Connor quit the tour, and was replaced byPaula Cole, the latter appearing on the tour recordings: a double albumSecret World Live, and a concert video also calledSecret World Live, both released in 1994.The film received the 1996Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video, naming director Francois Girard and producer Robert Warr. Gabriel employed an innovative approach in the marketing of theUsalbum. Not wishing to feature only images of himself, he asked artist filmmakersNichola Bruceand Michael Coulson to co-ordinate a marketing campaign using contemporary artists. Artists such asHelen Chadwick,Rebecca Horn,Nils-Udo,Andy Goldsworthy,David MachandYayoi Kusamacollaborated to create original artworks for each song on the multi-million-selling CD. Coulson and Bruce documented the process on Hi-8 video. Bruce left Real World and Coulson",
"World and Coulson continued with the campaign, using the documentary background material as the basis for a promotional EPK, the long-form videoAll About Usand the interactive CD-ROMXplora1: Peter Gabriel's Secret World. Gabriel won three moreGrammy Awards, all in the Music Video category. He won theGrammy Award for Best Short Form Music Videoin 1993 and 1994 for the videos to \"Digging in the Dirt\" and \"Steam\", respectively. Gabriel also won the 1996Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Videofor hisSecret World Livevideo. 1997–2009:OVOandUp In 1997, Gabriel was invited to participate in the direction and soundtrack of theMillennium Dome Show, a live multimedia performance staged in theMillennium Domein London throughout 2000.Gabriel said the team were given free rein, which contributed to the various problems they encountered with it, such as a lack of proper budgeting. He also felt that management, while succeeding to get the building finished on time, failed to understand the artistic side of the show and",
"of the show and its content.Gabriel's soundtrack was released asOVOin June 2000.The Story of OVOwas released in the CD-booklet-shapedcomic bookwhich was part of the CD edition with the title \"OVO The Millennium Show\". Around that same time, the Genesis greatest hits album,Turn It On Again: The Hits(1999), featured Gabriel sharing vocals withPhil Collinson a new version of \"The Carpet Crawlers\" entitled \"The Carpet Crawlers 1999\", produced byTrevor Horn. In 2002 he stuck with soundtrack work for his next project, scoring for the Australian filmRabbit-Proof Fence(2002) withworldbeatmusic. Released in June 2002,Long Walk Home: Music from the Rabbit-Proof Fencereceived a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Original Score – Motion Picture. Later in 2002,Up, Gabriel's first full-length studio album in a decade, was released in September 2002. He started work on it in 1995 before production halted three years later to focus time on other projects and collaborations. Work resumed in 2000, by which time Gabriel",
"which time Gabriel had 130 potential songs for the album, and spent almost two years on it before management atVirgin Recordspushed Gabriel to complete it.Upreached No. 9 in the US and No. 11 in the UK, and supported with a world tour with a band that included Gabriel's daughter Melanie on backing vocals. The tour was documented with two live DVDs:Growing Up Live(2003) andStill Growing Up: Live & Unwrapped(2005). In 2004, Gabriel met with his former Genesis bandmates to discuss the possibility of stagingThe Lamb Lies Down on Broadway(1974) as a reunion tour. He ultimately dismissed the idea, paving the way for Banks, Rutherford and Collins to organise theTurn It On Again: The Tour. Gabriel produced and performed at theEden Project Live 8 concertin July 2005. He joinedCat Stevenson stage to perform \"Wild World\" duringNelson Mandela's46664concert. In 2005,FIFAasked Gabriel and Brian Eno to organise an opening ceremony for the2006 FIFA World Cupin Germany, but FIFA cancelled the idea in January 2006. At the",
"2006. At the opening ceremony of the2006 Winter OlympicsinTurin, Gabriel performedJohn Lennon's \"Imagine\". In November 2006, the Seventh World Summit ofNobel Peace Laureatesin Rome presented Gabriel with theMan of Peaceaward. The award, presented by former General Secretary of the USSR and Nobel Peace Prize winnerMikhail GorbachevandWalter Veltroni, Mayor of Rome, was an acknowledgement of Gabriel's extensive contribution and work on behalf of human rights and peace. The award was presented in the Giulio Cesare Hall of the Campidoglio in Rome. At the end of the year, he was awarded theQmagazine Lifetime Achievement Award, presented to him by American musicianMoby. In an interview published in the magazine to accompany the award, Gabriel's contribution to music was described as \"vast and enduring.\" Gabriel took on a project with theBBC World Service's competition \"The Next Big Thing\" to find the world's best young band. Gabriel judged the final six young artists withWilliam Orbit,Geoff TravisandAngélique",
"TravisandAngélique Kidjo. In June 2008, Gabriel releasedBig Blue Ball, an album of various artists collaborating with each other at his Real World Studios across three summers in the 1990s. He planned its release in the US without assistance from a label; he raised £2 million towards the recording and distribution of the album withIngenious Mediawith the worldwide release handled throughWarner Bros. Records.Gabriel appeared on a nationwide tour for the album in 2009. Gabriel was a judge for the 6th and 8th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists. Gabriel contributed to thePixarfilmWALL-Esoundtrack in 2008 withThomas Newman, including the film's closing song, \"Down to Earth\", for which they received theGrammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. The song was also nominated for aGolden Globe Award for Best Original Songand anAcademy Award for Best Original Song. In February 2009, Gabriel announced that he would not be performing on the2008",
"on the2008 Academy Awardstelecast because producers of the show were limiting his performance of \"Down to Earth\" fromWALL-Eto 90 seconds. According to Gabriel, his window was reduced to 65 seconds.John Legendand theSoweto Gospel Choirperformed the song in his stead. Gabriel's 2009 tour appearances included Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Venezuela. His first ever performance in Peru was held in Lima on 20 March 2009, during his second visit to the country. On 25 July 2009, he played at WOMAD Charlton Park, his only European performance of the year, to promote Witness. The show included two tracks from the then-forthcomingScratch My Back:Paul Simon's \"The Boy in the Bubble\" andthe Magnetic Fields' \"The Book of Love\". 2009–2019:Scratch My Back,New Bloodand further side projects In 2009, Gabriel recordedScratch My Back, an album of cover songs by various artists includingDavid Bowie,Lou Reed,Arcade Fire,Radiohead,Regina SpektorandNeil Young. The original concept was for Gabriel to cover an artists' song if",
"an artists' song if they, in turn, covered one of his for an album simultaneously released asI'll Scratch Yours, but several participants later declined or were late to deliver and it was placed on hold.Gabriel avoided using drums and guitar in favour of orchestral arrangements, and altered his usual songwriting method by finishing the vocals first and then the song, for which he collaborated withJohn Metcalfe.Released in February 2010,Scratch My Backreached No. 12 in the UK. Gabriel toured worldwide with the New Blood Tour from March 2010 to July 2012 with a 54-piece orchestra and his daughterMelanieand Norwegian singer-songwriterAne Brunon backing vocals. The follow-up,And I'll Scratch Yours, was released in September 2013. During the New Blood Tour, Gabriel decided to expand on theScratch My Backconcept and, with Metcalfe's assistance, re-record a collection of his own songs with an orchestra. The result,New Blood, was released in October 2011. In September 2012, Gabriel kicked off hisBack to Front",
"hisBack to Front Tourwhich featuredSo(1986) performed in its entirety with the original musicians who played on the album, to mark its 25th anniversary.When the opening leg finished a month later, Gabriel took one year off to travel the world with his children.The tour resumed with a European leg from September 2013 to December 2014. In 2014, Gabriel was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a solo artist byColdplayfrontmanChris Martin. They performed Gabriel's \"Washing of the Water\" together. Gabriel performed \"Heroes\" byDavid Bowiewith an orchestra at a concert in Berlin to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the fall of theBerlin Wallin November 2014. In 2016, he was featured on the song \"A.I.\" by American pop rock bandOneRepublicfrom their fourth studio albumOh My My. In June 2016, Gabriel released the single \"I'm Amazing\". The song was written several years prior, in part as a tribute to boxerMuhammad Ali.That month, he embarked on a joint tour withStingtitled The Rock Paper Scissors North",
"Scissors North American Tour. Gabriel re-emerged in 2019 with the release ofRated PG, a compilation of songs that were created for film soundtracks throughout his career. The song selection spans over 30 years and includes tracks that had never been released on an official Gabriel album previously, including \"Down to Earth\" (fromWALL-E) and \"That'll Do\" (fromBabe: Pig in the City), an Oscar-nominated collaboration withRandy Newman. Initially only released on vinyl forRecord Store Dayon 13 April, the album was eventually released on digital streaming services later that month.Later that same year, Gabriel issued another digital release on 13 September titledFlotsam and Jetsam, a collection ofB-sides, remixes and rarities that span Gabriel's entire solo career from 1976 to 2016, including his first solo recording, a cover ofthe Beatles' song \"Strawberry Fields Forever\". 2022–present:I/Oand possible follow-up album By 2002, Gabriel had been continually working on what he had given the tentative title ofI/O, his",
"title ofI/O, his tenth studio album, which he had begun work on as early as 1995.It was originally set to be released 18 months afterUp, but touring pushed the release far away.He did an interview withRolling Stonein 2005 stating that he had 150 songs in various stages.From 2013 to 2016, he posted regularly on social media about recording the new album.In 2019, he spoke onBBC Radio 6about how he had taken a hiatus from making music due to his wife being sick, but he had begun to return to it now that she had recovered.In 2021, he was interviewed multiple times about his new album, and revealed that he had been recording withManu Katché,Tony LevinandDavid Rhodeson 17 new songs.He posted multiple photos to his Facebook and Instagram of these sessions.In June 2022, Katché told the French magazineL'Illustréthat the album was nearly complete and would be released later that year, pending an official announcement. In November 2022, Gabriel announced his upcoming \"I/O The Tour\" for the spring of 2023 across several",
"2023 across several European cities, with later dates to be confirmed for the North America leg of the tour for the late summer/fall of 2023.This announcement also confirmed the name of the upcoming album to be stylised asI/O. The first single from the album, \"Panopticom\", was released digitally on 6 January 2023.A new piece from the album will be released on the date of each full moon in 2023,as well as a different mix of the song on each new moon in 2023, starting with the Dark Side Mix of \"Panopticom\".On 5 February, Gabriel released \"The Court\", the second single from the album. On 7 March, Gabriel released the third single, \"Playing for Time\". A basic arrangement of the song featuring only Gabriel on piano and Levin on bass had already opened the shows on theBack to Front Tour, by the name of \"Daddy Long Legs\".The title track \"I/O\" was the fourth single released on 6 April. On 5 May, Peter Gabriel released the fifth single from the album, \"Four Kinds of Horses\", a track which is a collaboration withBrian",
"withBrian EnoandRichard Russell. The sixth single, \"Road to Joy\", was released on 4 June. Six more singles were released, separately, within the next six months—\"So Much\", \"Olive Tree\", \"Love Can Heal\", \"This Is Home\", \"And Still\" and \"Live and Let Live\"—beforeI/Owas finally released on 1 December 2023. One day prior toI/O's release, Gabriel toldThe New York Timesthat he does not expect a follow-up album (which he described as his \"brain project\") to take another 21 years, saying that \"there's a lot of stuff in the can\" but added that the material is not yet finished. Additionally, Gabriel stated in his November 2023 Full Moon update video that the track \"What Lies Ahead\" will be on \"the next record\".He performed \"What Lies Ahead\" several times in 2023 and it was a contender forI/O. Artistry Stylistically, Gabriel's music has been alternately described by music writers asprogressive rock,art rock,art pop,worldbeat,post-progressiveandprogressive soul.According toRolling Stonejournalist Ryan Reed, Gabriel has",
"Reed, Gabriel has developed in all as an \"art-rock innovator, soul-pop craftsman, 'world music' ambassador\" over the course of his career,while music scholar Gregg Akkermann argues that, despite his progressive rock origins, he has \"managed to attract fans from across the spectrum: prog rock, alternative rock, world beat, blue-eyed soul, dance music, the college crowd, the teens, Americans and Europeans\".More broadly,AllMusic'sStephen Thomas Erlewinesays Gabriel emerged during the 1980s as \"one of rock's most ambitious, innovative musicians\", as well as \"an international pop star\". Gabriel has worked with a relatively stable crew of musicians and recording engineers throughout his solo career. Bass andStickplayerTony Levinhas performed on every Gabriel studio album and every live tour except forScratch My Back(2010), the soundtracksPassion(1989) andLong Walk Home(2002), and the New Blood Tour. GuitaristDavid Rhodeshas been Gabriel's guitarist of choice since 1979. Prior toSo(1986),Jerry Marottawas Gabriel's",
"Gabriel's preferred drummer, both in the studio and on the road. (For theSoandUsalbums and tours Marotta was replaced byManu Katché, who was then replaced byGed Lynchon parts of theUpalbum and all of the subsequent tour). Gabriel is known for choosing top-flight collaborators, from co-producers such as Ezrin, Fripp, Lillywhite and Lanois to musicians such asNatalie Merchant,Elizabeth Fraser,L. Shankar,Trent Reznor,Youssou N'Dour,Larry Fast,Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan,Sinéad O'Connor,Kate Bush,Ane Brun,Paula Cole,John Giblin,Dave Gregory,Peter Hammill,Papa Wemba,Manu Katché,Bayete,Milton Nascimento,Phil Collins,Stewart CopelandandOneRepublic. Over the years, Gabriel has collaborated with singerKate Bushseveral times; Bush provided backing vocals for Gabriel's \"Games Without Frontiers\" and \"No Self Control\" in 1980, and female lead vocal for \"Don't Give Up\" (a top 10 hit in the UK) in 1986, and Gabriel appeared on her television special. Their duet ofRoy Harper's \"Another Day\" was discussed for release as a single,",
"as a single, but never appeared. He also collaborated withavant-gardeartistLaurie Andersonon two versions of her composition \"Excellent Birds\"—one for her second albumMister Heartbreak(1984),and another version called \"This is the Picture (Excellent Birds)\", which appeared oncassetteand CD versions ofSo. Gabriel sang (along withJim KerrofSimple Minds) on \"Everywhere I Go\", fromthe Call's 1986 studio album,Reconciled. OnToni Childs' 1994 studio album,The Woman's Boat, Gabriel sang on the track, \"I Met a Man\". In 1998, Gabriel appeared on the soundtrack ofBabe: Pig in the Cityas the lead vocalist of the song \"That'll Do\", written byRandy Newman. The song was nominated for anAcademy Award, and Gabriel and Newman performed it at the following year's Oscar telecast. He performed a similar soundtrack appearance for the 2004 filmShall We Dance?, singing acover versionof \"The Book of Love\" bythe Magnetic Fields. In 1987, Gabriel appeared onRobbie Robertson'sself-titled solo studio album, singing on \"Fallen Angel\";",
"on \"Fallen Angel\"; co-wrote twoTom Robinsonsingles; and appeared onJoni Mitchell's 1988 studio albumChalk Mark in a Rain Storm, on the opening track \"My Secret Place\". In 2001, Gabriel contributed lead vocals to the song \"When You're Falling\" onAfro Celt Sound System'sVolume 3: Further in Time.In the summer of 2003, Gabriel performed in Ohio with a guest performance by Uzbek singerSevara Nazarkhan. Gabriel collaborated on tracks with electronic musicianBT, who also worked on theOVOsoundtrack with him. The tracks were never released, as the computers they were contained on were stolen from BT's home in California. He also sang the lyrics forDeep Foreston their theme song for the movieStrange Days(1995). In addition, Gabriel has appeared onAngelique Kidjo's 2007 studio albumDjin Djin, singing on the song \"Salala\". Gabriel has recorded a cover of theVampire Weekendsingle \"Cape Cod Kwassa Kwassa\" withHot Chip, where his name is mentioned several times in the chorus. He substitutes the original line \"But this",
"line \"But this feels so unnatural / Peter Gabriel too / This feels so unnatural/ Peter Gabriel too\" with \"It feels so unnatural / Peter Gabriel too / and it feels so unnatural / to sing your own name.\" Gabriel collaborated withArcade Fireon their 2022 studio album,We. He sang backing vocals on the track \"Unconditional II (Race and Religion)\". WOMAD and other projects Gabriel's interest inworld musicwas first apparent on his third solo studio album. According to Spencer Kornhaber inThe Atlanticin 2019: \"When Peter Gabriel moved toward 'world music' four decades ago, he not only evangelized sounds that were novel to Western pop. He also set a radio template: majestic, with flourishes meant to read as 'exotic,' and lyrics meant to change lives.\"This influence has increased over time, and he is the driving force behind theWorld of Music, Arts and Dance(WOMAD) movement. Gabriel said: The first time I really got into music from another culture was as a result of the shifting ofRadio 4, which I used to wake up to.",
"used to wake up to. I'd lost it onmedium waveand was groping around in the morning on the dial, trying to find something that I could listen to, and came across a Dutch radio station who were playing the soundtrack from some obscureStanley Bakermovie calledDingaka. That had quite a lot of stuff from—I think it was—Ghana. I can't remember now, but it really moved me. One of the songs I heard on that was a thing called 'Shosholoza', which I recorded on the b-side of the 'Biko' single. Gabriel created theReal World Studiosand record label to facilitate the creation and distribution of such music by various artists, and he has worked to educate Western culture about such musicians asYungchen Lhamo,Nusrat Fateh Ali KhanandYoussou N'dour. He has a longstanding interest in human rights and launchedWitness,a charity that trains human rights activists to use video and online technologies to expose human rights abuses. In 2006, his work with WITNESS and his long-standing support of peace and human rights causes was",
"rights causes was recognised by theNobel Peace PrizeLaureates with theMan of Peaceaward. In the 1990s, with Steve Nelson of Brilliant Media and director Michael Coulson, he developed advanced multimedia CD-ROM-based entertainment projects, creatingXplora(the world's largest-selling music CD-ROM), and subsequently theEVECD-ROM.EVEwas a music and art adventure game directed by Michael Coulson and co-produced by theStarwaveCorporation in Seattle; it won the Milia d'Or award Grand Prize at the Cannes in 1996. In 1990, Gabriel lent his backing vocals to Ugandan political exileGeoffrey Oryema's \"Land of Anaka\", appearing on Oryema's first studio albumExile, released on Gabriel's Real World label. In 1994, Gabriel starred inBreck Eisner's short filmReconas a detective who enters the minds of murder victims to find their killer's identity. Gabriel helped pioneer a new realm of musical interaction in 2001, visitingGeorgia State University's Language Research Center to participate in keyboard jam sessions",
"jam sessions withbonoboapes from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. (This experience inspired the song \"Animal Nation\", which was performed on Gabriel's 2002 \"Growing Up\" tour and was featured on theGrowing Up LiveDVD andThe Wild Thornberrys Moviesoundtrack.) Gabriel's desire to bring attention to the intelligence of primates also took the form of ApeNet, a project that aimed to link great apes through the internet, enabling the first interspecies internet communication. He was one of the founders of on Demand Distribution (OD2), one of the first online music download services. Prior to its closure in 2009, its technology had been used by over 100 music download sites including MSN Music UK, MyCokeMusic, Planet Internet (KPN), Wanadoo and CD WOW!. OD2 was bought by US company Loudeye in June 2004 and subsequently by Finnish mobile giantNokiain October 2006 for $60 million. Gabriel is co-founder (withBrian Eno) of a musicians union called Mudda, short for \"magnificent union of digitally downloading",
"downloading artists.\" In 2000, Gabriel collaborated withZucchero,Anggunand others in a charity for kids withAIDS. Erick Benzi wrote words and music and Patrick Bruel, Stephan Eicher, Faudel, Lokua Kanza, Laam, Nourith, Axelle Red have accepted to sing it. In 2003, Gabriel contributed a song for the video gameUru: Ages Beyond Myst.In 2004, Gabriel contributed another song (\"Curtains\") and contributed voice work on another game in theMystfranchise,Myst IV: Revelation. In June 2005, Gabriel and broadcast industry entrepreneurDavid EngelkepurchasedSolid State Logic, a manufacturer of mixing consoles and digital audio workstations.In 2017, the company was sold to theAudiotonixGroup. In May 2008, Gabriel'sReal World Studios, in partnership withBowers & Wilkins, started the Bowers & Wilkins Music Club—later known as Society of Sound—a subscription-based music retail site. Albums are currently available in eitherApple LosslessorFLACformat. He is one of the founding supporters of the annual global eventAsteroid Day.",
"eventAsteroid Day. Activist for humanitarian causes In 1986, he started what has become a longstanding association withAmnesty International, becoming a pioneering participant in all 28 of Amnesty'sHuman rights concerts—a series of music events and tours staged by the US Section of Amnesty International between 1986 and 1998. He performed during the six-concertA Conspiracy of HopeUS tour in June 1986; the twenty-concertHuman Rights Now!world tour in 1988; theChile: Embrace of Hope Concertin 1990 and atThe Paris Concert for Amnesty Internationalin 1998. He also performed in Amnesty'sSecret Policeman's Ballbenefit shows in collaboration with other artists and friends such as Lou Reed,David GilmourofPink Floydand Youssou N'Dour; Gabriel closed those concerts performing his anti-apartheidanthem \"Biko\".He spoke of his support for Amnesty onNBC'sToday Showin 1986. Inspired by the social activism he encountered in his work with Amnesty, in 1992, Gabriel co-foundedWITNESS, a non-profit organisation that equips,",
"that equips, trains and supports locally based organisations worldwide to use video and the internet in human rights documentation and advocacy. In 1995, Gabriel and Cape Verdean human rights activistVera Duartewere awarded theNorth–South Prizein its inaugural year. In the late 1990s, Gabriel and entrepreneurRichard Bransondiscussed withNelson Mandelatheir idea of a small, dedicated group of leaders, working objectively and without any vested personal interest to solve difficult global conflicts. On 18 July 2007, inJohannesburg, South Africa, Nelson Mandela announced the formation of a new group,The Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th birthday.Kofi Annanserved as Chair of the Elders andGro Harlem Brundtlandas deputy chair. The other members of the group areMartti Ahtisaari,Ela Bhatt,Lakhdar Brahimi,Fernando Henrique Cardoso,Jimmy Carter,Hina Jilani,Graça Machel,Mary RobinsonandErnesto Zedillo.Desmond Tutuwas an Honorary Elder, as was Nelson Mandela. The Elders is independently funded",
"funded by a group of donors, including Branson and Gabriel. The Elders use their collective skills to catalyse peaceful resolutions to long-standing conflicts, articulate new approaches to global issues that are causing or may later cause immense human suffering, and share wisdom by helping to connect voices all over the world. They work together to consider carefully which specific issues to approach. In November 2007, Gabriel's non-profit group WITNESS launched The Hub, a participatory media site for human rights. In September 2008, Gabriel was named as the recipient of Amnesty International's 2008Ambassador of Conscience Award. In the same month, he receivedQuadrigaUnited We Careaward of Werkstatt Deutschland along withBoris Tadić,Eckart Höflingand Wikipedia. The award was presented to him byQueen Silvia of Sweden. In 2010, Gabriel lent his support to the campaign to releaseSakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani, an Iranian Azeri woman who was sentenced to death by stoning after being convicted of committing",
"of committing adultery. In December 2013, Gabriel posted a video message in tribute to the deceased former South African president and anti-apartheid leaderNelson Mandela. Gabriel was quoted: To come out of 27 years in jail and to immediately set about building a Rainbow Nation with your sworn enemy is a unique and extraordinary example of courage and forgiveness. In this case, Mandela had seen many of his people beaten, imprisoned and murdered, yet he was still willing to trust the humanity and idealism of those who had been the oppressors, without whom he knew he could not achieve an almostpeaceful transition of power. There is no other example of such inspirational leadership in my lifetime. Gabriel has criticisedAir Francefor their continued transport of monkeys to laboratories. In a letter to the airline, Gabriel wrote that in laboratories, \"primates are violently force-fed chemicals, inflicted with brain damage, crippled, addicted to cocaine or alcohol, deprived of food and water, or psychologically",
"or psychologically tormented and ultimately killed.\" In March 2014, Gabriel publicly supported #withsyria, a campaign to rally support for victims of theSyrian Civil War. In November 2014, Gabriel, along withPussy RiotandIron & Winesupported Hong Kong protesters atHong Kong's Lennon Wallin their efforts. In March 2015, Gabriel was awarded an honorary doctorate by theUniversity of South Australiain recognition of his commitment to creativity and its transformational power in building peace and understanding. He composed the song \"The Veil\" forOliver Stone's filmSnowden(2016). Political views Gabriel has been described as one of rock's most political musicians byAllMusic.In 1992, on the 20th anniversary of theBloody Sundaymassacre, Gabriel joinedPeter Hain,Jeremy Corbyn,Tony Benn,Ken Loach,John PilgerandAdrian Mitchellin voicing his support for a demonstration in London calling for British withdrawal fromNorthern Ireland. At the1997 general election, he declared his support for theLabour Party, which won that",
"which won that election by a landslide after 18 years out of power, led byTony Blair.In 1998, he was named in a list of the biggest private financial donors to Labour.He subsequently distanced himself from the Labour government following Tony Blair's support forGeorge W. Bushand Britain's involvement in theIraq War, which he strongly opposed.Gabriel later explained his decision for funding Labour, saying, \"after all those years ofThatcher, that was the only time I've put money into a political party because I wanted to help get rid of theTorygovernment of that time.\" In 2005, Gabriel gave aGreen Party of England and Walesgeneral election candidate special permission to record a cover of his song \"Don't Give Up\" for his campaign.In 2010,The Guardiandescribed Gabriel as \"a staunch advocate ofproportional representation.\"In 2013, he stated that he had become more interested in online petitioning organisations to effect change than traditional party politics. In 2012, Gabriel condemned the use of his music by",
"use of his music by the Americanconservative talk radiopersonalityRush Limbaughduringa controversial segment in which Limbaugh vilifiedGeorgetown Universitylaw studentSandra Fluke. A statement on behalf of Gabriel read: \"Peter was appalled to learn that his music was linked to Rush Limbaugh's extraordinary attack on Sandra Fluke. It is obvious from anyone that knows Peter's work that he would never approve such a use. He has asked his representatives to make sure his music is withdrawn and especially from these unfair, aggressive and ignorant comments.\" In 2016, Gabriel supported the UK's continued membership of theEuropean Unionin thereferendum on the issue. Gabriel has declared his support for thetwo-state solutionto theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict. In 2014, he contributed songs to a new compilation album to raise funds for humanitarian organisations aiding Palestinian Arabs inGaza. Gabriel was quoted: \"I am certain that Israelis and Palestinians will both benefit from a two-state solution based on the",
"based on the 1967 borders. We have watched Palestinians suffer for too long, especially in Gaza. I am not, and never was, anti-Israeli oranti-Semitic, but I oppose the policy of the Israeli government, oppose injustice and oppose the occupation ... I am proud to be one of the voices asking the Israeli government: 'Where is the two-state solution that you wanted so much?' and clearly say that enough is enough.\"In 2019, Gabriel was among 50 artists who urged theBBCto ask for theEurovision Song Contestto be moved out of Israel, citing human rights concerns.In 2023, Gabriel signed theArtists4Ceasefireopen letter to PresidentJoe Bidencalling for a ceasefire during theIsraeli bombardment of Gaza. Gabriel has been in support of theArmenian genociderecognition.In October 2020, he posted a message on social media in support ofArmeniaandArtsakhin regards to theNagorno-Karabakh war. He said, \"The fighting that has now broken out between Azerbaijan and Armenia is really horrific and we need to lobby whoever we can to",
"whoever we can to encourage a ceasefire, but hearing reports that PresidentErdoğanhas now lined up 80,000 Turkish troops on the Armenian border is a terrifying prospect, full of the dark echoes of history.\" In popular culture Gabriel's music featured prominently on the popular 1980s television showMiami Vice. The songs include \"The Rhythm of the Heat\" and \"Biko\" (from \"Evan\"), \"Red Rain\" (from \"Stone's War\"), \"Mercy Street\" (from \"Killshot\"), \"Sledgehammer\" (from \"Better Living Through Chemistry\"), \"We Do What We're Told (Milgram's 37)\" (from \"Forgive Us Our Debts\" and \"Deliver Us from Evil\") and \"Don't Give Up\" (from \"Redemption in Blood\"). With seven songs used total, Gabriel had the most music featured by a solo artist in the series, and he is the only artist to have had a song used in four of Vice's five seasons. Five of the nine tracks on his most popular albumSo(1986) were used in the series. Gabriel’s song \"In Your Eyes\" features twice in the teen romance dramaSay Anything(1989). It is the song",
"It is the song playing on Lloyd Dobler’s boombox as he serenades Diane, creating the film’s most iconic scene. Gabriel's cover ofDavid Bowie's \"Heroes\" was featured in the fourth season finale ofBig Love, as well as the first season and the ending scene ofStranger Thingsseason 3 and the ending credits ofLone Survivor. The song also features in 'Children of Mars', a 2020 episode of the web seriesStar Trek: Short Treks. A series of spoof documentaries about the fictitious rock starBrian Pernwere based loosely on Gabriel. In 2021, Northern Irish post-punk band Invaderband released their second studio album entitled 'Peter Gabriel'.The sleeve was a painting of Gabriel byLuke Haines. Personal life Gabriel has married twice and has four children. In 1971, at age 21, he married Jill Moore, daughter of BaronPhilip Moore.They had two daughters,one of whom, Anna-Marie, is a filmmaker who filmed and directed Gabriel's live DVDsGrowing Up on Tour: A Family Portrait(2003),Still Growing Up: Live & Unwrapped(2005) and some",
"and some of his music videos. Melanie is a musician who had been a backing vocalist in her father's band in 2002–2011. Both daughters appear in the final sequence of the video for their father's song \"Sledgehammer\". Gabriel's marriage became increasingly strained, culminating in Moore's affair withDavid Lord, the co-producer of Gabriel'sfourth studio album. After the coupledivorcedin 1987, Gabriel fell into a period of depression and attended therapy sessions for six years. For a time after his divorce, Gabriel lived with American actressRosanna Arquette.In 2021, Irish singerSinéad O'Connorsaid that she maintained an on-and-off relationship with Gabriel in the wake of his divorce. She ended the relationship because of her frustration with his lack of commitment, which inspired her single \"Thank You for Hearing Me\". Gabriel married Meabh Flynn in 2002, with whom he has two sons. Gabriel has resided inWiltshirefor many years and runsReal World StudiosfromBox, Wiltshire. He previously lived in the Woolley",
"in the Woolley Valley nearBath, Somerset. In 2010, he joined a campaign to stop agricultural development in the valley, which had also inspired his first solo single, \"Solsbury Hill\", in 1977. Discography Studio albums Soundtracks Awards and nominations See also References Citations Works cited External links",
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_(album",
"Sledgehammer Asledgehammeris atoolwith a large, flat, oftenmetalhead, attached to a long handle. The long handle combined with a heavy head allows the sledgehammer to gather momentum during a swing and apply a largeforcecompared to hammers designed to drive nails. Along with themallet, it shares the ability to distribute force over a wide area. This is in contrast to other types ofhammers, which concentrate force in a relatively small area. Etymology The word sledgehammer is derived from the Old-English \"slægan\", which, in its first sense, means \"to strike violently\". The English words \"slag\", \"slay\", and \"slog\" arecognates. Uses The handle can range from 50 centimetres (1 ft 8 in) to a full 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) long, depending on the mass of the head.The head mass is usually 1 to 9 kilograms (2.2 to 19.8 lb). Modern heavy duty sledgehammers come with 10-to-20-pound (4.5–9.1 kg) heads. Sledgehammers usually require two hands and a swinging motion involving the entiretorso, in contrast to smallerhammersused for",
"for driving innails. The combination of a long swinging range, and heavy head, increases the force of the resulting impact. Sledgehammers are often used indemolitionwork, for breaking throughdrywallormasonrywalls. Sledgehammers were formerly widely used inminingoperations, particularlyhand steel, but are rarely used in modern mining. Sledgehammers are also used when substantial force is necessary to dislodge a trapped object (often infarmoroil fieldwork), or for fracturing concrete. Another common use is for driving fence posts into the ground. Sledgehammers are used by police forces in raids on property to gain entry by force, commonly through doors. They were and still are commonly used by blacksmiths to shape heavy sections of iron. The BritishSAScounter terroristteam used sledgehammers to gain access to rooms during the 1980Iranian Embassy Siege. However, today they use a tool called a \"dynamic hammer\". Another use of sledgehammers is for driving railroad spikes into woodensleepersduring rail",
"rail construction. When the two ends of theUnion Pacificrailroad were joined atPromontory, Utah,Leland Stanfordhammered agolden spikeinto a sleeper with a silver hammer.Sledges used to drive spikes for rails had curved headsthat came down to a \"beak\" that was only about one inch across. The shape meant that drivers needed to be accurate, and spot where the spike hit was often not much larger than a small coin, as anything larger would hit the plate or the sleeper. The curved head kept the handle away from the rail, as the spikes were driven with the rail between the spike and the driver. These are often calledspike mauls. Drilling hammer Adrilling hammer,club hammer,lump hammer,crack hammer,mini-sledgeorthor hammeris a small sledgehammer whose relatively light weight and short handle allow one-handed use.It is useful for light demolition work, driving masonry nails, and for use with a steelchiselwhen cutting stone or metal.In this last application, its weight drives the chisel more deeply into the material",
"into the material being cut than lighter hammers. Club hammers are common on the British inland waterways for driving mooring pins into the towpath or canal bank. Scouts BSAhas adopted the shorter sledgehammer, commonly referred to as an engineer's hammer,as an unofficial tool referred to as the scout hammer, as a complement to the pocket knife and hand axe. The handle is 12–18 inches (30–46 cm) long with a head weighing 2 to 6 lb (0.91–2.72 kg). The hammer is used for a variety of purposes such as driving tent stakes, establishing temporary fencing using wood or metal rebar, splitting wood in conjunction with a wedge, or straightening all that is bent. Post maul Post mauls are similar to sledgehammers in shape, but are meant to drive wooden fence posts or tree stakes into the earth. Newer mauls have broad, flat circular faces that are significantly larger in diameter than the body of the head (where the handle attaches). Older post mauls are significantly larger than sledgehammers like their newer",
"like their newer counterparts except the outside diameter (body) of older post maul designs remained the same large diameter as that of the faces of the hammer from one side to the other side. Sledgehammers usually have octagonal faces that are the same diameter or slightly smaller than the body of the head, and they are not nearly as large in overall diameter as a post maul. References External links"
] |
When the San Francisco 49ers and San Diego Chargers met in Super Bowl XXIX, what was the #1 film at the box office in the U.S.? | Legends of the Fall | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXIX#:~:text=The%2049ers%20defeated%20the%20Chargers,ravaged%20the%20city%20in%201992. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_1995_box_office_number-one_films_in_the_United_States | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXIX#:~:text=The%2049ers%20defeated%20the%20Chargers,ravaged%20the%20city%20in%201992.', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_1995_box_office_number-one_films_in_the_United_States'] | [
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] | [
"Super Bowl XXIX Super Bowl XXIXwas anAmerican footballgame between theAmerican Football Conference(AFC) championSan Diego Chargersand theNational Football Conference(NFC) championSan Francisco 49ersto decide theNational Football League(NFL) champion for the1994 season.The 49ers defeated the Chargers by the score of 49–26, becoming the first team to win five Super Bowl championships. The game was played on January 29, 1995, atJoe Robbie StadiuminMiami, Florida. This game is regarded as 49ers quarterbackSteve Young's final leap out of the shadow of his predecessor,Joe Montana, who had won four Super Bowls with the 49ers (in1981,1984,1988, and1989), two with Young as the backup quarterback. With Young at the helm, and a defense consisting of several veteranfree agentswho joined the team during the previous offseason, San Francisco finished the regular season with a league-best 13–3 record, and led the league in total points scored (505). The Chargers, on the other hand, were regarded as a\"Cinderella\" team, and advanced to their first Super Bowl after posting an 11–5 regular-season record and overcoming halftime deficits in both of their playoff wins. This was the first Super Bowl in which both teams scored in all four quarters. The combined aggregate score of 75 points and the ten totaltouchdownsboth remain Super Bowl records. Still, the 49ers controlled most of the game, with Young completing touchdown passes in each of the 49ers' first two drives. The Chargers were able to cut the deficit late in the first quarter, 14–7, on a 13-play, 78-yard drive, but could not slow down San Francisco afterwards. Young was named theSuper Bowl MVP, throwing a Super Bowl-record six touchdown passes, and completing 24 out of 36 passes for 325 yards. Despite the predicted blowout (18 1⁄2- points is the second largest margin a team has been favored by in a Super Bowl), the fact that San Diego did not have as much national appeal nor a relatively large core fan base, and two teams fromCaliforniaplaying, which could have significantly diminished interest along theEast Coast, the telecast of the game onABCstill had aNielsen ratingof 41.3. Background Host selection process NFL owners voted to award Super Bowl XXIX to Miami during their May 23, 1991 meeting inMinneapolis. Three cities presented bids:Miami(Joe Robbie Stadium),Tampa(Tampa Stadium), andHouston(Astrodome).New Orleans pulled out of the running early on due to conflicts with other conventions. Houston was considered an early favorite, since they had not hosted the game since1974. However, the Astrodome would need to add approximately 10,000 temporary seats in order to meet the NFL's capacity requirement of 70,000. Rules required a candidate to receive a3⁄4vote (21 of 28 owners) in order to win the bidding. Tampa was eliminated on the first ballot, having just hostedXXV, along with their lack of premium seating. Then neither Miami nor Houston managed to get 21 votes on the second ballot or on the third ballot. For the fourth ballot, the threshold was reduced to a simple majority. In what was said to be a close vote, Miami was selected as the host.It marked the seventh time overall theMiami-areahosted the Super Bowl, and the second time it was played in Joe Robbie Stadium. San Diego Chargers The Chargers were the biggest surprise of the 1994 season, with very few expecting them to even reach the playoffs, let alone the Super Bowl. San Diego suffered losing seasons in the 1980s until formerWashington Redskinsgeneral managerBobby Beathardjoined the team in 1990. Beathard decided to rebuild the Chargers using the same model that he used to build the Redskins into Super Bowl contenders during the 1980s: a powerful running game built around big linemen, a passing game that helped sustain extremely long drives, and a bending but steady defense. After formerGeorgia Techhead coachBobby Rosswas hired by theChargers in 1992, the team won theAFC Westwith an 11–5 regular season record and won an opening round playoff game againstKansas City. But in1993, they slumped back to 8–8 and did not reach the postseason. Before the start of the 1994 season, San Diego was not expected to do well because they had so many newcomers via the draft and free agency; the Chargers ended up with 22 new players on their roster, and 10 of them became starters. However, they ended up winning their first six regular season games en route to an 11–5 record, the AFC West championship, and the #2 AFC playoffseed. The Chargers went into the final game of the season against thePittsburgh Steelersneeding a win to get the #2 seed (a loss would have given that spot to theMiami Dolphins), which came with a first-round bye and a home game in the divisional round of the playoffs. Backup quarterbackGale Gilbert, subbing for injured starterStan Humphries, led the Chargers to a come-from-behind 37–34 win, withJohn Carneykicking a game-winning field goal in the game's final seconds. The Chargers' offense was led by quarterbackStan Humphries, who was the Redskins' backup toMark Rypienduring the1991 season, when they wonSuper Bowl XXVI. During the 1994 season for San Diego, Humphries completed 264 out of 453 attempts for 3,209 yards and 17 touchdowns, with 12 interceptions. Wide receiverMark Seaywas the team's leading receiver with 58 receptions for 645 yards and 6 touchdowns. Wide receiverTony Martinhad 50 catches for 885 yards and 7 touchdowns, wide receiverShawn Jeffersonrecorded 43 catches for 627 yards and 3 touchdowns, and tight endAlfred Pupunuhad 21 receptions for 214 yards and 2 touchdowns. Running backNatrone Meansled the team in rushing with 1,350 yards and 12 touchdowns. He also recorded 39 receptions for 235 yards, and was named to the Pro Bowl. Third-down backRonnie Harmonwas also a big contributor, catching 58 passes for 615 yards and a touchdown. Meanwhile, the Chargers'special teamswas also a major threat withAndre Coleman, who returned 49 kickoffs for 1,293 yards (26.4 average yards per return) and 2 touchdowns. The Chargers had an excellent defensive line, anchored by Pro Bowl defensive endLeslie O'Neal, who led the team with 12.5 sacks and forced four fumbles, defensive tackleChris Mims, who recorded 11 sacks, andShawn Lee, who added 6.5 sacks and a fumble recovery. Their linebacking corps was led byJunior Seau, who was a Pro Bowl selection for the fourth consecutive year, recording 123 tackles, 5.5 sacks, and 3 fumble recoveries. Defensive backStanley Richardwas a major weapon in the secondary, recording 4 interceptions, 224 return yards, and 2 touchdowns. Defensive backDarrien Gordonwas also a major asset to the team, recording 4 interceptions and 32 return yards, while also adding another 475 yards and 2 touchdowns returning punts. SafetyRodney Harrisonwas a rookie on the team. Chargers backup quarterbackGale Gilbertbecame the first player to be a member of five consecutive Super Bowl teams. He had been a third-string quarterback for theBuffalo Bills, who had won AFC Championships in the four previous seasons (1990–1993). San Francisco 49ers From the1988to the1993seasons, the 49ers played in five out of six NFC Championship Games, winning Super BowlsXXIIIandXXIV. But after head coachGeorge Seifert's team lost two consecutive NFC Championship games to theDallas Cowboysin1992and1993, San Francisco brought in several veteranfree agentsto strengthen their defense. Among the players signed were defensive linemenRichard Dent(the MVP ofSuper Bowl XX),Charles Mann,Rhett Hall, andRickey Jackson; linebackersKen Norton Jr.andGary Plummer; and cornerbackDeion Sanders. The free agents enabled the 49ers to jump from the 18th-ranked defense in the league to the 8th, and to jump from the league's 16th-best defense against the run to the 2nd.Pro Bowldefensive linemanDana Stubblefieldled the team with 8.5 sacks. Rookie defensive tackleBryant Youngwas also a big threat to opposing quarterbacks and rushers, recording 42 tackles, 6 sacks, and a fumble recovery. Behind them, Norton played very effectively at the middle linebacker position, leading the team with 77 tackles and recording an interception. Pro Bowl safetyMerton Hanksled the team with 7 interceptions for 93 return yards, while Sanders had 6 interceptions for 303 return yards and 3 touchdowns, earning him theNFL Defensive Player of the Year Award. His 303 return yards was the third-highest total in NFL history, while his touchdown returns of 74, 93, and 90 yards made him the first player ever to have two 90-yard interception returns in one season. Pro Bowl safetyTim McDonaldwas also a big contributor, recording 2 interceptions for 79 yards and a touchdown. The 49ers' offense was led by quarterbackSteve Young, who replaced futureHall of FamerJoe Montanaas the starter in1991and1992due to injuries. After Young led the league in passing in both seasons, Montana was traded to theKansas City Chiefs, leaving Young as the undisputed starter in 1993. But even with his impressive passing statistics, Young was criticized as \"not being able to win the big games\" as Montana had done in leading the 49ers to Super Bowl victories inXVI,XIX, XXIII, and XXIV. It also didn't help that the team had lost to Montana's Chiefs 24–17 during the regular season. Still, Young again led the league in passing during the 1994 regular season with apasser ratingof 112.8, breaking Montana's record for the highest regular season rating in NFL history. Young recorded 324 out of 461 completions for 3,969 yards, 35 touchdowns, and just 10 interceptions. He also had 58 rushes for 293 yards and 7 touchdowns, and earned theNFL Most Valuable Player Award. With Young at the helm, the 49ers led the league in total points scored (505) and helped them earn a league best 13–3 regular season record. Pro Bowl running backRicky Watterswas the team's leading rusher with 877 yards and 6 touchdowns, while also recording 66 receptions for 719 yards and 5 touchdowns. Rookie fullbackWilliam Floydwas the team's second-leading rusher with 305 yards and 6 touchdowns, while also having 19 receptions for 145 yards. The team's leading receiver was Pro Bowl wide receiverJerry Rice, who had 112 catches for 1,499 yards and 13 touchdowns, while also gaining 93 yards and two more touchdowns rushing the ball. ReceiverJohn Taylorwas also a reliable target, catching 41 passes for 531 yards and 5 touchdowns. Pro Bowl tight endBrent Jonesadded 49 receptions for 670 yards and 9 touchdowns. The offensive line was led by Pro Bowl centerBart Oates, another offseason free agent pickup, and Pro Bowl guardJesse Sapolu. Running backDexter Carterhad a standout season as a returner onspecial teams, gaining a combined total of 1,426 yards and a touchdown returning both punts and kickoffs. Playoffs Chargers In the AFC Divisional Playoffs, the Chargers managed to overcome a 21–6 halftime deficit to defeat theMiami Dolphins, 22–21. In the first half, San Diego was limited to only twoJohn Carneyfield goals, while Miami quarterbackDan Marinothrew for over 180 yards and 3 touchdowns. However, the Chargers dominated the Dolphins in the second half, limiting their offense to just 16 plays. In the third quarter, after the Chargers were stopped on fourth and goal at the 1-yard line, Chargers defensive linemanReuben Davistackled Dolphins running backBernie Parmaleein the end zone for a safety. San Diego then took the ensuing free kick and marched 54 yards to score on Means's 24-yard touchdown run. Then with time running out, Humphries threw an 8-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Mark Seay, giving his team a one-point lead. The Dolphins, aided by a pass interference call, responded with a drive to the Chargers' 31-yard line, but kickerPete Stoyanovich's potential game-winning 48-yard field goal attempt sailed far to the right of the goal posts and sealed San Diego's stirring win. San Diego then faced thePittsburgh Steelersin theAFC Championship Game. Once again, the Chargers fell behind early as the Steelers built up a 13–3 halftime lead, but Humphries fooled the Steelers secondary with a 43-yardplay-actiontouchdown pass to a wide open tight endAlfred Pupunu. The Chargers then took a 17–13 lead when Martin beat the Steelers secondary (particularly a badly overmatchedTim McKyer) down the right sideline for a 43-yard touchdown reception. On their final drive, the Steelers advanced to the San Diego 3-yard line, but Chargers linebackerDennis Gibsonsealed the victory on fourth down by deflecting quarterbackNeil O'Donnell's pass intended for running backBarry Fosterto turn the ball back over to San Diego. Just like the 49ers in the NFC title game, the Chargers advanced to the Super Bowl despite the fact that their opponent had outgained them in many key statistical categories such as total plays (80–47), total offensive yards (415–226), and time of possession (37:13–22:47). 49ers The 49ers first defeated theChicago Bears, 44–15, in the NFC Divisional Playoffs. Although Chicago scored first with a field goal, San Francisco scored 37 unanswered points to put the game out of reach by the end of the third quarter. Floyd scored three rushing touchdowns, while Young rushed for a touchdown and threw for another. San Francisco then defeatedtheir nemesis, theDallas Cowboys, 38–28, in theNFC Championship Game. Expected to be a close game, the 49ers converted 3 Dallas turnovers into 21 points in the first quarter. On the third play of the game, cornerbackEric Davisreturned an interception from Cowboys quarterbackTroy Aikmanfor a touchdown. Wide receiverMichael Irvinlost a fumble on Dallas' next drive, setting up Young's 29-yard touchdown pass to Watters. Then Cowboys returnerKevin Williamslost a fumble on the ensuing kickoff, and it was recovered by kickerDoug Brienat Dallas' 35-yard line. Several plays later, Floyd scored on a 1-yard touchdown run to give San Francisco a 21–0 lead less than 8 minutes into the game. With the score 24–14 in the closing minutes of the first half, Aikman threw 3 straight incompletions, and a short punt by the Cowboys set up Young's 28-yard touchdown completion to Rice with 8 seconds remaining in the first half. The Cowboys eventually cut their deficit to 38–28 with a touchdown run byEmmitt Smithand Aikman's 10-yard touchdown pass to Irvin in the final period, but they were unable to score again.Although the Cowboys outgained the 49ers in total offensive yards (451–294), Aikman broke an NFC Championship Game record with 380 yards passing, and Irvin also broke an NFC Championship Game record with 192 receiving yards, Dallas was ultimately unable to overcome their first-quarter turnovers. Super Bowl pregame news Entering Super Bowl XXIX, most sports writers and fans thought the Chargers had absolutely no chance of defeating the 49ers. San Francisco was on track, winning 12 of its last 13 games (with their only loss in that span coming against theMinnesota Vikingsin a meaningless regular season finale at Minnesota), including their playoff victories. Many people also thought that the NFC Championship Game between the 49ers and the Cowboys was \"the real Super Bowl\",because those two teams were commonly viewed as vastly superior to any AFC team. Furthermore, San Francisco had defeated San Diego, 38–15, during the regular season. As a result, the 49ers entered the game favored to win by 18 1⁄2- points, surpassed only by the 19 1⁄2- points, by theBaltimore Coltswho were favored over theNew York JetsinSuper Bowl IIImore than two decades prior. Many also speculated that Super Bowl XXIX would be the least watched game in Super Bowl history because the Chargers did not have as large of a core fan base as other AFC teams like the Chiefs, the Dolphins, or the Steelers. (This prediction ultimately turned out to be false. Although Super Bowl XXIX was viewed by 125.2 million people and had aNielsen ratingof 41.3,Super Bowl XXVIthree years earlier was seen by 119.7 million viewers and recorded a 40.3 rating.) This was the seventh Super Bowl to be played in Miami, at the time tying bothNew Orleans, Louisiana and theGreater Los Angeles areafor hosting the Super Bowl the most times. It remains the only Super Bowl played between teams that play their home games in the same state (althoughSuper Bowl XXVwas played between theNew York Giantsand theBuffalo Bills, two teams representing areas ofNew York, the Giants play their home games inNew Jersey). Broadcasting The game was broadcast in the United States byABC, withplay-by-play announcerAl Michaelsandcolor commentatorsFrank GiffordandDan Dierdorf.Lynn Swannreported from theChargerssideline andLesley Visserreported from the49erssideline). Visser became the first woman assigned to a Super Bowl sideline; she had previously become the first woman sportscaster to cover theVince Lombardi Trophypresentation ceremony, when she coveredSuper Bowl XXVIforCBS.Brent Musburgerhosted all the Super Bowl XXIX pregame (2 hours), halftime, and postgame events with the help of then-ABC Sports analystDick Vermeil, Musburger's regular color commentator on ABC'scollege football telecasts, and then-New York JetsquarterbackBoomer Esiason. This was the last Super Bowl broadcast by the broadcast team of Michaels, Gifford and Dierdorf. The three calledMonday Night Footballfrom the1987to1997, and also worked ABC's coverage of Super BowlsXXIIandXXV. This would also be the last Super Bowl aired on ABC until the1999 season(when Al Michaels called the game with Boomer Esiason). This would also be the final Super Bowl hosted by Musburger, as all subsequent Super Bowls on ABC were hosted byESPN'sChris Bermanfollowing theDisneypurchase of ABC (which included ESPN), and the subsequent integration of ESPN and ABC Sports (now ESPN on ABC). Also, the trophy presentation for this game was the last to be held in the winning team's locker room, as all subsequent Vince Lombardi Trophy presentations would be held on the field. For theSuper Bowl lead-out program, ABC premiered the television dramaExtremestarringJames Brolin; this was the last series to premiere following the Super Bowl untilFamily Guypremiered followingSuper Bowl XXXIIIand is one of only four in the last 14 years to premiere following a Super Bowl (joiningFamily Guy, its spinoffAmerican Dad!, andUndercover Bosswhich premiered followingSuper Bowl XLIV), since the networks have preferred to have new episodes of established shows to catch as much of the post-game audience as possible. Thirty-second television advertisements for Super Bowl XXIX averaged $1.15 million in costs, the first time that Super Bowl ads exceeded the $1 million mark. Super Bowl XXIX aired in over 150 countries worldwide. It was simulcast in Canada onCTVandTVA(in French), in Mexico onTelevisa'sCanal 5, whose commentators were able to call the game live from San Diego on the last minute,in Germany onTele 5, inAustraliaonABC, in thePhilippineson theGMA Networkand later aired in the United Kingdom onChannel 4. This Super Bowl would later be featured onNFL's Greatest Gamesunder the titleExercise in Excellence.The Super Bowl highlight film on which the episode was based was the only Super Bowl highlight film to be narrated byHarry Kalas. In popular culture In the Tuesday prior to the Super Bowl, the ABC sitcomFull Houseaired an episode called \"Super Bowl Fun Day\" involving main characters Danny Tanner and Rebecca Donaldson reporting at the game for their showWake Up, San Francisco. (Full Housewas set in San Francisco, and this was the only time during the show's run that the 49ers advanced to a Super Bowl aired on ABC.) A week earlier, theSeinfeldepisode \"The Label Maker\" involvedJerrytrying to give away his tickets to the game. He eventually decided to go, but unfortunately was stuck sitting next toNewman. Two days after the Super Bowl, the game was the main plot feature of an episode of the ABC sitcomHome Improvement, \"Super Bowl Fever\", in whichJillwas sick with the flu whileTimand his buddies tried to watch the game. Entertainment Pregame ceremonies The pregame show held before the game featuredcountry musicsingerHank Williams Jr., who performed his theme song forMonday Night Football, which was based on his single \"All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight\". Actress and singerKathie Lee Gifford(Frank Gifford's wife) later sang the national anthem. She was accompanied by then-Miss AmericaHeather Whitestonewhosignedthe anthem for the hearing impaired. To honor the NFL's 75th season, four former players all Hall of Fame members, who were named to the league's 75th Anniversary All-Time Team joined thecoin tossceremony:Otto Graham,Joe Greene,Ray Nitschke, andGale Sayers. A special 75th anniversary logo was painted at midfield. Each player also wore a patch on hisjerseywith the same logo; the 75th anniversary patch was worn by all players league-wide during the1994 season. During the regular season, teams also wore \"throwback\" jerseys for selected games. The 49ers wore their throwbacks (which paid tribute to the1957 Niners) for most of the season, this game included. Halftime show The halftime show was titled \"Indiana Jones and the Temple of the Forbidden Eye\" and was produced byDisneyto promote theirIndiana Jones Adventureattraction atDisneylandthat opened later that year. The show featured actors playingIndiana Jonesand his girlfriendMarion Ravenwoodwho were raiding theVince Lombardi Trophyfrom the Temple of the Forbidden Eye. The show also had performances by singersTony BennettandPatti LaBelle,jazztrumpeterArturo Sandoval, and theMiami Sound Machine. The show ended with everybody singing \"Can You Feel The Love Tonight\", the song featured in Disney's (which later acquired ABC) 1994 filmThe Lion King. The dancers on the field were members of the Coral Gables Senior High marching band. This halftime show also had a connection with past ABC programming: the first twoIndiana Jonesfilms had their broadcast premieres on ABC, and the network aired a TV series,The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, from 1992 to 1993 (actually serving as the lead-in toMonday Night Footballat one point). Radio The game was broadcast on nationwide radio byCBSwithplay-by-play announcerJack Buckandcolor commentatorHank Stram.Jim Hunterhosted all of the events. Locally, Super Bowl XXIX was broadcast byXTRA-AMinSan DiegowithLee \"Hacksaw\" HamiltonandJim Laslavicand byKGO-AMinSan FranciscowithJoe StarkeyandWayne Walker. Game summary First quarter After 49ers running backDexter Carterreturned the opening kickoff 9 yards to the San Francisco 26-yard line, a face mask penalty on Chargers linebackerDoug Millerallowed San Francisco to start at their own 41. On the third play of the drive, quarterbackSteve Youngthrew a 44-yard touchdown pass to wideJerry Riceto take an early 7–0 lead. The 49ers became the second team to take the opening kickoff and score a touchdown on that first drive (the first being theMiami DolphinsinSuper Bowl VIII), and also set a new Super Bowl record for the fastest touchdown (later broken by theChicago Bears'Devin HesterinSuper Bowl XLI). After forcing the Chargers to punt after a three-and-out on their opening possession, the 49ers advanced 79 yards in four plays, with Young rushing for 21 yards and then throwing a 51-yard touchdown pass to running backRicky Wattersto give San Francisco a 14–0 lead less than 5 minutes into the first quarter and set a Super Bowl record for the fastest second touchdown scored by a team. San Diego responded on their ensuing possession, marching 78 yards in 13 plays and taking more than 7 minutes off the clock. The drive featured two receptions and a run by running backRonnie Harmonfor 33 yards and six runs by running backNatrone Meansfor 22 yards, the last one being a 1-yard touchdown run, cutting the Chargers' deficit to 14–7. However, the 49ers quickly countered after the ensuing kickoff, driving 70 yards in 10 plays. Rice started off the drive with a 19-yard reception and 10-yard run on a reverse play, while Young added a 12-yard completion to wide receiverJohn Taylorand a 15-yard scramble. Second quarter Four plays into the second quarter, Young threw a 5-yard touchdown pass to fullbackWilliam Floyd, increasing the San Francisco lead to 21–7 and making the 49ers the second team to score on its first three possessions (afterGreen Bay) of a Super Bowl and the first (and only as of 2024) to score touchdowns on its first three possessions. After the next three possessions ended in punts, Chargers punterBryan Wagner's 40-yard punt from his own 9-yard line gave the 49ers the ball at the San Diego 49. San Francisco then marched on a 9-play drive, which included two receptions by Rice for 19 yards and ended with Young's fourth touchdown pass, an 8-yard toss to Watters, with 4:44 left in the half, making the score 28–7. San Diego then took the ensuing kickoff and drove 62 yards from their own 25-yard line to the San Francisco 13, featuring a 17-yard reception by wide receiverMark Seay, a 10-yard reverse run by wide receiverShawn Jefferson, and a 33-yard gain on ascreen passfrom quarterbackStan Humphriesto running backEric Bieniemy, the Chargers' longest play of the game. But after Humphries threw three incomplete passes, one of which was a perfectly thrown pass that Seay dropped in the end zone, they were forced to settle for kickerJohn Carney's 31-yard field goal, cutting their deficit to 28–10. A 33-yard completion from Young to tight endBrent Joneshelped the 49ers reach the San Diego 29-yard line on their next possession, but Young's third-down pass to Jones was overthrown, and kickerDoug Brienmissed a 47-yard field goal attempt wide right. The Chargers then drove to their own 46-yard line, but 49ers cornerbackEric Davisintercepted Humphries' third-down pass intended for wide receiverTony Martinin the end zone for a touchback with 10 seconds left in the half, and the score remained 28–10 at halftime. The Chargers' 18-point halftime deficit ended up being the closest scoring margin they would reach for the rest of the game. Third quarter The 49ers picked up right where they left off going into the second half. The Chargers were forced to punt after three plays on the opening drive of the half, and Carter returned the ball 11 yards to his own 38-yard line. Young subsequently completed two passes to Rice for 37 yards (including a 21-yard pass on 3rd-and-17) and a 16-yard pass to Taylor on a 7-play, 62-yard drive that ended with Watters' third touchdown of the game on a 9-yard run, increasing the 49ers' lead to 35–10. After a 33-yard kickoff return by wide receiverAndre Coleman, the Chargers advanced to the San Francisco 33-yard line, aided by a 23-yard reception by tight endAlfred Pupunu, but they turned the ball over on downs when Humphries' 4th-and-7 pass intended for Martin was broken up by Davis. Young then led San Francisco on a 10-play, 67-yard drive, aided by a 22-yard pass interference penalty against cornerbackDarrien Gordonon 3rd-and-14, to score on his fifth touchdown pass, a 15-yard completion to Rice. But San Diego immediately responded when Coleman returned the ensuing kickoff 98 yards for a touchdown. Then Humphries completed a pass to Seay for atwo-point conversion(the first in Super Bowl history; the rule had been adopted by the NFL at the start of the season), but it only cut the deficit to 42–18. The 49ers were forced to punt on their next drive, but the Chargers ended up turning the ball over on downs again when Means was tackled for a 4-yard loss by safetyMerton Hankson 4th-and-1 from the San Diego 37. Fourth quarter Six plays later, after three runs by Watters for 25 yards, Young threw his record-setting sixth touchdown pass to Rice on a 7-yard completion with 13:49 remaining in the game, increasing the San Francisco lead to 49–18 and essentially ending any hopes of a San Diego comeback. The Chargers, now playing for pride, responded with a 13-play, 59-yard drive to reach the San Francisco 7-yard line. Humphries led his team down the field 12 yards for the first four plays, but hurt his ankle while being tackled by defensive tackleBryant Young, and was temporarily replaced byGale Gilbert, who completed two passes to Harmon for 24 yards, but threw an interception on 4th-and-6 to cornerbackDeion Sanders, who returned the ball to the San Francisco 14-yard line. After two punts by the 49ers and an interception by San Francisco defensive backToi Cook(during which Humphries returned to the game), the Chargers scored the final points of the game on a 67-yard, 8-play drive, which consisted of two receptions by Seay for 30 yards and two receptions by Martin for 42 yards, the second of which was caught for a 30-yard touchdown. TV viewers didn't see most of the play as ABC had cut to the 49ers celebrating on the sideline. Humphries then completed another pass for a two-point conversion, this time to Pupunu, to make the final score 49–26. The 49ers recovered the ensuing onside kick and ran time off the clock before punting to the San Diego 7. San Diego drove to the San Francisco 35 before the game ended. Once the 49ers victory was assured, Young said \"somebody take the monkey off my back!\" Years later, he regretted saying that saying this was a team effort not an individual performance. At the end of the game, Young showed his jubilation at finally being able to win \"the big one\" while accepting the MVP trophy. \"There were times when this was hard! But this is the greatest feeling in the world! No one —no one!— can ever take this away from us! No one,ever!It's ours!\" Young and his teammates were equally enthusiastic in the locker room afterwards. \"We're part of history,\" said guardJesse Sapolu. \"This is probably the best offense people will see in their lifetimes.\" \"Is this great or what?\" Young added. \"I mean, I haven't thrown six touchdown passes in a game in my life. Then I throw six in the Super Bowl! Unbelievable.\" Rice caught 10 passes for 149 yards and 3 touchdowns, tying his own record for most touchdown receptions in a Super Bowl, and becoming the first player ever to do it twice. He also recorded 10 rushing yards. Watters rushed for 47 yards and a touchdown, while also catching 3 passes for 61 yards and two touchdowns. Means, who rushed for 1,350 yards in the regular season, was held to just 33 yards in the game. Humphries finished 24 out of 49 for 275 yards and one touchdown, with two interceptions. Seay was the Chargers' top receiver with 7 receptions for 75 yards, whileRonnie Harmonadded 8 catches for 68 yards. Defensive end Raylee Johnson had two sacks. Coleman's 8 kickoff returns for 244 yards and a touchdown set the following Super Bowl records: most kickoff returns in a Super Bowl, most kickoff return yards in a Super Bowl, and most combined net yards gained in a Super Bowl. This was the first Super Bowl to have two players each score three touchdowns. Rice matched hisSuper Bowl XXIVperformance with his three touchdown catches. Watters also had three touchdowns, matching Roger Craig's three touchdowns (two receiving and one rushing) inSuper Bowl XIX. Watters also became the second running back to catch two touchdown passes in a game, matching Craig. Ken Norton Jr.became the first player to win three straight Super Bowls, although as a member of two teams. Norton was a member of the Cowboys teams who won Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII.Deion Sandersbecame the first player to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series, playing in the1992 World Serieswith theAtlanta Braves. Chargers quarterbackGale Gilbertbecame the first player to be a member of five straight Super Bowl teams. Gilbert was a member of the Bills who played in four straight Super Bowls (XXV–XXVIII). Gilbert was on the losing team in all five Super Bowl games. The 49ers' spectacular performance led to their offensive coordinator,Mike Shanahan, and defensive coordinator,Ray Rhodes, earning head coaching positions in 1995 for theDenver Broncosand thePhiladelphia Eagles, respectively.Bobby Rossbecame the second coach, afterJimmy JohnsoninSuper Bowl XXVII, to lead a team to acollege football national championship(Georgia Techin 1990) and a Super Bowl. One year later,Barry Switzerwould join Johnson as the only head coaches to win championships in both NCAA Division I-A (now FBS) college football and the NFL. Box score atJoe Robbie Stadium,Miami, Florida Final statistics Sources:NFL.com Super Bowl XXIX,Super Bowl XXIX Play Finder SF,Super Bowl XXIX Play Finder SD,USA Today Super Bowl XXIX Play by Play Statistical comparison Individual statistics 1Completions/attempts2Carries3Longest gain4Receptions5Times targeted Records set The following records were set in Super Bowl XXIX, according to the official NFL.com boxscoreand the Pro-Football-Reference.com game summary.Some records have to meet NFL minimum number of attempts to be recognized.The minimums are shown (in parentheses). Turnovers are defined as the number of times losing the ball on interceptions and fumbles. Starting lineups Source: Pro Football Hall of Fame‡ Officials Jerry Markbreit became the first official to serve as referee in four Super Bowls, a record that still stands. Officials wore a black armband with number 42 to honor umpire Dave Hamilton, who died on January 9 at age 61 due to liver failure. Hamilton had completed his 20th season as an NFL official in 1994. The day after the Super Bowl, Donnie Hampton, who had been a field judge since 1988, died of a heart attack at age 47. Aftermath As of the 2022 season, this is the only Super Bowl played between teams based in the same state. It is also the most recent Super Bowl title to date for the 49ers. They would play in three more in the 21st Century (Super Bowl XLVII,Super Bowl LIVandSuper Bowl LVIII), but lost all of them. As for the Chargers, the implications of their defeat were far worse in hindsight. This remains the only Super Bowl the Chargers have ever played in. Including the era before theAFL–NFL merger, it isthe third championship gamethat the Chargers have lost. TheAFL Championship in 1963remains to this day as the only major sports championship the city of San Diego has won (and also the longest championship drought for any city that has at least two major sports franchises), so even though they were heavy underdogs, the loss still had great significance.The Chargers did not win another playoff game until the2007 season, when they reached the AFC Championship Game but lost to the then-undefeated New England Patriots, 21–12. Super Bowl XXIX would be their only appearance while playing in San Diego before they moved to Los Angeles following the 2016 season. Notable deaths from 1994 Chargers team In addition, eight players from the 1994 Chargers Super Bowl team have died prior to reaching age 45.They include: Notes References External links",
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"Super Bowl XXIX Super Bowl XXIXwas anAmerican footballgame between theAmerican Football Conference(AFC) championSan Diego Chargersand theNational Football Conference(NFC) championSan Francisco 49ersto decide theNational Football League(NFL) champion for the1994 season.The 49ers defeated the Chargers by the score of 49–26, becoming the first team to win five Super Bowl championships. The game was played on January 29, 1995, atJoe Robbie StadiuminMiami, Florida. This game is regarded as 49ers quarterbackSteve Young's final leap out of the shadow of his predecessor,Joe Montana, who had won four Super Bowls with the 49ers (in1981,1984,1988, and1989), two with Young as the backup quarterback. With Young at the helm, and a defense consisting of several veteranfree agentswho joined the team during the previous offseason, San Francisco finished the regular season with a league-best 13–3 record, and led the league in total points scored (505). The Chargers, on the other hand, were regarded as a\"Cinderella\" team, and",
"team, and advanced to their first Super Bowl after posting an 11–5 regular-season record and overcoming halftime deficits in both of their playoff wins. This was the first Super Bowl in which both teams scored in all four quarters. The combined aggregate score of 75 points and the ten totaltouchdownsboth remain Super Bowl records. Still, the 49ers controlled most of the game, with Young completing touchdown passes in each of the 49ers' first two drives. The Chargers were able to cut the deficit late in the first quarter, 14–7, on a 13-play, 78-yard drive, but could not slow down San Francisco afterwards. Young was named theSuper Bowl MVP, throwing a Super Bowl-record six touchdown passes, and completing 24 out of 36 passes for 325 yards. Despite the predicted blowout (18 1⁄2- points is the second largest margin a team has been favored by in a Super Bowl), the fact that San Diego did not have as much national appeal nor a relatively large core fan base, and two teams fromCaliforniaplaying, which could have",
"which could have significantly diminished interest along theEast Coast, the telecast of the game onABCstill had aNielsen ratingof 41.3. Background Host selection process NFL owners voted to award Super Bowl XXIX to Miami during their May 23, 1991 meeting inMinneapolis. Three cities presented bids:Miami(Joe Robbie Stadium),Tampa(Tampa Stadium), andHouston(Astrodome).New Orleans pulled out of the running early on due to conflicts with other conventions. Houston was considered an early favorite, since they had not hosted the game since1974. However, the Astrodome would need to add approximately 10,000 temporary seats in order to meet the NFL's capacity requirement of 70,000. Rules required a candidate to receive a3⁄4vote (21 of 28 owners) in order to win the bidding. Tampa was eliminated on the first ballot, having just hostedXXV, along with their lack of premium seating. Then neither Miami nor Houston managed to get 21 votes on the second ballot or on the third ballot. For the fourth ballot, the threshold was",
"the threshold was reduced to a simple majority. In what was said to be a close vote, Miami was selected as the host.It marked the seventh time overall theMiami-areahosted the Super Bowl, and the second time it was played in Joe Robbie Stadium. San Diego Chargers The Chargers were the biggest surprise of the 1994 season, with very few expecting them to even reach the playoffs, let alone the Super Bowl. San Diego suffered losing seasons in the 1980s until formerWashington Redskinsgeneral managerBobby Beathardjoined the team in 1990. Beathard decided to rebuild the Chargers using the same model that he used to build the Redskins into Super Bowl contenders during the 1980s: a powerful running game built around big linemen, a passing game that helped sustain extremely long drives, and a bending but steady defense. After formerGeorgia Techhead coachBobby Rosswas hired by theChargers in 1992, the team won theAFC Westwith an 11–5 regular season record and won an opening round playoff game againstKansas City. But",
"City. But in1993, they slumped back to 8–8 and did not reach the postseason. Before the start of the 1994 season, San Diego was not expected to do well because they had so many newcomers via the draft and free agency; the Chargers ended up with 22 new players on their roster, and 10 of them became starters. However, they ended up winning their first six regular season games en route to an 11–5 record, the AFC West championship, and the #2 AFC playoffseed. The Chargers went into the final game of the season against thePittsburgh Steelersneeding a win to get the #2 seed (a loss would have given that spot to theMiami Dolphins), which came with a first-round bye and a home game in the divisional round of the playoffs. Backup quarterbackGale Gilbert, subbing for injured starterStan Humphries, led the Chargers to a come-from-behind 37–34 win, withJohn Carneykicking a game-winning field goal in the game's final seconds. The Chargers' offense was led by quarterbackStan Humphries, who was the Redskins' backup toMark",
"backup toMark Rypienduring the1991 season, when they wonSuper Bowl XXVI. During the 1994 season for San Diego, Humphries completed 264 out of 453 attempts for 3,209 yards and 17 touchdowns, with 12 interceptions. Wide receiverMark Seaywas the team's leading receiver with 58 receptions for 645 yards and 6 touchdowns. Wide receiverTony Martinhad 50 catches for 885 yards and 7 touchdowns, wide receiverShawn Jeffersonrecorded 43 catches for 627 yards and 3 touchdowns, and tight endAlfred Pupunuhad 21 receptions for 214 yards and 2 touchdowns. Running backNatrone Meansled the team in rushing with 1,350 yards and 12 touchdowns. He also recorded 39 receptions for 235 yards, and was named to the Pro Bowl. Third-down backRonnie Harmonwas also a big contributor, catching 58 passes for 615 yards and a touchdown. Meanwhile, the Chargers'special teamswas also a major threat withAndre Coleman, who returned 49 kickoffs for 1,293 yards (26.4 average yards per return) and 2 touchdowns. The Chargers had an excellent defensive",
"excellent defensive line, anchored by Pro Bowl defensive endLeslie O'Neal, who led the team with 12.5 sacks and forced four fumbles, defensive tackleChris Mims, who recorded 11 sacks, andShawn Lee, who added 6.5 sacks and a fumble recovery. Their linebacking corps was led byJunior Seau, who was a Pro Bowl selection for the fourth consecutive year, recording 123 tackles, 5.5 sacks, and 3 fumble recoveries. Defensive backStanley Richardwas a major weapon in the secondary, recording 4 interceptions, 224 return yards, and 2 touchdowns. Defensive backDarrien Gordonwas also a major asset to the team, recording 4 interceptions and 32 return yards, while also adding another 475 yards and 2 touchdowns returning punts. SafetyRodney Harrisonwas a rookie on the team. Chargers backup quarterbackGale Gilbertbecame the first player to be a member of five consecutive Super Bowl teams. He had been a third-string quarterback for theBuffalo Bills, who had won AFC Championships in the four previous seasons (1990–1993). San",
"(1990–1993). San Francisco 49ers From the1988to the1993seasons, the 49ers played in five out of six NFC Championship Games, winning Super BowlsXXIIIandXXIV. But after head coachGeorge Seifert's team lost two consecutive NFC Championship games to theDallas Cowboysin1992and1993, San Francisco brought in several veteranfree agentsto strengthen their defense. Among the players signed were defensive linemenRichard Dent(the MVP ofSuper Bowl XX),Charles Mann,Rhett Hall, andRickey Jackson; linebackersKen Norton Jr.andGary Plummer; and cornerbackDeion Sanders. The free agents enabled the 49ers to jump from the 18th-ranked defense in the league to the 8th, and to jump from the league's 16th-best defense against the run to the 2nd.Pro Bowldefensive linemanDana Stubblefieldled the team with 8.5 sacks. Rookie defensive tackleBryant Youngwas also a big threat to opposing quarterbacks and rushers, recording 42 tackles, 6 sacks, and a fumble recovery. Behind them, Norton played very effectively at the middle linebacker",
"middle linebacker position, leading the team with 77 tackles and recording an interception. Pro Bowl safetyMerton Hanksled the team with 7 interceptions for 93 return yards, while Sanders had 6 interceptions for 303 return yards and 3 touchdowns, earning him theNFL Defensive Player of the Year Award. His 303 return yards was the third-highest total in NFL history, while his touchdown returns of 74, 93, and 90 yards made him the first player ever to have two 90-yard interception returns in one season. Pro Bowl safetyTim McDonaldwas also a big contributor, recording 2 interceptions for 79 yards and a touchdown. The 49ers' offense was led by quarterbackSteve Young, who replaced futureHall of FamerJoe Montanaas the starter in1991and1992due to injuries. After Young led the league in passing in both seasons, Montana was traded to theKansas City Chiefs, leaving Young as the undisputed starter in 1993. But even with his impressive passing statistics, Young was criticized as \"not being able to win the big games\" as",
"the big games\" as Montana had done in leading the 49ers to Super Bowl victories inXVI,XIX, XXIII, and XXIV. It also didn't help that the team had lost to Montana's Chiefs 24–17 during the regular season. Still, Young again led the league in passing during the 1994 regular season with apasser ratingof 112.8, breaking Montana's record for the highest regular season rating in NFL history. Young recorded 324 out of 461 completions for 3,969 yards, 35 touchdowns, and just 10 interceptions. He also had 58 rushes for 293 yards and 7 touchdowns, and earned theNFL Most Valuable Player Award. With Young at the helm, the 49ers led the league in total points scored (505) and helped them earn a league best 13–3 regular season record. Pro Bowl running backRicky Watterswas the team's leading rusher with 877 yards and 6 touchdowns, while also recording 66 receptions for 719 yards and 5 touchdowns. Rookie fullbackWilliam Floydwas the team's second-leading rusher with 305 yards and 6 touchdowns, while also having 19",
"also having 19 receptions for 145 yards. The team's leading receiver was Pro Bowl wide receiverJerry Rice, who had 112 catches for 1,499 yards and 13 touchdowns, while also gaining 93 yards and two more touchdowns rushing the ball. ReceiverJohn Taylorwas also a reliable target, catching 41 passes for 531 yards and 5 touchdowns. Pro Bowl tight endBrent Jonesadded 49 receptions for 670 yards and 9 touchdowns. The offensive line was led by Pro Bowl centerBart Oates, another offseason free agent pickup, and Pro Bowl guardJesse Sapolu. Running backDexter Carterhad a standout season as a returner onspecial teams, gaining a combined total of 1,426 yards and a touchdown returning both punts and kickoffs. Playoffs Chargers In the AFC Divisional Playoffs, the Chargers managed to overcome a 21–6 halftime deficit to defeat theMiami Dolphins, 22–21. In the first half, San Diego was limited to only twoJohn Carneyfield goals, while Miami quarterbackDan Marinothrew for over 180 yards and 3 touchdowns. However, the Chargers",
"the Chargers dominated the Dolphins in the second half, limiting their offense to just 16 plays. In the third quarter, after the Chargers were stopped on fourth and goal at the 1-yard line, Chargers defensive linemanReuben Davistackled Dolphins running backBernie Parmaleein the end zone for a safety. San Diego then took the ensuing free kick and marched 54 yards to score on Means's 24-yard touchdown run. Then with time running out, Humphries threw an 8-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Mark Seay, giving his team a one-point lead. The Dolphins, aided by a pass interference call, responded with a drive to the Chargers' 31-yard line, but kickerPete Stoyanovich's potential game-winning 48-yard field goal attempt sailed far to the right of the goal posts and sealed San Diego's stirring win. San Diego then faced thePittsburgh Steelersin theAFC Championship Game. Once again, the Chargers fell behind early as the Steelers built up a 13–3 halftime lead, but Humphries fooled the Steelers secondary with a",
"secondary with a 43-yardplay-actiontouchdown pass to a wide open tight endAlfred Pupunu. The Chargers then took a 17–13 lead when Martin beat the Steelers secondary (particularly a badly overmatchedTim McKyer) down the right sideline for a 43-yard touchdown reception. On their final drive, the Steelers advanced to the San Diego 3-yard line, but Chargers linebackerDennis Gibsonsealed the victory on fourth down by deflecting quarterbackNeil O'Donnell's pass intended for running backBarry Fosterto turn the ball back over to San Diego. Just like the 49ers in the NFC title game, the Chargers advanced to the Super Bowl despite the fact that their opponent had outgained them in many key statistical categories such as total plays (80–47), total offensive yards (415–226), and time of possession (37:13–22:47). 49ers The 49ers first defeated theChicago Bears, 44–15, in the NFC Divisional Playoffs. Although Chicago scored first with a field goal, San Francisco scored 37 unanswered points to put the game out of reach by",
"out of reach by the end of the third quarter. Floyd scored three rushing touchdowns, while Young rushed for a touchdown and threw for another. San Francisco then defeatedtheir nemesis, theDallas Cowboys, 38–28, in theNFC Championship Game. Expected to be a close game, the 49ers converted 3 Dallas turnovers into 21 points in the first quarter. On the third play of the game, cornerbackEric Davisreturned an interception from Cowboys quarterbackTroy Aikmanfor a touchdown. Wide receiverMichael Irvinlost a fumble on Dallas' next drive, setting up Young's 29-yard touchdown pass to Watters. Then Cowboys returnerKevin Williamslost a fumble on the ensuing kickoff, and it was recovered by kickerDoug Brienat Dallas' 35-yard line. Several plays later, Floyd scored on a 1-yard touchdown run to give San Francisco a 21–0 lead less than 8 minutes into the game. With the score 24–14 in the closing minutes of the first half, Aikman threw 3 straight incompletions, and a short punt by the Cowboys set up Young's 28-yard touchdown",
"28-yard touchdown completion to Rice with 8 seconds remaining in the first half. The Cowboys eventually cut their deficit to 38–28 with a touchdown run byEmmitt Smithand Aikman's 10-yard touchdown pass to Irvin in the final period, but they were unable to score again.Although the Cowboys outgained the 49ers in total offensive yards (451–294), Aikman broke an NFC Championship Game record with 380 yards passing, and Irvin also broke an NFC Championship Game record with 192 receiving yards, Dallas was ultimately unable to overcome their first-quarter turnovers. Super Bowl pregame news Entering Super Bowl XXIX, most sports writers and fans thought the Chargers had absolutely no chance of defeating the 49ers. San Francisco was on track, winning 12 of its last 13 games (with their only loss in that span coming against theMinnesota Vikingsin a meaningless regular season finale at Minnesota), including their playoff victories. Many people also thought that the NFC Championship Game between the 49ers and the Cowboys",
"and the Cowboys was \"the real Super Bowl\",because those two teams were commonly viewed as vastly superior to any AFC team. Furthermore, San Francisco had defeated San Diego, 38–15, during the regular season. As a result, the 49ers entered the game favored to win by 18 1⁄2- points, surpassed only by the 19 1⁄2- points, by theBaltimore Coltswho were favored over theNew York JetsinSuper Bowl IIImore than two decades prior. Many also speculated that Super Bowl XXIX would be the least watched game in Super Bowl history because the Chargers did not have as large of a core fan base as other AFC teams like the Chiefs, the Dolphins, or the Steelers. (This prediction ultimately turned out to be false. Although Super Bowl XXIX was viewed by 125.2 million people and had aNielsen ratingof 41.3,Super Bowl XXVIthree years earlier was seen by 119.7 million viewers and recorded a 40.3 rating.) This was the seventh Super Bowl to be played in Miami, at the time tying bothNew Orleans, Louisiana and theGreater Los Angeles",
"Los Angeles areafor hosting the Super Bowl the most times. It remains the only Super Bowl played between teams that play their home games in the same state (althoughSuper Bowl XXVwas played between theNew York Giantsand theBuffalo Bills, two teams representing areas ofNew York, the Giants play their home games inNew Jersey). Broadcasting The game was broadcast in the United States byABC, withplay-by-play announcerAl Michaelsandcolor commentatorsFrank GiffordandDan Dierdorf.Lynn Swannreported from theChargerssideline andLesley Visserreported from the49erssideline). Visser became the first woman assigned to a Super Bowl sideline; she had previously become the first woman sportscaster to cover theVince Lombardi Trophypresentation ceremony, when she coveredSuper Bowl XXVIforCBS.Brent Musburgerhosted all the Super Bowl XXIX pregame (2 hours), halftime, and postgame events with the help of then-ABC Sports analystDick Vermeil, Musburger's regular color commentator on ABC'scollege football telecasts, and then-New",
"and then-New York JetsquarterbackBoomer Esiason. This was the last Super Bowl broadcast by the broadcast team of Michaels, Gifford and Dierdorf. The three calledMonday Night Footballfrom the1987to1997, and also worked ABC's coverage of Super BowlsXXIIandXXV. This would also be the last Super Bowl aired on ABC until the1999 season(when Al Michaels called the game with Boomer Esiason). This would also be the final Super Bowl hosted by Musburger, as all subsequent Super Bowls on ABC were hosted byESPN'sChris Bermanfollowing theDisneypurchase of ABC (which included ESPN), and the subsequent integration of ESPN and ABC Sports (now ESPN on ABC). Also, the trophy presentation for this game was the last to be held in the winning team's locker room, as all subsequent Vince Lombardi Trophy presentations would be held on the field. For theSuper Bowl lead-out program, ABC premiered the television dramaExtremestarringJames Brolin; this was the last series to premiere following the Super Bowl untilFamily Guypremiered",
"Guypremiered followingSuper Bowl XXXIIIand is one of only four in the last 14 years to premiere following a Super Bowl (joiningFamily Guy, its spinoffAmerican Dad!, andUndercover Bosswhich premiered followingSuper Bowl XLIV), since the networks have preferred to have new episodes of established shows to catch as much of the post-game audience as possible. Thirty-second television advertisements for Super Bowl XXIX averaged $1.15 million in costs, the first time that Super Bowl ads exceeded the $1 million mark. Super Bowl XXIX aired in over 150 countries worldwide. It was simulcast in Canada onCTVandTVA(in French), in Mexico onTelevisa'sCanal 5, whose commentators were able to call the game live from San Diego on the last minute,in Germany onTele 5, inAustraliaonABC, in thePhilippineson theGMA Networkand later aired in the United Kingdom onChannel 4. This Super Bowl would later be featured onNFL's Greatest Gamesunder the titleExercise in Excellence.The Super Bowl highlight film on which the episode was based",
"episode was based was the only Super Bowl highlight film to be narrated byHarry Kalas. In popular culture In the Tuesday prior to the Super Bowl, the ABC sitcomFull Houseaired an episode called \"Super Bowl Fun Day\" involving main characters Danny Tanner and Rebecca Donaldson reporting at the game for their showWake Up, San Francisco. (Full Housewas set in San Francisco, and this was the only time during the show's run that the 49ers advanced to a Super Bowl aired on ABC.) A week earlier, theSeinfeldepisode \"The Label Maker\" involvedJerrytrying to give away his tickets to the game. He eventually decided to go, but unfortunately was stuck sitting next toNewman. Two days after the Super Bowl, the game was the main plot feature of an episode of the ABC sitcomHome Improvement, \"Super Bowl Fever\", in whichJillwas sick with the flu whileTimand his buddies tried to watch the game. Entertainment Pregame ceremonies The pregame show held before the game featuredcountry musicsingerHank Williams Jr., who performed his",
"who performed his theme song forMonday Night Football, which was based on his single \"All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight\". Actress and singerKathie Lee Gifford(Frank Gifford's wife) later sang the national anthem. She was accompanied by then-Miss AmericaHeather Whitestonewhosignedthe anthem for the hearing impaired. To honor the NFL's 75th season, four former players all Hall of Fame members, who were named to the league's 75th Anniversary All-Time Team joined thecoin tossceremony:Otto Graham,Joe Greene,Ray Nitschke, andGale Sayers. A special 75th anniversary logo was painted at midfield. Each player also wore a patch on hisjerseywith the same logo; the 75th anniversary patch was worn by all players league-wide during the1994 season. During the regular season, teams also wore \"throwback\" jerseys for selected games. The 49ers wore their throwbacks (which paid tribute to the1957 Niners) for most of the season, this game included. Halftime show The halftime show was titled \"Indiana Jones and the",
"Jones and the Temple of the Forbidden Eye\" and was produced byDisneyto promote theirIndiana Jones Adventureattraction atDisneylandthat opened later that year. The show featured actors playingIndiana Jonesand his girlfriendMarion Ravenwoodwho were raiding theVince Lombardi Trophyfrom the Temple of the Forbidden Eye. The show also had performances by singersTony BennettandPatti LaBelle,jazztrumpeterArturo Sandoval, and theMiami Sound Machine. The show ended with everybody singing \"Can You Feel The Love Tonight\", the song featured in Disney's (which later acquired ABC) 1994 filmThe Lion King. The dancers on the field were members of the Coral Gables Senior High marching band. This halftime show also had a connection with past ABC programming: the first twoIndiana Jonesfilms had their broadcast premieres on ABC, and the network aired a TV series,The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, from 1992 to 1993 (actually serving as the lead-in toMonday Night Footballat one point). Radio The game was broadcast on nationwide",
"on nationwide radio byCBSwithplay-by-play announcerJack Buckandcolor commentatorHank Stram.Jim Hunterhosted all of the events. Locally, Super Bowl XXIX was broadcast byXTRA-AMinSan DiegowithLee \"Hacksaw\" HamiltonandJim Laslavicand byKGO-AMinSan FranciscowithJoe StarkeyandWayne Walker. Game summary First quarter After 49ers running backDexter Carterreturned the opening kickoff 9 yards to the San Francisco 26-yard line, a face mask penalty on Chargers linebackerDoug Millerallowed San Francisco to start at their own 41. On the third play of the drive, quarterbackSteve Youngthrew a 44-yard touchdown pass to wideJerry Riceto take an early 7–0 lead. The 49ers became the second team to take the opening kickoff and score a touchdown on that first drive (the first being theMiami DolphinsinSuper Bowl VIII), and also set a new Super Bowl record for the fastest touchdown (later broken by theChicago Bears'Devin HesterinSuper Bowl XLI). After forcing the Chargers to punt after a three-and-out on their opening possession,",
"opening possession, the 49ers advanced 79 yards in four plays, with Young rushing for 21 yards and then throwing a 51-yard touchdown pass to running backRicky Wattersto give San Francisco a 14–0 lead less than 5 minutes into the first quarter and set a Super Bowl record for the fastest second touchdown scored by a team. San Diego responded on their ensuing possession, marching 78 yards in 13 plays and taking more than 7 minutes off the clock. The drive featured two receptions and a run by running backRonnie Harmonfor 33 yards and six runs by running backNatrone Meansfor 22 yards, the last one being a 1-yard touchdown run, cutting the Chargers' deficit to 14–7. However, the 49ers quickly countered after the ensuing kickoff, driving 70 yards in 10 plays. Rice started off the drive with a 19-yard reception and 10-yard run on a reverse play, while Young added a 12-yard completion to wide receiverJohn Taylorand a 15-yard scramble. Second quarter Four plays into the second quarter, Young threw a 5-yard touchdown",
"a 5-yard touchdown pass to fullbackWilliam Floyd, increasing the San Francisco lead to 21–7 and making the 49ers the second team to score on its first three possessions (afterGreen Bay) of a Super Bowl and the first (and only as of 2024) to score touchdowns on its first three possessions. After the next three possessions ended in punts, Chargers punterBryan Wagner's 40-yard punt from his own 9-yard line gave the 49ers the ball at the San Diego 49. San Francisco then marched on a 9-play drive, which included two receptions by Rice for 19 yards and ended with Young's fourth touchdown pass, an 8-yard toss to Watters, with 4:44 left in the half, making the score 28–7. San Diego then took the ensuing kickoff and drove 62 yards from their own 25-yard line to the San Francisco 13, featuring a 17-yard reception by wide receiverMark Seay, a 10-yard reverse run by wide receiverShawn Jefferson, and a 33-yard gain on ascreen passfrom quarterbackStan Humphriesto running backEric Bieniemy, the Chargers' longest play of",
"longest play of the game. But after Humphries threw three incomplete passes, one of which was a perfectly thrown pass that Seay dropped in the end zone, they were forced to settle for kickerJohn Carney's 31-yard field goal, cutting their deficit to 28–10. A 33-yard completion from Young to tight endBrent Joneshelped the 49ers reach the San Diego 29-yard line on their next possession, but Young's third-down pass to Jones was overthrown, and kickerDoug Brienmissed a 47-yard field goal attempt wide right. The Chargers then drove to their own 46-yard line, but 49ers cornerbackEric Davisintercepted Humphries' third-down pass intended for wide receiverTony Martinin the end zone for a touchback with 10 seconds left in the half, and the score remained 28–10 at halftime. The Chargers' 18-point halftime deficit ended up being the closest scoring margin they would reach for the rest of the game. Third quarter The 49ers picked up right where they left off going into the second half. The Chargers were forced to punt",
"were forced to punt after three plays on the opening drive of the half, and Carter returned the ball 11 yards to his own 38-yard line. Young subsequently completed two passes to Rice for 37 yards (including a 21-yard pass on 3rd-and-17) and a 16-yard pass to Taylor on a 7-play, 62-yard drive that ended with Watters' third touchdown of the game on a 9-yard run, increasing the 49ers' lead to 35–10. After a 33-yard kickoff return by wide receiverAndre Coleman, the Chargers advanced to the San Francisco 33-yard line, aided by a 23-yard reception by tight endAlfred Pupunu, but they turned the ball over on downs when Humphries' 4th-and-7 pass intended for Martin was broken up by Davis. Young then led San Francisco on a 10-play, 67-yard drive, aided by a 22-yard pass interference penalty against cornerbackDarrien Gordonon 3rd-and-14, to score on his fifth touchdown pass, a 15-yard completion to Rice. But San Diego immediately responded when Coleman returned the ensuing kickoff 98 yards for a touchdown. Then",
"a touchdown. Then Humphries completed a pass to Seay for atwo-point conversion(the first in Super Bowl history; the rule had been adopted by the NFL at the start of the season), but it only cut the deficit to 42–18. The 49ers were forced to punt on their next drive, but the Chargers ended up turning the ball over on downs again when Means was tackled for a 4-yard loss by safetyMerton Hankson 4th-and-1 from the San Diego 37. Fourth quarter Six plays later, after three runs by Watters for 25 yards, Young threw his record-setting sixth touchdown pass to Rice on a 7-yard completion with 13:49 remaining in the game, increasing the San Francisco lead to 49–18 and essentially ending any hopes of a San Diego comeback. The Chargers, now playing for pride, responded with a 13-play, 59-yard drive to reach the San Francisco 7-yard line. Humphries led his team down the field 12 yards for the first four plays, but hurt his ankle while being tackled by defensive tackleBryant Young, and was temporarily replaced byGale",
"replaced byGale Gilbert, who completed two passes to Harmon for 24 yards, but threw an interception on 4th-and-6 to cornerbackDeion Sanders, who returned the ball to the San Francisco 14-yard line. After two punts by the 49ers and an interception by San Francisco defensive backToi Cook(during which Humphries returned to the game), the Chargers scored the final points of the game on a 67-yard, 8-play drive, which consisted of two receptions by Seay for 30 yards and two receptions by Martin for 42 yards, the second of which was caught for a 30-yard touchdown. TV viewers didn't see most of the play as ABC had cut to the 49ers celebrating on the sideline. Humphries then completed another pass for a two-point conversion, this time to Pupunu, to make the final score 49–26. The 49ers recovered the ensuing onside kick and ran time off the clock before punting to the San Diego 7. San Diego drove to the San Francisco 35 before the game ended. Once the 49ers victory was assured, Young said \"somebody take the monkey off",
"take the monkey off my back!\" Years later, he regretted saying that saying this was a team effort not an individual performance. At the end of the game, Young showed his jubilation at finally being able to win \"the big one\" while accepting the MVP trophy. \"There were times when this was hard! But this is the greatest feeling in the world! No one —no one!— can ever take this away from us! No one,ever!It's ours!\" Young and his teammates were equally enthusiastic in the locker room afterwards. \"We're part of history,\" said guardJesse Sapolu. \"This is probably the best offense people will see in their lifetimes.\" \"Is this great or what?\" Young added. \"I mean, I haven't thrown six touchdown passes in a game in my life. Then I throw six in the Super Bowl! Unbelievable.\" Rice caught 10 passes for 149 yards and 3 touchdowns, tying his own record for most touchdown receptions in a Super Bowl, and becoming the first player ever to do it twice. He also recorded 10 rushing yards. Watters rushed for 47 yards and a",
"for 47 yards and a touchdown, while also catching 3 passes for 61 yards and two touchdowns. Means, who rushed for 1,350 yards in the regular season, was held to just 33 yards in the game. Humphries finished 24 out of 49 for 275 yards and one touchdown, with two interceptions. Seay was the Chargers' top receiver with 7 receptions for 75 yards, whileRonnie Harmonadded 8 catches for 68 yards. Defensive end Raylee Johnson had two sacks. Coleman's 8 kickoff returns for 244 yards and a touchdown set the following Super Bowl records: most kickoff returns in a Super Bowl, most kickoff return yards in a Super Bowl, and most combined net yards gained in a Super Bowl. This was the first Super Bowl to have two players each score three touchdowns. Rice matched hisSuper Bowl XXIVperformance with his three touchdown catches. Watters also had three touchdowns, matching Roger Craig's three touchdowns (two receiving and one rushing) inSuper Bowl XIX. Watters also became the second running back to catch two touchdown passes in",
"touchdown passes in a game, matching Craig. Ken Norton Jr.became the first player to win three straight Super Bowls, although as a member of two teams. Norton was a member of the Cowboys teams who won Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII.Deion Sandersbecame the first player to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series, playing in the1992 World Serieswith theAtlanta Braves. Chargers quarterbackGale Gilbertbecame the first player to be a member of five straight Super Bowl teams. Gilbert was a member of the Bills who played in four straight Super Bowls (XXV–XXVIII). Gilbert was on the losing team in all five Super Bowl games. The 49ers' spectacular performance led to their offensive coordinator,Mike Shanahan, and defensive coordinator,Ray Rhodes, earning head coaching positions in 1995 for theDenver Broncosand thePhiladelphia Eagles, respectively.Bobby Rossbecame the second coach, afterJimmy JohnsoninSuper Bowl XXVII, to lead a team to acollege football national championship(Georgia Techin 1990) and a Super Bowl.",
"and a Super Bowl. One year later,Barry Switzerwould join Johnson as the only head coaches to win championships in both NCAA Division I-A (now FBS) college football and the NFL. Box score atJoe Robbie Stadium,Miami, Florida Final statistics Sources:NFL.com Super Bowl XXIX,Super Bowl XXIX Play Finder SF,Super Bowl XXIX Play Finder SD,USA Today Super Bowl XXIX Play by Play Statistical comparison Individual statistics 1Completions/attempts2Carries3Longest gain4Receptions5Times targeted Records set The following records were set in Super Bowl XXIX, according to the official NFL.com boxscoreand the Pro-Football-Reference.com game summary.Some records have to meet NFL minimum number of attempts to be recognized.The minimums are shown (in parentheses). Turnovers are defined as the number of times losing the ball on interceptions and fumbles. Starting lineups Source: Pro Football Hall of Fame‡ Officials Jerry Markbreit became the first official to serve as referee in four Super Bowls, a record that still stands.",
"that still stands. Officials wore a black armband with number 42 to honor umpire Dave Hamilton, who died on January 9 at age 61 due to liver failure. Hamilton had completed his 20th season as an NFL official in 1994. The day after the Super Bowl, Donnie Hampton, who had been a field judge since 1988, died of a heart attack at age 47. Aftermath As of the 2022 season, this is the only Super Bowl played between teams based in the same state. It is also the most recent Super Bowl title to date for the 49ers. They would play in three more in the 21st Century (Super Bowl XLVII,Super Bowl LIVandSuper Bowl LVIII), but lost all of them. As for the Chargers, the implications of their defeat were far worse in hindsight. This remains the only Super Bowl the Chargers have ever played in. Including the era before theAFL–NFL merger, it isthe third championship gamethat the Chargers have lost. TheAFL Championship in 1963remains to this day as the only major sports championship the city of San Diego has won (and also the",
"won (and also the longest championship drought for any city that has at least two major sports franchises), so even though they were heavy underdogs, the loss still had great significance.The Chargers did not win another playoff game until the2007 season, when they reached the AFC Championship Game but lost to the then-undefeated New England Patriots, 21–12. Super Bowl XXIX would be their only appearance while playing in San Diego before they moved to Los Angeles following the 2016 season. Notable deaths from 1994 Chargers team In addition, eight players from the 1994 Chargers Super Bowl team have died prior to reaching age 45.They include: Notes References External links",
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"Pablo Picasso Pablo Ruiz Picasso(25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973) was a Spanish painter, sculptor,printmaker,ceramicist, andtheatre designerwho spent most of his adult life inFrance. One of the most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding theCubistmovement, the invention ofconstructed sculpture,the co-invention ofcollage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are theproto-CubistLes Demoiselles d'Avignon(1907) and the anti-war paintingGuernica(1937), a dramatic portrayal of thebombing of Guernicaby German and Italian air forces during theSpanish Civil War. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his early years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood and adolescence. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, and ideas. After 1906, theFauvistwork of the older artistHenri Matissemotivated Picasso to explore more radical styles, beginning a fruitful rivalry between the two artists, who subsequently were often paired by critics as the leaders ofmodern art. Picasso's output, especially in his early career, is often periodized. While the names of many of his later periods are debated, the most commonly accepted periods in his work are theBlue Period(1901–1904), theRose Period(1904–1906), theAfrican-influenced Period(1907–1909), AnalyticCubism(1909–1912), and Synthetic Cubism (1912–1919), also referred to as theCrystal period. Much of Picasso's work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in aneoclassicalstyle, and his work in the mid-1920s often has characteristics ofSurrealism. His later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Exceptionally prolific throughout the course of his long life, Picasso achieved universal renown and immense fortune for his revolutionary artistic accomplishments, and became one of the best-known figures in20th-century art. Early life Picasso was born at 23:15 on 25 October 1881, in the city ofMálaga, Andalusia, in southern Spain.He was the first child ofDon José Ruiz y Blasco(1838–1913) and María Picasso y López.Picasso's family was of middle-class background. His father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life, Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts and acuratorof a local museum. Picasso's birth certificate and the record of his baptism include very long names, combining those of various saints and relatives.Ruiz y Picassowere his paternal and maternal surnames, respectively, per Spanish custom. The surname \"Picasso\" comes fromLiguria, a coastal region of north-western Italy.Pablo's maternal great-grandfather, Tommaso Picasso, moved to Spain around 1807. Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were \"piz, piz\", a shortening oflápiz, the Spanish word for \"pencil\".From the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was a traditional academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters, and drawing the human body from plaster casts and live models. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork. The family moved toA Coruñain 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. They stayed for almost four years. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his unfinished sketch of a pigeon. Observing the precision of his son's technique, an apocryphal story relates, Ruiz felt that the thirteen-year-old Picasso had surpassed him, and vowed to give up painting,though paintings by him exist from later years. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his seven-year-old sister, Conchita, died ofdiphtheria.After her death, the family moved toBarcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home.Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, and the jury admitted him, at just 13. As a student, Picasso lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a small room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day, judging his drawings. The two argued frequently. Picasso's father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrid'sReal Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, the country's foremost art school.At age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrollment. Madrid held many other attractions. ThePradohoused paintings byDiego Velázquez,Francisco Goya, andFrancisco Zurbarán. Picasso especially admired the works ofEl Greco; elements such as his elongated limbs, arresting colours, and mystical visages are echoed in Picasso's later work. Career Before 1900 Picasso's training under his father began before 1890. His progress can be traced in the collection of early works now held by theMuseu PicassoinBarcelona, which provides one of the most comprehensive extant records of any major artist's beginnings.During 1893 the juvenile quality of his earliest work falls away, and by 1894 his career as a painter can be said to have begun.The academic realism apparent in the works of the mid-1890s is well displayed inThe First Communion(1896), a large composition that depicts his sister, Lola. In the same year, at the age of 14, he paintedPortrait of Aunt Pepa, a vigorous and dramatic portrait thatJuan-Eduardo Cirlothas called \"without a doubt one of the greatest in the whole history of Spanish painting.\" In 1897, his realism began to show aSymbolistinfluence, for example, in a series of landscape paintings rendered in non-naturalistic violet and green tones. What some call his Modernist period (1899–1900) followed. His exposure to the work ofRossetti,Steinlen,Toulouse-LautrecandEdvard Munch, combined with his admiration for favourite old masters such asEl Greco, led Picasso to a personal version of modernism in his works of this period. Picasso made his first trip toParis, then the art capital of Europe, in 1900. There, he met his first Parisian friend, journalist and poetMax Jacob, who helped Picasso learn the language and its literature. Soon they shared an apartment; Max slept at night while Picasso slept during the day and worked at night. These were times of severe poverty, cold, and desperation. Much of his work was burned to keep the small room warm. During the first five months of 1901, Picasso lived inMadrid, where he and hisanarchistfriend Francisco de Asís Soler founded the magazineArte Joven(Young Art), which published five issues. Soler solicited articles and Picasso illustrated the journal, mostly contributing grim cartoons depicting and sympathizing with the state of the poor. The first issue was published on 31 March 1901, by which time the artist had started to sign his workPicasso.From 1898 he signed his works as \"Pablo Ruiz Picasso\", then as \"Pablo R. Picasso\" until 1901. The change does not seem to imply a rejection of the father figure. Rather, he wanted to distinguish himself from others; initiated by his Catalan friends who habitually called him by his maternal surname, much less current than the paternal Ruiz. Blue Period: 1901–1904 Picasso's Blue Period (1901–1904), characterized by sombre paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green only occasionally warmed by other colours, began either in Spain in early 1901 or in Paris in the second half of the year.Many paintings of gaunt mothers with children date from the Blue Period, during which Picasso divided his time betweenBarcelonaand Paris. In his austere use of colour and sometimes doleful subject matter—prostitutes and beggars are frequent subjects—Picasso was influenced by a trip through Spain and by the suicide of his friendCarles Casagemas. Starting in autumn of 1901, he painted several posthumous portraits of Casagemas culminating in the gloomy allegorical paintingLa Vie(1903), now in theCleveland Museum of Art. The same mood pervades the well-known etchingThe Frugal Repast(1904),which depicts a blind man and a sighted woman, both emaciated, seated at a nearly bare table. Blindness, a recurrent theme in Picasso's works of this period, is also represented inThe Blindman's Meal(1903, theMetropolitan Museum of Art) and in the portrait ofCelestina(1903). Other Blue Period works includePortrait of SolerandPortrait of Suzanne Bloch. Rose Period: 1904–1906 The Rose Period (1904–1906)is characterized by a lighter tone and style utilizing orange and pink colours and featuring many circus people,acrobatsandharlequinsknown in France as saltimbanques. The harlequin, a comedic character usually depicted in checkered patterned clothing, became a personal symbol for Picasso. Picasso metFernande Olivier, abohemianartist who became his mistress, in Paris in 1904.Olivier appears in many of his Rose Period paintings, many of which are influenced by his warm relationship with her, in addition to his increased exposure to French painting. The generally upbeat and optimistic mood of paintings in this period is reminiscent of the 1899–1901 period (i.e., just prior to the Blue Period), and 1904 can be considered a transition year between the two periods. By 1905, Picasso became a favourite of American art collectorsLeoandGertrude Stein. Their older brother Michael Stein and his wife Sarah also became collectors of his work. Picasso painted aportrait of Gertrude Steinand one of her nephewAllan Stein. Gertrude Stein became Picasso's principal patron, acquiring his drawings and paintings and exhibiting them in her informalSalonat her home in Paris.At one of her gatherings in 1905, he metHenri Matisse, who was to become a lifelong friend and rival. The Steins introduced him toClaribel Coneand her sister Etta, who were American art collectors; they also began to acquire Picasso's and Matisse's paintings. Eventually, Leo Stein moved to Italy. Michael and Sarah Stein became patrons of Matisse, while Gertrude Stein continued to collect Picassos. In 1907, Picasso joined an art gallery that had recently been opened in Paris byDaniel-Henry Kahnweiler, a German art historian and art collector who became one of the premier French art dealers of the 20th century. He was among the first champions of Pablo Picasso,Georges Braqueand theCubismthat they jointly developed. Kahnweiler promoted burgeoning artists such asAndré Derain,Kees van Dongen,Fernand Léger,Juan Gris,Maurice de Vlaminckand several others who had come from all over the globe to live and work inMontparnasseat the time. African art and primitivism: 1907–1909 Picasso's African-influenced Period (1907–1909) begins with his paintingLes Demoiselles d'Avignon. The three figures on the left were inspired byIberian sculpture, but he repainted the faces of the two figures on the right after being powerfully impressed by African artefacts he saw in June 1907 in the ethnographic museum atPalais du Trocadéro.When he displayed the painting to acquaintances in his studio later that year, the nearly universal reaction was shock and revulsion; Matisse angrily dismissed the work as a hoax.Picasso did not exhibitLes Demoisellespublicly until 1916. Other works from this period includeNude with Raised Arms(1907) andThree Women(1908). Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that follows.Analyticcubism(1909–1912) is a style of painting Picasso developed withGeorges Braqueusing monochrome brownish and neutral colours. Both artists took apart objects and \"analyzed\" them in terms of their shapes. Picasso and Braque's paintings at this time share many similarities. In Paris, Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of friends in theMontmartreandMontparnassequarters, includingAndré Breton, poetGuillaume Apollinaire, writerAlfred JarryandGertrude Stein. In 1911, Picasso was arrested and questioned aboutthe theft of theMona Lisafrom theLouvre. Suspicion for the crime had initially fallen upon Apollinaire due to his links to Géry Pieret, an artist with a history of thefts from the gallery. Apollinaire in turn implicated his close friend Picasso, who had also purchased stolen artworks from the artist in the past. Afraid of a conviction that could result in his deportation to Spain, Picasso denied having ever met Apollinaire. Both were later cleared of any involvement in the painting's disappearance. Synthetic cubism: 1912–1919 Synthetic cubism (1912–1919) was a further development of the genre of cubism, in which cut paper fragments – often wallpaper or portions of newspaper pages – were pasted into compositions, marking the first use ofcollagein fine art. Between 1915 and 1917, Picasso began a series of paintings depicting highly geometric and minimalist Cubist objects, consisting of either a pipe, a guitar or a glass, with an occasional element of collage. \"Hard-edged square-cut diamonds\", notes art historianJohn Richardson, \"these gems do not always have upside or downside\".\"We need a new name to designate them,\" wrote Picasso toGertrude Stein. The term \"Crystal Cubism\" was later used as a result of visual analogies with crystals at the time.These \"little gems\" may have been produced by Picasso in response to critics who had claimed his defection from the movement, through his experimentation with classicism within the so-calledreturn to orderfollowing the war. After acquiring some fame and fortune, Picasso left Olivier for Marcelle Humbert, also known asEva Gouel. Picasso included declarations of his love for Eva in many Cubist works. Picasso was devastated by her premature death from illness at the age of 30 in 1915. At the outbreak ofWorld War Iin August 1914, Picasso was living inAvignon. Braque and Derain were mobilized and Apollinaire joined the French artillery, while the SpaniardJuan Grisremained from the Cubist circle. During the war, Picasso was able to continue painting uninterrupted, unlike his French comrades. His paintings became more sombre and his life changed with dramatic consequences. Kahnweiler's contract had terminated on his exile from France. At this point, Picasso's work would be taken on by the art dealerLéonce Rosenberg. After the loss of Eva Gouel, Picasso had an affair withGaby Lespinasse. During the spring of 1916, Apollinaire returned from the front wounded. They renewed their friendship, but Picasso began to frequent new social circles. Towards the end of World War I, Picasso became involved withSerge Diaghilev'sBallets Russes. Among his friends during this period wereJean Cocteau,Jean Hugo, Juan Gris, and others. In the summer of 1918, Picasso marriedOlga Khokhlova, a ballerina with Sergei Diaghilev's troupe, for whom Picasso was designing a ballet, Erik Satie'sParade, in Rome; they spent their honeymoon nearBiarritzin the villa of glamorous Chilean art patronEugenia Errázuriz. Khokhlova introduced Picasso to high society, formal dinner parties, and other dimensions of the life of the rich in 1920s Paris. The two had a son,Paulo Picasso,who would grow up to be a motorcycle racer and chauffeur to his father. Khokhlova's insistence on social propriety clashed with Picasso'sbohemiantendencies and the two lived in a state of constant conflict. During the same period that Picasso collaborated with Diaghilev's troupe, he andIgor Stravinskycollaborated onPulcinellain 1920. Picasso took the opportunity to make several drawings of the composer. In 1927, Picasso met 17-year-oldMarie-Thérèse Walterand began a secret affair with her. Picasso's marriage to Khokhlova soon ended in separation rather than divorce, as French law required an even division of property in the case of divorce, and Picasso did not want Khokhlova to have half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova's death in 1955. Picasso carried on a long-standing affair with Marie-Thérèse Walter and fathered a daughter with her, named Maya. Marie-Thérèse lived in the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and hanged herself four years after Picasso's death. Neoclassicism and surrealism: 1919–1929 In February 1917, Picasso made his first trip to Italy.In the period following the upheaval of World War I, Picasso produced work in aneoclassicalstyle. This \"return to order\" is evident in the work of many European artists in the 1920s, includingAndré Derain,Giorgio de Chirico,Gino Severini,Jean Metzinger, the artists of theNew Objectivitymovement and of theNovecento Italianomovement. Picasso's paintings and drawings from this period frequently recall the work ofRaphaelandIngres. In 1925 theSurrealistwriter and poetAndré Bretondeclared Picasso as 'one of ours' in his articleLe Surréalisme et la peinture, published inRévolution surréaliste.Les Demoiselleswas reproduced for the first time in Europe in the same issue. Yet Picasso exhibited Cubist works at the first Surrealist group exhibition in 1925; the concept of 'psychic automatism in its pure state' defined in theManifeste du surréalismenever appealed to him entirely. He did at the time develop new imagery and formal syntax for expressing himself emotionally, \"releasing the violence, the psychic fears and the eroticism that had been largely contained or sublimated since 1909\", writes art historian Melissa McQuillan. Although this transition in Picasso's work was informed by Cubism for its spatial relations, \"the fusion of ritual and abandon in the imagery recalls the primitivism of the Demoiselles and the elusive psychological resonances of his Symbolist work\", writes McQuillan. Surrealism revived Picasso's attraction to primitivism and eroticism. The Great Depression,Guernica, and the MoMA exhibition: 1930–1939 During the 1930s, theminotaurreplaced theharlequinas a common motif in his work. His use of the minotaur came partly from his contact with the surrealists, who often used it as their symbol, and it appears in Picasso'sGuernica. The minotaur and Picasso's mistressMarie-Thérèse Walterare heavily featured in his celebratedVollard Suiteof etchings. Arguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of the Germanbombing of Guernicaduring theSpanish Civil War–Guernica. This large canvas embodies for many the inhumanity, brutality and hopelessness of war. Asked to explain its symbolism, Picasso said, \"It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them.\" Guernicawas exhibited in July 1937 at the Spanish Pavilion at theParis International Exposition, and then became the centrepiece of an exhibition of 118 works by Picasso,Matisse,BraqueandHenri Laurensthat toured Scandinavia and England. After the victory of Francisco Franco in Spain, the painting was sent to the United States to raise funds and support for Spanish refugees. Until 1981 it was entrusted to the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City, as it was Picasso's expressed desire that the painting should not be delivered to Spain until liberty and democracy had been established in the country. BeforeGuernica, Picasso had never addressed political themes in his art. The politicized nature of the work is largely attributed to his romantic relationship at the time with the French anti-fascist activist andsurrealistphotographer,Dora Maar.In addition, her black and white photographs are likely to have influenced the black and white scheme ofGuernica, in stark contrast to Picasso's usual colorful paintings. “Maar’s practice of photography influenced the art of Picasso – she had a great influence on his work,” said Antoine Romand, a Dora Maar expert. “She contested him. She pushed him to do something new and to be more creative politically.\"Maar had exclusive access to Picasso's studio to observe and photograph the creation ofGuernica.At Picasso's request, Maar painted parts of the dying horse. In 1939 and 1940, theMuseum of Modern Artin New York City, under its directorAlfred Barr, a Picasso enthusiast, held a major retrospective of Picasso's principal works until that time. This exhibition lionized Picasso, brought into full public view in America the scope of his artistry, and resulted in a reinterpretation of his work by contemporary art historians and scholars.According to Jonathan Weinberg, \"Given the extraordinary quality of the show and Picasso's enormous prestige, generally heightened by the political impact ofGuernica... the critics were surprisingly ambivalent\".Picasso's \"multiplicity of styles\" was disturbing to one journalist; another described him as \"wayward and even malicious\";Alfred Frankenstein's review inARTnewsconcluded that Picasso was both charlatan and genius. World War II and late 1940s: 1939–1949 DuringWorld War II, Picasso remained in Paris while the Germans occupied the city. Picasso's artistic style did not fit theNazi ideal of art, so he did not exhibit during this time. He was often harassed by theGestapo. During one search of his apartment, an officer saw a photograph of the paintingGuernica. \"Did you do that?\" the German asked Picasso. \"No,\" he replied, \"You did.\" Retreating to his studio, he continued to paint, producing works such as theStill Life with Guitar(1942) andThe Charnel House(1944–48). Although the Germans outlawedbronzecasting in Paris, Picasso continued regardless, using bronze smuggled to him by theFrench Resistance. Around this time,Picasso wrote poetryas an alternative outlet. Between 1935 and 1959 he wrote more than 300 poems. Largely untitled except for a date and sometimes the location of where they were written (for example \"Paris 16 May 1936\"), these works were gustatory, erotic, and at timesscatological, as were his two full-length plays,Desire Caught by the Tail(1941),The Four Little Girls(1949) andThe Burial of the Count of Orgaz(1959). In 1944, after the liberation of Paris, Picasso, then 63 years old, began a romantic relationship with a young art student namedFrançoise Gilot. She was 40 years younger than he was. Picasso grew tired of his mistressDora Maar; Picasso and Gilot began to live together. Eventually, they had two children:Claude Picasso, born in 1947 andPaloma Picasso, born in 1949. In her 1964 bookLife with Picasso,Gilot describes his abusive treatment and myriad infidelities which led her to leave him, taking the children with her. This was a severe blow to Picasso. Picasso had affairs with women of an even greater age disparity than his and Gilot's. While still involved with Gilot, in 1951 Picasso had a six-week affair withGeneviève Laporte, who was four years younger than Gilot. By his 70s, many paintings, ink drawings and prints have as their theme an old, grotesque dwarf as the doting lover of a beautiful young model.Jacqueline Roque(1927–1986) worked at the Madoura Pottery inVallaurison theFrench Riviera, where Picasso made and painted ceramics. She became his lover, and then his second wife in 1961. The two were together for the remainder of Picasso's life. His marriage to Roque was also a means of revenge against Gilot; with Picasso's encouragement, Gilot had divorced her then-husband, Luc Simon, with the plan to marry Picasso to secure the rights of her children as Picasso's legitimate heirs. Picasso had already secretly married Roque, after Gilot had filed for divorce. His strained relationship with Claude and Paloma was never healed. By this time, Picasso had constructed a hugeGothichome, and could afford large villas in the south of France, such as Mas Notre-Dame-de-Vie on the outskirts ofMougins, and in theProvence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. He was an international celebrity, with often as much interest in his personal life as his art. Later works to final years: 1949–1973 Picasso was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the3rd Sculpture Internationalheld at thePhiladelphia Museum of Artin mid-1949. In the 1950s, Picasso's style changed once again, as he took to producing reinterpretations of the art of the great masters. He made aseriesof works based onVelázquez's painting ofLas Meninas. He also based paintings on works byGoya,Poussin,Manet,CourbetandDelacroix. In addition to his artistic accomplishments, Picasso made a few film appearances, always as himself, including a cameo inJean Cocteau'sTestament of Orpheus(1960). In 1955, he helped make the filmLe Mystère Picasso(The Mystery of Picasso) directed byHenri-Georges Clouzot. He was commissioned to make amaquettefor a huge 50-foot (15 m)-highpublic sculptureto be built in Chicago, known usually as theChicago Picasso. He approached the project with a great deal of enthusiasm, designing a sculpture which was ambiguous and somewhat controversial. Picasso said the figure represented the head of anAfghan Houndnamed Kabul.The sculpture, one of the most recognizable landmarks in downtown Chicago, was unveiled in 1967. Picasso refused to be paid $100,000 for it, donating it to the people of the city. Picasso's final works were a mixture of styles, his means of expression in constant flux until the end of his life. Devoting his full energies to his work, Picasso became more daring, his works more colourful and expressive, and from 1968 to 1971 he produced a torrent of paintings and hundreds of copperplate etchings. At the time these works were dismissed by most as pornographic fantasies of an impotent old man or the slapdash works of an artist who was past his prime.Only later, after Picasso's death, when the rest of the art world had moved on fromabstract expressionism, did the critical community come to see the late works of Picasso as prefiguringNeo-Expressionism. Death Pablo Picasso died on 8 April 1973 inMougins, France, frompulmonary edemaand aheart attack, the morning after he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinner. He was interred at theChâteau of VauvenarguesnearAix-en-Provence, a property he had acquired in 1958 and occupied with Jacqueline between 1959 and 1962. Jacqueline prevented his children Claude and Paloma from attending the funeral.Devastated and lonely after the death of Picasso, Jacqueline killed herself by gunshot in 1986 when she was 59 years old. Political views Picasso remained aloof from theCatalanindependence movement during his youth, despite expressing general support and being friendly with activists within it.He did not join the armed forces for any side or country duringWorld War I, theSpanish Civil War, or World War II. As a Spanish citizen living in France, Picasso was under no compulsion to fight against the invading Germans in either world war. In 1940, he applied for French citizenship, but it was refused on the grounds of his \"extremist ideas evolving towards communism\". This information was not revealed until 2003. At the start of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, Picasso was 54 years of age. Soon after hostilities began, the Republicans appointed him \"director of the Prado, albeit in absentia\", and \"he took his duties very seriously\", according to John Richardson, supplying the funds to evacuate the museum's collection to Geneva.The war provided the impetus for Picasso's first overtlypolitical work. He expressed anger and condemnation ofFrancisco Francoand fascists inThe Dream and Lie of Franco(1937), which was produced \"specifically for propagandistic and fundraising purposes\".This surreal fusion of words and images was intended to be sold as a series of postcards to raise funds for theSpanish Republican cause. In 1944, Picasso joined theFrench Communist Party. He attended the 1948World Congress of Intellectuals in Defense of Peacein Poland, and in 1950 received theStalin Peace Prizefrom the Soviet government.A portrait ofJoseph Stalinmade by Picasso in 1953 drew Party criticism due to being insufficiently realistic, though he remained a loyal member of the Communist Party until his death.His dealer,D-H. Kahnweiler, a socialist, termed Picasso's communism \"sentimental\" rather than political, saying \"He has never read a line ofKarl Marx, nor ofEngelsof course.\"In a 1945 interview with Jerome Seckler, Picasso stated: \"I am a Communist and my painting is Communist painting. ... But if I were a shoemaker, Royalist or Communist or anything else, I would not necessarily hammer my shoes in a special way to show my politics.\"His commitment to communism, common amongcontinentalintellectuals and artists at the time, has long been the subject of some controversy; a notable demonstration thereof was a quote bySalvador Dalí(with whom Picasso had a rather strained relationship): Picasso es pintor, yo también; ... Picasso es español, yo también; Picasso es comunista, yo tampoco.(Picasso is a painter, so am I; ... Picasso is a Spaniard, so am I; Picasso is a communist, neither am I.) In the late 1940s, his old friend surrealist poetAndré Breton, who was aTrotskyistandanti-Stalinist, was more blunt;refusing to shake hands with Picasso, he told him: \"I don't approve of your joining the Communist Party nor with the stand you have taken concerning the purges of the intellectuals after the Liberation.\"As a communist, Picasso opposed the intervention of theUnited Nationsand the United States in theKorean War, and depicted it inMassacre in Korea.The art critic Kirsten Hoving Keen wrote that it was \"inspired by reports of American atrocities\" and considered it one of Picasso's communist works. On 9 January 1949, Picasso createdDove, a black and white lithograph. It was used to illustrate a poster at the 1949World Peace Counciland became an iconographic image of the period, known as \"The dove of peace\". Picasso's image was used around the world as a symbol of the Peace Congresses and communism. In 1962, he received theLenin Peace Prize.Biographer and art criticJohn Bergerfelt his talents as an artist were \"wasted\" by the communists.According toJean Cocteau's diaries, Picasso once said to him in reference to the communists: \"I have joined a family, and like all families, it's full of shit.\" Style and technique Picasso was exceptionally prolific throughout his long lifetime. At his death there were more than 45,000 unsold works in his estate, comprising 1,885 paintings, 1,228 sculptures, 3,222 ceramics, 7,089 drawings, 150 sketchbooks, many thousands of prints, and numerous tapestries and rugs.The most complete – but not exhaustive – catalogue of his works, thecatalogue raisonnécompiled byChristian Zervos, lists more than 16,000 paintings and drawings.Picasso's output was several times more prolific than most artists of his era; by at least one account, American artistBob Rossis the only one to rival Picasso's volume, and Ross's artwork was designed specifically to be easily mass-produced quickly. The medium in which Picasso made his most important contribution was painting.In his paintings, Picasso used colour as an expressive element, but relied on drawing rather than subtleties of colour to create form and space.He sometimes added sand to his paint to vary its texture. Ananoprobeof Picasso'sThe Red Armchair(1931), in the collection of theArt Institute of Chicago, by physicists atArgonne National Laboratoryin 2012 confirmed art historians' belief that Picasso used common house paint in many of his paintings.Much of his painting was done at night by artificial light. Picasso's early sculptures were carved from wood or modelled in wax or clay, but from 1909 to 1928 Picasso abandoned modelling and instead made sculptural constructions using diverse materials.An example isGuitar(1912), a relief construction made of sheet metal and wire that Jane Fluegel terms a \"three-dimensional planar counterpart of Cubist painting\" that marks a \"revolutionary departure from the traditional approaches, modeling and carving\". From the beginning of his career, Picasso displayed an interest in subject matter of every kind,and demonstrated a great stylistic versatility that enabled him to work in several styles at once. For example, his paintings of 1917 included thepointillistWoman with a Mantilla, the CubistFigure in an Armchair, and the naturalisticHarlequin(all in theMuseu Picasso, Barcelona). In 1919, he made a number of drawings from postcards and photographs that reflect his interest in the stylistic conventions and static character of posed photographs.In 1921 he simultaneously painted several large neoclassical paintings and two versions of the Cubist compositionThree Musicians(Museum of Modern Art, New York; Philadelphia Museum of Art).In an interview published in 1923, Picasso said, \"The several manners I have used in my art must not be considered as an evolution, or as steps towards an unknown ideal of painting ... If the subjects I have wanted to express have suggested different ways of expression I have never hesitated to adopt them.\" Although his Cubist works approach abstraction, Picasso never relinquished the objects of the real world as subject matter. Prominent in his Cubist paintings are forms easily recognized as guitars, violins, and bottles.When Picasso depicted complex narrative scenes it was usually in prints, drawings, and small-scale works;Guernica(1937) is one of his few large narrative paintings. Picasso painted mostly from imagination or memory. According toWilliam Rubin, Picasso \"could only make great art from subjects that truly involved him ... Unlike Matisse, Picasso had eschewed models virtually all his mature life, preferring to paint individuals whose lives had both impinged on, and had real significance for, his own.\"The art criticArthur Dantosaid Picasso's work constitutes a \"vast pictorial autobiography\" that provides some basis for the popular conception that \"Picasso invented a new style each time he fell in love with a new woman\".The autobiographical nature of Picasso's art is reinforced by his habit of dating his works, often to the day. He explained: \"I want to leave to posterity a documentation that will be as complete as possible. That's why I put a date on everything I do.\" Artistic legacy Picasso's influence was and remains immense and widely acknowledged by his admirers and detractors alike. On the occasion of his 1939 retrospective at MoMA,Lifemagazine wrote: \"During the 25 years he has dominated modern European art, his enemies say he has been a corrupting influence. With equal violence, his friends say he is the greatest artist alive.\"Picasso was the first artist to receive a special honour exhibition at the Grand Gallery of theLouvreMuseum in Paris in celebration of his 90 years.In 1998,Robert Hugheswrote of him: \"To say that Pablo Picasso dominated Western art in the 20th century is, by now, the merest commonplace. ... No painter or sculptor, not even Michelangelo, had been as famous as this in his own lifetime. ... ThoughMarcel Duchamp, that cunning old fox of conceptual irony, has certainly had more influence on nominally vanguard art over the past 30 years than Picasso, the Spaniard was the last great beneficiary of the belief that the language of painting and sculpture really mattered to people other than their devotees.\" At the time of Picasso's death many of his paintings were in his possession, as he had kept off the art market what he did not need to sell. In addition, Picasso had a considerable collection of the work of other famous artists, some his contemporaries, such asHenri Matisse, with whom he had exchanged works. Since Picasso left no will, his death duties (estate tax) to the French state were paid in the form of his works and others from his collection. These works form the core of the immense and representative collection of theMusée Picassoin Paris.In 2003, relatives of Picasso inaugurated a museum dedicated to him in his birthplace, Málaga, Spain, theMuseo Picasso Málaga. TheMuseu Picassoin Barcelona features many of his early works, created while he was living in Spain, including many rarely seen works which reveal his firm grounding in classical techniques. The museum also holds many precise and detailed figure studies done in his youth under his father's tutelage, as well as the extensive collection of Jaime Sabartés, his close friend and personal secretary. Guernicawas on display in New York'sMuseum of Modern Artfor many years. In 1981, it was returned to Spain and was on exhibit at theCasón del Buen Retiroof theMuseo del Prado. In 1992, the painting was put on display in theReina Sofía Museumwhen it opened. In 1985, a museum was established inBuitrago del Lozoyaby Picasso's friend Eugenio Arias Herranz. It was announced on 22 September 2020 that the project for a new Picasso Museum due to open inAix-en-Provencein 2021, in a former convent (Couvent des Prêcheurs), which would have held the largest collection of his paintings of any museum, had been scrapped due to the fact that Catherine Hutin-Blay,Jacqueline Picasso's daughter, and the City Council had failed to reach an agreement. In the 1996 movieSurviving Picasso, Picasso is portrayed by actorAnthony Hopkins.Picasso is also a character inSteve Martin's 1993 play,Picasso at the Lapin Agile. InA Moveable FeastbyErnest Hemingway, Hemingway tellsGertrude Steinthat he would like to have some Picassos, but cannot afford them. Later in the book, Hemingway mentions looking at one of Picasso's paintings. He refers to it as Picasso's nude of the girl with the basket of flowers, possibly related toYoung Naked Girl with Flower Basket. On 8 October 2010,Picasso: Masterpieces from the Musée National Picasso, Paris,an exhibition of 150 paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints and photographs from the Musée National Picasso in Paris, opened at theSeattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington, US. The exhibition subsequently travelled to theVirginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia: theM.H. de Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, California, US.;theArt Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia;and theArt Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. As of 2015, Picasso remained the top-ranked artist (based on sales of his works at auctions) according to the Art Market Trends report.More of his paintings have been stolen than any other artist's;in 2012, theArt Loss Registerhad 1,147 of his works listed as stolen.The Picasso Administration functions as his official Estate. The US copyright representative for the Picasso Administration is theArtists Rights Society. Picasso is played byAntonio Banderasin the2018 seasonofGeniuswhich focuses on his life and art. The Basel vote In the 1940s, a Swiss insurance company based inBaselhad bought two paintings by Picasso to diversify its investments and serve as a guarantee for the insured risks. Following an air disaster in 1967, the company had to pay out heavy reimbursements. The company decided to part with the two paintings, which were deposited in theKunstmuseum Basel. In 1968, a large number of Basel citizens called for a local referendum on the purchase of the Picassos by theCanton of Basel-Stadt, which was successful, making it the first time in democratic history that the population of a city voted on the purchase of works of art for a public art museum.The paintings therefore remained in the museum in Basel. Informed of this, Picasso donated three paintings and a sketch to the city and its museum and was later made an honorary citizen by the city. Auction history Several paintings by Picasso rank among themost expensive paintings in the world.Garçon à la pipesold for US$104 million atSotheby'son 4 May 2004.Dora Maar au Chatsold for US$95.2 million at Sotheby's on 3 May 2006.On 4 May 2010,Nude, Green Leaves and Bustwas sold atChristie'sfor US$106.5 million. The 1932 work, which depicts Picasso's mistressMarie-Thérèse Walterreclining and as a bust, was in the personal collection of Los Angeles philanthropist Frances Lasker Brody, who died in November 2009.On 11 May 2015 his paintingWomen of Algiersset the record for thehighest price ever paid for a paintingwhen it sold for US$179.3 million at Christie's in New York. On 21 June 2016, a painting by Pablo Picasso titledFemme Assise(1909) sold for £43.2 million ($63.4 million) at Sotheby's London, exceeding the estimate by nearly $20 million, setting a world record for the highest price ever paid at auction for a Cubist work. On 17 May 2017,The Jerusalem Postin an article titled \"Picasso Work Stolen By Nazis Sells for $45 Million at Auction\" reported the sale of a portrait painted by Picasso, the 1939Femme assise, robe bleu, which was previously misappropriated during the early years of WWII. The painting has changed hands several times since its recovery, most recently through auction in May 2017 at Christie's in New York City. In March 2018, hisFemme au Béret et à la Robe Quadrillée(1937), a portrait of Marie-Thérèse Walter, sold for £49.8m at Sotheby's in London. Personal life From early adolescence, Picasso maintained both superficial and intense amatory and sexual relationships. Biographer John Richardson stated that 'work, sex and tobacco' were his addictions.Picasso was married twice and had four children by three women: Photographer and painterDora Maarwas a constant companion and lover of Picasso. The two were closest in the late 1930s and early 1940s, and it was Maar who documented the painting ofGuernica. The women in Picasso's life played an important role in the emotional and erotic aspects of his creative expression, and the tumultuous nature of these relationships has been considered vital to his artistic process. Many of these women functioned as muses for him, and their inclusion in his extensive oeuvre granted them a place in art history.A largely recurring motif in his body of work is the female form. The variations in his relationships informed and collided with his progression of style throughout his career. For example, portraits created of his first wife, Olga, were rendered in a naturalistic style during hisNeoclassicalperiod. His relationship with Marie-Thérèse Walter inspired many of hissurrealistpieces, as well as what is referred to as his \"Year of Wonders\".Reappearance of acrobats theme in 1905 put an end to his \"Blue Period\" and transitioned into his \"Rose Period\". This transition has been incorrectly attributed to the presence ofFernande Olivierin his life. Picasso has been characterised as a womaniser and a misogynist, being quoted as saying to long-time partner Françoise Gilot that \"women are machines for suffering.\"He later allegedly told her, \"For me there are only two kinds of women: goddesses and doormats.\"In her memoir,Picasso, My Grandfather,Marina Picassowrites of his treatment of women, \"He submitted them to his animal sexuality, tamed them, bewitched them, ingested them, and crushed them onto his canvas. After he had spent many nights extracting their essence, once they were bled dry, he would dispose of them.\" Of the several important women in his life, two – lover Marie-Thèrése Walter and his second wife Jacqueline Roque – died by suicide. Others, notably his first wife Olga Khokhlova and lover Dora Maar, succumbed to nervous breakdowns. His son, Paulo, developed a fatal alcoholism due to depression. His grandson, Pablito, also died by suicide that same year by ingesting bleach when he was barred byJacqueline Roquefrom attending the artist's funeral. Catalogue raisonné Picasso entrustedChristian Zervosto constitute thecatalogue raisonnéof his work (painted and drawn). The first volume of the catalogue,Works from 1895 to 1906, published in 1932, entailed the financial ruin of Zervos, self-publishing under the nameCahiers d'art, forcing him to sell part of his art collection at auction to avoid bankruptcy. From 1932 to 1978, Zervos constituted the catalogue raisonné of the complete works of Picasso in the company of the artist who had become one of his friends in 1924. Following the death of Zervos, Mila Gagarin supervised the publication of 11 additional volumes from 1970 to 1978. The 33 volumes cover the entire work from 1895 to 1972, with close to 16,000 black and white photographs, in accord with the will of the artist. Further publications by Zervos See also Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading External links",
"The Dark Side of the Moon The Dark Side of the Moonis the eighth studio album by the English rock bandPink Floyd, released on 1 March 1973, byHarvest Recordsin the UK andCapitol Recordsin the US. Developed during live performances before recording began, it was conceived as aconcept albumthat would focus on the pressures faced by the band during their arduous lifestyle, and also deal with the mental health problems of the former band memberSyd Barrett, who had departed the group in 1968. New material was recorded in two sessions in 1972 and 1973 at EMI Studios (nowAbbey Road Studios) in London. The record builds on ideas explored in Pink Floyd's earlier recordings and performances, while omitting the extended instrumentals that characterised the band's earlier work. The group employedmultitrack recording,tape loops, andanalogue synthesisers, including experimentation with theEMS VCS 3and aSynthi A. The engineerAlan Parsonswas responsible for many of the sonic aspects of the recording, and for the recruitment of the session singerClare Torry, who appears on \"The Great Gig in the Sky\". The Dark Side of the Moonexplores themes such as conflict, greed, time, death, and mental illness. Snippets from interviews with the band'sroad crewand others are featured alongside philosophical quotations. The sleeve, which depicts aprismaticspectrum, was designed byStorm Thorgersonin response to the keyboardistRichard Wright's request for a \"simple and bold\" design which would represent the band's lighting and the album's themes. The album was promoted with two singles: \"Money\" and \"Us and Them\". The Dark Side of the Moonis among the most critically acclaimed albums and often features in professional listings of the greatest of all time. It brought Pink Floyd international fame, wealth and plaudits to all four band members. Ablockbusterrelease of thealbum era, it also propelled record sales throughout the music industry during the 1970s.The Dark Side of the Moonis certified14x platinumin the United Kingdom, and topped the USBillboardTop LPs & Tapechart, where it has charted for 990 weeks. By 2013,The Dark Side of the Moonhad sold over 45 million copies worldwide, making it the band's best-selling release, the best-selling album of the 1970s, and thefourth-best-selling album in history.In 2012, the album was selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Recording Registryby theLibrary of Congressas being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". It was inducted into theGrammy Hall of Famein 1999. Background FollowingMeddlein 1971,Pink Floydassembled for a tour of Britain, Japan and the United States that December. In a band meeting at the home of the drummer,Nick Mason, in North London, the bassist,Roger Waters, proposed that a new album could form part of the tour. Waters conceived an album that dealt with things that \"make people mad\", focusing on the pressures associated with the band's arduous lifestyle, and dealing with the mental health problems suffered by the former band memberSyd Barrett.The band had explored a similar idea with the 1969 concert suiteThe ManandThe Journey.In an interview forRolling Stone, the guitarist,David Gilmour, said: \"I think we all thought – and Roger definitely thought – that a lot of the lyrics that we had been using were a little too indirect. There was definitely a feeling that the words were going to be very clear and specific.\" The band approved of Waters' concept for an album unified by a single theme,and all the members participated in writing and producing material. Waters createddemo tracksin a small studio in a garden shed at his home inIslington.Parts of the album were taken from previously unused material; the opening line of \"Breathe\" came from an earlier work by Waters andRon Geesin, written for the soundtrack ofThe Body,and the basic structure of \"Us and Them\" was borrowed from an original composition, \"The Violent Sequence\", by the keyboardist,Richard Wright, forZabriskie Point.The band rehearsed at a warehouse in London owned bythe Rolling Stonesand at theRainbow TheatreinFinsbury Park, London. They also purchased extra equipment, which included new speakers, aPA system, a 28-track mixing desk with a four channelquadraphonicoutput, and a custom-built lighting rig. Nine tonnes of kit was transported in threelorries. This would be the first time the band had taken an entire album on tour.The album had been given the provisional title ofDark Side of the Moon(an allusion to lunacy, rather than astronomy).After discovering that title had already been used by another band,Medicine Head, it was temporarily changed toEclipse. The new material was premiered atThe DomeinBrighton, on 20 January 1972,and after the commercial failure of Medicine Head's album the title was changed back to the band's original preference. Dark Side of the Moon: A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, as it was then known,was performed for an assembled press on 17 February 1972 at the Rainbow Theatre, more than a year before its release, and was critically acclaimed.Michael Wale ofThe Timesdescribed the piece as \"bringing tears to the eyes. It was so completely understanding and musically questioning.\"Derek JewellofThe Sunday Timeswrote \"The ambition of the Floyd's artistic intention is now vast.\"Melody Makerwas less enthusiastic: \"Musically, there were some great ideas, but the sound effects often left me wondering if I was in a bird-cage at London Zoo.\"The following tour was praised by the public. The new material was performed in the same order in which it was eventually sequenced on the album. Differences included the lack of synthesisers in tracks such as \"On the Run\", andClare Torry's vocals on \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" replaced by readings from the Bible. Pink Floyd'slengthy tourthrough Europe and North America gave them the opportunity to make improvements to the scale and quality of their performances.Work on the album was interrupted in late February when the band travelled to France and recorded music for the French directorBarbet Schroeder's filmLa Vallée.They performed in Japan, returned to France in March to complete work on the film, played more shows in North America, then flew to London and resumed recording in May and June. After more concerts in Europe and North America, the band returned to London on 9 January 1973 to complete the album. Concept The Dark Side of the Moonwas built upon experiments Pink Floyd had attempted in their previous live shows and recordings, although it lacked the extended instrumental excursions which, according to the criticDavid Fricke, had become characteristic of the band following the departure of the founding member Syd Barrett in 1968. Gilmour, Barrett's replacement, later referred to those instrumentals as \"that psychedelic noodling stuff\". He and Waters cited 1971'sMeddleas a turning point towards what would later be realised on the album.The Dark Side of the Moon's lyrical themes include conflict, greed, the passage of time, death and insanity, the last inspired in part by Barrett's deteriorating mental state.The album containsmusique concrèteon several tracks. Each side of the vinyl album is a continuous piece of music. The five tracks on each side reflect various stages of human life, beginning and ending with a heartbeat, exploring the nature of the human experience and, according to Waters, \"empathy\".\"Speak to Me\" and \"Breathe\" together highlight the mundane and futile elements of life that accompany the ever-present threat of madness, and the importance of living one's own life – \"Don't be afraid to care\".By shifting the scene to an airport, the synthesiser-driven instrumental \"On the Run\" evokes the stress and anxiety of modern travel, in particular Wright's fear of flying.\"Time\" examines the manner in which its passage can control one's life and offers a stark warning to those who remain focused on mundane pursuits; it is followed by a retreat into solitude and withdrawal in \"Breathe (Reprise)\". The first side of the album ends with Wright and Clare Torry's soulful metaphor for death, \"The Great Gig in the Sky\". \"Money\", the first track on side two, opens with the sound ofcash registersand rhythmically jingling coins. The song mocks greed andconsumerismwith sarcastic lyrics and cash-relatedsound effects. \"Money\" became the band's most commercially successful track and was covered by other artists.\"Us and Them\" addresses the isolation of the depressed with the symbolism ofconflictand the use of simpledichotomiesto describe personal relationships. \"Any Colour You Like\" tackles the illusion of choice one has in society. \"Brain Damage\" looks atmental illnessresulting from the elevation of fame and success above the needs of the self; in particular, the line \"and if the band you're in starts playing different tunes\" reflects the mental breakdown of Syd Barrett. The album ends with \"Eclipse\", which espouses the concepts of otherness and unity, while encouraging the listener to recognise the common traits shared by humanity. Recording The Dark Side of the Moonwas recorded at EMI Studios (nowAbbey Road Studios) in approximately 60 daysbetween 31 May 1972 and 9 February 1973. Pink Floyd were assigned the staff engineerAlan Parsons, who had worked as the assistant tape operator on their fifth album,Atom Heart Mother(1970), and had gained experience as a recording engineer onthe BeatlesalbumsAbbey RoadandLet It Be.TheDark Side of the Moonsessions made use ofadvanced studio techniques, as the studio was capable of16-trackmixes which offered greater flexibility than the eight- or four-track mixes Pink Floyd had previously worked with, although the band often used so many tracks that second-generation copies were still needed to make more space available on the tape.The mix supervisorChris Thomasrecalled later, \"There were only two or three tracks of drums when we came to mixing it. Depending on the song, there would be one or two tracks of guitar, and these would include the solo and the rhythm guitar parts. One track for keyboard, one track for bass, and one or two sound effects tracks. They had been very, very efficient in the way they'd worked.\" The first track recorded was \"Us and Them\" on 31 May, followed seven days later by \"Money\".For \"Money\", Waters had created effectsloopsin an unusual74time signaturefrom recordings of money-related objects, including coins thrown into a mixing bowl in his wife's pottery studio. These were re-recorded to take advantage of the band's decision to create a quadraphonic mix of the album, although Parsons later expressed dissatisfaction with the result of this mix, which he attributed to a lack of time and a shortage of multitrack tape recorders. \"Time\" and \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" were recorded next, followed by a two-month break, during which the band spent time with their families and prepared for a tour of the United States.The recording sessions were frequently interrupted: Waters, a supporter ofArsenal F.C., would break to see his team compete, and the band would occasionally stop to watchMonty Python's Flying Circuson television while Parsons worked on the tracks.Gilmour recalled, \"...but when we were on a roll, we would get on.\" After returning from the US in January 1973, they recorded \"Brain Damage\", \"Eclipse\", \"Any Colour You Like\" and \"On the Run\", and fine-tuned work from previous sessions. Four female vocalists were assembled to sing on \"Brain Damage\", \"Eclipse\" and \"Time\", and the saxophonistDick Parrywas booked to play on \"Us and Them\" and \"Money\". With the director Adrian Maben, the band also filmed studio footage forPink Floyd: Live at Pompeii.The album was completed and signed off at Abbey Road on 9 February 1973.Gilmour recalled the band listening to the finished album for the first time as \"a moment of great joy and of satisfaction and the feeling of achievement that we'd really gone that extra mile\". Instrumentation The album features metronomic sound effects during \"Speak to Me\" and tape loops for the opening of \"Money\". Mason created a rough version of \"Speak to Me\" at his home before completing it in the studio. The track serves as anovertureand contains cross-fades of elements from other pieces on the album. A piano chord, replayed backwards, serves to augment the build-up of effects, which are immediately followed by the opening of \"Breathe\". Mason received a rare solo composing credit for \"Speak to Me\". The sound effects on \"Money\" were created by splicing together Waters' recordings of clinking coins, tearing paper, a ringing cash register, and a clicking adding machine, which were used to create a 7-beateffects loop. This was later adapted to four tracks to create a \"walk around the room\" effect in quadraphonic presentations of the album.At times, the degree of sonic experimentation on the album required the studio engineers and all four band members to operate the mixing console's faders simultaneously, in order to mix down the intricately assembled multitrack recordings of several of the songs, particularly \"On the Run\". Along with conventional rock band instrumentation, Pink Floyd introduced prominent synthesisers to their sound. The band experimented with anEMS VCS 3on \"Brain Damage\" and \"Any Colour You Like\", and aSynthi Aon \"Time\" and \"On the Run\". They also devised and recorded unconventional sounds, such as assistant engineer Peter Jamesrunning around the studio's echo chamber during \"On the Run\",and a specially treatedbass drummade to simulate a humanheartbeatduring \"Speak to Me\", \"On the Run\", \"Time\" and \"Eclipse\". This heartbeat is most prominent in the intro and the outro to the album, but it can also be heard sporadically on \"Time\" and \"On the Run\".\"Time\" features assorted clocks ticking, then chiming simultaneously at the start of the song, accompanied by a series ofRototoms. The recordings were initially created as a quadraphonic test by Parsons, who recorded each timepiece at an antique clock shop.Although these recordings had not been created specifically for the album, elements of this material were eventually used in the track. Voices Several tracks, including \"Us and Them\" and \"Time\", demonstrated Wright's and Gilmour's ability to harmonise their similar-sounding voices, and the engineer Alan Parsons used techniques such asdouble trackingvocals and guitars, which allowed Gilmour to harmonise with himself. Prominent use was also made offlangingand phase-shifting on vocals and instruments, odd trickery withreverb,and the panning of sounds between channels, most notably in thequadraphonicmix of \"On the Run\", where the sound of theHammond B3organ played through aLeslie speakerswirls around the listener. Wright's \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" featuresClare Torry, a session singer and songwriter and a regular at Abbey Road. Parsons liked her voice, and when the band decided to use a female vocalist he suggested that she could sing on the track. The band explained the album concept to her, but they were unable to tell her exactly what she should do, and Gilmour, who was in charge of the session, asked her to try to express emotions rather than sing words.In a few takes on a Sunday night, Torry improvised a wordless melody to accompany Wright's emotive piano solo. She was initially embarrassed by her exuberance in the recording booth and wanted to apologise to the band, who were impressed with her performance but did not tell her so.Her takes were edited to produce the version used on the track.She left the studio under the impression that her vocals would not make the final cut,and she only became aware that she had been included in the final mix when she picked up the album at a local record store and saw her name in the credits.For her contribution she was paid her standard session feeof £30,equivalent to about £500 in 2024. In 2004, Torry suedEMIand Pink Floyd for 50% of the songwritingroyalties, arguing that her contribution to \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" was substantial enough to be considered co-authorship. The case was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, with all post-2005 pressings crediting Wright and Torry jointly. In the final week of recording,Waters asked staff and others at Abbey Road to respond to questions printed onflashcardsand some of their replies were edited into the final mix. The interviewees were placed in front of a microphone in a darkened Studio 3and shown such questions as \"What's your favourite colour?\" and \"What's your favourite food?\", before moving on to themes central to the album, including those of madness, violence, and death. Questions such as \"When was the last time you were violent?\", followed immediately by \"Were you in the right?\", were answered in the order they were presented. RoadieRoger \"The Hat\" Manifold was recorded in a conventional sit-down interview. Waters asked him about a violent encounter he had had with a motorist, and Manifold replied \"... give 'em a quick, short, sharp shock ...\" Asked about death, he responded, \"Live for today, gone tomorrow, that's me ...\"Another roadie, Chris Adamson, recorded the words that open the album: \"I've been mad for fucking years. Absolutely years. Over the edge... It's working with bands that does it.\" The band's road managerPeter Watts(father of the actressNaomi Watts)contributed the repeated laughter during \"Brain Damage\" and \"Speak to Me\", as well as the line \"I can't think of anything to say\". His second wife, Patricia \"Puddie\" Watts (now Patricia Gleason), was responsible for the line about the \"geezer\" who was \"cruisin' for a bruisin'\", used in the segue between \"Money\" and \"Us and Them\", and the words \"I never said I was frightened of dying\" halfway through \"The Great Gig in the Sky\". Several of the responses – \"I am not frightened of dying. Any time will do, I don't mind. Why should I be frightened of dying? There's no reason for it ... you've got to go sometime\"; \"I know I've been mad, I've always been mad, like most of us have\"; and the closing \"There is no dark side in the moon really. Matter of fact, it's all dark\" – came from the studios' Irish doorman, Gerry O'Driscoll.\"The bit you don't hear,\" said Parsons, \"is that, after that, he said, 'The only thing that makes it look alight is the sun.' The band were too overjoyed with his first line, and it would have been an anticlimax to continue.\" PaulandLinda McCartneywere interviewed, but their answers – judged to be \"trying too hard to be funny\" – were not used.The McCartneys'WingsbandmateHenry McCulloughcontributed the line, \"I don't know, I was really drunk at the time.\" Completion When the flashcard sessions were finished, producerChris Thomaswas hired to provide \"a fresh pair of ears\" for the final mix. Thomas's background was in music rather than engineering; he had worked with Beatles producerGeorge Martinand was an acquaintance of Pink Floyd's manager,Steve O'Rourke.The members of the band were said to have disagreed over the mix, with Waters and Mason preferring a \"dry\" and \"clean\" mix that made more use of the non-musical elements and Gilmour and Wright preferring a subtler and more \"echoey\" mix.Thomas said later, \"There was no difference in opinion between them, I don't remember Roger once saying that he wanted less echo. In fact, there were never any hints that they were later going to fall out. It was a very creative atmosphere. A lot of fun.\" Thomas's intervention resulted in a compromise between Waters and Gilmour, who were both satisfied with the result. Thomas was responsible for significant changes, including the perfect timing of the echo used on \"Us and Them\". He was also present for the recording of \"The Great Gig in the Sky\".Waters said in an interview in 2006, when asked if he felt his goals had been accomplished in the studio: When the record was finished I took a reel-to-reel copy home with me and I remember playing it for my wife then, and I remember her bursting into tears when it was finished. And I thought, \"This has obviously struck a chord somewhere\", and I was kinda pleased by that. You know when you've done something, certainly if you create a piece of music, you then hear it with fresh ears when you play it for somebody else. And at that point I thought to myself, \"Wow, this is a pretty complete piece of work\", and I had every confidence that people would respond to it. Packaging It felt like the whole band were working together. It was a creative time. We were all very open. – Richard Wright The album was originally released in agatefoldLP sleeve designed byHipgnosisandGeorge Hardie. Hipgnosis had designed several of the band's previous albums, with controversial results; EMI had reacted with confusion when faced with the cover designs forAtom Heart MotherandObscured by Clouds, as they had expected to see traditional designs which included lettering and words. DesignersStorm ThorgersonandAubrey Powellwere able to ignore such criticism, as they were employed by the band. ForThe Dark Side of the Moon, Wright suggested something \"smarter, neater – more classy\",and simple, \"like the artwork of a Black Magic chocolate box\". The design was inspired by a photograph of a prism with a beam of white light projected through it and emerging in the colours of thevisible spectrumthat Thorgerson had found in a 1963 physics textbook,as well as by an illustration byAlex Steinweiss, the inventor of album cover art, for theNew York Philharmonic's 1942 performance ofLudwig van Beethoven'sEmperor Concerto.The artwork was created by an associate of Hipgnosis, George Hardie.Hipgnosis offered a choice of seven designs for the sleeve, but all four members of the band agreed that the prism was the best. \"There were no arguments,\" said Roger Waters. \"We all pointed to the prism and said 'That's the one'.\" The design depicts a glassprismdispersing white light into colours and represents three elements: the band's stage lighting, the album lyrics, and Wright's request for a \"simple and bold\" design.At Waters' suggestion, the spectrum of light continues through to the gatefold.Added shortly afterwards, the gatefold design also includes a visual representation of the heartbeat sound used throughout the album, and the back of the album cover contains Thorgerson's suggestion of another prism recombining the spectrum of light, to make possible interesting layouts of the sleeve in record shops.The light band emanating from the prism on the album cover has six colours, missingindigo, compared with the usual division of the visible spectrum into red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Inside the sleeve were two posters and two pyramid-themed stickers. One poster bore pictures of the band in concert, overlaid with scattered letters to form PINK FLOYD, and the other aninfrared photographof theGreat Pyramids of Giza, created by Powell and Thorgerson. The band were so confident of the quality of Waters' lyrics that, for the first time, they printed them on the album's sleeve. Release As the quadraphonic mix of the album was not then complete, the band (with the exception of Wright) boycotted the press reception held at theLondon Planetariumon 27 February.The guests were, instead, presented with a quartet of life-sized cardboard cut-outs of the band, and the stereo mix of the album was played over a poor-qualitypublic address system.Generally, however, the press were enthusiastic;Melody Maker's Roy Hollingworth described Side One as \"so utterly confused with itself it was difficult to follow\", but praised Side Two, writing: \"The songs, the sounds, the rhythms were solid and sound, Saxophone hit the air, the band rocked and rolled, and then gushed and tripped away into the night.\"Steve Peacock ofSoundswrote: \"I don't care if you've never heard a note of the Pink Floyd's music in your life, I'd unreservedly recommend everyone toThe Dark Side of the Moon\".In his 1973 review forRolling Stonemagazine,Loyd GrossmandeclaredDark Side\"a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites, but demands involvement\".InChristgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies(1981),Robert Christgaufound its lyrical ideas clichéd and its music pretentious, but called it a \"kitschmasterpiece\" that can be charming with highlights such as taped speech fragments, Parry's saxophone, and studio effects which enhance Gilmour's guitar solos. The Dark Side of the Moonwas released first in the US on 1 March 1973,and then in the UK on 16 March.It became an instant chart success in Britain and throughout Western Europe;by the following month, it had gained agold certificationin the US.Throughout March 1973 the band played the album as part of theirUS tour, including a midnight performance atRadio City Music Hallin New York City on 17 March before an audience of 6,000. The album reached theBillboardTop LPs & Tapechart's number one spot on 28 April 1973,and was so successful that the band returned two months later for another tour. Label Much of the album's early American success is attributed to the efforts of Pink Floyd's US record company,Capitol Records. Newly appointed chairmanBhaskar Menonset about trying to reverse the relatively poor sales of the band's 1971 studio albumMeddle. Meanwhile, disenchanted with Capitol, the band and manager O'Rourke had been quietly negotiating a new contract withCBSpresidentClive Davis, onColumbia Records.The Dark Side of the Moonwas the last album that Pink Floyd were obliged to release before formally signing a new contract. Menon's enthusiasm for the new album was such that he began a huge promotional advertising campaign, which included radio-friendly truncated versions of \"Us and Them\" and \"Time\". In some countries – notably the UK – Pink Floyd had not released a single since 1968's \"Point Me at the Sky\", and unusually \"Money\" was released as a single on 7 May, with \"Any Colour You Like\" on theB-side.It reached number 13 on theBillboardHot 100in July 1973.A two-sided white label promotional version of the single, with mono and stereo mixes, was sent to radio stations. The mono side had the word \"bullshit\" removed from the song – leaving \"bull\" in its place – however, the stereo side retained the uncensored version. This was subsequently withdrawn; the replacement was sent to radio stations with a note advising disc jockeys to dispose of the first uncensored copy.On 4 February 1974, adouble A-sidesingle was released with \"Time\" on one side, and \"Us and Them\" on the opposite side.Menon's efforts to secure a contract renewal with Pink Floyd were in vain however; at the beginning of 1974, the band signed for Columbia with a reported advance fee of $1M (in Britain and Europe they continued to be represented byHarvest Records). Sales The Dark Side of the Moonbecame one of thebest-selling albumsof all timeand is in the top 25 of a list ofbest-sellingalbums in the United States.Although it held the number one spot in the US for only a week, it remained in theBillboard200albums chart for 736 nonconsecutive weeks (from 17 March 1973 to 16 July 1988).Of those first 736 charted weeks, the album had two notable consecutive runs in theBillboard200 chart: 84 weeks (from 17 March 1973 to 19 October 1974) and 593 weeks (from 18 December 1976 to 23 April 1988).It made its final appearance in theBillboard200 albums chart during its initial run on the week ending 8 October 1988, in its 741st charted week.It re-appeared on theBillboardcharts with the introduction of theTop Pop Catalog Albumschart in the issue dated 25 May 1991, and was still a perennial feature ten years later.It reached number one on the Pop Catalog chart when the 2003 hybrid CD/SACDedition was released and sold 800,000 copies in the US.On the week of 5 May 2006The Dark Side of the Moonachieved a combined total of 1,716 weeks on theBillboard200 and Pop Catalog charts. After a change in chart methodology in 2009 which allowed catalogue titles to be included in theBillboard200,The Dark Side of the Moonreturned to the chart at number 189 on 12 December of that year for its 742nd charting week.It has continued to sporadically appear on theBillboard 200since then, with the total at 990 weeks on the chart as of May 2024.\"On a slow week\" between 8,000 and 9,000 copies are sold.As of April 2013, the album had sold 9,502,000 copies in the US since 1991 whenNielsen SoundScanbegan tracking sales forBillboard.One in every fourteen people in the US under the age of 50 is estimated to own, or to have owned, a copy. The Dark Side of the Moonwas released before the introduction ofplatinum certificationin 1976 byRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA), and therefore held only a gold certification until 16 February 1990, when it was certified 11 times platinum. On 4 June 1998, the RIAA certified the album 15× platinum,denoting sales of fifteen million in the United States. This makes it Pink Floyd's biggest-selling work there;The Wallis 23 times platinum, but as a double album this signifies sales of 11.5 million.\"Money\" has sold well as a single, and as with \"Time\", remains a radio favourite; in the US, for the year ending 20 April 2005, \"Time\" was played on 13,723 occasions, and \"Money\" on 13,731 occasions.In 2017,The Dark Side of the Moonwas the seventh-bestselling album of all time in the UK and the highest-selling album never to reach number one.As one of theblockbusterLPs of thealbum era(1960s–2000s),The Dark Side of the Moonalso led to an increase in record sales overall into the late 1970s.In 2013, industry sources suggested that worldwide sales ofThe Dark Side of the Moontotalled about 45 million. In 1993, Gilmour attributed the album's success to the combination of music, lyrics and cover art: \"All the music before had not had any great lyrical point to it. And this one was clear and concise.\"Mason said that, when they finished the album, Pink Floyd felt confident it was their best work to date, but were surprised by its commercial success. He said it was \"not only about being a good album but also about being in the right place at the right time\". Reissues and remasters In 1979,The Dark Side of the Moonwas released as a remastered LP byMobile Fidelity Sound Lab,and in April 1988 on their \"Ultradisc\" gold CD format.It was released by EMI and Harvest on CD in Japan in June 1983 andin the US and Europe in August 1984.In 1992, it was rereleased as a remastered CD in the box setShine On.This version was re-released as a 20th-anniversary box set edition with postcards the following year, with a cover design by Thorgerson.On some pressings, an orchestral version of the Beatles' \"Ticket to Ride\" is faintly audible after \"Eclipse\" over the closing heartbeats. 30th-anniversary 5.1 surround sound mix A quadraphonic mix,created by Alan Parsons,was commissioned by EMI but never endorsed by Pink Floyd, as Parsons was disappointed with his mix.For the album's 30th anniversary, an updated surround version was released in 2003. The band elected not to use Parsons' quadraphonic mix, and instead had the engineerJames Guthriecreate a new5.1channel surround sound mix on theSACDformat.Guthrie had worked with Pink Floyd since their eleventh album,The Wall, and had previously worked on surround versions ofThe Wallfor DVD-Video and Waters'In the Fleshfor SACD. In 2003, Parsons expressed disappointment with Guthrie's SACD mix, suggesting he was \"possibly a little too true to the original mix\", but was generally complimentary.The 30th-anniversary edition won four Surround Music Awards in 2003,and sold more than 800,000 copies. The cover image of the 30th-anniversary edition was created by a team of designers including Thorgerson.The image is a photograph of a custom-madestained glasswindow, built to match the dimensions and proportions of the original prism design. Transparent glass, held in place by strips of lead, was used in place of the opaque colours of the original. The idea is derived from the \"sense of purity in the sound quality, being 5.1 surround sound ...\" The image was created out of a desire to be \"the same but different, such that the design was clearly DSotM, still the recognisable prism design, but was different and hence new\". Later reissues The Dark Side of the Moonwas rereleased in 2003 on 180-gram virgin vinyl and mastered by Kevin Gray at AcousTech Mastering. It included slightly different versions of the posters and stickers that came with the original vinyl release, along with a new 30th-anniversary poster. In 2007, the album was included inOh, by the Way, a box set celebrating the 40th anniversary of Pink Floyd,and aDRM-free version was released on theiTunes Store.In 2011, it was reissued featuring a remastered version with various other material. In 2023, Pink Floyd released theDark Side of the Moon 50th Anniversarybox set, including a newly remastered edition of the album, surround sound mixes (including the 5.1 mix and a newDolby Atmosmix), a photo book, andThe Dark Side of the Moon Live at Wembley 1974, on vinyl. In 2024, the 50th Anniversary LP edition was rereleased as The Dark Side Of The Moon 50th Anniversary 2 LP UV Printed Clear Vinyl Collector's Edition. The new edition uses 2 clear LP instead of one, just one side is playable so theUV artworkcan be printed on the non-groove side. Legacy It's changed me in many ways, because it's brought in a lot of money, and one feels very secure when you can sell an album for two years. But it hasn't changed my attitude to music. Even though it was so successful, it was made in the same way as all our other albums, and the only criterion we have about releasing music is whether we like it or not. It was not a deliberate attempt to make a commercial album. It just happened that way. We knew it had a lot more melody than previous Floyd albums, and there was a concept that ran all through it. The music was easier to absorb and having girls singing away added a commercial touch that none of our records had. – Richard Wright The success of the album brought wealth to all four members of the band; Richard Wright and Roger Waters bought large country houses, and Nick Mason became a collector of upmarket cars.The group were fans of the British comedy troupeMonty Python, and as such, some of the profits were invested in the production ofMonty Python and the Holy Grail.EngineerAlan Parsonsreceived aGrammy Awardnomination forBest Engineered Recording, Non-ClassicalforThe Dark Side of the Moon,and he went on to have a successful career as a recording artist withthe Alan Parsons Project. Although Waters and Gilmour have on occasion downplayed his contribution to the success of the album, Mason has praised his role.In 2003, Parsons reflected: \"I think they all felt that I managed to hang the rest of my career onDark Side of the Moon, which has an element of truth to it. But I still wake up occasionally, frustrated about the fact that they made untold millions and a lot of the people involved in the record didn't.\" Part of the legacy ofThe Dark Side of the Moonis its influence on modern music and on the musicians who have performedcover versionsof its songs. It is often seen as a pivotal point in the history of rock music, and comparisons are sometimes made withRadiohead's 1997 albumOK Computer,including a premise explored by Ben Schleifer in 'Speak to Me': The Legacy of Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon(2006) that the two albums share a theme that \"the creative individual loses the ability to function in the world\". In a 2018 book aboutclassic rock,Steven Hydenrecalls concluding, in his teens, thatThe Dark Side of the MoonandLed Zeppelin IVwere the two greatest albums of the genre,vision quests\"encompass the twin poles of teenage desire\". They had similarities, in that both albums' cover and internal artwork eschew pictures of the bands in favour of \"inscrutable iconography without any tangible meaning (which always seemed to give the music packaged insidemoremeaning)\". But whereas Led Zeppelin had looked outward, toward \"conquering the world\" and were known at the time for their outrageous sexual antics on tour, Pink Floyd looked inward, toward \"overcoming your own hang-ups\".In 2013,The Dark Side of the Moonwas selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Recording Registryby theLibrary of Congressas \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Rankings The Dark Side of the Moonfrequently appears on professional rankings of the greatest albums. In 1987,Rolling Stoneranked it the 35th best album of the preceding 20 years.Rolling Stoneranked it number 43 on its 2003 and 2012 lists of the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\"and number 55 in its 2020 list, Pink Floyd's highest placement.BothRolling StoneandQhave listedThe Dark Side of the Moonas the best progressive rock album. In 2006,Australian Broadcasting Corporationviewers votedThe Dark Side of the Moontheir favourite album.NMEreaders voted it the eighth-best album in a 2006 poll,and in 2009,Planet Rocklisteners voted it the greatest of all time.The album is also number two on the \"Definitive 200\" list of albums, made by theNational Association of Recording Merchandisers\"in celebration of the art form of the record album\".It ranked 29th inThe Observer's 2006 list of \"The 50 Albums That Changed Music\",and 37th inThe Guardian's 1997 list of the \"100 Best Albums Ever\", as voted for by a panel of artists and music critics.In 2014, readers ofRhythmvoted it the seventh most influential progressive drumming album.It was voted number 9 inColin Larkin'sAll Time Top 1000 Albums3rd Edition (2000).In 2007,VH1namedDark Side of the Moonthe fourth-greatest album cover. Covers, tributes and samples Return to the Dark Side of the Moon: A Tribute to Pink Floyd, released in 2006, is a cover album ofThe Dark Side of the Moonfeaturing artists such asAdrian Belew,Tommy Shaw,Dweezil Zappa, andRick Wakeman.In 2000,The SquirrelsreleasedThe Not So Bright Side of the Moon, which features a cover of the entire album.The New York dub collectiveEasy Star All-StarsreleasedDub Side of the Moonin 2003andDubber Side of the Moonin 2010.The group Voices on the Dark Side released the albumDark Side of the Moon a Cappella, a completea cappellaversion of the album.Thebluegrassband Poor Man's Whiskey frequently play the album in bluegrass style, calling the suiteDark Side of the Moonshine.Astring quartetversion of the album was released in 2003.In 2009,the Flaming Lipsreleased atrack-by-track remake of the albumin collaboration withStardeath and White Dwarfs, and featuringHenry RollinsandPeachesas guest musicians. Several notable acts have covered the album live in its entirety, and a range of performers have usedsamplesfromThe Dark Side of the Moonin their own material. Jam-rock bandPhishperformed a semi-improvised version of the entire album as part of their show on 2 November 1998 inWest Valley City, Utah.Progressive metal bandDream Theaterhave twice covered the album in their live shows,and in May 2011Mary FahlreleasedFrom the Dark Side of the Moon, a song-by-song \"re-imagining\" of the album.Milli Vanilliused the tape loops from Pink Floyd's \"Money\" to open their track \"Money\", followed byMarky Mark and the Funky BunchonMusic for the People. The Wizard of Oz In the 1990s, it was discovered that playingThe Dark Side of the Moonalongside the 1939 filmThe Wizard of Ozproduced moments of apparent synchronicity, and it was suggested that this was intentional.Such moments includeDorothybeginning to jog at the lyric \"no one told you when to run\" during \"Time\", balancing on a fence,tightrope-style, during the line \"balanced on the biggest wave\" in \"Breathe\",and putting her ear to the Tin Man's chest as the album's closing heartbeats are heard.Parsons and members of Pink Floyd denied any connection, with Parsons calling it \"a complete load of eyewash ... If you play any record with the sound turned down on the TV, you will find things that work.\" The Dark Side of the Moon Redux For the 50th anniversary ofThe Dark Side of the Moon, Waters recorded a new version,The Dark Side of the Moon Redux, released in October 2023.It was recorded with no other members of Pink Floyd,and featuresspoken wordsections and more downbeat arrangements, with no guitar solos. Waters said he wanted to \"bring out the heart and soul of the album musically and spiritually\".He also said it is intended to be taken from the perspective of an older man, as \"not enough people recognised what it's about, what it was I was saying then\". Track listing All lyrics are written byRoger Waters. Note Personnel Pink Floyd Additional musicians Production Design Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications and sales *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history See also References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading External links"
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"Pablo Picasso Pablo Ruiz Picasso(25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973) was a Spanish painter, sculptor,printmaker,ceramicist, andtheatre designerwho spent most of his adult life inFrance. One of the most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding theCubistmovement, the invention ofconstructed sculpture,the co-invention ofcollage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are theproto-CubistLes Demoiselles d'Avignon(1907) and the anti-war paintingGuernica(1937), a dramatic portrayal of thebombing of Guernicaby German and Italian air forces during theSpanish Civil War. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his early years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood and adolescence. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, and ideas. After 1906, theFauvistwork of the older artistHenri Matissemotivated Picasso to explore more",
"to explore more radical styles, beginning a fruitful rivalry between the two artists, who subsequently were often paired by critics as the leaders ofmodern art. Picasso's output, especially in his early career, is often periodized. While the names of many of his later periods are debated, the most commonly accepted periods in his work are theBlue Period(1901–1904), theRose Period(1904–1906), theAfrican-influenced Period(1907–1909), AnalyticCubism(1909–1912), and Synthetic Cubism (1912–1919), also referred to as theCrystal period. Much of Picasso's work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in aneoclassicalstyle, and his work in the mid-1920s often has characteristics ofSurrealism. His later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Exceptionally prolific throughout the course of his long life, Picasso achieved universal renown and immense fortune for his revolutionary artistic accomplishments, and became one of the best-known figures in20th-century art. Early life Picasso was born at 23:15 on 25",
"born at 23:15 on 25 October 1881, in the city ofMálaga, Andalusia, in southern Spain.He was the first child ofDon José Ruiz y Blasco(1838–1913) and María Picasso y López.Picasso's family was of middle-class background. His father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life, Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts and acuratorof a local museum. Picasso's birth certificate and the record of his baptism include very long names, combining those of various saints and relatives.Ruiz y Picassowere his paternal and maternal surnames, respectively, per Spanish custom. The surname \"Picasso\" comes fromLiguria, a coastal region of north-western Italy.Pablo's maternal great-grandfather, Tommaso Picasso, moved to Spain around 1807. Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were \"piz, piz\", a shortening oflápiz, the Spanish word for \"pencil\".From the age of seven, Picasso received formal",
"received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was a traditional academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters, and drawing the human body from plaster casts and live models. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork. The family moved toA Coruñain 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. They stayed for almost four years. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his unfinished sketch of a pigeon. Observing the precision of his son's technique, an apocryphal story relates, Ruiz felt that the thirteen-year-old Picasso had surpassed him, and vowed to give up painting,though paintings by him exist from later years. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his seven-year-old sister, Conchita, died ofdiphtheria.After her death, the family moved toBarcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city,",
"in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home.Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, and the jury admitted him, at just 13. As a student, Picasso lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a small room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day, judging his drawings. The two argued frequently. Picasso's father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrid'sReal Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, the country's foremost art school.At age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrollment. Madrid held many other attractions. ThePradohoused paintings byDiego Velázquez,Francisco Goya, andFrancisco Zurbarán. Picasso especially admired the",
"admired the works ofEl Greco; elements such as his elongated limbs, arresting colours, and mystical visages are echoed in Picasso's later work. Career Before 1900 Picasso's training under his father began before 1890. His progress can be traced in the collection of early works now held by theMuseu PicassoinBarcelona, which provides one of the most comprehensive extant records of any major artist's beginnings.During 1893 the juvenile quality of his earliest work falls away, and by 1894 his career as a painter can be said to have begun.The academic realism apparent in the works of the mid-1890s is well displayed inThe First Communion(1896), a large composition that depicts his sister, Lola. In the same year, at the age of 14, he paintedPortrait of Aunt Pepa, a vigorous and dramatic portrait thatJuan-Eduardo Cirlothas called \"without a doubt one of the greatest in the whole history of Spanish painting.\" In 1897, his realism began to show aSymbolistinfluence, for example, in a series of landscape paintings",
"landscape paintings rendered in non-naturalistic violet and green tones. What some call his Modernist period (1899–1900) followed. His exposure to the work ofRossetti,Steinlen,Toulouse-LautrecandEdvard Munch, combined with his admiration for favourite old masters such asEl Greco, led Picasso to a personal version of modernism in his works of this period. Picasso made his first trip toParis, then the art capital of Europe, in 1900. There, he met his first Parisian friend, journalist and poetMax Jacob, who helped Picasso learn the language and its literature. Soon they shared an apartment; Max slept at night while Picasso slept during the day and worked at night. These were times of severe poverty, cold, and desperation. Much of his work was burned to keep the small room warm. During the first five months of 1901, Picasso lived inMadrid, where he and hisanarchistfriend Francisco de Asís Soler founded the magazineArte Joven(Young Art), which published five issues. Soler solicited articles and Picasso",
"and Picasso illustrated the journal, mostly contributing grim cartoons depicting and sympathizing with the state of the poor. The first issue was published on 31 March 1901, by which time the artist had started to sign his workPicasso.From 1898 he signed his works as \"Pablo Ruiz Picasso\", then as \"Pablo R. Picasso\" until 1901. The change does not seem to imply a rejection of the father figure. Rather, he wanted to distinguish himself from others; initiated by his Catalan friends who habitually called him by his maternal surname, much less current than the paternal Ruiz. Blue Period: 1901–1904 Picasso's Blue Period (1901–1904), characterized by sombre paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green only occasionally warmed by other colours, began either in Spain in early 1901 or in Paris in the second half of the year.Many paintings of gaunt mothers with children date from the Blue Period, during which Picasso divided his time betweenBarcelonaand Paris. In his austere use of colour and sometimes doleful",
"sometimes doleful subject matter—prostitutes and beggars are frequent subjects—Picasso was influenced by a trip through Spain and by the suicide of his friendCarles Casagemas. Starting in autumn of 1901, he painted several posthumous portraits of Casagemas culminating in the gloomy allegorical paintingLa Vie(1903), now in theCleveland Museum of Art. The same mood pervades the well-known etchingThe Frugal Repast(1904),which depicts a blind man and a sighted woman, both emaciated, seated at a nearly bare table. Blindness, a recurrent theme in Picasso's works of this period, is also represented inThe Blindman's Meal(1903, theMetropolitan Museum of Art) and in the portrait ofCelestina(1903). Other Blue Period works includePortrait of SolerandPortrait of Suzanne Bloch. Rose Period: 1904–1906 The Rose Period (1904–1906)is characterized by a lighter tone and style utilizing orange and pink colours and featuring many circus people,acrobatsandharlequinsknown in France as saltimbanques. The harlequin, a comedic",
"a comedic character usually depicted in checkered patterned clothing, became a personal symbol for Picasso. Picasso metFernande Olivier, abohemianartist who became his mistress, in Paris in 1904.Olivier appears in many of his Rose Period paintings, many of which are influenced by his warm relationship with her, in addition to his increased exposure to French painting. The generally upbeat and optimistic mood of paintings in this period is reminiscent of the 1899–1901 period (i.e., just prior to the Blue Period), and 1904 can be considered a transition year between the two periods. By 1905, Picasso became a favourite of American art collectorsLeoandGertrude Stein. Their older brother Michael Stein and his wife Sarah also became collectors of his work. Picasso painted aportrait of Gertrude Steinand one of her nephewAllan Stein. Gertrude Stein became Picasso's principal patron, acquiring his drawings and paintings and exhibiting them in her informalSalonat her home in Paris.At one of her gatherings in 1905, he",
"in 1905, he metHenri Matisse, who was to become a lifelong friend and rival. The Steins introduced him toClaribel Coneand her sister Etta, who were American art collectors; they also began to acquire Picasso's and Matisse's paintings. Eventually, Leo Stein moved to Italy. Michael and Sarah Stein became patrons of Matisse, while Gertrude Stein continued to collect Picassos. In 1907, Picasso joined an art gallery that had recently been opened in Paris byDaniel-Henry Kahnweiler, a German art historian and art collector who became one of the premier French art dealers of the 20th century. He was among the first champions of Pablo Picasso,Georges Braqueand theCubismthat they jointly developed. Kahnweiler promoted burgeoning artists such asAndré Derain,Kees van Dongen,Fernand Léger,Juan Gris,Maurice de Vlaminckand several others who had come from all over the globe to live and work inMontparnasseat the time. African art and primitivism: 1907–1909 Picasso's African-influenced Period (1907–1909) begins with his",
"begins with his paintingLes Demoiselles d'Avignon. The three figures on the left were inspired byIberian sculpture, but he repainted the faces of the two figures on the right after being powerfully impressed by African artefacts he saw in June 1907 in the ethnographic museum atPalais du Trocadéro.When he displayed the painting to acquaintances in his studio later that year, the nearly universal reaction was shock and revulsion; Matisse angrily dismissed the work as a hoax.Picasso did not exhibitLes Demoisellespublicly until 1916. Other works from this period includeNude with Raised Arms(1907) andThree Women(1908). Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that follows.Analyticcubism(1909–1912) is a style of painting Picasso developed withGeorges Braqueusing monochrome brownish and neutral colours. Both artists took apart objects and \"analyzed\" them in terms of their shapes. Picasso and Braque's paintings at this time share many similarities. In Paris, Picasso entertained",
"Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of friends in theMontmartreandMontparnassequarters, includingAndré Breton, poetGuillaume Apollinaire, writerAlfred JarryandGertrude Stein. In 1911, Picasso was arrested and questioned aboutthe theft of theMona Lisafrom theLouvre. Suspicion for the crime had initially fallen upon Apollinaire due to his links to Géry Pieret, an artist with a history of thefts from the gallery. Apollinaire in turn implicated his close friend Picasso, who had also purchased stolen artworks from the artist in the past. Afraid of a conviction that could result in his deportation to Spain, Picasso denied having ever met Apollinaire. Both were later cleared of any involvement in the painting's disappearance. Synthetic cubism: 1912–1919 Synthetic cubism (1912–1919) was a further development of the genre of cubism, in which cut paper fragments – often wallpaper or portions of newspaper pages – were pasted into compositions, marking the first use ofcollagein fine art. Between 1915 and 1917,",
"1915 and 1917, Picasso began a series of paintings depicting highly geometric and minimalist Cubist objects, consisting of either a pipe, a guitar or a glass, with an occasional element of collage. \"Hard-edged square-cut diamonds\", notes art historianJohn Richardson, \"these gems do not always have upside or downside\".\"We need a new name to designate them,\" wrote Picasso toGertrude Stein. The term \"Crystal Cubism\" was later used as a result of visual analogies with crystals at the time.These \"little gems\" may have been produced by Picasso in response to critics who had claimed his defection from the movement, through his experimentation with classicism within the so-calledreturn to orderfollowing the war. After acquiring some fame and fortune, Picasso left Olivier for Marcelle Humbert, also known asEva Gouel. Picasso included declarations of his love for Eva in many Cubist works. Picasso was devastated by her premature death from illness at the age of 30 in 1915. At the outbreak ofWorld War Iin August 1914,",
"Iin August 1914, Picasso was living inAvignon. Braque and Derain were mobilized and Apollinaire joined the French artillery, while the SpaniardJuan Grisremained from the Cubist circle. During the war, Picasso was able to continue painting uninterrupted, unlike his French comrades. His paintings became more sombre and his life changed with dramatic consequences. Kahnweiler's contract had terminated on his exile from France. At this point, Picasso's work would be taken on by the art dealerLéonce Rosenberg. After the loss of Eva Gouel, Picasso had an affair withGaby Lespinasse. During the spring of 1916, Apollinaire returned from the front wounded. They renewed their friendship, but Picasso began to frequent new social circles. Towards the end of World War I, Picasso became involved withSerge Diaghilev'sBallets Russes. Among his friends during this period wereJean Cocteau,Jean Hugo, Juan Gris, and others. In the summer of 1918, Picasso marriedOlga Khokhlova, a ballerina with Sergei Diaghilev's troupe, for whom",
"troupe, for whom Picasso was designing a ballet, Erik Satie'sParade, in Rome; they spent their honeymoon nearBiarritzin the villa of glamorous Chilean art patronEugenia Errázuriz. Khokhlova introduced Picasso to high society, formal dinner parties, and other dimensions of the life of the rich in 1920s Paris. The two had a son,Paulo Picasso,who would grow up to be a motorcycle racer and chauffeur to his father. Khokhlova's insistence on social propriety clashed with Picasso'sbohemiantendencies and the two lived in a state of constant conflict. During the same period that Picasso collaborated with Diaghilev's troupe, he andIgor Stravinskycollaborated onPulcinellain 1920. Picasso took the opportunity to make several drawings of the composer. In 1927, Picasso met 17-year-oldMarie-Thérèse Walterand began a secret affair with her. Picasso's marriage to Khokhlova soon ended in separation rather than divorce, as French law required an even division of property in the case of divorce, and Picasso did not want",
"did not want Khokhlova to have half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova's death in 1955. Picasso carried on a long-standing affair with Marie-Thérèse Walter and fathered a daughter with her, named Maya. Marie-Thérèse lived in the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and hanged herself four years after Picasso's death. Neoclassicism and surrealism: 1919–1929 In February 1917, Picasso made his first trip to Italy.In the period following the upheaval of World War I, Picasso produced work in aneoclassicalstyle. This \"return to order\" is evident in the work of many European artists in the 1920s, includingAndré Derain,Giorgio de Chirico,Gino Severini,Jean Metzinger, the artists of theNew Objectivitymovement and of theNovecento Italianomovement. Picasso's paintings and drawings from this period frequently recall the work ofRaphaelandIngres. In 1925 theSurrealistwriter and poetAndré Bretondeclared Picasso as 'one of ours' in his articleLe Surréalisme et la peinture, published",
"peinture, published inRévolution surréaliste.Les Demoiselleswas reproduced for the first time in Europe in the same issue. Yet Picasso exhibited Cubist works at the first Surrealist group exhibition in 1925; the concept of 'psychic automatism in its pure state' defined in theManifeste du surréalismenever appealed to him entirely. He did at the time develop new imagery and formal syntax for expressing himself emotionally, \"releasing the violence, the psychic fears and the eroticism that had been largely contained or sublimated since 1909\", writes art historian Melissa McQuillan. Although this transition in Picasso's work was informed by Cubism for its spatial relations, \"the fusion of ritual and abandon in the imagery recalls the primitivism of the Demoiselles and the elusive psychological resonances of his Symbolist work\", writes McQuillan. Surrealism revived Picasso's attraction to primitivism and eroticism. The Great Depression,Guernica, and the MoMA exhibition: 1930–1939 During the 1930s,",
"During the 1930s, theminotaurreplaced theharlequinas a common motif in his work. His use of the minotaur came partly from his contact with the surrealists, who often used it as their symbol, and it appears in Picasso'sGuernica. The minotaur and Picasso's mistressMarie-Thérèse Walterare heavily featured in his celebratedVollard Suiteof etchings. Arguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of the Germanbombing of Guernicaduring theSpanish Civil War–Guernica. This large canvas embodies for many the inhumanity, brutality and hopelessness of war. Asked to explain its symbolism, Picasso said, \"It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them.\" Guernicawas exhibited in July 1937 at the Spanish Pavilion at theParis International Exposition, and then became the centrepiece of an exhibition of 118 works by Picasso,Matisse,BraqueandHenri Laurensthat toured",
"Laurensthat toured Scandinavia and England. After the victory of Francisco Franco in Spain, the painting was sent to the United States to raise funds and support for Spanish refugees. Until 1981 it was entrusted to the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City, as it was Picasso's expressed desire that the painting should not be delivered to Spain until liberty and democracy had been established in the country. BeforeGuernica, Picasso had never addressed political themes in his art. The politicized nature of the work is largely attributed to his romantic relationship at the time with the French anti-fascist activist andsurrealistphotographer,Dora Maar.In addition, her black and white photographs are likely to have influenced the black and white scheme ofGuernica, in stark contrast to Picasso's usual colorful paintings. “Maar’s practice of photography influenced the art of Picasso – she had a great influence on his work,” said Antoine Romand, a Dora Maar expert. “She contested him. She pushed him to do",
"pushed him to do something new and to be more creative politically.\"Maar had exclusive access to Picasso's studio to observe and photograph the creation ofGuernica.At Picasso's request, Maar painted parts of the dying horse. In 1939 and 1940, theMuseum of Modern Artin New York City, under its directorAlfred Barr, a Picasso enthusiast, held a major retrospective of Picasso's principal works until that time. This exhibition lionized Picasso, brought into full public view in America the scope of his artistry, and resulted in a reinterpretation of his work by contemporary art historians and scholars.According to Jonathan Weinberg, \"Given the extraordinary quality of the show and Picasso's enormous prestige, generally heightened by the political impact ofGuernica... the critics were surprisingly ambivalent\".Picasso's \"multiplicity of styles\" was disturbing to one journalist; another described him as \"wayward and even malicious\";Alfred Frankenstein's review inARTnewsconcluded that Picasso was both charlatan and",
"both charlatan and genius. World War II and late 1940s: 1939–1949 DuringWorld War II, Picasso remained in Paris while the Germans occupied the city. Picasso's artistic style did not fit theNazi ideal of art, so he did not exhibit during this time. He was often harassed by theGestapo. During one search of his apartment, an officer saw a photograph of the paintingGuernica. \"Did you do that?\" the German asked Picasso. \"No,\" he replied, \"You did.\" Retreating to his studio, he continued to paint, producing works such as theStill Life with Guitar(1942) andThe Charnel House(1944–48). Although the Germans outlawedbronzecasting in Paris, Picasso continued regardless, using bronze smuggled to him by theFrench Resistance. Around this time,Picasso wrote poetryas an alternative outlet. Between 1935 and 1959 he wrote more than 300 poems. Largely untitled except for a date and sometimes the location of where they were written (for example \"Paris 16 May 1936\"), these works were gustatory, erotic, and at timesscatological,",
"timesscatological, as were his two full-length plays,Desire Caught by the Tail(1941),The Four Little Girls(1949) andThe Burial of the Count of Orgaz(1959). In 1944, after the liberation of Paris, Picasso, then 63 years old, began a romantic relationship with a young art student namedFrançoise Gilot. She was 40 years younger than he was. Picasso grew tired of his mistressDora Maar; Picasso and Gilot began to live together. Eventually, they had two children:Claude Picasso, born in 1947 andPaloma Picasso, born in 1949. In her 1964 bookLife with Picasso,Gilot describes his abusive treatment and myriad infidelities which led her to leave him, taking the children with her. This was a severe blow to Picasso. Picasso had affairs with women of an even greater age disparity than his and Gilot's. While still involved with Gilot, in 1951 Picasso had a six-week affair withGeneviève Laporte, who was four years younger than Gilot. By his 70s, many paintings, ink drawings and prints have as their theme an old, grotesque",
"an old, grotesque dwarf as the doting lover of a beautiful young model.Jacqueline Roque(1927–1986) worked at the Madoura Pottery inVallaurison theFrench Riviera, where Picasso made and painted ceramics. She became his lover, and then his second wife in 1961. The two were together for the remainder of Picasso's life. His marriage to Roque was also a means of revenge against Gilot; with Picasso's encouragement, Gilot had divorced her then-husband, Luc Simon, with the plan to marry Picasso to secure the rights of her children as Picasso's legitimate heirs. Picasso had already secretly married Roque, after Gilot had filed for divorce. His strained relationship with Claude and Paloma was never healed. By this time, Picasso had constructed a hugeGothichome, and could afford large villas in the south of France, such as Mas Notre-Dame-de-Vie on the outskirts ofMougins, and in theProvence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. He was an international celebrity, with often as much interest in his personal life as his art. Later works to",
"art. Later works to final years: 1949–1973 Picasso was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the3rd Sculpture Internationalheld at thePhiladelphia Museum of Artin mid-1949. In the 1950s, Picasso's style changed once again, as he took to producing reinterpretations of the art of the great masters. He made aseriesof works based onVelázquez's painting ofLas Meninas. He also based paintings on works byGoya,Poussin,Manet,CourbetandDelacroix. In addition to his artistic accomplishments, Picasso made a few film appearances, always as himself, including a cameo inJean Cocteau'sTestament of Orpheus(1960). In 1955, he helped make the filmLe Mystère Picasso(The Mystery of Picasso) directed byHenri-Georges Clouzot. He was commissioned to make amaquettefor a huge 50-foot (15 m)-highpublic sculptureto be built in Chicago, known usually as theChicago Picasso. He approached the project with a great deal of enthusiasm, designing a sculpture which was ambiguous and somewhat controversial. Picasso said the figure represented",
"figure represented the head of anAfghan Houndnamed Kabul.The sculpture, one of the most recognizable landmarks in downtown Chicago, was unveiled in 1967. Picasso refused to be paid $100,000 for it, donating it to the people of the city. Picasso's final works were a mixture of styles, his means of expression in constant flux until the end of his life. Devoting his full energies to his work, Picasso became more daring, his works more colourful and expressive, and from 1968 to 1971 he produced a torrent of paintings and hundreds of copperplate etchings. At the time these works were dismissed by most as pornographic fantasies of an impotent old man or the slapdash works of an artist who was past his prime.Only later, after Picasso's death, when the rest of the art world had moved on fromabstract expressionism, did the critical community come to see the late works of Picasso as prefiguringNeo-Expressionism. Death Pablo Picasso died on 8 April 1973 inMougins, France, frompulmonary edemaand aheart attack, the",
"aheart attack, the morning after he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinner. He was interred at theChâteau of VauvenarguesnearAix-en-Provence, a property he had acquired in 1958 and occupied with Jacqueline between 1959 and 1962. Jacqueline prevented his children Claude and Paloma from attending the funeral.Devastated and lonely after the death of Picasso, Jacqueline killed herself by gunshot in 1986 when she was 59 years old. Political views Picasso remained aloof from theCatalanindependence movement during his youth, despite expressing general support and being friendly with activists within it.He did not join the armed forces for any side or country duringWorld War I, theSpanish Civil War, or World War II. As a Spanish citizen living in France, Picasso was under no compulsion to fight against the invading Germans in either world war. In 1940, he applied for French citizenship, but it was refused on the grounds of his \"extremist ideas evolving towards communism\". This information was not",
"information was not revealed until 2003. At the start of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, Picasso was 54 years of age. Soon after hostilities began, the Republicans appointed him \"director of the Prado, albeit in absentia\", and \"he took his duties very seriously\", according to John Richardson, supplying the funds to evacuate the museum's collection to Geneva.The war provided the impetus for Picasso's first overtlypolitical work. He expressed anger and condemnation ofFrancisco Francoand fascists inThe Dream and Lie of Franco(1937), which was produced \"specifically for propagandistic and fundraising purposes\".This surreal fusion of words and images was intended to be sold as a series of postcards to raise funds for theSpanish Republican cause. In 1944, Picasso joined theFrench Communist Party. He attended the 1948World Congress of Intellectuals in Defense of Peacein Poland, and in 1950 received theStalin Peace Prizefrom the Soviet government.A portrait ofJoseph Stalinmade by Picasso in 1953 drew Party criticism",
"Party criticism due to being insufficiently realistic, though he remained a loyal member of the Communist Party until his death.His dealer,D-H. Kahnweiler, a socialist, termed Picasso's communism \"sentimental\" rather than political, saying \"He has never read a line ofKarl Marx, nor ofEngelsof course.\"In a 1945 interview with Jerome Seckler, Picasso stated: \"I am a Communist and my painting is Communist painting. ... But if I were a shoemaker, Royalist or Communist or anything else, I would not necessarily hammer my shoes in a special way to show my politics.\"His commitment to communism, common amongcontinentalintellectuals and artists at the time, has long been the subject of some controversy; a notable demonstration thereof was a quote bySalvador Dalí(with whom Picasso had a rather strained relationship): Picasso es pintor, yo también; ... Picasso es español, yo también; Picasso es comunista, yo tampoco.(Picasso is a painter, so am I; ... Picasso is a Spaniard, so am I; Picasso is a communist, neither am",
"neither am I.) In the late 1940s, his old friend surrealist poetAndré Breton, who was aTrotskyistandanti-Stalinist, was more blunt;refusing to shake hands with Picasso, he told him: \"I don't approve of your joining the Communist Party nor with the stand you have taken concerning the purges of the intellectuals after the Liberation.\"As a communist, Picasso opposed the intervention of theUnited Nationsand the United States in theKorean War, and depicted it inMassacre in Korea.The art critic Kirsten Hoving Keen wrote that it was \"inspired by reports of American atrocities\" and considered it one of Picasso's communist works. On 9 January 1949, Picasso createdDove, a black and white lithograph. It was used to illustrate a poster at the 1949World Peace Counciland became an iconographic image of the period, known as \"The dove of peace\". Picasso's image was used around the world as a symbol of the Peace Congresses and communism. In 1962, he received theLenin Peace Prize.Biographer and art criticJohn Bergerfelt his",
"Bergerfelt his talents as an artist were \"wasted\" by the communists.According toJean Cocteau's diaries, Picasso once said to him in reference to the communists: \"I have joined a family, and like all families, it's full of shit.\" Style and technique Picasso was exceptionally prolific throughout his long lifetime. At his death there were more than 45,000 unsold works in his estate, comprising 1,885 paintings, 1,228 sculptures, 3,222 ceramics, 7,089 drawings, 150 sketchbooks, many thousands of prints, and numerous tapestries and rugs.The most complete – but not exhaustive – catalogue of his works, thecatalogue raisonnécompiled byChristian Zervos, lists more than 16,000 paintings and drawings.Picasso's output was several times more prolific than most artists of his era; by at least one account, American artistBob Rossis the only one to rival Picasso's volume, and Ross's artwork was designed specifically to be easily mass-produced quickly. The medium in which Picasso made his most important contribution was",
"contribution was painting.In his paintings, Picasso used colour as an expressive element, but relied on drawing rather than subtleties of colour to create form and space.He sometimes added sand to his paint to vary its texture. Ananoprobeof Picasso'sThe Red Armchair(1931), in the collection of theArt Institute of Chicago, by physicists atArgonne National Laboratoryin 2012 confirmed art historians' belief that Picasso used common house paint in many of his paintings.Much of his painting was done at night by artificial light. Picasso's early sculptures were carved from wood or modelled in wax or clay, but from 1909 to 1928 Picasso abandoned modelling and instead made sculptural constructions using diverse materials.An example isGuitar(1912), a relief construction made of sheet metal and wire that Jane Fluegel terms a \"three-dimensional planar counterpart of Cubist painting\" that marks a \"revolutionary departure from the traditional approaches, modeling and carving\". From the beginning of his career, Picasso",
"his career, Picasso displayed an interest in subject matter of every kind,and demonstrated a great stylistic versatility that enabled him to work in several styles at once. For example, his paintings of 1917 included thepointillistWoman with a Mantilla, the CubistFigure in an Armchair, and the naturalisticHarlequin(all in theMuseu Picasso, Barcelona). In 1919, he made a number of drawings from postcards and photographs that reflect his interest in the stylistic conventions and static character of posed photographs.In 1921 he simultaneously painted several large neoclassical paintings and two versions of the Cubist compositionThree Musicians(Museum of Modern Art, New York; Philadelphia Museum of Art).In an interview published in 1923, Picasso said, \"The several manners I have used in my art must not be considered as an evolution, or as steps towards an unknown ideal of painting ... If the subjects I have wanted to express have suggested different ways of expression I have never hesitated to adopt them.\"",
"to adopt them.\" Although his Cubist works approach abstraction, Picasso never relinquished the objects of the real world as subject matter. Prominent in his Cubist paintings are forms easily recognized as guitars, violins, and bottles.When Picasso depicted complex narrative scenes it was usually in prints, drawings, and small-scale works;Guernica(1937) is one of his few large narrative paintings. Picasso painted mostly from imagination or memory. According toWilliam Rubin, Picasso \"could only make great art from subjects that truly involved him ... Unlike Matisse, Picasso had eschewed models virtually all his mature life, preferring to paint individuals whose lives had both impinged on, and had real significance for, his own.\"The art criticArthur Dantosaid Picasso's work constitutes a \"vast pictorial autobiography\" that provides some basis for the popular conception that \"Picasso invented a new style each time he fell in love with a new woman\".The autobiographical nature of Picasso's art is reinforced by his",
"reinforced by his habit of dating his works, often to the day. He explained: \"I want to leave to posterity a documentation that will be as complete as possible. That's why I put a date on everything I do.\" Artistic legacy Picasso's influence was and remains immense and widely acknowledged by his admirers and detractors alike. On the occasion of his 1939 retrospective at MoMA,Lifemagazine wrote: \"During the 25 years he has dominated modern European art, his enemies say he has been a corrupting influence. With equal violence, his friends say he is the greatest artist alive.\"Picasso was the first artist to receive a special honour exhibition at the Grand Gallery of theLouvreMuseum in Paris in celebration of his 90 years.In 1998,Robert Hugheswrote of him: \"To say that Pablo Picasso dominated Western art in the 20th century is, by now, the merest commonplace. ... No painter or sculptor, not even Michelangelo, had been as famous as this in his own lifetime. ... ThoughMarcel Duchamp, that cunning old fox of",
"cunning old fox of conceptual irony, has certainly had more influence on nominally vanguard art over the past 30 years than Picasso, the Spaniard was the last great beneficiary of the belief that the language of painting and sculpture really mattered to people other than their devotees.\" At the time of Picasso's death many of his paintings were in his possession, as he had kept off the art market what he did not need to sell. In addition, Picasso had a considerable collection of the work of other famous artists, some his contemporaries, such asHenri Matisse, with whom he had exchanged works. Since Picasso left no will, his death duties (estate tax) to the French state were paid in the form of his works and others from his collection. These works form the core of the immense and representative collection of theMusée Picassoin Paris.In 2003, relatives of Picasso inaugurated a museum dedicated to him in his birthplace, Málaga, Spain, theMuseo Picasso Málaga. TheMuseu Picassoin Barcelona features many of his",
"many of his early works, created while he was living in Spain, including many rarely seen works which reveal his firm grounding in classical techniques. The museum also holds many precise and detailed figure studies done in his youth under his father's tutelage, as well as the extensive collection of Jaime Sabartés, his close friend and personal secretary. Guernicawas on display in New York'sMuseum of Modern Artfor many years. In 1981, it was returned to Spain and was on exhibit at theCasón del Buen Retiroof theMuseo del Prado. In 1992, the painting was put on display in theReina Sofía Museumwhen it opened. In 1985, a museum was established inBuitrago del Lozoyaby Picasso's friend Eugenio Arias Herranz. It was announced on 22 September 2020 that the project for a new Picasso Museum due to open inAix-en-Provencein 2021, in a former convent (Couvent des Prêcheurs), which would have held the largest collection of his paintings of any museum, had been scrapped due to the fact that Catherine Hutin-Blay,Jacqueline",
"Picasso's daughter, and the City Council had failed to reach an agreement. In the 1996 movieSurviving Picasso, Picasso is portrayed by actorAnthony Hopkins.Picasso is also a character inSteve Martin's 1993 play,Picasso at the Lapin Agile. InA Moveable FeastbyErnest Hemingway, Hemingway tellsGertrude Steinthat he would like to have some Picassos, but cannot afford them. Later in the book, Hemingway mentions looking at one of Picasso's paintings. He refers to it as Picasso's nude of the girl with the basket of flowers, possibly related toYoung Naked Girl with Flower Basket. On 8 October 2010,Picasso: Masterpieces from the Musée National Picasso, Paris,an exhibition of 150 paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints and photographs from the Musée National Picasso in Paris, opened at theSeattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington, US. The exhibition subsequently travelled to theVirginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia: theM.H. de Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, California, US.;theArt Gallery of New South",
"of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia;and theArt Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. As of 2015, Picasso remained the top-ranked artist (based on sales of his works at auctions) according to the Art Market Trends report.More of his paintings have been stolen than any other artist's;in 2012, theArt Loss Registerhad 1,147 of his works listed as stolen.The Picasso Administration functions as his official Estate. The US copyright representative for the Picasso Administration is theArtists Rights Society. Picasso is played byAntonio Banderasin the2018 seasonofGeniuswhich focuses on his life and art. The Basel vote In the 1940s, a Swiss insurance company based inBaselhad bought two paintings by Picasso to diversify its investments and serve as a guarantee for the insured risks. Following an air disaster in 1967, the company had to pay out heavy reimbursements. The company decided to part with the two paintings, which were deposited in theKunstmuseum Basel. In 1968, a large number of Basel citizens called",
"citizens called for a local referendum on the purchase of the Picassos by theCanton of Basel-Stadt, which was successful, making it the first time in democratic history that the population of a city voted on the purchase of works of art for a public art museum.The paintings therefore remained in the museum in Basel. Informed of this, Picasso donated three paintings and a sketch to the city and its museum and was later made an honorary citizen by the city. Auction history Several paintings by Picasso rank among themost expensive paintings in the world.Garçon à la pipesold for US$104 million atSotheby'son 4 May 2004.Dora Maar au Chatsold for US$95.2 million at Sotheby's on 3 May 2006.On 4 May 2010,Nude, Green Leaves and Bustwas sold atChristie'sfor US$106.5 million. The 1932 work, which depicts Picasso's mistressMarie-Thérèse Walterreclining and as a bust, was in the personal collection of Los Angeles philanthropist Frances Lasker Brody, who died in November 2009.On 11 May 2015 his paintingWomen of Algiersset",
"of Algiersset the record for thehighest price ever paid for a paintingwhen it sold for US$179.3 million at Christie's in New York. On 21 June 2016, a painting by Pablo Picasso titledFemme Assise(1909) sold for £43.2 million ($63.4 million) at Sotheby's London, exceeding the estimate by nearly $20 million, setting a world record for the highest price ever paid at auction for a Cubist work. On 17 May 2017,The Jerusalem Postin an article titled \"Picasso Work Stolen By Nazis Sells for $45 Million at Auction\" reported the sale of a portrait painted by Picasso, the 1939Femme assise, robe bleu, which was previously misappropriated during the early years of WWII. The painting has changed hands several times since its recovery, most recently through auction in May 2017 at Christie's in New York City. In March 2018, hisFemme au Béret et à la Robe Quadrillée(1937), a portrait of Marie-Thérèse Walter, sold for £49.8m at Sotheby's in London. Personal life From early adolescence, Picasso maintained both superficial and",
"superficial and intense amatory and sexual relationships. Biographer John Richardson stated that 'work, sex and tobacco' were his addictions.Picasso was married twice and had four children by three women: Photographer and painterDora Maarwas a constant companion and lover of Picasso. The two were closest in the late 1930s and early 1940s, and it was Maar who documented the painting ofGuernica. The women in Picasso's life played an important role in the emotional and erotic aspects of his creative expression, and the tumultuous nature of these relationships has been considered vital to his artistic process. Many of these women functioned as muses for him, and their inclusion in his extensive oeuvre granted them a place in art history.A largely recurring motif in his body of work is the female form. The variations in his relationships informed and collided with his progression of style throughout his career. For example, portraits created of his first wife, Olga, were rendered in a naturalistic style during",
"style during hisNeoclassicalperiod. His relationship with Marie-Thérèse Walter inspired many of hissurrealistpieces, as well as what is referred to as his \"Year of Wonders\".Reappearance of acrobats theme in 1905 put an end to his \"Blue Period\" and transitioned into his \"Rose Period\". This transition has been incorrectly attributed to the presence ofFernande Olivierin his life. Picasso has been characterised as a womaniser and a misogynist, being quoted as saying to long-time partner Françoise Gilot that \"women are machines for suffering.\"He later allegedly told her, \"For me there are only two kinds of women: goddesses and doormats.\"In her memoir,Picasso, My Grandfather,Marina Picassowrites of his treatment of women, \"He submitted them to his animal sexuality, tamed them, bewitched them, ingested them, and crushed them onto his canvas. After he had spent many nights extracting their essence, once they were bled dry, he would dispose of them.\" Of the several important women in his life, two – lover",
"life, two – lover Marie-Thèrése Walter and his second wife Jacqueline Roque – died by suicide. Others, notably his first wife Olga Khokhlova and lover Dora Maar, succumbed to nervous breakdowns. His son, Paulo, developed a fatal alcoholism due to depression. His grandson, Pablito, also died by suicide that same year by ingesting bleach when he was barred byJacqueline Roquefrom attending the artist's funeral. Catalogue raisonné Picasso entrustedChristian Zervosto constitute thecatalogue raisonnéof his work (painted and drawn). The first volume of the catalogue,Works from 1895 to 1906, published in 1932, entailed the financial ruin of Zervos, self-publishing under the nameCahiers d'art, forcing him to sell part of his art collection at auction to avoid bankruptcy. From 1932 to 1978, Zervos constituted the catalogue raisonné of the complete works of Picasso in the company of the artist who had become one of his friends in 1924. Following the death of Zervos, Mila Gagarin supervised the publication of 11",
"publication of 11 additional volumes from 1970 to 1978. The 33 volumes cover the entire work from 1895 to 1972, with close to 16,000 black and white photographs, in accord with the will of the artist. Further publications by Zervos See also Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading External links",
"The Dark Side of the Moon The Dark Side of the Moonis the eighth studio album by the English rock bandPink Floyd, released on 1 March 1973, byHarvest Recordsin the UK andCapitol Recordsin the US. Developed during live performances before recording began, it was conceived as aconcept albumthat would focus on the pressures faced by the band during their arduous lifestyle, and also deal with the mental health problems of the former band memberSyd Barrett, who had departed the group in 1968. New material was recorded in two sessions in 1972 and 1973 at EMI Studios (nowAbbey Road Studios) in London. The record builds on ideas explored in Pink Floyd's earlier recordings and performances, while omitting the extended instrumentals that characterised the band's earlier work. The group employedmultitrack recording,tape loops, andanalogue synthesisers, including experimentation with theEMS VCS 3and aSynthi A. The engineerAlan Parsonswas responsible for many of the sonic aspects of the recording, and for the recruitment",
"for the recruitment of the session singerClare Torry, who appears on \"The Great Gig in the Sky\". The Dark Side of the Moonexplores themes such as conflict, greed, time, death, and mental illness. Snippets from interviews with the band'sroad crewand others are featured alongside philosophical quotations. The sleeve, which depicts aprismaticspectrum, was designed byStorm Thorgersonin response to the keyboardistRichard Wright's request for a \"simple and bold\" design which would represent the band's lighting and the album's themes. The album was promoted with two singles: \"Money\" and \"Us and Them\". The Dark Side of the Moonis among the most critically acclaimed albums and often features in professional listings of the greatest of all time. It brought Pink Floyd international fame, wealth and plaudits to all four band members. Ablockbusterrelease of thealbum era, it also propelled record sales throughout the music industry during the 1970s.The Dark Side of the Moonis certified14x platinumin the United Kingdom,",
"the United Kingdom, and topped the USBillboardTop LPs & Tapechart, where it has charted for 990 weeks. By 2013,The Dark Side of the Moonhad sold over 45 million copies worldwide, making it the band's best-selling release, the best-selling album of the 1970s, and thefourth-best-selling album in history.In 2012, the album was selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Recording Registryby theLibrary of Congressas being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". It was inducted into theGrammy Hall of Famein 1999. Background FollowingMeddlein 1971,Pink Floydassembled for a tour of Britain, Japan and the United States that December. In a band meeting at the home of the drummer,Nick Mason, in North London, the bassist,Roger Waters, proposed that a new album could form part of the tour. Waters conceived an album that dealt with things that \"make people mad\", focusing on the pressures associated with the band's arduous lifestyle, and dealing with the mental health problems suffered by the",
"suffered by the former band memberSyd Barrett.The band had explored a similar idea with the 1969 concert suiteThe ManandThe Journey.In an interview forRolling Stone, the guitarist,David Gilmour, said: \"I think we all thought – and Roger definitely thought – that a lot of the lyrics that we had been using were a little too indirect. There was definitely a feeling that the words were going to be very clear and specific.\" The band approved of Waters' concept for an album unified by a single theme,and all the members participated in writing and producing material. Waters createddemo tracksin a small studio in a garden shed at his home inIslington.Parts of the album were taken from previously unused material; the opening line of \"Breathe\" came from an earlier work by Waters andRon Geesin, written for the soundtrack ofThe Body,and the basic structure of \"Us and Them\" was borrowed from an original composition, \"The Violent Sequence\", by the keyboardist,Richard Wright, forZabriskie Point.The band rehearsed at a",
"band rehearsed at a warehouse in London owned bythe Rolling Stonesand at theRainbow TheatreinFinsbury Park, London. They also purchased extra equipment, which included new speakers, aPA system, a 28-track mixing desk with a four channelquadraphonicoutput, and a custom-built lighting rig. Nine tonnes of kit was transported in threelorries. This would be the first time the band had taken an entire album on tour.The album had been given the provisional title ofDark Side of the Moon(an allusion to lunacy, rather than astronomy).After discovering that title had already been used by another band,Medicine Head, it was temporarily changed toEclipse. The new material was premiered atThe DomeinBrighton, on 20 January 1972,and after the commercial failure of Medicine Head's album the title was changed back to the band's original preference. Dark Side of the Moon: A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, as it was then known,was performed for an assembled press on 17 February 1972 at the Rainbow Theatre, more than a year before",
"than a year before its release, and was critically acclaimed.Michael Wale ofThe Timesdescribed the piece as \"bringing tears to the eyes. It was so completely understanding and musically questioning.\"Derek JewellofThe Sunday Timeswrote \"The ambition of the Floyd's artistic intention is now vast.\"Melody Makerwas less enthusiastic: \"Musically, there were some great ideas, but the sound effects often left me wondering if I was in a bird-cage at London Zoo.\"The following tour was praised by the public. The new material was performed in the same order in which it was eventually sequenced on the album. Differences included the lack of synthesisers in tracks such as \"On the Run\", andClare Torry's vocals on \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" replaced by readings from the Bible. Pink Floyd'slengthy tourthrough Europe and North America gave them the opportunity to make improvements to the scale and quality of their performances.Work on the album was interrupted in late February when the band travelled to France and recorded",
"France and recorded music for the French directorBarbet Schroeder's filmLa Vallée.They performed in Japan, returned to France in March to complete work on the film, played more shows in North America, then flew to London and resumed recording in May and June. After more concerts in Europe and North America, the band returned to London on 9 January 1973 to complete the album. Concept The Dark Side of the Moonwas built upon experiments Pink Floyd had attempted in their previous live shows and recordings, although it lacked the extended instrumental excursions which, according to the criticDavid Fricke, had become characteristic of the band following the departure of the founding member Syd Barrett in 1968. Gilmour, Barrett's replacement, later referred to those instrumentals as \"that psychedelic noodling stuff\". He and Waters cited 1971'sMeddleas a turning point towards what would later be realised on the album.The Dark Side of the Moon's lyrical themes include conflict, greed, the passage of time, death and",
"of time, death and insanity, the last inspired in part by Barrett's deteriorating mental state.The album containsmusique concrèteon several tracks. Each side of the vinyl album is a continuous piece of music. The five tracks on each side reflect various stages of human life, beginning and ending with a heartbeat, exploring the nature of the human experience and, according to Waters, \"empathy\".\"Speak to Me\" and \"Breathe\" together highlight the mundane and futile elements of life that accompany the ever-present threat of madness, and the importance of living one's own life – \"Don't be afraid to care\".By shifting the scene to an airport, the synthesiser-driven instrumental \"On the Run\" evokes the stress and anxiety of modern travel, in particular Wright's fear of flying.\"Time\" examines the manner in which its passage can control one's life and offers a stark warning to those who remain focused on mundane pursuits; it is followed by a retreat into solitude and withdrawal in \"Breathe (Reprise)\". The first side of",
"The first side of the album ends with Wright and Clare Torry's soulful metaphor for death, \"The Great Gig in the Sky\". \"Money\", the first track on side two, opens with the sound ofcash registersand rhythmically jingling coins. The song mocks greed andconsumerismwith sarcastic lyrics and cash-relatedsound effects. \"Money\" became the band's most commercially successful track and was covered by other artists.\"Us and Them\" addresses the isolation of the depressed with the symbolism ofconflictand the use of simpledichotomiesto describe personal relationships. \"Any Colour You Like\" tackles the illusion of choice one has in society. \"Brain Damage\" looks atmental illnessresulting from the elevation of fame and success above the needs of the self; in particular, the line \"and if the band you're in starts playing different tunes\" reflects the mental breakdown of Syd Barrett. The album ends with \"Eclipse\", which espouses the concepts of otherness and unity, while encouraging the listener to recognise the common traits",
"the common traits shared by humanity. Recording The Dark Side of the Moonwas recorded at EMI Studios (nowAbbey Road Studios) in approximately 60 daysbetween 31 May 1972 and 9 February 1973. Pink Floyd were assigned the staff engineerAlan Parsons, who had worked as the assistant tape operator on their fifth album,Atom Heart Mother(1970), and had gained experience as a recording engineer onthe BeatlesalbumsAbbey RoadandLet It Be.TheDark Side of the Moonsessions made use ofadvanced studio techniques, as the studio was capable of16-trackmixes which offered greater flexibility than the eight- or four-track mixes Pink Floyd had previously worked with, although the band often used so many tracks that second-generation copies were still needed to make more space available on the tape.The mix supervisorChris Thomasrecalled later, \"There were only two or three tracks of drums when we came to mixing it. Depending on the song, there would be one or two tracks of guitar, and these would include the solo and the rhythm",
"solo and the rhythm guitar parts. One track for keyboard, one track for bass, and one or two sound effects tracks. They had been very, very efficient in the way they'd worked.\" The first track recorded was \"Us and Them\" on 31 May, followed seven days later by \"Money\".For \"Money\", Waters had created effectsloopsin an unusual74time signaturefrom recordings of money-related objects, including coins thrown into a mixing bowl in his wife's pottery studio. These were re-recorded to take advantage of the band's decision to create a quadraphonic mix of the album, although Parsons later expressed dissatisfaction with the result of this mix, which he attributed to a lack of time and a shortage of multitrack tape recorders. \"Time\" and \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" were recorded next, followed by a two-month break, during which the band spent time with their families and prepared for a tour of the United States.The recording sessions were frequently interrupted: Waters, a supporter ofArsenal F.C., would break to see his",
"break to see his team compete, and the band would occasionally stop to watchMonty Python's Flying Circuson television while Parsons worked on the tracks.Gilmour recalled, \"...but when we were on a roll, we would get on.\" After returning from the US in January 1973, they recorded \"Brain Damage\", \"Eclipse\", \"Any Colour You Like\" and \"On the Run\", and fine-tuned work from previous sessions. Four female vocalists were assembled to sing on \"Brain Damage\", \"Eclipse\" and \"Time\", and the saxophonistDick Parrywas booked to play on \"Us and Them\" and \"Money\". With the director Adrian Maben, the band also filmed studio footage forPink Floyd: Live at Pompeii.The album was completed and signed off at Abbey Road on 9 February 1973.Gilmour recalled the band listening to the finished album for the first time as \"a moment of great joy and of satisfaction and the feeling of achievement that we'd really gone that extra mile\". Instrumentation The album features metronomic sound effects during \"Speak to Me\" and tape loops for the",
"tape loops for the opening of \"Money\". Mason created a rough version of \"Speak to Me\" at his home before completing it in the studio. The track serves as anovertureand contains cross-fades of elements from other pieces on the album. A piano chord, replayed backwards, serves to augment the build-up of effects, which are immediately followed by the opening of \"Breathe\". Mason received a rare solo composing credit for \"Speak to Me\". The sound effects on \"Money\" were created by splicing together Waters' recordings of clinking coins, tearing paper, a ringing cash register, and a clicking adding machine, which were used to create a 7-beateffects loop. This was later adapted to four tracks to create a \"walk around the room\" effect in quadraphonic presentations of the album.At times, the degree of sonic experimentation on the album required the studio engineers and all four band members to operate the mixing console's faders simultaneously, in order to mix down the intricately assembled multitrack recordings of",
"recordings of several of the songs, particularly \"On the Run\". Along with conventional rock band instrumentation, Pink Floyd introduced prominent synthesisers to their sound. The band experimented with anEMS VCS 3on \"Brain Damage\" and \"Any Colour You Like\", and aSynthi Aon \"Time\" and \"On the Run\". They also devised and recorded unconventional sounds, such as assistant engineer Peter Jamesrunning around the studio's echo chamber during \"On the Run\",and a specially treatedbass drummade to simulate a humanheartbeatduring \"Speak to Me\", \"On the Run\", \"Time\" and \"Eclipse\". This heartbeat is most prominent in the intro and the outro to the album, but it can also be heard sporadically on \"Time\" and \"On the Run\".\"Time\" features assorted clocks ticking, then chiming simultaneously at the start of the song, accompanied by a series ofRototoms. The recordings were initially created as a quadraphonic test by Parsons, who recorded each timepiece at an antique clock shop.Although these recordings had not been created",
"not been created specifically for the album, elements of this material were eventually used in the track. Voices Several tracks, including \"Us and Them\" and \"Time\", demonstrated Wright's and Gilmour's ability to harmonise their similar-sounding voices, and the engineer Alan Parsons used techniques such asdouble trackingvocals and guitars, which allowed Gilmour to harmonise with himself. Prominent use was also made offlangingand phase-shifting on vocals and instruments, odd trickery withreverb,and the panning of sounds between channels, most notably in thequadraphonicmix of \"On the Run\", where the sound of theHammond B3organ played through aLeslie speakerswirls around the listener. Wright's \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" featuresClare Torry, a session singer and songwriter and a regular at Abbey Road. Parsons liked her voice, and when the band decided to use a female vocalist he suggested that she could sing on the track. The band explained the album concept to her, but they were unable to tell her exactly what",
"her exactly what she should do, and Gilmour, who was in charge of the session, asked her to try to express emotions rather than sing words.In a few takes on a Sunday night, Torry improvised a wordless melody to accompany Wright's emotive piano solo. She was initially embarrassed by her exuberance in the recording booth and wanted to apologise to the band, who were impressed with her performance but did not tell her so.Her takes were edited to produce the version used on the track.She left the studio under the impression that her vocals would not make the final cut,and she only became aware that she had been included in the final mix when she picked up the album at a local record store and saw her name in the credits.For her contribution she was paid her standard session feeof £30,equivalent to about £500 in 2024. In 2004, Torry suedEMIand Pink Floyd for 50% of the songwritingroyalties, arguing that her contribution to \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" was substantial enough to be considered co-authorship. The case",
"The case was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, with all post-2005 pressings crediting Wright and Torry jointly. In the final week of recording,Waters asked staff and others at Abbey Road to respond to questions printed onflashcardsand some of their replies were edited into the final mix. The interviewees were placed in front of a microphone in a darkened Studio 3and shown such questions as \"What's your favourite colour?\" and \"What's your favourite food?\", before moving on to themes central to the album, including those of madness, violence, and death. Questions such as \"When was the last time you were violent?\", followed immediately by \"Were you in the right?\", were answered in the order they were presented. RoadieRoger \"The Hat\" Manifold was recorded in a conventional sit-down interview. Waters asked him about a violent encounter he had had with a motorist, and Manifold replied \"... give 'em a quick, short, sharp shock ...\" Asked about death, he responded, \"Live for today, gone tomorrow, that's",
"tomorrow, that's me ...\"Another roadie, Chris Adamson, recorded the words that open the album: \"I've been mad for fucking years. Absolutely years. Over the edge... It's working with bands that does it.\" The band's road managerPeter Watts(father of the actressNaomi Watts)contributed the repeated laughter during \"Brain Damage\" and \"Speak to Me\", as well as the line \"I can't think of anything to say\". His second wife, Patricia \"Puddie\" Watts (now Patricia Gleason), was responsible for the line about the \"geezer\" who was \"cruisin' for a bruisin'\", used in the segue between \"Money\" and \"Us and Them\", and the words \"I never said I was frightened of dying\" halfway through \"The Great Gig in the Sky\". Several of the responses – \"I am not frightened of dying. Any time will do, I don't mind. Why should I be frightened of dying? There's no reason for it ... you've got to go sometime\"; \"I know I've been mad, I've always been mad, like most of us have\"; and the closing \"There is no dark side in the moon really. Matter of",
"really. Matter of fact, it's all dark\" – came from the studios' Irish doorman, Gerry O'Driscoll.\"The bit you don't hear,\" said Parsons, \"is that, after that, he said, 'The only thing that makes it look alight is the sun.' The band were too overjoyed with his first line, and it would have been an anticlimax to continue.\" PaulandLinda McCartneywere interviewed, but their answers – judged to be \"trying too hard to be funny\" – were not used.The McCartneys'WingsbandmateHenry McCulloughcontributed the line, \"I don't know, I was really drunk at the time.\" Completion When the flashcard sessions were finished, producerChris Thomaswas hired to provide \"a fresh pair of ears\" for the final mix. Thomas's background was in music rather than engineering; he had worked with Beatles producerGeorge Martinand was an acquaintance of Pink Floyd's manager,Steve O'Rourke.The members of the band were said to have disagreed over the mix, with Waters and Mason preferring a \"dry\" and \"clean\" mix that made more use of the non-musical",
"of the non-musical elements and Gilmour and Wright preferring a subtler and more \"echoey\" mix.Thomas said later, \"There was no difference in opinion between them, I don't remember Roger once saying that he wanted less echo. In fact, there were never any hints that they were later going to fall out. It was a very creative atmosphere. A lot of fun.\" Thomas's intervention resulted in a compromise between Waters and Gilmour, who were both satisfied with the result. Thomas was responsible for significant changes, including the perfect timing of the echo used on \"Us and Them\". He was also present for the recording of \"The Great Gig in the Sky\".Waters said in an interview in 2006, when asked if he felt his goals had been accomplished in the studio: When the record was finished I took a reel-to-reel copy home with me and I remember playing it for my wife then, and I remember her bursting into tears when it was finished. And I thought, \"This has obviously struck a chord somewhere\", and I was kinda pleased by that.",
"pleased by that. You know when you've done something, certainly if you create a piece of music, you then hear it with fresh ears when you play it for somebody else. And at that point I thought to myself, \"Wow, this is a pretty complete piece of work\", and I had every confidence that people would respond to it. Packaging It felt like the whole band were working together. It was a creative time. We were all very open. – Richard Wright The album was originally released in agatefoldLP sleeve designed byHipgnosisandGeorge Hardie. Hipgnosis had designed several of the band's previous albums, with controversial results; EMI had reacted with confusion when faced with the cover designs forAtom Heart MotherandObscured by Clouds, as they had expected to see traditional designs which included lettering and words. DesignersStorm ThorgersonandAubrey Powellwere able to ignore such criticism, as they were employed by the band. ForThe Dark Side of the Moon, Wright suggested something \"smarter, neater – more classy\",and",
"– more classy\",and simple, \"like the artwork of a Black Magic chocolate box\". The design was inspired by a photograph of a prism with a beam of white light projected through it and emerging in the colours of thevisible spectrumthat Thorgerson had found in a 1963 physics textbook,as well as by an illustration byAlex Steinweiss, the inventor of album cover art, for theNew York Philharmonic's 1942 performance ofLudwig van Beethoven'sEmperor Concerto.The artwork was created by an associate of Hipgnosis, George Hardie.Hipgnosis offered a choice of seven designs for the sleeve, but all four members of the band agreed that the prism was the best. \"There were no arguments,\" said Roger Waters. \"We all pointed to the prism and said 'That's the one'.\" The design depicts a glassprismdispersing white light into colours and represents three elements: the band's stage lighting, the album lyrics, and Wright's request for a \"simple and bold\" design.At Waters' suggestion, the spectrum of light continues through to the",
"through to the gatefold.Added shortly afterwards, the gatefold design also includes a visual representation of the heartbeat sound used throughout the album, and the back of the album cover contains Thorgerson's suggestion of another prism recombining the spectrum of light, to make possible interesting layouts of the sleeve in record shops.The light band emanating from the prism on the album cover has six colours, missingindigo, compared with the usual division of the visible spectrum into red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Inside the sleeve were two posters and two pyramid-themed stickers. One poster bore pictures of the band in concert, overlaid with scattered letters to form PINK FLOYD, and the other aninfrared photographof theGreat Pyramids of Giza, created by Powell and Thorgerson. The band were so confident of the quality of Waters' lyrics that, for the first time, they printed them on the album's sleeve. Release As the quadraphonic mix of the album was not then complete, the band",
"complete, the band (with the exception of Wright) boycotted the press reception held at theLondon Planetariumon 27 February.The guests were, instead, presented with a quartet of life-sized cardboard cut-outs of the band, and the stereo mix of the album was played over a poor-qualitypublic address system.Generally, however, the press were enthusiastic;Melody Maker's Roy Hollingworth described Side One as \"so utterly confused with itself it was difficult to follow\", but praised Side Two, writing: \"The songs, the sounds, the rhythms were solid and sound, Saxophone hit the air, the band rocked and rolled, and then gushed and tripped away into the night.\"Steve Peacock ofSoundswrote: \"I don't care if you've never heard a note of the Pink Floyd's music in your life, I'd unreservedly recommend everyone toThe Dark Side of the Moon\".In his 1973 review forRolling Stonemagazine,Loyd GrossmandeclaredDark Side\"a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites, but demands",
"but demands involvement\".InChristgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies(1981),Robert Christgaufound its lyrical ideas clichéd and its music pretentious, but called it a \"kitschmasterpiece\" that can be charming with highlights such as taped speech fragments, Parry's saxophone, and studio effects which enhance Gilmour's guitar solos. The Dark Side of the Moonwas released first in the US on 1 March 1973,and then in the UK on 16 March.It became an instant chart success in Britain and throughout Western Europe;by the following month, it had gained agold certificationin the US.Throughout March 1973 the band played the album as part of theirUS tour, including a midnight performance atRadio City Music Hallin New York City on 17 March before an audience of 6,000. The album reached theBillboardTop LPs & Tapechart's number one spot on 28 April 1973,and was so successful that the band returned two months later for another tour. Label Much of the album's early American success is attributed to the efforts of",
"to the efforts of Pink Floyd's US record company,Capitol Records. Newly appointed chairmanBhaskar Menonset about trying to reverse the relatively poor sales of the band's 1971 studio albumMeddle. Meanwhile, disenchanted with Capitol, the band and manager O'Rourke had been quietly negotiating a new contract withCBSpresidentClive Davis, onColumbia Records.The Dark Side of the Moonwas the last album that Pink Floyd were obliged to release before formally signing a new contract. Menon's enthusiasm for the new album was such that he began a huge promotional advertising campaign, which included radio-friendly truncated versions of \"Us and Them\" and \"Time\". In some countries – notably the UK – Pink Floyd had not released a single since 1968's \"Point Me at the Sky\", and unusually \"Money\" was released as a single on 7 May, with \"Any Colour You Like\" on theB-side.It reached number 13 on theBillboardHot 100in July 1973.A two-sided white label promotional version of the single, with mono and stereo mixes, was sent to",
"mixes, was sent to radio stations. The mono side had the word \"bullshit\" removed from the song – leaving \"bull\" in its place – however, the stereo side retained the uncensored version. This was subsequently withdrawn; the replacement was sent to radio stations with a note advising disc jockeys to dispose of the first uncensored copy.On 4 February 1974, adouble A-sidesingle was released with \"Time\" on one side, and \"Us and Them\" on the opposite side.Menon's efforts to secure a contract renewal with Pink Floyd were in vain however; at the beginning of 1974, the band signed for Columbia with a reported advance fee of $1M (in Britain and Europe they continued to be represented byHarvest Records). Sales The Dark Side of the Moonbecame one of thebest-selling albumsof all timeand is in the top 25 of a list ofbest-sellingalbums in the United States.Although it held the number one spot in the US for only a week, it remained in theBillboard200albums chart for 736 nonconsecutive weeks (from 17 March 1973 to 16 July",
"1973 to 16 July 1988).Of those first 736 charted weeks, the album had two notable consecutive runs in theBillboard200 chart: 84 weeks (from 17 March 1973 to 19 October 1974) and 593 weeks (from 18 December 1976 to 23 April 1988).It made its final appearance in theBillboard200 albums chart during its initial run on the week ending 8 October 1988, in its 741st charted week.It re-appeared on theBillboardcharts with the introduction of theTop Pop Catalog Albumschart in the issue dated 25 May 1991, and was still a perennial feature ten years later.It reached number one on the Pop Catalog chart when the 2003 hybrid CD/SACDedition was released and sold 800,000 copies in the US.On the week of 5 May 2006The Dark Side of the Moonachieved a combined total of 1,716 weeks on theBillboard200 and Pop Catalog charts. After a change in chart methodology in 2009 which allowed catalogue titles to be included in theBillboard200,The Dark Side of the Moonreturned to the chart at number 189 on 12 December of that year for its",
"that year for its 742nd charting week.It has continued to sporadically appear on theBillboard 200since then, with the total at 990 weeks on the chart as of May 2024.\"On a slow week\" between 8,000 and 9,000 copies are sold.As of April 2013, the album had sold 9,502,000 copies in the US since 1991 whenNielsen SoundScanbegan tracking sales forBillboard.One in every fourteen people in the US under the age of 50 is estimated to own, or to have owned, a copy. The Dark Side of the Moonwas released before the introduction ofplatinum certificationin 1976 byRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA), and therefore held only a gold certification until 16 February 1990, when it was certified 11 times platinum. On 4 June 1998, the RIAA certified the album 15× platinum,denoting sales of fifteen million in the United States. This makes it Pink Floyd's biggest-selling work there;The Wallis 23 times platinum, but as a double album this signifies sales of 11.5 million.\"Money\" has sold well as a single, and as with",
"single, and as with \"Time\", remains a radio favourite; in the US, for the year ending 20 April 2005, \"Time\" was played on 13,723 occasions, and \"Money\" on 13,731 occasions.In 2017,The Dark Side of the Moonwas the seventh-bestselling album of all time in the UK and the highest-selling album never to reach number one.As one of theblockbusterLPs of thealbum era(1960s–2000s),The Dark Side of the Moonalso led to an increase in record sales overall into the late 1970s.In 2013, industry sources suggested that worldwide sales ofThe Dark Side of the Moontotalled about 45 million. In 1993, Gilmour attributed the album's success to the combination of music, lyrics and cover art: \"All the music before had not had any great lyrical point to it. And this one was clear and concise.\"Mason said that, when they finished the album, Pink Floyd felt confident it was their best work to date, but were surprised by its commercial success. He said it was \"not only about being a good album but also about being in the right place at",
"the right place at the right time\". Reissues and remasters In 1979,The Dark Side of the Moonwas released as a remastered LP byMobile Fidelity Sound Lab,and in April 1988 on their \"Ultradisc\" gold CD format.It was released by EMI and Harvest on CD in Japan in June 1983 andin the US and Europe in August 1984.In 1992, it was rereleased as a remastered CD in the box setShine On.This version was re-released as a 20th-anniversary box set edition with postcards the following year, with a cover design by Thorgerson.On some pressings, an orchestral version of the Beatles' \"Ticket to Ride\" is faintly audible after \"Eclipse\" over the closing heartbeats. 30th-anniversary 5.1 surround sound mix A quadraphonic mix,created by Alan Parsons,was commissioned by EMI but never endorsed by Pink Floyd, as Parsons was disappointed with his mix.For the album's 30th anniversary, an updated surround version was released in 2003. The band elected not to use Parsons' quadraphonic mix, and instead had the engineerJames Guthriecreate a",
"Guthriecreate a new5.1channel surround sound mix on theSACDformat.Guthrie had worked with Pink Floyd since their eleventh album,The Wall, and had previously worked on surround versions ofThe Wallfor DVD-Video and Waters'In the Fleshfor SACD. In 2003, Parsons expressed disappointment with Guthrie's SACD mix, suggesting he was \"possibly a little too true to the original mix\", but was generally complimentary.The 30th-anniversary edition won four Surround Music Awards in 2003,and sold more than 800,000 copies. The cover image of the 30th-anniversary edition was created by a team of designers including Thorgerson.The image is a photograph of a custom-madestained glasswindow, built to match the dimensions and proportions of the original prism design. Transparent glass, held in place by strips of lead, was used in place of the opaque colours of the original. The idea is derived from the \"sense of purity in the sound quality, being 5.1 surround sound ...\" The image was created out of a desire to be \"the same but",
"to be \"the same but different, such that the design was clearly DSotM, still the recognisable prism design, but was different and hence new\". Later reissues The Dark Side of the Moonwas rereleased in 2003 on 180-gram virgin vinyl and mastered by Kevin Gray at AcousTech Mastering. It included slightly different versions of the posters and stickers that came with the original vinyl release, along with a new 30th-anniversary poster. In 2007, the album was included inOh, by the Way, a box set celebrating the 40th anniversary of Pink Floyd,and aDRM-free version was released on theiTunes Store.In 2011, it was reissued featuring a remastered version with various other material. In 2023, Pink Floyd released theDark Side of the Moon 50th Anniversarybox set, including a newly remastered edition of the album, surround sound mixes (including the 5.1 mix and a newDolby Atmosmix), a photo book, andThe Dark Side of the Moon Live at Wembley 1974, on vinyl. In 2024, the 50th Anniversary LP edition was rereleased as The Dark",
"as The Dark Side Of The Moon 50th Anniversary 2 LP UV Printed Clear Vinyl Collector's Edition. The new edition uses 2 clear LP instead of one, just one side is playable so theUV artworkcan be printed on the non-groove side. Legacy It's changed me in many ways, because it's brought in a lot of money, and one feels very secure when you can sell an album for two years. But it hasn't changed my attitude to music. Even though it was so successful, it was made in the same way as all our other albums, and the only criterion we have about releasing music is whether we like it or not. It was not a deliberate attempt to make a commercial album. It just happened that way. We knew it had a lot more melody than previous Floyd albums, and there was a concept that ran all through it. The music was easier to absorb and having girls singing away added a commercial touch that none of our records had. – Richard Wright The success of the album brought wealth to all four members of the band; Richard Wright and Roger Waters",
"and Roger Waters bought large country houses, and Nick Mason became a collector of upmarket cars.The group were fans of the British comedy troupeMonty Python, and as such, some of the profits were invested in the production ofMonty Python and the Holy Grail.EngineerAlan Parsonsreceived aGrammy Awardnomination forBest Engineered Recording, Non-ClassicalforThe Dark Side of the Moon,and he went on to have a successful career as a recording artist withthe Alan Parsons Project. Although Waters and Gilmour have on occasion downplayed his contribution to the success of the album, Mason has praised his role.In 2003, Parsons reflected: \"I think they all felt that I managed to hang the rest of my career onDark Side of the Moon, which has an element of truth to it. But I still wake up occasionally, frustrated about the fact that they made untold millions and a lot of the people involved in the record didn't.\" Part of the legacy ofThe Dark Side of the Moonis its influence on modern music and on the musicians who have",
"musicians who have performedcover versionsof its songs. It is often seen as a pivotal point in the history of rock music, and comparisons are sometimes made withRadiohead's 1997 albumOK Computer,including a premise explored by Ben Schleifer in 'Speak to Me': The Legacy of Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon(2006) that the two albums share a theme that \"the creative individual loses the ability to function in the world\". In a 2018 book aboutclassic rock,Steven Hydenrecalls concluding, in his teens, thatThe Dark Side of the MoonandLed Zeppelin IVwere the two greatest albums of the genre,vision quests\"encompass the twin poles of teenage desire\". They had similarities, in that both albums' cover and internal artwork eschew pictures of the bands in favour of \"inscrutable iconography without any tangible meaning (which always seemed to give the music packaged insidemoremeaning)\". But whereas Led Zeppelin had looked outward, toward \"conquering the world\" and were known at the time for their outrageous sexual",
"outrageous sexual antics on tour, Pink Floyd looked inward, toward \"overcoming your own hang-ups\".In 2013,The Dark Side of the Moonwas selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Recording Registryby theLibrary of Congressas \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Rankings The Dark Side of the Moonfrequently appears on professional rankings of the greatest albums. In 1987,Rolling Stoneranked it the 35th best album of the preceding 20 years.Rolling Stoneranked it number 43 on its 2003 and 2012 lists of the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\"and number 55 in its 2020 list, Pink Floyd's highest placement.BothRolling StoneandQhave listedThe Dark Side of the Moonas the best progressive rock album. In 2006,Australian Broadcasting Corporationviewers votedThe Dark Side of the Moontheir favourite album.NMEreaders voted it the eighth-best album in a 2006 poll,and in 2009,Planet Rocklisteners voted it the greatest of all time.The album is also number two on the \"Definitive 200\" list of",
"200\" list of albums, made by theNational Association of Recording Merchandisers\"in celebration of the art form of the record album\".It ranked 29th inThe Observer's 2006 list of \"The 50 Albums That Changed Music\",and 37th inThe Guardian's 1997 list of the \"100 Best Albums Ever\", as voted for by a panel of artists and music critics.In 2014, readers ofRhythmvoted it the seventh most influential progressive drumming album.It was voted number 9 inColin Larkin'sAll Time Top 1000 Albums3rd Edition (2000).In 2007,VH1namedDark Side of the Moonthe fourth-greatest album cover. Covers, tributes and samples Return to the Dark Side of the Moon: A Tribute to Pink Floyd, released in 2006, is a cover album ofThe Dark Side of the Moonfeaturing artists such asAdrian Belew,Tommy Shaw,Dweezil Zappa, andRick Wakeman.In 2000,The SquirrelsreleasedThe Not So Bright Side of the Moon, which features a cover of the entire album.The New York dub collectiveEasy Star All-StarsreleasedDub Side of the Moonin 2003andDubber Side of the Moonin",
"Side of the Moonin 2010.The group Voices on the Dark Side released the albumDark Side of the Moon a Cappella, a completea cappellaversion of the album.Thebluegrassband Poor Man's Whiskey frequently play the album in bluegrass style, calling the suiteDark Side of the Moonshine.Astring quartetversion of the album was released in 2003.In 2009,the Flaming Lipsreleased atrack-by-track remake of the albumin collaboration withStardeath and White Dwarfs, and featuringHenry RollinsandPeachesas guest musicians. Several notable acts have covered the album live in its entirety, and a range of performers have usedsamplesfromThe Dark Side of the Moonin their own material. Jam-rock bandPhishperformed a semi-improvised version of the entire album as part of their show on 2 November 1998 inWest Valley City, Utah.Progressive metal bandDream Theaterhave twice covered the album in their live shows,and in May 2011Mary FahlreleasedFrom the Dark Side of the Moon, a song-by-song \"re-imagining\" of the album.Milli Vanilliused the",
"Vanilliused the tape loops from Pink Floyd's \"Money\" to open their track \"Money\", followed byMarky Mark and the Funky BunchonMusic for the People. The Wizard of Oz In the 1990s, it was discovered that playingThe Dark Side of the Moonalongside the 1939 filmThe Wizard of Ozproduced moments of apparent synchronicity, and it was suggested that this was intentional.Such moments includeDorothybeginning to jog at the lyric \"no one told you when to run\" during \"Time\", balancing on a fence,tightrope-style, during the line \"balanced on the biggest wave\" in \"Breathe\",and putting her ear to the Tin Man's chest as the album's closing heartbeats are heard.Parsons and members of Pink Floyd denied any connection, with Parsons calling it \"a complete load of eyewash ... If you play any record with the sound turned down on the TV, you will find things that work.\" The Dark Side of the Moon Redux For the 50th anniversary ofThe Dark Side of the Moon, Waters recorded a new version,The Dark Side of the Moon Redux, released in",
"Redux, released in October 2023.It was recorded with no other members of Pink Floyd,and featuresspoken wordsections and more downbeat arrangements, with no guitar solos. Waters said he wanted to \"bring out the heart and soul of the album musically and spiritually\".He also said it is intended to be taken from the perspective of an older man, as \"not enough people recognised what it's about, what it was I was saying then\". Track listing All lyrics are written byRoger Waters. Note Personnel Pink Floyd Additional musicians Production Design Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications and sales *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history See also References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading External links"
] |
For how long was the "Father of the National Parks", the first president to declare a national park, and the president who declared the most national parks all alive at the same time? | 26 years, 8 months, and 26 days. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_the_United_States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Muir | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_the_United_States', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Muir', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_the_United_States",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Muir",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt"
] | [
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_the_United_States (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b939e91b0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/John_Muir (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9438cdc0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93360730>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b95184b80>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"
] | [
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_the_United_States (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b939e91b0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/John_Muir (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9438cdc0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93360730>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b95184b80>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))"
] |
What lasted longer: the reign of Queen Elizabeth II or the life of Julius Caesar? | The reign of Queen Elizabeth II | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"
] | [
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Elizabeth_II (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b927a8dc0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar(12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was aRomangeneral and statesman. A member of theFirst Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in theGallic Warsbefore defeating his political rivalPompeyina civil war, and subsequently becamedictatorfrom 49 BC untilhis assassinationin 44 BC. He played a critical role inthe events that led to the demise oftheRoman Republicand the rise of theRoman Empire. In 60 BC, Caesar,Crassus, andPompeyformed theFirst Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominatedRoman politicsfor several years. Their attempts to amass political power were opposed by many in theSenate, among themCato the Youngerwith the private support ofCicero. Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in theGallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time he bothinvaded Britainandbuilt a bridge across the river Rhine. These achievements and the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after thedeath of Crassusin 53 BC. With theGallic Warsconcluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. In 49 BC, Caesar openly defied the Senate's authority bycrossing the Rubiconand marching towards Rome at the head of an army.This beganCaesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near-unchallenged power and influence in 45 BC. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reform, including the creation of theJulian calendar. He gavecitizenshipto many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reforms to support his veterans and initiated an enormous building programme. In early 44 BC, he was proclaimed \"dictator for life\" (dictator perpetuo). Fearful of his power and domination of the state, a group of senators led byBrutusandCassiusassassinated Caesar on theIdes of March(15 March) 44 BC. A newseries of civil warsbroke out and theconstitutional government of the Republicwas never fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known asAugustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in thelast civil war of the Roman Republic. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of theRoman Empirebegan. Caesar was an accomplished author and historian as well as a statesman; much of his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns. Other contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings ofSallust. Later biographies of Caesar bySuetoniusandPlutarchare also important sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history.Hiscognomenwas subsequently adopted as asynonymfor \"Emperor\"; the title \"Caesar\" was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern descendants such asKaiserandTsar. He hasfrequently appeared in literary and artistic works. Early life and career Gaius Julius Caesar was born into apatricianfamily, thegensJuliaon 12 July 100 BC.The family claimed to have immigrated to Rome fromAlba Longaduring the seventh century BC after the thirdking of Rome,Tullus Hostilius, took and destroyed their city. The family also claimed descent from Julus, the son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa. Given that Aeneas was a son of Venus, this made the clan divine. This genealogy had not yet taken its final form by the first century, but the clan's claimed descent from Venus was well established in public consciousness.There is no evidence that Caesar himself was born byCaesarian section; such operations entailed the death of the mother, butCaesar's motherlived for decades after his birth and no ancient sources record any difficulty with the birth. Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential during the middle republic. The first person known to have had thecognomenCaesarwas a praetor in 208 BC during theSecond Punic War. The family's first consul was in 157 BC, though their political fortunes had recovered in the early first century, producing two consuls in 91 and 90 BC.Caesar's homonymous father was moderately successful politically. He marriedAurelia, a member of the politically influentialAurelii Cottae, producing – along with Caesar – two daughters. Buoyed by his own marriage andhis sister'smarriage (the dictator's aunt) with the extremely influentialGaius Marius, he also served on theSaturninianland commission in 103 BC and was elected praetor some time between 92 and 85 BC; he served as proconsular governor of Asia for two years, likely 91–90 BC. Life under Sulla and military service Caesar's father did not seek a consulship during the domination ofLucius Cornelius Cinnaand instead chose retirement.During Cinna's dominance, Caesar was named asflamen Dialis(a priest ofJupiter) which led to his marriage to Cinna's daughter,Cornelia. The religious taboos of the priesthood would have forced Caesar to forgo a political career; the appointment – one of the highest non-political honours – indicates that there were few expectations of a major career for Caesar.In early 84 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly.AfterSulla's victory in thecivil war(82 BC), Cinna'sactawere annulled. Sulla consequently ordered Caesar to abdicate and divorce Cinna's daughter. Caesar refused, implicitly questioning the legitimacy of Sulla's annulment. Sulla may have put Caesar on theproscription lists, though scholars are mixed.Caesar then went into hiding before his relatives and contacts among theVestal Virginswere able to intercede on his behalf.They then reached a compromise where Caesar would resign his priesthood but keep his wife and chattels; Sulla's alleged remark he saw \"in many Mariuses\"is apocryphal. Caesar then left Italy to serve in the staff of the governor of Asia,Marcus Minucius Thermus. While there, he travelled to Bithynia to collect naval reinforcements and stayed some time as a guest of the king,Nicomedes IV, though later invective connected Caesar to a homosexual relation with the monarch.He then served at theSiege of Mytilenewhere he won thecivic crownfor saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle. The privileges of the crown – the Senate was supposed to stand on a holder's entrance and holders were permitted to wear the crown at public occasions – whetted Caesar's appetite for honours. After the capture of Mytilene, Caesar transferred to the staff ofPublius Servilius Vatiain Cilicia before learning of Sulla's death in 78 BC and returning home immediately.He was alleged to have wanted to join in on the consulLepidus' revolt that yearbut this is likely literary embellishment of Caesar's desire for tyranny from a young age. Afterward, Caesar attacked some of the Sullan aristocracy in the courts but was unsuccessful in his attempted prosecution ofGnaeus Cornelius Dolabellain 77 BC, who had recently returned from a proconsulship in Macedonia. Going after a less well-connected senator, he was successful the next year in prosecutingGaius Antonius Hybrida(later consul in 63 BC) for profiteering from the proscriptions but was forestalled when a tribune interceded on Antonius' behalf.After these oratorical attempts, Caesar left Rome for Rhodes seeking the tutelage of the rhetoricianApollonius Molon.While travelling, he was intercepted and ransomed by pirates in a story that was later much embellished. According to Plutarch and Suetonius, he was freed after paying a ransom of fiftytalentsand responded by returning with a fleet to capture and execute the pirates. The recorded sum for the ransom is literary embellishment and it is more likely that the pirates were sold into slavery perVelleius Paterculus.His studies were interrupted by the outbreak of theThird Mithridatic Warover the winter of 75 and 74 BC; Caesar is alleged to have gone around collecting troops in the province at the locals' expense and leading them successfully against Mithridates' forces. Entrance to politics While absent from Rome, in 73 BC, Caesar was co-opted into thepontificesin place of his deceased relativeGaius Aurelius Cotta. The promotion marked him as a well-accepted member of the aristocracy with great future prospects in his political career.Caesar decided to return shortly thereafter and on his return was elected one of themilitary tribunesfor 71 BC.There is no evidence that Caesar served in war – even thoughthe waronSpartacuswas on-going – during his term; he did, however, agitate for the removal of Sulla's disabilities on the plebeian tribunate and for those who supported Lepidus' revolt to be pardoned.These advocacies were common and uncontroversial.The next year, 70 BC,PompeyandCrassuswere consuls and brought legislation restoring the plebeian tribunate's rights; one of the tribunes, with Caesar supporting, then brought legislation pardoning the Lepidan exiles. For his quaestorship in 69 BC, Caesar was allotted to serve underGaius Antistius VetusinHispania Ulterior. His election also gave him a lifetime seat in the Senate. However, before he left, his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius died and, soon afterwards, his wife Cornelia died shortly after bearing his only legitimate child,Julia. He gave eulogies for both at public funerals.During Julia's funeral, Caesar displayed the images of his aunt's husband Marius, whose memory had been suppressed after Sulla's victory in the civil war. Some of the Sullan nobles – includingQuintus Lutatius Catulus– who had suffered under the Marian regime objected, but by this point depictions of husbands in aristocratic women's funerary processions was common.Contra Plutarch,Caesar's action here was likely in keeping with a political trend for reconciliation and normalisation rather than a display of renewed factionalism.Caesar quickly remarried, taking the hand of Sulla's granddaughterPompeia. Aedileship and election aspontifex maximus For much of this period, Caesar was one ofPompey's supporters. Caesar joined with Pompey in the late 70s to support restoration of tribunician rights; his support for the law recalling the Lepidan exiles may have been related to the same tribune's bill to grant lands to Pompey's veterans. Caesar also supported thelex Gabiniain 67 BC granting Pompey an extraordinary command against piracy in the Mediterranean and also supported thelex Maniliain 66 BC to reassign the Third Mithridatic War from its then-commanderLucullusto Pompey. Four years after his aunt Julia's funeral, in 65 BC, Caesar served ascurule aedileand staged lavishgamesthat won him further attention and popular support.He also restored the trophies won by Marius, and taken down by Sulla, overJugurthaand theCimbri.According to Plutarch's narrative, the trophies were restored overnight to the applause and tears of joy of the onlookers; any sudden and secret restoration of this sort would not have been possible – architects, restorers, and other workmen would have to have been hired and paid for – nor would it have been likely that the work could have been done in a single night.It is more likely that Caesar was merely restoring his family's public monuments – consistent with standard aristocratic practice and the virtue ofpietas– and, over objections from Catulus, these actions were broadly supported by the Senate. In 63 BC, Caesar stood for the praetorship and also for the post ofpontifex maximus,who was the head of theCollege of Pontiffsand the highest ranking state religious official. In the pontifical election before thetribes, Caesar faced two influential senators:Quintus Lutatius CatulusandPublius Servilius Isauricus. Caesar came out victorious. Many scholars have expressed astonishment that Caesar's candidacy was taken seriously, but this was not without historical precedent.Ancient sources allege that Caesar paid huge bribes or was shamelessly ingratiating;that no charge was ever laid alleging this implies that bribery alone is insufficient to explain his victory.If bribes or other monies were needed, they may have been underwritten by Pompey, whom Caesar at this time supported and who opposed Catulus' candidacy. Many sources also assert that Caesar supported the land reform proposals brought that year by plebeian tribunePublius Servilius Rullus, however, there are no ancient sources so attesting.Caesar also engaged in a collateral manner in the trial ofGaius Rabiriusby one of the plebeian tribunes –Titus Labienus– for the murder of Saturninus in accordance with asenatus consultum ultimumsome forty years earlier.The most famous event of the year was theCatilinarian conspiracy. While some of Caesar's enemies, including Catulus, alleged that he participated in the conspiracy,the chance that he was a participant is extremely small. Praetorship Caesar won his election to the praetorship in 63 BC easily and, as one of the praetor-elects, spoke out that December in the Senate against executing certain citizens who had been arrested in the city conspiring with Gauls in furtherance of the conspiracy.Caesar's proposal at the time is not entirely clear. The earlier sources assert that he advocated life imprisonment without trial; the later sources assert he instead wanted the conspirators imprisoned pending trial. Most accounts agree that Caesar supported confiscation of the conspirators' property.Caesar likely advocated the former, which was a compromise position that would place the Senate within the bounds of thelex Sempronia de capite civis, and was initially successful in swaying the body; a later intervention byCato, however, swayed the Senate at the end for execution. During his year as praetor, Caesar first attempted to deprive his enemy Catulus of the honour of completing the rebuiltTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, accusing him of embezzling funds, and threatening to bring legislation to reassign it to Pompey. This proposal was quickly dropped amid near-universal opposition.He then supported the attempt by plebeian tribuneMetellus Neposto transfer the command against Catiline from the consul of 63, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, to Pompey. After a violent meeting of thecomitia tributain the forum, where Metellus came into fisticuffs with his tribunician colleagues Cato andQuintus Minucius Thermus,the Senate passed a decree against Metellus – Suetonius claims that both Nepos and Caesar were deposed from their magistracies; this would have been a constitutional impossibility– which led Caesar to distance himself from the proposals: hopes for a provincial command and need to repair relations with the aristocracy took priority.He also was engaged in theBona Deaaffair, wherePublius Clodius Pulchersneaked into Caesar's house sacrilegiously during a female religious observance; Caesar avoided any part of the affair by divorcing his wife immediately – claiming that his wife needed to be \"above suspicion\"– but there is no indication that Caesar supported Clodius in any way. After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to governHispania Ulteriorpro consule.Deeply indebted from his campaigns for the praetorship and for the pontificate, Caesar required military victory beyond the normal provincial extortion to pay them off.He campaigned against theCallaeciandLusitaniand seized the Callaeci capital in northwestern Spain, bringing Roman troops to the Atlantic and seizing enough plunder to pay his debts.Claiming to have completed the peninsula's conquest, he made for home after having been hailedimperator.When he arrived home in the summer of 60 BC, he was then forced to choose between a triumph and election to the consulship: either he could remain outside thepomerium(Rome's sacred boundary) awaiting a triumph or cross the boundary, giving up his command and triumph, to make a declaration of consular candidacy.Attempts to waive the requirement for the declaration to be made in person were filibustered in the Senate by Caesar's enemy Cato, even though the Senate seemed to support the exception.Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship. First consulship and the Gallic Wars Caesar stood for the consulship of 59 BC along with two other candidates. His political position at the time was strong: he had supporters among the families which had supported Marius or Cinna; his connection with the Sullan aristocracy was good; his support of Pompey had won him support in turn. His support for reconciliation in continuing aftershocks of the civil war was popular in all parts of society.With the support of Crassus, who supported Caesar's joint ticket with oneLucius Lucceius, Caesar won. Lucceius, however, did not and the voters returnedMarcus Calpurnius Bibulusinstead, one of Caesar's long-standing personal and political enemies. First consulship After the elections, Caesar reconciled Pompey and Crassus, two political foes, in a three-way alliance misleadinglytermed the \"First Triumvirate\" in modern times.Caesar was still at work in December of 60 BC attempting to find allies for his consulship and the alliance was finalised only some time around its start.Pompey and Crassus joined in pursuit of two respective goals: the ratification ofPompey's eastern settlementand the bailing out of tax farmers in Asia, many of whom were Crassus' clients. All three sought the extended patronage of land grants, with Pompey especially seeking the promised land grants for his veterans. Caesar's first act was topublishthe minutes of the Senate and the assemblies, signalling the Senate's accountability to the public. He then brought in the Senate a bill – crafted to avoid objections to previous land reform proposals and any indications of radicalism – to purchase property from willing sellers to distribute to Pompey's veterans and the urban poor. It would be administered by a board of twenty (with Caesar excluded), and financed by Pompey's plunder and territorial gains.Referring it to the Senate in hope that it would take up the matter to show its beneficence for the people,there was little opposition and the obstructionism that occurred was largely unprincipled, firmly opposing it not on grounds of public interest but rather opposition to Caesar's political advancement.Unable to overcome Cato's filibustering, he moved the bill before the people and, at a public meeting, Caesar's co-consul Bibulus threatened a permanent veto for the entire year. This clearly violated the people's well-established legislative sovereigntyand triggered a riot in which Bibulus' fasces were broken, symbolising popular rejection of his magistracy.The bill was then voted through. Bibulus attempted to induce the Senate to nullify it on grounds it was passed by violence and contrary to the auspices but the Senate refused. Caesar also brought and passed a one-third write-down of tax farmers' arrears for Crassus and ratification of Pompey's eastern settlements. Both bills were passed with little or no debate in the Senate.Caesar then moved to extend his agrarian bill to Campania some time in May; this may be when Bibulus withdrew to his house.Pompey, shortly thereafter, also wed Caesar's daughter Julia to seal their alliance.An ally of Caesar's, plebeian tribunePublius Vatiniusmoved thelex Vatiniaassigning the provinces ofIllyricumandCisalpine Gaulto Caesar for five years.Suetonius' claim that the Senate had assigned to Caesar thesilvae callesque(\"woods and tracks\") is likely an exaggeration: fear of Gallic invasion had grown in 60 BC and it is more likely that the consuls had been assigned to Italy, a defensive posture that Caesarian partisans dismissed as \"mere 'forest tracks'\".The Senate was also persuaded to assign to CaesarTransalpine Gaulas well, subject to annual renewal, most likely to control his ability to make war on the far side of the Alps. Some time in the year, perhaps after the passing of the bill distributing the Campanian landand after these political defeats, Bibulus withdrew to his house. There, he issued edicts in absentia, purporting unprecedentedly to cancel all days on which Caesar or his allies could hold votes for religious reasons.Cato too attempted symbolic gestures against Caesar, which allowed him and his allies to \"feign victimisation\"; these tactics were successful in building revulsion to Caesar and his allies through the year.This opposition caused serious political difficulties to Caesar and his allies, belying the common depiction of triumviral political supremacy.Later in the year, however, Caesar – with the support of his opponents – brought and passed thelex Julia de repetundisto crack down on provincial corruption.When his consulship ended, Caesar's legislation was challenged by two of the new praetors but discussion in the Senate stalled and was regardless dropped. He stayed near the city until some time around mid-March. Campaigns in Gaul During the Gallic Wars, Caesar wrote hisCommentariesthereon, which were acknowledged even in his time as a Latin literary masterwork. Meant to document Caesar's campaigns in his own words and maintain support in Rome for his military operations and career, he produced some ten volumes covering operations in Gaul from 58 to 52 BC.Each was likely produced in the year following the events described and was likely aimed at the general, or at least literate, population in Rome;the account is naturally partial to Caesar – his defeats are excused and victories highlighted – but it is almost the sole source for events in Gaul in this period. Gaul in 58 BC was in the midst of some instability. Tribes had raided into Transalpine Gaul and there was an on-going struggle between two tribes in central Gaul which collaterally involved Roman alliances and politics. The divisions within the Gauls – they were no unified bloc – would be exploited in the coming years.The first engagement was in April 58 BC when Caesar prevented the migratingHelvetiifrom moving through Roman territory, allegedly because he feared they would unseat a Roman ally.Building a wall, he stopped their movement near Geneva and – after raising two legions – defeated them at theBattle of Bibractebefore forcing them to return to their original homes.He was drawn further north responding to requests from Gallic tribes, including theAedui, for aid againstAriovistus– king of theSuebiand a declared friend of Rome by the Senate during Caesar's own consulship – and he defeated them at theBattle of Vosges.Wintering in northeastern Gaul near theBelgaein the winter of 58–57, Caesar's forward military position triggered an uprising to remove his troops; able to eke out a victory at theBattle of the Sabis, Caesar spent much of 56 BC suppressing the Belgae and dispersing his troops to campaign across much of Gaul, including against theVenetiin what is nowBrittany.At this point, almost all of Gaul – except its central regions – fell under Roman subjugation. Seeking to buttress his military reputation, he engaged Germans attempting to cross the Rhine, which marked it as a Roman frontier;displaying Roman engineering prowess, he here built abridge across the Rhinein a feat of engineering meant to show Rome's ability to project power.Ostensibly seeking to interdict British aid to his Gallic enemies, he led expeditions into southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC, perhaps seeking further conquests or otherwise wanting to impress readers in Rome; Britain at the time was to the Romans an \"island of mystery\" and \"a land of wonder\".He, however, withdrew from the island in the face of winter uprisings in Gaul led by theEburonesandBelgaestarting in late 54 BC which ambushed and virtually annihilated a legion and five cohorts.Caesar was, however, able to lure the rebels into unfavourable terrain and routed them in battle.The next year, a greater challenge emerged with the uprising of most of central Gaul, led byVercingetorixof theAverni. Caesar was initially defeated atGergoviabeforebesieging Vercingetorix at Alesia. After becoming himself besieged, Caesar won a major victory which forced Vercingetorix's surrender; Caesar then spent much of his time into 51 BC suppressing any remaining resistance. Politics, Gaul, and Rome In the initial years from the end of Caesar's consulship in 59 BC, the three so-called triumvirs sought to maintain the goodwill of the extremely popularPublius Clodius Pulcher,who wasplebeian tribunein 58 BC and in that year successfully sent Cicero into exile. When Clodius took an anti-Pompeian stance later that year, he unsettled Pompey's eastern arrangements, started attacking the validity of Caesar's consular legislation, and by August 58 forced Pompey into seclusion. Caesar and Pompey responded by successfully backing the election of magistrates to recall Cicero from exile on the condition that Cicero would refrain from criticism or obstruction of the allies. Politics in Rome fell into violent street clashes between Clodius and two tribunes who were friends of Cicero. With Cicero now supporting Caesar and Pompey, Caesar sent news of Gaul to Rome and claimed total victory and pacification. The Senate at Cicero's motion voted him an unprecedented fifteen days of thanksgiving.Such reports were necessary for Caesar, especially in light of senatorial opponents, to prevent the Senate from reassigning his command in Transalpine Gaul, even if his position in Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum was guaranteed by thelex Vatiniauntil 54 BC.His success was evidently recognised when the Senate voted state funds for some of Caesar's legions, which until this time Caesar had paid for personally. The three allies' relations broke down in 57 BC: one of Pompey's allies challenged Caesar's land reform bill and the allies had a poor showing in the elections that year.With a real threat to Caesar's command andactabrewing in 56 BC under the aegis of the unfriendly consuls, Caesar needed his allies' political support.Pompey and Crassus too wanted military commands. Their combined interests led to a renewal of the alliance; drawing in the support ofAppius Claudius Pulcherand his younger brother Clodius for the consulship of 54 BC, they planned second consulships with following governorships in 55 BC for both Pompey and Crassus. Caesar, for his part, would receive a five-year extension of command. Cicero was induced to oppose reassignment of Caesar's provinces and to defend a number of the allies' clients; his gloomy predictions of a triumviral set of consuls-designate for years on end proved an exaggeration when, only by desperate tactics, bribery, intimidation and violence were Pompey and Crassus elected consuls for 55 BC.During their consulship, Pompey and Crassus passed – with some tribunician support – thelex Pompeia Liciniaextending Caesar's command and thelex Treboniagiving them respective commands in Spain and Syria,though Pompey never left for the province and remained politically active at Rome.The opposition again unified against their heavy-handed political tactics – though not against Caesar's activities in Gaul– and defeated the allies in the elections of that year. The ambush and destruction in Gaul of a legion and five cohorts in the winter of 55–54 BC produced substantial concern in Rome about Caesar's command and competence, evidenced by the highly defensive narrative in Caesar'sCommentaries.The death of Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife Julia in childbirthc.late August 54did not create a rift between Caesar and Pompey.At the start of 53 BC, Caesar sought and received reinforcements by recruitment and a private deal with Pompey before two years of largely unsuccessful campaigning against Gallic insurgents.In the same year, Crassus's campaign ended in disaster at theBattle of Carrhae, culminating in his death at the hands of theParthians. When in 52 BC Pompey started the year with a sole consulship to restore order to the city,Caesar was in Gaul suppressing insurgencies; after news of his victory at Alesia, with the support of Pompey he received twenty days of thanksgiving and, pursuant to the \"Law of the Ten Tribunes\", the right to stand for the consulship in absentia. Civil war From the period 52 to 49 BC, trust between Caesar and Pompey disintegrated.In 51 BC, the consulMarcellusproposed recalling Caesar, arguing that hisprovincia(here meaning \"task\") in Gaul – due to his victory against Vercingetorix in 52 – was complete; it evidently was incomplete as Caesar was that year fighting theBellovaciand regardless the proposal was vetoed.That year, it seemed that the conservatives around Cato in the Senate would seek to enlist Pompey to force Caesar to return from Gaul without honours or a second consulship.Cato, Bibulus, and their allies, however, were successful in winning Pompey over to take a hard line against Caesar's continued command. As 50 BC progressed, fears of civil war grew; both Caesar and his opponents started building up troops in southern Gaul and northern Italy, respectively.In the autumn, Cicero and others sought disarmament by both Caesar and Pompey, and on 1 December 50 BC this was formally proposed in the Senate.It received overwhelming support – 370 to 22 – but was not passed whenone of the consulsdissolved the meeting.That year, when a rumour came to Rome that Caesar was marching into Italy, both consuls instructed Pompey to defend Italy, a charge he accepted as a last resort.At the start of 49 BC, Caesar's renewed offer that he and Pompey disarm was read to the Senate and was rejected by the hardliners.A later compromise given privately to Pompey was also rejected at their insistence.On 7 January, his supportive tribunes were driven from Rome; the Senate then declared Caesar an enemy and it issued itssenatus consultum ultimum. There is scholarly disagreement as to the specific reasons why Caesar marched on Rome. A very popular theory is that Caesar was forced to choose – when denied the immunity of his proconsular tenure – between prosecution, conviction, and exile or civil war in defence of his position.Whether Caesar actually would have been prosecuted and convicted is debated. Some scholars believe the possibility of successful prosecution was extremely unlikely.Caesar's main objectives were to secure a second consulship – first mooted in 52 as colleague to Pompey's sole consulship– and a triumph. He feared that his opponents – then holding both consulships for 50 BC – would reject his candidacy or refuse to ratify an election he won.This also was the core of his war justification: that Pompey and his allies were planning, by force if necessary (indicated in the expulsion of the tribunes), to suppress the liberty of the Roman people to elect Caesar and honour his accomplishments. Italy, Spain, and Greece Around 10 or 11 January 49 BC,in response to the Senate's \"final decree\",Caesarcrossed the Rubicon– the river defining the northern boundary of Italy – with a single legion, theLegio XIII Gemina, and ignitedcivil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwrightMenander, in Greek, \"let the die be cast\".Pompey and many senators fled south, believing that Caesar was marching quickly for Rome.Caesar, after capturing communication routes to Rome, paused and opened negotiations, but they fell apart amid mutual distrust.Caesar responded by advancing south, seeking to capture Pompey to force a conference. Pompey withdrew toBrundisiumand was able to escape to Greece, abandoning Italy in face of Caesar's superior forces and evading Caesar's pursuit.Caesar stayed near Rome for about two weeks – during his stay his forceful seizure of the treasury over tribunician veto put the lie to his pro-tribunician war justifications– and left Lepidus in charge of Italy while he attacked Pompey's Spanish provinces.He defeated two of Pompey's legates at theBattle of Ilerdabefore forcing surrender ofthe third; his legates moved into Sicily and intoAfrica, though the African expedition failed.Returning to Rome in the autumn, Caesar had Lepidus, as praetor, bring a law appointing Caesardictatorto conduct the elections; he, along withPublius Servilius Isauricus, won the following elections and would serve as consuls for 48 BC.Resigning the dictatorship after eleven days,Caesar then left Italy for Greece to stop Pompey's preparations, arriving in force in early 48 BC. Caesarbesieged Pompey at Dyrrhachium, but Pompey was able to break out and force Caesar's forces to flee. Following Pompey southeast into Greece and to save one of his legates, he engaged and decisively defeated Pompeyat Pharsaluson 9 August 48 BC. Pompey then fled for Egypt; Cato fled for Africa; others, like Cicero andMarcus Junius Brutus, begged for Caesar's pardon. Alexandrine war and Asia Minor Pompey was killed when he arrived inAlexandria, the capital ofEgypt. Caesar arrived three days later on 2 October 48 BC. Prevented from leaving the city byEtesian winds, Caesar decided to arbitrate an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaohPtolemy XIII Theos PhilopatorandCleopatra, his sister, wife, and co-regent queen.In late October 48 BC, Caesar was appointed in absentia to a year-long dictatorship,after news of his victory at Pharsalus arrived to Rome.While in Alexandria, he started anaffairwith Cleopatra and withstood asiege by Ptolemyand his other sisterArsinoeuntil March 47 BC. Reinforced by eastern client allies underMithridates of Pergamum, he then defeated Ptolemy at theBattle of the Nileand installed Cleopatra as ruler.Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated the victory with a triumphal procession on theNile. He stayed in Egypt with Cleopatra until June or July that year, though the relevant commentaries attributed to him give no such impression. Some time in late June, Cleopatra gave birth to a child by Caesar, calledCaesarion. When Caesar landed atAntioch, he learnt that during his time in Egypt, the king of what is now Crimea,Pharnaces, had attempted to seize what had been his father's kingdom, Pontus, across theBlack Seain northern Anatolia. His invasion had swept aside Caesar's legates and the local client kings, but Caesar engaged him atZelaand defeated him immediately, leading Caesar to writeveni, vidi, vici(\"I came, I saw, I conquered\"), downplaying Pompey's previous Pontic victories. He then left quickly for Italy. Italy, Africa, and Spain Caesar's absence from Italy put Mark Antony, asmagister equitum, in charge. His rule was unpopular:Publius Cornelius Dolabella, serving as plebeian tribune in 47 BC, agitated for debt relief and after that agitation got out of hand the Senate moved for Antony to restore order. Delayed by a mutiny in southern Italy, he returned and suppressed the riots by force, killing many and delivering a similar blow to his popularity. Cato had marched to Africaand thereMetellus Scipiowas in charge of the remaining republicans; they allied withJubaofNumidia; what used to be Pompey's fleet also raided the central Mediterranean islands. Caesar's governor in Spain, moreover, was sufficiently unpopular that the province revolted and switched to the republican side. Caesar demoted Antony on his return and pacified the mutineers without violencebefore overseeing the election of the rest of the magistrates for 47 BC – no elections had yet been held – and also for those of 46 BC. Caesar would serve with Lepidus as consul in 46; he borrowed money for the war, confiscated and sold the property of his enemies at fair prices, and then left for Africa on 25 December 47 BC.Caesar's landing in Africa was marked with some difficulties establishing a beachhead and logistically. He was defeated byTitus LabienusatRuspinaon 4 January 46 BC and thereafter took a rather cautious approach.After inducing some desertions from the republicans, Caesar ended up surrounded atThapsus. His troops attacked prematurely on 6 April 46 BC, starting abattle; they then won it and massacred the republican forceswithout quarter. Marching on Utica, where Cato commanded, Caesar arrived to find that Cato had killed himself rather than receive Caesar's clemency.Many of the remaining anti-Caesarian leaders, including Metellus Scipio and Juba, also committed suicide shortly thereafter.Labienus and two of Pompey's sons, however, had moved to the Spanish provinces in revolt. Caesar started a process of annexing parts of Numidia and then returned to Italy via Sardinia in June 46 BC. Caesar stayed in Italy to celebrate four triumphs in late September, supposedly over four foreign enemies: Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces (Asia), and Juba (Africa). He led Vercingetorix, Cleopatra's younger sister Arsinoe, and Juba's son before his chariot; Vercingetorix was executed.According to Appian, in some of the triumphs, Caesar paraded pictures and models of his victories over fellow Romans in the civil wars, to popular dismay.The soldiers were each given 24,000sesterces(a lifetime's worth of pay); further games and celebrations were put on for the plebs. Near the end of the year, Caesar heard bad news from Spain and, with an army, left for the peninsula, leaving Lepidus in charge asmagister equitum. At a bloody battle atMundaon 17 March 45 BC, Caesar narrowly found victory;his enemies were treated as rebels and he had them massacred.Labienus died on the field. While one of Pompey's sons,Sextus, escaped, the war was effectively over.Caesar remained in the province until June before setting out for Rome, arriving in October of the same year, and celebrated an unseemly triumph over fellow Romans.By this point he had started preparations for war on theParthiansto avenge Crassus' death atCarrhaein 53 BC, with wide-ranging objectives that would take him into Dacia for three or more years. It was set to start on 18 March 44 BC. Dictatorship and assassination Dictatorships and honours Prior to Caesar's assumption of the titledictator perpetuoin February 44 BC, he had been appointed dictator some four times since his first dictatorship in 49 BC. After occupying Rome, he engineered this first appointment, largely to hold elections; after 11 days he resigned. The other dictatorships lasted for longer periods, up to a year, and by April 46 BC he was given a new dictatorship annually.The task he was assigned revived that of Sulla's dictatorship:rei publicae constituendae.These appointments, however, were not the source of legal power themselves; in the eyes of the literary sources, they were instead honours and titles which reflected Caesar's dominant position in the state, secured not by extraordinary magistracy or legal powers, but by personal status as victor over other Romans. Through the period after Pharsalus, the Senate showered Caesar with honours,including the titlepraefectus moribus(lit.'prefect of morals') which historically was associated with thecensorialpower to revise the Senate rolls. He was also granted power over war and peace,usurping a power traditionally held by thecomitia centuriata.These powers attached to Caesar personally.Similarly extraordinary were a number of symbolic honours which saw Caesar's portrait placed on coins in Rome – the first for a living Roman– with special rights to wear royal dress, sit atop a golden chair in the Senate, and have his statues erected in public temples. The month Quintilis, in which he was born, was renamedJulius(now July).These were symbols of divine monarchy and, later, objects of resentment. The decisions on the normal operation of the state – justice, legislation, administration, and public works – were concentrated into Caesar's person without regard for or even notice given to the traditional institutions of the republic.Caesar's domination over public affairs and his competitive instinct to preclude all others alienated the political class and led eventually to the conspiracy against his life. Legislation Caesar, as far as is attested in evidence, did not intend to restructure Roman society. Ernst Badian, writing in theOxford Classical Dictionary, noted that although Caesar did implement a series of reforms, they did not touch on the core of the republican system: he \"had no plans for basic social and constitutional reform\" and that \"the extraordinary honours heaped upon him... merely grafted him as an ill-fitting head on to the body of the traditional structure\". The most important of Caesar's reforms was to the calendar, which saw the abolition of thetraditional republican lunisolar calendarand its replacement with a solar calendar now called theJulian calendar.He also increased the number of magistrates and senators (from 600 to 900) to better administer the empire and reward his supporters with offices. Colonies also were founded outside Italy – notably on the sites of Carthage and Corinth, which had both been destroyed during Rome's 2nd century BC conquests – to discharge Italy's population into the provinces and reduce unrest.The royal power of naming patricians was revived to benefit the families of his menand thepermanent courtsjury pools were also altered to remove thetribuni aerarii, leaving only the equestrians and senators. He also took further administrative actions to stabilise his rule and that of the state.Caesar reduced the size of the grain dole from 320,000 down to around 150,000 by tightening the qualifications; special bonuses were offered to families with many children to stall depopulation.Plans were drawn for the conduct of a census. Citizenship was extended to a number of communities in Cisalpine Gaul and toCádiz.During the civil wars, Caesar had also instituted a novel debt repayment programme (no debts would be forgiven but they could be paid in kind), remitted rents up to a certain amount, and thrown games distributing food.Many of his enemies during the civil wars were pardoned – Caesar's clemency was exalted in his propaganda and temple works – with the intent to cultivate gratitude and draw a contrast between himself and the vengeful dictatorship of Sulla. The building programmes, started prior to his expedition to Spain, continued, with the construction of theForum of Caesarand theTemple of Venus Genetrixtherein. Other public works, including an expansion of Ostia's port and a canal through theCorinthian Isthmus, were also planned.Very busy with this work, the heavy-handedness with which he ignored the Senate, magistrates, and those who came to visit him also alienated many in Rome. Thecollegia, civic associations restored by Clodius in 58 BC, were again abolished.His actions to reward his supporters saw him allow his subordinates illegal triumphal processions and resign the consulship so that allies could take it up for the rest of the year. On the last day of 45 BC, when one of the succeeding consuls died, Caesar had anallyelected as replacement for a single day.Corruption on the part of his partisans was also overlooked to ensure their support; provincial cities and client kingdoms were extorted for favours to pay his bills. Conspiracy and death Attempts in January 44 BC to call Caesarrex(lit.'king') – a title associated with arbitrary oppression against citizens – were shut down by two tribunes before a supportive crowd. Caesar, claiming that the two tribunes infringed on his honour by doing so, had them deposed from office and ejected from the Senate.The incident both undermined Caesar's original arguments for pursuing the civil war (protecting the tribunes) and angered a public which still revered the tribunes as protectors of popular freedom.Shortly before 15 February 44 BC, he assumed the dictatorship for life, putting an end to any hopes that his powers would be merely temporary.Transforming his dictatorship, even with a decadal appointment, into one for life clearly showed to all contemporaries that Caesar had no intention to restore a free republic and that no free republic could be restored so long as he was in power. Just days after his assumption of the life dictatorship, he publicly rejected adiademfrom Antony at celebrations for theLupercalia. Interpretations of the episode vary: he may have been rejecting the diadem publicly only because the crowd was insufficiently supportive; he could have done it performatively to signal he was no monarch; alternatively, Antony could have acted on his own initiative. By this point, however, rumour was rife that Caesar – already wearing the dress of a monarch – sought a formal crown and the episode did little to reassure. The plan to assassinate Caesar had started by the summer of 45 BC. An attempt to recruit Antony was made around that time, though he declined and gave Caesar no warning. By February 44 BC, there were some sixty conspirators.It is clear that by this time, the victorious Caesarian coalition from the civil war had broken apart.While most of the conspirators were former Pompeians, they were joined by a substantial number of Caesarians.Among their leaders wereGaius Trebonius(consul in 45), Decimus Brutus (consul designate for 42), as well asCassiusandBrutus(both praetors in 44 BC).Trebonius and Decimus had joined Caesar during the war while Brutus and Cassius had joined Pompey; other Caesarians involved includedServius Sulpicius Galba,Lucius Minucius Basilus,Lucius Tullius Cimber, andGaius Servilius Casca.Many of the conspirators would have been candidates in the consular elections for 43 to 41 BC,likely dismayed by Caesar's sham elections in early 44 BC that produced advance results for the years 43–41 BC. Those electoral results came from the grace of the dictator and not that of the people; for the republican elite this was no substitute for actual popular support.Nor is it likely that the subordination of the normal magistrates to Caesar's masters of horse (Latin:magistri equitum) was appreciated. Brutus, who claimed descent from theLucius Junius Brutuswho haddriven out the kingsand theGaius Servilius Ahalawho had freed Rome from incipient tyranny, was the main leader of the conspiracy.By late autumn 45 BC, graffitiand some public comments at Rome were condemning Caesar as a tyrant and insinuating the need for a Brutus to remove the dictator. The ancient sources, exceptingNicolaus of Damascus, are unanimous that this reflected a genuine turn in public opinion against Caesar.Popular indignation at Caesar was likely rooted in his debt policies (too friendly to lenders), use of lethal force to suppress protests for debt relief, his reduction in the grain dole, his abolition of thecollegiarestored by Clodius, his abolition of the poorest panel of jurors in the permanent courts, and his abolition of open elections which deprived the people of their ancient right of decision.A popular turn against Caesar is also observed with reports that the two deposed tribunes were written-in on ballots at Caesar's advance consular elections in place of Caesar's candidates.Whether the Romans thought they had a tradition of tyrannicide is unclear;Cicero wrote in private as if the duty to kill tyrants was already given, but he made no public speeches to that effect and there is little evidence that the public accepted the logic of preventive tyrannicide.The philosophical tradition of thePlatonicOld Academywas also a factor driving Brutus to action due to its emphasis on a duty to free the state from tyranny. While some news of the conspiracy did leak, Caesar refused to take precautions and rejected escort by a bodyguard. The date decided upon by the conspirators was 15 March, theIdes of March, three days before Caesar intended to leave for his Parthian campaign.News of his imminent departure forced the conspirators to move up their plans; the Senate meeting on the 15th would be the last before his departure.They had decided that a Senate meeting was the best place to frame the killing as political, rejecting the alternatives at games, elections, or on the road.That only the conspirators would be armed at the Senate meeting, per Dio, also would have been an advantage. The day, 15 March, was also symbolically important as it was the day on which consuls took office until the mid-2nd century BC. Various stories purport that Caesar was on the cusp of not attending or otherwise being warned about the plot.Approached on his golden chair at the foot of the statue of Pompey, the conspirators attacked him with daggers. Whether he fell in silence, per Suetonius, or after reply to Brutus' appearance –kai su teknon?(\"you too, child?\") – isvariantly recorded.He was stabbed at least twenty-three times and died at once. Aftermath of the assassination The assassins seized the Capitoline hill after killing the dictator. They then summoned a public meeting in the Forum where they were coldly received by the population. They were also unable to fully secure the city, as Lepidus – Caesar'slieutenant in the dictatorship– moved troops from theTiber Islandinto the city proper. Antony, the consul who escaped the assassination, urged an illogical compromise position in the Senate:Caesar was not declared a tyrant and the conspirators were not punished.Caesar's funeral was then approved. At the funeral, Antony inflamed the public against the assassins, which triggered mob violence that lasted for some months before the assassins were forced to flee the capital and Antony then finally acted to suppress it by force. In 44 BC, there was a seven-daycometary outburstthat the Romans believe to represent the deification of Caeser, giving it the nameCaesar's Comet. On the site of his cremation, theTemple of Caesarwas begun by the triumvirs in 42 BC at the east side of the main square of theRoman Forum. Only its altar now remains.The terms of the will were also read to the public: it gave a generous donative to the plebs at large and left as principal heir oneGaius Octavius, Caesar's great-nephew then atApollonia, and adopted him in the will. Resumption of the pre-existing republic proved impossible as various actors appealed in the aftermath of Caesar's death to liberty or to vengeance to mobilise huge armies that led to a series of civil wars.Thefirst warwas between Antony in 43 BC and the Senate (including senators of both Caesarian and Pompeian persuasion) which resulted in Octavian – Caesar's heir – exploiting the chaos to seize the consulship and join with Antony and Lepidus to form theSecond Triumvirate.After purging their political enemies in aseries of proscriptions,the triumvirs secured the deification of Caesar – the Senate declared on 1 January 42 BC that Caesar would be placed among the Roman gods– and marched on the east where asecond warsaw the triumvirs defeat the tyrannicides inbattle,resulting in a final death of the republican cause and a three-way division of much of the Roman world.By 31 BC, Caesar's heir had taken sole control of the empire, ejecting his triumviral rivals after two decades of civil war. Pretending to restore the republic, his masked autocracy was acceptable to the war-weary Romans and marked the establishment of anew Roman monarchy. Personal life Health and physical appearance Based on remarks by Plutarch,Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered fromepilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s BC.Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to aparasitic infection in the brainby a tapeworm. Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have hadabsence seizuresin his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim ofhypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures. A line fromShakespeare'sJulius Caesarhas sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: \"Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf.\"No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence. Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral manifestations – headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility – and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in hisNatural Historythat Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes.These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. Caesar possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease. Suetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as \"tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes\".He adds that thebaldingCaesar was sensitive to teasing on the subject, and therefore had acombover. Suetonius reports that Caesar was thus especially pleased to be granted the honor of wearing a wreath at all times. Name and family The name Gaius Julius Caesar Using theLatin alphabetof the period, which lacked the lettersJandU, Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation ofGbyC. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling. (The letterformÆis aligatureof the lettersAandE, and is often used in Latininscriptionsto save space.) In Classical Latin, it waspronounced. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin,Brutus. InGreek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the GermanKaiser() or Dutchkeizer(). InVulgar Latin, the originaldiphthongfirst began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel. Then, theplosive/k/beforefront vowelsbegan, due topalatalization, to be pronounced as anaffricate, hence renderings likeinItalianandinGermanregional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title ofTsar. With the evolution of theRomance languages, the affricatebecame africative(thus,) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. Caesar'scognomenitself became atitle; it was promulgated by theBible, which contains the famous verse \"Render unto Caesarthe things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's\". The title became, from the late first millennium,KaiserinGermanand (throughOld Church Slaviccěsarĭ)Tsaror Czar in theSlavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power wasSimeon II of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946, but is still alive in 2023. This means that for approximately two thousand years, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. As a term for the highest ruler, the word Caesar constitutes one of the earliest, best attested and most widespread Latin loanwords in the Germanic languages, being found in thetext corporaofOld High German(keisar),Old Saxon(kēsur),Old English(cāsere),Old Norse(keisari),Old Dutch(keisere) and (throughGreek)Gothic(kaisar). Posterity Some ancient sources refer to the possibility of the tyrannicide,Marcus Junius Brutus, being one of Julius Caesar's illegitimate children.Caesar, at the time Brutus was born, was 15. Most ancient historians were sceptical of this and \"on the whole, scholars have rejected the possibility that Brutus was the love-child of Servilia and Caesar on the grounds of chronology\". Grandchild fromJuliaandPompey, dead at several days, unnamed. Rumors of passive homosexuality Roman society viewed the passive role duringsexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, \"Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar.\"According to Cicero,Bibulus,Gaius Memmius, and others – mainly Caesar's enemies – he had an affair withNicomedes IV of Bithyniaearly in his career. The stories were repeated, referring to Caesar as the \"Queen of Bithynia\", by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according toCassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion.This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. Catulluswrote a poem suggesting that Caesar and his engineerMamurrawere lovers,but later apologised. Mark Antonycharged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as politicalslander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus. Literary works During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin – even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works arehis funeral orationfor his paternal auntJuliaand his \"Anticato\", a document attackingCatoin response to Cicero's eulogy.Poems by Julius Caesarare also mentioned in ancient sources. Memoirs Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt: These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of \"dispatches from the front\". They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings.As a model of clear and direct Latin style,The Gallic Warstraditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students. Legacy Historiography The texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most completeprimary sourcefor the reconstruction of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind.Julius Caesar is also considered one of the first historical figures to fold his message scrolls into a concertina form, which made them easier to read.The Roman emperorAugustusbegan acult of personalityof Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by this tradition. Many rulers in history became interested in thehistoriography of Caesar.Napoleon IIIwrote the scholarly workHistoire de Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic.Charles VIIIordered a monk to prepare a translation of theGallic Warsin 1480.Charles Vordered a topographic study in France, to place the Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultanSuleiman the Magnificentcatalogued the surviving editions of theCommentaries, and translated them to Turkish language.Henry IVandLouis XIIIof France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively;Louis XIVre-translated the first one afterwards. The remains ofCaesar's altarare a pilgrimage site for visitors from across Italy and the world. Flowers and other items are left there daily and special commemorations take place on 15 March to commemorate Caesar's death. Politics Julius Caesar is seen as the main example ofCaesarism, a form of political rule led by acharismaticstrongmanwhose rule is based upon acult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violentsocial order, and being a regime involving prominence of themilitaryin the government.Other people in history, such as the FrenchNapoleon Bonaparteand the ItalianBenito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists.Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor topopulism.The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule. Depictions Battle record ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ Atrebates,Aduatuci ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ Chronology See also Notes References Sources Primary sources Own writings Ancient historians' writings Secondary sources External links"
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"Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar(12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was aRomangeneral and statesman. A member of theFirst Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in theGallic Warsbefore defeating his political rivalPompeyina civil war, and subsequently becamedictatorfrom 49 BC untilhis assassinationin 44 BC. He played a critical role inthe events that led to the demise oftheRoman Republicand the rise of theRoman Empire. In 60 BC, Caesar,Crassus, andPompeyformed theFirst Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominatedRoman politicsfor several years. Their attempts to amass political power were opposed by many in theSenate, among themCato the Youngerwith the private support ofCicero. Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in theGallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time he bothinvaded Britainandbuilt a bridge across the river Rhine. These achievements and the support of his",
"the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after thedeath of Crassusin 53 BC. With theGallic Warsconcluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. In 49 BC, Caesar openly defied the Senate's authority bycrossing the Rubiconand marching towards Rome at the head of an army.This beganCaesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near-unchallenged power and influence in 45 BC. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reform, including the creation of theJulian calendar. He gavecitizenshipto many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reforms to support his veterans and initiated an enormous building programme. In early 44 BC, he was proclaimed \"dictator for life\" (dictator perpetuo). Fearful of his power and domination of the state, a group of senators led byBrutusandCassiusassassinated Caesar on",
"Caesar on theIdes of March(15 March) 44 BC. A newseries of civil warsbroke out and theconstitutional government of the Republicwas never fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known asAugustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in thelast civil war of the Roman Republic. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of theRoman Empirebegan. Caesar was an accomplished author and historian as well as a statesman; much of his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns. Other contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings ofSallust. Later biographies of Caesar bySuetoniusandPlutarchare also important sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history.Hiscognomenwas subsequently adopted as asynonymfor \"Emperor\"; the title \"Caesar\" was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern descendants such asKaiserandTsar. He hasfrequently",
"He hasfrequently appeared in literary and artistic works. Early life and career Gaius Julius Caesar was born into apatricianfamily, thegensJuliaon 12 July 100 BC.The family claimed to have immigrated to Rome fromAlba Longaduring the seventh century BC after the thirdking of Rome,Tullus Hostilius, took and destroyed their city. The family also claimed descent from Julus, the son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa. Given that Aeneas was a son of Venus, this made the clan divine. This genealogy had not yet taken its final form by the first century, but the clan's claimed descent from Venus was well established in public consciousness.There is no evidence that Caesar himself was born byCaesarian section; such operations entailed the death of the mother, butCaesar's motherlived for decades after his birth and no ancient sources record any difficulty with the birth. Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential during the middle republic. The first person known to",
"person known to have had thecognomenCaesarwas a praetor in 208 BC during theSecond Punic War. The family's first consul was in 157 BC, though their political fortunes had recovered in the early first century, producing two consuls in 91 and 90 BC.Caesar's homonymous father was moderately successful politically. He marriedAurelia, a member of the politically influentialAurelii Cottae, producing – along with Caesar – two daughters. Buoyed by his own marriage andhis sister'smarriage (the dictator's aunt) with the extremely influentialGaius Marius, he also served on theSaturninianland commission in 103 BC and was elected praetor some time between 92 and 85 BC; he served as proconsular governor of Asia for two years, likely 91–90 BC. Life under Sulla and military service Caesar's father did not seek a consulship during the domination ofLucius Cornelius Cinnaand instead chose retirement.During Cinna's dominance, Caesar was named asflamen Dialis(a priest ofJupiter) which led to his marriage to Cinna's",
"marriage to Cinna's daughter,Cornelia. The religious taboos of the priesthood would have forced Caesar to forgo a political career; the appointment – one of the highest non-political honours – indicates that there were few expectations of a major career for Caesar.In early 84 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly.AfterSulla's victory in thecivil war(82 BC), Cinna'sactawere annulled. Sulla consequently ordered Caesar to abdicate and divorce Cinna's daughter. Caesar refused, implicitly questioning the legitimacy of Sulla's annulment. Sulla may have put Caesar on theproscription lists, though scholars are mixed.Caesar then went into hiding before his relatives and contacts among theVestal Virginswere able to intercede on his behalf.They then reached a compromise where Caesar would resign his priesthood but keep his wife and chattels; Sulla's alleged remark he saw \"in many Mariuses\"is apocryphal. Caesar then left Italy to serve in the staff of the governor of Asia,Marcus Minucius Thermus. While there, he travelled",
"there, he travelled to Bithynia to collect naval reinforcements and stayed some time as a guest of the king,Nicomedes IV, though later invective connected Caesar to a homosexual relation with the monarch.He then served at theSiege of Mytilenewhere he won thecivic crownfor saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle. The privileges of the crown – the Senate was supposed to stand on a holder's entrance and holders were permitted to wear the crown at public occasions – whetted Caesar's appetite for honours. After the capture of Mytilene, Caesar transferred to the staff ofPublius Servilius Vatiain Cilicia before learning of Sulla's death in 78 BC and returning home immediately.He was alleged to have wanted to join in on the consulLepidus' revolt that yearbut this is likely literary embellishment of Caesar's desire for tyranny from a young age. Afterward, Caesar attacked some of the Sullan aristocracy in the courts but was unsuccessful in his attempted prosecution ofGnaeus Cornelius Dolabellain 77 BC, who had",
"77 BC, who had recently returned from a proconsulship in Macedonia. Going after a less well-connected senator, he was successful the next year in prosecutingGaius Antonius Hybrida(later consul in 63 BC) for profiteering from the proscriptions but was forestalled when a tribune interceded on Antonius' behalf.After these oratorical attempts, Caesar left Rome for Rhodes seeking the tutelage of the rhetoricianApollonius Molon.While travelling, he was intercepted and ransomed by pirates in a story that was later much embellished. According to Plutarch and Suetonius, he was freed after paying a ransom of fiftytalentsand responded by returning with a fleet to capture and execute the pirates. The recorded sum for the ransom is literary embellishment and it is more likely that the pirates were sold into slavery perVelleius Paterculus.His studies were interrupted by the outbreak of theThird Mithridatic Warover the winter of 75 and 74 BC; Caesar is alleged to have gone around collecting troops in the province at the",
"the province at the locals' expense and leading them successfully against Mithridates' forces. Entrance to politics While absent from Rome, in 73 BC, Caesar was co-opted into thepontificesin place of his deceased relativeGaius Aurelius Cotta. The promotion marked him as a well-accepted member of the aristocracy with great future prospects in his political career.Caesar decided to return shortly thereafter and on his return was elected one of themilitary tribunesfor 71 BC.There is no evidence that Caesar served in war – even thoughthe waronSpartacuswas on-going – during his term; he did, however, agitate for the removal of Sulla's disabilities on the plebeian tribunate and for those who supported Lepidus' revolt to be pardoned.These advocacies were common and uncontroversial.The next year, 70 BC,PompeyandCrassuswere consuls and brought legislation restoring the plebeian tribunate's rights; one of the tribunes, with Caesar supporting, then brought legislation pardoning the Lepidan exiles. For his quaestorship",
"his quaestorship in 69 BC, Caesar was allotted to serve underGaius Antistius VetusinHispania Ulterior. His election also gave him a lifetime seat in the Senate. However, before he left, his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius died and, soon afterwards, his wife Cornelia died shortly after bearing his only legitimate child,Julia. He gave eulogies for both at public funerals.During Julia's funeral, Caesar displayed the images of his aunt's husband Marius, whose memory had been suppressed after Sulla's victory in the civil war. Some of the Sullan nobles – includingQuintus Lutatius Catulus– who had suffered under the Marian regime objected, but by this point depictions of husbands in aristocratic women's funerary processions was common.Contra Plutarch,Caesar's action here was likely in keeping with a political trend for reconciliation and normalisation rather than a display of renewed factionalism.Caesar quickly remarried, taking the hand of Sulla's granddaughterPompeia. Aedileship and election aspontifex maximus",
"aspontifex maximus For much of this period, Caesar was one ofPompey's supporters. Caesar joined with Pompey in the late 70s to support restoration of tribunician rights; his support for the law recalling the Lepidan exiles may have been related to the same tribune's bill to grant lands to Pompey's veterans. Caesar also supported thelex Gabiniain 67 BC granting Pompey an extraordinary command against piracy in the Mediterranean and also supported thelex Maniliain 66 BC to reassign the Third Mithridatic War from its then-commanderLucullusto Pompey. Four years after his aunt Julia's funeral, in 65 BC, Caesar served ascurule aedileand staged lavishgamesthat won him further attention and popular support.He also restored the trophies won by Marius, and taken down by Sulla, overJugurthaand theCimbri.According to Plutarch's narrative, the trophies were restored overnight to the applause and tears of joy of the onlookers; any sudden and secret restoration of this sort would not have been possible – architects,",
"– architects, restorers, and other workmen would have to have been hired and paid for – nor would it have been likely that the work could have been done in a single night.It is more likely that Caesar was merely restoring his family's public monuments – consistent with standard aristocratic practice and the virtue ofpietas– and, over objections from Catulus, these actions were broadly supported by the Senate. In 63 BC, Caesar stood for the praetorship and also for the post ofpontifex maximus,who was the head of theCollege of Pontiffsand the highest ranking state religious official. In the pontifical election before thetribes, Caesar faced two influential senators:Quintus Lutatius CatulusandPublius Servilius Isauricus. Caesar came out victorious. Many scholars have expressed astonishment that Caesar's candidacy was taken seriously, but this was not without historical precedent.Ancient sources allege that Caesar paid huge bribes or was shamelessly ingratiating;that no charge was ever laid alleging this implies",
"this implies that bribery alone is insufficient to explain his victory.If bribes or other monies were needed, they may have been underwritten by Pompey, whom Caesar at this time supported and who opposed Catulus' candidacy. Many sources also assert that Caesar supported the land reform proposals brought that year by plebeian tribunePublius Servilius Rullus, however, there are no ancient sources so attesting.Caesar also engaged in a collateral manner in the trial ofGaius Rabiriusby one of the plebeian tribunes –Titus Labienus– for the murder of Saturninus in accordance with asenatus consultum ultimumsome forty years earlier.The most famous event of the year was theCatilinarian conspiracy. While some of Caesar's enemies, including Catulus, alleged that he participated in the conspiracy,the chance that he was a participant is extremely small. Praetorship Caesar won his election to the praetorship in 63 BC easily and, as one of the praetor-elects, spoke out that December in the Senate against executing certain",
"executing certain citizens who had been arrested in the city conspiring with Gauls in furtherance of the conspiracy.Caesar's proposal at the time is not entirely clear. The earlier sources assert that he advocated life imprisonment without trial; the later sources assert he instead wanted the conspirators imprisoned pending trial. Most accounts agree that Caesar supported confiscation of the conspirators' property.Caesar likely advocated the former, which was a compromise position that would place the Senate within the bounds of thelex Sempronia de capite civis, and was initially successful in swaying the body; a later intervention byCato, however, swayed the Senate at the end for execution. During his year as praetor, Caesar first attempted to deprive his enemy Catulus of the honour of completing the rebuiltTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, accusing him of embezzling funds, and threatening to bring legislation to reassign it to Pompey. This proposal was quickly dropped amid near-universal opposition.He",
"opposition.He then supported the attempt by plebeian tribuneMetellus Neposto transfer the command against Catiline from the consul of 63, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, to Pompey. After a violent meeting of thecomitia tributain the forum, where Metellus came into fisticuffs with his tribunician colleagues Cato andQuintus Minucius Thermus,the Senate passed a decree against Metellus – Suetonius claims that both Nepos and Caesar were deposed from their magistracies; this would have been a constitutional impossibility– which led Caesar to distance himself from the proposals: hopes for a provincial command and need to repair relations with the aristocracy took priority.He also was engaged in theBona Deaaffair, wherePublius Clodius Pulchersneaked into Caesar's house sacrilegiously during a female religious observance; Caesar avoided any part of the affair by divorcing his wife immediately – claiming that his wife needed to be \"above suspicion\"– but there is no indication that Caesar supported Clodius in any way. After",
"in any way. After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to governHispania Ulteriorpro consule.Deeply indebted from his campaigns for the praetorship and for the pontificate, Caesar required military victory beyond the normal provincial extortion to pay them off.He campaigned against theCallaeciandLusitaniand seized the Callaeci capital in northwestern Spain, bringing Roman troops to the Atlantic and seizing enough plunder to pay his debts.Claiming to have completed the peninsula's conquest, he made for home after having been hailedimperator.When he arrived home in the summer of 60 BC, he was then forced to choose between a triumph and election to the consulship: either he could remain outside thepomerium(Rome's sacred boundary) awaiting a triumph or cross the boundary, giving up his command and triumph, to make a declaration of consular candidacy.Attempts to waive the requirement for the declaration to be made in person were filibustered in the Senate by Caesar's enemy Cato, even though the Senate seemed to",
"Senate seemed to support the exception.Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship. First consulship and the Gallic Wars Caesar stood for the consulship of 59 BC along with two other candidates. His political position at the time was strong: he had supporters among the families which had supported Marius or Cinna; his connection with the Sullan aristocracy was good; his support of Pompey had won him support in turn. His support for reconciliation in continuing aftershocks of the civil war was popular in all parts of society.With the support of Crassus, who supported Caesar's joint ticket with oneLucius Lucceius, Caesar won. Lucceius, however, did not and the voters returnedMarcus Calpurnius Bibulusinstead, one of Caesar's long-standing personal and political enemies. First consulship After the elections, Caesar reconciled Pompey and Crassus, two political foes, in a three-way alliance misleadinglytermed the \"First Triumvirate\" in modern times.Caesar was still at",
"was still at work in December of 60 BC attempting to find allies for his consulship and the alliance was finalised only some time around its start.Pompey and Crassus joined in pursuit of two respective goals: the ratification ofPompey's eastern settlementand the bailing out of tax farmers in Asia, many of whom were Crassus' clients. All three sought the extended patronage of land grants, with Pompey especially seeking the promised land grants for his veterans. Caesar's first act was topublishthe minutes of the Senate and the assemblies, signalling the Senate's accountability to the public. He then brought in the Senate a bill – crafted to avoid objections to previous land reform proposals and any indications of radicalism – to purchase property from willing sellers to distribute to Pompey's veterans and the urban poor. It would be administered by a board of twenty (with Caesar excluded), and financed by Pompey's plunder and territorial gains.Referring it to the Senate in hope that it would take up the matter",
"take up the matter to show its beneficence for the people,there was little opposition and the obstructionism that occurred was largely unprincipled, firmly opposing it not on grounds of public interest but rather opposition to Caesar's political advancement.Unable to overcome Cato's filibustering, he moved the bill before the people and, at a public meeting, Caesar's co-consul Bibulus threatened a permanent veto for the entire year. This clearly violated the people's well-established legislative sovereigntyand triggered a riot in which Bibulus' fasces were broken, symbolising popular rejection of his magistracy.The bill was then voted through. Bibulus attempted to induce the Senate to nullify it on grounds it was passed by violence and contrary to the auspices but the Senate refused. Caesar also brought and passed a one-third write-down of tax farmers' arrears for Crassus and ratification of Pompey's eastern settlements. Both bills were passed with little or no debate in the Senate.Caesar then moved to",
"then moved to extend his agrarian bill to Campania some time in May; this may be when Bibulus withdrew to his house.Pompey, shortly thereafter, also wed Caesar's daughter Julia to seal their alliance.An ally of Caesar's, plebeian tribunePublius Vatiniusmoved thelex Vatiniaassigning the provinces ofIllyricumandCisalpine Gaulto Caesar for five years.Suetonius' claim that the Senate had assigned to Caesar thesilvae callesque(\"woods and tracks\") is likely an exaggeration: fear of Gallic invasion had grown in 60 BC and it is more likely that the consuls had been assigned to Italy, a defensive posture that Caesarian partisans dismissed as \"mere 'forest tracks'\".The Senate was also persuaded to assign to CaesarTransalpine Gaulas well, subject to annual renewal, most likely to control his ability to make war on the far side of the Alps. Some time in the year, perhaps after the passing of the bill distributing the Campanian landand after these political defeats, Bibulus withdrew to his house. There, he issued edicts",
"he issued edicts in absentia, purporting unprecedentedly to cancel all days on which Caesar or his allies could hold votes for religious reasons.Cato too attempted symbolic gestures against Caesar, which allowed him and his allies to \"feign victimisation\"; these tactics were successful in building revulsion to Caesar and his allies through the year.This opposition caused serious political difficulties to Caesar and his allies, belying the common depiction of triumviral political supremacy.Later in the year, however, Caesar – with the support of his opponents – brought and passed thelex Julia de repetundisto crack down on provincial corruption.When his consulship ended, Caesar's legislation was challenged by two of the new praetors but discussion in the Senate stalled and was regardless dropped. He stayed near the city until some time around mid-March. Campaigns in Gaul During the Gallic Wars, Caesar wrote hisCommentariesthereon, which were acknowledged even in his time as a Latin literary masterwork. Meant",
"masterwork. Meant to document Caesar's campaigns in his own words and maintain support in Rome for his military operations and career, he produced some ten volumes covering operations in Gaul from 58 to 52 BC.Each was likely produced in the year following the events described and was likely aimed at the general, or at least literate, population in Rome;the account is naturally partial to Caesar – his defeats are excused and victories highlighted – but it is almost the sole source for events in Gaul in this period. Gaul in 58 BC was in the midst of some instability. Tribes had raided into Transalpine Gaul and there was an on-going struggle between two tribes in central Gaul which collaterally involved Roman alliances and politics. The divisions within the Gauls – they were no unified bloc – would be exploited in the coming years.The first engagement was in April 58 BC when Caesar prevented the migratingHelvetiifrom moving through Roman territory, allegedly because he feared they would unseat a Roman",
"unseat a Roman ally.Building a wall, he stopped their movement near Geneva and – after raising two legions – defeated them at theBattle of Bibractebefore forcing them to return to their original homes.He was drawn further north responding to requests from Gallic tribes, including theAedui, for aid againstAriovistus– king of theSuebiand a declared friend of Rome by the Senate during Caesar's own consulship – and he defeated them at theBattle of Vosges.Wintering in northeastern Gaul near theBelgaein the winter of 58–57, Caesar's forward military position triggered an uprising to remove his troops; able to eke out a victory at theBattle of the Sabis, Caesar spent much of 56 BC suppressing the Belgae and dispersing his troops to campaign across much of Gaul, including against theVenetiin what is nowBrittany.At this point, almost all of Gaul – except its central regions – fell under Roman subjugation. Seeking to buttress his military reputation, he engaged Germans attempting to cross the Rhine, which marked it as",
"which marked it as a Roman frontier;displaying Roman engineering prowess, he here built abridge across the Rhinein a feat of engineering meant to show Rome's ability to project power.Ostensibly seeking to interdict British aid to his Gallic enemies, he led expeditions into southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC, perhaps seeking further conquests or otherwise wanting to impress readers in Rome; Britain at the time was to the Romans an \"island of mystery\" and \"a land of wonder\".He, however, withdrew from the island in the face of winter uprisings in Gaul led by theEburonesandBelgaestarting in late 54 BC which ambushed and virtually annihilated a legion and five cohorts.Caesar was, however, able to lure the rebels into unfavourable terrain and routed them in battle.The next year, a greater challenge emerged with the uprising of most of central Gaul, led byVercingetorixof theAverni. Caesar was initially defeated atGergoviabeforebesieging Vercingetorix at Alesia. After becoming himself besieged, Caesar won a major",
"Caesar won a major victory which forced Vercingetorix's surrender; Caesar then spent much of his time into 51 BC suppressing any remaining resistance. Politics, Gaul, and Rome In the initial years from the end of Caesar's consulship in 59 BC, the three so-called triumvirs sought to maintain the goodwill of the extremely popularPublius Clodius Pulcher,who wasplebeian tribunein 58 BC and in that year successfully sent Cicero into exile. When Clodius took an anti-Pompeian stance later that year, he unsettled Pompey's eastern arrangements, started attacking the validity of Caesar's consular legislation, and by August 58 forced Pompey into seclusion. Caesar and Pompey responded by successfully backing the election of magistrates to recall Cicero from exile on the condition that Cicero would refrain from criticism or obstruction of the allies. Politics in Rome fell into violent street clashes between Clodius and two tribunes who were friends of Cicero. With Cicero now supporting Caesar and Pompey, Caesar sent news",
"Caesar sent news of Gaul to Rome and claimed total victory and pacification. The Senate at Cicero's motion voted him an unprecedented fifteen days of thanksgiving.Such reports were necessary for Caesar, especially in light of senatorial opponents, to prevent the Senate from reassigning his command in Transalpine Gaul, even if his position in Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum was guaranteed by thelex Vatiniauntil 54 BC.His success was evidently recognised when the Senate voted state funds for some of Caesar's legions, which until this time Caesar had paid for personally. The three allies' relations broke down in 57 BC: one of Pompey's allies challenged Caesar's land reform bill and the allies had a poor showing in the elections that year.With a real threat to Caesar's command andactabrewing in 56 BC under the aegis of the unfriendly consuls, Caesar needed his allies' political support.Pompey and Crassus too wanted military commands. Their combined interests led to a renewal of the alliance; drawing in the support",
"in the support ofAppius Claudius Pulcherand his younger brother Clodius for the consulship of 54 BC, they planned second consulships with following governorships in 55 BC for both Pompey and Crassus. Caesar, for his part, would receive a five-year extension of command. Cicero was induced to oppose reassignment of Caesar's provinces and to defend a number of the allies' clients; his gloomy predictions of a triumviral set of consuls-designate for years on end proved an exaggeration when, only by desperate tactics, bribery, intimidation and violence were Pompey and Crassus elected consuls for 55 BC.During their consulship, Pompey and Crassus passed – with some tribunician support – thelex Pompeia Liciniaextending Caesar's command and thelex Treboniagiving them respective commands in Spain and Syria,though Pompey never left for the province and remained politically active at Rome.The opposition again unified against their heavy-handed political tactics – though not against Caesar's activities in Gaul– and",
"in Gaul– and defeated the allies in the elections of that year. The ambush and destruction in Gaul of a legion and five cohorts in the winter of 55–54 BC produced substantial concern in Rome about Caesar's command and competence, evidenced by the highly defensive narrative in Caesar'sCommentaries.The death of Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife Julia in childbirthc.late August 54did not create a rift between Caesar and Pompey.At the start of 53 BC, Caesar sought and received reinforcements by recruitment and a private deal with Pompey before two years of largely unsuccessful campaigning against Gallic insurgents.In the same year, Crassus's campaign ended in disaster at theBattle of Carrhae, culminating in his death at the hands of theParthians. When in 52 BC Pompey started the year with a sole consulship to restore order to the city,Caesar was in Gaul suppressing insurgencies; after news of his victory at Alesia, with the support of Pompey he received twenty days of thanksgiving and, pursuant to the \"Law of",
"to the \"Law of the Ten Tribunes\", the right to stand for the consulship in absentia. Civil war From the period 52 to 49 BC, trust between Caesar and Pompey disintegrated.In 51 BC, the consulMarcellusproposed recalling Caesar, arguing that hisprovincia(here meaning \"task\") in Gaul – due to his victory against Vercingetorix in 52 – was complete; it evidently was incomplete as Caesar was that year fighting theBellovaciand regardless the proposal was vetoed.That year, it seemed that the conservatives around Cato in the Senate would seek to enlist Pompey to force Caesar to return from Gaul without honours or a second consulship.Cato, Bibulus, and their allies, however, were successful in winning Pompey over to take a hard line against Caesar's continued command. As 50 BC progressed, fears of civil war grew; both Caesar and his opponents started building up troops in southern Gaul and northern Italy, respectively.In the autumn, Cicero and others sought disarmament by both Caesar and Pompey, and on 1 December 50 BC",
"on 1 December 50 BC this was formally proposed in the Senate.It received overwhelming support – 370 to 22 – but was not passed whenone of the consulsdissolved the meeting.That year, when a rumour came to Rome that Caesar was marching into Italy, both consuls instructed Pompey to defend Italy, a charge he accepted as a last resort.At the start of 49 BC, Caesar's renewed offer that he and Pompey disarm was read to the Senate and was rejected by the hardliners.A later compromise given privately to Pompey was also rejected at their insistence.On 7 January, his supportive tribunes were driven from Rome; the Senate then declared Caesar an enemy and it issued itssenatus consultum ultimum. There is scholarly disagreement as to the specific reasons why Caesar marched on Rome. A very popular theory is that Caesar was forced to choose – when denied the immunity of his proconsular tenure – between prosecution, conviction, and exile or civil war in defence of his position.Whether Caesar actually would have been",
"would have been prosecuted and convicted is debated. Some scholars believe the possibility of successful prosecution was extremely unlikely.Caesar's main objectives were to secure a second consulship – first mooted in 52 as colleague to Pompey's sole consulship– and a triumph. He feared that his opponents – then holding both consulships for 50 BC – would reject his candidacy or refuse to ratify an election he won.This also was the core of his war justification: that Pompey and his allies were planning, by force if necessary (indicated in the expulsion of the tribunes), to suppress the liberty of the Roman people to elect Caesar and honour his accomplishments. Italy, Spain, and Greece Around 10 or 11 January 49 BC,in response to the Senate's \"final decree\",Caesarcrossed the Rubicon– the river defining the northern boundary of Italy – with a single legion, theLegio XIII Gemina, and ignitedcivil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian",
"quoted the Athenian playwrightMenander, in Greek, \"let the die be cast\".Pompey and many senators fled south, believing that Caesar was marching quickly for Rome.Caesar, after capturing communication routes to Rome, paused and opened negotiations, but they fell apart amid mutual distrust.Caesar responded by advancing south, seeking to capture Pompey to force a conference. Pompey withdrew toBrundisiumand was able to escape to Greece, abandoning Italy in face of Caesar's superior forces and evading Caesar's pursuit.Caesar stayed near Rome for about two weeks – during his stay his forceful seizure of the treasury over tribunician veto put the lie to his pro-tribunician war justifications– and left Lepidus in charge of Italy while he attacked Pompey's Spanish provinces.He defeated two of Pompey's legates at theBattle of Ilerdabefore forcing surrender ofthe third; his legates moved into Sicily and intoAfrica, though the African expedition failed.Returning to Rome in the autumn, Caesar had Lepidus, as praetor,",
"as praetor, bring a law appointing Caesardictatorto conduct the elections; he, along withPublius Servilius Isauricus, won the following elections and would serve as consuls for 48 BC.Resigning the dictatorship after eleven days,Caesar then left Italy for Greece to stop Pompey's preparations, arriving in force in early 48 BC. Caesarbesieged Pompey at Dyrrhachium, but Pompey was able to break out and force Caesar's forces to flee. Following Pompey southeast into Greece and to save one of his legates, he engaged and decisively defeated Pompeyat Pharsaluson 9 August 48 BC. Pompey then fled for Egypt; Cato fled for Africa; others, like Cicero andMarcus Junius Brutus, begged for Caesar's pardon. Alexandrine war and Asia Minor Pompey was killed when he arrived inAlexandria, the capital ofEgypt. Caesar arrived three days later on 2 October 48 BC. Prevented from leaving the city byEtesian winds, Caesar decided to arbitrate an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaohPtolemy XIII Theos PhilopatorandCleopatra, his",
"his sister, wife, and co-regent queen.In late October 48 BC, Caesar was appointed in absentia to a year-long dictatorship,after news of his victory at Pharsalus arrived to Rome.While in Alexandria, he started anaffairwith Cleopatra and withstood asiege by Ptolemyand his other sisterArsinoeuntil March 47 BC. Reinforced by eastern client allies underMithridates of Pergamum, he then defeated Ptolemy at theBattle of the Nileand installed Cleopatra as ruler.Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated the victory with a triumphal procession on theNile. He stayed in Egypt with Cleopatra until June or July that year, though the relevant commentaries attributed to him give no such impression. Some time in late June, Cleopatra gave birth to a child by Caesar, calledCaesarion. When Caesar landed atAntioch, he learnt that during his time in Egypt, the king of what is now Crimea,Pharnaces, had attempted to seize what had been his father's kingdom, Pontus, across theBlack Seain northern Anatolia. His invasion had swept aside Caesar's",
"aside Caesar's legates and the local client kings, but Caesar engaged him atZelaand defeated him immediately, leading Caesar to writeveni, vidi, vici(\"I came, I saw, I conquered\"), downplaying Pompey's previous Pontic victories. He then left quickly for Italy. Italy, Africa, and Spain Caesar's absence from Italy put Mark Antony, asmagister equitum, in charge. His rule was unpopular:Publius Cornelius Dolabella, serving as plebeian tribune in 47 BC, agitated for debt relief and after that agitation got out of hand the Senate moved for Antony to restore order. Delayed by a mutiny in southern Italy, he returned and suppressed the riots by force, killing many and delivering a similar blow to his popularity. Cato had marched to Africaand thereMetellus Scipiowas in charge of the remaining republicans; they allied withJubaofNumidia; what used to be Pompey's fleet also raided the central Mediterranean islands. Caesar's governor in Spain, moreover, was sufficiently unpopular that the province revolted and switched to",
"and switched to the republican side. Caesar demoted Antony on his return and pacified the mutineers without violencebefore overseeing the election of the rest of the magistrates for 47 BC – no elections had yet been held – and also for those of 46 BC. Caesar would serve with Lepidus as consul in 46; he borrowed money for the war, confiscated and sold the property of his enemies at fair prices, and then left for Africa on 25 December 47 BC.Caesar's landing in Africa was marked with some difficulties establishing a beachhead and logistically. He was defeated byTitus LabienusatRuspinaon 4 January 46 BC and thereafter took a rather cautious approach.After inducing some desertions from the republicans, Caesar ended up surrounded atThapsus. His troops attacked prematurely on 6 April 46 BC, starting abattle; they then won it and massacred the republican forceswithout quarter. Marching on Utica, where Cato commanded, Caesar arrived to find that Cato had killed himself rather than receive Caesar's clemency.Many of",
"clemency.Many of the remaining anti-Caesarian leaders, including Metellus Scipio and Juba, also committed suicide shortly thereafter.Labienus and two of Pompey's sons, however, had moved to the Spanish provinces in revolt. Caesar started a process of annexing parts of Numidia and then returned to Italy via Sardinia in June 46 BC. Caesar stayed in Italy to celebrate four triumphs in late September, supposedly over four foreign enemies: Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces (Asia), and Juba (Africa). He led Vercingetorix, Cleopatra's younger sister Arsinoe, and Juba's son before his chariot; Vercingetorix was executed.According to Appian, in some of the triumphs, Caesar paraded pictures and models of his victories over fellow Romans in the civil wars, to popular dismay.The soldiers were each given 24,000sesterces(a lifetime's worth of pay); further games and celebrations were put on for the plebs. Near the end of the year, Caesar heard bad news from Spain and, with an army, left for the peninsula, leaving Lepidus in charge",
"Lepidus in charge asmagister equitum. At a bloody battle atMundaon 17 March 45 BC, Caesar narrowly found victory;his enemies were treated as rebels and he had them massacred.Labienus died on the field. While one of Pompey's sons,Sextus, escaped, the war was effectively over.Caesar remained in the province until June before setting out for Rome, arriving in October of the same year, and celebrated an unseemly triumph over fellow Romans.By this point he had started preparations for war on theParthiansto avenge Crassus' death atCarrhaein 53 BC, with wide-ranging objectives that would take him into Dacia for three or more years. It was set to start on 18 March 44 BC. Dictatorship and assassination Dictatorships and honours Prior to Caesar's assumption of the titledictator perpetuoin February 44 BC, he had been appointed dictator some four times since his first dictatorship in 49 BC. After occupying Rome, he engineered this first appointment, largely to hold elections; after 11 days he resigned. The other",
"resigned. The other dictatorships lasted for longer periods, up to a year, and by April 46 BC he was given a new dictatorship annually.The task he was assigned revived that of Sulla's dictatorship:rei publicae constituendae.These appointments, however, were not the source of legal power themselves; in the eyes of the literary sources, they were instead honours and titles which reflected Caesar's dominant position in the state, secured not by extraordinary magistracy or legal powers, but by personal status as victor over other Romans. Through the period after Pharsalus, the Senate showered Caesar with honours,including the titlepraefectus moribus(lit.'prefect of morals') which historically was associated with thecensorialpower to revise the Senate rolls. He was also granted power over war and peace,usurping a power traditionally held by thecomitia centuriata.These powers attached to Caesar personally.Similarly extraordinary were a number of symbolic honours which saw Caesar's portrait placed on coins in Rome",
"on coins in Rome – the first for a living Roman– with special rights to wear royal dress, sit atop a golden chair in the Senate, and have his statues erected in public temples. The month Quintilis, in which he was born, was renamedJulius(now July).These were symbols of divine monarchy and, later, objects of resentment. The decisions on the normal operation of the state – justice, legislation, administration, and public works – were concentrated into Caesar's person without regard for or even notice given to the traditional institutions of the republic.Caesar's domination over public affairs and his competitive instinct to preclude all others alienated the political class and led eventually to the conspiracy against his life. Legislation Caesar, as far as is attested in evidence, did not intend to restructure Roman society. Ernst Badian, writing in theOxford Classical Dictionary, noted that although Caesar did implement a series of reforms, they did not touch on the core of the republican system: he \"had no",
"system: he \"had no plans for basic social and constitutional reform\" and that \"the extraordinary honours heaped upon him... merely grafted him as an ill-fitting head on to the body of the traditional structure\". The most important of Caesar's reforms was to the calendar, which saw the abolition of thetraditional republican lunisolar calendarand its replacement with a solar calendar now called theJulian calendar.He also increased the number of magistrates and senators (from 600 to 900) to better administer the empire and reward his supporters with offices. Colonies also were founded outside Italy – notably on the sites of Carthage and Corinth, which had both been destroyed during Rome's 2nd century BC conquests – to discharge Italy's population into the provinces and reduce unrest.The royal power of naming patricians was revived to benefit the families of his menand thepermanent courtsjury pools were also altered to remove thetribuni aerarii, leaving only the equestrians and senators. He also took further",
"also took further administrative actions to stabilise his rule and that of the state.Caesar reduced the size of the grain dole from 320,000 down to around 150,000 by tightening the qualifications; special bonuses were offered to families with many children to stall depopulation.Plans were drawn for the conduct of a census. Citizenship was extended to a number of communities in Cisalpine Gaul and toCádiz.During the civil wars, Caesar had also instituted a novel debt repayment programme (no debts would be forgiven but they could be paid in kind), remitted rents up to a certain amount, and thrown games distributing food.Many of his enemies during the civil wars were pardoned – Caesar's clemency was exalted in his propaganda and temple works – with the intent to cultivate gratitude and draw a contrast between himself and the vengeful dictatorship of Sulla. The building programmes, started prior to his expedition to Spain, continued, with the construction of theForum of Caesarand theTemple of Venus",
"theTemple of Venus Genetrixtherein. Other public works, including an expansion of Ostia's port and a canal through theCorinthian Isthmus, were also planned.Very busy with this work, the heavy-handedness with which he ignored the Senate, magistrates, and those who came to visit him also alienated many in Rome. Thecollegia, civic associations restored by Clodius in 58 BC, were again abolished.His actions to reward his supporters saw him allow his subordinates illegal triumphal processions and resign the consulship so that allies could take it up for the rest of the year. On the last day of 45 BC, when one of the succeeding consuls died, Caesar had anallyelected as replacement for a single day.Corruption on the part of his partisans was also overlooked to ensure their support; provincial cities and client kingdoms were extorted for favours to pay his bills. Conspiracy and death Attempts in January 44 BC to call Caesarrex(lit.'king') – a title associated with arbitrary oppression against citizens – were shut",
"– were shut down by two tribunes before a supportive crowd. Caesar, claiming that the two tribunes infringed on his honour by doing so, had them deposed from office and ejected from the Senate.The incident both undermined Caesar's original arguments for pursuing the civil war (protecting the tribunes) and angered a public which still revered the tribunes as protectors of popular freedom.Shortly before 15 February 44 BC, he assumed the dictatorship for life, putting an end to any hopes that his powers would be merely temporary.Transforming his dictatorship, even with a decadal appointment, into one for life clearly showed to all contemporaries that Caesar had no intention to restore a free republic and that no free republic could be restored so long as he was in power. Just days after his assumption of the life dictatorship, he publicly rejected adiademfrom Antony at celebrations for theLupercalia. Interpretations of the episode vary: he may have been rejecting the diadem publicly only because the crowd was",
"the crowd was insufficiently supportive; he could have done it performatively to signal he was no monarch; alternatively, Antony could have acted on his own initiative. By this point, however, rumour was rife that Caesar – already wearing the dress of a monarch – sought a formal crown and the episode did little to reassure. The plan to assassinate Caesar had started by the summer of 45 BC. An attempt to recruit Antony was made around that time, though he declined and gave Caesar no warning. By February 44 BC, there were some sixty conspirators.It is clear that by this time, the victorious Caesarian coalition from the civil war had broken apart.While most of the conspirators were former Pompeians, they were joined by a substantial number of Caesarians.Among their leaders wereGaius Trebonius(consul in 45), Decimus Brutus (consul designate for 42), as well asCassiusandBrutus(both praetors in 44 BC).Trebonius and Decimus had joined Caesar during the war while Brutus and Cassius had joined Pompey; other",
"Pompey; other Caesarians involved includedServius Sulpicius Galba,Lucius Minucius Basilus,Lucius Tullius Cimber, andGaius Servilius Casca.Many of the conspirators would have been candidates in the consular elections for 43 to 41 BC,likely dismayed by Caesar's sham elections in early 44 BC that produced advance results for the years 43–41 BC. Those electoral results came from the grace of the dictator and not that of the people; for the republican elite this was no substitute for actual popular support.Nor is it likely that the subordination of the normal magistrates to Caesar's masters of horse (Latin:magistri equitum) was appreciated. Brutus, who claimed descent from theLucius Junius Brutuswho haddriven out the kingsand theGaius Servilius Ahalawho had freed Rome from incipient tyranny, was the main leader of the conspiracy.By late autumn 45 BC, graffitiand some public comments at Rome were condemning Caesar as a tyrant and insinuating the need for a Brutus to remove the dictator. The ancient sources,",
"ancient sources, exceptingNicolaus of Damascus, are unanimous that this reflected a genuine turn in public opinion against Caesar.Popular indignation at Caesar was likely rooted in his debt policies (too friendly to lenders), use of lethal force to suppress protests for debt relief, his reduction in the grain dole, his abolition of thecollegiarestored by Clodius, his abolition of the poorest panel of jurors in the permanent courts, and his abolition of open elections which deprived the people of their ancient right of decision.A popular turn against Caesar is also observed with reports that the two deposed tribunes were written-in on ballots at Caesar's advance consular elections in place of Caesar's candidates.Whether the Romans thought they had a tradition of tyrannicide is unclear;Cicero wrote in private as if the duty to kill tyrants was already given, but he made no public speeches to that effect and there is little evidence that the public accepted the logic of preventive tyrannicide.The philosophical",
"philosophical tradition of thePlatonicOld Academywas also a factor driving Brutus to action due to its emphasis on a duty to free the state from tyranny. While some news of the conspiracy did leak, Caesar refused to take precautions and rejected escort by a bodyguard. The date decided upon by the conspirators was 15 March, theIdes of March, three days before Caesar intended to leave for his Parthian campaign.News of his imminent departure forced the conspirators to move up their plans; the Senate meeting on the 15th would be the last before his departure.They had decided that a Senate meeting was the best place to frame the killing as political, rejecting the alternatives at games, elections, or on the road.That only the conspirators would be armed at the Senate meeting, per Dio, also would have been an advantage. The day, 15 March, was also symbolically important as it was the day on which consuls took office until the mid-2nd century BC. Various stories purport that Caesar was on the cusp of not attending",
"of not attending or otherwise being warned about the plot.Approached on his golden chair at the foot of the statue of Pompey, the conspirators attacked him with daggers. Whether he fell in silence, per Suetonius, or after reply to Brutus' appearance –kai su teknon?(\"you too, child?\") – isvariantly recorded.He was stabbed at least twenty-three times and died at once. Aftermath of the assassination The assassins seized the Capitoline hill after killing the dictator. They then summoned a public meeting in the Forum where they were coldly received by the population. They were also unable to fully secure the city, as Lepidus – Caesar'slieutenant in the dictatorship– moved troops from theTiber Islandinto the city proper. Antony, the consul who escaped the assassination, urged an illogical compromise position in the Senate:Caesar was not declared a tyrant and the conspirators were not punished.Caesar's funeral was then approved. At the funeral, Antony inflamed the public against the assassins, which triggered mob",
"which triggered mob violence that lasted for some months before the assassins were forced to flee the capital and Antony then finally acted to suppress it by force. In 44 BC, there was a seven-daycometary outburstthat the Romans believe to represent the deification of Caeser, giving it the nameCaesar's Comet. On the site of his cremation, theTemple of Caesarwas begun by the triumvirs in 42 BC at the east side of the main square of theRoman Forum. Only its altar now remains.The terms of the will were also read to the public: it gave a generous donative to the plebs at large and left as principal heir oneGaius Octavius, Caesar's great-nephew then atApollonia, and adopted him in the will. Resumption of the pre-existing republic proved impossible as various actors appealed in the aftermath of Caesar's death to liberty or to vengeance to mobilise huge armies that led to a series of civil wars.Thefirst warwas between Antony in 43 BC and the Senate (including senators of both Caesarian and Pompeian persuasion)",
"persuasion) which resulted in Octavian – Caesar's heir – exploiting the chaos to seize the consulship and join with Antony and Lepidus to form theSecond Triumvirate.After purging their political enemies in aseries of proscriptions,the triumvirs secured the deification of Caesar – the Senate declared on 1 January 42 BC that Caesar would be placed among the Roman gods– and marched on the east where asecond warsaw the triumvirs defeat the tyrannicides inbattle,resulting in a final death of the republican cause and a three-way division of much of the Roman world.By 31 BC, Caesar's heir had taken sole control of the empire, ejecting his triumviral rivals after two decades of civil war. Pretending to restore the republic, his masked autocracy was acceptable to the war-weary Romans and marked the establishment of anew Roman monarchy. Personal life Health and physical appearance Based on remarks by Plutarch,Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered fromepilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the",
"divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s BC.Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to aparasitic infection in the brainby a tapeworm. Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have hadabsence seizuresin his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim ofhypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures. A line fromShakespeare'sJulius Caesarhas sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: \"Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf.\"No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily",
"Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence. Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral manifestations – headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility – and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in hisNatural Historythat Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes.These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. Caesar possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease. Suetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as \"tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes\".He adds that thebaldingCaesar was sensitive to teasing",
"to teasing on the subject, and therefore had acombover. Suetonius reports that Caesar was thus especially pleased to be granted the honor of wearing a wreath at all times. Name and family The name Gaius Julius Caesar Using theLatin alphabetof the period, which lacked the lettersJandU, Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation ofGbyC. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling. (The letterformÆis aligatureof the lettersAandE, and is often used in Latininscriptionsto save space.) In Classical Latin, it waspronounced. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin,Brutus. InGreek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary",
"its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the GermanKaiser() or Dutchkeizer(). InVulgar Latin, the originaldiphthongfirst began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel. Then, theplosive/k/beforefront vowelsbegan, due topalatalization, to be pronounced as anaffricate, hence renderings likeinItalianandinGermanregional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title ofTsar. With the evolution of theRomance languages, the affricatebecame africative(thus,) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. Caesar'scognomenitself became atitle; it was promulgated by theBible, which contains the famous verse \"Render unto Caesarthe things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's\". The title became, from the late first millennium,KaiserinGermanand (throughOld Church Slaviccěsarĭ)Tsaror Czar in theSlavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power wasSimeon II of Bulgaria, whose",
"of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946, but is still alive in 2023. This means that for approximately two thousand years, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. As a term for the highest ruler, the word Caesar constitutes one of the earliest, best attested and most widespread Latin loanwords in the Germanic languages, being found in thetext corporaofOld High German(keisar),Old Saxon(kēsur),Old English(cāsere),Old Norse(keisari),Old Dutch(keisere) and (throughGreek)Gothic(kaisar). Posterity Some ancient sources refer to the possibility of the tyrannicide,Marcus Junius Brutus, being one of Julius Caesar's illegitimate children.Caesar, at the time Brutus was born, was 15. Most ancient historians were sceptical of this and \"on the whole, scholars have rejected the possibility that Brutus was the love-child of Servilia and Caesar on the grounds of chronology\". Grandchild fromJuliaandPompey, dead at several days, unnamed. Rumors of passive homosexuality Roman society viewed the passive role",
"the passive role duringsexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, \"Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar.\"According to Cicero,Bibulus,Gaius Memmius, and others – mainly Caesar's enemies – he had an affair withNicomedes IV of Bithyniaearly in his career. The stories were repeated, referring to Caesar as the \"Queen of Bithynia\", by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according toCassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion.This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. Catulluswrote a poem suggesting that Caesar and his engineerMamurrawere lovers,but later apologised. Mark Antonycharged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an",
"accusation of an affair with Octavian as politicalslander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus. Literary works During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin – even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works arehis funeral orationfor his paternal auntJuliaand his \"Anticato\", a document attackingCatoin response to Cicero's eulogy.Poems by Julius Caesarare also mentioned in ancient sources. Memoirs Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt: These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of \"dispatches from the front\". They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings.As a",
"readings.As a model of clear and direct Latin style,The Gallic Warstraditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students. Legacy Historiography The texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most completeprimary sourcefor the reconstruction of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind.Julius Caesar is also considered one of the first historical figures to fold his message scrolls into a concertina form, which made them easier to read.The Roman emperorAugustusbegan acult of personalityof Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by this tradition. Many rulers in history became interested in thehistoriography of Caesar.Napoleon IIIwrote the scholarly workHistoire de Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic.Charles VIIIordered a monk to prepare a translation of theGallic Warsin",
"of theGallic Warsin 1480.Charles Vordered a topographic study in France, to place the Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultanSuleiman the Magnificentcatalogued the surviving editions of theCommentaries, and translated them to Turkish language.Henry IVandLouis XIIIof France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively;Louis XIVre-translated the first one afterwards. The remains ofCaesar's altarare a pilgrimage site for visitors from across Italy and the world. Flowers and other items are left there daily and special commemorations take place on 15 March to commemorate Caesar's death. Politics Julius Caesar is seen as the main example ofCaesarism, a form of political rule led by acharismaticstrongmanwhose rule is based upon acult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violentsocial order, and being a regime involving prominence of themilitaryin the government.Other people in",
"people in history, such as the FrenchNapoleon Bonaparteand the ItalianBenito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists.Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor topopulism.The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule. Depictions Battle record ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ Atrebates,Aduatuci ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ ⁂ Chronology See also Notes References Sources Primary sources Own writings Ancient historians' writings Secondary sources External links"
] |
Which female athlete achieved a "world's best" and a "world record" for the marathon during Tony Blair's second term as British Prime Minister. | Paula Radcliffe | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon_world_record_progression | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon_world_record_progression'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon_world_record_progression"
] | [
"Tony Blair Sir Anthony Charles Lynton BlairKG(born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 1997 to 2007 andLeader of the Labour Partyfrom 1994 to 2007. He wasLeader of the Oppositionfrom 1994 to 1997 and held variousshadow cabinetposts from 1987 to 1994. Blair wasMember of Parliament(MP) forSedgefieldfrom 1983 to 2007, and was special envoy of theQuartet on the Middle Eastfrom 2007 to 2015. He is the second-longest-serving prime ministerin post-war British history afterMargaret Thatcher, the longest-servingLabourpolitician to have held the office, and the first and only person to date to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Blair attended the independent schoolFettes College, studied law atSt John's College, Oxford, and qualified as a barrister. He became involved in the Labour Party and was elected to theHouse of Commonsin 1983 for the Sedgefield constituency inCounty Durham. As abackbencher, Blair supported moving the party to thepolitical centre of British politics. He was appointed toNeil Kinnock'sshadow cabinetin 1988 and was appointedshadow home secretarybyJohn Smithin 1992. Following Smith's death in 1994, Blair wona leadership electionto succeed him. As leader, Blair began a historic rebranding of the party, which became known as \"New Labour\". Blair became theyoungest prime ministerof the 20th century after his party won a landslide victory of 418 seats (the largest in its history) in the1997 general election, bringing an end to 18 years in the opposition. It was the first victory for the Labour Party in nearly 23 years, the last one being inOctober 1974. Duringhis first term, Blair enactedconstitutional reformsand significantly increasedpublic spendingon healthcare and education while also introducing controversial market-based reforms in these areas. In addition, Blair saw theintroduction of a minimum wage,tuition feesfor higher education, constitutional reform such asdevolution in Scotland and Wales, an extensive expansion ofLGBT+ rights in the UK, and significant progress in theNorthern Ireland peace processwith the passing of the landmarkGood Friday Agreement. On foreign policy, Blair oversaw British interventions inKosovo in 1999andSierra Leone in 2000, which were generally perceived to be successful. Blair won a second term after Labour won a second landslide victory in the2001 general election. Three months intohis second term, Blair's premiership was shaped by the9/11 terrorist attacks, resulting in the start of thewar on terror. Blair supported theforeign policy of the George W. Bush administrationby ensuring that theBritish Armed Forcesparticipated in theWar in Afghanistanto overthrow theTaliban, destroyal-Qaeda, and captureOsama bin Laden. Blair supported the2003 invasion of Iraqand had the British Armed Forces participate in theIraq War, on the inaccurate beliefs thatSaddam Hussein's regimepossessed weapons of mass destructionand developedties with al-Qaeda. The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attractedwidespread public oppositionand 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it. As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision. TheIraq Inquiryreport of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War. As thecasualties of the Iraq Warmounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament, and his popularity dropped dramatically. Blair won a third termafter Labour won a third election victory in 2005, in part thanks to the UK's strong economic performance, but with a substantially reduced majority, due to the UK's involvement in the Iraq War. Duringhis third term, Blair pushed for more systemic public sector reform and brokereda settlementto restore powersharing to Northern Ireland. He had a surge in popularity at the time ofterrorist bombings of Londonof July 2005, but by the Spring of 2006 faced significant difficulties, most notably with scandals over failures by theHome Officeto deport illegal immigrants. Amid theCash-for-Honours scandal, Blair was interviewed three times as prime minister, though only as a witness and notunder caution. The Afghanistan and Iraq wars continued, and in 2006, Blair announced he would resign within a year. He resigned the party leadership on 24 June 2007 and as prime minister on 27 June, andwas succeededbyGordon Brown, hischancellor. After leaving office, Blairgave up his seatand was appointed special envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East, a diplomatic post he held until 2015. He has been the executive chairman of theTony Blair Institute for Global Changesince 2016 and has made occasional political interventions, and has been a key influence onKeir Starmer. In 2009, Blair was awarded thePresidential Medal of FreedombyGeorge W. Bush. He was made aKnight Companion of the GarterbyQueen Elizabeth IIin 2022. At various points in his premiership, Blair was among both the most popular and most unpopular politicians in British history. As prime minister, he achieved the highest recorded approval ratings during his first few years in office but also one of the lowest ratings during and after the Iraq War.Blair is usually rated as above average inhistorical rankingsand public opinion of British prime ministers. Early years Anthony Charles Lynton Blair was born on 6 May 1953 at Queen Mary Maternity Home inEdinburgh, Scotland.He was the second son ofLeoand Hazel (néeCorscadden) Blair.Leo Blair was the illegitimate son of two entertainers and was adopted as a baby by the Glasgow shipyard worker James Blair and his wife, Mary.Hazel Corscadden was the daughter of George Corscadden, a butcher andOrangemanwho moved to Glasgow in 1916. In 1923, he returned to (and later died in)Ballyshannon, County Donegal, inIreland. In Ballyshannon, Corscadden's wife, Sarah Margaret (née Lipsett), gave birth above the family's grocery shop to Blair's mother, Hazel. Blair has an elder brother,William, and a younger sister, Sarah. Blair's first home was with his family at Paisley Terrace in the Willowbrae area of Edinburgh. During this period, his father worked as a junior tax inspector whilst studying for a law degree from theUniversity of Edinburgh. Blair's first relocation was when he was nineteen months old. At the end of 1954, Blair's parents and their two sons moved from Paisley Terrace toAdelaide,South Australia.His father lectured in law at theUniversity of Adelaide.In Australia, Blair's sister, Sarah, was born. The Blairs lived in the suburb ofDulwichclose to the university. The family returned to the United Kingdom in mid-1958. They lived for a time with Hazel's mother and stepfather (William McClay) at their home inSteppson the outskirts of north-east Glasgow. Blair's father accepted a job as a lecturer atDurham University, and moved the family toDurhamwhen Blair was five. It was the beginning of a long association Blair was to have with Durham. Since childhood, Blair has been a fan ofNewcastle United Football Club. Education and legal career With his parents basing their family in Durham, Blair attended theChorister Schoolfrom 1961 to 1966.Aged 13, he was sent to spend his school term-time boarding atFettes Collegein Edinburgh from 1966 to 1971.According to Blair, he hated his time at Fettes.His teachers were unimpressed with him; his biographer,John Rentoul, reported that \"ll the teachers I spoke to when researching the book said he was a complete pain in the backside and they were very glad to see the back of him.\"Blair reportedly modelled himself onMick Jagger, lead singer ofthe Rolling Stones.Leaving Fettes College at the age of 18, Blair next spent a gap year in London working as a rock music promoter. In 1972, at the age of 19, Blair matriculated atSt John's College, Oxford, readingjurisprudencefor three years.As a student, he played guitar and sang in a rock band calledUgly Rumours,and performedstand-up comedy.He was influenced by fellow student andAnglicanpriestPeter Thomson, who awakened his religious faith and left-wing politics. While at Oxford, Blair has stated that he was briefly aTrotskyist, after reading the first volume ofIsaac Deutscher's biography ofLeon Trotsky, which was \"like a light going on\".He graduated from Oxford at the age of 22 in 1975 with asecond-class HonoursB.A. in jurisprudence. In 1975, while Blair was at Oxford, his mother Hazel died aged 52 ofthyroid cancer, which greatly affected him.After Oxford, Blair served his barrister pupillage atLincoln's Inn, where he was called to the Bar. He met his future wife,Cherie Booth, at the chambers founded byDerry Irvine(who was to be Blair's first lord chancellor), 11 King's Bench Walk Chambers. Early political career Blair joined theLabour Partyshortly after graduating from Oxford in 1975. In the early 1980s, he was involved in Labour politics inHackney South and Shoreditch, where he aligned himself with the \"soft left\" of the party. He stood as a candidate for theHackney councilelections of 1982 in Queensbridge ward, a safe Labour area, but was not selected. In 1982, Blair was selected as the Labour Party candidate for the safe Conservative seat ofBeaconsfield, where there was a forthcoming by-election.Although Blair lost theBeaconsfield by-electionand Labour's share of the vote fell by ten percentage points, he acquired a profile within the party.Despite his defeat, William Russell, political correspondent forThe Glasgow Herald, described Blair as \"a very good candidate\", while acknowledging that the result was \"a disaster\" for the Labour Party.In contrast to his latercentrism, Blair made it clear in a letter he wrote to Labour leaderMichael Footin July 1982 (published in 2006) that he had \"come to Socialism through Marxism\" and considered himself on the left.LikeTony Benn, Blair believed that the \"Labour right\" was bankrupt,saying \"ocialism ultimately must appeal to the better minds of the people. You cannot do that if you are tainted overmuch with a pragmatic period in power.\"Yet, he saw thehard leftas no better, saying: There is an arrogance and self-righteousness about many of the groups on the far left which is deeply unattractive to the ordinary would-be member ... There's too much mixing only with people whom they agree. With a general election due, Blair had not been selected as a candidate anywhere. He was invited to stand again in Beaconsfield, and was initially inclined to agree but was advised by his head of chambers Derry Irvine to find somewhere else which might be winnable.The situation was complicated by the fact that Labour was fighting a legal action against planned boundary changes, and had selected candidates on the basis of previous boundaries. When the legal challenge failed, the party had to rerun all selections on the new boundaries; most were based on existing seats, but unusually in County Durham a newSedgefieldconstituency had been created out of Labour-voting areas which had no obvious predecessor seat. The selection for Sedgefield did not begin until after the1983 general electionwas called. Blair's initial inquiries discovered that the left was trying to arrange the selection forLes Huckfield, sitting MP for Nuneaton, who was trying elsewhere; several sitting MPs displaced by boundary changes were also interested in it. When he discovered theTrimdon branchhad not yet made a nomination, Blair visited them and won the support of the branch secretaryJohn Burton, and with Burton's help was nominated by the branch. At the last minute, he was added to the shortlist and won the selection over Huckfield. It was the last candidate selection made by Labour before the election, and was made after the Labour Party had issued biographies of all its candidates (\"Labour's Election Who's Who\"). John Burton became Blair'selection agentand one of his most trusted and longest-standing allies.Blair's election literature in the 1983 general election endorsed left-wing policies that Labour advocated in the early 1980s.He called for Britain to leave theEECas early as the 1970s,though he had told his selection conference that he personally favoured continuing membershipand voted \"Yes\" in the1975 referendum on the subject. He opposed theExchange Rate Mechanism(ERM) in 1986 but supported the ERM by 1989.He was a member of theCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament, despite never strongly being in favour ofunilateral nuclear disarmament.Blair was helped on the campaign trail by soap opera actressPat Phoenix, his father-in-law's girlfriend. At the age of thirty, he was elected as MP for Sedgefield in 1983; despite the party'slandslide defeat at the general election. In hismaiden speechin theHouse of Commonson 6 July 1983, Blair stated, \"I am a socialist not through reading a textbook that has caught my intellectual fancy, nor through unthinking tradition, but because I believe that, at its best, socialism corresponds most closely to an existence that is both rational and moral. It stands for cooperation, not confrontation; for fellowship, not fear. It stands for equality.\" Once elected, Blair's political ascent was rapid. He received his firstfront benchappointment in 1984 as assistantTreasuryspokesman. In May 1985, he appeared on the BBC'sQuestion Time, arguing that the Conservative Government'sPublic Order White Paperwas a threat to civil liberties. Blair demanded an inquiry into theBank of England's decision to rescue the collapsedJohnson Mattheybank in October 1985. By this time, Blair was aligned with the reforming tendencies in the party (headed by leaderNeil Kinnock) and in 1988 was promoted to the shadowTrade and Industryteam as spokesman on theCity of London. Leadership roles In 1987, he stood forelection to the Shadow Cabinet, receiving 71 votes.When Kinnock resigned after a fourth consecutive Conservative victory in the1992 general election, Blair becameshadow home secretaryunderJohn Smith. The old guard argued that trends showed they were regaining strength under Smith's strong leadership. Meanwhile, the breakawaySDPfaction had merged with theLiberal Party; the resultingLiberal Democratsseemed to pose a major threat to the Labour base. Blair, the leader of the modernising faction, had an entirely different vision, arguing that the long-term trends had to be reversed. The Labour Party was too locked into a base that was shrinking, since it was based on the working-class, on trade unions, and on residents of subsidised council housing. The rapidly growing middle-class was largely ignored, especially the more ambitious working-class families. They aspired to middle-class status but accepted the Conservative argument that Labour was holding ambitious people back with its levelling-down policies. They increasingly saw Labour in terms defined by the opposition, regarding higher taxes and higher interest rates. The steps towards what would become New Labour were procedural but essential. Calling on the slogan \"One member, one vote\", John Smith, with limited input from Blair, secured an end to the trade union block vote for Westminster candidate selection at the 1993 conference.But Blair and the modernisers wanted Smith to go further still, and called for radical adjustment of Party goals by repealing \"Clause IV\", the historic commitment tonationalisationof industry. This would be achieved in 1995. Leader of the Opposition John Smith died suddenly of a heart attack on 12 May 1994. Blair defeatedJohn PrescottandMargaret Beckettin thesubsequent leadership electionand becameLeader of the Opposition.As is customary for the holder of that office, Blair was appointed aPrivy Counsellor.It has long been rumoureda dealwas struck between Blair andShadow ChancellorGordon Brownat the former Granita restaurant inIslington, in which Blair promised to give Brown control of economic policy in return for Brown not standing against him in the leadership election.Whether this is true or not, the relationship between Blair and Brown was central to the fortunes ofNew Labour, and they mostly remained united in public, despite reported serious private rifts. During his speech at the 1994 Labour Party conference, Blair announced a forthcoming proposal to update the party's objects and objectives, which was widely interpreted to relate to replacingClause IVof the party's constitution with a new statement of aims and values.This involved the deletion of the party's stated commitment to \"the common ownership of the means of production and exchange\", which was generally understood to mean wholesale nationalisation of major industries.At a special conference in April 1995, the clause was replaced by a statement that the party is \"democratic socialist\",and Blair also claimed to be a \"democratic socialist\" himself in the same year.However, the move away from nationalisation in the old Clause IV made many on the left wing of the Labour Party feel that Labour was moving away from traditional socialist principles of nationalisation set out in 1918, and was seen by them as part of a shift of the party towards \"New Labour\". Blair inherited the Labour leadership at a time when the party was ascendant over the Conservatives in the opinion polls, since the Conservative government's reputation in monetary policy declined as a result of theBlack Wednesdayeconomic disaster of September 1992. Blair's election as leader saw Labour support surge higher stillin spite of the continuing economic recovery and fall in unemployment that the Conservative government (led byJohn Major) had overseen since the end of the 1990–92recession.At the 1996 Labour Party conference, Blair stated that his three top priorities on coming to office were \"education, education, and education\". Aided by the unpopularity of John Major's Conservative government (itself deeply divided over theEuropean Union),Blair won a landslide victory for Labour at the1997 general election, ending eighteen years of Conservative Party government, with the heaviest Conservative defeat since1906.In 1996, themanifestoNew Labour, New Life for Britainwas published, which set out the party's new \"Third Way\"centristapproach to policy, and was presented as the brand of a newly reformed party that had altered Clause IV and endorsedmarket economics. In May 1995, Labour had achieved considerable success in the local and European elections and had won four by-elections. For Blair, these achievements were a source of optimism, as they indicated that the Conservatives were in decline. Virtually every opinion poll since late-1992 put Labour ahead of the Conservatives with enough support to form an overall majority. Prime Minister (1997–2007) Blair becamePrime Minister of the United Kingdomon 2 May 1997; aged 43, he was the youngest person to reach that office sinceLord Liverpoolbecame prime minister aged 42 in 1812.He was also the first prime minister born after theSecond World Warand the accession ofElizabeth IIto the throne. With victories in 1997, 2001, and 2005, Blair was the Labour Party's longest-serving prime minister,and the first person (and the only one, to date) to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Northern Ireland His contribution towards assisting theNorthern Ireland peace processby helping to negotiate theGood Friday Agreement(after 30 years of conflict) was widely recognised.Following theOmagh bombingon 15 August 1998, by members of theReal IRAopposed to the peace process, which killed 29 people and wounded hundreds, Blair visited theCounty Tyronetown and met with victims atRoyal Victoria Hospital, Belfast. Military intervention and the War on Terror In his first six years in office, Blair ordered British troops into combat five times, more than any other prime minister in British history. This included Iraq in both1998and2003,Kosovo(1999),Sierra Leone(2000) andAfghanistan(2001). The Kosovo War, which Blair had advocated on moral grounds, was initially a failure when it relied solely on air strikes; the threat of a ground offensive convinced Serbia'sSlobodan Miloševićto withdraw. Blair had been a major advocate for a ground offensive, whichBill Clintonwas reluctant to do, and ordered that 50,000 soldiers – most of the available British Army – should be made ready for action.The following year, the limitedOperation Palliserin Sierra Leone swiftly swung the tide against the rebel forces; before deployment, theUnited Nations Mission in Sierra Leonehad been on the verge of collapse.Palliser had been intended as an evacuation mission butBrigadier David Richardswas able to convince Blair to allow him to expand the role; at the time, Richards' action was not known and Blair was assumed to be behind it. Blair orderedOperation Barras, a highly successfulSAS/Parachute Regimentstrike to rescue hostages from a Sierra Leone rebel group.JournalistAndrew Marrhas argued that the success of ground attacks, real and threatened, over air strikes alone was influential on how Blair planned the Iraq War, and that the success of the first three wars Blair fought \"played to his sense of himself as a moral war leader\".When asked in 2010 if the success of Palliser may have \"embolden British politicians\" to think of military action as a policy option, General Sir David Richards admitted there \"might be something in that\". From the start of theWar on Terrorin 2001, Blair strongly supported theforeign policyofGeorge W. Bush, participating in the2001 invasion of Afghanistanand2003 invasion of Iraq. The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attracted widespread public opposition and 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it.As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision.Alastair Campbelldescribed Blair's statement that the intelligence on WMDs was \"beyond doubt\" as his \"assessment of the assessment that was given to him.\"In 2009, Blair stated that he would have supported removingSaddam Husseinfrom power even in the face of proof that he had no such weapons.PlaywrightHarold Pinterand former Malaysian prime ministerMahathir Mohamadaccused Blair of war crimes. Testifying before theIraq Inquiryon 29 January 2010, Blair said Saddam Hussein was a \"monster and I believe he threatened not just the region but the world.\"Blair said that British and American attitude towards Hussein had \"changed dramatically\" after theSeptember 11 attacks. Blair denied that he would have supported the invasion of Iraq even if he had thought Hussein had no weapons of mass destruction. He said he believed the world was safer as a result of the invasion.He said there was \"no real difference between wanting regime change and wanting Iraq to disarm: regime change was US policy because Iraq was in breach of its UN obligations.\" In an October 2015CNNinterview withFareed Zakaria, Blair apologised for his \"mistakes\" over the Iraq War and admitted there were \"elements of truth\" to the view that the invasion helped promote the rise ofISIS.TheChilcot Inquiryreport of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War, though the former prime minister again refused to apologise for his decision to back the US-led invasion. Relationship with Parliament One of Blair's first acts as prime minister was to replace the then twice-weekly 15-minute sessions ofPrime Minister's Questionsheld on Tuesdays and Thursdays with a single 30-minute session on Wednesdays. In addition to PMQs, Blair held monthly press conferences at which he fielded questions from journalistsand, from 2002, broke precedent by agreeing to give evidence twice yearly before the most senior Commons select committee, theLiaison Committee.Blair was sometimes perceived as paying insufficient attention both to the views of his own Cabinet colleagues and to those of the House of Commons.His style was sometimes criticised as not that of a prime minister andhead of government, which he was, but of a president and head of state, which he was not.Blair was accused of excessive reliance onspin.He was the first UK prime minister to have been formally questioned by police, though notunder caution, while still in office. Events before resignation As thecasualties of the Iraq Warmounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament,and his popularity dropped as a result,with Labour's overall majority at the2005 electionreduced from 167 to 66 seats. As a combined result of theBlair–Brown pact, the Iraq War and low approval ratings, pressure built up within the Labour Party for Blair to resign.Over the summer of 2006, many MPs criticised Blair for not calling for a ceasefire in theIsrael–Lebanon conflict.On 7 September 2006, Blair publicly stated he would step down as leader by the time of theTrades Union Congressconference held from 10 to 13 September 2007,despite promising to serve a full term during the previous general election campaign. On 10 May 2007, during a speech at theTrimdon Labour Club, Blair announced his intention to resign as both Labour leader and prime minister,triggeringa leadership electionin which Brown was the only candidate. At a special party conference in Manchester on 24 June 2007, Blair formally handed over the leadership of the Labour Party to Brown, who had been Chancellor of the Exchequer in Blair's three ministries.Blair tendered his resignation as prime minister on 27 June and Brown assumed office the same afternoon. Blair resigned from his Sedgefield seat in the traditional form of accepting theStewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds, to which he was appointed by Brown in one of the latter's last acts as chancellor;the resultingby-electionwas won by Labour candidatePhil Wilson.Blair decided not to issue a list ofResignation Honours, making him the first prime minister of the modern era not to do so. Policies In 2001, Blair said, \"We are aleft of centreparty, pursuing economic prosperity and social justice as partners and not as opposites.\"Blair rarely applies such labels to himself; he promised before the 1997 election that New Labour would govern \"from the radical centre\", and according to one lifelong Labour Party member always described himself as asocial democrat.In a 2007 opinion piece inThe Guardian, left-wing commentator Neil Lawson described Blair as to theright of centre.AYouGovopinion poll in 2005 found that a small majority of British voters, including many New Labour supporters, placed Blair on the right of the political spectrum.TheFinancial Timesargued that Blair is not conservative but instead apopulist. Critics and admirers tend to agree that Blair's electoral success was based on his ability to occupy the centre ground and appeal to voters across the political spectrum, to the extent that he has been fundamentally at odds with traditional Labour Party values. Some left-wing critics, such asMike Marquseein 2001, argued that Blair oversaw the final stage of a long term shift of the Labour Party to the right. There is some evidence that Blair's long term dominance of the centre forced his Conservative opponents to shift a long distance to the left to challenge hishegemonythere.Leading Conservatives of the post-New Labour era hold Blair in high regard:George Osbornedescribes him as \"the master\",Michael Govethought he had an \"entitlement to conservative respect\" in February 2003, whileDavid Cameronreportedly maintained Blair as an informal adviser.Former Conservative Party Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher declared Blair and New Labour to be her greatest achievement. Social reforms Blair introduced significant constitutional reforms; promoted new rights for gay people; and signed treaties integrating Britain more closely with the EU. With specific regards to Blair'sLGBTQ+reforms, Blair introduced theCivil Partnership Act 2004which granted civil partners rights and responsibilities similar to those in civil marriages, equalised the age of consent between straight and gay couples, ended the ban on gay people serving in the British military, introduced theGender Recognition Act 2004which allows those withgender dysphoriato legally change their gender, repealedSection 28, gave gay couples the right to adopt and enacted several anti-discrimination policies into law. In 2014 he was proclaimed a \"gay icon\" by theGay Times. The New Labour government increased police powers by adding to the number of arrestable offences, compulsoryDNA recordingand the use of dispersal orders.Under Blair's government the amount of new legislation increasedwhich attracted criticism.He also introduced tough anti-terrorism andidentity card legislation. Economic policies Blair has been credited with overseeing a strong economy, with real incomes of British citizens growing 18% between 1997 and 2006. Britain saw rapid productivity growth and significant GDP growth, as well as falling poverty rates and inequality which, despite stubbornly failing to fall, stalled thanks to New Labour's economic policies (such as tax credits). Despite the financial bubble developing in the property markets, studies have credited the growth to investments in education and the maintenance of fiscal responsibility, rather than a financial sugar-high. During his time as prime minister, Blair kept direct taxes low, while raising indirect taxation; invested a significant amount inHuman capital; introduced aNational Minimum Wageand some new employment rights (while keepingMargaret Thatcher's trade union reforms).He introduced substantial market-based reforms in the education and health sectors; introduced studenttuition fees; introduced a welfare to work scheme and sought to reduce certain categories of welfare payments. He did not reverse theprivatisation of the railwaysenacted by his predecessor John Major and instead strengthened regulation (by creating theOffice of Rail Regulation) and limited fare rises toinflation+1%. Blair and Brown raised spending on the NHS and other public services, increasing spending from 39.9% of GDP to 48.1% in 2010–11.They pledged in 2001 to bring NHS spending to the levels of other European countries, and doubled spending in real terms to over £100 billion in England alone. Immigration Non-European immigration rose significantly during the period from 1997, not least because of thegovernment's abolition of the primary purpose rule in June 1997.This change made it easier for UK residents to bring foreign spouses into the country. The former government advisor Andrew Neather in theEvening Standardstated that the deliberate policy of ministers from late 2000 until early 2008 was to open up the UK to mass migration.Neather later stated that his words had been twisted, saying: \"The main goal was to allow in more migrant workers at a point when – hard as it is to imagine now – the booming economy was running up against skills shortages.... Somehow this has become distorted by excitable Right-wing newspaper columnists into being a \"plot\" to make Britain multicultural. There was no plot.\" Environmental record Blair criticised other governments for not doing enough to solveglobal climate change. In a 1997 visit to the United States, he made a comment on \"great industrialised nations\" that fail to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Again in 2003, Blair went before theUnited States Congressand said that climate change \"cannot be ignored\", insisting \"we need to go beyond evenKyoto.\"Blair and his party promised a 20% reduction in carbon dioxide.The Labour Party also claimed that by 2010 10% of the energy would come from renewable resources; however, it only reached 7% by that point. In 2000, Blair \"flagged up\" 100 million euros for green policies and urged environmentalists and businesses to work together. Foreign policy Blair built his foreign policy on basic principles (close ties with the United States and European Union) and added a new activist philosophy of \"interventionism\". In 2001, Britain joined the U.S. in the global war on terror. Blair forged friendships with several European leaders, includingSilvio Berlusconiof Italy,Angela Merkelof Germanyand laterNicolas Sarkozyof France. Along with enjoying a close relationship with Bill Clinton, Blair formed a strong political alliance with George W. Bush, particularly in the area of foreign policy. For his part, Bush lauded Blair and the UK. In hispost-9/11speech, for example, he stated that \"America has no truer friend than Great Britain\". The alliance between Bush and Blair seriously damaged Blair's standing in the eyes of Britons angry at American influence;a 2002 poll revealed that a large amount of Britons viewed Blair as a \"lapdog\" of Bush.Blair argued it was in Britain's interest to \"protect and strengthen the bond\" with the United States regardless of who was in the White House. However, a perception of one-sided compromising personal and political closeness led to discussion of the term \"Poodle-ism\" in the UK media, to describe the \"Special Relationship\" of the UK government and prime minister with the US White House and president.A revealing conversation between Bush and Blair, with the former addressing the latter as \"Yo , Blair\" was recorded when they did not know a microphone was live at theG8 summitinSaint Petersburgin 2006. Middle East policy On 30 January 2003, Blair signedThe letter of the eightsupportingU.S. policy on Iraq. Blair showed a deep feeling for Israel, born in part from his faith.Blair has been a longtime member of the pro-Israel lobby groupLabour Friends of Israel. In 1994, Blair forged close ties withMichael Levy, a leader of theJewish Leadership Council.Levy ran the Labour Leader's Office Fund to finance Blair's campaign before the 1997 election and raised £12 million towards Labour's landslide victory, Levy was rewarded with apeerage, and in 2002, Blair appointed Lord Levy as his personal envoy to the Middle East. Levy praised Blair for his \"solid and committed support of the State of Israel\".Tam Dalyell, whileFather of the Houseof Commons, suggested in 2003 that Blair's foreign policy decisions were unduly influenced by a \"cabal\" of Jewish advisers, including Levy,Peter MandelsonandJack Straw(the last two are not Jewish but have some Jewish ancestry). Blair, on coming to office, had been \"cool towards the right-wingNetanyahugovernment\".During his first visit to Israel, Blair thought the Israelis bugged him in his car.After the election in 1999 ofEhud Barak, with whom Blair forged a close relationship, he became much more sympathetic to Israel.From 2001, Blair built up a relationshipwith Barak's successor,Ariel Sharon, and responded positively toArafat, whom he had met thirteen times since becoming prime minister and regarded as essential to future negotiations.In 2004, 50 former diplomats, including ambassadors toBaghdadandTel Aviv, stated they had \"watched with deepening concern\" at Britain following the US into war in Iraq in 2003. They criticised Blair's support for theroad map for peacewhich included the retaining ofIsraeli settlementson theWest Bank. In 2006 Blair was criticised for his failure to immediately call for a ceasefire in the2006 Lebanon War.The Observernewspaper claimed that at a cabinet meeting before Blair left for a summit with Bush on 28 July 2006, a significant number of ministers pressured Blair to publicly criticise Israel over the scale of deaths and destruction in Lebanon.Blair was criticised for his solid stance alongside US president George W. Bush on Middle East policy. Syria and Libya A Freedom of Information request byThe Sunday Timesin 2012 revealed that Blair's government consideredknightingSyria's PresidentBashar al-Assad. The documents showed Blair was willing to appear alongside Assad at a joint press conference even though the Syrians would probably have settled for a farewell handshake for the cameras; British officials sought to manipulate the media to portray Assad in a favourable light; and Blair's aides tried to help Assad's \"photogenic\" wifeAsma al-Assadboost her profile. The newspaper noted: The Arab leader was granted audiences with the Queen and the Prince of Wales, lunch with Blair at Downing Street, a platform in parliament and many other privileges ... The red carpet treatment he and his entourage received is embarrassing given the bloodbath that has since taken place under his rule in Syria ... The courtship has parallels with Blair's friendly relations withMuammar Gaddafi. Blair had been on friendly terms with Colonel Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, when sanctions imposed on the country were lifted by the US and the UK. Even after theLibyan Civil Warin 2011, he said he had no regrets about his close relationship with the late Libyan leader.During Blair's premiership,MI6renderedAbdelhakim Belhajto the Gaddafi regime in 2004, though Blair later claimed he had \"no recollection\" of the incident. Zimbabwe Blair had an antagonistic relationship with Zimbabwean presidentRobert Mugabeand allegedly plannedregime changeagainst Mugabe in the early 2000s.Zimbabwe had embarked on a program ofuncompensated land redistributionfrom the country's white commercial farmers to the black population, a policy that disrupted agricultural production and threw Zimbabwe's economy into chaos. GeneralCharles Guthrie, theChief of the Defence Staff, revealed in 2007 that he and Blair had discussed the invasion of Zimbabwe.Guthrie advised against military action: \"Hold hard, you'll make it worse.\"In 2013, South African presidentThabo Mbekisaid that Blair had pressured South Africa to join in a \"regime change scheme, even to the point of using military force\" in Zimbabwe.Mbeki refused because he felt that \"Mugabe is part of the solution to this problem.\"However, a spokesman for Blair said that \"he never asked anyone to plan or take part in any such military intervention.\" Russia Blair went on a trip to Moscow to watch a performance of theWar and PeaceoperawithVladimir Putin, while he was theacting president of Russia. This meeting was criticised by groups such asHuman Rights WatchandAmnesty International.In 2018, SirRichard Dearlove, former head of MI6, said there was \"significant regret\" over this trip, which helped Putin rise to power. Dearlove also alleged that in 2000, aKGBofficer approached him, seeking Britain's help in boosting Putin's political profile, and this was why Blair met Putin in Russia. Blair also hosted Putin in London in April 2000, despite hesitation towards Putin from other world leaders, and opposition fromhuman rights groupsoveratrocities committed in Chechnya. Blair toldJim HoaglandofThe Washington Postthat \" vision of the future is one that we would feel comfortable with. Putin has a very clear agenda of modernizing Russia. When he talks of a strong Russia, he means strength not in a threatening way but in a way that means the country economically and politically is capable of standing up for itself, which is a perfectly good aim to have\".During the meeting, Blair acknowledged and discussed \"concerns about Chechnya\",but described Putin as a political reformer \"who is ready to embrace a new relationship with the European Union and the United States, who wants a strong and modern Russia and a strong relationship with the West\". Relationship with media Rupert Murdoch Blair was reported byThe Guardianin 2006 to have been supported politically byRupert Murdoch, the founder of theNews Corporationorganisation.In 2011, Blair becamegodfatherto one of Rupert Murdoch's children withWendi Deng,but he and Murdoch later ended their friendship, in 2014, after Murdoch suspected him of having an affair with Deng while they were still married, according toThe Economistmagazine. Contacts with UK media proprietors ACabinet Officefreedom of informationresponse, released the day after Blair handed over power to Gordon Brown, documents Blair having various official phone calls and meetings with Rupert Murdoch of News Corporation andRichard Desmondof Northern and Shell Media. The response includes contacts \"clearly of an official nature\" in the specified period, but excludes contacts \"not clearly of an official nature.\"No details were given of the subjects discussed. In the period between September 2002 and April 2005, Blair and Murdoch are documented speaking six times; three times in the nine days before the Iraq War, including the eve of the 20 March US and UK invasion, and on 29 January, 25 April, and 3 October 2004. Between January 2003 and February 2004, Blair had three meetings with Richard Desmond; on 29 January and 3 September 2003, and 23 February 2004. The information was disclosed after a3+1⁄2-year battle by the Liberal Democrats'Lord Avebury.Lord Avebury's initial October 2003 information request was dismissed by then leader of the Lords,Baroness Amos.A following complaint was rejected, withDowning Streetclaiming the information compromised \"free and frank discussions\", while Cabinet Office claimed releasing the timing of the PM's contacts with individuals is \"undesirable\", as it might lead to the content of the discussions being disclosed.While awaiting a following appeal from Lord Avebury, the cabinet office announced that it would release the information. Lord Avebury said: \"The public can now scrutinise the timing of his (Murdoch's) contacts with the former prime minister, to see whether they can be linked to events in the outside world.\" Blair appeared before theLeveson Inquiryon Monday 28 May 2012.During his appearance, a protester, later named as David Lawley-Wakelin, got into the court-room and claimed he was guilty of war crimes before being dragged out. Media portrayal Blair has been noted as acharismatic, articulate speaker with an informal style.Film and theatre directorRichard Eyreopined that \"Blair had a very considerable skill as a performer\".A few months after becoming prime minister Blair gave a tribute toDiana, Princess of Wales, on the morning of her death in August 1997, in which he famously described her as \"the People's Princess\". After taking office in 1997, Blair gave particular prominence to his press secretary, who became known as theprime minister's official spokesman(the two roles have since been separated). Blair's first PMOS was Alastair Campbell, who served in that role from May 1997 to 8 June 2001, after which he served as the prime minister's director of communications and strategy until his resignation on 29 August 2003 in the aftermath of theHutton Inquiry. Blair had close relationships with the Clinton family. The strong partnership with Bill Clinton was made into the filmThe Special Relationshipin 2010. Relationship with Labour Party Blair's apparent refusal to set a date for his departure was criticised by the British press and Members of Parliament. It has been reported that a number of cabinet ministers believed that Blair's timely departure from office would be required to be able to win a fourth election.Some ministers viewed Blair's announcement of policy initiatives in September 2006 as an attempt to draw attention away from these issues. Gordon Brown After the death of John Smith in 1994, Blair and his close colleague Gordon Brown (they shared an office at the House of Commons) were both seen as possible candidates for the party leadership. They agreed not to stand against each other, it is said, as part of a supposed Blair–Brown pact. Brown, who considered himself the senior of the two, understood that Blair would give way to him: opinion polls soon indicated, however, that Blair appeared to enjoy greater support among voters.Their relationship in power became so turbulent that it was reported thedeputy prime minister, John Prescott, often had to act as \"marriage guidance counsellor\". During the 2010 election campaign Blair publicly endorsed Brown's leadership, praising the way he had handled the financial crisis. Post-premiership (2007-present) Diplomacy On 27 June 2007, Blair officially resigned as prime minister after ten years in office, and he was officially confirmed as Middle Eastenvoyfor the United Nations, European Union, United States, and Russia.Blair originally indicated that he would retain his parliamentary seat after his resignation as prime minister came into effect; however, on being confirmed for the Middle East role he resigned from the Commons by taking up anoffice of profit.President George W. Bush had preliminary talks with Blair to ask him to take up the envoy role. White House sources stated that \"both Israel and the Palestinians had signed up to the proposal\".In May 2008 Blair announced a new plan for peace and for Palestinian rights, based heavily on the ideas of thePeace Valley plan.Blair resigned as envoy in May 2015. Private sector In January 2008, it was confirmed that Blair would be joining investment bankJPMorgan Chasein a \"senior advisory capacity\"and that he would adviseZurich Financial Servicesonclimate change. His salary for this work is unknown, although it has been claimed it may be in excess of £500,000 per year.Blair also gives lectures, earning up to US$250,000 for a 90-minute speech, and in 2008 he was said to be the highest paid speaker in the world. Blair taught a course on issues of faith and globalisation at theYale UniversitySchools ofManagementandDivinityas aHowland distinguished fellowduring the 2008–09 academic year. In July 2009, this accomplishment was followed by the launching of theFaith and Globalisation Initiativewith Yale University in the US, Durham University in the UK, and theNational University of Singaporein Asia, to deliver a postgraduate programme in partnership with the Foundation. Blair's links with, and receipt of an undisclosed sum from,UI Energy Corporation, have also been subject to media comment in the UK. In July 2010 it was reported that his personal security guards claimed £250,000 a year in expenses from the taxpayer. Foreign SecretaryWilliam Haguesaid; \"we have to make sure that is as cost-effective as possible, that it doesn't cost any more to the taxpayer than is absolutely necessary\". Tony Blair Associates Blair establishedTony Blair Associatesto \"allow him to provide, in partnership with others, strategic advice on a commercial andpro bonobasis, on political and economic trends and governmental reform\".The profits from the firm go towards supporting Blair's \"work on faith, Africa and climate change\". Blair has been subject to criticism for potential conflicts of interest between his diplomatic role as a Middle East envoy, and his work with Tony Blair Associates,and a number of prominent critics have even called for him to be sacked.Blair has used hisQuartetTony Blair Associates works with the Kazakhstan government, advising the regime on judicial, economic and political reforms, but has been subject to criticism after accusations of \"whitewashing\" the image and human rights record of the regime. Blair responded to such criticism by saying his choice to advise the country is an example of how he can \"nudge controversial figures on a progressive path of reform\", and has stated that he receives no personal profit from this advisory role.The Kazakhstan foreign minister said that the country was \"honoured and privileged\" to be receiving advice from Blair.A letter obtained byThe Daily Telegraphin August 2014 revealed Blair had given damage-limitation advice toNursultan Nazarbayevafter the December 2011Zhanaozen massacre.Blair was reported to have accepted a business advisory role with PresidentAbdel Fattah el-Sisiof Egypt, a situation deemed incompatible with his role as Middle East envoy. Blair described the report as \"nonsense\". Charity and non-profits In November 2007 Blair launched the Tony Blair Sports Foundation, which aims to \"increase childhood participation in sports activities, especially in the North East of England, where a larger proportion of children are socially excluded, and to promote overall health and prevent childhood obesity.\"On 30 May 2008, Blair launched theTony Blair Faith Foundationas a vehicle for encouraging different faiths to join in promoting respect and understanding, as well as working to tackle poverty. Reflecting Blair's own faith but not dedicated to any particular religion, the Foundation aims to \"show how faith is a powerful force for good in the modern world\". \"The Foundation will use its profile and resources to encourage people of faith to work together more closely to tackle global poverty and conflict,\" says its mission statement. In February 2009 he applied to set up a charity called the Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative: the application was approved in November 2009.Blair's foundation hit controversy in October 2012, when news emerged that it was taking on unpaid interns. In December 2016, Blair created theTony Blair Instituteto promote global outlooks by governments and organisations.In September 2023 former Finnish prime ministerSanna Marinjoined him as a strategic adviser on political leaders' reform programmes in the institute. Books A Journey In March 2010, it was reported that Blair's memoirs, titledThe Journey, would be published in September 2010.In July 2010 it was announced the memoirs would be retitledA Journey.The memoirs were seen by many as controversial and a further attempt to profit from his office and from acts related to overseas wars that were widely seen as wrong,leading to anger and suspicion prior to launch. On 16 August 2010 it was announced that Blair would give the £4.6 million advance and all royalties from his memoirs to theRoyal British Legion– the charity's largest ever single donation. Media analysis of the sudden announcement was wide-ranging, describing it as an act of \"desperation\" to obtain a better launch reception of a humiliating \"publishing flop\"that had languished in the ratings,\"blood money\" for the lives lost in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars,an act with a \"hidden motive\" or an expression of \"guilt\",a \"genius move\" to address the problem that \"Tony Blair ha one of the most toxic brands around\" from a PR perspective, and a \"cynical stunt to wipe the slate\", but also as an attempt to make amends.Friends had said that the act was partly motivated by the wish to \"repair his reputation\". The book was published on 1 September and within hours of its launch had become the fastest-selling autobiography of all time.On 3 September Blair gave his first live interview since publication onThe Late Late Showin Ireland, with protesters lying in wait there for him.On 4 September, Blair was confronted by 200 anti-war and hardline Irish nationalist demonstrators before the first book signing of his memoirs atEason'sbookstore onO'Connell Streetin Dublin, with angry activists chanting \"war criminal\" and that he had \"blood on his hands\", and clashing with Irish Police (Garda Síochána) as they tried to break through a security cordon outside the Eason's store. Blair was pelted with eggs and shoes, and encountered an attemptedcitizen's arrestforwar crimes. On Leadership Published in 2024, and described byGeorge Osborneas \"the most practically useful guide to politics I have ever read.\" Accusations of war crimes Since the Iraq War, Blair has been the subject of war crimes accusations. Critics of his actions, including BishopDesmond Tutu,Harold PinterandArundhati Royhave called for his trial at theInternational Criminal Court. In November 2011, a war crimes tribunal of theKuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission, established by Malaysia's former prime minister Mahathir Mohamad, reached a unanimous conclusion that Blair was guilty of crimes against peace, as a result of his role in the Iraq War.The proceedings lasted for four days, and consisted of five judges of judicial and academic backgrounds, a tribunal-appointed defence team in lieu of the defendants or representatives, and a prosecution team including international law professorFrancis Boyle. In September 2012, Desmond Tutu suggested that Blair should follow the path of former African leaders who had been brought before the International Criminal Court inThe Hague.The human rights lawyerGeoffrey Bindmanconcurred with Tutu's suggestion that there should be a war crimes trial.In a statement made in response to Tutu's comments, Blair defended his actions.He was supported byLord Falconer, who stated that the war had been authorised byUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1441. In July 2017, former Iraqi general Abdulwaheed al-Rabbat launched a private war crimes prosecution in the High Court in London, asking for Blair, former foreign secretary Jack Straw and former attorney generalLord Goldsmithto be prosecuted for \"the crime of aggression\" for their role in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The High Court ruled that, although the crime of aggression was recognised in international law, it was not an offence under UK law, and therefore the prosecution could not proceed. Blair defended Some, such asJohn Rentoul,John McTernan,Geoffrey RobertsonandIain Dale, have countered accusations that Blair committed war crimes during his premiership, often highlighting how no case against Blair has ever made it to trial, suggesting that Blair broke no laws. Blair himself has defended his involvement in the Iraq War by highlighting the findings of theIraq Survey Group, which found that Saddam had attempted to get sanctions lifted by undermining them, which would have enabled him to restart his WMD program. Political interventions and views Response to the Iraq Inquiry The Chilcot report issued after the conclusion of the Iraq Inquiry was published on 6 July 2016; it criticised Blair for joining the US in the war in Iraq in 2003. Afterward, Blair issued a statement and held a two-hour press conference to apologise, to justify the decisions he had made in 2003 \"in good faith\" and to deny allegations that the war had led to a significant increase in terrorism.He acknowledged that the report made \"real and material criticisms of preparation, planning, process and of the relationship with the United States\" but cited sections of the report that he said \"should lay to rest allegations of bad faith, lies or deceit\". He stated: \"whether people agree or disagree with my decision to take military action against Saddam Hussein; I took it in good faith and in what I believed to be the best interests of the country. ... I will take full responsibility for any mistakes without exception or excuse. I will at the same time say why, nonetheless, I believe that it was better to remove Saddam Hussein and why I do not believe this is the cause of the terrorism we see today whether in the Middle East or elsewhere in the world\". Iran–West tensions In an op-ed published byThe Washington Poston 8 February 2019, Blair said: \"Where Iran is exercising military interference, it should be strongly pushed back. Where it is seeking influence, it should be countered. Where its proxies operate, it should be held responsible. Where its networks exist, they should be disrupted. Where its leaders are saying what is unacceptable, they should be exposed. Where the Iranian people — highly educated and connected, despite their government — are protesting for freedom, they should be supported.\"TheTony Blair Institute for Global Changewarned of a growing Iranian threat.The Tony Blair Institute confirmed that it has received donations from the U.S. State Department and Saudi Arabia. European Union Blair did not wantthe UK to leave the EUand called for areferendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement. Blair also maintained that once the terms deciding how the UK leaves the EU were known, the people should be able to vote again on those terms. Blair stated, \"We know the options for Brexit. Parliament will have to decide on one of them. If Parliament can't then it should decide to go back to the people.\" However, after the2019 general electionin which the pro-withdrawal Conservative party won a sizeable majority of seats, Blair argued that remain supporters should \"face up to one simple point: we lost\" and \"pivot to a completely new position...We're going to have to be constructive about it and see how Britain develops a constructive relationship with Europe and finds its new niche in the world.\" American power Blair was interviewed in June 2020 for an article in the American magazineThe Atlanticon European views of U.S. foreign policy concerning theCOVID-19 pandemicand resultingrecession, the rise of China, and theGeorge Floyd protests. He affirmed his belief in the continued strength of Americansoft powerand the need to address Iranian military aggression, European military underinvestment, and illicit Chinese trade practices. He said, however, \"I think it's fair to say a lot of political leaders in Europe are dismayed by what they see as the isolationism growing in America and the seeming indifference to alliances. But I think there will come a time when America decides in its own interest to reengage, so I'm optimistic that America will in the end understand that this is not about relegating your self-interest behind the common interest; it's an understanding that by acting collectively in alliance with others you promote your own interests.\" Blair warned that structural issues plaguing American domestic policy needed to be addressed imminently. In August 2021, Blair criticised thewithdrawal of U.S. and NATO troops from Afghanistan, saying that it was \"in obedience to an imbecilic slogan about ending 'theforever wars'\". Blair admitted mistakes in the management of the war but warned that \"the reaction to our mistakes has been, unfortunately, further mistakes\". Labour Party Jeremy Corbyn Blair was a critic ofJeremy Corbyn'sleadership of the Labour Party, seeing it as too left-wing. He wrote in an opinion piece forThe Guardianduring the party's2015 leadership electionthat if the party elected Corbyn, it would face a \"rout, possibly annihilation\" at the next election.After the2019 general election, Blair accused Corbyn of turning the party into a \"glorified protest movement\" and in a May 2021New Statesmanarticle, Blair suggested that the party needed to undergo a programme of \"total deconstruction and reconstruction\" and also said the party needed to shift to the centre on social issues in order to survive.Blair touched on controversial topics such astransgender rights, theBlack Lives Mattermovement and climate change. Keir Starmer Keir Starmer's leadership of the party has been widely compared to Blair's leadership and New Labour, having taken the party rightward to gain electability. Initially saying in 2021 that Starmer lacked a compelling message, Blair has since reacted more positively towards Starmer's leadership of the party, telling him he's \"done a great job\" in reforming the party during a Tony Blair Institute for Global Change's Future of Britain conference in 2023.Blair's continued influence on the party, and on Starmer led him to be ranked sixteenth in the New Statesman's Left Power List 2023, described by the paper as electorally an \"incomparable authority on how to win\".After Labour won the2024 general electionand Starmer became prime minister, Blair congratulated him on his victory, saying Starmer was \"determined and ruthlessly effective\" and appointed \"exceptional talent to conduct the change and put the most capable frontbenchers in the most important positions for future government.\" He also offered Starmer advice, recommending he controls immigration amid the rise of theReform UKparty led byNigel Farage, saying that the party poses a threat to Labour and not just the Conservatives. Personal life Family Blair marriedCherie Boothon 29 March 1980.They have four children:Euan,Nicky, Kathryn, and Leo.Leo was the first legitimate child born to a serving prime minister in over 150 years – since Francis Russell was born toLord John Russellon 11 July 1849.All four children have Irish passports, by virtue of Blair's mother, Hazel Elizabeth Rosaleen Corscadden (12 June 1923 – 28 June 1975).The family's primary residence is in Connaught Square; the Blairs own eight residences in total.His first grandchild (a girl) was born in October 2016. Wealth Blair's financial assets are structured in an opaque manner, and estimates of their extent vary widely.These include figures of up to £100 million. Blair stated in 2014 that he was worth \"less than £20 million\".A 2015 assertion, byFrancis Beckett,David HenckeandNick Kochan, concluded that Blair had acquired $90 million and a property portfolio worth $37.5 million in the eight years since he had left office. In October 2021, Blair wasnamedin thePandora Papers. Religious faith In 2006, Blair referred to the role of his Christian faith in his decision to go to war in Iraq, stating that he had prayed about the issue, and saying that God would judge him for his decision: \"I think if you have faith about these things, you realise that judgement is made by other people ... and if you believe in God, it's made by God as well.\" According to Press Secretary Alastair Campbell's diary, Blair often read the Bible before taking any important decisions. He states that Blair had a \"wobble\" and considered changing his mind on the eve of the bombing of Iraq in 1998. A longer exploration of his faith can be found in an interview withThird Way Magazine. There he says that \"I was brought up as , but I was not in any real sense a practising one until I went to Oxford. There was an Australian priest at the same college as me who got me interested again. In a sense, it was a rediscovery of religion as something living, that was about the world around me rather than some sort of special one-to-one relationship with a remote Being on high. Suddenly I began to see its social relevance. I began to make sense of the world\". At one point Alastair Campbell intervened in an interview, preventing Blair from answering a question about his Christianity, explaining, \"We don't do God.\"Campbell later said that he had intervened only to end the interview because the journalist had been taking an excessive time, and that the comment had just been a throwaway line. Cherie Blair's friend and \"spiritual guru\"Carole Caplinis credited with introducing her and her husband to variousNew Agesymbols and beliefs, including \"magic pendants\" known as \"BioElectric Shields\".The most controversial of the Blairs' New Age practices occurred when on holiday in Mexico. The couple, wearing only bathing costumes, took part in a rebirthing procedure, which involved smearing mud and fruit over each other's bodies while sitting in a steam bath. In 1996, Blair, then an Anglican, was reprimanded by CardinalBasil Humefor receivingHoly Communionwhile attending Mass at Cherie Blair's Catholic church, in contravention ofcanon law.On 22 December 2007, it was disclosed that Blair had joined theCatholic Church. The move was described as \"a private matter\".He had informedPope Benedict XVIon 23 June 2007 — four days before he stepped down as Prime Minister — that he wanted to become a Catholic. The Pope and his advisors criticised some of Blair's political actions, but followed up with a reportedly unprecedented red carpet welcome, which included the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster,Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, who would be responsible for Blair'sCatholic instruction.In 2009, Blair questioned the Pope's attitude towards homosexuality, arguing that religious leaders must start \"rethinking\" the issue.In 2010,The Tabletnamed him as one of Britain's most influential Catholics. Honours In May 2007, Blair was invested as aparamount chiefby the chiefs and people of the village of Mahera in Sierra Leone. The honour was bestowed upon him in recognition of the role played by his government in the Sierra Leone Civil War. On 22 May 2008, Blair received an honorary law doctorate fromQueen's University Belfast, alongside Bertie Ahern, for distinction in public service and roles in the Northern Ireland peace process. On 13 January 2009, Blair was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby President George W. Bush.Bush stated that Blair was given the award \"in recognition of exemplary achievement and to convey the utmost esteem of the American people\"and cited Blair's support for the War on Terror and his role in achieving peace in Northern Ireland as two reasons for justifying his being presented with the award. On 16 February 2009, Blair was awarded theDan David PrizebyTel Aviv Universityfor \"exceptional leadership and steadfast determination in helping to engineer agreements and forge lasting solutions to areas in conflict\". He was awarded the prize in May 2009. On 8 July 2010, Blair was awarded theOrder of Freedomby PresidentFatmir Sejdiuof Kosovo.As Blair is considered to have been instrumental in ending theconflict in Kosovo, some boys born in the country following the war have been given the nameToniorTonibler. On 13 September 2010, Blair was awarded theLiberty Medalat theNational Constitution CenterinPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania.It was presented by former president Bill Clinton, and is awarded annually to \"men and women of courage and conviction who strive to secure the blessings of liberty to people around the globe\". On 31 December 2021, it was announced that the Queen had appointed Blair aKnight Companion of the Order of the Garter(KG).Blair had reportedly indicated when he left office that he did not want the traditional knighthood or peerage bestowed on former prime ministers.A petition cited his role in the Iraq War as a reason to remove the knighthood and garnered more than one million signatures.He received his Garter insignia on 10 June 2022 from the Queen during an audience at Windsor Castle. Works See also Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading Primary sources External links e",
"Marathon world record progression World recordsin themarathonare ratified byWorld Athletics, the internationalgoverning bodyfor the sport ofathletics. The late Kenyan athleteKelvin Kiptumset a men's world record time of 2:00:35 on October 8, 2023, at the2023 Chicago Marathon. Kenyan athleteRuth Chepngetichbroke the women's world record for a mixed-sex race with a time of 2:09:56 on October 13, 2024 at the2024 Chicago Marathon. In addition to the standard women's marathon world record, World Athletics also recognizes a second world record for women in the \"Women Only\" category, meaning that the marathon was run on a course without any male athletes in the competition. The current \"Women Only\" record of 2:16:16 was set byPeres Jepchirchiron April 21, 2024 at the London Marathon in the elite women's race. History Marathon races were first held in 1896, but the distance was not standardized by theInternational Association of Athletics Federations(IAAF, now World Athletics) until 1921. The actual distance for pre-1921 races frequently varied from the 1921 standard of 42.195 km (26 miles 385 yards). In qualifying races for the1896 Summer Olympics, Greek runnersCharilaos Vasilakos(3:18:00) andIoannis Lavrentis(3:11:27) won the first two modern marathons.On April 10, 1896,Spiridon Louisof Greece wonthe first Olympic marathon in Athens, Greece, in a time of 2:58:50.However, the distance for the event was 40,000 meters.Three months later, British runnerLen Hurstwon the inauguralParis to Conflans Marathon(also around 40 km) in a time of 2:31:30.In 1900, Hurst would better his time on the same course with a 2:26:28 performance. Later,Shizo Kanakuriof Japan was reported to have set a world record of 2:32:45 in a November 1911 domestic qualification race for the1912 Summer Olympics, but this performance was also run over a distance of approximately 40 km. The first marathon over the official distance was won by AmericanJohnny Hayesat the1908 Summer Olympics, with a time of 2:55:18.4. It is possible thatStamata Revithi, who ran the 1896 Olympic course a day after Louis, is the first woman to run the modern marathon; she is said to have finished in5+1⁄2hours.World Athletics creditsViolet Piercy's 1926 performance as the first woman to race the standard marathon distance; however, other sources report that the 1918 performance ofMarie-Louise Ledruin the Tour de Paris set the initial mark for women.Other \"unofficial\" performances have also been reported to be world bests or world records over time: although her performance is not recognized by World Athletics,Adrienne Beamesfrom Australia is frequently credited as the first woman to break the three-hour barrier in the marathon. In the 1953Boston Marathon, the top three male finishers were thought to have broken the standing world record,butKeizo Yamada's mark of 2:18:51 is considered to have been set on a short course of 25.54 miles (41.1 km).TheBoston Athletic Associationalso does not report Yamada's performance as a world best for this reason. On October 25, 1981, AmericanAlberto Salazarand New ZealanderAllison Roeset apparent world bests at theNew York City Marathon(2:08:13 and 2:25:29), however, these marks were invalidated when the course was later found to have been 151 meters short.Although World Athletics' progression notes three performances set on the same course in 1978, 1979, and 1980 by NorwegianGrete Waitz, theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticiansconsiders the New York City course suspect for those performances, too. On April 18, 2011, the Boston Marathon produced what were at that time the two fastest marathon performances of all time. WinnerGeoffrey Mutaiof Kenya recorded a time of 2:03:02,followed by countrymanMoses Mosopin 2:03:06. However, since the Boston course does not meet the criteria for record attempts, these times were not ratified by the IAAF. Eight IAAF world records were set at thePolytechnic Marathon(1909, 1913, 1952–54, 1963–65).WA-recognized world records have been broken at all of the original fiveWorld Marathon Majorson numerous occasions (updated 09/2022); twelve times at theBerlin Marathon, three times at theBoston Marathon, five times at theChicago Marathon, six times at theLondon Marathon, and five times at theNew York City Marathon. However, the records established in the Boston event have been disputed on grounds of a downhill point-to-point course, while four of the five New York records have been disputed on grounds of a short course. Criteria for record eligibility For a performance to be ratified as a world record by World Athletics, the marathon course on which the performance occurred must be 42.195 km (26.219 mi) long,measured in a defined manner using thecalibrated bicycle method(the distance in kilometers being the official distance; the distance in miles is an approximation) and meet other criteria that rule out artificially fast times produced on courses aided by downhill slope or tailwind.The criteria include: In recognizing KenyanGeoffrey Mutai's mark of 2:03:02 at the2011 Boston Marathonas (at the time) \"the fastest Marathon ever run\", the IAAF said: \"Due to the elevation drop and point-to-point measurements of the Boston course, performances are not eligible for World record consideration.\" TheAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians, an independent organization that compiles data fromroad runningevents, also maintains an alternate marathon world best progression but with standards they consider to be more stringent. Women's world record changes The IAAF Congress, at the 2011 World Championships, passed a motion changing the record eligibility criteria effective October 6, 2007, so that women's world records must be set in all-women competitions.The result of the change was that Radcliffe's 2:17:42 performance at the 2005 London Marathon supplanted her own existing women's mark as the \"world record\"; the earlier performance is to be referred to as a \"world best\". Per the 2021 IAAF Competition Rules, \"a World Record for performance achieved in mixed sex (\"Mixed\") races and a World Record for performance achieved in single sex (\"Women only\") races\" are tracked separately. Unofficial record attempts In December 2016,Nike, Inc., announced that three top distance runners —Eliud Kipchoge,Zersenay Tadese, andLelisa Desisa— had agreed to forgo the spring marathon season to work with the company in an effort to run a sub-two-hour marathon. TheBreaking2event took place in the early morning of May 6, 2017; Kipchoge crossed the finish line with a time of 2:00:25.This time was more than two minutes faster than the world record. Kipchoge took part in a similar attempt to break the two-hour barrier in Vienna on October 12, 2019, as part of theIneos 1:59 Challenge. He successfully ran the first sub two-hour marathon distance, with a time of 1:59:40.2.The effort did not count as a new world record under IAAF rules due to the setup of the challenge. Specifically, it was not an open event, Kipchoge was handed fluids by his support team throughout, the run featured a pace car, and included rotating teams of other runners pacing Kipchoge in a formation designed to reduce wind resistance and maximize efficiency.The achievement was recognized byGuinness World Recordswith the titles 'Fastest marathon distance (male)' and 'First marathon distance run under two hours' instead of an official world record. Men Table key:Listed by World Athletics as a world best prior to official acceptanceRatified by World Athletics as a world best (since January 1, 2003) or world record (since January 1, 2004)Recognized by theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians(ARRS) The edition of the marathon is linked on some of the dates. Women Table key:Listed by World Athletics as a world best prior to official acceptanceRatified by World Athletics as a world best (since January 1, 2003) or world record (since January 1, 2004)Recognized by theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians(ARRS) Gallery of world record holders See also Men's Masters Records Women's Masters Records Notes References Sources External links"
] | [
"Tony Blair Sir Anthony Charles Lynton BlairKG(born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 1997 to 2007 andLeader of the Labour Partyfrom 1994 to 2007. He wasLeader of the Oppositionfrom 1994 to 1997 and held variousshadow cabinetposts from 1987 to 1994. Blair wasMember of Parliament(MP) forSedgefieldfrom 1983 to 2007, and was special envoy of theQuartet on the Middle Eastfrom 2007 to 2015. He is the second-longest-serving prime ministerin post-war British history afterMargaret Thatcher, the longest-servingLabourpolitician to have held the office, and the first and only person to date to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Blair attended the independent schoolFettes College, studied law atSt John's College, Oxford, and qualified as a barrister. He became involved in the Labour Party and was elected to theHouse of Commonsin 1983 for the Sedgefield constituency inCounty Durham. As abackbencher, Blair supported moving the party to",
"moving the party to thepolitical centre of British politics. He was appointed toNeil Kinnock'sshadow cabinetin 1988 and was appointedshadow home secretarybyJohn Smithin 1992. Following Smith's death in 1994, Blair wona leadership electionto succeed him. As leader, Blair began a historic rebranding of the party, which became known as \"New Labour\". Blair became theyoungest prime ministerof the 20th century after his party won a landslide victory of 418 seats (the largest in its history) in the1997 general election, bringing an end to 18 years in the opposition. It was the first victory for the Labour Party in nearly 23 years, the last one being inOctober 1974. Duringhis first term, Blair enactedconstitutional reformsand significantly increasedpublic spendingon healthcare and education while also introducing controversial market-based reforms in these areas. In addition, Blair saw theintroduction of a minimum wage,tuition feesfor higher education, constitutional reform such asdevolution in Scotland and Wales,",
"Scotland and Wales, an extensive expansion ofLGBT+ rights in the UK, and significant progress in theNorthern Ireland peace processwith the passing of the landmarkGood Friday Agreement. On foreign policy, Blair oversaw British interventions inKosovo in 1999andSierra Leone in 2000, which were generally perceived to be successful. Blair won a second term after Labour won a second landslide victory in the2001 general election. Three months intohis second term, Blair's premiership was shaped by the9/11 terrorist attacks, resulting in the start of thewar on terror. Blair supported theforeign policy of the George W. Bush administrationby ensuring that theBritish Armed Forcesparticipated in theWar in Afghanistanto overthrow theTaliban, destroyal-Qaeda, and captureOsama bin Laden. Blair supported the2003 invasion of Iraqand had the British Armed Forces participate in theIraq War, on the inaccurate beliefs thatSaddam Hussein's regimepossessed weapons of mass destructionand developedties with al-Qaeda. The invasion of",
"The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attractedwidespread public oppositionand 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it. As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision. TheIraq Inquiryreport of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War. As thecasualties of the Iraq Warmounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament, and his popularity dropped dramatically. Blair won a third termafter Labour won a third election victory in 2005, in part thanks to the UK's strong economic performance, but with a substantially reduced majority, due to the UK's involvement in the Iraq War. Duringhis third term, Blair pushed for more systemic public sector reform and brokereda settlementto restore powersharing to Northern Ireland. He had a surge in popularity at the time ofterrorist bombings of Londonof July 2005, but by the Spring of 2006 faced significant difficulties, most notably with scandals over failures by theHome Officeto deport illegal",
"deport illegal immigrants. Amid theCash-for-Honours scandal, Blair was interviewed three times as prime minister, though only as a witness and notunder caution. The Afghanistan and Iraq wars continued, and in 2006, Blair announced he would resign within a year. He resigned the party leadership on 24 June 2007 and as prime minister on 27 June, andwas succeededbyGordon Brown, hischancellor. After leaving office, Blairgave up his seatand was appointed special envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East, a diplomatic post he held until 2015. He has been the executive chairman of theTony Blair Institute for Global Changesince 2016 and has made occasional political interventions, and has been a key influence onKeir Starmer. In 2009, Blair was awarded thePresidential Medal of FreedombyGeorge W. Bush. He was made aKnight Companion of the GarterbyQueen Elizabeth IIin 2022. At various points in his premiership, Blair was among both the most popular and most unpopular politicians in British history. As prime minister, he",
"prime minister, he achieved the highest recorded approval ratings during his first few years in office but also one of the lowest ratings during and after the Iraq War.Blair is usually rated as above average inhistorical rankingsand public opinion of British prime ministers. Early years Anthony Charles Lynton Blair was born on 6 May 1953 at Queen Mary Maternity Home inEdinburgh, Scotland.He was the second son ofLeoand Hazel (néeCorscadden) Blair.Leo Blair was the illegitimate son of two entertainers and was adopted as a baby by the Glasgow shipyard worker James Blair and his wife, Mary.Hazel Corscadden was the daughter of George Corscadden, a butcher andOrangemanwho moved to Glasgow in 1916. In 1923, he returned to (and later died in)Ballyshannon, County Donegal, inIreland. In Ballyshannon, Corscadden's wife, Sarah Margaret (née Lipsett), gave birth above the family's grocery shop to Blair's mother, Hazel. Blair has an elder brother,William, and a younger sister, Sarah. Blair's first home was with his family",
"was with his family at Paisley Terrace in the Willowbrae area of Edinburgh. During this period, his father worked as a junior tax inspector whilst studying for a law degree from theUniversity of Edinburgh. Blair's first relocation was when he was nineteen months old. At the end of 1954, Blair's parents and their two sons moved from Paisley Terrace toAdelaide,South Australia.His father lectured in law at theUniversity of Adelaide.In Australia, Blair's sister, Sarah, was born. The Blairs lived in the suburb ofDulwichclose to the university. The family returned to the United Kingdom in mid-1958. They lived for a time with Hazel's mother and stepfather (William McClay) at their home inSteppson the outskirts of north-east Glasgow. Blair's father accepted a job as a lecturer atDurham University, and moved the family toDurhamwhen Blair was five. It was the beginning of a long association Blair was to have with Durham. Since childhood, Blair has been a fan ofNewcastle United Football Club. Education and legal career",
"and legal career With his parents basing their family in Durham, Blair attended theChorister Schoolfrom 1961 to 1966.Aged 13, he was sent to spend his school term-time boarding atFettes Collegein Edinburgh from 1966 to 1971.According to Blair, he hated his time at Fettes.His teachers were unimpressed with him; his biographer,John Rentoul, reported that \"ll the teachers I spoke to when researching the book said he was a complete pain in the backside and they were very glad to see the back of him.\"Blair reportedly modelled himself onMick Jagger, lead singer ofthe Rolling Stones.Leaving Fettes College at the age of 18, Blair next spent a gap year in London working as a rock music promoter. In 1972, at the age of 19, Blair matriculated atSt John's College, Oxford, readingjurisprudencefor three years.As a student, he played guitar and sang in a rock band calledUgly Rumours,and performedstand-up comedy.He was influenced by fellow student andAnglicanpriestPeter Thomson, who awakened his religious faith and",
"religious faith and left-wing politics. While at Oxford, Blair has stated that he was briefly aTrotskyist, after reading the first volume ofIsaac Deutscher's biography ofLeon Trotsky, which was \"like a light going on\".He graduated from Oxford at the age of 22 in 1975 with asecond-class HonoursB.A. in jurisprudence. In 1975, while Blair was at Oxford, his mother Hazel died aged 52 ofthyroid cancer, which greatly affected him.After Oxford, Blair served his barrister pupillage atLincoln's Inn, where he was called to the Bar. He met his future wife,Cherie Booth, at the chambers founded byDerry Irvine(who was to be Blair's first lord chancellor), 11 King's Bench Walk Chambers. Early political career Blair joined theLabour Partyshortly after graduating from Oxford in 1975. In the early 1980s, he was involved in Labour politics inHackney South and Shoreditch, where he aligned himself with the \"soft left\" of the party. He stood as a candidate for theHackney councilelections of 1982 in Queensbridge ward, a safe",
"ward, a safe Labour area, but was not selected. In 1982, Blair was selected as the Labour Party candidate for the safe Conservative seat ofBeaconsfield, where there was a forthcoming by-election.Although Blair lost theBeaconsfield by-electionand Labour's share of the vote fell by ten percentage points, he acquired a profile within the party.Despite his defeat, William Russell, political correspondent forThe Glasgow Herald, described Blair as \"a very good candidate\", while acknowledging that the result was \"a disaster\" for the Labour Party.In contrast to his latercentrism, Blair made it clear in a letter he wrote to Labour leaderMichael Footin July 1982 (published in 2006) that he had \"come to Socialism through Marxism\" and considered himself on the left.LikeTony Benn, Blair believed that the \"Labour right\" was bankrupt,saying \"ocialism ultimately must appeal to the better minds of the people. You cannot do that if you are tainted overmuch with a pragmatic period in power.\"Yet, he saw thehard leftas no",
"thehard leftas no better, saying: There is an arrogance and self-righteousness about many of the groups on the far left which is deeply unattractive to the ordinary would-be member ... There's too much mixing only with people whom they agree. With a general election due, Blair had not been selected as a candidate anywhere. He was invited to stand again in Beaconsfield, and was initially inclined to agree but was advised by his head of chambers Derry Irvine to find somewhere else which might be winnable.The situation was complicated by the fact that Labour was fighting a legal action against planned boundary changes, and had selected candidates on the basis of previous boundaries. When the legal challenge failed, the party had to rerun all selections on the new boundaries; most were based on existing seats, but unusually in County Durham a newSedgefieldconstituency had been created out of Labour-voting areas which had no obvious predecessor seat. The selection for Sedgefield did not begin until after the1983",
"until after the1983 general electionwas called. Blair's initial inquiries discovered that the left was trying to arrange the selection forLes Huckfield, sitting MP for Nuneaton, who was trying elsewhere; several sitting MPs displaced by boundary changes were also interested in it. When he discovered theTrimdon branchhad not yet made a nomination, Blair visited them and won the support of the branch secretaryJohn Burton, and with Burton's help was nominated by the branch. At the last minute, he was added to the shortlist and won the selection over Huckfield. It was the last candidate selection made by Labour before the election, and was made after the Labour Party had issued biographies of all its candidates (\"Labour's Election Who's Who\"). John Burton became Blair'selection agentand one of his most trusted and longest-standing allies.Blair's election literature in the 1983 general election endorsed left-wing policies that Labour advocated in the early 1980s.He called for Britain to leave theEECas early as",
"theEECas early as the 1970s,though he had told his selection conference that he personally favoured continuing membershipand voted \"Yes\" in the1975 referendum on the subject. He opposed theExchange Rate Mechanism(ERM) in 1986 but supported the ERM by 1989.He was a member of theCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament, despite never strongly being in favour ofunilateral nuclear disarmament.Blair was helped on the campaign trail by soap opera actressPat Phoenix, his father-in-law's girlfriend. At the age of thirty, he was elected as MP for Sedgefield in 1983; despite the party'slandslide defeat at the general election. In hismaiden speechin theHouse of Commonson 6 July 1983, Blair stated, \"I am a socialist not through reading a textbook that has caught my intellectual fancy, nor through unthinking tradition, but because I believe that, at its best, socialism corresponds most closely to an existence that is both rational and moral. It stands for cooperation, not confrontation; for fellowship, not fear. It stands for",
"fear. It stands for equality.\" Once elected, Blair's political ascent was rapid. He received his firstfront benchappointment in 1984 as assistantTreasuryspokesman. In May 1985, he appeared on the BBC'sQuestion Time, arguing that the Conservative Government'sPublic Order White Paperwas a threat to civil liberties. Blair demanded an inquiry into theBank of England's decision to rescue the collapsedJohnson Mattheybank in October 1985. By this time, Blair was aligned with the reforming tendencies in the party (headed by leaderNeil Kinnock) and in 1988 was promoted to the shadowTrade and Industryteam as spokesman on theCity of London. Leadership roles In 1987, he stood forelection to the Shadow Cabinet, receiving 71 votes.When Kinnock resigned after a fourth consecutive Conservative victory in the1992 general election, Blair becameshadow home secretaryunderJohn Smith. The old guard argued that trends showed they were regaining strength under Smith's strong leadership. Meanwhile, the breakawaySDPfaction had merged",
"had merged with theLiberal Party; the resultingLiberal Democratsseemed to pose a major threat to the Labour base. Blair, the leader of the modernising faction, had an entirely different vision, arguing that the long-term trends had to be reversed. The Labour Party was too locked into a base that was shrinking, since it was based on the working-class, on trade unions, and on residents of subsidised council housing. The rapidly growing middle-class was largely ignored, especially the more ambitious working-class families. They aspired to middle-class status but accepted the Conservative argument that Labour was holding ambitious people back with its levelling-down policies. They increasingly saw Labour in terms defined by the opposition, regarding higher taxes and higher interest rates. The steps towards what would become New Labour were procedural but essential. Calling on the slogan \"One member, one vote\", John Smith, with limited input from Blair, secured an end to the trade union block vote for Westminster",
"for Westminster candidate selection at the 1993 conference.But Blair and the modernisers wanted Smith to go further still, and called for radical adjustment of Party goals by repealing \"Clause IV\", the historic commitment tonationalisationof industry. This would be achieved in 1995. Leader of the Opposition John Smith died suddenly of a heart attack on 12 May 1994. Blair defeatedJohn PrescottandMargaret Beckettin thesubsequent leadership electionand becameLeader of the Opposition.As is customary for the holder of that office, Blair was appointed aPrivy Counsellor.It has long been rumoureda dealwas struck between Blair andShadow ChancellorGordon Brownat the former Granita restaurant inIslington, in which Blair promised to give Brown control of economic policy in return for Brown not standing against him in the leadership election.Whether this is true or not, the relationship between Blair and Brown was central to the fortunes ofNew Labour, and they mostly remained united in public, despite reported serious",
"reported serious private rifts. During his speech at the 1994 Labour Party conference, Blair announced a forthcoming proposal to update the party's objects and objectives, which was widely interpreted to relate to replacingClause IVof the party's constitution with a new statement of aims and values.This involved the deletion of the party's stated commitment to \"the common ownership of the means of production and exchange\", which was generally understood to mean wholesale nationalisation of major industries.At a special conference in April 1995, the clause was replaced by a statement that the party is \"democratic socialist\",and Blair also claimed to be a \"democratic socialist\" himself in the same year.However, the move away from nationalisation in the old Clause IV made many on the left wing of the Labour Party feel that Labour was moving away from traditional socialist principles of nationalisation set out in 1918, and was seen by them as part of a shift of the party towards \"New Labour\". Blair inherited the",
"Blair inherited the Labour leadership at a time when the party was ascendant over the Conservatives in the opinion polls, since the Conservative government's reputation in monetary policy declined as a result of theBlack Wednesdayeconomic disaster of September 1992. Blair's election as leader saw Labour support surge higher stillin spite of the continuing economic recovery and fall in unemployment that the Conservative government (led byJohn Major) had overseen since the end of the 1990–92recession.At the 1996 Labour Party conference, Blair stated that his three top priorities on coming to office were \"education, education, and education\". Aided by the unpopularity of John Major's Conservative government (itself deeply divided over theEuropean Union),Blair won a landslide victory for Labour at the1997 general election, ending eighteen years of Conservative Party government, with the heaviest Conservative defeat since1906.In 1996, themanifestoNew Labour, New Life for Britainwas published, which set out the",
"which set out the party's new \"Third Way\"centristapproach to policy, and was presented as the brand of a newly reformed party that had altered Clause IV and endorsedmarket economics. In May 1995, Labour had achieved considerable success in the local and European elections and had won four by-elections. For Blair, these achievements were a source of optimism, as they indicated that the Conservatives were in decline. Virtually every opinion poll since late-1992 put Labour ahead of the Conservatives with enough support to form an overall majority. Prime Minister (1997–2007) Blair becamePrime Minister of the United Kingdomon 2 May 1997; aged 43, he was the youngest person to reach that office sinceLord Liverpoolbecame prime minister aged 42 in 1812.He was also the first prime minister born after theSecond World Warand the accession ofElizabeth IIto the throne. With victories in 1997, 2001, and 2005, Blair was the Labour Party's longest-serving prime minister,and the first person (and the only one, to date) to",
"one, to date) to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Northern Ireland His contribution towards assisting theNorthern Ireland peace processby helping to negotiate theGood Friday Agreement(after 30 years of conflict) was widely recognised.Following theOmagh bombingon 15 August 1998, by members of theReal IRAopposed to the peace process, which killed 29 people and wounded hundreds, Blair visited theCounty Tyronetown and met with victims atRoyal Victoria Hospital, Belfast. Military intervention and the War on Terror In his first six years in office, Blair ordered British troops into combat five times, more than any other prime minister in British history. This included Iraq in both1998and2003,Kosovo(1999),Sierra Leone(2000) andAfghanistan(2001). The Kosovo War, which Blair had advocated on moral grounds, was initially a failure when it relied solely on air strikes; the threat of a ground offensive convinced Serbia'sSlobodan Miloševićto withdraw. Blair had been a major advocate for a",
"advocate for a ground offensive, whichBill Clintonwas reluctant to do, and ordered that 50,000 soldiers – most of the available British Army – should be made ready for action.The following year, the limitedOperation Palliserin Sierra Leone swiftly swung the tide against the rebel forces; before deployment, theUnited Nations Mission in Sierra Leonehad been on the verge of collapse.Palliser had been intended as an evacuation mission butBrigadier David Richardswas able to convince Blair to allow him to expand the role; at the time, Richards' action was not known and Blair was assumed to be behind it. Blair orderedOperation Barras, a highly successfulSAS/Parachute Regimentstrike to rescue hostages from a Sierra Leone rebel group.JournalistAndrew Marrhas argued that the success of ground attacks, real and threatened, over air strikes alone was influential on how Blair planned the Iraq War, and that the success of the first three wars Blair fought \"played to his sense of himself as a moral war leader\".When asked",
"leader\".When asked in 2010 if the success of Palliser may have \"embolden British politicians\" to think of military action as a policy option, General Sir David Richards admitted there \"might be something in that\". From the start of theWar on Terrorin 2001, Blair strongly supported theforeign policyofGeorge W. Bush, participating in the2001 invasion of Afghanistanand2003 invasion of Iraq. The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attracted widespread public opposition and 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it.As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision.Alastair Campbelldescribed Blair's statement that the intelligence on WMDs was \"beyond doubt\" as his \"assessment of the assessment that was given to him.\"In 2009, Blair stated that he would have supported removingSaddam Husseinfrom power even in the face of proof that he had no such weapons.PlaywrightHarold Pinterand former Malaysian prime ministerMahathir Mohamadaccused Blair of war crimes.",
"of war crimes. Testifying before theIraq Inquiryon 29 January 2010, Blair said Saddam Hussein was a \"monster and I believe he threatened not just the region but the world.\"Blair said that British and American attitude towards Hussein had \"changed dramatically\" after theSeptember 11 attacks. Blair denied that he would have supported the invasion of Iraq even if he had thought Hussein had no weapons of mass destruction. He said he believed the world was safer as a result of the invasion.He said there was \"no real difference between wanting regime change and wanting Iraq to disarm: regime change was US policy because Iraq was in breach of its UN obligations.\" In an October 2015CNNinterview withFareed Zakaria, Blair apologised for his \"mistakes\" over the Iraq War and admitted there were \"elements of truth\" to the view that the invasion helped promote the rise ofISIS.TheChilcot Inquiryreport of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War, though the former prime minister again refused to",
"again refused to apologise for his decision to back the US-led invasion. Relationship with Parliament One of Blair's first acts as prime minister was to replace the then twice-weekly 15-minute sessions ofPrime Minister's Questionsheld on Tuesdays and Thursdays with a single 30-minute session on Wednesdays. In addition to PMQs, Blair held monthly press conferences at which he fielded questions from journalistsand, from 2002, broke precedent by agreeing to give evidence twice yearly before the most senior Commons select committee, theLiaison Committee.Blair was sometimes perceived as paying insufficient attention both to the views of his own Cabinet colleagues and to those of the House of Commons.His style was sometimes criticised as not that of a prime minister andhead of government, which he was, but of a president and head of state, which he was not.Blair was accused of excessive reliance onspin.He was the first UK prime minister to have been formally questioned by police, though notunder caution, while",
"caution, while still in office. Events before resignation As thecasualties of the Iraq Warmounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament,and his popularity dropped as a result,with Labour's overall majority at the2005 electionreduced from 167 to 66 seats. As a combined result of theBlair–Brown pact, the Iraq War and low approval ratings, pressure built up within the Labour Party for Blair to resign.Over the summer of 2006, many MPs criticised Blair for not calling for a ceasefire in theIsrael–Lebanon conflict.On 7 September 2006, Blair publicly stated he would step down as leader by the time of theTrades Union Congressconference held from 10 to 13 September 2007,despite promising to serve a full term during the previous general election campaign. On 10 May 2007, during a speech at theTrimdon Labour Club, Blair announced his intention to resign as both Labour leader and prime minister,triggeringa leadership electionin which Brown was the only candidate. At a special party conference in Manchester on 24",
"in Manchester on 24 June 2007, Blair formally handed over the leadership of the Labour Party to Brown, who had been Chancellor of the Exchequer in Blair's three ministries.Blair tendered his resignation as prime minister on 27 June and Brown assumed office the same afternoon. Blair resigned from his Sedgefield seat in the traditional form of accepting theStewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds, to which he was appointed by Brown in one of the latter's last acts as chancellor;the resultingby-electionwas won by Labour candidatePhil Wilson.Blair decided not to issue a list ofResignation Honours, making him the first prime minister of the modern era not to do so. Policies In 2001, Blair said, \"We are aleft of centreparty, pursuing economic prosperity and social justice as partners and not as opposites.\"Blair rarely applies such labels to himself; he promised before the 1997 election that New Labour would govern \"from the radical centre\", and according to one lifelong Labour Party member always described himself as",
"himself as asocial democrat.In a 2007 opinion piece inThe Guardian, left-wing commentator Neil Lawson described Blair as to theright of centre.AYouGovopinion poll in 2005 found that a small majority of British voters, including many New Labour supporters, placed Blair on the right of the political spectrum.TheFinancial Timesargued that Blair is not conservative but instead apopulist. Critics and admirers tend to agree that Blair's electoral success was based on his ability to occupy the centre ground and appeal to voters across the political spectrum, to the extent that he has been fundamentally at odds with traditional Labour Party values. Some left-wing critics, such asMike Marquseein 2001, argued that Blair oversaw the final stage of a long term shift of the Labour Party to the right. There is some evidence that Blair's long term dominance of the centre forced his Conservative opponents to shift a long distance to the left to challenge hishegemonythere.Leading Conservatives of the post-New Labour era hold",
"Labour era hold Blair in high regard:George Osbornedescribes him as \"the master\",Michael Govethought he had an \"entitlement to conservative respect\" in February 2003, whileDavid Cameronreportedly maintained Blair as an informal adviser.Former Conservative Party Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher declared Blair and New Labour to be her greatest achievement. Social reforms Blair introduced significant constitutional reforms; promoted new rights for gay people; and signed treaties integrating Britain more closely with the EU. With specific regards to Blair'sLGBTQ+reforms, Blair introduced theCivil Partnership Act 2004which granted civil partners rights and responsibilities similar to those in civil marriages, equalised the age of consent between straight and gay couples, ended the ban on gay people serving in the British military, introduced theGender Recognition Act 2004which allows those withgender dysphoriato legally change their gender, repealedSection 28, gave gay couples the right to adopt and enacted",
"adopt and enacted several anti-discrimination policies into law. In 2014 he was proclaimed a \"gay icon\" by theGay Times. The New Labour government increased police powers by adding to the number of arrestable offences, compulsoryDNA recordingand the use of dispersal orders.Under Blair's government the amount of new legislation increasedwhich attracted criticism.He also introduced tough anti-terrorism andidentity card legislation. Economic policies Blair has been credited with overseeing a strong economy, with real incomes of British citizens growing 18% between 1997 and 2006. Britain saw rapid productivity growth and significant GDP growth, as well as falling poverty rates and inequality which, despite stubbornly failing to fall, stalled thanks to New Labour's economic policies (such as tax credits). Despite the financial bubble developing in the property markets, studies have credited the growth to investments in education and the maintenance of fiscal responsibility, rather than a financial sugar-high.",
"sugar-high. During his time as prime minister, Blair kept direct taxes low, while raising indirect taxation; invested a significant amount inHuman capital; introduced aNational Minimum Wageand some new employment rights (while keepingMargaret Thatcher's trade union reforms).He introduced substantial market-based reforms in the education and health sectors; introduced studenttuition fees; introduced a welfare to work scheme and sought to reduce certain categories of welfare payments. He did not reverse theprivatisation of the railwaysenacted by his predecessor John Major and instead strengthened regulation (by creating theOffice of Rail Regulation) and limited fare rises toinflation+1%. Blair and Brown raised spending on the NHS and other public services, increasing spending from 39.9% of GDP to 48.1% in 2010–11.They pledged in 2001 to bring NHS spending to the levels of other European countries, and doubled spending in real terms to over £100 billion in England alone. Immigration Non-European immigration",
"immigration rose significantly during the period from 1997, not least because of thegovernment's abolition of the primary purpose rule in June 1997.This change made it easier for UK residents to bring foreign spouses into the country. The former government advisor Andrew Neather in theEvening Standardstated that the deliberate policy of ministers from late 2000 until early 2008 was to open up the UK to mass migration.Neather later stated that his words had been twisted, saying: \"The main goal was to allow in more migrant workers at a point when – hard as it is to imagine now – the booming economy was running up against skills shortages.... Somehow this has become distorted by excitable Right-wing newspaper columnists into being a \"plot\" to make Britain multicultural. There was no plot.\" Environmental record Blair criticised other governments for not doing enough to solveglobal climate change. In a 1997 visit to the United States, he made a comment on \"great industrialised nations\" that fail to reduce",
"that fail to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Again in 2003, Blair went before theUnited States Congressand said that climate change \"cannot be ignored\", insisting \"we need to go beyond evenKyoto.\"Blair and his party promised a 20% reduction in carbon dioxide.The Labour Party also claimed that by 2010 10% of the energy would come from renewable resources; however, it only reached 7% by that point. In 2000, Blair \"flagged up\" 100 million euros for green policies and urged environmentalists and businesses to work together. Foreign policy Blair built his foreign policy on basic principles (close ties with the United States and European Union) and added a new activist philosophy of \"interventionism\". In 2001, Britain joined the U.S. in the global war on terror. Blair forged friendships with several European leaders, includingSilvio Berlusconiof Italy,Angela Merkelof Germanyand laterNicolas Sarkozyof France. Along with enjoying a close relationship with Bill Clinton, Blair formed a strong political alliance with",
"alliance with George W. Bush, particularly in the area of foreign policy. For his part, Bush lauded Blair and the UK. In hispost-9/11speech, for example, he stated that \"America has no truer friend than Great Britain\". The alliance between Bush and Blair seriously damaged Blair's standing in the eyes of Britons angry at American influence;a 2002 poll revealed that a large amount of Britons viewed Blair as a \"lapdog\" of Bush.Blair argued it was in Britain's interest to \"protect and strengthen the bond\" with the United States regardless of who was in the White House. However, a perception of one-sided compromising personal and political closeness led to discussion of the term \"Poodle-ism\" in the UK media, to describe the \"Special Relationship\" of the UK government and prime minister with the US White House and president.A revealing conversation between Bush and Blair, with the former addressing the latter as \"Yo , Blair\" was recorded when they did not know a microphone was live at theG8 summitinSaint",
"theG8 summitinSaint Petersburgin 2006. Middle East policy On 30 January 2003, Blair signedThe letter of the eightsupportingU.S. policy on Iraq. Blair showed a deep feeling for Israel, born in part from his faith.Blair has been a longtime member of the pro-Israel lobby groupLabour Friends of Israel. In 1994, Blair forged close ties withMichael Levy, a leader of theJewish Leadership Council.Levy ran the Labour Leader's Office Fund to finance Blair's campaign before the 1997 election and raised £12 million towards Labour's landslide victory, Levy was rewarded with apeerage, and in 2002, Blair appointed Lord Levy as his personal envoy to the Middle East. Levy praised Blair for his \"solid and committed support of the State of Israel\".Tam Dalyell, whileFather of the Houseof Commons, suggested in 2003 that Blair's foreign policy decisions were unduly influenced by a \"cabal\" of Jewish advisers, including Levy,Peter MandelsonandJack Straw(the last two are not Jewish but have some Jewish ancestry). Blair, on coming to",
"Blair, on coming to office, had been \"cool towards the right-wingNetanyahugovernment\".During his first visit to Israel, Blair thought the Israelis bugged him in his car.After the election in 1999 ofEhud Barak, with whom Blair forged a close relationship, he became much more sympathetic to Israel.From 2001, Blair built up a relationshipwith Barak's successor,Ariel Sharon, and responded positively toArafat, whom he had met thirteen times since becoming prime minister and regarded as essential to future negotiations.In 2004, 50 former diplomats, including ambassadors toBaghdadandTel Aviv, stated they had \"watched with deepening concern\" at Britain following the US into war in Iraq in 2003. They criticised Blair's support for theroad map for peacewhich included the retaining ofIsraeli settlementson theWest Bank. In 2006 Blair was criticised for his failure to immediately call for a ceasefire in the2006 Lebanon War.The Observernewspaper claimed that at a cabinet meeting before Blair left for a summit with Bush on",
"summit with Bush on 28 July 2006, a significant number of ministers pressured Blair to publicly criticise Israel over the scale of deaths and destruction in Lebanon.Blair was criticised for his solid stance alongside US president George W. Bush on Middle East policy. Syria and Libya A Freedom of Information request byThe Sunday Timesin 2012 revealed that Blair's government consideredknightingSyria's PresidentBashar al-Assad. The documents showed Blair was willing to appear alongside Assad at a joint press conference even though the Syrians would probably have settled for a farewell handshake for the cameras; British officials sought to manipulate the media to portray Assad in a favourable light; and Blair's aides tried to help Assad's \"photogenic\" wifeAsma al-Assadboost her profile. The newspaper noted: The Arab leader was granted audiences with the Queen and the Prince of Wales, lunch with Blair at Downing Street, a platform in parliament and many other privileges ... The red carpet treatment he and his",
"he and his entourage received is embarrassing given the bloodbath that has since taken place under his rule in Syria ... The courtship has parallels with Blair's friendly relations withMuammar Gaddafi. Blair had been on friendly terms with Colonel Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, when sanctions imposed on the country were lifted by the US and the UK. Even after theLibyan Civil Warin 2011, he said he had no regrets about his close relationship with the late Libyan leader.During Blair's premiership,MI6renderedAbdelhakim Belhajto the Gaddafi regime in 2004, though Blair later claimed he had \"no recollection\" of the incident. Zimbabwe Blair had an antagonistic relationship with Zimbabwean presidentRobert Mugabeand allegedly plannedregime changeagainst Mugabe in the early 2000s.Zimbabwe had embarked on a program ofuncompensated land redistributionfrom the country's white commercial farmers to the black population, a policy that disrupted agricultural production and threw Zimbabwe's economy into chaos. GeneralCharles",
"GeneralCharles Guthrie, theChief of the Defence Staff, revealed in 2007 that he and Blair had discussed the invasion of Zimbabwe.Guthrie advised against military action: \"Hold hard, you'll make it worse.\"In 2013, South African presidentThabo Mbekisaid that Blair had pressured South Africa to join in a \"regime change scheme, even to the point of using military force\" in Zimbabwe.Mbeki refused because he felt that \"Mugabe is part of the solution to this problem.\"However, a spokesman for Blair said that \"he never asked anyone to plan or take part in any such military intervention.\" Russia Blair went on a trip to Moscow to watch a performance of theWar and PeaceoperawithVladimir Putin, while he was theacting president of Russia. This meeting was criticised by groups such asHuman Rights WatchandAmnesty International.In 2018, SirRichard Dearlove, former head of MI6, said there was \"significant regret\" over this trip, which helped Putin rise to power. Dearlove also alleged that in 2000, aKGBofficer approached him,",
"approached him, seeking Britain's help in boosting Putin's political profile, and this was why Blair met Putin in Russia. Blair also hosted Putin in London in April 2000, despite hesitation towards Putin from other world leaders, and opposition fromhuman rights groupsoveratrocities committed in Chechnya. Blair toldJim HoaglandofThe Washington Postthat \" vision of the future is one that we would feel comfortable with. Putin has a very clear agenda of modernizing Russia. When he talks of a strong Russia, he means strength not in a threatening way but in a way that means the country economically and politically is capable of standing up for itself, which is a perfectly good aim to have\".During the meeting, Blair acknowledged and discussed \"concerns about Chechnya\",but described Putin as a political reformer \"who is ready to embrace a new relationship with the European Union and the United States, who wants a strong and modern Russia and a strong relationship with the West\". Relationship with media Rupert",
"with media Rupert Murdoch Blair was reported byThe Guardianin 2006 to have been supported politically byRupert Murdoch, the founder of theNews Corporationorganisation.In 2011, Blair becamegodfatherto one of Rupert Murdoch's children withWendi Deng,but he and Murdoch later ended their friendship, in 2014, after Murdoch suspected him of having an affair with Deng while they were still married, according toThe Economistmagazine. Contacts with UK media proprietors ACabinet Officefreedom of informationresponse, released the day after Blair handed over power to Gordon Brown, documents Blair having various official phone calls and meetings with Rupert Murdoch of News Corporation andRichard Desmondof Northern and Shell Media. The response includes contacts \"clearly of an official nature\" in the specified period, but excludes contacts \"not clearly of an official nature.\"No details were given of the subjects discussed. In the period between September 2002 and April 2005, Blair and Murdoch are documented speaking six",
"speaking six times; three times in the nine days before the Iraq War, including the eve of the 20 March US and UK invasion, and on 29 January, 25 April, and 3 October 2004. Between January 2003 and February 2004, Blair had three meetings with Richard Desmond; on 29 January and 3 September 2003, and 23 February 2004. The information was disclosed after a3+1⁄2-year battle by the Liberal Democrats'Lord Avebury.Lord Avebury's initial October 2003 information request was dismissed by then leader of the Lords,Baroness Amos.A following complaint was rejected, withDowning Streetclaiming the information compromised \"free and frank discussions\", while Cabinet Office claimed releasing the timing of the PM's contacts with individuals is \"undesirable\", as it might lead to the content of the discussions being disclosed.While awaiting a following appeal from Lord Avebury, the cabinet office announced that it would release the information. Lord Avebury said: \"The public can now scrutinise the timing of his (Murdoch's)",
"of his (Murdoch's) contacts with the former prime minister, to see whether they can be linked to events in the outside world.\" Blair appeared before theLeveson Inquiryon Monday 28 May 2012.During his appearance, a protester, later named as David Lawley-Wakelin, got into the court-room and claimed he was guilty of war crimes before being dragged out. Media portrayal Blair has been noted as acharismatic, articulate speaker with an informal style.Film and theatre directorRichard Eyreopined that \"Blair had a very considerable skill as a performer\".A few months after becoming prime minister Blair gave a tribute toDiana, Princess of Wales, on the morning of her death in August 1997, in which he famously described her as \"the People's Princess\". After taking office in 1997, Blair gave particular prominence to his press secretary, who became known as theprime minister's official spokesman(the two roles have since been separated). Blair's first PMOS was Alastair Campbell, who served in that role from May 1997 to 8",
"from May 1997 to 8 June 2001, after which he served as the prime minister's director of communications and strategy until his resignation on 29 August 2003 in the aftermath of theHutton Inquiry. Blair had close relationships with the Clinton family. The strong partnership with Bill Clinton was made into the filmThe Special Relationshipin 2010. Relationship with Labour Party Blair's apparent refusal to set a date for his departure was criticised by the British press and Members of Parliament. It has been reported that a number of cabinet ministers believed that Blair's timely departure from office would be required to be able to win a fourth election.Some ministers viewed Blair's announcement of policy initiatives in September 2006 as an attempt to draw attention away from these issues. Gordon Brown After the death of John Smith in 1994, Blair and his close colleague Gordon Brown (they shared an office at the House of Commons) were both seen as possible candidates for the party leadership. They agreed not to",
"They agreed not to stand against each other, it is said, as part of a supposed Blair–Brown pact. Brown, who considered himself the senior of the two, understood that Blair would give way to him: opinion polls soon indicated, however, that Blair appeared to enjoy greater support among voters.Their relationship in power became so turbulent that it was reported thedeputy prime minister, John Prescott, often had to act as \"marriage guidance counsellor\". During the 2010 election campaign Blair publicly endorsed Brown's leadership, praising the way he had handled the financial crisis. Post-premiership (2007-present) Diplomacy On 27 June 2007, Blair officially resigned as prime minister after ten years in office, and he was officially confirmed as Middle Eastenvoyfor the United Nations, European Union, United States, and Russia.Blair originally indicated that he would retain his parliamentary seat after his resignation as prime minister came into effect; however, on being confirmed for the Middle East role he",
"Middle East role he resigned from the Commons by taking up anoffice of profit.President George W. Bush had preliminary talks with Blair to ask him to take up the envoy role. White House sources stated that \"both Israel and the Palestinians had signed up to the proposal\".In May 2008 Blair announced a new plan for peace and for Palestinian rights, based heavily on the ideas of thePeace Valley plan.Blair resigned as envoy in May 2015. Private sector In January 2008, it was confirmed that Blair would be joining investment bankJPMorgan Chasein a \"senior advisory capacity\"and that he would adviseZurich Financial Servicesonclimate change. His salary for this work is unknown, although it has been claimed it may be in excess of £500,000 per year.Blair also gives lectures, earning up to US$250,000 for a 90-minute speech, and in 2008 he was said to be the highest paid speaker in the world. Blair taught a course on issues of faith and globalisation at theYale UniversitySchools ofManagementandDivinityas aHowland",
"aHowland distinguished fellowduring the 2008–09 academic year. In July 2009, this accomplishment was followed by the launching of theFaith and Globalisation Initiativewith Yale University in the US, Durham University in the UK, and theNational University of Singaporein Asia, to deliver a postgraduate programme in partnership with the Foundation. Blair's links with, and receipt of an undisclosed sum from,UI Energy Corporation, have also been subject to media comment in the UK. In July 2010 it was reported that his personal security guards claimed £250,000 a year in expenses from the taxpayer. Foreign SecretaryWilliam Haguesaid; \"we have to make sure that is as cost-effective as possible, that it doesn't cost any more to the taxpayer than is absolutely necessary\". Tony Blair Associates Blair establishedTony Blair Associatesto \"allow him to provide, in partnership with others, strategic advice on a commercial andpro bonobasis, on political and economic trends and governmental reform\".The profits from the firm",
"from the firm go towards supporting Blair's \"work on faith, Africa and climate change\". Blair has been subject to criticism for potential conflicts of interest between his diplomatic role as a Middle East envoy, and his work with Tony Blair Associates,and a number of prominent critics have even called for him to be sacked.Blair has used hisQuartetTony Blair Associates works with the Kazakhstan government, advising the regime on judicial, economic and political reforms, but has been subject to criticism after accusations of \"whitewashing\" the image and human rights record of the regime. Blair responded to such criticism by saying his choice to advise the country is an example of how he can \"nudge controversial figures on a progressive path of reform\", and has stated that he receives no personal profit from this advisory role.The Kazakhstan foreign minister said that the country was \"honoured and privileged\" to be receiving advice from Blair.A letter obtained byThe Daily Telegraphin August 2014 revealed Blair",
"2014 revealed Blair had given damage-limitation advice toNursultan Nazarbayevafter the December 2011Zhanaozen massacre.Blair was reported to have accepted a business advisory role with PresidentAbdel Fattah el-Sisiof Egypt, a situation deemed incompatible with his role as Middle East envoy. Blair described the report as \"nonsense\". Charity and non-profits In November 2007 Blair launched the Tony Blair Sports Foundation, which aims to \"increase childhood participation in sports activities, especially in the North East of England, where a larger proportion of children are socially excluded, and to promote overall health and prevent childhood obesity.\"On 30 May 2008, Blair launched theTony Blair Faith Foundationas a vehicle for encouraging different faiths to join in promoting respect and understanding, as well as working to tackle poverty. Reflecting Blair's own faith but not dedicated to any particular religion, the Foundation aims to \"show how faith is a powerful force for good in the modern world\". \"The",
"modern world\". \"The Foundation will use its profile and resources to encourage people of faith to work together more closely to tackle global poverty and conflict,\" says its mission statement. In February 2009 he applied to set up a charity called the Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative: the application was approved in November 2009.Blair's foundation hit controversy in October 2012, when news emerged that it was taking on unpaid interns. In December 2016, Blair created theTony Blair Instituteto promote global outlooks by governments and organisations.In September 2023 former Finnish prime ministerSanna Marinjoined him as a strategic adviser on political leaders' reform programmes in the institute. Books A Journey In March 2010, it was reported that Blair's memoirs, titledThe Journey, would be published in September 2010.In July 2010 it was announced the memoirs would be retitledA Journey.The memoirs were seen by many as controversial and a further attempt to profit from his office and from acts related",
"from acts related to overseas wars that were widely seen as wrong,leading to anger and suspicion prior to launch. On 16 August 2010 it was announced that Blair would give the £4.6 million advance and all royalties from his memoirs to theRoyal British Legion– the charity's largest ever single donation. Media analysis of the sudden announcement was wide-ranging, describing it as an act of \"desperation\" to obtain a better launch reception of a humiliating \"publishing flop\"that had languished in the ratings,\"blood money\" for the lives lost in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars,an act with a \"hidden motive\" or an expression of \"guilt\",a \"genius move\" to address the problem that \"Tony Blair ha one of the most toxic brands around\" from a PR perspective, and a \"cynical stunt to wipe the slate\", but also as an attempt to make amends.Friends had said that the act was partly motivated by the wish to \"repair his reputation\". The book was published on 1 September and within hours of its launch had become the fastest-selling",
"the fastest-selling autobiography of all time.On 3 September Blair gave his first live interview since publication onThe Late Late Showin Ireland, with protesters lying in wait there for him.On 4 September, Blair was confronted by 200 anti-war and hardline Irish nationalist demonstrators before the first book signing of his memoirs atEason'sbookstore onO'Connell Streetin Dublin, with angry activists chanting \"war criminal\" and that he had \"blood on his hands\", and clashing with Irish Police (Garda Síochána) as they tried to break through a security cordon outside the Eason's store. Blair was pelted with eggs and shoes, and encountered an attemptedcitizen's arrestforwar crimes. On Leadership Published in 2024, and described byGeorge Osborneas \"the most practically useful guide to politics I have ever read.\" Accusations of war crimes Since the Iraq War, Blair has been the subject of war crimes accusations. Critics of his actions, including BishopDesmond Tutu,Harold PinterandArundhati Royhave called for his",
"called for his trial at theInternational Criminal Court. In November 2011, a war crimes tribunal of theKuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission, established by Malaysia's former prime minister Mahathir Mohamad, reached a unanimous conclusion that Blair was guilty of crimes against peace, as a result of his role in the Iraq War.The proceedings lasted for four days, and consisted of five judges of judicial and academic backgrounds, a tribunal-appointed defence team in lieu of the defendants or representatives, and a prosecution team including international law professorFrancis Boyle. In September 2012, Desmond Tutu suggested that Blair should follow the path of former African leaders who had been brought before the International Criminal Court inThe Hague.The human rights lawyerGeoffrey Bindmanconcurred with Tutu's suggestion that there should be a war crimes trial.In a statement made in response to Tutu's comments, Blair defended his actions.He was supported byLord Falconer, who stated that the war had been",
"the war had been authorised byUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1441. In July 2017, former Iraqi general Abdulwaheed al-Rabbat launched a private war crimes prosecution in the High Court in London, asking for Blair, former foreign secretary Jack Straw and former attorney generalLord Goldsmithto be prosecuted for \"the crime of aggression\" for their role in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The High Court ruled that, although the crime of aggression was recognised in international law, it was not an offence under UK law, and therefore the prosecution could not proceed. Blair defended Some, such asJohn Rentoul,John McTernan,Geoffrey RobertsonandIain Dale, have countered accusations that Blair committed war crimes during his premiership, often highlighting how no case against Blair has ever made it to trial, suggesting that Blair broke no laws. Blair himself has defended his involvement in the Iraq War by highlighting the findings of theIraq Survey Group, which found that Saddam had attempted to get sanctions",
"to get sanctions lifted by undermining them, which would have enabled him to restart his WMD program. Political interventions and views Response to the Iraq Inquiry The Chilcot report issued after the conclusion of the Iraq Inquiry was published on 6 July 2016; it criticised Blair for joining the US in the war in Iraq in 2003. Afterward, Blair issued a statement and held a two-hour press conference to apologise, to justify the decisions he had made in 2003 \"in good faith\" and to deny allegations that the war had led to a significant increase in terrorism.He acknowledged that the report made \"real and material criticisms of preparation, planning, process and of the relationship with the United States\" but cited sections of the report that he said \"should lay to rest allegations of bad faith, lies or deceit\". He stated: \"whether people agree or disagree with my decision to take military action against Saddam Hussein; I took it in good faith and in what I believed to be the best interests of the country. ... I",
"the country. ... I will take full responsibility for any mistakes without exception or excuse. I will at the same time say why, nonetheless, I believe that it was better to remove Saddam Hussein and why I do not believe this is the cause of the terrorism we see today whether in the Middle East or elsewhere in the world\". Iran–West tensions In an op-ed published byThe Washington Poston 8 February 2019, Blair said: \"Where Iran is exercising military interference, it should be strongly pushed back. Where it is seeking influence, it should be countered. Where its proxies operate, it should be held responsible. Where its networks exist, they should be disrupted. Where its leaders are saying what is unacceptable, they should be exposed. Where the Iranian people — highly educated and connected, despite their government — are protesting for freedom, they should be supported.\"TheTony Blair Institute for Global Changewarned of a growing Iranian threat.The Tony Blair Institute confirmed that it has received donations",
"received donations from the U.S. State Department and Saudi Arabia. European Union Blair did not wantthe UK to leave the EUand called for areferendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement. Blair also maintained that once the terms deciding how the UK leaves the EU were known, the people should be able to vote again on those terms. Blair stated, \"We know the options for Brexit. Parliament will have to decide on one of them. If Parliament can't then it should decide to go back to the people.\" However, after the2019 general electionin which the pro-withdrawal Conservative party won a sizeable majority of seats, Blair argued that remain supporters should \"face up to one simple point: we lost\" and \"pivot to a completely new position...We're going to have to be constructive about it and see how Britain develops a constructive relationship with Europe and finds its new niche in the world.\" American power Blair was interviewed in June 2020 for an article in the American magazineThe Atlanticon European views of U.S.",
"views of U.S. foreign policy concerning theCOVID-19 pandemicand resultingrecession, the rise of China, and theGeorge Floyd protests. He affirmed his belief in the continued strength of Americansoft powerand the need to address Iranian military aggression, European military underinvestment, and illicit Chinese trade practices. He said, however, \"I think it's fair to say a lot of political leaders in Europe are dismayed by what they see as the isolationism growing in America and the seeming indifference to alliances. But I think there will come a time when America decides in its own interest to reengage, so I'm optimistic that America will in the end understand that this is not about relegating your self-interest behind the common interest; it's an understanding that by acting collectively in alliance with others you promote your own interests.\" Blair warned that structural issues plaguing American domestic policy needed to be addressed imminently. In August 2021, Blair criticised thewithdrawal of U.S. and",
"of U.S. and NATO troops from Afghanistan, saying that it was \"in obedience to an imbecilic slogan about ending 'theforever wars'\". Blair admitted mistakes in the management of the war but warned that \"the reaction to our mistakes has been, unfortunately, further mistakes\". Labour Party Jeremy Corbyn Blair was a critic ofJeremy Corbyn'sleadership of the Labour Party, seeing it as too left-wing. He wrote in an opinion piece forThe Guardianduring the party's2015 leadership electionthat if the party elected Corbyn, it would face a \"rout, possibly annihilation\" at the next election.After the2019 general election, Blair accused Corbyn of turning the party into a \"glorified protest movement\" and in a May 2021New Statesmanarticle, Blair suggested that the party needed to undergo a programme of \"total deconstruction and reconstruction\" and also said the party needed to shift to the centre on social issues in order to survive.Blair touched on controversial topics such astransgender rights, theBlack Lives",
"theBlack Lives Mattermovement and climate change. Keir Starmer Keir Starmer's leadership of the party has been widely compared to Blair's leadership and New Labour, having taken the party rightward to gain electability. Initially saying in 2021 that Starmer lacked a compelling message, Blair has since reacted more positively towards Starmer's leadership of the party, telling him he's \"done a great job\" in reforming the party during a Tony Blair Institute for Global Change's Future of Britain conference in 2023.Blair's continued influence on the party, and on Starmer led him to be ranked sixteenth in the New Statesman's Left Power List 2023, described by the paper as electorally an \"incomparable authority on how to win\".After Labour won the2024 general electionand Starmer became prime minister, Blair congratulated him on his victory, saying Starmer was \"determined and ruthlessly effective\" and appointed \"exceptional talent to conduct the change and put the most capable frontbenchers in the most important",
"the most important positions for future government.\" He also offered Starmer advice, recommending he controls immigration amid the rise of theReform UKparty led byNigel Farage, saying that the party poses a threat to Labour and not just the Conservatives. Personal life Family Blair marriedCherie Boothon 29 March 1980.They have four children:Euan,Nicky, Kathryn, and Leo.Leo was the first legitimate child born to a serving prime minister in over 150 years – since Francis Russell was born toLord John Russellon 11 July 1849.All four children have Irish passports, by virtue of Blair's mother, Hazel Elizabeth Rosaleen Corscadden (12 June 1923 – 28 June 1975).The family's primary residence is in Connaught Square; the Blairs own eight residences in total.His first grandchild (a girl) was born in October 2016. Wealth Blair's financial assets are structured in an opaque manner, and estimates of their extent vary widely.These include figures of up to £100 million. Blair stated in 2014 that he was worth \"less than £20",
"\"less than £20 million\".A 2015 assertion, byFrancis Beckett,David HenckeandNick Kochan, concluded that Blair had acquired $90 million and a property portfolio worth $37.5 million in the eight years since he had left office. In October 2021, Blair wasnamedin thePandora Papers. Religious faith In 2006, Blair referred to the role of his Christian faith in his decision to go to war in Iraq, stating that he had prayed about the issue, and saying that God would judge him for his decision: \"I think if you have faith about these things, you realise that judgement is made by other people ... and if you believe in God, it's made by God as well.\" According to Press Secretary Alastair Campbell's diary, Blair often read the Bible before taking any important decisions. He states that Blair had a \"wobble\" and considered changing his mind on the eve of the bombing of Iraq in 1998. A longer exploration of his faith can be found in an interview withThird Way Magazine. There he says that \"I was brought up as , but I was not in",
", but I was not in any real sense a practising one until I went to Oxford. There was an Australian priest at the same college as me who got me interested again. In a sense, it was a rediscovery of religion as something living, that was about the world around me rather than some sort of special one-to-one relationship with a remote Being on high. Suddenly I began to see its social relevance. I began to make sense of the world\". At one point Alastair Campbell intervened in an interview, preventing Blair from answering a question about his Christianity, explaining, \"We don't do God.\"Campbell later said that he had intervened only to end the interview because the journalist had been taking an excessive time, and that the comment had just been a throwaway line. Cherie Blair's friend and \"spiritual guru\"Carole Caplinis credited with introducing her and her husband to variousNew Agesymbols and beliefs, including \"magic pendants\" known as \"BioElectric Shields\".The most controversial of the Blairs' New Age practices",
"New Age practices occurred when on holiday in Mexico. The couple, wearing only bathing costumes, took part in a rebirthing procedure, which involved smearing mud and fruit over each other's bodies while sitting in a steam bath. In 1996, Blair, then an Anglican, was reprimanded by CardinalBasil Humefor receivingHoly Communionwhile attending Mass at Cherie Blair's Catholic church, in contravention ofcanon law.On 22 December 2007, it was disclosed that Blair had joined theCatholic Church. The move was described as \"a private matter\".He had informedPope Benedict XVIon 23 June 2007 — four days before he stepped down as Prime Minister — that he wanted to become a Catholic. The Pope and his advisors criticised some of Blair's political actions, but followed up with a reportedly unprecedented red carpet welcome, which included the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster,Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, who would be responsible for Blair'sCatholic instruction.In 2009, Blair questioned the Pope's attitude towards homosexuality,",
"homosexuality, arguing that religious leaders must start \"rethinking\" the issue.In 2010,The Tabletnamed him as one of Britain's most influential Catholics. Honours In May 2007, Blair was invested as aparamount chiefby the chiefs and people of the village of Mahera in Sierra Leone. The honour was bestowed upon him in recognition of the role played by his government in the Sierra Leone Civil War. On 22 May 2008, Blair received an honorary law doctorate fromQueen's University Belfast, alongside Bertie Ahern, for distinction in public service and roles in the Northern Ireland peace process. On 13 January 2009, Blair was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby President George W. Bush.Bush stated that Blair was given the award \"in recognition of exemplary achievement and to convey the utmost esteem of the American people\"and cited Blair's support for the War on Terror and his role in achieving peace in Northern Ireland as two reasons for justifying his being presented with the award. On 16 February 2009, Blair",
"2009, Blair was awarded theDan David PrizebyTel Aviv Universityfor \"exceptional leadership and steadfast determination in helping to engineer agreements and forge lasting solutions to areas in conflict\". He was awarded the prize in May 2009. On 8 July 2010, Blair was awarded theOrder of Freedomby PresidentFatmir Sejdiuof Kosovo.As Blair is considered to have been instrumental in ending theconflict in Kosovo, some boys born in the country following the war have been given the nameToniorTonibler. On 13 September 2010, Blair was awarded theLiberty Medalat theNational Constitution CenterinPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania.It was presented by former president Bill Clinton, and is awarded annually to \"men and women of courage and conviction who strive to secure the blessings of liberty to people around the globe\". On 31 December 2021, it was announced that the Queen had appointed Blair aKnight Companion of the Order of the Garter(KG).Blair had reportedly indicated when he left office that he did not want the traditional",
"the traditional knighthood or peerage bestowed on former prime ministers.A petition cited his role in the Iraq War as a reason to remove the knighthood and garnered more than one million signatures.He received his Garter insignia on 10 June 2022 from the Queen during an audience at Windsor Castle. Works See also Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading Primary sources External links e",
"Marathon world record progression World recordsin themarathonare ratified byWorld Athletics, the internationalgoverning bodyfor the sport ofathletics. The late Kenyan athleteKelvin Kiptumset a men's world record time of 2:00:35 on October 8, 2023, at the2023 Chicago Marathon. Kenyan athleteRuth Chepngetichbroke the women's world record for a mixed-sex race with a time of 2:09:56 on October 13, 2024 at the2024 Chicago Marathon. In addition to the standard women's marathon world record, World Athletics also recognizes a second world record for women in the \"Women Only\" category, meaning that the marathon was run on a course without any male athletes in the competition. The current \"Women Only\" record of 2:16:16 was set byPeres Jepchirchiron April 21, 2024 at the London Marathon in the elite women's race. History Marathon races were first held in 1896, but the distance was not standardized by theInternational Association of Athletics Federations(IAAF, now World Athletics) until 1921. The actual distance for",
"actual distance for pre-1921 races frequently varied from the 1921 standard of 42.195 km (26 miles 385 yards). In qualifying races for the1896 Summer Olympics, Greek runnersCharilaos Vasilakos(3:18:00) andIoannis Lavrentis(3:11:27) won the first two modern marathons.On April 10, 1896,Spiridon Louisof Greece wonthe first Olympic marathon in Athens, Greece, in a time of 2:58:50.However, the distance for the event was 40,000 meters.Three months later, British runnerLen Hurstwon the inauguralParis to Conflans Marathon(also around 40 km) in a time of 2:31:30.In 1900, Hurst would better his time on the same course with a 2:26:28 performance. Later,Shizo Kanakuriof Japan was reported to have set a world record of 2:32:45 in a November 1911 domestic qualification race for the1912 Summer Olympics, but this performance was also run over a distance of approximately 40 km. The first marathon over the official distance was won by AmericanJohnny Hayesat the1908 Summer Olympics, with a time of 2:55:18.4. It is possible",
"It is possible thatStamata Revithi, who ran the 1896 Olympic course a day after Louis, is the first woman to run the modern marathon; she is said to have finished in5+1⁄2hours.World Athletics creditsViolet Piercy's 1926 performance as the first woman to race the standard marathon distance; however, other sources report that the 1918 performance ofMarie-Louise Ledruin the Tour de Paris set the initial mark for women.Other \"unofficial\" performances have also been reported to be world bests or world records over time: although her performance is not recognized by World Athletics,Adrienne Beamesfrom Australia is frequently credited as the first woman to break the three-hour barrier in the marathon. In the 1953Boston Marathon, the top three male finishers were thought to have broken the standing world record,butKeizo Yamada's mark of 2:18:51 is considered to have been set on a short course of 25.54 miles (41.1 km).TheBoston Athletic Associationalso does not report Yamada's performance as a world best for this",
"world best for this reason. On October 25, 1981, AmericanAlberto Salazarand New ZealanderAllison Roeset apparent world bests at theNew York City Marathon(2:08:13 and 2:25:29), however, these marks were invalidated when the course was later found to have been 151 meters short.Although World Athletics' progression notes three performances set on the same course in 1978, 1979, and 1980 by NorwegianGrete Waitz, theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticiansconsiders the New York City course suspect for those performances, too. On April 18, 2011, the Boston Marathon produced what were at that time the two fastest marathon performances of all time. WinnerGeoffrey Mutaiof Kenya recorded a time of 2:03:02,followed by countrymanMoses Mosopin 2:03:06. However, since the Boston course does not meet the criteria for record attempts, these times were not ratified by the IAAF. Eight IAAF world records were set at thePolytechnic Marathon(1909, 1913, 1952–54, 1963–65).WA-recognized world records have been broken at all of the",
"at all of the original fiveWorld Marathon Majorson numerous occasions (updated 09/2022); twelve times at theBerlin Marathon, three times at theBoston Marathon, five times at theChicago Marathon, six times at theLondon Marathon, and five times at theNew York City Marathon. However, the records established in the Boston event have been disputed on grounds of a downhill point-to-point course, while four of the five New York records have been disputed on grounds of a short course. Criteria for record eligibility For a performance to be ratified as a world record by World Athletics, the marathon course on which the performance occurred must be 42.195 km (26.219 mi) long,measured in a defined manner using thecalibrated bicycle method(the distance in kilometers being the official distance; the distance in miles is an approximation) and meet other criteria that rule out artificially fast times produced on courses aided by downhill slope or tailwind.The criteria include: In recognizing KenyanGeoffrey Mutai's mark of",
"Mutai's mark of 2:03:02 at the2011 Boston Marathonas (at the time) \"the fastest Marathon ever run\", the IAAF said: \"Due to the elevation drop and point-to-point measurements of the Boston course, performances are not eligible for World record consideration.\" TheAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians, an independent organization that compiles data fromroad runningevents, also maintains an alternate marathon world best progression but with standards they consider to be more stringent. Women's world record changes The IAAF Congress, at the 2011 World Championships, passed a motion changing the record eligibility criteria effective October 6, 2007, so that women's world records must be set in all-women competitions.The result of the change was that Radcliffe's 2:17:42 performance at the 2005 London Marathon supplanted her own existing women's mark as the \"world record\"; the earlier performance is to be referred to as a \"world best\". Per the 2021 IAAF Competition Rules, \"a World Record for performance achieved",
"achieved in mixed sex (\"Mixed\") races and a World Record for performance achieved in single sex (\"Women only\") races\" are tracked separately. Unofficial record attempts In December 2016,Nike, Inc., announced that three top distance runners —Eliud Kipchoge,Zersenay Tadese, andLelisa Desisa— had agreed to forgo the spring marathon season to work with the company in an effort to run a sub-two-hour marathon. TheBreaking2event took place in the early morning of May 6, 2017; Kipchoge crossed the finish line with a time of 2:00:25.This time was more than two minutes faster than the world record. Kipchoge took part in a similar attempt to break the two-hour barrier in Vienna on October 12, 2019, as part of theIneos 1:59 Challenge. He successfully ran the first sub two-hour marathon distance, with a time of 1:59:40.2.The effort did not count as a new world record under IAAF rules due to the setup of the challenge. Specifically, it was not an open event, Kipchoge was handed fluids by his support team throughout, the",
"throughout, the run featured a pace car, and included rotating teams of other runners pacing Kipchoge in a formation designed to reduce wind resistance and maximize efficiency.The achievement was recognized byGuinness World Recordswith the titles 'Fastest marathon distance (male)' and 'First marathon distance run under two hours' instead of an official world record. Men Table key:Listed by World Athletics as a world best prior to official acceptanceRatified by World Athletics as a world best (since January 1, 2003) or world record (since January 1, 2004)Recognized by theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians(ARRS) The edition of the marathon is linked on some of the dates. Women Table key:Listed by World Athletics as a world best prior to official acceptanceRatified by World Athletics as a world best (since January 1, 2003) or world record (since January 1, 2004)Recognized by theAssociation of Road Racing Statisticians(ARRS) Gallery of world record holders See also Men's Masters Records Women's Masters",
"Women's Masters Records Notes References Sources External links"
] |
How many Mount Katahdins makes up the height of Mount Kilimanjaro? | Mount Kilimanjaro stands at a height of 5,895 meters whereas Mount Katahdn stands at a height of 1,606 meters. Therefore, Mount Kilimanjaro is the height of approximately 3.7 Mount Katahdins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Katahdin | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Katahdin'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Katahdin"
] | [
"Mount Kilimanjaro Mount Kilimanjaro(/ˌkɪlɪmənˈdʒɑːroʊ/)is adormant volcanoinTanzania. It is thehighest mountain in Africaand thehighest free-standing mountain above sea level in the world: 5,895 m (19,341 ft) above sea level and 4,900 m (16,100 ft) above its plateau base. It is also thehighest volcanoin theEastern Hemisphereand thefourth most topographically prominentpeak on Earth. Kilimanjaro's southern and eastern slopes served as the home of theChagga Kingdomsuntil their abolition in 1963 byJulius Nyerere. The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is unknown, but may mean \"mountain of greatness\" or refer to its snowy peak or a mountain deity. Although described inclassicalsources, Germany missionaryJohannes Rebmannis credited as the first European to report the mountain's extistence, in 1848. After several European attempts,Hans Meyerreached Kilimanjaro's highest summit in 1889. The mountain was incorporated intoKilimanjaro National Parkin 1973. As one of theSeven Summits, Kilimanjaro is a major hiking and climbing destination. There areseven established routesto Uhuru Peak, the mountain's highest point. Although not as technically challenging as similar mountains, the prominence of Kilimanjaro poses a serious risk ofaltitude sickness. One ofseveral mountainsarising from theEast African Rift, Kilimanjaro was formed from volcanic activity over 2 million years ago. Its slopes hostmontane forestsandcloud forests. Multiple species areendemicto Mount Kilimanjaro, including thegiant groundselDendrosenecio kilimanjari. The mountain possesses a largeice capand the largest glaciers in Africa, includingCredner Glacier,Furtwängler Glacier, and theRebmann Glacier. This ice cap is rapidly shrinking, with over 80% lost in the 20th century. The cap is projected to disappear entirely by the mid-21st century. Toponymy The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is disputed. Although theChagga peopleof theKilimanjaro regionhave no name for the mountain, they call its two peaksKipooandKimawenze. The peaks' names—usually rendered Kibo and Mawenzi—mean \"spotted\" in reference to Kibo's snow and \"broken top\" due to Mawenzi's jagged peak.\"Kilimanjaro\" may originate from the Chagga calling the mountain unclimbable—kilemajyaro—and explorers misinterpreting this as the mountain's name. Early Western etymologies used a compoundSwahiliorigin, withkilimatranslated as \"mountain\".In 1860,Johann Ludwig Krapfwrote that theSwahilisused the name Kilimanjaro and that it meant either \"mountain of greatness\" or \"mountain of caravans\", with a translation ofnjaroas greatness orjaroas \"caravans\".In 1885, Scottish explorerJoseph Thomsonreported \"white mountain\" as an alternative, withnjarodenoting whiteness.Similarly, Krapf mentions an 1849 visit with aWakambachief that called the mountainKima jajeu, meaning \"mountain of whiteness\". These etymologies are criticized askilimais adiminutiveofmlima(mountain) and actually means \"hill\". However,mlimamay have been misintrepreted askilimavia conflation with the two peaks' names,KipooandKimawenze. Alternatively, thekileman-part of Kilimanjaro may originate from theKichaggakileme, \"that which defeats\", orkilelema, \"that which has become difficult or impossible\". The-jarocould be derived fromnjaare, a bird, or fromjyaro, a caravan. Another explanation is thatjyaromay refer to a god or a deity that guarded the mountain from tresspassers. In the 1880s, the mountain became part ofGerman East Africaand was calledKilima-Ndscharoin German.In 1889,Hans Meyerreached the highest summit on Kibo, which he namedKaiser-Wilhelm-SpitzeforKaiser Wilhelm.Following theZanzibar Revolutionand the formation ofTanzaniain 1964, the summit was renamed Uhuru Peak: \"Freedom Peak\" in Swahili. Geology and geography Kilimanjaro is a large dormantstratovolcanocomposed of three distinct volcanic cones: Kibo, the highest; Mawenzi at 5,149 m (16,893 ft);and Shira, the lowest at 4,005 m (13,140 ft).Mawenzi and Shira areextinct, while Kibo isdormantand could erupt again. Uhuru Peak is the highest summit on Kibo's crater rim. TheTanzania National Parks Authority, a Tanzanian government agency,and theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizationlists the height of Uhuru Peak as 5,895 m (19,341 ft), based on aBritish surveyin 1952.The height has since been measured as 5,892 m (19,331 ft) in 1999, 5,902 m (19,364 ft) in 2008, and 5,899 m (19,354 ft) in 2014. A map of the Kibo cone on Mount Kilimanjaro was published by the British government'sDirectorate of Overseas Surveys(DOS) in 1964 based on aerial photography conducted in 1962 as the \"Subset of Kilimanjaro, East Africa (Tanganyika) Series Y742, Sheet 56/2, D.O.S. 422 1964, Edition 1, Scale 1:50,000\".Tourist mapping was first published by theOrdnance Surveyin England in 1989 based on the original DOS mapping at a scale of 1:100,000, with 100 ft (30 m) contour intervals, as DOS 522.West Col Productions produced a map with tourist information in 1990, at a scale of 1:75,000, with 100 m (330 ft) contour intervals; it included inset maps of Kibo and Mawenzi on 1:20,000 and 1:30,000 scales respectively and with 50 m (160 ft) contour intervals.In recent years, numerous other maps have become available, of various qualities. Volcanology The volcanic interior of Kilimanjaro is poorly known because there has not been any significant erosion to expose theigneousstrata that comprise the volcano's structure. Eruptive activity at the Shira center commenced about 2.5 million years ago, with the last important phase occurring about 1.9 million years ago, just before the northern part of the edifice collapsed.Shira is topped by a broadhigh plainat 3,800 m (12,500 ft), which may be a filledcaldera. The remnant caldera rim has been degraded deeply by erosion. Before the caldera formed and erosion began, Shira might have been between 4,900 and 5,200 m (16,100 and 17,100 ft) high. It is mostly composed of basaltic lavas, with somepyroclastics. The formation of the caldera was accompanied by lava emanating fromring fractures, but there was no large-scaleexplosive activity. Two cones formed subsequently, thephonoliticone at the northwest end of the ridge and thedoleriticPlatzkegel in the caldera center. Both Mawenzi and Kibo began erupting about 1 million years ago.They are separated by the Saddle Plateau at 4,400 m (14,400 ft) elevation.: 3 The youngest dated rocks at Mawenzi are about 448,000 years old.Mawenzi forms a horseshoe-shaped ridge withpinnaclesand ridges opening to the northeast, with a tower-like shape resulting from deep erosion and amaficdike swarm. Several largecirquescut into the ring and the largest of these sits on top of the Great Barranco gorge. Also notable are the East and West Barrancos on the northeastern side of the mountain. Most of the eastern side of the mountain has been removed by erosion. Mawenzi has asubsidiary peak, Neumann Tower, 4,425 m (14,518 ft). Kibo is the largest cone on the mountain and is more than 24 km (15 mi) wide at the Saddle Plateau altitude. The last activity here, dated to 150,000–200,000 years ago, created the current Kibo summit crater. Kibo still has gas-emittingfumarolesin its crater.Kibo is capped by an almost symmetrical cone withescarpmentsrising 180 to 200 m (590 to 660 ft) on the south side. These escarpments define a 2.5 km-wide (1.6 mi) calderacaused by the collapse of the summit. Within this caldera is the Inner Cone and within the crater of the Inner Cone is the Reusch Crater, which the Tanganyika government in 1954 named after Gustav Otto Richard Reusch, upon his climbing the mountain for the 25th time (out of 65 attempts during his lifetime).The Ash Pit, 350 m (1,150 ft) deep, lies within the Reusch Crater.About 100,000 years ago, part of Kibo's crater rim collapsed, creating the area known as theWestern Breachand the Great Barranco. An almost continuous layer of lava buries most older geological features, except exposedstratawithin the Great West Notch and the Kibo Barranco. The former exposes intrusions ofsyenite.Kibo has five main lava formations: Kibo has more than 250parasitic coneson its northwest and southeast flanks that were formed between 150,000 and 200,000 years agoand eruptedpicrobasalts,trachybasalts,ankaramites, andbasanites.They reach as far asLake ChalaandTavetain the southeast and the Lengurumani Plain in the northwest. Most of these cones are well preserved, except the Saddle Plateau cones which were heavily affected by glacial action. Despite their mostly small size, lava from the cones has obscured large portions of the mountain. The Saddle Plateau cones are mostly cinder cones with terminal effusion of lava, while the Upper Rombo Zone cones mostly generated lava flows. All Saddle Plateau cones predate the last glaciation. According to reports gathered in the 19th century from theMaasai, Lake Chala on Kibo's eastern flank was the site of a village that was destroyed by an eruption. Glaciers Kibo'sdiminishingice cap exists because Kilimanjaro is a little-dissected, massive mountain that rises above thesnow line. The cap is divergent and at the edges splits into individual glaciers. The central portion of the ice cap is interrupted by the presence of the Kibo crater.: 5The summit glaciers and ice fields do not display significant horizontal movements because their low thickness precludes major deformation. Geological evidence shows five successive glacial episodes during theQuaternaryperiod, namely First (500,000BP), Second (greater than 360,000 years ago to 240,000 BP), Third (150,000 to 120,000 BP), Fourth (also known as \"Main\") (20,000 to 17,000 BP), and Little (16,000 to 14,000 BP). The Third may have been the most extensive, and the Little appears to be statistically indistinguishable from the Fourth. A continuous ice cap covering approximately 400 km2(150 sq mi) down to an elevation of 3,200 m (10,500 ft) covered Kilimanjaro during theLast Glacial Maximumin thePleistoceneepoch (the Main glacial episode), extending across the summits of Kibo and Mawenzi.Because of the exceptionally prolonged dry conditions during the subsequentYounger Dryasstadial, the ice fields on Kilimanjaro may have become extinct around 11,500 years BP.Ice corestaken from Kilimanjaro's Northern Ice Field (NIF) indicates that the glaciers there have a basal age of about 11,700 years,although an analysis of ice taken in 2011 from exposed vertical cliffs in the NIF supports an age extending only to 800 years BP.Higher precipitation rates at the beginningof theHoloceneepoch (11,500 years BP) allowed the ice cap to reform.The glaciers survived a widespread drought during a three century period beginning around 4,000 years BP. In the late 1880s, the summit of Kibo was completely covered by an ice cap about 20 km2(7.7 sq mi) in extent with outlet glaciers cascading down the western and southern slopes, and except for the inner cone, the entire caldera was buried. Glacier ice also flowed through the Western Breach.The slope glaciers retreated rapidly between 1912 and 1953, in response to a sudden shift in climate at the end of the 19th century that made them \"drastically out of equilibrium\", and more slowly thereafter. Their continuing demise indicates they are still out of equilibrium in response to a constant change in climate over the past century. In contrast to the persistent slope glaciers, the glaciers on Kilimanjaro's crater plateau have appeared and disappeared repeatedly during the Holocene epoch, with each cycle lasting a few hundred years.: 1088It appears that decreasing specific humidity instead of temperature changes has caused the shrinkage of the slope glaciers since the late 19th century. No clear warming trend at the elevation of those glaciers occurred between 1948 and 2005. Although air temperatures at that elevation are always below freezing, solar radiation causes melting on vertical faces. Vertical ice margin walls are a unique characteristic of the summit glaciers and a major place of the shrinkage of the glaciers. They manifest stratifications,calving, and other ice features.\"There is no pathway for the plateau glaciers other than to continuously retreat once their vertical margins are exposed to solar radiation.\"The Kilimanjaro glaciers have been used for deriving ice core records, including two from the southern icefield. Based on this data, this icefield formed between 1,250 and 1,450 years BP. Almost 85 percent of the ice cover on Kilimanjaro disappeared between October 1912 and June 2011, with coverage decreasing from 11.40 km2(4.40 sq mi) to 1.76 km2(0.68 sq mi).: 423Between 1912 and 1953, there was about a 1.1 percent average annual loss of ice coverage.The average annual loss for 1953 to 1989 was 1.4 percent, while the loss rate for 1989 to 2007 was 2.5 percent.Of the ice cover still present in 2000, almost 40 percent had disappeared by 2011.: 425Ice climber Will Gadd noticed differences between his 2014 and 2020 climbs.The glaciers are thinning in addition to losing areal coverage,and do not have active accumulation zones; retreat occurs on all glacier surfaces. Loss of glacier mass is caused by both melting andsublimation.While the current shrinking and thinning of Kilimanjaro's ice fields appear to be unique within its almost twelve-millennium history, it is contemporaneous with widespreadglacier retreatin mid-to-low latitudes across the globe.In 2013, it was estimated that, at the currentrate of global warming, most of the ice on Kilimanjaro will disappear by 2040, and \"it is highly unlikely that any ice body will remain after 2060\".: 430 The Furtwangler Glacier on Kilimanjaro is a remnant of the ice cap that once covered the mountain. This has retreated dramatically over the last century with over 80 percent glacial retreat. The glacier is named after Walter Furtwangler, who along with Ziegfried Koenig, was the fourth to ascend to the summit of Kilimanjaro in 1912. A complete disappearance of the ice would be of only \"negligible importance\" to the water budget of the area around the mountain. The forests of Kilimanjaro, far below the ice fields, \"are essential water reservoirs for the local and regional populations\". Drainage Kilimanjaro is drained by a network of rivers and streams, especially on the wetter and more heavily eroded southern side and especially above 1,200 m (3,900 ft). Below that altitude, increased evaporation and human water usage reduce the water flows. TheLumiandPanganirivers drain Kilimanjaro on the eastern and southern sides, respectively. IUGS geological heritage site In respect of it being 'the higheststratovolcanoof the East African Rift that maintains a glacier on its summit', theInternational Union of Geological Sciences(IUGS) included 'The Pleistocene Kilimanjaro volcano' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organization defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.' Human history Chagga states Kilimanjaro is attested to in numerous stories by the people who live in East Africa. TheChagga, who traditionally lived on the southern and eastern slopes of the mountain in sovereignChagga states, tell how a man named Tone once provoked a god, Ruwa, to bring famine upon the land. The people became angry at Tone, forcing him to flee. Nobody wanted to protect him but a solitary dweller who had stones that turned miraculously into cattle. The dweller bid that Tone never open the stable of the cattle. When Tone did not heed the warning and the cattle escaped, Tone followed them, but the fleeing cattle threw up hills to run on, including Mawenzi and Kibo. Tone finally collapsed on Kibo, ending the pursuit. Another Chagga legend tells of ivory-filled graves of elephants on the mountain, and of a cow named Rayli that produces miraculous fat from her tail glands. If a man tries to steal such a gland but is too slow in his moves, Rayli will blast a powerful snort and blow the thief down onto the plain. Early records The mountain may have been known to non-Africans sinceantiquity. Sailors' reports recorded byPtolemymention a \"moon mountain\" and a spring lake of the Nile, which may indicate Kilimanjaro, although available historical information does not allow differentiation among others in East Africa likeMount Kenya, the mountains ofEthiopia, theVirunga Mountains, theRwenzori Mountains, and Kilimanjaro. Before Ptolemy,AeschylusandHerodotusreferred to \"Egypt nurtured by the snows\" and to a spring between two mountains, respectively. One of these mentions two tall mountains in the coastal regions with a valley with traces of fire between them.Martín Fernández de Enciso, a Spanish traveler toMombasawho obtained information about the interior from native caravans, said in hisSumma de Geografía(1519) that west of Mombasa \"stands the Ethiopian Mount Olympus, which is exceedingly high, and beyond it are the Mountains of the Moon, in which are the sources of the Nile\".: 1–5: 114 European exploration The German missionariesJohannes Rebmannof Mombasa andJohann Krapfwere the first Europeans known to have attempted to reach the mountain. According to English geographerHalford Mackinderand English explorerHarry Johnston, Rebmann in 1848 was the first European to report the existence of Kilimanjaro.Hans Meyer has claimed that Rebmann first arrived in Africa in 1846 and quotes Rebmann's diary entry of 11 May 1848 as saying, This morning, at 10 o'clock, we obtained a clearer view of the mountains of Jagga, the summit of one of which was covered by what looked like a beautiful white cloud. When I inquired as to the dazzling whiteness, the guide merely called it 'cold' and at once I knew it could be neither more nor less than snow.... Immediately I understood how to interpret the marvelous tales Dr. Krapf and I had heard at the coast, of a vast mountain of gold and silver in the far interior, the approach to which was guarded by evil spirits.: 6 In August 1861, the Prussian officer BaronKarl Klaus von der Deckenaccompanied by English geologist Richard Thorntonattempted to climb Kibo but \"got no farther than 2,500 m (8,200 ft) owing to the inclemency of the weather\".: 9In December 1862, von der Decken tried a second time together withOtto Kersten, reaching a height of 4,300 m (14,000 ft). In August 1871, missionary Charles New became the \"first European to reach the equatorial snows\" on Kilimanjaro at an elevation of slightly more than 4,000 m (13,000 ft).: 11In June 1887, the Hungarian CountSámuel Telekiand the Austrian LieutenantLudwig von Höhnelmade an attempt to climb the mountain. Approaching from the saddle between Mawenzi and Kibo, Höhnel stopped at 4,950 m (16,240 ft), but Teleki continued until he reached the snow at 5,300 m (17,400 ft).Later in 1887, the German geology professor Hans Meyer reached the lower edge of the ice cap on Kibo, where he was forced to turn back because he lacked the equipment needed to progress across the ice.: 81The following year, Meyer planned another attempt withOscar Baumann, acartographer, but the mission was aborted after the pair were held hostage and ransomed during theAbushiri Revolt.: 82In the autumn of 1888, the American naturalist Abbott and the German explorerOtto Ehrenfried Ehlersapproached the summit from the northwest. While Abbott turned back earlier, Ehlers at first claimed to have reached the summit rim, but after severe criticism of the claim, withdrew it.: 17–19 In 1889, Meyer returned to Kilimanjaro with the Austrian mountaineerLudwig Purtschellerfor a third attempt.: 82This attempt was based on the establishment of several campsites with food supplies so that multiple attempts at the top could be made without having to descend too far.: 82Meyer and Purtscheller pushed to near the crater rim on 3 October but turned back exhausted from hacking footsteps in the icy slope.: 82Three days later, they reached the highest summit, on the southern rim of the crater.: 82They were the first to confirm that Kibo has a crater.: 82After descending to the saddle between Kibo and Mawenzi, Meyer and Purtscheller attempted to climb the more technically challenging Mawenzi but could only reach the top of Klute Peak, a subsidiary peak, before retreating due to illness.: 84On 18 October, they reascended Kibo to enter and study the crater, cresting the rim at Hans Meyers Notch.: 84In total, Meyer and Purtscheller spent 16 days above 4,600 m (15,000 ft) during their expedition.: 84They were accompanied in their high camps by Mwini Amani ofPangani, who cooked and supplied the sites with water and firewood.: 135–186 The first ascent of the highest summit of Mawenzi was made on 29 July 1912, by the German climbersEduard Hans OehlerandFritz Klute, who named it Hans Meyer Peak. Oehler and Klute went on to make the third-ever ascent of Kibo, via theDrygalski Glacier, and descended via the Western Breach.: 85The mountain lent its name to the 1914Battle of KilimanjaroduringWorld War I. In 1989, the organizing committee of the 100-year celebration of the first ascent decided to award posthumous certificates to the African porter-guides who had accompanied Meyer and Purtscheller.One person in pictures or documents of the 1889 expedition was thought to match a living inhabitant ofMarangu, Yohani Kinyala Lauwo.Lauwo did not know his own age,nor remember Meyer or Purtscheller. He did recall joining a Kilimanjaro expedition involving a Dutch doctor who lived near the mountain, and that he did not wear shoes during the climb.Lauwo claimed that he had climbed the mountain three times before the beginning ofWorld War I.The committee concluded that he had been a member of Meyer's team and therefore must have been born around 1871.Lauwo died on 10 May 1996, 107 years after the first ascent. It is sometimes suggested that he was a co-first-ascendant of Kilimanjaro. Fauna and flora Animals Large animals are rare on Kilimanjaro and are more frequent in the forests and lower parts of the mountain.ElephantsandCape buffaloesare among the animals that can be potentially hazardous to trekkers.Bushbucks,chameleons,dik-diks,duikers,mongooses,sunbirds, andwarthogshave also been reported.Zebras,leopardsandhyenashave been observed sporadically on the Shira plateau.Specific species associated with the mountain include theKilimanjaro shrewand the chameleonKinyongia tavetana. Vegetation Natural forests cover about 1,000 km2(250,000 acres) on Kilimanjaro.In the foothill area,maize, beans,sunflowersand, on the western side, wheat are cultivated. There are remnants of the formersavannavegetation withAcacia,Combretum,TerminaliaandGrewia. Between 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and 1,800 m (5,900 ft), coffee appears as part of the \"Chaggahome gardens\"agroforestry. Native vegetation at this altitude range (Strombosia,Newtonia, andEntandrophragma) is limited to inaccessible valleys and gorgesand is different from vegetation at higher altitudes. On the southern slope,montane forestsfirst containOcotea usambarensisas well asfernsandepiphytes; farther up incloud forestsPodocarpus latifolius,Hagenia abyssinicaandErica excelsagrow, as well as fog-dependent mosses. On the drier northern slopesolive,Croton-Calodendrum,Cassipourea, andJuniperusform forests in order of increasing altitude. Between 3,100 m (10,200 ft) and 3,900 m (12,800 ft) lieEricabush and heathlands, followed byHelichrysum, until 4,500 m (14,800 ft).Neophyteshave been observed, includingPoa annua. Records from the Maundi crater at 2,780 m (9,120 ft) indicate that the vegetation of Kilimanjaro has varied over time. Forest vegetation retreated during the Last Glacial Maximum and the ericaceous vegetation belt lowered by 1,500 m (4,900 ft) between 42,000 and 30,000 years ago because of the drier and colder conditions. The Tussock Grassland is an area on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro that contains many unique species of vegetation, such as thewater holding cabbage. Climate The climate of Kilimanjaro is influenced by the height of the mountain, which allows the simultaneous influence of the equatorialtrade windsand the high altitudeanti-trades, and by the isolated position of the mountain. Kilimanjaro hasdaily upslope and nightly downslope winds, a regimen stronger on the southern than the northern side of the mountain. The flatter southern flanks are more extended and affect the atmosphere more strongly.: 3–4 Kilimanjaro has two distinct rainy seasons, one from March to May and another around November. The northern slopes receive much less rainfall than the southern ones.The lower southern slope receives 800 to 900 mm (31 to 35 in) annually, rising to 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59 to 79 in) at 1,500 m (4,900 ft) altitude and peaking \"partly over\" 3,000 mm (120 in) in the forest belt at 2,000 to 2,300 m (6,600 to 7,500 ft). In the alpine zone, annual precipitation decreases to 200 mm (7.9 in).: 18 The average temperature in the summit area is approximately −7 °C (19 °F). Nighttime surface temperatures on theNorthern Ice Field(NIF) fall on average to −9 °C (16 °F), with an average daytime high of −4 °C (25 °F). During nights of extremeradiational cooling, the NIF can cool to as low as −15 to −27 °C (5 to −17 °F).: 674 Snowfall can occur at any time of year but is mostly associated with northern Tanzania's two rainy seasons.: 673Precipitation in the summit area occurs principally as snow andgraupelof 250 to 500 mm (9.8 to 19.7 in) per year and ablates within days or years. Climatic zones Tourism industry Kilimanjaro National Parkgenerated US$51 million in revenue in 2013,: 285the second-most of any Tanzanian national park.: 258The Tanzania National Parks Authority reported that the park recorded 57,456 tourists during the 2011–12 budget year, of whom 16,425 hiked the mountain; the park's General Management Plan specifies an annual capacity of 28,470.The mountain hikers generated irregular and seasonal jobs for about 11,000 guides, porters, and cooks in 2007.Concerns have been raised about the poor working conditions and inadequate wages of these workers.: 287–291: 259Due to Kilimanjaro National Park's popularity as a destination, the Tanzanian government has invested in road infrastructure to improve accessibility. In Tanzania,Kilimanjaro International Airportalso serves as an important transportation hub. There are seven official trekking routes by which to ascend and descend Kilimanjaro: Lemosho, Lemosho Western-Breach, Machame, Marangu, Mweka, Rongai, Shira, and Umbwe.The Machame route can be completed in six or seven days,Lemosho in six to eight, and the Northern Circuit routes in seven or more days.The Lemosho Route can also be continued via the Western-Breach, submitting via the western side of the mountain. The Western Breach is more secluded and avoids the 6-hour midnight ascent to the summit (like other routes). The Rongai is the easiest of the camping routes.The Marangu is also relatively easy, if frequently busy; accommodation is in shared huts.The Lemosho Western-Breach Route commences on the western side of Kilimanjaro at Lemosho and continues to the summit via the Western-Breach Route. Climbing records The oldest person to climb Mount Kilimanjaro isAnne Lorimor, aged 89 years and 37 days, who reached Uhuru Peak at 3:14p.m. local time on 18 July 2019.The oldest man to summit is AmericanFred Dishelhorst, who reached the top on 19 July 2017 at the age of 88 years old.The second oldest man to summit the mountain is the American Robert Wheeler, who was 85 years and 201 days when he summited on 2 October 2014.Maxwell J. Ojerholm of Massachusetts, USA, reached Uhuru Peak, the true summit, unassisted, at the age of ten years, on July 4, 2009, taking the difficult Machame Route. Colin M. Barker of Missouri, USA, later completed the same route at the age of ten years on December 22, 2020.Theodore Margarolifrom London, age 10, reached the summit unassisted by the Western Breach, the hardest but most scenic route, in 2019.Despite an age-limit of 10 years for a climbing permit, Keats Boyd from Los Angeles reached the summit on 21 January 2008 at the age of 7.This record was equaled by Montannah Kenney from Texas in March 2018 and again in July 2018 by Coaltan Tanner from New Mexico.The fastest ascent and the fastest round trip have been recorded by the Swiss-Ecuadorian mountain guideKarl Egloff. On 13 August 2014, after guiding a party to the summit the previous days, he ran from Umbwe Gate to the top in 4 hours and 56 minutes and returned to the Mweka Gate at 1,630 m (5,350 ft) in a total time of 6 hours, 42 minutes and 24 seconds.Previous records, using the same route, were held by Spanish mountain runnerKílian Jornet(ascent in 5:23:50, round trip 7:14 on 29 September 2010) and by Tanzanian guide Simon Mtuy (an unsupported round trip in 9:21 on 22 February 2006). The female round trip record is held by Fernanda Maciel from Brazil in a time of 10 hours and 6 minutes.Her ascent time of 7:08 was broken on 23 February 2018 by the Danish ultramarathon runner Kristina Schou Madsen with a time of 6:52:54 from Mweka Gate. Several climbs by disabled people have drawn attention. Wheelchair user Bernard Goosen from South Africa scaled Kilimanjaro in six days in 2007. In 2012,Kyle Maynardwho has no forearms or lower legs, crawled unassisted to the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro. In 2020, a team featuring two double above-knee amputees,Hari Budha Magarand Justin Oliver Davis, summited Kilimanjaro. It took them six days to cover the 56 km (35 mi) distance to the summit. Safety Though the climb is not technically as challenging as theHimalayasorAndes, the high elevation, low temperature, and occasional high winds can make Kilimanjaro a difficult trek. Acclimatization is required, and even experienced and physically fit trekkers may suffer some degree ofaltitude sickness.A study of people attempting to reach the summit of Kilimanjaro in July and August 2005 found that 61.3 percent succeeded and 77 percent experienced acute mountain sickness (AMS).A retrospective study of 917 persons who attempted to reach the summit via the Lemosho or Machame routes found that 70.4 percent experienced AMS, defined in this study to be headache, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, or loss of appetite. Kilimanjaro's summit is well above the altitude at which life-threateninghigh altitude pulmonary edema(HAPE) orhigh altitude cerebral edema(HACE), the most severe forms of AMS, can occur.These health risks are increased substantially by excessively fast climbing schedules motivated by high daily national park fees, busy holiday travel schedules, and the lack of permanent shelter on most routes.The six-day Machame route, which involves one day of \"climbing high\" to Lava Tower (4,630 m (15,190 ft) and \"sleeping low\" at Barranco Camp (3,976 m (13,044 ft)), may delay the onset of AMS but does not ultimately prevent its occurrence. Falls on steep portions of the mountain and rock slides have killed trekkers. For this reason, the route via theArrow Glacierwas closed for several years, reopening in December 2007. Now again it officially closed as of January 20th 2024. Due to strong El Niño, the Western Breach has washed down the mountain. This huge runoff has carved new ravines on the slopes and seems to be dislodging the sediment that cements the rock together, disrupting the rock stability. At the route's base, rain water has opened new drainages and there is an active, flowing river through the Arrow Glacier Camp were there has been no water at all for decades.The improper disposal of human waste on the mountain environment has created a health hazard, necessitating the boiling of all water. According to the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Moshi, 25 people died from January 1996 to October 2003 while climbing the mountain. Seventeen were female and eight were male, ranging in age from 29 to 74. Fourteen died from advanced high altitude illness, including one withHACE, five withHAPE, and six with both HACE and HAPE. The remaining eleven deaths resulted from \"trauma (3),myocardial infarction(4),pneumonia(2), cardio-pulmonary failure of other underlying cause (1), and acuteappendicitis(1). The overall mortality rate was 13.6 per 100,000 climbers.\" In literature and film Kilimanjaro is a snow-covered mountain 19,710 feet high, and is said to be the highest mountain in Africa. Its western summit is called the Masai 'Ngaje Ngai', the House of God. Close to the western summit there is a dried and frozen carcas of a leopard. No one has explained what the leopard was seeking at that altitude. —Ernest Hemingway's \"riddle\" preceding his 1936 short storyThe Snows of Kilimanjaro JournalistTom Bissellnoted that Kilimanjaro is \"perhaps the world’s most literary mountain\".The mountain is prominently featured inErnest Hemingway's 1936 short storyThe Snows of Kilimanjaro, which was adapted into a1952 filmstarringGregory Peck.Dave Eggerswrote about his ascent in the short storyUp the Mountain Coming Down Slowly.WriterDouglas Adamsclimbed the mountain in a rubber rhinoceros suit to raise money forAfrican rhinoconservation efforts. Kilimanjaro was featured inToto's 1982 song \"Africa\".An IMAX film documenting an ascent—Kilimanjaro: To The Roof Of Africa—was released in 2002. See also References Citations Works cited Academic articles Books External links",
"Mount Katahdin Mount Katahdin(/kəˈtɑːdɪn/kə-TAH-din) is the highest mountain in theU.S. stateofMaineat 5,269 feet (1,606 m). NamedKatahdin, which means \"Great Mountain\",by thePenobscotNative Americans, it is withinNortheast Piscataquis,Piscataquis County, and is the centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. It is a steep, tallmassifformed from agranite intrusionweathered to the surface. The flora and fauna on the mountain are typical of those found in northernNew England, with the summit hosting fragile and endangered alpine tundra. Katahdin was known to theNative Americansin the region and was known to Europeans at least since 1689. It has inspired hikes, climbs, journal narratives, paintings, and a piano sonata.The area around the peak was protected by GovernorPercival Baxterstarting in the 1930s. Katahdin is the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trailand is near a stretch known as theHundred-Mile Wilderness. Though part of the Appalachian Mountain system, Katahdin is isolated from the range, and sits largely on its own as amonadnock. The nearest higher mountains in any direction are the high peaks of thePresidential Range, around 170 miles (270 km) to the south-west. In 1967, Mount Katahdin was designated as aNational Natural Landmarkby theNational Park Service. The mountain is commonly called just \"Katahdin\",though the official name is \"Mount Katahdin\" as decided by theUS Board on Geographic Namesin 1893. Geology Katahdin is part of alaccoliththat formed in theAcadian orogenywhen anisland arccollided with easternNorth Americaapproximately 400 million years ago. On the sides of Katahdin are four glacialcirquescarved into the granite by alpineglaciersand in these cirques behindmorainesandeskersare several ponds. In Baxter State Park, many outcrops ofsedimentary rockshavestriations, whereas KatahdinGraniteand TravelerRhyolitelavahave weathered surfaces on which striations are commonly not preserved. Bedrock surfaces ofigneous rockswhich were buried by glacial sediments and only recently exposed have well preserved striations, as in the vicinity ofRipogenusDam. Several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the Patten Road show striations, especially on the north side of the road at Hurricane Deck. A few outcrops near the Pattern Road just north of Horse Mountain are striated, as are several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the road from Trout Brook Farm northward toSecond Lake Matagamon. Fauna Faunaincludeblack bear,deer, andmooseas well asblack fliesandmosquitosin the spring. A subspecies of Arctic butterfly, known as the Katahdin Arctic (Oeneis polixeneskatahdin) is specific to the area, and is currently listed as endangered.Among the birds areBicknell's thrushand various songbirds and raptors. A study of the animal communities was published by Irving H. Blake in 1926.The flora includespine,spruce,fir,hemlock,beech,maple,birch,aspen, andpincushion plant(Diapensia lapponica). Geography Katahdin is in Baxter State Park, which is in east central Piscataquis County, about 25 mi (40 km) northwest ofMillinocket. It is on thedrainage dividebetween theEastandWest branchesof thePenobscot River. The mountain massif itself consists of multiple peaks. Baxter Peak is the tallest, and is the official northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail. South Peak and Pamola Peak are southeast and east of Baxter Peak, respectively, along the Knife Edge ridgeline, whileHamlin Peaklies to the north. There is low lake country to the south and west of Katahdin, and lowlands extending east to the Atlantic and north to theSaint Lawrence RiverinCanada. It is commonly thought that Katahdin is the first place in the United States mainland to receive sunlight in the morning, but this is incorrect. Other mountains lower in elevation but farther to the east or southeast see the first sunrise of the day, depending on the season.Regardless, the summit of Katahdin offers some of the longest unbroken lines of sight in the United States, and on clear days can be seen all the way from theWhite Mountainsof neighboringNew Hampshire; a distance of 170 miles (270 km). Katahdin's height and isolation earns it significant coverage in indigenous and post-colonial Maine culture and literature. Katahdin's profile is distinctive and the indisputable centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. Katahdin and nearby Hamlin Peak are the only two areas to host a subarctic climate and alpine vegetation inMaine. In winter, the snowcapped east and west faces of Katahdin resemble \"theKilimanjaroof New England\", and it dominates the otherwise flat and endless forests of theNorth Maine Woods. Katahdin is also the northernmost mountain in the eastern United States with an elevation over 4,000 feet (1,200 m). Climate Human history Katahdin is referred to 60 years after Field's climb of Agiokochuk (Mount Washington) in the writings ofJohn Gyles, a teenage colonist who was captured nearPortland, Maine, in 1689 by theAbenaki. While in the company of Abenaki hunting parties, he traveled up and down several Maine rivers including both branches of thePenobscot, passing close to \"Teddon\". He remarked that it was higher than theWhite Hillsabove theSaco River. Among someNative Americans, Katahdin was believed to be the home of the storm godPamola, and thus an area to be avoided. The first recorded climb of \"Catahrdin\" was by Massachusetts surveyors Zackery AdleyandCharles Turner, Jr.in August 1804.The letter describing the ascent of Charles Turner Jr. states that they began at the (West Branch Penobscot) at 8:00 a.m. and arrived on the summit at 5:00 p.m. guided by two Native Americans who were initially cautious but when the \"cold part of the mountain\" was reached and sensing the determination of the others became ambitious to reach the top first. Turner lists his party as: William Howe, Amos Patten, Joseph Treat, Samuel Call, William Rice, Richard Winslow, Charles Turner, Jr. In the 1930sGovernorPercival Baxterbegan to acquire land and finally deeded more than 200,000acres(810 km2) to the State of Maine for a park, namedBaxter State Parkafter him. The summit was officially recognized by theUS Board on Geographic Namesas \"Baxter Peak\" in 1931. In the 1840sHenry David Thoreauclimbed Katahdin, which he spelled \"Ktaadn\"; his ascent is recorded in a well-known chapter ofThe Maine Woods.A few years laterTheodore Winthropwrote about his visit inLife in the Open Air. PaintersFrederic Edwin ChurchandMarsden Hartleyare well-known artists who created landscapes of Katahdin. On 30 November 2011, Christie's auctioned Church's 1860 paintingTwilight (Katahdin)for $3.1 million. Elizabeth Oakes Smith\"climbed Mount Katahdin in 1849—reportedly the first white woman to do so\". Recreation opportunities As the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trailand southern terminus of theInternational Appalachian Trail, Katahdin is a popular hiking and backpacking destination and the centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. Baxter State Park is open year-round, though strictly regulated in winter. The overnight camping season is, weather permitting, from May 15 to October 15 each year, with some campgrounds staying open until October 22. Capacity limits have been placed on day use parking at the trailheads to minimize the overuse of trails. Mt. Katahdin has several trails leading up to Baxter, Pamola, or Hamlin PeaksThese trails start right up the mountain, but each trail on the mountain ends up taking eight to ten hours round-trip depending on ability. Even for experienced hikers, Katahdin is often considered one of the most challenging hikes in the entireAppalachian Mountainrange.The rest of the trails go up the north side or west side of the mountain. These are accessed from the Chimney Pond Trail. For these trails, hikers must park at the Roaring Brook Campground and hike in. All trails are maintained by the Baxter State Park Authority, which runs the State Park. All of the trails on the mountain are classified as very strenuous, the highest classification the Park Authority gives, except for Saddle (strenuous), Hamlin Ridge trail (moderate), and Chimney Pond (moderate). The most famous hike to the summit goes along Knife Edge, a glacialarêtewhich traverses the ridge between Pamola Peak and Baxter Peak. There have been more than 60 deaths on Katahdin since 1933 including October 8 and 9, 2020.The park as a whole typically sees a need for roughly 40 search-and-rescue events per year (1 in 2,000 hikers), with a peak of 70 in 2013. The vast majority of incidents occur in the summer months, and the primary causes are leg injury, exhaustion, dehydration and disorientation.Because of this, Katahdin and not-so-nearbyMount Washingtonroutinely near the top of the most deadly \"low mountains\" on Earth, with more fatalities per foot of elevation gained than some much higher mountains in theHimalaya. Namesakes See also References External links"
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"Mount Kilimanjaro Mount Kilimanjaro(/ˌkɪlɪmənˈdʒɑːroʊ/)is adormant volcanoinTanzania. It is thehighest mountain in Africaand thehighest free-standing mountain above sea level in the world: 5,895 m (19,341 ft) above sea level and 4,900 m (16,100 ft) above its plateau base. It is also thehighest volcanoin theEastern Hemisphereand thefourth most topographically prominentpeak on Earth. Kilimanjaro's southern and eastern slopes served as the home of theChagga Kingdomsuntil their abolition in 1963 byJulius Nyerere. The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is unknown, but may mean \"mountain of greatness\" or refer to its snowy peak or a mountain deity. Although described inclassicalsources, Germany missionaryJohannes Rebmannis credited as the first European to report the mountain's extistence, in 1848. After several European attempts,Hans Meyerreached Kilimanjaro's highest summit in 1889. The mountain was incorporated intoKilimanjaro National Parkin 1973. As one of theSeven Summits, Kilimanjaro is a major",
"is a major hiking and climbing destination. There areseven established routesto Uhuru Peak, the mountain's highest point. Although not as technically challenging as similar mountains, the prominence of Kilimanjaro poses a serious risk ofaltitude sickness. One ofseveral mountainsarising from theEast African Rift, Kilimanjaro was formed from volcanic activity over 2 million years ago. Its slopes hostmontane forestsandcloud forests. Multiple species areendemicto Mount Kilimanjaro, including thegiant groundselDendrosenecio kilimanjari. The mountain possesses a largeice capand the largest glaciers in Africa, includingCredner Glacier,Furtwängler Glacier, and theRebmann Glacier. This ice cap is rapidly shrinking, with over 80% lost in the 20th century. The cap is projected to disappear entirely by the mid-21st century. Toponymy The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is disputed. Although theChagga peopleof theKilimanjaro regionhave no name for the mountain, they call its two peaksKipooandKimawenze. The",
"The peaks' names—usually rendered Kibo and Mawenzi—mean \"spotted\" in reference to Kibo's snow and \"broken top\" due to Mawenzi's jagged peak.\"Kilimanjaro\" may originate from the Chagga calling the mountain unclimbable—kilemajyaro—and explorers misinterpreting this as the mountain's name. Early Western etymologies used a compoundSwahiliorigin, withkilimatranslated as \"mountain\".In 1860,Johann Ludwig Krapfwrote that theSwahilisused the name Kilimanjaro and that it meant either \"mountain of greatness\" or \"mountain of caravans\", with a translation ofnjaroas greatness orjaroas \"caravans\".In 1885, Scottish explorerJoseph Thomsonreported \"white mountain\" as an alternative, withnjarodenoting whiteness.Similarly, Krapf mentions an 1849 visit with aWakambachief that called the mountainKima jajeu, meaning \"mountain of whiteness\". These etymologies are criticized askilimais adiminutiveofmlima(mountain) and actually means \"hill\". However,mlimamay have been misintrepreted askilimavia conflation with the two peaks'",
"with the two peaks' names,KipooandKimawenze. Alternatively, thekileman-part of Kilimanjaro may originate from theKichaggakileme, \"that which defeats\", orkilelema, \"that which has become difficult or impossible\". The-jarocould be derived fromnjaare, a bird, or fromjyaro, a caravan. Another explanation is thatjyaromay refer to a god or a deity that guarded the mountain from tresspassers. In the 1880s, the mountain became part ofGerman East Africaand was calledKilima-Ndscharoin German.In 1889,Hans Meyerreached the highest summit on Kibo, which he namedKaiser-Wilhelm-SpitzeforKaiser Wilhelm.Following theZanzibar Revolutionand the formation ofTanzaniain 1964, the summit was renamed Uhuru Peak: \"Freedom Peak\" in Swahili. Geology and geography Kilimanjaro is a large dormantstratovolcanocomposed of three distinct volcanic cones: Kibo, the highest; Mawenzi at 5,149 m (16,893 ft);and Shira, the lowest at 4,005 m (13,140 ft).Mawenzi and Shira areextinct, while Kibo isdormantand could erupt again. Uhuru Peak is the",
"Uhuru Peak is the highest summit on Kibo's crater rim. TheTanzania National Parks Authority, a Tanzanian government agency,and theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizationlists the height of Uhuru Peak as 5,895 m (19,341 ft), based on aBritish surveyin 1952.The height has since been measured as 5,892 m (19,331 ft) in 1999, 5,902 m (19,364 ft) in 2008, and 5,899 m (19,354 ft) in 2014. A map of the Kibo cone on Mount Kilimanjaro was published by the British government'sDirectorate of Overseas Surveys(DOS) in 1964 based on aerial photography conducted in 1962 as the \"Subset of Kilimanjaro, East Africa (Tanganyika) Series Y742, Sheet 56/2, D.O.S. 422 1964, Edition 1, Scale 1:50,000\".Tourist mapping was first published by theOrdnance Surveyin England in 1989 based on the original DOS mapping at a scale of 1:100,000, with 100 ft (30 m) contour intervals, as DOS 522.West Col Productions produced a map with tourist information in 1990, at a scale of 1:75,000, with 100 m (330 ft) contour",
"m (330 ft) contour intervals; it included inset maps of Kibo and Mawenzi on 1:20,000 and 1:30,000 scales respectively and with 50 m (160 ft) contour intervals.In recent years, numerous other maps have become available, of various qualities. Volcanology The volcanic interior of Kilimanjaro is poorly known because there has not been any significant erosion to expose theigneousstrata that comprise the volcano's structure. Eruptive activity at the Shira center commenced about 2.5 million years ago, with the last important phase occurring about 1.9 million years ago, just before the northern part of the edifice collapsed.Shira is topped by a broadhigh plainat 3,800 m (12,500 ft), which may be a filledcaldera. The remnant caldera rim has been degraded deeply by erosion. Before the caldera formed and erosion began, Shira might have been between 4,900 and 5,200 m (16,100 and 17,100 ft) high. It is mostly composed of basaltic lavas, with somepyroclastics. The formation of the caldera was accompanied by lava emanating",
"by lava emanating fromring fractures, but there was no large-scaleexplosive activity. Two cones formed subsequently, thephonoliticone at the northwest end of the ridge and thedoleriticPlatzkegel in the caldera center. Both Mawenzi and Kibo began erupting about 1 million years ago.They are separated by the Saddle Plateau at 4,400 m (14,400 ft) elevation.: 3 The youngest dated rocks at Mawenzi are about 448,000 years old.Mawenzi forms a horseshoe-shaped ridge withpinnaclesand ridges opening to the northeast, with a tower-like shape resulting from deep erosion and amaficdike swarm. Several largecirquescut into the ring and the largest of these sits on top of the Great Barranco gorge. Also notable are the East and West Barrancos on the northeastern side of the mountain. Most of the eastern side of the mountain has been removed by erosion. Mawenzi has asubsidiary peak, Neumann Tower, 4,425 m (14,518 ft). Kibo is the largest cone on the mountain and is more than 24 km (15 mi) wide at the Saddle Plateau altitude.",
"Plateau altitude. The last activity here, dated to 150,000–200,000 years ago, created the current Kibo summit crater. Kibo still has gas-emittingfumarolesin its crater.Kibo is capped by an almost symmetrical cone withescarpmentsrising 180 to 200 m (590 to 660 ft) on the south side. These escarpments define a 2.5 km-wide (1.6 mi) calderacaused by the collapse of the summit. Within this caldera is the Inner Cone and within the crater of the Inner Cone is the Reusch Crater, which the Tanganyika government in 1954 named after Gustav Otto Richard Reusch, upon his climbing the mountain for the 25th time (out of 65 attempts during his lifetime).The Ash Pit, 350 m (1,150 ft) deep, lies within the Reusch Crater.About 100,000 years ago, part of Kibo's crater rim collapsed, creating the area known as theWestern Breachand the Great Barranco. An almost continuous layer of lava buries most older geological features, except exposedstratawithin the Great West Notch and the Kibo Barranco. The former exposes intrusions",
"exposes intrusions ofsyenite.Kibo has five main lava formations: Kibo has more than 250parasitic coneson its northwest and southeast flanks that were formed between 150,000 and 200,000 years agoand eruptedpicrobasalts,trachybasalts,ankaramites, andbasanites.They reach as far asLake ChalaandTavetain the southeast and the Lengurumani Plain in the northwest. Most of these cones are well preserved, except the Saddle Plateau cones which were heavily affected by glacial action. Despite their mostly small size, lava from the cones has obscured large portions of the mountain. The Saddle Plateau cones are mostly cinder cones with terminal effusion of lava, while the Upper Rombo Zone cones mostly generated lava flows. All Saddle Plateau cones predate the last glaciation. According to reports gathered in the 19th century from theMaasai, Lake Chala on Kibo's eastern flank was the site of a village that was destroyed by an eruption. Glaciers Kibo'sdiminishingice cap exists because Kilimanjaro is a little-dissected,",
"a little-dissected, massive mountain that rises above thesnow line. The cap is divergent and at the edges splits into individual glaciers. The central portion of the ice cap is interrupted by the presence of the Kibo crater.: 5The summit glaciers and ice fields do not display significant horizontal movements because their low thickness precludes major deformation. Geological evidence shows five successive glacial episodes during theQuaternaryperiod, namely First (500,000BP), Second (greater than 360,000 years ago to 240,000 BP), Third (150,000 to 120,000 BP), Fourth (also known as \"Main\") (20,000 to 17,000 BP), and Little (16,000 to 14,000 BP). The Third may have been the most extensive, and the Little appears to be statistically indistinguishable from the Fourth. A continuous ice cap covering approximately 400 km2(150 sq mi) down to an elevation of 3,200 m (10,500 ft) covered Kilimanjaro during theLast Glacial Maximumin thePleistoceneepoch (the Main glacial episode), extending across the summits of Kibo and",
"summits of Kibo and Mawenzi.Because of the exceptionally prolonged dry conditions during the subsequentYounger Dryasstadial, the ice fields on Kilimanjaro may have become extinct around 11,500 years BP.Ice corestaken from Kilimanjaro's Northern Ice Field (NIF) indicates that the glaciers there have a basal age of about 11,700 years,although an analysis of ice taken in 2011 from exposed vertical cliffs in the NIF supports an age extending only to 800 years BP.Higher precipitation rates at the beginningof theHoloceneepoch (11,500 years BP) allowed the ice cap to reform.The glaciers survived a widespread drought during a three century period beginning around 4,000 years BP. In the late 1880s, the summit of Kibo was completely covered by an ice cap about 20 km2(7.7 sq mi) in extent with outlet glaciers cascading down the western and southern slopes, and except for the inner cone, the entire caldera was buried. Glacier ice also flowed through the Western Breach.The slope glaciers retreated rapidly between 1912",
"between 1912 and 1953, in response to a sudden shift in climate at the end of the 19th century that made them \"drastically out of equilibrium\", and more slowly thereafter. Their continuing demise indicates they are still out of equilibrium in response to a constant change in climate over the past century. In contrast to the persistent slope glaciers, the glaciers on Kilimanjaro's crater plateau have appeared and disappeared repeatedly during the Holocene epoch, with each cycle lasting a few hundred years.: 1088It appears that decreasing specific humidity instead of temperature changes has caused the shrinkage of the slope glaciers since the late 19th century. No clear warming trend at the elevation of those glaciers occurred between 1948 and 2005. Although air temperatures at that elevation are always below freezing, solar radiation causes melting on vertical faces. Vertical ice margin walls are a unique characteristic of the summit glaciers and a major place of the shrinkage of the glaciers. They manifest",
"They manifest stratifications,calving, and other ice features.\"There is no pathway for the plateau glaciers other than to continuously retreat once their vertical margins are exposed to solar radiation.\"The Kilimanjaro glaciers have been used for deriving ice core records, including two from the southern icefield. Based on this data, this icefield formed between 1,250 and 1,450 years BP. Almost 85 percent of the ice cover on Kilimanjaro disappeared between October 1912 and June 2011, with coverage decreasing from 11.40 km2(4.40 sq mi) to 1.76 km2(0.68 sq mi).: 423Between 1912 and 1953, there was about a 1.1 percent average annual loss of ice coverage.The average annual loss for 1953 to 1989 was 1.4 percent, while the loss rate for 1989 to 2007 was 2.5 percent.Of the ice cover still present in 2000, almost 40 percent had disappeared by 2011.: 425Ice climber Will Gadd noticed differences between his 2014 and 2020 climbs.The glaciers are thinning in addition to losing areal coverage,and do not have active",
"do not have active accumulation zones; retreat occurs on all glacier surfaces. Loss of glacier mass is caused by both melting andsublimation.While the current shrinking and thinning of Kilimanjaro's ice fields appear to be unique within its almost twelve-millennium history, it is contemporaneous with widespreadglacier retreatin mid-to-low latitudes across the globe.In 2013, it was estimated that, at the currentrate of global warming, most of the ice on Kilimanjaro will disappear by 2040, and \"it is highly unlikely that any ice body will remain after 2060\".: 430 The Furtwangler Glacier on Kilimanjaro is a remnant of the ice cap that once covered the mountain. This has retreated dramatically over the last century with over 80 percent glacial retreat. The glacier is named after Walter Furtwangler, who along with Ziegfried Koenig, was the fourth to ascend to the summit of Kilimanjaro in 1912. A complete disappearance of the ice would be of only \"negligible importance\" to the water budget of the area around the",
"the area around the mountain. The forests of Kilimanjaro, far below the ice fields, \"are essential water reservoirs for the local and regional populations\". Drainage Kilimanjaro is drained by a network of rivers and streams, especially on the wetter and more heavily eroded southern side and especially above 1,200 m (3,900 ft). Below that altitude, increased evaporation and human water usage reduce the water flows. TheLumiandPanganirivers drain Kilimanjaro on the eastern and southern sides, respectively. IUGS geological heritage site In respect of it being 'the higheststratovolcanoof the East African Rift that maintains a glacier on its summit', theInternational Union of Geological Sciences(IUGS) included 'The Pleistocene Kilimanjaro volcano' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organization defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used",
"relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.' Human history Chagga states Kilimanjaro is attested to in numerous stories by the people who live in East Africa. TheChagga, who traditionally lived on the southern and eastern slopes of the mountain in sovereignChagga states, tell how a man named Tone once provoked a god, Ruwa, to bring famine upon the land. The people became angry at Tone, forcing him to flee. Nobody wanted to protect him but a solitary dweller who had stones that turned miraculously into cattle. The dweller bid that Tone never open the stable of the cattle. When Tone did not heed the warning and the cattle escaped, Tone followed them, but the fleeing cattle threw up hills to run on, including Mawenzi and Kibo. Tone finally collapsed on Kibo, ending the pursuit. Another Chagga legend tells of ivory-filled graves of elephants on the mountain, and of a cow named Rayli that produces miraculous fat from her tail",
"fat from her tail glands. If a man tries to steal such a gland but is too slow in his moves, Rayli will blast a powerful snort and blow the thief down onto the plain. Early records The mountain may have been known to non-Africans sinceantiquity. Sailors' reports recorded byPtolemymention a \"moon mountain\" and a spring lake of the Nile, which may indicate Kilimanjaro, although available historical information does not allow differentiation among others in East Africa likeMount Kenya, the mountains ofEthiopia, theVirunga Mountains, theRwenzori Mountains, and Kilimanjaro. Before Ptolemy,AeschylusandHerodotusreferred to \"Egypt nurtured by the snows\" and to a spring between two mountains, respectively. One of these mentions two tall mountains in the coastal regions with a valley with traces of fire between them.Martín Fernández de Enciso, a Spanish traveler toMombasawho obtained information about the interior from native caravans, said in hisSumma de Geografía(1519) that west of Mombasa \"stands the Ethiopian",
"the Ethiopian Mount Olympus, which is exceedingly high, and beyond it are the Mountains of the Moon, in which are the sources of the Nile\".: 1–5: 114 European exploration The German missionariesJohannes Rebmannof Mombasa andJohann Krapfwere the first Europeans known to have attempted to reach the mountain. According to English geographerHalford Mackinderand English explorerHarry Johnston, Rebmann in 1848 was the first European to report the existence of Kilimanjaro.Hans Meyer has claimed that Rebmann first arrived in Africa in 1846 and quotes Rebmann's diary entry of 11 May 1848 as saying, This morning, at 10 o'clock, we obtained a clearer view of the mountains of Jagga, the summit of one of which was covered by what looked like a beautiful white cloud. When I inquired as to the dazzling whiteness, the guide merely called it 'cold' and at once I knew it could be neither more nor less than snow.... Immediately I understood how to interpret the marvelous tales Dr. Krapf and I had heard at the coast, of a vast",
"coast, of a vast mountain of gold and silver in the far interior, the approach to which was guarded by evil spirits.: 6 In August 1861, the Prussian officer BaronKarl Klaus von der Deckenaccompanied by English geologist Richard Thorntonattempted to climb Kibo but \"got no farther than 2,500 m (8,200 ft) owing to the inclemency of the weather\".: 9In December 1862, von der Decken tried a second time together withOtto Kersten, reaching a height of 4,300 m (14,000 ft). In August 1871, missionary Charles New became the \"first European to reach the equatorial snows\" on Kilimanjaro at an elevation of slightly more than 4,000 m (13,000 ft).: 11In June 1887, the Hungarian CountSámuel Telekiand the Austrian LieutenantLudwig von Höhnelmade an attempt to climb the mountain. Approaching from the saddle between Mawenzi and Kibo, Höhnel stopped at 4,950 m (16,240 ft), but Teleki continued until he reached the snow at 5,300 m (17,400 ft).Later in 1887, the German geology professor Hans Meyer reached the lower edge of the ice",
"edge of the ice cap on Kibo, where he was forced to turn back because he lacked the equipment needed to progress across the ice.: 81The following year, Meyer planned another attempt withOscar Baumann, acartographer, but the mission was aborted after the pair were held hostage and ransomed during theAbushiri Revolt.: 82In the autumn of 1888, the American naturalist Abbott and the German explorerOtto Ehrenfried Ehlersapproached the summit from the northwest. While Abbott turned back earlier, Ehlers at first claimed to have reached the summit rim, but after severe criticism of the claim, withdrew it.: 17–19 In 1889, Meyer returned to Kilimanjaro with the Austrian mountaineerLudwig Purtschellerfor a third attempt.: 82This attempt was based on the establishment of several campsites with food supplies so that multiple attempts at the top could be made without having to descend too far.: 82Meyer and Purtscheller pushed to near the crater rim on 3 October but turned back exhausted from hacking footsteps in the icy",
"in the icy slope.: 82Three days later, they reached the highest summit, on the southern rim of the crater.: 82They were the first to confirm that Kibo has a crater.: 82After descending to the saddle between Kibo and Mawenzi, Meyer and Purtscheller attempted to climb the more technically challenging Mawenzi but could only reach the top of Klute Peak, a subsidiary peak, before retreating due to illness.: 84On 18 October, they reascended Kibo to enter and study the crater, cresting the rim at Hans Meyers Notch.: 84In total, Meyer and Purtscheller spent 16 days above 4,600 m (15,000 ft) during their expedition.: 84They were accompanied in their high camps by Mwini Amani ofPangani, who cooked and supplied the sites with water and firewood.: 135–186 The first ascent of the highest summit of Mawenzi was made on 29 July 1912, by the German climbersEduard Hans OehlerandFritz Klute, who named it Hans Meyer Peak. Oehler and Klute went on to make the third-ever ascent of Kibo, via theDrygalski Glacier, and descended via",
"and descended via the Western Breach.: 85The mountain lent its name to the 1914Battle of KilimanjaroduringWorld War I. In 1989, the organizing committee of the 100-year celebration of the first ascent decided to award posthumous certificates to the African porter-guides who had accompanied Meyer and Purtscheller.One person in pictures or documents of the 1889 expedition was thought to match a living inhabitant ofMarangu, Yohani Kinyala Lauwo.Lauwo did not know his own age,nor remember Meyer or Purtscheller. He did recall joining a Kilimanjaro expedition involving a Dutch doctor who lived near the mountain, and that he did not wear shoes during the climb.Lauwo claimed that he had climbed the mountain three times before the beginning ofWorld War I.The committee concluded that he had been a member of Meyer's team and therefore must have been born around 1871.Lauwo died on 10 May 1996, 107 years after the first ascent. It is sometimes suggested that he was a co-first-ascendant of Kilimanjaro. Fauna and flora",
"Fauna and flora Animals Large animals are rare on Kilimanjaro and are more frequent in the forests and lower parts of the mountain.ElephantsandCape buffaloesare among the animals that can be potentially hazardous to trekkers.Bushbucks,chameleons,dik-diks,duikers,mongooses,sunbirds, andwarthogshave also been reported.Zebras,leopardsandhyenashave been observed sporadically on the Shira plateau.Specific species associated with the mountain include theKilimanjaro shrewand the chameleonKinyongia tavetana. Vegetation Natural forests cover about 1,000 km2(250,000 acres) on Kilimanjaro.In the foothill area,maize, beans,sunflowersand, on the western side, wheat are cultivated. There are remnants of the formersavannavegetation withAcacia,Combretum,TerminaliaandGrewia. Between 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and 1,800 m (5,900 ft), coffee appears as part of the \"Chaggahome gardens\"agroforestry. Native vegetation at this altitude range (Strombosia,Newtonia, andEntandrophragma) is limited to inaccessible valleys and gorgesand is",
"and gorgesand is different from vegetation at higher altitudes. On the southern slope,montane forestsfirst containOcotea usambarensisas well asfernsandepiphytes; farther up incloud forestsPodocarpus latifolius,Hagenia abyssinicaandErica excelsagrow, as well as fog-dependent mosses. On the drier northern slopesolive,Croton-Calodendrum,Cassipourea, andJuniperusform forests in order of increasing altitude. Between 3,100 m (10,200 ft) and 3,900 m (12,800 ft) lieEricabush and heathlands, followed byHelichrysum, until 4,500 m (14,800 ft).Neophyteshave been observed, includingPoa annua. Records from the Maundi crater at 2,780 m (9,120 ft) indicate that the vegetation of Kilimanjaro has varied over time. Forest vegetation retreated during the Last Glacial Maximum and the ericaceous vegetation belt lowered by 1,500 m (4,900 ft) between 42,000 and 30,000 years ago because of the drier and colder conditions. The Tussock Grassland is an area on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro that contains many unique species of",
"unique species of vegetation, such as thewater holding cabbage. Climate The climate of Kilimanjaro is influenced by the height of the mountain, which allows the simultaneous influence of the equatorialtrade windsand the high altitudeanti-trades, and by the isolated position of the mountain. Kilimanjaro hasdaily upslope and nightly downslope winds, a regimen stronger on the southern than the northern side of the mountain. The flatter southern flanks are more extended and affect the atmosphere more strongly.: 3–4 Kilimanjaro has two distinct rainy seasons, one from March to May and another around November. The northern slopes receive much less rainfall than the southern ones.The lower southern slope receives 800 to 900 mm (31 to 35 in) annually, rising to 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59 to 79 in) at 1,500 m (4,900 ft) altitude and peaking \"partly over\" 3,000 mm (120 in) in the forest belt at 2,000 to 2,300 m (6,600 to 7,500 ft). In the alpine zone, annual precipitation decreases to 200 mm (7.9 in).: 18 The average",
"18 The average temperature in the summit area is approximately −7 °C (19 °F). Nighttime surface temperatures on theNorthern Ice Field(NIF) fall on average to −9 °C (16 °F), with an average daytime high of −4 °C (25 °F). During nights of extremeradiational cooling, the NIF can cool to as low as −15 to −27 °C (5 to −17 °F).: 674 Snowfall can occur at any time of year but is mostly associated with northern Tanzania's two rainy seasons.: 673Precipitation in the summit area occurs principally as snow andgraupelof 250 to 500 mm (9.8 to 19.7 in) per year and ablates within days or years. Climatic zones Tourism industry Kilimanjaro National Parkgenerated US$51 million in revenue in 2013,: 285the second-most of any Tanzanian national park.: 258The Tanzania National Parks Authority reported that the park recorded 57,456 tourists during the 2011–12 budget year, of whom 16,425 hiked the mountain; the park's General Management Plan specifies an annual capacity of 28,470.The mountain hikers generated irregular and",
"irregular and seasonal jobs for about 11,000 guides, porters, and cooks in 2007.Concerns have been raised about the poor working conditions and inadequate wages of these workers.: 287–291: 259Due to Kilimanjaro National Park's popularity as a destination, the Tanzanian government has invested in road infrastructure to improve accessibility. In Tanzania,Kilimanjaro International Airportalso serves as an important transportation hub. There are seven official trekking routes by which to ascend and descend Kilimanjaro: Lemosho, Lemosho Western-Breach, Machame, Marangu, Mweka, Rongai, Shira, and Umbwe.The Machame route can be completed in six or seven days,Lemosho in six to eight, and the Northern Circuit routes in seven or more days.The Lemosho Route can also be continued via the Western-Breach, submitting via the western side of the mountain. The Western Breach is more secluded and avoids the 6-hour midnight ascent to the summit (like other routes). The Rongai is the easiest of the camping routes.The Marangu is",
"Marangu is also relatively easy, if frequently busy; accommodation is in shared huts.The Lemosho Western-Breach Route commences on the western side of Kilimanjaro at Lemosho and continues to the summit via the Western-Breach Route. Climbing records The oldest person to climb Mount Kilimanjaro isAnne Lorimor, aged 89 years and 37 days, who reached Uhuru Peak at 3:14p.m. local time on 18 July 2019.The oldest man to summit is AmericanFred Dishelhorst, who reached the top on 19 July 2017 at the age of 88 years old.The second oldest man to summit the mountain is the American Robert Wheeler, who was 85 years and 201 days when he summited on 2 October 2014.Maxwell J. Ojerholm of Massachusetts, USA, reached Uhuru Peak, the true summit, unassisted, at the age of ten years, on July 4, 2009, taking the difficult Machame Route. Colin M. Barker of Missouri, USA, later completed the same route at the age of ten years on December 22, 2020.Theodore Margarolifrom London, age 10, reached the summit unassisted by the Western",
"by the Western Breach, the hardest but most scenic route, in 2019.Despite an age-limit of 10 years for a climbing permit, Keats Boyd from Los Angeles reached the summit on 21 January 2008 at the age of 7.This record was equaled by Montannah Kenney from Texas in March 2018 and again in July 2018 by Coaltan Tanner from New Mexico.The fastest ascent and the fastest round trip have been recorded by the Swiss-Ecuadorian mountain guideKarl Egloff. On 13 August 2014, after guiding a party to the summit the previous days, he ran from Umbwe Gate to the top in 4 hours and 56 minutes and returned to the Mweka Gate at 1,630 m (5,350 ft) in a total time of 6 hours, 42 minutes and 24 seconds.Previous records, using the same route, were held by Spanish mountain runnerKílian Jornet(ascent in 5:23:50, round trip 7:14 on 29 September 2010) and by Tanzanian guide Simon Mtuy (an unsupported round trip in 9:21 on 22 February 2006). The female round trip record is held by Fernanda Maciel from Brazil in a time of 10 hours and 6",
"of 10 hours and 6 minutes.Her ascent time of 7:08 was broken on 23 February 2018 by the Danish ultramarathon runner Kristina Schou Madsen with a time of 6:52:54 from Mweka Gate. Several climbs by disabled people have drawn attention. Wheelchair user Bernard Goosen from South Africa scaled Kilimanjaro in six days in 2007. In 2012,Kyle Maynardwho has no forearms or lower legs, crawled unassisted to the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro. In 2020, a team featuring two double above-knee amputees,Hari Budha Magarand Justin Oliver Davis, summited Kilimanjaro. It took them six days to cover the 56 km (35 mi) distance to the summit. Safety Though the climb is not technically as challenging as theHimalayasorAndes, the high elevation, low temperature, and occasional high winds can make Kilimanjaro a difficult trek. Acclimatization is required, and even experienced and physically fit trekkers may suffer some degree ofaltitude sickness.A study of people attempting to reach the summit of Kilimanjaro in July and August 2005",
"and August 2005 found that 61.3 percent succeeded and 77 percent experienced acute mountain sickness (AMS).A retrospective study of 917 persons who attempted to reach the summit via the Lemosho or Machame routes found that 70.4 percent experienced AMS, defined in this study to be headache, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, or loss of appetite. Kilimanjaro's summit is well above the altitude at which life-threateninghigh altitude pulmonary edema(HAPE) orhigh altitude cerebral edema(HACE), the most severe forms of AMS, can occur.These health risks are increased substantially by excessively fast climbing schedules motivated by high daily national park fees, busy holiday travel schedules, and the lack of permanent shelter on most routes.The six-day Machame route, which involves one day of \"climbing high\" to Lava Tower (4,630 m (15,190 ft) and \"sleeping low\" at Barranco Camp (3,976 m (13,044 ft)), may delay the onset of AMS but does not ultimately prevent its occurrence. Falls on steep portions of the mountain and rock",
"mountain and rock slides have killed trekkers. For this reason, the route via theArrow Glacierwas closed for several years, reopening in December 2007. Now again it officially closed as of January 20th 2024. Due to strong El Niño, the Western Breach has washed down the mountain. This huge runoff has carved new ravines on the slopes and seems to be dislodging the sediment that cements the rock together, disrupting the rock stability. At the route's base, rain water has opened new drainages and there is an active, flowing river through the Arrow Glacier Camp were there has been no water at all for decades.The improper disposal of human waste on the mountain environment has created a health hazard, necessitating the boiling of all water. According to the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Moshi, 25 people died from January 1996 to October 2003 while climbing the mountain. Seventeen were female and eight were male, ranging in age from 29 to 74. Fourteen died from advanced high altitude illness, including",
"illness, including one withHACE, five withHAPE, and six with both HACE and HAPE. The remaining eleven deaths resulted from \"trauma (3),myocardial infarction(4),pneumonia(2), cardio-pulmonary failure of other underlying cause (1), and acuteappendicitis(1). The overall mortality rate was 13.6 per 100,000 climbers.\" In literature and film Kilimanjaro is a snow-covered mountain 19,710 feet high, and is said to be the highest mountain in Africa. Its western summit is called the Masai 'Ngaje Ngai', the House of God. Close to the western summit there is a dried and frozen carcas of a leopard. No one has explained what the leopard was seeking at that altitude. —Ernest Hemingway's \"riddle\" preceding his 1936 short storyThe Snows of Kilimanjaro JournalistTom Bissellnoted that Kilimanjaro is \"perhaps the world’s most literary mountain\".The mountain is prominently featured inErnest Hemingway's 1936 short storyThe Snows of Kilimanjaro, which was adapted into a1952 filmstarringGregory Peck.Dave Eggerswrote about his",
"about his ascent in the short storyUp the Mountain Coming Down Slowly.WriterDouglas Adamsclimbed the mountain in a rubber rhinoceros suit to raise money forAfrican rhinoconservation efforts. Kilimanjaro was featured inToto's 1982 song \"Africa\".An IMAX film documenting an ascent—Kilimanjaro: To The Roof Of Africa—was released in 2002. See also References Citations Works cited Academic articles Books External links",
"Mount Katahdin Mount Katahdin(/kəˈtɑːdɪn/kə-TAH-din) is the highest mountain in theU.S. stateofMaineat 5,269 feet (1,606 m). NamedKatahdin, which means \"Great Mountain\",by thePenobscotNative Americans, it is withinNortheast Piscataquis,Piscataquis County, and is the centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. It is a steep, tallmassifformed from agranite intrusionweathered to the surface. The flora and fauna on the mountain are typical of those found in northernNew England, with the summit hosting fragile and endangered alpine tundra. Katahdin was known to theNative Americansin the region and was known to Europeans at least since 1689. It has inspired hikes, climbs, journal narratives, paintings, and a piano sonata.The area around the peak was protected by GovernorPercival Baxterstarting in the 1930s. Katahdin is the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trailand is near a stretch known as theHundred-Mile Wilderness. Though part of the Appalachian Mountain system, Katahdin is isolated from the range, and sits largely on",
"and sits largely on its own as amonadnock. The nearest higher mountains in any direction are the high peaks of thePresidential Range, around 170 miles (270 km) to the south-west. In 1967, Mount Katahdin was designated as aNational Natural Landmarkby theNational Park Service. The mountain is commonly called just \"Katahdin\",though the official name is \"Mount Katahdin\" as decided by theUS Board on Geographic Namesin 1893. Geology Katahdin is part of alaccoliththat formed in theAcadian orogenywhen anisland arccollided with easternNorth Americaapproximately 400 million years ago. On the sides of Katahdin are four glacialcirquescarved into the granite by alpineglaciersand in these cirques behindmorainesandeskersare several ponds. In Baxter State Park, many outcrops ofsedimentary rockshavestriations, whereas KatahdinGraniteand TravelerRhyolitelavahave weathered surfaces on which striations are commonly not preserved. Bedrock surfaces ofigneous rockswhich were buried by glacial sediments and only recently exposed",
"recently exposed have well preserved striations, as in the vicinity ofRipogenusDam. Several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the Patten Road show striations, especially on the north side of the road at Hurricane Deck. A few outcrops near the Pattern Road just north of Horse Mountain are striated, as are several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the road from Trout Brook Farm northward toSecond Lake Matagamon. Fauna Faunaincludeblack bear,deer, andmooseas well asblack fliesandmosquitosin the spring. A subspecies of Arctic butterfly, known as the Katahdin Arctic (Oeneis polixeneskatahdin) is specific to the area, and is currently listed as endangered.Among the birds areBicknell's thrushand various songbirds and raptors. A study of the animal communities was published by Irving H. Blake in 1926.The flora includespine,spruce,fir,hemlock,beech,maple,birch,aspen, andpincushion plant(Diapensia lapponica). Geography Katahdin is in Baxter State Park, which is in east central Piscataquis County, about 25 mi (40",
"about 25 mi (40 km) northwest ofMillinocket. It is on thedrainage dividebetween theEastandWest branchesof thePenobscot River. The mountain massif itself consists of multiple peaks. Baxter Peak is the tallest, and is the official northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail. South Peak and Pamola Peak are southeast and east of Baxter Peak, respectively, along the Knife Edge ridgeline, whileHamlin Peaklies to the north. There is low lake country to the south and west of Katahdin, and lowlands extending east to the Atlantic and north to theSaint Lawrence RiverinCanada. It is commonly thought that Katahdin is the first place in the United States mainland to receive sunlight in the morning, but this is incorrect. Other mountains lower in elevation but farther to the east or southeast see the first sunrise of the day, depending on the season.Regardless, the summit of Katahdin offers some of the longest unbroken lines of sight in the United States, and on clear days can be seen all the way from theWhite Mountainsof",
"Mountainsof neighboringNew Hampshire; a distance of 170 miles (270 km). Katahdin's height and isolation earns it significant coverage in indigenous and post-colonial Maine culture and literature. Katahdin's profile is distinctive and the indisputable centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. Katahdin and nearby Hamlin Peak are the only two areas to host a subarctic climate and alpine vegetation inMaine. In winter, the snowcapped east and west faces of Katahdin resemble \"theKilimanjaroof New England\", and it dominates the otherwise flat and endless forests of theNorth Maine Woods. Katahdin is also the northernmost mountain in the eastern United States with an elevation over 4,000 feet (1,200 m). Climate Human history Katahdin is referred to 60 years after Field's climb of Agiokochuk (Mount Washington) in the writings ofJohn Gyles, a teenage colonist who was captured nearPortland, Maine, in 1689 by theAbenaki. While in the company of Abenaki hunting parties, he traveled up and down several Maine rivers including both",
"including both branches of thePenobscot, passing close to \"Teddon\". He remarked that it was higher than theWhite Hillsabove theSaco River. Among someNative Americans, Katahdin was believed to be the home of the storm godPamola, and thus an area to be avoided. The first recorded climb of \"Catahrdin\" was by Massachusetts surveyors Zackery AdleyandCharles Turner, Jr.in August 1804.The letter describing the ascent of Charles Turner Jr. states that they began at the (West Branch Penobscot) at 8:00 a.m. and arrived on the summit at 5:00 p.m. guided by two Native Americans who were initially cautious but when the \"cold part of the mountain\" was reached and sensing the determination of the others became ambitious to reach the top first. Turner lists his party as: William Howe, Amos Patten, Joseph Treat, Samuel Call, William Rice, Richard Winslow, Charles Turner, Jr. In the 1930sGovernorPercival Baxterbegan to acquire land and finally deeded more than 200,000acres(810 km2) to the State of Maine for a park,",
"Maine for a park, namedBaxter State Parkafter him. The summit was officially recognized by theUS Board on Geographic Namesas \"Baxter Peak\" in 1931. In the 1840sHenry David Thoreauclimbed Katahdin, which he spelled \"Ktaadn\"; his ascent is recorded in a well-known chapter ofThe Maine Woods.A few years laterTheodore Winthropwrote about his visit inLife in the Open Air. PaintersFrederic Edwin ChurchandMarsden Hartleyare well-known artists who created landscapes of Katahdin. On 30 November 2011, Christie's auctioned Church's 1860 paintingTwilight (Katahdin)for $3.1 million. Elizabeth Oakes Smith\"climbed Mount Katahdin in 1849—reportedly the first white woman to do so\". Recreation opportunities As the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trailand southern terminus of theInternational Appalachian Trail, Katahdin is a popular hiking and backpacking destination and the centerpiece ofBaxter State Park. Baxter State Park is open year-round, though strictly regulated in winter. The overnight camping season is, weather",
"season is, weather permitting, from May 15 to October 15 each year, with some campgrounds staying open until October 22. Capacity limits have been placed on day use parking at the trailheads to minimize the overuse of trails. Mt. Katahdin has several trails leading up to Baxter, Pamola, or Hamlin PeaksThese trails start right up the mountain, but each trail on the mountain ends up taking eight to ten hours round-trip depending on ability. Even for experienced hikers, Katahdin is often considered one of the most challenging hikes in the entireAppalachian Mountainrange.The rest of the trails go up the north side or west side of the mountain. These are accessed from the Chimney Pond Trail. For these trails, hikers must park at the Roaring Brook Campground and hike in. All trails are maintained by the Baxter State Park Authority, which runs the State Park. All of the trails on the mountain are classified as very strenuous, the highest classification the Park Authority gives, except for Saddle (strenuous), Hamlin",
"(strenuous), Hamlin Ridge trail (moderate), and Chimney Pond (moderate). The most famous hike to the summit goes along Knife Edge, a glacialarêtewhich traverses the ridge between Pamola Peak and Baxter Peak. There have been more than 60 deaths on Katahdin since 1933 including October 8 and 9, 2020.The park as a whole typically sees a need for roughly 40 search-and-rescue events per year (1 in 2,000 hikers), with a peak of 70 in 2013. The vast majority of incidents occur in the summer months, and the primary causes are leg injury, exhaustion, dehydration and disorientation.Because of this, Katahdin and not-so-nearbyMount Washingtonroutinely near the top of the most deadly \"low mountains\" on Earth, with more fatalities per foot of elevation gained than some much higher mountains in theHimalaya. Namesakes See also References External links"
] |
Who was the president of the USA the year that the European Convention on Human Rights came into effect? | Dwight D Eisenhower | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States#Presidents | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States#Presidents'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States#Presidents"
] | [
"European Convention on Human Rights TheEuropean Convention on Human Rights(ECHR; formally theConvention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms)is an international convention to protecthuman rightsandpolitical freedomsinEurope. Drafted in 1950 by the then newly formedCouncil of Europe,the convention entered into force on 3 September 1953. AllCouncil of Europe member statesare party to the convention and new members are expected to ratify the convention at the earliest opportunity. The convention established theEuropean Court of Human Rights(generally referred to by the initials ECtHR). Any person who feels their rights have been violated under the convention by a state party can take a case to the court. Judgments finding violations are binding on the states concerned and they are obliged to execute them. TheCommittee of Ministers of the Council of Europemonitors the execution of judgments, particularly to ensure payments awarded by the court appropriately compensate applicants for the damage they have sustained. The convention has sixteenprotocols, which amend the convention framework. The convention has had a significant influence on the law in Council of Europe member countriesand is widely considered the most effective international treaty for human rights protection. History The European Convention on Human Rights has played an important role in the development and awareness ofhuman rightsin Europe. The development of a regional system of human rights protections operating across Europe can be seen as a direct response to twin concerns. First, in the aftermath of theSecond World War, the convention, drawing on the inspiration of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights, can be seen as part of a wider response from theAllied powersin delivering a human rights agenda to prevent the most serious human rights violations which had occurred during the Second World War from happening again. Second, the convention was a response to the growth ofStalinisminCentralandEastern Europeand was designed to protect the member states of theCouncil of Europefromcommunistsubversion. This, in part, explains the constant references to values and principles that are \"necessary in a democratic society\" throughout the convention, despite the fact that such principles are not in any way defined within the convention itself.Consequently, the convention was principally conceived, at the time of its creation, as an \"anti-totalitarian\" measure to help stabilise social democracies in Western Europe, rather than as a specific reaction to the legacy of Nazism and the Holocaust. This approach was a continuation of Atlanticist beliefs from World War II and the early Cold War which called for the defence of democracy against all forms of authoritarianism. From 7 to 10 May 1948, politicians includingWinston Churchill,François Mitterrand, andKonrad Adenauer, as well as civil society representatives, academics, business leaders, trade unionists, and religious leaders convened theCongress of EuropeinThe Hague. At the end of the Congress, a declaration and following pledge to create the convention was issued. The second and third articles of the pledge state: \"We desire a Charter of Human Rights guaranteeing liberty of thought, assembly and expression as well as right to form a political opposition. We desire a Court of Justice with adequate sanctions for the implementation of this Charter.\" The convention was drafted by theCouncil of Europeafter theSecond World Warand Hague Congress. Over 100 parliamentarians from the twelve member states of the Council of Europe gathered in Strasbourg in the summer of 1949 for the first-ever meeting of the council's Consultative Assembly to draft a \"charter of human rights\" and to establish a court to enforce it. British MP and lawyer SirDavid Maxwell-Fyfe, the chair of the Assembly's Committee on Legal and Administrative Questions, was one of its leading members and guided the drafting of the convention, based on an earlier draft produced by theEuropean Movement. As a prosecutor at theNuremberg Trials, he had seen first-hand of a binding international court. French former minister and French Resistance fighterPierre-Henri Teitgensubmitted a reportto the Assembly proposing a list of rights to be protected, selecting a number from theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsthat had recently been agreed to in New York, and defining how the enforcing judicial mechanism might operate. After extensive debates,the Assembly sent its final proposalto the council's Committee of Ministers, which convened a group of experts to draft the convention itself. The convention was designed to incorporate a traditionalcivil libertiesapproach to securing \"effective political democracy\", from the strongest traditions in the United Kingdom, France and other member states of the fledgling Council of Europe, as said byGuido Raimondi, President of theEuropean Court of Human Rights: The European system of protection of human rights with its Court would be inconceivable untied from democracy. In fact, we have a bond that is not only regional or geographic: a State cannot be party to the European Convention on Human Rights if it is not a member of the Council of Europe; it cannot be a member State of the Council of Europe if it does not respect pluralist democracy, the rule of law and human rights. So a non-democratic State could not participate in the ECHR system: the protection of democracy goes hand in hand with the protection of rights. The convention was opened for signature on 4 November 1950 in Rome. It was ratified and entered into force on 3 September 1953. It is overseen and enforced by theEuropean Court of Human Rightsin Strasbourg, and theCouncil of Europe. Until procedural reforms in the late 1990s, the convention was also overseen by aEuropean Commission on Human Rights. Proposals for reform of the convention have been put forward, for example by former UK Prime MinisterRishi Sunak,and other UK politicians.Conservativepoliticians have proposed reform or withdrawal from the convention during the2024 Conservative Party leadership election. Drafting The convention is drafted in broad terms, in a similar (albeit more modern) manner to the 1689 ScottishClaim of Right Act 1689, to the 1689English Bill of Rights, the 1791U.S. Bill of Rights, the 1789 FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, or the first part of the GermanBasic Law. Statements of principle are, from a juridical point of view, not determinative and require and have given occasion to extensive interpretation by courts to bring out meaning in particular factual situations, Convention articles As amended by Protocol 11, the convention consists of three parts. The main rights and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18. Section II (Articles 19 to 51) sets up the court and its rules of operation. Section III contains various concluding provisions. Before the entry into force of Protocol 11, Section II (Article 19) set up the commission and the court, Sections III (Articles 20 to 37) and IV (Articles 38 to 59) included the high-level machinery for the operation of, respectively, the commission and the court, and Section V contained various concluding provisions. Many of the articles in Section I are structured in two paragraphs: the first sets out a basic right or freedom (such as Article 2(1) – the right to life) but the second contains various exclusions, exceptions or limitations on the basic right (such as Article 2(2) – which excepts certain uses of force leading to death). Article 1 – respecting rights Article 1 simply binds the signatory parties to secure the rights under the other articles of the convention \"within their jurisdiction\". In exceptional cases, \"jurisdiction\" may not be confined to a contracting state's own national territory; the obligation to secure convention rights then also extends to foreign territories, such as occupied land in which the state exercises effective control. InLoizidou v Turkey,theEuropean Court of Human Rightsruled that jurisdiction of member states to the convention extended to areas under that state's effective control as a result of military action. Article 2 – life Article 2 protects the right of every person to their life. The right to life extends only to human beings, not to animals,nor to \"legal persons\" such as corporations.InEvans v United Kingdom, the court ruled that the question of whether the right to life extends to a human embryo fell within a state'smargin of appreciation. InVo v France,the court declined to extend the right to life to an unborn child, while stating that \"it is neither desirable, nor even possible as matters stand, to answer in the abstract the question whether the unborn child is a person for the purposes of Article 2 of the Convention\". The court has ruled that states have three main duties under Article 2: The first paragraph of the article contains an exception forlawful executions, although this exception has largely been superseded by Protocols 6 and 13. Protocol 6 prohibits the imposition of the death penalty in peacetime, while Protocol 13 extends the prohibition to all circumstances. (For more on Protocols 6 and 13, seebelow). The second paragraph of Article 2 provides that death resulting from defending oneself or others, arresting a suspect or fugitive, or suppressing riots or insurrections, will not contravene the Article when the use of force involved is \"no more than absolutely necessary\". Signatory states to the convention can only derogate from the rights contained in Article 2 for deaths which result from lawful acts of war. The European Court of Human Rights did not rule upon the right to life until 1995, when inMcCann and Others v United Kingdomit ruled that the exception contained in the second paragraph does not constitute situations when it is permitted to kill, but situations where it is permitted to use force which might result in the deprivation of life. Article 3 – torture Article 3 prohibitstortureand \"inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment\". There are no exceptions or limitations on this right. This provision usually applies, apart from torture, to cases of severe police violence and poor conditions in detention. The court has emphasised the fundamental nature of Article 3 in holding that the prohibition is made in \"absolute terms ... irrespective of the victim's conduct\".The court has also held that states cannot deport orextraditeindividuals who might be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the recipient state. The first case to examine Article 3 was theGreek case, which set an influential precedent.InIreland v. United Kingdom(1979–1980) the court ruled that thefive techniquesdeveloped by the United Kingdom (wall-standing,hooding,subjection to noise,deprivation of sleep, anddeprivation of food and drink), as used against fourteen detainees in Northern Ireland by the United Kingdom were \"inhuman and degrading\" and breached the European Convention on Human Rights, but did not amount to \"torture\". InAksoy v. Turkey(1997) the court found Turkey guilty of torture in 1996 in the case of a detainee who was suspended by his arms while his hands were tied behind his back. Selmouni v. France(2000) the court has appeared to be more open to finding states guilty of torture ruling that since the convention is a \"living instrument\", treatment which it had previously characterized as inhuman or degrading treatment might in future be regarded as torture. In 2014, after new information was uncovered that showed the decision to use the five techniques in Northern Ireland in 1971–1972 had been taken by British ministers,theIrish Governmentasked the European Court of Human Rights to review its judgement. In 2018, by six votes to one, the court declined. Article 4 – servitude Article 4 prohibitsslavery, servitude andforced labourbut exempts labour: Article 5 – liberty and security Article 5 provides that everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. Liberty and security of the person are taken as a \"compound\" concept – security of the person has not been subject to separate interpretation by the court. Article 5 provides the right toliberty, subject only to lawful arrest or detention under certain other circumstances, such as arrest on reasonable suspicion of a crime or imprisonment in fulfilment of a sentence. The article also provides those arrested with the right to be informed, in a language they understand, of the reasons for the arrest and any charge they face, the right of prompt access to judicial proceedings to determine the legality of the arrest or detention, to trial within a reasonable time or release pending trial, and the right to compensation in the case of arrest or detention in violation of this article. Article 6 – fair trial Article 6 provides a detailedright to a fair trial, including the right to apublic hearingbefore an independent and impartial tribunal within reasonable time, thepresumption of innocence, and other minimum rights for those charged with a criminal offence (adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence, access to legal representation, right to examine witnesses against them or have them examined, right to the free assistance of an interpreter). The majority of convention violations that the court finds today are excessive delays, in violation of the \"reasonable time\" requirement, in civil and criminal proceedings before national courts, mostly inItalyandFrance. Under the \"independent tribunal\" requirement, the court has ruled that military judges in Turkish state security courts are incompatible with Article 6. In compliance with this Article, Turkey has now adopted a law abolishing these courts. Another significant set of violations concerns the \"confrontation clause\" of Article 6 (i.e. the right to examine witnesses or have them examined). In this respect, problems of compliance with Article 6 may arise when national laws allow the use in evidence of the testimonies of absent, anonymous and vulnerable witnesses. Article 7 – retroactivity Article 7 prohibits the retroactive criminalisation of acts and omissions. No person may be punished for an act that was not a criminal offence at the time of its commission. The article states that a criminal offence is one under either national or international law, which would permit a party to prosecute someone for a crime which was not illegal under domestic law at the time, so long as it was prohibited byinternational law. The Article also prohibits a heavier penalty being imposed than was applicable at the time when the criminal act was committed. Article 7 incorporates the legal principlenullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege(no crime, no penalty without law) into the convention. Relevant cases are: Article 8 – privacy Article 8 provides a right to respect for one's \"private and family life, his home and hiscorrespondence\", subject to restrictions that are \"in accordance with law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others\".This article clearly provides a right to be free of unlawful searches, but the court has given the protection for \"private and family life\" that this article provides a broad interpretation, taking for instance that prohibition of private consensual homosexual acts violates this article. There have been cases discussing consensual familial sexual relationships, and how the criminalisation of this may violate this article. However, the ECHR still allows such familial sexual acts to be criminal. This may be compared to the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, which has also adopted a somewhat broad interpretation of theright to privacy. Furthermore, Article 8 sometimes comprisespositive obligations:whereas classical human rights are formulated as prohibiting a state from interfering with rights, and thusnotto do something (e.g. not to separate a family under family life protection), the effective enjoyment of such rights may also include an obligation for the state to become active, and todosomething (e.g. to enforce access for a divorced parent to his/her child). Notable cases: Article 9 – conscience and religion Article 9 provides a right tofreedom of thought, conscience andreligion. This includes the freedom to change a religion or belief, and to manifest a religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". Relevant cases are: Article 10 – expression Article 10 provides the right tofreedom of expression, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". This right includes the freedom to hold opinions, and to receive and impart information and ideas, but allows restrictions for: Relevant cases are: Article 11 – association Article 11 protects the right tofreedom of assemblyand association, including the right to formtrade unions, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". Article 12 – marriage Article 12 provides a right for women and men ofmarriageable agetomarryand establish a family. Despite a number of invitations, the court has so far refused to apply the protections of this article tosame-sex marriage. The court has defended this on the grounds that the article was intended to apply only to different-sex marriage, and that a wide margin of appreciation must be granted to parties in this area. InGoodwin v. United Kingdomthe court ruled that a law which still classified post-operativetranssexualpeople under their pre-operative sex violated article 12 as it meant that transsexual people were unable to marry individuals of their post-operative opposite sex. This reversed an earlier ruling inRees v. United Kingdom. This did not, however, alter the Court's understanding that Article 12 protects only different-sex couples. The European Court of Human Rights ruled inSchalk and Kopf v. Austriathat countries are not required to provide marriage licenses for same-sex couples; however, if a country allows same-sex couple marriage it must be done under the same conditions that opposite-sex couples marriage face,in order to prevent a breach of article 14 – the prohibition of discrimination. Additionally, the court ruled in the 2015 case ofOliari and Others v. Italythat states have a positive obligation to ensure there is a specific legal framework for the recognition and protection of same-sex couples. Article 13 – effective remedy Article 13 provides for theright for an effective remedybefore national authorities for violations of rights under the convention. The inability to obtain aremedybefore a national court for an infringement of a Convention right is thus a free-standing and separately actionable infringement of the convention. Article 14 – discrimination Article 14 contains a prohibition ofdiscrimination. This prohibition is broad in some ways and narrow in others. It is broad in that it prohibits discrimination under a potentially unlimited number of grounds. While the article specifically prohibits discrimination based on \"sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status\", the last of these allows the court to extend to Article 14 protection to other grounds not specifically mentioned such as has been done regarding discrimination based on a person's sexual orientation. At the same time, the article's protection is limited in that it only prohibits discrimination with respect to rights under the convention. Thus, an applicant must prove discrimination in the enjoyment of a specific right that is guaranteed elsewhere in the convention (e.g. discrimination based on sex – Article 14 – in the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression – Article 10). Protocol 12 extends this prohibition to cover discrimination in any legal right, even when that legal right is not protected under the convention, so long as it is provided for in national law. Article 15 – derogations Article 15 allows contracting states toderogatefrom certain rights guaranteed by the convention in a time of \"war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation\". Permissible derogations under article 15 must meet three substantive conditions: In addition to these substantive requirements, the derogation must be procedurally sound. There must be some formal announcement of the derogation and notice of the derogation and any measures adopted under it, and the ending of the derogation must be communicated to theSecretary-General of the Council of Europe. As of 2016, only eight member states had ever invoked derogations.The court is quite permissive in accepting a state's derogations from the convention but applies a higher degree of scrutiny in deciding whether measures taken by states under a derogation are, in the words of Article 15, \"strictly required by the exigencies of the situation\". Thus inA v United Kingdom, the court dismissed a claim that a derogation lodged by the British government in response to theSeptember 11 attackswas invalid, but went on to find that measures taken by the United Kingdom under that derogation were disproportionate. Examples of such derogations include: Article 16 – foreign parties Article 16 allows states to restrict the political activity of foreigners. The court has ruled that European Union member states cannot consider the nationals of other member states to be aliens. Article 17 – abuse of rights Article 17 provides that no one may use the rights guaranteed by the convention to seek the abolition or limitation of rights guaranteed in the convention. This addresses instances where states seek to restrict a human right in the name of another human right, or where individuals rely on a human right to undermine other human rights (for example where an individual issues a death threat). Article 18 – permitted restrictions Article 18 provides that any limitations on the rights provided for in the convention may be used only for the purpose for which they are provided. For example, Article 5, which guarantees the right to personal freedom, may be explicitly limited in order to bring a suspect before a judge. To use pre-trial detention as a means of intimidation of a person under a false pretext is, therefore, a limitation of right (to freedom) which does not serve an explicitly provided purpose (to be brought before a judge), and is therefore contrary to Article 18. Convention protocols As of January 2010, fifteen protocols to the convention have been opened for signature. These can be divided into two main groups: those amending the framework of the convention system, and those expanding the rights that can be protected. The former require unanimous ratification by member states before coming into force, while the latter require a certain number of states to sign before coming into force. Protocol 1 This Protocol contains three different rights which the signatories could not agree to place in the convention itself.MonacoandSwitzerlandhave signed but never ratified Protocol 1. Article 1 – property Article 1 (\"A1P1\")provides that \"every natural orlegal personis entitled to thepeaceful enjoyment of his possessions\". TheEuropean Court of Human Rightsacknowledged a violation of the fair balance between the demands of the general interest of the community and the requirements of the protection of the individual's fundamental rights, also, in the uncertainty – for the owner – about the future of the property, and in the absence of an allowance. In the case ofMifsud and others v Malta(38770/17) the Maltese state was found to have violated Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the convention. The case involved a plot of land owned by the Mifsud family and their heirs which was expropriated twice (in 1984 and in 2012). The court, in its judgment, stated that \"the (Maltese) Constitutional Court had no basis on which to ground its finding. The Court is disconcerted by the circumstances of the present case which led to an expropriation of property being endorsed without anyone being able to assert the reasons behind such an expropriation.\" Article 2 – education Article 2 provides for the right not to be denied an education and theright for parents to have their children educatedin accordance with their religious and other views. It does not however guarantee any particular level of education of any particular quality. Although phrased in the Protocol as a negative right, inŞahin v. Turkeythe court ruled that: it would be hard to imagine that institutions of higher education existing at a given time do not come within the scope of the first sentence of Article 2 of Protocol No 1. Although that Article does not impose a duty on the Contracting States to set up institutions of higher education, any State doing so will be under an obligation to afford an effective right of access to them. In a democratic society, the right to education, which is indispensable to the furtherance of human rights, plays such a fundamental role that a restrictive interpretation of the first sentence of Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 would not be consistent with the aim or purpose of that provision. Article 3 – elections Article 3 provides for the right to elections performed by secret ballot, that are also free and that occur at regular intervals. Protocol 4 – civil imprisonment, free movement, expulsion Article 1 prohibits the imprisonment of people for inability to fulfil a contract. Article 2 provides for aright to freely movewithin a country once lawfully there and for a right to leave any country. Article 3 prohibits the expulsion of nationals and provides for the right of an individual to enter a country of their nationality. Article 4 prohibits the collective expulsion of foreigners. Turkeyand theUnited Kingdomhave signed but never ratified Protocol 4.GreeceandSwitzerlandhave neither signed nor ratified this protocol. The United Kingdom's failure to ratify this protocol is due to concerns over the interaction of Article 2 and Article 3 withBritish nationality law. Specifically, several classes of \"British national\" (such asBritish National (Overseas)) do not have the right of abode in the United Kingdom and are subject to immigration control there. In 2009, the UK government stated that it had no plans to ratify Protocol 4 because of concerns that those articles could be taken as conferring that right. Protocol 6 – restriction of death penalty Requires parties to restrict the application of thedeath penaltyexcept for \"acts committed in time of war\" or of \"imminent threat of war\". Every Council of Europe member state has signed and ratified Protocol 6. Protocol 7 – crime and family Despite having signed the protocol more than thirty years ago Germany and the Netherlands have never ratified it. Turkey, which signed the protocol in 1985, ratified it in 2016, becoming the latest member state to do so. The United Kingdom has neither signed nor ratified the protocol. Protocol 12 – discrimination Protocol 12 applies the current expansive and indefinite grounds of prohibited discrimination inArticle 14to the exercise of any legal right and to the actions (including the obligations) of public authorities. The Protocol entered into force on 1 April 2005 and has (as of March 2018) been ratified by 20 member states. Several member states—Bulgaria,Denmark,France,Lithuania,Monaco,Poland,Sweden,Switzerland, and theUnited Kingdom—have not signed the protocol. The United Kingdom government has declined to sign Protocol 12 on the basis that they believe the wording of protocol is too wide and would result in a flood of new cases testing the extent of the new provision. They believe that the phrase \"rights set forth by law\" might include international conventions to which the UK is not a party, and would result in incorporation of these instruments by stealth. It has been suggested that the protocol is therefore in acatch-22, since the UK will decline to either sign or ratify the protocol until theEuropean Court of Human Rightshas addressed the meaning of the provision, while the court is hindered in doing so by the lack of applications to the court concerning the protocol caused by the decisions of Europe's most populous states—including the UK—not to ratify the protocol. The UK government, nevertheless, stated in 2004 that it \"agrees in principle that the ECHR should contain a provision against discrimination that is free-standing and not parasitic on the other Convention rights\".The first judgment that found a violation of Protocol No. 12,Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, was delivered in 2009. Protocol 13 – complete abolition of death penalty Protocol 13 provides for the total abolition of thedeath penalty.Currently all Council of Europe member states butAzerbaijanhave ratified Protocol 13. Procedural and institutional protocols The convention's provisions affecting institutional and procedural matters have been altered several times by means of protocols. These amendments have, with the exception of Protocol 2, amended the text of the convention. Protocol 2 did not amend the text of the convention as such but stipulated that it was to be treated as an integral part of the text. All of these protocols have required the unanimous ratification of all the member states of the Council of Europe to enter into force. Protocol 11 Protocols 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 have now been superseded by Protocol 11 which entered into force on 1 November 1998.It established a fundamental change in the machinery of the convention. It abolished the commission, allowing individuals to apply directly to the court, which was given compulsory jurisdiction and altered the latter's structure. Previously states could ratify the convention without accepting the jurisdiction of the Court of Human Rights. The protocol also abolished the judicial functions of the Committee of Ministers. Protocol 14 Protocol 14 follows on from Protocol 11 in proposing to further improve the efficiency of the court. It seeks to \"filter\" out cases that have less chance of succeeding along with those that are broadly similar to cases brought previously against the same member state. Furthermore, a case will not be considered admissible where an applicant has not suffered a \"significant disadvantage\". This latter ground can only be used when an examination of the application on the merits is not considered necessary and where the subject-matter of the application had already been considered by a national court. A new mechanism was introduced by Protocol 14 to assist enforcement of judgements by the Committee of Ministers. The committee can ask the court for an interpretation of a judgement and can even bring a member state before the court for non-compliance of a previous judgement against that state. Protocol 14 also allows forEuropean Union accession to the convention.The protocol has been ratified by every Council of Europe member state, Russia being last in February 2010. It entered into force on 1 June 2010. A provisionalProtocol 14bishad been opened for signature in 2009.Pending the ratification of Protocol 14 itself, 14bis was devised to allow the court to implement revised procedures in respect of the states which have ratified it. It allowed single judges to reject manifestly inadmissible applications made against the states that have ratified the protocol. It also extended the competence of three-judge chambers to declare applications made against those states admissible and to decide on their merits where there already is a well-established case law of the court. Now that all Council of Europe member states have ratified Protocol 14, Protocol 14bis has lost itsraison d'êtreand according to its own terms ceased to have any effect when Protocol 14 entered into force on 1 June 2010. See also Notes Further reading External links",
"List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links"
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"European Convention on Human Rights TheEuropean Convention on Human Rights(ECHR; formally theConvention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms)is an international convention to protecthuman rightsandpolitical freedomsinEurope. Drafted in 1950 by the then newly formedCouncil of Europe,the convention entered into force on 3 September 1953. AllCouncil of Europe member statesare party to the convention and new members are expected to ratify the convention at the earliest opportunity. The convention established theEuropean Court of Human Rights(generally referred to by the initials ECtHR). Any person who feels their rights have been violated under the convention by a state party can take a case to the court. Judgments finding violations are binding on the states concerned and they are obliged to execute them. TheCommittee of Ministers of the Council of Europemonitors the execution of judgments, particularly to ensure payments awarded by the court appropriately compensate applicants for the",
"applicants for the damage they have sustained. The convention has sixteenprotocols, which amend the convention framework. The convention has had a significant influence on the law in Council of Europe member countriesand is widely considered the most effective international treaty for human rights protection. History The European Convention on Human Rights has played an important role in the development and awareness ofhuman rightsin Europe. The development of a regional system of human rights protections operating across Europe can be seen as a direct response to twin concerns. First, in the aftermath of theSecond World War, the convention, drawing on the inspiration of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights, can be seen as part of a wider response from theAllied powersin delivering a human rights agenda to prevent the most serious human rights violations which had occurred during the Second World War from happening again. Second, the convention was a response to the growth ofStalinisminCentralandEastern",
"Europeand was designed to protect the member states of theCouncil of Europefromcommunistsubversion. This, in part, explains the constant references to values and principles that are \"necessary in a democratic society\" throughout the convention, despite the fact that such principles are not in any way defined within the convention itself.Consequently, the convention was principally conceived, at the time of its creation, as an \"anti-totalitarian\" measure to help stabilise social democracies in Western Europe, rather than as a specific reaction to the legacy of Nazism and the Holocaust. This approach was a continuation of Atlanticist beliefs from World War II and the early Cold War which called for the defence of democracy against all forms of authoritarianism. From 7 to 10 May 1948, politicians includingWinston Churchill,François Mitterrand, andKonrad Adenauer, as well as civil society representatives, academics, business leaders, trade unionists, and religious leaders convened theCongress of EuropeinThe",
"of EuropeinThe Hague. At the end of the Congress, a declaration and following pledge to create the convention was issued. The second and third articles of the pledge state: \"We desire a Charter of Human Rights guaranteeing liberty of thought, assembly and expression as well as right to form a political opposition. We desire a Court of Justice with adequate sanctions for the implementation of this Charter.\" The convention was drafted by theCouncil of Europeafter theSecond World Warand Hague Congress. Over 100 parliamentarians from the twelve member states of the Council of Europe gathered in Strasbourg in the summer of 1949 for the first-ever meeting of the council's Consultative Assembly to draft a \"charter of human rights\" and to establish a court to enforce it. British MP and lawyer SirDavid Maxwell-Fyfe, the chair of the Assembly's Committee on Legal and Administrative Questions, was one of its leading members and guided the drafting of the convention, based on an earlier draft produced by theEuropean",
"by theEuropean Movement. As a prosecutor at theNuremberg Trials, he had seen first-hand of a binding international court. French former minister and French Resistance fighterPierre-Henri Teitgensubmitted a reportto the Assembly proposing a list of rights to be protected, selecting a number from theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsthat had recently been agreed to in New York, and defining how the enforcing judicial mechanism might operate. After extensive debates,the Assembly sent its final proposalto the council's Committee of Ministers, which convened a group of experts to draft the convention itself. The convention was designed to incorporate a traditionalcivil libertiesapproach to securing \"effective political democracy\", from the strongest traditions in the United Kingdom, France and other member states of the fledgling Council of Europe, as said byGuido Raimondi, President of theEuropean Court of Human Rights: The European system of protection of human rights with its Court would be inconceivable",
"be inconceivable untied from democracy. In fact, we have a bond that is not only regional or geographic: a State cannot be party to the European Convention on Human Rights if it is not a member of the Council of Europe; it cannot be a member State of the Council of Europe if it does not respect pluralist democracy, the rule of law and human rights. So a non-democratic State could not participate in the ECHR system: the protection of democracy goes hand in hand with the protection of rights. The convention was opened for signature on 4 November 1950 in Rome. It was ratified and entered into force on 3 September 1953. It is overseen and enforced by theEuropean Court of Human Rightsin Strasbourg, and theCouncil of Europe. Until procedural reforms in the late 1990s, the convention was also overseen by aEuropean Commission on Human Rights. Proposals for reform of the convention have been put forward, for example by former UK Prime MinisterRishi Sunak,and other UK politicians.Conservativepoliticians have proposed",
"have proposed reform or withdrawal from the convention during the2024 Conservative Party leadership election. Drafting The convention is drafted in broad terms, in a similar (albeit more modern) manner to the 1689 ScottishClaim of Right Act 1689, to the 1689English Bill of Rights, the 1791U.S. Bill of Rights, the 1789 FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, or the first part of the GermanBasic Law. Statements of principle are, from a juridical point of view, not determinative and require and have given occasion to extensive interpretation by courts to bring out meaning in particular factual situations, Convention articles As amended by Protocol 11, the convention consists of three parts. The main rights and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18. Section II (Articles 19 to 51) sets up the court and its rules of operation. Section III contains various concluding provisions. Before the entry into force of Protocol 11, Section II (Article 19) set up the",
"19) set up the commission and the court, Sections III (Articles 20 to 37) and IV (Articles 38 to 59) included the high-level machinery for the operation of, respectively, the commission and the court, and Section V contained various concluding provisions. Many of the articles in Section I are structured in two paragraphs: the first sets out a basic right or freedom (such as Article 2(1) – the right to life) but the second contains various exclusions, exceptions or limitations on the basic right (such as Article 2(2) – which excepts certain uses of force leading to death). Article 1 – respecting rights Article 1 simply binds the signatory parties to secure the rights under the other articles of the convention \"within their jurisdiction\". In exceptional cases, \"jurisdiction\" may not be confined to a contracting state's own national territory; the obligation to secure convention rights then also extends to foreign territories, such as occupied land in which the state exercises effective control. InLoizidou v",
"InLoizidou v Turkey,theEuropean Court of Human Rightsruled that jurisdiction of member states to the convention extended to areas under that state's effective control as a result of military action. Article 2 – life Article 2 protects the right of every person to their life. The right to life extends only to human beings, not to animals,nor to \"legal persons\" such as corporations.InEvans v United Kingdom, the court ruled that the question of whether the right to life extends to a human embryo fell within a state'smargin of appreciation. InVo v France,the court declined to extend the right to life to an unborn child, while stating that \"it is neither desirable, nor even possible as matters stand, to answer in the abstract the question whether the unborn child is a person for the purposes of Article 2 of the Convention\". The court has ruled that states have three main duties under Article 2: The first paragraph of the article contains an exception forlawful executions, although this exception has largely been",
"has largely been superseded by Protocols 6 and 13. Protocol 6 prohibits the imposition of the death penalty in peacetime, while Protocol 13 extends the prohibition to all circumstances. (For more on Protocols 6 and 13, seebelow). The second paragraph of Article 2 provides that death resulting from defending oneself or others, arresting a suspect or fugitive, or suppressing riots or insurrections, will not contravene the Article when the use of force involved is \"no more than absolutely necessary\". Signatory states to the convention can only derogate from the rights contained in Article 2 for deaths which result from lawful acts of war. The European Court of Human Rights did not rule upon the right to life until 1995, when inMcCann and Others v United Kingdomit ruled that the exception contained in the second paragraph does not constitute situations when it is permitted to kill, but situations where it is permitted to use force which might result in the deprivation of life. Article 3 – torture Article 3",
"– torture Article 3 prohibitstortureand \"inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment\". There are no exceptions or limitations on this right. This provision usually applies, apart from torture, to cases of severe police violence and poor conditions in detention. The court has emphasised the fundamental nature of Article 3 in holding that the prohibition is made in \"absolute terms ... irrespective of the victim's conduct\".The court has also held that states cannot deport orextraditeindividuals who might be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the recipient state. The first case to examine Article 3 was theGreek case, which set an influential precedent.InIreland v. United Kingdom(1979–1980) the court ruled that thefive techniquesdeveloped by the United Kingdom (wall-standing,hooding,subjection to noise,deprivation of sleep, anddeprivation of food and drink), as used against fourteen detainees in Northern Ireland by the United Kingdom were \"inhuman and degrading\" and breached",
"and breached the European Convention on Human Rights, but did not amount to \"torture\". InAksoy v. Turkey(1997) the court found Turkey guilty of torture in 1996 in the case of a detainee who was suspended by his arms while his hands were tied behind his back. Selmouni v. France(2000) the court has appeared to be more open to finding states guilty of torture ruling that since the convention is a \"living instrument\", treatment which it had previously characterized as inhuman or degrading treatment might in future be regarded as torture. In 2014, after new information was uncovered that showed the decision to use the five techniques in Northern Ireland in 1971–1972 had been taken by British ministers,theIrish Governmentasked the European Court of Human Rights to review its judgement. In 2018, by six votes to one, the court declined. Article 4 – servitude Article 4 prohibitsslavery, servitude andforced labourbut exempts labour: Article 5 – liberty and security Article 5 provides that everyone has the right to",
"has the right to liberty and security of person. Liberty and security of the person are taken as a \"compound\" concept – security of the person has not been subject to separate interpretation by the court. Article 5 provides the right toliberty, subject only to lawful arrest or detention under certain other circumstances, such as arrest on reasonable suspicion of a crime or imprisonment in fulfilment of a sentence. The article also provides those arrested with the right to be informed, in a language they understand, of the reasons for the arrest and any charge they face, the right of prompt access to judicial proceedings to determine the legality of the arrest or detention, to trial within a reasonable time or release pending trial, and the right to compensation in the case of arrest or detention in violation of this article. Article 6 – fair trial Article 6 provides a detailedright to a fair trial, including the right to apublic hearingbefore an independent and impartial tribunal within reasonable time,",
"reasonable time, thepresumption of innocence, and other minimum rights for those charged with a criminal offence (adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence, access to legal representation, right to examine witnesses against them or have them examined, right to the free assistance of an interpreter). The majority of convention violations that the court finds today are excessive delays, in violation of the \"reasonable time\" requirement, in civil and criminal proceedings before national courts, mostly inItalyandFrance. Under the \"independent tribunal\" requirement, the court has ruled that military judges in Turkish state security courts are incompatible with Article 6. In compliance with this Article, Turkey has now adopted a law abolishing these courts. Another significant set of violations concerns the \"confrontation clause\" of Article 6 (i.e. the right to examine witnesses or have them examined). In this respect, problems of compliance with Article 6 may arise when national laws allow the use in",
"allow the use in evidence of the testimonies of absent, anonymous and vulnerable witnesses. Article 7 – retroactivity Article 7 prohibits the retroactive criminalisation of acts and omissions. No person may be punished for an act that was not a criminal offence at the time of its commission. The article states that a criminal offence is one under either national or international law, which would permit a party to prosecute someone for a crime which was not illegal under domestic law at the time, so long as it was prohibited byinternational law. The Article also prohibits a heavier penalty being imposed than was applicable at the time when the criminal act was committed. Article 7 incorporates the legal principlenullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege(no crime, no penalty without law) into the convention. Relevant cases are: Article 8 – privacy Article 8 provides a right to respect for one's \"private and family life, his home and hiscorrespondence\", subject to restrictions that are \"in accordance with law and is",
"with law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others\".This article clearly provides a right to be free of unlawful searches, but the court has given the protection for \"private and family life\" that this article provides a broad interpretation, taking for instance that prohibition of private consensual homosexual acts violates this article. There have been cases discussing consensual familial sexual relationships, and how the criminalisation of this may violate this article. However, the ECHR still allows such familial sexual acts to be criminal. This may be compared to the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, which has also adopted a somewhat broad interpretation of theright to privacy. Furthermore, Article 8 sometimes comprisespositive obligations:whereas classical",
"classical human rights are formulated as prohibiting a state from interfering with rights, and thusnotto do something (e.g. not to separate a family under family life protection), the effective enjoyment of such rights may also include an obligation for the state to become active, and todosomething (e.g. to enforce access for a divorced parent to his/her child). Notable cases: Article 9 – conscience and religion Article 9 provides a right tofreedom of thought, conscience andreligion. This includes the freedom to change a religion or belief, and to manifest a religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". Relevant cases are: Article 10 – expression Article 10 provides the right tofreedom of expression, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". This right includes the freedom to hold opinions, and to receive and impart",
"receive and impart information and ideas, but allows restrictions for: Relevant cases are: Article 11 – association Article 11 protects the right tofreedom of assemblyand association, including the right to formtrade unions, subject to certain restrictions that are \"in accordance with law\" and \"necessary in a democratic society\". Article 12 – marriage Article 12 provides a right for women and men ofmarriageable agetomarryand establish a family. Despite a number of invitations, the court has so far refused to apply the protections of this article tosame-sex marriage. The court has defended this on the grounds that the article was intended to apply only to different-sex marriage, and that a wide margin of appreciation must be granted to parties in this area. InGoodwin v. United Kingdomthe court ruled that a law which still classified post-operativetranssexualpeople under their pre-operative sex violated article 12 as it meant that transsexual people were unable to marry individuals of their post-operative",
"post-operative opposite sex. This reversed an earlier ruling inRees v. United Kingdom. This did not, however, alter the Court's understanding that Article 12 protects only different-sex couples. The European Court of Human Rights ruled inSchalk and Kopf v. Austriathat countries are not required to provide marriage licenses for same-sex couples; however, if a country allows same-sex couple marriage it must be done under the same conditions that opposite-sex couples marriage face,in order to prevent a breach of article 14 – the prohibition of discrimination. Additionally, the court ruled in the 2015 case ofOliari and Others v. Italythat states have a positive obligation to ensure there is a specific legal framework for the recognition and protection of same-sex couples. Article 13 – effective remedy Article 13 provides for theright for an effective remedybefore national authorities for violations of rights under the convention. The inability to obtain aremedybefore a national court for an infringement of a",
"infringement of a Convention right is thus a free-standing and separately actionable infringement of the convention. Article 14 – discrimination Article 14 contains a prohibition ofdiscrimination. This prohibition is broad in some ways and narrow in others. It is broad in that it prohibits discrimination under a potentially unlimited number of grounds. While the article specifically prohibits discrimination based on \"sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status\", the last of these allows the court to extend to Article 14 protection to other grounds not specifically mentioned such as has been done regarding discrimination based on a person's sexual orientation. At the same time, the article's protection is limited in that it only prohibits discrimination with respect to rights under the convention. Thus, an applicant must prove discrimination in the enjoyment of a specific right that is",
"right that is guaranteed elsewhere in the convention (e.g. discrimination based on sex – Article 14 – in the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression – Article 10). Protocol 12 extends this prohibition to cover discrimination in any legal right, even when that legal right is not protected under the convention, so long as it is provided for in national law. Article 15 – derogations Article 15 allows contracting states toderogatefrom certain rights guaranteed by the convention in a time of \"war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation\". Permissible derogations under article 15 must meet three substantive conditions: In addition to these substantive requirements, the derogation must be procedurally sound. There must be some formal announcement of the derogation and notice of the derogation and any measures adopted under it, and the ending of the derogation must be communicated to theSecretary-General of the Council of Europe. As of 2016, only eight member states had ever invoked",
"had ever invoked derogations.The court is quite permissive in accepting a state's derogations from the convention but applies a higher degree of scrutiny in deciding whether measures taken by states under a derogation are, in the words of Article 15, \"strictly required by the exigencies of the situation\". Thus inA v United Kingdom, the court dismissed a claim that a derogation lodged by the British government in response to theSeptember 11 attackswas invalid, but went on to find that measures taken by the United Kingdom under that derogation were disproportionate. Examples of such derogations include: Article 16 – foreign parties Article 16 allows states to restrict the political activity of foreigners. The court has ruled that European Union member states cannot consider the nationals of other member states to be aliens. Article 17 – abuse of rights Article 17 provides that no one may use the rights guaranteed by the convention to seek the abolition or limitation of rights guaranteed in the convention. This",
"convention. This addresses instances where states seek to restrict a human right in the name of another human right, or where individuals rely on a human right to undermine other human rights (for example where an individual issues a death threat). Article 18 – permitted restrictions Article 18 provides that any limitations on the rights provided for in the convention may be used only for the purpose for which they are provided. For example, Article 5, which guarantees the right to personal freedom, may be explicitly limited in order to bring a suspect before a judge. To use pre-trial detention as a means of intimidation of a person under a false pretext is, therefore, a limitation of right (to freedom) which does not serve an explicitly provided purpose (to be brought before a judge), and is therefore contrary to Article 18. Convention protocols As of January 2010, fifteen protocols to the convention have been opened for signature. These can be divided into two main groups: those amending the framework of",
"the framework of the convention system, and those expanding the rights that can be protected. The former require unanimous ratification by member states before coming into force, while the latter require a certain number of states to sign before coming into force. Protocol 1 This Protocol contains three different rights which the signatories could not agree to place in the convention itself.MonacoandSwitzerlandhave signed but never ratified Protocol 1. Article 1 – property Article 1 (\"A1P1\")provides that \"every natural orlegal personis entitled to thepeaceful enjoyment of his possessions\". TheEuropean Court of Human Rightsacknowledged a violation of the fair balance between the demands of the general interest of the community and the requirements of the protection of the individual's fundamental rights, also, in the uncertainty – for the owner – about the future of the property, and in the absence of an allowance. In the case ofMifsud and others v Malta(38770/17) the Maltese state was found to have violated",
"to have violated Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the convention. The case involved a plot of land owned by the Mifsud family and their heirs which was expropriated twice (in 1984 and in 2012). The court, in its judgment, stated that \"the (Maltese) Constitutional Court had no basis on which to ground its finding. The Court is disconcerted by the circumstances of the present case which led to an expropriation of property being endorsed without anyone being able to assert the reasons behind such an expropriation.\" Article 2 – education Article 2 provides for the right not to be denied an education and theright for parents to have their children educatedin accordance with their religious and other views. It does not however guarantee any particular level of education of any particular quality. Although phrased in the Protocol as a negative right, inŞahin v. Turkeythe court ruled that: it would be hard to imagine that institutions of higher education existing at a given time do not come within the scope of the",
"the scope of the first sentence of Article 2 of Protocol No 1. Although that Article does not impose a duty on the Contracting States to set up institutions of higher education, any State doing so will be under an obligation to afford an effective right of access to them. In a democratic society, the right to education, which is indispensable to the furtherance of human rights, plays such a fundamental role that a restrictive interpretation of the first sentence of Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 would not be consistent with the aim or purpose of that provision. Article 3 – elections Article 3 provides for the right to elections performed by secret ballot, that are also free and that occur at regular intervals. Protocol 4 – civil imprisonment, free movement, expulsion Article 1 prohibits the imprisonment of people for inability to fulfil a contract. Article 2 provides for aright to freely movewithin a country once lawfully there and for a right to leave any country. Article 3 prohibits the expulsion of nationals",
"of nationals and provides for the right of an individual to enter a country of their nationality. Article 4 prohibits the collective expulsion of foreigners. Turkeyand theUnited Kingdomhave signed but never ratified Protocol 4.GreeceandSwitzerlandhave neither signed nor ratified this protocol. The United Kingdom's failure to ratify this protocol is due to concerns over the interaction of Article 2 and Article 3 withBritish nationality law. Specifically, several classes of \"British national\" (such asBritish National (Overseas)) do not have the right of abode in the United Kingdom and are subject to immigration control there. In 2009, the UK government stated that it had no plans to ratify Protocol 4 because of concerns that those articles could be taken as conferring that right. Protocol 6 – restriction of death penalty Requires parties to restrict the application of thedeath penaltyexcept for \"acts committed in time of war\" or of \"imminent threat of war\". Every Council of Europe member state has signed and",
"has signed and ratified Protocol 6. Protocol 7 – crime and family Despite having signed the protocol more than thirty years ago Germany and the Netherlands have never ratified it. Turkey, which signed the protocol in 1985, ratified it in 2016, becoming the latest member state to do so. The United Kingdom has neither signed nor ratified the protocol. Protocol 12 – discrimination Protocol 12 applies the current expansive and indefinite grounds of prohibited discrimination inArticle 14to the exercise of any legal right and to the actions (including the obligations) of public authorities. The Protocol entered into force on 1 April 2005 and has (as of March 2018) been ratified by 20 member states. Several member states—Bulgaria,Denmark,France,Lithuania,Monaco,Poland,Sweden,Switzerland, and theUnited Kingdom—have not signed the protocol. The United Kingdom government has declined to sign Protocol 12 on the basis that they believe the wording of protocol is too wide and would result in a flood of new cases testing",
"new cases testing the extent of the new provision. They believe that the phrase \"rights set forth by law\" might include international conventions to which the UK is not a party, and would result in incorporation of these instruments by stealth. It has been suggested that the protocol is therefore in acatch-22, since the UK will decline to either sign or ratify the protocol until theEuropean Court of Human Rightshas addressed the meaning of the provision, while the court is hindered in doing so by the lack of applications to the court concerning the protocol caused by the decisions of Europe's most populous states—including the UK—not to ratify the protocol. The UK government, nevertheless, stated in 2004 that it \"agrees in principle that the ECHR should contain a provision against discrimination that is free-standing and not parasitic on the other Convention rights\".The first judgment that found a violation of Protocol No. 12,Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, was delivered in 2009. Protocol 13 –",
"2009. Protocol 13 – complete abolition of death penalty Protocol 13 provides for the total abolition of thedeath penalty.Currently all Council of Europe member states butAzerbaijanhave ratified Protocol 13. Procedural and institutional protocols The convention's provisions affecting institutional and procedural matters have been altered several times by means of protocols. These amendments have, with the exception of Protocol 2, amended the text of the convention. Protocol 2 did not amend the text of the convention as such but stipulated that it was to be treated as an integral part of the text. All of these protocols have required the unanimous ratification of all the member states of the Council of Europe to enter into force. Protocol 11 Protocols 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 have now been superseded by Protocol 11 which entered into force on 1 November 1998.It established a fundamental change in the machinery of the convention. It abolished the commission, allowing individuals to apply directly to the court,",
"to the court, which was given compulsory jurisdiction and altered the latter's structure. Previously states could ratify the convention without accepting the jurisdiction of the Court of Human Rights. The protocol also abolished the judicial functions of the Committee of Ministers. Protocol 14 Protocol 14 follows on from Protocol 11 in proposing to further improve the efficiency of the court. It seeks to \"filter\" out cases that have less chance of succeeding along with those that are broadly similar to cases brought previously against the same member state. Furthermore, a case will not be considered admissible where an applicant has not suffered a \"significant disadvantage\". This latter ground can only be used when an examination of the application on the merits is not considered necessary and where the subject-matter of the application had already been considered by a national court. A new mechanism was introduced by Protocol 14 to assist enforcement of judgements by the Committee of Ministers. The",
"of Ministers. The committee can ask the court for an interpretation of a judgement and can even bring a member state before the court for non-compliance of a previous judgement against that state. Protocol 14 also allows forEuropean Union accession to the convention.The protocol has been ratified by every Council of Europe member state, Russia being last in February 2010. It entered into force on 1 June 2010. A provisionalProtocol 14bishad been opened for signature in 2009.Pending the ratification of Protocol 14 itself, 14bis was devised to allow the court to implement revised procedures in respect of the states which have ratified it. It allowed single judges to reject manifestly inadmissible applications made against the states that have ratified the protocol. It also extended the competence of three-judge chambers to declare applications made against those states admissible and to decide on their merits where there already is a well-established case law of the court. Now that all Council of Europe member",
"of Europe member states have ratified Protocol 14, Protocol 14bis has lost itsraison d'êtreand according to its own terms ceased to have any effect when Protocol 14 entered into force on 1 June 2010. See also Notes Further reading External links",
"List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more",
"to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no",
"force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links"
] |
Spryo the Dragon released a sequel just a year after it came out. In the same year Spryo's sequel came out, what popular skateboarding based game hit shelves? | Tony Hawk's Pro Skater | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyro_the_Dragon | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyro_2:_Ripto%27s_Rage! | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Hawk%27s_Pro_Skater | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyro_the_Dragon', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyro_2:_Ripto%27s_Rage!', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Hawk%27s_Pro_Skater'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyro_the_Dragon",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyro_2:_Ripto%27s_Rage!",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Hawk%27s_Pro_Skater"
] | [
"Spyro the Dragon Spyro the Dragonis a 1998platform gamedeveloped byInsomniac Gamesand published bySony Computer Entertainmentfor thePlayStation. The first game in theSpyroseries, it stars the title character, a young purpledragonnamedSpyro, and hisdragonflyfriend, Sparx, who must journey across the Dragon Kingdom to defeat Gnasty Gnorc, who has overtaken the five dragon Homeworlds by trapping the other dragons in crystal and turning their hoard of gems into an army of minions.Spyro the Dragonis an open-ended 3D platformer, featuring large, sprawling levels in which the player must locate collectable items, among which are gemstones, crystallized dragons, and stolen dragon eggs. Spyro's abilities as a dragon include fire breath, a head-on charging attack, and a mid-air glide which he can use to scale large distances, all of which must be used strategically to find items and defeat enemies. Spyro the Dragonstarted development following the release of Insomniac's debut game,Disruptor, which sold poorly but was generally praised by critics, impressingUniversal Interactiveenough to encourage them to make a second game. Artist Craig Stitt suggested a game about a dragon, and work began on a new game. Taking inspiration from the filmDragonheart, the game started out as a more mature title with a dark and realistic approach, but the direction was shifted to have a more whimsical and light-hearted tone to appeal to a wider market of consumers. The game was one of the first on the PlayStation to utilize shiftinglevels of detailamong rendered objects, thanks to a panoramic engine developed by Alex Hastings which allowed the game's open-ended nature to be fully realized.Stewart Copeland, the former drummer forThe Police, composed the game's music, and the titular character was voice acted byCarlos Alazraqui, alongside additional voices done byClancy Brown,Michael GoughandJamie Alcroft. Spyro the Dragonwas released by Sony Computer Entertainment as part of a general effort to reach out to a younger age demographic and compete with the more popular children's platform, theNintendo 64. Although sales were initially sluggish, it found larger success following the advent of the 1998 holiday season and went on to sell nearly five million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling PlayStation games. Critics praised the game's graphics and gameplay, while some noted its low difficulty level. The game established Spyro as a well-known platforming mascot on the PlayStation alongsideCrash Bandicoot, and two sequels, titledSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!andSpyro: Year of the Dragon, were later released for the PlayStation in 1999 and 2000, respectively. Although Insomniac gave up the development rights to theSpyroseries following the third game, the success of the PlayStation titles lent itself to a continued series of games across various platforms. The game, alongside its two successors, was later remade as part ofSpyro Reignited Trilogyin 2018. Gameplay Spyro the Dragonis a3D platform game;the player controlsthe titular characteras he ventures across the realms of the Dragon World to defeat the antagonistic Gnasty Gnorc, as well as rescue his fellow dragons and recover all of their stolen treasure.Worldsconsist of six dragon \"home worlds\",each of which acts as a dedicated hub, containing portals that serve as gateways to different levels.The player must progress from one Homeworld to the next by talking to aballoonist, who transports Spyro to the next world on ahot air balloonafter the player has found the required collectibles in the current given world.In addition to regular platforming stages, each Homeworld contains aboss fightand a hidden flight stage that involves flying throughout an environment and destroying a number of objects. The levels inSpyro the Dragonare open-ended, and they revolve around exploring and obtaining various collectible items to progress in the game.Each stage contains a number of crystallized dragons, whom Spyro must turn back to normal by locating and stepping on their statue bases. These dragons give the player advice on how to progress through the game, as well as their respective locations acting as save points after the dragon has been freed.Another important collectible in the game is the dragons' stolen treasure, which is dispersed throughout each level in the form of multicoloredgemstones. These gems are located in numerous different places, including inside enemies, breakable boxes, and treasure chests, and most stages contain a set amount of treasure to be found.There are also stolen dragon eggs that must be reclaimed by chasing and defeating thieves.Finding every collectible in the game unlocks an additional world that otherwise cannot be accessed. Spyro has two main offensive moves, which are used to attack enemies as well as destroy certain objects: charging, in which Spyro sprints forward and rams into things with his head, and breathing fire. These attacks must be used appropriately for certain enemies and situations; for instance, some enemies carry fireproof metal armor, meaning that they can only be defeated by charging, while larger enemies can only be hit using fire breath, as they will immediately crush Spyro otherwise.Spyro can also use his wings to glide in midair, letting him travel further distances in the air and access areas otherwise unreachable via a regular jump.Throughout the game, Spyro is accompanied by Sparx, a yellow dragonfly who protects Spyro from taking damage and serves as the player's system ofhealth. Sparx's current health is represented by the color of his body; if Spyro is hurt by an obstacle, such as an enemy or by touching water, Sparx changes colors, with yellow, blue and green representing different subsequent amounts of withheld damage. If the player is damaged too many times, Sparx disappears, leaving Spyro vulnerable to losing a life if he is hurt again. Sparx can be rejuvenated by consumingbutterflies, which are found by killing passive creatures such assheepthat roam throughout most levels.Sparx also helps Spyro collect items by retrieving any gems that Spyro passes by. Plot In the world of dragons, the Dragon Kingdom consists of five Homeworlds – the Artisans, the Peace Keepers, the Magic Crafters, the Beast Makers, and the Dream Weavers – which have lived in harmony for many years.One day, a TV interview with a pair of dragons from the Artisan realm catches the attention of Gnasty Gnorc, a powerful gnorc (halfgnomeand halforc) who was banished from the kingdom due to his abrasive demeanor and sent to an abandoned junkyard, which he renames to \"Gnasty's World\".The dragons' openly dismissive and derisive commentary concerning Gnasty enrages him, driving him to unleash a full-fledged attack on the kingdom. Using his magic, he casts a spell across the land that encases every dragon in a crystal shell; he also steals the dragons' prized collection of treasure, turning the gemstones into devious gnorc soldiers and other creatures to help him take over the dragon worlds.Spyro, a young purple dragon, is the only dragon that manages to avoid getting crystallized by the attack. Aided by his dragonfly companion, Sparx, Spyro eagerly sets out to locate and defeat Gnasty. Spyro visits each of the dragon homeworlds, defeating Gnasty's forces who have been set out to stop him. Along the way, he frees the crystallized dragons, who give him advice and urge him to recover any stolen treasure and dragon eggs along the way. He eventually makes his way to Gnasty's World, where he finally confronts and defeats Gnasty. After Spyro's quest is over, he has access to Gnasty's treasure portal, which can only be opened if Spyro rescues every dragon in the kingdom and recovers all of the dragons' treasure and retrieves the stolen dragon eggs. A secret ending can then be unlocked by retrieving everything inside of the treasure portal. In this ending, Spyro is seen getting interviewed on TV when another spell is placed on the dragons, prompting Spyro to set out on yet another adventure. Development Concept Spyro the Dragonwas the second game developed byInsomniac Games,following the release of their first game,Disruptor, in December 1996. AlthoughDisruptorwas a commercial failure, its positive critical reception was enough to impressUniversal Interactive Studiosand encourage the team to continue with their next endeavor.The idea of a game about adragonwas introduced by Insomniac artist Craig Stitt, who suggested the concept out of his own interest in the mythical creature.Initially, the game's tone was far darker and more realistic; according to Insomniac's COO, John Fiorito, who joined the company in 1997 duringSpyro's development, inspiration was taken in part from the filmDragonHeart, and the game was initially \"realistic and kind of dark and gritty\" before it eventually took a more whimsical, light-hearted direction.Mark Cerny, an executive at Universal Interactive Studios and the game's producer,advised that the team create a game with more mass market appeal, as the demographics of the PlayStation were decreasing and its selection of children's titles were greatly outnumbered by theNintendo 64's. According to programmer Peter Hastings, the dragon character was originally going to be named \"Pete\", but due to copyright concerns over similarities to theDisneyfilmPete's Dragon, the name was scrapped. After considering the name \"Pyro,\" which was ultimately considered \"too mature\", they finally settled on \"Spyro\".In-game dialogue was written by Peter Kleiner, and Spyro's character was designed byCharles Zembillas, who had previously done design work onCrash Bandicoot.Spyro was originally going to be green, but the developers worried he would blend in with grass, so they eventually changed him to purple.During development ofSpyro, Insomniac had a very close relationship withCrash Bandicootcreator and fellow PlayStation developerNaughty Dog, who had their office located directly across the hall from theirs. The two developers frequently worked together, playing early builds of each other's games and later sharing game technology. As a result, a demo ofCrash Bandicoot: Warpedwas hidden inSpyro, and vice versa. Design Spyro the Dragonwas unique compared to other 3D platform games of the time; Spyro's ability to glide allowed him to travel long distances in the air, meaning that the player could cross almost an entire level if starting from a high enough point. While this made designing levels more difficult for the team, it also meant that levels could be made more open-ended and explorative in nature. To makeSpyro’s controls feel fluid, Matt Whiting—aNASAengineer who specialized in flight controls—was brought on to help with programming camera movement as well Spyro's movement controls. The game's camera was particularly challenging; initially, it always followed directly behind Spyro, but the resulting high-speed movements were found to make several playtesters feelnauseous. This was most evident with Spyro's basic jump, which triggered the camera to quickly tilt up and down, compared by Whiting to the motion of a rocking boat; this was ultimately tweaked so that the camera would stay steady.Spyrowas coded with efficiency in mind, as 3D rendering technology was new at the time and the game had to fit the limited specifications of the PlayStation. Around 80% of the game's code was written usingAssembly, while other parts were programmed inCdue to its simplicity and speed. Graphics Spyro the Dragonmade use of a 3D panoramic engine, developed by Alex Hastings, that could display far-away objects by utilizing varyinglevels of detail, a method of rendering which was new and unexplored at the time. The developers believed that the engine would be fitting for the game, as it could allow for more expansive levels that could take advantage of the character's abilities, such as gliding.This dynamic system, used to complement the large and sprawling environments, generated two different versions of a level; one version rendered in high detail and the other a simpler, textureless render. Objects in the player's vicinity were drawn using the detailed render, whereas distant ones were drawn from the simple render. This system allowed objects to be displayed from far distances while adhering to the PlayStation's limited RAM capabilities; it was one of the first video games to make use of such a system. The game made extensive use of vertex shading to colour objects andprovide light and shade- with the smooth skies entirely reliant on the technique to depict clouds and other distant details without the use of textures. Base textures were intentionally kept relatively desaturated so as to prevent them from becoming oversaturated with use of the technique. Audio The game's music was composed and produced byStewart Copeland, formerly the drummer for the British bandThe Police. Copeland was given early builds of the game's levels, which he played through to get a feel for them and come up with a fitting composition.He was also given game cheats such as invincibility so that he could have an easier time clearing levels. Copeland wrote four songs per day, all of which he further developed and polished the next day.According to Copeland, each song in the game was written to correspond to a specific level, but this correlation ultimately went unused.Copeland has looked back positively on his work onSpyro, calling the game's music some of his best compositions. Carlos Alazraquiprovided the voice of Spyro in the game, and additional voices were done byClancy Brown,Michael Gough,Jamie Alcroftand Michael Connor. Alazraqui explained in an issue ofElectronic Gaming Monthlythat he tried to make Spyro's voice sound like \"a kid at camp that everybody likes.\"Alazraqui did not continue in this role after the first game, being replaced byTom Kennyfor the sequels. Release Spyro the Dragonwas first unveiled at the 1998E3convention inAtlanta, Georgia.It was then later released in North America on September 9, 1998, and in Europe on October 23 of the same year.According toSony Computer Entertainment's American Marketing Vice President, Andrew House, at a press party inLas Vegas, the game, along with other upcoming 4th quarter PlayStation releases such asCrash Bandicoot: Warped,A Bug's Life, andRugrats: Search for Reptar, was part of a general effort to appeal to a wider demographic of younger audiences and provide more games suited for younger players to compete with theNintendo 64, which had a far larger library of children's titles at the time compared to the PlayStation's largely adult-centric demographic.An advertisement campaign was pushed to promote the game, featuring a character from the game, Toasty the Sheep, protesting against the title character's actions against sheep. The campaign included TV commercials, featuring an actor in ananimatroniccostume of Toasty, and a promotional website,sheepagainstspyro.com.On August 16, 1999, SCEA announced that the game would be included as a part of their \"Greatest Hits\" lineup of budgeted releases alongside other games such asCrash Bandicoot: Warped,Gran Turismo,Cool Boarders 3, andTwisted Metal III, and alongside the announcement of a price drop for the PlayStation console to compete with the highly anticipated launch of theSega Dreamcast.On December 12, 2012, the game was digitally re-released to thePlayStation Storetogether withSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!andSpyro: Year of the Dragon.A remake of the game, alongside its two sequels, was included as a part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogycompilation for thePlayStation 4andXbox Onein November 2018, followed by theNintendo SwitchandMicrosoft Windowsin September 2019. Sales According toSpyro's developers, sales were initially slow at the game's launch but quickly began picking up following the holiday season.In the week of November 29, 1998, it was the 3rd best-selling game in the UK, behindTomb RaiderandFIFA 99.At the 1999 Milia festival inCannes, it took home a \"Gold\" prize for revenues above €20,000,000 in theEuropean Unionduring the previous year.Spyro the Dragonreceived a \"Gold\" award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) by the end of August 1999,for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland.By December 1999, the game had sold 1,000,000 copies in North America.As of 2007, the title had gone on to sell a total of nearly 5,000,000 units. Reception Spyro the Dragoncurrently holds a score of 85% atGameRankings, based on an aggregate of 18 reviews.IGN's Craig Harris hailed it as the most fun 3D platformer he had played sinceCrash Bandicoot, writing \"Two claws up. Way up.\"Computer and Video Gamescalled the game \"easily the best 3D platform game on the PlayStation\", despite noting its largely child-friendly nature.Shawn Smith ofElectronic Gaming Monthlywrote that \"Spyrois to the PlayStation whatBanjo-Kazooieis to theNintendo 64\", and stated that it \"combines the two most-important aspects in any good game: graphics and gameplay.\" Crispin Boyer, also ofElectronic Gaming Monthly, proclaimed that Spyro \"raises the bar\" for 3D platformers, and wrote that it had replacedGex 3D: Enter the Geckoas his favorite \"PS mascot game\".Joe Fielder ofGameSpotcalled the game \"a proficient, fully 3D platform game\" for the PlayStation, comparing it favorably to one of the more recent platformers on the system,Blasto, and proclaiming that it \"excels overBlastoin every way imaginable.\" Despite this, he wrote that the game \"only gets very, very high marks, instead of outrageously high marks\", citing its lack of high difficulty as the main factor that made it inferior to games likeSuper Mario 64andBanjo-Kazooie.Edgenamed it the best 3D platform game for the PlayStation, but criticized Spyro's limited abilities and said that the game was not as varied asSuper Mario 64. Critics lauded the game's presentation, specifically speaking praise for its graphics, technical performance, and Copeland's music done for the game.GameProreviewer \"Slo Mo\" wrote that the game's graphics and animations gaveSpyro\"the look and feel of ananimated film\" while calling the in-game environments \"breathtaking\".Harris wrote that the game \"utilizes the PlayStation's hardware to the max\", and praised the quality of the in-game animations; he particularly praised the rescued dragons' talking animations, which he said gave the characters \"incredible personality.\"Fielder praised the game's dynamic lighting system and character designs, and noted \"a near-complete lack ofpop-up\" during gameplay.Sushi-X ofElectronic Gaming Monthlysaid that the graphics were \"among the finest\" on the PlayStation.AllGameeditor Scott Alan Marriott applauded the graphics, scenery, characters and control as some of the best on the PlayStation, if not the best at the time of the games release.Fielder spoke positively of Copeland's compositional work, calling it \"wonderfully atmospheric.\"Slo Mo described the music as having a \"catchy, mellow jazz-rock swing to it\" while also praising the voice work for its wide array of unique voices. Many critics held praise for the game's level design and controls, though some noted its simplicity and low difficulty level (with the exception of Tree Tops). Fielder called the level design \"exceptional\",while Boyer praised the levels for encouraging exploration among players.Sushi-X called the play controls \"perfectly tuned\" whilst Fielder wrote that they worked well both with and without theDualShock's analog stick, although Smith expressed that controls were unsuited for maneuvering in \"high-risk areas.\"The camera system received varying reactions, with Boyer praising it as one of the best in any 3D platformer and Fielder declaring that it fixed the common issues present in most other 3D platform games,while Harris criticized its lack of precision when following the player, stating that it \"tends to float around on a loose tether\", and highlighted the camera system as one of the game's only flaws.Fielder wrote that an overabundance of extra lives caused the game to feel \"like it was aimed at a younger or broader audience,\" holding the final boss and the bonus level as the only exceptions.Despite praisingSpyro, Sushi-X noted the game's \"lack of diversity\" in obstacles and objects leading to \"repetitive play.\" Boyer lamented that the common trope of collecting items, while still very fun inSpyro, was starting to become less interesting, while also criticizing the game's boss fights, calling them \"small, easy and decidedly unBoss-like.\" During the2nd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards,Spyro the Dragonwas named as a finalist by theAcademy of Interactive Arts & Sciencesfor \"Outstanding Achievement in Art/Graphics\", \"Console Action Game of the Year\", and \"Console Game of the Year\"; the first two awards went toBanjo-Kazooie, while the latter was won byThe Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time. Legacy The popularity ofSpyro the Dragonhelped to push the character of Spyro as a popular platformingmascotfor the PlayStation alongsideCrash Bandicoot.It was the first game in what became an expansivevideo game series, spawning 2 more platforming sequels for the PlayStation –Ripto's RageandYear of the Dragon– released in 1999 and 2000, respectively. As of the year 2000, the series had sold more than 3.2 million copies in the U.S. and over 4 million copies worldwide.Insomniac stopped developing theSpyroseries afterYear of the Dragon, as it finished off their 4-game contract with Universal Interactive. Despite this, the series was continued across various different developers, and shifted to several other platforms besides PlayStation.Spyrobeing their first considerable success, Insomniac went on to develop several other successful video game franchises, including theRatchet & Clankseries of platform games and thefirst-person shooterseriesResistance.The game's rendering system, new and unheard of at the time, has gone on to be used in several other 3D video games. References External links",
"Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage! Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!, known asSpyro 2: Gateway to GlimmerinPAL regions, is a 1999platform gamedeveloped byInsomniac Gamesand published bySony Computer Entertainmentfor thePlayStation. It is the second game in the mainSpyroseries. A remake was released as part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogyin 2018. Gameplay Players controlSpyro the Dragonas he fights against various enemies and obstacles using his flame breath, charge attack, and glide abilities. His health is indicated by the color of his dragonfly partner, Sparx, who can replenish his health by eating butterflies. Bottled butterflies will both completely restore Sparx's health and give Spyro an extra life. The game is split up into three main hub worlds containing portals to various realms. In order to progress through the first two hub worlds, the player must acquire a talisman from each realm, which is awarded for reaching the end of the level, before facing the boss of each world. Each level also contains a certain number of orbs, which can be earned by completing secondary tasks for particularNPCs, such as lighting a series of lamps or protecting characters from attacks. These orbs are required for opening some of the portals to certain levels, as well as progressing through the third hub world. Gems gathered throughout the game are required to pay fees Moneybags charges in order to progress through the game. As well as opening portals or granting access to certain areas, Moneybags also teaches Spyro three brand new abilities over the course of the game. Swimming lets Spyro dive underwater to reach submerged treasure and hidden tunnels, climbing lets Spyro climb up certain surfaces, and the headbash lets Spyro perform an overhead smashing attack which can break rocks and certain cages. In addition, each level has a power-up gate, activated after defeating a specific number of enemies in a level, which grants Spyro a temporary super-ability. The power-up can grant invulnerability or the abilities to fly, supercharge, super flame, breathe ice, or super jump to reach high up areas. Characters and setting The only characters from the original game to return as main characters in this game areSpyro, the game's protagonist, and Sparx, his dragonfly sidekick. Sparx functions as the player's health meter, and assists the player in gathering gems. This game introduces new characters into the Spyro series, many of whom would appear in later games. Both Hunter and Moneybags make recurring appearances in the series, while Ripto would make more series appearances than any other antagonist, making him the key villain of the original series. The dragons of the previous installment have been replaced with an entirely new cast of characters, including fauns, satyrs, anthropomorphic animals, and robotic businessmen, among others. The world of Avalar is divided into three realms: the Summer Forest, the Autumn Plains, and the Winter Tundra. In every realm, there is a castle that, during the course of the storyline, is captured by Ripto. Each realm features a number of different worlds, a speedway world, and a dungeon in which Ripto or his minions are hiding. Plot A few years after the defeat of Gnasty Gnorc,Spyro the Dragonand his dragonfly partner, Sparx, having had enough with the continuous raining in Artisans, decide to take avacationto Dragon Shores. Upon going through the portal, however, Spyro instead ends up in Glimmer, one of the many realms of the fantasy land of Avalar, having been summoned there by Elora the Faun, Hunter the Cheetah, and the Professor. They explain that one week prior, they were experimenting with a large portal device when they inadvertently summoned an angry, iron-fistedwarlockknown as Ripto, along with his minions Crush and Gulp. Pleased to find himself in a world without dragons, whom he views as pests, Ripto decided to conquer Avalar, prompting Elora and the others to deactivate the portal by scattering the mystical orbs powering it all across the realm. As Ripto and his henchmen leave to retrieve the orbs, Elora gets the idea to summon a dragon to fight against him, thus leading to Spyro's situation. After getting stranded in Avalar as a result of Ripto destroying the portal he came in through, Spyro agrees to help fight against him. During his quest, Spyro must travel through the various realms of Avalar and help the inhabitants with certain problems they are facing in order to receive their realm's talisman, which Spyro must use to undo Ripto's tyranny. He must also collect the orbs scattered across Avalar to empower portals and other various devices or spells, as well as gems to pay off the sleazy elitist bear, Moneybags for certain favors. Hunter the Cheetah helps out Spyro on certain missions with his athletic abilities, and the Professor does the same using his intellect. After collecting six talismans in Summer Forest, Spyro fights and defeats Crush, prompting Ripto and Gulp to retreat. The young dragon then pursues them to Autumn Plains, where he collects eight more talismans before engaging and vanquishing Gulp in combat. Then, Ripto seemingly falls to his demise, and Elora and her friends repay Spyro by returning to Winter Tundra and reactivating the portal device to send him to Dragon Shores. However, Ripto reveals himself to be alive and steals the power crystal that was meant to power the portal, using it to create a new magic scepter (since Gulp ate the original in the intro). After collecting enough orbs, Spyro is able to confront Ripto; the warlock ironically perishes in a lake of lava which he himself created. With peace returned to Avalar, Elora and the others return all the gems that Moneybags had extorted from Spyro to fix the portal device, allowing him to take his long-awaited vacation to Dragon Shores. The game's epilogue, which is unlocked by completing the Skill Points list in the Guidebook, reveals what happened to various friends and enemies that Spyro encountered in Avalar, as well as moments such as Spyro and Elora missing their chance to kiss, Crush being taught by the Professor how to spell, and a list of dummied enemies that didn't make it into the game. In the end, Spyro returns to the Dragon Realm, with Hunter joining him, setting the stage for thenext game. Development The sequel toSpyro the Dragonwas tentatively titledSpyro the Dragon 2during its pre-production phase.According to Ted Price,Insomniac'spresident and founder, the game was designed to provide a \"greater challenge\" for experienced players, as it was made to have greater depth and more gameplay variety thanSpyro the Dragon.The music forSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!was composed byStewart Copelandand was engineered and co-produced by Jeff Seitz. The character Spyro is voiced byTom Kenny, replacingCarlos Alazraquifrom the first game, while additional voices are provided by Kenny,Gregg Berger,Melissa Disney,Milton James, Mary Linda Phillips andMarcelo Tubert. The game's sound effects were created by Mike Gollom, Harry Woolway and Ron Horwitz of Universal Sound Studios. The game was officially announced at the 1999E3convention inLos Angeles, CA.In Volume 3 Issue 1 of the Official US PlayStation Magazine, which was released in October 1999, the name \"Ripto\" originated from the Japanese katakana spelling of Spyro.The game was released in North America on November 2, 1999.Sony Computer Entertainment of America director of product development Ami Blaire stated, \"Spyro 2isn't just another sequel. Players will surely be lured by Spyro's playful antics, but they'll experience gameplay that's more challenging and more fun then ever before.\" Re-releases The game became available for download on the EuropeanPlayStation Networkon July 26, 2007,before its predecessor was released to the same market. Less than a week later, however, it was removed because the Colossus and Idol Springs levels failed to load. On April 17, 2008, it was released on the Japanese PlayStation Store. On May 7, 2009, the game became available for download from the North American PlayStation Store and a corrected version was re-released on the European PlayStation Store on December 12, 2012, although as theNTSCversion instead ofPAL.Spyro 2, alongside itspredecessorandsequel, received a remastered release with updated visuals on November 13, 2018 as part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogycompilation forPlayStation 4andXbox One. This compilation retains the game's North American name,Ripto's Rage!, as opposed to the title used for the original European and Australasian release,Gateway to Glimmer. Reception The game received favorable reviews according to thereview aggregationwebsiteGameRankings.However, Chris Kramer ofNextGensaid that the game \"feels like a kids' title, but it has more meat to it than the first, and the cute graphics may make your girlfriend finally stop cooing over those damnPokémon.\"In Japan, where the game was ported for release under the nameSpyro X Sparx: Tondemo Tours(スパイロ×スパークス トンでもツアーズ,Supairo × Supākusu Tondemo Tsuāzu)on March 16, 2000,Famitsugave it a score of 30 out of 40.GameProsaid of the game, \"If you simply loved the firstSpyro, or are very intrigued by the second, you can't go wrong withSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage. Once you get over its cute exterior, you'll find an excellent platform action/adventure game ripe with the goods that make gaming great.\" The game received a \"Gold\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association(ELSPA),indicating sales of at least 200,000 units in the UK. As of June 30, 2007, the game sold more than 3.4 million units. Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!received nominations for \"Console Children's/Family Title of the Year\", \"Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction\", and \"Outstanding Achievement in Animation\" during theAIAS'3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards; they were ultimately awarded toPokémon Snap(Children's/Family) andFinal Fantasy VIII(Art Direction, Animation). Notes References External links",
"Tony Hawk's Pro Skater Tony Hawk's Pro Skater, released asTony Hawk's Skateboardingin the UK, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Europe, is a 1999skateboardingvideo gamedeveloped byNeversoftand published byActivision. It is the first installment in theTony Hawk'sseries. It was released for thePlayStationon September 29, 1999and was laterportedto theNintendo 64,Game Boy Color,Dreamcast, andN-Gage. Tony Hawk's Pro Skatertakes place in an urban environment permeated by an ambience ofpunk rockandska punkmusic. The player takes control of a variety of skateboarders and must complete missions by performingskateboarding tricksand collecting objects. The game offers several modes of gameplay, including a career mode in which the player must complete objectives and evolve their character's attributes, a single session, in which the player accumulates a high score within two minutes, a free skate mode in which the player may skate without any given objective, and a multiplayer mode that features a number of competitive games. Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas met with critical acclaim for all versions except theGame Boy Colorversion, which had a more mixed reception. The game resulted in a successful franchise, receiving eight annualized sequels developed by Neversoft fromPro Skater 2(2000) toProving Ground(2007). It is also credited with introducing skateboarding to a more mainstream global audience.It received a remakealong with the sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2, in 2020. Gameplay Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterputs the player in control of a skateboarder and takes place in a third-person view with a fixed camera. The goal of the game is to perform tricks and combinations thereof in an effort to increase the player's score. Movement can be altered using thed-padoranalog stick, andollies,grabs,flipsandgrindsare each assigned to individual buttons. Each skateboarder has eight grabs, eight grinds and eight flips. The number of points earned from a successful trick sequence is dependent on the amount of time spent in the air, the degree of rotation, and the number and variety of tricks performed; the more a single trick is performed in a sequence, the fewer points it will earn. When the player succeeds in performing tricks, a special gauge increases. When this gauge is full and flashing, the player is capable of performing a special trick that is worth many more points than ordinary tricks.If the player bails (falls off their skateboard), any points that may have been earned from the current combo are lost, and the special gauge is emptied. In the game's \"Career Mode\", the player must complete five objectives (represented byVHS tapes) in each level within a period of two minutes. The player is not obligated to complete all the objectives within a single run; any completed objective is committed to the game's memory, which allows other objectives to be completed within multiple playthroughs of a level. Two common objectives in each level are achieved by accumulating two defined scores, which gradually increases in difficulty throughout the game; while one other common objective is to collect letters of the word \"SKATE\". Another common objective is to destroy five of a certain object within each level. The fifth objective involves collecting a VHS tape hidden in the level. Completing objectives unlocks additional levels and equipment for use. Three of the mode's levels take place in a competition setting in which the player performs for judges and accumulates the highest score within three one-minute rounds. The player receives a bronze, silver or gold medal depending on the final score they are given. Other single-player modes include the \"Single Session\", in which the player can freely accumulate a high score within two minutes using any previously obtained levels and characters, and the \"Free Skate\", in which there is no time limit imposed. The multiplayer mode is played by two players in asplit screenview and offers three games: \"Graffiti\", \"Trick Attack\", and \"HORSE\". In \"Graffiti\", players must accumulate the highest score by changing level elements into their own color via the use of tricks. If a player performs a higher-scoring trick on an element that has already been marked, the element will change to that player's color. \"Trick Attack\" is a mode in which players must accumulate the highest score by chaining tricks together. \"HORSE\" is a game that isplayed intermittently between two players, who must compete in rounds lasting either eight seconds or until a trick has been made. The player with the lower score on any given turn receives a letter in the word \"HORSE\" or whatever word the players have generated prior to the game's start. The first player to accumulate the entire word loses. Featured pro skaters The game features a total of ten real life professional skateboarders, along with two unlockable original characters: Officer Dick and Private Carrera. Development Following the releases of arcade gameTop Skater(1997) bySegaand PlayStation gameStreet Sk8er(1998) byElectronic Arts,Activisionidentified skateboarding-simulation games as a growing market in the gaming industry and concluded that such a title would resonate with a young audience. Preceding Neversoft's involvement in the project, the task of developing a skateboarding title for Activision was given to another studio. However, this studio's attempt did not impress Activision and didn't move past the concept stage. The publisher then decided to entrust the project to Neversoft, which had recently completed the third-person shooter gameApocalypse(1998) within nine months. Although Neversoft had never developed a sports video game before, the development team was confident in its ability to accomplish the task before its given deadline of the 1999 Christmas season. During development, the Neversoft team would spend its lunch breaks at a bowling alley near the studio, where they would play and subsequently study from Sega'sTop Skaterin the arcade. The game's design served as a strong basic influence, along with observances of real skaters performing in theX Games, which were taking place during the game's development. Although the team decided early on thatTop Skater's linearity lacked the sense of fun they aimed for, the \"racetrack\" element was retained in two of the game's final levels. Contrary to subsequent titles in the series, Neversoft did not primarily focus on using pre-existing locations as reference for the game's level design, but simply envisioned potential skating areas such as a school or a city and incorporated elements such as ramps and rails to benefit the gameplay. The team consciously prioritized fun over realism in the approach to the game's level design and physics. The game's engine is a modified version of that of Neversoft's previous titleApocalypse, and the game's prototype usedBruce Willis's character from that game as the placeholder player character.Once the prototype reached a functional and demonstrable state, the Neversoft team realized that they would require a professional skateboarder to aid in the remainder of production. At the time,Tony Hawkhad been a popular figure within skateboarding for quite some time.In September 1998, Activision established contact with Hawk and arranged a meeting between him and Neversoft. Hawk was quickly impressed by the design team members' devotion to skateboarding, the controls and engine of their game's early build and agreed to lend his name and involvement to the production. Subsequently, Hawk would turn down Activision's offer of a one-time buyout for the permanent use of his name and likeness on the game in favor of a royalty deal in which Hawk would earn a percentage for every copy sold. As a result of the series' eventual success, Hawk would earn ten times Activision's initial offer within two years.By January 1999, Activision publicly announced their agreement with Hawk to include him in the game. Activision senior vice president Mitch Lasky, in an interview withGameSpot, stated that the character was meant \"to reflect Tony's signature style – an intense mix of acrobatics and hard-core technical skating\". Hawk remarked that \" always wanted to help create a video game that represented the reality and excitement of professional skateboarding\". Hawk would spend the development time periodically playing through the game's beta builds and providing feedback, using aspecially modifiedPlayStationconsole that can play games burned onCD-Rs. Hawk even went so far as to purposely send advanced copies of the game to a trusted group of people who also owned modchipped PlayStations: \"I had a modified PlayStation so I could use burned discs, and they'd send me new developments and we'd go back and forth. I'd let people play it, people that I trust. At one point, I felt it was getting so far along that I started to sneak out copies for those same people - these people had modded PlayStations. As subversive as that was, it started to create a buzz in the industry, because they were key players in the skating industry and they were also hardcore gamers\".He would also personally select a group of other professional skaters to include as playable characters based on their skills, personalities and diversity; each skater received a cut of the royalties and got to select their own attire and special tricks for the game.While animating the skaters, the design team largely depended on using available video footage as reference. The incorporation ofmotion capturewas attempted to aid in the realism of the animation, but due to the technology's infancy, the result was ultimately determined to have not translated as well as what had already been animated.The900featured in the game was itself drawn from footage of Hawk's famed performance of the feat in the X Games that summer, and was a relatively late addition as a result. The collection of VHS tapes was directly inspired by the collection of stars inSuper Mario 64(1996). In designing the objectives, the team would gather at a table, draw a level and then ask what could be done within said level, upon which the team members would provide ideas. Rejected concepts arising from these sessions include levels taking place on ahighwayand ajetty, and a scenario in which the player would lose a wheel and have to skate on three wheels.Manualswere originally intended to be implemented into the game, but were omitted due to time constraints; manuals would subsequently be included inTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2. Promotion and release Elissa Steamer's inclusion in the game, along with the game's final release date of September 29, was presented on August 26, 1999.A playable demo with only two available skaters was integrated into the Jampack Summer '99 compilation CD released byPlayStation Underground.The game was made available for pre-order two weeks prior to the game's release; those who pre-ordered the game atElectronics BoutiqueorFuncoLandrespectively received a miniature replica of Tony Hawk's Birdhouse skateboard, a sticker sheet featuring the game's ten professional skaters and a game tip on the back of each sticker.A second playable demo was included on a promotional compilation disc released byPizza Huton November 14. While Neversoft would begin development of the game's sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, shortly before the release of the first game,Activision would entrust the game's Nintendo 64 port toEdge of Reality, which had recently portedMonster Truck Madness 2to the same system.The Nintendo 64 and Game Boy Color versions received a multi-million dollar advertising campaign on several major youth-targeted channels in the United States beginning in April 2000. Customers who purchased the Game Boy Color version atToys \"R\" Usor FuncoLand received a special-edition miniature skateboard. As a result of the disappointing sales ofBlue Stinger, Activision was discouraged from publishing further titles for the Dreamcast and relinquished the distribution ofTony Hawk's Pro Skateron the console to Crave Entertainment.After online speculation and teasing comments from company insiders,a port for the Dreamcast was revealed to be developed byTreyarch.Later in 2003, the N-Gage version was in development.The game came bundled with theN-Gage QDthat was released in 2004. Ports The Nintendo 64 port ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas developed by Edge of Reality and released on March 15, 2000.While the port is largely faithful to the original version and retains all game modes, characters and levels, the soundtrack had been truncated and the voices were removed to accommodate the lessened space in the cartridge format. The blood effects had also been removed, so Nintendo could market the game with an \"E\" game rating.The Dreamcast version was developed by Treyarch, published by Crave Entertainment and released on May 24, 2000. The graphics and animations in the Dreamcast version are improved from those in the PlayStation version. The Game Boy Color version was developed by the Japanese company Natsume and released on March 30, 2000. The Game Boy Color version is an adaptation rather than a true port of the PlayStation version due to the limited capacity of the platform. The game offers two different gameplay styles: an overhead view with vertical scrolling, and a side-scrolling view in which there is a ramp on each side. There are four gameplay modes in which the player can only perform a few tricks. In \"Half Pipe Mode\", the player must attempt to achieve the highest score possible. \"Tournament Mode\" is a five-level vertically scrolling game in which the player must race against three computer-controlled skaters and achieve the highest rank. Jumps are made automatically when the player maneuvers onto ramps, and tricks are displayed as a brief static image. \"Versus Mode\" and \"Rival Mode\" are identical to \"Tournament Mode\", except the player plays in a single level against a single opponent; the opponent in \"Rival Mode\" is computer-controlled, while the opponent in \"Versus Mode\" is human, which necessitates the use of aGame Link Cable. The N-Gage version was developed by Ideaworks3D and released on October 13, 2003, a week following the launch of the N-Gage.The game is a faithful port of the PlayStation version and retains most of the characters, levels, control scheme and original music while adding levels fromTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2and two multiplayer games.The game's multiplayer functions via the N-Gage'sBluetoothfeature.The N-Gage version was named \"Best-Mobile Game\" by theBritish Academy of Film and Television Artsin 2004. A remakeof both the first game andTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, titledTony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2, was developed byVicarious Visionsand released on September 4, 2020, forPlayStation 4,Windows, andXbox One, followed up a year later onPlayStation 5,Xbox Series X/S, andNintendo Switch. The remake includes all of the original levels and skaters from the original games, but also includes improved skater creation and park creation modes, online multiplayer, and other new features, and featuring most of the original soundtracks, with a few exceptions due to licensing issues. Reception Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas met with critical acclaim. Doug Perry ofIGNpraised the game's \"imaginative, deep, and amazingly addictive\" gameplay, \"steady and consistent\" learning curve, \"intuitive and natural\" controls, large and complex levels, \"jaw-dropping\" physics and \"perfect\" soundtrack. Perry concluded that the game had \"captured the pure grit and radical feel of skateboarding, delivering it in near perfect form onto the PlayStation with a mastery and sense of programming finesse beyond anyone's imagination\", and described the game as \"that rare gem of a game that defies what other developers say can't be done\".Jeff GerstmannofGameSpotcommended the game's graphics, frame rate, camera and sound effects, and declared the game to be \"a worthy addition to anyone's PlayStation collection\", though he was not personally fond of the soundtrack and wished that there was more variety in the game's tricks.He additionally noted that the Dreamcast version used the console's hardware to its advantage by displaying clearer textures and a smoother frame rate \"that may very well cause longtime fans of the game to weep\".Chris Carle ofIGNalso praised the Dreamcast version's improved textures. Matt Casamassina ofIGNpraised the Nintendo 64 version's visuals as \"very impressive\" in spite of the reduced quality of the textures and the omitted full-motion video effects, and the audio as \"surprisingly clear\", albeit compressed and \"dumbed down\" to accommodate the cartridge format.Martin Taylor ofEurogamercited the game's graphics as \"crisp, smooth and very, very hard to fault\", but noted that the game's soundtrack suffered from the compression process and that the looping music \"quickly becomes incredibly annoying\";the latter sentiment was mirrored by Dr. Moo of Game Revolution. In reviewing the Game Boy Color version, Craig Harris ofIGNdecided that while the half-pipe portion of the game \"isn't half-bad\", the overhead portion is \"absolutely stupid\"; he criticized the representation of tricks as static images as \"completely destroy the flow of the game\", and noted that the issue is exacerbated in the \"Versus\" mode by having both parties' game pause when either one performs a trick.Frank Provo ofGameSpotcited the game's lack of level variety and \"borderline mediocre\" audio, but felt that it was the best skateboarding title to be made for a portable console.Both Chadd Chambers ofIGNand Jeff Gerstmann ofGameSpotconsidered the N-Gage version to be the best game available on the system and were relatively impressed by the game's graphics, but noted the less comfortable control scheme and reduced sound quality. Three reviewers forNext Generationmagazine - Blake Fischer, Eric Bratcher, and Greg Orlando - gave five stars out of five for PlayStation, Nintendo 64, and Dreamcast versions, respectively. They virtually praised every aspect of the game despite noting some minor differences between all three versions. Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas ranked #36 inGame Informer's \"Top 100 Games of All Time\" in its 100th issue in August 2001.The game was nominated for \"Console Game of the Year\" and \"Console Sports Game of the Year\" during the3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, but lost toSoulcaliburandKnockout Kings 2000, respectively.The game was included onPolygon's 2017 list ofThe 500 Best Games of All Time. Sales Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas the third highest-selling PlayStation title of November 1999 in the United States. From its release date to late-December 1999, the game shipped in excess of 350,000 units and was available in over 10,000 retailers nationwide.The PlayStation version ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterreceived a \"Platinum\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association(ELSPA),indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom.The Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland gave the PlayStation version a Gold Award for 100,000 sold copies in Germany by February 2000.The PlayStation versions ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterand its successor were respectively the third and second highest-selling console games of 2000.The Nintendo 64 version was the sixth highest-selling Nintendo 64 title in the United States during the week of November 19–26, 2000.As of 2001, it has sold 3.5 million units. Sequels The game resulted in a successful franchise, receiving eight annualized sequels developed by Neversoft fromPro Skater 2(2000) toProving Ground(2007), and a 2020 remake along with the sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2. Cultural impact Tony Hawk's Pro Skateris credited with introducing skateboarding to a more mainstream global audience. In a 2023 essay forThe New York Times MagazineIrish writer Jack Sheehan reflected on the game's impact writing, \"Released at a moment when skateboarding was beginning to go mainstream, T.H.P.S. became popular because it invited skaters and nonskaters alike to feel the thrill of getting air, doing a kick flip or landing a trick by the thinnest margin.\"In 2023, the bookRight, Down + Circle: Tony Hawk’s Pro Skaterby Cole Nowicki was released tackling and analyzingTony Hawk's Pro Skater's meaning and impact. Reflecting on both the game's development history and his personal experience as a skateboarder and player, Nowicki called the game an \"unprecedented success\" and a \"Trojan horse, entering the homes of millions worldwide, exposing kids, teenagers, their parents, and more to this gamified version of skateboarding.\" In 2020, a documentary filmPretending I'm Superman: The Tony Hawk Video Game Storyfrom Swedish director Ludvig Gür was released chronicling the development and impact of the game. Throughout the 2010s and 2020s the game's soundtrack was acknowledged as having been a major cultural influence in music, particularly in spreading punk and metal tomillennials. Notes References Further reading External links"
] | [
"Spyro the Dragon Spyro the Dragonis a 1998platform gamedeveloped byInsomniac Gamesand published bySony Computer Entertainmentfor thePlayStation. The first game in theSpyroseries, it stars the title character, a young purpledragonnamedSpyro, and hisdragonflyfriend, Sparx, who must journey across the Dragon Kingdom to defeat Gnasty Gnorc, who has overtaken the five dragon Homeworlds by trapping the other dragons in crystal and turning their hoard of gems into an army of minions.Spyro the Dragonis an open-ended 3D platformer, featuring large, sprawling levels in which the player must locate collectable items, among which are gemstones, crystallized dragons, and stolen dragon eggs. Spyro's abilities as a dragon include fire breath, a head-on charging attack, and a mid-air glide which he can use to scale large distances, all of which must be used strategically to find items and defeat enemies. Spyro the Dragonstarted development following the release of Insomniac's debut game,Disruptor, which sold poorly but was",
"sold poorly but was generally praised by critics, impressingUniversal Interactiveenough to encourage them to make a second game. Artist Craig Stitt suggested a game about a dragon, and work began on a new game. Taking inspiration from the filmDragonheart, the game started out as a more mature title with a dark and realistic approach, but the direction was shifted to have a more whimsical and light-hearted tone to appeal to a wider market of consumers. The game was one of the first on the PlayStation to utilize shiftinglevels of detailamong rendered objects, thanks to a panoramic engine developed by Alex Hastings which allowed the game's open-ended nature to be fully realized.Stewart Copeland, the former drummer forThe Police, composed the game's music, and the titular character was voice acted byCarlos Alazraqui, alongside additional voices done byClancy Brown,Michael GoughandJamie Alcroft. Spyro the Dragonwas released by Sony Computer Entertainment as part of a general effort to reach out to a younger age",
"to a younger age demographic and compete with the more popular children's platform, theNintendo 64. Although sales were initially sluggish, it found larger success following the advent of the 1998 holiday season and went on to sell nearly five million copies worldwide, making it one of thebest-selling PlayStation games. Critics praised the game's graphics and gameplay, while some noted its low difficulty level. The game established Spyro as a well-known platforming mascot on the PlayStation alongsideCrash Bandicoot, and two sequels, titledSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!andSpyro: Year of the Dragon, were later released for the PlayStation in 1999 and 2000, respectively. Although Insomniac gave up the development rights to theSpyroseries following the third game, the success of the PlayStation titles lent itself to a continued series of games across various platforms. The game, alongside its two successors, was later remade as part ofSpyro Reignited Trilogyin 2018. Gameplay Spyro the Dragonis a3D platform game;the",
"platform game;the player controlsthe titular characteras he ventures across the realms of the Dragon World to defeat the antagonistic Gnasty Gnorc, as well as rescue his fellow dragons and recover all of their stolen treasure.Worldsconsist of six dragon \"home worlds\",each of which acts as a dedicated hub, containing portals that serve as gateways to different levels.The player must progress from one Homeworld to the next by talking to aballoonist, who transports Spyro to the next world on ahot air balloonafter the player has found the required collectibles in the current given world.In addition to regular platforming stages, each Homeworld contains aboss fightand a hidden flight stage that involves flying throughout an environment and destroying a number of objects. The levels inSpyro the Dragonare open-ended, and they revolve around exploring and obtaining various collectible items to progress in the game.Each stage contains a number of crystallized dragons, whom Spyro must turn back to normal by locating",
"normal by locating and stepping on their statue bases. These dragons give the player advice on how to progress through the game, as well as their respective locations acting as save points after the dragon has been freed.Another important collectible in the game is the dragons' stolen treasure, which is dispersed throughout each level in the form of multicoloredgemstones. These gems are located in numerous different places, including inside enemies, breakable boxes, and treasure chests, and most stages contain a set amount of treasure to be found.There are also stolen dragon eggs that must be reclaimed by chasing and defeating thieves.Finding every collectible in the game unlocks an additional world that otherwise cannot be accessed. Spyro has two main offensive moves, which are used to attack enemies as well as destroy certain objects: charging, in which Spyro sprints forward and rams into things with his head, and breathing fire. These attacks must be used appropriately for certain enemies and situations;",
"and situations; for instance, some enemies carry fireproof metal armor, meaning that they can only be defeated by charging, while larger enemies can only be hit using fire breath, as they will immediately crush Spyro otherwise.Spyro can also use his wings to glide in midair, letting him travel further distances in the air and access areas otherwise unreachable via a regular jump.Throughout the game, Spyro is accompanied by Sparx, a yellow dragonfly who protects Spyro from taking damage and serves as the player's system ofhealth. Sparx's current health is represented by the color of his body; if Spyro is hurt by an obstacle, such as an enemy or by touching water, Sparx changes colors, with yellow, blue and green representing different subsequent amounts of withheld damage. If the player is damaged too many times, Sparx disappears, leaving Spyro vulnerable to losing a life if he is hurt again. Sparx can be rejuvenated by consumingbutterflies, which are found by killing passive creatures such assheepthat roam",
"assheepthat roam throughout most levels.Sparx also helps Spyro collect items by retrieving any gems that Spyro passes by. Plot In the world of dragons, the Dragon Kingdom consists of five Homeworlds – the Artisans, the Peace Keepers, the Magic Crafters, the Beast Makers, and the Dream Weavers – which have lived in harmony for many years.One day, a TV interview with a pair of dragons from the Artisan realm catches the attention of Gnasty Gnorc, a powerful gnorc (halfgnomeand halforc) who was banished from the kingdom due to his abrasive demeanor and sent to an abandoned junkyard, which he renames to \"Gnasty's World\".The dragons' openly dismissive and derisive commentary concerning Gnasty enrages him, driving him to unleash a full-fledged attack on the kingdom. Using his magic, he casts a spell across the land that encases every dragon in a crystal shell; he also steals the dragons' prized collection of treasure, turning the gemstones into devious gnorc soldiers and other creatures to help him take over the",
"him take over the dragon worlds.Spyro, a young purple dragon, is the only dragon that manages to avoid getting crystallized by the attack. Aided by his dragonfly companion, Sparx, Spyro eagerly sets out to locate and defeat Gnasty. Spyro visits each of the dragon homeworlds, defeating Gnasty's forces who have been set out to stop him. Along the way, he frees the crystallized dragons, who give him advice and urge him to recover any stolen treasure and dragon eggs along the way. He eventually makes his way to Gnasty's World, where he finally confronts and defeats Gnasty. After Spyro's quest is over, he has access to Gnasty's treasure portal, which can only be opened if Spyro rescues every dragon in the kingdom and recovers all of the dragons' treasure and retrieves the stolen dragon eggs. A secret ending can then be unlocked by retrieving everything inside of the treasure portal. In this ending, Spyro is seen getting interviewed on TV when another spell is placed on the dragons, prompting Spyro to set out on",
"Spyro to set out on yet another adventure. Development Concept Spyro the Dragonwas the second game developed byInsomniac Games,following the release of their first game,Disruptor, in December 1996. AlthoughDisruptorwas a commercial failure, its positive critical reception was enough to impressUniversal Interactive Studiosand encourage the team to continue with their next endeavor.The idea of a game about adragonwas introduced by Insomniac artist Craig Stitt, who suggested the concept out of his own interest in the mythical creature.Initially, the game's tone was far darker and more realistic; according to Insomniac's COO, John Fiorito, who joined the company in 1997 duringSpyro's development, inspiration was taken in part from the filmDragonHeart, and the game was initially \"realistic and kind of dark and gritty\" before it eventually took a more whimsical, light-hearted direction.Mark Cerny, an executive at Universal Interactive Studios and the game's producer,advised that the team create a game with more",
"a game with more mass market appeal, as the demographics of the PlayStation were decreasing and its selection of children's titles were greatly outnumbered by theNintendo 64's. According to programmer Peter Hastings, the dragon character was originally going to be named \"Pete\", but due to copyright concerns over similarities to theDisneyfilmPete's Dragon, the name was scrapped. After considering the name \"Pyro,\" which was ultimately considered \"too mature\", they finally settled on \"Spyro\".In-game dialogue was written by Peter Kleiner, and Spyro's character was designed byCharles Zembillas, who had previously done design work onCrash Bandicoot.Spyro was originally going to be green, but the developers worried he would blend in with grass, so they eventually changed him to purple.During development ofSpyro, Insomniac had a very close relationship withCrash Bandicootcreator and fellow PlayStation developerNaughty Dog, who had their office located directly across the hall from theirs. The two developers",
"The two developers frequently worked together, playing early builds of each other's games and later sharing game technology. As a result, a demo ofCrash Bandicoot: Warpedwas hidden inSpyro, and vice versa. Design Spyro the Dragonwas unique compared to other 3D platform games of the time; Spyro's ability to glide allowed him to travel long distances in the air, meaning that the player could cross almost an entire level if starting from a high enough point. While this made designing levels more difficult for the team, it also meant that levels could be made more open-ended and explorative in nature. To makeSpyro’s controls feel fluid, Matt Whiting—aNASAengineer who specialized in flight controls—was brought on to help with programming camera movement as well Spyro's movement controls. The game's camera was particularly challenging; initially, it always followed directly behind Spyro, but the resulting high-speed movements were found to make several playtesters feelnauseous. This was most evident with Spyro's",
"with Spyro's basic jump, which triggered the camera to quickly tilt up and down, compared by Whiting to the motion of a rocking boat; this was ultimately tweaked so that the camera would stay steady.Spyrowas coded with efficiency in mind, as 3D rendering technology was new at the time and the game had to fit the limited specifications of the PlayStation. Around 80% of the game's code was written usingAssembly, while other parts were programmed inCdue to its simplicity and speed. Graphics Spyro the Dragonmade use of a 3D panoramic engine, developed by Alex Hastings, that could display far-away objects by utilizing varyinglevels of detail, a method of rendering which was new and unexplored at the time. The developers believed that the engine would be fitting for the game, as it could allow for more expansive levels that could take advantage of the character's abilities, such as gliding.This dynamic system, used to complement the large and sprawling environments, generated two different versions of a level; one",
"of a level; one version rendered in high detail and the other a simpler, textureless render. Objects in the player's vicinity were drawn using the detailed render, whereas distant ones were drawn from the simple render. This system allowed objects to be displayed from far distances while adhering to the PlayStation's limited RAM capabilities; it was one of the first video games to make use of such a system. The game made extensive use of vertex shading to colour objects andprovide light and shade- with the smooth skies entirely reliant on the technique to depict clouds and other distant details without the use of textures. Base textures were intentionally kept relatively desaturated so as to prevent them from becoming oversaturated with use of the technique. Audio The game's music was composed and produced byStewart Copeland, formerly the drummer for the British bandThe Police. Copeland was given early builds of the game's levels, which he played through to get a feel for them and come up with a fitting",
"up with a fitting composition.He was also given game cheats such as invincibility so that he could have an easier time clearing levels. Copeland wrote four songs per day, all of which he further developed and polished the next day.According to Copeland, each song in the game was written to correspond to a specific level, but this correlation ultimately went unused.Copeland has looked back positively on his work onSpyro, calling the game's music some of his best compositions. Carlos Alazraquiprovided the voice of Spyro in the game, and additional voices were done byClancy Brown,Michael Gough,Jamie Alcroftand Michael Connor. Alazraqui explained in an issue ofElectronic Gaming Monthlythat he tried to make Spyro's voice sound like \"a kid at camp that everybody likes.\"Alazraqui did not continue in this role after the first game, being replaced byTom Kennyfor the sequels. Release Spyro the Dragonwas first unveiled at the 1998E3convention inAtlanta, Georgia.It was then later released in North America on September",
"on September 9, 1998, and in Europe on October 23 of the same year.According toSony Computer Entertainment's American Marketing Vice President, Andrew House, at a press party inLas Vegas, the game, along with other upcoming 4th quarter PlayStation releases such asCrash Bandicoot: Warped,A Bug's Life, andRugrats: Search for Reptar, was part of a general effort to appeal to a wider demographic of younger audiences and provide more games suited for younger players to compete with theNintendo 64, which had a far larger library of children's titles at the time compared to the PlayStation's largely adult-centric demographic.An advertisement campaign was pushed to promote the game, featuring a character from the game, Toasty the Sheep, protesting against the title character's actions against sheep. The campaign included TV commercials, featuring an actor in ananimatroniccostume of Toasty, and a promotional website,sheepagainstspyro.com.On August 16, 1999, SCEA announced that the game would be included as a part of",
"as a part of their \"Greatest Hits\" lineup of budgeted releases alongside other games such asCrash Bandicoot: Warped,Gran Turismo,Cool Boarders 3, andTwisted Metal III, and alongside the announcement of a price drop for the PlayStation console to compete with the highly anticipated launch of theSega Dreamcast.On December 12, 2012, the game was digitally re-released to thePlayStation Storetogether withSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!andSpyro: Year of the Dragon.A remake of the game, alongside its two sequels, was included as a part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogycompilation for thePlayStation 4andXbox Onein November 2018, followed by theNintendo SwitchandMicrosoft Windowsin September 2019. Sales According toSpyro's developers, sales were initially slow at the game's launch but quickly began picking up following the holiday season.In the week of November 29, 1998, it was the 3rd best-selling game in the UK, behindTomb RaiderandFIFA 99.At the 1999 Milia festival inCannes, it took home a \"Gold\" prize for revenues above",
"for revenues above €20,000,000 in theEuropean Unionduring the previous year.Spyro the Dragonreceived a \"Gold\" award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) by the end of August 1999,for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland.By December 1999, the game had sold 1,000,000 copies in North America.As of 2007, the title had gone on to sell a total of nearly 5,000,000 units. Reception Spyro the Dragoncurrently holds a score of 85% atGameRankings, based on an aggregate of 18 reviews.IGN's Craig Harris hailed it as the most fun 3D platformer he had played sinceCrash Bandicoot, writing \"Two claws up. Way up.\"Computer and Video Gamescalled the game \"easily the best 3D platform game on the PlayStation\", despite noting its largely child-friendly nature.Shawn Smith ofElectronic Gaming Monthlywrote that \"Spyrois to the PlayStation whatBanjo-Kazooieis to theNintendo 64\", and stated that it \"combines the two most-important aspects in any good game: graphics and",
"game: graphics and gameplay.\" Crispin Boyer, also ofElectronic Gaming Monthly, proclaimed that Spyro \"raises the bar\" for 3D platformers, and wrote that it had replacedGex 3D: Enter the Geckoas his favorite \"PS mascot game\".Joe Fielder ofGameSpotcalled the game \"a proficient, fully 3D platform game\" for the PlayStation, comparing it favorably to one of the more recent platformers on the system,Blasto, and proclaiming that it \"excels overBlastoin every way imaginable.\" Despite this, he wrote that the game \"only gets very, very high marks, instead of outrageously high marks\", citing its lack of high difficulty as the main factor that made it inferior to games likeSuper Mario 64andBanjo-Kazooie.Edgenamed it the best 3D platform game for the PlayStation, but criticized Spyro's limited abilities and said that the game was not as varied asSuper Mario 64. Critics lauded the game's presentation, specifically speaking praise for its graphics, technical performance, and Copeland's music done for the",
"music done for the game.GameProreviewer \"Slo Mo\" wrote that the game's graphics and animations gaveSpyro\"the look and feel of ananimated film\" while calling the in-game environments \"breathtaking\".Harris wrote that the game \"utilizes the PlayStation's hardware to the max\", and praised the quality of the in-game animations; he particularly praised the rescued dragons' talking animations, which he said gave the characters \"incredible personality.\"Fielder praised the game's dynamic lighting system and character designs, and noted \"a near-complete lack ofpop-up\" during gameplay.Sushi-X ofElectronic Gaming Monthlysaid that the graphics were \"among the finest\" on the PlayStation.AllGameeditor Scott Alan Marriott applauded the graphics, scenery, characters and control as some of the best on the PlayStation, if not the best at the time of the games release.Fielder spoke positively of Copeland's compositional work, calling it \"wonderfully atmospheric.\"Slo Mo described the music as having a \"catchy, mellow jazz-rock",
"mellow jazz-rock swing to it\" while also praising the voice work for its wide array of unique voices. Many critics held praise for the game's level design and controls, though some noted its simplicity and low difficulty level (with the exception of Tree Tops). Fielder called the level design \"exceptional\",while Boyer praised the levels for encouraging exploration among players.Sushi-X called the play controls \"perfectly tuned\" whilst Fielder wrote that they worked well both with and without theDualShock's analog stick, although Smith expressed that controls were unsuited for maneuvering in \"high-risk areas.\"The camera system received varying reactions, with Boyer praising it as one of the best in any 3D platformer and Fielder declaring that it fixed the common issues present in most other 3D platform games,while Harris criticized its lack of precision when following the player, stating that it \"tends to float around on a loose tether\", and highlighted the camera system as one of the game's only",
"of the game's only flaws.Fielder wrote that an overabundance of extra lives caused the game to feel \"like it was aimed at a younger or broader audience,\" holding the final boss and the bonus level as the only exceptions.Despite praisingSpyro, Sushi-X noted the game's \"lack of diversity\" in obstacles and objects leading to \"repetitive play.\" Boyer lamented that the common trope of collecting items, while still very fun inSpyro, was starting to become less interesting, while also criticizing the game's boss fights, calling them \"small, easy and decidedly unBoss-like.\" During the2nd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards,Spyro the Dragonwas named as a finalist by theAcademy of Interactive Arts & Sciencesfor \"Outstanding Achievement in Art/Graphics\", \"Console Action Game of the Year\", and \"Console Game of the Year\"; the first two awards went toBanjo-Kazooie, while the latter was won byThe Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time. Legacy The popularity ofSpyro the Dragonhelped to push the character of Spyro as a popular",
"Spyro as a popular platformingmascotfor the PlayStation alongsideCrash Bandicoot.It was the first game in what became an expansivevideo game series, spawning 2 more platforming sequels for the PlayStation –Ripto's RageandYear of the Dragon– released in 1999 and 2000, respectively. As of the year 2000, the series had sold more than 3.2 million copies in the U.S. and over 4 million copies worldwide.Insomniac stopped developing theSpyroseries afterYear of the Dragon, as it finished off their 4-game contract with Universal Interactive. Despite this, the series was continued across various different developers, and shifted to several other platforms besides PlayStation.Spyrobeing their first considerable success, Insomniac went on to develop several other successful video game franchises, including theRatchet & Clankseries of platform games and thefirst-person shooterseriesResistance.The game's rendering system, new and unheard of at the time, has gone on to be used in several other 3D video games. References",
"games. References External links",
"Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage! Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!, known asSpyro 2: Gateway to GlimmerinPAL regions, is a 1999platform gamedeveloped byInsomniac Gamesand published bySony Computer Entertainmentfor thePlayStation. It is the second game in the mainSpyroseries. A remake was released as part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogyin 2018. Gameplay Players controlSpyro the Dragonas he fights against various enemies and obstacles using his flame breath, charge attack, and glide abilities. His health is indicated by the color of his dragonfly partner, Sparx, who can replenish his health by eating butterflies. Bottled butterflies will both completely restore Sparx's health and give Spyro an extra life. The game is split up into three main hub worlds containing portals to various realms. In order to progress through the first two hub worlds, the player must acquire a talisman from each realm, which is awarded for reaching the end of the level, before facing the boss of each world. Each level also contains a certain number of orbs,",
"number of orbs, which can be earned by completing secondary tasks for particularNPCs, such as lighting a series of lamps or protecting characters from attacks. These orbs are required for opening some of the portals to certain levels, as well as progressing through the third hub world. Gems gathered throughout the game are required to pay fees Moneybags charges in order to progress through the game. As well as opening portals or granting access to certain areas, Moneybags also teaches Spyro three brand new abilities over the course of the game. Swimming lets Spyro dive underwater to reach submerged treasure and hidden tunnels, climbing lets Spyro climb up certain surfaces, and the headbash lets Spyro perform an overhead smashing attack which can break rocks and certain cages. In addition, each level has a power-up gate, activated after defeating a specific number of enemies in a level, which grants Spyro a temporary super-ability. The power-up can grant invulnerability or the abilities to fly, supercharge,",
"fly, supercharge, super flame, breathe ice, or super jump to reach high up areas. Characters and setting The only characters from the original game to return as main characters in this game areSpyro, the game's protagonist, and Sparx, his dragonfly sidekick. Sparx functions as the player's health meter, and assists the player in gathering gems. This game introduces new characters into the Spyro series, many of whom would appear in later games. Both Hunter and Moneybags make recurring appearances in the series, while Ripto would make more series appearances than any other antagonist, making him the key villain of the original series. The dragons of the previous installment have been replaced with an entirely new cast of characters, including fauns, satyrs, anthropomorphic animals, and robotic businessmen, among others. The world of Avalar is divided into three realms: the Summer Forest, the Autumn Plains, and the Winter Tundra. In every realm, there is a castle that, during the course of the storyline, is",
"the storyline, is captured by Ripto. Each realm features a number of different worlds, a speedway world, and a dungeon in which Ripto or his minions are hiding. Plot A few years after the defeat of Gnasty Gnorc,Spyro the Dragonand his dragonfly partner, Sparx, having had enough with the continuous raining in Artisans, decide to take avacationto Dragon Shores. Upon going through the portal, however, Spyro instead ends up in Glimmer, one of the many realms of the fantasy land of Avalar, having been summoned there by Elora the Faun, Hunter the Cheetah, and the Professor. They explain that one week prior, they were experimenting with a large portal device when they inadvertently summoned an angry, iron-fistedwarlockknown as Ripto, along with his minions Crush and Gulp. Pleased to find himself in a world without dragons, whom he views as pests, Ripto decided to conquer Avalar, prompting Elora and the others to deactivate the portal by scattering the mystical orbs powering it all across the realm. As Ripto and his",
"As Ripto and his henchmen leave to retrieve the orbs, Elora gets the idea to summon a dragon to fight against him, thus leading to Spyro's situation. After getting stranded in Avalar as a result of Ripto destroying the portal he came in through, Spyro agrees to help fight against him. During his quest, Spyro must travel through the various realms of Avalar and help the inhabitants with certain problems they are facing in order to receive their realm's talisman, which Spyro must use to undo Ripto's tyranny. He must also collect the orbs scattered across Avalar to empower portals and other various devices or spells, as well as gems to pay off the sleazy elitist bear, Moneybags for certain favors. Hunter the Cheetah helps out Spyro on certain missions with his athletic abilities, and the Professor does the same using his intellect. After collecting six talismans in Summer Forest, Spyro fights and defeats Crush, prompting Ripto and Gulp to retreat. The young dragon then pursues them to Autumn Plains, where he",
"Plains, where he collects eight more talismans before engaging and vanquishing Gulp in combat. Then, Ripto seemingly falls to his demise, and Elora and her friends repay Spyro by returning to Winter Tundra and reactivating the portal device to send him to Dragon Shores. However, Ripto reveals himself to be alive and steals the power crystal that was meant to power the portal, using it to create a new magic scepter (since Gulp ate the original in the intro). After collecting enough orbs, Spyro is able to confront Ripto; the warlock ironically perishes in a lake of lava which he himself created. With peace returned to Avalar, Elora and the others return all the gems that Moneybags had extorted from Spyro to fix the portal device, allowing him to take his long-awaited vacation to Dragon Shores. The game's epilogue, which is unlocked by completing the Skill Points list in the Guidebook, reveals what happened to various friends and enemies that Spyro encountered in Avalar, as well as moments such as Spyro and",
"such as Spyro and Elora missing their chance to kiss, Crush being taught by the Professor how to spell, and a list of dummied enemies that didn't make it into the game. In the end, Spyro returns to the Dragon Realm, with Hunter joining him, setting the stage for thenext game. Development The sequel toSpyro the Dragonwas tentatively titledSpyro the Dragon 2during its pre-production phase.According to Ted Price,Insomniac'spresident and founder, the game was designed to provide a \"greater challenge\" for experienced players, as it was made to have greater depth and more gameplay variety thanSpyro the Dragon.The music forSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage!was composed byStewart Copelandand was engineered and co-produced by Jeff Seitz. The character Spyro is voiced byTom Kenny, replacingCarlos Alazraquifrom the first game, while additional voices are provided by Kenny,Gregg Berger,Melissa Disney,Milton James, Mary Linda Phillips andMarcelo Tubert. The game's sound effects were created by Mike Gollom, Harry Woolway and Ron",
"Woolway and Ron Horwitz of Universal Sound Studios. The game was officially announced at the 1999E3convention inLos Angeles, CA.In Volume 3 Issue 1 of the Official US PlayStation Magazine, which was released in October 1999, the name \"Ripto\" originated from the Japanese katakana spelling of Spyro.The game was released in North America on November 2, 1999.Sony Computer Entertainment of America director of product development Ami Blaire stated, \"Spyro 2isn't just another sequel. Players will surely be lured by Spyro's playful antics, but they'll experience gameplay that's more challenging and more fun then ever before.\" Re-releases The game became available for download on the EuropeanPlayStation Networkon July 26, 2007,before its predecessor was released to the same market. Less than a week later, however, it was removed because the Colossus and Idol Springs levels failed to load. On April 17, 2008, it was released on the Japanese PlayStation Store. On May 7, 2009, the game became available for download from",
"for download from the North American PlayStation Store and a corrected version was re-released on the European PlayStation Store on December 12, 2012, although as theNTSCversion instead ofPAL.Spyro 2, alongside itspredecessorandsequel, received a remastered release with updated visuals on November 13, 2018 as part of theSpyro Reignited Trilogycompilation forPlayStation 4andXbox One. This compilation retains the game's North American name,Ripto's Rage!, as opposed to the title used for the original European and Australasian release,Gateway to Glimmer. Reception The game received favorable reviews according to thereview aggregationwebsiteGameRankings.However, Chris Kramer ofNextGensaid that the game \"feels like a kids' title, but it has more meat to it than the first, and the cute graphics may make your girlfriend finally stop cooing over those damnPokémon.\"In Japan, where the game was ported for release under the nameSpyro X Sparx: Tondemo Tours(スパイロ×スパークス トンでもツアーズ,Supairo × Supākusu Tondemo Tsuāzu)on March",
"Tsuāzu)on March 16, 2000,Famitsugave it a score of 30 out of 40.GameProsaid of the game, \"If you simply loved the firstSpyro, or are very intrigued by the second, you can't go wrong withSpyro 2: Ripto's Rage. Once you get over its cute exterior, you'll find an excellent platform action/adventure game ripe with the goods that make gaming great.\" The game received a \"Gold\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association(ELSPA),indicating sales of at least 200,000 units in the UK. As of June 30, 2007, the game sold more than 3.4 million units. Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!received nominations for \"Console Children's/Family Title of the Year\", \"Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction\", and \"Outstanding Achievement in Animation\" during theAIAS'3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards; they were ultimately awarded toPokémon Snap(Children's/Family) andFinal Fantasy VIII(Art Direction, Animation). Notes References External links",
"Tony Hawk's Pro Skater Tony Hawk's Pro Skater, released asTony Hawk's Skateboardingin the UK, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Europe, is a 1999skateboardingvideo gamedeveloped byNeversoftand published byActivision. It is the first installment in theTony Hawk'sseries. It was released for thePlayStationon September 29, 1999and was laterportedto theNintendo 64,Game Boy Color,Dreamcast, andN-Gage. Tony Hawk's Pro Skatertakes place in an urban environment permeated by an ambience ofpunk rockandska punkmusic. The player takes control of a variety of skateboarders and must complete missions by performingskateboarding tricksand collecting objects. The game offers several modes of gameplay, including a career mode in which the player must complete objectives and evolve their character's attributes, a single session, in which the player accumulates a high score within two minutes, a free skate mode in which the player may skate without any given objective, and a multiplayer mode that features a number of",
"a number of competitive games. Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas met with critical acclaim for all versions except theGame Boy Colorversion, which had a more mixed reception. The game resulted in a successful franchise, receiving eight annualized sequels developed by Neversoft fromPro Skater 2(2000) toProving Ground(2007). It is also credited with introducing skateboarding to a more mainstream global audience.It received a remakealong with the sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2, in 2020. Gameplay Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterputs the player in control of a skateboarder and takes place in a third-person view with a fixed camera. The goal of the game is to perform tricks and combinations thereof in an effort to increase the player's score. Movement can be altered using thed-padoranalog stick, andollies,grabs,flipsandgrindsare each assigned to individual buttons. Each skateboarder has eight grabs, eight grinds and eight flips. The number of points earned from a successful trick sequence is dependent on the amount of time",
"the amount of time spent in the air, the degree of rotation, and the number and variety of tricks performed; the more a single trick is performed in a sequence, the fewer points it will earn. When the player succeeds in performing tricks, a special gauge increases. When this gauge is full and flashing, the player is capable of performing a special trick that is worth many more points than ordinary tricks.If the player bails (falls off their skateboard), any points that may have been earned from the current combo are lost, and the special gauge is emptied. In the game's \"Career Mode\", the player must complete five objectives (represented byVHS tapes) in each level within a period of two minutes. The player is not obligated to complete all the objectives within a single run; any completed objective is committed to the game's memory, which allows other objectives to be completed within multiple playthroughs of a level. Two common objectives in each level are achieved by accumulating two defined scores, which",
"scores, which gradually increases in difficulty throughout the game; while one other common objective is to collect letters of the word \"SKATE\". Another common objective is to destroy five of a certain object within each level. The fifth objective involves collecting a VHS tape hidden in the level. Completing objectives unlocks additional levels and equipment for use. Three of the mode's levels take place in a competition setting in which the player performs for judges and accumulates the highest score within three one-minute rounds. The player receives a bronze, silver or gold medal depending on the final score they are given. Other single-player modes include the \"Single Session\", in which the player can freely accumulate a high score within two minutes using any previously obtained levels and characters, and the \"Free Skate\", in which there is no time limit imposed. The multiplayer mode is played by two players in asplit screenview and offers three games: \"Graffiti\", \"Trick Attack\", and \"HORSE\". In",
"and \"HORSE\". In \"Graffiti\", players must accumulate the highest score by changing level elements into their own color via the use of tricks. If a player performs a higher-scoring trick on an element that has already been marked, the element will change to that player's color. \"Trick Attack\" is a mode in which players must accumulate the highest score by chaining tricks together. \"HORSE\" is a game that isplayed intermittently between two players, who must compete in rounds lasting either eight seconds or until a trick has been made. The player with the lower score on any given turn receives a letter in the word \"HORSE\" or whatever word the players have generated prior to the game's start. The first player to accumulate the entire word loses. Featured pro skaters The game features a total of ten real life professional skateboarders, along with two unlockable original characters: Officer Dick and Private Carrera. Development Following the releases of arcade gameTop Skater(1997) bySegaand PlayStation gameStreet",
"gameStreet Sk8er(1998) byElectronic Arts,Activisionidentified skateboarding-simulation games as a growing market in the gaming industry and concluded that such a title would resonate with a young audience. Preceding Neversoft's involvement in the project, the task of developing a skateboarding title for Activision was given to another studio. However, this studio's attempt did not impress Activision and didn't move past the concept stage. The publisher then decided to entrust the project to Neversoft, which had recently completed the third-person shooter gameApocalypse(1998) within nine months. Although Neversoft had never developed a sports video game before, the development team was confident in its ability to accomplish the task before its given deadline of the 1999 Christmas season. During development, the Neversoft team would spend its lunch breaks at a bowling alley near the studio, where they would play and subsequently study from Sega'sTop Skaterin the arcade. The game's design served as a strong",
"served as a strong basic influence, along with observances of real skaters performing in theX Games, which were taking place during the game's development. Although the team decided early on thatTop Skater's linearity lacked the sense of fun they aimed for, the \"racetrack\" element was retained in two of the game's final levels. Contrary to subsequent titles in the series, Neversoft did not primarily focus on using pre-existing locations as reference for the game's level design, but simply envisioned potential skating areas such as a school or a city and incorporated elements such as ramps and rails to benefit the gameplay. The team consciously prioritized fun over realism in the approach to the game's level design and physics. The game's engine is a modified version of that of Neversoft's previous titleApocalypse, and the game's prototype usedBruce Willis's character from that game as the placeholder player character.Once the prototype reached a functional and demonstrable state, the Neversoft team realized",
"team realized that they would require a professional skateboarder to aid in the remainder of production. At the time,Tony Hawkhad been a popular figure within skateboarding for quite some time.In September 1998, Activision established contact with Hawk and arranged a meeting between him and Neversoft. Hawk was quickly impressed by the design team members' devotion to skateboarding, the controls and engine of their game's early build and agreed to lend his name and involvement to the production. Subsequently, Hawk would turn down Activision's offer of a one-time buyout for the permanent use of his name and likeness on the game in favor of a royalty deal in which Hawk would earn a percentage for every copy sold. As a result of the series' eventual success, Hawk would earn ten times Activision's initial offer within two years.By January 1999, Activision publicly announced their agreement with Hawk to include him in the game. Activision senior vice president Mitch Lasky, in an interview withGameSpot, stated that",
"stated that the character was meant \"to reflect Tony's signature style – an intense mix of acrobatics and hard-core technical skating\". Hawk remarked that \" always wanted to help create a video game that represented the reality and excitement of professional skateboarding\". Hawk would spend the development time periodically playing through the game's beta builds and providing feedback, using aspecially modifiedPlayStationconsole that can play games burned onCD-Rs. Hawk even went so far as to purposely send advanced copies of the game to a trusted group of people who also owned modchipped PlayStations: \"I had a modified PlayStation so I could use burned discs, and they'd send me new developments and we'd go back and forth. I'd let people play it, people that I trust. At one point, I felt it was getting so far along that I started to sneak out copies for those same people - these people had modded PlayStations. As subversive as that was, it started to create a buzz in the industry, because they were key",
"they were key players in the skating industry and they were also hardcore gamers\".He would also personally select a group of other professional skaters to include as playable characters based on their skills, personalities and diversity; each skater received a cut of the royalties and got to select their own attire and special tricks for the game.While animating the skaters, the design team largely depended on using available video footage as reference. The incorporation ofmotion capturewas attempted to aid in the realism of the animation, but due to the technology's infancy, the result was ultimately determined to have not translated as well as what had already been animated.The900featured in the game was itself drawn from footage of Hawk's famed performance of the feat in the X Games that summer, and was a relatively late addition as a result. The collection of VHS tapes was directly inspired by the collection of stars inSuper Mario 64(1996). In designing the objectives, the team would gather at a table,",
"gather at a table, draw a level and then ask what could be done within said level, upon which the team members would provide ideas. Rejected concepts arising from these sessions include levels taking place on ahighwayand ajetty, and a scenario in which the player would lose a wheel and have to skate on three wheels.Manualswere originally intended to be implemented into the game, but were omitted due to time constraints; manuals would subsequently be included inTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2. Promotion and release Elissa Steamer's inclusion in the game, along with the game's final release date of September 29, was presented on August 26, 1999.A playable demo with only two available skaters was integrated into the Jampack Summer '99 compilation CD released byPlayStation Underground.The game was made available for pre-order two weeks prior to the game's release; those who pre-ordered the game atElectronics BoutiqueorFuncoLandrespectively received a miniature replica of Tony Hawk's Birdhouse skateboard, a sticker",
"a sticker sheet featuring the game's ten professional skaters and a game tip on the back of each sticker.A second playable demo was included on a promotional compilation disc released byPizza Huton November 14. While Neversoft would begin development of the game's sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, shortly before the release of the first game,Activision would entrust the game's Nintendo 64 port toEdge of Reality, which had recently portedMonster Truck Madness 2to the same system.The Nintendo 64 and Game Boy Color versions received a multi-million dollar advertising campaign on several major youth-targeted channels in the United States beginning in April 2000. Customers who purchased the Game Boy Color version atToys \"R\" Usor FuncoLand received a special-edition miniature skateboard. As a result of the disappointing sales ofBlue Stinger, Activision was discouraged from publishing further titles for the Dreamcast and relinquished the distribution ofTony Hawk's Pro Skateron the console to Crave",
"console to Crave Entertainment.After online speculation and teasing comments from company insiders,a port for the Dreamcast was revealed to be developed byTreyarch.Later in 2003, the N-Gage version was in development.The game came bundled with theN-Gage QDthat was released in 2004. Ports The Nintendo 64 port ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas developed by Edge of Reality and released on March 15, 2000.While the port is largely faithful to the original version and retains all game modes, characters and levels, the soundtrack had been truncated and the voices were removed to accommodate the lessened space in the cartridge format. The blood effects had also been removed, so Nintendo could market the game with an \"E\" game rating.The Dreamcast version was developed by Treyarch, published by Crave Entertainment and released on May 24, 2000. The graphics and animations in the Dreamcast version are improved from those in the PlayStation version. The Game Boy Color version was developed by the Japanese company Natsume and",
"company Natsume and released on March 30, 2000. The Game Boy Color version is an adaptation rather than a true port of the PlayStation version due to the limited capacity of the platform. The game offers two different gameplay styles: an overhead view with vertical scrolling, and a side-scrolling view in which there is a ramp on each side. There are four gameplay modes in which the player can only perform a few tricks. In \"Half Pipe Mode\", the player must attempt to achieve the highest score possible. \"Tournament Mode\" is a five-level vertically scrolling game in which the player must race against three computer-controlled skaters and achieve the highest rank. Jumps are made automatically when the player maneuvers onto ramps, and tricks are displayed as a brief static image. \"Versus Mode\" and \"Rival Mode\" are identical to \"Tournament Mode\", except the player plays in a single level against a single opponent; the opponent in \"Rival Mode\" is computer-controlled, while the opponent in \"Versus Mode\" is human,",
"Mode\" is human, which necessitates the use of aGame Link Cable. The N-Gage version was developed by Ideaworks3D and released on October 13, 2003, a week following the launch of the N-Gage.The game is a faithful port of the PlayStation version and retains most of the characters, levels, control scheme and original music while adding levels fromTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2and two multiplayer games.The game's multiplayer functions via the N-Gage'sBluetoothfeature.The N-Gage version was named \"Best-Mobile Game\" by theBritish Academy of Film and Television Artsin 2004. A remakeof both the first game andTony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, titledTony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2, was developed byVicarious Visionsand released on September 4, 2020, forPlayStation 4,Windows, andXbox One, followed up a year later onPlayStation 5,Xbox Series X/S, andNintendo Switch. The remake includes all of the original levels and skaters from the original games, but also includes improved skater creation and park creation modes, online multiplayer, and",
"multiplayer, and other new features, and featuring most of the original soundtracks, with a few exceptions due to licensing issues. Reception Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas met with critical acclaim. Doug Perry ofIGNpraised the game's \"imaginative, deep, and amazingly addictive\" gameplay, \"steady and consistent\" learning curve, \"intuitive and natural\" controls, large and complex levels, \"jaw-dropping\" physics and \"perfect\" soundtrack. Perry concluded that the game had \"captured the pure grit and radical feel of skateboarding, delivering it in near perfect form onto the PlayStation with a mastery and sense of programming finesse beyond anyone's imagination\", and described the game as \"that rare gem of a game that defies what other developers say can't be done\".Jeff GerstmannofGameSpotcommended the game's graphics, frame rate, camera and sound effects, and declared the game to be \"a worthy addition to anyone's PlayStation collection\", though he was not personally fond of the soundtrack and wished that there was",
"that there was more variety in the game's tricks.He additionally noted that the Dreamcast version used the console's hardware to its advantage by displaying clearer textures and a smoother frame rate \"that may very well cause longtime fans of the game to weep\".Chris Carle ofIGNalso praised the Dreamcast version's improved textures. Matt Casamassina ofIGNpraised the Nintendo 64 version's visuals as \"very impressive\" in spite of the reduced quality of the textures and the omitted full-motion video effects, and the audio as \"surprisingly clear\", albeit compressed and \"dumbed down\" to accommodate the cartridge format.Martin Taylor ofEurogamercited the game's graphics as \"crisp, smooth and very, very hard to fault\", but noted that the game's soundtrack suffered from the compression process and that the looping music \"quickly becomes incredibly annoying\";the latter sentiment was mirrored by Dr. Moo of Game Revolution. In reviewing the Game Boy Color version, Craig Harris ofIGNdecided that while the half-pipe",
"while the half-pipe portion of the game \"isn't half-bad\", the overhead portion is \"absolutely stupid\"; he criticized the representation of tricks as static images as \"completely destroy the flow of the game\", and noted that the issue is exacerbated in the \"Versus\" mode by having both parties' game pause when either one performs a trick.Frank Provo ofGameSpotcited the game's lack of level variety and \"borderline mediocre\" audio, but felt that it was the best skateboarding title to be made for a portable console.Both Chadd Chambers ofIGNand Jeff Gerstmann ofGameSpotconsidered the N-Gage version to be the best game available on the system and were relatively impressed by the game's graphics, but noted the less comfortable control scheme and reduced sound quality. Three reviewers forNext Generationmagazine - Blake Fischer, Eric Bratcher, and Greg Orlando - gave five stars out of five for PlayStation, Nintendo 64, and Dreamcast versions, respectively. They virtually praised every aspect of the game despite noting",
"game despite noting some minor differences between all three versions. Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas ranked #36 inGame Informer's \"Top 100 Games of All Time\" in its 100th issue in August 2001.The game was nominated for \"Console Game of the Year\" and \"Console Sports Game of the Year\" during the3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, but lost toSoulcaliburandKnockout Kings 2000, respectively.The game was included onPolygon's 2017 list ofThe 500 Best Games of All Time. Sales Tony Hawk's Pro Skaterwas the third highest-selling PlayStation title of November 1999 in the United States. From its release date to late-December 1999, the game shipped in excess of 350,000 units and was available in over 10,000 retailers nationwide.The PlayStation version ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterreceived a \"Platinum\" sales award from theEntertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association(ELSPA),indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom.The Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland gave the PlayStation",
"the PlayStation version a Gold Award for 100,000 sold copies in Germany by February 2000.The PlayStation versions ofTony Hawk's Pro Skaterand its successor were respectively the third and second highest-selling console games of 2000.The Nintendo 64 version was the sixth highest-selling Nintendo 64 title in the United States during the week of November 19–26, 2000.As of 2001, it has sold 3.5 million units. Sequels The game resulted in a successful franchise, receiving eight annualized sequels developed by Neversoft fromPro Skater 2(2000) toProving Ground(2007), and a 2020 remake along with the sequel,Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2. Cultural impact Tony Hawk's Pro Skateris credited with introducing skateboarding to a more mainstream global audience. In a 2023 essay forThe New York Times MagazineIrish writer Jack Sheehan reflected on the game's impact writing, \"Released at a moment when skateboarding was beginning to go mainstream, T.H.P.S. became popular because it invited skaters and nonskaters alike to feel",
"alike to feel the thrill of getting air, doing a kick flip or landing a trick by the thinnest margin.\"In 2023, the bookRight, Down + Circle: Tony Hawk’s Pro Skaterby Cole Nowicki was released tackling and analyzingTony Hawk's Pro Skater's meaning and impact. Reflecting on both the game's development history and his personal experience as a skateboarder and player, Nowicki called the game an \"unprecedented success\" and a \"Trojan horse, entering the homes of millions worldwide, exposing kids, teenagers, their parents, and more to this gamified version of skateboarding.\" In 2020, a documentary filmPretending I'm Superman: The Tony Hawk Video Game Storyfrom Swedish director Ludvig Gür was released chronicling the development and impact of the game. Throughout the 2010s and 2020s the game's soundtrack was acknowledged as having been a major cultural influence in music, particularly in spreading punk and metal tomillennials. Notes References Further reading External links"
] |
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Haydon"
] | [
"World Anti-Slavery Convention TheWorld Anti-Slavery Conventionmet for the first time atExeter Hallin London, on 12–23 June 1840.It was organised by theBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, largely on the initiative of the EnglishQuakerJoseph Sturge.The exclusion of women from the convention gave a great impetus to thewomen's suffrage movement in the United States. Background TheSociety for the Abolition of the Slave Trade(officially Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade) was principally aQuakersociety founded in 1787 by 12 men, nine of whom wereQuakersand threeAnglicans, one of whom wasThomas Clarkson. Due to their efforts, theinternational slave tradewas abolished throughout theBritish Empirewith the passing of theSlave Trade Act 1807. TheSociety for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions, in existence from 1823 to 1838, helped to bring about theSlavery Abolition Act 1833, advocated byWilliam Wilberforce, which abolished slavery in the British Empire from August 1834, when some 800,000 people in the British empire became free. Similarly, in the 1830s many women and men in America acted on their religious convictions and moral outrage to become a part of theabolitionistmovement. Many women in particular responded toWm. Lloyd Garrison'sinvitation to become involved in theAmerican Anti-Slavery Society. They were heavily involved, attending meetings and writing petitions.Arthur Tappanand other conservative members of the society objected to women engaging in politics publicly. Given the perceived need for a society to campaign for anti-slavery worldwide, theBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society(BFASS) was accordingly founded in 1839.One of its first significant deeds was to organise the World Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840: \"Our expectations, we confess, were high, and the reality did not disappoint them.\"The preparations for this event had begun in 1839, when the Society circulated an advertisement inviting delegates to participate in the convention.Over 200 of the official delegates were British. The next largest group was the Americans, with around 50 delegates. Only small numbers of delegates from other nations attended. Benjamin Robert HaydonpaintedThe Anti-Slavery Society Convention, 1840, a year after the eventthat today is in theNational Portrait Gallery. This very large and detailed work shows Alexander as Treasurer of the new Society.The painting portrays the 1840 meeting and was completed the next year.The new society's mission was \"The universal extinction of slavery and theslave tradeand the protection of the rights and interests of the enfranchised population in theBritish possessionsand of all persons captured as slaves.\" The question of women's participation The circular message, distributed in 1839, provoked a controversial response from some American opponents of slavery. TheGarrisonianfaction supported the participation of women in the anti-slavery movement. They were opposed by the supporters ofArthur andLewis Tappan. When the latter group sent a message to the BFASS opposing the inclusion of women, a second circular was issued in February 1840 which explicitly stated that the meeting was limited to \"gentlemen\". Despite the statement that women would not be admitted, many American and British female abolitionists, includingLucretia Mott,Elizabeth Cady Stanton, andLady Byron, appeared at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. TheAmerican Anti-Slavery Society, the Garrisonian faction, made a point to include a woman,Lucretia Mott, and an African American,Charles Lenox Remond, in their delegation.Both theMassachusettsandPennsylvania Anti-Slavery Societiessent women members as their delegates, includingAbigail Kimber,Elizabeth Neall,Mary Grew, andSarah Pugh.Cady Stanton was not herself a delegate; she was in England on her honeymoon, accompanying her husbandHenry Brewster Stanton, who was a delegate. (Notably, he was aligned with the American faction that opposed women's equality.)Wendell Phillipsproposed that female delegates should be admitted, and much of the first day of the convention was devoted to discussing whether they should be allowed to participate.Published reports from the convention noted \"The upper end and one side of the room were appropriated to ladies, of whom a considerable number were present, including several female abolitionists from the United States.\" The women were allowed to watch and listen from the spectators gallery but could not take part. In sympathy with the excluded women, the AmericansWilliam Garrison,Charles Lenox Remond,Nathaniel P. Rogers, and William Adams refused to take their seat as delegates as well, and joined the women in the spectators' gallery. Lucretia MottandElizabeth Cady Stanton, who eight years later organized theSeneca Falls Convention, met at this convention. Proceedings (incomplete) The convention's organising committee had asked the ReverendBenjamin Godwinto prepare a paper on the ethics of slavery.The convention unanimously accepted his paper, which condemned not just slavery but also the world's religious leaders and every community who had failed to condemn the practice. The convention resolved to write to every religious leader to share this view. The convention called on all religious communities to eject any supporters of slavery from their midst. George William Alexanderreported on his visits in 1839, with James Whitehorn, toSwedenand theNetherlandsto discuss the conditions of slaves in theDutch coloniesand inSuriname. In Suriname, he reported, there were over 100,000 slaves with an annual attrition rate of twenty per cent. The convention prepared open letters of protest to the respective sovereigns. Joseph Peasespoke and accused the British government of being complicit in the continuing existence of slavery in India. Legacy After leaving the convention on the first day, being denied full access to the proceedings,Lucretia MottandElizabeth Cady Stanton\"walked home arm in arm, commenting on the incidents of the day, we resolved to hold a convention as soon as we returned home, and form a society to advocate the rights of women.\" Eight years later they hosted theSeneca Falls ConventioninSeneca Falls, New York. One hundred years later, theWomen's Centennial Congresswas held in America to celebrate the progress that women had made since they were prevented from speaking at this conference. Incomplete list of delegates (and women who attended) The official list of delegates has 493 names. References Sources Further reading External links",
"Benjamin Haydon Benjamin Robert Haydon(/ˈheɪdən/; 26 January 1786 – 22 June 1846) was a British painter who specialised in grand historical pictures, although he also painted a few contemporary subjects and portraits. His commercial success was damaged by his often tactless dealings with patrons, and by the enormous scale on which he preferred to work. He was troubled by financial problems throughout his life, which led to several periods of imprisonment for debt. He died by suicide in 1846. He gave lectures on art, and kept extensive diaries that were published after his death. Early years Childhood Haydon was born inPlymouth, the only son of another Benjamin Robert Haydon, a prosperous printer, stationer and publisher, and his wife Mary, the daughter of the Rev. Benjamin Cobley, rector ofDodbrooke, near Kingsbridge, Devon. At an early age he showed an aptitude for study, which was carefully fostered by his mother. At the age of six he was placed inPlymouth Grammar School, and at twelve inPlympton Grammar School, where SirJoshua Reynoldshad received most of his education. ReadingAlbinusinspired him with a love for anatomy, and from childhood he wanted to become a painter. Royal Academy Full of energy and hope, he left home, on 14 May 1804, for London, where he entered theRoyal AcademySchools. He was so enthusiastic thatHenry Fuseliasked when he found time to eat. In 1807, at the age of 21, Haydon exhibited, for the first time, at theRoyal Academy. The painting he entered,The Repose in Egypt, was bought byThomas Hopea year later for the Egyptian Room at his townhouse inDuchess Street. This was a good start for Haydon, who shortly afterwards received a commission fromLord Mulgraveand an introduction toSir George Beaumont.In 1809 he finished his picture ofDentatus, which, though it increased his fame, resulted in a lifelong quarrel with the Royal Academy, whose committee hung it in a small side-room instead of in the great hall.That same year, he took on his first pupil,Charles Lock Eastlake, later a leading figure in the British art establishment. Financial troubles The financial difficulties which were to dog him for the rest of his life began in 1810 when, in response to Haydon having achieved a certain amount of commercial success,his father stopped paying him his annual allowance of £200. He also became involved in disputes with Beaumont, for whom he had painted a picture ofMacbeth, and withRichard Payne Knight, who had outraged Haydon by denying both the aesthetic and the financial value of thesculptures from the Parthenon, recently brought to Britain byLord Elgin.Haydon was fascinated by the \"Elgin Marbles\", and believed that they provided evidence that ancient Greek artists had studied anatomy.The Judgment of Solomon, his next production, was sold for £700, to two Plymouth bankers,and also brought £100 voted to him by the directors of the British Institution, and the freedom of the borough of Plymouth.The income was not enough to pay off all his debts, but it maintained his credit, allowing him to continue borrowing. Height of career Early paintings At the end of May 1814 Haydon took advantage of thecessation of hostilities with Franceto visit Paris with his friendDavid Wilkie, and see the art collections gathered byNapoleonfrom across Europe at theLouvre.Much of what he saw there disappointed him: he described Raphael'sTransfiguration, a painting he had particularly wanted to see, as \"small & insignificant\".AtFrançois Gérard's studio he saw a portrait of Napoleon, and began to develop a fascination with the defeated French leader, although, unlike some of his more radical friends such asWilliam Hazlitt, Haydon never admired him politically. On returning to England, he producedChrist's Entry into Jerusalem, which was later to form the nucleus of theAmerican Gallery of Painting, erected by his cousin,John HavilandofPhiladelphia. While painting another large work, theResurrection of Lazarus, his financial problems increased, and he was arrested but not imprisoned, the sheriff-officer taking his word for his appearance.In October, 1821, he increased his commitments when he married Mary Hyman, a widow with two young children, whom he had known for some years.In 1823 Haydon spent two months imprisoned for debt in theKing's Bench Prison, where he received consoling letters from leading men of the day. While there, he drew up a petition toParliamentin favour of the appointment of \"a committee to inquire into the state of encouragement of historical painting\", which was presented byLord Brougham. Further paintings During 1825, following an agreement for his financial support with his lawyer, Thomas Kearsey, Haydon turned, rather unwillingly, to portrait painting, and at first had considerable success.His works in the genre were, however, attacked in a savage review inTheodore Hook's weekly newspaperJohn Bull. Haydon later blamed the article for his loss of clientele, and falling back into unmanageable levels of debt.Following a second period of incarceration at the King's Bench Prison in 1827, he painted theMock Electioninspired by anincident he had witnessed there. The picture was bought byKing George IVfor £500.Encouraged by this success, he painted a companion picture,Chairing the Member, returning to the prison to make drawings of some of the inmates. A third painting of contemporary life showed the audience at aPunch and Judyshow in the New Road atMarylebone. His hopes that the king would buy this work were disappointed, a setback he blamed on the actions of the Keeper of the King's Pictures,William Seguier. Among Haydon's other pictures were:Eucles(1829);Napoleonat St Helena, for SirRobert Peel;Xenophon, on his Retreat with the 'Ten Thousand,' first seeing the Sea; andWaiting for the Times, purchased by the Marquis of Stafford (all 1831); andFalstaffandAchilles playing the Lyre(1832).Curtius Leaping into the Gulf, andUriel and Satan. (1843)As a supporter of parliamentary reform, he had the idea of painting a grand canvas of a meeting onNewhall Hillnear theJewellery Quarter, addressed byThomas Attwood, leader of theBirmingham Political Union. Attempts to raise subscriptions to fund the painting failed, and only sketches were ever made, but Haydon did receive a commission from the new Whig prime minister, Lord Grey, for a picture of the Reform Banquet held at the Guildhall.Completed in 1834, theThe Reform Banquetcontained 597 individual portraits. He also made a painting of theMeeting of the Anti-Slavery Society,now in theNational Portrait Gallery. Later years Haydon became well known as a lecturer on painting, and from 1835 onwards travelled throughout England and Scotland on lecture tours. He campaigned to have the country's public buildings decorated withhistory paintingsshowing the glories of the nation's past,and within three days of thedestruction of the Palace of Westminsterby fire in 1834 he visited the prime minister,Lord Melbourne, in order to impress on him the importance of government patronage of art, especially in relation to the opportunities offered by the rebuilding made necessary by the disaster.Although a scheme along the lines of his suggestions was in fact carried out at the Houses of Parliament, Haydon played no part in it. When, in 1843, an exhibition was held atWestminster Hall, to choose designs for paintings to decorate the Houses of Parliament,he submitted two cartoons –The Curse of AdamandEdward the Black Prince– but the commission charged with choosing artists to carry out the work (which included his former pupil, Eastlake) found neither suitable. He then paintedThe Banishment of Aristides,which was exhibited, along with other works,at theEgyptian Hallin Piccadilly, where he had hired a gallery several times over the years.The American dwarfGeneral Tom Thumbwas then appearing at the same venue; over the Easter week 12,000 people paid to see him, while only 133 visited Haydon's exhibition. Death The artist's difficulties increased to such an extent that, whilst employed on his last grand effort,Alfred and the Trial by Jury,overcome by debts of over £3,000, disappointment, and ingratitude, he wrote \"Stretch me no longer on this rough world,\" and attemptedsuicideby shooting himself. The bullet failed to kill him, and he finished the task by cutting his throat. He left a widow and three surviving children, who were generously supported by Haydon's friends, includingSir Robert Peel,the Count d'Orsay,Thomas TalfourdandLord Carlisle.A resident ofPaddington, he was buried just to the north-west of the grave ofSarah Siddonsat St Mary's Church, Paddington, London.: p.183The cemetery was converted to a park, St Mary's Gardens, in 1885. Haydon's is one of the few preserved stones. It is modest and eroded but his name is still (2014) just legible. Writings In 1839 Haydon began work on an autobiography, drawing on materials from his extensive diaries. Before his death he had completed the story of his life up to the year 1820. It was published in three volumes in 1853, edited byTom Taylor, with additional material from the diaries, under the titleLife of Benjamin Robert Haydon, Historical Painter, from his Autobiography and Journals. The autobiography was assessed by theEncyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Editionin this way: Haydon'sLectures,published shortly after their delivery, showed that he was as bold a writer as painter. He also wrote the long and elaborate article on \"Painting,\" in the 7th edition of theEncyclopædia Britannica. Critical opinion Charles Dickenswrote in 1846 that \"All his life had utterly mistaken his vocation. No amount of sympathy with him and sorrow for him in his manly pursuit of a wrong idea for so many years – until, by dint of his perseverance and courage it almost began to seem a right one – ought to prevent one from saying that he most unquestionably was a very bad painter, and that his pictures could not be expected to sell or to succeed.\"Dickens also observed Haydon's art to be \"quite marvellous in its badness\". Legacy Pupils Haydon had several pupils. These includedCharlesandEdwin Landseer,William Bewick,John JacksonandEdward Chatfield. In written works In drama Gallery References and sources External links"
] | [
"World Anti-Slavery Convention TheWorld Anti-Slavery Conventionmet for the first time atExeter Hallin London, on 12–23 June 1840.It was organised by theBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, largely on the initiative of the EnglishQuakerJoseph Sturge.The exclusion of women from the convention gave a great impetus to thewomen's suffrage movement in the United States. Background TheSociety for the Abolition of the Slave Trade(officially Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade) was principally aQuakersociety founded in 1787 by 12 men, nine of whom wereQuakersand threeAnglicans, one of whom wasThomas Clarkson. Due to their efforts, theinternational slave tradewas abolished throughout theBritish Empirewith the passing of theSlave Trade Act 1807. TheSociety for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions, in existence from 1823 to 1838, helped to bring about theSlavery Abolition Act 1833, advocated byWilliam Wilberforce, which abolished slavery in the British",
"in the British Empire from August 1834, when some 800,000 people in the British empire became free. Similarly, in the 1830s many women and men in America acted on their religious convictions and moral outrage to become a part of theabolitionistmovement. Many women in particular responded toWm. Lloyd Garrison'sinvitation to become involved in theAmerican Anti-Slavery Society. They were heavily involved, attending meetings and writing petitions.Arthur Tappanand other conservative members of the society objected to women engaging in politics publicly. Given the perceived need for a society to campaign for anti-slavery worldwide, theBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society(BFASS) was accordingly founded in 1839.One of its first significant deeds was to organise the World Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840: \"Our expectations, we confess, were high, and the reality did not disappoint them.\"The preparations for this event had begun in 1839, when the Society circulated an advertisement inviting delegates to participate",
"to participate in the convention.Over 200 of the official delegates were British. The next largest group was the Americans, with around 50 delegates. Only small numbers of delegates from other nations attended. Benjamin Robert HaydonpaintedThe Anti-Slavery Society Convention, 1840, a year after the eventthat today is in theNational Portrait Gallery. This very large and detailed work shows Alexander as Treasurer of the new Society.The painting portrays the 1840 meeting and was completed the next year.The new society's mission was \"The universal extinction of slavery and theslave tradeand the protection of the rights and interests of the enfranchised population in theBritish possessionsand of all persons captured as slaves.\" The question of women's participation The circular message, distributed in 1839, provoked a controversial response from some American opponents of slavery. TheGarrisonianfaction supported the participation of women in the anti-slavery movement. They were opposed by the supporters ofArthur",
"supporters ofArthur andLewis Tappan. When the latter group sent a message to the BFASS opposing the inclusion of women, a second circular was issued in February 1840 which explicitly stated that the meeting was limited to \"gentlemen\". Despite the statement that women would not be admitted, many American and British female abolitionists, includingLucretia Mott,Elizabeth Cady Stanton, andLady Byron, appeared at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. TheAmerican Anti-Slavery Society, the Garrisonian faction, made a point to include a woman,Lucretia Mott, and an African American,Charles Lenox Remond, in their delegation.Both theMassachusettsandPennsylvania Anti-Slavery Societiessent women members as their delegates, includingAbigail Kimber,Elizabeth Neall,Mary Grew, andSarah Pugh.Cady Stanton was not herself a delegate; she was in England on her honeymoon, accompanying her husbandHenry Brewster Stanton, who was a delegate. (Notably, he was aligned with the American faction that opposed women's",
"opposed women's equality.)Wendell Phillipsproposed that female delegates should be admitted, and much of the first day of the convention was devoted to discussing whether they should be allowed to participate.Published reports from the convention noted \"The upper end and one side of the room were appropriated to ladies, of whom a considerable number were present, including several female abolitionists from the United States.\" The women were allowed to watch and listen from the spectators gallery but could not take part. In sympathy with the excluded women, the AmericansWilliam Garrison,Charles Lenox Remond,Nathaniel P. Rogers, and William Adams refused to take their seat as delegates as well, and joined the women in the spectators' gallery. Lucretia MottandElizabeth Cady Stanton, who eight years later organized theSeneca Falls Convention, met at this convention. Proceedings (incomplete) The convention's organising committee had asked the ReverendBenjamin Godwinto prepare a paper on the ethics of slavery.The",
"of slavery.The convention unanimously accepted his paper, which condemned not just slavery but also the world's religious leaders and every community who had failed to condemn the practice. The convention resolved to write to every religious leader to share this view. The convention called on all religious communities to eject any supporters of slavery from their midst. George William Alexanderreported on his visits in 1839, with James Whitehorn, toSwedenand theNetherlandsto discuss the conditions of slaves in theDutch coloniesand inSuriname. In Suriname, he reported, there were over 100,000 slaves with an annual attrition rate of twenty per cent. The convention prepared open letters of protest to the respective sovereigns. Joseph Peasespoke and accused the British government of being complicit in the continuing existence of slavery in India. Legacy After leaving the convention on the first day, being denied full access to the proceedings,Lucretia MottandElizabeth Cady Stanton\"walked home arm in arm,",
"home arm in arm, commenting on the incidents of the day, we resolved to hold a convention as soon as we returned home, and form a society to advocate the rights of women.\" Eight years later they hosted theSeneca Falls ConventioninSeneca Falls, New York. One hundred years later, theWomen's Centennial Congresswas held in America to celebrate the progress that women had made since they were prevented from speaking at this conference. Incomplete list of delegates (and women who attended) The official list of delegates has 493 names. References Sources Further reading External links",
"Benjamin Haydon Benjamin Robert Haydon(/ˈheɪdən/; 26 January 1786 – 22 June 1846) was a British painter who specialised in grand historical pictures, although he also painted a few contemporary subjects and portraits. His commercial success was damaged by his often tactless dealings with patrons, and by the enormous scale on which he preferred to work. He was troubled by financial problems throughout his life, which led to several periods of imprisonment for debt. He died by suicide in 1846. He gave lectures on art, and kept extensive diaries that were published after his death. Early years Childhood Haydon was born inPlymouth, the only son of another Benjamin Robert Haydon, a prosperous printer, stationer and publisher, and his wife Mary, the daughter of the Rev. Benjamin Cobley, rector ofDodbrooke, near Kingsbridge, Devon. At an early age he showed an aptitude for study, which was carefully fostered by his mother. At the age of six he was placed inPlymouth Grammar School, and at twelve inPlympton Grammar",
"inPlympton Grammar School, where SirJoshua Reynoldshad received most of his education. ReadingAlbinusinspired him with a love for anatomy, and from childhood he wanted to become a painter. Royal Academy Full of energy and hope, he left home, on 14 May 1804, for London, where he entered theRoyal AcademySchools. He was so enthusiastic thatHenry Fuseliasked when he found time to eat. In 1807, at the age of 21, Haydon exhibited, for the first time, at theRoyal Academy. The painting he entered,The Repose in Egypt, was bought byThomas Hopea year later for the Egyptian Room at his townhouse inDuchess Street. This was a good start for Haydon, who shortly afterwards received a commission fromLord Mulgraveand an introduction toSir George Beaumont.In 1809 he finished his picture ofDentatus, which, though it increased his fame, resulted in a lifelong quarrel with the Royal Academy, whose committee hung it in a small side-room instead of in the great hall.That same year, he took on his first pupil,Charles Lock Eastlake,",
"Lock Eastlake, later a leading figure in the British art establishment. Financial troubles The financial difficulties which were to dog him for the rest of his life began in 1810 when, in response to Haydon having achieved a certain amount of commercial success,his father stopped paying him his annual allowance of £200. He also became involved in disputes with Beaumont, for whom he had painted a picture ofMacbeth, and withRichard Payne Knight, who had outraged Haydon by denying both the aesthetic and the financial value of thesculptures from the Parthenon, recently brought to Britain byLord Elgin.Haydon was fascinated by the \"Elgin Marbles\", and believed that they provided evidence that ancient Greek artists had studied anatomy.The Judgment of Solomon, his next production, was sold for £700, to two Plymouth bankers,and also brought £100 voted to him by the directors of the British Institution, and the freedom of the borough of Plymouth.The income was not enough to pay off all his debts, but it maintained his",
"it maintained his credit, allowing him to continue borrowing. Height of career Early paintings At the end of May 1814 Haydon took advantage of thecessation of hostilities with Franceto visit Paris with his friendDavid Wilkie, and see the art collections gathered byNapoleonfrom across Europe at theLouvre.Much of what he saw there disappointed him: he described Raphael'sTransfiguration, a painting he had particularly wanted to see, as \"small & insignificant\".AtFrançois Gérard's studio he saw a portrait of Napoleon, and began to develop a fascination with the defeated French leader, although, unlike some of his more radical friends such asWilliam Hazlitt, Haydon never admired him politically. On returning to England, he producedChrist's Entry into Jerusalem, which was later to form the nucleus of theAmerican Gallery of Painting, erected by his cousin,John HavilandofPhiladelphia. While painting another large work, theResurrection of Lazarus, his financial problems increased, and he was arrested but not",
"arrested but not imprisoned, the sheriff-officer taking his word for his appearance.In October, 1821, he increased his commitments when he married Mary Hyman, a widow with two young children, whom he had known for some years.In 1823 Haydon spent two months imprisoned for debt in theKing's Bench Prison, where he received consoling letters from leading men of the day. While there, he drew up a petition toParliamentin favour of the appointment of \"a committee to inquire into the state of encouragement of historical painting\", which was presented byLord Brougham. Further paintings During 1825, following an agreement for his financial support with his lawyer, Thomas Kearsey, Haydon turned, rather unwillingly, to portrait painting, and at first had considerable success.His works in the genre were, however, attacked in a savage review inTheodore Hook's weekly newspaperJohn Bull. Haydon later blamed the article for his loss of clientele, and falling back into unmanageable levels of debt.Following a second period of",
"a second period of incarceration at the King's Bench Prison in 1827, he painted theMock Electioninspired by anincident he had witnessed there. The picture was bought byKing George IVfor £500.Encouraged by this success, he painted a companion picture,Chairing the Member, returning to the prison to make drawings of some of the inmates. A third painting of contemporary life showed the audience at aPunch and Judyshow in the New Road atMarylebone. His hopes that the king would buy this work were disappointed, a setback he blamed on the actions of the Keeper of the King's Pictures,William Seguier. Among Haydon's other pictures were:Eucles(1829);Napoleonat St Helena, for SirRobert Peel;Xenophon, on his Retreat with the 'Ten Thousand,' first seeing the Sea; andWaiting for the Times, purchased by the Marquis of Stafford (all 1831); andFalstaffandAchilles playing the Lyre(1832).Curtius Leaping into the Gulf, andUriel and Satan. (1843)As a supporter of parliamentary reform, he had the idea of painting a grand canvas of",
"a grand canvas of a meeting onNewhall Hillnear theJewellery Quarter, addressed byThomas Attwood, leader of theBirmingham Political Union. Attempts to raise subscriptions to fund the painting failed, and only sketches were ever made, but Haydon did receive a commission from the new Whig prime minister, Lord Grey, for a picture of the Reform Banquet held at the Guildhall.Completed in 1834, theThe Reform Banquetcontained 597 individual portraits. He also made a painting of theMeeting of the Anti-Slavery Society,now in theNational Portrait Gallery. Later years Haydon became well known as a lecturer on painting, and from 1835 onwards travelled throughout England and Scotland on lecture tours. He campaigned to have the country's public buildings decorated withhistory paintingsshowing the glories of the nation's past,and within three days of thedestruction of the Palace of Westminsterby fire in 1834 he visited the prime minister,Lord Melbourne, in order to impress on him the importance of government patronage of",
"patronage of art, especially in relation to the opportunities offered by the rebuilding made necessary by the disaster.Although a scheme along the lines of his suggestions was in fact carried out at the Houses of Parliament, Haydon played no part in it. When, in 1843, an exhibition was held atWestminster Hall, to choose designs for paintings to decorate the Houses of Parliament,he submitted two cartoons –The Curse of AdamandEdward the Black Prince– but the commission charged with choosing artists to carry out the work (which included his former pupil, Eastlake) found neither suitable. He then paintedThe Banishment of Aristides,which was exhibited, along with other works,at theEgyptian Hallin Piccadilly, where he had hired a gallery several times over the years.The American dwarfGeneral Tom Thumbwas then appearing at the same venue; over the Easter week 12,000 people paid to see him, while only 133 visited Haydon's exhibition. Death The artist's difficulties increased to such an extent that, whilst employed",
"whilst employed on his last grand effort,Alfred and the Trial by Jury,overcome by debts of over £3,000, disappointment, and ingratitude, he wrote \"Stretch me no longer on this rough world,\" and attemptedsuicideby shooting himself. The bullet failed to kill him, and he finished the task by cutting his throat. He left a widow and three surviving children, who were generously supported by Haydon's friends, includingSir Robert Peel,the Count d'Orsay,Thomas TalfourdandLord Carlisle.A resident ofPaddington, he was buried just to the north-west of the grave ofSarah Siddonsat St Mary's Church, Paddington, London.: p.183The cemetery was converted to a park, St Mary's Gardens, in 1885. Haydon's is one of the few preserved stones. It is modest and eroded but his name is still (2014) just legible. Writings In 1839 Haydon began work on an autobiography, drawing on materials from his extensive diaries. Before his death he had completed the story of his life up to the year 1820. It was published in three volumes in 1853,",
"volumes in 1853, edited byTom Taylor, with additional material from the diaries, under the titleLife of Benjamin Robert Haydon, Historical Painter, from his Autobiography and Journals. The autobiography was assessed by theEncyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Editionin this way: Haydon'sLectures,published shortly after their delivery, showed that he was as bold a writer as painter. He also wrote the long and elaborate article on \"Painting,\" in the 7th edition of theEncyclopædia Britannica. Critical opinion Charles Dickenswrote in 1846 that \"All his life had utterly mistaken his vocation. No amount of sympathy with him and sorrow for him in his manly pursuit of a wrong idea for so many years – until, by dint of his perseverance and courage it almost began to seem a right one – ought to prevent one from saying that he most unquestionably was a very bad painter, and that his pictures could not be expected to sell or to succeed.\"Dickens also observed Haydon's art to be \"quite marvellous in its badness\". Legacy",
"badness\". Legacy Pupils Haydon had several pupils. These includedCharlesandEdwin Landseer,William Bewick,John JacksonandEdward Chatfield. In written works In drama Gallery References and sources External links"
] |
What was the last prose book written by the poet who referred to Wyndham Lewis as "that lonely old volcano of the Right."? | Forewords and Afterwords (1973) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyndham_Lewis | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._H._Auden | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyndham_Lewis', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._H._Auden'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyndham_Lewis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._H._Auden"
] | [
"Wyndham Lewis Percy Wyndham Lewis(18 November 1882 – 7 March 1957) was a British writer, painter and critic. He was a co-founder of theVorticistmovement in art and editedBLAST, the literary magazine of the Vorticists. His novels includeTarr(1918) andThe Human Agetrilogy, composed ofThe Childermass(1928),Monstre Gai(1955) andMalign Fiesta(1955). A fourth volume, titledThe Trial of Man, was unfinished at the time of his death. He also wrote two autobiographical volumes:Blasting and Bombardiering(1937) andRude Assignment: A Narrative of my Career Up-to-Date(1950). Life and career Early life Lewis was born on 18 November 1882, reputedly on his father's yacht off the Canadian province ofNova Scotia.His English mother, Anne Stuart Lewis (née Prickett), and American father, Charles Edward Lewis, separated about 1893.His mother subsequently returned to England. Lewis was educated in England atRugby Schooland then, from 16, theSlade School of Fine Art,University College London, but left for Paris without finishing his course.He spent most of the 1900s travelling around Europe and studying art in Paris. While in Paris, he attended lectures byHenri Bergsononprocess philosophy. Early work and development of Vorticism (1908–1915) In 1908, Lewis moved to London, where he would reside for much of his life. In 1909, he published his first work, accounts of his travels in Brittany, inFord Madox Ford'sThe English Review. He was a founding member of theCamden Town Group, which brought him into close contact with theBloomsbury Group, particularlyRoger FryandClive Bell, with whom he soon fell out. In 1912, Lewis exhibited his work at the second Postimpressionist exhibition:Cubo-Futuristillustrations toTimon of Athensand three major oil paintings. In 1912, he was commissioned to produce a decorative mural, a drop curtain, and more designs forThe Cave of the Golden Calf, an avant-garde cabaret and nightclub onHeddon Street. From 1913 to 1915, Lewis developed the style of geometric abstraction for which he is best known today, which his friendEzra Pounddubbed \"Vorticism\". Lewis sought to combine the strong structure ofCubism, which he found was not \"alive\", with the liveliness ofFuturistart, which lacked structure. The combination was a strikingly dramatic critique of modernity. In his early visual works, Lewis may have been influenced by Bergson'sprocess philosophy. Though he was later savagely critical of Bergson, he admitted in a letter to Theodore Weiss (19 April 1949) that he \"began by embracing his evolutionary system.\"Nietzschewas an equally important influence. Lewis had a brief tenure at Roger Fry'sOmega Workshops, but left after a quarrel with Fry over a commission to provide wall decorations for theDaily MailIdeal Home Exhibition, which Lewis believed Fry had misappropriated. He and several other Omega artists started a competing workshop called theRebel Art Centre. The Centre operated for only four months, but it gave birth to the Vorticist group and its publication,BLAST.InBLAST,Lewis formally expounded the Vorticist aesthetic in a manifesto, distinguishing it from other avant-garde practices. He also wrote and published a play,Enemy of the Stars. It is a proto-absurdist,Expressionistdrama. Lewis scholar Melania Terrazas identifies it as a precursor to the plays ofSamuel Beckett. World War I (1915–1918) In 1915, the Vorticists held their only U.K. exhibition before the movement broke up, largely as a result of World War I. Lewis himself was posted to thewestern frontand served as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. Much of his time was spent inForward Observation Postslooking down at apparently deserted German lines, registering targets and calling down fire from batteries massed around the rim of theYpres Salient. He made vivid accounts of narrow misses and deadly artillery duels. After theThird Battle of Ypres, Lewis was appointed an officialwar artistfor both the Canadian and British governments. For the Canadians, he paintedA Canadian Gun-pit(1918) from sketches made onVimy Ridge. For the British, he painted one of his best-known works,A Battery Shelled(1919), drawing on his own experience at Ypres.Lewis exhibited his war drawings and some other paintings of the war in an exhibition, \"Guns\", in 1918. Although the Vorticist group broke up after the war, Lewis's patron,John Quinn, organized a Vorticist exhibition at the Penguin Club in New York in 1917. His first novel,Tarr, was serialized inThe Egoistduring 1916–17 and published in book form in 1918. It is widely regarded as one of the key modernist texts. Lewis later documented his experiences and opinions of this period of his life in the autobiographicalBlasting and Bombardiering(1937), which covered his life up to 1926. Tyrosand writing (1918–1929) After the war, Lewis resumed his career as a painter with a major exhibition,Tyros and Portraits, at theLeicester Galleriesin 1921. \"Tyros\" were satirical caricatures intended to comment on the culture of the \"new epoch\" that succeeded the First World War.A Reading ofOvidandMr Wyndham Lewis as a Tyroare the only surviving oil paintings from this series. Lewis also launched his second magazine,The Tyro, of which there were only two issues. The second (1922) contained an important statement of Lewis's visual aesthetic: \"Essay on the Objective of Plastic Art in our Time\".It was during the early 1920s that he perfected his incisive draughtsmanship. By the late 1920s, he concentrated on writing. He launched yet another magazine,The Enemy(1927–1929), largely written by himself and declaring its belligerent critical stance in its title. The magazine and other theoretical and critical works he published from 1926 to 1929 mark a deliberate separation from the avant-garde and his previous associates. He believed that their work failed to show sufficient critical awareness of those ideologies that worked against truly revolutionary change in the West, and therefore became a vehicle for these pernicious ideologies.His major theoretical and cultural statement from this period isThe Art of Being Ruled(1926). Time and Western Man(1927) is a cultural and philosophical discussion that includes penetrating critiques ofJames Joyce,Gertrude SteinandEzra Poundthat are still read. Lewis also attacked theprocess philosophyof Bergson,Samuel Alexander,Alfred North Whitehead, and others. By 1931 he was advocating the art of ancient Egypt as impossible to surpass. Fiction and political writing (1930–1936) Between the years 1907–11 Lewis wrote amodernistnovel entitledTarrwhich was revised and expanded in 1914–15and first serialized in the magazineThe Egoistfrom April 1916 until November 1917. The American version was published in 1918. In 1930 Lewis publishedThe Apes of God, a biting satirical attack on the London literary scene, including a long chapter caricaturing theSitwellfamily.Richard Aldington, however, found it \"the greatest piece ofwritingsinceUlysses\", byJames Joyce.In 1937 Lewis publishedThe Revenge for Love, set in the period leading up to theSpanish Civil Warand regarded by many as his best novel.It is strongly critical of communist activity in Spain and presents English intellectualfellow travellersas deluded. Despite serious illness necessitating several operations, he was very productive as a critic and painter. He produced a book of poems,One-Way Song, in 1933, and a revised version ofEnemy of the Stars. An important book of critical essays also belongs to this period:Men without Art(1934). It grew out of a defence of Lewis's satirical practice inThe Apes of Godand puts forward a theory of \"non-moral\", or metaphysical, satire. The book is probably best remembered for one of the first commentaries onFaulknerand a famous essay onHemingway. Return to painting (1936–1941) After becoming better known for his writing than his painting in the 1920s and early 1930s, he returned to more concentrated work on visual art, and paintings from the 1930s and 1940s constitute some of his best-known work. TheSurrender of Barcelona(1936–37) makes a significant statement about theSpanish Civil War. It was included in an exhibition at the Leicester Galleries in 1937 that Lewis hoped would re-establish his reputation as a painter. After the publication inThe Timesof a letter of support for the exhibition, asking that something from the show be purchased for the national collection (signed by, among others,Stephen Spender,W. H. Auden,Geoffrey Grigson,Rebecca West,Naomi Mitchison,Henry MooreandEric Gill) theTate Gallerybought the painting,Red Scene. Like others from the exhibition, it shows an influence fromSurrealismandde Chirico'sMetaphysical Painting. Lewis was highly critical of the ideology of Surrealism, but admired the visual qualities of some Surrealist art. During this period, Lewis also produced many of his most well-known portraits, including pictures ofEdith Sitwell(1923–1936),T. S. Eliot(1938and 1949), andEzra Pound(1939). His 1938 portrait of Eliot was rejected by the selection committee of theRoyal Academyfor their annual exhibition and caused a furore.Augustus Johnresigned in protest. World War II and North America (1941–1945) Lewis spent World War II in the United States and Canada. In 1941, in Toronto, he produced a series of watercolour fantasies centred on themes of creation, crucifixion and bathing. He grew to appreciate the cosmopolitan and \"rootless\" nature of the American melting pot, declaring that the greatest advantage of being American was to have \"turned one's back on race, caste, and all that pertains to the rooted state.\"He praised the contributions of African-Americans to American culture, and regardedDiego Rivera,David Alfaro Siqueiros, andJosé Clemente Orozcoas the \"best North American artists,\" predicting that when \"the Indian culture of Mexico melts into the great American mass to the North, the Indian will probably give it its art.\"He returned to England in 1945. Later life and blindness (1945–1951) By 1951, he was completely blinded by apituitary tumorthat placed pressure on his optic nerve. It ended his artistic career, but he continued writing until his death. He published several autobiographical and critical works:Rude Assignment(1950),Rotting Hill(1951), a collection of allegorical short stories about his life in \"the capital of a dying empire\";The Writer and the Absolute(1952), a book of essays on writers includingGeorge Orwell,Jean-Paul SartreandAndré Malraux; and the semi-autobiographical novelSelf Condemned(1954). TheBBCcommissioned Lewis to complete his 1928 workThe Childermass, which was published asThe Human Ageand dramatized for theBBC Third Programmein 1955.In 1956, theTate Galleryheld a major exhibition of his work, \"Wyndham Lewis and Vorticism\", in the catalogue to which he declared that \"Vorticism, in fact, was what I, personally, did and said at a certain period\"—a statement which brought forth a series of \"Vortex Pamphlets\" from his fellowBLASTsignatoryWilliam Roberts. Personal life From 1918 to 1921, Lewis lived withIris Barry, with whom he had two children. He is said to have shown little affection for them. In 1930, Lewis married Gladys Anne Hoskins (1900–1979), who was affectionately known as Froanna. They lived together for 10 years before marrying and never had children. Lewis kept Froanna in the background, and many of his friends were unaware of her existence. It seems that Lewis was extraordinarily jealous and protective of his wife, owing to her youth and beauty. Froanna was patient and caring toward her husband through financial troubles and his frequent illnesses. She was the model for some of Lewis's more tender and intimate portraits as well as a number of characters in his fiction. In contrast to his earlier, impersonal portraits, which are purely concerned with external appearance, the portraits of Froanna show a preoccupation with her inner life. Always interested in Roman Catholicism, he never converted.He died in 1957 and was cremated atGolders Green Crematorium. By the time of his death, Lewis had written 40 books in all. Political views In 1931, after a visit to Berlin, Lewis publishedHitler(1931), a book presentingAdolf Hitleras a \"man of peace\", with members of his party being threatened by communist street violence. His unpopularity among liberals and anti-fascists grew, especially after Hitler came to power in 1933.Following a second visit to Germany in 1937, Lewis changed his views and began to retract his previous political comments. He recognized the reality of Nazi treatment of Jews after a visit to Berlin in 1937. In 1939, he published an attack on anti-semitism titledThe Jews, Are They Human?,which was favourably reviewed inThe Jewish Chronicle. He also publishedThe Hitler Cult(1939), which firmly revoked his earlier support for Hitler. Politically, Lewis remained an isolated figure through the 1930s. InLetter toLord Byron,W. H. Audencalled Lewis \"that lonely old volcano of the Right.\" Lewis thought there was what he called a \"left-wing orthodoxy\" in Britain in the 1930s. He believed it was against Britain's self-interest to ally with theSoviet Union, \"which the newspapers most of us read tell us has slaughtered out-of-hand, only a few years ago, millions of its better fed citizens, as well as its whole imperial family.\" InAnglosaxony: A League that Works(1941), Lewis reflected on his earlier support for fascism: Fascism – once I understood it – left me colder than communism. The latter at least pretended, at the start, to have something to do with helping the helpless and making the world a more decent and sensible place. It does start from the human being and his suffering. Whereas fascism glorifies bloodshed and preaches that man should model himself upon the wolf. His sense that America and Canada lacked a British-type class structure had increased his opinion of liberal democracy, and in the same pamphlet, Lewis defends liberal democracy's respect for individual freedom against its critics on both the left and right.InAmerica and Cosmic Man(1949), Lewis argued thatFranklin Delano Roosevelthad successfully managed to reconcile individual rights with the demands of the state. Legacy In recent years, there has been renewed critical and biographical interest in Lewis and his work, and he is now regarded as a major British artist and writer of the twentieth century.Rugby School hosted an exhibition of his works in November 2007 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his death. TheNational Portrait Galleryin London held a major retrospective of his portraits in 2008. Two years later, held at the Fundación Juan March (Madrid, Spain), a large exhibition (Wyndham Lewis 1882–1957) featured a comprehensive collection of Lewis's paintings and drawings. As Tom Lubbock pointed out, it was \"the retrospective that Britain has never managed to get together.\". In 2010, Oxford World Classics published a critical edition of the 1928 text ofTarr, edited by Scott W. Klein ofWake Forest University. TheNasher Museum of ArtatDuke Universityheld an exhibition entitled \"The Vorticists: Rebel Artists in London and New York, 1914–18\" from 30 September 2010 through 2 January 2011.The exhibition then travelled to the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice (29 January – 15 May 2011: \"I Vorticisti: Artisti ribellia a Londra e New York, 1914–1918\") and then toTate Britainunder the title \"The Vorticists: Manifesto for a Modern World\" between 14 June and 4 September 2011. Several readings by Lewis are collected onThe Enemy Speaks, an audiobook CD published in 2007 and featuring extracts from \"One Way Song\" andThe Apes of God, as well as radio talks titled \"When John Bull Laughs\" (1938), \"A Crisis of Thought\" (1947) and \"The Essential Purposes of Art\" (1951). Ablue plaquenow stands on the house inKensington, London, where Lewis lived, No. 61 Palace Gardens Terrace. Critical reception In his essay \"Good Bad Books\",George Orwellpresents Lewis as the exemplary writer who is cerebral without being artistic. Orwell wrote, \"Enough talent to set up dozens of ordinary writers has been poured into Wyndham Lewis's so-called novels… Yet it would be a very heavy labour to read one of these books right through. Some indefinable quality, a sort of literary vitamin, which exists even in a book like If Winter Comes, is absent from them.\" In 1932,Walter Sickertsent Lewis a telegram in which he said that Lewis's pencil portrait ofRebecca Westproved him to be \"the greatest portraitist of this or any other time.\" Anti-semitism For many years, Lewis's novels have been criticised for their satirical and hostile portrayals of Jews.Tarrwas revised and republished in 1928, giving a new Jewish character a key role in making sure a duel is fought. This has been interpreted as an allegorical representation ofa supposed Zionist conspiracy against the West.His literary satireThe Apes of Godhas been interpreted similarly, because many of the characters are Jewish, including the modernist author and editor Julius Ratner, a portrait which blends anti-semitic stereotype with historical literary figuresJohn Rodkerand James Joyce. A key feature of these interpretations is that Lewis is held to have kept his conspiracy theories hidden and marginalized. Since the publication ofAnthony Julius'sT. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form(1995), where Lewis's anti-semitism is described as \"essentially trivial\", this view is no longer taken seriously. Books Paintings Notes and references Further reading External links",
"W. H. Auden Wystan Hugh Auden(/ˈwɪstənˈhjuːˈɔːdən/; 21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973) was aBritish-Americanpoet. Auden's poetry is noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety intone,form, andcontent. Some of his best known poems are about love, such as \"Funeral Blues\"; on political and social themes, such as \"September 1, 1939\" and \"The Shield of Achilles\"; on cultural and psychological themes, such asThe Age of Anxiety; and on religious themes, such as \"For the Time Being\" and \"Horae Canonicae\". Auden was born inYorkand grew up in and nearBirminghamin a professional, middle-class family. He attended various English independent (orpublic) schools and studied English atChrist Church, Oxford. After a few months in Berlin in 1928–29, he spent five years (1930–1935) teaching in British privatepreparatory schools. In 1939, he moved to the United States; he became an American citizen in 1946, retaining his British citizenship. Auden taught from 1941 to 1945 in American universities, followed by occasional visiting professorships in the 1950s. Auden came to wide public attention in 1930 with his first book,Poems; it was followed in 1932 byThe Orators. Three plays written in collaboration withChristopher Isherwoodbetween 1935 and 1938 built his reputation as a left-wing political writer. Auden moved to the United States partly to escape this reputation, and his work in the 1940s, including thelong poems\"For the Time Being\" and \"The Sea and the Mirror\", focused on religious themes. He won thePulitzer Prize for Poetryfor his 1947 long poemThe Age of Anxiety, the title of which became a popular phrase describing the modern era.From 1956 to 1961, he wasProfessor of Poetry at Oxford; his lectures were popular with students and faculty and served as the basis for his 1962 prose collectionThe Dyer's Hand. Auden was a prolific writer of prose essays and reviews on literary, political, psychological, and religious subjects, and he worked at various times on documentary films, poetic plays, and other forms of performance. Throughout his career he was both controversial and influential. Critical views on his work ranged from sharply dismissive (treating him as a lesser figure thanW. B. YeatsandT. S. Eliot) to strongly affirmative (as inJoseph Brodsky's statement that he had \"the greatest mind of the twentieth century\"). After his death, his poems became known to a much wider public through films, broadcasts, and popular media. Life Childhood Auden was born at54 Bootham,York, England, toGeorge Augustus Auden(1872–1957), a physician, and Constance Rosalie Auden (née Bicknell; 1869–1941), who had trained (but never served) as a missionary nurse.He was the third of three sons; the eldest, George Bernard Auden (1900–1978), became a farmer, while the second,John Bicknell Auden(1903–1991), became a geologist.The Audens were minor gentry with a strongclericaltradition, originally ofRowley Regis, later ofHorninglow, Staffordshire. Auden, whose grandfathers were bothChurch of Englandclergymen,grew up in anAnglo-Catholichousehold that followed a \"high\" form ofAnglicanism, with doctrine and ritual resembling those ofCatholicism.He traced his love of music and language partly to the church services of his childhood.He believed he was ofIcelandicdescent, and his lifelong fascination with Icelandic legends andOld Norsesagas is evident in his work. His family moved to Homer Road inSolihull, nearBirmingham, in 1908,where his father had been appointed the School Medical Officer and Lecturer (later Professor) of Public Health. Auden's lifelongpsychoanalyticinterests began in his father's library. From the age of eight he attended boarding schools, returning home for holidays.His visits to thePenninelandscape and its declining lead-mining industry figure in many of his poems; the remote decaying mining village ofRookhopewas for him a \"sacred landscape\", evoked in a late poem, \"Amor Loci\".Until he was fifteen he expected to become a mining engineer, but his passion for words had already begun. He wrote later: \"words so excite me that a pornographic story, for example, excites me sexually more than a living person can do.\" Education Auden attendedSt Edmund's School, Hindhead, Surrey, where he metChristopher Isherwood, later famous in his own right as a novelist.At thirteen he went toGresham's SchoolinHolt, Norfolk; there, in 1922, when his friendRobert Medleyasked him if he wrote poetry, Auden first realised his vocation was to be a poet.Soon after, he \"discover(ed) that he (had) lost his faith\" (through a gradual realisation that he had lost interest in religion, not through any decisive change of views).In school productions ofShakespeare, he played Katherina inThe Taming of the Shrewin 1922,andCalibaninThe Tempestin 1925, his last year at Gresham's.A review of his performance as Katherina noted that despite a poor wig, he had been able \"to infuse considerable dignity into his passionate outbursts\". His first published poems appeared in the school magazine in 1923.Auden later wrote a chapter on Gresham's forGraham Greene'sThe Old School: Essays by Divers Hands(1934). In 1925 he went up toChrist Church, Oxford, with a scholarship in biology; he changed to English by his second year, and was introduced to Old English poetry through the lectures ofJ. R. R. Tolkien. Friends he met at Oxford includeCecil Day-Lewis,Louis MacNeice, andStephen Spender- Auden and these three were commonly though misleadingly identified in the 1930s as the \"Auden Group\" for their shared (but not identical) left-wing views. Auden left Oxford in 1928 with athird-classdegree. Auden was reintroduced to Christopher Isherwood in 1925 by his fellow studentA. S. T. Fisher. For the next few years Auden sent poems to Isherwood for comments and criticism; the two maintained a sexual friendship in intervals between their relations with others. In 1935–39 they collaborated on three plays and a travel book. From his Oxford years onward, Auden's friends uniformly described him as funny, extravagant, sympathetic, generous, and, partly by his own choice, lonely. In groups he was often dogmatic and overbearing in a comic way; in more private settings he was diffident and shy except when certain of his welcome. He was punctual in his habits, and obsessive about meeting deadlines, while living amidst physical disorder. Britain and Europe, 1928–1938 In late 1928 Auden left Britain for nine months, going toBerlin, perhaps partly as an escape from English repressiveness. In Berlin, he first experienced the political and economic unrest that became one of his central subjects.Around the same time, Stephen Spender privately printed a small pamphlet of Auden'sPoemsin an edition of about 45 copies, distributed among Auden's and Spender's friends and family; this edition is usually referred to asPoems to avoid confusion with Auden's commercially published 1930 volume. On returning to Britain in 1929 he worked briefly as a tutor. In 1930 his first published book,Poems(1930), was accepted byT. S. EliotforFaber and Faber, and the same firm remained the British publisher of all the books he published thereafter. In 1930, he began five years as a schoolmaster in boys' schools: two years at theLarchfield AcademyinHelensburgh, Scotland, then three years atthe Downs Schoolin theMalvern Hills, where he was a much-loved teacher.At the Downs, in June 1933, he experienced what he later described as a \"Vision ofAgape\", while sitting with three fellow teachers at the school, when he suddenly found that he loved them for themselves, that their existence had infinite value for him; this experience, he said, later influenced his decision to return to the Anglican Church in 1940. During these years Auden's erotic interests focused, as he later said, on an idealised \"Alter Ego\"rather than on individual people. His relationships (and his unsuccessful courtships) tended to be unequal either in age or intelligence; his sexual relations were transient, although some evolved into long friendships. He contrasted these relationships with what he later regarded as the \"marriage\" (his word) of equals that he began withChester Kallmanin 1939, based on the unique individuality of both partners. In 1935 Auden marriedErika Mann(1905–1969), the lesbian novelist daughter ofThomas Mannwhen it became apparent that the Nazis were intending to strip her of her German citizenship.Mann had asked Christopher Isherwood if he would marry her so she could become a British citizen. He declined but suggested she approach Auden, who readily agreed to amarriage of convenience.Mann and Auden never lived together, but remained on good terms throughout their lives and were still married when Mann died in 1969. She left him a small bequest in her will.In 1936, Auden introduced actressTherese Giehse, Mann's lover, to the writerJohn Hampsonand they too married so that Giehse could leave Germany. From 1935 until he left Britain early in 1939, Auden worked as freelance reviewer, essayist, and lecturer, first with theGPO Film Unit, a documentary film-making branch of the post office, headed byJohn Grierson. Through his work for the Film Unit in 1935 he met and collaborated withBenjamin Britten, with whom he also worked on plays, song cycles, and a libretto.Auden's plays in the 1930s were performed by theGroup Theatre, in productions that he supervised to varying degrees. His work now reflected his belief that any good artist must be \"more than a bit of a reporting journalist\".In 1936, Auden spent three months in Iceland where he gathered material for a travel bookLetters from Iceland(1937), written in collaboration with Louis MacNeice. In 1937, he went to Spain intending to drive an ambulance for theRepublicin theSpanish Civil War, but was put to work writing propaganda at the Republican press and propaganda office, where he felt useless and left after a week.He returned to England after a brief visit to the front at Sarineña. His seven-week visit to Spain affected him deeply, and his social views grew more complex as he found political realities to be more ambiguous and troubling than he had imagined.Again attempting to combine reportage and art, he and Isherwood spent six months in 1938 visiting China amid theSino-Japanese War, working on their bookJourney to a War(1939). On their way back to England they stayed briefly in New York and decided to move to the United States. Auden spent late 1938 partly in England, partly in Brussels. Many of Auden's poems during the 1930s and after were inspired by unconsummated love, and in the 1950s he summarised his emotional life in a famous couplet: \"If equal affection cannot be / Let the more loving one be me\" (\"The More Loving One\"). He had a gift for friendship and, starting in the late 1930s, a strong wish for the stability of marriage; in a letter to his friendJames Sternhe called marriage \"theonlysubject.\"Throughout his life, Auden performed charitable acts, sometimes in public, as in his 1935 marriage of convenience to Erika Mann,but, especially in later years, more often in private. He was embarrassed if they were publicly revealed, as when his gift to his friendDorothy Dayfor theCatholic Workermovement was reported on the front page ofThe New York Timesin 1956. United States and Europe, 1939–1973 Auden and Isherwood sailed to New York City in January 1939, entering on temporary visas. Their departure from Britain was later seen by many as a betrayal, and Auden's reputation suffered.In April 1939, Isherwood moved to California, and he and Auden saw each other only intermittently in later years. Around this time, Auden met the poetChester Kallman, who became his lover for the next two years (Auden described their relation as a \"marriage\" that began with a cross-country \"honeymoon\" journey). In 1941 Kallman ended their sexual relationship because he could not accept Auden's insistence on mutual fidelity,but he and Auden remained companions for the rest of Auden's life, sharing houses and apartments from 1953 until Auden's death.Auden dedicated both editions of his collected poetry (1945/50 and 1966) to Isherwood and Kallman. In 1940–41 Auden lived in a house at 7 Middagh Street inBrooklyn Heights, that he shared withCarson McCullers, Benjamin Britten, and others, which became a famous centre of artistic life, nicknamed \"February House\".In 1940, Auden joined theEpiscopal Church, returning to the Anglican Communion he had abandoned at fifteen. His reconversion was influenced partly by what he called the \"sainthood\" ofCharles Williams,whom he had met in 1937, and partly by readingSøren KierkegaardandReinhold Niebuhr; hisexistential, this-worldly Christianity became a central element in his life. After Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939, Auden told the British embassy in Washington that he would return to the UK if needed. He was told that, among those his age (32), only qualified personnel were needed. In 1941–42 he taught English at theUniversity of Michigan. He was called for the draft in the United States Army in August 1942, but was rejected on medical grounds. He had been awarded aGuggenheim Fellowshipfor 1942–43 but did not use it, choosing instead to teach atSwarthmore Collegein 1942–45. In mid-1945, after the end ofWorld War IIin Europe, he was in Germany with theUS Strategic Bombing Survey, studying the effects of Allied bombing on German morale, an experience that affected his postwar work as his visit to Spain had affected him earlier.On his return, he settled inManhattan, working as a freelance writer, a lecturer atThe New Schoolfor Social Research, and a visiting professor atBennington,Smith, and other American colleges. In 1946, he became anaturalised citizenof the US. In 1948 Auden began spending his summers in Europe, together with Chester Kallman, first inIschia, Italy, where he rented a house. Starting in 1958 he began spending his summers inKirchstetten, Austria, where he bought a farmhouse with the prize money of thePremio Feltrinelliawarded to him in 1957.He said that he shed tears of joy at owning a home for the first time.His later poetry, mostly written in Austria, includes his sequence \"Thanksgiving for a Habitat\" about his Kirchstetten home.Auden's letters and papers sent to his friend the translator Stella Musulin (1915–1996), available online, provide insights into his Austrian years. In 1956–61 Auden wasProfessor of PoetryatOxford University, where he was required to give three lectures each year. This fairly light workload allowed him to continue to spend winter in New York, where he lived at 77St. Mark's Placein Manhattan'sEast Village, and to spend summer in Europe, spending only three weeks each year lecturing in Oxford. He earned his income mostly from readings and lecture tours, and by writing forThe New Yorker,The New York Review of Books,and other magazines. In 1963 Kallman left the apartment he shared in New York with Auden, and lived during the winter in Athens while continuing to spend his summers with Auden in Austria. Auden spent the winter of 1964-1965 inBerlinthrough anartist-in-residence programof theFord Foundation. Following some years of lobbying by his friendDavid Luke, Auden's old college, Christ Church, in February 1972 offered him a cottage on its grounds to live in; he moved his books and other possessions from New York to Oxford in September 1972,while continuing to spend summers in Austria with Kallman. He spent only one winter in Oxford before his death in 1973. Auden died at 66 of heart failure at the Altenburgerhof Hotel in Vienna overnight on 28–29 September 1973, a few hours after giving a reading of his poems for the Austrian Society for Literature at thePalais Pálffy. He had intended to return to Oxford the following day. He was buried on 4 October in Kirchstetten, and a memorial stone was placed in Westminster Abbey in London a year later. Work Auden published about four hundred poems, including seven long poems (two of them book-length). His poetry was encyclopaedic in scope and method, ranging in style from obscure twentieth-century modernism to the lucid traditional forms such asballadsandlimericks, fromdoggerelthroughhaikuandvillanellesto a \"Christmas Oratorio\" and abaroqueecloguein Anglo-Saxon meters.The tone and content of his poems ranged from pop-song clichés to complex philosophical meditations, from the corns on his toes to atoms and stars, from contemporary crises to the evolution of society. He also wrote more than four hundred essays and reviews about literature, history, politics, music, religion, and many other subjects. He collaborated on plays withChristopher Isherwoodand on opera libretti withChester Kallman, and worked with a group of artists and filmmakers on documentary films in the 1930s and with theNew York Pro Musicaearly musicgroup in the 1950s and 1960s. About collaboration he wrote in 1964: \"collaboration has brought me greater erotic joy . . . than any sexual relations I have had.\" Auden controversially rewrote or discarded some of his most famous poems when he prepared his later collected editions. He wrote that he rejected poems that he found \"boring\" or \"dishonest\" in the sense that they expressed views he had never held but had used only because he felt they would be rhetorically effective.His rejected poems include \"Spain\" and \"September 1, 1939\". Hisliterary executor,Edward Mendelson, argues in his introduction toSelected Poemsthat Auden's practice reflected his sense of the persuasive power of poetry and his reluctance to misuse it.(Selected Poemsincludes some poems that Auden rejected and early texts of poems that he revised.) Early work, 1922–1939 Up to 1930 Auden began writing poems in 1922, at 15, mostly in the styles of 19th-century romantic poets, especiallyWordsworth, and later poets with rural interests, especiallyThomas Hardy. At 18 he discoveredT. S. Eliotand adopted an extreme version of Eliot's style. He found his own voice at 20 when he wrote the first poem later included in his collected work, \"From the very first coming down\".This and other poems of the late 1920s tended to be in a clipped, elusive style that alluded to, but did not directly state, their themes of loneliness and loss. Twenty of these poems appeared in his first bookPoems(1928), a pamphlet hand-printed byStephen Spender. In 1928 he wrote his first dramatic work,Paid on Both Sides, subtitled \"A Charade\", which combined style and content from the Icelandicsagaswith jokes from English school life. This mixture of tragedy and farce, with a dream play-within-a-play, introduced the mixed styles and content of much of his later work.This drama and thirty short poems appeared in his first published bookPoems(1930, 2nd edition with seven poems replaced, 1933); the poems in the book were mostly lyrical and gnomic meditations on hoped-for or unconsummated love and on themes of personal, social, and seasonal renewal; among these poems were \"It was Easter as I walked\", \"Doom is dark\", \"Sir, no man's enemy\", and \"This lunar beauty\". A recurrent theme in these early poems is the effect of \"family ghosts\", Auden's term for the powerful, unseen psychological effects of preceding generations on any individual life (and the title of a poem). A parallel theme, present throughout his work, is the contrast between biological evolution (unchosen and involuntary) and the psychological evolution of cultures and individuals (voluntary and deliberate even in its subconscious aspects). 1931–1935 Auden's next large-scale work wasThe Orators: An English Study(1932; revised editions, 1934, 1966), in verse and prose, largely about hero-worship in personal and political life. In his shorter poems, his style became more open and accessible, and the exuberant \"Six Odes\" inThe Oratorsreflect his new interest inRobert Burns.During the next few years, many of his poems took their form and style from traditional ballads and popular songs, and also from expansive classical forms like theOdesofHorace, which he seems to have discovered through the German poetHölderlin.Around this time his main influences wereDante,William Langland, andAlexander Pope. During these years much of his work expressed left-wing views, and he became widely known as a political poet although he was privately more ambivalent about revolutionary politics than many reviewers recognised,and Mendelson argues that he expounded political views partly out of a sense of moral duty and partly because it enhanced his reputation, and that he later regretted having done so.He generally wrote about revolutionary change in terms of a \"change of heart\", a transformation of a society from a closed-off psychology of fear to an open psychology of love. His verse dramaThe Dance of Death(1933) was a political extravaganza in the style of a theatrical revue, which Auden later called \"a nihilistic leg-pull.\"His next playThe Dog Beneath the Skin(1935), written in collaboration with Isherwood, was similarly a quasi-Marxist updating ofGilbert and Sullivanin which the general idea of social transformation was more prominent than any specific political action or structure. The Ascent of F6(1937), another play written with Isherwood, was partly an anti-imperialist satire, partly (in the character of the self-destroying climber Michael Ransom) an examination of Auden's own motives in taking on a public role as a political poet.This play included the first version of \"Funeral Blues\" (\"Stop all the clocks\"), written as a satiric eulogy for a politician; Auden later rewrote the poem as a \"Cabaret Song\" about lost love (written to be sung by the sopranoHedli Anderson, for whom he wrote many lyrics in the 1930s).In 1935, he worked briefly on documentary films with theGPO Film Unit, writing his famous verse commentary forNight Mailand lyrics for other films that were among his attempts in the 1930s to create a widely accessible, socially conscious art. 1936–1939 In 1936 Auden's publisher chose the titleLook, Stranger!for a collection of political odes, love poems, comic songs, meditative lyrics, and a variety of intellectually intense but emotionally accessible verse; Auden hated the title and retitled the collection for the 1937 US editionOn This Island.Among the poems included in the book are \"Hearing of harvests\", \"Out on the lawn I lie in bed\", \"O what is that sound\", \"Look, stranger, on this island now\" (later revised versions change \"on\" to \"at\"), and \"Our hunting fathers\". Auden was now arguing that an artist should be a kind of journalist, and he put this view into practice inLetters from Iceland(1937) a travel book in prose and verse written withLouis MacNeice, which included his long social, literary, and autobiographical commentary \"Letter to Lord Byron\".In 1937, after observing theSpanish Civil Warhe wrote a politically engaged pamphlet poemSpain(1937); he later discarded it from his collected works.Journey to a War(1939) a travel book in prose and verse, was written with Isherwood after their visit to theSino-Japanese War.Auden's last collaboration with Isherwood was their third play,On the Frontier, an anti-war satire written in Broadway and West End styles. Auden's shorter poems now engaged with the fragility and transience of personal love (\"Danse Macabre\", \"The Dream\", \"Lay your sleeping head\"), a subject he treated with ironic wit in his \"Four Cabaret Songs for MissHedli Anderson\" (which included \"Tell Me the Truth About Love\" and the revised version of \"Funeral Blues\"), and also the corrupting effect of public and official culture on individual lives (\"Casino\", \"School Children\", \"Dover\").In 1938, he wrote a series of dark, ironic ballads about individual failure (\"Miss Gee\", \"James Honeyman\", \"Victor\"). All these appeared inAnother Time(1940), together with poems including \"Dover\", \"As He Is\", and \"Musée des Beaux Arts\" (all of which were written before he moved to America in 1939), and \"In Memory of W. B. Yeats\", \"The Unknown Citizen\", \"Law Like Love\", \"September 1, 1939\", and \"In Memory of Sigmund Freud\" (all written in America). The elegies for Yeats and Freud are partly anti-heroic statements, in which great deeds are performed, not by unique geniuses whom others cannot hope to imitate, but by otherwise ordinary individuals who were \"silly like us\" (Yeats) or of whom it could be said \"he wasn't clever at all\" (Freud), and who became teachers of others, not awe-inspiring heroes. Middle period, 1940–1957 1940–1946 In 1940 Auden wrote a long philosophical poem \"New Year Letter\", which appeared with miscellaneous notes and other poems inThe Double Man(1941). At the time of his return to the Anglican Communion he began writing abstract verse on theological themes, such as \"Canzone\" and \"Kairos and Logos\". Around 1942, as he became more comfortable with religious themes, his verse became more open and relaxed, and he increasingly used thesyllabic versehe had learned from the poetry ofMarianne Moore. Auden's work in this era addresses the artist's temptation to use other persons as material for his art rather than valuing them for themselves (\"Prospero to Ariel\") and the corresponding moral obligation to make and keep commitments while recognising the temptation to break them (\"In Sickness and Health\").From 1942 through 1947 he worked mostly on three long poems in dramatic form, each differing from the others in form and content: \"For the Time Being: A Christmas Oratorio\", \"The Sea and the Mirror: A Commentary on Shakespeare'sThe Tempest\"(both published inFor the Time Being, 1944), andThe Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue(published separately in 1947).The first two, with Auden's other new poems from 1940 to 1944, were included in his first collected edition,The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden(1945), with most of his earlier poems, many in revised versions. 1947–1957 After completingThe Age of Anxietyin 1946 he focused again on shorter poems, notably \"A Walk After Dark\", \"The Love Feast\", and \"The Fall of Rome\".Many of these evoked the Italian village where he spent his summers between 1948 and 1957, and his next book,Nones(1951), had a Mediterranean atmosphere new to his work.A new theme was the \"sacred importance\" of the human bodyin its ordinary aspect (breathing, sleeping, eating) and the continuity with nature that the body made possible (in contrast to the division between humanity and nature that he had emphasised in the 1930s);his poems on these themes included \"In Praise of Limestone\" (1948) and \"Memorial for the City\" (1949).In 1947-1948, Auden and Kallman wrote the libretto forIgor Stravinsky's operaThe Rake's Progress, and later collaborated on two libretti for operas byHans Werner Henze. Auden's first separate prose book wasThe Enchafèd Flood: The Romantic Iconography of the Sea(1950), based on a series of lectures on the image of the sea in romantic literature.Between 1949 and 1954 he worked on a sequence of sevenGood Fridaypoems, titled \"Horae Canonicae\", an encyclopaedic survey of geological, biological, cultural, and personal history, focused on the irreversible act of murder; the poem was also a study in cyclical and linear ideas of time. While writing this, he also wrote \"Bucolics\", a sequence of seven poems about man's relation to nature. Both sequences appeared in his next book,The Shield of Achilles(1955), with other short poems, including the book's title poem, \"Fleet Visit\", and \"Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier\". In 1955–56 Auden wrote a group of poems about \"history\", the term he used to mean the set of unique events made by human choices, as opposed to \"nature\", the set of involuntary events created by natural processes, statistics, and anonymous forces such as crowds. These poems included \"T the Great\", \"The Maker\", and the title poem of his next collectionHomage to Clio(1960). Later work, 1958–1973 In the late 1950s Auden's style became less rhetorical while its range of styles increased. In 1958, having moved his summer home from Italy to Austria, he wrote \"Good-bye to the Mezzogiorno\"; other poems from this period include \"Dichtung und Wahrheit: An Unwritten Poem\", a prose poem about the relation between love and personal and poetic language, and the contrasting \"Dame Kind\", about the anonymous impersonal reproductive instinct. These and other poems, including his 1955–66 poems about history, appeared inHomage to Clio(1960).His prose bookThe Dyer's Hand(1962) gathered many of the lectures he gave in Oxford as Professor of Poetry in 1956–61, together with revised versions of essays and notes written since the mid-1940s. Among the new styles and forms in Auden's later work were thehaikuandtankathat he began writing after translating the haiku and other verse inDag Hammarskjöld'sMarkings.A sequence of fifteen poems about his house in Austria, \"Thanksgiving for a Habitat\" (written in various styles that included an imitation ofWilliam Carlos Williams) appeared inAbout the House(1965), together with other poems that included his reflection on his lecture tours, \"On the Circuit\".In the late 1960s he wrote some of his most vigorous poems, including \"River Profile\" and two poems that looked back over his life, \"Prologue at Sixty\" and \"Forty Years On\". All these appeared inCity Without Walls(1969). His lifelong passion for Icelandic legend culminated in his verse translation ofTheElder Edda(1969).Among his later themes was the \"religionless Christianity\" he learned partly fromDietrich Bonhoeffer, the dedicatee of his poem \"Friday's Child\". A Certain World: A Commonplace Book(1970) was a kind of self-portrait made up of favourite quotations with commentary, arranged in alphabetical order by subject.His last prose book was a selection of essays and reviews,Forewords and Afterwords(1973).His last books of verse,Epistle to a Godson(1972) and the unfinishedThank You, Fog(published posthumously, 1974) include reflective poems about language (\"Natural Linguistics\", \"Aubade\"), philosophy and science (\"No, Plato, No\", \"Unpredictable but Providential\"), and his own aging (\"A New Year Greeting\", \"Talking to Myself\", \"A Lullaby\" ). His last completed poem was \"Archaeology\", about ritual and timelessness, two recurring themes in his later years. Reputation and influence Auden's stature in modern literature has been contested. Probably the most common critical view from the 1930s onward ranked him as the last and least of the three major twentieth-century poets of the UK or Ireland—behind Yeats and Eliot—while a minority view, more prominent in recent years, ranks him as the highest of the three.Opinions have ranged from those ofHugh MacDiarmid, who called him \"a complete wash-out\";F. R. Leavis, who wrote that Auden's ironic style was \"self-defensive, self-indulgent or merely irresponsible\";andHarold Bloom, who wrote \"Close thy Auden, open thy Stevens,\"to the obituarist inThe Times, who wrote: \"W.H. Auden, for long theenfant terribleof English poetry... emerges as its undisputed master.\"Joseph Brodskywrote that Auden had \"the greatest mind of the twentieth century\". Critical estimates were divided from the start. Reviewing Auden's first book,Poems(1930),Naomi Mitchisonwrote \"If this is really only the beginning, we have perhaps a master to look forward to.\"ButJohn Sparrow, recalling Mitchison's comment in 1934, dismissed Auden's early work as \"a monument to the misguided aims that prevail among contemporary poets, and the fact that... he is being hailed as 'a master' shows how criticism is helping poetry on the downward path.\" Auden's clipped, satiric, and ironic style in the 1930s was widely imitated by younger poets such asCharles Madge, who wrote in a poem \"there waited for me in the summer morning / Auden fiercely. I read, shuddered, and knew.\"He was widely described as the leader of an \"Auden group\" that comprised his friendsStephen Spender,Cecil Day-Lewis, andLouis MacNeice.The four were mocked by the poetRoy Campbellas if they were a single undifferentiated poet named \"Macspaunday.\"Auden's propagandistic poetic plays, includingThe Dog Beneath the SkinandThe Ascent of F6, and his political poems such as \"Spain\" gave him the reputation as a political poet writing in a progressive and accessible voice, in contrast to Eliot; but this political stance provoked opposing opinions, such as that ofAustin Clarkewho called Auden's work \"liberal, democratic, and humane\",and John Drummond, who wrote that Auden misused a \"characteristic and popularizing trick, the generalized image\", to present ostensibly left-wing views that were in fact \"confined to bourgeois experience.\" Auden's departure for America in 1939 was debated in Britain (once even in Parliament), with some seeing his emigration as a betrayal. Defenders of Auden such asGeoffrey Grigson, in an introduction to a 1949 anthology of modern poetry, wrote that Auden \"arches over all\". His stature was suggested by book titles such asAuden and AfterbyFrancis Scarfe(1942) andThe Auden GenerationbySamuel Hynes(1977). In the US, starting in the late 1930s, the detached, ironic tone of Auden's regular stanzas became influential;John Ashberyrecalled that in the 1940s Auden \"wasthemodern poet\".Auden's formal influences were so pervasive in American poetry that the ecstatic style of theBeat Generationwas partly a reaction against his influence. From the 1940s through the 1960s, many critics lamented that Auden's work had declined from its earlier promise;Randall Jarrellwrote a series of essays making a case against Auden's later work,andPhilip Larkin's \"What's Become of Wystan?\" (1960) had a wide impact. The first full-length study of Auden wasRichard Hoggart'sAuden: An Introductory Essay(1951), which concluded that \"Auden's work, then, is a civilising force.\"It was followed byJoseph Warren Beach'sThe Making of the Auden Canon(1957), a disapproving account of Auden's revisions of his earlier work.The first systematic critical account was Monroe K. Spears'The Poetry of W. H. Auden: The Disenchanted Island(1963), \"written out of the conviction that Auden's poetry can offer the reader entertainment, instruction, intellectual excitement, and a prodigal variety of aesthetic pleasures, all in a generous abundance that is unique in our time.\" Auden was one of three candidates recommended by the Nobel Committee to the Swedish Academy for theNobel Prize in Literaturein 1963and 1965and six recommended for the 1964 prize.By the time of his death in 1973 he had attained the status of a respected elder statesman, and a memorial stone for him was placed inPoets' CornerinWestminster Abbeyin 1974.TheEncyclopædia Britannicawrites that \"by the time of Eliot's death in 1965... a convincing case could be made for the assertion that Auden was indeed Eliot's successor, as Eliot had inherited sole claim to supremacy whenYeatsdied in 1939.\"With some exceptions, British critics tended to treat his early work as his best, while American critics tended to favour his middle and later work. Another group of critics and poets has maintained that unlike other modern poets, Auden's reputation did not decline after his death, and the influence of his later writing was especially strong on younger American poets includingJohn Ashbery,James Merrill,Anthony Hecht, andMaxine Kumin.Typical later evaluations describe him as \"arguably the century's greatest poet\" (Peter Parker and Frank Kermode),who \"now clearly seems the greatest poet in English since Tennyson\" (Philip Hensher). Public recognition of Auden's work sharply increased after his \"Funeral Blues\" (\"Stop all the clocks\") was read aloud in the filmFour Weddings and a Funeral(1994); subsequently, a pamphlet edition of ten of his poems,Tell Me the Truth About Love, sold more than 275,000 copies. An excerpt from his poem \"As I walked out one evening\" was recited in the filmBefore Sunrise(1995).After 11 September 2001, his 1939 poem \"September 1, 1939\" was widely circulated and frequently broadcast.Public readings and broadcast tributes in the UK and US in 2007 marked his centenary year. Overall Auden's poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety in tone, form and content. Memorial stones and plaques commemorating Auden include those inWestminster Abbey; at his birthplace at 55 Bootham, York;near his home on Lordswood Road, Birmingham;in the chapel of Christ Church, Oxford; on the site of his apartment at 1 Montague Terrace, Brooklyn Heights; at his apartment in 77 St. Marks Place, New York (damaged and now removed);at the site of his death at Walfischgasse 5 in Vienna;and in theRainbow Honor Walkin San Francisco.In his house in Kirchstetten, his study is open to the public upon request. In 2023, newly declassified UK government files revealed that Auden was considered as a candidate to be the newPoet Laureate of the United Kingdomin 1967 following the death ofJohn Masefield. He was rejected due to having taken American citizenship. Published works The following list includes only the books of poems and essays that Auden prepared during his lifetime; for a more complete list, including other works and posthumous editions, seeW. H. Auden bibliography. Dates refer to first publication or first performance, not of composition. In the list below, works reprinted in theComplete Works of W. H. Audenare indicated by footnote references. References Citations General and cited sources Further reading External links"
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"Wyndham Lewis Percy Wyndham Lewis(18 November 1882 – 7 March 1957) was a British writer, painter and critic. He was a co-founder of theVorticistmovement in art and editedBLAST, the literary magazine of the Vorticists. His novels includeTarr(1918) andThe Human Agetrilogy, composed ofThe Childermass(1928),Monstre Gai(1955) andMalign Fiesta(1955). A fourth volume, titledThe Trial of Man, was unfinished at the time of his death. He also wrote two autobiographical volumes:Blasting and Bombardiering(1937) andRude Assignment: A Narrative of my Career Up-to-Date(1950). Life and career Early life Lewis was born on 18 November 1882, reputedly on his father's yacht off the Canadian province ofNova Scotia.His English mother, Anne Stuart Lewis (née Prickett), and American father, Charles Edward Lewis, separated about 1893.His mother subsequently returned to England. Lewis was educated in England atRugby Schooland then, from 16, theSlade School of Fine Art,University College London, but left for Paris without finishing his",
"finishing his course.He spent most of the 1900s travelling around Europe and studying art in Paris. While in Paris, he attended lectures byHenri Bergsononprocess philosophy. Early work and development of Vorticism (1908–1915) In 1908, Lewis moved to London, where he would reside for much of his life. In 1909, he published his first work, accounts of his travels in Brittany, inFord Madox Ford'sThe English Review. He was a founding member of theCamden Town Group, which brought him into close contact with theBloomsbury Group, particularlyRoger FryandClive Bell, with whom he soon fell out. In 1912, Lewis exhibited his work at the second Postimpressionist exhibition:Cubo-Futuristillustrations toTimon of Athensand three major oil paintings. In 1912, he was commissioned to produce a decorative mural, a drop curtain, and more designs forThe Cave of the Golden Calf, an avant-garde cabaret and nightclub onHeddon Street. From 1913 to 1915, Lewis developed the style of geometric abstraction for which he is best known",
"he is best known today, which his friendEzra Pounddubbed \"Vorticism\". Lewis sought to combine the strong structure ofCubism, which he found was not \"alive\", with the liveliness ofFuturistart, which lacked structure. The combination was a strikingly dramatic critique of modernity. In his early visual works, Lewis may have been influenced by Bergson'sprocess philosophy. Though he was later savagely critical of Bergson, he admitted in a letter to Theodore Weiss (19 April 1949) that he \"began by embracing his evolutionary system.\"Nietzschewas an equally important influence. Lewis had a brief tenure at Roger Fry'sOmega Workshops, but left after a quarrel with Fry over a commission to provide wall decorations for theDaily MailIdeal Home Exhibition, which Lewis believed Fry had misappropriated. He and several other Omega artists started a competing workshop called theRebel Art Centre. The Centre operated for only four months, but it gave birth to the Vorticist group and its publication,BLAST.InBLAST,Lewis formally",
"formally expounded the Vorticist aesthetic in a manifesto, distinguishing it from other avant-garde practices. He also wrote and published a play,Enemy of the Stars. It is a proto-absurdist,Expressionistdrama. Lewis scholar Melania Terrazas identifies it as a precursor to the plays ofSamuel Beckett. World War I (1915–1918) In 1915, the Vorticists held their only U.K. exhibition before the movement broke up, largely as a result of World War I. Lewis himself was posted to thewestern frontand served as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. Much of his time was spent inForward Observation Postslooking down at apparently deserted German lines, registering targets and calling down fire from batteries massed around the rim of theYpres Salient. He made vivid accounts of narrow misses and deadly artillery duels. After theThird Battle of Ypres, Lewis was appointed an officialwar artistfor both the Canadian and British governments. For the Canadians, he paintedA Canadian Gun-pit(1918) from sketches made onVimy",
"made onVimy Ridge. For the British, he painted one of his best-known works,A Battery Shelled(1919), drawing on his own experience at Ypres.Lewis exhibited his war drawings and some other paintings of the war in an exhibition, \"Guns\", in 1918. Although the Vorticist group broke up after the war, Lewis's patron,John Quinn, organized a Vorticist exhibition at the Penguin Club in New York in 1917. His first novel,Tarr, was serialized inThe Egoistduring 1916–17 and published in book form in 1918. It is widely regarded as one of the key modernist texts. Lewis later documented his experiences and opinions of this period of his life in the autobiographicalBlasting and Bombardiering(1937), which covered his life up to 1926. Tyrosand writing (1918–1929) After the war, Lewis resumed his career as a painter with a major exhibition,Tyros and Portraits, at theLeicester Galleriesin 1921. \"Tyros\" were satirical caricatures intended to comment on the culture of the \"new epoch\" that succeeded the First World War.A Reading",
"World War.A Reading ofOvidandMr Wyndham Lewis as a Tyroare the only surviving oil paintings from this series. Lewis also launched his second magazine,The Tyro, of which there were only two issues. The second (1922) contained an important statement of Lewis's visual aesthetic: \"Essay on the Objective of Plastic Art in our Time\".It was during the early 1920s that he perfected his incisive draughtsmanship. By the late 1920s, he concentrated on writing. He launched yet another magazine,The Enemy(1927–1929), largely written by himself and declaring its belligerent critical stance in its title. The magazine and other theoretical and critical works he published from 1926 to 1929 mark a deliberate separation from the avant-garde and his previous associates. He believed that their work failed to show sufficient critical awareness of those ideologies that worked against truly revolutionary change in the West, and therefore became a vehicle for these pernicious ideologies.His major theoretical and cultural statement",
"cultural statement from this period isThe Art of Being Ruled(1926). Time and Western Man(1927) is a cultural and philosophical discussion that includes penetrating critiques ofJames Joyce,Gertrude SteinandEzra Poundthat are still read. Lewis also attacked theprocess philosophyof Bergson,Samuel Alexander,Alfred North Whitehead, and others. By 1931 he was advocating the art of ancient Egypt as impossible to surpass. Fiction and political writing (1930–1936) Between the years 1907–11 Lewis wrote amodernistnovel entitledTarrwhich was revised and expanded in 1914–15and first serialized in the magazineThe Egoistfrom April 1916 until November 1917. The American version was published in 1918. In 1930 Lewis publishedThe Apes of God, a biting satirical attack on the London literary scene, including a long chapter caricaturing theSitwellfamily.Richard Aldington, however, found it \"the greatest piece ofwritingsinceUlysses\", byJames Joyce.In 1937 Lewis publishedThe Revenge for Love, set in the period leading up to",
"leading up to theSpanish Civil Warand regarded by many as his best novel.It is strongly critical of communist activity in Spain and presents English intellectualfellow travellersas deluded. Despite serious illness necessitating several operations, he was very productive as a critic and painter. He produced a book of poems,One-Way Song, in 1933, and a revised version ofEnemy of the Stars. An important book of critical essays also belongs to this period:Men without Art(1934). It grew out of a defence of Lewis's satirical practice inThe Apes of Godand puts forward a theory of \"non-moral\", or metaphysical, satire. The book is probably best remembered for one of the first commentaries onFaulknerand a famous essay onHemingway. Return to painting (1936–1941) After becoming better known for his writing than his painting in the 1920s and early 1930s, he returned to more concentrated work on visual art, and paintings from the 1930s and 1940s constitute some of his best-known work. TheSurrender of Barcelona(1936–37)",
"Barcelona(1936–37) makes a significant statement about theSpanish Civil War. It was included in an exhibition at the Leicester Galleries in 1937 that Lewis hoped would re-establish his reputation as a painter. After the publication inThe Timesof a letter of support for the exhibition, asking that something from the show be purchased for the national collection (signed by, among others,Stephen Spender,W. H. Auden,Geoffrey Grigson,Rebecca West,Naomi Mitchison,Henry MooreandEric Gill) theTate Gallerybought the painting,Red Scene. Like others from the exhibition, it shows an influence fromSurrealismandde Chirico'sMetaphysical Painting. Lewis was highly critical of the ideology of Surrealism, but admired the visual qualities of some Surrealist art. During this period, Lewis also produced many of his most well-known portraits, including pictures ofEdith Sitwell(1923–1936),T. S. Eliot(1938and 1949), andEzra Pound(1939). His 1938 portrait of Eliot was rejected by the selection committee of theRoyal Academyfor their",
"Academyfor their annual exhibition and caused a furore.Augustus Johnresigned in protest. World War II and North America (1941–1945) Lewis spent World War II in the United States and Canada. In 1941, in Toronto, he produced a series of watercolour fantasies centred on themes of creation, crucifixion and bathing. He grew to appreciate the cosmopolitan and \"rootless\" nature of the American melting pot, declaring that the greatest advantage of being American was to have \"turned one's back on race, caste, and all that pertains to the rooted state.\"He praised the contributions of African-Americans to American culture, and regardedDiego Rivera,David Alfaro Siqueiros, andJosé Clemente Orozcoas the \"best North American artists,\" predicting that when \"the Indian culture of Mexico melts into the great American mass to the North, the Indian will probably give it its art.\"He returned to England in 1945. Later life and blindness (1945–1951) By 1951, he was completely blinded by apituitary tumorthat placed pressure on his",
"pressure on his optic nerve. It ended his artistic career, but he continued writing until his death. He published several autobiographical and critical works:Rude Assignment(1950),Rotting Hill(1951), a collection of allegorical short stories about his life in \"the capital of a dying empire\";The Writer and the Absolute(1952), a book of essays on writers includingGeorge Orwell,Jean-Paul SartreandAndré Malraux; and the semi-autobiographical novelSelf Condemned(1954). TheBBCcommissioned Lewis to complete his 1928 workThe Childermass, which was published asThe Human Ageand dramatized for theBBC Third Programmein 1955.In 1956, theTate Galleryheld a major exhibition of his work, \"Wyndham Lewis and Vorticism\", in the catalogue to which he declared that \"Vorticism, in fact, was what I, personally, did and said at a certain period\"—a statement which brought forth a series of \"Vortex Pamphlets\" from his fellowBLASTsignatoryWilliam Roberts. Personal life From 1918 to 1921, Lewis lived withIris Barry, with whom he had",
"with whom he had two children. He is said to have shown little affection for them. In 1930, Lewis married Gladys Anne Hoskins (1900–1979), who was affectionately known as Froanna. They lived together for 10 years before marrying and never had children. Lewis kept Froanna in the background, and many of his friends were unaware of her existence. It seems that Lewis was extraordinarily jealous and protective of his wife, owing to her youth and beauty. Froanna was patient and caring toward her husband through financial troubles and his frequent illnesses. She was the model for some of Lewis's more tender and intimate portraits as well as a number of characters in his fiction. In contrast to his earlier, impersonal portraits, which are purely concerned with external appearance, the portraits of Froanna show a preoccupation with her inner life. Always interested in Roman Catholicism, he never converted.He died in 1957 and was cremated atGolders Green Crematorium. By the time of his death, Lewis had written 40",
"had written 40 books in all. Political views In 1931, after a visit to Berlin, Lewis publishedHitler(1931), a book presentingAdolf Hitleras a \"man of peace\", with members of his party being threatened by communist street violence. His unpopularity among liberals and anti-fascists grew, especially after Hitler came to power in 1933.Following a second visit to Germany in 1937, Lewis changed his views and began to retract his previous political comments. He recognized the reality of Nazi treatment of Jews after a visit to Berlin in 1937. In 1939, he published an attack on anti-semitism titledThe Jews, Are They Human?,which was favourably reviewed inThe Jewish Chronicle. He also publishedThe Hitler Cult(1939), which firmly revoked his earlier support for Hitler. Politically, Lewis remained an isolated figure through the 1930s. InLetter toLord Byron,W. H. Audencalled Lewis \"that lonely old volcano of the Right.\" Lewis thought there was what he called a \"left-wing orthodoxy\" in Britain in the 1930s. He believed it",
"He believed it was against Britain's self-interest to ally with theSoviet Union, \"which the newspapers most of us read tell us has slaughtered out-of-hand, only a few years ago, millions of its better fed citizens, as well as its whole imperial family.\" InAnglosaxony: A League that Works(1941), Lewis reflected on his earlier support for fascism: Fascism – once I understood it – left me colder than communism. The latter at least pretended, at the start, to have something to do with helping the helpless and making the world a more decent and sensible place. It does start from the human being and his suffering. Whereas fascism glorifies bloodshed and preaches that man should model himself upon the wolf. His sense that America and Canada lacked a British-type class structure had increased his opinion of liberal democracy, and in the same pamphlet, Lewis defends liberal democracy's respect for individual freedom against its critics on both the left and right.InAmerica and Cosmic Man(1949), Lewis argued",
"Lewis argued thatFranklin Delano Roosevelthad successfully managed to reconcile individual rights with the demands of the state. Legacy In recent years, there has been renewed critical and biographical interest in Lewis and his work, and he is now regarded as a major British artist and writer of the twentieth century.Rugby School hosted an exhibition of his works in November 2007 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his death. TheNational Portrait Galleryin London held a major retrospective of his portraits in 2008. Two years later, held at the Fundación Juan March (Madrid, Spain), a large exhibition (Wyndham Lewis 1882–1957) featured a comprehensive collection of Lewis's paintings and drawings. As Tom Lubbock pointed out, it was \"the retrospective that Britain has never managed to get together.\". In 2010, Oxford World Classics published a critical edition of the 1928 text ofTarr, edited by Scott W. Klein ofWake Forest University. TheNasher Museum of ArtatDuke Universityheld an exhibition entitled \"The",
"entitled \"The Vorticists: Rebel Artists in London and New York, 1914–18\" from 30 September 2010 through 2 January 2011.The exhibition then travelled to the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice (29 January – 15 May 2011: \"I Vorticisti: Artisti ribellia a Londra e New York, 1914–1918\") and then toTate Britainunder the title \"The Vorticists: Manifesto for a Modern World\" between 14 June and 4 September 2011. Several readings by Lewis are collected onThe Enemy Speaks, an audiobook CD published in 2007 and featuring extracts from \"One Way Song\" andThe Apes of God, as well as radio talks titled \"When John Bull Laughs\" (1938), \"A Crisis of Thought\" (1947) and \"The Essential Purposes of Art\" (1951). Ablue plaquenow stands on the house inKensington, London, where Lewis lived, No. 61 Palace Gardens Terrace. Critical reception In his essay \"Good Bad Books\",George Orwellpresents Lewis as the exemplary writer who is cerebral without being artistic. Orwell wrote, \"Enough talent to set up dozens of ordinary writers has been",
"writers has been poured into Wyndham Lewis's so-called novels… Yet it would be a very heavy labour to read one of these books right through. Some indefinable quality, a sort of literary vitamin, which exists even in a book like If Winter Comes, is absent from them.\" In 1932,Walter Sickertsent Lewis a telegram in which he said that Lewis's pencil portrait ofRebecca Westproved him to be \"the greatest portraitist of this or any other time.\" Anti-semitism For many years, Lewis's novels have been criticised for their satirical and hostile portrayals of Jews.Tarrwas revised and republished in 1928, giving a new Jewish character a key role in making sure a duel is fought. This has been interpreted as an allegorical representation ofa supposed Zionist conspiracy against the West.His literary satireThe Apes of Godhas been interpreted similarly, because many of the characters are Jewish, including the modernist author and editor Julius Ratner, a portrait which blends anti-semitic stereotype with historical literary",
"historical literary figuresJohn Rodkerand James Joyce. A key feature of these interpretations is that Lewis is held to have kept his conspiracy theories hidden and marginalized. Since the publication ofAnthony Julius'sT. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form(1995), where Lewis's anti-semitism is described as \"essentially trivial\", this view is no longer taken seriously. Books Paintings Notes and references Further reading External links",
"W. H. Auden Wystan Hugh Auden(/ˈwɪstənˈhjuːˈɔːdən/; 21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973) was aBritish-Americanpoet. Auden's poetry is noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety intone,form, andcontent. Some of his best known poems are about love, such as \"Funeral Blues\"; on political and social themes, such as \"September 1, 1939\" and \"The Shield of Achilles\"; on cultural and psychological themes, such asThe Age of Anxiety; and on religious themes, such as \"For the Time Being\" and \"Horae Canonicae\". Auden was born inYorkand grew up in and nearBirminghamin a professional, middle-class family. He attended various English independent (orpublic) schools and studied English atChrist Church, Oxford. After a few months in Berlin in 1928–29, he spent five years (1930–1935) teaching in British privatepreparatory schools. In 1939, he moved to the United States; he became an American citizen in 1946, retaining his British citizenship.",
"citizenship. Auden taught from 1941 to 1945 in American universities, followed by occasional visiting professorships in the 1950s. Auden came to wide public attention in 1930 with his first book,Poems; it was followed in 1932 byThe Orators. Three plays written in collaboration withChristopher Isherwoodbetween 1935 and 1938 built his reputation as a left-wing political writer. Auden moved to the United States partly to escape this reputation, and his work in the 1940s, including thelong poems\"For the Time Being\" and \"The Sea and the Mirror\", focused on religious themes. He won thePulitzer Prize for Poetryfor his 1947 long poemThe Age of Anxiety, the title of which became a popular phrase describing the modern era.From 1956 to 1961, he wasProfessor of Poetry at Oxford; his lectures were popular with students and faculty and served as the basis for his 1962 prose collectionThe Dyer's Hand. Auden was a prolific writer of prose essays and reviews on literary, political, psychological, and religious subjects, and",
"subjects, and he worked at various times on documentary films, poetic plays, and other forms of performance. Throughout his career he was both controversial and influential. Critical views on his work ranged from sharply dismissive (treating him as a lesser figure thanW. B. YeatsandT. S. Eliot) to strongly affirmative (as inJoseph Brodsky's statement that he had \"the greatest mind of the twentieth century\"). After his death, his poems became known to a much wider public through films, broadcasts, and popular media. Life Childhood Auden was born at54 Bootham,York, England, toGeorge Augustus Auden(1872–1957), a physician, and Constance Rosalie Auden (née Bicknell; 1869–1941), who had trained (but never served) as a missionary nurse.He was the third of three sons; the eldest, George Bernard Auden (1900–1978), became a farmer, while the second,John Bicknell Auden(1903–1991), became a geologist.The Audens were minor gentry with a strongclericaltradition, originally ofRowley Regis, later ofHorninglow,",
"later ofHorninglow, Staffordshire. Auden, whose grandfathers were bothChurch of Englandclergymen,grew up in anAnglo-Catholichousehold that followed a \"high\" form ofAnglicanism, with doctrine and ritual resembling those ofCatholicism.He traced his love of music and language partly to the church services of his childhood.He believed he was ofIcelandicdescent, and his lifelong fascination with Icelandic legends andOld Norsesagas is evident in his work. His family moved to Homer Road inSolihull, nearBirmingham, in 1908,where his father had been appointed the School Medical Officer and Lecturer (later Professor) of Public Health. Auden's lifelongpsychoanalyticinterests began in his father's library. From the age of eight he attended boarding schools, returning home for holidays.His visits to thePenninelandscape and its declining lead-mining industry figure in many of his poems; the remote decaying mining village ofRookhopewas for him a \"sacred landscape\", evoked in a late poem, \"Amor Loci\".Until he was fifteen he",
"he was fifteen he expected to become a mining engineer, but his passion for words had already begun. He wrote later: \"words so excite me that a pornographic story, for example, excites me sexually more than a living person can do.\" Education Auden attendedSt Edmund's School, Hindhead, Surrey, where he metChristopher Isherwood, later famous in his own right as a novelist.At thirteen he went toGresham's SchoolinHolt, Norfolk; there, in 1922, when his friendRobert Medleyasked him if he wrote poetry, Auden first realised his vocation was to be a poet.Soon after, he \"discover(ed) that he (had) lost his faith\" (through a gradual realisation that he had lost interest in religion, not through any decisive change of views).In school productions ofShakespeare, he played Katherina inThe Taming of the Shrewin 1922,andCalibaninThe Tempestin 1925, his last year at Gresham's.A review of his performance as Katherina noted that despite a poor wig, he had been able \"to infuse considerable dignity into his passionate",
"into his passionate outbursts\". His first published poems appeared in the school magazine in 1923.Auden later wrote a chapter on Gresham's forGraham Greene'sThe Old School: Essays by Divers Hands(1934). In 1925 he went up toChrist Church, Oxford, with a scholarship in biology; he changed to English by his second year, and was introduced to Old English poetry through the lectures ofJ. R. R. Tolkien. Friends he met at Oxford includeCecil Day-Lewis,Louis MacNeice, andStephen Spender- Auden and these three were commonly though misleadingly identified in the 1930s as the \"Auden Group\" for their shared (but not identical) left-wing views. Auden left Oxford in 1928 with athird-classdegree. Auden was reintroduced to Christopher Isherwood in 1925 by his fellow studentA. S. T. Fisher. For the next few years Auden sent poems to Isherwood for comments and criticism; the two maintained a sexual friendship in intervals between their relations with others. In 1935–39 they collaborated on three plays and a travel book. From",
"a travel book. From his Oxford years onward, Auden's friends uniformly described him as funny, extravagant, sympathetic, generous, and, partly by his own choice, lonely. In groups he was often dogmatic and overbearing in a comic way; in more private settings he was diffident and shy except when certain of his welcome. He was punctual in his habits, and obsessive about meeting deadlines, while living amidst physical disorder. Britain and Europe, 1928–1938 In late 1928 Auden left Britain for nine months, going toBerlin, perhaps partly as an escape from English repressiveness. In Berlin, he first experienced the political and economic unrest that became one of his central subjects.Around the same time, Stephen Spender privately printed a small pamphlet of Auden'sPoemsin an edition of about 45 copies, distributed among Auden's and Spender's friends and family; this edition is usually referred to asPoems to avoid confusion with Auden's commercially published 1930 volume. On returning to Britain in 1929 he worked",
"in 1929 he worked briefly as a tutor. In 1930 his first published book,Poems(1930), was accepted byT. S. EliotforFaber and Faber, and the same firm remained the British publisher of all the books he published thereafter. In 1930, he began five years as a schoolmaster in boys' schools: two years at theLarchfield AcademyinHelensburgh, Scotland, then three years atthe Downs Schoolin theMalvern Hills, where he was a much-loved teacher.At the Downs, in June 1933, he experienced what he later described as a \"Vision ofAgape\", while sitting with three fellow teachers at the school, when he suddenly found that he loved them for themselves, that their existence had infinite value for him; this experience, he said, later influenced his decision to return to the Anglican Church in 1940. During these years Auden's erotic interests focused, as he later said, on an idealised \"Alter Ego\"rather than on individual people. His relationships (and his unsuccessful courtships) tended to be unequal either in age or intelligence;",
"or intelligence; his sexual relations were transient, although some evolved into long friendships. He contrasted these relationships with what he later regarded as the \"marriage\" (his word) of equals that he began withChester Kallmanin 1939, based on the unique individuality of both partners. In 1935 Auden marriedErika Mann(1905–1969), the lesbian novelist daughter ofThomas Mannwhen it became apparent that the Nazis were intending to strip her of her German citizenship.Mann had asked Christopher Isherwood if he would marry her so she could become a British citizen. He declined but suggested she approach Auden, who readily agreed to amarriage of convenience.Mann and Auden never lived together, but remained on good terms throughout their lives and were still married when Mann died in 1969. She left him a small bequest in her will.In 1936, Auden introduced actressTherese Giehse, Mann's lover, to the writerJohn Hampsonand they too married so that Giehse could leave Germany. From 1935 until he left Britain early",
"left Britain early in 1939, Auden worked as freelance reviewer, essayist, and lecturer, first with theGPO Film Unit, a documentary film-making branch of the post office, headed byJohn Grierson. Through his work for the Film Unit in 1935 he met and collaborated withBenjamin Britten, with whom he also worked on plays, song cycles, and a libretto.Auden's plays in the 1930s were performed by theGroup Theatre, in productions that he supervised to varying degrees. His work now reflected his belief that any good artist must be \"more than a bit of a reporting journalist\".In 1936, Auden spent three months in Iceland where he gathered material for a travel bookLetters from Iceland(1937), written in collaboration with Louis MacNeice. In 1937, he went to Spain intending to drive an ambulance for theRepublicin theSpanish Civil War, but was put to work writing propaganda at the Republican press and propaganda office, where he felt useless and left after a week.He returned to England after a brief visit to the front at",
"to the front at Sarineña. His seven-week visit to Spain affected him deeply, and his social views grew more complex as he found political realities to be more ambiguous and troubling than he had imagined.Again attempting to combine reportage and art, he and Isherwood spent six months in 1938 visiting China amid theSino-Japanese War, working on their bookJourney to a War(1939). On their way back to England they stayed briefly in New York and decided to move to the United States. Auden spent late 1938 partly in England, partly in Brussels. Many of Auden's poems during the 1930s and after were inspired by unconsummated love, and in the 1950s he summarised his emotional life in a famous couplet: \"If equal affection cannot be / Let the more loving one be me\" (\"The More Loving One\"). He had a gift for friendship and, starting in the late 1930s, a strong wish for the stability of marriage; in a letter to his friendJames Sternhe called marriage \"theonlysubject.\"Throughout his life, Auden performed charitable acts,",
"charitable acts, sometimes in public, as in his 1935 marriage of convenience to Erika Mann,but, especially in later years, more often in private. He was embarrassed if they were publicly revealed, as when his gift to his friendDorothy Dayfor theCatholic Workermovement was reported on the front page ofThe New York Timesin 1956. United States and Europe, 1939–1973 Auden and Isherwood sailed to New York City in January 1939, entering on temporary visas. Their departure from Britain was later seen by many as a betrayal, and Auden's reputation suffered.In April 1939, Isherwood moved to California, and he and Auden saw each other only intermittently in later years. Around this time, Auden met the poetChester Kallman, who became his lover for the next two years (Auden described their relation as a \"marriage\" that began with a cross-country \"honeymoon\" journey). In 1941 Kallman ended their sexual relationship because he could not accept Auden's insistence on mutual fidelity,but he and Auden remained companions for",
"companions for the rest of Auden's life, sharing houses and apartments from 1953 until Auden's death.Auden dedicated both editions of his collected poetry (1945/50 and 1966) to Isherwood and Kallman. In 1940–41 Auden lived in a house at 7 Middagh Street inBrooklyn Heights, that he shared withCarson McCullers, Benjamin Britten, and others, which became a famous centre of artistic life, nicknamed \"February House\".In 1940, Auden joined theEpiscopal Church, returning to the Anglican Communion he had abandoned at fifteen. His reconversion was influenced partly by what he called the \"sainthood\" ofCharles Williams,whom he had met in 1937, and partly by readingSøren KierkegaardandReinhold Niebuhr; hisexistential, this-worldly Christianity became a central element in his life. After Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939, Auden told the British embassy in Washington that he would return to the UK if needed. He was told that, among those his age (32), only qualified personnel were needed. In 1941–42 he",
"In 1941–42 he taught English at theUniversity of Michigan. He was called for the draft in the United States Army in August 1942, but was rejected on medical grounds. He had been awarded aGuggenheim Fellowshipfor 1942–43 but did not use it, choosing instead to teach atSwarthmore Collegein 1942–45. In mid-1945, after the end ofWorld War IIin Europe, he was in Germany with theUS Strategic Bombing Survey, studying the effects of Allied bombing on German morale, an experience that affected his postwar work as his visit to Spain had affected him earlier.On his return, he settled inManhattan, working as a freelance writer, a lecturer atThe New Schoolfor Social Research, and a visiting professor atBennington,Smith, and other American colleges. In 1946, he became anaturalised citizenof the US. In 1948 Auden began spending his summers in Europe, together with Chester Kallman, first inIschia, Italy, where he rented a house. Starting in 1958 he began spending his summers inKirchstetten, Austria, where he bought a",
"where he bought a farmhouse with the prize money of thePremio Feltrinelliawarded to him in 1957.He said that he shed tears of joy at owning a home for the first time.His later poetry, mostly written in Austria, includes his sequence \"Thanksgiving for a Habitat\" about his Kirchstetten home.Auden's letters and papers sent to his friend the translator Stella Musulin (1915–1996), available online, provide insights into his Austrian years. In 1956–61 Auden wasProfessor of PoetryatOxford University, where he was required to give three lectures each year. This fairly light workload allowed him to continue to spend winter in New York, where he lived at 77St. Mark's Placein Manhattan'sEast Village, and to spend summer in Europe, spending only three weeks each year lecturing in Oxford. He earned his income mostly from readings and lecture tours, and by writing forThe New Yorker,The New York Review of Books,and other magazines. In 1963 Kallman left the apartment he shared in New York with Auden, and lived during the",
"lived during the winter in Athens while continuing to spend his summers with Auden in Austria. Auden spent the winter of 1964-1965 inBerlinthrough anartist-in-residence programof theFord Foundation. Following some years of lobbying by his friendDavid Luke, Auden's old college, Christ Church, in February 1972 offered him a cottage on its grounds to live in; he moved his books and other possessions from New York to Oxford in September 1972,while continuing to spend summers in Austria with Kallman. He spent only one winter in Oxford before his death in 1973. Auden died at 66 of heart failure at the Altenburgerhof Hotel in Vienna overnight on 28–29 September 1973, a few hours after giving a reading of his poems for the Austrian Society for Literature at thePalais Pálffy. He had intended to return to Oxford the following day. He was buried on 4 October in Kirchstetten, and a memorial stone was placed in Westminster Abbey in London a year later. Work Auden published about four hundred poems, including seven long",
"seven long poems (two of them book-length). His poetry was encyclopaedic in scope and method, ranging in style from obscure twentieth-century modernism to the lucid traditional forms such asballadsandlimericks, fromdoggerelthroughhaikuandvillanellesto a \"Christmas Oratorio\" and abaroqueecloguein Anglo-Saxon meters.The tone and content of his poems ranged from pop-song clichés to complex philosophical meditations, from the corns on his toes to atoms and stars, from contemporary crises to the evolution of society. He also wrote more than four hundred essays and reviews about literature, history, politics, music, religion, and many other subjects. He collaborated on plays withChristopher Isherwoodand on opera libretti withChester Kallman, and worked with a group of artists and filmmakers on documentary films in the 1930s and with theNew York Pro Musicaearly musicgroup in the 1950s and 1960s. About collaboration he wrote in 1964: \"collaboration has brought me greater erotic joy . . . than any sexual relations I",
"sexual relations I have had.\" Auden controversially rewrote or discarded some of his most famous poems when he prepared his later collected editions. He wrote that he rejected poems that he found \"boring\" or \"dishonest\" in the sense that they expressed views he had never held but had used only because he felt they would be rhetorically effective.His rejected poems include \"Spain\" and \"September 1, 1939\". Hisliterary executor,Edward Mendelson, argues in his introduction toSelected Poemsthat Auden's practice reflected his sense of the persuasive power of poetry and his reluctance to misuse it.(Selected Poemsincludes some poems that Auden rejected and early texts of poems that he revised.) Early work, 1922–1939 Up to 1930 Auden began writing poems in 1922, at 15, mostly in the styles of 19th-century romantic poets, especiallyWordsworth, and later poets with rural interests, especiallyThomas Hardy. At 18 he discoveredT. S. Eliotand adopted an extreme version of Eliot's style. He found his own voice at 20 when he",
"voice at 20 when he wrote the first poem later included in his collected work, \"From the very first coming down\".This and other poems of the late 1920s tended to be in a clipped, elusive style that alluded to, but did not directly state, their themes of loneliness and loss. Twenty of these poems appeared in his first bookPoems(1928), a pamphlet hand-printed byStephen Spender. In 1928 he wrote his first dramatic work,Paid on Both Sides, subtitled \"A Charade\", which combined style and content from the Icelandicsagaswith jokes from English school life. This mixture of tragedy and farce, with a dream play-within-a-play, introduced the mixed styles and content of much of his later work.This drama and thirty short poems appeared in his first published bookPoems(1930, 2nd edition with seven poems replaced, 1933); the poems in the book were mostly lyrical and gnomic meditations on hoped-for or unconsummated love and on themes of personal, social, and seasonal renewal; among these poems were \"It was Easter as I",
"\"It was Easter as I walked\", \"Doom is dark\", \"Sir, no man's enemy\", and \"This lunar beauty\". A recurrent theme in these early poems is the effect of \"family ghosts\", Auden's term for the powerful, unseen psychological effects of preceding generations on any individual life (and the title of a poem). A parallel theme, present throughout his work, is the contrast between biological evolution (unchosen and involuntary) and the psychological evolution of cultures and individuals (voluntary and deliberate even in its subconscious aspects). 1931–1935 Auden's next large-scale work wasThe Orators: An English Study(1932; revised editions, 1934, 1966), in verse and prose, largely about hero-worship in personal and political life. In his shorter poems, his style became more open and accessible, and the exuberant \"Six Odes\" inThe Oratorsreflect his new interest inRobert Burns.During the next few years, many of his poems took their form and style from traditional ballads and popular songs, and also from expansive",
"also from expansive classical forms like theOdesofHorace, which he seems to have discovered through the German poetHölderlin.Around this time his main influences wereDante,William Langland, andAlexander Pope. During these years much of his work expressed left-wing views, and he became widely known as a political poet although he was privately more ambivalent about revolutionary politics than many reviewers recognised,and Mendelson argues that he expounded political views partly out of a sense of moral duty and partly because it enhanced his reputation, and that he later regretted having done so.He generally wrote about revolutionary change in terms of a \"change of heart\", a transformation of a society from a closed-off psychology of fear to an open psychology of love. His verse dramaThe Dance of Death(1933) was a political extravaganza in the style of a theatrical revue, which Auden later called \"a nihilistic leg-pull.\"His next playThe Dog Beneath the Skin(1935), written in collaboration with Isherwood, was",
"with Isherwood, was similarly a quasi-Marxist updating ofGilbert and Sullivanin which the general idea of social transformation was more prominent than any specific political action or structure. The Ascent of F6(1937), another play written with Isherwood, was partly an anti-imperialist satire, partly (in the character of the self-destroying climber Michael Ransom) an examination of Auden's own motives in taking on a public role as a political poet.This play included the first version of \"Funeral Blues\" (\"Stop all the clocks\"), written as a satiric eulogy for a politician; Auden later rewrote the poem as a \"Cabaret Song\" about lost love (written to be sung by the sopranoHedli Anderson, for whom he wrote many lyrics in the 1930s).In 1935, he worked briefly on documentary films with theGPO Film Unit, writing his famous verse commentary forNight Mailand lyrics for other films that were among his attempts in the 1930s to create a widely accessible, socially conscious art. 1936–1939 In 1936 Auden's publisher",
"Auden's publisher chose the titleLook, Stranger!for a collection of political odes, love poems, comic songs, meditative lyrics, and a variety of intellectually intense but emotionally accessible verse; Auden hated the title and retitled the collection for the 1937 US editionOn This Island.Among the poems included in the book are \"Hearing of harvests\", \"Out on the lawn I lie in bed\", \"O what is that sound\", \"Look, stranger, on this island now\" (later revised versions change \"on\" to \"at\"), and \"Our hunting fathers\". Auden was now arguing that an artist should be a kind of journalist, and he put this view into practice inLetters from Iceland(1937) a travel book in prose and verse written withLouis MacNeice, which included his long social, literary, and autobiographical commentary \"Letter to Lord Byron\".In 1937, after observing theSpanish Civil Warhe wrote a politically engaged pamphlet poemSpain(1937); he later discarded it from his collected works.Journey to a War(1939) a travel book in prose and verse, was",
"and verse, was written with Isherwood after their visit to theSino-Japanese War.Auden's last collaboration with Isherwood was their third play,On the Frontier, an anti-war satire written in Broadway and West End styles. Auden's shorter poems now engaged with the fragility and transience of personal love (\"Danse Macabre\", \"The Dream\", \"Lay your sleeping head\"), a subject he treated with ironic wit in his \"Four Cabaret Songs for MissHedli Anderson\" (which included \"Tell Me the Truth About Love\" and the revised version of \"Funeral Blues\"), and also the corrupting effect of public and official culture on individual lives (\"Casino\", \"School Children\", \"Dover\").In 1938, he wrote a series of dark, ironic ballads about individual failure (\"Miss Gee\", \"James Honeyman\", \"Victor\"). All these appeared inAnother Time(1940), together with poems including \"Dover\", \"As He Is\", and \"Musée des Beaux Arts\" (all of which were written before he moved to America in 1939), and \"In Memory of W. B. Yeats\", \"The Unknown Citizen\",",
"Unknown Citizen\", \"Law Like Love\", \"September 1, 1939\", and \"In Memory of Sigmund Freud\" (all written in America). The elegies for Yeats and Freud are partly anti-heroic statements, in which great deeds are performed, not by unique geniuses whom others cannot hope to imitate, but by otherwise ordinary individuals who were \"silly like us\" (Yeats) or of whom it could be said \"he wasn't clever at all\" (Freud), and who became teachers of others, not awe-inspiring heroes. Middle period, 1940–1957 1940–1946 In 1940 Auden wrote a long philosophical poem \"New Year Letter\", which appeared with miscellaneous notes and other poems inThe Double Man(1941). At the time of his return to the Anglican Communion he began writing abstract verse on theological themes, such as \"Canzone\" and \"Kairos and Logos\". Around 1942, as he became more comfortable with religious themes, his verse became more open and relaxed, and he increasingly used thesyllabic versehe had learned from the poetry ofMarianne Moore. Auden's work in this era",
"work in this era addresses the artist's temptation to use other persons as material for his art rather than valuing them for themselves (\"Prospero to Ariel\") and the corresponding moral obligation to make and keep commitments while recognising the temptation to break them (\"In Sickness and Health\").From 1942 through 1947 he worked mostly on three long poems in dramatic form, each differing from the others in form and content: \"For the Time Being: A Christmas Oratorio\", \"The Sea and the Mirror: A Commentary on Shakespeare'sThe Tempest\"(both published inFor the Time Being, 1944), andThe Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue(published separately in 1947).The first two, with Auden's other new poems from 1940 to 1944, were included in his first collected edition,The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden(1945), with most of his earlier poems, many in revised versions. 1947–1957 After completingThe Age of Anxietyin 1946 he focused again on shorter poems, notably \"A Walk After Dark\", \"The Love Feast\", and \"The Fall of",
"and \"The Fall of Rome\".Many of these evoked the Italian village where he spent his summers between 1948 and 1957, and his next book,Nones(1951), had a Mediterranean atmosphere new to his work.A new theme was the \"sacred importance\" of the human bodyin its ordinary aspect (breathing, sleeping, eating) and the continuity with nature that the body made possible (in contrast to the division between humanity and nature that he had emphasised in the 1930s);his poems on these themes included \"In Praise of Limestone\" (1948) and \"Memorial for the City\" (1949).In 1947-1948, Auden and Kallman wrote the libretto forIgor Stravinsky's operaThe Rake's Progress, and later collaborated on two libretti for operas byHans Werner Henze. Auden's first separate prose book wasThe Enchafèd Flood: The Romantic Iconography of the Sea(1950), based on a series of lectures on the image of the sea in romantic literature.Between 1949 and 1954 he worked on a sequence of sevenGood Fridaypoems, titled \"Horae Canonicae\", an encyclopaedic",
"an encyclopaedic survey of geological, biological, cultural, and personal history, focused on the irreversible act of murder; the poem was also a study in cyclical and linear ideas of time. While writing this, he also wrote \"Bucolics\", a sequence of seven poems about man's relation to nature. Both sequences appeared in his next book,The Shield of Achilles(1955), with other short poems, including the book's title poem, \"Fleet Visit\", and \"Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier\". In 1955–56 Auden wrote a group of poems about \"history\", the term he used to mean the set of unique events made by human choices, as opposed to \"nature\", the set of involuntary events created by natural processes, statistics, and anonymous forces such as crowds. These poems included \"T the Great\", \"The Maker\", and the title poem of his next collectionHomage to Clio(1960). Later work, 1958–1973 In the late 1950s Auden's style became less rhetorical while its range of styles increased. In 1958, having moved his summer home from Italy to",
"home from Italy to Austria, he wrote \"Good-bye to the Mezzogiorno\"; other poems from this period include \"Dichtung und Wahrheit: An Unwritten Poem\", a prose poem about the relation between love and personal and poetic language, and the contrasting \"Dame Kind\", about the anonymous impersonal reproductive instinct. These and other poems, including his 1955–66 poems about history, appeared inHomage to Clio(1960).His prose bookThe Dyer's Hand(1962) gathered many of the lectures he gave in Oxford as Professor of Poetry in 1956–61, together with revised versions of essays and notes written since the mid-1940s. Among the new styles and forms in Auden's later work were thehaikuandtankathat he began writing after translating the haiku and other verse inDag Hammarskjöld'sMarkings.A sequence of fifteen poems about his house in Austria, \"Thanksgiving for a Habitat\" (written in various styles that included an imitation ofWilliam Carlos Williams) appeared inAbout the House(1965), together with other poems that included",
"poems that included his reflection on his lecture tours, \"On the Circuit\".In the late 1960s he wrote some of his most vigorous poems, including \"River Profile\" and two poems that looked back over his life, \"Prologue at Sixty\" and \"Forty Years On\". All these appeared inCity Without Walls(1969). His lifelong passion for Icelandic legend culminated in his verse translation ofTheElder Edda(1969).Among his later themes was the \"religionless Christianity\" he learned partly fromDietrich Bonhoeffer, the dedicatee of his poem \"Friday's Child\". A Certain World: A Commonplace Book(1970) was a kind of self-portrait made up of favourite quotations with commentary, arranged in alphabetical order by subject.His last prose book was a selection of essays and reviews,Forewords and Afterwords(1973).His last books of verse,Epistle to a Godson(1972) and the unfinishedThank You, Fog(published posthumously, 1974) include reflective poems about language (\"Natural Linguistics\", \"Aubade\"), philosophy and science (\"No, Plato, No\",",
"(\"No, Plato, No\", \"Unpredictable but Providential\"), and his own aging (\"A New Year Greeting\", \"Talking to Myself\", \"A Lullaby\" ). His last completed poem was \"Archaeology\", about ritual and timelessness, two recurring themes in his later years. Reputation and influence Auden's stature in modern literature has been contested. Probably the most common critical view from the 1930s onward ranked him as the last and least of the three major twentieth-century poets of the UK or Ireland—behind Yeats and Eliot—while a minority view, more prominent in recent years, ranks him as the highest of the three.Opinions have ranged from those ofHugh MacDiarmid, who called him \"a complete wash-out\";F. R. Leavis, who wrote that Auden's ironic style was \"self-defensive, self-indulgent or merely irresponsible\";andHarold Bloom, who wrote \"Close thy Auden, open thy Stevens,\"to the obituarist inThe Times, who wrote: \"W.H. Auden, for long theenfant terribleof English poetry... emerges as its undisputed master.\"Joseph Brodskywrote",
"Brodskywrote that Auden had \"the greatest mind of the twentieth century\". Critical estimates were divided from the start. Reviewing Auden's first book,Poems(1930),Naomi Mitchisonwrote \"If this is really only the beginning, we have perhaps a master to look forward to.\"ButJohn Sparrow, recalling Mitchison's comment in 1934, dismissed Auden's early work as \"a monument to the misguided aims that prevail among contemporary poets, and the fact that... he is being hailed as 'a master' shows how criticism is helping poetry on the downward path.\" Auden's clipped, satiric, and ironic style in the 1930s was widely imitated by younger poets such asCharles Madge, who wrote in a poem \"there waited for me in the summer morning / Auden fiercely. I read, shuddered, and knew.\"He was widely described as the leader of an \"Auden group\" that comprised his friendsStephen Spender,Cecil Day-Lewis, andLouis MacNeice.The four were mocked by the poetRoy Campbellas if they were a single undifferentiated poet named \"Macspaunday.\"Auden's",
"propagandistic poetic plays, includingThe Dog Beneath the SkinandThe Ascent of F6, and his political poems such as \"Spain\" gave him the reputation as a political poet writing in a progressive and accessible voice, in contrast to Eliot; but this political stance provoked opposing opinions, such as that ofAustin Clarkewho called Auden's work \"liberal, democratic, and humane\",and John Drummond, who wrote that Auden misused a \"characteristic and popularizing trick, the generalized image\", to present ostensibly left-wing views that were in fact \"confined to bourgeois experience.\" Auden's departure for America in 1939 was debated in Britain (once even in Parliament), with some seeing his emigration as a betrayal. Defenders of Auden such asGeoffrey Grigson, in an introduction to a 1949 anthology of modern poetry, wrote that Auden \"arches over all\". His stature was suggested by book titles such asAuden and AfterbyFrancis Scarfe(1942) andThe Auden GenerationbySamuel Hynes(1977). In the US, starting in the late 1930s,",
"in the late 1930s, the detached, ironic tone of Auden's regular stanzas became influential;John Ashberyrecalled that in the 1940s Auden \"wasthemodern poet\".Auden's formal influences were so pervasive in American poetry that the ecstatic style of theBeat Generationwas partly a reaction against his influence. From the 1940s through the 1960s, many critics lamented that Auden's work had declined from its earlier promise;Randall Jarrellwrote a series of essays making a case against Auden's later work,andPhilip Larkin's \"What's Become of Wystan?\" (1960) had a wide impact. The first full-length study of Auden wasRichard Hoggart'sAuden: An Introductory Essay(1951), which concluded that \"Auden's work, then, is a civilising force.\"It was followed byJoseph Warren Beach'sThe Making of the Auden Canon(1957), a disapproving account of Auden's revisions of his earlier work.The first systematic critical account was Monroe K. Spears'The Poetry of W. H. Auden: The Disenchanted Island(1963), \"written out of the conviction",
"of the conviction that Auden's poetry can offer the reader entertainment, instruction, intellectual excitement, and a prodigal variety of aesthetic pleasures, all in a generous abundance that is unique in our time.\" Auden was one of three candidates recommended by the Nobel Committee to the Swedish Academy for theNobel Prize in Literaturein 1963and 1965and six recommended for the 1964 prize.By the time of his death in 1973 he had attained the status of a respected elder statesman, and a memorial stone for him was placed inPoets' CornerinWestminster Abbeyin 1974.TheEncyclopædia Britannicawrites that \"by the time of Eliot's death in 1965... a convincing case could be made for the assertion that Auden was indeed Eliot's successor, as Eliot had inherited sole claim to supremacy whenYeatsdied in 1939.\"With some exceptions, British critics tended to treat his early work as his best, while American critics tended to favour his middle and later work. Another group of critics and poets has maintained that unlike",
"that unlike other modern poets, Auden's reputation did not decline after his death, and the influence of his later writing was especially strong on younger American poets includingJohn Ashbery,James Merrill,Anthony Hecht, andMaxine Kumin.Typical later evaluations describe him as \"arguably the century's greatest poet\" (Peter Parker and Frank Kermode),who \"now clearly seems the greatest poet in English since Tennyson\" (Philip Hensher). Public recognition of Auden's work sharply increased after his \"Funeral Blues\" (\"Stop all the clocks\") was read aloud in the filmFour Weddings and a Funeral(1994); subsequently, a pamphlet edition of ten of his poems,Tell Me the Truth About Love, sold more than 275,000 copies. An excerpt from his poem \"As I walked out one evening\" was recited in the filmBefore Sunrise(1995).After 11 September 2001, his 1939 poem \"September 1, 1939\" was widely circulated and frequently broadcast.Public readings and broadcast tributes in the UK and US in 2007 marked his centenary year. Overall",
"year. Overall Auden's poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety in tone, form and content. Memorial stones and plaques commemorating Auden include those inWestminster Abbey; at his birthplace at 55 Bootham, York;near his home on Lordswood Road, Birmingham;in the chapel of Christ Church, Oxford; on the site of his apartment at 1 Montague Terrace, Brooklyn Heights; at his apartment in 77 St. Marks Place, New York (damaged and now removed);at the site of his death at Walfischgasse 5 in Vienna;and in theRainbow Honor Walkin San Francisco.In his house in Kirchstetten, his study is open to the public upon request. In 2023, newly declassified UK government files revealed that Auden was considered as a candidate to be the newPoet Laureate of the United Kingdomin 1967 following the death ofJohn Masefield. He was rejected due to having taken American citizenship. Published works The following list includes only the books of",
"only the books of poems and essays that Auden prepared during his lifetime; for a more complete list, including other works and posthumous editions, seeW. H. Auden bibliography. Dates refer to first publication or first performance, not of composition. In the list below, works reprinted in theComplete Works of W. H. Audenare indicated by footnote references. References Citations General and cited sources Further reading External links"
] |
If Mr. Rogers were still alive, how old would he have been when the movie "A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood", featuring Tom Hanks came out in the U.S.? | Fred McFeely Rogers would have been 91 years old when "A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood" was released in the U.S. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Rogers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Beautiful_Day_in_the_Neighborhood | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Rogers', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Beautiful_Day_in_the_Neighborhood'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Rogers",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Beautiful_Day_in_the_Neighborhood"
] | [
"Fred Rogers Fred McFeely Rogers(March 20, 1928 – February 27, 2003), better known asMister Rogers, was an American television host, author, producer, andPresbyterianminister.He was the creator, showrunner, and host of the preschool television seriesMister Rogers' Neighborhood, which ran from 1968 to 2001. Born inLatrobe, Pennsylvania, Rogers earned a bachelor's degree in music fromRollins Collegein 1951. He began his television career atNBCin New York City, returning to Pittsburgh in 1953 to work for children's programming at NET (laterPBS) television stationWQED. He graduated fromPittsburgh Theological Seminarywith a bachelor's degree in divinity in 1962 and became a Presbyterian minister in 1963. He attended theUniversity of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Child Development, where he began his thirty-year collaboration with child psychologistMargaret McFarland. He also helped develop the children's showsThe Children's Corner(1955) for WQED in Pittsburgh andMisterogers(1963) in Canada for theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation. In 1968, he returned to Pittsburgh and adapted the format of his Canadian series to createMister Rogers' Neighborhood.It ran for 33 years and was critically acclaimed for focusing on children's emotional and physical concerns, such as death, sibling rivalry, school enrollment, and divorce. Rogers died ofstomach cancerin 2003, aged 74. His work in children's television has been widely lauded, and he received more than forty honorary degrees and several awards, including aLifetime Achievement Emmyin 1997 and thePresidential Medal of Freedomin 2002. He was inducted into theTelevision Hall of Famein 1999. Rogers influenced many writers and producers of children's television shows, and his broadcasts provided comfort during tragic events, even after his death. Early life Rogers was born in 1928, at 705 Main Street inLatrobe, Pennsylvania.His father, James Hillis Rogers, was \"a very successful businessman\"who was president of the McFeely Brick Company, one of Latrobe's most prominent businesses. His mother, Nancy (née McFeely), knitted sweaters for American soldiers from western Pennsylvania who were fighting in Europe and regularly volunteered at the Latrobe Hospital. Initially dreaming of becoming a doctor, she settled for a life of hospital volunteer work. Her father, Fred Brooks McFeely, after whom Rogers was named, was an entrepreneur. Rogers grew up in a large three-story brick house at 737 Weldon Street in Latrobe.He had a sister, Elaine, whom the Rogerses adopted when he was eleven years old.Rogers spent much of his childhood alone, playing with puppets, and also spent time with his grandfather. He began playing the piano when he was five.Through an ancestor who immigrated from Germany to the U.S., Johannes Meffert (born 1732), Rogers is the sixth cousin of actorTom Hanks, who portrays him in the filmA Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood(2019). Rogers had a difficult childhood. Shy, introverted, and overweight, he was frequently homebound after suffering bouts ofasthma.He was bullied as a child for his weight and called \"Fat Freddy\".According toMorgan Neville, director of the 2018 documentaryWon't You Be My Neighbor?, Rogers had a \"lonely childhood... I think he made friends with himself as much as he could. He had aventriloquist dummy, he had animals, and he would create his own worlds in his childhood bedroom\". Rogers attendedLatrobe High School, where he overcame his shyness.\"It was tough for me at the beginning,\" Rogers told NPR'sTerry Grossin 1984, \"and then I made a couple friends who found out that the core of me was okay. And one of them was... the head of the football team\".Rogers became president of the student council, a member of theNational Honor Society, and editor-in-chief of the schoolyearbook.He registered for the draft inGreensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1948 at age 20, where he was classified 1-A (available for military service);however, his status was changed to unqualified for military service following an Armed Forces physical on October 12, 1950.He attendedDartmouth Collegefor one year before transferring toRollins College,where he graduatedmagna cum laudein 1951 with aBachelor of Music. He then attendedPittsburgh Theological Seminary, from which he graduatedmagna cum laudein 1962 with aBachelor of Divinity, and was ordained a Presbyterian minister by the Pittsburgh Presbytery of theUnited Presbyterian Churchin 1963.His work as an ordained minister, rather than to pastor a church, was to minister to children and their families through television. He regularly appeared before church officials to maintain his ordination. Career Early work Rogers wanted to enterseminaryafter college,but instead chose to go into the nascent medium of television after experiencing TV at his parents' home in 1951, during his senior year at Rollins College.In aCNNinterview, he said, \"I went into television because I hated it so, and I thought there's some way of using this fabulous instrument to nurture those who would watch and listen\".After graduating in 1951, he worked atNBCin New York City as floor director ofYour Hit Parade,The Kate Smith Hour, andGabby Hayes's children's show, and as an assistant producer ofThe Voice of Firestone. In 1953, Rogers returned to Pittsburgh to work as a program developer atpublic televisionstationWQED.Josie Careyworked with him to develop the children's showThe Children's Corner, which Carey hosted. Rogers worked off-camera to develop puppets, characters, and music for the show. He used many puppet characters developed during this time, such as Daniel the Striped Tiger (named after WQED's station manager, Dorothy Daniel, who gave Rogers a tiger puppet before the show's premiere),King Friday XIII, Queen Sara Saturday (named after Rogers' wife),X the Owl, Henrietta, and Lady Elaine, in his later work.Children's television entertainerErnie Coombswas an assistant puppeteer.The Children's Cornerwon aSylvania Awardfor best locally produced children's programming in 1955 and was broadcast nationally on NBC.While working on the show, Rogers attended Pittsburgh Theological Seminary and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1963. He also attended theUniversity of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Child Development,where he began working with child psychologistMargaret McFarland—who, according to Rogers' biographer Maxwell King, became his \"key advisor and collaborator\" and \"child-education guru\".Much of Rogers' \"thinking about and appreciation for children was shaped and informed\" by McFarland.She was his consultant for most ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood's scripts and songs for 30 years. In 1963, theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation(CBC) in Toronto contracted Rogers to come to Toronto to develop and host the 15-minute black-and-white children's programMisterogers;it lasted from 1963 to 1967.It was the first time Rogers appeared on camera. CBC's children's programming head Fred Rainsberry insisted on it, telling Rogers, \"Fred, I've seen you talk with kids. Let's put you yourself on the air\".Coombs joined Rogers in Toronto as an assistant puppeteer.Rogers also worked with Coombs on the children's showButternut Squarefrom 1964 to 1967. Rogers acquired the rights toMisterogersin 1967 and returned to Pittsburgh with his wife, two young sons, and the sets he developed, despite a potentially promising career with CBC and no job prospects in Pittsburgh.On Rogers' recommendation, Coombs remained in Toronto and became Rogers' Canadian equivalent of an iconic television personality, creating the children's programMr. Dressup, which ran from 1967 to 1996.Rogers' work for CBC \"helped shape and develop the concept and style of his later program for the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) in the U.S.\" Mister Rogers' Neighborhood Mister Rogers' Neighborhood(also called theNeighborhood), a half-hour educational children's program starring Rogers, began airing nationally in 1968 and ran for 895 episodes.It was videotaped at WQED in Pittsburgh and broadcast byNational Educational Television(NET), which later became thePublic Broadcasting Service(PBS).Its first season had 180 black-and-white episodes. Each subsequent season, filmed in color and funded by PBS, theSears-RoebuckFoundation, and other charities, consisted of 65 episodes.By the time it ended production in December 2000, its average rating was about 0.7% of television households or 680,000 homes, and it aired on 384 PBS stations. At its peak in 1985–1986, its ratings were 2.1%, or 1.8 million homes.The last original episode aired in 2001, but PBS continued to air reruns, and by 2016 it was the third-longest-running program in PBS history. Many of the sets and props inMister Rogers' Neighborhood, like the trolley, the sneakers, and the castle, were created for Rogers' show in Toronto by CBC designers and producers. The program also \"incorporated most of the highly imaginative elements that later became famous\",such as its slow pace and its host's quiet manner.The format ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood\"remained virtually unchanged\" for the entire run of the program.Every episode begins with a camera's-eye view of a model of a neighborhood, then panning in closer to a representation of a house while a piano instrumental of the theme song, \"Won't You be My Neighbor?\", performed by music directorJohnny Costaand inspired by a Beethoven sonata, is played.The camera zooms in to a model representing Mr. Rogers' house, then cuts to the house's interior and pans across the room to the front door, which Rogers opens as he sings the theme song to greet his visitors while changing his suit jacket to a cardigan (knitted by his mother)and his dress shoes to sneakers, \"complete with a shoe tossed from one hand to another\".The episode's theme is introduced, and Mr. Rogers leaves his home to visit another location, the camera panning back to the neighborhood model and zooming in to the new location as he enters it. Once this segment ends, Mr. Rogers leaves and returns to his home, indicating that it is time to visit the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Mr. Rogers proceeds to the window seat by the trolley track and sets up the action there as the Trolley comes out. The camera follows it down a tunnel in the back wall of the house as it enters the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. The stories and lessons take place over a week's worth of episodes and involve puppets and human characters. The end of the visit occurs when the Trolley returns to the same tunnel from which it emerged, reappearing in Mr. Rogers' home. He then talks to the viewers before concluding the episode. He often feeds his fish, cleans up any props he has used, and returns to the front room, where he sings the closing song while changing back into his dress shoes and jacket. He exits the front door as he ends the song, and the camera zooms out of his home and pans across the neighborhood model as the episode ends. Mister Rogers' Neighborhoodemphasized young children's social and emotional needs, and unlike another PBS show,Sesame Street, which premiered in 1969, did not focus on cognitive learning.Writer Kathy Merlock Jackson said, \"While both shows target the same preschool audience and prepare children for kindergarten,Sesame Streetconcentrates on school-readiness skills whileMister Rogers Neighborhoodfocuses on the child's developing psyche and feelings and sense of moral and ethical reasoning\".TheNeighborhoodalso spent fewer resources on research thanSesame Street, but Rogers used early childhood education concepts taught by his mentor Margaret McFarland,Benjamin Spock,Erik Erikson, andT. Berry Brazeltonin his lessons.AsThe Washington Postnoted, Rogers taught young children about civility, tolerance, sharing, and self-worth \"in a reassuring tone and leisurely cadence\".He tackled difficult topics such as the death of a family pet, sibling rivalry, the addition of a newborn into a family, moving and enrolling in a new school, and divorce.For example, he wrote a special segment that dealt with theassassination of Robert F. Kennedythat aired on June 7, 1968, two days after the assassination occurred. According to King, the process of putting each episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodtogether was \"painstaking\"and Rogers' contribution to the program was \"astounding\". Rogers wrote and edited all the episodes, played the piano and sang for most of the songs, wrote 200 songs and 13 operas, created all the characters (both puppet and human), played most of the significant puppet roles, hosted every episode, and produced and approved every detail of the program.The puppets created for the Neighborhood of Make-Believe \"included an extraordinary variety of personalities\".They were simple puppets but \"complex, complicated, and utterly honest beings\".In 1971, Rogers formed Family Communications, Inc. (FCI, nowThe Fred Rogers Company), to produce theNeighborhood, other programs, and non-broadcast materials. In 1975, Rogers stopped producingMr. Rogers' Neighborhoodto focus on adult programming. Reruns of theNeighborhoodcontinued to air on PBS.King reports that the decision caught many of his coworkers and supporters \"off guard\".Rogers continued to confer with McFarland about child development and early childhood education, however.In 1979, after an almost five-year hiatus, Rogers returned to producing theNeighborhood; King calls the new version \"stronger and more sophisticated than ever\".King writes that by the program's second run in the 1980s, it was \"such a cultural touchstone that it had inspired numerous parodies\",most notablyEddie Murphy's parody onSaturday Night Livein the early 1980s. Rogers retired from producing theNeighborhoodin 2001 at age 73, although reruns continued to air. He and FCI had been making about two or three weeks of new programs per year for many years, \"filling the rest of his time slots from a library of about 300 shows made since 1979\".The final original episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodaired on August 31, 2001. Other work and appearances In 1969, Rogers testified before theU.S. SenateSubcommittee on Communications, which was chaired by Democratic SenatorJohn Pastoreof Rhode Island. U.S. PresidentLyndon Johnsonhad proposed a $20 million bill for the creation of PBS before he left office, but his successor,Richard Nixon, wanted to cut the funding to $10 million.Even though Rogers was not yet nationally known, he was chosen to testify because of his ability to make persuasive arguments and to connect emotionally with his audience. The clip of Rogers' testimony, which was televised and has since been viewed by millions of people on the internet, helped to secure funding for PBS for many years afterward.According to King, Rogers' testimony was \"considered one of the most powerful pieces of testimony ever offered before Congress, and one of the most powerful pieces of video presentation ever filmed\".It brought Pastore to tears and also, according to King, has been studied by public relations experts and academics.Congressional funding for PBS increased from $9 million to $22 million.In 1970, Nixon appointed Rogers as chair of theWhite House Conference on Children and Youth. In 1978, while on hiatus fromMister Rogers' Neighborhood, Rogers wrote, produced, and hosted a 30-minute interview program for adults on PBS calledOld Friends... New Friends.It lasted 20 episodes. Rogers' guests includedHoagy Carmichael,Helen Hayes,Milton Berle,Lorin Hollander, poetRobert Frost's daughter Lesley, andWillie Stargell. In September 1987, Rogers visited Moscow to appear as the first guest on the long-running Soviet children's TV showGood Night, Little Ones!with hostTatyana Vedeneyeva.The appearance was broadcast in the Soviet Union on December 7, coinciding with theWashington Summitmeeting between Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachevand U.S. PresidentRonald Reaganin Washington, D.C.Vedeneyeva visited the set ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin November. Her visit was taped and later aired in March 1988 as part of Rogers' program.In 1994, Rogers wrote, produced, and hosted a special for PBS calledFred Rogers' Heroes, which featured interviews and portraits of four people from across the country who were having a positive impact on children and education.The first time Rogers appeared on television as an actor, and not himself, was in a 1996 episode ofDr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, playing a preacher. Rogers gave \"scores of interviews\".Though reluctant to appear on television talk shows, he would usually \"charm the host with his quick wit and ability to ad-lib on a moment's notice\".Rogers was \"one of the country's most sought-after commencement speakers\",making over 150 speeches.His friend and colleague David Newell reported that Rogers would \"agonize over a speech\",and King reported that Rogers was at his least guarded during his speeches, which were about children, television, education, his view of the world, how to make the world a better place, and his quest for self-knowledge. His tone was quiet and informal but \"commanded attention\".In many speeches, including the ones he made accepting aLifetime Achievement Emmyin 1997,for his induction into the Television Hall of Fame in 1999,and his final commencement speech at Dartmouth College in 2002, he instructed his audiences to remain silent and think for a moment about someone who had a good influence on them. Personal life Rogers metSara Joanne Byrd(called \"Joanne\") fromJacksonville, Florida, while attending Rollins College. They were married from 1952 until he died in 2003. They had two sons, James and John.Joanne Rogerswas \"an accomplished pianist\"who, like Fred, earned a Bachelor of Music from Rollins, and went on to earn a Master of Music fromFlorida State University. She performed publicly with her college classmate, Jeannine Morrison, from 1976 to 2008.According to biographer Maxwell King, Rogers' close associates said he was \"absolutely faithful to his marriage vows\". Rogers was red-greencolor-blind.He became apescatarianin 1970, after the death of his father, and a vegetarian in the early 1980s,saying he \"couldn't eat anything that had a mother\".He became a co-owner ofVegetarian Timesin the mid-1980sand said in one issue, \"I love tofu burgers and beets\".He toldVegetarian Timesthat he became a vegetarian for both ethical and health reasons.According to his biographer Maxwell King, Rogers also signed his name to a statementprotesting wearing animal furs. Rogers was a registeredRepublican, but according to Joanne Rogers, he was \"very independent in the way he voted\", choosing not to talk about politics because he wanted to be impartial. Rogers was aPresbyterian, and many of the messages he expressed inMister Rogers' Neighborhoodwere inspired by the core tenets of Christianity. Rogers rarely spoke about his faith on air; he believed that teaching through example was as powerful as preaching. He said, \"You don't need to speak overtly about religion in order to get a message across\". According to writer Shea Tuttle, Rogers considered his faith a fundamental part of his personality and \"called the space between the viewer and the television set 'holy ground'\". He also studiedCatholic mysticism,Judaism,Buddhism, and other faiths and cultures.King called him \"that unique television star with a real spiritual life\",emphasizing the values of patience, reflection, and \"silence in a noisy world\". King reported that despite Rogers' family's wealth, he cared little about making money, and lived frugally, especially as he and his wife grew older.King reported that Rogers' relationship with his young audience was important to him. For example, since hostingMisterogersin Canada, he answered every letter sent to him by hand. AfterMister Rogers' Neighborhoodbegan airing in the U.S., the letters increased in volume, and he hired staff member and producer Hedda Sharapan to answer them, but he read, edited, and signed each one. King wrote that Rogers saw responding to his viewers' letters as \"a pastoral duty of sorts\". The New York Timescalled Rogers \"a dedicated lap-swimmer\",andTom Junod, author of \"Can You Say... Hero?\", the 1998Esquireprofile of Rogers, said, \"Nearly every morning of his life, Mister Rogers has gone swimming\".Rogers began swimming when he was a child at his family's vacation home outside Latrobe, where they owned a pool, and during their winter trips to Florida. King wrote that swimming and playing the piano were \"lifelong passions\" and that \"both gave him a chance to feel capable and in charge of his destiny\",and that swimming became \"an important part of the strong sense of self-discipline he cultivated\". Rogers swam daily at thePittsburgh Athletic Association, after waking every morning between 4:30 and 5:30 A.M. to pray and to \"read the Bible and prepare himself for the day\".He did not smoke or drink.According to Junod, he did nothing to change his weight from the 143 pounds (65 kg) he weighed for most of his adult life; by 1998, this also included napping daily, going to bed at 9:30 P.M., and sleeping eight hours per night without interruption. Junod said Rogers saw his weight \"as a destiny fulfilled\", telling Junod, \"the number 143 means 'I love you.' It takes one letter to say 'I' and four letters to say 'love' and three letters to say 'you'\". Sexuality According to biographer Michael Long in a 2016HuffPostessay, Rogers' sexuality had long been a topic of curiosity due to his lack of traditional machismo.The 2018 documentaryWon't You Be My Neighbor?briefly addresses the subject, including an interview withFrançois Clemmons, the gay actor who played Officer Clemmons onMister Rogers' Neighborhood, who denied that Rogers was gay, saying that if he had a \"gay vibe\" he would have noticed it. In 2019, social media users shared an excerpt from the 2018 biographyThe Good Neighbor: The Life and Work of Fred Rogers, which recounts Rogers telling openly gay friend Dr. William Hirsch that he \"must be right smack in the middle\" of a one-to-ten sexuality scale, because \"I have found women attractive, and I have found men attractive.\"This led some social media users to suggest that Rogers may have beenbisexual,although Long noted in his essay that there is no evidence that Rogers ever had sexual relations with men. Death and memorials After Rogers' retirement in 2001, he remained busy working with FCI, studying religion and spirituality, making public appearances, traveling, and working on a children's media center named after him atSaint Vincent Collegein Latrobe with ArchabbotDouglas Nowicki, chancellor of the college.By the summer of 2002, his chronic stomach pain became severe enough for him to see a doctor about it, and in October 2002, he was diagnosed with stomach cancer.He delayed treatment until after he served as Grand Marshal of the 2003Rose Parade, withArt LinkletterandBill Cosby, in January.On January 6, Rogers underwent stomach surgery. He died less than two months later, on February 27, 2003, less than a month short of his 75th birthdayat his home in Pittsburgh, with his wife of 50 years, Joanne, at his side. While comatose shortly before his death, he received thelast rites of the Catholic ChurchfromArchabbotNowicki. The following day, thePittsburgh Post-Gazettecovered Rogers' death on the front page and dedicated an entire section to his death and impact.The newspaper also reported that by noon, the internet \"was already full of appreciative pieces\" by parents, viewers, producers, and writers.Rogers' death was widely lamented. Most U.S. metropolitan newspapers ran his obituary on their front page and some dedicated entire sections to coverage of his death.WQED aired programs about Rogers the evening he died; thePost-Gazettereported that the ratings for their coverage were three times higher than their normal ratings.That same evening,NightlineonABCbroadcast a rerun of a recent interview with Rogers; the program got the highest ratings of the day, beating the February average ratings ofLate Show with David LettermanandThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno.On March 4, theU.S. House of Representativesunanimously passed a resolution honoring Rogers sponsored by RepresentativeMike Doylefrom Pennsylvania. On March 1, 2003, a private funeral was held for Rogers in Unity Chapel, which was restored by Rogers' father, at Unity Cemetery in Latrobe. About 80 relatives, co-workers, and close friends attended the service, which \"was planned in great secrecy so that those closest to him could grieve in private\".Reverend John McCall, pastor of the Rogers family's church, Sixth Presbyterian Church inSquirrel Hill, gave thehomily; Reverend William Barker, a retired Presbyterian minister who was a \"close friend of Mr. Rogers and the voice of Mr. Platypus on his show\",read Rogers' favorite Bible passages. Rogers was interred at Unity Cemetery in his hometown of Latrobe, Pennsylvania, in amausoleumowned by his mother's family. On May 3, 2003, a public memorial was held atHeinz Hallin Pittsburgh. According to thePost-Gazette, 2,700 people attended. ViolinistItzhak Perlman, cellistYo-Yo Ma(via video), and organistAlan Morrisonperformed in honor of Rogers. Barker officiated the service; also in attendance were Pittsburgh philanthropistElsie Hillman, formerGood Morning AmericahostDavid Hartman,The Very Hungry CaterpillarauthorEric Carle, andArthurcreatorMarc Brown. Businesswoman and philanthropistTeresa Heinz, PBS PresidentPat Mitchell, and executive director of The Pittsburgh Project Saleem Ghubril gave remarks.Jeff Erlanger, who at age 10 appeared onMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 1981 to explain his electric wheelchair, also spoke.The memorial was broadcast several times on Pittsburgh television stations and websites throughout the day. Legacy When I was a boy and I would see scary things in the news, my mother would say to me, \"Look for the helpers. You will always find people who are helping.\" To this day, especially in times of \"disaster\", I remember my mother's words and I am always comforted by realizing that there are still so many helpers—so many caring people in this world.—Fred Rogers Whenever a great tragedy strikes—war, famine, mass shootings, or even an outbreak of populist rage—millions of people turn to Fred's messages about life. Then the web is filled with his words and images. With fascinating frequency, his written messages and video clips surge across the internet, reaching hundreds of thousands of people who, confronted with a tough issue or ominous development, open themselves to Rogers' messages of quiet contemplation, of simplicity, of active listening and the practice of human kindness.—Rogers biographer Maxwell King Marc Brown, creator of another PBS children's show,Arthur, considered Rogers both a friend and \"a terrific role model for how to use television and the media to be helpful to kids and families\".Josh Selig, creator ofWonder Pets, credits Rogers with influencing his use of structure and predictability, and his use of music, opera, and originality. Rogers inspiredAngela Santomero, co-creator of the children's television showBlue's Clues, to earn a degree in developmental psychology and go into educational television.She and the other producers ofBlue's Cluesused many of Rogers' techniques, such as using child developmental and educational research and having the host speak directly to the camera and transition to a make-believe world.In 2006, three years after Rogers' death and the end of production ofBlue's Clues, the Fred Rogers Company contacted Santomero to create a show that would promote Rogers' legacy.In 2012,Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood, with characters from and based uponMister Rogers' Neighborhood, premiered on PBS. Rogers' style and approach to children's television and early childhood education also \"begged to be parodied\".Comedian Eddie Murphy parodiedMister Rogers' NeighborhoodonSaturday Night Liveduring the 1980s.Rogers told interviewerDavid Lettermanin 1982 that he believed parodies like Murphy's were done \"with kindness in their hearts\". Video of Rogers' 1969 testimony in defense of public programming has experienced a resurgence since 2012, goingviralat least twice. It first resurfaced after then presidential candidateMitt Romneysuggested cutting funding for PBS.In 2017, video of the testimony again went viral after PresidentDonald Trumpproposed defunding several arts-related government programs including PBS and theNational Endowment for the Arts. A roadside Pennsylvania Historical Marker dedicated to Rogers to be installed in Latrobe was approvedby the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission on March 4, 2014.It was installed on June 11, 2016, with the title \"Fred McFeely Rogers (1928–2003)\". Won't You Be My Neighbor?director Morgan Neville's 2018 documentary about Rogers' life, grossed over $22 million and became the top-grossing biographical documentary ever produced, the highest-grossing documentary in five years, and the twelfth-largest-grossing documentary ever made.The 2019 drama filmA Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodtells the story of Rogers and his television series, with Tom Hanks portraying Rogers. According to Caitlin Gibson ofThe Washington Post, Rogers became a source for parenting advice; she called him \"a timeless oracle against a backdrop of ever-shifting parenting philosophies and cultural trends\".Robert Thompson ofSyracuse Universitynoted that Rogers \"took American childhood—and I think Americans in general—through some very turbulent and trying times\",from theVietnam Warand the assassination of Robert Kennedy in 1968 to the9/11 attacks in 2001. According to Asia Simone Burns ofNational Public Radio, in the years following the end of production onMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 2001 and his death in 2003, Rogers became \"a source of comfort, sometimes in the wake of tragedy\".Burns has said Rogers' words of comfort \"began circulating on social media\"following tragedies such as theSandy Hook Elementary School shootingin 2012, theManchester Arena bombingin Manchester, England, in 2017, and theStoneman Douglas High School shootingin Parkland, Florida, in 2018. Awards and honors Museum exhibits Art pieces Several pieces of art are dedicated to Rogers throughout Pittsburgh, including an eleven-foot (3.4 m) tall, 7,000-pound (3,200 kg) bronze statue of him in the North Shore neighborhood. In theOaklandneighborhood, his portrait is included in theMartin Luther King Jr.and \"Interpretations of Oakland\" murals. A dinosaur statue titled \"Fredasaurus Rex Friday XIII\" originally stood in front of the WQED building and, as of 2014, stood in front of the building containing the Fred Rogers Company offices. There is a \"Mister Rogers' Neighborhood of Make-Believe\" inIdlewild Parkand a kiosk ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodartifacts atPittsburgh International Airport.The Carnegie Science Center's Miniature Railroad and Village debuted a miniature recreation of Rogers' house fromMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 2005.In Rogers' hometown of Latrobe, a statue of Rogers on a bench is situated in James H. Rogers Park—a park named for Rogers' father.In 2021,A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood—a seven-foot (2.1 m) tall, 3,000-pound (1,400 kg) bronze statue byPaul Day—was dedicated at Rollins College. The memorial depicts Rogers and Daniel Tiger speaking with a group of children and features lyrics fromMister Rogers' Neighborhood'stheme on the base. Honorary degrees Rogers has received honorary degrees from over 43 colleges and universities. After 1973, two commemorative quilts, created by two of Rogers' friends and archived at the Fred Rogers Center at St. Vincent College in Latrobe, were made out of the academic hoods he received during the graduation ceremonies. Note: Much of the below list is taken from \"Honorary Degrees Awarded to Fred Rogers\",unless otherwise stated. Filmography Television Published works Children's books Songbooks Books for adults Discography See also Notes References Works cited External links",
"A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodis a 2019 Americanbiographicaldrama filmon the TV presenterFred Rogers, directed byMarielle Hellerand written byMicah Fitzerman-BlueandNoah Harpster, inspired by the 1998 article \"Can You Say... Hero?\" byTom Junod, published inEsquire. It starsTom Hanks,Matthew Rhys,Susan Kelechi Watson, andChris Cooper. It depicts Lloyd Vogel (Rhys), a troubled journalist forEsquirewho is assigned to profile television icon Fred Rogers (Hanks). The film premiered at theToronto International Film Festivalon September 7, 2019, and was theatrically released in the United States on November 22, 2019, bySony Pictures Releasing. It grossed $68 million worldwide. Critics praised Hanks and Rhys's performances, Heller's direction, and its heart-warming messages. It was chosen byTimemagazineas one of the ten best films of the year.For his performance, Hanks was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at theAcademy Awards, as well as theGolden Globes,Critics' Choice,Screen Actors Guild Awards, andBAFTA Awards, among others. Plot In 1998, at the beginning of an episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood,Mr. Rogersdisplays a picture board with five doors. Three of the doors are opened to reveal the familiar faces ofLady Aberlin,King Friday, andMr. McFeely. The fourth door is opened to reveal the face of Mr. Rogers' troubled new friend, Lloyd Vogel, who has a black eye and a cut near his nose. Mr. Rogers explains that Lloyd has been hurt (and not necessarily on his face), and he is struggling to forgive the one who hurt him. After explaining what forgiveness means, Mr. Rogers leaves to visit Lloyd. Lloyd Vogel is anEsquirejournalist known for his cynical writing. He is nervous to attend his sister Lorraine's third wedding because his estranged father, Jerry, against whom he has long held a grudge, is also attending. However, he attends with his wife Andrea and their newborn son, Gavin. During the reception, Lloyd is approached by Jerry, who notes his son’s new family. When Jerry makes a joke about Lloyd's deceased mother Lila -- whom he cheated on and abandoned when she was dying of cancer twenty years earlier -- this enrages Lloyd into punching his father and starting a chaotic brawl, in which he is punched against the wall by another guest, explaining the scar on his face. Lloyd's editor, Ellen, assigns him to interview children's television presenter Fred Rogers for a 400-word article about heroes. Lloyd feels that the assignment is beneath him, but is informed that none of the other heroes were willing to talk to him. Still cynical, Lloyd questions whether Mister Rogers is \"for real\". Lloyd travels to theWQEDstudio inPittsburghto interview him. Rogers is dismissive of his fame and displays concern for Lloyd's nose injury. With coaxing, he relates some of the issues with his father, whose apology and attempt at reconciliation Lloyd has rebuffed. Rogers tells him his ways of dealing with anger, including striking the keys of a piano. Determined to expose Rogers' friendly persona as an act, Lloyd watches several episodes of Rogers' show, but cannot discern anything. Interviewing Rogers again when he visits New York, seemingly dodging Lloyd's questions, he reminisces about raising his two sons. Fred takes out his puppets and asks Lloyd about his childhood rabbit stuffed animal and his father, provoking Lloyd into ending the interview. Lloyd arrives home to find Jerry and his wife Dorothy having brought pizza while talking with Andrea. They have a tense argument over Jerry’s absence during Lila’s cancer progression and his self-development since. As Lloyd relates how his mother suffered hysterically in her last moments with only him and his sister present, Jerry suffers a heart attack and is transported to the hospital. Faced with his resurgent trauma at staying overnight at the hospital for Jerry, Lloyd decides to go to Pittsburgh to see Rogers for counsel under the guise of work against Andrea’s protests. Exhausted on arriving, he envisions himself as Rogers’ guest, being asked about hospitals. Next, he finds himself wearing rabbit ears and shrunken to the size ofDaniel Striped TigerandKing Friday XIII, while Rogers and Andrea (as Lady Aberlin) tower over him. Finally, Lloyd also dreams about Lila, who gently recognizes his anger being for her memory, but assures him that she doesn’t need it. Lloyd awakens to find he collapsed on set. Rogers and his wife, Joanne, bring Lloyd to their home to recuperate. The men later go to a restaurant, where Rogers asks Lloyd to spend one minute thinking about the people who \"loved him into being\", and encourages him to forgive Jerry. Lloyd apologizes to Andrea for leaving her and Gavin at the hospital and visits Jerry and Dorothy at their home. He learns Jerry is dying of cardiacstenosis, and that is why Jerry attempted to reconnect with Lloyd. Lloyd forgives him, promises to be a better father, and writes an article about Rogers' impact on his life. Dorothy tells Lloyd that Jerry had never mentioned his previous marriage or children until recently, after he became ill. Lorraine, her husband Todd, and Rogers visit Jerry. Rogers asks Jerry to pray for him before he departs. Jerry dies shortly after Rogers' visit and Lloyd's 10,000-word article, \"Can You Say... Hero?\" is published asEsquire's cover story. At his studio, Rogers finishes the episode he was earlier working on, opening the fifth and final door on his picture board, revealing a picture of Lloyd happily reunited with his family. As the production ends, Mr. Rogers plays the piano alone, stops, strikes the keys in frustration, and resumes playing. Cast Additional cast members includeCarmen Cusackas Margy, a producer ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood;Jessica Hechtas Lila Vogel, Lloyd's late mother and Jerry's ex-wife;Maddie CormanasBetty Aberlin, an actress starring as Lady Aberlin onMister Rogers' Neighborhood; Daniel Krell as Mr. McFeely; and Jordan, Naomi, and Zoey Harsh as Gavin Vogel, Lloyd's son. Notable cameos in the film include Rogers' wife Joanne, Mr. McFeely actorDavid Newell, Family Communications head Bill Isler, andMister Rogers' Neighborhoodproducer Margy Whitmerwho appear as customers in a restaurant that Rogers and Lloyd meet in.Arsenio HallandOprah Winfreymake uncredited appearances in archive footage of talk shows that Lloyd watches in the film, and Fred Rogers appears in archive footage of his show during the ending credits, singing the song \"You've Got to Do It\". Production Development On January 29, 2018, it was announced thatSony'sTriStar Pictureshad bought the worldwide distribution rights to the filmYou Are My Friend, a biographical film based on a 1998Esquiremagazine article about television personalityFred Rogers, who would be played byTom Hanks.The script by Micah Fitzerman-Blue andNoah Harpsterappeared on the 2013Black Listof best unproduced screenplays. It would be directed byMarielle Heller; its producers would beBig Beach'sMarc TurtletaubandPeter Sarafalong with Youree Henley. In July 2018,Matthew Rhyssigned to play journalist Lloyd Vogel, with production set to start in September 2018. Being Welsh, Rhys had never heard of Fred Rogers before he was offered the role.In August 2018,Chris Cooperwas added to play Vogel's father;and in September,Susan Kelechi Watsonwas added.In October 2018,Enrico Colantoni,Maryann Plunkett,Tammy Blanchard,Wendy Makkena,Sakina Jaffrey,Carmen Cusack, Harpster andMaddie Cormanjoined the cast.In 2018, Nate Heller was chosen to score the film. Filming Principal photographybegan on September 10, 2018, inPittsburgh, with several sets converted intoNew York City.Filming also took place in the Fred Rogers Studio atWQED (TV)where the late television host recordedMister Rogers' Neighborhood, and at the Jewish Community Center inSquirrel Hill. The crew consulted with original crew members from Rogers' television series, and brought in the same cameras and monitors used in the original production.The film received tax credits of approximately $9.5 million against a production budget of $45 million for filming in Pittsburgh.Production wrapped on November 9, 2018. On October 12, 2018, sound mixer James Emswillerhad a heart attack and fell from a second-story balcony. He was taken toUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center-Mercy, where he was pronounced dead. Release A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodpremiered at theToronto International Film Festivalon September 7, 2019.It was originally going to be released on October 18, 2019 bySony Pictures Releasing,but in May 2018 was pushed back a month to November 22, 2019.It was released in China on September 18, 2020, after the country reopened theaters followingCOVID-19 pandemic lockdowns. Marketing The film's title was announced on December 27, 2018.The trailer was released on July 22, 2019. Home media The film was released bySony Pictures Home EntertainmentonDigital HDon February 4, 2020, and onUltra HD Blu-ray,Blu-rayandDVDon February 18. Reception Box office A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodgrossed $61.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $6.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $68.4 million, against a production budget of $25 million. In the United States and Canada, it was released alongsideFrozen IIand21 Bridges, and was projected to gross around $15 million from 3,231 theaters in its opening weekend.It made $4.5 million on its first day, including $900,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $13.3 million, finishing third at the box office.It fell just 11% in its second weekend, making $11.8 million and finishing fifth, and remained in fifth place the following weekend with $5.2 million. Critical response On review aggregation websiteRotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 95% based on 372 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"Much like the beloved TV personality that inspired it,A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodoffers a powerfully affecting message about acceptance and understanding.\"OnMetacritic, the film has aweighted averagescore of 80 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film an average grade of \"A\" on an A+ to F scale, while those atPostTrakgave it an average four out of five stars, with 66% saying they would definitely recommend it. Steve Pond ofTheWrapwrote: \"A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodfinds a gentle state of grace and shows the courage and smarts to stay in that zone, never rushing things or playing for drama... But just as Mr. Rogers used his show to talk about big issues with children in a tone that was softer and more halting than you'd expect given the subject matter, so does Heller stick to understatement in a way that threatens to become dull or sappy but never does.\"Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianwrote: \"It's a given that Hanks will nab at least a best supporting actor nomination but it would be all too easy to forget his co-star. The cynic-becomes-a-believer arc is age old but it unfolds here without cliche thanks to an emotionally intelligent script from Noah Harpster and Micah Fitzerman-Blue, but mainly because of a marvelous, prickly turn from Rhys.\" Armond Whiteof theNational Reviewwas more critical: \"Heller and screenwriters Micah Fitzerman-Blue and Noah Harpster don't show enough faith in Rogers' remedies—and not enough interest in their religious origins. In short, the movie seems wary of faith (it briefly mentions that Rogers was an ordained minister) and settles for secular sentimentality to account for his sensibility and behavior. This not only weakens the film, but it also hobbles Hanks's characterization.\" Accolades References External links"
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"Fred Rogers Fred McFeely Rogers(March 20, 1928 – February 27, 2003), better known asMister Rogers, was an American television host, author, producer, andPresbyterianminister.He was the creator, showrunner, and host of the preschool television seriesMister Rogers' Neighborhood, which ran from 1968 to 2001. Born inLatrobe, Pennsylvania, Rogers earned a bachelor's degree in music fromRollins Collegein 1951. He began his television career atNBCin New York City, returning to Pittsburgh in 1953 to work for children's programming at NET (laterPBS) television stationWQED. He graduated fromPittsburgh Theological Seminarywith a bachelor's degree in divinity in 1962 and became a Presbyterian minister in 1963. He attended theUniversity of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Child Development, where he began his thirty-year collaboration with child psychologistMargaret McFarland. He also helped develop the children's showsThe Children's Corner(1955) for WQED in Pittsburgh andMisterogers(1963) in Canada for theCanadian",
"for theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation. In 1968, he returned to Pittsburgh and adapted the format of his Canadian series to createMister Rogers' Neighborhood.It ran for 33 years and was critically acclaimed for focusing on children's emotional and physical concerns, such as death, sibling rivalry, school enrollment, and divorce. Rogers died ofstomach cancerin 2003, aged 74. His work in children's television has been widely lauded, and he received more than forty honorary degrees and several awards, including aLifetime Achievement Emmyin 1997 and thePresidential Medal of Freedomin 2002. He was inducted into theTelevision Hall of Famein 1999. Rogers influenced many writers and producers of children's television shows, and his broadcasts provided comfort during tragic events, even after his death. Early life Rogers was born in 1928, at 705 Main Street inLatrobe, Pennsylvania.His father, James Hillis Rogers, was \"a very successful businessman\"who was president of the McFeely Brick Company, one of Latrobe's",
"one of Latrobe's most prominent businesses. His mother, Nancy (née McFeely), knitted sweaters for American soldiers from western Pennsylvania who were fighting in Europe and regularly volunteered at the Latrobe Hospital. Initially dreaming of becoming a doctor, she settled for a life of hospital volunteer work. Her father, Fred Brooks McFeely, after whom Rogers was named, was an entrepreneur. Rogers grew up in a large three-story brick house at 737 Weldon Street in Latrobe.He had a sister, Elaine, whom the Rogerses adopted when he was eleven years old.Rogers spent much of his childhood alone, playing with puppets, and also spent time with his grandfather. He began playing the piano when he was five.Through an ancestor who immigrated from Germany to the U.S., Johannes Meffert (born 1732), Rogers is the sixth cousin of actorTom Hanks, who portrays him in the filmA Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood(2019). Rogers had a difficult childhood. Shy, introverted, and overweight, he was frequently homebound after",
"homebound after suffering bouts ofasthma.He was bullied as a child for his weight and called \"Fat Freddy\".According toMorgan Neville, director of the 2018 documentaryWon't You Be My Neighbor?, Rogers had a \"lonely childhood... I think he made friends with himself as much as he could. He had aventriloquist dummy, he had animals, and he would create his own worlds in his childhood bedroom\". Rogers attendedLatrobe High School, where he overcame his shyness.\"It was tough for me at the beginning,\" Rogers told NPR'sTerry Grossin 1984, \"and then I made a couple friends who found out that the core of me was okay. And one of them was... the head of the football team\".Rogers became president of the student council, a member of theNational Honor Society, and editor-in-chief of the schoolyearbook.He registered for the draft inGreensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1948 at age 20, where he was classified 1-A (available for military service);however, his status was changed to unqualified for military service following an Armed",
"following an Armed Forces physical on October 12, 1950.He attendedDartmouth Collegefor one year before transferring toRollins College,where he graduatedmagna cum laudein 1951 with aBachelor of Music. He then attendedPittsburgh Theological Seminary, from which he graduatedmagna cum laudein 1962 with aBachelor of Divinity, and was ordained a Presbyterian minister by the Pittsburgh Presbytery of theUnited Presbyterian Churchin 1963.His work as an ordained minister, rather than to pastor a church, was to minister to children and their families through television. He regularly appeared before church officials to maintain his ordination. Career Early work Rogers wanted to enterseminaryafter college,but instead chose to go into the nascent medium of television after experiencing TV at his parents' home in 1951, during his senior year at Rollins College.In aCNNinterview, he said, \"I went into television because I hated it so, and I thought there's some way of using this fabulous instrument to nurture those who would",
"those who would watch and listen\".After graduating in 1951, he worked atNBCin New York City as floor director ofYour Hit Parade,The Kate Smith Hour, andGabby Hayes's children's show, and as an assistant producer ofThe Voice of Firestone. In 1953, Rogers returned to Pittsburgh to work as a program developer atpublic televisionstationWQED.Josie Careyworked with him to develop the children's showThe Children's Corner, which Carey hosted. Rogers worked off-camera to develop puppets, characters, and music for the show. He used many puppet characters developed during this time, such as Daniel the Striped Tiger (named after WQED's station manager, Dorothy Daniel, who gave Rogers a tiger puppet before the show's premiere),King Friday XIII, Queen Sara Saturday (named after Rogers' wife),X the Owl, Henrietta, and Lady Elaine, in his later work.Children's television entertainerErnie Coombswas an assistant puppeteer.The Children's Cornerwon aSylvania Awardfor best locally produced children's programming in 1955 and was",
"in 1955 and was broadcast nationally on NBC.While working on the show, Rogers attended Pittsburgh Theological Seminary and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1963. He also attended theUniversity of Pittsburgh's Graduate School of Child Development,where he began working with child psychologistMargaret McFarland—who, according to Rogers' biographer Maxwell King, became his \"key advisor and collaborator\" and \"child-education guru\".Much of Rogers' \"thinking about and appreciation for children was shaped and informed\" by McFarland.She was his consultant for most ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood's scripts and songs for 30 years. In 1963, theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation(CBC) in Toronto contracted Rogers to come to Toronto to develop and host the 15-minute black-and-white children's programMisterogers;it lasted from 1963 to 1967.It was the first time Rogers appeared on camera. CBC's children's programming head Fred Rainsberry insisted on it, telling Rogers, \"Fred, I've seen you talk with kids. Let's put",
"kids. Let's put you yourself on the air\".Coombs joined Rogers in Toronto as an assistant puppeteer.Rogers also worked with Coombs on the children's showButternut Squarefrom 1964 to 1967. Rogers acquired the rights toMisterogersin 1967 and returned to Pittsburgh with his wife, two young sons, and the sets he developed, despite a potentially promising career with CBC and no job prospects in Pittsburgh.On Rogers' recommendation, Coombs remained in Toronto and became Rogers' Canadian equivalent of an iconic television personality, creating the children's programMr. Dressup, which ran from 1967 to 1996.Rogers' work for CBC \"helped shape and develop the concept and style of his later program for the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) in the U.S.\" Mister Rogers' Neighborhood Mister Rogers' Neighborhood(also called theNeighborhood), a half-hour educational children's program starring Rogers, began airing nationally in 1968 and ran for 895 episodes.It was videotaped at WQED in Pittsburgh and broadcast byNational",
"byNational Educational Television(NET), which later became thePublic Broadcasting Service(PBS).Its first season had 180 black-and-white episodes. Each subsequent season, filmed in color and funded by PBS, theSears-RoebuckFoundation, and other charities, consisted of 65 episodes.By the time it ended production in December 2000, its average rating was about 0.7% of television households or 680,000 homes, and it aired on 384 PBS stations. At its peak in 1985–1986, its ratings were 2.1%, or 1.8 million homes.The last original episode aired in 2001, but PBS continued to air reruns, and by 2016 it was the third-longest-running program in PBS history. Many of the sets and props inMister Rogers' Neighborhood, like the trolley, the sneakers, and the castle, were created for Rogers' show in Toronto by CBC designers and producers. The program also \"incorporated most of the highly imaginative elements that later became famous\",such as its slow pace and its host's quiet manner.The format ofMister Rogers'",
"ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood\"remained virtually unchanged\" for the entire run of the program.Every episode begins with a camera's-eye view of a model of a neighborhood, then panning in closer to a representation of a house while a piano instrumental of the theme song, \"Won't You be My Neighbor?\", performed by music directorJohnny Costaand inspired by a Beethoven sonata, is played.The camera zooms in to a model representing Mr. Rogers' house, then cuts to the house's interior and pans across the room to the front door, which Rogers opens as he sings the theme song to greet his visitors while changing his suit jacket to a cardigan (knitted by his mother)and his dress shoes to sneakers, \"complete with a shoe tossed from one hand to another\".The episode's theme is introduced, and Mr. Rogers leaves his home to visit another location, the camera panning back to the neighborhood model and zooming in to the new location as he enters it. Once this segment ends, Mr. Rogers leaves and returns to his home, indicating",
"home, indicating that it is time to visit the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Mr. Rogers proceeds to the window seat by the trolley track and sets up the action there as the Trolley comes out. The camera follows it down a tunnel in the back wall of the house as it enters the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. The stories and lessons take place over a week's worth of episodes and involve puppets and human characters. The end of the visit occurs when the Trolley returns to the same tunnel from which it emerged, reappearing in Mr. Rogers' home. He then talks to the viewers before concluding the episode. He often feeds his fish, cleans up any props he has used, and returns to the front room, where he sings the closing song while changing back into his dress shoes and jacket. He exits the front door as he ends the song, and the camera zooms out of his home and pans across the neighborhood model as the episode ends. Mister Rogers' Neighborhoodemphasized young children's social and emotional needs, and unlike another PBS",
"unlike another PBS show,Sesame Street, which premiered in 1969, did not focus on cognitive learning.Writer Kathy Merlock Jackson said, \"While both shows target the same preschool audience and prepare children for kindergarten,Sesame Streetconcentrates on school-readiness skills whileMister Rogers Neighborhoodfocuses on the child's developing psyche and feelings and sense of moral and ethical reasoning\".TheNeighborhoodalso spent fewer resources on research thanSesame Street, but Rogers used early childhood education concepts taught by his mentor Margaret McFarland,Benjamin Spock,Erik Erikson, andT. Berry Brazeltonin his lessons.AsThe Washington Postnoted, Rogers taught young children about civility, tolerance, sharing, and self-worth \"in a reassuring tone and leisurely cadence\".He tackled difficult topics such as the death of a family pet, sibling rivalry, the addition of a newborn into a family, moving and enrolling in a new school, and divorce.For example, he wrote a special segment that dealt with",
"that dealt with theassassination of Robert F. Kennedythat aired on June 7, 1968, two days after the assassination occurred. According to King, the process of putting each episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodtogether was \"painstaking\"and Rogers' contribution to the program was \"astounding\". Rogers wrote and edited all the episodes, played the piano and sang for most of the songs, wrote 200 songs and 13 operas, created all the characters (both puppet and human), played most of the significant puppet roles, hosted every episode, and produced and approved every detail of the program.The puppets created for the Neighborhood of Make-Believe \"included an extraordinary variety of personalities\".They were simple puppets but \"complex, complicated, and utterly honest beings\".In 1971, Rogers formed Family Communications, Inc. (FCI, nowThe Fred Rogers Company), to produce theNeighborhood, other programs, and non-broadcast materials. In 1975, Rogers stopped producingMr. Rogers' Neighborhoodto focus on adult programming.",
"adult programming. Reruns of theNeighborhoodcontinued to air on PBS.King reports that the decision caught many of his coworkers and supporters \"off guard\".Rogers continued to confer with McFarland about child development and early childhood education, however.In 1979, after an almost five-year hiatus, Rogers returned to producing theNeighborhood; King calls the new version \"stronger and more sophisticated than ever\".King writes that by the program's second run in the 1980s, it was \"such a cultural touchstone that it had inspired numerous parodies\",most notablyEddie Murphy's parody onSaturday Night Livein the early 1980s. Rogers retired from producing theNeighborhoodin 2001 at age 73, although reruns continued to air. He and FCI had been making about two or three weeks of new programs per year for many years, \"filling the rest of his time slots from a library of about 300 shows made since 1979\".The final original episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodaired on August 31, 2001. Other work and appearances In",
"and appearances In 1969, Rogers testified before theU.S. SenateSubcommittee on Communications, which was chaired by Democratic SenatorJohn Pastoreof Rhode Island. U.S. PresidentLyndon Johnsonhad proposed a $20 million bill for the creation of PBS before he left office, but his successor,Richard Nixon, wanted to cut the funding to $10 million.Even though Rogers was not yet nationally known, he was chosen to testify because of his ability to make persuasive arguments and to connect emotionally with his audience. The clip of Rogers' testimony, which was televised and has since been viewed by millions of people on the internet, helped to secure funding for PBS for many years afterward.According to King, Rogers' testimony was \"considered one of the most powerful pieces of testimony ever offered before Congress, and one of the most powerful pieces of video presentation ever filmed\".It brought Pastore to tears and also, according to King, has been studied by public relations experts and academics.Congressional",
"funding for PBS increased from $9 million to $22 million.In 1970, Nixon appointed Rogers as chair of theWhite House Conference on Children and Youth. In 1978, while on hiatus fromMister Rogers' Neighborhood, Rogers wrote, produced, and hosted a 30-minute interview program for adults on PBS calledOld Friends... New Friends.It lasted 20 episodes. Rogers' guests includedHoagy Carmichael,Helen Hayes,Milton Berle,Lorin Hollander, poetRobert Frost's daughter Lesley, andWillie Stargell. In September 1987, Rogers visited Moscow to appear as the first guest on the long-running Soviet children's TV showGood Night, Little Ones!with hostTatyana Vedeneyeva.The appearance was broadcast in the Soviet Union on December 7, coinciding with theWashington Summitmeeting between Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachevand U.S. PresidentRonald Reaganin Washington, D.C.Vedeneyeva visited the set ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin November. Her visit was taped and later aired in March 1988 as part of Rogers' program.In 1994, Rogers wrote,",
"1994, Rogers wrote, produced, and hosted a special for PBS calledFred Rogers' Heroes, which featured interviews and portraits of four people from across the country who were having a positive impact on children and education.The first time Rogers appeared on television as an actor, and not himself, was in a 1996 episode ofDr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, playing a preacher. Rogers gave \"scores of interviews\".Though reluctant to appear on television talk shows, he would usually \"charm the host with his quick wit and ability to ad-lib on a moment's notice\".Rogers was \"one of the country's most sought-after commencement speakers\",making over 150 speeches.His friend and colleague David Newell reported that Rogers would \"agonize over a speech\",and King reported that Rogers was at his least guarded during his speeches, which were about children, television, education, his view of the world, how to make the world a better place, and his quest for self-knowledge. His tone was quiet and informal but \"commanded",
"but \"commanded attention\".In many speeches, including the ones he made accepting aLifetime Achievement Emmyin 1997,for his induction into the Television Hall of Fame in 1999,and his final commencement speech at Dartmouth College in 2002, he instructed his audiences to remain silent and think for a moment about someone who had a good influence on them. Personal life Rogers metSara Joanne Byrd(called \"Joanne\") fromJacksonville, Florida, while attending Rollins College. They were married from 1952 until he died in 2003. They had two sons, James and John.Joanne Rogerswas \"an accomplished pianist\"who, like Fred, earned a Bachelor of Music from Rollins, and went on to earn a Master of Music fromFlorida State University. She performed publicly with her college classmate, Jeannine Morrison, from 1976 to 2008.According to biographer Maxwell King, Rogers' close associates said he was \"absolutely faithful to his marriage vows\". Rogers was red-greencolor-blind.He became apescatarianin 1970, after the death of his",
"the death of his father, and a vegetarian in the early 1980s,saying he \"couldn't eat anything that had a mother\".He became a co-owner ofVegetarian Timesin the mid-1980sand said in one issue, \"I love tofu burgers and beets\".He toldVegetarian Timesthat he became a vegetarian for both ethical and health reasons.According to his biographer Maxwell King, Rogers also signed his name to a statementprotesting wearing animal furs. Rogers was a registeredRepublican, but according to Joanne Rogers, he was \"very independent in the way he voted\", choosing not to talk about politics because he wanted to be impartial. Rogers was aPresbyterian, and many of the messages he expressed inMister Rogers' Neighborhoodwere inspired by the core tenets of Christianity. Rogers rarely spoke about his faith on air; he believed that teaching through example was as powerful as preaching. He said, \"You don't need to speak overtly about religion in order to get a message across\". According to writer Shea Tuttle, Rogers considered his faith",
"his faith a fundamental part of his personality and \"called the space between the viewer and the television set 'holy ground'\". He also studiedCatholic mysticism,Judaism,Buddhism, and other faiths and cultures.King called him \"that unique television star with a real spiritual life\",emphasizing the values of patience, reflection, and \"silence in a noisy world\". King reported that despite Rogers' family's wealth, he cared little about making money, and lived frugally, especially as he and his wife grew older.King reported that Rogers' relationship with his young audience was important to him. For example, since hostingMisterogersin Canada, he answered every letter sent to him by hand. AfterMister Rogers' Neighborhoodbegan airing in the U.S., the letters increased in volume, and he hired staff member and producer Hedda Sharapan to answer them, but he read, edited, and signed each one. King wrote that Rogers saw responding to his viewers' letters as \"a pastoral duty of sorts\". The New York Timescalled Rogers \"a",
"Rogers \"a dedicated lap-swimmer\",andTom Junod, author of \"Can You Say... Hero?\", the 1998Esquireprofile of Rogers, said, \"Nearly every morning of his life, Mister Rogers has gone swimming\".Rogers began swimming when he was a child at his family's vacation home outside Latrobe, where they owned a pool, and during their winter trips to Florida. King wrote that swimming and playing the piano were \"lifelong passions\" and that \"both gave him a chance to feel capable and in charge of his destiny\",and that swimming became \"an important part of the strong sense of self-discipline he cultivated\". Rogers swam daily at thePittsburgh Athletic Association, after waking every morning between 4:30 and 5:30 A.M. to pray and to \"read the Bible and prepare himself for the day\".He did not smoke or drink.According to Junod, he did nothing to change his weight from the 143 pounds (65 kg) he weighed for most of his adult life; by 1998, this also included napping daily, going to bed at 9:30 P.M., and sleeping eight hours per night",
"hours per night without interruption. Junod said Rogers saw his weight \"as a destiny fulfilled\", telling Junod, \"the number 143 means 'I love you.' It takes one letter to say 'I' and four letters to say 'love' and three letters to say 'you'\". Sexuality According to biographer Michael Long in a 2016HuffPostessay, Rogers' sexuality had long been a topic of curiosity due to his lack of traditional machismo.The 2018 documentaryWon't You Be My Neighbor?briefly addresses the subject, including an interview withFrançois Clemmons, the gay actor who played Officer Clemmons onMister Rogers' Neighborhood, who denied that Rogers was gay, saying that if he had a \"gay vibe\" he would have noticed it. In 2019, social media users shared an excerpt from the 2018 biographyThe Good Neighbor: The Life and Work of Fred Rogers, which recounts Rogers telling openly gay friend Dr. William Hirsch that he \"must be right smack in the middle\" of a one-to-ten sexuality scale, because \"I have found women attractive, and I have found men",
"I have found men attractive.\"This led some social media users to suggest that Rogers may have beenbisexual,although Long noted in his essay that there is no evidence that Rogers ever had sexual relations with men. Death and memorials After Rogers' retirement in 2001, he remained busy working with FCI, studying religion and spirituality, making public appearances, traveling, and working on a children's media center named after him atSaint Vincent Collegein Latrobe with ArchabbotDouglas Nowicki, chancellor of the college.By the summer of 2002, his chronic stomach pain became severe enough for him to see a doctor about it, and in October 2002, he was diagnosed with stomach cancer.He delayed treatment until after he served as Grand Marshal of the 2003Rose Parade, withArt LinkletterandBill Cosby, in January.On January 6, Rogers underwent stomach surgery. He died less than two months later, on February 27, 2003, less than a month short of his 75th birthdayat his home in Pittsburgh, with his wife of 50 years,",
"wife of 50 years, Joanne, at his side. While comatose shortly before his death, he received thelast rites of the Catholic ChurchfromArchabbotNowicki. The following day, thePittsburgh Post-Gazettecovered Rogers' death on the front page and dedicated an entire section to his death and impact.The newspaper also reported that by noon, the internet \"was already full of appreciative pieces\" by parents, viewers, producers, and writers.Rogers' death was widely lamented. Most U.S. metropolitan newspapers ran his obituary on their front page and some dedicated entire sections to coverage of his death.WQED aired programs about Rogers the evening he died; thePost-Gazettereported that the ratings for their coverage were three times higher than their normal ratings.That same evening,NightlineonABCbroadcast a rerun of a recent interview with Rogers; the program got the highest ratings of the day, beating the February average ratings ofLate Show with David LettermanandThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno.On March 4, theU.S. House",
"4, theU.S. House of Representativesunanimously passed a resolution honoring Rogers sponsored by RepresentativeMike Doylefrom Pennsylvania. On March 1, 2003, a private funeral was held for Rogers in Unity Chapel, which was restored by Rogers' father, at Unity Cemetery in Latrobe. About 80 relatives, co-workers, and close friends attended the service, which \"was planned in great secrecy so that those closest to him could grieve in private\".Reverend John McCall, pastor of the Rogers family's church, Sixth Presbyterian Church inSquirrel Hill, gave thehomily; Reverend William Barker, a retired Presbyterian minister who was a \"close friend of Mr. Rogers and the voice of Mr. Platypus on his show\",read Rogers' favorite Bible passages. Rogers was interred at Unity Cemetery in his hometown of Latrobe, Pennsylvania, in amausoleumowned by his mother's family. On May 3, 2003, a public memorial was held atHeinz Hallin Pittsburgh. According to thePost-Gazette, 2,700 people attended. ViolinistItzhak Perlman, cellistYo-Yo",
"cellistYo-Yo Ma(via video), and organistAlan Morrisonperformed in honor of Rogers. Barker officiated the service; also in attendance were Pittsburgh philanthropistElsie Hillman, formerGood Morning AmericahostDavid Hartman,The Very Hungry CaterpillarauthorEric Carle, andArthurcreatorMarc Brown. Businesswoman and philanthropistTeresa Heinz, PBS PresidentPat Mitchell, and executive director of The Pittsburgh Project Saleem Ghubril gave remarks.Jeff Erlanger, who at age 10 appeared onMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 1981 to explain his electric wheelchair, also spoke.The memorial was broadcast several times on Pittsburgh television stations and websites throughout the day. Legacy When I was a boy and I would see scary things in the news, my mother would say to me, \"Look for the helpers. You will always find people who are helping.\" To this day, especially in times of \"disaster\", I remember my mother's words and I am always comforted by realizing that there are still so many helpers—so many caring people in this",
"people in this world.—Fred Rogers Whenever a great tragedy strikes—war, famine, mass shootings, or even an outbreak of populist rage—millions of people turn to Fred's messages about life. Then the web is filled with his words and images. With fascinating frequency, his written messages and video clips surge across the internet, reaching hundreds of thousands of people who, confronted with a tough issue or ominous development, open themselves to Rogers' messages of quiet contemplation, of simplicity, of active listening and the practice of human kindness.—Rogers biographer Maxwell King Marc Brown, creator of another PBS children's show,Arthur, considered Rogers both a friend and \"a terrific role model for how to use television and the media to be helpful to kids and families\".Josh Selig, creator ofWonder Pets, credits Rogers with influencing his use of structure and predictability, and his use of music, opera, and originality. Rogers inspiredAngela Santomero, co-creator of the children's television showBlue's",
"showBlue's Clues, to earn a degree in developmental psychology and go into educational television.She and the other producers ofBlue's Cluesused many of Rogers' techniques, such as using child developmental and educational research and having the host speak directly to the camera and transition to a make-believe world.In 2006, three years after Rogers' death and the end of production ofBlue's Clues, the Fred Rogers Company contacted Santomero to create a show that would promote Rogers' legacy.In 2012,Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood, with characters from and based uponMister Rogers' Neighborhood, premiered on PBS. Rogers' style and approach to children's television and early childhood education also \"begged to be parodied\".Comedian Eddie Murphy parodiedMister Rogers' NeighborhoodonSaturday Night Liveduring the 1980s.Rogers told interviewerDavid Lettermanin 1982 that he believed parodies like Murphy's were done \"with kindness in their hearts\". Video of Rogers' 1969 testimony in defense of public programming has",
"programming has experienced a resurgence since 2012, goingviralat least twice. It first resurfaced after then presidential candidateMitt Romneysuggested cutting funding for PBS.In 2017, video of the testimony again went viral after PresidentDonald Trumpproposed defunding several arts-related government programs including PBS and theNational Endowment for the Arts. A roadside Pennsylvania Historical Marker dedicated to Rogers to be installed in Latrobe was approvedby the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission on March 4, 2014.It was installed on June 11, 2016, with the title \"Fred McFeely Rogers (1928–2003)\". Won't You Be My Neighbor?director Morgan Neville's 2018 documentary about Rogers' life, grossed over $22 million and became the top-grossing biographical documentary ever produced, the highest-grossing documentary in five years, and the twelfth-largest-grossing documentary ever made.The 2019 drama filmA Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodtells the story of Rogers and his television series, with Tom",
"series, with Tom Hanks portraying Rogers. According to Caitlin Gibson ofThe Washington Post, Rogers became a source for parenting advice; she called him \"a timeless oracle against a backdrop of ever-shifting parenting philosophies and cultural trends\".Robert Thompson ofSyracuse Universitynoted that Rogers \"took American childhood—and I think Americans in general—through some very turbulent and trying times\",from theVietnam Warand the assassination of Robert Kennedy in 1968 to the9/11 attacks in 2001. According to Asia Simone Burns ofNational Public Radio, in the years following the end of production onMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 2001 and his death in 2003, Rogers became \"a source of comfort, sometimes in the wake of tragedy\".Burns has said Rogers' words of comfort \"began circulating on social media\"following tragedies such as theSandy Hook Elementary School shootingin 2012, theManchester Arena bombingin Manchester, England, in 2017, and theStoneman Douglas High School shootingin Parkland, Florida, in 2018.",
"Florida, in 2018. Awards and honors Museum exhibits Art pieces Several pieces of art are dedicated to Rogers throughout Pittsburgh, including an eleven-foot (3.4 m) tall, 7,000-pound (3,200 kg) bronze statue of him in the North Shore neighborhood. In theOaklandneighborhood, his portrait is included in theMartin Luther King Jr.and \"Interpretations of Oakland\" murals. A dinosaur statue titled \"Fredasaurus Rex Friday XIII\" originally stood in front of the WQED building and, as of 2014, stood in front of the building containing the Fred Rogers Company offices. There is a \"Mister Rogers' Neighborhood of Make-Believe\" inIdlewild Parkand a kiosk ofMister Rogers' Neighborhoodartifacts atPittsburgh International Airport.The Carnegie Science Center's Miniature Railroad and Village debuted a miniature recreation of Rogers' house fromMister Rogers' Neighborhoodin 2005.In Rogers' hometown of Latrobe, a statue of Rogers on a bench is situated in James H. Rogers Park—a park named for Rogers' father.In 2021,A Beautiful Day",
"Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood—a seven-foot (2.1 m) tall, 3,000-pound (1,400 kg) bronze statue byPaul Day—was dedicated at Rollins College. The memorial depicts Rogers and Daniel Tiger speaking with a group of children and features lyrics fromMister Rogers' Neighborhood'stheme on the base. Honorary degrees Rogers has received honorary degrees from over 43 colleges and universities. After 1973, two commemorative quilts, created by two of Rogers' friends and archived at the Fred Rogers Center at St. Vincent College in Latrobe, were made out of the academic hoods he received during the graduation ceremonies. Note: Much of the below list is taken from \"Honorary Degrees Awarded to Fred Rogers\",unless otherwise stated. Filmography Television Published works Children's books Songbooks Books for adults Discography See also Notes References Works cited External links",
"A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodis a 2019 Americanbiographicaldrama filmon the TV presenterFred Rogers, directed byMarielle Hellerand written byMicah Fitzerman-BlueandNoah Harpster, inspired by the 1998 article \"Can You Say... Hero?\" byTom Junod, published inEsquire. It starsTom Hanks,Matthew Rhys,Susan Kelechi Watson, andChris Cooper. It depicts Lloyd Vogel (Rhys), a troubled journalist forEsquirewho is assigned to profile television icon Fred Rogers (Hanks). The film premiered at theToronto International Film Festivalon September 7, 2019, and was theatrically released in the United States on November 22, 2019, bySony Pictures Releasing. It grossed $68 million worldwide. Critics praised Hanks and Rhys's performances, Heller's direction, and its heart-warming messages. It was chosen byTimemagazineas one of the ten best films of the year.For his performance, Hanks was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at theAcademy Awards, as well as theGolden Globes,Critics'",
"Globes,Critics' Choice,Screen Actors Guild Awards, andBAFTA Awards, among others. Plot In 1998, at the beginning of an episode ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood,Mr. Rogersdisplays a picture board with five doors. Three of the doors are opened to reveal the familiar faces ofLady Aberlin,King Friday, andMr. McFeely. The fourth door is opened to reveal the face of Mr. Rogers' troubled new friend, Lloyd Vogel, who has a black eye and a cut near his nose. Mr. Rogers explains that Lloyd has been hurt (and not necessarily on his face), and he is struggling to forgive the one who hurt him. After explaining what forgiveness means, Mr. Rogers leaves to visit Lloyd. Lloyd Vogel is anEsquirejournalist known for his cynical writing. He is nervous to attend his sister Lorraine's third wedding because his estranged father, Jerry, against whom he has long held a grudge, is also attending. However, he attends with his wife Andrea and their newborn son, Gavin. During the reception, Lloyd is approached by Jerry, who notes his",
"who notes his son’s new family. When Jerry makes a joke about Lloyd's deceased mother Lila -- whom he cheated on and abandoned when she was dying of cancer twenty years earlier -- this enrages Lloyd into punching his father and starting a chaotic brawl, in which he is punched against the wall by another guest, explaining the scar on his face. Lloyd's editor, Ellen, assigns him to interview children's television presenter Fred Rogers for a 400-word article about heroes. Lloyd feels that the assignment is beneath him, but is informed that none of the other heroes were willing to talk to him. Still cynical, Lloyd questions whether Mister Rogers is \"for real\". Lloyd travels to theWQEDstudio inPittsburghto interview him. Rogers is dismissive of his fame and displays concern for Lloyd's nose injury. With coaxing, he relates some of the issues with his father, whose apology and attempt at reconciliation Lloyd has rebuffed. Rogers tells him his ways of dealing with anger, including striking the keys of a piano.",
"keys of a piano. Determined to expose Rogers' friendly persona as an act, Lloyd watches several episodes of Rogers' show, but cannot discern anything. Interviewing Rogers again when he visits New York, seemingly dodging Lloyd's questions, he reminisces about raising his two sons. Fred takes out his puppets and asks Lloyd about his childhood rabbit stuffed animal and his father, provoking Lloyd into ending the interview. Lloyd arrives home to find Jerry and his wife Dorothy having brought pizza while talking with Andrea. They have a tense argument over Jerry’s absence during Lila’s cancer progression and his self-development since. As Lloyd relates how his mother suffered hysterically in her last moments with only him and his sister present, Jerry suffers a heart attack and is transported to the hospital. Faced with his resurgent trauma at staying overnight at the hospital for Jerry, Lloyd decides to go to Pittsburgh to see Rogers for counsel under the guise of work against Andrea’s protests. Exhausted on",
"Exhausted on arriving, he envisions himself as Rogers’ guest, being asked about hospitals. Next, he finds himself wearing rabbit ears and shrunken to the size ofDaniel Striped TigerandKing Friday XIII, while Rogers and Andrea (as Lady Aberlin) tower over him. Finally, Lloyd also dreams about Lila, who gently recognizes his anger being for her memory, but assures him that she doesn’t need it. Lloyd awakens to find he collapsed on set. Rogers and his wife, Joanne, bring Lloyd to their home to recuperate. The men later go to a restaurant, where Rogers asks Lloyd to spend one minute thinking about the people who \"loved him into being\", and encourages him to forgive Jerry. Lloyd apologizes to Andrea for leaving her and Gavin at the hospital and visits Jerry and Dorothy at their home. He learns Jerry is dying of cardiacstenosis, and that is why Jerry attempted to reconnect with Lloyd. Lloyd forgives him, promises to be a better father, and writes an article about Rogers' impact on his life. Dorothy tells Lloyd",
"Dorothy tells Lloyd that Jerry had never mentioned his previous marriage or children until recently, after he became ill. Lorraine, her husband Todd, and Rogers visit Jerry. Rogers asks Jerry to pray for him before he departs. Jerry dies shortly after Rogers' visit and Lloyd's 10,000-word article, \"Can You Say... Hero?\" is published asEsquire's cover story. At his studio, Rogers finishes the episode he was earlier working on, opening the fifth and final door on his picture board, revealing a picture of Lloyd happily reunited with his family. As the production ends, Mr. Rogers plays the piano alone, stops, strikes the keys in frustration, and resumes playing. Cast Additional cast members includeCarmen Cusackas Margy, a producer ofMister Rogers' Neighborhood;Jessica Hechtas Lila Vogel, Lloyd's late mother and Jerry's ex-wife;Maddie CormanasBetty Aberlin, an actress starring as Lady Aberlin onMister Rogers' Neighborhood; Daniel Krell as Mr. McFeely; and Jordan, Naomi, and Zoey Harsh as Gavin Vogel, Lloyd's son.",
"Vogel, Lloyd's son. Notable cameos in the film include Rogers' wife Joanne, Mr. McFeely actorDavid Newell, Family Communications head Bill Isler, andMister Rogers' Neighborhoodproducer Margy Whitmerwho appear as customers in a restaurant that Rogers and Lloyd meet in.Arsenio HallandOprah Winfreymake uncredited appearances in archive footage of talk shows that Lloyd watches in the film, and Fred Rogers appears in archive footage of his show during the ending credits, singing the song \"You've Got to Do It\". Production Development On January 29, 2018, it was announced thatSony'sTriStar Pictureshad bought the worldwide distribution rights to the filmYou Are My Friend, a biographical film based on a 1998Esquiremagazine article about television personalityFred Rogers, who would be played byTom Hanks.The script by Micah Fitzerman-Blue andNoah Harpsterappeared on the 2013Black Listof best unproduced screenplays. It would be directed byMarielle Heller; its producers would beBig Beach'sMarc TurtletaubandPeter",
"TurtletaubandPeter Sarafalong with Youree Henley. In July 2018,Matthew Rhyssigned to play journalist Lloyd Vogel, with production set to start in September 2018. Being Welsh, Rhys had never heard of Fred Rogers before he was offered the role.In August 2018,Chris Cooperwas added to play Vogel's father;and in September,Susan Kelechi Watsonwas added.In October 2018,Enrico Colantoni,Maryann Plunkett,Tammy Blanchard,Wendy Makkena,Sakina Jaffrey,Carmen Cusack, Harpster andMaddie Cormanjoined the cast.In 2018, Nate Heller was chosen to score the film. Filming Principal photographybegan on September 10, 2018, inPittsburgh, with several sets converted intoNew York City.Filming also took place in the Fred Rogers Studio atWQED (TV)where the late television host recordedMister Rogers' Neighborhood, and at the Jewish Community Center inSquirrel Hill. The crew consulted with original crew members from Rogers' television series, and brought in the same cameras and monitors used in the original production.The film received",
"film received tax credits of approximately $9.5 million against a production budget of $45 million for filming in Pittsburgh.Production wrapped on November 9, 2018. On October 12, 2018, sound mixer James Emswillerhad a heart attack and fell from a second-story balcony. He was taken toUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center-Mercy, where he was pronounced dead. Release A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodpremiered at theToronto International Film Festivalon September 7, 2019.It was originally going to be released on October 18, 2019 bySony Pictures Releasing,but in May 2018 was pushed back a month to November 22, 2019.It was released in China on September 18, 2020, after the country reopened theaters followingCOVID-19 pandemic lockdowns. Marketing The film's title was announced on December 27, 2018.The trailer was released on July 22, 2019. Home media The film was released bySony Pictures Home EntertainmentonDigital HDon February 4, 2020, and onUltra HD Blu-ray,Blu-rayandDVDon February 18. Reception Box office",
"Box office A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodgrossed $61.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $6.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $68.4 million, against a production budget of $25 million. In the United States and Canada, it was released alongsideFrozen IIand21 Bridges, and was projected to gross around $15 million from 3,231 theaters in its opening weekend.It made $4.5 million on its first day, including $900,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $13.3 million, finishing third at the box office.It fell just 11% in its second weekend, making $11.8 million and finishing fifth, and remained in fifth place the following weekend with $5.2 million. Critical response On review aggregation websiteRotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 95% based on 372 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"Much like the beloved TV personality that inspired it,A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodoffers a powerfully",
"a powerfully affecting message about acceptance and understanding.\"OnMetacritic, the film has aweighted averagescore of 80 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film an average grade of \"A\" on an A+ to F scale, while those atPostTrakgave it an average four out of five stars, with 66% saying they would definitely recommend it. Steve Pond ofTheWrapwrote: \"A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhoodfinds a gentle state of grace and shows the courage and smarts to stay in that zone, never rushing things or playing for drama... But just as Mr. Rogers used his show to talk about big issues with children in a tone that was softer and more halting than you'd expect given the subject matter, so does Heller stick to understatement in a way that threatens to become dull or sappy but never does.\"Benjamin Lee ofThe Guardianwrote: \"It's a given that Hanks will nab at least a best supporting actor nomination but it would be all too easy to forget his",
"easy to forget his co-star. The cynic-becomes-a-believer arc is age old but it unfolds here without cliche thanks to an emotionally intelligent script from Noah Harpster and Micah Fitzerman-Blue, but mainly because of a marvelous, prickly turn from Rhys.\" Armond Whiteof theNational Reviewwas more critical: \"Heller and screenwriters Micah Fitzerman-Blue and Noah Harpster don't show enough faith in Rogers' remedies—and not enough interest in their religious origins. In short, the movie seems wary of faith (it briefly mentions that Rogers was an ordained minister) and settles for secular sentimentality to account for his sensibility and behavior. This not only weakens the film, but it also hobbles Hanks's characterization.\" Accolades References External links"
] |
There's a comedy club on Sunset in West Hollywood that opened in 1972. One of its founders opened for one of Elvis' comeback performances. Where was this founder's first wife born? | Marinette, Wisconsin | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Comedy_Store | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Shore | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitzi_Shore | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Comedy_Store', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Shore', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitzi_Shore'] | [
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] | [
"The Comedy Store The Comedy Storeis an Americancomedy clubopened in April 1972. It is located inWest Hollywood, California, at 8433Sunset Boulevardon theSunset Strip. An associated club is located inLa Jolla,San Diego,California. History The Comedy Store was opened in April 1972 by comediansSammy Shore(1927–2019), andRudy De Luca. The building was formerly the home of Club Seville (1935),later,Ciro's(1940–1957), a popular Hollywood nightclub owned byWilliam Wilkerson, and later Ciro's Le Disc,arock and rollvenue,wherethe Byrdswere discovered in 1964. When the venue reopened as The Comedy Store in 1972, it included a 99-seat theatre. As a result of a divorce settlement, Sammy Shore's ex-wifeMitzi Shorebegan operating the club in 1973, and she was able to buy the building in 1976. She immediately renovated and expanded the club to include a 450-seat main room. In 1974, The Comedy Store hosted the wedding reception of newlywedsLiza MinnelliandJack Haley, Jr.The Comedy Club signage was covered, for the evening, by signs reading \"Ciro's\", denoting the venue's prior identity. The event was attended by many dozens of Hollywood glitterati, includingElizabeth Taylor,Sammy Davis Jr.,Cher,Bob Fosse,Johnny Carson,Goldie Hawn,Cesar Romero,Priscilla Presleyand other stars, past and present. Locations The original Comedy Store on Sunset at Ciro's had been joined by the Comedy StoreWestwood, at 1621 Westwood Blvd.,the Comedy StoreLa Jolla, at 916 Pearl St.,Comedy Store Playhouse,on Las Palmas, Comedy Store at the Sheraton Universal Hotel,inUniversal City,and the Comedy Store Las Vegas at theDunes Hotel. Job action Beginning in 1979, The Comedy Store served for many years as the host location for the annualHBOYoung Comediansspecials. Tension between the club owners stems from a 1979 strike of Los Angeles comedians against the Comedy Store's \"no-pay policy\". Until that time, neitherShorenorFriedmanpaid comedians a salary. The theory was that comedians should almost be paying the owners for the exposure the clubs provided. When the comedians' strike began,The Improv(opened in 1974 at 8162 Melrose Avenue) was closed for fire-damage repairs. Therefore, the strike focused on Shore, not Friedman. Also in 1979,stand-upcomedians formed a short-lived labor union and demanded to be paid for their appearances at The Comedy Store. For six weeks (beginning in March),several comedians staged a protest in front of the club, while others crossed the picket line.The comedians involved formed a union called Comedians for Compensation and fought for pay where they had received none before. They eventually picketed in front of the club when their demands were not met.Jay LenoandDavid Lettermanwere among those on the picket line whileGarry ShandlingandYakov Smirnoffcrossed the line. The job action was not legally a strike as the comedians were classified as \"independent contractors\" and were not under contract with the club. Mitzi Shore arguedthat the club was and had always been a showcase and training ground for young comedians and was not about profits. She alleged that comedians came to the club and could work on their material in front of casting agents and other talent scouts who would possibly hire them as professionals if they were good enough. The comedians at the club became unhappy when the club was expanded several times and it was perceived that Shore's profits were quite substantial. Shore also paid the rest of her staff, including waitresses and bartenders. After the strike, some comedians were no longer allowed to perform at the club, including Steve Lubetkin, who committed suicide by jumping off the roof of theContinental Hyatt Housenext door. His suicide note included the line: \"My name is Steve Lubetkin. I used to work at The Comedy Store.\"Lubetkin hoped that his suicide would resolve the labor dispute. He also cited Shore as the reason he no longer had a job. The union ceased to exist in 1980, although from the time of the job action onward, comedians in Los Angeles were paid for their shows. This included The Comedy Store andThe Improv. Cresthill house \"When she and Sammy divorced in 1974, he gave her the club to lower his alimony payments; two years later, after being briefly evicted (and opening a new Comedy Store location in Westwood), she negotiated a deal to buy the entire building — plus Cresthill...around the time of Lubetkin’s suicide(After a bitter labor dispute between comedians and management), she essentially gave the place over to the comedians who worked at the Store.\" Mitzi Shore also owned a 5,000-square-foot house a few doors away from the club, on 8420 Cresthill Road. The house was bought with the club in 1976. In 1979, she started to let the comedians from the clubs sleep there. During the 1980s, numerous comedians resided or just partied there, including Andrew Dice Clay, Marc Maron, Robin Williams, and Richard Pryor.Argus HamiltonandMike Binderwere the first to officially move into the house.Dave Coulierwas also an early resident, andYakov Smirnoffmoved in in 1980. The place was known for its all-night parties and heavy consumption of cocaine and alcohol.Bill Hicksmoved there in 1980 when he was 18 and running away from his parents to pursue his career as a comedian. Many of those comedians developed their style while residing there.Sam Kinisonwas a pillar there, andJim Carreyturned his act around in this house. Mitzi Shore had a plan to cash in on the house's unique atmosphere, and even shot a 12-minute pilot around 1987 starring Daphne Davis, Nancy Redman, and Tamayo Otsuki. In 1988, because of the debauchery that had been going on for years, Mitzi Shore kicked everybody out of the house and turned it into a recovery house. By the early 1990s, Her son Pauly moved into the house, and by the end of the 1990s, the house was sold. Notable alumni Knoedelseder, William(2009).I'm Dying Up Here: Heartbreak and High Times in Standup Comedy's Golden Era(1st ed.). New York:PublicAffairs.ISBN9781586483173.— \"A history of the young comedians coming to Los Angeles in the 1970s and performing at the club.\" Docu-series A docu-series based on The Comedy Store debuted onShowtimein October 2020. Each episode is an hour long and breaks down a different time period throughout the existence of the Comedy Store. The director,Mike Bindergoes on a podcast with a different comedian to set the tone and help provide the narrative of each episode. Episodes References External links",
"Sammy Shore Sammy Shore(February 7, 1927 – May 18, 2019)was an American actor, stand-up comedian and co-founder ofThe Comedy Store. Early life Sammy Shore was born in 1927inNew York Cityat the start of theGreat Depression in the United States. He grew up in a traditional household to Jewish parents. Career Shore began his career doing stand-up comedy withShecky Greenein theCatskill Mountains.He was chosen, in 1969, toopenforElvis Presley’s comeback performance at theInternational Hotel,Las Vegas. He then opened for Elvis’ road shows until 1972.Shore continued to perform comedy, opening forTony Orlando,Tony Bennett,Barbra Streisand,Sammy Davis Jr. and others.Shore served in theU.S. NavyduringWorld War II. On April 7, 1972, he founded the Comedy Store with his writing partner Rudy De Luca.In 1974, his ex-wife,Mitzi, became the owner of the club.The club launched the careers of many comedians includingRodney Dangerfield,David Letterman,Eddie Murphy,Robin Williams,Jim Carrey, andJoe Rogan, also including his own son, Pauly. Shore appeared in many films includingThe BellboywithJerry Lewisand bothLife StinksandHistory of the World Part 1fromMel Brooks.He appeared onThe Ed Sullivan Showand was onSanford and Son. Shore was voted Best Comedy Act inAtlantic City, New Jersey, and theLos Angeles Board of Supervisorsnamed a day after him on July 24, 1990. He appeared atHarrah's Casinosand hotels more than any other entertainer. Personal life Shore was married to Mitzi for 24 years, and was the father of four, including actor and comedianPauly Shore.Shore married Suzanne Dennie in 1990. She wasMiss Alabamain 1970.They remained together until his death inLas Vegas, Nevadaof natural causes at the age of 92. References IMDB",
"Mitzi Shore Mitzi Shore(bornLillian Saidel; July 25, 1930 – April 11, 2018) was an American comedy club owner. Her husband,Sammy Shore, co-foundedThe Comedy Storein 1972 and she became its owner two years later. Through the club, she had a huge influence on the careers of up-and-coming comedians for many decades. Early life Shore was born Lillian Saidel inMarinette, Wisconsin, on July 25, 1930, the daughter of Jewish parents Fanny and Morris Saidel. Her father was a traveling salesman. She grew up nearGreen Bay, Wisconsin,and attendedGreen Bay East High School.She later studied art at theUniversity of Wisconsin–Madison, but dropped out to marrySammy Shoreafter meeting him in 1950. Career Overview Shore's husband Sammy co-foundedThe Comedy Storein 1972 alongside screenwriter and actorRudy De Luca.When Sammy and Mitzi divorced in 1974, Mitzi acquired complete ownership as part of their divorce settlement.Sammy was later quoted in 2003 by theLos Angeles Timesas explaining that he \"relinquished control of the club to lower his alimony payments\".Shortly after she took full control, Shore obtained a significant cash loan from comedianShecky Greeneto help ensure continued operations. She was not only involved in day-to-day management but also in the recruitment and development of talent. Comedians whose rise to fame was associated with working at the Comedy Store includeRoseanne Barr,Bill Burr,Jim Carrey,Chevy Chase,Andrew Dice Clay,Joey Diaz,Whoopi Goldberg,Bobcat Goldthwait,Tony Hinchcliffe,Sam Kinison,Bobby Lee,Jay Leno,David Letterman,Sebastian Maniscalco,Marc Maron,Carlos Mencia,Joe Rogan,Jerry Seinfeld,Garry Shandling,Duncan Trussell,Robin Williams, andJohn Witherspoon. 1979 strike and picket Shore refused to pay comics who performed in her club, insisting that the venue was a sort of \"college of comedy\" where comedians learned their craft rather than a money-making enterprise.However, in 1979, after the club had been expanded extensively, comedians began to insist that they be paid for their work.Shore refused and the performers picketed the establishment in what became a bitter six-weekstrike action.Among those involved in leading the strike wereJay Leno,Tom Dreesen, and the club's MCDavid Letterman. After several months of picketing, and an incident in which Leno was injured by a car attempting to rush the picket line, Shore relented after Budd Friedman fromThe Improvdecided to start paying comics. She then agreed to pay talent $15 (an amount equal to $63 today)per set.The events in L.A. set a precedent that resulted in New York City comedy clubs beginning to pay their talent as well, and other comedy clubs across the U.S. followed suit by paying comics to perform. Belly Room As early as 1978, Shore had converted the upstairs section of The Comedy Store into the Belly Room: a 50-seat audience for which she exclusively booked female comedians. At the time, professional comedy was very much a \"boys' club\", and bookings for female comedians were rare; opportunities for women to perform their own stand-up material with the most popular comics in the U.S. were unheard of. Shore's liberal risk-taking with booking talent continued for decades.In the 1990s, once female comics had become more established, Shore continued to cross boundaries with her audience by creating specialty nights for Latino, gay and lesbian performers. She was also instrumental in providing a space for Black American comics in Los Angeles. Phat Tuesday's became a staple in the Black comedy scene and was the start of many of today's favorite comics. Comedy Channel Inc. Shore owned and operated Comedy Channel Inc. from 1982 until her death—a company established to create and sell video tapes of performances at The Comedy Store. In 1989, HBO launched its premium cable service The Comedy Channel.Shore's suit claimed HBO's service was an \"indirect unauthorized use\" of the name and trademark Comedy Channel.Mitzi Shore retained counsel James Blancarte and sued HBO for copyright infringement.The channel merged with Viacom's competingHa!channel two years later, first under the name CTV: The Comedy Network, and then under its current nameComedy Central. Depictions in media The character Goldie on theShowtimeseriesI'm Dying Up Hereis based loosely on Shore. Joe Rogandedicated his 2018 comedy specialStrange Timesto Shore following her death earlier in the year. Personal life Shore and her husbandSammywere married in 1950 and divorced in 1974.They had four children: sons Peter, Scott, andPauly, and daughter Sandi. Death On April 11, 2018, at the age of 87, Shore died of an undisclosed neurological disorder at a hospice inWest Hollywood, California.She had been suffering fromParkinson's diseasein her later years. References External links"
] | [
"The Comedy Store The Comedy Storeis an Americancomedy clubopened in April 1972. It is located inWest Hollywood, California, at 8433Sunset Boulevardon theSunset Strip. An associated club is located inLa Jolla,San Diego,California. History The Comedy Store was opened in April 1972 by comediansSammy Shore(1927–2019), andRudy De Luca. The building was formerly the home of Club Seville (1935),later,Ciro's(1940–1957), a popular Hollywood nightclub owned byWilliam Wilkerson, and later Ciro's Le Disc,arock and rollvenue,wherethe Byrdswere discovered in 1964. When the venue reopened as The Comedy Store in 1972, it included a 99-seat theatre. As a result of a divorce settlement, Sammy Shore's ex-wifeMitzi Shorebegan operating the club in 1973, and she was able to buy the building in 1976. She immediately renovated and expanded the club to include a 450-seat main room. In 1974, The Comedy Store hosted the wedding reception of newlywedsLiza MinnelliandJack Haley, Jr.The Comedy Club signage was covered, for the evening,",
"for the evening, by signs reading \"Ciro's\", denoting the venue's prior identity. The event was attended by many dozens of Hollywood glitterati, includingElizabeth Taylor,Sammy Davis Jr.,Cher,Bob Fosse,Johnny Carson,Goldie Hawn,Cesar Romero,Priscilla Presleyand other stars, past and present. Locations The original Comedy Store on Sunset at Ciro's had been joined by the Comedy StoreWestwood, at 1621 Westwood Blvd.,the Comedy StoreLa Jolla, at 916 Pearl St.,Comedy Store Playhouse,on Las Palmas, Comedy Store at the Sheraton Universal Hotel,inUniversal City,and the Comedy Store Las Vegas at theDunes Hotel. Job action Beginning in 1979, The Comedy Store served for many years as the host location for the annualHBOYoung Comediansspecials. Tension between the club owners stems from a 1979 strike of Los Angeles comedians against the Comedy Store's \"no-pay policy\". Until that time, neitherShorenorFriedmanpaid comedians a salary. The theory was that comedians should almost be paying the owners for the exposure the clubs",
"exposure the clubs provided. When the comedians' strike began,The Improv(opened in 1974 at 8162 Melrose Avenue) was closed for fire-damage repairs. Therefore, the strike focused on Shore, not Friedman. Also in 1979,stand-upcomedians formed a short-lived labor union and demanded to be paid for their appearances at The Comedy Store. For six weeks (beginning in March),several comedians staged a protest in front of the club, while others crossed the picket line.The comedians involved formed a union called Comedians for Compensation and fought for pay where they had received none before. They eventually picketed in front of the club when their demands were not met.Jay LenoandDavid Lettermanwere among those on the picket line whileGarry ShandlingandYakov Smirnoffcrossed the line. The job action was not legally a strike as the comedians were classified as \"independent contractors\" and were not under contract with the club. Mitzi Shore arguedthat the club was and had always been a showcase and training ground for",
"training ground for young comedians and was not about profits. She alleged that comedians came to the club and could work on their material in front of casting agents and other talent scouts who would possibly hire them as professionals if they were good enough. The comedians at the club became unhappy when the club was expanded several times and it was perceived that Shore's profits were quite substantial. Shore also paid the rest of her staff, including waitresses and bartenders. After the strike, some comedians were no longer allowed to perform at the club, including Steve Lubetkin, who committed suicide by jumping off the roof of theContinental Hyatt Housenext door. His suicide note included the line: \"My name is Steve Lubetkin. I used to work at The Comedy Store.\"Lubetkin hoped that his suicide would resolve the labor dispute. He also cited Shore as the reason he no longer had a job. The union ceased to exist in 1980, although from the time of the job action onward, comedians in Los Angeles were paid",
"Angeles were paid for their shows. This included The Comedy Store andThe Improv. Cresthill house \"When she and Sammy divorced in 1974, he gave her the club to lower his alimony payments; two years later, after being briefly evicted (and opening a new Comedy Store location in Westwood), she negotiated a deal to buy the entire building — plus Cresthill...around the time of Lubetkin’s suicide(After a bitter labor dispute between comedians and management), she essentially gave the place over to the comedians who worked at the Store.\" Mitzi Shore also owned a 5,000-square-foot house a few doors away from the club, on 8420 Cresthill Road. The house was bought with the club in 1976. In 1979, she started to let the comedians from the clubs sleep there. During the 1980s, numerous comedians resided or just partied there, including Andrew Dice Clay, Marc Maron, Robin Williams, and Richard Pryor.Argus HamiltonandMike Binderwere the first to officially move into the house.Dave Coulierwas also an early resident, andYakov",
"resident, andYakov Smirnoffmoved in in 1980. The place was known for its all-night parties and heavy consumption of cocaine and alcohol.Bill Hicksmoved there in 1980 when he was 18 and running away from his parents to pursue his career as a comedian. Many of those comedians developed their style while residing there.Sam Kinisonwas a pillar there, andJim Carreyturned his act around in this house. Mitzi Shore had a plan to cash in on the house's unique atmosphere, and even shot a 12-minute pilot around 1987 starring Daphne Davis, Nancy Redman, and Tamayo Otsuki. In 1988, because of the debauchery that had been going on for years, Mitzi Shore kicked everybody out of the house and turned it into a recovery house. By the early 1990s, Her son Pauly moved into the house, and by the end of the 1990s, the house was sold. Notable alumni Knoedelseder, William(2009).I'm Dying Up Here: Heartbreak and High Times in Standup Comedy's Golden Era(1st ed.). New York:PublicAffairs.ISBN9781586483173.— \"A history of the young",
"of the young comedians coming to Los Angeles in the 1970s and performing at the club.\" Docu-series A docu-series based on The Comedy Store debuted onShowtimein October 2020. Each episode is an hour long and breaks down a different time period throughout the existence of the Comedy Store. The director,Mike Bindergoes on a podcast with a different comedian to set the tone and help provide the narrative of each episode. Episodes References External links",
"Sammy Shore Sammy Shore(February 7, 1927 – May 18, 2019)was an American actor, stand-up comedian and co-founder ofThe Comedy Store. Early life Sammy Shore was born in 1927inNew York Cityat the start of theGreat Depression in the United States. He grew up in a traditional household to Jewish parents. Career Shore began his career doing stand-up comedy withShecky Greenein theCatskill Mountains.He was chosen, in 1969, toopenforElvis Presley’s comeback performance at theInternational Hotel,Las Vegas. He then opened for Elvis’ road shows until 1972.Shore continued to perform comedy, opening forTony Orlando,Tony Bennett,Barbra Streisand,Sammy Davis Jr. and others.Shore served in theU.S. NavyduringWorld War II. On April 7, 1972, he founded the Comedy Store with his writing partner Rudy De Luca.In 1974, his ex-wife,Mitzi, became the owner of the club.The club launched the careers of many comedians includingRodney Dangerfield,David Letterman,Eddie Murphy,Robin Williams,Jim Carrey, andJoe Rogan, also including his own",
"including his own son, Pauly. Shore appeared in many films includingThe BellboywithJerry Lewisand bothLife StinksandHistory of the World Part 1fromMel Brooks.He appeared onThe Ed Sullivan Showand was onSanford and Son. Shore was voted Best Comedy Act inAtlantic City, New Jersey, and theLos Angeles Board of Supervisorsnamed a day after him on July 24, 1990. He appeared atHarrah's Casinosand hotels more than any other entertainer. Personal life Shore was married to Mitzi for 24 years, and was the father of four, including actor and comedianPauly Shore.Shore married Suzanne Dennie in 1990. She wasMiss Alabamain 1970.They remained together until his death inLas Vegas, Nevadaof natural causes at the age of 92. References IMDB",
"Mitzi Shore Mitzi Shore(bornLillian Saidel; July 25, 1930 – April 11, 2018) was an American comedy club owner. Her husband,Sammy Shore, co-foundedThe Comedy Storein 1972 and she became its owner two years later. Through the club, she had a huge influence on the careers of up-and-coming comedians for many decades. Early life Shore was born Lillian Saidel inMarinette, Wisconsin, on July 25, 1930, the daughter of Jewish parents Fanny and Morris Saidel. Her father was a traveling salesman. She grew up nearGreen Bay, Wisconsin,and attendedGreen Bay East High School.She later studied art at theUniversity of Wisconsin–Madison, but dropped out to marrySammy Shoreafter meeting him in 1950. Career Overview Shore's husband Sammy co-foundedThe Comedy Storein 1972 alongside screenwriter and actorRudy De Luca.When Sammy and Mitzi divorced in 1974, Mitzi acquired complete ownership as part of their divorce settlement.Sammy was later quoted in 2003 by theLos Angeles Timesas explaining that he \"relinquished control of the",
"control of the club to lower his alimony payments\".Shortly after she took full control, Shore obtained a significant cash loan from comedianShecky Greeneto help ensure continued operations. She was not only involved in day-to-day management but also in the recruitment and development of talent. Comedians whose rise to fame was associated with working at the Comedy Store includeRoseanne Barr,Bill Burr,Jim Carrey,Chevy Chase,Andrew Dice Clay,Joey Diaz,Whoopi Goldberg,Bobcat Goldthwait,Tony Hinchcliffe,Sam Kinison,Bobby Lee,Jay Leno,David Letterman,Sebastian Maniscalco,Marc Maron,Carlos Mencia,Joe Rogan,Jerry Seinfeld,Garry Shandling,Duncan Trussell,Robin Williams, andJohn Witherspoon. 1979 strike and picket Shore refused to pay comics who performed in her club, insisting that the venue was a sort of \"college of comedy\" where comedians learned their craft rather than a money-making enterprise.However, in 1979, after the club had been expanded extensively, comedians began to insist that they be paid for their",
"be paid for their work.Shore refused and the performers picketed the establishment in what became a bitter six-weekstrike action.Among those involved in leading the strike wereJay Leno,Tom Dreesen, and the club's MCDavid Letterman. After several months of picketing, and an incident in which Leno was injured by a car attempting to rush the picket line, Shore relented after Budd Friedman fromThe Improvdecided to start paying comics. She then agreed to pay talent $15 (an amount equal to $63 today)per set.The events in L.A. set a precedent that resulted in New York City comedy clubs beginning to pay their talent as well, and other comedy clubs across the U.S. followed suit by paying comics to perform. Belly Room As early as 1978, Shore had converted the upstairs section of The Comedy Store into the Belly Room: a 50-seat audience for which she exclusively booked female comedians. At the time, professional comedy was very much a \"boys' club\", and bookings for female comedians were rare; opportunities for women to",
"for women to perform their own stand-up material with the most popular comics in the U.S. were unheard of. Shore's liberal risk-taking with booking talent continued for decades.In the 1990s, once female comics had become more established, Shore continued to cross boundaries with her audience by creating specialty nights for Latino, gay and lesbian performers. She was also instrumental in providing a space for Black American comics in Los Angeles. Phat Tuesday's became a staple in the Black comedy scene and was the start of many of today's favorite comics. Comedy Channel Inc. Shore owned and operated Comedy Channel Inc. from 1982 until her death—a company established to create and sell video tapes of performances at The Comedy Store. In 1989, HBO launched its premium cable service The Comedy Channel.Shore's suit claimed HBO's service was an \"indirect unauthorized use\" of the name and trademark Comedy Channel.Mitzi Shore retained counsel James Blancarte and sued HBO for copyright infringement.The channel",
"channel merged with Viacom's competingHa!channel two years later, first under the name CTV: The Comedy Network, and then under its current nameComedy Central. Depictions in media The character Goldie on theShowtimeseriesI'm Dying Up Hereis based loosely on Shore. Joe Rogandedicated his 2018 comedy specialStrange Timesto Shore following her death earlier in the year. Personal life Shore and her husbandSammywere married in 1950 and divorced in 1974.They had four children: sons Peter, Scott, andPauly, and daughter Sandi. Death On April 11, 2018, at the age of 87, Shore died of an undisclosed neurological disorder at a hospice inWest Hollywood, California.She had been suffering fromParkinson's diseasein her later years. References External links"
] |
In series six of Downton Abbey, Lord Merton is diagnosed with a terminal condition. A deficiency in which vitamin causes this condition? | Vitamin B12 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downton_Abbey | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pernicious_anemia | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downton_Abbey', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pernicious_anemia'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downton_Abbey",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pernicious_anemia"
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"Downton Abbey Downton Abbeyis a Britishhistorical dramatelevision series set in the early 20th century, created and co-written byJulian Fellowes. It first aired in the United Kingdom onITVon 26 September 2010 and in the United States onPBS, which supported its production as part of itsMasterpiece Classicanthology, on 9 January 2011. The show ran for fifty-two episodes across six series, including five Christmas specials. The series, set on the fictionalYorkshirecountry estateof Downton Abbey between 1912 and 1926, depicts the lives of thearistocraticCrawley family and theirdomestic servantsin the post-Edwardian era, and the effects the great events of the time have on their lives and on theBritish social hierarchy. These events include news of thesinking of theTitanic(first series); the outbreak of theFirst World War, theSpanish influenza pandemicand theMarconi scandal(second series); theIrish War of Independenceleading to the formation of theIrish Free State(third series); theTeapot Dome scandal(fourth series); and theBritish general election of 1923and theBeer Hall Putsch(fifth series). The sixth and final series introduces the rise of the working class during theinterwar periodand hints at the eventual decline of theBritish aristocracy. Downton Abbeyhas received acclaim from television critics andnumerous accolades, including aGolden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Filmand aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries or Movie. It was recognised byGuinness World Recordsas the most critically acclaimed English-language television series of 2011. It earned 27Primetime Emmy Awardnominations after its first two series, the most for any international television series in the awards' history.It was the most watched television series on both ITV and PBS, and became the most successful Britishcostume dramasince the 1981 television serial ofBrideshead Revisited. On 26 March 2015,Carnival Filmsand ITV announced that the sixth series would be the last; it aired on ITV between 20 September 2015 and 8 November 2015. The final episode, the annual Christmas special, was broadcast on 25 December 2015. Afilm adaptation, a continuation of the series, was confirmed on 13 July 2018 and released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, and in the United States on 20 September 2019. A second feature film,Downton Abbey: A New Era, was released in the United Kingdom on 29 April 2022 byUniversal Pictures, and in the United States and Canada on 20 May 2022 byFocus Features.A third film is in production. Plot overview Series 1 (2010) The first series, comprising seven episodes, explores the lives of the fictional Crawley family, the hereditary Earl of Grantham, and their domestic servants. The storyline centres on thefee tail, or \"entail\", governing the titled elite, which endows title and estate exclusively tomale heirs. As part of the backstory, the main character, Robert Crawley, Earl of Grantham, had resolved his father's past financial difficulties by marrying Cora Levinson, an American heiress. Her considerabledowryis now contractually incorporated into the committal entail in perpetuity; however, Robert and Cora have three daughters and no son. As the eldest daughter, Lady Mary Crawley had agreed to marry her second cousin Patrick, the son of the then-heir presumptiveJames Crawley. The series begins the day after thesinking of RMSTitanicon 14/15 April 1912. The first episode starts as news reaches Downton Abbey that both James and Patrick have perished in the sinking of the ocean liner. The family then learns that a more distant and unknown male cousin, solicitor Matthew Crawley, the son of anupper-middle-classdoctor, has become the next heir presumptive. The story initially centres on the relationship between Lady Mary and Matthew, who resists embracing an aristocratic lifestyle, while Lady Mary resists her own attraction to the new heir presumptive. Of several subplots, one involves John Bates, Lord Grantham's newvaletand formerBoer Warbatman, and Thomas Barrow, an ambitious youngfootman, who resents the former for taking a position he had desired for himself. Bates and Thomas remain at odds as Barrow works to sabotage Bates's every move. After learning Bates had recently been released from prison, Thomas and Miss O'Brien (Lady Grantham'slady's maid) begin a relentless pursuit that nearly ruins the Crawley family in scandal. Barrow – ahomosexualman in lateEdwardian England– and O'Brien create havoc for most of the staff and family. When Barrow is caught stealing, he hands in hisnoticeto join theRoyal Army Medical Corps. Matthew eventually does propose to Lady Mary, but she puts him off when Lady Grantham becomes pregnant, understanding that Matthew would no longer be heir if the baby is a boy. Cora loses the baby after O'Brien, believing she is soon to be fired, retaliates by leaving a bar of soap on the floor next to the bathtub, causing Cora to slip while getting out of the tub, and the fall resulting in a miscarriage. It is later revealed that the miscarried foetus was a male. Although Lady Mary intends to accept Matthew, Matthew believes her reluctance is due to the earlier uncertainty of his heirship and emotionally rescinds his proposal, leaving Lady Mary devastated. The series ends just after theassassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinandand the outbreak of theFirst World Warin August 1914. Series 2 (2011) The second series comprises eight episodes and runs from theBattle of the Sommein 1916 to the1918 Spanish flu pandemic. During the war, Downton Abbey is temporarily converted into an officers'convalescent hospital. Matthew, having left Downton, is now aBritish Armyofficer and has become engaged. His fiancée is Lavinia Swire, the niece of aLiberalminister. William Mason, the second footman, is drafted, even after attempts by the Dowager Countess of Grantham to save him fromconscription. William is taken under Matthew's protection as his personalorderly. Enduring trench warfare and charging against machine guns and artillery, both are injured by an exploding shell. William dies from his wounds, but only after a deathbed marriage to Daisy, thekitchen maid. While Daisy does not believe she loves William, she marries him in his last hours as his dying wish. It is not until a brief encounter with the Dowager Countess that she begins to realise that her love was real, but she could not admit it to herself. Matthew is now paralysed from the waist down by his battle injury, and seemingly unable to father children. Lavinia remains true to him despite his attempts to set her free, and he finally accepts her devotion. Mary, while acknowledging her feelings for Matthew, becomes engaged to Sir Richard Carlisle, a powerful and overbearing newspaper mogul, but their relationship is rocky. Bates's wife, Vera, repeatedly causes trouble for John and Anna, who are now engaged. Vera threatens to expose Mary's past scandalous indiscretion, but Carlisle agrees to purchase andkillher story. Embittered, Mrs Bates mysteriously commits suicide with an arsenic pie after a visit by Bates, and he is arrested on suspicion of her murder. Matthew regains the use of his legs, and he and Mary realise they are still in love, but Matthew remains honourably committed to Lavinia after she stood by him during his misfortune. Unknown to them both, Lavinia, ill withSpanish flu, sees and overhears Matthew and Mary admit their love for one another while dancing to a song playing on thephonographgifted as a wedding present to Matthew and Lavinia. The Spanish influenza epidemic hits Downton Abbey further with Cora taken seriously ill, as well as Carson, thebutler. During the outbreak, Thomas attempts to make up for his inability to find other employment after the war by making himself as useful as possible and is made Lord Grantham's valet after Bates is arrested. Lavinia dies abruptly, which causes great guilt to both Matthew and Mary. Bates is found guilty of murder and sentenced to death but the sentence iscommutedto life in prison due to Lord Grantham's influence. After a talk with Robert, Mary realises that she must break off her engagement to Carlisle; he and Matthew fight in the drawing room, but in the end Carlisle goes quietly and is never heard from again. The annual Servants' Ball is held at Downton, and Mary and Matthew finally find their way to a marriage proposal on a snowy evening outside the Abbey. Lady Sybil, the youngest Crawley daughter, beginning to find her aristocratic life stifling, falls in love with Tom Branson, the new chauffeur ofIrishdescent with strongsocialistleanings. She is talked out ofelopementby her sisters, but her wayward marriage eventually receives Lord Grantham's reluctant blessing. Ethel Parks, a new housemaid, is seduced by a wounded officer, Major Bryant. Mrs Hughes, the housekeeper, finds them together in bed and dismisses Ethel, but takes pity on her and helps her when Ethel tells her she is pregnant. She has a baby boy and names him Charlie after his father, but Major Bryant refuses to acknowledge his paternity. The filming location,Highclere Castle, in reality served as a convalescent home during World War I. Series 3 (2012) In episode one of the third series, covering 1920 to 1921, preparations are underway for Mary and Matthew's wedding. Tom and Sybil Branson arrive from Ireland, where they now live, to attend the wedding. Also arriving to attend the wedding of her granddaughter is Cora's mother, Martha Levinson, from America. Robert (Lord Grantham) learns that the bulk of the family's fortune (including Cora's dowry) has been lost due to his impetuous investment in theGrand Trunk Railway. Meanwhile Edith has fallen for Sir Anthony Strallan, whom Robert discourages from marrying Edith due to his age and crippled arm. At Edith's insistence, Robert gives in and welcomes Sir Anthony, but even though he loves her, Strallan cannot accept that the Grantham family disapproves of the match, and at the altar announces that he cannot go through with the wedding, devastating Edith. Strallan flees the church and is never heard from again. Meanwhile, Bates's cellmate plants a small surgical knife in his bedding, but Bates is informed by a fellow prisoner allowing him time to find and hide it (this same small knife is later used by Bates to threaten his cellmate when he had been using his connections through corrupt prison guards to keep a witness from testifying to Bates's innocence of the crime for which he is incarcerated). At Downton, Mrs Hughes finds out she may havebreast cancer, which only some of the household hear about, causing deep concern, but the tumour turns out to bebenign. Tom Branson and Lady Sybil, now pregnant, return to Downton after Tom is implicated in the burning of an Anglo-Irish aristocrat's house. After Matthew's reluctance to accept an inheritance from Lavinia's recently deceased father and then Robert's reluctance to accept that inheritance as a gift, Matthew and Robert reach a compromise in which Matthew accepts that the inheritance will be used as an investment in the estate, giving Matthew an equal say in how it is run. However, as time goes on Robert repeatedly resists Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise the running of the estate to make it profitable. Tragedy strikes when Sybil dies fromeclampsiashortly after giving birth. Tom, devastated, names his daughter Sybil after his late wife. Bates is released from prison after Anna uncovers evidence clearing him of his wife's murder. Tom becomes the newland agentat the suggestion of Violet, the Dowager Countess. Barrow and O'Brien have a falling out, after which O'Brien leads Barrow to believe that Jimmy, the new footman, is sexually attracted to him. Barrow enters Jimmy's room and kisses him while he is sleeping, which wakes him up shocked, confused, and very angry. In the end, Lord Grantham (familiar with homosexuality from Eton) defuses the situation. The family, except Branson, visits Violet's niece Susan, her husband \"Shrimpie\", theMarquessofFlintshire; and their daughter Rose, inScotland, accompanied by Matthew and a very pregnant Mary. The Marquess confides to Robert that his estate is bankrupt and will be sold, making Robert recognise that Downton has been saved through Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise. At Downton, Edna Braithwaite, the new maid, enters Tom's room and kisses him, whereupon he asks her to leave, and she is eventually fired. Mary returns to Downton with Anna and gives birth to the new heir, but Matthew dies in a car crash while driving home from the hospital after seeing his newborn son. Series 4 (2013) In series four, covering 1922 to 1923, O'Brien leaves to serve Lady Flintshire inBritish India. Cora hires Edna Braithwaite, who had previously been fired for her interest in Tom. Eventually the situation blows up, and Edna is replaced by Phyllis Baxter. Mary deeply mourns Matthew's death. Matthew's newly-found letter states Mary is to be his soleheirand thus gives her management over his share of the estate until their son, George,comes of age. With Tom's encouragement, Mary assumes a more active role in running Downton. Two new suitors—Lord Gillingham and Charles Blake—arrive at Downton, though Mary, still grieving, is not interested. Edith, who has begun writing a weekly newspaper column, and Michael Gregson, a magazine editor, fall in love. Due to British law, he is unable todivorcehis wife, who is mentally ill and in an asylum. Gregson travels toGermanyto seekcitizenshipthere, enabling him to divorce, but is killed by Hitler'sBrownshirtsduring riots. Edith is left pregnant and decides to have an illegal abortion, but changes her mind at the last minute. With the help from her paternal aunt, Lady Rosamund, Edith secretly gives birth to a daughter while abroad, and places the baby with adoptive parents inSwitzerland, but reclaims her after arranging a new adoptive family on the estate. Mr and Mrs Drewe of Yew Tree Farm take the baby in and raise her as their own. Anna is raped by Lord Gillingham's valet Mr Green, which Mr Bates later discovers. Subsequently, Green is killed in a London street accident. A local school teacher, Sarah Bunting, and Tom begin a friendship. In the Christmas special set mainly in London, Sampson, acard sharp, steals a letter written byEdward VIII, thenPrince of Wales, to his mistress, Rose's friendFreda Dudley Ward, which if made public would create a scandal; the entire Crawley family connives to retrieve it, although it is Bates who extracts the letter from Sampson's overcoat, and it is returned to Mrs Dudley Ward. The family hold adebutanteball for Lady Rose following her presentation at court, and the grateful Prince makes an appearance at the ball. Series 5 (2014) In series five, covering the year 1924, aRussian exile, Prince Kuragin, wishes to renew his past affections for the Dowager Countess (Violet). Violet instead locates his wife inBritish Hong Kongand reunites the Prince and his estranged wife.Scotland Yardand the local police investigate Green's death. Violet learns that Marigold is Edith's daughter. Meanwhile, Mrs Drewe, not knowing Marigold's true parentage, resents Edith's constant visits. To increase his chances with Mary, Charles Blake plots to reunite Gillingham and his ex-fiancée, Mabel. After Edith inherits Michael Gregson's publishing company, she removes Marigold from the Drewes and relocates to London. Simon Bricker, an art expert interested in one of Downton's paintings, shows his true intentions toward Cora and is thrown out by Robert, causing a temporary rift between the couple. Mrs Patmore's decision to invest her inheritance in real estate inspires Mr Carson, Downton's butler, to do likewise. He suggests that head housekeeper Mrs Hughes invest with him; she confesses she has no money due to supporting a mentally incapacitated sister. The Crawleys' cousin, Lady Rose, daughter of Lord and Lady Flintshire, becomes engaged to Atticus Aldridge, son of Lord and Lady Sinderby. Lord Sinderby strongly objects to Atticus's marrying outside theJewish faith. Lord Merton proposes to Isobel Crawley (Matthew's mother). She accepts, but later ends the engagement due to Lord Merton's sons' disparaging comments over her status as acommoner. Lady Flintshire employs underhanded schemes to derail Rose and Atticus's engagement, including announcing to everyone at the wedding that she and her husband are divorcing, intending to cause a scandal to stop Rose's marriage to Atticus; they are married anyway. When Anna is arrested on suspicion of Green's murder, Bates writes afalse confessionbefore fleeing toIreland. Baxter and Molesley, a footman and Matthew's former valet, are able to prove that Bates was inYorkat the time of the murder. This new information allows Anna to be released. Cora eventually learns the truth about Marigold, and wants her raised at Downton; Marigold is presented as Edith'sward, but Robert and Tom eventually discern the truth. Only Mary is unaware. When a war memorial is unveiled in the town, Robert arranges for a separate plaque to honour the cook Mrs Patmore's late nephew, who was shot forcowardiceand excluded from his own village's memorial. The Crawleys are invited to Brancaster Castle, which Lord and Lady Sinderby have rented for a shooting party. While there, Lady Rose, with help from the Crawleys, defuses a personal near-disaster for Lord Sinderby, earning his gratitude and securing his approval of Rose. A second footman, Andy, is hired on Barrow's recommendation. During the annual Downton Abbey Christmas celebration, Tom announces he is moving toAmericato work for his cousin, taking daughter Sybil with him. Mr Carson proposes marriage to Mrs Hughes and she accepts. Series 6 (2015) In series six, changes are once again afoot at Downton Abbey as themiddle classrises and morebankrupted aristocratsare forced to sell off their large estates. Downton must do more to ensure its future survival;reductions in staffare considered, forcing Barrow to look for a job elsewhere. Having formed a close bond with young George, Barrow realises that Downton has become the first real home he has ever had, but feels unwanted. Mary defies a blackmailer, who is thwarted by Robert. With Tom's departure to Boston, Mary becomes theestate agent. Edith is more hands-on in running her magazine and hires a female editor. Violet and Isobel once again draw battle lines as a government take-over of the local hospital is considered. Mary begins seeing Henry Talbot, a racing driver, and Edith begins seeing Bertie Pelham, a cousin of the owner of Brancaster Castle. Meanwhile, Anna suffers repeated miscarriages. Mary takes her to a specialist, who diagnoses a treatable condition, and she becomes pregnant again. Mr Carson and Mrs Hughes disagree on where to hold their wedding reception, but eventually choose to have it at the schoolhouse, during which Tom reappears with Sybil, having returned to Downton for good. Coyle, who tricked Baxter into stealing a previous employer's jewellery, is convicted after she and other witnesses are persuaded to testify. After Mrs Drewe kidnaps Marigold when Edith is not looking, the Drewes vacate Yew Tree Farm; Daisy convinces Tom to ask Robert to give her father-in-law, Mr Mason, the tenancy. Andy, a footman, offers to help Mr Mason so he can learn about farming, but Andy is held back by his illiteracy. Barrow offers to teach him to read, but Andy soon trades his help for that of a teacher at the local school. Robert suffers a near-fatal health crisis. Previous episodes alluded to health problems for Robert; hisulcerbursts and he is rushed to the hospital for emergency surgery. The operation is successful, but Mary and Tom must take over Downton's operations. Larry Merton's fiancée, Amelia, encourages Lord Merton and Isobel to renew their engagement, but Violet rightly becomes suspicious. Violet discovers that Amelia wants Isobel, and not her, to be Lord Merton's caretaker in his old age.Daisy and Molesley score high marks on their academic exams; Molesley's are so exceptional that he is offered a teaching position at the school. Mary breaks up with Henry, unable to live with the constant fear he could be killed in an accident like Matthew was. Bertie proposes to Edith, but she hesitates to accept because of Marigold. Violet, upset over Cora replacing her as hospital president, abruptly departs for a long cruise to restore her equanimity. Bertie unexpectedly succeeds his late second cousin as 7th Marquess of Hexham and moves into Brancaster Castle; Edith accepts him. Mary spitefully exposes Marigold's parentage, causing Bertie to walk out. Tom confronts Mary over her malicious behaviour and her true feelings for Henry. Despondent over his inability to find another job and his sense of being unloved, Barrow attemptssuicide, and is saved by Baxter and Andy. Realising the extent of Barrow's pain for the first time, Robert and Carson allow Barrow to stay at Downton while he recovers and searches for new employment. Mary and Henry reunite and are married. Edith returns to Downton for the wedding; she and Mary agree to work on improving their relationship. Mrs Patmore's newbed and breakfastbusiness is tainted by scandal, but saved when Robert, Cora and Rosamund appear there publicly to support her. Mary arranges a surprise meeting for Edith and Bertie with Bertie proposing again. Edith accepts. Edith tells Bertie's moralistic mother Mirada about Marigold; initially appalled, she is won over by Edith's honesty. Barrow, having decided to turn over a new leaf and become a kinder person, finds a position as butler and leaves Downton on good terms, but he is unhappy at his new post; the family and other servants also find themselves missing him. Lord Merton is diagnosed with terminalpernicious anaemiaand Amelia blocks Isobel from seeing him. Goaded by Violet, Isobel pushes into the Merton house and announces she will take Lord Merton to her house to care for and marry him, to his delight. Later, Lord Merton is correctly diagnosed with a non-fatal form ofanaemia. Robert resents Cora's frequent absences as the hospital president, but comes to admire her ability after watching her chair a hospital meeting. Henry and Tom go into business together selling used cars, while Mary announces her pregnancy. Molesley accepts a permanent teaching position and he and Baxter promise to continue seeing each other. Daisy and Andy finally acknowledge their feelings; Daisy decides to move to the farm with Mr Mason, her father-in-law. Carson developspalsyand must retire. Following Robert and Mary's suggestion, Barrow happily returns to Downton as butler, with Carson in an overseeing role. Edith and Bertie are finally married in the series finale, set on New Year's Eve 1925. Anna goes into labour during the reception, and she and Bates become parents to a healthy son. Cast and characters The main cast of the Crawley family is led byHugh Bonnevilleas Robert Crawley, the Earl of Grantham, andElizabeth McGovernas his wife Cora Crawley, the Countess of Grantham. Their three daughters are depicted byMichelle Dockeryas Lady Mary Crawley (Talbot),Laura Carmichaelas Lady Edith Crawley (Pelham) andJessica Brown Findlayas Lady Sybil Crawley (Branson).Maggie Smithis Robert Crawley's mother Violet, Dowager Countess of Grantham.Samantha Bondportrays Lady Rosamund Painswick, Robert's sister who resides inBelgrave Square, London.Dan Stevensportrays Matthew Crawley, the new heir, along withPenelope Wiltonas his mother, Isobel Crawley, who are brought to Downton.Allen Leechas Tom Branson begins the series as the familychauffeur, but falls in love with Lady Sybil, marries her and later becomes theagentfor the estate.David Robbportrays Dr Richard Clarkson, the local town doctor. Joining the cast in series three isLily Jamesas Lady Rose MacClare, a cousin whose mother is Violet's niece Susan, the Marchioness of Flintshire, and who is sent to live with the Crawleys because her parents are serving the empire in India and, later, remains there because of family problems. In series three and four,Shirley MacLaineportrays the mother of Cora Crawley, Martha Levinson. Suitors for Lady Mary's affections during the series includeTom Cullenas Lord Gillingham,Julian Ovendenas Charles Blake, andMatthew Goodeas Henry Talbot. Edith's fiancé and eventual husband Bertie Pelham, 7th Marquess of Hexham, is played byHarry Hadden-Paton. Downton Abbey's senior household staff are portrayed byJim Carteras Mr Carson, thebutler, andPhyllis Loganas Mrs Hughes, thehousekeeper. Tensions rise whenRob James-Collier, portraying Thomas Barrow, afootmanand later avaletandunder-butler, along withSiobhan Finneranas Miss O'Brien, the lady'smaidto the Countess of Grantham (up to series three), plot againstBrendan Coyleas Mr Bates, the valet to the Earl of Grantham, and his love interest and eventual wife, Anna (Joanne Froggatt), lady's maid to Lady Mary.Kevin Doyleplays the unlucky Mr Molesley, valet to Matthew Crawley.Thomas Howesportrays William Mason, the second footman. Other household staff areRose Leslieas Gwen Dawson, ahousemaidstudying to be asecretaryin series one.Amy Nuttallplays Ethel Parks, a maid, beginning in series two and three.Matt Milnejoined the cast as Alfred Nugent, O'Brien's nephew, the awkward new footman for series three and four, andRaquel Cassidyplays Baxter, Cora's new lady's maid, who was hired to replace Edna Braithwaithe, who was sacked.Ed Speleersplays the dashing James (Jimmy) Kent, the second footman, from series three to five. In series five and sixMichael Foxplays Andy Parker, a replacement footman for Jimmy. In series four, five, and sixAndrew Scarboroughplays Tim Drewe, a farmer of the estate, who helps Lady Edith conceal a big secret. The kitchen staff includeLesley Nicolas Mrs Patmore thecook, andSophie McSheraas Daisy, thescullery maidwho works her way up to assistant cook having earlier married William Mason.Cara Theoboldportrays Ivy Stuart, a kitchen maid, joining the cast for series three and four. Crawley family The series is set in Downton Abbey, aYorkshirecountry house, which is the home and seat of theEarlandCountessofGrantham, along with their three daughters and other family members. Each series follows the lives of thearistocraticCrawley family, their friends, and their servants during the reign of KingGeorge V. Production Gareth NeameofCarnival Filmsconceived the idea of anEdwardian-eraTV drama set in a country house and approached Fellowes, who had won anAcademy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay)forGosford Park. The TV seriesDownton Abbey– written and created by Fellowes – was originally planned as a spin-off ofGosford Park, but instead was developed as a stand-alone property inspired by the film, set decades earlier.Although Fellowes was reluctant to work on another project resemblingGosford Park, within a few weeks he returned to Neame with an outline of the first series. Influenced by Edith Wharton'sThe Custom of the Country,Fellowes wrote the scripts; and his wife, Emma, acted as an informalstory editor. Filming locations Highclere Castle in northHampshireis used for exterior shots of Downton Abbey and most of the interior filming.The kitchen,servants' quartersand working areas, and some of the \"upstairs\" bedrooms were constructed and filmed atEaling Studios.Bridgewater Housein the St James area of London served as the family's London home. Outdoor scenes are filmed in the village ofBamptoninOxfordshire. Notable locations include the Church of St Mary the Virgin and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital.The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed at Hall Place nearBeaconsfieldinBuckinghamshire. The fictional Downton Abbey is said to be located inYorkshire. The towns ofEasingwold,Kirkby Malzeard,Kirkbymoorside,Malton,Middlesbrough,Ripon,RichmondandThirsk, each mentioned by characters in the series, lie inNorth Yorkshire, as does the city of York, whileLeeds—similarly mentioned—lies inWest Yorkshire. Yorkshire media speculated the general location of the fictional Downton Abbey to be somewhere in the triangulated area between the towns of Easingwold, Ripon and Thirsk. First World Wartrench warfarescenes in France were filmed in a specially constructed replica battlefield for period war scenes near the village ofAkenhamin ruralSuffolk. Many historical locations and aristocratic mansions have been used to film various scenes: The fictional Haxby Park, the estate Sir Richard Carlisle intends to buy in series two, is part ofWaddesdon ManorinBuckinghamshire.Byfleet ManorinSurreyis the location for theDower house, home to Violet,DowagerCountess of Grantham,whileWest Wycombe ParkinBuckinghamshireis used for the interior scenes of Lady Rosamund (Samantha Bond)'sLondonresidence inBelgrave Square.A house in Belgrave Square is used for exterior shots. The farm scenes in series two in which Lady Edith learns to drive a tractor as part of the war effort were filmed on location at theChiltern Open Air Museumin Buckinghamshire. Inveraray CastleinArgyll, Scotland, doubled as \"Duneagle Castle\" in the 2012 Christmas special. Greys CourtnearHenley-on-ThamesinOxfordshirewas used as the family's secondary property, which they proposed moving into and calling \"Downton Place\" due to financial difficulties in series three. Also in the third series, Bates's prison scenes were filmed atLincoln CastleinLincolnshire. Horsted Keynes railway stationinSussexis used as Downton station.The station is part of the heritageBluebell Railway.St Pancrasstation inLondondoubled forKing's Crossstation in episode one of series four, in the scene where Lady Edith Crawley meets her lover Michael Gregson.The restaurant scene where Lady Edith meets Michael Gregson and where they share their kiss was filmed at theCriterion RestaurantinPiccadilly Circuswhich was originally opened in 1874. Bridgewater House in the St James area of London served as the family's London home. Outdoor scenes are filmed in the village of Bampton in Oxfordshire. Notable locations include St Mary's the Virgin Church and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital. The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed atHall Barn, Hall Place near Beaconsfield in Buckinghamshire, featured as Loxley House, the home of Sir Anthony Strallan. Parts of series four were filmed atThe Historic Dockyard Chatham,Kent– The Tarred Yarn Store was used in episode one as a workhouse where Mrs Hughes (Phyllis Logan) visits Mr Grigg (Nicky Henson) and in episode two, streets atThe Historic Dockyard Chathamwere used for the scenes where Lady Rose MacClare (Lily James) is at the market with James Kent (Ed Speleers) watching her.The production had previously filmed inKentfor series one where the opening sequence of a train going through the countryside was filmed at theKent & East Sussex Railway. Other filming locations for series four include the ballroom of The Savile Club inMayfair, London. Scenes for the 2013 Christmas special were filmed atRoyal Holloway, University of LondonnearEgham, Surrey,West Witteringbeach inWest Sussexand Berkshire'sBasildon ParknearStreatley.Lancaster Housein London stood in forBuckingham Palace. Alnwick Castle, inNorthumberland, was the filming location used for Brancaster Castle in the 2014 and 2015 Christmas specials, which included filming in Alnwick Castle'sState Rooms, as well as on the castle's grounds, and at the nearby semi-ruined Hulne Abbey on theDuke of Northumberland's parklands inAlnwick. In series five and six, Kingston Bagpuize House in Oxfordshire was used as the location for Cavenham Park, the home of Lord Merton.In series six, the scenes of motor racing atBrooklandswere filmed at theGoodwood Circuitin West Sussex. In 2015, Wayfair.co.uk published a map of 70+ Downton Abbey filming locations. The 2019 film ofDownton Abbeyuses many of the television locations such as Highclere Castle and Bampton, as well as exterior shots filmed atBeamish Museum.TheNorth York Moors Railwaywas used for railway scenes. Opening theme music The opening music ofDownton Abbey, titled \"Did I Make the Most of Loving You?\",was composed byJohn Lunn. A suite version was released on the soundtrack for the show on 19 September 2011 in the UK and later in the US on 13 December 2011. The soundtrack also included the song performed by singerMary-Jess Leaverland,with lyrics written byDon Black. Broadcasts The rights to broadcastDownton Abbeyhave been acquired in over 220 countries and territories, and the series has been viewed by a global audience of an estimated 120 million people. United Kingdom The series first aired on theITV networkin the United Kingdom beginning on 26 September 2010, and received its first Britain-wide broadcast when shown onITV3beginning in February 2011. STV, the ITV franchisee in central and northernScotland(including theOrkneyandShetlandislands), originally opted out of showingDownton Abbey, choosing instead to screen a brand-new six-part series ofTaggart, following a long practice of opting out of networked United Kingdom-wide programming on the ITV network.This led to backlash from Scottish viewers, who were frustrated at not being able to watch the programme. Many viewers with satellite or cable television tuned into other regional stations of the ITV network, for exampleITV London, with viewing figures showing this is also commonplace for other ITV programmes.STV announced in July 2011 that it would show the first and second series ofDownton Abbeyas part of its autumn schedule.Scottish cast membersPhyllis LoganandIain Glenwere both quoted as being pleased with the decision. United States In the United States,Downton Abbeywas first broadcast in January 2011 onPBS, as part of the 40th season ofMasterpiece.The programme was aired in four 90-minute episodes, controversially requiring PBS to alter the beginning and endpoints of each episode and make other small changes, slightly altering each episode's structure to fit the programme precisely into the allotted running-time.As part ofMasterpiece, episodes shown on PBS also featuredMasterpiecehost (Laura Linney), who introduced each episode, explaining matters such as \"theentail\" and \"Buccaneers\"for the benefit of American viewers; this was perceived as condescending by some American critics.PBS editing for broadcasts in the United States continued in the subsequent seasons.The final and sixth season aired in 2016. PBS continued to repeat episodes until 2020, whenNBC Universaltook over the US broadcasting rights for its streaming servicePeacock. The series became available onNetflixin 2021. The series also aired on the E! network in 2022. Canada In Canada,VisionTVbegan airing the programme on 7 September 2011;CBC Televisionrepeated the whole series in 2021; Downton Abbey was aired in French onIci Radio-Canada Télé. Australia and New Zealand In Australia, the first series was broadcast on theSeven Networkbeginning on 29 May 2011;the second series was broadcast beginning on 20 May 2012;and the third series beginning on 10 February 2013.In New Zealand,Primebegan airing the first series on 10 May 2011, the second series on 18 October 2011 and the third series on 18 October 2012. Ireland In Ireland, independent television channelTV3aired the first series in January and February 2011. France Downton Abbeywas broadcast onTMCin France beginning in 11 December 2011. Reception Critical response AtMetacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the first series received anaveragescore of 91, based on 16 reviews, which indicates \"universal acclaim\".This result earned the show a Guinness World Record in 2011 for \"Highest critical review ratings for a TV show\", makingDownton Abbeythe critically best received TV show in the world.Season 4 ofBreaking BadsurpassedDownton Abbey's record later in the year, with a score of 96, making the first series ofDownton Abbeythe second highest rated show of 2011. The series has been noted for its relatively sympathetic portrayal of thearistocraticfamily and the class-based society of early 20th-century Britain. This has led to criticism from the political left and praise from the right.James Fentonwrote inThe New York Review of Books, \"it is noticeable that the aristocrats in the series, even the ones who are supposed to be the most ridiculous, never lapse into the most offensive kind of upper-class drawl one would expect of them. Great care has been taken to keep them pleasant and approachable, even when the things they say are sometimes shown to be class-bound and unfeeling.\"Jerry Bowyerargued inForbesthat the sympathy for aristocracy is over-stated, and that the show is simply more balanced than most period dramas, which he believes have had a tendency to demonise or ridicule upper class characters. He wrote thatDownton Abbeyshows \"there is no inherent need for good TV to be left of center. Stories sympathetic to virtue, preservation of property and admiration of nobility and of wealth can be told beautifully and to wide audiences.\" Downton Abbeyhas been a commercial success and received general acclaim from critics, although some criticise it as superficial,melodramaticor unrealistic. Others defend these qualities as the reason for the show's appeal. David Kamp wrote inVanity Fairthat \"melodrama is an uncool thing to trade in these days, but then, that's precisely whyDownton Abbeyis so pleasurable. In its clear delineation between the goodies and the baddies, in its regulated dosages of highs and lows, the show is welcome counter-programming to the slow-burning despair and moral ambiguity of most quality drama on television right now.\"In September 2019,The Guardian,which ranked the show 50th on its list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century, stated that the show \"was TV drama as comfort blanket: at a time of austerity, Julian Fellowes's country house epic offered elegantly realised solace in the homilies of the past\".Mary McNamara ofLos Angeles Timeswrote, \"Possibly the best series of the year.\"Jill Serjeant ofReuterswrote, \"There's a new darling in U.S. pop culture.\"The staff ofEntertainment Weeklywrote, \"It's the biggest PBS phenomenon since Sesame Street.\"David Hinckley ofNew York Daily Newswrote, \"Maintains its magic touch.\" James Parker, writing inThe Atlantic, said, \"Preposterous as history, preposterous as drama, the show succeeds magnificently as bad television. The dialogue spins light-operatically along in the service of multiplying plotlets, not too hard on the ear, although now and again a line lands like a tray of dropped spoons. The acting is superb—it has to be.\"Ben W. Heineman Jr. compared the series unfavourably toBrideshead Revisited, writing \"Downton Abbeyis entertainment. Its illustrious predecessor in television mega-success about the English upper class,Brideshead Revisited, is art.\"He noted the lack of character development in Downton. Writing inThe Sunday Times,A. A. Gillsaid that the show is \"everything I despise and despair of on British television:National Trustsentimentality, costumed comfort drama that flogs an embarrassing, demeaning, and bogus vision of the place I live in.\" Sam Wollaston ofThe Guardianwrote, It's beautifully made—handsome, artfully crafted and acted. Smith, who plays the formidable and disdainful Dowager Countess, has a lovely way of delivering words, always spaced to perfection. This is going to be a treat if you like a lavish period drama of a Sunday evening. While rumoured due to the departure of actorDan Stevens, the death of Matthew Crawley in the 2012 Christmas special drew criticism.Fellowes defended the decision stating that they 'didn't really have an option' once Stevens decided to leave.Stevens later said that he had no say in the manner of his character's departure but that he was 'sorry' his character had died on Christmas Day. The third episode of the fourth series, which aired on 6 October 2013, included a warning at the beginning: \"This episode contains violent scenes that some viewers may find upsetting.\"The episode content, in which Anna Bates was raped, led to more than 200 complaints by viewers to UK television regulatorOfcom,while ITV received 60 complaints directly.On 4 November 2013, Ofcom announced it would not be taking action over the controversy citing the warning given, that the episode was screened after 9 pm, and, that the rape took place 'off-screen'.Series four also introduced a recurring character, black jazz musician Jack Ross, who had a brief romantic affair with Lady Rose. The casting ofGary Carrdrew critical accusations ofpolitical correctnessin the media. The character of Ross was partially based onLeslie Hutchinson(\"Hutch\"), a real-life 1920s jazz singer who had an affair with a number of women in high society, among themEdwina Mountbatten. Ratings The first episode ofDownton Abbeyhad a consolidated British audience of 9.2 million viewers, a 32% audience share—making it the most successful new drama on any channel sinceWhitechapelwas launched on ITV in February 2009. The total audience for the first episode, including repeats andITV Playerviewings, exceeded 11.6 million viewers. This was beaten by the next episode, with a total audience of 11.8 million viewers—including repeats and ITV Player views.Downton Abbeybroke the record for a single episode viewing onITV Player. The second series premiered in Britain on 18 September 2011 in the same 9 pm slot as the first series, with the first episode attracting an average audience of 9 million viewers on ITV1, a 34.6% share.The second episode attracted a similar following with an average of 9.3 million viewers.In January 2012, the PBS premiere attracted 4.2 million viewers, over double the network's average primetime audience of 2 million. The premiere audience was 18% higher than the first series premiere. The second series ofDownton Abbeygave PBS its highest ratings since 2009. The second series averaged 5.4 million viewers, excluding station replays, DVR viewings and online streaming. The 5.4 million average improved on PBS first series numbers by 25%. Additionally, episodes of series two have been viewed 4.8 million times on PBS's digital portal, surpassing the online viewing numbers of series one by more than 400 per cent. Overall,Downton Abbey-related content has racked up more than 9 million streams across all platforms, with 1.5 million unique visitors, since series 2's 8 January premiere.In 2013,Downton Abbeywas ranked the 43rd most well-written TV show of all time by theWriters Guild of America. The third series premiered in the UK on 16 September 2012 with an average of 9 million viewers (or a 36% audience share). For the first time in the UK, episode three received an average of more than 10 million viewers (or a 38.2% audience share).Premiering in the US in January 2013, the third series had an average audience of 11.5 million viewers and the finale on 17 February 2013, drew 12.3 million viewers making it the night's highest rating show.Overall, during its seven-week run, the series had an audience of 24 million viewers making it PBS's highest-rated drama of all time. The fourth series premiered in the UK on 22 September 2013 with an average audience of 9.5 million viewers—the highest ever for one of the drama's debut episodes.It premiered in the US on 5 January 2014, to an audience of at least 10.2 million viewers, outperforming every other drama on that night; it was the largest audience forPBSsince the 1990 premiere of theKen BurnsdocumentaryThe Civil War.The second episode attracted an average of 9.6 million UK viewers. Awards and nominations Cultural reaction Although Julian Fellowes supports aunited Ireland,there has been criticism of the stereotypicalIrish charactersused in the show, specifically the character of Tom Branson's brother, Kieran, portrayed as a rude and boorish drunk.Allen Leech, who plays Tom Branson, defended the series, stating that the show did not portray Irish characters in a pejorative fashion.Branson's character took some criticism in Ireland fromThe Irish Times, which described the character as \"an Irish republican turned Downtonian toff.\" The character of the Earl of Grantham occasionally expresses negative views about Catholics and is described, byThe Washington Post, as \"xenophobic\" but \"at least historically accurate\".Episodes in Season 3 featured Lord Grantham using offensive derogatory terms against Catholics such as the phrase \"left-footer\" and mocking theCatholic Massby calling it a \"gymnastics display\". A dinner scene also features a Protestant minister calling Catholic practices \"pagan\". Fellowes, himself a Roman Catholic, explained that he chose to address this in terms of \"that casual, almost unconscious anti-Catholicism that was found among the upper classes, which lasted well into my growing up years\", adding that he \"thought it might be interesting\" to explore this in the series and described his own experiences where the aristocracy \"were happy for you to come to their dances or shoot their pheasants, but there were plenty who did not want you to marry their daughters and risk Catholic grandchildren.\" Authenticity Fellowes has said he tries to be as authentic in his depiction of the period as he can.Despite this, the show features many linguisticanachronisms.The accents of characters have also been questioned, with theReceived Pronunciationof the actors who play the wealthy characters described as \"slightly more contemporary\" than would be expected among early-20th-century aristocrats; however, this \"elicited more natural and unaffected performances from the cast\". In 2010, Fellowes hiredAlastair Bruce, an expert on state and court ritual, as historical adviser.Bruce explains his role as being \"here to guide the production and particularly the director as they bring Julian's words to life. That also involves getting the social conduct right, and giving actors a sense of surety in the way they deliver a performance.\"ActorJim Carter, who plays butler Carson, describes Bruce as the series \"etiquette watchdog\",and the UK'sDaily Telegraphfinished its 2011 profile of Bruce's role stating \"Downton's authenticity, it seems, is in safe hands.\"However, historianSimon Schamacriticised the show for historical inaccuracies and \"pandering toclichés\".Producer Gareth Neame defended the show, saying, \"Downton is a fictional drama. It is not a history programme, but a drama of social satire about a time when relationships, behaviour and hierarchy were very different from those we enjoy today.\" A \"tremendous amount of research\" went into recreating the servants' quarters atEaling StudiosbecauseHighclere Castle, where many of the upstairs scenes are filmed,was not adequate for representing the \"downstairs\" life at the fictional manor house.Researchers visited nearly 40 English country houses to help inform what the kitchen should look like, and production designer Donal Woods said of the kitchen equipment that \"probably about 60 to 70 per cent of the stuff in there is from that period\".Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Managementis an important guide to the food served in the series, but Highclere owner, and author ofLady Almina and the Real Downton Abbey: The Lost Legacy of Highclere Castle, Lady Carnarvon, states that dinner parties in the era \"would have been even more over the top\" than those shown.Lady Pamela Hicksagreed, stating that \"it is ridiculous to think that a weekend party would consist of only fourteen house guests, it would have consisted of at least 40!\"However, Carnarvon understood the compromises that must be made for television, and adds, \"It's a fun costume drama. It's not a social documentary. Because it's so popular, I think some people take it as historical fact.\" Home media Streaming The series was made available in its entirety on Netflix in June 2021. It has also been made available onAmazon Prime Video,Peacock, the PBS app and PBS.org with a PBS Passport subscription. Blu-ray and DVD On 16 September 2011, two days before the UK premiere of the second series, it was reported byAmazon.comthat the first series ofDownton Abbeyhad become the highest selling DVD boxset of all time on the online retailer's website, surpassing popular American programmes such asThe Sopranos,FriendsandThe Wire. Books The World of Downton Abbey, a book featuring a behind-the-scenes look atDownton Abbeyand the era in which it is set, was released on 15 September 2011. It was written byJessica Fellowes(the niece ofJulian Fellowes) and published byHarperCollins. A second book, also written by Jessica Fellowes and published by HarperCollins,The Chronicles of Downton Abbey, was released on 13 September 2012. It is a guide to the show's characters through the early part of the third series. Four spin-off cookbooks have been published –The Official Downton Abbey Cookbook(2019), which features dishes from the Edwardian period researched by food historian Dr Annie Gray,The Official Downton Abbey Christmas Cookbook(2020) by Regula Ysewijn,The Official Downton Abbey Cocktail Book(2019) and TheOfficial Downton Abbey Afternoon Tea Cookbook(2020). Soundtracks A soundtrack, featuring music from the series and also new songs, was released byDeccain September 2011. Music byJohn LunnandDon Blackfeatures, with vocals fromMary-Jess LeaverlandandAlfie Boe.A second soundtrack was released on 19 November 2012 entitledDownton Abbey: The Essential Collectionand a third and final soundtrack, containing two discs, was released on 15 January 2016 entitledDownton Abbey: The Ultimate Collectionand featured music spanning from all six seasons of the series including some from the first soundtrack. Cultural impact Some of the fashion items worn by characters on the show have seen a strong revival of interest in the UK and elsewhere during the show's run, includingstarched collars,midi skirts, beadedgowns, andhunting plaids. TheEquality (Titles) Billwas an unsuccessful piece of legislation introduced in theUK Parliamentin 2013 that would have allowed equal succession of female heirs tohereditary titles and peerages. It was nicknamed the \"Downton Abbeylaw\" because it addressed the same issue that affects Lady Mary Crawley, who cannot inherit the estate because it must pass to a male heir. The decor used onDownton AbbeyinspiredUS Representative Aaron Schockto redecorate his congressional offices in a more luxurious style.He repaid the $40,000 cost of redecoration following scrutiny of his expenses and questions about his use of public money for personal benefit,and subsequently resigned in March 2015. Other media Due to the show's popularity, there have been a number of references and spoofs on it, such asFamily Guyepisode \"Chap Stewie\", which has Stewie Griffin reborn in a household similar to Downton Abbey, andHow I Met Your Motherepisode \"The Fortress\", where the gang watch a television show calledWoodworthy Manor, which is remarkably similar toDownton Abbey. A short scene featuring the characters of Sybil and Tom Branson made a screen-in-screen appearance in the movieIron Man 3. The Gilded Age Julian Fellowes'sThe Gilded Age, which debuted onHBOin 2022, portrays New York in the 1880s and how itsold New York societycoped with the influx of newly wealthy families.While a separate series, a young Violet, Countess of Grantham, couldmake an appearance on the new show. Film adaptations On 13 July 2018, a feature-length film was confirmed, with production commencing mid-2018.The film was written byJulian Fellowesand is a continuation of the TV series, with direction byBrian Percival. It was distributed byFocus FeaturesandUniversal Pictures International.The film was released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, with the United States following one week later on 20 September 2019.Filming of a sequel began in April 2021.The film was finally released in the UK on 29 April 2022, and in the US on 20 May. In March 2024,Imelda Staunton, who plays Lady Maud Bagshaw in the first two films, and is married toJim Carter(butler Mr Carson), revealed onBBC Radio 2that athird and final filmis in the pipeline.On 13 May 2024 it was announced on social media and the Focus Films website that a third film is planned, withPaul Giamatti,Joely Richardson,Alessandro Nivola,Simon Russell BealeandArty Froushanjoining the cast.On 26 June 2024 it was announced that the film would be released in cinemas on 12 September 2025. See also Notes References Further reading External links",
"Pernicious anemia Pernicious anemiais a disease where not enoughred blood cellsare produced due to a deficiency ofvitamin B12.Those affected often have a gradual onset.The most common initial symptoms arefeeling tiredand weak.Other symptoms may includeshortness of breath, feeling faint, a smooth red tongue,paleskin, chest pain,nauseaandvomiting, loss of appetite, heartburn, numbness in the hands and feet,difficulty walking, memory loss, muscle weakness, poorreflexes, blurred vision, clumsiness, depression, and confusion.Without treatment, some of these problems may become permanent. Pernicious anemia refers to a type ofvitamin B12deficiencyanemiathat results from lack ofintrinsic factor.Lack of intrinsic factor is most commonly due to anautoimmuneattack on thecellsthat create it in thestomach.It can also occur following the surgical removal of all or part of the stomach orsmall intestine; from an inherited disorder or illnesses that damage the stomach lining.When suspected, diagnosis is made byblood testsinitially acomplete blood count, and occasionally,bone marrow tests.Blood tests may showfewer but larger red blood cells, low numbers ofyoung red blood cells, low levels of vitamin B12, andantibodiesto intrinsic factor.Diagnosis is not always straightforward and can be challenging. Because pernicious anemia is due to a lack of intrinsic factor, it is not preventable.Pernicious anemia can be treated with injections of vitamin B12.If the symptoms are serious, frequent injections are typically recommended initially.There are not enough studies that pills are effective in improving or eliminating symptoms.Often, treatment may be needed for life. Pernicious anemia is the most common cause of clinically evident vitamin B12deficiency worldwide.Pernicious anemia due to autoimmune problems occurs in about one per 1000 people in the US. Among those over the age of 60, about 2% have the condition.It more commonly affects people of northern European descent.Women are more commonly affected than men.With proper treatment, most people live normal lives.Due to a higher risk ofstomach cancer, those with pernicious anemia should be checked regularly for this.The first clear description was byThomas Addisonin 1849.The term \"pernicious\" means \"deadly\", and this term came into use because, before the availability of treatment, the disease was often fatal. Signs and symptoms Pernicious anemia often presents slowly, and can cause harm insidiously and unnoticeably. Untreated, it can lead to neurological complications, and in serious cases, death.The onset may be vague and slow and the condition can be confused with other conditions, and there may be few to many symptoms without anemia.Pernicious anemia may be present without a person experiencing symptoms at first, over time,feeling tired and weak,lightheadedness,dizziness, headaches,rapidorirregularheartbeat, breathlessness,glossitis(a sore red tongue), poor ability to exercise,low blood pressure, cold hands and feet,paleoryellowskin, easy bruising and bleeding, low-gradefevers, tremor,cold sensitivity,chest pain,upset stomach,nausea, loss of appetite, heartburn, weight loss,diarrhea,constipation, severejoint pain,feeling abnormal sensationsincluding tingling or numbness to the fingers and toes (pins and needles), and tinnitus, may occur.Anemia may present with a number of further common symptoms,including hair thinning and loss, early greying of the hair, mouth ulcers, bleeding gums,angular cheilitis, a look of exhaustion with pale and dehydrated or cracked lips and dark circles around the eyes, as well as brittle nails. In more severe or prolonged cases of pernicious anemia, nerve cell damage may occur. This is may result in sense loss, difficulty inproprioception,neuropathic pain, difficulty walking, poor balance, loss of sensation in the feet,muscle weakness, blurred vision (either due toretinopathyoroptic neuropathy), impaired urination, fertility problems, decreased sense of taste and smell,decreased level of consciousness, changes in reflexes, memory loss, mood swings,depression,irritability, cognitive impairment, confusion, anxiety, clumsiness, psychosis, and, in more severe cases, dementia.Anemia may also lead to cardiac murmursand/or altered blood pressure (loworhigh). The deficiency may also present with thyroid disorders.In severe cases, the anemia may cause congestive heart failure.A complication of severe chronic PA issubacute combined degeneration of spinal cord, which leads to distal sensory loss (posterior column), absent ankle reflex, increased knee reflex response, and extensor plantar response.Other than anemia, hematological symptoms may includecytopenias, intramedullaryhemolysis, and pseudothrombotic microangiopathy.Vitamin B12deficiency, which is reversible, is occasionally confused withacute myeloid leukemia, which is an irreversible condition presenting with some of the same hematological symptoms, including hypercellular bone marrow with blastic differentiation and hypersegmented neutrophils.Pernicious anemia can causeosteoporosisand may lead tobone fractures.Pernicious anemia can contribute to a delay in physical growth in children, and may also be a cause for delay in puberty for adolescents. Causes Vitamin B12cannot be produced by the human body, and must be obtained from the diet. When foods containing B12are eaten, the vitamin is usually bound to protein and is released by proteases released by the pancreas into the small bowel. Following its release, most B12is absorbed by the body in the small bowel (ileum) after binding to a protein known asintrinsic factor. Intrinsic factor is produced byparietal cellsof thegastric mucosa(stomach lining) and the intrinsic factor-B12-complex is absorbed by enterocytes in theileum'scubamreceptors.PA is characterised by B12deficiency caused by the absence of intrinsic factor.Other disorders that can disrupt the absorption of vitamin B12in the small intestine includeceliac disease, surgical removal ofcrohn's disease, andHIV. PA may be considered as an end stage of autoimmuneatrophic gastritis, a disease characterised by stomach atrophy and the presence ofantibodiesto parietal cells and intrinsic factor.Autoimmune atrophic gastritis, is localised to the body of the stomach, where parietal cells are located.Antibodies to intrinsic factor and parietal cells cause the destruction of the oxyntic gastric mucosa, in which the parietal cells are located, leading to the subsequent loss of intrinsic factor synthesis. Without intrinsic factor, the ileum can no longer absorb the B12.Atrophic gastritis is often a precursor togastric cancer. Although the exact role ofHelicobacter pyloriinfection in PA remains controversial, evidence indicatesH. pyloriis involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. A long-standingH. pyloriinfection may cause gastric autoimmunity by a mechanism known asmolecular mimicry. Antibodies produced by the immune system can be cross-reactive and may bind to bothH. pyloriantigensand those found in thegastric mucosa. The antibodies are produced by activatedB cellsthat recognise both pathogen and self-derived peptides. Theautoantigensbelieved to cause the autoreactivity are the alpha and beta subunits of thesodium-potassium pump.In a study, B12deficiency caused byHelicobacter pyloriwas positively correlated withCagApositivity and gastric inflammatory activity, rather than gastric atrophy.Less commonly,H. pyloriandZollinger-Ellison syndromemay cause a form of nonautoimmune gastritis that can lead to pernicious anemia. Impaired B12absorption can also occur following gastric removal (gastrectomy) or gastric bypass surgery. In these surgeries, either the parts of the stomach that produce gastric secretions are removed or they are bypassed. This means intrinsic factor, as well as other factors required for B12absorption, are not available. However, B12deficiency after gastric surgery does not usually become a clinical issue. This is probably because the body stores many years' worth of B12in the liver and gastric surgery patients are adequately supplemented with the vitamin. Although no specific PA susceptibility genes have been identified, a genetic factor likely is involved in the disease. Pernicious anemia is often found in conjunction with other autoimmune disorders, suggesting common autoimmune susceptibility genes may be a causative factor.In spite of that, previous family studies and case reports focusing on PA have suggested that there is a tendency of genetic heritance of PA in particular, and close relatives of the PA patients seem to have higher incidence of PA and associated PA conditions.Moreover, it was further indicated that the formation of antibodies to gastric cells was autosomal dominant gene determined, and the presence of antibodies to the gastric cells might not be necessarily related to the occurrence of atrophic gastritis related to PA. Pathophysiology Although the healthy body stores three to five years' worth of B12in the liver, the usually undetected autoimmune activity in one's gut over a prolonged period of time leads to B12depletion and the resulting anemia; pernicious anemia refers to one of the hematologic manifestations ofchronic auto-immune gastritis, in which the immune system targets the parietal cells of the stomach orintrinsic factoritself, leading to decreased absorption of vitamin B12. The body needs enough intrinsic factor to absorb and reabsorb vitamin B12from thebile, in which reduces the time needed to develop a deficiency. B12is required by enzymes for two reactions: the conversion ofmethylmalonyl-CoAtosuccinyl-CoA, and the conversion ofhomocysteinetomethionine. In the latter reaction, themethyl groupoflevomefolic acidis transferred to homocysteine to producetetrahydrofolateand methionine. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzymemethionine synthasewith B12as an essential cofactor. During B12deficiency, this reaction cannot proceed, which leads to the accumulation of levomefolic acid. This accumulation depletes the other types of folate required forpurineandthymidylatesynthesis, which are required for the synthesis of DNA. Inhibition ofDNA replicationin maturing red blood cells results in the formation of large, fragile megaloblasticerythrocytes. The neurological aspects of the disease are thought to arise from the accumulation of methylmalonyl- CoA due to the requirement of B12as a cofactor to the enzyme methylmalonyl-CoA mutase. Diagnosis The insidious nature of PA may mean that diagnosis is delayed.Diagnosis is not always straightforward and can be challenging and can take up to several years to receive a diagnosis from the onset of symptoms and almost 60% of those affected are misdiagnosed or not initially diagnosed at all.PA may be suspected when a patient'sblood smearshows large, fragile, immature erythrocytes, known asmegaloblasts. A diagnosis of PA first requires demonstration ofmegaloblastic anemiaby conducting afull blood countand blood smear, which evaluates themean corpuscular volume(MCV), as well themean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration(MCHC).PA is identified with a high MCV (macrocytic anemia) and a normal MCHC (normochromicanemia).Ovalocytesare also typically seen on the blood smear, and apathognomonicfeature of megaloblastic anemias (which include PA and others) is hypersegmented neutrophils.Neuropsychiatric symptoms can precede hematological signs and are often the presenting manifestation of the disease. Vitamin B12serum levels are used to detect its deficiency, but do not distinguish its causes. Vitamin B12levels can be falsely high or low and data forsensitivity and specificityvary widely. Normal serum levels may be found in cases of deficiency wheremyeloproliferative disorders,liver disease,transcobalamin II, orsmall intestinal bacterial overgrowthare present.Low levels of serum vitamin B12may be caused by other factors than B12deficiency, such asfolate deficiency,pregnancy,oral contraceptiveuse,haptocorrindeficiency, andmyeloma.High serum levels may caused by supplementing with vitamin B12, present of antibodies to intrinsic factor, or due to underlying condition. The presence of antibodies to gastric parietal cells and intrinsic factor is common in PA. Parietal cell antibodies are found in other autoimmune disorders and also in up to 10% of healthy individuals. However, around 85% of PA patients have parietal cell antibodies, which means they are a sensitive marker for the disease. Intrinsic factor antibodies are much less sensitive than parietal cell antibodies, but they are much more specific. They are found in about half of PA patients and are very rarely found in other disorders. These antibody tests can distinguish between PA and food-B12malabsorption. A buildup of certain metabolites occurs in B12deficiency due to its role in metabolic processes and cellular functions.Methylmalonic acid(MMA) can be measured in both the blood and urine, whereashomocysteineis only measured in the blood. An increase in both MMA and homocysteine distinguishes B12deficiency from folate deficiency because homocysteine alone increases in the latter. Elevatedgastrinlevels can be found in around 80–90% of PA cases, but they may also be found in other forms of gastritis. Decreased pepsinogen I levels or a decreased pepsinogen I to pepsinogen II ratio may also be found, although these findings are less specific to PA and can be found in food-B12malabsorption and other forms of gastritis. The diagnosis of atrophic gastritis type A should be confirmed by gastroscopy and stepwise biopsy.About 90% of individuals with PA have antibodies for parietal cells; however, only 50% of all individuals in the general population with these antibodies have pernicious anemia. Differential diagnosis Forms of vitamin B12deficiency other than PA must be considered in thedifferential diagnosisof megaloblastic anemia. For example, a B12-deficient state which causes megaloblastic anemia and which may be mistaken for classical PA may be caused by infection with thetapewormDiphyllobothrium latum, possibly due to the parasite's competition with host for vitamin B12. The classic test for PA, theSchilling test, is no longer widely used, as more efficient methods are available. This historic test consisted, in its first step, of taking an oral dose ofradiolabelledvitamin B12, followed by quantitation of the vitamin in the patient's urine over a 24-hour period via measurement of theradioactivity. A second step of the test repeats the regimen and procedure of the first step, with the addition of oral intrinsic factor. A patient with PA presents lower than normal amounts of intrinsic factor; hence, addition of intrinsic factor in the second step results in an increase in vitamin B12absorption (over the baseline established in the first). The Schilling test distinguished PA from other forms of B12deficiency,specifically, fromImerslund–Gräsbeck syndrome, a B12-deficiency caused by mutations inCUBNthat codes forcubilinthe cobalamin receptor. Vitamin B12 deficiency is also prevalent in patients havingCrohn's disease(CD) so it should be differentiated. Treatment Pernicious anemia is usually easily treated by providing the necessary level of vitamin B12supplementation.Pernicious anemia can be treated with intramuscular injections of vitamin B12.Initially in high daily doses, followed by less frequent lower doses, as the condition improves.Activity may need to be limited during the course of treatment.As long as the body is saturated with vitamin B12expected to result in cessation of anemia-related symptoms and there are no other symptoms, unless there are irreversible neurological complications.There are not enough studies on whether pills are as effective in improving or eliminating symptoms as parenteral treatment.Folatesupplementation may affect the course and treatment of pernicious anemia if vitamin B12not replaced.In some severe cases of anemia, ablood transfusionmay be needed to resolve haematological effects.Treatment is lifelong. The treatment of PA varies by country and area. Opinions vary over the efficacy of administration (parenteral/oral), the amount and time interval of the doses, or the forms of vitamin B12(e.g. cyanocobalamin/hydroxocobalamin). More comprehensive studies are still needed in order to validate the feasibility of a particular therapeutic method for PA in clinical practices. Prognosis A person with well-treated PA can live a healthy life. Failure to diagnose and treat in time, however, may result in permanent neurological damage, excessive fatigue, depression, memory loss, and other complications. In severe cases, the neurological complications of pernicious anemia can lead to death – hence the name, \"pernicious\", meaning deadly. There is an increased risk ofgastric cancerin those with pernicious anemia linked to the common feature of atrophic gastritis. Epidemiology PA is estimated to affect 0.1% of the general population and 1.9% of those over 60, accounting for 20–50% of B12deficiency in adults.A review of literature shows that the prevalence of PA is higher in Northern Europe, especially in Scandinavian countries, and among people of African descent, and that increased awareness of the disease and better diagnostic tools might play a role in apparently higher rates of incidence. History A case of anemia with a first recognition of associatedatrophic gastritisa feature of pernicious anemia, was first described in 1824 byJames Combe. This was fully investigated in 1849, by British physicianThomas Addison, from which it acquired the common name ofAddison's anemia. In 1871, the first accurate description of the disease in continental Europe was made byMichael Anton Biermer, aGermanphysician who noted the insidious course of the condition. Because it was untreatable and fatal at the time, he first referred to it as \"pernicious\" anemia.Russellcoined the termsubacute combined degeneration of spinal cord. In 1907,Richard Clarke Cabotreported on a series of 1,200 patients with PA; their average survival was between one and three years.Pernicious anemia was a fatal disease before about the year 1920; until the importance of theliverinhematopoiesiswas recognized, the treatment of pernicious anemia was unsuccessful and arbitrary. It may have motivatedGeorge Whipple, who had a keen interest inliver diseases, to investigate the liver's role in hematopoiesis. Whipple began evaluating the effects of treatments for anemia caused by chronic blood loss. Whipple, Huber, and Robchett studied the effects onhemoglobinand blood regeneration of a variety of treatments, among which only raw liver showed real promise.Serendipity is said to have played a role in this discovery. Whipple observed that blood regeneration was poor in dogs fed cooked liver afterchronic blood loss. Had it not been that a lazy laboratory technician gave the dogs raw liver, the much more dramatic response might not have been discovered then. Around 1926,George MinotandWilliam P. Murphy, who learned of Whipple's discovery, sought raw liver as a treatment for pernicious anemia. They later suggested a high-protein diet with high amounts of raw liver. This caused a rapid improvement in symptoms and a simultaneous rise inred blood cellcounts.Fruitandironwere also part of the diet, and it appears that at this point, Minot and Murphy were not quite sure that the liver was a very important factor. It was thought that iron in liver tissue, not liver juice-soluble factor, cured hemorrhagic anemia in dogs. Thus, the discovery of liver juice as a treatment for pernicious anemia had been by coincidence. However, Minot, Murphy, and Whipple received the joint Nobel Prize for discovering a cure for a previously fatal disease of unknown cause in 1934, becoming the first Americans to be awarded theNobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. It is not easy to eat uncooked liver, and extracts were developed as a concentrate of liver juice forintramuscular injection. In 1928, chemistEdwin Cohnprepared an extract that was 50 to 100 times stronger than obtained from raw liver. This became part of the standard management of pernicious anemia until the 1950s. The active ingredient in the liver remained unknown until 1948.The anti-pernicious anemia factor was only isolated from the liver by Smith, Rex, and others. The substance wascobalamin, which the discoverers called \"vitamin B12\".They showed that giving a few micrograms could prevent relapse in the disease.Dorothy Hodgkinand co-workers went on to useX-ray crystallographyto elucidate the structure of cobalamin for which she, too, was awarded aNobel Prize. Understanding of the pathogenesis of pernicious anaemia increased over subsequent decades. It had long been known that the disease was associated withdefects in the gastrointestinal tract: patients hadchronic gastritisand lack of acid secretion (achlorhydria). It is known that transport of physiological amounts of vitamin B12depends on the combined actions of gastric, ileal and pancreatic components. The gastric moiety was discovered and named 'intrinsic factor' byWilliam Castlein 1930. A further important advance was made in the early 1960s by Doniach with the recognition that pernicious anemia is anautoimmune disease.Pernicious anemia is eventually treated with only injections of B12; injections are typically 1 mg every other day, or twice weekly. A medical author takes the view thatMary Todd Lincoln, the wife of American PresidentAbraham Lincoln, had pernicious anemia for decades and died from it in 1882. Research Permeation enhancers Treatment using oral drugs is an easier option in management but the bioavailabity of B12 is low. This is due to low absorption in the intestine, and breakdown by enzyme activity. Research continues to focus on the use of permeation enhancers or permeation absorbers in combination with the treatment. One of the better performing enhancers studied issalcoprozate sodium(SNAC).SNAC is able to form a noncovalent complex with cobalamin while preserving its chemical integrity and protect B12 from gastric acidity.This complex is much more lipophilic than the water-soluble vitamin B12, so is able to pass through cellular membranes with greater ease.Molecular dynamicsare used in experiments to gain an understanding of the molecular interactions involved in the different molecules used and the degree of ease achieved in absorption across the gastric epithelium. References External links"
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"Downton Abbey Downton Abbeyis a Britishhistorical dramatelevision series set in the early 20th century, created and co-written byJulian Fellowes. It first aired in the United Kingdom onITVon 26 September 2010 and in the United States onPBS, which supported its production as part of itsMasterpiece Classicanthology, on 9 January 2011. The show ran for fifty-two episodes across six series, including five Christmas specials. The series, set on the fictionalYorkshirecountry estateof Downton Abbey between 1912 and 1926, depicts the lives of thearistocraticCrawley family and theirdomestic servantsin the post-Edwardian era, and the effects the great events of the time have on their lives and on theBritish social hierarchy. These events include news of thesinking of theTitanic(first series); the outbreak of theFirst World War, theSpanish influenza pandemicand theMarconi scandal(second series); theIrish War of Independenceleading to the formation of theIrish Free State(third series); theTeapot Dome scandal(fourth",
"Dome scandal(fourth series); and theBritish general election of 1923and theBeer Hall Putsch(fifth series). The sixth and final series introduces the rise of the working class during theinterwar periodand hints at the eventual decline of theBritish aristocracy. Downton Abbeyhas received acclaim from television critics andnumerous accolades, including aGolden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Filmand aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries or Movie. It was recognised byGuinness World Recordsas the most critically acclaimed English-language television series of 2011. It earned 27Primetime Emmy Awardnominations after its first two series, the most for any international television series in the awards' history.It was the most watched television series on both ITV and PBS, and became the most successful Britishcostume dramasince the 1981 television serial ofBrideshead Revisited. On 26 March 2015,Carnival Filmsand ITV announced that the sixth series would be the last; it aired on ITV between 20",
"on ITV between 20 September 2015 and 8 November 2015. The final episode, the annual Christmas special, was broadcast on 25 December 2015. Afilm adaptation, a continuation of the series, was confirmed on 13 July 2018 and released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, and in the United States on 20 September 2019. A second feature film,Downton Abbey: A New Era, was released in the United Kingdom on 29 April 2022 byUniversal Pictures, and in the United States and Canada on 20 May 2022 byFocus Features.A third film is in production. Plot overview Series 1 (2010) The first series, comprising seven episodes, explores the lives of the fictional Crawley family, the hereditary Earl of Grantham, and their domestic servants. The storyline centres on thefee tail, or \"entail\", governing the titled elite, which endows title and estate exclusively tomale heirs. As part of the backstory, the main character, Robert Crawley, Earl of Grantham, had resolved his father's past financial difficulties by marrying Cora",
"by marrying Cora Levinson, an American heiress. Her considerabledowryis now contractually incorporated into the committal entail in perpetuity; however, Robert and Cora have three daughters and no son. As the eldest daughter, Lady Mary Crawley had agreed to marry her second cousin Patrick, the son of the then-heir presumptiveJames Crawley. The series begins the day after thesinking of RMSTitanicon 14/15 April 1912. The first episode starts as news reaches Downton Abbey that both James and Patrick have perished in the sinking of the ocean liner. The family then learns that a more distant and unknown male cousin, solicitor Matthew Crawley, the son of anupper-middle-classdoctor, has become the next heir presumptive. The story initially centres on the relationship between Lady Mary and Matthew, who resists embracing an aristocratic lifestyle, while Lady Mary resists her own attraction to the new heir presumptive. Of several subplots, one involves John Bates, Lord Grantham's newvaletand formerBoer Warbatman, and",
"Warbatman, and Thomas Barrow, an ambitious youngfootman, who resents the former for taking a position he had desired for himself. Bates and Thomas remain at odds as Barrow works to sabotage Bates's every move. After learning Bates had recently been released from prison, Thomas and Miss O'Brien (Lady Grantham'slady's maid) begin a relentless pursuit that nearly ruins the Crawley family in scandal. Barrow – ahomosexualman in lateEdwardian England– and O'Brien create havoc for most of the staff and family. When Barrow is caught stealing, he hands in hisnoticeto join theRoyal Army Medical Corps. Matthew eventually does propose to Lady Mary, but she puts him off when Lady Grantham becomes pregnant, understanding that Matthew would no longer be heir if the baby is a boy. Cora loses the baby after O'Brien, believing she is soon to be fired, retaliates by leaving a bar of soap on the floor next to the bathtub, causing Cora to slip while getting out of the tub, and the fall resulting in a miscarriage. It is later",
"It is later revealed that the miscarried foetus was a male. Although Lady Mary intends to accept Matthew, Matthew believes her reluctance is due to the earlier uncertainty of his heirship and emotionally rescinds his proposal, leaving Lady Mary devastated. The series ends just after theassassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinandand the outbreak of theFirst World Warin August 1914. Series 2 (2011) The second series comprises eight episodes and runs from theBattle of the Sommein 1916 to the1918 Spanish flu pandemic. During the war, Downton Abbey is temporarily converted into an officers'convalescent hospital. Matthew, having left Downton, is now aBritish Armyofficer and has become engaged. His fiancée is Lavinia Swire, the niece of aLiberalminister. William Mason, the second footman, is drafted, even after attempts by the Dowager Countess of Grantham to save him fromconscription. William is taken under Matthew's protection as his personalorderly. Enduring trench warfare and charging against machine guns and",
"machine guns and artillery, both are injured by an exploding shell. William dies from his wounds, but only after a deathbed marriage to Daisy, thekitchen maid. While Daisy does not believe she loves William, she marries him in his last hours as his dying wish. It is not until a brief encounter with the Dowager Countess that she begins to realise that her love was real, but she could not admit it to herself. Matthew is now paralysed from the waist down by his battle injury, and seemingly unable to father children. Lavinia remains true to him despite his attempts to set her free, and he finally accepts her devotion. Mary, while acknowledging her feelings for Matthew, becomes engaged to Sir Richard Carlisle, a powerful and overbearing newspaper mogul, but their relationship is rocky. Bates's wife, Vera, repeatedly causes trouble for John and Anna, who are now engaged. Vera threatens to expose Mary's past scandalous indiscretion, but Carlisle agrees to purchase andkillher story. Embittered, Mrs Bates",
"Mrs Bates mysteriously commits suicide with an arsenic pie after a visit by Bates, and he is arrested on suspicion of her murder. Matthew regains the use of his legs, and he and Mary realise they are still in love, but Matthew remains honourably committed to Lavinia after she stood by him during his misfortune. Unknown to them both, Lavinia, ill withSpanish flu, sees and overhears Matthew and Mary admit their love for one another while dancing to a song playing on thephonographgifted as a wedding present to Matthew and Lavinia. The Spanish influenza epidemic hits Downton Abbey further with Cora taken seriously ill, as well as Carson, thebutler. During the outbreak, Thomas attempts to make up for his inability to find other employment after the war by making himself as useful as possible and is made Lord Grantham's valet after Bates is arrested. Lavinia dies abruptly, which causes great guilt to both Matthew and Mary. Bates is found guilty of murder and sentenced to death but the sentence iscommutedto life in",
"life in prison due to Lord Grantham's influence. After a talk with Robert, Mary realises that she must break off her engagement to Carlisle; he and Matthew fight in the drawing room, but in the end Carlisle goes quietly and is never heard from again. The annual Servants' Ball is held at Downton, and Mary and Matthew finally find their way to a marriage proposal on a snowy evening outside the Abbey. Lady Sybil, the youngest Crawley daughter, beginning to find her aristocratic life stifling, falls in love with Tom Branson, the new chauffeur ofIrishdescent with strongsocialistleanings. She is talked out ofelopementby her sisters, but her wayward marriage eventually receives Lord Grantham's reluctant blessing. Ethel Parks, a new housemaid, is seduced by a wounded officer, Major Bryant. Mrs Hughes, the housekeeper, finds them together in bed and dismisses Ethel, but takes pity on her and helps her when Ethel tells her she is pregnant. She has a baby boy and names him Charlie after his father, but Major Bryant",
"but Major Bryant refuses to acknowledge his paternity. The filming location,Highclere Castle, in reality served as a convalescent home during World War I. Series 3 (2012) In episode one of the third series, covering 1920 to 1921, preparations are underway for Mary and Matthew's wedding. Tom and Sybil Branson arrive from Ireland, where they now live, to attend the wedding. Also arriving to attend the wedding of her granddaughter is Cora's mother, Martha Levinson, from America. Robert (Lord Grantham) learns that the bulk of the family's fortune (including Cora's dowry) has been lost due to his impetuous investment in theGrand Trunk Railway. Meanwhile Edith has fallen for Sir Anthony Strallan, whom Robert discourages from marrying Edith due to his age and crippled arm. At Edith's insistence, Robert gives in and welcomes Sir Anthony, but even though he loves her, Strallan cannot accept that the Grantham family disapproves of the match, and at the altar announces that he cannot go through with the wedding,",
"with the wedding, devastating Edith. Strallan flees the church and is never heard from again. Meanwhile, Bates's cellmate plants a small surgical knife in his bedding, but Bates is informed by a fellow prisoner allowing him time to find and hide it (this same small knife is later used by Bates to threaten his cellmate when he had been using his connections through corrupt prison guards to keep a witness from testifying to Bates's innocence of the crime for which he is incarcerated). At Downton, Mrs Hughes finds out she may havebreast cancer, which only some of the household hear about, causing deep concern, but the tumour turns out to bebenign. Tom Branson and Lady Sybil, now pregnant, return to Downton after Tom is implicated in the burning of an Anglo-Irish aristocrat's house. After Matthew's reluctance to accept an inheritance from Lavinia's recently deceased father and then Robert's reluctance to accept that inheritance as a gift, Matthew and Robert reach a compromise in which Matthew accepts that the",
"accepts that the inheritance will be used as an investment in the estate, giving Matthew an equal say in how it is run. However, as time goes on Robert repeatedly resists Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise the running of the estate to make it profitable. Tragedy strikes when Sybil dies fromeclampsiashortly after giving birth. Tom, devastated, names his daughter Sybil after his late wife. Bates is released from prison after Anna uncovers evidence clearing him of his wife's murder. Tom becomes the newland agentat the suggestion of Violet, the Dowager Countess. Barrow and O'Brien have a falling out, after which O'Brien leads Barrow to believe that Jimmy, the new footman, is sexually attracted to him. Barrow enters Jimmy's room and kisses him while he is sleeping, which wakes him up shocked, confused, and very angry. In the end, Lord Grantham (familiar with homosexuality from Eton) defuses the situation. The family, except Branson, visits Violet's niece Susan, her husband \"Shrimpie\", theMarquessofFlintshire;",
"and their daughter Rose, inScotland, accompanied by Matthew and a very pregnant Mary. The Marquess confides to Robert that his estate is bankrupt and will be sold, making Robert recognise that Downton has been saved through Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise. At Downton, Edna Braithwaite, the new maid, enters Tom's room and kisses him, whereupon he asks her to leave, and she is eventually fired. Mary returns to Downton with Anna and gives birth to the new heir, but Matthew dies in a car crash while driving home from the hospital after seeing his newborn son. Series 4 (2013) In series four, covering 1922 to 1923, O'Brien leaves to serve Lady Flintshire inBritish India. Cora hires Edna Braithwaite, who had previously been fired for her interest in Tom. Eventually the situation blows up, and Edna is replaced by Phyllis Baxter. Mary deeply mourns Matthew's death. Matthew's newly-found letter states Mary is to be his soleheirand thus gives her management over his share of the estate until their son,",
"until their son, George,comes of age. With Tom's encouragement, Mary assumes a more active role in running Downton. Two new suitors—Lord Gillingham and Charles Blake—arrive at Downton, though Mary, still grieving, is not interested. Edith, who has begun writing a weekly newspaper column, and Michael Gregson, a magazine editor, fall in love. Due to British law, he is unable todivorcehis wife, who is mentally ill and in an asylum. Gregson travels toGermanyto seekcitizenshipthere, enabling him to divorce, but is killed by Hitler'sBrownshirtsduring riots. Edith is left pregnant and decides to have an illegal abortion, but changes her mind at the last minute. With the help from her paternal aunt, Lady Rosamund, Edith secretly gives birth to a daughter while abroad, and places the baby with adoptive parents inSwitzerland, but reclaims her after arranging a new adoptive family on the estate. Mr and Mrs Drewe of Yew Tree Farm take the baby in and raise her as their own. Anna is raped by Lord Gillingham's valet Mr",
"valet Mr Green, which Mr Bates later discovers. Subsequently, Green is killed in a London street accident. A local school teacher, Sarah Bunting, and Tom begin a friendship. In the Christmas special set mainly in London, Sampson, acard sharp, steals a letter written byEdward VIII, thenPrince of Wales, to his mistress, Rose's friendFreda Dudley Ward, which if made public would create a scandal; the entire Crawley family connives to retrieve it, although it is Bates who extracts the letter from Sampson's overcoat, and it is returned to Mrs Dudley Ward. The family hold adebutanteball for Lady Rose following her presentation at court, and the grateful Prince makes an appearance at the ball. Series 5 (2014) In series five, covering the year 1924, aRussian exile, Prince Kuragin, wishes to renew his past affections for the Dowager Countess (Violet). Violet instead locates his wife inBritish Hong Kongand reunites the Prince and his estranged wife.Scotland Yardand the local police investigate Green's death. Violet",
"death. Violet learns that Marigold is Edith's daughter. Meanwhile, Mrs Drewe, not knowing Marigold's true parentage, resents Edith's constant visits. To increase his chances with Mary, Charles Blake plots to reunite Gillingham and his ex-fiancée, Mabel. After Edith inherits Michael Gregson's publishing company, she removes Marigold from the Drewes and relocates to London. Simon Bricker, an art expert interested in one of Downton's paintings, shows his true intentions toward Cora and is thrown out by Robert, causing a temporary rift between the couple. Mrs Patmore's decision to invest her inheritance in real estate inspires Mr Carson, Downton's butler, to do likewise. He suggests that head housekeeper Mrs Hughes invest with him; she confesses she has no money due to supporting a mentally incapacitated sister. The Crawleys' cousin, Lady Rose, daughter of Lord and Lady Flintshire, becomes engaged to Atticus Aldridge, son of Lord and Lady Sinderby. Lord Sinderby strongly objects to Atticus's marrying outside",
"marrying outside theJewish faith. Lord Merton proposes to Isobel Crawley (Matthew's mother). She accepts, but later ends the engagement due to Lord Merton's sons' disparaging comments over her status as acommoner. Lady Flintshire employs underhanded schemes to derail Rose and Atticus's engagement, including announcing to everyone at the wedding that she and her husband are divorcing, intending to cause a scandal to stop Rose's marriage to Atticus; they are married anyway. When Anna is arrested on suspicion of Green's murder, Bates writes afalse confessionbefore fleeing toIreland. Baxter and Molesley, a footman and Matthew's former valet, are able to prove that Bates was inYorkat the time of the murder. This new information allows Anna to be released. Cora eventually learns the truth about Marigold, and wants her raised at Downton; Marigold is presented as Edith'sward, but Robert and Tom eventually discern the truth. Only Mary is unaware. When a war memorial is unveiled in the town, Robert arranges for a",
"arranges for a separate plaque to honour the cook Mrs Patmore's late nephew, who was shot forcowardiceand excluded from his own village's memorial. The Crawleys are invited to Brancaster Castle, which Lord and Lady Sinderby have rented for a shooting party. While there, Lady Rose, with help from the Crawleys, defuses a personal near-disaster for Lord Sinderby, earning his gratitude and securing his approval of Rose. A second footman, Andy, is hired on Barrow's recommendation. During the annual Downton Abbey Christmas celebration, Tom announces he is moving toAmericato work for his cousin, taking daughter Sybil with him. Mr Carson proposes marriage to Mrs Hughes and she accepts. Series 6 (2015) In series six, changes are once again afoot at Downton Abbey as themiddle classrises and morebankrupted aristocratsare forced to sell off their large estates. Downton must do more to ensure its future survival;reductions in staffare considered, forcing Barrow to look for a job elsewhere. Having formed a close bond with",
"a close bond with young George, Barrow realises that Downton has become the first real home he has ever had, but feels unwanted. Mary defies a blackmailer, who is thwarted by Robert. With Tom's departure to Boston, Mary becomes theestate agent. Edith is more hands-on in running her magazine and hires a female editor. Violet and Isobel once again draw battle lines as a government take-over of the local hospital is considered. Mary begins seeing Henry Talbot, a racing driver, and Edith begins seeing Bertie Pelham, a cousin of the owner of Brancaster Castle. Meanwhile, Anna suffers repeated miscarriages. Mary takes her to a specialist, who diagnoses a treatable condition, and she becomes pregnant again. Mr Carson and Mrs Hughes disagree on where to hold their wedding reception, but eventually choose to have it at the schoolhouse, during which Tom reappears with Sybil, having returned to Downton for good. Coyle, who tricked Baxter into stealing a previous employer's jewellery, is convicted after she and other",
"after she and other witnesses are persuaded to testify. After Mrs Drewe kidnaps Marigold when Edith is not looking, the Drewes vacate Yew Tree Farm; Daisy convinces Tom to ask Robert to give her father-in-law, Mr Mason, the tenancy. Andy, a footman, offers to help Mr Mason so he can learn about farming, but Andy is held back by his illiteracy. Barrow offers to teach him to read, but Andy soon trades his help for that of a teacher at the local school. Robert suffers a near-fatal health crisis. Previous episodes alluded to health problems for Robert; hisulcerbursts and he is rushed to the hospital for emergency surgery. The operation is successful, but Mary and Tom must take over Downton's operations. Larry Merton's fiancée, Amelia, encourages Lord Merton and Isobel to renew their engagement, but Violet rightly becomes suspicious. Violet discovers that Amelia wants Isobel, and not her, to be Lord Merton's caretaker in his old age.Daisy and Molesley score high marks on their academic exams; Molesley's are so",
"Molesley's are so exceptional that he is offered a teaching position at the school. Mary breaks up with Henry, unable to live with the constant fear he could be killed in an accident like Matthew was. Bertie proposes to Edith, but she hesitates to accept because of Marigold. Violet, upset over Cora replacing her as hospital president, abruptly departs for a long cruise to restore her equanimity. Bertie unexpectedly succeeds his late second cousin as 7th Marquess of Hexham and moves into Brancaster Castle; Edith accepts him. Mary spitefully exposes Marigold's parentage, causing Bertie to walk out. Tom confronts Mary over her malicious behaviour and her true feelings for Henry. Despondent over his inability to find another job and his sense of being unloved, Barrow attemptssuicide, and is saved by Baxter and Andy. Realising the extent of Barrow's pain for the first time, Robert and Carson allow Barrow to stay at Downton while he recovers and searches for new employment. Mary and Henry reunite and are married.",
"and are married. Edith returns to Downton for the wedding; she and Mary agree to work on improving their relationship. Mrs Patmore's newbed and breakfastbusiness is tainted by scandal, but saved when Robert, Cora and Rosamund appear there publicly to support her. Mary arranges a surprise meeting for Edith and Bertie with Bertie proposing again. Edith accepts. Edith tells Bertie's moralistic mother Mirada about Marigold; initially appalled, she is won over by Edith's honesty. Barrow, having decided to turn over a new leaf and become a kinder person, finds a position as butler and leaves Downton on good terms, but he is unhappy at his new post; the family and other servants also find themselves missing him. Lord Merton is diagnosed with terminalpernicious anaemiaand Amelia blocks Isobel from seeing him. Goaded by Violet, Isobel pushes into the Merton house and announces she will take Lord Merton to her house to care for and marry him, to his delight. Later, Lord Merton is correctly diagnosed with a non-fatal",
"with a non-fatal form ofanaemia. Robert resents Cora's frequent absences as the hospital president, but comes to admire her ability after watching her chair a hospital meeting. Henry and Tom go into business together selling used cars, while Mary announces her pregnancy. Molesley accepts a permanent teaching position and he and Baxter promise to continue seeing each other. Daisy and Andy finally acknowledge their feelings; Daisy decides to move to the farm with Mr Mason, her father-in-law. Carson developspalsyand must retire. Following Robert and Mary's suggestion, Barrow happily returns to Downton as butler, with Carson in an overseeing role. Edith and Bertie are finally married in the series finale, set on New Year's Eve 1925. Anna goes into labour during the reception, and she and Bates become parents to a healthy son. Cast and characters The main cast of the Crawley family is led byHugh Bonnevilleas Robert Crawley, the Earl of Grantham, andElizabeth McGovernas his wife Cora Crawley, the Countess of",
"the Countess of Grantham. Their three daughters are depicted byMichelle Dockeryas Lady Mary Crawley (Talbot),Laura Carmichaelas Lady Edith Crawley (Pelham) andJessica Brown Findlayas Lady Sybil Crawley (Branson).Maggie Smithis Robert Crawley's mother Violet, Dowager Countess of Grantham.Samantha Bondportrays Lady Rosamund Painswick, Robert's sister who resides inBelgrave Square, London.Dan Stevensportrays Matthew Crawley, the new heir, along withPenelope Wiltonas his mother, Isobel Crawley, who are brought to Downton.Allen Leechas Tom Branson begins the series as the familychauffeur, but falls in love with Lady Sybil, marries her and later becomes theagentfor the estate.David Robbportrays Dr Richard Clarkson, the local town doctor. Joining the cast in series three isLily Jamesas Lady Rose MacClare, a cousin whose mother is Violet's niece Susan, the Marchioness of Flintshire, and who is sent to live with the Crawleys because her parents are serving the empire in India and, later, remains there because of",
"there because of family problems. In series three and four,Shirley MacLaineportrays the mother of Cora Crawley, Martha Levinson. Suitors for Lady Mary's affections during the series includeTom Cullenas Lord Gillingham,Julian Ovendenas Charles Blake, andMatthew Goodeas Henry Talbot. Edith's fiancé and eventual husband Bertie Pelham, 7th Marquess of Hexham, is played byHarry Hadden-Paton. Downton Abbey's senior household staff are portrayed byJim Carteras Mr Carson, thebutler, andPhyllis Loganas Mrs Hughes, thehousekeeper. Tensions rise whenRob James-Collier, portraying Thomas Barrow, afootmanand later avaletandunder-butler, along withSiobhan Finneranas Miss O'Brien, the lady'smaidto the Countess of Grantham (up to series three), plot againstBrendan Coyleas Mr Bates, the valet to the Earl of Grantham, and his love interest and eventual wife, Anna (Joanne Froggatt), lady's maid to Lady Mary.Kevin Doyleplays the unlucky Mr Molesley, valet to Matthew Crawley.Thomas Howesportrays William Mason, the second footman.",
"the second footman. Other household staff areRose Leslieas Gwen Dawson, ahousemaidstudying to be asecretaryin series one.Amy Nuttallplays Ethel Parks, a maid, beginning in series two and three.Matt Milnejoined the cast as Alfred Nugent, O'Brien's nephew, the awkward new footman for series three and four, andRaquel Cassidyplays Baxter, Cora's new lady's maid, who was hired to replace Edna Braithwaithe, who was sacked.Ed Speleersplays the dashing James (Jimmy) Kent, the second footman, from series three to five. In series five and sixMichael Foxplays Andy Parker, a replacement footman for Jimmy. In series four, five, and sixAndrew Scarboroughplays Tim Drewe, a farmer of the estate, who helps Lady Edith conceal a big secret. The kitchen staff includeLesley Nicolas Mrs Patmore thecook, andSophie McSheraas Daisy, thescullery maidwho works her way up to assistant cook having earlier married William Mason.Cara Theoboldportrays Ivy Stuart, a kitchen maid, joining the cast for series three and four. Crawley family",
"Crawley family The series is set in Downton Abbey, aYorkshirecountry house, which is the home and seat of theEarlandCountessofGrantham, along with their three daughters and other family members. Each series follows the lives of thearistocraticCrawley family, their friends, and their servants during the reign of KingGeorge V. Production Gareth NeameofCarnival Filmsconceived the idea of anEdwardian-eraTV drama set in a country house and approached Fellowes, who had won anAcademy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay)forGosford Park. The TV seriesDownton Abbey– written and created by Fellowes – was originally planned as a spin-off ofGosford Park, but instead was developed as a stand-alone property inspired by the film, set decades earlier.Although Fellowes was reluctant to work on another project resemblingGosford Park, within a few weeks he returned to Neame with an outline of the first series. Influenced by Edith Wharton'sThe Custom of the Country,Fellowes wrote the scripts; and his wife, Emma, acted as",
"Emma, acted as an informalstory editor. Filming locations Highclere Castle in northHampshireis used for exterior shots of Downton Abbey and most of the interior filming.The kitchen,servants' quartersand working areas, and some of the \"upstairs\" bedrooms were constructed and filmed atEaling Studios.Bridgewater Housein the St James area of London served as the family's London home. Outdoor scenes are filmed in the village ofBamptoninOxfordshire. Notable locations include the Church of St Mary the Virgin and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital.The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed at Hall Place nearBeaconsfieldinBuckinghamshire. The fictional Downton Abbey is said to be located inYorkshire. The towns ofEasingwold,Kirkby Malzeard,Kirkbymoorside,Malton,Middlesbrough,Ripon,RichmondandThirsk, each mentioned by characters in the series, lie inNorth Yorkshire, as does the city of York, whileLeeds—similarly",
"mentioned—lies inWest Yorkshire. Yorkshire media speculated the general location of the fictional Downton Abbey to be somewhere in the triangulated area between the towns of Easingwold, Ripon and Thirsk. First World Wartrench warfarescenes in France were filmed in a specially constructed replica battlefield for period war scenes near the village ofAkenhamin ruralSuffolk. Many historical locations and aristocratic mansions have been used to film various scenes: The fictional Haxby Park, the estate Sir Richard Carlisle intends to buy in series two, is part ofWaddesdon ManorinBuckinghamshire.Byfleet ManorinSurreyis the location for theDower house, home to Violet,DowagerCountess of Grantham,whileWest Wycombe ParkinBuckinghamshireis used for the interior scenes of Lady Rosamund (Samantha Bond)'sLondonresidence inBelgrave Square.A house in Belgrave Square is used for exterior shots. The farm scenes in series two in which Lady Edith learns to drive a tractor as part of the war effort were filmed on location at",
"on location at theChiltern Open Air Museumin Buckinghamshire. Inveraray CastleinArgyll, Scotland, doubled as \"Duneagle Castle\" in the 2012 Christmas special. Greys CourtnearHenley-on-ThamesinOxfordshirewas used as the family's secondary property, which they proposed moving into and calling \"Downton Place\" due to financial difficulties in series three. Also in the third series, Bates's prison scenes were filmed atLincoln CastleinLincolnshire. Horsted Keynes railway stationinSussexis used as Downton station.The station is part of the heritageBluebell Railway.St Pancrasstation inLondondoubled forKing's Crossstation in episode one of series four, in the scene where Lady Edith Crawley meets her lover Michael Gregson.The restaurant scene where Lady Edith meets Michael Gregson and where they share their kiss was filmed at theCriterion RestaurantinPiccadilly Circuswhich was originally opened in 1874. Bridgewater House in the St James area of London served as the family's London home. Outdoor scenes are filmed in the",
"are filmed in the village of Bampton in Oxfordshire. Notable locations include St Mary's the Virgin Church and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital. The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed atHall Barn, Hall Place near Beaconsfield in Buckinghamshire, featured as Loxley House, the home of Sir Anthony Strallan. Parts of series four were filmed atThe Historic Dockyard Chatham,Kent– The Tarred Yarn Store was used in episode one as a workhouse where Mrs Hughes (Phyllis Logan) visits Mr Grigg (Nicky Henson) and in episode two, streets atThe Historic Dockyard Chathamwere used for the scenes where Lady Rose MacClare (Lily James) is at the market with James Kent (Ed Speleers) watching her.The production had previously filmed inKentfor series one where the opening sequence of a train going through the countryside was filmed at theKent & East Sussex Railway. Other filming locations for series four include the ballroom of",
"the ballroom of The Savile Club inMayfair, London. Scenes for the 2013 Christmas special were filmed atRoyal Holloway, University of LondonnearEgham, Surrey,West Witteringbeach inWest Sussexand Berkshire'sBasildon ParknearStreatley.Lancaster Housein London stood in forBuckingham Palace. Alnwick Castle, inNorthumberland, was the filming location used for Brancaster Castle in the 2014 and 2015 Christmas specials, which included filming in Alnwick Castle'sState Rooms, as well as on the castle's grounds, and at the nearby semi-ruined Hulne Abbey on theDuke of Northumberland's parklands inAlnwick. In series five and six, Kingston Bagpuize House in Oxfordshire was used as the location for Cavenham Park, the home of Lord Merton.In series six, the scenes of motor racing atBrooklandswere filmed at theGoodwood Circuitin West Sussex. In 2015, Wayfair.co.uk published a map of 70+ Downton Abbey filming locations. The 2019 film ofDownton Abbeyuses many of the television locations such as Highclere Castle and Bampton, as",
"and Bampton, as well as exterior shots filmed atBeamish Museum.TheNorth York Moors Railwaywas used for railway scenes. Opening theme music The opening music ofDownton Abbey, titled \"Did I Make the Most of Loving You?\",was composed byJohn Lunn. A suite version was released on the soundtrack for the show on 19 September 2011 in the UK and later in the US on 13 December 2011. The soundtrack also included the song performed by singerMary-Jess Leaverland,with lyrics written byDon Black. Broadcasts The rights to broadcastDownton Abbeyhave been acquired in over 220 countries and territories, and the series has been viewed by a global audience of an estimated 120 million people. United Kingdom The series first aired on theITV networkin the United Kingdom beginning on 26 September 2010, and received its first Britain-wide broadcast when shown onITV3beginning in February 2011. STV, the ITV franchisee in central and northernScotland(including theOrkneyandShetlandislands), originally opted out of showingDownton Abbey,",
"Abbey, choosing instead to screen a brand-new six-part series ofTaggart, following a long practice of opting out of networked United Kingdom-wide programming on the ITV network.This led to backlash from Scottish viewers, who were frustrated at not being able to watch the programme. Many viewers with satellite or cable television tuned into other regional stations of the ITV network, for exampleITV London, with viewing figures showing this is also commonplace for other ITV programmes.STV announced in July 2011 that it would show the first and second series ofDownton Abbeyas part of its autumn schedule.Scottish cast membersPhyllis LoganandIain Glenwere both quoted as being pleased with the decision. United States In the United States,Downton Abbeywas first broadcast in January 2011 onPBS, as part of the 40th season ofMasterpiece.The programme was aired in four 90-minute episodes, controversially requiring PBS to alter the beginning and endpoints of each episode and make other small changes, slightly altering",
"slightly altering each episode's structure to fit the programme precisely into the allotted running-time.As part ofMasterpiece, episodes shown on PBS also featuredMasterpiecehost (Laura Linney), who introduced each episode, explaining matters such as \"theentail\" and \"Buccaneers\"for the benefit of American viewers; this was perceived as condescending by some American critics.PBS editing for broadcasts in the United States continued in the subsequent seasons.The final and sixth season aired in 2016. PBS continued to repeat episodes until 2020, whenNBC Universaltook over the US broadcasting rights for its streaming servicePeacock. The series became available onNetflixin 2021. The series also aired on the E! network in 2022. Canada In Canada,VisionTVbegan airing the programme on 7 September 2011;CBC Televisionrepeated the whole series in 2021; Downton Abbey was aired in French onIci Radio-Canada Télé. Australia and New Zealand In Australia, the first series was broadcast on theSeven Networkbeginning on 29 May",
"on 29 May 2011;the second series was broadcast beginning on 20 May 2012;and the third series beginning on 10 February 2013.In New Zealand,Primebegan airing the first series on 10 May 2011, the second series on 18 October 2011 and the third series on 18 October 2012. Ireland In Ireland, independent television channelTV3aired the first series in January and February 2011. France Downton Abbeywas broadcast onTMCin France beginning in 11 December 2011. Reception Critical response AtMetacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the first series received anaveragescore of 91, based on 16 reviews, which indicates \"universal acclaim\".This result earned the show a Guinness World Record in 2011 for \"Highest critical review ratings for a TV show\", makingDownton Abbeythe critically best received TV show in the world.Season 4 ofBreaking BadsurpassedDownton Abbey's record later in the year, with a score of 96, making the first series ofDownton Abbeythe second highest rated show of 2011.",
"rated show of 2011. The series has been noted for its relatively sympathetic portrayal of thearistocraticfamily and the class-based society of early 20th-century Britain. This has led to criticism from the political left and praise from the right.James Fentonwrote inThe New York Review of Books, \"it is noticeable that the aristocrats in the series, even the ones who are supposed to be the most ridiculous, never lapse into the most offensive kind of upper-class drawl one would expect of them. Great care has been taken to keep them pleasant and approachable, even when the things they say are sometimes shown to be class-bound and unfeeling.\"Jerry Bowyerargued inForbesthat the sympathy for aristocracy is over-stated, and that the show is simply more balanced than most period dramas, which he believes have had a tendency to demonise or ridicule upper class characters. He wrote thatDownton Abbeyshows \"there is no inherent need for good TV to be left of center. Stories sympathetic to virtue, preservation of",
"preservation of property and admiration of nobility and of wealth can be told beautifully and to wide audiences.\" Downton Abbeyhas been a commercial success and received general acclaim from critics, although some criticise it as superficial,melodramaticor unrealistic. Others defend these qualities as the reason for the show's appeal. David Kamp wrote inVanity Fairthat \"melodrama is an uncool thing to trade in these days, but then, that's precisely whyDownton Abbeyis so pleasurable. In its clear delineation between the goodies and the baddies, in its regulated dosages of highs and lows, the show is welcome counter-programming to the slow-burning despair and moral ambiguity of most quality drama on television right now.\"In September 2019,The Guardian,which ranked the show 50th on its list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century, stated that the show \"was TV drama as comfort blanket: at a time of austerity, Julian Fellowes's country house epic offered elegantly realised solace in the homilies of the",
"the homilies of the past\".Mary McNamara ofLos Angeles Timeswrote, \"Possibly the best series of the year.\"Jill Serjeant ofReuterswrote, \"There's a new darling in U.S. pop culture.\"The staff ofEntertainment Weeklywrote, \"It's the biggest PBS phenomenon since Sesame Street.\"David Hinckley ofNew York Daily Newswrote, \"Maintains its magic touch.\" James Parker, writing inThe Atlantic, said, \"Preposterous as history, preposterous as drama, the show succeeds magnificently as bad television. The dialogue spins light-operatically along in the service of multiplying plotlets, not too hard on the ear, although now and again a line lands like a tray of dropped spoons. The acting is superb—it has to be.\"Ben W. Heineman Jr. compared the series unfavourably toBrideshead Revisited, writing \"Downton Abbeyis entertainment. Its illustrious predecessor in television mega-success about the English upper class,Brideshead Revisited, is art.\"He noted the lack of character development in Downton. Writing inThe Sunday Times,A. A.",
"Sunday Times,A. A. Gillsaid that the show is \"everything I despise and despair of on British television:National Trustsentimentality, costumed comfort drama that flogs an embarrassing, demeaning, and bogus vision of the place I live in.\" Sam Wollaston ofThe Guardianwrote, It's beautifully made—handsome, artfully crafted and acted. Smith, who plays the formidable and disdainful Dowager Countess, has a lovely way of delivering words, always spaced to perfection. This is going to be a treat if you like a lavish period drama of a Sunday evening. While rumoured due to the departure of actorDan Stevens, the death of Matthew Crawley in the 2012 Christmas special drew criticism.Fellowes defended the decision stating that they 'didn't really have an option' once Stevens decided to leave.Stevens later said that he had no say in the manner of his character's departure but that he was 'sorry' his character had died on Christmas Day. The third episode of the fourth series, which aired on 6 October 2013, included a",
"2013, included a warning at the beginning: \"This episode contains violent scenes that some viewers may find upsetting.\"The episode content, in which Anna Bates was raped, led to more than 200 complaints by viewers to UK television regulatorOfcom,while ITV received 60 complaints directly.On 4 November 2013, Ofcom announced it would not be taking action over the controversy citing the warning given, that the episode was screened after 9 pm, and, that the rape took place 'off-screen'.Series four also introduced a recurring character, black jazz musician Jack Ross, who had a brief romantic affair with Lady Rose. The casting ofGary Carrdrew critical accusations ofpolitical correctnessin the media. The character of Ross was partially based onLeslie Hutchinson(\"Hutch\"), a real-life 1920s jazz singer who had an affair with a number of women in high society, among themEdwina Mountbatten. Ratings The first episode ofDownton Abbeyhad a consolidated British audience of 9.2 million viewers, a 32% audience share—making it",
"share—making it the most successful new drama on any channel sinceWhitechapelwas launched on ITV in February 2009. The total audience for the first episode, including repeats andITV Playerviewings, exceeded 11.6 million viewers. This was beaten by the next episode, with a total audience of 11.8 million viewers—including repeats and ITV Player views.Downton Abbeybroke the record for a single episode viewing onITV Player. The second series premiered in Britain on 18 September 2011 in the same 9 pm slot as the first series, with the first episode attracting an average audience of 9 million viewers on ITV1, a 34.6% share.The second episode attracted a similar following with an average of 9.3 million viewers.In January 2012, the PBS premiere attracted 4.2 million viewers, over double the network's average primetime audience of 2 million. The premiere audience was 18% higher than the first series premiere. The second series ofDownton Abbeygave PBS its highest ratings since 2009. The second series averaged 5.4",
"series averaged 5.4 million viewers, excluding station replays, DVR viewings and online streaming. The 5.4 million average improved on PBS first series numbers by 25%. Additionally, episodes of series two have been viewed 4.8 million times on PBS's digital portal, surpassing the online viewing numbers of series one by more than 400 per cent. Overall,Downton Abbey-related content has racked up more than 9 million streams across all platforms, with 1.5 million unique visitors, since series 2's 8 January premiere.In 2013,Downton Abbeywas ranked the 43rd most well-written TV show of all time by theWriters Guild of America. The third series premiered in the UK on 16 September 2012 with an average of 9 million viewers (or a 36% audience share). For the first time in the UK, episode three received an average of more than 10 million viewers (or a 38.2% audience share).Premiering in the US in January 2013, the third series had an average audience of 11.5 million viewers and the finale on 17 February 2013, drew 12.3",
"2013, drew 12.3 million viewers making it the night's highest rating show.Overall, during its seven-week run, the series had an audience of 24 million viewers making it PBS's highest-rated drama of all time. The fourth series premiered in the UK on 22 September 2013 with an average audience of 9.5 million viewers—the highest ever for one of the drama's debut episodes.It premiered in the US on 5 January 2014, to an audience of at least 10.2 million viewers, outperforming every other drama on that night; it was the largest audience forPBSsince the 1990 premiere of theKen BurnsdocumentaryThe Civil War.The second episode attracted an average of 9.6 million UK viewers. Awards and nominations Cultural reaction Although Julian Fellowes supports aunited Ireland,there has been criticism of the stereotypicalIrish charactersused in the show, specifically the character of Tom Branson's brother, Kieran, portrayed as a rude and boorish drunk.Allen Leech, who plays Tom Branson, defended the series, stating that the show",
"that the show did not portray Irish characters in a pejorative fashion.Branson's character took some criticism in Ireland fromThe Irish Times, which described the character as \"an Irish republican turned Downtonian toff.\" The character of the Earl of Grantham occasionally expresses negative views about Catholics and is described, byThe Washington Post, as \"xenophobic\" but \"at least historically accurate\".Episodes in Season 3 featured Lord Grantham using offensive derogatory terms against Catholics such as the phrase \"left-footer\" and mocking theCatholic Massby calling it a \"gymnastics display\". A dinner scene also features a Protestant minister calling Catholic practices \"pagan\". Fellowes, himself a Roman Catholic, explained that he chose to address this in terms of \"that casual, almost unconscious anti-Catholicism that was found among the upper classes, which lasted well into my growing up years\", adding that he \"thought it might be interesting\" to explore this in the series and described his own",
"described his own experiences where the aristocracy \"were happy for you to come to their dances or shoot their pheasants, but there were plenty who did not want you to marry their daughters and risk Catholic grandchildren.\" Authenticity Fellowes has said he tries to be as authentic in his depiction of the period as he can.Despite this, the show features many linguisticanachronisms.The accents of characters have also been questioned, with theReceived Pronunciationof the actors who play the wealthy characters described as \"slightly more contemporary\" than would be expected among early-20th-century aristocrats; however, this \"elicited more natural and unaffected performances from the cast\". In 2010, Fellowes hiredAlastair Bruce, an expert on state and court ritual, as historical adviser.Bruce explains his role as being \"here to guide the production and particularly the director as they bring Julian's words to life. That also involves getting the social conduct right, and giving actors a sense of surety in the",
"of surety in the way they deliver a performance.\"ActorJim Carter, who plays butler Carson, describes Bruce as the series \"etiquette watchdog\",and the UK'sDaily Telegraphfinished its 2011 profile of Bruce's role stating \"Downton's authenticity, it seems, is in safe hands.\"However, historianSimon Schamacriticised the show for historical inaccuracies and \"pandering toclichés\".Producer Gareth Neame defended the show, saying, \"Downton is a fictional drama. It is not a history programme, but a drama of social satire about a time when relationships, behaviour and hierarchy were very different from those we enjoy today.\" A \"tremendous amount of research\" went into recreating the servants' quarters atEaling StudiosbecauseHighclere Castle, where many of the upstairs scenes are filmed,was not adequate for representing the \"downstairs\" life at the fictional manor house.Researchers visited nearly 40 English country houses to help inform what the kitchen should look like, and production designer Donal Woods said of the",
"Woods said of the kitchen equipment that \"probably about 60 to 70 per cent of the stuff in there is from that period\".Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Managementis an important guide to the food served in the series, but Highclere owner, and author ofLady Almina and the Real Downton Abbey: The Lost Legacy of Highclere Castle, Lady Carnarvon, states that dinner parties in the era \"would have been even more over the top\" than those shown.Lady Pamela Hicksagreed, stating that \"it is ridiculous to think that a weekend party would consist of only fourteen house guests, it would have consisted of at least 40!\"However, Carnarvon understood the compromises that must be made for television, and adds, \"It's a fun costume drama. It's not a social documentary. Because it's so popular, I think some people take it as historical fact.\" Home media Streaming The series was made available in its entirety on Netflix in June 2021. It has also been made available onAmazon Prime Video,Peacock, the PBS app and PBS.org with a PBS",
"PBS.org with a PBS Passport subscription. Blu-ray and DVD On 16 September 2011, two days before the UK premiere of the second series, it was reported byAmazon.comthat the first series ofDownton Abbeyhad become the highest selling DVD boxset of all time on the online retailer's website, surpassing popular American programmes such asThe Sopranos,FriendsandThe Wire. Books The World of Downton Abbey, a book featuring a behind-the-scenes look atDownton Abbeyand the era in which it is set, was released on 15 September 2011. It was written byJessica Fellowes(the niece ofJulian Fellowes) and published byHarperCollins. A second book, also written by Jessica Fellowes and published by HarperCollins,The Chronicles of Downton Abbey, was released on 13 September 2012. It is a guide to the show's characters through the early part of the third series. Four spin-off cookbooks have been published –The Official Downton Abbey Cookbook(2019), which features dishes from the Edwardian period researched by food historian Dr Annie",
"historian Dr Annie Gray,The Official Downton Abbey Christmas Cookbook(2020) by Regula Ysewijn,The Official Downton Abbey Cocktail Book(2019) and TheOfficial Downton Abbey Afternoon Tea Cookbook(2020). Soundtracks A soundtrack, featuring music from the series and also new songs, was released byDeccain September 2011. Music byJohn LunnandDon Blackfeatures, with vocals fromMary-Jess LeaverlandandAlfie Boe.A second soundtrack was released on 19 November 2012 entitledDownton Abbey: The Essential Collectionand a third and final soundtrack, containing two discs, was released on 15 January 2016 entitledDownton Abbey: The Ultimate Collectionand featured music spanning from all six seasons of the series including some from the first soundtrack. Cultural impact Some of the fashion items worn by characters on the show have seen a strong revival of interest in the UK and elsewhere during the show's run, includingstarched collars,midi skirts, beadedgowns, andhunting plaids. TheEquality (Titles) Billwas an unsuccessful",
"an unsuccessful piece of legislation introduced in theUK Parliamentin 2013 that would have allowed equal succession of female heirs tohereditary titles and peerages. It was nicknamed the \"Downton Abbeylaw\" because it addressed the same issue that affects Lady Mary Crawley, who cannot inherit the estate because it must pass to a male heir. The decor used onDownton AbbeyinspiredUS Representative Aaron Schockto redecorate his congressional offices in a more luxurious style.He repaid the $40,000 cost of redecoration following scrutiny of his expenses and questions about his use of public money for personal benefit,and subsequently resigned in March 2015. Other media Due to the show's popularity, there have been a number of references and spoofs on it, such asFamily Guyepisode \"Chap Stewie\", which has Stewie Griffin reborn in a household similar to Downton Abbey, andHow I Met Your Motherepisode \"The Fortress\", where the gang watch a television show calledWoodworthy Manor, which is remarkably similar toDownton",
"similar toDownton Abbey. A short scene featuring the characters of Sybil and Tom Branson made a screen-in-screen appearance in the movieIron Man 3. The Gilded Age Julian Fellowes'sThe Gilded Age, which debuted onHBOin 2022, portrays New York in the 1880s and how itsold New York societycoped with the influx of newly wealthy families.While a separate series, a young Violet, Countess of Grantham, couldmake an appearance on the new show. Film adaptations On 13 July 2018, a feature-length film was confirmed, with production commencing mid-2018.The film was written byJulian Fellowesand is a continuation of the TV series, with direction byBrian Percival. It was distributed byFocus FeaturesandUniversal Pictures International.The film was released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, with the United States following one week later on 20 September 2019.Filming of a sequel began in April 2021.The film was finally released in the UK on 29 April 2022, and in the US on 20 May. In March 2024,Imelda Staunton, who",
"Staunton, who plays Lady Maud Bagshaw in the first two films, and is married toJim Carter(butler Mr Carson), revealed onBBC Radio 2that athird and final filmis in the pipeline.On 13 May 2024 it was announced on social media and the Focus Films website that a third film is planned, withPaul Giamatti,Joely Richardson,Alessandro Nivola,Simon Russell BealeandArty Froushanjoining the cast.On 26 June 2024 it was announced that the film would be released in cinemas on 12 September 2025. See also Notes References Further reading External links",
"Pernicious anemia Pernicious anemiais a disease where not enoughred blood cellsare produced due to a deficiency ofvitamin B12.Those affected often have a gradual onset.The most common initial symptoms arefeeling tiredand weak.Other symptoms may includeshortness of breath, feeling faint, a smooth red tongue,paleskin, chest pain,nauseaandvomiting, loss of appetite, heartburn, numbness in the hands and feet,difficulty walking, memory loss, muscle weakness, poorreflexes, blurred vision, clumsiness, depression, and confusion.Without treatment, some of these problems may become permanent. Pernicious anemia refers to a type ofvitamin B12deficiencyanemiathat results from lack ofintrinsic factor.Lack of intrinsic factor is most commonly due to anautoimmuneattack on thecellsthat create it in thestomach.It can also occur following the surgical removal of all or part of the stomach orsmall intestine; from an inherited disorder or illnesses that damage the stomach lining.When suspected, diagnosis is made byblood",
"is made byblood testsinitially acomplete blood count, and occasionally,bone marrow tests.Blood tests may showfewer but larger red blood cells, low numbers ofyoung red blood cells, low levels of vitamin B12, andantibodiesto intrinsic factor.Diagnosis is not always straightforward and can be challenging. Because pernicious anemia is due to a lack of intrinsic factor, it is not preventable.Pernicious anemia can be treated with injections of vitamin B12.If the symptoms are serious, frequent injections are typically recommended initially.There are not enough studies that pills are effective in improving or eliminating symptoms.Often, treatment may be needed for life. Pernicious anemia is the most common cause of clinically evident vitamin B12deficiency worldwide.Pernicious anemia due to autoimmune problems occurs in about one per 1000 people in the US. Among those over the age of 60, about 2% have the condition.It more commonly affects people of northern European descent.Women are more commonly affected than",
"affected than men.With proper treatment, most people live normal lives.Due to a higher risk ofstomach cancer, those with pernicious anemia should be checked regularly for this.The first clear description was byThomas Addisonin 1849.The term \"pernicious\" means \"deadly\", and this term came into use because, before the availability of treatment, the disease was often fatal. Signs and symptoms Pernicious anemia often presents slowly, and can cause harm insidiously and unnoticeably. Untreated, it can lead to neurological complications, and in serious cases, death.The onset may be vague and slow and the condition can be confused with other conditions, and there may be few to many symptoms without anemia.Pernicious anemia may be present without a person experiencing symptoms at first, over time,feeling tired and weak,lightheadedness,dizziness, headaches,rapidorirregularheartbeat, breathlessness,glossitis(a sore red tongue), poor ability to exercise,low blood pressure, cold hands and feet,paleoryellowskin, easy",
"easy bruising and bleeding, low-gradefevers, tremor,cold sensitivity,chest pain,upset stomach,nausea, loss of appetite, heartburn, weight loss,diarrhea,constipation, severejoint pain,feeling abnormal sensationsincluding tingling or numbness to the fingers and toes (pins and needles), and tinnitus, may occur.Anemia may present with a number of further common symptoms,including hair thinning and loss, early greying of the hair, mouth ulcers, bleeding gums,angular cheilitis, a look of exhaustion with pale and dehydrated or cracked lips and dark circles around the eyes, as well as brittle nails. In more severe or prolonged cases of pernicious anemia, nerve cell damage may occur. This is may result in sense loss, difficulty inproprioception,neuropathic pain, difficulty walking, poor balance, loss of sensation in the feet,muscle weakness, blurred vision (either due toretinopathyoroptic neuropathy), impaired urination, fertility problems, decreased sense of taste and smell,decreased level of consciousness, changes",
"changes in reflexes, memory loss, mood swings,depression,irritability, cognitive impairment, confusion, anxiety, clumsiness, psychosis, and, in more severe cases, dementia.Anemia may also lead to cardiac murmursand/or altered blood pressure (loworhigh). The deficiency may also present with thyroid disorders.In severe cases, the anemia may cause congestive heart failure.A complication of severe chronic PA issubacute combined degeneration of spinal cord, which leads to distal sensory loss (posterior column), absent ankle reflex, increased knee reflex response, and extensor plantar response.Other than anemia, hematological symptoms may includecytopenias, intramedullaryhemolysis, and pseudothrombotic microangiopathy.Vitamin B12deficiency, which is reversible, is occasionally confused withacute myeloid leukemia, which is an irreversible condition presenting with some of the same hematological symptoms, including hypercellular bone marrow with blastic differentiation and hypersegmented neutrophils.Pernicious",
"anemia can causeosteoporosisand may lead tobone fractures.Pernicious anemia can contribute to a delay in physical growth in children, and may also be a cause for delay in puberty for adolescents. Causes Vitamin B12cannot be produced by the human body, and must be obtained from the diet. When foods containing B12are eaten, the vitamin is usually bound to protein and is released by proteases released by the pancreas into the small bowel. Following its release, most B12is absorbed by the body in the small bowel (ileum) after binding to a protein known asintrinsic factor. Intrinsic factor is produced byparietal cellsof thegastric mucosa(stomach lining) and the intrinsic factor-B12-complex is absorbed by enterocytes in theileum'scubamreceptors.PA is characterised by B12deficiency caused by the absence of intrinsic factor.Other disorders that can disrupt the absorption of vitamin B12in the small intestine includeceliac disease, surgical removal ofcrohn's disease, andHIV. PA may be considered as an end stage of",
"as an end stage of autoimmuneatrophic gastritis, a disease characterised by stomach atrophy and the presence ofantibodiesto parietal cells and intrinsic factor.Autoimmune atrophic gastritis, is localised to the body of the stomach, where parietal cells are located.Antibodies to intrinsic factor and parietal cells cause the destruction of the oxyntic gastric mucosa, in which the parietal cells are located, leading to the subsequent loss of intrinsic factor synthesis. Without intrinsic factor, the ileum can no longer absorb the B12.Atrophic gastritis is often a precursor togastric cancer. Although the exact role ofHelicobacter pyloriinfection in PA remains controversial, evidence indicatesH. pyloriis involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. A long-standingH. pyloriinfection may cause gastric autoimmunity by a mechanism known asmolecular mimicry. Antibodies produced by the immune system can be cross-reactive and may bind to bothH. pyloriantigensand those found in thegastric mucosa. The antibodies are",
"The antibodies are produced by activatedB cellsthat recognise both pathogen and self-derived peptides. Theautoantigensbelieved to cause the autoreactivity are the alpha and beta subunits of thesodium-potassium pump.In a study, B12deficiency caused byHelicobacter pyloriwas positively correlated withCagApositivity and gastric inflammatory activity, rather than gastric atrophy.Less commonly,H. pyloriandZollinger-Ellison syndromemay cause a form of nonautoimmune gastritis that can lead to pernicious anemia. Impaired B12absorption can also occur following gastric removal (gastrectomy) or gastric bypass surgery. In these surgeries, either the parts of the stomach that produce gastric secretions are removed or they are bypassed. This means intrinsic factor, as well as other factors required for B12absorption, are not available. However, B12deficiency after gastric surgery does not usually become a clinical issue. This is probably because the body stores many years' worth of B12in the liver and gastric surgery",
"and gastric surgery patients are adequately supplemented with the vitamin. Although no specific PA susceptibility genes have been identified, a genetic factor likely is involved in the disease. Pernicious anemia is often found in conjunction with other autoimmune disorders, suggesting common autoimmune susceptibility genes may be a causative factor.In spite of that, previous family studies and case reports focusing on PA have suggested that there is a tendency of genetic heritance of PA in particular, and close relatives of the PA patients seem to have higher incidence of PA and associated PA conditions.Moreover, it was further indicated that the formation of antibodies to gastric cells was autosomal dominant gene determined, and the presence of antibodies to the gastric cells might not be necessarily related to the occurrence of atrophic gastritis related to PA. Pathophysiology Although the healthy body stores three to five years' worth of B12in the liver, the usually undetected autoimmune activity in one's",
"activity in one's gut over a prolonged period of time leads to B12depletion and the resulting anemia; pernicious anemia refers to one of the hematologic manifestations ofchronic auto-immune gastritis, in which the immune system targets the parietal cells of the stomach orintrinsic factoritself, leading to decreased absorption of vitamin B12. The body needs enough intrinsic factor to absorb and reabsorb vitamin B12from thebile, in which reduces the time needed to develop a deficiency. B12is required by enzymes for two reactions: the conversion ofmethylmalonyl-CoAtosuccinyl-CoA, and the conversion ofhomocysteinetomethionine. In the latter reaction, themethyl groupoflevomefolic acidis transferred to homocysteine to producetetrahydrofolateand methionine. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzymemethionine synthasewith B12as an essential cofactor. During B12deficiency, this reaction cannot proceed, which leads to the accumulation of levomefolic acid. This accumulation depletes the other types of folate required",
"of folate required forpurineandthymidylatesynthesis, which are required for the synthesis of DNA. Inhibition ofDNA replicationin maturing red blood cells results in the formation of large, fragile megaloblasticerythrocytes. The neurological aspects of the disease are thought to arise from the accumulation of methylmalonyl- CoA due to the requirement of B12as a cofactor to the enzyme methylmalonyl-CoA mutase. Diagnosis The insidious nature of PA may mean that diagnosis is delayed.Diagnosis is not always straightforward and can be challenging and can take up to several years to receive a diagnosis from the onset of symptoms and almost 60% of those affected are misdiagnosed or not initially diagnosed at all.PA may be suspected when a patient'sblood smearshows large, fragile, immature erythrocytes, known asmegaloblasts. A diagnosis of PA first requires demonstration ofmegaloblastic anemiaby conducting afull blood countand blood smear, which evaluates themean corpuscular volume(MCV), as well themean corpuscular",
"themean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration(MCHC).PA is identified with a high MCV (macrocytic anemia) and a normal MCHC (normochromicanemia).Ovalocytesare also typically seen on the blood smear, and apathognomonicfeature of megaloblastic anemias (which include PA and others) is hypersegmented neutrophils.Neuropsychiatric symptoms can precede hematological signs and are often the presenting manifestation of the disease. Vitamin B12serum levels are used to detect its deficiency, but do not distinguish its causes. Vitamin B12levels can be falsely high or low and data forsensitivity and specificityvary widely. Normal serum levels may be found in cases of deficiency wheremyeloproliferative disorders,liver disease,transcobalamin II, orsmall intestinal bacterial overgrowthare present.Low levels of serum vitamin B12may be caused by other factors than B12deficiency, such asfolate deficiency,pregnancy,oral contraceptiveuse,haptocorrindeficiency, andmyeloma.High serum levels may caused by supplementing with vitamin",
"with vitamin B12, present of antibodies to intrinsic factor, or due to underlying condition. The presence of antibodies to gastric parietal cells and intrinsic factor is common in PA. Parietal cell antibodies are found in other autoimmune disorders and also in up to 10% of healthy individuals. However, around 85% of PA patients have parietal cell antibodies, which means they are a sensitive marker for the disease. Intrinsic factor antibodies are much less sensitive than parietal cell antibodies, but they are much more specific. They are found in about half of PA patients and are very rarely found in other disorders. These antibody tests can distinguish between PA and food-B12malabsorption. A buildup of certain metabolites occurs in B12deficiency due to its role in metabolic processes and cellular functions.Methylmalonic acid(MMA) can be measured in both the blood and urine, whereashomocysteineis only measured in the blood. An increase in both MMA and homocysteine distinguishes B12deficiency from folate",
"from folate deficiency because homocysteine alone increases in the latter. Elevatedgastrinlevels can be found in around 80–90% of PA cases, but they may also be found in other forms of gastritis. Decreased pepsinogen I levels or a decreased pepsinogen I to pepsinogen II ratio may also be found, although these findings are less specific to PA and can be found in food-B12malabsorption and other forms of gastritis. The diagnosis of atrophic gastritis type A should be confirmed by gastroscopy and stepwise biopsy.About 90% of individuals with PA have antibodies for parietal cells; however, only 50% of all individuals in the general population with these antibodies have pernicious anemia. Differential diagnosis Forms of vitamin B12deficiency other than PA must be considered in thedifferential diagnosisof megaloblastic anemia. For example, a B12-deficient state which causes megaloblastic anemia and which may be mistaken for classical PA may be caused by infection with thetapewormDiphyllobothrium latum, possibly due",
"latum, possibly due to the parasite's competition with host for vitamin B12. The classic test for PA, theSchilling test, is no longer widely used, as more efficient methods are available. This historic test consisted, in its first step, of taking an oral dose ofradiolabelledvitamin B12, followed by quantitation of the vitamin in the patient's urine over a 24-hour period via measurement of theradioactivity. A second step of the test repeats the regimen and procedure of the first step, with the addition of oral intrinsic factor. A patient with PA presents lower than normal amounts of intrinsic factor; hence, addition of intrinsic factor in the second step results in an increase in vitamin B12absorption (over the baseline established in the first). The Schilling test distinguished PA from other forms of B12deficiency,specifically, fromImerslund–Gräsbeck syndrome, a B12-deficiency caused by mutations inCUBNthat codes forcubilinthe cobalamin receptor. Vitamin B12 deficiency is also prevalent in patients",
"in patients havingCrohn's disease(CD) so it should be differentiated. Treatment Pernicious anemia is usually easily treated by providing the necessary level of vitamin B12supplementation.Pernicious anemia can be treated with intramuscular injections of vitamin B12.Initially in high daily doses, followed by less frequent lower doses, as the condition improves.Activity may need to be limited during the course of treatment.As long as the body is saturated with vitamin B12expected to result in cessation of anemia-related symptoms and there are no other symptoms, unless there are irreversible neurological complications.There are not enough studies on whether pills are as effective in improving or eliminating symptoms as parenteral treatment.Folatesupplementation may affect the course and treatment of pernicious anemia if vitamin B12not replaced.In some severe cases of anemia, ablood transfusionmay be needed to resolve haematological effects.Treatment is lifelong. The treatment of PA varies by country and area.",
"country and area. Opinions vary over the efficacy of administration (parenteral/oral), the amount and time interval of the doses, or the forms of vitamin B12(e.g. cyanocobalamin/hydroxocobalamin). More comprehensive studies are still needed in order to validate the feasibility of a particular therapeutic method for PA in clinical practices. Prognosis A person with well-treated PA can live a healthy life. Failure to diagnose and treat in time, however, may result in permanent neurological damage, excessive fatigue, depression, memory loss, and other complications. In severe cases, the neurological complications of pernicious anemia can lead to death – hence the name, \"pernicious\", meaning deadly. There is an increased risk ofgastric cancerin those with pernicious anemia linked to the common feature of atrophic gastritis. Epidemiology PA is estimated to affect 0.1% of the general population and 1.9% of those over 60, accounting for 20–50% of B12deficiency in adults.A review of literature shows that the",
"shows that the prevalence of PA is higher in Northern Europe, especially in Scandinavian countries, and among people of African descent, and that increased awareness of the disease and better diagnostic tools might play a role in apparently higher rates of incidence. History A case of anemia with a first recognition of associatedatrophic gastritisa feature of pernicious anemia, was first described in 1824 byJames Combe. This was fully investigated in 1849, by British physicianThomas Addison, from which it acquired the common name ofAddison's anemia. In 1871, the first accurate description of the disease in continental Europe was made byMichael Anton Biermer, aGermanphysician who noted the insidious course of the condition. Because it was untreatable and fatal at the time, he first referred to it as \"pernicious\" anemia.Russellcoined the termsubacute combined degeneration of spinal cord. In 1907,Richard Clarke Cabotreported on a series of 1,200 patients with PA; their average survival was between one and three",
"one and three years.Pernicious anemia was a fatal disease before about the year 1920; until the importance of theliverinhematopoiesiswas recognized, the treatment of pernicious anemia was unsuccessful and arbitrary. It may have motivatedGeorge Whipple, who had a keen interest inliver diseases, to investigate the liver's role in hematopoiesis. Whipple began evaluating the effects of treatments for anemia caused by chronic blood loss. Whipple, Huber, and Robchett studied the effects onhemoglobinand blood regeneration of a variety of treatments, among which only raw liver showed real promise.Serendipity is said to have played a role in this discovery. Whipple observed that blood regeneration was poor in dogs fed cooked liver afterchronic blood loss. Had it not been that a lazy laboratory technician gave the dogs raw liver, the much more dramatic response might not have been discovered then. Around 1926,George MinotandWilliam P. Murphy, who learned of Whipple's discovery, sought raw liver as a treatment for",
"as a treatment for pernicious anemia. They later suggested a high-protein diet with high amounts of raw liver. This caused a rapid improvement in symptoms and a simultaneous rise inred blood cellcounts.Fruitandironwere also part of the diet, and it appears that at this point, Minot and Murphy were not quite sure that the liver was a very important factor. It was thought that iron in liver tissue, not liver juice-soluble factor, cured hemorrhagic anemia in dogs. Thus, the discovery of liver juice as a treatment for pernicious anemia had been by coincidence. However, Minot, Murphy, and Whipple received the joint Nobel Prize for discovering a cure for a previously fatal disease of unknown cause in 1934, becoming the first Americans to be awarded theNobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. It is not easy to eat uncooked liver, and extracts were developed as a concentrate of liver juice forintramuscular injection. In 1928, chemistEdwin Cohnprepared an extract that was 50 to 100 times stronger than obtained from",
"than obtained from raw liver. This became part of the standard management of pernicious anemia until the 1950s. The active ingredient in the liver remained unknown until 1948.The anti-pernicious anemia factor was only isolated from the liver by Smith, Rex, and others. The substance wascobalamin, which the discoverers called \"vitamin B12\".They showed that giving a few micrograms could prevent relapse in the disease.Dorothy Hodgkinand co-workers went on to useX-ray crystallographyto elucidate the structure of cobalamin for which she, too, was awarded aNobel Prize. Understanding of the pathogenesis of pernicious anaemia increased over subsequent decades. It had long been known that the disease was associated withdefects in the gastrointestinal tract: patients hadchronic gastritisand lack of acid secretion (achlorhydria). It is known that transport of physiological amounts of vitamin B12depends on the combined actions of gastric, ileal and pancreatic components. The gastric moiety was discovered and named",
"and named 'intrinsic factor' byWilliam Castlein 1930. A further important advance was made in the early 1960s by Doniach with the recognition that pernicious anemia is anautoimmune disease.Pernicious anemia is eventually treated with only injections of B12; injections are typically 1 mg every other day, or twice weekly. A medical author takes the view thatMary Todd Lincoln, the wife of American PresidentAbraham Lincoln, had pernicious anemia for decades and died from it in 1882. Research Permeation enhancers Treatment using oral drugs is an easier option in management but the bioavailabity of B12 is low. This is due to low absorption in the intestine, and breakdown by enzyme activity. Research continues to focus on the use of permeation enhancers or permeation absorbers in combination with the treatment. One of the better performing enhancers studied issalcoprozate sodium(SNAC).SNAC is able to form a noncovalent complex with cobalamin while preserving its chemical integrity and protect B12 from gastric",
"B12 from gastric acidity.This complex is much more lipophilic than the water-soluble vitamin B12, so is able to pass through cellular membranes with greater ease.Molecular dynamicsare used in experiments to gain an understanding of the molecular interactions involved in the different molecules used and the degree of ease achieved in absorption across the gastric epithelium. References External links"
] |
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"Masahiro Sakurai Masahiro Sakurai(桜井 政博,Sakurai Masahiro, born August 3, 1970)is a Japanese video game director andgame designerbest known as the creator of theKirbyandSuper Smash Bros.series. Apart from his work on those series, he also led the design ofMeteosin 2005 and directedKid Icarus: Uprisingin 2012. Formerly an employee ofHAL Laboratory, Sakurai left the company in 2003 and in 2005 with his wife Michiko Sakurai (also ex-HAL Laboratory) founded their companySora Ltd., under which they work on a freelance basis. He was also an author of a weekly column forFamitsumagazine from 2003 to 2021, and has done voice acting work in some of his games, most notably providing the voice ofKing DededeinKirby 64: The Crystal Shardsand theSuper Smash Bros.series. From 2022 to 2024, Sakurai has been creating videos for hisYouTubechannel,Masahiro Sakurai on Creating Games, where he discusses game design and his career. Career Masahiro Sakurai was born on August 3, 1970, inMusashimurayama, Tokyo, Japan. One of Sakurai's earliest experiences in the video game industry began when he worked forHAL Laboratory, where he created the characterKirbyat age 19 and directed his first title,Kirby's Dream Land. Sakurai left HAL on August 5, 2003. He explained in an interview withNintendo Dreamthat that he felt it would be difficult to create new projects while staying at HAL due to the direction of the gaming industry, where the risk of failure was high. While he was not being pressured by HAL to createKirbysequels, he noted increasing tension within the industry as a whole: \"It was tough for me to see that every time I made a new game, people automatically assumed that a sequel was coming. Even if it's a sequel, lots of people have to give their all to make a game, but some people think the sequel process happens naturally.\" Soon after, Sakurai began working on a project withQ Entertainment, along withTetsuya Mizuguchi. This collaboration resulted inMeteosin 2005, a puzzle game for theNintendo DS. On September 30, 2005, Sakurai announced that he had formed his own company, Sora Ltd.Two games were announced to be in development but no information on the titles had been divulged. As for the future of theSuper Smash Bros.series, Nintendo and HAL Laboratory presidentSatoru Iwata, during Nintendo'sE3 2005press conference, promised an online iteration of the game would come to theNintendo Wii. In issue #885 ofFamitsumagazine, Sakurai revealed that he would be serving as a director and game designer onSuper Smash Bros. Brawlfor theWii.Super Smash Bros. Brawlwas released in 2008, after personnel borrowed from 19 different developer studios assisted in development.Sakurai had been updating daily theSuper Smash Bros Brawlwebsite called the Smash Bros. Dojo. Starting a year previous the release, he revealedBrawlsecrets and gameplay content through the site. The Smash Bros. Dojo had regular updates from May 22, 2007, to April 14, 2008. On the final day of updates, it was revealed that Sakurai provided the voice forKing DededeinKirby 64: The Crystal Shardsas well as Dedede inSuper Smash Bros. Brawl. He and his company, Sora Ltd. alongside Nintendo, started a first-party studio,Project Sora, which was 72% owned by Nintendo and 28% owned by Sora Ltd. It was revealed atE3 2010that Sakurai and Project Sora were working onKid Icarus: Uprisingfor the Nintendo 3DS. Project Sora was closed and ended development on June 30, 2012.AtE3 2011, Nintendo announced that Sakurai was working onSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U. Sakurai began development of the title upon the release ofKid Icarus: Uprisingin March 2012. In February 2013, Sakurai was diagnosed withcalcific tendinitisnear his right shoulder, which caused him substantial pain whenever he moved his arm. He mentioned that this could effectively slow down his work, as he does some of hisgame testinghimself.Sakurai's wife, Michiko, has worked on the graphical user interface for many of his games, includingKirby Air Ride,Meteos, and theSuper Smash Bros.series. In a January 2015 column inWeekly Famitsu, Sakurai alluded to the possibility of retirement, expressing doubt that he would be able to continue making games if his career continued to be as stressful as it was.In December 2015, Sakurai once again stated that he was not sure if there would be another game in theSmash Bros.series,prior toSuper Smash Bros. Ultimatebeing released in 2018 with Sakurai once again as director. On March 14, 2022, Sakurai was awarded Best Creator byWeekly Famitsu. Sakurai also announced that he is working on a new project not related to game production. Masahiro Sakurai on Creating Games Sakurai launchedMasahiro Sakurai on Creating Games, aYouTubechannel in both English and Japanese in August 2022. The channel's videos are focused on game development and design as well as his career.He stated that the channel was founded because he wanted to reach more people with his lessons after being asked tolectureat schools. Sakurai additionally noted that other venues for lessons from game developers, such as theGame Developers Conference, focused on more advanced, technical details, rather than more basic principles.Less than a day after its launch, the English edition of his channel gained over 200,000 subscribers.The opening and ending jingles for the channel were composed byYuzo Koshiro. Works Notes References External links",
"Super Smash Bros. Ultimate Super Smash Bros. Ultimateis a 2018crossoverfighting gamedeveloped byBandai Namco StudiosandSora Ltd. and published byNintendofor theNintendo Switch. It is the fifthinstallment in theSuper Smash Bros.series, succeedingSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U(2014). The game follows the series' traditional style of gameplay, in which players control one of thevarious charactersand use attacks to weaken their opponents and knock them out of an arena. It features a wide variety ofgame modes, including asingle-playercampaignandmultiplayerversus modes.Ultimatefeatures 89 playable fighters, including all characters from previousSuper Smash Bros.games as well as newcomers. The roster ranges from Nintendo characters to those fromthird-partyfranchises. Planning for the game had begun by December 2015, with full development starting after the completion of3DS/Wii U'sdownloadable content(DLC). Series creator and directorMasahiro Sakuraireturned along with Bandai Namco Studios and Sora, the studios that developed3DS/Wii U,with their return speeding up the preparation process. Sakurai's goal withUltimatewas to include every character from previous games in the series, despite the various development and licensing challenges this would present. Several well-known video game musicians contributed to the soundtrack, withHideki Sakamotowriting the main theme \"Lifelight\". Nintendo first teasedUltimatein aNintendo Directin March 2018 and fully revealed it atE3 2018the following June. It later received two additional Directs prior to its release on December 7, 2018. The game received universal acclaim, with some critics calling it the best game in the series; they praised its large amount of content and fine-tuning of existingSmashgameplay elements, although its online mode received criticism.Ultimateis the best-selling fighting game of all time and one of thebest-selling on the Switch, having sold over 34 million copies as of March 2024. It is also a popularcompetitive fighting gameand has been cited as one of thegreatest video games of all time.Ultimatereceiveddownloadable contentadding new fighters, stages, and other content for nearly three years after release. Gameplay Super Smash Bros. Ultimateis aplatform fighterfor up to eight players in which characters fromNintendogames and third-party franchises fight to knock each other out of an arena. Each player has a percentage meter which raises as they take damage, thus increasing the knockback they take and making them easier to launch in the air and out of the arena.Standard battles use one of three victory conditions: Timed, where players aim to win the most points by defeating opponents within a time limit; Stock, where players have a set number of lives and aim to be the last player standing; and Stamina, where players reduce their opponent's health down to zero to defeat them. Players can adjust the rules to their liking and save them as presets for future matches. Players can also enable various items which attack enemies or grant them power-ups, along with Poké Balls and Assist Trophies, which respectively summonPokémonand other non-playable characters to assist them in battle. In Timed matches, certain Assist Trophies can be attacked and defeated to earn points.Each character also possesses a powerful Final Smash attack, which can be performed either by obtaining a Smash Ball or by filling up a special meter, both of which can be toggled on and off.The base game features 104 different stages, with additional stages being added alongside DLC fighters. Stages can be played in alternative Battlefield and Omega forms or toggled to remove stage hazards. A new feature called Stage Morph allows players to select two stages that the game alternates between at certain intervals during a match.Other tweaks include new icons and gauges for character-specific abilities, such asCloud's Limit gauge. In addition to returning modes such as Classic, Special Smash, and Home-Run Contest,Ultimateadds new modes. These are Smashdown, where each character can only be played once; Squad Strike, where players battle in teams of multiple characters; and a tournament mode that allows up to 32 players to battle in playoff brackets. Spirits Ultimateintroduces the Spirits mechanic, replacing the collectible trophies from previous games. Each of these Spirits, based on characters from represented franchises, can be used to power up a fighter with unique abilities.Players mainly gain Spirits through pre-made challenges called \"Spirit Battles\" that represent the character the Spirit depicts, which are embodied by one or more of the game's fighters and other specific level effects. For example, the Spirit battle of Rayquaza, a flying dragon Pokémon, requires players to defeat a large version of Ridley with a similar color palette and wind effects. Players are encouraged to strategically choose Spirits based on the level effects; in the same example, a player would need to equip a Spirit that provides wind resistance or immunity, or one that allows them to deal extra damage to a giant opponent. A separate mode called the Spirit Board presents a rotating set of Spirit battles for players to gain Spirits from. Spirits have a growth and evolution system, in which they can be leveled up to become more powerful or converted into Cores to summon new Spirits.Certain Spirits will also become an \"enhanced\" form upon reaching max level, but will return to level 1. Nintendo offers limited-timed Spirit events in cross-promotion with other games and franchises, with the Spirits featured only available to collect during the event. Eventually, these Spirits make their way into general rotation and can be found on the Spirit Board.The local multiplayer mode also allows for the option to use Spirits. World of Light Ultimatefeatures the return of Adventure Mode, which was absent in3DS/Wii U.It is now integrated into the Spirits mode with a new story,World of Light, which prominently uses the game's Spirit mechanics.The mode's narrative begins with an evil entity, Galeem, destroying theSmash Bros.world, vaporizing almost all of the fighter characters and placing them under his imprisonment; onlyKirby, due to his Warp Star, evades this attack.Players explore the titular World of Light, a new world that Galeem created in the original world's place, to rescue captured fighters and Spirits -the remnants of other characters' physical forms- by completing marked Spirit Battles. Players can use regained allies and Spirits to overcome certain challenges on the map and defeat Galeem.However, after Galeem is defeated, a new enemy, Dharkon, emerges; after Dharkon's defeat, it wages war against Galeem. If just Galeem is defeated, Dharkon will engulf the world in darkness, but if just Dharkon is defeated, then Galeem will cover the universe with light. However, by defeating an equal amount of light and dark Spirits on the final map, players are able to challenge and defeat both of them, freeing the Spirits from their control and allowing them to return to the real world. Additional features The game supports local multiplayer, local wireless with other systems, and online play viaWi-FiorLAN connections. By defeating players online, players earn tags which can be traded for in-game currency to buy new Spirits, music, andMiiFighter costumes. The game is compatible withJoy-Concontrollers, theNintendo Switch Pro Controller, andGameCube controllersvia a USB adapter.Like the previous entry,amiibofigurines can be used to create AI-controlled Figure Players, which can be trained to become stronger.Shortly after the game's release, a service for the Nintendo Switch Online mobile app, known as \"Smash World\", was launched, which allows players to check their game statistics and share images and videos captured from the game to social media.Ultimatefeatures over 900 music tracks, which can be played through the Switch's handheld mode while in standby mode.Version 3.0 of the game, released in April 2019, adds a Stage Builder, which allows players to create custom stages which can be shared or downloaded through the Switch Online service. The update also includes a replay editor, allowing players to edit stored replays, which can be shared online or downloaded to other devices. These replays are available within the Smash World app.An update in May 2019 provided limited support for thevirtual realityVR Kit ofNintendo Labo, allowing players to view computer-only matches in VR or play in a 1-on-1 mode against the computer.An update in September 2019 added the Home-Run Contest mode from previousSmashgames. Playable characters Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, like other games in theSuper Smash Bros.series, features acrossovercast of fighters from several differentNintendo franchises, as well as fighters from series bythird-partydevelopers such asKonami,Sega,Capcom,Bandai Namco Entertainment,Square Enix,PlatinumGames,Microsoft,SNK, andDisney. The base game features 74 playable fighters,consisting of all 63 previous fighters from past entries and 11 newcomers: theInklingsfromSplatoon;Princess Daisyfrom theMarioseries;Ridleyand Dark Samus from theMetroidseries;Simon Belmontand Richter Belmont from theCastlevaniaseries;ChromfromFire Emblem Awakening;King K. Roolfrom theDonkey Kongseries;Isabellefrom theAnimal Crossingseries;Ken Mastersfrom theStreet Fighterseries; and Incineroar fromPokémon SunandMoon.When starting the game, players only have access to the eight starter characters of the originalSuper Smash Bros.and unlock the rest by completing the game's Classic modes, playing through World of Light, or fighting a certain amount of battles. Certain characters whose movesets are directly based on other characters are now classified as \"Echo Fighters\", possessing similar movesets and proportions to the fighters they are based on, but with unique animations and gameplay differences. On the character selection screen, these characters can either be listed individually or stacked with the fighters they are based on.Select characters also have alternative skins featuring different genders or sometimes other characters, such asBowser Jr., who has the otherKoopalingsas skins, but with identical animations and abilities.Several returning characters received updates to their appearances, such asMariohaving Cappy fromSuper Mario Odysseyaccompanying him andThe Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild's incarnation ofLinkreplacing the one fromTwilight Princess. Additional fighters have been added to the game via post-releasedownloadable content(DLC). The first of these,Piranha Plantfrom theMarioseries, was released in January 2019 and made available for free to those who purchased and registered the game with aMy Nintendoaccount before the end of that month.Additional fighters, each coming with a unique stage and related music, have been released both individually and as part of two Fighters Pass bundles.The first Fighters Pass consisted of five characters:JokerfromAtlus'Persona 5, released in April 2019;the Herofrom Square Enix'sDragon Questseries, released in July 2019;Banjo & KazooiefromRare'sBanjo-Kazooieseries, released in September 2019;Terry BogardfromSNK'sFatal Furyseries, released in November 2019;andBylethfromFire Emblem: Three Houses, released in January 2020. The second Fighters Pass, titled Fighters Pass Volume 2, consisted of six additional fighters and was the final content planned forUltimate.The first character in this collection,Min MinfromARMS, was released in June 2020.Steve,the default player avatar fromMojang Studios'Minecraft, was released in October 2020.Sephiroth, the antagonist from Square Enix'sFinal Fantasy VII, was released in December 2020, with players able to unlock him a few days early by defeating him in a limited-time boss battle known as the \"Sephiroth Challenge\".Pyra and Mythra, a dual character fromXenoblade Chronicles 2, were released in March 2021.Kazuya Mishimafrom Bandai Namco'sTekkenseries was released in June 2021.SorafromDisneyand Square Enix seriesKingdom Heartswas the final fighter to be added in October 2021. Development Super Smash Bros. Ultimatewas developed byBandai Namco StudiosandSora Ltd., the same studios that developedSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U, for theNintendo Switch, with series creatorMasahiro Sakuraireturning as game director.Unlike previousSuper Smash Bros.games, the team was not assembled from the ground up, which sped up preparation time.The project plan for the game was in the works by December 2015, when the DLC for3DSandWii Uwas in development,and finished after it was completed.Staff gathering was done soon afterward.The development period was shorter compared to previous entries in the series.Hatenaassisted with the development of some elements,andtri-Crescendocontributed to programming and design. According to Sakurai, producing aSuper Smash Bros.game for the Switch was the last request that former Nintendo presidentSatoru Iwatahad given him before his death in 2015, and he wanted to make the game the best possible product he could to respect him.Sakurai sought to include every character from previous games, as to not disappoint fans.However, he knew this would be a complex problem for both development and licensing;it would also drastically increase the cost of development. The return of Bandai and Sora made it easier for this to happen.Sakurai also wanted to adjust character abilities to speed up the game,although not to an extent that would alienate players unfamiliar with the series.Sakurai knew thatUltimatewas a core game for Nintendo and that it had a dedicated player base that he did not want to disappoint, and believed that completing this goal was necessary to satisfy them.Sakurai was also faced with the decision to either create a completely new game system or build off of pre-existing ones; he chose to build off pre-existing ones because there would only be about a third of the characters he desired in the final game.All the returning characters' abilities had to be re-balancedso they could work inUltimate.Originally, gameplay would differ between the Switch's docked and handheld modes, but Sakurai scrapped this idea since the system's screen in handheld mode was better than he thought.Sakurai believed this would be the onlySmashgame to have the full roster of returning characters, calling the effort to include the characters, music, stage settings, and other elements as \"unprecedented\", and cautioned that future games in the series would likely be smaller in scope. However, he still wanted to add as many fighters as possible through DLC. Voice lines recorded byDavid Hayterfor Snake were re-used forUltimate.Xander Mobus, who voiced Crazy Hand,Master Hand, and the announcer inSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U,also made a return with new voice clips, in addition to reprising his role asJokerfromPersona 5when he was added as DLC.The addition of Ridley fromMetroidas a playable character had been highly requested within theSuper Smash Bros.community for some time. In 2008, Sakurai stated that he knew Ridley was a high-demand character, but thought that he was \"impossible\" to add unless they were able to sacrifice the character's size for balancing purposes.So that Ridley could be included in the game, Sakurai studied the art of the character and redesigned him so he could stand upright.All characters were chosen at the beginning of development except for Incineroar, who had not been created yet;the team instead left a space open for aSun and MoonPokémon. The Inklings' inkmechanicproved challenging to implement due to its interactions with environments. The team builtUltimatefrom scratch with new assets and content. Localization manager Nate Bihldorff stated that the game significantly upgraded lighting effects and texture rendering from thegame engineof theWii Uversion.The World of Light mode was inspired byBrawl's(2008) Subspace Emissary, and Sakurai chose to start it with a cataclysmic event because he thought it would leave a greater impact on players.The team conceived the Spirits mechanic because they wanted to create an enjoyable single-player mode, but did not have enough resources to createcharacter models. While it did not let them tell stories for individual fighters or create new locations and rules, it let them use various characters and assets.One part of the team chose Spirits to include in the game and had to thoroughly research them; according to Sakurai, the Spirits mode was essential for using various franchises. Music Like previous games in the series,Ultimatefeatures several well-known video game music composers and arrangers providing a mix of original music and rearrangements of various tracks for the represented franchises, with over 1,000 tracks in total.New toUltimateis the tying of tracks to franchises instead of individual stages, as well as the ability to create custom playlists to listen to outside the game when the Switch is in handheld mode.Sakurai stated that he began contacting composers over a year before release, providing them with a database of over a thousand suggested track ideas.In addition, he allowed them to submit their own personal favorites, with those choices being given priority for inclusion.While Sakurai oversaw the process and preferred that the music retain the spirit of the original games, the direction of them was generally handled by the composers themselves.The main theme, \"Lifelight\", composed byHideki Sakamoto, is the basis of most of the game's original music. Downloadable content As with previous entries, Nintendo planned to offer new fighters through DLC; however, unlike with the3DSandWii U,where players could request which characters they wished to see in the game, Nintendo chose which characters they would add by November 2018.Like the previous title, additional Mii costumes were released as paid DLC, with certain costumes also adding new music tracks to the game.Sakurai believed that despite characters likeJoker, the first announced DLC fighter, not being from games usually associated with Nintendo, they were added because they were \"emblematic\" of the types of characters they wanted to add toUltimate.He also stated that they \"bring just a whole different level of fun and enjoyment for players\".The Piranha Plant was chosen as a DLC character because Sakurai wanted to add diversity to the roster.Nintendo met withRarestudio head Craig Duncan at E3 2018 to discuss the possibility of including Banjo and Kazooie as downloadable content; Duncan, believing it to be \"a great opportunity\", agreed and connected the two development teams for further discussions.Sakurai noted that Banjo and Kazooie were the second most requested character forSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii Uin a Nintendo-sanctioned fan vote in 2015,and that their addition happened \"quite easily\", despite the property being owned byMicrosoftthrough its acquisition ofRare.Phil Spencer, the head ofXbox, stated that negotiating their inclusion was \"an easy deal to make\" thanks to Microsoft's strong partnership with Nintendo. The development of Fighters Pass Volume 2 was heavily affected by theCOVID-19 pandemicin 2020, as due tostay-at-home ordersin Japan, Sakurai and his development team had to work remotely.According to Daniel Kaplan ofMojang Studios, early discussions between Nintendo andMicrosoftincludingMinecraftcontent in theSuper Smash Bros.series had begun roughly five years prior to Steve's addition into the game.The character's inclusion required the development team to rework every stage in the game to accommodate Steve's gameplay mechanics.Sakurai had wanted to includeSorafromKingdom Heartsin the game because he was the top fighter requested forNintendo 3DSandWii Uin the 2015 fan vote.However, they initially thought that the legality surrounding the intellectual property withDisneywould be insurmountable, and originally planned for only five fighters in the second pass. However, Sakurai met a Disney representative at an award venue, which facilitated the start of negotiations for Sora's inclusion. Nintendo, Disney, andSquare Enixsaw towards including Sora in the game and overseeing all aspects related to his inclusion, with several limitations and guidelines they were required to follow.The Sora Challenger Pack featured a promotional tie-in with the 2020 rhythm gameKingdom Hearts: Melody of Memory: players withMelody of Memorysave data on their Nintendo Switch would unlock the music track \"Dearly Beloved (Swing Version)\". Release Ultimatewas teased during aNintendo Directpresentation on March 8, 2018, under theworking titleSuper Smash Bros., with the release year shown to be 2018. Nintendo formally announced the game atE3 2018, revealing that the full roster of characters from past games would be included, as well as its release date.Demoversions were playable at E3 in June and atSan Diego Comic-Conthe following month.IGNnominatedUltimatefor its Best Game of E3 2018 award; the game won Best Nintendo Switch Game from bothIGNandGamescom.Two Nintendo Direct presentations in 2018, one on August 8 and another one on November 1, were devoted to the game, revealing new characters, stages, and game modes. Nintendo releasedSuper Smash Bros. Ultimateworldwide on December 7, 2018.In addition to the standard retail version, a special edition containing aSuper Smash Bros.-themedNintendo Switch Pro Controllerand a Switch with a download code was also released.An additional special edition contained a pair ofSuper Smash Bros.-themedJoy-Conas well as a Switch console, aSuper Smash Bros.-themed dock, and a download code for the game.AGameCube controllerwith theSuper Smash Bros. Ultimatelogo was released on November 2, 2018. One of the game's new additions had the characterMr. Game & Watchassuming the appearance of a feather- and loincloth-wearingNative Americanwhen using one of his attacks—a reference toFire Attack(1982), in which players controlled acowboydefending his fort from attacking indigenous people. Some users on social media saw this as racist, leading to Nintendo of America apologizing and removing the animation in an update shortly after release.Two weeks before its release, a leaked copy of the game was distributed across the internet. Nintendo took steps to issue copyright strikes on YouTube videos usingdata minedcontent, while fans worked to isolatespoilers, particularly the World of Light story mode, from those that had played the leaked version. Reception Ultimatereceived \"universal acclaim\" from critics, according to thereview aggregatorplatformMetacritic.Critics lauded the huge cast of characters and levels, new game modes, and combining of the best elements from its predecessors.French video game websiteJeuxvideo.comcalled it the best game in the series, praising its features which \"brilliantly mix gargantuan content with nostalgia\".Bleacher Reporthailed the game's colorful art style, faster gameplay, and unique stages.IGNpraised the game's decision to bring back every character from the series as \"ambitious and excellent\".The game's massive soundtrack and portable music player were praised byThe Verge. However, the game's online mode received criticism for its technical performance and matchmaking. Many players found significantlagaffecting their games, even when using wired connections over wireless, while the game's matchmaking features did not adhere to players' criteria, with players frequently playing matches with rule sets they did not choose. The matchmaking process was further criticized for making it difficult for friends to join matches over random players, and not allowing multiple local players to join in online matches.There had been so many complaints onUltimate'ssubredditthat the administrators forwarded all complaints to a separate thread.Ultimate'sWorld of Lightmode also received mixed reviews. While some found the single-player mode both accessible and challenging,others found the mode tedious and excessive. Sales In November 2018, Nintendo announcedUltimatewas the most pre-ordered game for the Switch and in the series.The Association for UK Interactive Entertainmentreported thatUltimatewas the fastest-selling Switch andSuper Smash Bros.game in the United Kingdom, with physical launch sales 302% higher than those forSuper Smash Bros. for Wii U, 233% higher than those for3DS, and 62.5% higher than those forBrawl.In its first three days on sale in Japan, the game sold 1.2 million copies, outsellingPokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu!andLet's Go, Eevee!andThe Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wildin the region. Within 11 days of its release,Ultimatehad sold more than three million copies within the United States, making it the fastest-selling Switch game in the country.It was similarly the fastest-selling Switch game as well as the fastest-selling game for any Nintendo console in Europe based on the first 11-day sales.It was estimated that the game sold and shipped over five million copies within its first three days of release.Within three weeks,Ultimatebecame the fifth best-selling Switch game in the United Kingdom, surpassing the sales ofSplatoon 2.In January 2019,Amazonreported thatUltimatewas their highest selling video game product of 2018,with Nintendo officially announcing that the game had shipped over 12.08 million copies worldwide.Ultimatewas also Nintendo's fastest-selling game of all time until being surpassed byPokémon SwordandShieldin 2019.By September 2020, the game had sold over 21.10 million copies worldwide,making it the best-selling fighting game of all time,surpassing the record ofStreet Fighter II,and became thethird-best-selling Nintendo Switch game, only behindAnimal Crossing: New HorizonsandMario Kart 8 Deluxe. As of June 30, 2024, total sales reached34.66million. Awards The game won the award for \"Best Nintendo Switch Game\", \"Best Fighting Game\", and \"Best Multiplayer Game\" inIGN's Best of 2018 Awards, whereas its other nominations were for \"Game of the Year\" and \"Best Video Game Music\". Esports EVO 2019, held on August 2–4, 2019, featuredUltimateas one of its main events. It was the largest offlineSmash Bros.tournament of all time, with 3,534 entrants signed up.It set a new record for EVO concurrent viewership, with over 279,000 viewers during Top 8.On May 8–10, 2020, topSuper Smash Bros. MeleeplayerHungryboxpartnered withNFLrunning backLe'Veon Belland esports organizationTeam Liquidto host The Box, an online tournament with a $10,000 prize pool.With over 8,000 entrants, it was the largest onlineSmash Bros.tournament of all time. In February 2020, it was announced that the Smash World Tour would feature bothSuper Smash Bros. MeleeandUltimateplayers for a grand prize pool of $250,000. The tournament would have included international qualifiers, with the grand finals' location to be in the United States.However, theCOVID-19 pandemicquickly led to several of the qualifiers getting either postponed or canceled.The Smash World Tour was successfully relaunched in 2021, featuring a mix of online and offline qualifiers and culminating in a final offline championship.In 2022, an officially licensed circuit was introduced, being the Panda Cup, featuringSuper Smash Bros. MeleeandSuper Smash Bros. Ultimate.However on November 24, 2022, Nintendo stated that the Smash World Tour 2022 could not continue, as they did not have a license from Nintendo. Accusations of Panda CEO, Alan Bunney, caused many players who had qualified for the Panda Cup to drop out. This caused both the Panda Cup and the Smash World Tour 2022 Championships to be cancelled, along with the Smash World Tour 2023. Notes References External links",
"The Game Awards 2020 The Game Awards 2020was an award show that honored the bestvideo games of 2020. It was produced and hosted byGeoff Keighley, and took place on December 10, 2020. The preshow ceremony was hosted by Sydnee Goodman. Unlike previousGame Awards, the show was broadcast virtually due to theCOVID-19 pandemic; Keighley presented at a soundstage inLos Angeles, while musical performances took place virtually at stages inLondonandTokyo. The show introduced the award's first Future Class, a list of individuals from the video game industry who best represent the future of video games, Innovation in Accessibility award, an award for games that featured notableaccessibility options. The show waslive streamedacross 45 different platforms. It featured musical performances from theLondon Philharmonic OrchestraandEddie Vedder, and presentations from celebrity guests, includingReggie Fils-Aimé,Gal Gadot,Brie Larson, andKeanu Reeves. The Last of Us Part IIreceived the most nominations and wins in the show's history—eleven and seven, respectively—and was awardedGame of the Year.Neil DruckmannandHalley Grosswon Best Narrative for their work on the game, whileLaura Baileywas awarded Best Performance for her role asAbby. Several new games were announced, includingArk II,Perfect Dark, andan untitledMass Effectgame. The show was the most expensive ceremony to date. It was viewed by over 83 million streams, the most in its history to date,with 8.3 million concurrent viewers at its peak. It received a mixed reception from media publications, with praise directed at new game announcements, and criticism for not allowing developers more time to speak. Some critics and viewers shared concerns over the success ofThe Last of Us Part IIdue to its developer'scrunchpractices. Background As with previous iterations ofThe Game Awards, the 2020 show was hosted and produced by Canadian games journalistGeoff Keighley. He returned as an executive producer alongside Kimmie Kim, and Richard Preuss and LeRoy Bennett returned as director and creative director, respectively.Sydnee Goodman returned as host of the preshow.Due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, Keighley did not want to host a normal ceremony.Not wanting to take a hiatus and inspired by the success ofSummer Game Fest,he considered hosting from his home but his board urged him to attempt a larger show on par with previous years.In case of a significant surge ofCOVID-19 cases in California, the crew had several back-up plans, including broadcasting from Keighley's house.He worked with his partners to develop a virtual show;he and his team took inspiration from other shows throughout the year, including theDemocratic National Convention, in which the \"audience\" was featured on virtual screens,as well as the72nd Primetime Emmy Awards, wherein the hosts were isolated on stage and the winners accepted viavideo call. The presentation used three soundstages in Los Angeles, London, and Tokyo; each had minimal attendees, mostly related to production crew and presenters. Keighley said this allowed them to include additional presentation events as with past shows, as well as explore taking future shows to different venues.The 2020 show—featuring a production of more than 400 people, six of whom are full-time employees—had a budget of underUS$10 millionand was the most expensive to date, partly due to theCOVID-19 testsrequired for the crew and the worldwide remote camera set-ups.It remained profitable due to revenue from advertisers and sponsors, as well as minor earnings from streaming services.The show's theme was strength and comfort due to the impact of the pandemic. Keighley wanted to implore the theme of unity, given the release of thePlayStation 5andXbox Series X/Sin November 2020; he citedThe Game Awards 2018as an example of this theme, which had led withNintendo'sReggie Fils-Aimé, Microsoft'sPhil Spencer, and Sony'sShawn Laydensharing the stage.Keighley felt the inclusion of film and television stars was an interesting way to show a wider appreciation for the industry. His team wanted to includeHenry Cavillin the show, but he was busy working onThe Witcher. While developing the show, Keighley spoke to hundreds of viewers viaZoomto discuss their own interests,often alongside industry figures likeValve CorporationpresidentGabe NewellandEpic Gamescreative director Donald Mustard.As with the previous show, the presentation ran alongside the Game Festival, consisting of playable demos and additional in-game content.The show introduced the award's first Future Class, a list of individuals from across the video game industry who best represent the future of video games. The inductees included industry professionals such asKinda Funny's Blessing Adeoye Jr.,Naughty Dog'sHalley Gross, andGameSpot'sKallie Plagge.The presentation was aired on December 10, 2020,live streamedacross more than 45 online platforms.It aired on more than ten networks in China, includingBilibili,Douyin, andHuya Live, and on several networks in India includingDisney+ Hotstar,JioTV, andMX Player. Announcements Around April and May in 2020, Keighley was worried about a potential lack of game announcements due to theimpact of COVID-19 on the industry; however, several developers were able to submit their announcements and trailers for demonstration.Announcements on recently released and upcoming games were made for: New games announced during the ceremony included: Winners and nominees The nominees for The Game Awards 2020 were announced on November 18, 2020.Any game released on or before November 20, 2020 was eligible for consideration.The nominees were compiled by a jury panel with members from 96 media outlets globally;ballots were sent to outlets on October 29 and due back on November 6, though they had until November 13 to submit updated ballots. Outlets were required to submit three games for each category to determine the nominees.Winners were determined between the jury (90%) and public votes (10%); the latter was held via the official website and on social media platforms such asFacebookandTwitter, and closed on December 9.The two exceptions were the Most Anticipated Game and Player's Voice awards, which were fully nominated and voted-on by the public;the former was determined exclusively on Twitter and announced during the show,and the latter was announced on December 8 after several rounds of voting.A new Innovation in Accessibility award was added for games that featured notableaccessibility options.Around 18.3 million people participated in the public vote, doubling from the previous show. Awards Winners are listed first, highlighted inboldface, and indicated with a double dagger (‡). Video games Esports and creators Games with multiple nominations and awards Multiple nominations The Last of Us Part IIreceived eleven nominations, the most in the show's history. Other games with multiple nominations includedHadeswith nine,Ghost of Tsushimawith eight,Final Fantasy VII Remakewith six, andDoom Eternalwith five.Sony Interactive Entertainmenthad 26 total nominations, more than any other publisher, followed bySupergiant GamesandXbox Game Studioswith eight. Multiple awards The Last of Us Part IIreceived the most wins in the show's history, with seven. Four games—Among Us,Final Fantasy VII Remake,Ghost of Tsushima, andHades—won two awards. Across its two winning games, Sony Interactive Entertainment won a total of nine awards, whileInnersloth,Square Enix, Supergiant Games, and Xbox Game Studios won two. Presenters and performers Presenters The following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or introduced trailers. All other awards were presented by Keighley or Goodman. Performers The following individuals or groups performed musical numbers.A planned orchestral version ofCyberpunk 2077's music was scrapped when the game was delayed to the same day as the ceremony, rendering it ineligible for nomination. Ratings and reception Nominees Inverse's Corey Plante felt the cutoff date led to several games getting snubbed, includingDemon's SoulsandMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales, as well asPokémon SwordandShield, which was eligible for both the2019and 2020 awards but was unrecognized in both. He feltGhost of Tsushimawas more deserving of a Best Score and Music nomination thanDoom Eternal.Den of Geek's Matthew Byrd similarly lamented the lack of recognition forDemon's SoulsandMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales.Kat Bailey ofUSgamerquestionedDoom Eternal'snomination for Game of the Year, describing it as \"messy, unfocused, and, well, just not as good\" as its predecessor.Kotaku Australia's Alex Walker similarly found the nomination misplaced and considered games likeHalf-Life: AlyxandMicrosoft Flight Simulatormore deserving. Ceremony The show received a mixed reception from media publications.VentureBeat'sDean Takahashipraised the ceremony, particularly applauding its celebration of diverse games such asThe Last of Us Part IIandTell Me Whyas well as the varied and interesting new game announcements.Todd Martens ofLos Angeles Timesfelt the show should have allowed more time for the developers to speak and discuss their artistic visions behind the games, noting the presentation does little to demonstratevideo games as art.Eurogamer's Martin Robinson said the show was understandably \"low-key\" but called it a \"three-hour long advert\".Inverse's Ana Diaz criticized the rapid announcement of winners between premieres and during the preshow, preventing developers from accepting the awards, and its focus onHollywoodactors over game creators. Similar to concerns overDeath Stranding'spredominance in the nominations and ceremony for the 2019 awards due to its creatorHideo Kojima's friendship with Keighley, some viewers shared concerns related toThe Last of Us Part IIat the 2020 awards, both for its awards success and due to the developer'scrunchpractices.The Last of Us Part IIwas well-received at release but narrative elements polarized some critics and players, and the game had been subject toreview bombing;Keighley clarified the awards were not rigged in the manner some viewers had suggested and there was no influence of Naughty Dog or its staff on the award selection, citing the game's popularity among players and media alike as proven by its runner-up placement in the Player's Voice award.Kotaku'sIan Walker criticized the game's Best Game Direction win, notingHadesshould have won due to developer Supergiant Games's less demanding work culture.TheGamer's Peter Glagowski similarly felt the game's awards were a message excusing crunch culture in game development.Keighley felt it would be difficult to incorporate criteria related to games developed under poor industry practices like crunch into the awards selection process without becoming aslippery slope, but believes discussions of these practices should be a conversation held by the larger community. Viewership Over 83 million streams were used to view the ceremony, the most in the show's history to date,with 8.3 million concurrent viewers at its peak.OnTwitch, the show had over 2.63 million concurrent viewers, more than double the previous year, with 9,000 creators co-streaming the ceremony. OnYouTube, live viewership increased 84 percent over the previous year. In total, live hours viewed increased by over 129 percent acrossFacebook Gaming, Twitch, and YouTube. The showtrended worldwide on Twitter, with a 31 percent increase in conversation from the previous year, while usage of thehashtag#TheGameAwards increased 107 percent.Keighley expressed his surprise by the consistent growth of the show over the years, but confessed it has led him to fear \"that year where it doesn't grow ... There's going to be a year where we don't have the same viewers\". Notes References External links"
] | [
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"Masahiro Sakurai Masahiro Sakurai(桜井 政博,Sakurai Masahiro, born August 3, 1970)is a Japanese video game director andgame designerbest known as the creator of theKirbyandSuper Smash Bros.series. Apart from his work on those series, he also led the design ofMeteosin 2005 and directedKid Icarus: Uprisingin 2012. Formerly an employee ofHAL Laboratory, Sakurai left the company in 2003 and in 2005 with his wife Michiko Sakurai (also ex-HAL Laboratory) founded their companySora Ltd., under which they work on a freelance basis. He was also an author of a weekly column forFamitsumagazine from 2003 to 2021, and has done voice acting work in some of his games, most notably providing the voice ofKing DededeinKirby 64: The Crystal Shardsand theSuper Smash Bros.series. From 2022 to 2024, Sakurai has been creating videos for hisYouTubechannel,Masahiro Sakurai on Creating Games, where he discusses game design and his career. Career Masahiro Sakurai was born on August 3, 1970, inMusashimurayama, Tokyo, Japan. One of Sakurai's",
"One of Sakurai's earliest experiences in the video game industry began when he worked forHAL Laboratory, where he created the characterKirbyat age 19 and directed his first title,Kirby's Dream Land. Sakurai left HAL on August 5, 2003. He explained in an interview withNintendo Dreamthat that he felt it would be difficult to create new projects while staying at HAL due to the direction of the gaming industry, where the risk of failure was high. While he was not being pressured by HAL to createKirbysequels, he noted increasing tension within the industry as a whole: \"It was tough for me to see that every time I made a new game, people automatically assumed that a sequel was coming. Even if it's a sequel, lots of people have to give their all to make a game, but some people think the sequel process happens naturally.\" Soon after, Sakurai began working on a project withQ Entertainment, along withTetsuya Mizuguchi. This collaboration resulted inMeteosin 2005, a puzzle game for theNintendo DS. On September 30,",
"On September 30, 2005, Sakurai announced that he had formed his own company, Sora Ltd.Two games were announced to be in development but no information on the titles had been divulged. As for the future of theSuper Smash Bros.series, Nintendo and HAL Laboratory presidentSatoru Iwata, during Nintendo'sE3 2005press conference, promised an online iteration of the game would come to theNintendo Wii. In issue #885 ofFamitsumagazine, Sakurai revealed that he would be serving as a director and game designer onSuper Smash Bros. Brawlfor theWii.Super Smash Bros. Brawlwas released in 2008, after personnel borrowed from 19 different developer studios assisted in development.Sakurai had been updating daily theSuper Smash Bros Brawlwebsite called the Smash Bros. Dojo. Starting a year previous the release, he revealedBrawlsecrets and gameplay content through the site. The Smash Bros. Dojo had regular updates from May 22, 2007, to April 14, 2008. On the final day of updates, it was revealed that Sakurai provided the voice",
"provided the voice forKing DededeinKirby 64: The Crystal Shardsas well as Dedede inSuper Smash Bros. Brawl. He and his company, Sora Ltd. alongside Nintendo, started a first-party studio,Project Sora, which was 72% owned by Nintendo and 28% owned by Sora Ltd. It was revealed atE3 2010that Sakurai and Project Sora were working onKid Icarus: Uprisingfor the Nintendo 3DS. Project Sora was closed and ended development on June 30, 2012.AtE3 2011, Nintendo announced that Sakurai was working onSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U. Sakurai began development of the title upon the release ofKid Icarus: Uprisingin March 2012. In February 2013, Sakurai was diagnosed withcalcific tendinitisnear his right shoulder, which caused him substantial pain whenever he moved his arm. He mentioned that this could effectively slow down his work, as he does some of hisgame testinghimself.Sakurai's wife, Michiko, has worked on the graphical user interface for many of his games, includingKirby Air Ride,Meteos, and theSuper Smash",
"and theSuper Smash Bros.series. In a January 2015 column inWeekly Famitsu, Sakurai alluded to the possibility of retirement, expressing doubt that he would be able to continue making games if his career continued to be as stressful as it was.In December 2015, Sakurai once again stated that he was not sure if there would be another game in theSmash Bros.series,prior toSuper Smash Bros. Ultimatebeing released in 2018 with Sakurai once again as director. On March 14, 2022, Sakurai was awarded Best Creator byWeekly Famitsu. Sakurai also announced that he is working on a new project not related to game production. Masahiro Sakurai on Creating Games Sakurai launchedMasahiro Sakurai on Creating Games, aYouTubechannel in both English and Japanese in August 2022. The channel's videos are focused on game development and design as well as his career.He stated that the channel was founded because he wanted to reach more people with his lessons after being asked tolectureat schools. Sakurai additionally noted that other",
"noted that other venues for lessons from game developers, such as theGame Developers Conference, focused on more advanced, technical details, rather than more basic principles.Less than a day after its launch, the English edition of his channel gained over 200,000 subscribers.The opening and ending jingles for the channel were composed byYuzo Koshiro. Works Notes References External links",
"Super Smash Bros. Ultimate Super Smash Bros. Ultimateis a 2018crossoverfighting gamedeveloped byBandai Namco StudiosandSora Ltd. and published byNintendofor theNintendo Switch. It is the fifthinstallment in theSuper Smash Bros.series, succeedingSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U(2014). The game follows the series' traditional style of gameplay, in which players control one of thevarious charactersand use attacks to weaken their opponents and knock them out of an arena. It features a wide variety ofgame modes, including asingle-playercampaignandmultiplayerversus modes.Ultimatefeatures 89 playable fighters, including all characters from previousSuper Smash Bros.games as well as newcomers. The roster ranges from Nintendo characters to those fromthird-partyfranchises. Planning for the game had begun by December 2015, with full development starting after the completion of3DS/Wii U'sdownloadable content(DLC). Series creator and directorMasahiro Sakuraireturned along with Bandai Namco Studios and Sora, the",
"and Sora, the studios that developed3DS/Wii U,with their return speeding up the preparation process. Sakurai's goal withUltimatewas to include every character from previous games in the series, despite the various development and licensing challenges this would present. Several well-known video game musicians contributed to the soundtrack, withHideki Sakamotowriting the main theme \"Lifelight\". Nintendo first teasedUltimatein aNintendo Directin March 2018 and fully revealed it atE3 2018the following June. It later received two additional Directs prior to its release on December 7, 2018. The game received universal acclaim, with some critics calling it the best game in the series; they praised its large amount of content and fine-tuning of existingSmashgameplay elements, although its online mode received criticism.Ultimateis the best-selling fighting game of all time and one of thebest-selling on the Switch, having sold over 34 million copies as of March 2024. It is also a popularcompetitive fighting gameand",
"fighting gameand has been cited as one of thegreatest video games of all time.Ultimatereceiveddownloadable contentadding new fighters, stages, and other content for nearly three years after release. Gameplay Super Smash Bros. Ultimateis aplatform fighterfor up to eight players in which characters fromNintendogames and third-party franchises fight to knock each other out of an arena. Each player has a percentage meter which raises as they take damage, thus increasing the knockback they take and making them easier to launch in the air and out of the arena.Standard battles use one of three victory conditions: Timed, where players aim to win the most points by defeating opponents within a time limit; Stock, where players have a set number of lives and aim to be the last player standing; and Stamina, where players reduce their opponent's health down to zero to defeat them. Players can adjust the rules to their liking and save them as presets for future matches. Players can also enable various items which attack",
"items which attack enemies or grant them power-ups, along with Poké Balls and Assist Trophies, which respectively summonPokémonand other non-playable characters to assist them in battle. In Timed matches, certain Assist Trophies can be attacked and defeated to earn points.Each character also possesses a powerful Final Smash attack, which can be performed either by obtaining a Smash Ball or by filling up a special meter, both of which can be toggled on and off.The base game features 104 different stages, with additional stages being added alongside DLC fighters. Stages can be played in alternative Battlefield and Omega forms or toggled to remove stage hazards. A new feature called Stage Morph allows players to select two stages that the game alternates between at certain intervals during a match.Other tweaks include new icons and gauges for character-specific abilities, such asCloud's Limit gauge. In addition to returning modes such as Classic, Special Smash, and Home-Run Contest,Ultimateadds new modes. These",
"new modes. These are Smashdown, where each character can only be played once; Squad Strike, where players battle in teams of multiple characters; and a tournament mode that allows up to 32 players to battle in playoff brackets. Spirits Ultimateintroduces the Spirits mechanic, replacing the collectible trophies from previous games. Each of these Spirits, based on characters from represented franchises, can be used to power up a fighter with unique abilities.Players mainly gain Spirits through pre-made challenges called \"Spirit Battles\" that represent the character the Spirit depicts, which are embodied by one or more of the game's fighters and other specific level effects. For example, the Spirit battle of Rayquaza, a flying dragon Pokémon, requires players to defeat a large version of Ridley with a similar color palette and wind effects. Players are encouraged to strategically choose Spirits based on the level effects; in the same example, a player would need to equip a Spirit that provides wind resistance",
"wind resistance or immunity, or one that allows them to deal extra damage to a giant opponent. A separate mode called the Spirit Board presents a rotating set of Spirit battles for players to gain Spirits from. Spirits have a growth and evolution system, in which they can be leveled up to become more powerful or converted into Cores to summon new Spirits.Certain Spirits will also become an \"enhanced\" form upon reaching max level, but will return to level 1. Nintendo offers limited-timed Spirit events in cross-promotion with other games and franchises, with the Spirits featured only available to collect during the event. Eventually, these Spirits make their way into general rotation and can be found on the Spirit Board.The local multiplayer mode also allows for the option to use Spirits. World of Light Ultimatefeatures the return of Adventure Mode, which was absent in3DS/Wii U.It is now integrated into the Spirits mode with a new story,World of Light, which prominently uses the game's Spirit mechanics.The",
"mechanics.The mode's narrative begins with an evil entity, Galeem, destroying theSmash Bros.world, vaporizing almost all of the fighter characters and placing them under his imprisonment; onlyKirby, due to his Warp Star, evades this attack.Players explore the titular World of Light, a new world that Galeem created in the original world's place, to rescue captured fighters and Spirits -the remnants of other characters' physical forms- by completing marked Spirit Battles. Players can use regained allies and Spirits to overcome certain challenges on the map and defeat Galeem.However, after Galeem is defeated, a new enemy, Dharkon, emerges; after Dharkon's defeat, it wages war against Galeem. If just Galeem is defeated, Dharkon will engulf the world in darkness, but if just Dharkon is defeated, then Galeem will cover the universe with light. However, by defeating an equal amount of light and dark Spirits on the final map, players are able to challenge and defeat both of them, freeing the Spirits from their",
"Spirits from their control and allowing them to return to the real world. Additional features The game supports local multiplayer, local wireless with other systems, and online play viaWi-FiorLAN connections. By defeating players online, players earn tags which can be traded for in-game currency to buy new Spirits, music, andMiiFighter costumes. The game is compatible withJoy-Concontrollers, theNintendo Switch Pro Controller, andGameCube controllersvia a USB adapter.Like the previous entry,amiibofigurines can be used to create AI-controlled Figure Players, which can be trained to become stronger.Shortly after the game's release, a service for the Nintendo Switch Online mobile app, known as \"Smash World\", was launched, which allows players to check their game statistics and share images and videos captured from the game to social media.Ultimatefeatures over 900 music tracks, which can be played through the Switch's handheld mode while in standby mode.Version 3.0 of the game, released in April 2019, adds a",
"April 2019, adds a Stage Builder, which allows players to create custom stages which can be shared or downloaded through the Switch Online service. The update also includes a replay editor, allowing players to edit stored replays, which can be shared online or downloaded to other devices. These replays are available within the Smash World app.An update in May 2019 provided limited support for thevirtual realityVR Kit ofNintendo Labo, allowing players to view computer-only matches in VR or play in a 1-on-1 mode against the computer.An update in September 2019 added the Home-Run Contest mode from previousSmashgames. Playable characters Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, like other games in theSuper Smash Bros.series, features acrossovercast of fighters from several differentNintendo franchises, as well as fighters from series bythird-partydevelopers such asKonami,Sega,Capcom,Bandai Namco Entertainment,Square Enix,PlatinumGames,Microsoft,SNK, andDisney. The base game features 74 playable fighters,consisting of all 63",
"of all 63 previous fighters from past entries and 11 newcomers: theInklingsfromSplatoon;Princess Daisyfrom theMarioseries;Ridleyand Dark Samus from theMetroidseries;Simon Belmontand Richter Belmont from theCastlevaniaseries;ChromfromFire Emblem Awakening;King K. Roolfrom theDonkey Kongseries;Isabellefrom theAnimal Crossingseries;Ken Mastersfrom theStreet Fighterseries; and Incineroar fromPokémon SunandMoon.When starting the game, players only have access to the eight starter characters of the originalSuper Smash Bros.and unlock the rest by completing the game's Classic modes, playing through World of Light, or fighting a certain amount of battles. Certain characters whose movesets are directly based on other characters are now classified as \"Echo Fighters\", possessing similar movesets and proportions to the fighters they are based on, but with unique animations and gameplay differences. On the character selection screen, these characters can either be listed individually or stacked with the fighters they are",
"fighters they are based on.Select characters also have alternative skins featuring different genders or sometimes other characters, such asBowser Jr., who has the otherKoopalingsas skins, but with identical animations and abilities.Several returning characters received updates to their appearances, such asMariohaving Cappy fromSuper Mario Odysseyaccompanying him andThe Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild's incarnation ofLinkreplacing the one fromTwilight Princess. Additional fighters have been added to the game via post-releasedownloadable content(DLC). The first of these,Piranha Plantfrom theMarioseries, was released in January 2019 and made available for free to those who purchased and registered the game with aMy Nintendoaccount before the end of that month.Additional fighters, each coming with a unique stage and related music, have been released both individually and as part of two Fighters Pass bundles.The first Fighters Pass consisted of five characters:JokerfromAtlus'Persona 5, released in April",
"released in April 2019;the Herofrom Square Enix'sDragon Questseries, released in July 2019;Banjo & KazooiefromRare'sBanjo-Kazooieseries, released in September 2019;Terry BogardfromSNK'sFatal Furyseries, released in November 2019;andBylethfromFire Emblem: Three Houses, released in January 2020. The second Fighters Pass, titled Fighters Pass Volume 2, consisted of six additional fighters and was the final content planned forUltimate.The first character in this collection,Min MinfromARMS, was released in June 2020.Steve,the default player avatar fromMojang Studios'Minecraft, was released in October 2020.Sephiroth, the antagonist from Square Enix'sFinal Fantasy VII, was released in December 2020, with players able to unlock him a few days early by defeating him in a limited-time boss battle known as the \"Sephiroth Challenge\".Pyra and Mythra, a dual character fromXenoblade Chronicles 2, were released in March 2021.Kazuya Mishimafrom Bandai Namco'sTekkenseries was released in June 2021.SorafromDisneyand Square",
"Square Enix seriesKingdom Heartswas the final fighter to be added in October 2021. Development Super Smash Bros. Ultimatewas developed byBandai Namco StudiosandSora Ltd., the same studios that developedSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U, for theNintendo Switch, with series creatorMasahiro Sakuraireturning as game director.Unlike previousSuper Smash Bros.games, the team was not assembled from the ground up, which sped up preparation time.The project plan for the game was in the works by December 2015, when the DLC for3DSandWii Uwas in development,and finished after it was completed.Staff gathering was done soon afterward.The development period was shorter compared to previous entries in the series.Hatenaassisted with the development of some elements,andtri-Crescendocontributed to programming and design. According to Sakurai, producing aSuper Smash Bros.game for the Switch was the last request that former Nintendo presidentSatoru Iwatahad given him before his death in 2015, and he wanted to make the",
"wanted to make the game the best possible product he could to respect him.Sakurai sought to include every character from previous games, as to not disappoint fans.However, he knew this would be a complex problem for both development and licensing;it would also drastically increase the cost of development. The return of Bandai and Sora made it easier for this to happen.Sakurai also wanted to adjust character abilities to speed up the game,although not to an extent that would alienate players unfamiliar with the series.Sakurai knew thatUltimatewas a core game for Nintendo and that it had a dedicated player base that he did not want to disappoint, and believed that completing this goal was necessary to satisfy them.Sakurai was also faced with the decision to either create a completely new game system or build off of pre-existing ones; he chose to build off pre-existing ones because there would only be about a third of the characters he desired in the final game.All the returning characters' abilities had to be",
"abilities had to be re-balancedso they could work inUltimate.Originally, gameplay would differ between the Switch's docked and handheld modes, but Sakurai scrapped this idea since the system's screen in handheld mode was better than he thought.Sakurai believed this would be the onlySmashgame to have the full roster of returning characters, calling the effort to include the characters, music, stage settings, and other elements as \"unprecedented\", and cautioned that future games in the series would likely be smaller in scope. However, he still wanted to add as many fighters as possible through DLC. Voice lines recorded byDavid Hayterfor Snake were re-used forUltimate.Xander Mobus, who voiced Crazy Hand,Master Hand, and the announcer inSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii U,also made a return with new voice clips, in addition to reprising his role asJokerfromPersona 5when he was added as DLC.The addition of Ridley fromMetroidas a playable character had been highly requested within theSuper Smash",
"theSuper Smash Bros.community for some time. In 2008, Sakurai stated that he knew Ridley was a high-demand character, but thought that he was \"impossible\" to add unless they were able to sacrifice the character's size for balancing purposes.So that Ridley could be included in the game, Sakurai studied the art of the character and redesigned him so he could stand upright.All characters were chosen at the beginning of development except for Incineroar, who had not been created yet;the team instead left a space open for aSun and MoonPokémon. The Inklings' inkmechanicproved challenging to implement due to its interactions with environments. The team builtUltimatefrom scratch with new assets and content. Localization manager Nate Bihldorff stated that the game significantly upgraded lighting effects and texture rendering from thegame engineof theWii Uversion.The World of Light mode was inspired byBrawl's(2008) Subspace Emissary, and Sakurai chose to start it with a cataclysmic event because he thought it would",
"he thought it would leave a greater impact on players.The team conceived the Spirits mechanic because they wanted to create an enjoyable single-player mode, but did not have enough resources to createcharacter models. While it did not let them tell stories for individual fighters or create new locations and rules, it let them use various characters and assets.One part of the team chose Spirits to include in the game and had to thoroughly research them; according to Sakurai, the Spirits mode was essential for using various franchises. Music Like previous games in the series,Ultimatefeatures several well-known video game music composers and arrangers providing a mix of original music and rearrangements of various tracks for the represented franchises, with over 1,000 tracks in total.New toUltimateis the tying of tracks to franchises instead of individual stages, as well as the ability to create custom playlists to listen to outside the game when the Switch is in handheld mode.Sakurai stated that he began",
"that he began contacting composers over a year before release, providing them with a database of over a thousand suggested track ideas.In addition, he allowed them to submit their own personal favorites, with those choices being given priority for inclusion.While Sakurai oversaw the process and preferred that the music retain the spirit of the original games, the direction of them was generally handled by the composers themselves.The main theme, \"Lifelight\", composed byHideki Sakamoto, is the basis of most of the game's original music. Downloadable content As with previous entries, Nintendo planned to offer new fighters through DLC; however, unlike with the3DSandWii U,where players could request which characters they wished to see in the game, Nintendo chose which characters they would add by November 2018.Like the previous title, additional Mii costumes were released as paid DLC, with certain costumes also adding new music tracks to the game.Sakurai believed that despite characters likeJoker, the first",
"the first announced DLC fighter, not being from games usually associated with Nintendo, they were added because they were \"emblematic\" of the types of characters they wanted to add toUltimate.He also stated that they \"bring just a whole different level of fun and enjoyment for players\".The Piranha Plant was chosen as a DLC character because Sakurai wanted to add diversity to the roster.Nintendo met withRarestudio head Craig Duncan at E3 2018 to discuss the possibility of including Banjo and Kazooie as downloadable content; Duncan, believing it to be \"a great opportunity\", agreed and connected the two development teams for further discussions.Sakurai noted that Banjo and Kazooie were the second most requested character forSuper Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DSandWii Uin a Nintendo-sanctioned fan vote in 2015,and that their addition happened \"quite easily\", despite the property being owned byMicrosoftthrough its acquisition ofRare.Phil Spencer, the head ofXbox, stated that negotiating their inclusion was \"an easy",
"was \"an easy deal to make\" thanks to Microsoft's strong partnership with Nintendo. The development of Fighters Pass Volume 2 was heavily affected by theCOVID-19 pandemicin 2020, as due tostay-at-home ordersin Japan, Sakurai and his development team had to work remotely.According to Daniel Kaplan ofMojang Studios, early discussions between Nintendo andMicrosoftincludingMinecraftcontent in theSuper Smash Bros.series had begun roughly five years prior to Steve's addition into the game.The character's inclusion required the development team to rework every stage in the game to accommodate Steve's gameplay mechanics.Sakurai had wanted to includeSorafromKingdom Heartsin the game because he was the top fighter requested forNintendo 3DSandWii Uin the 2015 fan vote.However, they initially thought that the legality surrounding the intellectual property withDisneywould be insurmountable, and originally planned for only five fighters in the second pass. However, Sakurai met a Disney representative at an award venue,",
"at an award venue, which facilitated the start of negotiations for Sora's inclusion. Nintendo, Disney, andSquare Enixsaw towards including Sora in the game and overseeing all aspects related to his inclusion, with several limitations and guidelines they were required to follow.The Sora Challenger Pack featured a promotional tie-in with the 2020 rhythm gameKingdom Hearts: Melody of Memory: players withMelody of Memorysave data on their Nintendo Switch would unlock the music track \"Dearly Beloved (Swing Version)\". Release Ultimatewas teased during aNintendo Directpresentation on March 8, 2018, under theworking titleSuper Smash Bros., with the release year shown to be 2018. Nintendo formally announced the game atE3 2018, revealing that the full roster of characters from past games would be included, as well as its release date.Demoversions were playable at E3 in June and atSan Diego Comic-Conthe following month.IGNnominatedUltimatefor its Best Game of E3 2018 award; the game won Best Nintendo Switch Game from",
"Switch Game from bothIGNandGamescom.Two Nintendo Direct presentations in 2018, one on August 8 and another one on November 1, were devoted to the game, revealing new characters, stages, and game modes. Nintendo releasedSuper Smash Bros. Ultimateworldwide on December 7, 2018.In addition to the standard retail version, a special edition containing aSuper Smash Bros.-themedNintendo Switch Pro Controllerand a Switch with a download code was also released.An additional special edition contained a pair ofSuper Smash Bros.-themedJoy-Conas well as a Switch console, aSuper Smash Bros.-themed dock, and a download code for the game.AGameCube controllerwith theSuper Smash Bros. Ultimatelogo was released on November 2, 2018. One of the game's new additions had the characterMr. Game & Watchassuming the appearance of a feather- and loincloth-wearingNative Americanwhen using one of his attacks—a reference toFire Attack(1982), in which players controlled acowboydefending his fort from attacking indigenous people. Some users",
"people. Some users on social media saw this as racist, leading to Nintendo of America apologizing and removing the animation in an update shortly after release.Two weeks before its release, a leaked copy of the game was distributed across the internet. Nintendo took steps to issue copyright strikes on YouTube videos usingdata minedcontent, while fans worked to isolatespoilers, particularly the World of Light story mode, from those that had played the leaked version. Reception Ultimatereceived \"universal acclaim\" from critics, according to thereview aggregatorplatformMetacritic.Critics lauded the huge cast of characters and levels, new game modes, and combining of the best elements from its predecessors.French video game websiteJeuxvideo.comcalled it the best game in the series, praising its features which \"brilliantly mix gargantuan content with nostalgia\".Bleacher Reporthailed the game's colorful art style, faster gameplay, and unique stages.IGNpraised the game's decision to bring back every character from",
"character from the series as \"ambitious and excellent\".The game's massive soundtrack and portable music player were praised byThe Verge. However, the game's online mode received criticism for its technical performance and matchmaking. Many players found significantlagaffecting their games, even when using wired connections over wireless, while the game's matchmaking features did not adhere to players' criteria, with players frequently playing matches with rule sets they did not choose. The matchmaking process was further criticized for making it difficult for friends to join matches over random players, and not allowing multiple local players to join in online matches.There had been so many complaints onUltimate'ssubredditthat the administrators forwarded all complaints to a separate thread.Ultimate'sWorld of Lightmode also received mixed reviews. While some found the single-player mode both accessible and challenging,others found the mode tedious and excessive. Sales In November 2018, Nintendo",
"2018, Nintendo announcedUltimatewas the most pre-ordered game for the Switch and in the series.The Association for UK Interactive Entertainmentreported thatUltimatewas the fastest-selling Switch andSuper Smash Bros.game in the United Kingdom, with physical launch sales 302% higher than those forSuper Smash Bros. for Wii U, 233% higher than those for3DS, and 62.5% higher than those forBrawl.In its first three days on sale in Japan, the game sold 1.2 million copies, outsellingPokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu!andLet's Go, Eevee!andThe Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wildin the region. Within 11 days of its release,Ultimatehad sold more than three million copies within the United States, making it the fastest-selling Switch game in the country.It was similarly the fastest-selling Switch game as well as the fastest-selling game for any Nintendo console in Europe based on the first 11-day sales.It was estimated that the game sold and shipped over five million copies within its first three days of release.Within three",
"three weeks,Ultimatebecame the fifth best-selling Switch game in the United Kingdom, surpassing the sales ofSplatoon 2.In January 2019,Amazonreported thatUltimatewas their highest selling video game product of 2018,with Nintendo officially announcing that the game had shipped over 12.08 million copies worldwide.Ultimatewas also Nintendo's fastest-selling game of all time until being surpassed byPokémon SwordandShieldin 2019.By September 2020, the game had sold over 21.10 million copies worldwide,making it the best-selling fighting game of all time,surpassing the record ofStreet Fighter II,and became thethird-best-selling Nintendo Switch game, only behindAnimal Crossing: New HorizonsandMario Kart 8 Deluxe. As of June 30, 2024, total sales reached34.66million. Awards The game won the award for \"Best Nintendo Switch Game\", \"Best Fighting Game\", and \"Best Multiplayer Game\" inIGN's Best of 2018 Awards, whereas its other nominations were for \"Game of the Year\" and \"Best Video Game Music\". Esports EVO 2019, held on",
"EVO 2019, held on August 2–4, 2019, featuredUltimateas one of its main events. It was the largest offlineSmash Bros.tournament of all time, with 3,534 entrants signed up.It set a new record for EVO concurrent viewership, with over 279,000 viewers during Top 8.On May 8–10, 2020, topSuper Smash Bros. MeleeplayerHungryboxpartnered withNFLrunning backLe'Veon Belland esports organizationTeam Liquidto host The Box, an online tournament with a $10,000 prize pool.With over 8,000 entrants, it was the largest onlineSmash Bros.tournament of all time. In February 2020, it was announced that the Smash World Tour would feature bothSuper Smash Bros. MeleeandUltimateplayers for a grand prize pool of $250,000. The tournament would have included international qualifiers, with the grand finals' location to be in the United States.However, theCOVID-19 pandemicquickly led to several of the qualifiers getting either postponed or canceled.The Smash World Tour was successfully relaunched in 2021, featuring a mix of online and",
"a mix of online and offline qualifiers and culminating in a final offline championship.In 2022, an officially licensed circuit was introduced, being the Panda Cup, featuringSuper Smash Bros. MeleeandSuper Smash Bros. Ultimate.However on November 24, 2022, Nintendo stated that the Smash World Tour 2022 could not continue, as they did not have a license from Nintendo. Accusations of Panda CEO, Alan Bunney, caused many players who had qualified for the Panda Cup to drop out. This caused both the Panda Cup and the Smash World Tour 2022 Championships to be cancelled, along with the Smash World Tour 2023. Notes References External links",
"The Game Awards 2020 The Game Awards 2020was an award show that honored the bestvideo games of 2020. It was produced and hosted byGeoff Keighley, and took place on December 10, 2020. The preshow ceremony was hosted by Sydnee Goodman. Unlike previousGame Awards, the show was broadcast virtually due to theCOVID-19 pandemic; Keighley presented at a soundstage inLos Angeles, while musical performances took place virtually at stages inLondonandTokyo. The show introduced the award's first Future Class, a list of individuals from the video game industry who best represent the future of video games, Innovation in Accessibility award, an award for games that featured notableaccessibility options. The show waslive streamedacross 45 different platforms. It featured musical performances from theLondon Philharmonic OrchestraandEddie Vedder, and presentations from celebrity guests, includingReggie Fils-Aimé,Gal Gadot,Brie Larson, andKeanu Reeves. The Last of Us Part IIreceived the most nominations and wins in the show's",
"wins in the show's history—eleven and seven, respectively—and was awardedGame of the Year.Neil DruckmannandHalley Grosswon Best Narrative for their work on the game, whileLaura Baileywas awarded Best Performance for her role asAbby. Several new games were announced, includingArk II,Perfect Dark, andan untitledMass Effectgame. The show was the most expensive ceremony to date. It was viewed by over 83 million streams, the most in its history to date,with 8.3 million concurrent viewers at its peak. It received a mixed reception from media publications, with praise directed at new game announcements, and criticism for not allowing developers more time to speak. Some critics and viewers shared concerns over the success ofThe Last of Us Part IIdue to its developer'scrunchpractices. Background As with previous iterations ofThe Game Awards, the 2020 show was hosted and produced by Canadian games journalistGeoff Keighley. He returned as an executive producer alongside Kimmie Kim, and Richard Preuss and LeRoy Bennett",
"and LeRoy Bennett returned as director and creative director, respectively.Sydnee Goodman returned as host of the preshow.Due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, Keighley did not want to host a normal ceremony.Not wanting to take a hiatus and inspired by the success ofSummer Game Fest,he considered hosting from his home but his board urged him to attempt a larger show on par with previous years.In case of a significant surge ofCOVID-19 cases in California, the crew had several back-up plans, including broadcasting from Keighley's house.He worked with his partners to develop a virtual show;he and his team took inspiration from other shows throughout the year, including theDemocratic National Convention, in which the \"audience\" was featured on virtual screens,as well as the72nd Primetime Emmy Awards, wherein the hosts were isolated on stage and the winners accepted viavideo call. The presentation used three soundstages in Los Angeles, London, and Tokyo; each had minimal attendees, mostly related to production crew and",
"production crew and presenters. Keighley said this allowed them to include additional presentation events as with past shows, as well as explore taking future shows to different venues.The 2020 show—featuring a production of more than 400 people, six of whom are full-time employees—had a budget of underUS$10 millionand was the most expensive to date, partly due to theCOVID-19 testsrequired for the crew and the worldwide remote camera set-ups.It remained profitable due to revenue from advertisers and sponsors, as well as minor earnings from streaming services.The show's theme was strength and comfort due to the impact of the pandemic. Keighley wanted to implore the theme of unity, given the release of thePlayStation 5andXbox Series X/Sin November 2020; he citedThe Game Awards 2018as an example of this theme, which had led withNintendo'sReggie Fils-Aimé, Microsoft'sPhil Spencer, and Sony'sShawn Laydensharing the stage.Keighley felt the inclusion of film and television stars was an interesting way to show a",
"way to show a wider appreciation for the industry. His team wanted to includeHenry Cavillin the show, but he was busy working onThe Witcher. While developing the show, Keighley spoke to hundreds of viewers viaZoomto discuss their own interests,often alongside industry figures likeValve CorporationpresidentGabe NewellandEpic Gamescreative director Donald Mustard.As with the previous show, the presentation ran alongside the Game Festival, consisting of playable demos and additional in-game content.The show introduced the award's first Future Class, a list of individuals from across the video game industry who best represent the future of video games. The inductees included industry professionals such asKinda Funny's Blessing Adeoye Jr.,Naughty Dog'sHalley Gross, andGameSpot'sKallie Plagge.The presentation was aired on December 10, 2020,live streamedacross more than 45 online platforms.It aired on more than ten networks in China, includingBilibili,Douyin, andHuya Live, and on several networks in India",
"networks in India includingDisney+ Hotstar,JioTV, andMX Player. Announcements Around April and May in 2020, Keighley was worried about a potential lack of game announcements due to theimpact of COVID-19 on the industry; however, several developers were able to submit their announcements and trailers for demonstration.Announcements on recently released and upcoming games were made for: New games announced during the ceremony included: Winners and nominees The nominees for The Game Awards 2020 were announced on November 18, 2020.Any game released on or before November 20, 2020 was eligible for consideration.The nominees were compiled by a jury panel with members from 96 media outlets globally;ballots were sent to outlets on October 29 and due back on November 6, though they had until November 13 to submit updated ballots. Outlets were required to submit three games for each category to determine the nominees.Winners were determined between the jury (90%) and public votes (10%); the latter was held via the",
"was held via the official website and on social media platforms such asFacebookandTwitter, and closed on December 9.The two exceptions were the Most Anticipated Game and Player's Voice awards, which were fully nominated and voted-on by the public;the former was determined exclusively on Twitter and announced during the show,and the latter was announced on December 8 after several rounds of voting.A new Innovation in Accessibility award was added for games that featured notableaccessibility options.Around 18.3 million people participated in the public vote, doubling from the previous show. Awards Winners are listed first, highlighted inboldface, and indicated with a double dagger (‡). Video games Esports and creators Games with multiple nominations and awards Multiple nominations The Last of Us Part IIreceived eleven nominations, the most in the show's history. Other games with multiple nominations includedHadeswith nine,Ghost of Tsushimawith eight,Final Fantasy VII Remakewith six, andDoom Eternalwith",
"andDoom Eternalwith five.Sony Interactive Entertainmenthad 26 total nominations, more than any other publisher, followed bySupergiant GamesandXbox Game Studioswith eight. Multiple awards The Last of Us Part IIreceived the most wins in the show's history, with seven. Four games—Among Us,Final Fantasy VII Remake,Ghost of Tsushima, andHades—won two awards. Across its two winning games, Sony Interactive Entertainment won a total of nine awards, whileInnersloth,Square Enix, Supergiant Games, and Xbox Game Studios won two. Presenters and performers Presenters The following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or introduced trailers. All other awards were presented by Keighley or Goodman. Performers The following individuals or groups performed musical numbers.A planned orchestral version ofCyberpunk 2077's music was scrapped when the game was delayed to the same day as the ceremony, rendering it ineligible for nomination. Ratings and reception Nominees Inverse's Corey Plante felt the cutoff",
"felt the cutoff date led to several games getting snubbed, includingDemon's SoulsandMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales, as well asPokémon SwordandShield, which was eligible for both the2019and 2020 awards but was unrecognized in both. He feltGhost of Tsushimawas more deserving of a Best Score and Music nomination thanDoom Eternal.Den of Geek's Matthew Byrd similarly lamented the lack of recognition forDemon's SoulsandMarvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales.Kat Bailey ofUSgamerquestionedDoom Eternal'snomination for Game of the Year, describing it as \"messy, unfocused, and, well, just not as good\" as its predecessor.Kotaku Australia's Alex Walker similarly found the nomination misplaced and considered games likeHalf-Life: AlyxandMicrosoft Flight Simulatormore deserving. Ceremony The show received a mixed reception from media publications.VentureBeat'sDean Takahashipraised the ceremony, particularly applauding its celebration of diverse games such asThe Last of Us Part IIandTell Me Whyas well as the varied and",
"as the varied and interesting new game announcements.Todd Martens ofLos Angeles Timesfelt the show should have allowed more time for the developers to speak and discuss their artistic visions behind the games, noting the presentation does little to demonstratevideo games as art.Eurogamer's Martin Robinson said the show was understandably \"low-key\" but called it a \"three-hour long advert\".Inverse's Ana Diaz criticized the rapid announcement of winners between premieres and during the preshow, preventing developers from accepting the awards, and its focus onHollywoodactors over game creators. Similar to concerns overDeath Stranding'spredominance in the nominations and ceremony for the 2019 awards due to its creatorHideo Kojima's friendship with Keighley, some viewers shared concerns related toThe Last of Us Part IIat the 2020 awards, both for its awards success and due to the developer'scrunchpractices.The Last of Us Part IIwas well-received at release but narrative elements polarized some critics and players,",
"and players, and the game had been subject toreview bombing;Keighley clarified the awards were not rigged in the manner some viewers had suggested and there was no influence of Naughty Dog or its staff on the award selection, citing the game's popularity among players and media alike as proven by its runner-up placement in the Player's Voice award.Kotaku'sIan Walker criticized the game's Best Game Direction win, notingHadesshould have won due to developer Supergiant Games's less demanding work culture.TheGamer's Peter Glagowski similarly felt the game's awards were a message excusing crunch culture in game development.Keighley felt it would be difficult to incorporate criteria related to games developed under poor industry practices like crunch into the awards selection process without becoming aslippery slope, but believes discussions of these practices should be a conversation held by the larger community. Viewership Over 83 million streams were used to view the ceremony, the most in the show's history to",
"show's history to date,with 8.3 million concurrent viewers at its peak.OnTwitch, the show had over 2.63 million concurrent viewers, more than double the previous year, with 9,000 creators co-streaming the ceremony. OnYouTube, live viewership increased 84 percent over the previous year. In total, live hours viewed increased by over 129 percent acrossFacebook Gaming, Twitch, and YouTube. The showtrended worldwide on Twitter, with a 31 percent increase in conversation from the previous year, while usage of thehashtag#TheGameAwards increased 107 percent.Keighley expressed his surprise by the consistent growth of the show over the years, but confessed it has led him to fear \"that year where it doesn't grow ... There's going to be a year where we don't have the same viewers\". Notes References External links"
] |
Which two MLB teams played in the World Series just weeks after the O.J. Simpson murder trial had ended? | Atlanta Braves and Cleveland Indians | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_trial_of_O._J._Simpson | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995_World_Series | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_trial_of_O._J._Simpson', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995_World_Series'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_trial_of_O._J._Simpson",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995_World_Series"
] | [
"Murder trial of O. J. Simpson The People of the State of California v. Orenthal James Simpsonwas acriminal trialinLos Angeles County Superior Court, in which formerNFLplayer and actorO. J. Simpsonwas tried and acquitted for the murders of his ex-wifeNicole Brown Simpsonand her friendRonald Goldman, who were stabbed to death outside Brown's condominium in Los Angeles on June 12, 1994. The trial spanned eight months, from January 24 to October 3, 1995. Though prosecutors argued that Simpson was implicated by asignificant amount of forensic evidence, he was acquitted of both murders on October 3.Commentators agree that to convince the jury to acquit Simpson, the defense capitalized on anger among the city'sAfrican-Americancommunity toward theLos Angeles Police Department(LAPD), which had a history of racial bias and had inflamed racial tensions inthe beating of Rodney Kingandsubsequent riotstwo years prior.The trial is often characterized as thetrial of the centurybecause of its international publicity and has been described as the \"most publicized\" criminal trial in history.Simpson was formally charged with the murders on June 17; when he did not turn himself in at the agreed time, he became the subject of a police pursuit.TV stations interrupted coverage of the1994 NBA Finalsto broadcast live coverage of the pursuit, which was watched by around 95 million people.The pursuit and Simpson's arrest were among the most widely publicized events in history. Simpson was represented by a high-profile defense team, referred to as the \"Dream Team\", initially led byRobert Shapiroand subsequently directed byJohnnie Cochran. The team includedF. Lee Bailey,Alan Dershowitz,Robert Kardashian,Shawn Holley,Carl E. Douglas, andGerald Uelmen. Simpson was also instrumental in his own defense. While DeputyDistrict AttorneysMarcia Clark,William Hodgman, andChristopher Dardenbelieved they had a strong case, the defense team persuaded the jury there wasreasonable doubtconcerning the DNA evidence.They contended the blood sample had been mishandled by lab scientistsand that the case had been tainted by LAPD misconduct related to racism and incompetence. The use of DNA evidence in trials was relatively new, and many laypersons did not understand how to evaluate it. The trial was considered significant for the wide division inreaction to the verdict.Observers' opinions of the verdict were largely related to their ethnicity; the media dubbed this the \"racial gap\".A poll ofLos Angeles Countyresidents showed most African Americans thought the \"not guilty\" verdict was justified while most whites thought it was a racially motivatedjury nullificationby the mostly African-American jury.Polling in later years showed the gap had narrowed since the trial; more than half of polled Black respondents expressed the belief that Simpson was guilty.In 2017, three jurors who acquitted Simpson said they would still vote to acquit, while one said he would convict. After the trial, Goldman's father filed a civil suit against Simpson. In 1997, the jury unanimously found Simpson responsible for the deaths of Goldman and Brown.The Goldman family was awarded damages totaling $34 million ($64 million adjusted for inflation), but as of 2024 have received a small portion of that. Background Simpson–Brown marriage Brown met Simpson in 1977when he was 30 and she was 18, working as a waitress at the Daisy (aBeverly Hillsprivate club).They began dating although Simpson was married; he filed for divorce from his first wife in March 1979. Simpson and Brown married on February 2, 1985.They had two children together, daughter Sydney (b. 1985) and son Justin (b. 1988).Brown signed a prenuptial agreement that prohibited her from working while married. According to psychologistLenore E. Walker, the Simpson–Brown marriage was a \"textbook example ofdomestic abuse\".In letters and other documents, Brown wrote that Simpson had beaten her in public, during sex, and even in front of family and friends.She described an incident in which Simpson broke her arm during a fight; to prevent him from being arrested, she told emergency room staff that she had fallen off her bike.Brown wrote that she felt conflicted about notifying police of the abuse because she was financially dependent on Simpson.Of the 62 incidents of abuse, the police were notified eight times, and Simpson was arrested once.On February 25, 1992, Brown filed for divorce, citing \"irreconcilable differences\". Brown said that Simpson stalked and harassed her after they divorced – an intimidation tactic meant to force the victim to return to the abuser.She said he had spied on her having sex with her new boyfriendand that she felt her life was in danger because Simpson had threatened to kill her if he ever found her with another man.She drafted awill.On June 8, 1994, a woman named Nicole (presumed to be Brown) telephoned Sojourn House, a women's shelter.She was considering staying at the shelter because she was afraid of what Simpson might do to her, as she was refusing his pleas to reconcile their marriage. Frogmen A few months before the killings, Simpson finished filming a pilot forFrogmen, an adventure series comparable to TheA-Team. Simpson played the primary character, \"Bullfrog\" Burke, who led a gang of formerUS Navy SEALs. He underwent \"a fair amount of\" military training for Frogmen, including the use of a knife, and in one scene, he holds a knife to the throat of a woman playing his daughter. Investigators discovered a 25-minute tape of the pilot, which did not feature the knife scene, and viewed it on Simpson's television while searching his home. The defense attempted to prevent its use on these grounds, but Judge Ito permitted it to be shown.\"Bullfrog\" Burke was skilled at night killings,and the \"silent kill\" technique of slashing the throat.SEALs also regularly wear knit \"watch caps\" like the one found at the scene. Murders On the evening of June 12, 1994, Brown and Simpson both attended their daughter Sydney's dance recital at Paul Revere Middle School. Afterward, Brown and her family went to eat at Mezzaluna restaurant. One of the waiters at the restaurant was Ron Goldman, who had become close friends with Brown in recent weeks,but was not assigned to the Brown family's table. Brown and her children went toBen & Jerry'sbefore returning to her condominium onBundy Drive,Brentwood.The manager of Mezzaluna recounted that Brown's mother telephoned the restaurant at 9:37 pm asking about a pair of lost eyeglasses. The manager found the glasses and put them in a white envelope, which Goldman took with him as he left the restaurant at the end of his shift at 9:50 pm; he intended to drop them off at Brown's place. Meanwhile, Simpson ate takeout food fromMcDonald'swithKato Kaelin, abit-partactor and family friend who had been given the use of a guest house on Simpson's estate. Rumors circulated that Simpson had been on drugs at the time of the murder (later dismissed as blood tests were negative for Simpson, Brown, and Goldman), and theNew York Post'sCindy Adams reported that the pair had gone to a localBurger King, where a prominent drug dealer known only as \"J. R.\" later said he had sold themcrystal meth. Brown's neighbors testified that they heard profuse barking coming from outside throughout the night, beginning around 10:15 pm. Around 10:55 pm., a dogwalker who lived a few blocks away from Brown came across Brown'sAkitadog barking in the street outside her home. The Akita, whose legs were covered in blood, followed the man home; he tried to walk the dog back to where he found it, but the dog resisted. Later, he left the Akita with a neighboring couple who offered to keep the dog overnight; as the dog was agitated, the couple decided to walk it back to where it had been found. Around midnight, as they reached the area where the Akita had been found, the dog stopped outside Brown's home and the couple saw Brown's body lying outside the house. Police were called to the scene and found Goldman's body near Brown's. The front door to Brown's condominium was open when the bodies were found, but there were no signs that anyone had entered the building, by breaking in or otherwise. Brown's body was lying face down and barefoot at the bottom of the stairs leading to the door.The walkway leading to the stairs was covered in blood, but the soles of Brown's feet were clean; based on this evidence, investigators concluded that she was the first person to be attacked and the intended target.She had been stabbed multiple times in the head and neck, but there were fewdefensive woundson her hands, implying a short struggle to investigators. The final wound inflicted ran deep into her neck, severing hercarotid artery. A large bruise in the center of her upper back with a corresponding foot print on her clothing indicated to investigators that, after killing Goldman, the assailant returned to Brown who was on the ground, pulled her head back by the hair and slit her throat.Herlarynxcould be seen through the gaping wound in her neck, andvertebra C3was incised;Brown's head barely remained attached to her body. Goldman's body lay nearby, close to a tree and the fence. He had been stabbed multiple times in the body and neck, but there were relatively few defensive wounds on his hands, signifying a short struggle to investigators.Forensic evidence from the Los Angeles Countycoroneralleged that the assailant stabbed Goldman with one hand while holding him in a chokehold. Near Goldman's body were a blue knit cap; a left-hand, extra-largeAris Isotonerlight leather glove; and the envelope containing the glasses that he was returning. Detectives determined that Goldman came to Brown's house during her murder and that the assailant killed him to remove any witnesses.A trail of the assailant's bloody shoe prints ran through the back gate. To the left of some of the prints were drops of blood from the killer, who was apparently bleeding from the left hand. Measuring the distance between the prints indicated that the assailant walked – rather than ran – away from the scene. Flight to Chicago On the night of June 12, Simpson was scheduled to board ared-eye flightfromLos Angeles International Airportto Chicago, where he was due to play golf the following day at a convention with representatives ofThe Hertz Corporation, for whom he was a spokesman.The flight was due to leave at 11:45 pm.Limousinedriver Allan Park arrived early at Simpson's Rockingham estate to pick him up at around 10:25 pm.Park drove around the estate to make sure he could navigate the area with the stretch limousine properly and to see which driveway would have the best access for the car. He began to buzz the intercom at 10:40, but got no response. He noted the house was dark, and nobody appeared to be home as he smoked a cigarette and made several calls to his boss to get Simpson's home phone number. He testified that he saw a \"shadowy african american figure\", the same size as Simpson, enter the front door from where the driveway starts, before the lights came on; he did not see what direction the figure came from.He testified that he saw Simpson's house number on the curb outside the estate, but no car was parked outside. The prosecution presented exhibits showing the position next to the house number on the curb in which Simpson'sFord Broncowas found the next morning, implying that Park would surely have noticed the Bronco if it had been there when he arrived to pick up Simpson. Around the time Park saw the \"shadowy figure\" arive at Simpson's home,Kaelin was having a telephone conversation with a friend. At approximately 10:40, something crashed into the wall of the guest house Kaelin was staying in, which he described as three \"thumps\" and which he feared was an earthquake. Kaelin hung up the phone and ventured outside to investigate the noises, but did not go directly down the dark south pathway from which the thumps had originated. Instead, he walked to the front of the property, where he saw the limousine parked outside. Kaelin let the limousine in, and Simpson finally came out through the front door a few minutes later, claiming he had overslept.Both Park and Kaelin would later testify that Simpson seemed agitated that night. Park noted that on the way to the airport, Simpson complained about how hot it was, and was sweating and rolled down the window, despite it not being a warm night.Park also testified that he loaded four luggage bags into the car that night, one of them being a knapsack that Simpson would not let him touch, insisting he load it himself. Aporterat the airport testified that Simpson checked only three bags that night,and the police determined that the missing luggage was the same knapsack the limousine driver had mentioned earlier.Another witness not heard at the trial claimed he saw Simpson at the airport discarding items from a bag into a trash can.Detectives Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter believe this is how the murder weapon, shoes and clothes that Simpson wore during the murder were disposed. Simpson was running late but caught his flight. A passenger on the plane and the pilot testified that they did not notice any cuts or wounds on Simpson's hands.A broken glass, a note with a telephone number on it, and bedsheets with blood on them were all recovered from Simpson's room at theO'HarePlaza Hotel. The manager of the hotel recalled Simpson asking for a Band-Aid for his finger at the front desk, because he had \"cut it on pieces of note paper\". Initial investigation and arrest After learning that Brown was the female victim, LAPD commander Keith Bushey ordered detectives Tom Lange, Philip Vannatter, Ron Phillips, andMark Fuhrmanto notify Simpson of her death and to escort him to the police station to pick up the former couple's children, who were asleep in Brown's condominium at the time of the murders. The detectives buzzed the intercom at Simpson's estate for over 30 minutes but received no response. They noted that Simpson's car was parked at an awkward angle, with its back end out more than the front, and that there was blood on the door, which they feared meant someone inside might be hurt. Vannatter instructed Fuhrman to scale the wall and unlock the gate to allow the other three detectives to enter. The detectives would argue they entered without a search warrant because of exigent circumstances – specifically out of fear that someone inside might be injured.Fuhrman briefly interviewed Kaelin, who told the detective that the car belonged to Simpson and that earlier that night he had heard thumps on his wall. In a walk around the premises to inspect what may have caused the thumps, Fuhrman discovered a blood-stained right-hand glove, which was determined to be the mate of the left-hand glove found next to the body of Goldman. This evidence along with the presence of blood in the driveway of the Rockingham estate and on Simpson's vehicle constitutedprobable causeand a search warrant for the location was applied for and granted. Phillips testified that when he called Simpson in Chicago to tell him of Brown's murder, Simpson sounded \"very upset\" but was oddly unconcerned about the circumstances of her death. Simpson only asked if the children had seen the murder or Brown's body, but was not concerned about whether the assailant(s) had harmed the children either.The police contacted Simpson at his home on June 13 and took him toParker Centerfor questioning. Lange noticed that Simpson had a cut on a finger on his left hand that was consistent with where the killer was bleeding from, and asked Simpson how he got the cut. At first, Simpson claimed he cut his finger accidentally while in Chicago after learning of Brown's death. Lange then informed Simpson that blood was found inside his car; at this point, Simpson admitted that he had cut his finger on June 12, but said he did not remember how. He voluntarily gave some of his own blood for comparison with evidence collected at the crime scene and was released.On June 14, Simpson hired lawyerRobert Shapiro, who began assembling Simpson's team of lawyers (referred to as the\"Dream Team\"). Shapiro noted that an increasingly distraught Simpson had begun treatment for depression. The following days, preliminary results from DNA testing came back with matches to Simpson but the District Attorney delayed filing charges until all the results had come back. Simpson spent the night between June 16 and 17 at theSan Fernando Valleyhome of friendRobert Kardashian; Shapiro asked several doctors to attend to Simpson's purported fragile mental state. On June 17, detectives recommended that Simpson be charged with two counts offirst-degree murderwith special circumstance of multiple killings after the final DNA results came back and an arrest warrant was subsequently issued.The LAPD notified Shapiro at 8:30 am that Simpson would have to turn himself in that day. At 9:30 am, Shapiro went to Kardashian's home to tell Simpson that he would have to turn himself in by 11:00 am, an hour after the murder charges were filed. Simpson told Shapiro that he wanted to turn himself in,to which the police agreed, believing that someone as famous as Simpson would not attempt to flee. The police agreed to delay Simpson's surrender until noon to allow him to be seen by a mental health specialist, as he was showing signs of suicidal depression – he had updated his will, called his mother and children, and written three sealed letters: one to his children, one to his mother, and one to the public.More than 1,000 reporters waited for Simpson'sperp walkat the police station, but he did not arrive as stipulated. The LAPD then notified Shapiro that Simpson would be arrested at Kardashian's home. Kardashian and Shapiro told Simpson this but when the police arrived an hour later, Simpson andAl Cowlingshad disappeared. The three sealed letters Simpson had written were left behind. At 1:50 pm, Commander Dave Gascon, LAPD's chief spokesman, publicly declared Simpson a fugitive; the police issued anall-points bulletinfor him and an arrest warrant for Cowlings. \"Suicide note\" At 5 pm, Kardashian and one of his defense lawyers read Simpson's public letter.In the letter, Simpson sent greetings to 24 friends and wrote, \"First everyone understand I had nothing to do with Nicole's murder\". He described the fights with Brown and their decision not to reconcile their relationship, and asked the media \"as a last wish\" not to bother his children. He wrote to his former girlfriend Paula Barbieri, who had broken up with him hours before the double murder, \"I'm sorry... we're not going to have, our chance... As I leave, you'll be in my thoughts\". It also included \"I can't go on\" and an apology to the Goldman family. The letter concluded, \"Don't feel sorry for me. I have had a great life, great friends. Please think of the real O. J. and not this lost person\".Most interpreted this as asuicide note; Simpson's mother collapsed after hearing it,and reporters joined the search for Simpson. At Kardashian's press conference, Shapiro said that he and Simpson's psychiatrists agreed with the suicide note interpretation. Through television, Shapiro appealed to Simpson to surrender. Bronco chase News helicopters searched theLos Angeles highway systemforAl Cowlings's automobile, a white 1993 Ford Bronco.At 5:51 pm, Simpson reportedly called 9-1-1; the call was traced to theSanta Ana Freeway, nearLake Forest. At around 6:20 pm, a motorist inOrange CountynotifiedCalifornia Highway Patrolafter seeing someone believed to be Simpson in a Bronco on theI-5freeway heading north. The police tracked calls placed by Simpson on his cell phone. At 6:45 pm, police officer Ruth Dixon saw the Bronco heading north onInterstate 405; when she caught up to it, Cowlings yelled out that Simpson was in the back seat of the vehicle and was pointing a gun at his own head.The officer backed off, but followed the vehicleat 35 miles per hour (56 km/h),with up to 20 police cars following her in the chase.Zoey TurofKCBS-TVwas the first to find Simpson from a news helicopter, after colleagues heard that theFBI's mobile phone tracking had located Simpson at theEl Toro Y. More than nine news helicopters eventually joined the pursuit; Tur compared the fleet toApocalypse Now, and the high degree of media participation causedcamera signals to appear on incorrect television channels.The chase was so long that one helicopter ran out of fuel, forcing its station to ask another for a camera feed. Knowing that Cowlings was listening toKNX-AM, sports announcerPete Arbogastcalled Simpson's formerUSC footballcoachJohn McKayand connected him to Simpson. As both men wept, Simpson told McKay, \"OK, Coach, I won't do anything stupid. I promise\" off the air. \"There is no doubt in my mind that McKay stopped O.J. from killing himself in the back of that Bronco\", Arbogast said.McKay,Walter Payton,Vince Evans,and others from around the country pleaded with Simpson over radio to surrender. At Parker Center, officials discussed how to persuade Simpson to surrender peacefully. Lange, who had interviewed Simpson about the murders on June 13, realized he had Simpson's cell phone number and called him repeatedly. A colleague hooked a tape recorder up to Lange's phone and captured a conversation between Lange and Simpson, in which Lange repeatedly pleaded with Simpson to \"throw the gun out the window\" for the sake of his mother and children. Simpson apologized for not turning himself in earlier that day, and responded he was \"the only one who deserved to get hurt\" and was \"just gonna go with Nicole\". Simpson asked Lange to \"just let me get to the house\" and said \"I need for me\". Cowlings's voice is overheard in the recording (after the Bronco had arrived at Simpson's home surrounded by police) pleading with Simpson to surrender and end the chase peacefully.NBC SportsbroadcasterBob Costas, who had worked with Simpson on the network'sNFL studio show, said that during the chase that Simpson had called30 Rockefeller PlazainNew York Cityasking to speak to Costas, but Costas was several blocks away atMadison Square GardencoveringGame 5 of the1994 NBA Finals. Los Angeles streets emptied and drink orders stopped at bars as people watched on television.Every television network showed the chase;ABC,NBC,CBS,CNN, and local news outlets interrupted regularly scheduled programming to cover the incident, watched by an estimated 95 million viewers nationwide;only 90 million had watchedthat year's Super Bowl.While NBC continued to air NBA Finals coverage, Bob Costas acted as a go-between forMarv Albert, who was calling the game, andTom Brokaw, who reported on the chase. Both events were carried in a split screen.The chase was covered live by ABC anchorsPeter JenningsandBarbara Walterson behalf of the network's fivenews magazines, which achieved some of their highest-ever ratings that week.The chase was also broadcast internationally, including in France and China. Thousands of spectators and onlookers packed overpasses along the route of the chase, waiting for Simpson. In a festival-like atmosphere, many held signs urging Simpson to flee,with slogans such as \"Go O.J.\" and \"Save the Juice\".Encouraging Simpson's actions outragedJim Hill, who was among those broadcasting pleas to their friend to surrender.As people watched and wondered what would happen to Simpson, one author wrote, \"the shared adventure gave millions of viewers a vested interest, a sense of participation, a feeling of being on the inside of a national drama in the making\". Simpson reportedly demanded that he be allowed to speak to his mother before he would surrender. The chase ended at 8:00 pm at his Brentwood estate, where his son, Jason, ran out of the house,and 27SWATofficers awaited.After remaining in the Bronco for about 45 minutes,Simpson exited at 8:50 pm and went inside for about an hour; a police spokesman stated that during this time Simpson talked to his mother on the phone.Shapiro then arrived, and Simpson surrendered to authorities a few minutes later. In the Bronco, police found \"$8,000 in cash, a change of clothing, a loaded.357 Magnum, a United States passport, family pictures, and a disguise kit with a fake goatee and mustache\".Simpson was booked at Parker Center and taken toMen's Central Jail; Cowlings was booked on suspicion ofharboring a fugitiveand held on $250,000 bail. The Bronco chase, the suicide note, and the items found in the Bronco were not presented as evidence in the criminal trial. Marcia Clark conceded that such evidence did imply guilt yet defended her decision, citing the public reaction to the chase and suicide note as proof the trial had been compromised by Simpson's celebrity status. Most of the public, including Simpson's friendAl Michaels,interpreted his actions as an admission of guilt yet thousands of spectators were seen expressing sympathy for Simpson and encouraging him to flee from the police. Preliminary hearing On June 20, Simpson wasarraignedand pleaded not guilty to both murders and was held without bail. The following day, agrand jurywas called to determine whether to indict him for the two murders but was dismissed on June 23, as a result of excessive media coverage that could have influenced its neutrality. Instead, authorities held a probable cause hearing to determine whether to bring Simpson to trial.California Superior CourtJudge Kathleen Kennedy-Powell ruled on July 7that there was sufficient evidence to bring Simpson to trial for the murders. At his second arraignment on July 22, when asked how he pleaded to the murders, Simpson firmly stated: \"Absolutely, one hundred percent, not guilty.\" Jill Shively testified to the grand jury that soon after the time of the murders she saw a white Ford Bronco speeding away from Bundy Drive in such a hurry that it almost collided with aNissanat the intersection of Bundy and San Vicente Boulevard,and that she recognized Simpson's voice. She talked to the television showHard Copyfor $5,000, after which prosecutors declined to use her testimony at trial.In 1995, Shively had falsely claimed actor Brian Patrick Clarke had assaulted and stalked her. Jose Camacho of Ross Cutlery provided store receipts showing Simpson had purchased a 12-inch (305 mm)stilettoknife six weeks before the murders. The knife was recovered and determined to be similar to the one the coroner said caused the stab wounds. The prosecution did not present this evidence at trial, after Camacho sold his story to theNational Enquirerfor $12,500.Tests on the knife determined that an oil used on new cutlery was still present on the knife, indicating it had never been used. FormerNFLplayer and pastorRosey Griervisited Simpson on November 13 at theLos Angeles County Jail. A jailhouse guard, Jeff Stuart, testified to Judge Ito that at one point Simpson yelled to Grier that he \"didn't mean to do it\", after which Grier had urged Simpson to come clean. Ito ruled that the evidence was inadmissible as being protected because of clergy-penitent privilege. At first, Simpson's defense sought to show that one or more hitmen hired by drug dealers had murdered Brown and Goldman – giving Brown a \"Colombian necktie\" – because they were looking for Brown's friend,Faye Resnick, a known cocaine user who had failed to pay for her drugs.She had stayed for several days at Brown's condo until entering rehab four days before the killings. Ito ruled that the drug killer theory was \"highly speculative\" with no evidence to support it.Consequently, Ito barred the jury from hearing it and prohibited Christian Reichardt from testifying about his former girlfriend Resnick's drug problems. Rose Lopez, a neighbor's Spanish-speaking housekeeper, stated on August 18 that she saw Simpson's Bronco parked outside his house at the time of the murders, supporting his claim he was home that night. During cross-examination by Clark, Lopez admitted she was not sure what time she saw Simpson's Bronco but the defense still intended to call her. However, a taped July 29 statement by Lopez did not mention seeing the Bronco but did mention another housekeeper was also there that night, Sylvia Guerra. Prosecutors then spoke with Guerra, who said Lopez was lying and claimed the defense offered both housekeepers $5,000 to say they saw the Bronco that night. When Ito warned the defense that Guerra's claim as well as the earlier statement not mentioning the Bronco and the tape where Clark claims \"that is clearly being coached on what to say\" would be shown to the jury if Lopez testified, they dropped her from the witness list. Media coverage When the trial began, all of the networks were getting these hate-mail letters because people's soap operas were being interrupted for the Simpson trial. But then what happened was the people who liked soap operas got addicted to the Simpson trial. And they got really upset when the Simpson trial was over, and people would come up to me on the street and say, 'God, I loved your show.' The murders and trial – \"the biggest story I have ever seen\", said a producer of NBC'sToday– received extensive media coverage from the very beginning; at least oneinstant bookwas proposed two hours after the bodies were found, and scheduled to publish only a few weeks later.The case was a seminal event in the history of reality television,helping to revive the genre ofcourt showslikeJudge Judy.TheLos Angeles Timescovered the case on its front page for more than 300 days after the murders. The nightly news broadcasts from theBig Three television networksgave more air time to the case than to theBosnian Warand theOklahoma City bombingcombined. They served an enthusiastic audience; one company put the loss of national productivity from employees following the case instead of working at $40 billion.The Tonight Show with Jay Lenoaired many skits on the trial, and the Dancing Itos – a troupe of dancers dressed as the judge – was a popular recurring segment.According toHoward Kurtzof theWashington Post, the acquittal was \"the most dramatic courtroom verdict in the history of Western civilization\". Participants in the case received much media coverage. Limo driver Park said the media offered him $100,000 but refused, as he would be removed as a witness.Fans approached Clark in public, and when she got a new hairstyle during the trial, the prosecutor received a standing ovation on the courthouse steps;Peopleapproved of the change, but advised her to wear \"more fitted suits and tailored skirts\". While Cochran, Bailey, and Dershowitz were already well-known, others like Kaelin became celebrities, and Paula Barbieri appeared inPlayboy. Those involved in the trial followed their own media coverage. Interest in the case was worldwide; Russian presidentBoris Yeltsin's first question to President Clinton when they met in 1995 was, \"Do you think O.J. did it?\" The issue of whether to allow any video cameras into the courtroom was among the first issues Judge Ito had to decide, ultimately ruling that live camera coverage was warranted.Ito was later criticized for this decision by other legal professionals. Dershowitz said that he believed that Ito, along with others related to the case such as Clark, Fuhrman and Kaelin, was influenced to some degree by the media presence and related publicity. The trial was covered in 2,237 news segments from 1994 through 1997.Ito was also criticized for allowing the trial to become amedia circusand not doing enough to regulate the court proceedings. Among the reporters who covered the trial daily from the courtroom, and a media-area that was dubbed \"Camp O. J.\",were Steve Futterman ofCBS News,Linda Deutschand Michael Fleeman of theAssociated Press, Dan Whitcomb ofReuters, Janet Gilmore of theLos Angeles Daily News, Andrea Ford of theLos Angeles Times, Michelle Caruso of theNew York Daily News,Dan AbramsofCourt TV,Harvey Levinof KCBS, andDavid MargolickofThe New York Times. WritersDominick Dunne,Joe McGinniss, and Joseph Bosco also had full-time seats in the courtroom. On June 27, 1994,Timepublished a cover story, \"An American Tragedy\", with a photo of Simpson on the cover.Time's cover image was darker than a typical magazine cover and darker than the original photo, as shown on aNewsweekcover released at the same time.Timeconsequently became the subject of a media scandal.Commentators found that its staff had usedphoto manipulationto darken the photo, and they speculated it was to make Simpson appear more menacing. After the publication of the photo drew widespread criticism of racist editorializing andyellow journalism,Timepublicly apologized. Charles Ogletree, a criminal defense attorney and law professor, said in a 2005 interview that the best investigative reporting regarding the murder and trial was by theNational Enquirer. Trial Simpson wanted aspeedy trial, and the defense and prosecuting attorneys worked around the clock for several months to prepare their cases. The trial began on January 24, 1995, seven months after the murders, and was televised byclosed-circuit TV camera viaCourt TV, and in part by other cable and network news outlets, for 134 days. JudgeLance Itopresided over the trial in theC.S. Foltz Criminal Courts Building. Jury District AttorneyGil Garcettielected to file charges in downtown Los Angeles, as opposed toSanta Monica, in which jurisdiction the crimes took place.The Los Angeles Superior Court then decided to hold the trial in Downtown Los Angeles instead of Santa Monica due to safety issues at the Santa Monica Court house owing to the1994 Northridge earthquake.The decision may have impacted the trials outcome as it resulted in ajury poolthat mainly consisted of African Americans.Richard Gabriel, a jury consultant noted that African Americans were far more likely than other minorities to be receptive to claims of racially motivated fraud by the police and were less likely to be familiar with and thus acceptDNA evidence. In October 1994, Judge Lance Ito started interviewing 304 prospective jurors, each of whom had to fill out a 75-page questionnaire. On November 3, twelve jurors were seated with twelve alternates. Over the course of the trial, ten were dismissed for a wide variety of reasons. Only four of the original jurors remained on the final panel. According to media reports, Clark believed women, regardless of race, would sympathize with the domestic violence aspect of the case and connect with Brown personally. On the other hand, the defense's research suggested that black women would not be sympathetic to Brown, who was white, because of tensions about interracial marriages. Both sides accepted a disproportionate number of female jurors. From an original jury pool of 40 percent white, 28 percent black, 17 percent Hispanic, and 15 percent Asian, the final jury for the trial had ten women and two men, of whom nine were black, two white, and one Hispanic. On April 5, 1995, juror Jeanette Harris was dismissed when Judge Ito learned she had failed to disclose an incident of domestic abuse.Afterwards, Harris gave an interview and accused the deputies of racism and claimed the jurors were dividing themselves along racial lines. Ito then met with the jurors, who all denied Harris's allegations of racial tension among themselves. The following day, Ito dismissed the three deputies anyway, which upset the jurors that did not complain because the dismissal appeared to lend credence to Harris's allegations, which they all denied.On April 21, thirteen of the eighteen jurors refused to come to court until they spoke with Ito about it. Ito then ordered them to court and the 13 protesters responded by wearing all black and refusing to come out to the jury box upon arrival.The media described this incident as a \"Jury Revolt\" and the protesters wearing all black as resembling a \"funeral procession\". Prosecution case The two lead prosecutors were Deputy District AttorneysMarcia ClarkandWilliam Hodgman, who was replaced as lead prosecutor byChristopher Darden. Clark was designated as the lead prosecutor and Darden became Clark's co-counsel. Prosecutors Hank Goldberg and Hodgman, who had successfully prosecuted high-profile cases in the past, assisted Clark and Darden. Two prosecutors who were DNA experts, Rockne Harmon and George \"Woody\" Clarke, were brought in to present the DNA evidence in the case and were assisted by Prosecutor Lisa Kahn. Theory The prosecution argued that the domestic violence within the Simpson-Brown marriage culminated in her murder.Simpson's history of abusing Brown resulted in their divorce and his pleading guilty to one count of domestic violence in 1989.On the night of the murders, Simpson attended a dance recital for his daughter and was reportedly angry with Brown because of a black dress that she wore, which he said was \"tight\". Simpson's then girlfriend, Paula Barbieri, wanted to attend the recital with Simpson but he did not invite her. After the recital, Simpson returned home to a voicemail from Barbieri ending their relationship. According to the prosecution, Simpson then drove over to Brown's home in his Ford Bronco to reconcile their relationship as a result and when Brown refused, Simpson killed her in a \"final act of control\". Goldman then came upon the scene and was murdered in order to silence him and remove any witnesses. Afterwards, Simpson drove home in his Bronco, and he went into his house. There, he took off his bloodstained clothes, put them in the knapsack (except his socks and the glove), put clean ones on, and left towards the limousine. At the airport, Simpson opened the knapsack, removed the clothes, Bruno Magli shoes, and the murder weapon, and threw them in the trash, before putting the knapsack in one of his suitcases and heading towards his flight. Domestic violence The prosecution opened its case by calling LAPD 911 dispatcher Sharon Gilbert and playing a 9-1-1 call from Brown on January 1, 1989, in which she expressed fear that Simpson would physically harm her; Simpson himself is even heard in the background yelling at her and possibly hitting her as well. The officer who responded to that call, Detective John Edwards, testified next that when he arrived, a severely beaten Brown ran from the bushes where she was hiding and to the detective screaming \"He's going to kill me, he's going to kill me\", referring to Simpson. Pictures of Brown's face from that night were then shown to the jury to confirm his testimony. That incident led to Simpson's arrest and eventual pleading of no contest to one count of domestic violence for which he received probation for one year. LAPD officer and long time friend of both Simpson and Brown, Ron Shipp, testified on February 1, 1995, that Simpson told him the day after the murders that he did not want to take apolygraphtest offered to him by the police, because \"I've had a lot of dreams about killing her. I really don't know about taking that thing\". The jury dismissed Shipp's claims after defense attorney Carl E. Douglas accused him of being an alcoholic, and testifying against Simpson to promote his acting career. The prosecution then called Brown's sister, Denise Brown, to the witness stand. She testified to many episodes of domestic violence in the 1980s, when she saw Simpson physically abuse Brown and throw her out of their house during an argument. She said that Simpson was agitated with Brown on June 12.Although a home videotape taken immediately after the dance recital showed a cheerful Simpson being given a kiss by Denise Brown,Kato Kaelincorroborated the claim that Simpson was \"upset\" with Brown because of the black dress she wore, which he said was \"tight\". The prosecution planned to present 62 separate incidents of domestic violence, including three previously unknown incidents Brown had documented in several letters she had written and placed in a bank safety deposit box. Judge Ito denied the defense's motion to suppress the incidents of domestic violence, but only allowed witnessed accounts to be presented to the jury because of Simpson'sSixth Amendment rights. Brown's statements to friends and family were ruled inadmissible ashearsaybecause Brown was dead and unable to be cross-examined. Despite this, the prosecution had witnesses for 44 separate incidents they planned to present to the jury. However, the prosecution dropped the domestic violence portion of their case on June 20, 1995.Marcia Clark stated it was because they believed theDNA evidenceagainst Simpson was insurmountable, but the media speculated it was because of the comments made by dismissed juror Jeanette Harris. Christopher Darden later confirmed that to be true.Harris was dismissed on April 6 because she failed to disclose that she was a victim of domestic violence from her ex-husband.Afterwards, she gave an interview in which she said the evidence of Simpson's abuse of Brown \"doesn't mean he is guilty of murder\". This dismissal of Simpson's abusive behavior from a female juror, who was also a victim of such abuse by her own husband, convinced the prosecution that the jury was not receptive to the domestic violence argument.After the verdict, the jurors called the domestic violence portion of the case a \"waste of time\".Shapiro, Dershowitz, and Uelmen later admitted they believe that race played a factor in the jurors' dismissal of Brown's abuse by Simpson. The defense retained renowned advocate for victims of domestic abuseLenore E. Walker.Cochran said that she would testify that Simpson does not fit the profile of an abuser that would murder his spouse.Walker's colleagues were appalled by her decision to defend Simpson and accused her of betraying her advocacy for a $250,000 retainer.Walker was dropped from the witness list for \"tactical reasons\" after she submitted her report on the case.In it, she opines that the statistic from Dershowitz that of the two million incidents of abuse per year, only 2,000 victims are actually murdered by their spouses as being misleading because Brown was already dead.The relevant statistic was \"of the murdered spouses who were also victims of abuse, what percentage of them were murdered by their current or ex-husband?\" When she reported that number was 80.3 percent, they dropped her from the witness list. The revelation of Simpson's abuse of Brown is credited with turning public opinion against him.The public shock at the reason why Walker was dropped from the defense witness list is credited with transforming public opinion on spousal abuse from a private familial matter to a serious public health issue. Timeline Los Angeles County Chief Medical ExaminerLakshmanan Sathyavagiswarantestified on June 14, 1995, that Brown's time of death was estimated as between 10:00 pm and 10:30 pm.Kato Kaelintestified on March 22, 1995, that he last saw Simpson at 9:36 pm that evening. A phone call was made from Simpson's Bronco to Paula Barbieri at 10:02 pm. Simpson was not seen again until 10:54 pm when he answered the intercom at the front door for the limousine driver, Allan Park.Simpson had no alibi for approximately one hour and 18 minutes during which time the murders took place.Allan Park testified on March 28 that he arrived at Simpson's home at 10:25 pm and stopped at the Rockingham entrance; Simpson's Bronco was not there.He then drove over to the Ashford entrance and rang the intercom three times, getting no answer, starting at 10:40 pm. Then he saw someone arrive at Simpson's home through the front door, the lights then turned on and Simpson answered the intercom. Park's testimony was significant because it explained the location of the glove found at Simpson's home.The blood trail from the Bronco to the front door was easily understood but the glove was found on the other side of the house. Park said the \"shadowy figure\" initially approached the front door before heading down the southern walkway which leads to where the glove was found by Fuhrman. The prosecution believed that Simpson had driven his Bronco to and from Brown's home to commit the murders, saw that Park was there and aborted his attempt to enter through the front door, entering through the back instead.He panicked and made the sounds that Kaelin heard when he realized that the security system would not let him enter through the rear entrance.He then discarded the glove, came back and went through the front door.During cross examination, Park conceded that he could not identify the figure but said he saw that person enter the front door and afterwards Simpson answered and said he was home alone. Park conceded that he did not notice any cuts on Simpson's left hand but added \"I shook his right hand, not his left\". DNA evidence and blood trail The prosecution presented a total of 108 exhibits, including 61 drops of blood,of DNA evidence to link Simpson to the murders. With no witnesses to the crime, the prosecution was dependent onDNAas the onlyphysical evidencelinking Simpson to the crime.The volume of DNA evidence in this case was unique and the prosecution believed they could reconstruct how the crime was committed with enough accuracy to resemble an eyewitness account.Marcia Clark stated in her opening statements that there was a \"trail of blood from the Bundy Crime scene through Simpson's Ford Bronco to his bedroom at Rockingham\". Hair and fiber evidence LAPD criminalist and hair fiber expert Susan Brockbank testified on June 27, 1995, and FBI Special Agent and fiber expert Doug Deedrick testified on June 29, 1995, to the following findings: Shoeprint analysis In June, FBI shoeprint expert William J. Bodziak testified that the bloody shoeprints found at the crime scene and inside Simpson's Bronco were made from a rare and expensive pair ofBruno MagliItalian shoes. He determined the shoes were a size 12, the same size that Simpson wore, and are only sold at Bloomingdales. Only 299 pairs of that size were sold in the US and one of them was sold at the same store that Simpson often buys his shoes from. Bodziak also testified that, despite two sets of footprints at the crime scene, only one attacker was present because they were all made by the same shoes. During cross-examination Bailey suggested the murderer deliberately wore shoes that were the wrong size, which Bodziak dismissed as \"ridiculous\". Simpson denied ever owning a pair of the shoes; there was onlycircumstantial evidencehe did.Bloomingdales employee Samuel Poser testified he remembered showing Simpson those shoes, but there was no store record of him purchasing them.Although the prosecution could not prove that Simpson owned a pair of those shoes, Bodziak testified that a similar bloody shoeprint was left on the floor inside Simpson's Bronco. Scheck suggested that Fuhrman broke into the Bronco and left the footprint there; he produced a photo of Fuhrman walking through a puddle of blood. Bodziak admitted that he was not able to confirm that the shoeprint in the car definitely came from a Bruno Magli shoe, but dismissed Scheck's claim because none of the shoeprints at the crime scene were made by Fuhrman's shoes, making it unlikely he could have made a bloody shoeprint in the Bronco. Defense case Simpson hired a team of high-profile defense lawyers, initially led byRobert Shapiro, who was previously a civil lawyer known for settling, and then subsequently by Johnnie Cochran, who at that point was known for police brutality and civil rights cases.The team included noted defense attorneyF. Lee Bailey,Robert Kardashian, Harvard appeals lawyerAlan Dershowitz, his student Robert Blasier, and Dean ofSanta Clara University School of LawGerald Uelmen. Assisting Cochran wereCarl E. DouglasandShawn Holley.Barry ScheckandPeter Neufeldwere also hired; they headed theInnocence Projectand specialized in DNA evidence. Simpson's defense was said to have cost between US$3-6 million; the media dubbed the talented attorneys theDream Team,while the taxpayer cost of prosecution was over US$9 million. Postulate The defense team's reasonable doubt angle was summarized as \"compromised, contaminated, corrupted\" in opening statements.They argued the DNA evidence against Simpson was compromised by mishandling by Dennis Fung and Andrea Mazzola during the collection phase of evidence gathering, and that 100% of the DNA of the real killer(s) had vanished from the evidence samples.The defense argued that evidence was then contaminated in the LAPD crime lab by criminalist Collin Yamauchi and that Simpson's DNA from his reference vial was transferred to all but three exhibits.The remaining three exhibits were planted by the police and thus corrupted by police fraud.The defense also questioned the timeline, claiming the murders happened around 11:00 pm that night when Simpson has an alibi. Timeline The physicianRobert Huizengatestified in July 1995that Simpson was not physically capable of carrying out the murders due to chronic arthritis and old football injuries. During cross-examination, the prosecution produced an exercise video that Simpson had made a few weeks before the murders titledO.J. Simpson Minimum Maintenance: Fitness for Men, which demonstrated that Simpson was anything but frail.Huizenga admitted afterwards that Simpson could have committed the murders if he was in \"the throes of an adrenaline-rush\". Michael Baden, a forensic pathologist, testified that the murdershappened closer to 11:00 pm.He stated that Brown was still conscious, standing, and took a step after her throat was cutand that after Goldman'sjugular veinwas lacerated he continued to stand and fight his assailant for ten minutes. After the trial, Baden admitted his claim of Goldman's long struggle was inaccurateand that testifying for Simpson was a mistake.Critics claimed that Baden knowingly gave false testimony in order to collect a $100,000 retainerbecause the week before he testified, John Gerdes admittedthat Goldman's blood was found in Simpson's Broncodespite Goldman never having an opportunity within his lifetime to be in the Bronco. Nicole's mother, Juditha, told police and investigators in a sworn statement that she was speaking with her daughter on the telephone at 11:00pm that evening.Those phone records were sealed. A vat of ice cream was still partially frozen sitting on the downstairs bannister when police searched the open-door house around 12:30am June 13. The local weather was reported to be around 60° F that night, implying that by that time, the ice cream should have been near-completely thawed. Compromised and contaminated Barry ScheckandPeter Neufeldargued that the results from the DNA testing were not reliable because the police were \"sloppy\" in collecting and preserving it from the crime scene.Fung and Mazzola did admit to making several mistakes during evidence collection, which included not always changing gloves between handling evidence items, packaging and storing the evidence items using plastic bags rather than paper bags as recommended, and storing evidence in the police van, which was not refrigerated, for up to seven hours after collection.This, the defense argued, would allow bacteria to degrade the DNA and thus make the samples more susceptible to cross-contamination in the LAPD crime lab. The prosecution denied that the mistakes made by Fung and Mazzola changed the validity of the results.They noted that all of the evidence samples were testable and that most of the DNA testing was done at the two consulting labs, not the LAPD crime lab where contamination supposedly happened. Since all of the samples the consulting labs received were testable, while Scheck and Neufeld's theory predicted that they should have been inconclusive after being \"100% degraded\", the claim that all the DNA was lost to bacterial degradation was not credible.The prosecution also denied that contamination happened in the LAPD crime lab because the result would have been a mixture of Simpson's DNA and the DNA of the \"real killer(s)\", but the results showed that only Simpson's DNA was present.The prosecution also noted the defense declined to challenge any of those results by testing the evidence themselves.Marcia Clark called Scheck and Neufeld's claims a \"smoke-screen\". The contamination claim was made by microbiologist John Gerdes.He testified in August 1995 thatForensic PCR DNA matchingis not reliableand that the LAPD crime lab has a \"chronic\", \"substantial contamination problem\".Gerdes testified that because of the LAPD's past history of contamination, he would not consider any of the PCR DNA matches in this case reliable. He also claimed that the consulting labs' PCR DNA matches were not reliable, as the evidence they tested went \"through the LAPD\" for packaging and shipping.Gerdes believed only three of the DNA matches to have been valid, which were the same three the defense alleged were planted by the police. During cross-examination, Gerdes admitted there was no evidence that cross-contamination had occurred and that he was only testifying to \"what might occur and not what actually did occur\". He accepted that the victims' blood was in the Bronco and Simpson's blood was at the crime scene and neither was due to contamination. He also conceded that nothing happened during \"packaging and shipping\" that would affect the validity of the results at the two consulting labs. The prosecution implied that Gerdes was not a credible witness: he had no forensic experience, had only testified for criminal defendants in the past, and always said theDNA evidenceagainst them was not reliable due to contamination. Clark also implied that it was not a coincidence that the three evidence items he initially said were valid were the same three the defense claimed were planted while the other 58 were all false positives and the 47 substrate controls, which are used to determine if contamination occurred, were all false negatives.Defense forensic DNA expertHenry Lee, testifying in August 1995, admitted that Gerdes's claim was \"highly improbable\". Barry Scheck's eight-day cross-examination of Dennis Fung was lauded in the media.However, Howard Coleman, president of Seattle-based forensic DNA laboratory GeneLex, criticized Scheck's cross-examination as \"smoke and mirrors\", stating: \"Everything we get in the lab is contaminated to some degree. What contamination and degradation will lead you to is an inconclusive result. It doesn't lead you to a false positive\". Police conspiracy allegation The defense initially only claimed that three exhibits were planted by the policebut eventually argued that virtually all of the blood evidence against Simpson was planted in a police conspiracy.They accused prison nurse Thano Peratis,criminalists Dennis Fung,Andrea Mazzola,and Colin Yamauchi,and Vannatterand Fuhrman,of participating in a plot to frame Simpson. In closing arguments, Cochran called Fuhrman and Vannatter \"twins of deception\",Vannatter \"the man who carried the blood\"and Fuhrman \"the man who found the glove\". EDTA The onlyphysical evidenceoffered by the defense that the police tried to frame Simpson was the allegation that two of the 108 DNA evidence samples tested in the case contained the preservativeEthylenediaminetetraacetic acid(EDTA). However, it was the prosecution who asked to have the samples tested for the preservative, not the defense.The defense alleged that the drop of blood on the back gate at the Bundy crime scene, which matched Simpson, and the blood found on a pair of socks in Simpson's bedroom, which matched Brown, were planted by the police. In order to support this claim, the defense pointed to the presence in the blood samples of EDTA, a preservative found in the purple-toppedcollection tubesused for police reference vials. In July 1995,Fredric Rieders, a forensic toxicologist who had analysed the FBI's results, testified that the level of EDTA in the evidence samples was higher than that which is normally found in blood: this appeared to support the defense's claim that the blood came from the reference vials.During cross-examination, Clark asked Rieders to read out loud the portion of theEPAarticle that stated what the normal levels of EDTA in blood are, which he had referenced during his testimony.This demonstrated that he had misread the article and that the levels found in the evidence samples were consistent with those found in blood that was not preserved in a police reference vial.Rieders then claimed it was a \"typo\",but the prosecution produced a direct copy from the EPA confirming the normal amounts of EDTA found in unpreserved blood.The prosecution also had Rieders admit that EDTA is found in foodand specifically the ingredients used in theMcDonald'sBig Mac and french friesthat Simpson had eaten earlier that night. FBI special agent Roger Martz was called by the defense in July 1995 to testify that EDTA was present in the evidence samples. Instead, he said he did not identify it in the blood, contradicting Rieders' testimony.Initially he conceded the blood samples were \"consistent with the presence of EDTA\", but he later clarified his response after hearing that \"everyone is saying that I found EDTA\", which he denied. The defense accused him of changing his demeanor to favor the prosecution, and he replied: \"I cannot be entirely truthful by only giving 'yes' and 'no' answers\".Martz stated that it was impossible to ascertain with certainty the presence of EDTA, as while the presumptive test for it was positive, the identification test for it was inconclusive. He also tested his own unpreserved blood and got the same results for EDTA levels as the evidence samples, which he said conclusively disproved the claim that the evidence blood came from the reference vials.He contended that the defense had jumped to conclusions from the presumptive test results, while his tests had in fact shown that \"those bloodstains did not come from preserved blood\". Back gate The defense alleged that Simpson's blood on the back gate at the Bundy crime scene was planted by the police. The blood on the back gate was collected on July 3, 1994, rather than June 13.The volume of DNA in that blood was significantly higher than the other blood evidence collected on June 13. The volume of DNA was so high that the defense conceded that it could not be explained by contamination in the lab. However, they noted that it was unusual for that blood to have more DNA in it than the other samples collected at the crime scene, especially since it had been left exposed to the elements for several weeks and was collected after the crime scene had supposedly been washed over. In March 1995, Vannatter testified that he instructed Fung to collect the blood on the gate on June 13 and Fung admitted he had not done so.The defense suggested the reason why Fung did not collect the blood is because it was not there that day; when shown a blown-up photograph taken of the back gate on June 13, he admitted he could not see the blood. The prosecution responded that a different photograph showed the blood was present on the back gate on June 13, before any blood had been taken from Simpson's arm.Robert Riske was the first officer at the crime scene and the one who pointed out the blood on the back gate to Fuhrman, who documented it in his notes that night.Multiple other officers testified that the blood was present on the back gate the night of the murders.The prosecution also pointed out that the media cameras present proved that Vannatter never returned to the crime scene (Brown's home) that evening, where Simpson's blood was allegedly planted. Bronco Barry Scheck alleged the police had twice planted the victims' blood inside Simpson's Bronco. An initial collection was made on June 13; the defense accused Vannatter of planting the victims' blood in the Bronco when he returned to Simpson's home later that evening. The prosecution responded that the Bronco had already been impounded by the time Vannatter returned and was not even at Rockingham. Socks The defense alleged that the police had planted Brown's blood on the socks found in Simpson's bedroom. The socks were collected on June 13 and had blood from both Simpson and Brown, but her blood on the socks was not identified until August 4.The socks were found by Fuhrman, but the defense suggested Vannatter planted the blood. He had received both blood reference vials from the victims earlier that day from the coroner and booked them immediately into evidence. Vannatter then drove back to Rockingham later that evening to hand-deliver the reference vial for Simpson to Fung, which the defense alleged gave him opportunity to plant the blood. Fung testified he could not see blood on the socks he collected from Simpson's bedroom,and the prosecution later demonstrated that those blood stains were only visible underneath a microscope. Vannatter denied planting Brown's blood on the socks. The video from Willie Ford indicated that the socks had already been collected and stored in the evidence van before Vannatter arrived and footage from the media cameras present appeared to prove that he never went inside the evidence van after he arrived at Rockingham. Glove The last exhibit allegedly planted was the bloody glove found at Simpson's property by Fuhrman.Unlike the sock and the back gate, the defense provided no physical or eyewitness evidence to support their claim that the prosecution could then refute.The New Yorkerpublished an article months before the trial began which cited a source in Simpson's defense team as saying that they intended to accuse Fuhrman of planting the glove, with the motive being racism. Robert Shapiro later admitted he was the magazine's source. Defense attorney F. Lee Bailey suggested that Fuhrman found the glove at the crime scene, picked it up with a stick, placed it in a plastic bag, and concealed it in his sock when he drove to Simpson's home with Lange, Vannatter, and Phillips. Bailey suggested that Fuhrman then planted the glove to frame Simpson, with the motive being either racism or a desire to become the hero in a high-profile case.Scheck suggested that Fuhrman broke into the Bronco and used the glove to plant blood onto and inside the Bronco. The prosecution denied that Fuhrman planted the glove. They noted that several officers had already combed over the crime scene for almost two hours before Fuhrman arrived and none had noticed a second glove. Lange testified that 14 other officers were there when Fuhrman arrived and all said there was only one glove at the scene.Lt. Frank Spangler also testified that he was with Fuhrman for the duration of his time there, saying he would have seen Fuhrman steal the glove. Clark added that Fuhrman did not know whether Simpson had an alibi, if there were any witnesses to the murders, whose blood was on the glove, that the Bronco belonged to Simpson, or whether Kaelin had already searched the area where the glove was found. During cross-examination by Bailey,Fuhrman denied that he had used the word \"nigger\" to describe African Americans in the ten years prior to his testimony.A few months later, the defense presented audiotapes of Fuhrman repeatedly using the word eight years before the murders. TheFuhrman tapesbecame the cornerstone of the defense's case that his testimony lacked credibility. Clark called the tapes \"the biggestred herring\" ever. After screenwriter Laura Hart McKinny handed over the tapes to the defense, Fuhrman says he asked the prosecution for a redirect to explain the context of those tapes but the prosecution and fellow officers abandoned him after Ito played the audiotapes in open court.The public reaction was explosive, comparable to the reaction to the video of the King beating.After the trial, Fuhrman said that he was not a racist and apologized for his language, claiming he was play-acting for ascreenplaywhen he made the tapes and had been asked to be as dramatic as possible.Many of hisminorityformer coworkers expressed support for him. On September 6, 1995, Fuhrman was called back to the stand by the defense after the prosecution refused to redirect him. The jury was absent but the exchange was televised. Fuhrman, facing a possible prosecution forperjury, was instructed by his attorney to invoke theFifth Amendmentto avoidself-incriminationto two consecutive questions he was asked.Defense attorney Uelmen asked Fuhrman if it was his intention to plead the Fifth to all questions, and Fuhrman's attorney instructed him to reply \"yes\". Uelmen spoke with other members of the defense and then said he had just one more question: \"Did you plant or manufacture any evidence in this case?\" Following his attorney's instruction, Fuhrman again invoked the Fifth. Cochran responded to Fuhrman's pleading the Fifth by accusing the other officers of conspiring to protect Fuhrman; he asked Judge Ito to suppress all of the evidence that Fuhrman found. Ito denied the request, stating that pleading the Fifth does not imply guilt and that there was no evidence of fraud. Cochran asked that the jury be allowed to hear Fuhrman taking the Fifth, and again Ito denied his request. Ito criticized the defense's theory of how Fuhrman allegedly planted the glove, stating it was illogical. On June 15, 1995, Darden surprised Clark by asking Simpson to try on the gloves found at the crime scene and his home. The prosecution had earlier decided against asking Simpson to try them on because the gloves had been soaked in blood from Simpson, Brown, and Goldman,and frozen and unfrozen several times. Instead they presented a witness who testified that Brown had purchased a pair of those gloves in the same size in 1990 atBloomingdalesfor Simpson, along with a receipt and a photo of Simpson earlier wearing the same type of gloves. The leather gloves appeared too tight for Simpson to put on easily, especially over the latex gloves he wore underneath. Clark claimed that Simpson was acting when he appeared to be struggling to put on the gloves. Cochran replied, \"I don't think he could act the size of his hands\".Darden then told Ito of his concerns that Simpson \"hasarthritisand we looked at the medication he takes and some of it is anti-inflammatory and we are told he has not taken the stuff for a day and it caused swelling in the joints and inflammation in his hands\".Cochran informed Ito the next day thatShawn Chapmancontacted the Los Angeles County Jail doctor, who confirmed Simpson was taking his arthritis medication every day, and that the jail's medical records verified this. In a June 28, 1995, memo to Cochran, Uelmen came up with—and Cochran later repeated—a quip he used in his closing arguments: \"If it doesn't fit, you must acquit\". In his memo to Cochran, Uelmen noted that the phrase not only applied to the gloves but to the evidence presented by the prosecutors: What the memo really tries to do is play off the jury instructions... I thought that instruction on circumstantial evidence was just incredibly good for us, so when we knew that instruction was going to be given, it just popped out at me. It says if it doesn't fit, you must acquit. What I was trying to do is not just remind the jury of that moment in the trial of trying on the glove, but the whole concept of did the evidence really fit the story that the prosecution was trying to present. The prosecution stated they believed the gloves shrank from having been soaked in the blood of the victims.This model of gloves was made out of leather, which, as confirmed by Richard Rubin, can shrink up to 15% after being exposed to moisture and can never return to its original size.Darden produced a new pair of the same type of gloves, which fit Simpson when he tried them on.Rubin was a former vice president of Aris Isotoner Inc., which makes the gloves in question. On September 12, 1995, Rubin testified he was \"100 certain\" that the gloves at the murder scene—and also the style of gloves which Simpson was seen wearing in photographs and football broadcasts between 1990 and 1994—were of the company's rare Aris Light model and that they appeared to have shrunk.Rubin also noted that another pair of similar gloves which Simpson could be seen wearing during a football broadcast were noticeably absorbing rain water. After the trial, Cochran revealed that Bailey had goaded Darden into asking Simpson to try on the glovesand that Shapiro had told Simpson in advance that they would not fit. Summation In closing arguments, Darden ridiculed the notion that police officers might have wanted to frame Simpson.He questioned why, if the LAPD was against Simpson, they went to his house eight times on domestic violence calls against Brown between 1986 and 1988 but did not arrest him; they only arrested him on charges of abuse in January 1989. Darden noted the police did not arrest Simpson for five days after the 1994 murders.During the prosecution's closing argument, Cochran and Scheck very notably objected seventy-one times in order to lessen its effect on the jury,and though Ito overruled sixty-nine of them, he did not once admonish Cochran or Scheck or threaten them with contempt of court for their behavior. During his closing argument, Cochran pointed out the many flaws of the LAPD, particularly Fuhrman, Lange, and Vannatter. He emphasized that Fuhrman was proved to have repeatedly referred to black people as \"niggers\" and also to have boasted of beating young black men in his role as a police officer. Cochran compared Fuhrman toAdolf Hitlerand referred to him as \"the personification of evil\", and claimed that Fuhrman had planted the glove in an attempt to frame Simpson for the murders, based on his dislike of interracial couples. Cochran also presented a piece of paper named \"Vannatter's Big Lies\", claiming Vannatter had returned to the crime scene with Simpson's blood to plant it there, despite Vannatter having previously testified that he had given it to Dennis Fung in order to avoid the exhibits from getting mixed up. Cochran referred to Fuhrman and Vannatter as the \"two devils of deception\", and implored the jurors to \"stop this cover-up\" and \"acquit Simpson and send the police a message\", which was interpreted by many as an appeal for ajury nullification. Following his summation, Cochran received numerous death threats, and hired bodyguards fromLouis Farrakhan. In response, Fred Goldman, who was himself Jewish, referred to Cochran himself as a racist and a \"sick man\" for comparing Fuhrman to Hitler while associating himself with Farrakhan, who was widely considered a black supremacist and anti-Semite. Robert Shapiro, also Jewish, said he was offended by Cochran comparing Fuhrman's claims to the Holocaust. In an interview regardingVincent Bugliosi's analysis on the case, Vannatter claimed that he was so infuriated at Cochran's claims about him that he felt a desire to strangle him in the courtroom. Verdict Fears grew that race riots, similar to theriots in 1992, would erupt across Los Angeles and the rest of the country if Simpson were convicted of the murders. As a result, all Los Angeles police officers were put on 12-hour shifts. The police arranged for more than 100 police officers on horseback to surround the Los Angeles County courthouse on the day the verdict was announced, in case of rioting by the crowd. PresidentBill Clintonwas briefed on security measures if rioting were to occur nationwide. The only testimony that the jury reviewed was that of limo driver Park.At 10:07 a.m. on October 3, 1995, Simpson was acquitted on both counts of murder. The jury arrived at the verdict by 3:00 pm on October 2, after four hours ofdeliberation, but it postponed the announcement.After the verdict was read, juror number nine, 44-year-old Lionel Cryer, gave Simpson aBlack Power raised fistsalute.The New York Timesreported that Cryer was a former member of the revolutionary nationalistBlack Panther Partythat prosecutors had \"inexplicably left on the panel\". An estimated 100 million people worldwide watched or listened to the verdict's announcement. Long-distance telephone call volume declined by 58 percent, and trading volume on theNew York Stock Exchangedecreased by 41 percent. Water usage decreased as people avoided using bathrooms. So much work stopped that the verdict resulted in an estimated $480 million in lost production.TheUS Supreme Courtreceived a message on the verdict duringoral arguments, with thejusticesquietly passing the note to each other while listening to the attorney's presentation. Congressmen canceled press conferences, withJoe Liebermantelling reporters, \"Not only would you not be here, but I wouldn't be here, either\". Acquittal and aftermath African-AmericanLAPDPolice ChiefWillie Williamsindicated that he had no plans to reopen the investigation, saying of the acquittals, \"It doesn't mean there's another murderer\". The LAPD has also declined to reexamine the evidence with modern methods in recent years because Simpsoncould not be tried for the same crime againunder theFifth Amendment. Fate of the Broncos Simpson's 1993 Ford Bronco was never returned to him and was destroyed by the LAPD shortly after the trial ended. Cowlings's 1993 Ford Bronco from the low-speed chase was purchased in 1994 by Simpson's former sports agentMike Gilbertand two other men, then ended up sitting in a parking garage for the next 17 years (1995–2012), where it was rarely used.As of 2017, the vehicle was on loan to theAlcatraz East Crime Museum, where it was put on display as part of an exhibit on the murder trial. Legislative changes The strong public reaction to Brown's letters and statements describing her abusespurred passage of theViolence Against Women Actin 1994, which Clark and Douglas referred to as the \"O.J. rule\".After the trial, researchers reported increased reporting, arrests, and harsher sentences for those convicted ofdomestic violence. Analysis of polling data After the verdict, polling showed that 75 percent ofWhite Americansthought Simpson was guilty while 70 percent ofBlack Americansthought he was innocent.AnNBCpoll taken in 2004 reported 87 percent of Whites believed Simpson was guilty, compared to only 27 percent of Black respondents.In the 2010s, polling showed the gap had narrowed, with a majority of both now believing he was guilty: 83 percent of White and 57 percent of Black Americans. Political impact and civil rights Scholarly consensus is that the trial damagedrace relations in Americaand point to polling which shows that belief in Simpson's guilt depended on the race of the individual and not on the evidence against him.Analysis of the \"racial gap\" in polling shows that it did not cross thepolitical spectrum.Conservativesregardless of race or gender thought Simpson was guilty. Where the gap emerged was amongliberals– with black liberals believing Simpson was innocent, while white liberals thought he was guilty.Stanford UniversityLaw ProfessorRichard Thompson Fordwrote that this made the verdict awedge issuethat divided liberals along racial lines as white liberals felt the verdict was a racially motivatedjury nullificationand resented the images of African Americans celebrating the verdict.Led byWard Connerly, opponents ofaffirmative action, seized upon the division and rebranded as advocatingrace neutrality, which appealed to white liberals now due to their perceived unjustness of the verdictand in 1996 voters inCaliforniapassedProposition 209, which ended affirmative action programs in the state.A historic drop in diversity at theUniversity of Californiasystem followedwhich resulted in a similar drop in diversity that still remainsin the state'swhite-collar job market, especially in thehigh-tech hub of Silicon Valley.A further initiative rejected by voters,Proposition 54in 2003, would have further increased the impact of Prop 209 by abolishing racial classifications so the drop in diversity couldn't be quantified.Themurder of George Floydrevived empathy forracial injusticeamong white liberalsbut the unsuccessfulattempt to repeal Proposition 209in 2020 was credited to the trial's legacy of undermining race relations. Polling shows that racial and ethnicminority groupswere divided by the verdict as well.LatinosandAfrican Americansboth believed that fraud was taking place in theLAPDbut disagreed on the cause.Simpson said he felt vindicatedby theRampart Scandalwhich proved that fraud was happening in theC.R.A.S.Hanti-gang unit. However, this fraud was not racially motivated: all the officers involved were minorities themselvesand were actually found to be affiliated with one of thegangsthey were supposed to be policing. Publications Several jurors together publishedMadame Foremanin 1995 to respond to allegations the verdict was racially motivated. They concluded that Simpson probably was guilty but the prosecution failed to prove itbeyond a reasonable doubt. In 1996, Cochran publishedJourney to Justice, in which he denied playing the \"race card\" and maintained that theLAPDtried toframeSimpson. Shapiro publishedThe Search for Justicein 1996 about the case. He concluded there wasreasonable doubtbut criticized Bailey and Cochran for bringing race into the trial. In comparison to Cochran's book, he wrote: \"I never believed that Simpson was being victimized by a racist police organization because he was black…or that he was seen as a black hero\". In 1998, Clark publishedWithout a Doubt, in which she opined that the acquittal demonstrated the legal system is still compromised by race and celebrity because the prosecution'sphysical evidenceshould have easily convicted Simpson. Darden publishedIn Contemptin 1998 about the trial. He attributed the acquittal to poor stewardship by a \"starstruck\"Judge Itoand a \"dysfunctional and uneducated\" jury. Vincent BugliosipublishedOutrage: The Five Reasons why O. J. Simpson Got Away with Murderin 1997. Bugliosi blamed the verdict on an incompetent jury, prosecution, and judge. He wrote: \"Other than when a killer is apprehended in the act, I have never seen a more obvious case of guilt. All of the evidence—not some or most of it—points irresistibly to Simpson's guilt and his guilt alone\". Henry LeepublishedBlood Evidence: How DNA Is Revolutionizing The Way We Solve Crimesin 2003, in which he noted that both the defense's forensic DNA experts had rejected Scheck's contamination claim. Fuhrman publishedMurder in Brentwoodin 1998, defending himself against fraud claims. He wrote that his taking theFifthwas to avoid prosecution forperjury. In 1997, Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter publishedEvidence Dismissed: The Inside Story of the Police Investigation of O.J. Simpson, in which they defended themselves against allegations of corruption and incompetence. Daniel M. PetrocellipublishedTriumph of Justice: The Final Judgement of the Simpson Sagain 1998, comparing the criminal and civil trials. He attributed the acquittal to bad rulings byJudge Ito, unethical behavior by the defense, and unreliable testimony from Gerdes,Rieders, Lee, andBaden. In 1999, sociologistDarnell HuntpublishedO.J. Simpson Facts and Fictions: News Rituals in the Construction of Reality. Hunt argued that the racial gap in polling was a manufactured product of selective reporting of facts by the media due to their treatment of the trial as a form of entertainment rather than a legal proceeding. If I Did It In 2006,ReganBooksannounced a bookghostwrittenbyPablo Fenjvesbased on interviews with Simpson titledIf I Did It, an account which the publisher said was ahypotheticalconfession. The book's release was planned to coincide with a Fox interview featuring Simpson. The project was cancelled due to public criticism. Later, the Goldman family was awarded the rights to the book and published it under the titleIf I Did It: Confessions of the Killer. In 2018, Fox broadcast Simpson's previously unaired interview in a special titledO.J. Simpson: The Lost Confession?The interview was widely interpreted as being a form of impliedconfessionbecause Simpson usedfirst personlanguage (\"Obviously I must have \")in explaining how he would have committed the murders. Post-trial interviews In an interview withBarbara Walters, Shapiro said he was offended by Cochran comparing Fuhrman toAdolf Hitler, and said he would never work with Bailey or Cochran again. He also said the defense played the \"race card\".Robert Kardashianadmitted that, prior to the jurors visiting Simpson's home, the defense team had switched out his photos of white women for photos of his children and switched out a picture of a nude Paula Barbieri (Simpson's white then-girlfriend) for aNorman Rockwellpainting from Cochran's office. Simpson gave two high-profile interviews regarding the case – in 1996 withRoss Beckerand in 2004 withKatie Couric.In the February 1998 issue ofEsquire, Simpson was quoted as saying, \"Let's say I committed this crime ...even if I did this, it would have to have been because I loved her very much, right?\"In 1998, during an interview withRuby Wax, Simpson pretended to stab her with a banana in an apparent joke.In 2008,Mike Gilbertreleased his bookHow I Helped O.J. Get Away with Murder, which quotes Simpson allegedly saying: \"If she hadn't opened that door with a knife in her hand ... she'd still be alive.\" In the documentaryO.J.: Made in America, juror Carrie Bess said she believed \"90% of the jury actually decided to acquit Simpson as payback forRodney King\".Juror Lionel Cryer, who notably gave Simpson aBlack Power salute, stated in 2017 that in retrospect he would render a guilty verdict.Juror Anise Aschenbach, who initially voted guilty before changing her vote, stated in 2008 that she regrets the decision and believes Simpson is guilty because he is not looking for the \"real killer\" like he promised he would. “On the evidence that they gave me to evaluate, it was crooked by the cops,\" juror David Aldana said in an interview.“The evidence given to me to look at, I could not convict. Did he do it? Maybe, maybe not.\"Juror Sheila Woods denied the jury’s decision was based on race in an interview withVulture.When asked if she believed Simpson was framed, Woods stated, “I don’t know if he was necessarily framed. I think O.J. may know something about what happened, but I just don’t think he did it. I think it was more than one person, just because of the way she was killed. I don’t know how he could have just left that bloody scene — because it was bloody — and got back into his Bronco and not have it filled with blood. And then go back home and go in the front door, up the stairs to his bedroom … That carpet was snow white in his house. He should have blood all over him or bruises becauseRon Goldmanwas definitely fighting for his life. He had defensive cuts on his shoes and on his hands. O.J. only had that little cut on his finger. If Goldman was kicking to death, you would think that the killer would have gotten some bruises on his body. They showed us photos of O.J. with just his underwear just two days after, and he had no bruises or anything on his body.”In an interview with CNN following Simpson’s death, juror Yolanda Adams said she was still comfortable with her decision to render a not guilty verdict and denied the verdict was based on payback forRodney King, citing the reasonable doubt in the case presented by the defense and the actions of the police officers involved in the case likeMark Fuhrmanpleading the fifth when he was asked if he planted or manufactured any evidence against Simpson. In 2018,Foxaired an interview Simpson gave in 2006 with publisherJudith Regan, titledO.J. Simpson: The Lost Confession?, where he gave \"hypothetical\" details about his role in the murders. Civil trial In 1996, Fred Goldman and Sharon Rufo, the parents of Ron Goldman, and Lou Brown, father of Nicole Brown filed acivil suitagainst Simpson for wrongful death.Theplaintiffswere represented byDaniel Petrocelliand Simpson by Robert Baker.Presiding Judge Hiroshi Fujisaki did not allow the trial to be televised, did notsequesterthe jury, and prohibited the defense from allegingracismby theLAPDand from condemning the crime lab.Thephysical evidencedid not change but additional evidence ofdomestic violencewas presented as well as 31 pre-1994 photos of Simpson wearingBruno Maglishoes,including one that waspublished6 months before the murders, proving it could not be aforgery.Results from apolygraphtest that Simpson denied taking showed \"extreme deception\" when he denied committing the murders. Fuhrman did not testify but Simpson did on his own behalf and lied several times. One significant difference between the two trials was the admission of Nicole Brown's diary entries in the civil case. Lead counselDaniel Petrocelliexplained, \"The least explored aspect of the case is Simpson's motive. You cannot just say this murder was a culmination of domestic-violence incidents. You need to tell the jury a story. This was about a stormy relationship.\"Timemagazine reported, \"That strategy made the difference in understanding Simpson... Nicole's diary showed that she and Simpson were having fights in those last weeks. Their hostilities had taken a cruel turn. Simpson sent Nicole a letter that was a thinly veiled threat to report her to the IRS for failing to pay capital-gains taxes. Infuriated, she started to deny him access to the children.... She began to treat him like a stranger. That, Petrocelli said, is when three weeks of retaliation began In that period, the lawyer argued, Simpson grew angrier and more obsessed with his ex-wife, developing a rage that resulted in death for her and Ron Goldman.\" The civil judge found the diary entries were admissible because they were pertinent to Nicole's state of mind, which in turn was relevant to Simpson's motive—reversing a crucial ruling from the criminal case that excluded the diary as \"inadmissible hearsay.\"The civil court's ruling was upheld on appeal.TheLos Angeles Timeswrote that this evidence \"helped the plaintiffs tell their story of domestic violence\" and show that when Nicole \"rejected for good in the spring of 1994 ... he erupted in the same uncontrollable rage that had caused him to lash out at her in the past—only this time, he was brandishing a knife. The jury found Simpsonliablefor the murders and awarded the victims' families $33.5 million in compensatory and punitive damages.The civil verdict \"very nearly upstaged the president of the United States on the occasion of his State of the Union address,\"ending the case that \"riveted America for two and a half years\"Simpson filed forbankruptcyafterwards and relocated toFloridato protect hispensionfrom seizure. His remaining assets were seized and auctioned off with most being purchased by critics of the verdict of the criminal trial to help the plaintiffs recoup the costs of litigation. Simpson'sHeisman Trophywas sold for $255,500 to an undisclosed buyer. All the proceeds went to the Goldman family, who said they have received only one percent of the money that Simpson owes from the wrongful death suit. Following Simpson's death in 2024,Simpson estate lawyer Malcolm LeVergne pledged to prevent the Brown and Goldman families from obtaining the money which was promised in the civil trial judgement, but later reversed course. Alternate theories and suspects While Bailey and several members of Simpson's family still advocated for Simpson's innocence,such theories have been rejected by prosecutors, witnesses and the families of Brown and Goldman, who have expressed the belief that Simpson committed the murders and was the sole perpetrator,with Hunt opining that these claims were attempts to tap into the public interest in the case and were never meant to be taken seriously. Alternative theories have been suggested, such as that Simpson may have had accomplices in the murders, or that he was not involved at all and wasframed. Several speculate that the murders were related to the Los Angeles drug trade and the murders ofMichael NiggandBrett Cantor. The 2000BBC TVdocumentaryO.J.: The True Untold Story,primarily rehashes the contamination and blood planting claims from the trial and asserted that Simpson's elder son Jason is a possible suspect, due to - among other reasons - Simpson hiring defense attorneys for his children first before himself, pictures of Jason's descriptive wool cap, and an alleged prior arrangement to meet with Nicole that evening.William Dearpublished his findings in the bookO.J. Is Innocent and I Can Prove It. The 2012 documentary filmMy Brother the Serial Killeralleged that convicted murdererGlen Edward Rogersconfessed to being involved in the murders and that he had been hired by Simpson. In popular culture Media adaptations Film Lost Highwaywas partially inspired by the case. In the film, a man is imprisoned for his wife's murder, which he does not remember, and is released after he transforms into a different man. DirectorDavid Lynchfound it remarkable that Simpson, who he believed committed the murders, could continue a casual lifestyle afterward. Lethal Weapon 4, which was released about two and a half years after the case, makes a reference to the success of Simpson's defense attorney Johnnie Cochran, after the character of detective Lee Butters apprehends a fleeing suspect and reads him hisMiranda rightsas follows: \"If you can't afford an attorney, we'll provide you with the dumbest fucking lawyer on earth. If you get Johnnie Cochran, I'll kill ya!\" Shrek 2references the Bronco chase, whenDonkeyis turned into a white horse by theFairy Godmother, and he and other characters are pursued by knights. TV Episodes of sitcoms such asThe Simpsons,South Park,Roseanne,New Girl,Family Guy,It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, andSeinfeldhave mocked the case, or more specifically, Simpson himself.Saturday Night LiveWeekend UpdatehostNorm Macdonaldfrequently made jokes about O. J. Simpson's trial, such as the iconic line \"Well, it is finally official: Murder is legal in the state of California\" after Simpson's acquittal. It is rumored that the constant Simpson jokes were the cause for thenNBCPresidentDon Ohlmeyerto remove Macdonald from theWeekend Updatesegment and eventually from the show altogether. Cowlings' white Ford Bronco was featured in the reality TV showPawn Stars. The then-owner of the vehicle estimated its value in excess of $1,000,000. Music The heavy-metal bandBody Countrecorded the song \"I Used to Love Her\", sung from the perspective of O. J. Simpson murdering his wife, on their 1997 albumViolent Demise: The Last Days. A 2021 article inMetal Hammerdescribed the song as \"jaw-droppingly offensive\".InGood Charlotte's song, \"Lifestyles of the Rich & Famous\", they reference the case in the second verse: \"Well did you know when you were famous you could kill you wife And there's no such thing as 25 to life As long as you've got the cash, to pay for Cochran.\" R&B groupH-Towndedicated their albumLadies Edition, Woman's World(1997) to Brown, to help victims of domestic violence.Electronic musicianJames Ferraroreferenced the police chase in the song \"White Bronco\" on his 2015 albumSkid Row. Hip hop artist Magneto Dayo released a 2013 \"diss track\" song titled \"OJ Simpson\" in which he insults his ex-girlfriend/artistV-Nastyby referencing the Simpson murder case.RapperJay-Z's song \"The Story of O.J.\" references the trial.Kendrick Lamarincluded Simpson in the music video for \"The Heart Part 5\", usingDeepfaketechnology. The infamous glove also appears on the single's cover.RapperEminemreferences the murder case in his song \"Role Model\", where he claims to have done the murder withMarcus Allen. Video games Duke Nukem 3Dhas several allusions to the Simpson trial, including a television playing the Bronco chase. Exhibits The suit Simpson wore when he was acquitted was donated by Simpson's former agentMike Gilbertto theNewseumin 2010. The Newseum has multiple trial-related items in their collection, including press passes, newspapers and the mute button that Superior Court JudgeLance Itoused when he wanted to shut off the live microphone in court so lawyers could talk privately during the trial. The museum's acquisition of the suit ended the legal battle between Gilbert and Fred Goldman, both of whom claimed the right to the clothing. Cowlings's Bronco is on display at theAlcatraz Eastcrime museum inPigeon Forge, Tennessee. In 2017, Adam Papagan curated a pop-up museum showcasing artifacts andephemerafrom the trial atCoagula Curatorialgallery in Los Angeles. See also References Bibliography Further reading External links",
"1995 World Series The1995 World Serieswas thechampionship seriesofMajor League Baseball's (MLB)1995 season. The 91st edition of the World Series, it was abest-of-seven playoffplayed between theNational League(NL) championAtlanta Bravesand theAmerican League(AL) championCleveland Indians. It was the first World Series after theprevious year's Serieswas canceled due to aplayers' strike. The Braves won in six games to capture their third World Series championship infranchise history(along with1914 in Bostonand1957 in Milwaukee), making them the first team to win in three different cities. This was also Cleveland's first Series appearance in 41 years. The Series was also remarkable in that five of the six games were won by one run, including the clinching sixth game, a 1–0 combined one-hitter byTom GlavineandMark Wohlers. This was the first time since the LCS changed to a best-of-seven format that a winner of a LCS via a sweep has gone on to win the World Series. It has since been repeated in 2019 by theWashington Nationals, and in 2022 by the Houston Astros. This World Series, despite being in an odd-numbered year, opened in the NL home because of the omission of the 1994 World Series. Until 2003, the World Series would begin in the AL home in even-numbered years. Background Atlanta Braves After losing the World Series in 1991 to theMinnesota Twinsand in 1992 to theToronto Blue Jays, the Atlanta Braves were making their third attempt in four years (not counting the 1994 strike) to capture Atlanta's first title. The Braves overcame some early inconsistency to win their division by 21 games. In the playoffs, which featured a new first round, the Braves overwhelmed the third-yearColorado Rockies, then swept theCincinnati Redsin theNLCS(spoiling an all-Ohio World Series in the process; notably, prior to their World Series appearancein 1948, theIndianshad spoiled an all-BostonWorld Series by beating theRed Soxin a one-game playoff). The team relied onclutch hittingand its powerful pitchingrotation, which was made up of perennialCy Young AwardwinnerGreg Maddux,Tom Glavine,John Smoltz, andSteve Avery. As the NL champion, they opened this World Series at home because there was no 1994 World Series. Cleveland Indians After decades of futility, the city of Cleveland finally had a winner in town. The Indians dominated the American League in 1995, winning 100 of their 144 games (their 100–44 record yielded a very high 0.694 winning percentage, which was, at the time, the highest regular season winning percentage in Major League Baseball since 1954, and is, as of 2015, the 12th highest regular season winning percentage in Major League Baseball history since 1900). Furthermore, in just 144 games, they won the AL Central by 30 games, and they performed the difficult feat of leading their league in both team batting average (0.291) and ERA (3.81). Thanks to their hitting and bullpen, this Indians team became known around the league for their ability to come back from many deficits, often in dramatic fashion; of their 100 regular season victories, 48 were come-back victories, 27 came in their last at-bat, eight came by way of \"walk off\" home runs, and 13 were extra-inning victories (they were 13–0 in extra-inning games). After this dominance of the AL in the regular season, the Indians, in the playoffs, swept theBoston Red Soxin the opening round, then held offKen Griffey Jr.and the red hotSeattle Marinersin theALCS, before heading into the Series against the Braves. The 1995 Cleveland Indians featured a very impressive batting line-up; one that hit for high average, good power, and had good speed. In addition to leading the AL in batting average (0.291), the Indians in 1995 also led the American League in runs scored (840; 5.83 runs per game), home runs (207), and stolen bases (132). Led byspeedstersKenny LoftonandOmar Vizquel, along withCarlos Baergaat the top of the order, the Indians offense was powered in the middle of the order byAlbert Belle,Eddie Murray,Manny Ramírez, andJim Thome; at the bottom of the line-up could be foundPaul Sorrento(orHerbert Perry) andSandy Alomar Jr.(orTony Peña). Thus, this Indians line-up had six everyday players who finished the season with a batting average of at least 0.300; and, with Herbert Perry and Tony Peña frequently filling in for Paul Sorrento and Sandy Alomar Jr., respectively, it was not uncommon for the Tribe to field a line-up with as many as eight players who finished the season with a batting average of at least 0.300. In terms of power, though the '95 season was shortened, nevertheless, the Indians' line-up still featured two players with at least 30 HR, five players with at least 20 HR, and seven with at least 10 HR. While this line-up was filled with star players (four, in fact, were named to the 1995 AL All-Star team, namely, Lofton, Baerga, Belle, and Ramirez), Albert Belle stood out among all of them in 1995. Powered by a very strong second half of the season, Belle, the Indians' clean-up hitter in 1995, finished 1995 with a 0.317 batting average, 126 RBI, and 50 home runs. Further to be noted is the fact that, in hitting 50 HR and 52 doubles in 1995, Belle became the first Major League player to hit at least 50 home runs and at least 50 doubles in the same season (an accomplishment which, again, is even more remarkable considering that he did this in a shortened, 144-game season). The Indians also led the 1995 AL in ERA (3.81). While their starting pitching—led by veteransDennis MartínezandOrel Hershiser—was respectable, it was their bullpen which gave real strength to their pitching staff. Key members of their bullpen staff included veteran right-handerEric Plunk(6–2, 2.67 ERA), veteran left-handerPaul Assenmacher(6–2, 2.82), the young right-handed set-up man,Julián Tavárez(10–1, 2.44 ERA), and right-handed closer,José Mesa(3–0, 1.12 ERA, 46 SV). Mesa, in his first year as closer, posted a league-leading 46 saves in 1995, and set a then-Major League record of 38 consecutive saves without a blown save. Two of the members of the 1995 Indians' pitching staff—Dennis Martínez (the team's ace) and José Mesa—were named to the 1995 AL All-Star team. Series build-up Thus it was that this Series presented an entertaining match-up of baseball's two best teams, each with reasons to be confident going into the Series. The Atlanta Braves were veterans to the post-season in the 1990s, having won both the 1991 and 1992 NL pennants (not to mention the 1993 NL Western Division title, having won 104 games in 1993), and they were the best team in the NL in the 1995 regular season (having posted a very solid 90–54 record). The Cleveland Indians, on the other hand, newcomers to the post-season (having not been in the post-season since 1954), in posting their 100–44 regular season mark, were the team which had posted not only the best regular season record in the AL, but had completed one of the best regular seasons in all of Major League Baseball history. Further, though the Braves' line-up was not very threatening in 1995 (their .250 team batting average was the second lowest in the NL), still, the Braves could be confident with their star-studded pitching staff—especially their starting staff—headed by the likes of Greg Maddux, Tom Glavine, John Smoltz, and Steve Avery. On the other hand, though the Indians could not boast of having as nearly a strong starting rotation as the Braves, nevertheless, they could lay claim to a very solid bullpen and one of the greatest batting line-ups that baseball has ever seen. It might also be noted that, though this was the first time that a team from Cleveland and one from Atlanta faced each other in the World Series, there were years, prior to the Braves being in Atlanta, in which the Braves faced a Cleveland team for baseball's crown. In 1948, the Boston Braves faced the Cleveland Indians (with the Indians winning that Series in six games). Even before that, in 1892, theBoston Beaneaters, a forerunner of the Braves, were also National League Champions in 1892, and faced theCleveland Spidersfor the championship.The Beaneaters beat the Spiders that year to win that baseball championship. The 1995 World Series was also noted for large-scale protests byNative Americanactivists in response to thecontroversysurrounding both clubs' usage of Native American-themed nicknames, logos and mascots, as well as the use of thetomahawk chopby Braves fans. Broadcasting NBCwas originally scheduled to televise the entire World Series; however, due to the cancellation of the 1994 World Series (which had been slated forABC, who last televised a World Series in1989), coverage ended up being split between NBC and ABC. Game 5 would be the last Major League Baseball game to be telecast by ABC (had there been a Game 7, ABC would have televised it) for 25 years. ABC was scheduled to televise up to four wild card gamesin the2020 MLB Postseason. This was the only World Series to be produced underThe Baseball Networkumbrella (arevenue sharingjoint venturebetween Major League Baseball, ABC and NBC). In July 1995, NBC and ABC announced that they would be pulling out of what was supposed to be a six-year-long venture. NBC would next cover the1997(NBC's first entirely since1988) and1999 World Seriesover the course of a five-year-long contract, in whichFoxwould cover the World Series in even numbered years (1996,1998and2000). Also during the World Series in 1995, NBC'sHannah Stormnot only became the first woman to serve as solo pre-game host of a World Series (CBS'Andrea Joyceco-hosted withPat O'Brienin1993) but also became the first woman to preside over aWorld Series Trophypresentation.Storm was infamously the recipient of a profane outburst fromAlbert Bellein his team's dugout. Later, Belle was unrepentant: \"TheIndianswanted me to issue a statement of regret when the fine was announced, but I told them to take it out. I apologize for nothing.\"John Saundersserved as pre-game host for ABC's coverage. Serving asfield reportersfor the series wereLesley Visser(ABC) andJim Gray(NBC). The six games averaged a nationalNielsen ratingof 19.5 and a share of 33. Through 2016, this remains the highest-rated World Series of the post-strike era. On the radio side,CBSwas the national broadcaster withVin ScullyandJeff Torborgon the call. Locally,WKNRaired the series in Cleveland withHerb ScoreandTom Hamiltonannouncing, whileWSBbroadcast the series in Atlanta withSkip Caray,Pete Van Wieren,Don Sutton, andJoe Simpsonannouncing. International Summary NLAtlanta Braves(4) vs. ALCleveland Indians(2) Matchups Game 1 Atlanta aceGreg Madduxpitched a two-hit complete game victory in his first World Series appearance (and just the 15th two-hitter in Series history). The Indians scored in the first inning whenKenny Loftonreached on an error, stole second and third, and scored on an RBI groundout byCarlos Baerga. In the bottom of the second,Fred McGrifflaunched atape measure home runon his first ever World Series pitch off Cleveland starterOrel Hershiserto even the score at 1–1. Both starters settled down until the seventh, when Hershiser and the Cleveland bullpen walked the first three Braves to open the inning. The Braves would take a 3–1 lead afterLuis Poloniahit into a run-scoring force play andRafael Belliardbunted a perfectsuicide squeeze. Lofton scored the Indians another run in the ninth to cut the Braves lead to a single run, (both Cleveland runs resulted from errors and were thus, unearned) but Baerga lifted a pop fly that third basemanChipper Jonesgrabbed near the visiting dugout to end the game. Game 2 Atlanta No. 2 starterTom Glavinegot the win in Game 2, aided by a big sixth-inning home run by catcherJavy López, who also pickedManny Ramirezoff first base at a crucial moment in the eighth inning to erase a potential game-tying baserunner. The Indians had taken an early 2–0 lead on anEddie Murraytwo-run home run afterAlbert Bellegot on base, but the Braves evened the score in the third with a sac fly byChipper Jonesand an RBI single by David Justice. Lopez launched his home run in the sixth inning from Cleveland starterDennis Martínez. The Atlanta bullpen held off the Indians in the later innings despite allowing a run in the seventh, andMark Wohlersearned the save, giving the Braves a 2–0 series lead. Game 3 With the World Series moving to smaller, raucous Jacobs Field in Cleveland, the Indians got their first win. The Indians offense got back on track off Atlanta starterJohn Smoltz. With the Tribe already down 1–0 in the bottom of the first,Kenny Loftonsingled to center and scored onOmar Vizquel's triple into the right field corner. Omar then scored the go-ahead run whenCarlos Baergagrounded out. In the third, the Tribe were back at it again when Lofton opened the inning by ripping a double into the right-center field gap. Omar then got a bunt single and Baerga singled to left to drive in Lofton.Albert Bellethen rolled a grounder up the middle to score Vizquel to make it 4–1. This was Smoltz's only early exit and only poor start in eight career World Series appearances. The Braves got a boost, however, when relieverBrad Clontzinduced a double play groundout byManny Ramírezto escape further damage. Home runs byFred McGriffandRyan Kleskobrought the Braves closer at 4–3. Cleveland added a run in the seventh on another RBI hit by Baerga scoring Lofton (who would reach base in all six of his plate appearances). With a 5–3 lead going into the eighth, trouble brewed for Cleveland whenCharles Nagyand the bullpen gave up the lead.Marquis Grissomled off with a double off the wall. Polonia singled through the right side to drive in Grissom, sending Nagy to the showers.Chipper Joneswalked, McGriff hit a deep fly moving the runners up a base, andDavid Justicereached when Baerga booted his groundball, subsequently allowing Polonia to score the tying run. The inning was capped off byMike Devereaux's RBI single giving the Braves a 6–5 lead. The Braves couldn't hold on to their slim lead either asSandy Alomar Jr.laced a game-tying double inside the line at first in the bottom of the eighth. The two closers,Mark WohlersandJosé Mesathen matched zeros for the next two innings. In the 11th, the Braves went toAlejandro Peña. Baerga immediately smashed a double and after an intentional walk to Belle, veteranEddie Murraysingled to center, scoring pinch runnerÁlvaro Espinozaand cutting Atlanta's World Series lead in half. A record 18 pitchers were used between the Braves and Indians in Games 2 and 3. Game 4 Braves managerBobby Coxcontroversially decided to start left-handed pitcherSteve Averyin the critical Game 4 instead of coming back withGreg Maddux. Despite Avery's uncharacteristically poor regular season showing (7-13, 4.67 ERA), Cox felt he deserved a chance after having won the NLCS clincher against Cincinnati throwing six shutout innings. Young Braves outfielderRyan Kleskohit a sixth-inning home run to give Atlanta the lead. This would be the last time a player would hit home runs in back-to-back World Series games until2016. Avery again delivered six effective innings, only giving up a sixth-inning home run to Cleveland sluggerAlbert Belle. A controversial play happened whenEddie Murrayhit a pitch over third base; left-field umpire Jim McKean called it foul while third-base umpire Harry Wendelstedt looked at Jim McKean to make the call. Murray eventually walked and reached second on a balk by Avery, but Herbert Perry struck out to end the inning. The Braves promptly broke the tie with a three-run seventh, withDavid Justicebatting in two of the runs with a single. An RBI double byJavy Lópezgave the Braves an insurance run, making it 5–1. RelieverPedro Borbón Jr.saved the 5–2 win afterMark Wohlersran into trouble, and the Braves were one victory away from a title. Game 5 It seemed the perfect situation for Atlanta with Greg Maddux pitching Game 5 with a chance to clinch the title, but Albert Belle slugged a two-run homer in the first inning, and the Braves lineup was held in check by Cleveland veteran Orel Hershiser who went eight innings, only surrendering two runs.Luis Poloniahit a solo home run into the fourth and Atlanta actually tied the game at 2–2 with a run-scoring infield single byMarquis Grissomin the fifth, but Cleveland got two more runs from Maddux making it 4–2.Jim Thomehit an insurance home run in the eighth, which proved necessary as Ryan Klesko homered in his third consecutive game, reducing the gap to 5–4. Klesko became the first person ever to homer in three consecutive World Series road games, by belting homers in Games 3, 4, and 5. The win sent the Series back to Atlanta. As previously mentioned, this game was the most recent baseball game thatABCtelevised until the2020postseason. Game 6 Controversy struck on the morning of Game 6 when Atlanta newspapers printed stories that right fielder David Justice had ripped the city's fans for not matching their motivation of past seasons. Justice, who had been struggling in the postseason, was vilified before the game, but when his sixth-inning home run off a 1–1 pitch byJim Poolebroke a scoreless tie, he became a hero.Tom Glavinepitched eight innings of one-hit ball (and five innings of no hit ball) and allowed just three walks (two toAlbert Belle, who was caught stealing second in the second inning to keep a runner from advancing into scoring position) to help earn him the Series MVP. Only one Indian advanced into scoring position in the entire game whenKenny Loftonstole second, but no one could get him in. Cleveland starterDennis Martínezlasted just 42⁄3innings due to allowing four hits and five walks, but no Braves scored. After Justice's home run, the Braves managed just one hit. The lone hit for the Indians was a bloop-single by catcherTony Peñain the sixth, breaking up Glavine's bid to become the first pitcher sinceDon Larsen in 1956to throw a no-hitter in the World Series. Closer Mark Wohlers pitched the ninth inning, preserving the 1–0 shutout and Atlanta's coveted title whenCarlos Baerga's fly ball landed in center fielder Marquis Grissom's glove, giving the Braves their first title in Atlanta and their first since1957when they were still in Milwaukee. Carlos Baerga was responsible for making the last out in three of the four Cleveland losses; Games 1, 2 and 6. To date, this is the last 1–0 World Series game won by the home team. Moments after the final out was recorded, a fan in the stands was shown holding a placard that simply said \"...Finally!\" due to the Atlanta Braves finally winning the World Series on their third try. In 1995, the Cleveland Indians batted .291 as a team, led the league in runs scored, hits, and stolen bases, and had eight .300 hitters in their starting lineup. However, the Tribe was held to a .179 batting average in the World Series. Then-Executive Committee ChairmanBud Seligpresided over theCommissioner's Trophypresentation for the first time. In the previous two World Series (1992and1993),American LeaguepresidentDr. Bobby Brownpresided over the trophy presentation. Selig would becomeCommissioner of Baseballin 1998. Composite line score 1995 World Series(4–2):Atlanta Braves(N.L.)overCleveland Indians(A.L.) Aftermath The 1995 Braves were in the midst of a streak of 14 consecutive division titles from1991through2005(excluding the1994season, which ended early due to a players strike), however this was the only World Series the Braves would win. Atlanta returned to the Seriesthe following year, but lost to theNew York Yankeesin six games. The Braves of this era made one more trip to the Series in1999, but lost to theYankeesin a four-game sweep. This was Atlanta's first championship in any of thefour major professional sports, and the last for the city and for the Braves until2021. The Indians would go on to win the AL Central five of the following six years and return to the World Series in1997, where they lost to theFlorida Marlinsin seven games. The core of the 1990s Indians teams would break up in the early 2000s.Albert Bellesigned with theChicago White Soxin free agency in the winter of 1996, whileKenny Loftonwas traded to the Braves before the start of the 1997 season (he returned in 1998 to play three years with the team only to leave and return again for his final season in 2007); after the turn of the century,Manny Ramirezjoined theBoston Red Soxin2001andJim Thomejoined thePhiladelphia Philliesin2003. Quotes Left center field,Grissomon the run. The team of the 90s has its world championship. See also Notes External links"
] | [
"Murder trial of O. J. Simpson The People of the State of California v. Orenthal James Simpsonwas acriminal trialinLos Angeles County Superior Court, in which formerNFLplayer and actorO. J. Simpsonwas tried and acquitted for the murders of his ex-wifeNicole Brown Simpsonand her friendRonald Goldman, who were stabbed to death outside Brown's condominium in Los Angeles on June 12, 1994. The trial spanned eight months, from January 24 to October 3, 1995. Though prosecutors argued that Simpson was implicated by asignificant amount of forensic evidence, he was acquitted of both murders on October 3.Commentators agree that to convince the jury to acquit Simpson, the defense capitalized on anger among the city'sAfrican-Americancommunity toward theLos Angeles Police Department(LAPD), which had a history of racial bias and had inflamed racial tensions inthe beating of Rodney Kingandsubsequent riotstwo years prior.The trial is often characterized as thetrial of the centurybecause of its international publicity and has",
"publicity and has been described as the \"most publicized\" criminal trial in history.Simpson was formally charged with the murders on June 17; when he did not turn himself in at the agreed time, he became the subject of a police pursuit.TV stations interrupted coverage of the1994 NBA Finalsto broadcast live coverage of the pursuit, which was watched by around 95 million people.The pursuit and Simpson's arrest were among the most widely publicized events in history. Simpson was represented by a high-profile defense team, referred to as the \"Dream Team\", initially led byRobert Shapiroand subsequently directed byJohnnie Cochran. The team includedF. Lee Bailey,Alan Dershowitz,Robert Kardashian,Shawn Holley,Carl E. Douglas, andGerald Uelmen. Simpson was also instrumental in his own defense. While DeputyDistrict AttorneysMarcia Clark,William Hodgman, andChristopher Dardenbelieved they had a strong case, the defense team persuaded the jury there wasreasonable doubtconcerning the DNA evidence.They contended the blood",
"contended the blood sample had been mishandled by lab scientistsand that the case had been tainted by LAPD misconduct related to racism and incompetence. The use of DNA evidence in trials was relatively new, and many laypersons did not understand how to evaluate it. The trial was considered significant for the wide division inreaction to the verdict.Observers' opinions of the verdict were largely related to their ethnicity; the media dubbed this the \"racial gap\".A poll ofLos Angeles Countyresidents showed most African Americans thought the \"not guilty\" verdict was justified while most whites thought it was a racially motivatedjury nullificationby the mostly African-American jury.Polling in later years showed the gap had narrowed since the trial; more than half of polled Black respondents expressed the belief that Simpson was guilty.In 2017, three jurors who acquitted Simpson said they would still vote to acquit, while one said he would convict. After the trial, Goldman's father filed a civil suit against",
"civil suit against Simpson. In 1997, the jury unanimously found Simpson responsible for the deaths of Goldman and Brown.The Goldman family was awarded damages totaling $34 million ($64 million adjusted for inflation), but as of 2024 have received a small portion of that. Background Simpson–Brown marriage Brown met Simpson in 1977when he was 30 and she was 18, working as a waitress at the Daisy (aBeverly Hillsprivate club).They began dating although Simpson was married; he filed for divorce from his first wife in March 1979. Simpson and Brown married on February 2, 1985.They had two children together, daughter Sydney (b. 1985) and son Justin (b. 1988).Brown signed a prenuptial agreement that prohibited her from working while married. According to psychologistLenore E. Walker, the Simpson–Brown marriage was a \"textbook example ofdomestic abuse\".In letters and other documents, Brown wrote that Simpson had beaten her in public, during sex, and even in front of family and friends.She described an incident in",
"an incident in which Simpson broke her arm during a fight; to prevent him from being arrested, she told emergency room staff that she had fallen off her bike.Brown wrote that she felt conflicted about notifying police of the abuse because she was financially dependent on Simpson.Of the 62 incidents of abuse, the police were notified eight times, and Simpson was arrested once.On February 25, 1992, Brown filed for divorce, citing \"irreconcilable differences\". Brown said that Simpson stalked and harassed her after they divorced – an intimidation tactic meant to force the victim to return to the abuser.She said he had spied on her having sex with her new boyfriendand that she felt her life was in danger because Simpson had threatened to kill her if he ever found her with another man.She drafted awill.On June 8, 1994, a woman named Nicole (presumed to be Brown) telephoned Sojourn House, a women's shelter.She was considering staying at the shelter because she was afraid of what Simpson might do to her, as she was",
"to her, as she was refusing his pleas to reconcile their marriage. Frogmen A few months before the killings, Simpson finished filming a pilot forFrogmen, an adventure series comparable to TheA-Team. Simpson played the primary character, \"Bullfrog\" Burke, who led a gang of formerUS Navy SEALs. He underwent \"a fair amount of\" military training for Frogmen, including the use of a knife, and in one scene, he holds a knife to the throat of a woman playing his daughter. Investigators discovered a 25-minute tape of the pilot, which did not feature the knife scene, and viewed it on Simpson's television while searching his home. The defense attempted to prevent its use on these grounds, but Judge Ito permitted it to be shown.\"Bullfrog\" Burke was skilled at night killings,and the \"silent kill\" technique of slashing the throat.SEALs also regularly wear knit \"watch caps\" like the one found at the scene. Murders On the evening of June 12, 1994, Brown and Simpson both attended their daughter Sydney's dance recital at Paul",
"recital at Paul Revere Middle School. Afterward, Brown and her family went to eat at Mezzaluna restaurant. One of the waiters at the restaurant was Ron Goldman, who had become close friends with Brown in recent weeks,but was not assigned to the Brown family's table. Brown and her children went toBen & Jerry'sbefore returning to her condominium onBundy Drive,Brentwood.The manager of Mezzaluna recounted that Brown's mother telephoned the restaurant at 9:37 pm asking about a pair of lost eyeglasses. The manager found the glasses and put them in a white envelope, which Goldman took with him as he left the restaurant at the end of his shift at 9:50 pm; he intended to drop them off at Brown's place. Meanwhile, Simpson ate takeout food fromMcDonald'swithKato Kaelin, abit-partactor and family friend who had been given the use of a guest house on Simpson's estate. Rumors circulated that Simpson had been on drugs at the time of the murder (later dismissed as blood tests were negative for Simpson, Brown, and Goldman),",
"and Goldman), and theNew York Post'sCindy Adams reported that the pair had gone to a localBurger King, where a prominent drug dealer known only as \"J. R.\" later said he had sold themcrystal meth. Brown's neighbors testified that they heard profuse barking coming from outside throughout the night, beginning around 10:15 pm. Around 10:55 pm., a dogwalker who lived a few blocks away from Brown came across Brown'sAkitadog barking in the street outside her home. The Akita, whose legs were covered in blood, followed the man home; he tried to walk the dog back to where he found it, but the dog resisted. Later, he left the Akita with a neighboring couple who offered to keep the dog overnight; as the dog was agitated, the couple decided to walk it back to where it had been found. Around midnight, as they reached the area where the Akita had been found, the dog stopped outside Brown's home and the couple saw Brown's body lying outside the house. Police were called to the scene and found Goldman's body near Brown's.",
"body near Brown's. The front door to Brown's condominium was open when the bodies were found, but there were no signs that anyone had entered the building, by breaking in or otherwise. Brown's body was lying face down and barefoot at the bottom of the stairs leading to the door.The walkway leading to the stairs was covered in blood, but the soles of Brown's feet were clean; based on this evidence, investigators concluded that she was the first person to be attacked and the intended target.She had been stabbed multiple times in the head and neck, but there were fewdefensive woundson her hands, implying a short struggle to investigators. The final wound inflicted ran deep into her neck, severing hercarotid artery. A large bruise in the center of her upper back with a corresponding foot print on her clothing indicated to investigators that, after killing Goldman, the assailant returned to Brown who was on the ground, pulled her head back by the hair and slit her throat.Herlarynxcould be seen through the gaping",
"through the gaping wound in her neck, andvertebra C3was incised;Brown's head barely remained attached to her body. Goldman's body lay nearby, close to a tree and the fence. He had been stabbed multiple times in the body and neck, but there were relatively few defensive wounds on his hands, signifying a short struggle to investigators.Forensic evidence from the Los Angeles Countycoroneralleged that the assailant stabbed Goldman with one hand while holding him in a chokehold. Near Goldman's body were a blue knit cap; a left-hand, extra-largeAris Isotonerlight leather glove; and the envelope containing the glasses that he was returning. Detectives determined that Goldman came to Brown's house during her murder and that the assailant killed him to remove any witnesses.A trail of the assailant's bloody shoe prints ran through the back gate. To the left of some of the prints were drops of blood from the killer, who was apparently bleeding from the left hand. Measuring the distance between the prints indicated that",
"indicated that the assailant walked – rather than ran – away from the scene. Flight to Chicago On the night of June 12, Simpson was scheduled to board ared-eye flightfromLos Angeles International Airportto Chicago, where he was due to play golf the following day at a convention with representatives ofThe Hertz Corporation, for whom he was a spokesman.The flight was due to leave at 11:45 pm.Limousinedriver Allan Park arrived early at Simpson's Rockingham estate to pick him up at around 10:25 pm.Park drove around the estate to make sure he could navigate the area with the stretch limousine properly and to see which driveway would have the best access for the car. He began to buzz the intercom at 10:40, but got no response. He noted the house was dark, and nobody appeared to be home as he smoked a cigarette and made several calls to his boss to get Simpson's home phone number. He testified that he saw a \"shadowy african american figure\", the same size as Simpson, enter the front door from where the driveway",
"where the driveway starts, before the lights came on; he did not see what direction the figure came from.He testified that he saw Simpson's house number on the curb outside the estate, but no car was parked outside. The prosecution presented exhibits showing the position next to the house number on the curb in which Simpson'sFord Broncowas found the next morning, implying that Park would surely have noticed the Bronco if it had been there when he arrived to pick up Simpson. Around the time Park saw the \"shadowy figure\" arive at Simpson's home,Kaelin was having a telephone conversation with a friend. At approximately 10:40, something crashed into the wall of the guest house Kaelin was staying in, which he described as three \"thumps\" and which he feared was an earthquake. Kaelin hung up the phone and ventured outside to investigate the noises, but did not go directly down the dark south pathway from which the thumps had originated. Instead, he walked to the front of the property, where he saw the limousine",
"saw the limousine parked outside. Kaelin let the limousine in, and Simpson finally came out through the front door a few minutes later, claiming he had overslept.Both Park and Kaelin would later testify that Simpson seemed agitated that night. Park noted that on the way to the airport, Simpson complained about how hot it was, and was sweating and rolled down the window, despite it not being a warm night.Park also testified that he loaded four luggage bags into the car that night, one of them being a knapsack that Simpson would not let him touch, insisting he load it himself. Aporterat the airport testified that Simpson checked only three bags that night,and the police determined that the missing luggage was the same knapsack the limousine driver had mentioned earlier.Another witness not heard at the trial claimed he saw Simpson at the airport discarding items from a bag into a trash can.Detectives Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter believe this is how the murder weapon, shoes and clothes that Simpson wore during",
"Simpson wore during the murder were disposed. Simpson was running late but caught his flight. A passenger on the plane and the pilot testified that they did not notice any cuts or wounds on Simpson's hands.A broken glass, a note with a telephone number on it, and bedsheets with blood on them were all recovered from Simpson's room at theO'HarePlaza Hotel. The manager of the hotel recalled Simpson asking for a Band-Aid for his finger at the front desk, because he had \"cut it on pieces of note paper\". Initial investigation and arrest After learning that Brown was the female victim, LAPD commander Keith Bushey ordered detectives Tom Lange, Philip Vannatter, Ron Phillips, andMark Fuhrmanto notify Simpson of her death and to escort him to the police station to pick up the former couple's children, who were asleep in Brown's condominium at the time of the murders. The detectives buzzed the intercom at Simpson's estate for over 30 minutes but received no response. They noted that Simpson's car was parked at an",
"was parked at an awkward angle, with its back end out more than the front, and that there was blood on the door, which they feared meant someone inside might be hurt. Vannatter instructed Fuhrman to scale the wall and unlock the gate to allow the other three detectives to enter. The detectives would argue they entered without a search warrant because of exigent circumstances – specifically out of fear that someone inside might be injured.Fuhrman briefly interviewed Kaelin, who told the detective that the car belonged to Simpson and that earlier that night he had heard thumps on his wall. In a walk around the premises to inspect what may have caused the thumps, Fuhrman discovered a blood-stained right-hand glove, which was determined to be the mate of the left-hand glove found next to the body of Goldman. This evidence along with the presence of blood in the driveway of the Rockingham estate and on Simpson's vehicle constitutedprobable causeand a search warrant for the location was applied for and granted.",
"for and granted. Phillips testified that when he called Simpson in Chicago to tell him of Brown's murder, Simpson sounded \"very upset\" but was oddly unconcerned about the circumstances of her death. Simpson only asked if the children had seen the murder or Brown's body, but was not concerned about whether the assailant(s) had harmed the children either.The police contacted Simpson at his home on June 13 and took him toParker Centerfor questioning. Lange noticed that Simpson had a cut on a finger on his left hand that was consistent with where the killer was bleeding from, and asked Simpson how he got the cut. At first, Simpson claimed he cut his finger accidentally while in Chicago after learning of Brown's death. Lange then informed Simpson that blood was found inside his car; at this point, Simpson admitted that he had cut his finger on June 12, but said he did not remember how. He voluntarily gave some of his own blood for comparison with evidence collected at the crime scene and was released.On June 14,",
"June 14, Simpson hired lawyerRobert Shapiro, who began assembling Simpson's team of lawyers (referred to as the\"Dream Team\"). Shapiro noted that an increasingly distraught Simpson had begun treatment for depression. The following days, preliminary results from DNA testing came back with matches to Simpson but the District Attorney delayed filing charges until all the results had come back. Simpson spent the night between June 16 and 17 at theSan Fernando Valleyhome of friendRobert Kardashian; Shapiro asked several doctors to attend to Simpson's purported fragile mental state. On June 17, detectives recommended that Simpson be charged with two counts offirst-degree murderwith special circumstance of multiple killings after the final DNA results came back and an arrest warrant was subsequently issued.The LAPD notified Shapiro at 8:30 am that Simpson would have to turn himself in that day. At 9:30 am, Shapiro went to Kardashian's home to tell Simpson that he would have to turn himself in by 11:00 am, an hour",
"11:00 am, an hour after the murder charges were filed. Simpson told Shapiro that he wanted to turn himself in,to which the police agreed, believing that someone as famous as Simpson would not attempt to flee. The police agreed to delay Simpson's surrender until noon to allow him to be seen by a mental health specialist, as he was showing signs of suicidal depression – he had updated his will, called his mother and children, and written three sealed letters: one to his children, one to his mother, and one to the public.More than 1,000 reporters waited for Simpson'sperp walkat the police station, but he did not arrive as stipulated. The LAPD then notified Shapiro that Simpson would be arrested at Kardashian's home. Kardashian and Shapiro told Simpson this but when the police arrived an hour later, Simpson andAl Cowlingshad disappeared. The three sealed letters Simpson had written were left behind. At 1:50 pm, Commander Dave Gascon, LAPD's chief spokesman, publicly declared Simpson a fugitive; the police issued",
"the police issued anall-points bulletinfor him and an arrest warrant for Cowlings. \"Suicide note\" At 5 pm, Kardashian and one of his defense lawyers read Simpson's public letter.In the letter, Simpson sent greetings to 24 friends and wrote, \"First everyone understand I had nothing to do with Nicole's murder\". He described the fights with Brown and their decision not to reconcile their relationship, and asked the media \"as a last wish\" not to bother his children. He wrote to his former girlfriend Paula Barbieri, who had broken up with him hours before the double murder, \"I'm sorry... we're not going to have, our chance... As I leave, you'll be in my thoughts\". It also included \"I can't go on\" and an apology to the Goldman family. The letter concluded, \"Don't feel sorry for me. I have had a great life, great friends. Please think of the real O. J. and not this lost person\".Most interpreted this as asuicide note; Simpson's mother collapsed after hearing it,and reporters joined the search for Simpson. At",
"for Simpson. At Kardashian's press conference, Shapiro said that he and Simpson's psychiatrists agreed with the suicide note interpretation. Through television, Shapiro appealed to Simpson to surrender. Bronco chase News helicopters searched theLos Angeles highway systemforAl Cowlings's automobile, a white 1993 Ford Bronco.At 5:51 pm, Simpson reportedly called 9-1-1; the call was traced to theSanta Ana Freeway, nearLake Forest. At around 6:20 pm, a motorist inOrange CountynotifiedCalifornia Highway Patrolafter seeing someone believed to be Simpson in a Bronco on theI-5freeway heading north. The police tracked calls placed by Simpson on his cell phone. At 6:45 pm, police officer Ruth Dixon saw the Bronco heading north onInterstate 405; when she caught up to it, Cowlings yelled out that Simpson was in the back seat of the vehicle and was pointing a gun at his own head.The officer backed off, but followed the vehicleat 35 miles per hour (56 km/h),with up to 20 police cars following her in the chase.Zoey",
"in the chase.Zoey TurofKCBS-TVwas the first to find Simpson from a news helicopter, after colleagues heard that theFBI's mobile phone tracking had located Simpson at theEl Toro Y. More than nine news helicopters eventually joined the pursuit; Tur compared the fleet toApocalypse Now, and the high degree of media participation causedcamera signals to appear on incorrect television channels.The chase was so long that one helicopter ran out of fuel, forcing its station to ask another for a camera feed. Knowing that Cowlings was listening toKNX-AM, sports announcerPete Arbogastcalled Simpson's formerUSC footballcoachJohn McKayand connected him to Simpson. As both men wept, Simpson told McKay, \"OK, Coach, I won't do anything stupid. I promise\" off the air. \"There is no doubt in my mind that McKay stopped O.J. from killing himself in the back of that Bronco\", Arbogast said.McKay,Walter Payton,Vince Evans,and others from around the country pleaded with Simpson over radio to surrender. At Parker Center, officials",
"Center, officials discussed how to persuade Simpson to surrender peacefully. Lange, who had interviewed Simpson about the murders on June 13, realized he had Simpson's cell phone number and called him repeatedly. A colleague hooked a tape recorder up to Lange's phone and captured a conversation between Lange and Simpson, in which Lange repeatedly pleaded with Simpson to \"throw the gun out the window\" for the sake of his mother and children. Simpson apologized for not turning himself in earlier that day, and responded he was \"the only one who deserved to get hurt\" and was \"just gonna go with Nicole\". Simpson asked Lange to \"just let me get to the house\" and said \"I need for me\". Cowlings's voice is overheard in the recording (after the Bronco had arrived at Simpson's home surrounded by police) pleading with Simpson to surrender and end the chase peacefully.NBC SportsbroadcasterBob Costas, who had worked with Simpson on the network'sNFL studio show, said that during the chase that Simpson had called30",
"had called30 Rockefeller PlazainNew York Cityasking to speak to Costas, but Costas was several blocks away atMadison Square GardencoveringGame 5 of the1994 NBA Finals. Los Angeles streets emptied and drink orders stopped at bars as people watched on television.Every television network showed the chase;ABC,NBC,CBS,CNN, and local news outlets interrupted regularly scheduled programming to cover the incident, watched by an estimated 95 million viewers nationwide;only 90 million had watchedthat year's Super Bowl.While NBC continued to air NBA Finals coverage, Bob Costas acted as a go-between forMarv Albert, who was calling the game, andTom Brokaw, who reported on the chase. Both events were carried in a split screen.The chase was covered live by ABC anchorsPeter JenningsandBarbara Walterson behalf of the network's fivenews magazines, which achieved some of their highest-ever ratings that week.The chase was also broadcast internationally, including in France and China. Thousands of spectators and onlookers packed",
"onlookers packed overpasses along the route of the chase, waiting for Simpson. In a festival-like atmosphere, many held signs urging Simpson to flee,with slogans such as \"Go O.J.\" and \"Save the Juice\".Encouraging Simpson's actions outragedJim Hill, who was among those broadcasting pleas to their friend to surrender.As people watched and wondered what would happen to Simpson, one author wrote, \"the shared adventure gave millions of viewers a vested interest, a sense of participation, a feeling of being on the inside of a national drama in the making\". Simpson reportedly demanded that he be allowed to speak to his mother before he would surrender. The chase ended at 8:00 pm at his Brentwood estate, where his son, Jason, ran out of the house,and 27SWATofficers awaited.After remaining in the Bronco for about 45 minutes,Simpson exited at 8:50 pm and went inside for about an hour; a police spokesman stated that during this time Simpson talked to his mother on the phone.Shapiro then arrived, and Simpson surrendered",
"Simpson surrendered to authorities a few minutes later. In the Bronco, police found \"$8,000 in cash, a change of clothing, a loaded.357 Magnum, a United States passport, family pictures, and a disguise kit with a fake goatee and mustache\".Simpson was booked at Parker Center and taken toMen's Central Jail; Cowlings was booked on suspicion ofharboring a fugitiveand held on $250,000 bail. The Bronco chase, the suicide note, and the items found in the Bronco were not presented as evidence in the criminal trial. Marcia Clark conceded that such evidence did imply guilt yet defended her decision, citing the public reaction to the chase and suicide note as proof the trial had been compromised by Simpson's celebrity status. Most of the public, including Simpson's friendAl Michaels,interpreted his actions as an admission of guilt yet thousands of spectators were seen expressing sympathy for Simpson and encouraging him to flee from the police. Preliminary hearing On June 20, Simpson wasarraignedand pleaded not guilty",
"pleaded not guilty to both murders and was held without bail. The following day, agrand jurywas called to determine whether to indict him for the two murders but was dismissed on June 23, as a result of excessive media coverage that could have influenced its neutrality. Instead, authorities held a probable cause hearing to determine whether to bring Simpson to trial.California Superior CourtJudge Kathleen Kennedy-Powell ruled on July 7that there was sufficient evidence to bring Simpson to trial for the murders. At his second arraignment on July 22, when asked how he pleaded to the murders, Simpson firmly stated: \"Absolutely, one hundred percent, not guilty.\" Jill Shively testified to the grand jury that soon after the time of the murders she saw a white Ford Bronco speeding away from Bundy Drive in such a hurry that it almost collided with aNissanat the intersection of Bundy and San Vicente Boulevard,and that she recognized Simpson's voice. She talked to the television showHard Copyfor $5,000, after which",
"$5,000, after which prosecutors declined to use her testimony at trial.In 1995, Shively had falsely claimed actor Brian Patrick Clarke had assaulted and stalked her. Jose Camacho of Ross Cutlery provided store receipts showing Simpson had purchased a 12-inch (305 mm)stilettoknife six weeks before the murders. The knife was recovered and determined to be similar to the one the coroner said caused the stab wounds. The prosecution did not present this evidence at trial, after Camacho sold his story to theNational Enquirerfor $12,500.Tests on the knife determined that an oil used on new cutlery was still present on the knife, indicating it had never been used. FormerNFLplayer and pastorRosey Griervisited Simpson on November 13 at theLos Angeles County Jail. A jailhouse guard, Jeff Stuart, testified to Judge Ito that at one point Simpson yelled to Grier that he \"didn't mean to do it\", after which Grier had urged Simpson to come clean. Ito ruled that the evidence was inadmissible as being protected because of",
"because of clergy-penitent privilege. At first, Simpson's defense sought to show that one or more hitmen hired by drug dealers had murdered Brown and Goldman – giving Brown a \"Colombian necktie\" – because they were looking for Brown's friend,Faye Resnick, a known cocaine user who had failed to pay for her drugs.She had stayed for several days at Brown's condo until entering rehab four days before the killings. Ito ruled that the drug killer theory was \"highly speculative\" with no evidence to support it.Consequently, Ito barred the jury from hearing it and prohibited Christian Reichardt from testifying about his former girlfriend Resnick's drug problems. Rose Lopez, a neighbor's Spanish-speaking housekeeper, stated on August 18 that she saw Simpson's Bronco parked outside his house at the time of the murders, supporting his claim he was home that night. During cross-examination by Clark, Lopez admitted she was not sure what time she saw Simpson's Bronco but the defense still intended to call her. However, a",
"her. However, a taped July 29 statement by Lopez did not mention seeing the Bronco but did mention another housekeeper was also there that night, Sylvia Guerra. Prosecutors then spoke with Guerra, who said Lopez was lying and claimed the defense offered both housekeepers $5,000 to say they saw the Bronco that night. When Ito warned the defense that Guerra's claim as well as the earlier statement not mentioning the Bronco and the tape where Clark claims \"that is clearly being coached on what to say\" would be shown to the jury if Lopez testified, they dropped her from the witness list. Media coverage When the trial began, all of the networks were getting these hate-mail letters because people's soap operas were being interrupted for the Simpson trial. But then what happened was the people who liked soap operas got addicted to the Simpson trial. And they got really upset when the Simpson trial was over, and people would come up to me on the street and say, 'God, I loved your show.' The murders and trial – \"the",
"and trial – \"the biggest story I have ever seen\", said a producer of NBC'sToday– received extensive media coverage from the very beginning; at least oneinstant bookwas proposed two hours after the bodies were found, and scheduled to publish only a few weeks later.The case was a seminal event in the history of reality television,helping to revive the genre ofcourt showslikeJudge Judy.TheLos Angeles Timescovered the case on its front page for more than 300 days after the murders. The nightly news broadcasts from theBig Three television networksgave more air time to the case than to theBosnian Warand theOklahoma City bombingcombined. They served an enthusiastic audience; one company put the loss of national productivity from employees following the case instead of working at $40 billion.The Tonight Show with Jay Lenoaired many skits on the trial, and the Dancing Itos – a troupe of dancers dressed as the judge – was a popular recurring segment.According toHoward Kurtzof theWashington Post, the acquittal was \"the",
"acquittal was \"the most dramatic courtroom verdict in the history of Western civilization\". Participants in the case received much media coverage. Limo driver Park said the media offered him $100,000 but refused, as he would be removed as a witness.Fans approached Clark in public, and when she got a new hairstyle during the trial, the prosecutor received a standing ovation on the courthouse steps;Peopleapproved of the change, but advised her to wear \"more fitted suits and tailored skirts\". While Cochran, Bailey, and Dershowitz were already well-known, others like Kaelin became celebrities, and Paula Barbieri appeared inPlayboy. Those involved in the trial followed their own media coverage. Interest in the case was worldwide; Russian presidentBoris Yeltsin's first question to President Clinton when they met in 1995 was, \"Do you think O.J. did it?\" The issue of whether to allow any video cameras into the courtroom was among the first issues Judge Ito had to decide, ultimately ruling that live camera coverage",
"camera coverage was warranted.Ito was later criticized for this decision by other legal professionals. Dershowitz said that he believed that Ito, along with others related to the case such as Clark, Fuhrman and Kaelin, was influenced to some degree by the media presence and related publicity. The trial was covered in 2,237 news segments from 1994 through 1997.Ito was also criticized for allowing the trial to become amedia circusand not doing enough to regulate the court proceedings. Among the reporters who covered the trial daily from the courtroom, and a media-area that was dubbed \"Camp O. J.\",were Steve Futterman ofCBS News,Linda Deutschand Michael Fleeman of theAssociated Press, Dan Whitcomb ofReuters, Janet Gilmore of theLos Angeles Daily News, Andrea Ford of theLos Angeles Times, Michelle Caruso of theNew York Daily News,Dan AbramsofCourt TV,Harvey Levinof KCBS, andDavid MargolickofThe New York Times. WritersDominick Dunne,Joe McGinniss, and Joseph Bosco also had full-time seats in the courtroom. On",
"the courtroom. On June 27, 1994,Timepublished a cover story, \"An American Tragedy\", with a photo of Simpson on the cover.Time's cover image was darker than a typical magazine cover and darker than the original photo, as shown on aNewsweekcover released at the same time.Timeconsequently became the subject of a media scandal.Commentators found that its staff had usedphoto manipulationto darken the photo, and they speculated it was to make Simpson appear more menacing. After the publication of the photo drew widespread criticism of racist editorializing andyellow journalism,Timepublicly apologized. Charles Ogletree, a criminal defense attorney and law professor, said in a 2005 interview that the best investigative reporting regarding the murder and trial was by theNational Enquirer. Trial Simpson wanted aspeedy trial, and the defense and prosecuting attorneys worked around the clock for several months to prepare their cases. The trial began on January 24, 1995, seven months after the murders, and was televised",
"and was televised byclosed-circuit TV camera viaCourt TV, and in part by other cable and network news outlets, for 134 days. JudgeLance Itopresided over the trial in theC.S. Foltz Criminal Courts Building. Jury District AttorneyGil Garcettielected to file charges in downtown Los Angeles, as opposed toSanta Monica, in which jurisdiction the crimes took place.The Los Angeles Superior Court then decided to hold the trial in Downtown Los Angeles instead of Santa Monica due to safety issues at the Santa Monica Court house owing to the1994 Northridge earthquake.The decision may have impacted the trials outcome as it resulted in ajury poolthat mainly consisted of African Americans.Richard Gabriel, a jury consultant noted that African Americans were far more likely than other minorities to be receptive to claims of racially motivated fraud by the police and were less likely to be familiar with and thus acceptDNA evidence. In October 1994, Judge Lance Ito started interviewing 304 prospective jurors, each of whom had",
"each of whom had to fill out a 75-page questionnaire. On November 3, twelve jurors were seated with twelve alternates. Over the course of the trial, ten were dismissed for a wide variety of reasons. Only four of the original jurors remained on the final panel. According to media reports, Clark believed women, regardless of race, would sympathize with the domestic violence aspect of the case and connect with Brown personally. On the other hand, the defense's research suggested that black women would not be sympathetic to Brown, who was white, because of tensions about interracial marriages. Both sides accepted a disproportionate number of female jurors. From an original jury pool of 40 percent white, 28 percent black, 17 percent Hispanic, and 15 percent Asian, the final jury for the trial had ten women and two men, of whom nine were black, two white, and one Hispanic. On April 5, 1995, juror Jeanette Harris was dismissed when Judge Ito learned she had failed to disclose an incident of domestic",
"of domestic abuse.Afterwards, Harris gave an interview and accused the deputies of racism and claimed the jurors were dividing themselves along racial lines. Ito then met with the jurors, who all denied Harris's allegations of racial tension among themselves. The following day, Ito dismissed the three deputies anyway, which upset the jurors that did not complain because the dismissal appeared to lend credence to Harris's allegations, which they all denied.On April 21, thirteen of the eighteen jurors refused to come to court until they spoke with Ito about it. Ito then ordered them to court and the 13 protesters responded by wearing all black and refusing to come out to the jury box upon arrival.The media described this incident as a \"Jury Revolt\" and the protesters wearing all black as resembling a \"funeral procession\". Prosecution case The two lead prosecutors were Deputy District AttorneysMarcia ClarkandWilliam Hodgman, who was replaced as lead prosecutor byChristopher Darden. Clark was designated as the",
"designated as the lead prosecutor and Darden became Clark's co-counsel. Prosecutors Hank Goldberg and Hodgman, who had successfully prosecuted high-profile cases in the past, assisted Clark and Darden. Two prosecutors who were DNA experts, Rockne Harmon and George \"Woody\" Clarke, were brought in to present the DNA evidence in the case and were assisted by Prosecutor Lisa Kahn. Theory The prosecution argued that the domestic violence within the Simpson-Brown marriage culminated in her murder.Simpson's history of abusing Brown resulted in their divorce and his pleading guilty to one count of domestic violence in 1989.On the night of the murders, Simpson attended a dance recital for his daughter and was reportedly angry with Brown because of a black dress that she wore, which he said was \"tight\". Simpson's then girlfriend, Paula Barbieri, wanted to attend the recital with Simpson but he did not invite her. After the recital, Simpson returned home to a voicemail from Barbieri ending their relationship. According",
"According to the prosecution, Simpson then drove over to Brown's home in his Ford Bronco to reconcile their relationship as a result and when Brown refused, Simpson killed her in a \"final act of control\". Goldman then came upon the scene and was murdered in order to silence him and remove any witnesses. Afterwards, Simpson drove home in his Bronco, and he went into his house. There, he took off his bloodstained clothes, put them in the knapsack (except his socks and the glove), put clean ones on, and left towards the limousine. At the airport, Simpson opened the knapsack, removed the clothes, Bruno Magli shoes, and the murder weapon, and threw them in the trash, before putting the knapsack in one of his suitcases and heading towards his flight. Domestic violence The prosecution opened its case by calling LAPD 911 dispatcher Sharon Gilbert and playing a 9-1-1 call from Brown on January 1, 1989, in which she expressed fear that Simpson would physically harm her; Simpson himself is even heard in the background",
"in the background yelling at her and possibly hitting her as well. The officer who responded to that call, Detective John Edwards, testified next that when he arrived, a severely beaten Brown ran from the bushes where she was hiding and to the detective screaming \"He's going to kill me, he's going to kill me\", referring to Simpson. Pictures of Brown's face from that night were then shown to the jury to confirm his testimony. That incident led to Simpson's arrest and eventual pleading of no contest to one count of domestic violence for which he received probation for one year. LAPD officer and long time friend of both Simpson and Brown, Ron Shipp, testified on February 1, 1995, that Simpson told him the day after the murders that he did not want to take apolygraphtest offered to him by the police, because \"I've had a lot of dreams about killing her. I really don't know about taking that thing\". The jury dismissed Shipp's claims after defense attorney Carl E. Douglas accused him of being an alcoholic, and",
"an alcoholic, and testifying against Simpson to promote his acting career. The prosecution then called Brown's sister, Denise Brown, to the witness stand. She testified to many episodes of domestic violence in the 1980s, when she saw Simpson physically abuse Brown and throw her out of their house during an argument. She said that Simpson was agitated with Brown on June 12.Although a home videotape taken immediately after the dance recital showed a cheerful Simpson being given a kiss by Denise Brown,Kato Kaelincorroborated the claim that Simpson was \"upset\" with Brown because of the black dress she wore, which he said was \"tight\". The prosecution planned to present 62 separate incidents of domestic violence, including three previously unknown incidents Brown had documented in several letters she had written and placed in a bank safety deposit box. Judge Ito denied the defense's motion to suppress the incidents of domestic violence, but only allowed witnessed accounts to be presented to the jury because of",
"the jury because of Simpson'sSixth Amendment rights. Brown's statements to friends and family were ruled inadmissible ashearsaybecause Brown was dead and unable to be cross-examined. Despite this, the prosecution had witnesses for 44 separate incidents they planned to present to the jury. However, the prosecution dropped the domestic violence portion of their case on June 20, 1995.Marcia Clark stated it was because they believed theDNA evidenceagainst Simpson was insurmountable, but the media speculated it was because of the comments made by dismissed juror Jeanette Harris. Christopher Darden later confirmed that to be true.Harris was dismissed on April 6 because she failed to disclose that she was a victim of domestic violence from her ex-husband.Afterwards, she gave an interview in which she said the evidence of Simpson's abuse of Brown \"doesn't mean he is guilty of murder\". This dismissal of Simpson's abusive behavior from a female juror, who was also a victim of such abuse by her own husband, convinced",
"husband, convinced the prosecution that the jury was not receptive to the domestic violence argument.After the verdict, the jurors called the domestic violence portion of the case a \"waste of time\".Shapiro, Dershowitz, and Uelmen later admitted they believe that race played a factor in the jurors' dismissal of Brown's abuse by Simpson. The defense retained renowned advocate for victims of domestic abuseLenore E. Walker.Cochran said that she would testify that Simpson does not fit the profile of an abuser that would murder his spouse.Walker's colleagues were appalled by her decision to defend Simpson and accused her of betraying her advocacy for a $250,000 retainer.Walker was dropped from the witness list for \"tactical reasons\" after she submitted her report on the case.In it, she opines that the statistic from Dershowitz that of the two million incidents of abuse per year, only 2,000 victims are actually murdered by their spouses as being misleading because Brown was already dead.The relevant statistic was",
"statistic was \"of the murdered spouses who were also victims of abuse, what percentage of them were murdered by their current or ex-husband?\" When she reported that number was 80.3 percent, they dropped her from the witness list. The revelation of Simpson's abuse of Brown is credited with turning public opinion against him.The public shock at the reason why Walker was dropped from the defense witness list is credited with transforming public opinion on spousal abuse from a private familial matter to a serious public health issue. Timeline Los Angeles County Chief Medical ExaminerLakshmanan Sathyavagiswarantestified on June 14, 1995, that Brown's time of death was estimated as between 10:00 pm and 10:30 pm.Kato Kaelintestified on March 22, 1995, that he last saw Simpson at 9:36 pm that evening. A phone call was made from Simpson's Bronco to Paula Barbieri at 10:02 pm. Simpson was not seen again until 10:54 pm when he answered the intercom at the front door for the limousine driver, Allan Park.Simpson had no",
"Park.Simpson had no alibi for approximately one hour and 18 minutes during which time the murders took place.Allan Park testified on March 28 that he arrived at Simpson's home at 10:25 pm and stopped at the Rockingham entrance; Simpson's Bronco was not there.He then drove over to the Ashford entrance and rang the intercom three times, getting no answer, starting at 10:40 pm. Then he saw someone arrive at Simpson's home through the front door, the lights then turned on and Simpson answered the intercom. Park's testimony was significant because it explained the location of the glove found at Simpson's home.The blood trail from the Bronco to the front door was easily understood but the glove was found on the other side of the house. Park said the \"shadowy figure\" initially approached the front door before heading down the southern walkway which leads to where the glove was found by Fuhrman. The prosecution believed that Simpson had driven his Bronco to and from Brown's home to commit the murders, saw that Park",
"saw that Park was there and aborted his attempt to enter through the front door, entering through the back instead.He panicked and made the sounds that Kaelin heard when he realized that the security system would not let him enter through the rear entrance.He then discarded the glove, came back and went through the front door.During cross examination, Park conceded that he could not identify the figure but said he saw that person enter the front door and afterwards Simpson answered and said he was home alone. Park conceded that he did not notice any cuts on Simpson's left hand but added \"I shook his right hand, not his left\". DNA evidence and blood trail The prosecution presented a total of 108 exhibits, including 61 drops of blood,of DNA evidence to link Simpson to the murders. With no witnesses to the crime, the prosecution was dependent onDNAas the onlyphysical evidencelinking Simpson to the crime.The volume of DNA evidence in this case was unique and the prosecution believed they could reconstruct how",
"reconstruct how the crime was committed with enough accuracy to resemble an eyewitness account.Marcia Clark stated in her opening statements that there was a \"trail of blood from the Bundy Crime scene through Simpson's Ford Bronco to his bedroom at Rockingham\". Hair and fiber evidence LAPD criminalist and hair fiber expert Susan Brockbank testified on June 27, 1995, and FBI Special Agent and fiber expert Doug Deedrick testified on June 29, 1995, to the following findings: Shoeprint analysis In June, FBI shoeprint expert William J. Bodziak testified that the bloody shoeprints found at the crime scene and inside Simpson's Bronco were made from a rare and expensive pair ofBruno MagliItalian shoes. He determined the shoes were a size 12, the same size that Simpson wore, and are only sold at Bloomingdales. Only 299 pairs of that size were sold in the US and one of them was sold at the same store that Simpson often buys his shoes from. Bodziak also testified that, despite two sets of footprints at the crime scene,",
"at the crime scene, only one attacker was present because they were all made by the same shoes. During cross-examination Bailey suggested the murderer deliberately wore shoes that were the wrong size, which Bodziak dismissed as \"ridiculous\". Simpson denied ever owning a pair of the shoes; there was onlycircumstantial evidencehe did.Bloomingdales employee Samuel Poser testified he remembered showing Simpson those shoes, but there was no store record of him purchasing them.Although the prosecution could not prove that Simpson owned a pair of those shoes, Bodziak testified that a similar bloody shoeprint was left on the floor inside Simpson's Bronco. Scheck suggested that Fuhrman broke into the Bronco and left the footprint there; he produced a photo of Fuhrman walking through a puddle of blood. Bodziak admitted that he was not able to confirm that the shoeprint in the car definitely came from a Bruno Magli shoe, but dismissed Scheck's claim because none of the shoeprints at the crime scene were made by",
"scene were made by Fuhrman's shoes, making it unlikely he could have made a bloody shoeprint in the Bronco. Defense case Simpson hired a team of high-profile defense lawyers, initially led byRobert Shapiro, who was previously a civil lawyer known for settling, and then subsequently by Johnnie Cochran, who at that point was known for police brutality and civil rights cases.The team included noted defense attorneyF. Lee Bailey,Robert Kardashian, Harvard appeals lawyerAlan Dershowitz, his student Robert Blasier, and Dean ofSanta Clara University School of LawGerald Uelmen. Assisting Cochran wereCarl E. DouglasandShawn Holley.Barry ScheckandPeter Neufeldwere also hired; they headed theInnocence Projectand specialized in DNA evidence. Simpson's defense was said to have cost between US$3-6 million; the media dubbed the talented attorneys theDream Team,while the taxpayer cost of prosecution was over US$9 million. Postulate The defense team's reasonable doubt angle was summarized as \"compromised, contaminated,",
"contaminated, corrupted\" in opening statements.They argued the DNA evidence against Simpson was compromised by mishandling by Dennis Fung and Andrea Mazzola during the collection phase of evidence gathering, and that 100% of the DNA of the real killer(s) had vanished from the evidence samples.The defense argued that evidence was then contaminated in the LAPD crime lab by criminalist Collin Yamauchi and that Simpson's DNA from his reference vial was transferred to all but three exhibits.The remaining three exhibits were planted by the police and thus corrupted by police fraud.The defense also questioned the timeline, claiming the murders happened around 11:00 pm that night when Simpson has an alibi. Timeline The physicianRobert Huizengatestified in July 1995that Simpson was not physically capable of carrying out the murders due to chronic arthritis and old football injuries. During cross-examination, the prosecution produced an exercise video that Simpson had made a few weeks before the murders titledO.J.",
"murders titledO.J. Simpson Minimum Maintenance: Fitness for Men, which demonstrated that Simpson was anything but frail.Huizenga admitted afterwards that Simpson could have committed the murders if he was in \"the throes of an adrenaline-rush\". Michael Baden, a forensic pathologist, testified that the murdershappened closer to 11:00 pm.He stated that Brown was still conscious, standing, and took a step after her throat was cutand that after Goldman'sjugular veinwas lacerated he continued to stand and fight his assailant for ten minutes. After the trial, Baden admitted his claim of Goldman's long struggle was inaccurateand that testifying for Simpson was a mistake.Critics claimed that Baden knowingly gave false testimony in order to collect a $100,000 retainerbecause the week before he testified, John Gerdes admittedthat Goldman's blood was found in Simpson's Broncodespite Goldman never having an opportunity within his lifetime to be in the Bronco. Nicole's mother, Juditha, told police and investigators in a",
"investigators in a sworn statement that she was speaking with her daughter on the telephone at 11:00pm that evening.Those phone records were sealed. A vat of ice cream was still partially frozen sitting on the downstairs bannister when police searched the open-door house around 12:30am June 13. The local weather was reported to be around 60° F that night, implying that by that time, the ice cream should have been near-completely thawed. Compromised and contaminated Barry ScheckandPeter Neufeldargued that the results from the DNA testing were not reliable because the police were \"sloppy\" in collecting and preserving it from the crime scene.Fung and Mazzola did admit to making several mistakes during evidence collection, which included not always changing gloves between handling evidence items, packaging and storing the evidence items using plastic bags rather than paper bags as recommended, and storing evidence in the police van, which was not refrigerated, for up to seven hours after collection.This, the",
"the defense argued, would allow bacteria to degrade the DNA and thus make the samples more susceptible to cross-contamination in the LAPD crime lab. The prosecution denied that the mistakes made by Fung and Mazzola changed the validity of the results.They noted that all of the evidence samples were testable and that most of the DNA testing was done at the two consulting labs, not the LAPD crime lab where contamination supposedly happened. Since all of the samples the consulting labs received were testable, while Scheck and Neufeld's theory predicted that they should have been inconclusive after being \"100% degraded\", the claim that all the DNA was lost to bacterial degradation was not credible.The prosecution also denied that contamination happened in the LAPD crime lab because the result would have been a mixture of Simpson's DNA and the DNA of the \"real killer(s)\", but the results showed that only Simpson's DNA was present.The prosecution also noted the defense declined to challenge any of those results by",
"of those results by testing the evidence themselves.Marcia Clark called Scheck and Neufeld's claims a \"smoke-screen\". The contamination claim was made by microbiologist John Gerdes.He testified in August 1995 thatForensic PCR DNA matchingis not reliableand that the LAPD crime lab has a \"chronic\", \"substantial contamination problem\".Gerdes testified that because of the LAPD's past history of contamination, he would not consider any of the PCR DNA matches in this case reliable. He also claimed that the consulting labs' PCR DNA matches were not reliable, as the evidence they tested went \"through the LAPD\" for packaging and shipping.Gerdes believed only three of the DNA matches to have been valid, which were the same three the defense alleged were planted by the police. During cross-examination, Gerdes admitted there was no evidence that cross-contamination had occurred and that he was only testifying to \"what might occur and not what actually did occur\". He accepted that the victims' blood was in the Bronco and",
"in the Bronco and Simpson's blood was at the crime scene and neither was due to contamination. He also conceded that nothing happened during \"packaging and shipping\" that would affect the validity of the results at the two consulting labs. The prosecution implied that Gerdes was not a credible witness: he had no forensic experience, had only testified for criminal defendants in the past, and always said theDNA evidenceagainst them was not reliable due to contamination. Clark also implied that it was not a coincidence that the three evidence items he initially said were valid were the same three the defense claimed were planted while the other 58 were all false positives and the 47 substrate controls, which are used to determine if contamination occurred, were all false negatives.Defense forensic DNA expertHenry Lee, testifying in August 1995, admitted that Gerdes's claim was \"highly improbable\". Barry Scheck's eight-day cross-examination of Dennis Fung was lauded in the media.However, Howard Coleman,",
"Howard Coleman, president of Seattle-based forensic DNA laboratory GeneLex, criticized Scheck's cross-examination as \"smoke and mirrors\", stating: \"Everything we get in the lab is contaminated to some degree. What contamination and degradation will lead you to is an inconclusive result. It doesn't lead you to a false positive\". Police conspiracy allegation The defense initially only claimed that three exhibits were planted by the policebut eventually argued that virtually all of the blood evidence against Simpson was planted in a police conspiracy.They accused prison nurse Thano Peratis,criminalists Dennis Fung,Andrea Mazzola,and Colin Yamauchi,and Vannatterand Fuhrman,of participating in a plot to frame Simpson. In closing arguments, Cochran called Fuhrman and Vannatter \"twins of deception\",Vannatter \"the man who carried the blood\"and Fuhrman \"the man who found the glove\". EDTA The onlyphysical evidenceoffered by the defense that the police tried to frame Simpson was the allegation that two of the 108 DNA",
"two of the 108 DNA evidence samples tested in the case contained the preservativeEthylenediaminetetraacetic acid(EDTA). However, it was the prosecution who asked to have the samples tested for the preservative, not the defense.The defense alleged that the drop of blood on the back gate at the Bundy crime scene, which matched Simpson, and the blood found on a pair of socks in Simpson's bedroom, which matched Brown, were planted by the police. In order to support this claim, the defense pointed to the presence in the blood samples of EDTA, a preservative found in the purple-toppedcollection tubesused for police reference vials. In July 1995,Fredric Rieders, a forensic toxicologist who had analysed the FBI's results, testified that the level of EDTA in the evidence samples was higher than that which is normally found in blood: this appeared to support the defense's claim that the blood came from the reference vials.During cross-examination, Clark asked Rieders to read out loud the portion of theEPAarticle that",
"theEPAarticle that stated what the normal levels of EDTA in blood are, which he had referenced during his testimony.This demonstrated that he had misread the article and that the levels found in the evidence samples were consistent with those found in blood that was not preserved in a police reference vial.Rieders then claimed it was a \"typo\",but the prosecution produced a direct copy from the EPA confirming the normal amounts of EDTA found in unpreserved blood.The prosecution also had Rieders admit that EDTA is found in foodand specifically the ingredients used in theMcDonald'sBig Mac and french friesthat Simpson had eaten earlier that night. FBI special agent Roger Martz was called by the defense in July 1995 to testify that EDTA was present in the evidence samples. Instead, he said he did not identify it in the blood, contradicting Rieders' testimony.Initially he conceded the blood samples were \"consistent with the presence of EDTA\", but he later clarified his response after hearing that \"everyone is",
"that \"everyone is saying that I found EDTA\", which he denied. The defense accused him of changing his demeanor to favor the prosecution, and he replied: \"I cannot be entirely truthful by only giving 'yes' and 'no' answers\".Martz stated that it was impossible to ascertain with certainty the presence of EDTA, as while the presumptive test for it was positive, the identification test for it was inconclusive. He also tested his own unpreserved blood and got the same results for EDTA levels as the evidence samples, which he said conclusively disproved the claim that the evidence blood came from the reference vials.He contended that the defense had jumped to conclusions from the presumptive test results, while his tests had in fact shown that \"those bloodstains did not come from preserved blood\". Back gate The defense alleged that Simpson's blood on the back gate at the Bundy crime scene was planted by the police. The blood on the back gate was collected on July 3, 1994, rather than June 13.The volume of DNA in",
"volume of DNA in that blood was significantly higher than the other blood evidence collected on June 13. The volume of DNA was so high that the defense conceded that it could not be explained by contamination in the lab. However, they noted that it was unusual for that blood to have more DNA in it than the other samples collected at the crime scene, especially since it had been left exposed to the elements for several weeks and was collected after the crime scene had supposedly been washed over. In March 1995, Vannatter testified that he instructed Fung to collect the blood on the gate on June 13 and Fung admitted he had not done so.The defense suggested the reason why Fung did not collect the blood is because it was not there that day; when shown a blown-up photograph taken of the back gate on June 13, he admitted he could not see the blood. The prosecution responded that a different photograph showed the blood was present on the back gate on June 13, before any blood had been taken from Simpson's",
"from Simpson's arm.Robert Riske was the first officer at the crime scene and the one who pointed out the blood on the back gate to Fuhrman, who documented it in his notes that night.Multiple other officers testified that the blood was present on the back gate the night of the murders.The prosecution also pointed out that the media cameras present proved that Vannatter never returned to the crime scene (Brown's home) that evening, where Simpson's blood was allegedly planted. Bronco Barry Scheck alleged the police had twice planted the victims' blood inside Simpson's Bronco. An initial collection was made on June 13; the defense accused Vannatter of planting the victims' blood in the Bronco when he returned to Simpson's home later that evening. The prosecution responded that the Bronco had already been impounded by the time Vannatter returned and was not even at Rockingham. Socks The defense alleged that the police had planted Brown's blood on the socks found in Simpson's bedroom. The socks were collected on",
"were collected on June 13 and had blood from both Simpson and Brown, but her blood on the socks was not identified until August 4.The socks were found by Fuhrman, but the defense suggested Vannatter planted the blood. He had received both blood reference vials from the victims earlier that day from the coroner and booked them immediately into evidence. Vannatter then drove back to Rockingham later that evening to hand-deliver the reference vial for Simpson to Fung, which the defense alleged gave him opportunity to plant the blood. Fung testified he could not see blood on the socks he collected from Simpson's bedroom,and the prosecution later demonstrated that those blood stains were only visible underneath a microscope. Vannatter denied planting Brown's blood on the socks. The video from Willie Ford indicated that the socks had already been collected and stored in the evidence van before Vannatter arrived and footage from the media cameras present appeared to prove that he never went inside the evidence van",
"the evidence van after he arrived at Rockingham. Glove The last exhibit allegedly planted was the bloody glove found at Simpson's property by Fuhrman.Unlike the sock and the back gate, the defense provided no physical or eyewitness evidence to support their claim that the prosecution could then refute.The New Yorkerpublished an article months before the trial began which cited a source in Simpson's defense team as saying that they intended to accuse Fuhrman of planting the glove, with the motive being racism. Robert Shapiro later admitted he was the magazine's source. Defense attorney F. Lee Bailey suggested that Fuhrman found the glove at the crime scene, picked it up with a stick, placed it in a plastic bag, and concealed it in his sock when he drove to Simpson's home with Lange, Vannatter, and Phillips. Bailey suggested that Fuhrman then planted the glove to frame Simpson, with the motive being either racism or a desire to become the hero in a high-profile case.Scheck suggested that Fuhrman broke into the",
"broke into the Bronco and used the glove to plant blood onto and inside the Bronco. The prosecution denied that Fuhrman planted the glove. They noted that several officers had already combed over the crime scene for almost two hours before Fuhrman arrived and none had noticed a second glove. Lange testified that 14 other officers were there when Fuhrman arrived and all said there was only one glove at the scene.Lt. Frank Spangler also testified that he was with Fuhrman for the duration of his time there, saying he would have seen Fuhrman steal the glove. Clark added that Fuhrman did not know whether Simpson had an alibi, if there were any witnesses to the murders, whose blood was on the glove, that the Bronco belonged to Simpson, or whether Kaelin had already searched the area where the glove was found. During cross-examination by Bailey,Fuhrman denied that he had used the word \"nigger\" to describe African Americans in the ten years prior to his testimony.A few months later, the defense presented audiotapes",
"audiotapes of Fuhrman repeatedly using the word eight years before the murders. TheFuhrman tapesbecame the cornerstone of the defense's case that his testimony lacked credibility. Clark called the tapes \"the biggestred herring\" ever. After screenwriter Laura Hart McKinny handed over the tapes to the defense, Fuhrman says he asked the prosecution for a redirect to explain the context of those tapes but the prosecution and fellow officers abandoned him after Ito played the audiotapes in open court.The public reaction was explosive, comparable to the reaction to the video of the King beating.After the trial, Fuhrman said that he was not a racist and apologized for his language, claiming he was play-acting for ascreenplaywhen he made the tapes and had been asked to be as dramatic as possible.Many of hisminorityformer coworkers expressed support for him. On September 6, 1995, Fuhrman was called back to the stand by the defense after the prosecution refused to redirect him. The jury was absent but the exchange was",
"the exchange was televised. Fuhrman, facing a possible prosecution forperjury, was instructed by his attorney to invoke theFifth Amendmentto avoidself-incriminationto two consecutive questions he was asked.Defense attorney Uelmen asked Fuhrman if it was his intention to plead the Fifth to all questions, and Fuhrman's attorney instructed him to reply \"yes\". Uelmen spoke with other members of the defense and then said he had just one more question: \"Did you plant or manufacture any evidence in this case?\" Following his attorney's instruction, Fuhrman again invoked the Fifth. Cochran responded to Fuhrman's pleading the Fifth by accusing the other officers of conspiring to protect Fuhrman; he asked Judge Ito to suppress all of the evidence that Fuhrman found. Ito denied the request, stating that pleading the Fifth does not imply guilt and that there was no evidence of fraud. Cochran asked that the jury be allowed to hear Fuhrman taking the Fifth, and again Ito denied his request. Ito criticized the defense's",
"the defense's theory of how Fuhrman allegedly planted the glove, stating it was illogical. On June 15, 1995, Darden surprised Clark by asking Simpson to try on the gloves found at the crime scene and his home. The prosecution had earlier decided against asking Simpson to try them on because the gloves had been soaked in blood from Simpson, Brown, and Goldman,and frozen and unfrozen several times. Instead they presented a witness who testified that Brown had purchased a pair of those gloves in the same size in 1990 atBloomingdalesfor Simpson, along with a receipt and a photo of Simpson earlier wearing the same type of gloves. The leather gloves appeared too tight for Simpson to put on easily, especially over the latex gloves he wore underneath. Clark claimed that Simpson was acting when he appeared to be struggling to put on the gloves. Cochran replied, \"I don't think he could act the size of his hands\".Darden then told Ito of his concerns that Simpson \"hasarthritisand we looked at the medication he takes and",
"he takes and some of it is anti-inflammatory and we are told he has not taken the stuff for a day and it caused swelling in the joints and inflammation in his hands\".Cochran informed Ito the next day thatShawn Chapmancontacted the Los Angeles County Jail doctor, who confirmed Simpson was taking his arthritis medication every day, and that the jail's medical records verified this. In a June 28, 1995, memo to Cochran, Uelmen came up with—and Cochran later repeated—a quip he used in his closing arguments: \"If it doesn't fit, you must acquit\". In his memo to Cochran, Uelmen noted that the phrase not only applied to the gloves but to the evidence presented by the prosecutors: What the memo really tries to do is play off the jury instructions... I thought that instruction on circumstantial evidence was just incredibly good for us, so when we knew that instruction was going to be given, it just popped out at me. It says if it doesn't fit, you must acquit. What I was trying to do is not just remind the jury of that",
"the jury of that moment in the trial of trying on the glove, but the whole concept of did the evidence really fit the story that the prosecution was trying to present. The prosecution stated they believed the gloves shrank from having been soaked in the blood of the victims.This model of gloves was made out of leather, which, as confirmed by Richard Rubin, can shrink up to 15% after being exposed to moisture and can never return to its original size.Darden produced a new pair of the same type of gloves, which fit Simpson when he tried them on.Rubin was a former vice president of Aris Isotoner Inc., which makes the gloves in question. On September 12, 1995, Rubin testified he was \"100 certain\" that the gloves at the murder scene—and also the style of gloves which Simpson was seen wearing in photographs and football broadcasts between 1990 and 1994—were of the company's rare Aris Light model and that they appeared to have shrunk.Rubin also noted that another pair of similar gloves which Simpson could be seen",
"could be seen wearing during a football broadcast were noticeably absorbing rain water. After the trial, Cochran revealed that Bailey had goaded Darden into asking Simpson to try on the glovesand that Shapiro had told Simpson in advance that they would not fit. Summation In closing arguments, Darden ridiculed the notion that police officers might have wanted to frame Simpson.He questioned why, if the LAPD was against Simpson, they went to his house eight times on domestic violence calls against Brown between 1986 and 1988 but did not arrest him; they only arrested him on charges of abuse in January 1989. Darden noted the police did not arrest Simpson for five days after the 1994 murders.During the prosecution's closing argument, Cochran and Scheck very notably objected seventy-one times in order to lessen its effect on the jury,and though Ito overruled sixty-nine of them, he did not once admonish Cochran or Scheck or threaten them with contempt of court for their behavior. During his closing argument,",
"closing argument, Cochran pointed out the many flaws of the LAPD, particularly Fuhrman, Lange, and Vannatter. He emphasized that Fuhrman was proved to have repeatedly referred to black people as \"niggers\" and also to have boasted of beating young black men in his role as a police officer. Cochran compared Fuhrman toAdolf Hitlerand referred to him as \"the personification of evil\", and claimed that Fuhrman had planted the glove in an attempt to frame Simpson for the murders, based on his dislike of interracial couples. Cochran also presented a piece of paper named \"Vannatter's Big Lies\", claiming Vannatter had returned to the crime scene with Simpson's blood to plant it there, despite Vannatter having previously testified that he had given it to Dennis Fung in order to avoid the exhibits from getting mixed up. Cochran referred to Fuhrman and Vannatter as the \"two devils of deception\", and implored the jurors to \"stop this cover-up\" and \"acquit Simpson and send the police a message\", which was interpreted by",
"was interpreted by many as an appeal for ajury nullification. Following his summation, Cochran received numerous death threats, and hired bodyguards fromLouis Farrakhan. In response, Fred Goldman, who was himself Jewish, referred to Cochran himself as a racist and a \"sick man\" for comparing Fuhrman to Hitler while associating himself with Farrakhan, who was widely considered a black supremacist and anti-Semite. Robert Shapiro, also Jewish, said he was offended by Cochran comparing Fuhrman's claims to the Holocaust. In an interview regardingVincent Bugliosi's analysis on the case, Vannatter claimed that he was so infuriated at Cochran's claims about him that he felt a desire to strangle him in the courtroom. Verdict Fears grew that race riots, similar to theriots in 1992, would erupt across Los Angeles and the rest of the country if Simpson were convicted of the murders. As a result, all Los Angeles police officers were put on 12-hour shifts. The police arranged for more than 100 police officers on horseback",
"on horseback to surround the Los Angeles County courthouse on the day the verdict was announced, in case of rioting by the crowd. PresidentBill Clintonwas briefed on security measures if rioting were to occur nationwide. The only testimony that the jury reviewed was that of limo driver Park.At 10:07 a.m. on October 3, 1995, Simpson was acquitted on both counts of murder. The jury arrived at the verdict by 3:00 pm on October 2, after four hours ofdeliberation, but it postponed the announcement.After the verdict was read, juror number nine, 44-year-old Lionel Cryer, gave Simpson aBlack Power raised fistsalute.The New York Timesreported that Cryer was a former member of the revolutionary nationalistBlack Panther Partythat prosecutors had \"inexplicably left on the panel\". An estimated 100 million people worldwide watched or listened to the verdict's announcement. Long-distance telephone call volume declined by 58 percent, and trading volume on theNew York Stock Exchangedecreased by 41 percent. Water usage",
"Water usage decreased as people avoided using bathrooms. So much work stopped that the verdict resulted in an estimated $480 million in lost production.TheUS Supreme Courtreceived a message on the verdict duringoral arguments, with thejusticesquietly passing the note to each other while listening to the attorney's presentation. Congressmen canceled press conferences, withJoe Liebermantelling reporters, \"Not only would you not be here, but I wouldn't be here, either\". Acquittal and aftermath African-AmericanLAPDPolice ChiefWillie Williamsindicated that he had no plans to reopen the investigation, saying of the acquittals, \"It doesn't mean there's another murderer\". The LAPD has also declined to reexamine the evidence with modern methods in recent years because Simpsoncould not be tried for the same crime againunder theFifth Amendment. Fate of the Broncos Simpson's 1993 Ford Bronco was never returned to him and was destroyed by the LAPD shortly after the trial ended. Cowlings's 1993 Ford Bronco from the",
"Bronco from the low-speed chase was purchased in 1994 by Simpson's former sports agentMike Gilbertand two other men, then ended up sitting in a parking garage for the next 17 years (1995–2012), where it was rarely used.As of 2017, the vehicle was on loan to theAlcatraz East Crime Museum, where it was put on display as part of an exhibit on the murder trial. Legislative changes The strong public reaction to Brown's letters and statements describing her abusespurred passage of theViolence Against Women Actin 1994, which Clark and Douglas referred to as the \"O.J. rule\".After the trial, researchers reported increased reporting, arrests, and harsher sentences for those convicted ofdomestic violence. Analysis of polling data After the verdict, polling showed that 75 percent ofWhite Americansthought Simpson was guilty while 70 percent ofBlack Americansthought he was innocent.AnNBCpoll taken in 2004 reported 87 percent of Whites believed Simpson was guilty, compared to only 27 percent of Black respondents.In the",
"respondents.In the 2010s, polling showed the gap had narrowed, with a majority of both now believing he was guilty: 83 percent of White and 57 percent of Black Americans. Political impact and civil rights Scholarly consensus is that the trial damagedrace relations in Americaand point to polling which shows that belief in Simpson's guilt depended on the race of the individual and not on the evidence against him.Analysis of the \"racial gap\" in polling shows that it did not cross thepolitical spectrum.Conservativesregardless of race or gender thought Simpson was guilty. Where the gap emerged was amongliberals– with black liberals believing Simpson was innocent, while white liberals thought he was guilty.Stanford UniversityLaw ProfessorRichard Thompson Fordwrote that this made the verdict awedge issuethat divided liberals along racial lines as white liberals felt the verdict was a racially motivatedjury nullificationand resented the images of African Americans celebrating the verdict.Led byWard Connerly,",
"byWard Connerly, opponents ofaffirmative action, seized upon the division and rebranded as advocatingrace neutrality, which appealed to white liberals now due to their perceived unjustness of the verdictand in 1996 voters inCaliforniapassedProposition 209, which ended affirmative action programs in the state.A historic drop in diversity at theUniversity of Californiasystem followedwhich resulted in a similar drop in diversity that still remainsin the state'swhite-collar job market, especially in thehigh-tech hub of Silicon Valley.A further initiative rejected by voters,Proposition 54in 2003, would have further increased the impact of Prop 209 by abolishing racial classifications so the drop in diversity couldn't be quantified.Themurder of George Floydrevived empathy forracial injusticeamong white liberalsbut the unsuccessfulattempt to repeal Proposition 209in 2020 was credited to the trial's legacy of undermining race relations. Polling shows that racial and ethnicminority groupswere divided by the verdict",
"by the verdict as well.LatinosandAfrican Americansboth believed that fraud was taking place in theLAPDbut disagreed on the cause.Simpson said he felt vindicatedby theRampart Scandalwhich proved that fraud was happening in theC.R.A.S.Hanti-gang unit. However, this fraud was not racially motivated: all the officers involved were minorities themselvesand were actually found to be affiliated with one of thegangsthey were supposed to be policing. Publications Several jurors together publishedMadame Foremanin 1995 to respond to allegations the verdict was racially motivated. They concluded that Simpson probably was guilty but the prosecution failed to prove itbeyond a reasonable doubt. In 1996, Cochran publishedJourney to Justice, in which he denied playing the \"race card\" and maintained that theLAPDtried toframeSimpson. Shapiro publishedThe Search for Justicein 1996 about the case. He concluded there wasreasonable doubtbut criticized Bailey and Cochran for bringing race into the trial. In comparison to Cochran's",
"to Cochran's book, he wrote: \"I never believed that Simpson was being victimized by a racist police organization because he was black…or that he was seen as a black hero\". In 1998, Clark publishedWithout a Doubt, in which she opined that the acquittal demonstrated the legal system is still compromised by race and celebrity because the prosecution'sphysical evidenceshould have easily convicted Simpson. Darden publishedIn Contemptin 1998 about the trial. He attributed the acquittal to poor stewardship by a \"starstruck\"Judge Itoand a \"dysfunctional and uneducated\" jury. Vincent BugliosipublishedOutrage: The Five Reasons why O. J. Simpson Got Away with Murderin 1997. Bugliosi blamed the verdict on an incompetent jury, prosecution, and judge. He wrote: \"Other than when a killer is apprehended in the act, I have never seen a more obvious case of guilt. All of the evidence—not some or most of it—points irresistibly to Simpson's guilt and his guilt alone\". Henry LeepublishedBlood Evidence: How DNA Is Revolutionizing",
"Is Revolutionizing The Way We Solve Crimesin 2003, in which he noted that both the defense's forensic DNA experts had rejected Scheck's contamination claim. Fuhrman publishedMurder in Brentwoodin 1998, defending himself against fraud claims. He wrote that his taking theFifthwas to avoid prosecution forperjury. In 1997, Tom Lange and Philip Vannatter publishedEvidence Dismissed: The Inside Story of the Police Investigation of O.J. Simpson, in which they defended themselves against allegations of corruption and incompetence. Daniel M. PetrocellipublishedTriumph of Justice: The Final Judgement of the Simpson Sagain 1998, comparing the criminal and civil trials. He attributed the acquittal to bad rulings byJudge Ito, unethical behavior by the defense, and unreliable testimony from Gerdes,Rieders, Lee, andBaden. In 1999, sociologistDarnell HuntpublishedO.J. Simpson Facts and Fictions: News Rituals in the Construction of Reality. Hunt argued that the racial gap in polling was a manufactured product of selective",
"of selective reporting of facts by the media due to their treatment of the trial as a form of entertainment rather than a legal proceeding. If I Did It In 2006,ReganBooksannounced a bookghostwrittenbyPablo Fenjvesbased on interviews with Simpson titledIf I Did It, an account which the publisher said was ahypotheticalconfession. The book's release was planned to coincide with a Fox interview featuring Simpson. The project was cancelled due to public criticism. Later, the Goldman family was awarded the rights to the book and published it under the titleIf I Did It: Confessions of the Killer. In 2018, Fox broadcast Simpson's previously unaired interview in a special titledO.J. Simpson: The Lost Confession?The interview was widely interpreted as being a form of impliedconfessionbecause Simpson usedfirst personlanguage (\"Obviously I must have \")in explaining how he would have committed the murders. Post-trial interviews In an interview withBarbara Walters, Shapiro said he was offended by Cochran comparing Fuhrman",
"comparing Fuhrman toAdolf Hitler, and said he would never work with Bailey or Cochran again. He also said the defense played the \"race card\".Robert Kardashianadmitted that, prior to the jurors visiting Simpson's home, the defense team had switched out his photos of white women for photos of his children and switched out a picture of a nude Paula Barbieri (Simpson's white then-girlfriend) for aNorman Rockwellpainting from Cochran's office. Simpson gave two high-profile interviews regarding the case – in 1996 withRoss Beckerand in 2004 withKatie Couric.In the February 1998 issue ofEsquire, Simpson was quoted as saying, \"Let's say I committed this crime ...even if I did this, it would have to have been because I loved her very much, right?\"In 1998, during an interview withRuby Wax, Simpson pretended to stab her with a banana in an apparent joke.In 2008,Mike Gilbertreleased his bookHow I Helped O.J. Get Away with Murder, which quotes Simpson allegedly saying: \"If she hadn't opened that door with a knife in her",
"with a knife in her hand ... she'd still be alive.\" In the documentaryO.J.: Made in America, juror Carrie Bess said she believed \"90% of the jury actually decided to acquit Simpson as payback forRodney King\".Juror Lionel Cryer, who notably gave Simpson aBlack Power salute, stated in 2017 that in retrospect he would render a guilty verdict.Juror Anise Aschenbach, who initially voted guilty before changing her vote, stated in 2008 that she regrets the decision and believes Simpson is guilty because he is not looking for the \"real killer\" like he promised he would. “On the evidence that they gave me to evaluate, it was crooked by the cops,\" juror David Aldana said in an interview.“The evidence given to me to look at, I could not convict. Did he do it? Maybe, maybe not.\"Juror Sheila Woods denied the jury’s decision was based on race in an interview withVulture.When asked if she believed Simpson was framed, Woods stated, “I don’t know if he was necessarily framed. I think O.J. may know something about what",
"about what happened, but I just don’t think he did it. I think it was more than one person, just because of the way she was killed. I don’t know how he could have just left that bloody scene — because it was bloody — and got back into his Bronco and not have it filled with blood. And then go back home and go in the front door, up the stairs to his bedroom … That carpet was snow white in his house. He should have blood all over him or bruises becauseRon Goldmanwas definitely fighting for his life. He had defensive cuts on his shoes and on his hands. O.J. only had that little cut on his finger. If Goldman was kicking to death, you would think that the killer would have gotten some bruises on his body. They showed us photos of O.J. with just his underwear just two days after, and he had no bruises or anything on his body.”In an interview with CNN following Simpson’s death, juror Yolanda Adams said she was still comfortable with her decision to render a not guilty verdict and denied the verdict was based on",
"was based on payback forRodney King, citing the reasonable doubt in the case presented by the defense and the actions of the police officers involved in the case likeMark Fuhrmanpleading the fifth when he was asked if he planted or manufactured any evidence against Simpson. In 2018,Foxaired an interview Simpson gave in 2006 with publisherJudith Regan, titledO.J. Simpson: The Lost Confession?, where he gave \"hypothetical\" details about his role in the murders. Civil trial In 1996, Fred Goldman and Sharon Rufo, the parents of Ron Goldman, and Lou Brown, father of Nicole Brown filed acivil suitagainst Simpson for wrongful death.Theplaintiffswere represented byDaniel Petrocelliand Simpson by Robert Baker.Presiding Judge Hiroshi Fujisaki did not allow the trial to be televised, did notsequesterthe jury, and prohibited the defense from allegingracismby theLAPDand from condemning the crime lab.Thephysical evidencedid not change but additional evidence ofdomestic violencewas presented as well as 31 pre-1994 photos",
"31 pre-1994 photos of Simpson wearingBruno Maglishoes,including one that waspublished6 months before the murders, proving it could not be aforgery.Results from apolygraphtest that Simpson denied taking showed \"extreme deception\" when he denied committing the murders. Fuhrman did not testify but Simpson did on his own behalf and lied several times. One significant difference between the two trials was the admission of Nicole Brown's diary entries in the civil case. Lead counselDaniel Petrocelliexplained, \"The least explored aspect of the case is Simpson's motive. You cannot just say this murder was a culmination of domestic-violence incidents. You need to tell the jury a story. This was about a stormy relationship.\"Timemagazine reported, \"That strategy made the difference in understanding Simpson... Nicole's diary showed that she and Simpson were having fights in those last weeks. Their hostilities had taken a cruel turn. Simpson sent Nicole a letter that was a thinly veiled threat to report her to the IRS",
"her to the IRS for failing to pay capital-gains taxes. Infuriated, she started to deny him access to the children.... She began to treat him like a stranger. That, Petrocelli said, is when three weeks of retaliation began In that period, the lawyer argued, Simpson grew angrier and more obsessed with his ex-wife, developing a rage that resulted in death for her and Ron Goldman.\" The civil judge found the diary entries were admissible because they were pertinent to Nicole's state of mind, which in turn was relevant to Simpson's motive—reversing a crucial ruling from the criminal case that excluded the diary as \"inadmissible hearsay.\"The civil court's ruling was upheld on appeal.TheLos Angeles Timeswrote that this evidence \"helped the plaintiffs tell their story of domestic violence\" and show that when Nicole \"rejected for good in the spring of 1994 ... he erupted in the same uncontrollable rage that had caused him to lash out at her in the past—only this time, he was brandishing a knife. The jury found",
"The jury found Simpsonliablefor the murders and awarded the victims' families $33.5 million in compensatory and punitive damages.The civil verdict \"very nearly upstaged the president of the United States on the occasion of his State of the Union address,\"ending the case that \"riveted America for two and a half years\"Simpson filed forbankruptcyafterwards and relocated toFloridato protect hispensionfrom seizure. His remaining assets were seized and auctioned off with most being purchased by critics of the verdict of the criminal trial to help the plaintiffs recoup the costs of litigation. Simpson'sHeisman Trophywas sold for $255,500 to an undisclosed buyer. All the proceeds went to the Goldman family, who said they have received only one percent of the money that Simpson owes from the wrongful death suit. Following Simpson's death in 2024,Simpson estate lawyer Malcolm LeVergne pledged to prevent the Brown and Goldman families from obtaining the money which was promised in the civil trial judgement, but later",
"but later reversed course. Alternate theories and suspects While Bailey and several members of Simpson's family still advocated for Simpson's innocence,such theories have been rejected by prosecutors, witnesses and the families of Brown and Goldman, who have expressed the belief that Simpson committed the murders and was the sole perpetrator,with Hunt opining that these claims were attempts to tap into the public interest in the case and were never meant to be taken seriously. Alternative theories have been suggested, such as that Simpson may have had accomplices in the murders, or that he was not involved at all and wasframed. Several speculate that the murders were related to the Los Angeles drug trade and the murders ofMichael NiggandBrett Cantor. The 2000BBC TVdocumentaryO.J.: The True Untold Story,primarily rehashes the contamination and blood planting claims from the trial and asserted that Simpson's elder son Jason is a possible suspect, due to - among other reasons - Simpson hiring defense attorneys",
"defense attorneys for his children first before himself, pictures of Jason's descriptive wool cap, and an alleged prior arrangement to meet with Nicole that evening.William Dearpublished his findings in the bookO.J. Is Innocent and I Can Prove It. The 2012 documentary filmMy Brother the Serial Killeralleged that convicted murdererGlen Edward Rogersconfessed to being involved in the murders and that he had been hired by Simpson. In popular culture Media adaptations Film Lost Highwaywas partially inspired by the case. In the film, a man is imprisoned for his wife's murder, which he does not remember, and is released after he transforms into a different man. DirectorDavid Lynchfound it remarkable that Simpson, who he believed committed the murders, could continue a casual lifestyle afterward. Lethal Weapon 4, which was released about two and a half years after the case, makes a reference to the success of Simpson's defense attorney Johnnie Cochran, after the character of detective Lee Butters apprehends a",
"apprehends a fleeing suspect and reads him hisMiranda rightsas follows: \"If you can't afford an attorney, we'll provide you with the dumbest fucking lawyer on earth. If you get Johnnie Cochran, I'll kill ya!\" Shrek 2references the Bronco chase, whenDonkeyis turned into a white horse by theFairy Godmother, and he and other characters are pursued by knights. TV Episodes of sitcoms such asThe Simpsons,South Park,Roseanne,New Girl,Family Guy,It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, andSeinfeldhave mocked the case, or more specifically, Simpson himself.Saturday Night LiveWeekend UpdatehostNorm Macdonaldfrequently made jokes about O. J. Simpson's trial, such as the iconic line \"Well, it is finally official: Murder is legal in the state of California\" after Simpson's acquittal. It is rumored that the constant Simpson jokes were the cause for thenNBCPresidentDon Ohlmeyerto remove Macdonald from theWeekend Updatesegment and eventually from the show altogether. Cowlings' white Ford Bronco was featured in the reality TV",
"in the reality TV showPawn Stars. The then-owner of the vehicle estimated its value in excess of $1,000,000. Music The heavy-metal bandBody Countrecorded the song \"I Used to Love Her\", sung from the perspective of O. J. Simpson murdering his wife, on their 1997 albumViolent Demise: The Last Days. A 2021 article inMetal Hammerdescribed the song as \"jaw-droppingly offensive\".InGood Charlotte's song, \"Lifestyles of the Rich & Famous\", they reference the case in the second verse: \"Well did you know when you were famous you could kill you wife And there's no such thing as 25 to life As long as you've got the cash, to pay for Cochran.\" R&B groupH-Towndedicated their albumLadies Edition, Woman's World(1997) to Brown, to help victims of domestic violence.Electronic musicianJames Ferraroreferenced the police chase in the song \"White Bronco\" on his 2015 albumSkid Row. Hip hop artist Magneto Dayo released a 2013 \"diss track\" song titled \"OJ Simpson\" in which he insults his ex-girlfriend/artistV-Nastyby referencing the",
"referencing the Simpson murder case.RapperJay-Z's song \"The Story of O.J.\" references the trial.Kendrick Lamarincluded Simpson in the music video for \"The Heart Part 5\", usingDeepfaketechnology. The infamous glove also appears on the single's cover.RapperEminemreferences the murder case in his song \"Role Model\", where he claims to have done the murder withMarcus Allen. Video games Duke Nukem 3Dhas several allusions to the Simpson trial, including a television playing the Bronco chase. Exhibits The suit Simpson wore when he was acquitted was donated by Simpson's former agentMike Gilbertto theNewseumin 2010. The Newseum has multiple trial-related items in their collection, including press passes, newspapers and the mute button that Superior Court JudgeLance Itoused when he wanted to shut off the live microphone in court so lawyers could talk privately during the trial. The museum's acquisition of the suit ended the legal battle between Gilbert and Fred Goldman, both of whom claimed the right to the clothing.",
"to the clothing. Cowlings's Bronco is on display at theAlcatraz Eastcrime museum inPigeon Forge, Tennessee. In 2017, Adam Papagan curated a pop-up museum showcasing artifacts andephemerafrom the trial atCoagula Curatorialgallery in Los Angeles. See also References Bibliography Further reading External links",
"1995 World Series The1995 World Serieswas thechampionship seriesofMajor League Baseball's (MLB)1995 season. The 91st edition of the World Series, it was abest-of-seven playoffplayed between theNational League(NL) championAtlanta Bravesand theAmerican League(AL) championCleveland Indians. It was the first World Series after theprevious year's Serieswas canceled due to aplayers' strike. The Braves won in six games to capture their third World Series championship infranchise history(along with1914 in Bostonand1957 in Milwaukee), making them the first team to win in three different cities. This was also Cleveland's first Series appearance in 41 years. The Series was also remarkable in that five of the six games were won by one run, including the clinching sixth game, a 1–0 combined one-hitter byTom GlavineandMark Wohlers. This was the first time since the LCS changed to a best-of-seven format that a winner of a LCS via a sweep has gone on to win the World Series. It has since been repeated in 2019 by",
"repeated in 2019 by theWashington Nationals, and in 2022 by the Houston Astros. This World Series, despite being in an odd-numbered year, opened in the NL home because of the omission of the 1994 World Series. Until 2003, the World Series would begin in the AL home in even-numbered years. Background Atlanta Braves After losing the World Series in 1991 to theMinnesota Twinsand in 1992 to theToronto Blue Jays, the Atlanta Braves were making their third attempt in four years (not counting the 1994 strike) to capture Atlanta's first title. The Braves overcame some early inconsistency to win their division by 21 games. In the playoffs, which featured a new first round, the Braves overwhelmed the third-yearColorado Rockies, then swept theCincinnati Redsin theNLCS(spoiling an all-Ohio World Series in the process; notably, prior to their World Series appearancein 1948, theIndianshad spoiled an all-BostonWorld Series by beating theRed Soxin a one-game playoff). The team relied onclutch hittingand its powerful",
"its powerful pitchingrotation, which was made up of perennialCy Young AwardwinnerGreg Maddux,Tom Glavine,John Smoltz, andSteve Avery. As the NL champion, they opened this World Series at home because there was no 1994 World Series. Cleveland Indians After decades of futility, the city of Cleveland finally had a winner in town. The Indians dominated the American League in 1995, winning 100 of their 144 games (their 100–44 record yielded a very high 0.694 winning percentage, which was, at the time, the highest regular season winning percentage in Major League Baseball since 1954, and is, as of 2015, the 12th highest regular season winning percentage in Major League Baseball history since 1900). Furthermore, in just 144 games, they won the AL Central by 30 games, and they performed the difficult feat of leading their league in both team batting average (0.291) and ERA (3.81). Thanks to their hitting and bullpen, this Indians team became known around the league for their ability to come back from many deficits,",
"from many deficits, often in dramatic fashion; of their 100 regular season victories, 48 were come-back victories, 27 came in their last at-bat, eight came by way of \"walk off\" home runs, and 13 were extra-inning victories (they were 13–0 in extra-inning games). After this dominance of the AL in the regular season, the Indians, in the playoffs, swept theBoston Red Soxin the opening round, then held offKen Griffey Jr.and the red hotSeattle Marinersin theALCS, before heading into the Series against the Braves. The 1995 Cleveland Indians featured a very impressive batting line-up; one that hit for high average, good power, and had good speed. In addition to leading the AL in batting average (0.291), the Indians in 1995 also led the American League in runs scored (840; 5.83 runs per game), home runs (207), and stolen bases (132). Led byspeedstersKenny LoftonandOmar Vizquel, along withCarlos Baergaat the top of the order, the Indians offense was powered in the middle of the order byAlbert Belle,Eddie Murray,Manny",
"Murray,Manny Ramírez, andJim Thome; at the bottom of the line-up could be foundPaul Sorrento(orHerbert Perry) andSandy Alomar Jr.(orTony Peña). Thus, this Indians line-up had six everyday players who finished the season with a batting average of at least 0.300; and, with Herbert Perry and Tony Peña frequently filling in for Paul Sorrento and Sandy Alomar Jr., respectively, it was not uncommon for the Tribe to field a line-up with as many as eight players who finished the season with a batting average of at least 0.300. In terms of power, though the '95 season was shortened, nevertheless, the Indians' line-up still featured two players with at least 30 HR, five players with at least 20 HR, and seven with at least 10 HR. While this line-up was filled with star players (four, in fact, were named to the 1995 AL All-Star team, namely, Lofton, Baerga, Belle, and Ramirez), Albert Belle stood out among all of them in 1995. Powered by a very strong second half of the season, Belle, the Indians' clean-up hitter in",
"clean-up hitter in 1995, finished 1995 with a 0.317 batting average, 126 RBI, and 50 home runs. Further to be noted is the fact that, in hitting 50 HR and 52 doubles in 1995, Belle became the first Major League player to hit at least 50 home runs and at least 50 doubles in the same season (an accomplishment which, again, is even more remarkable considering that he did this in a shortened, 144-game season). The Indians also led the 1995 AL in ERA (3.81). While their starting pitching—led by veteransDennis MartínezandOrel Hershiser—was respectable, it was their bullpen which gave real strength to their pitching staff. Key members of their bullpen staff included veteran right-handerEric Plunk(6–2, 2.67 ERA), veteran left-handerPaul Assenmacher(6–2, 2.82), the young right-handed set-up man,Julián Tavárez(10–1, 2.44 ERA), and right-handed closer,José Mesa(3–0, 1.12 ERA, 46 SV). Mesa, in his first year as closer, posted a league-leading 46 saves in 1995, and set a then-Major League record of 38 consecutive saves",
"consecutive saves without a blown save. Two of the members of the 1995 Indians' pitching staff—Dennis Martínez (the team's ace) and José Mesa—were named to the 1995 AL All-Star team. Series build-up Thus it was that this Series presented an entertaining match-up of baseball's two best teams, each with reasons to be confident going into the Series. The Atlanta Braves were veterans to the post-season in the 1990s, having won both the 1991 and 1992 NL pennants (not to mention the 1993 NL Western Division title, having won 104 games in 1993), and they were the best team in the NL in the 1995 regular season (having posted a very solid 90–54 record). The Cleveland Indians, on the other hand, newcomers to the post-season (having not been in the post-season since 1954), in posting their 100–44 regular season mark, were the team which had posted not only the best regular season record in the AL, but had completed one of the best regular seasons in all of Major League Baseball history. Further, though the Braves'",
"though the Braves' line-up was not very threatening in 1995 (their .250 team batting average was the second lowest in the NL), still, the Braves could be confident with their star-studded pitching staff—especially their starting staff—headed by the likes of Greg Maddux, Tom Glavine, John Smoltz, and Steve Avery. On the other hand, though the Indians could not boast of having as nearly a strong starting rotation as the Braves, nevertheless, they could lay claim to a very solid bullpen and one of the greatest batting line-ups that baseball has ever seen. It might also be noted that, though this was the first time that a team from Cleveland and one from Atlanta faced each other in the World Series, there were years, prior to the Braves being in Atlanta, in which the Braves faced a Cleveland team for baseball's crown. In 1948, the Boston Braves faced the Cleveland Indians (with the Indians winning that Series in six games). Even before that, in 1892, theBoston Beaneaters, a forerunner of the Braves, were also",
"Braves, were also National League Champions in 1892, and faced theCleveland Spidersfor the championship.The Beaneaters beat the Spiders that year to win that baseball championship. The 1995 World Series was also noted for large-scale protests byNative Americanactivists in response to thecontroversysurrounding both clubs' usage of Native American-themed nicknames, logos and mascots, as well as the use of thetomahawk chopby Braves fans. Broadcasting NBCwas originally scheduled to televise the entire World Series; however, due to the cancellation of the 1994 World Series (which had been slated forABC, who last televised a World Series in1989), coverage ended up being split between NBC and ABC. Game 5 would be the last Major League Baseball game to be telecast by ABC (had there been a Game 7, ABC would have televised it) for 25 years. ABC was scheduled to televise up to four wild card gamesin the2020 MLB Postseason. This was the only World Series to be produced underThe Baseball Networkumbrella (arevenue",
"(arevenue sharingjoint venturebetween Major League Baseball, ABC and NBC). In July 1995, NBC and ABC announced that they would be pulling out of what was supposed to be a six-year-long venture. NBC would next cover the1997(NBC's first entirely since1988) and1999 World Seriesover the course of a five-year-long contract, in whichFoxwould cover the World Series in even numbered years (1996,1998and2000). Also during the World Series in 1995, NBC'sHannah Stormnot only became the first woman to serve as solo pre-game host of a World Series (CBS'Andrea Joyceco-hosted withPat O'Brienin1993) but also became the first woman to preside over aWorld Series Trophypresentation.Storm was infamously the recipient of a profane outburst fromAlbert Bellein his team's dugout. Later, Belle was unrepentant: \"TheIndianswanted me to issue a statement of regret when the fine was announced, but I told them to take it out. I apologize for nothing.\"John Saundersserved as pre-game host for ABC's coverage. Serving asfield reportersfor the",
"reportersfor the series wereLesley Visser(ABC) andJim Gray(NBC). The six games averaged a nationalNielsen ratingof 19.5 and a share of 33. Through 2016, this remains the highest-rated World Series of the post-strike era. On the radio side,CBSwas the national broadcaster withVin ScullyandJeff Torborgon the call. Locally,WKNRaired the series in Cleveland withHerb ScoreandTom Hamiltonannouncing, whileWSBbroadcast the series in Atlanta withSkip Caray,Pete Van Wieren,Don Sutton, andJoe Simpsonannouncing. International Summary NLAtlanta Braves(4) vs. ALCleveland Indians(2) Matchups Game 1 Atlanta aceGreg Madduxpitched a two-hit complete game victory in his first World Series appearance (and just the 15th two-hitter in Series history). The Indians scored in the first inning whenKenny Loftonreached on an error, stole second and third, and scored on an RBI groundout byCarlos Baerga. In the bottom of the second,Fred McGrifflaunched atape measure home runon his first ever World Series pitch off Cleveland starterOrel",
"starterOrel Hershiserto even the score at 1–1. Both starters settled down until the seventh, when Hershiser and the Cleveland bullpen walked the first three Braves to open the inning. The Braves would take a 3–1 lead afterLuis Poloniahit into a run-scoring force play andRafael Belliardbunted a perfectsuicide squeeze. Lofton scored the Indians another run in the ninth to cut the Braves lead to a single run, (both Cleveland runs resulted from errors and were thus, unearned) but Baerga lifted a pop fly that third basemanChipper Jonesgrabbed near the visiting dugout to end the game. Game 2 Atlanta No. 2 starterTom Glavinegot the win in Game 2, aided by a big sixth-inning home run by catcherJavy López, who also pickedManny Ramirezoff first base at a crucial moment in the eighth inning to erase a potential game-tying baserunner. The Indians had taken an early 2–0 lead on anEddie Murraytwo-run home run afterAlbert Bellegot on base, but the Braves evened the score in the third with a sac fly byChipper Jonesand an",
"Jonesand an RBI single by David Justice. Lopez launched his home run in the sixth inning from Cleveland starterDennis Martínez. The Atlanta bullpen held off the Indians in the later innings despite allowing a run in the seventh, andMark Wohlersearned the save, giving the Braves a 2–0 series lead. Game 3 With the World Series moving to smaller, raucous Jacobs Field in Cleveland, the Indians got their first win. The Indians offense got back on track off Atlanta starterJohn Smoltz. With the Tribe already down 1–0 in the bottom of the first,Kenny Loftonsingled to center and scored onOmar Vizquel's triple into the right field corner. Omar then scored the go-ahead run whenCarlos Baergagrounded out. In the third, the Tribe were back at it again when Lofton opened the inning by ripping a double into the right-center field gap. Omar then got a bunt single and Baerga singled to left to drive in Lofton.Albert Bellethen rolled a grounder up the middle to score Vizquel to make it 4–1. This was Smoltz's only early exit",
"only early exit and only poor start in eight career World Series appearances. The Braves got a boost, however, when relieverBrad Clontzinduced a double play groundout byManny Ramírezto escape further damage. Home runs byFred McGriffandRyan Kleskobrought the Braves closer at 4–3. Cleveland added a run in the seventh on another RBI hit by Baerga scoring Lofton (who would reach base in all six of his plate appearances). With a 5–3 lead going into the eighth, trouble brewed for Cleveland whenCharles Nagyand the bullpen gave up the lead.Marquis Grissomled off with a double off the wall. Polonia singled through the right side to drive in Grissom, sending Nagy to the showers.Chipper Joneswalked, McGriff hit a deep fly moving the runners up a base, andDavid Justicereached when Baerga booted his groundball, subsequently allowing Polonia to score the tying run. The inning was capped off byMike Devereaux's RBI single giving the Braves a 6–5 lead. The Braves couldn't hold on to their slim lead either asSandy Alomar",
"asSandy Alomar Jr.laced a game-tying double inside the line at first in the bottom of the eighth. The two closers,Mark WohlersandJosé Mesathen matched zeros for the next two innings. In the 11th, the Braves went toAlejandro Peña. Baerga immediately smashed a double and after an intentional walk to Belle, veteranEddie Murraysingled to center, scoring pinch runnerÁlvaro Espinozaand cutting Atlanta's World Series lead in half. A record 18 pitchers were used between the Braves and Indians in Games 2 and 3. Game 4 Braves managerBobby Coxcontroversially decided to start left-handed pitcherSteve Averyin the critical Game 4 instead of coming back withGreg Maddux. Despite Avery's uncharacteristically poor regular season showing (7-13, 4.67 ERA), Cox felt he deserved a chance after having won the NLCS clincher against Cincinnati throwing six shutout innings. Young Braves outfielderRyan Kleskohit a sixth-inning home run to give Atlanta the lead. This would be the last time a player would hit home runs in back-to-back",
"in back-to-back World Series games until2016. Avery again delivered six effective innings, only giving up a sixth-inning home run to Cleveland sluggerAlbert Belle. A controversial play happened whenEddie Murrayhit a pitch over third base; left-field umpire Jim McKean called it foul while third-base umpire Harry Wendelstedt looked at Jim McKean to make the call. Murray eventually walked and reached second on a balk by Avery, but Herbert Perry struck out to end the inning. The Braves promptly broke the tie with a three-run seventh, withDavid Justicebatting in two of the runs with a single. An RBI double byJavy Lópezgave the Braves an insurance run, making it 5–1. RelieverPedro Borbón Jr.saved the 5–2 win afterMark Wohlersran into trouble, and the Braves were one victory away from a title. Game 5 It seemed the perfect situation for Atlanta with Greg Maddux pitching Game 5 with a chance to clinch the title, but Albert Belle slugged a two-run homer in the first inning, and the Braves lineup was held in check by",
"held in check by Cleveland veteran Orel Hershiser who went eight innings, only surrendering two runs.Luis Poloniahit a solo home run into the fourth and Atlanta actually tied the game at 2–2 with a run-scoring infield single byMarquis Grissomin the fifth, but Cleveland got two more runs from Maddux making it 4–2.Jim Thomehit an insurance home run in the eighth, which proved necessary as Ryan Klesko homered in his third consecutive game, reducing the gap to 5–4. Klesko became the first person ever to homer in three consecutive World Series road games, by belting homers in Games 3, 4, and 5. The win sent the Series back to Atlanta. As previously mentioned, this game was the most recent baseball game thatABCtelevised until the2020postseason. Game 6 Controversy struck on the morning of Game 6 when Atlanta newspapers printed stories that right fielder David Justice had ripped the city's fans for not matching their motivation of past seasons. Justice, who had been struggling in the postseason, was vilified before",
"was vilified before the game, but when his sixth-inning home run off a 1–1 pitch byJim Poolebroke a scoreless tie, he became a hero.Tom Glavinepitched eight innings of one-hit ball (and five innings of no hit ball) and allowed just three walks (two toAlbert Belle, who was caught stealing second in the second inning to keep a runner from advancing into scoring position) to help earn him the Series MVP. Only one Indian advanced into scoring position in the entire game whenKenny Loftonstole second, but no one could get him in. Cleveland starterDennis Martínezlasted just 42⁄3innings due to allowing four hits and five walks, but no Braves scored. After Justice's home run, the Braves managed just one hit. The lone hit for the Indians was a bloop-single by catcherTony Peñain the sixth, breaking up Glavine's bid to become the first pitcher sinceDon Larsen in 1956to throw a no-hitter in the World Series. Closer Mark Wohlers pitched the ninth inning, preserving the 1–0 shutout and Atlanta's coveted title whenCarlos",
"title whenCarlos Baerga's fly ball landed in center fielder Marquis Grissom's glove, giving the Braves their first title in Atlanta and their first since1957when they were still in Milwaukee. Carlos Baerga was responsible for making the last out in three of the four Cleveland losses; Games 1, 2 and 6. To date, this is the last 1–0 World Series game won by the home team. Moments after the final out was recorded, a fan in the stands was shown holding a placard that simply said \"...Finally!\" due to the Atlanta Braves finally winning the World Series on their third try. In 1995, the Cleveland Indians batted .291 as a team, led the league in runs scored, hits, and stolen bases, and had eight .300 hitters in their starting lineup. However, the Tribe was held to a .179 batting average in the World Series. Then-Executive Committee ChairmanBud Seligpresided over theCommissioner's Trophypresentation for the first time. In the previous two World Series (1992and1993),American LeaguepresidentDr. Bobby Brownpresided over",
"Brownpresided over the trophy presentation. Selig would becomeCommissioner of Baseballin 1998. Composite line score 1995 World Series(4–2):Atlanta Braves(N.L.)overCleveland Indians(A.L.) Aftermath The 1995 Braves were in the midst of a streak of 14 consecutive division titles from1991through2005(excluding the1994season, which ended early due to a players strike), however this was the only World Series the Braves would win. Atlanta returned to the Seriesthe following year, but lost to theNew York Yankeesin six games. The Braves of this era made one more trip to the Series in1999, but lost to theYankeesin a four-game sweep. This was Atlanta's first championship in any of thefour major professional sports, and the last for the city and for the Braves until2021. The Indians would go on to win the AL Central five of the following six years and return to the World Series in1997, where they lost to theFlorida Marlinsin seven games. The core of the 1990s Indians teams would break up in the early 2000s.Albert",
"early 2000s.Albert Bellesigned with theChicago White Soxin free agency in the winter of 1996, whileKenny Loftonwas traded to the Braves before the start of the 1997 season (he returned in 1998 to play three years with the team only to leave and return again for his final season in 2007); after the turn of the century,Manny Ramirezjoined theBoston Red Soxin2001andJim Thomejoined thePhiladelphia Philliesin2003. Quotes Left center field,Grissomon the run. The team of the 90s has its world championship. See also Notes External links"
] |
What is the percentage increase of total deaths of Japanese during World War One versus World War Two? Use the largest number count found to calculate as these numbers are often ranges. | 66409.3% increase | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I_casualties | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I_casualties', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I_casualties",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties"
] | [
"World War I casualties The total number ofmilitaryandcivilian casualtiesinWorld War Iwas about 40 million: estimates range from around 15 to 22 million deathsand about 23 million wounded military personnel, ranking it among the deadliest conflicts in human history. The total number of deaths includes from 9 to 11 millionmilitary personnel. Theciviliandeath toll was about 6 to 13 million.TheTriple Entente(also known as theAllies) lost about 6 million military personnel while theCentral Powerslost about 4 million. At least 2 million died from diseases and 6 million went missing, presumed dead. This article lists the casualties of the belligerent powers based on official published sources. About two-thirds of military deaths in World War I were in battle, unlike the conflicts that took place in the 19th century when the majority of deaths were due to disease. Nevertheless, disease, including the1918 flu pandemicand deaths while held asprisoners of war, still caused about one third of total military deaths for all belligerents. Classification of casualty statistics Casualty statistics for World War I vary to a great extent; estimates of total deaths range from 9 million to over 15 million.Military casualties reported in official sources list deaths due to all causes, including an estimated 7 to 8 million combat related deaths (killed or died of wounds) and another two to three million military deaths caused by accidents, disease and deaths whileprisoners of war. Official government reports listing casualty statistics were published by the United States and Great Britain.Thesesecondary sourcespublished during the 1920s, are the source of the statistics in reference works listing casualties in World War I.This article summarizes the casualty statistics published in the official government reports of the United States and Great Britain as well as France, Italy, Belgium, Germany, Austria and Russia. More recently the research of theCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) has revised the military casualty statistics of the UK and its allies; they include in their listing of military war dead personnel outside of combat theaters and civilians recruited from Africa, the Middle East andChinawho provided logistical and service support in combat theaters.The casualties of these support personnel recruited outside of Europe were previously not included with British war dead, however the casualties of theLabour Corpsrecruited from the British Isles were included in the rolls of British war dead published in 1921.The methodology used by each nation to record and classify casualties was not uniform, a general caveat regarding casualty figures is that they cannot be considered comparable in all cases.First World War civilian deaths are \"hazardous to estimate\" according to Micheal Clodfelter who maintains that \"the generally accepted figure ofnoncombatantdeaths is 6.5 million.\" Casualties in the borders of 1914–1918 2,101,077 The source of population data is: Haythornthwaite, Philip J.,The World War One Source Bookpp. 382–383 Casualties by post-war (1924) borders The war involved multi-ethnic empires such as Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. Many ethnic groups in these territories were conscripted for military service. The casualties listed by modern borders are also included in the above table of figures for the countries that existed in 1914. The casualty figures by 1924 post war borders are rough estimates by Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, the sources of his figures were published in the Soviet era and in post-Soviet Russia.According to the 1914–1918 Online Encyclopedia \"In addition to losses suffered by African military personnel and the laborers supporting their operations, very large, but unknown numbers of African civilians perished during the war.\" They made an estimate of civilian losses in Africa of 750,000 based on the study by the Vadim Erlikman. They noted that Erlikman's figures are based on the work of the Russian demographer Boris Urlanis, they noted that these estimates were \"imprecise\" and \"could be used to provide a frame of reference for further inquiry\".TheOxford History of World War Onenotes that \"In east and central Africa the harshness of the war resulted in acute shortages of food with famine in some areas, a weakening of populations, and epidemic diseases which killed hundreds of thousands of people and also cattle.\" The following estimates of Austrian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 175,000: including military losses 120,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 30,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 25,000. The following estimates of Belarusian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 130,000: including military losses 70,000 with the Russian forces. Civilian dead were 60,000. The following estimates of Ukrainian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 590,000: including military losses 450,000,(Erlikman did not break out military losses between Austro-Hungarian and Russian armed forces). Civilian dead were 140,000. TheBelgian Congowas part of the Kingdom of Belgium during the war. A Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia estimated a total of 155,000 deaths in the Belgian Congo during the war. Czechoslovakia was part of Austro-Hungary during the war. The estimates of Czechoslovak deaths within 1991 borders were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 185,000: including military losses 110,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 45,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 30,000.TheCzechoslovak Legionsfought with the armies of the Allies during the war. Estonia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 100,000 Estonians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed. From 1809 Finland was an autonomousGrand Duchyin theRussian Empireuntil the end of 1917. Finland's autonomous status meant that Finns were exempt from conscription into the Russian Army. Approximately 800 Finns voluntarily served during World War I.According to data regarding Finnish war casualties, 317 Finns were killed between 1914 and 1917. The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount up to 750,000. Total: 82,000 The following estimates of Georgian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Georgia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 150,000 Georgians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed. The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount up to 750,000. Total: 48,000 The following estimates of Hungarian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 385,000: including military losses 270,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 70,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 45,000. Ireland was a part of the United Kingdom during World War I. Five-sixths of the island left to form theIrish Free State, now theRepublic of Ireland, in 1922. A total of 206,000 Irishmen served in the British forces during the war.The number of Irish deaths in the British Army recorded by the registrar general was 27,405.A significant number of these casualties were from what, in 1920, becameNorthern Ireland. While 49,400 soldiers died serving in Irish divisions (the 10th, 16th and36th), although not all of the men serving in these divisions were natives of Ireland and many Irish who died in non-Irish regiments are not listed.For example, 29% of the casualties in the 16th Division were not natives of Ireland.Neither does it include Irish emigrants in Britain who enlisted there and are not categorised as Irish. Australia lists 4,731 of its first World War soldiers as having been born in Ireland and more than 19,000 Irish-born soldiers served in the Canadian Corps. According to research done by John Horne ofTrinity College Dublin, there are at least 30,986 soldiers who were born in Ireland that died; however, that's considered a \"conservative\" estimate and is very likely to raise. The losses ofPortuguese Mozambiquewere estimated by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.52,000 Poland was territory of Germany, Austria-Hungary and partially annexed by Russia, from 1795 to 1918. By late 1915, Germany had complete control over modern-day Poland. A 2005 Polish study estimated 3,376,800 Poles were conscripted into the armed forces of these countries during World War I, an additional 300,000 were conscripted for forced labor by the Germans. The Russians and Austrians forcibly resettled 1.6 to 1.8 million persons from the war zone in Poland.According to Micheal Clodfelter, Polish war dead were 1,080,000, whilst 200,000 Polish civilians were killed in the fighting on theEastern Front; 870,000 men served in the German, Austrian and Russian armies.Another estimate made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, put total Polish war dead at 640,000, including military losses of 270,000 Poles conscripted, civilian losses of 120,000 due to military operations and 250,000 caused by famine and disease.The ethnic PolishBlue Armyserved with the French Army. The ethnicPolish Legionsfought as part of the Austro-Hungarian Army on the Eastern Front. The territory ofTransylvaniawas part of Austria-Hungary during World War I. The following estimates of Romanian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 748,000, including military losses of 220,000 with the Romanian forces, 150,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 48,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 200,000, killed in military operations 120,000 and 10,000 dead in Austrian prisons. Britain recruited Indian, Chinese, nativeSouth African, Egyptian and other overseas labour to provide logistical support in the combat theatres.Included with British casualties in East Africa are the deaths of 44,911 recruited labourers.The CWGC reports that nearly 2,000 workers from the Chinese Labour Corps are buried with British war dead in France. The following estimates ofBritish Empirecolonial military deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia. Total: 18,000 The following estimates are for Yugoslavia within the 1991 borders. Slovenia,Croatia,BosniaandVojvodina(Now part of Serbia) were part of Austria-Hungary duringWorld War I.Serbia, which includedMacedonia, andMontenegrowas an independent nation. The Yugoslav historianVladimir Dedijerput the total losses of the Yugoslav lands at 1.9 million, of which 43% were from Serbia.The following estimates of Yugoslav deaths, within 1991 borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 996,000 including military losses, 260,000 with the Serbian forces, 80,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces, 13,000 with Montenegrin forces and POW deaths in captivity of 93,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 400,000, killed in military operations: 120,000 and 30,000 dead in Austrian prisons or executed. During World War I, the Nepalese army was expanded and six new regiments, totaling more than 20,000 troops—all volunteers—were sent to India, most of them to the North-West Frontier Province, to release British and Indian troops for service overseas. Simultaneously, the Nepalese government agreed to maintain recruitment at a level that would sustain the existing British Gurkha units and allow the establishment of additional ones. The battalions were increased to thirty-three with the addition of 55,000 new recruits and Gurkha units were placed at the disposal of the British high command for service on all fronts. Many volunteers were assigned to non-combat units, such as the Army Bearer Corps and the labour battalions but they also were in combat in France, Turkey, Palestine and Mesopotamia. The Rana prime ministers urged Nepalese males to fight in the war. Of the more than 200,000 Nepalese who served in the British army, there were some 20,000 Gurkha casualties included above with theBritish Indian Army. Footnotes ^aEast and Central Africa ^bAustralia ^cBelgium ^dCanada ^eFrance ^fGreece ^gIndia (British) ^hItaly ^iJapan ^kMontenegro ^lNew Zealand ^mNewfoundland ^nPortugal ^oRomania ^pRussian Empire ^qSerbia ^rSouth Africa ^sUnited Kingdom ^tUnited States ^uAustria-Hungary ^vBulgaria ^wGerman Empire ^xOttoman Empire ^yDenmark ^jLuxembourg ^zNorway ^azQajar Persia ^bzSweden ^czAlbania ^dzLiechtenstein Sources The source of population data is: See also References Further reading Other languages External links",
"World War II casualties World War IIwas thedeadliest military conflict in history. An estimated total of 70–85 million people perished, or about 3% of the estimated global population of 2.3 billion in 1940.Deaths directly caused by the war (including military and civilian fatalities) are estimated at 50–56 million, with an additional estimated 19–28 million deaths from war-related disease and famine.Civiliandeaths totaled 50–55 million.Military deathsfrom all causes totaled 21–25 million, including deaths in captivity of about 5 millionprisoners of war. More than half of the total number of casualties are accounted for by the dead of theRepublic of Chinaand of theSoviet Union. The following tables give a detailed country-by-country count of human losses. Statistics on the number of military wounded are included whenever available. Recent historical scholarship has shed new light on the topic of Second World Warcasualties. Research in Russia since thecollapse of the Soviet Unionhas caused a revision of estimates of Soviet World War II fatalities.According to Russian government figures, USSR losses within postwar borders now stand at 26.6 million,including 8 to 9 million due to famine and disease.In August 2009 the PolishInstitute of National Remembrance(IPN) researchers estimated Poland's dead at between 5.6 and 5.8 million.HistorianRüdiger Overmansof theMilitary History Research Office (Germany)published a study in 2000 estimating the German military dead and missing at 5.3 million, including 900,000 men conscripted from outside of Germany's 1937 borders, inAustria, and in east-centralEurope.TheRed Armyclaimed responsibility for the majority ofWehrmachtcasualties during World War II.ThePeople's Republic of Chinaputs its war dead at 20 million,while the Japanese government puts its casualties due to the war at 3.1 million.An estimated 7–10 million people died in theDutch,British,FrenchandUScolonies inSouthandSoutheast Asia, mostly from war-related famine. Classification of casualties Compiling or estimating the numbers ofdeaths and woundedcaused during wars and other violent conflicts is acontroversial subject. Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed and wounded during World War II.The authors of theOxford Companion to World War IImaintain that \"casualty statistics are notoriously unreliable\".The table below gives data on the number of dead and military wounded for each country, along with population information to show the relative impact of losses. When scholarly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers that the death toll is disputed. Since casualty statistics are sometimes disputed the footnotes to this article present the different estimates by official governmental sources as well as historians. Military figures includebattle deaths(KIA) andpersonnel missing in action(MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prisoners of war in captivity.Civilian casualtiesinclude deaths caused bystrategic bombing,Holocaust victims,German war crimes,Japanese war crimes,population transfers in the Soviet Union,Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war-related famine and disease. The sources for the casualties of the individual countries do not use the same methods, and civilian deaths due to starvation and disease make up a large proportion of the civilian deaths in China and the Soviet Union. The losses listed here are actual deaths; hypothetical losses due to a decline in births are not included with the total dead. The distinction between military and civilian casualties caused directly by warfare andcollateral damageis not always clear-cut. For states that suffered huge losses such as the Soviet Union, China, Poland, Germany, and Yugoslavia, sources can give only thetotal estimated population losscaused by the war and a rough estimate of the breakdown of deaths caused by military activity,crimes against humanityand war-related famine. The casualties listed here include 19 to 25 million war-related famine deaths in the USSR, China, Indonesia,Vietnam, the Philippines, andIndiathat are often omitted from other compilations of World War II casualties. Thefootnotesgive a detailed breakdown of the casualties and their sources, including data on the number of wounded where reliable sources are available. Human losses by country Total deaths by country Soviet Union The estimated breakdown for each Soviet republic of total war dead^AY4 The source of the figures isVadim Erlikman.Erlikman, a Russian historian, notes that these figures are his estimates. Nazi Germany United States Estimated breakdown for each US state and territory of total war dead This table displays the number of people who are believed to have died in the United States by state and territory.This list includes those who died at sea. Japanese Empire 1939 deaths Allied attacks Japanese persecution deaths % of 1939 population Holocaust deaths Included in the figures of total war dead for each country are victims of the Holocaust. Jewish deaths The Holocaustis the term generally used to describe thegenocideof approximately six million EuropeanJewsduring World War II.Martin Gilbertestimates 5.7 million (78%) of the 7.3 million Jews in German-occupied Europe were Holocaust victims.Estimates of Holocaust deaths range between 4.9 and 5.9 million Jews. The figures for the pre-war Jewish population and deaths in the table below are fromThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust.The low, high and average percentage figures for deaths of the pre-war population have been added. Non-Jews persecuted and killed by Nazi and Nazi-affiliated forces Some scholars maintain that the definition of the Holocaust should also include theother victims persecuted and killed by the Nazis. The following figures are fromThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, the authors maintain that \"statistics on Gypsy losses are especially unreliable and controversial. These figures (cited below) are based on necessarily rough estimates\". German war crimes During World War II, the German military helped fulfill Nazism's racial, political, and territorial ambitions. Long after the war, a myth persisted claiming the German military (or Wehrmacht) was not involved in the Holocaust and other crimes associated with Nazi genocidal policy. This belief is untrue. The German military participated in many aspects of the Holocaust: in supporting Hitler, in the use of forced labor, and in the mass murder of Jews and other groups targeted by the Nazis. The military's complicity extended not only to the generals and upper leadership but also to the rank and file. In addition, the war and genocidal policy were inextricably linked. The German army (or Heer) was the most complicit as a result of being on the ground in Germany's eastern campaigns, but all branches participated. —United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Nazi Germanyordered, organized and condoned a substantial number of war crimes in World War II. The most notable of these isthe Holocaustin which millions ofJews,Poles, andRomaniwere systematically murdered or died from abuse and mistreatment. Millions also died as a result of other German actions. While theNazi Party's ownSSforces (in particular theSS-Totenkopfverbände,EinsatzgruppenandWaffen-SS) of Nazi Germany was the organization most responsible for the genocidal killing of the Holocaust, the regular armed forces represented by theWehrmachtcommitted war crimes of their own, particularly on theEastern Frontin thewar against the Soviet Union. Japanese war crimes Included with total war dead are victims of Japanese war crimes. R. J. Rummel R. J. Rummelestimates the civilian victims of Japanesedemocideat 5,964,000. Detailed by country: Rummel estimates POW deaths in Japanese custody at 539,000. Detailed by country: Werner Gruhl Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian deaths at 20,365,000. Gruhl estimates POW deaths in Japanese captivity at 331,584. Out of 60,000 Indian Army POWs taken at the Fall of Singapore, 11,000 died in captivity.There were 14,657 deaths among the total 130,895western civilians interned by the Japanesedue to famine and disease. Oppression in the Soviet Union The total war dead in the USSR includes about 1 millionvictims ofStalin's regime. The number of deaths in theGulag labor campsincreased as a result of wartime overcrowding and food shortages.The Stalin regime deported the entire populations of ethnic minorities considered to be potentially disloyal.Since 1990 Russian scholars have been given access to the Soviet-era archives and have published data on the numbers of people executed and those who died in Gulag labor camps and prisons.The Russian scholarViktor Zemskovputs the death toll from 1941 to 1945 at about 1 million based on data from the Soviet archives.The Soviet-era archive figures on the Gulag labor camps has been the subject of a vigorous academic debate outside Russia since their publication in 1991.J. Arch GettyandStephen G. Wheatcroftmaintain that Soviet-era figures more accurately detail the victims of the Gulag labor camp system in the Stalin era.Robert ConquestandSteven Rosefieldehave disputed the accuracy of the data from the Soviet archives, maintaining that the demographic data and testimonials by survivors of the Gulag labor camps indicate a higher death toll.Rosefielde posits that the release of the Soviet Archive figures is disinformation generated by the modernKGB.Rosefielde maintains that the data from the Soviet archives is incomplete; for example, he pointed out that the figures do not include the 22,000 victims of theKatyn massacre.Rosefielde's demographic analysis puts the number of excess deaths due to Soviet repression at 2,183,000 in 1939–40 and 5,458,000 from 1941 to 1945.Michael Haynes and Rumy Husun accept the figures from the Soviet archives as being an accurate tally of Stalin's victims, they maintain that the demographic data depicts an underdeveloped Soviet economy and the losses in World War Two rather than indicating a higher death toll in the Gulag labor camps. In August 2009 the PolishInstitute of National Remembrance(IPN) researchers estimated 150,000 Polish citizens were killed due to Soviet repression. Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation.Andrzej Paczkowskiputs the number of Polish deaths at 90,000–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets.In 2005Tadeusz Piotrowskiestimated the death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000. The Estonian State Commission for the Examination of Repressive Policies Carried out During the Occupations put civilian deaths due to theSoviet occupationin 1940–1941 at 33,900 including (7,800 deaths) of arrested people, (6,000) deportee deaths, (5,000) evacuee deaths, (1,100) people gone missing and (14,000) conscripted for forced labor. After the reoccupation by the USSR, 5,000 Estonians died in Soviet prisons during 1944–45. The following is a summary of the data from the Soviet archives:Reported deaths for the years 1939–1945 1,187,783, including: judicial executions 46,350; deaths in Gulag labor camps 718,804; deaths in labor colonies and prisons 422,629. Deported tospecial settlements: (figures are for deportations to Special Settlements only, not including those executed, sent to Gulag labor camps or conscripted into the Soviet Army. Nor do the figures include additional deportations after the war).Deported from annexed territories 1940–41 380,000 to 390,000 persons, including: Poland 309–312,000; Lithuania 17,500; Latvia 17,000; Estonia 6,000; Moldova 22,842.In August 1941, 243,106 Poles living in the Special Settlements were amnestied and released by the Soviets.Deported during the War 1941–1945 about 2.3 million persons of Soviet ethnic minorities including:Soviet Germans1,209,000; Finns 9,000;Karachays69,000;Kalmyks92,000;ChechensandIngush479,000;Balkars37,000;Crimean Tatars191,014;Meskhetian Turks91,000; Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians from Crimea 42,000; UkrainianOUNmembers 100,000; Poles 30,000.A total of 2,230,500persons were living in the settlements in October 1945 and 309,100 deaths were reported in special settlements for the years 1941–1948. Russian sources list Axisprisoner of wardeaths of 580,589 in Soviet captivity based on data in the Soviet archives (Germany 381,067; Hungary 54,755; Romania 54,612; Italy 27,683; Finland 403, and Japan 62,069).However, some western scholars estimate the total at between 1.7 and 2.3 million. Military casualties by branch of service Commonwealth military casualties TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) Annual Report 2014–2015is the source of the military dead for theBritish Empire. The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The statistics tabulated by the CWGC are representative of the number of names commemorated for all servicemen/women of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth and former UK Dependencies, whose death was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and civilian organizations are also accorded war grave status if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For the purposes of CWGC the dates of inclusion for Commonwealth War Dead are 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947. See also Footnotes ^AAlbania ^BAustralia ^CAustria ^DBelgium ^EBrazil ^FBulgaria ^GBurma ^HCanada ^IChinaSources for total Chinese war dead are divergent and range from 10 to 20 million as detailed below. ^JCuba ^KCzechoslovakia ^LDenmark ^MDutch East Indies ^MAEgypt ^NEstonia ^OEthiopia ^PFinland ^QFrance ^RFrench Indochina ^SGermanyThe following notes summarize German casualties, the details are presented inGerman casualties in World War II. German population Total German war dead German military casualties Civilian Casualties Civilian casualties in air raids 1- The summary report of September 30, 1945 put total casualties for the entire period of the war at 305,000 killed and 780,000 wounded.2- The sectionEffects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economyof October 31, 1945 put the losses at 375,000 killed and 625,000 wounded.3- The sectionThe Effect of Bombing on Health and Medical Care in Germanyof January 1947 made a preliminary calculated estimate of air raid dead at 422,000. Regarding overall losses, they concluded that \"It was further estimated that an additional number, approximately 25% of known deaths in 1944–45, were still unrecovered and unrecorded. With an addition of this estimate of 1944–45 unrecorded deaths, the final estimation gave in round numbers a half a million German civilians killed by Allied aerial attacks.\" Civilians killed in 1945 military campaign Deaths due to Nazi political, racial and religious persecution Expulsion and flight of ethnic GermansThe following notes summarize German expulsion casualties, the details are presented in theflight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950), theforced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union' and theDemographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans. The figures for these losses are currently disputed, estimates of the total deaths range from 500,000 to 2,000,000. The death toll attributable to the flight and expulsions was estimated at 2.2 million by the West German government in 1958.German government reports which were released to the public in 1987 and 1989 have caused some historians in Germany to put the actual total at 500,000 to 600,000.English language sources put the death toll at 2 to 3 million based on the West German government statistical analysis of the 1950s. German government figures of 2.0 to 2.5 million civilian deaths due to expulsions have been disputed by scholars since the publication of the results of the German church search service survey and the report by theGerman Federal Archive. Post war increase in natural deaths ^TGreece ^TAGuam ^UHungary ^VIceland ^WIndia Bengal famine of 1943 ^YIraq ^ZIreland ^AAItaly Military war deadConfirmed deadwere 159,957 (92,767 pre-armistice, 67,090 post armistice)Missing and presumed dead(including POWs)were 131,419 (111,579 pre-armistice, 19,840 post armistice)Losses by branch of service: Army 201,405; Navy 22,034; Air Force 9,096; Colonial Forces 354;Chaplains91;Fascistmilitia10,066;Paramilitary3,252; not indicated 45,078.Military Losses by theatre of war: Italy 74,725 (37,573 post armistice); France 2,060 (1,039 post armistice);Germany 25,430 (24,020 post armistice); Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia 49,459 (10,090 post armistice);USSR 82,079 (3,522 post armistice); Africa 22,341 (1,565 post armistice), at sea 28,438 (5,526 post armistice);other and unknown 6,844 (3,695 post armistice). ^ABJapan Military dead Key:Location, Army dead,Navy dead,(Total dead)Japan Proper: 58,100,45,800,(103,900)Bonin Islands: 2,700,12,500,(15,200)Okinawa: 67,900,21,500,(89,400)Formosa (Taiwan): 28,500,10,600,(39,100)Korea: 19,600,6,900,(26,500)Sakhalin, the Aleutian, and Kuril Islands: 8,200,3,200,(11,400)Manchuria: 45,900,800,(46,700)China (inc. Hong Kong): 435,600,20,100,(455,700)Siberia: 52,300,400,(52,700)Central Pacific: 95,800,151,400,(247,200)Philippines: 377,500,121,100,(498,600)French Indochina: 7,900,4,500,(12,400)Thailand: 6,900,100,(7,000)Burma (inc. India): 163,000,1,500,(164,500)Malaya & Singapore: 8,500,2,900,(11,400)Andaman & Nicobar Islands: 900,1,500,(2,400)Sumatra: 2,700,500,(3,200)Java: 2,700,3,800,(6,500)Lesser Sundas: 51,800,1,200,(53,000)Borneo: 11,300,6,700,(18,000)Celebes: 1,500,4,000,(5,500)Moluccas: 2,600,1,800,(4,400)New Guinea: 112,400,15,200,(127,600)Bismarck Archipelago: 19,700,10,800,(30,500)Solomon Islands: 63,200,25,000,(88,200)Total: 1,647,200,473,800,(2,121,000) Overall, perhaps two thirds of all Japanese military dead came not from combat, but from starvation and disease.In some cases this figure was potentially even higher, up to 80% in the Philippinesand a staggering 97% in New Guinea. ArmyChina after Pearl Harbor202,958 killed and 88,920 wounded.vs. United States485,717 killed and 34,679 wounded.vs. U.K. and Netherlands208,026 killed and 139,225 wounded.vs. Australia199,511 killed and 15,000 wounded.French Indochina2,803 killed and 6,000 wounded.Manchuria & USSR7,483 killed and 4,641 wounded.other overseas23,388 killed and 0 wounded.Japan proper10,543 killed and 6,782 wounded.Army total1,140,429 killed and 295,247 wounded.NavySailors300,386 killed and 12,275 wounded and missing.Civilians in Navy service114,493 killed and 1,880 wounded and missing.Navy total414,879 killed and 14,155 wounded and missing. Civilian Dead 1-Summary Report (July 1946)Total civilian casualties in Japan, as a result of 9 months of air attack, including those from the atomic bombs, were approximately 806,000. Of these, approximately 330,000 were fatalities. 2-United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Medical Division (1947)The bombing of Japan killed 333,000 civilians and injured 473,000. Of this total 120,000 died and 160,000 were injured in the atomic bombings, leaving 213,000 dead and 313,000 injured by conventional bombing. 3-The effects of air attack on Japanese urban economy. Summary report (1947)Estimated that 252,769 Japanese were killed and 298,650 injured in the air war. 4-The Effects of strategic bombing on Japanese moraleBased on a survey of Japanese households the death toll was put at 900,000 dead and 1.3 million injured, the SBS noted that this figure was subject to a maximum sampling error of 30%. 5-Strategic Bombing Survey The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and NagasakiThe most striking result of the atomic bombs was the great number of casualties. The exact number of dead and injured will never be known because of the confusion after the explosions. Persons unaccounted for might have been burned beyond recognition in the falling buildings, disposed of in one of the mass cremations of the first week of recovery, or driven out of the city to die or recover without any record remaining. No sure count of even the prepaid populations existed. Because of the decline in activity in the two port cities, the constant threat of incendiary raids, and the formal evacuation programs of the Government, an unknown number of the inhabitants had either drifter away from the cities or been removed according to plan. In this uncertain situation, estimates of casualties have generally ranged between 100,000 and 180,000 for Hiroshima, and between 50,000 and 100,000 for Nagasaki. The Survey believes the dead at Hiroshima to have been between 70,000 and 80,000, with an equal number injured; at Nagasaki over 35,000 dead and somewhat more than that injured seems the most plausible estimate. ^ACKorea ^ADLatvia ^AELithuania ^AFLuxembourg ^AGMalaya and Singapore ^AHMalta1,493 civilians were killed and 3,734 wounded during theSiege of Malta (World War II)Maltese civilians killed during the siege are also included with U.K. civilian deaths by theCommonwealth War Graves Commission. ^AIMexico ^AJMongolia ^AKNauru ^ALNepal ^AMNetherlands Military deaths6,750 which included 3,900 regular Army, 2,600 Navy forces, and 250 POW in Germany.Civilian deathsof 203,250 which included 1,350 Merchant seaman, 2,800 executed, 2,500 dead in Dutch concentration camps,20,400 killed by acts of war, 104,000 Jewish Holocaust dead, 18,000 political prisoners in Germany, 27,000 workers in Germany,3,700 Dutch nationals in the German armed forces and 7,500 missing and presumed dead in Germany and 16,000 deathsin theDutch famine of 1944. Not Included in the figure of 210,000 war dead are 70,000 \"indirect war casualties\",which are attributed to an increase innatural deathsfrom 1940 to 1945 and 1,650 foreign nationals killed while serving in theDutch Merchant Marine. ^ANNewfoundland ^AONew Zealand ^APNorway Military(Norwegian & Allied Forces)2,000 (800 Army, 900 Navy and 100 Air).Civilians7,500 (3,600 Merchant seaman, 1,500 resistance fighters, 1,800 civilians killed and 600 Jews killed)In German Armed Forces700 ^AQPapua New Guinea ^ARPhilippines ^ASPoland Total Polish war dead Polish losses during the Soviet occupation (1939–1941) Polish military casualties ^ATTimor ^AURomania ^AVRuanda Urundi ^AWSouth Africa ^AXSouth Seas Mandate The following notes summarize Soviet casualties, the details are presented inWorld War II casualties of the Soviet Union. ^AZSpain ^BASweden ^BBSwitzerland ^BCThailand ^BDTurkey ^BEUnited Kingdom and Colonies Total war deadof 357,116; Navy (50,758); Army (144,079); Air Force (69,606);Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service(624);Merchant Navy(30,248);British Home Guard(1,206) and Civilians (60,595).The total still missing on 2/28/1946were 6,244; Navy (340); Army (2,267); Air Force (3,089);Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service(18);Merchant Navy(530);British Home Guard(0) and Civilians (0).These figures included the losses ofNewfoundlandandSouthern Rhodesia.Colonial forces are not included in these figures.There were an additional 31,271 military deaths due to \"natural causes\" which are not included in these figures.Deaths due to air and V-rocket attacks were 60,595 civilians and 1,206British Home Guard. ^BFUnited StatesAmerican military dead#^BF1 American civilian dead#^BF2 ^BGYugoslavia The losses of Yugoslav collaborators The reasons for the high human toll in Yugoslavia were as followsA.Military operationsbetween the occupying German military forces and their \"Quislings and collaborators\" against theYugoslav resistance.B. German forces, under express orders from Hitler, fought with a specialvengeance against the Serbs, who were consideredUntermensch.One of the worst one-day massacres during the German military occupation of Serbia was theKragujevac massacre.C. Deliberate acts of reprisal against target populations were perpetrated by all combatants. All sides practiced the shooting of hostages on a large scale. At the end of the war, manyUstašeand Slovene collaborators were killed in or as a result of theYugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators.D. The systematic extermination of large numbers of people for political, religious or racial reasons. The most numerous victims wereSerbs.According toYad Vashem, \"During their four years in power, the Ustasa carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000, expelling 250,000 and forcing another 200,000 to convert to Catholicism. The Ustasa also killed most of Croatia's Jews, 20,000 Gypsies, and many thousands of their political enemies.\"According to theUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum\"The Croat authorities murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Ustaša rule; more than 30,000 Croatian Jews were killed either in Croatia or at Auschwitz-Birkenau\".TheUSHMMreports between 77,000 and 99,000 persons were killed at theJasenovacandStara Gradiškaconcentration camps.The Jasenovac Memorial Site quotes a similar figure of between 80,000 and 100,000 victims.Stara Gradiškawas a sub-camp of Jasenovac established for women and children.The names and data for 12,790 victims at Stara Gradiška have been established.Serbian sources currently claim that 700,000 persons were murdered atJasenovac.Some 40,000Romawere murdered.Jewish victims in Yugoslavia totaled 67,122.E. Reduced food supply caused famine and disease.F. Allied bombing of German supply lines caused civilian casualties. The hardest hit localities werePodgorica,Leskovac,ZadarandBelgrade.G. The demographic losses due to the reduction of 335,000 births and emigration of about 660,000 are not included with war casualties. ^BHOther Nations References Further reading External links"
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"World War I casualties The total number ofmilitaryandcivilian casualtiesinWorld War Iwas about 40 million: estimates range from around 15 to 22 million deathsand about 23 million wounded military personnel, ranking it among the deadliest conflicts in human history. The total number of deaths includes from 9 to 11 millionmilitary personnel. Theciviliandeath toll was about 6 to 13 million.TheTriple Entente(also known as theAllies) lost about 6 million military personnel while theCentral Powerslost about 4 million. At least 2 million died from diseases and 6 million went missing, presumed dead. This article lists the casualties of the belligerent powers based on official published sources. About two-thirds of military deaths in World War I were in battle, unlike the conflicts that took place in the 19th century when the majority of deaths were due to disease. Nevertheless, disease, including the1918 flu pandemicand deaths while held asprisoners of war, still caused about one third of total military deaths for",
"military deaths for all belligerents. Classification of casualty statistics Casualty statistics for World War I vary to a great extent; estimates of total deaths range from 9 million to over 15 million.Military casualties reported in official sources list deaths due to all causes, including an estimated 7 to 8 million combat related deaths (killed or died of wounds) and another two to three million military deaths caused by accidents, disease and deaths whileprisoners of war. Official government reports listing casualty statistics were published by the United States and Great Britain.Thesesecondary sourcespublished during the 1920s, are the source of the statistics in reference works listing casualties in World War I.This article summarizes the casualty statistics published in the official government reports of the United States and Great Britain as well as France, Italy, Belgium, Germany, Austria and Russia. More recently the research of theCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) has revised the military",
"the military casualty statistics of the UK and its allies; they include in their listing of military war dead personnel outside of combat theaters and civilians recruited from Africa, the Middle East andChinawho provided logistical and service support in combat theaters.The casualties of these support personnel recruited outside of Europe were previously not included with British war dead, however the casualties of theLabour Corpsrecruited from the British Isles were included in the rolls of British war dead published in 1921.The methodology used by each nation to record and classify casualties was not uniform, a general caveat regarding casualty figures is that they cannot be considered comparable in all cases.First World War civilian deaths are \"hazardous to estimate\" according to Micheal Clodfelter who maintains that \"the generally accepted figure ofnoncombatantdeaths is 6.5 million.\" Casualties in the borders of 1914–1918 2,101,077 The source of population data is: Haythornthwaite, Philip J.,The World",
"Philip J.,The World War One Source Bookpp. 382–383 Casualties by post-war (1924) borders The war involved multi-ethnic empires such as Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. Many ethnic groups in these territories were conscripted for military service. The casualties listed by modern borders are also included in the above table of figures for the countries that existed in 1914. The casualty figures by 1924 post war borders are rough estimates by Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, the sources of his figures were published in the Soviet era and in post-Soviet Russia.According to the 1914–1918 Online Encyclopedia \"In addition to losses suffered by African military personnel and the laborers supporting their operations, very large, but unknown numbers of African civilians perished during the war.\" They made an estimate of civilian losses in Africa of 750,000 based on the study by the Vadim Erlikman. They noted that Erlikman's",
"that Erlikman's figures are based on the work of the Russian demographer Boris Urlanis, they noted that these estimates were \"imprecise\" and \"could be used to provide a frame of reference for further inquiry\".TheOxford History of World War Onenotes that \"In east and central Africa the harshness of the war resulted in acute shortages of food with famine in some areas, a weakening of populations, and epidemic diseases which killed hundreds of thousands of people and also cattle.\" The following estimates of Austrian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 175,000: including military losses 120,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 30,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 25,000. The following estimates of Belarusian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 130,000: including",
"130,000: including military losses 70,000 with the Russian forces. Civilian dead were 60,000. The following estimates of Ukrainian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 590,000: including military losses 450,000,(Erlikman did not break out military losses between Austro-Hungarian and Russian armed forces). Civilian dead were 140,000. TheBelgian Congowas part of the Kingdom of Belgium during the war. A Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia estimated a total of 155,000 deaths in the Belgian Congo during the war. Czechoslovakia was part of Austro-Hungary during the war. The estimates of Czechoslovak deaths within 1991 borders were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 185,000: including military losses 110,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW",
"forces and POW deaths in captivity of 45,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 30,000.TheCzechoslovak Legionsfought with the armies of the Allies during the war. Estonia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 100,000 Estonians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed. From 1809 Finland was an autonomousGrand Duchyin theRussian Empireuntil the end of 1917. Finland's autonomous status meant that Finns were exempt from conscription into the Russian Army. Approximately 800 Finns voluntarily served during World War I.According to data regarding Finnish war casualties, 317 Finns were killed between 1914 and 1917. The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount",
"Africa could amount up to 750,000. Total: 82,000 The following estimates of Georgian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Georgia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 150,000 Georgians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed. The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount up to 750,000. Total: 48,000 The following estimates of Hungarian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 385,000: including military losses 270,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW",
"forces and POW deaths in captivity of 70,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 45,000. Ireland was a part of the United Kingdom during World War I. Five-sixths of the island left to form theIrish Free State, now theRepublic of Ireland, in 1922. A total of 206,000 Irishmen served in the British forces during the war.The number of Irish deaths in the British Army recorded by the registrar general was 27,405.A significant number of these casualties were from what, in 1920, becameNorthern Ireland. While 49,400 soldiers died serving in Irish divisions (the 10th, 16th and36th), although not all of the men serving in these divisions were natives of Ireland and many Irish who died in non-Irish regiments are not listed.For example, 29% of the casualties in the 16th Division were not natives of Ireland.Neither does it include Irish emigrants in Britain who enlisted there and are not categorised as Irish. Australia lists 4,731 of its first World War soldiers as having been born in Ireland and more than",
"and more than 19,000 Irish-born soldiers served in the Canadian Corps. According to research done by John Horne ofTrinity College Dublin, there are at least 30,986 soldiers who were born in Ireland that died; however, that's considered a \"conservative\" estimate and is very likely to raise. The losses ofPortuguese Mozambiquewere estimated by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.52,000 Poland was territory of Germany, Austria-Hungary and partially annexed by Russia, from 1795 to 1918. By late 1915, Germany had complete control over modern-day Poland. A 2005 Polish study estimated 3,376,800 Poles were conscripted into the armed forces of these countries during World War I, an additional 300,000 were conscripted for forced labor by the Germans. The Russians and Austrians forcibly resettled 1.6 to 1.8 million persons from the war zone in Poland.According to Micheal Clodfelter,",
"Micheal Clodfelter, Polish war dead were 1,080,000, whilst 200,000 Polish civilians were killed in the fighting on theEastern Front; 870,000 men served in the German, Austrian and Russian armies.Another estimate made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, put total Polish war dead at 640,000, including military losses of 270,000 Poles conscripted, civilian losses of 120,000 due to military operations and 250,000 caused by famine and disease.The ethnic PolishBlue Armyserved with the French Army. The ethnicPolish Legionsfought as part of the Austro-Hungarian Army on the Eastern Front. The territory ofTransylvaniawas part of Austria-Hungary during World War I. The following estimates of Romanian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 748,000, including military losses of 220,000 with the Romanian forces, 150,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW",
"forces and POW deaths in captivity of 48,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 200,000, killed in military operations 120,000 and 10,000 dead in Austrian prisons. Britain recruited Indian, Chinese, nativeSouth African, Egyptian and other overseas labour to provide logistical support in the combat theatres.Included with British casualties in East Africa are the deaths of 44,911 recruited labourers.The CWGC reports that nearly 2,000 workers from the Chinese Labour Corps are buried with British war dead in France. The following estimates ofBritish Empirecolonial military deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia. Total: 18,000 The following estimates are for Yugoslavia within the 1991 borders. Slovenia,Croatia,BosniaandVojvodina(Now part of Serbia) were part of Austria-Hungary duringWorld",
"duringWorld War I.Serbia, which includedMacedonia, andMontenegrowas an independent nation. The Yugoslav historianVladimir Dedijerput the total losses of the Yugoslav lands at 1.9 million, of which 43% were from Serbia.The following estimates of Yugoslav deaths, within 1991 borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 996,000 including military losses, 260,000 with the Serbian forces, 80,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces, 13,000 with Montenegrin forces and POW deaths in captivity of 93,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 400,000, killed in military operations: 120,000 and 30,000 dead in Austrian prisons or executed. During World War I, the Nepalese army was expanded and six new regiments, totaling more than 20,000 troops—all volunteers—were sent to India, most of them to the North-West Frontier Province, to release British and Indian troops for service overseas. Simultaneously, the Nepalese",
"the Nepalese government agreed to maintain recruitment at a level that would sustain the existing British Gurkha units and allow the establishment of additional ones. The battalions were increased to thirty-three with the addition of 55,000 new recruits and Gurkha units were placed at the disposal of the British high command for service on all fronts. Many volunteers were assigned to non-combat units, such as the Army Bearer Corps and the labour battalions but they also were in combat in France, Turkey, Palestine and Mesopotamia. The Rana prime ministers urged Nepalese males to fight in the war. Of the more than 200,000 Nepalese who served in the British army, there were some 20,000 Gurkha casualties included above with theBritish Indian Army. Footnotes ^aEast and Central Africa ^bAustralia ^cBelgium ^dCanada ^eFrance ^fGreece ^gIndia (British) ^hItaly ^iJapan ^kMontenegro ^lNew Zealand ^mNewfoundland ^nPortugal ^oRomania ^pRussian Empire ^qSerbia ^rSouth Africa ^sUnited Kingdom ^tUnited States",
"^tUnited States ^uAustria-Hungary ^vBulgaria ^wGerman Empire ^xOttoman Empire ^yDenmark ^jLuxembourg ^zNorway ^azQajar Persia ^bzSweden ^czAlbania ^dzLiechtenstein Sources The source of population data is: See also References Further reading Other languages External links",
"World War II casualties World War IIwas thedeadliest military conflict in history. An estimated total of 70–85 million people perished, or about 3% of the estimated global population of 2.3 billion in 1940.Deaths directly caused by the war (including military and civilian fatalities) are estimated at 50–56 million, with an additional estimated 19–28 million deaths from war-related disease and famine.Civiliandeaths totaled 50–55 million.Military deathsfrom all causes totaled 21–25 million, including deaths in captivity of about 5 millionprisoners of war. More than half of the total number of casualties are accounted for by the dead of theRepublic of Chinaand of theSoviet Union. The following tables give a detailed country-by-country count of human losses. Statistics on the number of military wounded are included whenever available. Recent historical scholarship has shed new light on the topic of Second World Warcasualties. Research in Russia since thecollapse of the Soviet Unionhas caused a revision of",
"a revision of estimates of Soviet World War II fatalities.According to Russian government figures, USSR losses within postwar borders now stand at 26.6 million,including 8 to 9 million due to famine and disease.In August 2009 the PolishInstitute of National Remembrance(IPN) researchers estimated Poland's dead at between 5.6 and 5.8 million.HistorianRüdiger Overmansof theMilitary History Research Office (Germany)published a study in 2000 estimating the German military dead and missing at 5.3 million, including 900,000 men conscripted from outside of Germany's 1937 borders, inAustria, and in east-centralEurope.TheRed Armyclaimed responsibility for the majority ofWehrmachtcasualties during World War II.ThePeople's Republic of Chinaputs its war dead at 20 million,while the Japanese government puts its casualties due to the war at 3.1 million.An estimated 7–10 million people died in theDutch,British,FrenchandUScolonies inSouthandSoutheast Asia, mostly from war-related famine. Classification of casualties",
"of casualties Compiling or estimating the numbers ofdeaths and woundedcaused during wars and other violent conflicts is acontroversial subject. Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed and wounded during World War II.The authors of theOxford Companion to World War IImaintain that \"casualty statistics are notoriously unreliable\".The table below gives data on the number of dead and military wounded for each country, along with population information to show the relative impact of losses. When scholarly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers that the death toll is disputed. Since casualty statistics are sometimes disputed the footnotes to this article present the different estimates by official governmental sources as well as historians. Military figures includebattle deaths(KIA) andpersonnel missing in action(MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prisoners of war in",
"prisoners of war in captivity.Civilian casualtiesinclude deaths caused bystrategic bombing,Holocaust victims,German war crimes,Japanese war crimes,population transfers in the Soviet Union,Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war-related famine and disease. The sources for the casualties of the individual countries do not use the same methods, and civilian deaths due to starvation and disease make up a large proportion of the civilian deaths in China and the Soviet Union. The losses listed here are actual deaths; hypothetical losses due to a decline in births are not included with the total dead. The distinction between military and civilian casualties caused directly by warfare andcollateral damageis not always clear-cut. For states that suffered huge losses such as the Soviet Union, China, Poland, Germany, and Yugoslavia, sources can give only thetotal estimated population losscaused by the war and a rough estimate of the breakdown of deaths caused by military activity,crimes against humanityand war-related",
"war-related famine. The casualties listed here include 19 to 25 million war-related famine deaths in the USSR, China, Indonesia,Vietnam, the Philippines, andIndiathat are often omitted from other compilations of World War II casualties. Thefootnotesgive a detailed breakdown of the casualties and their sources, including data on the number of wounded where reliable sources are available. Human losses by country Total deaths by country Soviet Union The estimated breakdown for each Soviet republic of total war dead^AY4 The source of the figures isVadim Erlikman.Erlikman, a Russian historian, notes that these figures are his estimates. Nazi Germany United States Estimated breakdown for each US state and territory of total war dead This table displays the number of people who are believed to have died in the United States by state and territory.This list includes those who died at sea. Japanese Empire 1939 deaths Allied attacks Japanese persecution deaths % of 1939 population Holocaust deaths Included in the",
"Included in the figures of total war dead for each country are victims of the Holocaust. Jewish deaths The Holocaustis the term generally used to describe thegenocideof approximately six million EuropeanJewsduring World War II.Martin Gilbertestimates 5.7 million (78%) of the 7.3 million Jews in German-occupied Europe were Holocaust victims.Estimates of Holocaust deaths range between 4.9 and 5.9 million Jews. The figures for the pre-war Jewish population and deaths in the table below are fromThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust.The low, high and average percentage figures for deaths of the pre-war population have been added. Non-Jews persecuted and killed by Nazi and Nazi-affiliated forces Some scholars maintain that the definition of the Holocaust should also include theother victims persecuted and killed by the Nazis. The following figures are fromThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, the authors maintain that \"statistics on Gypsy losses are especially unreliable and controversial. These figures (cited below)",
"(cited below) are based on necessarily rough estimates\". German war crimes During World War II, the German military helped fulfill Nazism's racial, political, and territorial ambitions. Long after the war, a myth persisted claiming the German military (or Wehrmacht) was not involved in the Holocaust and other crimes associated with Nazi genocidal policy. This belief is untrue. The German military participated in many aspects of the Holocaust: in supporting Hitler, in the use of forced labor, and in the mass murder of Jews and other groups targeted by the Nazis. The military's complicity extended not only to the generals and upper leadership but also to the rank and file. In addition, the war and genocidal policy were inextricably linked. The German army (or Heer) was the most complicit as a result of being on the ground in Germany's eastern campaigns, but all branches participated. —United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Nazi Germanyordered, organized and condoned a substantial number of war crimes in World",
"war crimes in World War II. The most notable of these isthe Holocaustin which millions ofJews,Poles, andRomaniwere systematically murdered or died from abuse and mistreatment. Millions also died as a result of other German actions. While theNazi Party's ownSSforces (in particular theSS-Totenkopfverbände,EinsatzgruppenandWaffen-SS) of Nazi Germany was the organization most responsible for the genocidal killing of the Holocaust, the regular armed forces represented by theWehrmachtcommitted war crimes of their own, particularly on theEastern Frontin thewar against the Soviet Union. Japanese war crimes Included with total war dead are victims of Japanese war crimes. R. J. Rummel R. J. Rummelestimates the civilian victims of Japanesedemocideat 5,964,000. Detailed by country: Rummel estimates POW deaths in Japanese custody at 539,000. Detailed by country: Werner Gruhl Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian deaths at 20,365,000. Gruhl estimates POW deaths in Japanese captivity at 331,584. Out of 60,000 Indian Army",
"60,000 Indian Army POWs taken at the Fall of Singapore, 11,000 died in captivity.There were 14,657 deaths among the total 130,895western civilians interned by the Japanesedue to famine and disease. Oppression in the Soviet Union The total war dead in the USSR includes about 1 millionvictims ofStalin's regime. The number of deaths in theGulag labor campsincreased as a result of wartime overcrowding and food shortages.The Stalin regime deported the entire populations of ethnic minorities considered to be potentially disloyal.Since 1990 Russian scholars have been given access to the Soviet-era archives and have published data on the numbers of people executed and those who died in Gulag labor camps and prisons.The Russian scholarViktor Zemskovputs the death toll from 1941 to 1945 at about 1 million based on data from the Soviet archives.The Soviet-era archive figures on the Gulag labor camps has been the subject of a vigorous academic debate outside Russia since their publication in 1991.J. Arch GettyandStephen",
"GettyandStephen G. Wheatcroftmaintain that Soviet-era figures more accurately detail the victims of the Gulag labor camp system in the Stalin era.Robert ConquestandSteven Rosefieldehave disputed the accuracy of the data from the Soviet archives, maintaining that the demographic data and testimonials by survivors of the Gulag labor camps indicate a higher death toll.Rosefielde posits that the release of the Soviet Archive figures is disinformation generated by the modernKGB.Rosefielde maintains that the data from the Soviet archives is incomplete; for example, he pointed out that the figures do not include the 22,000 victims of theKatyn massacre.Rosefielde's demographic analysis puts the number of excess deaths due to Soviet repression at 2,183,000 in 1939–40 and 5,458,000 from 1941 to 1945.Michael Haynes and Rumy Husun accept the figures from the Soviet archives as being an accurate tally of Stalin's victims, they maintain that the demographic data depicts an underdeveloped Soviet economy and the losses in",
"and the losses in World War Two rather than indicating a higher death toll in the Gulag labor camps. In August 2009 the PolishInstitute of National Remembrance(IPN) researchers estimated 150,000 Polish citizens were killed due to Soviet repression. Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation.Andrzej Paczkowskiputs the number of Polish deaths at 90,000–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets.In 2005Tadeusz Piotrowskiestimated the death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000. The Estonian State Commission for the Examination of Repressive Policies Carried out During the Occupations put civilian deaths due to theSoviet occupationin 1940–1941 at 33,900 including (7,800 deaths) of arrested people, (6,000) deportee deaths, (5,000) evacuee deaths, (1,100) people gone missing and (14,000) conscripted for forced labor. After the reoccupation by the USSR, 5,000 Estonians died in Soviet",
"died in Soviet prisons during 1944–45. The following is a summary of the data from the Soviet archives:Reported deaths for the years 1939–1945 1,187,783, including: judicial executions 46,350; deaths in Gulag labor camps 718,804; deaths in labor colonies and prisons 422,629. Deported tospecial settlements: (figures are for deportations to Special Settlements only, not including those executed, sent to Gulag labor camps or conscripted into the Soviet Army. Nor do the figures include additional deportations after the war).Deported from annexed territories 1940–41 380,000 to 390,000 persons, including: Poland 309–312,000; Lithuania 17,500; Latvia 17,000; Estonia 6,000; Moldova 22,842.In August 1941, 243,106 Poles living in the Special Settlements were amnestied and released by the Soviets.Deported during the War 1941–1945 about 2.3 million persons of Soviet ethnic minorities including:Soviet Germans1,209,000; Finns 9,000;Karachays69,000;Kalmyks92,000;ChechensandIngush479,000;Balkars37,000;Crimean",
"Tatars191,014;Meskhetian Turks91,000; Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians from Crimea 42,000; UkrainianOUNmembers 100,000; Poles 30,000.A total of 2,230,500persons were living in the settlements in October 1945 and 309,100 deaths were reported in special settlements for the years 1941–1948. Russian sources list Axisprisoner of wardeaths of 580,589 in Soviet captivity based on data in the Soviet archives (Germany 381,067; Hungary 54,755; Romania 54,612; Italy 27,683; Finland 403, and Japan 62,069).However, some western scholars estimate the total at between 1.7 and 2.3 million. Military casualties by branch of service Commonwealth military casualties TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) Annual Report 2014–2015is the source of the military dead for theBritish Empire. The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The statistics tabulated by the CWGC are representative of the number of names commemorated for all",
"for all servicemen/women of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth and former UK Dependencies, whose death was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and civilian organizations are also accorded war grave status if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For the purposes of CWGC the dates of inclusion for Commonwealth War Dead are 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947. See also Footnotes ^AAlbania ^BAustralia ^CAustria ^DBelgium ^EBrazil ^FBulgaria ^GBurma ^HCanada ^IChinaSources for total Chinese war dead are divergent and range from 10 to 20 million as detailed below. ^JCuba ^KCzechoslovakia ^LDenmark ^MDutch East Indies ^MAEgypt ^NEstonia ^OEthiopia ^PFinland ^QFrance ^RFrench Indochina ^SGermanyThe following notes summarize German casualties, the details are presented inGerman casualties in World War II. German population Total German war dead German military casualties Civilian Casualties Civilian casualties in air raids 1- The summary report of September 30, 1945 put total casualties",
"total casualties for the entire period of the war at 305,000 killed and 780,000 wounded.2- The sectionEffects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economyof October 31, 1945 put the losses at 375,000 killed and 625,000 wounded.3- The sectionThe Effect of Bombing on Health and Medical Care in Germanyof January 1947 made a preliminary calculated estimate of air raid dead at 422,000. Regarding overall losses, they concluded that \"It was further estimated that an additional number, approximately 25% of known deaths in 1944–45, were still unrecovered and unrecorded. With an addition of this estimate of 1944–45 unrecorded deaths, the final estimation gave in round numbers a half a million German civilians killed by Allied aerial attacks.\" Civilians killed in 1945 military campaign Deaths due to Nazi political, racial and religious persecution Expulsion and flight of ethnic GermansThe following notes summarize German expulsion casualties, the details are presented in theflight and expulsion of Germans",
"of Germans (1944–1950), theforced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union' and theDemographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans. The figures for these losses are currently disputed, estimates of the total deaths range from 500,000 to 2,000,000. The death toll attributable to the flight and expulsions was estimated at 2.2 million by the West German government in 1958.German government reports which were released to the public in 1987 and 1989 have caused some historians in Germany to put the actual total at 500,000 to 600,000.English language sources put the death toll at 2 to 3 million based on the West German government statistical analysis of the 1950s. German government figures of 2.0 to 2.5 million civilian deaths due to expulsions have been disputed by scholars since the publication of the results of the German church search service survey and the report by theGerman Federal Archive. Post war increase in natural deaths ^TGreece ^TAGuam ^UHungary ^VIceland ^WIndia Bengal famine of 1943 ^YIraq",
"of 1943 ^YIraq ^ZIreland ^AAItaly Military war deadConfirmed deadwere 159,957 (92,767 pre-armistice, 67,090 post armistice)Missing and presumed dead(including POWs)were 131,419 (111,579 pre-armistice, 19,840 post armistice)Losses by branch of service: Army 201,405; Navy 22,034; Air Force 9,096; Colonial Forces 354;Chaplains91;Fascistmilitia10,066;Paramilitary3,252; not indicated 45,078.Military Losses by theatre of war: Italy 74,725 (37,573 post armistice); France 2,060 (1,039 post armistice);Germany 25,430 (24,020 post armistice); Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia 49,459 (10,090 post armistice);USSR 82,079 (3,522 post armistice); Africa 22,341 (1,565 post armistice), at sea 28,438 (5,526 post armistice);other and unknown 6,844 (3,695 post armistice). ^ABJapan Military dead Key:Location, Army dead,Navy dead,(Total dead)Japan Proper: 58,100,45,800,(103,900)Bonin Islands: 2,700,12,500,(15,200)Okinawa: 67,900,21,500,(89,400)Formosa (Taiwan): 28,500,10,600,(39,100)Korea: 19,600,6,900,(26,500)Sakhalin, the",
"the Aleutian, and Kuril Islands: 8,200,3,200,(11,400)Manchuria: 45,900,800,(46,700)China (inc. Hong Kong): 435,600,20,100,(455,700)Siberia: 52,300,400,(52,700)Central Pacific: 95,800,151,400,(247,200)Philippines: 377,500,121,100,(498,600)French Indochina: 7,900,4,500,(12,400)Thailand: 6,900,100,(7,000)Burma (inc. India): 163,000,1,500,(164,500)Malaya & Singapore: 8,500,2,900,(11,400)Andaman & Nicobar Islands: 900,1,500,(2,400)Sumatra: 2,700,500,(3,200)Java: 2,700,3,800,(6,500)Lesser Sundas: 51,800,1,200,(53,000)Borneo: 11,300,6,700,(18,000)Celebes: 1,500,4,000,(5,500)Moluccas: 2,600,1,800,(4,400)New Guinea: 112,400,15,200,(127,600)Bismarck Archipelago: 19,700,10,800,(30,500)Solomon Islands: 63,200,25,000,(88,200)Total: 1,647,200,473,800,(2,121,000) Overall, perhaps two thirds of all Japanese military dead came not from combat, but from starvation and disease.In some cases this figure was potentially even higher, up to 80% in the Philippinesand a staggering 97% in New Guinea. ArmyChina after Pearl",
"after Pearl Harbor202,958 killed and 88,920 wounded.vs. United States485,717 killed and 34,679 wounded.vs. U.K. and Netherlands208,026 killed and 139,225 wounded.vs. Australia199,511 killed and 15,000 wounded.French Indochina2,803 killed and 6,000 wounded.Manchuria & USSR7,483 killed and 4,641 wounded.other overseas23,388 killed and 0 wounded.Japan proper10,543 killed and 6,782 wounded.Army total1,140,429 killed and 295,247 wounded.NavySailors300,386 killed and 12,275 wounded and missing.Civilians in Navy service114,493 killed and 1,880 wounded and missing.Navy total414,879 killed and 14,155 wounded and missing. Civilian Dead 1-Summary Report (July 1946)Total civilian casualties in Japan, as a result of 9 months of air attack, including those from the atomic bombs, were approximately 806,000. Of these, approximately 330,000 were fatalities. 2-United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Medical Division (1947)The bombing of Japan killed 333,000 civilians and injured 473,000. Of this total 120,000 died and 160,000",
"died and 160,000 were injured in the atomic bombings, leaving 213,000 dead and 313,000 injured by conventional bombing. 3-The effects of air attack on Japanese urban economy. Summary report (1947)Estimated that 252,769 Japanese were killed and 298,650 injured in the air war. 4-The Effects of strategic bombing on Japanese moraleBased on a survey of Japanese households the death toll was put at 900,000 dead and 1.3 million injured, the SBS noted that this figure was subject to a maximum sampling error of 30%. 5-Strategic Bombing Survey The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and NagasakiThe most striking result of the atomic bombs was the great number of casualties. The exact number of dead and injured will never be known because of the confusion after the explosions. Persons unaccounted for might have been burned beyond recognition in the falling buildings, disposed of in one of the mass cremations of the first week of recovery, or driven out of the city to die or recover without any record remaining. No",
"remaining. No sure count of even the prepaid populations existed. Because of the decline in activity in the two port cities, the constant threat of incendiary raids, and the formal evacuation programs of the Government, an unknown number of the inhabitants had either drifter away from the cities or been removed according to plan. In this uncertain situation, estimates of casualties have generally ranged between 100,000 and 180,000 for Hiroshima, and between 50,000 and 100,000 for Nagasaki. The Survey believes the dead at Hiroshima to have been between 70,000 and 80,000, with an equal number injured; at Nagasaki over 35,000 dead and somewhat more than that injured seems the most plausible estimate. ^ACKorea ^ADLatvia ^AELithuania ^AFLuxembourg ^AGMalaya and Singapore ^AHMalta1,493 civilians were killed and 3,734 wounded during theSiege of Malta (World War II)Maltese civilians killed during the siege are also included with U.K. civilian deaths by theCommonwealth War Graves Commission. ^AIMexico ^AJMongolia",
"^AJMongolia ^AKNauru ^ALNepal ^AMNetherlands Military deaths6,750 which included 3,900 regular Army, 2,600 Navy forces, and 250 POW in Germany.Civilian deathsof 203,250 which included 1,350 Merchant seaman, 2,800 executed, 2,500 dead in Dutch concentration camps,20,400 killed by acts of war, 104,000 Jewish Holocaust dead, 18,000 political prisoners in Germany, 27,000 workers in Germany,3,700 Dutch nationals in the German armed forces and 7,500 missing and presumed dead in Germany and 16,000 deathsin theDutch famine of 1944. Not Included in the figure of 210,000 war dead are 70,000 \"indirect war casualties\",which are attributed to an increase innatural deathsfrom 1940 to 1945 and 1,650 foreign nationals killed while serving in theDutch Merchant Marine. ^ANNewfoundland ^AONew Zealand ^APNorway Military(Norwegian & Allied Forces)2,000 (800 Army, 900 Navy and 100 Air).Civilians7,500 (3,600 Merchant seaman, 1,500 resistance fighters, 1,800 civilians killed and 600 Jews killed)In German Armed Forces700 ^AQPapua",
"Forces700 ^AQPapua New Guinea ^ARPhilippines ^ASPoland Total Polish war dead Polish losses during the Soviet occupation (1939–1941) Polish military casualties ^ATTimor ^AURomania ^AVRuanda Urundi ^AWSouth Africa ^AXSouth Seas Mandate The following notes summarize Soviet casualties, the details are presented inWorld War II casualties of the Soviet Union. ^AZSpain ^BASweden ^BBSwitzerland ^BCThailand ^BDTurkey ^BEUnited Kingdom and Colonies Total war deadof 357,116; Navy (50,758); Army (144,079); Air Force (69,606);Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service(624);Merchant Navy(30,248);British Home Guard(1,206) and Civilians (60,595).The total still missing on 2/28/1946were 6,244; Navy (340); Army (2,267); Air Force (3,089);Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service(18);Merchant Navy(530);British Home Guard(0) and Civilians (0).These figures included the losses ofNewfoundlandandSouthern Rhodesia.Colonial forces are not included in these figures.There were an additional 31,271 military deaths due to \"natural causes\" which",
"causes\" which are not included in these figures.Deaths due to air and V-rocket attacks were 60,595 civilians and 1,206British Home Guard. ^BFUnited StatesAmerican military dead#^BF1 American civilian dead#^BF2 ^BGYugoslavia The losses of Yugoslav collaborators The reasons for the high human toll in Yugoslavia were as followsA.Military operationsbetween the occupying German military forces and their \"Quislings and collaborators\" against theYugoslav resistance.B. German forces, under express orders from Hitler, fought with a specialvengeance against the Serbs, who were consideredUntermensch.One of the worst one-day massacres during the German military occupation of Serbia was theKragujevac massacre.C. Deliberate acts of reprisal against target populations were perpetrated by all combatants. All sides practiced the shooting of hostages on a large scale. At the end of the war, manyUstašeand Slovene collaborators were killed in or as a result of theYugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators.D. The systematic",
"The systematic extermination of large numbers of people for political, religious or racial reasons. The most numerous victims wereSerbs.According toYad Vashem, \"During their four years in power, the Ustasa carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000, expelling 250,000 and forcing another 200,000 to convert to Catholicism. The Ustasa also killed most of Croatia's Jews, 20,000 Gypsies, and many thousands of their political enemies.\"According to theUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum\"The Croat authorities murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Ustaša rule; more than 30,000 Croatian Jews were killed either in Croatia or at Auschwitz-Birkenau\".TheUSHMMreports between 77,000 and 99,000 persons were killed at theJasenovacandStara Gradiškaconcentration camps.The Jasenovac Memorial Site quotes a similar figure of between 80,000 and 100,000 victims.Stara Gradiškawas a sub-camp of Jasenovac established for women and children.The names and",
"names and data for 12,790 victims at Stara Gradiška have been established.Serbian sources currently claim that 700,000 persons were murdered atJasenovac.Some 40,000Romawere murdered.Jewish victims in Yugoslavia totaled 67,122.E. Reduced food supply caused famine and disease.F. Allied bombing of German supply lines caused civilian casualties. The hardest hit localities werePodgorica,Leskovac,ZadarandBelgrade.G. The demographic losses due to the reduction of 335,000 births and emigration of about 660,000 are not included with war casualties. ^BHOther Nations References Further reading External links"
] |
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"David Arnold David Arnold(born 23 January 1962) is an English film composer whose credits include scoring fiveJames Bondfilms (1997-2008), as well asStargate(1994),Independence Day(1996),Godzilla(1998),Shaft(2000),2 Fast 2 Furious(2003),Four Brothers(2005),Hot Fuzz(2007), and the television seriesLittle BritainandSherlock. ForIndependence Day, he received aGrammy Awardfor Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television, and forSherlock, he and co-composerMichael Pricewon aCreative Arts Emmyfor the score of \"His Last Vow\", the final episode in the third series. Arnold scored the BBC /Amazon PrimeseriesGood Omens(2019) adapted byNeil Gaimanfrom his bookGood Omens, written withTerry Pratchett.Arnold is a fellow of theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors. Career While attending a Sixth Form College in Luton, Arnold became friends with directorDanny Cannon.Cannon initially created short films for which Arnold was asked to write the music. The two made their respective major film debuts withThe Young Americans. \"Play Dead\", a song from the film with singerBjörk, charted No. 12 in the UK. The following year he scoredStargateandLast of the Dogmen, with excerpts from the former ranking third in the most commonly used soundtrack cues for film trailers. Arnold then composed music forStargatedirectorRoland Emmerich's next two movies,Independence DayandGodzilla, as well as four movies for directorJohn Singleton. In addition, he has scored various comedies, dramas, and nineteenth-century period pieces, as well as providing music for several British television shows including the 2000 remake ofRandall and Hopkirk (Deceased)andLittle Britain. During film production, his compositions are conducted by Nicholas Dodd. In 2010, he composed the music forCome Fly With Me, a British television series from the producers ofLittle Britain. He is a member of theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors(BASCA).On Thursday 29 November 2012, Arnold received an honorary degree fromUniversity of West London.Now a university honorary, he will work closely with the University in particularLondon College of Music, a faculty within the institute. In 2014, he appeared as himself inThe Life of Rock with Brian Pern. Film music concerts Arnold performed his debut orchestral concert, showcasing his film and television music, on Sunday 6 July 2014 at London'sRoyal Festival Hall.The line-up featured Nicholas Dodd conducting,David McAlmontas surprise guest vocalist (\"My secret weapon!\" said Arnold) and the Urban Voices Collective choir, plusMark GatissandAmanda Abbingtonintroducing the suite ofSherlockmusic, for which Arnold's collaborator on the project,Michael Price, replaced Dodd. He performed his music in a series of orchestral concerts in 2015: Dublin) in January (with theRTÉ Concert Orchestra); Manchester(with theManchester Camerata) in April; and London(with theRoyal Philharmonic Orchestra), Birminghamand Nottingham(with theCity of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra(CBSO)) in June 2015. He was also the special guest at 'The music of David Arnold', a concert in Lucerne in October 2015, with Ludwig Wicki conducting the 21st Century Symphony Orchestra and Chorus. On 5 June 2016 Film Music Prague performed a concert of his work, with Arnold in attendance (and performing) as special guest.In February 2016 the Royal Albert Hall announcedthe premiere ofIndependence DayLive on 22 September 2016. This celebrated the 20th anniversary of the film's release with a live orchestral performance. David Arnold gave a pre-show talk about his work and theRoyal Philharmonic Concert Orchestraand Maida Vale Singers (conducted by Gavin Greenaway) performed the original music while the film screened. The Upcoming magazine gave the event a five star review noting that \"with unrivalled acoustics and a ceiling filled with floating UFO-shaped objects, the Hall set the ideal scene for the audience and the musicians alike\" and that the production \"kept the audience on the edge of their seats as if the film had just been released for the first time.\" Arnold hosted another two concerts of his music in Dublin, at theBord Gáis Energy Theatreon 19 and 20 May 2017, with the RTÉ Concert Orchestra. The first concert showcased his career in writing music for film and television,the second wasIndependence DayLive with the film screened as the orchestra played the score alongside.The first James Bond film ever to be screened with a live orchestra wasCasino Royale in Concertwhich took place at the Royal Albert Hall on Saturday 30 September 2017; David Arnold held a pre-concert question and answer session. James Bond Arnold was a Bond fan from an early age and also a fan of Bond composerJohn Barry. In 1997, Arnold producedShaken and Stirred: The David Arnold James Bond Project, an album featuring new versions of the themes from various James Bond films. The album featured a variety of contemporary artists includingJarvis Cocker,Chrissie Hynde,David McAlmont,PropellerheadsandIggy Pop; a version ofYou Only Live TwicebyBjörkwas recorded but not included on the album. John Barry, the composer of many of the themes on the album, was complimentary about Arnold's interpretation of his work; \"He was very faithful to the melodic and harmonic content, but he's added a whole other rhythmic freshness and some interesting casting in terms of the artists chosen to do the songs. I think it's a terrific album. I'm very flattered.\"Barry contactedBarbara Broccoli, producer of the then-upcomingTomorrow Never Dies, to recommend Arnold as the film's composer.Arnold was hired to score the instalment and, returning the compliment to the man he refers to as \"The guvnor\",included musical references to Barry's score forFrom Russia with Love,as well as, of course, theJames Bond Themecomposed byMonty Normanwith Barry's arrangement. Arnold scored the four subsequent Bond films:The World Is Not Enough,Die Another Day(in which he included references to John Barry's score forOn Her Majesty's Secret Service),Casino RoyaleandQuantum of Solace.Arnold did not score the 23rd James Bond film,Skyfall, withThomas Newmantaking his place.Arnold commented that Newman had been selected by the film's director,Sam Mendes, because of their history of working together, rather than because of Arnold's commitment to working with directorDanny Boyleas composer for the Opening Ceremony of the2012 Summer Olympics. However, a part of Arnold's composition work onCasino Royalewas reused, with a credit, inSkyfalland again inSPECTRE. Arnold also co-wrote the main theme songs forThe World Is Not Enough(\"The World Is Not Enough\" byGarbage) andCasino Royale(\"You Know My Name\" byChris Cornell), as well as \"Surrender\" byk.d. langwhich appears during the end credits ofTomorrow Never Dieshaving been originally proposed as the opening theme. Arnold also contributed the main themes to Kevin Kiner's score for Activision'sGoldenEye 007, the remake of the 1997 game of the same name. In 2017, a part of a track entitled \"Vesper\" from Arnold's composition work on theCasino Royalesoundtrackwas reused in aSherlockepisode entitled \"The Final Problem\", the third episode of the fourth series, in a track entitled \"Pick Up\" composed by Arnold himselfandMichael Price. Other work Arnold has collaborated with such musical acts asCast,Kaiser Chiefs,Massive Attack, andPulp, and solo artistsNatasha Bedingfield,Melanie C,Björk,Chris Cornell,Shirley Manson,Mark Morriss,Nina Perssonand in 2009 producedShirley Bassey's albumThe Performance. In 2001, he provided a new arrangement ofRon Grainer'sDoctor Whotheme musicfor theEighth Doctoraudio dramas fromBig Finish Productions. His version was used as the Eighth Doctor theme starting with 2001'sStorm Warninguntil 2008, when it was replaced with a new version arranged byNicholas Briggsstarting withDead London. Arnold's theme returned to the Eighth Doctor releases with the 2012 box set,Dark Eyes. Arnold is the second cousin of Irish singer-songwriterDamien Rice, and is an ambassador for aid agencyCARE Internationalin the UK. He has made minor appearances in two different episodes ofLittle Britainas separate characters. In February 2011, it was announced that he had been appointed Musical Director for the2012 Olympic Gamesand the2012 Paralympic Gamesin London. In May 2011, he was part of the United Kingdom's jury for theEurovision Song Contest 2011. Arnold took part in a tribute toJohn Barryon 20 June 2011 at theRoyal Albert Hallin London, singing a song that was composed by Barry and playing the guitar part of the James Bond theme. In 2014, Arnold teamed up withRichard Thomas, to write the music and lyrics for the newWest EndmusicalMade in Dagenham. In October 2015 he collaborated withLethal BizzleandSinead Harnettto create a song combining orchestral,grimeand soul elements. The song, 'Come This Far', was performed liveat a special event at One Mayfair, as part ofBulmersCider's LiveColourful LIVE promotion, and made available as a free download from Bulmers' website. He andSherlockco-composerMichael Pricealso composed the music for ITV's Jekyll and Hyde television series which premiered in October 2015. In September 2016 the Royal Albert Hall hosted an orchestral performance ofIndependence Daywith the score performed live to picture, David Arnold gave a pre-show talk. In 2019, David Arnold provided additional production forSophie Ellis-Bextor's orchestral album,The Song Diaries. Later in 2020, he co-produced an orchestral cover of 'My Favourite Things' (fromThe Sound of Music) along withRichard Jones(ofThe Feeling) for Sophie's 2020 compilation albumSongs From The Kitchen Disco. In July 2023, it was announced that Arnold and Ellis-Bextor would collaborate with lyricistDon Blackfor the track toChannel 4andUniversal Picturesfilm, \"Mog's Christmas\", based uponthe children's book seriesbyJudith Kerr. The track, titled \"As Long As I Belong\", is about \"the importance of belonging\". The film is slated for a Q4 2023 release. Acting filmography Discography Films Television Video games Web series Singles in charts Awards References External links"
] | [
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(franchise",
"Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(1998_film",
"David Arnold David Arnold(born 23 January 1962) is an English film composer whose credits include scoring fiveJames Bondfilms (1997-2008), as well asStargate(1994),Independence Day(1996),Godzilla(1998),Shaft(2000),2 Fast 2 Furious(2003),Four Brothers(2005),Hot Fuzz(2007), and the television seriesLittle BritainandSherlock. ForIndependence Day, he received aGrammy Awardfor Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television, and forSherlock, he and co-composerMichael Pricewon aCreative Arts Emmyfor the score of \"His Last Vow\", the final episode in the third series. Arnold scored the BBC /Amazon PrimeseriesGood Omens(2019) adapted byNeil Gaimanfrom his bookGood Omens, written withTerry Pratchett.Arnold is a fellow of theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors. Career While attending a Sixth Form College in Luton, Arnold became friends with directorDanny Cannon.Cannon initially created short films for which Arnold was asked to write the music. The two made their respective",
"their respective major film debuts withThe Young Americans. \"Play Dead\", a song from the film with singerBjörk, charted No. 12 in the UK. The following year he scoredStargateandLast of the Dogmen, with excerpts from the former ranking third in the most commonly used soundtrack cues for film trailers. Arnold then composed music forStargatedirectorRoland Emmerich's next two movies,Independence DayandGodzilla, as well as four movies for directorJohn Singleton. In addition, he has scored various comedies, dramas, and nineteenth-century period pieces, as well as providing music for several British television shows including the 2000 remake ofRandall and Hopkirk (Deceased)andLittle Britain. During film production, his compositions are conducted by Nicholas Dodd. In 2010, he composed the music forCome Fly With Me, a British television series from the producers ofLittle Britain. He is a member of theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors(BASCA).On Thursday 29 November 2012, Arnold received an honorary",
"an honorary degree fromUniversity of West London.Now a university honorary, he will work closely with the University in particularLondon College of Music, a faculty within the institute. In 2014, he appeared as himself inThe Life of Rock with Brian Pern. Film music concerts Arnold performed his debut orchestral concert, showcasing his film and television music, on Sunday 6 July 2014 at London'sRoyal Festival Hall.The line-up featured Nicholas Dodd conducting,David McAlmontas surprise guest vocalist (\"My secret weapon!\" said Arnold) and the Urban Voices Collective choir, plusMark GatissandAmanda Abbingtonintroducing the suite ofSherlockmusic, for which Arnold's collaborator on the project,Michael Price, replaced Dodd. He performed his music in a series of orchestral concerts in 2015: Dublin) in January (with theRTÉ Concert Orchestra); Manchester(with theManchester Camerata) in April; and London(with theRoyal Philharmonic Orchestra), Birminghamand Nottingham(with theCity of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra(CBSO))",
"Orchestra(CBSO)) in June 2015. He was also the special guest at 'The music of David Arnold', a concert in Lucerne in October 2015, with Ludwig Wicki conducting the 21st Century Symphony Orchestra and Chorus. On 5 June 2016 Film Music Prague performed a concert of his work, with Arnold in attendance (and performing) as special guest.In February 2016 the Royal Albert Hall announcedthe premiere ofIndependence DayLive on 22 September 2016. This celebrated the 20th anniversary of the film's release with a live orchestral performance. David Arnold gave a pre-show talk about his work and theRoyal Philharmonic Concert Orchestraand Maida Vale Singers (conducted by Gavin Greenaway) performed the original music while the film screened. The Upcoming magazine gave the event a five star review noting that \"with unrivalled acoustics and a ceiling filled with floating UFO-shaped objects, the Hall set the ideal scene for the audience and the musicians alike\" and that the production \"kept the audience on the edge of their",
"the edge of their seats as if the film had just been released for the first time.\" Arnold hosted another two concerts of his music in Dublin, at theBord Gáis Energy Theatreon 19 and 20 May 2017, with the RTÉ Concert Orchestra. The first concert showcased his career in writing music for film and television,the second wasIndependence DayLive with the film screened as the orchestra played the score alongside.The first James Bond film ever to be screened with a live orchestra wasCasino Royale in Concertwhich took place at the Royal Albert Hall on Saturday 30 September 2017; David Arnold held a pre-concert question and answer session. James Bond Arnold was a Bond fan from an early age and also a fan of Bond composerJohn Barry. In 1997, Arnold producedShaken and Stirred: The David Arnold James Bond Project, an album featuring new versions of the themes from various James Bond films. The album featured a variety of contemporary artists includingJarvis Cocker,Chrissie Hynde,David McAlmont,PropellerheadsandIggy Pop;",
"Pop; a version ofYou Only Live TwicebyBjörkwas recorded but not included on the album. John Barry, the composer of many of the themes on the album, was complimentary about Arnold's interpretation of his work; \"He was very faithful to the melodic and harmonic content, but he's added a whole other rhythmic freshness and some interesting casting in terms of the artists chosen to do the songs. I think it's a terrific album. I'm very flattered.\"Barry contactedBarbara Broccoli, producer of the then-upcomingTomorrow Never Dies, to recommend Arnold as the film's composer.Arnold was hired to score the instalment and, returning the compliment to the man he refers to as \"The guvnor\",included musical references to Barry's score forFrom Russia with Love,as well as, of course, theJames Bond Themecomposed byMonty Normanwith Barry's arrangement. Arnold scored the four subsequent Bond films:The World Is Not Enough,Die Another Day(in which he included references to John Barry's score forOn Her Majesty's Secret Service),Casino",
"Service),Casino RoyaleandQuantum of Solace.Arnold did not score the 23rd James Bond film,Skyfall, withThomas Newmantaking his place.Arnold commented that Newman had been selected by the film's director,Sam Mendes, because of their history of working together, rather than because of Arnold's commitment to working with directorDanny Boyleas composer for the Opening Ceremony of the2012 Summer Olympics. However, a part of Arnold's composition work onCasino Royalewas reused, with a credit, inSkyfalland again inSPECTRE. Arnold also co-wrote the main theme songs forThe World Is Not Enough(\"The World Is Not Enough\" byGarbage) andCasino Royale(\"You Know My Name\" byChris Cornell), as well as \"Surrender\" byk.d. langwhich appears during the end credits ofTomorrow Never Dieshaving been originally proposed as the opening theme. Arnold also contributed the main themes to Kevin Kiner's score for Activision'sGoldenEye 007, the remake of the 1997 game of the same name. In 2017, a part of a track entitled \"Vesper\" from",
"\"Vesper\" from Arnold's composition work on theCasino Royalesoundtrackwas reused in aSherlockepisode entitled \"The Final Problem\", the third episode of the fourth series, in a track entitled \"Pick Up\" composed by Arnold himselfandMichael Price. Other work Arnold has collaborated with such musical acts asCast,Kaiser Chiefs,Massive Attack, andPulp, and solo artistsNatasha Bedingfield,Melanie C,Björk,Chris Cornell,Shirley Manson,Mark Morriss,Nina Perssonand in 2009 producedShirley Bassey's albumThe Performance. In 2001, he provided a new arrangement ofRon Grainer'sDoctor Whotheme musicfor theEighth Doctoraudio dramas fromBig Finish Productions. His version was used as the Eighth Doctor theme starting with 2001'sStorm Warninguntil 2008, when it was replaced with a new version arranged byNicholas Briggsstarting withDead London. Arnold's theme returned to the Eighth Doctor releases with the 2012 box set,Dark Eyes. Arnold is the second cousin of Irish singer-songwriterDamien Rice, and is an ambassador for aid",
"ambassador for aid agencyCARE Internationalin the UK. He has made minor appearances in two different episodes ofLittle Britainas separate characters. In February 2011, it was announced that he had been appointed Musical Director for the2012 Olympic Gamesand the2012 Paralympic Gamesin London. In May 2011, he was part of the United Kingdom's jury for theEurovision Song Contest 2011. Arnold took part in a tribute toJohn Barryon 20 June 2011 at theRoyal Albert Hallin London, singing a song that was composed by Barry and playing the guitar part of the James Bond theme. In 2014, Arnold teamed up withRichard Thomas, to write the music and lyrics for the newWest EndmusicalMade in Dagenham. In October 2015 he collaborated withLethal BizzleandSinead Harnettto create a song combining orchestral,grimeand soul elements. The song, 'Come This Far', was performed liveat a special event at One Mayfair, as part ofBulmersCider's LiveColourful LIVE promotion, and made available as a free download from Bulmers' website. He",
"website. He andSherlockco-composerMichael Pricealso composed the music for ITV's Jekyll and Hyde television series which premiered in October 2015. In September 2016 the Royal Albert Hall hosted an orchestral performance ofIndependence Daywith the score performed live to picture, David Arnold gave a pre-show talk. In 2019, David Arnold provided additional production forSophie Ellis-Bextor's orchestral album,The Song Diaries. Later in 2020, he co-produced an orchestral cover of 'My Favourite Things' (fromThe Sound of Music) along withRichard Jones(ofThe Feeling) for Sophie's 2020 compilation albumSongs From The Kitchen Disco. In July 2023, it was announced that Arnold and Ellis-Bextor would collaborate with lyricistDon Blackfor the track toChannel 4andUniversal Picturesfilm, \"Mog's Christmas\", based uponthe children's book seriesbyJudith Kerr. The track, titled \"As Long As I Belong\", is about \"the importance of belonging\". The film is slated for a Q4 2023 release. Acting filmography Discography Films",
"Discography Films Television Video games Web series Singles in charts Awards References External links"
] |
Which horse won the Kentucky Derby during the same calendar year in which John Hinckley Jr. attempted to assassinate U.S. President Ronald Reagan? | Pleasant Colony | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Ronald_Reagan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_Derby | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Ronald_Reagan', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_Derby'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Ronald_Reagan",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_Derby"
] | [
"Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan On March 30, 1981, then President of the United StatesRonald Reaganwas shot and wounded byJohn Hinckley Jr.inWashington, D.C., as he was returning to his limousine after a speaking engagement at theWashington Hilton. Hinckley believed the attack would impress actressJodie Foster, with whom he had developed anerotomanicobsession after viewing her in the 1976 filmTaxi Driver. Reagan was seriously wounded by arevolverbullet that ricocheted off the side of the presidential limousine and hit him in the left underarm, breaking a rib, puncturing a lung, and causing serious internal bleeding. He was close to death upon arrival atGeorge Washington University Hospitalbut was stabilized in the emergency room; he then underwent emergency exploratory surgery. He recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11. No formal invocation of sections 3 or 4 of the Constitution's25th amendment(concerning the vice president assuming the president's powers and duties) took place, though Secretary of StateAlexander Haigstated that he was \"in control here\" at the White House until Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushreturned to Washington fromFort Worth, Texas. Haig was fourth in the line of succession after Bush,Speaker of the HouseTip O'Neill, andpresident pro tempore of the SenateStrom Thurmond. White House press secretaryJames Brady,Secret ServiceagentTim McCarthy, and D.C. police officerThomas Delahantywere also wounded. All three survived, but Brady had brain damage and was permanently disabled. His death in 2014 was considered a homicide because it was ultimately caused by his injury. Hinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity on charges of attempting to assassinate the president. He remained confined toSt. Elizabeth's Hospital, a D.C. psychiatric facility. In January 2015, federal prosecutors announced that they would not charge Hinckley with Brady's death, despite the medical examiner's classification of his death as a homicide.Hinckley was released from institutional psychiatric care on September 10, 2016. Hinckley's motivation John Hinckley Jr.haderotomaniaand his motivation for the attack was born of his obsession with then-child actressJodie Foster. While living inHollywoodin the late 1970s, he saw the filmTaxi Driverat least 15 times, apparently identifying strongly with protagonistTravis Bickle, portrayed by actorRobert De Niro.The story involves Bickle's attempts to save a child prostitute played by Foster. Toward the end of the film, Bickle attempts to assassinate aUnited States senatorwho is running for president. Over the following years, Hinckley trailed Foster around the country, going so far as to enroll in a writing course atYale Universityin 1980 after reading inPeoplemagazine that she was a student there.He wrote numerous letters and notes to her in late 1980.He called her twice and refused to give up when she indicated that she was not interested in him. Hinckley was convinced that he would be Foster's equal if he became a national figure. He decided to emulate Bickle and began stalking PresidentJimmy Carter. He was surprised at how easy it was to get close to the president—he was only a foot away at one event—but was arrested in October 1980 atNashville International Airportand fined for illegal possession of a firearm.: 70, 251Carter had made a campaign stop there, but theFBIdid not connect this arrest to the president and did not notify theSecret Service.His parents briefly placed him under the care of a psychiatrist. Hinckley turned his attention toRonald Reagan, whose election, he told his parents, would be good for the country.He wrote three or four more notes to Foster in early March 1981. Foster gave these notes to a Yaledean, who gave them to the Yale police department, who sought but failed to track Hinckley down. Attempted assassination On March 21, 1981, new president Ronald Reagan, who took office on January 20, 1981, and his wifeNancyvisitedFord's Theatrein Washington, D.C., for a fundraising event. In his autobiographyAn American Life, Reagan recalled, I looked up at the presidential box above the stage whereAbe Lincolnhad been sittingthe night he was shotand felt a curious sensation ... I thought that even with all the Secret Service protection we now had, it was probably still possible for someone who had enough determination to get close enough to the president to shoot him. Speaking engagement at the Washington Hilton Hotel On March 28, Hinckley arrived in Washington, D.C., by busand checked into the Park Central Hotel.He originally intended to continue on to New Haven in another attempt to infatuate Foster.: 23He noticed Reagan's schedule that was published inThe Washington Starand decided it was time to act.Hinckley knew that he might be killed during the assassination attempt, and he wrote but did not mail a letter to Foster about two hours prior to his attempt on the president's life. In the letter, he said that he hoped to impress her with the magnitude of his action and that he would \"abandon the idea of getting Reagan in a second if I could only win your heart and live out the rest of my life with you.\": 58 On March 30, Reagan delivered a luncheon address toAFL–CIOrepresentatives at theWashington Hilton.The Secret Service was very familiar with the hotel, having inspected it more than 100 times for presidential visits since the early 1970s.The Hilton was considered the safest venue in Washington because of its secure, enclosed passageway called \"President's Walk\", built after the 1963assassination of John F. Kennedy. Reagan entered the building through the passagewayat about 1:45 p.m., waving to a crowd of news media and citizens. The Secret Service had required him to wear abulletproof vestfor some events, but Reagan was not wearing one for the speech, because his only public exposure would be the 30 feet (9 m) between the hotel andhis limousine,and the agency did not require vests for agents that day. No one saw Hinckley behaving in an unusual way. Witnesses who reported him as \"fidgety\" and \"agitated\" apparently confused Hinckley with another person that the Secret Service had been monitoring. Shooting At 2:27 p.m.,: 82Reagan exited the hotel through \"President's Walk\"onFlorida Avenue, where reporters waited.He left the T Street NW exit toward his waiting limousine as Hinckley waited within the crowd of admirers. The Secret Service had extensively screened those attending the president's speech, but greatly erred by allowing an unscreened group to stand within 15 ft (4.5 m) of him, behind arope line.: 80–81, 225The agency uses multiple layers of protection. Local police in the outer layer briefly check people, Secret Service agents in the middle layer check for weapons and more agents form the inner layer immediately around the president. Hinckley had penetrated the first two layers. As several hundred people applauded Reagan, the president unexpectedly passed right in front of Hinckley. Reporters standing behind a rope barricade 20 feet (6 m) away asked questions. As Mike Putzel of theAssociated Pressshouted \"Mr. President—\",Hinckley assumed acrouchposition: 81and rapidly fired aRöhm RG-14.22 LRblue steelrevolversix times in 1.7 seconds,: 82missing the president with all six shots. The first round hitWhite House press secretaryJames Bradyin the head above his left eye, passing through underneath his brain and shattering his brain cavity. The small explosive charge in the round exploded on impact.District of Columbia police officerThomas Delahantyrecognized the sound as a gunshot and turned his head sharply to the left to identify the shooter.: 82As he did so, he was struck in the back of his neck by the second shot, the bullet ricocheting off his spine. Delahanty fell on top of Brady, screaming \"I am hit!\". Hinckley now had a clear shot at the president,: 81but Alfred Antenucci, aCleveland, Ohiolabor official who was standing nearby, saw Hinckley fire the first two shots,hit him in the head and began to wrestle him to the ground.Upon hearing the shots, Special Agent in ChargeJerry Parralmost instantly grabbed Reagan by the shoulders and dived with him toward the open rear door of the limousine. Agent Ray Shaddick trailed just behind Parr to assist in throwing both men into the car.The third round overshot the president, instead hitting the window of a building across the street. Parr's actions likely saved Reagan from being hit in the head.: 224 As Parr pushed Reagan into the limousine, Secret Service agentTim McCarthysnapped his attention toward the sound of the gunfire, pivoted to his right, and placed himself in the line of fire. McCarthy spread his arms and legs, taking a wide stance directly in front of Reagan and Parr to make himself a target.McCarthy was struck in the lower abdomen by the fourth round, the bullet traversing his right lung,diaphragmand right lobe of theliver.The fifth round hit the bullet-resistant glass of the window on the open rear door of the limousine as Reagan and Parr were passing behind it. The sixth and final bullet ricocheted off the armored side of the limousine, passed between the space of the open rear door and vehicle frame and hit the president in the left underarm. The round grazed a rib and lodged in his lung, causing it to partially collapse before stopping less than an inch (25 mm) from his heart. Within moments of the first shots, Secret Service agent Dennis McCarthy (not a familial relation of agent Tim McCarthy) dove across the sidewalk and landed directly on Hinckley, as others pushed Hinckley to the ground.: 84Another Cleveland-area labor official, Frank J. McNamara, joined Antenucci and started punching Hinckley in the head, striking him so hard that he drew blood.Dennis McCarthy later reported that he had to \"strike two citizens\" to force them to release Hinckley.Secret Service agent Robert Wanko deployed anUzisubmachine gun concealed in a briefcase to cover the president's evacuation, and to deter a potential group attack. The day after the shooting, Hinckley's gun was given to theATF, which traced its origin. In just 16 minutes, agents found that the gun had been purchased at Rocky's Pawn Shop inDallas, Texas on October 13, 1980.It had been loaded with six Devastator brandcartridges, which contained small aluminum andlead azideexplosive charges designed to explode on contact, but the bullet that hit Brady was the only one that exploded. On April 2, after learning that the others could explode at any time, volunteer doctors wearing bulletproof vests removed the bullet from Delahanty's neck.: 223 George Washington University Hospital After the Secret Service first announced \"shots fired\" over its radio network at 2:27 p.m., Reagan—codename\"Rawhide\"—was removed from the scene by the agents in the limousine (\"Stagecoach\").: 66No one knew that Reagan had been shot. After Parr searched Reagan's body and found no blood, he stated that \"Rawhide is OK...we're going to Crown\" (theWhite House), as he preferred its medical facilities to those of an unsecured hospital. Reagan was in great pain from the bullet that struck his rib, and believed that his rib had cracked when Parr pushed him into the limousine. When the agent checked him for gunshot wounds, Reagan coughed up bright, frothy blood.Although the president believed that he had cut his lip,Parr assessed that the cracked rib had punctured Reagan's lung and ordered the motorcade to divert to nearbyGeorge Washington University Hospital, which the Secret Service periodically inspected for use.The limousine arrived there less than four minutes after leaving the hotel, while other agents took Hinckley to a D.C. jail, and Nancy Reagan (\"Rainbow\") left the White House for the hospital. Although Parr had requested a stretcher,none were ready at the hospital, which did not normally station a stretcher at the emergency department's entrance. Reagan exited the limousine and insisted on walking. He acted casually and smiled at onlookers as he entered the hospital. While he entered the hospital unassisted, once inside, Reagan complained of difficulty breathing, his knees buckled and he fell to one knee. Parr and others assisted him into the emergency department.Thephysician to the presidentDaniel Rugehad been near Reagan during the shooting and arrived in a separate car. Believing that the president might have experienced a heart attack, Ruge insisted that the hospital's trauma team operate on Reagan as they would any other patient.: 106–107When a hospital employee asked Reagan aideMichael Deaverfor the patient's name and address, only when Deaver stated \"1600 Pennsylvania\" did the worker realize that the president was in the emergency department.: 107–108 The medical team, led by Joseph Giordano, cut Reagan's \"thousand-dollar\" custom-made suitin order to examine him. Reagan complained about the cost of the ruined suit, which was cited by an assistant in a press briefing to reassure the public that the president was in stable health.Military officers, including the one who carried thenuclear football, unsuccessfully tried to prevent FBI agents from confiscating the suit, Reagan's wallet and other possessions as evidence. TheGold Codescard was in the wallet, and the FBI did not return it until two days later. The medical personnel found that Reagan'ssystolic blood pressurewas 60 compared to the normal 140, indicating that he was inshock, and knew that most 70-year-olds in the president's condition would not survive.: 108However, Reagan was in excellent physical health, and had been shot by a .22 (5.6 mm)-caliber bullet instead of a larger.38(9.7 mm) as was first feared.They treated him with intravenous fluids, oxygen, tetanus toxoid and chest tubesand surprised Parr—who still believed that he had cracked the president's rib—by finding the entrance of the gunshot wound. Doctors operated on Brady and the wounded agent Tim McCarthy near the president. When Nancy Reagan arrived in the emergency department, Reagan remarked to her, \"Honey, I forgot to duck\", borrowing boxerJack Dempsey's line to his wife from the night on which he was beaten byGene Tunney.While intubated, he scribbled to a nurse, \"All in all, I'd rather be in Philadelphia\", borrowing a line fromW. C. Fields.Although Reagan came close to death, the team's quick action—and Parr's decision to drive to the hospital instead of the White House—likely saved the president's life. Within 30 minutes, Reagan left the emergency department for surgery, with normal blood pressure.He then underwent emergency exploratory surgery to check for organ damage and remove the bullet.The chief of thoracic surgery, Benjamin L. Aaron, performed athoracotomylasting 105 minutesbecause the bleeding persisted. Ultimately, Reagan lost over half of his blood volume in the emergency department and during surgery,but the bullet was successfully removed. In the operating room, Reagan removed his oxygen mask to joke, \"I hope you are allRepublicans.\" The doctors and nurses laughed, and Giordano, aDemocrat, replied, \"Today, Mr. President, we areallRepublicans.\": 147Reagan's post-operative course was complicated by fever, which was treated with antibiotics.Because Reagan had entered the operating room conscious and not in shock, and the surgery was routine, his doctors and others predicted that he could leave the hospital in two weeks, return to work at theOval Officein a month and completely heal in six to eight weeks with no long-term effects. Immediate response National Security AdvisorRichard Allenwould traditionally be responsible forcrisis managementfor theexecutive branch, butSecretary of StateAlexander Haigwanted the role. Six days before the shooting,Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushreceived the assignment instead. Allen and theNational Security Councilwould assist him. Reagan persuaded an upset Haig not to resign.The secretary reportedly \"pound the table in frustration and anger.\"When news of the assassination attempt reached the White House, Haig was there. He urged the vice president—visitingTexasfor the first time sincethe inauguration—to return, but the voice connection to Bush aboardAir Force Twowas weak, and it is unknown whether they heard each other. By 2:35 p.m., Bush was notified of the shooting. He was leavingFort Worth, Texasand, relying on the initial reports that Reagan was unharmed, he flew toAustinfor a speech.At 3:14 p.m., 47 minutes after the shooting, Haig sent a codedteletypemessage to Bush: MR. VICE PRESIDENT: IN THE INCIDENT YOU WILL HAVE HEARD ABOUT BY NOW, THE PRESIDENT WAS STRUCK IN THE BACK AND IS IN SERIOUS CONDITION. MEDICAL AUTHORITIES ARE DECIDING NOW WHETHER OR NOT TO OPERATE. RECOMMEND YOU RETURN TO DC AT EARLIEST POSSIBLE MOMENT. SECRETARY ALEXANDER HAIG, JR. Air Force Two refueled in Austin before returning to Washington,at what its pilot described as the fastest speed in the plane's history.The aircraft did not havesecure voicecommunications, and Bush's discussions with the White House were intercepted and given to the press. White House counselFred Fieldingimmediately prepared for a transfer of presidential powers under the25th Amendment,andchief of staffJames A. Bakerandcounselor to the PresidentEdwin Meesewent to Reagan's hospitalstill believing that the president was unharmed. Within five minutes of the shooting, members of theCabinetbegan gathering in theWhite House Situation Room.The Cabinet and the Secret Service were initially unsure whether the shooting was part of a larger attack by terrorists, or that of a foreign intelligence service such as theKGB. Tensions with the Soviet Union were high because of theSolidarity movementincommunist Poland. The Cabinet was also concerned that the Soviets would take advantage of the unstable situation to launch a nuclear attack. After the shooting, the American military detected two Sovietballistic missile submarinespatrolling unusually close to theEast Coast of the United States, which could allow their missiles to reach Washington, D.C. two minutes faster than usual.: 175–177Defense secretaryCaspar Weinbergerresponded by placing theStrategic Air Commandon high alert.Haig, Weinberger and Allen discussed various issues, including the location of the nuclear football, the submarine presence, a possible Soviet invasion against the1981 warning strike in Polandand thepresidential line of succession. Although tape recorders are not normally allowed in the Situation Room, these meetings were recorded with the participants' knowledge by Allen, and the five hours of tapes have since been made public. The group obtained a duplicate nuclear football and Gold Codes card and kept it in the Situation Room. Reagan's football was still with the officer at the hospital, and Bush also had a card and football.: 155The participants discussed whether to raise the military's alert status and the importance of doing so without changing theDEFCONlevel.They eventually determined that the number of Soviet submarines was normal. A pair of Soviet submarines was assuming the patrol area from another pair, a relief operation that routinely occurred at the end of a month. However, one of the four submarines was patrolling unusually close to the coast. In consideration of the ongoing tensions over Poland, Weinberger ordered the Strategic Air Command be placed on alert, but he did not reveal the alert status to the public. Upon learning that Reagan was in surgery, Haig declared, the \"helm is right here. And that means right in this chair for now, constitutionally, until the vice president gets here\".However, Haig was incorrect. As the sitting Secretary of State, he was fourth behind Vice President Bush,Speaker of the HouseTip O'Neill, andPresidentpro temporeof the SenateStrom Thurmondin the line of succession. Under3 U.S.C.§ 19, O'Neill and Thurmond would have to resign their positions to become acting president. Although others in the room knew that Haig's statement was constitutionally incorrect, they did not object at the time, to avoid a confrontation.Allen later said that although Haig \"constantly, incessantly drummed on some variant of 'I am in charge, I am senior'\", he and Fielding \"didn't give a rat's ass\" as Bush would be in charge when he arrived. At the same time, a press conference was under way in theWhite House Briefing Room.CBSreporterLesley Stahlasked deputy press secretaryLarry Speakeswho was running the government, to which Speakes responded, \"I cannot answer that question at this time\". Upon hearing Speakes's remark, Haig wrote and passed a note to Speakes, ordering him to leave the dais immediately.: 171–173Moments later, Haig entered the Briefing Room, where he made the following controversial statement: Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the president, the vice president and the secretary of state, in that order, and should the president decide he wants to transfer the helm to the vice president, he will do so. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending the return of the vice president and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course. Despite his familiarity with the Briefing Room from serving asRichard Nixon's chief of staff, Stahl described Haig as \"visibly shaken\",and the Associated Press wrote that \"his voice continually choked up and quavered with emotion, and his arms trembled\".Those in the Situation Room reportedly laughed when they heard him say \"I am in control here\",and Allen later said \"I was astounded that he would say something so eminently stupid\".Haig later said, I wasn't talking about transition. I was talking about the executive branch, who is running the government. That was the question asked. It was not \"Who is in line should the President die?\" Although Haig stated in the Briefing Room that \"There are absolutely no alert measures that are necessary at this time or contemplated\", while he was speaking, Weinberger raised the military's alert level.After Haig returned to the Situation Room, he objected to Weinberger doing so, as it made him appear a liar,although as deputy commander-in-chief, only Reagan outranked Weinberger in theNational Command Authority.Weinberger and others accused Haig of exceeding his authority with his \"I am in control\" statement,while Haig defended himself by advising the others to \"read the Constitution\",saying that his comments did not involve \"succession\" and that he knew the \"pecking order\". Aboard Air Force Two, Bush watched Haig's press briefing. Meese told him that Reagan was stable after surgery to remove the bullet. The vice president arrived atAndrews Air Force Baseat 6:30 p.m. and decided to not fly by helicopter to the White House. He said to a military aide \"only the president lands on theSouth Lawn\". Bush later said in an interview that landing on the South Lawn would have \"made for great TV\", but would have sent the wrong message to the country, and pointed out that the South Lawn was situated under the president's bedroom window, where the First Lady was waiting for news of Reagan's surgery.Marine Twoinstead flew toNumber One Observatory Circle. \"Despite brief flare-ups and distractions\", Allen recalled, \"the crisis management team in the Situation Room worked well together. The congressional leadership was kept informed, and governments around the world were notified and reassured.\"Reagan's surgery ended at 6:20 p.m., although he did not regain consciousness until 7:30 p.m.,so could not invoke Section 3 of the 25th Amendment to make Bushacting president. The vice president arrived at the White House at 7:00 p.m., and did not invoke Section 4 of the 25th Amendment. Bush took charge of the Situation Room meeting, which received an update that the planned Polish national strike was cancelled. They evaluated new satellite images from Eastern Europe that showed no Soviet troop movements near Poland. They further assessed that Hinckley Jr. was likely acting alone after being informed of his October 1980 arrest record inNashville, which suggested that he had been trailing then-President Carter.Bush stated on national television at 8:20 p.m.: I can reassure this nation and a watching world that the American government is functioning fully and effectively. We've had full and complete communications throughout the day. Investigation The FBI took over the investigation on Saturday. Agents obtained a warrant and searched the shooter's hotel room. Before touching anything, the entire room was filmed and photographed. Fingerprints were then sought in case there was an accomplice. According to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \"What we found in Mr Hinckley's room was bizarre. On the desk, so that we could find him, was his entire plan. He had left a map of where he was going. He had the morning paper open with the president's diary. He publicised the fact that Reagan would be speaking to a union group in the ballroom of the Washington Hilton. Strangest of all was a statement - a letter to actress Jodie Foster proclaiming that he was committing a historic act, a presidential assassination, to impress her.\". The serial number of Hinckley's revolver was provided to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. It quickly determined where Hinckley bought the gun. The police gathered the witnesses in the auditorium where the president had given a speech. Secret Service agents who were witnesses or had other first-hand information were identified. According to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \"Our follow-up investigation, which lasted weeks, traced Mr Hinckley's history over the previous months. We determined that he had travelled the country, gone to firing ranges and, in fact, was obsessed with Ms Foster. He had planned and committed an assassination attempt on the president. He was a mentally disturbed man.\". Public reaction The assassination attempt was captured onelectronic news-gatheringvideotape by several cameras, including those belonging to theBig Three television networks.ABCbegan airing footage at 2:42 p.m. All three networks erroneously reported that Brady had died.WhenABC NewsanchormanFrank Reynolds, a friend of Brady, was later forced to retract the report, he angrily said on-air to his staff, \"C'mon, let's get it nailed down!\",as a result of the miscommunication. ABC News also initially reported that President Reagan had not been injured. A network erroneously reported that he was undergoingopen-heart surgery.: 133, 185 WhileCNNdid not have a camera of its own at the shooting, it was able to useNBC'spool feed,and by staying on the story for 48 hours, the network, less than a year old, built a reputation for thoroughness.Shocked Americans gathered around television sets in homes and shopping centers.Some cited the allegedCurse of Tippecanoe, and others recalled the assassinations of Kennedy andMartin Luther King Jr.Newspapers printed extra editionsand used gigantic headlines;theUnited States Senateadjourned, interrupting debate of Reagan's economic proposals; and churches held prayer services. Hinckley asked the arresting officers whether that night'sAcademy Awardsceremony would be postponed because of the shooting, and it was. The ceremony—for which former actor Reagan had taped a message—occurred the next evening.The president survived surgery with a good prognosis. TheNCAAchampionship basketball game that evening betweenIndianaandNorth Carolinawas not postponed, although the audience of 18,000 in Philadelphia held amoment of silencebefore the game, which Indiana won.In the immediate aftermath of the shooting, theDow Jones Industrial Averagedeclined before theNew York Stock Exchangeclosed early, but the index rose the next day as Reagan recovered.Beyond having to postpone its Academy Awards broadcast, ABC temporarily renamed the lead character ofThe Greatest American Hero, which had debuted in March, from \"Ralph Hinkley\" to \"Hanley\",and NBC postponed a forthcoming episode ofWalking Talltitled \"Hit Man\". Aftermath Jodie Foster The incident was a traumatic experience for the 18-year-old Foster, who was hounded by the media and paparazzi in its aftermath. She took a semester off atYaleand had to be escorted by abodyguardeverywhere she went. This event produced other stalkers for her, including a 22-year-old man named Edward Michael Richardson, who according to the Secret Service shared a similar obsession with Foster, and carried a loaded handgun planning to kill her, but changed his mind after watching her perform in a college play. Hinckley demanded that Foster testify at his trial. Agreement was reached between Foster's and Hinckley lawyers that she would do so in a closed session, with only herself, the judge (Barrington D. Parker), lawyers and Hinckley present. A videotape of this session could be introduced as evidence into Hinckley's trial. This session took place in March 1982. During her testimony, Foster did not look at or acknowledge Hinckley. This caused him to throw a pen at her and shout threats, before he was surrounded and removed from the room bymarshals. Since the attempted assassination, Foster has only commented on Hinckley on four occasions: a press conference a few days after the attack, an article she wrote forEsquiremagazine in 1982 after his sentencing, during an interview withCharlie Roseon60 Minutes IIin 1999, and while speaking to comedian and actorMarc Maronon his podcastWTF with Marc Maronin 2021.She has ended or canceled several interviews if the event was mentioned, or if she felt that an interviewer was going to bring Hinckley up.To Maron, Foster said that she voluntarily chose not to speak about the incident in interviews to avoid being labelled as an actress primarily remembered for that incident, and reflected on how her mother, a former publicist, helped her in overcoming the media frenzy, and the public's obsession with her involvement. Ronald Reagan Reagan's staff members were anxious for the president to appear to be recovering quickly,and the morning after his operation he saw visitors and signed a piece of legislation.Reagan left the hospital on the morning of April 11. Entering the limousine was difficult, and he joked that the first thing he would do at home was \"sit down\". Reagan's recovery speed impressed his doctors, but they advised the president not to work in the Oval Office for a week and avoid travel for several weeks. No visitors were scheduled for his first weekend.Initially, Reagan worked two hours a day in the White House's residential quarters.Reagan did not lead a Cabinet meeting until day 26, did not leave Washington until day 49, and did not hold a press conference until day 79. Ruge, the physician to the president, thought recovery was not complete until October.Reagan's plans for the month after the shooting were canceled, including a visit to theMission Control CenteratLyndon B. Johnson Space CenterinHouston, Texas, in April 1981 duringSTS-1, the first flight of theSpace Shuttle. Vice President Bush instead called the orbiting astronauts during their mission. Reagan visited Mission Control duringSTS-2that November. The events contributed to Reagan's initial popularity. Though he had enjoyed approval ratings of up to 60% until March, his ratings surged to nearly 70% in the following months.Privately, Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to fulfill a greater purposeand, although not a Catholic, meetings withMother Teresa, CardinalTerence Cooke, and fellowshooting survivor Pope John Paul IIreinforced his belief. Reagan returned to the Oval Office on April 25 and received a standing ovation from staff and Cabinet members. He referred to their teamwork in his absence and insisted, \"I should be applauding you.\"He made his first public appearance in an April 28 speech before thejoint houses of Congress. In the speech, he introduced his planned spending cuts, which had been a campaign promise. He received \"two thunderous standing ovations\", whichThe New York Timesdeemed \"a salute to his good health\" as well as his programs, which the president introduced using a medical recovery theme.Reagan installed a gym in the White House and began regularly exercising there, gaining so much muscle that he had to buy new suits. The shooting caused Nancy Reagan to fear for her husband's safety, however. She asked him to not run forreelection in 1984, and, because of her concerns, began consulting astrologerJoan Quigley.Reagan never again walked across an airport tarmac or got out of his limousine on a public sidewalk as president. Delahanty, Tim McCarthy, and Brady Thomas Delahanty recovered but developed permanent nerve damage to his left arm, and was ultimately forced to retire from the Metropolitan Police Department due to his disability. Tim McCarthy recovered fully and was the first of the wounded men to be discharged from the hospital. James Brady survived, but his wound left him with slurred speech and partial paralysis that required the full-time use of awheelchair. Brady remained press secretary for the remainder of Reagan's administration, but this was primarily atitularrole. Later, Brady and his wifeSarahbecame leading advocates ofgun controland other actions to reduce the amount ofgun violence in the United States. They became active in thelobbyingorganization Handgun Control, Inc.—which was eventually renamed theBrady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence—and founded the non-profitBrady Center to Prevent Gun Violence.TheBrady Handgun Violence Prevention Actwas passed in 1993 as a result of their work.Brady died on August 4, 2014, in Alexandria, Virginia, at the age of 73. Following Brady's death in 2014, the District of Columbia Medical Examiner ruled the death a homicide stemming from wounds caused by the Hinckley assassination attempt. This ruling raised the possibility that Hinckley could face additional future murder charges.However, prosecutors declined to do so for two reasons. First, a jury had already declared Hinckley insane at the time of the shooting, and the constitutional prohibition againstdouble jeopardywould preclude overturning this ruling on account of Brady's death. Second, in 1981 Washington, D.C., still had thecommon law\"year and a day\" rule in place. Although the year and a day rule had been abolished in the district prior to 2014, the constitutional prohibition againstex post factolawwould preclude the upgrading of charges for deaths resulting today from acts committed while the rule was in effect, and would prohibit the government from challenging Hinckley's successful insanity defense based on the current federal law. The shooting of Reagan exacerbated the debate on gun control in the U.S., that began with the December 1980 handgunmurder of John Lennon. Reagan expressed opposition to increased handgun control following Lennon's death and reiterated his opposition after his own shooting. However, in a speech at an event marking the assassination attempt's 10th anniversary,Reagan endorsed the Brady Act: \"Anniversary\" is a word we usually associate with happy events that we like to remember: birthdays, weddings, the first job. March 30, however, marks an anniversary I would just as soon forget, but cannot... four lives were changed forever, and all by a Saturday-night special – a cheaply made .22 caliber pistol – purchased in a Dallas pawnshop by a young man with a history of mental disturbance. This nightmare might never have happened if legislation that is before Congress now – the Brady bill – had been law back in 1981... If the passage of the Brady bill were to result in a reduction of only 10 or 15 percent of those numbers (and it could be a good deal greater), it would be well worth making it the law of the land. And there would be a lot fewer families facing anniversaries such as the Bradys, Delahantys, McCarthys and Reagans face every March 30. In 1994, Reagan made numerous appeals to support theFederal Assault Weapons Banin the House of Representatives. At least two representatives, RepublicanScott L. Klugand DemocratRichard Swett, credit Reagan's efforts for their decision to vote for the bill, which eventually passed by a 216–214 margin. Parr After the assassination attempt, Jerry Parr was hailed as a hero.He received Congressional commendations for his actions, and was named one of four \"Top Cops\" in the U.S. byParademagazine.He later wrote about the assassination attempt in his autobiography, calling it both the best and the worst day of his life.Parr came to believe that God had directed his life so that he could one day save the president's life, and became a pastor after retiring from the Secret Service in 1985.:224He died ofcongestive heart failureat a hospice in Washington, D.C., on October 9, 2015, aged 85. Antenucci and McNamara Antenucci and McNamara both became ill following the assassination attempt. McNamara died on September 18, 1981, six months after the attempted assassination at the age of 62.Antenucci died on May 9, 1984, aged 71. John Hinckley Hinckley was foundnot guilty by reason of insanityon June 21, 1982. The defensepsychiatricreports had found him to beinsanewhile the prosecution reports declared him legally sane.Following his lawyers' advice, he declined to take the stand in his own defense.Hinckley was confined atSt. Elizabeths Hospitalin Washington, D.C., full-time until 2006, at which point he began a program of spending gradually more time at his mother's home. On September 10, 2016, Hinckley was permitted to permanently leave the hospital to live with his mother full-time, under court supervision and with mandatory psychiatric treatment.After his trial, he wrote that the shooting was \"the greatest love offering in the history of the world\", and did not indicate any regrets at the time. The not-guilty verdict led to widespread dismay,and, as a result, theU.S. Congressand a number of states rewrote laws regarding the insanity defense.The oldModel Penal Code testwas replaced by a test that shifts theburden of proofregarding a defendant's sanity from the prosecution to the defendant. Three states have abolished the defense altogether. Portrayals in literature and popular culture Books On screen The following is the list of the movies dealing with the assassination attempt or portraying a portion of it: On stage See also Notes References External links",
"Kentucky Derby TheKentucky Derby(/ˈdɜːrbi/) is an AmericanGrade I stakesracerun atChurchill DownsinLouisville, Kentucky. The race is run by three-year-oldThoroughbredsat a distance of1+1⁄4miles (10 furlongs; 2,012 metres).Coltsandgeldingscarry 126 pounds (57 kilograms) andfillies121 pounds (55 kilograms). Held annually on the first Saturday in May, the Derby is the first leg of theTriple Crown. It is preceded by the two-week-longKentucky Derby Festival.The race is known as \"The Run for the Roses\", as the winning horse is draped in a blanket of roses.Lasting approximately two minutes, the Derby has been alternately called \"The Most Exciting Two Minutes in Sports\",\"The Fastest Two Minutes in Sports\",or \"The Greatest Two Minutes in Sports\", coined by Churchill Downs presidentMatt Winn.At least two of these descriptions are thought to be derived from the words of sportswriterGrantland Rice, when in 1935 he said \"Those two minutes and a second or so of derby running carry more emotional thrills, per second, than anything sport can show.\" The race was first run in 1875. Unlike the other, older races of the Triple Crown—thePreakness Stakesand theBelmont Stakes—along with theTravers Stakes(the oldest comparable stakes race in the US), the Kentucky Derby and its sibling race, theKentucky Oaks, have been run every year since inception. They were twice rescheduled within the same year, the first time due toWorld War IIin1945, and the second time due to theCOVID-19 pandemicin2020. The Derby and the Oaks are the oldest major sporting events in the US held annually since their beginning.Among thoroughbred stakes races, they are the oldest that have been held annually on the same track every year. The Derby is the most-watched andmost-attendedhorse race in the United States. The2024 Kentucky Derbymarked the 150th running of the race. History In 1872, Col.Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., grandson ofWilliam Clarkof theLewis and Clark expedition, traveled to England, visitingEpsomin Surrey whereThe Derbyhad been running annually since 1780.From there, Clark went on toParis, France, where a group of racing enthusiasts had formed theFrench Jockey Clubin 1863. They had organized theGrand Prix de ParisatLongchamp, which at the time was the greatest race in France. Returning home to Kentucky, Clark organized the Louisville Jockey Club to raise money for building quality racing facilities just outside the city. The track would soon become known asChurchill Downs, named for John and Henry Churchill, who provided the land for the racetrack.The naming went official in 1937. The Kentucky Derby was first run at1+1⁄2miles (12furlongs; 2.4 km) the same distance as theEpsom Derby, before changing lengths in 1896 to its current1+1⁄4miles (10 furlongs; 2 km). On May 17, 1875, in front of an estimated crowd of 10,000 people, a field of 15 three-year-old horses contested the first Derby. Under jockeyOliver Lewis, a colt namedAristides, who was trained by futureHall of FamerAnsel Williamson, won the inaugural Derby. Later that year, Lewis rode Aristides to a second-place finish in theBelmont Stakes. Initially a successful venue, the track ran into financial difficulties due to a protracted,gambling-relatedhorseman boycottremoving it from the upper echelons of racing that would last until just after the turn of the 20th century. In 1894 the New Louisville Jockey Club was incorporated with the new capitalization and improved facilities. Despite this, the business floundered until 1902, when a syndicate led byCol. Matt Winnof Louisville acquired the facility. Under Winn, Churchill Downs prospered, and the Kentucky Derby then became the preeminent stakes race for three-year-old thoroughbred horses in North America. Thoroughbred owners began sending their successful Derby horses to compete in two other races. These two are thePreakness Stakesat thePimlico Race Course, inBaltimore, and theBelmont StakesinElmont, New York. The three races offered large purses, and in1919,Sir Bartonbecame the first horse to win all three races. However, the term \"Triple Crown\" did not come into use for another eleven years. In1930, whenGallant Foxbecame the second horse to win all three races, sportswriterCharles Hattonbrought the phrase into American usage. Fueled by the media, public interest in the possibility of a \"superhorse\" that could win the Triple Crown began in the weeks leading up to the Derby. Two years after the term went in use, the race (until that time ran in mid-May since inception) changed the date to the first Saturday in May. This change allows for a specific schedule for the Triple Crown races. Since 1931, the order of Triple Crown races has been the Kentucky Derby first, followed by the Preakness Stakes and then the Belmont Stakes. Before 1931, eleven times the Preakness was run before the Derby. On May 12, 1917, and again on May 13, 1922, the Preakness and the Derby took place on the same day. On eleven occasions the Belmont Stakes was run before the Preakness Stakes, and in 2020, the Belmont was run first, then the Kentucky Derby, and the Preakness Stakes last. On May 16, 1925, the first live radio broadcast of the Kentucky Derby aired onWHASas well as onWGNin Chicago.On May 7, 1949, the first television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, produced byWAVE-TV, the NBC affiliate in Louisville. This coverage was aired live in the Louisville market and sent to NBC as a kinescope newsreel recording for national broadcast. On May 3, 1952, the first national television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, aired from then-CBSaffiliateWHAS-TV.In 1954, the purse exceeded US$100,000 for the first time. In 1968,Dancer's Imagebecame the first horse to win the race and then face disqualification. Aurine testrevealed traces ofphenylbutazone(ananti-inflammatorypainkiller drug) inside Dancer's Image.Forward Passwon after a protracted legal battle by the owners of Dancer's Image (which they lost). Forward Pass thus became the eighth winner forCalumet Farm. Unexpectedly, the regulations at Kentucky thoroughbred race tracks were changed some years later, allowing horses to run onphenylbutazone. In 1970,Diane Crumpbecame the first female jockey to ride in the Derby, finishing 15th aboard Fathom. The fastest time ever run in the Derby was in1973at 1:59.4 minutes, whenSecretariatbroke the record set byNorthern Dancerin1964. Also during that race, Secretariat did something unique in Triple Crown races: for each successive quarter run, his times were faster. Although the races do not record times for non-winners, in 1973 Sham finished second, two and a half lengths behind Secretariat in the same race. Using the thoroughbred racing convention of one length equaling one-fifth of a second to calculateSham's time, he also finished in under two minutes. Another sub-two-minute finish, only the third, was set in2001byMonarchosat 1:59.97, the first year the race used hundredths of seconds instead of fifths in timing. In 2005, thepurse distributionfor the Derby changed, so that horses finishing fifth would henceforth receive a share of the purse; previously only the first four finishers did so. The Kentucky Derby began offering $3 million in purse money in 2019. Churchill Downs officials have cited the success ofhistorical race wagering terminalsat their Derby City Gaming facility in Louisville as a factor behind the purse increase. The Derby first offered a $1 million purse in 1996; it was doubled to $2 million in 2005. In 2020, the Derby was postponed from May 2 to September 5 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.This was the second time in history the race had been postponed, the other being in1945.Churchill Downs used a new singular 20-stall starting gate for the2020 Kentucky Derby, replacing the previous arrangement that used a standard 14-stall gate and an auxiliary six-stall gate.The old setup contributed to congestion at the start of the race, especially in the gap between the two gates. Rich Strike, areservewho only made it into the final field after a late scratching, won therace in 2022at final odds of 80:1 andparimutuel bettingpayouts were even larger. In January 2024, the purse for the Kentucky Derby was increased to $5 million. Attendance Millions of people from around the world bet at various live tracks and online sportsbooks.In 2017, a crowd of 158,070 watched Always Dreaming win the Derby, making it the seventh biggest attendance in the history of the racetrack. The track reported a wagering total of $209.2 million from all the sources on all the races on the Kentucky Derby Day program. It was a 9 percent increase compared to the total of $192.6 million in 2016 and an increase of 8 percent over the previous record set in 2015 of $194.3 million.TwinSpires, a platform for betting online and a partner of the Kentucky Derby and the Breeders' Cup, recorded $32.8 million in handle on the Churchill Down races for the Kentucky Derby Day program. This record was a 22 percent increase over the preceding year. On the Kentucky Derby race alone, the handle of TwinSpires was $20.1 million, which is a 22 percent rise compared to the prior year. The race often draws celebrities. HMQueen Elizabeth II, on a visit to the United States, joined the racegoers at Churchill Downs in 2007. Sponsorship The 2004 Kentucky Derby marked the first time that jockeys—as a result of acourt order—were allowed to wear corporate advertisinglogoson their clothing. Norman Adams has been the designer of the Kentucky Derby Logo since 2002. On February 1, 2006, the Louisville-basedfast-foodcompanyYum! Brands, Inc.announced a corporate sponsorship deal to call the race \"The Kentucky Derby presented by Yum! Brands.\"In 2018,Woodford Reservereplaced Yum! Brands as the presenting sponsor. Traditions In addition to the race itself, several traditions play a significant role in the Derby atmosphere. Themint julep—an iced drink consisting ofbourbon,mint, andsugarsyrup—is the traditional beverage of the race. The historic beverage comes served in an ice-frosted silver julep cup. However, most Churchill Downs patrons sip theirs from souvenir glasses (first offered in 1939 and available in revised form each year since) printed with all previous Derby winners.Also,burgoo, a thick stew of beef, chicken, pork, and vegetables, is a popular Kentucky dish served at the Derby. Theinfield—a spectator area inside the track—offers general admission prices but little chance of seeing much of the race, particularly before thejumbotroninstallation in 2014.Instead, revelers show up in the infield to party with abandon. By contrast, \"Millionaire's Row\" refers to the expensive box seats that attract the rich, the famous and the well-connected. Women appear in elegant outfits lavishly accessorized with large, elaborate hats. Following theCall to the Postplayed on bugle by Steve Buttleman, as the horses start to parade before the grandstands, theUniversity of Louisville Cardinal Marching BandplaysStephen Foster's \"My Old Kentucky Home\". This song is a tradition which began in 1921.The event attracts spectators from a large area, flying in hundreds of private aircraft toLouisville International Airport. The Derby is frequently referred to as \"The Run for the Roses\", because a lush blanket of 554 redrosesis awarded to the Kentucky Derby winner each year.New York sports columnist and future Churchill Downs presidentBill Corumin 1925 began describing the race thusly,but the tradition originated in 1883 when New York City socialiteE. Berry Wallpresented roses to ladies at a post-Derby party. The Churchill Downs founder and president, Col. Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., attended that event. This gesture is believed to have led Clark to the idea of making the rose the race's official flower. However, it was not until 1896 that any recorded account referred to draping roses on the Derby winner.TheGovernor of Kentuckyand the Chairman ofChurchill Downs Incorporatedpresent the garland and theKentucky Derby Trophyto the winner. Pop vocalistDan Fogelbergcomposed the song \"Run for the Roses\", released in time for the 1980 running of the race. Riders Up! \"Riders Up!\" is the traditional command from the Paddock Judge for jockeys to mount their horses in advance of the upcoming race. Since 2012, the grand marshal recites this phrase. Grand marshals National Anthem performers Festival In the weeks preceding the race, numerous activities took place for theKentucky Derby Festival.Thunder Over Louisville—an airshow and fireworks display—generally begins the festivities in earnest two weeks before the Derby. Records Horse records Secretariatset the record for speed in 1973 with a time of 1:59.4. During its first two decades when the Derby was run at1+1⁄2miles, the record was 2:34.5, set bySpokanein 1889. The largest margin of victory is 8 lengths, a feat tied by four different horses:Old Rosebudin 1914,Johnstownin 1939,Whirlawayin 1941, andAssaultin 1946. The highest odds of a winning horse were 91 to 1 forDonerailin 1913. The second-highest odds occurred in 2022, whenRich Strikewent off at 80 to 1 and won the race. Three horses have won the Kentucky Derby without competing as a two-year-old:Apollo(1882),Justify(2018), andMage(2023). Jockey records 107jockeyshave won the Kentucky Derby, with 27 doing so multiple times.Isaac Murphy(1890–91),Jimmy Winkfield(1901–02),Ron Turcotte(1972–73),Eddie Delahoussaye(1982–83),Calvin Borel(2009–10), andVictor Espinoza(2014–15) are the only jockeys to win the Derby in back-to-back years. Borel is the only jockey with three wins in a four-year span (2007, '09, '10). Trainer records 116trainershave won the Kentucky Derby, with 19 doing so multiple times. Six trainers have won the Derby in back-to-back years:Herbert J. Thompson(1932–33),Ben Jones(1948–49),Jimmy Jones(1957–58),Lucien Laurin(1972–73),D. Wayne Lukas(1995–96), andBob Baffert(1997–98). Owner records Seventeen owners have won the Kentucky Derby multiple times with horses they fully or partially owned. * Partnered with other entities in an ownership group for one or more winning horses. \"Oaks/Derby Double\" Jockeys, trainers, and owners competing in the Kentucky Derby often will compete in theKentucky Oaks, a race for fillies held the day before the Derby. Winning both these races in the same year is referred to as an \"Oaks/Derby Double;\" 7 jockeys, 3 trainers, and 4 owners have accomplished this feat: *Until the 1950s, the Oaks was held several days or weeks after the Derby. Winners Triple Crownwinners are inboldand highlighted with gold. # Designates afilly. † Designates a horse that wonAmerican Horse of the Yearin the same year they won the Derby. ‡ Designates a horse that was inducted in subsequent years into theNational Racing Hall of Fame. Sire lines Winners of the Kentucky Derby can be connected to each other due to the practice ofarranging horse breedingbased on their previous success. All of the horses can be traced back to the three foundational sires, withGodolphin Arabianthe ancestor of 7 winners,Byerley Turkthe ancestor of 11 winners, andDarley Arabianthe ancestor of 132 winners, including all winners since 1938. Darley Arabian line TheDarley Arabian(1700c) sire line (all branched through theEclipse(1764) line)produced 132 Derby winners (124 colts, 5 geldings, 3 fillies), including all winners from 1938 to present.The main branches of this sire line are: Byerley Turk line TheByerley Turk(1680c) sire lineproduced 11 winners (8 colts, 3 geldings). The main branches of this sire (all branched through theHerod(1758) line) are: Godolphin Arabian line TheGodolphin Arabian(1724c) sire lineproduced 7 winners (6 colts, 1 gelding).The main branches of this sire (all branched through theWest Australian(1850) line) are: Kentucky Derby winners with male-line descendants including other Kentucky Derby winners See also References Further reading External links Legend– ₩ =Triple Crownwinners, ♥ = Filly"
] | [
"Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan On March 30, 1981, then President of the United StatesRonald Reaganwas shot and wounded byJohn Hinckley Jr.inWashington, D.C., as he was returning to his limousine after a speaking engagement at theWashington Hilton. Hinckley believed the attack would impress actressJodie Foster, with whom he had developed anerotomanicobsession after viewing her in the 1976 filmTaxi Driver. Reagan was seriously wounded by arevolverbullet that ricocheted off the side of the presidential limousine and hit him in the left underarm, breaking a rib, puncturing a lung, and causing serious internal bleeding. He was close to death upon arrival atGeorge Washington University Hospitalbut was stabilized in the emergency room; he then underwent emergency exploratory surgery. He recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11. No formal invocation of sections 3 or 4 of the Constitution's25th amendment(concerning the vice president assuming the president's powers and duties) took place,",
"duties) took place, though Secretary of StateAlexander Haigstated that he was \"in control here\" at the White House until Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushreturned to Washington fromFort Worth, Texas. Haig was fourth in the line of succession after Bush,Speaker of the HouseTip O'Neill, andpresident pro tempore of the SenateStrom Thurmond. White House press secretaryJames Brady,Secret ServiceagentTim McCarthy, and D.C. police officerThomas Delahantywere also wounded. All three survived, but Brady had brain damage and was permanently disabled. His death in 2014 was considered a homicide because it was ultimately caused by his injury. Hinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity on charges of attempting to assassinate the president. He remained confined toSt. Elizabeth's Hospital, a D.C. psychiatric facility. In January 2015, federal prosecutors announced that they would not charge Hinckley with Brady's death, despite the medical examiner's classification of his death as a homicide.Hinckley was released",
"was released from institutional psychiatric care on September 10, 2016. Hinckley's motivation John Hinckley Jr.haderotomaniaand his motivation for the attack was born of his obsession with then-child actressJodie Foster. While living inHollywoodin the late 1970s, he saw the filmTaxi Driverat least 15 times, apparently identifying strongly with protagonistTravis Bickle, portrayed by actorRobert De Niro.The story involves Bickle's attempts to save a child prostitute played by Foster. Toward the end of the film, Bickle attempts to assassinate aUnited States senatorwho is running for president. Over the following years, Hinckley trailed Foster around the country, going so far as to enroll in a writing course atYale Universityin 1980 after reading inPeoplemagazine that she was a student there.He wrote numerous letters and notes to her in late 1980.He called her twice and refused to give up when she indicated that she was not interested in him. Hinckley was convinced that he would be Foster's equal if he became a",
"if he became a national figure. He decided to emulate Bickle and began stalking PresidentJimmy Carter. He was surprised at how easy it was to get close to the president—he was only a foot away at one event—but was arrested in October 1980 atNashville International Airportand fined for illegal possession of a firearm.: 70, 251Carter had made a campaign stop there, but theFBIdid not connect this arrest to the president and did not notify theSecret Service.His parents briefly placed him under the care of a psychiatrist. Hinckley turned his attention toRonald Reagan, whose election, he told his parents, would be good for the country.He wrote three or four more notes to Foster in early March 1981. Foster gave these notes to a Yaledean, who gave them to the Yale police department, who sought but failed to track Hinckley down. Attempted assassination On March 21, 1981, new president Ronald Reagan, who took office on January 20, 1981, and his wifeNancyvisitedFord's Theatrein Washington, D.C., for a fundraising",
"for a fundraising event. In his autobiographyAn American Life, Reagan recalled, I looked up at the presidential box above the stage whereAbe Lincolnhad been sittingthe night he was shotand felt a curious sensation ... I thought that even with all the Secret Service protection we now had, it was probably still possible for someone who had enough determination to get close enough to the president to shoot him. Speaking engagement at the Washington Hilton Hotel On March 28, Hinckley arrived in Washington, D.C., by busand checked into the Park Central Hotel.He originally intended to continue on to New Haven in another attempt to infatuate Foster.: 23He noticed Reagan's schedule that was published inThe Washington Starand decided it was time to act.Hinckley knew that he might be killed during the assassination attempt, and he wrote but did not mail a letter to Foster about two hours prior to his attempt on the president's life. In the letter, he said that he hoped to impress her with the magnitude of his action",
"of his action and that he would \"abandon the idea of getting Reagan in a second if I could only win your heart and live out the rest of my life with you.\": 58 On March 30, Reagan delivered a luncheon address toAFL–CIOrepresentatives at theWashington Hilton.The Secret Service was very familiar with the hotel, having inspected it more than 100 times for presidential visits since the early 1970s.The Hilton was considered the safest venue in Washington because of its secure, enclosed passageway called \"President's Walk\", built after the 1963assassination of John F. Kennedy. Reagan entered the building through the passagewayat about 1:45 p.m., waving to a crowd of news media and citizens. The Secret Service had required him to wear abulletproof vestfor some events, but Reagan was not wearing one for the speech, because his only public exposure would be the 30 feet (9 m) between the hotel andhis limousine,and the agency did not require vests for agents that day. No one saw Hinckley behaving in an unusual way.",
"in an unusual way. Witnesses who reported him as \"fidgety\" and \"agitated\" apparently confused Hinckley with another person that the Secret Service had been monitoring. Shooting At 2:27 p.m.,: 82Reagan exited the hotel through \"President's Walk\"onFlorida Avenue, where reporters waited.He left the T Street NW exit toward his waiting limousine as Hinckley waited within the crowd of admirers. The Secret Service had extensively screened those attending the president's speech, but greatly erred by allowing an unscreened group to stand within 15 ft (4.5 m) of him, behind arope line.: 80–81, 225The agency uses multiple layers of protection. Local police in the outer layer briefly check people, Secret Service agents in the middle layer check for weapons and more agents form the inner layer immediately around the president. Hinckley had penetrated the first two layers. As several hundred people applauded Reagan, the president unexpectedly passed right in front of Hinckley. Reporters standing behind a rope barricade 20",
"a rope barricade 20 feet (6 m) away asked questions. As Mike Putzel of theAssociated Pressshouted \"Mr. President—\",Hinckley assumed acrouchposition: 81and rapidly fired aRöhm RG-14.22 LRblue steelrevolversix times in 1.7 seconds,: 82missing the president with all six shots. The first round hitWhite House press secretaryJames Bradyin the head above his left eye, passing through underneath his brain and shattering his brain cavity. The small explosive charge in the round exploded on impact.District of Columbia police officerThomas Delahantyrecognized the sound as a gunshot and turned his head sharply to the left to identify the shooter.: 82As he did so, he was struck in the back of his neck by the second shot, the bullet ricocheting off his spine. Delahanty fell on top of Brady, screaming \"I am hit!\". Hinckley now had a clear shot at the president,: 81but Alfred Antenucci, aCleveland, Ohiolabor official who was standing nearby, saw Hinckley fire the first two shots,hit him in the head and began to wrestle him",
"to wrestle him to the ground.Upon hearing the shots, Special Agent in ChargeJerry Parralmost instantly grabbed Reagan by the shoulders and dived with him toward the open rear door of the limousine. Agent Ray Shaddick trailed just behind Parr to assist in throwing both men into the car.The third round overshot the president, instead hitting the window of a building across the street. Parr's actions likely saved Reagan from being hit in the head.: 224 As Parr pushed Reagan into the limousine, Secret Service agentTim McCarthysnapped his attention toward the sound of the gunfire, pivoted to his right, and placed himself in the line of fire. McCarthy spread his arms and legs, taking a wide stance directly in front of Reagan and Parr to make himself a target.McCarthy was struck in the lower abdomen by the fourth round, the bullet traversing his right lung,diaphragmand right lobe of theliver.The fifth round hit the bullet-resistant glass of the window on the open rear door of the limousine as Reagan and Parr were",
"and Parr were passing behind it. The sixth and final bullet ricocheted off the armored side of the limousine, passed between the space of the open rear door and vehicle frame and hit the president in the left underarm. The round grazed a rib and lodged in his lung, causing it to partially collapse before stopping less than an inch (25 mm) from his heart. Within moments of the first shots, Secret Service agent Dennis McCarthy (not a familial relation of agent Tim McCarthy) dove across the sidewalk and landed directly on Hinckley, as others pushed Hinckley to the ground.: 84Another Cleveland-area labor official, Frank J. McNamara, joined Antenucci and started punching Hinckley in the head, striking him so hard that he drew blood.Dennis McCarthy later reported that he had to \"strike two citizens\" to force them to release Hinckley.Secret Service agent Robert Wanko deployed anUzisubmachine gun concealed in a briefcase to cover the president's evacuation, and to deter a potential group attack. The day after the",
"The day after the shooting, Hinckley's gun was given to theATF, which traced its origin. In just 16 minutes, agents found that the gun had been purchased at Rocky's Pawn Shop inDallas, Texas on October 13, 1980.It had been loaded with six Devastator brandcartridges, which contained small aluminum andlead azideexplosive charges designed to explode on contact, but the bullet that hit Brady was the only one that exploded. On April 2, after learning that the others could explode at any time, volunteer doctors wearing bulletproof vests removed the bullet from Delahanty's neck.: 223 George Washington University Hospital After the Secret Service first announced \"shots fired\" over its radio network at 2:27 p.m., Reagan—codename\"Rawhide\"—was removed from the scene by the agents in the limousine (\"Stagecoach\").: 66No one knew that Reagan had been shot. After Parr searched Reagan's body and found no blood, he stated that \"Rawhide is OK...we're going to Crown\" (theWhite House), as he preferred its medical facilities to",
"facilities to those of an unsecured hospital. Reagan was in great pain from the bullet that struck his rib, and believed that his rib had cracked when Parr pushed him into the limousine. When the agent checked him for gunshot wounds, Reagan coughed up bright, frothy blood.Although the president believed that he had cut his lip,Parr assessed that the cracked rib had punctured Reagan's lung and ordered the motorcade to divert to nearbyGeorge Washington University Hospital, which the Secret Service periodically inspected for use.The limousine arrived there less than four minutes after leaving the hotel, while other agents took Hinckley to a D.C. jail, and Nancy Reagan (\"Rainbow\") left the White House for the hospital. Although Parr had requested a stretcher,none were ready at the hospital, which did not normally station a stretcher at the emergency department's entrance. Reagan exited the limousine and insisted on walking. He acted casually and smiled at onlookers as he entered the hospital. While he entered",
"While he entered the hospital unassisted, once inside, Reagan complained of difficulty breathing, his knees buckled and he fell to one knee. Parr and others assisted him into the emergency department.Thephysician to the presidentDaniel Rugehad been near Reagan during the shooting and arrived in a separate car. Believing that the president might have experienced a heart attack, Ruge insisted that the hospital's trauma team operate on Reagan as they would any other patient.: 106–107When a hospital employee asked Reagan aideMichael Deaverfor the patient's name and address, only when Deaver stated \"1600 Pennsylvania\" did the worker realize that the president was in the emergency department.: 107–108 The medical team, led by Joseph Giordano, cut Reagan's \"thousand-dollar\" custom-made suitin order to examine him. Reagan complained about the cost of the ruined suit, which was cited by an assistant in a press briefing to reassure the public that the president was in stable health.Military officers, including the one",
"including the one who carried thenuclear football, unsuccessfully tried to prevent FBI agents from confiscating the suit, Reagan's wallet and other possessions as evidence. TheGold Codescard was in the wallet, and the FBI did not return it until two days later. The medical personnel found that Reagan'ssystolic blood pressurewas 60 compared to the normal 140, indicating that he was inshock, and knew that most 70-year-olds in the president's condition would not survive.: 108However, Reagan was in excellent physical health, and had been shot by a .22 (5.6 mm)-caliber bullet instead of a larger.38(9.7 mm) as was first feared.They treated him with intravenous fluids, oxygen, tetanus toxoid and chest tubesand surprised Parr—who still believed that he had cracked the president's rib—by finding the entrance of the gunshot wound. Doctors operated on Brady and the wounded agent Tim McCarthy near the president. When Nancy Reagan arrived in the emergency department, Reagan remarked to her, \"Honey, I forgot to duck\",",
"I forgot to duck\", borrowing boxerJack Dempsey's line to his wife from the night on which he was beaten byGene Tunney.While intubated, he scribbled to a nurse, \"All in all, I'd rather be in Philadelphia\", borrowing a line fromW. C. Fields.Although Reagan came close to death, the team's quick action—and Parr's decision to drive to the hospital instead of the White House—likely saved the president's life. Within 30 minutes, Reagan left the emergency department for surgery, with normal blood pressure.He then underwent emergency exploratory surgery to check for organ damage and remove the bullet.The chief of thoracic surgery, Benjamin L. Aaron, performed athoracotomylasting 105 minutesbecause the bleeding persisted. Ultimately, Reagan lost over half of his blood volume in the emergency department and during surgery,but the bullet was successfully removed. In the operating room, Reagan removed his oxygen mask to joke, \"I hope you are allRepublicans.\" The doctors and nurses laughed, and Giordano, aDemocrat,",
"aDemocrat, replied, \"Today, Mr. President, we areallRepublicans.\": 147Reagan's post-operative course was complicated by fever, which was treated with antibiotics.Because Reagan had entered the operating room conscious and not in shock, and the surgery was routine, his doctors and others predicted that he could leave the hospital in two weeks, return to work at theOval Officein a month and completely heal in six to eight weeks with no long-term effects. Immediate response National Security AdvisorRichard Allenwould traditionally be responsible forcrisis managementfor theexecutive branch, butSecretary of StateAlexander Haigwanted the role. Six days before the shooting,Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushreceived the assignment instead. Allen and theNational Security Councilwould assist him. Reagan persuaded an upset Haig not to resign.The secretary reportedly \"pound the table in frustration and anger.\"When news of the assassination attempt reached the White House, Haig was there. He urged the vice",
"He urged the vice president—visitingTexasfor the first time sincethe inauguration—to return, but the voice connection to Bush aboardAir Force Twowas weak, and it is unknown whether they heard each other. By 2:35 p.m., Bush was notified of the shooting. He was leavingFort Worth, Texasand, relying on the initial reports that Reagan was unharmed, he flew toAustinfor a speech.At 3:14 p.m., 47 minutes after the shooting, Haig sent a codedteletypemessage to Bush: MR. VICE PRESIDENT: IN THE INCIDENT YOU WILL HAVE HEARD ABOUT BY NOW, THE PRESIDENT WAS STRUCK IN THE BACK AND IS IN SERIOUS CONDITION. MEDICAL AUTHORITIES ARE DECIDING NOW WHETHER OR NOT TO OPERATE. RECOMMEND YOU RETURN TO DC AT EARLIEST POSSIBLE MOMENT. SECRETARY ALEXANDER HAIG, JR. Air Force Two refueled in Austin before returning to Washington,at what its pilot described as the fastest speed in the plane's history.The aircraft did not havesecure voicecommunications, and Bush's discussions with the White House were intercepted and given to the press.",
"given to the press. White House counselFred Fieldingimmediately prepared for a transfer of presidential powers under the25th Amendment,andchief of staffJames A. Bakerandcounselor to the PresidentEdwin Meesewent to Reagan's hospitalstill believing that the president was unharmed. Within five minutes of the shooting, members of theCabinetbegan gathering in theWhite House Situation Room.The Cabinet and the Secret Service were initially unsure whether the shooting was part of a larger attack by terrorists, or that of a foreign intelligence service such as theKGB. Tensions with the Soviet Union were high because of theSolidarity movementincommunist Poland. The Cabinet was also concerned that the Soviets would take advantage of the unstable situation to launch a nuclear attack. After the shooting, the American military detected two Sovietballistic missile submarinespatrolling unusually close to theEast Coast of the United States, which could allow their missiles to reach Washington, D.C. two minutes faster than",
"minutes faster than usual.: 175–177Defense secretaryCaspar Weinbergerresponded by placing theStrategic Air Commandon high alert.Haig, Weinberger and Allen discussed various issues, including the location of the nuclear football, the submarine presence, a possible Soviet invasion against the1981 warning strike in Polandand thepresidential line of succession. Although tape recorders are not normally allowed in the Situation Room, these meetings were recorded with the participants' knowledge by Allen, and the five hours of tapes have since been made public. The group obtained a duplicate nuclear football and Gold Codes card and kept it in the Situation Room. Reagan's football was still with the officer at the hospital, and Bush also had a card and football.: 155The participants discussed whether to raise the military's alert status and the importance of doing so without changing theDEFCONlevel.They eventually determined that the number of Soviet submarines was normal. A pair of Soviet submarines was assuming",
"was assuming the patrol area from another pair, a relief operation that routinely occurred at the end of a month. However, one of the four submarines was patrolling unusually close to the coast. In consideration of the ongoing tensions over Poland, Weinberger ordered the Strategic Air Command be placed on alert, but he did not reveal the alert status to the public. Upon learning that Reagan was in surgery, Haig declared, the \"helm is right here. And that means right in this chair for now, constitutionally, until the vice president gets here\".However, Haig was incorrect. As the sitting Secretary of State, he was fourth behind Vice President Bush,Speaker of the HouseTip O'Neill, andPresidentpro temporeof the SenateStrom Thurmondin the line of succession. Under3 U.S.C.§ 19, O'Neill and Thurmond would have to resign their positions to become acting president. Although others in the room knew that Haig's statement was constitutionally incorrect, they did not object at the time, to avoid a confrontation.Allen",
"confrontation.Allen later said that although Haig \"constantly, incessantly drummed on some variant of 'I am in charge, I am senior'\", he and Fielding \"didn't give a rat's ass\" as Bush would be in charge when he arrived. At the same time, a press conference was under way in theWhite House Briefing Room.CBSreporterLesley Stahlasked deputy press secretaryLarry Speakeswho was running the government, to which Speakes responded, \"I cannot answer that question at this time\". Upon hearing Speakes's remark, Haig wrote and passed a note to Speakes, ordering him to leave the dais immediately.: 171–173Moments later, Haig entered the Briefing Room, where he made the following controversial statement: Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the president, the vice president and the secretary of state, in that order, and should the president decide he wants to transfer the helm to the vice president, he will do so. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending the return of the vice president and in close",
"and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course. Despite his familiarity with the Briefing Room from serving asRichard Nixon's chief of staff, Stahl described Haig as \"visibly shaken\",and the Associated Press wrote that \"his voice continually choked up and quavered with emotion, and his arms trembled\".Those in the Situation Room reportedly laughed when they heard him say \"I am in control here\",and Allen later said \"I was astounded that he would say something so eminently stupid\".Haig later said, I wasn't talking about transition. I was talking about the executive branch, who is running the government. That was the question asked. It was not \"Who is in line should the President die?\" Although Haig stated in the Briefing Room that \"There are absolutely no alert measures that are necessary at this time or contemplated\", while he was speaking, Weinberger raised the military's alert level.After Haig returned to the Situation Room, he objected to Weinberger doing so, as it made",
"so, as it made him appear a liar,although as deputy commander-in-chief, only Reagan outranked Weinberger in theNational Command Authority.Weinberger and others accused Haig of exceeding his authority with his \"I am in control\" statement,while Haig defended himself by advising the others to \"read the Constitution\",saying that his comments did not involve \"succession\" and that he knew the \"pecking order\". Aboard Air Force Two, Bush watched Haig's press briefing. Meese told him that Reagan was stable after surgery to remove the bullet. The vice president arrived atAndrews Air Force Baseat 6:30 p.m. and decided to not fly by helicopter to the White House. He said to a military aide \"only the president lands on theSouth Lawn\". Bush later said in an interview that landing on the South Lawn would have \"made for great TV\", but would have sent the wrong message to the country, and pointed out that the South Lawn was situated under the president's bedroom window, where the First Lady was waiting for news of Reagan's",
"news of Reagan's surgery.Marine Twoinstead flew toNumber One Observatory Circle. \"Despite brief flare-ups and distractions\", Allen recalled, \"the crisis management team in the Situation Room worked well together. The congressional leadership was kept informed, and governments around the world were notified and reassured.\"Reagan's surgery ended at 6:20 p.m., although he did not regain consciousness until 7:30 p.m.,so could not invoke Section 3 of the 25th Amendment to make Bushacting president. The vice president arrived at the White House at 7:00 p.m., and did not invoke Section 4 of the 25th Amendment. Bush took charge of the Situation Room meeting, which received an update that the planned Polish national strike was cancelled. They evaluated new satellite images from Eastern Europe that showed no Soviet troop movements near Poland. They further assessed that Hinckley Jr. was likely acting alone after being informed of his October 1980 arrest record inNashville, which suggested that he had been trailing",
"had been trailing then-President Carter.Bush stated on national television at 8:20 p.m.: I can reassure this nation and a watching world that the American government is functioning fully and effectively. We've had full and complete communications throughout the day. Investigation The FBI took over the investigation on Saturday. Agents obtained a warrant and searched the shooter's hotel room. Before touching anything, the entire room was filmed and photographed. Fingerprints were then sought in case there was an accomplice. According to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \"What we found in Mr Hinckley's room was bizarre. On the desk, so that we could find him, was his entire plan. He had left a map of where he was going. He had the morning paper open with the president's diary. He publicised the fact that Reagan would be speaking to a union group in the ballroom of the Washington Hilton. Strangest of all was a statement - a letter to actress Jodie Foster proclaiming that he was committing a historic act, a presidential",
"act, a presidential assassination, to impress her.\". The serial number of Hinckley's revolver was provided to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. It quickly determined where Hinckley bought the gun. The police gathered the witnesses in the auditorium where the president had given a speech. Secret Service agents who were witnesses or had other first-hand information were identified. According to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \"Our follow-up investigation, which lasted weeks, traced Mr Hinckley's history over the previous months. We determined that he had travelled the country, gone to firing ranges and, in fact, was obsessed with Ms Foster. He had planned and committed an assassination attempt on the president. He was a mentally disturbed man.\". Public reaction The assassination attempt was captured onelectronic news-gatheringvideotape by several cameras, including those belonging to theBig Three television networks.ABCbegan airing footage at 2:42 p.m. All three networks erroneously reported that Brady had",
"that Brady had died.WhenABC NewsanchormanFrank Reynolds, a friend of Brady, was later forced to retract the report, he angrily said on-air to his staff, \"C'mon, let's get it nailed down!\",as a result of the miscommunication. ABC News also initially reported that President Reagan had not been injured. A network erroneously reported that he was undergoingopen-heart surgery.: 133, 185 WhileCNNdid not have a camera of its own at the shooting, it was able to useNBC'spool feed,and by staying on the story for 48 hours, the network, less than a year old, built a reputation for thoroughness.Shocked Americans gathered around television sets in homes and shopping centers.Some cited the allegedCurse of Tippecanoe, and others recalled the assassinations of Kennedy andMartin Luther King Jr.Newspapers printed extra editionsand used gigantic headlines;theUnited States Senateadjourned, interrupting debate of Reagan's economic proposals; and churches held prayer services. Hinckley asked the arresting officers whether that",
"whether that night'sAcademy Awardsceremony would be postponed because of the shooting, and it was. The ceremony—for which former actor Reagan had taped a message—occurred the next evening.The president survived surgery with a good prognosis. TheNCAAchampionship basketball game that evening betweenIndianaandNorth Carolinawas not postponed, although the audience of 18,000 in Philadelphia held amoment of silencebefore the game, which Indiana won.In the immediate aftermath of the shooting, theDow Jones Industrial Averagedeclined before theNew York Stock Exchangeclosed early, but the index rose the next day as Reagan recovered.Beyond having to postpone its Academy Awards broadcast, ABC temporarily renamed the lead character ofThe Greatest American Hero, which had debuted in March, from \"Ralph Hinkley\" to \"Hanley\",and NBC postponed a forthcoming episode ofWalking Talltitled \"Hit Man\". Aftermath Jodie Foster The incident was a traumatic experience for the 18-year-old Foster, who was hounded by the media and",
"by the media and paparazzi in its aftermath. She took a semester off atYaleand had to be escorted by abodyguardeverywhere she went. This event produced other stalkers for her, including a 22-year-old man named Edward Michael Richardson, who according to the Secret Service shared a similar obsession with Foster, and carried a loaded handgun planning to kill her, but changed his mind after watching her perform in a college play. Hinckley demanded that Foster testify at his trial. Agreement was reached between Foster's and Hinckley lawyers that she would do so in a closed session, with only herself, the judge (Barrington D. Parker), lawyers and Hinckley present. A videotape of this session could be introduced as evidence into Hinckley's trial. This session took place in March 1982. During her testimony, Foster did not look at or acknowledge Hinckley. This caused him to throw a pen at her and shout threats, before he was surrounded and removed from the room bymarshals. Since the attempted assassination, Foster",
"Foster has only commented on Hinckley on four occasions: a press conference a few days after the attack, an article she wrote forEsquiremagazine in 1982 after his sentencing, during an interview withCharlie Roseon60 Minutes IIin 1999, and while speaking to comedian and actorMarc Maronon his podcastWTF with Marc Maronin 2021.She has ended or canceled several interviews if the event was mentioned, or if she felt that an interviewer was going to bring Hinckley up.To Maron, Foster said that she voluntarily chose not to speak about the incident in interviews to avoid being labelled as an actress primarily remembered for that incident, and reflected on how her mother, a former publicist, helped her in overcoming the media frenzy, and the public's obsession with her involvement. Ronald Reagan Reagan's staff members were anxious for the president to appear to be recovering quickly,and the morning after his operation he saw visitors and signed a piece of legislation.Reagan left the hospital on the morning of April",
"morning of April 11. Entering the limousine was difficult, and he joked that the first thing he would do at home was \"sit down\". Reagan's recovery speed impressed his doctors, but they advised the president not to work in the Oval Office for a week and avoid travel for several weeks. No visitors were scheduled for his first weekend.Initially, Reagan worked two hours a day in the White House's residential quarters.Reagan did not lead a Cabinet meeting until day 26, did not leave Washington until day 49, and did not hold a press conference until day 79. Ruge, the physician to the president, thought recovery was not complete until October.Reagan's plans for the month after the shooting were canceled, including a visit to theMission Control CenteratLyndon B. Johnson Space CenterinHouston, Texas, in April 1981 duringSTS-1, the first flight of theSpace Shuttle. Vice President Bush instead called the orbiting astronauts during their mission. Reagan visited Mission Control duringSTS-2that November. The events",
"The events contributed to Reagan's initial popularity. Though he had enjoyed approval ratings of up to 60% until March, his ratings surged to nearly 70% in the following months.Privately, Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to fulfill a greater purposeand, although not a Catholic, meetings withMother Teresa, CardinalTerence Cooke, and fellowshooting survivor Pope John Paul IIreinforced his belief. Reagan returned to the Oval Office on April 25 and received a standing ovation from staff and Cabinet members. He referred to their teamwork in his absence and insisted, \"I should be applauding you.\"He made his first public appearance in an April 28 speech before thejoint houses of Congress. In the speech, he introduced his planned spending cuts, which had been a campaign promise. He received \"two thunderous standing ovations\", whichThe New York Timesdeemed \"a salute to his good health\" as well as his programs, which the president introduced using a medical recovery theme.Reagan",
"theme.Reagan installed a gym in the White House and began regularly exercising there, gaining so much muscle that he had to buy new suits. The shooting caused Nancy Reagan to fear for her husband's safety, however. She asked him to not run forreelection in 1984, and, because of her concerns, began consulting astrologerJoan Quigley.Reagan never again walked across an airport tarmac or got out of his limousine on a public sidewalk as president. Delahanty, Tim McCarthy, and Brady Thomas Delahanty recovered but developed permanent nerve damage to his left arm, and was ultimately forced to retire from the Metropolitan Police Department due to his disability. Tim McCarthy recovered fully and was the first of the wounded men to be discharged from the hospital. James Brady survived, but his wound left him with slurred speech and partial paralysis that required the full-time use of awheelchair. Brady remained press secretary for the remainder of Reagan's administration, but this was primarily atitularrole. Later,",
"Later, Brady and his wifeSarahbecame leading advocates ofgun controland other actions to reduce the amount ofgun violence in the United States. They became active in thelobbyingorganization Handgun Control, Inc.—which was eventually renamed theBrady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence—and founded the non-profitBrady Center to Prevent Gun Violence.TheBrady Handgun Violence Prevention Actwas passed in 1993 as a result of their work.Brady died on August 4, 2014, in Alexandria, Virginia, at the age of 73. Following Brady's death in 2014, the District of Columbia Medical Examiner ruled the death a homicide stemming from wounds caused by the Hinckley assassination attempt. This ruling raised the possibility that Hinckley could face additional future murder charges.However, prosecutors declined to do so for two reasons. First, a jury had already declared Hinckley insane at the time of the shooting, and the constitutional prohibition againstdouble jeopardywould preclude overturning this ruling on account of Brady's",
"account of Brady's death. Second, in 1981 Washington, D.C., still had thecommon law\"year and a day\" rule in place. Although the year and a day rule had been abolished in the district prior to 2014, the constitutional prohibition againstex post factolawwould preclude the upgrading of charges for deaths resulting today from acts committed while the rule was in effect, and would prohibit the government from challenging Hinckley's successful insanity defense based on the current federal law. The shooting of Reagan exacerbated the debate on gun control in the U.S., that began with the December 1980 handgunmurder of John Lennon. Reagan expressed opposition to increased handgun control following Lennon's death and reiterated his opposition after his own shooting. However, in a speech at an event marking the assassination attempt's 10th anniversary,Reagan endorsed the Brady Act: \"Anniversary\" is a word we usually associate with happy events that we like to remember: birthdays, weddings, the first job. March 30,",
"job. March 30, however, marks an anniversary I would just as soon forget, but cannot... four lives were changed forever, and all by a Saturday-night special – a cheaply made .22 caliber pistol – purchased in a Dallas pawnshop by a young man with a history of mental disturbance. This nightmare might never have happened if legislation that is before Congress now – the Brady bill – had been law back in 1981... If the passage of the Brady bill were to result in a reduction of only 10 or 15 percent of those numbers (and it could be a good deal greater), it would be well worth making it the law of the land. And there would be a lot fewer families facing anniversaries such as the Bradys, Delahantys, McCarthys and Reagans face every March 30. In 1994, Reagan made numerous appeals to support theFederal Assault Weapons Banin the House of Representatives. At least two representatives, RepublicanScott L. Klugand DemocratRichard Swett, credit Reagan's efforts for their decision to vote for the bill, which eventually",
"which eventually passed by a 216–214 margin. Parr After the assassination attempt, Jerry Parr was hailed as a hero.He received Congressional commendations for his actions, and was named one of four \"Top Cops\" in the U.S. byParademagazine.He later wrote about the assassination attempt in his autobiography, calling it both the best and the worst day of his life.Parr came to believe that God had directed his life so that he could one day save the president's life, and became a pastor after retiring from the Secret Service in 1985.:224He died ofcongestive heart failureat a hospice in Washington, D.C., on October 9, 2015, aged 85. Antenucci and McNamara Antenucci and McNamara both became ill following the assassination attempt. McNamara died on September 18, 1981, six months after the attempted assassination at the age of 62.Antenucci died on May 9, 1984, aged 71. John Hinckley Hinckley was foundnot guilty by reason of insanityon June 21, 1982. The defensepsychiatricreports had found him to beinsanewhile the",
"beinsanewhile the prosecution reports declared him legally sane.Following his lawyers' advice, he declined to take the stand in his own defense.Hinckley was confined atSt. Elizabeths Hospitalin Washington, D.C., full-time until 2006, at which point he began a program of spending gradually more time at his mother's home. On September 10, 2016, Hinckley was permitted to permanently leave the hospital to live with his mother full-time, under court supervision and with mandatory psychiatric treatment.After his trial, he wrote that the shooting was \"the greatest love offering in the history of the world\", and did not indicate any regrets at the time. The not-guilty verdict led to widespread dismay,and, as a result, theU.S. Congressand a number of states rewrote laws regarding the insanity defense.The oldModel Penal Code testwas replaced by a test that shifts theburden of proofregarding a defendant's sanity from the prosecution to the defendant. Three states have abolished the defense altogether. Portrayals in",
"Portrayals in literature and popular culture Books On screen The following is the list of the movies dealing with the assassination attempt or portraying a portion of it: On stage See also Notes References External links",
"Kentucky Derby TheKentucky Derby(/ˈdɜːrbi/) is an AmericanGrade I stakesracerun atChurchill DownsinLouisville, Kentucky. The race is run by three-year-oldThoroughbredsat a distance of1+1⁄4miles (10 furlongs; 2,012 metres).Coltsandgeldingscarry 126 pounds (57 kilograms) andfillies121 pounds (55 kilograms). Held annually on the first Saturday in May, the Derby is the first leg of theTriple Crown. It is preceded by the two-week-longKentucky Derby Festival.The race is known as \"The Run for the Roses\", as the winning horse is draped in a blanket of roses.Lasting approximately two minutes, the Derby has been alternately called \"The Most Exciting Two Minutes in Sports\",\"The Fastest Two Minutes in Sports\",or \"The Greatest Two Minutes in Sports\", coined by Churchill Downs presidentMatt Winn.At least two of these descriptions are thought to be derived from the words of sportswriterGrantland Rice, when in 1935 he said \"Those two minutes and a second or so of derby running carry more emotional thrills, per second, than",
"per second, than anything sport can show.\" The race was first run in 1875. Unlike the other, older races of the Triple Crown—thePreakness Stakesand theBelmont Stakes—along with theTravers Stakes(the oldest comparable stakes race in the US), the Kentucky Derby and its sibling race, theKentucky Oaks, have been run every year since inception. They were twice rescheduled within the same year, the first time due toWorld War IIin1945, and the second time due to theCOVID-19 pandemicin2020. The Derby and the Oaks are the oldest major sporting events in the US held annually since their beginning.Among thoroughbred stakes races, they are the oldest that have been held annually on the same track every year. The Derby is the most-watched andmost-attendedhorse race in the United States. The2024 Kentucky Derbymarked the 150th running of the race. History In 1872, Col.Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., grandson ofWilliam Clarkof theLewis and Clark expedition, traveled to England, visitingEpsomin Surrey whereThe Derbyhad been",
"Derbyhad been running annually since 1780.From there, Clark went on toParis, France, where a group of racing enthusiasts had formed theFrench Jockey Clubin 1863. They had organized theGrand Prix de ParisatLongchamp, which at the time was the greatest race in France. Returning home to Kentucky, Clark organized the Louisville Jockey Club to raise money for building quality racing facilities just outside the city. The track would soon become known asChurchill Downs, named for John and Henry Churchill, who provided the land for the racetrack.The naming went official in 1937. The Kentucky Derby was first run at1+1⁄2miles (12furlongs; 2.4 km) the same distance as theEpsom Derby, before changing lengths in 1896 to its current1+1⁄4miles (10 furlongs; 2 km). On May 17, 1875, in front of an estimated crowd of 10,000 people, a field of 15 three-year-old horses contested the first Derby. Under jockeyOliver Lewis, a colt namedAristides, who was trained by futureHall of FamerAnsel Williamson, won the inaugural Derby.",
"inaugural Derby. Later that year, Lewis rode Aristides to a second-place finish in theBelmont Stakes. Initially a successful venue, the track ran into financial difficulties due to a protracted,gambling-relatedhorseman boycottremoving it from the upper echelons of racing that would last until just after the turn of the 20th century. In 1894 the New Louisville Jockey Club was incorporated with the new capitalization and improved facilities. Despite this, the business floundered until 1902, when a syndicate led byCol. Matt Winnof Louisville acquired the facility. Under Winn, Churchill Downs prospered, and the Kentucky Derby then became the preeminent stakes race for three-year-old thoroughbred horses in North America. Thoroughbred owners began sending their successful Derby horses to compete in two other races. These two are thePreakness Stakesat thePimlico Race Course, inBaltimore, and theBelmont StakesinElmont, New York. The three races offered large purses, and in1919,Sir Bartonbecame the first horse to win",
"first horse to win all three races. However, the term \"Triple Crown\" did not come into use for another eleven years. In1930, whenGallant Foxbecame the second horse to win all three races, sportswriterCharles Hattonbrought the phrase into American usage. Fueled by the media, public interest in the possibility of a \"superhorse\" that could win the Triple Crown began in the weeks leading up to the Derby. Two years after the term went in use, the race (until that time ran in mid-May since inception) changed the date to the first Saturday in May. This change allows for a specific schedule for the Triple Crown races. Since 1931, the order of Triple Crown races has been the Kentucky Derby first, followed by the Preakness Stakes and then the Belmont Stakes. Before 1931, eleven times the Preakness was run before the Derby. On May 12, 1917, and again on May 13, 1922, the Preakness and the Derby took place on the same day. On eleven occasions the Belmont Stakes was run before the Preakness Stakes, and in 2020, the",
"and in 2020, the Belmont was run first, then the Kentucky Derby, and the Preakness Stakes last. On May 16, 1925, the first live radio broadcast of the Kentucky Derby aired onWHASas well as onWGNin Chicago.On May 7, 1949, the first television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, produced byWAVE-TV, the NBC affiliate in Louisville. This coverage was aired live in the Louisville market and sent to NBC as a kinescope newsreel recording for national broadcast. On May 3, 1952, the first national television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, aired from then-CBSaffiliateWHAS-TV.In 1954, the purse exceeded US$100,000 for the first time. In 1968,Dancer's Imagebecame the first horse to win the race and then face disqualification. Aurine testrevealed traces ofphenylbutazone(ananti-inflammatorypainkiller drug) inside Dancer's Image.Forward Passwon after a protracted legal battle by the owners of Dancer's Image (which they lost). Forward Pass thus became the eighth winner forCalumet Farm. Unexpectedly, the",
"Unexpectedly, the regulations at Kentucky thoroughbred race tracks were changed some years later, allowing horses to run onphenylbutazone. In 1970,Diane Crumpbecame the first female jockey to ride in the Derby, finishing 15th aboard Fathom. The fastest time ever run in the Derby was in1973at 1:59.4 minutes, whenSecretariatbroke the record set byNorthern Dancerin1964. Also during that race, Secretariat did something unique in Triple Crown races: for each successive quarter run, his times were faster. Although the races do not record times for non-winners, in 1973 Sham finished second, two and a half lengths behind Secretariat in the same race. Using the thoroughbred racing convention of one length equaling one-fifth of a second to calculateSham's time, he also finished in under two minutes. Another sub-two-minute finish, only the third, was set in2001byMonarchosat 1:59.97, the first year the race used hundredths of seconds instead of fifths in timing. In 2005, thepurse distributionfor the Derby changed, so",
"Derby changed, so that horses finishing fifth would henceforth receive a share of the purse; previously only the first four finishers did so. The Kentucky Derby began offering $3 million in purse money in 2019. Churchill Downs officials have cited the success ofhistorical race wagering terminalsat their Derby City Gaming facility in Louisville as a factor behind the purse increase. The Derby first offered a $1 million purse in 1996; it was doubled to $2 million in 2005. In 2020, the Derby was postponed from May 2 to September 5 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.This was the second time in history the race had been postponed, the other being in1945.Churchill Downs used a new singular 20-stall starting gate for the2020 Kentucky Derby, replacing the previous arrangement that used a standard 14-stall gate and an auxiliary six-stall gate.The old setup contributed to congestion at the start of the race, especially in the gap between the two gates. Rich Strike, areservewho only made it into the final field after a late",
"field after a late scratching, won therace in 2022at final odds of 80:1 andparimutuel bettingpayouts were even larger. In January 2024, the purse for the Kentucky Derby was increased to $5 million. Attendance Millions of people from around the world bet at various live tracks and online sportsbooks.In 2017, a crowd of 158,070 watched Always Dreaming win the Derby, making it the seventh biggest attendance in the history of the racetrack. The track reported a wagering total of $209.2 million from all the sources on all the races on the Kentucky Derby Day program. It was a 9 percent increase compared to the total of $192.6 million in 2016 and an increase of 8 percent over the previous record set in 2015 of $194.3 million.TwinSpires, a platform for betting online and a partner of the Kentucky Derby and the Breeders' Cup, recorded $32.8 million in handle on the Churchill Down races for the Kentucky Derby Day program. This record was a 22 percent increase over the preceding year. On the Kentucky Derby race alone,",
"Derby race alone, the handle of TwinSpires was $20.1 million, which is a 22 percent rise compared to the prior year. The race often draws celebrities. HMQueen Elizabeth II, on a visit to the United States, joined the racegoers at Churchill Downs in 2007. Sponsorship The 2004 Kentucky Derby marked the first time that jockeys—as a result of acourt order—were allowed to wear corporate advertisinglogoson their clothing. Norman Adams has been the designer of the Kentucky Derby Logo since 2002. On February 1, 2006, the Louisville-basedfast-foodcompanyYum! Brands, Inc.announced a corporate sponsorship deal to call the race \"The Kentucky Derby presented by Yum! Brands.\"In 2018,Woodford Reservereplaced Yum! Brands as the presenting sponsor. Traditions In addition to the race itself, several traditions play a significant role in the Derby atmosphere. Themint julep—an iced drink consisting ofbourbon,mint, andsugarsyrup—is the traditional beverage of the race. The historic beverage comes served in an ice-frosted silver",
"ice-frosted silver julep cup. However, most Churchill Downs patrons sip theirs from souvenir glasses (first offered in 1939 and available in revised form each year since) printed with all previous Derby winners.Also,burgoo, a thick stew of beef, chicken, pork, and vegetables, is a popular Kentucky dish served at the Derby. Theinfield—a spectator area inside the track—offers general admission prices but little chance of seeing much of the race, particularly before thejumbotroninstallation in 2014.Instead, revelers show up in the infield to party with abandon. By contrast, \"Millionaire's Row\" refers to the expensive box seats that attract the rich, the famous and the well-connected. Women appear in elegant outfits lavishly accessorized with large, elaborate hats. Following theCall to the Postplayed on bugle by Steve Buttleman, as the horses start to parade before the grandstands, theUniversity of Louisville Cardinal Marching BandplaysStephen Foster's \"My Old Kentucky Home\". This song is a tradition which began",
"which began in 1921.The event attracts spectators from a large area, flying in hundreds of private aircraft toLouisville International Airport. The Derby is frequently referred to as \"The Run for the Roses\", because a lush blanket of 554 redrosesis awarded to the Kentucky Derby winner each year.New York sports columnist and future Churchill Downs presidentBill Corumin 1925 began describing the race thusly,but the tradition originated in 1883 when New York City socialiteE. Berry Wallpresented roses to ladies at a post-Derby party. The Churchill Downs founder and president, Col. Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., attended that event. This gesture is believed to have led Clark to the idea of making the rose the race's official flower. However, it was not until 1896 that any recorded account referred to draping roses on the Derby winner.TheGovernor of Kentuckyand the Chairman ofChurchill Downs Incorporatedpresent the garland and theKentucky Derby Trophyto the winner. Pop vocalistDan Fogelbergcomposed the song \"Run for",
"the song \"Run for the Roses\", released in time for the 1980 running of the race. Riders Up! \"Riders Up!\" is the traditional command from the Paddock Judge for jockeys to mount their horses in advance of the upcoming race. Since 2012, the grand marshal recites this phrase. Grand marshals National Anthem performers Festival In the weeks preceding the race, numerous activities took place for theKentucky Derby Festival.Thunder Over Louisville—an airshow and fireworks display—generally begins the festivities in earnest two weeks before the Derby. Records Horse records Secretariatset the record for speed in 1973 with a time of 1:59.4. During its first two decades when the Derby was run at1+1⁄2miles, the record was 2:34.5, set bySpokanein 1889. The largest margin of victory is 8 lengths, a feat tied by four different horses:Old Rosebudin 1914,Johnstownin 1939,Whirlawayin 1941, andAssaultin 1946. The highest odds of a winning horse were 91 to 1 forDonerailin 1913. The second-highest odds occurred in 2022, whenRich",
"in 2022, whenRich Strikewent off at 80 to 1 and won the race. Three horses have won the Kentucky Derby without competing as a two-year-old:Apollo(1882),Justify(2018), andMage(2023). Jockey records 107jockeyshave won the Kentucky Derby, with 27 doing so multiple times.Isaac Murphy(1890–91),Jimmy Winkfield(1901–02),Ron Turcotte(1972–73),Eddie Delahoussaye(1982–83),Calvin Borel(2009–10), andVictor Espinoza(2014–15) are the only jockeys to win the Derby in back-to-back years. Borel is the only jockey with three wins in a four-year span (2007, '09, '10). Trainer records 116trainershave won the Kentucky Derby, with 19 doing so multiple times. Six trainers have won the Derby in back-to-back years:Herbert J. Thompson(1932–33),Ben Jones(1948–49),Jimmy Jones(1957–58),Lucien Laurin(1972–73),D. Wayne Lukas(1995–96), andBob Baffert(1997–98). Owner records Seventeen owners have won the Kentucky Derby multiple times with horses they fully or partially owned. * Partnered with other entities in an ownership group for one or",
"group for one or more winning horses. \"Oaks/Derby Double\" Jockeys, trainers, and owners competing in the Kentucky Derby often will compete in theKentucky Oaks, a race for fillies held the day before the Derby. Winning both these races in the same year is referred to as an \"Oaks/Derby Double;\" 7 jockeys, 3 trainers, and 4 owners have accomplished this feat: *Until the 1950s, the Oaks was held several days or weeks after the Derby. Winners Triple Crownwinners are inboldand highlighted with gold. # Designates afilly. † Designates a horse that wonAmerican Horse of the Yearin the same year they won the Derby. ‡ Designates a horse that was inducted in subsequent years into theNational Racing Hall of Fame. Sire lines Winners of the Kentucky Derby can be connected to each other due to the practice ofarranging horse breedingbased on their previous success. All of the horses can be traced back to the three foundational sires, withGodolphin Arabianthe ancestor of 7 winners,Byerley Turkthe ancestor of 11 winners,",
"of 11 winners, andDarley Arabianthe ancestor of 132 winners, including all winners since 1938. Darley Arabian line TheDarley Arabian(1700c) sire line (all branched through theEclipse(1764) line)produced 132 Derby winners (124 colts, 5 geldings, 3 fillies), including all winners from 1938 to present.The main branches of this sire line are: Byerley Turk line TheByerley Turk(1680c) sire lineproduced 11 winners (8 colts, 3 geldings). The main branches of this sire (all branched through theHerod(1758) line) are: Godolphin Arabian line TheGodolphin Arabian(1724c) sire lineproduced 7 winners (6 colts, 1 gelding).The main branches of this sire (all branched through theWest Australian(1850) line) are: Kentucky Derby winners with male-line descendants including other Kentucky Derby winners See also References Further reading External links Legend– ₩ =Triple Crownwinners, ♥ = Filly"
] |
Who lived longer one of the Bronte sisters or Jane Austen? | Jane Austen | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bront%C3%AB_family | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bront%C3%AB_family', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bront%C3%AB_family",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen"
] | [
"Brontë family TheBrontës(/ˈbrɒntiz/) were a nineteenth-century literary family, born in the village ofThorntonand later associated with the village ofHaworthin theWest Riding of Yorkshire,England. The sisters,Charlotte(1816–1855),Emily(1818–1848) andAnne(1820–1849), are well-known poets and novelists. Like many contemporary female writers, they published their poems and novels under male pseudonyms: Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Their stories attracted attention for their passion and originality immediately following their publication. Charlotte'sJane Eyrewas the first to know success, while Emily'sWuthering Heights, Anne'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Halland other works were accepted as masterpieces of literature after their deaths. The first Brontë children to be born to rectorPatrick Brontëand his wifeMariawereMaria(1814–1825) andElizabeth(1815–1825), who both died at young ages due to disease. Charlotte, Emily and Anne were then born within a time period of approximately four years. These three sisters and their brother,Branwell(1817–1848), who had been born after Charlotte and before Emily, were very close to each other. As children, they developed their imaginations first through oral storytelling and play, set in an intricate imaginary world, and then through the collaborative writing of increasingly complex stories set in their fictional world. The deaths of their mother and two older sisters marked them and influenced their writing profoundly, as did their isolated upbringing. They were raised in a religious family.The Brontë birthplace inThorntonis a place of pilgrimage and their later home, theparsonageatHaworthin Yorkshire, now theBrontë Parsonage Museum, has hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. Origin of the name The Brontë family can be traced to theIrish clanÓ Pronntaigh, which literally means \"descendant of Pronntach\". They were a family of hereditary scribes and literary men inFermanagh. The versionÓ Proinntigh, which was first given by Patrick Woulfe in hisSloinnte Gaedheal is Gall(transl.Surnames of the Gael and the Foreigner)and reproduced without question byEdward MacLysaght, cannot be accepted as correct, as there were a number of well-known scribes with this name writing inIrishin the 17th and 18th centuries and all of them used the spellingÓ Pronntaigh. The name is derived from the wordpronntachorbronntach,which is related to the wordbronnadh, meaning \"giving\" or \"bestowal\" (pronnis given as anUlsterversion ofbronnin O'Reilly'sIrish English Dictionary.)Patrick Woulfe suggested that it was derived fromproinnteach(therefectoryof amonastery).Ó Pronntaighwas earlieranglicisedasPruntyand sometimesBrunty. At some point,Patrick Brontë(born Brunty), the sisters' father, decided on the alternative spelling with thediaeresisover the terminal⟨e⟩to indicate that the name has two syllables. Multiple theories exist to account for the change, including that he may have wished to hide his humble origins.As aman of letters, he would have been familiar withclassical Greekand may have chosen the name after the Greekβροντή(transl.thunder). One view, which biographerC. K. Shorterproposed in 1896, is that he adapted his name to associate himself withAdmiral Horatio Nelson, who was alsoDuke of Bronte.One might also find evidence for this theory in Patrick Brontë's desire to associate himself with theDuke of Wellingtonin his form of dress. Family tree Members of the Brontë family Patrick Brontë Patrick Brontë(17 March 1777 – 7 June 1861), the Brontë sisters' father, was born inLoughbrickland,County Down, Ireland, of a family of farm workers of moderate means.His birth name was Patrick Prunty or Brunty. His mother, Alice McClory, was of theRoman Catholicfaith, whilst his father Hugh was a Protestant, and Patrick was brought up in his father's faith. He was a bright young man and, after studying under the Rev. Thomas Tighe, won a scholarship toSt John's College, Cambridge. There, he studied divinity, ancient history and modern history.Attending Cambridge may have made him feel that his name was too Irish and he changed its spelling to Brontë (and its pronunciation accordingly), perhaps in honour ofHoratio Nelson, whom Patrick admired.It is more likely, however, that his brother William was 'on the run' from the authorities for his involvement with the radicalUnited Irishmen, leading Patrick to distance himself from the name Brunty. Having obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree, he was ordained on 10 August 1806.He is the author ofCottage Poems(1811),The Rural Minstrel(1814), numerous pamphlets, several newspaper articles and various rural poems. In 1811, Patrick was appointed minister at Hartshead-cum-Clifton. In 1812, he met and married 29 year old Maria Branwell at Guiseley. In 1813, they moved to Clough House Hightown, Liversedge, West Riding of Yorkshireand by 1820 they had moved into the parsonage at Haworth, where he took up the post ofperpetual curate. (Haworth was an ancient chapelry in the large parish ofBradford, so he could not be rector or vicar.) They had six children.On the death of his wife in 1821, his sister-in-law,Elizabeth Branwell, came fromPenzance,Cornwall, to help him bring up the children. Open, intelligent, generous and dedicated to educating his children personally, he bought all the books and toys the children desired. He also accorded them great freedom and unconditional love, although he may have alienated them from the world due to his eccentric personal habits and peculiar theories of education. After several failed attempts to remarry, Patrick accepted permanent widowerhood at the age of 47, and spent his time visiting the sick and the poor, giving sermons and administering communion.In so doing, he would often leave his children Maria, Elizabeth, Emily, Charlotte, Branwell and Anne alone with Elizabeth—Aunt Branwell and a maid, Tabitha Aykroyd (Tabby). Tabby helped relieve their possible boredom and loneliness especially by recounting local legends in her Yorkshire dialect as she tirelessly prepared the family's meals.Eventually, Patrick would survive his entire family. Six years after Charlotte's death, he died in 1861 at the age of 84.His son-in-law, the Rev.Arthur Bell Nicholls, would aid Mr Brontë at the end of his life as well. Maria, née Branwell Patrick's wifeMaria Brontë, née Branwell (15 April 1783 – 15 September 1821), was born inPenzance, Cornwall, and came from a comfortably well-off, middle-class family. Her father had a flourishing tea and grocery store and had accumulated considerable wealth.Maria died at the age of 38 ofuterine cancer.She married the same day as her younger sister Charlotte in the church atGuiseleyafter her fiancé had celebrated the union of two other couples.She was a literate and pious woman, known for her lively spirit, joyfulness and tenderness, and it was she who designed the samplers that are on display in the museumand had them embroidered by her children. She left memories with her husband and with Charlotte, the oldest surviving sibling, of a very vivacious woman. The younger ones, particularly Emily and Anne, admitted to retaining only vague images of their mother, especially of her suffering on her sickbed. Elizabeth Branwell Elizabeth Branwell (2 December 1776 – 29 October 1842) arrived from Penzance in 1821, aged 45, after her younger sister Maria's death, to help Patrick look after the children, to whom she was known as 'Aunt Branwell.' Elizabeth Branwell was a Methodist, though it seems that her denomination did not exert any influence on the children. It was Aunt Branwell who taught the children arithmetic, the alphabet, and how to sew,embroider and cross-stitch, skills appropriate for ladies. Aunt Branwell also gave them books and subscribed toFraser's Magazine, less interesting thanBlackwood's, but, nevertheless, providing plenty of material for discussion.She was a generous person who dedicated her life to her nieces and nephew, neither marrying nor returning to visit her relations in Cornwall. She probably told the children stories of events that had happened in Cornwall, such as raids by pirates in the eighteenth century, who carried off British residents to be enslaved in North Africa and Turkey; enslavement in Turkey is mentioned by Charlotte Brontë inJane Eyre.She died ofbowel obstructionin October 1842, after a brief agony during which she was comforted by her beloved nephew Branwell. In her last will, Aunt Branwell left to her three nieces the considerable sum of £900 (about £95,700 in 2017 currency), which allowed them to resign from their low-paid jobs as governesses and teachers. Children Education Cowan Bridge School In 1824, the four eldest girls (excluding Anne) entered theClergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge,which educated the children of less prosperous members of the clergy, and had been recommended to Mr Brontë. The following year, Maria and Elizabeth fell gravely ill and were removed from the school, later dying on 6 May and 15 June 1825, respectively.Charlotte and Emily were also withdrawn from the school and returned to Haworth. Charlotte expressed the traumatic impact that her sisters' deaths had on her in her future works. InJane Eyre, Cowan Bridge became Lowood, Maria inspired the young Helen Burns, the cruel mistress Miss Andrews inspired the headmistress Miss Scatcherd, and the tyrannical headmaster Rev.Carus Wilson, Mr Brocklehurst. Tuberculosis, which afflicted Maria and Elizabeth in 1825, also caused the eventual deaths of three of the surviving Brontës: Branwell in September 1848, Emily in December 1848, and, finally, Anne in May 1849. Patrick Brontë faced a challenge in arranging for the education of the girls of his family, which was barely middle class. They lacked significant connections and he could not afford the fees for them to attend an established school for young ladies. One solution was the schools where the fees were reduced to a minimum—so called \"charity schools\"—with a mission to assist families like those of the lower clergy. (Barker had read in theLeeds Intelligencerof 6 November 1823 reports of cases in the Court of Commons in Bowes: he later read of other cases, of 24 November 1824 near Richmond, in the county of Yorkshire, where pupils had been discovered gnawed by rats and suffering so badly from malnutrition that some of them had lost their sight.) Yet for Patrick, there was nothing to suggest that the Reverend Carus Wilson's Clergy Daughters' School would not provide a good education and good care for his daughters. The school was not expensive and its patrons (supporters who allowed the school to use their names) were all respected people. Among these was the daughter ofHannah More, a religious author and philanthropist who took a particular interest in education. More was a close friend of the poetWilliam Cowper, who, like her, advocated extensive, proper and well-rounded education for young girls. The pupils included the offspring of different prelates and even certain acquaintances of Patrick Brontë includingWilliam Wilberforce, young women whose fathers had also been educated at St John's College, Cambridge. Thus Brontë believed Wilson's school to have many of the necessary guarantees needed for his daughters to receive proper schooling. John Bradley In 1829–30, Patrick Brontë engagedJohn Bradley, an artist from neighbouringKeighley, as drawing-master for the children. Bradley was an artist of some local repute rather than a professional instructor, but he may well have fostered Branwell's enthusiasm for art and architecture. Miss Wooler's school In 1831, fourteen-year-old Charlotte was enrolled at the school of Miss Wooler in Roe Head,Mirfield. Patrick could have sent his daughter to a less costly school inKeighleynearer home but Miss Wooler and her sisters had a good reputation and he remembered the building, which he passed when strolling around the parishes ofKirklees,Dewsburyand Hartshead-cum-Clifton where he was vicar. Margaret Wooler showed fondness towards the sisters and she accompanied Charlotte to the altar at her marriage.Patrick's choice of school was excellent—Charlotte was happy there and studied well. She made many lifelong friends, in particularEllen Nusseyand Mary Taylor who later went to New Zealand before returning to England.Charlotte returned from Roe Head in June 1832, missing her friends, but happy to rejoin her family. Three years later, Miss Wooler offered her former pupil a position as her assistant. The family decided that Emily would accompany her to pursue studies that would otherwise have been unaffordable. Emily's fees were partly covered by Charlotte's salary. Emily was 17 and it was the first time she had left Haworth since leaving Cowan Bridge. On 29 July 1835, the sisters left for Roe Head. The same day, Branwell wrote a letter to theRoyal Academy of Artin London, to present several of his drawings as part of his candidature as a probationary student. Charlotte taught, and wrote about her students without much sympathy. Emily did not settle: after three months her health seemed to decline and she had to be taken home to the parsonage. Anne took her place and stayed until Christmas 1837. Charlotte avoided boredom by following the developments of the imaginary Empire of Angria—invented by Charlotte and Branwell—that she received in letters from her brother. During holidays at Haworth, she wrote long narratives while being reproached by her father who wanted her to become more involved in parish affairs. These were coming to a head over the imposition of the Church of England rates, a local tax levied on parishes where the majority of the population were dissenters. In the meantime, Miss Wooler moved to Heald's House, atDewsbury Moor, where Charlotte complained about the humidity that made her unwell. Upon leaving the establishment in 1838 Miss Wooler presented her with a parting gift ofThe Vision of Don Roderick and Rokeby, a collection of poems byWalter Scott. Literary evolution The children became interested in writing from an early age, initially as a game. They all displayed a talent for narrative, but for the younger ones it became a pastime to develop them.At the centre of the children's creativity were twelve wooden soldiers which Patrick Brontë gave to Branwell at the beginning of June 1826.These toy soldiers instantly fired their imaginations and they spoke of them asthe Young Men, and gave them names. However, it was not until December 1827 that their ideas took written form,and the imaginary African kingdom of Glass Town came into existence,followed by the Empire of Angria. Emily and Anne createdGondal, an island continent in the North Pacific, ruled by a woman, after the departure of Charlotte in 1831.In the beginning, these stories were written inlittle books, the size of a matchboxabout 1.5 by 2.5 inches (38 mm × 64 mm)and cursorily bound with thread. The pages were filled with close, minute writing, often in capital letters without punctuation and embellished with illustrations, detailed maps, schemes, landscapes and plans of buildings, created by the children according to their specialisations. The idea was that the books were of a size for the soldiers to read. The complexity of the stories matured as the children's imaginations developed, fed by reading the three weekly or monthly magazines to which their father had subscribed,or the newspapers that were bought daily from John Greenwood's local news and stationery store. Literary and artistic influence These fictional worlds were the product of fertile imagination fed by reading, discussion and a passion for literature. Far from suffering from the negative influences that never left them and which were reflected in the works of their later, more mature years, the Brontë children absorbed them eagerly. Press The periodicals that Patrick Brontë read were a mine of information for his children. TheLeeds IntelligencerandBlackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, conservative and well written, but better than theQuarterly Reviewthat defended the same political ideas whilst addressing a less-refined readership (the reason Mr. Brontë did not read it),were exploited in every detail.Blackwood's Magazine, in particular, was not only the source of their knowledge of world affairs, but also provided material for the Brontës' early writing. For instance, an article in the June 1826 number ofBlackwood's, provides commentary on new discoveries from the exploration ofcentral Africa.The map included with the article highlights geographical features the Brontës reference in their tales: the Jibbel Kumera (theMountains of the Moon),Ashantee, and the riversNigerandCalabar. The author also advises the British to expand into Africa from Fernando Po, where, Christine Alexander notes, the Brontë children locate the Great Glass Town.Their knowledge of geography was completed by Goldsmith'sGrammar of General Geography, which the Brontës owned and annotated heavily. Lord Byron From 1833, Charlotte and Branwell's Angrian tales begin to featureByronic heroeswho have a strong sexual magnetism and passionate spirit, and demonstrate arrogance and even black-heartedness. Again, it is in an article inBlackwood's Magazinefrom August 1825 that they discover the poet for the first time; he had died the previous year. From this moment, the name Byron became synonymous with all the prohibitions and audacities as if it had stirred up the very essence of the rise of those forbidden things.Branwell's Charlotte Zamorna, one of the heroes ofVerdopolis, tends towards increasingly ambiguous behaviour,and the same influence and evolution recur with the Brontës, especially in the characters ofHeathcliffinWuthering Heights, andMr. RochesterinJane Eyre, who display the traits of aByronic hero. Numerous other works left their mark on the Brontës—theThousand and One Nights, for example, which inspiredjinnin which they became themselves in the centre of their kingdoms, while adding a touch of exoticism. John Martin The children's imagination was also influenced by three prints of engravings inmezzotintbyJohn Martinaround 1820. Charlotte and Branwell made copies of the printsBelshazzar's Feast,Déluge, andJoshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still upon Gibeon(1816), which hung on the walls of the parsonage. Martin's fantastic architecture is reflected in theGlass Townand Angrian writings, where he appears himself among Branwell's charactersand under the name of Edward de Lisle, the greatest painter and portraitist of Verdopolis,the capital of Glass Town. One of Sir Edward de Lisle's major works,Les Quatre Genii en Conseil, is inspired by Martin's illustration forJohn Milton'sParadise Lost.Together with Byron, John Martin seems to have been one of the artistic influences essential to the Brontës' universe. Anne's morals and realism The influence revealed byAgnes GreyandThe Tenant of Wildfell Hallis much less clear. Anne's works are largely founded on her experience as a governess and on that of her brother's decline. Furthermore, they demonstrate her conviction, a legacy from her father, that books should provide moral education.This sense of moral duty and the need to record it, are more evident inThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall.The influence of the gothic novels ofAnn Radcliffe,Horace Walpole,Gregory \"Monk\" LewisandCharles Maturinis noticeable,and that of Walter Scott too, if only because the heroine, abandoned and left alone, resists importunities not only through her almost supernatural talents, but by her powerful temperament. Jane Eyre,Agnes Grey,The Tenant of Wildfell Hall,Shirley,Villetteand evenThe Professorpresent a linear structure concerning characters who advance through life after several trials and tribulations, to find a kind of happiness in love and virtue, recalling works of religious inspiration of the 17th century such asJohn Bunyan'sThe Pilgrim's Progressor hisGrace abounding to the Chief of Sinners.In a more profane manner, the hero or heroine follows apicaresqueitinerary such as inMiguel de Cervantes(1547–1616),Daniel Defoe(1660–1731),Henry Fielding(1707–1764) andTobias Smollett(1721–1771). This lively tradition continued into the 19th century with therags to richesgenre to which almost all the great Victorian romancers have contributed. The protagonist is thrown by fate into poverty and after many difficulties achieves a golden happiness. Often an artifice is employed to effect the passage from one state to another such as an unexpected inheritance, a miraculous gift, grand reunions, etc,and in a sense it is the route followed by Charlotte's and Anne's protagonists, even if the riches they win are more those of the heart than of the wallet. Apart from its Gothic elements,Wuthering Heightsmoves like a Greek tragedy and possesses its music,the cosmic dimensions of the epics ofJohn Milton, and the power of the Shakespearian theatre.One can hear the echoes ofKing Learas well as the completely different characters ofRomeo and Juliet.The Brontës were also seduced by the writings ofWalter Scott, and in 1834 Charlotte exclaimed, \"For fiction, read Walter Scott and only him—all novels after his are without value.\" Governesses and Charlotte's idea Early teaching opportunities Through their father's influence and their own intellectual curiosity, they were able to benefit from an education that placed them among knowledgeable people, but Mr Brontë's emoluments were modest. The only options open to the girls were either marriage or a choice between the professions of school mistress orgoverness. The Brontë sisters found positions in families wherein they educated often rebellious young children, or found employment as school teachers. The possibility of becoming apaid companionto a rich and solitary woman might have been a fall-back role but one that would have probably bored any of the sisters intolerably.Janet Todd'sMary Wollstonecraft, a revolutionary lifementions the predicament. Only Emily never became a governess. Her sole professional experience would be an experiment in teaching during six months of intolerable exile in Miss Patchett's school atLaw Hill(betweenHaworthandHalifax).In contrast, Charlotte had teaching positions at Miss Margaret Wooler's school and in Brussels with the Hégers. She became governess to the Sidgwicks, the Stonegappes and the Lotherdales where she worked for several months in 1839, then with Mrs White, at Upperhouse House, Rawdon, from March to September 1841.Anne became a governess and worked for Mrs Ingham,at Blake Hall, Mirfield from April to December 1839, then for Mrs Robinson at Thorp Green Hall, Little Ouseburn, near York, where she also obtained employment for her brother in a futile attempt to stabilise him. Working as governesses The family's finances did not flourish, and Aunt Branwell spent the money with caution. Emily had a visceral need of her home and the countryside that surrounded it, and to leave it would cause her to languish and wither.Charlotte and Anne, being more realistic, did not hesitate in finding work and from April 1839 to December 1841 the two sisters had several posts as governesses. Not staying long with each family, their employment would last for some months or a single season. However, Anne did stay with the Robinsons in Thorp Green where things went well, from May 1840 to June 1845. In the meantime, Charlotte had an idea that would place all the advantages on her side. On advice from her father and friends, she thought that she and her sisters had the intellectual capacity to create a school for young girls in the parsonage where theirSunday Schoolclasses took place. It was agreed to offer the future pupils the opportunity of correctly learning modern languages and that preparation for this should be done abroad, which led to a further decision. Among the possibilities, Paris and Lille were considered,but were rejected due to aversion to the French. Indeed, theFrench Revolutionand theNapoleonic warshad not been forgotten by theTory-spirited and deeply conservative girls.On the recommendation of a pastor based in Brussels,who wanted to be of help, Belgium was chosen, where they could also study German and music. Aunt Branwell provided the funds for the Brussels project. School project and study trip to Brussels Charlotte's and Emily's journey to Brussels Emily and Charlotte arrived in Brussels in February 1842 accompanied by their father.Once there, they enrolled atMonsieur and Madame Héger'sboarding school in the Rue d'Isabelle, for six months. Claire Héger was the second wife of Constantin, and it was she who founded and directed the school while Constantin had the responsibility for the higher French classes. According to Miss Wheelwright, a former pupil, he had the intellect of a genius. He was passionate about his auditorium, demanding many lectures, perspectives, and structured analyses.He was also a good-looking man with regular features, bushy hair, very black whiskers, and wore an excited expression while sounding forth on great authors about whom he invited his students to make apasticheon general or philosophical themes. The lessons, especially those of Constantin Héger, were very much appreciated by Charlotte, and the two sisters showed exceptional intelligence, although Emily hardly liked her teacher and was somewhat rebellious.Emily learned German and to play the piano with natural brilliance and very quickly the two sisters were writing literary and philosophical essays in an advanced level of French. After six months of study, Mme Héger suggested they stay at the boarding school free of charge, in return for giving some lessons. After much hesitation, the girls accepted. Neither of them felt particularly attached to their students, and only one, Mademoiselle de Bassompierre, then aged 16, later expressed any affection for her teacher Emily, which appeared to be mutual, and made her a gift of a signed, detailed drawing of a storm ravaged pine tree. Return and recall The death of their aunt in October of the same year forced them to return once more to Haworth. Aunt Branwell had left all her worldly goods in equal shares to her nieces and to Eliza Kingston, a cousin in Penzance,which had the immediate effect of purging all their debts and providing a small reserve of funds. Nevertheless, they were asked to return to the Héger's boarding school in Brussels as they were regarded as being competent and were needed. They were each offered teaching posts in the boarding school, English for Charlotte and music for Emily. However, Charlotte returned alone to Belgium in January 1843.Emily remained critical of Monsieur Héger, in spite of the excellent opinion he held of her. He later stated that she 'had the spirit of a man', and would probably become a great traveller due to her being gifted with a superior faculty of reason that allowed her to deduce ancient knowledge from new spheres of knowledge, and her unbending willpower would have triumphed over all obstacles. Charlotte returns Almost a year to the day, enamoured for some time for Monsieur Héger, Charlotte resigned and returned to Haworth. Her life at the school had not been without suffering, and on one occasion she ventured into the cathedral and entered a confessional. She may have had intention of converting to Catholicism, but it would only have been for a short time.During her absence, life at Haworth had become more difficult. Mr. Brontë had lost his sight although his cataract had been operated on with success in Manchester, and it was there in August 1846,when Charlotte arrived at his bedside that she began to writeJane Eyre. Meanwhile, her brother Branwell fell into a rapid decline punctuated by dramas, drunkenness and delirium.Due partly to Branwell's poor reputation, the school project failed and was abandoned. Charlotte wrote four long, very personal, and sometimes vague letters toMonsieur Hégerthat never received replies. The extent of Charlotte Brontë's feelings for Héger were not fully realised until 1913, when her letters to him were published for the first time. Héger had first shown them toMrs. Gaskellwhen she visited him in 1856 while researching her biographyThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, but she concealed their true significance. These letters, referred to as the \"Héger Letters\", had been ripped up at some stage by Héger, but his wife had retrieved the pieces from the wastepaper bin and meticulously glued or sewn them back together. Paul Héger, Constantin's son, and his sisters gave these letters to theBritish Museum,and they were shortly thereafter printed inThe Timesnewspaper. Brontë sisters' literary career First publication:Poems, by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell The writing that had begun so early never left the family. Charlotte had ambition like her brother, and wrote to thepoet laureateRobert Southeyto submit several poems in his style (though Branwell was kept at a distance from her project). She received a hardly encouraging reply after several months. Southey, still illustrious today although his star has somewhat waned, was one of the great figures of EnglishRomanticism, along withWilliam WordsworthandSamuel Taylor Coleridge, and he shared the prejudice of the times; literature, or more particularly poetry (for women had been publishing fiction and enjoying critical, popular and economic success for over a century by this time), was considered a man's business, and not an appropriate occupation for ladies. However, Charlotte did not allow herself to be discouraged. Furthermore, coincidence came to her aid. One day in autumn 1845 while alone in the dining room she noticed a small notebook lying open in the drawer of Emily's portable writing desk and \"of my sister Emily's handwriting\". She read it and was dazzled by the beauty of the poems that she did not know. The discovery of this treasure was what she recalled five years later, and according to Juliet Barker, she erased the excitement that she had felt\"more than surprise ..., a deep conviction that these were not common effusions, nor at all like the poetry women generally write. I thought them condensed and terse, vigorous and genuine. To my ear, they had a peculiar music—wild, melancholy, and elevating.\" In the following paragraph Charlotte describes her sister's indignant reaction at her having ventured into such an intimate realm with impunity. It took Emily hours to calm down and days to be convinced to publish the poems. Charlotte envisaged a joint publication by the three sisters. Anne was easily won over to the project, and the work was shared, compared and edited.Once the poems had been chosen, nineteen for Charlotte and twenty-one each for Anne and Emily, Charlotte went about searching for a publisher. She took advice from William and Robert Chambers of Edinburgh, directors of one of their favourite magazines,Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. It is thought, although no documents exist to support the claim, that they advised the sisters to contact Aylott & Jones, a small publishing house at 8, Paternoster Row, London, who accepted, but at the authors' own risk since they felt the commercial risk to the company was too great.The work thus appeared in 1846, published using the male pseudonyms of Currer (Charlotte), Ellis (Emily) and Acton (Anne) Bell. These were very uncommon forenames but the initials of each of the sisters were preserved and the patronym could have been inspired by that of the vicar of the parish, Arthur Bell Nicholls. It was in fact on 18 May 1845 that he took up his duties at Haworth, at the moment when the publication project was well advanced. The book attracted hardly any attention. Only three copies were sold, of which one was purchased by Fredrick Enoch, a resident of Cornmarket, Warwick, who in admiration, wrote to the publisher to request an autograph—the only extant single document carrying the three authors' signatures in their pseudonyms,and they continued creating their prose, each one producing a book a year later. Each worked in secret,unceasingly discussing their writing for hours at the dinner table, after which their father would open the door at 9 p.m. with \"Don't stay up late, girls!\", then rewinding the clock and taking the stairs up to his room. Fame 1847 Charlotte'sJane Eyre, Emily'sWuthering Heightsand Anne'sAgnes Greyappeared in 1847 after many tribulations, again for reasons of finding a publisher. The packets containing the manuscripts were often returned to the parsonage and Charlotte simply added a new address; she did this at least a dozen times during the year.The first one was finally published by Smith, Elder & Co in London. The 23-year-old owner, George Smith, had specialised in publishing scientific revues, aided by his perspicacious reader William Smith Williams. Emily and Anne's manuscripts were confided toThomas Cautley Newby, who intended to compile athree-decker; more economical for sale and for loan in the \"circulating libraries\". The two first volumes includedWuthering Heightsand the third oneAgnes Grey. Both novels attracted critical acclaim, occasionally harsh aboutWuthering Heights, praised for the originality of the subject and its narrative style, but viewed with suspicion because of its outrageous violence and immorality—surely, the critics wrote, a work of a man with a depraved mind.Critics were fairly neutral aboutAgnes Grey, but more flattering forJane Eyre, which soon became abest-seller, despite some commentators denouncing it as an affront to good morals. Jane Eyreand rising fame The pseudonymous (Currer Bell) publication in 1847 ofJane Eyre, An Autobiographyestablished a dazzling reputation for Charlotte. In July 1848, Charlotte and Anne (Emily had refused to go along with them) travelled by train to London to prove toSmith, Elder & Co.that each sister was indeed an independent author, for Thomas Cautley Newby, the publisher ofWuthering HeightsandAgnes Grey, had launched a rumour that the three novels were the work of one author, understood to be Ellis Bell (Emily).George Smithwas extremely surprised to find two gawky, ill-dressed country girls paralysed with fear, who, to identify themselves, held out the letters addressed toMessrs. Acton, Currer and Ellis Bell. Taken by such surprise, he introduced them to his mother with all the dignity their talent merited, and invited them to the opera for a performance ofRossini'sBarber of Seville. Wuthering Heights Emily Brontë'sWuthering Heightswas published in 1847 under the masculine pseudonym Ellis Bell, by Thomas Cautley Newby, in two companion volumes to that of Anne's (Acton Bell),Agnes Grey.Controversial from the start of its release, its originality, its subject, narrative style and troubled action raised intrigue. Certain critics condemned it,but sales were nevertheless considerable for an unknown author of a novel that defied all conventions. It is a work of black Romanticism, covering three generations isolated in the cold spring of the countryside with two opposing elements: the dignified manor of Thrushcross Grange and the rambling dilapidated pile of Wuthering Heights. The main characters, swept by tumults of the earth, the skies and the hearts, are strange and often possessed of unheard-of violence and deprivations. The story is told in a scholarly fashion, with two narrators, the traveller and tenant Lockwood, and the housekeeper/governess, Nelly Dean, with two sections in the first person, one direct, one cloaked, which overlap each other with digressions and sub-plots that form, from apparently scattered fragments, a coherently locked unit. 1848, Anne'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall One year before her death in May 1849, Anne published a second novel. Far more ambitious than her previous novel,The Tenant of Wildfell Hallwas a great success and rapidly outsold Emily'sWuthering Heights. However, the critical reception was mixed—praise for the novel's \"power\" and \"effect\" and sharp criticism for being \"coarse\".Charlotte Brontëherself, Anne's sister, wrote to her publisher that it \"hardly seems to me desirable topreserve ... thechoice of subject in that work is a mistake.\"After Anne's death, Charlotte prevented the novel's republication and thus condemned her sister to temporary oblivion. The master theme is the alcoholism of a man who causes the downfall of his family. Helen Graham, the central character, gets married for love to Arthur Huntingdon, whom she soon discovers to be lecherous, violent and alcoholic. She is forced to break with the conventions that would keep her in the family home that has become hell, and to leave with her child to seek secret refuge in the old house of Wildfell Hall. When the alcohol causes her husband's ultimate decline, she returns to care for him in total abnegation until his death. Today,The Tenant of Wildfell Hallis considered by most of the critics to be one of the first sustainedfeministnovels. Identities revealed In 1850, a little over a year after the deaths of Emily and Anne, Charlotte wrote a preface for the re-print of the combined edition ofWuthering HeightsandAgnes Grey, in which she publicly revealed the real identities of all three sisters. Charlotte Brontë Denunciation of boarding schools (Jane Eyre) Conditions at the school at Cowan Bridge, where Maria and Elizabeth may have contracted the tuberculosis from which they died, were probably no worse than those at many other schools of the time. (For example, several decades before the Brontë sisters' experience at Cowan Bridge,Jane Austenand her sister Cassandra contracted typhus at a similar boarding school, and Jane nearly died. The Austen sisters' education, like that of the Brontë sisters, was continued at home.)Nevertheless, Charlotte blamed Cowan Bridge for her sisters' deaths, especially its poor medical care—chiefly, repeated emetics and blood-lettings—and the negligence of the school's doctor, who was the director's brother-in-law. Charlotte's vivid memories of the privations at Cowan Bridge were poured into her depiction of Lowood School inJane Eyre: the scanty and often spoiled food, the lack of heating and adequate clothing, the periodic epidemics of illness such as \"low fever\" (probably typhus), the severity and arbitrariness of the punishments, and even the harshness of particular teachers (a Miss Andrews who taught at Cowan Bridge is thought to have been Charlotte's model for Miss Scatcherd inJane Eyre).Elizabeth Gaskell, a personal friend and the first biographer of Charlotte, confirmed that Cowan Bridge was Charlotte's model for Lowood and insisted that conditions there in Charlotte's day were egregious. More recent biographers have argued that the food, clothing, heating, medical care and discipline at Cowan Bridge were not considered sub-standard for religious schools of the time, testaments of the era's complacency about these intolerable conditions.One scholar has commended Patrick Brontë for his perspicacity in removing all his daughters from the school, a few weeks before the deaths of Maria and Elizabeth. Literary encounters Following the overwhelming success ofJane Eyre, Charlotte was pressured by George Smith, her publisher, to travel to London to meet her public. Despite the extreme timidity that paralysed her among strangers and made her almost incapable of expressing herself,Charlotte consented to be lionised, and in London was introduced to other great writers of the era, includingHarriet MartineauandWilliam Makepeace Thackeray, both of whom befriended her. Charlotte especially admired Thackeray, whose portrait, given to her by Smith, still hangs in the dining room at Haworth parsonage. On one occasion during a public gathering, Thackeray introduced Charlotte to his mother asJane Eyreand when Charlotte called on him the next day, he received an extended dressing-down, in which Smith had to intervene. During her trip to London in 1851 she visited theGreat ExhibitionandThe Crystal Palace.In 1849 she publishedShirleyand in 1853Villette. Marriage and death The Brontë sisters were highly amused by the behaviour of the curates they met.Arthur Bell Nicholls(1818–1906) had been curate of Haworth for seven and a half years, when contrary to all expectations, and to the fury of Patrick Brontë (their father), he proposed to Charlotte. Although impressed by his dignity and deep voice, as well as by his near complete emotional collapse when she rejected him, she found him rigid, conventional and rather narrow-minded \"like all the curates\"—as she wrote to Ellen Nussey.After she declined his proposal, Nicholls, pursued by the anger of Patrick Brontë, left his functions for several months.However, little by little her feelings evolved and after slowly convincing her father, she finally married Nicholls on 29 June 1854. On return from their honeymoon in Ireland where she had been introduced to Mr. Nicholls' aunt and cousins, her life completely changed. She adopted her new duties as a wife, which took up most of her time. She wrote to her friends telling them that Nicholls was a good and attentive husband, but that she nevertheless felt a kind of holy terror at her new situation. In a letter to Ellen Nussey (Nell), in 1854 she wrote \"Indeed-indeed-Nell-it is a solemn and strange and perilous thing for a woman to become a wife.\" The following year she died aged 38. The cause of death given at the time was tuberculosis, but it may have been complicated with typhoid fever (the water at Haworth being likely contaminated due to poor sanitation and the vast cemetery that surrounded the church and the parsonage) andhyperemesis gravidarumfrom her pregnancy that was in its early stage. The first biography of Charlotte was written byElizabeth Cleghorn Gaskellat the request of Patrick Brontë, and published in 1857, helping to create the myth of a family of condemned genius, living in a painful and romantic solitude. After having stayed at Haworth several times and having accommodated Charlotte in Plymouth Grove, Manchester, and having become her friend and confidant, Mrs Gaskell certainly had the advantage of knowing the family. Novels Unfinished fragments These are outlines or unedited roughcasts which with the exception ofEmmahave been recently published. Branwell Brontë Patrick Branwell Brontë(1817–1848) was considered by his father and sisters to be a genius, while the book byDaphne du Maurier(1986),The Infernal World of Branwell Brontë, contains numerous references to his addiction to alcohol andlaudanum. He was an intelligent boy with many talents and interested in many subjects, especially literature. He was often the driving force in the Brontë siblings' construction of the imaginary worlds. He was artistic and was encouraged by his father to pursue this. While trying to make a name as an artist, he left for London, but used up his father's allowance in a matter of days in cafés of ill-repute.His attempts to obtain low-paid work failed,and very quickly he foundered in alcohol and laudanum, unable to regain his stability. Anne Brontë obtained employment for him in January 1843, but nearly three years later he was dismissed.In September 1848, after several years of decline, he died from tuberculosis. On his death, his father tearfully repeated, \"My brilliant boy\", while the clearheaded and totally loyal Emily wrote that his condition had been \"hopeless\". Branwell is the author ofJuvenilia, which he wrote as a child with his sister Charlotte,Glass Town,Angria, poems, pieces of prose and verse under the pseudonym of Northangerland,such as \"Real Rest\", published by theHalifax Guardian(8 November 1846)from several articles accepted by local newspapers and from an unfinished novel probably from around 1845 entitledAnd the Weary are at Rest. Emily Brontë Emily Brontë(1818–1848) has been called the \"Sphinxof Literature\", writing without the slightest desire for fame and only for her own satisfaction. She was obsessively timid outside the family circle, to the point of turning her back on her partners in conversation without saying a word. With a single novel,Wuthering Heights(1847), and poems with an elemental power, she reached the heights of literature. Though she was almost unknown during her life, posterity classes her as \"top level\" in the literary canonof English literature.Simone de Beauvoir, inThe Second Sex(1949), chooses onlyEmily Brontë,Virginia Woolfand (\"sometimes\")Mary Webb,ColetteandMansfield, as among those who have tried to approach nature \"in its inhuman freedom\". Above all, Emily loved to wander about the wild landscape of the moors around Haworth. In September 1848 her health began to decline rapidly.Consumptive, she refused all treatment,with the exception of a visit from a London doctor, because although it was already too late, her relatives insisted.Despite popular belief, Emily did not die on the dining room sofa. There is no contemporary evidence for the story and Charlotte, in her letter to William Smith Williams, mentions Emily's dog Keeper lying at the side of her death bed.It is possible that she left an unfinished manuscript that Charlotte burned to avoid such controversy as followed the publication ofWuthering Heights. Several documents exist that allude to the possibility, although no proof corroborating this suggestion has ever been found. Emily Brontë's poems Emily's poems were probably written to be inserted in the saga ofGondal, several of whose characters she identified with right into adulthood. At the age of 28 she still acted out scenes from the little books with Anne while travelling on the train to York.\"Remembrance\" was one of the 21 of her poems that were chosen for 1846 joint publication with her siblings'. Anne Brontë Anne was not as celebrated as her other two sisters. Her second novel,The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was prevented from being republished after Anne's death by her sister Charlotte, who wrote to her publisher that \"it hardly appears to me desirable to preserve. The choice of subject in that work is a mistake, it was too little consonant with the character, tastes and ideas of the gentle, retiring inexperienced writer.\" This prevention is considered to be the main reason for Anne's being less renowned than her sisters. Anne's health began to decline rapidly, like that of her brother and sister some months earlier. On 5 April 1849, she wrote to Ellen Nussey asking her to accompany her to Scarborough on the east coast. Anne confides her thoughts to Ellen: I have no horror of death: if I thought it inevitable I think I could quietly resign myself to the prospect ... But I wish it would please God to spare me not only for Papa's and Charlotte's sakes, but because I long to do some good in the world before I leave it. I have many schemes in my head for future practise—humble and limited indeed—but still I should not like them all to come to nothing, and myself to have lived to so little purpose. But God's will be done. Anne hoped that the sea air would improve her health, as recommended by the doctor, and Charlotte agreed to go. On the Sunday morning she felt weaker and asked if she could be taken back to Haworth. The doctor confirmed that she was near to death and Anne thanked him for his candour. \"Take courage, take courage\" she murmured to Charlotte. She died at 2 pm on Monday 28 May. She is buried in the cemetery of St Mary's of Scarborough.Her gravestone inscription carried an error in her age: she died at the age of 29 and not at 28. It was noticed by Charlotte during her only visit, and she had the intention of asking the mason to correct it. Ill health did not leave him time to effect the repair and the tombstone remained in the same state until it was replaced by the Brontë Society in April 2013. Northern England at the time of the Brontës In her 1857 biographyThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, Mrs Gaskell begins with two explanatory and descriptive chapters. The first one covers the wild countryside of theWest Riding of Yorkshire, the little village of Haworth, the parsonage and the church surrounded by its vast cemetery perched on the top of a hill. The second chapter presents an overview of the social, sanitary and economic conditions of the region. Social, sanitary and economic conditions in Haworth The death toll within the Brontë family was not unusual for the area, and left little impression on the village population, who were confronted with death on a daily basis. When Patrick Brontë arrived, the parish was suffering from unemployment. The men sought work in the quarries and local handicrafts. The only businesses were the pharmacy, which supplied Branwell, and John Greenwood's stationery store where the Brontës were the best customers. Haworth's population grew rapidly during the first half of the 19th century, from hardly 1,000 to 3,365 in 50 years.The village did not have a sewage system and the well water was contaminated by faecal matter and the decomposition of bodies in the cemetery on the hilltop.Life expectancywas less than 25 years and infant mortality was around 41% for children under six months of age.Most of the population lived by working the poorly fertile land of themoorsand supplemented their incomes with work done at home, such as spinning and weaving wool from the sheep that were farmed on the moors.Conditions changedwhen the textile industry, already present since the end of the 17th century, grew with the mills being located on the banks of theRiver Worth, whose waters turned the wheels. Consequently fewer people were needed to work them. Food was scarce, often little more thanporridge, resulting in vitamin deficiencies. Public hygiene was non-existent and lavatories were basic. The facilities at the parsonage were no more than a plank across a hole in a hut at the rear, with a lower plank for the children. In her thirties, Charlotte was described as having a toothless jaw by such persons as Mrs Gaskell, who stated in a letter dated 25 August 1850 to Catherine Winkworth: \"large mouth and many teeth gone\".However, food was reasonably plentiful in the family. They ate from well filled plates of porridge in the morning and piles of potatoes were peeled each day in the kitchen while Tabby told stories about her country, or Emily revised her German grammar. Sometimes Mr Brontë would return home from his tours of the village with game donated by the parishioners. Role of the women According toRobert Southey, poet laureate, in his response to Charlotte, ladies from a good background should be content with an education and a marriage embellished with some decorative talents.Mr Patrick Brontë had one of the characters in hisThe Maid of Kilarney—without knowing whether it reflected a widespread opinion supporting or condemning it—say, \"The education of female ought, most assuredly, to be competent, in order that she might enjoy herself, and be a fit companion for man. But, believe me, lovely, delicate and sprightly woman, is not formed by nature, to pore over the musty pages of Grecian and Roman literature, or to plod through the windings of Mathematical Problems, nor has Providence assigned for her sphere of action, either the cabinet or the field. Herforteis softness, tenderness and grace.\" In any case, it seemed to contradict his attitude towards his daughters whom he encouraged, even if he was not completely aware of what they did with their time. Sisters' place in literature Due to their forced or voluntary isolation, the Brontë sisters constituted a separate literary group that neither had predecessors nor successors. There is not a 'Brontë' line such as exists among authors of realist and naturalist novels, or in poetry, the romantic and the symbolic. Their influence certainly existed, but it is difficult to define in its totality. Writers who followed them doubtlessly thought about them while they were creating their dark and tormented worlds such asThomas HardyinJude the ObscureorTess of the d'Urbervilles, orGeorge EliotwithAdam BedeandThe Mill on the Floss.There were also more conventional authors such asMatthew Arnold, who in a letter from 1853 says of Charlotte that she only pretends to heartlessness: \"nothing but hunger, rebellion and rage\".In contrast,Mrs Humphry Ward, author ofRobert Elsmereand other morality novels, only finds the didactic among the works of Charlotte, while she appreciates the happy blend of romance and realism in the works of Emily.There is however nothing that could constitute a literary vein. Pilgrimages to Haworth from 1860 By 1860 Charlotte had been dead for five years, and the only people living at the parsonage were Mr. Brontë, his son-in-law,Arthur Bell Nicholls, and two servants. In 1857 Mrs. Gaskell's biography of Charlotte was published, and though at its first reading, Mr. Brontë approved of its commissioning, several months later he expressed doubts. The portrait of Nicholls, founded partly on the confidence of Ellen Nussey, seemed to him to be unjustified. Ellen Nussey, who hated Arthur, insists that his marital claims had perverted Charlotte's writing and she had to struggle against an interruption of her career. It is true that Arthur found Nussey to be too close to his wife, and he insisted that she should destroy her letters—although this never actually happened. Mrs. Gaskell's book caused a sensation and was distributed nationwide. The polemic launched by Charlotte's father resulted in a squabble that only served to increase the family's fame. During Charlotte's lifetime friends and sponsors visited the parsonage, includingSir Jamesand Lady Kay Shuttleworth,Ellen Nussey,Elizabeth Gaskell,John Store Smith, a young writer from Manchester,Bessie Parkes, who recounted her visit to Mrs. Gaskell, andAbraham Holroyd, poet, antiquarian and historian.However, following the publication of the book and the pastor's public remonstrations, the parsonage became a place of pilgrimage for admirers wanting to see it with their own eyes. Charlotte's husband recalled that he had to protect his father-in-law, when on the short path to the church they had to push their way through the crowds of people wanting to reach out and touch the cape of the father of the Brontë girls.The hundreds of visitors became thousands, coming from all over Britain and even from across the Atlantic. Whenever he agreed to meet them, Patrick received them with utmost courtesy and recounted the story of his brilliant daughters, never omitting to express his displeasure at the opinions held about Charlotte's husband. The flow of visitors has never abated. Indeed, the parsonage at Haworth received an estimated 88,000 visitors in 2017. Brontë Society TheBrontë Parsonage Museumis managed and maintained by theBrontë Society,which organises exhibitions and takes care of the cultural heritage represented by objects and documents that belonged to the family. The society has branches in Australia, Canada, France, Ireland, theScandinaviancountries, South Africa and the USA. Haworth In 1904,Virginia Woolfvisited Haworth and published an account inThe Guardianon 21 December. She remarked on the symbiosis between the village and the Brontë sisters, and on the fact that utensils and clothes that would normally have disappeared before those who used them, have survived, enables one to better understand their singular presence. She wrote: \"Haworth expresses the Brontës; the Brontës express Haworth; they fit like a snail to its shell\". Brontë Birthplace The sisters' birthplace in Thornton has been acquired by acommunity benefit societyto preserve it, and as of 2024there are plans to restore the house for use as a \"social and educational space\". Brontë Stones In a 2018 project curated and delivered byUniversity of Huddersfieldacademic and writer Michael Stewart and theBradford Literature Festival, four specially-commissioned poems are inscribed on four stones set in the area between the sisters' birthplace and the Haworth parsonage.The Anne Stone has a poem byJackie Kayand stands in a wildflower meadow behind the Haworth Parsonage; the Charlotte Stone, with a poem byCarol Ann Duffy, is set in the wall of theBrontë Birthplacein Thornton; Emily is remembered in a poem byKate Bush, known for her 1978 song \"Wuthering Heights\", which is carved into a rock outcrop of Ogden Kirk on wild moorland aboveOgden Water; and a fourth stone, the Brontë Stone, commemorates all three sisters with a poem byJeanette Wintersonand stands in Thornton Cemetery.There are various published walks around the stones, including the 15 mi (24 km) Emily Brontë Walk which is recognised by theLong Distance Walkers Association.The Brontë Stones Project was found to have \"increased local engagement with the landscape, regenerated and preserved ancient public rights of ways, and provided an important stimulus to cultural tourism, contributing to the quality of the tourist experience\". Commemoration in Westminster Abbey A plaque to the three Brontë sisters was erected inPoets' CornerinWestminster Abbeyon 8 October 1939, although it was not marked with any ceremony, due to the outbreak of the Second World War. A formal unveiling took place in 1947 but it took until 2024 for the lack ofdiaeresisover the final e in their names to be noticed and corrected. Descendants The line of Patrick Brontë died out with his children, but Patrick's brother had notable descendants, includingJames Brontë Gatenby, whose most important work was studyingGolgi bodiesin various animals, including humans, andPeter Gatenby, formerly the medical director of the UN. In popular culture Books, comics and graphic novels Cinema Dance Music Objects in outer space Opera Sport Stage productions Television References Informational notes Citations Bibliography External links",
"Jane Austen Jane Austen(/ˈɒstɪn,ˈɔːstɪn/OST-in,AW-stin; 16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an English novelist known primarily for her six novels, which implicitly interpret, critique, and comment upon the Britishlanded gentryat the end of the 18th century. Austen's plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage for the pursuit of favourable social standing and economic security. Her works are implicit critiques of thenovels of sensibilityof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-centuryliterary realism.Her use of social commentary, realism, and irony have earned her acclaim amongst critics and scholars. The anonymously publishedSense and Sensibility(1811),Pride and Prejudice(1813),Mansfield Park(1814), andEmma(1816) were modest successes, but they brought her little fame in her lifetime. She wrote two other novels—Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion, both published posthumously in 1817—and began another, eventually titledSanditon, but it was left unfinished upon her death. She also left behind three volumes of juvenile writings in manuscript, the shortepistolary novelLady Susan, and the unfinished novelThe Watsons. Since her death Austen's novels have rarely been out of print. A significant transition in her reputation occurred in 1833, when they were republished inRichard Bentley's Standard Novels series (illustrated by Ferdinand Pickering and sold as a set). They gradually gained wide acclaim and popular readership. In 1869, fifty-two years after her death, her nephew's publication ofA Memoir of Jane Austenintroduced a compelling version of her writing career and her supposedly uneventful life to an eager audience. Her work has inspired a large number of critical essays and has been included in many literary anthologies. Her novels have also inspired many films, including 1940'sPride and Prejudice, 1995'sSense and Sensibility, and 2016'sLove & Friendship. Biographical sources The scant biographical information about Austen comes from her few surviving letters and sketches her family members wrote about her.Only about 160 of the approximately 3,000 letters Austen wrote have survived and been published.Cassandra Austendestroyed the bulk of the letters she received from her sister, burning or otherwise destroying them. She wanted to ensure that the \"younger nieces did not read any of Jane's sometimes acid or forthright comments on neighbours or family members\".In the interest of protecting reputations from Jane's penchant for honesty and forthrightness, Cassandra omitted details of illnesses, unhappiness and anything she considered unsavoury.Important details about the Austen family were elided by intention, such as any mention of Austen's brother George, whose undiagnosed developmental challenges led the family to send him away from home; the two brothers sent away to the navy at an early age; or wealthy Aunt Leigh-Perrot, arrested and tried on charges of larceny. The first Austen biography wasHenry Thomas Austen's 1818 \"Biographical Notice\". It appeared in a posthumous edition ofNorthanger Abbeyand included extracts from two letters, against the judgement of other family members. Details of Austen's life continued to be omitted or embellished in her nephew'sA Memoir of Jane Austen, published in 1869, and in William and Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh's biographyJane Austen: Her Life and Letters, published in 1913, all of which included additional letters.Austen's family and relatives built a legend of \"good quiet Aunt Jane\", portraying her as a woman in a happy domestic situation, whose family was the mainstay of her life. Modern biographers include details excised from the letters and family biographies, but the biographer Jan Fergus writes that the challenge is to keep the view balanced, not to present her languishing in periods of deep unhappiness as \"an embittered, disappointed woman trapped in a thoroughly unpleasant family\". Life Family Jane Austen was born inSteventon, Hampshireon 16 December 1775. Her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother \"certainly expected to have been brought to bed a month ago\". He added that the newborn infant was \"a present plaything for Cassy and a future companion\".The winter of 1775-1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the local church and christened Jane. Her father,George Austen(1731–1805), served as therectorof the Anglican parishes of Steventon andDeane.The Reverend Austen came from an old and wealthy family of wool merchants. As each generation ofeldest sonsreceived inheritances, George's branch of the family fell into poverty. He and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. In 1745, at the age of fifteen, George Austen's sisterPhiladelphiawas apprenticed to amillinerinCovent Garden.At the age of sixteen, George enteredSt John's College, Oxford,where he most likely met Cassandra Leigh (1739–1827).She came from the prominentLeigh family. Her father was rector atAll Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry. Her eldest brother James inherited a fortune and large estate from his great-aunt Perrot, with the only condition that hechange his nameto Leigh-Perrot. George Austen and Cassandra Leigh were engaged, probably around 1763, when they exchangedminiatures.He received thelivingof the Steventon parish from Thomas Knight, the wealthy husband of his second cousin.They married on 26 April 1764 atSt Swithin's ChurchinBath, bylicense, in a simple ceremony, two months after Cassandra's father died.Their income was modest, with George's smallper annumliving; Cassandra brought to the marriage the expectation of a small inheritance at the time of her mother's death. After the living at the nearby Deane rectory had been purchased for George by his wealthy uncle Francis Austen,the Austens took up temporary residence there, until Steventon rectory, a 16th-century house in disrepair, underwent necessary renovations. Cassandra gave birth to three children while living at Deane:Jamesin 1765, George in 1766, andEdwardin 1767.Her custom was to keep an infant at home for several months and then place it with Elizabeth Littlewood, a woman living nearby tonurseand raise for twelve to eighteen months. Steventon In 1768, the family finally took up residence in Steventon.Henrywas the first child to be born there, in 1771.At about this time, Cassandra could no longer ignore the signs that little George wasdevelopmentally disabled. He had seizures and may have been deaf and mute. At this time she chose to send him to be fostered.In 1773,Cassandrawas born, followed byFrancisin 1774, and Jane in 1775. According to the biographerPark Honanthe Austen home had an \"open, amused, easy intellectual atmosphere\", in which the ideas of those with whom members of the Austen family might disagree politically or socially were considered and discussed. The family relied on the patronage of their kin and hosted visits from numerous family members.Mrs Austen spent the summer of 1770 in London with George's sister, Philadelphia, and her daughterEliza, accompanied by his other sister, Mrs. Walter and her daughter Philly.Philadelphia and Eliza Hancock were, according to Le Faye, \"the bright comets flashing into an otherwise placid solar system of clerical life in ruralHampshire, and the news of their foreign travels and fashionable London life, together with their sudden descents upon the Steventon household in between times, all helped to widen Jane's youthful horizon and influence her later life and works.\" Cassandra Austen's cousin Thomas Leigh visited a number of times in the 1770s and 1780s, inviting young Cassie to visit them inBathin 1781. The first mention of Jane occurs in family documents upon her return, \"... and almost home they were when they met Jane & Charles, the two little ones of the family, who had to go as far as New Down to meet thechaise, & have the pleasure of riding home in it.\"Le Faye writes that \"Mr Austen's predictions for his younger daughter were fully justified. Never were sisters more to each other than Cassandra and Jane; while in a particularly affectionate family, there seems to have been a special link between Cassandra and Edward on the one hand, and between Henry and Jane on the other.\" From 1773 until 1796, George Austen supplemented his income by farming and by teaching three or four boys at a time, who boarded at his home.The Reverend Austen had an annual income of £200 (equivalent to £32,000 in 2023) from his two livings.This was a very modest income at the time; by comparison, a skilled worker like a blacksmith or a carpenter could make about £100 annually while the typical annual income of a gentry family was between £1,000 and £5,000.Mr. Austen also rented the 200-acre Cheesedown farm from his benefactor Thomas Knight which could make a profit of £300 (equivalent to £48,000 in 2023) a year. During this period of her life, Jane Austen attended church regularly, socialised with friends and neighbours,and read novels—often of her own composition—aloud to her family in the evenings. Socialising with the neighbours often meant dancing, either impromptu in someone's home after supper or at the balls held regularly at theassembly roomsin the town hall.Her brother Henry later said that \"Jane was fond of dancing, and excelled in it\". Education In 1783 Austen and her sister Cassandra were sent toOxfordto be educated by Ann Cawley who took them toSouthamptonlater that year. That autumn both girls were sent home after catchingtyphus, of which Jane nearly died.She was from then home-educated, until she attended boarding school with her sister from early in 1785 at theReading Abbey Girls' School, ruled by Mrs La Tournelle.The curriculum probably included French, spelling, needlework, dancing, music and drama. The sisters returned home before December 1786 because the school fees for the two girls were too high for the Austen family.After 1786 Austen \"never again lived anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment\". Her education came from reading, guided by her father and brothers James and Henry.Irene Collinssaid that Austen \"used some of the same school books as the boys\".Austen apparently had unfettered access both to her father's library and that of a family friend,Warren Hastings. Together these collections amounted to a large and varied library. Her father was also tolerant of Austen's sometimes risqué experiments in writing, and provided both sisters with expensive paper and other materials for their writing and drawing. Private theatricals were an essential part of Austen's education. From her early childhood, the family and friends staged a series of plays in therectorybarn, includingRichard Sheridan'sThe Rivals(1775) andDavid Garrick'sBon Ton. Austen's eldest brother James wrote the prologues and epilogues and she probably joined in these activities, first as a spectator and later as a participant.Most of the plays were comedies, which suggests how Austen's satirical gifts were cultivated.At the age of 12, she tried her own hand at dramatic writing; she wrote three short plays during her teenage years. Juvenilia(1787–1793) From at least the time she was aged eleven, Austen wrote poems and stories to amuse herself and her family.She exaggerated mundane details of daily life and parodied common plot devices in \"stories full of anarchic fantasies of female power, licence, illicit behaviour, and general high spirits\", according toJanet Todd.Containing work written between 1787 and 1793, the juvenilia (or childhood writings) that Austen compiledfair copiesconsisted of twenty-nine early works into three bound notebooks, now referred to as theJuvenilia.She called the three notebooks \"Volume the First\", \"Volume the Second\" and \"Volume the Third\", and they preserve 90,000 words she wrote during those years.TheJuveniliaare often, according to scholar Richard Jenkyns, \"boisterous\" and \"anarchic\"; he compares them to the work of 18th-century novelistLaurence Sterne. Among these works is a satirical novel in letters titledLove and Freindship, written when aged fourteen in 1790,in which she mocked popularnovels of sensibility.The next year, she wroteThe History of England, a manuscript of thirty-four pages accompanied by thirteen watercolour miniatures by her sister, Cassandra. Austen'sHistoryparodied popular historical writing, particularlyOliver Goldsmith'sHistory of England(1764).Honan speculates that not long after writingLove and Freindship, Austen decided to \"write for profit, to make stories her central effort\", that is, to become a professional writer. When she was around eighteen years old, Austen began to write longer, more sophisticated works. In August 1792, aged seventeen, Austen startedCatharine or the Bower, which presaged her mature work, especiallyNorthanger Abbey, but was left unfinished until picked up inLady Susan, which Todd describes as less prefiguring thanCatharine.A year later she began, but abandoned, a short play, later titledSir Charles Grandison or the happy Man, a comedy in 6 acts, which she returned to and completed around 1800. This was a short parody of various school textbook abridgements of Austen's favourite contemporary novel,The History of Sir Charles Grandison(1753), bySamuel Richardson. When Austen became an aunt for the first time aged eighteen, she sent new-born nieceFanny Catherine Austen Knight\"five short pieces of ... the Juvenilia now known collectively as 'Scraps' .., purporting to be her 'Opinions and Admonitions on the conduct of Young Women'\". For Jane-Anna-Elizabeth Austen (also born in 1793), her aunt wrote \"two more 'Miscellanious Morsels', dedicating them to on 2 June 1793, 'convinced that if you seriously attend to them, You will derive from them very important Instructions, with regard to your Conduct in Life.'\"There is manuscript evidence that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as 1811 (when she was 36), and that her niece and nephew, Anna and James Edward Austen, made further additions as late as 1814. Between 1793 and 1795 (aged eighteen to twenty), Austen wroteLady Susan, a shortepistolary novel, usually described as her most ambitious and sophisticated early work.It is unlike any of Austen's other works. Austen biographerClaire Tomalindescribes the novella's heroine as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate, betray and abuse her lovers, friends and family. Tomalin writes: Told in letters, it is as neatly plotted as a play, and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of theRestoration dramatistswho may have provided some of her inspiration ... It stands alone in Austen's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters. According to Janet Todd, the model for the title character may have beenEliza de Feuillide, who inspired Austen with stories of her glamorous life and various adventures. Eliza's French husband was guillotined in 1794; she married Jane's brother Henry Austen in 1797. Tom Lefroy When Austen was twenty,Tom Lefroy, a neighbour, visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796. He had just finished a university degree and was moving to London for training as abarrister. Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering, and it is clear from Austen's letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together: \"I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved. Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together.\" Austen wrote in her first surviving letter to her sister Cassandra that Lefroy was a \"very gentlemanlike, good-looking, pleasant young man\".Five days later in another letter, Austen wrote that she expected an \"offer\" from her \"friend\" and that \"I shall refuse him, however, unless he promises to give away his white coat\", going on to write \"I will confide myself in the future to Mr Tom Lefroy, for whom I don't give a sixpence\" and refuse all others.The next day, Austen wrote: \"The day will come on which I flirt my last with Tom Lefroy and when you receive this it will be all over. My tears flow as I write at this melancholy idea\". Halperin cautioned that Austen often satirised popular sentimental romantic fiction in her letters, and some of the statements about Lefroy may have been ironic. However, it is clear that Austen was genuinely attracted to Lefroy and subsequently none of her other suitors ever quite measured up to him.The Lefroy family intervened and sent him away at the end of January. Marriage was impractical as both Lefroy and Austen must have known. Neither had any money, and he was dependent on agreat-unclein Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career. If Tom Lefroy later visited Hampshire, he was carefully kept away from the Austens, and Jane Austen never saw him again.In November 1798, Lefroy was still on Austen's mind as she wrote to her sister she had tea with one of his relatives, wanted desperately to ask about him, but could not bring herself to raise the subject. Early manuscripts (1796–1798) After finishingLady Susan, Austen began her first full-length novelElinor and Marianne. Her sister remembered that it was read to the family \"before 1796\" and was told through a series of letters. Without surviving original manuscripts, there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published anonymously in 1811 asSense and Sensibility. Austen began a second novel,First Impressions(later published asPride and Prejudice), in 1796. She completed the initial draft in August 1797, aged 21; as with all of her novels, Austen read the work aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an \"established favourite\".At this time, her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels. In November 1797, George Austen wrote toThomas Cadell, an established publisher in London, to ask if he would consider publishingFirst Impressions. Cadell returned Mr. Austen's letter, marking it \"Declined by Return of Post\". Austen may not have known of her father's efforts.Following the completion ofFirst Impressions, Austen returned toElinor and Marianneand from November 1797 until mid-1798, revised it heavily; she eliminated theepistolaryformat in favour ofthird-person narrationand produced something close toSense and Sensibility.In 1797, Austen met her cousin (and future sister-in-law),Eliza de Feuillide, a French aristocrat whose first husband the Comte de Feuillide had been guillotined, causing her to flee to Britain, where she married Henry Austen.The description of the execution of the Comte de Feuillide related by his widow left Austen with an intense horror of theFrench Revolutionthat lasted for the rest of her life. During the middle of 1798, after finishing revisions ofElinor and Marianne, Austen began writing a third novel with the working titleSusan—laterNorthanger Abbey—a satire on the popularGothic novel.Austen completed her work about a year later. In early 1803, Henry Austen offeredSusanto Benjamin Crosby, a London publisher, who paid £10 for the copyright. Crosby promised early publication and went so far as to advertise the book publicly as being \"in the press\", but did nothing more.The manuscript remained in Crosby's hands, unpublished, until Austen repurchased the copyright from him in 1816. Bath and Southampton In December 1800, George Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry, leave Steventon, and move the family to 4,Sydney PlaceinBath, Somerset.While retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens, Jane Austen was shocked to be told she was moving 50 miles (80 km) away from the only home she had ever known.An indication of her state of mind is her lack of productivity as a writer during the time she lived in Bath. She was able to make some revisions toSusan, and she began and then abandoned a new novel,The Watsons, but there was nothing like the productivity of the years 1795–1799.Tomalin suggests this reflects a deep depression disabling her as a writer, but Honan disagrees, arguing Austen wrote or revised her manuscripts throughout her creative life, except for a few months after her father died.It is often claimed that Austen was unhappy in Bath, which caused her to lose interest in writing, but it is just as possible that Austen's social life in Bath prevented her from spending much time writing novels.The critic Robert Irvine argued that if Austen spent more time writing novels when she was in the countryside, it might just have been because she had more spare time as opposed to being more happy in the countryside as is often argued.Furthermore, Austen frequently both moved and travelled over southern England during this period, which was hardly a conducive environment for writing a long novel.Austen sold the rights to publishSusanto a publisher Crosby & Company, who paid her £10 (equivalent to £1,020 in 2023).The Crosby & Company advertisedSusan, but never published it. The years from 1801 to 1804 are something of a blank space for Austen scholars as Cassandra destroyed all of her letters from her sister in this period for unknown reasons.In December 1802, Austen received her only known proposal of marriage. She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg, old friends who lived nearBasingstoke. Their younger brother, Harris Bigg-Wither, had recently finished his education at Oxford and was also at home. Bigg-Wither proposed and Austen accepted. As described by Caroline Austen, Jane's niece, and Reginald Bigg-Wither, a descendant, Harris was not attractive—he was a large, plain-looking man who spoke little, stuttered when he did speak, was aggressive in conversation, and almost completely tactless. However, Austen had known him since both were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to Austen and her family. He was the heir to extensive family estates located in the area where the sisters had grown up. With these resources, Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age, give Cassandra a permanent home and, perhaps, assist her brothers in their careers. By the next morning, Austen realised she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance.No contemporary letters or diaries describe how Austen felt about this proposal.Irvine described Bigg-Wither as somebody who \"...seems to have been a man very hard to like, let alone love\". In 1814, Austen wrote a letter to her niece Fanny Knight, who had asked for advice about a serious relationship, telling her that \"having written so much on one side of the question, I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther, & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him. Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection\".The English scholar Douglas Bush wrote that Austen had \"had a very high ideal of the love that should unite a husband and wife ... All of her heroines ... know in proportion to their maturity, the meaning of ardent love\".A possible autobiographical element inSense and Sensibilityoccurs whenElinor Dashwoodcontemplates \"the worse and most irremediable of all evils, a connection for life\" with an unsuitable man. In 1804, while living in Bath, Austen started, but did not complete, her novelThe Watsons. The story centres on an invalid and impoverished clergyman and his four unmarried daughters. Sutherland describes the novel as \"a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women's lives\".Honan suggests, and Tomalin agrees, that Austen chose to stop work on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for her comfort. Her father's relatively sudden death left Jane, Cassandra, and their mother in a precarious financial situation. Edward, James, Henry, and Francis Austen (known as Frank) pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters.For the next four years, the family's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity. They spent part of the time in rented quarters in Bath before leaving the city in June 1805 for a family visit to Steventon andGodmersham. They moved for the autumn months to the newly fashionable seaside resort ofWorthing, on theSussex coast, where they resided at Stanford Cottage.It was here that Austen is thought to have written her fair copy ofLady Susanand added its \"Conclusion\". In 1806, the family moved toSouthampton, where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife. A large part of this time they spent visiting various branches of the family. On 5 April 1809, about three months before the family's move toChawton, Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby, offering him a new manuscript ofSusanif needed to secure the immediate publication of the novel, and requesting the return of the original so she could find another publisher. Crosby replied that he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time, or at all, and that Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the £10 he had paid her and find another publisher. She did not have the resources to buy the copyright back at that time,but was able to purchase it in 1816. Chawton Around early 1809, Austen's brother Edward offered his mother and sisters a more settled life—the use of a large cottage inChawtonvillagewhich was part of the estate around Edward's nearby propertyChawton House. Jane, Cassandra and their mother moved intoChawton cottageon 7 July 1809.Life was quieter in Chawton than it had been since the family's move to Bath in 1800. The Austens did not socialise withgentryand entertained only when family visited. Her niece Anna described the family's life in Chawton as \"a very quiet life, according to our ideas, but they were great readers, and besides the housekeeping our aunts occupied themselves in working with the poor and in teaching some girl or boy to read or write.\" Published author Like many women authors at the time, Austen published her books anonymously.At the time, the ideal roles for a woman were as wife and mother, and writing for women was regarded at best as a secondary form of activity; a woman who wished to be a full-time writer was felt to be degrading her femininity, so books by women were usually published anonymously in order to maintain the conceit that the female writer was only publishing as a sort of part-time job, and was not seeking to become a \"literary lioness\" (i.e. a celebrity).Another reason noted is that the novel was still seen as a lesser form of literature at the time compared with poetry, and many female and male authors published novels anonymously, whereas works of poetry, by both female and male writers were almost always attributed to the author. During her time at Chawton, Austen published four generally well-received novels. Through her brother Henry, the publisherThomas Egertonagreed to publishSense and Sensibility, which, like all of Austen's novels exceptPride and Prejudice, was published \"on commission\", that is, at the author's financial risk. When publishing on commission, publishers would advance the costs of publication, repay themselves as books were sold and then charge a 10% commission for each book sold, paying the rest to the author. If a novel did not recover its costs through sales, the author was responsible for them.The alternative to selling via commission was by selling the copyright, where an author received a one-time payment from the publisher for the manuscript, which occurred withPride and Prejudice.Austen's experience withSusan(the manuscript that becameNorthanger Abbey) where she sold the copyright to the publisher Crosby & Sons for £10, who did not publish the book, forcing her to buy back the copyright in order to get her work published, left Austen leery of this method of publishing.The final alternative, of selling by subscription, where a group of people would agree to buy a book in advance, was not an option for Austen as only authors who were well known or had an influential aristocratic patron who would recommend an up-coming book to their friends, could sell by subscription.Sense and Sensibilityappeared in October 1811, and was described as being written \"By a Lady\".As it was sold on commission, Egerton used expensive paper and set the price at 15 shillings (equivalent to £69 in 2023). Reviews were favourable and the novel became fashionable among young aristocratic opinion-makers;the edition sold out by mid-1813. Austen's novels were published in larger editions than was normal for this period. The small size of the novel-reading public and the large costs associated with hand production (particularly the cost of handmade paper) meant that most novels were published in editions of 500 copies or fewer to reduce the risks to the publisher and the novelist. Even some of the most successful titles during this period were issued in editions of not more than 750 or 800 copies and later reprinted if demand continued. Austen's novels were published in larger editions, ranging from about 750 copies ofSense and Sensibilityto about 2,000 copies ofEmma. It is not clear whether the decision to print more copies than usual of Austen's novels was driven by the publishers or the author. Since all but one of Austen's books were originally published \"on commission\", the risks of overproduction were largely hers (or Cassandra's after her death) and publishers may have been more willing to produce larger editions than was normal practice when their own funds were at risk. Editions of popular works of non-fiction were often much larger. Austen made £140 (equivalent to £12,800 in 2023) fromSense and Sensibility,which provided her with some financial and psychological independence.After the success ofSense and Sensibility, all of Austen's subsequent books were billed as written \"By the author ofSense and Sensibility\" and Austen's name never appeared on her books during her lifetime.Egerton then publishedPride and Prejudice, a revision ofFirst Impressions, in January 1813. Austen sold the copyright toPride and Prejudiceto Egerton for £110 (equivalent to £9,100 in 2023).To maximise profits, he used cheap paper and set the price at 18 shillings (equivalent to £74 in 2023).He advertised the book widely and it was an immediate success, garnering three favourable reviews and selling well. Had Austen soldPride and Prejudiceon commission, she would have made a profit of £475, or twice her father's annual income.By October 1813, Egerton was able to begin selling a second edition.Mansfield Parkwas published by Egerton in May 1814. WhileMansfield Parkwas ignored by reviewers, it was very popular with readers. All copies were sold within six months, and Austen's earnings on this novel were larger than for any of her other novels. Without Austen's knowledge or approval, her novels were translated into French and published in cheaply produced, pirated editions in France.: 1–2The literary critic Noel King commented in 1953 that, given the prevailing rage in France at the time for lush romantic fantasies, it was remarkable that her novels with the emphasis on everyday English life had any sort of a market in France.: 2King cautioned that Austen's chief translator in France, MadameIsabelle de Montolieu, had only the most rudimentary knowledge of English, and her translations were more of \"imitations\" than translations proper, as Montolieu depended upon assistants to provide a summary, which she then translated into an embellished French that often radically altered Austen's plots and characters.: 5–6The first of the Austen novels to be published that credited her as the author was in France, whenPersuasionwas published in 1821 asLa Famille Elliot ou L'Ancienne Inclination.: 5 Austen learned that thePrince Regentadmired her novels and kept a set at each of his residences.In November 1815, the Prince Regent's librarianJames Stanier Clarkeinvited Austen to visit the Prince's London residence and hinted Austen should dedicate the forthcomingEmmato the Prince. Though Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent, she could scarcely refuse the request.Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent on the account of his womanising, gambling, drinking, spendthrift ways, and generally disreputable behaviour.She later wrotePlan of a Novel, according to Hints from Various Quarters, a satiric outline of the \"perfect novel\" based on the librarian's many suggestions for a future Austen novel.Austen was greatly annoyed by Clarke's often pompous literary advice, and thePlan of a Novelparodying Clarke was intended as her revenge for all the unwanted letters she had received from the royal librarian. In mid-1815 Austen moved her work from Egerton toJohn Murray, a better-known publisher in London,who publishedEmmain December 1815 and a second edition ofMansfield Parkin February 1816.Emmasold well, but the new edition ofMansfield Parkdid poorly, and this failure offset most of the income fromEmma. These were the last of Austen's novels to be published during her lifetime. While Murray preparedEmmafor publication, Austen beganThe Elliots, later published asPersuasion. She completed her first draft in July 1816. In addition, shortly after the publication ofEmma, Henry Austen repurchased the copyright forSusanfrom Crosby. Austen was forced to postpone publishing either of these completed novels by family financial troubles. Henry Austen's bank failed in March 1816, depriving him of all of his assets, leaving him deeply in debt and costing Edward, James, and Frank Austen large sums. Henry and Frank could no longer afford the contributions they had made to support their mother and sisters. Illness and death Austen was feeling unwell by early 1816, but ignored the warning signs. By the middle of that year, her decline was unmistakable, and she began a slow, irregular deterioration.The majority of biographers rely onZachary Cope's 1964retrospective diagnosisand list her cause of death asAddison's disease, although her final illness has also been described as resulting fromHodgkin's lymphoma.When her uncle died and left his entire fortune to his wife, effectively disinheriting his relatives, she suffered a relapse, writing: \"I am ashamed to say that the shock of my Uncle's Will brought on a relapse ... but a weak Body must excuse weak Nerves.\" Austen continued to work in spite of her illness. Dissatisfied with the ending ofThe Elliots, she rewrote the final two chapters, which she finished on 6 August 1816.In January 1817, Austen beganThe Brothers(titledSanditonwhen published in 1925), completing twelve chapters before stopping work in mid-March 1817, probably due to illness.Todd describesSanditon's heroine, Diana Parker, as an \"energetic invalid\". In the novel Austen mockedhypochondriacs, and although she describes the heroine as \"bilious\", five days after abandoning the novel she wrote of herself that she was turning \"every wrong colour\" and living \"chiefly on the sofa\".She put down her pen on 18 March 1817, making a note of it. Austen made light of her condition, describing it as \"bile\" andrheumatism. As her illness progressed, she experienced difficulty walking and lacked energy; by mid-April she was confined to bed. In May, Cassandra and Henry brought her toWinchesterfor treatment, by which time she suffered agonising pain and welcomed death.Austen died in Winchester on 18 July 1817 at the age of 41. Henry, through his clerical connections, arranged for his sister to be buried in the north aisle of thenaveofWinchester Cathedral. The epitaph composed by her brother James praises Austen's personal qualities, expresses hope for her salvation, and mentions the \"extraordinary endowments of her mind\", but does not explicitly mention her achievements as a writer. Posthumous publication In the months after Austen's death in July 1817, Cassandra, Henry Austen and Murray arranged for the publication ofPersuasionandNorthanger Abbeyas a set.Henry Austen contributed aBiographical Notedated December 1817, which for the first time identified his sister as the author of the novels. Tomalin describes it as \"a loving and polished eulogy\".Sales were good for a year—only 321 copies remained unsold at the end of 1818. Although Austen's six novels were out of print in England in the 1820s, they were still being read through copies housed in private libraries and circulating libraries. Austen had early admirers. The first piece of fiction using her as a character (what might now be calledreal person fiction) appeared in 1823 in a letter to the editor inThe Lady's Magazine.It refers to Austen's genius and suggests that aspiring authors were envious of her powers. In 1832,Richard Bentleypurchased the remaining copyrights to all of her novels, and over the following winter published five illustrated volumes as part of hisStandard Novelsseries. In October 1833, Bentley released the first collected edition of her works. Since then, Austen's novels have been continuously in print. Genre and style Austen's works implicitly critique thesentimental novelsof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism.The earliest English novelists,Richardson,Henry Fielding, andTobias Smollett, were followed by the school of sentimentalists andromanticssuch asWalter Scott,Horace Walpole,Clara Reeve,Ann Radcliffe, andOliver Goldsmith, whose style and genre Austen repudiated, returning the novel on a \"slender thread\" to the tradition of Richardson and Fielding for a \"realistic study of manners\".In the mid-20th century the literary criticsF. R. LeavisandIan Wattplaced her in the tradition of Richardson and Fielding; both believe that she used their tradition of \"irony, realism and satire to form an author superior to both\". Walter Scott noted Austen's \"resistance to the trashysensationalismof much of modern fiction—'the ephemeral productions which supply the regular demand of watering places andcirculating libraries'\".Yet her relationship with these genres is complex, as evidenced byNorthanger AbbeyandEmma.Similar toWilliam Wordsworth, who excoriated the modern frantic novel in the \"Preface\" to hisLyrical Ballads(1800), Austen distances herself from escapist novels; the discipline and innovation she demonstrates is similar to his, and she shows \"that rhetorically less is artistically more.\"She eschewed popular Gothic fiction, stories of terror in which a heroine typically was stranded in a remote location, a castle or abbey (32 novels between 1784 and 1818 contain the word \"abbey\" in their title). Yet inNorthanger Abbeyshe alludes to the trope, with the heroine, Catherine, anticipating a move to a remote locale. Rather than full-scale rejection or parody, Austen transforms the genre, juxtaposing reality, with descriptions of elegant rooms and modern comforts, against the heroine's \"novel-fueled\" desires.Nor does she completely denigrate Gothic fiction: instead she transforms settings and situations, such that the heroine is still imprisoned, yet her imprisonment is mundane and real—regulated manners and the strict rules of the ballroom.InSense and SensibilityAusten presents characters who are more complex than in staple sentimental fiction, according to the critic Tom Keymer, who notes that although it is a parody of popular sentimental fiction, \"Mariannein her sentimental histrionics responds to the calculating world ... with a quite justifiable scream of female distress.\" The hair was curled, and the maid sent away, and Emma sat down to think and be miserable. It was a wretched business, indeed! Such an overthrow of everything she had been wishing for! Such a development of every thing most unwelcome! — example offree indirect speech, Jane Austen,Emma Richardson'sPamela, the prototype for the sentimental novel, is adidacticlove story with a happy ending, written at a time women were beginning to have the right to choose husbands and yet were restricted by social conventions.Austen attempted Richardson's epistolary style, but found the flexibility of narrative more conducive to her realism, a realism in which each conversation and gesture carries a weight of significance. The narrative style utilisesfree indirect speech—she was the first English novelist to do so extensively—through which she had the ability to present a character's thoughts directly to the reader and yet still retain narrative control. The style allows an author to vary discourse between the narrator's voice and values and those of the characters. Austen had a natural ear for speech and dialogue, according to the scholarMary Lascelles: \"Few novelists can be more scrupulous than Jane Austen as to the phrasing and thoughts of their characters.\"Techniques such as fragmentary speech suggest a character's traits and their tone; \"syntax and phrasing rather than vocabulary\" is utilised to indicate social variants.Dialogue reveals a character's mood—frustration, anger, happiness—each treated differently and often through varying patterns of sentence structures. WhenElizabeth BennetrejectsDarcy, her stilted speech and the convoluted sentence structure reveals that he has wounded her: From the very beginning, from the first moment I may almost say, of my acquaintance with you, your manners impressing me with the fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit, and your selfish disdain of the feelings of others, were such as to form that the groundwork of disapprobation, on which succeeding events have built so immovable a dislike. And I had not known you a month before I felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry. Austen's plots highlight women's traditional dependence on marriage to secure social standing and economic security.As an art form, the 18th-century novel lacked the seriousness of its equivalents from the 19th century, when novels were treated as \"the natural vehicle for discussion and ventilation of what mattered in life\".Rather than delving too deeply into the psyche of her characters, Austen enjoys them and imbues them with humour, according to critic John Bayley. He believes that the well-spring of her wit and irony is her own attitude that comedy \"is the saving grace of life\".Part of Austen's fame rests on the historical and literary significance that she was the first woman to write great comic novels.Samuel Johnson's influence is evident, in that she follows his advice to write \"a representation of life as may excite mirth\". Her humour comes from her modesty and lack of superiority, allowing her most successful characters, such as Elizabeth Bennet, to transcend the trivialities of life, which the more foolish characters are overly absorbed in.Austen used comedy to explore the individualism of women's lives and gender relations, and she appears to have used it to find the goodness in life, often fusing it with \"ethical sensibility\", creating artistic tension. Critic Robert Polhemus writes, \"To appreciate the drama and achievement of Austen, we need to realize how deep was her passion for both reverence and ridicule ... and her comic imagination reveals both the harmonies and the telling contradictions of her mind and vision as she tries to reconcile her satirical bias with her sense of the good.\" Reception Contemporaneous responses As Austen's works were published anonymously, they brought her little personal renown. They were fashionable among opinion-makers, but were rarely reviewed.Most of the reviews were short and on balance favourable, although superficial and cautious,most often focused on the moral lessons of the novels. Walter Scott, a leading novelist of the day, anonymously wrote a review ofEmmain 1815, using it to defend the then-disreputable genre of the novel and praising Austen's realism, \"the art of copying from nature as she really exists in the common walks of life, and presenting to the reader, instead of the splendid scenes from an imaginary world, a correct and striking representation of that which is daily taking place around him\".The other important early review was attributed toRichard Whatelyin 1821. However, Whately denied having authored the review, which drew favourable comparisons between Austen and such acknowledged greats asHomerandShakespeare, and praised the dramatic qualities of her narrative. Scott and Whately set the tone for almost all subsequent 19th-century Austen criticism. 19th century Because Austen's novels did not conform toRomanticandVictorianexpectations that \"powerful emotion authenticated by an egregious display of sound and colour in the writing\",some 19th-century critics preferred the works ofCharles DickensandGeorge Eliot.Notwithstanding Walter Scott's positivity, Austen's work did not win over those who preferred the prevailing aesthetic values of the elite Romantic zeitgeist.Her novels were republished in Britain from the 1830s and sold steadily.Austen's six books were included in the canon-making Standard Novels series by publisher Richard Bentley, which increased their stature. That series referred to her as \"the founder of a school of novelists\" and called her a genius. The first French critic who paid notice to Austen wasPhilarète Chaslesin an 1842 essay, dismissing her in two sentences as a boring, imitative writer with no substance.Austen was not widely appreciated in France until 1878,when the French critic Léon Boucher published the essayLe Roman Classique en Angleterre, in which he called Austen a \"genius\", the first French author to do so.The first accurate translation of Austen into French occurred in 1899 whenFélix FénéontranslatedNorthanger AbbeyasCatherine Morland. In Britain and North America, Austen gradually grew in the estimation of both the public and the literati. In the United States, Austen was being recommended as reading in schools as early as 1838, according to Professor Devoney Looser.The philosopher and literary criticGeorge Henry Lewespublished a series of enthusiastic articles in the 1840s and 1850s.Later in the century, the novelistHenry Jamesreferred to Austen several times with approval, and on one occasion ranked her with Shakespeare,Cervantes, and Henry Fielding as amongst \"the fine painters of life\". The publication of James Edward Austen-Leigh'sA Memoir of Jane Austenin 1869 introduced Austen's life story to a wider public as \"dear aunt Jane\", the respectable maiden aunt. Publication of theMemoirspurred another reissue of Austen's novels. Editions were released in 1883 and fancy illustrated editions and collectors' sets quickly followed.The author and criticLeslie Stephendescribed the popular mania that started to develop for Austen in the 1880s as \"Austenolatry\". Around the start of the 20th century, an intellectual clique ofJaneitesreacted against the popularisation of Austen, distinguishing their deeper appreciation from the vulgar enthusiasm of the masses. In response, Henry James decried \"a beguiled infatuation\" with Austen, a rising tide of public interest that exceeded Austen's \"intrinsic merit and interest\".The American literary criticA. Walton Litznoted that the \"anti-Janites\" in the 19th and 20th centuries comprised a formidable literary squad ofMark Twain, Henry James,Charlotte Brontë,D. H. Lawrence, andKingsley Amis, but in \"every case the adverse judgement merely reveals the special limitations or eccentricities of the critic, leaving Jane Austen relatively untouched\". Modern Austen's works have attracted legions of scholars. The first dissertation on Austen was published in 1883, by George Pellew, a student at Harvard University.Another early academic analysis came from a 1911 essay by the Oxford Shakespearean scholarA. C. Bradley,who grouped Austen's novels into \"early\" and \"late\" works, a distinction still used by scholars today.The first academic book devoted to Austen in France wasJane Austenby Paul and Kate Rague (1914), who set out to explain why French critics and readers should take Austen seriously.The same year, Léonie Villard publishedJane Austen, Sa Vie et Ses Oeuvres, originally her PhD thesis, the first serious academic study of Austen in France.In 1923, R.W. Chapman published the first scholarly edition of Austen's collected works, which was also the first scholarly edition of any English novelist. The Chapman text has remained the basis for all subsequent published editions of Austen's works. With the publication in 1939 of Mary Lascelles'Jane Austen and Her Art, the academic study of Austen took hold.Lascelles analysed the books Austen read and their influence on her work, and closely examined Austen's style and \"narrative art\". Concern arose that academics were obscuring the appreciation of Austen with increasingly esoteric theories, a debate that has continued since. The period since the Second World War has seen a diversity of critical approaches to Austen, includingfeminist theory, and perhaps most controversially,postcolonial theory.The divide has widened between the popular appreciation of Austen, particularly by modernJaneites, and academic judgements.In 1994 the literary criticHarold Bloomplaced Austen among thegreatest Western writers of all time. In the People's Republic of China after 1949, writings of Austen were regarded as too frivolous,and thus during the ChineseCultural Revolutionof 1966–69, Austen was banned as a \"British bourgeois imperialist\".In the late 1970s, when Austen's works were re-published in China, her popularity with readers confounded the authorities who had trouble understanding that people generally read books for enjoyment, not political edification. In a typical modern debate, the conservative American professor Gene Koppel, to the indignation of his liberal literature students, mentioned that Austen and her family were \"Tories of the deepest dye\", i.e. Conservatives in opposition to the liberal Whigs. Although several feminist authors such as Claudia Johnson and Mollie Sandock claimed Austen for their own cause, Koppel argued that different people react to a work of literature in different subjective ways, as explained by the philosopherHans-Georg Gadamer. Thus competing interpretations of Austen's work can be equally valid, provided they are grounded in textual and historical analysis: it is equally possible to see Austen as a feminist critiquingRegency-erasociety and as a conservative upholding its values. Adaptations Austen's novels have resulted in sequels, prequels and adaptations of almost every type, fromsoft-core pornographyto fantasy. From the 19th century, her family members published conclusions to her incomplete novels, and by 2000 there were over 100 printed adaptations.The first dramatic adaptation of Austen was published in 1895, Rosina Filippi'sDuologues and Scenes from the Novels of Jane Austen: Arranged and Adapted for Drawing-Room Performance, and Filippi was also responsible for the first professional stage adaptation,The Bennets(1901).The first film adaptation was the1940 MGM production ofPride and PrejudicestarringLaurence OlivierandGreer Garson.BBC television dramatisations released in the 1970s and 1980s attempted to adhere meticulously to Austen's plots, characterisations and settings.The British critic Robert Irvine noted that in American film adaptations of Austen's novels, starting with the 1940 version ofPride and Prejudice, class is subtly downplayed, and the society of Regency England depicted by Austen that is grounded in a hierarchy based upon the ownership of land and the antiquity of the family name is one that Americans cannot embrace in its entirety. From 1995, many Austen adaptations appeared, withAng Lee'sfilm ofSense and Sensibility, for which screenwriter and starEmma Thompsonwon anAcademy Award, and the BBC's immensely popular TV mini-seriesPride and Prejudice, starringJennifer EhleandColin Firth.A 2005 British production ofPride and Prejudice, directed byJoe Wrightand starringKeira KnightleyandMatthew Macfadyen,was followed in 2007 byITV'sMansfield Park,Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion,and in 2016 byLove & FriendshipstarringKate Beckinsaleas Lady Susan, a film version ofLady Susan, that borrowed the title of Austen'sLove and Freindship. Honours In 2013, Austen's works featured on aseries of UK postage stampsissued by theRoyal Mailto mark the bicentenary of the publication ofPride and Prejudice.Austen is on the£10 noteissued by the Bank of England which was introduced in 2017, replacingCharles Darwin.In July 2017 a statue of Austen was erected in Basingstoke, Hampshire on the 200th anniversary of her death. List of works Juvenilia—Volume the First(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Second(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Third(1787–1793) Family trees See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links Museums Fan sites and societies"
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"Brontë family TheBrontës(/ˈbrɒntiz/) were a nineteenth-century literary family, born in the village ofThorntonand later associated with the village ofHaworthin theWest Riding of Yorkshire,England. The sisters,Charlotte(1816–1855),Emily(1818–1848) andAnne(1820–1849), are well-known poets and novelists. Like many contemporary female writers, they published their poems and novels under male pseudonyms: Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Their stories attracted attention for their passion and originality immediately following their publication. Charlotte'sJane Eyrewas the first to know success, while Emily'sWuthering Heights, Anne'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Halland other works were accepted as masterpieces of literature after their deaths. The first Brontë children to be born to rectorPatrick Brontëand his wifeMariawereMaria(1814–1825) andElizabeth(1815–1825), who both died at young ages due to disease. Charlotte, Emily and Anne were then born within a time period of approximately four years. These three sisters and",
"three sisters and their brother,Branwell(1817–1848), who had been born after Charlotte and before Emily, were very close to each other. As children, they developed their imaginations first through oral storytelling and play, set in an intricate imaginary world, and then through the collaborative writing of increasingly complex stories set in their fictional world. The deaths of their mother and two older sisters marked them and influenced their writing profoundly, as did their isolated upbringing. They were raised in a religious family.The Brontë birthplace inThorntonis a place of pilgrimage and their later home, theparsonageatHaworthin Yorkshire, now theBrontë Parsonage Museum, has hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. Origin of the name The Brontë family can be traced to theIrish clanÓ Pronntaigh, which literally means \"descendant of Pronntach\". They were a family of hereditary scribes and literary men inFermanagh. The versionÓ Proinntigh, which was first given by Patrick Woulfe in hisSloinnte",
"in hisSloinnte Gaedheal is Gall(transl.Surnames of the Gael and the Foreigner)and reproduced without question byEdward MacLysaght, cannot be accepted as correct, as there were a number of well-known scribes with this name writing inIrishin the 17th and 18th centuries and all of them used the spellingÓ Pronntaigh. The name is derived from the wordpronntachorbronntach,which is related to the wordbronnadh, meaning \"giving\" or \"bestowal\" (pronnis given as anUlsterversion ofbronnin O'Reilly'sIrish English Dictionary.)Patrick Woulfe suggested that it was derived fromproinnteach(therefectoryof amonastery).Ó Pronntaighwas earlieranglicisedasPruntyand sometimesBrunty. At some point,Patrick Brontë(born Brunty), the sisters' father, decided on the alternative spelling with thediaeresisover the terminal⟨e⟩to indicate that the name has two syllables. Multiple theories exist to account for the change, including that he may have wished to hide his humble origins.As aman of letters, he would have been familiar withclassical",
"withclassical Greekand may have chosen the name after the Greekβροντή(transl.thunder). One view, which biographerC. K. Shorterproposed in 1896, is that he adapted his name to associate himself withAdmiral Horatio Nelson, who was alsoDuke of Bronte.One might also find evidence for this theory in Patrick Brontë's desire to associate himself with theDuke of Wellingtonin his form of dress. Family tree Members of the Brontë family Patrick Brontë Patrick Brontë(17 March 1777 – 7 June 1861), the Brontë sisters' father, was born inLoughbrickland,County Down, Ireland, of a family of farm workers of moderate means.His birth name was Patrick Prunty or Brunty. His mother, Alice McClory, was of theRoman Catholicfaith, whilst his father Hugh was a Protestant, and Patrick was brought up in his father's faith. He was a bright young man and, after studying under the Rev. Thomas Tighe, won a scholarship toSt John's College, Cambridge. There, he studied divinity, ancient history and modern history.Attending Cambridge may have",
"Cambridge may have made him feel that his name was too Irish and he changed its spelling to Brontë (and its pronunciation accordingly), perhaps in honour ofHoratio Nelson, whom Patrick admired.It is more likely, however, that his brother William was 'on the run' from the authorities for his involvement with the radicalUnited Irishmen, leading Patrick to distance himself from the name Brunty. Having obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree, he was ordained on 10 August 1806.He is the author ofCottage Poems(1811),The Rural Minstrel(1814), numerous pamphlets, several newspaper articles and various rural poems. In 1811, Patrick was appointed minister at Hartshead-cum-Clifton. In 1812, he met and married 29 year old Maria Branwell at Guiseley. In 1813, they moved to Clough House Hightown, Liversedge, West Riding of Yorkshireand by 1820 they had moved into the parsonage at Haworth, where he took up the post ofperpetual curate. (Haworth was an ancient chapelry in the large parish ofBradford, so he could not be rector or",
"not be rector or vicar.) They had six children.On the death of his wife in 1821, his sister-in-law,Elizabeth Branwell, came fromPenzance,Cornwall, to help him bring up the children. Open, intelligent, generous and dedicated to educating his children personally, he bought all the books and toys the children desired. He also accorded them great freedom and unconditional love, although he may have alienated them from the world due to his eccentric personal habits and peculiar theories of education. After several failed attempts to remarry, Patrick accepted permanent widowerhood at the age of 47, and spent his time visiting the sick and the poor, giving sermons and administering communion.In so doing, he would often leave his children Maria, Elizabeth, Emily, Charlotte, Branwell and Anne alone with Elizabeth—Aunt Branwell and a maid, Tabitha Aykroyd (Tabby). Tabby helped relieve their possible boredom and loneliness especially by recounting local legends in her Yorkshire dialect as she tirelessly prepared the",
"prepared the family's meals.Eventually, Patrick would survive his entire family. Six years after Charlotte's death, he died in 1861 at the age of 84.His son-in-law, the Rev.Arthur Bell Nicholls, would aid Mr Brontë at the end of his life as well. Maria, née Branwell Patrick's wifeMaria Brontë, née Branwell (15 April 1783 – 15 September 1821), was born inPenzance, Cornwall, and came from a comfortably well-off, middle-class family. Her father had a flourishing tea and grocery store and had accumulated considerable wealth.Maria died at the age of 38 ofuterine cancer.She married the same day as her younger sister Charlotte in the church atGuiseleyafter her fiancé had celebrated the union of two other couples.She was a literate and pious woman, known for her lively spirit, joyfulness and tenderness, and it was she who designed the samplers that are on display in the museumand had them embroidered by her children. She left memories with her husband and with Charlotte, the oldest surviving sibling, of a very",
"sibling, of a very vivacious woman. The younger ones, particularly Emily and Anne, admitted to retaining only vague images of their mother, especially of her suffering on her sickbed. Elizabeth Branwell Elizabeth Branwell (2 December 1776 – 29 October 1842) arrived from Penzance in 1821, aged 45, after her younger sister Maria's death, to help Patrick look after the children, to whom she was known as 'Aunt Branwell.' Elizabeth Branwell was a Methodist, though it seems that her denomination did not exert any influence on the children. It was Aunt Branwell who taught the children arithmetic, the alphabet, and how to sew,embroider and cross-stitch, skills appropriate for ladies. Aunt Branwell also gave them books and subscribed toFraser's Magazine, less interesting thanBlackwood's, but, nevertheless, providing plenty of material for discussion.She was a generous person who dedicated her life to her nieces and nephew, neither marrying nor returning to visit her relations in Cornwall. She probably told the",
"probably told the children stories of events that had happened in Cornwall, such as raids by pirates in the eighteenth century, who carried off British residents to be enslaved in North Africa and Turkey; enslavement in Turkey is mentioned by Charlotte Brontë inJane Eyre.She died ofbowel obstructionin October 1842, after a brief agony during which she was comforted by her beloved nephew Branwell. In her last will, Aunt Branwell left to her three nieces the considerable sum of £900 (about £95,700 in 2017 currency), which allowed them to resign from their low-paid jobs as governesses and teachers. Children Education Cowan Bridge School In 1824, the four eldest girls (excluding Anne) entered theClergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge,which educated the children of less prosperous members of the clergy, and had been recommended to Mr Brontë. The following year, Maria and Elizabeth fell gravely ill and were removed from the school, later dying on 6 May and 15 June 1825, respectively.Charlotte and Emily were also",
"and Emily were also withdrawn from the school and returned to Haworth. Charlotte expressed the traumatic impact that her sisters' deaths had on her in her future works. InJane Eyre, Cowan Bridge became Lowood, Maria inspired the young Helen Burns, the cruel mistress Miss Andrews inspired the headmistress Miss Scatcherd, and the tyrannical headmaster Rev.Carus Wilson, Mr Brocklehurst. Tuberculosis, which afflicted Maria and Elizabeth in 1825, also caused the eventual deaths of three of the surviving Brontës: Branwell in September 1848, Emily in December 1848, and, finally, Anne in May 1849. Patrick Brontë faced a challenge in arranging for the education of the girls of his family, which was barely middle class. They lacked significant connections and he could not afford the fees for them to attend an established school for young ladies. One solution was the schools where the fees were reduced to a minimum—so called \"charity schools\"—with a mission to assist families like those of the lower clergy. (Barker had",
"clergy. (Barker had read in theLeeds Intelligencerof 6 November 1823 reports of cases in the Court of Commons in Bowes: he later read of other cases, of 24 November 1824 near Richmond, in the county of Yorkshire, where pupils had been discovered gnawed by rats and suffering so badly from malnutrition that some of them had lost their sight.) Yet for Patrick, there was nothing to suggest that the Reverend Carus Wilson's Clergy Daughters' School would not provide a good education and good care for his daughters. The school was not expensive and its patrons (supporters who allowed the school to use their names) were all respected people. Among these was the daughter ofHannah More, a religious author and philanthropist who took a particular interest in education. More was a close friend of the poetWilliam Cowper, who, like her, advocated extensive, proper and well-rounded education for young girls. The pupils included the offspring of different prelates and even certain acquaintances of Patrick Brontë",
"of Patrick Brontë includingWilliam Wilberforce, young women whose fathers had also been educated at St John's College, Cambridge. Thus Brontë believed Wilson's school to have many of the necessary guarantees needed for his daughters to receive proper schooling. John Bradley In 1829–30, Patrick Brontë engagedJohn Bradley, an artist from neighbouringKeighley, as drawing-master for the children. Bradley was an artist of some local repute rather than a professional instructor, but he may well have fostered Branwell's enthusiasm for art and architecture. Miss Wooler's school In 1831, fourteen-year-old Charlotte was enrolled at the school of Miss Wooler in Roe Head,Mirfield. Patrick could have sent his daughter to a less costly school inKeighleynearer home but Miss Wooler and her sisters had a good reputation and he remembered the building, which he passed when strolling around the parishes ofKirklees,Dewsburyand Hartshead-cum-Clifton where he was vicar. Margaret Wooler showed fondness towards the sisters and she",
"the sisters and she accompanied Charlotte to the altar at her marriage.Patrick's choice of school was excellent—Charlotte was happy there and studied well. She made many lifelong friends, in particularEllen Nusseyand Mary Taylor who later went to New Zealand before returning to England.Charlotte returned from Roe Head in June 1832, missing her friends, but happy to rejoin her family. Three years later, Miss Wooler offered her former pupil a position as her assistant. The family decided that Emily would accompany her to pursue studies that would otherwise have been unaffordable. Emily's fees were partly covered by Charlotte's salary. Emily was 17 and it was the first time she had left Haworth since leaving Cowan Bridge. On 29 July 1835, the sisters left for Roe Head. The same day, Branwell wrote a letter to theRoyal Academy of Artin London, to present several of his drawings as part of his candidature as a probationary student. Charlotte taught, and wrote about her students without much sympathy. Emily did",
"sympathy. Emily did not settle: after three months her health seemed to decline and she had to be taken home to the parsonage. Anne took her place and stayed until Christmas 1837. Charlotte avoided boredom by following the developments of the imaginary Empire of Angria—invented by Charlotte and Branwell—that she received in letters from her brother. During holidays at Haworth, she wrote long narratives while being reproached by her father who wanted her to become more involved in parish affairs. These were coming to a head over the imposition of the Church of England rates, a local tax levied on parishes where the majority of the population were dissenters. In the meantime, Miss Wooler moved to Heald's House, atDewsbury Moor, where Charlotte complained about the humidity that made her unwell. Upon leaving the establishment in 1838 Miss Wooler presented her with a parting gift ofThe Vision of Don Roderick and Rokeby, a collection of poems byWalter Scott. Literary evolution The children became interested in",
"interested in writing from an early age, initially as a game. They all displayed a talent for narrative, but for the younger ones it became a pastime to develop them.At the centre of the children's creativity were twelve wooden soldiers which Patrick Brontë gave to Branwell at the beginning of June 1826.These toy soldiers instantly fired their imaginations and they spoke of them asthe Young Men, and gave them names. However, it was not until December 1827 that their ideas took written form,and the imaginary African kingdom of Glass Town came into existence,followed by the Empire of Angria. Emily and Anne createdGondal, an island continent in the North Pacific, ruled by a woman, after the departure of Charlotte in 1831.In the beginning, these stories were written inlittle books, the size of a matchboxabout 1.5 by 2.5 inches (38 mm × 64 mm)and cursorily bound with thread. The pages were filled with close, minute writing, often in capital letters without punctuation and embellished with illustrations, detailed",
"detailed maps, schemes, landscapes and plans of buildings, created by the children according to their specialisations. The idea was that the books were of a size for the soldiers to read. The complexity of the stories matured as the children's imaginations developed, fed by reading the three weekly or monthly magazines to which their father had subscribed,or the newspapers that were bought daily from John Greenwood's local news and stationery store. Literary and artistic influence These fictional worlds were the product of fertile imagination fed by reading, discussion and a passion for literature. Far from suffering from the negative influences that never left them and which were reflected in the works of their later, more mature years, the Brontë children absorbed them eagerly. Press The periodicals that Patrick Brontë read were a mine of information for his children. TheLeeds IntelligencerandBlackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, conservative and well written, but better than theQuarterly Reviewthat defended the",
"defended the same political ideas whilst addressing a less-refined readership (the reason Mr. Brontë did not read it),were exploited in every detail.Blackwood's Magazine, in particular, was not only the source of their knowledge of world affairs, but also provided material for the Brontës' early writing. For instance, an article in the June 1826 number ofBlackwood's, provides commentary on new discoveries from the exploration ofcentral Africa.The map included with the article highlights geographical features the Brontës reference in their tales: the Jibbel Kumera (theMountains of the Moon),Ashantee, and the riversNigerandCalabar. The author also advises the British to expand into Africa from Fernando Po, where, Christine Alexander notes, the Brontë children locate the Great Glass Town.Their knowledge of geography was completed by Goldsmith'sGrammar of General Geography, which the Brontës owned and annotated heavily. Lord Byron From 1833, Charlotte and Branwell's Angrian tales begin to featureByronic",
"to featureByronic heroeswho have a strong sexual magnetism and passionate spirit, and demonstrate arrogance and even black-heartedness. Again, it is in an article inBlackwood's Magazinefrom August 1825 that they discover the poet for the first time; he had died the previous year. From this moment, the name Byron became synonymous with all the prohibitions and audacities as if it had stirred up the very essence of the rise of those forbidden things.Branwell's Charlotte Zamorna, one of the heroes ofVerdopolis, tends towards increasingly ambiguous behaviour,and the same influence and evolution recur with the Brontës, especially in the characters ofHeathcliffinWuthering Heights, andMr. RochesterinJane Eyre, who display the traits of aByronic hero. Numerous other works left their mark on the Brontës—theThousand and One Nights, for example, which inspiredjinnin which they became themselves in the centre of their kingdoms, while adding a touch of exoticism. John Martin The children's imagination was also influenced",
"was also influenced by three prints of engravings inmezzotintbyJohn Martinaround 1820. Charlotte and Branwell made copies of the printsBelshazzar's Feast,Déluge, andJoshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still upon Gibeon(1816), which hung on the walls of the parsonage. Martin's fantastic architecture is reflected in theGlass Townand Angrian writings, where he appears himself among Branwell's charactersand under the name of Edward de Lisle, the greatest painter and portraitist of Verdopolis,the capital of Glass Town. One of Sir Edward de Lisle's major works,Les Quatre Genii en Conseil, is inspired by Martin's illustration forJohn Milton'sParadise Lost.Together with Byron, John Martin seems to have been one of the artistic influences essential to the Brontës' universe. Anne's morals and realism The influence revealed byAgnes GreyandThe Tenant of Wildfell Hallis much less clear. Anne's works are largely founded on her experience as a governess and on that of her brother's decline. Furthermore, they demonstrate her",
"demonstrate her conviction, a legacy from her father, that books should provide moral education.This sense of moral duty and the need to record it, are more evident inThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall.The influence of the gothic novels ofAnn Radcliffe,Horace Walpole,Gregory \"Monk\" LewisandCharles Maturinis noticeable,and that of Walter Scott too, if only because the heroine, abandoned and left alone, resists importunities not only through her almost supernatural talents, but by her powerful temperament. Jane Eyre,Agnes Grey,The Tenant of Wildfell Hall,Shirley,Villetteand evenThe Professorpresent a linear structure concerning characters who advance through life after several trials and tribulations, to find a kind of happiness in love and virtue, recalling works of religious inspiration of the 17th century such asJohn Bunyan'sThe Pilgrim's Progressor hisGrace abounding to the Chief of Sinners.In a more profane manner, the hero or heroine follows apicaresqueitinerary such as inMiguel de Cervantes(1547–1616),Daniel",
"Defoe(1660–1731),Henry Fielding(1707–1764) andTobias Smollett(1721–1771). This lively tradition continued into the 19th century with therags to richesgenre to which almost all the great Victorian romancers have contributed. The protagonist is thrown by fate into poverty and after many difficulties achieves a golden happiness. Often an artifice is employed to effect the passage from one state to another such as an unexpected inheritance, a miraculous gift, grand reunions, etc,and in a sense it is the route followed by Charlotte's and Anne's protagonists, even if the riches they win are more those of the heart than of the wallet. Apart from its Gothic elements,Wuthering Heightsmoves like a Greek tragedy and possesses its music,the cosmic dimensions of the epics ofJohn Milton, and the power of the Shakespearian theatre.One can hear the echoes ofKing Learas well as the completely different characters ofRomeo and Juliet.The Brontës were also seduced by the writings ofWalter Scott, and in 1834 Charlotte exclaimed,",
"exclaimed, \"For fiction, read Walter Scott and only him—all novels after his are without value.\" Governesses and Charlotte's idea Early teaching opportunities Through their father's influence and their own intellectual curiosity, they were able to benefit from an education that placed them among knowledgeable people, but Mr Brontë's emoluments were modest. The only options open to the girls were either marriage or a choice between the professions of school mistress orgoverness. The Brontë sisters found positions in families wherein they educated often rebellious young children, or found employment as school teachers. The possibility of becoming apaid companionto a rich and solitary woman might have been a fall-back role but one that would have probably bored any of the sisters intolerably.Janet Todd'sMary Wollstonecraft, a revolutionary lifementions the predicament. Only Emily never became a governess. Her sole professional experience would be an experiment in teaching during six months of intolerable exile",
"intolerable exile in Miss Patchett's school atLaw Hill(betweenHaworthandHalifax).In contrast, Charlotte had teaching positions at Miss Margaret Wooler's school and in Brussels with the Hégers. She became governess to the Sidgwicks, the Stonegappes and the Lotherdales where she worked for several months in 1839, then with Mrs White, at Upperhouse House, Rawdon, from March to September 1841.Anne became a governess and worked for Mrs Ingham,at Blake Hall, Mirfield from April to December 1839, then for Mrs Robinson at Thorp Green Hall, Little Ouseburn, near York, where she also obtained employment for her brother in a futile attempt to stabilise him. Working as governesses The family's finances did not flourish, and Aunt Branwell spent the money with caution. Emily had a visceral need of her home and the countryside that surrounded it, and to leave it would cause her to languish and wither.Charlotte and Anne, being more realistic, did not hesitate in finding work and from April 1839 to December 1841 the two",
"1841 the two sisters had several posts as governesses. Not staying long with each family, their employment would last for some months or a single season. However, Anne did stay with the Robinsons in Thorp Green where things went well, from May 1840 to June 1845. In the meantime, Charlotte had an idea that would place all the advantages on her side. On advice from her father and friends, she thought that she and her sisters had the intellectual capacity to create a school for young girls in the parsonage where theirSunday Schoolclasses took place. It was agreed to offer the future pupils the opportunity of correctly learning modern languages and that preparation for this should be done abroad, which led to a further decision. Among the possibilities, Paris and Lille were considered,but were rejected due to aversion to the French. Indeed, theFrench Revolutionand theNapoleonic warshad not been forgotten by theTory-spirited and deeply conservative girls.On the recommendation of a pastor based in Brussels,who",
"in Brussels,who wanted to be of help, Belgium was chosen, where they could also study German and music. Aunt Branwell provided the funds for the Brussels project. School project and study trip to Brussels Charlotte's and Emily's journey to Brussels Emily and Charlotte arrived in Brussels in February 1842 accompanied by their father.Once there, they enrolled atMonsieur and Madame Héger'sboarding school in the Rue d'Isabelle, for six months. Claire Héger was the second wife of Constantin, and it was she who founded and directed the school while Constantin had the responsibility for the higher French classes. According to Miss Wheelwright, a former pupil, he had the intellect of a genius. He was passionate about his auditorium, demanding many lectures, perspectives, and structured analyses.He was also a good-looking man with regular features, bushy hair, very black whiskers, and wore an excited expression while sounding forth on great authors about whom he invited his students to make apasticheon general or",
"general or philosophical themes. The lessons, especially those of Constantin Héger, were very much appreciated by Charlotte, and the two sisters showed exceptional intelligence, although Emily hardly liked her teacher and was somewhat rebellious.Emily learned German and to play the piano with natural brilliance and very quickly the two sisters were writing literary and philosophical essays in an advanced level of French. After six months of study, Mme Héger suggested they stay at the boarding school free of charge, in return for giving some lessons. After much hesitation, the girls accepted. Neither of them felt particularly attached to their students, and only one, Mademoiselle de Bassompierre, then aged 16, later expressed any affection for her teacher Emily, which appeared to be mutual, and made her a gift of a signed, detailed drawing of a storm ravaged pine tree. Return and recall The death of their aunt in October of the same year forced them to return once more to Haworth. Aunt Branwell had left all",
"had left all her worldly goods in equal shares to her nieces and to Eliza Kingston, a cousin in Penzance,which had the immediate effect of purging all their debts and providing a small reserve of funds. Nevertheless, they were asked to return to the Héger's boarding school in Brussels as they were regarded as being competent and were needed. They were each offered teaching posts in the boarding school, English for Charlotte and music for Emily. However, Charlotte returned alone to Belgium in January 1843.Emily remained critical of Monsieur Héger, in spite of the excellent opinion he held of her. He later stated that she 'had the spirit of a man', and would probably become a great traveller due to her being gifted with a superior faculty of reason that allowed her to deduce ancient knowledge from new spheres of knowledge, and her unbending willpower would have triumphed over all obstacles. Charlotte returns Almost a year to the day, enamoured for some time for Monsieur Héger, Charlotte resigned and returned",
"and returned to Haworth. Her life at the school had not been without suffering, and on one occasion she ventured into the cathedral and entered a confessional. She may have had intention of converting to Catholicism, but it would only have been for a short time.During her absence, life at Haworth had become more difficult. Mr. Brontë had lost his sight although his cataract had been operated on with success in Manchester, and it was there in August 1846,when Charlotte arrived at his bedside that she began to writeJane Eyre. Meanwhile, her brother Branwell fell into a rapid decline punctuated by dramas, drunkenness and delirium.Due partly to Branwell's poor reputation, the school project failed and was abandoned. Charlotte wrote four long, very personal, and sometimes vague letters toMonsieur Hégerthat never received replies. The extent of Charlotte Brontë's feelings for Héger were not fully realised until 1913, when her letters to him were published for the first time. Héger had first shown them toMrs.",
"shown them toMrs. Gaskellwhen she visited him in 1856 while researching her biographyThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, but she concealed their true significance. These letters, referred to as the \"Héger Letters\", had been ripped up at some stage by Héger, but his wife had retrieved the pieces from the wastepaper bin and meticulously glued or sewn them back together. Paul Héger, Constantin's son, and his sisters gave these letters to theBritish Museum,and they were shortly thereafter printed inThe Timesnewspaper. Brontë sisters' literary career First publication:Poems, by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell The writing that had begun so early never left the family. Charlotte had ambition like her brother, and wrote to thepoet laureateRobert Southeyto submit several poems in his style (though Branwell was kept at a distance from her project). She received a hardly encouraging reply after several months. Southey, still illustrious today although his star has somewhat waned, was one of the great figures of",
"great figures of EnglishRomanticism, along withWilliam WordsworthandSamuel Taylor Coleridge, and he shared the prejudice of the times; literature, or more particularly poetry (for women had been publishing fiction and enjoying critical, popular and economic success for over a century by this time), was considered a man's business, and not an appropriate occupation for ladies. However, Charlotte did not allow herself to be discouraged. Furthermore, coincidence came to her aid. One day in autumn 1845 while alone in the dining room she noticed a small notebook lying open in the drawer of Emily's portable writing desk and \"of my sister Emily's handwriting\". She read it and was dazzled by the beauty of the poems that she did not know. The discovery of this treasure was what she recalled five years later, and according to Juliet Barker, she erased the excitement that she had felt\"more than surprise ..., a deep conviction that these were not common effusions, nor at all like the poetry women generally write. I",
"generally write. I thought them condensed and terse, vigorous and genuine. To my ear, they had a peculiar music—wild, melancholy, and elevating.\" In the following paragraph Charlotte describes her sister's indignant reaction at her having ventured into such an intimate realm with impunity. It took Emily hours to calm down and days to be convinced to publish the poems. Charlotte envisaged a joint publication by the three sisters. Anne was easily won over to the project, and the work was shared, compared and edited.Once the poems had been chosen, nineteen for Charlotte and twenty-one each for Anne and Emily, Charlotte went about searching for a publisher. She took advice from William and Robert Chambers of Edinburgh, directors of one of their favourite magazines,Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. It is thought, although no documents exist to support the claim, that they advised the sisters to contact Aylott & Jones, a small publishing house at 8, Paternoster Row, London, who accepted, but at the authors' own risk",
"authors' own risk since they felt the commercial risk to the company was too great.The work thus appeared in 1846, published using the male pseudonyms of Currer (Charlotte), Ellis (Emily) and Acton (Anne) Bell. These were very uncommon forenames but the initials of each of the sisters were preserved and the patronym could have been inspired by that of the vicar of the parish, Arthur Bell Nicholls. It was in fact on 18 May 1845 that he took up his duties at Haworth, at the moment when the publication project was well advanced. The book attracted hardly any attention. Only three copies were sold, of which one was purchased by Fredrick Enoch, a resident of Cornmarket, Warwick, who in admiration, wrote to the publisher to request an autograph—the only extant single document carrying the three authors' signatures in their pseudonyms,and they continued creating their prose, each one producing a book a year later. Each worked in secret,unceasingly discussing their writing for hours at the dinner table, after which",
"table, after which their father would open the door at 9 p.m. with \"Don't stay up late, girls!\", then rewinding the clock and taking the stairs up to his room. Fame 1847 Charlotte'sJane Eyre, Emily'sWuthering Heightsand Anne'sAgnes Greyappeared in 1847 after many tribulations, again for reasons of finding a publisher. The packets containing the manuscripts were often returned to the parsonage and Charlotte simply added a new address; she did this at least a dozen times during the year.The first one was finally published by Smith, Elder & Co in London. The 23-year-old owner, George Smith, had specialised in publishing scientific revues, aided by his perspicacious reader William Smith Williams. Emily and Anne's manuscripts were confided toThomas Cautley Newby, who intended to compile athree-decker; more economical for sale and for loan in the \"circulating libraries\". The two first volumes includedWuthering Heightsand the third oneAgnes Grey. Both novels attracted critical acclaim, occasionally harsh",
"occasionally harsh aboutWuthering Heights, praised for the originality of the subject and its narrative style, but viewed with suspicion because of its outrageous violence and immorality—surely, the critics wrote, a work of a man with a depraved mind.Critics were fairly neutral aboutAgnes Grey, but more flattering forJane Eyre, which soon became abest-seller, despite some commentators denouncing it as an affront to good morals. Jane Eyreand rising fame The pseudonymous (Currer Bell) publication in 1847 ofJane Eyre, An Autobiographyestablished a dazzling reputation for Charlotte. In July 1848, Charlotte and Anne (Emily had refused to go along with them) travelled by train to London to prove toSmith, Elder & Co.that each sister was indeed an independent author, for Thomas Cautley Newby, the publisher ofWuthering HeightsandAgnes Grey, had launched a rumour that the three novels were the work of one author, understood to be Ellis Bell (Emily).George Smithwas extremely surprised to find two gawky, ill-dressed",
"gawky, ill-dressed country girls paralysed with fear, who, to identify themselves, held out the letters addressed toMessrs. Acton, Currer and Ellis Bell. Taken by such surprise, he introduced them to his mother with all the dignity their talent merited, and invited them to the opera for a performance ofRossini'sBarber of Seville. Wuthering Heights Emily Brontë'sWuthering Heightswas published in 1847 under the masculine pseudonym Ellis Bell, by Thomas Cautley Newby, in two companion volumes to that of Anne's (Acton Bell),Agnes Grey.Controversial from the start of its release, its originality, its subject, narrative style and troubled action raised intrigue. Certain critics condemned it,but sales were nevertheless considerable for an unknown author of a novel that defied all conventions. It is a work of black Romanticism, covering three generations isolated in the cold spring of the countryside with two opposing elements: the dignified manor of Thrushcross Grange and the rambling dilapidated pile of Wuthering",
"pile of Wuthering Heights. The main characters, swept by tumults of the earth, the skies and the hearts, are strange and often possessed of unheard-of violence and deprivations. The story is told in a scholarly fashion, with two narrators, the traveller and tenant Lockwood, and the housekeeper/governess, Nelly Dean, with two sections in the first person, one direct, one cloaked, which overlap each other with digressions and sub-plots that form, from apparently scattered fragments, a coherently locked unit. 1848, Anne'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall One year before her death in May 1849, Anne published a second novel. Far more ambitious than her previous novel,The Tenant of Wildfell Hallwas a great success and rapidly outsold Emily'sWuthering Heights. However, the critical reception was mixed—praise for the novel's \"power\" and \"effect\" and sharp criticism for being \"coarse\".Charlotte Brontëherself, Anne's sister, wrote to her publisher that it \"hardly seems to me desirable topreserve ... thechoice of subject in",
"of subject in that work is a mistake.\"After Anne's death, Charlotte prevented the novel's republication and thus condemned her sister to temporary oblivion. The master theme is the alcoholism of a man who causes the downfall of his family. Helen Graham, the central character, gets married for love to Arthur Huntingdon, whom she soon discovers to be lecherous, violent and alcoholic. She is forced to break with the conventions that would keep her in the family home that has become hell, and to leave with her child to seek secret refuge in the old house of Wildfell Hall. When the alcohol causes her husband's ultimate decline, she returns to care for him in total abnegation until his death. Today,The Tenant of Wildfell Hallis considered by most of the critics to be one of the first sustainedfeministnovels. Identities revealed In 1850, a little over a year after the deaths of Emily and Anne, Charlotte wrote a preface for the re-print of the combined edition ofWuthering HeightsandAgnes Grey, in which she publicly",
"which she publicly revealed the real identities of all three sisters. Charlotte Brontë Denunciation of boarding schools (Jane Eyre) Conditions at the school at Cowan Bridge, where Maria and Elizabeth may have contracted the tuberculosis from which they died, were probably no worse than those at many other schools of the time. (For example, several decades before the Brontë sisters' experience at Cowan Bridge,Jane Austenand her sister Cassandra contracted typhus at a similar boarding school, and Jane nearly died. The Austen sisters' education, like that of the Brontë sisters, was continued at home.)Nevertheless, Charlotte blamed Cowan Bridge for her sisters' deaths, especially its poor medical care—chiefly, repeated emetics and blood-lettings—and the negligence of the school's doctor, who was the director's brother-in-law. Charlotte's vivid memories of the privations at Cowan Bridge were poured into her depiction of Lowood School inJane Eyre: the scanty and often spoiled food, the lack of heating and adequate",
"and adequate clothing, the periodic epidemics of illness such as \"low fever\" (probably typhus), the severity and arbitrariness of the punishments, and even the harshness of particular teachers (a Miss Andrews who taught at Cowan Bridge is thought to have been Charlotte's model for Miss Scatcherd inJane Eyre).Elizabeth Gaskell, a personal friend and the first biographer of Charlotte, confirmed that Cowan Bridge was Charlotte's model for Lowood and insisted that conditions there in Charlotte's day were egregious. More recent biographers have argued that the food, clothing, heating, medical care and discipline at Cowan Bridge were not considered sub-standard for religious schools of the time, testaments of the era's complacency about these intolerable conditions.One scholar has commended Patrick Brontë for his perspicacity in removing all his daughters from the school, a few weeks before the deaths of Maria and Elizabeth. Literary encounters Following the overwhelming success ofJane Eyre, Charlotte was",
"Eyre, Charlotte was pressured by George Smith, her publisher, to travel to London to meet her public. Despite the extreme timidity that paralysed her among strangers and made her almost incapable of expressing herself,Charlotte consented to be lionised, and in London was introduced to other great writers of the era, includingHarriet MartineauandWilliam Makepeace Thackeray, both of whom befriended her. Charlotte especially admired Thackeray, whose portrait, given to her by Smith, still hangs in the dining room at Haworth parsonage. On one occasion during a public gathering, Thackeray introduced Charlotte to his mother asJane Eyreand when Charlotte called on him the next day, he received an extended dressing-down, in which Smith had to intervene. During her trip to London in 1851 she visited theGreat ExhibitionandThe Crystal Palace.In 1849 she publishedShirleyand in 1853Villette. Marriage and death The Brontë sisters were highly amused by the behaviour of the curates they met.Arthur Bell Nicholls(1818–1906)",
"Nicholls(1818–1906) had been curate of Haworth for seven and a half years, when contrary to all expectations, and to the fury of Patrick Brontë (their father), he proposed to Charlotte. Although impressed by his dignity and deep voice, as well as by his near complete emotional collapse when she rejected him, she found him rigid, conventional and rather narrow-minded \"like all the curates\"—as she wrote to Ellen Nussey.After she declined his proposal, Nicholls, pursued by the anger of Patrick Brontë, left his functions for several months.However, little by little her feelings evolved and after slowly convincing her father, she finally married Nicholls on 29 June 1854. On return from their honeymoon in Ireland where she had been introduced to Mr. Nicholls' aunt and cousins, her life completely changed. She adopted her new duties as a wife, which took up most of her time. She wrote to her friends telling them that Nicholls was a good and attentive husband, but that she nevertheless felt a kind of holy terror at",
"of holy terror at her new situation. In a letter to Ellen Nussey (Nell), in 1854 she wrote \"Indeed-indeed-Nell-it is a solemn and strange and perilous thing for a woman to become a wife.\" The following year she died aged 38. The cause of death given at the time was tuberculosis, but it may have been complicated with typhoid fever (the water at Haworth being likely contaminated due to poor sanitation and the vast cemetery that surrounded the church and the parsonage) andhyperemesis gravidarumfrom her pregnancy that was in its early stage. The first biography of Charlotte was written byElizabeth Cleghorn Gaskellat the request of Patrick Brontë, and published in 1857, helping to create the myth of a family of condemned genius, living in a painful and romantic solitude. After having stayed at Haworth several times and having accommodated Charlotte in Plymouth Grove, Manchester, and having become her friend and confidant, Mrs Gaskell certainly had the advantage of knowing the family. Novels Unfinished fragments",
"fragments These are outlines or unedited roughcasts which with the exception ofEmmahave been recently published. Branwell Brontë Patrick Branwell Brontë(1817–1848) was considered by his father and sisters to be a genius, while the book byDaphne du Maurier(1986),The Infernal World of Branwell Brontë, contains numerous references to his addiction to alcohol andlaudanum. He was an intelligent boy with many talents and interested in many subjects, especially literature. He was often the driving force in the Brontë siblings' construction of the imaginary worlds. He was artistic and was encouraged by his father to pursue this. While trying to make a name as an artist, he left for London, but used up his father's allowance in a matter of days in cafés of ill-repute.His attempts to obtain low-paid work failed,and very quickly he foundered in alcohol and laudanum, unable to regain his stability. Anne Brontë obtained employment for him in January 1843, but nearly three years later he was dismissed.In September 1848,",
"September 1848, after several years of decline, he died from tuberculosis. On his death, his father tearfully repeated, \"My brilliant boy\", while the clearheaded and totally loyal Emily wrote that his condition had been \"hopeless\". Branwell is the author ofJuvenilia, which he wrote as a child with his sister Charlotte,Glass Town,Angria, poems, pieces of prose and verse under the pseudonym of Northangerland,such as \"Real Rest\", published by theHalifax Guardian(8 November 1846)from several articles accepted by local newspapers and from an unfinished novel probably from around 1845 entitledAnd the Weary are at Rest. Emily Brontë Emily Brontë(1818–1848) has been called the \"Sphinxof Literature\", writing without the slightest desire for fame and only for her own satisfaction. She was obsessively timid outside the family circle, to the point of turning her back on her partners in conversation without saying a word. With a single novel,Wuthering Heights(1847), and poems with an elemental power, she reached the",
"she reached the heights of literature. Though she was almost unknown during her life, posterity classes her as \"top level\" in the literary canonof English literature.Simone de Beauvoir, inThe Second Sex(1949), chooses onlyEmily Brontë,Virginia Woolfand (\"sometimes\")Mary Webb,ColetteandMansfield, as among those who have tried to approach nature \"in its inhuman freedom\". Above all, Emily loved to wander about the wild landscape of the moors around Haworth. In September 1848 her health began to decline rapidly.Consumptive, she refused all treatment,with the exception of a visit from a London doctor, because although it was already too late, her relatives insisted.Despite popular belief, Emily did not die on the dining room sofa. There is no contemporary evidence for the story and Charlotte, in her letter to William Smith Williams, mentions Emily's dog Keeper lying at the side of her death bed.It is possible that she left an unfinished manuscript that Charlotte burned to avoid such controversy as followed the",
"as followed the publication ofWuthering Heights. Several documents exist that allude to the possibility, although no proof corroborating this suggestion has ever been found. Emily Brontë's poems Emily's poems were probably written to be inserted in the saga ofGondal, several of whose characters she identified with right into adulthood. At the age of 28 she still acted out scenes from the little books with Anne while travelling on the train to York.\"Remembrance\" was one of the 21 of her poems that were chosen for 1846 joint publication with her siblings'. Anne Brontë Anne was not as celebrated as her other two sisters. Her second novel,The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was prevented from being republished after Anne's death by her sister Charlotte, who wrote to her publisher that \"it hardly appears to me desirable to preserve. The choice of subject in that work is a mistake, it was too little consonant with the character, tastes and ideas of the gentle, retiring inexperienced writer.\" This prevention is considered",
"is considered to be the main reason for Anne's being less renowned than her sisters. Anne's health began to decline rapidly, like that of her brother and sister some months earlier. On 5 April 1849, she wrote to Ellen Nussey asking her to accompany her to Scarborough on the east coast. Anne confides her thoughts to Ellen: I have no horror of death: if I thought it inevitable I think I could quietly resign myself to the prospect ... But I wish it would please God to spare me not only for Papa's and Charlotte's sakes, but because I long to do some good in the world before I leave it. I have many schemes in my head for future practise—humble and limited indeed—but still I should not like them all to come to nothing, and myself to have lived to so little purpose. But God's will be done. Anne hoped that the sea air would improve her health, as recommended by the doctor, and Charlotte agreed to go. On the Sunday morning she felt weaker and asked if she could be taken back to Haworth. The doctor confirmed that she",
"confirmed that she was near to death and Anne thanked him for his candour. \"Take courage, take courage\" she murmured to Charlotte. She died at 2 pm on Monday 28 May. She is buried in the cemetery of St Mary's of Scarborough.Her gravestone inscription carried an error in her age: she died at the age of 29 and not at 28. It was noticed by Charlotte during her only visit, and she had the intention of asking the mason to correct it. Ill health did not leave him time to effect the repair and the tombstone remained in the same state until it was replaced by the Brontë Society in April 2013. Northern England at the time of the Brontës In her 1857 biographyThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, Mrs Gaskell begins with two explanatory and descriptive chapters. The first one covers the wild countryside of theWest Riding of Yorkshire, the little village of Haworth, the parsonage and the church surrounded by its vast cemetery perched on the top of a hill. The second chapter presents an overview of the social, sanitary and",
"sanitary and economic conditions of the region. Social, sanitary and economic conditions in Haworth The death toll within the Brontë family was not unusual for the area, and left little impression on the village population, who were confronted with death on a daily basis. When Patrick Brontë arrived, the parish was suffering from unemployment. The men sought work in the quarries and local handicrafts. The only businesses were the pharmacy, which supplied Branwell, and John Greenwood's stationery store where the Brontës were the best customers. Haworth's population grew rapidly during the first half of the 19th century, from hardly 1,000 to 3,365 in 50 years.The village did not have a sewage system and the well water was contaminated by faecal matter and the decomposition of bodies in the cemetery on the hilltop.Life expectancywas less than 25 years and infant mortality was around 41% for children under six months of age.Most of the population lived by working the poorly fertile land of themoorsand",
"land of themoorsand supplemented their incomes with work done at home, such as spinning and weaving wool from the sheep that were farmed on the moors.Conditions changedwhen the textile industry, already present since the end of the 17th century, grew with the mills being located on the banks of theRiver Worth, whose waters turned the wheels. Consequently fewer people were needed to work them. Food was scarce, often little more thanporridge, resulting in vitamin deficiencies. Public hygiene was non-existent and lavatories were basic. The facilities at the parsonage were no more than a plank across a hole in a hut at the rear, with a lower plank for the children. In her thirties, Charlotte was described as having a toothless jaw by such persons as Mrs Gaskell, who stated in a letter dated 25 August 1850 to Catherine Winkworth: \"large mouth and many teeth gone\".However, food was reasonably plentiful in the family. They ate from well filled plates of porridge in the morning and piles of potatoes were peeled each",
"were peeled each day in the kitchen while Tabby told stories about her country, or Emily revised her German grammar. Sometimes Mr Brontë would return home from his tours of the village with game donated by the parishioners. Role of the women According toRobert Southey, poet laureate, in his response to Charlotte, ladies from a good background should be content with an education and a marriage embellished with some decorative talents.Mr Patrick Brontë had one of the characters in hisThe Maid of Kilarney—without knowing whether it reflected a widespread opinion supporting or condemning it—say, \"The education of female ought, most assuredly, to be competent, in order that she might enjoy herself, and be a fit companion for man. But, believe me, lovely, delicate and sprightly woman, is not formed by nature, to pore over the musty pages of Grecian and Roman literature, or to plod through the windings of Mathematical Problems, nor has Providence assigned for her sphere of action, either the cabinet or the field.",
"or the field. Herforteis softness, tenderness and grace.\" In any case, it seemed to contradict his attitude towards his daughters whom he encouraged, even if he was not completely aware of what they did with their time. Sisters' place in literature Due to their forced or voluntary isolation, the Brontë sisters constituted a separate literary group that neither had predecessors nor successors. There is not a 'Brontë' line such as exists among authors of realist and naturalist novels, or in poetry, the romantic and the symbolic. Their influence certainly existed, but it is difficult to define in its totality. Writers who followed them doubtlessly thought about them while they were creating their dark and tormented worlds such asThomas HardyinJude the ObscureorTess of the d'Urbervilles, orGeorge EliotwithAdam BedeandThe Mill on the Floss.There were also more conventional authors such asMatthew Arnold, who in a letter from 1853 says of Charlotte that she only pretends to heartlessness: \"nothing but hunger,",
"but hunger, rebellion and rage\".In contrast,Mrs Humphry Ward, author ofRobert Elsmereand other morality novels, only finds the didactic among the works of Charlotte, while she appreciates the happy blend of romance and realism in the works of Emily.There is however nothing that could constitute a literary vein. Pilgrimages to Haworth from 1860 By 1860 Charlotte had been dead for five years, and the only people living at the parsonage were Mr. Brontë, his son-in-law,Arthur Bell Nicholls, and two servants. In 1857 Mrs. Gaskell's biography of Charlotte was published, and though at its first reading, Mr. Brontë approved of its commissioning, several months later he expressed doubts. The portrait of Nicholls, founded partly on the confidence of Ellen Nussey, seemed to him to be unjustified. Ellen Nussey, who hated Arthur, insists that his marital claims had perverted Charlotte's writing and she had to struggle against an interruption of her career. It is true that Arthur found Nussey to be too close to his wife,",
"close to his wife, and he insisted that she should destroy her letters—although this never actually happened. Mrs. Gaskell's book caused a sensation and was distributed nationwide. The polemic launched by Charlotte's father resulted in a squabble that only served to increase the family's fame. During Charlotte's lifetime friends and sponsors visited the parsonage, includingSir Jamesand Lady Kay Shuttleworth,Ellen Nussey,Elizabeth Gaskell,John Store Smith, a young writer from Manchester,Bessie Parkes, who recounted her visit to Mrs. Gaskell, andAbraham Holroyd, poet, antiquarian and historian.However, following the publication of the book and the pastor's public remonstrations, the parsonage became a place of pilgrimage for admirers wanting to see it with their own eyes. Charlotte's husband recalled that he had to protect his father-in-law, when on the short path to the church they had to push their way through the crowds of people wanting to reach out and touch the cape of the father of the Brontë girls.The",
"Brontë girls.The hundreds of visitors became thousands, coming from all over Britain and even from across the Atlantic. Whenever he agreed to meet them, Patrick received them with utmost courtesy and recounted the story of his brilliant daughters, never omitting to express his displeasure at the opinions held about Charlotte's husband. The flow of visitors has never abated. Indeed, the parsonage at Haworth received an estimated 88,000 visitors in 2017. Brontë Society TheBrontë Parsonage Museumis managed and maintained by theBrontë Society,which organises exhibitions and takes care of the cultural heritage represented by objects and documents that belonged to the family. The society has branches in Australia, Canada, France, Ireland, theScandinaviancountries, South Africa and the USA. Haworth In 1904,Virginia Woolfvisited Haworth and published an account inThe Guardianon 21 December. She remarked on the symbiosis between the village and the Brontë sisters, and on the fact that utensils and clothes that would",
"clothes that would normally have disappeared before those who used them, have survived, enables one to better understand their singular presence. She wrote: \"Haworth expresses the Brontës; the Brontës express Haworth; they fit like a snail to its shell\". Brontë Birthplace The sisters' birthplace in Thornton has been acquired by acommunity benefit societyto preserve it, and as of 2024there are plans to restore the house for use as a \"social and educational space\". Brontë Stones In a 2018 project curated and delivered byUniversity of Huddersfieldacademic and writer Michael Stewart and theBradford Literature Festival, four specially-commissioned poems are inscribed on four stones set in the area between the sisters' birthplace and the Haworth parsonage.The Anne Stone has a poem byJackie Kayand stands in a wildflower meadow behind the Haworth Parsonage; the Charlotte Stone, with a poem byCarol Ann Duffy, is set in the wall of theBrontë Birthplacein Thornton; Emily is remembered in a poem byKate Bush, known for",
"Bush, known for her 1978 song \"Wuthering Heights\", which is carved into a rock outcrop of Ogden Kirk on wild moorland aboveOgden Water; and a fourth stone, the Brontë Stone, commemorates all three sisters with a poem byJeanette Wintersonand stands in Thornton Cemetery.There are various published walks around the stones, including the 15 mi (24 km) Emily Brontë Walk which is recognised by theLong Distance Walkers Association.The Brontë Stones Project was found to have \"increased local engagement with the landscape, regenerated and preserved ancient public rights of ways, and provided an important stimulus to cultural tourism, contributing to the quality of the tourist experience\". Commemoration in Westminster Abbey A plaque to the three Brontë sisters was erected inPoets' CornerinWestminster Abbeyon 8 October 1939, although it was not marked with any ceremony, due to the outbreak of the Second World War. A formal unveiling took place in 1947 but it took until 2024 for the lack ofdiaeresisover the final e in",
"the final e in their names to be noticed and corrected. Descendants The line of Patrick Brontë died out with his children, but Patrick's brother had notable descendants, includingJames Brontë Gatenby, whose most important work was studyingGolgi bodiesin various animals, including humans, andPeter Gatenby, formerly the medical director of the UN. In popular culture Books, comics and graphic novels Cinema Dance Music Objects in outer space Opera Sport Stage productions Television References Informational notes Citations Bibliography External links",
"Jane Austen Jane Austen(/ˈɒstɪn,ˈɔːstɪn/OST-in,AW-stin; 16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an English novelist known primarily for her six novels, which implicitly interpret, critique, and comment upon the Britishlanded gentryat the end of the 18th century. Austen's plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage for the pursuit of favourable social standing and economic security. Her works are implicit critiques of thenovels of sensibilityof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-centuryliterary realism.Her use of social commentary, realism, and irony have earned her acclaim amongst critics and scholars. The anonymously publishedSense and Sensibility(1811),Pride and Prejudice(1813),Mansfield Park(1814), andEmma(1816) were modest successes, but they brought her little fame in her lifetime. She wrote two other novels—Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion, both published posthumously in 1817—and began another, eventually titledSanditon, but it was left unfinished upon her",
"unfinished upon her death. She also left behind three volumes of juvenile writings in manuscript, the shortepistolary novelLady Susan, and the unfinished novelThe Watsons. Since her death Austen's novels have rarely been out of print. A significant transition in her reputation occurred in 1833, when they were republished inRichard Bentley's Standard Novels series (illustrated by Ferdinand Pickering and sold as a set). They gradually gained wide acclaim and popular readership. In 1869, fifty-two years after her death, her nephew's publication ofA Memoir of Jane Austenintroduced a compelling version of her writing career and her supposedly uneventful life to an eager audience. Her work has inspired a large number of critical essays and has been included in many literary anthologies. Her novels have also inspired many films, including 1940'sPride and Prejudice, 1995'sSense and Sensibility, and 2016'sLove & Friendship. Biographical sources The scant biographical information about Austen comes from her few",
"comes from her few surviving letters and sketches her family members wrote about her.Only about 160 of the approximately 3,000 letters Austen wrote have survived and been published.Cassandra Austendestroyed the bulk of the letters she received from her sister, burning or otherwise destroying them. She wanted to ensure that the \"younger nieces did not read any of Jane's sometimes acid or forthright comments on neighbours or family members\".In the interest of protecting reputations from Jane's penchant for honesty and forthrightness, Cassandra omitted details of illnesses, unhappiness and anything she considered unsavoury.Important details about the Austen family were elided by intention, such as any mention of Austen's brother George, whose undiagnosed developmental challenges led the family to send him away from home; the two brothers sent away to the navy at an early age; or wealthy Aunt Leigh-Perrot, arrested and tried on charges of larceny. The first Austen biography wasHenry Thomas Austen's 1818",
"Austen's 1818 \"Biographical Notice\". It appeared in a posthumous edition ofNorthanger Abbeyand included extracts from two letters, against the judgement of other family members. Details of Austen's life continued to be omitted or embellished in her nephew'sA Memoir of Jane Austen, published in 1869, and in William and Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh's biographyJane Austen: Her Life and Letters, published in 1913, all of which included additional letters.Austen's family and relatives built a legend of \"good quiet Aunt Jane\", portraying her as a woman in a happy domestic situation, whose family was the mainstay of her life. Modern biographers include details excised from the letters and family biographies, but the biographer Jan Fergus writes that the challenge is to keep the view balanced, not to present her languishing in periods of deep unhappiness as \"an embittered, disappointed woman trapped in a thoroughly unpleasant family\". Life Family Jane Austen was born inSteventon, Hampshireon 16 December 1775. Her",
"December 1775. Her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother \"certainly expected to have been brought to bed a month ago\". He added that the newborn infant was \"a present plaything for Cassy and a future companion\".The winter of 1775-1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the local church and christened Jane. Her father,George Austen(1731–1805), served as therectorof the Anglican parishes of Steventon andDeane.The Reverend Austen came from an old and wealthy family of wool merchants. As each generation ofeldest sonsreceived inheritances, George's branch of the family fell into poverty. He and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. In 1745, at the age of fifteen, George Austen's sisterPhiladelphiawas apprenticed to amillinerinCovent Garden.At the age of sixteen, George enteredSt John's College, Oxford,where he most likely met Cassandra Leigh (1739–1827).She came from the prominentLeigh family. Her father was",
"Her father was rector atAll Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry. Her eldest brother James inherited a fortune and large estate from his great-aunt Perrot, with the only condition that hechange his nameto Leigh-Perrot. George Austen and Cassandra Leigh were engaged, probably around 1763, when they exchangedminiatures.He received thelivingof the Steventon parish from Thomas Knight, the wealthy husband of his second cousin.They married on 26 April 1764 atSt Swithin's ChurchinBath, bylicense, in a simple ceremony, two months after Cassandra's father died.Their income was modest, with George's smallper annumliving; Cassandra brought to the marriage the expectation of a small inheritance at the time of her mother's death. After the living at the nearby Deane rectory had been purchased for George by his wealthy uncle Francis Austen,the Austens took up temporary residence there, until Steventon rectory, a 16th-century house in disrepair, underwent necessary renovations. Cassandra gave birth to",
"gave birth to three children while living at Deane:Jamesin 1765, George in 1766, andEdwardin 1767.Her custom was to keep an infant at home for several months and then place it with Elizabeth Littlewood, a woman living nearby tonurseand raise for twelve to eighteen months. Steventon In 1768, the family finally took up residence in Steventon.Henrywas the first child to be born there, in 1771.At about this time, Cassandra could no longer ignore the signs that little George wasdevelopmentally disabled. He had seizures and may have been deaf and mute. At this time she chose to send him to be fostered.In 1773,Cassandrawas born, followed byFrancisin 1774, and Jane in 1775. According to the biographerPark Honanthe Austen home had an \"open, amused, easy intellectual atmosphere\", in which the ideas of those with whom members of the Austen family might disagree politically or socially were considered and discussed. The family relied on the patronage of their kin and hosted visits from numerous family members.Mrs Austen",
"members.Mrs Austen spent the summer of 1770 in London with George's sister, Philadelphia, and her daughterEliza, accompanied by his other sister, Mrs. Walter and her daughter Philly.Philadelphia and Eliza Hancock were, according to Le Faye, \"the bright comets flashing into an otherwise placid solar system of clerical life in ruralHampshire, and the news of their foreign travels and fashionable London life, together with their sudden descents upon the Steventon household in between times, all helped to widen Jane's youthful horizon and influence her later life and works.\" Cassandra Austen's cousin Thomas Leigh visited a number of times in the 1770s and 1780s, inviting young Cassie to visit them inBathin 1781. The first mention of Jane occurs in family documents upon her return, \"... and almost home they were when they met Jane & Charles, the two little ones of the family, who had to go as far as New Down to meet thechaise, & have the pleasure of riding home in it.\"Le Faye writes that \"Mr Austen's predictions",
"predictions for his younger daughter were fully justified. Never were sisters more to each other than Cassandra and Jane; while in a particularly affectionate family, there seems to have been a special link between Cassandra and Edward on the one hand, and between Henry and Jane on the other.\" From 1773 until 1796, George Austen supplemented his income by farming and by teaching three or four boys at a time, who boarded at his home.The Reverend Austen had an annual income of £200 (equivalent to £32,000 in 2023) from his two livings.This was a very modest income at the time; by comparison, a skilled worker like a blacksmith or a carpenter could make about £100 annually while the typical annual income of a gentry family was between £1,000 and £5,000.Mr. Austen also rented the 200-acre Cheesedown farm from his benefactor Thomas Knight which could make a profit of £300 (equivalent to £48,000 in 2023) a year. During this period of her life, Jane Austen attended church regularly, socialised with friends and",
"with friends and neighbours,and read novels—often of her own composition—aloud to her family in the evenings. Socialising with the neighbours often meant dancing, either impromptu in someone's home after supper or at the balls held regularly at theassembly roomsin the town hall.Her brother Henry later said that \"Jane was fond of dancing, and excelled in it\". Education In 1783 Austen and her sister Cassandra were sent toOxfordto be educated by Ann Cawley who took them toSouthamptonlater that year. That autumn both girls were sent home after catchingtyphus, of which Jane nearly died.She was from then home-educated, until she attended boarding school with her sister from early in 1785 at theReading Abbey Girls' School, ruled by Mrs La Tournelle.The curriculum probably included French, spelling, needlework, dancing, music and drama. The sisters returned home before December 1786 because the school fees for the two girls were too high for the Austen family.After 1786 Austen \"never again lived anywhere beyond the",
"anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment\". Her education came from reading, guided by her father and brothers James and Henry.Irene Collinssaid that Austen \"used some of the same school books as the boys\".Austen apparently had unfettered access both to her father's library and that of a family friend,Warren Hastings. Together these collections amounted to a large and varied library. Her father was also tolerant of Austen's sometimes risqué experiments in writing, and provided both sisters with expensive paper and other materials for their writing and drawing. Private theatricals were an essential part of Austen's education. From her early childhood, the family and friends staged a series of plays in therectorybarn, includingRichard Sheridan'sThe Rivals(1775) andDavid Garrick'sBon Ton. Austen's eldest brother James wrote the prologues and epilogues and she probably joined in these activities, first as a spectator and later as a participant.Most of the plays were comedies, which suggests",
"which suggests how Austen's satirical gifts were cultivated.At the age of 12, she tried her own hand at dramatic writing; she wrote three short plays during her teenage years. Juvenilia(1787–1793) From at least the time she was aged eleven, Austen wrote poems and stories to amuse herself and her family.She exaggerated mundane details of daily life and parodied common plot devices in \"stories full of anarchic fantasies of female power, licence, illicit behaviour, and general high spirits\", according toJanet Todd.Containing work written between 1787 and 1793, the juvenilia (or childhood writings) that Austen compiledfair copiesconsisted of twenty-nine early works into three bound notebooks, now referred to as theJuvenilia.She called the three notebooks \"Volume the First\", \"Volume the Second\" and \"Volume the Third\", and they preserve 90,000 words she wrote during those years.TheJuveniliaare often, according to scholar Richard Jenkyns, \"boisterous\" and \"anarchic\"; he compares them to the work of 18th-century",
"of 18th-century novelistLaurence Sterne. Among these works is a satirical novel in letters titledLove and Freindship, written when aged fourteen in 1790,in which she mocked popularnovels of sensibility.The next year, she wroteThe History of England, a manuscript of thirty-four pages accompanied by thirteen watercolour miniatures by her sister, Cassandra. Austen'sHistoryparodied popular historical writing, particularlyOliver Goldsmith'sHistory of England(1764).Honan speculates that not long after writingLove and Freindship, Austen decided to \"write for profit, to make stories her central effort\", that is, to become a professional writer. When she was around eighteen years old, Austen began to write longer, more sophisticated works. In August 1792, aged seventeen, Austen startedCatharine or the Bower, which presaged her mature work, especiallyNorthanger Abbey, but was left unfinished until picked up inLady Susan, which Todd describes as less prefiguring thanCatharine.A year later she began, but abandoned, a",
"but abandoned, a short play, later titledSir Charles Grandison or the happy Man, a comedy in 6 acts, which she returned to and completed around 1800. This was a short parody of various school textbook abridgements of Austen's favourite contemporary novel,The History of Sir Charles Grandison(1753), bySamuel Richardson. When Austen became an aunt for the first time aged eighteen, she sent new-born nieceFanny Catherine Austen Knight\"five short pieces of ... the Juvenilia now known collectively as 'Scraps' .., purporting to be her 'Opinions and Admonitions on the conduct of Young Women'\". For Jane-Anna-Elizabeth Austen (also born in 1793), her aunt wrote \"two more 'Miscellanious Morsels', dedicating them to on 2 June 1793, 'convinced that if you seriously attend to them, You will derive from them very important Instructions, with regard to your Conduct in Life.'\"There is manuscript evidence that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as 1811 (when she was 36), and that her niece and nephew, Anna and",
"nephew, Anna and James Edward Austen, made further additions as late as 1814. Between 1793 and 1795 (aged eighteen to twenty), Austen wroteLady Susan, a shortepistolary novel, usually described as her most ambitious and sophisticated early work.It is unlike any of Austen's other works. Austen biographerClaire Tomalindescribes the novella's heroine as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate, betray and abuse her lovers, friends and family. Tomalin writes: Told in letters, it is as neatly plotted as a play, and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of theRestoration dramatistswho may have provided some of her inspiration ... It stands alone in Austen's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters. According to Janet Todd, the model for the title character may have beenEliza de Feuillide, who inspired Austen with stories of her glamorous life and various adventures. Eliza's French husband was",
"French husband was guillotined in 1794; she married Jane's brother Henry Austen in 1797. Tom Lefroy When Austen was twenty,Tom Lefroy, a neighbour, visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796. He had just finished a university degree and was moving to London for training as abarrister. Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering, and it is clear from Austen's letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together: \"I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved. Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together.\" Austen wrote in her first surviving letter to her sister Cassandra that Lefroy was a \"very gentlemanlike, good-looking, pleasant young man\".Five days later in another letter, Austen wrote that she expected an \"offer\" from her \"friend\" and that \"I shall refuse him, however, unless he promises to give away his white coat\", going on to write \"I will confide",
"\"I will confide myself in the future to Mr Tom Lefroy, for whom I don't give a sixpence\" and refuse all others.The next day, Austen wrote: \"The day will come on which I flirt my last with Tom Lefroy and when you receive this it will be all over. My tears flow as I write at this melancholy idea\". Halperin cautioned that Austen often satirised popular sentimental romantic fiction in her letters, and some of the statements about Lefroy may have been ironic. However, it is clear that Austen was genuinely attracted to Lefroy and subsequently none of her other suitors ever quite measured up to him.The Lefroy family intervened and sent him away at the end of January. Marriage was impractical as both Lefroy and Austen must have known. Neither had any money, and he was dependent on agreat-unclein Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career. If Tom Lefroy later visited Hampshire, he was carefully kept away from the Austens, and Jane Austen never saw him again.In November 1798, Lefroy was still on",
"Lefroy was still on Austen's mind as she wrote to her sister she had tea with one of his relatives, wanted desperately to ask about him, but could not bring herself to raise the subject. Early manuscripts (1796–1798) After finishingLady Susan, Austen began her first full-length novelElinor and Marianne. Her sister remembered that it was read to the family \"before 1796\" and was told through a series of letters. Without surviving original manuscripts, there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published anonymously in 1811 asSense and Sensibility. Austen began a second novel,First Impressions(later published asPride and Prejudice), in 1796. She completed the initial draft in August 1797, aged 21; as with all of her novels, Austen read the work aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an \"established favourite\".At this time, her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels. In November 1797, George Austen wrote toThomas Cadell, an established",
"an established publisher in London, to ask if he would consider publishingFirst Impressions. Cadell returned Mr. Austen's letter, marking it \"Declined by Return of Post\". Austen may not have known of her father's efforts.Following the completion ofFirst Impressions, Austen returned toElinor and Marianneand from November 1797 until mid-1798, revised it heavily; she eliminated theepistolaryformat in favour ofthird-person narrationand produced something close toSense and Sensibility.In 1797, Austen met her cousin (and future sister-in-law),Eliza de Feuillide, a French aristocrat whose first husband the Comte de Feuillide had been guillotined, causing her to flee to Britain, where she married Henry Austen.The description of the execution of the Comte de Feuillide related by his widow left Austen with an intense horror of theFrench Revolutionthat lasted for the rest of her life. During the middle of 1798, after finishing revisions ofElinor and Marianne, Austen began writing a third novel with the working",
"with the working titleSusan—laterNorthanger Abbey—a satire on the popularGothic novel.Austen completed her work about a year later. In early 1803, Henry Austen offeredSusanto Benjamin Crosby, a London publisher, who paid £10 for the copyright. Crosby promised early publication and went so far as to advertise the book publicly as being \"in the press\", but did nothing more.The manuscript remained in Crosby's hands, unpublished, until Austen repurchased the copyright from him in 1816. Bath and Southampton In December 1800, George Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry, leave Steventon, and move the family to 4,Sydney PlaceinBath, Somerset.While retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens, Jane Austen was shocked to be told she was moving 50 miles (80 km) away from the only home she had ever known.An indication of her state of mind is her lack of productivity as a writer during the time she lived in Bath. She was able to make some revisions toSusan, and she began and",
"and she began and then abandoned a new novel,The Watsons, but there was nothing like the productivity of the years 1795–1799.Tomalin suggests this reflects a deep depression disabling her as a writer, but Honan disagrees, arguing Austen wrote or revised her manuscripts throughout her creative life, except for a few months after her father died.It is often claimed that Austen was unhappy in Bath, which caused her to lose interest in writing, but it is just as possible that Austen's social life in Bath prevented her from spending much time writing novels.The critic Robert Irvine argued that if Austen spent more time writing novels when she was in the countryside, it might just have been because she had more spare time as opposed to being more happy in the countryside as is often argued.Furthermore, Austen frequently both moved and travelled over southern England during this period, which was hardly a conducive environment for writing a long novel.Austen sold the rights to publishSusanto a publisher Crosby &",
"publisher Crosby & Company, who paid her £10 (equivalent to £1,020 in 2023).The Crosby & Company advertisedSusan, but never published it. The years from 1801 to 1804 are something of a blank space for Austen scholars as Cassandra destroyed all of her letters from her sister in this period for unknown reasons.In December 1802, Austen received her only known proposal of marriage. She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg, old friends who lived nearBasingstoke. Their younger brother, Harris Bigg-Wither, had recently finished his education at Oxford and was also at home. Bigg-Wither proposed and Austen accepted. As described by Caroline Austen, Jane's niece, and Reginald Bigg-Wither, a descendant, Harris was not attractive—he was a large, plain-looking man who spoke little, stuttered when he did speak, was aggressive in conversation, and almost completely tactless. However, Austen had known him since both were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to Austen and her family. He was",
"her family. He was the heir to extensive family estates located in the area where the sisters had grown up. With these resources, Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age, give Cassandra a permanent home and, perhaps, assist her brothers in their careers. By the next morning, Austen realised she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance.No contemporary letters or diaries describe how Austen felt about this proposal.Irvine described Bigg-Wither as somebody who \"...seems to have been a man very hard to like, let alone love\". In 1814, Austen wrote a letter to her niece Fanny Knight, who had asked for advice about a serious relationship, telling her that \"having written so much on one side of the question, I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther, & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him. Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection\".The English scholar Douglas Bush wrote that Austen had \"had a very high ideal of",
"very high ideal of the love that should unite a husband and wife ... All of her heroines ... know in proportion to their maturity, the meaning of ardent love\".A possible autobiographical element inSense and Sensibilityoccurs whenElinor Dashwoodcontemplates \"the worse and most irremediable of all evils, a connection for life\" with an unsuitable man. In 1804, while living in Bath, Austen started, but did not complete, her novelThe Watsons. The story centres on an invalid and impoverished clergyman and his four unmarried daughters. Sutherland describes the novel as \"a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women's lives\".Honan suggests, and Tomalin agrees, that Austen chose to stop work on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for her comfort. Her father's relatively sudden death left Jane, Cassandra, and their mother in a precarious financial situation. Edward, James, Henry, and Francis Austen (known as Frank)",
"(known as Frank) pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters.For the next four years, the family's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity. They spent part of the time in rented quarters in Bath before leaving the city in June 1805 for a family visit to Steventon andGodmersham. They moved for the autumn months to the newly fashionable seaside resort ofWorthing, on theSussex coast, where they resided at Stanford Cottage.It was here that Austen is thought to have written her fair copy ofLady Susanand added its \"Conclusion\". In 1806, the family moved toSouthampton, where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife. A large part of this time they spent visiting various branches of the family. On 5 April 1809, about three months before the family's move toChawton, Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby, offering him a new manuscript ofSusanif needed to secure the immediate publication of the novel, and requesting the return of the original so she",
"the original so she could find another publisher. Crosby replied that he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time, or at all, and that Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the £10 he had paid her and find another publisher. She did not have the resources to buy the copyright back at that time,but was able to purchase it in 1816. Chawton Around early 1809, Austen's brother Edward offered his mother and sisters a more settled life—the use of a large cottage inChawtonvillagewhich was part of the estate around Edward's nearby propertyChawton House. Jane, Cassandra and their mother moved intoChawton cottageon 7 July 1809.Life was quieter in Chawton than it had been since the family's move to Bath in 1800. The Austens did not socialise withgentryand entertained only when family visited. Her niece Anna described the family's life in Chawton as \"a very quiet life, according to our ideas, but they were great readers, and besides the housekeeping our aunts occupied themselves in working with the",
"in working with the poor and in teaching some girl or boy to read or write.\" Published author Like many women authors at the time, Austen published her books anonymously.At the time, the ideal roles for a woman were as wife and mother, and writing for women was regarded at best as a secondary form of activity; a woman who wished to be a full-time writer was felt to be degrading her femininity, so books by women were usually published anonymously in order to maintain the conceit that the female writer was only publishing as a sort of part-time job, and was not seeking to become a \"literary lioness\" (i.e. a celebrity).Another reason noted is that the novel was still seen as a lesser form of literature at the time compared with poetry, and many female and male authors published novels anonymously, whereas works of poetry, by both female and male writers were almost always attributed to the author. During her time at Chawton, Austen published four generally well-received novels. Through her brother Henry, the",
"brother Henry, the publisherThomas Egertonagreed to publishSense and Sensibility, which, like all of Austen's novels exceptPride and Prejudice, was published \"on commission\", that is, at the author's financial risk. When publishing on commission, publishers would advance the costs of publication, repay themselves as books were sold and then charge a 10% commission for each book sold, paying the rest to the author. If a novel did not recover its costs through sales, the author was responsible for them.The alternative to selling via commission was by selling the copyright, where an author received a one-time payment from the publisher for the manuscript, which occurred withPride and Prejudice.Austen's experience withSusan(the manuscript that becameNorthanger Abbey) where she sold the copyright to the publisher Crosby & Sons for £10, who did not publish the book, forcing her to buy back the copyright in order to get her work published, left Austen leery of this method of publishing.The final alternative, of",
"alternative, of selling by subscription, where a group of people would agree to buy a book in advance, was not an option for Austen as only authors who were well known or had an influential aristocratic patron who would recommend an up-coming book to their friends, could sell by subscription.Sense and Sensibilityappeared in October 1811, and was described as being written \"By a Lady\".As it was sold on commission, Egerton used expensive paper and set the price at 15 shillings (equivalent to £69 in 2023). Reviews were favourable and the novel became fashionable among young aristocratic opinion-makers;the edition sold out by mid-1813. Austen's novels were published in larger editions than was normal for this period. The small size of the novel-reading public and the large costs associated with hand production (particularly the cost of handmade paper) meant that most novels were published in editions of 500 copies or fewer to reduce the risks to the publisher and the novelist. Even some of the most successful",
"the most successful titles during this period were issued in editions of not more than 750 or 800 copies and later reprinted if demand continued. Austen's novels were published in larger editions, ranging from about 750 copies ofSense and Sensibilityto about 2,000 copies ofEmma. It is not clear whether the decision to print more copies than usual of Austen's novels was driven by the publishers or the author. Since all but one of Austen's books were originally published \"on commission\", the risks of overproduction were largely hers (or Cassandra's after her death) and publishers may have been more willing to produce larger editions than was normal practice when their own funds were at risk. Editions of popular works of non-fiction were often much larger. Austen made £140 (equivalent to £12,800 in 2023) fromSense and Sensibility,which provided her with some financial and psychological independence.After the success ofSense and Sensibility, all of Austen's subsequent books were billed as written \"By the author",
"\"By the author ofSense and Sensibility\" and Austen's name never appeared on her books during her lifetime.Egerton then publishedPride and Prejudice, a revision ofFirst Impressions, in January 1813. Austen sold the copyright toPride and Prejudiceto Egerton for £110 (equivalent to £9,100 in 2023).To maximise profits, he used cheap paper and set the price at 18 shillings (equivalent to £74 in 2023).He advertised the book widely and it was an immediate success, garnering three favourable reviews and selling well. Had Austen soldPride and Prejudiceon commission, she would have made a profit of £475, or twice her father's annual income.By October 1813, Egerton was able to begin selling a second edition.Mansfield Parkwas published by Egerton in May 1814. WhileMansfield Parkwas ignored by reviewers, it was very popular with readers. All copies were sold within six months, and Austen's earnings on this novel were larger than for any of her other novels. Without Austen's knowledge or approval, her novels were",
"her novels were translated into French and published in cheaply produced, pirated editions in France.: 1–2The literary critic Noel King commented in 1953 that, given the prevailing rage in France at the time for lush romantic fantasies, it was remarkable that her novels with the emphasis on everyday English life had any sort of a market in France.: 2King cautioned that Austen's chief translator in France, MadameIsabelle de Montolieu, had only the most rudimentary knowledge of English, and her translations were more of \"imitations\" than translations proper, as Montolieu depended upon assistants to provide a summary, which she then translated into an embellished French that often radically altered Austen's plots and characters.: 5–6The first of the Austen novels to be published that credited her as the author was in France, whenPersuasionwas published in 1821 asLa Famille Elliot ou L'Ancienne Inclination.: 5 Austen learned that thePrince Regentadmired her novels and kept a set at each of his residences.In",
"his residences.In November 1815, the Prince Regent's librarianJames Stanier Clarkeinvited Austen to visit the Prince's London residence and hinted Austen should dedicate the forthcomingEmmato the Prince. Though Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent, she could scarcely refuse the request.Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent on the account of his womanising, gambling, drinking, spendthrift ways, and generally disreputable behaviour.She later wrotePlan of a Novel, according to Hints from Various Quarters, a satiric outline of the \"perfect novel\" based on the librarian's many suggestions for a future Austen novel.Austen was greatly annoyed by Clarke's often pompous literary advice, and thePlan of a Novelparodying Clarke was intended as her revenge for all the unwanted letters she had received from the royal librarian. In mid-1815 Austen moved her work from Egerton toJohn Murray, a better-known publisher in London,who publishedEmmain December 1815 and a second edition ofMansfield Parkin February",
"Parkin February 1816.Emmasold well, but the new edition ofMansfield Parkdid poorly, and this failure offset most of the income fromEmma. These were the last of Austen's novels to be published during her lifetime. While Murray preparedEmmafor publication, Austen beganThe Elliots, later published asPersuasion. She completed her first draft in July 1816. In addition, shortly after the publication ofEmma, Henry Austen repurchased the copyright forSusanfrom Crosby. Austen was forced to postpone publishing either of these completed novels by family financial troubles. Henry Austen's bank failed in March 1816, depriving him of all of his assets, leaving him deeply in debt and costing Edward, James, and Frank Austen large sums. Henry and Frank could no longer afford the contributions they had made to support their mother and sisters. Illness and death Austen was feeling unwell by early 1816, but ignored the warning signs. By the middle of that year, her decline was unmistakable, and she began a slow, irregular",
"a slow, irregular deterioration.The majority of biographers rely onZachary Cope's 1964retrospective diagnosisand list her cause of death asAddison's disease, although her final illness has also been described as resulting fromHodgkin's lymphoma.When her uncle died and left his entire fortune to his wife, effectively disinheriting his relatives, she suffered a relapse, writing: \"I am ashamed to say that the shock of my Uncle's Will brought on a relapse ... but a weak Body must excuse weak Nerves.\" Austen continued to work in spite of her illness. Dissatisfied with the ending ofThe Elliots, she rewrote the final two chapters, which she finished on 6 August 1816.In January 1817, Austen beganThe Brothers(titledSanditonwhen published in 1925), completing twelve chapters before stopping work in mid-March 1817, probably due to illness.Todd describesSanditon's heroine, Diana Parker, as an \"energetic invalid\". In the novel Austen mockedhypochondriacs, and although she describes the heroine as \"bilious\", five days",
"five days after abandoning the novel she wrote of herself that she was turning \"every wrong colour\" and living \"chiefly on the sofa\".She put down her pen on 18 March 1817, making a note of it. Austen made light of her condition, describing it as \"bile\" andrheumatism. As her illness progressed, she experienced difficulty walking and lacked energy; by mid-April she was confined to bed. In May, Cassandra and Henry brought her toWinchesterfor treatment, by which time she suffered agonising pain and welcomed death.Austen died in Winchester on 18 July 1817 at the age of 41. Henry, through his clerical connections, arranged for his sister to be buried in the north aisle of thenaveofWinchester Cathedral. The epitaph composed by her brother James praises Austen's personal qualities, expresses hope for her salvation, and mentions the \"extraordinary endowments of her mind\", but does not explicitly mention her achievements as a writer. Posthumous publication In the months after Austen's death in July 1817, Cassandra,",
"1817, Cassandra, Henry Austen and Murray arranged for the publication ofPersuasionandNorthanger Abbeyas a set.Henry Austen contributed aBiographical Notedated December 1817, which for the first time identified his sister as the author of the novels. Tomalin describes it as \"a loving and polished eulogy\".Sales were good for a year—only 321 copies remained unsold at the end of 1818. Although Austen's six novels were out of print in England in the 1820s, they were still being read through copies housed in private libraries and circulating libraries. Austen had early admirers. The first piece of fiction using her as a character (what might now be calledreal person fiction) appeared in 1823 in a letter to the editor inThe Lady's Magazine.It refers to Austen's genius and suggests that aspiring authors were envious of her powers. In 1832,Richard Bentleypurchased the remaining copyrights to all of her novels, and over the following winter published five illustrated volumes as part of hisStandard Novelsseries. In",
"Novelsseries. In October 1833, Bentley released the first collected edition of her works. Since then, Austen's novels have been continuously in print. Genre and style Austen's works implicitly critique thesentimental novelsof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism.The earliest English novelists,Richardson,Henry Fielding, andTobias Smollett, were followed by the school of sentimentalists andromanticssuch asWalter Scott,Horace Walpole,Clara Reeve,Ann Radcliffe, andOliver Goldsmith, whose style and genre Austen repudiated, returning the novel on a \"slender thread\" to the tradition of Richardson and Fielding for a \"realistic study of manners\".In the mid-20th century the literary criticsF. R. LeavisandIan Wattplaced her in the tradition of Richardson and Fielding; both believe that she used their tradition of \"irony, realism and satire to form an author superior to both\". Walter Scott noted Austen's \"resistance to the trashysensationalismof much of",
"much of modern fiction—'the ephemeral productions which supply the regular demand of watering places andcirculating libraries'\".Yet her relationship with these genres is complex, as evidenced byNorthanger AbbeyandEmma.Similar toWilliam Wordsworth, who excoriated the modern frantic novel in the \"Preface\" to hisLyrical Ballads(1800), Austen distances herself from escapist novels; the discipline and innovation she demonstrates is similar to his, and she shows \"that rhetorically less is artistically more.\"She eschewed popular Gothic fiction, stories of terror in which a heroine typically was stranded in a remote location, a castle or abbey (32 novels between 1784 and 1818 contain the word \"abbey\" in their title). Yet inNorthanger Abbeyshe alludes to the trope, with the heroine, Catherine, anticipating a move to a remote locale. Rather than full-scale rejection or parody, Austen transforms the genre, juxtaposing reality, with descriptions of elegant rooms and modern comforts, against the heroine's \"novel-fueled\"",
"\"novel-fueled\" desires.Nor does she completely denigrate Gothic fiction: instead she transforms settings and situations, such that the heroine is still imprisoned, yet her imprisonment is mundane and real—regulated manners and the strict rules of the ballroom.InSense and SensibilityAusten presents characters who are more complex than in staple sentimental fiction, according to the critic Tom Keymer, who notes that although it is a parody of popular sentimental fiction, \"Mariannein her sentimental histrionics responds to the calculating world ... with a quite justifiable scream of female distress.\" The hair was curled, and the maid sent away, and Emma sat down to think and be miserable. It was a wretched business, indeed! Such an overthrow of everything she had been wishing for! Such a development of every thing most unwelcome! — example offree indirect speech, Jane Austen,Emma Richardson'sPamela, the prototype for the sentimental novel, is adidacticlove story with a happy ending, written at a time women were",
"a time women were beginning to have the right to choose husbands and yet were restricted by social conventions.Austen attempted Richardson's epistolary style, but found the flexibility of narrative more conducive to her realism, a realism in which each conversation and gesture carries a weight of significance. The narrative style utilisesfree indirect speech—she was the first English novelist to do so extensively—through which she had the ability to present a character's thoughts directly to the reader and yet still retain narrative control. The style allows an author to vary discourse between the narrator's voice and values and those of the characters. Austen had a natural ear for speech and dialogue, according to the scholarMary Lascelles: \"Few novelists can be more scrupulous than Jane Austen as to the phrasing and thoughts of their characters.\"Techniques such as fragmentary speech suggest a character's traits and their tone; \"syntax and phrasing rather than vocabulary\" is utilised to indicate social",
"to indicate social variants.Dialogue reveals a character's mood—frustration, anger, happiness—each treated differently and often through varying patterns of sentence structures. WhenElizabeth BennetrejectsDarcy, her stilted speech and the convoluted sentence structure reveals that he has wounded her: From the very beginning, from the first moment I may almost say, of my acquaintance with you, your manners impressing me with the fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit, and your selfish disdain of the feelings of others, were such as to form that the groundwork of disapprobation, on which succeeding events have built so immovable a dislike. And I had not known you a month before I felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry. Austen's plots highlight women's traditional dependence on marriage to secure social standing and economic security.As an art form, the 18th-century novel lacked the seriousness of its equivalents from the 19th century, when novels were",
"when novels were treated as \"the natural vehicle for discussion and ventilation of what mattered in life\".Rather than delving too deeply into the psyche of her characters, Austen enjoys them and imbues them with humour, according to critic John Bayley. He believes that the well-spring of her wit and irony is her own attitude that comedy \"is the saving grace of life\".Part of Austen's fame rests on the historical and literary significance that she was the first woman to write great comic novels.Samuel Johnson's influence is evident, in that she follows his advice to write \"a representation of life as may excite mirth\". Her humour comes from her modesty and lack of superiority, allowing her most successful characters, such as Elizabeth Bennet, to transcend the trivialities of life, which the more foolish characters are overly absorbed in.Austen used comedy to explore the individualism of women's lives and gender relations, and she appears to have used it to find the goodness in life, often fusing it with",
"fusing it with \"ethical sensibility\", creating artistic tension. Critic Robert Polhemus writes, \"To appreciate the drama and achievement of Austen, we need to realize how deep was her passion for both reverence and ridicule ... and her comic imagination reveals both the harmonies and the telling contradictions of her mind and vision as she tries to reconcile her satirical bias with her sense of the good.\" Reception Contemporaneous responses As Austen's works were published anonymously, they brought her little personal renown. They were fashionable among opinion-makers, but were rarely reviewed.Most of the reviews were short and on balance favourable, although superficial and cautious,most often focused on the moral lessons of the novels. Walter Scott, a leading novelist of the day, anonymously wrote a review ofEmmain 1815, using it to defend the then-disreputable genre of the novel and praising Austen's realism, \"the art of copying from nature as she really exists in the common walks of life, and presenting",
"and presenting to the reader, instead of the splendid scenes from an imaginary world, a correct and striking representation of that which is daily taking place around him\".The other important early review was attributed toRichard Whatelyin 1821. However, Whately denied having authored the review, which drew favourable comparisons between Austen and such acknowledged greats asHomerandShakespeare, and praised the dramatic qualities of her narrative. Scott and Whately set the tone for almost all subsequent 19th-century Austen criticism. 19th century Because Austen's novels did not conform toRomanticandVictorianexpectations that \"powerful emotion authenticated by an egregious display of sound and colour in the writing\",some 19th-century critics preferred the works ofCharles DickensandGeorge Eliot.Notwithstanding Walter Scott's positivity, Austen's work did not win over those who preferred the prevailing aesthetic values of the elite Romantic zeitgeist.Her novels were republished in Britain from the 1830s and",
"from the 1830s and sold steadily.Austen's six books were included in the canon-making Standard Novels series by publisher Richard Bentley, which increased their stature. That series referred to her as \"the founder of a school of novelists\" and called her a genius. The first French critic who paid notice to Austen wasPhilarète Chaslesin an 1842 essay, dismissing her in two sentences as a boring, imitative writer with no substance.Austen was not widely appreciated in France until 1878,when the French critic Léon Boucher published the essayLe Roman Classique en Angleterre, in which he called Austen a \"genius\", the first French author to do so.The first accurate translation of Austen into French occurred in 1899 whenFélix FénéontranslatedNorthanger AbbeyasCatherine Morland. In Britain and North America, Austen gradually grew in the estimation of both the public and the literati. In the United States, Austen was being recommended as reading in schools as early as 1838, according to Professor Devoney Looser.The",
"Devoney Looser.The philosopher and literary criticGeorge Henry Lewespublished a series of enthusiastic articles in the 1840s and 1850s.Later in the century, the novelistHenry Jamesreferred to Austen several times with approval, and on one occasion ranked her with Shakespeare,Cervantes, and Henry Fielding as amongst \"the fine painters of life\". The publication of James Edward Austen-Leigh'sA Memoir of Jane Austenin 1869 introduced Austen's life story to a wider public as \"dear aunt Jane\", the respectable maiden aunt. Publication of theMemoirspurred another reissue of Austen's novels. Editions were released in 1883 and fancy illustrated editions and collectors' sets quickly followed.The author and criticLeslie Stephendescribed the popular mania that started to develop for Austen in the 1880s as \"Austenolatry\". Around the start of the 20th century, an intellectual clique ofJaneitesreacted against the popularisation of Austen, distinguishing their deeper appreciation from the vulgar enthusiasm of the masses. In",
"of the masses. In response, Henry James decried \"a beguiled infatuation\" with Austen, a rising tide of public interest that exceeded Austen's \"intrinsic merit and interest\".The American literary criticA. Walton Litznoted that the \"anti-Janites\" in the 19th and 20th centuries comprised a formidable literary squad ofMark Twain, Henry James,Charlotte Brontë,D. H. Lawrence, andKingsley Amis, but in \"every case the adverse judgement merely reveals the special limitations or eccentricities of the critic, leaving Jane Austen relatively untouched\". Modern Austen's works have attracted legions of scholars. The first dissertation on Austen was published in 1883, by George Pellew, a student at Harvard University.Another early academic analysis came from a 1911 essay by the Oxford Shakespearean scholarA. C. Bradley,who grouped Austen's novels into \"early\" and \"late\" works, a distinction still used by scholars today.The first academic book devoted to Austen in France wasJane Austenby Paul and Kate Rague (1914), who set",
"(1914), who set out to explain why French critics and readers should take Austen seriously.The same year, Léonie Villard publishedJane Austen, Sa Vie et Ses Oeuvres, originally her PhD thesis, the first serious academic study of Austen in France.In 1923, R.W. Chapman published the first scholarly edition of Austen's collected works, which was also the first scholarly edition of any English novelist. The Chapman text has remained the basis for all subsequent published editions of Austen's works. With the publication in 1939 of Mary Lascelles'Jane Austen and Her Art, the academic study of Austen took hold.Lascelles analysed the books Austen read and their influence on her work, and closely examined Austen's style and \"narrative art\". Concern arose that academics were obscuring the appreciation of Austen with increasingly esoteric theories, a debate that has continued since. The period since the Second World War has seen a diversity of critical approaches to Austen, includingfeminist theory, and perhaps most",
"and perhaps most controversially,postcolonial theory.The divide has widened between the popular appreciation of Austen, particularly by modernJaneites, and academic judgements.In 1994 the literary criticHarold Bloomplaced Austen among thegreatest Western writers of all time. In the People's Republic of China after 1949, writings of Austen were regarded as too frivolous,and thus during the ChineseCultural Revolutionof 1966–69, Austen was banned as a \"British bourgeois imperialist\".In the late 1970s, when Austen's works were re-published in China, her popularity with readers confounded the authorities who had trouble understanding that people generally read books for enjoyment, not political edification. In a typical modern debate, the conservative American professor Gene Koppel, to the indignation of his liberal literature students, mentioned that Austen and her family were \"Tories of the deepest dye\", i.e. Conservatives in opposition to the liberal Whigs. Although several feminist authors such as Claudia",
"such as Claudia Johnson and Mollie Sandock claimed Austen for their own cause, Koppel argued that different people react to a work of literature in different subjective ways, as explained by the philosopherHans-Georg Gadamer. Thus competing interpretations of Austen's work can be equally valid, provided they are grounded in textual and historical analysis: it is equally possible to see Austen as a feminist critiquingRegency-erasociety and as a conservative upholding its values. Adaptations Austen's novels have resulted in sequels, prequels and adaptations of almost every type, fromsoft-core pornographyto fantasy. From the 19th century, her family members published conclusions to her incomplete novels, and by 2000 there were over 100 printed adaptations.The first dramatic adaptation of Austen was published in 1895, Rosina Filippi'sDuologues and Scenes from the Novels of Jane Austen: Arranged and Adapted for Drawing-Room Performance, and Filippi was also responsible for the first professional stage",
"professional stage adaptation,The Bennets(1901).The first film adaptation was the1940 MGM production ofPride and PrejudicestarringLaurence OlivierandGreer Garson.BBC television dramatisations released in the 1970s and 1980s attempted to adhere meticulously to Austen's plots, characterisations and settings.The British critic Robert Irvine noted that in American film adaptations of Austen's novels, starting with the 1940 version ofPride and Prejudice, class is subtly downplayed, and the society of Regency England depicted by Austen that is grounded in a hierarchy based upon the ownership of land and the antiquity of the family name is one that Americans cannot embrace in its entirety. From 1995, many Austen adaptations appeared, withAng Lee'sfilm ofSense and Sensibility, for which screenwriter and starEmma Thompsonwon anAcademy Award, and the BBC's immensely popular TV mini-seriesPride and Prejudice, starringJennifer EhleandColin Firth.A 2005 British production ofPride and Prejudice, directed byJoe Wrightand",
"byJoe Wrightand starringKeira KnightleyandMatthew Macfadyen,was followed in 2007 byITV'sMansfield Park,Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion,and in 2016 byLove & FriendshipstarringKate Beckinsaleas Lady Susan, a film version ofLady Susan, that borrowed the title of Austen'sLove and Freindship. Honours In 2013, Austen's works featured on aseries of UK postage stampsissued by theRoyal Mailto mark the bicentenary of the publication ofPride and Prejudice.Austen is on the£10 noteissued by the Bank of England which was introduced in 2017, replacingCharles Darwin.In July 2017 a statue of Austen was erected in Basingstoke, Hampshire on the 200th anniversary of her death. List of works Juvenilia—Volume the First(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Second(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Third(1787–1793) Family trees See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links Museums Fan sites and societies"
] |
The actor known for playing Kenny "Shammy" Shamberg in Magnum P.I. was born how days before the Apollo 11 moon landing? | 844 days. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnum_P.I._(2018_TV_series) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Thornton | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11#Mission | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnum_P.I._(2018_TV_series)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Thornton', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11#Mission'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnum_P.I._(2018_TV_series",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Thornton",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11#Mission"
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"Christopher Thornton Christopher Thornton(born March 29, 1967) is an American actor. He is known for his role as Kenny \"Shammy\" Shamberg inMagnum P.I., and has had numerous other film and television roles from 1990 to the present. Early life and education Thornton was born inNew Orleans, Louisiana. His father was an amateur opera singer who appeared in local theater.Christopher appeared in several plays while majoring in theater at theUniversity of New Orleans, but quit college after two years to relocate to Los Angeles and train at theStella Adler Conservatory. Career Thornton made his first feature film appearance in the 1990 horror sequelWatchers II, playing a young man who gets his eyes gouged out by the mutant antagonist.Only two years later, at age 25, Thornton suffered a tragic accident while rock climbing which fractured two vertebrae and left him paralyzed from the waist down. He returned to mostly theater roles for the remainder of the 1990s. In 2000, he was cast to play Hamlet at the Lillian Theater in Los Angeles. Believed to be the first actor to ever play the iconic Shakespeare character in a wheelchair, Thornton's performance won rave reviews. Thornton has gone on to appear in numerous film and television roles. He has recurred in TV series such asAny Day Now,Rules of EngagementandVice Principals, and had guest roles inCurb Your Enthusiasm,Alias,Brothers & Sisters,My Name Is Earl,Grey's AnatomyandWill & Grace. Since 2018, he has played recurring character Kenny \"Shammy\" Shamberg, a marine veteran paralyzed during a tour of duty in Iraq, on theCBSreboot ofMagnum P.I. Thornton was both writer and lead actor for the 2010 filmSympathy for Delicious, playing disc jockey \"Delicious\" Dean O'Dwyer. Filmography Film Television External links References",
"Apollo 11 Apollo 11was aspaceflightconducted by the United States from July 16 to July 24, 1969. It marked the first time in history that humanslandedon theMoon. CommanderNeil Armstrongand Lunar Module PilotBuzz Aldrinlanded theApollo Lunar ModuleEagleon July 20, 1969, at 20:17UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had namedTranquility Baseupon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilotMichael Collinsflew theCommand ModuleColumbiainlunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes, before lifting off to rejoinColumbia. Apollo 11 was launched by aSaturn Vrocket fromKennedy Space CenteronMerritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission ofNASA'sApollo program. The Apollospacecrafthad three parts: acommand module (CM)with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; aservice module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and alunar module (LM)that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. After beingsent to the Moonby the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved intoEagleand landed in theSea of Tranquilityon July 20. The astronauts usedEagle's ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisonedEaglebefore they performed the maneuvers that propelledColumbiaout of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth.They returned to Earth andsplashed downin the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space. Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast onlive TVto a worldwide audience. He described the event as \"one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\"Apollo 11 effectively proved U.S. victory in theSpace Raceto demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy, \"before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.\" Background In the late1950sand early1960s, the United States was engaged in theCold War, a geopolitical rivalry with theSoviet Union.On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launchedSputnik 1, the firstartificial satellite. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority.This precipitated theSputnik crisis, and triggered theSpace Raceto prove which superpower would achieve superior spaceflight capability.PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerresponded to the Sputnik challenge by creating theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA), and initiatingProject Mercury,which aimed to launch a man intoEarth orbit.But on April 12, 1961, SovietcosmonautYuri Gagarinbecame the first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth.Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961,Alan Shepardbecame the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean, he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor,John F. Kennedy. Since theSoviet Unionhad higher lift capacitylaunch vehicles, Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA, a challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpose. On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed theUnited States Congresson \"Urgent National Needs\" and declared: I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. We propose to accelerate the development of the appropriate lunar space craft. We propose to develop alternate liquid and solid fuel boosters, much larger than any now being developed, until certain which is superior. We propose additional funds for other engine development and for unmanned explorations—explorations which are particularly important for one purpose which this nation will never overlook: the survival of the man who first makes this daring flight. But in a very real sense, it will not be one man going to the Moon—if we make this judgment affirmatively, it will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to put him there. On September 12, 1962, Kennedydelivered another speechbefore a crowd of about 40,000 people in theRice University football stadiuminHouston, Texas.A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows: There is no strife, no prejudice, no national conflict in outer space as yet. Its hazards are hostile to us all. Its conquest deserves the best of all mankind, and its opportunity for peaceful cooperation may never come again. But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago,fly the Atlantic? Why doesRice play Texas? We choose to go to the Moon! We choose to go to the Moon ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win, and the others, too. In spite of that, the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a \"moondoggle\" byNorbert Wiener, a mathematician at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology.The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name:Project Apollo.When Kennedy met withNikita Khrushchev, thePremier of the Soviet Unionin June 1961, he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project, but Khrushchev did not take up the offer.Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to theUnited Nations General Assemblyon September 20, 1963.The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death. An early and crucial decision was choosinglunar orbit rendezvousover bothdirect ascentandEarth orbit rendezvous. Aspace rendezvousis anorbital maneuverin which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA headJames Webbannounced that lunar orbit rendezvous would be usedand that theApollo spacecraftwould have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.This design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a singleSaturn Vrocket that was then under development. Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed byProject Gemini.The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances insemiconductor device, includingmetal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors(MOSFETs) in theInterplanetary Monitoring Platform(IMP)andsiliconintegrated circuit(IC) chips in theApollo Guidance Computer(AGC). Project Apollo was abruptly halted by theApollo 1fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronautsGus Grissom,Ed White, andRoger B. Chaffeedied, and the subsequent investigation.In October 1968,Apollo 7evaluated the command module in Earth orbit,and in DecemberApollo 8tested it in lunar orbit.In March 1969,Apollo 9put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit,and in MayApollo 10conducted a \"dress rehearsal\" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon. The Soviet Union appeared to be winning the Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the USGemini programand Soviet failure to develop theN1 launcher, which would have been comparable to the Saturn V.The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means ofuncrewed probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launchedLuna 15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash inMare Crisiumabout two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. TheNuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratoriesradio telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11. Personnel Prime crew The initial crew assignment of CommanderNeil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP)Jim Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP)Buzz Aldrinon the backup crew for Apollo 9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967.Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew ofGemini 12. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM, Apollo 8 and Apollo 9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo 8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11. There would be one change.Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo 8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime,Fred Haisefilled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8.Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience,the first being Apollo 10.The next wasSTS-26in 1988. Deke Slaytongave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventuallyApollo 13). The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that ofApollo 12. Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal relationship.Aldrin and Collins described the crew as \"amiable strangers\".Armstrong did not agree with the assessment, and said \"... all the crews I was on worked very well together.\" Backup crew The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander,William Andersas CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo 8.In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with theNational Aeronautics and Space Councileffective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time.Ken Mattinglywas moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable. By the normal crew rotation in place during Apollo, Lovell, Mattingly, and Haise were scheduled to fly onApollo 14, but the three of them were bumped toApollo 13: there was a crew issue for Apollo 13 as none of them exceptEdgar Mitchellflew in space again.George Muellerrejected the crew and this was the first time an Apollo crew was rejected. To giveAlan Shepardmore training time, Lovell's crew were bumped to Apollo 13. Mattingly would later be replaced byJack Swigertas CMP on Apollo 13. Support crew During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured the prime and backup crews were apprised of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them.For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly,Ronald EvansandBill Pogue. Capsule communicators Thecapsule communicator(CAPCOM) was an astronaut at theMission Control CenterinHouston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew.For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were:Charles Duke, Ronald Evans,Bruce McCandless II, James Lovell, William Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise,Don L. Lind,Owen K. GarriottandHarrison Schmitt. Flight directors Theflight directorsfor this mission were: Other key personnel Other key personnel who played important roles in the Apollo 11 mission include the following. Preparations Insignia The Apollo 11mission emblemwas designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for \"peaceful lunar landing by the United States\". At Lovell's suggestion, he chose thebald eagle, thenational birdof the United States, as the symbol. Tom Wilson, a simulator instructor, suggested anolive branchin its beak to represent their peaceful mission. Collins added a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction; the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. Aldrin, Armstrong and Collins decided the Eagle and the Moon would be in their natural colors, and decided on a blue and gold border. Armstrong was concerned that \"eleven\" would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with \"Apollo 11\",and they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would \"be representative ofeveryonewho had worked toward a lunar landing\". An illustrator at theManned Spacecraft Center(MSC) did the artwork, which was then sent off to NASA officials for approval.The design was rejected.Bob Gilruth, the director of the MSC felt the talons of the eagle looked \"too warlike\".After some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the talons.When theEisenhower dollar coinwas released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side.The design was also used for the smallerSusan B. Anthony dollarunveiled in 1979. Call signs After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraftCharlie BrownandSnoopy, assistant manager for public affairsJulian Scheerwrote toGeorge Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the MSC, to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. The nameSnowconewas used for the CM andHaystackwas used for the LM in both internal and external communications during early mission planning. The LM was namedEagleafter the motif which was featured prominently on the mission insignia. At Scheer's suggestion, the CM was namedColumbiaafterColumbiad, the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from Florida) inJules Verne's 1865 novelFrom the Earth to the Moon. It also referred toColumbia, a historical name of the United States.In Collins' 1976 book, he saidColumbiawas in reference toChristopher Columbus. Mementos The astronauts hadpersonal preference kits(PPKs), small bags containing personal items of significance they wanted to take with them on the mission.Five 0.5-pound (0.23 kg) PPKs were carried on Apollo 11: three (one for each astronaut) were stowed onColumbiabefore launch, and two onEagle. Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood from theWright brothers' 1903Wright Flyer's left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing,along with a diamond-studdedastronaut pinoriginally given to Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards, but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took it with him on Apollo 11. Site selection NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years' worth of studies based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of theLunar Orbiter programand information about surface conditions provided by theSurveyor program.The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required.The landing site had to be close to the lunar equator to minimize the amount of propellant required, clear of obstacles to minimize maneuvering, and flat to simplify the task of the landing radar. Scientific value was not a consideration. Areas that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be free of craters had to be relaxed, as no such site was found.Five sites were considered: Sites 1 and 2 were in the Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis); Site 3 was in the Central Bay (Sinus Medii); and Sites 4 and 5 were in the Ocean of Storms (Oceanus Procellarum).The final site selection was based on seven criteria: The requirement for the Sun angle was particularly restrictive, limiting the launch date to one day per month.A landing just after dawn was chosen to limit the temperature extremes the astronauts would experience.The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site 2, with Sites 3 and 5 as backups in the event of the launch being delayed. In May 1969, Apollo 10's lunar module flew to within 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) of Site 2, and reported it was acceptable. First-step decision During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced, the first question was, \"Which one of you gentlemen will be the first man to step onto the lunar surface?\"Slayton told the reporter it had not been decided, and Armstrong added that it was \"not based on individual desire\". One of the first versions of the egress checklist had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft before the commander, which matched what had been done on Gemini missions,where the commander had never performed the spacewalk.Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin would be the first man to walk on the Moon, and Associate AdministratorGeorge Muellertold reporters he would be first as well. Aldrin heard that Armstrong would be the first because Armstrong was a civilian, which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots he should be first, but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign. Attempting to stem interdepartmental conflict, Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong would be first since he was the commander. The decision was announced in a press conference on April 14, 1969. For decades, Aldrin believed the final decision was largely driven by the lunar module's hatch location. Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the spacecraft was so small, maneuvering to exit the spacecraft was difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision until late spring.Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him leave the spacecraft first, if he agreed. Armstrong said, \"Yes, that's the way to do it.\" The media accused Armstrong of exercising his commander's prerogative to exit the spacecraft first.Chris Kraftrevealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting occurred between Gilruth, Slayton, Low, and himself to make sure Aldrin would not be the first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on the Moon should be likeCharles Lindbergh, a calm and quiet person. They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was the first to egress from the spacecraft. Pre-launch The ascent stage ofLM-5Eaglearrived at theKennedy Space Centeron January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, andCSM-107Columbiaon January 23.There were several differences betweenEagleand Apollo 10's LM-4Snoopy;Eaglehad a VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as theEarly Apollo Scientific Experiments Package(EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch.The CSM was mated on January 29, and moved from theOperations and Checkout Buildingto theVehicle Assembly Buildingon April 14. TheS-IVBthird stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived on January 18, followed by theS-IIsecond stage on February 6,S-ICfirst stage on February 20, and theSaturn V Instrument Uniton February 27. At 12:30 on May 20, the 5,443-tonne (5,357-long-ton; 6,000-short-ton) assembly departed the Vehicle Assembly Building atop thecrawler-transporter, bound for Launch Pad 39A, part ofLaunch Complex 39, while Apollo 10 was still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 26, and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried themobile service structureback to its parking area.In the early hours of the morning, the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled withliquid hydrogen.Fueling was completed by three hours before launch.Launch operations were partly automated, with 43 programs written in theATOLL programming language. Slayton roused the crew shortly after 04:00, and they showered, shaved, and had the traditional pre-flight breakfast of steak and eggs with Slayton and the backup crew. They then donned their space suits and began breathing pure oxygen. At 06:30, they headed out to Launch Complex 39.Haise enteredColumbiaabout three hours and ten minutes before launch time. Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left-hand couch at 06:54. Five minutes later, Collins joined him, taking up his position on the right-hand couch. Finally, Aldrin entered, taking the center couch.Haise left around two hours and ten minutes before launch.The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time.Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in thefiring room. Mission Launch and flight to lunar orbit An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries included theChief of Staff of the United States Army,GeneralWilliam Westmoreland, fourcabinet members, 19state governors, 40mayors, 60 ambassadors and 200congressmen. Vice PresidentSpiro Agnewviewed the launch with former presidentLyndon B. Johnsonand his wifeLady Bird Johnson.Around 3,500 media representatives were present.About two-thirds were from the United States; the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts.PresidentRichard Nixonviewed the launch from his office in theWhite Housewith his NASA liaison officer, Apollo astronautFrank Borman. Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00UTC(9:32:00EDT).At 13.2 seconds into the flight, the launch vehicle began torollinto itsflight azimuthof 72.058°. Full shutdown of the first-stage engines occurred about 2 minutes and 42 seconds into the mission, followed by separation of the S-IC and ignition of the S-II engines. The second stage engines then cut off and separated at about 9 minutes and 8 seconds, allowing the first ignition of the S-IVB engine a few seconds later. Apollo 11 entered anear-circular Earth orbitat an altitude of 100.4 nautical miles (185.9 km) by 98.9 nautical miles (183.2 km), twelve minutes into its flight. After one and a half orbits, a second ignition of the S-IVB engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with thetrans-lunar injection(TLI) burn at 16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, with Collins in the left seat and at the controls, thetransposition, docking, and extractionmaneuver was performed. This involved separatingColumbiafrom the spent S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking withEaglestill attached to the stage. After the LM was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon.This was done to avoid the third stage colliding with the spacecraft, the Earth, or the Moon. Aslingshot effectfrom passing around the Moon threw it into anorbit around the Sun. On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enterlunar orbit.In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of the craterSabine D. The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automatedRanger 8andSurveyor 5landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft, and because it was unlikely to present major landing or EVA challenges.It lay about 25 kilometers (16 mi) southeast of the Surveyor 5 landing site, and 68 kilometers (42 mi) southwest of Ranger 8's crash site. Lunar descent At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong enteredEagle, and began the final preparations for lunar descent.At 17:44:00Eagleseparated fromColumbia.Collins, alone aboardColumbia, inspectedEagleas it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the landing gear was correctly deployed.Armstrong exclaimed: \"TheEaglehas wings!\" As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found themselves passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were \"long\"; they would land miles west of their target point.Eaglewas traveling too fast. The problem could have beenmascons—concentrations of high mass in a region or regions of the Moon's crust that contains agravitational anomaly, potentially alteringEagle'strajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressure in the docking tunnel, or a result ofEagle's pirouette maneuver. Five minutes into the descent burn, and 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above the surface of the Moon, theLM guidance computer(LGC) distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected 1201 and 1202 program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center, computer engineerJack GarmantoldGuidance OfficerSteve Balesit was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated \"executive overflows\", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all its tasks in real-time and had to postpone some of them.Margaret Hamilton, the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at theMITCharles Stark Draper Laboratorylater recalled: To blame the computer for the Apollo 11 problems is like blaming the person who spots a fire and calls the fire department. Actually, the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software. The software's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re-establish the more important ones. The computer, rather than almost forcing an abort, prevented an abort. If the computer hadn't recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful Moon landing it was. During the mission, the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position, causing the computer to process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time.Software engineerDon Eylesconcluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was due to a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first uncrewed LM inApollo 5. Having the rendezvous radar on (so it was warmed up in case of an emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer, but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the computer as dithering back and forth between two positions, depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spuriouscycle stealing, as the rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter, caused the computer alarms. Landing When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a 300-foot-diameter (91 m) crater (later determined to beWest crater), so he took semi-automatic control.Armstrong considered landing short of the boulder field so they could collect geological samples from it, but could not since their horizontal velocity was too high. Throughout the descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy pilotingEagle. Now 107 feet (33 m) above the surface, Armstrong knew their propellant supply was dwindling and was determined to land at the first possible landing site. Armstrong found a clear patch of ground and maneuvered the spacecraft towards it. As he got closer, now 250 feet (76 m) above the surface, he discovered his new landing site had a crater in it. He cleared the crater and found another patch of level ground. They were now 100 feet (30 m) from the surface, with only 90 seconds of propellant remaining. Lunar dust kicked up by the LM's engine began to impair his ability to determine the spacecraft's motion. Some large rocks jutted out of the dust cloud, and Armstrong focused on them during his descent so he could determine the spacecraft's speed. A light informed Aldrin that at least one of the 67-inch (170 cm) probes hanging fromEagle'sfootpads had touched the surface a few moments before the landing and he said: \"Contact light!\" Armstrong was supposed to immediately shut the engine down, as the engineers suspected the pressure caused by the engine's own exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface could make it explode, but he forgot. Three seconds later,Eaglelanded and Armstrong shut the engine down.Aldrin immediately said \"Okay, engine stop. ACA—out ofdetent.\" Armstrong acknowledged: \"Out of detent. Auto.\" Aldrin continued: \"Mode control—both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm—off. 413 is in.\" ACA was theAttitude Control Assembly—the LM's control stick. Output went to the LGC to command thereaction control system(RCS) jets to fire. \"Out of Detent\" meant the stick had moved away from its centered position; it was spring-centered like the turn indicator in a car. Address 413 of theAbort Guidance System(AGS) contained the variable that indicated the LM had landed. Eaglelanded at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with 216 pounds (98 kg) of usable fuel remaining. Information available to the crew and mission controllers during the landing showed the LM had enough fuel for another 25 seconds of powered flight before an abort without touchdown would have become unsafe,but post-mission analysis showed that the real figure was probably closer to 50 seconds.Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than most subsequent missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of the propellantsloshingmore than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this. Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post-landing checklist with \"Engine arm is off\", before responding to the CAPCOM, Charles Duke, with the words, \"Houston,Tranquility Basehere. TheEaglehas landed.\" Armstrong's unrehearsed change of call sign from \"Eagle\" to \"Tranquility Base\" emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful.Duke expressed the relief at Mission Control: \"Roger, Twan—Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\" Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth: This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way. He then tookcommunionprivately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheistMadalyn Murray O'Hair(who had objected to theApollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. For this reason, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at theWebsterPresbyterian Church, and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, Dean Woodruff. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20.The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period, but they chose to begin preparations for the EVA early, thinking they would be unable to sleep. Lunar surface operations Preparations forNeil ArmstrongandBuzz Aldrinto walk on the Moon began at 23:43 UTC.These took longer than expected; three and a half hours instead of two.During training on Earth, everything required had been neatly laid out in advance, but on the Moon the cabin contained a large number of other items as well, such as checklists, food packets, and tools.Six hours and thirty-nine minutes after landing, Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, andEaglewas depressurized. Eagle's hatch was opened at 02:39:33.Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with hisportable life support system(PLSS).Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.At 02:51 Armstrong began his descent to the lunar surface. The remote control unit on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage assembly (MESA) folded againstEagle'sside and activate the TV camera. Apollo 11 usedslow-scan television(TV) incompatible with broadcast TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor (thus, a broadcast of a broadcast), significantly reducing the quality of the picture.The signal was received atGoldstonein the United States, but with better fidelity byHoneysuckle Creek Tracking StationnearCanberrain Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitiveParkes radio telescopein Australia.Despite some technical and weather difficulties, black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth.Copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, butrecordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surfacewere likely destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA. After describing the surface dust as \"very fine-grained\" and \"almost like a powder\",at 02:56:15,six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong stepped offEagle'slanding pad and declared: \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\" Armstrong intended to say \"That's one small step for a man\", but the word \"a\" is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said \"for a man\", and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the \"a\" in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words \"for a\" together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory. A more recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the \"a\" may have been spoken but obscured by static. Other analysis points to the claims of static and slurring as \"face-saving fabrication\", and that Armstrong himself later admitted to misspeaking the line. About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM.Twelve minutes after the sample was collected,he removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod.The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. Still photography was accomplished with aHasselbladcamera that could be operated hand-held or mounted on Armstrong'sApollo space suit.Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface. He described the view with the simple phrase: \"Magnificent desolation.\" Armstrong said moving in thelunar gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was \"even perhaps easier than the simulations ... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around.\"Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backward, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight intoEagle'sshadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, but the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust, which soiled the outer part of their suits. The astronauts planted theLunar Flag Assemblycontaining aflag of the United Stateson the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera. Aldrin remembered, \"Of all the jobs I had to do on the Moon the one I wanted to go the smoothest was the flag raising.\"But the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and could only insert the pole about 2 inches (5 cm) into the hard lunar surface. Aldrin was afraid it might topple in front of TV viewers, but gave \"a crisp West Point salute\".Before Aldrin could take a photo of Armstrong with the flag, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone-radio transmission, which Nixon called \"the most historic phone call ever made from the White House.\"Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief. Nixon:Hello, Neil and Buzz. I'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House. And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made from the White House. I just can't tell you how proud we all are of what you have done. For every American, this has to be the proudest day of our lives. And for people all over the world, I am sure that they too join with Americans in recognizing what an immense feat this is. Because of what you have done, the heavens have become a part of man's world. And as you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquility, it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquility to Earth. For one priceless moment in the whole history of man, all the people on this Earth are truly one: one in their pride in what you have done, and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth. Armstrong:Thank you, Mr. President. It's a great honor and privilege for us to be here, representing not only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, and with interest and a curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It's an honor for us to be able to participate here today. Nixon:Thank you very much, and I look forward, all of us look forward, to seeing you on the Hornet on Thursday. They deployed theEASEP, which included aPassive Seismic Experiment Packageused to measuremoonquakesand aretroreflectorarray used for thelunar laser ranging experiment.Then Armstrong walked 196 feet (60 m) from the LM to take photographs at the rim ofLittle West Craterwhile Aldrin collected twocore samples. He used thegeologist's hammerto pound in the tubes—the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11—but was unable to penetrate more than 6 inches (15 cm) deep. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes. Aldrin shoveled 6 kilograms (13 lb) of soil into the box of rocks to pack them in tightly.Two types of rocks were found in the geological samples:basaltandbreccia.Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts:armalcolite,tranquillityite, andpyroxferroite. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. All have subsequently been found on Earth. While on the surface, Armstrong uncovered aplaquemounted on the LM ladder, bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read: Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon July 1969, A. D. We came in peace for all mankind. At the behest of theNixon administrationto add a reference to God, NASA included the vague date as a reason to include A.D., which stands forAnno Domini(\"in the year of our Lord\"). Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong his metabolic rates were high, and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. As metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension.In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon. Lunar ascent Aldrin enteredEaglefirst. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing 21.55 kilograms (47.5 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor (LEC). This proved to be an inefficient tool, and later missions preferred to carry equipment and samples up to the LM by hand.Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his sleeve pocket, and Aldrin tossed the bag down. Armstrong then jumped onto the ladder's third rung, and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LMlife support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, an empty Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. The hatch was closed again at 05:11:13. They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep. Presidential speech writerWilliam Safirehad prepared anIn Event of Moon Disasterannouncement for Nixon to read in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon.The remarks were in a memo from Safire to Nixon'sWhite House Chief of StaffH. R. Haldeman, in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster.According to the plan, Mission Control would \"close down communications\" with the LM, and a clergyman would \"commend their souls to the deepest of the deep\" in a public ritual likened toburial at sea. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion toRupert Brooke's World War I poem \"The Soldier\".The script for the speech does not make reference to Collins; as he remained onboardColumbiain orbit around the Moon, it was expected that he would be able to return the module to Earth in the event of a mission failure. While moving inside the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged thecircuit breakerthat would arm the main engine for liftoff from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. The nonconductive tip of a Durofelt-tip penwas sufficient to activate the switch. After more than21+1⁄2hours on the lunar surface, in addition to the scientific instruments, the astronauts left behind: anApollo 1mission patch in memory of astronautsRoger Chaffee,Gus Grissom, andEdward White, who died when their command module caught fire during a test in January 1967; two memorial medals of Soviet cosmonautsVladimir KomarovandYuri Gagarin, who died in 1967 and 1968 respectively; a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace; and a silicon message disk carrying thegoodwill statementsby presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon along with messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world.The disk also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA's past and then-current top management. After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight. At that time, unknown to them, some hundred kilometers away from them the Soviet probeLuna 15was about to descend and impact. Despite having been known to be orbiting the Moon at the same time, through a ground-breaking precautious goodwill exchange of data, the mission control of Luna 15 unexpectedly hastened its roboticsample-return mission, initiating descent, in an attempt to return before Apollo 11.Just two hours before Apollo 11's launch Luna 15 crashed at 15:50 UTC, with British astronomers monitoring Luna 15 and recording the situation one commented: \"I say, this has really been drama of the highest order\",bringing theSpace Raceto a culmination. Roughly two hours later, at 17:54:00 UTC, the Apollo 11 crew on the surface safely lifted off inEagle'sascent stage to rejoin Collins aboardColumbiain lunar orbit.Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some 25 feet (8 m) from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: \"The ascent stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying theattitude indicator, but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over.\"Subsequent Apollo missions planted their flags farther from the LM. Columbiain lunar orbit During his day flying solo around the Moon, Collins never felt lonely. Although it has been said \"not sinceAdamhas any human known such solitude\",Collins felt very much a part of the mission. In his autobiography he wrote: \"this venture has been structured for three men, and I consider my third to be as necessary as either of the other two\".In the 48 minutes of each orbit when he was out of radio contact with the Earth whileColumbiapassed round the far side of the Moon, the feeling he reported was not fear or loneliness, but rather \"awareness, anticipation, satisfaction, confidence, almost exultation\". One of Collins' first tasks was to identify the lunar module on the ground. To give Collins an idea where to look, Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed about 4 miles (6.4 km) off target. Each time he passed over the suspected lunar landing site, he tried in vain to find the module. On his first orbits on the back side of the Moon, Collins performed maintenance activities such as dumping excess water produced by thefuel cellsand preparing the cabin for Armstrong and Aldrin to return. Just before he reached the dark side on the third orbit, Mission Control informed Collins there was a problem with the temperature of the coolant. If it became too cold, parts ofColumbiamight freeze. Mission Control advised him to assume manual control and implement Environmental Control System Malfunction Procedure 17. Instead, Collins flicked the switch on the system from automatic to manual and back to automatic again, and carried on with normal housekeeping chores, while keeping an eye on the temperature. WhenColumbiacame back around to the near side of the Moon again, he was able to report that the problem had been resolved. For the next couple of orbits, he described his time on the back side of the Moon as \"relaxing\". After Aldrin and Armstrong completed their EVA, Collins slept so he could be rested for the rendezvous. While the flight plan called forEagleto meet up withColumbia, Collins was prepared for a contingency in which he would flyColumbiadown to meetEagle. Return Eaglerendezvoused withColumbiaat 21:24 UTC on July 21, and the two docked at 21:35.Eagle's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit at 23:41.Just before theApollo 12flight, it was noted thatEaglewas still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned thatEagle'sorbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an \"uncertain location\" on the lunar surface.In 2021, however, some calculations show that the lander may still be in orbit. On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented: ... The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery, every piece of which worked flawlessly ... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly. All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears of a number of people ... All you see is the three of us, but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I would like to say, \"Thank you very much.\" Aldrin added: This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more, still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even, than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown ... Personally, in reflecting on the events of the past several days, a verse fromPsalmscomes to mind.\"When I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the Moon and the stars, which Thou hast ordained; What is man that Thou art mindful of him?\" Armstrong concluded: The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the giants of science who have preceded this effort; next with the American people, who have, through their will, indicated their desire; next with four administrations and their Congresses, for implementing that will; and then, with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft, the Saturn, the Columbia, the Eagle, and the littleEMU, the spacesuit and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface. We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you, and to all the other people that are listening and watching tonight, God bless you. Good night from Apollo 11. On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg was later thanked by Armstrong. Splashdown and quarantine Theaircraft carrierUSSHornet, under the command ofCaptainCarl J. Seiberlich,was selected as the primary recovery ship (PRS) for Apollo 11 on June 5, replacing its sister ship, theLPHUSSPrinceton, which had recovered Apollo 10 on May 26.Hornetwas then at her home port ofLong Beach, California.On reachingPearl Harboron July 5,HornetembarkedtheSikorsky SH-3 Sea Kinghelicopters ofHS-4, a unit which specialized in recovery of Apollo spacecraft, specialized divers ofUDTDetachment Apollo, a 35-man NASA recovery team, and about 120 media representatives. To make room, most ofHornet's air wing was left behind in Long Beach. Special recovery equipment was also loaded, including aboilerplatecommand module used for training. On July 12, with Apollo 11 still on the launch pad,Hornetdeparted Pearl Harbor for the recovery area in the central Pacific,in the vicinity of10°36′N172°24′E / 10.600°N 172.400°E /10.600; 172.400.A presidential party consisting of Nixon, Borman, Secretary of StateWilliam P. RogersandNational Security AdvisorHenry Kissingerflew toJohnston AtollonAir Force One, then to thecommand shipUSS ArlingtoninMarine One. After a night on board, they would fly toHornetin Marine One for a few hours of ceremonies. On arrival aboardHornet, the party was greeted by theCommander-in-Chief, Pacific Command (CINCPAC),AdmiralJohn S. McCain Jr., andNASA AdministratorThomas O. Paine, who flew toHornetfromPago Pagoin one ofHornet'scarrier onboard deliveryaircraft. Weather satellites were not yet common, but US Air ForceCaptainHank Brandli had access to top-secretspy satelliteimages. He realized that a storm front was headed for the Apollo recovery area. Poor visibility which could make locating the capsule difficult, and strong upper-level winds which \"would have ripped their parachutes to shreds\" according to Brandli, posed a serious threat to the safety of the mission.Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr., the commander of theFleet Weather Centerat Pearl Harbor, who had the required security clearance. On their recommendation,Rear AdmiralDonald C. Davis, commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces, Pacific, advised NASA to change the recovery area, each man risking his career. A new location was selected 215 nautical miles (398 km) northeast. This altered the flight plan. A different sequence of computer programs was used, one never before attempted. In a conventional entry, trajectory event P64 was followed by P67. For a skip-out re-entry, P65 and P66 were employed to handle the exit and entry parts of the skip. In this case, because they were extending the re-entry but not actually skipping out, P66 was not invoked and instead, P65 led directly to P67. The crew were also warned they would not be in a full-lift (heads-down) attitude when they entered P67.The first program's acceleration subjected the astronauts to 6.5 standard gravities (64 m/s2); the second, to 6.0 standard gravities (59 m/s2). Before dawn on July 24,Hornetlaunched four Sea King helicopters and threeGrumman E-1 Tracers. Two of the E-1s were designated as \"air boss\" while the third acted as a communications relay aircraft. Two of the Sea Kings carried divers and recovery equipment. The third carried photographic equipment, and the fourth carried the decontamination swimmer and the flight surgeon.At 16:44 UTC (05:44 local time)Columbia'sdrogue parachuteswere deployed. This was observed by the helicopters. Seven minutes laterColumbiastruck the water forcefully 2,660 km (1,440 nmi) east ofWake Island, 380 km (210 nmi) south of Johnston Atoll, and 24 km (13 nmi) fromHornet,at13°19′N169°9′W / 13.317°N 169.150°W /13.317; -169.150.82 °F (28 °C) with 6 feet (1.8 m) seas and winds at 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph) from the east were reported under broken clouds at 1,500 feet (460 m) with visibility of 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) at the recovery site.Reconnaissance aircraft flying to the original splashdown location reported the conditions Brandli and Houston had predicted. Duringsplashdown,Columbialanded upside down but was righted within ten minutes by flotation bags activated by the astronauts.A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached asea anchorto prevent it from drifting.More divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and positioned rafts for astronaut extraction. The divers then passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. The possibility of bringing backpathogensfrom the lunar surface was considered remote, but NASA took precautions at the recovery site. The astronauts were rubbed down with asodium hypochloritesolution andColumbiawiped withPovidone-iodineto remove any lunar dust that might be present. The astronauts were winched on board the recovery helicopter. BIGs were worn until they reached isolation facilities on boardHornet. The raft containing decontamination materials was intentionally sunk. After touchdown onHornetat 17:53 UTC, the helicopter was lowered by the elevator into the hangar bay, where the astronauts walked the 30 feet (9.1 m) to theMobile quarantine facility(MQF), where they would begin the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine.This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 andApollo 14, before the Moon was proven to be barren of life, and the quarantine process dropped.Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to Earth. He told them: \"s a result of what you've done, the world has never been closer together before.\" After Nixon departed,Hornetwas brought alongside the 5-short-ton (4.5 t)Columbia, which was lifted aboard by the ship's crane, placed on adollyand moved next to the MQF. It was then attached to the MQF with a flexible tunnel, allowing the lunar samples, film, data tapes and other items to be removed.Hornetreturned to Pearl Harbor, where the MQF was loaded onto aLockheed C-141 Starlifterand airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center. The astronauts arrived at theLunar Receiving Laboratoryat 10:00 UTC on July 28.Columbiawas taken toFord Islandfor deactivation, and its pyrotechnics made safe. It was then taken toHickham Air Force Base, from whence it was flown to Houston in aDouglas C-133 Cargomaster, reaching the Lunar Receiving Laboratory on July 30. In accordance with theExtra-Terrestrial Exposure Law, a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol,the astronauts continued in quarantine. After three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in their trailer onHornet, and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health.On August 10, 1969, the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine (NASA physicianWilliam Carpentierand MQF project engineerJohn Hirasaki),and onColumbiaitself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft remained in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study. Celebrations On August 13, the three astronauts rode inticker-tape paradesin their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an officialstate dinnerto celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors,Chief Justice of the United StatesWarren E. Burgerand his predecessor,Earl Warren, and ambassadors from 83 nations at theCentury Plaza Hotel. Nixon and Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of thePresidential Medal of Freedom. The three astronauts spoke before ajoint session of Congresson September 16, 1969. They presented two US flags, one to theHouse of Representativesand the other to theSenate, that they had carried with them to the surface of the Moon.Theflag of American Samoaon Apollo 11 is on display at theJean P. Haydon Museumin Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa. This celebration began a 38-day world tour that brought the astronauts to 22 countries and included visits with many world leaders.The crew toured from September 29 to November 5.The world tour started in Mexico City and ended in Tokyo.Stops on the tour in order were:Mexico City,Bogota, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro,Las Palmasin theCanary Islands, Madrid, Paris,Amsterdam, Brussels,Oslo,Cologne, Berlin, London,Rome, Belgrade,Ankara,Kinshasa,Tehran,Mumbai,Dhaka,Bangkok,Darwin,Sydney,Guam,Seoul, Tokyo andHonolulu. Many nations honored the first humanMoon landingwith special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins. Legacy Cultural significance Humans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth accomplished Kennedy's goal set eight years earlier. In Mission Control during the Apollo 11 landing, Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen, followed by the words \"TASK ACCOMPLISHED, July 1969\".The success of Apollo 11 demonstrated the United States' technological superiority;and with the success of Apollo 11, America had won theSpace Race. New phrases permeated into the English language. \"If they can send a man to the Moon, why can't they ...?\" became a common saying following Apollo 11.Armstrong's words on the lunar surface also spun off various parodies. While most people celebrated the accomplishment, disenfranchised Americans saw it as a symbol of the divide in America, evidenced by protesters led byRalph Abernathyoutside of Kennedy Space Center the day before Apollo 11 launched.NASA AdministratorThomas Painemet with Abernathy at the occasion, both hoping that the space program can spur progress also in other regards, such as poverty in the US.Paine was then asked, and agreed, to host protesters as spectators at the launch,and Abernathy, awestruck by the spectacle,prayed for the astronauts.Racial and financial inequalities frustrated citizens who wondered why money spent on the Apollo program was not spent taking care of humans on Earth. A poem byGil Scott-Heroncalled \"Whitey on the Moon\" (1970) illustrated theracial inequality in the United Statesthat was highlighted by the Space Race.The poem starts with: A rat done bit my sister Nell.(with Whitey on the moon)Her face and arms began to swell.(and Whitey's on the moon)I can't pay no doctor bill.(but Whitey's on the moon)Ten years from now I'll be paying still.(while Whitey's on the moon) Twenty percent of the world's population watched humans walk on the Moon for the first time.While Apollo 11 sparked the interest of the world, the follow-on Apollo missions did not hold the interest of the nation.One possible explanation was the shift in complexity. Landing someone on the Moon was an easy goal to understand; lunar geology was too abstract for the average person. Another is that Kennedy's goal of landing humans on the Moon had already been accomplished.A well-defined objective helped Project Apollo accomplish its goal, but after it was completed it was hard to justify continuing the lunar missions. While most Americans were proud of their nation's achievements in space exploration, only once during the late 1960s did theGallup Pollindicate that a majority of Americans favored \"doing more\" in space as opposed to \"doing less\". By 1973, 59 percent of those polled favored cutting spending on space exploration. The Space Race had been won, and Cold War tensions were easing as the US and Soviet Union entered the era ofdétente. This was also a time when inflation was rising, which put pressure on the government to reduce spending. What saved the space program was that it was one of the few government programs that had achieved something great. Drastic cuts, warnedCaspar Weinberger, the deputy director of theOffice of Management and Budget, might send a signal that \"our best years are behind us\". After the Apollo 11 mission, officials from the Soviet Union said landing humans on the Moon was dangerous and unnecessary. At the time the Soviet Union was attempting to retrieve lunar samples robotically. The Soviets publicly denied there was a race to the Moon, and indicated they were not making an attempt.Mstislav Keldyshsaid in July 1969, \"We are concentrating wholly on the creation of large satellite systems.\" It was revealed in 1989 that the Soviets had tried to send people to the Moon, but were unable due to technological difficulties.The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it any attention, and another portion was angered by it. The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs \"Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins\" bythe Byrdson the 1969 albumBallad of Easy Rider, \"Coon on the Moon\" byHowlin' Wolfon the 1973 albumThe Back Door Wolf, and \"One Small Step\" byAyreonon the 2000 albumUniversal Migrator Part 1: The Dream Sequencer. Spacecraft Thecommand moduleColumbiawent on a tour of the United States, visiting 49 state capitals, theDistrict of Columbia, andAnchorage, Alaska.In 1971, it was transferred to theSmithsonian Institution, and was displayed at theNational Air and Space Museum(NASM) in Washington, DC.It was in the centralMilestones of Flightexhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as theWright Flyer,Spirit of St. Louis,Bell X-1,North American X-15andFriendship 7. Columbiawas moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at theSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Centerin Chantilly, Virginia, to be readied for a four-city tour titledDestination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission. This includedSpace Center Houstonfrom October 14, 2017, to March 18, 2018, theSaint Louis Science Centerfrom April 14 to September 3, 2018, the Senator JohnHeinz History CenterinPittsburghfrom September 29, 2018, to February 18, 2019, and its last location atMuseum of FlightinSeattlefrom March 16 to September 2, 2019.Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time for an additional stop for the capsule, and it was moved to theCincinnati Museum Center. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on September 29, 2019. For 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum'sApollo to the Moonexhibit,until it permanently closed on December 3, 2018, to be replaced by a new gallery which was scheduled to open in 2022. A special display of Armstrong's suit was unveiled for the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11 in July 2019.The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar and the flotation bags are in the Smithsonian'sSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Centerannex nearWashington Dulles International Airportin Chantilly, Virginia, where they are on display along with a test lunar module. The descent stage of the LMEagleremains on the Moon. In 2009, theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts. The remains of the ascent stage are assumed to lie at an unknown location on the lunar surface. The ascent stage,Eagle, was not tracked after it was jettisoned. The lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make low Moon orbits unstable after a short time, leading the orbiting object to impact the surface.However, using a program developed by NASA, and high-resolution lunar gravity data, a paper was published, in 2021, indicating thatEaglemight still be in orbit as late as 2020. Using the orbital elements published by NASA, aMonte Carlo methodwas used to generate parameter sets that bracket the uncertainties in these elements. All simulations, of the orbit, predicted thatEaglewould never impact the lunar surface. In March 2012 a team of specialists financed byAmazonfounderJeff Bezoslocated theF-1 enginesfrom the S-IC stage that launched Apollo 11 into space. They were found on the Atlantic seabed using advanced sonar scanning.His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was from Apollo 11.The S-IVB third stage which performed Apollo 11's trans-lunar injection remains in a solar orbit near to that of Earth. Moon rocks The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is theLunar Sample Laboratory Facilityat the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center inHouston, Texas. For safekeeping, there is also a smaller collection stored atWhite Sands Test FacilitynearLas Cruces, New Mexico. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them free of moisture. They are handled only indirectly, using special tools. Over 100 research laboratories worldwide conduct studies of the samples; approximately 500 samples are prepared and sent to investigators every year. In November 1969, Nixon asked NASA to make up about 250 presentationApollo 11 lunar sample displaysfor 135 nations, the fifty states of the United States and its possessions, and the United Nations. Each display included Moon dust from Apollo 11 and flags, including one of the Soviet Union, taken along by Apollo 11. The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil weighing about 50 mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button about as big as aUnited States half-dollar coin. This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust. Nixon gave the Apollo 11 lunar sample displays as goodwill gifts in 1970. Experiment results The Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed on August 25, 1969. The downlink failed on December 14, 1969.As of 2018, theLunar Laser Ranging experimentremains operational. Moonwalk camera The Hasselblad camera used during the moonwalk was thought to be lost or left on the Moon surface. Lunar ModuleEaglememorabilia In 2015, after Armstrong died in 2012, his widow contacted theNational Air and Space Museumto inform them she had found a white cloth bag in one of Armstrong's closets. The bag contained various items, which should have been left behind in theLunar ModuleEagle, including the 16mm Data Acquisition Camera that had been used to capture images of the first Moon landing.The camera is currently on display at the National Air and Space Museum. Anniversary events 40th anniversary On July 15, 2009,Life.comreleased a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken byLifephotographerRalph Morseprior to the Apollo 11 launch.From July 16 to 24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred.It is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key moments.In July 2010, air-to-ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronized and released for the first time.TheJohn F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museumset up anAdobe Flashwebsite that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon. On July 20, 2009, Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with PresidentBarack Obamaat the White House.\"We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin\", Obama said. \"We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey.\"On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts aCongressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida SenatorBill Nelsonand Florida RepresentativeAlan Grayson. A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing: It was carried out in a technically brilliant way with risks taken ... that would be inconceivable in the risk-averse world of today ... The Apollo programme is arguably the greatest technical achievement of mankind to date ... nothing since Apollo has come close the excitement that was generated by those astronauts—Armstrong, Aldrin and the 10 others who followed them. 50th anniversary On June 10, 2015, CongressmanBill Poseyintroduced resolution H.R. 2726 to the 114th session of theUnited States House of Representativesdirecting theUnited States Mintto design and sell commemorative coins in gold, silver and clad for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. On January 24, 2019, the Mint released theApollo 11 Fiftieth Anniversary commemorative coinsto the public on its website. A documentary film,Apollo 11, with restored footage of the 1969 event, premiered inIMAXon March 1, 2019, and broadly in theaters on March 8. The Smithsonian Institute'sNational Air and Space MuseumandNASAsponsored the \"Apollo 50 Festival\" on theNational Mallin Washington DC. The three-day (July 18 to 20, 2019) outdoor festival featured hands-on exhibits and activities, live performances, and speakers such asAdam Savageand NASA scientists. As part of the festival, a projection of the 363-foot (111 m) tallSaturn Vrocket was displayed on the east face of the 555-foot (169 m) tallWashington Monumentfrom July 16 through the 20th from 9:30 pm until 11:30 pm (EDT). The program also included a 17-minute show that combined full-motion video projected on the Washington Monument to recreate the assembly and launch of theSaturn Vrocket. The projection was joined by a 40-foot (12 m) wide recreation of theKennedy Space Centercountdown clock and two large video screens showing archival footage to recreate the time leading up to the moon landing. There were three shows per night on July 19–20, with the last show on Saturday, delayed slightly so the portion where Armstrong first set foot on the Moon would happen exactly 50 years to the second after the actual event. On July 19, 2019, theGoogle Doodlepaid tribute to the Apollo 11 Moon Landing, complete with a link to an animated YouTube video with voiceover by astronautMichael Collins. Aldrin, Collins, and Armstrong's sons were hosted by PresidentDonald Trumpin the Oval Office. Films and documentaries See also References Notes Citations In some of the following sources, times are shown in the formathours:minutes:seconds(e.g. 109:24:15), referring to the mission's Ground Elapsed Time (GET),based on the official launch time of July 16, 1969, 13:32:00UTC(000:00:00 GET). Sources External links Multimedia"
] | [
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"Christopher Thornton Christopher Thornton(born March 29, 1967) is an American actor. He is known for his role as Kenny \"Shammy\" Shamberg inMagnum P.I., and has had numerous other film and television roles from 1990 to the present. Early life and education Thornton was born inNew Orleans, Louisiana. His father was an amateur opera singer who appeared in local theater.Christopher appeared in several plays while majoring in theater at theUniversity of New Orleans, but quit college after two years to relocate to Los Angeles and train at theStella Adler Conservatory. Career Thornton made his first feature film appearance in the 1990 horror sequelWatchers II, playing a young man who gets his eyes gouged out by the mutant antagonist.Only two years later, at age 25, Thornton suffered a tragic accident while rock climbing which fractured two vertebrae and left him paralyzed from the waist down. He returned to mostly theater roles for the remainder of the 1990s. In 2000, he was cast to play Hamlet at the Lillian",
"at the Lillian Theater in Los Angeles. Believed to be the first actor to ever play the iconic Shakespeare character in a wheelchair, Thornton's performance won rave reviews. Thornton has gone on to appear in numerous film and television roles. He has recurred in TV series such asAny Day Now,Rules of EngagementandVice Principals, and had guest roles inCurb Your Enthusiasm,Alias,Brothers & Sisters,My Name Is Earl,Grey's AnatomyandWill & Grace. Since 2018, he has played recurring character Kenny \"Shammy\" Shamberg, a marine veteran paralyzed during a tour of duty in Iraq, on theCBSreboot ofMagnum P.I. Thornton was both writer and lead actor for the 2010 filmSympathy for Delicious, playing disc jockey \"Delicious\" Dean O'Dwyer. Filmography Film Television External links References",
"Apollo 11 Apollo 11was aspaceflightconducted by the United States from July 16 to July 24, 1969. It marked the first time in history that humanslandedon theMoon. CommanderNeil Armstrongand Lunar Module PilotBuzz Aldrinlanded theApollo Lunar ModuleEagleon July 20, 1969, at 20:17UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had namedTranquility Baseupon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilotMichael Collinsflew theCommand ModuleColumbiainlunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes, before lifting off to rejoinColumbia. Apollo 11 was launched by aSaturn Vrocket fromKennedy Space CenteronMerritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission ofNASA'sApollo program. The Apollospacecrafthad",
"Apollospacecrafthad three parts: acommand module (CM)with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; aservice module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and alunar module (LM)that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. After beingsent to the Moonby the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved intoEagleand landed in theSea of Tranquilityon July 20. The astronauts usedEagle's ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisonedEaglebefore they performed the maneuvers that propelledColumbiaout of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth.They returned to Earth andsplashed downin the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space.",
"days in space. Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast onlive TVto a worldwide audience. He described the event as \"one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\"Apollo 11 effectively proved U.S. victory in theSpace Raceto demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy, \"before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.\" Background In the late1950sand early1960s, the United States was engaged in theCold War, a geopolitical rivalry with theSoviet Union.On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launchedSputnik 1, the firstartificial satellite. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority.This precipitated theSputnik crisis, and triggered theSpace Raceto prove",
"Raceto prove which superpower would achieve superior spaceflight capability.PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerresponded to the Sputnik challenge by creating theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA), and initiatingProject Mercury,which aimed to launch a man intoEarth orbit.But on April 12, 1961, SovietcosmonautYuri Gagarinbecame the first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth.Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961,Alan Shepardbecame the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean, he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor,John F. Kennedy. Since theSoviet Unionhad higher lift capacitylaunch vehicles, Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA, a challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpose. On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed",
"Kennedy addressed theUnited States Congresson \"Urgent National Needs\" and declared: I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. We propose to accelerate the development of the appropriate lunar space craft. We propose to develop alternate liquid and solid fuel boosters, much larger than any now being developed, until certain which is superior. We propose additional funds for other engine development and for unmanned explorations—explorations which are particularly important for one purpose which this nation will never overlook: the survival of the man who first makes this daring flight. But in a very real sense, it will not be one man going to the Moon—if we make this judgment affirmatively, it will",
"it will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to put him there. On September 12, 1962, Kennedydelivered another speechbefore a crowd of about 40,000 people in theRice University football stadiuminHouston, Texas.A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows: There is no strife, no prejudice, no national conflict in outer space as yet. Its hazards are hostile to us all. Its conquest deserves the best of all mankind, and its opportunity for peaceful cooperation may never come again. But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago,fly the Atlantic? Why doesRice play Texas? We choose to go to the Moon! We choose to go to the Moon ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing",
"that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win, and the others, too. In spite of that, the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a \"moondoggle\" byNorbert Wiener, a mathematician at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology.The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name:Project Apollo.When Kennedy met withNikita Khrushchev, thePremier of the Soviet Unionin June 1961, he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project, but Khrushchev did not take up the offer.Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to theUnited Nations General Assemblyon September 20, 1963.The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death. An early and crucial decision was choosinglunar orbit rendezvousover bothdirect ascentandEarth orbit rendezvous. Aspace rendezvousis anorbital maneuverin which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA headJames Webbannounced that lunar orbit rendezvous",
"orbit rendezvous would be usedand that theApollo spacecraftwould have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.This design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a singleSaturn Vrocket that was then under development. Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed byProject Gemini.The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances insemiconductor device, includingmetal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors(MOSFETs) in theInterplanetary Monitoring Platform(IMP)andsiliconintegrated circuit(IC) chips in theApollo Guidance Computer(AGC). Project Apollo was abruptly halted by theApollo 1fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronautsGus",
"which astronautsGus Grissom,Ed White, andRoger B. Chaffeedied, and the subsequent investigation.In October 1968,Apollo 7evaluated the command module in Earth orbit,and in DecemberApollo 8tested it in lunar orbit.In March 1969,Apollo 9put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit,and in MayApollo 10conducted a \"dress rehearsal\" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon. The Soviet Union appeared to be winning the Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the USGemini programand Soviet failure to develop theN1 launcher, which would have been comparable to the Saturn V.The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means ofuncrewed probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launchedLuna 15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash inMare Crisiumabout two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off",
"and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. TheNuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratoriesradio telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11. Personnel Prime crew The initial crew assignment of CommanderNeil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP)Jim Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP)Buzz Aldrinon the backup crew for Apollo 9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967.Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew ofGemini 12. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM, Apollo 8 and Apollo 9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo 8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11. There would be one change.Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo 8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth",
"his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime,Fred Haisefilled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8.Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience,the first being Apollo 10.The next wasSTS-26in 1988. Deke Slaytongave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventuallyApollo 13). The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that ofApollo 12. Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal",
"a more personal relationship.Aldrin and Collins described the crew as \"amiable strangers\".Armstrong did not agree with the assessment, and said \"... all the crews I was on worked very well together.\" Backup crew The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander,William Andersas CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo 8.In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with theNational Aeronautics and Space Councileffective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time.Ken Mattinglywas moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable. By the normal crew rotation in place during Apollo, Lovell, Mattingly, and Haise were scheduled to fly onApollo 14, but the three of them were bumped toApollo 13: there was a crew issue for Apollo 13 as none of them exceptEdgar Mitchellflew in space again.George Muellerrejected the crew and this was the first",
"this was the first time an Apollo crew was rejected. To giveAlan Shepardmore training time, Lovell's crew were bumped to Apollo 13. Mattingly would later be replaced byJack Swigertas CMP on Apollo 13. Support crew During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured the prime and backup crews were apprised of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them.For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly,Ronald EvansandBill Pogue. Capsule communicators Thecapsule communicator(CAPCOM) was an astronaut at theMission Control CenterinHouston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew.For Apollo",
"crew.For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were:Charles Duke, Ronald Evans,Bruce McCandless II, James Lovell, William Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise,Don L. Lind,Owen K. GarriottandHarrison Schmitt. Flight directors Theflight directorsfor this mission were: Other key personnel Other key personnel who played important roles in the Apollo 11 mission include the following. Preparations Insignia The Apollo 11mission emblemwas designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for \"peaceful lunar landing by the United States\". At Lovell's suggestion, he chose thebald eagle, thenational birdof the United States, as the symbol. Tom Wilson, a simulator instructor, suggested anolive branchin its beak to represent their peaceful mission. Collins added a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction; the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. Aldrin, Armstrong and Collins decided the Eagle and the Moon would be in their natural colors,",
"natural colors, and decided on a blue and gold border. Armstrong was concerned that \"eleven\" would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with \"Apollo 11\",and they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would \"be representative ofeveryonewho had worked toward a lunar landing\". An illustrator at theManned Spacecraft Center(MSC) did the artwork, which was then sent off to NASA officials for approval.The design was rejected.Bob Gilruth, the director of the MSC felt the talons of the eagle looked \"too warlike\".After some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the talons.When theEisenhower dollar coinwas released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side.The design was also used for the smallerSusan B. Anthony dollarunveiled in 1979. Call signs After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraftCharlie BrownandSnoopy, assistant manager for public affairsJulian Scheerwrote toGeorge Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the MSC, to suggest",
"the MSC, to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. The nameSnowconewas used for the CM andHaystackwas used for the LM in both internal and external communications during early mission planning. The LM was namedEagleafter the motif which was featured prominently on the mission insignia. At Scheer's suggestion, the CM was namedColumbiaafterColumbiad, the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from Florida) inJules Verne's 1865 novelFrom the Earth to the Moon. It also referred toColumbia, a historical name of the United States.In Collins' 1976 book, he saidColumbiawas in reference toChristopher Columbus. Mementos The astronauts hadpersonal preference kits(PPKs), small bags containing personal items of significance they wanted to take with them on the mission.Five 0.5-pound (0.23 kg) PPKs were carried on Apollo 11: three (one for each astronaut) were stowed onColumbiabefore launch, and two onEagle. Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood from theWright brothers'",
"theWright brothers' 1903Wright Flyer's left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing,along with a diamond-studdedastronaut pinoriginally given to Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards, but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took it with him on Apollo 11. Site selection NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years' worth of studies based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of theLunar Orbiter programand information about surface conditions provided by theSurveyor program.The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required.The landing site had to be close to the lunar equator to minimize the amount of propellant required, clear of obstacles to minimize",
"to minimize maneuvering, and flat to simplify the task of the landing radar. Scientific value was not a consideration. Areas that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be free of craters had to be relaxed, as no such site was found.Five sites were considered: Sites 1 and 2 were in the Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis); Site 3 was in the Central Bay (Sinus Medii); and Sites 4 and 5 were in the Ocean of Storms (Oceanus Procellarum).The final site selection was based on seven criteria: The requirement for the Sun angle was particularly restrictive, limiting the launch date to one day per month.A landing just after dawn was chosen to limit the temperature extremes the astronauts would experience.The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site 2, with Sites 3 and 5 as backups in the event of the launch being delayed. In May 1969, Apollo 10's lunar module flew to within 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) of Site 2, and",
"mi) of Site 2, and reported it was acceptable. First-step decision During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced, the first question was, \"Which one of you gentlemen will be the first man to step onto the lunar surface?\"Slayton told the reporter it had not been decided, and Armstrong added that it was \"not based on individual desire\". One of the first versions of the egress checklist had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft before the commander, which matched what had been done on Gemini missions,where the commander had never performed the spacewalk.Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin would be the first man to walk on the Moon, and Associate AdministratorGeorge Muellertold reporters he would be first as well. Aldrin heard that Armstrong would be the first because Armstrong was a civilian, which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots he should be first, but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign.",
"lobbying campaign. Attempting to stem interdepartmental conflict, Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong would be first since he was the commander. The decision was announced in a press conference on April 14, 1969. For decades, Aldrin believed the final decision was largely driven by the lunar module's hatch location. Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the spacecraft was so small, maneuvering to exit the spacecraft was difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision until late spring.Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him leave the spacecraft first, if he agreed. Armstrong said, \"Yes, that's the way to do it.\" The media accused Armstrong of exercising his commander's prerogative to exit the spacecraft first.Chris Kraftrevealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting",
"that a meeting occurred between Gilruth, Slayton, Low, and himself to make sure Aldrin would not be the first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on the Moon should be likeCharles Lindbergh, a calm and quiet person. They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was the first to egress from the spacecraft. Pre-launch The ascent stage ofLM-5Eaglearrived at theKennedy Space Centeron January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, andCSM-107Columbiaon January 23.There were several differences betweenEagleand Apollo 10's LM-4Snoopy;Eaglehad a VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as theEarly Apollo Scientific Experiments Package(EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch.The CSM was mated on",
"CSM was mated on January 29, and moved from theOperations and Checkout Buildingto theVehicle Assembly Buildingon April 14. TheS-IVBthird stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived on January 18, followed by theS-IIsecond stage on February 6,S-ICfirst stage on February 20, and theSaturn V Instrument Uniton February 27. At 12:30 on May 20, the 5,443-tonne (5,357-long-ton; 6,000-short-ton) assembly departed the Vehicle Assembly Building atop thecrawler-transporter, bound for Launch Pad 39A, part ofLaunch Complex 39, while Apollo 10 was still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 26, and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried themobile service structureback to its parking area.In the early hours of the morning, the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled withliquid hydrogen.Fueling was completed by three hours before launch.Launch operations were partly automated, with 43 programs written in theATOLL",
"written in theATOLL programming language. Slayton roused the crew shortly after 04:00, and they showered, shaved, and had the traditional pre-flight breakfast of steak and eggs with Slayton and the backup crew. They then donned their space suits and began breathing pure oxygen. At 06:30, they headed out to Launch Complex 39.Haise enteredColumbiaabout three hours and ten minutes before launch time. Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left-hand couch at 06:54. Five minutes later, Collins joined him, taking up his position on the right-hand couch. Finally, Aldrin entered, taking the center couch.Haise left around two hours and ten minutes before launch.The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time.Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in thefiring room. Mission Launch and flight to lunar orbit An",
"to lunar orbit An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries included theChief of Staff of the United States Army,GeneralWilliam Westmoreland, fourcabinet members, 19state governors, 40mayors, 60 ambassadors and 200congressmen. Vice PresidentSpiro Agnewviewed the launch with former presidentLyndon B. Johnsonand his wifeLady Bird Johnson.Around 3,500 media representatives were present.About two-thirds were from the United States; the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts.PresidentRichard Nixonviewed the launch from his office in theWhite Housewith his NASA liaison officer, Apollo astronautFrank Borman. Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00UTC(9:32:00EDT).At 13.2 seconds into the flight, the launch vehicle began",
"vehicle began torollinto itsflight azimuthof 72.058°. Full shutdown of the first-stage engines occurred about 2 minutes and 42 seconds into the mission, followed by separation of the S-IC and ignition of the S-II engines. The second stage engines then cut off and separated at about 9 minutes and 8 seconds, allowing the first ignition of the S-IVB engine a few seconds later. Apollo 11 entered anear-circular Earth orbitat an altitude of 100.4 nautical miles (185.9 km) by 98.9 nautical miles (183.2 km), twelve minutes into its flight. After one and a half orbits, a second ignition of the S-IVB engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with thetrans-lunar injection(TLI) burn at 16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, with Collins in the left seat and at the controls, thetransposition, docking, and extractionmaneuver was performed. This involved separatingColumbiafrom the spent S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking withEaglestill attached to the stage. After the LM was extracted, the",
"was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon.This was done to avoid the third stage colliding with the spacecraft, the Earth, or the Moon. Aslingshot effectfrom passing around the Moon threw it into anorbit around the Sun. On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enterlunar orbit.In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of the craterSabine D. The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automatedRanger 8andSurveyor 5landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft, and because it was unlikely to present major landing or EVA challenges.It lay about 25 kilometers (16 mi) southeast of the Surveyor 5 landing site, and 68 kilometers (42 mi) southwest of Ranger 8's crash site. Lunar descent At 12:52:00 UTC on July",
"UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong enteredEagle, and began the final preparations for lunar descent.At 17:44:00Eagleseparated fromColumbia.Collins, alone aboardColumbia, inspectedEagleas it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the landing gear was correctly deployed.Armstrong exclaimed: \"TheEaglehas wings!\" As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found themselves passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were \"long\"; they would land miles west of their target point.Eaglewas traveling too fast. The problem could have beenmascons—concentrations of high mass in a region or regions of the Moon's crust that contains agravitational anomaly, potentially alteringEagle'strajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressure in the docking tunnel, or a result ofEagle's pirouette maneuver. Five minutes into the descent burn, and 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above the surface of the Moon, theLM guidance",
"theLM guidance computer(LGC) distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected 1201 and 1202 program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center, computer engineerJack GarmantoldGuidance OfficerSteve Balesit was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated \"executive overflows\", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all its tasks in real-time and had to postpone some of them.Margaret Hamilton, the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at theMITCharles Stark Draper Laboratorylater recalled: To blame the computer for the Apollo 11 problems is like blaming the person who spots a fire and calls the fire department. Actually, the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software. The software's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re-establish the more important ones. The computer, rather than almost forcing an abort, prevented an",
"abort, prevented an abort. If the computer hadn't recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful Moon landing it was. During the mission, the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position, causing the computer to process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time.Software engineerDon Eylesconcluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was due to a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first uncrewed LM inApollo 5. Having the rendezvous radar on (so it was warmed up in case of an emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer, but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the computer as dithering back and forth between two positions, depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spuriouscycle stealing, as the rendezvous radar",
"rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter, caused the computer alarms. Landing When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a 300-foot-diameter (91 m) crater (later determined to beWest crater), so he took semi-automatic control.Armstrong considered landing short of the boulder field so they could collect geological samples from it, but could not since their horizontal velocity was too high. Throughout the descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy pilotingEagle. Now 107 feet (33 m) above the surface, Armstrong knew their propellant supply was dwindling and was determined to land at the first possible landing site. Armstrong found a clear patch of ground and maneuvered the spacecraft towards it. As he got closer, now 250 feet (76 m) above the surface, he discovered his new landing site had a crater in it. He cleared the crater and found another patch of level ground. They were now 100 feet",
"were now 100 feet (30 m) from the surface, with only 90 seconds of propellant remaining. Lunar dust kicked up by the LM's engine began to impair his ability to determine the spacecraft's motion. Some large rocks jutted out of the dust cloud, and Armstrong focused on them during his descent so he could determine the spacecraft's speed. A light informed Aldrin that at least one of the 67-inch (170 cm) probes hanging fromEagle'sfootpads had touched the surface a few moments before the landing and he said: \"Contact light!\" Armstrong was supposed to immediately shut the engine down, as the engineers suspected the pressure caused by the engine's own exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface could make it explode, but he forgot. Three seconds later,Eaglelanded and Armstrong shut the engine down.Aldrin immediately said \"Okay, engine stop. ACA—out ofdetent.\" Armstrong acknowledged: \"Out of detent. Auto.\" Aldrin continued: \"Mode control—both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm—off. 413 is in.\" ACA was",
"413 is in.\" ACA was theAttitude Control Assembly—the LM's control stick. Output went to the LGC to command thereaction control system(RCS) jets to fire. \"Out of Detent\" meant the stick had moved away from its centered position; it was spring-centered like the turn indicator in a car. Address 413 of theAbort Guidance System(AGS) contained the variable that indicated the LM had landed. Eaglelanded at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with 216 pounds (98 kg) of usable fuel remaining. Information available to the crew and mission controllers during the landing showed the LM had enough fuel for another 25 seconds of powered flight before an abort without touchdown would have become unsafe,but post-mission analysis showed that the real figure was probably closer to 50 seconds.Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than most subsequent missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of the propellantsloshingmore than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On",
"a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this. Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post-landing checklist with \"Engine arm is off\", before responding to the CAPCOM, Charles Duke, with the words, \"Houston,Tranquility Basehere. TheEaglehas landed.\" Armstrong's unrehearsed change of call sign from \"Eagle\" to \"Tranquility Base\" emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful.Duke expressed the relief at Mission Control: \"Roger, Twan—Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\" Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth: This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way. He then tookcommunionprivately. At this",
"At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheistMadalyn Murray O'Hair(who had objected to theApollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. For this reason, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at theWebsterPresbyterian Church, and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, Dean Woodruff. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20.The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period, but they chose to begin preparations for the EVA early, thinking they would be unable to sleep. Lunar surface operations Preparations forNeil ArmstrongandBuzz Aldrinto walk on the Moon began at 23:43 UTC.These took longer than expected; three and a half hours instead of two.During training on Earth,",
"training on Earth, everything required had been neatly laid out in advance, but on the Moon the cabin contained a large number of other items as well, such as checklists, food packets, and tools.Six hours and thirty-nine minutes after landing, Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, andEaglewas depressurized. Eagle's hatch was opened at 02:39:33.Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with hisportable life support system(PLSS).Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.At 02:51 Armstrong began his descent to the lunar surface. The remote control unit on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage assembly (MESA) folded againstEagle'sside and activate the TV camera. Apollo 11 usedslow-scan television(TV) incompatible with broadcast TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this",
"camera viewed this monitor (thus, a broadcast of a broadcast), significantly reducing the quality of the picture.The signal was received atGoldstonein the United States, but with better fidelity byHoneysuckle Creek Tracking StationnearCanberrain Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitiveParkes radio telescopein Australia.Despite some technical and weather difficulties, black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth.Copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, butrecordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surfacewere likely destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA. After describing the surface dust as \"very fine-grained\" and \"almost like a powder\",at 02:56:15,six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong stepped offEagle'slanding pad and declared: \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\" Armstrong intended to say \"That's",
"to say \"That's one small step for a man\", but the word \"a\" is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said \"for a man\", and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the \"a\" in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words \"for a\" together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory. A more recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the \"a\" may have been spoken but obscured by static. Other analysis points to the claims of static and slurring as \"face-saving fabrication\", and that Armstrong himself later admitted to misspeaking the line. About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on",
"it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM.Twelve minutes after the sample was collected,he removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod.The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. Still photography was accomplished with aHasselbladcamera that could be operated hand-held or mounted on Armstrong'sApollo space suit.Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface. He described the view with the simple phrase: \"Magnificent desolation.\" Armstrong said moving in thelunar gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was \"even perhaps easier than the simulations ... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around.\"Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backward, but neither astronaut had serious",
"had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight intoEagle'sshadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, but the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust, which soiled the outer part of their suits. The astronauts planted theLunar Flag Assemblycontaining aflag of the United Stateson the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera. Aldrin remembered, \"Of all the jobs I had to do on the Moon the one I wanted to go the smoothest was the flag raising.\"But the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and could only insert the pole about 2 inches (5 cm) into the hard lunar surface. Aldrin was afraid it might topple in front of TV",
"in front of TV viewers, but gave \"a crisp West Point salute\".Before Aldrin could take a photo of Armstrong with the flag, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone-radio transmission, which Nixon called \"the most historic phone call ever made from the White House.\"Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief. Nixon:Hello, Neil and Buzz. I'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House. And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made from the White House. I just can't tell you how proud we all are of what you have done. For every American, this has to be the proudest day of our lives. And for people all over the world, I am sure that they too join with Americans in recognizing what an immense feat this is. Because of what you have done, the heavens have become a part of man's world. And as you talk to",
"And as you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquility, it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquility to Earth. For one priceless moment in the whole history of man, all the people on this Earth are truly one: one in their pride in what you have done, and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth. Armstrong:Thank you, Mr. President. It's a great honor and privilege for us to be here, representing not only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, and with interest and a curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It's an honor for us to be able to participate here today. Nixon:Thank you very much, and I look forward, all of us look forward, to seeing you on the Hornet on Thursday. They deployed theEASEP, which included aPassive Seismic Experiment Packageused to measuremoonquakesand aretroreflectorarray used for thelunar laser ranging experiment.Then Armstrong walked 196 feet (60 m) from the LM to take photographs at the rim ofLittle West Craterwhile Aldrin",
"Craterwhile Aldrin collected twocore samples. He used thegeologist's hammerto pound in the tubes—the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11—but was unable to penetrate more than 6 inches (15 cm) deep. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes. Aldrin shoveled 6 kilograms (13 lb) of soil into the box of rocks to pack them in tightly.Two types of rocks were found in the geological samples:basaltandbreccia.Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts:armalcolite,tranquillityite, andpyroxferroite. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. All have subsequently been found on Earth. While on the surface, Armstrong uncovered aplaquemounted on the LM ladder, bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the",
"signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read: Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon July 1969, A. D. We came in peace for all mankind. At the behest of theNixon administrationto add a reference to God, NASA included the vague date as a reason to include A.D., which stands forAnno Domini(\"in the year of our Lord\"). Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong his metabolic rates were high, and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. As metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension.In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon. Lunar ascent Aldrin enteredEaglefirst. With some",
"With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing 21.55 kilograms (47.5 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor (LEC). This proved to be an inefficient tool, and later missions preferred to carry equipment and samples up to the LM by hand.Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his sleeve pocket, and Aldrin tossed the bag down. Armstrong then jumped onto the ladder's third rung, and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LMlife support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, an empty Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. The hatch was closed again at 05:11:13. They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep. Presidential speech writerWilliam Safirehad prepared anIn Event of Moon Disasterannouncement for Nixon to read in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon.The remarks",
"Moon.The remarks were in a memo from Safire to Nixon'sWhite House Chief of StaffH. R. Haldeman, in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster.According to the plan, Mission Control would \"close down communications\" with the LM, and a clergyman would \"commend their souls to the deepest of the deep\" in a public ritual likened toburial at sea. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion toRupert Brooke's World War I poem \"The Soldier\".The script for the speech does not make reference to Collins; as he remained onboardColumbiain orbit around the Moon, it was expected that he would be able to return the module to Earth in the event of a mission failure. While moving inside the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged thecircuit breakerthat would arm the main engine for liftoff from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. The nonconductive tip of a Durofelt-tip penwas sufficient to activate the",
"to activate the switch. After more than21+1⁄2hours on the lunar surface, in addition to the scientific instruments, the astronauts left behind: anApollo 1mission patch in memory of astronautsRoger Chaffee,Gus Grissom, andEdward White, who died when their command module caught fire during a test in January 1967; two memorial medals of Soviet cosmonautsVladimir KomarovandYuri Gagarin, who died in 1967 and 1968 respectively; a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace; and a silicon message disk carrying thegoodwill statementsby presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon along with messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world.The disk also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA's past and then-current top management. After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the",
"to prepare for the return flight. At that time, unknown to them, some hundred kilometers away from them the Soviet probeLuna 15was about to descend and impact. Despite having been known to be orbiting the Moon at the same time, through a ground-breaking precautious goodwill exchange of data, the mission control of Luna 15 unexpectedly hastened its roboticsample-return mission, initiating descent, in an attempt to return before Apollo 11.Just two hours before Apollo 11's launch Luna 15 crashed at 15:50 UTC, with British astronomers monitoring Luna 15 and recording the situation one commented: \"I say, this has really been drama of the highest order\",bringing theSpace Raceto a culmination. Roughly two hours later, at 17:54:00 UTC, the Apollo 11 crew on the surface safely lifted off inEagle'sascent stage to rejoin Collins aboardColumbiain lunar orbit.Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some 25 feet (8 m) from the descent stage, whipping violently in",
"violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: \"The ascent stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying theattitude indicator, but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over.\"Subsequent Apollo missions planted their flags farther from the LM. Columbiain lunar orbit During his day flying solo around the Moon, Collins never felt lonely. Although it has been said \"not sinceAdamhas any human known such solitude\",Collins felt very much a part of the mission. In his autobiography he wrote: \"this venture has been structured for three men, and I consider my third to be as necessary as either of the other two\".In the 48 minutes of each orbit when he was out of radio contact with the Earth whileColumbiapassed round the far side of the Moon, the feeling he reported was not fear or loneliness, but rather \"awareness, anticipation, satisfaction, confidence, almost exultation\". One of Collins' first tasks was to",
"first tasks was to identify the lunar module on the ground. To give Collins an idea where to look, Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed about 4 miles (6.4 km) off target. Each time he passed over the suspected lunar landing site, he tried in vain to find the module. On his first orbits on the back side of the Moon, Collins performed maintenance activities such as dumping excess water produced by thefuel cellsand preparing the cabin for Armstrong and Aldrin to return. Just before he reached the dark side on the third orbit, Mission Control informed Collins there was a problem with the temperature of the coolant. If it became too cold, parts ofColumbiamight freeze. Mission Control advised him to assume manual control and implement Environmental Control System Malfunction Procedure 17. Instead, Collins flicked the switch on the system from automatic to manual and back to automatic again, and carried on with normal housekeeping chores, while keeping an eye on the temperature.",
"on the temperature. WhenColumbiacame back around to the near side of the Moon again, he was able to report that the problem had been resolved. For the next couple of orbits, he described his time on the back side of the Moon as \"relaxing\". After Aldrin and Armstrong completed their EVA, Collins slept so he could be rested for the rendezvous. While the flight plan called forEagleto meet up withColumbia, Collins was prepared for a contingency in which he would flyColumbiadown to meetEagle. Return Eaglerendezvoused withColumbiaat 21:24 UTC on July 21, and the two docked at 21:35.Eagle's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit at 23:41.Just before theApollo 12flight, it was noted thatEaglewas still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned thatEagle'sorbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an \"uncertain location\" on the lunar surface.In 2021, however, some calculations show that the lander may still be in orbit. On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts",
"three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented: ... The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery, every piece of which worked flawlessly ... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly. All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears of a number of people ... All you see is the three of us, but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I would like to say, \"Thank you very much.\" Aldrin added: This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more, still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even, than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown ... Personally, in reflecting on the events of the past several days, a verse fromPsalmscomes to mind.\"When I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the Moon and the stars, which Thou hast",
"which Thou hast ordained; What is man that Thou art mindful of him?\" Armstrong concluded: The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the giants of science who have preceded this effort; next with the American people, who have, through their will, indicated their desire; next with four administrations and their Congresses, for implementing that will; and then, with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft, the Saturn, the Columbia, the Eagle, and the littleEMU, the spacesuit and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface. We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you, and to all the other people that are listening and watching tonight, God bless you. Good night from Apollo 11. On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed,",
"station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg was later thanked by Armstrong. Splashdown and quarantine Theaircraft carrierUSSHornet, under the command ofCaptainCarl J. Seiberlich,was selected as the primary recovery ship (PRS) for Apollo 11 on June 5, replacing its sister ship, theLPHUSSPrinceton, which had recovered Apollo 10 on May 26.Hornetwas then at her home port ofLong Beach, California.On reachingPearl Harboron July 5,HornetembarkedtheSikorsky SH-3 Sea Kinghelicopters ofHS-4, a unit which specialized in recovery of Apollo spacecraft, specialized divers ofUDTDetachment Apollo, a 35-man NASA recovery team, and about 120 media representatives. To make room, most ofHornet's air wing was left behind in Long Beach. Special recovery equipment was also loaded,",
"was also loaded, including aboilerplatecommand module used for training. On July 12, with Apollo 11 still on the launch pad,Hornetdeparted Pearl Harbor for the recovery area in the central Pacific,in the vicinity of10°36′N172°24′E / 10.600°N 172.400°E /10.600; 172.400.A presidential party consisting of Nixon, Borman, Secretary of StateWilliam P. RogersandNational Security AdvisorHenry Kissingerflew toJohnston AtollonAir Force One, then to thecommand shipUSS ArlingtoninMarine One. After a night on board, they would fly toHornetin Marine One for a few hours of ceremonies. On arrival aboardHornet, the party was greeted by theCommander-in-Chief, Pacific Command (CINCPAC),AdmiralJohn S. McCain Jr., andNASA AdministratorThomas O. Paine, who flew toHornetfromPago Pagoin one ofHornet'scarrier onboard deliveryaircraft. Weather satellites were not yet common, but US Air ForceCaptainHank Brandli had access to top-secretspy satelliteimages. He realized that a storm front was headed for the Apollo recovery area. Poor",
"recovery area. Poor visibility which could make locating the capsule difficult, and strong upper-level winds which \"would have ripped their parachutes to shreds\" according to Brandli, posed a serious threat to the safety of the mission.Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr., the commander of theFleet Weather Centerat Pearl Harbor, who had the required security clearance. On their recommendation,Rear AdmiralDonald C. Davis, commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces, Pacific, advised NASA to change the recovery area, each man risking his career. A new location was selected 215 nautical miles (398 km) northeast. This altered the flight plan. A different sequence of computer programs was used, one never before attempted. In a conventional entry, trajectory event P64 was followed by P67. For a skip-out re-entry, P65 and P66 were employed to handle the exit and entry parts of the skip. In this case, because they were extending the re-entry but not actually skipping out, P66 was not invoked and",
"was not invoked and instead, P65 led directly to P67. The crew were also warned they would not be in a full-lift (heads-down) attitude when they entered P67.The first program's acceleration subjected the astronauts to 6.5 standard gravities (64 m/s2); the second, to 6.0 standard gravities (59 m/s2). Before dawn on July 24,Hornetlaunched four Sea King helicopters and threeGrumman E-1 Tracers. Two of the E-1s were designated as \"air boss\" while the third acted as a communications relay aircraft. Two of the Sea Kings carried divers and recovery equipment. The third carried photographic equipment, and the fourth carried the decontamination swimmer and the flight surgeon.At 16:44 UTC (05:44 local time)Columbia'sdrogue parachuteswere deployed. This was observed by the helicopters. Seven minutes laterColumbiastruck the water forcefully 2,660 km (1,440 nmi) east ofWake Island, 380 km (210 nmi) south of Johnston Atoll, and 24 km (13 nmi) fromHornet,at13°19′N169°9′W / 13.317°N 169.150°W /13.317; -169.150.82 °F (28",
"-169.150.82 °F (28 °C) with 6 feet (1.8 m) seas and winds at 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph) from the east were reported under broken clouds at 1,500 feet (460 m) with visibility of 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) at the recovery site.Reconnaissance aircraft flying to the original splashdown location reported the conditions Brandli and Houston had predicted. Duringsplashdown,Columbialanded upside down but was righted within ten minutes by flotation bags activated by the astronauts.A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached asea anchorto prevent it from drifting.More divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and positioned rafts for astronaut extraction. The divers then passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. The possibility of bringing backpathogensfrom the lunar surface was considered remote, but NASA took precautions at the recovery site. The astronauts were rubbed down with asodium hypochloritesolution andColumbiawiped",
"andColumbiawiped withPovidone-iodineto remove any lunar dust that might be present. The astronauts were winched on board the recovery helicopter. BIGs were worn until they reached isolation facilities on boardHornet. The raft containing decontamination materials was intentionally sunk. After touchdown onHornetat 17:53 UTC, the helicopter was lowered by the elevator into the hangar bay, where the astronauts walked the 30 feet (9.1 m) to theMobile quarantine facility(MQF), where they would begin the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine.This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 andApollo 14, before the Moon was proven to be barren of life, and the quarantine process dropped.Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to Earth. He told them: \"s a result of what you've done, the world has never been closer together before.\" After Nixon departed,Hornetwas brought alongside the 5-short-ton (4.5 t)Columbia, which was lifted aboard by the ship's crane, placed on adollyand moved next to",
"moved next to the MQF. It was then attached to the MQF with a flexible tunnel, allowing the lunar samples, film, data tapes and other items to be removed.Hornetreturned to Pearl Harbor, where the MQF was loaded onto aLockheed C-141 Starlifterand airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center. The astronauts arrived at theLunar Receiving Laboratoryat 10:00 UTC on July 28.Columbiawas taken toFord Islandfor deactivation, and its pyrotechnics made safe. It was then taken toHickham Air Force Base, from whence it was flown to Houston in aDouglas C-133 Cargomaster, reaching the Lunar Receiving Laboratory on July 30. In accordance with theExtra-Terrestrial Exposure Law, a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol,the astronauts continued in quarantine. After three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in their trailer onHornet, and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health.On August 10, 1969, the Interagency",
"the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine (NASA physicianWilliam Carpentierand MQF project engineerJohn Hirasaki),and onColumbiaitself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft remained in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study. Celebrations On August 13, the three astronauts rode inticker-tape paradesin their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an officialstate dinnerto celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors,Chief Justice of the United StatesWarren E. Burgerand his predecessor,Earl Warren, and ambassadors from 83 nations at theCentury Plaza Hotel. Nixon and Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of thePresidential Medal of Freedom. The three astronauts spoke before ajoint session of Congresson September 16, 1969. They presented two US flags, one to theHouse of",
"one to theHouse of Representativesand the other to theSenate, that they had carried with them to the surface of the Moon.Theflag of American Samoaon Apollo 11 is on display at theJean P. Haydon Museumin Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa. This celebration began a 38-day world tour that brought the astronauts to 22 countries and included visits with many world leaders.The crew toured from September 29 to November 5.The world tour started in Mexico City and ended in Tokyo.Stops on the tour in order were:Mexico City,Bogota, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro,Las Palmasin theCanary Islands, Madrid, Paris,Amsterdam, Brussels,Oslo,Cologne, Berlin, London,Rome, Belgrade,Ankara,Kinshasa,Tehran,Mumbai,Dhaka,Bangkok,Darwin,Sydney,Guam,Seoul, Tokyo andHonolulu. Many nations honored the first humanMoon landingwith special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins. Legacy Cultural significance Humans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth accomplished Kennedy's goal",
"Kennedy's goal set eight years earlier. In Mission Control during the Apollo 11 landing, Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen, followed by the words \"TASK ACCOMPLISHED, July 1969\".The success of Apollo 11 demonstrated the United States' technological superiority;and with the success of Apollo 11, America had won theSpace Race. New phrases permeated into the English language. \"If they can send a man to the Moon, why can't they ...?\" became a common saying following Apollo 11.Armstrong's words on the lunar surface also spun off various parodies. While most people celebrated the accomplishment, disenfranchised Americans saw it as a symbol of the divide in America, evidenced by protesters led byRalph Abernathyoutside of Kennedy Space Center the day before Apollo 11 launched.NASA AdministratorThomas Painemet with Abernathy at the occasion, both hoping that the space program can spur progress also in other regards, such as poverty in the US.Paine was then asked, and agreed, to host protesters as spectators at",
"as spectators at the launch,and Abernathy, awestruck by the spectacle,prayed for the astronauts.Racial and financial inequalities frustrated citizens who wondered why money spent on the Apollo program was not spent taking care of humans on Earth. A poem byGil Scott-Heroncalled \"Whitey on the Moon\" (1970) illustrated theracial inequality in the United Statesthat was highlighted by the Space Race.The poem starts with: A rat done bit my sister Nell.(with Whitey on the moon)Her face and arms began to swell.(and Whitey's on the moon)I can't pay no doctor bill.(but Whitey's on the moon)Ten years from now I'll be paying still.(while Whitey's on the moon) Twenty percent of the world's population watched humans walk on the Moon for the first time.While Apollo 11 sparked the interest of the world, the follow-on Apollo missions did not hold the interest of the nation.One possible explanation was the shift in complexity. Landing someone on the Moon was an easy goal to understand; lunar geology was too abstract for the",
"abstract for the average person. Another is that Kennedy's goal of landing humans on the Moon had already been accomplished.A well-defined objective helped Project Apollo accomplish its goal, but after it was completed it was hard to justify continuing the lunar missions. While most Americans were proud of their nation's achievements in space exploration, only once during the late 1960s did theGallup Pollindicate that a majority of Americans favored \"doing more\" in space as opposed to \"doing less\". By 1973, 59 percent of those polled favored cutting spending on space exploration. The Space Race had been won, and Cold War tensions were easing as the US and Soviet Union entered the era ofdétente. This was also a time when inflation was rising, which put pressure on the government to reduce spending. What saved the space program was that it was one of the few government programs that had achieved something great. Drastic cuts, warnedCaspar Weinberger, the deputy director of theOffice of Management and Budget,",
"and Budget, might send a signal that \"our best years are behind us\". After the Apollo 11 mission, officials from the Soviet Union said landing humans on the Moon was dangerous and unnecessary. At the time the Soviet Union was attempting to retrieve lunar samples robotically. The Soviets publicly denied there was a race to the Moon, and indicated they were not making an attempt.Mstislav Keldyshsaid in July 1969, \"We are concentrating wholly on the creation of large satellite systems.\" It was revealed in 1989 that the Soviets had tried to send people to the Moon, but were unable due to technological difficulties.The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it any attention, and another portion was angered by it. The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs \"Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins\" bythe Byrdson the 1969 albumBallad of Easy Rider, \"Coon on the",
"Rider, \"Coon on the Moon\" byHowlin' Wolfon the 1973 albumThe Back Door Wolf, and \"One Small Step\" byAyreonon the 2000 albumUniversal Migrator Part 1: The Dream Sequencer. Spacecraft Thecommand moduleColumbiawent on a tour of the United States, visiting 49 state capitals, theDistrict of Columbia, andAnchorage, Alaska.In 1971, it was transferred to theSmithsonian Institution, and was displayed at theNational Air and Space Museum(NASM) in Washington, DC.It was in the centralMilestones of Flightexhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as theWright Flyer,Spirit of St. Louis,Bell X-1,North American X-15andFriendship 7. Columbiawas moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at theSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Centerin Chantilly, Virginia, to be readied for a four-city tour titledDestination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission. This includedSpace Center Houstonfrom October 14, 2017, to March 18, 2018, theSaint Louis Science",
"Louis Science Centerfrom April 14 to September 3, 2018, the Senator JohnHeinz History CenterinPittsburghfrom September 29, 2018, to February 18, 2019, and its last location atMuseum of FlightinSeattlefrom March 16 to September 2, 2019.Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time for an additional stop for the capsule, and it was moved to theCincinnati Museum Center. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on September 29, 2019. For 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum'sApollo to the Moonexhibit,until it permanently closed on December 3, 2018, to be replaced by a new gallery which was scheduled to open in 2022. A special display of Armstrong's suit was unveiled for the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11 in July 2019.The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar and the flotation bags are in the Smithsonian'sSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Centerannex nearWashington Dulles International Airportin Chantilly, Virginia, where they are on display along with a test lunar module. The descent",
"module. The descent stage of the LMEagleremains on the Moon. In 2009, theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts. The remains of the ascent stage are assumed to lie at an unknown location on the lunar surface. The ascent stage,Eagle, was not tracked after it was jettisoned. The lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make low Moon orbits unstable after a short time, leading the orbiting object to impact the surface.However, using a program developed by NASA, and high-resolution lunar gravity data, a paper was published, in 2021, indicating thatEaglemight still be in orbit as late as 2020. Using the orbital elements published by NASA, aMonte Carlo methodwas used to generate parameter sets that bracket the uncertainties in these elements. All simulations, of the orbit, predicted",
"orbit, predicted thatEaglewould never impact the lunar surface. In March 2012 a team of specialists financed byAmazonfounderJeff Bezoslocated theF-1 enginesfrom the S-IC stage that launched Apollo 11 into space. They were found on the Atlantic seabed using advanced sonar scanning.His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was from Apollo 11.The S-IVB third stage which performed Apollo 11's trans-lunar injection remains in a solar orbit near to that of Earth. Moon rocks The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is theLunar Sample Laboratory Facilityat the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center inHouston, Texas. For safekeeping, there is also a smaller collection stored atWhite Sands Test FacilitynearLas Cruces, New Mexico. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them free of moisture. They are handled only indirectly, using special tools. Over",
"special tools. Over 100 research laboratories worldwide conduct studies of the samples; approximately 500 samples are prepared and sent to investigators every year. In November 1969, Nixon asked NASA to make up about 250 presentationApollo 11 lunar sample displaysfor 135 nations, the fifty states of the United States and its possessions, and the United Nations. Each display included Moon dust from Apollo 11 and flags, including one of the Soviet Union, taken along by Apollo 11. The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil weighing about 50 mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button about as big as aUnited States half-dollar coin. This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust. Nixon gave the Apollo 11 lunar sample displays as goodwill gifts in 1970. Experiment results The Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed on August 25, 1969. The downlink failed on December 14, 1969.As of 2018, theLunar Laser Ranging experimentremains operational. Moonwalk camera The",
"Moonwalk camera The Hasselblad camera used during the moonwalk was thought to be lost or left on the Moon surface. Lunar ModuleEaglememorabilia In 2015, after Armstrong died in 2012, his widow contacted theNational Air and Space Museumto inform them she had found a white cloth bag in one of Armstrong's closets. The bag contained various items, which should have been left behind in theLunar ModuleEagle, including the 16mm Data Acquisition Camera that had been used to capture images of the first Moon landing.The camera is currently on display at the National Air and Space Museum. Anniversary events 40th anniversary On July 15, 2009,Life.comreleased a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken byLifephotographerRalph Morseprior to the Apollo 11 launch.From July 16 to 24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred.It is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key",
"a preview of key moments.In July 2010, air-to-ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronized and released for the first time.TheJohn F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museumset up anAdobe Flashwebsite that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon. On July 20, 2009, Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with PresidentBarack Obamaat the White House.\"We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin\", Obama said. \"We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey.\"On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts aCongressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida SenatorBill Nelsonand Florida RepresentativeAlan Grayson. A group of British scientists",
"British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing: It was carried out in a technically brilliant way with risks taken ... that would be inconceivable in the risk-averse world of today ... The Apollo programme is arguably the greatest technical achievement of mankind to date ... nothing since Apollo has come close the excitement that was generated by those astronauts—Armstrong, Aldrin and the 10 others who followed them. 50th anniversary On June 10, 2015, CongressmanBill Poseyintroduced resolution H.R. 2726 to the 114th session of theUnited States House of Representativesdirecting theUnited States Mintto design and sell commemorative coins in gold, silver and clad for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. On January 24, 2019, the Mint released theApollo 11 Fiftieth Anniversary commemorative coinsto the public on its website. A documentary film,Apollo 11, with restored footage of the 1969 event, premiered inIMAXon March 1, 2019, and",
"March 1, 2019, and broadly in theaters on March 8. The Smithsonian Institute'sNational Air and Space MuseumandNASAsponsored the \"Apollo 50 Festival\" on theNational Mallin Washington DC. The three-day (July 18 to 20, 2019) outdoor festival featured hands-on exhibits and activities, live performances, and speakers such asAdam Savageand NASA scientists. As part of the festival, a projection of the 363-foot (111 m) tallSaturn Vrocket was displayed on the east face of the 555-foot (169 m) tallWashington Monumentfrom July 16 through the 20th from 9:30 pm until 11:30 pm (EDT). The program also included a 17-minute show that combined full-motion video projected on the Washington Monument to recreate the assembly and launch of theSaturn Vrocket. The projection was joined by a 40-foot (12 m) wide recreation of theKennedy Space Centercountdown clock and two large video screens showing archival footage to recreate the time leading up to the moon landing. There were three shows per night on July 19–20, with the last show",
"with the last show on Saturday, delayed slightly so the portion where Armstrong first set foot on the Moon would happen exactly 50 years to the second after the actual event. On July 19, 2019, theGoogle Doodlepaid tribute to the Apollo 11 Moon Landing, complete with a link to an animated YouTube video with voiceover by astronautMichael Collins. Aldrin, Collins, and Armstrong's sons were hosted by PresidentDonald Trumpin the Oval Office. Films and documentaries See also References Notes Citations In some of the following sources, times are shown in the formathours:minutes:seconds(e.g. 109:24:15), referring to the mission's Ground Elapsed Time (GET),based on the official launch time of July 16, 1969, 13:32:00UTC(000:00:00 GET). Sources External links Multimedia"
] |
What is the name of the play written in May 2016 by a playwright who won the MacArthur Fellowship the same year as the poet who wrote "Postcolonial Love Poem"? | Skeleton Crew | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonial_Love_Poem | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Diaz | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacArthur_Fellows_Program# | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_Morisseau | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonial_Love_Poem', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Diaz', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacArthur_Fellows_Program#', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_Morisseau'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonial_Love_Poem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Diaz",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacArthur_Fellows_Program#",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_Morisseau"
] | [
"Postcolonial Love Poem Postcolonial Love Poemis a poem collection byNatalie Diazwhich is her second collection. Awards Finalist or Shortlist in References This article about a collection of writtenpoetryis astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"Natalie Diaz Natalie Diaz(born September 4, 1978)is aPulitzer Prize-winningMojaveAmericanpoet,language activist, former professional basketball player, and educator. She is enrolled in theGila River Indian Communityand identifies asAkimel O'odham.She is currently an Associate Professor atArizona State University. Early life Natalie Diaz was born inNeedles,California, on September 4. 1978.She grew up in theFort MojaveIndian Village in Needles, California, on the border of California,Arizona, andNevada. She attendedOld Dominion University, where she played point guard on thewomen's basketball team, reaching theNCAA Final Fouras a freshman and the bracket of sixteen her other three years. She earned a bachelor's degree.After playing professional basketball in Europe and Asia, she returned to Old Dominion University, and completed an MFA in poetry and fiction,in 2006. Career Her work appeared inNarrative,Poetrymagazine,Drunken Boat,Prairie Schooner,Iowa Review, andCrab Orchard Review. Diaz's debut book of poetry,When My Brother Was an Aztec, \"portrays experiences rooted in Native American life with personal and mythic power.\"It was a 2012 Lannan Literary Selection,was shortlisted for the 2013PEN/Open Book Award,and was a 2013American Book Awardwinner.One important focus of the book is a sister struggling with her brother's addiction to crystal meth. In 2012, she was interviewed about her poetry and language rehabilitation work on thePBS NewsHour. In 2018, she was named as the Maxine and Jonathan Marshall Chair in Modern and Contemporary Poetry at Arizona State University. In 2019, she was faculty at theCantoMundoRetreat. In 2021, her bookPostcolonial Love Poemwon thePulitzer Prize for Poetry. It was called \"a collection of tender, heart-wrenching and defiant poems that explore what it means to love and be loved in an America beset by conflict.\"The book was also a finalist for the 2020 National Book Award, a finalist for the 2020 Los Angeles Times Book Prize, a finalist for the 2020 Forward Prize for Best Collection, and shortlisted for the 2020 T. S. Eliot Prize. Personal life Diaz currently lives inMohave Valley, Arizona, where she used to work on language revitalization atFort Mojave, her home reservation. She worked with the last Elder speakers of the Mojave language. She is enrolled as member of the Gila Indian Community. Poetry In anthology Awards and honors References External links",
"MacArthur Fellows Program TheMacArthur Fellows Program, also known as theMacArthur Fellowshipand colloquially called the \"Genius Grant\",is a prize awarded annually by theJohn D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundationto typically between 20 and 30 individuals working in any field who have shown \"extraordinary originality and dedication in their creative pursuits and a marked capacity for self-direction\" and are citizens or residents of theUnited States. According to the foundation's website, \"the fellowship is not a reward for past accomplishments but rather an investment in a person's originality, insight, and potential\", but it also says such potential is \"based on a track record of significant accomplishments\". The current prize is $800,000 paid over five years in quarterly installments. Previously, it was $625,000. This figure was increased from $500,000 in 2013 with the release of a reviewof the MacArthur Fellows Program. The award has been called \"one of the most significant awards that is truly 'no strings attached'\". The program does not accept applications. Anonymous and confidential nominations are invited by the foundation and reviewed by an anonymous and confidential selection committee of about a dozen people. The committee reviews all nominees and recommends recipients to the president andboard of directors. Most new fellows first learn of their nomination and award upon receiving a congratulatory phone call. MacArthur FellowJim Collinsdescribed this experience in an editorial column ofThe New York Times. Marlies Carruth is the program's current director. Recipients As of 2023, since 1981, 1131 people have been named MacArthur Fellows,ranging in age from 18 to 82. In the five broad categories defined by the foundation, the breakdown for recipient focus is as follows: Arts 336; Humanities 170; Public Issues 257;STEM335; and Social Sciences 120. Of the 965 terminal degrees earned by 928 fellows during the period 1981 through 2018, 540 (56%) are doctorates, with the Ph.D. accounting for 514 (53.3%). Ivy league schools awarded 306 (31.7%) degrees to 300 (32.3%) fellows. The award is made to individuals of varying educational background but among the 1131 fellowship awards through the class of 2023, the following ten institutions have the most alumni fellows, withHarvard Universityhaving the most overall and theCalifornia Institute of Technologyhaving the most per capita. 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 Source: Notes References External links",
"Dominique Morisseau Dominique Morisseau(born March 13, 1978) is an American playwright and actress fromDetroit, Michigan. She has written more than nine plays,three of which are part of a cycle titledThe Detroit Project.She received aMacArthur Fellowship(also known as the 'Genius Grant') in 2018. Early life Morisseau was born and grew up in Detroit, Michigan, with her mother and father. Her mother's family is from Mississippi and her father's family is fromHaiti.She attended theUniversity of MichiganinAnn Arbor, where she received her BFA in Acting in 2000. There she met J. Keys, who is also from Michigan. They married in 2013.Keys was born in Detroit but grew up in Southfield, Michigan, a nearby suburb of the city. He works as a music industry promoter, emcee and hip hop musician. Career Acting Morisseau began her performance career as a live poetry speaker, primarily in her hometown community of Harmonie Park in Detroit.After graduating from college, she continued acting and worked with several organizations. At theLark Play Development Center, she worked as an actor in a workshop production ofThe MountaintopbyKatori Hall, developing the role of Camae. In 2013, in a production at theActors Theatre of Louisville, she reprised the role of Camae.She continues acting but has said that she would not act in any of her plays' premieres. Writing Morisseau began writing plays in college. She has said that the lack of suitable roles at the University of Michigan drove her to write plays and create the roles she wanted to perform. She wroteThe Blackness Blues: Time to Change the Tune, A Sister's Storyat this time. After college, in 2012 and 2013, she received a Playwrights of New York (PoNY) fellowship at theLark Play Development Center.She has also worked as a Teaching Artist withCity University of New York's Creative Arts Team. Morisseau has said that music plays a huge part in her work and often informs the work that she is writing. \"It's a resource and clue to my work, and music plays a unifier among cultural barriers.\" Morisseau was on the list of Top 20 Most Produced Playwrights in America in 2015–16, with 10 productions of her plays nationwide. Morisseau is a story editor for the television seriesShamelessonShowtimeand is also credited as a co-producer. She wrote the book for thejukebox musicalAin't Too Proud—The Life and Times of the Temptations, which is directed byDes McAnuff. The musical opened on Broadway at theImperial Theatrein March 2019. It played pre-Broadway engagements at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre (2017), theAhmanson Theatrein Los Angeles (August to September 2018),and theKennedy Center(July 2018). Thisplay marked Morisseau's Broadway debut.She received a nomination for aTony Award for Best Book of a Musical, the third Black woman to do so. Work The Detroit Project Morisseau has written a three-play cycle, titledThe Detroit Project.The three plays (in order) are: Detroit '67 This play \"explores an explosive and decisive moment in a great American city.The play's compelling characters struggle with racial tension and economic instability.\"It was developed and workshopped atThe Public Theaterin New York.Detroit '67eventually was featured at theClassical Theatre of Harlemwith theNational Black Theatre. It was nominated for eightAUDELCOTheatre Awards and received the 2014 Edward M. Kennedy Prize for Drama Inspired by American History. Paradise Blue Former musician Blue decides to sell his beloved jazz club in order to live out his dreams. He is left with the moral dilemma of leaving his partner, Pumpkin, and his loyal jazz band behind. Morisseau developed this play first atWilliamstown Theatre Festival, where it eventually had its world premiere in July 2015.Paradise Bluecontinued its development at theMcCarter Theatre,New York Theatre Workshop,The Public Theater, and theSignature Theatre Company.For this play, Morisseau received the L. Arnold Weissberger Awardin 2012. Skeleton Crew The final play in the cycle revolves around a group of auto-plant workers grappling with the likely possibility of foreclosure and impending unemployment.Skeleton Crewreceived a developmental production at theLark Play Development Center.Directed byRuben Santiago-Hudson, this play had its world premiere at the Off-BroadwayLinda Gross Theaterwith theAtlantic Theater Companyin May 2016. Morisseau won the 2016Obie AwardSpecial Citation for Collaboration, along with director Santiago-Hudson and the Atlantic Theater Company forSkeleton Crew.The play won the Edgerton Foundation New Play Award in 2015.Skeleton Crewopened on Broadway in January 2022.It was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Play. Works Awards Morisseau received aMacArthur Fellowship(also known as the 'Genius Grant') fin 2018, which included a stipend of $625,000. She is one of 25 fellows in the 2018 Class. Morisseau was named an Honoree for theJane ChambersPlaywriting Award, which recognizes plays and performance texts created by women that present a feminist perspective and contain significant opportunities for female performers. She is a two-time award winner of theNAACPImage Award, which celebrates the outstanding achievements and performances of people of color in the arts, as well as those individuals or groups who promote social justice through their creative endeavors. References External links"
] | [
"Postcolonial Love Poem Postcolonial Love Poemis a poem collection byNatalie Diazwhich is her second collection. Awards Finalist or Shortlist in References This article about a collection of writtenpoetryis astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.",
"Natalie Diaz Natalie Diaz(born September 4, 1978)is aPulitzer Prize-winningMojaveAmericanpoet,language activist, former professional basketball player, and educator. She is enrolled in theGila River Indian Communityand identifies asAkimel O'odham.She is currently an Associate Professor atArizona State University. Early life Natalie Diaz was born inNeedles,California, on September 4. 1978.She grew up in theFort MojaveIndian Village in Needles, California, on the border of California,Arizona, andNevada. She attendedOld Dominion University, where she played point guard on thewomen's basketball team, reaching theNCAA Final Fouras a freshman and the bracket of sixteen her other three years. She earned a bachelor's degree.After playing professional basketball in Europe and Asia, she returned to Old Dominion University, and completed an MFA in poetry and fiction,in 2006. Career Her work appeared inNarrative,Poetrymagazine,Drunken Boat,Prairie Schooner,Iowa Review, andCrab Orchard Review. Diaz's debut book of",
"debut book of poetry,When My Brother Was an Aztec, \"portrays experiences rooted in Native American life with personal and mythic power.\"It was a 2012 Lannan Literary Selection,was shortlisted for the 2013PEN/Open Book Award,and was a 2013American Book Awardwinner.One important focus of the book is a sister struggling with her brother's addiction to crystal meth. In 2012, she was interviewed about her poetry and language rehabilitation work on thePBS NewsHour. In 2018, she was named as the Maxine and Jonathan Marshall Chair in Modern and Contemporary Poetry at Arizona State University. In 2019, she was faculty at theCantoMundoRetreat. In 2021, her bookPostcolonial Love Poemwon thePulitzer Prize for Poetry. It was called \"a collection of tender, heart-wrenching and defiant poems that explore what it means to love and be loved in an America beset by conflict.\"The book was also a finalist for the 2020 National Book Award, a finalist for the 2020 Los Angeles Times Book Prize, a finalist for the 2020 Forward Prize",
"2020 Forward Prize for Best Collection, and shortlisted for the 2020 T. S. Eliot Prize. Personal life Diaz currently lives inMohave Valley, Arizona, where she used to work on language revitalization atFort Mojave, her home reservation. She worked with the last Elder speakers of the Mojave language. She is enrolled as member of the Gila Indian Community. Poetry In anthology Awards and honors References External links",
"MacArthur Fellows Program TheMacArthur Fellows Program, also known as theMacArthur Fellowshipand colloquially called the \"Genius Grant\",is a prize awarded annually by theJohn D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundationto typically between 20 and 30 individuals working in any field who have shown \"extraordinary originality and dedication in their creative pursuits and a marked capacity for self-direction\" and are citizens or residents of theUnited States. According to the foundation's website, \"the fellowship is not a reward for past accomplishments but rather an investment in a person's originality, insight, and potential\", but it also says such potential is \"based on a track record of significant accomplishments\". The current prize is $800,000 paid over five years in quarterly installments. Previously, it was $625,000. This figure was increased from $500,000 in 2013 with the release of a reviewof the MacArthur Fellows Program. The award has been called \"one of the most significant awards that is truly 'no",
"that is truly 'no strings attached'\". The program does not accept applications. Anonymous and confidential nominations are invited by the foundation and reviewed by an anonymous and confidential selection committee of about a dozen people. The committee reviews all nominees and recommends recipients to the president andboard of directors. Most new fellows first learn of their nomination and award upon receiving a congratulatory phone call. MacArthur FellowJim Collinsdescribed this experience in an editorial column ofThe New York Times. Marlies Carruth is the program's current director. Recipients As of 2023, since 1981, 1131 people have been named MacArthur Fellows,ranging in age from 18 to 82. In the five broad categories defined by the foundation, the breakdown for recipient focus is as follows: Arts 336; Humanities 170; Public Issues 257;STEM335; and Social Sciences 120. Of the 965 terminal degrees earned by 928 fellows during the period 1981 through 2018, 540 (56%) are doctorates, with the Ph.D.",
"with the Ph.D. accounting for 514 (53.3%). Ivy league schools awarded 306 (31.7%) degrees to 300 (32.3%) fellows. The award is made to individuals of varying educational background but among the 1131 fellowship awards through the class of 2023, the following ten institutions have the most alumni fellows, withHarvard Universityhaving the most overall and theCalifornia Institute of Technologyhaving the most per capita. 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 Source: Notes References External links",
"Dominique Morisseau Dominique Morisseau(born March 13, 1978) is an American playwright and actress fromDetroit, Michigan. She has written more than nine plays,three of which are part of a cycle titledThe Detroit Project.She received aMacArthur Fellowship(also known as the 'Genius Grant') in 2018. Early life Morisseau was born and grew up in Detroit, Michigan, with her mother and father. Her mother's family is from Mississippi and her father's family is fromHaiti.She attended theUniversity of MichiganinAnn Arbor, where she received her BFA in Acting in 2000. There she met J. Keys, who is also from Michigan. They married in 2013.Keys was born in Detroit but grew up in Southfield, Michigan, a nearby suburb of the city. He works as a music industry promoter, emcee and hip hop musician. Career Acting Morisseau began her performance career as a live poetry speaker, primarily in her hometown community of Harmonie Park in Detroit.After graduating from college, she continued acting and worked with several",
"worked with several organizations. At theLark Play Development Center, she worked as an actor in a workshop production ofThe MountaintopbyKatori Hall, developing the role of Camae. In 2013, in a production at theActors Theatre of Louisville, she reprised the role of Camae.She continues acting but has said that she would not act in any of her plays' premieres. Writing Morisseau began writing plays in college. She has said that the lack of suitable roles at the University of Michigan drove her to write plays and create the roles she wanted to perform. She wroteThe Blackness Blues: Time to Change the Tune, A Sister's Storyat this time. After college, in 2012 and 2013, she received a Playwrights of New York (PoNY) fellowship at theLark Play Development Center.She has also worked as a Teaching Artist withCity University of New York's Creative Arts Team. Morisseau has said that music plays a huge part in her work and often informs the work that she is writing. \"It's a resource and clue to my work, and music plays",
"and music plays a unifier among cultural barriers.\" Morisseau was on the list of Top 20 Most Produced Playwrights in America in 2015–16, with 10 productions of her plays nationwide. Morisseau is a story editor for the television seriesShamelessonShowtimeand is also credited as a co-producer. She wrote the book for thejukebox musicalAin't Too Proud—The Life and Times of the Temptations, which is directed byDes McAnuff. The musical opened on Broadway at theImperial Theatrein March 2019. It played pre-Broadway engagements at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre (2017), theAhmanson Theatrein Los Angeles (August to September 2018),and theKennedy Center(July 2018). Thisplay marked Morisseau's Broadway debut.She received a nomination for aTony Award for Best Book of a Musical, the third Black woman to do so. Work The Detroit Project Morisseau has written a three-play cycle, titledThe Detroit Project.The three plays (in order) are: Detroit '67 This play \"explores an explosive and decisive moment in a great American",
"in a great American city.The play's compelling characters struggle with racial tension and economic instability.\"It was developed and workshopped atThe Public Theaterin New York.Detroit '67eventually was featured at theClassical Theatre of Harlemwith theNational Black Theatre. It was nominated for eightAUDELCOTheatre Awards and received the 2014 Edward M. Kennedy Prize for Drama Inspired by American History. Paradise Blue Former musician Blue decides to sell his beloved jazz club in order to live out his dreams. He is left with the moral dilemma of leaving his partner, Pumpkin, and his loyal jazz band behind. Morisseau developed this play first atWilliamstown Theatre Festival, where it eventually had its world premiere in July 2015.Paradise Bluecontinued its development at theMcCarter Theatre,New York Theatre Workshop,The Public Theater, and theSignature Theatre Company.For this play, Morisseau received the L. Arnold Weissberger Awardin 2012. Skeleton Crew The final play in the cycle revolves around a group",
"around a group of auto-plant workers grappling with the likely possibility of foreclosure and impending unemployment.Skeleton Crewreceived a developmental production at theLark Play Development Center.Directed byRuben Santiago-Hudson, this play had its world premiere at the Off-BroadwayLinda Gross Theaterwith theAtlantic Theater Companyin May 2016. Morisseau won the 2016Obie AwardSpecial Citation for Collaboration, along with director Santiago-Hudson and the Atlantic Theater Company forSkeleton Crew.The play won the Edgerton Foundation New Play Award in 2015.Skeleton Crewopened on Broadway in January 2022.It was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Play. Works Awards Morisseau received aMacArthur Fellowship(also known as the 'Genius Grant') fin 2018, which included a stipend of $625,000. She is one of 25 fellows in the 2018 Class. Morisseau was named an Honoree for theJane ChambersPlaywriting Award, which recognizes plays and performance texts created by women that present a feminist perspective and contain",
"and contain significant opportunities for female performers. She is a two-time award winner of theNAACPImage Award, which celebrates the outstanding achievements and performances of people of color in the arts, as well as those individuals or groups who promote social justice through their creative endeavors. References External links"
] |
What lake in Isreal supports a population of the state bird of the Indian state Haryana? | The Sea of Galilee | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_francolin | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_francolin'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_francolin"
] | [
"Sea of Galilee TheSea of Galilee(Hebrew:יָם כִּנֶּרֶת,Judeo-Aramaic: יַמּא דטבריא, גִּנֵּיסַר,Arabic:بحيرة طبريا), also calledLake TiberiasorKinneret, is afreshwaterlakeinIsraelandSyria(occupied by Israel). It is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-lowest lake in the world (after theDead Sea, asalt lake),at levels between 215 and 209 metres (705 and 686 ft) below sea level.It is approximately 53 km (33 mi) in circumference, about 21 km (13 mi) long, and 13 km (8.1 mi) wide. Its area is 166.7 km2(64.4 sq mi) at its fullest, and its maximum depth is approximately 43 metres (141 ft).The lake is fed partly by underground springs, but its main source is theJordan River, which flows through it from north to south and exits the lake at theDegania Dam. Geography The Sea of Galilee is situated in northeastIsrael, between theGolan Heightsand theGalileeregion, in theJordan Rift Valley,formed by the separation of theAfricanandArabianplates. Consequently, the area is subject toearthquakes, and in the past,volcanicactivity.This is evident from the abundantbasaltand otherigneousrocks that define thegeology of Galilee. Names The lake has been called by different names throughout its history, usually depending on the dominant settlement on its shores. With the changing fate of the towns, the lake's name also changed. The modern Hebrew nameKineretcomes from theHebrew Bible, where it appears as the \"sea of Kineret\" inNumbers 34:11andJoshua 13:27, and spelled כנרות \"Kinerot\" inHebrewinJoshua 11:2. This name was also found in the scripts ofUgarit, in theAqhat Epic. As the name of acity,Kinneretwas listed among the \"fenced cities\" inJoshua 19:35. A persistent, though likely erroneous, popular etymology presumes that the nameKinneretmay originate from the Hebrew wordkinnor(\"harp\" or \"lyre\"), because of the shape of the lake.The scholarly consensus, however, is that the origin of the name is derived from the importantBronzeandIron Agecity of Kinneret, excavated at Tell el-'Oreimeh.The city of Kinneret may have been named after the body of water rather than vice versa, and there is no evidence for the origin of the town's name. AllOldandNew Testamentwriters use the term \"sea\" (Hebrew יָםyam, Greek θάλασσα), with the exception ofLuke, who calls it \"the Lake of Gennesaret\" (Luke 5:1), from the Greek λίμνη Γεννησαρέτ (limnē Gennēsaret), the \"Grecized form of Chinnereth.\"TheBabylonian Talmudas well asFlavius Josephusmention the sea by the name \"Sea of Ginosar\" after the small fertileplain of Ginosarthat lies on its western side.Ginosar is yet another name derived from \"Kinneret\". The wordGalileecomes from the HebrewHaggalil(הַגָלִיל), which literally means \"The District\", a compressed form ofGelil Haggoyim\"The District of Nations\" (Isaiah 8:23). Toward the end of the 1st century CE, the Sea of Galilee became widely known as theSea of Tiberiasafter the city ofTiberiasfounded on its western shore in honour of the second Roman emperor,Tiberius. In the New Testament, the term \"sea of Galilee\" (Greek:θάλασσαν τῆς Γαλιλαίας,thalassan tēs Galilaias) is used in theGospel of Matthew4:18; 15:29, theGospel of Mark1:16; 7:31, and in theGospel of John6:1as \"the sea of Galilee, which is of Tiberias\" (θαλάσσης τῆς Γαλιλαίας τῆς Τιβεριάδος,thalassēs tēs Galilaias tēs Tiberiados), the late 1st century CE name.Sea of Tiberias is also the name mentioned in Roman texts and in theJerusalem Talmud, and it was adopted into Arabic asBuḥayret Ṭabariyyāⓘ(بحيرة طبريا), \"Lake Tiberias\". From theUmayyadthrough theMamlukperiod, the lake was known in Arabic asBahr al-Minya, the \"Sea of Minya\", after the Umayyadqasrcomplex, whose ruins are still visible atKhirbat al-Minya. This is the name used by the medievalPersianandArabscholarsAl-Baladhuri,Al-TabariandIbn Kathir. History Prehistory In 1989, remains of ahunter-gatherersite were found under the water at the southern end. Remains of mud huts were found inOhalo. Nahal Ein Gev, located about 3 km (1.9 mi) east of the lake, contains a village from the lateNatufianperiod. The site is considered one of the first permanent human settlements in the world from a time predating theNeolithic Revolution. Hellenistic and Roman periods The Sea of Galilee lies on the ancientVia Maris, which linkedEgyptwith the northern empires. TheGreeks,Hasmoneans, andRomansfounded flourishing towns and settlements on the lake includingHipposandTiberias. Contemporary Roman–Jewish historianFlavius Josephuswas so impressed by the area that he wrote, \"One may call this place the ambition of Nature\"; he also reports a thriving fishing industry at this time, with 230 boats regularly working in the lake. Archaeologists discovered one such boat, nicknamed theJesus Boat, in 1986. In the New Testament, much of theministry of Jesusoccurs on the shores of the Sea of Galilee. In those days, there was a continuous ribbon development of settlements and villages around the lake and plenty of trade and ferrying by boat. TheSynoptic GospelsofMark 1:14–20),Matthew 4:18–22), andLuke 5:1–11) describe how Jesus recruited four of hisapostlesfrom the shores of the Kinneret: the fishermenSimonand his brotherAndrewand the brothersJohnandJames. One of Jesus' famous teaching episodes, theSermon on the Mount, is supposed to have been given on a hill overlooking the Kinneret. Many of his miracles are also said to have occurred here includinghis walking on water,calming the storm, the disciples and themiraculous catch of fish, and hisfeeding five thousand people(inTabgha). In John's Gospel the sea provides the setting for Jesus' thirdpost-resurrection appearanceto his disciples (John 21). In 135 CE,Bar Kokhba's revoltwas put down which was part of theJewish–Roman wars. The Romans responded by banning all Jews fromJerusalem. The center of Jewish culture and learning shifted to the region of Galilee and the Kinneret, particularly Tiberias. It was in this region that theJerusalem Talmudwas compiled. Middle Ages The Sea of Galilee's importance declined when theByzantineslost control, and the area was conquered by theUmayyad Caliphateand subsequent Islamic empires. The palace ofMinyawas built by the lake during the reign ofal-Walid I(705–715 CE). Apart from Tiberias, the major towns and cities in the area were gradually abandoned.In 1187, SultanSaladindefeated the armies of theCrusaderKingdom of Jerusalemat theBattle of Hattin, largely because he was able to cut the Crusaders off from the valuable fresh water of the Sea of Galilee. The lake had little importance within the earlyOttoman Empire. Tiberias did see a significant revival of its Jewish community in the 16th century but had gradually declined until the city wasdestroyed in 1660. In the early 18th century, Tiberias was rebuilt byZahir al-Umar, becoming the center of his rule over Galilee, and seeing also a revival of its Jewish community. Early 20th century In 1908, Jewish pioneers established theKinneret Farmat the same time as and next to Moshavat Kinneret in the immediate vicinity of the lake. The farm trained Jewish immigrants in modern farming. One group of youth from the training farm establishedKvutzatDeganiain 1909–1910, popularly considered as the firstkibbutz, another group foundedKvutzat Kinneretin 1913, and yet another the first proper kibbutz,Ein Harod, in 1921, the same year when the firstmoshav,Nahalal, was established by a group trained at the farm. The Jewish settlements around Kinneret Farm are considered the cradle of the kibbutz culture of earlyZionism; Kvutzat Kinneret is the birthplace ofNaomi Shemer, buried at the Kinneret Cemetery next toRachel—two prominent national poets. In 1917, the British defeated Ottoman Turkish forces and took control ofPalestine, while France took control of Syria. In the carve-up of the Ottoman territories between Britain and France, it was agreed that Britain would retain control of Palestine while France would control Syria. However, the allies had to fix the border between theMandatory Palestineand theFrench Mandate of Syria.The boundary was defined in broad terms by theFranco-British Boundary Agreementof December 1920, which drew it across the middle of the lake.However, the commission established by the 1920 treaty redrew the boundary. The Zionist movement pressured the French and British to assign as many water sources as possible to Mandatory Palestine during the demarcating negotiations. The High Commissioner of Palestine,Herbert Samuel, had sought full control of the Sea of Galilee.The negotiations led to the inclusion into the Palestine territory of the whole Sea of Galilee, both sides of theRiver Jordan,Lake Hula, Dan spring, and part of theYarmouk.The final border approved in 1923 followed a 10-meter wide strip along the lake's northeastern shore,cutting the Mandatory Syria (State of Damascus) off from the lake. The British and French Agreement provided that existing rights over the use of the waters of the River Jordan by the inhabitants of Syria would be maintained; the government of Syria would have the right to erect a new pier atSemakhon Lake Tiberias or jointly use the existing pier; persons or goods passing between the landing-stage on the Lake of Tiberias and Semakh would not be subject to customs regulations, and the Syrian government would have access to the said landing-stage; the inhabitants of Syria and Lebanon would have the same fishing and navigation rights on Lakes Huleh, Tiberias and River Jordan, while the government of Palestine would be responsible for policing of lakes. State of Israel On 15 May 1948, Syria invaded the newborn state of Israel,capturing territory along the Sea of Galilee.Under the 1949armistice agreementbetween Israel and Syria, Syria occupied the northeast shoreline of the Sea of Galilee. The agreement stated that the armistice line was \"not to be interpreted as having any relation whatsoever to ultimate territorial arrangements.\" Syria remained in possession of the lake's northeast shoreline until the 1967Arab-Israeli war. In the 1950s, Israel formulated a plan to link the Kinneret with the rest of the country's water infrastructure via theNational Water Carrier, in order to supply the water demand of the growing country. The carrier was completed in 1964. The Israeli plan, to which theArab Leagueopposed its ownplan to divert the headwaters of the Jordan River, sparked political and sometimes even armedconfrontations over the Jordan basin. Geology The lake lies in the center of the Jordan Valley, in the northern part of theSyrian-African rift. Several directions oftectonic movementscharacterize the region, mirroring the patterns typical of the entire Syrian-African rift: north–south movements, which started about 20 million years ago; stretching movements in the east–west direction, which began later, at the beginning of thePleistocene(about 1.8 million years ago), and caused thesubsidenceof the lake area. As a result of horizontal shifts in the north–south direction and subsidence of the area, a lake was formed, with an asymmetrical bottom—steeper in the east and a gentler in the west. In the southern part an underwater cliff is present, covered by the lake's sediments. The cliff is distinct in the western part and less so in the east. The Sea of Galilee in its current form was preceded byLake Lisan, which extended from the northern Sea of Galilee toHatzevain the south, more than 200 km (120 mi) from the present southernmost point of the lake. Lake Lisan was preceded by Lake Ovadia, a much smaller fresh water lake. Lake Kinneret was formed in its current form less than 20,000 years ago, as a result of tectonic subsidence and the shrinking up of Lake Lisan. Archaeology In 1986 theAncient Galilee Boat, also known as the Jesus Boat, was discovered on the northwest shore during a drought when water levels receded. It is an ancient fishing boat from the 1st century AD, and although there is no evidence directly linking the boat to Jesus and his disciples, it nevertheless is an example of the kind of boat that Jesus and his disciples, some of whom were fishermen, may have used. During a routine sonar scan in 2003 (finding published in 2013),archaeologists discovered an enormous conical stone structure. The structure, which has a diameter of around 230 feet (70 m), is made of boulders and stones. The ruins are estimated to be between 2,000 and 12,000 years old and are about 10 metres (33 ft) underwater.The estimated weight of the monument is over 60,000 tons. Researchers explain that the site resembles early burial sites in Europe and was likely built in the earlyBronze Age. In February 2018, archaeologists discovered seven intact mosaics withGreekinscriptions. One inscription, at five meters one of the longest found to date in western Galilee, gives the names of donors and the names and positions of church officials, including Irenaeus, bishop ofTyrein 445. Another mosaic mentions a woman as a donor to the church's construction. This inscription is the first in the region to mention a female donor. Water level The water level is monitored and regulated. There are three levels at which the alarm is rung: Daily monitoring of the Sea of Galilee's water level began in 1969, and the lowest level recorded since then was November 2001, which today constitutes the \"black line\" of 214.87 meters below sea level (although it is believed the water level had fallen lower than the current black line, during droughts earlier in the 20th century). The Israeli government monitors water levels and publishes the results daily.Increasing water demand in Israel, Lebanon and Jordan, as well as dry winters, have resulted in stress on the lake and a decreasing water line to dangerously low levels at times. The Sea of Galilee is at risk of becoming irreversibly salinized by the salt water springs under the lake, which are held in check by the weight of the freshwater on top of them. After five years of drought up to 2018, the Sea of Galilee was expected to drop near the black line.In February 2018, the city of Tiberias requested adesalinationplant to treat the water coming from the Sea of Galilee and demanded a new water source for the city.March 2018 was the lowest point in water incometo the lake since 1927.In September 2018 theIsraeli energy and water officeannounced a project to pour desalinated water from the Mediterranean Sea into the Sea of Galilee using a tunnel. The tunnel is expected to be the largest of its kind in Israel and will transfer halfof the Mediterranean desalted water and will move 300 to 500 million cubic meters of water per year.The plan is said to cost five billion shekels. Since the beginning of the 2018–19 rainy season, the Sea of Galilee has risen considerably. From being near the ecologically dangerous black line of −214.4 m, the level has risen by April 2020 to just 16 cm (6.3 in) below the upper red line, a result of strong rains and a radical decrease in pumping.During the entire 2018–19 rainy season the water level rose by a historical record of 3.47 meters (11.4 ft), while the 2019–20 winter brought a 2.82 meters (9 ft 3 in) rise.The Water Authority dug a new canal in order to let 5 billion liters (1.1×109imp gal; 1.3×109U.S. gal) of water flow from the lake directly into the Jordan River, bypassing the existing dams system for technical and financial reasons. Water use TheNational Water Carrier of Israel, completed in 1964, transports water from the lake to the population centers of Israel, and in the past supplied most of the country's drinking water.In 2016 the lake supplied approximately 10% of Israel's drinking water needs. In 1964, Syria attempted construction of aHeadwater Diversion Planthat would have blocked the flow of water into the Sea of Galilee, sharply reducing the water flow into the lake.This project and Israel's attempt to block these efforts in 1965 were factors which played into regional tensions culminating in the 1967 Six-Day War. During the war, Israel captured theGolan Heights, which contain some of the sources of water for the Sea of Galilee. Up until the mid-2010s, about 400 million m3(14 billion cu ft) of water was pumped through the National Water Carrier each year.Under the terms of theIsrael–Jordan peace treaty, Israel also supplies 50 million m3(1.8 billion cu ft) of water annually from the lake toJordan.In recent years the Israeli government has made extensive investments inwater conservation,reclamationanddesalinationinfrastructure in the country. This has allowed it to significantly reduce the amount of water pumped from the lake annually in an effort to restore and improve its ecological environment, as well as respond to some of the most extreme drought conditions in hundreds of years affecting the lake'sintake basinsince 1998. Therefore, it was expected that in 2016 only about 25 million m3(880 million cu ft) of water would be drawn from the lake for Israeli domestic consumption, a small fraction of the amount typically drawn from the lake over the previous decades. Tourism Tourismaround the Sea of Galilee is an important economic segment. Historical and religious sites in the region draw both local and foreign tourists. The Sea of Galilee is an attraction forChristian pilgrimswho visit Israel to see the places where Jesus performed miracles according to the New Testament. Alonzo Ketcham Parker, a 19th-century American traveler, called visiting the Sea of Galilee \"a 'fifth gospel' which one read devoutly, his heart overflowing with quiet joy\". In April 2011, Israel unveiled a 40-mile (64 km) hiking trail in Galilee for Christian pilgrims, called the \"Jesus Trail\". It includes a network of footpaths, roads and bicycle paths linking sites central to the lives of Jesus and his disciples. It ends atCapernaumon the shores of the Sea of Galilee, where Jesus expounded his teachings.Another key attraction is the site where the Sea of Galilee's water flows into the Jordan River, to which thousands of pilgrims from all over the world come to be baptized every year. Israel's most well-known open water swim race, the Kinneret Crossing, is held every year in September, drawing thousands of open water swimmers to participate in competitive and noncompetitive events.Tourists also partake in the building of rafts onLavnun Beach, called Rafsodia. Here many different age groups work together to build a raft with their bare hands and then sail that raft across the sea.Other economic activities include fishing in the lake andagriculture, particularlybananas, dates, mangoes, grapes and olives in the fertile belt of land surrounding it. The Turkish Aviators Monument, erected during the Ottoman era, stands near KibbutzHa'onon the lakeshore, commemorating the Turkish pilots whose monoplanes crashed en route to Jerusalem. Ecology The warm waters of the Sea of Galilee support various flora and fauna, which have supported a significant commercial fishery for more than two millennia. Local flora include various reeds along most of the shoreline as well asphytoplankton. Fauna includezooplankton,benthosand a number of fish species such asMirogrex terraesanctae.The Fishing and Agricultural Division of the Ministry of Water and Agriculture of Israel lists 10 families of fish living in the lake, with a total of 27 species – 19 native and 8introduced species.Local fishermen talk of four types of fish: \"مشط musht\" (tilapia); sardin (the Kinneret bleak,Mirogrex terraesanctae); \"بني biny\" or Jordan barbel,Luciobarbus longiceps(barb-like); and North African sharptoothcatfish(Clarias gariepinus).The tilapia species include the Galilean tilapia (Sarotherodon galilaeus), the blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus), and the redbelly tilapia (Tilapia zillii).Fish caught commercially includeTristramella simonisand the Galilean tilapia, locally called \"St. Peter's fish\".In 2005, 300 short tons (270 t) of tilapia were caught by local fishermen. This dropped to 8 short tons (7.3 t) in 2009 because ofoverfishing.A fish species that is unique to the lake,Tristramella sacra, used tospawnin the marsh and has not been seen since the 1990s droughts.Conservationists fear this species may have becomeextinct. Low water levels in drought years have stressed thelake's ecology. This may have been aggravated by over-extraction of water for either the National Water Carrier to supply other parts of Israel or, since 1994, for the supply of water to Jordan. Droughts of the early and mid-1990s dried out the marshy northern margin of the lake.It is hoped that drastic reductions in the amount of water pumped through the National Water Carrier will help restore the lake's ecology over the span of several years. The lake, with its immediate surrounds, has been recognised as anImportant Bird AreabyBirdLife Internationalbecause it supports populations ofblack francolinsand non-breedinggriffon vulturesas well as many wintering waterbirds, includingmarbled teals,great crested grebes,grey herons,great white egrets,great cormorantsandblack-headed gulls. See also References Further reading External links",
"Black francolin Tetrao francolinusLinnaeus, 1766 Theblack francolin(Francolinus francolinus) is agamebirdin thepheasantfamilyPhasianidaeof the orderGalliformes. It was formerly known as the black partridge. It is the state bird ofHaryanastate,India(locally known askaala teetar, काला तीतर). Fried black francolin is eaten inAzerbaijani cuisine. Taxonomy There are six recognized subspecies: Description The black francolin has a length range around 33 to 36 cm (13 to 14 in) and weight about 453 g (16 oz). The male is black with a white patch on the cheek, a chestnut collar and white spots on the flanks. The back and wings are scalloped with shades of golden brown with sub-terminal tawny-buff bands and pale edges. The rounded tail is black with narrow white or greyish bars. The legs and neck are reddish-brown to red. The extent of the white spotting on the flanks varies substantially across the species' range and the depth of colour of the females similarly varies. The female is mainly brown, but has a chestnut hind neck. The head is curved with brown irises, brown crown and black throat. The upper plumage, wings and tail as in the male, but the black is replaced by mottled brown and the brown bars on the lower back and tail are wider. The female is duller, with no cheek patch, and the collar is replaced with a nuchal patch. The head and underparts are buff where the male shows black. The rump and upper tail coverts are light brown. Similar species: the grey francolin has a grey-brown and buff body, buff instead of black throat, and lacks the rufous collar. Voice The call of the black francolin, described as a loud ringing \"klik cheek-cheek-cheerakik\", \"kik-kik-kik\" or \"kwee-kweeeee-kwee\", can be heard in the mornings and evenings and almost all day during the breeding season. The male calls while standing on an earth mound, bund, rock or a low tree branch and is soon joined by other birds answering from all directions. Distribution and habitat Black francolins are resident breeders from south-easternTurkeyeastwards throughIranto southwestTurkmenistanand northeast India, and Kazipara,PanchagarhofBangladesh.The species' range was formerly more extensive, but over-hunting has reduced its distribution and numbers. Fragmented populations occur in the western part of its range. Black francolins wereintroducedto theCalcasieuandCameronparishes of southwesternLouisianain 1961.Additional introductions have also occurred in southFlorida.Elsewhere, black francolins have been introduced toGuamand theHawaiian Islands. The birds are found in scrubby habitats with plenty of cultivated crops tall enough to offer shelter and open beneath to provide escape routes and easy travel. They prefer areas of thick vegetation, usually near water. They are not forest birds but will frequent scrubland and forest edges associated with grassland. They appear to be more closely associated to water thanchukarsare, and in drier areas. Behaviour The black francolin only flies when disturbed. It has a pheasant's explosive flight, but prefers to creep away unseen. The flight is short and direct, punctuated by glides on rounded wings. Breeding Black francolins are monogamous. They normally nest in tall grasslands from late March to May. The male may be seen standing on a rock or low tree attracting attention with its extraordinary creaking call. It may be heard all day long in April, during nesting, and less persistently in March and May as well as the summer months. Both parents tend chicks after hatching. Young stay with parents through their first winter. The most likely breeding locations Savanna, Grasslands, Scrub vegetation areas under the cultivated crops. They have a loud call during the breeding season. Males may also become aggressive during the breeding season, make sure there is plenty of cover and escape routes for the hen and it maybe necessary to house her separate and allow limited access for breeding only. They are generally monogamous in the wild. In aviculture it is best to house only one pair per aviary. Well planted aviaries with little surrounding traffic would be best for breeding. They are fairly winter hardy, but always provide some shelter during the coldest months breeds from late March to September depending on the range. The normal clutch size lies between 10 and 14 eggs, and only the hen incubates. The eggs are white-spotted olive or pale brown. The incubation period is 18 to 19 days, the breeding season is April to June and the young appear from April to October. Feeding The birds forage on the ground for plant material and small invertebrates, including grain, grass seeds, fallen berries, shoots, tubers, termites and ants. In aviculture they eat small mealworms and wax worms, but care must be used when feeding chicks as they are prone to toe-picking. . References External links"
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"Sea of Galilee TheSea of Galilee(Hebrew:יָם כִּנֶּרֶת,Judeo-Aramaic: יַמּא דטבריא, גִּנֵּיסַר,Arabic:بحيرة طبريا), also calledLake TiberiasorKinneret, is afreshwaterlakeinIsraelandSyria(occupied by Israel). It is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-lowest lake in the world (after theDead Sea, asalt lake),at levels between 215 and 209 metres (705 and 686 ft) below sea level.It is approximately 53 km (33 mi) in circumference, about 21 km (13 mi) long, and 13 km (8.1 mi) wide. Its area is 166.7 km2(64.4 sq mi) at its fullest, and its maximum depth is approximately 43 metres (141 ft).The lake is fed partly by underground springs, but its main source is theJordan River, which flows through it from north to south and exits the lake at theDegania Dam. Geography The Sea of Galilee is situated in northeastIsrael, between theGolan Heightsand theGalileeregion, in theJordan Rift Valley,formed by the separation of theAfricanandArabianplates. Consequently, the area is subject toearthquakes, and in the",
"and in the past,volcanicactivity.This is evident from the abundantbasaltand otherigneousrocks that define thegeology of Galilee. Names The lake has been called by different names throughout its history, usually depending on the dominant settlement on its shores. With the changing fate of the towns, the lake's name also changed. The modern Hebrew nameKineretcomes from theHebrew Bible, where it appears as the \"sea of Kineret\" inNumbers 34:11andJoshua 13:27, and spelled כנרות \"Kinerot\" inHebrewinJoshua 11:2. This name was also found in the scripts ofUgarit, in theAqhat Epic. As the name of acity,Kinneretwas listed among the \"fenced cities\" inJoshua 19:35. A persistent, though likely erroneous, popular etymology presumes that the nameKinneretmay originate from the Hebrew wordkinnor(\"harp\" or \"lyre\"), because of the shape of the lake.The scholarly consensus, however, is that the origin of the name is derived from the importantBronzeandIron Agecity of Kinneret, excavated at Tell el-'Oreimeh.The city of Kinneret",
"city of Kinneret may have been named after the body of water rather than vice versa, and there is no evidence for the origin of the town's name. AllOldandNew Testamentwriters use the term \"sea\" (Hebrew יָםyam, Greek θάλασσα), with the exception ofLuke, who calls it \"the Lake of Gennesaret\" (Luke 5:1), from the Greek λίμνη Γεννησαρέτ (limnē Gennēsaret), the \"Grecized form of Chinnereth.\"TheBabylonian Talmudas well asFlavius Josephusmention the sea by the name \"Sea of Ginosar\" after the small fertileplain of Ginosarthat lies on its western side.Ginosar is yet another name derived from \"Kinneret\". The wordGalileecomes from the HebrewHaggalil(הַגָלִיל), which literally means \"The District\", a compressed form ofGelil Haggoyim\"The District of Nations\" (Isaiah 8:23). Toward the end of the 1st century CE, the Sea of Galilee became widely known as theSea of Tiberiasafter the city ofTiberiasfounded on its western shore in honour of the second Roman emperor,Tiberius. In the New Testament, the term \"sea of Galilee\"",
"\"sea of Galilee\" (Greek:θάλασσαν τῆς Γαλιλαίας,thalassan tēs Galilaias) is used in theGospel of Matthew4:18; 15:29, theGospel of Mark1:16; 7:31, and in theGospel of John6:1as \"the sea of Galilee, which is of Tiberias\" (θαλάσσης τῆς Γαλιλαίας τῆς Τιβεριάδος,thalassēs tēs Galilaias tēs Tiberiados), the late 1st century CE name.Sea of Tiberias is also the name mentioned in Roman texts and in theJerusalem Talmud, and it was adopted into Arabic asBuḥayret Ṭabariyyāⓘ(بحيرة طبريا), \"Lake Tiberias\". From theUmayyadthrough theMamlukperiod, the lake was known in Arabic asBahr al-Minya, the \"Sea of Minya\", after the Umayyadqasrcomplex, whose ruins are still visible atKhirbat al-Minya. This is the name used by the medievalPersianandArabscholarsAl-Baladhuri,Al-TabariandIbn Kathir. History Prehistory In 1989, remains of ahunter-gatherersite were found under the water at the southern end. Remains of mud huts were found inOhalo. Nahal Ein Gev, located about 3 km (1.9 mi) east of the lake, contains a village from the",
"a village from the lateNatufianperiod. The site is considered one of the first permanent human settlements in the world from a time predating theNeolithic Revolution. Hellenistic and Roman periods The Sea of Galilee lies on the ancientVia Maris, which linkedEgyptwith the northern empires. TheGreeks,Hasmoneans, andRomansfounded flourishing towns and settlements on the lake includingHipposandTiberias. Contemporary Roman–Jewish historianFlavius Josephuswas so impressed by the area that he wrote, \"One may call this place the ambition of Nature\"; he also reports a thriving fishing industry at this time, with 230 boats regularly working in the lake. Archaeologists discovered one such boat, nicknamed theJesus Boat, in 1986. In the New Testament, much of theministry of Jesusoccurs on the shores of the Sea of Galilee. In those days, there was a continuous ribbon development of settlements and villages around the lake and plenty of trade and ferrying by boat. TheSynoptic GospelsofMark 1:14–20),Matthew 4:18–22),",
"4:18–22), andLuke 5:1–11) describe how Jesus recruited four of hisapostlesfrom the shores of the Kinneret: the fishermenSimonand his brotherAndrewand the brothersJohnandJames. One of Jesus' famous teaching episodes, theSermon on the Mount, is supposed to have been given on a hill overlooking the Kinneret. Many of his miracles are also said to have occurred here includinghis walking on water,calming the storm, the disciples and themiraculous catch of fish, and hisfeeding five thousand people(inTabgha). In John's Gospel the sea provides the setting for Jesus' thirdpost-resurrection appearanceto his disciples (John 21). In 135 CE,Bar Kokhba's revoltwas put down which was part of theJewish–Roman wars. The Romans responded by banning all Jews fromJerusalem. The center of Jewish culture and learning shifted to the region of Galilee and the Kinneret, particularly Tiberias. It was in this region that theJerusalem Talmudwas compiled. Middle Ages The Sea of Galilee's importance declined when theByzantineslost control,",
"control, and the area was conquered by theUmayyad Caliphateand subsequent Islamic empires. The palace ofMinyawas built by the lake during the reign ofal-Walid I(705–715 CE). Apart from Tiberias, the major towns and cities in the area were gradually abandoned.In 1187, SultanSaladindefeated the armies of theCrusaderKingdom of Jerusalemat theBattle of Hattin, largely because he was able to cut the Crusaders off from the valuable fresh water of the Sea of Galilee. The lake had little importance within the earlyOttoman Empire. Tiberias did see a significant revival of its Jewish community in the 16th century but had gradually declined until the city wasdestroyed in 1660. In the early 18th century, Tiberias was rebuilt byZahir al-Umar, becoming the center of his rule over Galilee, and seeing also a revival of its Jewish community. Early 20th century In 1908, Jewish pioneers established theKinneret Farmat the same time as and next to Moshavat Kinneret in the immediate vicinity of the lake. The farm trained Jewish",
"farm trained Jewish immigrants in modern farming. One group of youth from the training farm establishedKvutzatDeganiain 1909–1910, popularly considered as the firstkibbutz, another group foundedKvutzat Kinneretin 1913, and yet another the first proper kibbutz,Ein Harod, in 1921, the same year when the firstmoshav,Nahalal, was established by a group trained at the farm. The Jewish settlements around Kinneret Farm are considered the cradle of the kibbutz culture of earlyZionism; Kvutzat Kinneret is the birthplace ofNaomi Shemer, buried at the Kinneret Cemetery next toRachel—two prominent national poets. In 1917, the British defeated Ottoman Turkish forces and took control ofPalestine, while France took control of Syria. In the carve-up of the Ottoman territories between Britain and France, it was agreed that Britain would retain control of Palestine while France would control Syria. However, the allies had to fix the border between theMandatory Palestineand theFrench Mandate of Syria.The boundary was defined",
"was defined in broad terms by theFranco-British Boundary Agreementof December 1920, which drew it across the middle of the lake.However, the commission established by the 1920 treaty redrew the boundary. The Zionist movement pressured the French and British to assign as many water sources as possible to Mandatory Palestine during the demarcating negotiations. The High Commissioner of Palestine,Herbert Samuel, had sought full control of the Sea of Galilee.The negotiations led to the inclusion into the Palestine territory of the whole Sea of Galilee, both sides of theRiver Jordan,Lake Hula, Dan spring, and part of theYarmouk.The final border approved in 1923 followed a 10-meter wide strip along the lake's northeastern shore,cutting the Mandatory Syria (State of Damascus) off from the lake. The British and French Agreement provided that existing rights over the use of the waters of the River Jordan by the inhabitants of Syria would be maintained; the government of Syria would have the right to erect a new pier",
"to erect a new pier atSemakhon Lake Tiberias or jointly use the existing pier; persons or goods passing between the landing-stage on the Lake of Tiberias and Semakh would not be subject to customs regulations, and the Syrian government would have access to the said landing-stage; the inhabitants of Syria and Lebanon would have the same fishing and navigation rights on Lakes Huleh, Tiberias and River Jordan, while the government of Palestine would be responsible for policing of lakes. State of Israel On 15 May 1948, Syria invaded the newborn state of Israel,capturing territory along the Sea of Galilee.Under the 1949armistice agreementbetween Israel and Syria, Syria occupied the northeast shoreline of the Sea of Galilee. The agreement stated that the armistice line was \"not to be interpreted as having any relation whatsoever to ultimate territorial arrangements.\" Syria remained in possession of the lake's northeast shoreline until the 1967Arab-Israeli war. In the 1950s, Israel formulated a plan to link the",
"a plan to link the Kinneret with the rest of the country's water infrastructure via theNational Water Carrier, in order to supply the water demand of the growing country. The carrier was completed in 1964. The Israeli plan, to which theArab Leagueopposed its ownplan to divert the headwaters of the Jordan River, sparked political and sometimes even armedconfrontations over the Jordan basin. Geology The lake lies in the center of the Jordan Valley, in the northern part of theSyrian-African rift. Several directions oftectonic movementscharacterize the region, mirroring the patterns typical of the entire Syrian-African rift: north–south movements, which started about 20 million years ago; stretching movements in the east–west direction, which began later, at the beginning of thePleistocene(about 1.8 million years ago), and caused thesubsidenceof the lake area. As a result of horizontal shifts in the north–south direction and subsidence of the area, a lake was formed, with an asymmetrical bottom—steeper in the",
"in the east and a gentler in the west. In the southern part an underwater cliff is present, covered by the lake's sediments. The cliff is distinct in the western part and less so in the east. The Sea of Galilee in its current form was preceded byLake Lisan, which extended from the northern Sea of Galilee toHatzevain the south, more than 200 km (120 mi) from the present southernmost point of the lake. Lake Lisan was preceded by Lake Ovadia, a much smaller fresh water lake. Lake Kinneret was formed in its current form less than 20,000 years ago, as a result of tectonic subsidence and the shrinking up of Lake Lisan. Archaeology In 1986 theAncient Galilee Boat, also known as the Jesus Boat, was discovered on the northwest shore during a drought when water levels receded. It is an ancient fishing boat from the 1st century AD, and although there is no evidence directly linking the boat to Jesus and his disciples, it nevertheless is an example of the kind of boat that Jesus and his disciples, some of whom were",
"some of whom were fishermen, may have used. During a routine sonar scan in 2003 (finding published in 2013),archaeologists discovered an enormous conical stone structure. The structure, which has a diameter of around 230 feet (70 m), is made of boulders and stones. The ruins are estimated to be between 2,000 and 12,000 years old and are about 10 metres (33 ft) underwater.The estimated weight of the monument is over 60,000 tons. Researchers explain that the site resembles early burial sites in Europe and was likely built in the earlyBronze Age. In February 2018, archaeologists discovered seven intact mosaics withGreekinscriptions. One inscription, at five meters one of the longest found to date in western Galilee, gives the names of donors and the names and positions of church officials, including Irenaeus, bishop ofTyrein 445. Another mosaic mentions a woman as a donor to the church's construction. This inscription is the first in the region to mention a female donor. Water level The water level is monitored",
"level is monitored and regulated. There are three levels at which the alarm is rung: Daily monitoring of the Sea of Galilee's water level began in 1969, and the lowest level recorded since then was November 2001, which today constitutes the \"black line\" of 214.87 meters below sea level (although it is believed the water level had fallen lower than the current black line, during droughts earlier in the 20th century). The Israeli government monitors water levels and publishes the results daily.Increasing water demand in Israel, Lebanon and Jordan, as well as dry winters, have resulted in stress on the lake and a decreasing water line to dangerously low levels at times. The Sea of Galilee is at risk of becoming irreversibly salinized by the salt water springs under the lake, which are held in check by the weight of the freshwater on top of them. After five years of drought up to 2018, the Sea of Galilee was expected to drop near the black line.In February 2018, the city of Tiberias requested adesalinationplant",
"adesalinationplant to treat the water coming from the Sea of Galilee and demanded a new water source for the city.March 2018 was the lowest point in water incometo the lake since 1927.In September 2018 theIsraeli energy and water officeannounced a project to pour desalinated water from the Mediterranean Sea into the Sea of Galilee using a tunnel. The tunnel is expected to be the largest of its kind in Israel and will transfer halfof the Mediterranean desalted water and will move 300 to 500 million cubic meters of water per year.The plan is said to cost five billion shekels. Since the beginning of the 2018–19 rainy season, the Sea of Galilee has risen considerably. From being near the ecologically dangerous black line of −214.4 m, the level has risen by April 2020 to just 16 cm (6.3 in) below the upper red line, a result of strong rains and a radical decrease in pumping.During the entire 2018–19 rainy season the water level rose by a historical record of 3.47 meters (11.4 ft), while the 2019–20 winter brought",
"winter brought a 2.82 meters (9 ft 3 in) rise.The Water Authority dug a new canal in order to let 5 billion liters (1.1×109imp gal; 1.3×109U.S. gal) of water flow from the lake directly into the Jordan River, bypassing the existing dams system for technical and financial reasons. Water use TheNational Water Carrier of Israel, completed in 1964, transports water from the lake to the population centers of Israel, and in the past supplied most of the country's drinking water.In 2016 the lake supplied approximately 10% of Israel's drinking water needs. In 1964, Syria attempted construction of aHeadwater Diversion Planthat would have blocked the flow of water into the Sea of Galilee, sharply reducing the water flow into the lake.This project and Israel's attempt to block these efforts in 1965 were factors which played into regional tensions culminating in the 1967 Six-Day War. During the war, Israel captured theGolan Heights, which contain some of the sources of water for the Sea of Galilee. Up until the",
"Up until the mid-2010s, about 400 million m3(14 billion cu ft) of water was pumped through the National Water Carrier each year.Under the terms of theIsrael–Jordan peace treaty, Israel also supplies 50 million m3(1.8 billion cu ft) of water annually from the lake toJordan.In recent years the Israeli government has made extensive investments inwater conservation,reclamationanddesalinationinfrastructure in the country. This has allowed it to significantly reduce the amount of water pumped from the lake annually in an effort to restore and improve its ecological environment, as well as respond to some of the most extreme drought conditions in hundreds of years affecting the lake'sintake basinsince 1998. Therefore, it was expected that in 2016 only about 25 million m3(880 million cu ft) of water would be drawn from the lake for Israeli domestic consumption, a small fraction of the amount typically drawn from the lake over the previous decades. Tourism Tourismaround the Sea of Galilee is an important economic",
"important economic segment. Historical and religious sites in the region draw both local and foreign tourists. The Sea of Galilee is an attraction forChristian pilgrimswho visit Israel to see the places where Jesus performed miracles according to the New Testament. Alonzo Ketcham Parker, a 19th-century American traveler, called visiting the Sea of Galilee \"a 'fifth gospel' which one read devoutly, his heart overflowing with quiet joy\". In April 2011, Israel unveiled a 40-mile (64 km) hiking trail in Galilee for Christian pilgrims, called the \"Jesus Trail\". It includes a network of footpaths, roads and bicycle paths linking sites central to the lives of Jesus and his disciples. It ends atCapernaumon the shores of the Sea of Galilee, where Jesus expounded his teachings.Another key attraction is the site where the Sea of Galilee's water flows into the Jordan River, to which thousands of pilgrims from all over the world come to be baptized every year. Israel's most well-known open water swim race, the Kinneret",
"race, the Kinneret Crossing, is held every year in September, drawing thousands of open water swimmers to participate in competitive and noncompetitive events.Tourists also partake in the building of rafts onLavnun Beach, called Rafsodia. Here many different age groups work together to build a raft with their bare hands and then sail that raft across the sea.Other economic activities include fishing in the lake andagriculture, particularlybananas, dates, mangoes, grapes and olives in the fertile belt of land surrounding it. The Turkish Aviators Monument, erected during the Ottoman era, stands near KibbutzHa'onon the lakeshore, commemorating the Turkish pilots whose monoplanes crashed en route to Jerusalem. Ecology The warm waters of the Sea of Galilee support various flora and fauna, which have supported a significant commercial fishery for more than two millennia. Local flora include various reeds along most of the shoreline as well asphytoplankton. Fauna includezooplankton,benthosand a number of fish",
"a number of fish species such asMirogrex terraesanctae.The Fishing and Agricultural Division of the Ministry of Water and Agriculture of Israel lists 10 families of fish living in the lake, with a total of 27 species – 19 native and 8introduced species.Local fishermen talk of four types of fish: \"مشط musht\" (tilapia); sardin (the Kinneret bleak,Mirogrex terraesanctae); \"بني biny\" or Jordan barbel,Luciobarbus longiceps(barb-like); and North African sharptoothcatfish(Clarias gariepinus).The tilapia species include the Galilean tilapia (Sarotherodon galilaeus), the blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus), and the redbelly tilapia (Tilapia zillii).Fish caught commercially includeTristramella simonisand the Galilean tilapia, locally called \"St. Peter's fish\".In 2005, 300 short tons (270 t) of tilapia were caught by local fishermen. This dropped to 8 short tons (7.3 t) in 2009 because ofoverfishing.A fish species that is unique to the lake,Tristramella sacra, used tospawnin the marsh and has not been seen since the",
"been seen since the 1990s droughts.Conservationists fear this species may have becomeextinct. Low water levels in drought years have stressed thelake's ecology. This may have been aggravated by over-extraction of water for either the National Water Carrier to supply other parts of Israel or, since 1994, for the supply of water to Jordan. Droughts of the early and mid-1990s dried out the marshy northern margin of the lake.It is hoped that drastic reductions in the amount of water pumped through the National Water Carrier will help restore the lake's ecology over the span of several years. The lake, with its immediate surrounds, has been recognised as anImportant Bird AreabyBirdLife Internationalbecause it supports populations ofblack francolinsand non-breedinggriffon vulturesas well as many wintering waterbirds, includingmarbled teals,great crested grebes,grey herons,great white egrets,great cormorantsandblack-headed gulls. See also References Further reading External links",
"Black francolin Tetrao francolinusLinnaeus, 1766 Theblack francolin(Francolinus francolinus) is agamebirdin thepheasantfamilyPhasianidaeof the orderGalliformes. It was formerly known as the black partridge. It is the state bird ofHaryanastate,India(locally known askaala teetar, काला तीतर). Fried black francolin is eaten inAzerbaijani cuisine. Taxonomy There are six recognized subspecies: Description The black francolin has a length range around 33 to 36 cm (13 to 14 in) and weight about 453 g (16 oz). The male is black with a white patch on the cheek, a chestnut collar and white spots on the flanks. The back and wings are scalloped with shades of golden brown with sub-terminal tawny-buff bands and pale edges. The rounded tail is black with narrow white or greyish bars. The legs and neck are reddish-brown to red. The extent of the white spotting on the flanks varies substantially across the species' range and the depth of colour of the females similarly varies. The female is mainly brown, but has a chestnut",
"but has a chestnut hind neck. The head is curved with brown irises, brown crown and black throat. The upper plumage, wings and tail as in the male, but the black is replaced by mottled brown and the brown bars on the lower back and tail are wider. The female is duller, with no cheek patch, and the collar is replaced with a nuchal patch. The head and underparts are buff where the male shows black. The rump and upper tail coverts are light brown. Similar species: the grey francolin has a grey-brown and buff body, buff instead of black throat, and lacks the rufous collar. Voice The call of the black francolin, described as a loud ringing \"klik cheek-cheek-cheerakik\", \"kik-kik-kik\" or \"kwee-kweeeee-kwee\", can be heard in the mornings and evenings and almost all day during the breeding season. The male calls while standing on an earth mound, bund, rock or a low tree branch and is soon joined by other birds answering from all directions. Distribution and habitat Black francolins are resident breeders from",
"breeders from south-easternTurkeyeastwards throughIranto southwestTurkmenistanand northeast India, and Kazipara,PanchagarhofBangladesh.The species' range was formerly more extensive, but over-hunting has reduced its distribution and numbers. Fragmented populations occur in the western part of its range. Black francolins wereintroducedto theCalcasieuandCameronparishes of southwesternLouisianain 1961.Additional introductions have also occurred in southFlorida.Elsewhere, black francolins have been introduced toGuamand theHawaiian Islands. The birds are found in scrubby habitats with plenty of cultivated crops tall enough to offer shelter and open beneath to provide escape routes and easy travel. They prefer areas of thick vegetation, usually near water. They are not forest birds but will frequent scrubland and forest edges associated with grassland. They appear to be more closely associated to water thanchukarsare, and in drier areas. Behaviour The black francolin only flies when disturbed. It has a pheasant's",
"It has a pheasant's explosive flight, but prefers to creep away unseen. The flight is short and direct, punctuated by glides on rounded wings. Breeding Black francolins are monogamous. They normally nest in tall grasslands from late March to May. The male may be seen standing on a rock or low tree attracting attention with its extraordinary creaking call. It may be heard all day long in April, during nesting, and less persistently in March and May as well as the summer months. Both parents tend chicks after hatching. Young stay with parents through their first winter. The most likely breeding locations Savanna, Grasslands, Scrub vegetation areas under the cultivated crops. They have a loud call during the breeding season. Males may also become aggressive during the breeding season, make sure there is plenty of cover and escape routes for the hen and it maybe necessary to house her separate and allow limited access for breeding only. They are generally monogamous in the wild. In aviculture it is best to house",
"it is best to house only one pair per aviary. Well planted aviaries with little surrounding traffic would be best for breeding. They are fairly winter hardy, but always provide some shelter during the coldest months breeds from late March to September depending on the range. The normal clutch size lies between 10 and 14 eggs, and only the hen incubates. The eggs are white-spotted olive or pale brown. The incubation period is 18 to 19 days, the breeding season is April to June and the young appear from April to October. Feeding The birds forage on the ground for plant material and small invertebrates, including grain, grass seeds, fallen berries, shoots, tubers, termites and ants. In aviculture they eat small mealworms and wax worms, but care must be used when feeding chicks as they are prone to toe-picking. . References External links"
] |
The New Zealand author of the children's book "Bobby the Littlest War Hero" won a Queen's Service Medal how many years before it was renamed the King's Service Medal? | Glyn Harper won the medal 12 years before it was renamed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyn_Harper | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_Service_Medal | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyn_Harper', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_Service_Medal'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyn_Harper",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_Service_Medal"
] | [
"Glyn Harper Glyn John HarperQSM(born 12 March 1958) is a New Zealand historian who specialises in the military history of the 20th century. He has published several books on New Zealand's participation in the First and Second World Wars. Biography Born on 12 March 1958 inChristchurch,Harper was trained as a secondary school teacher, earning a diploma in teaching fromChristchurch Teachers' Collegein 1980. He then joined theUniversity of Canterbury, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1981. After completing a Master of Arts degree the following year with athesison theFall of Singapore, he moved to Australia, teaching at Catholic schools in New South Wales. In 1988, Harper joined theAustralian Armyin which he served for eight years before transferring to theNew Zealand Army. He earned a Doctor of Philosophy in 2001 from theUniversity of New Englandwith a thesis onHoward Kippenberger, a New Zealand general of the Second World War.Harper was the official historian for New Zealand'smilitary deployment to East Timorfrom 1999 to 2001. He retired from the New Zealand Army in 2001 with the rank oflieutenant colonel. He became a lecturer atMassey UniversityinPalmerston North, and was made an associate professor in military studies the following year. In 2003 he was appointed director of the Centre for Defence Studies.He was Professor of War Studies at Massey University until his retirement. Harper was awarded aFulbright Senior Scholarshipin 2010 and carried out five months of research at theVirginia Military Instituteand theUS Army's War Collegeon theBattle of Monte Cassino. This resulted in the publication of a book on this topic in 2013. In 2011, Harper became a project manager for the publication of theFirst World War Centenary Print Histories, a series of books on New Zealand's role in the First World War. He wrote one volume in the series,Johnny Enzed: The New Zealand Soldier in the First World War, which was published in 2015.In the2012 Queen's Birthday and Diamond Jubilee Honours, in recognition of his services to historical research, Harper was awarded theQueen's Service Medal. As well as his non-fiction historical works for adults, Harper has written several children's picture books with military themes, includingLe Quesnoy,Roly, the Anzac Donkey,andBobby the Littlest War Hero.In 2015, he won the Best Picture Book Award at theNew Zealand Book Awards for Children and Young Adultsfor his bookJim's Letters, which was illustrated by Jenny Cooper. Publications Harper's publications include: Author Editor Notes and references",
"King's Service Medal TheKing's Service Medal(created as theQueen's Service Medalin 1975 and renamed in 2024) is a medal awarded by the government ofNew Zealandto recognise and reward volunteer service to the community and also public service in elected or appointed public office. It was established in 1975 and is related to theQueen's Service Order.The QSM replaced theImperial Service Medalas an award of New Zealand. On 3 May 2024, the Queen's Service Medal was renamed to the King's Service Medal by Royal Warrant. Recipients of the Queen's Service Medal from 1975 until May 2024 will continue to use the 'QSM' postnominal with recipients of the King's Service Medal from June 2024 using the postnominal 'KSM'. Appearance 1975–2007 The original medal was made of sterling silver, 36 millimetres (1.4 in) in diameter. Theobversebears the same effigy ofThe Queenas the badge of the Queen's Service Order. Surrounding the effigy are the Royal styles and titles \"ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F.D.\". The reverse depicts theNew Zealand Coat of Armssurrounded by the inscription \"The Queen's Service Medal\" and the name of the sub-division either \"for Community Service\" or \"for Public Services\". The initials and name of the recipient is engraved on the rim of the Medal. The medals were made by theRoyal Mint. 2007–2023 The medal is also made of sterling silver, and is 36 mm in diameter. The obverse bears theIan Rank-Broadleydesigned effigy of The Queen. The effigy is surrounded by the Royal styles and titles \"ELIZABETH II QUEEN OF NEW ZEALAND\". The reverse bears the New Zealand Coat of Arms surrounded by the inscription \"The Queen's Service Medal\" above and \"for service – MO NGA MAHI NUI\" below. The new Badge and Medal are made byThomas Fattorini Limited, of Birmingham, United Kingdom. Since 2024 The obverse of the King's Service Medal depictsKing Charles III's portrait and his title 'CHARLES III KING OF NEW ZEALAND'. The reverse of the King's Service Medal is the same as the Q.S.M., but references to 'Queen's' has been replaced with 'King's'. Ribbon Both versions of the medal are suspended from a ribbon 36 mm wide. The edges are a narrow red ochre (kokowhai) stripe. The centre has alternating stripes of red ochre, white and black in a descending step pattern from left to right. The design is inspired by theMāoripoutama pattern used intukutukuwall panels. It is usually interpreted as the \"stairway to heaven\", but in this case it refers to \"steps of service\". See also References External links"
] | [
"Glyn Harper Glyn John HarperQSM(born 12 March 1958) is a New Zealand historian who specialises in the military history of the 20th century. He has published several books on New Zealand's participation in the First and Second World Wars. Biography Born on 12 March 1958 inChristchurch,Harper was trained as a secondary school teacher, earning a diploma in teaching fromChristchurch Teachers' Collegein 1980. He then joined theUniversity of Canterbury, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1981. After completing a Master of Arts degree the following year with athesison theFall of Singapore, he moved to Australia, teaching at Catholic schools in New South Wales. In 1988, Harper joined theAustralian Armyin which he served for eight years before transferring to theNew Zealand Army. He earned a Doctor of Philosophy in 2001 from theUniversity of New Englandwith a thesis onHoward Kippenberger, a New Zealand general of the Second World War.Harper was the official historian for New Zealand'smilitary deployment to",
"deployment to East Timorfrom 1999 to 2001. He retired from the New Zealand Army in 2001 with the rank oflieutenant colonel. He became a lecturer atMassey UniversityinPalmerston North, and was made an associate professor in military studies the following year. In 2003 he was appointed director of the Centre for Defence Studies.He was Professor of War Studies at Massey University until his retirement. Harper was awarded aFulbright Senior Scholarshipin 2010 and carried out five months of research at theVirginia Military Instituteand theUS Army's War Collegeon theBattle of Monte Cassino. This resulted in the publication of a book on this topic in 2013. In 2011, Harper became a project manager for the publication of theFirst World War Centenary Print Histories, a series of books on New Zealand's role in the First World War. He wrote one volume in the series,Johnny Enzed: The New Zealand Soldier in the First World War, which was published in 2015.In the2012 Queen's Birthday and Diamond Jubilee Honours, in",
"Jubilee Honours, in recognition of his services to historical research, Harper was awarded theQueen's Service Medal. As well as his non-fiction historical works for adults, Harper has written several children's picture books with military themes, includingLe Quesnoy,Roly, the Anzac Donkey,andBobby the Littlest War Hero.In 2015, he won the Best Picture Book Award at theNew Zealand Book Awards for Children and Young Adultsfor his bookJim's Letters, which was illustrated by Jenny Cooper. Publications Harper's publications include: Author Editor Notes and references",
"King's Service Medal TheKing's Service Medal(created as theQueen's Service Medalin 1975 and renamed in 2024) is a medal awarded by the government ofNew Zealandto recognise and reward volunteer service to the community and also public service in elected or appointed public office. It was established in 1975 and is related to theQueen's Service Order.The QSM replaced theImperial Service Medalas an award of New Zealand. On 3 May 2024, the Queen's Service Medal was renamed to the King's Service Medal by Royal Warrant. Recipients of the Queen's Service Medal from 1975 until May 2024 will continue to use the 'QSM' postnominal with recipients of the King's Service Medal from June 2024 using the postnominal 'KSM'. Appearance 1975–2007 The original medal was made of sterling silver, 36 millimetres (1.4 in) in diameter. Theobversebears the same effigy ofThe Queenas the badge of the Queen's Service Order. Surrounding the effigy are the Royal styles and titles \"ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F.D.\". The reverse depicts",
"The reverse depicts theNew Zealand Coat of Armssurrounded by the inscription \"The Queen's Service Medal\" and the name of the sub-division either \"for Community Service\" or \"for Public Services\". The initials and name of the recipient is engraved on the rim of the Medal. The medals were made by theRoyal Mint. 2007–2023 The medal is also made of sterling silver, and is 36 mm in diameter. The obverse bears theIan Rank-Broadleydesigned effigy of The Queen. The effigy is surrounded by the Royal styles and titles \"ELIZABETH II QUEEN OF NEW ZEALAND\". The reverse bears the New Zealand Coat of Arms surrounded by the inscription \"The Queen's Service Medal\" above and \"for service – MO NGA MAHI NUI\" below. The new Badge and Medal are made byThomas Fattorini Limited, of Birmingham, United Kingdom. Since 2024 The obverse of the King's Service Medal depictsKing Charles III's portrait and his title 'CHARLES III KING OF NEW ZEALAND'. The reverse of the King's Service Medal is the same as the Q.S.M., but references to",
"but references to 'Queen's' has been replaced with 'King's'. Ribbon Both versions of the medal are suspended from a ribbon 36 mm wide. The edges are a narrow red ochre (kokowhai) stripe. The centre has alternating stripes of red ochre, white and black in a descending step pattern from left to right. The design is inspired by theMāoripoutama pattern used intukutukuwall panels. It is usually interpreted as the \"stairway to heaven\", but in this case it refers to \"steps of service\". See also References External links"
] |
Was the founder of the bank that was established 42 years before the National Banking Act was expanded to include the Territory of Hawai'i still alive when it acquired Pioneer Federal Savings Bank? | No | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._national_banks_of_Hawaii | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Hawaiian_Bank | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._national_banks_of_Hawaii', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Hawaiian_Bank'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._national_banks_of_Hawaii",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Hawaiian_Bank"
] | [
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"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b932be050>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"First Hawaiian Bank First Hawaiian, Inc.is a bank holding company headquartered inHonolulu, Hawaiʻi. Its principal subsidiary,First Hawaiian Bank, founded in 1858, is Hawaiʻi’s oldest and largest financial institution headquartered in Honolulu at theFirst Hawaiian Center. The bank has 57 branches throughout Hawaiʻi, three inGuamand two inSaipan. It offers banking services to consumer and commercial customers, including deposit products, lending services and wealth management, insurance, private banking and trust services. First Hawaiian was listed on theNASDAQon August 4, 2016, and made its debut at number 12 in the January 2017 publication of Forbes' America's 100 Largest Banks with $20 billion in total assets.In 2019,BNP Paribassold its stake in First Hawaiian Bank. History In 1858, local businessmen,Charles Reed Bishopand William A. Aldrich, opened Bishop & Co. This was the first successful banking partnership under the laws of the independentKingdom of Hawaiʻi. It operated from a basement room in \"Makee & Anthon's Building\" on Kaʻahumanu Street. On the day Bishop & Co. opened, it took in $4,784.25 in deposits.In 1895,Samuel M. Damonbought Bishop & Co. from Charles Bishop. In 1910, Bishop & Co. bank opened its first branch inHilo. It then opened its firstKauaʻibranch inWaimeain 1911. In 1919 Bishop & Co. incorporated as the Bank of Bishop & Co. During the 1920s the bank steadily grew, acquiring the Bank of Honolulu in 1922, opening a branch inKonain 1923, and opening yet another branch onLānaʻiin 1924. The bank's growth slowed after it merged with First National Bank of Hawaii, First American Savings Bank, Army National Bank of Schofield Barracks, and Baldwin Bank (Maui) in 1929. The bank then changed its name to Bishop First National Bank of Honolulu. In 1933, the bank's name became Bishop National Bank of Hawaii at Honolulu. The bank's name changed yet again in 1956, this time to Bishop National Bank of Hawaii. In 1966, Cooke Trust Company acquired the bank. It was then changed to First Hawaiian Bank in 1969. The next year, in 1970, the bank opened its first branch on Guam inDededo. In 1975, First Hawaiian acquired Hawaii Thrift & Loan, which had been in financial difficulty, and turned it into First Hawaiian Creditcorp. First Hawaiian Bank acquired many other banks during the 1990s. In 1991, First Hawaiian acquired First Interstate Bank of Hawaii. Then in 1992, it acquired the East West Bank, which had one branch in Honolulu and one on Maui. In 1993, the bank acquired Pioneer Federal Savings Bank, which continued to operate as a separate institution. In 1996, First Hawaiian acquired 31 branches inOregon,Washington, andIdahofromU.S. Bancorp. It then created a new subsidiary - Pacific One Bank - to hold the branches, with a charter in Oregon. During the same year, First Hawaiian also acquired ANB Financial Corporation, which was the owner of American National Bank in central Washington state. American National's branches eventually became part of Pacific One Bank. At the same time as all of these mergers, First Hawaiian built its new headquarters, theFirst Hawaiian Center.At 429 ft (131 m), it is the tallest building inHawaiʻi. In 1997, First Hawaiian merged in Pioneer Federal and the next year merged in First Hawaiian Creditcorp. In the following year, 1998, First Hawaiian merged withSan-Francisco-basedBank of the West.The surviving company, First Hawaiian, Inc., was renamed BancWest Corporation. Former First Hawaiian, Inc. shareholders owned 55% of BancWest;Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP), former owner of Bank of the West, owned 45%. In 2001, First Hawaiian Bank acquiredUnion Bank of California's branch network inGuamandSaipan. In December, BNP Paribas completed its acquisition of 100% of First Hawaiian Bank and its parent company BancWest. Bank of the West and First Hawaiian Bank, however, continued to operate as separate institutions. On December 23, 2015, First Hawaiian Bank announced that parent company BNP Paribas was considering strategic options for the subsidiary, including aninitial public offering.On August 4, 2016, shares of the company started being sold on theNASDAQ. In 2018,Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP)reduced their stake in First Hawaiian to 33.3%,and by January 2019, it had sold its remaining stake. See also References External links"
] | [
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/U.S._national_banks_of_Hawaii (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b932be890>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Charles_Reed_Bishop (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b932be050>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"First Hawaiian Bank First Hawaiian, Inc.is a bank holding company headquartered inHonolulu, Hawaiʻi. Its principal subsidiary,First Hawaiian Bank, founded in 1858, is Hawaiʻi’s oldest and largest financial institution headquartered in Honolulu at theFirst Hawaiian Center. The bank has 57 branches throughout Hawaiʻi, three inGuamand two inSaipan. It offers banking services to consumer and commercial customers, including deposit products, lending services and wealth management, insurance, private banking and trust services. First Hawaiian was listed on theNASDAQon August 4, 2016, and made its debut at number 12 in the January 2017 publication of Forbes' America's 100 Largest Banks with $20 billion in total assets.In 2019,BNP Paribassold its stake in First Hawaiian Bank. History In 1858, local businessmen,Charles Reed Bishopand William A. Aldrich, opened Bishop & Co. This was the first successful banking partnership under the laws of the independentKingdom of Hawaiʻi. It operated from a basement room in \"Makee &",
"room in \"Makee & Anthon's Building\" on Kaʻahumanu Street. On the day Bishop & Co. opened, it took in $4,784.25 in deposits.In 1895,Samuel M. Damonbought Bishop & Co. from Charles Bishop. In 1910, Bishop & Co. bank opened its first branch inHilo. It then opened its firstKauaʻibranch inWaimeain 1911. In 1919 Bishop & Co. incorporated as the Bank of Bishop & Co. During the 1920s the bank steadily grew, acquiring the Bank of Honolulu in 1922, opening a branch inKonain 1923, and opening yet another branch onLānaʻiin 1924. The bank's growth slowed after it merged with First National Bank of Hawaii, First American Savings Bank, Army National Bank of Schofield Barracks, and Baldwin Bank (Maui) in 1929. The bank then changed its name to Bishop First National Bank of Honolulu. In 1933, the bank's name became Bishop National Bank of Hawaii at Honolulu. The bank's name changed yet again in 1956, this time to Bishop National Bank of Hawaii. In 1966, Cooke Trust Company acquired the bank. It was then changed to First",
"changed to First Hawaiian Bank in 1969. The next year, in 1970, the bank opened its first branch on Guam inDededo. In 1975, First Hawaiian acquired Hawaii Thrift & Loan, which had been in financial difficulty, and turned it into First Hawaiian Creditcorp. First Hawaiian Bank acquired many other banks during the 1990s. In 1991, First Hawaiian acquired First Interstate Bank of Hawaii. Then in 1992, it acquired the East West Bank, which had one branch in Honolulu and one on Maui. In 1993, the bank acquired Pioneer Federal Savings Bank, which continued to operate as a separate institution. In 1996, First Hawaiian acquired 31 branches inOregon,Washington, andIdahofromU.S. Bancorp. It then created a new subsidiary - Pacific One Bank - to hold the branches, with a charter in Oregon. During the same year, First Hawaiian also acquired ANB Financial Corporation, which was the owner of American National Bank in central Washington state. American National's branches eventually became part of Pacific One Bank. At the",
"One Bank. At the same time as all of these mergers, First Hawaiian built its new headquarters, theFirst Hawaiian Center.At 429 ft (131 m), it is the tallest building inHawaiʻi. In 1997, First Hawaiian merged in Pioneer Federal and the next year merged in First Hawaiian Creditcorp. In the following year, 1998, First Hawaiian merged withSan-Francisco-basedBank of the West.The surviving company, First Hawaiian, Inc., was renamed BancWest Corporation. Former First Hawaiian, Inc. shareholders owned 55% of BancWest;Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP), former owner of Bank of the West, owned 45%. In 2001, First Hawaiian Bank acquiredUnion Bank of California's branch network inGuamandSaipan. In December, BNP Paribas completed its acquisition of 100% of First Hawaiian Bank and its parent company BancWest. Bank of the West and First Hawaiian Bank, however, continued to operate as separate institutions. On December 23, 2015, First Hawaiian Bank announced that parent company BNP Paribas was considering strategic options for",
"options for the subsidiary, including aninitial public offering.On August 4, 2016, shares of the company started being sold on theNASDAQ. In 2018,Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP)reduced their stake in First Hawaiian to 33.3%,and by January 2019, it had sold its remaining stake. See also References External links"
] |
Of the six main/principal cast of The Simpsons, who was born first? | Harry Shearer | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simpsons | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_The_Simpsons_cast_members | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Castellaneta | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Kavner | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeardley_Smith | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Azaria | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Shearer | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simpsons', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_The_Simpsons_cast_members', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Castellaneta', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Kavner', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeardley_Smith', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Azaria', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Shearer'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simpsons",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_The_Simpsons_cast_members",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Castellaneta",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Kavner",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeardley_Smith",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Azaria",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Shearer"
] | [
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"Dan Castellaneta Daniel Louis Castellaneta(/ˌkæstələˈnɛtə/KAST-ə-lə-NET-ə; born October 29, 1957)is an American actor and writer. He is best known for voicingHomer Simpsonon the animated seriesThe Simpsons(as well as other characters on the show such asGrampa Simpson,Krusty the Clown,Groundskeeper Willie,Mayor Quimby,Sideshow Mel,Mr. Teeny,Santa's Little Helper,Itchy, andBarney Gumble). Castellaneta is also known for voicing Grandpa in Nickelodeon'sHey Arnold!, and has had voice roles in several other programs, includingFuturama,Sibs,Darkwing Duck,The Adventures of Dynamo Duck,The Batman,Back to the Future: The Animated Series,Aladdin,Earthworm Jim, andTaz-Mania. In 1999, he appeared in the Christmas specialOlive, the Other Reindeerand won anAnnie Awardfor his portrayal of the Postman. Castellaneta released a comedy albumI Am Not Homer, and wrote and starred in aone-person showtitledWhere Did Vincent van Gogh? Early life Daniel Louis Castellaneta was born on October 29, 1957, at Roseland Community Hospital on Chicago's south side and was raised inRiver ForestandOak Park, Illinois.He is ofItaliandescent, born to Elsie (néeLagorio; 1926–2008) and Louis Castellaneta (1915–2014),an amateur actor who worked for a printing company. Castellaneta became adept at impressions at a young age and his mother enrolled him in an acting class when he was 16 years old. He would listen to his father's comedy records and do impressions of the artists.He was a \"devotee\" of the works of many performers, includingAlan ArkinandBarbara Harrisand directorsMike NicholsandElaine May.He attendedOak Park and River Forest High Schooland upon graduation, started attendingNorthern Illinois University(NIU) in the fall of 1975. Castellaneta studied art education, with the goal of becoming an art teacher.He became astudent teacherand would entertain his students with his impressions.Castellaneta was a regular participant inThe Ron Petke and His Dead Uncle Show, a radio show at NIU. The show helped Castellaneta hone his skills as a voice-over actor. He recalled \"We did parodies and sketches, we would double up on, so you learned to switch between voices. I got my feet wet doing a voiceover. The show was just barely audible, but we didn't care. It was that we got a chance to do it and write our own material.\"He took a play-writing class and auditioned for an improvisational show. A classmate first thought Castellaneta would \"fall on his face with improvisation\" but soon \"was churning out material faster than could make it work.\" Career Early career Castellaneta began his acting career after his graduation fromNorthern Illinois Universityin 1979.He decided that if his career went nowhere he would still have a chance to try something else.He began takingimprovisationclasses, where he met his future wifeDeb Lacusta. He started to work atThe Second City, an improvisational theatre inChicago, in 1983 and continued to work there until 1987.During this period, he did voice-over work with his wife for various radio stations. He auditioned for a role inThe Tracey Ullman Showand his first meeting underwhelmedTracey Ullmanand the other producers. Ullman decided to fly to Chicago to watch Castellaneta perform. His performance that night was about ablindman who tries to become a comedian and Ullman later recalled that although there were flashier performances that night, Castellaneta made her cry. She was impressed and Castellaneta was hired. The Simpsons Castellaneta is most famous for his roles on the longest-running American animated television showThe Simpsons, most notably asHomer Simpson.The Tracey Ullman Showincluded a series of animated shorts about adysfunctional family. Voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask Castellaneta and fellow cast memberJulie Kavnerto voice Homer andMarge Simpsonrespectively, rather than hire more actors.Homer's voice began as a loose impression ofWalter Matthau, but Castellaneta could not \"get enough power behind that voice\" and could not sustain his Matthau impression for the nine- to ten-hour long recording sessions. He tried to find something easier, so he \"dropped the voice down\", and developed it into a more versatile and humorous voice during the second and third season of the half-hour show.To perform Homer's voice, Castellaneta lowers his chin to his chest,and is said to \"let his IQ go.\" Castellaneta likes tostay in characterduring recording sessions,and tries to visualize a scene in his mind so that he can give the proper voice to it.Despite Homer's fame, Castellaneta claims he is rarely recognized in public, \"except, maybe, by a die-hard fan.\" Castellaneta also provides the voices for numerous other characters, includingGrampa Simpson,Barney Gumble,Krusty the Clown,Groundskeeper Willie,Mayor Quimby,Hans Moleman,Sideshow Mel,Itchy,Kodos,Arnie Pye, theSqueaky Voiced TeenandGil Gunderson. Krusty's voice is based on Chicago television'sBob Bell, who had a very raspy voice and portrayedWGN-TV'sBozo the Clownfrom 1960 to 1984.During early recording sessions, he recorded a new version of Barney's loud trademark belch for every episode but discovered that it was not easy for him to belch each time a script called for it. Castellaneta chose a recording of what he believed was his best belch and told the producers to make that the standard. Groundskeeper Willie's first appearance was in theseason twoepisode \"Principal Charming\". The character was written as an angry janitor and Castellaneta was assigned to perform the voice. He did not know what voice to use andSam Simon, who was directing at the time, suggested he use an accent. Castellaneta first tried using Hispanic voicing, which Simon felt was tooclichéd. He then tried a \"big dumbSwede\", which was also rejected. For his third try, he used the voice of a grumpyScotsman, which was deemed appropriate enough and was used in the episode.The voice was based partially on Angus Crock, akilt-wearing chef from the sketch comedy showSecond City Television, who was portrayed byDave Thomas. Mayor Quimby, who first appeared in \"Bart Gets an 'F'\", is a parody of various members of theKennedy family. The episode script did not call for Quimby to be a parody of them, and Castellaneta improvised the accent.Sideshow Mel's voice is Castellaneta's impression ofKelsey Grammer, the voice ofSideshow Bob.Hapless Gil Gunderson is a spoof of actorJack Lemmon's portrayal of Shelley Levene in the 1992film adaptationof the playGlengarry Glen Ross.ShowrunnerMike Scullythought that Gil would be \"a one-shot thing\"but \"Dan Castellaneta was so funny at thetable readdoing the character, we kept making up excuses in subsequent episodes to put him in.\"TheBlue-Haired Lawyer's voice, as well as his demeanor, is based on lawyerRoy Cohn. Castellaneta has won several awards for voicing Homer, including fourPrimetime Emmy Awardsfor \"Outstanding Voice-Over Performance\" in 1992 for \"Lisa's Pony\", 1993 for \"Mr. Plow\",2004 for voicing several characters in \"Today I Am a Clown\",and 2009 for voicing Homer in \"Father Knows Worst\". In 1993, Castellaneta was given a specialAnnie Award, \"Outstanding Individual Achievement in the Field of Animation\", for his work as Homer onThe Simpsons. In 2004, Castellaneta andJulie Kavner(the voice of Marge) won aYoung Artist Awardfor \"Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series\".Homer was placed second onTV Guide's 2002 Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters,and in 2000, Homer and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Famelocated at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard. Until 1998, Castellaneta was paid $30,000 per episode.During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.The dispute was soon resolved and Castellaneta began receiving $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the cast demanded to be paid $360,000 an episode.The issue was resolved a month later,with Castellaneta starting to earn $250,000 per episode.Following salary negotiations in 2008, the cast received approximately $400,000 per episode.In 2011, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, the cast accepted a pay cut to around $300,000 per episode. In the early 1990s, Castellaneta and his wifeDeb Lacustawrote a script for an episode in which Barney becomes sober, and pitched it to showrunnerAl Jean. He liked the story but turned it down because he felt that it was too similar to \"Duffless\", an episode that the writers were already working on. The two waited for nearly a decade and offered an updated version of the script to later showrunnerMike Scully, who liked it and had them make a few changes.Their script became the episode \"Days of Wine and D'oh'ses\".Castellaneta and his wife have also written the episodes \"Gump Roast\", \"The Ziff Who Came to Dinner\", \"Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore\", and \"The Fight Before Christmas\". In2007, they were nominated for aWriters Guild of America Awardfor the episode \"Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore\".Castellaneta is also credited as a consulting producer. Further career Castellaneta has been a regular cast member in several other television series. In 1991, he played Warren Morris in the short-livedABClive-action sitcomSibs.Heide Perlman, creator ofSibs, wrote the part with Castellaneta in mind. He provided the voice of the eponymous character inThe Adventures ofDynamo Duck,MegavoltinDarkwing Duck,\"Doc\" Emmett BrowninBack to the Future: The Animated Series,the lead character inEarthworm Jimand several characters, including Grandpa Phil and the Jolly Olly Man, the mentally unstableice cream truckdriver, onNickelodeon'sHey Arnold!.He guest starred asThe Robot Devilin five episodes ofFuturama, as well as theFuturamafilmThe Beast with a Billion Backs. Castellaneta has also made guest appearances in a number of television series episodes. In 1992, he guest-starred in an episode of thelegal dramaL.A. Law, as a Homer Simpsonmeetable characterat a Californiaamusement parkwho is dismissed for inappropriate behavior while in costume.In 1996, he made a guest appearance as a Zoo Keeper in Season 2, Episode 12 “The One After the Superbowl” inFriends. In 2005, he appeared in the episode \"Sword of Destiny\" inArrested Developmentas Dr. Stein, adeadpanincompetent doctor. In 2005, Castellaneta guest-starred as Joe Spencer in theStargate SG-1season eightepisode \"Citizen Joe\".He also appeared in episodes ofALF,Campus Ladies,Castle,Entourage,Everybody Loves Raymond,Frasier,Friends,Greek,How I Met Your Mother,Mad About You,Married... with Children,Murphy Brown,NYPD Blue,Parks and Recreation,Reba,Reno 911!,That '70s Show,Veronica Mars,Hot in Cleveland,Yes, Dear,andDesperate Housewives. He appeared as theGeniein theAladdinsequelThe Return of Jafarand on the 1994Aladdintelevision series. The Genie had been voiced byRobin WilliamsinAladdin, and Castellaneta described replacing him as \"sort of like stepping intoHamletafterLaurence Olivierdid it, how can you win?\" He also provided Genie's voice in theKingdom Heartsvideo game seriesfor bothKingdom HeartsandKingdom Hearts II(with archived audio used forKingdom Hearts: Chain of Memoriesand its remake as well as for the later HD collectionsKingdom Hearts HD 1.5 RemixandKingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix). Castellaneta portrayedAaron Spellingin the 2004NBCfilmBehind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Charlie's Angels, which followed the true story of how Spelling created the show. Other films in which Castellaneta has appeared includeNothing in Common,Say Anything...,Super Mario Bros.,The Client,Space Jam,My Giant,The Simpsons Movie,Rugrats in Paris: The Movie,Recess: School's Out,Hey Arnold!: The Movie,The Cat in the HatandThe Pursuit of Happyness. In 2000, he won anAnnie Awardfor his portrayal of the Postman in the animated Christmas television specialOlive, the Other Reindeer.In 2006, he appeared inJeff Garlin's independent filmI Want Someone to Eat Cheese Withalong with several otherSecond City alumni. On February 22, 2000, his first music CDTwo Lipswas published.It was followed on April 23, 2002, by his first comedy CD,I Am Not Homer, in which he and his wife perform several comedy skits. The majority of the sketches had been written and performed before the CD was recorded, and Castellaneta thought that it would be a good idea to preserve them \"since don't perform them much anymore.\" Some came from their sketch series on a local radio station in Chicago and had to be lengthened from the \"two-minute bits\" that they were original, while several others were stage sketches performed in a comedy club inSanta Monica.Additionally, \"Citizen Kane\", a sketch in which two people discuss the filmCitizen Kanewith different meanings, was something the pair had performed at an art gallery.Castellaneta noted that \"we already knew that these skits were funny, some of them we polished and tightened.\"The skits were principally written by improvising from a basic point, transcribing the results, and then editing them to the finished scene.Castellaneta chose the titleI Am Not Homeras a parody ofLeonard Nimoy's famous first autobiographyI Am Not Spock, as well as to show that most of the comedy featured \"is not the typicalHomercomedy.\" Alongside his television and film work, Castellaneta has appeared in a number of theatrical productions. In 1992, he starred inDeb & Dan's Showalongside his wife.In 1995, Castellaneta started writingWhere Did Vincent van Gogh?, aone man playin which he portrays a dozen different characters, including artistVincent van Gogh.He first officially performed the play at theACME Comedy Theatrein Los Angeles in 1999.In 2007, he appeared inThe Bicycle MenatKing's Head Theatrein London. Castellaneta hosted the final ofNew Yorkcomedy show Thrills and Spills on December 31, 2015. The final was held inMontgomery, Alabama. Personal life In 1987, Castellaneta married writer and actressDeb Lacusta, whom he had met at animprovclass inChicago.They divide their time betweenLos AngelesandSanta Barbara, California. Castellaneta is avegetariananddoes not drink alcohol. He enjoys exercising regularlyand practicingtai chi.He isCatholic. Filmography Discography Also featured in: Awards and nominations References External links",
"Julie Kavner Julie Deborah Kavner(born September 7, 1950)is an American actress. Before becoming well-known for her voice role asMarge Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons, Kavner attracted notice for her role as Brenda Morgenstern, the younger sister ofValerie Harper's title character in the sitcomRhoda, for which she won aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. She also voices other characters forThe Simpsons, including Marge's mother,Jacqueline Bouvier, sistersPatty and Selma Bouvier, and half-step-great-aunt Eunice Bouvier. Known for her improvisation and distinctive \"honeyed gravel voice\",Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern inRhodain 1974. Starting in 1987, Kavner appeared onThe Tracey Ullman Show.The Tracey Ullman Showincluded a series ofanimated shortsabout a dysfunctional family. Voices were needed for the shorts, and the producers asked Kavner to voice Marge. The shorts were spun off intoThe Simpsons. Kavner has been described as \"nearly reclusive\";part of her contract says that she will never have to promoteThe Simpsonson video.For her work as Marge, Kavner received anotherPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992 and anAnnie Awardnomination for her performance as the character inThe Simpsons Movie(2007). Typically cast as a \"woman who is supportive, sympathetic or self-effacingly funny\",Kavner grew to dislike playing such roles. In 1992, she starred inThis Is My Life, her first leading role in a feature film. Kavner has also appeared in live-action roles in six films written byWoody Allenand in theAdam SandlercomedyClick. Early life Kavner was born in Los Angeles, California, on September 7, 1950,the second daughter of Rose, a family counselor, and David Kavner, a furniture manufacturer,and grew up in Southern California. She decided to pursue a career in acting because \"There was nothing else I wanted to do, ever\".She attendedBeverly Hills High School(which she later admitted she hated), where she was \"something of a loner\", and unsuccessfully tried out for several plays.John Ingle, formerly the chairman of the Beverly Hills High School art department, later commented that Kavner was \"excellent at improvisation, but she wasn't aningenue and not that castable at that age\". After graduating from high school, Kavner attendedSan Diego State Universityand majored in drama, being cast in several productions including a role asCharlotte CordayinMarat/Sade, becoming known for her improvisation and ability to do both comedy and drama. After graduating in 1971, she got a day job as a typist at theUCLA School of the Arts and Architecture. Career Early career In 1973, Kavner auditioned for a role as one ofRhoda Morgenstern's sisters inThe Mary Tyler Moore Show. David Davis, producer of the show, had convinced her to audition for the part, but decided to cast another actress instead.A year later, Rhoda Morgenstern became the leading character in a spin-off calledRhoda. Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern, sister of the eponymous character.Rhodaran on CBS from September 9, 1974, to December 1978. She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations forOutstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor playing Brenda, winning in 1978.She also received fourGolden Globe Awardnominations.In 1975, she receivedDaytime Emmy Awardnomination for her starring role in the daytime specialThe Girl Who Couldn't Lose. FollowingRhoda, Kavner had a guest appearance onTaxiand appeared in the 1985 comedyBad Medicineas well as the 1987 filmSurrender, both of which were box office failures (and also starredSteve Guttenberg).She appeared in the television moviesRevenge of the Stepford Wives,No Other LoveandA Fine Romance, and shot a television pilot.She also starred in several stage plays, including a play calledIt Had to Be Youat a dinner theater in Canada,Particular Friendshipsin New York City in 1981,andTwo for the Seesaw, directed byBurt Reynolds.Woody Allenfirst saw Kavner one night while he was watchingRhodain the 1970s. He thought that she was remarkable and later offered her a role in his 1986 filmHannah and Her Sisters.Kavner agreed, and credits Allen and the film with rejuvenating her career. Kavner was then cast as a sidekick toTracey UllmaninThe Tracey Ullman Show, which debuted on Fox in 1987. Kavner described the show as, \"like being back in school, a chance to play a wide variety of characters, some really vicious people, to not rest on laurels, to not play it safe\".Kavner commented, \"What I do is not mimicry or an impersonation, but more of an assimilation. we did a lot of looking at people to find out who to base our characters on. We did our homework on our lunch hour.\"She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations forBest Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program. The Simpsons Kavner became known for her role asMarge Simpsonon the animated television showThe Simpsons, a show that continues to the present day.The Tracey Ullman Showincludeda series of animated shortsabout the dysfunctional Simpson family. Voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask Kavner and fellow cast memberDan Castellanetato voice Marge and Homer rather than hire more actors.Kavner has what Hilary de Vries ofThe New York Timesdescribed as a \"honeyed gravel voice\".Kavner says her voice is due to \"a bump on vocal cords\".Marge's voice has aged considerably throughout the series as Kavner has gotten older, and the higher register of Marge's voice in the earliest seasons had to be adjusted as it began to strain Kavner's voice. Although Marge is her highest profile character on the show, Kavner's favorite characters to voice are Marge's sistersPatty and Selma Bouvierbecause \"they're really funny and sad at the same time\".Series creatorMatt Groeninginstructed Kavner to voice the duo as characters who \"suck the life out of everything\".Both have similar raspy voices, but Patty's voice is more masculine and has a lower register, while Selma's voice is a little sweeter.Kavner also provides the voices of every other female member of the Bouvier family, including Marge's motherJacqueline, Great-Aunt Gladys (a dead relative who was introduced on season four's \"Selma's Choice\"), and an unnamed grandmother seen on the season six episode \"Fear of Flying\". While cast members and crew have referenced Kavner as a deep fan of the series and the characters she voices, part of Kavner's contract says that she will never have to promoteThe Simpsonson video nor has she performed Marge's voice in public because she believes the publicity \"destroys the illusion. People feel these are real people.\"Kavner takes recording sessions seriously, and feels that voice acting is \"a little more limiting than live acting. And I have nothing to do with my character's movement.\"Nancy Cartwright, who voicesBart Simpson, said in her bookMy Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy(2000) that Kavner is a warm person who is \"a workhorse of an actor\" with \"extraordinary professionalism and quiet work ethic\", and notes that she is rarely late for recording sessions.Kavner had very few recorded interviews in regard to her work on the show. In behind-the-scenes footage from 1992, she describes Marge as \"a wonderful person\" with \"a great sex life\".On a 1994 appearance onLate Show with David Letterman, Kavner explains that performing the voice of Marge in a live-action setting would break the illusion of the character, and that she does not want her own likeness to overlap with that of the character. However, after being coaxed by Letterman, Kavner turns to face away from the camera and speaks briefly in the voice of Marge. Until 1998, Kavner was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing to cast new voices.However, the dispute was soon resolved and she received $125,000 per episode until 2004 when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.The issue was resolved a month later,and Kavner earned $250,000 per episode.After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Kavner and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. At the44th Primetime Emmy Awards, Kavner received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performancefor voicing Marge in theseason threeepisode \"I Married Marge\".In 2004, Kavner andDan Castellanetawon aYoung Artist Awardfor Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series.For her performance inThe Simpsons Movie, Kavner was nominated for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature at the 2007Annie Awards, butIan HolmfromRatatouillereceived the award.Kavner's emotional performance in the movie got positive reviews, and one critic said she \"gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever to find its way into a movie based on an irreverent cartoon\".Some scenes in the movie, such as Marge's emotional video message to Homer, were recorded over 100 times, leaving Kavner exhausted. Further career Many of Kavner's roles have been described byNew York Timeswriter Hilary de Vries as a \"woman who is supportive, sympathetic, or self-effacingly funny\".Kavner grew to despise playing such roles, saying \"If it smacks of Brenda Morgenstern, I won't take the job.\"She had a supporting role as Eleanor Costello, a nurse who befriendsRobin Williams' character in theAcademy Awardnominated filmAwakenings(1990).Kavner interviewed several nurses in preparation for the role, andPenny Marshall, the director of the film, described Kavner as \"a low-maintenance actor You never have to worry about giving back-story for her characters.\"In 1992, Kavner starred inThis Is My Life, her first leading role in a feature film. Kavner played Dottie Ingels, an aspiringstand-up comedianwho starts neglecting her family when her career begins to take off. Kavner described Dottie as \"really selfish\" but admitted, \"I liked the role for that very reason.\"Kavner had been asked to play a character with a smaller role in the film, butJoe Roth, at the time the chairman of20th Century Fox, suggested that they cast a lesser known actress in the lead role.Nora Ephron, the writer ofThis Is My Life, said Kavner \"has so little vanity that it is almost shocking. Not only does she have no demands as an actress – 'How big is my trailer, what's in my refrigerator?' – but she will do anything for the character if it makes sense to her.\" Kavner has frequently appeared inWoody Allenfilms, having roles inHannah and Her Sisters(1986),Radio Days(1987),New York Stories(1989),Alice(1990),Shadows and Fog(1991), the television movieDon't Drink the Water(1994)andDeconstructing Harry(1997).Allen described her as \"a naturally funny person. When she does a scene, you listen to her and look at her, and the prism through which it's all filtered is funny.\"Kavner believes he is \"a true filmmaker, one that has something to say, continually experimenting on different themes within his own film-making\", adding that \"anything ever does, I always want to do, I don't even have to read it.\" She has done voice-over work in films such asThe Lion King 1½(2004),Dr. Dolittle(1998)and an uncredited role as an announcer inA Walk on the Moon(1999).She worked with Tracey Ullman in the HBO sketch comedy seriesTracey Takes On...She was cast as the mother ofAdam Sandler's character inClick, released in 2006.She has not appeared in a non-Simpsonsrole since her appearance inClick. Personal life Kavner is Jewish.She has lived in New York City'sManhattanborough since around 1992.She leads an intensely private life, described byThe New York Timesas \"nearly reclusive\" and \"discreet and guarded beyond the usual reticent star routine\".She rarely makes public appearances and refuses to be photographed while working.She was in a relationship with producerDavid Davisfrom 1976 until his death in 2022.Neither of them confirmed being married, though reports referred to her as his wife at the time of his death. In 1983,Current Biographyreferred to Kavner as an avid athlete andpescetarian.In a 1992 interview withThe New York Times, she said she was considering retiring \"except for doing three days a year forWoody \", but had a feeling that she would receive a script she wanted \"to do more than life itself\" upon retiring. Filmography References External links",
"Nancy Cartwright Nancy Jean Cartwright(born October 25, 1957) is an American actress. She is the long-time voice ofBart Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons, for which she has received aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceand anAnnie Awardfor Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation. Cartwright also voices other characters for the show, includingRalph Wiggum,Todd Flanders,Nelson Muntz, andMaggie Simpson. She is also the voice ofChuckie Finsterin the Nickelodeon seriesRugratsand its spin-offAll Grown Up!, succeedingChristine Cavanaugh. Cartwright was born inDayton, Ohio. She moved to Hollywood in 1978 and trained under voice actorDaws Butler. Her first professional role was voicing Gloria in the animated seriesRichie Rich, which she followed with a starring role in the television movieMarian Rose White(1982) and her first feature film,Twilight Zone: The Movie(1983). In 1987, Cartwright auditioned for a role ina series of animated shortsabout adysfunctional familythat was to appear onThe Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright intended to audition for the role ofLisa Simpson, the middle child; when she arrived at the audition, she found the role of Bart—Lisa's brother—to be more interesting. Series creatorMatt Groeningallowed her to audition for Bart and offered her the role on the spot. She voiced Bart for three seasons onThe Tracey Ullman Show, and in 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show calledThe Simpsons. BesidesThe Simpsons, Cartwright has also voiced numerous other animated characters, including Daffney Gillfin inSnorks, Mellissa Screetch inToonsylvania,RufusinKim Possible,MindyinAnimaniacs, Pistol inGoof Troop, the Robots inCrashbox, Margo Sherman inThe Criticand Todd Daring inThe Replacements. In 2000, she published her autobiography,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy, and four years later, adapted it into aone-woman play. In 2017, she wrote and produced the filmIn Search of Fellini. Early life Nancy Jean Cartwright was born on October 25, 1957,in Dayton, Ohio,Frank and Miriam Cartwright's fourth of six children.She grew up inKettering, Ohio,and discovered her talent for voices at an early age. While in thefourth gradeat the school of St. Charles Borromeo, she won a school-wide speech competition with her performance ofRudyard Kipling'sHow the Camel Got His Hump.Cartwright attendedFairmont West High School, and participated in the school's theater and marching band. She regularly entered public speaking competitions, placing first in the \"Humorous Interpretation\" category at the National District Tournament two years running. The judges often suggested to her that she should perform cartoon voices. Cartwright graduated from high school in 1976 and accepted a scholarship fromOhio University.She continued to compete in public speaking competitions; during her sophomore year, she placed fifth in the National Speech Tournament's exposition category with her speech \"The Art of Animation\". In 1976, Cartwright landed a part-time job doing voice-overs for commercials onWINGradio in Dayton.A representative fromWarner Bros. Recordsvisited WING and later sent Cartwright a list of contacts in the animation industry.One of these wasDaws Butler, known for voicing characters such asHuckleberry Hound,Snagglepuss,Elroy Jetson,Spike the Bulldog, andYogi Bear. Cartwright called him and left a message in a Cockney accent on his answering machine.Butler immediately called her back and agreed to be her mentor. He mailed her a script and instructed her to send him a tape recording of herself reading it. Once he received the tape, Butler critiqued it and sent her notes. For the next year, they continued in this way, completing a new script every few weeks. Cartwright described Butler as \"absolutely amazing, always encouraging, always polite\". Cartwright returned toOhio Universityfor her sophomore year, but transferred to theUniversity of California, Los Angeles(UCLA) so she could be closer to Hollywood and Butler.Her mother, Miriam, died late in the summer of 1978.Cartwright nearly changed her relocation plans but, on September 17, 1978, \"joylessly\" left forWestwood, Los Angeles. Career Early career While attending UCLA, which did not have a public speaking team,Cartwright continued training as a voice actress with Butler. She recalled, \"every Sunday I'd take a 20-minute bus ride to his house inBeverly Hillsfor a one-hour lesson and be there for four hours ... They had four sons, they didn't have a daughter and I kind of fitted in as the baby of the family.\"Butler introduced her to many of the voice actors and directors atHanna-Barbera. After she met the directorGordon Hunt, he asked her to audition for a recurring role as Gloria inRichie Rich. She received the part, and later worked with Hunt on several other projects. At the end of 1980, Cartwright signed with a talent agency and landed a lead role in a pilot for asitcomcalledIn Trouble. Cartwright described the show as \"forgettable, but it jump-started my on-camera career\".She graduated from UCLA in 1981 with a degree in theater.During the summer, Cartwright worked withJonathan Wintersas part of an improvisation troupe atKenyon CollegeinGambier, Ohio. Returning to Los Angeles, Cartwright won the lead role in the television filmMarian Rose White.Janet Maslin, a critic forThe New York Times, described Cartwright as \"a chubby, lumbering, slightlycross-eyedactress whose naturalness adds greatly to the film's impact\".Cartwright replied by sending Maslin a letter insisting she was not cross-eyed, and included a photograph.Later, Cartwright auditioned for the role of Ethel, a girl who becomes trapped in a cartoon world in the third segment ofTwilight Zone: The Movie. She met with directorJoe Danteand later described him as \"a total cartoon buff, and once he took a look at my resume and noticed Daws Butler's name on it, we were off and running, sharing anecdotes about Daws and animation. After about twenty minutes, he said, 'considering your background, I don't see how I could cast anyonebutyou in this part!'\"It was her first role in a feature film.The segment was based onThe Twilight Zonetelevision series episode \"It's a Good Life\", which was later parodied inThe Simpsonsepisode \"Treehouse of Horror II\" (1991). Cartwright continued to do voice work for projects includingPound Puppies,Popeye and Son,Snorks,My Little PonyandSaturday Supercade.She joined a \"loop group\", and recorded vocals for characters in the background of films, although in most cases the sound was turned down so that very little of her voice was heard. She did minor voice-over work for several films, includingThe Clan of the Cave Bear(1986),Silverado(1985),Sixteen Candles(1984),Back to the Future Part II, andThe Color Purple(1985).Cartwright also voiced a shoe that was \"dipped\" in acid inWho Framed Roger Rabbit(1988), describing it as her first \"off-screen death scene\",and worked to correctly convey the emotion involved. Once I had graduated from UCLA, I decided that as long as I was an actress, I was going to find related work in the industry. There were plenty of opportunities. And fortunately, I am just pushy enough to find and get myself in touch with those who can provide such opportunities. —Nancy Cartwright,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy In 1985, she auditioned for a guest spot as Cynthia inCheers. The audition called for her to say her line and walk off the set. Cartwright decided to take a chance on being different and continued walking, leaving the building and returning home. The production crew was confused, but she received the part.In search of more training as an actress, Cartwright joined a class taught by Hollywood coachMilton Katselas. He recommended that Cartwright studyLa Strada, a 1956 Italian film starringGiulietta Masinaand directed byFederico Fellini. She began performing \"every imaginable scene\" fromLa Stradain her class and spent several months trying to secure the rights to produce a stage adaptation.She visited Italy with the intention of meeting Fellini and requesting his permission in person. Although they never met, Cartwright kept a journal of the trip and later wrote a one-woman play calledIn Search of Fellini, partially based on her voyage.The play was co-written by Peter Kjenaas, and Cartwright won aDrama-Logue Awardafter performing it in Los Angeles in 1995. In a 1998 interview, she stated her intention to make it into a feature film,which she succeeded in doing in 2017. The Simpsons Cartwright voices the characterBart Simpsonon the long-running animated television showThe Simpsons. On March 13, 1987, she auditioned for a series of animated shorts about a dysfunctional family that was to appear onThe Tracey Ullman Show, a sketch comedy program. Cartwright had intended to audition for the role ofLisa Simpson, the elder daughter. After arriving at the audition, she found that Lisa was simply described as the middle child and at the time did not have much personality. Cartwright became more interested in the role of Bart, described as \"devious, underachieving, school-hating, irreverent, clever\".CreatorMatt Groeninglet her try out for Bart and gave her the job on the spot.Bart's voice came naturally to Cartwright, as she had previously used elements of it inMy Little Pony,Snorks, andPound Puppies.Cartwright describes Bart's voice as easy to perform compared with other characters.The recording of the shorts was often primitive; the dialog was recorded on a portable tape deck in a makeshift studio above the bleachers on the set ofThe Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright, the only cast member to have been professionally trained in voice acting,described the sessions as \"great fun\".However, she wanted to appear in the live-action sketches and occasionally showed up for recording sessions early, hoping to be noticed by a producer. In 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show on theFox networkcalledThe Simpsons. Bart quickly became the show'sbreakout personalityand one of the most celebrated characters on television—his popularity in 1990 and 1991 was known as \"Bartmania\".Bart was described as \"television's brightest new star\" by Mike Boone ofThe Gazetteand was named 1990's \"entertainer of the year\" byEntertainment Weekly.Despite Bart's fame, however, Cartwright remained relatively unknown. During the first season ofThe Simpsons, Fox ordered Cartwright not to give interviews, because they did not want to publicize the fact that Bart was voiced by a woman.Cartwright's normal speaking voice is said to have \"no obvious traces of Bart\",and she believes her role is \"the best acting job in the world\"since she is rarely recognized in public.When she is recognized and asked to perform Bart's voice in front of children, Cartwright refuses because it \"freaks out\".Bart's catchphrase \"Eat My Shorts\" was an ad-lib by Cartwright in one of the original table readings, referring to an incident from her high school days. Once while performing, members of the Fairmont West High School marching band switched their chant from the usual \"Fairmont West! Fairmont West!\" to the irreverent \"Eat my shorts!\" Cartwright felt it appropriate for Bart, and improvised the line; it became a popular catchphrase on the show. Cartwright voices several other characters on the show, includingNelson Muntz,Ralph Wiggum,Todd Flanders,Kearney, andDatabase.She first voiced Nelson in the episode \"Bart the General\" (season one, 1990). The character was to be voiced byDana Hill, but Hill missed the recording session and Cartwright was given the role.She developed Nelson's voice on the spot and describes him as \"a throat-ripper\".Ralph Wiggum had originally been voiced byJo Ann Harris, but Cartwright was assigned to voice the character in \"Bart the Murderer\" (season three, 1991).Todd Flanders, the only voice for which Cartwright used another source, is based on Sherman (voiced byWalter Tetley), the boy fromPeabody's Improbable History, a series of shorts aired onThe Rocky and Bullwinkle Show. Cartwright received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992 for her performance as Bart in the episode \"Separate Vocations\"and anAnnie Awardin 1995 for Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation.Bart was named one of the100 most important people of the 20th centurybyTime,and in 2000, Bart and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame, located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard. Until 1998, Cartwright was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors and made preparations for casting new actors.The dispute was resolved, however, and Cartwright received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded $360,000 an episode.A compromise was reached after a month,and Cartwright's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.Salaries were re-negotiated in 2008 with the voice actors receiving approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Cartwright and the other cast members accepted a 25 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. Further career It is quite a curiosity being a celebrity that nobody knows. I ask you, how many celebrities would younotrecognize were they to walk down the street? ... I can think of no one—besides my fellow cast members and me. The anonymity factor is such a unique aspect of this job. I must admit, sometimes I wish it were different. —Nancy Cartwright,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy In addition to her work onThe Simpsons, Cartwright has voiced many other characters on several animated series, including Chuckie Finster inRugratsandAll Grown Up!, Margo Sherman inThe Critic,MindyinAnimaniacs,andRufusthenaked mole-ratinKim Possible. For the role of Rufus, Cartwright researched mole-rats extensively, and became \"a font of useless trivia\".She was nominated for aDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program in 2004 for her work on the show.In 2001, Cartwright took over theRugratsrole of Chuckie Finster whenChristine Cavanaughretired.Cartwright describes Rufus and Chuckie as her two most difficult voices: \"Rufus because my diaphragm gets a workout while trying to utilize the 18 vocal sounds a mole makes. Chuckie because ... he's an asthmatic with five personalities rolled into one—plus I have to do the voice the way did it for 10 years.\"Other television shows that have used her voice work includeGalaxy High,God, the Devil and Bob,Goof Troop,Mike, Lu & Og,The Replacements,Pinky and the BrainandTimberwolf.Cartwright has appeared on camera in numerous television shows and films, includingFame,Empty Nest,The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air,Flesh and Blood,Godzilla,and24. In 2000, Cartwright published her autobiography,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy. The book details her career (particularly her experiences as the voice of Bart) and contains stories about life behind the scenes ofThe Simpsons.Laura A. Bischoff of theDayton Daily Newscommented that the book was the \"ultimate insider's guide toThe Simpsons\".Critics complained that the book lacked interesting stories and was aimed mostly at fans ofThe Simpsonsrather than a general audience. Cartwright adaptedMy Life as a 10-Year-Old Boyinto aone-woman playin 2004. Cartwright has performed it at a variety of venues, including the August 2004Edinburgh Festival Fringein Scotland.The play received modest reviews, including criticism for a lack of inside stories aboutThe Simpsons, and its \"overweeningly upbeat\" tone.David Chatterton ofThe British Theatre Guidedescribed the show as \"interesting and entertaining, but not really a 'must see' even for Simpsons fans\". Cartwright has shown an interest instock car racingand as of 2007 was seeking aNASCARlicense.In 2001, she founded a production company called SportsBlast and created an online animated series calledThe Kellys. The series is focused on racing; Cartwright voices a seven-year-old named Chip Kelly. In 2016, Cartwright launched Spotted Cow Entertainment, her own film and television production company, with Peter Kjenaas, Monica Gil and Kevin Burke. With a focus on international audiences, Spotted Cow is seeking \"to finance, produce and acquire live action and animated films, television series, as well as entertainment for digital platforms with budgets up to $15M.\"With Spotted Cow, Cartwright made her first film as a screenwriter and producer,In Search of Fellini, which was released on September 15, 2017.Based on her own journey toItalyin 1985 in a bid to meet the famed directorFederico Fellini, the film fulfilled Cartwright's longtime vision of turning her 1995 one-woman playIn Search of Felliniinto a film. Personal life Cartwright met real-estate agent Warren Murphy, 24 years her senior, on her birthday in 1988 and married him two months later.In her book, she describes Murphy as her \"personal laugh track\".The couple had two children, Lucy and Jack, before divorcing in 2002. Cartwright was raised aRoman Catholicbut joined theChurch of Scientologyin 1991.She was awarded Scientology's Patron Laureate Award after donating $10,000,000, almost twice her annual salary, to the Church in 2007. Cartwright is a contributor toASIFA-Hollywood's Animation Archive Project.In September 2007, Cartwright received theMake-A-Wish Foundation'sWish IconAward \"for her tremendous dedication to the Foundation's fundraising and wish-fulfillment efforts.\"In 2005, Cartwright created ascholarshipat Fairmont High School \"designed to aid Fairmont who dream of following in her footsteps and studying speech, debate, drama or music\" atOhio University.In 2005, Cartwright was given the title of Honorary Mayor ofNorthridge, California(a neighborhood of Los Angeles) by the Northridge Chamber of Commerce. In 2007, Cartwright was in a romantic relationship with contractor Stephen Brackett,a fellow member of Scientology.In early 2008, the couple had made plans to marry,but Brackett died in May 2009. In 2012, Cartwright received an honorary doctorate degree in communication fromOhio University, where she was a student from 1976 to 1977 before transferring to UCLA. Cartwright is also a painter, sculptor and philanthropist. She co-founded the Know More About Drugs alliance. Filmography Live-action Film Television Voice roles Film Animation Video games Music videos Theme parks Web series Producer Other credits Awards References Bibliography External links",
"Yeardley Smith Martha Maria Yeardley Smith(/ˈjɑːrdli/YARD-lee;born July 3, 1964) is an American actress. She stars as the voice ofLisa Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons. Smith became an actress in 1982 after graduating from drama school. She moved to New York City in 1984, where she appeared in the Broadway production ofTom Stoppard'sThe Real Thing. She made her film debut in 1985'sHeaven Help Us, followed by roles inThe Legend of Billie JeanandMaximum Overdrive. She moved to Los Angeles in 1986 and took a recurring role in the television seriesBrothers. In 1987, Smith auditioned for theSimpsonsshorts onThe Tracey Ullman Show. Smith intended to audition for the role ofBart Simpson, but the casting director felt her voice was too high, and she was cast as Bart's sister Lisa. In 1989, the shorts werespun offinto their own half-hour show,The Simpsons. For her work onThe Simpsons, Smith received aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992. AlongsideThe Simpsons, Smith appeared in the sitcomHerman's Headas Louise, and had recurring appearances as Marlene onDharma & Gregand as Penny in two episodes ofDead Like Me. She has appeared in several films, includingCity Slickers,Just Write,Toys, andAs Good as It Gets. In 2004, Smith performed anoff-Broadwayone-woman show entitledMoreat theUnion Square Theatrein New York City. Aside fromThe Simpsons, Smith has recorded few voice-over parts, only commercials and the filmWe're Back! A Dinosaur's Story. Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedyWaiting For Ophelia, which had its world premiere at thePhoenix Film Festivalin April 2009. Early life Smith was born on July 3, 1964, inParis, France. Her father, Joseph Smith, worked forUnited Press Internationalin Paris and moved to Washington, D.C., in 1966, where he becameThe Washington Post's first official obituary editor.Her mother, Martha Mayor, was apaper conservatorfor theFreerandSackler Galleriesat theSmithsonian Institution.Smith's parents later divorced.Her maternal grandfather was art historianA. Hyatt Mayor, and among her great-grandparents were marine biologist and zoologistAlpheus Hyattand artist and sculptorHarriet Randolph Hyatt Mayor.She is also the paternal niece of political scientist, historian, andLatin American studiesspecialistPeter H. Smith.Smith has labeled her family \"upper crust and reserved\".As a child, Smith was often teased because of her unusual voice.Smith has stated: \"I've sounded pretty much the same way since I was six. Maybe a little deeper now.\"She made her acting debut in a sixth-grade play. Career Early career Smith became a professional actress in 1982.After appearances in a number of school plays, she joined the localArena Stagetheater group on an apprenticeship, featuring in their production ofPeter Pan. She went on to star in several other plays in Washington.She moved to New York City in 1984 and appeared in the Broadway production ofTom Stoppard's playThe Real ThingalongsideJeremy IronsandGlenn Close. Smith's first film role came inHeaven Help Us(1985).She then played Putter inThe Legend of Billie Jean(also 1985). The film was abox office bomband critically panned, although Smith \"thought it would be the movie that launched my career. And then it was out at the box office about 10 days before it died.\"When filming was over, she rejoinedThe Real Thingbefore being out of work for six months. Smith worried her career was over.However, the following year, she played Connie inStephen King'sMaximum Overdrive(1986), noting it was \"truly a dreadful film, but I had a great part in it.\" Smith moved to Los Angeles in 1986 on the \"semi-promise\" of a part in a TV film.After the audition, the role was given to another actress. Smith realized \"that people don't mean what they say. It's not malicious. They just don't realize how much impact they have on an impressionable actor – and all actors are impressionable.\" From then on, she decided to \"just sort of build a wall around myself\", to cope with the disappointment of not getting a part.In Los Angeles, Smith appeared in theatrical productions ofLiving on Salvation Street, for which she was paid $14 for each performance,Boys and Girls/Men and Women, andHow the Other Half Loves, and played the recurring role of Louella Waters on theShowtimeseriesBrothers.She appeared in the filmsThe Legend of Billie JeanandGinger Ale Afternoon(1989) as \"trailer-park girls\".She later spoke of her regrets of appearing in the latter in her one-woman showMore. The Simpsons It's a happy fluke. When she was cast back in 1987, I just liked the sound of her voice. She's also a great actress. In general, people who make their living doing voices on cartoons aren't always great for us. Most cartoons want things peppy and cartoony. Yeardley is able to go through moments of great emotion and wring it for all she's worth. —Matt Groeningon Smith's vocal style Smith's longest-running role is voicingLisa SimpsononThe Simpsons. She has voiced Lisa since 1987, beginning withThe Simpsons shortsonThe Tracey Ullman Show. Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Lisa's brotherBart, but casting directorBonita Pietilathought her voice was too high. Smith later recalled \"I always sounded too much like a girl, I read two lines as Bart and they said, 'Thanks for coming!'\"Smith was given the role of Lisa, instead. She denies rumors that she almost turned down the role, though admits she had never planned a career in voice-over work.Pietila stated that, having seen her inLiving on Salvation Street,Smith was always her preferred choice.Smith lifts her voice up slightly to perform the role.Lisa is the only regular character voiced by Smith, although in some earlier episodes, she provided some ofMaggie's squeaks and occasional speaking parts.Smith has only voiced characters other than Lisa on very rare occasions, with those characters usually being some derivative of Lisa, such as Lisa Bella in \"Last Tap Dance in Springfield\" and Lisa, Jr. in \"Missionary: Impossible\" (both fromseason 11in 2000).Smith spends two days a week recording the show. Until 1998, Smith was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing to cast new voices.However, the dispute was soon resolved and she received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 per episode.The issue was resolved a month later,and Smith earned $250,000 per episode.After salary renegotiations in 2008, the voice actors received about $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Smith and the other cast members accepted a 25% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. Despite her world-famous role, Smith is rarely recognized in public, which she does not mind, saying, \"it's wonderful to be in the midst of all this hype about the show, and people enjoying the show so much, and to be totally afly on the wall; people never recognise me solely from my voice.\"In a 2009 interview withThe Guardian, she commented: \"It's the best job ever. I have nothing but gratitude for the amount of freedomThe Simpsonshas bought me in my life.\" Smith received aPrimetime Emmy Awardin 1992, but felt it was not worth anything, saying \"there's part of me that feels it wasn't even a real Emmy.\" The Emmy forOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceis aCreative Artsand not handed out during the primetime telecast and, prior to 2009, was a juried award without nominations.However, Smith says \"if I had to be associated with one character in fiction, I will always be thrilled that it was Lisa Simpson.\"The show's creatorMatt Groeninghas called Smith very similar to Lisa: \"Yeardley has strong moral views about her character. There are lines that are written for Lisa that Yeardley reads and says, 'No, I wouldn't say that.'\"WriterJay Kogenpraised her performance on the show, particularly in the episode \"Lisa's Substitute\", as able \"to move past comedy to something really strong and serious and dramatic\". Further career From 1991 to 1994, alongsideThe Simpsons, Smith was one of the lead cast members in the sitcomHerman's Headas Louise.Her other television roles include recurring appearances as Marlene onDharma & Greg, and Penny in two episodes ofDead Like Me. Smith has also appeared inPhil of the FutureandTeen Angel.Her one-scene role as pregnant checkout girl Nancy in 1991'sCity Slickersearned her \"more attention than all previous roles combined\", and taught her \"that it's far better to have small parts in big movies that everyone sees.\"In 1997, she appeared as Lulu the palm reader in the independent filmJust Write.Her other roles include parts inBarry Levinson'sToysandJames L. Brooks'As Good as It Gets.Brooks, who is also executive producer ofThe Simpsons, had cast Smith in his 1994 filmI'll Do Anything(in one of the film's musical numbers), but her part was cut.Aside fromThe Simpsons, Smith has recorded few voice-over parts, only commercials and the filmWe're Back! A Dinosaur's Story. She \"had a voice-over agent for about two years, and I used to go out all the time, but it never really came to anything. Everybody said, 'Oh Yeardley, you'll clean up,' and that was definitely not the case.\" In 2004, Smith performed her own off-Broadway one-woman show entitledMoreat theUnion Square Theatrein New York City. Directed byJudith Ivey,the play is about her mixed feelings over the success ofThe Simpsons, her parents, her relationships, and her struggles withbulimia.The New York Timescritic Margo Jefferson called it an \"appealing if overlong show\", adding that \"The career narrative needed shortening. This would involve some editing and revising but wouldn't taint the best parts ofMore.It is refreshing to hear a celebrity talk cleanly about being fame-driven and about not getting the degree or the kind of fame you craved. It's fun to watch a skilled actress use her craft to the full.\"She would later perform the play for three weeks in Los Angeles the following year. Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedyWaiting for Ophelia, which was released in 2009. She funded the film, which was written by Adam Carl and based on a stage play he wrote in 2003. She said: \"I loved it. I never get to play parts like that. I always play the friend of a friend, never the lead. And the script surprised me.\" Carl stated it was very unlikely she would recoup her money, but Smith decided she \"believe in this project, and my expectations have already been fulfilled by making the movie\", and added: \"You can support art even if it's not going to make a zillion dollars.\"It premiered on April 4, 2009, at thePhoenix Film Festival. In 2011, Smith starred as Ms. Miller in the movieThe ChaperonealongsideTriple HandAriel Winter. In June 2016, theHuman Rights Campaignreleased a video in tribute to the victims of theOrlando nightclub shooting; in the video, Smith and others told the stories of the people killed there.On March 30, 2019, Smith was honored with the Human Rights Campaign's National Leadership Award in Los Angeles for her work as an advocate of theLGBT community. In 2017, Smith started a podcast,Small Town Dicks, which explores real life crime in small towns in the United States.Smith had co-hosted the podcast with actress and long-time friend Zibby Allen until March 2019 when the two filed lawsuits against one another, with Allen accusing Smith of pushing her out of ownership and profit rights from the show. Politics Smith is a lifelongDemocrat. In 2018, Smith mockedRepublicanTed Cruzafter he labeled the Democratic Party as \"the party ofLisa Simpson\".Smith recommended that people of differing political views should be able to work together ongun control, promotinggay rightsandenvironmentalism. Personal life Smith marriedEnglish-Canadianactor Christopher Grove in 1990. They were divorced in 1992, citing irreconcilable differences. In a 1997 interview withThe Daily Targum, Smith stated \"I am shy, but I have an extroverted persona which I can draw on when I need to,\" and that she is a \"private\" actress. She married Daniel Erickson in 2002; the marriage lasted for six years and Smith filed for divorce on May 21, 2008, citing irreconcilable differences. In 2009, she commented, \"People have said to me that I'm unassuming. It's true, I'm the worst celebrity ever. But I'm trying to become better.\" Smith hadbulimiawhen she was a teenager. She noted \"It would make me high, I would feelendorphinsand this great sense of victory.\" Smith enjoys writing and painting. During the first season ofHerman's Head, Smith taught herself to paint by copying other artists.The bookJust Humor Meincludes a story, \"The Race\", written by Smith.She has written a children's book,I, Lorelei, which was published byHarperCollinsin February 2009. In 2011, Smith launched a women's shoe line called Marchez Vous. In November 2021, Yeardley was noted for producing a podcast on themurder of Sheila Anderson, one of Scotland's most notorious unsolved murders. On June 11, 2022, Smith married one of the co-hosts of her podcast,Small Town Dicks, Detective (Ret) Dan Grice. She met him while he was providing personal security for her during aSimpsonsevent. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Theme park Podcasts References External links",
"Hank Azaria Henry Albert\"Hank\"Azaria(/əˈzɛəriə/ə-ZAIR-ee-ə; born April 25, 1964) is an American actor. He is known for voicing many characters in the long-running animated sitcomThe Simpsonssince 1989, includingMoe Szyslak,Chief Wiggum,Superintendent Chalmers,Comic Book Guy,Snake Jailbird,Professor Frink,Kirk Van Houten,Duffman,Apu Nahasapeemapetilon,Lou,Carl Carlson, among others. Azaria joined the show with little voice acting experience, but became a regular in itssecond season. For his work on the show, he has won fourPrimetime Emmy Awards. Alongside his continued voice acting onThe Simpsons, Azaria became more widely known through his live-action supporting appearances in films such asQuiz Show(1994),Heat,The Birdcage(1996) (for which he won aScreen Actors Guild Award) andGodzilla(1998). He has also appeared in numerous films includingMystery Men(1999),America's Sweethearts(2001),Shattered Glass(2003),Along Came Polly(2004),Run Fatboy Run(2007),Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian(2009) andThe Smurfs(2011) andThe Smurfs 2(2013). Further voice roles includeAnastasia(1997), for which he won anAnnie Award. His live-action television work includes recurring roles on the sitcomsMad About YouandFriends, as well as dramatic roles in the TV filmsTuesdays With Morrie(1999) as writerMitch AlbomandUprising(2001) as Jewish resistance leaderMordechai Anielewicz. For the former, Azaria received thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie. He starred in the title roles in theShowtimedrama seriesHuff(2004–2006) and theIFCsitcomBrockmire(2017–2020). His recurring role on the dramaRay Donovanearned him a sixth Primetime Emmy Award in 2016. Azaria made hisBroadwaydebut asLancelotinSpamalot, for which he was nominated for theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He returned to Broadway in 2007, playing David Sarnoff inThe Farnsworth Invention. Early life and education Henry Albert Azaria was born in theManhattanborough ofNew York Cityon April 25, 1964 to Ruth and Albert Azaria.He began going by the name \"Hank\" as a child, after a pediatrician he visited said he felt it was a more suitable name for a child than \"Henry\".His grandparents on both sides wereSephardic Jewsfrom the Greek city ofThessaloniki. His family spokeLadino, also known as Judaeo-Spanish, which he described as \"a strange, antiquated Spanish dialect written inHebrewcharacters.\"Azaria's father ran several dress-manufacturing businesses while his mother raised him and his two older sisters, Stephanie and Elise.Before marrying his father, Azaria's mother had been a publicist forColumbia Pictures, promoting films in Latin American countries as she was fluent in both English and Spanish.During his childhood, Azaria would often \"memorize and mimic\" the scripts of films, shows, and stand-up comedy routines he enjoyed. Azaria attendedThe Kew-Forest Schoolin Queens'Forest Hillsneighborhood.He decided to become an actor after performing in a school play at the age of 16, becoming \"obsessed with acting\" at the expense of his academic studies.Both of his parents loved all forms of show business, which further spurred him to become an actor.He studied drama atTufts Universityfrom 1981 to 1985,where he met and befriended actorOliver Plattand noted that Platt was a \"better actor\" than he was and inspired him.Together they starred in various college stage productions, includingThe Merchant of Venice,before Azaria went to train at theAmerican Academy of Dramatic Arts.Although he did not expect the endeavor to be successful, he decided to become a professional actor so that he would not regret not having tried later in life.His first acting job was an advertisement for Italian television when he was 17 years old.He also worked as abusboy.He originally intended to work predominantly as a theatrical actor, and he and Platt set up a company called Big Theatre, althoughHarold Pinter'sThe Dumb Waiterwas the only show they ever performed.Azaria decided that television was a better arena and offered more opportunity, and moved toLos Angelesafter being offered work with talent agent Harry Gold. Career Early career (1986–1988) Azaria got along with talent agent Harry Gold, who was lukewarm about working with him but still sent him out for auditions after a woman Azaria had worked with in New York \"got really furious with \" for breaking his promise to work with Azaria.He made his television debut with a role in the pilot episode of the 1986ABCcomedy-drama seriesJoe Bash.His part—a one-line role as the police officer Maldonado—was edited out before the show was broadcast, although the role secured him admission to theScreen Actors Guild.Azaria appeared in the TV filmNitti: The Enforcer, about the gangsterFrank Nitti, and appeared in the failed pilotMorning MaggiealongsideMatthew Perry, with whom he became good friends.He played Joe in an episode of the sitcomFamily Tiesin 1988 in which he had one line, and the following year he played Steve Stevenson in an episode ofGrowing Pains.Azaria has described his career progression as being gradual; he did not achieve overnight recognition or fame.In Los Angeles, Azaria was trained by acting coachRoy London.Between acting jobs he performed as a stand-up comedian,and worked as a bartender for a catering firm. The Simpsons(since 1989) Azaria is known for his voice work in the ongoing animated television seriesThe Simpsons. He joined the show having previously performed only one voice-over—as the titular animated dog in the failedFoxpilotHollywood Dog, a show he described as \"sort ofRoger Rabbit-esque, where the dog was animated, but everybody else was real.\"The first voice he performed onThe Simpsonswas that of town bartenderMoe Szyslak, replacingChristopher Collinswho had initially recorded the character's voice. Having known him fromHollywood Dog, casting directorBonita Pietilacalled Azaria and asked him to audition for the voice of Moe.At the time he was performing the role of a drug dealer in a play, utilizing a voice based onAl Pacino's performance in the filmDog Day Afternoon. He used the voice in his audition forThe Simpsonsand, at the request of the show's executive producersMatt GroeningandSam Simon, made the voice more \"gravelly\". Groening and Simon thought the resultant voice was ideal for Moe and took Azaria over to the Fox recording studio. Before he had even seen a script, he recorded several lines of dialogue as Moe for the episode \"Some Enchanted Evening\",dubbingCollins' voice. Azaria did not expect to hear from the show again, but they continued to call him back, first to perform the voice ofChief Wiggumand thenApu Nahasapeemapetilon.He felt that, initially, \" didn't seem too pleased with what I had done... was very exacting... was kind of impatiently directing me on the ABCs of comedy. But then, much to my surprise, he would still keep having me back every week. But each week, I thought it was going to be my last week because I really didn't think I had done that well.\"Nevertheless, by the show'ssecond seasonhe was performing multiple recurring voices and so was given a contract and made a permanent member of the main cast.Since he joined later than the rest of the cast, Groening still considered Azaria the \"new guy\".In addition to Moe, Wiggum and Apu, Azaria provides the voices ofComic Book Guy,Carl Carlson(until season 32, now voiced byAlex Désert),Cletus Spuckler,Professor Frink, Dr.Nick Riviera,Lou,Snake Jailbird,Kirk Van Houten,Bumblebee Man,the Sea Captain,Superintendent Chalmers,Disco Stu,Duffman,the Wiseguy, and numerous guest characters.His co-star inThe Simpsons,Nancy Cartwright, wrote that: \"The thing about Hank that I most remember is that he started out so unassuming and then, little by little, his abilities were revealed and his contributions to the show escalated. I realized Hank was going to be our breakaway star.\" As Moe's voice is based on Al Pacino's, likewise many of Azaria's other recurring characters are based on existing sources. He took Apu's voice from the many Indian and Pakistani convenience store workers in Los Angeles that he had interacted with when he first moved to the area, and also loosely based it onPeter Sellers' character Hrundi V. Bakshi from the filmThe Party.Originally, it was thought that Apu being Indian was too offensive and stereotyped, but after Azaria's reading of the line \"Hello, Mr. Homer\", which the show's producers thought was hilarious, the character stayed.Azaria, however, disputed this onLateNet withRay Ellin, claiming that Apu was always intended to be stereotypical.Chief Wiggum's voice was originally a parody ofDavid Brinkley, but when Azaria was told it was too slow, he switched it to that ofEdward G. Robinson.Officer Lou is based onSylvester Stallone,and Dr. Nick is \"a badRicky Ricardoimpression.\"The \"Wise Guy\" voice is \"basicallyCharles Bronson,\"while Carl is \"a silly voice always did.\"Two of the voices come from his time at college: Snake's is based on Azaria's old college roommate, while Comic Book Guy's voice is based on a student who lived in the room next door to Azaria and went by the name \"F\".Professor Frink is based onJerry Lewis' performance in the originalThe Nutty Professor, and the Sea Captain is based on English actorRobert Newton's portrayal of many pirates.Azaria based his performance for the one-time characterFrank Grimes, from the episode \"Homer's Enemy\", on actorWilliam H. Macy. He counts Grimes as the hardest, most emotional performance he has ever had to give in the history ofThe Simpsons. Azaria's work on the show has won him four Emmy Awards forOutstanding Voice-Over Performance, in 1998, 2001, 2003 and 2015. He was also nominated for the award in 2009 and 2010, but lost to co-starDan Castellanetaand guest starAnne Hathawayrespectively. He was nominated again in 2012.Azaria, with the rest of the principal cast, reprised all of his voice roles fromThe Simpsonsfor the 2007 filmThe Simpsons Movie.Azaria notes that he spends \"an embarrassingly small amount of time working onThe Simpsons.\"He works for \"an hour on Thursdays when we read through the script, then four hours on Monday when we record it, and I'll pop in again once or twice.\"He concludes it is \"the best job in the world, as far as I'm concerned.\" Up until 1998, Azaria was paid $30,000 per episode. Azaria and the five other mainThe Simpsonsvoice actors were then involved in a pay dispute in which Fox threatened to replace them with new actors and went as far as preparing for the casting of new voices. However, the issue was soon resolved and from 1998 to 2004, they received $125,000 per episode. In 2004, the voice actors intentionally skipped several scriptread-throughs, demanding they be paid $360,000 per episode.The strike was resolved a month later,with Azaria's pay increasing to something between $250,000and $360,000 per episode.In 2008, production for thetwentieth seasonwas put on hold due to new contract negotiations with the voice actors, who wanted a \"healthy bump\" in salary.The dispute was later resolved, and Azaria and the rest of the cast received their requested pay raise, approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Azaria and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. In an April 24, 2018 appearance onThe Late Show with Stephen Colbert, Azaria discussed his reaction toThe Problem with Apu, a 2017 documentary byHari Kondaboluthat examined Azaria and other white actors who had playedSouth Asianroles asstereotypes.During the interview, Azaria described how watching the documentary had changed his perspective on the issue: \"The idea that anyone, young or old, past or present, was bullied or teased based on the character of Apu, it just really makes me sad.\"Azaria also offered to stop voicing the character: \"I'm perfectly willing and happy to step aside, or help transition it into something new.\"In response, Kondabolu tweeted his appreciation for Azaria's statement: \"Thank you, @HankAzaria. I appreciate what you said & how you said it.\" In early 2020, Azaria announced that he was stepping away from the Apu character, primarily because of the stereotypes and bias it perpetuated.Later in the year he would retire from voicing Carl for similar reasons.In April 2021, Azaria formally apologized for voicing the Apu character, onDax Shepherd's podcast. Further career (since 1991) Television work With the continuing success ofThe Simpsons, Azaria began taking on other, principally live-action roles. He was a main cast member on the showHerman's Head(1991–1994) playing Jay Nichols, alongsideThe Simpsonsco-starYeardley Smith.He regularly recorded forThe Simpsonsand filmedHerman's Headduring the same day.Following the series' cancellation Azaria unsuccessfully auditioned for the role ofJoey Tribbiani, one of the lead characters in the sitcomFriends.He was instead cast in the role of the scientist David, one ofPhoebe Buffay's boyfriends in the series. He appeared in the show's tenth episode \"The One with the Monkey\", before the character left for a research trip inMinsk. He reprised the role in the show'sseventh season(2001), before making several appearances in theninth(2003). This return culminates in David proposing to Phoebe; she rejects him, and David leaves the show for good.From 1995 to 1999, Azaria had a recurring role in the sitcomMad About Youas Nat Ostertag, the dog walker.Azaria was nominated for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor his roles in bothMad About You(in 1998) andFriends(in 2003).Azaria had the lead role in the short-lived sitcomIf Not For Youin 1995, playing record producer Craig Schaeffer. Azaria produced and starred in the sitcomImagine Thatin 2002, replacingEmerilmid-season in theNBClineup. He played Josh Miller, a comedy writer, who \"transformed\" each episode into a character Miller has imagined, \"provid a humorous outlet for his frustrations at home and work\".Production closed after five episodes and it was canceled after just two aired, due to poor critical reaction and ratings.Azaria later commented on the show: \"I wanted to do something really truthful and interesting and impactful. We had a bunch of executives sitting in the room, all agreeing thatThe Larry Sanders Showwas our favorite thing on television, but we couldn't do it on NBC, and nor would we want to from a business standpoint; it simply wouldn't make enough money. By the time it aired, the writing was sort of on the wall, and I don't blame them at all. It was apparent it wasn't working.\" He starred aspsychiatristCraig \"Huff\" Huffstodt in theShowtimedrama seriesHuff, which ran for two seasons between 2004 and 2006, airing 24 episodes.Azaria served as an executive producer on the show and directed an episode of its second season.After reading the pilot script, he sent it to Platt, who took the role of Huff's friend Russell Tupper.Azaria enjoyed working on the show,but struggled with the bleak subject matter and was often in dispute with its creator Bob Lowry, noting that it \"was tough to marry our visions all the time, we both cared so much about it that neither of us were willing to let go.\"Gillian FlynnofEntertainment Weeklycalled Azaria \"impressively subtle\" in the role,whileJohn LeonardofNew York magazinesaid he was a \"shrewd bit of casting.\"The show garnered sevenEmmynominations in 2005, including a nomination for Azaria forOutstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.Despite the awards, the show continually received low ratings, and Showtime chose not to commission it for a third season. Returning to live-action television in 2011, Azaria starred in the NBC sitcomFree Agents, a remake of the Britishseries of the same name. He played Alex Taylor, a recently divorced public relations executive \"who is missing his kids and trying to keep himself together\", and ends up sleeping with a co-worker (Kathryn Hahn).Azaria also served as a producer on the show.He was apprehensive about the project, disliking the lengthy schedule required of a lead actor in a single-camera series, and favoring the \"sensibility\" of cable shows. However, he liked the script and executive producer John Enbom's previous seriesParty Downand decided to accept the part.Despite Azaria mounting a campaign on Twitter to save it,the series was canceled after four episodes due to low ratings.Between 2014 and 2016, Azaria had a recurring role in the second, third and fourth season of Showtime'sRay Donovan, playingFBIagent Ed Cochran.He won the Emmy forOutstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Seriesfor his work on the show in 2016, as well as earning a further nomination the same category the following year. Azaria starred in theIFCseriesBrockmire, which ran for four seasons from 2017-2020.He played the lead role of Jim Brockmire, a legendary baseball announcer, fired for a profanity-filled breakdown live on air after discovering his wife was having an affair. Azaria based the voice and style of Brockmire on several veteran sportscasters, includingBob MurphyandPhil Rizzuto.The character originated as part of the third episode of theFunny or Dieweb-seriesGamechangers, entitled \"A Legend in the Booth\", which Azaria also co-wrote.He subsequently appeared as Brockmire on theNFL Network'sThe Rich Eisen Podcastto discuss theNational Football League.In November 2012, Azaria sued actorCraig Bierkoover the ownership of the Brockmire voice.The case was ruled in Azaria's favor in 2014. Both actors had been using a baseball announcer voice before and since meeting at a party in 1990, but US district judgeGary Allen Feessruled that only Azaria's voice was, as Brockmire, a defined, \"tangible\" character and thus subject to copyright.In 2016, IFC confirmed development on the series, on which Azaria also served as an executive producer.Azaria received three nominations for theCritics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor his performance on the series. Film work \" appeal can best be summed up by, of all things, his hilarious cameo in the goofy comedyDodgeball. As Patches O'Houlihan, the dodgeball champion who will age into the magnificently gruffRip Torn, he delivers a pitch-perfect performance in an instructional video in which he chain-smokes, encourages a child to pick on those weaker than him, and steals the film from a cast of comedic greats. It's a wonderful, odd moment that could have failed miserably in the hands of a lesser actor, and he manages to pull it off with only seconds of dialogue. In my humble opinion, and using my limited knowledge of boxing terms: Pound for pound, Hank Azaria is the best actor working today.\" —Playwright Jenelle Riley on Azaria. Azaria made his film debut in the direct-to-video releaseCool Blue(1990), as Buzz.His first theatrically released feature film appearance came the same year inPretty Woman, as a police detective named Albertson.His next major film role was as television producerAlbert Freedmanin the 1994 filmQuiz Show, which was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.In 1996, Azaria played gay Guatemalan housekeeper Agador Spartacus in the filmThe Birdcage. For the role, which Azaria considers to be his \"big break\",he was nominated for theScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role,and critically branded \"the most hilarious performance in the film,\" by Alison Macor ofThe Austin Chronicle,whileEmpirewrote that he \" the show.\"For the role he used a Guatemalan accent, and made himself sound as effeminate as possible. He had chosen two possible voices, an effeminate one and a tougher one. After advice from a drag queen, he chose the effeminate voice. Three weeks into production, he realized he sounded exactly like his grandmother, which aided his performance.Agador was originally going to be a single scene part, with the larger role of the housekeeper being played byDavid Alan Grier. With the producers fearing the racial connotations of a black actor in such a part, Azaria inherited the full role. He appeared in numerous other films in the late 1990s, includingHeat(1995),Grosse Pointe Blank(1997),Celebrity(1998) and worked oppositeGwyneth Paltrow, as Walter Plane, in the 1998 adaptation ofGreat Expectations.He played photographer Victor \"Animal\" Palotti inGodzilla(1998).Godzillawas one of Azaria's first starring roles in ablockbusterfilm. Its five-month shoot was the longest of his career to date, but he considered it a good chance to boost his profile. He noted, \"I'm so used to melding into every character I play. Even people in the business think the guy who didBirdcage,Quiz ShowandGreat Expectationsare three different actors—which in a way makes me proud, but in another way is very frustrating. It's the curse and blessing of the character actor\".The shoot's physical challenges, and the film's critical failure, led Azaria to later describe it as \"tough to make, and very disappointing when it came out. It was one you definitely chalk up and say, 'That was part of paying your dues, better luck next time'.\"In 1999, he starred in the dramaMystery, Alaskaas Charles Danner, and the comedy superhero filmMystery Men, as the faux-British silverware throwing expert The Blue Raja.Other film roles included Hector Gorgonzolas inAmerica's Sweethearts(2001), Claude inAlong Came Polly(2004), and the young Patches O'Houlihan inDodgeBall: A True Underdog Story(2004), the latter two withBen Stiller.For his role of Claude, a French scuba instructor, inAlong Came Polly, Azaria donned a wig and worked out extensively to get into the physical shape the part required. Azaria played composerMarc BlitzsteininTim Robbins' filmCradle Will Rockin 1999.Paul Clintonwrote that Azaria was \"brilliant as the tortured (is there any other kind) artist Blitzstein.\"The same year he appeared as author and journalistMitch AlbomalongsideJack Lemmonin the television filmTuesdays with Morrie,winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Moviefor the role.Azaria described the latter as the \"best work done.\"These were two of the first dramatic roles Azaria had taken; throughout his career, Azaria has primarily worked in comedy,but tries to balance the two.Azaria commented: \"all the roles I got were in comedy at first, and I was certainly happy to get those, so I never felt the lack of being considered a dramatic actor because I was so happy to get what I got. And then I became surprised later on when I got dramatic roles. But I never went, 'OK, now it's time to get a dramatic role.'\"His next dramatic part was in the television filmUprisingin 2001. The film was based on the 1943Warsaw Ghetto Uprisingand Azaria playedMordechaj Anielewicz, one of the revolt's leaders. Azaria was confused by his casting inUprisingand frequently asked the film's producer and directorJon Avnetwhy he was selected. \"I know liked the fact I was Jewish, and he knew I could do accents well. He cast me andDavid Schwimmerin , and we were both sort of mystified. He had some instinct that he wanted people who were more known for being funny. He never explained it satisfactorily to me; I don't understand why.\"His parts inTuesdays With MorrieandUprisingaffected him, causing a depressive state which he countered with DVDs of the comedy seriesMonty Python.Azaria foundUprisingto be \"very difficult very depressing very emotionally challenging\" material.In 2003, Azaria played journalistMichael Kelly, the former editor ofThe New Republic, in the drama filmShattered Glass. Kelly died a few months before the film was released and Azaria said the film \"has become a weird kind of eulogy to him.\" SinceHuff's conclusion in 2006, Azaria has continued to make multiple film appearances. He played the smooth-talking Whit inDavid Schwimmer's directorial debutRun Fatboy Run(2007). During production he became good friends with co-starSimon Pegg, performingThe Simpsonsvoices on request, frequently distracting Pegg when he was supposed to be filming.He worked with Stiller again on 2009'sNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonianin which Azaria played the villainous pharaoh Kah Mun Rah, utilizing aBoris Karloffaccent.Although the film received mixed reviews, critics praised Azaria's performance.Perry Seibert ofTV Guidewrote that \"thanks to Azaria, a master of comic timing. His grandiose, yet slightly fey bad guy is equally funny when he's chewing out minions as he is when deliberating ifOscar the GrouchandDarth Vaderare evil enough to join his team.\"He appeared asAbrahaminYear One(2009),Dr. Knight in 2010'sLove & Other Drugs,and playedDeep ThroatdirectorGerard DamianoinLovelace(2013). Azaria playedGargamelin the animated/live-action adaptation ofThe Smurfs(2011).Azaria wore a prosthetic nose, ears,buck teeth, eyebrows and a wig, as well as shaving his head. He spent approximately 130 hours in the make-up chair over the course of the production.Azaria considered Gargamel's voice to be the most important part of his performance. The producers wanted an \"old, failed, Shakespearean actor\" voice, but Azaria felt this would lack energy and wanted something more Eastern European. He eventually selected a voice similar to that ofPaul Winchell's from the cartoon.Azaria disliked the cartoon when it first aired, and considered Gargamel too one-dimensional a character and \"just this straight villain\";he opted to make Gargamel \"more sarcastic\" than in the cartoon, but \"discovered that there's no way to play Gargamel without screaming your head off at certain points – ramping him up and getting him very upset over Smurfs\".He interpreted him as \"very lonely\", adding that \"he hates the Smurfs because they're such a happy family. He wants in really badly. I think he wants to be embraced as a Smurf\".Azaria worked with the writers to \"infuse\" the script with some of his ideas about the character, \"particularly with the 'married' relationship between Gargamel and Azreal \" which Azaria conceived. Reviewers fromThe San Francisco ChronicleandThe Boston Globecommented on Azaria's \"overacting\" in the role of Gargamel.More positive reaction came from Scott Bowles ofUSA Todaycalled Azaria the \"human standout\";Betsy Sharkey of theLos Angeles Timesfelt he suffered the \"greatest disservice\" of the film's cast due to a poor script.Azaria noted in an interview withThe A.V. ClubthatThe SmurfsandNight at the Museumwere films he agreed to do primarily for the money, but that \"I won't even do that unless I think it will at least be fun to do...I really try to throw myself into it, figure out the funniest, cleverest way to get the material over, and make it fun to do and fun to watch.\"Azaria reprised his role in the 2013 sequelThe Smurfs 2.In 2016, Azaria starred inNormanwithRichard Gere. Further voice work Azaria performed a number of voice roles in addition toThe Simpsons, although he noted in 2005: \"I started doing other voiceovers for cartoons for a couple of years, but I didn't really love it. I was spoiled byThe Simpsons.\"He voicedEddie Brock/VenominSpider-Man: The Animated Seriesbetween 1994 and 1996.In the animated featureAnastasia(1997), he voiced Bartok the bat and reprised the role in the direct-to-video prequelBartok the Magnificent(1999).For his performance inAnastasia, Azaria won theAnnie Awardfor Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Male Performer in an Animated Feature Production.He also voiced Eric in the American dub of the seriesStressed Eric,Harold Zoid in the 2001Futuramaepisode \"That's Lobstertainment!\",andAbbie HoffmanandAllen GinsberginChicago 10(2007).For the 2011 filmHop, Azaria voiced Carlos and Phil. The response to the film was mostly negative, but many reviewers praised Azaria's performance.For example, Sandie Chen ofThe Washington Postsaid \"Azaria has been honing his over-the-top Spanish accent sinceThe Birdcage, so anything he says grabs some laughs\",while Emma Simmonds ofTime Outcalled him an \"unflappable presence, voicing two characters with style\".Later in the year he voiced The Mighty Sven inHappy Feet Two.He also voiced the lead character, Texanborder agentBud Buckwald, inBordertown, which aired in 2016,as well as Shelfish Sheldon inMack & Moxythe same year. OnceThe Simpsonswas \"going steadily\" and Azaria had enough money to live on, he stopped working on commercials as he found them \"demoralizing\", feeling that he sounded sarcastic whenever he read for them. When recording the part of \"Jell-O Man\" for aJell-Ocommercial, he was told to make the voice he offered \"more likable and friendly so that children like him.\" After pointing out that \"Jell-O Man\" was a fictional character, he left and pledged to never record for an advertisement again.However, in 2012 he voiced several insects in a commercial for theChevrolet Sonic. Other work Azaria wrote and directed the 2004 short filmNobody's Perfect, which won the Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Short at theUS Comedy Arts Festival.In January 2007, he was confirmed to be directingOutsourced,a film about two American workers who journey to get their jobs back, after their factory is moved to Mexico.In 2009, Azaria toldEmpirehe was instead focusing on making a documentary about fatherhood.Two years later he told theLos Angeles Timesthat this project was \"half-complete\" and was \"forever looking for financing to finish it.\"It eventually began in 2014, airing onAOLas an online series titledFatherhood. According to AOL, the series of short episodes documents Azaria's \"touching, humorous, and often enlightening journey from a man who is not even sure he wants to have kids, to a father going through the joys, trials and tribulations of being a dad.\" He has periodically returned to theatrical work, appearing in several productions. In 2003, he appeared as Bernard in a run ofDavid Mamet's playSexual Perversity in Chicago, along withMatthew PerryandMinnie Driver, in London'sWest End.Azaria made his first appearance as SirLancelot, the French Taunter, and four other characters inSpamalot, the musical version ofMonty Python and the Holy Grail, which opened in Chicago in December 2004, before moving to theShubert TheatreonBroadway.The show met with critical acclaim and received fourteenTony Awardnominations in 2005; Azaria andTim Curryboth received nominations for theTony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical.Reuniting withThe BirdcagedirectorMike Nichols, and being a hugeMonty Pythonfan, he saw it as an opportunity he could not pass up, describing it as \"so much fun that I haven't realized how tiring it is,\"and \"the most fun that I've ever had in my entire life.\"He took a break from the show in June 2005 to work onHuff, but returned in December 2005.Alan Tudykplayed the role during Azaria's absence.In late 2007 he starred inAaron Sorkin'sThe Farnsworth Invention, playingRCAheadDavid Sarnoff.In 2016, he starred in the world premiere ofDry PowderoppositeClaire Danes,John Krasinski, andSanjit De Silva, directed byThomas Kail, at theoff-BroadwayPublic Theaterin New York City. Acting style and vocal range Azaria's friends refer to him as \"the freakish mimic\" due to his ability to copy almost anyone's voice, instantly after he has heard it. As a child, he believed that everyone could do this, but later realized that it was not a common talent.Azaria has said, \"I can remember every voice I hear, famous or otherwise ... they kind of remain in the memory banks, so I'm ready to trot them out.\"Azaria was glad to have found the \"ultimate outlet\" for this skill, inThe Simpsons.He \"didn't realize it , but it became like a lab for a character actor. had to do so many voices.\"In the early 2000s, Azaria felt he had reached the maximum number of voices he was capable of: \"For the first 10 years ofThe Simpsons, I would develop a bunch of voices. And then ... I hit a point when I was tapped out. Every noise I can make, I have made. Even characters like Gargamel, I've done. Even if it was only two or three lines, at some point I've done something similar onThe Simpsons, at least somewhere along the line.\" For many of Azaria's characters, much of their humor is derived from a \"funny voice\", such asThe BirdcageandNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian. He stated that \"being funny with a funny voice is more my comfort zone, a broader character that I try to humanize, a kind of silly or wacky persona that I try to fill in,\" although he finds it \"much easier to be someone much closer to myself,\" as it requires \"less energy ... than playing characters that are so out there and high strung.\" The SimpsonscreatorMatt Groeninghas stated that Azaria possesses the ability to turn unfunny lines into some of the best in an episode,while former writerJay Kogenstated: \"Just when I think I know bag of tricks, he's always got a new thing he does to surprise me.\"Throughout the run ofThe Simpsons, Azaria has had to sing in character several times, a task which he describes as easier than singing normally.The SmurfswriterDavid N. Weisssays Azaria \"has a beautiful treasure trove of talent,\" and \"became what you wished you were writing.\"Playwright Jenelle Riley wrote in 2005 that Azaria was \"by far\" her favorite actor, praising his \"versatility\" and \"tendency to take small roles that would normally fade into the background and to consistently create characters people care about,\" noting his roles inShattered Glass,Mystery, Alaskaand especiallyDodgeBall: A True Underdog Story. Personal life In the early 1990s, Azaria was in a relationship with actressJulie Warner.His relationship with actressHelen Huntbegan in 1994; they married in a traditional Jewish ceremony at the couple's home inSouthern Californiaon July 17, 1999.The two had appeared together inMad About Youand theSimpsonsepisode \"Dumbbell Indemnity\".After a year of marriage, Azaria moved out of the couple's home,and Hunt filed for divorce after a six-month separation, citing irreconcilable differences. The divorce was finalized on December 18, 2000. Azaria began dating former actressKatie Wrightin 2007,and the two married later that year.They have a son named Hal (b. 2009).The family has one dog, Truman, and two rescue cats, Mookie and Wilson. In 2013, the family began renting a home on80th StreetinManhattan, with plans to make a final decision on where to live in two years.They previously lived in a four-bedroom house inPacific Palisades, which Azaria bought from hisSimpsonsco-starDan Castellanetain 2011. Several weeks earlier, Azaria had sold his home inBel Air.Azaria previously owned the fifth-floorco-oploft onMercer Streetin Manhattan'sSohoneighborhood, which he bought from photographerCindy Shermanin 2005, before selling it in 2013. Azaria suffered fromalcoholismfor several years. He credited his longtime friendMatthew Perryfor encouraging him to attendAlcoholics Anonymousmeetings and has been sober since about 2006. Azaria is thegodfatherofOliver Platt's son, George.He is also a regular poker player, appearing twice onCelebrity Poker Showdownand competing at other events, finishing a few places short of thebubblein the main event of the2010 World Series of Poker.Azaria is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.He enjoys the music ofElvis Costelloand has stated that he would have been atherapistif he were not an actor.Azaria co-founded the educational support charity, \"Determined to Succeed\". On May 22, 2016, he was awarded theHonorary degreeofDoctor of Humane Letters(DHL) fromTufts University. Filmography Film Television Video games Theatre Awards and nominations References External links",
"Harry Shearer Harry Julius Shearer(born December 23, 1943)is an American actor, comedian, musician, radio host, writer, and producer. Born inLos Angeles,California, Shearer began his career as a child actor. From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member ofThe Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group. Following the breakup of the group, Shearer co-wrote the filmReal Life(1979) withAlbert Brooksand worked as a writer onMartin Mull's television seriesFernwood 2 Night. Shearer was a cast member onSaturday Night Livebetween 1979 and 1980, and 1984 and 1985. Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred in the filmThis Is Spinal Tap(1984), asatiricalrockumentary, which became a hit. In 1989, he joined the cast of the animated sitcomThe Simpsons; he provides voices for characters includingMr. Burns,Waylon Smithers,Ned Flanders,Reverend Lovejoy,Lenny,Scratchy,Principal Skinner,Kent Brockman,Otto Mann, and formerlyDr. Hibbert. Shearer has appeared in films includingThe Truman Show(1998) andA Mighty Wind(2003), and has directed two,Teddy Bears' Picnic(2002) andThe Big Uneasy(2010). Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music programLe Show, incorporating satire, music, andsketch comedy. He has written three books. Shearer has won aPrimetime Emmy Awardand has received several other Emmy andGrammy Awardnominations. He has been married to singer-songwriterJudith Owensince 1993. He became anartist in residenceatLoyola University, New Orleansin 2013. Early life and career Shearer was born December 23, 1943,inLos Angeles,California,the son of Dora, a bookkeeper, and Mack Shearer, a trained opera singer who ran a gas station.His parents were Jewish immigrants from Poland and Austria respectively. His parents escapedNazi-occupied Europe and met inHavana, Cuba. As a child, Shearer and his family often listened to radio programs such asBob and Rayand the weekly show for theJewish Theological Seminary of America. His father died when he was 12 and he had hisBar Mitzvahthe following year.Shearer grew up in the neighborhood ofWest Adams.Starting when Shearer was four years old, he had a piano teacher whose daughter worked as a child actress. The piano teacher later decided to make a career change and become a children's agent, since she knew people in the business through her daughter's work. The teacher asked Shearer's parents for permission to take him to an audition. Several months later, she called Shearer's parents and told them that she had gotten Shearer an audition for the radio showThe Jack Benny Program. Shearer received the role when he was seven years old.He describedJack Bennyas \"very warm and approachable ... He was a guy who dug the idea of other people on the show getting laughs, which sort of spoiled me for other people in comedy.\"Shearer has stated that one person who took him \"under his wing\" and was his mentor during his early days in show business was voice actorMel Blanc, who voiced many animated characters, includingBugs Bunny,Daffy DuckandBarney Rubble; Blanc was a regular onThe Jack Benny Show. He also befriended Blanc’s sonNoel.Shearer made his film debut in the filmAbbott and Costello Go to Mars(1953), in which he had a small part, and appeared inThe Robe(also 1953).Throughout his childhood and teenage years he worked in television, film, and radio. In 1957, Shearer played the precursor to theEddie Haskellcharacter in the pilot episode of the television seriesLeave It to Beaver. After the filming, Shearer's parents said they did not want him to be a regular in a series. Instead they wanted him to just do occasional work so that he could have a normal childhood. Shearer and his parents made the decision not to accept the role in the series if it was picked up by a television network. In 1960, Shearer volunteered as a driver for theDemocratic National Conventionwhere he was regularly assigned trips toDisneyland. Shearer graduated fromLos Angeles High Schooland attendedUCLAas a political science major in the early 1960s. He befriended future congressmenHenry WaxmanandHoward Bermanduring his time at UCLA. He decided to quit show business to become a \"serious person\".However, he says this lasted approximately a month, and he joined the staff of theDaily Bruin, UCLA's school newspaper, during his first year.He was editor of the college humor magazine (Satyr), including the June 1964 parodyPreyboy.He also worked as a newscaster atKRLA, a top 40 radio station in Pasadena, during this period. According to Shearer, after graduating, he had \"a very serious agenda going on, and it was 'Stay Out of the Draft'.\"He attended graduate school atHarvard Universityfor one year and worked at the state legislature inSacramento. From 1967 to 1968, he was a high school teacher, teaching English and social studies. He left teaching following \"disagreements with the administration\". From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member ofThe Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group that includedDavid Lander,Richard BeebeandMichael McKean.The group consisted of \"a bunch of newsmen\" atKRLA 1110, \"the number two station\" in Los Angeles.They wanted to do more than just straight news, so they hired comedians who were talented vocalists. Shearer heard about the group from a friend, so he brought over a tape to the station and nervously gave it to the receptionist. He found out he was hired that same day. The group's radio show was canceled in 1970 by KRLA and in 1971 byKPPC-FM, so they started performing in various clubs and concert venues.While at KRLA, Shearer also interviewedCreedence Clearwater Revivalfor thePop Chroniclesmusic documentary. In 1973, Shearer appeared as Jim Houseafire onHow Time Flys, an album byThe Firesign Theatre'sDavid Ossman. The Credibility Gap broke up in 1976 when Lander and McKean left to perform in the sitcomLaverne & Shirley.Shearer started working withAlbert Brooks, producing one of Brooks' albums and co-writing the filmReal Life(1979). Shearer also started writing forMartin Mull's television seriesFernwood 2 Night.In the mid-1970s, he started working withRob Reineron a pilot forABC. The show, which starredChristopher Guest,Tom Leopoldand McKean, was not picked up. Career Saturday Night Live Initial run under Lorne Michaels In August 1979, Shearer was hired as a writer and cast member onSaturday Night Live, one of the first additions to the show'soriginal 1975 cast.Recommended byAl FrankentoSaturday Night LivecreatorLorne Michaels,the acquisition of Shearer was seen as an unofficial replacement forJohn BelushiandDan Aykroyd, who were both leaving the show. Shearer describes his experience on the show as a \"living hell\" and \"not a real pleasant place to work.\"He did not get along well with the other writers and cast members and states that he was not included with the cast in the opening montage (although he was added to the montage for later episodes of the1979–80 season) and that Michaels had told the rest of the cast that he was \"just a writer\". Michaels leftSaturday Night Liveat the end of the fifth season, taking the entire cast with him.Shearer told new executive producerJean Doumanianthat he was \"not a fan of Lorne's\" and offered to stay with the show if he was given the chance to overhaul the program and bring in experienced comedians, like Christopher Guest. However, Doumanian turned him down, so he decided to leave with the rest of the cast. Return in 1984 under Dick Ebersol When I left, Dick issued a press release, saying \"creative differences.\" And the first person who called me for a comment on it read me that and I blurted out, \"Yeah, I was creative and they were different.\" —Harry Shearer In 1984, while promoting the filmThis Is Spinal Tap, Shearer, Christopher Guest and Michael McKean performed onSaturday Night Live. All three members were offered the chance to join the show in the1984–1985 season. Shearer accepted because he was treated well by the producers and he thought the backstage environment had improvedbut later stated that he \"didn't realize that guests are treated better than the regulars.\"Guest also accepted the offer while McKean rejected it, although he would join the cast in 1994. Dick Ebersol, who replaced Lorne Michaels as the show's producer, said that Shearer was \"a gifted performer but a pain in the butt. He's just so demanding on the preciseness of things and he's very, very hard on the working people. He's just a nightmare-to-deal-with person.\"In January 1985, Shearer left the show for good,partially because he felt he was not being used enough.Martin Shortsaid Shearer \"wanted to be creative and Dick wanted something else. ... I think he felt his voice wasn't getting represented on the show. When he wouldn't get that chance, it made him very upset.\" Spinal Tap Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred inRob Reiner's filmThis Is Spinal Tap(1984).Shearer, Reiner, Michael McKean and Christopher Guest received a deal to write a first draft of a screenplay for a company called Marble Arch. They decided that the film could not be written and instead filmed a 20-minute demo of what they wanted to do.It was eventually greenlighted byNorman LearandJerry PerenchioatEmbassy Pictures.The film satirizes the wild personal behavior and musical pretensions ofhard rockandheavy metalbands, as well as thehagiographictendencies ofrockumentariesof the time. The three core members of the bandSpinal Tap—David St. Hubbins,Derek SmallsandNigel Tufnel—were portrayed by McKean, Shearer and Guest respectively. The three actors play their musical instruments and speak with mock English accents throughout the film. There was no script, although there was a written breakdown of most of the scenes, and many of the lines were ad-libbed.It was filmed in 25 days. Shearer said in an interview that \"The animating impulse was to do rock 'n' roll right. The four of us had been around rock 'n' roll and we were just amazed by how relentlessly the movies got it wrong. Because we were funny people it was going to be a funny film, but we wanted to get it right.\"When they tried to sell it to various Hollywood studios, they were told that the film would not work. The group kept saying, \"No, this is a story that's pretty familiar to people. We're not introducing them to anything they don't really know,\" so Shearer thought it would at least have some resonance with the public.The film was only a modest success upon its initial release but found greater success, and developed acult following, after its video release. In 2000, the film was ranked 29th on theAmerican Film Institute'slist of the top 100 comedy movies in American cinemaand it was selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registryby theLibrary of Congressas being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Shearer, Guest and McKean have since worked on several projects as their Spinal Tap characters. They released three albums:This Is Spinal Tap(1984),Break Like the Wind(1992) andBack from the Dead(2009).In 1992, Spinal Tap appeared in an episode ofThe Simpsonscalled \"The Otto Show\".The band has played several concerts, including atLive Earthin London on July 7, 2007. In anticipation of the show, Rob Reiner directed a short film entitledSpinal Tap.In 2009, the band releasedBack from the Deadto commemorate the 25th anniversary of the release of the film.The album features re-recorded versions of songs featured inThis Is Spinal Tapand its soundtrack, and five new songs.The band performed a one-date \"world tour\" at London'sWembley Arenaon June 30, 2009.The Folksmen, a mock band featured in the filmA Mighty Windthat is also made up of characters played by Shearer, McKean and Guest, was the opening act for the show. The Simpsons Shearer is known for his work as a voice actor onThe Simpsons.Matt Groening, the creator of the show, was a fan of Shearer's work, while Shearer was a fan of a column Groening used to write.When approached by Groening to be in the series, Shearer was initially reluctant because he thought the recording sessions would be too much trouble.He felt that voice acting was \"not a lot of fun\" as, traditionally, voice actors record their parts separately.He was told that the actors would record their lines together,and after three phone calls for executive producerJames L. Brooks, Shearer was convinced to join the cast ofThe Simpsons.Shearer's first impression ofThe Simpsonswas that it was funny. He – who thought it was a \"pretty cool\" way to work – found it peculiar that his fellow cast members were adamant about not being known to the public as the people behind the voices. Shearer provides voices forPrincipal Skinner,Kent Brockman,Mr. Burns,Waylon Smithers,Ned Flanders,Reverend Lovejoy, formerlyDr. Hibbertuntil 2021,Lenny Leonard,Otto Mann,Rainier Wolfcastle,Scratchy,Kang,Dr. Marvin Monroe, andJudge Snyder, among others.He has described all of his regular characters' voices as \"easy to slip into. ... I wouldn't do them if they weren't easy.\"Shearer modeled Mr. Burns's voice on the two actorsLionel BarrymoreandRonald Reagan.Shearer says that Burns is the most difficult character for him to voice because it is rough on his vocal cords and he often needs to drink tea and honey to soothe his voice.He describes Burns as his favorite character, saying he \"like Mr. Burns because he is pure evil. A lot of evil people make the mistake of diluting it. Never adulterate your evil.\"Shearer is also the voice of Burns' assistant Smithers, and is able to perform dialogue between the two characters in one take. In the episode \"Bart's Inner Child\", Shearer said \"wow\" in the voice of Otto, which was then used when Otto was seen jumping on a trampoline.Ned Flanders had been meant to be just a neighbor thatHomer Simpsonwas jealous of, but because Shearer used \"such a sweet voice\" for him, Flanders was broadened to become aChristianand a sweet guy that someone would prefer to live next to over Homer.Dr. Marvin Monroe's voice was based on psychiatristDavid Viscott.Monroe has been largely retired since theseventh seasonbarring a few cameo appearances because voicing the character strained Shearer's throat. In 2004, Shearer criticized what he perceived asthe show's declining quality: \"I rate the last three seasons as among the worst, soseason fourlooks very good to me now.\"Shearer has also been vocal about \"The Principal and the Pauper\" (season nine, episode two, 1997), one of the most controversial episodes ofThe Simpsons. Many fans and critics reacted negatively to the revelation thatPrincipal Seymour Skinner, a recurring character since the first season, was an impostor. The episode has been criticized by both Shearer and Groening. In a 2001 interview, Shearer recalled that after reading the script, he told the writers, \"That'ssowrong. You're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason, for a story we've done before with other characters. It's so arbitrary and gratuitous, and it's disrespectful to the audience.\"In a December 2006 interview, Shearer added, \"Now, refuse to talk about it. They realize it was a horrible mistake. They never mention it. It's like they're punishing for paying attention.\" Due to scheduling and availability conflicts, Shearer decided not to participate inThe Simpsons Ride, which opened in 2008, so none of his characters have vocal parts and many do not appear in the ride at all.In a 2010 interview onThe Howard Stern Show, Shearer alluded that the reason he was not part of the ride was because he would not be getting paid for it.Similarly, Shearer was unable to appear in theFamily Guycrossover episode \"The Simpsons Guy\" due to further scheduling conflicts. Therefore, his characters are again mute. When asked about how he felt about the crossover, Shearer replied, \"Matter and anti-matter.\" Until 1998, Shearer was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.The dispute, however, was resolved and Shearer received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.The dispute was resolved a month later,and Shearer's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Shearer and the other cast members accepted a 30% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode.On May 14, 2015, Shearer announced he was leaving the show. After the other voice actors signed a contract for the same pay, Shearer refused, stating it was not enough. Al Jean made a statement from the producers saying \"the show must go on,\" but did not elaborate on what might happen to the characters Shearer voiced.On July 7, 2015, Shearer agreed to continue with the show, on the same terms as the other voice actors. Le Showand radio work Because I don't do stand-up, radio has always been my equivalent, a place to stay in connection with the public and force myself to write every week and come up with new characters. Plus it's a medium that – having grown up with it and putting myself to sleep with a radio under my pillow – I love. No matter what picture you want to create in the listener's mind, a few minutes of work gets it done. —Harry Shearer Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music programLe Show. The program is a hodgepodge of satirical news commentary, music, and sketch comedy that takes aim at the \"mega morons of the mighty media\".It is carried on manyNational Public Radioand other public radio stations throughout the United States.Since the merger ofSIRIUSandXMsatellite radio services the program is no longer available on either.The show has also been made available as apodcastoniTunesand byWWNO. On the weekly program Shearer alternates between DJing, reading and commenting on the news of the day after the manner ofMort Sahl, and performing original (mostly political) comedy sketches and songs. In 2008, Shearer released a music CD calledSongs of the Bushmen, consisting of his satirical numbers about former PresidentGeorge W. BushonLe Show.Shearer says he criticizes bothRepublicansandDemocratsequally, and also says that \"the iron law of doing comedy about politics is you make fun of whoever is running the place\"and that \"everyone else is just running around talking. They are the ones who are actually doing something, changing people's lives for better or for worse. Other people the media calls 'satirists' don't work that way.\" Since encountering satellite news feeds when he worked onSaturday Night Live, Shearer has been fascinated with the contents of the video that does not air. Shearer refers to these clips asfound objects. \"I thought, wow, there is just an unending supply of this material, and it's wonderful and fascinating and funny and sometimes haunting – but it's always good,\" said Shearer.He collects this material and uses it onLe Showand on his website.In 2008, he assembled video clips of newsmakers from this collection into an art installation titled \"The Silent Echo Chamber\" which was exhibited atThe Aldrich Contemporary Art MuseuminRidgefield, Connecticut.The exhibit was also displayed in 2009 at Institut Valencià d'Art Modern (IVAM) inValencia, Spainand in 2010 at the New OrleansContemporary Arts Center. In 2006 Shearer appeared withBrian Hayesin four episodes of theBBC Radio 4sitcomNot Today, Thank You, playing Nostrils, a man so ugly he cannot stand to be in his own presence.He was originally scheduled to appear in all six episodes but had to withdraw from recording two due to a problem with his work permit.On June 19, 2008, it was announced that Shearer would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the radio category. Further career Shearer's first feature film as director,Teddy Bears' Picnic, which he also wrote, was released in 2002. The plot is based onBohemian Grove, which hosts a three-week encampment of some of the most powerful men in the world. The film was not well received by critics. It garnered a 0% approval rating onRotten Tomatoes, with all 19 reviews being determined as negativeand received a rating of 32 out of 100 (signifying \"generally negative reviews\") onMetacriticfrom 10 reviews.In 2003, he co-wroteJ. Edgar! The MusicalwithTom Leopold, which spoofedJ. Edgar Hoover's relationship withClyde Tolson.It premiered at theU.S. Comedy Arts FestivalinAspen, Coloradoand starredKelsey GrammerandJohn Goodman. Shearer, Guest and McKean starred in thefolk musicmockumentaryA Mighty Wind(2003), portraying a band called The Folksmen. The film was written by Guest andEugene Levy, and directed by Guest.Shearer had a major role in the Guest-directed parody of Oscar politickingFor Your Considerationreleased in 2006. He played Victor Allan Miller, a veteran actor who is convinced that he is going to be nominated for anAcademy Award.He also appeared as a news anchor inGodzilla(1998) with fellowThe Simpsonscast membersHank AzariaandNancy Cartwright.His other film appearances includeThe Right Stuff(1983),The Fisher King(1991),The Truman Show(1998),Small Soldiers(also 1998), andEdTV(1999). He also directed and appeared in the television programPortrait of a White Marriage(1988), a sequel toThe History of White People in America. Shearer has also worked as a columnist for theLos Angeles Times Magazine, but decided that it \"became such a waste of time to bother with it.\"His columns have also been published inSlateandNewsweek.Since May 2005 he has been a contributing blogger atThe Huffington Post.Shearer has written three books.Man Bites Town, published in 1993, is a collection of columns that he wrote forThe Los Angeles Timesbetween 1989 and 1992.Published in 1999,It's the Stupidity, Stupidanalyzed the hatred some people had for then-PresidentBill Clinton.Shearer believes that Clinton became disliked because he had an affair with \"the least powerful, least credentialed woman cleared into his official compound.\"His most recent book isNot Enough Indians, his first novel. Published in 2006, it is a comic novel about Native Americans and gambling.Without the \"pleasures of collaboration\" and \"spontaneity and improvisation which characterize his other projects\",Not Enough Indianswas a \"struggle\" for Shearer to write. He said that \"the only fun thing about it was having written it. It was lonely, I had no deal for it and it took six years to do. It was a profoundly disturbing act of self-discipline.\" Shearer has released five solo comedy albums:It Must Have Been Something I Said(1994),Dropping Anchors(2006),Songs Pointed and Pointless(2007),Songs of the Bushmen(2008) andGreed and Fear(2010).His most recent CD,Greed and Fearis mainly aboutWall Streeteconomic issues, rather than politics like his previous albums. Shearer decided to make the album when he\"started getting amused by the language of the economic meltdown – when 'toxic assets' suddenly became 'troubled assets,' going from something poisoning the system to just a bunch of delinquent youth with dirty faces that needed not removal from the system but just ... understanding.\"In May 2006, Shearer received an honorary doctorate fromGoucher College. The Big Uneasy Shearer is the director ofThe Big Uneasy(2010), a documentary film about the impacts ofHurricane KatrinaonNew Orleans. Narrated by actorJohn Goodman, the film describesleveefailuresandcatastrophicflooding in theNew Orleansmetropolitan area, and includes extended interviews with formerLSUprofessorIvor Van Heerden, Robert Bea, an engineering professor at theUniversity of California at Berkeley, and Maria Garzino, an engineer and contract specialist for the Los Angeles district of theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The film is critical of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and its management offlood protectionprojectsin SouthernLouisiana.Shearer draws on numerous technical experts to maintain that Hurricane Katrina's \"... tragic floods creating widespread damage were caused by manmade errors in engineering and judgment.\"Onreview aggregatorRotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71% based on 24 reviews, with an average rating of 6.85/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"The Big Uneasyoffers an admittedly uneven – yet still worthy and well-intentioned – look at a horrific disaster's aftermath.\" Personal life Shearer marriedfolksingerPenelope Nicholsin 1974. They divorced in 1977.He has been married to Welsh singer-songwriterJudith Owensince 1993.In 2005, the couple launched their own record label called Courgette Records.Shearer primarily resides in theFrench QuarterofNew Orleans, Louisiana, but has homes inSanta Monica, CaliforniaandNotting Hill, London. He first went to New Orleans in 1988 and has attended everyNew Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festivalsince. Shearer often speaks and writes about thefailure of the Federal levee systemwhich floodedNew OrleansduringHurricane Katrina, blasting the coverage of it in the mainstream mediaand criticizing the role of theUnited States Army Corps of Engineers.Prior to the DVD release of his film,The Big Uneasy, Shearer would hold screenings of the film at different venues and take questions fromaudiencemembers. Filmography Film Television (Pilot for the eventual seriesLeave It to Beaver, though never aired as part of that series.) Video games Web Music video Discography Bibliography Awards Shearer was the last of the six regular voice actors fromThe Simpsonsto win thePrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Character Voice-Over Performance.His win came for theseason 25episode \"Four Regrettings and a Funeral\". References Bibliography External links"
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"Dan Castellaneta Daniel Louis Castellaneta(/ˌkæstələˈnɛtə/KAST-ə-lə-NET-ə; born October 29, 1957)is an American actor and writer. He is best known for voicingHomer Simpsonon the animated seriesThe Simpsons(as well as other characters on the show such asGrampa Simpson,Krusty the Clown,Groundskeeper Willie,Mayor Quimby,Sideshow Mel,Mr. Teeny,Santa's Little Helper,Itchy, andBarney Gumble). Castellaneta is also known for voicing Grandpa in Nickelodeon'sHey Arnold!, and has had voice roles in several other programs, includingFuturama,Sibs,Darkwing Duck,The Adventures of Dynamo Duck,The Batman,Back to the Future: The Animated Series,Aladdin,Earthworm Jim, andTaz-Mania. In 1999, he appeared in the Christmas specialOlive, the Other Reindeerand won anAnnie Awardfor his portrayal of the Postman. Castellaneta released a comedy albumI Am Not Homer, and wrote and starred in aone-person showtitledWhere Did Vincent van Gogh? Early life Daniel Louis Castellaneta was born on October 29, 1957, at Roseland Community Hospital on",
"Hospital on Chicago's south side and was raised inRiver ForestandOak Park, Illinois.He is ofItaliandescent, born to Elsie (néeLagorio; 1926–2008) and Louis Castellaneta (1915–2014),an amateur actor who worked for a printing company. Castellaneta became adept at impressions at a young age and his mother enrolled him in an acting class when he was 16 years old. He would listen to his father's comedy records and do impressions of the artists.He was a \"devotee\" of the works of many performers, includingAlan ArkinandBarbara Harrisand directorsMike NicholsandElaine May.He attendedOak Park and River Forest High Schooland upon graduation, started attendingNorthern Illinois University(NIU) in the fall of 1975. Castellaneta studied art education, with the goal of becoming an art teacher.He became astudent teacherand would entertain his students with his impressions.Castellaneta was a regular participant inThe Ron Petke and His Dead Uncle Show, a radio show at NIU. The show helped Castellaneta hone his skills as a",
"his skills as a voice-over actor. He recalled \"We did parodies and sketches, we would double up on, so you learned to switch between voices. I got my feet wet doing a voiceover. The show was just barely audible, but we didn't care. It was that we got a chance to do it and write our own material.\"He took a play-writing class and auditioned for an improvisational show. A classmate first thought Castellaneta would \"fall on his face with improvisation\" but soon \"was churning out material faster than could make it work.\" Career Early career Castellaneta began his acting career after his graduation fromNorthern Illinois Universityin 1979.He decided that if his career went nowhere he would still have a chance to try something else.He began takingimprovisationclasses, where he met his future wifeDeb Lacusta. He started to work atThe Second City, an improvisational theatre inChicago, in 1983 and continued to work there until 1987.During this period, he did voice-over work with his wife for various radio stations. He",
"radio stations. He auditioned for a role inThe Tracey Ullman Showand his first meeting underwhelmedTracey Ullmanand the other producers. Ullman decided to fly to Chicago to watch Castellaneta perform. His performance that night was about ablindman who tries to become a comedian and Ullman later recalled that although there were flashier performances that night, Castellaneta made her cry. She was impressed and Castellaneta was hired. The Simpsons Castellaneta is most famous for his roles on the longest-running American animated television showThe Simpsons, most notably asHomer Simpson.The Tracey Ullman Showincluded a series of animated shorts about adysfunctional family. Voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask Castellaneta and fellow cast memberJulie Kavnerto voice Homer andMarge Simpsonrespectively, rather than hire more actors.Homer's voice began as a loose impression ofWalter Matthau, but Castellaneta could not \"get enough power behind that voice\" and could not sustain his",
"not sustain his Matthau impression for the nine- to ten-hour long recording sessions. He tried to find something easier, so he \"dropped the voice down\", and developed it into a more versatile and humorous voice during the second and third season of the half-hour show.To perform Homer's voice, Castellaneta lowers his chin to his chest,and is said to \"let his IQ go.\" Castellaneta likes tostay in characterduring recording sessions,and tries to visualize a scene in his mind so that he can give the proper voice to it.Despite Homer's fame, Castellaneta claims he is rarely recognized in public, \"except, maybe, by a die-hard fan.\" Castellaneta also provides the voices for numerous other characters, includingGrampa Simpson,Barney Gumble,Krusty the Clown,Groundskeeper Willie,Mayor Quimby,Hans Moleman,Sideshow Mel,Itchy,Kodos,Arnie Pye, theSqueaky Voiced TeenandGil Gunderson. Krusty's voice is based on Chicago television'sBob Bell, who had a very raspy voice and portrayedWGN-TV'sBozo the Clownfrom 1960 to 1984.During",
"1960 to 1984.During early recording sessions, he recorded a new version of Barney's loud trademark belch for every episode but discovered that it was not easy for him to belch each time a script called for it. Castellaneta chose a recording of what he believed was his best belch and told the producers to make that the standard. Groundskeeper Willie's first appearance was in theseason twoepisode \"Principal Charming\". The character was written as an angry janitor and Castellaneta was assigned to perform the voice. He did not know what voice to use andSam Simon, who was directing at the time, suggested he use an accent. Castellaneta first tried using Hispanic voicing, which Simon felt was tooclichéd. He then tried a \"big dumbSwede\", which was also rejected. For his third try, he used the voice of a grumpyScotsman, which was deemed appropriate enough and was used in the episode.The voice was based partially on Angus Crock, akilt-wearing chef from the sketch comedy showSecond City Television, who was portrayed",
"who was portrayed byDave Thomas. Mayor Quimby, who first appeared in \"Bart Gets an 'F'\", is a parody of various members of theKennedy family. The episode script did not call for Quimby to be a parody of them, and Castellaneta improvised the accent.Sideshow Mel's voice is Castellaneta's impression ofKelsey Grammer, the voice ofSideshow Bob.Hapless Gil Gunderson is a spoof of actorJack Lemmon's portrayal of Shelley Levene in the 1992film adaptationof the playGlengarry Glen Ross.ShowrunnerMike Scullythought that Gil would be \"a one-shot thing\"but \"Dan Castellaneta was so funny at thetable readdoing the character, we kept making up excuses in subsequent episodes to put him in.\"TheBlue-Haired Lawyer's voice, as well as his demeanor, is based on lawyerRoy Cohn. Castellaneta has won several awards for voicing Homer, including fourPrimetime Emmy Awardsfor \"Outstanding Voice-Over Performance\" in 1992 for \"Lisa's Pony\", 1993 for \"Mr. Plow\",2004 for voicing several characters in \"Today I Am a Clown\",and 2009 for",
"Clown\",and 2009 for voicing Homer in \"Father Knows Worst\". In 1993, Castellaneta was given a specialAnnie Award, \"Outstanding Individual Achievement in the Field of Animation\", for his work as Homer onThe Simpsons. In 2004, Castellaneta andJulie Kavner(the voice of Marge) won aYoung Artist Awardfor \"Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series\".Homer was placed second onTV Guide's 2002 Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters,and in 2000, Homer and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Famelocated at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard. Until 1998, Castellaneta was paid $30,000 per episode.During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.The dispute was soon resolved and Castellaneta began receiving $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the cast demanded to be paid $360,000 an episode.The issue was resolved a month later,with Castellaneta starting to earn $250,000 per episode.Following salary",
"salary negotiations in 2008, the cast received approximately $400,000 per episode.In 2011, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, the cast accepted a pay cut to around $300,000 per episode. In the early 1990s, Castellaneta and his wifeDeb Lacustawrote a script for an episode in which Barney becomes sober, and pitched it to showrunnerAl Jean. He liked the story but turned it down because he felt that it was too similar to \"Duffless\", an episode that the writers were already working on. The two waited for nearly a decade and offered an updated version of the script to later showrunnerMike Scully, who liked it and had them make a few changes.Their script became the episode \"Days of Wine and D'oh'ses\".Castellaneta and his wife have also written the episodes \"Gump Roast\", \"The Ziff Who Came to Dinner\", \"Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore\", and \"The Fight Before Christmas\". In2007, they were nominated for aWriters Guild of America Awardfor the episode \"Kiss Kiss, Bang",
"\"Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore\".Castellaneta is also credited as a consulting producer. Further career Castellaneta has been a regular cast member in several other television series. In 1991, he played Warren Morris in the short-livedABClive-action sitcomSibs.Heide Perlman, creator ofSibs, wrote the part with Castellaneta in mind. He provided the voice of the eponymous character inThe Adventures ofDynamo Duck,MegavoltinDarkwing Duck,\"Doc\" Emmett BrowninBack to the Future: The Animated Series,the lead character inEarthworm Jimand several characters, including Grandpa Phil and the Jolly Olly Man, the mentally unstableice cream truckdriver, onNickelodeon'sHey Arnold!.He guest starred asThe Robot Devilin five episodes ofFuturama, as well as theFuturamafilmThe Beast with a Billion Backs. Castellaneta has also made guest appearances in a number of television series episodes. In 1992, he guest-starred in an episode of thelegal dramaL.A. Law, as a Homer Simpsonmeetable characterat a Californiaamusement parkwho is",
"parkwho is dismissed for inappropriate behavior while in costume.In 1996, he made a guest appearance as a Zoo Keeper in Season 2, Episode 12 “The One After the Superbowl” inFriends. In 2005, he appeared in the episode \"Sword of Destiny\" inArrested Developmentas Dr. Stein, adeadpanincompetent doctor. In 2005, Castellaneta guest-starred as Joe Spencer in theStargate SG-1season eightepisode \"Citizen Joe\".He also appeared in episodes ofALF,Campus Ladies,Castle,Entourage,Everybody Loves Raymond,Frasier,Friends,Greek,How I Met Your Mother,Mad About You,Married... with Children,Murphy Brown,NYPD Blue,Parks and Recreation,Reba,Reno 911!,That '70s Show,Veronica Mars,Hot in Cleveland,Yes, Dear,andDesperate Housewives. He appeared as theGeniein theAladdinsequelThe Return of Jafarand on the 1994Aladdintelevision series. The Genie had been voiced byRobin WilliamsinAladdin, and Castellaneta described replacing him as \"sort of like stepping intoHamletafterLaurence Olivierdid it, how can you win?\" He also provided Genie's",
"provided Genie's voice in theKingdom Heartsvideo game seriesfor bothKingdom HeartsandKingdom Hearts II(with archived audio used forKingdom Hearts: Chain of Memoriesand its remake as well as for the later HD collectionsKingdom Hearts HD 1.5 RemixandKingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix). Castellaneta portrayedAaron Spellingin the 2004NBCfilmBehind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Charlie's Angels, which followed the true story of how Spelling created the show. Other films in which Castellaneta has appeared includeNothing in Common,Say Anything...,Super Mario Bros.,The Client,Space Jam,My Giant,The Simpsons Movie,Rugrats in Paris: The Movie,Recess: School's Out,Hey Arnold!: The Movie,The Cat in the HatandThe Pursuit of Happyness. In 2000, he won anAnnie Awardfor his portrayal of the Postman in the animated Christmas television specialOlive, the Other Reindeer.In 2006, he appeared inJeff Garlin's independent filmI Want Someone to Eat Cheese Withalong with several otherSecond City alumni. On February 22, 2000, his",
"22, 2000, his first music CDTwo Lipswas published.It was followed on April 23, 2002, by his first comedy CD,I Am Not Homer, in which he and his wife perform several comedy skits. The majority of the sketches had been written and performed before the CD was recorded, and Castellaneta thought that it would be a good idea to preserve them \"since don't perform them much anymore.\" Some came from their sketch series on a local radio station in Chicago and had to be lengthened from the \"two-minute bits\" that they were original, while several others were stage sketches performed in a comedy club inSanta Monica.Additionally, \"Citizen Kane\", a sketch in which two people discuss the filmCitizen Kanewith different meanings, was something the pair had performed at an art gallery.Castellaneta noted that \"we already knew that these skits were funny, some of them we polished and tightened.\"The skits were principally written by improvising from a basic point, transcribing the results, and then editing them to the finished",
"to the finished scene.Castellaneta chose the titleI Am Not Homeras a parody ofLeonard Nimoy's famous first autobiographyI Am Not Spock, as well as to show that most of the comedy featured \"is not the typicalHomercomedy.\" Alongside his television and film work, Castellaneta has appeared in a number of theatrical productions. In 1992, he starred inDeb & Dan's Showalongside his wife.In 1995, Castellaneta started writingWhere Did Vincent van Gogh?, aone man playin which he portrays a dozen different characters, including artistVincent van Gogh.He first officially performed the play at theACME Comedy Theatrein Los Angeles in 1999.In 2007, he appeared inThe Bicycle MenatKing's Head Theatrein London. Castellaneta hosted the final ofNew Yorkcomedy show Thrills and Spills on December 31, 2015. The final was held inMontgomery, Alabama. Personal life In 1987, Castellaneta married writer and actressDeb Lacusta, whom he had met at animprovclass inChicago.They divide their time betweenLos AngelesandSanta Barbara,",
"Barbara, California. Castellaneta is avegetariananddoes not drink alcohol. He enjoys exercising regularlyand practicingtai chi.He isCatholic. Filmography Discography Also featured in: Awards and nominations References External links",
"Julie Kavner Julie Deborah Kavner(born September 7, 1950)is an American actress. Before becoming well-known for her voice role asMarge Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons, Kavner attracted notice for her role as Brenda Morgenstern, the younger sister ofValerie Harper's title character in the sitcomRhoda, for which she won aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. She also voices other characters forThe Simpsons, including Marge's mother,Jacqueline Bouvier, sistersPatty and Selma Bouvier, and half-step-great-aunt Eunice Bouvier. Known for her improvisation and distinctive \"honeyed gravel voice\",Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern inRhodain 1974. Starting in 1987, Kavner appeared onThe Tracey Ullman Show.The Tracey Ullman Showincluded a series ofanimated shortsabout a dysfunctional family. Voices were needed for the shorts, and the producers asked Kavner to voice Marge. The shorts were spun off intoThe Simpsons. Kavner has",
"Kavner has been described as \"nearly reclusive\";part of her contract says that she will never have to promoteThe Simpsonson video.For her work as Marge, Kavner received anotherPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992 and anAnnie Awardnomination for her performance as the character inThe Simpsons Movie(2007). Typically cast as a \"woman who is supportive, sympathetic or self-effacingly funny\",Kavner grew to dislike playing such roles. In 1992, she starred inThis Is My Life, her first leading role in a feature film. Kavner has also appeared in live-action roles in six films written byWoody Allenand in theAdam SandlercomedyClick. Early life Kavner was born in Los Angeles, California, on September 7, 1950,the second daughter of Rose, a family counselor, and David Kavner, a furniture manufacturer,and grew up in Southern California. She decided to pursue a career in acting because \"There was nothing else I wanted to do, ever\".She attendedBeverly Hills High School(which she later admitted she",
"later admitted she hated), where she was \"something of a loner\", and unsuccessfully tried out for several plays.John Ingle, formerly the chairman of the Beverly Hills High School art department, later commented that Kavner was \"excellent at improvisation, but she wasn't aningenue and not that castable at that age\". After graduating from high school, Kavner attendedSan Diego State Universityand majored in drama, being cast in several productions including a role asCharlotte CordayinMarat/Sade, becoming known for her improvisation and ability to do both comedy and drama. After graduating in 1971, she got a day job as a typist at theUCLA School of the Arts and Architecture. Career Early career In 1973, Kavner auditioned for a role as one ofRhoda Morgenstern's sisters inThe Mary Tyler Moore Show. David Davis, producer of the show, had convinced her to audition for the part, but decided to cast another actress instead.A year later, Rhoda Morgenstern became the leading character in a spin-off calledRhoda. Kavner",
"calledRhoda. Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern, sister of the eponymous character.Rhodaran on CBS from September 9, 1974, to December 1978. She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations forOutstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Seriesfor playing Brenda, winning in 1978.She also received fourGolden Globe Awardnominations.In 1975, she receivedDaytime Emmy Awardnomination for her starring role in the daytime specialThe Girl Who Couldn't Lose. FollowingRhoda, Kavner had a guest appearance onTaxiand appeared in the 1985 comedyBad Medicineas well as the 1987 filmSurrender, both of which were box office failures (and also starredSteve Guttenberg).She appeared in the television moviesRevenge of the Stepford Wives,No Other LoveandA Fine Romance, and shot a television pilot.She also starred in several stage plays, including a play calledIt Had to Be Youat a dinner theater in Canada,Particular Friendshipsin New York City in 1981,andTwo for",
"in 1981,andTwo for the Seesaw, directed byBurt Reynolds.Woody Allenfirst saw Kavner one night while he was watchingRhodain the 1970s. He thought that she was remarkable and later offered her a role in his 1986 filmHannah and Her Sisters.Kavner agreed, and credits Allen and the film with rejuvenating her career. Kavner was then cast as a sidekick toTracey UllmaninThe Tracey Ullman Show, which debuted on Fox in 1987. Kavner described the show as, \"like being back in school, a chance to play a wide variety of characters, some really vicious people, to not rest on laurels, to not play it safe\".Kavner commented, \"What I do is not mimicry or an impersonation, but more of an assimilation. we did a lot of looking at people to find out who to base our characters on. We did our homework on our lunch hour.\"She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations forBest Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program. The Simpsons Kavner became known for her role asMarge Simpsonon the animated television showThe",
"television showThe Simpsons, a show that continues to the present day.The Tracey Ullman Showincludeda series of animated shortsabout the dysfunctional Simpson family. Voices were needed for the shorts, so the producers decided to ask Kavner and fellow cast memberDan Castellanetato voice Marge and Homer rather than hire more actors.Kavner has what Hilary de Vries ofThe New York Timesdescribed as a \"honeyed gravel voice\".Kavner says her voice is due to \"a bump on vocal cords\".Marge's voice has aged considerably throughout the series as Kavner has gotten older, and the higher register of Marge's voice in the earliest seasons had to be adjusted as it began to strain Kavner's voice. Although Marge is her highest profile character on the show, Kavner's favorite characters to voice are Marge's sistersPatty and Selma Bouvierbecause \"they're really funny and sad at the same time\".Series creatorMatt Groeninginstructed Kavner to voice the duo as characters who \"suck the life out of everything\".Both have similar raspy",
"have similar raspy voices, but Patty's voice is more masculine and has a lower register, while Selma's voice is a little sweeter.Kavner also provides the voices of every other female member of the Bouvier family, including Marge's motherJacqueline, Great-Aunt Gladys (a dead relative who was introduced on season four's \"Selma's Choice\"), and an unnamed grandmother seen on the season six episode \"Fear of Flying\". While cast members and crew have referenced Kavner as a deep fan of the series and the characters she voices, part of Kavner's contract says that she will never have to promoteThe Simpsonson video nor has she performed Marge's voice in public because she believes the publicity \"destroys the illusion. People feel these are real people.\"Kavner takes recording sessions seriously, and feels that voice acting is \"a little more limiting than live acting. And I have nothing to do with my character's movement.\"Nancy Cartwright, who voicesBart Simpson, said in her bookMy Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy(2000) that",
"Boy(2000) that Kavner is a warm person who is \"a workhorse of an actor\" with \"extraordinary professionalism and quiet work ethic\", and notes that she is rarely late for recording sessions.Kavner had very few recorded interviews in regard to her work on the show. In behind-the-scenes footage from 1992, she describes Marge as \"a wonderful person\" with \"a great sex life\".On a 1994 appearance onLate Show with David Letterman, Kavner explains that performing the voice of Marge in a live-action setting would break the illusion of the character, and that she does not want her own likeness to overlap with that of the character. However, after being coaxed by Letterman, Kavner turns to face away from the camera and speaks briefly in the voice of Marge. Until 1998, Kavner was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing to cast new voices.However, the dispute was soon resolved and she received $125,000 per episode",
"per episode until 2004 when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.The issue was resolved a month later,and Kavner earned $250,000 per episode.After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Kavner and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. At the44th Primetime Emmy Awards, Kavner received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performancefor voicing Marge in theseason threeepisode \"I Married Marge\".In 2004, Kavner andDan Castellanetawon aYoung Artist Awardfor Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series.For her performance inThe Simpsons Movie, Kavner was nominated for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature at the 2007Annie Awards, butIan HolmfromRatatouillereceived the award.Kavner's emotional performance in the movie got positive reviews, and one critic said she \"gave what must",
"she \"gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever to find its way into a movie based on an irreverent cartoon\".Some scenes in the movie, such as Marge's emotional video message to Homer, were recorded over 100 times, leaving Kavner exhausted. Further career Many of Kavner's roles have been described byNew York Timeswriter Hilary de Vries as a \"woman who is supportive, sympathetic, or self-effacingly funny\".Kavner grew to despise playing such roles, saying \"If it smacks of Brenda Morgenstern, I won't take the job.\"She had a supporting role as Eleanor Costello, a nurse who befriendsRobin Williams' character in theAcademy Awardnominated filmAwakenings(1990).Kavner interviewed several nurses in preparation for the role, andPenny Marshall, the director of the film, described Kavner as \"a low-maintenance actor You never have to worry about giving back-story for her characters.\"In 1992, Kavner starred inThis Is My Life, her first leading role in a feature film. Kavner played Dottie Ingels, an",
"Dottie Ingels, an aspiringstand-up comedianwho starts neglecting her family when her career begins to take off. Kavner described Dottie as \"really selfish\" but admitted, \"I liked the role for that very reason.\"Kavner had been asked to play a character with a smaller role in the film, butJoe Roth, at the time the chairman of20th Century Fox, suggested that they cast a lesser known actress in the lead role.Nora Ephron, the writer ofThis Is My Life, said Kavner \"has so little vanity that it is almost shocking. Not only does she have no demands as an actress – 'How big is my trailer, what's in my refrigerator?' – but she will do anything for the character if it makes sense to her.\" Kavner has frequently appeared inWoody Allenfilms, having roles inHannah and Her Sisters(1986),Radio Days(1987),New York Stories(1989),Alice(1990),Shadows and Fog(1991), the television movieDon't Drink the Water(1994)andDeconstructing Harry(1997).Allen described her as \"a naturally funny person. When she does a scene, you listen to",
"you listen to her and look at her, and the prism through which it's all filtered is funny.\"Kavner believes he is \"a true filmmaker, one that has something to say, continually experimenting on different themes within his own film-making\", adding that \"anything ever does, I always want to do, I don't even have to read it.\" She has done voice-over work in films such asThe Lion King 1½(2004),Dr. Dolittle(1998)and an uncredited role as an announcer inA Walk on the Moon(1999).She worked with Tracey Ullman in the HBO sketch comedy seriesTracey Takes On...She was cast as the mother ofAdam Sandler's character inClick, released in 2006.She has not appeared in a non-Simpsonsrole since her appearance inClick. Personal life Kavner is Jewish.She has lived in New York City'sManhattanborough since around 1992.She leads an intensely private life, described byThe New York Timesas \"nearly reclusive\" and \"discreet and guarded beyond the usual reticent star routine\".She rarely makes public appearances and refuses to be",
"and refuses to be photographed while working.She was in a relationship with producerDavid Davisfrom 1976 until his death in 2022.Neither of them confirmed being married, though reports referred to her as his wife at the time of his death. In 1983,Current Biographyreferred to Kavner as an avid athlete andpescetarian.In a 1992 interview withThe New York Times, she said she was considering retiring \"except for doing three days a year forWoody \", but had a feeling that she would receive a script she wanted \"to do more than life itself\" upon retiring. Filmography References External links",
"Nancy Cartwright Nancy Jean Cartwright(born October 25, 1957) is an American actress. She is the long-time voice ofBart Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons, for which she has received aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceand anAnnie Awardfor Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation. Cartwright also voices other characters for the show, includingRalph Wiggum,Todd Flanders,Nelson Muntz, andMaggie Simpson. She is also the voice ofChuckie Finsterin the Nickelodeon seriesRugratsand its spin-offAll Grown Up!, succeedingChristine Cavanaugh. Cartwright was born inDayton, Ohio. She moved to Hollywood in 1978 and trained under voice actorDaws Butler. Her first professional role was voicing Gloria in the animated seriesRichie Rich, which she followed with a starring role in the television movieMarian Rose White(1982) and her first feature film,Twilight Zone: The Movie(1983). In 1987, Cartwright auditioned for a role ina series of animated shortsabout adysfunctional familythat was",
"familythat was to appear onThe Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright intended to audition for the role ofLisa Simpson, the middle child; when she arrived at the audition, she found the role of Bart—Lisa's brother—to be more interesting. Series creatorMatt Groeningallowed her to audition for Bart and offered her the role on the spot. She voiced Bart for three seasons onThe Tracey Ullman Show, and in 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show calledThe Simpsons. BesidesThe Simpsons, Cartwright has also voiced numerous other animated characters, including Daffney Gillfin inSnorks, Mellissa Screetch inToonsylvania,RufusinKim Possible,MindyinAnimaniacs, Pistol inGoof Troop, the Robots inCrashbox, Margo Sherman inThe Criticand Todd Daring inThe Replacements. In 2000, she published her autobiography,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy, and four years later, adapted it into aone-woman play. In 2017, she wrote and produced the filmIn Search of Fellini. Early life Nancy Jean Cartwright was born on October 25, 1957,in",
"October 25, 1957,in Dayton, Ohio,Frank and Miriam Cartwright's fourth of six children.She grew up inKettering, Ohio,and discovered her talent for voices at an early age. While in thefourth gradeat the school of St. Charles Borromeo, she won a school-wide speech competition with her performance ofRudyard Kipling'sHow the Camel Got His Hump.Cartwright attendedFairmont West High School, and participated in the school's theater and marching band. She regularly entered public speaking competitions, placing first in the \"Humorous Interpretation\" category at the National District Tournament two years running. The judges often suggested to her that she should perform cartoon voices. Cartwright graduated from high school in 1976 and accepted a scholarship fromOhio University.She continued to compete in public speaking competitions; during her sophomore year, she placed fifth in the National Speech Tournament's exposition category with her speech \"The Art of Animation\". In 1976, Cartwright landed a part-time job doing",
"part-time job doing voice-overs for commercials onWINGradio in Dayton.A representative fromWarner Bros. Recordsvisited WING and later sent Cartwright a list of contacts in the animation industry.One of these wasDaws Butler, known for voicing characters such asHuckleberry Hound,Snagglepuss,Elroy Jetson,Spike the Bulldog, andYogi Bear. Cartwright called him and left a message in a Cockney accent on his answering machine.Butler immediately called her back and agreed to be her mentor. He mailed her a script and instructed her to send him a tape recording of herself reading it. Once he received the tape, Butler critiqued it and sent her notes. For the next year, they continued in this way, completing a new script every few weeks. Cartwright described Butler as \"absolutely amazing, always encouraging, always polite\". Cartwright returned toOhio Universityfor her sophomore year, but transferred to theUniversity of California, Los Angeles(UCLA) so she could be closer to Hollywood and Butler.Her mother, Miriam, died",
"Miriam, died late in the summer of 1978.Cartwright nearly changed her relocation plans but, on September 17, 1978, \"joylessly\" left forWestwood, Los Angeles. Career Early career While attending UCLA, which did not have a public speaking team,Cartwright continued training as a voice actress with Butler. She recalled, \"every Sunday I'd take a 20-minute bus ride to his house inBeverly Hillsfor a one-hour lesson and be there for four hours ... They had four sons, they didn't have a daughter and I kind of fitted in as the baby of the family.\"Butler introduced her to many of the voice actors and directors atHanna-Barbera. After she met the directorGordon Hunt, he asked her to audition for a recurring role as Gloria inRichie Rich. She received the part, and later worked with Hunt on several other projects. At the end of 1980, Cartwright signed with a talent agency and landed a lead role in a pilot for asitcomcalledIn Trouble. Cartwright described the show as \"forgettable, but it jump-started my on-camera",
"my on-camera career\".She graduated from UCLA in 1981 with a degree in theater.During the summer, Cartwright worked withJonathan Wintersas part of an improvisation troupe atKenyon CollegeinGambier, Ohio. Returning to Los Angeles, Cartwright won the lead role in the television filmMarian Rose White.Janet Maslin, a critic forThe New York Times, described Cartwright as \"a chubby, lumbering, slightlycross-eyedactress whose naturalness adds greatly to the film's impact\".Cartwright replied by sending Maslin a letter insisting she was not cross-eyed, and included a photograph.Later, Cartwright auditioned for the role of Ethel, a girl who becomes trapped in a cartoon world in the third segment ofTwilight Zone: The Movie. She met with directorJoe Danteand later described him as \"a total cartoon buff, and once he took a look at my resume and noticed Daws Butler's name on it, we were off and running, sharing anecdotes about Daws and animation. After about twenty minutes, he said, 'considering your background, I don't",
"background, I don't see how I could cast anyonebutyou in this part!'\"It was her first role in a feature film.The segment was based onThe Twilight Zonetelevision series episode \"It's a Good Life\", which was later parodied inThe Simpsonsepisode \"Treehouse of Horror II\" (1991). Cartwright continued to do voice work for projects includingPound Puppies,Popeye and Son,Snorks,My Little PonyandSaturday Supercade.She joined a \"loop group\", and recorded vocals for characters in the background of films, although in most cases the sound was turned down so that very little of her voice was heard. She did minor voice-over work for several films, includingThe Clan of the Cave Bear(1986),Silverado(1985),Sixteen Candles(1984),Back to the Future Part II, andThe Color Purple(1985).Cartwright also voiced a shoe that was \"dipped\" in acid inWho Framed Roger Rabbit(1988), describing it as her first \"off-screen death scene\",and worked to correctly convey the emotion involved. Once I had graduated from UCLA, I decided that as long",
"that as long as I was an actress, I was going to find related work in the industry. There were plenty of opportunities. And fortunately, I am just pushy enough to find and get myself in touch with those who can provide such opportunities. —Nancy Cartwright,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy In 1985, she auditioned for a guest spot as Cynthia inCheers. The audition called for her to say her line and walk off the set. Cartwright decided to take a chance on being different and continued walking, leaving the building and returning home. The production crew was confused, but she received the part.In search of more training as an actress, Cartwright joined a class taught by Hollywood coachMilton Katselas. He recommended that Cartwright studyLa Strada, a 1956 Italian film starringGiulietta Masinaand directed byFederico Fellini. She began performing \"every imaginable scene\" fromLa Stradain her class and spent several months trying to secure the rights to produce a stage adaptation.She visited Italy with the intention of",
"the intention of meeting Fellini and requesting his permission in person. Although they never met, Cartwright kept a journal of the trip and later wrote a one-woman play calledIn Search of Fellini, partially based on her voyage.The play was co-written by Peter Kjenaas, and Cartwright won aDrama-Logue Awardafter performing it in Los Angeles in 1995. In a 1998 interview, she stated her intention to make it into a feature film,which she succeeded in doing in 2017. The Simpsons Cartwright voices the characterBart Simpsonon the long-running animated television showThe Simpsons. On March 13, 1987, she auditioned for a series of animated shorts about a dysfunctional family that was to appear onThe Tracey Ullman Show, a sketch comedy program. Cartwright had intended to audition for the role ofLisa Simpson, the elder daughter. After arriving at the audition, she found that Lisa was simply described as the middle child and at the time did not have much personality. Cartwright became more interested in the role of",
"in the role of Bart, described as \"devious, underachieving, school-hating, irreverent, clever\".CreatorMatt Groeninglet her try out for Bart and gave her the job on the spot.Bart's voice came naturally to Cartwright, as she had previously used elements of it inMy Little Pony,Snorks, andPound Puppies.Cartwright describes Bart's voice as easy to perform compared with other characters.The recording of the shorts was often primitive; the dialog was recorded on a portable tape deck in a makeshift studio above the bleachers on the set ofThe Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright, the only cast member to have been professionally trained in voice acting,described the sessions as \"great fun\".However, she wanted to appear in the live-action sketches and occasionally showed up for recording sessions early, hoping to be noticed by a producer. In 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show on theFox networkcalledThe Simpsons. Bart quickly became the show'sbreakout personalityand one of the most celebrated characters on",
"characters on television—his popularity in 1990 and 1991 was known as \"Bartmania\".Bart was described as \"television's brightest new star\" by Mike Boone ofThe Gazetteand was named 1990's \"entertainer of the year\" byEntertainment Weekly.Despite Bart's fame, however, Cartwright remained relatively unknown. During the first season ofThe Simpsons, Fox ordered Cartwright not to give interviews, because they did not want to publicize the fact that Bart was voiced by a woman.Cartwright's normal speaking voice is said to have \"no obvious traces of Bart\",and she believes her role is \"the best acting job in the world\"since she is rarely recognized in public.When she is recognized and asked to perform Bart's voice in front of children, Cartwright refuses because it \"freaks out\".Bart's catchphrase \"Eat My Shorts\" was an ad-lib by Cartwright in one of the original table readings, referring to an incident from her high school days. Once while performing, members of the Fairmont West High School marching band switched",
"band switched their chant from the usual \"Fairmont West! Fairmont West!\" to the irreverent \"Eat my shorts!\" Cartwright felt it appropriate for Bart, and improvised the line; it became a popular catchphrase on the show. Cartwright voices several other characters on the show, includingNelson Muntz,Ralph Wiggum,Todd Flanders,Kearney, andDatabase.She first voiced Nelson in the episode \"Bart the General\" (season one, 1990). The character was to be voiced byDana Hill, but Hill missed the recording session and Cartwright was given the role.She developed Nelson's voice on the spot and describes him as \"a throat-ripper\".Ralph Wiggum had originally been voiced byJo Ann Harris, but Cartwright was assigned to voice the character in \"Bart the Murderer\" (season three, 1991).Todd Flanders, the only voice for which Cartwright used another source, is based on Sherman (voiced byWalter Tetley), the boy fromPeabody's Improbable History, a series of shorts aired onThe Rocky and Bullwinkle Show. Cartwright received aPrimetime",
"received aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992 for her performance as Bart in the episode \"Separate Vocations\"and anAnnie Awardin 1995 for Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation.Bart was named one of the100 most important people of the 20th centurybyTime,and in 2000, Bart and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame, located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard. Until 1998, Cartwright was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors and made preparations for casting new actors.The dispute was resolved, however, and Cartwright received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded $360,000 an episode.A compromise was reached after a month,and Cartwright's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.Salaries were re-negotiated in 2008 with the voice actors receiving approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production",
"unless production costs were cut, Cartwright and the other cast members accepted a 25 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. Further career It is quite a curiosity being a celebrity that nobody knows. I ask you, how many celebrities would younotrecognize were they to walk down the street? ... I can think of no one—besides my fellow cast members and me. The anonymity factor is such a unique aspect of this job. I must admit, sometimes I wish it were different. —Nancy Cartwright,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy In addition to her work onThe Simpsons, Cartwright has voiced many other characters on several animated series, including Chuckie Finster inRugratsandAll Grown Up!, Margo Sherman inThe Critic,MindyinAnimaniacs,andRufusthenaked mole-ratinKim Possible. For the role of Rufus, Cartwright researched mole-rats extensively, and became \"a font of useless trivia\".She was nominated for aDaytime Emmy Awardfor Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program in 2004 for her work on the show.In 2001,",
"the show.In 2001, Cartwright took over theRugratsrole of Chuckie Finster whenChristine Cavanaughretired.Cartwright describes Rufus and Chuckie as her two most difficult voices: \"Rufus because my diaphragm gets a workout while trying to utilize the 18 vocal sounds a mole makes. Chuckie because ... he's an asthmatic with five personalities rolled into one—plus I have to do the voice the way did it for 10 years.\"Other television shows that have used her voice work includeGalaxy High,God, the Devil and Bob,Goof Troop,Mike, Lu & Og,The Replacements,Pinky and the BrainandTimberwolf.Cartwright has appeared on camera in numerous television shows and films, includingFame,Empty Nest,The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air,Flesh and Blood,Godzilla,and24. In 2000, Cartwright published her autobiography,My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy. The book details her career (particularly her experiences as the voice of Bart) and contains stories about life behind the scenes ofThe Simpsons.Laura A. Bischoff of theDayton Daily Newscommented that",
"Newscommented that the book was the \"ultimate insider's guide toThe Simpsons\".Critics complained that the book lacked interesting stories and was aimed mostly at fans ofThe Simpsonsrather than a general audience. Cartwright adaptedMy Life as a 10-Year-Old Boyinto aone-woman playin 2004. Cartwright has performed it at a variety of venues, including the August 2004Edinburgh Festival Fringein Scotland.The play received modest reviews, including criticism for a lack of inside stories aboutThe Simpsons, and its \"overweeningly upbeat\" tone.David Chatterton ofThe British Theatre Guidedescribed the show as \"interesting and entertaining, but not really a 'must see' even for Simpsons fans\". Cartwright has shown an interest instock car racingand as of 2007 was seeking aNASCARlicense.In 2001, she founded a production company called SportsBlast and created an online animated series calledThe Kellys. The series is focused on racing; Cartwright voices a seven-year-old named Chip Kelly. In 2016, Cartwright launched Spotted",
"launched Spotted Cow Entertainment, her own film and television production company, with Peter Kjenaas, Monica Gil and Kevin Burke. With a focus on international audiences, Spotted Cow is seeking \"to finance, produce and acquire live action and animated films, television series, as well as entertainment for digital platforms with budgets up to $15M.\"With Spotted Cow, Cartwright made her first film as a screenwriter and producer,In Search of Fellini, which was released on September 15, 2017.Based on her own journey toItalyin 1985 in a bid to meet the famed directorFederico Fellini, the film fulfilled Cartwright's longtime vision of turning her 1995 one-woman playIn Search of Felliniinto a film. Personal life Cartwright met real-estate agent Warren Murphy, 24 years her senior, on her birthday in 1988 and married him two months later.In her book, she describes Murphy as her \"personal laugh track\".The couple had two children, Lucy and Jack, before divorcing in 2002. Cartwright was raised aRoman Catholicbut",
"aRoman Catholicbut joined theChurch of Scientologyin 1991.She was awarded Scientology's Patron Laureate Award after donating $10,000,000, almost twice her annual salary, to the Church in 2007. Cartwright is a contributor toASIFA-Hollywood's Animation Archive Project.In September 2007, Cartwright received theMake-A-Wish Foundation'sWish IconAward \"for her tremendous dedication to the Foundation's fundraising and wish-fulfillment efforts.\"In 2005, Cartwright created ascholarshipat Fairmont High School \"designed to aid Fairmont who dream of following in her footsteps and studying speech, debate, drama or music\" atOhio University.In 2005, Cartwright was given the title of Honorary Mayor ofNorthridge, California(a neighborhood of Los Angeles) by the Northridge Chamber of Commerce. In 2007, Cartwright was in a romantic relationship with contractor Stephen Brackett,a fellow member of Scientology.In early 2008, the couple had made plans to marry,but Brackett died in May 2009. In 2012, Cartwright received an",
"received an honorary doctorate degree in communication fromOhio University, where she was a student from 1976 to 1977 before transferring to UCLA. Cartwright is also a painter, sculptor and philanthropist. She co-founded the Know More About Drugs alliance. Filmography Live-action Film Television Voice roles Film Animation Video games Music videos Theme parks Web series Producer Other credits Awards References Bibliography External links",
"Yeardley Smith Martha Maria Yeardley Smith(/ˈjɑːrdli/YARD-lee;born July 3, 1964) is an American actress. She stars as the voice ofLisa Simpsonon the animated television seriesThe Simpsons. Smith became an actress in 1982 after graduating from drama school. She moved to New York City in 1984, where she appeared in the Broadway production ofTom Stoppard'sThe Real Thing. She made her film debut in 1985'sHeaven Help Us, followed by roles inThe Legend of Billie JeanandMaximum Overdrive. She moved to Los Angeles in 1986 and took a recurring role in the television seriesBrothers. In 1987, Smith auditioned for theSimpsonsshorts onThe Tracey Ullman Show. Smith intended to audition for the role ofBart Simpson, but the casting director felt her voice was too high, and she was cast as Bart's sister Lisa. In 1989, the shorts werespun offinto their own half-hour show,The Simpsons. For her work onThe Simpsons, Smith received aPrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Voice-Over Performancein 1992. AlongsideThe Simpsons, Smith",
"Simpsons, Smith appeared in the sitcomHerman's Headas Louise, and had recurring appearances as Marlene onDharma & Gregand as Penny in two episodes ofDead Like Me. She has appeared in several films, includingCity Slickers,Just Write,Toys, andAs Good as It Gets. In 2004, Smith performed anoff-Broadwayone-woman show entitledMoreat theUnion Square Theatrein New York City. Aside fromThe Simpsons, Smith has recorded few voice-over parts, only commercials and the filmWe're Back! A Dinosaur's Story. Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedyWaiting For Ophelia, which had its world premiere at thePhoenix Film Festivalin April 2009. Early life Smith was born on July 3, 1964, inParis, France. Her father, Joseph Smith, worked forUnited Press Internationalin Paris and moved to Washington, D.C., in 1966, where he becameThe Washington Post's first official obituary editor.Her mother, Martha Mayor, was apaper conservatorfor theFreerandSackler Galleriesat theSmithsonian",
"theSmithsonian Institution.Smith's parents later divorced.Her maternal grandfather was art historianA. Hyatt Mayor, and among her great-grandparents were marine biologist and zoologistAlpheus Hyattand artist and sculptorHarriet Randolph Hyatt Mayor.She is also the paternal niece of political scientist, historian, andLatin American studiesspecialistPeter H. Smith.Smith has labeled her family \"upper crust and reserved\".As a child, Smith was often teased because of her unusual voice.Smith has stated: \"I've sounded pretty much the same way since I was six. Maybe a little deeper now.\"She made her acting debut in a sixth-grade play. Career Early career Smith became a professional actress in 1982.After appearances in a number of school plays, she joined the localArena Stagetheater group on an apprenticeship, featuring in their production ofPeter Pan. She went on to star in several other plays in Washington.She moved to New York City in 1984 and appeared in the Broadway production ofTom Stoppard's playThe Real",
"playThe Real ThingalongsideJeremy IronsandGlenn Close. Smith's first film role came inHeaven Help Us(1985).She then played Putter inThe Legend of Billie Jean(also 1985). The film was abox office bomband critically panned, although Smith \"thought it would be the movie that launched my career. And then it was out at the box office about 10 days before it died.\"When filming was over, she rejoinedThe Real Thingbefore being out of work for six months. Smith worried her career was over.However, the following year, she played Connie inStephen King'sMaximum Overdrive(1986), noting it was \"truly a dreadful film, but I had a great part in it.\" Smith moved to Los Angeles in 1986 on the \"semi-promise\" of a part in a TV film.After the audition, the role was given to another actress. Smith realized \"that people don't mean what they say. It's not malicious. They just don't realize how much impact they have on an impressionable actor – and all actors are impressionable.\" From then on, she decided to \"just sort of build a",
"sort of build a wall around myself\", to cope with the disappointment of not getting a part.In Los Angeles, Smith appeared in theatrical productions ofLiving on Salvation Street, for which she was paid $14 for each performance,Boys and Girls/Men and Women, andHow the Other Half Loves, and played the recurring role of Louella Waters on theShowtimeseriesBrothers.She appeared in the filmsThe Legend of Billie JeanandGinger Ale Afternoon(1989) as \"trailer-park girls\".She later spoke of her regrets of appearing in the latter in her one-woman showMore. The Simpsons It's a happy fluke. When she was cast back in 1987, I just liked the sound of her voice. She's also a great actress. In general, people who make their living doing voices on cartoons aren't always great for us. Most cartoons want things peppy and cartoony. Yeardley is able to go through moments of great emotion and wring it for all she's worth. —Matt Groeningon Smith's vocal style Smith's longest-running role is voicingLisa SimpsononThe Simpsons. She has",
"Simpsons. She has voiced Lisa since 1987, beginning withThe Simpsons shortsonThe Tracey Ullman Show. Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Lisa's brotherBart, but casting directorBonita Pietilathought her voice was too high. Smith later recalled \"I always sounded too much like a girl, I read two lines as Bart and they said, 'Thanks for coming!'\"Smith was given the role of Lisa, instead. She denies rumors that she almost turned down the role, though admits she had never planned a career in voice-over work.Pietila stated that, having seen her inLiving on Salvation Street,Smith was always her preferred choice.Smith lifts her voice up slightly to perform the role.Lisa is the only regular character voiced by Smith, although in some earlier episodes, she provided some ofMaggie's squeaks and occasional speaking parts.Smith has only voiced characters other than Lisa on very rare occasions, with those characters usually being some derivative of Lisa, such as Lisa Bella in \"Last Tap Dance in",
"\"Last Tap Dance in Springfield\" and Lisa, Jr. in \"Missionary: Impossible\" (both fromseason 11in 2000).Smith spends two days a week recording the show. Until 1998, Smith was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing to cast new voices.However, the dispute was soon resolved and she received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 per episode.The issue was resolved a month later,and Smith earned $250,000 per episode.After salary renegotiations in 2008, the voice actors received about $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Smith and the other cast members accepted a 25% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. Despite her world-famous role, Smith is rarely recognized in public, which she does not mind, saying, \"it's wonderful to be in the midst of all this hype about the",
"this hype about the show, and people enjoying the show so much, and to be totally afly on the wall; people never recognise me solely from my voice.\"In a 2009 interview withThe Guardian, she commented: \"It's the best job ever. I have nothing but gratitude for the amount of freedomThe Simpsonshas bought me in my life.\" Smith received aPrimetime Emmy Awardin 1992, but felt it was not worth anything, saying \"there's part of me that feels it wasn't even a real Emmy.\" The Emmy forOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceis aCreative Artsand not handed out during the primetime telecast and, prior to 2009, was a juried award without nominations.However, Smith says \"if I had to be associated with one character in fiction, I will always be thrilled that it was Lisa Simpson.\"The show's creatorMatt Groeninghas called Smith very similar to Lisa: \"Yeardley has strong moral views about her character. There are lines that are written for Lisa that Yeardley reads and says, 'No, I wouldn't say that.'\"WriterJay Kogenpraised her",
"Kogenpraised her performance on the show, particularly in the episode \"Lisa's Substitute\", as able \"to move past comedy to something really strong and serious and dramatic\". Further career From 1991 to 1994, alongsideThe Simpsons, Smith was one of the lead cast members in the sitcomHerman's Headas Louise.Her other television roles include recurring appearances as Marlene onDharma & Greg, and Penny in two episodes ofDead Like Me. Smith has also appeared inPhil of the FutureandTeen Angel.Her one-scene role as pregnant checkout girl Nancy in 1991'sCity Slickersearned her \"more attention than all previous roles combined\", and taught her \"that it's far better to have small parts in big movies that everyone sees.\"In 1997, she appeared as Lulu the palm reader in the independent filmJust Write.Her other roles include parts inBarry Levinson'sToysandJames L. Brooks'As Good as It Gets.Brooks, who is also executive producer ofThe Simpsons, had cast Smith in his 1994 filmI'll Do Anything(in one of the film's musical",
"the film's musical numbers), but her part was cut.Aside fromThe Simpsons, Smith has recorded few voice-over parts, only commercials and the filmWe're Back! A Dinosaur's Story. She \"had a voice-over agent for about two years, and I used to go out all the time, but it never really came to anything. Everybody said, 'Oh Yeardley, you'll clean up,' and that was definitely not the case.\" In 2004, Smith performed her own off-Broadway one-woman show entitledMoreat theUnion Square Theatrein New York City. Directed byJudith Ivey,the play is about her mixed feelings over the success ofThe Simpsons, her parents, her relationships, and her struggles withbulimia.The New York Timescritic Margo Jefferson called it an \"appealing if overlong show\", adding that \"The career narrative needed shortening. This would involve some editing and revising but wouldn't taint the best parts ofMore.It is refreshing to hear a celebrity talk cleanly about being fame-driven and about not getting the degree or the kind of fame you craved.",
"of fame you craved. It's fun to watch a skilled actress use her craft to the full.\"She would later perform the play for three weeks in Los Angeles the following year. Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedyWaiting for Ophelia, which was released in 2009. She funded the film, which was written by Adam Carl and based on a stage play he wrote in 2003. She said: \"I loved it. I never get to play parts like that. I always play the friend of a friend, never the lead. And the script surprised me.\" Carl stated it was very unlikely she would recoup her money, but Smith decided she \"believe in this project, and my expectations have already been fulfilled by making the movie\", and added: \"You can support art even if it's not going to make a zillion dollars.\"It premiered on April 4, 2009, at thePhoenix Film Festival. In 2011, Smith starred as Ms. Miller in the movieThe ChaperonealongsideTriple HandAriel Winter. In June 2016, theHuman Rights Campaignreleased a video in tribute",
"a video in tribute to the victims of theOrlando nightclub shooting; in the video, Smith and others told the stories of the people killed there.On March 30, 2019, Smith was honored with the Human Rights Campaign's National Leadership Award in Los Angeles for her work as an advocate of theLGBT community. In 2017, Smith started a podcast,Small Town Dicks, which explores real life crime in small towns in the United States.Smith had co-hosted the podcast with actress and long-time friend Zibby Allen until March 2019 when the two filed lawsuits against one another, with Allen accusing Smith of pushing her out of ownership and profit rights from the show. Politics Smith is a lifelongDemocrat. In 2018, Smith mockedRepublicanTed Cruzafter he labeled the Democratic Party as \"the party ofLisa Simpson\".Smith recommended that people of differing political views should be able to work together ongun control, promotinggay rightsandenvironmentalism. Personal life Smith marriedEnglish-Canadianactor Christopher Grove in 1990.",
"Grove in 1990. They were divorced in 1992, citing irreconcilable differences. In a 1997 interview withThe Daily Targum, Smith stated \"I am shy, but I have an extroverted persona which I can draw on when I need to,\" and that she is a \"private\" actress. She married Daniel Erickson in 2002; the marriage lasted for six years and Smith filed for divorce on May 21, 2008, citing irreconcilable differences. In 2009, she commented, \"People have said to me that I'm unassuming. It's true, I'm the worst celebrity ever. But I'm trying to become better.\" Smith hadbulimiawhen she was a teenager. She noted \"It would make me high, I would feelendorphinsand this great sense of victory.\" Smith enjoys writing and painting. During the first season ofHerman's Head, Smith taught herself to paint by copying other artists.The bookJust Humor Meincludes a story, \"The Race\", written by Smith.She has written a children's book,I, Lorelei, which was published byHarperCollinsin February 2009. In 2011, Smith launched a women's shoe line",
"a women's shoe line called Marchez Vous. In November 2021, Yeardley was noted for producing a podcast on themurder of Sheila Anderson, one of Scotland's most notorious unsolved murders. On June 11, 2022, Smith married one of the co-hosts of her podcast,Small Town Dicks, Detective (Ret) Dan Grice. She met him while he was providing personal security for her during aSimpsonsevent. Filmography Film Television Video games Music videos Theme park Podcasts References External links",
"Hank Azaria Henry Albert\"Hank\"Azaria(/əˈzɛəriə/ə-ZAIR-ee-ə; born April 25, 1964) is an American actor. He is known for voicing many characters in the long-running animated sitcomThe Simpsonssince 1989, includingMoe Szyslak,Chief Wiggum,Superintendent Chalmers,Comic Book Guy,Snake Jailbird,Professor Frink,Kirk Van Houten,Duffman,Apu Nahasapeemapetilon,Lou,Carl Carlson, among others. Azaria joined the show with little voice acting experience, but became a regular in itssecond season. For his work on the show, he has won fourPrimetime Emmy Awards. Alongside his continued voice acting onThe Simpsons, Azaria became more widely known through his live-action supporting appearances in films such asQuiz Show(1994),Heat,The Birdcage(1996) (for which he won aScreen Actors Guild Award) andGodzilla(1998). He has also appeared in numerous films includingMystery Men(1999),America's Sweethearts(2001),Shattered Glass(2003),Along Came Polly(2004),Run Fatboy Run(2007),Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian(2009) andThe",
"andThe Smurfs(2011) andThe Smurfs 2(2013). Further voice roles includeAnastasia(1997), for which he won anAnnie Award. His live-action television work includes recurring roles on the sitcomsMad About YouandFriends, as well as dramatic roles in the TV filmsTuesdays With Morrie(1999) as writerMitch AlbomandUprising(2001) as Jewish resistance leaderMordechai Anielewicz. For the former, Azaria received thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie. He starred in the title roles in theShowtimedrama seriesHuff(2004–2006) and theIFCsitcomBrockmire(2017–2020). His recurring role on the dramaRay Donovanearned him a sixth Primetime Emmy Award in 2016. Azaria made hisBroadwaydebut asLancelotinSpamalot, for which he was nominated for theTony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He returned to Broadway in 2007, playing David Sarnoff inThe Farnsworth Invention. Early life and education Henry Albert Azaria was born in theManhattanborough ofNew York Cityon April 25, 1964 to Ruth and",
"1964 to Ruth and Albert Azaria.He began going by the name \"Hank\" as a child, after a pediatrician he visited said he felt it was a more suitable name for a child than \"Henry\".His grandparents on both sides wereSephardic Jewsfrom the Greek city ofThessaloniki. His family spokeLadino, also known as Judaeo-Spanish, which he described as \"a strange, antiquated Spanish dialect written inHebrewcharacters.\"Azaria's father ran several dress-manufacturing businesses while his mother raised him and his two older sisters, Stephanie and Elise.Before marrying his father, Azaria's mother had been a publicist forColumbia Pictures, promoting films in Latin American countries as she was fluent in both English and Spanish.During his childhood, Azaria would often \"memorize and mimic\" the scripts of films, shows, and stand-up comedy routines he enjoyed. Azaria attendedThe Kew-Forest Schoolin Queens'Forest Hillsneighborhood.He decided to become an actor after performing in a school play at the age of 16, becoming \"obsessed with",
"\"obsessed with acting\" at the expense of his academic studies.Both of his parents loved all forms of show business, which further spurred him to become an actor.He studied drama atTufts Universityfrom 1981 to 1985,where he met and befriended actorOliver Plattand noted that Platt was a \"better actor\" than he was and inspired him.Together they starred in various college stage productions, includingThe Merchant of Venice,before Azaria went to train at theAmerican Academy of Dramatic Arts.Although he did not expect the endeavor to be successful, he decided to become a professional actor so that he would not regret not having tried later in life.His first acting job was an advertisement for Italian television when he was 17 years old.He also worked as abusboy.He originally intended to work predominantly as a theatrical actor, and he and Platt set up a company called Big Theatre, althoughHarold Pinter'sThe Dumb Waiterwas the only show they ever performed.Azaria decided that television was a better arena and",
"a better arena and offered more opportunity, and moved toLos Angelesafter being offered work with talent agent Harry Gold. Career Early career (1986–1988) Azaria got along with talent agent Harry Gold, who was lukewarm about working with him but still sent him out for auditions after a woman Azaria had worked with in New York \"got really furious with \" for breaking his promise to work with Azaria.He made his television debut with a role in the pilot episode of the 1986ABCcomedy-drama seriesJoe Bash.His part—a one-line role as the police officer Maldonado—was edited out before the show was broadcast, although the role secured him admission to theScreen Actors Guild.Azaria appeared in the TV filmNitti: The Enforcer, about the gangsterFrank Nitti, and appeared in the failed pilotMorning MaggiealongsideMatthew Perry, with whom he became good friends.He played Joe in an episode of the sitcomFamily Tiesin 1988 in which he had one line, and the following year he played Steve Stevenson in an episode ofGrowing",
"episode ofGrowing Pains.Azaria has described his career progression as being gradual; he did not achieve overnight recognition or fame.In Los Angeles, Azaria was trained by acting coachRoy London.Between acting jobs he performed as a stand-up comedian,and worked as a bartender for a catering firm. The Simpsons(since 1989) Azaria is known for his voice work in the ongoing animated television seriesThe Simpsons. He joined the show having previously performed only one voice-over—as the titular animated dog in the failedFoxpilotHollywood Dog, a show he described as \"sort ofRoger Rabbit-esque, where the dog was animated, but everybody else was real.\"The first voice he performed onThe Simpsonswas that of town bartenderMoe Szyslak, replacingChristopher Collinswho had initially recorded the character's voice. Having known him fromHollywood Dog, casting directorBonita Pietilacalled Azaria and asked him to audition for the voice of Moe.At the time he was performing the role of a drug dealer in a play, utilizing a",
"a play, utilizing a voice based onAl Pacino's performance in the filmDog Day Afternoon. He used the voice in his audition forThe Simpsonsand, at the request of the show's executive producersMatt GroeningandSam Simon, made the voice more \"gravelly\". Groening and Simon thought the resultant voice was ideal for Moe and took Azaria over to the Fox recording studio. Before he had even seen a script, he recorded several lines of dialogue as Moe for the episode \"Some Enchanted Evening\",dubbingCollins' voice. Azaria did not expect to hear from the show again, but they continued to call him back, first to perform the voice ofChief Wiggumand thenApu Nahasapeemapetilon.He felt that, initially, \" didn't seem too pleased with what I had done... was very exacting... was kind of impatiently directing me on the ABCs of comedy. But then, much to my surprise, he would still keep having me back every week. But each week, I thought it was going to be my last week because I really didn't think I had done that well.\"Nevertheless,",
"well.\"Nevertheless, by the show'ssecond seasonhe was performing multiple recurring voices and so was given a contract and made a permanent member of the main cast.Since he joined later than the rest of the cast, Groening still considered Azaria the \"new guy\".In addition to Moe, Wiggum and Apu, Azaria provides the voices ofComic Book Guy,Carl Carlson(until season 32, now voiced byAlex Désert),Cletus Spuckler,Professor Frink, Dr.Nick Riviera,Lou,Snake Jailbird,Kirk Van Houten,Bumblebee Man,the Sea Captain,Superintendent Chalmers,Disco Stu,Duffman,the Wiseguy, and numerous guest characters.His co-star inThe Simpsons,Nancy Cartwright, wrote that: \"The thing about Hank that I most remember is that he started out so unassuming and then, little by little, his abilities were revealed and his contributions to the show escalated. I realized Hank was going to be our breakaway star.\" As Moe's voice is based on Al Pacino's, likewise many of Azaria's other recurring characters are based on existing sources. He took Apu's",
"He took Apu's voice from the many Indian and Pakistani convenience store workers in Los Angeles that he had interacted with when he first moved to the area, and also loosely based it onPeter Sellers' character Hrundi V. Bakshi from the filmThe Party.Originally, it was thought that Apu being Indian was too offensive and stereotyped, but after Azaria's reading of the line \"Hello, Mr. Homer\", which the show's producers thought was hilarious, the character stayed.Azaria, however, disputed this onLateNet withRay Ellin, claiming that Apu was always intended to be stereotypical.Chief Wiggum's voice was originally a parody ofDavid Brinkley, but when Azaria was told it was too slow, he switched it to that ofEdward G. Robinson.Officer Lou is based onSylvester Stallone,and Dr. Nick is \"a badRicky Ricardoimpression.\"The \"Wise Guy\" voice is \"basicallyCharles Bronson,\"while Carl is \"a silly voice always did.\"Two of the voices come from his time at college: Snake's is based on Azaria's old college roommate, while Comic",
"while Comic Book Guy's voice is based on a student who lived in the room next door to Azaria and went by the name \"F\".Professor Frink is based onJerry Lewis' performance in the originalThe Nutty Professor, and the Sea Captain is based on English actorRobert Newton's portrayal of many pirates.Azaria based his performance for the one-time characterFrank Grimes, from the episode \"Homer's Enemy\", on actorWilliam H. Macy. He counts Grimes as the hardest, most emotional performance he has ever had to give in the history ofThe Simpsons. Azaria's work on the show has won him four Emmy Awards forOutstanding Voice-Over Performance, in 1998, 2001, 2003 and 2015. He was also nominated for the award in 2009 and 2010, but lost to co-starDan Castellanetaand guest starAnne Hathawayrespectively. He was nominated again in 2012.Azaria, with the rest of the principal cast, reprised all of his voice roles fromThe Simpsonsfor the 2007 filmThe Simpsons Movie.Azaria notes that he spends \"an embarrassingly small amount of time",
"amount of time working onThe Simpsons.\"He works for \"an hour on Thursdays when we read through the script, then four hours on Monday when we record it, and I'll pop in again once or twice.\"He concludes it is \"the best job in the world, as far as I'm concerned.\" Up until 1998, Azaria was paid $30,000 per episode. Azaria and the five other mainThe Simpsonsvoice actors were then involved in a pay dispute in which Fox threatened to replace them with new actors and went as far as preparing for the casting of new voices. However, the issue was soon resolved and from 1998 to 2004, they received $125,000 per episode. In 2004, the voice actors intentionally skipped several scriptread-throughs, demanding they be paid $360,000 per episode.The strike was resolved a month later,with Azaria's pay increasing to something between $250,000and $360,000 per episode.In 2008, production for thetwentieth seasonwas put on hold due to new contract negotiations with the voice actors, who wanted a \"healthy bump\" in salary.The dispute",
"salary.The dispute was later resolved, and Azaria and the rest of the cast received their requested pay raise, approximately $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Azaria and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode. In an April 24, 2018 appearance onThe Late Show with Stephen Colbert, Azaria discussed his reaction toThe Problem with Apu, a 2017 documentary byHari Kondaboluthat examined Azaria and other white actors who had playedSouth Asianroles asstereotypes.During the interview, Azaria described how watching the documentary had changed his perspective on the issue: \"The idea that anyone, young or old, past or present, was bullied or teased based on the character of Apu, it just really makes me sad.\"Azaria also offered to stop voicing the character: \"I'm perfectly willing and happy to step aside, or help transition it into something new.\"In response, Kondabolu tweeted his",
"tweeted his appreciation for Azaria's statement: \"Thank you, @HankAzaria. I appreciate what you said & how you said it.\" In early 2020, Azaria announced that he was stepping away from the Apu character, primarily because of the stereotypes and bias it perpetuated.Later in the year he would retire from voicing Carl for similar reasons.In April 2021, Azaria formally apologized for voicing the Apu character, onDax Shepherd's podcast. Further career (since 1991) Television work With the continuing success ofThe Simpsons, Azaria began taking on other, principally live-action roles. He was a main cast member on the showHerman's Head(1991–1994) playing Jay Nichols, alongsideThe Simpsonsco-starYeardley Smith.He regularly recorded forThe Simpsonsand filmedHerman's Headduring the same day.Following the series' cancellation Azaria unsuccessfully auditioned for the role ofJoey Tribbiani, one of the lead characters in the sitcomFriends.He was instead cast in the role of the scientist David, one ofPhoebe Buffay's",
"ofPhoebe Buffay's boyfriends in the series. He appeared in the show's tenth episode \"The One with the Monkey\", before the character left for a research trip inMinsk. He reprised the role in the show'sseventh season(2001), before making several appearances in theninth(2003). This return culminates in David proposing to Phoebe; she rejects him, and David leaves the show for good.From 1995 to 1999, Azaria had a recurring role in the sitcomMad About Youas Nat Ostertag, the dog walker.Azaria was nominated for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor his roles in bothMad About You(in 1998) andFriends(in 2003).Azaria had the lead role in the short-lived sitcomIf Not For Youin 1995, playing record producer Craig Schaeffer. Azaria produced and starred in the sitcomImagine Thatin 2002, replacingEmerilmid-season in theNBClineup. He played Josh Miller, a comedy writer, who \"transformed\" each episode into a character Miller has imagined, \"provid a humorous outlet for his frustrations at",
"his frustrations at home and work\".Production closed after five episodes and it was canceled after just two aired, due to poor critical reaction and ratings.Azaria later commented on the show: \"I wanted to do something really truthful and interesting and impactful. We had a bunch of executives sitting in the room, all agreeing thatThe Larry Sanders Showwas our favorite thing on television, but we couldn't do it on NBC, and nor would we want to from a business standpoint; it simply wouldn't make enough money. By the time it aired, the writing was sort of on the wall, and I don't blame them at all. It was apparent it wasn't working.\" He starred aspsychiatristCraig \"Huff\" Huffstodt in theShowtimedrama seriesHuff, which ran for two seasons between 2004 and 2006, airing 24 episodes.Azaria served as an executive producer on the show and directed an episode of its second season.After reading the pilot script, he sent it to Platt, who took the role of Huff's friend Russell Tupper.Azaria enjoyed working on the",
"working on the show,but struggled with the bleak subject matter and was often in dispute with its creator Bob Lowry, noting that it \"was tough to marry our visions all the time, we both cared so much about it that neither of us were willing to let go.\"Gillian FlynnofEntertainment Weeklycalled Azaria \"impressively subtle\" in the role,whileJohn LeonardofNew York magazinesaid he was a \"shrewd bit of casting.\"The show garnered sevenEmmynominations in 2005, including a nomination for Azaria forOutstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.Despite the awards, the show continually received low ratings, and Showtime chose not to commission it for a third season. Returning to live-action television in 2011, Azaria starred in the NBC sitcomFree Agents, a remake of the Britishseries of the same name. He played Alex Taylor, a recently divorced public relations executive \"who is missing his kids and trying to keep himself together\", and ends up sleeping with a co-worker (Kathryn Hahn).Azaria also served as a producer on the",
"a producer on the show.He was apprehensive about the project, disliking the lengthy schedule required of a lead actor in a single-camera series, and favoring the \"sensibility\" of cable shows. However, he liked the script and executive producer John Enbom's previous seriesParty Downand decided to accept the part.Despite Azaria mounting a campaign on Twitter to save it,the series was canceled after four episodes due to low ratings.Between 2014 and 2016, Azaria had a recurring role in the second, third and fourth season of Showtime'sRay Donovan, playingFBIagent Ed Cochran.He won the Emmy forOutstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Seriesfor his work on the show in 2016, as well as earning a further nomination the same category the following year. Azaria starred in theIFCseriesBrockmire, which ran for four seasons from 2017-2020.He played the lead role of Jim Brockmire, a legendary baseball announcer, fired for a profanity-filled breakdown live on air after discovering his wife was having an affair. Azaria based the",
"Azaria based the voice and style of Brockmire on several veteran sportscasters, includingBob MurphyandPhil Rizzuto.The character originated as part of the third episode of theFunny or Dieweb-seriesGamechangers, entitled \"A Legend in the Booth\", which Azaria also co-wrote.He subsequently appeared as Brockmire on theNFL Network'sThe Rich Eisen Podcastto discuss theNational Football League.In November 2012, Azaria sued actorCraig Bierkoover the ownership of the Brockmire voice.The case was ruled in Azaria's favor in 2014. Both actors had been using a baseball announcer voice before and since meeting at a party in 1990, but US district judgeGary Allen Feessruled that only Azaria's voice was, as Brockmire, a defined, \"tangible\" character and thus subject to copyright.In 2016, IFC confirmed development on the series, on which Azaria also served as an executive producer.Azaria received three nominations for theCritics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Comedy Seriesfor his performance on the series. Film",
"on the series. Film work \" appeal can best be summed up by, of all things, his hilarious cameo in the goofy comedyDodgeball. As Patches O'Houlihan, the dodgeball champion who will age into the magnificently gruffRip Torn, he delivers a pitch-perfect performance in an instructional video in which he chain-smokes, encourages a child to pick on those weaker than him, and steals the film from a cast of comedic greats. It's a wonderful, odd moment that could have failed miserably in the hands of a lesser actor, and he manages to pull it off with only seconds of dialogue. In my humble opinion, and using my limited knowledge of boxing terms: Pound for pound, Hank Azaria is the best actor working today.\" —Playwright Jenelle Riley on Azaria. Azaria made his film debut in the direct-to-video releaseCool Blue(1990), as Buzz.His first theatrically released feature film appearance came the same year inPretty Woman, as a police detective named Albertson.His next major film role was as television producerAlbert Freedmanin",
"Freedmanin the 1994 filmQuiz Show, which was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.In 1996, Azaria played gay Guatemalan housekeeper Agador Spartacus in the filmThe Birdcage. For the role, which Azaria considers to be his \"big break\",he was nominated for theScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role,and critically branded \"the most hilarious performance in the film,\" by Alison Macor ofThe Austin Chronicle,whileEmpirewrote that he \" the show.\"For the role he used a Guatemalan accent, and made himself sound as effeminate as possible. He had chosen two possible voices, an effeminate one and a tougher one. After advice from a drag queen, he chose the effeminate voice. Three weeks into production, he realized he sounded exactly like his grandmother, which aided his performance.Agador was originally going to be a single scene part, with the larger role of the housekeeper being played byDavid Alan Grier. With the producers fearing the racial connotations of",
"connotations of a black actor in such a part, Azaria inherited the full role. He appeared in numerous other films in the late 1990s, includingHeat(1995),Grosse Pointe Blank(1997),Celebrity(1998) and worked oppositeGwyneth Paltrow, as Walter Plane, in the 1998 adaptation ofGreat Expectations.He played photographer Victor \"Animal\" Palotti inGodzilla(1998).Godzillawas one of Azaria's first starring roles in ablockbusterfilm. Its five-month shoot was the longest of his career to date, but he considered it a good chance to boost his profile. He noted, \"I'm so used to melding into every character I play. Even people in the business think the guy who didBirdcage,Quiz ShowandGreat Expectationsare three different actors—which in a way makes me proud, but in another way is very frustrating. It's the curse and blessing of the character actor\".The shoot's physical challenges, and the film's critical failure, led Azaria to later describe it as \"tough to make, and very disappointing when it came out. It was one you",
"out. It was one you definitely chalk up and say, 'That was part of paying your dues, better luck next time'.\"In 1999, he starred in the dramaMystery, Alaskaas Charles Danner, and the comedy superhero filmMystery Men, as the faux-British silverware throwing expert The Blue Raja.Other film roles included Hector Gorgonzolas inAmerica's Sweethearts(2001), Claude inAlong Came Polly(2004), and the young Patches O'Houlihan inDodgeBall: A True Underdog Story(2004), the latter two withBen Stiller.For his role of Claude, a French scuba instructor, inAlong Came Polly, Azaria donned a wig and worked out extensively to get into the physical shape the part required. Azaria played composerMarc BlitzsteininTim Robbins' filmCradle Will Rockin 1999.Paul Clintonwrote that Azaria was \"brilliant as the tortured (is there any other kind) artist Blitzstein.\"The same year he appeared as author and journalistMitch AlbomalongsideJack Lemmonin the television filmTuesdays with Morrie,winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding",
"for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Moviefor the role.Azaria described the latter as the \"best work done.\"These were two of the first dramatic roles Azaria had taken; throughout his career, Azaria has primarily worked in comedy,but tries to balance the two.Azaria commented: \"all the roles I got were in comedy at first, and I was certainly happy to get those, so I never felt the lack of being considered a dramatic actor because I was so happy to get what I got. And then I became surprised later on when I got dramatic roles. But I never went, 'OK, now it's time to get a dramatic role.'\"His next dramatic part was in the television filmUprisingin 2001. The film was based on the 1943Warsaw Ghetto Uprisingand Azaria playedMordechaj Anielewicz, one of the revolt's leaders. Azaria was confused by his casting inUprisingand frequently asked the film's producer and directorJon Avnetwhy he was selected. \"I know liked the fact I was Jewish, and he knew I could do accents well. He cast me andDavid",
"He cast me andDavid Schwimmerin , and we were both sort of mystified. He had some instinct that he wanted people who were more known for being funny. He never explained it satisfactorily to me; I don't understand why.\"His parts inTuesdays With MorrieandUprisingaffected him, causing a depressive state which he countered with DVDs of the comedy seriesMonty Python.Azaria foundUprisingto be \"very difficult very depressing very emotionally challenging\" material.In 2003, Azaria played journalistMichael Kelly, the former editor ofThe New Republic, in the drama filmShattered Glass. Kelly died a few months before the film was released and Azaria said the film \"has become a weird kind of eulogy to him.\" SinceHuff's conclusion in 2006, Azaria has continued to make multiple film appearances. He played the smooth-talking Whit inDavid Schwimmer's directorial debutRun Fatboy Run(2007). During production he became good friends with co-starSimon Pegg, performingThe Simpsonsvoices on request, frequently distracting Pegg when",
"Pegg when he was supposed to be filming.He worked with Stiller again on 2009'sNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonianin which Azaria played the villainous pharaoh Kah Mun Rah, utilizing aBoris Karloffaccent.Although the film received mixed reviews, critics praised Azaria's performance.Perry Seibert ofTV Guidewrote that \"thanks to Azaria, a master of comic timing. His grandiose, yet slightly fey bad guy is equally funny when he's chewing out minions as he is when deliberating ifOscar the GrouchandDarth Vaderare evil enough to join his team.\"He appeared asAbrahaminYear One(2009),Dr. Knight in 2010'sLove & Other Drugs,and playedDeep ThroatdirectorGerard DamianoinLovelace(2013). Azaria playedGargamelin the animated/live-action adaptation ofThe Smurfs(2011).Azaria wore a prosthetic nose, ears,buck teeth, eyebrows and a wig, as well as shaving his head. He spent approximately 130 hours in the make-up chair over the course of the production.Azaria considered Gargamel's voice to be the most important part of",
"important part of his performance. The producers wanted an \"old, failed, Shakespearean actor\" voice, but Azaria felt this would lack energy and wanted something more Eastern European. He eventually selected a voice similar to that ofPaul Winchell's from the cartoon.Azaria disliked the cartoon when it first aired, and considered Gargamel too one-dimensional a character and \"just this straight villain\";he opted to make Gargamel \"more sarcastic\" than in the cartoon, but \"discovered that there's no way to play Gargamel without screaming your head off at certain points – ramping him up and getting him very upset over Smurfs\".He interpreted him as \"very lonely\", adding that \"he hates the Smurfs because they're such a happy family. He wants in really badly. I think he wants to be embraced as a Smurf\".Azaria worked with the writers to \"infuse\" the script with some of his ideas about the character, \"particularly with the 'married' relationship between Gargamel and Azreal \" which Azaria conceived. Reviewers fromThe",
"Reviewers fromThe San Francisco ChronicleandThe Boston Globecommented on Azaria's \"overacting\" in the role of Gargamel.More positive reaction came from Scott Bowles ofUSA Todaycalled Azaria the \"human standout\";Betsy Sharkey of theLos Angeles Timesfelt he suffered the \"greatest disservice\" of the film's cast due to a poor script.Azaria noted in an interview withThe A.V. ClubthatThe SmurfsandNight at the Museumwere films he agreed to do primarily for the money, but that \"I won't even do that unless I think it will at least be fun to do...I really try to throw myself into it, figure out the funniest, cleverest way to get the material over, and make it fun to do and fun to watch.\"Azaria reprised his role in the 2013 sequelThe Smurfs 2.In 2016, Azaria starred inNormanwithRichard Gere. Further voice work Azaria performed a number of voice roles in addition toThe Simpsons, although he noted in 2005: \"I started doing other voiceovers for cartoons for a couple of years, but I didn't really love it. I was spoiled",
"it. I was spoiled byThe Simpsons.\"He voicedEddie Brock/VenominSpider-Man: The Animated Seriesbetween 1994 and 1996.In the animated featureAnastasia(1997), he voiced Bartok the bat and reprised the role in the direct-to-video prequelBartok the Magnificent(1999).For his performance inAnastasia, Azaria won theAnnie Awardfor Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Male Performer in an Animated Feature Production.He also voiced Eric in the American dub of the seriesStressed Eric,Harold Zoid in the 2001Futuramaepisode \"That's Lobstertainment!\",andAbbie HoffmanandAllen GinsberginChicago 10(2007).For the 2011 filmHop, Azaria voiced Carlos and Phil. The response to the film was mostly negative, but many reviewers praised Azaria's performance.For example, Sandie Chen ofThe Washington Postsaid \"Azaria has been honing his over-the-top Spanish accent sinceThe Birdcage, so anything he says grabs some laughs\",while Emma Simmonds ofTime Outcalled him an \"unflappable presence, voicing two characters with",
"two characters with style\".Later in the year he voiced The Mighty Sven inHappy Feet Two.He also voiced the lead character, Texanborder agentBud Buckwald, inBordertown, which aired in 2016,as well as Shelfish Sheldon inMack & Moxythe same year. OnceThe Simpsonswas \"going steadily\" and Azaria had enough money to live on, he stopped working on commercials as he found them \"demoralizing\", feeling that he sounded sarcastic whenever he read for them. When recording the part of \"Jell-O Man\" for aJell-Ocommercial, he was told to make the voice he offered \"more likable and friendly so that children like him.\" After pointing out that \"Jell-O Man\" was a fictional character, he left and pledged to never record for an advertisement again.However, in 2012 he voiced several insects in a commercial for theChevrolet Sonic. Other work Azaria wrote and directed the 2004 short filmNobody's Perfect, which won the Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Short at theUS Comedy Arts Festival.In January 2007, he was confirmed to be",
"was confirmed to be directingOutsourced,a film about two American workers who journey to get their jobs back, after their factory is moved to Mexico.In 2009, Azaria toldEmpirehe was instead focusing on making a documentary about fatherhood.Two years later he told theLos Angeles Timesthat this project was \"half-complete\" and was \"forever looking for financing to finish it.\"It eventually began in 2014, airing onAOLas an online series titledFatherhood. According to AOL, the series of short episodes documents Azaria's \"touching, humorous, and often enlightening journey from a man who is not even sure he wants to have kids, to a father going through the joys, trials and tribulations of being a dad.\" He has periodically returned to theatrical work, appearing in several productions. In 2003, he appeared as Bernard in a run ofDavid Mamet's playSexual Perversity in Chicago, along withMatthew PerryandMinnie Driver, in London'sWest End.Azaria made his first appearance as SirLancelot, the French Taunter, and four other",
"and four other characters inSpamalot, the musical version ofMonty Python and the Holy Grail, which opened in Chicago in December 2004, before moving to theShubert TheatreonBroadway.The show met with critical acclaim and received fourteenTony Awardnominations in 2005; Azaria andTim Curryboth received nominations for theTony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical.Reuniting withThe BirdcagedirectorMike Nichols, and being a hugeMonty Pythonfan, he saw it as an opportunity he could not pass up, describing it as \"so much fun that I haven't realized how tiring it is,\"and \"the most fun that I've ever had in my entire life.\"He took a break from the show in June 2005 to work onHuff, but returned in December 2005.Alan Tudykplayed the role during Azaria's absence.In late 2007 he starred inAaron Sorkin'sThe Farnsworth Invention, playingRCAheadDavid Sarnoff.In 2016, he starred in the world premiere ofDry PowderoppositeClaire Danes,John Krasinski, andSanjit De Silva, directed byThomas Kail, at",
"byThomas Kail, at theoff-BroadwayPublic Theaterin New York City. Acting style and vocal range Azaria's friends refer to him as \"the freakish mimic\" due to his ability to copy almost anyone's voice, instantly after he has heard it. As a child, he believed that everyone could do this, but later realized that it was not a common talent.Azaria has said, \"I can remember every voice I hear, famous or otherwise ... they kind of remain in the memory banks, so I'm ready to trot them out.\"Azaria was glad to have found the \"ultimate outlet\" for this skill, inThe Simpsons.He \"didn't realize it , but it became like a lab for a character actor. had to do so many voices.\"In the early 2000s, Azaria felt he had reached the maximum number of voices he was capable of: \"For the first 10 years ofThe Simpsons, I would develop a bunch of voices. And then ... I hit a point when I was tapped out. Every noise I can make, I have made. Even characters like Gargamel, I've done. Even if it was only two or three lines, at some point I've",
"at some point I've done something similar onThe Simpsons, at least somewhere along the line.\" For many of Azaria's characters, much of their humor is derived from a \"funny voice\", such asThe BirdcageandNight at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian. He stated that \"being funny with a funny voice is more my comfort zone, a broader character that I try to humanize, a kind of silly or wacky persona that I try to fill in,\" although he finds it \"much easier to be someone much closer to myself,\" as it requires \"less energy ... than playing characters that are so out there and high strung.\" The SimpsonscreatorMatt Groeninghas stated that Azaria possesses the ability to turn unfunny lines into some of the best in an episode,while former writerJay Kogenstated: \"Just when I think I know bag of tricks, he's always got a new thing he does to surprise me.\"Throughout the run ofThe Simpsons, Azaria has had to sing in character several times, a task which he describes as easier than singing normally.The SmurfswriterDavid",
"SmurfswriterDavid N. Weisssays Azaria \"has a beautiful treasure trove of talent,\" and \"became what you wished you were writing.\"Playwright Jenelle Riley wrote in 2005 that Azaria was \"by far\" her favorite actor, praising his \"versatility\" and \"tendency to take small roles that would normally fade into the background and to consistently create characters people care about,\" noting his roles inShattered Glass,Mystery, Alaskaand especiallyDodgeBall: A True Underdog Story. Personal life In the early 1990s, Azaria was in a relationship with actressJulie Warner.His relationship with actressHelen Huntbegan in 1994; they married in a traditional Jewish ceremony at the couple's home inSouthern Californiaon July 17, 1999.The two had appeared together inMad About Youand theSimpsonsepisode \"Dumbbell Indemnity\".After a year of marriage, Azaria moved out of the couple's home,and Hunt filed for divorce after a six-month separation, citing irreconcilable differences. The divorce was finalized on December 18, 2000. Azaria",
"18, 2000. Azaria began dating former actressKatie Wrightin 2007,and the two married later that year.They have a son named Hal (b. 2009).The family has one dog, Truman, and two rescue cats, Mookie and Wilson. In 2013, the family began renting a home on80th StreetinManhattan, with plans to make a final decision on where to live in two years.They previously lived in a four-bedroom house inPacific Palisades, which Azaria bought from hisSimpsonsco-starDan Castellanetain 2011. Several weeks earlier, Azaria had sold his home inBel Air.Azaria previously owned the fifth-floorco-oploft onMercer Streetin Manhattan'sSohoneighborhood, which he bought from photographerCindy Shermanin 2005, before selling it in 2013. Azaria suffered fromalcoholismfor several years. He credited his longtime friendMatthew Perryfor encouraging him to attendAlcoholics Anonymousmeetings and has been sober since about 2006. Azaria is thegodfatherofOliver Platt's son, George.He is also a regular poker player, appearing twice onCelebrity Poker",
"onCelebrity Poker Showdownand competing at other events, finishing a few places short of thebubblein the main event of the2010 World Series of Poker.Azaria is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.He enjoys the music ofElvis Costelloand has stated that he would have been atherapistif he were not an actor.Azaria co-founded the educational support charity, \"Determined to Succeed\". On May 22, 2016, he was awarded theHonorary degreeofDoctor of Humane Letters(DHL) fromTufts University. Filmography Film Television Video games Theatre Awards and nominations References External links",
"Harry Shearer Harry Julius Shearer(born December 23, 1943)is an American actor, comedian, musician, radio host, writer, and producer. Born inLos Angeles,California, Shearer began his career as a child actor. From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member ofThe Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group. Following the breakup of the group, Shearer co-wrote the filmReal Life(1979) withAlbert Brooksand worked as a writer onMartin Mull's television seriesFernwood 2 Night. Shearer was a cast member onSaturday Night Livebetween 1979 and 1980, and 1984 and 1985. Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred in the filmThis Is Spinal Tap(1984), asatiricalrockumentary, which became a hit. In 1989, he joined the cast of the animated sitcomThe Simpsons; he provides voices for characters includingMr. Burns,Waylon Smithers,Ned Flanders,Reverend Lovejoy,Lenny,Scratchy,Principal Skinner,Kent Brockman,Otto Mann, and formerlyDr. Hibbert. Shearer has appeared in films includingThe Truman Show(1998) andA Mighty Wind(2003), and has directed",
"and has directed two,Teddy Bears' Picnic(2002) andThe Big Uneasy(2010). Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music programLe Show, incorporating satire, music, andsketch comedy. He has written three books. Shearer has won aPrimetime Emmy Awardand has received several other Emmy andGrammy Awardnominations. He has been married to singer-songwriterJudith Owensince 1993. He became anartist in residenceatLoyola University, New Orleansin 2013. Early life and career Shearer was born December 23, 1943,inLos Angeles,California,the son of Dora, a bookkeeper, and Mack Shearer, a trained opera singer who ran a gas station.His parents were Jewish immigrants from Poland and Austria respectively. His parents escapedNazi-occupied Europe and met inHavana, Cuba. As a child, Shearer and his family often listened to radio programs such asBob and Rayand the weekly show for theJewish Theological Seminary of America. His father died when he was 12 and he had hisBar Mitzvahthe following year.Shearer grew",
"year.Shearer grew up in the neighborhood ofWest Adams.Starting when Shearer was four years old, he had a piano teacher whose daughter worked as a child actress. The piano teacher later decided to make a career change and become a children's agent, since she knew people in the business through her daughter's work. The teacher asked Shearer's parents for permission to take him to an audition. Several months later, she called Shearer's parents and told them that she had gotten Shearer an audition for the radio showThe Jack Benny Program. Shearer received the role when he was seven years old.He describedJack Bennyas \"very warm and approachable ... He was a guy who dug the idea of other people on the show getting laughs, which sort of spoiled me for other people in comedy.\"Shearer has stated that one person who took him \"under his wing\" and was his mentor during his early days in show business was voice actorMel Blanc, who voiced many animated characters, includingBugs Bunny,Daffy DuckandBarney Rubble; Blanc was",
"Rubble; Blanc was a regular onThe Jack Benny Show. He also befriended Blanc’s sonNoel.Shearer made his film debut in the filmAbbott and Costello Go to Mars(1953), in which he had a small part, and appeared inThe Robe(also 1953).Throughout his childhood and teenage years he worked in television, film, and radio. In 1957, Shearer played the precursor to theEddie Haskellcharacter in the pilot episode of the television seriesLeave It to Beaver. After the filming, Shearer's parents said they did not want him to be a regular in a series. Instead they wanted him to just do occasional work so that he could have a normal childhood. Shearer and his parents made the decision not to accept the role in the series if it was picked up by a television network. In 1960, Shearer volunteered as a driver for theDemocratic National Conventionwhere he was regularly assigned trips toDisneyland. Shearer graduated fromLos Angeles High Schooland attendedUCLAas a political science major in the early 1960s. He befriended future",
"befriended future congressmenHenry WaxmanandHoward Bermanduring his time at UCLA. He decided to quit show business to become a \"serious person\".However, he says this lasted approximately a month, and he joined the staff of theDaily Bruin, UCLA's school newspaper, during his first year.He was editor of the college humor magazine (Satyr), including the June 1964 parodyPreyboy.He also worked as a newscaster atKRLA, a top 40 radio station in Pasadena, during this period. According to Shearer, after graduating, he had \"a very serious agenda going on, and it was 'Stay Out of the Draft'.\"He attended graduate school atHarvard Universityfor one year and worked at the state legislature inSacramento. From 1967 to 1968, he was a high school teacher, teaching English and social studies. He left teaching following \"disagreements with the administration\". From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member ofThe Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group that includedDavid Lander,Richard BeebeandMichael McKean.The group consisted of \"a",
"consisted of \"a bunch of newsmen\" atKRLA 1110, \"the number two station\" in Los Angeles.They wanted to do more than just straight news, so they hired comedians who were talented vocalists. Shearer heard about the group from a friend, so he brought over a tape to the station and nervously gave it to the receptionist. He found out he was hired that same day. The group's radio show was canceled in 1970 by KRLA and in 1971 byKPPC-FM, so they started performing in various clubs and concert venues.While at KRLA, Shearer also interviewedCreedence Clearwater Revivalfor thePop Chroniclesmusic documentary. In 1973, Shearer appeared as Jim Houseafire onHow Time Flys, an album byThe Firesign Theatre'sDavid Ossman. The Credibility Gap broke up in 1976 when Lander and McKean left to perform in the sitcomLaverne & Shirley.Shearer started working withAlbert Brooks, producing one of Brooks' albums and co-writing the filmReal Life(1979). Shearer also started writing forMartin Mull's television seriesFernwood 2 Night.In the",
"2 Night.In the mid-1970s, he started working withRob Reineron a pilot forABC. The show, which starredChristopher Guest,Tom Leopoldand McKean, was not picked up. Career Saturday Night Live Initial run under Lorne Michaels In August 1979, Shearer was hired as a writer and cast member onSaturday Night Live, one of the first additions to the show'soriginal 1975 cast.Recommended byAl FrankentoSaturday Night LivecreatorLorne Michaels,the acquisition of Shearer was seen as an unofficial replacement forJohn BelushiandDan Aykroyd, who were both leaving the show. Shearer describes his experience on the show as a \"living hell\" and \"not a real pleasant place to work.\"He did not get along well with the other writers and cast members and states that he was not included with the cast in the opening montage (although he was added to the montage for later episodes of the1979–80 season) and that Michaels had told the rest of the cast that he was \"just a writer\". Michaels leftSaturday Night Liveat the end of the fifth season,",
"the fifth season, taking the entire cast with him.Shearer told new executive producerJean Doumanianthat he was \"not a fan of Lorne's\" and offered to stay with the show if he was given the chance to overhaul the program and bring in experienced comedians, like Christopher Guest. However, Doumanian turned him down, so he decided to leave with the rest of the cast. Return in 1984 under Dick Ebersol When I left, Dick issued a press release, saying \"creative differences.\" And the first person who called me for a comment on it read me that and I blurted out, \"Yeah, I was creative and they were different.\" —Harry Shearer In 1984, while promoting the filmThis Is Spinal Tap, Shearer, Christopher Guest and Michael McKean performed onSaturday Night Live. All three members were offered the chance to join the show in the1984–1985 season. Shearer accepted because he was treated well by the producers and he thought the backstage environment had improvedbut later stated that he \"didn't realize that guests are treated",
"guests are treated better than the regulars.\"Guest also accepted the offer while McKean rejected it, although he would join the cast in 1994. Dick Ebersol, who replaced Lorne Michaels as the show's producer, said that Shearer was \"a gifted performer but a pain in the butt. He's just so demanding on the preciseness of things and he's very, very hard on the working people. He's just a nightmare-to-deal-with person.\"In January 1985, Shearer left the show for good,partially because he felt he was not being used enough.Martin Shortsaid Shearer \"wanted to be creative and Dick wanted something else. ... I think he felt his voice wasn't getting represented on the show. When he wouldn't get that chance, it made him very upset.\" Spinal Tap Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred inRob Reiner's filmThis Is Spinal Tap(1984).Shearer, Reiner, Michael McKean and Christopher Guest received a deal to write a first draft of a screenplay for a company called Marble Arch. They decided that the film could not be written and",
"not be written and instead filmed a 20-minute demo of what they wanted to do.It was eventually greenlighted byNorman LearandJerry PerenchioatEmbassy Pictures.The film satirizes the wild personal behavior and musical pretensions ofhard rockandheavy metalbands, as well as thehagiographictendencies ofrockumentariesof the time. The three core members of the bandSpinal Tap—David St. Hubbins,Derek SmallsandNigel Tufnel—were portrayed by McKean, Shearer and Guest respectively. The three actors play their musical instruments and speak with mock English accents throughout the film. There was no script, although there was a written breakdown of most of the scenes, and many of the lines were ad-libbed.It was filmed in 25 days. Shearer said in an interview that \"The animating impulse was to do rock 'n' roll right. The four of us had been around rock 'n' roll and we were just amazed by how relentlessly the movies got it wrong. Because we were funny people it was going to be a funny film, but we wanted to get it",
"we wanted to get it right.\"When they tried to sell it to various Hollywood studios, they were told that the film would not work. The group kept saying, \"No, this is a story that's pretty familiar to people. We're not introducing them to anything they don't really know,\" so Shearer thought it would at least have some resonance with the public.The film was only a modest success upon its initial release but found greater success, and developed acult following, after its video release. In 2000, the film was ranked 29th on theAmerican Film Institute'slist of the top 100 comedy movies in American cinemaand it was selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registryby theLibrary of Congressas being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Shearer, Guest and McKean have since worked on several projects as their Spinal Tap characters. They released three albums:This Is Spinal Tap(1984),Break Like the Wind(1992) andBack from the Dead(2009).In 1992, Spinal Tap appeared in an episode",
"in an episode ofThe Simpsonscalled \"The Otto Show\".The band has played several concerts, including atLive Earthin London on July 7, 2007. In anticipation of the show, Rob Reiner directed a short film entitledSpinal Tap.In 2009, the band releasedBack from the Deadto commemorate the 25th anniversary of the release of the film.The album features re-recorded versions of songs featured inThis Is Spinal Tapand its soundtrack, and five new songs.The band performed a one-date \"world tour\" at London'sWembley Arenaon June 30, 2009.The Folksmen, a mock band featured in the filmA Mighty Windthat is also made up of characters played by Shearer, McKean and Guest, was the opening act for the show. The Simpsons Shearer is known for his work as a voice actor onThe Simpsons.Matt Groening, the creator of the show, was a fan of Shearer's work, while Shearer was a fan of a column Groening used to write.When approached by Groening to be in the series, Shearer was initially reluctant because he thought the recording sessions would",
"sessions would be too much trouble.He felt that voice acting was \"not a lot of fun\" as, traditionally, voice actors record their parts separately.He was told that the actors would record their lines together,and after three phone calls for executive producerJames L. Brooks, Shearer was convinced to join the cast ofThe Simpsons.Shearer's first impression ofThe Simpsonswas that it was funny. He – who thought it was a \"pretty cool\" way to work – found it peculiar that his fellow cast members were adamant about not being known to the public as the people behind the voices. Shearer provides voices forPrincipal Skinner,Kent Brockman,Mr. Burns,Waylon Smithers,Ned Flanders,Reverend Lovejoy, formerlyDr. Hibbertuntil 2021,Lenny Leonard,Otto Mann,Rainier Wolfcastle,Scratchy,Kang,Dr. Marvin Monroe, andJudge Snyder, among others.He has described all of his regular characters' voices as \"easy to slip into. ... I wouldn't do them if they weren't easy.\"Shearer modeled Mr. Burns's voice on the two actorsLionel",
"two actorsLionel BarrymoreandRonald Reagan.Shearer says that Burns is the most difficult character for him to voice because it is rough on his vocal cords and he often needs to drink tea and honey to soothe his voice.He describes Burns as his favorite character, saying he \"like Mr. Burns because he is pure evil. A lot of evil people make the mistake of diluting it. Never adulterate your evil.\"Shearer is also the voice of Burns' assistant Smithers, and is able to perform dialogue between the two characters in one take. In the episode \"Bart's Inner Child\", Shearer said \"wow\" in the voice of Otto, which was then used when Otto was seen jumping on a trampoline.Ned Flanders had been meant to be just a neighbor thatHomer Simpsonwas jealous of, but because Shearer used \"such a sweet voice\" for him, Flanders was broadened to become aChristianand a sweet guy that someone would prefer to live next to over Homer.Dr. Marvin Monroe's voice was based on psychiatristDavid Viscott.Monroe has been largely retired since",
"retired since theseventh seasonbarring a few cameo appearances because voicing the character strained Shearer's throat. In 2004, Shearer criticized what he perceived asthe show's declining quality: \"I rate the last three seasons as among the worst, soseason fourlooks very good to me now.\"Shearer has also been vocal about \"The Principal and the Pauper\" (season nine, episode two, 1997), one of the most controversial episodes ofThe Simpsons. Many fans and critics reacted negatively to the revelation thatPrincipal Seymour Skinner, a recurring character since the first season, was an impostor. The episode has been criticized by both Shearer and Groening. In a 2001 interview, Shearer recalled that after reading the script, he told the writers, \"That'ssowrong. You're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason, for a story we've done before with other characters. It's so arbitrary and gratuitous, and it's disrespectful",
"it's disrespectful to the audience.\"In a December 2006 interview, Shearer added, \"Now, refuse to talk about it. They realize it was a horrible mistake. They never mention it. It's like they're punishing for paying attention.\" Due to scheduling and availability conflicts, Shearer decided not to participate inThe Simpsons Ride, which opened in 2008, so none of his characters have vocal parts and many do not appear in the ride at all.In a 2010 interview onThe Howard Stern Show, Shearer alluded that the reason he was not part of the ride was because he would not be getting paid for it.Similarly, Shearer was unable to appear in theFamily Guycrossover episode \"The Simpsons Guy\" due to further scheduling conflicts. Therefore, his characters are again mute. When asked about how he felt about the crossover, Shearer replied, \"Matter and anti-matter.\" Until 1998, Shearer was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as",
"going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.The dispute, however, was resolved and Shearer received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.The dispute was resolved a month later,and Shearer's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received $400,000 per episode.Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Shearer and the other cast members accepted a 30% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode.On May 14, 2015, Shearer announced he was leaving the show. After the other voice actors signed a contract for the same pay, Shearer refused, stating it was not enough. Al Jean made a statement from the producers saying \"the show must go on,\" but did not elaborate on what might happen to the characters Shearer voiced.On July 7, 2015, Shearer agreed to continue with the show, on the same terms as the other voice actors. Le Showand radio work",
"Showand radio work Because I don't do stand-up, radio has always been my equivalent, a place to stay in connection with the public and force myself to write every week and come up with new characters. Plus it's a medium that – having grown up with it and putting myself to sleep with a radio under my pillow – I love. No matter what picture you want to create in the listener's mind, a few minutes of work gets it done. —Harry Shearer Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music programLe Show. The program is a hodgepodge of satirical news commentary, music, and sketch comedy that takes aim at the \"mega morons of the mighty media\".It is carried on manyNational Public Radioand other public radio stations throughout the United States.Since the merger ofSIRIUSandXMsatellite radio services the program is no longer available on either.The show has also been made available as apodcastoniTunesand byWWNO. On the weekly program Shearer alternates between DJing, reading and commenting on the",
"commenting on the news of the day after the manner ofMort Sahl, and performing original (mostly political) comedy sketches and songs. In 2008, Shearer released a music CD calledSongs of the Bushmen, consisting of his satirical numbers about former PresidentGeorge W. BushonLe Show.Shearer says he criticizes bothRepublicansandDemocratsequally, and also says that \"the iron law of doing comedy about politics is you make fun of whoever is running the place\"and that \"everyone else is just running around talking. They are the ones who are actually doing something, changing people's lives for better or for worse. Other people the media calls 'satirists' don't work that way.\" Since encountering satellite news feeds when he worked onSaturday Night Live, Shearer has been fascinated with the contents of the video that does not air. Shearer refers to these clips asfound objects. \"I thought, wow, there is just an unending supply of this material, and it's wonderful and fascinating and funny and sometimes haunting – but",
"haunting – but it's always good,\" said Shearer.He collects this material and uses it onLe Showand on his website.In 2008, he assembled video clips of newsmakers from this collection into an art installation titled \"The Silent Echo Chamber\" which was exhibited atThe Aldrich Contemporary Art MuseuminRidgefield, Connecticut.The exhibit was also displayed in 2009 at Institut Valencià d'Art Modern (IVAM) inValencia, Spainand in 2010 at the New OrleansContemporary Arts Center. In 2006 Shearer appeared withBrian Hayesin four episodes of theBBC Radio 4sitcomNot Today, Thank You, playing Nostrils, a man so ugly he cannot stand to be in his own presence.He was originally scheduled to appear in all six episodes but had to withdraw from recording two due to a problem with his work permit.On June 19, 2008, it was announced that Shearer would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the radio category. Further career Shearer's first feature film as director,Teddy Bears' Picnic, which he also wrote, was released in",
"was released in 2002. The plot is based onBohemian Grove, which hosts a three-week encampment of some of the most powerful men in the world. The film was not well received by critics. It garnered a 0% approval rating onRotten Tomatoes, with all 19 reviews being determined as negativeand received a rating of 32 out of 100 (signifying \"generally negative reviews\") onMetacriticfrom 10 reviews.In 2003, he co-wroteJ. Edgar! The MusicalwithTom Leopold, which spoofedJ. Edgar Hoover's relationship withClyde Tolson.It premiered at theU.S. Comedy Arts FestivalinAspen, Coloradoand starredKelsey GrammerandJohn Goodman. Shearer, Guest and McKean starred in thefolk musicmockumentaryA Mighty Wind(2003), portraying a band called The Folksmen. The film was written by Guest andEugene Levy, and directed by Guest.Shearer had a major role in the Guest-directed parody of Oscar politickingFor Your Considerationreleased in 2006. He played Victor Allan Miller, a veteran actor who is convinced that he is going to be nominated for",
"to be nominated for anAcademy Award.He also appeared as a news anchor inGodzilla(1998) with fellowThe Simpsonscast membersHank AzariaandNancy Cartwright.His other film appearances includeThe Right Stuff(1983),The Fisher King(1991),The Truman Show(1998),Small Soldiers(also 1998), andEdTV(1999). He also directed and appeared in the television programPortrait of a White Marriage(1988), a sequel toThe History of White People in America. Shearer has also worked as a columnist for theLos Angeles Times Magazine, but decided that it \"became such a waste of time to bother with it.\"His columns have also been published inSlateandNewsweek.Since May 2005 he has been a contributing blogger atThe Huffington Post.Shearer has written three books.Man Bites Town, published in 1993, is a collection of columns that he wrote forThe Los Angeles Timesbetween 1989 and 1992.Published in 1999,It's the Stupidity, Stupidanalyzed the hatred some people had for then-PresidentBill Clinton.Shearer believes that Clinton became disliked",
"became disliked because he had an affair with \"the least powerful, least credentialed woman cleared into his official compound.\"His most recent book isNot Enough Indians, his first novel. Published in 2006, it is a comic novel about Native Americans and gambling.Without the \"pleasures of collaboration\" and \"spontaneity and improvisation which characterize his other projects\",Not Enough Indianswas a \"struggle\" for Shearer to write. He said that \"the only fun thing about it was having written it. It was lonely, I had no deal for it and it took six years to do. It was a profoundly disturbing act of self-discipline.\" Shearer has released five solo comedy albums:It Must Have Been Something I Said(1994),Dropping Anchors(2006),Songs Pointed and Pointless(2007),Songs of the Bushmen(2008) andGreed and Fear(2010).His most recent CD,Greed and Fearis mainly aboutWall Streeteconomic issues, rather than politics like his previous albums. Shearer decided to make the album when he\"started getting amused by the language of",
"by the language of the economic meltdown – when 'toxic assets' suddenly became 'troubled assets,' going from something poisoning the system to just a bunch of delinquent youth with dirty faces that needed not removal from the system but just ... understanding.\"In May 2006, Shearer received an honorary doctorate fromGoucher College. The Big Uneasy Shearer is the director ofThe Big Uneasy(2010), a documentary film about the impacts ofHurricane KatrinaonNew Orleans. Narrated by actorJohn Goodman, the film describesleveefailuresandcatastrophicflooding in theNew Orleansmetropolitan area, and includes extended interviews with formerLSUprofessorIvor Van Heerden, Robert Bea, an engineering professor at theUniversity of California at Berkeley, and Maria Garzino, an engineer and contract specialist for the Los Angeles district of theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The film is critical of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and its management offlood protectionprojectsin SouthernLouisiana.Shearer draws on numerous technical",
"numerous technical experts to maintain that Hurricane Katrina's \"... tragic floods creating widespread damage were caused by manmade errors in engineering and judgment.\"Onreview aggregatorRotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71% based on 24 reviews, with an average rating of 6.85/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"The Big Uneasyoffers an admittedly uneven – yet still worthy and well-intentioned – look at a horrific disaster's aftermath.\" Personal life Shearer marriedfolksingerPenelope Nicholsin 1974. They divorced in 1977.He has been married to Welsh singer-songwriterJudith Owensince 1993.In 2005, the couple launched their own record label called Courgette Records.Shearer primarily resides in theFrench QuarterofNew Orleans, Louisiana, but has homes inSanta Monica, CaliforniaandNotting Hill, London. He first went to New Orleans in 1988 and has attended everyNew Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festivalsince. Shearer often speaks and writes about thefailure of the Federal levee systemwhich",
"levee systemwhich floodedNew OrleansduringHurricane Katrina, blasting the coverage of it in the mainstream mediaand criticizing the role of theUnited States Army Corps of Engineers.Prior to the DVD release of his film,The Big Uneasy, Shearer would hold screenings of the film at different venues and take questions fromaudiencemembers. Filmography Film Television (Pilot for the eventual seriesLeave It to Beaver, though never aired as part of that series.) Video games Web Music video Discography Bibliography Awards Shearer was the last of the six regular voice actors fromThe Simpsonsto win thePrimetime Emmy AwardforOutstanding Character Voice-Over Performance.His win came for theseason 25episode \"Four Regrettings and a Funeral\". References Bibliography External links"
] |
Who won the third-place playoff at the UEFA World Cup while Donald Trump was in office as the 45th President of the United States? | Belgium | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup"
] | [
"List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links",
"FIFA World Cup TheFIFA World Cup, often called theWorld Cup, is an internationalassociation footballcompetition among the seniormen's national teamsof the members of theFédération Internationale de Football Association(FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The tournament has been held every four years since theinaugural tournament in 1930, with the exception of 1942 and 1946 due to theSecond World War. The reigning champions areArgentina, who won their third title at the2022 tournament. The contest starts with thequalification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase. In the tournament phase, 32 teams compete for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over the course of about a month. The host nation(s) automatically qualify for the group stage of the tournament. The competition is scheduled to expand to 48 teams, starting with the2026 tournament. As of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, 22 final tournaments have been held since the event's inception in 1930, and a total of 80 national teams have competed. Thetrophyhas been won by eight national teams. With five wins,Brazilis the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners areGermanyandItaly, with four titles each;Argentina, with three titles;Franceand inaugural winnerUruguay, each with two titles; andEnglandandSpain, with one title each. The World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed single sporting event in the world.The viewership of the2018 World Cupwas estimated to be 3.57 billion, close to half of the global population,while the engagement with the2022 World Cupwas estimated to be 5 billion, with about 1.5 billion people watchingthe final match. Seventeen countries have hosted the World Cup, most recentlyQatar, who hosted the 2022 event. The2026 tournamentwill be jointly hosted by Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to host games in three World Cups. History Previous international competitions The world's first international football match was a challenge match played inGlasgowin 1872 betweenScotlandandEngland.The first international tournament for nations, the inauguralBritish Home Championship, took place in 1884 and included games between England, Scotland,Wales, andIreland.As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as ademonstration sportwith no medals awarded at the1900and1904 Summer Olympics; however, theInternational Olympic Committeehas retroactively upgraded their status to official events, as well as the1906 Intercalated Games. AfterFIFAwas founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been unsuccessful. At the1908 Summer OlympicsinLondon, football became an official Olympic sport. Planned byThe Football Association(FA), England's football governing body, the event was foramateurplayers only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by theEngland national amateur football team) won thegold medals. They repeated the feat at the1912 Summer OlympicsinStockholm. With the Olympic event continuing to be a contest between amateur teams only,Sir Thomas Liptonorganised theSir Thomas Lipton Trophytournament inTurinin 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described asThe First World Cup,and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invitedWest Auckland, an amateur side fromCounty Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.Prior to the Lipton competition, from 1876 to 1904, games that were considered to be the \"football world championship\" were meetings between leading English and Scottish clubs, such as the1895 gamebetweenSunderland A.F.C.and theHeart of Midlothian F.C., which Sunderland won. In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise theOlympic tournamentas a \"world football championship for amateurs\", and took responsibility for managing the event.This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition for nations, at the1920 Summer Olympics, contested byEgyptand 13 European teams, and won byBelgium.Uruguaywon the next two Olympic football tournaments in1924and1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era, and is the reason whyUruguay is allowed to wear 4 stars. World Cups before World War II Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, withPresidentJules Rimetas the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress inAmsterdamdecided to stage a world championship.With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate theircentenaryofindependencein 1930, FIFA namedUruguayas the host country of theinaugural World Cup tournament. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides, especially in the midst of theGreat Depression. As such, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams fromBelgium,France,Romania, andYugoslaviato make the trip.In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won byFranceand theUnited States, who defeatedMexico4–1 andBelgium3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored byLucien Laurentof France.In thefinal,UruguaydefeatedArgentina4–2 in front of 93,000 spectators inMontevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup.After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and theIOCdisagreed over the status of amateur players; football was dropped from the1932 Summer Olympics.After the IOC and FIFA worked out their differences, Olympic football returned at the1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup. The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the1934 World Cupand all North and South American nations exceptBrazilandCubaboycotted the1938tournament. Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, whichGermanyandBrazilsought to host,were cancelled due toWorld War II. World Cups after World War II The1950 World Cup, held inBrazil, was the first to include British football associations.Scotland,England,Wales, andNorthern Irelandhad withdrawn from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football.The teams rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation.The tournament also saw the return of 1930 championsUruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called \"Maracanazo\" (Portuguese:Maracanaço). In the tournaments between 1934 and1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, whenAustriawasabsorbedintoGermanyafter qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, whenIndia,Scotland, andTurkeywithdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams.Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were:United States, semi-finalists in 1930;Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938;North Korea, quarter-finalists in1966; andMexico, quarter-finalists in1970. Expansion to 24 and 32 teams The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in1982,and then to 32 in1998,allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals:Mexico, quarter-finalists in1986;Cameroon, quarter-finalists in1990;South Korea, finishing in fourth place in2002;Senegal, along withUSA, both quarter-finalists in 2002;Ghana, quarter-finalists in 2010;Costa Rica, quarter-finalists in 2014; andMorocco, finishing in fourth place in 2022. European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far. Two hundred teams entered the2002 FIFA World Cupqualification rounds. 198 nations attempted to qualify for the2006 FIFA World Cup. A record 204 countries entered qualification for the2010 FIFA World Cup. Expansion to 48 teams In October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing theCaribbean Football Union's region a position in the World Cup.In the edition of 25 October 2013 of theFIFA WeeklyBlatter wrote that: \"From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It cannot be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup.\"Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency. Following the magazine's publication, Blatter's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency,UEFAPresidentMichel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth toUEFA, two each to theAsian Football Confederationand theConfederation of African Football, two shared betweenCONCACAFandCONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for theOceania Football Confederation.Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: \" not based on the quality of the teams because you don't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it's a good compromise. ... It's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the people of all the world. If you don't give the possibility to participate, they don't improve.\" In October 2016, FIFA presidentGianni Infantinostated his support for a 48-team World Cup in 2026.On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams. 2015 FIFA corruption case By May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games,with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Department of Justice announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December.By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016. On 4 June 2015,Chuck Blazerwhile co-operating with theFBIand the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA's then-executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups.On 10 June 2015, Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices ofSepp Blatter.The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the2026 FIFA World Cupin light of theallegations surrounding briberyin the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then-secretary generalJérôme Valckestated, \"Due to the situation, I think it's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being.\"On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media. On 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May.An additional 16 indictments by the US Department of Justice were announced on the same day. Biennial World Cup proposition A biennial World Cup plan was first proposed by theSaudi Arabian Football Federationat the 71stFIFA Congresson 21 May 2021 and prominently backed by former Arsenal managerArsène Wengerand national federations in Africa and Asia.Continental confederations such as UEFA and CONMEBOL are not on board with the planbut, in total, the idea is supported by 166 of the 210 member associations of FIFA. Other FIFA tournaments An equivalent tournament forwomen's football, theFIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in1991inChina.The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991. Men's football has been included in everySummer Olympic Gamesexcept 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men'sfootball tournament at the Olympicsis not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players.Women's football made itsOlympic debut in 1996. TheFIFA Confederations Cupwas a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country.The first edition took place in1992and the last edition was played in2017. In March 2019, FIFA confirmed that the tournament would no longer be active owing to an expansion of theFIFA Club World Cupin 2021. FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup,FIFA U-17 World Cup,FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup,FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such asfutsal(FIFA Futsal World Cup) andbeach soccer(FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women's version, although aFIFA Women's Club World Cuphas been proposed. TheFIFA U-20 Women's World Cupis held biannually, including the year before each Women's World Cup. Both tournaments were awarded in a single bidding process on three occasions, with the U-20 tournament serving as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition each time (2010,2014and2018). Trophy From 1930 to 1970, theJules Rimet Trophywas awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as theWorld CuporCoupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA presidentJules Rimetwho set up the first tournament. In1970,Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves. After 1970, a new trophy, known as theFIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designerSilvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14.2 in) high, made of solid 18carat(75%) gold and weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb). The base contains two layers of semi-preciousmalachitewhile the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since1974.The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: \"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory.\" This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards. All members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of theWorld Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runners-up' (silver), and third-place (bronze). In the2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hostsSouth Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. Since 2006, winners of the competition are also awarded the right to wear theFIFA Champions Badge, up until the time at which the winner of the next competition is decided. Format Qualification Since the second World Cup in1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament.They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa,Asia,North and Central America and Caribbean,South America,Oceania, andEurope), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams. The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinentalplay-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the2010 World Cup.From the1938 World Cuponwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the2006 FIFA World Cuponward, requiring the champions to qualify.Brazil, winners in2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches. Final tournament The final tournament format since 1998 has had 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nations. There are two stages: the group stage, followed by the knockout stage. In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on theFIFA World Rankingsor performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups.The other teams are assigned to different \"pots\", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation. Each group plays around-robin tournamentin which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams.The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since1994,three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points). Considering six matches in a group each with three possible outcomes (win, draw, loss), there are 729 (= 36) possible final table outcomes for the 40 possible combinations of the four teams' points.However, 14 of the 40 points combinations (or 207 of the 729 possible outcomes) lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined by: The knockout stage is asingle-elimination tournamentin which teams play each other in one-off matches, withextra timeandpenalty shootoutsused to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group. This is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, thethird-place match(contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final. On 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48-team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which was to consist of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026.On 14 March 2023, FIFA approved a revised format of the 2026 tournament, which features 12 groups of four teams each, with the top 8 third-placed teams joining the group winners and runners-up in a new round of 32. Hosts Selection process Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold thefirst World Cupin Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing.The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the1938 FIFA World Cup. Since the1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the1998 FIFA World Cup. The2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts.South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in2010. The2014 FIFA World Cupwas hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America sinceArgentina 1978,and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe. The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Council. This is done under anexhaustive ballotsystem. The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a \"Hosting Agreement\" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. There have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded toRussiaandQatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament. For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament was rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after thecontroversysurrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation did not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from2018.This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder. The2026 FIFA World Cupwas chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations.The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 104 matches. Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter-finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each. Summary by confederation Performances Six of the eight champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions beingBrazil, who finished as runners-up after losing thedeciding matchon home soil in 1950 and lost theirsemi-finalagainst Germany in 2014, andSpain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982.England(1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation.Uruguay(1930),Italy(1934),Argentina(1978), andFrance(1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, whileGermany(1974) won their second title on home soil. Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament.Switzerland(quarter-finals 1954),Sweden(runners-up in 1958),Chile(third place in 1962),South Korea(fourth place in 2002),Russia(quarter-finals 2018), andMexico(quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts.So far,South Africa(2010) andQatar(2022) failed to advance beyond the first round. Broadcasting and promotion The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and as of 2006is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative viewership of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion.715.1 million individuals watched the final match of the tournament, almost a ninth of the entire population of the planet. The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers.The World Cup attracts major sponsors such asCoca-Cola,McDonald'sandAdidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event. The governing body of the sport,FIFA, generated $4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament,and $6.1 billion from the 2018 tournament. Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its ownmascotor logo.World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the firstWorld Cup mascot.World Cups featureofficial match ballsspecially designed for each tournament. AfterSlazengerproduced the ball for the 1966 World Cup Adidas became the official supplier to FIFA.Each World Cup also has anofficial song, which have been performed by artists ranging fromShakiratoWill Smith.Other songs, such as “Nessun dorma”, performed byThe Three Tenorsat four World Cup concerts, have also become identified with the tournament. Forming a partnership with FIFA in 1970,Paninipublished its firststicker albumfor the 1970 World Cup.Since then, collecting and trading stickers andcardshas become part of the World Cup experience, especially for the younger generation.FIFA has licensed World Cupvideo gamessince 1986, sponsored byElectronic Arts. Results In all, 80 nations haveplayed in at least one World Cup.Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup,and they have addedstars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. Uruguay, however, chose to displayfour stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics, which are recognized by FIFA as World Championships, and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950. With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to haveplayed in every World Cup(22) to date.Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982–1990) and Brazil (1994–2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top-four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8). Teams reaching the top four Best performances by confederations To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from theUEFA(Europe) andCONMEBOL(South America) confederations. European nations have won twelve titles, while South American nations have won ten. Only three teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition:United States(North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930;South Korea(Asia) in 2002; andMorocco(Africa) in 2022. Only oneOceanianqualifier,Australiain 2006, has advanced to the second round, a feat they later reaccomplished in 2022. Brazil,Argentina,SpainandGermanyare the only teams to win a World Cup hosted outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious inEurope(1958),North America(1970and1994) andAsia(2002). Argentina won a World Cup in North America in1986and in Asia in2022. Spain won inAfricain2010. In2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas. Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent; the longest streak of tournaments won by a single confederation is four, with the2006,2010,2014, and2018tournaments all won by UEFA teams (Italy, Spain, Germany, and France, respectively). Records and statistics Six players share the record forplaying in the most World Cups;Mexico'sAntonio Carbajal(1950–1966).Rafael Márquez(2002–2018), andAndrés Guardado(2006–2022);Germany'sLothar Matthäus(1982–1998);Argentina'sLionel Messi(2006–2022); andPortugal'sCristiano Ronaldo(2006–2022) all played in five tournaments, with Ronaldo also being the first and only player to score in five tournaments.Messi has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 26 appearances.Brazil'sDjalma Santos(1954–1962), West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauer(1966–1974), and Germany'sPhilipp Lahm(2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three World CupAll-Star Teams. Miroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) is the all-time top scorer at the World Cup with 16 goals. He brokeRonaldoof Brazil's record of 15 goals (1998–2006) during the2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany'sGerd Müller(1970–1974) is third, with 14 goals.The fourth-placed goalscorer,France'sJust Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals.This made Brazil'sPeléthe only player to have won three World Cup winners' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury),with20 other players who have won two winners' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners', runner- ups', and third-place); five players were from West Germany's squad of 1966–1974:Franz Beckenbauer,Jürgen Grabowski,Horst-Dieter Höttges,Sepp Maier, andWolfgang Overath(1966–1974), Italy'sFranco Baresi(1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has beenMiroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) with four consecutive medals. Brazil'sMário Zagallo, West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauerand France'sDidier Deschampsare the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach.Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach,and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018, after having won in 1998 as captain.Italy'sVittorio Pozzois the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938).All World Cup-winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory. Among the national teams, Brazil has played the most World Cup matches (114), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), and quarter-finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (22), has the most wins (76) and has scored the most goals (237).The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the2002 finaland in the2014 semi-final. Top goalscorers Players inboldare still active. Awards At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. See also Notes Citations Cited works External links"
] | [
"List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more",
"to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no",
"force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links",
"FIFA World Cup TheFIFA World Cup, often called theWorld Cup, is an internationalassociation footballcompetition among the seniormen's national teamsof the members of theFédération Internationale de Football Association(FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The tournament has been held every four years since theinaugural tournament in 1930, with the exception of 1942 and 1946 due to theSecond World War. The reigning champions areArgentina, who won their third title at the2022 tournament. The contest starts with thequalification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase. In the tournament phase, 32 teams compete for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over the course of about a month. The host nation(s) automatically qualify for the group stage of the tournament. The competition is scheduled to expand to 48 teams, starting with the2026 tournament. As of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, 22 final tournaments have been held since the",
"been held since the event's inception in 1930, and a total of 80 national teams have competed. Thetrophyhas been won by eight national teams. With five wins,Brazilis the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners areGermanyandItaly, with four titles each;Argentina, with three titles;Franceand inaugural winnerUruguay, each with two titles; andEnglandandSpain, with one title each. The World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed single sporting event in the world.The viewership of the2018 World Cupwas estimated to be 3.57 billion, close to half of the global population,while the engagement with the2022 World Cupwas estimated to be 5 billion, with about 1.5 billion people watchingthe final match. Seventeen countries have hosted the World Cup, most recentlyQatar, who hosted the 2022 event. The2026 tournamentwill be jointly hosted by Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the",
"give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to host games in three World Cups. History Previous international competitions The world's first international football match was a challenge match played inGlasgowin 1872 betweenScotlandandEngland.The first international tournament for nations, the inauguralBritish Home Championship, took place in 1884 and included games between England, Scotland,Wales, andIreland.As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as ademonstration sportwith no medals awarded at the1900and1904 Summer Olympics; however, theInternational Olympic Committeehas retroactively upgraded their status to official events, as well as the1906 Intercalated Games. AfterFIFAwas founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition",
"the competition as having been unsuccessful. At the1908 Summer OlympicsinLondon, football became an official Olympic sport. Planned byThe Football Association(FA), England's football governing body, the event was foramateurplayers only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by theEngland national amateur football team) won thegold medals. They repeated the feat at the1912 Summer OlympicsinStockholm. With the Olympic event continuing to be a contest between amateur teams only,Sir Thomas Liptonorganised theSir Thomas Lipton Trophytournament inTurinin 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described asThe First World Cup,and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to",
"the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invitedWest Auckland, an amateur side fromCounty Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.Prior to the Lipton competition, from 1876 to 1904, games that were considered to be the \"football world championship\" were meetings between leading English and Scottish clubs, such as the1895 gamebetweenSunderland A.F.C.and theHeart of Midlothian F.C., which Sunderland won. In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise theOlympic tournamentas a \"world football championship for amateurs\", and took responsibility for managing the event.This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition for nations, at the1920 Summer Olympics, contested byEgyptand 13 European teams, and won byBelgium.Uruguaywon the next two Olympic football tournaments in1924and1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era, and is the reason",
"and is the reason whyUruguay is allowed to wear 4 stars. World Cups before World War II Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, withPresidentJules Rimetas the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress inAmsterdamdecided to stage a world championship.With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate theircentenaryofindependencein 1930, FIFA namedUruguayas the host country of theinaugural World Cup tournament. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides, especially in the midst of theGreat Depression. As such, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams fromBelgium,France,Romania, andYugoslaviato make the trip.In total, 13",
"trip.In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won byFranceand theUnited States, who defeatedMexico4–1 andBelgium3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored byLucien Laurentof France.In thefinal,UruguaydefeatedArgentina4–2 in front of 93,000 spectators inMontevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup.After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and theIOCdisagreed over the status of amateur players; football was dropped from the1932 Summer Olympics.After the IOC and FIFA worked out their differences, Olympic football returned at the1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup. The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the1934 World Cupand all North and South American",
"and South American nations exceptBrazilandCubaboycotted the1938tournament. Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, whichGermanyandBrazilsought to host,were cancelled due toWorld War II. World Cups after World War II The1950 World Cup, held inBrazil, was the first to include British football associations.Scotland,England,Wales, andNorthern Irelandhad withdrawn from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football.The teams rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation.The tournament also saw the return of 1930 championsUruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called \"Maracanazo\" (Portuguese:Maracanaço). In the tournaments between 1934 and1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, whenAustriawasabsorbedintoGermanyafter qualifying,",
"qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, whenIndia,Scotland, andTurkeywithdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams.Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were:United States, semi-finalists in 1930;Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938;North Korea, quarter-finalists in1966; andMexico, quarter-finalists in1970. Expansion to 24 and 32 teams The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in1982,and then to 32 in1998,allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals:Mexico, quarter-finalists in1986;Cameroon, quarter-finalists in1990;South Korea, finishing in fourth place in2002;Senegal, along",
"along withUSA, both quarter-finalists in 2002;Ghana, quarter-finalists in 2010;Costa Rica, quarter-finalists in 2014; andMorocco, finishing in fourth place in 2022. European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far. Two hundred teams entered the2002 FIFA World Cupqualification rounds. 198 nations attempted to qualify for the2006 FIFA World Cup. A record 204 countries entered qualification for the2010 FIFA World Cup. Expansion to 48 teams In October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing theCaribbean Football Union's region a position in the World Cup.In the edition of 25 October 2013 of theFIFA WeeklyBlatter wrote that: \"From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It cannot be that the European and South",
"European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup.\"Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency. Following the magazine's publication, Blatter's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency,UEFAPresidentMichel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth toUEFA, two each to theAsian Football Confederationand theConfederation of African Football, two shared betweenCONCACAFandCONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for theOceania Football Confederation.Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: \" not based on the quality of the teams because you don't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it's a good compromise. ... It's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the",
"is to bring all the people of all the world. If you don't give the possibility to participate, they don't improve.\" In October 2016, FIFA presidentGianni Infantinostated his support for a 48-team World Cup in 2026.On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams. 2015 FIFA corruption case By May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games,with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Department of Justice announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December.By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of",
"five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016. On 4 June 2015,Chuck Blazerwhile co-operating with theFBIand the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA's then-executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups.On 10 June 2015, Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices ofSepp Blatter.The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the2026 FIFA World Cupin light of theallegations surrounding briberyin the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then-secretary generalJérôme Valckestated, \"Due to the situation, I think it's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being.\"On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media. On 3 December 2015 two",
"3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May.An additional 16 indictments by the US Department of Justice were announced on the same day. Biennial World Cup proposition A biennial World Cup plan was first proposed by theSaudi Arabian Football Federationat the 71stFIFA Congresson 21 May 2021 and prominently backed by former Arsenal managerArsène Wengerand national federations in Africa and Asia.Continental confederations such as UEFA and CONMEBOL are not on board with the planbut, in total, the idea is supported by 166 of the 210 member associations of FIFA. Other FIFA tournaments An equivalent tournament forwomen's football, theFIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in1991inChina.The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991. Men's football has been included in everySummer",
"in everySummer Olympic Gamesexcept 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men'sfootball tournament at the Olympicsis not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players.Women's football made itsOlympic debut in 1996. TheFIFA Confederations Cupwas a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country.The first edition took place in1992and the last edition was played in2017. In March 2019, FIFA confirmed that the tournament would no longer be active owing to an expansion of theFIFA Club World Cupin 2021. FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup,FIFA U-17 World Cup,FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup,FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such",
"variants such asfutsal(FIFA Futsal World Cup) andbeach soccer(FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women's version, although aFIFA Women's Club World Cuphas been proposed. TheFIFA U-20 Women's World Cupis held biannually, including the year before each Women's World Cup. Both tournaments were awarded in a single bidding process on three occasions, with the U-20 tournament serving as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition each time (2010,2014and2018). Trophy From 1930 to 1970, theJules Rimet Trophywas awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as theWorld CuporCoupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA presidentJules Rimetwho set up the first tournament. In1970,Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves. After 1970, a new trophy, known as theFIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts",
"The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designerSilvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14.2 in) high, made of solid 18carat(75%) gold and weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb). The base contains two layers of semi-preciousmalachitewhile the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since1974.The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: \"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory.\" This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards. All members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams",
"the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of theWorld Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runners-up' (silver), and third-place (bronze). In the2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hostsSouth Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. Since 2006, winners of the competition are also awarded the right to wear theFIFA Champions Badge, up until the time at which the winner of the next competition is decided. Format Qualification Since the second World Cup in1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament.They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa,Asia,North and Central America and Caribbean,South America,Oceania, andEurope), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament,",
"each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams. The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinentalplay-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the2010 World Cup.From the1938 World Cuponwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the2006 FIFA World Cuponward, requiring the champions to qualify.Brazil, winners in2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches. Final tournament The final tournament format since 1998 has had 32",
"1998 has had 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nations. There are two stages: the group stage, followed by the knockout stage. In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on theFIFA World Rankingsor performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups.The other teams are assigned to different \"pots\", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation. Each group plays around-robin tournamentin which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to",
"at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams.The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since1994,three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points). Considering six matches in a group each with three possible outcomes (win, draw, loss), there are 729 (= 36) possible final table outcomes for the 40 possible combinations of the four teams' points.However, 14 of the 40 points combinations (or 207 of the 729 possible outcomes) lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined by: The knockout stage is asingle-elimination tournamentin which teams play each other in one-off matches, withextra timeandpenalty shootoutsused to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group. This is followed by the",
"is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, thethird-place match(contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final. On 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48-team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which was to consist of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026.On 14 March 2023, FIFA approved a revised format of the 2026 tournament, which features 12 groups of four teams each, with the top 8 third-placed teams joining the group winners and runners-up in a new round of 32. Hosts Selection process Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold thefirst World Cupin Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing.The next two World Cups were both held in",
"were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the1938 FIFA World Cup. Since the1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the1998 FIFA World Cup. The2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts.South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in2010. The2014 FIFA World Cupwas hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America sinceArgentina 1978,and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe. The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Council. This is done under anexhaustive ballotsystem. The national football association of a country desiring to host",
"desiring to host the event receives a \"Hosting Agreement\" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. There have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded toRussiaandQatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament. For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament was rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014)",
"America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after thecontroversysurrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation did not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from2018.This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder. The2026 FIFA World Cupwas chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations.The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 104 matches. Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter-finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each. Summary by confederation Performances Six of the eight champions have won",
"champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions beingBrazil, who finished as runners-up after losing thedeciding matchon home soil in 1950 and lost theirsemi-finalagainst Germany in 2014, andSpain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982.England(1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation.Uruguay(1930),Italy(1934),Argentina(1978), andFrance(1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, whileGermany(1974) won their second title on home soil. Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament.Switzerland(quarter-finals 1954),Sweden(runners-up in 1958),Chile(third place in 1962),South Korea(fourth place in 2002),Russia(quarter-finals 2018), andMexico(quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts.So far,South Africa(2010) andQatar(2022) failed to advance beyond the first round. Broadcasting and promotion The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and as of 2006is",
"and as of 2006is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative viewership of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion.715.1 million individuals watched the final match of the tournament, almost a ninth of the entire population of the planet. The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers.The World Cup attracts major sponsors such asCoca-Cola,McDonald'sandAdidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event. The governing body of the sport,FIFA, generated $4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament,and $6.1 billion from the 2018 tournament. Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its ownmascotor logo.World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the firstWorld Cup mascot.World Cups featureofficial match ballsspecially designed",
"designed for each tournament. AfterSlazengerproduced the ball for the 1966 World Cup Adidas became the official supplier to FIFA.Each World Cup also has anofficial song, which have been performed by artists ranging fromShakiratoWill Smith.Other songs, such as “Nessun dorma”, performed byThe Three Tenorsat four World Cup concerts, have also become identified with the tournament. Forming a partnership with FIFA in 1970,Paninipublished its firststicker albumfor the 1970 World Cup.Since then, collecting and trading stickers andcardshas become part of the World Cup experience, especially for the younger generation.FIFA has licensed World Cupvideo gamessince 1986, sponsored byElectronic Arts. Results In all, 80 nations haveplayed in at least one World Cup.Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup,and they have addedstars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. Uruguay, however, chose to displayfour stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928",
"the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics, which are recognized by FIFA as World Championships, and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950. With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to haveplayed in every World Cup(22) to date.Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982–1990) and Brazil (1994–2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top-four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8). Teams reaching the top four Best performances by confederations To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from theUEFA(Europe) andCONMEBOL(South America) confederations. European nations have won twelve titles, while South American nations have won ten. Only three teams from outside these two",
"outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition:United States(North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930;South Korea(Asia) in 2002; andMorocco(Africa) in 2022. Only oneOceanianqualifier,Australiain 2006, has advanced to the second round, a feat they later reaccomplished in 2022. Brazil,Argentina,SpainandGermanyare the only teams to win a World Cup hosted outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious inEurope(1958),North America(1970and1994) andAsia(2002). Argentina won a World Cup in North America in1986and in Asia in2022. Spain won inAfricain2010. In2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas. Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent; the longest streak of tournaments won by a single confederation is four, with the2006,2010,2014, and2018tournaments all won by UEFA teams (Italy, Spain, Germany, and France, respectively). Records and statistics Six players share the record",
"share the record forplaying in the most World Cups;Mexico'sAntonio Carbajal(1950–1966).Rafael Márquez(2002–2018), andAndrés Guardado(2006–2022);Germany'sLothar Matthäus(1982–1998);Argentina'sLionel Messi(2006–2022); andPortugal'sCristiano Ronaldo(2006–2022) all played in five tournaments, with Ronaldo also being the first and only player to score in five tournaments.Messi has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 26 appearances.Brazil'sDjalma Santos(1954–1962), West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauer(1966–1974), and Germany'sPhilipp Lahm(2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three World CupAll-Star Teams. Miroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) is the all-time top scorer at the World Cup with 16 goals. He brokeRonaldoof Brazil's record of 15 goals (1998–2006) during the2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany'sGerd Müller(1970–1974) is third, with 14 goals.The fourth-placed goalscorer,France'sJust Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals",
"all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals.This made Brazil'sPeléthe only player to have won three World Cup winners' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury),with20 other players who have won two winners' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners', runner- ups', and third-place); five players were from West Germany's squad of 1966–1974:Franz Beckenbauer,Jürgen Grabowski,Horst-Dieter Höttges,Sepp Maier, andWolfgang Overath(1966–1974), Italy'sFranco Baresi(1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has beenMiroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) with four consecutive medals. Brazil'sMário Zagallo, West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauerand France'sDidier Deschampsare the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player",
"1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach.Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach,and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018, after having won in 1998 as captain.Italy'sVittorio Pozzois the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938).All World Cup-winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory. Among the national teams, Brazil has played the most World Cup matches (114), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), and quarter-finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (22), has the most wins (76) and has scored the most goals (237).The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the2002 finaland in the2014 semi-final. Top goalscorers Players inboldare still active. Awards At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. See also Notes Citations Cited works External links"
] |
Five Nights at Freddy's initial game release came one day short of the 19 year anniversary of the death of which Grateful Dead band member? | Jerry Garcia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Nights_at_Freddy%27s | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grateful_Dead#Main_career_(1967–1995) | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Nights_at_Freddy%27s', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grateful_Dead#Main_career_(1967–1995)'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Nights_at_Freddy%27s",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grateful_Dead#Main_career_(1967–1995"
] | [
"Five Nights at Freddy's Five Nights at Freddy's(FNaF) is a video game series andmedia franchisecreated byindie gamedeveloperScott Cawthon. The franchise features ten main video games, several spin-off games, novels, anda film adaptation. The video game series follows a set of night guards and other characters that try to survive from midnight to 6 a.m. for five levels, called \"nights\", while fending off attacks from homicidalanimatroniccharacters. Each game is set in a different location connected to a fictional family pizza restaurant franchise named \"Freddy Fazbear's Pizza\". The core gameplay mechanic involves using tools effectively and managing limited resources to avoid being caught by the animatronics. Cawthon conceived the idea forthe first video gameafter his family-friendly resource management game,Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., was criticized for the resemblance of its characters to frightening animatronics. Responding to this feedback, he developed a horror game that intentionally featured scary animatronics. Released in August 2014, the game's success prompted the development of sequels. Cawthon created most of the games himself usingClickteam Fusionbut partnered with Steel Wool Studios to createan open-world gameanda virtual reality anthology. The series has a mixed critical reception, with praise for its storytelling and atmosphere but criticism for its gameplay. It has achieved significant commercial success, with merchandise available internationally. The franchise has also garnered acult followingthat produces fan media inspired by it. History and development The concept forFive Nights at Freddy'sstemmed from the negative reception of Scott Cawthon's earlier game,Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., where players said that the main character resembled a \"scary animatronic animal.\"Initially discouraged by the criticism, Cawthon, who had predominantly createdChristian-oriented games, leveraged this feedback to develop something intentionally frightening.Five Nights at Freddy'swas released on August 8, 2014, viaDesura,followed by aSteamrelease after gaining approval through thecrowdsourcingplatform Greenlight.The game rapidly gained popularity after being showcased by prominent YouTubers.: 82 The success ofFive Nights at Freddy'sled to multiple sequels released between 2014 and 2023,and a spin-off game titledFNaF World, launched in January 2016.Cawthon usedClickteam Fusion 2.5for game development andAutodesk 3ds Maxfor 3D graphics,enhancing later titles with professional voice actors and original soundtracks.ForHelp WantedandSecurity Breach, Cawthon worked with game development company Steel Wool Studios.In 2015, Cawthon expanded the franchise into literature, announcing a multi-book deal with Scholastic in 2016,which began withThe Silver Eyes,released onAmazon Kindleon December 17, 2015and in paperback on September 27, 2016.This was followed by two additional novels,The Twisted OnesandThe Fourth Closet, published in 2017 and 2018, respectively. Gameplay TheFive Nights at Freddy'sseries consists of psychological horror-themed video games in which the player is usually a night-time employee at a location connected with Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, a fictional children's restaurant that takes inspiration from family pizza chains likeChuck E. CheeseandShowBiz Pizza Place.The restaurant has life-size animatronic characters resembling anthropomorphic animals that perform on a show stage, usually for children's parties, but leave their posts and wander the restaurant at night; the guard's job is to watch over them and prevent them from attacking. The animatronics' mobility is stated in the first game to be necessaary for them to continue functioning properly in the morning, though subsequent games reveal they are actually possessed by ghosts. InFive Nights at Freddy's, the player can control the two security doors connecting their office to the adjacent hallways as a barrier against animatronics in the vicinity. Each night, the player has a power supply that depletes faster when a tool is used.If the power goes out, the player can no longer use any tools and is defenseless against the animatronics unless a shift ends before main animatronic Freddy Fazbear can attack.Five Nights at Freddy's 2has different tools; there are no protective doors, and the player must instead use an empty animatronic head and flashlight to defend themself against the animatronics. The game introduced a music box which must be remotely wound up on a regular basis to prevent an attack from a particular animatronic.Eight-bitmini-gameswere introduced, which are played randomly after death and give cryptic clues into the lore. Five Nights at Freddy's 3uses a monitor panel, which contains audio, camera, and ventilation.The player must keep certain systems from malfunctioning. These malfunctions can be triggered randomly or by the hallucinations of the animatronics from the first and second games. The ability to sealventsis also added and must be used to prevent the sole tangible animatronic from entering the office. The player can use an audio-based function on the cameras, which triggers a childlike voice to lure Springtrap, the game's only physical animatronic possessed by William Afton's spirit, away from the office.The 8-bit minigames return and are playable after each night if the player completes side tasks such as clicking on a poster or inputting a code into a wall. If the player completes the minigames, they unlock a secret ending. InFive Nights at Freddy's 4, the gameplay occurs in a bedroom setting, and instead of being a nighttime security guard, the player takes the role of a small child who experiences nightmarish visions of the animatronics due to fearing their real-life counterparts.The player also no longer has access to a camera system.The player has four areas in the bedroom to monitor: two hallway doors on both sides of the room, the closet directly in front of them, and the bed behind them.At the doors, the player must listen for animatronics' breathing, which can determine whether they are near. If the player hears breathing at the side doors, they close the door and wait for the animatronics to walk away. If they open the doors too early, however, the animatronicsjump scarethe player.The player must also prevent small animatronics from accumulating on their bed, and prevent an animatronic from entering their closet.Five Nights at Freddy's 4also introduces a minigame involving a new animatronic, which offers the player a two-hour skip in the next night for completing the minigame. An elevated control pad is introduced forSister Location, which can light a room or shock the animatronics. Other mechanics include a second control pad in a breaker room, which controls power to the facility and a flashbeacon, which allows the player to see in the dark Funtime Auditorium (a party room) and avoid its animatronic.Sister Locationis the only game where the player can move between rooms. Pizzeria Simulatorhasbusiness-stylegameplay, and the player must spend in-game money to buy features for their pizzeria. A series of minigames can be played by testing the establishment's attractions.After the player has completed this portion of the game, they complete tasks in a room and fend off hostile, previously salvaged animatronics.The gameplay ofPizzeria Simulatorshares a number of elements withFive Nights at Freddy's 3, including the importance of ventilation and the ability to distract animatronics with sound. Ultimate Custom Nightis a customizable night, in which fifty animatronics are present and have a maximum AI level of twenty. The game includes many mechanics from the previous games, such as the heater, fan, music box, and power generator.The player can choose which characters they want active for a night, and how active the characters will be. Help Wantedcombines the gameplay of every other game, and turns into a virtual experience for the player.It also introduces several other minigames, in which the gameplay is variant, and also at times hasfree-roam.Special Deliveryfeatures location-based augmented reality gameplay. The player can switch on their camera, and the footage itself is the game's background. The animatronics will try to attack corresponding to the environment. The animatronics generally havecloaking, which leads them to being invisible. Security Breachholds the open-world aspect to this title allows players to experience a new level of immersion,similar to that ofFive Night's at Freddy's 4. Players will also have access to a nifty tool called the Faz-Watch, which allows them to view maps, read messages picked up from random areas on the map, check security cameras for nearby danger, and look at their current objectives.It incorporates Freddy as a helpful companion throughout the game, though he has limited power and must be charged at stations through the map. Players can distract hostile animatronics by knocking things over to get their attention, while they can crouch and hide in various structures to evade them as they follow you throughout the map. Unlike otherFive Nightsgames there are limited save points and there is only a single save station after 6 a.m. Common elements Security cameras In the first, second, third, seventh,eighth,and ninthgames, the player has asecurity-camerasystem, which observes the animatronic characters. One location can be viewed at a time, and some areas are not visible on the cameras.Most camera feeds are dull, sometimes almostblack and whitein color, and full ofvideo noise. In the third game, the cameras stop working if their associated system fails.Cameras are used in the fifth game as a mechanic in the fake ending and custom night update, but not in the main game. Lights In all games except for the third, lights are used to ward off animatronics or warn the player. Lights in the first, second, fifth, and eighthgames are activated with buttons on the walls and illuminate the player's blind spots: the doorway or vent exit, respectively.The lights are similar in the fifth game, but are mounted on a control pad and illuminate the animatronics' rooms. The fifth game also introduced a flash beacon, which is used to orient the player in the third and fifth nights' pitch-black rooms. Several games include use of a flashlight. In the second game, the flashlight has a finite battery life and cannot be recharged,while in the fourth and seventhgames, the battery life is infinite. In the eighthgame, the flashlight battery varies depending on the game segment being played. Flashlight battery life is again finite in the ninthgame, but can be recharged at various recharge stations throughout the game. Doors and vents In the first, fourth, seventh,eighth,and ninthgames, doors are a means of defense for the player, and can be closed when an animatronic is near. Vents are featured in the second, third, sixth, and eighthgames, as a medium through which animatronics can get to the player. Both doors and vents are again present in the fake ending and custom night update of the fifth game with the same function. Vents are also present in the fifth and ninthgames as means for the player to travel through, rather than the animatronics. Jump scares Every game in the main series contains jump scares, which end a game in defeat as the animatronics are implied to attack the player off-screen.In most jump scares, an animatronic character suddenly appears in the player's view, followed by a loud screaming or roaring noise. Some jump scares, including those by Golden Freddy (in the first and seventhgames), Nightmare, and Nightmarionette (in the fourth game), consist of a single screen with shrill, distorted audio; these jump scares usually crash (or restart) the game. The player must use various tools to prevent being attacked via jump scares and advance through each game. Minigames In the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, eighth,and ninthgames, the player gains access to a series of (predominantly eight-bit) minigames randomly after death, or after completing a specific task.The minigames usually relate to a story or event relevant to the game, in a cryptic manner.The minigames in the second game portray homicides mentioned by another worker of the restaurant, and the reason of the animatronics gaining life.The minigames in the third game show the story behind Springtrap's creation. Minigames in the fourth game tell the story of a character who dies in a tragic accident. There is only one minigame in the fifth game, which depicts the death of animatronic engineer William Afton's daughter. The minigames in the sixth game depict various events in the series, all connected to Afton. In the mobile version of the eighthgame, the player can access a minigame called \"Princess Quest\", which depicts the origins of a character called Vanny; a recreation of these minigames is also featured in the ninthgame, with some significant additions. Story overview TheFive Nights at Freddy'sseries mainly revolves around a chain of family restaurants under the ownership of Fazbear Entertainment, a company founded by Henry Emily and William Afton. The latter is a robotics engineer who creates a series ofanimatronicmascots to entertain customers, including Freddy Fazbear, a brown bear and the namesake of Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, Bonnie, an indigo rabbit,Chica, a yellow chicken, and Foxy, a red pirate fox. Other notable animatronics include the Puppet, the ghostlike Golden Freddy, Freddy's predecessor Fredbear, and Circus Baby,the mascot of the restaurant's sister location, Circus Baby's Pizza World. William is also anegligent fatherandchild murdererwho hides his victims' bodies inside animatronics, which their souls inhabit; he specifically designs Circus Baby to be capable of murdering children, which leads to the accidental death of his own daughter, Elizabeth. William's direct murder victims start with his co-worker Henry's daughterand expand to include five children visiting the restaurants with their families.Meanwhile, an incident involving William's youngest son being shoved into Fredbear's mouth by his older brother Michael results in the closure of Fredbear's Family Diner, a predecessor location.After accidentally murdering his brother, Michael begins seeking redemption, starting with recovering the remains of his sister.After the closure of a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza location, William dismantles the remaining animatronics in a backroom, releasing the souls that inhabit them who proceed to torment him. Seeking refuge from the ghosts, William hides inside an old yellow rabbit animatronic suit. Shortly after, the suit's mechanisms fail and snap shut, crushing William to death as his soul inhabits the animatronic, becoming abionicrevenantcalled Springtrap.Some time after, the whole restaurant chain shuts down. Thirty years later, a horror attraction based on the restaurant chain known as Fazbear's Fright is constructed and leads to Springtrap's excavation; a fire destroys the attraction before it can open to the public. The destruction frees the souls of William's first five victims and destroys the original mascots, though Springtrap escapes. Some time after the fire, Henry lures Springtrap and all animatronics that were not destroyed in Fazbear's Fright into a single pizzeria. With help from Michael, Henry sets fire to the restaurant and destroys every animatronic inside, freeing the souls of the children that inhabited them, including Elizabeth. The fire also kills Henry, Michael, and William.Afterwards, William's soul is trapped and tormented in a personalizedhellwith all animatronics he created. Years later, Fazbear Entertainment is re-founded and releases an in-universe virtual reality experience based on the past of the restaurant, in an effort to convince the public the company's previous controversies were merely fiction,while also constructing a new location, the Pizzaplex. Games Main series Five Nights at Freddy's(2014) Five Nights at Freddy'swas released forMicrosoft Windowson August 8, 2014, followed by ports forAndroidandiOSon August 27 and September 11, respectively. AWindows Phoneversion was also released,but was soon withdrawn due to its downscaled graphics.Ports for thePlayStation 4,Xbox One, andNintendo Switchwere released on November 29, 2019, alongside separate releases forFive Nights at Freddy's 2,3and4. The first game revolves around a character called Mike Schmidt, who begins working as a night security guard at Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, where the animatronics move at night and supposedly kill anyone they see by stuffing them into a spare animatronic suit. Schmidt is guided by the previous night guard, known as Phone Guy, who assists them in their defense against the animatronics through pre-recorded telephone messages until his death in the fourth night.He explains to Schmidt that the animatronics' mobility is a purposely programmed \"free-roaming\" mode to prevent the animatronics' servomotors from locking up. He also states that they see any human still in the restaurant as an animatronic endoskeleton without a suit. The player must survive from 12 a.m. to 6 am. The player cannot leave the room and must use a camera system and two doors with lights to defend themselves from the animatronics, with limited power to use their tools.Various hints and clues imply that, contrary to Phone Guy's explanation, the mobility and hostility of the animatronics results from them beingpossessedby thevengeful soulsof children who were killed at the restaurant. Mike is fired from his job after the seventh night for tampering with the animatronics, body odor, and unprofessionalism. Five Nights at Freddy's 2(2014) Shortly after the release of the first game, Cawthon confirmed rumors about a sequel.He posted ateaserof the sequel on his website one month after the original game's release and continued to post teasers until the sequel's release.A trailer was released on October 21, 2014, introducing new animatronic characters and the absence of doors.Five Nights at Freddy's 2was released for Microsoft Windows on November 10, 2014, earlier than its planned release of December 25. Ports for Android and iOS were released on November 13 and 20, 2014, respectively. A Windows Phone port was also released, but was withdrawn for substandard graphics.PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. The gameplay is largely similar to its predecessor. Players must survive a night shift at the \"new and improved\" Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant from 12 a.m. to 6 am, without being attacked by any of the animatronics that wander from room to room.In addition to the animatronics from the first game, which are depicted in a deteriorated state, the game features several new antagonists, who can be fended off using different tactics.The explanation given for the animatronics' behavior during the game is similar to the one from the firstFive Nights at Freddy's. The protagonist is a new character, Jeremy Fitzgerald, who is promoted to daytime security after the sixth night, being replaced by Fritz Smith in the seventh night. During the game, Phone Guy from the previous game calls Jeremy to give him hints on how to survive each night while talking about the restaurant's history. During these calls, it is revealed that the restaurant has become the subject of a police investigation due to various rumors. It is also possible to access hiddenAtari-styled minigames that provide further insight on the restaurant's troubled past, showing a purple figure killing multiple children. On the fifth night, the location is put on lockdown due to an unspecified event. At the end of the game, Jeremy receives a paycheck dated 1987, revealing that the events of the game take place before the firstFive Nights at Freddy's, and the restaurant is closed, with a new location set to be opened elsewhere. Five Nights at Freddy's 3(2015) On January 3, 2015, an image was uploaded to Cawthon's website teasing a third entry in the series.Other images followedbefore a trailer was released on January 26, 2015. On February 15, Cawthon posted on Steam thatFive Nights at Freddy's 3was cancelled after a hacker allegedlyleakedthe game.This was later revealed as a hoax; the \"leaked\" download linked to a humorouscloneof a previous game of Cawthon's,There is No Pause Button!, in which the main character is depicted wearing the Freddy animatronic head.Five Nights at Freddy's 3was released for Microsoft Windows on March 3, 2015, with Android and iOS ports following on March 7 and 12, respectively. PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. Set thirty years after the events of the first game, its main character works at Fazbear's Fright, a horror attraction based on the long-gone Freddy Fazbear's Pizza. The player must defend themselves from the deteriorated animatronic-costume hybrid named Springtrap. Burnt and tattered hallucinations of some of the animatronics from the previous two games appear; and although they cannot kill the player, they can hinder ventilation, sound, and camera systems. Failure to maintain the systems can create many issues for the player, including dysfunctional cameras and the inability to play audio to lure away the animatronic. The player receives guidance from a founder of the horror attraction for the first two nights and listens to old tape recordings which were found by the attraction's workers for the rest of the nights.The game has two endings: a \"good\" ending and a \"bad\" ending. The bad ending reveals that the souls of the murdered children still haunt the animatronics. The good ending is reached by completing secret minigames in which animatronic characters bring a cake to what seems to be a sorrowful child's soul. After completing the secret minigames, the souls of the children are freed. Five Nights at Freddy's 4(2015) On April 27, 2015, Cawthon began posting images on his website teasing another game in the series, which was originally titledFive Nights at Freddy's 4: The Final Chapter.A trailer was released on July 13, 2015, hinting that the game was set in the main character's house.Five Nights at Freddy's 4was announced with a release date of October 31, 2015. It was pushed forward to August 8 and again to July 23, when the game was unexpectedly released on Microsoft Windows through Steam. Android and iOS ports were released on July 25 and August 3, 2015, respectively. PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. The player character is an unknown and unnamed child who has delusions of being attacked by nightmarish versions of the first game's animatronic characters.The player must defend themselves with a flashlight and doors.The game's story is told through minigames, in which an unnamed young boy is bullied by his older brother because of his irrational fear of a restaurant with a yellow animatronic bear and rabbit called Fredbear and Spring Bonnie, respectively. He is guided by a plush version of Fredbear, whom the boy imagines can speak to him when he is alone. The child appears to be ultimately killed by Fredbear in a freak accident.The game had aHalloweenupdate with \"nightmare\" versions of animatronics fromFive Nights at Freddy's 2and Halloween-themed reskins for Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica. Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Location(2016) On April 23, 2016, Cawthon posted a teaser image on his website of a clown-likeanimatronicnamed Baby from an upcoming game titledSister Location.Several teaser images of different characters and hints at their origins followed. The trailer for the game was released on Cawthon's YouTube channel, with new animatronics and a new location. The release date was announced as October 7, 2016. Cawthon made a prank release of the game on October 5, apparently releasing a \"mature\" edition after a decision to delay the game to make it morekid-friendly. The download link led to a clone of Cawthon's previous game,Sit 'N Survive. Sister Locationwas released for Microsoft Windows on October 7, 2016, followed by ports for Android on December 22, 2016, and iOS on January 3, 2017, respectively. It was also released on Nintendo Switch in North America on June 18, 2020, and on Xbox One on July 10, 2020. The PlayStation 4 port was released in Europe and North America on July 21 and 22, 2020, respectively. The player character Michael Afton, nicknamed Mike (jokingly called Eggs Benedict),is a new employee of Circus Baby's Entertainment and Rental (a sister company of Fazbear Entertainment that rentsanimatronicsfor children's parties). The animatronics were originally intended for Circus Baby's Pizza World, which never opened due to agas leak.Mike is guided by HandUnit, an AI character similar to the Phone Guy of previous games. HandUnit instructs him about his job, often telling him to disregard safety; the animatronic Baby often gives instructions that contradicts that of HandUnit, but are vital to survival. The game also has a \"custom night\",in which the player can use mechanics reminiscent of the first game (such as interactive doors and a camera system) which were absent from the main game, except for a non-canonical ending, titled the \"Fake Ending\". New minigames are also available, describing Michael's fate after the events of the main game.Acutsceneis shown after the \"Golden Freddy\" custom-night preset, in which Michael speaks to his father, William Afton/Springtrap, in a foreboding way. Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulator(2017) In June 2017, Cawthon hinted at the development of a sixth main game in the series. On July 2, 2017, he announced his decision to cancel the game and said that he had been \"neglecting other things in life for the sake of trying to keep up with mounting expectations\".On December 4, 2017, after teasing the game several days earlier, Cawthon releasedFreddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorasfreewareon Steam.The game is a business-simulation game in which the player runs a pizzeria, but frequently shifts into the survival-horror vein of the series' other games. A mobile version foriOSandAndroidtitledFNaF 6: Pizzeria Simulatorwas released on August 13, 2019. Unlike the PC version, the mobile release, which is developed and published byClickteam LLC USA, ispay-to-play. ANintendo SwitchandXbox Oneport was released on October 31, 2020, with aPlayStation 4port released on March 31, 2021. The game's story follows the manager (implied to be Michael Afton) of a new Freddy Fazbear's restaurant run by the mysterious \"Cassette Man\". Every night, Michael, under Cassette Man's guidance, must salvage one of four decrepit animatronics that were found in the restaurant's back alley, including William / Springtrap (now referred to as \"Scraptrap\") and Elizabeth / Circus Baby (referred to as \"Scrap Baby\"). The game has multiple endings depending on how well the player runs the pizzeria and whether they salvaged all the animatronics, but thecanonending has Cassette Man reveal himself as Henry Emily, William's former business partner, and set the restaurant on fire after revealing its true purpose as a trap to lure in the remaining animatronics. The restaurant burns to the ground, seemingly killing the player character, Henry, and all the animatronics,finally releasing the spirits haunting them. Ultimate Custom Night(2018) Ultimate Custom Nightwas originally intended to be a post-launch add-on toPizzeria Simulator, but was eventually turned into a stand-alone game, releasing on June 27, 2018, asfreeware.A mobile port foriOSandAndroidwas released on April 28, 2020, and a console port for thePlayStation 4,Xbox One, andNintendo Switchwas released on April 30, 2021. The customizable night contains a total of fifty animatronics from previous games, which allows the player to determine how aggressive they are during the night (similar to the custom nights in earlier games). The player can select the office to play in, unlockcutscenes, and choose from 16 themed game modes available.Although unconfirmed, it has been heavily speculated that the game takes place in some version ofHellorPurgatory, where William Afton, following his death inPizzeria Simulator, is being continuously tortured by the vengeful spirit of one of his victims. However, the anthology novel seriesFazbear Frightsimplies that the game is actually Afton's repeating nightmare, and not hell or purgatory. This comes from the fifth book,Bunny Call, which has a story called \"The Man in Room 1280\" where a burned man is kept alive by a shadow child despite the fact that he should be dead and suffers nightmares. In the following book,Blackbird, the epilogue confirms that the man is actually William Afton. Although it was never confirmed if theFazbear Frightsseries is set in the same continuity as the games, Cawthon confirmed that it's supposed to reveal mysteries from the previous games. Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted(2019) On August 18, 2018, Cawthon confirmed on his Steam thread that the next main installment in theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries would be available as avirtual realitygame.On March 25, 2019, duringSony Interactive Entertainment's State of Play live stream announcing several new games for the PlayStation 4, a trailer announcing the game was shown.In the game, the player is a technician repairing a pizzeria's animatronics. From a first-person perspective, they fix the animatronics, solve puzzles and navigate dark hallways while avoiding malfunctioning and hostile animatronics.The game was released on May 28, 2019. A non-VR version of the game was released on December 17, 2019, for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 4. Curse of Dreadbear, a Halloween-themeddownloadable content(DLC) pack forHelp Wantedwas released in three parts, with several \"waves\" of new minigames released on October 23, October 29, and October 31, 2019, for a total of 10 new minigames.The DLC pack includes new animatronic characters, returning animatronics from previous games, and a Halloween-themed hub.Some of the new stages are re-skinned versions of existent minigames, such as a version of theFNAF 1minigames calledDanger! Keep Out!Notable new game modes include ashooting gallery, a free-roamingcorn maze, and anassembly linein which the player must construct an animatronic. Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach(2021) On August 8, 2019, on the first game's fifth anniversary, Cawthon posted a new image on his website, teasing the next installment for the series. It shows the \"Mega Pizzaplex\", a large entertainment complex containing a laser tag arena, an arcade, a cinema and a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant; in the main square, '80s-style versions of Freddy, Chica, and four completely new animatronics can be seen playing for an excited crowd. On April 21, 2020, the characters' names were leaked fromFunko's list of upcoming products, and the title was revealed asFive Nights at Freddy's: Pizza Plex. Scott Cawthon confirmed the leaks via Reddit but revealed that the title was not official. The game was initially scheduled for an early 2021 release,but was delayed to late 2021. Security Breachwas released on PlayStation 5, PlayStation 4, and Steam on December 16, 2021. The game's plot revolves around a young boy named Gregory being trapped in a large entertainment complex teeming with murderous animatronics who hunt him down by the orders of Vanny, a mysterious woman in a rabbit costume, while also evading the complex's security guard, Vanessa. Suffering a malfunction that causes him to ignore Vanny's hacking, Freddy assists Gregory in escaping the complex. A Stadia port was launched on July 1, 2022, ports for Xbox One and Series X/S were released on November 22, 2022, and a Nintendo Switch port was released on April 19, 2023. Free downloadable content titledRuinwas released for PlayStation 5, 4, and Steam on July 25, 2022, with an Xbox One and Series X/S port releasing on April 23, 2024, and a Nintendo Switch port in the works. Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted 2(2023) On May 24, 2023, during a PlayStation Showcase, Steel Wool Studios announced a direct sequel toHelp WantedtitledHelp Wanted 2, scheduled for release in December 2023.On November 20, 2023, the gameplay trailer was released on the official Steel Wool Studios YouTube channel, revealing several characters from the game along with the release date of December 14 on PlayStation 5 and Steam.AMeta Questversion of the game was released on May 9, 2024, and the game was launched physically with a flat version on June 20. Five Nights at Freddy's: Secret of the Mimic(2025) An eleventh main installment,Secret of the Mimic, was announced on August 6, 2024, as part of the series' 10th anniversary.The game will center on the Mimic, introduced inSecurity Breach'sRuinDLC.It will be the third virtual reality game of the series. Spin-offs FNaF World(2016) Cawthon announced a spin-off from his series,FNaF World, on September 15, 2015.Unlike the main series, the game is arole-playing video gameusing the first four games' animatronic characters. The game is set in a fanciful world where the characters must fight enemies and progress by unlocking perks anditems. Originally planned for release on February 2, 2016, Cawthon rescheduled the release for January 22 and released it on January 21. Players and critics criticized the game for missing key features and being unstable and unfinished, for which Cawthon apologized: \"I got too eager to show the things that were finished that I neglected to pay attention to the things that weren't.\" He decided to remove it from Steam, saying that the game would be improved and later re-released free of charge.Cawthon announced that he askedValveto refund all purchasers the price of the game. He released a free version of the game, featuring a3Doverworld and an updated character-selection screen, in February 2016. Cawthon posted a new teaser the following month, with characters such as the main series' Purple Guy and most of the characters from the Halloween update ofFive Nights at Freddy's 4. He created minigames for the game's second update, includingFoxy Fighters,FOXY.exe,Chica's Magic Rainbow, andFNaF 57: Freddy in Space. Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery(2019–2024) Anaugmented realitygame withlocation-based gameplay,Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery, was announced on September 13, 2019.The game was released for free on iOS and Android on November 25, 2019.Dark Circus: Encore!, DLC forSpecial Delivery, was released on December 13, 2021. Its story bridges the gap betweenFive Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted, andFive Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach, and is toldin epistolary format. One series of emails tells of a woman, Ness, triggering red-flag reports with her harmful and offensive search words. The emails eventually reveal that she is under the control of William Afton, and that Ness is Vanny fromFive Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted(\"Ness\" being short for Vanny's real name \"Vanessa\"), who was possessed by Afton after encountering a digital form of him while play-testing one of Fazbear's products. Another series of emails tells the story of the employees at Fazbear Entertainment scanning the circuit boards of old animatronics for \"The Freddy Fazbear Virtual Experience\". As of 2023,Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Deliveryhas been downloaded 40 million times, and has 6.7 million monthly active users. On February 1, 2024, Illumix announced the closure ofSpecial Delivery. On February 2, the game was no longer available to download on iOS and Android. The game's servers shut down on March 14. Freddy in Space 2(2019) Freddy in Space 2is aside-scrollingplatformshooter gameand a sequel to theFNaF 57: Freddy in Spacemini-game fromFNaF World. It was released for free on December 3, 2019, onGame Jolt.The game was made to promote a \"#CancelCancer\" charity livestream on YouTube, which was hosted byMatthew Patrickof Game Theorists forSt. Jude Children's Research HospitalinMemphis, Tennessee. Security Breach: Fury's Rage(2021) Security Breach: Fury's Rageis aside-scrollingbeat 'em upgame featuring the main cast ofSecurity Breach(not including Gregory or Vanessa). The game was made to compensate for the release ofSecurity Breachbeing delayed for a second time and was released for free on Game Jolt on April 28, 2021. Freddy in Space 3: Chica in Space(2023) Freddy in Space 3: Chica in Spaceis a side-scrolling platform shooter game and a sequel toFreddy in Space 2, it was released on October 18, 2023, under the titleFNAF: The Movie: The Game, which was developed by Cawthon, claimed to be aspoiler-heavytie-ingame of theFive Nights at Freddy'sfilm, which was revealed to beFreddy in Space 3in disguise. It was released for free on Game Jolt. Five Nights at Freddy's: Into the Pit(2024) On January 22, 2024, anadaptationof theFazbear Frights: Into the Pitanthology novel was leaked to be in development in an upcoming slate of new novels to be released in 2024.The following day, a trailer was leaked online.Later that day, series creator Scott Cawthon made a post on Reddit acknowledging the leaks and stating the game would release for the series' 10th anniversary on August 8.On January 25, 2024,Mega Cat Studiosconfirmed they were developing the game.The gameplay trailer for the game released June 6.It will be the first installment of the series to be fully in2Dand made withpixel art.The game was accidentally released to Japanese consoles early on August 7, which was repurposed as the new release date.PlayStationandXboxports were released on September 27. Five Laps at Freddy's(2025) Five Laps at Freddy'sis akart racing gamebased on characters fromFive Nights at Freddy'sdeveloped byClickteam. It was announced on June 19, 2024, to coincide with the series' 10th anniversary.A gameplay trailer was released August 3. A demo of the game was released August 7 and a full release of the game is expected in 2025. Five Nights at Freddy's: Survival Crew(TBA) On December 20, 2023, an officialRobloxadaptation by the name ofFive Nights at Freddy's: Survival Crewwas accidentally released in an unfinished state by its developers, Metaverse Team Frights. The game was immediately taken down after major backlash and Cawthon promised the game would be released in a functional state sometime in 2024.In the short time the game was released, players described the gameplay as similar to the cooperative horror game,Dead by Daylight. Fazbear Fanverse On August 21, 2020, Cawthon announced his plan to help fund and publishFive Nights at Freddy'sgames developed by fans, bundled with previous installments in their respective series.Games published under this initiative include theOne Night at Flumpty'sseries, theFive Nights at Candy'sseries, theJoy of Creationseries,andPopgoes Evergreen(including its prologue game). Cawthon stated that these games will come to other platforms, such as mobile and consoles, and may have merchandise created for them.The first game to be released under this initiative was a port ofOne Night at Flumpty'sfor Android and iOS on October 31 and November 18, 2020, respectively, followed by two of its sequels later in 2021 on the same platforms.Another game planned to be published under this initiative,Five Nights at Freddy's Plus, a remake of the original game, currently has an uncertain future after the firing of its main developer, Phil Morg following controversies in the games fanbase.The game has since been removed from Steam. Books Novel trilogy (2015–2018) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyes(2015) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyesis the first novel by Scott Cawthon and Kira Breed-Wrisley. It was published independently onAmazon Kindleon December 17, 2015, and a paperback release byScholasticfollowed on September 27, 2016. The novel follows a group of childhood friends who meet in their hometown and discover unnerving secrets about the once-beloved Freddy Fazbear's Pizza.According to Cawthon, the novel \"expands the mythos and reveals a human element never before seen in the games\". Although the novel inhabits theFive Nights at Freddy'suniverse, the book and the games are not \"intended to fit together like two puzzle pieces\". Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones(2017) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones, the second novel by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley,was discovered onAmazonunder Cawthon's name on January 8, 2017.Although the discovery sparked controversy about the book's legitimacy,Cawthon soon confirmed that it was an official publication.The novel, published on June 27, 2017, by Scholastic, involves Charlie, the main character fromThe Silver Eyes, who is \"drawn back into the world of her father's frightening creations\" while trying to move on. Five Nights at Freddy's: The Fourth Closet(2018) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Fourth Closet, the third novel by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley, was published on June 26, 2018, by Scholastic. The novel focuses on Charlie's friends, who are searching for the truth behind what happened to Charlie inThe Twisted Oneswhile mysterious events unfold after a new restaurant opens. Film adaptations A film adaptationbased on the game series was released for streaming onPeacockand theatrically in the United States on October 27, 2023, byUniversal Pictures.Directed by Emma Tammi, who co-wrote the screenplay with Cawthon and Seth Cuddeback, the film starsJosh HutchersonwithElizabeth Lail, Piper Rubio,Mary Stuart Masterson, andMatthew Lillardappearing in supporting roles. The film received generally negative reviews from critics but was a commercial success, becoming Blumhouse Productions' highest-grossing film worldwide with nearly $300 million.A sequel is in development. Reception The originalFive Nights at Freddy'sreceived \"generally favorable\" reviews according toreview aggregatorwebsiteMetacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 78 out of 100.Indie Game Magazinepraised the game for its simple take on the horror genre, labeling the game a \"fantastic example of how cleverness in design and subtlety can be used to make an experience terrifying\". They noted that its artistic direction and gameplay mechanics contributed to a feeling of \"brutal tension\", but criticized it for taking too long to load when launched. Omri Petitte forPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy'sa score of 80 out of 100, commenting that the game took a \"less-is-more\" approach to its design, and praising the overall atmosphere for emphasizing the fear and suspense of an approaching threat, rather than the arrival of the threat itself as in other horror-oriented games. However, the gameplay was criticized for becoming repetitive once a player masters it, noting players have \"not much more to expect beyond managing battery life and careful timing of slamming doors shut.\"Ryan Bates ofGameRevolutiongave the game a 4.5 out of 5, commending the game's minimalistic presentation (particularly its audio design and lack of music) for contributing to the terror of the game, along with its repetitive gameplay that would \" almostOCD-type levels, adding to the tense environment.\" He opined that the game was \"horror done right\", but felt it was too short. Shaun Musgrave ofTouchArcadegave a rating of 3.5 out of 5, noting the game's reliance on atmosphere to induce fear, noting that \"if the atmosphere doesn't get to you, all that's left is a very simple game of red light-green light.\"Eurogamer'sJeffrey Matulef called the game \"wonderfully creative\", and compared the animatronic animals in the game toWeeping Angelsdue to their ability to only move when they are not being observed. Five Nights at Freddy's 2received \"mixed or average\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 62 out of 100.Omri Petitte forPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy's 2a score of 70 out of 100, commenting that what he wanted in the sequel \"was more mind games and more uncertainty. I wanted the plodding animatronic suits to find me and rip my face off in new and interesting ways. I wanted working legs. What I got was a horror game dipping heavily into deception and subtlety, a wonderfully cruel cocktail of supernatural mystery and jolts of panicked adrenaline. Enjoying the good parts, though, comes with a cost of a frustratingly steep difficulty.\" Destructoidgave the game a positive review, saying that \"It's absolutely terrifying to know that you could be attacked at any moment from multiple avenues\", praising the introduction of new animatronics and mechanics, but also criticizing the jumpscares and called the game \"too hard for its own good\".In a review for theNintendo Switchversion of the game in 2019, Mitch Vogel ofNintendo Lifesaid, \"Five Nights at Freddy's 2may not necessarily reinvent the wheel, but it still does a fine job of keeping you on the edge of your seat.\" Five Nights at Freddy's 3received \"mixed or average\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 68 out of 100.Omri Petitte fromPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy's 3a score of 77 out of 100, praising the reworked camera system, but commented on how the jumpscares from the other animatronics \"felt a little stale by the third night.\"In a more critical review, Nic Rowen fromDestructoidgave the game a 6.5 out of 10, saying that even though the game is \"by far the most technically proficient and mechanically satisfying installment yet,\" he criticized Springtrap and Fazbear's Fright for lacking the \"charm of the original cast and locations.\" Five Nights at Freddy's 4received \"mixed or average\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 51 out of 100.Destructoidcriticized the gameplay as being too confusing, and gave the game a review score of 4 out of 10.The Escapistgave the game a positive review score of 4 out of 5 stars saying that they liked the reworked mechanics, darker and emotional storyline, scary jumpscares, and sad ending but noted the game's bugs and glitches.Nadia Oxford ofGamezebogave it 4 out of 5 stars in her review praising it for its intense environment, creepy sounds and graphics, and jumpscares. She criticized the game for being difficult to survive in certain environments when relying on audio cues and the Android version not containing the story-centric minigames. Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Locationreceived \"mixed or average\" reviews from critics according to Metacritic, assigning a score of 62 out of 100.Destructoidrated the game 6/10,whileGameCraterated it 7.50/10.Shelby Watson ofThe All Stategave the game a positive review, citing it to be comparable to the first game's quality, but unlike the first game, never allowing the player to operate the mechanics on muscle memory alone. She writes, \"...ach night is so different, it is impossible to get comfortable with the mechanics enough that it feels like second nature. The game changes so much, you are forced to adapt and are always on the edge of your seat, waiting for what is to come.\"TechRaptorrated the game 9/10, calling it \"genuinely terrifying\" with a \"great storytelling\" and praised the voice acting. Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorreceived mostly positive reviews.GameCratecalled it the \"best value in gaming right now\",withRock Paper Shotguncalling it \"spooky as hell\".TheBall State Daily Newsalso gave a positive review, giving the game a 7.6/10 and calling it \"an interesting evolution of theFive Nights formula\".IGNlistedFreddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorin their top 18 Best Horror Games of 2017. Ultimate Custom Nightreceived mostly positive reviews.Rock Paper Shotgundeemed the game \"an intriguing mess\",withPC Gamercalling it \"a neat, customisable take on the classic survival horror formula\". Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wantedreceived \"generally favorable\" reviews from critics for the PlayStation 4 version according to Metacritic, assigning a score of 80 out of 100;the Nintendo Switch version received \"mixed or average\" reviews, with Metacritic assigning a score of 53 out of 100.Reviewers praised the game for its effective use of virtual reality and its success in introducing new mechanics while preserving the series' feel and atmosphere while being accessible for players new to the series. However, the game's frequent use of jump scares could make it less scary and more obnoxious over time for some players. Stuart Gipp atNintendo Lifecriticized the Nintendo Switch version of the game and gave it a score of 3 out of 10. The main criticism being that the game had become pointless for having removed the VR mode making it a \"sub-par minigame collection\" with \"limited gameplay\" since previous main games were available already for the console, and speculated that the only reason for releasing it for the console were to capitalize on the console's market share.The game is listed as one ofPlayStation's \"Favorite Horror Games of 2019\" on their websiteand is one of the top 30 best selling VR games on Steam.The game was nominated for the Coney Island Dreamland Award for Best AR/VR Game at theNew York Game Awardsin 2020. Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breachreceived \"mixed or average\" reviews, according to Metacritic.Jeuxvideo.comgave a mixed review, praising the atmosphere and the originality of certain gameplay sections, but criticizing the bugs and technical issues.The Escapist'sBen \"Yahtzee\" Croshawwas more critical of the game, praising the visuals, but criticizing the bugs, design, and restrictive save system.The game was nominated and won Players' Choice December 2021 onPlayStation's official blog. Five Nights at Freddy's: Into the Pitreceived \"generally positive\" reviews, according to Metacritic.Game Rantpraised the game for its story and visuals, whileComicBook.compraised it for its faithfulness to the source material. Cultural influence Fandom Since the release of the first game, popular video creators such asPewDiePie,Markiplier, andJacksepticeyehave garnered millions of views, which helped the games receive additional attention from their playthroughs.In May 2015, YouTube reported that videos of theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries were the platform's eighth-most-watched playthroughs. The interpretive,non-linear, and cryptic narrative ofFive Nights at Freddy'sis a popular topic for fans to discuss and debate.Channels such asThe Game TheoristsfeatureFive Nights at Freddy's-related videos with the goal of discovering the lore of the franchise.With over 60 videos and 800 million views combined, Matthew Patrick of The Game Theorists has described the series as \"a delightfully incomplete and mysterious story with just enough threads to keep you guessing.\" Thousands offan gameshave been inspired by the game mechanics ofFive Nights at Freddy's.Fan games for the franchise are incredibly common to the pointGame JoltmadeFNaFgames its own genre to avoid overwhelming the site.: 74Along with fan games, multiple fan songs have been created, including some byThe Living Tombstone, each having accumulated hundreds of millions of views.The Living Tombstone'sfirstFNaFsongwas played in theclosing creditsof the film adaptation. Although theFive Nights at Freddy'sfandom has been criticized for immaturity,Cawthon defended them and criticized the broader community for what he called an unfair generalization. In September 2020, a video featuringJack Blackdancing to The Living Tombstone's firstFive Nights at Freddy'sfan songwent viralon the social media platformTikTok.Black had previously appeared on an episode ofJimmy Kimmel Live!in April 2020, wearing a mask headpiece modeled after Glitchtrap, antagonist of Help Wanted and its sequel, where he revealed that he is a fan of theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries.Black and his son Samuel had previously playedFive Nights at Freddy's 4with Markiplier to promote his own filmGoosebumps. Merchandise Five Nights at Freddy'smerchandise is primarily produced by two companies: Sanshee and Funko.Products includestuffed toys,action figures,posters, clothing,keychains, andstationery, among other things.McFarlane Toysalso has a line ofFive Nights at Freddy'smerchandise, consisting mainly ofconstruction sets;Todd McFarlanecalled the line \"the single largest-selling product, bar none, by a lot that done in 20-plus years.\"The merchandise, available internationally, has been a factor in the franchise's success. Notes References Further reading External links",
"Grateful Dead TheGrateful Deadwas an Americanrockband formed inPalo Alto, Californiain 1965.Known for their eclectic style that fused elements of rock,blues,jazz,folk,country,bluegrass,rock and roll,gospel,reggae, andworld musicwithpsychedelia,the band is famous forimprovisationduring theirlive performances,and for their devoted fan base, known as \"Deadheads\". According to the musician and writerLenny Kaye, the music of the Grateful Dead \"touches on ground that most other groups don't even know exists.\"For the range of their influences and the structure of their live performances, the Grateful Dead are considered \"the pioneering godfathers of thejam bandworld\". The Grateful Dead was founded in theSan Francisco Bay Areaduring the rise of thecounterculture of the 1960s.The band's founding members wereJerry Garcia(lead guitarand vocals),Bob Weir(rhythm guitar and vocals),Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan(keyboards,harmonica, and vocals),Phil Lesh(bass guitarand vocals), andBill Kreutzmann(drums).Members of the Grateful Dead, originally known asthe Warlocks, had played together in various Bay Area ensembles, including the traditionaljug bandMother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions. Lesh was the last member to join the Warlocks before they changed their name to Grateful Dead, replacing Dana Morgan Jr., who had played bass for a few gigs. DrummerMickey Hartand non-performing lyricistRobert Hunterjoined in 1967. With the exception of McKernan, who died in 1973, and Hart, who left the band from 1971 to 1974, the core of the band stayed together for its entire 30-year history.Other official members of the band includedTom Constanten(keyboards from 1968 to 1970),John Perry Barlow(non-performing lyricist from 1971 to 1995),Keith Godchaux(keyboards and occasional vocals from 1971 to 1979),Donna Godchaux(vocals from 1972 to 1979),Brent Mydland(keyboards and vocals from 1979 to 1990), andVince Welnick(keyboards and vocals from 1990 to 1995).Bruce Hornsby(accordion, piano, vocals) was atouringmember from 1990 to 1992, as well as a guest with the band on occasion before and after the tours. After Garcia's death in 1995, former members of the band, along with other musicians, toured asThe Other Onesin 1998, 2000, and 2002, and asThe Deadin 2003, 2004, and 2009. In 2015, the four surviving core members marked the band's 50th anniversary in aseries of concertsinSanta Clara, California, andChicagothat were billed as their last performances together.There have also been several spin-offs featuring one or more core members, such asDead & Company,Furthur, theRhythm Devils,Phil Lesh and Friends,RatDog, andBilly & the Kids. Despite having only one Top-40 single in their 30-year career, \"Touch of Grey(1987),\" the Grateful Dead remained among the highest-grossing American touring acts for decades. They gained a committed fanbase by word of mouth and through the free exchange of their live recordings, encouraged by the band's allowance oftaping. In 2024, they broke the record for most Top-40 albums on theBillboard200chart.Rolling Stoneranked the Grateful Dead number 57 on its 2011 list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\".The band was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994,and a recording of theirMay 8, 1977 performanceatCornell University'sBarton Hallwas added to theNational Recording Registryof theLibrary of Congressin 2012 for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".In 2024, the four living core members (Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann and Hart) were recognized as part of theKennedy Center Honors. Formation (1965–1966) The Grateful Dead began their career as the Warlocks, a group formed in early 1965 from the remnants of aPalo Alto, Californiajug bandcalledMother McCree's Uptown Jug Championsand members of The Wildwood Boys (Jerry Garcia, Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan, David Nelson, Robert Hunter, and Norm Van Maastricht).As The Wildwood Boys they played regularly at The Tangent, a folk music coffeehouse operated by Stanford Medical Center doctors Stuart \"Stu\" Goldstein and David \"Dave\" Shoenstadt on University Avenue in Palo Alto (1963).As the Warlocks, the band's first show was at Magoo's Pizza Parlor, at 639 Santa Cruz Avenue in suburbanMenlo Park, on May 5, 1965, now a Harvest furniture store. The band continued playing bar shows,like Frenchy's Bikini-A-Go-GoinHaywardand, importantly, five sets a night, five nights a week, for six weeks, at theIn RoominBelmontas the Warlocks,but quickly changed the band's name after finding out that a different band known as the Warlocks had put out a record under that name. (The Velvet Undergroundalso had to change its name from the Warlocks.) The name \"Grateful Dead\" was chosen from a dictionary. According to Lesh, Garcia \"picked up an oldBritannicaWorld Language Dictionary... ... In that silvery elf-voice he said to me, 'Hey, man, how about the Grateful Dead?'\"The definition there was \"the soul of a dead person, or his angel, showing gratitude to someone who, as an act of charity, arranged their burial.\" According to Alan Trist, director of the Grateful Dead's music publisher company Ice Nine, Garcia found the name in theFunk & WagnallsFolklore Dictionary, when his finger landed on that phrase while playing a game ofFictionary.In the Garcia biographyCaptain Trips, author Sandy Troy states that the band was smoking the psychedelicDMTat the time.The term \"grateful dead\" appears in folktales from a variety of cultures. The first show under the name Grateful Dead was inSan Joseon December 4, 1965, at one ofKen Kesey'sAcid Tests.Scholar Michael Kaler has written that the Dead's participation in the Acid Tests was crucial both to the development of their improvisational vocabulary and to their bonding as a band, with the group having set out to foster an intra-band musical telepathy.Kaler has further pointed out that the Dead's pursuit of a new improvisatory rock language in 1965 chronologically coincided with that same goal's adoption byJefferson Airplane,Pink Floydandthe Velvet Underground. Earlierdemo tapeshave survived, but the first of over 2,000 concerts known to have been recorded by the band's fans was a show at theFillmore Auditoriumin San Francisco on January 8, 1966.Later that month, the Grateful Dead played at the Trips Festival, a three-daypsychedelic rockweekend party and event produced byKen Kesey,Stewart Brand, andRamon Sender, that, in conjunction with theMerry Pranksters, brought the nascenthippiemovement together for the first time. Other supporting personnel who joined early includedRock Scully, who heard of the band from Kesey and signed on as manager after meeting them at the Big Beat Acid Test;Stewart Brand, \"with his side show of taped music and slides of Indian life, a multimedia presentation\" at the Big Beat and then, expanded, at the Trips Festival; andOwsley Stanley, the \"Acid King\" whoseLSDsupplied the Acid Tests and who, in early 1966, became the band's financial backer, renting them a house on the fringes ofWatts, Los Angeles, and buying them sound equipment. \"We were living solely off of Owsley's good graces at that time. ... trip was he wanted to design equipment for us, and we were going to have to be in sort of a lab situation for him to do it\", said Garcia. Main career (1967–1995) Pigpen era (1967–1972) One of the group's earliest major performances in 1967 was theMantra-Rock Dance, a musical event held on January 29, 1967, at theAvalon Ballroomby the San FranciscoHare Krishnatemple. The Grateful Dead performed at the event along with the Hare Krishna founderBhaktivedanta Swami, poetAllen Ginsberg, bandsMoby GrapeandBig Brother and the Holding CompanywithJanis Joplin, donating proceeds to the temple.The band's first LP,The Grateful Dead, was released on Warner Brothers in 1967. On May 3, 1968, the band played a free concert atColumbia Universityduring theanti–Vietnam War student protestsduring which students occupied several campus buildings. In order to play, the band, equipment and all, had to be “smuggled” on campus in the back of a bread delivery truck. “We were already jamming away before the security and police could stop us.” Classically trained trumpeterPhil Leshperformed onbass guitar.Bob Weir, the youngest original member of the group, playedrhythm guitar.Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernanplayedkeyboards,percussion, andharmonicauntil shortly before his death in 1973 at the age of 27. Garcia, Weir, and McKernan shared the lead vocal duties more or less equally; Lesh sang only a few leads, but his tenor was a key part of the band's three-part vocal harmonies.Bill Kreutzmannplayeddrums, and in September 1967 was joined by a second drummer, New York City nativeMickey Hart, who also played a wide variety of otherpercussion instruments. 1970 included tour dates inNew Orleans, where the band performed atThe Warehousefor two nights. On January 31, 1970, the local police raided their hotel onBourbon Streetand arrested and charged 19 people with possession of various drugs.The second night's concert was performed as scheduled after bail was posted. Eventually, the charges were dismissed, except those against sound engineerOwsley Stanley, who was already facing charges in California for manufacturing LSD. This event was later memorialized in the lyrics of “Truckin'\", a single fromAmerican Beautythat reached number 64 on the charts. Hart took time off from the band in February 1971, after his father, an accountant, absconded with much of the band's money;Kreutzmann was once again as the sole percussionist. Hart rejoined the Grateful Dead for good in October 1974.Tom \"TC\" Constantenwas added as a second keyboardist from 1968 to 1970, to help Pigpen keep up with an increasingly psychedelic sound, while Pigpen transitioned into playing various percussion instruments and vocals. After Constanten's departure, Pigpen reclaimed his position as sole keyboardist. Less than two years later, in late 1971, Pigpen was joined by another keyboardist,Keith Godchaux, who playedgrand pianoalongside Pigpen'sHammond B-3 organ. In early 1972, Keith's wife,Donna Jean Godchaux, joined the Grateful Dead as a backing vocalist. Following the Grateful Dead's \"Europe '72\" tour, Pigpen's health had deteriorated to the point that he could no longer tour with the band. His final concert appearance was June 17, 1972, at theHollywood Bowl, in Los Angeles;he died on March 8, 1973, of complications from liver damage. Godchaux era (1972–1979) Pigpen's death did not slow down the Grateful Dead. With the help of managerRon Rakow, the band soon formed its own record label,Grateful Dead Records.Later that year, it released its next studio album, the jazz-influencedWake of the Flood, whichbecame their biggest commercial success thus far.Meanwhile, capitalizing on the album's success, the band soon went back to the studio, and in June 1974 released another album,From the Mars Hotel. Not long after, the Dead decided to take a hiatus from livetouring. The band travelled to Europe for a string of shows in September 1974, before performing a series of five concerts at theWinterland Ballroomin San Francisco in October 1974, and delved into various other projects.The Winterland concerts were filmed, and Garcia compiled the footage intoThe Grateful Dead Movie, a feature-length concert film released in 1977. In September 1975, the Dead released their eighth studio album,Blues for Allah. The band resumed touring in June 1976, playing multiple dates in small theaters, rather than the stadium shows that had become common, and had exhausted them, in 1974.That same year, they signed withArista Records, and the new contract producedTerrapin Stationin July 1977. The band's tour in the spring of that year is held in high regard by its fans, and itsconcert of May 8atCornell Universityis often considered one of the best performances of its career.TheirSeptember 1977 concertatRaceway ParkinOld Bridge Township, New Jerseywas attended by 107,019 people and held the record forlargest-ticketed concertin the United States by a single act for 47 years. Keith and Donna Jean Godchaux left the band in February 1979, citing artistic differences. Mydland/Welnick era (1979–1995) Following the Godchauxs' departure,Brent Mydlandjoined as keyboardist and vocalist and was considered \"the perfect fit.\" The Godchauxs then formed theHeart of Gold Band, before Keith died in a car accident in July 1980. Mydland was the keyboardist for the Grateful Dead for 11 years until his death by narcotics overdose in July 1990,becoming the third keyboardist to die. Shortly after Mydland found his place in the early 1980s, Garcia's health began to decline. He became a frequent smoker of \"Persian,\" a type of heroin, and he gained weight at a rapid pace. He lost his liveliness on stage, his voice was strained, and Deadheads worried for his health. After he began to curtail his opiate usage gradually in 1985, Garcia slipped into adiabetic comafor several days in July 1986, leading to the cancelation of all concerts in the fall of that year. Garcia recovered, the band releasedIn the Darkin July 1987, which became its best-selling studio album and produced its only top-40 single, \"Touch of Grey,\" Also, that year, the grouptouredwithBob Dylan, as heard on the albumDylan & the Dead. Mydland died in July 1990 andVince Welnick, former keyboardist forthe Tubes, joined as a band member, whileBruce Hornsby, who had a successful career with his band the Range, joined temporarily as a bridge to help Welnick learn songs. Both performed on keyboards and vocals—Welnick until the band's end, and Hornsby mainly from 1990 to 1992. SaxophonistBranford Marsalisplayed five concerts with the band between 1990 and 1994. The Grateful Dead performed its final concert on July 9, 1995, atSoldier Fieldin Chicago. Aftermath (1995–present) Jerry Garciadied on August 9, 1995. A few months after Garcia's death, the remaining members of the Grateful Dead decided to disband.Since that time, there have been a number ofreunions by the surviving membersinvolving various combinations of musicians. Additionally, the former members have also begun or continued individual projects. In 1998, Bob Weir, Phil Lesh, and Mickey Hart, along with several other musicians, formed a band calledthe Other Ones, and performed a number of concerts that year, releasing a live album,The Strange Remain, the following year. In 2000, the Other Ones toured again, this time with Kreutzmann but without Lesh. After taking another year off, the band toured again in 2002 with Lesh. That year, the Other Ones then included all four living former Grateful Dead members who had been in the band for most or all of its history. At different times the shifting lineup of the Other Ones also included guitaristsMark Karan,Steve Kimock, andJimmy Herring, keyboardistsBruce Hornsby,Jeff Chimenti, andRob Barraco, saxophonistDave Ellis, drummerJohn Molo, bassistAlphonso Johnson, and vocalistSusan Tedeschi. In 2003, the Other Ones, still including Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann, changed their name tothe Dead.The Dead toured the United States in 2003, 2004 and 2009. The band's lineups included Jimmy Herring andWarren Hayneson guitar, Jeff Chimenti and Rob Barraco on keyboards, andJoan Osborneon vocals.In 2008, members of the Dead played two concerts, called \"Deadheads for Obama\" and \"Change Rocks\". Following the 2009 Dead tour, Lesh and Weir formed the bandFurthur, which debuted in September 2009.Joining Lesh and Weir in Furthur wereJohn Kadlecik(guitar), Jeff Chimenti (keyboards),Joe Russo(drums),Jay Lane(drums),Sunshine Becker(vocals), and Zoe Ellis (vocals). Lane and Ellis left the band in 2010, and vocalistJeff Pehrsonjoined later that year. Furthur disbanded in 2014. In 2010, Hart and Kreutzmann re-formed theRhythm Devils, and played a summer concert tour. Since 1995, the former members of the Grateful Dead have also pursued solo music careers. BothBob Weir & RatDogandPhil Lesh and Friendshave performed many concerts and released several albums. Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann have also each released a few albums. Hart has toured with hisworld musicpercussion ensemble Planet Drumas well as the Mickey Hart Band.Kreutzmann has led several different bands, includingBK3,7 Walkers(withPapa Mali),andBilly & the Kids.Donna Godchaux has returned to the music scene, with theDonna Jean Godchaux Band,andTom Constantenalso continues to write and perform music.All of these groups continue to play Grateful Dead music. In October 2014, it was announced thatMartin Scorsesewould produce a documentary film about the Grateful Dead, to be directed byAmir Bar-Lev.David Lemieuxsupervised the musical selection, and Weir, Hart, Kreutzmann, and Lesh agreed to new interviews for the film.Bar-Lev's four-hour documentary, titledLong Strange Trip, was released in 2017. \"Fare Thee Well\" In 2015, Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann, and Hart reunited for five concerts called \"Fare Thee Well: Celebrating 50 Years of the Grateful Dead\".The shows were performed on June 27 and 28 atLevi's StadiuminSanta Clara, California, and on July 3, 4 and 5 atSoldier FieldinChicago.The band stated that this would be the final time that Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann would perform together.They were joined byTrey AnastasioofPhishon guitar, Jeff Chimenti on keyboards, and Bruce Hornsby on piano.Demand for tickets was very high.The concerts were simulcast via various media.The Chicago shows have been released as a box set of CDs and DVDs. Dead & Company In the fall of 2015, Mickey Hart, Bill Kreutzmann and Bob Weir joined with guitaristJohn Mayer, keyboardistJeff Chimenti, and bassistOteil Burbridgeto tour in a band calledDead & Company. Mayer recounts that in 2011 he was listening toPandoraand happened upon the Grateful Dead song \"Althea\", and that soon Grateful Dead music was all he would listen to.The band played six tours:October–December 2015,June–July 2016,May–July 2017.,May–August 2018, and May–July 2019.On October–November 2019 they played 6 dates on the \"2019 Fall Fun Run\". On December 27 and 28, they played at The Forum in Inglewood (Los Angeles), California as part of their \"2019 New Year's Run\" tour. On December 30 and 31, they played in their hometown of San Francisco at the Chase Center, featuring a bi-plane that descended from the ceiling of the Chase Center carrying the daughters of Jerry Garcia, Trixie Garcia and her half-sister, Ken Kesey's daughter Sunshine Kesey, dropping rose petals on the audience as they toured the arena. Barlow died in 2018and Hunter in 2019. In 2022, John Mayer announced that Dead & Company's summer 2023 tour will be their last. Musical style and legacy The Grateful Dead formed during the era when bands such asthe Beatles,the Beach Boysandthe Rolling Stoneswere dominating the airwaves. \"The Beatles were why we turned from a jug band into a rock 'n' roll band\", said Bob Weir. \"What we saw them doing was impossibly attractive. I couldn't think of anything else more worth doing.\"Former folk-scene starBob Dylanhad recently put out a couple of records featuring electric instrumentation. Grateful Dead members have said that it was after attending a concert by the touring New York City bandthe Lovin' Spoonfulthat they decided to \"go electric\" and look for a \"dirtier\" sound.Jerry GarciaandBob Weir(both of whom had been immersed in theAmerican folk music revivalof the late 1950s and early 1960s), were open-minded about the use of electric guitars. The Grateful Dead's early music (in the mid-1960s) was part of the process of establishing what \"psychedelic music\" was, but theirs was essentially a \"street party\" form of it. They developed their \"psychedelic\" playing as a result of meetingKen KeseyinPalo Alto, California, and subsequently becoming the house band for theAcid Testshe staged.They did not fit their music to an established category such as pop rock, blues, folk rock, or country & western. Individual tunes within their repertoire could be identified under one of these stylistic labels, but overall their music drew on all of these genres and, more frequently, melded several of them.Bill Grahamsaid of the Grateful Dead, \"They're not the best at what they do, they're the only ones that do what they do.\"Academics Paul Hegarty and Martin Halliwell argued that the Grateful Dead were \"not merely asprecursorsofprogbut as essential developments of progressiveness in its early days\".Often (both in performance and on recording) the Dead left room for exploratory, spacey soundscapes. Their live shows, fed by an improvisational approach to music, were different from most touring bands. While rock and roll bands often rehearse a standard set, played with minor variations, the Grateful Dead did not prepare in this way. Garcia stated in a 1966 interview, \"We don't make up our sets beforehand. We'd rather work off the tops of our heads than off a piece of paper.\"They maintained this approach throughout their career. For each performance, the band drew material from an active list of a hundred or so songs. The 1969 live albumLive/Deaddid capture the band in-form, but commercial success did not come untilWorkingman's DeadandAmerican Beauty, both released in 1970. These records largely featured the band's laid-backacoustic musicianshipand more traditional song structures. With their rootsy, eclectic stylings, particularly evident on the latter two albums, the band pioneered the hybridAmericanagenre. Beginning in the early 1990s, a new generation of bands became inspired by the Grateful Dead's improvisational ethos andmarketing strategy, and began to incorporate elements of the Grateful Dead's live performances into their own shows. These include the nightly alteration ofsetlists, frequent improvisation,the blending of genres, and the allowance oftaping, which would often contribute to the development of a dedicated fanbase. Bands associated with the expansion of the\"jam scene\"includePhish,The String Cheese Incident,Widespread Panic,Blues Traveler,moe., and theDisco Biscuits. Many of these groups began to look past theAmerican roots musicthat the Grateful Dead drew inspiration from, and incorporated elements ofprogressive rock,hard rock, andelectronica. At the same time, the Internet gained popularity and provided a medium for fans to discuss these bands and their performances and downloadMP3s. The Grateful Dead, as well as Phish, were one of the first bands to have aUsenetnewsgroup. Musicianship As the band and its sound matured over thirty years of touring, playing, and recording, each member's stylistic contribution became more defined, consistent, and identifiable. Garcia's lead lines were fluid, supple and spare, owing a great deal of their character to his experience playingScruggs stylebanjo, an approach which often makes use ofnote syncopation,accenting,arpeggios,staccatochromatic runs, and the anticipation of thedownbeat. Garcia had a distinctive sense oftiming, often weaving in and out of thegrooveestablished by the rest of the band as if he were pushing the beat. His lead lines were also immensely influenced byjazz soloists: Garcia citedMiles Davis,Ornette Coleman,Bill Evans,Pat Martino,George Benson,Al Di Meola,Art Tatum,Duke Ellington, andDjango Reinhardtas primary influences, and frequently utilized techniques common tocountryandblues musicin songs that called back to those traditions. Garcia often switchedscalesin the midst of a solo depending upon thechord changesplayed underneath, though he nearly always finishedphrasesby landing on thechord-tones. Jerry most frequently played in theMixolydian mode, though his solos and phrases often incorporated notes from theDorianandmajor/minor pentatonic scales. Particularly in the late 1960s, Garcia occasionally incorporatedmelodic linesderived fromIndianragasinto the band's extended,psychedelicimprovisation, likely inspired byJohn Coltraneand other jazz artists' interest in thesitarmusic ofRavi Shankar. Lesh was originally a classically trained trumpet player with an extensive background inmusic theory, but did not tend to play traditional blues-based bass forms. He often played more melodic, symphonic and complex lines, often sounding like a second lead guitar. In contrast to most bassists inpopular music, Lesh often avoids playing therootof a chord on the downbeat, instead withholding as a means to buildtension. Lesh also rarely repeats the same bassline, even from performance to performance of the same song, and often plays off of or around the other instruments with asyncopated,staccatobounce that contributes to the Dead's unique rhythmic character. Weir, too, was not a traditionalrhythm guitarist, but tended to play uniqueinversionsat the upper end of the Dead's sound. Weir modeled his style of playing after jazz pianistMcCoy Tynerand attempted to replicate the interplay between John Coltrane and Tyner in his support, and occasional subversion, of theharmonic structureof Garcia's voice leadings. This would often influence the direction the band's improvisation would take on a given night. Weir and Garcia's respective positions as rhythm and lead guitarist were not always strictly adhered to, as Weir would often incorporate short melodic phrases into his playing to support Garcia and occasionally took solos, often played with aslide. Weir's playing is characterized by a \"spiky, staccato\" sound. The band's two drummers,Mickey HartandBill Kreutzmann, developed a unique, complex interplay, balancing Kreutzmann's steadyshufflebeat with Hart's interest in percussion styles outside the rock tradition. Kreuzmann has said, \"I like to establish a feeling and then add radical or oblique juxtapositions to that feeling.\"Hart incorporated an 11-count measure to his drumming, bringing a dimension to the band's sound that became an important part of its style. He had studiedtabladrumming and incorporated rhythms and instruments fromworld music, and laterelectronic music, into the band's live performances. The Dead's live performances featured multiple types ofimprovisationderived from a vast array of musical traditions. Not unlike many rock bands of their time, the majority of the Dead's songs feature a designated section in which aninstrumental breakoccurs over thechord changes. These sections typically feature solos by Garcia that often originate as variations on the song'smelody, but go on to create dynamic phrases that resolve by returning to the chord-tones. Not unlike traditionalimprovisational jazz, they may occasionally feature several solos by multiple instruments within an undecided number ofbars, such as a keyboardist, before returning to the melody. At the same time, Dead shows almost always feature a more collective,modalapproach to improvisation that typically occurs duringseguesbetween songs before the bandmodulatesto a newtonal center. Some of the Dead's more extended jam vehicles, such as \"The Other One\", \"Dark Star\", and \"Playing in the Band\" almost exclusively make use of modulation between modes to accompany simple two-chord progressions. Lyrical themes Following the songwriting renaissance that defined the band's early 1970s period, as reflected in the albumsWorkingman's DeadandAmerican Beauty,Robert Hunter, Jerry Garcia's primary lyrical partner, frequently made use ofmotifscommon toAmerican folkloreincluding trains, guns, elements,traditional musical instruments, gambling, murder, animals, alcohol, descriptions ofAmerican geography, andreligious symbolismto illustrate themes involving love and loss, life and death, beauty and horror, and chaos and order.Following in the footsteps of severalAmerican musical traditions, these songs are often confessional and feature narration from the perspective of anantihero. CriticRobert Christgaudescribed them as \"American myths\" that later gave way to \"the old karma-go-round\". An extremely common feature in both Robert Hunter's lyrics, as well as the band's visual iconography, is the presence ofdualisticand opposing imagery illustrating the dynamic range of thehuman experience(Heaven and hell, law and crime, dark and light, etc.). Hunter and Garcia's earlier, more directlypsychedelic-influencedcompositions often make use ofsurrealimagery,nonsense, and whimsey reflective of traditions inEnglish poetry.In a retrospective,The New Yorkerdescribed Hunter's verses as \"elliptical, by turns vivid andgnomic\", which were often \"hippie poetry about roses and bells and dew\".Grateful Dead biographer Dennis McNally has described Hunter's lyrics as creating \"a non-literal hyper-Americana\" weaving a psychedelic, kaleidoscopic tapestry in the hopes of elucidating America'snational character. At least one of Hunter and Bob Weir's collaborations, \"Jack Straw\", was inspired by the work ofJohn Steinbeck. Merchandising and representation Hal Kantwas an entertainment industry attorney who specialized in representing musical groups. He spent 35 years as principal lawyer and general counsel for the Grateful Dead, a position in the group that was so strong that his business cards with the band identified his role as \"Czar\". Kant brought the band millions of dollars in revenue through his management of the band'sintellectual propertyand merchandising rights. At Kant's recommendation, the group was one of the few rock 'n roll pioneers to retain ownership of their music masters andpublishing rights. In 2006, the Grateful Dead signed a ten-year licensing agreement withRhino Entertainmentto manage the band's business interests including the release of musical recordings, merchandising, and marketing. The band retained creative control and kept ownership of its music catalog. A Grateful Dead video game titledGrateful Dead Game – The Epic Tourwas released in April 2012 and was created by Curious Sense. In November 2022, the children's bookThe ABCs of The Grateful Deadwas released.Authorized by the group, it was written by Howie Abrams, illustrated byMichael \"Kaves\" McLeer, and published bySimon & Schuster. Sponsorship of 1992 Lithuanian Olympic basketball team AfterLithuaniagained its independence from the USSR, the country announced its withdrawal from the1992 Olympicsdue to the lack of any money to sponsor participants.But NBA starŠarūnas Marčiulionis, a native Lithuanian basketball star, wanted to help his native team to compete. His efforts resulted in a call from representatives of the Grateful Dead who set up a meeting with the band members.The band agreed to fund transportation costs for the team (about five thousand dollars) along with Grateful Dead designs for the team's jerseys and shorts. TheLithuanian basketball teamwon the bronze medal and the Lithuanian basketball/Grateful Dead T-shirts became part of pop culture, especially in Lithuania.The incident was covered by the documentaryThe Other Dream Team. Live performances The Grateful Dead toured constantly throughout their career, playing more than 2,300 concerts.They promoted a sense of community among their fans, who became known as \"Deadheads\", many of whom followed their tours for months or years on end. Around concert venues, an impromptu communal marketplace known as 'Shakedown Street' was created by Deadheads to serve as centers of activity where fans could buy and sell anything from grilled cheese sandwiches to home-made t-shirts and recordings of Grateful Dead concerts. In their early career, the band also dedicated their time and talents to their community, the Haight-Ashbury area of San Francisco, making available free food, lodging, music, and health care to all. It has been said that the band performed \"more free concerts than any band in the history of music\". With the exception of 1975, when the band was on hiatus and played only four concerts, Grateful Dead performed many concerts every year, from their formation in April 1965, until July 9, 1995.Initially all their shows were in California, principally in theSan Francisco Bay Areaand in or nearLos Angeles. They also performed, in 1965 and 1966, withKen Kesey and the Merry Pranksters, as the house band for theAcid Tests. In 1967, they toured nationally, including their first performance inNew York City. They appeared at theMonterey Pop Festivalin 1967, theWoodstock Festivalin 1969 and theFestival Expresstrain tour across Canada in 1970. They were scheduled to appear as the final act at the infamousAltamont Free Concerton December 6, 1969, after theRolling Stonesbut withdrew after security concerns. \"That's the way things went at Altamont—so badly that the Grateful Dead, prime organizers and movers of the festival, didn't even get to play\", staff atRolling Stonemagazine wrote in a detailed narrative on the event. Their first UK performance was at theHollywood Music Festivalin 1970. Their largest concert audience came in 1973 when they played, along withthe Allman Brothers Bandandthe Band, before an estimated 600,000 people at theSummer Jam at Watkins Glen.They played to an estimated total of 25 million people, more than any other band, with audiences of up to 80,000 attending a single show. Many of these concerts were preserved in the band's tape vault, and several dozen have since been released on CD and as downloads. The Dead were known for the tremendous variation in their setlists from night to night—the list of songs documented to have been played by the band exceeds 500.The band has released four concert videos under the nameView from the Vault. In 1978, they played three nights at theGreat Pyramid of GizainEgypt. In the 1990s, the Grateful Dead earned a total of $285 million in revenue from their concert tours, the second-highest during the 1990s, with the Rolling Stones earning the most.This figure is representative of tour revenue through 1995, as touring stopped after the death of Jerry Garcia. In a 1991PBSdocumentary, segment host Buck Henry attended an August 1991 concert at Shoreline Amphitheatre and gleaned some information from some band members about the Grateful Dead phenomenon and its success.At the time, Jerry Garcia stated, \"We didn't really invent the Grateful Dead, the crowd invented the Grateful Dead, you know what I mean? We were sort of standing in line, and uh, it's gone way past our expectations, way past, so it's, we've been going along with it to see what it's gonna do next.\"Mickey Hart said, \"This is one of the last places in America that you can really have this kind of fun, you know, considering the political climate and so forth.\"Hart also stated that \"the transformative power of the Grateful Dead is really the essence of it; it's what it can do to your consciousness. We're more intotransportationthan we are into music,per se, I mean, the business of the Grateful Dead is transportation.\"One of the band's largest concerts took place just months before Garcia's death — at their outdoor show with Bob Dylan inHighgate, Vermont, on June 15, 1995. The crowd was estimated to be over 90,000; overnight camping was allowed and about a third of the audience got in without having purchased a ticket. Their numerous studio albums were generally collections of new songs that they had first played in concert. The band was also famous for its extended musical improvisations, having been described as having never played the same song the same way twice. Their concert sets often blended songs, one into the next, often for more than three songs at a time. Concert sound systems TheWall of Soundwas a large sound system designed specifically for the band.The band was never satisfied with the house system anywhere they played. After the Monterey Pop Festival, the band's crew 'borrowed' some of the other performers' sound equipment and used it to host some free shows in San Francisco.In their early days, soundmanOwsley \"Bear\" Stanleydesigned apublic address(PA) and monitor system for them. Stanley was the Grateful Dead's soundman for many years; he was also one of the largest suppliers ofLSD. Stanley's sound systems were delicate and finicky, and frequently brought shows to a halt with technical breakdowns. After Stanley went to jail for manufacturing LSD in 1970, the group briefly used house PAs, but found them to be even less reliable than those built by their former soundman. On February 2, 1970, the group contactedBob Heilto use his system.In 1971, the band purchased their firstsolid-statesound system fromAlembic Studios. Because of this,Alembicwould play an integral role in the research, development, and production of the Wall of Sound. The band also welcomedDan Healyinto the fold on a permanent basis that year. Healy would mix the Grateful Dead's live sound until 1993. Following Jerry Garcia's death and the band's breakup in 1995, their current sound system was inherited byDave Matthews Band. Dave Matthews Band debuted the sound system April 30, 1996, at the first show of their 1996 tour in Richmond, Virginia. Tapes Like several other bands at the time, the Grateful Dead allowed their fans to record their shows. For many years thetapersset up their microphones wherever they could, and the eventual forest of microphones became a problem for the sound crew. Eventually, this was solved by having a dedicated taping section located behind the soundboard, which required a special \"tapers\" ticket. The band allowed sharing of their shows, as long as no profits were made on the sale of the tapes. Of the approximately 2,350 shows the Grateful Dead played, almost 2,200 were taped, and most of these are available online.The band began collecting and cataloging tapes early on andDick Latvalawas their keeper. \"Dick's Picks\" is named after Latvala. After his death in 1999,David Lemieuxgradually took the post. Concert set lists from a subset of 1,590 Grateful Dead shows were used to perform a comparative analysis between how songs were played in concert and how they are listened online byLast.fmmembers.In their bookMarketing Lessons from the Grateful Dead: What Every Business Can Learn From the Most Iconic Band in History,David Meerman ScottandBrian Halliganidentify the taper section as a crucial contributor to increasing the Grateful Dead's fan base. Iconography Over the years, a number of iconic images have come to be associated with the Grateful Dead. Many of these images originated as artwork for concert posters or album covers. Deadheads Fans and enthusiasts of the band are commonly referred to asDeadheads. While the origin of the term may be unclear,Dead Headswere made canon by the notice placed inside theSkull and Roses(1971) album by manager Jon McIntire: DEAD FREAKS UNITE: Who are you? Where are you? How are you?Send us your name and address and we'll keep you informed.Dead Heads, P.O. Box 1065, San Rafael, California 94901. As each show featured a new setlist and a great deal of improvisation, Deadheads would often follow the band from city to city, attending many shows on a given tour. Many Deadheads speak of being drawn to the culture due to the sense of community that the band's shows tended to foster. Though Deadheads came from a wide array of demographics, many attempted to reproduce the aesthetics and values of the1960s countercultureand were often stigmatized in the media.Because of the stereotyping of Deadheads ashippies, the band's shows became a common target for officials in theDEAand arrests at shows became common. As a group, the Deadheads were considered very mellow. \"I'd rather work nine Grateful Dead concerts than one Oregon football game,\" Police Det. Rick Raynor said. \"They don't get belligerent like they do at the games.\"Despite this reputation, in the mid-1990s, as the band's popularity grew, there were a series of minor scuffles occurring at shows that peaked with a large scale riot at theDeer Creek Music Centernear Indianapolis in July 1995. Thisgate crashingincident caused the band to cancel the following night's show.Deadheads who appeared on the scene after the band's 1987 hit single \"Touch of Grey\", were often disparagingly referred to by older fans as \"Touchheads\". Beginning in the 1980s, a number of definable sects of Deadheads began to appear on the scene. These included theWharf Rats, as well as the \"spinners\", named forwhirling-style of dancing and their use of the band's music to facilitatemystical experiences. Deadheads, particularly those who collectedtapes, were known for keeping close records of the band's setlists and for comparing various live versions of the band's songs, as reflected in publications such as the various editions of \"Deadbase\" and \"The Deadhead's Taping Compendium\". This practice continues into the 21st century on digital forums and websites such as theInternet Archive, which features live recordings of nearly every available Grateful Dead show and allows users to discuss and review the site's shows. The band hasa number of influential and celebrity fans, including politicians, businesspeople, journalists, and other musicians. Donation of archives to UC Santa Cruz On April 24, 2008, members Bob Weir and Mickey Hart, along with Nion McEvoy, CEO ofChronicle Books,UC Santa CruzchancellorGeorge Blumenthal, and UC Santa Cruz librarian Virginia Steel, held a press conference announcing UCSC'sMcHenry Librarywould be the permanent home of theGrateful Dead Archive, which includes a complete archival history from 1965 to the present. The archive includes correspondence, photographs, fliers, posters, and several other forms of memorabilia and records of the band. Also included are unreleased videos of interviews and TV appearances that will be installed for visitors to view, as well as stage backdrops and other props from the band's concerts. Blumenthal stated at the event, \"The Grateful Dead Archive represents one of the most significant popular cultural collections of the 20th century; UC Santa Cruz is honored to receive this invaluable gift. The Grateful Dead and UC Santa Cruz are both highly innovative institutions—born the same year—that continue to make a major, positive impact on the world.\" Guitarist Bob Weir stated \"We looked around, and UC Santa Cruz seems the best possible home. If you ever wrote the Grateful Dead a letter, you'll probably find it there!\" Professor of musicFredric Liebermanwas the key contact between the band and the university, who let the university know about the search for a home for the archive, and who had collaborated with Mickey Hart on three books in the past,Planet Drum(1990),Drumming at the Edge of Magic(1991), andSpirit into Sound(2006). The first large-scale exhibition of materials from the Grateful Dead Archive was mounted at theNew-York Historical Societyin 2010. Awards In 2004,Rolling Stoneranked the Grateful Dead No. 57 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. On February 10, 2007, the Grateful Dead received aGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award. The award was accepted on behalf of the band by Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann. In 2011, a recording of the Grateful Dead's May 8, 1977, concert at Cornell University's Barton Hall was selected for induction into the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. Twelve members of the Grateful Dead (the eleven official performing members plus Robert Hunter) were inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994, andBruce Hornsbywas their presenter. In 2024 the band was named as one of the recipients of theKennedy Center Honors. The four living core members (Weir, Lesh, Hart and Kreutzmann) will receive the award. Members Lead guitaristJerry Garciawas often viewed both by the public and the media as the leader or primary spokesperson for the Grateful Dead, but was reluctant to be perceived that way, especially since he and the other group members saw themselves asequal participantsand contributors to their collective musical and creative output.Garcia, a native of San Francisco, grew up in theExcelsior District. One of his main influences was bluegrass music, and he also performed—onbanjo, one of his other great instrumental loves, along with thepedal steel guitar—in bluegrass bands, notablyOld & In the WaywithmandolinistDavid Grisman. Ned Lagin, a youngMITstudent and friend of the band, guested with them many times from 1970 through 1975, providing a second keyboard as well as synthesizers. Upon graduating from MIT, he began touring with the band fulltime in 1974, performing sets of electronic music withPhil Lesh, occasionally with Garcia and Kreutzmann, during the band's intermission.The \"Ned and Phil\" set became a regular fixture of that era, and was featured nearly every night during their Summer '74 and Europe '74 tours, as well as their five-night residency at theWinterland Ballroomduring October 1974. Lagin is also featured inThe Grateful Dead Movie. During 1974 and 1975, he would also occasionally play entire sets with the band, usually on Garcia's side of the stage, before ending his touring relationship with the band and focusing on his solo music projects, such as his albumSeastones, which features several members of the Dead. Bruce Hornsbynever officially joined the band full-time because of his other commitments, but he did play keyboards at most Dead shows between September 1990 and March 1992, and sat in with the band over 100 times in all between 1988 and 1995. He added several Dead songs to his own live showsand Jerry Garcia referred to him as a \"floating member\" who could come and go as he pleased. Robert HunterandJohn Perry Barlowwere the band's primarylyricists, starting in 1967 and 1971, respectively, and continuing until the band's dissolution.Hunter collaborated mostly with Garcia and Barlow mostly with Weir, though each wrote with other band members as well. Both are listed as official members at Dead.net, the band's website, alongside the performing members.Barlow was the only member not inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Timeline Discography See also References Further reading External links"
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"Five Nights at Freddy's Five Nights at Freddy's(FNaF) is a video game series andmedia franchisecreated byindie gamedeveloperScott Cawthon. The franchise features ten main video games, several spin-off games, novels, anda film adaptation. The video game series follows a set of night guards and other characters that try to survive from midnight to 6 a.m. for five levels, called \"nights\", while fending off attacks from homicidalanimatroniccharacters. Each game is set in a different location connected to a fictional family pizza restaurant franchise named \"Freddy Fazbear's Pizza\". The core gameplay mechanic involves using tools effectively and managing limited resources to avoid being caught by the animatronics. Cawthon conceived the idea forthe first video gameafter his family-friendly resource management game,Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., was criticized for the resemblance of its characters to frightening animatronics. Responding to this feedback, he developed a horror game that intentionally featured scary",
"featured scary animatronics. Released in August 2014, the game's success prompted the development of sequels. Cawthon created most of the games himself usingClickteam Fusionbut partnered with Steel Wool Studios to createan open-world gameanda virtual reality anthology. The series has a mixed critical reception, with praise for its storytelling and atmosphere but criticism for its gameplay. It has achieved significant commercial success, with merchandise available internationally. The franchise has also garnered acult followingthat produces fan media inspired by it. History and development The concept forFive Nights at Freddy'sstemmed from the negative reception of Scott Cawthon's earlier game,Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., where players said that the main character resembled a \"scary animatronic animal.\"Initially discouraged by the criticism, Cawthon, who had predominantly createdChristian-oriented games, leveraged this feedback to develop something intentionally frightening.Five Nights at Freddy'swas released",
"released on August 8, 2014, viaDesura,followed by aSteamrelease after gaining approval through thecrowdsourcingplatform Greenlight.The game rapidly gained popularity after being showcased by prominent YouTubers.: 82 The success ofFive Nights at Freddy'sled to multiple sequels released between 2014 and 2023,and a spin-off game titledFNaF World, launched in January 2016.Cawthon usedClickteam Fusion 2.5for game development andAutodesk 3ds Maxfor 3D graphics,enhancing later titles with professional voice actors and original soundtracks.ForHelp WantedandSecurity Breach, Cawthon worked with game development company Steel Wool Studios.In 2015, Cawthon expanded the franchise into literature, announcing a multi-book deal with Scholastic in 2016,which began withThe Silver Eyes,released onAmazon Kindleon December 17, 2015and in paperback on September 27, 2016.This was followed by two additional novels,The Twisted OnesandThe Fourth Closet, published in 2017 and 2018, respectively. Gameplay TheFive Nights at",
"TheFive Nights at Freddy'sseries consists of psychological horror-themed video games in which the player is usually a night-time employee at a location connected with Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, a fictional children's restaurant that takes inspiration from family pizza chains likeChuck E. CheeseandShowBiz Pizza Place.The restaurant has life-size animatronic characters resembling anthropomorphic animals that perform on a show stage, usually for children's parties, but leave their posts and wander the restaurant at night; the guard's job is to watch over them and prevent them from attacking. The animatronics' mobility is stated in the first game to be necessaary for them to continue functioning properly in the morning, though subsequent games reveal they are actually possessed by ghosts. InFive Nights at Freddy's, the player can control the two security doors connecting their office to the adjacent hallways as a barrier against animatronics in the vicinity. Each night, the player has a power supply that depletes",
"that depletes faster when a tool is used.If the power goes out, the player can no longer use any tools and is defenseless against the animatronics unless a shift ends before main animatronic Freddy Fazbear can attack.Five Nights at Freddy's 2has different tools; there are no protective doors, and the player must instead use an empty animatronic head and flashlight to defend themself against the animatronics. The game introduced a music box which must be remotely wound up on a regular basis to prevent an attack from a particular animatronic.Eight-bitmini-gameswere introduced, which are played randomly after death and give cryptic clues into the lore. Five Nights at Freddy's 3uses a monitor panel, which contains audio, camera, and ventilation.The player must keep certain systems from malfunctioning. These malfunctions can be triggered randomly or by the hallucinations of the animatronics from the first and second games. The ability to sealventsis also added and must be used to prevent the sole tangible",
"the sole tangible animatronic from entering the office. The player can use an audio-based function on the cameras, which triggers a childlike voice to lure Springtrap, the game's only physical animatronic possessed by William Afton's spirit, away from the office.The 8-bit minigames return and are playable after each night if the player completes side tasks such as clicking on a poster or inputting a code into a wall. If the player completes the minigames, they unlock a secret ending. InFive Nights at Freddy's 4, the gameplay occurs in a bedroom setting, and instead of being a nighttime security guard, the player takes the role of a small child who experiences nightmarish visions of the animatronics due to fearing their real-life counterparts.The player also no longer has access to a camera system.The player has four areas in the bedroom to monitor: two hallway doors on both sides of the room, the closet directly in front of them, and the bed behind them.At the doors, the player must listen for animatronics'",
"for animatronics' breathing, which can determine whether they are near. If the player hears breathing at the side doors, they close the door and wait for the animatronics to walk away. If they open the doors too early, however, the animatronicsjump scarethe player.The player must also prevent small animatronics from accumulating on their bed, and prevent an animatronic from entering their closet.Five Nights at Freddy's 4also introduces a minigame involving a new animatronic, which offers the player a two-hour skip in the next night for completing the minigame. An elevated control pad is introduced forSister Location, which can light a room or shock the animatronics. Other mechanics include a second control pad in a breaker room, which controls power to the facility and a flashbeacon, which allows the player to see in the dark Funtime Auditorium (a party room) and avoid its animatronic.Sister Locationis the only game where the player can move between rooms. Pizzeria Simulatorhasbusiness-stylegameplay, and the",
"and the player must spend in-game money to buy features for their pizzeria. A series of minigames can be played by testing the establishment's attractions.After the player has completed this portion of the game, they complete tasks in a room and fend off hostile, previously salvaged animatronics.The gameplay ofPizzeria Simulatorshares a number of elements withFive Nights at Freddy's 3, including the importance of ventilation and the ability to distract animatronics with sound. Ultimate Custom Nightis a customizable night, in which fifty animatronics are present and have a maximum AI level of twenty. The game includes many mechanics from the previous games, such as the heater, fan, music box, and power generator.The player can choose which characters they want active for a night, and how active the characters will be. Help Wantedcombines the gameplay of every other game, and turns into a virtual experience for the player.It also introduces several other minigames, in which the gameplay is variant, and also at",
"and also at times hasfree-roam.Special Deliveryfeatures location-based augmented reality gameplay. The player can switch on their camera, and the footage itself is the game's background. The animatronics will try to attack corresponding to the environment. The animatronics generally havecloaking, which leads them to being invisible. Security Breachholds the open-world aspect to this title allows players to experience a new level of immersion,similar to that ofFive Night's at Freddy's 4. Players will also have access to a nifty tool called the Faz-Watch, which allows them to view maps, read messages picked up from random areas on the map, check security cameras for nearby danger, and look at their current objectives.It incorporates Freddy as a helpful companion throughout the game, though he has limited power and must be charged at stations through the map. Players can distract hostile animatronics by knocking things over to get their attention, while they can crouch and hide in various structures to evade",
"structures to evade them as they follow you throughout the map. Unlike otherFive Nightsgames there are limited save points and there is only a single save station after 6 a.m. Common elements Security cameras In the first, second, third, seventh,eighth,and ninthgames, the player has asecurity-camerasystem, which observes the animatronic characters. One location can be viewed at a time, and some areas are not visible on the cameras.Most camera feeds are dull, sometimes almostblack and whitein color, and full ofvideo noise. In the third game, the cameras stop working if their associated system fails.Cameras are used in the fifth game as a mechanic in the fake ending and custom night update, but not in the main game. Lights In all games except for the third, lights are used to ward off animatronics or warn the player. Lights in the first, second, fifth, and eighthgames are activated with buttons on the walls and illuminate the player's blind spots: the doorway or vent exit, respectively.The lights are similar",
"lights are similar in the fifth game, but are mounted on a control pad and illuminate the animatronics' rooms. The fifth game also introduced a flash beacon, which is used to orient the player in the third and fifth nights' pitch-black rooms. Several games include use of a flashlight. In the second game, the flashlight has a finite battery life and cannot be recharged,while in the fourth and seventhgames, the battery life is infinite. In the eighthgame, the flashlight battery varies depending on the game segment being played. Flashlight battery life is again finite in the ninthgame, but can be recharged at various recharge stations throughout the game. Doors and vents In the first, fourth, seventh,eighth,and ninthgames, doors are a means of defense for the player, and can be closed when an animatronic is near. Vents are featured in the second, third, sixth, and eighthgames, as a medium through which animatronics can get to the player. Both doors and vents are again present in the fake ending and custom night",
"and custom night update of the fifth game with the same function. Vents are also present in the fifth and ninthgames as means for the player to travel through, rather than the animatronics. Jump scares Every game in the main series contains jump scares, which end a game in defeat as the animatronics are implied to attack the player off-screen.In most jump scares, an animatronic character suddenly appears in the player's view, followed by a loud screaming or roaring noise. Some jump scares, including those by Golden Freddy (in the first and seventhgames), Nightmare, and Nightmarionette (in the fourth game), consist of a single screen with shrill, distorted audio; these jump scares usually crash (or restart) the game. The player must use various tools to prevent being attacked via jump scares and advance through each game. Minigames In the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, eighth,and ninthgames, the player gains access to a series of (predominantly eight-bit) minigames randomly after death, or after",
"death, or after completing a specific task.The minigames usually relate to a story or event relevant to the game, in a cryptic manner.The minigames in the second game portray homicides mentioned by another worker of the restaurant, and the reason of the animatronics gaining life.The minigames in the third game show the story behind Springtrap's creation. Minigames in the fourth game tell the story of a character who dies in a tragic accident. There is only one minigame in the fifth game, which depicts the death of animatronic engineer William Afton's daughter. The minigames in the sixth game depict various events in the series, all connected to Afton. In the mobile version of the eighthgame, the player can access a minigame called \"Princess Quest\", which depicts the origins of a character called Vanny; a recreation of these minigames is also featured in the ninthgame, with some significant additions. Story overview TheFive Nights at Freddy'sseries mainly revolves around a chain of family restaurants under",
"restaurants under the ownership of Fazbear Entertainment, a company founded by Henry Emily and William Afton. The latter is a robotics engineer who creates a series ofanimatronicmascots to entertain customers, including Freddy Fazbear, a brown bear and the namesake of Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, Bonnie, an indigo rabbit,Chica, a yellow chicken, and Foxy, a red pirate fox. Other notable animatronics include the Puppet, the ghostlike Golden Freddy, Freddy's predecessor Fredbear, and Circus Baby,the mascot of the restaurant's sister location, Circus Baby's Pizza World. William is also anegligent fatherandchild murdererwho hides his victims' bodies inside animatronics, which their souls inhabit; he specifically designs Circus Baby to be capable of murdering children, which leads to the accidental death of his own daughter, Elizabeth. William's direct murder victims start with his co-worker Henry's daughterand expand to include five children visiting the restaurants with their families.Meanwhile, an incident",
"an incident involving William's youngest son being shoved into Fredbear's mouth by his older brother Michael results in the closure of Fredbear's Family Diner, a predecessor location.After accidentally murdering his brother, Michael begins seeking redemption, starting with recovering the remains of his sister.After the closure of a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza location, William dismantles the remaining animatronics in a backroom, releasing the souls that inhabit them who proceed to torment him. Seeking refuge from the ghosts, William hides inside an old yellow rabbit animatronic suit. Shortly after, the suit's mechanisms fail and snap shut, crushing William to death as his soul inhabits the animatronic, becoming abionicrevenantcalled Springtrap.Some time after, the whole restaurant chain shuts down. Thirty years later, a horror attraction based on the restaurant chain known as Fazbear's Fright is constructed and leads to Springtrap's excavation; a fire destroys the attraction before it can open to the public. The",
"to the public. The destruction frees the souls of William's first five victims and destroys the original mascots, though Springtrap escapes. Some time after the fire, Henry lures Springtrap and all animatronics that were not destroyed in Fazbear's Fright into a single pizzeria. With help from Michael, Henry sets fire to the restaurant and destroys every animatronic inside, freeing the souls of the children that inhabited them, including Elizabeth. The fire also kills Henry, Michael, and William.Afterwards, William's soul is trapped and tormented in a personalizedhellwith all animatronics he created. Years later, Fazbear Entertainment is re-founded and releases an in-universe virtual reality experience based on the past of the restaurant, in an effort to convince the public the company's previous controversies were merely fiction,while also constructing a new location, the Pizzaplex. Games Main series Five Nights at Freddy's(2014) Five Nights at Freddy'swas released forMicrosoft Windowson August 8, 2014,",
"August 8, 2014, followed by ports forAndroidandiOSon August 27 and September 11, respectively. AWindows Phoneversion was also released,but was soon withdrawn due to its downscaled graphics.Ports for thePlayStation 4,Xbox One, andNintendo Switchwere released on November 29, 2019, alongside separate releases forFive Nights at Freddy's 2,3and4. The first game revolves around a character called Mike Schmidt, who begins working as a night security guard at Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, where the animatronics move at night and supposedly kill anyone they see by stuffing them into a spare animatronic suit. Schmidt is guided by the previous night guard, known as Phone Guy, who assists them in their defense against the animatronics through pre-recorded telephone messages until his death in the fourth night.He explains to Schmidt that the animatronics' mobility is a purposely programmed \"free-roaming\" mode to prevent the animatronics' servomotors from locking up. He also states that they see any human still in the",
"human still in the restaurant as an animatronic endoskeleton without a suit. The player must survive from 12 a.m. to 6 am. The player cannot leave the room and must use a camera system and two doors with lights to defend themselves from the animatronics, with limited power to use their tools.Various hints and clues imply that, contrary to Phone Guy's explanation, the mobility and hostility of the animatronics results from them beingpossessedby thevengeful soulsof children who were killed at the restaurant. Mike is fired from his job after the seventh night for tampering with the animatronics, body odor, and unprofessionalism. Five Nights at Freddy's 2(2014) Shortly after the release of the first game, Cawthon confirmed rumors about a sequel.He posted ateaserof the sequel on his website one month after the original game's release and continued to post teasers until the sequel's release.A trailer was released on October 21, 2014, introducing new animatronic characters and the absence of doors.Five Nights at",
"Nights at Freddy's 2was released for Microsoft Windows on November 10, 2014, earlier than its planned release of December 25. Ports for Android and iOS were released on November 13 and 20, 2014, respectively. A Windows Phone port was also released, but was withdrawn for substandard graphics.PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. The gameplay is largely similar to its predecessor. Players must survive a night shift at the \"new and improved\" Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant from 12 a.m. to 6 am, without being attacked by any of the animatronics that wander from room to room.In addition to the animatronics from the first game, which are depicted in a deteriorated state, the game features several new antagonists, who can be fended off using different tactics.The explanation given for the animatronics' behavior during the game is similar to the one from the firstFive Nights at Freddy's. The protagonist is a new character, Jeremy Fitzgerald, who is promoted",
"who is promoted to daytime security after the sixth night, being replaced by Fritz Smith in the seventh night. During the game, Phone Guy from the previous game calls Jeremy to give him hints on how to survive each night while talking about the restaurant's history. During these calls, it is revealed that the restaurant has become the subject of a police investigation due to various rumors. It is also possible to access hiddenAtari-styled minigames that provide further insight on the restaurant's troubled past, showing a purple figure killing multiple children. On the fifth night, the location is put on lockdown due to an unspecified event. At the end of the game, Jeremy receives a paycheck dated 1987, revealing that the events of the game take place before the firstFive Nights at Freddy's, and the restaurant is closed, with a new location set to be opened elsewhere. Five Nights at Freddy's 3(2015) On January 3, 2015, an image was uploaded to Cawthon's website teasing a third entry in the series.Other images",
"series.Other images followedbefore a trailer was released on January 26, 2015. On February 15, Cawthon posted on Steam thatFive Nights at Freddy's 3was cancelled after a hacker allegedlyleakedthe game.This was later revealed as a hoax; the \"leaked\" download linked to a humorouscloneof a previous game of Cawthon's,There is No Pause Button!, in which the main character is depicted wearing the Freddy animatronic head.Five Nights at Freddy's 3was released for Microsoft Windows on March 3, 2015, with Android and iOS ports following on March 7 and 12, respectively. PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. Set thirty years after the events of the first game, its main character works at Fazbear's Fright, a horror attraction based on the long-gone Freddy Fazbear's Pizza. The player must defend themselves from the deteriorated animatronic-costume hybrid named Springtrap. Burnt and tattered hallucinations of some of the animatronics from the previous two games",
"previous two games appear; and although they cannot kill the player, they can hinder ventilation, sound, and camera systems. Failure to maintain the systems can create many issues for the player, including dysfunctional cameras and the inability to play audio to lure away the animatronic. The player receives guidance from a founder of the horror attraction for the first two nights and listens to old tape recordings which were found by the attraction's workers for the rest of the nights.The game has two endings: a \"good\" ending and a \"bad\" ending. The bad ending reveals that the souls of the murdered children still haunt the animatronics. The good ending is reached by completing secret minigames in which animatronic characters bring a cake to what seems to be a sorrowful child's soul. After completing the secret minigames, the souls of the children are freed. Five Nights at Freddy's 4(2015) On April 27, 2015, Cawthon began posting images on his website teasing another game in the series, which was originally",
"was originally titledFive Nights at Freddy's 4: The Final Chapter.A trailer was released on July 13, 2015, hinting that the game was set in the main character's house.Five Nights at Freddy's 4was announced with a release date of October 31, 2015. It was pushed forward to August 8 and again to July 23, when the game was unexpectedly released on Microsoft Windows through Steam. Android and iOS ports were released on July 25 and August 3, 2015, respectively. PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch console ports were released on November 29, 2019. The player character is an unknown and unnamed child who has delusions of being attacked by nightmarish versions of the first game's animatronic characters.The player must defend themselves with a flashlight and doors.The game's story is told through minigames, in which an unnamed young boy is bullied by his older brother because of his irrational fear of a restaurant with a yellow animatronic bear and rabbit called Fredbear and Spring Bonnie, respectively. He is",
"respectively. He is guided by a plush version of Fredbear, whom the boy imagines can speak to him when he is alone. The child appears to be ultimately killed by Fredbear in a freak accident.The game had aHalloweenupdate with \"nightmare\" versions of animatronics fromFive Nights at Freddy's 2and Halloween-themed reskins for Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica. Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Location(2016) On April 23, 2016, Cawthon posted a teaser image on his website of a clown-likeanimatronicnamed Baby from an upcoming game titledSister Location.Several teaser images of different characters and hints at their origins followed. The trailer for the game was released on Cawthon's YouTube channel, with new animatronics and a new location. The release date was announced as October 7, 2016. Cawthon made a prank release of the game on October 5, apparently releasing a \"mature\" edition after a decision to delay the game to make it morekid-friendly. The download link led to a clone of Cawthon's previous game,Sit 'N",
"game,Sit 'N Survive. Sister Locationwas released for Microsoft Windows on October 7, 2016, followed by ports for Android on December 22, 2016, and iOS on January 3, 2017, respectively. It was also released on Nintendo Switch in North America on June 18, 2020, and on Xbox One on July 10, 2020. The PlayStation 4 port was released in Europe and North America on July 21 and 22, 2020, respectively. The player character Michael Afton, nicknamed Mike (jokingly called Eggs Benedict),is a new employee of Circus Baby's Entertainment and Rental (a sister company of Fazbear Entertainment that rentsanimatronicsfor children's parties). The animatronics were originally intended for Circus Baby's Pizza World, which never opened due to agas leak.Mike is guided by HandUnit, an AI character similar to the Phone Guy of previous games. HandUnit instructs him about his job, often telling him to disregard safety; the animatronic Baby often gives instructions that contradicts that of HandUnit, but are vital to survival. The game",
"survival. The game also has a \"custom night\",in which the player can use mechanics reminiscent of the first game (such as interactive doors and a camera system) which were absent from the main game, except for a non-canonical ending, titled the \"Fake Ending\". New minigames are also available, describing Michael's fate after the events of the main game.Acutsceneis shown after the \"Golden Freddy\" custom-night preset, in which Michael speaks to his father, William Afton/Springtrap, in a foreboding way. Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulator(2017) In June 2017, Cawthon hinted at the development of a sixth main game in the series. On July 2, 2017, he announced his decision to cancel the game and said that he had been \"neglecting other things in life for the sake of trying to keep up with mounting expectations\".On December 4, 2017, after teasing the game several days earlier, Cawthon releasedFreddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorasfreewareon Steam.The game is a business-simulation game in which the player runs a",
"the player runs a pizzeria, but frequently shifts into the survival-horror vein of the series' other games. A mobile version foriOSandAndroidtitledFNaF 6: Pizzeria Simulatorwas released on August 13, 2019. Unlike the PC version, the mobile release, which is developed and published byClickteam LLC USA, ispay-to-play. ANintendo SwitchandXbox Oneport was released on October 31, 2020, with aPlayStation 4port released on March 31, 2021. The game's story follows the manager (implied to be Michael Afton) of a new Freddy Fazbear's restaurant run by the mysterious \"Cassette Man\". Every night, Michael, under Cassette Man's guidance, must salvage one of four decrepit animatronics that were found in the restaurant's back alley, including William / Springtrap (now referred to as \"Scraptrap\") and Elizabeth / Circus Baby (referred to as \"Scrap Baby\"). The game has multiple endings depending on how well the player runs the pizzeria and whether they salvaged all the animatronics, but thecanonending has Cassette Man reveal",
"Cassette Man reveal himself as Henry Emily, William's former business partner, and set the restaurant on fire after revealing its true purpose as a trap to lure in the remaining animatronics. The restaurant burns to the ground, seemingly killing the player character, Henry, and all the animatronics,finally releasing the spirits haunting them. Ultimate Custom Night(2018) Ultimate Custom Nightwas originally intended to be a post-launch add-on toPizzeria Simulator, but was eventually turned into a stand-alone game, releasing on June 27, 2018, asfreeware.A mobile port foriOSandAndroidwas released on April 28, 2020, and a console port for thePlayStation 4,Xbox One, andNintendo Switchwas released on April 30, 2021. The customizable night contains a total of fifty animatronics from previous games, which allows the player to determine how aggressive they are during the night (similar to the custom nights in earlier games). The player can select the office to play in, unlockcutscenes, and choose from 16 themed game",
"from 16 themed game modes available.Although unconfirmed, it has been heavily speculated that the game takes place in some version ofHellorPurgatory, where William Afton, following his death inPizzeria Simulator, is being continuously tortured by the vengeful spirit of one of his victims. However, the anthology novel seriesFazbear Frightsimplies that the game is actually Afton's repeating nightmare, and not hell or purgatory. This comes from the fifth book,Bunny Call, which has a story called \"The Man in Room 1280\" where a burned man is kept alive by a shadow child despite the fact that he should be dead and suffers nightmares. In the following book,Blackbird, the epilogue confirms that the man is actually William Afton. Although it was never confirmed if theFazbear Frightsseries is set in the same continuity as the games, Cawthon confirmed that it's supposed to reveal mysteries from the previous games. Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted(2019) On August 18, 2018, Cawthon confirmed on his Steam thread that",
"Steam thread that the next main installment in theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries would be available as avirtual realitygame.On March 25, 2019, duringSony Interactive Entertainment's State of Play live stream announcing several new games for the PlayStation 4, a trailer announcing the game was shown.In the game, the player is a technician repairing a pizzeria's animatronics. From a first-person perspective, they fix the animatronics, solve puzzles and navigate dark hallways while avoiding malfunctioning and hostile animatronics.The game was released on May 28, 2019. A non-VR version of the game was released on December 17, 2019, for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 4. Curse of Dreadbear, a Halloween-themeddownloadable content(DLC) pack forHelp Wantedwas released in three parts, with several \"waves\" of new minigames released on October 23, October 29, and October 31, 2019, for a total of 10 new minigames.The DLC pack includes new animatronic characters, returning animatronics from previous games, and a",
"games, and a Halloween-themed hub.Some of the new stages are re-skinned versions of existent minigames, such as a version of theFNAF 1minigames calledDanger! Keep Out!Notable new game modes include ashooting gallery, a free-roamingcorn maze, and anassembly linein which the player must construct an animatronic. Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach(2021) On August 8, 2019, on the first game's fifth anniversary, Cawthon posted a new image on his website, teasing the next installment for the series. It shows the \"Mega Pizzaplex\", a large entertainment complex containing a laser tag arena, an arcade, a cinema and a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant; in the main square, '80s-style versions of Freddy, Chica, and four completely new animatronics can be seen playing for an excited crowd. On April 21, 2020, the characters' names were leaked fromFunko's list of upcoming products, and the title was revealed asFive Nights at Freddy's: Pizza Plex. Scott Cawthon confirmed the leaks via Reddit but revealed that the",
"revealed that the title was not official. The game was initially scheduled for an early 2021 release,but was delayed to late 2021. Security Breachwas released on PlayStation 5, PlayStation 4, and Steam on December 16, 2021. The game's plot revolves around a young boy named Gregory being trapped in a large entertainment complex teeming with murderous animatronics who hunt him down by the orders of Vanny, a mysterious woman in a rabbit costume, while also evading the complex's security guard, Vanessa. Suffering a malfunction that causes him to ignore Vanny's hacking, Freddy assists Gregory in escaping the complex. A Stadia port was launched on July 1, 2022, ports for Xbox One and Series X/S were released on November 22, 2022, and a Nintendo Switch port was released on April 19, 2023. Free downloadable content titledRuinwas released for PlayStation 5, 4, and Steam on July 25, 2022, with an Xbox One and Series X/S port releasing on April 23, 2024, and a Nintendo Switch port in the works. Five Nights at Freddy's:",
"Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted 2(2023) On May 24, 2023, during a PlayStation Showcase, Steel Wool Studios announced a direct sequel toHelp WantedtitledHelp Wanted 2, scheduled for release in December 2023.On November 20, 2023, the gameplay trailer was released on the official Steel Wool Studios YouTube channel, revealing several characters from the game along with the release date of December 14 on PlayStation 5 and Steam.AMeta Questversion of the game was released on May 9, 2024, and the game was launched physically with a flat version on June 20. Five Nights at Freddy's: Secret of the Mimic(2025) An eleventh main installment,Secret of the Mimic, was announced on August 6, 2024, as part of the series' 10th anniversary.The game will center on the Mimic, introduced inSecurity Breach'sRuinDLC.It will be the third virtual reality game of the series. Spin-offs FNaF World(2016) Cawthon announced a spin-off from his series,FNaF World, on September 15, 2015.Unlike the main series, the game is arole-playing video",
"arole-playing video gameusing the first four games' animatronic characters. The game is set in a fanciful world where the characters must fight enemies and progress by unlocking perks anditems. Originally planned for release on February 2, 2016, Cawthon rescheduled the release for January 22 and released it on January 21. Players and critics criticized the game for missing key features and being unstable and unfinished, for which Cawthon apologized: \"I got too eager to show the things that were finished that I neglected to pay attention to the things that weren't.\" He decided to remove it from Steam, saying that the game would be improved and later re-released free of charge.Cawthon announced that he askedValveto refund all purchasers the price of the game. He released a free version of the game, featuring a3Doverworld and an updated character-selection screen, in February 2016. Cawthon posted a new teaser the following month, with characters such as the main series' Purple Guy and most of the characters",
"of the characters from the Halloween update ofFive Nights at Freddy's 4. He created minigames for the game's second update, includingFoxy Fighters,FOXY.exe,Chica's Magic Rainbow, andFNaF 57: Freddy in Space. Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery(2019–2024) Anaugmented realitygame withlocation-based gameplay,Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Delivery, was announced on September 13, 2019.The game was released for free on iOS and Android on November 25, 2019.Dark Circus: Encore!, DLC forSpecial Delivery, was released on December 13, 2021. Its story bridges the gap betweenFive Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted, andFive Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach, and is toldin epistolary format. One series of emails tells of a woman, Ness, triggering red-flag reports with her harmful and offensive search words. The emails eventually reveal that she is under the control of William Afton, and that Ness is Vanny fromFive Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted(\"Ness\" being short for Vanny's real name \"Vanessa\"), who was possessed",
"who was possessed by Afton after encountering a digital form of him while play-testing one of Fazbear's products. Another series of emails tells the story of the employees at Fazbear Entertainment scanning the circuit boards of old animatronics for \"The Freddy Fazbear Virtual Experience\". As of 2023,Five Nights at Freddy's: Special Deliveryhas been downloaded 40 million times, and has 6.7 million monthly active users. On February 1, 2024, Illumix announced the closure ofSpecial Delivery. On February 2, the game was no longer available to download on iOS and Android. The game's servers shut down on March 14. Freddy in Space 2(2019) Freddy in Space 2is aside-scrollingplatformshooter gameand a sequel to theFNaF 57: Freddy in Spacemini-game fromFNaF World. It was released for free on December 3, 2019, onGame Jolt.The game was made to promote a \"#CancelCancer\" charity livestream on YouTube, which was hosted byMatthew Patrickof Game Theorists forSt. Jude Children's Research HospitalinMemphis, Tennessee. Security",
"Tennessee. Security Breach: Fury's Rage(2021) Security Breach: Fury's Rageis aside-scrollingbeat 'em upgame featuring the main cast ofSecurity Breach(not including Gregory or Vanessa). The game was made to compensate for the release ofSecurity Breachbeing delayed for a second time and was released for free on Game Jolt on April 28, 2021. Freddy in Space 3: Chica in Space(2023) Freddy in Space 3: Chica in Spaceis a side-scrolling platform shooter game and a sequel toFreddy in Space 2, it was released on October 18, 2023, under the titleFNAF: The Movie: The Game, which was developed by Cawthon, claimed to be aspoiler-heavytie-ingame of theFive Nights at Freddy'sfilm, which was revealed to beFreddy in Space 3in disguise. It was released for free on Game Jolt. Five Nights at Freddy's: Into the Pit(2024) On January 22, 2024, anadaptationof theFazbear Frights: Into the Pitanthology novel was leaked to be in development in an upcoming slate of new novels to be released in 2024.The following day, a trailer was",
"day, a trailer was leaked online.Later that day, series creator Scott Cawthon made a post on Reddit acknowledging the leaks and stating the game would release for the series' 10th anniversary on August 8.On January 25, 2024,Mega Cat Studiosconfirmed they were developing the game.The gameplay trailer for the game released June 6.It will be the first installment of the series to be fully in2Dand made withpixel art.The game was accidentally released to Japanese consoles early on August 7, which was repurposed as the new release date.PlayStationandXboxports were released on September 27. Five Laps at Freddy's(2025) Five Laps at Freddy'sis akart racing gamebased on characters fromFive Nights at Freddy'sdeveloped byClickteam. It was announced on June 19, 2024, to coincide with the series' 10th anniversary.A gameplay trailer was released August 3. A demo of the game was released August 7 and a full release of the game is expected in 2025. Five Nights at Freddy's: Survival Crew(TBA) On December 20, 2023, an",
"20, 2023, an officialRobloxadaptation by the name ofFive Nights at Freddy's: Survival Crewwas accidentally released in an unfinished state by its developers, Metaverse Team Frights. The game was immediately taken down after major backlash and Cawthon promised the game would be released in a functional state sometime in 2024.In the short time the game was released, players described the gameplay as similar to the cooperative horror game,Dead by Daylight. Fazbear Fanverse On August 21, 2020, Cawthon announced his plan to help fund and publishFive Nights at Freddy'sgames developed by fans, bundled with previous installments in their respective series.Games published under this initiative include theOne Night at Flumpty'sseries, theFive Nights at Candy'sseries, theJoy of Creationseries,andPopgoes Evergreen(including its prologue game). Cawthon stated that these games will come to other platforms, such as mobile and consoles, and may have merchandise created for them.The first game to be released under this",
"released under this initiative was a port ofOne Night at Flumpty'sfor Android and iOS on October 31 and November 18, 2020, respectively, followed by two of its sequels later in 2021 on the same platforms.Another game planned to be published under this initiative,Five Nights at Freddy's Plus, a remake of the original game, currently has an uncertain future after the firing of its main developer, Phil Morg following controversies in the games fanbase.The game has since been removed from Steam. Books Novel trilogy (2015–2018) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyes(2015) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyesis the first novel by Scott Cawthon and Kira Breed-Wrisley. It was published independently onAmazon Kindleon December 17, 2015, and a paperback release byScholasticfollowed on September 27, 2016. The novel follows a group of childhood friends who meet in their hometown and discover unnerving secrets about the once-beloved Freddy Fazbear's Pizza.According to Cawthon, the novel \"expands the mythos and",
"the mythos and reveals a human element never before seen in the games\". Although the novel inhabits theFive Nights at Freddy'suniverse, the book and the games are not \"intended to fit together like two puzzle pieces\". Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones(2017) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones, the second novel by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley,was discovered onAmazonunder Cawthon's name on January 8, 2017.Although the discovery sparked controversy about the book's legitimacy,Cawthon soon confirmed that it was an official publication.The novel, published on June 27, 2017, by Scholastic, involves Charlie, the main character fromThe Silver Eyes, who is \"drawn back into the world of her father's frightening creations\" while trying to move on. Five Nights at Freddy's: The Fourth Closet(2018) Five Nights at Freddy's: The Fourth Closet, the third novel by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley, was published on June 26, 2018, by Scholastic. The novel focuses on Charlie's friends, who are searching for the truth behind",
"the truth behind what happened to Charlie inThe Twisted Oneswhile mysterious events unfold after a new restaurant opens. Film adaptations A film adaptationbased on the game series was released for streaming onPeacockand theatrically in the United States on October 27, 2023, byUniversal Pictures.Directed by Emma Tammi, who co-wrote the screenplay with Cawthon and Seth Cuddeback, the film starsJosh HutchersonwithElizabeth Lail, Piper Rubio,Mary Stuart Masterson, andMatthew Lillardappearing in supporting roles. The film received generally negative reviews from critics but was a commercial success, becoming Blumhouse Productions' highest-grossing film worldwide with nearly $300 million.A sequel is in development. Reception The originalFive Nights at Freddy'sreceived \"generally favorable\" reviews according toreview aggregatorwebsiteMetacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 78 out of 100.Indie Game Magazinepraised the game for its simple take on the horror genre, labeling the game a \"fantastic example",
"\"fantastic example of how cleverness in design and subtlety can be used to make an experience terrifying\". They noted that its artistic direction and gameplay mechanics contributed to a feeling of \"brutal tension\", but criticized it for taking too long to load when launched. Omri Petitte forPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy'sa score of 80 out of 100, commenting that the game took a \"less-is-more\" approach to its design, and praising the overall atmosphere for emphasizing the fear and suspense of an approaching threat, rather than the arrival of the threat itself as in other horror-oriented games. However, the gameplay was criticized for becoming repetitive once a player masters it, noting players have \"not much more to expect beyond managing battery life and careful timing of slamming doors shut.\"Ryan Bates ofGameRevolutiongave the game a 4.5 out of 5, commending the game's minimalistic presentation (particularly its audio design and lack of music) for contributing to the terror of the game, along with its",
"along with its repetitive gameplay that would \" almostOCD-type levels, adding to the tense environment.\" He opined that the game was \"horror done right\", but felt it was too short. Shaun Musgrave ofTouchArcadegave a rating of 3.5 out of 5, noting the game's reliance on atmosphere to induce fear, noting that \"if the atmosphere doesn't get to you, all that's left is a very simple game of red light-green light.\"Eurogamer'sJeffrey Matulef called the game \"wonderfully creative\", and compared the animatronic animals in the game toWeeping Angelsdue to their ability to only move when they are not being observed. Five Nights at Freddy's 2received \"mixed or average\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 62 out of 100.Omri Petitte forPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy's 2a score of 70 out of 100, commenting that what he wanted in the sequel \"was more mind games and more uncertainty. I wanted the plodding animatronic suits to find me and rip my face off in new and interesting ways. I",
"interesting ways. I wanted working legs. What I got was a horror game dipping heavily into deception and subtlety, a wonderfully cruel cocktail of supernatural mystery and jolts of panicked adrenaline. Enjoying the good parts, though, comes with a cost of a frustratingly steep difficulty.\" Destructoidgave the game a positive review, saying that \"It's absolutely terrifying to know that you could be attacked at any moment from multiple avenues\", praising the introduction of new animatronics and mechanics, but also criticizing the jumpscares and called the game \"too hard for its own good\".In a review for theNintendo Switchversion of the game in 2019, Mitch Vogel ofNintendo Lifesaid, \"Five Nights at Freddy's 2may not necessarily reinvent the wheel, but it still does a fine job of keeping you on the edge of your seat.\" Five Nights at Freddy's 3received \"mixed or average\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 68 out of 100.Omri Petitte fromPC GamergaveFive Nights at Freddy's 3a",
"at Freddy's 3a score of 77 out of 100, praising the reworked camera system, but commented on how the jumpscares from the other animatronics \"felt a little stale by the third night.\"In a more critical review, Nic Rowen fromDestructoidgave the game a 6.5 out of 10, saying that even though the game is \"by far the most technically proficient and mechanically satisfying installment yet,\" he criticized Springtrap and Fazbear's Fright for lacking the \"charm of the original cast and locations.\" Five Nights at Freddy's 4received \"mixed or average\" reviews according to Metacritic, assigning the Windows version a score of 51 out of 100.Destructoidcriticized the gameplay as being too confusing, and gave the game a review score of 4 out of 10.The Escapistgave the game a positive review score of 4 out of 5 stars saying that they liked the reworked mechanics, darker and emotional storyline, scary jumpscares, and sad ending but noted the game's bugs and glitches.Nadia Oxford ofGamezebogave it 4 out of 5 stars in her review",
"stars in her review praising it for its intense environment, creepy sounds and graphics, and jumpscares. She criticized the game for being difficult to survive in certain environments when relying on audio cues and the Android version not containing the story-centric minigames. Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Locationreceived \"mixed or average\" reviews from critics according to Metacritic, assigning a score of 62 out of 100.Destructoidrated the game 6/10,whileGameCraterated it 7.50/10.Shelby Watson ofThe All Stategave the game a positive review, citing it to be comparable to the first game's quality, but unlike the first game, never allowing the player to operate the mechanics on muscle memory alone. She writes, \"...ach night is so different, it is impossible to get comfortable with the mechanics enough that it feels like second nature. The game changes so much, you are forced to adapt and are always on the edge of your seat, waiting for what is to come.\"TechRaptorrated the game 9/10, calling it \"genuinely",
"it \"genuinely terrifying\" with a \"great storytelling\" and praised the voice acting. Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorreceived mostly positive reviews.GameCratecalled it the \"best value in gaming right now\",withRock Paper Shotguncalling it \"spooky as hell\".TheBall State Daily Newsalso gave a positive review, giving the game a 7.6/10 and calling it \"an interesting evolution of theFive Nights formula\".IGNlistedFreddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulatorin their top 18 Best Horror Games of 2017. Ultimate Custom Nightreceived mostly positive reviews.Rock Paper Shotgundeemed the game \"an intriguing mess\",withPC Gamercalling it \"a neat, customisable take on the classic survival horror formula\". Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wantedreceived \"generally favorable\" reviews from critics for the PlayStation 4 version according to Metacritic, assigning a score of 80 out of 100;the Nintendo Switch version received \"mixed or average\" reviews, with Metacritic assigning a score of 53 out of 100.Reviewers praised the game for its",
"the game for its effective use of virtual reality and its success in introducing new mechanics while preserving the series' feel and atmosphere while being accessible for players new to the series. However, the game's frequent use of jump scares could make it less scary and more obnoxious over time for some players. Stuart Gipp atNintendo Lifecriticized the Nintendo Switch version of the game and gave it a score of 3 out of 10. The main criticism being that the game had become pointless for having removed the VR mode making it a \"sub-par minigame collection\" with \"limited gameplay\" since previous main games were available already for the console, and speculated that the only reason for releasing it for the console were to capitalize on the console's market share.The game is listed as one ofPlayStation's \"Favorite Horror Games of 2019\" on their websiteand is one of the top 30 best selling VR games on Steam.The game was nominated for the Coney Island Dreamland Award for Best AR/VR Game at theNew York Game",
"at theNew York Game Awardsin 2020. Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breachreceived \"mixed or average\" reviews, according to Metacritic.Jeuxvideo.comgave a mixed review, praising the atmosphere and the originality of certain gameplay sections, but criticizing the bugs and technical issues.The Escapist'sBen \"Yahtzee\" Croshawwas more critical of the game, praising the visuals, but criticizing the bugs, design, and restrictive save system.The game was nominated and won Players' Choice December 2021 onPlayStation's official blog. Five Nights at Freddy's: Into the Pitreceived \"generally positive\" reviews, according to Metacritic.Game Rantpraised the game for its story and visuals, whileComicBook.compraised it for its faithfulness to the source material. Cultural influence Fandom Since the release of the first game, popular video creators such asPewDiePie,Markiplier, andJacksepticeyehave garnered millions of views, which helped the games receive additional attention from their playthroughs.In May 2015, YouTube",
"May 2015, YouTube reported that videos of theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries were the platform's eighth-most-watched playthroughs. The interpretive,non-linear, and cryptic narrative ofFive Nights at Freddy'sis a popular topic for fans to discuss and debate.Channels such asThe Game TheoristsfeatureFive Nights at Freddy's-related videos with the goal of discovering the lore of the franchise.With over 60 videos and 800 million views combined, Matthew Patrick of The Game Theorists has described the series as \"a delightfully incomplete and mysterious story with just enough threads to keep you guessing.\" Thousands offan gameshave been inspired by the game mechanics ofFive Nights at Freddy's.Fan games for the franchise are incredibly common to the pointGame JoltmadeFNaFgames its own genre to avoid overwhelming the site.: 74Along with fan games, multiple fan songs have been created, including some byThe Living Tombstone, each having accumulated hundreds of millions of views.The Living Tombstone'sfirstFNaFsongwas",
"played in theclosing creditsof the film adaptation. Although theFive Nights at Freddy'sfandom has been criticized for immaturity,Cawthon defended them and criticized the broader community for what he called an unfair generalization. In September 2020, a video featuringJack Blackdancing to The Living Tombstone's firstFive Nights at Freddy'sfan songwent viralon the social media platformTikTok.Black had previously appeared on an episode ofJimmy Kimmel Live!in April 2020, wearing a mask headpiece modeled after Glitchtrap, antagonist of Help Wanted and its sequel, where he revealed that he is a fan of theFive Nights at Freddy'sseries.Black and his son Samuel had previously playedFive Nights at Freddy's 4with Markiplier to promote his own filmGoosebumps. Merchandise Five Nights at Freddy'smerchandise is primarily produced by two companies: Sanshee and Funko.Products includestuffed toys,action figures,posters, clothing,keychains, andstationery, among other things.McFarlane Toysalso has a line ofFive Nights at",
"ofFive Nights at Freddy'smerchandise, consisting mainly ofconstruction sets;Todd McFarlanecalled the line \"the single largest-selling product, bar none, by a lot that done in 20-plus years.\"The merchandise, available internationally, has been a factor in the franchise's success. Notes References Further reading External links",
"Grateful Dead TheGrateful Deadwas an Americanrockband formed inPalo Alto, Californiain 1965.Known for their eclectic style that fused elements of rock,blues,jazz,folk,country,bluegrass,rock and roll,gospel,reggae, andworld musicwithpsychedelia,the band is famous forimprovisationduring theirlive performances,and for their devoted fan base, known as \"Deadheads\". According to the musician and writerLenny Kaye, the music of the Grateful Dead \"touches on ground that most other groups don't even know exists.\"For the range of their influences and the structure of their live performances, the Grateful Dead are considered \"the pioneering godfathers of thejam bandworld\". The Grateful Dead was founded in theSan Francisco Bay Areaduring the rise of thecounterculture of the 1960s.The band's founding members wereJerry Garcia(lead guitarand vocals),Bob Weir(rhythm guitar and vocals),Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan(keyboards,harmonica, and vocals),Phil Lesh(bass guitarand vocals), andBill Kreutzmann(drums).Members of the Grateful",
"of the Grateful Dead, originally known asthe Warlocks, had played together in various Bay Area ensembles, including the traditionaljug bandMother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions. Lesh was the last member to join the Warlocks before they changed their name to Grateful Dead, replacing Dana Morgan Jr., who had played bass for a few gigs. DrummerMickey Hartand non-performing lyricistRobert Hunterjoined in 1967. With the exception of McKernan, who died in 1973, and Hart, who left the band from 1971 to 1974, the core of the band stayed together for its entire 30-year history.Other official members of the band includedTom Constanten(keyboards from 1968 to 1970),John Perry Barlow(non-performing lyricist from 1971 to 1995),Keith Godchaux(keyboards and occasional vocals from 1971 to 1979),Donna Godchaux(vocals from 1972 to 1979),Brent Mydland(keyboards and vocals from 1979 to 1990), andVince Welnick(keyboards and vocals from 1990 to 1995).Bruce Hornsby(accordion, piano, vocals) was atouringmember from 1990 to 1992, as",
"1990 to 1992, as well as a guest with the band on occasion before and after the tours. After Garcia's death in 1995, former members of the band, along with other musicians, toured asThe Other Onesin 1998, 2000, and 2002, and asThe Deadin 2003, 2004, and 2009. In 2015, the four surviving core members marked the band's 50th anniversary in aseries of concertsinSanta Clara, California, andChicagothat were billed as their last performances together.There have also been several spin-offs featuring one or more core members, such asDead & Company,Furthur, theRhythm Devils,Phil Lesh and Friends,RatDog, andBilly & the Kids. Despite having only one Top-40 single in their 30-year career, \"Touch of Grey(1987),\" the Grateful Dead remained among the highest-grossing American touring acts for decades. They gained a committed fanbase by word of mouth and through the free exchange of their live recordings, encouraged by the band's allowance oftaping. In 2024, they broke the record for most Top-40 albums on",
"Top-40 albums on theBillboard200chart.Rolling Stoneranked the Grateful Dead number 57 on its 2011 list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\".The band was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994,and a recording of theirMay 8, 1977 performanceatCornell University'sBarton Hallwas added to theNational Recording Registryof theLibrary of Congressin 2012 for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".In 2024, the four living core members (Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann and Hart) were recognized as part of theKennedy Center Honors. Formation (1965–1966) The Grateful Dead began their career as the Warlocks, a group formed in early 1965 from the remnants of aPalo Alto, Californiajug bandcalledMother McCree's Uptown Jug Championsand members of The Wildwood Boys (Jerry Garcia, Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan, David Nelson, Robert Hunter, and Norm Van Maastricht).As The Wildwood Boys they played regularly at The Tangent, a folk music coffeehouse operated by Stanford Medical Center doctors Stuart \"Stu\"",
"Stuart \"Stu\" Goldstein and David \"Dave\" Shoenstadt on University Avenue in Palo Alto (1963).As the Warlocks, the band's first show was at Magoo's Pizza Parlor, at 639 Santa Cruz Avenue in suburbanMenlo Park, on May 5, 1965, now a Harvest furniture store. The band continued playing bar shows,like Frenchy's Bikini-A-Go-GoinHaywardand, importantly, five sets a night, five nights a week, for six weeks, at theIn RoominBelmontas the Warlocks,but quickly changed the band's name after finding out that a different band known as the Warlocks had put out a record under that name. (The Velvet Undergroundalso had to change its name from the Warlocks.) The name \"Grateful Dead\" was chosen from a dictionary. According to Lesh, Garcia \"picked up an oldBritannicaWorld Language Dictionary... ... In that silvery elf-voice he said to me, 'Hey, man, how about the Grateful Dead?'\"The definition there was \"the soul of a dead person, or his angel, showing gratitude to someone who, as an act of charity, arranged their burial.\"",
"their burial.\" According to Alan Trist, director of the Grateful Dead's music publisher company Ice Nine, Garcia found the name in theFunk & WagnallsFolklore Dictionary, when his finger landed on that phrase while playing a game ofFictionary.In the Garcia biographyCaptain Trips, author Sandy Troy states that the band was smoking the psychedelicDMTat the time.The term \"grateful dead\" appears in folktales from a variety of cultures. The first show under the name Grateful Dead was inSan Joseon December 4, 1965, at one ofKen Kesey'sAcid Tests.Scholar Michael Kaler has written that the Dead's participation in the Acid Tests was crucial both to the development of their improvisational vocabulary and to their bonding as a band, with the group having set out to foster an intra-band musical telepathy.Kaler has further pointed out that the Dead's pursuit of a new improvisatory rock language in 1965 chronologically coincided with that same goal's adoption byJefferson Airplane,Pink Floydandthe Velvet Underground.",
"Velvet Underground. Earlierdemo tapeshave survived, but the first of over 2,000 concerts known to have been recorded by the band's fans was a show at theFillmore Auditoriumin San Francisco on January 8, 1966.Later that month, the Grateful Dead played at the Trips Festival, a three-daypsychedelic rockweekend party and event produced byKen Kesey,Stewart Brand, andRamon Sender, that, in conjunction with theMerry Pranksters, brought the nascenthippiemovement together for the first time. Other supporting personnel who joined early includedRock Scully, who heard of the band from Kesey and signed on as manager after meeting them at the Big Beat Acid Test;Stewart Brand, \"with his side show of taped music and slides of Indian life, a multimedia presentation\" at the Big Beat and then, expanded, at the Trips Festival; andOwsley Stanley, the \"Acid King\" whoseLSDsupplied the Acid Tests and who, in early 1966, became the band's financial backer, renting them a house on the fringes ofWatts, Los Angeles, and buying them",
"and buying them sound equipment. \"We were living solely off of Owsley's good graces at that time. ... trip was he wanted to design equipment for us, and we were going to have to be in sort of a lab situation for him to do it\", said Garcia. Main career (1967–1995) Pigpen era (1967–1972) One of the group's earliest major performances in 1967 was theMantra-Rock Dance, a musical event held on January 29, 1967, at theAvalon Ballroomby the San FranciscoHare Krishnatemple. The Grateful Dead performed at the event along with the Hare Krishna founderBhaktivedanta Swami, poetAllen Ginsberg, bandsMoby GrapeandBig Brother and the Holding CompanywithJanis Joplin, donating proceeds to the temple.The band's first LP,The Grateful Dead, was released on Warner Brothers in 1967. On May 3, 1968, the band played a free concert atColumbia Universityduring theanti–Vietnam War student protestsduring which students occupied several campus buildings. In order to play, the band, equipment and all, had to be “smuggled” on campus in",
"on campus in the back of a bread delivery truck. “We were already jamming away before the security and police could stop us.” Classically trained trumpeterPhil Leshperformed onbass guitar.Bob Weir, the youngest original member of the group, playedrhythm guitar.Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernanplayedkeyboards,percussion, andharmonicauntil shortly before his death in 1973 at the age of 27. Garcia, Weir, and McKernan shared the lead vocal duties more or less equally; Lesh sang only a few leads, but his tenor was a key part of the band's three-part vocal harmonies.Bill Kreutzmannplayeddrums, and in September 1967 was joined by a second drummer, New York City nativeMickey Hart, who also played a wide variety of otherpercussion instruments. 1970 included tour dates inNew Orleans, where the band performed atThe Warehousefor two nights. On January 31, 1970, the local police raided their hotel onBourbon Streetand arrested and charged 19 people with possession of various drugs.The second night's concert was performed as scheduled",
"as scheduled after bail was posted. Eventually, the charges were dismissed, except those against sound engineerOwsley Stanley, who was already facing charges in California for manufacturing LSD. This event was later memorialized in the lyrics of “Truckin'\", a single fromAmerican Beautythat reached number 64 on the charts. Hart took time off from the band in February 1971, after his father, an accountant, absconded with much of the band's money;Kreutzmann was once again as the sole percussionist. Hart rejoined the Grateful Dead for good in October 1974.Tom \"TC\" Constantenwas added as a second keyboardist from 1968 to 1970, to help Pigpen keep up with an increasingly psychedelic sound, while Pigpen transitioned into playing various percussion instruments and vocals. After Constanten's departure, Pigpen reclaimed his position as sole keyboardist. Less than two years later, in late 1971, Pigpen was joined by another keyboardist,Keith Godchaux, who playedgrand pianoalongside Pigpen'sHammond B-3 organ. In early",
"B-3 organ. In early 1972, Keith's wife,Donna Jean Godchaux, joined the Grateful Dead as a backing vocalist. Following the Grateful Dead's \"Europe '72\" tour, Pigpen's health had deteriorated to the point that he could no longer tour with the band. His final concert appearance was June 17, 1972, at theHollywood Bowl, in Los Angeles;he died on March 8, 1973, of complications from liver damage. Godchaux era (1972–1979) Pigpen's death did not slow down the Grateful Dead. With the help of managerRon Rakow, the band soon formed its own record label,Grateful Dead Records.Later that year, it released its next studio album, the jazz-influencedWake of the Flood, whichbecame their biggest commercial success thus far.Meanwhile, capitalizing on the album's success, the band soon went back to the studio, and in June 1974 released another album,From the Mars Hotel. Not long after, the Dead decided to take a hiatus from livetouring. The band travelled to Europe for a string of shows in September 1974, before performing a",
"before performing a series of five concerts at theWinterland Ballroomin San Francisco in October 1974, and delved into various other projects.The Winterland concerts were filmed, and Garcia compiled the footage intoThe Grateful Dead Movie, a feature-length concert film released in 1977. In September 1975, the Dead released their eighth studio album,Blues for Allah. The band resumed touring in June 1976, playing multiple dates in small theaters, rather than the stadium shows that had become common, and had exhausted them, in 1974.That same year, they signed withArista Records, and the new contract producedTerrapin Stationin July 1977. The band's tour in the spring of that year is held in high regard by its fans, and itsconcert of May 8atCornell Universityis often considered one of the best performances of its career.TheirSeptember 1977 concertatRaceway ParkinOld Bridge Township, New Jerseywas attended by 107,019 people and held the record forlargest-ticketed concertin the United States by a single act for 47",
"a single act for 47 years. Keith and Donna Jean Godchaux left the band in February 1979, citing artistic differences. Mydland/Welnick era (1979–1995) Following the Godchauxs' departure,Brent Mydlandjoined as keyboardist and vocalist and was considered \"the perfect fit.\" The Godchauxs then formed theHeart of Gold Band, before Keith died in a car accident in July 1980. Mydland was the keyboardist for the Grateful Dead for 11 years until his death by narcotics overdose in July 1990,becoming the third keyboardist to die. Shortly after Mydland found his place in the early 1980s, Garcia's health began to decline. He became a frequent smoker of \"Persian,\" a type of heroin, and he gained weight at a rapid pace. He lost his liveliness on stage, his voice was strained, and Deadheads worried for his health. After he began to curtail his opiate usage gradually in 1985, Garcia slipped into adiabetic comafor several days in July 1986, leading to the cancelation of all concerts in the fall of that year. Garcia recovered,",
"Garcia recovered, the band releasedIn the Darkin July 1987, which became its best-selling studio album and produced its only top-40 single, \"Touch of Grey,\" Also, that year, the grouptouredwithBob Dylan, as heard on the albumDylan & the Dead. Mydland died in July 1990 andVince Welnick, former keyboardist forthe Tubes, joined as a band member, whileBruce Hornsby, who had a successful career with his band the Range, joined temporarily as a bridge to help Welnick learn songs. Both performed on keyboards and vocals—Welnick until the band's end, and Hornsby mainly from 1990 to 1992. SaxophonistBranford Marsalisplayed five concerts with the band between 1990 and 1994. The Grateful Dead performed its final concert on July 9, 1995, atSoldier Fieldin Chicago. Aftermath (1995–present) Jerry Garciadied on August 9, 1995. A few months after Garcia's death, the remaining members of the Grateful Dead decided to disband.Since that time, there have been a number ofreunions by the surviving membersinvolving various",
"various combinations of musicians. Additionally, the former members have also begun or continued individual projects. In 1998, Bob Weir, Phil Lesh, and Mickey Hart, along with several other musicians, formed a band calledthe Other Ones, and performed a number of concerts that year, releasing a live album,The Strange Remain, the following year. In 2000, the Other Ones toured again, this time with Kreutzmann but without Lesh. After taking another year off, the band toured again in 2002 with Lesh. That year, the Other Ones then included all four living former Grateful Dead members who had been in the band for most or all of its history. At different times the shifting lineup of the Other Ones also included guitaristsMark Karan,Steve Kimock, andJimmy Herring, keyboardistsBruce Hornsby,Jeff Chimenti, andRob Barraco, saxophonistDave Ellis, drummerJohn Molo, bassistAlphonso Johnson, and vocalistSusan Tedeschi. In 2003, the Other Ones, still including Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann, changed their name tothe",
"their name tothe Dead.The Dead toured the United States in 2003, 2004 and 2009. The band's lineups included Jimmy Herring andWarren Hayneson guitar, Jeff Chimenti and Rob Barraco on keyboards, andJoan Osborneon vocals.In 2008, members of the Dead played two concerts, called \"Deadheads for Obama\" and \"Change Rocks\". Following the 2009 Dead tour, Lesh and Weir formed the bandFurthur, which debuted in September 2009.Joining Lesh and Weir in Furthur wereJohn Kadlecik(guitar), Jeff Chimenti (keyboards),Joe Russo(drums),Jay Lane(drums),Sunshine Becker(vocals), and Zoe Ellis (vocals). Lane and Ellis left the band in 2010, and vocalistJeff Pehrsonjoined later that year. Furthur disbanded in 2014. In 2010, Hart and Kreutzmann re-formed theRhythm Devils, and played a summer concert tour. Since 1995, the former members of the Grateful Dead have also pursued solo music careers. BothBob Weir & RatDogandPhil Lesh and Friendshave performed many concerts and released several albums. Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann have also",
"have also each released a few albums. Hart has toured with hisworld musicpercussion ensemble Planet Drumas well as the Mickey Hart Band.Kreutzmann has led several different bands, includingBK3,7 Walkers(withPapa Mali),andBilly & the Kids.Donna Godchaux has returned to the music scene, with theDonna Jean Godchaux Band,andTom Constantenalso continues to write and perform music.All of these groups continue to play Grateful Dead music. In October 2014, it was announced thatMartin Scorsesewould produce a documentary film about the Grateful Dead, to be directed byAmir Bar-Lev.David Lemieuxsupervised the musical selection, and Weir, Hart, Kreutzmann, and Lesh agreed to new interviews for the film.Bar-Lev's four-hour documentary, titledLong Strange Trip, was released in 2017. \"Fare Thee Well\" In 2015, Weir, Lesh, Kreutzmann, and Hart reunited for five concerts called \"Fare Thee Well: Celebrating 50 Years of the Grateful Dead\".The shows were performed on June 27 and 28 atLevi's StadiuminSanta Clara, California, and",
"California, and on July 3, 4 and 5 atSoldier FieldinChicago.The band stated that this would be the final time that Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann would perform together.They were joined byTrey AnastasioofPhishon guitar, Jeff Chimenti on keyboards, and Bruce Hornsby on piano.Demand for tickets was very high.The concerts were simulcast via various media.The Chicago shows have been released as a box set of CDs and DVDs. Dead & Company In the fall of 2015, Mickey Hart, Bill Kreutzmann and Bob Weir joined with guitaristJohn Mayer, keyboardistJeff Chimenti, and bassistOteil Burbridgeto tour in a band calledDead & Company. Mayer recounts that in 2011 he was listening toPandoraand happened upon the Grateful Dead song \"Althea\", and that soon Grateful Dead music was all he would listen to.The band played six tours:October–December 2015,June–July 2016,May–July 2017.,May–August 2018, and May–July 2019.On October–November 2019 they played 6 dates on the \"2019 Fall Fun Run\". On December 27 and 28, they played at The",
"they played at The Forum in Inglewood (Los Angeles), California as part of their \"2019 New Year's Run\" tour. On December 30 and 31, they played in their hometown of San Francisco at the Chase Center, featuring a bi-plane that descended from the ceiling of the Chase Center carrying the daughters of Jerry Garcia, Trixie Garcia and her half-sister, Ken Kesey's daughter Sunshine Kesey, dropping rose petals on the audience as they toured the arena. Barlow died in 2018and Hunter in 2019. In 2022, John Mayer announced that Dead & Company's summer 2023 tour will be their last. Musical style and legacy The Grateful Dead formed during the era when bands such asthe Beatles,the Beach Boysandthe Rolling Stoneswere dominating the airwaves. \"The Beatles were why we turned from a jug band into a rock 'n' roll band\", said Bob Weir. \"What we saw them doing was impossibly attractive. I couldn't think of anything else more worth doing.\"Former folk-scene starBob Dylanhad recently put out a couple of records featuring electric",
"featuring electric instrumentation. Grateful Dead members have said that it was after attending a concert by the touring New York City bandthe Lovin' Spoonfulthat they decided to \"go electric\" and look for a \"dirtier\" sound.Jerry GarciaandBob Weir(both of whom had been immersed in theAmerican folk music revivalof the late 1950s and early 1960s), were open-minded about the use of electric guitars. The Grateful Dead's early music (in the mid-1960s) was part of the process of establishing what \"psychedelic music\" was, but theirs was essentially a \"street party\" form of it. They developed their \"psychedelic\" playing as a result of meetingKen KeseyinPalo Alto, California, and subsequently becoming the house band for theAcid Testshe staged.They did not fit their music to an established category such as pop rock, blues, folk rock, or country & western. Individual tunes within their repertoire could be identified under one of these stylistic labels, but overall their music drew on all of these genres and, more",
"genres and, more frequently, melded several of them.Bill Grahamsaid of the Grateful Dead, \"They're not the best at what they do, they're the only ones that do what they do.\"Academics Paul Hegarty and Martin Halliwell argued that the Grateful Dead were \"not merely asprecursorsofprogbut as essential developments of progressiveness in its early days\".Often (both in performance and on recording) the Dead left room for exploratory, spacey soundscapes. Their live shows, fed by an improvisational approach to music, were different from most touring bands. While rock and roll bands often rehearse a standard set, played with minor variations, the Grateful Dead did not prepare in this way. Garcia stated in a 1966 interview, \"We don't make up our sets beforehand. We'd rather work off the tops of our heads than off a piece of paper.\"They maintained this approach throughout their career. For each performance, the band drew material from an active list of a hundred or so songs. The 1969 live albumLive/Deaddid capture the",
"capture the band in-form, but commercial success did not come untilWorkingman's DeadandAmerican Beauty, both released in 1970. These records largely featured the band's laid-backacoustic musicianshipand more traditional song structures. With their rootsy, eclectic stylings, particularly evident on the latter two albums, the band pioneered the hybridAmericanagenre. Beginning in the early 1990s, a new generation of bands became inspired by the Grateful Dead's improvisational ethos andmarketing strategy, and began to incorporate elements of the Grateful Dead's live performances into their own shows. These include the nightly alteration ofsetlists, frequent improvisation,the blending of genres, and the allowance oftaping, which would often contribute to the development of a dedicated fanbase. Bands associated with the expansion of the\"jam scene\"includePhish,The String Cheese Incident,Widespread Panic,Blues Traveler,moe., and theDisco Biscuits. Many of these groups began to look past theAmerican roots musicthat",
"roots musicthat the Grateful Dead drew inspiration from, and incorporated elements ofprogressive rock,hard rock, andelectronica. At the same time, the Internet gained popularity and provided a medium for fans to discuss these bands and their performances and downloadMP3s. The Grateful Dead, as well as Phish, were one of the first bands to have aUsenetnewsgroup. Musicianship As the band and its sound matured over thirty years of touring, playing, and recording, each member's stylistic contribution became more defined, consistent, and identifiable. Garcia's lead lines were fluid, supple and spare, owing a great deal of their character to his experience playingScruggs stylebanjo, an approach which often makes use ofnote syncopation,accenting,arpeggios,staccatochromatic runs, and the anticipation of thedownbeat. Garcia had a distinctive sense oftiming, often weaving in and out of thegrooveestablished by the rest of the band as if he were pushing the beat. His lead lines were also immensely influenced byjazz",
"influenced byjazz soloists: Garcia citedMiles Davis,Ornette Coleman,Bill Evans,Pat Martino,George Benson,Al Di Meola,Art Tatum,Duke Ellington, andDjango Reinhardtas primary influences, and frequently utilized techniques common tocountryandblues musicin songs that called back to those traditions. Garcia often switchedscalesin the midst of a solo depending upon thechord changesplayed underneath, though he nearly always finishedphrasesby landing on thechord-tones. Jerry most frequently played in theMixolydian mode, though his solos and phrases often incorporated notes from theDorianandmajor/minor pentatonic scales. Particularly in the late 1960s, Garcia occasionally incorporatedmelodic linesderived fromIndianragasinto the band's extended,psychedelicimprovisation, likely inspired byJohn Coltraneand other jazz artists' interest in thesitarmusic ofRavi Shankar. Lesh was originally a classically trained trumpet player with an extensive background inmusic theory, but did not tend to play traditional blues-based bass",
"blues-based bass forms. He often played more melodic, symphonic and complex lines, often sounding like a second lead guitar. In contrast to most bassists inpopular music, Lesh often avoids playing therootof a chord on the downbeat, instead withholding as a means to buildtension. Lesh also rarely repeats the same bassline, even from performance to performance of the same song, and often plays off of or around the other instruments with asyncopated,staccatobounce that contributes to the Dead's unique rhythmic character. Weir, too, was not a traditionalrhythm guitarist, but tended to play uniqueinversionsat the upper end of the Dead's sound. Weir modeled his style of playing after jazz pianistMcCoy Tynerand attempted to replicate the interplay between John Coltrane and Tyner in his support, and occasional subversion, of theharmonic structureof Garcia's voice leadings. This would often influence the direction the band's improvisation would take on a given night. Weir and Garcia's respective positions as rhythm",
"positions as rhythm and lead guitarist were not always strictly adhered to, as Weir would often incorporate short melodic phrases into his playing to support Garcia and occasionally took solos, often played with aslide. Weir's playing is characterized by a \"spiky, staccato\" sound. The band's two drummers,Mickey HartandBill Kreutzmann, developed a unique, complex interplay, balancing Kreutzmann's steadyshufflebeat with Hart's interest in percussion styles outside the rock tradition. Kreuzmann has said, \"I like to establish a feeling and then add radical or oblique juxtapositions to that feeling.\"Hart incorporated an 11-count measure to his drumming, bringing a dimension to the band's sound that became an important part of its style. He had studiedtabladrumming and incorporated rhythms and instruments fromworld music, and laterelectronic music, into the band's live performances. The Dead's live performances featured multiple types ofimprovisationderived from a vast array of musical traditions. Not unlike many",
"Not unlike many rock bands of their time, the majority of the Dead's songs feature a designated section in which aninstrumental breakoccurs over thechord changes. These sections typically feature solos by Garcia that often originate as variations on the song'smelody, but go on to create dynamic phrases that resolve by returning to the chord-tones. Not unlike traditionalimprovisational jazz, they may occasionally feature several solos by multiple instruments within an undecided number ofbars, such as a keyboardist, before returning to the melody. At the same time, Dead shows almost always feature a more collective,modalapproach to improvisation that typically occurs duringseguesbetween songs before the bandmodulatesto a newtonal center. Some of the Dead's more extended jam vehicles, such as \"The Other One\", \"Dark Star\", and \"Playing in the Band\" almost exclusively make use of modulation between modes to accompany simple two-chord progressions. Lyrical themes Following the songwriting renaissance that defined",
"that defined the band's early 1970s period, as reflected in the albumsWorkingman's DeadandAmerican Beauty,Robert Hunter, Jerry Garcia's primary lyrical partner, frequently made use ofmotifscommon toAmerican folkloreincluding trains, guns, elements,traditional musical instruments, gambling, murder, animals, alcohol, descriptions ofAmerican geography, andreligious symbolismto illustrate themes involving love and loss, life and death, beauty and horror, and chaos and order.Following in the footsteps of severalAmerican musical traditions, these songs are often confessional and feature narration from the perspective of anantihero. CriticRobert Christgaudescribed them as \"American myths\" that later gave way to \"the old karma-go-round\". An extremely common feature in both Robert Hunter's lyrics, as well as the band's visual iconography, is the presence ofdualisticand opposing imagery illustrating the dynamic range of thehuman experience(Heaven and hell, law and crime, dark and light, etc.). Hunter and Garcia's",
"Hunter and Garcia's earlier, more directlypsychedelic-influencedcompositions often make use ofsurrealimagery,nonsense, and whimsey reflective of traditions inEnglish poetry.In a retrospective,The New Yorkerdescribed Hunter's verses as \"elliptical, by turns vivid andgnomic\", which were often \"hippie poetry about roses and bells and dew\".Grateful Dead biographer Dennis McNally has described Hunter's lyrics as creating \"a non-literal hyper-Americana\" weaving a psychedelic, kaleidoscopic tapestry in the hopes of elucidating America'snational character. At least one of Hunter and Bob Weir's collaborations, \"Jack Straw\", was inspired by the work ofJohn Steinbeck. Merchandising and representation Hal Kantwas an entertainment industry attorney who specialized in representing musical groups. He spent 35 years as principal lawyer and general counsel for the Grateful Dead, a position in the group that was so strong that his business cards with the band identified his role as \"Czar\". Kant brought the band millions of",
"band millions of dollars in revenue through his management of the band'sintellectual propertyand merchandising rights. At Kant's recommendation, the group was one of the few rock 'n roll pioneers to retain ownership of their music masters andpublishing rights. In 2006, the Grateful Dead signed a ten-year licensing agreement withRhino Entertainmentto manage the band's business interests including the release of musical recordings, merchandising, and marketing. The band retained creative control and kept ownership of its music catalog. A Grateful Dead video game titledGrateful Dead Game – The Epic Tourwas released in April 2012 and was created by Curious Sense. In November 2022, the children's bookThe ABCs of The Grateful Deadwas released.Authorized by the group, it was written by Howie Abrams, illustrated byMichael \"Kaves\" McLeer, and published bySimon & Schuster. Sponsorship of 1992 Lithuanian Olympic basketball team AfterLithuaniagained its independence from the USSR, the country announced its withdrawal",
"its withdrawal from the1992 Olympicsdue to the lack of any money to sponsor participants.But NBA starŠarūnas Marčiulionis, a native Lithuanian basketball star, wanted to help his native team to compete. His efforts resulted in a call from representatives of the Grateful Dead who set up a meeting with the band members.The band agreed to fund transportation costs for the team (about five thousand dollars) along with Grateful Dead designs for the team's jerseys and shorts. TheLithuanian basketball teamwon the bronze medal and the Lithuanian basketball/Grateful Dead T-shirts became part of pop culture, especially in Lithuania.The incident was covered by the documentaryThe Other Dream Team. Live performances The Grateful Dead toured constantly throughout their career, playing more than 2,300 concerts.They promoted a sense of community among their fans, who became known as \"Deadheads\", many of whom followed their tours for months or years on end. Around concert venues, an impromptu communal marketplace known as",
"known as 'Shakedown Street' was created by Deadheads to serve as centers of activity where fans could buy and sell anything from grilled cheese sandwiches to home-made t-shirts and recordings of Grateful Dead concerts. In their early career, the band also dedicated their time and talents to their community, the Haight-Ashbury area of San Francisco, making available free food, lodging, music, and health care to all. It has been said that the band performed \"more free concerts than any band in the history of music\". With the exception of 1975, when the band was on hiatus and played only four concerts, Grateful Dead performed many concerts every year, from their formation in April 1965, until July 9, 1995.Initially all their shows were in California, principally in theSan Francisco Bay Areaand in or nearLos Angeles. They also performed, in 1965 and 1966, withKen Kesey and the Merry Pranksters, as the house band for theAcid Tests. In 1967, they toured nationally, including their first performance inNew York",
"inNew York City. They appeared at theMonterey Pop Festivalin 1967, theWoodstock Festivalin 1969 and theFestival Expresstrain tour across Canada in 1970. They were scheduled to appear as the final act at the infamousAltamont Free Concerton December 6, 1969, after theRolling Stonesbut withdrew after security concerns. \"That's the way things went at Altamont—so badly that the Grateful Dead, prime organizers and movers of the festival, didn't even get to play\", staff atRolling Stonemagazine wrote in a detailed narrative on the event. Their first UK performance was at theHollywood Music Festivalin 1970. Their largest concert audience came in 1973 when they played, along withthe Allman Brothers Bandandthe Band, before an estimated 600,000 people at theSummer Jam at Watkins Glen.They played to an estimated total of 25 million people, more than any other band, with audiences of up to 80,000 attending a single show. Many of these concerts were preserved in the band's tape vault, and several dozen have since been",
"have since been released on CD and as downloads. The Dead were known for the tremendous variation in their setlists from night to night—the list of songs documented to have been played by the band exceeds 500.The band has released four concert videos under the nameView from the Vault. In 1978, they played three nights at theGreat Pyramid of GizainEgypt. In the 1990s, the Grateful Dead earned a total of $285 million in revenue from their concert tours, the second-highest during the 1990s, with the Rolling Stones earning the most.This figure is representative of tour revenue through 1995, as touring stopped after the death of Jerry Garcia. In a 1991PBSdocumentary, segment host Buck Henry attended an August 1991 concert at Shoreline Amphitheatre and gleaned some information from some band members about the Grateful Dead phenomenon and its success.At the time, Jerry Garcia stated, \"We didn't really invent the Grateful Dead, the crowd invented the Grateful Dead, you know what I mean? We were sort of standing in",
"sort of standing in line, and uh, it's gone way past our expectations, way past, so it's, we've been going along with it to see what it's gonna do next.\"Mickey Hart said, \"This is one of the last places in America that you can really have this kind of fun, you know, considering the political climate and so forth.\"Hart also stated that \"the transformative power of the Grateful Dead is really the essence of it; it's what it can do to your consciousness. We're more intotransportationthan we are into music,per se, I mean, the business of the Grateful Dead is transportation.\"One of the band's largest concerts took place just months before Garcia's death — at their outdoor show with Bob Dylan inHighgate, Vermont, on June 15, 1995. The crowd was estimated to be over 90,000; overnight camping was allowed and about a third of the audience got in without having purchased a ticket. Their numerous studio albums were generally collections of new songs that they had first played in concert. The band was also famous for",
"was also famous for its extended musical improvisations, having been described as having never played the same song the same way twice. Their concert sets often blended songs, one into the next, often for more than three songs at a time. Concert sound systems TheWall of Soundwas a large sound system designed specifically for the band.The band was never satisfied with the house system anywhere they played. After the Monterey Pop Festival, the band's crew 'borrowed' some of the other performers' sound equipment and used it to host some free shows in San Francisco.In their early days, soundmanOwsley \"Bear\" Stanleydesigned apublic address(PA) and monitor system for them. Stanley was the Grateful Dead's soundman for many years; he was also one of the largest suppliers ofLSD. Stanley's sound systems were delicate and finicky, and frequently brought shows to a halt with technical breakdowns. After Stanley went to jail for manufacturing LSD in 1970, the group briefly used house PAs, but found them to be even less",
"to be even less reliable than those built by their former soundman. On February 2, 1970, the group contactedBob Heilto use his system.In 1971, the band purchased their firstsolid-statesound system fromAlembic Studios. Because of this,Alembicwould play an integral role in the research, development, and production of the Wall of Sound. The band also welcomedDan Healyinto the fold on a permanent basis that year. Healy would mix the Grateful Dead's live sound until 1993. Following Jerry Garcia's death and the band's breakup in 1995, their current sound system was inherited byDave Matthews Band. Dave Matthews Band debuted the sound system April 30, 1996, at the first show of their 1996 tour in Richmond, Virginia. Tapes Like several other bands at the time, the Grateful Dead allowed their fans to record their shows. For many years thetapersset up their microphones wherever they could, and the eventual forest of microphones became a problem for the sound crew. Eventually, this was solved by having a dedicated",
"having a dedicated taping section located behind the soundboard, which required a special \"tapers\" ticket. The band allowed sharing of their shows, as long as no profits were made on the sale of the tapes. Of the approximately 2,350 shows the Grateful Dead played, almost 2,200 were taped, and most of these are available online.The band began collecting and cataloging tapes early on andDick Latvalawas their keeper. \"Dick's Picks\" is named after Latvala. After his death in 1999,David Lemieuxgradually took the post. Concert set lists from a subset of 1,590 Grateful Dead shows were used to perform a comparative analysis between how songs were played in concert and how they are listened online byLast.fmmembers.In their bookMarketing Lessons from the Grateful Dead: What Every Business Can Learn From the Most Iconic Band in History,David Meerman ScottandBrian Halliganidentify the taper section as a crucial contributor to increasing the Grateful Dead's fan base. Iconography Over the years, a number of iconic images",
"of iconic images have come to be associated with the Grateful Dead. Many of these images originated as artwork for concert posters or album covers. Deadheads Fans and enthusiasts of the band are commonly referred to asDeadheads. While the origin of the term may be unclear,Dead Headswere made canon by the notice placed inside theSkull and Roses(1971) album by manager Jon McIntire: DEAD FREAKS UNITE: Who are you? Where are you? How are you?Send us your name and address and we'll keep you informed.Dead Heads, P.O. Box 1065, San Rafael, California 94901. As each show featured a new setlist and a great deal of improvisation, Deadheads would often follow the band from city to city, attending many shows on a given tour. Many Deadheads speak of being drawn to the culture due to the sense of community that the band's shows tended to foster. Though Deadheads came from a wide array of demographics, many attempted to reproduce the aesthetics and values of the1960s countercultureand were often stigmatized in the",
"stigmatized in the media.Because of the stereotyping of Deadheads ashippies, the band's shows became a common target for officials in theDEAand arrests at shows became common. As a group, the Deadheads were considered very mellow. \"I'd rather work nine Grateful Dead concerts than one Oregon football game,\" Police Det. Rick Raynor said. \"They don't get belligerent like they do at the games.\"Despite this reputation, in the mid-1990s, as the band's popularity grew, there were a series of minor scuffles occurring at shows that peaked with a large scale riot at theDeer Creek Music Centernear Indianapolis in July 1995. Thisgate crashingincident caused the band to cancel the following night's show.Deadheads who appeared on the scene after the band's 1987 hit single \"Touch of Grey\", were often disparagingly referred to by older fans as \"Touchheads\". Beginning in the 1980s, a number of definable sects of Deadheads began to appear on the scene. These included theWharf Rats, as well as the \"spinners\", named",
"\"spinners\", named forwhirling-style of dancing and their use of the band's music to facilitatemystical experiences. Deadheads, particularly those who collectedtapes, were known for keeping close records of the band's setlists and for comparing various live versions of the band's songs, as reflected in publications such as the various editions of \"Deadbase\" and \"The Deadhead's Taping Compendium\". This practice continues into the 21st century on digital forums and websites such as theInternet Archive, which features live recordings of nearly every available Grateful Dead show and allows users to discuss and review the site's shows. The band hasa number of influential and celebrity fans, including politicians, businesspeople, journalists, and other musicians. Donation of archives to UC Santa Cruz On April 24, 2008, members Bob Weir and Mickey Hart, along with Nion McEvoy, CEO ofChronicle Books,UC Santa CruzchancellorGeorge Blumenthal, and UC Santa Cruz librarian Virginia Steel, held a press conference",
"a press conference announcing UCSC'sMcHenry Librarywould be the permanent home of theGrateful Dead Archive, which includes a complete archival history from 1965 to the present. The archive includes correspondence, photographs, fliers, posters, and several other forms of memorabilia and records of the band. Also included are unreleased videos of interviews and TV appearances that will be installed for visitors to view, as well as stage backdrops and other props from the band's concerts. Blumenthal stated at the event, \"The Grateful Dead Archive represents one of the most significant popular cultural collections of the 20th century; UC Santa Cruz is honored to receive this invaluable gift. The Grateful Dead and UC Santa Cruz are both highly innovative institutions—born the same year—that continue to make a major, positive impact on the world.\" Guitarist Bob Weir stated \"We looked around, and UC Santa Cruz seems the best possible home. If you ever wrote the Grateful Dead a letter, you'll probably find it",
"probably find it there!\" Professor of musicFredric Liebermanwas the key contact between the band and the university, who let the university know about the search for a home for the archive, and who had collaborated with Mickey Hart on three books in the past,Planet Drum(1990),Drumming at the Edge of Magic(1991), andSpirit into Sound(2006). The first large-scale exhibition of materials from the Grateful Dead Archive was mounted at theNew-York Historical Societyin 2010. Awards In 2004,Rolling Stoneranked the Grateful Dead No. 57 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. On February 10, 2007, the Grateful Dead received aGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award. The award was accepted on behalf of the band by Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann. In 2011, a recording of the Grateful Dead's May 8, 1977, concert at Cornell University's Barton Hall was selected for induction into the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. Twelve members of the Grateful Dead (the eleven official performing members",
"performing members plus Robert Hunter) were inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Famein 1994, andBruce Hornsbywas their presenter. In 2024 the band was named as one of the recipients of theKennedy Center Honors. The four living core members (Weir, Lesh, Hart and Kreutzmann) will receive the award. Members Lead guitaristJerry Garciawas often viewed both by the public and the media as the leader or primary spokesperson for the Grateful Dead, but was reluctant to be perceived that way, especially since he and the other group members saw themselves asequal participantsand contributors to their collective musical and creative output.Garcia, a native of San Francisco, grew up in theExcelsior District. One of his main influences was bluegrass music, and he also performed—onbanjo, one of his other great instrumental loves, along with thepedal steel guitar—in bluegrass bands, notablyOld & In the WaywithmandolinistDavid Grisman. Ned Lagin, a youngMITstudent and friend of the band, guested with them many times from",
"many times from 1970 through 1975, providing a second keyboard as well as synthesizers. Upon graduating from MIT, he began touring with the band fulltime in 1974, performing sets of electronic music withPhil Lesh, occasionally with Garcia and Kreutzmann, during the band's intermission.The \"Ned and Phil\" set became a regular fixture of that era, and was featured nearly every night during their Summer '74 and Europe '74 tours, as well as their five-night residency at theWinterland Ballroomduring October 1974. Lagin is also featured inThe Grateful Dead Movie. During 1974 and 1975, he would also occasionally play entire sets with the band, usually on Garcia's side of the stage, before ending his touring relationship with the band and focusing on his solo music projects, such as his albumSeastones, which features several members of the Dead. Bruce Hornsbynever officially joined the band full-time because of his other commitments, but he did play keyboards at most Dead shows between September 1990 and March 1992,",
"and March 1992, and sat in with the band over 100 times in all between 1988 and 1995. He added several Dead songs to his own live showsand Jerry Garcia referred to him as a \"floating member\" who could come and go as he pleased. Robert HunterandJohn Perry Barlowwere the band's primarylyricists, starting in 1967 and 1971, respectively, and continuing until the band's dissolution.Hunter collaborated mostly with Garcia and Barlow mostly with Weir, though each wrote with other band members as well. Both are listed as official members at Dead.net, the band's website, alongside the performing members.Barlow was the only member not inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. Timeline Discography See also References Further reading External links"
] |
Which other astronaut flew the same type of aircraft during the Korean War as the first man to step on the moon? | John Glenn | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_landing | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Armstrong | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F9F_Panther | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glenn | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_landing', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Armstrong', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F9F_Panther', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glenn'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_landing",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Armstrong",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F9F_Panther",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glenn"
] | [
"Moon landing Clickable map of the locations of all successfulsoft landingson theMoonto date (top) AMoon landingorlunar landingis the arrival of aspacecrafton the surface of theMoon, including both crewed and robotic missions. The first human-made object to touch the Moon wasLuna 2in 1959. In 1969Apollo 11was the first crewed mission to land on the Moon.There weresix crewed landingsbetween 1969 and 1972, and numerous uncrewed landings. All crewed missions to the Moon were conducted by theApollo program, with the last departing the lunar surface in December 1972. AfterLuna 24in 1976 there were nosoft landingson the Moon untilChang'e 3in 2013. All soft landings took place on thenear side of the Moonuntil January 2019, whenChang'e 4made the first landing on thefar side of the Moon. Uncrewed landings Government landings Six government space agencies,Interkosmos,NASA,CNSA,ISRO,JAXAandESA, have reached the Moon with uncrewed missions. Three private/commercial missions,Beresheet(hard landing),Hakuto-R(hard landing), andOdysseus(soft landing) have also reached the lunar surface (see#Commercial landings). The Soviet Union (Interkosmos), the United States (NASA), China (CNSA), India (ISRO),and Japan (JAXA)are the only five nations to have successfully achieved soft landings. The Soviet Union performed the first hard Moon landing – \"hard\" meaning the spacecraft intentionally crashes into the Moon at high speeds – with theLuna 2spacecraft in 1959, a feat the U.S. duplicated in 1962 withRanger 4. Following their initial hard landings on the Moon, sixteen Soviet, U.S., Chinese and Indian spacecraft have used braking rockets (retrorockets) to makesoft landingsand perform scientific operations on the lunar surface. In 1966 the Soviet Union accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the lunar surface during theLuna 9andLuna 13missions. The U.S. followed with fiveSurveyorsoft landings. China's ongoing\"Chang'e\" programhas landed 4 times since 2013, achieving robotic soil sample return and the first landing on the far side of the Moon. On 23 August 2023, ISRO successfully landed itsChandrayaan-3module in thelunar south poleregion, making India the fourth nation to successfully complete a soft landing on the Moon.Chandrayaan-3 saw a successful soft landing of itsVikramlanderandPragyanroverat 6.04 pm IST (1234 GMT), marking the first uncrewed soft landing in the little-explored region. On 19 January 2024, JAXA successfully landed itsSLIM lander, making Japan the fifth nation to successfully complete a soft landing. Commercial landings Two organizations have attempted but failed to achieve soft landings: Israeli private space agencySpaceILwith theirBeresheetspacecraft (2019), and Japanese companyispace'sHakuto-R Mission 1(2023). On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseussuccessfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing in over 50 years. This event marked the first successful landing of aprivately owned spacecrafton the Moon. Crewed landings A total of twelveastronautshave landed on the Moon. This was accomplished with two pilot-astronauts flying aLunar Moduleon each of sixNASAmissions. The missions spanned a 41-month period starting 20 July 1969, beginning withNeil ArmstrongandBuzz AldrinonApollo 11, and ending on 14 December 1972 withGene CernanandHarrison SchmittonApollo 17. Cernan was the last man to step off the lunar surface. All Apollo lunar missions had a third crew member who remained on board thecommand module. Scientific background To get to the Moon, a spacecraft must first leave Earth'sgravity well; currently, the only practical means is arocket. Unlike airborne vehicles such asballoonsandjets, a rocket can continueacceleratingin thevacuumoutside theatmosphere. Upon approach of the target moon, a spacecraft will be drawn ever closer to its surface at increasing speeds due to gravity. In order to land intact it must decelerate to less than about 160 kilometres per hour (100 mph) and be ruggedized to withstand a \"hard landing\" impact, or it must decelerate to negligible speed at contact for a \"soft landing\" (the only option for humans). The first three attempts by the U.S. to perform a successful hard Moon landing with a ruggedizedseismometerpackage in 1962 all failed.The Soviets first achieved the milestone of a hard lunar landing with a ruggedized camera in 1966, followed only months later by the first uncrewed soft lunar landing by the U.S. The speed of a crash landing on its surface is typically between 70 and 100% of theescape velocityof the target moon, and thus this is the total velocity which must be shed from the target moon's gravitational attraction for a soft landing to occur. For Earth's Moon, the escape velocity is 2.38 kilometres per second (1.48 mi/s).The change in velocity (referred to as adelta-v) is usually provided by a landing rocket, which must be carried into space by the originallaunch vehicleas part of the overall spacecraft. An exception is the soft moon landing onTitancarried out by theHuygensprobein 2005. As the moon with the thickest atmosphere, landings on Titan may be accomplished by usingatmospheric entrytechniques that are generally lighter in weight than a rocket with equivalent capability. The Soviets succeeded in making the first crash landing on the Moon in 1959.Crash landingsmay occur because of malfunctions in a spacecraft, or they can be deliberately arranged for vehicles which do not have an onboard landing rocket. There have beenmany such Moon crashes, often with their flight path controlled to impact at precise locations on the lunar surface. For example, during the Apollo program theS-IVBthird stage of theSaturn Vrocket as well as the spent ascent stage of theLunar Modulewere deliberately crashed on the Moon several times to provide impacts registering as amoonquakeonseismometersthat had been left on the lunar surface. Such crashes were instrumental in mapping theinternal structure of the Moon. To return to Earth, the escape velocity of the Moon must be overcome for the spacecraft to escape thegravity wellof the Moon. Rockets must be used to leave the Moon and return to space. Upon reaching Earth, atmospheric entry techniques are used to absorb thekinetic energyof a returning spacecraft and reduce its speed for safe landing. These functions greatly complicate a moon landing mission and lead to many additional operational considerations. Any moon departure rocket must first be carried to the Moon's surface by a moon landing rocket, increasing the latter's required size. The Moon departure rocket, larger moon landing rocket and any Earth atmosphere entry equipment such as heat shields andparachutesmust in turn be lifted by the original launch vehicle, greatly increasing its size by a significant and almost prohibitive degree. Political background The political context of the 1960s helps to parse both the United States and Soviet Union's efforts to land spacecraft, and eventually humans, on the Moon.World War IIhad introduced many new and deadly innovations includingblitzkrieg-style surprise attacks used in theinvasion of PolandandFinland, as well as in theattack on Pearl Harbor; theV-2 rocket, aballistic missilewhich killed thousands in attacks on London andAntwerp; and theatom bomb, which killed hundreds of thousands in theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the 1950s, tensions mounted between the two ideologically opposed superpowers of the United States and theSoviet Unionthat had emerged as victors in the conflict, particularly after the development by both countries of thehydrogen bomb. On 4 October 1957, the Soviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1as the firstartificial satelliteto orbit the Earth and so initiated theSpace Race. This unexpected event was a source of pride to the Soviets and shock to the U.S., who could now potentially be surprise attacked by nuclear-tipped Soviet rockets in under 30 minutes.The craft was also barely visible to the naked eye as the steady beeping of theradio beaconaboardSputnik 1as it passed overhead every 96 minutes, which was widely viewed on both sidesas effective propaganda toThird Worldcountries demonstrating the technological superiority of the Sovietpolitical systemcompared to that of the U.S. This perception was reinforced by a string of subsequent rapid-fire Soviet space achievements. In 1959, the R-7 rocket was used to launch the first escape from Earth's gravity into asolar orbit, the first crash impact onto the surface of the Moon, and the first photography of the never-before-seenfar side of the Moon. These were theLuna 1,Luna 2, andLuna 3spacecraft. The U.S. response to these Soviet achievements was to greatly accelerate previously existing military space and missile projects and to create a civilian space agency,NASA. Military efforts were initiated to develop and produce mass quantities of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that would bridge the so-calledmissile gapand enable a policy ofdeterrencetonuclear warwith the Soviets known asmutual assured destructionor MAD. These newly developedmissileswere made available to civilians of NASA for various projects (which would have the added benefit of demonstrating the payload, guidance accuracy and reliabilities of U.S. ICBMs to the Soviets). Early Soviet uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965) After thefall of the Soviet Unionin 1991, historical records were released to allow the true accounting of Soviet lunar efforts. Unlike the U.S. tradition of assigning a particular mission name in advance of a launch, the Soviets assigned a public \"Luna\" mission number only if a launch resulted in a spacecraft going beyond Earth orbit. The policy had the effect of hiding Soviet Moon mission failures from public view. If the attempt failed in Earth orbit before departing for the Moon, it was frequently (but not always) given a \"Sputnik\" or \"Cosmos\" Earth-orbit mission number to hide its purpose. Launch explosions were not acknowledged at all. Early U.S. uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965) The U.S. was not able to reach the Moon with thePioneerandRanger programs, with fifteen consecutive U.S. uncrewed lunar missions from 1958 to 1964 failing their primary photographic missions.However, Rangers 4 and 6 successfully repeated the Soviet lunar impacts as part of their secondary missions. Three U.S. missionsin 1962 attempted to hard land small seismometer packages released by the main Ranger spacecraft. These surface packages were to useretrorocketsto survive landing, unlike the parent vehicle, which was designed to deliberately crash onto the surface. The final three Ranger probes performed successful high altitude lunarreconnaissancephotography missions during intentional crash impacts between 2.62 and 2.68 kilometres per second (9,400 and 9,600 km/h). Pioneer missions Three different designs of Pioneer lunar probes were flown on three different modified ICBMs. Those flown on theThorbooster modified with an Able upper stage carried aninfraredimage scanning television system with aresolutionof 1milliradianto study the Moon's surface, anionization chamberto measureradiationin space, a diaphragm/microphone assembly to detectmicrometeorites, amagnetometer, and temperature-variable resistors to monitor spacecraft internal thermal conditions.The first, a mission managed by theUnited States Air Force, exploded during launch;all subsequent Pioneer lunar flights had NASA as the lead management organization. The next two returned to Earth and burned up upon reentry into the atmosphere after achieved maximum altitudes of around 114,000 kilometres (71,000 mi)and 1,530 kilometres (950 mi)respectively, far short of the roughly 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) required to reach the vicinity of the Moon. NASA then collaborated with theUnited States Army'sBallistic Missile Agencyto fly two extremely small cone-shaped probes on theJunoICBM, carrying onlyphotocellswhich would be triggered by the light of the Moon and a lunar radiation environment experiment using aGeiger-Müller tubedetector.The first of these reached an altitude of only around 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), gathering data that established the presence of theVan Allen radiation beltsbefore reentering Earth's atmosphere.The second passed by the Moon at a distance of more than 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), twice as far as planned and too far away to trigger either of the on-board scientific instruments, yet still becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to reach asolar orbit. The final Pioneer lunar probe design consisted of four \"paddlewheel\"solar panelsextending from a one-meter diameter sphericalspin-stabilizedspacecraft body equipped to take images of the lunar surface with a television-like system, estimate the Moon's mass and topography of thepoles, record the distribution and velocity of micrometeorites, study radiation, measuremagnetic fields, detectlow frequency electromagnetic wavesin space and use a sophisticated integratedpropulsionsystem for maneuvering and orbit insertion as well.None of the four spacecraft built in this series of probes survived launch on itsAtlasICBM outfitted with an Able upper stage. Following the unsuccessful Atlas-Able Pioneer probes, NASA'sJet Propulsion Laboratoryembarked upon an uncrewed spacecraft development program whose modular design could be used to support both lunar and interplanetary exploration missions. The interplanetary versions were known asMariners;lunar versions wereRangers. JPL envisioned three versions of the Ranger lunar probes: Block I prototypes, which would carry various radiation detectors in test flights to a very high Earth orbit that came nowhere near the Moon;Block II, which would try to accomplish the first Moon landing by hard landing a seismometer package;and Block III, which would crash onto the lunar surface without any braking rockets while taking very high resolution wide-area photographs of the Moon during their descent. Ranger missions The Ranger 1 and 2 Block I missions were virtually identical.Spacecraft experiments included aLyman-alphatelescope, arubidium-vapormagnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium-energy-rangeparticle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic-ray integratingionization chamber,cosmic dustdetectors, andscintillation counters. The goal was to place these Block I spacecraft in a very high Earth orbit with an apogee of 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and aperigeeof 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi). From that vantage point, scientists could make direct measurements of themagnetosphereover a period of many months while engineers perfected new methods to routinely track and communicate with spacecraft over such large distances. Such practice was deemed vital to be assured of capturing high-bandwidth television transmissions from the Moon during a one-shot fifteen-minute time window in subsequent Block II and Block III lunar descents. Both Block I missions suffered failures of the new Agena upper stage and never left low Earthparking orbitafter launch; both burned up upon reentry after only a few days. The first attempts to perform a Moon landing took place in 1962 during the Rangers 3, 4 and 5 missions flown by the United States.All three Block II missions basic vehicles were 3.1 m high and consisted of a lunar capsule covered with a balsa wood impact-limiter, 650 mm in diameter, a mono-propellant mid-course motor, a retrorocket with a thrust of 5,050 pounds-force (22.5 kN),and a gold- and chrome-plated hexagonal base 1.5 m in diameter. This lander (code-namedTonto) was designed to provide impact cushioning using an exterior blanket of crushable balsa wood and an interior filled with incompressible liquidfreon. A 42-kilogram (93 lb) 30-centimetre-diameter (0.98 ft) metal payload sphere floated and was free to rotate in a liquid freon reservoir contained in the landing sphere. \"Everything that we do ought to really be tied-in to getting onto the Moon ahead of the Russians. ...We're ready to spend reasonable amounts of money, but we're talking about fantastic expenditures which wreck our budget and all these other domestic programs, and the only justification for it, in my opinion, to do it is because we hope to beat them and demonstrate that starting behind, as we did by a couple of years, by God, we passed them.\" —John F. Kennedyon the planned Moon landing, 21 November 1962 This payload sphere contained six silver-cadmiumbatteries to power a fifty-milliwatt radio transmitter, a temperature sensitive voltage controlled oscillator to measure lunar surface temperatures, and a seismometer designed with sensitivity high enough to detect the impact of a 2.3 kg (5 lb) meteorite on the opposite side of the Moon. Weight was distributed in the payload sphere so it would rotate in its liquid blanket to place the seismometer into an upright and operational position no matter what the final resting orientation of the external landing sphere. After landing, plugs were to be opened allowing the freon to evaporate and the payload sphere to settle into upright contact with the landing sphere. The batteries were sized to allow up to three months of operation for the payload sphere. Various mission constraints limited the landing site to Oceanus Procellarum on the lunar equator, which the lander ideally would reach 66 hours after launch. No cameras were carried by the Ranger landers, and no pictures were to be captured from the lunar surface during the mission. Instead, the 3.1 metres (10 ft) Ranger Block II mother ship carried a 200-scan-line television camera to capture images during the free-fall descent to the lunar surface. The camera was designed to transmit a picture every 10 seconds.Seconds before impact, at 5 and 0.6 kilometres (3.11 and 0.37 mi) above the lunar surface, the Ranger mother ships took pictures (which may be viewedhere). Other instruments gathering data before the mother ship crashed onto the Moon were a gamma ray spectrometer to measure overall lunar chemical composition and a radar altimeter. The radar altimeter was to give a signal ejecting the landing capsule and its solid-fueled braking rocket overboard from the Block II mother ship. The braking rocket was to slow and the landing sphere to a dead stop at 330 metres (1,080 ft) above the surface and separate, allowing the landing sphere to free fall once more and hit the surface. On Ranger 3, failure of the Atlas guidance system and a software error aboard the Agena upper stage combined to put the spacecraft on a course that would miss the Moon. Attempts to salvage lunar photography during a flyby of the Moon were thwarted by in-flight failure of the onboard flight computer. This was probably because of priorheat sterilizationof the spacecraft by keeping it above theboilingpoint of water for 24 hours on the ground, to protect the Moon from being contaminated by Earth organisms. Ranger 3 later began orbiting the Sun, called heliocentric orbit.Heat sterilization was also blamed for subsequent in-flight failures of the spacecraft computer on Ranger 4 and the power subsystem on Ranger 5. Only Ranger 4 reached the Moon in an uncontrolled crash impact on the far side of the Moon. Block III probes replaced the Block II landing capsule and its retrorocket with a heavier, more capable television system to support landing site selection for upcoming Apollo crewed Moon landing missions. Six cameras were designed to take thousands of high-altitude photographs in the final twenty-minute period before crashing on the lunar surface. Camera resolution was 1,132 scan lines, far higher than the 525 lines found in a typical U.S. 1964 home television. WhileRanger 6suffered a failure of this camera system and returned no photographs despite an otherwise successful flight, the subsequentRanger 7mission to Mare Cognitum was a complete success. Breaking the six-year string of failures in U.S. attempts to photograph the Moon at close range, theRanger 7mission was viewed as a national turning point and instrumental in allowing the key 1965 NASA budget appropriation to pass through theUnited States Congressintact without a reduction in funds for the Apollo crewed Moon landing program. Subsequent successes withRanger 8andRanger 9further buoyed U.S. hopes. Soviet uncrewed soft landings (1966–1976) TheLuna 9spacecraft, launched by theSoviet Union, performed the first successful soft Moon landing on 3 February 1966.Airbagsprotected its 99-kilogram (218 lb) ejectable capsule which survived an impact speed of over 15 metres per second (54 km/h; 34 mph).Luna 13duplicated this feat with a similar Moon landing on 24 December 1966. Both returned panoramic photographs that were the first views from the lunar surface. Luna 16was the firstrobotic probeto land on theMoonand safely return a sample of lunar soil back to Earth.It represented the firstlunar samplereturn mission by theSoviet Union, and was the third lunarsample return missionoverall, following theApollo 11andApollo 12missions. This mission was later successfully repeated byLuna 20(1972) andLuna 24(1976). In 1970 and 1973 twoLunokhod(\"Moonwalker\") robotic lunar rovers were delivered to the Moon, where they successfully operated for 10 and 4 months respectively, covering 10.5 km (6.5 mi) (Lunokhod 1) and 37 km (23 mi) (Lunokhod 2). These rover missions were in operation concurrently with the Zond and Luna series of Moon flyby, orbiter and landing missions. U.S. uncrewed soft landings (1966–1968) The U.S.roboticSurveyor programwas part of an effort to locate a safe site on the Moon for a human landing and test under lunar conditions theradarand landing systems required to make a true controlled touchdown. Five of Surveyor's seven missions made successful uncrewed Moon landings. Surveyor 3 was visited two years after its Moon landing by the crew of Apollo 12. They removed parts of it for examination back on Earth to determine the effects of long-term exposure to the lunar environment. Transition from direct ascent landings to lunar orbit operations Within four months of each other in early 1966 the Soviet Union and the United States had accomplished successful Moon landings with uncrewed spacecraft. To the general public both countries had demonstrated roughly equal technical capabilities by returning photographic images from the surface of the Moon. These pictures provided a key affirmative answer to the crucial question of whether or not lunar soil would support upcoming crewed landers with their much greater weight. However, the Luna 9 hard landing of a ruggedized sphere using airbags at a 50-kilometre-per-hour (31 mph) ballistic impact speed had much more in common with the failed 1962 Ranger landing attempts and their planned 160-kilometre-per-hour (99 mph) impacts than with the Surveyor 1 soft landing on three footpads using its radar-controlled, adjustable-thrust retrorocket. While Luna 9 and Surveyor 1 were both major national accomplishments, only Surveyor 1 had reached its landing site employing key technologies that would be needed for a crewed flight. Thus as of mid-1966, the United States had begun to pull ahead of the Soviet Union in the so-called Space Race to land a man on the Moon. Advances in other areas were necessary before crewed spacecraft could follow uncrewed ones to the surface of the Moon. Of particular importance was developing the expertise to perform flight operations in lunar orbit. Ranger, Surveyor and initial Luna Moon landing attempts all flew directly to the surface without a lunar orbit. Suchdirect ascentsuse a minimum amount of fuel for uncrewed spacecraft on a one-way trip. In contrast, crewed vehicles need additional fuel after a lunar landing to enable a return trip back to Earth for the crew. Leaving this massive amount of required Earth-return fuel in lunar orbit until it is used later in the mission is far more efficient than taking such fuel down to the lunar surface in a Moon landing and then hauling it all back into space yet again, working against lunar gravity both ways. Such considerations lead logically to alunar orbit rendezvousmission profile for a crewed Moon landing. Accordingly, beginning in mid-1966 both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. naturally progressed into missions featuring lunar orbit as a prerequisite to a crewed Moon landing. The primary goals of these initial uncrewed orbiters were extensive photographic mapping of the entire lunar surface for the selection of crewed landing sites and, for the Soviets, the checkout of radio communications gear that would be used in future soft landings. An unexpected major discovery from initial lunar orbiters were vast volumes of dense materials beneath the surface of the Moon'smaria. Such mass concentrations (\"mascons\") can send a crewed mission dangerously off course in the final minutes of a Moon landing when aiming for a relatively small landing zone that is smooth and safe. Mascons were also found over a longer period of time to greatly disturb the orbits of low-altitude satellites around the Moon, making their orbits unstable and forcing an inevitable crash on the lunar surface in the relatively short period of months to a few years. Controlling the location of impact for spent lunar orbiters can have scientific value. For example, in 1999 the NASALunar Prospectororbiter was deliberately targeted to impact a permanently shadowed area of Shoemaker Crater near the lunar south pole. It was hoped that energy from the impact would vaporize suspected shadowed ice deposits in the crater and liberate a water vapor plume detectable from Earth. No such plume was observed. However, a small vial of ashes from the body of pioneer lunar scientistEugene Shoemakerwas delivered by the Lunar Prospector to the crater named in his honor – the only human remains on the Moon. Soviet lunar orbit satellites (1966–1974) Luna 10became the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon on 3 April 1966. U.S. lunar orbit satellites (1966–1967) Soviet circumlunar loop flights (1967–1970) It is possible to aim a spacecraft from Earth so it will loop around the Moon and return to Earth without entering lunar orbit, following the so-calledfree return trajectory. Such circumlunar loop missions are simpler than lunar orbit missions because rockets for lunar orbit braking and Earth return are not required. However, a crewed circumlunar loop trip poses significant challenges beyond those found in a crewed low-Earth-orbit mission, offering valuable lessons in preparation for a crewed Moon landing. Foremost among these are mastering the demands of re-entering the Earth's atmosphere upon returning from the Moon. Inhabited Earth-orbiting vehicles such as the Space Shuttle return to Earth from speeds of around 7,500 m/s (27,000 km/h). Due to the effects of gravity, a vehicle returning from the Moon hits Earth's atmosphere at a much higher speed of around 11,000 m/s (40,000 km/h). Theg-loadingon astronauts during the resultingdecelerationcan be at the limits of human endurance even during a nominal reentry. Slight variations in the vehicle flight path and reentry angle during a return from the Moon can easily result in fatal levels of deceleration force. Achieving a crewed circumlunar loop flight prior to a crewed lunar landing became a primary goal of the Soviets with theirZondspacecraft program. The first three Zonds were robotic planetary probes; after that, the Zond name was transferred to a completely separate human spaceflight program. The initial focus of these later Zonds was extensive testing of required high-speed reentry techniques. This focus was not shared by the U.S., who chose instead to bypass the stepping stone of a crewed circumlunar loop mission and never developed a separate spacecraft for this purpose. Initial crewed spaceflights in the early 1960s placed a single person in low Earth orbit during the SovietVostokand U.S.Mercuryprograms. A two-flight extension of the Vostok program known asVoskhodeffectively used Vostok capsules with their ejection seats removed to achieve Soviet space firsts of multiple person crews in 1964 and spacewalks in early 1965. These capabilities were later demonstrated by the U.S. in tenGeminilow Earth orbit missions throughout 1965 and 1966, using a totally new second-generation spacecraft design that had little in common with the earlier Mercury. These Gemini missions went on to prove techniques for orbitalrendezvous and dockingcrucial to a crewed lunar landing mission profile. After the end of the Gemini program, the Soviet Union began flying their second-generation Zond crewed spacecraft in 1967 with the ultimate goal of looping a cosmonaut around the Moon and returning him or her immediately to Earth. TheZondspacecraft was launched with the simpler and already operationalProtonlaunch rocket, unlike the parallel Soviet human Moon landing effort also underway at the time based on third-generationSoyuz spacecraftrequiring development of the advancedN-1booster. The Soviets thus believed they could achieve a crewed Zond circumlunar flight years before a U.S. human lunar landing and so score a propaganda victory. However, significant development problems delayed the Zond program and the success of the U.S. Apollo lunar landing program led to the eventual termination of the Zond effort. Like Zond, Apollo flights were generally launched on a free return trajectory that would return them to Earth via a circumlunar loop if aservice modulemalfunction failed to place them in lunar orbit. This option was implemented after an explosion aboard theApollo 13mission in 1970, which is the only crewed circumlunar loop mission flown to date. Zond 5was the first spacecraft to carry life from Earth to the vicinity of the Moon and return, initiating the final lap of theSpace Racewith its payload of tortoises, insects, plants, and bacteria. Despite the failure suffered in its final moments, the Zond 6 mission was reported by Soviet media as being a success as well. Although hailed worldwide as remarkable achievements, both these Zond missions flew off-nominal reentry trajectories resulting in deceleration forces that would have been fatal to humans. As a result, the Soviets secretly planned to continue uncrewed Zond tests until their reliability to support human flight had been demonstrated. However, due to NASA's continuing problems with thelunar module, and because ofCIAreports of a potential Soviet crewed circumlunar flight in late 1968, NASA fatefully changed the flight plan ofApollo 8from an Earth-orbit lunar module test to a lunar orbit mission scheduled for late December 1968. In early December 1968 the launch window to the Moon opened for the Soviet launch site inBaikonur, giving the USSR their final chance to beat the US to the Moon.Cosmonautswent on alert and asked to fly the Zond spacecraft then in final countdown at Baikonur on the first human trip to the Moon. Ultimately, however, the SovietPolitburodecided the risk of crew death was unacceptable given the combined poor performance to that point of Zond/Proton and so scrubbed the launch of a crewed Soviet lunar mission. Their decision proved to be a wise one, since this unnumbered Zond mission was destroyed in another uncrewed test when it was finally launched several weeks later. By this time flights of the third generation U.S.Apollo spacecrafthad begun. Far more capable than the Zond, the Apollo spacecraft had the necessary rocket power to slip into and out of lunar orbit and to make course adjustments required for a safe reentry during the return to Earth. TheApollo 8mission carried out the first human trip to the Moon on 24 December 1968, certifying theSaturn Vbooster for crewed use and flying not a circumlunar loop but instead a full ten orbits around the Moon before returning safely to Earth.Apollo 10then performed a full dress rehearsal of a crewed Moon landing in May 1969. This mission orbited within 14.4 kilometres (47,400 ft) of the lunar surface, performing necessary low-altitude mapping of trajectory-altering mascons using a factory prototype lunar module too heavy to land. With the failure of the robotic Soviet sample return Moon landing attemptLuna 15in July 1969, the stage was set forApollo 11. Human Moon landings (1969–1972) US strategy Plans for human Moon exploration began during theEisenhoweradministration. In a series of mid-1950s articles inCollier'smagazine,Wernher von Braunhad popularized the idea of a crewed expedition to establish a lunar base. A human Moon landing posed several daunting technical challenges to the US and USSR. Besides guidance and weight management,atmospheric re-entrywithoutablativeoverheating was a major hurdle. After the Soviets launchedSputnik, von Braun promoted a plan for the US Army to establish a military lunar outpost by 1965. After theearly Soviet successes, especiallyYuri Gagarin's flight, US PresidentJohn F. Kennedylooked for a project that would capture the public imagination. He asked Vice PresidentLyndon Johnsonto make recommendations on a scientific endeavor that would prove US world leadership. The proposals included non-space options such as massive irrigation projects to benefit theThird World. The Soviets, at the time, had more powerful rockets than the US, which gave them an advantage in some kinds of space mission. Advances in US nuclear weapon technology had led to smaller, lighter warheads; the Soviets' were much heavier, and the powerfulR-7rocket was developed to carry them. More modest missions such as flying around the Moon, or a space lab in lunar orbit (both were proposed by Kennedy to von Braun), offered too much advantage to the Soviets;landing, however, would capture the world's imagination. Johnson had championed the US human spaceflight program ever since Sputnik, sponsoring legislation to create NASA while he was still a senator. When Kennedy asked him in 1961 to research the best achievement to counter the Soviets' lead, Johnson responded that the US had an even chance of beating them to a crewed lunar landing, but not for anything less. Kennedy seized on Apollo as the ideal focus for efforts in space. He ensured continuing funding, shielding space spending from the 1963 tax cut, but diverting money from other NASA scientific projects. These diversions dismayed NASA's leader,James E. Webb, who perceived the need for NASA's support from the scientific community. The Moon landing required development of the large Saturn Vlaunch vehicle, which achieved a perfect record: zero catastrophic failures or launch vehicle-caused mission failures in thirteen launches. For the program to succeed, its proponents would have to defeat criticism from politicians both on the left (more money for social programs) and on the right (more money for the military). By emphasizing the scientific payoff and playing on fears of Soviet space dominance, Kennedy and Johnson managed to swing public opinion: by 1965, 58 percent of Americans favored Apollo, up from 33 percent two years earlier. After Johnsonbecame president in 1963, his continuing defense of the program allowed it to succeed in 1969, as Kennedy had planned. Soviet strategy Soviet leaderNikita Khrushchevsaid in October 1963 the USSR was \"not at present planning flight by cosmonauts to the Moon,\" while insisting that the Soviets had not dropped out of the race. Only after another year did the USSR fully commit itself to a Moon-landing attempt, which ultimately failed. At the same time, Kennedy had suggested various joint programs, including a possible Moon landing by Soviet and U.S. astronauts and the development of better weather-monitoring satellites, eventually resulting in theApollo-Soyuz mission. Khrushchev, sensing an attempt by Kennedy to steal Russian space technology, rejected the idea at first: if the USSR went to the Moon, it would go alone. Though Khrushchev was eventually warming up to the idea, the realization of a joint Moon landing was choked by Kennedy's assassination. Sergey Korolev, theSoviet space program's chief designer, had started promoting hisSoyuzcraft and theN1launcher rocket that would have the capability of carrying out a human Moon landing. Khrushchev directed Korolev's design bureau to arrange further space firsts by modifying the existing Vostok technology, while a second team started building a completely new launcher and craft, the Proton booster and the Zond, for a human cislunar flight in 1966. In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all crewed projects under his direction. With Korolev's death and the failure of the first Soyuz flight in 1967, coordination of the Soviet Moon landing program quickly unraveled. The Soviets built a landing craft and selected cosmonauts for a mission that would have placedAlexei Leonovon the Moon's surface, but with the successive launch failures of the N1 booster in 1969, plans for a crewed landing suffered first delay and then cancellation. A program of automated return vehicles was begun, in the hope of being the first to return lunar rocks. This had several failures. It eventually succeeded withLuna 16in 1970.But this had little impact, because the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 lunar landings and rock returns had already taken place by then. Apollo missions In total, twenty-four U.S. astronauts have traveled to the Moon. Three have made the trip twice, and twelve have walked on its surface. Apollo 8 was a lunar-orbit-only mission, Apollo 10 included undocking and Descent Orbit Insertion (DOI), followed by LM staging to CSM redocking, while Apollo 13, originally scheduled as a landing, ended up as a lunar fly-by, by means offree return trajectory; thus, none of these missions made landings. Apollo 7 and Apollo 9 were Earth-orbit-only missions. Apart from the inherent dangers of crewed Moon expeditions as seen with Apollo 13, one reason for their cessation according to astronautAlan Beanis the cost it imposes in government subsidies. Human Moon landings Other aspects of the successful Apollo landings President Richard Nixon had speechwriterWilliam Safireprepare a condolence speech for delivery in case Armstrong and Aldrin became marooned on the Moon's surface and could not be rescued. In 1951, science fiction writerArthur C. Clarkeforecast that a man would reach the Moon by 1978. On 16 August 2006, theAssociated Pressreported that NASA ismissing the originalSlow-scan televisiontapes (which were made before the scan conversion for conventional TV) of the Apollo 11 Moon walk. Some news outlets have mistakenly reported the SSTV tapes found in Western Australia, but those tapes were only recordings of data from the Apollo 11Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package.The tapes were found in 2008 and sold at auction in 2019 for the 50th anniversary of the landing. Scientists believe the six American flags planted by astronauts have been bleached white because of more than 40 years of exposure to solar radiation.UsingLROCimages, it has been determined that five of the six American flags are still standing and casting shadows at all of the sites, except Apollo 11.Astronaut Buzz Aldrin reported that the flag was blown over by the exhaust from the ascent engine during liftoff of Apollo 11. Late 20th century–21st century uncrewed crash landings Hiten (Japan) Launched on 24 January 1990, 11:46 UTC. At the end of its mission, the Japanese lunar orbiterHitenwas commanded to crash into the lunar surface and did so on 10 April 1993 at 18:03:25.7 UT (11 April 03:03:25.7 JST). Lunar Prospector (U.S.) Lunar Prospectorwas launched on 7 January 1998. The mission ended on 31 July 1999, when the orbiter was deliberately crashed into a crater near the lunar south pole after the presence of water ice was successfully detected. SMART-1 (ESA) Launched 27 September 2003, 23:14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. At the end of its mission, theESAlunar orbiterSMART-1performed a controlled crash into the Moon, at about 2 km/s (7,200 km/h; 4,500 mph). The time of the crash was 3 September 2006, at 5:42 UTC. Chandrayaan-1 (India) TheIndian Space Research Organisation(ISRO) performed a controlled hard landing with itsMoon Impact Probe(MIP). The MIP was ejected from theChandrayaan-1lunar orbiter and performed remote sensing experiments during its descent to the lunar surface. It impacted nearShackletoncrater at the south pole of the lunar surface at 14 November 2008, 20:31 IST. Chandrayaan-1was launched on 22 October 2008, 00:52 UTC. Chang'e 1 (China) The Chinese lunar orbiterChang'e 1, executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009, 20:44 GMT, after a 16-month mission.Chang'e 1was launched on 24 October 2007, 10:05 UTC. SELENE (Japan) SELENEorKaguyaafter successfully orbiting the Moon for a year and eight months, the main orbiter was instructed to impact on the lunar surface near the craterGillat 18:25 UTC on 10 June 2009.SELENEorKaguyawas launched on 14 September 2007. LCROSS (U.S.) TheLCROSSdata collecting shepherding spacecraft was launched together with theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO) on 18 June 2009 on board anAtlas Vrocket with aCentaurupper stage. On 9 October 2009, at 11:31 UTC, the Centaur upper stage impacted the lunar surface, releasing the kineticenergy equivalentof detonating approximately 2 tons ofTNT(8.86GJ).Six minutes later at 11:37 UTC, the LCROSS shepherding spacecraft also impacted the surface. GRAIL (U.S.) TheGRAILmission consisted of two small spacecraft: GRAIL A (Ebb), and GRAIL B (Flow). They were launched on 10 September 2011 on board aDelta IIrocket. GRAIL A separated from the rocket about nine minutes after launch, and GRAIL B followed about eight minutes later.The first probe entered orbit on 31 December 2011 and the second followed on 1 January 2012.The two spacecraft impacted the Lunar surface on 17 December 2012. LADEE (U.S.) LADEEwas launched on 7 September 2013.The mission ended on 18 April 2014, when the spacecraft's controllers intentionally crashed LADEE into thefar side of the Moon,which, later, was determined to be near the eastern rim ofSundman V crater. Manfred Memorial Moon Mission (Luxembourg) TheManfred Memorial Moon Missionwas launched on 23 October 2014. It conducted a lunar flyby and operated for 19 days which was four times longer than expected. The Manfred Memorial Moon Mission remained attached to the upper stage of its launch vehicle (CZ-3C/E). The spacecraft along with its upper stage impacted the Moon on 4 March 2022. 21st century uncrewed soft landings and attempts Chang'e 3 (China) On 14 December 2013 at 13:12 UTC,Chang'e 3soft-landedaroveron the Moon. This was China's first soft landing on another celestial body and world's first lunar soft landing sinceLuna 24on 22 August 1976.The mission was launched on 1 December 2013. After successful landing, the lander release theYutu rover, which moved 114 meters before being immobilized due to system malfunction. But the rover was still operational until July 2016. Chang'e 4 (China) On 3 January 2019 at 2:26 UTC,Chang'e 4became the first spacecraft to land on thefar side of the Moon.Chang'e 4 was originally designed as the backup of Chang'e 3. It was later adjusted as a mission to the far side of the Moon after the success of Chang'e 3.After making a successful landing withinVon Kármán crater, the Chang'e 4 lander deployed the 140-kilogram (310 lb)Yutu-2 roverand began human's first close exploration of the far side of the Moon. Because the Moon blocks the communications between far side and Earth, a relay satellite,Queqiao, was launched to the Earth–Moon L2Lagrangian pointa few months prior to the landing to enable communications. Yutu-2, the second lunar rover from China, was equipped with panoramic camera,lunar penetrating radar, visible and near-infrared Imaging spectrometer and advanced small analyzer for neutrals. As of July 2022, it has survived more than 1000 days on the lunar surface and is still driving with cumulative travel distance of over 1200 meters. Beresheet(Israel/SpaceIL) On 22 February 2019, Israeli private space agencySpaceILlaunched their spacecraftBeresheeton a Falcon 9 from Cape Canaveral, Florida with the intention of achieving a soft landing. SpaceIL lost contact with the spacecraft during final descent on 11 April 2019, and it crashed as a result of a main engine failure. The mission was the first Israeli, and the first privately funded, lunar landing attempt.Despite the failure, the mission represented the closest a private entity had come to a soft lunar landing at the time. SpaceIL was originally conceived in 2011 as a venture to pursue theGoogle Lunar X Prize. TheBeresheetlunar lander's target landing destination was within Mare Serenitatis, a vast volcanic basin on the Moon's northern near side. Chandrayaan-2 (India) ISRO, the Indian National Space agency, launchedChandrayaan-2on 22 July 2019.It had three major modules: orbiter, lander and rover. Each of these modules had scientific instruments from scientific research institutes in India and the US.On 7 September 2019 contact was lost with theVikramlander at an altitude of 2.1 km (1.3 mi) after a rough braking phase.Vikramwas later confirmed to have crashed and been destroyed. Chang'e 5 (China) On 6 December 2020 at 21:42 UTC,Chang'e 5landed and collected the first lunar soil samples in over 40 years, and thenreturned the samplesto Earth. The 8.2t stack consisting of lander, ascender, orbiter and returner was launched to lunar orbit by aLong March 5rocket on 24 November. The lander-ascender combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing nearMons RümkerinOceanus Procellarum. The ascender was later launched back to lunar orbit, carrying samples collected by the lander, and completed the first-ever robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit.The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which successfully landed onInner Mongoliaon 16 December 2020, completing China's first extraterrestrial sample return mission. Luna 25 (Russia) In Russia's first attempt to reach the Moon since 1976, and since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, theLuna 25spacecraft failed during \"pre-landing\" maneuvers, and crashed into the lunar surface on 19 August 2023. Chandrayaan-3 (India) India's national space agencyISROlaunchedChandrayaan-3on 14 July 2023. Chandrayaan-3 consists of an Indigenous Lander Module (LM), Propulsion module (PM) and thePragyanrover. The lander with the rover successfully landed near the lunar south pole at 18:04 IST on 23 August 2023. Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (Japan) JAXAlaunched theSmart Lander for Investigating Moon(SLIM) mission on 6 September 2023 at 23:42 UTC (7 September 08:42 Japan Standard Time). It landed on 19 January 2024 at 15:20 UTC, making Japan the fifth country to soft-land on the Moon.Solar panel orientation issues and possible landing damage complicated the spacecraft's operation.The mission also deployed two rovers which operated successfully and independently communicated with Earth. Intuitive Machines-1Odysseuslander (U.S.) On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseussuccessfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing in over 50 years. This mission also marks the firstprivately owned spacecraftto land on the Moon and the first landing withcryogenicpropellants.Though it landed successfully, one of the lander's legs broke upon landing and it tilted up on the other side, 18°, due to landing on a slope, but the lander survived and payloads are functioning as expected.EagleCam was not ejected prior to landing. It was later ejected on 28 February but was partially a failure as it returned all types of data except post-IM-1 landing images that were the main aim of its mission. Chang'e 6 (China) China sentChang'e 6on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return fromApollo Basinon thefar side of the Moon.This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved byChang'e 5from the lunar near side four years earlier.It also carried a Chinese rover calledJinchanto conductinfrared spectroscopyof lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing on 1 June 2024 at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024.The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024 at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, and later completed another robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed onInner Mongoliaon 25 June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission. Landings on moons of other Solar System bodies 21st century progress inspace explorationhas broadened the phrasemoon landingto include other moons in theSolar System. TheHuygensprobeof theCassini–Huygensmission toSaturnperformed a successful moon landing onTitanin 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probePhobos 2came within 190 km (120 mi) of performing a landing onMars' moonPhobosin 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission calledFobos-Grunt(\"grunt\" means \"soil\" in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low Earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future landing onJupiter's moonEuropato drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface. Proposed future missions TheLunar Polar Exploration Missionis a robotic space mission concept by ISRO and Japan's space agencyJAXAthat would send alunar roverandlanderto exploresouth poleregion of theMoonin 2025.JAXA is likely to provide launch service using the futureH3rocket, along with responsibility for the rover. ISRO would be responsible for the lander. ISRO, following the success ofChandrayaan 3also has plans to launchChandrayaan 4, alunarsample return mission, which would possibly be the first to return soil from thewater richsouth polar basin, in a landing close toStatio Shiv Shakti. The mission is planned by late 2028. Both nations are also active participants in theArtemis program. On 11 December 2017, US PresidentDonald Trumpsigned Space PolicyDirective 1, which directed NASA to return to the Moon with a crewed mission, for long-term exploration and use and missions to other planets.On 26 March 2019,Vice President Mike Penceformally announced that the mission will include the first female lunar astronaut.TheArtemis programhad intended to land a crewed mission on the Moon in 2024, and to begin sustained operations by 2028, supported by a plannedLunar Gateway.The NASA lunar landing mission has since been postponed to launch no earlier than September 2026. TheChinese Lunar Exploration Programplans 3 additional Chang'e uncrewed missions between 2025 and 2028, in active preparation for theInternational Lunar Research Stationit plans to construct with Russia, Venezuela, Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates in the 2030s. In addition, theChina Manned Space Agencyintends to conduct crewed lunar landings by 2029 or 2030; in preparation for this effort, the various Chinese space agencies and contractors are currently developing a human-rated super-heavy launch vehicle (theLong March 10), a newcrewed lunar spacecraft, and acrewed lunar lander. Russia'sRoscosmoshas announced plans to launch a lunar polar orbiter asLuna 26, in 2027. See also References Further reading External links",
"Neil Armstrong Neil Alden Armstrong(August 5, 1930 – August 25, 2012) was an Americanastronautandaeronautical engineerwho, in 1969, became thefirst person to walk on the Moon. He was also anaval aviator,test pilot, and university professor. Armstrong was born and raised inWapakoneta, Ohio. He enteredPurdue University, studyingaeronautical engineering, with theU.S. Navypaying his tuition under theHolloway Plan. He became amidshipmanin 1949 and anaval aviatorthe following year. He saw action in theKorean War, flying theGrumman F9F Pantherfrom theaircraft carrierUSSEssex. After the war, he completed his bachelor's degree at Purdue and became a test pilot at theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA)High-Speed Flight StationatEdwards Air Force Basein California. He was the project pilot onCentury Seriesfighters and flew theNorth American X-15seven times. He was also a participant in theU.S. Air Force'sMan in Space SoonestandX-20 Dyna-Soarhuman spaceflightprograms. Armstrong joined theNASA Astronaut Corpsin thesecond group, which was selected in 1962. He made his firstspaceflightas command pilot ofGemini 8in March 1966, becomingNASA's first civilian astronaut to fly in space. During this mission with pilotDavid Scott, he performed the firstdockingof twospacecraft; the mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his re-entry control fuel to stabilize a dangerous roll caused by a stuck thruster. During training for Armstrong's second and last spaceflight as commander ofApollo 11, he had to eject from theLunar Landing Research Vehiclemoments before a crash. On July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Apollo 11Lunar Module(LM) pilotBuzz Aldrinbecame the first people toland on the Moon, and the next day they spent two and a half hours outside theLunar ModuleEaglespacecraft whileMichael Collinsremained in lunar orbit in theApollo Command ModuleColumbia. When Armstrong first stepped onto the lunar surface, he famously said: \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\"It was broadcast live to an estimated 530 million viewers worldwide. Apollo 11 was a major U.S. victory in theSpace Race, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy\"of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth\" before the end of the decade. Along with Collins and Aldrin, Armstrong was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby PresidentRichard Nixonand received the 1969Collier Trophy. PresidentJimmy Carterpresented him with theCongressional Space Medal of Honorin 1978, he was inducted into theNational Aviation Hall of Famein 1979, and with his former crewmates received theCongressional Gold Medalin 2009. After he resigned from NASA in 1971, Armstrong taught in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of Cincinnatiuntil 1979. He served on theApollo 13accident investigation and on theRogers Commission, which investigated theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster. In 2012, Armstrong died due tocomplicationsresulting fromcoronary bypass surgery, at the age of 82. Early life and education Armstrong was born nearWapakoneta, Ohio,on August 5, 1930, the son of Viola Louise (née Engel) and Stephen Koenig Armstrong. He was of German, English, Scots-Irish, and Scottish descent.He is a descendant ofClan Armstrong.He had a younger sister, June, and a younger brother, Dean. His father was anauditorfor theOhio state government,and the family moved around the state repeatedly, living in 16 towns over the next 14 years.Armstrong's love for flying grew during this time, having started at the age of two when his father took him to theCleveland Air Races. When he was five or six, he experienced his first airplane flight inWarren, Ohio, when he and his father took a ride in aFord Trimotor(also known as the \"Tin Goose\"). The family's last move was in 1944 and took them back to Wapakoneta, where Armstrong attendedBlume High Schooland took flying lessons at the Wapakoneta airfield.He earned a student flight certificate on his 16th birthday, thensoloedin August, all before he had a driver's license.He was an activeBoy Scoutand earned the rank ofEagle Scout.As an adult, he was recognized by the Scouts with theirDistinguished Eagle Scout AwardandSilver Buffalo Award.While flying toward the Moon on July 18, 1969, he sent his regards to attendees at theNational Scout jamboreein Idaho.Among the few personal items that he carried with him to the Moon and back was a World Scout Badge. At age 17, in 1947, Armstrong began studyingaeronautical engineeringatPurdue UniversityinWest Lafayette, Indiana; he was the second person in his family to attend college. Armstrong was also accepted to theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT),but he resolved to go to Purdue after watching afootballgame between thePurdue Boilermakersand theOhio State Buckeyesat theOhio Stadiumin 1945 in which quarterbackBob DeMossled the Boilermakers to a sound victory over the highly regarded Buckeyes.An uncle who attended MIT had also advised him that he could receive a good education without going all the way toCambridge, Massachusetts. His college tuition was paid for under theHolloway Plan. Successful applicants committed to two years of study, followed by two years of flight training and one year of service as an aviator in theU.S. Navy, then completion of the final two years of theirbachelor's degree.Armstrong did not take courses in naval science, nor did he join theNaval Reserve Officers Training Corps. Navy service Armstrong's call-up from the Navy arrived on January 26, 1949, requiring him to report toNaval Air Station Pensacolain Florida for flight training with class 5-49. After passing the medical examinations, he became amidshipmanon February 24, 1949.Flight training was conducted in aNorth American SNJ trainer, in which he soloed on September 9, 1949.On March 2, 1950, he made his firstaircraft carrierlanding onUSSCabot, an achievement he considered comparable to his first solo flight.He was then sent toNaval Air Station Corpus Christiin Texas for training on theGrumman F8F Bearcat, culminating in a carrier landing onUSSWright. On August 16, 1950, Armstrong was informed by letter that he was a fully qualifiednaval aviator. His mother and sister attended his graduation ceremony on August 23, 1950. Armstrong was assigned to Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron7 (FASRON 7) atNAS San Diego(now known as NAS North Island). On November 27, 1950, he was assigned toVF-51, an all-jet squadron, becoming its youngest officer, and made his first flight in a jet, aGrumman F9F Panther, on January 5, 1951. He was promoted toensignon June 5, 1951, and made his first jet carrier landing onUSSEssextwo days later. On June 28, 1951,Essexhad set sail for Korea, with VF-51 aboard to act asground-attack aircraft. VF-51 flew ahead toNaval Air Station Barbers Pointin Hawaii, where it conducted fighter-bomber training before rejoining the ship at the end of July. On August 29, 1951, Armstrong saw action in theKorean Waras an escort for a photoreconnaissanceplane overSongjin.Five days later, on September 3, he flew armed reconnaissance over the primary transportation and storage facilities south of the village of Majon-ni, west ofWonsan. According to Armstrong, he was making a low bombing run at 350 mph (560 km/h) when 6 feet (1.8 m) of his wing was torn off after it collided with a cable that was strung across the hills as a booby trap. He was flying 500 feet (150 m) above the ground when he hit it. While there was heavy anti-aircraft fire in the area, none hit Armstrong's aircraft.An initial report to the commanding officer ofEssexsaid that Armstrong's F9F Panther was hit byanti-aircraft fire. The report indicated he was trying to regain control and collided with a pole, which sliced off 2 feet (0.61 m) of the Panther's right wing. Further perversions of the story by different authors added that he was only 20 feet (6.1 m) from the ground and that 3 feet (0.91 m) of his wing was sheared off. Armstrong flew the plane back to friendly territory, but due to the loss of theaileron,ejectionwas his only safe option. He intended to eject over water and await rescue by Navy helicopters, but his parachute was blown back over land. A jeep driven by a roommate from flight school picked him up; it is unknown what happened to the wreckage of his aircraft, F9F-2 BuNo125122. In all, Armstrong flew 78missions over Korea for a total of 121hours in the air, a third of them in January 1952, with the final mission on March 5, 1952. Of 492 U.S. Navy personnel killed in the Korean War, 27 of them were fromEssexon this war cruise. Armstrong received theAir Medalfor 20 combat missions, twogold starsfor the next 40, theKorean Service Medaland Engagement Star, theNational Defense Service Medal, and theUnited Nations Korea Medal. Armstrong's regular commission was terminated on February 25, 1952, and he became an ensign in theUnited States Navy Reserve. On completion of his combat tour withEssex, he was assigned to a transport squadron, VR-32, in May 1952. He was released from active duty on August 23, 1952, but remained in the reserve, and was promoted tolieutenant (junior grade)on May 9, 1953.As a reservist, he continued to fly, with VF-724 atNaval Air Station Glenviewin Illinois, and then, after moving to California, with VF-773 atNaval Air Station Los Alamitos.He remained in the reserve for eight years, before resigning his commission on October 21, 1960. College years After his service with the Navy, Armstrong returned to Purdue. His previously earned good but not outstandinggradesnow improved, lifting his final Grade Point Average (GPA) to a respectable but not outstanding 4.8 out of 6.0. He pledged thePhi Delta Thetafraternity, and lived in its fraternity house. He wrote and co-directed two musicals as part of the all-student revue. The first was a version ofSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs, co-directed with his girlfriend Joanne Alford from theAlpha Chi Omegasorority, with songs from the1937 Walt Disney film, including \"Someday My Prince Will Come\"; the second was titledThe Land of Egelloc(\"college\" spelled backward), with music fromGilbert and Sullivanbut new lyrics. Armstrong was chairman of the Purdue Aero Flying Club, and flew the club's aircraft, anAeroncaand a couple ofPipers, which were kept at nearby Aretz Airport inLafayette, Indiana. Flying the Aeronca to Wapakoneta in 1954, he damaged it in a rough landing in a farmer's field, and it had to be hauled back to Lafayette on a trailer.He was abaritoneplayer in thePurdue All-American Marching Band.Ten years later he was made an honorary member ofKappa Kappa Psinational band honorary fraternity.Armstrong graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree inAeronautical Engineeringin January 1955.In 1970, he completed his Master of Science degree inAerospace Engineeringat theUniversity of Southern California(USC).He would eventually be awarded honorary doctorates by several universities. Armstrong met Janet Elizabeth Shearon, who was majoring inhome economics, at a party hosted by Alpha Chi Omega.According to the couple, there was no real courtship, and neither could remember the exact circumstances of their engagement. They were married on January 28, 1956, at the Congregational Church inWilmette, Illinois. When he moved toEdwards Air Force Base, he lived in the bachelor quarters of the base, while Janet lived in theWestwooddistrict of Los Angeles. After one semester, they moved into a house inAntelope Valley, near Edwards AFB. Janet did not finish her degree, a fact she regretted later in life. The couple had three children.In June 1961, their daughter Karen was diagnosed withdiffuse intrinsic pontine glioma, amalignanttumorof the middle part of herbrain stem.X-ray treatment slowed its growth, but her health deteriorated to the point where she could no longer walk or talk. She died ofpneumonia, related to her weakened health, on January 28, 1962, aged two. Test pilot Following his graduation from Purdue, Armstrong became an experimental research test pilot. He applied at theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA)High-Speed Flight Stationat Edwards Air Force Base.NACA had no open positions, and forwarded his application to theLewis Flight Propulsion LaboratoryinCleveland, where Armstrong made his first test flight on March 1, 1955.Armstrong's stint at Cleveland lasted only a couple of months before a position at the High-Speed Flight Station became available, and he reported for work there on July 11, 1955. On his first day, Armstrong was tasked with pilotingchase planesduring releases of experimental aircraft from modified bombers. He also flew the modified bombers, and on one of these missions had his first flight incident at Edwards. On March 22, 1956, he was in aBoeing B-29 Superfortress,which was to air-drop aDouglas D-558-2 Skyrocket. He sat in the right-hand co-pilot seat while pilot in command, Stan Butchart sat in the left-hand pilot seat flying the B-29. As they climbed to 30,000 feet (9 km), thenumber-four enginestopped and thepropellerbegan windmilling (rotating freely) in the airstream. Hitting the switch that would stop the propeller's spinning, Butchart watched it slow, then resume spinning even faster than the others; if it spun too fast, it would break apart. Their aircraft needed to hold an airspeed of 210 mph (338 km/h) to launch its Skyrocket payload, and the B-29 could not land with the Skyrocket attached to its belly. Armstrong and Butchart brought the aircraft into a nose-downattitudeto increase speed, then launched the Skyrocket. At the instant of launch, the number-four engine propeller disintegrated. Pieces of it damaged the number-three engine and hit the number-two engine. Butchart and Armstrong were forced to shut down the damaged number-three engine, along with the number-one engine, due to thetorqueit created. They made a slow, circling descent from 30,000 ft (9 km) using only the number-two engine, and landed safely. Armstrong served as project pilot onCentury Seriesfighters, including theNorth American F-100 Super SabreA and C variants, theMcDonnell F-101 Voodoo, theLockheed F-104 Starfighter, theRepublic F-105 Thunderchiefand theConvair F-106 Delta Dart. He also flew theDouglas DC-3,Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star,North American F-86 Sabre,McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II,Douglas F5D-1 Skylancer, Boeing B-29 Superfortress,Boeing B-47 StratojetandBoeing KC-135 Stratotanker, and was one of eight elite pilots involved in theParasevparaglider research vehicle program.Over his career, he flew more than 200 different models of aircraft.His first flight in arocket-powered aircraftwas on August 15, 1957, in theBell X-1B, to an altitude of 11.4 miles (18.3 km). On landing, the poorly designednose landing gearfailed, as had happened on about a dozen previous flights of the Bell X-1B. He flew theNorth American X-15seven times,including the first flight with the Q-ball system, the first flight of the number3 X-15 airframe, and the first flight of the MH-96 adaptive flight control system.He became an employee of theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) when it was established on October 1, 1958, absorbing NACA. Armstrong was involved in several incidents that went down in Edwards folklore or were chronicled in the memoirs of colleagues. During his sixth X-15 flight on April 20, 1962, Armstrong was testing the MH-96 control system when he flew to a height of over 207,000 feet (63 km) (the highest he flew beforeGemini 8). He held up the aircraft nose during its descent to demonstrate the MH-96's g-limiting performance, and the X-15 ballooned back up to around 140,000 feet (43 km). He flew past the landing field atMach3 at over 100,000 feet (30 km) in altitude, and ended up 40 miles (64 km) south of Edwards. After sufficient descent, he turned back toward the landing area, and landed. It was the longest X-15 flight in both flight time and length of the ground track. Fellow astronautMichael Collinswrote that of the X-15 pilots Armstrong \"had been considered one of the weaker stick-and-rudder men, but the very best when it came to understanding the machine's design and how it operated\".Many of the test pilots at Edwards praised Armstrong's engineering ability.Milt Thompsonsaid he was \"the most technically capable of the early X-15 pilots\".Bill Danasaid Armstrong \"had a mind that absorbed things like a sponge\". Those who flew for the Air Force tended to have a different opinion, especially people likeChuck YeagerandPete Knight, who did not have engineering degrees. Knight said that pilot-engineers flew in a way that was \"more mechanical than it is flying\", and gave this as the reason why some pilot-engineers got into trouble: Their flying skills did not come naturally.Armstrong made sevenflights in the X-15between November 30, 1960, and July 26, 1962.He reached a top speed of Mach 5.74 (3,989 mph, 6,420 km/h) in the X-15-1, and left the Flight Research Center with a total of 2,400 flying hours. On April 24, 1962, Armstrong flew for the only time with Yeager. Their job, flying a T-33, was to evaluate Smith Ranch Dry Lake in Nevada for use as an emergency landing site for the X-15. In his autobiography, Yeager wrote that he knew the lake bed was unsuitable for landings after recent rains, but Armstrong insisted on flying out anyway. As they attempted atouch-and-go, the wheels became stuck and they had to wait for rescue. As Armstrong told the story, Yeager never tried to talk him out of it and they made a first successful landing on the east side of the lake. Then Yeager told him to try again, this time a bit slower. On the second landing, they became stuck, provoking Yeager to fits of laughter. On May 21, 1962, Armstrong was involved in the \"Nellis Affair\". He was sent in an F-104 to inspectDelamar Dry Lakein southern Nevada, again for emergency landings. He misjudged his altitude and did not realize that the landing gear had not fully extended. As he touched down, the landing gear began to retract; Armstrong applied full power to abort the landing, but the ventral fin and landing gear door struck the ground, damaging the radio and releasinghydraulic fluid. Without radio communication, Armstrong flew south toNellis Air Force Base, past the control tower, and waggled his wings, the signal for a no-radio approach. The loss of hydraulic fluid caused thetailhookto release, and upon landing, he caught the arresting wire attached to an anchor chain, and dragged the chain along the runway. It took thirty minutes to clear the runway and rig another arresting cable. Armstrong telephoned Edwards and asked for someone to collect him. Milt Thompson was sent in an F-104B, the only two-seater available, but a plane Thompson had never flown. With great difficulty, Thompson made it to Nellis, where a strong crosswind caused a hard landing and the left main tire suffered a blowout. The runway was again closed to clear it, and Bill Dana was sent to Nellis in a T-33, but he almost landed long. The Nellis base operations office then decided that to avoid any further problems, it would be best to find the three NASA pilots ground transport back to Edwards. Astronaut career In June 1958, Armstrong was selected for the U.S. Air Force'sMan in Space Soonestprogram, but theAdvanced Research Projects Agency(ARPA) canceled its funding on August 1, 1958, and on November 5, 1958, it was superseded byProject Mercury, a civilian project run by NASA. As a NASA civilian test pilot, Armstrong was ineligible to become one of its astronauts at this time, as selection was restricted to military test pilots.In November 1960, he was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for theX-20 Dyna-Soar, a military space plane under development by Boeing for the U.S. Air Force, and on March 15, 1962, he was selected by the U.S. Air Force as one of seven pilot-engineers who would fly the X-20 when it got off the design board. In April 1962, NASA sought applications for the second group of NASA astronauts forProject Gemini, a proposed two-man spacecraft. This time, selection was open to qualified civilian test pilots.Armstrong visited theSeattle World's Fairin May 1962 and attended a conference there on space exploration that was co-sponsored by NASA. After he returned fromSeattleon June 4, he applied to become an astronaut. His application arrived about a week past the June 1, 1962, deadline, but Dick Day, a flight simulator expert with whom Armstrong had worked closely at Edwards, saw the late arrival of the application and slipped it into the pile before anyone noticed.AtBrooks Air Force Baseat the end of June, Armstrong underwent a medical exam that many of the applicants described as painful and at times seemingly pointless. NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations,Deke Slayton, called Armstrong on September 13, 1962, and asked whether he would be interested in joining theNASA Astronaut Corpsas part of what the press dubbed \"theNew Nine\"; without hesitation, Armstrong said yes. The selections were kept secret until three days later, although newspaper reports had circulated since earlier that year that he would be selected as the \"first civilian astronaut\".Armstrong was one of two civilian pilots selected for this group;the other wasElliot See, another former naval aviator.NASA selected the second group that, compared with theMercury Sevenastronauts, were younger,and had more impressive academic credentials.Collins wrote that Armstrong was by far the most experienced test pilot in the Astronaut Corps. Gemini program Gemini 5 On February 8, 1965, Armstrong and Elliot See were picked as the backup crew forGemini 5, with Armstrong as commander, supporting the prime crew ofGordon CooperandPete Conrad.The mission's purpose was to practicespace rendezvousand to develop procedures and equipment for a seven-day flight, all of which would be required for a mission to the Moon. With two other flights (Gemini 3andGemini 4) in preparation, six crews were competing for simulator time, so Gemini5 was postponed. It finally lifted off on August 21.Armstrong and See watched the launch atCape Kennedy, then flew to theManned Spacecraft Center(MSC) in Houston.The mission was generally successful, despite a problem with thefuel cellsthat prevented a rendezvous. Cooper and Conrad practiced a \"phantom rendezvous\", carrying out the maneuver without a target. Gemini 8 The crews for Gemini8 were assigned on September 20, 1965. Under the normal rotation system, the backup crew for one mission became the prime crew for the third mission after, but Slayton designatedDavid Scottas the pilot of Gemini8.Scott was the first member of thethird group of astronauts, who was selected on October 18, 1963, to receive a prime crew assignment.See was designated to commandGemini 9. Henceforth, each Gemini mission was commanded by a member of Armstrong's group, with a member of Scott's group as the pilot. Conrad would be Armstrong's backup this time, andRichard F. Gordon Jr.his pilot.Armstrong became the first American civilian in space. (Valentina Tereshkovaof theSoviet Unionhad become the first civilian—and first woman—nearly three years earlier aboardVostok 6when it launched on June 16, 1963.) Armstrong would also be the last of his group to fly in space, as See died in aT-38 crashon February 28, 1966, that also took the life of crewmateCharles Bassett. They were replaced by the backup crew ofTom StaffordandGene Cernan, whileJim Lovelland Buzz Aldrin moved up from the backup crew ofGemini 10to become the backup for Gemini 9,and would eventually flyGemini 12. Gemini 8 launched on March 16, 1966. It was the most complex mission yet, with a rendezvous and docking with anuncrewedAgena target vehicle, and the planned second Americanspacewalk(EVA) by Scott. The mission was planned to last 75hours and 55orbits. After the Agena lifted off at 10:00:00EST,theTitan IIrocket carrying Armstrong and Scott ignited at 11:41:02 EST, putting them into an orbit from which they chased the Agena.They achieved the first-ever docking between two spacecraft.Contact with the crew was intermittent due to the lack of tracking stations covering their entire orbits. While out of contact with the ground, the docked spacecraft began to roll, and Armstrong attempted to correct this with the Gemini'sOrbit Attitude and Maneuvering System(OAMS). Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but the roll increased dramatically until they were turning about once per second, indicating a problem with Gemini'sattitude control. Armstrong engaged the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turned off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft had to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring caused one of the thrusters to stick in the on position. A few people in the Astronaut Office, includingWalter Cunningham, felt that Armstrong and Scott \"had botched their first mission\".There was speculation that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings, saving the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded; no malfunction procedures had been written, and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings, not one or the other.Gene Kranzwrote, \"The crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong.\" The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft were docked, they must be considered one spacecraft. Kranz considered this the mission's most important lesson.Armstrong was depressed that the mission was cut short,canceling most mission objectives and robbing Scott of his EVA. The Agena was later reused as a docking target by Gemini 10.Armstrong and Scott received theNASA Exceptional Service Medal,and the Air Force awarded Scott theDistinguished Flying Crossas well.Scott was promoted tolieutenant colonel, and Armstrong received a $678 raise in pay to $21,653 a year (equivalent to $203,338 in 2023), making him NASA's highest-paid astronaut. Gemini 11 In Armstrong's final assignment in the Gemini program, he was the back-up Command Pilot forGemini 11. Having trained for two flights, Armstrong was quite knowledgeable about the systems and took on a teaching role for the rookie backup pilot,William Anders.The launch was on September 12, 1966,with Conrad and Gordon on board, who successfully completed the mission objectives, while Armstrong served as acapsule communicator(CAPCOM). Following the flight, PresidentLyndon B. Johnsonasked Armstrong and his wife to take part in a 24-day goodwill tour of South America.Also on the tour, which took in 11countries and 14major cities, were Dick Gordon,George Low, their wives, and other government officials. In Paraguay, Armstrong greeted dignitaries in their local language,Guarani; in Brazil he talked about the exploits of the Brazilian-born aviation pioneerAlberto Santos-Dumont. Apollo program On January 27, 1967—the day of theApollo 1 fire—Armstrong was in Washington, D.C., with Cooper, Gordon, Lovell andScott Carpenterfor the signing of the United NationsOuter Space Treaty. The astronauts chatted with the assembled dignitaries until 18:45, when Carpenter went to the airport, and the others returned to the Georgetown Inn, where they each found messages to phone the MSC. During these calls, they learned of the deaths ofGus Grissom,Ed WhiteandRoger Chaffeein the fire. Armstrong and the group spent the rest of the night drinking scotch and discussing what had happened. On April 5, 1967, the same day the Apollo1 investigation released its final report, Armstrong and 17 other astronauts gathered for a meeting with Slayton. The first thing Slayton said was, \"The guys who are going to fly the first lunar missions are the guys in this room.\"According to Cernan, only Armstrong showed no reaction to the statement. To Armstrong it came as no surprise—the room was full of veterans of Project Gemini, the only people who could fly the lunar missions. Slayton talked about the planned missions and named Armstrong to the backup crew forApollo 9, which at that stage was planned as amedium Earth orbittest of the combinedlunar moduleandcommand and service module. The crew was officially assigned on November 20, 1967.For crewmates, Armstrong was assigned Lovell and Aldrin, from Gemini 12. After design and manufacturing delays of the lunar module (LM),Apollo 8and9 swapped prime and backup crews. Based on the normal crew rotation, Armstrong would command Apollo 11,with one change: Collins on the Apollo8 crew began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.Lovell took his place on the Apollo8 crew, and, when Collins recovered, he joined Armstrong's crew. To give the astronauts practice piloting the LM on its descent, NASA commissionedBell Aircraftto build twoLunar Landing Research Vehicles(LLRV), later augmented with three Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV). Nicknamed the \"Flying Bedsteads\", they simulated the Moon's one-sixth gravity using aturbofanengine to support five-sixths of the craft's weight. On May 6, 1968, 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, Armstrong's controls started to degrade and the LLRV beganrolling.He ejected safely before the vehicle struck the ground and burst into flames. Later analysis suggested that if he had ejected half a second later, his parachute would not have opened in time. His only injury was from biting his tongue. The LLRV was completely destroyed.Even though he was nearly killed, Armstrong maintained that without the LLRV and LLTV, the lunar landings would not have been successful, as they gave commanders essential experience in piloting the lunar landing craft. In addition to the LLRV training, NASA began lunar landing simulator training after Apollo 10 was completed. Aldrin and Armstrong trained for a variety of scenarios that could develop during a real lunar landing.They also received briefings from geologists at NASA. Apollo 11 After Armstrong served as backup commander for Apollo8, Slayton offered him the post of commander of Apollo 11 on December 23, 1968, as Apollo8 orbited the Moon.According to Armstrong's 2005 biography, Slayton told him that although the planned crew was Commander Armstrong, Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin, and Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, he was offering Armstrong the chance to replace Aldrin with Jim Lovell. After thinking it over for a day, Armstrong told Slayton he would stick with Aldrin, as he had no difficulty working with him and thought Lovell deserved his own command. Replacing Aldrin with Lovell would have made Lovell the lunar module pilot, unofficially the lowest ranked member, and Armstrong could not justify placing Lovell, the commander of Gemini 12, in the number3 position of the crew.The crew of Apollo 11 was assigned on January 9, 1969, as Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin, with Lovell, Anders, andFred Haiseas the backup crew. According toChris Kraft, a March 1969 meeting among Slayton, George Low,Bob Gilruth, and Kraft determined that Armstrong would be the first person on the Moon, in part because NASA management saw him as a person who did not have a large ego. A press conference on April 14, 1969, gave the design of the LM cabin as the reason for Armstrong's being first; the hatch opened inwards and to the right, making it difficult for the LM pilot, on the right-hand side, to exit first. At the time of their meeting, the four men did not know about the hatch consideration. The first knowledge of the meeting outside the small group came when Kraft wrote his book.Methods of circumventing this difficulty existed, but it is not known if these were considered at the time. Slayton added, \"Secondly, just on a pure protocol basis, I figured the commander ought to be the first guy out... I changed it as soon as I found they had the time line that showed that. Bob Gilruth approved my decision.\" Voyage to the Moon ASaturn Vrocket launched Apollo 11 fromLaunch Complex 39Aat theKennedy Space Centeron July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00UTC(09:32:00 EDT local time).Armstrong's wife Janet and two sons watched from a yacht moored on theBanana River.During the launch, Armstrong's heart rate peaked at 110beats per minute.He found the first stage the loudest, much noisier than the Gemini8 Titan II launch. The Apollo command module was relatively roomy compared with the Gemini spacecraft. None of the Apollo 11 crew sufferedspace sickness, as some members of previous crews had. Armstrong was especially glad about this, as he had been prone tomotion sicknessas a child and could experiencenauseaafter long periods ofaerobatics. Apollo 11's objective was to land safely on the Moon, rather than to touch down at a precise location. Three minutes into the lunar descent, Armstrong noted that craters were passing about two seconds too early, which meant theLunar ModuleEaglewould probably touch down several miles (kilometres) beyond the planned landing zone.As theEagle's landingradaracquired the surface, several computer error alarms sounded. The first was a code1202alarm, and even with their extensive training, neither Armstrong nor Aldrin knew what this code meant. They promptly received word from CAPCOMCharles Dukein Houston that the alarms were not a concern; the 1202 and 1201 alarms were caused by executive overflows in thelunar module guidance computer. In 2007, Aldrin said the overflows were caused by his own counter-checklist choice of leaving the docking radar on during the landing process, causing the computer to process unnecessary radar data. When it did not have enough time to execute all tasks, the computer dropped the lower-priority ones, triggering the alarms. Aldrin said he decided to leave the radar on in case an abort was necessary when re-docking with the Apollo command module; he did not realize it would cause the processing overflows. When Armstrong noticed they were heading toward a landing area that seemed unsafe, he took manual control of the LM and attempted to find a safer area. This took longer than expected, and longer than most simulations had taken.For this reason, Mission Control was concerned that the LM was running low on fuel.On landing, Aldrin and Armstrong believed they had 40seconds of fuel left, including the 20seconds' worth which had to be saved in the event of an abort.During training, Armstrong had, on several occasions, landed with fewer than 15seconds of fuel; he was also confident the LM could survive a fall of up to 50 feet (15 m). Post-mission analysis showed that at touchdown there were 45 to 50seconds of propellant burn time left. The landing on the surface of the Moon occurred several seconds after 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969.One of three 67-inch (170 cm) probes attached to three of the LM's four legs made contact with the surface, a panel light in the LM illuminated, and Aldrin called out, \"Contact light.\" Armstrong shut the engine off and said, \"Shutdown.\" As the LM settled onto the surface, Aldrin said, \"Okay, engine stop\"; then they both called out some post-landing checklist items. After a 10-second pause, Duke acknowledged the landing with, \"We copy you down,Eagle.\" Armstrong confirmed the landing to Mission Control and the world with the words, \"Houston,Tranquility Basehere. TheEaglehas landed.\" Aldrin and Armstrong celebrated with a brisk handshake and pat on the back. They then returned to the checklist of contingency tasks, should an emergency liftoff become necessary.After Armstrong confirmed touch down, Duke re-acknowledged, adding a comment about the flight crew's relief: \"Roger, Tranquility. We copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\"During the landing, Armstrong's heart rate ranged from 100 to 150beats per minute. First Moon walk The flight plan called for a crew rest period before leaving the module, but Armstrong asked for this to be moved to earlier in the evening,Houston time. When he and Aldrin were ready to go outside,Eaglewas depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder.At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on aLunar Modulelanding pad, Armstrong said, \"I'm going to step off the LM now\". He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface at 02:56UTCJuly 21, 1969,then said, \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\"The exact time of Armstrong's first step on the Moon is unclear. Armstrong prepared his famousepigramon his own.In a post-flight press conference, he said that he chose the words \"just prior to leaving the LM.\"In a 1983 interview inEsquiremagazine, he explained toGeorge Plimpton: \"I always knew there was a good chance of being able to return to Earth, but I thought the chances of a successful touch down on the moon surface were about even money—fifty–fifty... Most people don't realize how difficult the mission was. So it didn't seem to me there was much point in thinking of something to say if we'd have to abort landing.\"In 2012, his brother Dean Armstrong said that Neil showed him a draft of the line months before the launch.HistorianAndrew Chaikin, who interviewed Armstrong in 1988 for his bookA Man on the Moon, disputed that Armstrong claimed to have conceived the line during the mission. Recordings of Armstrong's transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article \"a\" before \"man\", though NASA and Armstrong insisted for years that static obscured it. Armstrong stated he would never make such a mistake, but after repeated listenings to recordings, he eventually conceded he must have dropped the \"a\".He later said he \"would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended, even if it was not said—although it might actually have been\".There have since been claims and counter-claims about whether acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence of the missing \"a\";Peter Shann Ford, an Australian computer programmer, conducted a digital audio analysis and claims that Armstrong did say \"a man\", but the \"a\" was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time.Ford andJames R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis.Armstrong found Ford's analysis \"persuasive.\"LinguistsDavid BeaverandMark Libermanwrote of their skepticism of Ford's claims on the blogLanguage Log.A 2016 peer-reviewed study again concluded Armstrong had included the article.NASA's transcript continues to show the \"a\" in parentheses. When Armstrong made his proclamation,Voice of Americawas rebroadcast live by theBBCand many other stations worldwide. An estimated 530million people viewed the event,20 percent out of a world population of approximately 3.6billion. Q: Did you misspeak? A: There isn't any way of knowing. Q: Several sources say you did. A: I mean, there isn't any way ofmyknowing. When I listen to the tape, I can't hear the 'a', but that doesn't mean it wasn't there, because that was the fastest VOX ever built. There was no mike-switch — it was avoice-operated key or VOX. In a helmet you find you lose a lot of syllables. Sometimes a short syllable like 'a' might not be transmitted. However, when I listen to it, I can't hear it. But the 'a' is implied, so I'm happy if they just put it in parentheses. Omni, June 1982, p. 126 About 19minutes after Armstrong's first step, Aldrin joined him on the surface, becoming the second human to walk on the Moon. They began their tasks of investigating how easily a person could operate on the lunar surface. Armstrong unveiled a plaque commemorating the flight, and with Aldrin, planted theflag of the United States. Although Armstrong had wanted the flag to be draped on the flagpole,it was decided to use a metal rod to hold it horizontally.However, the rod did not fully extend, leaving the flag with a slightly wavy appearance, as if there were a breeze.Shortly after the flag planting, PresidentRichard Nixonspoke to them by telephone from his office. He spoke for about a minute, after which Armstrong responded for about thirty seconds.In the Apollo 11 photographic record, there are only five images of Armstrong partly shown or reflected. The mission was planned to the minute, with the majority of photographic tasks performed by Armstrong with the singleHasselbladcamera. After helping to set up theEarly Apollo Scientific Experiment Package, Armstrong went for a walk to what is now known as East Crater, 65 yards (59 m) east of the LM, the greatest distance traveled from the LM on the mission. His final task was to remind Aldrin to leave a small package of memorial items to SovietcosmonautsYuri GagarinandVladimir Komarov, and Apollo1 astronauts Grissom, White and Chaffee.The Apollo 11 EVA lasted two and a half hours.Each of the subsequent five landings was allotted a progressively longer EVA period; the crew ofApollo 17spent over 22hours exploring the lunar surface.In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited their Moon walk because they were unsure how thespace suitswould cope with the Moon's extremely high temperature. Return to Earth After they re-entered the LM, the hatch was closed and sealed. While preparing for liftoff, Armstrong and Aldrin discovered that, in their bulky space suits, they had broken the ignition switch for the ascent engine; using part of a pen, they pushed in the circuit breaker to start the launch sequence.TheEaglethen continued to its rendezvous in lunar orbit, where it docked withColumbia, the command and service module. The three astronauts returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, to be picked up by theUSSHornet. After being released from an 18-day quarantine to ensure that they had not picked up any infections or diseases from the Moon, the crew was feted across the United States and around the world as part of a 38-day \"Giant Leap\" tour. The tour began on August 13, when the three astronauts spoke and rode inticker-tape paradesin their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.On the same evening an officialstate dinnerwas held in Los Angeles to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44governors, theChief Justice of the United States, and ambassadors from 83nations. President Nixon and Vice President Agnew presented each astronaut with aPresidential Medal of Freedom. After the tour Armstrong took part inBob Hope's 1969USOshow, primarily to Vietnam.In May 1970, Armstrong traveled to the Soviet Union to present a talk at the 13th annual conference of the InternationalCommittee on Space Research; after arriving inLeningradfrom Poland, he traveled to Moscow where he metPremierAlexei Kosygin. Armstrong was the first westerner to see the supersonicTupolev Tu-144and was given a tour of theYuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, which he described as \"a bit Victorian in nature\".At the end of the day, he was surprised to view a delayed video of the launch ofSoyuz 9as it had not occurred to Armstrong that the mission was taking place, even though Valentina Tereshkova had been his host and her husband,Andriyan Nikolayev, was on board. Life after Apollo Teaching Shortly after Apollo 11, Armstrong stated that he did not plan to fly in space again.He was appointed Deputy Associate Administrator for Aeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research and Technology atARPA, served in the position for a year, then resigned from it and NASA in 1971.He accepted a teaching position in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of Cincinnati,having chosen Cincinnati over other universities, including hisalma materPurdue, because Cincinnati had a small aerospace department,and said he hoped the faculty there would not be annoyed that he came straight into a professorship with only a USC master's degree.He began his master's degree while stationed at Edwards years before, and completed it after Apollo 11 by presenting a report on various aspects of Apollo, instead of a thesis on the simulation of hypersonic flight. At Cincinnati, Armstrong was University Professor of Aerospace Engineering. He took a heavy teaching load, taught core classes, and created two graduate-level classes: aircraft design and experimental flight mechanics. He was considered a good teacher, and a tough grader. His research activities during this time did not involve his work at NASA, as he did not want to give the appearance of favoritism; he later regretted the decision. After teaching for eight years, Armstrong resigned in 1980. When the university changed from an independent municipal university to a state school, bureaucracy increased. He did not want to be a part of the faculty collective bargaining group, so he decided to teach half-time. According to Armstrong, he had the same amount of work but received half his salary. In 1979, less than 10% of his income came from his university salary. Employees at the university did not know why he left. NASA commissions In 1970, after an explosion aboardApollo 13aborted its lunar landing, Armstrong was part ofEdgar Cortright's investigation of the mission. He produced a detailed chronology of the flight. He determined that a 28-volt thermostat switch in an oxygen tank, which was supposed to have been replaced with a 65-volt version, led to the explosion. Cortright's report recommended the entire tank be redesigned at a cost of $40million. Many NASA managers, including Armstrong, opposed the recommendation, since only the thermostat switch had caused the problem. They lost the argument, and the tanks were redesigned. In 1986, PresidentRonald Reaganasked Armstrong to join theRogers Commissioninvestigating theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster. Armstrong was made vice chairman of the commission and held private interviews with contacts he had developed over the years to help determine the cause of the disaster. He helped limit the committee's recommendations to nine, believing that if there were too many, NASA would not act on them. Armstrong was appointed to a fourteen-member commission by President Reagan to develop a plan for American civilian spaceflight in the 21st century. The commission was chaired by former NASA administrator Dr.Thomas O. Paine, with whom Armstrong had worked during the Apollo program. The group published a book titledPioneering the Space Frontier: The Report on the National Commission on Space, recommending a permanent lunar base by 2006, and sending people to Mars by 2015. The recommendations were largely ignored, overshadowed by theChallengerdisaster. Armstrong and his wife attended the memorial service for the victims of theSpace ShuttleColumbiadisasterin 2003, at the invitation of PresidentGeorge W. Bush. Business activities After Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971, he acted as a spokesman for several businesses. The first company to successfully approach him wasChrysler, for whom he appeared in advertising starting in January 1979. Armstrong thought they had a strong engineering division, and they were in financial difficulty. He later acted as a spokesman for other American companies, including General Time Corporation and the Bankers Association of America.He acted as a spokesman for only American companies. In addition to his duties as a spokesman, he also served on the board of directors of several companies. The first company board Armstrong joined wasGates Learjet, chairing their technical committee. He flew their new and experimental jets and even set a climb and altitude record for business jets. Armstrong became a member ofCincinnati Gas & Electric Company's board in 1973. They were interested in nuclear power and wanted to increase the company's technical competence. He served on the board ofTaft Broadcasting, also based in Cincinnati. Armstrong joined the board of solid rocket boosterThiokolin 1989, after previously serving on the Rogers Commission which found that theSpace ShuttleChallengerwas destroyed due to a defect in the Thiokol-manufactured solid rocket boosters. When Armstrong left the University of Cincinnati, he became the chairman of Cardwell International Ltd., a company that manufactured drilling rigs. He served on additional aerospace boards, firstUnited Airlinesin 1978, and laterEaton Corporationin 1980. He was asked to chair the board of directors for a subsidiary of Eaton, AIL Systems. He chaired the board through the company's 2000 merger withEDO Corporation, until his retirement in 2002. North Pole expedition In 1985, professional expedition leader Mike Dunn organized a trip to take men he deemed the \"greatest explorers\" to the North Pole. The group included Armstrong,Edmund Hillary,Hillary's son Peter,Steve Fossett, andPatrick Morrow. They arrived at the Pole on April 6, 1985. Armstrong said he was curious to see what it looked like from the ground, as he had seen it only from the Moon.He did not inform the media of the trip, preferring to keep it private. Public profile Armstrong's family described him as a \"reluctant American hero\".He kept a low profile later in his life, leading to the belief that he was a recluse.Recalling Armstrong's humility,John Glenn, the first American to orbit Earth, told CNN: \" didn't feel that he should be out huckstering himself. He was a humble person, and that's the way he remained after his lunar flight, as well as before.\"Armstrong turned down most requests for interviews and public appearances. Michael Collins said in his bookCarrying the Firethat when Armstrong moved to a dairy farm to become a college professor, it was like he \"retreated to his castle and pulled up the drawbridge\". Armstrong found this amusing, and said, \"...those of us that live out in the hinterlands think that people that live inside theBeltwayare the ones that have the problems.\" Andrew Chaikin says inA Man on the Moonthat Armstrong kept a low profile but was not a recluse, citing his participation in interviews, advertisements for Chrysler, and hosting a cable television series.Between 1991 and 1993, he hostedFirst Flights with Neil Armstrong, anaviation historydocumentary series onA&E.In 2010, Armstrong voiced the character of Dr. Jack Morrow inQuantum Quest: A Cassini Space Odyssey,an animated educational sci-fi adventure film initiated by JPL/NASA through a grant from Jet Propulsion Lab. Armstrong guarded the use of his name, image, and famous quote. When it was launched in 1981,MTVwanted to use his quote in itsstation identification, with the American flag replaced with the MTV logo, but he refused the use of his voice and likeness.He suedHallmark Cardsin 1994, when they used his name, and a recording of the \"one small step\" quote, in a Christmas ornament without his permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, which Armstrong donated to Purdue. For many years, he wrote letters congratulating new Eagle Scouts on their accomplishment, but decided to quit the practice in the 1990s because he felt the letters should be written by people who knew the scout. (In 2003, he received 950congratulation requests.) This contributed to the myth of his reclusiveness.Armstrong used to autograph everything exceptfirst day covers. Around 1993, he found out his signatures were being sold online, and that most of them were forgeries, and stopped giving autographs. Personal life Some former astronauts, including Glenn andApollo 17'sHarrison Schmitt, sought political careers after leaving NASA. Armstrong was approached by groups from both theDemocraticandRepublicanparties but declined the offers. He supportedstates' rightsand opposed the U.S. acting as the \"world's policeman\". When Armstrong applied at a localMethodistchurch to lead a Boy Scout troop in the late 1950s, he gave his religious affiliation as \"deist\".His mother later said that his religious views caused her grief and distress in later life, as she was a Christian.Upon his return from the Moon, Armstrong gave a speech in front of theU.S. Congressin which he thanked them for giving him the opportunity to see some of the \"grandest views of the Creator\".In the early 1980s, he was the subject of a hoax claiming that he converted toIslamafter hearing thecall to prayerwhile walking on the Moon. Indonesian singer Suhaemi wrote a song called \"Gema Suara Adzan di Bulan\" (\"The Resonant Sound of the Call to Prayer on the Moon\") which described Armstrong's supposed conversion, and the song was widely discussed byJakartanews outlets in 1983.Similar hoax stories were seen in Egypt and Malaysia. In March 1983, theU.S. State Departmentresponded by issuing a message to embassies and consulates in Muslim countries saying that Armstrong had not converted to Islam.The hoax surfaced occasionally for the next three decades. Part of the confusion arose from the similarity between the names of the country of Lebanon, which has a majority Muslim population, and Armstrong's longtime residence inLebanon, Ohio. In 1972, Armstrong visited the Scottish town ofLangholm, the traditional seat of Clan Armstrong. He was made the firstfreemanof the burgh, and happily declared the town his home.To entertain the crowd, theJustice of the Peaceread from an unrepealed archaic 400-year-old law that required him to hang any Armstrong found in the town. Armstrong flew light aircraft for pleasure. He enjoyedglidersand before the Moon flight had earned a gold badge with two diamonds from theInternational Gliding Commission. He continued to fly engineless aircraft well into his 70s. While working on his farm in November 1978, Armstrong jumped off the back of his grain truck and caught his wedding ring in its wheel, tearing the tip off his left ring finger. He collected the severed tip, packed it in ice, and had surgeons reattach it at a nearby hospital inLouisville, Kentucky.In February 1991, he suffered a mild heart attack while skiing with friends atAspen, Colorado. Armstrong and his first wife, Janet, separated in 1990 and divorced in 1994 after 38 years of marriage.He met his second wife, Carol Held Knight, at a golf tournament in 1992, when they were seated together at breakfast. She said little to Armstrong, but he called her two weeks later to ask what she was doing. She replied that she was cutting down a cherry tree, and he arrived at her house 35 minutes later to help. They were married in Ohio on June 12, 1994, and had a second ceremony atSan Ysidro Ranchin California. They lived inIndian Hill, Ohio.Through his marriage to Carol, he was the father-in-law of futureNew York Metsgeneral managerBrodie Van Wagenen. In May 2005, Armstrong became involved in a legal dispute with Mark Sizemore, his barber of 20years. After cutting Armstrong's hair, Sizemore sold some of it to a collector for $3,000 without Armstrong's knowledge or permission.Armstrong threatened legal action against Sizemore unless he returned the hair or donated the proceeds to a charity of Armstrong's choosing. Sizemore, unable to retrieve the hair, donated the proceeds to charity. Illness and death On August 7, 2012, Armstrong underwentbypass surgeryatMercy Faith–Fairfield HospitalinFairfield, Ohio, to relievecoronary artery disease.Although he was reportedly recovering well,he developed complications and died on August 25.PresidentBarack Obamaissued a statement memorializing Armstrong as \"among the greatest of American heroes—not just of his time, but of all time\",and added that Armstrong had carried the aspirations of the United States' citizens and had delivered \"a moment of human achievement that will never be forgotten.\" Armstrong's family released a statement describing him as a \"reluctant American hero served his nation proudly, as a navy fighter pilot, test pilot, and astronaut ... While we mourn the loss of a very good man, we also celebrate his remarkable life and hope that it serves as an example to young people around the world to work hard to make their dreams come true, to be willing to explore and push the limits, and to selflessly serve a cause greater than themselves. For those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil, we have a simple request. Honor his example of service, accomplishment and modesty, and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink.\" Buzz Aldrin called Armstrong \"a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew\", and said he was disappointed that they would not be able to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing together in 2019.Michael Collins said, \"He was the best, and I will miss him terribly.\"NASA AdministratorCharles Boldensaid, \"As long as there are history books, Neil Armstrong will be included in them, remembered for taking humankind's first small step on a world beyond our own\". A tribute was held for Armstrong on September 13, atWashington National Cathedral, whose Space Window depicts the Apollo 11 mission and holds a sliver of Moon rock amid its stained-glass panels.In attendance were Armstrong's Apollo 11 crewmates, Collins and Aldrin; Gene Cernan, the Apollo 17 mission commander and last man to walk on the Moon; and former senator and astronaut John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth. In his eulogy, Charles Bolden praised Armstrong's \"courage, grace, and humility\". Cernan recalled Armstrong's low-fuel approach to the Moon: \"When the gauge says empty, we all know there's a gallon or two left in the tank!\"Diana Krallsang the song \"Fly Me to the Moon\". Collins led prayers. David Scott spoke, possibly for the first time, about an incident during their Gemini 8 mission: minutes before the hatch was to be sealed, a small chip of dried glue fell into the latch of his harness and prevented it from being buckled, threatening to abort the mission. Armstrong then called on Conrad to solve the problem, which he did, and the mission proceeded. \"That happened because Neil Armstrong was a team player—he always worked on behalf of the team.\"CongressmanBill Johnsonfrom Armstrong's home state of Ohio led calls for President Barack Obama to authorize astate funeralin Washington D.C. Throughout his lifetime, Armstrong shunned publicity and rarely gave interviews. Mindful that Armstrong would have objected to a state funeral, his family opted to have a private funeral inCincinnati.On September 14, Armstrong's cremated remains were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean from theUSSPhilippine Sea.Flags were flown athalf-staffon the day of Armstrong's funeral. In July 2019, after observations of the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing,The New York Timesreported on details of amedical malpracticesuit Armstrong's family had filed against Mercy Health–Fairfield Hospital, where he died. When Armstrong appeared to be recovering from his bypass surgery, nurses removed the wires connected to his temporarypacemaker. He began tobleed internallyand his blood pressure dropped. Doctors took him to the hospital'scatheterizationlaboratory, and only later began operating. Two of the three physicians who reviewed the medical files during the lawsuit called this a serious error, saying surgery should have begun immediately; experts theTimestalked to, while qualifying their judgement by noting that they were unable to review the specific records in the case, said that taking a patient directly to the operating room under those circumstances generally gave them the highest chance of survival. The family ultimately settled for $6 million in 2014. Letters included with the 93 pages of documents sent to theTimesby an unknown personshow that his sons intimated to the hospital, through their lawyers, that they might discuss what happened to their father publicly at the 45th anniversary observances in 2014. The hospital, fearing the bad publicity that would result from being accused of negligently causing the death of a revered figure such as Armstrong, agreed to pay as long as the family never spoke about the suit or the settlement.Armstrong's wife, Carol, was not a party to the lawsuit. She reportedly felt that her husband would have been opposed to taking legal action. Legacy When Pete Conrad ofApollo 12became the third man to walk on the Moon, on November 19, 1969, his first words referenced Armstrong. The shorter of the two, when Conrad stepped from the LM onto the surface he proclaimed \"Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.\" Armstrong received many honors and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom (with distinction) from President Nixon,theCullum Geographical Medalfrom theAmerican Geographical Society,and theCollier Trophyfrom theNational Aeronautic Association(1969);theNASA Distinguished Service Medaland theDr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy(1970);theSylvanus Thayer Awardby theUnited States Military Academy(1971);theCongressional Space Medal of Honorfrom PresidentJimmy Carter(1978);theWright Brothers Memorial Trophyfrom the National Aeronautic Association (2001);and aCongressional Gold Medal(2011). Armstrong was elected as member into theNational Academy of Engineeringin 1978 for contributions to aerospace engineering, scientific knowledge, and exploration of the universe as an experimental test pilot and astronaut.He was elected to theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 2001. Armstrong and his Apollo 11 crewmates were the 1999 recipients of theLangley Gold Medalfrom the Smithsonian Institution.On April 18, 2006, he received NASA's Ambassador of Exploration Award.TheSpace Foundationnamed Armstrong as a recipient of its 2013 General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award.Armstrong was also inducted into theAerospace Walk of Honor,theInternational Space Hall of Fame,National Aviation Hall of Fame, and theUnited States Astronaut Hall of Fame.He was awarded hisNaval Astronaut badgein a ceremony on board the aircraft carrierUSSDwight D. Eisenhoweron March 10, 2010, in a ceremony attended by Lovell and Cernan. The lunar craterArmstrong, 31 miles (50 km) from the Apollo 11 landing site, andasteroid6469 Armstrongare named in his honor.There are more than a dozen elementary, middle and high schools named for Armstrong in the United States,and many places around the world have streets, buildings, schools, and other places named for him and/or Apollo.TheArmstrong Air and Space Museum, in Armstrong's hometown of Wapakoneta,and the Neil Armstrong Airport inNew Knoxville, Ohio, are named after him.The mineralarmstrongiteis named after him,and the mineralarmalcoliteis named, in part, after him. In October 2004 Purdue University named its new engineering buildingNeil Armstrong Hall of Engineering;the building was dedicated on October 27, 2007, during a ceremony at which Armstrong was joined by fourteen other Purdue astronauts.The NASA Dryden Flight Research Center was renamed the NASA Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center in 2014.In September 2012, the U.S. Navy named the firstArmstrong-class vesselRVNeil Armstrong. Delivered to the Navy on September 23, 2015, it is a modern oceanographic research platform supporting a wide range of activities by academic groups.In 2019, the College of Engineering at Purdue University celebrated the 50th anniversary of Neil Armstrong's walk on the Moon by launching the Neil Armstrong Distinguished Visiting Fellows Program, which brings highly accomplished scholars and practitioners to the college to catalyze collaborations with faculty and students. Armstrong's authorized biography,First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong, was published in 2005. For many years, he turned down biography offers from authors such asStephen AmbroseandJames A. Michenerbut agreed to work with James R. Hansen after reading one of Hansen's other biographies.He recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission, when he had believed there was only a 50% chance of landing on the Moon. \"I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we were successful\".Afilm adaptation of the book, starringRyan Goslingand directed byDamien Chazelle, was released in October 2018. In July 2018, Armstrong's sons put his collection of memorabilia up for sale, including his Boy Scout cap, and various flags and medals flown on his space missions. A series of auctions held November 1–3, 2018, realized $5,276,320 (~$6.31 million in 2023). As of July 2019, the auction sales totaled $16.7million.Two fragments of wood from the propeller and four pieces of fabric from the wing of the 1903Wright Flyerthat Armstrong took to the Moon fetched between $112,500 and $275,000 each.Armstrong's wife, Carol, has not put any of his memorabilia up for sale. Armstrong donated his papers to Purdue. Along with posthumous donations by his widow Carol, the collection consists of over 450boxes of material. In May 2019, she donated two 25-by-24-inch (640 by 610 mm) pieces of fabric from theWright Flyer, along with his correspondence related to them. In a 2010Space Foundationsurvey, Armstrong was ranked as the number-one most popular space hero;and in 2013,Flyingmagazine ranked him number one on its list of 51 Heroes of Aviation.The press often asked Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, he said that ahuman mission to Marswould be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s. In 2010, he made a rare public criticism of the decision to cancel theAres Ilaunch vehicle and theConstellation Moon landing program.In an open letter also signed by fellow Apollo veterans Lovell and Cernan, he said, \"For The United States, the leading space faring nation for nearly half a century, to be without carriage to low Earth orbit and with no human exploration capability to go beyond Earth orbit for an indeterminate time into the future, destines our nation to become one of second or even third rate stature\".On November 18, 2010, aged 80, he said in a speech during theScience & Technology Summitinthe Hague, Netherlands, that he would offer his services as commander on a mission to Mars if he were asked. The planetarium atAltoona Area High SchoolinAltoona, Pennsylvaniais named after Armstrong and is home to aSpace Racemuseum.A campsite in Camp Sandy Beach atYawgoog Scout ReservationinRockville, Rhode Island, is named in his honor, a nod to his Scouting career. Armstrong was named theclass exemplarfor the Class of 2019 at the U.S. Air Force Academy. See also Notes References Further reading External links",
"Grumman F9F Panther TheGrumman F9F Pantheris an earlycarrier-basedjet fighterdesigned and produced by the American aircraft manufacturerGrumman. It was the first jet-powered fighter aircraft to see air-to-air combat with theUnited States Navyas well as being Grumman’s first jet fighter. Development of the Panther commenced in the final months ofWorld War IIto harness the recent innovation of the jet engine. Grumman designed a single-engined, straight-wingedday fighterthat was armed with four 20 mm (0.79 in)cannonsand could also carry a wide assortment of air-to-ground munitions. Production aircraft were typically powered by a singleAllison J33orPratt & Whitney J48-P-2turbojetengine. On 21 November 1947, the prototype performed itsmaiden flight, powered by an importedRolls-Royce Neneengine. During September 1949, the F9F was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers. The Panther was used extensively by the U.S. Navy andMarine Corpsin theKorean War. On 3 July 1950, a F9F-3 recorded the first U.S. Navy air victory of the conflict, having shot down a propeller-poweredYak-9. In the Korean theatre, Panther pilots cumulatively claimed the shooting down of sevenMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s. During 1956, the type was withdrawn from front-line combat service, but remained in secondary roles, such as for training and with U.S. Naval Air Reserve and U.S. Marine Air Reserve units, until 1958. The Panther was also the first jet aircraft used by theBlue Angelsaerobaticsdemonstration team, being flown in this capacity from 1949 through to late 1954. FutureastronautsNeil ArmstrongandJohn Glennboth flew the F9F extensively during the Korean War. While Australia was interested in the Panther during the late 1940s, the nation ultimately opted for theGloster Meteor F.8and theCAC Sabreinstead. The aircraft's only export customer wasArgentina, where it became the first jet aircraft to be operated by theArgentine Naval Aviation. It was operated mainly from land, as thecatapultsof the aircraft carrierARAIndependencialacked sufficient power to readily launch the F9F. Several Panthers participated in the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt, firing upon Argentine Army forces sent to quell the revolt. During 1969, it was withdrawn from Argentine service due to a lack of spare parts. Grumman would develop the F9F design in response to U.S. Navy interest, producing theswept wingGrumman F-9 Cougar. Design and development Background The origins of the Panther can be traced back to development studies performed by Grumman into jet-powered fighter aircraft near the end ofWorld War II. The company was keen to capitalise on the emergence of the first practical jet engines by integrating them into a new aircraft design. This design, which was internally designatedG-75, was submitted to aUnited States Navycompetition that sought a jet-powerednight fighterto equip itsaircraft carrierswith. However, on 3 April 1946, it was announced that theDouglas F3D Skyknight, a competing two-seat aircraft powered by fourWestinghouse J30turbojets, had been selected. On 11 April 1946, the Navy'sBureau of Aeronautics(BuAer) issued a development contract to Grumman to produce a pair of G-75 prototypes, which were given the Navy designationXF9F-1, in case development of the Skyknight encountered severe problems. Shortly thereafter, Grumman recognised that the G-75 did not have much potential for either performance or growth; the company had already undertaken work on a completely different single-engine day fighter, theG-79. In a bureaucratic maneuver, BuAer opted not to cancel the G-75 contract, but instead changed the wording to include three prototypes of the entirely different G-79. It was this design that became the Panther. At that time, the few American engines that were available for use, such as theAllison J33andWestinghouse J34, were not considered to be sufficiently reliable;thus, the Navy specified the importedRolls-Royce Neneturbojet, which was also more powerful, at 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) of thrust. Production aircraft were to also be powered by the Nene, builtunder licensebyPratt & Whitneyas the J42.Since there was insufficient space within the wings and fuselage to provide sufficient fuel for the thirsty jet engine, the design team opted to add permanently mountedwingtip fuel tanks, which had incidental advantage of improving the fighter's rate ofroll.The wings featured another innovation in the form ofleading edgeflapsthat generated additional lift while landing;speed brakeswere also present on the underside of the fuselage. Flight testing On 21 November 1947, the prototype Panther conducted itsmaiden flight, piloted by test pilot Corky Meyer.It was followed by the second prototype only five days later.Initial issues with directional and longitudinal stability were encountered, but were quickly rectified. During one early land-basedarresting geartest, the detachable rear section of the aircraft unintentionally came off; remedial changes were made to avoid any future repetition. During May 1949, carrier suitability trails commenced.In September 1949, the F9F was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers. During the development phase, Grumman decided to change the Panther's engine, selecting thePratt & Whitney J48-P-2, a license built version of theRolls-Royce RB.44 Tay. The other engine that had been tested was the Allison J33-A-16. The armament was a quartet of 20mm guns, the Navy having already switched to this caliber (as opposed to the USAAF/USAF which continued to use .50 caliberM2/M3guns). In addition, the Panther was soon armed with underwing air-to-ground rockets and up to 2,000 lb (910 kg) of bombs. From 1946, interest in developing an aircraft that harnessed the increasingly popularswept winggrew and, following concerns that the Panther was inferior to its MiG opponents over the skies of Korea, Grumman launched work on a conversion project, known as Design 93. This effort resulted in a swept-wing derivative, theF9F Cougar, which retained the Panther's designation number.Later stage development work on the Panther continued, being largely focused on engine improvements, expanding fuel capacity, and the use of alternative munitions. In 1949, the Panther was considered by theAustraliangovernment, as a possible locally-built replacement for theMustangMk 23 andDe Havilland Vampirethen operated by theRoyal Australian Air Force(RAAF).The other designs considered initially were an Australian design, theCAC CA-23(an unconventional, twin-jetall-weather fighter) and theHawker P.1081. By mid-1950, however, RAAF Mustangs were in action inKoreaand seen as highly vulnerable to theMiG-15. An immediately available stop-gap in the shape of theGloster Meteor F.8was operated by the RAAF in Korea from July 1951. (After its less-than-satisfactory performance against MiGs, the Meteor was replaced from 1954 by theCAC Sabre– an Australian-built, up-engined variant of the F-86.) Operational history US Navy The Panther was the primary jet fighter and ground-attack aircraft of both the US Navy and USMC during theKorean War. It was the widest used Navy jet fighter of the conflict, cumulatively flying 78,000 sorties. F9F-2s, F9F-3s and F9F-5s, as rugged attack aircraft, were able to sustain operations despite being frequently opposed by intense anti-aircraft fire. The pilots also appreciated the air conditioned cockpit, which made for a welcome change from the humid environment of piston-powered aircraft. On 3 July 1950,Lieutenant, junior gradeLeonard H. Plog, ofVF-51, flying an F9F-3 scored the first US Navy air victory of the war by shooting down a propeller-poweredYak-9. Despite their relatively low speed, Panther pilots also claimed sevenMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s, for the loss of two F9Fs. The first MiG-15 was downed on 9 November 1950, byLieutenant CommanderWilliam (Bill) Amen ofVF-111flying an F9F-2B, during aUN Commandattack on theSinuijubridges, near the mouth of the Yalu River.Two more MiG-15s were downed on 18 November 1950. On 18 November 1952, the American aircraft carrierUSSOriskanyand three other carriers were operating in theSea of Japanconducting air strikes against the North Korean city ofHoeryong. The group launched four F9F's for a combat patrol near the North Korean border with China. The group's leader suffered mechanical problems and returned to the carrier together with his wingman. LtRoyce WilliamsofVF-781, flying offUSSOriskanyand his wingman continued on the mission. They then identified sevenSoviet Naval AviationMigs heading towards the task force from the Russian mainland. The naval commanders therefore ordered the two F9Fs to position themselves between the Migs and the carrier group. During this maneuver, four Soviet MiG-15s opened fire, despite the fact that the countries were not at war. Williams opened fire on the tail Mig, which dropped out of formation, and was followed down by Williams' wingman. What followed was a 35-minute dogfight between Williams and six MiG-15s. The Mig 15 was a more capable plane, but Williams nevertheless succeeded in shooting down three more. He ascribed this to both sides doing as they were trained, but the Soviet pilots making mistakes. While heading back to the carriers, Williams was out of ammo, but still had one Mig on his tail. The re-appearance of his wingman on the Mig's tail then scared this one off. By that time Williams's plane was so damaged that he could not turn sideways anymore.Oriskanywas therefore aligned with the plane, so he could land. After landing, his Panther was found to have 263 hits by cannon shells or fragments and was beyond repair. It was therefore pushed overboard. The engagement is little-known for two reasons. The US feared that publication of the incident could increase tensions with the Soviet Union.Another reason was the involvement of the USNational Security Agency(NSA) – the existence of which was then top secret – in planning the mission; the MiGs were intercepted as a result of intelligence provided by the NSA.The four MiGs that were shot down were flown bySoviet Naval Aviationpilots: Russian sources confirmed Williams' claims, 40 years later, stating the pilots lost were Captains Belyakov and Vandalov, and Lieutenants Pakhomkin and Tarshinov. As the conflict progressed, Panthers became primarily tasked with ground attack missions.Attacks upon hostile anti-aircraft equipment were commonly conducted.This was a risky mission type, with numerous Panthers being damaged or even lost to fire from the same ground batteries that they were seeking to neutralize.Furthermore, the danger posed by these systems increased over time as more capable AA apparatus was supplied to the North Korean force.Panthers also routinely undertook aerial reconnaissance missions over Korea.Starting in 1952, the Panther began to be supplemented by the newer Cougar derivative in the theatre. Future astronautNeil Armstrongflew the F9F extensively during the Korean conflict,although he ejected from one of the aircraft after it was brought down by a wire strung across a valley in 1951.Future astronautJohn GlennandBoston Red Soxall-starbaseball playerTed Williamsalso flew the F9F as Marine Corps pilots. During 1956, the Panther was withdrawn from frontline combat service, having been displaced by new fighter aircraft, including its swept-wing Cougar derivative.However, the type remained active in secondary roles, such as for training and with U.S. Naval Air Reserve and U.S. Marine Air Reserve units, until 1958. The Navy'sBlue Angelsflight demonstration team used the Panther for four years, beginning in 1951. The Panther was the Blue Angels' first jet.Some Panthers continued to serve in small numbers into the 1960s.From September 1962, surviving operational Panthers were designated F-9 within the new combined US tri-service designation system. Argentine Navy The only foreign buyer of the Panther was theArgentine Naval Aviation, which purchased 28 ex-USN F9F-2B aircraft during 1957; the first 10 arrived in 1958. Only 24 aircraft were put in service, as the remainder were used as spares. The first flight of an Argentine Panther was in December 1958, and the last aircraft entered into service during January 1961. The catapult on the then only Argentine carrier,ARAIndependencia, was not powerful enough to launch the F9F,so the aircraft were land-based. However, in July 1963, a Panther (serial 0453/3-A-119) landed onIndependenciaas part of trials, the first jet to land on an Argentine aircraft carrier;it was not then catapult-launched, but off-loaded by crane when the ship returned to port. Argentine Navy F9F-2 Panthers were engaged in combat during the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt. Several rebel-controlled aircraft flew bombing and strafing runs against a column of the Army 8th Tank Regiment which was advancing on the rebellingPunta Indio Naval Air Base. The attack destroyed severalM4 Shermantanks while one F9F Panther was shot down. The Argentine Panthers were involved in the general mobilization during the1965 border clash between Argentina and Chile, but no combat occurred. The type was removed from service during 1969 due to a lack of available spare parts, the service opted to replace them withDouglas A-4Q Skyhawks. The Argentine Navy also operated the F-9 Cougar trainer version. Variants Operators Surviving aircraft Argentina United States Specifications (F9F-5 Panther) Data fromUnited States Navy Aircraft since 1911 General characteristics Performance Armament Notable appearances in media The F9F Panther was featured in the 1954 Korean War filmThe Bridges at Toko-RistarringWilliam Holden,Grace Kelly,Mickey RooneyandFredric March, and inMen of the Fighting LadystarringVan Johnson,Walter PidgeonandKeenan Wynn. Stock footageof an F9F piloted byGeorge Chamberlain Duncancrashing into the fantail of theUSSMidway(CV-41)during a 1951 test flight appears in severalHollywoodfilms. See also Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists References Citations Bibliography Online sources Further reading External links",
"John Glenn John Herschel Glenn Jr.(July 18, 1921 – December 8, 2016) was an AmericanMarine Corps aviator,astronaut, businessman, and politician. He was the third American in space and the first American to orbit the Earth, circling it three times in 1962.Following his retirement fromNASA, he served from 1974 to 1999 as aU.S. SenatorfromOhio; in 1998, he flew into space again at the age of 77. Before joining NASA, Glenn was a distinguishedfighter pilotinWorld War II, theChinese Civil War, and theKorean War. He shot down threeMiG-15sand was awarded sixDistinguished Flying Crossesand eighteenAir Medals. In 1957, he made the firstsupersonictranscontinental flightacross the United States. His on-board camera took the first continuous, panoramic photograph of the United States. Glenn was one of theMercury Sevenmilitarytest pilotsselected in 1959 by NASA as the nation's first astronauts. On February 20, 1962, Glenn flew theFriendship 7mission, becoming the first American to orbit the Earth. He was the third American, and the fifth person, to be in space. He received theNASA Distinguished Service Medalin 1962, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, was inducted into theU.S. Astronaut Hall of Famein 1990, and received thePresidential Medal of Freedomin 2012. Glenn resigned from NASA in January 1964. A member of the Democratic Party, Glenn was firstelected to the Senate in 1974and served for 24 years until January 1999. In 1998, at age 77, Glenn flew onSpace ShuttleDiscovery'sSTS-95mission, making him the oldest person to enter Earth orbit, the only person to fly in both the Mercury and theSpace Shuttle programs, and the first Member of Congress to visit space since CongressmanBill Nelson(D-Fla.) in 1986. Glenn, both the oldest and the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven, died at the age of 95 on December 8, 2016. Early life and education John Herschel Glenn Jr. was born on July 18, 1921, in Cambridge, Ohio, the son of John Herschel Glenn Sr. (1895–1966), who worked for a plumbing firm, and Clara Teresa Glenn (néeSproat; 1897–1971), a teacher.His parents had married shortly before John Sr., a member of theAmerican Expeditionary Force, left for theWestern FrontduringWorld War I. The family moved toNew Concord, Ohio, soon after his birth, and his father started his own business, the Glenn Plumbing Company.Glenn Jr. was only a toddler when he metAnna Margaret (Annie) Castor, whom he would later marry. The two would not be able to recall a time when they did not know each other.He first flew in an airplane with his father when he was eight years old. He became fascinated by flight and built model airplanes frombalsa woodkits.Along with his adopted sister Jean,he attended New Concord Elementary School.He washed cars and soldrhubarbto earn money to buy a bicycle, after which he took a job deliveringThe Columbus Dispatchnewspaper.He was a member of theOhio Rangers, an organization similar to theCub Scouts.His boyhood home in New Concord has beenrestoredas ahistoric house museumand education center. Glenn attendedNew Concord High School, where he played on thevarsityfootballteam as acenterandlinebacker. He also made the varsitybasketballandtennisteams and was involved with Hi-Y, a junior branch of theYMCA.After graduating in 1939, Glenn enteredMuskingum College(now Muskingum University), where he studiedchemistry,joined the Stag Club fraternity,and played on the football team.Annie majored in music with minors in secretarial studies and physical education and competed on the swimming andvolleyballteams, graduating in 1942.Glenn earned aprivate pilot licenseand a physics course credit for free through theCivilian Pilot Training Programin 1941.He did not complete his senior year in residence or take a proficiency exam, both required by the school for itsBachelor of Sciencedegree. Military career World War II When the United States entered World War II, Glenn quit college to enlist in theU.S. Army Air Corps.He was not called to duty by the Army and enlisted as aU.S. Navyaviation cadetin March 1942. Glenn attended theUniversity of IowainIowa Cityfor pre-flight training and made his first solo flight in a military aircraft atNaval Air Station OlatheinKansas, where he went for primary training. During advanced training atNaval Air Station Corpus ChristiinTexas, he accepted an offer to transfer to theU.S. Marine Corps.Having completed his flight training in March 1943, Glenn was commissioned as asecond lieutenant. Glenn married Annie in a Presbyterian ceremony at College Drive Church in New Concord on April 6, 1943.After advanced training atCamp Kearny, California, he was assigned to Marine SquadronVMJ-353, which flewR4Dtransport planes from there. ThefightersquadronVMO-155was also at Camp Kearny flying theGrumman F4F Wildcat. Glenn approached the squadron's commander,MajorJ. P. Haines, who suggested that he could put in for a transfer. This was approved, and Glenn was posted to VMO-155 on July 2, 1943, two days before the squadron moved toMarine Corps Air Station El Centroin California.The Wildcat was obsolete by this time, and VMO-155 re-equipped with theF4U Corsairin September 1943.He was promoted tofirst lieutenantin October 1943, and shipped out to Hawaii in January 1944.VMO-155 became part of the garrison onMidway Atollon February 21,then moved to theMarshall Islandsin June 1944 and flew 57 combat missions in the area.He received two Distinguished Flying Crosses and ten Air Medals. At the end of his one-year tour of duty in February 1945, Glenn was assigned toMarine Corps Air Station Cherry PointinNorth Carolina, then toNaval Air Station Patuxent Riverin Maryland. He was promoted tocaptainin July 1945 and ordered back to Cherry Point. There, he joined VMF-913, another Corsair squadron, and learned that he had qualified for a regular commission.In March 1946, he was assigned toMarine Corps Air Station El Toroin southern California. He volunteered for service with the occupation in North China, believing it would be a short tour. He joinedVMF-218(another Corsair squadron), which was based atNanyuan Fieldnear Beijing, in December 1946,and flew patrol missions until VMF-218 was transferred toGuamin March 1947. In December 1948, Glenn was re-posted to NAS Corpus Christi as a student at the Naval School of All-Weather Flight before becoming aflight instructor.In July 1951, he traveled to theAmphibious Warfare SchoolatMarine Corps Base Quanticoin northernVirginiafor a six-month course.He then joined the staff of the commandant of the Marine Corps Schools. He maintained his proficiency (and flight pay) by flying on weekends and was only allowed four hours of flying time per month.He was promoted to major in July 1952.Glenn received theWorld War II Victory Medal,American Campaign Medal,Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal(with onestar),Navy Occupation Service Medal(with Asia clasp), and theChina Service Medalfor his efforts. Korean War Glenn moved his family back to New Concord during a short period of leave, and after two and a half months of jet training at Cherry Point, was ordered toSouth Koreain October 1952, late in the Korean War.Before he set out for Korea in February 1953, he applied to fly theF-86 Sabrejetfighter-interceptorthrough an inter-service exchange position with theU.S. Air Force(USAF). In preparation, he arranged with Colonel Leon W. Gray to check out the F-86 atOtis Air Force BaseinMassachusetts.Glenn reported toK-3, an airbase in South Korea, on February 3, 1953, and was assigned to be the operations officer forVMF-311, one of two Marine fighter squadrons there while he waited for the exchange assignment to go through.VMF-311 was equipped with theF9F Pantherjetfighter-bomber. Glenn's first mission was a reconnaissance flight on February 26.He flew 63 combat missions in Korea with VMF-311and was nicknamed \"Magnet Ass\" because of the number offlakhits he took on low-levelclose air supportmissions;twice, he returned to base with over 250 holes in his plane.He flew for a time with Marine reservistTed Williams(then in the midst of aHall of Famebaseball career with theBoston Red Sox) as hiswingman.Williams later said about Glenn \"Absolutely fearless. The best I ever saw. It was an honor to fly with him.\"Glenn also flew with future major generalRalph H. Spanjer. In June 1953, Glenn reported for duty with the USAF's25th Fighter-Interceptor Squadronand flew 27 combat missions in the F-86, a much faster aircraft than the F9F Panther, patrollingMiG Alley.Combat with aMiG-15, which was faster and better armed still,was regarded as a rite of passage for a fighter pilot. On the Air Force buses that ferried the pilots out to the airfields before dawn, pilots who had engaged a MiG could sit while those who had not had to stand.Glenn later wrote, \"Since the days of theLafayette Escadrilleduring World War I, pilots have viewed air-to-air combat as the ultimate test not only of their machines but of their own personal determination and flying skills. I was no exception.\"He hoped to become the second Marine jetflying aceafterJohn F. Bolt. Glenn's USAF squadron mates painted \"MiG Mad Marine\" on his aircraft when he complained about there not being any MIGs to shoot at.He shot down his first MiG in adogfighton July 12, 1953, downed a second one on July 19, and a third on July 22 when four Sabres shot down three MiGs. These were the final air victories of the war, which ended with an armistice five days later.For his service in Korea, Glenn received two more Distinguished Flying Crosses and eight more Air Medals.Glenn also received theKorean Service Medal(with two campaign stars),United Nations Korea Medal,Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal,National Defense Service Medal(with one star), and theKorean War Service Medal. Test pilot With combat experience as a fighter pilot, Glenn applied for training as atest pilotwhile still in Korea. He reported to theU.S. Naval Test Pilot SchoolatNAS Patuxent Riverin Maryland in January 1954 and graduated in July.At Patuxent River, futureMedal of HonorrecipientJames Stockdaletutored him in physics and math.Glenn's first flight test assignment, testing theFJ-3 Fury, nearly killed him when its cockpit depressurized and its oxygen system failed.He also tested the armament of aircraft such as theVought F7U CutlassandF8U Crusader.From November 1956 to April 1959, he was assigned to the Fighter Design Branch of the NavyBureau of Aeronauticsin Washington, D.C., and attended theUniversity of Maryland. On July 16, 1957, Glenn made the firstsupersonictranscontinental flight.Disliking his Bureau of Aeronautics desk job, he devised the flight as both a way to keep flying and publicly demonstrate the F8U Crusader.At that time, the transcontinental speed record, held by an Air ForceRepublic F-84 Thunderjet, was 3 hours 45 minutes and Glenn calculated that the F8U Crusader could do it faster. Because its 586-mile-per-hour (943 km/h) air speed was faster than that of a.45 caliber bullet, Glenn called the flightProject Bullet.He flew an F8U Crusader 2,445 miles (3,935 km) fromLos Alamitos, California, toFloyd Bennett Fieldin New York City in 3 hours, 23 minutes and 8.3 seconds,averaging supersonic speed despite threein-flight refuelingswhen speeds dropped below 300 miles per hour (480 km/h). His on-board camera took the first continuous, transcontinentalpanoramic photographof the United States.He received his fifth Distinguished Flying Cross for this mission,and was promoted tolieutenant colonelon April 1, 1959.The cross-country flight made Glenn a minor celebrity. A profile appeared inThe New York Times,and he appeared on the television showName That Tune.Glenn now had nearly 9,000 hours of flying time, including about 3,000 hours in jets,but knew that at the age of 36, he was now likely too old to continue to fly. NASA career Selection On October 4, 1957, theSoviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1, the first artificialsatellite. This damaged American confidence in its technological superiority, creating a wave of anxiety known as theSputnik crisis. In response, PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerlaunched theSpace Race. TheNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) was established on October 1, 1958, as a civilian agency to develop space technology. One of its first initiatives was announced on December 17, 1958. This wasProject Mercury,which aimed to launch a man intoEarth orbit, return him safely to the Earth, and evaluate his capabilities in space. His Bureau of Aeronautics job gave Glenn access to new spaceflight news, such as theX-15rocket plane.While on duty at Patuxent and in Washington, Glenn read everything he could find about space. His office was asked to send a test pilot toLangley Air Force Basein Virginia to make runs on a spaceflight simulator, as part of research by the newly formed NASA into re-entry vehicle shapes. The pilot would also be sent to theNaval Air Development CenterinJohnsville, Pennsylvania, and would be subjected to highG-forcesin acentrifugefor comparison with data collected in the simulator. His request for the position was granted, and he spent several days at Langley and a week in Johnsville for the testing.As one of the very few pilots to have done such testing, Glenn had become an expert on the subject.NASA asked military-service members to participate in planning themockupof a spacecraft. Having participated in the research at Langley and Johnsville, he was sent to theMcDonnellplant inSt. Louisas a service adviser to NASA's spacecraft mockup board.Envisioning himself in the vehicle, Glenn stated that the passenger would have to be able to control the spacecraft. McDonnell engineers told him of the importance of lightening the vehicle as much as possible, so Glenn began exercising to lose the 30 pounds he estimated that he was overweight. Eisenhower directed NASA to recruit its first astronauts from military test pilots. Of 508 graduates of test pilot schools, 110 matched the minimum standards.Marine Corps pilots were mistakenly omitted at first; two were quickly found, including Glenn.The candidates had to be younger than 40, possess a bachelor's degree or equivalent, and be 5 feet 11 inches (1.80 m) or less. Only the height requirement was strictly enforced, owing to the size of the Project Mercury spacecraft.This was fortunate for Glenn, who barely met the requirements, as he was near the age cutoff and lacked a science-based degree,but had taken more classes since leaving college than needed for graduation. Glenn was otherwise so outstanding a candidate that Colonel Jake Dill, his commanding officer at test pilot school, visited NASA headquarters to insist that Glenn would be the perfect astronaut. For an interview with Charles Donlan, associate director of Project Mercury, Glenn brought the results from the centrifuge to show that he had done well on a test that perhaps no other candidate had taken. Donlan also noticed that Glenn stayed late at night to study schematics of the Mercury spacecraft.He was among the 32 of the first 69 candidates that passed the first step of the evaluation and were interested in continuing, sufficient for the astronaut corps NASA wanted.On February 27 a grueling series of physical and psychological tests began at theLovelace Clinicand theWright Aerospace Medical Laboratory. Because of his Bureau of Aeronautics job, Glenn was already participating in Project Mercury; while other candidates were at Wright, on March 17 he and most of those who would choose the astronauts visited the McDonnell plant building the spacecraft to inspect its progress and make changes. While Glenn had not scored the highest on all the tests, a member of the selection committee recalled how he had impressed everyone with his \"strength of personality and his dedication\". On April 6 Donlan called Glenn to offer him a position at Project Mercury,one of seven candidates chosen as astronauts.Glenn was pleased while Annie was supportive but wary of the danger; during his three years at Patuxent, 12 test pilots had died. The identities of the seven were announced at a press conference atDolley Madison Housein Washington, D.C., on April 9, 1959:Scott Carpenter,Gordon Cooper, Glenn,Gus Grissom,Wally Schirra,Alan Shepard, andDeke Slayton.InThe Right Stuff,Tom Wolfewrote that Glenn \"came out of it as tops among seven very fair-haired boys. He had the hottest record as a pilot, he was the most quotable, the most photogenic, and the lone Marine.\"The magnitude of the challenge ahead of them was made clear a few weeks later, on the night of May 18, 1959, when the seven astronauts gathered atCape Canaveralto watch their first rocket launch, of anSM-65D Atlas, which was similar to the one that was to carry them into orbit. A few minutes after liftoff, it exploded spectacularly, lighting up the night sky. The astronauts were stunned. Shepard turned to Glenn and said: \"Well, I'm glad they got that out of the way.\" Glenn remained an officer in the Marine Corps after his selection,and was assigned to the NASA Space Task Group atLangley Research CenterinHampton, Virginia.The task force moved toHouston, Texas, in 1962, and became part of the NASAManned Spacecraft Center.A portion of the astronauts' training was in the classroom, where they learned space science. The group also received hands-on training, which includedscuba divingand work in simulators.Astronauts secured an additional role in the spaceflight program: to provide pilot input in design. The astronauts divided the various tasks between them. Glenn's specialization was cockpit layout design and control functioning for the Mercury and earlyApollo programs.He pressed the other astronauts to set a moral example, living up to the squeaky-clean image of them that had been portrayed byLifemagazine, a position that was not popular with the other astronauts. Friendship 7flight Glenn was the backup pilot for Shepard and Grissom on the first two crewed Project Mercury flights, the sub-orbital missionsMercury-Redstone 3andMercury-Redstone 4.Glenn was selected for Mercury-Atlas 6, NASA's first crewed orbital flight, with Carpenter as his backup. Putting a man in orbit would achieve one of Project Mercury's most important goals.Shepard and Grissom had named their spacecraftFreedom 7andLiberty Bell 7. The numeral 7 had originally been the production number of Shepard's spacecraft, but had come to represent the Mercury 7. Glenn named his spacecraft, number 13,Friendship 7, and had the name hand-painted on the side like the one on his F-86 had been.Glenn and Carpenter completed their training for the mission in January 1962, but postponement of the launch allowed them to continue rehearsing. Glenn spent 25 hours and 25 minutes in the spacecraft performing hangar and altitude tests, and 59 hours and 45 minutes in the simulator. He flew 70 simulated missions and reacted to 189 simulated system failures. After a long series of delays,Friendship 7lifted off fromCape Canaveral Air Force Stationon February 20, 1962. During the countdown, there were eleven delays due to equipment malfunctions and improvements and the weather. During Glenn's first orbit, a failure of the automatic-control system was detected. This forced Glenn to operate in manual mode for the second and third orbits, and for re-entry. Later in the flight, telemetry indicated that theheat shieldhad loosened. If this reading had been accurate, Glenn and his spacecraft would have burned up on re-entry. After a lengthy discussion on how to deal with this problem, ground controllers decided that leaving the retrorocket pack in place might help keep the loose heat shield in place. They relayed these instructions to Glenn, but did not tell him the heat shield was possibly loose; although confused at this order, he complied. The retrorocket pack broke up into large chunks of flaming debris that flew past the window of his capsule during re-entry; Glenn thought this might have been the heat shield. He told an interviewer, \"Fortunately it was the rocket pack—or I wouldn't be answering these questions.\"After the flight, it was determined that the heat shield was not loose; the sensor was faulty. Friendship 7safelysplashed down800 miles (1,290 km) southeast of Cape Canaveral after Glenn's 4-hour, 55-minute flight.He carried a note on the flight which read, \"I am a stranger. I come in peace. Take me to your leader and there will be a massive reward for you in eternity\" in several languages, in case he landed near southern Pacific Ocean islands.The original procedure called for Glenn to exit through the top hatch, but he was uncomfortably warm and decided that egress through the side hatch would be faster.During the flight, he endured up to 7.8 g of acceleration and traveled 75,679 miles (121,794 km) at about 17,500 miles per hour (28,200 km/h).The flight took Glenn to a maximum altitude (apogee) of about 162 miles (261 km) and a minimum altitude of 100 miles (160 km) (perigee).Unlike the crewed missions ofSoviet Union'sVostok programme, Glenn remained within the spacecraft during landing.The flight made Glenn the first American toorbitthe Earth,the third American in space, and the fifth human in space.The mission, which Glenn called the \"best day of his life\", renewed U.S. confidence.His flight occurred while the U.S. and the Soviet Union were embroiled in theCold Warand competing in the Space Race. As the first American in orbit, Glenn became a national hero, met PresidentJohn F. Kennedy, and received aticker-tape paradein New York reminiscent of those honoringCharles Lindberghand other heroes. He became \"so valuable to the nation as an iconic figure\", according to NASA administratorCharles Bolden, that Kennedy would not \"risk putting him back in space again.\"Glenn's fame and political potential were noted by the Kennedys, and he became a friend of theKennedy family. On February 23, 1962, President Kennedy gave him theNASA Distinguished Service Medalfor hisFriendship 7flight.Upon receiving the award, Glenn said, \"I would like to consider I was a figurehead for this whole big, tremendous effort, and I am very proud of the medal I have on my lapel.\"Glenn also received his sixth Distinguished Flying Cross for his efforts.He was among the first group of astronauts to be awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. The award was presented to him by President Jimmy Carter in 1978. After his 1962 spaceflight, NASA proposed giving Glenn theMedal of Honor, but Glenn did not think that would be appropriate. His military and space awards were stolen from his home in 1978, and he remarked that he would keep this medal in a safe. Comments about women in space In 1962, NASA contemplated recruiting women to the astronaut corps via theMercury 13, but Glenn gave a speech before theHouse Space Committeedetailing his opposition to sending women into space, in which he said: I think this gets back to the way our social order is organized, really. It is just a fact. The men go off and fight the wars and fly the airplanes and come back and help design and build and test them. The fact that women are not in this field is a fact of our social order. In May 1965, after he left NASA, Glenn was quoted in theMiami Heraldas saying NASA \"offer a serious chance for space women\" as scientist astronauts. NASA had no official policy prohibiting women, but the requirement that astronauts had to be test pilots effectively excluded them.NASA dropped this requirement in 1965,but did not select any women as astronauts until 1978, when six women were selected, none as pilots.In June 1963, the Soviet Union launched a female cosmonaut,Valentina Tereshkova, into orbit. After Tereshkova, no women of any nationality flew in space again until August 1982, when the Soviet Union launched pilot-cosmonautSvetlana Savitskaya.During the late 1970s, Glenn reportedly supportedSpace ShuttleMission SpecialistJudith Resnikin her career. Political campaigning 1964 Senate campaign At 42, Glenn was the oldest member of the astronaut corps and would likely be close to 50 by the time the lunar landings took place. During Glenn's training, NASA psychologists determined that he was the astronaut best suited for public life.Attorney GeneralRobert F. Kennedysuggested to Glenn and his wife in December 1962 that he run for the1964 United States Senate election in Ohio, challenging aging incumbentStephen M. Young(1889–1984) in the Democratic primary election. As it seemed unlikely that he would be selected forProject Apollomissions,he resigned from NASA on January 16, 1964, and announced hisDemocratic Partycandidacy for theU.S. Senatefrom his home state of Ohio the following day,becoming the firstastronaut-politician.Glenn was still a Marine and had plenty of unused leave time. He elected to use it while he waited for his retirement papers to go through. To avoid partisanship, NASA quickly closed Glenn's agency office.The New York Timesreported that while many Ohioans were skeptical of Glenn's qualifications for the Senate, he could defeat Young in the Democratic primary; whether he could defeat RepresentativeRobert Taft Jr., the likely Republican candidate, in the general election was much less clear.In late February he was hospitalized for aconcussionsustained in a fall against a bathtub while attempting to fix a mirror in a hotel room;an inner-ear injury from the accident left him unable to campaign.Both his wife and Scott Carpenter campaigned on his behalf during February and March, but doctors gave Glenn a recovery time of one year. Glenn did not want to win solely because of his astronaut fame, so he dropped out of the race on March 30. Glenn was still on leave from the Marine Corps, and he withdrew his papers to retire so he could keep a salary and health benefits.Glenn was on the list of potential candidates to be promoted to full colonel, but he notified theCommandant of the Marine Corpsof his intention to retire so another Marine could receive the promotion. President Johnson later decided to promote Glenn to full colonel status without taking someone else's slot. He retired as acolonelon January 1, 1965. Glenn was approached byRC Colato join their public relations department, but Glenn declined it because he wanted to be involved with a business and not just the face of it. The company revised their offer and offered Glenn a vice president of corporate development position, as well as a place on the board of directors.The company later expanded Glenn's role, promoting him to president of Royal Crown International.A Senate seat was open in 1968, and Glenn was asked about his current political aspirations. He said he had no current plan, and \"Let's talk about it one of these days.\" Glenn also said that a 1970 Senate run was a possibility. In 1973, he and a friend bought aHoliday InnnearDisney World.The success of Disney World expanded to their business, and the pair built three more hotels.One of Glenn's business partners wasHenri Landwirth, aHolocaustsurvivor who became his best friend.He remembered learning about Landwirth's background: \"Henri doesn't talk about it much. It was years before he spoke about it with me and then only because of an accident. We were down in Florida during the space program. Everyone was wearing short-sleeved Ban-Lon shirts—everyone but Henri. Then one day I saw Henri at the pool and noticed thenumber on his arm. I told Henri that if it were me I'd wear that number like a medal with a spotlight on it.\" 1970 Senate campaign Glenn remained close to the Kennedy family, and campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy during his1968 presidential campaign.In 1968, Glenn was in Kennedy's hotel suite when Kennedy heard he had won California. Glenn was supposed to go with him to celebrate but decided not to as there would be many people there. Kennedy went downstairs to make his victory speech andwas assassinated. Glenn and Annie went with Kennedy to the hospital, and the next morning took Kennedy's children home to Virginia.Glenn was later a pallbearer at the funeral in New York. In 1970, Young did not seek reelection and the seat was open. BusinessmanHoward Metzenbaum, Young's former campaign manager, was backed by theOhio Democratic partyand major labor unions, which provided him a significant funding advantage over Glenn. Glenn's camp persuaded him to be thrifty during the primary so he could save money for the general election. By the end of the primary campaign, Metzenbaum was spending four times as much as Glenn.Glenn was defeated in the Democratic primary by Metzenbaum (who received 51 percent of the vote to Glenn's 49 percent). Some prominent Democrats said Glenn was a \"hapless political rube\", and one newspaper called him \"the ultimate square\". Metzenbaum lost the general election to Robert Taft Jr.Glenn remained active in the political scene following his defeat. GovernorJohn J. Gilliganappointed Glenn to be the chairman of the Citizens Task Force on Environmental Protection in 1970. The task force was created to survey environmental problems in the state and released a report in 1971 detailing the issues. The meetings and the final report of the task force were major contributors to the formation of Ohio'sEnvironmental Protection Agency. 1974 Senate campaign In 1973, President Nixon orderedAttorney GeneralElliot Richardsonto fireWatergatespecial prosecutorArchibald Cox. Richardson refused and resigned in protest, triggering theSaturday Night massacre. Ohio SenatorWilliam Saxbe, elected in 1968, was appointed attorney general. Both Glenn and Metzenbaum sought the vacated seat, which was to be filled by Governor John Gilligan. Gilligan was planning on a presidential or vice-presidential run in the near future, and offered Glenn thelieutenant governorposition, with the thought that Glenn would ascend to governor when Gilligan was elected to a higher position. The Ohio Democratic party backed this solution to avoid what was expected to be a divisive primary battle between Metzenbaum and Glenn. He declined, denouncing their attempts as \"bossism\" and \"blackmail\".Glenn's counteroffer suggested that Gilligan fill the position with someone other than Metzenbaum or Glenn so neither would have an advantage going into the 1974 election. Metzenbaum's campaign agreed to back Gilligan in his governor re-election campaign, and Metzenbaum was subsequently appointed in January 1974 to the vacated seat.At the end of Saxbe's term, Glenn challenged Metzenbaum in the primary for the Ohio Senate seat. Glenn's campaign changed their strategy after the 1970 election. In 1970, Glenn won most of the counties in Ohio but lost in those with larger populations. The campaign changed its focus, and worked primarily in the large counties.In the primary, Metzenbaum contrasted his strong business background with Glenn's military and astronaut credentials and said that his opponent had \"never held a payroll\". Glenn's reply became known as the \"Gold Star Mothers\" speech. He told Metzenbaum to go to a veterans' hospital and \"look those men with mangled bodies in the eyes and tell them they didn't hold a job. You go with me to any Gold Star mother and you look her in the eye and tell her that her son did not hold a job\".He defeated Metzenbaum 54 to 46 percent before defeatingRalph Perk(the RepublicanmayorofCleveland) in the general election, beginning a Senate career which would continue until 1999. 1976 vice presidential consideration AfterJimmy Carterbecame the presumptive Democratic nominee for president in the1976 election, Glenn was reported to bein considerationto be Carter's running mate because he was a senator in a pivotal state and for his fame and straightforwardness.Some thought he was too much like Carter, partially because they both had military backgrounds, and he did not have enough experience to become president.Barbara Jordanwas the first keynote speaker at the Democratic National Convention. Her speech electrified the crowd and was filled with applause and standing ovations. Glenn's keynote address immediately followed Jordan's, and he failed to impress the delegates. Walter Cronkite described it as \"dull\", and other delegates complained that he was hard to hear.Carter called Glenn to inform him the nomination was going to another candidate and later nominated the veteran politicianWalter Mondale. It was also reported that Carter's wife thought Annie Glenn, who had a stutter, would hurt the campaign. 1980 Senate campaign In his first reelection campaign, Glenn ran opposed in the primary for the 1980 Senate election. His opponents, engineer Francis Hunstiger and ex-teacher Frances Waterman, were not well-known and poorly funded.His opponents spent only a few thousand dollars on the campaign, while Glenn spent $700,000.Reporters noted that for a race he was likely to win, Glenn was spending a lot of time and money on the campaign. His chief strategist responded to the remarks saying, \"It's the way he does things. He takes nothing for granted.\"Glenn won the primary by a landslide, with 934,230 of the 1.09 million votes. Jim Betts, who ran unopposed in the Republican primary, challenged Glenn for his seat. Betts publicly stated that Glenn's policies were part of the reason for inflation increases and a lower standard of living.Betts' campaign also attacked Glenn's voting record, saying that he often voted for spending increases. Glenn's campaign's response was that he has been a part of over 3,000 roll calls and \"any one of them could be taken out of context\".Glenn was projected to win the race easily,and won by the largest margin ever for an Ohio Senator, defeating Betts by over 40 percent. 1984 presidential campaign Glenn was unhappy with how divided the country was, and thought labels like conservative and liberal increased the divide. He considered himself a centrist. Glenn thought a more centrist president would help unite the country. Glenn believed his experience as a senator from Ohio was ideal because of the state's diversity.Glenn thought thatTed Kennedycould win the election, but after Kennedy's announcement in late 1982 that he would not seek the presidency, Glenn thought he had a much better chance of winning. He hired a media consultant to help him with his speaking style. Glenn announced hiscandidacy for presidenton April 21, 1983, in theJohn Glenn High Schoolgymnasium.He started out the campaign out-raising the front-runner, Mondale. He also polled the highest of any Democrat against Reagan.During the fall of 1983,The Right Stuff, a film about the Mercury Seven astronauts, was released. Reviewers sawEd Harris' portrayal of Glenn as heroic and his staff began to publicize the film to the press.One reviewer said that \"Harris' depiction helped transform Glenn from a history-book figure into a likable, thoroughly adoration-worthy Hollywood hero,\" turning him into a big-screen icon.Others considered the movie to be damaging to Glenn's campaign, serving as only a reminder that Glenn's most significant achievement had occurred decades earlier.Glenn's autobiography said the film \"had a chilling effect on the campaign.\" William White managed Glenn's campaign until his replacement by Jerry Vento on January 26, 1984.Glenn's campaign decided to forgo the traditional campaigning in early caucuses and primaries and focus on building campaign offices nationwide. He opened offices in 43 states by January 1984. Glenn's campaign spent a significant amount of money on television advertising in Iowa, and Glenn chose not to attend an Iowan debate on farm issues. He finished fifth in the Iowa caucus and went on to lose New Hampshire. Glenn's campaign continued intoSuper Tuesday, and he lost there as well. He announced his withdrawal from the race on March 16, 1984.After Mondale defeated him for the nomination, Glenn carried $3 million in campaign debt for over 20 years before receiving a reprieve from theFederal Election Commission. 1986 Senate campaign Glenn's Senate seat was challenged byThomas Kindness. Kindness was unopposed in his primary, while Glenn facedLyndon LaRouchesupporter Don Scott. LaRouche supporters had been recently elected in Illinois, but the Ohio Democratic Party chairman did not think it was likely they would see the same success in Ohio.LaRouche was known for his fringe theories, such as the queen of England being a drug dealer.Kindness spoke to his supporters and warned them against LaRouche candidates. He issued a statement telling voters to reject LaRouche candidates in both Republican and Democratic primaries.Glenn won the primary contest with 88% of the vote. With the primary complete, Glenn began his campaign against Kindness. Glenn believed he and other Democrats were the targets of a negative campaign thought up by the GOP strategists in Washington. Kindness focused on Glenn's campaign debts for his failed presidential run and the fact he stopped payments on it while campaigning for the Senate seat.After winning the race with 62% of the vote, Glenn remarked, \"We proved that in 1986, they couldn't kill Glenn with Kindness.\" 1992 Senate campaign In 1992, RepublicanMike DeWinewon the Republican primary and challenged Glenn in the Senate election. Glenn ran unopposed in the primary.DeWine's campaign focused on the need for change and for term limits for senators. This would be Glenn's fourth term as senator.DeWine also criticized Glenn's campaign debts, using a bunny dressed as an astronaut beating a drum, with an announcer saying, \"He just keeps owing and owing and owing\", a play on theEnergizer Bunny.During a debate, Glenn asked DeWine to stop his negative campaign ads, saying \"This has been the most negative campaign\". DeWine responded that he would if Glenn would disclose how he spent the money he received fromCharles Keating, fallout from Glenn being named one of theKeating Five.Glenn won the Senate seat, with 2.4 million votes to DeWine's 2 million votes.It was DeWine's first-ever campaign loss. DeWine later worked on the intelligence committee with Glenn and watched his second launch into space. Senate career Committee on Governmental Affairs Glenn requested to be assigned to two committees during his first year as senator: theGovernment Operations Committee(later known as the Committee on Governmental Affairs), and theForeign Relations Committee. He was immediately assigned to the Government Operations Committee and waited for a seat on the Foreign Relations Committee.In 1977, Glenn wanted to chair the Energy, Nuclear Proliferation, and Federal Services Subcommittee of the Governmental Affairs Committee.Abraham Ribicoff, chair of the Governmental Affairs Committee, said he could chair the subcommittee if he also chaired the less popular Federal Services Subcommittee, which was in charge of theU.S. Postal Service. Previous chairs of the Federal Services Subcommittee had lost elections in part because of negative campaigns associated with the poorly regarded mail service to the chairmen, but Glenn accepted the offer and became the chair of both subcommittees.One of his goals as a new senator was developing environmental policies.Glenn introduced bills on energy policy to try to counter theenergy crisis in the 70s. Glenn also introduced legislation promoting nuclear non-proliferation and was the chief author of theNuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978,the first of six major pieces of legislation that he produced on the subject. Glenn chaired the Committee on Governmental Affairs from 1987 to 1995.It was in this role that he discovered safety and environmental problems with the nation's nuclear weapons facilities. Glenn was made aware of the problem at theFernald Feed Materials Production Centernear Cincinnati and soon found that it affected sites across the nation. Glenn requested investigations from the General Accounting Office of Congress and held several hearings on the issue. He also released a report on the potential costs of hazardous waste cleanup at former nuclear weapons manufacturing facilities, known as the Glenn Report.He spent the remainder of his Senate career acquiring funding to clean up thenuclear wasteleft at the facilities. Glenn also focused on reducing government waste. He created legislation to mandate CFOs for large governmental agencies.Glenn wrote a bill to add the office of the inspector general to federal agencies, to help find waste and fraud. He also created legislation intended to prevent the federal government from imposing regulations on local governments without funding. Glenn founded the Great Lakes Task Force, which helped protect the environment of theGreat Lakes. In 1995 Glenn became the ranking minority member of the Committee on Governmental Affairs. Glenn disputed the focus onillegal Chinese donationsto the Democrats and asserted that Republicans also had egregious fundraising issues. The committee chair,Fred ThompsonofTennessee, disagreed and continued the investigation.Thompson and Glenn continued to work together poorly for the duration of the investigation. Thompson would give Glenn only information he was legally required to. Glenn would not authorize a larger budget and tried to expand the scope of the investigation to include members of the GOP.The investigation concluded with a Republican-written report, which Thompson described as, \"... a lot of things strung together that paint a real ugly picture.\" The Democrats, led by Glenn, said the report \"... does not support the conclusion that the China plan was aimed at, or affected, the 1996 presidential election.\" Glenn was the vice chairman of thePermanent Subcommittee on Investigations, a subcommittee of the Committee on Governmental Affairs.When the Republican Party regained control of the Senate in 1996, Glenn became the ranking minority member on the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations until he was succeeded byCarl Levin. During this time, the committee investigated issues such asfraud on the Internet,mortgage fraud, andday trading of securities. Other committees and activities Glenn's father spent his retirement money battling cancer and would have lost his house if Glenn had not intervened. His father-in-law also had expensive treatments for Parkinson's disease. These health and financial issues motivated him to request a seat on theSpecial Committee on Aging. Glenn was considered an expert in matters of science and technology. He was a supporter of continuing theB-1 bomberprogram, which he considered successful. This conflicted with President Carter's desire to fund theB-2 bomberprogram. Glenn did not fully support development of the B-2 because he had doubts about the feasibility of thestealth technology. He drafted a proposal to slow down the development of the B-2, which could have potentially saved money, but the measure was rejected. Glenn joined theForeign Relations Committeein 1978. He became the chairman of the East Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommittee, for which he traveled to Japan, Korea, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China. Glenn helped to pass theTaiwan Enabling Actof 1979. The same year, Glenn's stance on theSALT II treatycaused another dispute with President Carter. Given the loss of radar listening posts in Iran, Glenn did not believe that the U.S. had the capability to monitor the Soviet Union accurately enough to verify compliance with the treaty.During the launching ceremony for theUSSOhio, he spoke about his doubts about verifying treaty compliance. First LadyRosalynn Carteralso spoke at the event, during which she criticized Glenn for speaking publicly about the issue. The Senate never ratified the treaty, in part because of theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan.Glenn served on the committee until 1985, when he traded it for theArmed Services Committee. Glenn became chairman of theManpower Subcommitteeof the Armed Services Committee in 1987.He introduced legislation such as increasing pay and benefits for American troops in the Persian Gulf during theGulf War.He served as chairman until 1993, becoming chairman of the Armed Services Subcommittee onMilitary Readiness and Defense Infrastructure. Keating Five Glenn was one of theKeating Five—the U.S. Senators involved with thesavings and loan crisis—after he accepted a $200,000 campaign contribution fromLincoln Savings and Loan Associationhead Charles Keating. During the crisis, the senators were accused of delaying the seizure of Keating's S&L, which cost taxpayers an additional $2 billion. The combination of perceived political pressure and Keating's monetary contributions to the senators led to an investigation. The Ethics Committee's outside counsel, Robert Bennett, wanted to eliminate Republican senatorJohn McCainand Glenn from the investigation. The Democrats did not want to exclude McCain, as he was the only Republican being investigated, which means they could not excuse Glenn from the investigation either.McCain and Glenn were reprimanded the least of the five, as the Senate commission found that they had exercised \"poor judgment\".The GOP focused on Glenn's \"poor judgment\" rather than what Glenn saw as complete exoneration. GOP chairmanRobert Bennettsaid, \"John Glenn misjudged Charles Keating. He also misjudged the tolerance of Ohio's taxpayers, who are left to foot the bill of nearly $2 billion.\"After the Senate's report, Glenn said, \"They so firmly put this thing to bed ... there isn't much there to fuss with. I didn't do anything wrong.\"In his autobiography, Glenn wrote, \"outside of people close to me dying, these hearings were the low point of my life.\" The case cost him $520,000 in legal fees.The association of his name with the scandal made Republicans hopeful that he could be defeated in the 1992 campaign, but Glenn defeated Lieutenant Governor Mike DeWine to retain his seat. Retirement On February 20, 1997, which was the 35th anniversary of his Friendship 7 flight, Glenn announced that his retirement from the Senate would occur at the end of his term in January 1999.Glenn retired because of his age, noting that he would have been 83 at the end of another term and quipping that \"... there is still no cure for the common birthday\". Return to space After theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisasterin 1986, Glenn criticized putting a \"lay person in space for the purpose of gaining public support ... while the shuttle is still in its embryonic stage\". He supported flying research scientists.In 1995, Glenn readSpace Physiology and Medicine, a book written by NASA doctors. He realized that many changes that occur to physical attributes during space flight, such as loss of bone and muscle mass and blood plasma,are the same as changes that result from aging. Glenn thought NASA should send an older person on a shuttle mission, and that it should be him. Starting in 1995, he began lobbying NASA director Dan Goldin for the mission.Goldin said he would consider it if there was a scientific reason, and if Glenn could pass the same physical examination the younger astronauts took. Glenn performed research on the subject and passed the physical examination. On January 16, 1998, NASA Administrator Dan Goldin announced that Glenn would be part of the STS-95 crew;this made him, at age 77, the oldest person to fly in space at that time. NASA and the National Institute of Aging (NIA) planned to use Glenn as a test subject for research, withbiometricstaken before, during, and after his flight. Some experiments (incircadian rhythms, for example) compared him with the younger crew members. In addition to these tests, he was in charge of the flight's photography and videography. Glenn returned to space on the Space Shuttle on October 29, 1998, as apayload specialistonSpace ShuttleDiscovery.Shortly before the flight, researchers disqualified Glenn from one of the flight's two major human experiments (on the effect ofmelatonin) for undisclosed medical reasons; he participated in experiments on sleep monitoring and protein use.On November 6, PresidentBill Clintonsent a congratulatory email to Glenn aboard theDiscovery. This is often cited as the first email sent by a sitting U.S. president, but records exist of emails being sent by President Clinton several years earlier. His participation in the nine-day mission was criticized by some members of the space community as a favor granted by Clinton; John Pike, director of theFederation of American Scientists' space-policy project, said: \"If he was a normal person, he would acknowledge he's a great American hero and that he should get to fly on the shuttle for free ... He's too modest for that, and so he's got to have this medical research reason. It's got nothing to do with medicine\". In a 2012 interview, Glenn said he regretted that NASA did not continue its research on aging by sending additional elderly people into space.After STS-95 returned safely, its crew received a ticker-tape parade. On October 15, 1998,NASA Road 1(the main route to the Johnson Space Center) was temporarily renamed John Glenn Parkway for several months.Glenn was awarded theNASA Space Flight Medalin 1998 for flying on STS-95.In 2001, Glenn opposed sendingDennis Tito, the world's firstspace tourist, to theInternational Space Stationbecause Tito's trip had no scientific purpose. Personal life Glenn and Annie had two children—John David and Carolyn Ann—and two grandchildren,and remained married for 73 years until his death. AFreemason, Glenn was a member of Concord Lodge No. 688 in New Concord, Ohio.He received all hisdegreesin full in aMason at Sightceremony from theGrand Masterof Ohio in 1978, 14 years after petitioning his lodge. In 1999, Glenn became a 33rd-degreeScottish RiteMason in the Valley of Cincinnati (NMJ).As an adult, he was honored as part of the DeMolay Legion of Honor byDeMolay International, a Masonic youth organization for boys. Glenn was an ordained elder of thePresbyterian Church.His religious faith began before he became an astronaut and was reinforced after he traveled in space. \"To look out at this kind of creation and not believe in God is to me impossible\", said Glenn after his second (and final) space voyage.He saw no contradiction between belief in God and the knowledge that evolution is \"a fact\" and believed evolution should be taught in schools:\"I don't see that I'm any less religious that I can appreciate the fact that science just records that we change with evolution and time, and that's a fact. It doesn't mean it's less wondrous and it doesn't mean that there can't be some power greater than any of us that has been behind and is behind whatever is going on.\" Public appearances Glenn was an honorary member of theInternational Academy of Astronauticsand a member of theSociety of Experimental Test Pilots, Marine Corps Aviation Association,Order of Daedalians, National Space Club board of trustees, National Space Society board of governors, International Association of Holiday Inns,Ohio Democratic Party, State Democratic Executive Committee, Franklin County (Ohio) Democratic Party and the 10th District (Ohio) Democratic Action Club. In 2001 he guest-starred as himself on the American television sitcomFrasier. On September 5, 2009, John and Annie Glenn dotted the \"i\" in Ohio State University'sScript Ohiomarching bandperformance during theOhio State–Navyfootball-game halftime show, which is normally reserved for veteran band members.To commemorate the 50th anniversary of theFriendship 7flight on February 20, 2012, he had an unexpected opportunity to speak with theorbiting crewof the International Space Station when he was onstage withNASA AdministratorCharlie Boldenat Ohio State University.On April 19, 2012, Glenn participated in the ceremonial transfer of the retired Space ShuttleDiscoveryfrom NASA to theSmithsonian Institutionfor permanent display at theSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. He used the occasion to criticize the \"unfortunate\" decision to end theSpace Shuttle program, saying that grounding the shuttles delayed research. Illness and death Glenn was in good health for most of his life. He retained a private pilot's license until 2011 when he was 90.In June 2014, Glenn underwent successfulheart valve replacementsurgery at theCleveland Clinic.In early December 2016, he was hospitalized atthe James Cancer HospitalofOhio State University Wexner Medical Centerin Columbus.According to a family source, Glenn had been in declining health, and his condition was grave; his wife and their children and grandchildren were at the hospital. Glenn died on December 8, 2016, at the OSU Wexner Medical Center; he was 95 years old.No cause of death was disclosed. After his death, his body lay in state at theOhio Statehouse. There was a memorial service at Mershon Auditorium at Ohio State University.Another memorial service was performed at Kennedy Space Center near the Heroes and Legends building.His body was interred atArlington National Cemeteryon April 6, 2017.At the time of his death, Glenn was the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven. TheMilitary Timesreported that William Zwicharowski, a senior mortuary official atDover Air Force Base, had offered to let visiting inspectors view Glenn's remains, sparking an official investigation.Zwicharowski has denied the remains were disrespected.At the conclusion of the investigation, officials said the remains were not disrespected as inspectors did not accept Zwicharowski's offer, and that Zwicharowski's actions were improper. No administrative action was taken as he had retired. PresidentBarack Obamasaid that Glenn, \"the first American to orbit the Earth, reminded us that with courage and a spirit of discovery there's no limit to the heights we can reach together\".Tributes were also paid by Vice PresidentJoe Biden,President-electDonald Trumpand former Secretary of StateHillary Clinton. The phrase \"Godspeed, John Glenn\", which fellow Mercury astronaut Scott Carpenter had used to hail Glenn's launch into space, became a social-mediahashtag: #GodspeedJohnGlenn. Former and current astronauts added tributes; so did NASA Administrator and former shuttle astronaut Charles Bolden, who wrote: \"John Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching.\"President Obama ordered flags to be flown athalf-staffuntil Glenn's burial.On April 5, 2017, President Donald Trump issuedpresidential proclamation9588, titled \"Honoring the Memory of John Glenn\". Awards and honors Glenn was awarded theJohn J. Montgomery Awardin 1963.Glenn received theNational Geographic Society'sHubbard Medalin 1962.Glenn, along with 37 other space race astronauts, received the Ambassador of Space Exploration Award in 2006.He was also awarded the GeneralThomas D. WhiteNational Defense Awardand thePrince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation.In 1964, Glenn received the Golden Plate Award of theAmerican Academy of Achievement.In 2004, he received theWoodrow Wilson Award for Public Servicefrom the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institutionand was awarded theNational Collegiate Athletic Association'sTheodore Roosevelt Awardfor 2008. Glenn earned theNavy's astronaut wingsand the Marine Corps' Astronaut Medal.He was awarded theCongressional Gold Medalin 2011 and was among the first group of astronauts to be granted the distinction.In 2012, President Barack Obama presented Glenn with thePresidential Medal of Freedom. Glenn was the seventh astronaut to receive this distinction. The Congressional Gold Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom are considered the two most prestigious awards that can be bestowed on a civilian.The Society of Experimental Test Pilots awarded Glenn theIven C. Kincheloeaward in 1963,and he was inducted into theInternational Air & Space Hall of Famein 1968,National Aviation Hall of Famein 1976,theInternational Space Hall of Famein 1977,and the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990.In 2000, he received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for public service by an elected or appointed official, one of the annualJefferson Awards. In 1961, Glenn received anhonoraryLL.Dfrom Muskingum University, the college he attended before joining the military in World War II.He also received honorary doctorates fromNihon Universityin Tokyo;Wagner Collegein Staten Island, New York;Ohio Northern University;Williams College;andBrown University.In 1998, he helped found the John Glenn Institute for Public Service and Public Policy atOhio State Universityto encourage public service. The institute merged with OSU's School of Public Policy and Management to become the John Glenn School of Public Affairs. He held anadjunct professorshipat the school.In February 2015, it was announced that it would become theJohn Glenn College of Public Affairsin April. TheGlenn Research Centerat Lewis Field in Cleveland is named after him, and the Senator John Glenn Highway runs along a stretch ofI-480in Ohio across from the Glenn Research Center.Colonel Glenn Highway (which passes Wright-Patterson Air Force Base andWright State UniversitynearDayton, Ohio), John Glenn High School in his hometown of New Concord,Elwood-John H. Glenn High Schoolin the hamlet ofElwood,Town of Huntington,Long Island, New York, and the former Col. John Glenn Elementary inSeven Hills, Ohio, were also named for him.Colonel Glenn Road inLittle Rock, Arkansas, was named for him in 1962.High schools inWestlandandBay City, Michigan;Walkerton, Indiana;andNorwalk, Californiabear Glenn's name.The fireboatJohn H. Glenn Jr., operated by theDistrict of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Departmentand protecting sections of thePotomacandAnacostia Riverswhich run through Washington, D.C., was named for him, as wasUSNSJohn Glenn(T-MLP-2), amobile landing platformdelivered to the U.S. Navy on March 12, 2014.In June 2016, the Port Columbus International Airport in Columbus, Ohio, was renamedJohn Glenn Columbus International Airport. Glenn and his family attended the ceremony, during which he spoke about how visiting the airport as a child had kindled his interest in flying.On September 12, 2016,Blue Originannounced theNew Glenn, a rocket.Orbital ATKnamed theCygnusspace capsule used in the NASACRS OA-7mission to the international space station \"S.S.John Glenn\" in his honor. The mission successfully lifted off on April 16, 2017. Although never a Scout himself, Glenn heavily endorsed theBoy Scouts. His son, John David, attained the coveted rank ofEagle Scoutthat many of Glenn's aviator peers also achieved. Legacy Glenn's public life and legacy began when he received his firstticker-tape paradefor breaking the transcontinental airspeed record.As a senator, he used his military background to write legislation to reduce nuclear proliferation. He also focused on reducing government waste.Buzz Aldrinwrote that Glenn'sFriendship 7flight \"... helped to galvanize the country's will and resolution to surmount significant technical challenges of human spaceflight.\" President Barack Obama said, \"With John's passing, our nation has lost an icon andMichelleand I have lost a friend. John spent his life breaking barriers, from defending our freedom as a decorated Marine Corps fighter pilot in World War II and Korea, to setting a transcontinental speed record, to becoming, at age 77, the oldest human to touch the stars.\"Obama issued a presidential proclamation on December 9, 2016, ordering the US flag to be flown at half-staff in Glenn's memory.NASA administratorCharles Boldensaid: \"Senator Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching\". References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links"
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"Moon landing Clickable map of the locations of all successfulsoft landingson theMoonto date (top) AMoon landingorlunar landingis the arrival of aspacecrafton the surface of theMoon, including both crewed and robotic missions. The first human-made object to touch the Moon wasLuna 2in 1959. In 1969Apollo 11was the first crewed mission to land on the Moon.There weresix crewed landingsbetween 1969 and 1972, and numerous uncrewed landings. All crewed missions to the Moon were conducted by theApollo program, with the last departing the lunar surface in December 1972. AfterLuna 24in 1976 there were nosoft landingson the Moon untilChang'e 3in 2013. All soft landings took place on thenear side of the Moonuntil January 2019, whenChang'e 4made the first landing on thefar side of the Moon. Uncrewed landings Government landings Six government space agencies,Interkosmos,NASA,CNSA,ISRO,JAXAandESA, have reached the Moon with uncrewed missions. Three private/commercial missions,Beresheet(hard landing),Hakuto-R(hard landing),",
"landing), andOdysseus(soft landing) have also reached the lunar surface (see#Commercial landings). The Soviet Union (Interkosmos), the United States (NASA), China (CNSA), India (ISRO),and Japan (JAXA)are the only five nations to have successfully achieved soft landings. The Soviet Union performed the first hard Moon landing – \"hard\" meaning the spacecraft intentionally crashes into the Moon at high speeds – with theLuna 2spacecraft in 1959, a feat the U.S. duplicated in 1962 withRanger 4. Following their initial hard landings on the Moon, sixteen Soviet, U.S., Chinese and Indian spacecraft have used braking rockets (retrorockets) to makesoft landingsand perform scientific operations on the lunar surface. In 1966 the Soviet Union accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the lunar surface during theLuna 9andLuna 13missions. The U.S. followed with fiveSurveyorsoft landings. China's ongoing\"Chang'e\" programhas landed 4 times since 2013, achieving robotic soil sample return and the",
"return and the first landing on the far side of the Moon. On 23 August 2023, ISRO successfully landed itsChandrayaan-3module in thelunar south poleregion, making India the fourth nation to successfully complete a soft landing on the Moon.Chandrayaan-3 saw a successful soft landing of itsVikramlanderandPragyanroverat 6.04 pm IST (1234 GMT), marking the first uncrewed soft landing in the little-explored region. On 19 January 2024, JAXA successfully landed itsSLIM lander, making Japan the fifth nation to successfully complete a soft landing. Commercial landings Two organizations have attempted but failed to achieve soft landings: Israeli private space agencySpaceILwith theirBeresheetspacecraft (2019), and Japanese companyispace'sHakuto-R Mission 1(2023). On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseussuccessfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing",
"Moon landing in over 50 years. This event marked the first successful landing of aprivately owned spacecrafton the Moon. Crewed landings A total of twelveastronautshave landed on the Moon. This was accomplished with two pilot-astronauts flying aLunar Moduleon each of sixNASAmissions. The missions spanned a 41-month period starting 20 July 1969, beginning withNeil ArmstrongandBuzz AldrinonApollo 11, and ending on 14 December 1972 withGene CernanandHarrison SchmittonApollo 17. Cernan was the last man to step off the lunar surface. All Apollo lunar missions had a third crew member who remained on board thecommand module. Scientific background To get to the Moon, a spacecraft must first leave Earth'sgravity well; currently, the only practical means is arocket. Unlike airborne vehicles such asballoonsandjets, a rocket can continueacceleratingin thevacuumoutside theatmosphere. Upon approach of the target moon, a spacecraft will be drawn ever closer to its surface at increasing speeds due to gravity. In order to",
"In order to land intact it must decelerate to less than about 160 kilometres per hour (100 mph) and be ruggedized to withstand a \"hard landing\" impact, or it must decelerate to negligible speed at contact for a \"soft landing\" (the only option for humans). The first three attempts by the U.S. to perform a successful hard Moon landing with a ruggedizedseismometerpackage in 1962 all failed.The Soviets first achieved the milestone of a hard lunar landing with a ruggedized camera in 1966, followed only months later by the first uncrewed soft lunar landing by the U.S. The speed of a crash landing on its surface is typically between 70 and 100% of theescape velocityof the target moon, and thus this is the total velocity which must be shed from the target moon's gravitational attraction for a soft landing to occur. For Earth's Moon, the escape velocity is 2.38 kilometres per second (1.48 mi/s).The change in velocity (referred to as adelta-v) is usually provided by a landing rocket, which must be carried into space",
"carried into space by the originallaunch vehicleas part of the overall spacecraft. An exception is the soft moon landing onTitancarried out by theHuygensprobein 2005. As the moon with the thickest atmosphere, landings on Titan may be accomplished by usingatmospheric entrytechniques that are generally lighter in weight than a rocket with equivalent capability. The Soviets succeeded in making the first crash landing on the Moon in 1959.Crash landingsmay occur because of malfunctions in a spacecraft, or they can be deliberately arranged for vehicles which do not have an onboard landing rocket. There have beenmany such Moon crashes, often with their flight path controlled to impact at precise locations on the lunar surface. For example, during the Apollo program theS-IVBthird stage of theSaturn Vrocket as well as the spent ascent stage of theLunar Modulewere deliberately crashed on the Moon several times to provide impacts registering as amoonquakeonseismometersthat had been left on the lunar surface. Such",
"lunar surface. Such crashes were instrumental in mapping theinternal structure of the Moon. To return to Earth, the escape velocity of the Moon must be overcome for the spacecraft to escape thegravity wellof the Moon. Rockets must be used to leave the Moon and return to space. Upon reaching Earth, atmospheric entry techniques are used to absorb thekinetic energyof a returning spacecraft and reduce its speed for safe landing. These functions greatly complicate a moon landing mission and lead to many additional operational considerations. Any moon departure rocket must first be carried to the Moon's surface by a moon landing rocket, increasing the latter's required size. The Moon departure rocket, larger moon landing rocket and any Earth atmosphere entry equipment such as heat shields andparachutesmust in turn be lifted by the original launch vehicle, greatly increasing its size by a significant and almost prohibitive degree. Political background The political context of the 1960s helps to parse both the",
"to parse both the United States and Soviet Union's efforts to land spacecraft, and eventually humans, on the Moon.World War IIhad introduced many new and deadly innovations includingblitzkrieg-style surprise attacks used in theinvasion of PolandandFinland, as well as in theattack on Pearl Harbor; theV-2 rocket, aballistic missilewhich killed thousands in attacks on London andAntwerp; and theatom bomb, which killed hundreds of thousands in theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the 1950s, tensions mounted between the two ideologically opposed superpowers of the United States and theSoviet Unionthat had emerged as victors in the conflict, particularly after the development by both countries of thehydrogen bomb. On 4 October 1957, the Soviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1as the firstartificial satelliteto orbit the Earth and so initiated theSpace Race. This unexpected event was a source of pride to the Soviets and shock to the U.S., who could now potentially be surprise attacked by nuclear-tipped Soviet",
"Soviet rockets in under 30 minutes.The craft was also barely visible to the naked eye as the steady beeping of theradio beaconaboardSputnik 1as it passed overhead every 96 minutes, which was widely viewed on both sidesas effective propaganda toThird Worldcountries demonstrating the technological superiority of the Sovietpolitical systemcompared to that of the U.S. This perception was reinforced by a string of subsequent rapid-fire Soviet space achievements. In 1959, the R-7 rocket was used to launch the first escape from Earth's gravity into asolar orbit, the first crash impact onto the surface of the Moon, and the first photography of the never-before-seenfar side of the Moon. These were theLuna 1,Luna 2, andLuna 3spacecraft. The U.S. response to these Soviet achievements was to greatly accelerate previously existing military space and missile projects and to create a civilian space agency,NASA. Military efforts were initiated to develop and produce mass quantities of intercontinental ballistic missiles",
"ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that would bridge the so-calledmissile gapand enable a policy ofdeterrencetonuclear warwith the Soviets known asmutual assured destructionor MAD. These newly developedmissileswere made available to civilians of NASA for various projects (which would have the added benefit of demonstrating the payload, guidance accuracy and reliabilities of U.S. ICBMs to the Soviets). Early Soviet uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965) After thefall of the Soviet Unionin 1991, historical records were released to allow the true accounting of Soviet lunar efforts. Unlike the U.S. tradition of assigning a particular mission name in advance of a launch, the Soviets assigned a public \"Luna\" mission number only if a launch resulted in a spacecraft going beyond Earth orbit. The policy had the effect of hiding Soviet Moon mission failures from public view. If the attempt failed in Earth orbit before departing for the Moon, it was frequently (but not always) given a \"Sputnik\" or \"Cosmos\" Earth-orbit mission",
"Earth-orbit mission number to hide its purpose. Launch explosions were not acknowledged at all. Early U.S. uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965) The U.S. was not able to reach the Moon with thePioneerandRanger programs, with fifteen consecutive U.S. uncrewed lunar missions from 1958 to 1964 failing their primary photographic missions.However, Rangers 4 and 6 successfully repeated the Soviet lunar impacts as part of their secondary missions. Three U.S. missionsin 1962 attempted to hard land small seismometer packages released by the main Ranger spacecraft. These surface packages were to useretrorocketsto survive landing, unlike the parent vehicle, which was designed to deliberately crash onto the surface. The final three Ranger probes performed successful high altitude lunarreconnaissancephotography missions during intentional crash impacts between 2.62 and 2.68 kilometres per second (9,400 and 9,600 km/h). Pioneer missions Three different designs of Pioneer lunar probes were flown on three different modified",
"different modified ICBMs. Those flown on theThorbooster modified with an Able upper stage carried aninfraredimage scanning television system with aresolutionof 1milliradianto study the Moon's surface, anionization chamberto measureradiationin space, a diaphragm/microphone assembly to detectmicrometeorites, amagnetometer, and temperature-variable resistors to monitor spacecraft internal thermal conditions.The first, a mission managed by theUnited States Air Force, exploded during launch;all subsequent Pioneer lunar flights had NASA as the lead management organization. The next two returned to Earth and burned up upon reentry into the atmosphere after achieved maximum altitudes of around 114,000 kilometres (71,000 mi)and 1,530 kilometres (950 mi)respectively, far short of the roughly 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) required to reach the vicinity of the Moon. NASA then collaborated with theUnited States Army'sBallistic Missile Agencyto fly two extremely small cone-shaped probes on theJunoICBM, carrying",
"carrying onlyphotocellswhich would be triggered by the light of the Moon and a lunar radiation environment experiment using aGeiger-Müller tubedetector.The first of these reached an altitude of only around 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), gathering data that established the presence of theVan Allen radiation beltsbefore reentering Earth's atmosphere.The second passed by the Moon at a distance of more than 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), twice as far as planned and too far away to trigger either of the on-board scientific instruments, yet still becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to reach asolar orbit. The final Pioneer lunar probe design consisted of four \"paddlewheel\"solar panelsextending from a one-meter diameter sphericalspin-stabilizedspacecraft body equipped to take images of the lunar surface with a television-like system, estimate the Moon's mass and topography of thepoles, record the distribution and velocity of micrometeorites, study radiation, measuremagnetic fields, detectlow frequency",
"detectlow frequency electromagnetic wavesin space and use a sophisticated integratedpropulsionsystem for maneuvering and orbit insertion as well.None of the four spacecraft built in this series of probes survived launch on itsAtlasICBM outfitted with an Able upper stage. Following the unsuccessful Atlas-Able Pioneer probes, NASA'sJet Propulsion Laboratoryembarked upon an uncrewed spacecraft development program whose modular design could be used to support both lunar and interplanetary exploration missions. The interplanetary versions were known asMariners;lunar versions wereRangers. JPL envisioned three versions of the Ranger lunar probes: Block I prototypes, which would carry various radiation detectors in test flights to a very high Earth orbit that came nowhere near the Moon;Block II, which would try to accomplish the first Moon landing by hard landing a seismometer package;and Block III, which would crash onto the lunar surface without any braking rockets while taking very high resolution wide-area",
"wide-area photographs of the Moon during their descent. Ranger missions The Ranger 1 and 2 Block I missions were virtually identical.Spacecraft experiments included aLyman-alphatelescope, arubidium-vapormagnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium-energy-rangeparticle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic-ray integratingionization chamber,cosmic dustdetectors, andscintillation counters. The goal was to place these Block I spacecraft in a very high Earth orbit with an apogee of 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and aperigeeof 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi). From that vantage point, scientists could make direct measurements of themagnetosphereover a period of many months while engineers perfected new methods to routinely track and communicate with spacecraft over such large distances. Such practice was deemed vital to be assured of capturing high-bandwidth television transmissions from the Moon during a one-shot fifteen-minute time window in subsequent Block II and Block III lunar descents. Both",
"descents. Both Block I missions suffered failures of the new Agena upper stage and never left low Earthparking orbitafter launch; both burned up upon reentry after only a few days. The first attempts to perform a Moon landing took place in 1962 during the Rangers 3, 4 and 5 missions flown by the United States.All three Block II missions basic vehicles were 3.1 m high and consisted of a lunar capsule covered with a balsa wood impact-limiter, 650 mm in diameter, a mono-propellant mid-course motor, a retrorocket with a thrust of 5,050 pounds-force (22.5 kN),and a gold- and chrome-plated hexagonal base 1.5 m in diameter. This lander (code-namedTonto) was designed to provide impact cushioning using an exterior blanket of crushable balsa wood and an interior filled with incompressible liquidfreon. A 42-kilogram (93 lb) 30-centimetre-diameter (0.98 ft) metal payload sphere floated and was free to rotate in a liquid freon reservoir contained in the landing sphere. \"Everything that we do ought to really be tied-in to",
"be tied-in to getting onto the Moon ahead of the Russians. ...We're ready to spend reasonable amounts of money, but we're talking about fantastic expenditures which wreck our budget and all these other domestic programs, and the only justification for it, in my opinion, to do it is because we hope to beat them and demonstrate that starting behind, as we did by a couple of years, by God, we passed them.\" —John F. Kennedyon the planned Moon landing, 21 November 1962 This payload sphere contained six silver-cadmiumbatteries to power a fifty-milliwatt radio transmitter, a temperature sensitive voltage controlled oscillator to measure lunar surface temperatures, and a seismometer designed with sensitivity high enough to detect the impact of a 2.3 kg (5 lb) meteorite on the opposite side of the Moon. Weight was distributed in the payload sphere so it would rotate in its liquid blanket to place the seismometer into an upright and operational position no matter what the final resting orientation of the external",
"of the external landing sphere. After landing, plugs were to be opened allowing the freon to evaporate and the payload sphere to settle into upright contact with the landing sphere. The batteries were sized to allow up to three months of operation for the payload sphere. Various mission constraints limited the landing site to Oceanus Procellarum on the lunar equator, which the lander ideally would reach 66 hours after launch. No cameras were carried by the Ranger landers, and no pictures were to be captured from the lunar surface during the mission. Instead, the 3.1 metres (10 ft) Ranger Block II mother ship carried a 200-scan-line television camera to capture images during the free-fall descent to the lunar surface. The camera was designed to transmit a picture every 10 seconds.Seconds before impact, at 5 and 0.6 kilometres (3.11 and 0.37 mi) above the lunar surface, the Ranger mother ships took pictures (which may be viewedhere). Other instruments gathering data before the mother ship crashed onto the Moon",
"onto the Moon were a gamma ray spectrometer to measure overall lunar chemical composition and a radar altimeter. The radar altimeter was to give a signal ejecting the landing capsule and its solid-fueled braking rocket overboard from the Block II mother ship. The braking rocket was to slow and the landing sphere to a dead stop at 330 metres (1,080 ft) above the surface and separate, allowing the landing sphere to free fall once more and hit the surface. On Ranger 3, failure of the Atlas guidance system and a software error aboard the Agena upper stage combined to put the spacecraft on a course that would miss the Moon. Attempts to salvage lunar photography during a flyby of the Moon were thwarted by in-flight failure of the onboard flight computer. This was probably because of priorheat sterilizationof the spacecraft by keeping it above theboilingpoint of water for 24 hours on the ground, to protect the Moon from being contaminated by Earth organisms. Ranger 3 later began orbiting the Sun, called",
"the Sun, called heliocentric orbit.Heat sterilization was also blamed for subsequent in-flight failures of the spacecraft computer on Ranger 4 and the power subsystem on Ranger 5. Only Ranger 4 reached the Moon in an uncontrolled crash impact on the far side of the Moon. Block III probes replaced the Block II landing capsule and its retrorocket with a heavier, more capable television system to support landing site selection for upcoming Apollo crewed Moon landing missions. Six cameras were designed to take thousands of high-altitude photographs in the final twenty-minute period before crashing on the lunar surface. Camera resolution was 1,132 scan lines, far higher than the 525 lines found in a typical U.S. 1964 home television. WhileRanger 6suffered a failure of this camera system and returned no photographs despite an otherwise successful flight, the subsequentRanger 7mission to Mare Cognitum was a complete success. Breaking the six-year string of failures in U.S. attempts to photograph the Moon at close",
"the Moon at close range, theRanger 7mission was viewed as a national turning point and instrumental in allowing the key 1965 NASA budget appropriation to pass through theUnited States Congressintact without a reduction in funds for the Apollo crewed Moon landing program. Subsequent successes withRanger 8andRanger 9further buoyed U.S. hopes. Soviet uncrewed soft landings (1966–1976) TheLuna 9spacecraft, launched by theSoviet Union, performed the first successful soft Moon landing on 3 February 1966.Airbagsprotected its 99-kilogram (218 lb) ejectable capsule which survived an impact speed of over 15 metres per second (54 km/h; 34 mph).Luna 13duplicated this feat with a similar Moon landing on 24 December 1966. Both returned panoramic photographs that were the first views from the lunar surface. Luna 16was the firstrobotic probeto land on theMoonand safely return a sample of lunar soil back to Earth.It represented the firstlunar samplereturn mission by theSoviet Union, and was the third lunarsample return",
"lunarsample return missionoverall, following theApollo 11andApollo 12missions. This mission was later successfully repeated byLuna 20(1972) andLuna 24(1976). In 1970 and 1973 twoLunokhod(\"Moonwalker\") robotic lunar rovers were delivered to the Moon, where they successfully operated for 10 and 4 months respectively, covering 10.5 km (6.5 mi) (Lunokhod 1) and 37 km (23 mi) (Lunokhod 2). These rover missions were in operation concurrently with the Zond and Luna series of Moon flyby, orbiter and landing missions. U.S. uncrewed soft landings (1966–1968) The U.S.roboticSurveyor programwas part of an effort to locate a safe site on the Moon for a human landing and test under lunar conditions theradarand landing systems required to make a true controlled touchdown. Five of Surveyor's seven missions made successful uncrewed Moon landings. Surveyor 3 was visited two years after its Moon landing by the crew of Apollo 12. They removed parts of it for examination back on Earth to determine the effects of long-term",
"of long-term exposure to the lunar environment. Transition from direct ascent landings to lunar orbit operations Within four months of each other in early 1966 the Soviet Union and the United States had accomplished successful Moon landings with uncrewed spacecraft. To the general public both countries had demonstrated roughly equal technical capabilities by returning photographic images from the surface of the Moon. These pictures provided a key affirmative answer to the crucial question of whether or not lunar soil would support upcoming crewed landers with their much greater weight. However, the Luna 9 hard landing of a ruggedized sphere using airbags at a 50-kilometre-per-hour (31 mph) ballistic impact speed had much more in common with the failed 1962 Ranger landing attempts and their planned 160-kilometre-per-hour (99 mph) impacts than with the Surveyor 1 soft landing on three footpads using its radar-controlled, adjustable-thrust retrorocket. While Luna 9 and Surveyor 1 were both major national",
"both major national accomplishments, only Surveyor 1 had reached its landing site employing key technologies that would be needed for a crewed flight. Thus as of mid-1966, the United States had begun to pull ahead of the Soviet Union in the so-called Space Race to land a man on the Moon. Advances in other areas were necessary before crewed spacecraft could follow uncrewed ones to the surface of the Moon. Of particular importance was developing the expertise to perform flight operations in lunar orbit. Ranger, Surveyor and initial Luna Moon landing attempts all flew directly to the surface without a lunar orbit. Suchdirect ascentsuse a minimum amount of fuel for uncrewed spacecraft on a one-way trip. In contrast, crewed vehicles need additional fuel after a lunar landing to enable a return trip back to Earth for the crew. Leaving this massive amount of required Earth-return fuel in lunar orbit until it is used later in the mission is far more efficient than taking such fuel down to the lunar surface in a Moon",
"surface in a Moon landing and then hauling it all back into space yet again, working against lunar gravity both ways. Such considerations lead logically to alunar orbit rendezvousmission profile for a crewed Moon landing. Accordingly, beginning in mid-1966 both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. naturally progressed into missions featuring lunar orbit as a prerequisite to a crewed Moon landing. The primary goals of these initial uncrewed orbiters were extensive photographic mapping of the entire lunar surface for the selection of crewed landing sites and, for the Soviets, the checkout of radio communications gear that would be used in future soft landings. An unexpected major discovery from initial lunar orbiters were vast volumes of dense materials beneath the surface of the Moon'smaria. Such mass concentrations (\"mascons\") can send a crewed mission dangerously off course in the final minutes of a Moon landing when aiming for a relatively small landing zone that is smooth and safe. Mascons were also found over a longer",
"found over a longer period of time to greatly disturb the orbits of low-altitude satellites around the Moon, making their orbits unstable and forcing an inevitable crash on the lunar surface in the relatively short period of months to a few years. Controlling the location of impact for spent lunar orbiters can have scientific value. For example, in 1999 the NASALunar Prospectororbiter was deliberately targeted to impact a permanently shadowed area of Shoemaker Crater near the lunar south pole. It was hoped that energy from the impact would vaporize suspected shadowed ice deposits in the crater and liberate a water vapor plume detectable from Earth. No such plume was observed. However, a small vial of ashes from the body of pioneer lunar scientistEugene Shoemakerwas delivered by the Lunar Prospector to the crater named in his honor – the only human remains on the Moon. Soviet lunar orbit satellites (1966–1974) Luna 10became the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon on 3 April 1966. U.S. lunar orbit satellites",
"orbit satellites (1966–1967) Soviet circumlunar loop flights (1967–1970) It is possible to aim a spacecraft from Earth so it will loop around the Moon and return to Earth without entering lunar orbit, following the so-calledfree return trajectory. Such circumlunar loop missions are simpler than lunar orbit missions because rockets for lunar orbit braking and Earth return are not required. However, a crewed circumlunar loop trip poses significant challenges beyond those found in a crewed low-Earth-orbit mission, offering valuable lessons in preparation for a crewed Moon landing. Foremost among these are mastering the demands of re-entering the Earth's atmosphere upon returning from the Moon. Inhabited Earth-orbiting vehicles such as the Space Shuttle return to Earth from speeds of around 7,500 m/s (27,000 km/h). Due to the effects of gravity, a vehicle returning from the Moon hits Earth's atmosphere at a much higher speed of around 11,000 m/s (40,000 km/h). Theg-loadingon astronauts during the",
"during the resultingdecelerationcan be at the limits of human endurance even during a nominal reentry. Slight variations in the vehicle flight path and reentry angle during a return from the Moon can easily result in fatal levels of deceleration force. Achieving a crewed circumlunar loop flight prior to a crewed lunar landing became a primary goal of the Soviets with theirZondspacecraft program. The first three Zonds were robotic planetary probes; after that, the Zond name was transferred to a completely separate human spaceflight program. The initial focus of these later Zonds was extensive testing of required high-speed reentry techniques. This focus was not shared by the U.S., who chose instead to bypass the stepping stone of a crewed circumlunar loop mission and never developed a separate spacecraft for this purpose. Initial crewed spaceflights in the early 1960s placed a single person in low Earth orbit during the SovietVostokand U.S.Mercuryprograms. A two-flight extension of the Vostok program known",
"program known asVoskhodeffectively used Vostok capsules with their ejection seats removed to achieve Soviet space firsts of multiple person crews in 1964 and spacewalks in early 1965. These capabilities were later demonstrated by the U.S. in tenGeminilow Earth orbit missions throughout 1965 and 1966, using a totally new second-generation spacecraft design that had little in common with the earlier Mercury. These Gemini missions went on to prove techniques for orbitalrendezvous and dockingcrucial to a crewed lunar landing mission profile. After the end of the Gemini program, the Soviet Union began flying their second-generation Zond crewed spacecraft in 1967 with the ultimate goal of looping a cosmonaut around the Moon and returning him or her immediately to Earth. TheZondspacecraft was launched with the simpler and already operationalProtonlaunch rocket, unlike the parallel Soviet human Moon landing effort also underway at the time based on third-generationSoyuz spacecraftrequiring development of the",
"development of the advancedN-1booster. The Soviets thus believed they could achieve a crewed Zond circumlunar flight years before a U.S. human lunar landing and so score a propaganda victory. However, significant development problems delayed the Zond program and the success of the U.S. Apollo lunar landing program led to the eventual termination of the Zond effort. Like Zond, Apollo flights were generally launched on a free return trajectory that would return them to Earth via a circumlunar loop if aservice modulemalfunction failed to place them in lunar orbit. This option was implemented after an explosion aboard theApollo 13mission in 1970, which is the only crewed circumlunar loop mission flown to date. Zond 5was the first spacecraft to carry life from Earth to the vicinity of the Moon and return, initiating the final lap of theSpace Racewith its payload of tortoises, insects, plants, and bacteria. Despite the failure suffered in its final moments, the Zond 6 mission was reported by Soviet media as being",
"media as being a success as well. Although hailed worldwide as remarkable achievements, both these Zond missions flew off-nominal reentry trajectories resulting in deceleration forces that would have been fatal to humans. As a result, the Soviets secretly planned to continue uncrewed Zond tests until their reliability to support human flight had been demonstrated. However, due to NASA's continuing problems with thelunar module, and because ofCIAreports of a potential Soviet crewed circumlunar flight in late 1968, NASA fatefully changed the flight plan ofApollo 8from an Earth-orbit lunar module test to a lunar orbit mission scheduled for late December 1968. In early December 1968 the launch window to the Moon opened for the Soviet launch site inBaikonur, giving the USSR their final chance to beat the US to the Moon.Cosmonautswent on alert and asked to fly the Zond spacecraft then in final countdown at Baikonur on the first human trip to the Moon. Ultimately, however, the SovietPolitburodecided the risk of",
"the risk of crew death was unacceptable given the combined poor performance to that point of Zond/Proton and so scrubbed the launch of a crewed Soviet lunar mission. Their decision proved to be a wise one, since this unnumbered Zond mission was destroyed in another uncrewed test when it was finally launched several weeks later. By this time flights of the third generation U.S.Apollo spacecrafthad begun. Far more capable than the Zond, the Apollo spacecraft had the necessary rocket power to slip into and out of lunar orbit and to make course adjustments required for a safe reentry during the return to Earth. TheApollo 8mission carried out the first human trip to the Moon on 24 December 1968, certifying theSaturn Vbooster for crewed use and flying not a circumlunar loop but instead a full ten orbits around the Moon before returning safely to Earth.Apollo 10then performed a full dress rehearsal of a crewed Moon landing in May 1969. This mission orbited within 14.4 kilometres (47,400 ft) of the lunar surface,",
"the lunar surface, performing necessary low-altitude mapping of trajectory-altering mascons using a factory prototype lunar module too heavy to land. With the failure of the robotic Soviet sample return Moon landing attemptLuna 15in July 1969, the stage was set forApollo 11. Human Moon landings (1969–1972) US strategy Plans for human Moon exploration began during theEisenhoweradministration. In a series of mid-1950s articles inCollier'smagazine,Wernher von Braunhad popularized the idea of a crewed expedition to establish a lunar base. A human Moon landing posed several daunting technical challenges to the US and USSR. Besides guidance and weight management,atmospheric re-entrywithoutablativeoverheating was a major hurdle. After the Soviets launchedSputnik, von Braun promoted a plan for the US Army to establish a military lunar outpost by 1965. After theearly Soviet successes, especiallyYuri Gagarin's flight, US PresidentJohn F. Kennedylooked for a project that would capture the public imagination. He asked",
"He asked Vice PresidentLyndon Johnsonto make recommendations on a scientific endeavor that would prove US world leadership. The proposals included non-space options such as massive irrigation projects to benefit theThird World. The Soviets, at the time, had more powerful rockets than the US, which gave them an advantage in some kinds of space mission. Advances in US nuclear weapon technology had led to smaller, lighter warheads; the Soviets' were much heavier, and the powerfulR-7rocket was developed to carry them. More modest missions such as flying around the Moon, or a space lab in lunar orbit (both were proposed by Kennedy to von Braun), offered too much advantage to the Soviets;landing, however, would capture the world's imagination. Johnson had championed the US human spaceflight program ever since Sputnik, sponsoring legislation to create NASA while he was still a senator. When Kennedy asked him in 1961 to research the best achievement to counter the Soviets' lead, Johnson responded that the US had an",
"that the US had an even chance of beating them to a crewed lunar landing, but not for anything less. Kennedy seized on Apollo as the ideal focus for efforts in space. He ensured continuing funding, shielding space spending from the 1963 tax cut, but diverting money from other NASA scientific projects. These diversions dismayed NASA's leader,James E. Webb, who perceived the need for NASA's support from the scientific community. The Moon landing required development of the large Saturn Vlaunch vehicle, which achieved a perfect record: zero catastrophic failures or launch vehicle-caused mission failures in thirteen launches. For the program to succeed, its proponents would have to defeat criticism from politicians both on the left (more money for social programs) and on the right (more money for the military). By emphasizing the scientific payoff and playing on fears of Soviet space dominance, Kennedy and Johnson managed to swing public opinion: by 1965, 58 percent of Americans favored Apollo, up from 33",
"Apollo, up from 33 percent two years earlier. After Johnsonbecame president in 1963, his continuing defense of the program allowed it to succeed in 1969, as Kennedy had planned. Soviet strategy Soviet leaderNikita Khrushchevsaid in October 1963 the USSR was \"not at present planning flight by cosmonauts to the Moon,\" while insisting that the Soviets had not dropped out of the race. Only after another year did the USSR fully commit itself to a Moon-landing attempt, which ultimately failed. At the same time, Kennedy had suggested various joint programs, including a possible Moon landing by Soviet and U.S. astronauts and the development of better weather-monitoring satellites, eventually resulting in theApollo-Soyuz mission. Khrushchev, sensing an attempt by Kennedy to steal Russian space technology, rejected the idea at first: if the USSR went to the Moon, it would go alone. Though Khrushchev was eventually warming up to the idea, the realization of a joint Moon landing was choked by Kennedy's assassination.",
"assassination. Sergey Korolev, theSoviet space program's chief designer, had started promoting hisSoyuzcraft and theN1launcher rocket that would have the capability of carrying out a human Moon landing. Khrushchev directed Korolev's design bureau to arrange further space firsts by modifying the existing Vostok technology, while a second team started building a completely new launcher and craft, the Proton booster and the Zond, for a human cislunar flight in 1966. In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all crewed projects under his direction. With Korolev's death and the failure of the first Soyuz flight in 1967, coordination of the Soviet Moon landing program quickly unraveled. The Soviets built a landing craft and selected cosmonauts for a mission that would have placedAlexei Leonovon the Moon's surface, but with the successive launch failures of the N1 booster in 1969, plans for a crewed landing suffered first delay and then cancellation. A program",
"A program of automated return vehicles was begun, in the hope of being the first to return lunar rocks. This had several failures. It eventually succeeded withLuna 16in 1970.But this had little impact, because the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 lunar landings and rock returns had already taken place by then. Apollo missions In total, twenty-four U.S. astronauts have traveled to the Moon. Three have made the trip twice, and twelve have walked on its surface. Apollo 8 was a lunar-orbit-only mission, Apollo 10 included undocking and Descent Orbit Insertion (DOI), followed by LM staging to CSM redocking, while Apollo 13, originally scheduled as a landing, ended up as a lunar fly-by, by means offree return trajectory; thus, none of these missions made landings. Apollo 7 and Apollo 9 were Earth-orbit-only missions. Apart from the inherent dangers of crewed Moon expeditions as seen with Apollo 13, one reason for their cessation according to astronautAlan Beanis the cost it imposes in government subsidies. Human Moon",
"Human Moon landings Other aspects of the successful Apollo landings President Richard Nixon had speechwriterWilliam Safireprepare a condolence speech for delivery in case Armstrong and Aldrin became marooned on the Moon's surface and could not be rescued. In 1951, science fiction writerArthur C. Clarkeforecast that a man would reach the Moon by 1978. On 16 August 2006, theAssociated Pressreported that NASA ismissing the originalSlow-scan televisiontapes (which were made before the scan conversion for conventional TV) of the Apollo 11 Moon walk. Some news outlets have mistakenly reported the SSTV tapes found in Western Australia, but those tapes were only recordings of data from the Apollo 11Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package.The tapes were found in 2008 and sold at auction in 2019 for the 50th anniversary of the landing. Scientists believe the six American flags planted by astronauts have been bleached white because of more than 40 years of exposure to solar radiation.UsingLROCimages, it has been",
"it has been determined that five of the six American flags are still standing and casting shadows at all of the sites, except Apollo 11.Astronaut Buzz Aldrin reported that the flag was blown over by the exhaust from the ascent engine during liftoff of Apollo 11. Late 20th century–21st century uncrewed crash landings Hiten (Japan) Launched on 24 January 1990, 11:46 UTC. At the end of its mission, the Japanese lunar orbiterHitenwas commanded to crash into the lunar surface and did so on 10 April 1993 at 18:03:25.7 UT (11 April 03:03:25.7 JST). Lunar Prospector (U.S.) Lunar Prospectorwas launched on 7 January 1998. The mission ended on 31 July 1999, when the orbiter was deliberately crashed into a crater near the lunar south pole after the presence of water ice was successfully detected. SMART-1 (ESA) Launched 27 September 2003, 23:14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. At the end of its mission, theESAlunar orbiterSMART-1performed a controlled crash into the Moon, at about 2 km/s (7,200",
"about 2 km/s (7,200 km/h; 4,500 mph). The time of the crash was 3 September 2006, at 5:42 UTC. Chandrayaan-1 (India) TheIndian Space Research Organisation(ISRO) performed a controlled hard landing with itsMoon Impact Probe(MIP). The MIP was ejected from theChandrayaan-1lunar orbiter and performed remote sensing experiments during its descent to the lunar surface. It impacted nearShackletoncrater at the south pole of the lunar surface at 14 November 2008, 20:31 IST. Chandrayaan-1was launched on 22 October 2008, 00:52 UTC. Chang'e 1 (China) The Chinese lunar orbiterChang'e 1, executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009, 20:44 GMT, after a 16-month mission.Chang'e 1was launched on 24 October 2007, 10:05 UTC. SELENE (Japan) SELENEorKaguyaafter successfully orbiting the Moon for a year and eight months, the main orbiter was instructed to impact on the lunar surface near the craterGillat 18:25 UTC on 10 June 2009.SELENEorKaguyawas launched on 14 September 2007. LCROSS (U.S.)",
"2007. LCROSS (U.S.) TheLCROSSdata collecting shepherding spacecraft was launched together with theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO) on 18 June 2009 on board anAtlas Vrocket with aCentaurupper stage. On 9 October 2009, at 11:31 UTC, the Centaur upper stage impacted the lunar surface, releasing the kineticenergy equivalentof detonating approximately 2 tons ofTNT(8.86GJ).Six minutes later at 11:37 UTC, the LCROSS shepherding spacecraft also impacted the surface. GRAIL (U.S.) TheGRAILmission consisted of two small spacecraft: GRAIL A (Ebb), and GRAIL B (Flow). They were launched on 10 September 2011 on board aDelta IIrocket. GRAIL A separated from the rocket about nine minutes after launch, and GRAIL B followed about eight minutes later.The first probe entered orbit on 31 December 2011 and the second followed on 1 January 2012.The two spacecraft impacted the Lunar surface on 17 December 2012. LADEE (U.S.) LADEEwas launched on 7 September 2013.The mission ended on 18 April 2014, when the spacecraft's controllers",
"controllers intentionally crashed LADEE into thefar side of the Moon,which, later, was determined to be near the eastern rim ofSundman V crater. Manfred Memorial Moon Mission (Luxembourg) TheManfred Memorial Moon Missionwas launched on 23 October 2014. It conducted a lunar flyby and operated for 19 days which was four times longer than expected. The Manfred Memorial Moon Mission remained attached to the upper stage of its launch vehicle (CZ-3C/E). The spacecraft along with its upper stage impacted the Moon on 4 March 2022. 21st century uncrewed soft landings and attempts Chang'e 3 (China) On 14 December 2013 at 13:12 UTC,Chang'e 3soft-landedaroveron the Moon. This was China's first soft landing on another celestial body and world's first lunar soft landing sinceLuna 24on 22 August 1976.The mission was launched on 1 December 2013. After successful landing, the lander release theYutu rover, which moved 114 meters before being immobilized due to system malfunction. But the rover was still operational until July",
"until July 2016. Chang'e 4 (China) On 3 January 2019 at 2:26 UTC,Chang'e 4became the first spacecraft to land on thefar side of the Moon.Chang'e 4 was originally designed as the backup of Chang'e 3. It was later adjusted as a mission to the far side of the Moon after the success of Chang'e 3.After making a successful landing withinVon Kármán crater, the Chang'e 4 lander deployed the 140-kilogram (310 lb)Yutu-2 roverand began human's first close exploration of the far side of the Moon. Because the Moon blocks the communications between far side and Earth, a relay satellite,Queqiao, was launched to the Earth–Moon L2Lagrangian pointa few months prior to the landing to enable communications. Yutu-2, the second lunar rover from China, was equipped with panoramic camera,lunar penetrating radar, visible and near-infrared Imaging spectrometer and advanced small analyzer for neutrals. As of July 2022, it has survived more than 1000 days on the lunar surface and is still driving with cumulative travel distance of over",
"distance of over 1200 meters. Beresheet(Israel/SpaceIL) On 22 February 2019, Israeli private space agencySpaceILlaunched their spacecraftBeresheeton a Falcon 9 from Cape Canaveral, Florida with the intention of achieving a soft landing. SpaceIL lost contact with the spacecraft during final descent on 11 April 2019, and it crashed as a result of a main engine failure. The mission was the first Israeli, and the first privately funded, lunar landing attempt.Despite the failure, the mission represented the closest a private entity had come to a soft lunar landing at the time. SpaceIL was originally conceived in 2011 as a venture to pursue theGoogle Lunar X Prize. TheBeresheetlunar lander's target landing destination was within Mare Serenitatis, a vast volcanic basin on the Moon's northern near side. Chandrayaan-2 (India) ISRO, the Indian National Space agency, launchedChandrayaan-2on 22 July 2019.It had three major modules: orbiter, lander and rover. Each of these modules had scientific instruments from",
"instruments from scientific research institutes in India and the US.On 7 September 2019 contact was lost with theVikramlander at an altitude of 2.1 km (1.3 mi) after a rough braking phase.Vikramwas later confirmed to have crashed and been destroyed. Chang'e 5 (China) On 6 December 2020 at 21:42 UTC,Chang'e 5landed and collected the first lunar soil samples in over 40 years, and thenreturned the samplesto Earth. The 8.2t stack consisting of lander, ascender, orbiter and returner was launched to lunar orbit by aLong March 5rocket on 24 November. The lander-ascender combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing nearMons RümkerinOceanus Procellarum. The ascender was later launched back to lunar orbit, carrying samples collected by the lander, and completed the first-ever robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit.The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which successfully landed onInner Mongoliaon 16 December 2020, completing China's first extraterrestrial sample",
"sample return mission. Luna 25 (Russia) In Russia's first attempt to reach the Moon since 1976, and since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, theLuna 25spacecraft failed during \"pre-landing\" maneuvers, and crashed into the lunar surface on 19 August 2023. Chandrayaan-3 (India) India's national space agencyISROlaunchedChandrayaan-3on 14 July 2023. Chandrayaan-3 consists of an Indigenous Lander Module (LM), Propulsion module (PM) and thePragyanrover. The lander with the rover successfully landed near the lunar south pole at 18:04 IST on 23 August 2023. Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (Japan) JAXAlaunched theSmart Lander for Investigating Moon(SLIM) mission on 6 September 2023 at 23:42 UTC (7 September 08:42 Japan Standard Time). It landed on 19 January 2024 at 15:20 UTC, making Japan the fifth country to soft-land on the Moon.Solar panel orientation issues and possible landing damage complicated the spacecraft's operation.The mission also deployed two rovers which operated successfully and independently",
"and independently communicated with Earth. Intuitive Machines-1Odysseuslander (U.S.) On 22 February 2024, Intuitive Machine'sOdysseussuccessfully landed on the Moon after taking off on a SpaceXFalcon 9liftoff on 15 February 2024 in a mission betweenNASA,SpaceX, andIntuitive Machines, marking the United States' first soft unmanned Moon landing in over 50 years. This mission also marks the firstprivately owned spacecraftto land on the Moon and the first landing withcryogenicpropellants.Though it landed successfully, one of the lander's legs broke upon landing and it tilted up on the other side, 18°, due to landing on a slope, but the lander survived and payloads are functioning as expected.EagleCam was not ejected prior to landing. It was later ejected on 28 February but was partially a failure as it returned all types of data except post-IM-1 landing images that were the main aim of its mission. Chang'e 6 (China) China sentChang'e 6on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return fromApollo",
"return fromApollo Basinon thefar side of the Moon.This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved byChang'e 5from the lunar near side four years earlier.It also carried a Chinese rover calledJinchanto conductinfrared spectroscopyof lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing on 1 June 2024 at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024.The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024 at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, and later completed another robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed onInner Mongoliaon 25 June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission. Landings on moons of other Solar System bodies 21st century progress inspace explorationhas broadened the phrasemoon landingto include other moons in theSolar System.",
"in theSolar System. TheHuygensprobeof theCassini–Huygensmission toSaturnperformed a successful moon landing onTitanin 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probePhobos 2came within 190 km (120 mi) of performing a landing onMars' moonPhobosin 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission calledFobos-Grunt(\"grunt\" means \"soil\" in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low Earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future landing onJupiter's moonEuropato drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface. Proposed future missions TheLunar Polar Exploration Missionis a robotic space mission concept by ISRO and Japan's space agencyJAXAthat would send alunar roverandlanderto exploresouth poleregion of theMoonin 2025.JAXA is likely to provide launch service using the futureH3rocket, along with responsibility for the rover. ISRO would be responsible for the lander. ISRO, following the success ofChandrayaan 3also has",
"3also has plans to launchChandrayaan 4, alunarsample return mission, which would possibly be the first to return soil from thewater richsouth polar basin, in a landing close toStatio Shiv Shakti. The mission is planned by late 2028. Both nations are also active participants in theArtemis program. On 11 December 2017, US PresidentDonald Trumpsigned Space PolicyDirective 1, which directed NASA to return to the Moon with a crewed mission, for long-term exploration and use and missions to other planets.On 26 March 2019,Vice President Mike Penceformally announced that the mission will include the first female lunar astronaut.TheArtemis programhad intended to land a crewed mission on the Moon in 2024, and to begin sustained operations by 2028, supported by a plannedLunar Gateway.The NASA lunar landing mission has since been postponed to launch no earlier than September 2026. TheChinese Lunar Exploration Programplans 3 additional Chang'e uncrewed missions between 2025 and 2028, in active preparation for",
"preparation for theInternational Lunar Research Stationit plans to construct with Russia, Venezuela, Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates in the 2030s. In addition, theChina Manned Space Agencyintends to conduct crewed lunar landings by 2029 or 2030; in preparation for this effort, the various Chinese space agencies and contractors are currently developing a human-rated super-heavy launch vehicle (theLong March 10), a newcrewed lunar spacecraft, and acrewed lunar lander. Russia'sRoscosmoshas announced plans to launch a lunar polar orbiter asLuna 26, in 2027. See also References Further reading External links",
"Neil Armstrong Neil Alden Armstrong(August 5, 1930 – August 25, 2012) was an Americanastronautandaeronautical engineerwho, in 1969, became thefirst person to walk on the Moon. He was also anaval aviator,test pilot, and university professor. Armstrong was born and raised inWapakoneta, Ohio. He enteredPurdue University, studyingaeronautical engineering, with theU.S. Navypaying his tuition under theHolloway Plan. He became amidshipmanin 1949 and anaval aviatorthe following year. He saw action in theKorean War, flying theGrumman F9F Pantherfrom theaircraft carrierUSSEssex. After the war, he completed his bachelor's degree at Purdue and became a test pilot at theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA)High-Speed Flight StationatEdwards Air Force Basein California. He was the project pilot onCentury Seriesfighters and flew theNorth American X-15seven times. He was also a participant in theU.S. Air Force'sMan in Space SoonestandX-20 Dyna-Soarhuman spaceflightprograms. Armstrong joined theNASA Astronaut",
"theNASA Astronaut Corpsin thesecond group, which was selected in 1962. He made his firstspaceflightas command pilot ofGemini 8in March 1966, becomingNASA's first civilian astronaut to fly in space. During this mission with pilotDavid Scott, he performed the firstdockingof twospacecraft; the mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his re-entry control fuel to stabilize a dangerous roll caused by a stuck thruster. During training for Armstrong's second and last spaceflight as commander ofApollo 11, he had to eject from theLunar Landing Research Vehiclemoments before a crash. On July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Apollo 11Lunar Module(LM) pilotBuzz Aldrinbecame the first people toland on the Moon, and the next day they spent two and a half hours outside theLunar ModuleEaglespacecraft whileMichael Collinsremained in lunar orbit in theApollo Command ModuleColumbia. When Armstrong first stepped onto the lunar surface, he famously said: \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\"It was",
"for mankind.\"It was broadcast live to an estimated 530 million viewers worldwide. Apollo 11 was a major U.S. victory in theSpace Race, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy\"of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth\" before the end of the decade. Along with Collins and Aldrin, Armstrong was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby PresidentRichard Nixonand received the 1969Collier Trophy. PresidentJimmy Carterpresented him with theCongressional Space Medal of Honorin 1978, he was inducted into theNational Aviation Hall of Famein 1979, and with his former crewmates received theCongressional Gold Medalin 2009. After he resigned from NASA in 1971, Armstrong taught in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of Cincinnatiuntil 1979. He served on theApollo 13accident investigation and on theRogers Commission, which investigated theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster. In 2012, Armstrong died due tocomplicationsresulting fromcoronary bypass",
"fromcoronary bypass surgery, at the age of 82. Early life and education Armstrong was born nearWapakoneta, Ohio,on August 5, 1930, the son of Viola Louise (née Engel) and Stephen Koenig Armstrong. He was of German, English, Scots-Irish, and Scottish descent.He is a descendant ofClan Armstrong.He had a younger sister, June, and a younger brother, Dean. His father was anauditorfor theOhio state government,and the family moved around the state repeatedly, living in 16 towns over the next 14 years.Armstrong's love for flying grew during this time, having started at the age of two when his father took him to theCleveland Air Races. When he was five or six, he experienced his first airplane flight inWarren, Ohio, when he and his father took a ride in aFord Trimotor(also known as the \"Tin Goose\"). The family's last move was in 1944 and took them back to Wapakoneta, where Armstrong attendedBlume High Schooland took flying lessons at the Wapakoneta airfield.He earned a student flight certificate on his 16th birthday,",
"his 16th birthday, thensoloedin August, all before he had a driver's license.He was an activeBoy Scoutand earned the rank ofEagle Scout.As an adult, he was recognized by the Scouts with theirDistinguished Eagle Scout AwardandSilver Buffalo Award.While flying toward the Moon on July 18, 1969, he sent his regards to attendees at theNational Scout jamboreein Idaho.Among the few personal items that he carried with him to the Moon and back was a World Scout Badge. At age 17, in 1947, Armstrong began studyingaeronautical engineeringatPurdue UniversityinWest Lafayette, Indiana; he was the second person in his family to attend college. Armstrong was also accepted to theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT),but he resolved to go to Purdue after watching afootballgame between thePurdue Boilermakersand theOhio State Buckeyesat theOhio Stadiumin 1945 in which quarterbackBob DeMossled the Boilermakers to a sound victory over the highly regarded Buckeyes.An uncle who attended MIT had also advised him that he could",
"him that he could receive a good education without going all the way toCambridge, Massachusetts. His college tuition was paid for under theHolloway Plan. Successful applicants committed to two years of study, followed by two years of flight training and one year of service as an aviator in theU.S. Navy, then completion of the final two years of theirbachelor's degree.Armstrong did not take courses in naval science, nor did he join theNaval Reserve Officers Training Corps. Navy service Armstrong's call-up from the Navy arrived on January 26, 1949, requiring him to report toNaval Air Station Pensacolain Florida for flight training with class 5-49. After passing the medical examinations, he became amidshipmanon February 24, 1949.Flight training was conducted in aNorth American SNJ trainer, in which he soloed on September 9, 1949.On March 2, 1950, he made his firstaircraft carrierlanding onUSSCabot, an achievement he considered comparable to his first solo flight.He was then sent toNaval Air Station Corpus",
"Air Station Corpus Christiin Texas for training on theGrumman F8F Bearcat, culminating in a carrier landing onUSSWright. On August 16, 1950, Armstrong was informed by letter that he was a fully qualifiednaval aviator. His mother and sister attended his graduation ceremony on August 23, 1950. Armstrong was assigned to Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron7 (FASRON 7) atNAS San Diego(now known as NAS North Island). On November 27, 1950, he was assigned toVF-51, an all-jet squadron, becoming its youngest officer, and made his first flight in a jet, aGrumman F9F Panther, on January 5, 1951. He was promoted toensignon June 5, 1951, and made his first jet carrier landing onUSSEssextwo days later. On June 28, 1951,Essexhad set sail for Korea, with VF-51 aboard to act asground-attack aircraft. VF-51 flew ahead toNaval Air Station Barbers Pointin Hawaii, where it conducted fighter-bomber training before rejoining the ship at the end of July. On August 29, 1951, Armstrong saw action in theKorean Waras an escort for a",
"an escort for a photoreconnaissanceplane overSongjin.Five days later, on September 3, he flew armed reconnaissance over the primary transportation and storage facilities south of the village of Majon-ni, west ofWonsan. According to Armstrong, he was making a low bombing run at 350 mph (560 km/h) when 6 feet (1.8 m) of his wing was torn off after it collided with a cable that was strung across the hills as a booby trap. He was flying 500 feet (150 m) above the ground when he hit it. While there was heavy anti-aircraft fire in the area, none hit Armstrong's aircraft.An initial report to the commanding officer ofEssexsaid that Armstrong's F9F Panther was hit byanti-aircraft fire. The report indicated he was trying to regain control and collided with a pole, which sliced off 2 feet (0.61 m) of the Panther's right wing. Further perversions of the story by different authors added that he was only 20 feet (6.1 m) from the ground and that 3 feet (0.91 m) of his wing was sheared off. Armstrong flew the plane back to",
"the plane back to friendly territory, but due to the loss of theaileron,ejectionwas his only safe option. He intended to eject over water and await rescue by Navy helicopters, but his parachute was blown back over land. A jeep driven by a roommate from flight school picked him up; it is unknown what happened to the wreckage of his aircraft, F9F-2 BuNo125122. In all, Armstrong flew 78missions over Korea for a total of 121hours in the air, a third of them in January 1952, with the final mission on March 5, 1952. Of 492 U.S. Navy personnel killed in the Korean War, 27 of them were fromEssexon this war cruise. Armstrong received theAir Medalfor 20 combat missions, twogold starsfor the next 40, theKorean Service Medaland Engagement Star, theNational Defense Service Medal, and theUnited Nations Korea Medal. Armstrong's regular commission was terminated on February 25, 1952, and he became an ensign in theUnited States Navy Reserve. On completion of his combat tour withEssex, he was assigned to a transport squadron,",
"transport squadron, VR-32, in May 1952. He was released from active duty on August 23, 1952, but remained in the reserve, and was promoted tolieutenant (junior grade)on May 9, 1953.As a reservist, he continued to fly, with VF-724 atNaval Air Station Glenviewin Illinois, and then, after moving to California, with VF-773 atNaval Air Station Los Alamitos.He remained in the reserve for eight years, before resigning his commission on October 21, 1960. College years After his service with the Navy, Armstrong returned to Purdue. His previously earned good but not outstandinggradesnow improved, lifting his final Grade Point Average (GPA) to a respectable but not outstanding 4.8 out of 6.0. He pledged thePhi Delta Thetafraternity, and lived in its fraternity house. He wrote and co-directed two musicals as part of the all-student revue. The first was a version ofSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs, co-directed with his girlfriend Joanne Alford from theAlpha Chi Omegasorority, with songs from the1937 Walt Disney film,",
"Walt Disney film, including \"Someday My Prince Will Come\"; the second was titledThe Land of Egelloc(\"college\" spelled backward), with music fromGilbert and Sullivanbut new lyrics. Armstrong was chairman of the Purdue Aero Flying Club, and flew the club's aircraft, anAeroncaand a couple ofPipers, which were kept at nearby Aretz Airport inLafayette, Indiana. Flying the Aeronca to Wapakoneta in 1954, he damaged it in a rough landing in a farmer's field, and it had to be hauled back to Lafayette on a trailer.He was abaritoneplayer in thePurdue All-American Marching Band.Ten years later he was made an honorary member ofKappa Kappa Psinational band honorary fraternity.Armstrong graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree inAeronautical Engineeringin January 1955.In 1970, he completed his Master of Science degree inAerospace Engineeringat theUniversity of Southern California(USC).He would eventually be awarded honorary doctorates by several universities. Armstrong met Janet Elizabeth Shearon, who was majoring",
"who was majoring inhome economics, at a party hosted by Alpha Chi Omega.According to the couple, there was no real courtship, and neither could remember the exact circumstances of their engagement. They were married on January 28, 1956, at the Congregational Church inWilmette, Illinois. When he moved toEdwards Air Force Base, he lived in the bachelor quarters of the base, while Janet lived in theWestwooddistrict of Los Angeles. After one semester, they moved into a house inAntelope Valley, near Edwards AFB. Janet did not finish her degree, a fact she regretted later in life. The couple had three children.In June 1961, their daughter Karen was diagnosed withdiffuse intrinsic pontine glioma, amalignanttumorof the middle part of herbrain stem.X-ray treatment slowed its growth, but her health deteriorated to the point where she could no longer walk or talk. She died ofpneumonia, related to her weakened health, on January 28, 1962, aged two. Test pilot Following his graduation from Purdue, Armstrong became an",
"Armstrong became an experimental research test pilot. He applied at theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA)High-Speed Flight Stationat Edwards Air Force Base.NACA had no open positions, and forwarded his application to theLewis Flight Propulsion LaboratoryinCleveland, where Armstrong made his first test flight on March 1, 1955.Armstrong's stint at Cleveland lasted only a couple of months before a position at the High-Speed Flight Station became available, and he reported for work there on July 11, 1955. On his first day, Armstrong was tasked with pilotingchase planesduring releases of experimental aircraft from modified bombers. He also flew the modified bombers, and on one of these missions had his first flight incident at Edwards. On March 22, 1956, he was in aBoeing B-29 Superfortress,which was to air-drop aDouglas D-558-2 Skyrocket. He sat in the right-hand co-pilot seat while pilot in command, Stan Butchart sat in the left-hand pilot seat flying the B-29. As they climbed to 30,000 feet (9",
"to 30,000 feet (9 km), thenumber-four enginestopped and thepropellerbegan windmilling (rotating freely) in the airstream. Hitting the switch that would stop the propeller's spinning, Butchart watched it slow, then resume spinning even faster than the others; if it spun too fast, it would break apart. Their aircraft needed to hold an airspeed of 210 mph (338 km/h) to launch its Skyrocket payload, and the B-29 could not land with the Skyrocket attached to its belly. Armstrong and Butchart brought the aircraft into a nose-downattitudeto increase speed, then launched the Skyrocket. At the instant of launch, the number-four engine propeller disintegrated. Pieces of it damaged the number-three engine and hit the number-two engine. Butchart and Armstrong were forced to shut down the damaged number-three engine, along with the number-one engine, due to thetorqueit created. They made a slow, circling descent from 30,000 ft (9 km) using only the number-two engine, and landed safely. Armstrong served as project pilot",
"as project pilot onCentury Seriesfighters, including theNorth American F-100 Super SabreA and C variants, theMcDonnell F-101 Voodoo, theLockheed F-104 Starfighter, theRepublic F-105 Thunderchiefand theConvair F-106 Delta Dart. He also flew theDouglas DC-3,Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star,North American F-86 Sabre,McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II,Douglas F5D-1 Skylancer, Boeing B-29 Superfortress,Boeing B-47 StratojetandBoeing KC-135 Stratotanker, and was one of eight elite pilots involved in theParasevparaglider research vehicle program.Over his career, he flew more than 200 different models of aircraft.His first flight in arocket-powered aircraftwas on August 15, 1957, in theBell X-1B, to an altitude of 11.4 miles (18.3 km). On landing, the poorly designednose landing gearfailed, as had happened on about a dozen previous flights of the Bell X-1B. He flew theNorth American X-15seven times,including the first flight with the Q-ball system, the first flight of the number3 X-15 airframe, and the first flight of the",
"first flight of the MH-96 adaptive flight control system.He became an employee of theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) when it was established on October 1, 1958, absorbing NACA. Armstrong was involved in several incidents that went down in Edwards folklore or were chronicled in the memoirs of colleagues. During his sixth X-15 flight on April 20, 1962, Armstrong was testing the MH-96 control system when he flew to a height of over 207,000 feet (63 km) (the highest he flew beforeGemini 8). He held up the aircraft nose during its descent to demonstrate the MH-96's g-limiting performance, and the X-15 ballooned back up to around 140,000 feet (43 km). He flew past the landing field atMach3 at over 100,000 feet (30 km) in altitude, and ended up 40 miles (64 km) south of Edwards. After sufficient descent, he turned back toward the landing area, and landed. It was the longest X-15 flight in both flight time and length of the ground track. Fellow astronautMichael Collinswrote that of the X-15",
"that of the X-15 pilots Armstrong \"had been considered one of the weaker stick-and-rudder men, but the very best when it came to understanding the machine's design and how it operated\".Many of the test pilots at Edwards praised Armstrong's engineering ability.Milt Thompsonsaid he was \"the most technically capable of the early X-15 pilots\".Bill Danasaid Armstrong \"had a mind that absorbed things like a sponge\". Those who flew for the Air Force tended to have a different opinion, especially people likeChuck YeagerandPete Knight, who did not have engineering degrees. Knight said that pilot-engineers flew in a way that was \"more mechanical than it is flying\", and gave this as the reason why some pilot-engineers got into trouble: Their flying skills did not come naturally.Armstrong made sevenflights in the X-15between November 30, 1960, and July 26, 1962.He reached a top speed of Mach 5.74 (3,989 mph, 6,420 km/h) in the X-15-1, and left the Flight Research Center with a total of 2,400 flying hours. On April 24,",
"hours. On April 24, 1962, Armstrong flew for the only time with Yeager. Their job, flying a T-33, was to evaluate Smith Ranch Dry Lake in Nevada for use as an emergency landing site for the X-15. In his autobiography, Yeager wrote that he knew the lake bed was unsuitable for landings after recent rains, but Armstrong insisted on flying out anyway. As they attempted atouch-and-go, the wheels became stuck and they had to wait for rescue. As Armstrong told the story, Yeager never tried to talk him out of it and they made a first successful landing on the east side of the lake. Then Yeager told him to try again, this time a bit slower. On the second landing, they became stuck, provoking Yeager to fits of laughter. On May 21, 1962, Armstrong was involved in the \"Nellis Affair\". He was sent in an F-104 to inspectDelamar Dry Lakein southern Nevada, again for emergency landings. He misjudged his altitude and did not realize that the landing gear had not fully extended. As he touched down, the landing gear began to",
"gear began to retract; Armstrong applied full power to abort the landing, but the ventral fin and landing gear door struck the ground, damaging the radio and releasinghydraulic fluid. Without radio communication, Armstrong flew south toNellis Air Force Base, past the control tower, and waggled his wings, the signal for a no-radio approach. The loss of hydraulic fluid caused thetailhookto release, and upon landing, he caught the arresting wire attached to an anchor chain, and dragged the chain along the runway. It took thirty minutes to clear the runway and rig another arresting cable. Armstrong telephoned Edwards and asked for someone to collect him. Milt Thompson was sent in an F-104B, the only two-seater available, but a plane Thompson had never flown. With great difficulty, Thompson made it to Nellis, where a strong crosswind caused a hard landing and the left main tire suffered a blowout. The runway was again closed to clear it, and Bill Dana was sent to Nellis in a T-33, but he almost landed long. The",
"landed long. The Nellis base operations office then decided that to avoid any further problems, it would be best to find the three NASA pilots ground transport back to Edwards. Astronaut career In June 1958, Armstrong was selected for the U.S. Air Force'sMan in Space Soonestprogram, but theAdvanced Research Projects Agency(ARPA) canceled its funding on August 1, 1958, and on November 5, 1958, it was superseded byProject Mercury, a civilian project run by NASA. As a NASA civilian test pilot, Armstrong was ineligible to become one of its astronauts at this time, as selection was restricted to military test pilots.In November 1960, he was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for theX-20 Dyna-Soar, a military space plane under development by Boeing for the U.S. Air Force, and on March 15, 1962, he was selected by the U.S. Air Force as one of seven pilot-engineers who would fly the X-20 when it got off the design board. In April 1962, NASA sought applications for the second group of NASA astronauts",
"of NASA astronauts forProject Gemini, a proposed two-man spacecraft. This time, selection was open to qualified civilian test pilots.Armstrong visited theSeattle World's Fairin May 1962 and attended a conference there on space exploration that was co-sponsored by NASA. After he returned fromSeattleon June 4, he applied to become an astronaut. His application arrived about a week past the June 1, 1962, deadline, but Dick Day, a flight simulator expert with whom Armstrong had worked closely at Edwards, saw the late arrival of the application and slipped it into the pile before anyone noticed.AtBrooks Air Force Baseat the end of June, Armstrong underwent a medical exam that many of the applicants described as painful and at times seemingly pointless. NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations,Deke Slayton, called Armstrong on September 13, 1962, and asked whether he would be interested in joining theNASA Astronaut Corpsas part of what the press dubbed \"theNew Nine\"; without hesitation, Armstrong said yes. The",
"said yes. The selections were kept secret until three days later, although newspaper reports had circulated since earlier that year that he would be selected as the \"first civilian astronaut\".Armstrong was one of two civilian pilots selected for this group;the other wasElliot See, another former naval aviator.NASA selected the second group that, compared with theMercury Sevenastronauts, were younger,and had more impressive academic credentials.Collins wrote that Armstrong was by far the most experienced test pilot in the Astronaut Corps. Gemini program Gemini 5 On February 8, 1965, Armstrong and Elliot See were picked as the backup crew forGemini 5, with Armstrong as commander, supporting the prime crew ofGordon CooperandPete Conrad.The mission's purpose was to practicespace rendezvousand to develop procedures and equipment for a seven-day flight, all of which would be required for a mission to the Moon. With two other flights (Gemini 3andGemini 4) in preparation, six crews were competing for simulator time,",
"for simulator time, so Gemini5 was postponed. It finally lifted off on August 21.Armstrong and See watched the launch atCape Kennedy, then flew to theManned Spacecraft Center(MSC) in Houston.The mission was generally successful, despite a problem with thefuel cellsthat prevented a rendezvous. Cooper and Conrad practiced a \"phantom rendezvous\", carrying out the maneuver without a target. Gemini 8 The crews for Gemini8 were assigned on September 20, 1965. Under the normal rotation system, the backup crew for one mission became the prime crew for the third mission after, but Slayton designatedDavid Scottas the pilot of Gemini8.Scott was the first member of thethird group of astronauts, who was selected on October 18, 1963, to receive a prime crew assignment.See was designated to commandGemini 9. Henceforth, each Gemini mission was commanded by a member of Armstrong's group, with a member of Scott's group as the pilot. Conrad would be Armstrong's backup this time, andRichard F. Gordon Jr.his pilot.Armstrong",
"pilot.Armstrong became the first American civilian in space. (Valentina Tereshkovaof theSoviet Unionhad become the first civilian—and first woman—nearly three years earlier aboardVostok 6when it launched on June 16, 1963.) Armstrong would also be the last of his group to fly in space, as See died in aT-38 crashon February 28, 1966, that also took the life of crewmateCharles Bassett. They were replaced by the backup crew ofTom StaffordandGene Cernan, whileJim Lovelland Buzz Aldrin moved up from the backup crew ofGemini 10to become the backup for Gemini 9,and would eventually flyGemini 12. Gemini 8 launched on March 16, 1966. It was the most complex mission yet, with a rendezvous and docking with anuncrewedAgena target vehicle, and the planned second Americanspacewalk(EVA) by Scott. The mission was planned to last 75hours and 55orbits. After the Agena lifted off at 10:00:00EST,theTitan IIrocket carrying Armstrong and Scott ignited at 11:41:02 EST, putting them into an orbit from which they chased the",
"they chased the Agena.They achieved the first-ever docking between two spacecraft.Contact with the crew was intermittent due to the lack of tracking stations covering their entire orbits. While out of contact with the ground, the docked spacecraft began to roll, and Armstrong attempted to correct this with the Gemini'sOrbit Attitude and Maneuvering System(OAMS). Following the earlier advice of Mission Control, they undocked, but the roll increased dramatically until they were turning about once per second, indicating a problem with Gemini'sattitude control. Armstrong engaged the Reentry Control System (RCS) and turned off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on, the spacecraft had to reenter at the next possible opportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring caused one of the thrusters to stick in the on position. A few people in the Astronaut Office, includingWalter Cunningham, felt that Armstrong and Scott \"had botched their first mission\".There was speculation that",
"speculation that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings, saving the other for mission objectives. These criticisms were unfounded; no malfunction procedures had been written, and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings, not one or the other.Gene Kranzwrote, \"The crew reacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong.\" The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft were docked, they must be considered one spacecraft. Kranz considered this the mission's most important lesson.Armstrong was depressed that the mission was cut short,canceling most mission objectives and robbing Scott of his EVA. The Agena was later reused as a docking target by Gemini 10.Armstrong and Scott received theNASA Exceptional Service Medal,and the Air Force awarded Scott theDistinguished Flying Crossas well.Scott was promoted tolieutenant colonel, and Armstrong received a $678 raise in pay to $21,653 a year",
"to $21,653 a year (equivalent to $203,338 in 2023), making him NASA's highest-paid astronaut. Gemini 11 In Armstrong's final assignment in the Gemini program, he was the back-up Command Pilot forGemini 11. Having trained for two flights, Armstrong was quite knowledgeable about the systems and took on a teaching role for the rookie backup pilot,William Anders.The launch was on September 12, 1966,with Conrad and Gordon on board, who successfully completed the mission objectives, while Armstrong served as acapsule communicator(CAPCOM). Following the flight, PresidentLyndon B. Johnsonasked Armstrong and his wife to take part in a 24-day goodwill tour of South America.Also on the tour, which took in 11countries and 14major cities, were Dick Gordon,George Low, their wives, and other government officials. In Paraguay, Armstrong greeted dignitaries in their local language,Guarani; in Brazil he talked about the exploits of the Brazilian-born aviation pioneerAlberto Santos-Dumont. Apollo program On January 27,",
"On January 27, 1967—the day of theApollo 1 fire—Armstrong was in Washington, D.C., with Cooper, Gordon, Lovell andScott Carpenterfor the signing of the United NationsOuter Space Treaty. The astronauts chatted with the assembled dignitaries until 18:45, when Carpenter went to the airport, and the others returned to the Georgetown Inn, where they each found messages to phone the MSC. During these calls, they learned of the deaths ofGus Grissom,Ed WhiteandRoger Chaffeein the fire. Armstrong and the group spent the rest of the night drinking scotch and discussing what had happened. On April 5, 1967, the same day the Apollo1 investigation released its final report, Armstrong and 17 other astronauts gathered for a meeting with Slayton. The first thing Slayton said was, \"The guys who are going to fly the first lunar missions are the guys in this room.\"According to Cernan, only Armstrong showed no reaction to the statement. To Armstrong it came as no surprise—the room was full of veterans of Project Gemini, the only",
"Gemini, the only people who could fly the lunar missions. Slayton talked about the planned missions and named Armstrong to the backup crew forApollo 9, which at that stage was planned as amedium Earth orbittest of the combinedlunar moduleandcommand and service module. The crew was officially assigned on November 20, 1967.For crewmates, Armstrong was assigned Lovell and Aldrin, from Gemini 12. After design and manufacturing delays of the lunar module (LM),Apollo 8and9 swapped prime and backup crews. Based on the normal crew rotation, Armstrong would command Apollo 11,with one change: Collins on the Apollo8 crew began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery.Lovell took his place on the Apollo8 crew, and, when Collins recovered, he joined Armstrong's crew. To give the astronauts practice piloting the LM on its descent, NASA commissionedBell Aircraftto build twoLunar Landing Research Vehicles(LLRV), later",
"later augmented with three Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV). Nicknamed the \"Flying Bedsteads\", they simulated the Moon's one-sixth gravity using aturbofanengine to support five-sixths of the craft's weight. On May 6, 1968, 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, Armstrong's controls started to degrade and the LLRV beganrolling.He ejected safely before the vehicle struck the ground and burst into flames. Later analysis suggested that if he had ejected half a second later, his parachute would not have opened in time. His only injury was from biting his tongue. The LLRV was completely destroyed.Even though he was nearly killed, Armstrong maintained that without the LLRV and LLTV, the lunar landings would not have been successful, as they gave commanders essential experience in piloting the lunar landing craft. In addition to the LLRV training, NASA began lunar landing simulator training after Apollo 10 was completed. Aldrin and Armstrong trained for a variety of scenarios that could develop during a real lunar",
"during a real lunar landing.They also received briefings from geologists at NASA. Apollo 11 After Armstrong served as backup commander for Apollo8, Slayton offered him the post of commander of Apollo 11 on December 23, 1968, as Apollo8 orbited the Moon.According to Armstrong's 2005 biography, Slayton told him that although the planned crew was Commander Armstrong, Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin, and Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, he was offering Armstrong the chance to replace Aldrin with Jim Lovell. After thinking it over for a day, Armstrong told Slayton he would stick with Aldrin, as he had no difficulty working with him and thought Lovell deserved his own command. Replacing Aldrin with Lovell would have made Lovell the lunar module pilot, unofficially the lowest ranked member, and Armstrong could not justify placing Lovell, the commander of Gemini 12, in the number3 position of the crew.The crew of Apollo 11 was assigned on January 9, 1969, as Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin, with Lovell, Anders,",
"Lovell, Anders, andFred Haiseas the backup crew. According toChris Kraft, a March 1969 meeting among Slayton, George Low,Bob Gilruth, and Kraft determined that Armstrong would be the first person on the Moon, in part because NASA management saw him as a person who did not have a large ego. A press conference on April 14, 1969, gave the design of the LM cabin as the reason for Armstrong's being first; the hatch opened inwards and to the right, making it difficult for the LM pilot, on the right-hand side, to exit first. At the time of their meeting, the four men did not know about the hatch consideration. The first knowledge of the meeting outside the small group came when Kraft wrote his book.Methods of circumventing this difficulty existed, but it is not known if these were considered at the time. Slayton added, \"Secondly, just on a pure protocol basis, I figured the commander ought to be the first guy out... I changed it as soon as I found they had the time line that showed that. Bob Gilruth approved my",
"Gilruth approved my decision.\" Voyage to the Moon ASaturn Vrocket launched Apollo 11 fromLaunch Complex 39Aat theKennedy Space Centeron July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00UTC(09:32:00 EDT local time).Armstrong's wife Janet and two sons watched from a yacht moored on theBanana River.During the launch, Armstrong's heart rate peaked at 110beats per minute.He found the first stage the loudest, much noisier than the Gemini8 Titan II launch. The Apollo command module was relatively roomy compared with the Gemini spacecraft. None of the Apollo 11 crew sufferedspace sickness, as some members of previous crews had. Armstrong was especially glad about this, as he had been prone tomotion sicknessas a child and could experiencenauseaafter long periods ofaerobatics. Apollo 11's objective was to land safely on the Moon, rather than to touch down at a precise location. Three minutes into the lunar descent, Armstrong noted that craters were passing about two seconds too early, which meant theLunar ModuleEaglewould probably touch",
"probably touch down several miles (kilometres) beyond the planned landing zone.As theEagle's landingradaracquired the surface, several computer error alarms sounded. The first was a code1202alarm, and even with their extensive training, neither Armstrong nor Aldrin knew what this code meant. They promptly received word from CAPCOMCharles Dukein Houston that the alarms were not a concern; the 1202 and 1201 alarms were caused by executive overflows in thelunar module guidance computer. In 2007, Aldrin said the overflows were caused by his own counter-checklist choice of leaving the docking radar on during the landing process, causing the computer to process unnecessary radar data. When it did not have enough time to execute all tasks, the computer dropped the lower-priority ones, triggering the alarms. Aldrin said he decided to leave the radar on in case an abort was necessary when re-docking with the Apollo command module; he did not realize it would cause the processing overflows. When Armstrong noticed they",
"noticed they were heading toward a landing area that seemed unsafe, he took manual control of the LM and attempted to find a safer area. This took longer than expected, and longer than most simulations had taken.For this reason, Mission Control was concerned that the LM was running low on fuel.On landing, Aldrin and Armstrong believed they had 40seconds of fuel left, including the 20seconds' worth which had to be saved in the event of an abort.During training, Armstrong had, on several occasions, landed with fewer than 15seconds of fuel; he was also confident the LM could survive a fall of up to 50 feet (15 m). Post-mission analysis showed that at touchdown there were 45 to 50seconds of propellant burn time left. The landing on the surface of the Moon occurred several seconds after 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969.One of three 67-inch (170 cm) probes attached to three of the LM's four legs made contact with the surface, a panel light in the LM illuminated, and Aldrin called out, \"Contact light.\" Armstrong shut",
"Armstrong shut the engine off and said, \"Shutdown.\" As the LM settled onto the surface, Aldrin said, \"Okay, engine stop\"; then they both called out some post-landing checklist items. After a 10-second pause, Duke acknowledged the landing with, \"We copy you down,Eagle.\" Armstrong confirmed the landing to Mission Control and the world with the words, \"Houston,Tranquility Basehere. TheEaglehas landed.\" Aldrin and Armstrong celebrated with a brisk handshake and pat on the back. They then returned to the checklist of contingency tasks, should an emergency liftoff become necessary.After Armstrong confirmed touch down, Duke re-acknowledged, adding a comment about the flight crew's relief: \"Roger, Tranquility. We copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.\"During the landing, Armstrong's heart rate ranged from 100 to 150beats per minute. First Moon walk The flight plan called for a crew rest period before leaving the module, but Armstrong asked for this to",
"asked for this to be moved to earlier in the evening,Houston time. When he and Aldrin were ready to go outside,Eaglewas depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder.At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on aLunar Modulelanding pad, Armstrong said, \"I'm going to step off the LM now\". He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface at 02:56UTCJuly 21, 1969,then said, \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.\"The exact time of Armstrong's first step on the Moon is unclear. Armstrong prepared his famousepigramon his own.In a post-flight press conference, he said that he chose the words \"just prior to leaving the LM.\"In a 1983 interview inEsquiremagazine, he explained toGeorge Plimpton: \"I always knew there was a good chance of being able to return to Earth, but I thought the chances of a successful touch down on the moon surface were about even money—fifty–fifty... Most people don't realize how difficult the mission was. So it didn't seem to me",
"didn't seem to me there was much point in thinking of something to say if we'd have to abort landing.\"In 2012, his brother Dean Armstrong said that Neil showed him a draft of the line months before the launch.HistorianAndrew Chaikin, who interviewed Armstrong in 1988 for his bookA Man on the Moon, disputed that Armstrong claimed to have conceived the line during the mission. Recordings of Armstrong's transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article \"a\" before \"man\", though NASA and Armstrong insisted for years that static obscured it. Armstrong stated he would never make such a mistake, but after repeated listenings to recordings, he eventually conceded he must have dropped the \"a\".He later said he \"would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended, even if it was not said—although it might actually have been\".There have since been claims and counter-claims about whether acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence",
"the presence of the missing \"a\";Peter Shann Ford, an Australian computer programmer, conducted a digital audio analysis and claims that Armstrong did say \"a man\", but the \"a\" was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time.Ford andJames R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis.Armstrong found Ford's analysis \"persuasive.\"LinguistsDavid BeaverandMark Libermanwrote of their skepticism of Ford's claims on the blogLanguage Log.A 2016 peer-reviewed study again concluded Armstrong had included the article.NASA's transcript continues to show the \"a\" in parentheses. When Armstrong made his proclamation,Voice of Americawas rebroadcast live by theBBCand many other stations worldwide. An estimated 530million people viewed the event,20 percent out of a world population of approximately 3.6billion. Q: Did you misspeak? A: There isn't any way of knowing. Q: Several sources say you did. A: I",
"say you did. A: I mean, there isn't any way ofmyknowing. When I listen to the tape, I can't hear the 'a', but that doesn't mean it wasn't there, because that was the fastest VOX ever built. There was no mike-switch — it was avoice-operated key or VOX. In a helmet you find you lose a lot of syllables. Sometimes a short syllable like 'a' might not be transmitted. However, when I listen to it, I can't hear it. But the 'a' is implied, so I'm happy if they just put it in parentheses. Omni, June 1982, p. 126 About 19minutes after Armstrong's first step, Aldrin joined him on the surface, becoming the second human to walk on the Moon. They began their tasks of investigating how easily a person could operate on the lunar surface. Armstrong unveiled a plaque commemorating the flight, and with Aldrin, planted theflag of the United States. Although Armstrong had wanted the flag to be draped on the flagpole,it was decided to use a metal rod to hold it horizontally.However, the rod did not fully extend, leaving the flag",
"leaving the flag with a slightly wavy appearance, as if there were a breeze.Shortly after the flag planting, PresidentRichard Nixonspoke to them by telephone from his office. He spoke for about a minute, after which Armstrong responded for about thirty seconds.In the Apollo 11 photographic record, there are only five images of Armstrong partly shown or reflected. The mission was planned to the minute, with the majority of photographic tasks performed by Armstrong with the singleHasselbladcamera. After helping to set up theEarly Apollo Scientific Experiment Package, Armstrong went for a walk to what is now known as East Crater, 65 yards (59 m) east of the LM, the greatest distance traveled from the LM on the mission. His final task was to remind Aldrin to leave a small package of memorial items to SovietcosmonautsYuri GagarinandVladimir Komarov, and Apollo1 astronauts Grissom, White and Chaffee.The Apollo 11 EVA lasted two and a half hours.Each of the subsequent five landings was allotted a progressively",
"a progressively longer EVA period; the crew ofApollo 17spent over 22hours exploring the lunar surface.In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited their Moon walk because they were unsure how thespace suitswould cope with the Moon's extremely high temperature. Return to Earth After they re-entered the LM, the hatch was closed and sealed. While preparing for liftoff, Armstrong and Aldrin discovered that, in their bulky space suits, they had broken the ignition switch for the ascent engine; using part of a pen, they pushed in the circuit breaker to start the launch sequence.TheEaglethen continued to its rendezvous in lunar orbit, where it docked withColumbia, the command and service module. The three astronauts returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, to be picked up by theUSSHornet. After being released from an 18-day quarantine to ensure that they had not picked up any infections or diseases from the Moon, the crew was feted across the United States and around the world as part",
"the world as part of a 38-day \"Giant Leap\" tour. The tour began on August 13, when the three astronauts spoke and rode inticker-tape paradesin their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees.On the same evening an officialstate dinnerwas held in Los Angeles to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44governors, theChief Justice of the United States, and ambassadors from 83nations. President Nixon and Vice President Agnew presented each astronaut with aPresidential Medal of Freedom. After the tour Armstrong took part inBob Hope's 1969USOshow, primarily to Vietnam.In May 1970, Armstrong traveled to the Soviet Union to present a talk at the 13th annual conference of the InternationalCommittee on Space Research; after arriving inLeningradfrom Poland, he traveled to Moscow where he metPremierAlexei Kosygin. Armstrong was the first westerner to see the supersonicTupolev Tu-144and was given a tour of theYuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, which he described as \"a bit",
"described as \"a bit Victorian in nature\".At the end of the day, he was surprised to view a delayed video of the launch ofSoyuz 9as it had not occurred to Armstrong that the mission was taking place, even though Valentina Tereshkova had been his host and her husband,Andriyan Nikolayev, was on board. Life after Apollo Teaching Shortly after Apollo 11, Armstrong stated that he did not plan to fly in space again.He was appointed Deputy Associate Administrator for Aeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research and Technology atARPA, served in the position for a year, then resigned from it and NASA in 1971.He accepted a teaching position in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of Cincinnati,having chosen Cincinnati over other universities, including hisalma materPurdue, because Cincinnati had a small aerospace department,and said he hoped the faculty there would not be annoyed that he came straight into a professorship with only a USC master's degree.He began his master's degree while",
"degree while stationed at Edwards years before, and completed it after Apollo 11 by presenting a report on various aspects of Apollo, instead of a thesis on the simulation of hypersonic flight. At Cincinnati, Armstrong was University Professor of Aerospace Engineering. He took a heavy teaching load, taught core classes, and created two graduate-level classes: aircraft design and experimental flight mechanics. He was considered a good teacher, and a tough grader. His research activities during this time did not involve his work at NASA, as he did not want to give the appearance of favoritism; he later regretted the decision. After teaching for eight years, Armstrong resigned in 1980. When the university changed from an independent municipal university to a state school, bureaucracy increased. He did not want to be a part of the faculty collective bargaining group, so he decided to teach half-time. According to Armstrong, he had the same amount of work but received half his salary. In 1979, less than 10% of",
"less than 10% of his income came from his university salary. Employees at the university did not know why he left. NASA commissions In 1970, after an explosion aboardApollo 13aborted its lunar landing, Armstrong was part ofEdgar Cortright's investigation of the mission. He produced a detailed chronology of the flight. He determined that a 28-volt thermostat switch in an oxygen tank, which was supposed to have been replaced with a 65-volt version, led to the explosion. Cortright's report recommended the entire tank be redesigned at a cost of $40million. Many NASA managers, including Armstrong, opposed the recommendation, since only the thermostat switch had caused the problem. They lost the argument, and the tanks were redesigned. In 1986, PresidentRonald Reaganasked Armstrong to join theRogers Commissioninvestigating theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster. Armstrong was made vice chairman of the commission and held private interviews with contacts he had developed over the years to help determine the cause of",
"the cause of the disaster. He helped limit the committee's recommendations to nine, believing that if there were too many, NASA would not act on them. Armstrong was appointed to a fourteen-member commission by President Reagan to develop a plan for American civilian spaceflight in the 21st century. The commission was chaired by former NASA administrator Dr.Thomas O. Paine, with whom Armstrong had worked during the Apollo program. The group published a book titledPioneering the Space Frontier: The Report on the National Commission on Space, recommending a permanent lunar base by 2006, and sending people to Mars by 2015. The recommendations were largely ignored, overshadowed by theChallengerdisaster. Armstrong and his wife attended the memorial service for the victims of theSpace ShuttleColumbiadisasterin 2003, at the invitation of PresidentGeorge W. Bush. Business activities After Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971, he acted as a spokesman for several businesses. The first company to successfully approach",
"approach him wasChrysler, for whom he appeared in advertising starting in January 1979. Armstrong thought they had a strong engineering division, and they were in financial difficulty. He later acted as a spokesman for other American companies, including General Time Corporation and the Bankers Association of America.He acted as a spokesman for only American companies. In addition to his duties as a spokesman, he also served on the board of directors of several companies. The first company board Armstrong joined wasGates Learjet, chairing their technical committee. He flew their new and experimental jets and even set a climb and altitude record for business jets. Armstrong became a member ofCincinnati Gas & Electric Company's board in 1973. They were interested in nuclear power and wanted to increase the company's technical competence. He served on the board ofTaft Broadcasting, also based in Cincinnati. Armstrong joined the board of solid rocket boosterThiokolin 1989, after previously serving on the Rogers",
"on the Rogers Commission which found that theSpace ShuttleChallengerwas destroyed due to a defect in the Thiokol-manufactured solid rocket boosters. When Armstrong left the University of Cincinnati, he became the chairman of Cardwell International Ltd., a company that manufactured drilling rigs. He served on additional aerospace boards, firstUnited Airlinesin 1978, and laterEaton Corporationin 1980. He was asked to chair the board of directors for a subsidiary of Eaton, AIL Systems. He chaired the board through the company's 2000 merger withEDO Corporation, until his retirement in 2002. North Pole expedition In 1985, professional expedition leader Mike Dunn organized a trip to take men he deemed the \"greatest explorers\" to the North Pole. The group included Armstrong,Edmund Hillary,Hillary's son Peter,Steve Fossett, andPatrick Morrow. They arrived at the Pole on April 6, 1985. Armstrong said he was curious to see what it looked like from the ground, as he had seen it only from the Moon.He did not inform the",
"did not inform the media of the trip, preferring to keep it private. Public profile Armstrong's family described him as a \"reluctant American hero\".He kept a low profile later in his life, leading to the belief that he was a recluse.Recalling Armstrong's humility,John Glenn, the first American to orbit Earth, told CNN: \" didn't feel that he should be out huckstering himself. He was a humble person, and that's the way he remained after his lunar flight, as well as before.\"Armstrong turned down most requests for interviews and public appearances. Michael Collins said in his bookCarrying the Firethat when Armstrong moved to a dairy farm to become a college professor, it was like he \"retreated to his castle and pulled up the drawbridge\". Armstrong found this amusing, and said, \"...those of us that live out in the hinterlands think that people that live inside theBeltwayare the ones that have the problems.\" Andrew Chaikin says inA Man on the Moonthat Armstrong kept a low profile but was not a recluse, citing his",
"recluse, citing his participation in interviews, advertisements for Chrysler, and hosting a cable television series.Between 1991 and 1993, he hostedFirst Flights with Neil Armstrong, anaviation historydocumentary series onA&E.In 2010, Armstrong voiced the character of Dr. Jack Morrow inQuantum Quest: A Cassini Space Odyssey,an animated educational sci-fi adventure film initiated by JPL/NASA through a grant from Jet Propulsion Lab. Armstrong guarded the use of his name, image, and famous quote. When it was launched in 1981,MTVwanted to use his quote in itsstation identification, with the American flag replaced with the MTV logo, but he refused the use of his voice and likeness.He suedHallmark Cardsin 1994, when they used his name, and a recording of the \"one small step\" quote, in a Christmas ornament without his permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, which Armstrong donated to Purdue. For many years, he wrote letters congratulating new Eagle Scouts on their accomplishment,",
"accomplishment, but decided to quit the practice in the 1990s because he felt the letters should be written by people who knew the scout. (In 2003, he received 950congratulation requests.) This contributed to the myth of his reclusiveness.Armstrong used to autograph everything exceptfirst day covers. Around 1993, he found out his signatures were being sold online, and that most of them were forgeries, and stopped giving autographs. Personal life Some former astronauts, including Glenn andApollo 17'sHarrison Schmitt, sought political careers after leaving NASA. Armstrong was approached by groups from both theDemocraticandRepublicanparties but declined the offers. He supportedstates' rightsand opposed the U.S. acting as the \"world's policeman\". When Armstrong applied at a localMethodistchurch to lead a Boy Scout troop in the late 1950s, he gave his religious affiliation as \"deist\".His mother later said that his religious views caused her grief and distress in later life, as she was a Christian.Upon his return",
"his return from the Moon, Armstrong gave a speech in front of theU.S. Congressin which he thanked them for giving him the opportunity to see some of the \"grandest views of the Creator\".In the early 1980s, he was the subject of a hoax claiming that he converted toIslamafter hearing thecall to prayerwhile walking on the Moon. Indonesian singer Suhaemi wrote a song called \"Gema Suara Adzan di Bulan\" (\"The Resonant Sound of the Call to Prayer on the Moon\") which described Armstrong's supposed conversion, and the song was widely discussed byJakartanews outlets in 1983.Similar hoax stories were seen in Egypt and Malaysia. In March 1983, theU.S. State Departmentresponded by issuing a message to embassies and consulates in Muslim countries saying that Armstrong had not converted to Islam.The hoax surfaced occasionally for the next three decades. Part of the confusion arose from the similarity between the names of the country of Lebanon, which has a majority Muslim population, and Armstrong's longtime residence",
"longtime residence inLebanon, Ohio. In 1972, Armstrong visited the Scottish town ofLangholm, the traditional seat of Clan Armstrong. He was made the firstfreemanof the burgh, and happily declared the town his home.To entertain the crowd, theJustice of the Peaceread from an unrepealed archaic 400-year-old law that required him to hang any Armstrong found in the town. Armstrong flew light aircraft for pleasure. He enjoyedglidersand before the Moon flight had earned a gold badge with two diamonds from theInternational Gliding Commission. He continued to fly engineless aircraft well into his 70s. While working on his farm in November 1978, Armstrong jumped off the back of his grain truck and caught his wedding ring in its wheel, tearing the tip off his left ring finger. He collected the severed tip, packed it in ice, and had surgeons reattach it at a nearby hospital inLouisville, Kentucky.In February 1991, he suffered a mild heart attack while skiing with friends atAspen, Colorado. Armstrong and his first wife,",
"and his first wife, Janet, separated in 1990 and divorced in 1994 after 38 years of marriage.He met his second wife, Carol Held Knight, at a golf tournament in 1992, when they were seated together at breakfast. She said little to Armstrong, but he called her two weeks later to ask what she was doing. She replied that she was cutting down a cherry tree, and he arrived at her house 35 minutes later to help. They were married in Ohio on June 12, 1994, and had a second ceremony atSan Ysidro Ranchin California. They lived inIndian Hill, Ohio.Through his marriage to Carol, he was the father-in-law of futureNew York Metsgeneral managerBrodie Van Wagenen. In May 2005, Armstrong became involved in a legal dispute with Mark Sizemore, his barber of 20years. After cutting Armstrong's hair, Sizemore sold some of it to a collector for $3,000 without Armstrong's knowledge or permission.Armstrong threatened legal action against Sizemore unless he returned the hair or donated the proceeds to a charity of Armstrong's",
"of Armstrong's choosing. Sizemore, unable to retrieve the hair, donated the proceeds to charity. Illness and death On August 7, 2012, Armstrong underwentbypass surgeryatMercy Faith–Fairfield HospitalinFairfield, Ohio, to relievecoronary artery disease.Although he was reportedly recovering well,he developed complications and died on August 25.PresidentBarack Obamaissued a statement memorializing Armstrong as \"among the greatest of American heroes—not just of his time, but of all time\",and added that Armstrong had carried the aspirations of the United States' citizens and had delivered \"a moment of human achievement that will never be forgotten.\" Armstrong's family released a statement describing him as a \"reluctant American hero served his nation proudly, as a navy fighter pilot, test pilot, and astronaut ... While we mourn the loss of a very good man, we also celebrate his remarkable life and hope that it serves as an example to young people around the world to work hard to make their dreams come true, to",
"come true, to be willing to explore and push the limits, and to selflessly serve a cause greater than themselves. For those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil, we have a simple request. Honor his example of service, accomplishment and modesty, and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you, think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink.\" Buzz Aldrin called Armstrong \"a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew\", and said he was disappointed that they would not be able to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing together in 2019.Michael Collins said, \"He was the best, and I will miss him terribly.\"NASA AdministratorCharles Boldensaid, \"As long as there are history books, Neil Armstrong will be included in them, remembered for taking humankind's first small step on a world beyond our own\". A tribute was held for Armstrong on September 13, atWashington National Cathedral, whose Space Window depicts the Apollo 11 mission and holds a sliver of Moon",
"a sliver of Moon rock amid its stained-glass panels.In attendance were Armstrong's Apollo 11 crewmates, Collins and Aldrin; Gene Cernan, the Apollo 17 mission commander and last man to walk on the Moon; and former senator and astronaut John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth. In his eulogy, Charles Bolden praised Armstrong's \"courage, grace, and humility\". Cernan recalled Armstrong's low-fuel approach to the Moon: \"When the gauge says empty, we all know there's a gallon or two left in the tank!\"Diana Krallsang the song \"Fly Me to the Moon\". Collins led prayers. David Scott spoke, possibly for the first time, about an incident during their Gemini 8 mission: minutes before the hatch was to be sealed, a small chip of dried glue fell into the latch of his harness and prevented it from being buckled, threatening to abort the mission. Armstrong then called on Conrad to solve the problem, which he did, and the mission proceeded. \"That happened because Neil Armstrong was a team player—he always worked on",
"always worked on behalf of the team.\"CongressmanBill Johnsonfrom Armstrong's home state of Ohio led calls for President Barack Obama to authorize astate funeralin Washington D.C. Throughout his lifetime, Armstrong shunned publicity and rarely gave interviews. Mindful that Armstrong would have objected to a state funeral, his family opted to have a private funeral inCincinnati.On September 14, Armstrong's cremated remains were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean from theUSSPhilippine Sea.Flags were flown athalf-staffon the day of Armstrong's funeral. In July 2019, after observations of the 50th anniversary of the Moon landing,The New York Timesreported on details of amedical malpracticesuit Armstrong's family had filed against Mercy Health–Fairfield Hospital, where he died. When Armstrong appeared to be recovering from his bypass surgery, nurses removed the wires connected to his temporarypacemaker. He began tobleed internallyand his blood pressure dropped. Doctors took him to the",
"took him to the hospital'scatheterizationlaboratory, and only later began operating. Two of the three physicians who reviewed the medical files during the lawsuit called this a serious error, saying surgery should have begun immediately; experts theTimestalked to, while qualifying their judgement by noting that they were unable to review the specific records in the case, said that taking a patient directly to the operating room under those circumstances generally gave them the highest chance of survival. The family ultimately settled for $6 million in 2014. Letters included with the 93 pages of documents sent to theTimesby an unknown personshow that his sons intimated to the hospital, through their lawyers, that they might discuss what happened to their father publicly at the 45th anniversary observances in 2014. The hospital, fearing the bad publicity that would result from being accused of negligently causing the death of a revered figure such as Armstrong, agreed to pay as long as the family never spoke",
"family never spoke about the suit or the settlement.Armstrong's wife, Carol, was not a party to the lawsuit. She reportedly felt that her husband would have been opposed to taking legal action. Legacy When Pete Conrad ofApollo 12became the third man to walk on the Moon, on November 19, 1969, his first words referenced Armstrong. The shorter of the two, when Conrad stepped from the LM onto the surface he proclaimed \"Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.\" Armstrong received many honors and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom (with distinction) from President Nixon,theCullum Geographical Medalfrom theAmerican Geographical Society,and theCollier Trophyfrom theNational Aeronautic Association(1969);theNASA Distinguished Service Medaland theDr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy(1970);theSylvanus Thayer Awardby theUnited States Military Academy(1971);theCongressional Space Medal of Honorfrom PresidentJimmy Carter(1978);theWright Brothers Memorial",
"Brothers Memorial Trophyfrom the National Aeronautic Association (2001);and aCongressional Gold Medal(2011). Armstrong was elected as member into theNational Academy of Engineeringin 1978 for contributions to aerospace engineering, scientific knowledge, and exploration of the universe as an experimental test pilot and astronaut.He was elected to theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 2001. Armstrong and his Apollo 11 crewmates were the 1999 recipients of theLangley Gold Medalfrom the Smithsonian Institution.On April 18, 2006, he received NASA's Ambassador of Exploration Award.TheSpace Foundationnamed Armstrong as a recipient of its 2013 General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award.Armstrong was also inducted into theAerospace Walk of Honor,theInternational Space Hall of Fame,National Aviation Hall of Fame, and theUnited States Astronaut Hall of Fame.He was awarded hisNaval Astronaut badgein a ceremony on board the aircraft carrierUSSDwight D. Eisenhoweron March 10, 2010, in a ceremony attended by",
"attended by Lovell and Cernan. The lunar craterArmstrong, 31 miles (50 km) from the Apollo 11 landing site, andasteroid6469 Armstrongare named in his honor.There are more than a dozen elementary, middle and high schools named for Armstrong in the United States,and many places around the world have streets, buildings, schools, and other places named for him and/or Apollo.TheArmstrong Air and Space Museum, in Armstrong's hometown of Wapakoneta,and the Neil Armstrong Airport inNew Knoxville, Ohio, are named after him.The mineralarmstrongiteis named after him,and the mineralarmalcoliteis named, in part, after him. In October 2004 Purdue University named its new engineering buildingNeil Armstrong Hall of Engineering;the building was dedicated on October 27, 2007, during a ceremony at which Armstrong was joined by fourteen other Purdue astronauts.The NASA Dryden Flight Research Center was renamed the NASA Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center in 2014.In September 2012, the U.S. Navy named the",
"U.S. Navy named the firstArmstrong-class vesselRVNeil Armstrong. Delivered to the Navy on September 23, 2015, it is a modern oceanographic research platform supporting a wide range of activities by academic groups.In 2019, the College of Engineering at Purdue University celebrated the 50th anniversary of Neil Armstrong's walk on the Moon by launching the Neil Armstrong Distinguished Visiting Fellows Program, which brings highly accomplished scholars and practitioners to the college to catalyze collaborations with faculty and students. Armstrong's authorized biography,First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong, was published in 2005. For many years, he turned down biography offers from authors such asStephen AmbroseandJames A. Michenerbut agreed to work with James R. Hansen after reading one of Hansen's other biographies.He recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission, when he had believed there was only a 50% chance of landing on the Moon. \"I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we",
"surprised that we were successful\".Afilm adaptation of the book, starringRyan Goslingand directed byDamien Chazelle, was released in October 2018. In July 2018, Armstrong's sons put his collection of memorabilia up for sale, including his Boy Scout cap, and various flags and medals flown on his space missions. A series of auctions held November 1–3, 2018, realized $5,276,320 (~$6.31 million in 2023). As of July 2019, the auction sales totaled $16.7million.Two fragments of wood from the propeller and four pieces of fabric from the wing of the 1903Wright Flyerthat Armstrong took to the Moon fetched between $112,500 and $275,000 each.Armstrong's wife, Carol, has not put any of his memorabilia up for sale. Armstrong donated his papers to Purdue. Along with posthumous donations by his widow Carol, the collection consists of over 450boxes of material. In May 2019, she donated two 25-by-24-inch (640 by 610 mm) pieces of fabric from theWright Flyer, along with his correspondence related to them. In a 2010Space",
"In a 2010Space Foundationsurvey, Armstrong was ranked as the number-one most popular space hero;and in 2013,Flyingmagazine ranked him number one on its list of 51 Heroes of Aviation.The press often asked Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, he said that ahuman mission to Marswould be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s. In 2010, he made a rare public criticism of the decision to cancel theAres Ilaunch vehicle and theConstellation Moon landing program.In an open letter also signed by fellow Apollo veterans Lovell and Cernan, he said, \"For The United States, the leading space faring nation for nearly half a century, to be without carriage to low Earth orbit and with no human exploration capability to go beyond Earth orbit for an indeterminate time into the future, destines our nation to become one of second or even third rate stature\".On November 18, 2010, aged 80, he said in a speech during theScience & Technology Summitinthe Hague, Netherlands, that he would offer his",
"he would offer his services as commander on a mission to Mars if he were asked. The planetarium atAltoona Area High SchoolinAltoona, Pennsylvaniais named after Armstrong and is home to aSpace Racemuseum.A campsite in Camp Sandy Beach atYawgoog Scout ReservationinRockville, Rhode Island, is named in his honor, a nod to his Scouting career. Armstrong was named theclass exemplarfor the Class of 2019 at the U.S. Air Force Academy. See also Notes References Further reading External links",
"Grumman F9F Panther TheGrumman F9F Pantheris an earlycarrier-basedjet fighterdesigned and produced by the American aircraft manufacturerGrumman. It was the first jet-powered fighter aircraft to see air-to-air combat with theUnited States Navyas well as being Grumman’s first jet fighter. Development of the Panther commenced in the final months ofWorld War IIto harness the recent innovation of the jet engine. Grumman designed a single-engined, straight-wingedday fighterthat was armed with four 20 mm (0.79 in)cannonsand could also carry a wide assortment of air-to-ground munitions. Production aircraft were typically powered by a singleAllison J33orPratt & Whitney J48-P-2turbojetengine. On 21 November 1947, the prototype performed itsmaiden flight, powered by an importedRolls-Royce Neneengine. During September 1949, the F9F was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers. The Panther was used extensively by the U.S. Navy andMarine Corpsin theKorean War. On 3 July 1950, a F9F-3 recorded the first U.S. Navy air",
"first U.S. Navy air victory of the conflict, having shot down a propeller-poweredYak-9. In the Korean theatre, Panther pilots cumulatively claimed the shooting down of sevenMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s. During 1956, the type was withdrawn from front-line combat service, but remained in secondary roles, such as for training and with U.S. Naval Air Reserve and U.S. Marine Air Reserve units, until 1958. The Panther was also the first jet aircraft used by theBlue Angelsaerobaticsdemonstration team, being flown in this capacity from 1949 through to late 1954. FutureastronautsNeil ArmstrongandJohn Glennboth flew the F9F extensively during the Korean War. While Australia was interested in the Panther during the late 1940s, the nation ultimately opted for theGloster Meteor F.8and theCAC Sabreinstead. The aircraft's only export customer wasArgentina, where it became the first jet aircraft to be operated by theArgentine Naval Aviation. It was operated mainly from land, as thecatapultsof the aircraft",
"the aircraft carrierARAIndependencialacked sufficient power to readily launch the F9F. Several Panthers participated in the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt, firing upon Argentine Army forces sent to quell the revolt. During 1969, it was withdrawn from Argentine service due to a lack of spare parts. Grumman would develop the F9F design in response to U.S. Navy interest, producing theswept wingGrumman F-9 Cougar. Design and development Background The origins of the Panther can be traced back to development studies performed by Grumman into jet-powered fighter aircraft near the end ofWorld War II. The company was keen to capitalise on the emergence of the first practical jet engines by integrating them into a new aircraft design. This design, which was internally designatedG-75, was submitted to aUnited States Navycompetition that sought a jet-powerednight fighterto equip itsaircraft carrierswith. However, on 3 April 1946, it was announced that theDouglas F3D Skyknight, a competing two-seat aircraft powered by",
"aircraft powered by fourWestinghouse J30turbojets, had been selected. On 11 April 1946, the Navy'sBureau of Aeronautics(BuAer) issued a development contract to Grumman to produce a pair of G-75 prototypes, which were given the Navy designationXF9F-1, in case development of the Skyknight encountered severe problems. Shortly thereafter, Grumman recognised that the G-75 did not have much potential for either performance or growth; the company had already undertaken work on a completely different single-engine day fighter, theG-79. In a bureaucratic maneuver, BuAer opted not to cancel the G-75 contract, but instead changed the wording to include three prototypes of the entirely different G-79. It was this design that became the Panther. At that time, the few American engines that were available for use, such as theAllison J33andWestinghouse J34, were not considered to be sufficiently reliable;thus, the Navy specified the importedRolls-Royce Neneturbojet, which was also more powerful, at 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) of",
"lb (2,300 kg) of thrust. Production aircraft were to also be powered by the Nene, builtunder licensebyPratt & Whitneyas the J42.Since there was insufficient space within the wings and fuselage to provide sufficient fuel for the thirsty jet engine, the design team opted to add permanently mountedwingtip fuel tanks, which had incidental advantage of improving the fighter's rate ofroll.The wings featured another innovation in the form ofleading edgeflapsthat generated additional lift while landing;speed brakeswere also present on the underside of the fuselage. Flight testing On 21 November 1947, the prototype Panther conducted itsmaiden flight, piloted by test pilot Corky Meyer.It was followed by the second prototype only five days later.Initial issues with directional and longitudinal stability were encountered, but were quickly rectified. During one early land-basedarresting geartest, the detachable rear section of the aircraft unintentionally came off; remedial changes were made to avoid any future",
"to avoid any future repetition. During May 1949, carrier suitability trails commenced.In September 1949, the F9F was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers. During the development phase, Grumman decided to change the Panther's engine, selecting thePratt & Whitney J48-P-2, a license built version of theRolls-Royce RB.44 Tay. The other engine that had been tested was the Allison J33-A-16. The armament was a quartet of 20mm guns, the Navy having already switched to this caliber (as opposed to the USAAF/USAF which continued to use .50 caliberM2/M3guns). In addition, the Panther was soon armed with underwing air-to-ground rockets and up to 2,000 lb (910 kg) of bombs. From 1946, interest in developing an aircraft that harnessed the increasingly popularswept winggrew and, following concerns that the Panther was inferior to its MiG opponents over the skies of Korea, Grumman launched work on a conversion project, known as Design 93. This effort resulted in a swept-wing derivative, theF9F Cougar, which retained the",
"which retained the Panther's designation number.Later stage development work on the Panther continued, being largely focused on engine improvements, expanding fuel capacity, and the use of alternative munitions. In 1949, the Panther was considered by theAustraliangovernment, as a possible locally-built replacement for theMustangMk 23 andDe Havilland Vampirethen operated by theRoyal Australian Air Force(RAAF).The other designs considered initially were an Australian design, theCAC CA-23(an unconventional, twin-jetall-weather fighter) and theHawker P.1081. By mid-1950, however, RAAF Mustangs were in action inKoreaand seen as highly vulnerable to theMiG-15. An immediately available stop-gap in the shape of theGloster Meteor F.8was operated by the RAAF in Korea from July 1951. (After its less-than-satisfactory performance against MiGs, the Meteor was replaced from 1954 by theCAC Sabre– an Australian-built, up-engined variant of the F-86.) Operational history US Navy The Panther was the primary jet fighter and",
"jet fighter and ground-attack aircraft of both the US Navy and USMC during theKorean War. It was the widest used Navy jet fighter of the conflict, cumulatively flying 78,000 sorties. F9F-2s, F9F-3s and F9F-5s, as rugged attack aircraft, were able to sustain operations despite being frequently opposed by intense anti-aircraft fire. The pilots also appreciated the air conditioned cockpit, which made for a welcome change from the humid environment of piston-powered aircraft. On 3 July 1950,Lieutenant, junior gradeLeonard H. Plog, ofVF-51, flying an F9F-3 scored the first US Navy air victory of the war by shooting down a propeller-poweredYak-9. Despite their relatively low speed, Panther pilots also claimed sevenMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s, for the loss of two F9Fs. The first MiG-15 was downed on 9 November 1950, byLieutenant CommanderWilliam (Bill) Amen ofVF-111flying an F9F-2B, during aUN Commandattack on theSinuijubridges, near the mouth of the Yalu River.Two more MiG-15s were downed on 18 November 1950. On 18",
"1950. On 18 November 1952, the American aircraft carrierUSSOriskanyand three other carriers were operating in theSea of Japanconducting air strikes against the North Korean city ofHoeryong. The group launched four F9F's for a combat patrol near the North Korean border with China. The group's leader suffered mechanical problems and returned to the carrier together with his wingman. LtRoyce WilliamsofVF-781, flying offUSSOriskanyand his wingman continued on the mission. They then identified sevenSoviet Naval AviationMigs heading towards the task force from the Russian mainland. The naval commanders therefore ordered the two F9Fs to position themselves between the Migs and the carrier group. During this maneuver, four Soviet MiG-15s opened fire, despite the fact that the countries were not at war. Williams opened fire on the tail Mig, which dropped out of formation, and was followed down by Williams' wingman. What followed was a 35-minute dogfight between Williams and six MiG-15s. The Mig 15 was a more capable",
"was a more capable plane, but Williams nevertheless succeeded in shooting down three more. He ascribed this to both sides doing as they were trained, but the Soviet pilots making mistakes. While heading back to the carriers, Williams was out of ammo, but still had one Mig on his tail. The re-appearance of his wingman on the Mig's tail then scared this one off. By that time Williams's plane was so damaged that he could not turn sideways anymore.Oriskanywas therefore aligned with the plane, so he could land. After landing, his Panther was found to have 263 hits by cannon shells or fragments and was beyond repair. It was therefore pushed overboard. The engagement is little-known for two reasons. The US feared that publication of the incident could increase tensions with the Soviet Union.Another reason was the involvement of the USNational Security Agency(NSA) – the existence of which was then top secret – in planning the mission; the MiGs were intercepted as a result of intelligence provided by the NSA.The four",
"by the NSA.The four MiGs that were shot down were flown bySoviet Naval Aviationpilots: Russian sources confirmed Williams' claims, 40 years later, stating the pilots lost were Captains Belyakov and Vandalov, and Lieutenants Pakhomkin and Tarshinov. As the conflict progressed, Panthers became primarily tasked with ground attack missions.Attacks upon hostile anti-aircraft equipment were commonly conducted.This was a risky mission type, with numerous Panthers being damaged or even lost to fire from the same ground batteries that they were seeking to neutralize.Furthermore, the danger posed by these systems increased over time as more capable AA apparatus was supplied to the North Korean force.Panthers also routinely undertook aerial reconnaissance missions over Korea.Starting in 1952, the Panther began to be supplemented by the newer Cougar derivative in the theatre. Future astronautNeil Armstrongflew the F9F extensively during the Korean conflict,although he ejected from one of the aircraft after it was",
"after it was brought down by a wire strung across a valley in 1951.Future astronautJohn GlennandBoston Red Soxall-starbaseball playerTed Williamsalso flew the F9F as Marine Corps pilots. During 1956, the Panther was withdrawn from frontline combat service, having been displaced by new fighter aircraft, including its swept-wing Cougar derivative.However, the type remained active in secondary roles, such as for training and with U.S. Naval Air Reserve and U.S. Marine Air Reserve units, until 1958. The Navy'sBlue Angelsflight demonstration team used the Panther for four years, beginning in 1951. The Panther was the Blue Angels' first jet.Some Panthers continued to serve in small numbers into the 1960s.From September 1962, surviving operational Panthers were designated F-9 within the new combined US tri-service designation system. Argentine Navy The only foreign buyer of the Panther was theArgentine Naval Aviation, which purchased 28 ex-USN F9F-2B aircraft during 1957; the first 10 arrived in 1958. Only 24",
"in 1958. Only 24 aircraft were put in service, as the remainder were used as spares. The first flight of an Argentine Panther was in December 1958, and the last aircraft entered into service during January 1961. The catapult on the then only Argentine carrier,ARAIndependencia, was not powerful enough to launch the F9F,so the aircraft were land-based. However, in July 1963, a Panther (serial 0453/3-A-119) landed onIndependenciaas part of trials, the first jet to land on an Argentine aircraft carrier;it was not then catapult-launched, but off-loaded by crane when the ship returned to port. Argentine Navy F9F-2 Panthers were engaged in combat during the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt. Several rebel-controlled aircraft flew bombing and strafing runs against a column of the Army 8th Tank Regiment which was advancing on the rebellingPunta Indio Naval Air Base. The attack destroyed severalM4 Shermantanks while one F9F Panther was shot down. The Argentine Panthers were involved in the general mobilization during the1965",
"during the1965 border clash between Argentina and Chile, but no combat occurred. The type was removed from service during 1969 due to a lack of available spare parts, the service opted to replace them withDouglas A-4Q Skyhawks. The Argentine Navy also operated the F-9 Cougar trainer version. Variants Operators Surviving aircraft Argentina United States Specifications (F9F-5 Panther) Data fromUnited States Navy Aircraft since 1911 General characteristics Performance Armament Notable appearances in media The F9F Panther was featured in the 1954 Korean War filmThe Bridges at Toko-RistarringWilliam Holden,Grace Kelly,Mickey RooneyandFredric March, and inMen of the Fighting LadystarringVan Johnson,Walter PidgeonandKeenan Wynn. Stock footageof an F9F piloted byGeorge Chamberlain Duncancrashing into the fantail of theUSSMidway(CV-41)during a 1951 test flight appears in severalHollywoodfilms. See also Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists References Citations",
"Citations Bibliography Online sources Further reading External links",
"John Glenn John Herschel Glenn Jr.(July 18, 1921 – December 8, 2016) was an AmericanMarine Corps aviator,astronaut, businessman, and politician. He was the third American in space and the first American to orbit the Earth, circling it three times in 1962.Following his retirement fromNASA, he served from 1974 to 1999 as aU.S. SenatorfromOhio; in 1998, he flew into space again at the age of 77. Before joining NASA, Glenn was a distinguishedfighter pilotinWorld War II, theChinese Civil War, and theKorean War. He shot down threeMiG-15sand was awarded sixDistinguished Flying Crossesand eighteenAir Medals. In 1957, he made the firstsupersonictranscontinental flightacross the United States. His on-board camera took the first continuous, panoramic photograph of the United States. Glenn was one of theMercury Sevenmilitarytest pilotsselected in 1959 by NASA as the nation's first astronauts. On February 20, 1962, Glenn flew theFriendship 7mission, becoming the first American to orbit the Earth. He was the third",
"He was the third American, and the fifth person, to be in space. He received theNASA Distinguished Service Medalin 1962, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, was inducted into theU.S. Astronaut Hall of Famein 1990, and received thePresidential Medal of Freedomin 2012. Glenn resigned from NASA in January 1964. A member of the Democratic Party, Glenn was firstelected to the Senate in 1974and served for 24 years until January 1999. In 1998, at age 77, Glenn flew onSpace ShuttleDiscovery'sSTS-95mission, making him the oldest person to enter Earth orbit, the only person to fly in both the Mercury and theSpace Shuttle programs, and the first Member of Congress to visit space since CongressmanBill Nelson(D-Fla.) in 1986. Glenn, both the oldest and the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven, died at the age of 95 on December 8, 2016. Early life and education John Herschel Glenn Jr. was born on July 18, 1921, in Cambridge, Ohio, the son of John Herschel Glenn Sr. (1895–1966), who worked for a plumbing",
"for a plumbing firm, and Clara Teresa Glenn (néeSproat; 1897–1971), a teacher.His parents had married shortly before John Sr., a member of theAmerican Expeditionary Force, left for theWestern FrontduringWorld War I. The family moved toNew Concord, Ohio, soon after his birth, and his father started his own business, the Glenn Plumbing Company.Glenn Jr. was only a toddler when he metAnna Margaret (Annie) Castor, whom he would later marry. The two would not be able to recall a time when they did not know each other.He first flew in an airplane with his father when he was eight years old. He became fascinated by flight and built model airplanes frombalsa woodkits.Along with his adopted sister Jean,he attended New Concord Elementary School.He washed cars and soldrhubarbto earn money to buy a bicycle, after which he took a job deliveringThe Columbus Dispatchnewspaper.He was a member of theOhio Rangers, an organization similar to theCub Scouts.His boyhood home in New Concord has beenrestoredas ahistoric house",
"ahistoric house museumand education center. Glenn attendedNew Concord High School, where he played on thevarsityfootballteam as acenterandlinebacker. He also made the varsitybasketballandtennisteams and was involved with Hi-Y, a junior branch of theYMCA.After graduating in 1939, Glenn enteredMuskingum College(now Muskingum University), where he studiedchemistry,joined the Stag Club fraternity,and played on the football team.Annie majored in music with minors in secretarial studies and physical education and competed on the swimming andvolleyballteams, graduating in 1942.Glenn earned aprivate pilot licenseand a physics course credit for free through theCivilian Pilot Training Programin 1941.He did not complete his senior year in residence or take a proficiency exam, both required by the school for itsBachelor of Sciencedegree. Military career World War II When the United States entered World War II, Glenn quit college to enlist in theU.S. Army Air Corps.He was not called to duty by the Army and enlisted as",
"and enlisted as aU.S. Navyaviation cadetin March 1942. Glenn attended theUniversity of IowainIowa Cityfor pre-flight training and made his first solo flight in a military aircraft atNaval Air Station OlatheinKansas, where he went for primary training. During advanced training atNaval Air Station Corpus ChristiinTexas, he accepted an offer to transfer to theU.S. Marine Corps.Having completed his flight training in March 1943, Glenn was commissioned as asecond lieutenant. Glenn married Annie in a Presbyterian ceremony at College Drive Church in New Concord on April 6, 1943.After advanced training atCamp Kearny, California, he was assigned to Marine SquadronVMJ-353, which flewR4Dtransport planes from there. ThefightersquadronVMO-155was also at Camp Kearny flying theGrumman F4F Wildcat. Glenn approached the squadron's commander,MajorJ. P. Haines, who suggested that he could put in for a transfer. This was approved, and Glenn was posted to VMO-155 on July 2, 1943, two days before the squadron moved toMarine Corps",
"toMarine Corps Air Station El Centroin California.The Wildcat was obsolete by this time, and VMO-155 re-equipped with theF4U Corsairin September 1943.He was promoted tofirst lieutenantin October 1943, and shipped out to Hawaii in January 1944.VMO-155 became part of the garrison onMidway Atollon February 21,then moved to theMarshall Islandsin June 1944 and flew 57 combat missions in the area.He received two Distinguished Flying Crosses and ten Air Medals. At the end of his one-year tour of duty in February 1945, Glenn was assigned toMarine Corps Air Station Cherry PointinNorth Carolina, then toNaval Air Station Patuxent Riverin Maryland. He was promoted tocaptainin July 1945 and ordered back to Cherry Point. There, he joined VMF-913, another Corsair squadron, and learned that he had qualified for a regular commission.In March 1946, he was assigned toMarine Corps Air Station El Toroin southern California. He volunteered for service with the occupation in North China, believing it would be a short tour. He",
"be a short tour. He joinedVMF-218(another Corsair squadron), which was based atNanyuan Fieldnear Beijing, in December 1946,and flew patrol missions until VMF-218 was transferred toGuamin March 1947. In December 1948, Glenn was re-posted to NAS Corpus Christi as a student at the Naval School of All-Weather Flight before becoming aflight instructor.In July 1951, he traveled to theAmphibious Warfare SchoolatMarine Corps Base Quanticoin northernVirginiafor a six-month course.He then joined the staff of the commandant of the Marine Corps Schools. He maintained his proficiency (and flight pay) by flying on weekends and was only allowed four hours of flying time per month.He was promoted to major in July 1952.Glenn received theWorld War II Victory Medal,American Campaign Medal,Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal(with onestar),Navy Occupation Service Medal(with Asia clasp), and theChina Service Medalfor his efforts. Korean War Glenn moved his family back to New Concord during a short period of leave, and after two and a",
"and after two and a half months of jet training at Cherry Point, was ordered toSouth Koreain October 1952, late in the Korean War.Before he set out for Korea in February 1953, he applied to fly theF-86 Sabrejetfighter-interceptorthrough an inter-service exchange position with theU.S. Air Force(USAF). In preparation, he arranged with Colonel Leon W. Gray to check out the F-86 atOtis Air Force BaseinMassachusetts.Glenn reported toK-3, an airbase in South Korea, on February 3, 1953, and was assigned to be the operations officer forVMF-311, one of two Marine fighter squadrons there while he waited for the exchange assignment to go through.VMF-311 was equipped with theF9F Pantherjetfighter-bomber. Glenn's first mission was a reconnaissance flight on February 26.He flew 63 combat missions in Korea with VMF-311and was nicknamed \"Magnet Ass\" because of the number offlakhits he took on low-levelclose air supportmissions;twice, he returned to base with over 250 holes in his plane.He flew for a time with Marine",
"a time with Marine reservistTed Williams(then in the midst of aHall of Famebaseball career with theBoston Red Sox) as hiswingman.Williams later said about Glenn \"Absolutely fearless. The best I ever saw. It was an honor to fly with him.\"Glenn also flew with future major generalRalph H. Spanjer. In June 1953, Glenn reported for duty with the USAF's25th Fighter-Interceptor Squadronand flew 27 combat missions in the F-86, a much faster aircraft than the F9F Panther, patrollingMiG Alley.Combat with aMiG-15, which was faster and better armed still,was regarded as a rite of passage for a fighter pilot. On the Air Force buses that ferried the pilots out to the airfields before dawn, pilots who had engaged a MiG could sit while those who had not had to stand.Glenn later wrote, \"Since the days of theLafayette Escadrilleduring World War I, pilots have viewed air-to-air combat as the ultimate test not only of their machines but of their own personal determination and flying skills. I was no exception.\"He hoped to",
"hoped to become the second Marine jetflying aceafterJohn F. Bolt. Glenn's USAF squadron mates painted \"MiG Mad Marine\" on his aircraft when he complained about there not being any MIGs to shoot at.He shot down his first MiG in adogfighton July 12, 1953, downed a second one on July 19, and a third on July 22 when four Sabres shot down three MiGs. These were the final air victories of the war, which ended with an armistice five days later.For his service in Korea, Glenn received two more Distinguished Flying Crosses and eight more Air Medals.Glenn also received theKorean Service Medal(with two campaign stars),United Nations Korea Medal,Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal,National Defense Service Medal(with one star), and theKorean War Service Medal. Test pilot With combat experience as a fighter pilot, Glenn applied for training as atest pilotwhile still in Korea. He reported to theU.S. Naval Test Pilot SchoolatNAS Patuxent Riverin Maryland in January 1954 and graduated in July.At Patuxent River, futureMedal of",
"futureMedal of HonorrecipientJames Stockdaletutored him in physics and math.Glenn's first flight test assignment, testing theFJ-3 Fury, nearly killed him when its cockpit depressurized and its oxygen system failed.He also tested the armament of aircraft such as theVought F7U CutlassandF8U Crusader.From November 1956 to April 1959, he was assigned to the Fighter Design Branch of the NavyBureau of Aeronauticsin Washington, D.C., and attended theUniversity of Maryland. On July 16, 1957, Glenn made the firstsupersonictranscontinental flight.Disliking his Bureau of Aeronautics desk job, he devised the flight as both a way to keep flying and publicly demonstrate the F8U Crusader.At that time, the transcontinental speed record, held by an Air ForceRepublic F-84 Thunderjet, was 3 hours 45 minutes and Glenn calculated that the F8U Crusader could do it faster. Because its 586-mile-per-hour (943 km/h) air speed was faster than that of a.45 caliber bullet, Glenn called the flightProject Bullet.He flew an F8U Crusader",
"an F8U Crusader 2,445 miles (3,935 km) fromLos Alamitos, California, toFloyd Bennett Fieldin New York City in 3 hours, 23 minutes and 8.3 seconds,averaging supersonic speed despite threein-flight refuelingswhen speeds dropped below 300 miles per hour (480 km/h). His on-board camera took the first continuous, transcontinentalpanoramic photographof the United States.He received his fifth Distinguished Flying Cross for this mission,and was promoted tolieutenant colonelon April 1, 1959.The cross-country flight made Glenn a minor celebrity. A profile appeared inThe New York Times,and he appeared on the television showName That Tune.Glenn now had nearly 9,000 hours of flying time, including about 3,000 hours in jets,but knew that at the age of 36, he was now likely too old to continue to fly. NASA career Selection On October 4, 1957, theSoviet UnionlaunchedSputnik 1, the first artificialsatellite. This damaged American confidence in its technological superiority, creating a wave of anxiety known as theSputnik",
"known as theSputnik crisis. In response, PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerlaunched theSpace Race. TheNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) was established on October 1, 1958, as a civilian agency to develop space technology. One of its first initiatives was announced on December 17, 1958. This wasProject Mercury,which aimed to launch a man intoEarth orbit, return him safely to the Earth, and evaluate his capabilities in space. His Bureau of Aeronautics job gave Glenn access to new spaceflight news, such as theX-15rocket plane.While on duty at Patuxent and in Washington, Glenn read everything he could find about space. His office was asked to send a test pilot toLangley Air Force Basein Virginia to make runs on a spaceflight simulator, as part of research by the newly formed NASA into re-entry vehicle shapes. The pilot would also be sent to theNaval Air Development CenterinJohnsville, Pennsylvania, and would be subjected to highG-forcesin acentrifugefor comparison with data collected in the",
"collected in the simulator. His request for the position was granted, and he spent several days at Langley and a week in Johnsville for the testing.As one of the very few pilots to have done such testing, Glenn had become an expert on the subject.NASA asked military-service members to participate in planning themockupof a spacecraft. Having participated in the research at Langley and Johnsville, he was sent to theMcDonnellplant inSt. Louisas a service adviser to NASA's spacecraft mockup board.Envisioning himself in the vehicle, Glenn stated that the passenger would have to be able to control the spacecraft. McDonnell engineers told him of the importance of lightening the vehicle as much as possible, so Glenn began exercising to lose the 30 pounds he estimated that he was overweight. Eisenhower directed NASA to recruit its first astronauts from military test pilots. Of 508 graduates of test pilot schools, 110 matched the minimum standards.Marine Corps pilots were mistakenly omitted at first; two were quickly",
"two were quickly found, including Glenn.The candidates had to be younger than 40, possess a bachelor's degree or equivalent, and be 5 feet 11 inches (1.80 m) or less. Only the height requirement was strictly enforced, owing to the size of the Project Mercury spacecraft.This was fortunate for Glenn, who barely met the requirements, as he was near the age cutoff and lacked a science-based degree,but had taken more classes since leaving college than needed for graduation. Glenn was otherwise so outstanding a candidate that Colonel Jake Dill, his commanding officer at test pilot school, visited NASA headquarters to insist that Glenn would be the perfect astronaut. For an interview with Charles Donlan, associate director of Project Mercury, Glenn brought the results from the centrifuge to show that he had done well on a test that perhaps no other candidate had taken. Donlan also noticed that Glenn stayed late at night to study schematics of the Mercury spacecraft.He was among the 32 of the first 69 candidates",
"first 69 candidates that passed the first step of the evaluation and were interested in continuing, sufficient for the astronaut corps NASA wanted.On February 27 a grueling series of physical and psychological tests began at theLovelace Clinicand theWright Aerospace Medical Laboratory. Because of his Bureau of Aeronautics job, Glenn was already participating in Project Mercury; while other candidates were at Wright, on March 17 he and most of those who would choose the astronauts visited the McDonnell plant building the spacecraft to inspect its progress and make changes. While Glenn had not scored the highest on all the tests, a member of the selection committee recalled how he had impressed everyone with his \"strength of personality and his dedication\". On April 6 Donlan called Glenn to offer him a position at Project Mercury,one of seven candidates chosen as astronauts.Glenn was pleased while Annie was supportive but wary of the danger; during his three years at Patuxent, 12 test pilots had died. The",
"had died. The identities of the seven were announced at a press conference atDolley Madison Housein Washington, D.C., on April 9, 1959:Scott Carpenter,Gordon Cooper, Glenn,Gus Grissom,Wally Schirra,Alan Shepard, andDeke Slayton.InThe Right Stuff,Tom Wolfewrote that Glenn \"came out of it as tops among seven very fair-haired boys. He had the hottest record as a pilot, he was the most quotable, the most photogenic, and the lone Marine.\"The magnitude of the challenge ahead of them was made clear a few weeks later, on the night of May 18, 1959, when the seven astronauts gathered atCape Canaveralto watch their first rocket launch, of anSM-65D Atlas, which was similar to the one that was to carry them into orbit. A few minutes after liftoff, it exploded spectacularly, lighting up the night sky. The astronauts were stunned. Shepard turned to Glenn and said: \"Well, I'm glad they got that out of the way.\" Glenn remained an officer in the Marine Corps after his selection,and was assigned to the NASA Space Task Group",
"Space Task Group atLangley Research CenterinHampton, Virginia.The task force moved toHouston, Texas, in 1962, and became part of the NASAManned Spacecraft Center.A portion of the astronauts' training was in the classroom, where they learned space science. The group also received hands-on training, which includedscuba divingand work in simulators.Astronauts secured an additional role in the spaceflight program: to provide pilot input in design. The astronauts divided the various tasks between them. Glenn's specialization was cockpit layout design and control functioning for the Mercury and earlyApollo programs.He pressed the other astronauts to set a moral example, living up to the squeaky-clean image of them that had been portrayed byLifemagazine, a position that was not popular with the other astronauts. Friendship 7flight Glenn was the backup pilot for Shepard and Grissom on the first two crewed Project Mercury flights, the sub-orbital missionsMercury-Redstone 3andMercury-Redstone 4.Glenn was selected for",
"was selected for Mercury-Atlas 6, NASA's first crewed orbital flight, with Carpenter as his backup. Putting a man in orbit would achieve one of Project Mercury's most important goals.Shepard and Grissom had named their spacecraftFreedom 7andLiberty Bell 7. The numeral 7 had originally been the production number of Shepard's spacecraft, but had come to represent the Mercury 7. Glenn named his spacecraft, number 13,Friendship 7, and had the name hand-painted on the side like the one on his F-86 had been.Glenn and Carpenter completed their training for the mission in January 1962, but postponement of the launch allowed them to continue rehearsing. Glenn spent 25 hours and 25 minutes in the spacecraft performing hangar and altitude tests, and 59 hours and 45 minutes in the simulator. He flew 70 simulated missions and reacted to 189 simulated system failures. After a long series of delays,Friendship 7lifted off fromCape Canaveral Air Force Stationon February 20, 1962. During the countdown, there were eleven",
"there were eleven delays due to equipment malfunctions and improvements and the weather. During Glenn's first orbit, a failure of the automatic-control system was detected. This forced Glenn to operate in manual mode for the second and third orbits, and for re-entry. Later in the flight, telemetry indicated that theheat shieldhad loosened. If this reading had been accurate, Glenn and his spacecraft would have burned up on re-entry. After a lengthy discussion on how to deal with this problem, ground controllers decided that leaving the retrorocket pack in place might help keep the loose heat shield in place. They relayed these instructions to Glenn, but did not tell him the heat shield was possibly loose; although confused at this order, he complied. The retrorocket pack broke up into large chunks of flaming debris that flew past the window of his capsule during re-entry; Glenn thought this might have been the heat shield. He told an interviewer, \"Fortunately it was the rocket pack—or I wouldn't be answering",
"be answering these questions.\"After the flight, it was determined that the heat shield was not loose; the sensor was faulty. Friendship 7safelysplashed down800 miles (1,290 km) southeast of Cape Canaveral after Glenn's 4-hour, 55-minute flight.He carried a note on the flight which read, \"I am a stranger. I come in peace. Take me to your leader and there will be a massive reward for you in eternity\" in several languages, in case he landed near southern Pacific Ocean islands.The original procedure called for Glenn to exit through the top hatch, but he was uncomfortably warm and decided that egress through the side hatch would be faster.During the flight, he endured up to 7.8 g of acceleration and traveled 75,679 miles (121,794 km) at about 17,500 miles per hour (28,200 km/h).The flight took Glenn to a maximum altitude (apogee) of about 162 miles (261 km) and a minimum altitude of 100 miles (160 km) (perigee).Unlike the crewed missions ofSoviet Union'sVostok programme, Glenn remained within the spacecraft",
"the spacecraft during landing.The flight made Glenn the first American toorbitthe Earth,the third American in space, and the fifth human in space.The mission, which Glenn called the \"best day of his life\", renewed U.S. confidence.His flight occurred while the U.S. and the Soviet Union were embroiled in theCold Warand competing in the Space Race. As the first American in orbit, Glenn became a national hero, met PresidentJohn F. Kennedy, and received aticker-tape paradein New York reminiscent of those honoringCharles Lindberghand other heroes. He became \"so valuable to the nation as an iconic figure\", according to NASA administratorCharles Bolden, that Kennedy would not \"risk putting him back in space again.\"Glenn's fame and political potential were noted by the Kennedys, and he became a friend of theKennedy family. On February 23, 1962, President Kennedy gave him theNASA Distinguished Service Medalfor hisFriendship 7flight.Upon receiving the award, Glenn said, \"I would like to consider I was a figurehead for",
"a figurehead for this whole big, tremendous effort, and I am very proud of the medal I have on my lapel.\"Glenn also received his sixth Distinguished Flying Cross for his efforts.He was among the first group of astronauts to be awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. The award was presented to him by President Jimmy Carter in 1978. After his 1962 spaceflight, NASA proposed giving Glenn theMedal of Honor, but Glenn did not think that would be appropriate. His military and space awards were stolen from his home in 1978, and he remarked that he would keep this medal in a safe. Comments about women in space In 1962, NASA contemplated recruiting women to the astronaut corps via theMercury 13, but Glenn gave a speech before theHouse Space Committeedetailing his opposition to sending women into space, in which he said: I think this gets back to the way our social order is organized, really. It is just a fact. The men go off and fight the wars and fly the airplanes and come back and help design and build and",
"and build and test them. The fact that women are not in this field is a fact of our social order. In May 1965, after he left NASA, Glenn was quoted in theMiami Heraldas saying NASA \"offer a serious chance for space women\" as scientist astronauts. NASA had no official policy prohibiting women, but the requirement that astronauts had to be test pilots effectively excluded them.NASA dropped this requirement in 1965,but did not select any women as astronauts until 1978, when six women were selected, none as pilots.In June 1963, the Soviet Union launched a female cosmonaut,Valentina Tereshkova, into orbit. After Tereshkova, no women of any nationality flew in space again until August 1982, when the Soviet Union launched pilot-cosmonautSvetlana Savitskaya.During the late 1970s, Glenn reportedly supportedSpace ShuttleMission SpecialistJudith Resnikin her career. Political campaigning 1964 Senate campaign At 42, Glenn was the oldest member of the astronaut corps and would likely be close to 50 by the time the lunar",
"the time the lunar landings took place. During Glenn's training, NASA psychologists determined that he was the astronaut best suited for public life.Attorney GeneralRobert F. Kennedysuggested to Glenn and his wife in December 1962 that he run for the1964 United States Senate election in Ohio, challenging aging incumbentStephen M. Young(1889–1984) in the Democratic primary election. As it seemed unlikely that he would be selected forProject Apollomissions,he resigned from NASA on January 16, 1964, and announced hisDemocratic Partycandidacy for theU.S. Senatefrom his home state of Ohio the following day,becoming the firstastronaut-politician.Glenn was still a Marine and had plenty of unused leave time. He elected to use it while he waited for his retirement papers to go through. To avoid partisanship, NASA quickly closed Glenn's agency office.The New York Timesreported that while many Ohioans were skeptical of Glenn's qualifications for the Senate, he could defeat Young in the Democratic primary; whether he",
"primary; whether he could defeat RepresentativeRobert Taft Jr., the likely Republican candidate, in the general election was much less clear.In late February he was hospitalized for aconcussionsustained in a fall against a bathtub while attempting to fix a mirror in a hotel room;an inner-ear injury from the accident left him unable to campaign.Both his wife and Scott Carpenter campaigned on his behalf during February and March, but doctors gave Glenn a recovery time of one year. Glenn did not want to win solely because of his astronaut fame, so he dropped out of the race on March 30. Glenn was still on leave from the Marine Corps, and he withdrew his papers to retire so he could keep a salary and health benefits.Glenn was on the list of potential candidates to be promoted to full colonel, but he notified theCommandant of the Marine Corpsof his intention to retire so another Marine could receive the promotion. President Johnson later decided to promote Glenn to full colonel status without taking someone",
"taking someone else's slot. He retired as acolonelon January 1, 1965. Glenn was approached byRC Colato join their public relations department, but Glenn declined it because he wanted to be involved with a business and not just the face of it. The company revised their offer and offered Glenn a vice president of corporate development position, as well as a place on the board of directors.The company later expanded Glenn's role, promoting him to president of Royal Crown International.A Senate seat was open in 1968, and Glenn was asked about his current political aspirations. He said he had no current plan, and \"Let's talk about it one of these days.\" Glenn also said that a 1970 Senate run was a possibility. In 1973, he and a friend bought aHoliday InnnearDisney World.The success of Disney World expanded to their business, and the pair built three more hotels.One of Glenn's business partners wasHenri Landwirth, aHolocaustsurvivor who became his best friend.He remembered learning about Landwirth's background:",
"background: \"Henri doesn't talk about it much. It was years before he spoke about it with me and then only because of an accident. We were down in Florida during the space program. Everyone was wearing short-sleeved Ban-Lon shirts—everyone but Henri. Then one day I saw Henri at the pool and noticed thenumber on his arm. I told Henri that if it were me I'd wear that number like a medal with a spotlight on it.\" 1970 Senate campaign Glenn remained close to the Kennedy family, and campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy during his1968 presidential campaign.In 1968, Glenn was in Kennedy's hotel suite when Kennedy heard he had won California. Glenn was supposed to go with him to celebrate but decided not to as there would be many people there. Kennedy went downstairs to make his victory speech andwas assassinated. Glenn and Annie went with Kennedy to the hospital, and the next morning took Kennedy's children home to Virginia.Glenn was later a pallbearer at the funeral in New York. In 1970, Young did not seek reelection",
"not seek reelection and the seat was open. BusinessmanHoward Metzenbaum, Young's former campaign manager, was backed by theOhio Democratic partyand major labor unions, which provided him a significant funding advantage over Glenn. Glenn's camp persuaded him to be thrifty during the primary so he could save money for the general election. By the end of the primary campaign, Metzenbaum was spending four times as much as Glenn.Glenn was defeated in the Democratic primary by Metzenbaum (who received 51 percent of the vote to Glenn's 49 percent). Some prominent Democrats said Glenn was a \"hapless political rube\", and one newspaper called him \"the ultimate square\". Metzenbaum lost the general election to Robert Taft Jr.Glenn remained active in the political scene following his defeat. GovernorJohn J. Gilliganappointed Glenn to be the chairman of the Citizens Task Force on Environmental Protection in 1970. The task force was created to survey environmental problems in the state and released a report in 1971",
"a report in 1971 detailing the issues. The meetings and the final report of the task force were major contributors to the formation of Ohio'sEnvironmental Protection Agency. 1974 Senate campaign In 1973, President Nixon orderedAttorney GeneralElliot Richardsonto fireWatergatespecial prosecutorArchibald Cox. Richardson refused and resigned in protest, triggering theSaturday Night massacre. Ohio SenatorWilliam Saxbe, elected in 1968, was appointed attorney general. Both Glenn and Metzenbaum sought the vacated seat, which was to be filled by Governor John Gilligan. Gilligan was planning on a presidential or vice-presidential run in the near future, and offered Glenn thelieutenant governorposition, with the thought that Glenn would ascend to governor when Gilligan was elected to a higher position. The Ohio Democratic party backed this solution to avoid what was expected to be a divisive primary battle between Metzenbaum and Glenn. He declined, denouncing their attempts as \"bossism\" and \"blackmail\".Glenn's",
"\"blackmail\".Glenn's counteroffer suggested that Gilligan fill the position with someone other than Metzenbaum or Glenn so neither would have an advantage going into the 1974 election. Metzenbaum's campaign agreed to back Gilligan in his governor re-election campaign, and Metzenbaum was subsequently appointed in January 1974 to the vacated seat.At the end of Saxbe's term, Glenn challenged Metzenbaum in the primary for the Ohio Senate seat. Glenn's campaign changed their strategy after the 1970 election. In 1970, Glenn won most of the counties in Ohio but lost in those with larger populations. The campaign changed its focus, and worked primarily in the large counties.In the primary, Metzenbaum contrasted his strong business background with Glenn's military and astronaut credentials and said that his opponent had \"never held a payroll\". Glenn's reply became known as the \"Gold Star Mothers\" speech. He told Metzenbaum to go to a veterans' hospital and \"look those men with mangled bodies in the eyes and tell them",
"eyes and tell them they didn't hold a job. You go with me to any Gold Star mother and you look her in the eye and tell her that her son did not hold a job\".He defeated Metzenbaum 54 to 46 percent before defeatingRalph Perk(the RepublicanmayorofCleveland) in the general election, beginning a Senate career which would continue until 1999. 1976 vice presidential consideration AfterJimmy Carterbecame the presumptive Democratic nominee for president in the1976 election, Glenn was reported to bein considerationto be Carter's running mate because he was a senator in a pivotal state and for his fame and straightforwardness.Some thought he was too much like Carter, partially because they both had military backgrounds, and he did not have enough experience to become president.Barbara Jordanwas the first keynote speaker at the Democratic National Convention. Her speech electrified the crowd and was filled with applause and standing ovations. Glenn's keynote address immediately followed Jordan's, and he failed to",
"and he failed to impress the delegates. Walter Cronkite described it as \"dull\", and other delegates complained that he was hard to hear.Carter called Glenn to inform him the nomination was going to another candidate and later nominated the veteran politicianWalter Mondale. It was also reported that Carter's wife thought Annie Glenn, who had a stutter, would hurt the campaign. 1980 Senate campaign In his first reelection campaign, Glenn ran opposed in the primary for the 1980 Senate election. His opponents, engineer Francis Hunstiger and ex-teacher Frances Waterman, were not well-known and poorly funded.His opponents spent only a few thousand dollars on the campaign, while Glenn spent $700,000.Reporters noted that for a race he was likely to win, Glenn was spending a lot of time and money on the campaign. His chief strategist responded to the remarks saying, \"It's the way he does things. He takes nothing for granted.\"Glenn won the primary by a landslide, with 934,230 of the 1.09 million votes. Jim Betts, who",
"Jim Betts, who ran unopposed in the Republican primary, challenged Glenn for his seat. Betts publicly stated that Glenn's policies were part of the reason for inflation increases and a lower standard of living.Betts' campaign also attacked Glenn's voting record, saying that he often voted for spending increases. Glenn's campaign's response was that he has been a part of over 3,000 roll calls and \"any one of them could be taken out of context\".Glenn was projected to win the race easily,and won by the largest margin ever for an Ohio Senator, defeating Betts by over 40 percent. 1984 presidential campaign Glenn was unhappy with how divided the country was, and thought labels like conservative and liberal increased the divide. He considered himself a centrist. Glenn thought a more centrist president would help unite the country. Glenn believed his experience as a senator from Ohio was ideal because of the state's diversity.Glenn thought thatTed Kennedycould win the election, but after Kennedy's announcement in",
"announcement in late 1982 that he would not seek the presidency, Glenn thought he had a much better chance of winning. He hired a media consultant to help him with his speaking style. Glenn announced hiscandidacy for presidenton April 21, 1983, in theJohn Glenn High Schoolgymnasium.He started out the campaign out-raising the front-runner, Mondale. He also polled the highest of any Democrat against Reagan.During the fall of 1983,The Right Stuff, a film about the Mercury Seven astronauts, was released. Reviewers sawEd Harris' portrayal of Glenn as heroic and his staff began to publicize the film to the press.One reviewer said that \"Harris' depiction helped transform Glenn from a history-book figure into a likable, thoroughly adoration-worthy Hollywood hero,\" turning him into a big-screen icon.Others considered the movie to be damaging to Glenn's campaign, serving as only a reminder that Glenn's most significant achievement had occurred decades earlier.Glenn's autobiography said the film \"had a chilling effect",
"a chilling effect on the campaign.\" William White managed Glenn's campaign until his replacement by Jerry Vento on January 26, 1984.Glenn's campaign decided to forgo the traditional campaigning in early caucuses and primaries and focus on building campaign offices nationwide. He opened offices in 43 states by January 1984. Glenn's campaign spent a significant amount of money on television advertising in Iowa, and Glenn chose not to attend an Iowan debate on farm issues. He finished fifth in the Iowa caucus and went on to lose New Hampshire. Glenn's campaign continued intoSuper Tuesday, and he lost there as well. He announced his withdrawal from the race on March 16, 1984.After Mondale defeated him for the nomination, Glenn carried $3 million in campaign debt for over 20 years before receiving a reprieve from theFederal Election Commission. 1986 Senate campaign Glenn's Senate seat was challenged byThomas Kindness. Kindness was unopposed in his primary, while Glenn facedLyndon LaRouchesupporter Don Scott.",
"Don Scott. LaRouche supporters had been recently elected in Illinois, but the Ohio Democratic Party chairman did not think it was likely they would see the same success in Ohio.LaRouche was known for his fringe theories, such as the queen of England being a drug dealer.Kindness spoke to his supporters and warned them against LaRouche candidates. He issued a statement telling voters to reject LaRouche candidates in both Republican and Democratic primaries.Glenn won the primary contest with 88% of the vote. With the primary complete, Glenn began his campaign against Kindness. Glenn believed he and other Democrats were the targets of a negative campaign thought up by the GOP strategists in Washington. Kindness focused on Glenn's campaign debts for his failed presidential run and the fact he stopped payments on it while campaigning for the Senate seat.After winning the race with 62% of the vote, Glenn remarked, \"We proved that in 1986, they couldn't kill Glenn with Kindness.\" 1992 Senate campaign In 1992,",
"campaign In 1992, RepublicanMike DeWinewon the Republican primary and challenged Glenn in the Senate election. Glenn ran unopposed in the primary.DeWine's campaign focused on the need for change and for term limits for senators. This would be Glenn's fourth term as senator.DeWine also criticized Glenn's campaign debts, using a bunny dressed as an astronaut beating a drum, with an announcer saying, \"He just keeps owing and owing and owing\", a play on theEnergizer Bunny.During a debate, Glenn asked DeWine to stop his negative campaign ads, saying \"This has been the most negative campaign\". DeWine responded that he would if Glenn would disclose how he spent the money he received fromCharles Keating, fallout from Glenn being named one of theKeating Five.Glenn won the Senate seat, with 2.4 million votes to DeWine's 2 million votes.It was DeWine's first-ever campaign loss. DeWine later worked on the intelligence committee with Glenn and watched his second launch into space. Senate career Committee on Governmental",
"on Governmental Affairs Glenn requested to be assigned to two committees during his first year as senator: theGovernment Operations Committee(later known as the Committee on Governmental Affairs), and theForeign Relations Committee. He was immediately assigned to the Government Operations Committee and waited for a seat on the Foreign Relations Committee.In 1977, Glenn wanted to chair the Energy, Nuclear Proliferation, and Federal Services Subcommittee of the Governmental Affairs Committee.Abraham Ribicoff, chair of the Governmental Affairs Committee, said he could chair the subcommittee if he also chaired the less popular Federal Services Subcommittee, which was in charge of theU.S. Postal Service. Previous chairs of the Federal Services Subcommittee had lost elections in part because of negative campaigns associated with the poorly regarded mail service to the chairmen, but Glenn accepted the offer and became the chair of both subcommittees.One of his goals as a new senator was developing environmental",
"environmental policies.Glenn introduced bills on energy policy to try to counter theenergy crisis in the 70s. Glenn also introduced legislation promoting nuclear non-proliferation and was the chief author of theNuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978,the first of six major pieces of legislation that he produced on the subject. Glenn chaired the Committee on Governmental Affairs from 1987 to 1995.It was in this role that he discovered safety and environmental problems with the nation's nuclear weapons facilities. Glenn was made aware of the problem at theFernald Feed Materials Production Centernear Cincinnati and soon found that it affected sites across the nation. Glenn requested investigations from the General Accounting Office of Congress and held several hearings on the issue. He also released a report on the potential costs of hazardous waste cleanup at former nuclear weapons manufacturing facilities, known as the Glenn Report.He spent the remainder of his Senate career acquiring funding to clean up",
"funding to clean up thenuclear wasteleft at the facilities. Glenn also focused on reducing government waste. He created legislation to mandate CFOs for large governmental agencies.Glenn wrote a bill to add the office of the inspector general to federal agencies, to help find waste and fraud. He also created legislation intended to prevent the federal government from imposing regulations on local governments without funding. Glenn founded the Great Lakes Task Force, which helped protect the environment of theGreat Lakes. In 1995 Glenn became the ranking minority member of the Committee on Governmental Affairs. Glenn disputed the focus onillegal Chinese donationsto the Democrats and asserted that Republicans also had egregious fundraising issues. The committee chair,Fred ThompsonofTennessee, disagreed and continued the investigation.Thompson and Glenn continued to work together poorly for the duration of the investigation. Thompson would give Glenn only information he was legally required to. Glenn would not",
"to. Glenn would not authorize a larger budget and tried to expand the scope of the investigation to include members of the GOP.The investigation concluded with a Republican-written report, which Thompson described as, \"... a lot of things strung together that paint a real ugly picture.\" The Democrats, led by Glenn, said the report \"... does not support the conclusion that the China plan was aimed at, or affected, the 1996 presidential election.\" Glenn was the vice chairman of thePermanent Subcommittee on Investigations, a subcommittee of the Committee on Governmental Affairs.When the Republican Party regained control of the Senate in 1996, Glenn became the ranking minority member on the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations until he was succeeded byCarl Levin. During this time, the committee investigated issues such asfraud on the Internet,mortgage fraud, andday trading of securities. Other committees and activities Glenn's father spent his retirement money battling cancer and would have lost his house if",
"lost his house if Glenn had not intervened. His father-in-law also had expensive treatments for Parkinson's disease. These health and financial issues motivated him to request a seat on theSpecial Committee on Aging. Glenn was considered an expert in matters of science and technology. He was a supporter of continuing theB-1 bomberprogram, which he considered successful. This conflicted with President Carter's desire to fund theB-2 bomberprogram. Glenn did not fully support development of the B-2 because he had doubts about the feasibility of thestealth technology. He drafted a proposal to slow down the development of the B-2, which could have potentially saved money, but the measure was rejected. Glenn joined theForeign Relations Committeein 1978. He became the chairman of the East Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommittee, for which he traveled to Japan, Korea, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China. Glenn helped to pass theTaiwan Enabling Actof 1979. The same year, Glenn's stance on theSALT",
"stance on theSALT II treatycaused another dispute with President Carter. Given the loss of radar listening posts in Iran, Glenn did not believe that the U.S. had the capability to monitor the Soviet Union accurately enough to verify compliance with the treaty.During the launching ceremony for theUSSOhio, he spoke about his doubts about verifying treaty compliance. First LadyRosalynn Carteralso spoke at the event, during which she criticized Glenn for speaking publicly about the issue. The Senate never ratified the treaty, in part because of theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan.Glenn served on the committee until 1985, when he traded it for theArmed Services Committee. Glenn became chairman of theManpower Subcommitteeof the Armed Services Committee in 1987.He introduced legislation such as increasing pay and benefits for American troops in the Persian Gulf during theGulf War.He served as chairman until 1993, becoming chairman of the Armed Services Subcommittee onMilitary Readiness and Defense Infrastructure.",
"Infrastructure. Keating Five Glenn was one of theKeating Five—the U.S. Senators involved with thesavings and loan crisis—after he accepted a $200,000 campaign contribution fromLincoln Savings and Loan Associationhead Charles Keating. During the crisis, the senators were accused of delaying the seizure of Keating's S&L, which cost taxpayers an additional $2 billion. The combination of perceived political pressure and Keating's monetary contributions to the senators led to an investigation. The Ethics Committee's outside counsel, Robert Bennett, wanted to eliminate Republican senatorJohn McCainand Glenn from the investigation. The Democrats did not want to exclude McCain, as he was the only Republican being investigated, which means they could not excuse Glenn from the investigation either.McCain and Glenn were reprimanded the least of the five, as the Senate commission found that they had exercised \"poor judgment\".The GOP focused on Glenn's \"poor judgment\" rather than what Glenn saw as complete exoneration.",
"exoneration. GOP chairmanRobert Bennettsaid, \"John Glenn misjudged Charles Keating. He also misjudged the tolerance of Ohio's taxpayers, who are left to foot the bill of nearly $2 billion.\"After the Senate's report, Glenn said, \"They so firmly put this thing to bed ... there isn't much there to fuss with. I didn't do anything wrong.\"In his autobiography, Glenn wrote, \"outside of people close to me dying, these hearings were the low point of my life.\" The case cost him $520,000 in legal fees.The association of his name with the scandal made Republicans hopeful that he could be defeated in the 1992 campaign, but Glenn defeated Lieutenant Governor Mike DeWine to retain his seat. Retirement On February 20, 1997, which was the 35th anniversary of his Friendship 7 flight, Glenn announced that his retirement from the Senate would occur at the end of his term in January 1999.Glenn retired because of his age, noting that he would have been 83 at the end of another term and quipping that \"... there is still no cure",
"is still no cure for the common birthday\". Return to space After theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisasterin 1986, Glenn criticized putting a \"lay person in space for the purpose of gaining public support ... while the shuttle is still in its embryonic stage\". He supported flying research scientists.In 1995, Glenn readSpace Physiology and Medicine, a book written by NASA doctors. He realized that many changes that occur to physical attributes during space flight, such as loss of bone and muscle mass and blood plasma,are the same as changes that result from aging. Glenn thought NASA should send an older person on a shuttle mission, and that it should be him. Starting in 1995, he began lobbying NASA director Dan Goldin for the mission.Goldin said he would consider it if there was a scientific reason, and if Glenn could pass the same physical examination the younger astronauts took. Glenn performed research on the subject and passed the physical examination. On January 16, 1998, NASA Administrator Dan Goldin announced",
"Goldin announced that Glenn would be part of the STS-95 crew;this made him, at age 77, the oldest person to fly in space at that time. NASA and the National Institute of Aging (NIA) planned to use Glenn as a test subject for research, withbiometricstaken before, during, and after his flight. Some experiments (incircadian rhythms, for example) compared him with the younger crew members. In addition to these tests, he was in charge of the flight's photography and videography. Glenn returned to space on the Space Shuttle on October 29, 1998, as apayload specialistonSpace ShuttleDiscovery.Shortly before the flight, researchers disqualified Glenn from one of the flight's two major human experiments (on the effect ofmelatonin) for undisclosed medical reasons; he participated in experiments on sleep monitoring and protein use.On November 6, PresidentBill Clintonsent a congratulatory email to Glenn aboard theDiscovery. This is often cited as the first email sent by a sitting U.S. president, but records exist of",
"records exist of emails being sent by President Clinton several years earlier. His participation in the nine-day mission was criticized by some members of the space community as a favor granted by Clinton; John Pike, director of theFederation of American Scientists' space-policy project, said: \"If he was a normal person, he would acknowledge he's a great American hero and that he should get to fly on the shuttle for free ... He's too modest for that, and so he's got to have this medical research reason. It's got nothing to do with medicine\". In a 2012 interview, Glenn said he regretted that NASA did not continue its research on aging by sending additional elderly people into space.After STS-95 returned safely, its crew received a ticker-tape parade. On October 15, 1998,NASA Road 1(the main route to the Johnson Space Center) was temporarily renamed John Glenn Parkway for several months.Glenn was awarded theNASA Space Flight Medalin 1998 for flying on STS-95.In 2001, Glenn opposed sendingDennis Tito, the",
"Tito, the world's firstspace tourist, to theInternational Space Stationbecause Tito's trip had no scientific purpose. Personal life Glenn and Annie had two children—John David and Carolyn Ann—and two grandchildren,and remained married for 73 years until his death. AFreemason, Glenn was a member of Concord Lodge No. 688 in New Concord, Ohio.He received all hisdegreesin full in aMason at Sightceremony from theGrand Masterof Ohio in 1978, 14 years after petitioning his lodge. In 1999, Glenn became a 33rd-degreeScottish RiteMason in the Valley of Cincinnati (NMJ).As an adult, he was honored as part of the DeMolay Legion of Honor byDeMolay International, a Masonic youth organization for boys. Glenn was an ordained elder of thePresbyterian Church.His religious faith began before he became an astronaut and was reinforced after he traveled in space. \"To look out at this kind of creation and not believe in God is to me impossible\", said Glenn after his second (and final) space voyage.He saw no contradiction between",
"between belief in God and the knowledge that evolution is \"a fact\" and believed evolution should be taught in schools:\"I don't see that I'm any less religious that I can appreciate the fact that science just records that we change with evolution and time, and that's a fact. It doesn't mean it's less wondrous and it doesn't mean that there can't be some power greater than any of us that has been behind and is behind whatever is going on.\" Public appearances Glenn was an honorary member of theInternational Academy of Astronauticsand a member of theSociety of Experimental Test Pilots, Marine Corps Aviation Association,Order of Daedalians, National Space Club board of trustees, National Space Society board of governors, International Association of Holiday Inns,Ohio Democratic Party, State Democratic Executive Committee, Franklin County (Ohio) Democratic Party and the 10th District (Ohio) Democratic Action Club. In 2001 he guest-starred as himself on the American television sitcomFrasier. On September 5, 2009,",
"September 5, 2009, John and Annie Glenn dotted the \"i\" in Ohio State University'sScript Ohiomarching bandperformance during theOhio State–Navyfootball-game halftime show, which is normally reserved for veteran band members.To commemorate the 50th anniversary of theFriendship 7flight on February 20, 2012, he had an unexpected opportunity to speak with theorbiting crewof the International Space Station when he was onstage withNASA AdministratorCharlie Boldenat Ohio State University.On April 19, 2012, Glenn participated in the ceremonial transfer of the retired Space ShuttleDiscoveryfrom NASA to theSmithsonian Institutionfor permanent display at theSteven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. He used the occasion to criticize the \"unfortunate\" decision to end theSpace Shuttle program, saying that grounding the shuttles delayed research. Illness and death Glenn was in good health for most of his life. He retained a private pilot's license until 2011 when he was 90.In June 2014, Glenn underwent successfulheart valve",
"valve replacementsurgery at theCleveland Clinic.In early December 2016, he was hospitalized atthe James Cancer HospitalofOhio State University Wexner Medical Centerin Columbus.According to a family source, Glenn had been in declining health, and his condition was grave; his wife and their children and grandchildren were at the hospital. Glenn died on December 8, 2016, at the OSU Wexner Medical Center; he was 95 years old.No cause of death was disclosed. After his death, his body lay in state at theOhio Statehouse. There was a memorial service at Mershon Auditorium at Ohio State University.Another memorial service was performed at Kennedy Space Center near the Heroes and Legends building.His body was interred atArlington National Cemeteryon April 6, 2017.At the time of his death, Glenn was the last surviving member of the Mercury Seven. TheMilitary Timesreported that William Zwicharowski, a senior mortuary official atDover Air Force Base, had offered to let visiting inspectors view Glenn's remains, sparking",
"remains, sparking an official investigation.Zwicharowski has denied the remains were disrespected.At the conclusion of the investigation, officials said the remains were not disrespected as inspectors did not accept Zwicharowski's offer, and that Zwicharowski's actions were improper. No administrative action was taken as he had retired. PresidentBarack Obamasaid that Glenn, \"the first American to orbit the Earth, reminded us that with courage and a spirit of discovery there's no limit to the heights we can reach together\".Tributes were also paid by Vice PresidentJoe Biden,President-electDonald Trumpand former Secretary of StateHillary Clinton. The phrase \"Godspeed, John Glenn\", which fellow Mercury astronaut Scott Carpenter had used to hail Glenn's launch into space, became a social-mediahashtag: #GodspeedJohnGlenn. Former and current astronauts added tributes; so did NASA Administrator and former shuttle astronaut Charles Bolden, who wrote: \"John Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history",
"of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching.\"President Obama ordered flags to be flown athalf-staffuntil Glenn's burial.On April 5, 2017, President Donald Trump issuedpresidential proclamation9588, titled \"Honoring the Memory of John Glenn\". Awards and honors Glenn was awarded theJohn J. Montgomery Awardin 1963.Glenn received theNational Geographic Society'sHubbard Medalin 1962.Glenn, along with 37 other space race astronauts, received the Ambassador of Space Exploration Award in 2006.He was also awarded the GeneralThomas D. WhiteNational Defense Awardand thePrince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation.In 1964, Glenn received the Golden Plate Award of theAmerican Academy of Achievement.In 2004, he received theWoodrow Wilson Award for Public Servicefrom the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institutionand was awarded theNational Collegiate Athletic Association'sTheodore Roosevelt Awardfor 2008. Glenn earned",
"2008. Glenn earned theNavy's astronaut wingsand the Marine Corps' Astronaut Medal.He was awarded theCongressional Gold Medalin 2011 and was among the first group of astronauts to be granted the distinction.In 2012, President Barack Obama presented Glenn with thePresidential Medal of Freedom. Glenn was the seventh astronaut to receive this distinction. The Congressional Gold Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom are considered the two most prestigious awards that can be bestowed on a civilian.The Society of Experimental Test Pilots awarded Glenn theIven C. Kincheloeaward in 1963,and he was inducted into theInternational Air & Space Hall of Famein 1968,National Aviation Hall of Famein 1976,theInternational Space Hall of Famein 1977,and the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990.In 2000, he received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for public service by an elected or appointed official, one of the annualJefferson Awards. In 1961, Glenn received anhonoraryLL.Dfrom Muskingum University, the college he",
"the college he attended before joining the military in World War II.He also received honorary doctorates fromNihon Universityin Tokyo;Wagner Collegein Staten Island, New York;Ohio Northern University;Williams College;andBrown University.In 1998, he helped found the John Glenn Institute for Public Service and Public Policy atOhio State Universityto encourage public service. The institute merged with OSU's School of Public Policy and Management to become the John Glenn School of Public Affairs. He held anadjunct professorshipat the school.In February 2015, it was announced that it would become theJohn Glenn College of Public Affairsin April. TheGlenn Research Centerat Lewis Field in Cleveland is named after him, and the Senator John Glenn Highway runs along a stretch ofI-480in Ohio across from the Glenn Research Center.Colonel Glenn Highway (which passes Wright-Patterson Air Force Base andWright State UniversitynearDayton, Ohio), John Glenn High School in his hometown of New Concord,Elwood-John H. Glenn High",
"H. Glenn High Schoolin the hamlet ofElwood,Town of Huntington,Long Island, New York, and the former Col. John Glenn Elementary inSeven Hills, Ohio, were also named for him.Colonel Glenn Road inLittle Rock, Arkansas, was named for him in 1962.High schools inWestlandandBay City, Michigan;Walkerton, Indiana;andNorwalk, Californiabear Glenn's name.The fireboatJohn H. Glenn Jr., operated by theDistrict of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Departmentand protecting sections of thePotomacandAnacostia Riverswhich run through Washington, D.C., was named for him, as wasUSNSJohn Glenn(T-MLP-2), amobile landing platformdelivered to the U.S. Navy on March 12, 2014.In June 2016, the Port Columbus International Airport in Columbus, Ohio, was renamedJohn Glenn Columbus International Airport. Glenn and his family attended the ceremony, during which he spoke about how visiting the airport as a child had kindled his interest in flying.On September 12, 2016,Blue Originannounced theNew Glenn, a rocket.Orbital ATKnamed",
"ATKnamed theCygnusspace capsule used in the NASACRS OA-7mission to the international space station \"S.S.John Glenn\" in his honor. The mission successfully lifted off on April 16, 2017. Although never a Scout himself, Glenn heavily endorsed theBoy Scouts. His son, John David, attained the coveted rank ofEagle Scoutthat many of Glenn's aviator peers also achieved. Legacy Glenn's public life and legacy began when he received his firstticker-tape paradefor breaking the transcontinental airspeed record.As a senator, he used his military background to write legislation to reduce nuclear proliferation. He also focused on reducing government waste.Buzz Aldrinwrote that Glenn'sFriendship 7flight \"... helped to galvanize the country's will and resolution to surmount significant technical challenges of human spaceflight.\" President Barack Obama said, \"With John's passing, our nation has lost an icon andMichelleand I have lost a friend. John spent his life breaking barriers, from defending our freedom as a decorated",
"as a decorated Marine Corps fighter pilot in World War II and Korea, to setting a transcontinental speed record, to becoming, at age 77, the oldest human to touch the stars.\"Obama issued a presidential proclamation on December 9, 2016, ordering the US flag to be flown at half-staff in Glenn's memory.NASA administratorCharles Boldensaid: \"Senator Glenn's legacy is one of risk and accomplishment, of history created and duty to country carried out under great pressure with the whole world watching\". References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links"
] |
Which Nobel laureates in Physics between 1901 and 1920 made contributions to quantum theory, and what were their specific contributions? List the laureates and their respective contributions. | Several Nobel laureates in Physics between 1901 and 1920 made significant contributions to quantum theory. Here are the laureates and their specific contributions: 1. **Max Planck (1918)** - Planck is considered the father of quantum theory. He introduced the idea of energy quanta and derived Planck's radiation law, which describes the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body in thermal equilibrium. 2. **Albert Einstein (1921)** - Although awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921, Einstein made crucial contributions to quantum theory with his explanation of the photoelectric effect, which demonstrated the particle nature of light. 3. **Niels Bohr (1922)** - Bohr received his Nobel Prize for his contributions to our understanding of atomic structure and radiation. His Bohr model of the atom incorporated quantum theory and explained how electrons could have stable orbits. 4. **Johannes Stark (1919)** - Stark was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields (the Stark effect), both phenomena that provided insights into atomic structure and quantum mechanics. 5. **James Franck and Gustav Hertz (1925)** - Franck and Hertz's Nobel Prize was awarded for their experiments on electron impacts in atoms, which confirmed quantum energy levels within atoms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Stark | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Hertz | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model | null | Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Stark', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Hertz', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck",
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franck",
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model"
] | [
"Max Planck Max Karl Ernst Ludwig PlanckForMemRS(/ˈplæŋk/;German:ⓘ;23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a Germantheoretical physicistwhose discovery of energyquantawon him theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1918. Planck made many substantial contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame as a physicist rests primarily on his role as the originator ofquantum theoryand one of the founders ofmodern physics,which revolutionized understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. He is known for thePlanck constant, which is of foundational importance for quantum physics, and which he used to derive a set ofunits, today calledPlanck units, expressed only in terms of fundamentalphysical constants. Planck was twice president of the German scientific institutionKaiser Wilhelm Society. In 1948, it was renamed theMax Planck Society(Max-Planck-Gesellschaft) and nowadays includes 83 institutions representing a wide range of scientific directions. Early life and education Planck came from a traditional, intellectual family. His paternal great-grandfather and grandfather were both theology professors inGöttingen; his father was a law professor at theUniversity of KielandMunich. One of his uncles was also a judge. Planck was born in 1858 inKiel,Holstein(nowSchleswig-Holstein), to Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck and his second wife, Emma Patzig. He was baptized with the name ofKarl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck; of his given names,Marxwas indicated as the\"appellation name\".However, by the age of ten he signed with the nameMaxand used this for the rest of his life. He was the sixth child in the family, though two of his siblings were from his father's first marriage. War was common during Planck's early years and among his earliest memories was the marching ofPrussianandAustriantroops into Kiel during theSecond Schleswig Warin 1864.In 1867 the family moved toMunich, and Planck enrolled in the Maximiliansgymnasiumschool. There, his mathematical talents emerged earlyand he later came under the tutelage of Hermann Müller, a mathematician who took an interest in the youth, and taught himastronomyandmechanicsas well asmathematics. It was from Müller that Planck first learned the principle of conservation of energy. Planck graduated early, at age 17.This is how Planck first came in contact with the field of physics. Planck was gifted when it came to music. He took singing lessons and played piano, organ and cello, and composed songs and operas. However, instead of music he chose to studyphysics. Planck enrolled at theUniversity of Munichin 1874. Under professorPhilipp von Jolly's supervision, Planck performed the only experiments of his scientific career, studying thediffusionofhydrogenthrough heatedplatinum, but transferred totheoretical physics. Jolly advised Planck against going into theoretical physics. Planck recalls that in 1878, Jolly argued that physics was almost complete, being a \"highly developed, nearly fully matured science, that through the crowning achievement of the discovery of the principle of conservation of energy will arguably soon take its final stable form\". In 1877, he went to theFriedrich Wilhelms Universityin Berlin for a year of study with physicistsHermann von HelmholtzandGustav Kirchhoffand mathematicianKarl Weierstrass. He wrote that Helmholtz was never quite prepared, spoke slowly, miscalculated endlessly, and bored his listeners, while Kirchhoff spoke in carefully prepared lectures which were dry and monotonous. He soon became close friends with Helmholtz. While there he undertook a program of mostly self-study ofRudolf Clausius'swritings, which led him to choosethermodynamicsas his field. In October 1878, Planck passed his qualifying exams and in February 1879 defended his dissertationÜber den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie(On the Second Law of Mechanical Heat Theory). He briefly taught mathematics and physics at his former school in Munich. By the year 1880, Planck had obtained the two highest academic degrees offered in Europe. The first was a doctorate degree after he completed his paper detailing his research and theory of thermodynamics.He then presented his thesis calledGleichgewichtszustände isotroper Körper in verschiedenen Temperaturen(Equilibrium states of isotropic bodies at different temperatures), which earned him ahabilitation. Career With the completion of his habilitation thesis, Planck became an unpaidPrivatdozent(German academic rank comparable to lecturer/assistant professor) in Munich, waiting until he was offered an academic position. Although he was initially ignored by the academic community, he furthered his work on the field ofheat theoryand discovered one after another the samethermodynamicalformalism asGibbswithout realizing it. Clausius's ideas onentropyoccupied a central role in his work. In April 1885, theUniversity of Kielappointed Planck as associate professor oftheoretical physics. Further work on entropy and its treatment, especially as applied inphysical chemistry, followed. He published hisTreatise on Thermodynamicsin 1897.He proposed a thermodynamic basis forSvante Arrhenius's theory ofelectrolyticdissociation. In 1889, he was named the successor to Kirchhoff's position at theFriedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin– presumably thanks to Helmholtz's intercession – and by 1892 became a full professor. In 1907 Planck was offeredLudwig Boltzmann's position inVienna, but turned it down to stay in Berlin. During 1909, as a University of Berlin professor, he was invited to become theErnest Kempton Adams Lecturer in Theoretical PhysicsatColumbia UniversityinNew York City. A series of his lectures were translated and co-published by Columbia University professorA. P. Wills.He was elected to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1914.He retired from Berlin on 10 January 1926,and was succeeded byErwin Schrödinger.He was elected to the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1926 and theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1933. Professor at Berlin University As a professor at theFriedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin, Planck joined the local Physical Society. He later wrote about this time: \"In those days I was essentially the only theoretical physicist there, whence things were not so easy for me, because I started mentioning entropy, but this was not quite fashionable, since it was regarded as a mathematical spook\".Thanks to his initiative, the various local Physical Societies of Germany merged in 1898 to form the German Physical Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG); from 1905 to 1909 Planck was the president. Planck started a six-semester course of lectures on theoretical physics, \"dry, somewhat impersonal\" according toLise Meitner, \"using no notes, never making mistakes, never faltering; the best lecturer I ever heard\" according to an English participant,James R. Partington, who continues: \"There were always many standing around the room. As the lecture-room was well heated and rather close, some of the listeners would from time to time drop to the floor, but this did not disturb the lecture.\" Planck did not establish an actual \"school\"; the number of his graduate students was only about 20, among them: Entropy Thermodynamics, also known as the \"mechanical theory of heat\" at the end of the 19th century, had emerged at the beginning of this century from an attempt to understand the functioning of steam engines and to improve their efficiency. In the 1840s, several researchers independently discovered and formulated the law of conservation of energy, which is now also known as thefirst law of thermodynamics. In 1850,Rudolf Clausiusformulated the so-calledsecond law of thermodynamics, which states that a voluntary (or spontaneous) transfer of energy is only possible from a warmer to a colder body, but not vice versa. In England at this timeWilliam Thomsoncame to the same conclusion. Clausius generalized his formulation further and further and came up with a new formulation in 1865. To this end, he introduced the concept ofEntropy, which he defined as a measure of the reversible supply of heat in relation to the absolute temperature. The new formulation of the second law, which is still valid today, was: \"Entropy can be created, but never destroyed\". Clausius, whose work Planck read as a young student during his stay in Berlin, successfully applied this new law of nature to mechanical, thermoelectric and chemical processes. In his dissertation in 1879, Planck summarized Clausius' writings, pointing out contradictions and inaccuracies in their formulation and then clarifying them. In addition, he generalized the validity of the second law to all processes in nature, Clausius had limited its application to reversible processes and thermal processes. Furthermore, Planck dealt intensively with the new concept of entropy and emphasized, that entropy is not only a property of a physical system, but at the same time a measure of the irreversibility of a process: If entropy is generated in a process, it is irreversible, since entropy cannot be destroyed according to the second law. In reversible processes, the entropy remains constant. He presented this fact in detail in 1887 in a series of treatises entitled \"On the Princip of the Increase of Entropy\". In his study of the concept of entropy, Planck did not follow the molecular, probabilistic interpretation that prevailed at the time, as these do not provide absolute proof of universality. Instead, he pursued a phenomenological approach and was also skeptical of atomism. Even though he later abandoned this attitude in the course of his work on the law of radiation, his early work impressively shows the possibilites of the phenome of thermodynamics in solving concrete physicochemical problems. Planck's understanding of entropy included the realization that the maximum of entropy corresponds to the equilibrium state. The accompanying conclusion that knowledge of the Entropy allows all laws of thermodynamic equilibrium states to be derived corresponds to the modern understanding of such states. Planck therefore chose equilibrium processes as his research focus and, based on his habilitation thesis, researched the coexistence of aggregate states and the equilibrium of gas reactions, for example. This work on the frontier of chemical thermodynamics also received great attention due to the rapidly expanding chemical work at that time. Independently of Planck,Josiah Willard Gibbshad also discovered almost all the knowledge Planck gained about the properties of physicochemical equilibria and published them from 1876 onwards. Planck was unaware of these essays, and they did not appear in German until 1892. However, both scientists approached the topic in different ways, while Planck dealt with irreversible processes, Gibbs looked at equilibria. This approach was finally able to prevail because of its simplicity, but Planck's approach is attributed the greater universality. Black-body radiation In 1894, Planck turned his attention to the problem ofblack-body radiation. The problem had been stated by Kirchhoff in 1859: \"how does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by ablack body(a perfect absorber, also known as a cavity radiator) depend on thefrequencyof the radiation (i.e., the color of the light) and the temperature of the body?\". The question had been explored experimentally, but no theoretical treatment had agreed with the experimentally observed evidence.Wilhelm WienproposedWien's law, which correctly predicted the behaviour at high frequencies, but failed at low frequencies. TheRayleigh–Jeans law, another approach to the problem, agreed with experimental results at low frequencies, but created what was later known as the \"ultraviolet catastrophe\" at high frequencies, as predicted byclassical physics. However, contrary to many textbooks, this was not a motivation for Planck. Planck's first proposed solution to the problem in 1899 followed from what he called the \"principle of elementary disorder\", which allowed him to derive Wien's law from a number of assumptions about theentropyof an ideal oscillator, creating what was referred to as the Wien–Planck law. Soon, however, it was found that experimental evidence did not confirm the new law at all, to Planck's frustration. He revised his approach and now derived the first version of the famousPlanck black-body radiation law, which described clearly the experimentally observed black-body spectrum. It was first proposed in a meeting of the DPG on 19 October 1900 and published in 1901. (This first derivation did not include energy quantisation, and did not usestatistical mechanics, to which he held an aversion.) In November 1900 Planck revised this first version, now relying onBoltzmann's statistical interpretation of thesecond law of thermodynamicsas a way of gaining a more fundamental understanding of the principles behind his radiation law. Planck was deeply suspicious of the philosophical and physical implications of such an interpretation of Boltzmann's approach; thus his recourse to them was, as he later put it, \"an act of despair ... I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics\". The central assumption behind his new derivation, presented to the DPG on 14 December 1900, was the supposition, now known as thePlanck postulate, that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only inquantizedform, in other words, the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit: wherehis thePlanck constant, also known as Planck's action quantum (introduced already in 1899), andνis the frequency of the radiation. Note that the elementary units of energy discussed here are represented byhνand not simply byν. Physicists now call these quanta photons, and a photon of frequencyνwill have its own specific and unique energy. The total energy at that frequency is then equal tohνmultiplied by the number of photons at that frequency. At first Planck considered that quantisation was only \"a purely formal assumption ... actually I did not think much about it ...\"; nowadays this assumption, incompatible withclassical physics, is regarded as the birth ofquantum physicsand the greatest intellectual accomplishment of Planck's career. (Boltzmannhad been discussing in a theoretical paper in 1877 the possibility that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete). The discovery of the Planck constant enabled him to define a new universal set ofphysical units(such as the Planck length and the Planck mass), all based on fundamental physical constants, upon which much of quantum theory is based. In a discussion with his son in December 1918 Planck described his discovery as 'a discovery of the first rank, comparable perhaps only to the discoveries of Newton'.In recognition of Planck's fundamental contribution to a new branch of physics, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918; (he received the award in 1919). Subsequently, Planck tried to grasp the meaning of energy quanta, but to no avail. \"My unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble.\" Even several years later, other physicists such asRayleigh,Jeans, andLorentzset the Planck constant to zero in order to align with classical physics, but Planck knew well that this constant had a precise nonzero value. \"I am unable to understand Jeans' stubbornness – he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing, the same asHegelwas for philosophy. So much the worse for the facts if they don't fit.\" Max Bornwrote about Planck: \"He was, by nature, a conservative mind; he had nothing of the revolutionary and was thoroughly skeptical about speculations. Yet his belief in the compelling force of logical reasoning from facts was so strong that he did not flinch from announcing the most revolutionary idea which ever has shaken physics.\" Einstein and the theory of relativity In 1905, the three epochal papers byAlbert Einsteinwere published in the journalAnnalen der Physik. Planck was among the few who immediately recognized the significance of thespecial theory of relativity. Thanks to his influence, this theory was soon widely accepted in Germany. Planck also contributed considerably to extend the special theory of relativity. For example, he recast the theory in terms of classicalaction. Einstein's hypothesis of lightquanta(photons), based onHeinrich Hertz's1887 discovery (and further investigation byPhilipp Lenard) of thephotoelectric effect, was initially rejected by Planck. He was unwilling to discard completelyMaxwell's theory ofelectrodynamics. \"The theory of light would be thrown back not by decades, but by centuries, into the age whenChristiaan Huygensdared to fight against the mighty emission theory ofIsaac Newton...\" In 1910, Einstein pointed out the anomalous behavior ofspecific heatat low temperatures as another example of a phenomenon which defies explanation by classical physics. Planck andWalther Nernst, seeking to clarify the increasing number of contradictions, organized the FirstSolvay Conference(Brussels 1911). At this meeting Einstein was able to convince Planck. Meanwhile, Planck had been appointed dean of Berlin University, whereby it was possible for him to call Einstein to Berlin and establish a new professorship for him (1914). Soon the two scientists became close friends and met frequently to play music together. First World War At the onset of theFirst World WarPlanck endorsed the general excitement of the public, writing that, \"Besides much that is horrible, there is also much that is unexpectedly great and beautiful: the smooth solution of the most difficult domestic political problems by the unification of all parties (and) ... the extolling of everything good and noble.\"Planck also signed the infamous \"Manifesto of the 93 intellectuals\", a pamphlet of polemic war propaganda (while Einstein retained a strictly pacifistic attitude which almost led to his imprisonment, only being spared thanks to hisSwisscitizenship). In 1915, when Italy was still a neutral power, Planck voted successfully for a scientific paper from Italy, which received a prize from thePrussian Academy of Sciences, where Planck was one of four permanent presidents. Post-war and the Weimar Republic In the turbulent post-war years, Planck, now the highest authority of German physics, issued the slogan \"persevere and continue working\" to his colleagues. In October 1920, he andFritz Haberestablished theNotgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft(Emergency Organization of German Science), aimed at providing financial support for scientific research. A considerable portion of the money the organization would distribute was raised abroad. Planck held leading positions at Berlin University, the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the German Physical Society, and theKaiser Wilhelm Society(which became theMax Planck Societyin 1948). During this time economic conditions in Germany were such that he was hardly able to conduct research. In 1926, Planck became a foreign member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. During the interwar period, Planck became a member of the Deutsche Volks-Partei (German People's Party), the party of Nobel Peace Prize laureateGustav Stresemann, which aspired to liberal aims for domestic policy and rather revisionistic aims for politics around the world. Planck disagreed with the introduction ofuniversal suffrageand later expressed the view that the Nazi dictatorship resulted from \"the ascent of the rule of the crowds\". Quantum mechanics At the end of the 1920s,Niels Bohr,Werner Heisenberg, andWolfgang Paulihad worked out theCopenhagen interpretationof quantum mechanics, but it was rejected by Planck, and by Schrödinger, Laue, and Einstein as well. Planck expected thatwave mechanicswould soon render quantum theory – his own child – unnecessary. This was not to be the case, however. Further work only served to underscore the enduring central importance of quantum theory, even against his and Einstein's philosophical revulsions. Here Planck experienced the truth of his own earlier observation from his struggle with the older views during his younger years: \"A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it.\" Nazi dictatorship and the Second World War When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Planck was 74 years old. He witnessed many Jewish friends and colleagues expelled from their positions and humiliated, and hundreds of scientists emigrate fromNazi Germany. Again he tried to \"persevere and continue working\" and asked scientists who were considering emigration to remain in Germany. Nevertheless, he did help his nephew, the economistHermann Kranold, to emigrate toLondonafter his arrest.He hoped the crisis would abate soon and the political situation would improve. Otto Hahnasked Planck to gather well-known German professors in order to issue a public proclamation against the treatment of Jewish professors, but Planck replied, \"If you are able to gather today 30 such gentlemen, then tomorrow 150 others will come and speak against it, because they are eager to take over the positions of the others.\"Under Planck's leadership, theKaiser Wilhelm Society(KWG) avoided open conflict with the Nazi regime, except concerning the Jewish Fritz Haber. In May of 1933 Planck requested and received an interview with the recently appointed Chancellor of GermanyAdolf Hitlerto discuss the issue, telling him that the \"forced immigration of Jews would kill German science and Jews could be good Germans\", to which the chancellor replied \"but we don't have anything against the Jews, only against communists\". Planck was therefore unsuccessful, since this reply \"took from him every basis for further negotiation\",as to Hitler \"the Jews are all Communists, and these are my enemies.\" In the following year, 1934, Haber died in exile. One year later, Planck, having been the president of the KWG since 1930, organized in a somewhat provocative style an official commemorative meeting for Haber. He also succeeded in secretly enabling a number of Jewish scientists to continue working in institutes of the KWG for several years. In 1936, his term as president of the KWG ended, and the Nazi government pressured him to refrain from seeking another term. As the political climate in Germany gradually became more hostile,Johannes Stark, prominent exponent of theDeutsche Physik(\"German Physics\", also called \"Aryan Physics\") attacked Planck,Arnold Sommerfeld, and Heisenberg for continuing to teach the theories of Einstein, calling them \"white Jews\". The \"Hauptamt Wissenschaft\" (Nazi government office for science) started an investigation of Planck's ancestry, claiming that he was \"1/16 Jewish\", but Planck denied it. In 1938, Planck celebrated his 80th birthday. The DPG held a celebration, during which the Max-Planck medal (founded as the highest medal by the DPG in 1928) was awarded to French physicistLouis de Broglie. At the end of 1938, the Prussian Academy lost its remaining independence and was taken over by Nazis (Gleichschaltung). Planck protested by resigning his presidency. He continued to travel frequently, giving numerous public talks, such as his talk on Religion and Science, and five years later he was sufficiently fit to climb 3,000-metre peaks in theAlps. During theSecond World Warthe increasing number of Allied bombing missions against Berlin forced Planck and his wife to temporarily leave the city and live in the countryside. In 1942, he wrote: \"In me an ardent desire has grown to persevere this crisis and live long enough to be able to witness the turning point, the beginning of a new rise.\" In February 1944, his home in Berlin was completely destroyed by an air raid, annihilating all his scientific records and correspondence. His rural retreat was threatened by the rapid advance of the Allied armies from both sides. In 1944, Planck's sonErwinwas arrested by theGestapofollowing the attempted assassination of Hitler in the20 July plot. He was tried and sentenced to death by thePeople's Courtin October 1944. Erwin was hanged at Berlin'sPlötzensee Prisonin January 1945. The death of his son destroyed much of Planck's will to live. Personal life and death In March 1887, Planck married Marie Merck (1861–1909), sister of a school fellow, and moved with her into a sublet apartment in Kiel. They had four children: Karl (1888–1916), the twins Emma (1889–1919) and Grete (1889–1917), andErwin(1893–1945). After living in the apartment in Berlin, the Planck family lived in a villa in Berlin-Grunewald, Wangenheimstrasse 21. Several other professors fromUniversity of Berlinlived nearby, among them theologianAdolf von Harnack, who became a close friend of Planck. Soon the Planck home became a social and cultural center. Numerous well-known scientists, such asAlbert Einstein,Otto HahnandLise Meitnerwere frequent visitors. The tradition of jointly performing music had already been established in the home ofHelmholtz. After several happy years, in July 1909 Marie Planck died, possibly fromtuberculosis. In March 1911 Planck married his second wife, Marga von Hoesslin (1882–1948); in December his fifth child Hermann was born. During theFirst World WarPlanck's second son Erwin was taken prisoner by the French in 1914, while his oldest son Karl was killed in action atVerdun. Grete died in 1917 while giving birth to her first child. Her sister died the same way two years later, after having married Grete's widower. Both granddaughters survived and were named after their mothers. Planck endured these losses stoically. In January 1945,Erwin Planck, to whom he had been particularly close, was sentenced to death by theNaziVolksgerichtshofbecause of his participation in thefailed attempt to assassinate Hitlerin July 1944. Erwin was executed on 23 January 1945. After World war II ended, Planck, his second wife, and their son were brought to a relative inGöttingen, where Planck died on October 4, 1947. He was buried in the old Stadtfriedhof (City Cemetery) in Göttingen. Religious views Planck was a member of theLutheran Churchin Germany.He was very tolerant toward alternative views andreligions.In a lecture in 1937 entitled \"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\" (\"Religion and Natural Science\") he suggested the importance of these symbols and rituals related directly with a believer's ability to worship God, but that one must be mindful that the symbols provide an imperfect illustration of divinity. He criticized atheism for being focused on the derision of such symbols, while at the same time warned of the over-estimation of the importance of such symbols by believers. In \"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\", Planck expressed the view that God is present everywhere, and he held that \"the holiness of the unintelligible Godhead is conveyed by the holiness of symbols.\" Atheists, he thought, attach too much importance to what are merely symbols. He was a churchwarden from 1920 until his death, and believed in an almighty, all-knowing, beneficent God (although not necessarily a personal one). Both science and religion wage a \"tireless battle against skepticism and dogmatism, against unbelief and superstition\" with the goal \"toward God!\" Planck said in 1944, \"As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a result of my research about atoms this much: There is no matter as such. All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particle of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the atom together. We must assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent spirit . This spirit is the matrix of all matter.\" Planck argued that the concept of God is important to both religion and science, but in different ways: \"Both religion and science require a belief in God. For believers, God is in the beginning, and for physicists He is at the end of all considerations … To the former He is the foundation, to the latter, the crown of the edifice of every generalized world view\". Furthermore, Planck wrote, ...\"to believe\" means \"to recognize as a truth\", and the knowledge of nature, continually advancing on incontestably safe tracks, has made it utterly impossible for a person possessing some training in natural science to recognize as founded on truth the many reports of extraordinary occurrences contradicting the laws of nature, of miracles which are still commonly regarded as essential supports and confirmations of religious doctrines, and which formerly used to be accepted as facts pure and simple, without doubt or criticism. The belief in miracles must retreat step by step before relentlessly and reliably progressing science and we cannot doubt that sooner or later it must vanish completely. Noted historian of scienceJohn L. Heilbroncharacterized Planck's views on God asdeistic.Heilbron further relates that when asked about his religious affiliation, Planck replied that although he had always been deeply religious, he did not believe \"in a personal God, let alone a Christian God\". Publications ter Haar, D.(1967).\"On the Theory of the Energy Distribution Law of the Normal Spectrum\"(PDF).The Old Quantum Theory.Pergamon Press. p. 82.LCCN66029628. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 September 2016. Retrieved5 April2014. See also References Sources External links",
"Albert Einstein Albert Einstein(/ˈaɪnstaɪn/EYEN-styne;German:ⓘ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-borntheoretical physicistwho is widely held as one of the most influentialscientists. Best known for developing thetheory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions toquantum mechanics.Hismass–energy equivalenceformulaE=mc2, which arises fromspecial relativity, has been called \"the world's most famous equation\".He received the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\"for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of thephotoelectric effect\",a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. Born in theGerman Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of theKingdom of Württemberg)the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swissfederal polytechnic schoolinZürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at theSwiss Patent Officein Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to theUniversity of Zurich. In 1914, he moved toBerlinin order to join thePrussian Academy of Sciencesand theHumboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of theKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of theKingdom of Prussia.In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States,Adolf Hitler came to powerin Germany. Horrified by theNaziwar of exterminationagainst his fellow Jews,Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was grantedAmerican citizenshipin 1940.On the eve ofWorld War II, he endorseda letterto PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltalerting him to the potentialGerman nuclear weapons programand recommended that the US beginsimilar research. Einstein supported theAlliesbut generally viewed the idea ofnuclear weaponswith great dismay. Einstein's work is also known for its influence on thephilosophy of science.In 1905, he publishedfour groundbreaking papers, sometimes described as hisannus mirabilis(miracle year).These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explainedBrownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability ofclassical mechanicsto account satisfactorily for the behavior of theelectromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed ageneral theory of relativitythat extended his system of mechanics to incorporategravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of theuniverseas a whole. In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions tostatistical mechanicsand quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics ofradiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently calledphotons. With the Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork forBose-Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that \"God does not play dice\".Second, he attempted to devise aunified field theoryby generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to includeelectromagnetismtoo. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstreammodern physics. His intellectual achievements and originality madeEinsteinbroadly synonymous withgenius.In 1999, he was namedTime'sPerson of the Century.In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journalPhysics World, Einstein was ranked the greatest physicist of all time. Life and career Childhood, youth and education Albert Einstein was born inUlm,in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879.His parents, secularAshkenazi Jews, wereHermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, andPauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved toMunich's borough ofLudwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based ondirect current.He often related a formative event from his youth, when he was sick in bed and his father brought him acompass. This sparked his lifelong fascination withelectromagnetism. He realized that \"Something deeply hidden had to be behind things.\" Albert attended St. Peter'sCatholic elementary schoolin Munich from the age of five. When he was eight, he was transferred to theLuitpold Gymnasium, where he received advanced primary and then secondary school education. In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company tendered for a contract to install electric lighting in Munich, but without success—they lacked the capital that would have been required to update their technology from direct current to the more efficient,alternating currentalternative.The failure of their bid forced them to sell their Munich factory and search for new opportunities elsewhere. The Einstein family moved to Italy, first toMilanand a few months later toPavia, where they settled inPalazzo Cornazzani.Einstein, then fifteen, stayed behind in Munich in order to finish his schooling. His father wanted him to studyelectrical engineering, but he was a fractious pupil who found the Gymnasium's regimen and teaching methods far from congenial. He later wrote that the school's policy of strictrote learningwas harmful to creativity. At the end of December 1894, a letter from a doctor persuaded the Luitpold's authorities to release him from its care, and he joined his family in Pavia.While in Italy as a teenager, he wrote an essay entitled \"On the Investigation of the State of theEtherin a Magnetic Field\". Einstein excelled at physics and mathematics from an early age, and soon acquired the mathematical expertise normally only found in a child several years his senior. He began teaching himself algebra, calculus andEuclidean geometrywhen he was twelve; he made such rapid progress that he discovered an original proof of thePythagorean theorembefore his thirteenth birthday.A family tutor,Max Talmud, said that only a short time after he had given the twelve year old Einstein a geometry textbook, the boy \"had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow.\"Einstein recorded that he had \"masteredintegralanddifferential calculus\" while still just fourteen.His love of algebra and geometry was so great that at twelve, he was already confident that nature could be understood as a \"mathematical structure\". At thirteen, when his range of enthusiasms had broadened to include music and philosophy,Talmud introduced Einstein toKant'sCritique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, \"At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him.\" In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for thefederal polytechnic school(later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the test,but performed with distinction in physics and mathematics.On the advice of the polytechnic's principal, he completed his secondary education at theArgovian cantonal school(agymnasium) inAarau, Switzerland, graduating in 1896.While lodging in Aarau with the family ofJost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister,Maja, later married Winteler's son Paul.) In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced hiscitizenship of the German Kingdom of Württembergin order to avoidconscription into military service.TheMatura(graduation for the successful completion of higher secondary schooling), awarded to him in September 1896, acknowledged him to have performed well across most of the curriculum, allotting him atop grade of 6for history, physics, algebra, geometry, and descriptive geometry.At seventeen, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, a year older than him, took up a teaching post inOlsberg, Switzerland. The five other polytechnic school freshmen following the same course as Einstein included just one woman, a twenty year oldSerbian,Mileva Marić. Over the next few years, the pair spent many hours discussing their shared interests and learning about topics in physics that the polytechnic school's lectures did not cover. In his letters to Marić, Einstein confessed that exploring science with her by his side was much more enjoyable than reading a textbook in solitude. Eventually the two students became not only friends but also lovers. Historians of physics are divided on the question of the extent to which Marić contributed to the insights of Einstein'sannus mirabilispublications. There is at least some evidence that he was influenced by her scientific ideas,but there are scholars who doubt whether her impact on his thought was of any great significance at all. Marriages, relationships and children Correspondence between Einstein and Marić, discovered and published in 1987, revealed that in early 1902, while Marić was visiting her parents inNovi Sad, she gave birth to a daughter,Lieserl. When Marić returned to Switzerland it was without the child, whose fate is uncertain. A letter of Einstein's that he wrote in September 1903 suggests that the girl was either given up for adoption or died ofscarlet feverin infancy. Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their sonHans Albertwas born inBern, Switzerland. Their sonEduardwas born in Zürich in July 1910. In letters that Einstein wrote to Marie Winteler in the months before Eduard's arrival, he described his love for his wife as \"misguided\" and mourned the \"missed life\" that he imagined he would have enjoyed if he had married Winteler instead: \"I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be.\" In 1912, Einstein entered into a relationship withElsa Löwenthal, who was both his first cousin on his mother's side and his second cousin on his father's.When Marić learned of his infidelity soon after moving to Berlin with him in April 1914, she returned to Zürich, taking Hans Albert and Eduard with her.Einstein and Marić were granted a divorce on 14 February 1919 on the grounds of having lived apart for five years.As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed that if he were to win a Nobel Prize, he would give the money that he received to Marić; he won the prize two years later. Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919.In 1923, he began a relationship with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of his close friend Hans Mühsam.Löwenthal nevertheless remained loyal to him, accompanying him when he emigrated to the United States in 1933. In 1935, she was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. She died in December 1936. A volume of Einstein's letters released byHebrew University of Jerusalemin 2006added further names to the catalog of women with whom he was romantically involved. They included Margarete Lebach (a married Austrian),Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal.After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by some to be a Russian spy; her husband, the Russian sculptorSergei Konenkov, created the bronze bust of Einstein at theInstitute for Advanced Studyat Princeton. Following an episode of acute mental illness at about the age of twenty, Einstein's son Eduard was diagnosed withschizophrenia.He spent the remainder of his life either in the care of his mother or in temporary confinement in an asylum. After her death, he was committed permanently toBurghölzli, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich. 1902–1909: Assistant at the Swiss Patent Office Einstein graduated from the federal polytechnic school in 1900, duly certified as competent to teach mathematics and physics.His successful acquisition of Swiss citizenship in February 1901was not followed by the usual sequel ofconscription; the Swiss authorities deemed him medically unfit for military service. He found that Swiss schools too appeared to have no use for him, failing to offer him a teaching position despite the almost two years that he spent applying for one. Eventually it was with the help ofMarcel Grossmann's father that he secured a post inBernat theSwiss Patent Office,as anassistant examiner – level III. Patent applicationsthat landed on Einstein's desk for his evaluation included ideas for a gravel sorter and an electric typewriter.His employers were pleased enough with his work to make his position permanent in 1903, although they did not think that he should be promoted until he had \"fully mastered machine technology\".It is conceivable that his labors at the patent office had a bearing on his development of his special theory of relativity. He arrived at his revolutionary ideas about space, time and light through thought experiments about the transmission of signals and the synchronization of clocks, matters which also figured in some of the inventions submitted to him for assessment. In 1902, Einstein and some friends whom he had met in Bern formed a group that held regular meetings to discuss science and philosophy. Their choice of a name for their club, theOlympia Academy, was an ironic comment upon its far from Olympian status. Sometimes they were joined by Marić, who limited her participation in their proceedings to careful listening.The thinkers whose works they reflected upon includedHenri Poincaré,Ernst MachandDavid Hume, all of whom significantly influenced Einstein's own subsequent ideas and beliefs. 1900–1905: First scientific papers Einstein's first paper,\"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\"(\"Conclusions drawn from the phenomena of capillarity\"), in which he proposed a model of intermolecular attraction that he afterwards disavowed as worthless, was published in the journalAnnalen der Physikin 1901.His 24-page doctoral dissertation also addressed a topic in molecular physics. Titled \"Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen\" (\"A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions\") and dedicated to his friend Marcel Grossman, it was completed on 30 April 1905and approved by ProfessorAlfred Kleinerof the University of Zurich three months later. (Einstein was formally awarded his PhD on 15 January 1906.)Four other pieces of work that Einstein completed in 1905—his famous paperson thephotoelectric effect,Brownian motion, hisspecial theory of relativityand theequivalence of mass and energy—have led to the year being celebrated as anannus mirabilisfor physics akin to 1666 (the year in whichIsaac Newtonexperienced his greatest epiphanies). The publications deeply impressed Einstein's contemporaries. 1908–1933: Early academic career Einstein's sabbatical as a civil servant approached its end in 1908, when he secured a junior teaching position at theUniversity of Bern. In 1909, a lecture on relativisticelectrodynamicsthat he gave at the University of Zurich, much admired by Alfred Kleiner, led to Zürich's luring him away from Bern with a newly created associate professorship.Promotion to a full professorship followed in April 1911, when he accepted a chair at the GermanCharles-Ferdinand Universityin Prague, a move which required him to become anAustriancitizen of theAustro-Hungarian Empire.His time in Prague saw him producing eleven research papers. In July 1912, he returned to hisalma mater, theETH Zurich, to take up a chair in theoretical physics. His teaching activities there centred onthermodynamicsand analytical mechanics, and his research interests included the molecular theory of heat,continuum mechanicsand the development of a relativistic theory of gravitation. In his work on the latter topic, he was assisted by his friend, Marcel Grossmann, whose knowledge of the kind of mathematics required was greater than his own. In the spring of 1913, two German visitors,Max PlanckandWalther Nernst, called upon Einstein in Zürich in the hope of persuading him to relocate to Berlin.They offered him membership of thePrussian Academy of Sciences, the directorship of the plannedKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physicsand a chair at theHumboldt University of Berlinthat would allow him to pursue his research supported by a professorial salary but with no teaching duties to burden him.Their invitation was all the more appealing to him because Berlin happened to be the home of his latest girlfriend, Elsa Löwenthal.He duly joined the Academy on 24 July 1913,and moved into an apartment in the Berlin district ofDahlemon 1 April 1914.He was installed in his Humboldt University position shortly thereafter. The outbreak of theFirst World Warin July 1914 marked the beginning of Einstein's gradual estrangement from the nation of his birth. When the \"Manifesto of the Ninety-Three\" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German thinkers that justified Germany's belligerence—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to distance himself from it and sign the alternative, eirenic \"Manifesto to the Europeans\" instead.However, this expression of his doubts about German policy did not prevent him from being elected to a two-year term as president of theGerman Physical Societyin 1916.When the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics opened its doors the following year—its foundation delayed because of the war—Einstein was appointed its first director, just as Planck and Nernst had promised. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1920,and aForeign Member of the Royal Society in 1921. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\".At this point some physicists still regarded the general theory of relativity skeptically, and the Nobel citation displayed a degree of doubt even about the work on photoelectricity that it acknowledged: it did not assent to Einstein's notion of the particulate nature of light, which only won over the entire scientific community whenS. N. Bosederived thePlanck spectrumin 1924. That same year, Einstein was elected an International Honorary Member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences.Britain's closest equivalent of the Nobel award, theRoyal Society'sCopley Medal, was not hung around Einstein's neck until 1925.He was elected an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1930. Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving theEinstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development ofBose–Einstein statistics. 1919: Putting general relativity to the test In 1907, Einstein reached a milestone on his long journey from his special theory of relativity to a new idea of gravitation with the formulation of hisequivalence principle, which asserts that an observer in an infinitesimally small box falling freely in a gravitational field would be unable to find any evidence that the field exists. In 1911, he used the principle to estimate the amount by which a ray of light from a distant star would bebentby the gravitational pull of the Sun as it passed close to the Sun'sphotosphere(that is, the Sun's apparent surface). He reworked his calculation in 1913, having now found a way to model gravitation with theRiemann curvature tensorof a non-Euclidean four-dimensionalspacetime. By the fall of 1915, his reimagining of the mathematics of gravitation in terms of Riemannian geometry was complete, and he applied his new theory not just to the behavior of the Sun as a gravitational lens but also to another astronomical phenomenon, theprecession of the perihelion of Mercury(a slow drift in the point in Mercury's elliptical orbit at which it approaches the Sun most closely).Atotal eclipse of the Sun that took place on 29 May 1919provided an opportunity to put his theory of gravitational lensing to the test, and observations performed by SirArthur Eddingtonyielded results that were consistent with his calculations. Eddington's work was reported at length in newspapers around the world. On 7 November 1919, for example, the leading British newspaper,The Times, printed a banner headline that read: \"Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown\". 1921–1923: Coming to terms with fame With Eddington's eclipse observations widely reported not just in academic journals but by the popular press as well, Einstein became \"perhaps the world's first celebrity scientist\", a genius who had shattered a paradigm that had been basic to physicists' understanding of the universe since the seventeenth century. Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where he arrived on 2 April 1921. He was welcomed to New York City by MayorJohn Francis Hylan, and then spent three weeks giving lectures and attending receptions.He spoke several times atColumbia UniversityandPrinceton, and in Washington, he visited theWhite Housewith representatives of theNational Academy of Sciences. He returned to Europe via London, where he was the guest of the philosopher and statesmanViscount Haldane. He used his time in the British capital to meet several people prominent in British scientific, political or intellectual life, and to deliver a lecture atKing's College.In July 1921, he published an essay, \"My First Impression of the U.S.A.\", in which he sought to sketch the American character, much as hadAlexis de TocquevilleinDemocracy in America(1835).He wrote of his transatlantic hosts in highly approving terms: \"What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy.\" In 1922, Einstein's travels were to the old world rather than the new. He devoted six months to a tour of Asia that saw him speaking in Japan, Singapore and Sri Lanka (then known asCeylon). After his first public lecture in Tokyo, he metEmperor Yoshihitoand his wife at theImperial Palace, with thousands of spectators thronging the streets in the hope of catching a glimpse of him. (In a letter to his sons, he wrote that Japanese people seemed to him to be generally modest, intelligent and considerate, and to have a true appreciation of art.But his picture of them in his diary was less flattering: \" intellectual needs of this nation seem to be weaker than their artistic ones – natural disposition?\" His journal also contains views of China and India which were uncomplimentary. Of Chinese people, he wrote that \"even the children are spiritless and look obtuse... It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary\".) He was greeted with even greater enthusiasm on the last leg of his tour, in which he spent twelve days inMandatory Palestine, newly entrusted to British rule by theLeague of Nationsin the aftermath of the First World War.Sir Herbert Samuel, the British High Commissioner, welcomed him with a degree of ceremony normally only accorded to a visiting head of state, including a cannon salute. One reception held in his honor was stormed by people determined to hear him speak: he told them that he was happy that Jews were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world. Einstein's decision to tour the eastern hemisphere in 1922 meant that he was unable to go toStockholmin the December of that year to participate in the Nobel prize ceremony. His place at the traditional Nobel banquet was taken by a German diplomat, who gave a speech praising him not only as a physicist but also as a campaigner for peace.A two-week visit to Spain that he undertook in 1923 saw him collecting another award, a membership of the Spanish Academy of Sciences signified by a diploma handed to him byKing Alfonso XIII. (His Spanish trip also gave him a chance to meet a fellow Nobel laureate, the neuroanatomistSantiago Ramón y Cajal.) 1922–1932: Serving the League of Nations From 1922 until 1932, with the exception of a few months in 1923 and 1924, Einstein was a member of the Geneva-basedInternational Committee on Intellectual Cooperationof theLeague of Nations, a group set up by the League to encourage scientists, artists, scholars, teachers and other people engaged in the life of the mind to work more closely with their counterparts in other countries.He was appointed as a German delegate rather than as a representative of Switzerland because of the machinations of two Catholic activists,Oskar HaleckiandGiuseppe Motta. By persuading Secretary GeneralEric Drummondto deny Einstein the place on the committee reserved for a Swiss thinker, they created an opening forGonzague de Reynold, who used his League of Nations position as a platform from which to promote traditional Catholic doctrine.Einstein's former physics professorHendrik Lorentzand the Polish chemistMarie Curiewere also members of the committee. 1925: Touring South America In March and April 1925, Einstein and his wife visited South America, where they spent about a week in Brazil, a week in Uruguay and a month in Argentina.Their tour was suggested by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935)with the support of several Argentine scholars, includingJulio Rey Pastor,Jakob Laub, andLeopoldo Lugones. and was financed primarily by the Council of theUniversity of Buenos Airesand theAsociación Hebraica Argentina(Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution. 1930–1931: Touring the US In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer of a two month research fellowship at theCalifornia Institute of Technology. Caltech supported him in his wish that he should not be exposed to quite as much attention from the media as he had experienced when visiting the US in 1921, and he therefore declined all the invitations to receive prizes or make speeches that his admirers poured down upon him. But he remained willing to allow his fans at least some of the time with him that they requested. After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, includingChinatown, a lunch with the editors ofThe New York Times, and a performance ofCarmenat theMetropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by MayorJimmy Walkerand metNicholas Murray Butler, the president ofColumbia University, who described Einstein as \"the ruling monarch of the mind\".Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York'sRiverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance.Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people atMadison Square Gardenduring aHanukkahcelebration. Einstein next traveled to California, where he metCaltechpresident and Nobel laureateRobert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was \"awkward\", as Millikan \"had a penchant for patriotic militarism\", where Einstein was a pronouncedpacifist.During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend authorUpton Sinclairand film starCharlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism.Carl Laemmle, head ofUniversal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a \"highly emotional temperament\", from which came his \"extraordinary intellectual energy\". Chaplin's filmCity Lightswas to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests.Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as \"one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity\".Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his \"modest little flat\" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was \"possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis\". 1933: Emigration to the US In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of theNazisunder Germany's new chancellor,Adolf Hitler. While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at theCalifornia Institute of Technologyin Pasadena. In February and March 1933, theGestaporepeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed theEnabling Acton 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into ade factolegal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing inAntwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship.The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into aHitler Youthcamp. Refugee status In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passedlaws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.HistorianGerald Holtondescribes how, with \"virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues\", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed. A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by theGerman Student Unionin theNazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda ministerJoseph Goebbelsproclaiming, \"Jewish intellectualism is dead.\"One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, \"not yet hanged\", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.In a subsequent letter to physicist and friendMax Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, \"... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise.\"After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a \"spontaneous emotional outburst\" by those who \"shun popular enlightenment\", and \"more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence\". Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by theAcademic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politicianWilliam Beveridgeto help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament CommanderOliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with him in the preceding years.Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near hisCromerhome in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish ofRoughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in theDaily Heraldon 24 July 1933. Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meetWinston Churchillat his home, and later,Austen Chamberlainand former Prime MinisterLloyd George.Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historianMartin Gilbertnotes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicistFrederick Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their \"technical standards\" and putthe Allies' technology ahead of theirs. Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister,İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933, requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over \"1,000 saved individuals\". Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe.In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.In his speech he described Einstein as a \"citizen of the world\" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from theInstitute for Advanced Study, inPrinceton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar. Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at theRoyal Albert Hallin London, withThe Timesreporting he was wildly cheered throughout.Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at theInstitute for Advanced Study,noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of theirJewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s. Einstein was still undecided about his future. He had offers from several European universities, includingChrist Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933and was offered a five-year researchfellowship(called a \"studentship\" at Christ Church),but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.He was one of the four first selected (along withJohn von Neumann,Kurt Gödel, andHermann Weyl) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work.Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop aunified field theoryand to refute theaccepted interpretationofquantum physics, both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. TheAlbert Einstein Housewas made aNational Historic Landmarkin 1976. World War II and the Manhattan Project In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicistLeó Szilárdattempted to alertWashingtonto ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such asEdward TellerandEugene Wigner, \"regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win therace to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon.\"To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.He was asked to lend his support by writinga letter, with Szilárd, to PresidentRoosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. The letter is believed to be \"arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II\".In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with theBelgian royal familyand the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the \"race\" to develop the bomb, drawing on its \"immense material, financial, and scientific resources\" to initiate theManhattan Project. For Einstein, \"war was a disease ... he called for resistance to war.\" By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend,Linus Pauling, \"I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ...\"In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopherBertrand Russell, signeda manifestohighlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of theWorld Academy of Art and Science(WAAS),an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons. US citizenship Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of themeritocracyin American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the \"right of individuals to say and think what they pleased\" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education. Einstein joined theNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for thecivil rightsof African Americans. He considered racism America's \"worst disease\",seeing it as \"handed down from one generation to the next\".As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activistW. E. B. Du Boisand was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial as an alleged foreign agent in 1951.When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. In 1946, Einstein visitedLincoln Universityin Pennsylvania, ahistorically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni includeLangston HughesandThurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, \"I do not intend to be quiet about it.\"A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.Einstein has said, \"Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination\". Personal views Political views In 1918, Einstein was one of the signatories of the founding proclamation of theGerman Democratic Party, a liberal party.Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor ofsocialismand critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as \"Why Socialism?\".His opinions on theBolsheviksalso changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a \"well-regulated system of government\" and called their rule a \"regime of terror and a tragedy in human history\". He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark onVladimir Lenin: In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience. Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.He strongly advocated the idea of a democraticglobal governmentthat would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation.He wrote \"I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself.\"The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932; by the time of his death, it was 1,427 pages long. Einstein was deeply impressed byMahatma Gandhi, with whom he corresponded. He described Gandhi as \"a role model for the generations to come\".The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, whenWilfrid Israeltook his Indian guestV. A. Sundaramto meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel. Relationship with Zionism Einstein was a figurehead leader in the establishment of theHebrew University of Jerusalem,which opened in 1925.Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of theWorld Zionist Organization,Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university.He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such asmalaria, which he called an \"evil\" that was undermining a third of the country's development.He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic. Einstein was not anationalistand opposed the creation of an independent Jewish state.He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of theAliyahcould live alongside existing Arabs inPalestine. The state ofIsraelwas established without his help in 1948; Einstein was limited to a marginal role in theZionist movement.Upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime MinisterDavid Ben-Gurionoffered Einstein the largely ceremonial position ofPresident of Israelat the urging ofEzriel Carlebach.The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington,Abba Eban, who explained that the offer \"embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons\".Einstein wrote that he was \"deeply moved\", but \"at once saddened and ashamed\" that he could not accept it. Religious and philosophical views PerLee Smolin, \"I believe what allowed Einstein to achieve so much was primarily a moral quality. He simply cared far more than most of his colleagues that the laws of physics have to explain everything in nature coherently and consistently.\"Einstein expounded his spiritual outlook in a wide array of writings and interviews.He said he had sympathy for the impersonalpantheisticGod ofBaruch Spinoza's philosophy.He did not believe in apersonal godwho concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve.He clarified, however, that \"I am not an atheist\",preferring to call himself an agnostic,or a \"deeply religious nonbeliever\".He wrote that \"A spirit is manifest in the laws of the universe—a spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a religious feeling of a special sort.\" Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religioushumanistandEthical Culturegroups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of theFirst Humanist Society of New York,and was an honorary associate of theRationalist Association, which publishesNew Humanistin Britain. For the 75th anniversary of theNew York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, \"Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity.\" In a German-language letter to philosopherEric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote: The word Godis for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me theJewish religionlike all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And theJewish peopleto whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them. Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of theGerman Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund), he wrote: Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind. He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: \"So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore.\" Love of music Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music. His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate intoGerman culture. According to conductorLeon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age. When he turned 13, he discovered theviolin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored ofMozart's compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without \"ever practicing systematically\". He said that \"love is a better teacher than a sense of duty\".At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playingBeethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was \"remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'\". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein \"displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student.\" Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein playedchamber musicwere a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of theKöchel catalogof Mozart's work; that edition was prepared byAlfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation. In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some ofBeethovenand Mozart's works with members of theZoellner Quartet.Near the end of his life, when the youngJuilliard Quartetvisited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was \"impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation\". Death On 17 April 1955, Einstein experiencedinternal bleedingcaused by the rupture of anabdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically byRudolph Nissenin 1948.He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it. Einstein refused surgery, saying, \"I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.\"He died in thePrinceton Hospitalearly the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. During the autopsy, the pathologistThomas Stoltz HarveyremovedEinstein's brainfor preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that theneuroscienceof the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.Einstein's remains were cremated inTrenton, New Jersey,and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 atUNESCOheadquarters, nuclear physicistJ. Robert Oppenheimersummarized hisimpression of Einsteinas a person: \"He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn.\" Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to theHebrew University of Jerusalemin Israel. Scientific career Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including theBose–Einstein statistics, theEinstein refrigeratorand others. Statistical mechanics Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics Einstein's first papersubmitted in 1900 toAnnalen der Physikwas oncapillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title \"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\", which translates as \"Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena\". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpretatomicphenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. Theory of critical opalescence Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this toRayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. 1905 –Annus Mirabilispapers TheAnnus Mirabilispapersare four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise toquantum theory),Brownian motion, thespecial theory of relativity, andE=mc2that Einstein published in theAnnalen der Physikscientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation ofmodern physicsand changed views onspace, time, andmatter. The four papers are: Special relativity Einstein's \"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper\"(\"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts betweenMaxwell's equations(the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics.Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to thespeed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear toslow down, and the body itself wouldcontractin its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of aluminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. In his paper onmass–energy equivalence, Einstein producedE=mc2as a consequence of his special relativity equations.Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting withMax Planck. Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms ofkinematics(the study of moving bodies). In 1908,Hermann Minkowskireinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory ofspacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915general theory of relativity. General relativity General relativity and the equivalence principle General relativity(GR) is atheory of gravitationthat was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping ofspacetimeby those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modernastrophysics; it provides the foundation for the current understanding ofblack holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions withinspecial relativitywas unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled \"On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It\", he argued thatfree fallis really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called theequivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena ofgravitational time dilation,gravitational redshiftandgravitational lensing. In 1911, Einstein published another article \"On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light\" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. Gravitational waves In 1916, Einstein predictedgravitational waves,ripples in thecurvatureof spacetime which propagate aswaves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to itsLorentz invariancewhich brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in theNewtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbitingneutron stars,PSR B1913+16.The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers atLIGOpublished thefirst observation of gravitational waves,detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction. Hole argument and Entwurf theory While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about thegauge invariancein the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that thehole argumentwas mistakenand abandoned the theory in November 1915. Physical cosmology In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, thecosmological constant, into the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding ofMach's principlein these years. This model became known as the Einstein World orEinstein's static universe. Following the discovery of the recession of the galaxies byEdwin Hubblein 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, theFriedmann–Einstein universeof 1931and theEinstein–de Sitter universeof 1932.In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was \"in any case theoretically unsatisfactory\". In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his \"biggest blunder\", based on a letterGeorge Gamowclaimed to have received from him. The astrophysicistMario Liviohas cast doubt on this claim. In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicistCormac O'Raifeartaighdiscovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the galaxies, Einstein considered asteady-state modelof the universe.In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process that he associated with the cosmological constant.As he stated in the paper, \"In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's facts, and in which the density is constant over time\" ... \"If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space.\" It thus appears that Einstein considered asteady-state modelof the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea. Energy momentum pseudotensor General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum.Noether's theoremallows these quantities to be determined from aLagrangianwithtranslation invariance, butgeneral covariancemakes translation invariance into something of agauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity byNoether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized byErwin Schrödingerand others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists includingLev LandauandEvgeny Lifshitz. Wormholes In 1935, Einstein collaborated withNathan Rosento produce a model of awormhole, often calledEinstein–Rosen bridges.His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper \"Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?\". These solutions cut and pastedSchwarzschild black holesto make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable. Einstein–Cartan theory In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called thetorsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. Equations of motion In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature ofspacetime. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark byJohn Archibald Wheelerthat has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: \"Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve.\"TheEinstein field equationscover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. Thegeodesic equationcovers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies followlines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an \"independent fundamental assumption\" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of agravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed. Old quantum theory Photons and energy quanta In a 1905 paper,Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, withRobert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement ofCompton scattering. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequencyfis associated with a collection of photons with energyhfeach, wherehis thePlanck constant. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how the particles were related to the wave. But he did suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably thephotoelectric effect.Light quanta were dubbedphotonsbyGilbert N. Lewisin 1926. Quantized atomic vibrations In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics.Peter Debyerefined this model. Bose–Einstein statistics In 1924, Einstein received a description of astatisticalmodel from Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to theZeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them theBose–Einstein condensatephenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally byEric Allin CornellandCarl Wiemanusingultra-coolingequipment built at theNIST–JILAlaboratory at theUniversity of Colorado at Boulder.Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly ofbosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University. Wave–particle duality Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became aPrivatdozentat the University of Bern.In \"Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung\" (\"The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation\"), on thequantizationof light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-definedmomentaand act in some respects as independent,point-like particles. This paper introduced thephotonconcept and inspired the notion ofwave–particle dualityin quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. Zero-point energy In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea ofzero-point energyin his \"second quantum theory\". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistantOtto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy. Stimulated emission In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article inPhysikalische Zeitschriftthat proposed the possibility ofstimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible themaserand thelaser.This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Matter waves Einstein discoveredLouis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed thatde Broglie wavescould explain thequantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. Quantum mechanics Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God \"is not playing at dice\".Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete. Bohr versus Einstein The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein andNiels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to thephilosophy of science.Their debates would influence laterinterpretations of quantum mechanics. Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in 1930. Einstein suggested athought experimentin which two objects are allowed to interact and then moved apart a great distance from each other. The quantum-mechanical description of the two objects is a mathematical entity known as awavefunction. If the wavefunction that describes the two objects before their interaction is given, then theSchrödinger equationprovides the wavefunction that describes them after their interaction. But because of what would later be calledquantum entanglement, measuring one object would lead to an instantaneous change of the wavefunction describing the other object, no matter how far away it is. Moreover, the choice of which measurement to perform upon the first object would affect what wavefunction could result for the second object. Einstein reasoned that no influence could propagate from the first object to the second instantaneously fast. Indeed, he argued, physics depends on being able to tell one thing apart from another, and such instantaneous influences would call that into question. Because the true \"physical condition\" of the second object could not be immediately altered by an action done to the first, Einstein concluded, the wavefunction could not be that true physical condition, only an incomplete description of it. A more famous version of this argument came in 1935, when Einstein published a paper withBoris PodolskyandNathan Rosenthat laid out what would become known as theEPR paradox.In this thought experiment, two particles interact in such a way that the wavefunction describing them is entangled. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle. Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by thetheory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the \"EPR criterion of reality\", positing that: \"If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., withprobabilityequal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity.\" From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observablesincompatibleand thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality. In 1964,John Stewart Bellcarried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called aBell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are \"nonlocal\", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated.Bell argued that because an explanation of quantum phenomena in terms of hidden variables would require nonlocality, the EPR paradox \"is resolved in the way which Einstein would have liked least\". Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the argument in the EPR paper overly complicated,that paper became among the most influential papers published inPhysical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development ofquantum information theory. Unified field theory Encouraged by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described hisunified field theoryin aScientific Americanarticle titled \"On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation\".His attempt to find the most fundamental laws of nature won him praise but not success: a particularly conspicuous blemish of his model was that it did not accommodate thestrongandweak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although most researchers now believe that Einstein's approach to unifying physics was mistaken, his goal of atheory of everythingis one to which his successors still aspire. Other investigations Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain toforce,superconductivity, and other research. Collaboration with other scientists In addition to longtime collaboratorsLeopold Infeld,Nathan Rosen,Peter Bergmannand others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein–de Haas experiment In 1908,Owen Willans Richardsonpredicted that a change in themagnetic momentof a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of theconservation of angular momentumand is strong enough to be observable inferromagnetic materials.Einstein andWander Johannes de Haaspublished two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect.Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon ofmagnetizationis caused by the alignment (polarization) of theangular momentaof theelectronsin the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with thespinand with the orbital motion of the electrons. The Einstein-de Haas experiment is the only experiment concived, realized and published by Albert Einstein himself. A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated byGeertruida de Haas-Lorentz, wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to theAmpère Museumin Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in 2023. Einstein as an inventor In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) theEinstein refrigerator. Thisabsorption refrigeratorwas then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.On 11 November 1930,U.S. patent 1,781,541was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, but the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish companyElectrolux. Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump,sound reproduction device,and several other household devices. Non-scientific legacy While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to theHebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University'sAlbert Einstein Archives, told theBBCthat there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. Einstein'sright of publicitywas litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired,that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right.Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses theuse of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university. Mount Einsteinin theChugach MountainsofAlaskawas named in 1955. Mount Einstein in New Zealand'sPaparoa Rangewas named after him in 1970 by theDepartment of Scientific and Industrial Research. In popular culture Einstein became one of the most famousscientific celebritiesafter the confirmation of his general theory of relativity in 1919.Although most of the public had little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and admired. In the period before World War II,The New Yorkerpublished a vignette in their \"The Talk of the Town\" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain \"that theory\". Eventually he came to cope with unwanted enquirers by pretending to be someone else: \"Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein.\" Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.He is a favorite model for depictions ofabsent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated.Timemagazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was \"a cartoonist's dream come true\". Many popularquotationsare oftenmisattributedto him. Awards and honors Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set byAlfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. Einsteinium, a synthetic chemical element, was named in his honor in 1955, a few months after his death. Publications Scientific Others See also Notes References Works cited Further reading External links",
"Niels Bohr Niels Henrik David Bohr(Danish:; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danishphysicistwho made foundational contributions to understandingatomic structureandquantum theory, for which he received theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1922. Bohr was also aphilosopherand a promoter of scientific research. Bohr developed theBohr modelof theatom, in which he proposed that energy levels ofelectronsare discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around theatomic nucleusbut can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle ofcomplementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as awave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at theUniversity of Copenhagen, now known as theNiels Bohr Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists includingHans Kramers,Oskar Klein,George de Hevesy, andWerner Heisenberg. He predicted the properties of a newzirconium-like element, which was namedhafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered. Later, the synthetic elementbohriumwas named after him. During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees fromNazism. AfterDenmark was occupied by the Germans, he met with Heisenberg, who had become the head of theGerman nuclear weapon project. In September 1943 word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, so he fled to Sweden. From there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the BritishTube Alloysnuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to theManhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for international cooperation on nuclear energy. He was involved with the establishment ofCERNand theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commissionand became the first chairman of theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physicsin 1957. Early life Niels Henrik David Bohr was born inCopenhagen, Denmark, on 7 October 1885, the second of three children ofChristian Bohr,a professor ofphysiologyat the University of Copenhagen, and his wife EllennéeAdler, who came from a wealthy Jewish banking family.He had an elder sister, Jenny, and a younger brotherHarald.Jenny became a teacher,while Harald became amathematicianandfootballerwho played for theDanish national teamat the1908 Summer Olympicsin London. Niels was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-basedAkademisk Boldklub(Academic Football Club), with Niels asgoalkeeper. Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven.In 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate atCopenhagen University. His major was physics, which he studied under ProfessorChristian Christiansen, the university's only professor of physics at that time. He also studied astronomy and mathematics under ProfessorThorvald Thiele, and philosophy under ProfessorHarald Høffding, a friend of his father. In 1905 a gold medal competition was sponsored by theRoyal Danish Academy of Sciences and Lettersto investigate a method for measuring thesurface tensionof liquids that had been proposed byLord Rayleighin 1879. This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet. Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his father's laboratory in the university; the university itself had no physics laboratory. To complete his experiments, he had tomake his own glassware, creating test tubes with the requiredellipticalcross-sections. He went beyond the original task, incorporating improvements into both Rayleigh's theory and his method, by taking into account theviscosityof the water, and by working with finite amplitudes instead of just infinitesimal ones. His essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won the prize. He later submitted an improved version of the paper to theRoyal Societyin London for publication in thePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Harald became the first of the two Bohr brothers to earn amaster's degree, which he earned for mathematics in April 1909. Niels took another nine months to earn his on the electron theory of metals, a topic assigned by his supervisor, Christiansen. Bohr subsequently elaborated his master's thesis into his much-largerDoctor of Philosophythesis. He surveyed the literature on the subject, settling on a model postulated byPaul Drudeand elaborated byHendrik Lorentz, in which the electrons in a metal are considered to behave like a gas. Bohr extended Lorentz's model, but was still unable to account for phenomena like theHall effect, and concluded that electron theory could not fully explain the magnetic properties of metals. The thesis was accepted in April 1911,and Bohr conducted his formal defence on 13 May. Harald had received his doctorate the previous year.Bohr's thesis was groundbreaking, but attracted little interest outside Scandinavia because it was written in Danish, a Copenhagen University requirement at the time. In 1921, the Dutch physicistHendrika Johanna van Leeuwenwould independently derive a theorem in Bohr's thesis that is today known as theBohr–Van Leeuwen theorem. In 1910, Bohr metMargrethe Nørlund, the sister of the mathematicianNiels Erik Nørlund.Bohr resigned his membership in theChurch of Denmarkon 16 April 1912, and he and Margrethe were married in a civil ceremony at the town hall inSlagelseon 1 August. Years later, his brother Harald similarly left the church before getting married.Bohr and Margrethe had six sons.The oldest, Christian, died in a boating accident in 1934,and another, Harald, was severely mentally disabled. He was placed in an institution away from his family's home at the age of four and died from childhood meningitis six years later.Aage Bohrbecame a successful physicist, and in 1975 was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, like his father. A son of Aage, Vilhelm A. Bohr, is a scientist affiliated with the University of Copenhagenand theNational Institute on Agingin the U.S.Hansbecame a physician;Erik, a chemical engineer; andErnest, a lawyer.Like his uncle Harald, Ernest Bohr became an Olympic athlete, playingfield hockeyfor Denmark at the1948 Summer Olympicsin London. Physics Bohr model In September 1911, Bohr, supported by a fellowship from theCarlsberg Foundation, travelled to England, where most of the theoretical work on the structure of atoms and molecules was being done.He metJ. J. Thomsonof theCavendish LaboratoryandTrinity College, Cambridge. He attended lectures onelectromagnetismgiven byJames JeansandJoseph Larmor, and did some research oncathode rays, but failed to impress Thomson.He had more success with younger physicists like the AustralianWilliam Lawrence Bragg,and New Zealand'sErnest Rutherford, whose 1911 small central nucleusRutherford modelof theatomhad challenged Thomson's 1904plum pudding model.Bohr received an invitation from Rutherford to conduct post-doctoral work atVictoria University of Manchester,where Bohr metGeorge de HevesyandCharles Galton Darwin(whom Bohr referred to as \"the grandson of thereal Darwin\"). Bohr returned to Denmark in July 1912 for his wedding, and travelled around England and Scotland on his honeymoon. On his return, he became aprivatdocentat the University of Copenhagen, giving lectures onthermodynamics.Martin Knudsenput Bohr's name forward for adocent, which was approved in July 1913, and Bohr then began teaching medical students.His three papers, which later became famous as \"the trilogy\",were published inPhilosophical Magazinein July, September and November of that year.He adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure toMax Planck's quantum theory and so created hisBohr modelof the atom. Planetary models of atoms were not new, but Bohr's treatment was.Taking the 1912 paper by Darwin on the role of electrons in the interaction of alpha particles with a nucleus as his starting point,he advanced the theory of electrons travelling inorbitsof quantised \"stationary states\" around the atom's nucleus in order to stabilise the atom, but it wasn't until his 1921 paper that he showed that the chemical properties of each element were largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its atoms.He introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, in the process emitting aquantumof discrete energy. This became a basis for what is now known as theold quantum theory. In 1885,Johann Balmerhad come up with hisBalmer seriesto describe the visiblespectral linesof ahydrogenatom: where λ is the wavelength of the absorbed or emitted light andRHis theRydberg constant.Balmer's formula was corroborated by the discovery of additional spectral lines, but for thirty years, no one could explain why it worked. In the first paper of his trilogy, Bohr was able to derive it from his model: wheremeis the electron's mass,eis its charge,his thePlanck constantandZis the atom'satomic number(1 for hydrogen). The model's first hurdle was thePickering series, lines that did not fit Balmer's formula. When challenged on this byAlfred Fowler, Bohr replied that they were caused byionisedhelium, helium atoms with only one electron. The Bohr model was found to work for such ions.Many older physicists, like Thomson, Rayleigh andHendrik Lorentz, did not like the trilogy, but the younger generation, including Rutherford,David Hilbert,Albert Einstein,Enrico Fermi,Max BornandArnold Sommerfeldsaw it as a breakthrough.The trilogy's acceptance was entirely due to its ability to explain phenomena that stymied other models, and to predict results that were subsequently verified by experiments.Today, the Bohr model of the atom has been superseded, but is still the best known model of the atom, as it often appears in high school physics and chemistry texts. Bohr did not enjoy teaching medical students. He later admitted that he was not a good lecturer, because he needed a balance between clarity and truth, between \"Klarheit und Wahrheit\".He decided to return to Manchester, where Rutherford had offered him a job as areaderin place of Darwin, whose tenure had expired. Bohr accepted. He took a leave of absence from the University of Copenhagen, which he started by taking a holiday inTyrolwith his brother Harald and auntHanna Adler. There, he visited theUniversity of Göttingenand theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he met Sommerfeld and conducted seminars on the trilogy. The First World War broke out while they were in Tyrol, greatly complicating the trip back to Denmark and Bohr's subsequent voyage with Margrethe to England, where he arrived in October 1914. They stayed until July 1916, by which time he had been appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, a position created especially for him. His docentship was abolished at the same time, so he still had to teach physics to medical students. New professors were formally introduced to KingChristian X, who expressed his delight at meeting such a famous football player. Institute of Physics In April 1917, Bohr began a campaign to establish an Institute of Theoretical Physics. He gained the support of the Danish government and the Carlsberg Foundation, and sizeable contributions were also made by industry and private donors, many of them Jewish. Legislation establishing the institute was passed in November 1918. Now known as theNiels Bohr Institute, it opened on 3 March 1921, with Bohr as its director. His family moved into an apartment on the first floor.Bohr's institute served as a focal point for researchers intoquantum mechanicsand related subjects in the 1920s and 1930s, when most of the world's best-known theoretical physicists spent some time in his company. Early arrivals includedHans Kramersfrom the Netherlands,Oskar Kleinfrom Sweden, George de Hevesy from Hungary,Wojciech Rubinowiczfrom Poland, andSvein Rosselandfrom Norway. Bohr became widely appreciated as their congenial host and eminent colleague.Klein and Rosseland produced the institute's first publication even before it opened. The Bohr model worked well for hydrogen and ionized single-electron helium, which impressed Einsteinbut could not explain more complex elements. By 1919, Bohr was moving away from the idea that electrons orbited the nucleus and developedheuristicsto describe them. Therare-earth elementsposed a particular classification problem for chemists because they were so chemically similar. An important development came in 1924 withWolfgang Pauli's discovery of thePauli exclusion principle, which put Bohr's models on a firm theoretical footing. Bohr was then able to declare that the as-yet-undiscovered element 72 was not a rare-earth element but an element with chemical properties similar to those ofzirconium. (Elements had been predicted and discovered since 1871 by chemical properties), and Bohr was immediately challenged by the French chemistGeorges Urbain, who claimed to have discovered a rare-earth element 72, which he called \"celtium\". At the Institute in Copenhagen,Dirk Costerand George de Hevesy took up the challenge of proving Bohr right and Urbain wrong. Starting with a clear idea of the chemical properties of the unknown element greatly simplified the search process. They went through samples from Copenhagen's Museum of Mineralogy looking for a zirconium-like element and soon found it. The element, which they namedhafnium(hafniabeing the Latin name for Copenhagen), turned out to be more common than gold. In 1922, Bohr was awarded theNobel Prize in Physics\"for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them\".The award thus recognised both the trilogy and his early leading work in the emerging field of quantum mechanics. For his Nobel lecture, Bohr gave his audience a comprehensive survey of what was then known about the structure of the atom, including thecorrespondence principle, which he had formulated. This states that the behaviour of systems described by quantum theory reproducesclassical physicsin the limit of largequantum numbers. The discovery ofCompton scatteringbyArthur Holly Comptonin 1923 convinced most physicists that light was composed ofphotonsand that energy and momentum were conserved in collisions between electrons and photons. In 1924, Bohr, Kramers, andJohn C. Slater, an American physicist working at the Institute in Copenhagen, proposed theBohr–Kramers–Slater theory(BKS). It was more of a program than a full physical theory, as the ideas it developed were not worked out quantitatively. The BKS theory became the final attempt at understanding the interaction of matter and electromagnetic radiation on the basis of the old quantum theory, in which quantum phenomena were treated by imposing quantum restrictions on a classical wave description of the electromagnetic field. Modelling atomic behaviour under incident electromagnetic radiation using \"virtual oscillators\" at the absorption and emission frequencies, rather than the (different) apparent frequencies of the Bohr orbits, led Max Born,Werner Heisenbergand Kramers to explore different mathematical models. They led to the development ofmatrix mechanics, the first form of modernquantum mechanics. The BKS theory also generated discussion of, and renewed attention to, difficulties in the foundations of the old quantum theory.The most provocative element of BKS – that momentum and energy would not necessarily be conserved in each interaction, but only statistically – was soon shown to be in conflict with experiments conducted byWalther BotheandHans Geiger.In light of these results, Bohr informed Darwin that \"there is nothing else to do than to give our revolutionary efforts as honourable a funeral as possible\". Quantum mechanics The introduction ofspinbyGeorge UhlenbeckandSamuel Goudsmitin November 1925 was a milestone. The next month, Bohr travelled toLeidento attend celebrations of the 50th anniversary of Hendrick Lorentz receiving his doctorate. When his train stopped inHamburg, he was met by Wolfgang Pauli andOtto Stern, who asked for his opinion of the spin theory. Bohr pointed out that he had concerns about the interaction between electrons and magnetic fields. When he arrived in Leiden,Paul Ehrenfestand Albert Einstein informed Bohr that Einstein had resolved this problem usingrelativity. Bohr then had Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit incorporate this into their paper. Thus, when he met Werner Heisenberg andPascual JordaninGöttingenon the way back, he had become, in his own words, \"a prophet of the electron magnet gospel\". Heisenberg first came to Copenhagen in 1924, then returned to Göttingen in June 1925, shortly thereafter developing the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. When he showed his results to Max Born in Göttingen, Born realised that they could best be expressed usingmatrices. This work attracted the attention of the British physicistPaul Dirac,who came to Copenhagen for six months in September 1926. Austrian physicistErwin Schrödingeralso visited in 1926. His attempt at explaining quantum physics in classical terms using wave mechanics impressed Bohr, who believed it contributed \"so much to mathematical clarity and simplicity that it represents a gigantic advance over all previous forms of quantum mechanics\". When Kramers left the institute in 1926 to take up a chair as professor of theoretical physics at theUtrecht University, Bohr arranged for Heisenberg to return and take Kramers's place as alektorat the University of Copenhagen.Heisenberg worked in Copenhagen as a university lecturer and assistant to Bohr from 1926 to 1927. Bohr became convinced that light behaved like both waves and particles and, in 1927, experiments confirmed thede Broglie hypothesisthat matter (like electrons) also behaved like waves.He conceived the philosophical principle ofcomplementarity: that items could have apparently mutually exclusive properties, such as being a wave or a stream of particles, depending on the experimental framework.He felt that it was not fully understood by professional philosophers. In February 1927, Heisenberg developed the first version of theuncertainty principle, presenting it using athought experimentwhere an electron was observed through agamma-ray microscope. Bohr was dissatisfied with Heisenberg's argument, since it required only that a measurement disturb properties that already existed, rather than the more radical idea that the electron's properties could not be discussed at all apart from the context they were measured in. In a paper presented at theVolta ConferenceatComoin September 1927, Bohr emphasised that Heisenberg's uncertainty relations could be derived from classical considerations about the resolving power of optical instruments.Understanding the true meaning of complementarity would, Bohr believed, require \"closer investigation\".Einstein preferred the determinism of classical physics over the probabilistic new quantum physics to which he himself had contributed. Philosophical issues that arose from the novel aspects of quantum mechanics became widely celebrated subjects of discussion. Einstein and Bohr hadgood-natured argumentsover such issues throughout their lives. In 1914Carl Jacobsen, the heir toCarlsberg breweries, bequeathed his mansion (the Carlsberg Honorary Residence, currently known as Carlsberg Academy) to be used for life by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature or the arts, as an honorary residence (Danish:Æresbolig). Harald Høffding had been the first occupant, and upon his death in July 1931, the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters gave Bohr occupancy. He and his family moved there in 1932.He was elected president of the Academy on 17 March 1939. By 1929 the phenomenon ofbeta decayprompted Bohr to again suggest that thelaw of conservation of energybe abandoned, butEnrico Fermi's hypotheticalneutrinoand the subsequent 1932 discovery of theneutronprovided another explanation. This prompted Bohr to create a new theory of thecompound nucleusin 1936, which explained how neutrons could be captured by the nucleus. In this model, the nucleus could be deformed like a drop of liquid. He worked on this with a new collaborator, the Danish physicist Fritz Kalckar, who died suddenly in 1938. The discovery ofnuclear fissionbyOtto Hahnin December 1938 (and its theoretical explanation byLise Meitner) generated intense interest among physicists. Bohr brought the news to the United States where he opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics with Fermi on 26 January 1939.When Bohr toldGeorge Placzekthat this resolved all the mysteries oftransuranic elements, Placzek told him that one remained: the neutron capture energies of uranium did not match those of its decay. Bohr thought about it for a few minutes and then announced to Placzek,Léon RosenfeldandJohn Wheelerthat \"I have understood everything.\"Based on hisliquid drop modelof the nucleus, Bohr concluded that it was theuranium-235isotope and not the more abundanturanium-238that was primarily responsible for fission with thermal neutrons. In April 1940,John R. Dunningdemonstrated that Bohr was correct.In the meantime, Bohr and Wheeler developed a theoretical treatment, which they published in a September 1939 paper on \"The Mechanism of Nuclear Fission\". Philosophy Heisenberg said of Bohr that he was \"primarily a philosopher, not a physicist\".Bohr read the 19th-century DanishChristian existentialistphilosopherSøren Kierkegaard.Richard Rhodesargued inThe Making of the Atomic Bombthat Bohr was influenced by Kierkegaard through Høffding.In 1909, Bohr sent his brother Kierkegaard'sStages on Life's Wayas a birthday gift. In the enclosed letter, Bohr wrote, \"It is the only thing I have to send home; but I do not believe that it would be very easy to find anything better ... I even think it is one of the most delightful things I have ever read.\" Bohr enjoyed Kierkegaard's language and literary style, but mentioned that he had some disagreement withKierkegaard's philosophy.Some of Bohr's biographers suggested that this disagreement stemmed from Kierkegaard's advocacy of Christianity, while Bohr was anatheist. There has been some dispute over the extent to which Kierkegaard influenced Bohr's philosophy and science.David Favrholdtargued that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr's work, taking Bohr's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value,while Jan Faye argued that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure. Quantum physics There has been much subsequent debate and discussion about Bohr's views and philosophy of quantum mechanics.Regarding his ontological interpretation of the quantum world, Bohr has been seen as ananti-realist, aninstrumentalist, a phenomenological realist or some other kind of realist. Furthermore, though some have seen Bohr as being asubjectivistor apositivist, most philosophers agree that this is a misunderstanding of Bohr as he never argued forverificationismor for the idea that the subject had a direct impact on the outcome of a measurement. Bohr has often been quoted saying that there is \"no quantum world\" but only an \"abstract quantum physical description\". This was not publicly said by Bohr, but rather a private statement attributed to Bohr by Aage Petersen in a reminiscence after his death.N. David MerminrecalledVictor Weisskopfdeclaring that Bohr wouldn't have said anything of the sort and exclaiming, \"Shame on Aage Petersen for putting those ridiculous words in Bohr's mouth!\" Numerous scholars have argued that the philosophy ofImmanuel Kanthad a strong influence on Bohr. Like Kant, Bohr thought distinguishing between the subject's experience and the object was an important condition for attaining knowledge. This can only be done through the use of causal and spatial-temporal concepts to describe the subject's experience.Thus, according to Jan Faye, Bohr thought that it is because of \"classical\" concepts like \"space\", \"position\", \"time\", \"causation\", and \"momentum\" that one can talk about objects and their objective existence. Bohr held that basic concepts like \"time\" are built in to our ordinary language and that the concepts of classical physics are merely a refinement of them.Therefore, for Bohr, classical concepts need to be used to describe experiments that deal with the quantum world. Bohr writes: he account of all evidence must be expressed in classical terms. The argument is simply that by the word 'experiment' we refer to a situation where we can tell to others what we have done and what we have learned and that, therefore, the account of the experimental arrangement and of the results of the observations must be expressed in unambiguous language with suitable application of the terminology of classical physics (APHK, p. 39). According to Faye, there are various explanations for why Bohr believed that classical concepts were necessary for describing quantum phenomena. Faye groups explanations into five frameworks: empiricism (i.e.logical positivism);Kantianism(orNeo-Kantianmodels ofepistemology);Pragmatism(which focus on how human beings experientially interact with atomic systems according to their needs and interests); Darwinianism (i.e. we are adapted to use classical type concepts, whichLéon Rosenfeldsaid that we evolved to use); and Experimentalism (which focuses strictly on the function and outcome of experiments that thus must be described classically).These explanations are not mutually exclusive, and at times Bohr seems to emphasise some of these aspects while at other times he focuses on other elements. According to Faye \"Bohr thought of the atom as real. Atoms are neither heuristic nor logical constructions.\" However, according to Faye, he did not believe \"that the quantum mechanical formalism was true in the sense that it gave us a literal ('pictorial') rather than a symbolic representation of the quantum world.\"Therefore, Bohr's theory ofcomplementarity\"is first and foremost a semantic and epistemological reading of quantum mechanics that carries certain ontological implications\".As Faye explains, Bohr'sindefinability thesisis that he truth conditions of sentences ascribing a certain kinematic or dynamic value to an atomic object are dependent on the apparatus involved, in such a way that these truth conditions have to include reference to the experimental setup as well as the actual outcome of the experiment. Faye notes that Bohr's interpretation makes no reference to a \"collapse of the wave function during measurements\" (and indeed, he never mentioned this idea). Instead, Bohr \"accepted the Born statistical interpretation because he believed that theψ-functionhas only a symbolic meaning and does not represent anything real\". Since for Bohr, theψ-function is not a literal pictorial representation of reality, there can be no real collapse of the wavefunction. A much debated point in recent literature is what Bohr believed about atoms and their reality and whether they are something else than what they seem to be. Some like Henry Folse argue that Bohr saw a distinction between observed phenomena and atranscendental reality. Jan Faye disagrees with this position and holds that for Bohr, the quantum formalism and complementarity was the only thing we could say about the quantum world and that \"there is no further evidence in Bohr's writings indicating that Bohr would attribute intrinsic and measurement-independent state properties to atomic objects in addition to the classical ones being manifested in measurement.\" Second World War Assistance to refugee scholars The rise ofNazismin Germany prompted many scholars to flee their countries, either because they were Jewish or because they were political opponents of the Nazi regime. In 1933, theRockefeller Foundationcreated a fund to help support refugee academics, and Bohr discussed this programme with the President of the Rockefeller Foundation,Max Mason, in May 1933 during a visit to the United States. Bohr offered the refugees temporary jobs at the institute, provided them with financial support, arranged for them to be awarded fellowships from the Rockefeller Foundation, and ultimately found them places at institutions around the world. Those that he helped includedGuido Beck,Felix Bloch,James Franck, George de Hevesy,Otto Frisch,Hilde Levi,Lise Meitner, George Placzek,Eugene Rabinowitch,Stefan Rozental, Erich Ernst Schneider,Edward Teller,Arthur von HippelandVictor Weisskopf. In April 1940, early in the Second World War,Nazi Germanyinvaded and occupied Denmark.To prevent the Germans from discoveringMax von Laue's and James Franck'sgold Nobel medals, Bohr had de Hevesy dissolve them inaqua regia. In this form, they were stored on a shelf at the Institute until after the war, when the gold was precipitated and the medals re-struck by the Nobel Foundation. Bohr's own medal had been donated to an auction to theFinnish Relief Fund, and was auctioned off in March 1940, along with the medal ofAugust Krogh. The buyer later donated the two medals to the Danish Historical Museum inFrederiksborg Castle, where they are still kept,although Bohr's medal temporarily went to space withAndreas MogensenonISSExpedition 70in 2023-2024. Bohr kept the Institute running, but all the foreign scholars departed. Meeting with Heisenberg Bohr was aware of the possibility of using uranium-235 to construct anatomic bomb, referring to it in lectures in Britain and Denmark shortly before and after the war started, but he did not believe that it was technically feasible to extract a sufficient quantity of uranium-235.In September 1941, Heisenberg, who had become head of theGerman nuclear energy project, visited Bohr in Copenhagen. During this meeting the two men took a private moment outside, the content of which has caused much speculation, as both gave differing accounts. According to Heisenberg, he began to address nuclear energy, morality and the war, to which Bohr seems to have reacted by terminating the conversation abruptly while not giving Heisenberg hints about his own opinions.Ivan Supek, one of Heisenberg's students and friends, claimed that the main subject of the meeting wasCarl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, who had proposed trying to persuade Bohr to mediate peace between Britain and Germany. In 1957, Heisenberg wrote toRobert Jungk, who was then working on the bookBrighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists. Heisenberg explained that he had visited Copenhagen to communicate to Bohr the views of several German scientists, that production of a nuclear weapon was possible with great efforts, and this raised enormous responsibilities on the world's scientists on both sides.When Bohr saw Jungk's depiction in the Danish translation of the book, he drafted (but never sent) a letter to Heisenberg, stating that he deeply disagreed with Heisenberg's account of the meeting,that he recalled Heisenberg's visit as being to encourage cooperation with the inevitably victorious Nazisand that he was shocked that Germany was pursuing nuclear weapons under Heisenberg's leadership. Michael Frayn's 1998 playCopenhagenexplores what might have happened at the 1941 meeting between Heisenberg and Bohr.A television film versionof the play by theBBCwas first screened on 26 September 2002, withStephen Reaas Bohr. With the subsequent release of Bohr's letters, the play has been criticised by historians as being a \"grotesque oversimplification and perversion of the actual moral balance\" due to adopting a pro-Heisenberg perspective. The same meeting had previously been dramatised by the BBC'sHorizonscience documentary series in 1992, withAnthony Bateas Bohr, and Philip Anthony as Heisenberg.The meeting is also dramatised in the Norwegian/Danish/British miniseriesThe Heavy Water War. Manhattan Project In September 1943, word reached Bohr and his brother Harald that the Nazisconsidered their family to be Jewish, since their mother was Jewish, and that they were therefore in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September.The next day, Bohr persuaded KingGustaf V of Swedento make public Sweden's willingness to provide asylum to Jewish refugees. On 2 October 1943, Swedish radio broadcast that Sweden was ready to offer asylum, and the massrescue of the Danish Jewsby their countrymen followed swiftly thereafter. Some historians claim that Bohr's actions led directly to the mass rescue, while others say that, though Bohr did all that he could for his countrymen, his actions were not a decisive influence on the wider events.Eventually, over 7,000 Danish Jews escaped to Sweden. When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain,Lord Cherwellsent a telegram to Bohr asking him to come to Britain. Bohr arrived in Scotland on 6 October in ade Havilland Mosquitooperated by theBritish Overseas Airways Corporation(BOAC).The Mosquitos were unarmed high-speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small, valuable cargoes or important passengers. By flying at high speed and high altitude, they could cross German-occupied Norway, and yet avoid German fighters. Bohr, equipped with parachute, flying suit and oxygen mask, spent the three-hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft'sbomb bay.During the flight, Bohr did not wear his flying helmet as it was too small, and consequently did not hear the pilot's intercom instruction to turn on his oxygen supply when the aircraft climbed to high altitude to overfly Norway. He passed out from oxygen starvation and only revived when the aircraft descended to lower altitude over the North Sea.Bohr's son Aage followed his father to Britain on another flight a week later, and became his personal assistant. Bohr was warmly received byJames Chadwickand SirJohn Anderson, but for security reasons Bohr was kept out of sight. He was given an apartment atSt James's Palaceand an office with the BritishTube Alloysnuclear weapons development team. Bohr was astonished at the amount of progress that had been made.Chadwick arranged for Bohr to visit the United States as a Tube Alloys consultant, with Aage as his assistant.On 8 December 1943, Bohr arrived inWashington, D.C., where he met with the director of theManhattan Project, Brigadier GeneralLeslie R. Groves Jr.He visited Einstein and Pauli at theInstitute for Advanced StudyinPrinceton, New Jersey, and went toLos AlamosinNew Mexico, where the nuclear weapons were being designed.For security reasons, he went under the name of \"Nicholas Baker\" in the United States, while Aage became \"James Baker\".In May 1944 the Danish resistance newspaperDe frie Danskereported that they had learned that 'the famous son of Denmark Professor Niels Bohr' in October the previous year had fled his country via Sweden to London and from there travelled toMoscowfrom where he could be assumed to support the war effort. Bohr did not remain at Los Alamos, but paid a series of extended visits over the course of the next two years.Robert Oppenheimercredited Bohr with acting \"as a scientific father figure to the younger men\", most notablyRichard Feynman.Bohr is quoted as saying, \"They didn't need my help in making the atom bomb.\"Oppenheimer gave Bohr credit for an important contribution to the work onmodulated neutron initiators. \"This device remained a stubborn puzzle\", Oppenheimer noted, \"but in early February 1945 Niels Bohr clarified what had to be done\". Bohr recognised early that nuclear weapons would change international relations. In April 1944, he received a letter fromPeter Kapitza, written some months before when Bohr was in Sweden, inviting him to come to theSoviet Union. The letter convinced Bohr that the Soviets were aware of the Anglo-American project, and would strive to catch up. He sent Kapitza a non-committal response, which he showed to the authorities in Britain before posting.Bohr met Churchill on 16 May 1944, but found that \"we did not speak the same language\".Churchill disagreed with the idea of openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter: \"It seems to me Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes.\" Oppenheimer suggested that Bohr visit PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltto convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared with the Soviets in the hope of speeding up its results. Bohr's friend, Supreme Court JusticeFelix Frankfurter, informed President Roosevelt about Bohr's opinions, and a meeting between them took place on 26 August 1944. Roosevelt suggested that Bohr return to the United Kingdom to try to win British approval.When Churchill and Roosevelt met at Hyde Park on 19 September 1944, they rejected the idea of informing the world about the project, and theaide-mémoireof their conversation contained a rider that \"enquiries should be made regarding the activities of Professor Bohr and steps taken to ensure that he is responsible for no leakage of information, particularly to the Russians\". In June 1950, Bohr addressed an \"Open Letter\" to theUnited Nationscalling for international cooperation on nuclear energy.In the 1950s, after theSoviet Union's first nuclear weapon test, theInternational Atomic Energy Agencywas created along the lines of Bohr's suggestion.In 1957 he received the first everAtoms for Peace Award. Later years Following the ending of the war, Bohr returned to Copenhagen on 25 August 1945, and was re-elected President of the Royal Danish Academy of Arts and Sciences on 21 September.At a memorial meeting of the Academy on 17 October 1947 for KingChristian X, who had died in April, the new king,Frederik IX, announced that he was conferring theOrder of the Elephanton Bohr. This award was normally awarded only to royalty and heads of state, but the king said that it honoured not just Bohr personally, but Danish science.Bohr designed his owncoat of arms, which featured ataijitu(symbol of yin and yang) and a motto in Latin:contraria sunt complementa, \"opposites are complementary\". The Second World War demonstrated that science, and physics in particular, now required considerable financial and material resources. To avoid abrain drainto the United States, twelve European countries banded together to createCERN, a research organisation along the lines of the national laboratories in the United States, designed to undertakeBig Scienceprojects beyond the resources of any one of them alone. Questions soon arose regarding the best location for the facilities. Bohr and Kramers felt that the Institute in Copenhagen would be the ideal site.Pierre Auger, who organised the preliminary discussions, disagreed; he felt that both Bohr and his Institute were past their prime, and that Bohr's presence would overshadow others. After a long debate, Bohr pledged his support to CERN in February 1952, andGenevawas chosen as the site in October. The CERN Theory Group was based in Copenhagen until their new accommodation in Geneva was ready in 1957.Victor Weisskopf, who later became theDirector General of CERN, summed up Bohr's role, saying that \"there were other personalities who started and conceived the idea ofCERN. The enthusiasm and ideas of the other people would not have been enough, however, if a man of his stature had not supported it.\" Meanwhile, Scandinavian countries formed theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physicsin 1957, with Bohr as its chairman. He was also involved with the founding of theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission, and served as its first chairman from February 1956. Bohr died of heart failure at his home inCarlsbergon 18 November 1962.He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in the family plot in theAssistens Cemeteryin theNørrebrosection of Copenhagen, along with those of his parents, his brother Harald, and his son Christian. Years later, his wife's ashes were also interred there.On 7 October 1965, on what would have been his 80th birthday, the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen was officially renamed to what it had been called unofficially for many years: the Niels Bohr Institute. Accolades Bohr received numerous honours and accolades. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he received theHughes Medalin 1921, theMatteucci Medalin 1923, theFranklin Medalin 1926,theCopley Medalin 1938, the Order of the Elephant in 1947, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1957 and theSonning Prizein 1961. He became foreign member of theFinnish Society of Sciences an Lettersin 1922,and of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1923,an international member of theUnited States National Academy of Sciencesin 1925,a member of theRoyal Societyin 1926,an international member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1940,and an international honorary member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1945.The Bohr model's semicentennial was commemorated in Denmark on 21 November 1963 with apostage stampdepicting Bohr, the hydrogen atom and the formula for the difference of any two hydrogen energy levels:hν=ϵ2−ϵ1{\\displaystyle h\\nu =\\epsilon _{2}-\\epsilon _{1}}. Several other countries have also issued postage stamps depicting Bohr.In 1997, theDanish National Bankbegan circulating the500-krone banknotewith the portrait of Bohr smoking a pipe.On 7 October 2012, in celebration of Niels Bohr's 127th birthday, a Google Doodle depicting the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom appeared on Google's home page.An asteroid,3948 Bohr, was named after him,as was theBohr lunar craterandbohrium, the chemical element with atomic number 107. Bibliography See also Notes References Further reading External links",
"Johannes Stark Johannes Stark(German pronunciation:ⓘ, 15 April 1874 – 21 June 1957) was a Germanphysicistwho was awarded theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1919 \"for his discovery of the Doppler effect incanal raysand the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields\". This phenomenon is known as theStark effect. Stark received his Ph.D. in physics from theUniversity of Munichin 1897 under the supervision ofEugen von Lommel, and served as Lommel's assistant until his appointment as a lecturer at theUniversity of Göttingenin 1900. He was anextraordinary professoratLeibniz University Hannoverfrom 1906 until he became a professor atRWTH Aachen Universityin 1909. In 1917, he became professor at theUniversity of Greifswald, and he also worked at theUniversity of Würzburgfrom 1920 to 1922. A supporter ofAdolf Hitlerfrom 1924, Stark was one of the main figures, along with fellow Nobel laureatePhilipp Lenard, in the anti-SemiticDeutsche Physikmovement, which sought to remove Jewish scientists from German physics. He was appointed head of theGerman Research Foundationin 1933 and was president of theReich Physical-Technical Institutefrom 1933 to 1939. In 1947 he was found guilty as a \"Major Offender\" by adenazificationcourt. Biography Early years Born inSchickenhof,Kingdom of Bavaria(nowFreihung), Stark was educated atBayreuth Gymnasium(secondary school) and later inRegensburg. Hiscollegiateeducation began at theUniversity of Munich, where he studied physics,mathematics,chemistry, andcrystallography. His tenure at that college began in 1894; he graduated in 1897, with hisdoctoraldissertation titledUntersuchung über einige physikalische, vorzüglich optische Eigenschaften des Rußes(Investigation of some physical, in particular optical properties of soot). Career Stark worked in various positions at the Physics Institute of hisalma materuntil 1900, when he became an unsalariedlecturerat theUniversity of Göttingen. An extraordinary professor atHannoverby 1906, in 1908 he became professor atRWTH Aachen University. He worked and researched at physics departments of several universities, including theUniversity of Greifswald, until 1922. In 1919, he won theNobel Prize in Physicsfor his \"discovery of theDoppler effectincanal raysand the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields\" (the latter is known as theStark effect). From 1933 until his retirement in 1939, Stark was elected President of thePhysikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, while also President of theDeutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. It was Stark who, as the editor of theJahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, asked in 1907, then still rather unknown,Albert Einsteinto write a review article on theprinciple of relativity. Stark seemed impressed by relativity and Einstein's earlier work when he quoted \"the principle of relativity formulated by H. A. Lorentz and A. Einstein\" and \"Planck's relationshipM0=E0/c2\" in his 1907 paperinPhysikalische Zeitschrift, where he used the equatione0=m0c2to calculate an \"elementary quantum of energy\", i.e. the amount of energy related to the mass of an electron at rest. While working on his article,Einstein began a line of thought that would eventually lead to hisgeneral theory of relativity, which in turn became (after its confirmation) the start of Einstein's worldwide fame. This is ironic, given Stark's later work as an anti-Einstein andanti-relativitypropagandist in theDeutsche Physikmovement. Stark published more than 300 papers, mainly regardingelectricityand other such topics. He received various awards, including theNobel Prize, the Baumgartner Prize of theVienna Academy of Sciences(1910), the Vahlbruch Prize of theGöttingen Academy of Sciences(1914), and theMatteucci Medalof theRome Academy. Probably his best known contribution to the field ofphysicsis theStark effect, which he discovered in 1913. In 1970 theInternational Astronomical Unionhonored him with acrateron the far-side of the Moon, without knowing about his Nazi activities.The name was dropped on August 12, 2020. He marriedLuise Uepler, and they had five children. His hobbies were the cultivation of fruit trees and forestry. He worked in his private laboratory, which he set up using his Nobel prize money, on his country estate in Upper Bavaria after the second world war. There he studied the deflection of light in an electric field. Affiliation with Nazism From 1924 onwards, Stark supported Hitler.During theNaziregime, Stark attempted to become theFührerof German physics through theDeutsche Physik(\"German physics\") movement (along with fellow Nobel laureatePhilipp Lenard) against the \"Jewish physics\" ofAlbert EinsteinandWerner Heisenberg(who was not Jewish). After Werner Heisenberg defended Albert Einstein'stheory of relativity, Stark wrote an angry article in the officialSSnewspaperDas Schwarze Korps, calling Heisenberg a \"White Jew\". On August 21, 1934, Stark wrote to physicist and fellow Nobel laureateMax von Laue, telling him to toe the party line or suffer the consequences. The letter was signed off with \"Heil Hitler.\" In his 1934 bookNationalsozialismus und Wissenschaft(English: \"National Socialism and Science\") Stark maintained that the priority of the scientist was to serve the nation—thus, the important fields of research were those that could help German arms production and industry. He attacked theoretical physics as \"Jewish\" and stressed that scientific positions inNazi Germanyshould only be held by pure-blooded Germans. Writing inDas Schwarze Korps, Stark argued that even ifracial antisemitismwere to triumph, it would only be a 'partial victory' if 'Jewish' ideas were not similarly defeated: \"We also have to eradicate the Jewish spirit, whose blood can flow just as undisturbed today as before if its carriers hold beautifulAryanpasses\". In 1947, following the defeat of Germany inWorld War II, Stark was classified as a \"Major Offender\" and received a sentence of four years' imprisonment (later suspended) by adenazificationcourt. Later life and death Stark spent the last years of his life on his Gut Eppenstatt near Traunstein in Upper Bavaria, where he died in 1957 at the age of 83. He was buried inSchönau am Königsseein the mountain cemetery. See also Publications Notes References External links",
"James Franck James Franck(German pronunciation:ⓘ; 26 August 1882 – 21 May 1964) was a Germanphysicistwho won the 1925Nobel Prize for PhysicswithGustav Hertz\"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom\".He completed hisdoctoratein 1906 and hishabilitationin 1911 at theFrederick William Universityin Berlin, where he lectured and taught until 1918, having reached the position ofprofessor extraordinarius. He served as a volunteer in the German Army duringWorld War I. He was seriously injured in 1917 in a gas attack and was awarded theIron Cross1st Class. Franck became the Head of the Physics Division of theKaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaftfor Physical Chemistry. In 1920, Franck becameprofessor ordinariusof experimental physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics at theUniversity of Göttingen. While there he worked onquantum physicswithMax Born, who was Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics. His work included theFranck–Hertz experiment, an important confirmation of theBohr modelof theatom. He promoted the careers of women in physics, notablyLise Meitner,Hertha SponerandHilde Levi. After theNazi Partycame to power in Germany in 1933, Franck resigned his post in protest against the dismissal of fellow academics. He assistedFrederick Lindemannin helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933. After a year at theNiels Bohr InstituteinDenmark, he moved to the United States, where he worked atJohns Hopkins UniversityinBaltimoreand then theUniversity of Chicago. During this period he became interested inphotosynthesis. Franck participated in theManhattan ProjectduringWorld War IIas Director of the Chemistry Division of theMetallurgical Laboratory. He was also the chairman of the Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which is best known for the compilation of theFranck Report, which recommended that theatomic bombsnot be used on the Japanese cities without warning. Early life James Franck was born inHamburg, Germany, on 26 August 1882, into aJewishfamily, the second child and first son of Jacob Franck, a banker, and his wife Rebecca née Nachum Drucker.He had an older sister, Paula, and a younger brother, Robert Bernard.His father was a devout and religious man, while his mother came from a family of rabbis.Franck attended primary school in Hamburg. Starting in 1891 he attended theWilhelm-Gymnasium, which was then a boys-only school. Hamburg had no university then, so prospective students had to attend one of the 22 universities elsewhere in Germany. Intending to study law and economics, Franck entered theUniversity of Heidelbergin 1901, as it had a renowned law school.He attended lectures on law, but was far more interested in those on science. While there, he metMax Born, who would become a lifelong friend. With Born's help, he was able to persuade his parents to allow him to switch to studying physics and chemistry.Franck attended mathematics lectures byLeo KönigsbergerandGeorg Cantor, but Heidelberg was not strong on the physical sciences, so he decided to go to theFrederick William Universityin Berlin. At Berlin, Franck attended lectures byMax PlanckandEmil Warburg.On 28 July 1904 he saved a pair of children from drowning in theSpree River.For hisDoctor of Philosophy(Dir. Phil.) under Warburg's supervision,Warburg suggested that he studycorona discharges. Franck found this topic too complex, so he changed the focus of histhesis.EntitledÜber die Beweglichkeit der Ladungsträger der Spitzenentladung(\"On the Mobility ofIons\"),it would subsequently be published in theAnnalen der Physik. With his thesis completed, Franck had to perform his deferred military service. He was called up on 1 October 1906 and joined the 1st Telegraph Battalion. He suffered a minor horse riding accident in December and was discharged as unfit for duty. He took up an assistantship at the Physikalische Verein inFrankfurtin 1907, but did not enjoy it, and soon returned to Frederick William University.At a concert Franck met Ingrid Josephson, a Swedish pianist. They were married in a Swedish ceremony inGothenburgon 23 December 1907. They had two daughters, Dagmar (Daggie), who was born in 1909, and Elisabeth (Lisa), who was born in 1912. To pursue an academic career in Germany, having a doctorate was not enough; one needed avenia legendi, or habilitation. This could be achieved with either another major thesis or by producing a substantial body of published work. Franck chose the latter route. There were many unsolved problems in physics at the time, and by 1914 he had published 34 articles. He was the sole author of some, but generally preferred working in collaboration withEva von Bahr,Lise Meitner,Robert Pohl,Peter Pringsheim,Robert W. Wood,Arthur WehneltorWilhelm Westphal. His most fruitful collaboration was withGustav Hertz, with whom he wrote 19 articles. He received his habilitation on 20 May 1911. Franck–Hertz experiment In 1914, Franck teamed up with Hertz to perform an experiment to investigatefluorescence. They designed avacuum tubefor studying energeticelectronsthat flew through a thin vapour ofmercuryatoms. They discovered that when an electron collided with a mercury atom it could lose only a specific quantity (4.9electronvolts) of itskinetic energybefore flying away. A faster electron does not decelerate completely after a collision, but loses precisely the same amount of its kinetic energy. Slower electrons just bounce off mercury atoms without losing any significant speed or kinetic energy. These experimental results provided confirmation ofAlbert Einstein'sphotoelectric effectand Planck's relation (E=fh) linking energy (E) and frequency (f) arising from quantisation of energy with thePlanck constant(h). But they also provided evidence supporting themodel of the atomthat had been proposed the previous year byNiels Bohr. Its key feature was that an electron inside an atom occupies one of the atom's \"quantum energy levels\". Before a collision, an electron inside the mercury atom occupies its lowest available energy level. After the collision, the electron inside occupies a higher energy level with 4.9 eV more energy. This means that the electron is more loosely bound to the mercury atom. There were no intermediate levels or possibilities. In a second paper presented in May 1914, Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions. They showed that thewavelengthof thisultravioletlight corresponded exactly to the 4.9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost. The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr.Franck and Hertz completed their last paper together in December 1918. In it, they reconciled the discrepancies between their results and Bohr's theory, which they now acknowledged.In his Nobel lecture, Franck admitted that it was \"completely incomprehensible that we had failed to recognise the fundamental significance of Bohr's theory, so much so, that we never even mentioned it once\".On 10 December 1926, Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925Nobel Prize in Physics\"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom.\". World War I Franck enlisted in theGerman Armysoon after the outbreak of theFirst World Warin August 1914. In December he was sent to thePicardysector of theWestern Front. He became a deputy officer (offizierstellvertreter), and then a lieutenant (leutnant) in 1915.In early 1915 he was transferred toFritz Haber's new unit that would introduce clouds of chlorine gas as a weapon.WithOtto Hahnhe was responsible for locating sites for the attacks. He was awarded theIron Cross, Second Class, on 30 March 1915,and the city of Hamburg awarded him theHanseatic Crosson 11 January 1916.While in hospital withpleurisy, he co-wrote yet another scientific paper with Hertz, and he was appointed an assistant professor in his absence by Frederick William University on 19 September 1916. Sent to theRussian front, he came down withdysentery. He returned to Berlin, where he joined Hertz, Westphal,Hans Geiger, Otto Hahn and others at Haber'sKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, working on the development ofgas masks.He was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class, on 23 February 1918. He was discharged from the Army on 25 November 1918, soon after the war ended. With the war over, Haber's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute now returned to research, and Haber offered Franck a job. His new post came with more pay, but was not a tenured position. It did however allow Franck to pursue his research as he wished. Working with new, younger collaborators such asWalter Grotrian, Paul Knipping, Thea Krüger,Fritz ReicheandHertha Sponer, his first papers at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute examined atomic electrons in their excited state, results that would later prove important in the development of thelaser.They coined the term \"metastable\" for atoms spending an extended time in a state other thanthat of least energy.When Niels Bohr visited Berlin in 1920, Meitner and Franck arranged for him to come to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute to talk with the younger staff without the presence of thebonzen(\"bigwigs\"). Göttingen In 1920, theUniversity of Göttingenoffered Max Born its chair of theoretical physics, which had recently been vacated byPeter Debye. Göttingen was an important centre for mathematics, thanks toDavid Hilbert,Felix Klein,Hermann MinkowskiandCarl Runge, but not so much for physics. This would change. As part of his price for coming to Göttingen, Born wanted Franck to head experimental physics there. On 15 November 1920, Franck became Professor of Experimental Physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics, a fully tenuredprofessor ordinarius. He was allowed two assistants, so he broughtHertha Sponerwith him from Berlin to fill one of the positions. Pohl, a gifted teacher, headed the First Institute, and handled the lectures.Franck refurbished the laboratory with the latest equipment using funds from his own pocket. Under Born and Franck, Göttingen was one of the world's great centres for physics between 1920 and 1933.Although they published only three papers together, Born and Franck discussed every one of their papers with each other. Gaining admittance to Franck's laboratory became highly competitive. His doctoral students includedHans Kopfermann,Arthur R. von Hippel,Wilhelm Hanle,Fritz Houtermans,Heinrich Kuhn,Werner Kroebel, Walter Lochte-Holtgreven andHeinz Maier-Leibnitz.In supervising doctoral candidates, Franck had to ensure that thesis topics were well-defined, and would teach the candidate how to conduct original research, while still staying within the limits of the candidate's ability, the laboratory's equipment and the institute's budget.Under his direction, research was carried out into the structure of atoms and molecules. In his own research, Franck developed what became known as theFranck–Condon principle, a rule inspectroscopyandquantum chemistrythat explains the intensity ofvibronic transitions, simultaneous changes in electronic and vibrational energy levels of a molecule due to the absorption or emission of aphotonof the appropriate energy. The principle states that during anelectronic transition, a change from onevibrationalenergy levelto another will be more likely to happen if the two vibrationalwave functionsoverlap more significantly.The principle has since been applied to a wide variety of related phenomena. For his work during this time period, Franck was elected to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1929. Exile This period came to an end when theNazi Partywon power in Germany inan electionon 2 March 1933. The following month it enacted theLaw for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which provided for the retirement or dismissal of all Jewish civil servants, along with political opponents of the government. As a veteran of the First World War, Franck was exempt, but he submitted his resignation anyway on 17 April 1933.He once commented that science was his God and nature was his religion. He did not require his daughters to attend religious instruction classes at school,and even let them have a decorated tree at Christmas;but he was proud of his Jewish heritage all the same.He was the first academic to resign in protest over the law.Newspapers around the world reported it, but no government or university protested. Franck assistedFrederick Lindemannin helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933.After a brief visit to the United States, where he measured the absorption of light inheavy waterwith Wood atJohns Hopkins University, he took up a position at theNiels Bohr InstituteinCopenhagen.He needed a new collaborator, so he took onHilde Levi, whose recent thesis had impressed him.His original intention was to continue his research into the fluorescence of vapours and liquids, but under Bohr's influence they began to take an interest in biological aspects of these reactions, particularlyphotosynthesis, the process by which plants use light to convertcarbon dioxideand water into more organic compounds. Biological processes turned out to be far more complicated than simple reactions in atoms and molecules. He co-authored two papers with Levi on the subject, which he would return to over the following years. Franck found a position at thePolytekniske Læreanstaltin Copenhagen for Arthur von Hippel, who was now his son in law, having married his daughter Dagmar. He decided to provide financial security for his children by dividing his Nobel Prize money between them. The gold medal itself was entrusted to Niels Bohr for safekeeping.When Germanyinvaded Denmarkon 9 April 1940, the Hungarian chemistGeorge de Hevesydissolved the gold medal, along with that ofMax von Laueinaqua regiato prevent the Germans from taking them. He placed the resulting solution on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. After the war, he returned to find the solution undisturbed and precipitated the gold out of the acid. The Nobel Society then recast the Nobel Prize medals. In 1935, Franck moved to the United States, where he had accepted a professorship at Johns Hopkins University.The laboratory there was poorly equipped compared to the one in Göttingen, but he received $10,000 for equipment from theRockefeller Foundation. A more intractable problem was that the university had no money to hire skilled staff. Franck was concerned about his family members remaining in Germany, and needed money to help them emigrate. He therefore accepted an offer from theUniversity of Chicago, where his work on photosynthesis had attracted interest, in 1938. Franck's first paper there, co-authored withEdward Teller, was on photochemical processes in crystals.Hans Gaffronbecame his collaborator.They were joined by Pringsheim, who escaped from Belgium after theGerman invasion. Franck arranged a position for Pringsheim at his laboratory.Both his daughters and their families moved to the United States, and he was also able to bring out his elderly mother and aunt.He became anaturalisedUnited States citizen on 21 July 1941,so he was not anenemy alienwhen the United Statesdeclared war on Germanyon 11 December 1941. His daughters still were, though, so they were restricted from travelling, and could not take care of their mother when she fell ill and died on 10 January 1942, although they were permitted to attend her funeral. In February 1942,Arthur H. Comptonestablished itsMetallurgical Laboratoryat the University of Chicago. As part of theManhattan Project, its mission was to buildnuclear reactorsto createplutoniumthat would be used inatomic bombs.The Metallurgical Laboratory's Chemistry Division was initially headed byFrank Spedding, but he preferred hands on work to administration. Compton then turned to Franck, with some trepidation owing to his German background.Compton later wrote: How Franck welcomed an invitation to join our project! It was a vote of confidence that far exceeded his hopes, and it gave him a chance to do his part for the cause of freedom. \"It's not the German people I'm fighting\", he explained. \"It's the Nazis. They have a stranglehold over Germany. The German people are helpless until we can break the strength of their Nazi masters.\" The chemists welcomed Franck as an elder scientific statesman whose guidance they were glad to follow. In addition to heading the Chemistry Division, Franck was also the chairman of the Metallurgical Laboratory's Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which consisted of himself andDonald J. Hughes,J. J. Nickson,Eugene Rabinowitch,Glenn T. Seaborg, J. C. Stearns andLeó Szilárd.In 1945, Franck warnedHenry A. Wallaceof their fears that \"mankind has learned to unleash atomic power without being ethically and politically prepared to use it wisely.\"The committee compiled what became known as theFranck Report. Finished on 11 June 1945, it recommended that theatomic bombsnot be used on the Japanese cities without warning.In any event, theInterim Committeedecided otherwise. Later life Franck marriedHertha Sponerin a civil ceremony on 29 June 1946,his first wife, Ingrid, having died in 1942. In his post-war research, he continued to tackle the problem of explaining the mechanism of photosynthesis. Meitner saw no break between his early and later work. She recalled that Franck enjoyed talking about his problems, not so much to explain them to others as to satisfy his own mind. Once a problem had aroused his interest he was completely captivated, indeed obsessed by it. Common sense and straight logic were his main tools, together with simple apparatus. His research followed an almost straight line, from his early studies of ion mobilities to his last work on photosynthesis; it was always the energy exchange between atoms or molecules that fascinated him. In addition to the Nobel Prize. Franck was awarded theMax Planck medalof theDeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaftin 1951 and theRumford Medalof the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on photosynthesis in 1955. He became an honorary citizen of Göttingen in 1953,was elected a member of the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1944,and elected aForeign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1964.He was also an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Society. He died suddenly from a heart attack while visiting Göttingen on 21 May 1964,and was buried in Chicago with his first wife. In 1967, the University of Chicago named theJames Franck Instituteafter him.Alunar craterhas also been named in his honour.His papers are in the University of Chicago Library. See also Notes References Further reading External links",
"Gustav Ludwig Hertz Gustav Ludwig Hertz(/hɜːrts/;German:ⓘ; 22 July 1887 – 30 October 1975)was a Germanexperimental physicistandNobel Prize winnerfor his work on inelastic electron collisions in gases, and a nephew ofHeinrich Hertz. Biography Hertz was born inHamburg, the son of Auguste (née Arning) and a lawyer, Gustav Theodor Hertz (1858–1904),Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's brother. He attended theGelehrtenschule des Johanneumsbefore studying at theGeorg-August University of Göttingen(1906–1907), theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich(1907–1908), and theHumboldt University of Berlin(1908–1911). He received his doctorate in 1911 underHeinrich Leopold Rubens. From 1911 to 1914, Hertz was an assistant to Rubens at the University of Berlin. It was during this time that Hertz andJames Franckperformed experiments on inelastic electron collisions in gases,known as theFranck–Hertz experiments, and for which they received theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1925. During World War I, Hertz served in the military from 1914. In 1915 he joinedFritz Haber's unit that would introduce poisonous chlorine gas as a weapon.He was seriously wounded in 1915. In 1917, he returned to the University of Berlin as aPrivatdozent. In 1920, he took a job as a research physicist at the Philips Incandescent Lamp Factory inEindhoven, which he held until 1925. Career In 1925, Hertz became ordinarius professor and director of the Physics Institute of theMartin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg. In 1928 he became ordinarius professor of experimental physics and director of the Physics Institute of theTechnische HochschuleBerlin(\"THB\"), nowTechnische Universität Berlin. While there, he developed an isotope separation technique via gaseous diffusion. Since Hertz was an officer during World War I, he was temporarily protected from National Socialist policies and theLaw for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, but eventually the policies and laws became more stringent, and at the end of 1934, he was forced to resign his position at THB, as he was classified as a \"second degree part-Jew\" (his paternal grandfatherGustav Ferdinand Hertz(originally named David Gustav Hertz) (1827–1914) had been Jewish as a child, before his whole family had converted to Lutheranism in 1834).He then took a position atSiemens, as director of Research Laboratory II. While there, he continued his work onatomic physicsandultrasound, but he eventually discontinued his work on isotope separation. He held this position until he departed for the Soviet Union in 1945. In the Soviet Union \"Pact to defect\" Hertz was concerned for his safety and, like his fellow Nobel laureateJames Franck, was looking to move to the USA or any other place outside Germany. So he made a pact with three colleagues:Manfred von Ardenne, director of his private laboratoryForschungslaboratorium für Elektronenphysik,Peter Adolf Thiessen, ordinarius professor at theHumboldt University of Berlinand director of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie (KWIPC) inBerlin-Dahlem, andMax Volmer, ordinarius professor and director of the Physical Chemistry Institute at the THB.The pact was a pledge that whoever first made contact with the Soviets would speak for the rest. The objectives of their pact were threefold: (1) prevent plunder of their institutes, (2) continue their work with minimal interruption, and (3) protect themselves from prosecution for any political acts of the past.Before the end of World War II, Thiessen, a member of theNazi Party, had Communist contacts. Participation in Soviet program of nuclear weapons On 27 April 1945, Thiessen arrived at von Ardenne's institute in an armored vehicle with a major of the Soviet Army, who was also a leading Soviet chemist.All four of the pact members were taken to the Soviet Union. Hertz was made head of Institute G, in Agudseri (Agudzery), about 10 km southeast ofSukhumiand a suburb of Gul'rips (Gulrip'shi).Topics assigned to Gustav Hertz's Institute G included: (1) Separation of isotopes by diffusion in a flow of inert gases, for which Gustav Hertz was the leader, (2) Development of a condensation pump, for whichJustus Mühlenpfordtwas the leader, (3) Design and build a mass spectrometer for determining the isotopic composition of uranium, for which Werner Schütze was the leader, (4) Development of frameless (ceramic) diffusion partitions for filters, for which Reinhold Reichmann was the leader, and (5) Development of a theory of stability and control of a diffusion cascade, for whichHeinz Barwichwas the leader; Barwich had been deputy to Hertz at Siemens.Other members of Institute G wereWerner Hartmannand Karl-Franz Zühlke.Manfred von Ardenne was made head of Institute A. Goals of von Ardenne's Institute A included: (1) Electromagnetic separation of isotopes, for which von Ardenne was the leader, (2) Techniques for manufacturing porous barriers for isotope separation, for which Peter Adolf Thiessen was the leader, and (3) Molecular techniques for separation of uranium isotopes, for whichMax Steenbeckwas the leader. In his first meeting withLavrentij Beria, von Ardenne was asked to participate in building the bomb, but von Ardenne quickly realized that participation would prohibit his repatriation to Germany, so he suggested isotope enrichment as an objective, which was agreed to. Research at Sukhumi By the end of the 1940s, nearly 300 Germans were working at the institute, and they were not the total work force. Institute A was used as the basis for the Sukhumi Physical-Technical Institute in Sinop, a suburb ofSukhumi.Volmer went to the Scientific Research Institute No. 9 (NII-9)in Moscow; he was given a design bureau to work on the production ofheavy water. In Institute A, Thiessen became leader for developing techniques for manufacturing porous barriers for isotope separation. In 1949, six German scientists, including Hertz, Thiessen, and Barwich were called in for consultation atSverdlovsk-44, which was responsible for uranium enrichment. The plant, smaller than the American Oak Ridgegaseous diffusion plant, was getting only a little over half of the expected 90% or higher enrichment. After 1950, Hertz moved to Moscow. In 1951, Hertz was awarded aStalin Prize, second class, with Barwich.In that year, James Franck and Hertz were jointly awarded theMax Planck Medalby theDeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. Hertz remained in the Soviet Union until 1955. Return to the GDR Upon return from the Soviet Union, Hertz became ordinarius professor at theUniversity of Leipzig. From 1955 to 1967, he was also the chairman of the Physical Society of theDeutsche Demokratische Republik (GDR); he was honorary chairman from 1967 to 1975. Personal life Gustav Hertz was a nephew ofHeinrich Rudolf Hertzand a cousin ofMathilde Carmen Hertz. In 1919, Hertz married Ellen née Dihlmann, who died in 1941. They had two sons,Carl Helmut Hertzand Johannes Heinrich Hertz; both became physicists. He died on 30 October 1975 inEast Berlinat the age 88. Scientific memberships Hertz was a Member of the German Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Corresponding Member of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences, an Honorary Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, a Member of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences, and a Foreign Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Publications See also References Further reading External links",
"List of Nobel laureates in Physics TheNobel Prize in Physics(Swedish:Nobelpriset i fysik) is awarded annually by theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciencesto scientists in the various fields ofphysics. It is one of the fiveNobel Prizesestablished by the 1895willofAlfred Nobel(who died in 1896), awarded for outstanding contributions in physics.As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by theNobel Foundationand awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.The award is presented inStockholmat an annual ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death.Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award prize that has varied throughout the years. Statistics The Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to 226 individuals as of 2024.The first prize in physics was awarded in 1901 toWilhelm Conrad Röntgen, of Germany, who received 150,782SEK.John Bardeenis the only laureate to win the prize twice—in 1956 and 1972. William Lawrence Braggwas the youngest Nobel laureate in physics; he won the prize in 1915 at the age of 25. He was also the youngest laureate for any Nobel prize until 2014 (whenMalala Yousafzaiwon the Nobel Peace Prize at the age of 17).The oldest Nobel Prize laureate in physics wasArthur Ashkinwho was 96 years old when he was awarded the prize in 2018. Only five women have won the prize:Marie Curie(1903),Maria Goeppert-Mayer(1963),Donna Strickland(2018),Andrea Ghez(2020), andAnne L'Huillier(2023).Before L'Huillier, each woman only ever received a quarter share of the prize, although Marie Curie did receive anunshared Nobel prize in chemistry in 1911. In 2023, L'Huillier received a one-third share. There have been six years for which the Nobel Prize in Physics was not awarded (1916, 1931, 1934, 1940–1942). There were also nine years for which the Nobel Prize in Physics was delayed for one year: A 2020 study reported that half of the Nobel Prizes for science awarded between 1995 and 2017 are clustered in few disciplines.Particle physics(14%),atomic physics(10.9%), and 3 non-physics disciplines dominate the prize in recent decades, followed bysemiconductor physicsandmagnetics. Laureates Number of Nobel laureates in Physics by country See also Notes References External links",
"Quantum mechanics Quantum mechanicsis a fundamentaltheorythat describes the behavior ofnatureat and below the scale ofatoms.: 1.1It is the foundation of allquantum physics, which includesquantum chemistry,quantum field theory,quantum technology, andquantum information science. Quantum mechanics can describe many systems thatclassical physicscannot. Classical physics can describe many aspects of nature at an ordinary (macroscopicand(optical) microscopic) scale, but is not sufficient for describing them at very smallsubmicroscopic(atomic andsubatomic) scales. Most theories in classical physics can be derived from quantum mechanics as an approximation, valid at large (macroscopic/microscopic) scale. Quantum systems haveboundstates that arequantizedtodiscrete valuesofenergy,momentum,angular momentum, and other quantities, in contrast to classical systems where these quantities can be measured continuously. Measurements of quantum systems show characteristics of bothparticlesandwaves(wave–particle duality), and there are limits to how accurately the value of a physical quantity can be predicted prior to its measurement, given a complete set of initial conditions (theuncertainty principle). Quantum mechanicsarose graduallyfrom theories to explain observations that could not be reconciled with classical physics, such asMax Planck's solution in 1900 to theblack-body radiationproblem, and the correspondence between energy and frequency inAlbert Einstein's1905 paper, which explained thephotoelectric effect. These early attempts to understand microscopic phenomena, now known as the \"old quantum theory\", led to the full development of quantum mechanics in the mid-1920s byNiels Bohr,Erwin Schrödinger,Werner Heisenberg,Max Born,Paul Diracand others. The modern theory is formulated in variousspecially developed mathematical formalisms. In one of them, a mathematical entity called thewave functionprovides information, in the form ofprobability amplitudes, about what measurements of a particle's energy, momentum, and other physical properties may yield. Overview and fundamental concepts Quantum mechanics allows the calculation of properties and behaviour of physical systems. It is typically applied to microscopic systems: molecules, atoms and sub-atomic particles. It has been demonstrated to hold for complex molecules with thousands of atoms,but its application to human beings raises philosophical problems, such asWigner's friend, and its application to the universe as a whole remains speculative.Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to an extremely high degree ofaccuracy. For example, the refinement of quantum mechanics for the interaction of light and matter, known asquantum electrodynamics(QED), has beenshown to agree with experimentto within 1 part in 1012when predicting the magnetic properties of an electron. A fundamental feature of the theory is that it usually cannot predict with certainty what will happen, but only give probabilities. Mathematically, a probability is found by taking the square of the absolute value of acomplex number, known as a probability amplitude. This is known as theBorn rule, named after physicistMax Born. For example, a quantum particle like anelectroncan be described by a wave function, which associates to each point in space a probability amplitude. Applying the Born rule to these amplitudes gives aprobability density functionfor the position that the electron will be found to have when an experiment is performed to measure it. This is the best the theory can do; it cannot say for certain where the electron will be found. TheSchrödinger equationrelates the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to one moment of time to the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to another.: 67–87 One consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is a tradeoff in predictability between measurable quantities. The most famous form of thisuncertainty principlesays that no matter how a quantum particle is prepared or how carefully experiments upon it are arranged, it is impossible to have a precise prediction for a measurement of its position and also at the same time for a measurement of itsmomentum.: 427–435 Another consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is the phenomenon ofquantum interference, which is often illustrated with thedouble-slit experiment. In the basic version of this experiment, acoherent light source, such as alaserbeam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate.: 102–111: 1.1–1.8The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through the two slits tointerfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen – a result that would not be expected if light consisted of classical particles.However, the light is always found to be absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as individual particles rather than waves; the interference pattern appears via the varying density of these particle hits on the screen. Furthermore, versions of the experiment that include detectors at the slits find that each detectedphotonpasses through one slit (as would a classical particle), and not through both slits (as would a wave).: 109However,such experimentsdemonstrate that particles do not form the interference pattern if one detects which slit they pass through. This behavior is known aswave–particle duality. In addition to light,electrons,atoms, andmoleculesare all found to exhibit the same dual behavior when fired towards a double slit. Another non-classical phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics isquantum tunnelling: a particle that goes up against apotential barriercan cross it, even if its kinetic energy is smaller than the maximum of the potential.In classical mechanics this particle would be trapped. Quantum tunnelling has several important consequences, enablingradioactive decay,nuclear fusionin stars, and applications such asscanning tunnelling microscopy,tunnel diodeandtunnel field-effect transistor. When quantum systems interact, the result can be the creation ofquantum entanglement: their properties become so intertwined that a description of the whole solely in terms of the individual parts is no longer possible. Erwin Schrödinger called entanglement \"...thecharacteristic trait of quantum mechanics, the one that enforces its entire departure from classical lines of thought\".Quantum entanglement enablesquantum computingand is part of quantum communication protocols, such asquantum key distributionandsuperdense coding.Contrary to popular misconception, entanglement does not allow sending signalsfaster than light, as demonstrated by theno-communication theorem. Another possibility opened by entanglement is testing for \"hidden variables\", hypothetical properties more fundamental than the quantities addressed in quantum theory itself, knowledge of which would allow more exact predictions than quantum theory provides. A collection of results, most significantlyBell's theorem, have demonstrated that broad classes of such hidden-variable theories are in fact incompatible with quantum physics. According to Bell's theorem, if nature actually operates in accord with any theory oflocalhidden variables, then the results of aBell testwill be constrained in a particular, quantifiable way. Many Bell tests have been performed and they have shown results incompatible with the constraints imposed by local hidden variables. It is not possible to present these concepts in more than a superficial way without introducing the mathematics involved; understanding quantum mechanics requires not only manipulating complex numbers, but alsolinear algebra,differential equations,group theory, and other more advanced subjects.Accordingly, this article will present a mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics and survey its application to some useful and oft-studied examples. Mathematical formulation In the mathematically rigorous formulation of quantum mechanics, the state of a quantum mechanical system is a vectorψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }belonging to a (separable) complexHilbert spaceH{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}}. This vector is postulated to be normalized under the Hilbert space inner product, that is, it obeys⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1{\\displaystyle \\langle \\psi ,\\psi \\rangle =1}, and it is well-defined up to a complex number of modulus 1 (the global phase), that is,ψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }andeiαψ{\\displaystyle e^{i\\alpha }\\psi }represent the same physical system. In other words, the possible states are points in theprojective spaceof a Hilbert space, usually called thecomplex projective space. The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system – for example, for describing position and momentum the Hilbert space is the space of complexsquare-integrablefunctionsL2(C){\\displaystyle L^{2}(\\mathbb {C} )}, while the Hilbert space for thespinof a single proton is simply the space of two-dimensional complex vectorsC2{\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} ^{2}}with the usual inner product. Physical quantities of interest – position, momentum, energy, spin – are represented by observables, which areHermitian(more precisely,self-adjoint) linearoperatorsacting on the Hilbert space. A quantum state can be aneigenvectorof an observable, in which case it is called aneigenstate, and the associatedeigenvaluecorresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. More generally, a quantum state will be a linear combination of the eigenstates, known as aquantum superposition. When an observable is measured, the result will be one of its eigenvalues with probability given by theBorn rule: in the simplest case the eigenvalueλ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }is non-degenerate and the probability is given by|⟨λ→,ψ⟩|2{\\displaystyle |\\langle {\\vec {\\lambda }},\\psi \\rangle |^{2}}, whereλ→{\\displaystyle {\\vec {\\lambda }}}is its associated eigenvector. More generally, the eigenvalue is degenerate and the probability is given by⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩{\\displaystyle \\langle \\psi ,P_{\\lambda }\\psi \\rangle }, wherePλ{\\displaystyle P_{\\lambda }}is the projector onto its associated eigenspace. In the continuous case, these formulas give instead theprobability density. After the measurement, if resultλ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }was obtained, the quantum state is postulated tocollapsetoλ→{\\displaystyle {\\vec {\\lambda }}}, in the non-degenerate case, or toPλψ/⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩{\\textstyle P_{\\lambda }\\psi {\\big /}\\!{\\sqrt {\\langle \\psi ,P_{\\lambda }\\psi \\rangle }}}, in the general case. Theprobabilisticnature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement. This is one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the central topic in the famousBohr–Einstein debates, in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental principles by way ofthought experiments. In the decades after the formulation of quantum mechanics, the question of what constitutes a \"measurement\" has been extensively studied. Newerinterpretations of quantum mechanicshave been formulated that do away with the concept of \"wave function collapse\" (see, for example, themany-worlds interpretation). The basic idea is that when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus, their respective wave functions becomeentangledso that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity (seeMeasurement in quantum mechanics). Time evolution of a quantum state The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrödinger equation: HereH{\\displaystyle H}denotes theHamiltonian, the observable corresponding to thetotal energyof the system, andℏ{\\displaystyle \\hbar }is the reducedPlanck constant. The constantiℏ{\\displaystyle i\\hbar }is introduced so that the Hamiltonian is reduced to theclassical Hamiltonianin cases where the quantum system can be approximated by a classical system; the ability to make such an approximation in certain limits is called thecorrespondence principle. The solution of this differential equation is given by The operatorU(t)=e−iHt/ℏ{\\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\\hbar }}is known as the time-evolution operator, and has the crucial property that it isunitary. This time evolution isdeterministicin the sense that – given an initial quantum stateψ(0){\\displaystyle \\psi (0)}– it makes a definite prediction of what the quantum stateψ(t){\\displaystyle \\psi (t)}will be at any later time. Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are independent of time, such aseigenstates of the Hamiltonian.: 133–137Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such \"static\" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcitedatomis pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around theatomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics, it is described by a static wave function surrounding the nucleus. For example, the electron wave function for an unexcited hydrogen atom is a spherically symmetric function known as ansorbital(Fig. 1). Analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are known forvery few relatively simple model Hamiltoniansincluding thequantum harmonic oscillator, theparticle in a box, thedihydrogen cation, and thehydrogen atom. Even theheliumatom – which contains just two electrons – has defied all attempts at a fully analytic treatment, admitting no solution inclosed form. However, there are techniques for finding approximate solutions. One method, calledperturbation theory, uses the analytic result for a simple quantum mechanical model to create a result for a related but more complicated model by (for example) the addition of a weakpotential energy.: 793Another approximation method applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces only small deviations from classical behavior. These deviations can then be computed based on the classical motion.: 849 Uncertainty principle One consequence of the basic quantum formalism is the uncertainty principle. In its most familiar form, this states that no preparation of a quantum particle can imply simultaneously precise predictions both for a measurement of its position and for a measurement of its momentum.Both position and momentum are observables, meaning that they are represented byHermitian operators. The position operatorX^{\\displaystyle {\\hat {X}}}and momentum operatorP^{\\displaystyle {\\hat {P}}}do not commute, but rather satisfy thecanonical commutation relation: Given a quantum state, the Born rule lets us compute expectation values for bothX{\\displaystyle X}andP{\\displaystyle P}, and moreover for powers of them. Defining the uncertainty for an observable by astandard deviation, we have and likewise for the momentum: The uncertainty principle states that Either standard deviation can in principle be made arbitrarily small, but not both simultaneously.This inequality generalizes to arbitrary pairs of self-adjoint operatorsA{\\displaystyle A}andB{\\displaystyle B}. Thecommutatorof these two operators is and this provides the lower bound on the product of standard deviations: Another consequence of the canonical commutation relation is that the position and momentum operators areFourier transformsof each other, so that a description of an object according to its momentum is the Fourier transform of its description according to its position. The fact that dependence in momentum is the Fourier transform of the dependence in position means that the momentum operator is equivalent (up to ani/ℏ{\\displaystyle i/\\hbar }factor) to taking the derivative according to the position, since in Fourier analysisdifferentiation corresponds to multiplication in the dual space. This is why in quantum equations in position space, the momentumpi{\\displaystyle p_{i}}is replaced by−iℏ∂∂x{\\displaystyle -i\\hbar {\\frac {\\partial }{\\partial x}}}, and in particular in thenon-relativistic Schrödinger equation in position spacethe momentum-squared term is replaced with a Laplacian times−ℏ2{\\displaystyle -\\hbar ^{2}}. Composite systems and entanglement When two different quantum systems are considered together, the Hilbert space of the combined system is thetensor productof the Hilbert spaces of the two components. For example, letAandBbe two quantum systems, with Hilbert spacesHA{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}_{A}}andHB{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}_{B}}, respectively. The Hilbert space of the composite system is then If the state for the first system is the vectorψA{\\displaystyle \\psi _{A}}and the state for the second system isψB{\\displaystyle \\psi _{B}}, then the state of the composite system is Not all states in the joint Hilbert spaceHAB{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}_{AB}}can be written in this form, however, because the superposition principle implies that linear combinations of these \"separable\" or \"product states\" are also valid. For example, ifψA{\\displaystyle \\psi _{A}}andϕA{\\displaystyle \\phi _{A}}are both possible states for systemA{\\displaystyle A}, and likewiseψB{\\displaystyle \\psi _{B}}andϕB{\\displaystyle \\phi _{B}}are both possible states for systemB{\\displaystyle B}, then is a valid joint state that is not separable. States that are not separable are calledentangled. If the state for a composite system is entangled, it is impossible to describe either component systemAor systemBby a state vector. One can instead definereduced density matricesthat describe the statistics that can be obtained by making measurements on either component system alone. This necessarily causes a loss of information, though: knowing the reduced density matrices of the individual systems is not enough to reconstruct the state of the composite system.Just as density matrices specify the state of a subsystem of a larger system, analogously,positive operator-valued measures(POVMs) describe the effect on a subsystem of a measurement performed on a larger system. POVMs are extensively used in quantum information theory. As described above, entanglement is a key feature of models of measurement processes in which an apparatus becomes entangled with the system being measured. Systems interacting with the environment in which they reside generally become entangled with that environment, a phenomenon known asquantum decoherence. This can explain why, in practice, quantum effects are difficult to observe in systems larger than microscopic. Equivalence between formulations There are many mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most common is the \"transformation theory\" proposed byPaul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics –matrix mechanics(invented byWerner Heisenberg) and wave mechanics (invented byErwin Schrödinger).An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics isFeynman'spath integral formulation, in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over all possible classical and non-classical paths between the initial and final states. This is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of theaction principlein classical mechanics. Symmetries and conservation laws The HamiltonianH{\\displaystyle H}is known as thegeneratorof time evolution, since it defines a unitary time-evolution operatorU(t)=e−iHt/ℏ{\\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\\hbar }}for each value oft{\\displaystyle t}. From this relation betweenU(t){\\displaystyle U(t)}andH{\\displaystyle H}, it follows that any observableA{\\displaystyle A}that commutes withH{\\displaystyle H}will beconserved: its expectation value will not change over time.: 471This statement generalizes, as mathematically, any Hermitian operatorA{\\displaystyle A}can generate a family of unitary operators parameterized by a variablet{\\displaystyle t}. Under the evolution generated byA{\\displaystyle A}, any observableB{\\displaystyle B}that commutes withA{\\displaystyle A}will be conserved. Moreover, ifB{\\displaystyle B}is conserved by evolution underA{\\displaystyle A}, thenA{\\displaystyle A}is conserved under the evolution generated byB{\\displaystyle B}. This implies a quantum version of the result proven byEmmy Noetherin classical (Lagrangian) mechanics: for everydifferentiablesymmetryof a Hamiltonian, there exists a correspondingconservation law. Examples Free particle The simplest example of a quantum system with a position degree of freedom is a free particle in a single spatial dimension. A free particle is one which is not subject to external influences, so that its Hamiltonian consists only of its kinetic energy: The general solution of the Schrödinger equation is given by which is a superposition of all possibleplane wavesei(kx−ℏk22mt){\\displaystyle e^{i(kx-{\\frac {\\hbar k^{2}}{2m}}t)}}, which are eigenstates of the momentum operator with momentump=ℏk{\\displaystyle p=\\hbar k}. The coefficients of the superposition areψ^(k,0){\\displaystyle {\\hat {\\psi }}(k,0)}, which is the Fourier transform of the initial quantum stateψ(x,0){\\displaystyle \\psi (x,0)}. It is not possible for the solution to be a single momentum eigenstate, or a single position eigenstate, as these are not normalizable quantum states.Instead, we can consider a Gaussianwave packet: which has Fourier transform, and therefore momentum distribution We see that as we makea{\\displaystyle a}smaller the spread in position gets smaller, but the spread in momentum gets larger. Conversely, by makinga{\\displaystyle a}larger we make the spread in momentum smaller, but the spread in position gets larger. This illustrates the uncertainty principle. As we let the Gaussian wave packet evolve in time, we see that its center moves through space at a constant velocity (like a classical particle with no forces acting on it). However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more and more uncertain. The uncertainty in momentum, however, stays constant. Particle in a box The particle in a one-dimensional potential energy box is the most mathematically simple example where restraints lead to the quantization of energy levels. The box is defined as having zero potential energy everywhereinsidea certain region, and therefore infinite potential energy everywhereoutsidethat region.: 77–78For the one-dimensional case in thex{\\displaystyle x}direction, the time-independent Schrödinger equation may be written With the differential operator defined by with stateψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }in this case having energyE{\\displaystyle E}coincident with the kinetic energy of the particle. The general solutions of the Schrödinger equation for the particle in a box are or, fromEuler's formula, The infinite potential walls of the box determine the values ofC,D,{\\displaystyle C,D,}andk{\\displaystyle k}atx=0{\\displaystyle x=0}andx=L{\\displaystyle x=L}whereψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }must be zero. Thus, atx=0{\\displaystyle x=0}, andD=0{\\displaystyle D=0}. Atx=L{\\displaystyle x=L}, in whichC{\\displaystyle C}cannot be zero as this would conflict with the postulate thatψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }has norm 1. Therefore, sincesin(kL)=0{\\displaystyle \\sin(kL)=0},kL{\\displaystyle kL}must be an integer multiple ofπ{\\displaystyle \\pi }, This constraint onk{\\displaystyle k}implies a constraint on the energy levels, yielding Afinite potential wellis the generalization of the infinite potential well problem to potential wells having finite depth. The finite potential well problem is mathematically more complicated than the infinite particle-in-a-box problem as the wave function is not pinned to zero at the walls of the well. Instead, the wave function must satisfy more complicated mathematical boundary conditions as it is nonzero in regions outside the well. Another related problem is that of therectangular potential barrier, which furnishes a model for thequantum tunnelingeffect that plays an important role in the performance of modern technologies such asflash memoryandscanning tunneling microscopy. Harmonic oscillator As in the classical case, the potential for the quantum harmonic oscillator is given by: 234 This problem can either be treated by directly solving the Schrödinger equation, which is not trivial, or by using the more elegant \"ladder method\" first proposed by Paul Dirac. Theeigenstatesare given by whereHnare theHermite polynomials and the corresponding energy levels are This is another example illustrating the discretization of energy forbound states. Mach–Zehnder interferometer TheMach–Zehnder interferometer(MZI) illustrates the concepts of superposition and interference with linear algebra in dimension 2, rather than differential equations. It can be seen as a simplified version of the double-slit experiment, but it is of interest in its own right, for example in thedelayed choice quantum eraser, theElitzur–Vaidman bomb tester, and in studies of quantum entanglement. We can model a photon going through the interferometer by considering that at each point it can be in a superposition of only two paths: the \"lower\" path which starts from the left, goes straight through both beam splitters, and ends at the top, and the \"upper\" path which starts from the bottom, goes straight through both beam splitters, and ends at the right. The quantum state of the photon is therefore a vectorψ∈C2{\\displaystyle \\psi \\in \\mathbb {C} ^{2}}that is a superposition of the \"lower\" pathψl=(10){\\displaystyle \\psi _{l}={\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\0\\end{pmatrix}}}and the \"upper\" pathψu=(01){\\displaystyle \\psi _{u}={\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\1\\end{pmatrix}}}, that is,ψ=αψl+βψu{\\displaystyle \\psi =\\alpha \\psi _{l}+\\beta \\psi _{u}}for complexα,β{\\displaystyle \\alpha ,\\beta }. In order to respect the postulate that⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1{\\displaystyle \\langle \\psi ,\\psi \\rangle =1}we require that|α|2+|β|2=1{\\displaystyle |\\alpha |^{2}+|\\beta |^{2}=1}. Bothbeam splittersare modelled as the unitary matrixB=12(1ii1){\\displaystyle B={\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {2}}}{\\begin{pmatrix}1&i\\\\i&1\\end{pmatrix}}}, which means that when a photon meets the beam splitter it will either stay on the same path with a probability amplitude of1/2{\\displaystyle 1/{\\sqrt {2}}}, or be reflected to the other path with a probability amplitude ofi/2{\\displaystyle i/{\\sqrt {2}}}. The phase shifter on the upper arm is modelled as the unitary matrixP=(100eiΔΦ){\\displaystyle P={\\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\\\0&e^{i\\Delta \\Phi }\\end{pmatrix}}}, which means that if the photon is on the \"upper\" path it will gain a relative phase ofΔΦ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\Phi }, and it will stay unchanged if it is in the lower path. A photon that enters the interferometer from the left will then be acted upon with a beam splitterB{\\displaystyle B}, a phase shifterP{\\displaystyle P}, and another beam splitterB{\\displaystyle B}, and so end up in the state and the probabilities that it will be detected at the right or at the top are given respectively by One can therefore use the Mach–Zehnder interferometer to estimate thephase shiftby estimating these probabilities. It is interesting to consider what would happen if the photon were definitely in either the \"lower\" or \"upper\" paths between the beam splitters. This can be accomplished by blocking one of the paths, or equivalently by removing the first beam splitter (and feeding the photon from the left or the bottom, as desired). In both cases, there will be no interference between the paths anymore, and the probabilities are given byp(u)=p(l)=1/2{\\displaystyle p(u)=p(l)=1/2}, independently of the phaseΔΦ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\Phi }. From this we can conclude that the photon does not take one path or another after the first beam splitter, but rather that it is in a genuine quantum superposition of the two paths. Applications Quantum mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the features of our universe, with regard to small-scale and discrete quantities and interactions which cannot be explained byclassical methods.Quantum mechanics is often the only theory that can reveal the individual behaviors of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter (electrons,protons,neutrons,photons, and others).Solid-state physicsandmaterials scienceare dependent upon quantum mechanics. In many aspects, modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant. Important applications of quantum theory includequantum chemistry,quantum optics,quantum computing,superconducting magnets,light-emitting diodes, theoptical amplifierand the laser, thetransistorandsemiconductorssuch as themicroprocessor,medical and research imagingsuch asmagnetic resonance imagingandelectron microscopy.Explanations for many biological and physical phenomena are rooted in the nature of the chemical bond, most notably the macro-moleculeDNA. Relation to other scientific theories Classical mechanics The rules of quantum mechanics assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert space and that observables of the system are Hermitian operators acting on vectors in that space – although they do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators. These can be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system, a necessary step in making physical predictions. An important guide for making these choices is thecorrespondence principle, a heuristic which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those ofclassical mechanicsin the regime of largequantum numbers.One can also start from an established classical model of a particular system, and then try to guess the underlying quantum model that would give rise to the classical model in the correspondence limit. This approach is known asquantization.: 299 When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose correspondence limit wasnon-relativisticclassical mechanics. For instance, the well-known model of thequantum harmonic oscillatoruses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for thekinetic energyof the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of theclassical harmonic oscillator.: 234 Complications arise withchaotic systems, which do not have good quantum numbers, andquantum chaosstudies the relationship between classical and quantum descriptions in these systems.: 353 Quantum decoherenceis a mechanism through which quantum systems losecoherence, and thus become incapable of displaying many typically quantum effects:quantum superpositionsbecome simply probabilistic mixtures, and quantum entanglement becomes simply classical correlations.: 687–730Quantum coherence is not typically evident at macroscopic scales, though at temperatures approachingabsolute zeroquantum behavior may manifest macroscopically. Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct consequence of the quantum behavior of its parts. For example, the stability of bulk matter (consisting of atoms andmoleculeswhich would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), the rigidity of solids, and the mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of matter are all results of the interaction ofelectric chargesunder the rules of quantum mechanics. Special relativity and electrodynamics Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics withspecial relativityinvolved the replacement of the Schrödinger equation with a covariant equation such as theKlein–Gordon equationor theDirac equation. While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field theory, which applies quantization to a field (rather than a fixed set of particles). The first complete quantum field theory,quantum electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of theelectromagnetic interaction. Quantum electrodynamics is, along withgeneral relativity, one of the most accurate physical theories ever devised. The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. A simpler approach, one that has been used since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treatchargedparticles as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classicalelectromagnetic field. For example, the elementary quantum model of thehydrogen atomdescribes theelectric fieldof the hydrogen atom using a classical−e2/(4πϵ0r){\\displaystyle \\textstyle -e^{2}/(4\\pi \\epsilon _{_{0}}r)}Coulomb potential.: 285Likewise, in aStern–Gerlach experiment, a charged particle is modeled as a quantum system, while the background magnetic field is described classically.: 26This \"semi-classical\" approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, such as in the emission of photons bycharged particles. Quantum fieldtheories for thestrong nuclear forceand theweak nuclear forcehave also been developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is calledquantum chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of subnuclear particles such asquarksandgluons. The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory (known aselectroweak theory), by the physicistsAbdus Salam,Sheldon GlashowandSteven Weinberg. Relation to general relativity Even though the predictions of both quantum theory and general relativity have been supported by rigorous and repeatedempirical evidence, their abstract formalisms contradict each other and they have proven extremely difficult to incorporate into one consistent, cohesive model. Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those particular applications. However, the lack of a correct theory ofquantum gravityis an important issue inphysical cosmologyand the search by physicists for an elegant \"Theory of Everything\" (TOE). Consequently, resolving the inconsistencies between both theories has been a major goal of 20th- and 21st-century physics. This TOE would combine not only the models of subatomic physics but also derive the four fundamental forces of nature from a single force or phenomenon. One proposal for doing so isstring theory, which posits that thepoint-like particlesofparticle physicsare replaced byone-dimensionalobjects calledstrings. String theory describes how these strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with itsmass,charge, and other properties determined by thevibrationalstate of the string. In string theory, one of the many vibrational states of the string corresponds to thegraviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force. Another popular theory isloop quantum gravity(LQG), which describes quantum properties of gravity and is thus a theory ofquantum spacetime. LQG is an attempt to merge and adapt standard quantum mechanics and standard general relativity. This theory describes space as an extremely fine fabric \"woven\" of finite loops calledspin networks. The evolution of a spin network over time is called aspin foam. The characteristic length scale of a spin foam is thePlanck length, approximately 1.616×10−35m, and so lengths shorter than the Planck length are not physically meaningful in LQG. Philosophical implications Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive aspects and results of quantum mechanics have provoked strongphilosophicaldebates and manyinterpretations. The arguments centre on the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, the difficulties withwavefunction collapseand the relatedmeasurement problem, andquantum nonlocality. Perhaps the only consensus that exists about these issues is that there is no consensus.Richard Feynmanonce said, \"I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics.\"According toSteven Weinberg, \"There is now in my opinion no entirely satisfactory interpretation of quantum mechanics.\" The views ofNiels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and other physicists are often grouped together as the \"Copenhagen interpretation\".According to these views, the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics is not atemporaryfeature which will eventually be replaced by a deterministic theory, but is instead afinalrenunciation of the classical idea of \"causality\". Bohr in particular emphasized that any well-defined application of the quantum mechanical formalism must always make reference to the experimental arrangement, due to thecomplementarynature of evidence obtained under different experimental situations. Copenhagen-type interpretations were adopted by Nobel laureates in quantum physics, including Bohr,Heisenberg,Schrödinger,Feynman,and Zeilingeras well as 21st-century researchers in quantum foundations. Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders ofquantum theory, was troubled by its apparent failure to respect some cherished metaphysical principles, such asdeterminismandlocality. Einstein's long-running exchanges with Bohr about the meaning and status of quantum mechanics are now known as theBohr–Einstein debates. Einstein believed that underlying quantum mechanics must be a theory that explicitly forbidsaction at a distance. He argued that quantum mechanics was incomplete, a theory that was valid but not fundamental, analogous to howthermodynamicsis valid, but the fundamental theory behind it isstatistical mechanics. In 1935, Einstein and his collaboratorsBoris PodolskyandNathan Rosenpublished an argument that the principle of locality implies the incompleteness of quantum mechanics, athought experimentlater termed theEinstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox.In 1964,John Bellshowed that EPR's principle of locality, together with determinism, was actually incompatible with quantum mechanics: they implied constraints on the correlations produced by distance systems, now known asBell inequalities, that can be violated by entangled particles.Since thenseveral experimentshave been performed to obtain these correlations, with the result that they do in fact violate Bell inequalities, and thus falsify the conjunction of locality with determinism. Bohmian mechanicsshows that it is possible to reformulate quantum mechanics to make it deterministic, at the price of making it explicitly nonlocal. It attributes not only a wave function to a physical system, but in addition a real position, that evolves deterministically under a nonlocal guiding equation. The evolution of a physical system is given at all times by the Schrödinger equation together with the guiding equation; there is never a collapse of the wave function. This solves the measurement problem. Everett'smany-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds thatallthe possibilities described by quantum theorysimultaneouslyoccur in a multiverse composed of mostly independent parallel universes.This is a consequence of removing the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet. All possible states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus, together with the observer, are present in a real physical quantum superposition. While the multiverse is deterministic, we perceive non-deterministic behavior governed by probabilities, because we do not observe the multiverse as a whole, but only one parallel universe at a time. Exactly how this is supposed to work has been the subject of much debate. Several attempts have been made to make sense of this and derive the Born rule,with no consensus on whether they have been successful. Relational quantum mechanicsappeared in the late 1990s as a modern derivative of Copenhagen-type ideas,andQBismwas developed some years later. History Quantum mechanics was developed in the early decades of the 20th century, driven by the need to explain phenomena that, in some cases, had been observed in earlier times. Scientific inquiry into the wave nature of light began in the 17th and 18th centuries, when scientists such asRobert Hooke,Christiaan HuygensandLeonhard Eulerproposed a wave theory of light based on experimental observations.In 1803 EnglishpolymathThomas Youngdescribed the famousdouble-slit experiment.This experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of thewave theory of light. During the early 19th century,chemicalresearch byJohn DaltonandAmedeo Avogadrolent weight to theatomic theoryof matter, an idea thatJames Clerk Maxwell,Ludwig Boltzmannand others built upon to establish thekinetic theory of gases. The successes of kinetic theory gave further credence to the idea that matter is composed of atoms, yet the theory also had shortcomings that would only be resolved by the development of quantum mechanics.While the early conception of atoms fromGreek philosophyhad been that they were indivisible units – the word \"atom\" deriving from theGreekfor \"uncuttable\" – the 19th century saw the formulation of hypotheses about subatomic structure. One important discovery in that regard wasMichael Faraday's 1838 observation of a glow caused by an electrical discharge inside a glass tube containing gas at low pressure.Julius Plücker,Johann Wilhelm HittorfandEugen Goldsteincarried on and improved upon Faraday's work, leading to the identification ofcathode rays, whichJ. J. Thomsonfound to consist of subatomic particles that would be called electrons. Theblack-body radiationproblem was discovered byGustav Kirchhoffin 1859. In 1900, Max Planck proposed the hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete \"quanta\" (or energy packets), yielding a calculation that precisely matched the observed patterns of black-body radiation.The wordquantumderives from theLatin, meaning \"how great\" or \"how much\".According to Planck, quantities of energy could be thought of as divided into \"elements\" whose size (E) would be proportional to theirfrequency(ν): wherehis thePlanck constant. Planck cautiously insisted that this was only an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation and was not thephysical realityof the radiation.In fact, he considered his quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right answer rather than a sizable discovery.However, in 1905 Albert Einstein interpreted Planck's quantum hypothesisrealisticallyand used it to explain thephotoelectric effect, in which shining light on certain materials can eject electrons from the material. Niels Bohr then developed Planck's ideas about radiation into amodel of the hydrogen atomthat successfully predicted thespectral linesof hydrogen.Einstein further developed this idea to show that anelectromagnetic wavesuch as light could also be described as a particle (later called the photon), with a discrete amount of energy that depends on its frequency.In his paper \"On the Quantum Theory of Radiation\", Einstein expanded on the interaction between energy and matter to explain the absorption and emission of energy by atoms. Although overshadowed at the time by his general theory of relativity, this paper articulated the mechanism underlying the stimulated emission of radiation,which became the basis of the laser. This phase is known as theold quantum theory. Never complete or self-consistent, the old quantum theory was rather a set ofheuristiccorrections to classical mechanics.The theory is now understood as asemi-classical approximationto modern quantum mechanics.Notable results from this period include, in addition to the work of Planck, Einstein and Bohr mentioned above, Einstein andPeter Debye's work on thespecific heatof solids, Bohr andHendrika Johanna van Leeuwen'sproofthat classical physics cannot account fordiamagnetism, andArnold Sommerfeld's extension of the Bohr model to include special-relativistic effects. In the mid-1920s quantum mechanics was developed to become the standard formulation for atomic physics. In 1923, the French physicistLouis de Broglieput forward his theory of matter waves by stating that particles can exhibit wave characteristics and vice versa. Building on de Broglie's approach, modern quantum mechanics was born in 1925, when the German physicists Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, andPascual Jordandevelopedmatrix mechanicsand the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger inventedwave mechanics. Born introduced the probabilistic interpretation of Schrödinger's wave function in July 1926.Thus, the entire field of quantum physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the FifthSolvay Conferencein 1927. By 1930, quantum mechanics had been further unified and formalized byDavid Hilbert, Paul Dirac andJohn von Neumannwith greater emphasis onmeasurement, the statistical nature of our knowledge of reality, andphilosophical speculation about the 'observer'. It has since permeated many disciplines, including quantum chemistry,quantum electronics,quantum optics, andquantum information science. It also provides a useful framework for many features of the modernperiodic table of elements, and describes the behaviors ofatomsduringchemical bondingand the flow of electrons in computersemiconductors, and therefore plays a crucial role in many modern technologies. While quantum mechanics was constructed to describe the world of the very small, it is also needed to explain somemacroscopicphenomena such assuperconductorsandsuperfluids. See also Explanatory notes References Further reading The following titles, all by working physicists, attempt to communicate quantum theory to lay people, using a minimum of technical apparatus. More technical: External links",
"Photoelectric effect Thephotoelectric effectis the emission ofelectronsfrom a material caused byelectromagnetic radiationsuch asultraviolet light. Electrons emitted in this manner are called photoelectrons. The phenomenon is studied incondensed matter physics,solid state, andquantum chemistryto draw inferences about the properties of atoms, molecules and solids. The effect has found use inelectronic devicesspecialized for light detection and precisely timed electron emission. The experimental results disagree withclassical electromagnetism, which predicts that continuous light waves transferenergyto electrons, which would then be emitted when they accumulate enough energy. An alteration in theintensityof light would theoretically change thekinetic energyof the emitted electrons, with sufficiently dim light resulting in a delayed emission. The experimental results instead show that electrons are dislodged only when the light exceeds a certainfrequency—regardless of the light's intensity or duration of exposure. Because a low-frequency beam at a high intensity does not build up the energy required to produce photoelectrons, as would be the case if light's energy accumulated over time from a continuous wave,Albert Einsteinproposed that a beam of light is nota wavepropagating through space, but a swarm of discrete energy packets, known asphotons—term coined byGilbert N. Lewisin 1926. Emission of conduction electrons from typicalmetalsrequires a fewelectron-volt(eV) light quanta, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. In extreme cases, emissions are induced with photons approaching zero energy, like in systems with negative electron affinity and the emission from excited states, or a few hundred keV photons forcore electronsinelementswith a highatomic number.Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept ofwave–particle duality.Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric charges include thephotoconductiveeffect, thephotovoltaic effect, and thephotoelectrochemical effect. Emission mechanism The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy, calledphoton energy, which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, when an electron within some material absorbs the energy of a photon and acquires more energy than itsbinding energy, it is likely to be ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Moreover, the energy of the emitted electrons will not depend on the intensity of the incoming light of a given frequency, but only on the energy of the individual photons. While free electrons can absorb any energy whenirradiatedas long as this is followed by an immediate re-emission, like in theCompton effect, in quantum systems all of the energy from one photon is absorbed—if the process is allowed byquantum mechanics—or none at all. Part of the acquired energy is used to liberate the electron from its atomic binding, and the rest contributes to the electron'skinetic energyas a free particle.Because electrons in a material occupy many different quantum states with different binding energies, and because they can sustain energy losses on their way out of the material, the emitted electrons will have a range of kinetic energies. The electrons from the highest occupied states will have the highest kinetic energy. In metals, those electrons will be emitted from theFermi level. When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the terminternal photoemissionis often used, and emission into a vacuum is distinguished asexternal photoemission. Experimental observation of photoelectric emission Even though photoemission can occur from any material, it is most readily observed from metals and other conductors. This is because the process produces a charge imbalance which, if not neutralized by current flow, results in the increasing potential barrier until the emission completely ceases. The energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by nonconductive oxide layers on metal surfaces, so most practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in evacuated tubes. Vacuum also helps observing the electrons since it prevents gases from impeding their flow between the electrodes. As sunlight, due to atmosphere's absorption, does not provide much ultraviolet light, the light rich in ultraviolet rays used to be obtained by burning magnesium or from anarc lamp. At the present time,mercury-vapor lamps,noble-gas dischargeUV lamps andradio-frequency plasmasources,ultraviolet lasers,andsynchrotroninsertion devicelight sources prevail. The classical setup to observe the photoelectric effect includes a light source, a set of filters tomonochromatizethe light, avacuum tubetransparent to ultraviolet light, an emitting electrode (E) exposed to the light, and a collector (C) whose voltageVCcan be externally controlled. A positive external voltage is used to direct the photoemitted electrons onto the collector. If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the photoelectric currentIincreases with an increase in the positive voltage, as more and more electrons are directed onto the electrode. When no additional photoelectrons can be collected, the photoelectric current attains a saturation value. This current can only increase with the increase of the intensity of light. An increasing negative voltage prevents all but the highest-energy electrons from reaching the collector. When no current is observed through the tube, the negative voltage has reached the value that is high enough to slow down and stop the most energetic photoelectrons of kinetic energyKmax. This value of the retarding voltage is called thestopping potentialorcut offpotentialVo.Since the work done by the retarding potential in stopping the electron of chargeeiseVo, the following must holdeVo=Kmax. The current-voltage curve is sigmoidal, but its exact shape depends on the experimental geometry and the electrode material properties. For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incidentradiationbelow which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called thethreshold frequency. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam increases the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons, and the stopping voltage has to increase. The number of emitted electrons may also change because theprobabilitythat each photon results in an emitted electron is a function of photon energy. An increase in the intensity of the same monochromatic light (so long as the intensity is not too high), which is proportional to the number of photons impinging on the surface in a given time, increases the rate at which electrons are ejected—the photoelectric currentI—but the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and the stopping voltage remain the same. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is very small, less than 10−9second. Angular distribution of the photoelectrons is highly dependent onpolarization(the direction of the electric field) of the incident light, as well as the emitting material's quantum properties such as atomic and molecular orbital symmetries and theelectronic band structureof crystalline solids. In materials without macroscopic order, the distribution of electrons tends to peak in the direction of polarization of linearly polarized light.The experimental technique that can measure these distributions to infer the material's properties isangle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy. Theoretical explanation In 1905,Einsteinproposed a theory of the photoelectric effect using a concept that light consists of tiny packets of energy known asphotonsor light quanta. Each packet carries energyhν{\\displaystyle h\\nu }that is proportional to the frequencyν{\\displaystyle \\nu }of the corresponding electromagnetic wave. The proportionality constanth{\\displaystyle h}has become known as thePlanck constant. In the range of kinetic energies of the electrons that are removed from their varying atomic bindings by the absorption of a photon of energyhν{\\displaystyle h\\nu }, the highest kinetic energyKmax{\\displaystyle K_{\\max }}isKmax=hν−W.{\\displaystyle K_{\\max }=h\\,\\nu -W.}Here,W{\\displaystyle W}is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the material. It is called thework functionof the surface and is sometimes denotedΦ{\\displaystyle \\Phi }orφ{\\displaystyle \\varphi }.If the work function is written asW=hνo,{\\displaystyle W=h\\,\\nu _{o},}the formula for the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons becomesKmax=h(ν−νo).{\\displaystyle K_{\\max }=h\\left(\\nu -\\nu _{o}\\right).} Kinetic energy is positive, andν>νo{\\displaystyle \\nu >\\nu _{o}}is required for the photoelectric effect to occur.The frequencyνo{\\displaystyle \\nu _{o}}is the threshold frequency for the given material. Above that frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons as well as the stopping voltage in the experimentVo=he(ν−νo){\\textstyle V_{o}={\\frac {h}{e}}\\left(\\nu -\\nu _{o}\\right)}rise linearly with the frequency, and have no dependence on the number of photons and the intensity of the impinging monochromatic light. Einstein's formula, however simple, explained all the phenomenology of the photoelectric effect, and had far-reaching consequences in thedevelopment of quantum mechanics. Photoemission from atoms, molecules and solids Electrons that are bound in atoms, molecules and solids each occupy distinct states of well-definedbinding energies. When light quanta deliver more than this amount of energy to an individual electron, the electron may be emitted into free space with excess (kinetic) energy that ishν{\\displaystyle h\\nu }higher than the electron's binding energy. The distribution of kinetic energies thus reflects the distribution of the binding energies of the electrons in the atomic, molecular or crystalline system: an electron emitted from the state at binding energyEB{\\displaystyle E_{B}}is found at kinetic energyEk=hν−EB{\\displaystyle E_{k}=h\\nu -E_{B}}. This distribution is one of the main characteristics of the quantum system, and can be used for further studies in quantum chemistry and quantum physics. Models of photoemission from solids The electronic properties of ordered, crystalline solids are determined by the distribution of the electronic states with respect to energy and momentum—the electronic band structure of the solid. Theoretical models of photoemission from solids show that this distribution is, for the most part, preserved in the photoelectric effect. The phenomenologicalthree-step modelfor ultraviolet and soft X-ray excitation decomposes the effect into these steps: There are cases where the three-step model fails to explain peculiarities of the photoelectron intensity distributions. The more elaborateone-step modeltreats the effect as a coherent process of photoexcitation into the final state of a finite crystal for which the wave function is free-electron-like outside of the crystal, but has a decaying envelope inside. History 19th century In 1839,Alexandre Edmond Becquereldiscovered the relatedphotovoltaic effectwhile studying the effect of light onelectrolytic cells.Though not equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work onphotovoltaicswas instrumental in showing a strong relationship between light and electronic properties of materials. In 1873,Willoughby Smithdiscoveredphotoconductivityinseleniumwhile testing the metal for its high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables. Johann Elster(1854–1920) andHans Geitel(1855–1923), students inHeidelberg, investigated the effects produced by light on electrified bodies and developed the first practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity of light.: 458They arranged metals with respect to their power of discharging negative electricity:rubidium,potassium,alloyof potassium and sodium,sodium,lithium,magnesium,thalliumandzinc; forcopper,platinum,lead,iron,cadmium,carbon, andmercurythe effects with ordinary light were too small to be measurable. The order of the metals for this effect was the same as in Volta's series for contact-electricity, the most electropositive metals giving the largest photo-electric effect. In 1887,Heinrich Hertzobserved the photoelectric effectand reported on the production and receptionof electromagnetic waves.The receiver in his apparatus consisted of a coil with aspark gap, where a spark would be seen upon detection of electromagnetic waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. However, he noticed that the maximum spark length was reduced when inside the box. A glass panel placed between the source of electromagnetic waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he replaced the glass with quartz, asquartzdoes not absorb UV radiation. The discoveries by Hertz led to a series of investigations byWilhelm Hallwachs,Hoor,Augusto RighiandAleksander Stoletovon the effect of light, and especially of ultraviolet light, on charged bodies. Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to anelectroscope. He allowed ultraviolet light to fall on a freshly cleaned zinc plate and observed that the zinc plate became uncharged if initially negatively charged, positively charged if initially uncharged, and more positively charged if initially positively charged. From these observations he concluded that some negatively charged particles were emitted by the zinc plate when exposed to ultraviolet light. With regard to theHertz effect, the researchers from the start showed the complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric fatigue—the progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic surfaces. According to Hallwachs,ozoneplayed an important part in the phenomenon,and the emission was influenced by oxidation, humidity, and the degree of polishing of the surface. It was at the time unclear whether fatigue is absent in a vacuum. In the period from 1888 until 1891, a detailed analysis of the photoeffect was performed byAleksandr Stoletovwith results reported in six publications.Stoletov invented a new experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of the photoeffect. He discovered a direct proportionality between the intensity of light and the induced photoelectric current (the first law of photoeffect orStoletov's law). He measured the dependence of the intensity of the photo electric current on the gas pressure, where he found the existence of an optimal gas pressure corresponding to a maximumphotocurrent; this property was used for the creation ofsolar cells. Many substances besides metals discharge negative electricity under the action of ultraviolet light. G. C. Schmidtand O. Knoblauchcompiled a list of these substances. In 1897,J. J. Thomsoninvestigated ultraviolet light inCrookes tubes.Thomson deduced that the ejected particles, which he called corpuscles, were of the same nature ascathode rays. These particles later became known as the electrons. Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation.It was thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and, after reaching a certain amplitude, caused subatomic corpuscles to be emitted, and current to be detected. The amount of this current varied with the intensity and color of the radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more current. During the years 1886–1902,Wilhelm HallwachsandPhilipp Lenardinvestigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail. Lenard observed that a current flows through an evacuated glass tube enclosing twoelectrodeswhen ultraviolet radiation falls on one of them. As soon as ultraviolet radiation is stopped, the current also stops. This initiated the concept of photoelectric emission. The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultraviolet light was made by Philipp Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several centimeters of air and yielded a greater number of positive ions than negative, it was natural to interpret the phenomenon, as J. J. Thomson did, as aHertz effectupon the particles present in the gas. 20th century In 1902, Lenard observed that theenergyof individual emitted electrons was independent of the applied light intensity.This appeared to be at odds with Maxwell'swave theory of light, which predicted that the electron energy would be proportional to theintensityof the radiation. Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency using a powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in intensity. However, Lenard's results were qualitative rather than quantitative because of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the experiments needed to be done on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it oxidized in a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The current emitted by the surface was determined by the light's intensity, or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of electrons emitted from the surface. Initial investigation of the photoelectric effect in gasses by Lenardwere followed up by J. J. Thomsonand then more decisively by Frederic Palmer Jr.The gas photoemission was studied and showed very different characteristics than those at first attributed to it by Lenard. In 1900, while studyingblack-body radiation, the German physicistMax Plancksuggested in his \"On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum\"paper that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released inpacketsof energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. Einstein theorized that the energy in each quantum of light was equal to the frequency of light multiplied by a constant, later called thePlanck constant. A photon above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single electron, creating the observed effect. This was a step in the development ofquantum mechanics. In 1914,Robert A. Millikan's highly accurate measurements of the Planck constant from the photoelectric effect supported Einstein's model, even though a corpuscular theory of light was for Millikan, at the time, \"quite unthinkable\".Einstein was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physicsfor \"his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\",and Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 for \"his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect\".In quantum perturbation theory of atoms and solids acted upon by electromagnetic radiation, the photoelectric effect is still commonly analyzed in terms of waves; the two approaches are equivalent because photon or wave absorption can only happen between quantized energy levels whose energy difference is that of the energy of photon. Albert Einstein's mathematical description of how the photoelectric effect was caused by absorption ofquantaof light was in one of hisAnnus Mirabilis papers, named \"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light\".The paper proposed a simple description ofenergy quanta, and showed how they explained the blackbody radiation spectrum. His explanation in terms of absorption of discrete quanta of light agreed with experimental results. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons was not dependent on incident lightintensity. This was a theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally fromJames Clerk Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, and more generally, the assumption ofinfinite divisibilityof energy in physical systems. Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the light. The precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that the energy of photoelectrons increases with increasingfrequencyof incident light and is independent of theintensityof the light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally determined until 1914 when Millikan showed that Einstein's prediction was correct. The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept of wave–particle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of both waves and particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was impossible to understand in terms of the classical wave description of light,as the energy of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation. Classical theory predicted that the electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time, and then be emitted. Uses and effects Photomultipliers These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a coatedphotocathodeinside the envelope. The photo cathode contains combinations of materials such as cesium, rubidium, and antimony specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials, these electrons are accelerated and substantially increased in number throughsecondary emissionto provide a readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected. Image sensors Video camera tubesin the early days oftelevisionused the photoelectric effect. For example,Philo Farnsworth's \"Image dissector\" used a screen charged by the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic signal. Photoelectron spectroscopy Because the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is exactly the energy of the incident photon minus the energy of the electron's binding within an atom, molecule or solid, the binding energy can be determined by shining amonochromaticX-rayorUVlight of a known energy and measuring the kinetic energies of the photoelectrons.The distribution of electron energies is valuable for studying quantum properties of these systems. It can also be used to determine the elemental composition of the samples. For solids, the kinetic energy and emission angle distribution of the photoelectrons is measured for the complete determination of theelectronic band structurein terms of the allowed binding energies and momenta of the electrons. Modern instruments for angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy are capable of measuring these quantities with a precision better than 1 meV and 0.1°. Photoelectron spectroscopymeasurements are usually performed in a high-vacuum environment, because the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present. However, some companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in air. The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or asynchrotron radiationsource. Theconcentric hemispherical analyzeris a typical electron energy analyzer. It uses an electric field between two hemispheres to change (disperse) the trajectories of incident electrons depending on their kinetic energies. Night vision devices Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal orsemiconductormaterial such asgallium arsenidein animage intensifiertube cause the ejection of photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by anelectrostatic fieldwhere they strike aphosphorcoated screen, converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the signal is achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of electrons through secondary emissions, such as with amicro-channel plate. Sometimes a combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required to move an electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is known as theelectron affinityof the photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other than the forbidden band, explained by theband gapmodel. Some materials such as gallium arsenide have an effective electron affinity that is below the level of the conduction band. In these materials, electrons that move to the conduction band all have sufficient energy to be emitted from the material, so the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick. These materials are known as negative electron affinity materials. Spacecraft The photoelectric effect will causespacecraftexposed to sunlight to develop a positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical components. Thestatic chargecreated by the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object does not give up its electrons as easily as a lower charged object does. Moon dust Light from the Sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively charged from the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of theMoonbyelectrostatic levitation.This manifests itself almost like an \"atmosphere of dust\", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by theSurveyor programprobes in the 1960s,and most recently theChang'e 3rover observed dust deposition on lunar rocks as high as about 28 cm.It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the surface and that the particles move in \"fountains\" as they charge and discharge. Competing processes and photoemission cross section When photon energies are as high as the electron rest energy of511 keV, yet another process,Compton scattering, may occur. Above twice this energy, at1.022 MeV,pair productionis also more likely.Compton scattering and pair production are examples of two other competing mechanisms.Even if the photoelectric effect is the favoured reaction for a particular interaction of a single photon with a bound electron, the result is also subject to quantum statistics and is not guaranteed. The probability of the photoelectric effect occurring is measured by thecross sectionof the interaction, σ. This has been found to be a function of the atomic number of the target atom and photon energy. In a crude approximation, for photon energies above the highest atomic binding energy, the cross section is given by: HereZis theatomic numberandnis a number which varies between 4 and 5. The photoelectric effect rapidly decreases in significance in the gamma-ray region of the spectrum, with increasing photon energy. It is also more likely from elements with high atomic number. Consequently, high-Zmaterials make goodgamma-rayshields, which is the principal reason why lead (Z= 82) is preferred and most widely used. See also References External links Applets",
"Bohr model Inatomic physics, theBohr modelorRutherford–Bohr modelwas the first successful model of theatom. Developed from 1911 to 1918 byNiels Bohrand building onErnest Rutherford's nuclearmodel, it supplanted theplum pudding modelofJ J Thomsononly to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, densenucleussurrounded byorbitingelectrons. It isanalogousto the structure of theSolar System, but with attraction provided byelectrostatic forcerather thangravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values). In the history of atomic physics, it followed, and ultimately replaced, several earlier models, includingJoseph Larmor's Solar System model (1897),Jean Perrin's model (1901),thecubical model(1902),Hantaro Nagaoka'sSaturnianmodel (1904), theplum pudding model(1904),Arthur Haas's quantum model (1910), theRutherford model(1911), andJohn William Nicholson's nuclear quantum model (1912). The improvement over the 1911 Rutherford model mainly concerned the newquantum mechanicalinterpretation introduced by Haas and Nicholson, but forsaking any attempt to explain radiation according toclassical physics. The model's key success lies in explaining theRydberg formulaforhydrogen's spectral emission lines. While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical basis until the Bohr model was introduced. Not only did the Bohr model explain the reasons for the structure of the Rydberg formula, it also provided a justification for the fundamental physical constants that make up the formula's empirical results. The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of thehydrogen atom, compared to thevalence shellmodel. As a theory, it can be derived as afirst-order approximationof the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics and thus may be considered to be anobsolete scientific theory. However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students toquantum mechanicsorenergy level diagramsbefore moving on to the more accurate, but more complex, valence shell atom. A related quantum model was proposed byArthur Erich Haasin 1910 but was rejected until the 1911 Solvay Congress where it was thoroughly discussed.The quantum theory of the period betweenPlanck's discovery of the quantum(1900) and the advent of a mature quantum mechanics (1925) is often referred to as theold quantum theory. Background Until the second decade of the 20th century, atomic models were generally speculative. Even the concept of atoms, let alone atoms with internal structure, faced opposition from some scientists.: 2 Planetary models In the late 1800's speculations on the possible structure of the atom included planetary models with orbiting charged electrons.: 35These models faced a significant constraint. In 1897,Joseph Larmorshowed that an accelerating charge would radiate power according to classical electrodynamics, a result known as theLarmor formula. Since electrons forced to remain in orbit are continuously accelerating, they would be mechanically unstable. Larmor noted that electromagnetic effect of multiple electrons, suitable arranged, would cancel each other. Thus subsequent atomic models based on classical electrodynamics needed to adopt such special multi-electron arrangements.: 113 Thomson's atom model When Bohr began his work on a new atomic theory in the summer of 1912: 237the atomic model proposed byJ J Thomson, now known as thePlum pudding model, was the best available.: 37Thomson proposed a model with electrons rotating in coplanar rings within an atomic-sized, positively-charged, spherical volume. Thomson showed that this model was mechanically stable by lengthy calculations and was electrodynamically stable under his original assumption of thousands of electrons per atom. Moreover, he suggested that the particularly stable configurations of electrons in rings was connected to chemical properties of the atoms. He developed a formula for the scattering ofbeta particlesthat seemed to match experimental results.: 38However Thomson himself later showed that the atom had a factor of a thousand fewer electrons, challenging the stability argument and forcing the poorly understood positive sphere to have most of the atom's mass. Thomson was also unable to explain the many lines in atomic spectra.: 18 Rutherford nuclear model In 1908,Hans GeigerandErnest Marsdendemonstrated thatalpha particleoccasionally scatter at large angles, a result inconsistent with Thomson's model. In 1911Ernest Rutherforddeveloped a new scattering model, showing that the observed large angle scattering could be explained by a compact, highly charged mass at the center of the atom. Rutherford scattering did not involve the electrons and thus hismodel of the atomwas incomplete.Bohr begins his first paper on his atomic model by describing Rutherford's atom as consisting of a small, dense, positively chargednucleusattracting negatively chargedelectrons. Atomic spectra By the early twentieth century, it was expected that the atom would account for the many atomic spectral lines. These lines were summarized in empirical formula byJohann BalmerandJohannes Rydberg. In 1897, Lord Rayleigh showed that vibrations of electrical systems predicted spectral lines that depend on the square of the vibrational frequency, contradicting the empirical formula which depended directly on the frequency.:18In 1907Arthur W. Conwayshowed that, rather than the entire atom vibrating, vibrations of only one of the electrons in the system described by Thomson might be sufficient to account for spectral series.: II:106Although Bohr's model would also rely on just the electron to explain the spectrum, he did not assume an electrodynamical model for the atom. The other important advance in the understanding of atomic spectra was theRydberg–Ritz combination principlewhich related atomic spectral line frequencies to differences between 'terms', special frequencies characteristic of each element.:173Bohr would recognize the terms as energy levels of the atom divided by the Planck constant, leading to the modern view that the spectral lines result from energy differences.: 847 Haas atomic model In 1910,Arthur Erich Haasproposed a model of the hydrogen atom with an electron circulating on the surface of a sphere of positive charge. The model resembled Thomson's plum pudding model, but Haas added a radical new twist: he constrained the electron's potential energy,Epot{\\displaystyle E_{\\text{pot}}}, on a sphere of radiusato equal the frequency,f, of the electron's orbit on the sphere times thePlanck constant:: 197Epot=−e2a=hf{\\displaystyle E_{\\text{pot}}={\\frac {-e^{2}}{a}}=hf}whereerepresents the charge on the electron and the sphere. Haas combined this constraint with the balance-of-forces equation. The attractive force between the electron and the sphere balances thecentrifugal force:e2a2=ma(2πf)2{\\displaystyle {\\frac {e^{2}}{a^{2}}}=ma(2\\pi f)^{2}}wheremis the mass of the electron. This combination relates the radius of the sphere to the Planck constant:a=h24π2e2m{\\displaystyle a={\\frac {h^{2}}{4\\pi ^{2}e^{2}m}}}Haas solved for the Planck constant using the then-current value for the radius of the hydrogen atom. Three years later, Bohr would use similar equations with different interpretation. Bohr took the Planck constant as given value and used the equations to predict,a, the radius of the electron orbiting in the ground state of the hydrogen atom. This value is now called theBohr radius.: 197 Influence of the Solvay Conference The firstSolvay Conference, in 1911, was one of the first international physics conferences. Nine Nobel or future Nobel laureates attended, includingErnest Rutherford, Bohr's mentor.: 271Bohr did not attend but he read the Solvay reportsand discussed them with Rutherford.: 233 The subject of the conference was the theory of radiation and the energy quanta ofMax Planck's oscillators.Planck's lecture at the conference ended with comments about atoms and the discussion that followed it concerned atomic models.Hendrik Lorentzraised the question of the composition of the atom based onHaas's model, a form of Thomson's plum pudding model with a quantum modification. Lorentz explained that the size of atoms could be taken to determine the Planck constant as Haas had done or the Planck constant could be taken as determining the size of atoms.: 273Bohr would adopt the second path. The discussions outlined the need for the quantum theory to be included in the atom. Planck explicitly mentions the failings of classical mechanics.: 273While Bohr had already expressed a similar opinion in his PhD thesis, at Solvay the leading scientists of the day discussed a break with classical theories.: 244Bohr's first paper on his atomic model cites the Solvay proceedings saying: \"Whatever the alteration in the laws of motion of the electrons may be, it seems necessary to introduce in the laws in question a quantity foreign to the classical electrodynamics,i.e.Planck's constant, or as it often is called the elementary quantum of action.\"Encouraged by the Solvay discussions, Bohr would assume the atom was stable and abandon the efforts to stabilize classical models of the atom: 199 Nicholson atom theory In 1911John William Nicholsonpublished a model of the atom which would influence Bohr's model. Nicholson developed his model based on the analysis of astrophysical spectroscopy. He connected the observed spectral line frequencies with the orbits of electrons in his atoms. The connection he adopted associated the atomic electron orbital angular momentum with thePlanck constant. Whereas Planck focused on a quantum of energy, Nicholson's angular momentum quantum relates to orbital frequency. This new concept gave Planck constant an atomic meaning for the first time.: 169In his 1913 paper Bohr cites Nicholson as finding quantized angular momentum important for the atom. The other critical influence of Nicholson work was his detailed analysis of spectra. Before Nicholson's work Bohr thought the spectral data was not useful for understanding atoms. In comparing his work to Nicholson's, Bohr came to understand the spectral data and their value. When he then learned from a friend aboutBalmer's compact formulafor the spectral line data, Bohr quickly realized his model would match it in detail.: 178 Nicholson's model was based on classical electrodynamics along the lines ofJ.J. Thomson'splum pudding modelbut his negative electrons orbiting a positive nucleus rather than circulating in a sphere. To avoid immediate collapse of this system he required that electrons come in pairs so the rotational acceleration of each electron was matched across the orbit.: 163By 1913 Bohr had already shown, from the analysis of alpha particle energy loss, that hydrogen had only a single electron not a matched pair.: 195Bohr's atomic model would abandon classical electrodynamics. Nicholson's model of radiation was quantum but was attached to the orbits of the electrons.Bohr quantization would associate it with differences in energy levels of his model of hydrogen rather than the orbital frequency. Bohr's previous work Bohr completed his PhD in 1911 with a thesis 'Studies on the Electron Theory of Metals', an application of the classical electron theory ofHendrik Lorentz. Bohr noted two deficits of the classical model. The first concerned thespecific heatof metals whichJames Clerk Maxwellnoted in 1875: every additional degree of freedom in a theory of metals, like subatomic electrons, cause more disagreement with experiment. The second, the classical theory could not explain magnetism.: 194 After his PhD, Bohr worked briefly in the lab ofJJ Thomsonbefore moving to Rutherford's lab inManchesterto study radioactivity. He arrived just after Rutherford completed his proposal of a compact nuclear core for atoms.Charles Galton Darwin, also at Manchester, had just completed an analysis of alpha particle energy loss in metals, concluding the electron collisions where the dominant cause of loss. Bohr showed in a subsequent paper that Darwin's results would improve by accounting for electron binding energy. Importantly this allowed Bohr to conclude that hydrogen atoms have a single electron.: 195 Development Next, Bohr was told by his friend, Hans Hansen, that the Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, anempiricalequation discovered byJohann Balmerin 1885 that described wavelengths of some spectral lines of hydrogen.This was further generalized byJohannes Rydbergin 1888, resulting in what is now known as theRydberg formula. After this, Bohr declared, \"everything became clear\". In 1913Niels Bohrput forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model: Other points are: Bohr's condition, that the angular momentum be an integer multiple ofℏ{\\displaystyle \\hbar }, was later reinterpreted in 1924 byde Broglieas astanding wavecondition: the electron is described by a wave and a whole number of wavelengths must fit along the circumference of the electron's orbit: According to de Broglie's hypothesis, matter particles such as the electron behave aswaves. Thede Broglie wavelengthof an electron is which implies that or wheremvr{\\displaystyle mvr}is the angular momentum of the orbiting electron. Writingℓ{\\displaystyle \\ell }for this angular momentum, the previous equation becomes which is Bohr's second postulate. Bohr described angular momentum of the electron orbit as2/h{\\displaystyle 2/h}whilede Broglie's wavelengthofλ=h/p{\\displaystyle \\lambda =h/p}describedh{\\displaystyle h}divided by the electron momentum. In 1913, however, Bohr justified his rule by appealing to the correspondence principle, without providing any sort of wave interpretation. In 1913, the wave behavior of matter particles such as the electron was not suspected. In 1925, a new kind of mechanics was proposed,quantum mechanics, in which Bohr's model of electrons traveling in quantized orbits was extended into amore accurate modelof electron motion. The new theory was proposed byWerner Heisenberg.Another formof the same theory, wave mechanics, was discovered by the Austrian physicistErwin Schrödingerindependently, and by different reasoning. Schrödinger employed de Broglie's matter waves, but sought wave solutions of a three-dimensional wave equation describing electrons that were constrained to move about the nucleus of ahydrogen-like atom, by being trapped by the potential of the positive nuclear charge. Electron energy levels The Bohr model gives almost exact results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. This not only involves one-electron systems such as thehydrogen atom, singly ionizedhelium, and doubly ionizedlithium, but it includespositroniumandRydberg statesof any atom where one electron is far away from everything else. It can be used forK-lineX-ray transition calculations if other assumptions are added (seeMoseley's lawbelow). In high energy physics, it can be used to calculate the masses ofheavy quarkmesons. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions. Derivation In classical mechanics, if an electron is orbiting around an atom with period T, and if its coupling to the electromagnetic field is weak, so that the orbit doesn't decay very much in one cycle, it will emit electromagnetic radiation in a pattern repeating at every period, so that the Fourier transform of the pattern will only have frequencies which are multiples of 1/T. However, in quantum mechanics, the quantization of angular momentum leads to discrete energy levels of the orbits, and the emitted frequencies are quantized according to the energy differences between these levels. This discrete nature of energy levels introduces a fundamental departure from the classical radiation law, giving rise to distinct spectral lines in the emitted radiation. Bohr assumes that the electron is circling the nucleus in an elliptical orbit obeying the rules of classical mechanics, but with no loss of radiation due to theLarmor formula. Denoting the total energy asE, the negative electron charge ase, the positive nucleus charge asK=Z|e|, the electron mass asme, half the major axis of the ellipse asa, he starts with these equations:: 3 Eis assumed to be negative, because a positive energy is required to unbind the electron from the nucleus and put it at rest at an infinite distance. Eq. (1a) is obtained from equating the centripetal force to the Coulombian force acting between the nucleus and the electron, considering thatE=T+U{\\displaystyle E=T+U}(whereTis the average kinetic energy andUthe average electrostatic potential), and that for Kepler's second law, the average separation between the electron and the nucleus isa. Eq. (1b) is obtained from the same premises of eq. (1a) plus thevirial theorem, stating that, for an elliptical orbit, Then Bohr assumes that|E|{\\displaystyle \\vert E\\vert }is an integer multiple of the energy of a quantum of light with half the frequency of the electron's revolution frequency,: 4i.e: From eq. (1a,1b,2), it descends: He further assumes that the orbit is circular, i.e.a=r{\\displaystyle a=r}, and, denoting the angular momentum of the electron asL, introduces the equation: Eq. (4) stems from thevirial theorem, and from the classical mechanics relationships between the angular momentum, the kinetic energy and the frequency of revolution. From eq. (1c,2,4), it stems: where: that is: This results states that the angular momentum of the electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant.: 15 Substituting the expression for the velocity gives an equation forrin terms ofn: so that the allowed orbit radius at anynis The smallest possible value ofrin the hydrogen atom (Z= 1) is called theBohr radiusand is equal to: The energy of then-th level for any atom is determined by the radius and quantum number: An electron in the lowest energy level of hydrogen (n= 1) therefore has about 13.6eVless energy than a motionless electron infinitely far from the nucleus. The next energy level (n= 2) is −3.4 eV. The third (n=3) is −1.51 eV, and so on. For larger values ofn, these are also the binding energies of a highly excited atom with one electron in a large circular orbit around the rest of the atom. The hydrogen formula also coincides with theWallis product. The combination of natural constants in the energy formula is called the Rydberg energy (RE): This expression is clarified by interpreting it in combinations that form morenatural units: Since this derivation is with the assumption that the nucleus is orbited by one electron, we can generalize this result by letting the nucleus have a chargeq=Ze, whereZis the atomic number. This will now give us energy levels for hydrogenic (hydrogen-like) atoms, which can serve as a rough order-of-magnitude approximation of the actual energy levels. So for nuclei withZprotons, the energy levels are (to a rough approximation): The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (seen-body problem) because the electrons are not only affected by thenucleusbut also interact with each other via theCoulomb force. WhenZ= 1/α(Z≈ 137), the motion becomes highly relativistic, andZ2cancels theα2inR; the orbit energy begins to be comparable to rest energy. Sufficiently large nuclei, if they were stable, would reduce their charge by creating a bound electron from the vacuum, ejecting the positron to infinity. This is the theoretical phenomenon of electromagnetic charge screening which predicts a maximum nuclear charge. Emission of such positrons has been observed in the collisions of heavy ions to create temporary super-heavy nuclei. The Bohr formula properly uses thereduced massof electron and proton in all situations, instead of the mass of the electron, However, these numbers are very nearly the same, due to the much larger mass of the proton, about 1836.1 times the mass of the electron, so that the reduced mass in the system is the mass of the electron multiplied by the constant 1836.1/(1+1836.1) = 0.99946. This fact was historically important in convincing Rutherford of the importance of Bohr's model, for it explained the fact that the frequencies of lines in the spectra for singly ionized helium do not differ from those of hydrogen by a factor of exactly 4, but rather by 4 times the ratio of the reduced mass for the hydrogen vs. the helium systems, which was much closer to the experimental ratio than exactly 4. For positronium, the formula uses the reduced mass also, but in this case, it is exactly the electron mass divided by 2. For any value of the radius, the electron and the positron are each moving at half the speed around their common center of mass, and each has only one fourth the kinetic energy. The total kinetic energy is half what it would be for a single electron moving around a heavy nucleus. Rydberg formula Beginning in late 1860s,Johann Balmerand laterJohannes RydbergandWalther Ritzdeveloped increasingly accurate empirical formula matching measured atomic spectral lines. Critical for Bohr's later work, Rydberg expressed his formula in terms of wave-number, equivalent to frequency.These formula contained a constant,R{\\displaystyle R}, now known theRydberg constantand a pair of integers indexing the lines:: 247ν=R(1m2−1n2).{\\displaystyle \\nu =R\\left({\\frac {1}{m^{2}}}-{\\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\\right).}Despite many attempts, no theory of the atom could reproduce these relatively simple formula.: 169 In Bohr's theory describing the energies of transitions orquantum jumpsbetween orbital energy levels is able to explain these formula. For the hydrogen atom Bohr starts with his derived formula for the energy released as a free electron moves into a stable circular orbit indexed byτ{\\displaystyle \\tau }:Wτ=2π2me4h2τ2{\\displaystyle W_{\\tau }={\\frac {2\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}\\tau ^{2}}}}The energy difference between two such levels is then:hν=Wτ2−Wτ1=2π2me4h2(1τ22−1τ12){\\displaystyle h\\nu =W_{\\tau _{2}}-W_{\\tau _{1}}={\\frac {2\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}}}\\left({\\frac {1}{\\tau _{2}^{2}}}-{\\frac {1}{\\tau _{1}^{2}}}\\right)}Therefore Bohr's theory gives the Rydberg formula and moreover the numerical value the Rydberg constant for hydrogen in terms of more fundamental constants of nature, including the electron's charge, the electron's mass, and thePlanck constant:: 31cRH=2π2me4h3.{\\displaystyle cR_{H}={\\frac {2\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{3}}}.} Since the energy of a photon is these results can be expressed in terms of the wavelength of the photon given off: Bohr's derivation of the Rydberg constant, as well as the concomitant agreement of Bohr's formula with experimentally observed spectral lines of theLyman(nf=1),Balmer(nf=2), andPaschen(nf=3) series, and successful theoretical prediction of other lines not yet observed, was one reason that his model was immediately accepted.: 34 To apply to atoms with more than one electron, the Rydberg formula can be modified by replacingZwithZ−bornwithn−bwherebis constant representing a screening effect due to the inner-shell and other electrons (seeElectron shelland the later discussion of the \"Shell Model of the Atom\" below). This was established empirically before Bohr presented his model. Shell model (heavier atoms) Bohr's original three papers in 1913 described mainly the electron configuration in lighter elements. Bohr called his electron shells, \"rings\" in 1913. Atomic orbitals within shells did not exist at the time of his planetary model. Bohr explains in Part 3 of his famous 1913 paper that the maximum electrons in a shell is eight, writing: \"We see, further, that a ring ofnelectrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of chargeneunlessn< 8.\" For smaller atoms, the electron shells would be filled as follows: \"rings of electrons will only join together if they contain equal numbers of electrons; and that accordingly the numbers of electrons on inner rings will only be 2, 4, 8\". However, in larger atoms the innermost shell would contain eight electrons, \"on the other hand, the periodic system of the elements strongly suggests that already in neonN= 10 an inner ring of eight electrons will occur\". Bohr wrote \"From the above we are led to the following possible scheme for the arrangement of the electrons in light atoms:\" In Bohr's third 1913 paper Part III called \"Systems Containing Several Nuclei\", he says that two atoms form molecules on a symmetrical plane and he reverts to describing hydrogen.The 1913 Bohr model did not discuss higher elements in detail andJohn William Nicholsonwas one of the first to prove in 1914 that it couldn't work for lithium, but was an attractive theory for hydrogen and ionized helium. In 1921, following the work of chemists and others involved in work on theperiodic table, Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time although these properties were proposed contemporarily with the identical work of chemistCharles Rugeley Bury Bohr's partner in research during 1914 to 1916 wasWalther Kosselwho corrected Bohr's work to show that electrons interacted through the outer rings, and Kossel called the rings: \"shells\".Irving Langmuiris credited with the first viable arrangement of electrons in shells with only two in the first shell and going up to eight in the next according to theoctet ruleof 1904, although Kossel had already predicted a maximum of eight per shell in 1916.Heavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr took from these chemists the idea that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. PerKossel, after that the orbit is full, the next level would have to be used.This gives the atom ashell structuredesigned by Kossel, Langmuir, and Bury, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit. This model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon ofscreening. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit. For example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1s orbit, and these orbit atZ= 2. Each one sees the nuclear charge ofZ= 3 minus the screening effect of the other, which crudely reduces the nuclear charge by 1 unit. This means that the innermost electrons orbit at approximately 1/2 the Bohr radius. The outermost electron in lithium orbits at roughly the Bohr radius, since the two inner electrons reduce the nuclear charge by 2. This outer electron should be at nearly one Bohr radius from the nucleus. Because the electrons strongly repel each other, the effective charge description is very approximate; the effective chargeZdoesn't usually come out to be an integer. The shell model was able to qualitatively explain many of the mysterious properties of atoms which became codified in the late 19th century in theperiodic table of the elements. One property was the size of atoms, which could be determined approximately by measuring theviscosityof gases and density of pure crystalline solids. Atoms tend to get smaller toward the right in the periodic table, and become much larger at the next line of the table. Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them. Every element on the last column of the table is chemically inert (noble gas). In the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling. Successive atoms become smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing it to expand. The first Bohr orbit is filled when it has two electrons, which explains why helium is inert. The second orbit allows eight electrons, and when it is full the atom is neon, again inert. The third orbital contains eight again, except that in the more correct Sommerfeld treatment (reproduced in modern quantum mechanics) there are extra \"d\" electrons. The third orbit may hold an extra 10 d electrons, but these positions are not filled until a few more orbitals from the next level are filled (filling the n=3 d orbitals produces the 10transition elements). The irregular filling pattern is an effect of interactions between electrons, which are not taken into account in either the Bohr or Sommerfeld models and which are difficult to calculate even in the modern treatment. Moseley's law and calculation (K-alpha X-ray emission lines) Niels Bohr said in 1962: \"You see actually the Rutherford work was not taken seriously. We cannot understand today, but it was not taken seriously at all. There was no mention of it any place. The great change came from Moseley.\" In 1913,Henry Moseleyfound an empirical relationship between the strongest X-ray line emitted by atoms under electron bombardment (then known as theK-alphaline), and their atomic numberZ. Moseley's empiric formula was found to be derivable from Rydberg's formula and later Bohr's formula (Moseley actually mentions onlyErnest RutherfordandAntonius Van den Broekin terms of models as these had been published before Moseley's work and Moseley's 1913 paper was published the same month as the first Bohr model paper).The two additional assumptions thatthis X-ray line came from a transition between energy levels with quantum numbers 1 and 2, and, that the atomic numberZwhen used in the formula for atoms heavier than hydrogen, should be diminished by 1, to(Z− 1)2. Moseley wrote to Bohr, puzzled about his results, but Bohr was not able to help. At that time, he thought that the postulated innermost \"K\" shell of electrons should have at least four electrons, not the two which would have neatly explained the result. So Moseley published his results without a theoretical explanation. It wasWalther Kosselin 1914 and in 1916 who explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell. In Kossel's paper, he writes: \"This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of which ... only a certain number of electrons—namely, eight in our case—should be arranged. As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated.\"Later, chemist Langmuir realized that the effect was caused by charge screening, with an inner shell containing only 2 electrons. In his 1919 paper,Irving Langmuirpostulated the existence of \"cells\" which could each only contain two electrons each, and these were arranged in \"equidistant layers\". In the Moseley experiment, one of the innermost electrons in the atom is knocked out, leaving a vacancy in the lowest Bohr orbit, which contains a single remaining electron. This vacancy is then filled by an electron from the next orbit, which has n=2. But the n=2 electrons see an effective charge ofZ− 1, which is the value appropriate for the charge of the nucleus, when a single electron remains in the lowest Bohr orbit to screen the nuclear charge +Z, and lower it by −1 (due to the electron's negative charge screening the nuclear positive charge). The energy gained by an electron dropping from the second shell to the first gives Moseley's law for K-alpha lines, or Here,Rv=RE/his the Rydberg constant, in terms of frequency equal to 3.28 x 1015Hz. For values of Z between 11 and 31 this latter relationship had been empirically derived by Moseley, in a simple (linear) plot of the square root of X-ray frequency against atomic number (however, for silver, Z = 47, the experimentally obtained screening term should be replaced by 0.4). Notwithstanding its restricted validity,Moseley's law not only established the objective meaning of atomic number, but as Bohr noted, it also did more than the Rydberg derivation to establish the validity of the Rutherford/Van den Broek/Bohr nuclear model of the atom, with atomic number (place on the periodic table) standing for whole units of nuclear charge. Van den Broek had published his model in January 1913 showing the periodic table was arranged according to charge while Bohr's atomic model was not published until July 1913. TheK-alphaline of Moseley's time is now known to be a pair of close lines, written as (Kα1andKα2) inSiegbahn notation. Shortcomings The Bohr model gives an incorrect valueL=ħfor the ground state orbital angular momentum: The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero from experiment. Although mental pictures fail somewhat at these levels of scale, an electron in the lowest modern \"orbital\" with no orbital momentum, may be thought of as not to revolve \"around\" the nucleus at all, but merely to go tightly around it in an ellipse with zero area (this may be pictured as \"back and forth\", without striking or interacting with the nucleus). This is only reproduced in a more sophisticated semiclassical treatment like Sommerfeld's. Still, even the most sophisticated semiclassical model fails to explain the fact that the lowest energy state is spherically symmetric – it doesn't point in any particular direction. Nevertheless, in the modernfully quantum treatment in phase space, the proper deformation (careful full extension) of the semi-classical result adjusts the angular momentum value to the correct effective one.As a consequence, the physical ground state expression is obtained through a shift of the vanishing quantum angular momentum expression, which corresponds to spherical symmetry. In modern quantum mechanics, the electron in hydrogen is aspherical cloud of probabilitythat grows denser near the nucleus. The rate-constant of probability-decay in hydrogen is equal to the inverse of the Bohr radius, but since Bohr worked with circular orbits, not zero area ellipses, the fact that these two numbers exactly agree is considered a \"coincidence\". (However, many such coincidental agreements are found between the semiclassical vs. full quantum mechanical treatment of the atom; these include identical energy levels in the hydrogen atom and the derivation of a fine-structure constant, which arises from the relativistic Bohr–Sommerfeld model (see below) and which happens to be equal to an entirely different concept, in full modern quantum mechanics). The Bohr model also has difficulty with, or else fails to explain: Refinements Several enhancements to the Bohr model were proposed, most notably theSommerfeld or Bohr–Sommerfeld models, which suggested that electrons travel in elliptical orbits around a nucleus instead of the Bohr model's circular orbits.This model supplemented the quantized angular momentum condition of the Bohr model with an additional radial quantization condition, theWilson–Sommerfeldquantization condition wherepris the radial momentum canonically conjugate to the coordinateqr, which is the radial position, andTis one full orbital period. The integral is theactionofaction-angle coordinates. This condition, suggested by thecorrespondence principle, is the only one possible, since the quantum numbers areadiabatic invariants. The Bohr–Sommerfeld model was fundamentally inconsistent and led to many paradoxes. Themagnetic quantum numbermeasured the tilt of the orbital plane relative to thexyplane, and it could only take a few discrete values. This contradicted the obvious fact that an atom could have any orientation relative to the coordinates, without restriction. The Sommerfeld quantization can be performed in different canonical coordinates and sometimes gives different answers. The incorporation of radiation corrections was difficult, because it required finding action-angle coordinates for a combined radiation/atom system, which is difficult when the radiation is allowed to escape. The whole theory did not extend to non-integrable motions, which meant that many systems could not be treated even in principle. In the end, the model was replaced by the modern quantum-mechanical treatment of thehydrogen atom, which was first given byWolfgang Pauliin 1925, using Heisenberg'smatrix mechanics. The current picture of the hydrogen atom is based on theatomic orbitalsofwave mechanics, whichErwin Schrödingerdeveloped in 1926. However, this is not to say that the Bohr–Sommerfeld model was without its successes. Calculations based on the Bohr–Sommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic spectral effects. For example, up to first-orderperturbations, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in theStark effect. At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model. The prevailing theory behind this difference lies in the shapes of the orbitals of the electrons, which vary according to the energy state of the electron. The Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization conditions lead to questions in modern mathematics. Consistent semiclassical quantization condition requires a certain type of structure on the phase space, which places topological limitations on the types of symplectic manifolds which can be quantized. In particular, the symplectic form should be thecurvature formof aconnectionof aHermitianline bundle, which is called aprequantization. Bohr also updated his model in 1922, assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example, 2, 8, and 18) correspond to stable \"closed shells\". Model of the chemical bond Niels Bohr proposed a model of the atom anda model of the chemical bond. According to his model for adiatomic molecule, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei. Thedynamic equilibriumof the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei. The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account theCoulomb repulsion– the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other. Symbolism of planetary atomic models Although Bohr's atomic model was superseded by quantum models in the 1920's, the visual image of electrons orbiting a nucleus has remained the popular concept of atoms. The concept of an atom as a tinyplanetary systemhas been widely used as a symbol for atoms and even for \"atomic\" energy (even though this is more properly considered nuclear energy).:58Examples of its use over the past century include but are not limited to: See also References Footnotes Primary sources Further reading External links"
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"Max Planck Max Karl Ernst Ludwig PlanckForMemRS(/ˈplæŋk/;German:ⓘ;23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a Germantheoretical physicistwhose discovery of energyquantawon him theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1918. Planck made many substantial contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame as a physicist rests primarily on his role as the originator ofquantum theoryand one of the founders ofmodern physics,which revolutionized understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. He is known for thePlanck constant, which is of foundational importance for quantum physics, and which he used to derive a set ofunits, today calledPlanck units, expressed only in terms of fundamentalphysical constants. Planck was twice president of the German scientific institutionKaiser Wilhelm Society. In 1948, it was renamed theMax Planck Society(Max-Planck-Gesellschaft) and nowadays includes 83 institutions representing a wide range of scientific directions. Early life and education Planck came from a traditional, intellectual family. His",
"family. His paternal great-grandfather and grandfather were both theology professors inGöttingen; his father was a law professor at theUniversity of KielandMunich. One of his uncles was also a judge. Planck was born in 1858 inKiel,Holstein(nowSchleswig-Holstein), to Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck and his second wife, Emma Patzig. He was baptized with the name ofKarl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck; of his given names,Marxwas indicated as the\"appellation name\".However, by the age of ten he signed with the nameMaxand used this for the rest of his life. He was the sixth child in the family, though two of his siblings were from his father's first marriage. War was common during Planck's early years and among his earliest memories was the marching ofPrussianandAustriantroops into Kiel during theSecond Schleswig Warin 1864.In 1867 the family moved toMunich, and Planck enrolled in the Maximiliansgymnasiumschool. There, his mathematical talents emerged earlyand he later came under the tutelage of Hermann Müller, a",
"Hermann Müller, a mathematician who took an interest in the youth, and taught himastronomyandmechanicsas well asmathematics. It was from Müller that Planck first learned the principle of conservation of energy. Planck graduated early, at age 17.This is how Planck first came in contact with the field of physics. Planck was gifted when it came to music. He took singing lessons and played piano, organ and cello, and composed songs and operas. However, instead of music he chose to studyphysics. Planck enrolled at theUniversity of Munichin 1874. Under professorPhilipp von Jolly's supervision, Planck performed the only experiments of his scientific career, studying thediffusionofhydrogenthrough heatedplatinum, but transferred totheoretical physics. Jolly advised Planck against going into theoretical physics. Planck recalls that in 1878, Jolly argued that physics was almost complete, being a \"highly developed, nearly fully matured science, that through the crowning achievement of the discovery of the principle of",
"of the principle of conservation of energy will arguably soon take its final stable form\". In 1877, he went to theFriedrich Wilhelms Universityin Berlin for a year of study with physicistsHermann von HelmholtzandGustav Kirchhoffand mathematicianKarl Weierstrass. He wrote that Helmholtz was never quite prepared, spoke slowly, miscalculated endlessly, and bored his listeners, while Kirchhoff spoke in carefully prepared lectures which were dry and monotonous. He soon became close friends with Helmholtz. While there he undertook a program of mostly self-study ofRudolf Clausius'swritings, which led him to choosethermodynamicsas his field. In October 1878, Planck passed his qualifying exams and in February 1879 defended his dissertationÜber den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie(On the Second Law of Mechanical Heat Theory). He briefly taught mathematics and physics at his former school in Munich. By the year 1880, Planck had obtained the two highest academic degrees offered in Europe. The first was a",
"The first was a doctorate degree after he completed his paper detailing his research and theory of thermodynamics.He then presented his thesis calledGleichgewichtszustände isotroper Körper in verschiedenen Temperaturen(Equilibrium states of isotropic bodies at different temperatures), which earned him ahabilitation. Career With the completion of his habilitation thesis, Planck became an unpaidPrivatdozent(German academic rank comparable to lecturer/assistant professor) in Munich, waiting until he was offered an academic position. Although he was initially ignored by the academic community, he furthered his work on the field ofheat theoryand discovered one after another the samethermodynamicalformalism asGibbswithout realizing it. Clausius's ideas onentropyoccupied a central role in his work. In April 1885, theUniversity of Kielappointed Planck as associate professor oftheoretical physics. Further work on entropy and its treatment, especially as applied inphysical chemistry, followed. He published hisTreatise",
"hisTreatise on Thermodynamicsin 1897.He proposed a thermodynamic basis forSvante Arrhenius's theory ofelectrolyticdissociation. In 1889, he was named the successor to Kirchhoff's position at theFriedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin– presumably thanks to Helmholtz's intercession – and by 1892 became a full professor. In 1907 Planck was offeredLudwig Boltzmann's position inVienna, but turned it down to stay in Berlin. During 1909, as a University of Berlin professor, he was invited to become theErnest Kempton Adams Lecturer in Theoretical PhysicsatColumbia UniversityinNew York City. A series of his lectures were translated and co-published by Columbia University professorA. P. Wills.He was elected to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1914.He retired from Berlin on 10 January 1926,and was succeeded byErwin Schrödinger.He was elected to the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1926 and theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1933. Professor at Berlin University As a professor at",
"As a professor at theFriedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin, Planck joined the local Physical Society. He later wrote about this time: \"In those days I was essentially the only theoretical physicist there, whence things were not so easy for me, because I started mentioning entropy, but this was not quite fashionable, since it was regarded as a mathematical spook\".Thanks to his initiative, the various local Physical Societies of Germany merged in 1898 to form the German Physical Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG); from 1905 to 1909 Planck was the president. Planck started a six-semester course of lectures on theoretical physics, \"dry, somewhat impersonal\" according toLise Meitner, \"using no notes, never making mistakes, never faltering; the best lecturer I ever heard\" according to an English participant,James R. Partington, who continues: \"There were always many standing around the room. As the lecture-room was well heated and rather close, some of the listeners would from time to time drop",
"time to time drop to the floor, but this did not disturb the lecture.\" Planck did not establish an actual \"school\"; the number of his graduate students was only about 20, among them: Entropy Thermodynamics, also known as the \"mechanical theory of heat\" at the end of the 19th century, had emerged at the beginning of this century from an attempt to understand the functioning of steam engines and to improve their efficiency. In the 1840s, several researchers independently discovered and formulated the law of conservation of energy, which is now also known as thefirst law of thermodynamics. In 1850,Rudolf Clausiusformulated the so-calledsecond law of thermodynamics, which states that a voluntary (or spontaneous) transfer of energy is only possible from a warmer to a colder body, but not vice versa. In England at this timeWilliam Thomsoncame to the same conclusion. Clausius generalized his formulation further and further and came up with a new formulation in 1865. To this end, he introduced the concept ofEntropy,",
"concept ofEntropy, which he defined as a measure of the reversible supply of heat in relation to the absolute temperature. The new formulation of the second law, which is still valid today, was: \"Entropy can be created, but never destroyed\". Clausius, whose work Planck read as a young student during his stay in Berlin, successfully applied this new law of nature to mechanical, thermoelectric and chemical processes. In his dissertation in 1879, Planck summarized Clausius' writings, pointing out contradictions and inaccuracies in their formulation and then clarifying them. In addition, he generalized the validity of the second law to all processes in nature, Clausius had limited its application to reversible processes and thermal processes. Furthermore, Planck dealt intensively with the new concept of entropy and emphasized, that entropy is not only a property of a physical system, but at the same time a measure of the irreversibility of a process: If entropy is generated in a process, it is irreversible,",
"it is irreversible, since entropy cannot be destroyed according to the second law. In reversible processes, the entropy remains constant. He presented this fact in detail in 1887 in a series of treatises entitled \"On the Princip of the Increase of Entropy\". In his study of the concept of entropy, Planck did not follow the molecular, probabilistic interpretation that prevailed at the time, as these do not provide absolute proof of universality. Instead, he pursued a phenomenological approach and was also skeptical of atomism. Even though he later abandoned this attitude in the course of his work on the law of radiation, his early work impressively shows the possibilites of the phenome of thermodynamics in solving concrete physicochemical problems. Planck's understanding of entropy included the realization that the maximum of entropy corresponds to the equilibrium state. The accompanying conclusion that knowledge of the Entropy allows all laws of thermodynamic equilibrium states to be derived corresponds to",
"corresponds to the modern understanding of such states. Planck therefore chose equilibrium processes as his research focus and, based on his habilitation thesis, researched the coexistence of aggregate states and the equilibrium of gas reactions, for example. This work on the frontier of chemical thermodynamics also received great attention due to the rapidly expanding chemical work at that time. Independently of Planck,Josiah Willard Gibbshad also discovered almost all the knowledge Planck gained about the properties of physicochemical equilibria and published them from 1876 onwards. Planck was unaware of these essays, and they did not appear in German until 1892. However, both scientists approached the topic in different ways, while Planck dealt with irreversible processes, Gibbs looked at equilibria. This approach was finally able to prevail because of its simplicity, but Planck's approach is attributed the greater universality. Black-body radiation In 1894, Planck turned his attention to the problem",
"to the problem ofblack-body radiation. The problem had been stated by Kirchhoff in 1859: \"how does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by ablack body(a perfect absorber, also known as a cavity radiator) depend on thefrequencyof the radiation (i.e., the color of the light) and the temperature of the body?\". The question had been explored experimentally, but no theoretical treatment had agreed with the experimentally observed evidence.Wilhelm WienproposedWien's law, which correctly predicted the behaviour at high frequencies, but failed at low frequencies. TheRayleigh–Jeans law, another approach to the problem, agreed with experimental results at low frequencies, but created what was later known as the \"ultraviolet catastrophe\" at high frequencies, as predicted byclassical physics. However, contrary to many textbooks, this was not a motivation for Planck. Planck's first proposed solution to the problem in 1899 followed from what he called the \"principle of elementary disorder\", which allowed",
"which allowed him to derive Wien's law from a number of assumptions about theentropyof an ideal oscillator, creating what was referred to as the Wien–Planck law. Soon, however, it was found that experimental evidence did not confirm the new law at all, to Planck's frustration. He revised his approach and now derived the first version of the famousPlanck black-body radiation law, which described clearly the experimentally observed black-body spectrum. It was first proposed in a meeting of the DPG on 19 October 1900 and published in 1901. (This first derivation did not include energy quantisation, and did not usestatistical mechanics, to which he held an aversion.) In November 1900 Planck revised this first version, now relying onBoltzmann's statistical interpretation of thesecond law of thermodynamicsas a way of gaining a more fundamental understanding of the principles behind his radiation law. Planck was deeply suspicious of the philosophical and physical implications of such an interpretation of",
"interpretation of Boltzmann's approach; thus his recourse to them was, as he later put it, \"an act of despair ... I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics\". The central assumption behind his new derivation, presented to the DPG on 14 December 1900, was the supposition, now known as thePlanck postulate, that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only inquantizedform, in other words, the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit: wherehis thePlanck constant, also known as Planck's action quantum (introduced already in 1899), andνis the frequency of the radiation. Note that the elementary units of energy discussed here are represented byhνand not simply byν. Physicists now call these quanta photons, and a photon of frequencyνwill have its own specific and unique energy. The total energy at that frequency is then equal tohνmultiplied by the number of photons at that frequency. At first Planck considered that quantisation was only \"a purely formal assumption ... actually",
"... actually I did not think much about it ...\"; nowadays this assumption, incompatible withclassical physics, is regarded as the birth ofquantum physicsand the greatest intellectual accomplishment of Planck's career. (Boltzmannhad been discussing in a theoretical paper in 1877 the possibility that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete). The discovery of the Planck constant enabled him to define a new universal set ofphysical units(such as the Planck length and the Planck mass), all based on fundamental physical constants, upon which much of quantum theory is based. In a discussion with his son in December 1918 Planck described his discovery as 'a discovery of the first rank, comparable perhaps only to the discoveries of Newton'.In recognition of Planck's fundamental contribution to a new branch of physics, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918; (he received the award in 1919). Subsequently, Planck tried to grasp the meaning of energy quanta, but to no avail. \"My unavailing",
"\"My unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble.\" Even several years later, other physicists such asRayleigh,Jeans, andLorentzset the Planck constant to zero in order to align with classical physics, but Planck knew well that this constant had a precise nonzero value. \"I am unable to understand Jeans' stubbornness – he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing, the same asHegelwas for philosophy. So much the worse for the facts if they don't fit.\" Max Bornwrote about Planck: \"He was, by nature, a conservative mind; he had nothing of the revolutionary and was thoroughly skeptical about speculations. Yet his belief in the compelling force of logical reasoning from facts was so strong that he did not flinch from announcing the most revolutionary idea which ever has shaken physics.\" Einstein and the theory of relativity In 1905, the three epochal papers byAlbert Einsteinwere published in the",
"published in the journalAnnalen der Physik. Planck was among the few who immediately recognized the significance of thespecial theory of relativity. Thanks to his influence, this theory was soon widely accepted in Germany. Planck also contributed considerably to extend the special theory of relativity. For example, he recast the theory in terms of classicalaction. Einstein's hypothesis of lightquanta(photons), based onHeinrich Hertz's1887 discovery (and further investigation byPhilipp Lenard) of thephotoelectric effect, was initially rejected by Planck. He was unwilling to discard completelyMaxwell's theory ofelectrodynamics. \"The theory of light would be thrown back not by decades, but by centuries, into the age whenChristiaan Huygensdared to fight against the mighty emission theory ofIsaac Newton...\" In 1910, Einstein pointed out the anomalous behavior ofspecific heatat low temperatures as another example of a phenomenon which defies explanation by classical physics. Planck andWalther Nernst, seeking to",
"Nernst, seeking to clarify the increasing number of contradictions, organized the FirstSolvay Conference(Brussels 1911). At this meeting Einstein was able to convince Planck. Meanwhile, Planck had been appointed dean of Berlin University, whereby it was possible for him to call Einstein to Berlin and establish a new professorship for him (1914). Soon the two scientists became close friends and met frequently to play music together. First World War At the onset of theFirst World WarPlanck endorsed the general excitement of the public, writing that, \"Besides much that is horrible, there is also much that is unexpectedly great and beautiful: the smooth solution of the most difficult domestic political problems by the unification of all parties (and) ... the extolling of everything good and noble.\"Planck also signed the infamous \"Manifesto of the 93 intellectuals\", a pamphlet of polemic war propaganda (while Einstein retained a strictly pacifistic attitude which almost led to his imprisonment, only being spared",
"only being spared thanks to hisSwisscitizenship). In 1915, when Italy was still a neutral power, Planck voted successfully for a scientific paper from Italy, which received a prize from thePrussian Academy of Sciences, where Planck was one of four permanent presidents. Post-war and the Weimar Republic In the turbulent post-war years, Planck, now the highest authority of German physics, issued the slogan \"persevere and continue working\" to his colleagues. In October 1920, he andFritz Haberestablished theNotgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft(Emergency Organization of German Science), aimed at providing financial support for scientific research. A considerable portion of the money the organization would distribute was raised abroad. Planck held leading positions at Berlin University, the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the German Physical Society, and theKaiser Wilhelm Society(which became theMax Planck Societyin 1948). During this time economic conditions in Germany were such that he was hardly able to",
"was hardly able to conduct research. In 1926, Planck became a foreign member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. During the interwar period, Planck became a member of the Deutsche Volks-Partei (German People's Party), the party of Nobel Peace Prize laureateGustav Stresemann, which aspired to liberal aims for domestic policy and rather revisionistic aims for politics around the world. Planck disagreed with the introduction ofuniversal suffrageand later expressed the view that the Nazi dictatorship resulted from \"the ascent of the rule of the crowds\". Quantum mechanics At the end of the 1920s,Niels Bohr,Werner Heisenberg, andWolfgang Paulihad worked out theCopenhagen interpretationof quantum mechanics, but it was rejected by Planck, and by Schrödinger, Laue, and Einstein as well. Planck expected thatwave mechanicswould soon render quantum theory – his own child – unnecessary. This was not to be the case, however. Further work only served to underscore the enduring central importance of",
"importance of quantum theory, even against his and Einstein's philosophical revulsions. Here Planck experienced the truth of his own earlier observation from his struggle with the older views during his younger years: \"A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it.\" Nazi dictatorship and the Second World War When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Planck was 74 years old. He witnessed many Jewish friends and colleagues expelled from their positions and humiliated, and hundreds of scientists emigrate fromNazi Germany. Again he tried to \"persevere and continue working\" and asked scientists who were considering emigration to remain in Germany. Nevertheless, he did help his nephew, the economistHermann Kranold, to emigrate toLondonafter his arrest.He hoped the crisis would abate soon and the political situation would improve. Otto Hahnasked Planck to gather",
"Planck to gather well-known German professors in order to issue a public proclamation against the treatment of Jewish professors, but Planck replied, \"If you are able to gather today 30 such gentlemen, then tomorrow 150 others will come and speak against it, because they are eager to take over the positions of the others.\"Under Planck's leadership, theKaiser Wilhelm Society(KWG) avoided open conflict with the Nazi regime, except concerning the Jewish Fritz Haber. In May of 1933 Planck requested and received an interview with the recently appointed Chancellor of GermanyAdolf Hitlerto discuss the issue, telling him that the \"forced immigration of Jews would kill German science and Jews could be good Germans\", to which the chancellor replied \"but we don't have anything against the Jews, only against communists\". Planck was therefore unsuccessful, since this reply \"took from him every basis for further negotiation\",as to Hitler \"the Jews are all Communists, and these are my enemies.\" In the following year, 1934,",
"year, 1934, Haber died in exile. One year later, Planck, having been the president of the KWG since 1930, organized in a somewhat provocative style an official commemorative meeting for Haber. He also succeeded in secretly enabling a number of Jewish scientists to continue working in institutes of the KWG for several years. In 1936, his term as president of the KWG ended, and the Nazi government pressured him to refrain from seeking another term. As the political climate in Germany gradually became more hostile,Johannes Stark, prominent exponent of theDeutsche Physik(\"German Physics\", also called \"Aryan Physics\") attacked Planck,Arnold Sommerfeld, and Heisenberg for continuing to teach the theories of Einstein, calling them \"white Jews\". The \"Hauptamt Wissenschaft\" (Nazi government office for science) started an investigation of Planck's ancestry, claiming that he was \"1/16 Jewish\", but Planck denied it. In 1938, Planck celebrated his 80th birthday. The DPG held a celebration, during which the Max-Planck",
"the Max-Planck medal (founded as the highest medal by the DPG in 1928) was awarded to French physicistLouis de Broglie. At the end of 1938, the Prussian Academy lost its remaining independence and was taken over by Nazis (Gleichschaltung). Planck protested by resigning his presidency. He continued to travel frequently, giving numerous public talks, such as his talk on Religion and Science, and five years later he was sufficiently fit to climb 3,000-metre peaks in theAlps. During theSecond World Warthe increasing number of Allied bombing missions against Berlin forced Planck and his wife to temporarily leave the city and live in the countryside. In 1942, he wrote: \"In me an ardent desire has grown to persevere this crisis and live long enough to be able to witness the turning point, the beginning of a new rise.\" In February 1944, his home in Berlin was completely destroyed by an air raid, annihilating all his scientific records and correspondence. His rural retreat was threatened by the rapid advance of the",
"advance of the Allied armies from both sides. In 1944, Planck's sonErwinwas arrested by theGestapofollowing the attempted assassination of Hitler in the20 July plot. He was tried and sentenced to death by thePeople's Courtin October 1944. Erwin was hanged at Berlin'sPlötzensee Prisonin January 1945. The death of his son destroyed much of Planck's will to live. Personal life and death In March 1887, Planck married Marie Merck (1861–1909), sister of a school fellow, and moved with her into a sublet apartment in Kiel. They had four children: Karl (1888–1916), the twins Emma (1889–1919) and Grete (1889–1917), andErwin(1893–1945). After living in the apartment in Berlin, the Planck family lived in a villa in Berlin-Grunewald, Wangenheimstrasse 21. Several other professors fromUniversity of Berlinlived nearby, among them theologianAdolf von Harnack, who became a close friend of Planck. Soon the Planck home became a social and cultural center. Numerous well-known scientists, such asAlbert Einstein,Otto HahnandLise",
"HahnandLise Meitnerwere frequent visitors. The tradition of jointly performing music had already been established in the home ofHelmholtz. After several happy years, in July 1909 Marie Planck died, possibly fromtuberculosis. In March 1911 Planck married his second wife, Marga von Hoesslin (1882–1948); in December his fifth child Hermann was born. During theFirst World WarPlanck's second son Erwin was taken prisoner by the French in 1914, while his oldest son Karl was killed in action atVerdun. Grete died in 1917 while giving birth to her first child. Her sister died the same way two years later, after having married Grete's widower. Both granddaughters survived and were named after their mothers. Planck endured these losses stoically. In January 1945,Erwin Planck, to whom he had been particularly close, was sentenced to death by theNaziVolksgerichtshofbecause of his participation in thefailed attempt to assassinate Hitlerin July 1944. Erwin was executed on 23 January 1945. After World war II ended, Planck,",
"II ended, Planck, his second wife, and their son were brought to a relative inGöttingen, where Planck died on October 4, 1947. He was buried in the old Stadtfriedhof (City Cemetery) in Göttingen. Religious views Planck was a member of theLutheran Churchin Germany.He was very tolerant toward alternative views andreligions.In a lecture in 1937 entitled \"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\" (\"Religion and Natural Science\") he suggested the importance of these symbols and rituals related directly with a believer's ability to worship God, but that one must be mindful that the symbols provide an imperfect illustration of divinity. He criticized atheism for being focused on the derision of such symbols, while at the same time warned of the over-estimation of the importance of such symbols by believers. In \"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\", Planck expressed the view that God is present everywhere, and he held that \"the holiness of the unintelligible Godhead is conveyed by the holiness of symbols.\" Atheists, he thought,",
"he thought, attach too much importance to what are merely symbols. He was a churchwarden from 1920 until his death, and believed in an almighty, all-knowing, beneficent God (although not necessarily a personal one). Both science and religion wage a \"tireless battle against skepticism and dogmatism, against unbelief and superstition\" with the goal \"toward God!\" Planck said in 1944, \"As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a result of my research about atoms this much: There is no matter as such. All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particle of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the atom together. We must assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent spirit . This spirit is the matrix of all matter.\" Planck argued that the concept of God is important to both religion and science, but in different ways: \"Both religion and science require a belief",
"require a belief in God. For believers, God is in the beginning, and for physicists He is at the end of all considerations … To the former He is the foundation, to the latter, the crown of the edifice of every generalized world view\". Furthermore, Planck wrote, ...\"to believe\" means \"to recognize as a truth\", and the knowledge of nature, continually advancing on incontestably safe tracks, has made it utterly impossible for a person possessing some training in natural science to recognize as founded on truth the many reports of extraordinary occurrences contradicting the laws of nature, of miracles which are still commonly regarded as essential supports and confirmations of religious doctrines, and which formerly used to be accepted as facts pure and simple, without doubt or criticism. The belief in miracles must retreat step by step before relentlessly and reliably progressing science and we cannot doubt that sooner or later it must vanish completely. Noted historian of scienceJohn L. Heilbroncharacterized",
"Planck's views on God asdeistic.Heilbron further relates that when asked about his religious affiliation, Planck replied that although he had always been deeply religious, he did not believe \"in a personal God, let alone a Christian God\". Publications ter Haar, D.(1967).\"On the Theory of the Energy Distribution Law of the Normal Spectrum\"(PDF).The Old Quantum Theory.Pergamon Press. p. 82.LCCN66029628. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 September 2016. Retrieved5 April2014. See also References Sources External links",
"Albert Einstein Albert Einstein(/ˈaɪnstaɪn/EYEN-styne;German:ⓘ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-borntheoretical physicistwho is widely held as one of the most influentialscientists. Best known for developing thetheory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions toquantum mechanics.Hismass–energy equivalenceformulaE=mc2, which arises fromspecial relativity, has been called \"the world's most famous equation\".He received the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\"for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of thephotoelectric effect\",a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. Born in theGerman Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of theKingdom of Württemberg)the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swissfederal polytechnic schoolinZürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he",
"which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at theSwiss Patent Officein Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to theUniversity of Zurich. In 1914, he moved toBerlinin order to join thePrussian Academy of Sciencesand theHumboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of theKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of theKingdom of Prussia.In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States,Adolf Hitler came to powerin Germany. Horrified by theNaziwar of exterminationagainst his fellow Jews,Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was grantedAmerican citizenshipin 1940.On the eve ofWorld War II, he endorseda letterto PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltalerting him to the potentialGerman nuclear weapons programand recommended that the US beginsimilar research. Einstein supported theAlliesbut generally viewed the idea ofnuclear weaponswith great dismay. Einstein's work is also known for",
"is also known for its influence on thephilosophy of science.In 1905, he publishedfour groundbreaking papers, sometimes described as hisannus mirabilis(miracle year).These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explainedBrownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability ofclassical mechanicsto account satisfactorily for the behavior of theelectromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed ageneral theory of relativitythat extended his system of mechanics to incorporategravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of theuniverseas a whole. In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions tostatistical mechanicsand quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics ofradiation, in which light",
"in which light consists of particles, subsequently calledphotons. With the Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork forBose-Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that \"God does not play dice\".Second, he attempted to devise aunified field theoryby generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to includeelectromagnetismtoo. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstreammodern physics. His intellectual achievements and originality madeEinsteinbroadly synonymous withgenius.In 1999, he was namedTime'sPerson of the Century.In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journalPhysics World, Einstein was ranked the greatest physicist of all time. Life and career Childhood, youth and education Albert Einstein was born inUlm,in",
"was born inUlm,in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879.His parents, secularAshkenazi Jews, wereHermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, andPauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved toMunich's borough ofLudwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based ondirect current.He often related a formative event from his youth, when he was sick in bed and his father brought him acompass. This sparked his lifelong fascination withelectromagnetism. He realized that \"Something deeply hidden had to be behind things.\" Albert attended St. Peter'sCatholic elementary schoolin Munich from the age of five. When he was eight, he was transferred to theLuitpold Gymnasium, where he received advanced primary and then secondary school education. In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company tendered for a contract to install electric lighting in Munich, but without success—they lacked",
"success—they lacked the capital that would have been required to update their technology from direct current to the more efficient,alternating currentalternative.The failure of their bid forced them to sell their Munich factory and search for new opportunities elsewhere. The Einstein family moved to Italy, first toMilanand a few months later toPavia, where they settled inPalazzo Cornazzani.Einstein, then fifteen, stayed behind in Munich in order to finish his schooling. His father wanted him to studyelectrical engineering, but he was a fractious pupil who found the Gymnasium's regimen and teaching methods far from congenial. He later wrote that the school's policy of strictrote learningwas harmful to creativity. At the end of December 1894, a letter from a doctor persuaded the Luitpold's authorities to release him from its care, and he joined his family in Pavia.While in Italy as a teenager, he wrote an essay entitled \"On the Investigation of the State of theEtherin a Magnetic Field\". Einstein excelled at",
"excelled at physics and mathematics from an early age, and soon acquired the mathematical expertise normally only found in a child several years his senior. He began teaching himself algebra, calculus andEuclidean geometrywhen he was twelve; he made such rapid progress that he discovered an original proof of thePythagorean theorembefore his thirteenth birthday.A family tutor,Max Talmud, said that only a short time after he had given the twelve year old Einstein a geometry textbook, the boy \"had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow.\"Einstein recorded that he had \"masteredintegralanddifferential calculus\" while still just fourteen.His love of algebra and geometry was so great that at twelve, he was already confident that nature could be understood as a \"mathematical structure\". At thirteen, when his range of enthusiasms had broadened to include music and philosophy,Talmud introduced",
"introduced Einstein toKant'sCritique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, \"At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him.\" In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for thefederal polytechnic school(later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the test,but performed with distinction in physics and mathematics.On the advice of the polytechnic's principal, he completed his secondary education at theArgovian cantonal school(agymnasium) inAarau, Switzerland, graduating in 1896.While lodging in Aarau with the family ofJost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister,Maja, later married Winteler's son Paul.) In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced hiscitizenship of the German Kingdom of Württembergin order to",
"order to avoidconscription into military service.TheMatura(graduation for the successful completion of higher secondary schooling), awarded to him in September 1896, acknowledged him to have performed well across most of the curriculum, allotting him atop grade of 6for history, physics, algebra, geometry, and descriptive geometry.At seventeen, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, a year older than him, took up a teaching post inOlsberg, Switzerland. The five other polytechnic school freshmen following the same course as Einstein included just one woman, a twenty year oldSerbian,Mileva Marić. Over the next few years, the pair spent many hours discussing their shared interests and learning about topics in physics that the polytechnic school's lectures did not cover. In his letters to Marić, Einstein confessed that exploring science with her by his side was much more enjoyable than reading a textbook in solitude.",
"in solitude. Eventually the two students became not only friends but also lovers. Historians of physics are divided on the question of the extent to which Marić contributed to the insights of Einstein'sannus mirabilispublications. There is at least some evidence that he was influenced by her scientific ideas,but there are scholars who doubt whether her impact on his thought was of any great significance at all. Marriages, relationships and children Correspondence between Einstein and Marić, discovered and published in 1987, revealed that in early 1902, while Marić was visiting her parents inNovi Sad, she gave birth to a daughter,Lieserl. When Marić returned to Switzerland it was without the child, whose fate is uncertain. A letter of Einstein's that he wrote in September 1903 suggests that the girl was either given up for adoption or died ofscarlet feverin infancy. Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their sonHans Albertwas born inBern, Switzerland. Their sonEduardwas born in Zürich in",
"born in Zürich in July 1910. In letters that Einstein wrote to Marie Winteler in the months before Eduard's arrival, he described his love for his wife as \"misguided\" and mourned the \"missed life\" that he imagined he would have enjoyed if he had married Winteler instead: \"I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be.\" In 1912, Einstein entered into a relationship withElsa Löwenthal, who was both his first cousin on his mother's side and his second cousin on his father's.When Marić learned of his infidelity soon after moving to Berlin with him in April 1914, she returned to Zürich, taking Hans Albert and Eduard with her.Einstein and Marić were granted a divorce on 14 February 1919 on the grounds of having lived apart for five years.As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed that if he were to win a Nobel Prize, he would give the money that he received to Marić; he won the prize two years later. Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919.In 1923, he began a",
"1923, he began a relationship with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of his close friend Hans Mühsam.Löwenthal nevertheless remained loyal to him, accompanying him when he emigrated to the United States in 1933. In 1935, she was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. She died in December 1936. A volume of Einstein's letters released byHebrew University of Jerusalemin 2006added further names to the catalog of women with whom he was romantically involved. They included Margarete Lebach (a married Austrian),Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal.After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by some to be a Russian spy; her husband, the Russian sculptorSergei Konenkov, created the bronze bust of Einstein at theInstitute for Advanced Studyat Princeton. Following an",
"Following an episode of acute mental illness at about the age of twenty, Einstein's son Eduard was diagnosed withschizophrenia.He spent the remainder of his life either in the care of his mother or in temporary confinement in an asylum. After her death, he was committed permanently toBurghölzli, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich. 1902–1909: Assistant at the Swiss Patent Office Einstein graduated from the federal polytechnic school in 1900, duly certified as competent to teach mathematics and physics.His successful acquisition of Swiss citizenship in February 1901was not followed by the usual sequel ofconscription; the Swiss authorities deemed him medically unfit for military service. He found that Swiss schools too appeared to have no use for him, failing to offer him a teaching position despite the almost two years that he spent applying for one. Eventually it was with the help ofMarcel Grossmann's father that he secured a post inBernat theSwiss Patent Office,as anassistant examiner – level III.",
"– level III. Patent applicationsthat landed on Einstein's desk for his evaluation included ideas for a gravel sorter and an electric typewriter.His employers were pleased enough with his work to make his position permanent in 1903, although they did not think that he should be promoted until he had \"fully mastered machine technology\".It is conceivable that his labors at the patent office had a bearing on his development of his special theory of relativity. He arrived at his revolutionary ideas about space, time and light through thought experiments about the transmission of signals and the synchronization of clocks, matters which also figured in some of the inventions submitted to him for assessment. In 1902, Einstein and some friends whom he had met in Bern formed a group that held regular meetings to discuss science and philosophy. Their choice of a name for their club, theOlympia Academy, was an ironic comment upon its far from Olympian status. Sometimes they were joined by Marić, who limited her",
"who limited her participation in their proceedings to careful listening.The thinkers whose works they reflected upon includedHenri Poincaré,Ernst MachandDavid Hume, all of whom significantly influenced Einstein's own subsequent ideas and beliefs. 1900–1905: First scientific papers Einstein's first paper,\"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\"(\"Conclusions drawn from the phenomena of capillarity\"), in which he proposed a model of intermolecular attraction that he afterwards disavowed as worthless, was published in the journalAnnalen der Physikin 1901.His 24-page doctoral dissertation also addressed a topic in molecular physics. Titled \"Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen\" (\"A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions\") and dedicated to his friend Marcel Grossman, it was completed on 30 April 1905and approved by ProfessorAlfred Kleinerof the University of Zurich three months later. (Einstein was formally awarded his PhD on 15 January 1906.)Four other pieces of work that Einstein completed in",
"completed in 1905—his famous paperson thephotoelectric effect,Brownian motion, hisspecial theory of relativityand theequivalence of mass and energy—have led to the year being celebrated as anannus mirabilisfor physics akin to 1666 (the year in whichIsaac Newtonexperienced his greatest epiphanies). The publications deeply impressed Einstein's contemporaries. 1908–1933: Early academic career Einstein's sabbatical as a civil servant approached its end in 1908, when he secured a junior teaching position at theUniversity of Bern. In 1909, a lecture on relativisticelectrodynamicsthat he gave at the University of Zurich, much admired by Alfred Kleiner, led to Zürich's luring him away from Bern with a newly created associate professorship.Promotion to a full professorship followed in April 1911, when he accepted a chair at the GermanCharles-Ferdinand Universityin Prague, a move which required him to become anAustriancitizen of theAustro-Hungarian Empire.His time in Prague saw him producing eleven research papers. In",
"research papers. In July 1912, he returned to hisalma mater, theETH Zurich, to take up a chair in theoretical physics. His teaching activities there centred onthermodynamicsand analytical mechanics, and his research interests included the molecular theory of heat,continuum mechanicsand the development of a relativistic theory of gravitation. In his work on the latter topic, he was assisted by his friend, Marcel Grossmann, whose knowledge of the kind of mathematics required was greater than his own. In the spring of 1913, two German visitors,Max PlanckandWalther Nernst, called upon Einstein in Zürich in the hope of persuading him to relocate to Berlin.They offered him membership of thePrussian Academy of Sciences, the directorship of the plannedKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physicsand a chair at theHumboldt University of Berlinthat would allow him to pursue his research supported by a professorial salary but with no teaching duties to burden him.Their invitation was all the more appealing to him because Berlin",
"him because Berlin happened to be the home of his latest girlfriend, Elsa Löwenthal.He duly joined the Academy on 24 July 1913,and moved into an apartment in the Berlin district ofDahlemon 1 April 1914.He was installed in his Humboldt University position shortly thereafter. The outbreak of theFirst World Warin July 1914 marked the beginning of Einstein's gradual estrangement from the nation of his birth. When the \"Manifesto of the Ninety-Three\" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German thinkers that justified Germany's belligerence—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to distance himself from it and sign the alternative, eirenic \"Manifesto to the Europeans\" instead.However, this expression of his doubts about German policy did not prevent him from being elected to a two-year term as president of theGerman Physical Societyin 1916.When the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics opened its doors the following year—its foundation delayed because of the war—Einstein",
"of the war—Einstein was appointed its first director, just as Planck and Nernst had promised. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1920,and aForeign Member of the Royal Society in 1921. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\".At this point some physicists still regarded the general theory of relativity skeptically, and the Nobel citation displayed a degree of doubt even about the work on photoelectricity that it acknowledged: it did not assent to Einstein's notion of the particulate nature of light, which only won over the entire scientific community whenS. N. Bosederived thePlanck spectrumin 1924. That same year, Einstein was elected an International Honorary Member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences.Britain's closest equivalent of the Nobel award, theRoyal Society'sCopley Medal, was not hung around Einstein's neck",
"Einstein's neck until 1925.He was elected an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1930. Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving theEinstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development ofBose–Einstein statistics. 1919: Putting general relativity to the test In 1907, Einstein reached a milestone on his long journey from his special theory of relativity to a new idea of gravitation with the formulation of hisequivalence principle, which asserts that an observer in an infinitesimally small box falling freely in a gravitational field would be unable to find any evidence that the field exists. In 1911, he used the principle to estimate the amount by which a ray of light from a distant star would bebentby the gravitational pull of the Sun as it passed close to the Sun'sphotosphere(that is, the Sun's apparent surface). He reworked",
"He reworked his calculation in 1913, having now found a way to model gravitation with theRiemann curvature tensorof a non-Euclidean four-dimensionalspacetime. By the fall of 1915, his reimagining of the mathematics of gravitation in terms of Riemannian geometry was complete, and he applied his new theory not just to the behavior of the Sun as a gravitational lens but also to another astronomical phenomenon, theprecession of the perihelion of Mercury(a slow drift in the point in Mercury's elliptical orbit at which it approaches the Sun most closely).Atotal eclipse of the Sun that took place on 29 May 1919provided an opportunity to put his theory of gravitational lensing to the test, and observations performed by SirArthur Eddingtonyielded results that were consistent with his calculations. Eddington's work was reported at length in newspapers around the world. On 7 November 1919, for example, the leading British newspaper,The Times, printed a banner headline that read: \"Revolution in Science – New Theory of",
"– New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown\". 1921–1923: Coming to terms with fame With Eddington's eclipse observations widely reported not just in academic journals but by the popular press as well, Einstein became \"perhaps the world's first celebrity scientist\", a genius who had shattered a paradigm that had been basic to physicists' understanding of the universe since the seventeenth century. Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where he arrived on 2 April 1921. He was welcomed to New York City by MayorJohn Francis Hylan, and then spent three weeks giving lectures and attending receptions.He spoke several times atColumbia UniversityandPrinceton, and in Washington, he visited theWhite Housewith representatives of theNational Academy of Sciences. He returned to Europe via London, where he was the guest of the philosopher and statesmanViscount Haldane. He used his time in the British capital to meet several people prominent in British scientific, political or",
"political or intellectual life, and to deliver a lecture atKing's College.In July 1921, he published an essay, \"My First Impression of the U.S.A.\", in which he sought to sketch the American character, much as hadAlexis de TocquevilleinDemocracy in America(1835).He wrote of his transatlantic hosts in highly approving terms: \"What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy.\" In 1922, Einstein's travels were to the old world rather than the new. He devoted six months to a tour of Asia that saw him speaking in Japan, Singapore and Sri Lanka (then known asCeylon). After his first public lecture in Tokyo, he metEmperor Yoshihitoand his wife at theImperial Palace, with thousands of spectators thronging the streets in the hope of catching a glimpse of him. (In a letter to his sons, he wrote that Japanese people seemed to him to be generally modest, intelligent and considerate, and to have a true appreciation of art.But his",
"of art.But his picture of them in his diary was less flattering: \" intellectual needs of this nation seem to be weaker than their artistic ones – natural disposition?\" His journal also contains views of China and India which were uncomplimentary. Of Chinese people, he wrote that \"even the children are spiritless and look obtuse... It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary\".) He was greeted with even greater enthusiasm on the last leg of his tour, in which he spent twelve days inMandatory Palestine, newly entrusted to British rule by theLeague of Nationsin the aftermath of the First World War.Sir Herbert Samuel, the British High Commissioner, welcomed him with a degree of ceremony normally only accorded to a visiting head of state, including a cannon salute. One reception held in his honor was stormed by people determined to hear him speak: he told them that he was happy that Jews were beginning to be recognized as a force in the",
"as a force in the world. Einstein's decision to tour the eastern hemisphere in 1922 meant that he was unable to go toStockholmin the December of that year to participate in the Nobel prize ceremony. His place at the traditional Nobel banquet was taken by a German diplomat, who gave a speech praising him not only as a physicist but also as a campaigner for peace.A two-week visit to Spain that he undertook in 1923 saw him collecting another award, a membership of the Spanish Academy of Sciences signified by a diploma handed to him byKing Alfonso XIII. (His Spanish trip also gave him a chance to meet a fellow Nobel laureate, the neuroanatomistSantiago Ramón y Cajal.) 1922–1932: Serving the League of Nations From 1922 until 1932, with the exception of a few months in 1923 and 1924, Einstein was a member of the Geneva-basedInternational Committee on Intellectual Cooperationof theLeague of Nations, a group set up by the League to encourage scientists, artists, scholars, teachers and other people engaged in the",
"engaged in the life of the mind to work more closely with their counterparts in other countries.He was appointed as a German delegate rather than as a representative of Switzerland because of the machinations of two Catholic activists,Oskar HaleckiandGiuseppe Motta. By persuading Secretary GeneralEric Drummondto deny Einstein the place on the committee reserved for a Swiss thinker, they created an opening forGonzague de Reynold, who used his League of Nations position as a platform from which to promote traditional Catholic doctrine.Einstein's former physics professorHendrik Lorentzand the Polish chemistMarie Curiewere also members of the committee. 1925: Touring South America In March and April 1925, Einstein and his wife visited South America, where they spent about a week in Brazil, a week in Uruguay and a month in Argentina.Their tour was suggested by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935)with the support of several Argentine scholars, includingJulio Rey Pastor,Jakob Laub,",
"Pastor,Jakob Laub, andLeopoldo Lugones. and was financed primarily by the Council of theUniversity of Buenos Airesand theAsociación Hebraica Argentina(Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution. 1930–1931: Touring the US In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer of a two month research fellowship at theCalifornia Institute of Technology. Caltech supported him in his wish that he should not be exposed to quite as much attention from the media as he had experienced when visiting the US in 1921, and he therefore declined all the invitations to receive prizes or make speeches that his admirers poured down upon him. But he remained willing to allow his fans at least some of the time with him that they requested. After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, includingChinatown, a lunch with the editors ofThe New York Times, and a performance",
"and a performance ofCarmenat theMetropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by MayorJimmy Walkerand metNicholas Murray Butler, the president ofColumbia University, who described Einstein as \"the ruling monarch of the mind\".Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York'sRiverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance.Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people atMadison Square Gardenduring aHanukkahcelebration. Einstein next traveled to California, where he metCaltechpresident and Nobel laureateRobert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was \"awkward\", as Millikan \"had a penchant for patriotic militarism\", where Einstein was a pronouncedpacifist.During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. This aversion to war also led Einstein to",
"led Einstein to befriend authorUpton Sinclairand film starCharlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism.Carl Laemmle, head ofUniversal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a \"highly emotional temperament\", from which came his \"extraordinary intellectual energy\". Chaplin's filmCity Lightswas to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests.Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as \"one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity\".Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his \"modest little flat\" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was \"possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis\". 1933: Emigration to the US In February",
"the US In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of theNazisunder Germany's new chancellor,Adolf Hitler. While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at theCalifornia Institute of Technologyin Pasadena. In February and March 1933, theGestaporepeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed theEnabling Acton 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into ade factolegal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing inAntwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship.The Nazis later sold his boat and",
"sold his boat and converted his cottage into aHitler Youthcamp. Refugee status In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passedlaws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.HistorianGerald Holtondescribes how, with \"virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues\", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed. A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by theGerman Student Unionin theNazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda ministerJoseph Goebbelsproclaiming, \"Jewish intellectualism is dead.\"One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, \"not yet hanged\", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.In a subsequent letter to physicist and friendMax Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, \"... I must confess that",
"I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise.\"After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a \"spontaneous emotional outburst\" by those who \"shun popular enlightenment\", and \"more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence\". Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by theAcademic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politicianWilliam Beveridgeto help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament CommanderOliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with him in the preceding years.Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near hisCromerhome in a secluded",
"in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish ofRoughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in theDaily Heraldon 24 July 1933. Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meetWinston Churchillat his home, and later,Austen Chamberlainand former Prime MinisterLloyd George.Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historianMartin Gilbertnotes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicistFrederick Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their \"technical standards\" and putthe Allies' technology ahead of theirs. Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister,İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933, requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish",
"German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over \"1,000 saved individuals\". Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe.In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.In his speech he described Einstein as a \"citizen of the world\" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from theInstitute for Advanced Study, inPrinceton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar. Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at theRoyal Albert Hallin London,",
"Hallin London, withThe Timesreporting he was wildly cheered throughout.Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at theInstitute for Advanced Study,noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of theirJewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s. Einstein was still undecided about his future. He had offers from several European universities, includingChrist Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933and was offered a five-year researchfellowship(called a \"studentship\" at Christ Church),but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.He was one of the four first selected (along withJohn von Neumann,Kurt Gödel, andHermann Weyl) at",
"andHermann Weyl) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work.Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop aunified field theoryand to refute theaccepted interpretationofquantum physics, both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. TheAlbert Einstein Housewas made aNational Historic Landmarkin 1976. World War II and the Manhattan Project In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicistLeó Szilárdattempted to alertWashingtonto ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such asEdward TellerandEugene Wigner, \"regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win therace to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon.\"To make certain",
"make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.He was asked to lend his support by writinga letter, with Szilárd, to PresidentRoosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. The letter is believed to be \"arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II\".In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with theBelgian royal familyand the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the \"race\" to develop the bomb, drawing on its \"immense material, financial, and scientific resources\" to initiate theManhattan Project. For",
"Project. For Einstein, \"war was a disease ... he called for resistance to war.\" By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend,Linus Pauling, \"I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ...\"In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopherBertrand Russell, signeda manifestohighlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of theWorld Academy of Art and Science(WAAS),an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons. US citizenship Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling",
"long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of themeritocracyin American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the \"right of individuals to say and think what they pleased\" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education. Einstein joined theNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for thecivil rightsof African Americans. He considered racism America's \"worst disease\",seeing it as \"handed down from one generation to the next\".As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activistW. E. B. Du Boisand was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial as an alleged foreign agent in 1951.When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. In 1946, Einstein visitedLincoln Universityin Pennsylvania, ahistorically",
"ahistorically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni includeLangston HughesandThurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, \"I do not intend to be quiet about it.\"A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.Einstein has said, \"Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination\". Personal views Political views In 1918, Einstein was one of the signatories of the founding proclamation of theGerman Democratic Party, a liberal party.Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor ofsocialismand critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as \"Why Socialism?\".His opinions on theBolsheviksalso changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a \"well-regulated system of government\" and called their rule a",
"called their rule a \"regime of terror and a tragedy in human history\". He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark onVladimir Lenin: In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience. Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.He strongly advocated the idea of a democraticglobal governmentthat would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation.He wrote \"I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself.\"The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932; by the time of his death, it was 1,427 pages",
"it was 1,427 pages long. Einstein was deeply impressed byMahatma Gandhi, with whom he corresponded. He described Gandhi as \"a role model for the generations to come\".The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, whenWilfrid Israeltook his Indian guestV. A. Sundaramto meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel. Relationship with Zionism Einstein was a figurehead leader in the establishment of theHebrew University of Jerusalem,which opened in 1925.Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of theWorld Zionist",
"of theWorld Zionist Organization,Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university.He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such asmalaria, which he called an \"evil\" that was undermining a third of the country's development.He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic. Einstein was not anationalistand opposed the creation of an independent Jewish state.He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of theAliyahcould live alongside existing Arabs inPalestine. The state ofIsraelwas established without his help in 1948; Einstein was limited to a marginal role in theZionist movement.Upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime MinisterDavid Ben-Gurionoffered Einstein the largely ceremonial position ofPresident of Israelat the urging ofEzriel Carlebach.The offer was",
"offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington,Abba Eban, who explained that the offer \"embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons\".Einstein wrote that he was \"deeply moved\", but \"at once saddened and ashamed\" that he could not accept it. Religious and philosophical views PerLee Smolin, \"I believe what allowed Einstein to achieve so much was primarily a moral quality. He simply cared far more than most of his colleagues that the laws of physics have to explain everything in nature coherently and consistently.\"Einstein expounded his spiritual outlook in a wide array of writings and interviews.He said he had sympathy for the impersonalpantheisticGod ofBaruch Spinoza's philosophy.He did not believe in apersonal godwho concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve.He clarified, however, that \"I am not an atheist\",preferring to call himself an agnostic,or a \"deeply religious nonbeliever\".He wrote that \"A spirit is",
"that \"A spirit is manifest in the laws of the universe—a spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a religious feeling of a special sort.\" Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religioushumanistandEthical Culturegroups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of theFirst Humanist Society of New York,and was an honorary associate of theRationalist Association, which publishesNew Humanistin Britain. For the 75th anniversary of theNew York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, \"Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity.\" In a German-language letter to philosopherEric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote: The word Godis for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection",
"Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me theJewish religionlike all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And theJewish peopleto whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them. Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of theGerman Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund), he wrote: Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most",
"would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind. He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: \"So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore.\" Love of music Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music. His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate intoGerman culture. According to conductorLeon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age. When he turned 13, he discovered theviolin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored ofMozart's compositions",
"compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without \"ever practicing systematically\". He said that \"love is a better teacher than a sense of duty\".At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playingBeethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was \"remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'\". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein \"displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student.\" Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein playedchamber musicwere a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin,",
"Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of theKöchel catalogof Mozart's work; that edition was prepared byAlfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation. In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some ofBeethovenand Mozart's works with members of theZoellner Quartet.Near the end of his life, when the youngJuilliard Quartetvisited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was \"impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation\". Death On 17 April 1955, Einstein experiencedinternal bleedingcaused by the rupture of anabdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically byRudolph Nissenin 1948.He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him",
"with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it. Einstein refused surgery, saying, \"I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.\"He died in thePrinceton Hospitalearly the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. During the autopsy, the pathologistThomas Stoltz HarveyremovedEinstein's brainfor preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that theneuroscienceof the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.Einstein's remains were cremated inTrenton, New Jersey,and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 atUNESCOheadquarters, nuclear physicistJ. Robert Oppenheimersummarized hisimpression of Einsteinas a person: \"He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly",
"and profoundly stubborn.\" Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to theHebrew University of Jerusalemin Israel. Scientific career Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including theBose–Einstein statistics, theEinstein refrigeratorand others. Statistical mechanics Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics Einstein's first papersubmitted in 1900 toAnnalen der Physikwas oncapillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title \"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\", which translates as \"Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena\". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to",
"attempted to interpretatomicphenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. Theory of critical opalescence Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this toRayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.Einstein",
"is blue.Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. 1905 –Annus Mirabilispapers TheAnnus Mirabilispapersare four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise toquantum theory),Brownian motion, thespecial theory of relativity, andE=mc2that Einstein published in theAnnalen der Physikscientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation ofmodern physicsand changed views onspace, time, andmatter. The four papers are: Special relativity Einstein's \"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper\"(\"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts betweenMaxwell's equations(the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics.Observationally, the",
"the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to thespeed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear toslow down, and the body itself wouldcontractin its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of aluminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. In his paper onmass–energy equivalence, Einstein producedE=mc2as a consequence of his special relativity equations.Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting withMax Planck. Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms ofkinematics(the study of moving bodies). In 1908,Hermann Minkowskireinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory",
"terms as a theory ofspacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915general theory of relativity. General relativity General relativity and the equivalence principle General relativity(GR) is atheory of gravitationthat was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping ofspacetimeby those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modernastrophysics; it provides the foundation for the current understanding ofblack holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions withinspecial relativitywas unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In",
"relativity. In that article titled \"On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It\", he argued thatfree fallis really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called theequivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena ofgravitational time dilation,gravitational redshiftandgravitational lensing. In 1911, Einstein published another article \"On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light\" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. Gravitational waves In 1916, Einstein predictedgravitational waves,ripples in thecurvatureof spacetime which propagate aswaves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity",
"general relativity due to itsLorentz invariancewhich brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in theNewtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbitingneutron stars,PSR B1913+16.The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers atLIGOpublished thefirst observation of gravitational waves,detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction. Hole argument and Entwurf theory While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about thegauge invariancein the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field",
"relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that thehole argumentwas mistakenand abandoned the theory in November 1915. Physical cosmology In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, thecosmological constant, into the field equations, in order to",
"in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding ofMach's principlein these years. This model became known as the Einstein World orEinstein's static universe. Following the discovery of the recession of the galaxies byEdwin Hubblein 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, theFriedmann–Einstein universeof 1931and theEinstein–de Sitter universeof 1932.In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was \"in any case theoretically unsatisfactory\". In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his \"biggest blunder\", based on a letterGeorge Gamowclaimed to have received from him. The astrophysicistMario Liviohas cast doubt on this claim. In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicistCormac",
"physicistCormac O'Raifeartaighdiscovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the galaxies, Einstein considered asteady-state modelof the universe.In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process that he associated with the cosmological constant.As he stated in the paper, \"In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's facts, and in which the density is constant over time\" ... \"If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space.\" It thus appears that Einstein considered asteady-state modelof the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.However, Einstein's",
"Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea. Energy momentum pseudotensor General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum.Noether's theoremallows these quantities to be determined from aLagrangianwithtranslation invariance, butgeneral covariancemakes translation invariance into something of agauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity byNoether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized byErwin Schrödingerand others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists",
"by physicists includingLev LandauandEvgeny Lifshitz. Wormholes In 1935, Einstein collaborated withNathan Rosento produce a model of awormhole, often calledEinstein–Rosen bridges.His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper \"Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?\". These solutions cut and pastedSchwarzschild black holesto make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable. Einstein–Cartan theory In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called thetorsion. This",
"thetorsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. Equations of motion In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature ofspacetime. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark byJohn Archibald Wheelerthat has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: \"Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve.\"TheEinstein field equationscover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. Thegeodesic equationcovers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies followlines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an \"independent fundamental assumption\" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete",
"order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of agravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed. Old quantum theory Photons and energy quanta In a 1905 paper,Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck",
"Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, withRobert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement ofCompton scattering. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequencyfis associated with a collection of photons with energyhfeach, wherehis thePlanck constant. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how the particles were related to the wave. But he did suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably thephotoelectric effect.Light quanta were dubbedphotonsbyGilbert N. Lewisin 1926. Quantized atomic vibrations In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a",
"because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics.Peter Debyerefined this model. Bose–Einstein statistics In 1924, Einstein received a description of astatisticalmodel from Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to theZeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them theBose–Einstein condensatephenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally byEric Allin CornellandCarl Wiemanusingultra-coolingequipment built at theNIST–JILAlaboratory at theUniversity of Colorado at Boulder.Bose–Einstein statistics",
"statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly ofbosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University. Wave–particle duality Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became aPrivatdozentat the University of Bern.In \"Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung\" (\"The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation\"), on thequantizationof light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-definedmomentaand act in some respects as independent,point-like particles. This paper introduced thephotonconcept and inspired the notion ofwave–particle dualityin quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. Zero-point",
"Zero-point energy In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea ofzero-point energyin his \"second quantum theory\". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistantOtto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy. Stimulated emission In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article inPhysikalische Zeitschriftthat proposed the possibility ofstimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible themaserand thelaser.This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the",
"law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Matter waves Einstein discoveredLouis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed thatde Broglie wavescould explain thequantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. Quantum mechanics Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental",
"was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God \"is not playing at dice\".Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete. Bohr versus Einstein The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein andNiels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to thephilosophy of science.Their debates would influence laterinterpretations of quantum mechanics. Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in 1930. Einstein suggested athought experimentin which two objects are allowed to interact and then moved apart a great distance from each other. The quantum-mechanical description of",
"description of the two objects is a mathematical entity known as awavefunction. If the wavefunction that describes the two objects before their interaction is given, then theSchrödinger equationprovides the wavefunction that describes them after their interaction. But because of what would later be calledquantum entanglement, measuring one object would lead to an instantaneous change of the wavefunction describing the other object, no matter how far away it is. Moreover, the choice of which measurement to perform upon the first object would affect what wavefunction could result for the second object. Einstein reasoned that no influence could propagate from the first object to the second instantaneously fast. Indeed, he argued, physics depends on being able to tell one thing apart from another, and such instantaneous influences would call that into question. Because the true \"physical condition\" of the second object could not be immediately altered by an action done to the first, Einstein concluded, the",
"concluded, the wavefunction could not be that true physical condition, only an incomplete description of it. A more famous version of this argument came in 1935, when Einstein published a paper withBoris PodolskyandNathan Rosenthat laid out what would become known as theEPR paradox.In this thought experiment, two particles interact in such a way that the wavefunction describing them is entangled. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle. Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by thetheory of",
"by thetheory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the \"EPR criterion of reality\", positing that: \"If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., withprobabilityequal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity.\" From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observablesincompatibleand thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality. In 1964,John Stewart Bellcarried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each",
"within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called aBell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are \"nonlocal\", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated.Bell argued that because an explanation of quantum phenomena in terms of hidden variables would require nonlocality, the EPR paradox \"is resolved in the way which Einstein would have liked least\". Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the argument in the EPR paper overly complicated,that paper became among the most influential papers published inPhysical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development ofquantum information theory. Unified field theory Encouraged by his success",
"by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described hisunified field theoryin aScientific Americanarticle titled \"On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation\".His attempt to find the most fundamental laws of nature won him praise but not success: a particularly conspicuous blemish of his model was that it did not accommodate thestrongandweak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although most researchers now believe that Einstein's approach to unifying physics was mistaken, his goal of atheory of everythingis one to which his successors still aspire. Other investigations Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain toforce,superconductivity, and other research. Collaboration with other scientists In addition to longtime collaboratorsLeopold Infeld,Nathan Rosen,Peter",
"Rosen,Peter Bergmannand others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein–de Haas experiment In 1908,Owen Willans Richardsonpredicted that a change in themagnetic momentof a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of theconservation of angular momentumand is strong enough to be observable inferromagnetic materials.Einstein andWander Johannes de Haaspublished two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect.Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon ofmagnetizationis caused by the alignment (polarization) of theangular momentaof theelectronsin the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with thespinand with the orbital motion of the electrons. The Einstein-de Haas experiment is the only experiment concived, realized and published by Albert Einstein himself. A complete original",
"A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated byGeertruida de Haas-Lorentz, wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to theAmpère Museumin Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in 2023. Einstein as an inventor In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) theEinstein refrigerator. Thisabsorption refrigeratorwas then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.On 11 November 1930,U.S. patent 1,781,541was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, but the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish companyElectrolux. Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump,sound reproduction device,and several other household devices. Non-scientific legacy While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters",
"stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to theHebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University'sAlbert Einstein Archives, told theBBCthat there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. Einstein'sright of publicitywas litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired,that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right.Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses theuse of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the",
"as agent for the university. Mount Einsteinin theChugach MountainsofAlaskawas named in 1955. Mount Einstein in New Zealand'sPaparoa Rangewas named after him in 1970 by theDepartment of Scientific and Industrial Research. In popular culture Einstein became one of the most famousscientific celebritiesafter the confirmation of his general theory of relativity in 1919.Although most of the public had little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and admired. In the period before World War II,The New Yorkerpublished a vignette in their \"The Talk of the Town\" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain \"that theory\". Eventually he came to cope with unwanted enquirers by pretending to be someone else: \"Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein.\" Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.He is a favorite model for depictions ofabsent-minded",
"ofabsent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated.Timemagazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was \"a cartoonist's dream come true\". Many popularquotationsare oftenmisattributedto him. Awards and honors Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physics\"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set byAlfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. Einsteinium, a synthetic chemical element, was named in his honor in 1955, a few months after his death. Publications Scientific Others See also Notes References Works cited Further reading External links",
"Niels Bohr Niels Henrik David Bohr(Danish:; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danishphysicistwho made foundational contributions to understandingatomic structureandquantum theory, for which he received theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1922. Bohr was also aphilosopherand a promoter of scientific research. Bohr developed theBohr modelof theatom, in which he proposed that energy levels ofelectronsare discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around theatomic nucleusbut can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle ofcomplementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as awave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at theUniversity of Copenhagen, now known as theNiels Bohr Institute,",
"Bohr Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists includingHans Kramers,Oskar Klein,George de Hevesy, andWerner Heisenberg. He predicted the properties of a newzirconium-like element, which was namedhafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered. Later, the synthetic elementbohriumwas named after him. During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees fromNazism. AfterDenmark was occupied by the Germans, he met with Heisenberg, who had become the head of theGerman nuclear weapon project. In September 1943 word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, so he fled to Sweden. From there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the BritishTube Alloysnuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to theManhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for international cooperation on nuclear energy. He was involved with the establishment ofCERNand theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commissionand became the first",
"became the first chairman of theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physicsin 1957. Early life Niels Henrik David Bohr was born inCopenhagen, Denmark, on 7 October 1885, the second of three children ofChristian Bohr,a professor ofphysiologyat the University of Copenhagen, and his wife EllennéeAdler, who came from a wealthy Jewish banking family.He had an elder sister, Jenny, and a younger brotherHarald.Jenny became a teacher,while Harald became amathematicianandfootballerwho played for theDanish national teamat the1908 Summer Olympicsin London. Niels was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-basedAkademisk Boldklub(Academic Football Club), with Niels asgoalkeeper. Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven.In 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate atCopenhagen University. His major was physics, which he studied under ProfessorChristian Christiansen, the university's only professor of physics at that time. He also studied",
"He also studied astronomy and mathematics under ProfessorThorvald Thiele, and philosophy under ProfessorHarald Høffding, a friend of his father. In 1905 a gold medal competition was sponsored by theRoyal Danish Academy of Sciences and Lettersto investigate a method for measuring thesurface tensionof liquids that had been proposed byLord Rayleighin 1879. This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet. Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his father's laboratory in the university; the university itself had no physics laboratory. To complete his experiments, he had tomake his own glassware, creating test tubes with the requiredellipticalcross-sections. He went beyond the original task, incorporating improvements into both Rayleigh's theory and his method, by taking into account theviscosityof the water, and by working with finite amplitudes instead of just infinitesimal ones. His essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won the prize. He later submitted an",
"later submitted an improved version of the paper to theRoyal Societyin London for publication in thePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Harald became the first of the two Bohr brothers to earn amaster's degree, which he earned for mathematics in April 1909. Niels took another nine months to earn his on the electron theory of metals, a topic assigned by his supervisor, Christiansen. Bohr subsequently elaborated his master's thesis into his much-largerDoctor of Philosophythesis. He surveyed the literature on the subject, settling on a model postulated byPaul Drudeand elaborated byHendrik Lorentz, in which the electrons in a metal are considered to behave like a gas. Bohr extended Lorentz's model, but was still unable to account for phenomena like theHall effect, and concluded that electron theory could not fully explain the magnetic properties of metals. The thesis was accepted in April 1911,and Bohr conducted his formal defence on 13 May. Harald had received his doctorate the previous year.Bohr's",
"year.Bohr's thesis was groundbreaking, but attracted little interest outside Scandinavia because it was written in Danish, a Copenhagen University requirement at the time. In 1921, the Dutch physicistHendrika Johanna van Leeuwenwould independently derive a theorem in Bohr's thesis that is today known as theBohr–Van Leeuwen theorem. In 1910, Bohr metMargrethe Nørlund, the sister of the mathematicianNiels Erik Nørlund.Bohr resigned his membership in theChurch of Denmarkon 16 April 1912, and he and Margrethe were married in a civil ceremony at the town hall inSlagelseon 1 August. Years later, his brother Harald similarly left the church before getting married.Bohr and Margrethe had six sons.The oldest, Christian, died in a boating accident in 1934,and another, Harald, was severely mentally disabled. He was placed in an institution away from his family's home at the age of four and died from childhood meningitis six years later.Aage Bohrbecame a successful physicist, and in 1975 was awarded the Nobel Prize in",
"the Nobel Prize in physics, like his father. A son of Aage, Vilhelm A. Bohr, is a scientist affiliated with the University of Copenhagenand theNational Institute on Agingin the U.S.Hansbecame a physician;Erik, a chemical engineer; andErnest, a lawyer.Like his uncle Harald, Ernest Bohr became an Olympic athlete, playingfield hockeyfor Denmark at the1948 Summer Olympicsin London. Physics Bohr model In September 1911, Bohr, supported by a fellowship from theCarlsberg Foundation, travelled to England, where most of the theoretical work on the structure of atoms and molecules was being done.He metJ. J. Thomsonof theCavendish LaboratoryandTrinity College, Cambridge. He attended lectures onelectromagnetismgiven byJames JeansandJoseph Larmor, and did some research oncathode rays, but failed to impress Thomson.He had more success with younger physicists like the AustralianWilliam Lawrence Bragg,and New Zealand'sErnest Rutherford, whose 1911 small central nucleusRutherford modelof theatomhad challenged Thomson's",
"Thomson's 1904plum pudding model.Bohr received an invitation from Rutherford to conduct post-doctoral work atVictoria University of Manchester,where Bohr metGeorge de HevesyandCharles Galton Darwin(whom Bohr referred to as \"the grandson of thereal Darwin\"). Bohr returned to Denmark in July 1912 for his wedding, and travelled around England and Scotland on his honeymoon. On his return, he became aprivatdocentat the University of Copenhagen, giving lectures onthermodynamics.Martin Knudsenput Bohr's name forward for adocent, which was approved in July 1913, and Bohr then began teaching medical students.His three papers, which later became famous as \"the trilogy\",were published inPhilosophical Magazinein July, September and November of that year.He adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure toMax Planck's quantum theory and so created hisBohr modelof the atom. Planetary models of atoms were not new, but Bohr's treatment was.Taking the 1912 paper by Darwin on the role of electrons in the interaction of alpha",
"of alpha particles with a nucleus as his starting point,he advanced the theory of electrons travelling inorbitsof quantised \"stationary states\" around the atom's nucleus in order to stabilise the atom, but it wasn't until his 1921 paper that he showed that the chemical properties of each element were largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its atoms.He introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, in the process emitting aquantumof discrete energy. This became a basis for what is now known as theold quantum theory. In 1885,Johann Balmerhad come up with hisBalmer seriesto describe the visiblespectral linesof ahydrogenatom: where λ is the wavelength of the absorbed or emitted light andRHis theRydberg constant.Balmer's formula was corroborated by the discovery of additional spectral lines, but for thirty years, no one could explain why it worked. In the first paper of his trilogy, Bohr was able to derive it from his model: wheremeis the",
"wheremeis the electron's mass,eis its charge,his thePlanck constantandZis the atom'satomic number(1 for hydrogen). The model's first hurdle was thePickering series, lines that did not fit Balmer's formula. When challenged on this byAlfred Fowler, Bohr replied that they were caused byionisedhelium, helium atoms with only one electron. The Bohr model was found to work for such ions.Many older physicists, like Thomson, Rayleigh andHendrik Lorentz, did not like the trilogy, but the younger generation, including Rutherford,David Hilbert,Albert Einstein,Enrico Fermi,Max BornandArnold Sommerfeldsaw it as a breakthrough.The trilogy's acceptance was entirely due to its ability to explain phenomena that stymied other models, and to predict results that were subsequently verified by experiments.Today, the Bohr model of the atom has been superseded, but is still the best known model of the atom, as it often appears in high school physics and chemistry texts. Bohr did not enjoy teaching medical students. He later",
"students. He later admitted that he was not a good lecturer, because he needed a balance between clarity and truth, between \"Klarheit und Wahrheit\".He decided to return to Manchester, where Rutherford had offered him a job as areaderin place of Darwin, whose tenure had expired. Bohr accepted. He took a leave of absence from the University of Copenhagen, which he started by taking a holiday inTyrolwith his brother Harald and auntHanna Adler. There, he visited theUniversity of Göttingenand theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he met Sommerfeld and conducted seminars on the trilogy. The First World War broke out while they were in Tyrol, greatly complicating the trip back to Denmark and Bohr's subsequent voyage with Margrethe to England, where he arrived in October 1914. They stayed until July 1916, by which time he had been appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, a position created especially for him. His docentship was abolished at the same time, so he still",
"time, so he still had to teach physics to medical students. New professors were formally introduced to KingChristian X, who expressed his delight at meeting such a famous football player. Institute of Physics In April 1917, Bohr began a campaign to establish an Institute of Theoretical Physics. He gained the support of the Danish government and the Carlsberg Foundation, and sizeable contributions were also made by industry and private donors, many of them Jewish. Legislation establishing the institute was passed in November 1918. Now known as theNiels Bohr Institute, it opened on 3 March 1921, with Bohr as its director. His family moved into an apartment on the first floor.Bohr's institute served as a focal point for researchers intoquantum mechanicsand related subjects in the 1920s and 1930s, when most of the world's best-known theoretical physicists spent some time in his company. Early arrivals includedHans Kramersfrom the Netherlands,Oskar Kleinfrom Sweden, George de Hevesy from Hungary,Wojciech",
"Hungary,Wojciech Rubinowiczfrom Poland, andSvein Rosselandfrom Norway. Bohr became widely appreciated as their congenial host and eminent colleague.Klein and Rosseland produced the institute's first publication even before it opened. The Bohr model worked well for hydrogen and ionized single-electron helium, which impressed Einsteinbut could not explain more complex elements. By 1919, Bohr was moving away from the idea that electrons orbited the nucleus and developedheuristicsto describe them. Therare-earth elementsposed a particular classification problem for chemists because they were so chemically similar. An important development came in 1924 withWolfgang Pauli's discovery of thePauli exclusion principle, which put Bohr's models on a firm theoretical footing. Bohr was then able to declare that the as-yet-undiscovered element 72 was not a rare-earth element but an element with chemical properties similar to those ofzirconium. (Elements had been predicted and discovered since 1871 by chemical properties),",
"properties), and Bohr was immediately challenged by the French chemistGeorges Urbain, who claimed to have discovered a rare-earth element 72, which he called \"celtium\". At the Institute in Copenhagen,Dirk Costerand George de Hevesy took up the challenge of proving Bohr right and Urbain wrong. Starting with a clear idea of the chemical properties of the unknown element greatly simplified the search process. They went through samples from Copenhagen's Museum of Mineralogy looking for a zirconium-like element and soon found it. The element, which they namedhafnium(hafniabeing the Latin name for Copenhagen), turned out to be more common than gold. In 1922, Bohr was awarded theNobel Prize in Physics\"for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them\".The award thus recognised both the trilogy and his early leading work in the emerging field of quantum mechanics. For his Nobel lecture, Bohr gave his audience a comprehensive survey of what was then known about",
"then known about the structure of the atom, including thecorrespondence principle, which he had formulated. This states that the behaviour of systems described by quantum theory reproducesclassical physicsin the limit of largequantum numbers. The discovery ofCompton scatteringbyArthur Holly Comptonin 1923 convinced most physicists that light was composed ofphotonsand that energy and momentum were conserved in collisions between electrons and photons. In 1924, Bohr, Kramers, andJohn C. Slater, an American physicist working at the Institute in Copenhagen, proposed theBohr–Kramers–Slater theory(BKS). It was more of a program than a full physical theory, as the ideas it developed were not worked out quantitatively. The BKS theory became the final attempt at understanding the interaction of matter and electromagnetic radiation on the basis of the old quantum theory, in which quantum phenomena were treated by imposing quantum restrictions on a classical wave description of the electromagnetic field. Modelling",
"field. Modelling atomic behaviour under incident electromagnetic radiation using \"virtual oscillators\" at the absorption and emission frequencies, rather than the (different) apparent frequencies of the Bohr orbits, led Max Born,Werner Heisenbergand Kramers to explore different mathematical models. They led to the development ofmatrix mechanics, the first form of modernquantum mechanics. The BKS theory also generated discussion of, and renewed attention to, difficulties in the foundations of the old quantum theory.The most provocative element of BKS – that momentum and energy would not necessarily be conserved in each interaction, but only statistically – was soon shown to be in conflict with experiments conducted byWalther BotheandHans Geiger.In light of these results, Bohr informed Darwin that \"there is nothing else to do than to give our revolutionary efforts as honourable a funeral as possible\". Quantum mechanics The introduction ofspinbyGeorge UhlenbeckandSamuel Goudsmitin November 1925 was a milestone.",
"was a milestone. The next month, Bohr travelled toLeidento attend celebrations of the 50th anniversary of Hendrick Lorentz receiving his doctorate. When his train stopped inHamburg, he was met by Wolfgang Pauli andOtto Stern, who asked for his opinion of the spin theory. Bohr pointed out that he had concerns about the interaction between electrons and magnetic fields. When he arrived in Leiden,Paul Ehrenfestand Albert Einstein informed Bohr that Einstein had resolved this problem usingrelativity. Bohr then had Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit incorporate this into their paper. Thus, when he met Werner Heisenberg andPascual JordaninGöttingenon the way back, he had become, in his own words, \"a prophet of the electron magnet gospel\". Heisenberg first came to Copenhagen in 1924, then returned to Göttingen in June 1925, shortly thereafter developing the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. When he showed his results to Max Born in Göttingen, Born realised that they could best be expressed usingmatrices. This work",
"This work attracted the attention of the British physicistPaul Dirac,who came to Copenhagen for six months in September 1926. Austrian physicistErwin Schrödingeralso visited in 1926. His attempt at explaining quantum physics in classical terms using wave mechanics impressed Bohr, who believed it contributed \"so much to mathematical clarity and simplicity that it represents a gigantic advance over all previous forms of quantum mechanics\". When Kramers left the institute in 1926 to take up a chair as professor of theoretical physics at theUtrecht University, Bohr arranged for Heisenberg to return and take Kramers's place as alektorat the University of Copenhagen.Heisenberg worked in Copenhagen as a university lecturer and assistant to Bohr from 1926 to 1927. Bohr became convinced that light behaved like both waves and particles and, in 1927, experiments confirmed thede Broglie hypothesisthat matter (like electrons) also behaved like waves.He conceived the philosophical principle ofcomplementarity: that items",
"that items could have apparently mutually exclusive properties, such as being a wave or a stream of particles, depending on the experimental framework.He felt that it was not fully understood by professional philosophers. In February 1927, Heisenberg developed the first version of theuncertainty principle, presenting it using athought experimentwhere an electron was observed through agamma-ray microscope. Bohr was dissatisfied with Heisenberg's argument, since it required only that a measurement disturb properties that already existed, rather than the more radical idea that the electron's properties could not be discussed at all apart from the context they were measured in. In a paper presented at theVolta ConferenceatComoin September 1927, Bohr emphasised that Heisenberg's uncertainty relations could be derived from classical considerations about the resolving power of optical instruments.Understanding the true meaning of complementarity would, Bohr believed, require \"closer investigation\".Einstein",
"preferred the determinism of classical physics over the probabilistic new quantum physics to which he himself had contributed. Philosophical issues that arose from the novel aspects of quantum mechanics became widely celebrated subjects of discussion. Einstein and Bohr hadgood-natured argumentsover such issues throughout their lives. In 1914Carl Jacobsen, the heir toCarlsberg breweries, bequeathed his mansion (the Carlsberg Honorary Residence, currently known as Carlsberg Academy) to be used for life by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature or the arts, as an honorary residence (Danish:Æresbolig). Harald Høffding had been the first occupant, and upon his death in July 1931, the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters gave Bohr occupancy. He and his family moved there in 1932.He was elected president of the Academy on 17 March 1939. By 1929 the phenomenon ofbeta decayprompted Bohr to again suggest that thelaw of conservation of energybe abandoned, butEnrico Fermi's",
"butEnrico Fermi's hypotheticalneutrinoand the subsequent 1932 discovery of theneutronprovided another explanation. This prompted Bohr to create a new theory of thecompound nucleusin 1936, which explained how neutrons could be captured by the nucleus. In this model, the nucleus could be deformed like a drop of liquid. He worked on this with a new collaborator, the Danish physicist Fritz Kalckar, who died suddenly in 1938. The discovery ofnuclear fissionbyOtto Hahnin December 1938 (and its theoretical explanation byLise Meitner) generated intense interest among physicists. Bohr brought the news to the United States where he opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics with Fermi on 26 January 1939.When Bohr toldGeorge Placzekthat this resolved all the mysteries oftransuranic elements, Placzek told him that one remained: the neutron capture energies of uranium did not match those of its decay. Bohr thought about it for a few minutes and then announced to Placzek,Léon RosenfeldandJohn",
"RosenfeldandJohn Wheelerthat \"I have understood everything.\"Based on hisliquid drop modelof the nucleus, Bohr concluded that it was theuranium-235isotope and not the more abundanturanium-238that was primarily responsible for fission with thermal neutrons. In April 1940,John R. Dunningdemonstrated that Bohr was correct.In the meantime, Bohr and Wheeler developed a theoretical treatment, which they published in a September 1939 paper on \"The Mechanism of Nuclear Fission\". Philosophy Heisenberg said of Bohr that he was \"primarily a philosopher, not a physicist\".Bohr read the 19th-century DanishChristian existentialistphilosopherSøren Kierkegaard.Richard Rhodesargued inThe Making of the Atomic Bombthat Bohr was influenced by Kierkegaard through Høffding.In 1909, Bohr sent his brother Kierkegaard'sStages on Life's Wayas a birthday gift. In the enclosed letter, Bohr wrote, \"It is the only thing I have to send home; but I do not believe that it would be very easy to find anything better ... I even think it is one",
"think it is one of the most delightful things I have ever read.\" Bohr enjoyed Kierkegaard's language and literary style, but mentioned that he had some disagreement withKierkegaard's philosophy.Some of Bohr's biographers suggested that this disagreement stemmed from Kierkegaard's advocacy of Christianity, while Bohr was anatheist. There has been some dispute over the extent to which Kierkegaard influenced Bohr's philosophy and science.David Favrholdtargued that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr's work, taking Bohr's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value,while Jan Faye argued that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure. Quantum physics There has been much subsequent debate and discussion about Bohr's views and philosophy of quantum mechanics.Regarding his ontological interpretation of the quantum world, Bohr has been seen as ananti-realist, aninstrumentalist, a phenomenological realist or some other kind of realist.",
"kind of realist. Furthermore, though some have seen Bohr as being asubjectivistor apositivist, most philosophers agree that this is a misunderstanding of Bohr as he never argued forverificationismor for the idea that the subject had a direct impact on the outcome of a measurement. Bohr has often been quoted saying that there is \"no quantum world\" but only an \"abstract quantum physical description\". This was not publicly said by Bohr, but rather a private statement attributed to Bohr by Aage Petersen in a reminiscence after his death.N. David MerminrecalledVictor Weisskopfdeclaring that Bohr wouldn't have said anything of the sort and exclaiming, \"Shame on Aage Petersen for putting those ridiculous words in Bohr's mouth!\" Numerous scholars have argued that the philosophy ofImmanuel Kanthad a strong influence on Bohr. Like Kant, Bohr thought distinguishing between the subject's experience and the object was an important condition for attaining knowledge. This can only be done through the use of causal and",
"use of causal and spatial-temporal concepts to describe the subject's experience.Thus, according to Jan Faye, Bohr thought that it is because of \"classical\" concepts like \"space\", \"position\", \"time\", \"causation\", and \"momentum\" that one can talk about objects and their objective existence. Bohr held that basic concepts like \"time\" are built in to our ordinary language and that the concepts of classical physics are merely a refinement of them.Therefore, for Bohr, classical concepts need to be used to describe experiments that deal with the quantum world. Bohr writes: he account of all evidence must be expressed in classical terms. The argument is simply that by the word 'experiment' we refer to a situation where we can tell to others what we have done and what we have learned and that, therefore, the account of the experimental arrangement and of the results of the observations must be expressed in unambiguous language with suitable application of the terminology of classical physics (APHK, p. 39). According",
"p. 39). According to Faye, there are various explanations for why Bohr believed that classical concepts were necessary for describing quantum phenomena. Faye groups explanations into five frameworks: empiricism (i.e.logical positivism);Kantianism(orNeo-Kantianmodels ofepistemology);Pragmatism(which focus on how human beings experientially interact with atomic systems according to their needs and interests); Darwinianism (i.e. we are adapted to use classical type concepts, whichLéon Rosenfeldsaid that we evolved to use); and Experimentalism (which focuses strictly on the function and outcome of experiments that thus must be described classically).These explanations are not mutually exclusive, and at times Bohr seems to emphasise some of these aspects while at other times he focuses on other elements. According to Faye \"Bohr thought of the atom as real. Atoms are neither heuristic nor logical constructions.\" However, according to Faye, he did not believe \"that the quantum mechanical formalism was true in the",
"was true in the sense that it gave us a literal ('pictorial') rather than a symbolic representation of the quantum world.\"Therefore, Bohr's theory ofcomplementarity\"is first and foremost a semantic and epistemological reading of quantum mechanics that carries certain ontological implications\".As Faye explains, Bohr'sindefinability thesisis that he truth conditions of sentences ascribing a certain kinematic or dynamic value to an atomic object are dependent on the apparatus involved, in such a way that these truth conditions have to include reference to the experimental setup as well as the actual outcome of the experiment. Faye notes that Bohr's interpretation makes no reference to a \"collapse of the wave function during measurements\" (and indeed, he never mentioned this idea). Instead, Bohr \"accepted the Born statistical interpretation because he believed that theψ-functionhas only a symbolic meaning and does not represent anything real\". Since for Bohr, theψ-function is not a literal pictorial",
"a literal pictorial representation of reality, there can be no real collapse of the wavefunction. A much debated point in recent literature is what Bohr believed about atoms and their reality and whether they are something else than what they seem to be. Some like Henry Folse argue that Bohr saw a distinction between observed phenomena and atranscendental reality. Jan Faye disagrees with this position and holds that for Bohr, the quantum formalism and complementarity was the only thing we could say about the quantum world and that \"there is no further evidence in Bohr's writings indicating that Bohr would attribute intrinsic and measurement-independent state properties to atomic objects in addition to the classical ones being manifested in measurement.\" Second World War Assistance to refugee scholars The rise ofNazismin Germany prompted many scholars to flee their countries, either because they were Jewish or because they were political opponents of the Nazi regime. In 1933, theRockefeller Foundationcreated",
"Foundationcreated a fund to help support refugee academics, and Bohr discussed this programme with the President of the Rockefeller Foundation,Max Mason, in May 1933 during a visit to the United States. Bohr offered the refugees temporary jobs at the institute, provided them with financial support, arranged for them to be awarded fellowships from the Rockefeller Foundation, and ultimately found them places at institutions around the world. Those that he helped includedGuido Beck,Felix Bloch,James Franck, George de Hevesy,Otto Frisch,Hilde Levi,Lise Meitner, George Placzek,Eugene Rabinowitch,Stefan Rozental, Erich Ernst Schneider,Edward Teller,Arthur von HippelandVictor Weisskopf. In April 1940, early in the Second World War,Nazi Germanyinvaded and occupied Denmark.To prevent the Germans from discoveringMax von Laue's and James Franck'sgold Nobel medals, Bohr had de Hevesy dissolve them inaqua regia. In this form, they were stored on a shelf at the Institute until after the war, when the gold was precipitated",
"was precipitated and the medals re-struck by the Nobel Foundation. Bohr's own medal had been donated to an auction to theFinnish Relief Fund, and was auctioned off in March 1940, along with the medal ofAugust Krogh. The buyer later donated the two medals to the Danish Historical Museum inFrederiksborg Castle, where they are still kept,although Bohr's medal temporarily went to space withAndreas MogensenonISSExpedition 70in 2023-2024. Bohr kept the Institute running, but all the foreign scholars departed. Meeting with Heisenberg Bohr was aware of the possibility of using uranium-235 to construct anatomic bomb, referring to it in lectures in Britain and Denmark shortly before and after the war started, but he did not believe that it was technically feasible to extract a sufficient quantity of uranium-235.In September 1941, Heisenberg, who had become head of theGerman nuclear energy project, visited Bohr in Copenhagen. During this meeting the two men took a private moment outside, the content of which has caused",
"of which has caused much speculation, as both gave differing accounts. According to Heisenberg, he began to address nuclear energy, morality and the war, to which Bohr seems to have reacted by terminating the conversation abruptly while not giving Heisenberg hints about his own opinions.Ivan Supek, one of Heisenberg's students and friends, claimed that the main subject of the meeting wasCarl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, who had proposed trying to persuade Bohr to mediate peace between Britain and Germany. In 1957, Heisenberg wrote toRobert Jungk, who was then working on the bookBrighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists. Heisenberg explained that he had visited Copenhagen to communicate to Bohr the views of several German scientists, that production of a nuclear weapon was possible with great efforts, and this raised enormous responsibilities on the world's scientists on both sides.When Bohr saw Jungk's depiction in the Danish translation of the book, he drafted (but never sent)",
"(but never sent) a letter to Heisenberg, stating that he deeply disagreed with Heisenberg's account of the meeting,that he recalled Heisenberg's visit as being to encourage cooperation with the inevitably victorious Nazisand that he was shocked that Germany was pursuing nuclear weapons under Heisenberg's leadership. Michael Frayn's 1998 playCopenhagenexplores what might have happened at the 1941 meeting between Heisenberg and Bohr.A television film versionof the play by theBBCwas first screened on 26 September 2002, withStephen Reaas Bohr. With the subsequent release of Bohr's letters, the play has been criticised by historians as being a \"grotesque oversimplification and perversion of the actual moral balance\" due to adopting a pro-Heisenberg perspective. The same meeting had previously been dramatised by the BBC'sHorizonscience documentary series in 1992, withAnthony Bateas Bohr, and Philip Anthony as Heisenberg.The meeting is also dramatised in the Norwegian/Danish/British miniseriesThe Heavy Water War.",
"Heavy Water War. Manhattan Project In September 1943, word reached Bohr and his brother Harald that the Nazisconsidered their family to be Jewish, since their mother was Jewish, and that they were therefore in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September.The next day, Bohr persuaded KingGustaf V of Swedento make public Sweden's willingness to provide asylum to Jewish refugees. On 2 October 1943, Swedish radio broadcast that Sweden was ready to offer asylum, and the massrescue of the Danish Jewsby their countrymen followed swiftly thereafter. Some historians claim that Bohr's actions led directly to the mass rescue, while others say that, though Bohr did all that he could for his countrymen, his actions were not a decisive influence on the wider events.Eventually, over 7,000 Danish Jews escaped to Sweden. When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain,Lord Cherwellsent a telegram to Bohr asking him to come to Britain. Bohr arrived in Scotland",
"arrived in Scotland on 6 October in ade Havilland Mosquitooperated by theBritish Overseas Airways Corporation(BOAC).The Mosquitos were unarmed high-speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small, valuable cargoes or important passengers. By flying at high speed and high altitude, they could cross German-occupied Norway, and yet avoid German fighters. Bohr, equipped with parachute, flying suit and oxygen mask, spent the three-hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft'sbomb bay.During the flight, Bohr did not wear his flying helmet as it was too small, and consequently did not hear the pilot's intercom instruction to turn on his oxygen supply when the aircraft climbed to high altitude to overfly Norway. He passed out from oxygen starvation and only revived when the aircraft descended to lower altitude over the North Sea.Bohr's son Aage followed his father to Britain on another flight a week later, and became his personal assistant. Bohr was warmly received byJames Chadwickand SirJohn",
"Chadwickand SirJohn Anderson, but for security reasons Bohr was kept out of sight. He was given an apartment atSt James's Palaceand an office with the BritishTube Alloysnuclear weapons development team. Bohr was astonished at the amount of progress that had been made.Chadwick arranged for Bohr to visit the United States as a Tube Alloys consultant, with Aage as his assistant.On 8 December 1943, Bohr arrived inWashington, D.C., where he met with the director of theManhattan Project, Brigadier GeneralLeslie R. Groves Jr.He visited Einstein and Pauli at theInstitute for Advanced StudyinPrinceton, New Jersey, and went toLos AlamosinNew Mexico, where the nuclear weapons were being designed.For security reasons, he went under the name of \"Nicholas Baker\" in the United States, while Aage became \"James Baker\".In May 1944 the Danish resistance newspaperDe frie Danskereported that they had learned that 'the famous son of Denmark Professor Niels Bohr' in October the previous year had fled his country via Sweden to",
"via Sweden to London and from there travelled toMoscowfrom where he could be assumed to support the war effort. Bohr did not remain at Los Alamos, but paid a series of extended visits over the course of the next two years.Robert Oppenheimercredited Bohr with acting \"as a scientific father figure to the younger men\", most notablyRichard Feynman.Bohr is quoted as saying, \"They didn't need my help in making the atom bomb.\"Oppenheimer gave Bohr credit for an important contribution to the work onmodulated neutron initiators. \"This device remained a stubborn puzzle\", Oppenheimer noted, \"but in early February 1945 Niels Bohr clarified what had to be done\". Bohr recognised early that nuclear weapons would change international relations. In April 1944, he received a letter fromPeter Kapitza, written some months before when Bohr was in Sweden, inviting him to come to theSoviet Union. The letter convinced Bohr that the Soviets were aware of the Anglo-American project, and would strive to catch up. He sent Kapitza a",
"He sent Kapitza a non-committal response, which he showed to the authorities in Britain before posting.Bohr met Churchill on 16 May 1944, but found that \"we did not speak the same language\".Churchill disagreed with the idea of openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter: \"It seems to me Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes.\" Oppenheimer suggested that Bohr visit PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltto convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared with the Soviets in the hope of speeding up its results. Bohr's friend, Supreme Court JusticeFelix Frankfurter, informed President Roosevelt about Bohr's opinions, and a meeting between them took place on 26 August 1944. Roosevelt suggested that Bohr return to the United Kingdom to try to win British approval.When Churchill and Roosevelt met at Hyde Park on 19 September 1944, they rejected the idea of informing the world about the project, and theaide-mémoireof their",
"their conversation contained a rider that \"enquiries should be made regarding the activities of Professor Bohr and steps taken to ensure that he is responsible for no leakage of information, particularly to the Russians\". In June 1950, Bohr addressed an \"Open Letter\" to theUnited Nationscalling for international cooperation on nuclear energy.In the 1950s, after theSoviet Union's first nuclear weapon test, theInternational Atomic Energy Agencywas created along the lines of Bohr's suggestion.In 1957 he received the first everAtoms for Peace Award. Later years Following the ending of the war, Bohr returned to Copenhagen on 25 August 1945, and was re-elected President of the Royal Danish Academy of Arts and Sciences on 21 September.At a memorial meeting of the Academy on 17 October 1947 for KingChristian X, who had died in April, the new king,Frederik IX, announced that he was conferring theOrder of the Elephanton Bohr. This award was normally awarded only to royalty and heads of state, but the king said that it",
"king said that it honoured not just Bohr personally, but Danish science.Bohr designed his owncoat of arms, which featured ataijitu(symbol of yin and yang) and a motto in Latin:contraria sunt complementa, \"opposites are complementary\". The Second World War demonstrated that science, and physics in particular, now required considerable financial and material resources. To avoid abrain drainto the United States, twelve European countries banded together to createCERN, a research organisation along the lines of the national laboratories in the United States, designed to undertakeBig Scienceprojects beyond the resources of any one of them alone. Questions soon arose regarding the best location for the facilities. Bohr and Kramers felt that the Institute in Copenhagen would be the ideal site.Pierre Auger, who organised the preliminary discussions, disagreed; he felt that both Bohr and his Institute were past their prime, and that Bohr's presence would overshadow others. After a long debate, Bohr pledged his",
"Bohr pledged his support to CERN in February 1952, andGenevawas chosen as the site in October. The CERN Theory Group was based in Copenhagen until their new accommodation in Geneva was ready in 1957.Victor Weisskopf, who later became theDirector General of CERN, summed up Bohr's role, saying that \"there were other personalities who started and conceived the idea ofCERN. The enthusiasm and ideas of the other people would not have been enough, however, if a man of his stature had not supported it.\" Meanwhile, Scandinavian countries formed theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physicsin 1957, with Bohr as its chairman. He was also involved with the founding of theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission, and served as its first chairman from February 1956. Bohr died of heart failure at his home inCarlsbergon 18 November 1962.He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in the family plot in theAssistens Cemeteryin theNørrebrosection of Copenhagen, along with those of his parents, his",
"of his parents, his brother Harald, and his son Christian. Years later, his wife's ashes were also interred there.On 7 October 1965, on what would have been his 80th birthday, the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen was officially renamed to what it had been called unofficially for many years: the Niels Bohr Institute. Accolades Bohr received numerous honours and accolades. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he received theHughes Medalin 1921, theMatteucci Medalin 1923, theFranklin Medalin 1926,theCopley Medalin 1938, the Order of the Elephant in 1947, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1957 and theSonning Prizein 1961. He became foreign member of theFinnish Society of Sciences an Lettersin 1922,and of theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1923,an international member of theUnited States National Academy of Sciencesin 1925,a member of theRoyal Societyin 1926,an international member of theAmerican Philosophical Societyin 1940,and an international honorary member of",
"honorary member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1945.The Bohr model's semicentennial was commemorated in Denmark on 21 November 1963 with apostage stampdepicting Bohr, the hydrogen atom and the formula for the difference of any two hydrogen energy levels:hν=ϵ2−ϵ1{\\displaystyle h\\nu =\\epsilon _{2}-\\epsilon _{1}}. Several other countries have also issued postage stamps depicting Bohr.In 1997, theDanish National Bankbegan circulating the500-krone banknotewith the portrait of Bohr smoking a pipe.On 7 October 2012, in celebration of Niels Bohr's 127th birthday, a Google Doodle depicting the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom appeared on Google's home page.An asteroid,3948 Bohr, was named after him,as was theBohr lunar craterandbohrium, the chemical element with atomic number 107. Bibliography See also Notes References Further reading External links",
"Johannes Stark Johannes Stark(German pronunciation:ⓘ, 15 April 1874 – 21 June 1957) was a Germanphysicistwho was awarded theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1919 \"for his discovery of the Doppler effect incanal raysand the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields\". This phenomenon is known as theStark effect. Stark received his Ph.D. in physics from theUniversity of Munichin 1897 under the supervision ofEugen von Lommel, and served as Lommel's assistant until his appointment as a lecturer at theUniversity of Göttingenin 1900. He was anextraordinary professoratLeibniz University Hannoverfrom 1906 until he became a professor atRWTH Aachen Universityin 1909. In 1917, he became professor at theUniversity of Greifswald, and he also worked at theUniversity of Würzburgfrom 1920 to 1922. A supporter ofAdolf Hitlerfrom 1924, Stark was one of the main figures, along with fellow Nobel laureatePhilipp Lenard, in the anti-SemiticDeutsche Physikmovement, which sought to remove Jewish scientists from German physics. He was",
"physics. He was appointed head of theGerman Research Foundationin 1933 and was president of theReich Physical-Technical Institutefrom 1933 to 1939. In 1947 he was found guilty as a \"Major Offender\" by adenazificationcourt. Biography Early years Born inSchickenhof,Kingdom of Bavaria(nowFreihung), Stark was educated atBayreuth Gymnasium(secondary school) and later inRegensburg. Hiscollegiateeducation began at theUniversity of Munich, where he studied physics,mathematics,chemistry, andcrystallography. His tenure at that college began in 1894; he graduated in 1897, with hisdoctoraldissertation titledUntersuchung über einige physikalische, vorzüglich optische Eigenschaften des Rußes(Investigation of some physical, in particular optical properties of soot). Career Stark worked in various positions at the Physics Institute of hisalma materuntil 1900, when he became an unsalariedlecturerat theUniversity of Göttingen. An extraordinary professor atHannoverby 1906, in 1908 he became professor atRWTH Aachen University.",
"Aachen University. He worked and researched at physics departments of several universities, including theUniversity of Greifswald, until 1922. In 1919, he won theNobel Prize in Physicsfor his \"discovery of theDoppler effectincanal raysand the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields\" (the latter is known as theStark effect). From 1933 until his retirement in 1939, Stark was elected President of thePhysikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, while also President of theDeutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. It was Stark who, as the editor of theJahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, asked in 1907, then still rather unknown,Albert Einsteinto write a review article on theprinciple of relativity. Stark seemed impressed by relativity and Einstein's earlier work when he quoted \"the principle of relativity formulated by H. A. Lorentz and A. Einstein\" and \"Planck's relationshipM0=E0/c2\" in his 1907 paperinPhysikalische Zeitschrift, where he used the equatione0=m0c2to calculate an \"elementary quantum of energy\", i.e.",
"of energy\", i.e. the amount of energy related to the mass of an electron at rest. While working on his article,Einstein began a line of thought that would eventually lead to hisgeneral theory of relativity, which in turn became (after its confirmation) the start of Einstein's worldwide fame. This is ironic, given Stark's later work as an anti-Einstein andanti-relativitypropagandist in theDeutsche Physikmovement. Stark published more than 300 papers, mainly regardingelectricityand other such topics. He received various awards, including theNobel Prize, the Baumgartner Prize of theVienna Academy of Sciences(1910), the Vahlbruch Prize of theGöttingen Academy of Sciences(1914), and theMatteucci Medalof theRome Academy. Probably his best known contribution to the field ofphysicsis theStark effect, which he discovered in 1913. In 1970 theInternational Astronomical Unionhonored him with acrateron the far-side of the Moon, without knowing about his Nazi activities.The name was dropped on August 12, 2020. He",
"August 12, 2020. He marriedLuise Uepler, and they had five children. His hobbies were the cultivation of fruit trees and forestry. He worked in his private laboratory, which he set up using his Nobel prize money, on his country estate in Upper Bavaria after the second world war. There he studied the deflection of light in an electric field. Affiliation with Nazism From 1924 onwards, Stark supported Hitler.During theNaziregime, Stark attempted to become theFührerof German physics through theDeutsche Physik(\"German physics\") movement (along with fellow Nobel laureatePhilipp Lenard) against the \"Jewish physics\" ofAlbert EinsteinandWerner Heisenberg(who was not Jewish). After Werner Heisenberg defended Albert Einstein'stheory of relativity, Stark wrote an angry article in the officialSSnewspaperDas Schwarze Korps, calling Heisenberg a \"White Jew\". On August 21, 1934, Stark wrote to physicist and fellow Nobel laureateMax von Laue, telling him to toe the party line or suffer the consequences. The letter was signed",
"letter was signed off with \"Heil Hitler.\" In his 1934 bookNationalsozialismus und Wissenschaft(English: \"National Socialism and Science\") Stark maintained that the priority of the scientist was to serve the nation—thus, the important fields of research were those that could help German arms production and industry. He attacked theoretical physics as \"Jewish\" and stressed that scientific positions inNazi Germanyshould only be held by pure-blooded Germans. Writing inDas Schwarze Korps, Stark argued that even ifracial antisemitismwere to triumph, it would only be a 'partial victory' if 'Jewish' ideas were not similarly defeated: \"We also have to eradicate the Jewish spirit, whose blood can flow just as undisturbed today as before if its carriers hold beautifulAryanpasses\". In 1947, following the defeat of Germany inWorld War II, Stark was classified as a \"Major Offender\" and received a sentence of four years' imprisonment (later suspended) by adenazificationcourt. Later life and death Stark spent the last years",
"the last years of his life on his Gut Eppenstatt near Traunstein in Upper Bavaria, where he died in 1957 at the age of 83. He was buried inSchönau am Königsseein the mountain cemetery. See also Publications Notes References External links",
"James Franck James Franck(German pronunciation:ⓘ; 26 August 1882 – 21 May 1964) was a Germanphysicistwho won the 1925Nobel Prize for PhysicswithGustav Hertz\"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom\".He completed hisdoctoratein 1906 and hishabilitationin 1911 at theFrederick William Universityin Berlin, where he lectured and taught until 1918, having reached the position ofprofessor extraordinarius. He served as a volunteer in the German Army duringWorld War I. He was seriously injured in 1917 in a gas attack and was awarded theIron Cross1st Class. Franck became the Head of the Physics Division of theKaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaftfor Physical Chemistry. In 1920, Franck becameprofessor ordinariusof experimental physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics at theUniversity of Göttingen. While there he worked onquantum physicswithMax Born, who was Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics. His work included theFranck–Hertz experiment, an",
"experiment, an important confirmation of theBohr modelof theatom. He promoted the careers of women in physics, notablyLise Meitner,Hertha SponerandHilde Levi. After theNazi Partycame to power in Germany in 1933, Franck resigned his post in protest against the dismissal of fellow academics. He assistedFrederick Lindemannin helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933. After a year at theNiels Bohr InstituteinDenmark, he moved to the United States, where he worked atJohns Hopkins UniversityinBaltimoreand then theUniversity of Chicago. During this period he became interested inphotosynthesis. Franck participated in theManhattan ProjectduringWorld War IIas Director of the Chemistry Division of theMetallurgical Laboratory. He was also the chairman of the Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which is best known for the compilation of theFranck Report, which recommended that theatomic bombsnot be used on the Japanese cities without",
"cities without warning. Early life James Franck was born inHamburg, Germany, on 26 August 1882, into aJewishfamily, the second child and first son of Jacob Franck, a banker, and his wife Rebecca née Nachum Drucker.He had an older sister, Paula, and a younger brother, Robert Bernard.His father was a devout and religious man, while his mother came from a family of rabbis.Franck attended primary school in Hamburg. Starting in 1891 he attended theWilhelm-Gymnasium, which was then a boys-only school. Hamburg had no university then, so prospective students had to attend one of the 22 universities elsewhere in Germany. Intending to study law and economics, Franck entered theUniversity of Heidelbergin 1901, as it had a renowned law school.He attended lectures on law, but was far more interested in those on science. While there, he metMax Born, who would become a lifelong friend. With Born's help, he was able to persuade his parents to allow him to switch to studying physics and chemistry.Franck attended mathematics",
"mathematics lectures byLeo KönigsbergerandGeorg Cantor, but Heidelberg was not strong on the physical sciences, so he decided to go to theFrederick William Universityin Berlin. At Berlin, Franck attended lectures byMax PlanckandEmil Warburg.On 28 July 1904 he saved a pair of children from drowning in theSpree River.For hisDoctor of Philosophy(Dir. Phil.) under Warburg's supervision,Warburg suggested that he studycorona discharges. Franck found this topic too complex, so he changed the focus of histhesis.EntitledÜber die Beweglichkeit der Ladungsträger der Spitzenentladung(\"On the Mobility ofIons\"),it would subsequently be published in theAnnalen der Physik. With his thesis completed, Franck had to perform his deferred military service. He was called up on 1 October 1906 and joined the 1st Telegraph Battalion. He suffered a minor horse riding accident in December and was discharged as unfit for duty. He took up an assistantship at the Physikalische Verein inFrankfurtin 1907, but did not enjoy it, and soon",
"enjoy it, and soon returned to Frederick William University.At a concert Franck met Ingrid Josephson, a Swedish pianist. They were married in a Swedish ceremony inGothenburgon 23 December 1907. They had two daughters, Dagmar (Daggie), who was born in 1909, and Elisabeth (Lisa), who was born in 1912. To pursue an academic career in Germany, having a doctorate was not enough; one needed avenia legendi, or habilitation. This could be achieved with either another major thesis or by producing a substantial body of published work. Franck chose the latter route. There were many unsolved problems in physics at the time, and by 1914 he had published 34 articles. He was the sole author of some, but generally preferred working in collaboration withEva von Bahr,Lise Meitner,Robert Pohl,Peter Pringsheim,Robert W. Wood,Arthur WehneltorWilhelm Westphal. His most fruitful collaboration was withGustav Hertz, with whom he wrote 19 articles. He received his habilitation on 20 May 1911. Franck–Hertz experiment In 1914, Franck",
"In 1914, Franck teamed up with Hertz to perform an experiment to investigatefluorescence. They designed avacuum tubefor studying energeticelectronsthat flew through a thin vapour ofmercuryatoms. They discovered that when an electron collided with a mercury atom it could lose only a specific quantity (4.9electronvolts) of itskinetic energybefore flying away. A faster electron does not decelerate completely after a collision, but loses precisely the same amount of its kinetic energy. Slower electrons just bounce off mercury atoms without losing any significant speed or kinetic energy. These experimental results provided confirmation ofAlbert Einstein'sphotoelectric effectand Planck's relation (E=fh) linking energy (E) and frequency (f) arising from quantisation of energy with thePlanck constant(h). But they also provided evidence supporting themodel of the atomthat had been proposed the previous year byNiels Bohr. Its key feature was that an electron inside an atom occupies one of the atom's \"quantum energy",
"\"quantum energy levels\". Before a collision, an electron inside the mercury atom occupies its lowest available energy level. After the collision, the electron inside occupies a higher energy level with 4.9 eV more energy. This means that the electron is more loosely bound to the mercury atom. There were no intermediate levels or possibilities. In a second paper presented in May 1914, Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions. They showed that thewavelengthof thisultravioletlight corresponded exactly to the 4.9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost. The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr.Franck and Hertz completed their last paper together in December 1918. In it, they reconciled the discrepancies between their results and Bohr's theory, which they now acknowledged.In his Nobel lecture, Franck admitted that it was \"completely incomprehensible that we had failed to recognise the fundamental",
"the fundamental significance of Bohr's theory, so much so, that we never even mentioned it once\".On 10 December 1926, Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925Nobel Prize in Physics\"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom.\". World War I Franck enlisted in theGerman Armysoon after the outbreak of theFirst World Warin August 1914. In December he was sent to thePicardysector of theWestern Front. He became a deputy officer (offizierstellvertreter), and then a lieutenant (leutnant) in 1915.In early 1915 he was transferred toFritz Haber's new unit that would introduce clouds of chlorine gas as a weapon.WithOtto Hahnhe was responsible for locating sites for the attacks. He was awarded theIron Cross, Second Class, on 30 March 1915,and the city of Hamburg awarded him theHanseatic Crosson 11 January 1916.While in hospital withpleurisy, he co-wrote yet another scientific paper with Hertz, and he was appointed an assistant professor in his absence by Frederick William University on",
"University on 19 September 1916. Sent to theRussian front, he came down withdysentery. He returned to Berlin, where he joined Hertz, Westphal,Hans Geiger, Otto Hahn and others at Haber'sKaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, working on the development ofgas masks.He was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class, on 23 February 1918. He was discharged from the Army on 25 November 1918, soon after the war ended. With the war over, Haber's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute now returned to research, and Haber offered Franck a job. His new post came with more pay, but was not a tenured position. It did however allow Franck to pursue his research as he wished. Working with new, younger collaborators such asWalter Grotrian, Paul Knipping, Thea Krüger,Fritz ReicheandHertha Sponer, his first papers at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute examined atomic electrons in their excited state, results that would later prove important in the development of thelaser.They coined the term \"metastable\" for atoms spending",
"for atoms spending an extended time in a state other thanthat of least energy.When Niels Bohr visited Berlin in 1920, Meitner and Franck arranged for him to come to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute to talk with the younger staff without the presence of thebonzen(\"bigwigs\"). Göttingen In 1920, theUniversity of Göttingenoffered Max Born its chair of theoretical physics, which had recently been vacated byPeter Debye. Göttingen was an important centre for mathematics, thanks toDavid Hilbert,Felix Klein,Hermann MinkowskiandCarl Runge, but not so much for physics. This would change. As part of his price for coming to Göttingen, Born wanted Franck to head experimental physics there. On 15 November 1920, Franck became Professor of Experimental Physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics, a fully tenuredprofessor ordinarius. He was allowed two assistants, so he broughtHertha Sponerwith him from Berlin to fill one of the positions. Pohl, a gifted teacher, headed the First Institute, and handled",
"and handled the lectures.Franck refurbished the laboratory with the latest equipment using funds from his own pocket. Under Born and Franck, Göttingen was one of the world's great centres for physics between 1920 and 1933.Although they published only three papers together, Born and Franck discussed every one of their papers with each other. Gaining admittance to Franck's laboratory became highly competitive. His doctoral students includedHans Kopfermann,Arthur R. von Hippel,Wilhelm Hanle,Fritz Houtermans,Heinrich Kuhn,Werner Kroebel, Walter Lochte-Holtgreven andHeinz Maier-Leibnitz.In supervising doctoral candidates, Franck had to ensure that thesis topics were well-defined, and would teach the candidate how to conduct original research, while still staying within the limits of the candidate's ability, the laboratory's equipment and the institute's budget.Under his direction, research was carried out into the structure of atoms and molecules. In his own research, Franck developed what became known as",
"became known as theFranck–Condon principle, a rule inspectroscopyandquantum chemistrythat explains the intensity ofvibronic transitions, simultaneous changes in electronic and vibrational energy levels of a molecule due to the absorption or emission of aphotonof the appropriate energy. The principle states that during anelectronic transition, a change from onevibrationalenergy levelto another will be more likely to happen if the two vibrationalwave functionsoverlap more significantly.The principle has since been applied to a wide variety of related phenomena. For his work during this time period, Franck was elected to theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1929. Exile This period came to an end when theNazi Partywon power in Germany inan electionon 2 March 1933. The following month it enacted theLaw for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which provided for the retirement or dismissal of all Jewish civil servants, along with political opponents of the government. As a veteran of the First",
"of the First World War, Franck was exempt, but he submitted his resignation anyway on 17 April 1933.He once commented that science was his God and nature was his religion. He did not require his daughters to attend religious instruction classes at school,and even let them have a decorated tree at Christmas;but he was proud of his Jewish heritage all the same.He was the first academic to resign in protest over the law.Newspapers around the world reported it, but no government or university protested. Franck assistedFrederick Lindemannin helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933.After a brief visit to the United States, where he measured the absorption of light inheavy waterwith Wood atJohns Hopkins University, he took up a position at theNiels Bohr InstituteinCopenhagen.He needed a new collaborator, so he took onHilde Levi, whose recent thesis had impressed him.His original intention was to continue his research into the fluorescence of vapours and",
"of vapours and liquids, but under Bohr's influence they began to take an interest in biological aspects of these reactions, particularlyphotosynthesis, the process by which plants use light to convertcarbon dioxideand water into more organic compounds. Biological processes turned out to be far more complicated than simple reactions in atoms and molecules. He co-authored two papers with Levi on the subject, which he would return to over the following years. Franck found a position at thePolytekniske Læreanstaltin Copenhagen for Arthur von Hippel, who was now his son in law, having married his daughter Dagmar. He decided to provide financial security for his children by dividing his Nobel Prize money between them. The gold medal itself was entrusted to Niels Bohr for safekeeping.When Germanyinvaded Denmarkon 9 April 1940, the Hungarian chemistGeorge de Hevesydissolved the gold medal, along with that ofMax von Laueinaqua regiato prevent the Germans from taking them. He placed the resulting solution on a shelf",
"solution on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. After the war, he returned to find the solution undisturbed and precipitated the gold out of the acid. The Nobel Society then recast the Nobel Prize medals. In 1935, Franck moved to the United States, where he had accepted a professorship at Johns Hopkins University.The laboratory there was poorly equipped compared to the one in Göttingen, but he received $10,000 for equipment from theRockefeller Foundation. A more intractable problem was that the university had no money to hire skilled staff. Franck was concerned about his family members remaining in Germany, and needed money to help them emigrate. He therefore accepted an offer from theUniversity of Chicago, where his work on photosynthesis had attracted interest, in 1938. Franck's first paper there, co-authored withEdward Teller, was on photochemical processes in crystals.Hans Gaffronbecame his collaborator.They were joined by Pringsheim, who escaped from Belgium after theGerman invasion.",
"theGerman invasion. Franck arranged a position for Pringsheim at his laboratory.Both his daughters and their families moved to the United States, and he was also able to bring out his elderly mother and aunt.He became anaturalisedUnited States citizen on 21 July 1941,so he was not anenemy alienwhen the United Statesdeclared war on Germanyon 11 December 1941. His daughters still were, though, so they were restricted from travelling, and could not take care of their mother when she fell ill and died on 10 January 1942, although they were permitted to attend her funeral. In February 1942,Arthur H. Comptonestablished itsMetallurgical Laboratoryat the University of Chicago. As part of theManhattan Project, its mission was to buildnuclear reactorsto createplutoniumthat would be used inatomic bombs.The Metallurgical Laboratory's Chemistry Division was initially headed byFrank Spedding, but he preferred hands on work to administration. Compton then turned to Franck, with some trepidation owing to his German",
"owing to his German background.Compton later wrote: How Franck welcomed an invitation to join our project! It was a vote of confidence that far exceeded his hopes, and it gave him a chance to do his part for the cause of freedom. \"It's not the German people I'm fighting\", he explained. \"It's the Nazis. They have a stranglehold over Germany. The German people are helpless until we can break the strength of their Nazi masters.\" The chemists welcomed Franck as an elder scientific statesman whose guidance they were glad to follow. In addition to heading the Chemistry Division, Franck was also the chairman of the Metallurgical Laboratory's Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which consisted of himself andDonald J. Hughes,J. J. Nickson,Eugene Rabinowitch,Glenn T. Seaborg, J. C. Stearns andLeó Szilárd.In 1945, Franck warnedHenry A. Wallaceof their fears that \"mankind has learned to unleash atomic power without being ethically and politically prepared to use it wisely.\"The committee",
"committee compiled what became known as theFranck Report. Finished on 11 June 1945, it recommended that theatomic bombsnot be used on the Japanese cities without warning.In any event, theInterim Committeedecided otherwise. Later life Franck marriedHertha Sponerin a civil ceremony on 29 June 1946,his first wife, Ingrid, having died in 1942. In his post-war research, he continued to tackle the problem of explaining the mechanism of photosynthesis. Meitner saw no break between his early and later work. She recalled that Franck enjoyed talking about his problems, not so much to explain them to others as to satisfy his own mind. Once a problem had aroused his interest he was completely captivated, indeed obsessed by it. Common sense and straight logic were his main tools, together with simple apparatus. His research followed an almost straight line, from his early studies of ion mobilities to his last work on photosynthesis; it was always the energy exchange between atoms or molecules that fascinated him. In",
"fascinated him. In addition to the Nobel Prize. Franck was awarded theMax Planck medalof theDeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaftin 1951 and theRumford Medalof the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on photosynthesis in 1955. He became an honorary citizen of Göttingen in 1953,was elected a member of the United StatesNational Academy of Sciencesin 1944,and elected aForeign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1964.He was also an International Member of theAmerican Philosophical Society. He died suddenly from a heart attack while visiting Göttingen on 21 May 1964,and was buried in Chicago with his first wife. In 1967, the University of Chicago named theJames Franck Instituteafter him.Alunar craterhas also been named in his honour.His papers are in the University of Chicago Library. See also Notes References Further reading External links",
"Gustav Ludwig Hertz Gustav Ludwig Hertz(/hɜːrts/;German:ⓘ; 22 July 1887 – 30 October 1975)was a Germanexperimental physicistandNobel Prize winnerfor his work on inelastic electron collisions in gases, and a nephew ofHeinrich Hertz. Biography Hertz was born inHamburg, the son of Auguste (née Arning) and a lawyer, Gustav Theodor Hertz (1858–1904),Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's brother. He attended theGelehrtenschule des Johanneumsbefore studying at theGeorg-August University of Göttingen(1906–1907), theLudwig Maximilian University of Munich(1907–1908), and theHumboldt University of Berlin(1908–1911). He received his doctorate in 1911 underHeinrich Leopold Rubens. From 1911 to 1914, Hertz was an assistant to Rubens at the University of Berlin. It was during this time that Hertz andJames Franckperformed experiments on inelastic electron collisions in gases,known as theFranck–Hertz experiments, and for which they received theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1925. During World War I, Hertz served in the military from 1914. In",
"from 1914. In 1915 he joinedFritz Haber's unit that would introduce poisonous chlorine gas as a weapon.He was seriously wounded in 1915. In 1917, he returned to the University of Berlin as aPrivatdozent. In 1920, he took a job as a research physicist at the Philips Incandescent Lamp Factory inEindhoven, which he held until 1925. Career In 1925, Hertz became ordinarius professor and director of the Physics Institute of theMartin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg. In 1928 he became ordinarius professor of experimental physics and director of the Physics Institute of theTechnische HochschuleBerlin(\"THB\"), nowTechnische Universität Berlin. While there, he developed an isotope separation technique via gaseous diffusion. Since Hertz was an officer during World War I, he was temporarily protected from National Socialist policies and theLaw for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, but eventually the policies and laws became more stringent, and at the end of 1934, he was forced to resign his",
"to resign his position at THB, as he was classified as a \"second degree part-Jew\" (his paternal grandfatherGustav Ferdinand Hertz(originally named David Gustav Hertz) (1827–1914) had been Jewish as a child, before his whole family had converted to Lutheranism in 1834).He then took a position atSiemens, as director of Research Laboratory II. While there, he continued his work onatomic physicsandultrasound, but he eventually discontinued his work on isotope separation. He held this position until he departed for the Soviet Union in 1945. In the Soviet Union \"Pact to defect\" Hertz was concerned for his safety and, like his fellow Nobel laureateJames Franck, was looking to move to the USA or any other place outside Germany. So he made a pact with three colleagues:Manfred von Ardenne, director of his private laboratoryForschungslaboratorium für Elektronenphysik,Peter Adolf Thiessen, ordinarius professor at theHumboldt University of Berlinand director of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für physikalische Chemie und",
"Chemie und Elektrochemie (KWIPC) inBerlin-Dahlem, andMax Volmer, ordinarius professor and director of the Physical Chemistry Institute at the THB.The pact was a pledge that whoever first made contact with the Soviets would speak for the rest. The objectives of their pact were threefold: (1) prevent plunder of their institutes, (2) continue their work with minimal interruption, and (3) protect themselves from prosecution for any political acts of the past.Before the end of World War II, Thiessen, a member of theNazi Party, had Communist contacts. Participation in Soviet program of nuclear weapons On 27 April 1945, Thiessen arrived at von Ardenne's institute in an armored vehicle with a major of the Soviet Army, who was also a leading Soviet chemist.All four of the pact members were taken to the Soviet Union. Hertz was made head of Institute G, in Agudseri (Agudzery), about 10 km southeast ofSukhumiand a suburb of Gul'rips (Gulrip'shi).Topics assigned to Gustav Hertz's Institute G included: (1) Separation of",
"(1) Separation of isotopes by diffusion in a flow of inert gases, for which Gustav Hertz was the leader, (2) Development of a condensation pump, for whichJustus Mühlenpfordtwas the leader, (3) Design and build a mass spectrometer for determining the isotopic composition of uranium, for which Werner Schütze was the leader, (4) Development of frameless (ceramic) diffusion partitions for filters, for which Reinhold Reichmann was the leader, and (5) Development of a theory of stability and control of a diffusion cascade, for whichHeinz Barwichwas the leader; Barwich had been deputy to Hertz at Siemens.Other members of Institute G wereWerner Hartmannand Karl-Franz Zühlke.Manfred von Ardenne was made head of Institute A. Goals of von Ardenne's Institute A included: (1) Electromagnetic separation of isotopes, for which von Ardenne was the leader, (2) Techniques for manufacturing porous barriers for isotope separation, for which Peter Adolf Thiessen was the leader, and (3) Molecular techniques for separation of",
"for separation of uranium isotopes, for whichMax Steenbeckwas the leader. In his first meeting withLavrentij Beria, von Ardenne was asked to participate in building the bomb, but von Ardenne quickly realized that participation would prohibit his repatriation to Germany, so he suggested isotope enrichment as an objective, which was agreed to. Research at Sukhumi By the end of the 1940s, nearly 300 Germans were working at the institute, and they were not the total work force. Institute A was used as the basis for the Sukhumi Physical-Technical Institute in Sinop, a suburb ofSukhumi.Volmer went to the Scientific Research Institute No. 9 (NII-9)in Moscow; he was given a design bureau to work on the production ofheavy water. In Institute A, Thiessen became leader for developing techniques for manufacturing porous barriers for isotope separation. In 1949, six German scientists, including Hertz, Thiessen, and Barwich were called in for consultation atSverdlovsk-44, which was responsible for uranium enrichment. The",
"enrichment. The plant, smaller than the American Oak Ridgegaseous diffusion plant, was getting only a little over half of the expected 90% or higher enrichment. After 1950, Hertz moved to Moscow. In 1951, Hertz was awarded aStalin Prize, second class, with Barwich.In that year, James Franck and Hertz were jointly awarded theMax Planck Medalby theDeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. Hertz remained in the Soviet Union until 1955. Return to the GDR Upon return from the Soviet Union, Hertz became ordinarius professor at theUniversity of Leipzig. From 1955 to 1967, he was also the chairman of the Physical Society of theDeutsche Demokratische Republik (GDR); he was honorary chairman from 1967 to 1975. Personal life Gustav Hertz was a nephew ofHeinrich Rudolf Hertzand a cousin ofMathilde Carmen Hertz. In 1919, Hertz married Ellen née Dihlmann, who died in 1941. They had two sons,Carl Helmut Hertzand Johannes Heinrich Hertz; both became physicists. He died on 30 October 1975 inEast Berlinat the age 88. Scientific",
"age 88. Scientific memberships Hertz was a Member of the German Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Corresponding Member of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences, an Honorary Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, a Member of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences, and a Foreign Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Publications See also References Further reading External links",
"List of Nobel laureates in Physics TheNobel Prize in Physics(Swedish:Nobelpriset i fysik) is awarded annually by theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciencesto scientists in the various fields ofphysics. It is one of the fiveNobel Prizesestablished by the 1895willofAlfred Nobel(who died in 1896), awarded for outstanding contributions in physics.As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by theNobel Foundationand awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.The award is presented inStockholmat an annual ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death.Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award prize that has varied throughout the years. Statistics The Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to 226 individuals as of 2024.The first prize in physics was awarded in 1901 toWilhelm Conrad Röntgen, of Germany, who received 150,782SEK.John Bardeenis the only laureate to win the prize twice—in 1956 and 1972. William Lawrence Braggwas the youngest Nobel laureate in physics; he won",
"in physics; he won the prize in 1915 at the age of 25. He was also the youngest laureate for any Nobel prize until 2014 (whenMalala Yousafzaiwon the Nobel Peace Prize at the age of 17).The oldest Nobel Prize laureate in physics wasArthur Ashkinwho was 96 years old when he was awarded the prize in 2018. Only five women have won the prize:Marie Curie(1903),Maria Goeppert-Mayer(1963),Donna Strickland(2018),Andrea Ghez(2020), andAnne L'Huillier(2023).Before L'Huillier, each woman only ever received a quarter share of the prize, although Marie Curie did receive anunshared Nobel prize in chemistry in 1911. In 2023, L'Huillier received a one-third share. There have been six years for which the Nobel Prize in Physics was not awarded (1916, 1931, 1934, 1940–1942). There were also nine years for which the Nobel Prize in Physics was delayed for one year: A 2020 study reported that half of the Nobel Prizes for science awarded between 1995 and 2017 are clustered in few disciplines.Particle physics(14%),atomic",
"physics(14%),atomic physics(10.9%), and 3 non-physics disciplines dominate the prize in recent decades, followed bysemiconductor physicsandmagnetics. Laureates Number of Nobel laureates in Physics by country See also Notes References External links",
"Quantum mechanics Quantum mechanicsis a fundamentaltheorythat describes the behavior ofnatureat and below the scale ofatoms.: 1.1It is the foundation of allquantum physics, which includesquantum chemistry,quantum field theory,quantum technology, andquantum information science. Quantum mechanics can describe many systems thatclassical physicscannot. Classical physics can describe many aspects of nature at an ordinary (macroscopicand(optical) microscopic) scale, but is not sufficient for describing them at very smallsubmicroscopic(atomic andsubatomic) scales. Most theories in classical physics can be derived from quantum mechanics as an approximation, valid at large (macroscopic/microscopic) scale. Quantum systems haveboundstates that arequantizedtodiscrete valuesofenergy,momentum,angular momentum, and other quantities, in contrast to classical systems where these quantities can be measured continuously. Measurements of quantum systems show characteristics of bothparticlesandwaves(wave–particle duality), and",
"duality), and there are limits to how accurately the value of a physical quantity can be predicted prior to its measurement, given a complete set of initial conditions (theuncertainty principle). Quantum mechanicsarose graduallyfrom theories to explain observations that could not be reconciled with classical physics, such asMax Planck's solution in 1900 to theblack-body radiationproblem, and the correspondence between energy and frequency inAlbert Einstein's1905 paper, which explained thephotoelectric effect. These early attempts to understand microscopic phenomena, now known as the \"old quantum theory\", led to the full development of quantum mechanics in the mid-1920s byNiels Bohr,Erwin Schrödinger,Werner Heisenberg,Max Born,Paul Diracand others. The modern theory is formulated in variousspecially developed mathematical formalisms. In one of them, a mathematical entity called thewave functionprovides information, in the form ofprobability amplitudes, about what measurements of a particle's energy, momentum,",
"energy, momentum, and other physical properties may yield. Overview and fundamental concepts Quantum mechanics allows the calculation of properties and behaviour of physical systems. It is typically applied to microscopic systems: molecules, atoms and sub-atomic particles. It has been demonstrated to hold for complex molecules with thousands of atoms,but its application to human beings raises philosophical problems, such asWigner's friend, and its application to the universe as a whole remains speculative.Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to an extremely high degree ofaccuracy. For example, the refinement of quantum mechanics for the interaction of light and matter, known asquantum electrodynamics(QED), has beenshown to agree with experimentto within 1 part in 1012when predicting the magnetic properties of an electron. A fundamental feature of the theory is that it usually cannot predict with certainty what will happen, but only give probabilities. Mathematically, a",
"Mathematically, a probability is found by taking the square of the absolute value of acomplex number, known as a probability amplitude. This is known as theBorn rule, named after physicistMax Born. For example, a quantum particle like anelectroncan be described by a wave function, which associates to each point in space a probability amplitude. Applying the Born rule to these amplitudes gives aprobability density functionfor the position that the electron will be found to have when an experiment is performed to measure it. This is the best the theory can do; it cannot say for certain where the electron will be found. TheSchrödinger equationrelates the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to one moment of time to the collection of probability amplitudes that pertain to another.: 67–87 One consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is a tradeoff in predictability between measurable quantities. The most famous form of thisuncertainty principlesays that no matter how a quantum",
"how a quantum particle is prepared or how carefully experiments upon it are arranged, it is impossible to have a precise prediction for a measurement of its position and also at the same time for a measurement of itsmomentum.: 427–435 Another consequence of the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics is the phenomenon ofquantum interference, which is often illustrated with thedouble-slit experiment. In the basic version of this experiment, acoherent light source, such as alaserbeam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate.: 102–111: 1.1–1.8The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through the two slits tointerfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen – a result that would not be expected if light consisted of classical particles.However, the light is always found to be absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as individual particles rather than waves; the interference pattern appears via the",
"appears via the varying density of these particle hits on the screen. Furthermore, versions of the experiment that include detectors at the slits find that each detectedphotonpasses through one slit (as would a classical particle), and not through both slits (as would a wave).: 109However,such experimentsdemonstrate that particles do not form the interference pattern if one detects which slit they pass through. This behavior is known aswave–particle duality. In addition to light,electrons,atoms, andmoleculesare all found to exhibit the same dual behavior when fired towards a double slit. Another non-classical phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics isquantum tunnelling: a particle that goes up against apotential barriercan cross it, even if its kinetic energy is smaller than the maximum of the potential.In classical mechanics this particle would be trapped. Quantum tunnelling has several important consequences, enablingradioactive decay,nuclear fusionin stars, and applications such asscanning tunnelling",
"tunnelling microscopy,tunnel diodeandtunnel field-effect transistor. When quantum systems interact, the result can be the creation ofquantum entanglement: their properties become so intertwined that a description of the whole solely in terms of the individual parts is no longer possible. Erwin Schrödinger called entanglement \"...thecharacteristic trait of quantum mechanics, the one that enforces its entire departure from classical lines of thought\".Quantum entanglement enablesquantum computingand is part of quantum communication protocols, such asquantum key distributionandsuperdense coding.Contrary to popular misconception, entanglement does not allow sending signalsfaster than light, as demonstrated by theno-communication theorem. Another possibility opened by entanglement is testing for \"hidden variables\", hypothetical properties more fundamental than the quantities addressed in quantum theory itself, knowledge of which would allow more exact predictions than quantum theory provides. A collection of",
"A collection of results, most significantlyBell's theorem, have demonstrated that broad classes of such hidden-variable theories are in fact incompatible with quantum physics. According to Bell's theorem, if nature actually operates in accord with any theory oflocalhidden variables, then the results of aBell testwill be constrained in a particular, quantifiable way. Many Bell tests have been performed and they have shown results incompatible with the constraints imposed by local hidden variables. It is not possible to present these concepts in more than a superficial way without introducing the mathematics involved; understanding quantum mechanics requires not only manipulating complex numbers, but alsolinear algebra,differential equations,group theory, and other more advanced subjects.Accordingly, this article will present a mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics and survey its application to some useful and oft-studied examples. Mathematical formulation In the mathematically rigorous formulation of",
"formulation of quantum mechanics, the state of a quantum mechanical system is a vectorψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }belonging to a (separable) complexHilbert spaceH{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}}. This vector is postulated to be normalized under the Hilbert space inner product, that is, it obeys⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1{\\displaystyle \\langle \\psi ,\\psi \\rangle =1}, and it is well-defined up to a complex number of modulus 1 (the global phase), that is,ψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }andeiαψ{\\displaystyle e^{i\\alpha }\\psi }represent the same physical system. In other words, the possible states are points in theprojective spaceof a Hilbert space, usually called thecomplex projective space. The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system – for example, for describing position and momentum the Hilbert space is the space of complexsquare-integrablefunctionsL2(C){\\displaystyle L^{2}(\\mathbb {C} )}, while the Hilbert space for thespinof a single proton is simply the space of two-dimensional complex vectorsC2{\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C}",
"\\mathbb {C} ^{2}}with the usual inner product. Physical quantities of interest – position, momentum, energy, spin – are represented by observables, which areHermitian(more precisely,self-adjoint) linearoperatorsacting on the Hilbert space. A quantum state can be aneigenvectorof an observable, in which case it is called aneigenstate, and the associatedeigenvaluecorresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. More generally, a quantum state will be a linear combination of the eigenstates, known as aquantum superposition. When an observable is measured, the result will be one of its eigenvalues with probability given by theBorn rule: in the simplest case the eigenvalueλ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }is non-degenerate and the probability is given by|⟨λ→,ψ⟩|2{\\displaystyle |\\langle {\\vec {\\lambda }},\\psi \\rangle |^{2}}, whereλ→{\\displaystyle {\\vec {\\lambda }}}is its associated eigenvector. More generally, the eigenvalue is degenerate and the probability is given by⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩{\\displaystyle \\langle \\psi",
"\\langle \\psi ,P_{\\lambda }\\psi \\rangle }, wherePλ{\\displaystyle P_{\\lambda }}is the projector onto its associated eigenspace. In the continuous case, these formulas give instead theprobability density. After the measurement, if resultλ{\\displaystyle \\lambda }was obtained, the quantum state is postulated tocollapsetoλ→{\\displaystyle {\\vec {\\lambda }}}, in the non-degenerate case, or toPλψ/⟨ψ,Pλψ⟩{\\textstyle P_{\\lambda }\\psi {\\big /}\\!{\\sqrt {\\langle \\psi ,P_{\\lambda }\\psi \\rangle }}}, in the general case. Theprobabilisticnature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement. This is one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the central topic in the famousBohr–Einstein debates, in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental principles by way ofthought experiments. In the decades after the formulation of quantum mechanics, the question of what constitutes a \"measurement\" has been extensively studied. Newerinterpretations of quantum mechanicshave",
"mechanicshave been formulated that do away with the concept of \"wave function collapse\" (see, for example, themany-worlds interpretation). The basic idea is that when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus, their respective wave functions becomeentangledso that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity (seeMeasurement in quantum mechanics). Time evolution of a quantum state The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrödinger equation: HereH{\\displaystyle H}denotes theHamiltonian, the observable corresponding to thetotal energyof the system, andℏ{\\displaystyle \\hbar }is the reducedPlanck constant. The constantiℏ{\\displaystyle i\\hbar }is introduced so that the Hamiltonian is reduced to theclassical Hamiltonianin cases where the quantum system can be approximated by a classical system; the ability to make such an approximation in certain limits is called thecorrespondence principle. The solution of this differential equation is given by The",
"is given by The operatorU(t)=e−iHt/ℏ{\\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\\hbar }}is known as the time-evolution operator, and has the crucial property that it isunitary. This time evolution isdeterministicin the sense that – given an initial quantum stateψ(0){\\displaystyle \\psi (0)}– it makes a definite prediction of what the quantum stateψ(t){\\displaystyle \\psi (t)}will be at any later time. Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are independent of time, such aseigenstates of the Hamiltonian.: 133–137Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such \"static\" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcitedatomis pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around theatomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics, it is described by a static wave function surrounding the nucleus. For example, the electron wave function for an unexcited hydrogen atom is a spherically symmetric function known as ansorbital(Fig. 1). Analytic",
"1). Analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are known forvery few relatively simple model Hamiltoniansincluding thequantum harmonic oscillator, theparticle in a box, thedihydrogen cation, and thehydrogen atom. Even theheliumatom – which contains just two electrons – has defied all attempts at a fully analytic treatment, admitting no solution inclosed form. However, there are techniques for finding approximate solutions. One method, calledperturbation theory, uses the analytic result for a simple quantum mechanical model to create a result for a related but more complicated model by (for example) the addition of a weakpotential energy.: 793Another approximation method applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces only small deviations from classical behavior. These deviations can then be computed based on the classical motion.: 849 Uncertainty principle One consequence of the basic quantum formalism is the uncertainty principle. In its most familiar form, this states that no preparation of a",
"no preparation of a quantum particle can imply simultaneously precise predictions both for a measurement of its position and for a measurement of its momentum.Both position and momentum are observables, meaning that they are represented byHermitian operators. The position operatorX^{\\displaystyle {\\hat {X}}}and momentum operatorP^{\\displaystyle {\\hat {P}}}do not commute, but rather satisfy thecanonical commutation relation: Given a quantum state, the Born rule lets us compute expectation values for bothX{\\displaystyle X}andP{\\displaystyle P}, and moreover for powers of them. Defining the uncertainty for an observable by astandard deviation, we have and likewise for the momentum: The uncertainty principle states that Either standard deviation can in principle be made arbitrarily small, but not both simultaneously.This inequality generalizes to arbitrary pairs of self-adjoint operatorsA{\\displaystyle A}andB{\\displaystyle B}. Thecommutatorof these two operators is and this provides the lower bound on the",
"lower bound on the product of standard deviations: Another consequence of the canonical commutation relation is that the position and momentum operators areFourier transformsof each other, so that a description of an object according to its momentum is the Fourier transform of its description according to its position. The fact that dependence in momentum is the Fourier transform of the dependence in position means that the momentum operator is equivalent (up to ani/ℏ{\\displaystyle i/\\hbar }factor) to taking the derivative according to the position, since in Fourier analysisdifferentiation corresponds to multiplication in the dual space. This is why in quantum equations in position space, the momentumpi{\\displaystyle p_{i}}is replaced by−iℏ∂∂x{\\displaystyle -i\\hbar {\\frac {\\partial }{\\partial x}}}, and in particular in thenon-relativistic Schrödinger equation in position spacethe momentum-squared term is replaced with a Laplacian times−ℏ2{\\displaystyle -\\hbar ^{2}}. Composite systems and entanglement When",
"entanglement When two different quantum systems are considered together, the Hilbert space of the combined system is thetensor productof the Hilbert spaces of the two components. For example, letAandBbe two quantum systems, with Hilbert spacesHA{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}_{A}}andHB{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}_{B}}, respectively. The Hilbert space of the composite system is then If the state for the first system is the vectorψA{\\displaystyle \\psi _{A}}and the state for the second system isψB{\\displaystyle \\psi _{B}}, then the state of the composite system is Not all states in the joint Hilbert spaceHAB{\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}_{AB}}can be written in this form, however, because the superposition principle implies that linear combinations of these \"separable\" or \"product states\" are also valid. For example, ifψA{\\displaystyle \\psi _{A}}andϕA{\\displaystyle \\phi _{A}}are both possible states for systemA{\\displaystyle A}, and likewiseψB{\\displaystyle \\psi _{B}}andϕB{\\displaystyle \\phi _{B}}are both possible",
"both possible states for systemB{\\displaystyle B}, then is a valid joint state that is not separable. States that are not separable are calledentangled. If the state for a composite system is entangled, it is impossible to describe either component systemAor systemBby a state vector. One can instead definereduced density matricesthat describe the statistics that can be obtained by making measurements on either component system alone. This necessarily causes a loss of information, though: knowing the reduced density matrices of the individual systems is not enough to reconstruct the state of the composite system.Just as density matrices specify the state of a subsystem of a larger system, analogously,positive operator-valued measures(POVMs) describe the effect on a subsystem of a measurement performed on a larger system. POVMs are extensively used in quantum information theory. As described above, entanglement is a key feature of models of measurement processes in which an apparatus becomes entangled with the",
"entangled with the system being measured. Systems interacting with the environment in which they reside generally become entangled with that environment, a phenomenon known asquantum decoherence. This can explain why, in practice, quantum effects are difficult to observe in systems larger than microscopic. Equivalence between formulations There are many mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most common is the \"transformation theory\" proposed byPaul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics –matrix mechanics(invented byWerner Heisenberg) and wave mechanics (invented byErwin Schrödinger).An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics isFeynman'spath integral formulation, in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over all possible classical and non-classical paths between the initial and final states. This is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of theaction principlein classical mechanics. Symmetries",
"Symmetries and conservation laws The HamiltonianH{\\displaystyle H}is known as thegeneratorof time evolution, since it defines a unitary time-evolution operatorU(t)=e−iHt/ℏ{\\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\\hbar }}for each value oft{\\displaystyle t}. From this relation betweenU(t){\\displaystyle U(t)}andH{\\displaystyle H}, it follows that any observableA{\\displaystyle A}that commutes withH{\\displaystyle H}will beconserved: its expectation value will not change over time.: 471This statement generalizes, as mathematically, any Hermitian operatorA{\\displaystyle A}can generate a family of unitary operators parameterized by a variablet{\\displaystyle t}. Under the evolution generated byA{\\displaystyle A}, any observableB{\\displaystyle B}that commutes withA{\\displaystyle A}will be conserved. Moreover, ifB{\\displaystyle B}is conserved by evolution underA{\\displaystyle A}, thenA{\\displaystyle A}is conserved under the evolution generated byB{\\displaystyle B}. This implies a quantum version of the result proven byEmmy",
"proven byEmmy Noetherin classical (Lagrangian) mechanics: for everydifferentiablesymmetryof a Hamiltonian, there exists a correspondingconservation law. Examples Free particle The simplest example of a quantum system with a position degree of freedom is a free particle in a single spatial dimension. A free particle is one which is not subject to external influences, so that its Hamiltonian consists only of its kinetic energy: The general solution of the Schrödinger equation is given by which is a superposition of all possibleplane wavesei(kx−ℏk22mt){\\displaystyle e^{i(kx-{\\frac {\\hbar k^{2}}{2m}}t)}}, which are eigenstates of the momentum operator with momentump=ℏk{\\displaystyle p=\\hbar k}. The coefficients of the superposition areψ^(k,0){\\displaystyle {\\hat {\\psi }}(k,0)}, which is the Fourier transform of the initial quantum stateψ(x,0){\\displaystyle \\psi (x,0)}. It is not possible for the solution to be a single momentum eigenstate, or a single position eigenstate, as these are not normalizable quantum",
"quantum states.Instead, we can consider a Gaussianwave packet: which has Fourier transform, and therefore momentum distribution We see that as we makea{\\displaystyle a}smaller the spread in position gets smaller, but the spread in momentum gets larger. Conversely, by makinga{\\displaystyle a}larger we make the spread in momentum smaller, but the spread in position gets larger. This illustrates the uncertainty principle. As we let the Gaussian wave packet evolve in time, we see that its center moves through space at a constant velocity (like a classical particle with no forces acting on it). However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more and more uncertain. The uncertainty in momentum, however, stays constant. Particle in a box The particle in a one-dimensional potential energy box is the most mathematically simple example where restraints lead to the quantization of energy levels. The box is defined as having zero potential energy everywhereinsidea",
"everywhereinsidea certain region, and therefore infinite potential energy everywhereoutsidethat region.: 77–78For the one-dimensional case in thex{\\displaystyle x}direction, the time-independent Schrödinger equation may be written With the differential operator defined by with stateψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }in this case having energyE{\\displaystyle E}coincident with the kinetic energy of the particle. The general solutions of the Schrödinger equation for the particle in a box are or, fromEuler's formula, The infinite potential walls of the box determine the values ofC,D,{\\displaystyle C,D,}andk{\\displaystyle k}atx=0{\\displaystyle x=0}andx=L{\\displaystyle x=L}whereψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }must be zero. Thus, atx=0{\\displaystyle x=0}, andD=0{\\displaystyle D=0}. Atx=L{\\displaystyle x=L}, in whichC{\\displaystyle C}cannot be zero as this would conflict with the postulate thatψ{\\displaystyle \\psi }has norm 1. Therefore, sincesin(kL)=0{\\displaystyle \\sin(kL)=0},kL{\\displaystyle kL}must be an integer multiple",
"an integer multiple ofπ{\\displaystyle \\pi }, This constraint onk{\\displaystyle k}implies a constraint on the energy levels, yielding Afinite potential wellis the generalization of the infinite potential well problem to potential wells having finite depth. The finite potential well problem is mathematically more complicated than the infinite particle-in-a-box problem as the wave function is not pinned to zero at the walls of the well. Instead, the wave function must satisfy more complicated mathematical boundary conditions as it is nonzero in regions outside the well. Another related problem is that of therectangular potential barrier, which furnishes a model for thequantum tunnelingeffect that plays an important role in the performance of modern technologies such asflash memoryandscanning tunneling microscopy. Harmonic oscillator As in the classical case, the potential for the quantum harmonic oscillator is given by: 234 This problem can either be treated by directly solving the Schrödinger equation, which",
"equation, which is not trivial, or by using the more elegant \"ladder method\" first proposed by Paul Dirac. Theeigenstatesare given by whereHnare theHermite polynomials and the corresponding energy levels are This is another example illustrating the discretization of energy forbound states. Mach–Zehnder interferometer TheMach–Zehnder interferometer(MZI) illustrates the concepts of superposition and interference with linear algebra in dimension 2, rather than differential equations. It can be seen as a simplified version of the double-slit experiment, but it is of interest in its own right, for example in thedelayed choice quantum eraser, theElitzur–Vaidman bomb tester, and in studies of quantum entanglement. We can model a photon going through the interferometer by considering that at each point it can be in a superposition of only two paths: the \"lower\" path which starts from the left, goes straight through both beam splitters, and ends at the top, and the \"upper\" path which starts from the bottom, goes",
"the bottom, goes straight through both beam splitters, and ends at the right. The quantum state of the photon is therefore a vectorψ∈C2{\\displaystyle \\psi \\in \\mathbb {C} ^{2}}that is a superposition of the \"lower\" pathψl=(10){\\displaystyle \\psi _{l}={\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\0\\end{pmatrix}}}and the \"upper\" pathψu=(01){\\displaystyle \\psi _{u}={\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\1\\end{pmatrix}}}, that is,ψ=αψl+βψu{\\displaystyle \\psi =\\alpha \\psi _{l}+\\beta \\psi _{u}}for complexα,β{\\displaystyle \\alpha ,\\beta }. In order to respect the postulate that⟨ψ,ψ⟩=1{\\displaystyle \\langle \\psi ,\\psi \\rangle =1}we require that|α|2+|β|2=1{\\displaystyle |\\alpha |^{2}+|\\beta |^{2}=1}. Bothbeam splittersare modelled as the unitary matrixB=12(1ii1){\\displaystyle B={\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {2}}}{\\begin{pmatrix}1&i\\\\i&1\\end{pmatrix}}}, which means that when a photon meets the beam splitter it will either stay on the same path with a probability amplitude of1/2{\\displaystyle 1/{\\sqrt {2}}}, or be reflected to the other path with a probability amplitude",
"amplitude ofi/2{\\displaystyle i/{\\sqrt {2}}}. The phase shifter on the upper arm is modelled as the unitary matrixP=(100eiΔΦ){\\displaystyle P={\\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\\\0&e^{i\\Delta \\Phi }\\end{pmatrix}}}, which means that if the photon is on the \"upper\" path it will gain a relative phase ofΔΦ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\Phi }, and it will stay unchanged if it is in the lower path. A photon that enters the interferometer from the left will then be acted upon with a beam splitterB{\\displaystyle B}, a phase shifterP{\\displaystyle P}, and another beam splitterB{\\displaystyle B}, and so end up in the state and the probabilities that it will be detected at the right or at the top are given respectively by One can therefore use the Mach–Zehnder interferometer to estimate thephase shiftby estimating these probabilities. It is interesting to consider what would happen if the photon were definitely in either the \"lower\" or \"upper\" paths between the beam splitters. This can be accomplished by blocking one of the paths, or",
"of the paths, or equivalently by removing the first beam splitter (and feeding the photon from the left or the bottom, as desired). In both cases, there will be no interference between the paths anymore, and the probabilities are given byp(u)=p(l)=1/2{\\displaystyle p(u)=p(l)=1/2}, independently of the phaseΔΦ{\\displaystyle \\Delta \\Phi }. From this we can conclude that the photon does not take one path or another after the first beam splitter, but rather that it is in a genuine quantum superposition of the two paths. Applications Quantum mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the features of our universe, with regard to small-scale and discrete quantities and interactions which cannot be explained byclassical methods.Quantum mechanics is often the only theory that can reveal the individual behaviors of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter (electrons,protons,neutrons,photons, and others).Solid-state physicsandmaterials scienceare dependent upon quantum mechanics. In many",
"mechanics. In many aspects, modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant. Important applications of quantum theory includequantum chemistry,quantum optics,quantum computing,superconducting magnets,light-emitting diodes, theoptical amplifierand the laser, thetransistorandsemiconductorssuch as themicroprocessor,medical and research imagingsuch asmagnetic resonance imagingandelectron microscopy.Explanations for many biological and physical phenomena are rooted in the nature of the chemical bond, most notably the macro-moleculeDNA. Relation to other scientific theories Classical mechanics The rules of quantum mechanics assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert space and that observables of the system are Hermitian operators acting on vectors in that space – although they do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators. These can be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system, a necessary step in making physical",
"in making physical predictions. An important guide for making these choices is thecorrespondence principle, a heuristic which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those ofclassical mechanicsin the regime of largequantum numbers.One can also start from an established classical model of a particular system, and then try to guess the underlying quantum model that would give rise to the classical model in the correspondence limit. This approach is known asquantization.: 299 When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose correspondence limit wasnon-relativisticclassical mechanics. For instance, the well-known model of thequantum harmonic oscillatoruses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for thekinetic energyof the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of theclassical harmonic oscillator.: 234 Complications arise withchaotic systems, which do not have good quantum numbers, andquantum chaosstudies the relationship between classical and quantum",
"and quantum descriptions in these systems.: 353 Quantum decoherenceis a mechanism through which quantum systems losecoherence, and thus become incapable of displaying many typically quantum effects:quantum superpositionsbecome simply probabilistic mixtures, and quantum entanglement becomes simply classical correlations.: 687–730Quantum coherence is not typically evident at macroscopic scales, though at temperatures approachingabsolute zeroquantum behavior may manifest macroscopically. Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct consequence of the quantum behavior of its parts. For example, the stability of bulk matter (consisting of atoms andmoleculeswhich would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), the rigidity of solids, and the mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of matter are all results of the interaction ofelectric chargesunder the rules of quantum mechanics. Special relativity and electrodynamics Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics",
"quantum mechanics withspecial relativityinvolved the replacement of the Schrödinger equation with a covariant equation such as theKlein–Gordon equationor theDirac equation. While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field theory, which applies quantization to a field (rather than a fixed set of particles). The first complete quantum field theory,quantum electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of theelectromagnetic interaction. Quantum electrodynamics is, along withgeneral relativity, one of the most accurate physical theories ever devised. The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. A simpler approach, one that has been used since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treatchargedparticles as quantum",
"as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classicalelectromagnetic field. For example, the elementary quantum model of thehydrogen atomdescribes theelectric fieldof the hydrogen atom using a classical−e2/(4πϵ0r){\\displaystyle \\textstyle -e^{2}/(4\\pi \\epsilon _{_{0}}r)}Coulomb potential.: 285Likewise, in aStern–Gerlach experiment, a charged particle is modeled as a quantum system, while the background magnetic field is described classically.: 26This \"semi-classical\" approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, such as in the emission of photons bycharged particles. Quantum fieldtheories for thestrong nuclear forceand theweak nuclear forcehave also been developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is calledquantum chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of subnuclear particles such asquarksandgluons. The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory",
"field theory (known aselectroweak theory), by the physicistsAbdus Salam,Sheldon GlashowandSteven Weinberg. Relation to general relativity Even though the predictions of both quantum theory and general relativity have been supported by rigorous and repeatedempirical evidence, their abstract formalisms contradict each other and they have proven extremely difficult to incorporate into one consistent, cohesive model. Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those particular applications. However, the lack of a correct theory ofquantum gravityis an important issue inphysical cosmologyand the search by physicists for an elegant \"Theory of Everything\" (TOE). Consequently, resolving the inconsistencies between both theories has been a major goal of 20th- and 21st-century physics. This TOE would combine not only the models of subatomic physics but also derive the four fundamental forces of nature from a",
"of nature from a single force or phenomenon. One proposal for doing so isstring theory, which posits that thepoint-like particlesofparticle physicsare replaced byone-dimensionalobjects calledstrings. String theory describes how these strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with itsmass,charge, and other properties determined by thevibrationalstate of the string. In string theory, one of the many vibrational states of the string corresponds to thegraviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force. Another popular theory isloop quantum gravity(LQG), which describes quantum properties of gravity and is thus a theory ofquantum spacetime. LQG is an attempt to merge and adapt standard quantum mechanics and standard general relativity. This theory describes space as an extremely fine fabric \"woven\" of finite loops calledspin networks. The evolution of a spin network over time",
"network over time is called aspin foam. The characteristic length scale of a spin foam is thePlanck length, approximately 1.616×10−35m, and so lengths shorter than the Planck length are not physically meaningful in LQG. Philosophical implications Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive aspects and results of quantum mechanics have provoked strongphilosophicaldebates and manyinterpretations. The arguments centre on the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, the difficulties withwavefunction collapseand the relatedmeasurement problem, andquantum nonlocality. Perhaps the only consensus that exists about these issues is that there is no consensus.Richard Feynmanonce said, \"I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics.\"According toSteven Weinberg, \"There is now in my opinion no entirely satisfactory interpretation of quantum mechanics.\" The views ofNiels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and other physicists are often grouped together as the \"Copenhagen interpretation\".According to these",
"to these views, the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics is not atemporaryfeature which will eventually be replaced by a deterministic theory, but is instead afinalrenunciation of the classical idea of \"causality\". Bohr in particular emphasized that any well-defined application of the quantum mechanical formalism must always make reference to the experimental arrangement, due to thecomplementarynature of evidence obtained under different experimental situations. Copenhagen-type interpretations were adopted by Nobel laureates in quantum physics, including Bohr,Heisenberg,Schrödinger,Feynman,and Zeilingeras well as 21st-century researchers in quantum foundations. Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders ofquantum theory, was troubled by its apparent failure to respect some cherished metaphysical principles, such asdeterminismandlocality. Einstein's long-running exchanges with Bohr about the meaning and status of quantum mechanics are now known as theBohr–Einstein debates. Einstein believed that",
"believed that underlying quantum mechanics must be a theory that explicitly forbidsaction at a distance. He argued that quantum mechanics was incomplete, a theory that was valid but not fundamental, analogous to howthermodynamicsis valid, but the fundamental theory behind it isstatistical mechanics. In 1935, Einstein and his collaboratorsBoris PodolskyandNathan Rosenpublished an argument that the principle of locality implies the incompleteness of quantum mechanics, athought experimentlater termed theEinstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox.In 1964,John Bellshowed that EPR's principle of locality, together with determinism, was actually incompatible with quantum mechanics: they implied constraints on the correlations produced by distance systems, now known asBell inequalities, that can be violated by entangled particles.Since thenseveral experimentshave been performed to obtain these correlations, with the result that they do in fact violate Bell inequalities, and thus falsify the conjunction of locality with",
"of locality with determinism. Bohmian mechanicsshows that it is possible to reformulate quantum mechanics to make it deterministic, at the price of making it explicitly nonlocal. It attributes not only a wave function to a physical system, but in addition a real position, that evolves deterministically under a nonlocal guiding equation. The evolution of a physical system is given at all times by the Schrödinger equation together with the guiding equation; there is never a collapse of the wave function. This solves the measurement problem. Everett'smany-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds thatallthe possibilities described by quantum theorysimultaneouslyoccur in a multiverse composed of mostly independent parallel universes.This is a consequence of removing the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet. All possible states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus, together with the observer, are present in a real physical quantum superposition. While the multiverse is deterministic, we",
"deterministic, we perceive non-deterministic behavior governed by probabilities, because we do not observe the multiverse as a whole, but only one parallel universe at a time. Exactly how this is supposed to work has been the subject of much debate. Several attempts have been made to make sense of this and derive the Born rule,with no consensus on whether they have been successful. Relational quantum mechanicsappeared in the late 1990s as a modern derivative of Copenhagen-type ideas,andQBismwas developed some years later. History Quantum mechanics was developed in the early decades of the 20th century, driven by the need to explain phenomena that, in some cases, had been observed in earlier times. Scientific inquiry into the wave nature of light began in the 17th and 18th centuries, when scientists such asRobert Hooke,Christiaan HuygensandLeonhard Eulerproposed a wave theory of light based on experimental observations.In 1803 EnglishpolymathThomas Youngdescribed the famousdouble-slit experiment.This",
"experiment.This experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of thewave theory of light. During the early 19th century,chemicalresearch byJohn DaltonandAmedeo Avogadrolent weight to theatomic theoryof matter, an idea thatJames Clerk Maxwell,Ludwig Boltzmannand others built upon to establish thekinetic theory of gases. The successes of kinetic theory gave further credence to the idea that matter is composed of atoms, yet the theory also had shortcomings that would only be resolved by the development of quantum mechanics.While the early conception of atoms fromGreek philosophyhad been that they were indivisible units – the word \"atom\" deriving from theGreekfor \"uncuttable\" – the 19th century saw the formulation of hypotheses about subatomic structure. One important discovery in that regard wasMichael Faraday's 1838 observation of a glow caused by an electrical discharge inside a glass tube containing gas at low pressure.Julius Plücker,Johann Wilhelm HittorfandEugen Goldsteincarried on and improved",
"on and improved upon Faraday's work, leading to the identification ofcathode rays, whichJ. J. Thomsonfound to consist of subatomic particles that would be called electrons. Theblack-body radiationproblem was discovered byGustav Kirchhoffin 1859. In 1900, Max Planck proposed the hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete \"quanta\" (or energy packets), yielding a calculation that precisely matched the observed patterns of black-body radiation.The wordquantumderives from theLatin, meaning \"how great\" or \"how much\".According to Planck, quantities of energy could be thought of as divided into \"elements\" whose size (E) would be proportional to theirfrequency(ν): wherehis thePlanck constant. Planck cautiously insisted that this was only an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation and was not thephysical realityof the radiation.In fact, he considered his quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right answer rather than a sizable discovery.However, in 1905 Albert",
"in 1905 Albert Einstein interpreted Planck's quantum hypothesisrealisticallyand used it to explain thephotoelectric effect, in which shining light on certain materials can eject electrons from the material. Niels Bohr then developed Planck's ideas about radiation into amodel of the hydrogen atomthat successfully predicted thespectral linesof hydrogen.Einstein further developed this idea to show that anelectromagnetic wavesuch as light could also be described as a particle (later called the photon), with a discrete amount of energy that depends on its frequency.In his paper \"On the Quantum Theory of Radiation\", Einstein expanded on the interaction between energy and matter to explain the absorption and emission of energy by atoms. Although overshadowed at the time by his general theory of relativity, this paper articulated the mechanism underlying the stimulated emission of radiation,which became the basis of the laser. This phase is known as theold quantum theory. Never complete or self-consistent, the old",
"the old quantum theory was rather a set ofheuristiccorrections to classical mechanics.The theory is now understood as asemi-classical approximationto modern quantum mechanics.Notable results from this period include, in addition to the work of Planck, Einstein and Bohr mentioned above, Einstein andPeter Debye's work on thespecific heatof solids, Bohr andHendrika Johanna van Leeuwen'sproofthat classical physics cannot account fordiamagnetism, andArnold Sommerfeld's extension of the Bohr model to include special-relativistic effects. In the mid-1920s quantum mechanics was developed to become the standard formulation for atomic physics. In 1923, the French physicistLouis de Broglieput forward his theory of matter waves by stating that particles can exhibit wave characteristics and vice versa. Building on de Broglie's approach, modern quantum mechanics was born in 1925, when the German physicists Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, andPascual Jordandevelopedmatrix mechanicsand the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger",
"Erwin Schrödinger inventedwave mechanics. Born introduced the probabilistic interpretation of Schrödinger's wave function in July 1926.Thus, the entire field of quantum physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the FifthSolvay Conferencein 1927. By 1930, quantum mechanics had been further unified and formalized byDavid Hilbert, Paul Dirac andJohn von Neumannwith greater emphasis onmeasurement, the statistical nature of our knowledge of reality, andphilosophical speculation about the 'observer'. It has since permeated many disciplines, including quantum chemistry,quantum electronics,quantum optics, andquantum information science. It also provides a useful framework for many features of the modernperiodic table of elements, and describes the behaviors ofatomsduringchemical bondingand the flow of electrons in computersemiconductors, and therefore plays a crucial role in many modern technologies. While quantum mechanics was constructed to describe the world of the very small, it is also needed to",
"is also needed to explain somemacroscopicphenomena such assuperconductorsandsuperfluids. See also Explanatory notes References Further reading The following titles, all by working physicists, attempt to communicate quantum theory to lay people, using a minimum of technical apparatus. More technical: External links",
"Photoelectric effect Thephotoelectric effectis the emission ofelectronsfrom a material caused byelectromagnetic radiationsuch asultraviolet light. Electrons emitted in this manner are called photoelectrons. The phenomenon is studied incondensed matter physics,solid state, andquantum chemistryto draw inferences about the properties of atoms, molecules and solids. The effect has found use inelectronic devicesspecialized for light detection and precisely timed electron emission. The experimental results disagree withclassical electromagnetism, which predicts that continuous light waves transferenergyto electrons, which would then be emitted when they accumulate enough energy. An alteration in theintensityof light would theoretically change thekinetic energyof the emitted electrons, with sufficiently dim light resulting in a delayed emission. The experimental results instead show that electrons are dislodged only when the light exceeds a certainfrequency—regardless of the light's intensity or duration of",
"or duration of exposure. Because a low-frequency beam at a high intensity does not build up the energy required to produce photoelectrons, as would be the case if light's energy accumulated over time from a continuous wave,Albert Einsteinproposed that a beam of light is nota wavepropagating through space, but a swarm of discrete energy packets, known asphotons—term coined byGilbert N. Lewisin 1926. Emission of conduction electrons from typicalmetalsrequires a fewelectron-volt(eV) light quanta, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. In extreme cases, emissions are induced with photons approaching zero energy, like in systems with negative electron affinity and the emission from excited states, or a few hundred keV photons forcore electronsinelementswith a highatomic number.Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept ofwave–particle duality.Other phenomena where light",
"where light affects the movement of electric charges include thephotoconductiveeffect, thephotovoltaic effect, and thephotoelectrochemical effect. Emission mechanism The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy, calledphoton energy, which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, when an electron within some material absorbs the energy of a photon and acquires more energy than itsbinding energy, it is likely to be ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Moreover, the energy of the emitted electrons will not depend on the intensity of the incoming light of a given frequency, but only on the energy of the individual photons. While free electrons can absorb any energy whenirradiatedas long as this is",
"long as this is followed by an immediate re-emission, like in theCompton effect, in quantum systems all of the energy from one photon is absorbed—if the process is allowed byquantum mechanics—or none at all. Part of the acquired energy is used to liberate the electron from its atomic binding, and the rest contributes to the electron'skinetic energyas a free particle.Because electrons in a material occupy many different quantum states with different binding energies, and because they can sustain energy losses on their way out of the material, the emitted electrons will have a range of kinetic energies. The electrons from the highest occupied states will have the highest kinetic energy. In metals, those electrons will be emitted from theFermi level. When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the terminternal photoemissionis often used, and emission into a vacuum is distinguished asexternal photoemission. Experimental observation of photoelectric emission Even though photoemission",
"photoemission can occur from any material, it is most readily observed from metals and other conductors. This is because the process produces a charge imbalance which, if not neutralized by current flow, results in the increasing potential barrier until the emission completely ceases. The energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by nonconductive oxide layers on metal surfaces, so most practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in evacuated tubes. Vacuum also helps observing the electrons since it prevents gases from impeding their flow between the electrodes. As sunlight, due to atmosphere's absorption, does not provide much ultraviolet light, the light rich in ultraviolet rays used to be obtained by burning magnesium or from anarc lamp. At the present time,mercury-vapor lamps,noble-gas dischargeUV lamps andradio-frequency plasmasources,ultraviolet lasers,andsynchrotroninsertion devicelight sources prevail. The classical setup to observe the",
"to observe the photoelectric effect includes a light source, a set of filters tomonochromatizethe light, avacuum tubetransparent to ultraviolet light, an emitting electrode (E) exposed to the light, and a collector (C) whose voltageVCcan be externally controlled. A positive external voltage is used to direct the photoemitted electrons onto the collector. If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the photoelectric currentIincreases with an increase in the positive voltage, as more and more electrons are directed onto the electrode. When no additional photoelectrons can be collected, the photoelectric current attains a saturation value. This current can only increase with the increase of the intensity of light. An increasing negative voltage prevents all but the highest-energy electrons from reaching the collector. When no current is observed through the tube, the negative voltage has reached the value that is high enough to slow down and stop the most energetic photoelectrons of",
"photoelectrons of kinetic energyKmax. This value of the retarding voltage is called thestopping potentialorcut offpotentialVo.Since the work done by the retarding potential in stopping the electron of chargeeiseVo, the following must holdeVo=Kmax. The current-voltage curve is sigmoidal, but its exact shape depends on the experimental geometry and the electrode material properties. For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incidentradiationbelow which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called thethreshold frequency. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam increases the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons, and the stopping voltage has to increase. The number of emitted electrons may also change because theprobabilitythat each photon results in an emitted electron is a function of photon energy. An increase in the intensity of the same monochromatic light (so long as the intensity is not too high), which is proportional to the number of photons",
"number of photons impinging on the surface in a given time, increases the rate at which electrons are ejected—the photoelectric currentI—but the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and the stopping voltage remain the same. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is very small, less than 10−9second. Angular distribution of the photoelectrons is highly dependent onpolarization(the direction of the electric field) of the incident light, as well as the emitting material's quantum properties such as atomic and molecular orbital symmetries and theelectronic band structureof crystalline solids. In materials without macroscopic order, the distribution of electrons tends to peak in the direction of polarization of linearly polarized light.The experimental technique that can measure these distributions to infer",
"to infer the material's properties isangle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy. Theoretical explanation In 1905,Einsteinproposed a theory of the photoelectric effect using a concept that light consists of tiny packets of energy known asphotonsor light quanta. Each packet carries energyhν{\\displaystyle h\\nu }that is proportional to the frequencyν{\\displaystyle \\nu }of the corresponding electromagnetic wave. The proportionality constanth{\\displaystyle h}has become known as thePlanck constant. In the range of kinetic energies of the electrons that are removed from their varying atomic bindings by the absorption of a photon of energyhν{\\displaystyle h\\nu }, the highest kinetic energyKmax{\\displaystyle K_{\\max }}isKmax=hν−W.{\\displaystyle K_{\\max }=h\\,\\nu -W.}Here,W{\\displaystyle W}is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the material. It is called thework functionof the surface and is sometimes denotedΦ{\\displaystyle \\Phi }orφ{\\displaystyle \\varphi }.If the work function is",
"work function is written asW=hνo,{\\displaystyle W=h\\,\\nu _{o},}the formula for the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons becomesKmax=h(ν−νo).{\\displaystyle K_{\\max }=h\\left(\\nu -\\nu _{o}\\right).} Kinetic energy is positive, andν>νo{\\displaystyle \\nu >\\nu _{o}}is required for the photoelectric effect to occur.The frequencyνo{\\displaystyle \\nu _{o}}is the threshold frequency for the given material. Above that frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons as well as the stopping voltage in the experimentVo=he(ν−νo){\\textstyle V_{o}={\\frac {h}{e}}\\left(\\nu -\\nu _{o}\\right)}rise linearly with the frequency, and have no dependence on the number of photons and the intensity of the impinging monochromatic light. Einstein's formula, however simple, explained all the phenomenology of the photoelectric effect, and had far-reaching consequences in thedevelopment of quantum mechanics. Photoemission from atoms, molecules and solids Electrons that are bound in atoms, molecules and solids each occupy",
"solids each occupy distinct states of well-definedbinding energies. When light quanta deliver more than this amount of energy to an individual electron, the electron may be emitted into free space with excess (kinetic) energy that ishν{\\displaystyle h\\nu }higher than the electron's binding energy. The distribution of kinetic energies thus reflects the distribution of the binding energies of the electrons in the atomic, molecular or crystalline system: an electron emitted from the state at binding energyEB{\\displaystyle E_{B}}is found at kinetic energyEk=hν−EB{\\displaystyle E_{k}=h\\nu -E_{B}}. This distribution is one of the main characteristics of the quantum system, and can be used for further studies in quantum chemistry and quantum physics. Models of photoemission from solids The electronic properties of ordered, crystalline solids are determined by the distribution of the electronic states with respect to energy and momentum—the electronic band structure of the solid. Theoretical models of photoemission",
"of photoemission from solids show that this distribution is, for the most part, preserved in the photoelectric effect. The phenomenologicalthree-step modelfor ultraviolet and soft X-ray excitation decomposes the effect into these steps: There are cases where the three-step model fails to explain peculiarities of the photoelectron intensity distributions. The more elaborateone-step modeltreats the effect as a coherent process of photoexcitation into the final state of a finite crystal for which the wave function is free-electron-like outside of the crystal, but has a decaying envelope inside. History 19th century In 1839,Alexandre Edmond Becquereldiscovered the relatedphotovoltaic effectwhile studying the effect of light onelectrolytic cells.Though not equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work onphotovoltaicswas instrumental in showing a strong relationship between light and electronic properties of materials. In 1873,Willoughby Smithdiscoveredphotoconductivityinseleniumwhile testing the metal for its",
"the metal for its high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables. Johann Elster(1854–1920) andHans Geitel(1855–1923), students inHeidelberg, investigated the effects produced by light on electrified bodies and developed the first practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity of light.: 458They arranged metals with respect to their power of discharging negative electricity:rubidium,potassium,alloyof potassium and sodium,sodium,lithium,magnesium,thalliumandzinc; forcopper,platinum,lead,iron,cadmium,carbon, andmercurythe effects with ordinary light were too small to be measurable. The order of the metals for this effect was the same as in Volta's series for contact-electricity, the most electropositive metals giving the largest photo-electric effect. In 1887,Heinrich Hertzobserved the photoelectric effectand reported on the production and receptionof electromagnetic waves.The receiver in his apparatus consisted of a coil with aspark gap,",
"with aspark gap, where a spark would be seen upon detection of electromagnetic waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. However, he noticed that the maximum spark length was reduced when inside the box. A glass panel placed between the source of electromagnetic waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he replaced the glass with quartz, asquartzdoes not absorb UV radiation. The discoveries by Hertz led to a series of investigations byWilhelm Hallwachs,Hoor,Augusto RighiandAleksander Stoletovon the effect of light, and especially of ultraviolet light, on charged bodies. Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to anelectroscope. He allowed ultraviolet light to fall on a freshly cleaned zinc plate and observed that the zinc plate became uncharged if initially negatively charged, positively charged if initially uncharged, and more",
"uncharged, and more positively charged if initially positively charged. From these observations he concluded that some negatively charged particles were emitted by the zinc plate when exposed to ultraviolet light. With regard to theHertz effect, the researchers from the start showed the complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric fatigue—the progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic surfaces. According to Hallwachs,ozoneplayed an important part in the phenomenon,and the emission was influenced by oxidation, humidity, and the degree of polishing of the surface. It was at the time unclear whether fatigue is absent in a vacuum. In the period from 1888 until 1891, a detailed analysis of the photoeffect was performed byAleksandr Stoletovwith results reported in six publications.Stoletov invented a new experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of the photoeffect. He discovered a direct proportionality between the intensity of light and the induced",
"and the induced photoelectric current (the first law of photoeffect orStoletov's law). He measured the dependence of the intensity of the photo electric current on the gas pressure, where he found the existence of an optimal gas pressure corresponding to a maximumphotocurrent; this property was used for the creation ofsolar cells. Many substances besides metals discharge negative electricity under the action of ultraviolet light. G. C. Schmidtand O. Knoblauchcompiled a list of these substances. In 1897,J. J. Thomsoninvestigated ultraviolet light inCrookes tubes.Thomson deduced that the ejected particles, which he called corpuscles, were of the same nature ascathode rays. These particles later became known as the electrons. Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation.It was thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and, after reaching a certain amplitude, caused subatomic corpuscles to be emitted, and",
"to be emitted, and current to be detected. The amount of this current varied with the intensity and color of the radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more current. During the years 1886–1902,Wilhelm HallwachsandPhilipp Lenardinvestigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail. Lenard observed that a current flows through an evacuated glass tube enclosing twoelectrodeswhen ultraviolet radiation falls on one of them. As soon as ultraviolet radiation is stopped, the current also stops. This initiated the concept of photoelectric emission. The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultraviolet light was made by Philipp Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several centimeters of air and yielded a greater number of positive ions than negative, it was natural to interpret the phenomenon, as J. J. Thomson did, as aHertz effectupon the particles present in the gas. 20th century In 1902, Lenard observed that theenergyof individual emitted electrons was independent",
"was independent of the applied light intensity.This appeared to be at odds with Maxwell'swave theory of light, which predicted that the electron energy would be proportional to theintensityof the radiation. Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency using a powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in intensity. However, Lenard's results were qualitative rather than quantitative because of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the experiments needed to be done on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it oxidized in a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The current emitted by the surface was determined by the light's intensity, or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of electrons emitted from the surface. Initial investigation of the photoelectric effect in gasses by Lenardwere followed up by J. J. Thomsonand then more decisively by Frederic Palmer Jr.The gas photoemission",
"gas photoemission was studied and showed very different characteristics than those at first attributed to it by Lenard. In 1900, while studyingblack-body radiation, the German physicistMax Plancksuggested in his \"On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum\"paper that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released inpacketsof energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. Einstein theorized that the energy in each quantum of light was equal to the frequency of light multiplied by a constant, later called thePlanck constant. A photon above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single electron, creating the observed effect. This was a step in the development ofquantum mechanics. In 1914,Robert A. Millikan's highly accurate measurements of the Planck constant from the photoelectric effect supported Einstein's",
"Einstein's model, even though a corpuscular theory of light was for Millikan, at the time, \"quite unthinkable\".Einstein was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in Physicsfor \"his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\",and Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 for \"his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect\".In quantum perturbation theory of atoms and solids acted upon by electromagnetic radiation, the photoelectric effect is still commonly analyzed in terms of waves; the two approaches are equivalent because photon or wave absorption can only happen between quantized energy levels whose energy difference is that of the energy of photon. Albert Einstein's mathematical description of how the photoelectric effect was caused by absorption ofquantaof light was in one of hisAnnus Mirabilis papers, named \"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light\".The paper proposed a simple description ofenergy quanta, and showed how they",
"and showed how they explained the blackbody radiation spectrum. His explanation in terms of absorption of discrete quanta of light agreed with experimental results. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons was not dependent on incident lightintensity. This was a theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally fromJames Clerk Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, and more generally, the assumption ofinfinite divisibilityof energy in physical systems. Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the light. The precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that the energy of photoelectrons increases with increasingfrequencyof incident light and is independent of theintensityof the light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally determined until 1914 when Millikan showed that Einstein's prediction",
"prediction was correct. The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept of wave–particle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of both waves and particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was impossible to understand in terms of the classical wave description of light,as the energy of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation. Classical theory predicted that the electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time, and then be emitted. Uses and effects Photomultipliers These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a coatedphotocathodeinside the envelope. The photo cathode contains combinations of materials such as cesium, rubidium, and antimony specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials,",
"potentials, these electrons are accelerated and substantially increased in number throughsecondary emissionto provide a readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected. Image sensors Video camera tubesin the early days oftelevisionused the photoelectric effect. For example,Philo Farnsworth's \"Image dissector\" used a screen charged by the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic signal. Photoelectron spectroscopy Because the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is exactly the energy of the incident photon minus the energy of the electron's binding within an atom, molecule or solid, the binding energy can be determined by shining amonochromaticX-rayorUVlight of a known energy and measuring the kinetic energies of the photoelectrons.The distribution of electron energies is valuable for studying quantum properties of these systems. It can also be used to determine the elemental composition of the",
"composition of the samples. For solids, the kinetic energy and emission angle distribution of the photoelectrons is measured for the complete determination of theelectronic band structurein terms of the allowed binding energies and momenta of the electrons. Modern instruments for angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy are capable of measuring these quantities with a precision better than 1 meV and 0.1°. Photoelectron spectroscopymeasurements are usually performed in a high-vacuum environment, because the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present. However, some companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in air. The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or asynchrotron radiationsource. Theconcentric hemispherical analyzeris a typical electron energy analyzer. It uses an electric field between two hemispheres to change (disperse) the trajectories of incident electrons depending on their kinetic energies. Night vision devices Photons hitting a thin film of",
"a thin film of alkali metal orsemiconductormaterial such asgallium arsenidein animage intensifiertube cause the ejection of photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by anelectrostatic fieldwhere they strike aphosphorcoated screen, converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the signal is achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of electrons through secondary emissions, such as with amicro-channel plate. Sometimes a combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required to move an electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is known as theelectron affinityof the photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other than the forbidden band, explained by theband gapmodel. Some materials such as gallium arsenide have an effective electron affinity that is below the level of the conduction band. In these materials, electrons that move to the conduction band all have sufficient",
"all have sufficient energy to be emitted from the material, so the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick. These materials are known as negative electron affinity materials. Spacecraft The photoelectric effect will causespacecraftexposed to sunlight to develop a positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical components. Thestatic chargecreated by the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object does not give up its electrons as easily as a lower charged object does. Moon dust Light from the Sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively charged from the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of theMoonbyelectrostatic levitation.This manifests itself almost like an \"atmosphere of dust\", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features,",
"distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by theSurveyor programprobes in the 1960s,and most recently theChang'e 3rover observed dust deposition on lunar rocks as high as about 28 cm.It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the surface and that the particles move in \"fountains\" as they charge and discharge. Competing processes and photoemission cross section When photon energies are as high as the electron rest energy of511 keV, yet another process,Compton scattering, may occur. Above twice this energy, at1.022 MeV,pair productionis also more likely.Compton scattering and pair production are examples of two other competing mechanisms.Even if the photoelectric effect is the favoured reaction for a particular interaction of a single photon with a bound electron, the result is also subject to quantum statistics and is not guaranteed. The probability of the photoelectric effect occurring is measured by thecross sectionof the",
"sectionof the interaction, σ. This has been found to be a function of the atomic number of the target atom and photon energy. In a crude approximation, for photon energies above the highest atomic binding energy, the cross section is given by: HereZis theatomic numberandnis a number which varies between 4 and 5. The photoelectric effect rapidly decreases in significance in the gamma-ray region of the spectrum, with increasing photon energy. It is also more likely from elements with high atomic number. Consequently, high-Zmaterials make goodgamma-rayshields, which is the principal reason why lead (Z= 82) is preferred and most widely used. See also References External links Applets",
"Bohr model Inatomic physics, theBohr modelorRutherford–Bohr modelwas the first successful model of theatom. Developed from 1911 to 1918 byNiels Bohrand building onErnest Rutherford's nuclearmodel, it supplanted theplum pudding modelofJ J Thomsononly to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, densenucleussurrounded byorbitingelectrons. It isanalogousto the structure of theSolar System, but with attraction provided byelectrostatic forcerather thangravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values). In the history of atomic physics, it followed, and ultimately replaced, several earlier models, includingJoseph Larmor's Solar System model (1897),Jean Perrin's model (1901),thecubical model(1902),Hantaro Nagaoka'sSaturnianmodel (1904), theplum pudding model(1904),Arthur Haas's quantum model (1910), theRutherford model(1911), andJohn William Nicholson's nuclear quantum model (1912). The improvement over the 1911 Rutherford model mainly concerned the",
"concerned the newquantum mechanicalinterpretation introduced by Haas and Nicholson, but forsaking any attempt to explain radiation according toclassical physics. The model's key success lies in explaining theRydberg formulaforhydrogen's spectral emission lines. While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical basis until the Bohr model was introduced. Not only did the Bohr model explain the reasons for the structure of the Rydberg formula, it also provided a justification for the fundamental physical constants that make up the formula's empirical results. The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of thehydrogen atom, compared to thevalence shellmodel. As a theory, it can be derived as afirst-order approximationof the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics and thus may be considered to be anobsolete scientific theory. However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the",
"application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students toquantum mechanicsorenergy level diagramsbefore moving on to the more accurate, but more complex, valence shell atom. A related quantum model was proposed byArthur Erich Haasin 1910 but was rejected until the 1911 Solvay Congress where it was thoroughly discussed.The quantum theory of the period betweenPlanck's discovery of the quantum(1900) and the advent of a mature quantum mechanics (1925) is often referred to as theold quantum theory. Background Until the second decade of the 20th century, atomic models were generally speculative. Even the concept of atoms, let alone atoms with internal structure, faced opposition from some scientists.: 2 Planetary models In the late 1800's speculations on the possible structure of the atom included planetary models with orbiting charged electrons.: 35These models faced a significant constraint. In 1897,Joseph Larmorshowed that an accelerating charge would radiate power according to classical",
"to classical electrodynamics, a result known as theLarmor formula. Since electrons forced to remain in orbit are continuously accelerating, they would be mechanically unstable. Larmor noted that electromagnetic effect of multiple electrons, suitable arranged, would cancel each other. Thus subsequent atomic models based on classical electrodynamics needed to adopt such special multi-electron arrangements.: 113 Thomson's atom model When Bohr began his work on a new atomic theory in the summer of 1912: 237the atomic model proposed byJ J Thomson, now known as thePlum pudding model, was the best available.: 37Thomson proposed a model with electrons rotating in coplanar rings within an atomic-sized, positively-charged, spherical volume. Thomson showed that this model was mechanically stable by lengthy calculations and was electrodynamically stable under his original assumption of thousands of electrons per atom. Moreover, he suggested that the particularly stable configurations of electrons in rings was connected",
"rings was connected to chemical properties of the atoms. He developed a formula for the scattering ofbeta particlesthat seemed to match experimental results.: 38However Thomson himself later showed that the atom had a factor of a thousand fewer electrons, challenging the stability argument and forcing the poorly understood positive sphere to have most of the atom's mass. Thomson was also unable to explain the many lines in atomic spectra.: 18 Rutherford nuclear model In 1908,Hans GeigerandErnest Marsdendemonstrated thatalpha particleoccasionally scatter at large angles, a result inconsistent with Thomson's model. In 1911Ernest Rutherforddeveloped a new scattering model, showing that the observed large angle scattering could be explained by a compact, highly charged mass at the center of the atom. Rutherford scattering did not involve the electrons and thus hismodel of the atomwas incomplete.Bohr begins his first paper on his atomic model by describing Rutherford's atom as consisting of a small, dense,",
"of a small, dense, positively chargednucleusattracting negatively chargedelectrons. Atomic spectra By the early twentieth century, it was expected that the atom would account for the many atomic spectral lines. These lines were summarized in empirical formula byJohann BalmerandJohannes Rydberg. In 1897, Lord Rayleigh showed that vibrations of electrical systems predicted spectral lines that depend on the square of the vibrational frequency, contradicting the empirical formula which depended directly on the frequency.:18In 1907Arthur W. Conwayshowed that, rather than the entire atom vibrating, vibrations of only one of the electrons in the system described by Thomson might be sufficient to account for spectral series.: II:106Although Bohr's model would also rely on just the electron to explain the spectrum, he did not assume an electrodynamical model for the atom. The other important advance in the understanding of atomic spectra was theRydberg–Ritz combination principlewhich related atomic spectral line",
"spectral line frequencies to differences between 'terms', special frequencies characteristic of each element.:173Bohr would recognize the terms as energy levels of the atom divided by the Planck constant, leading to the modern view that the spectral lines result from energy differences.: 847 Haas atomic model In 1910,Arthur Erich Haasproposed a model of the hydrogen atom with an electron circulating on the surface of a sphere of positive charge. The model resembled Thomson's plum pudding model, but Haas added a radical new twist: he constrained the electron's potential energy,Epot{\\displaystyle E_{\\text{pot}}}, on a sphere of radiusato equal the frequency,f, of the electron's orbit on the sphere times thePlanck constant:: 197Epot=−e2a=hf{\\displaystyle E_{\\text{pot}}={\\frac {-e^{2}}{a}}=hf}whereerepresents the charge on the electron and the sphere. Haas combined this constraint with the balance-of-forces equation. The attractive force between the electron and the sphere balances thecentrifugal",
"thecentrifugal force:e2a2=ma(2πf)2{\\displaystyle {\\frac {e^{2}}{a^{2}}}=ma(2\\pi f)^{2}}wheremis the mass of the electron. This combination relates the radius of the sphere to the Planck constant:a=h24π2e2m{\\displaystyle a={\\frac {h^{2}}{4\\pi ^{2}e^{2}m}}}Haas solved for the Planck constant using the then-current value for the radius of the hydrogen atom. Three years later, Bohr would use similar equations with different interpretation. Bohr took the Planck constant as given value and used the equations to predict,a, the radius of the electron orbiting in the ground state of the hydrogen atom. This value is now called theBohr radius.: 197 Influence of the Solvay Conference The firstSolvay Conference, in 1911, was one of the first international physics conferences. Nine Nobel or future Nobel laureates attended, includingErnest Rutherford, Bohr's mentor.: 271Bohr did not attend but he read the Solvay reportsand discussed them with Rutherford.: 233 The subject of the conference was the theory of radiation and",
"of radiation and the energy quanta ofMax Planck's oscillators.Planck's lecture at the conference ended with comments about atoms and the discussion that followed it concerned atomic models.Hendrik Lorentzraised the question of the composition of the atom based onHaas's model, a form of Thomson's plum pudding model with a quantum modification. Lorentz explained that the size of atoms could be taken to determine the Planck constant as Haas had done or the Planck constant could be taken as determining the size of atoms.: 273Bohr would adopt the second path. The discussions outlined the need for the quantum theory to be included in the atom. Planck explicitly mentions the failings of classical mechanics.: 273While Bohr had already expressed a similar opinion in his PhD thesis, at Solvay the leading scientists of the day discussed a break with classical theories.: 244Bohr's first paper on his atomic model cites the Solvay proceedings saying: \"Whatever the alteration in the laws of motion of the electrons may be,",
"electrons may be, it seems necessary to introduce in the laws in question a quantity foreign to the classical electrodynamics,i.e.Planck's constant, or as it often is called the elementary quantum of action.\"Encouraged by the Solvay discussions, Bohr would assume the atom was stable and abandon the efforts to stabilize classical models of the atom: 199 Nicholson atom theory In 1911John William Nicholsonpublished a model of the atom which would influence Bohr's model. Nicholson developed his model based on the analysis of astrophysical spectroscopy. He connected the observed spectral line frequencies with the orbits of electrons in his atoms. The connection he adopted associated the atomic electron orbital angular momentum with thePlanck constant. Whereas Planck focused on a quantum of energy, Nicholson's angular momentum quantum relates to orbital frequency. This new concept gave Planck constant an atomic meaning for the first time.: 169In his 1913 paper Bohr cites Nicholson as finding quantized angular",
"quantized angular momentum important for the atom. The other critical influence of Nicholson work was his detailed analysis of spectra. Before Nicholson's work Bohr thought the spectral data was not useful for understanding atoms. In comparing his work to Nicholson's, Bohr came to understand the spectral data and their value. When he then learned from a friend aboutBalmer's compact formulafor the spectral line data, Bohr quickly realized his model would match it in detail.: 178 Nicholson's model was based on classical electrodynamics along the lines ofJ.J. Thomson'splum pudding modelbut his negative electrons orbiting a positive nucleus rather than circulating in a sphere. To avoid immediate collapse of this system he required that electrons come in pairs so the rotational acceleration of each electron was matched across the orbit.: 163By 1913 Bohr had already shown, from the analysis of alpha particle energy loss, that hydrogen had only a single electron not a matched pair.: 195Bohr's atomic model would",
"atomic model would abandon classical electrodynamics. Nicholson's model of radiation was quantum but was attached to the orbits of the electrons.Bohr quantization would associate it with differences in energy levels of his model of hydrogen rather than the orbital frequency. Bohr's previous work Bohr completed his PhD in 1911 with a thesis 'Studies on the Electron Theory of Metals', an application of the classical electron theory ofHendrik Lorentz. Bohr noted two deficits of the classical model. The first concerned thespecific heatof metals whichJames Clerk Maxwellnoted in 1875: every additional degree of freedom in a theory of metals, like subatomic electrons, cause more disagreement with experiment. The second, the classical theory could not explain magnetism.: 194 After his PhD, Bohr worked briefly in the lab ofJJ Thomsonbefore moving to Rutherford's lab inManchesterto study radioactivity. He arrived just after Rutherford completed his proposal of a compact nuclear core for atoms.Charles Galton Darwin,",
"Galton Darwin, also at Manchester, had just completed an analysis of alpha particle energy loss in metals, concluding the electron collisions where the dominant cause of loss. Bohr showed in a subsequent paper that Darwin's results would improve by accounting for electron binding energy. Importantly this allowed Bohr to conclude that hydrogen atoms have a single electron.: 195 Development Next, Bohr was told by his friend, Hans Hansen, that the Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, anempiricalequation discovered byJohann Balmerin 1885 that described wavelengths of some spectral lines of hydrogen.This was further generalized byJohannes Rydbergin 1888, resulting in what is now known as theRydberg formula. After this, Bohr declared, \"everything became clear\". In 1913Niels Bohrput forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model: Other points are: Bohr's condition, that the angular momentum be an integer multiple ofℏ{\\displaystyle \\hbar }, was later",
"\\hbar }, was later reinterpreted in 1924 byde Broglieas astanding wavecondition: the electron is described by a wave and a whole number of wavelengths must fit along the circumference of the electron's orbit: According to de Broglie's hypothesis, matter particles such as the electron behave aswaves. Thede Broglie wavelengthof an electron is which implies that or wheremvr{\\displaystyle mvr}is the angular momentum of the orbiting electron. Writingℓ{\\displaystyle \\ell }for this angular momentum, the previous equation becomes which is Bohr's second postulate. Bohr described angular momentum of the electron orbit as2/h{\\displaystyle 2/h}whilede Broglie's wavelengthofλ=h/p{\\displaystyle \\lambda =h/p}describedh{\\displaystyle h}divided by the electron momentum. In 1913, however, Bohr justified his rule by appealing to the correspondence principle, without providing any sort of wave interpretation. In 1913, the wave behavior of matter particles such as the electron was not suspected. In 1925, a new kind of mechanics",
"kind of mechanics was proposed,quantum mechanics, in which Bohr's model of electrons traveling in quantized orbits was extended into amore accurate modelof electron motion. The new theory was proposed byWerner Heisenberg.Another formof the same theory, wave mechanics, was discovered by the Austrian physicistErwin Schrödingerindependently, and by different reasoning. Schrödinger employed de Broglie's matter waves, but sought wave solutions of a three-dimensional wave equation describing electrons that were constrained to move about the nucleus of ahydrogen-like atom, by being trapped by the potential of the positive nuclear charge. Electron energy levels The Bohr model gives almost exact results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. This not only involves one-electron systems such as thehydrogen atom, singly ionizedhelium, and doubly ionizedlithium, but it includespositroniumandRydberg statesof any atom where one electron is far away from",
"is far away from everything else. It can be used forK-lineX-ray transition calculations if other assumptions are added (seeMoseley's lawbelow). In high energy physics, it can be used to calculate the masses ofheavy quarkmesons. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions. Derivation In classical mechanics, if an electron is orbiting around an atom with period T, and if its coupling to the electromagnetic field is weak, so that the orbit doesn't decay very much in one cycle, it will emit electromagnetic radiation in a pattern repeating at every period, so that the Fourier transform of the pattern will only have frequencies which are multiples of 1/T. However, in quantum mechanics, the quantization of angular momentum leads to discrete energy levels of the orbits, and the emitted frequencies are quantized according to the energy differences between these levels. This discrete nature of energy levels introduces a fundamental departure from the classical radiation law, giving rise to distinct spectral",
"distinct spectral lines in the emitted radiation. Bohr assumes that the electron is circling the nucleus in an elliptical orbit obeying the rules of classical mechanics, but with no loss of radiation due to theLarmor formula. Denoting the total energy asE, the negative electron charge ase, the positive nucleus charge asK=Z|e|, the electron mass asme, half the major axis of the ellipse asa, he starts with these equations:: 3 Eis assumed to be negative, because a positive energy is required to unbind the electron from the nucleus and put it at rest at an infinite distance. Eq. (1a) is obtained from equating the centripetal force to the Coulombian force acting between the nucleus and the electron, considering thatE=T+U{\\displaystyle E=T+U}(whereTis the average kinetic energy andUthe average electrostatic potential), and that for Kepler's second law, the average separation between the electron and the nucleus isa. Eq. (1b) is obtained from the same premises of eq. (1a) plus thevirial theorem, stating that, for",
"stating that, for an elliptical orbit, Then Bohr assumes that|E|{\\displaystyle \\vert E\\vert }is an integer multiple of the energy of a quantum of light with half the frequency of the electron's revolution frequency,: 4i.e: From eq. (1a,1b,2), it descends: He further assumes that the orbit is circular, i.e.a=r{\\displaystyle a=r}, and, denoting the angular momentum of the electron asL, introduces the equation: Eq. (4) stems from thevirial theorem, and from the classical mechanics relationships between the angular momentum, the kinetic energy and the frequency of revolution. From eq. (1c,2,4), it stems: where: that is: This results states that the angular momentum of the electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant.: 15 Substituting the expression for the velocity gives an equation forrin terms ofn: so that the allowed orbit radius at anynis The smallest possible value ofrin the hydrogen atom (Z= 1) is called theBohr radiusand is equal to: The energy of then-th level for any atom is determined",
"atom is determined by the radius and quantum number: An electron in the lowest energy level of hydrogen (n= 1) therefore has about 13.6eVless energy than a motionless electron infinitely far from the nucleus. The next energy level (n= 2) is −3.4 eV. The third (n=3) is −1.51 eV, and so on. For larger values ofn, these are also the binding energies of a highly excited atom with one electron in a large circular orbit around the rest of the atom. The hydrogen formula also coincides with theWallis product. The combination of natural constants in the energy formula is called the Rydberg energy (RE): This expression is clarified by interpreting it in combinations that form morenatural units: Since this derivation is with the assumption that the nucleus is orbited by one electron, we can generalize this result by letting the nucleus have a chargeq=Ze, whereZis the atomic number. This will now give us energy levels for hydrogenic (hydrogen-like) atoms, which can serve as a rough order-of-magnitude approximation of",
"approximation of the actual energy levels. So for nuclei withZprotons, the energy levels are (to a rough approximation): The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (seen-body problem) because the electrons are not only affected by thenucleusbut also interact with each other via theCoulomb force. WhenZ= 1/α(Z≈ 137), the motion becomes highly relativistic, andZ2cancels theα2inR; the orbit energy begins to be comparable to rest energy. Sufficiently large nuclei, if they were stable, would reduce their charge by creating a bound electron from the vacuum, ejecting the positron to infinity. This is the theoretical phenomenon of electromagnetic charge screening which predicts a maximum nuclear charge. Emission of such positrons has been observed in the collisions of heavy ions to create temporary super-heavy nuclei. The Bohr formula properly uses thereduced massof electron and proton in all situations, instead of the mass of the electron, However, these numbers are very nearly",
"are very nearly the same, due to the much larger mass of the proton, about 1836.1 times the mass of the electron, so that the reduced mass in the system is the mass of the electron multiplied by the constant 1836.1/(1+1836.1) = 0.99946. This fact was historically important in convincing Rutherford of the importance of Bohr's model, for it explained the fact that the frequencies of lines in the spectra for singly ionized helium do not differ from those of hydrogen by a factor of exactly 4, but rather by 4 times the ratio of the reduced mass for the hydrogen vs. the helium systems, which was much closer to the experimental ratio than exactly 4. For positronium, the formula uses the reduced mass also, but in this case, it is exactly the electron mass divided by 2. For any value of the radius, the electron and the positron are each moving at half the speed around their common center of mass, and each has only one fourth the kinetic energy. The total kinetic energy is half what it would be for a single electron",
"a single electron moving around a heavy nucleus. Rydberg formula Beginning in late 1860s,Johann Balmerand laterJohannes RydbergandWalther Ritzdeveloped increasingly accurate empirical formula matching measured atomic spectral lines. Critical for Bohr's later work, Rydberg expressed his formula in terms of wave-number, equivalent to frequency.These formula contained a constant,R{\\displaystyle R}, now known theRydberg constantand a pair of integers indexing the lines:: 247ν=R(1m2−1n2).{\\displaystyle \\nu =R\\left({\\frac {1}{m^{2}}}-{\\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\\right).}Despite many attempts, no theory of the atom could reproduce these relatively simple formula.: 169 In Bohr's theory describing the energies of transitions orquantum jumpsbetween orbital energy levels is able to explain these formula. For the hydrogen atom Bohr starts with his derived formula for the energy released as a free electron moves into a stable circular orbit indexed byτ{\\displaystyle \\tau }:Wτ=2π2me4h2τ2{\\displaystyle W_{\\tau }={\\frac {2\\pi",
"}={\\frac {2\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}\\tau ^{2}}}}The energy difference between two such levels is then:hν=Wτ2−Wτ1=2π2me4h2(1τ22−1τ12){\\displaystyle h\\nu =W_{\\tau _{2}}-W_{\\tau _{1}}={\\frac {2\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}}}\\left({\\frac {1}{\\tau _{2}^{2}}}-{\\frac {1}{\\tau _{1}^{2}}}\\right)}Therefore Bohr's theory gives the Rydberg formula and moreover the numerical value the Rydberg constant for hydrogen in terms of more fundamental constants of nature, including the electron's charge, the electron's mass, and thePlanck constant:: 31cRH=2π2me4h3.{\\displaystyle cR_{H}={\\frac {2\\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{3}}}.} Since the energy of a photon is these results can be expressed in terms of the wavelength of the photon given off: Bohr's derivation of the Rydberg constant, as well as the concomitant agreement of Bohr's formula with experimentally observed spectral lines of theLyman(nf=1),Balmer(nf=2), andPaschen(nf=3) series, and successful theoretical prediction of other lines not yet observed, was one reason that his model was",
"that his model was immediately accepted.: 34 To apply to atoms with more than one electron, the Rydberg formula can be modified by replacingZwithZ−bornwithn−bwherebis constant representing a screening effect due to the inner-shell and other electrons (seeElectron shelland the later discussion of the \"Shell Model of the Atom\" below). This was established empirically before Bohr presented his model. Shell model (heavier atoms) Bohr's original three papers in 1913 described mainly the electron configuration in lighter elements. Bohr called his electron shells, \"rings\" in 1913. Atomic orbitals within shells did not exist at the time of his planetary model. Bohr explains in Part 3 of his famous 1913 paper that the maximum electrons in a shell is eight, writing: \"We see, further, that a ring ofnelectrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of chargeneunlessn< 8.\" For smaller atoms, the electron shells would be filled as follows: \"rings of electrons will only join together if they contain equal numbers",
"equal numbers of electrons; and that accordingly the numbers of electrons on inner rings will only be 2, 4, 8\". However, in larger atoms the innermost shell would contain eight electrons, \"on the other hand, the periodic system of the elements strongly suggests that already in neonN= 10 an inner ring of eight electrons will occur\". Bohr wrote \"From the above we are led to the following possible scheme for the arrangement of the electrons in light atoms:\" In Bohr's third 1913 paper Part III called \"Systems Containing Several Nuclei\", he says that two atoms form molecules on a symmetrical plane and he reverts to describing hydrogen.The 1913 Bohr model did not discuss higher elements in detail andJohn William Nicholsonwas one of the first to prove in 1914 that it couldn't work for lithium, but was an attractive theory for hydrogen and ionized helium. In 1921, following the work of chemists and others involved in work on theperiodic table, Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for",
"model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time although these properties were proposed contemporarily with the identical work of chemistCharles Rugeley Bury Bohr's partner in research during 1914 to 1916 wasWalther Kosselwho corrected Bohr's work to show that electrons interacted through the outer rings, and Kossel called the rings: \"shells\".Irving Langmuiris credited with the first viable arrangement of electrons in shells with only two in the first shell and going up to eight in the next according to theoctet ruleof 1904, although Kossel had already predicted a maximum of eight per shell in 1916.Heavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr took from these chemists the idea that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. PerKossel, after that the orbit is full, the next level would have to be used.This gives the atom ashell structuredesigned by Kossel, Langmuir, and",
"Langmuir, and Bury, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit. This model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon ofscreening. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit. For example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1s orbit, and these orbit atZ= 2. Each one sees the nuclear charge ofZ= 3 minus the screening effect of the other, which crudely reduces the nuclear charge by 1 unit. This means that the innermost electrons orbit at approximately 1/2 the Bohr radius. The outermost electron in lithium orbits at roughly the Bohr radius, since the two inner electrons reduce the nuclear charge by 2. This outer electron should be at nearly one Bohr radius from the nucleus.",
"from the nucleus. Because the electrons strongly repel each other, the effective charge description is very approximate; the effective chargeZdoesn't usually come out to be an integer. The shell model was able to qualitatively explain many of the mysterious properties of atoms which became codified in the late 19th century in theperiodic table of the elements. One property was the size of atoms, which could be determined approximately by measuring theviscosityof gases and density of pure crystalline solids. Atoms tend to get smaller toward the right in the periodic table, and become much larger at the next line of the table. Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them. Every element on the last column of the table is chemically inert (noble gas). In the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling. Successive atoms become smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the",
"next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing it to expand. The first Bohr orbit is filled when it has two electrons, which explains why helium is inert. The second orbit allows eight electrons, and when it is full the atom is neon, again inert. The third orbital contains eight again, except that in the more correct Sommerfeld treatment (reproduced in modern quantum mechanics) there are extra \"d\" electrons. The third orbit may hold an extra 10 d electrons, but these positions are not filled until a few more orbitals from the next level are filled (filling the n=3 d orbitals produces the 10transition elements). The irregular filling pattern is an effect of interactions between electrons, which are not taken into account in either the Bohr or Sommerfeld models and which are difficult to calculate even in the modern treatment. Moseley's law and calculation (K-alpha X-ray emission lines) Niels Bohr said in 1962: \"You see actually the Rutherford work was not taken seriously. We cannot",
"We cannot understand today, but it was not taken seriously at all. There was no mention of it any place. The great change came from Moseley.\" In 1913,Henry Moseleyfound an empirical relationship between the strongest X-ray line emitted by atoms under electron bombardment (then known as theK-alphaline), and their atomic numberZ. Moseley's empiric formula was found to be derivable from Rydberg's formula and later Bohr's formula (Moseley actually mentions onlyErnest RutherfordandAntonius Van den Broekin terms of models as these had been published before Moseley's work and Moseley's 1913 paper was published the same month as the first Bohr model paper).The two additional assumptions thatthis X-ray line came from a transition between energy levels with quantum numbers 1 and 2, and, that the atomic numberZwhen used in the formula for atoms heavier than hydrogen, should be diminished by 1, to(Z− 1)2. Moseley wrote to Bohr, puzzled about his results, but Bohr was not able to help. At that time, he thought that the",
"he thought that the postulated innermost \"K\" shell of electrons should have at least four electrons, not the two which would have neatly explained the result. So Moseley published his results without a theoretical explanation. It wasWalther Kosselin 1914 and in 1916 who explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell. In Kossel's paper, he writes: \"This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of which ... only a certain number of electrons—namely, eight in our case—should be arranged. As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated.\"Later, chemist Langmuir realized that the effect was caused by charge",
"caused by charge screening, with an inner shell containing only 2 electrons. In his 1919 paper,Irving Langmuirpostulated the existence of \"cells\" which could each only contain two electrons each, and these were arranged in \"equidistant layers\". In the Moseley experiment, one of the innermost electrons in the atom is knocked out, leaving a vacancy in the lowest Bohr orbit, which contains a single remaining electron. This vacancy is then filled by an electron from the next orbit, which has n=2. But the n=2 electrons see an effective charge ofZ− 1, which is the value appropriate for the charge of the nucleus, when a single electron remains in the lowest Bohr orbit to screen the nuclear charge +Z, and lower it by −1 (due to the electron's negative charge screening the nuclear positive charge). The energy gained by an electron dropping from the second shell to the first gives Moseley's law for K-alpha lines, or Here,Rv=RE/his the Rydberg constant, in terms of frequency equal to 3.28 x 1015Hz. For values of Z",
"For values of Z between 11 and 31 this latter relationship had been empirically derived by Moseley, in a simple (linear) plot of the square root of X-ray frequency against atomic number (however, for silver, Z = 47, the experimentally obtained screening term should be replaced by 0.4). Notwithstanding its restricted validity,Moseley's law not only established the objective meaning of atomic number, but as Bohr noted, it also did more than the Rydberg derivation to establish the validity of the Rutherford/Van den Broek/Bohr nuclear model of the atom, with atomic number (place on the periodic table) standing for whole units of nuclear charge. Van den Broek had published his model in January 1913 showing the periodic table was arranged according to charge while Bohr's atomic model was not published until July 1913. TheK-alphaline of Moseley's time is now known to be a pair of close lines, written as (Kα1andKα2) inSiegbahn notation. Shortcomings The Bohr model gives an incorrect valueL=ħfor the ground state",
"the ground state orbital angular momentum: The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero from experiment. Although mental pictures fail somewhat at these levels of scale, an electron in the lowest modern \"orbital\" with no orbital momentum, may be thought of as not to revolve \"around\" the nucleus at all, but merely to go tightly around it in an ellipse with zero area (this may be pictured as \"back and forth\", without striking or interacting with the nucleus). This is only reproduced in a more sophisticated semiclassical treatment like Sommerfeld's. Still, even the most sophisticated semiclassical model fails to explain the fact that the lowest energy state is spherically symmetric – it doesn't point in any particular direction. Nevertheless, in the modernfully quantum treatment in phase space, the proper deformation (careful full extension) of the semi-classical result adjusts the angular momentum value to the correct effective one.As a consequence, the physical ground state expression is",
"state expression is obtained through a shift of the vanishing quantum angular momentum expression, which corresponds to spherical symmetry. In modern quantum mechanics, the electron in hydrogen is aspherical cloud of probabilitythat grows denser near the nucleus. The rate-constant of probability-decay in hydrogen is equal to the inverse of the Bohr radius, but since Bohr worked with circular orbits, not zero area ellipses, the fact that these two numbers exactly agree is considered a \"coincidence\". (However, many such coincidental agreements are found between the semiclassical vs. full quantum mechanical treatment of the atom; these include identical energy levels in the hydrogen atom and the derivation of a fine-structure constant, which arises from the relativistic Bohr–Sommerfeld model (see below) and which happens to be equal to an entirely different concept, in full modern quantum mechanics). The Bohr model also has difficulty with, or else fails to explain: Refinements Several enhancements to the Bohr",
"to the Bohr model were proposed, most notably theSommerfeld or Bohr–Sommerfeld models, which suggested that electrons travel in elliptical orbits around a nucleus instead of the Bohr model's circular orbits.This model supplemented the quantized angular momentum condition of the Bohr model with an additional radial quantization condition, theWilson–Sommerfeldquantization condition wherepris the radial momentum canonically conjugate to the coordinateqr, which is the radial position, andTis one full orbital period. The integral is theactionofaction-angle coordinates. This condition, suggested by thecorrespondence principle, is the only one possible, since the quantum numbers areadiabatic invariants. The Bohr–Sommerfeld model was fundamentally inconsistent and led to many paradoxes. Themagnetic quantum numbermeasured the tilt of the orbital plane relative to thexyplane, and it could only take a few discrete values. This contradicted the obvious fact that an atom could have any orientation relative to the",
"relative to the coordinates, without restriction. The Sommerfeld quantization can be performed in different canonical coordinates and sometimes gives different answers. The incorporation of radiation corrections was difficult, because it required finding action-angle coordinates for a combined radiation/atom system, which is difficult when the radiation is allowed to escape. The whole theory did not extend to non-integrable motions, which meant that many systems could not be treated even in principle. In the end, the model was replaced by the modern quantum-mechanical treatment of thehydrogen atom, which was first given byWolfgang Pauliin 1925, using Heisenberg'smatrix mechanics. The current picture of the hydrogen atom is based on theatomic orbitalsofwave mechanics, whichErwin Schrödingerdeveloped in 1926. However, this is not to say that the Bohr–Sommerfeld model was without its successes. Calculations based on the Bohr–Sommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic",
"more complex atomic spectral effects. For example, up to first-orderperturbations, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in theStark effect. At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model. The prevailing theory behind this difference lies in the shapes of the orbitals of the electrons, which vary according to the energy state of the electron. The Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization conditions lead to questions in modern mathematics. Consistent semiclassical quantization condition requires a certain type of structure on the phase space, which places topological limitations on the types of symplectic manifolds which can be quantized. In particular, the symplectic form should be thecurvature formof aconnectionof aHermitianline bundle, which is called aprequantization. Bohr also updated his",
"also updated his model in 1922, assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example, 2, 8, and 18) correspond to stable \"closed shells\". Model of the chemical bond Niels Bohr proposed a model of the atom anda model of the chemical bond. According to his model for adiatomic molecule, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei. Thedynamic equilibriumof the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei. The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account theCoulomb repulsion– the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other. Symbolism of planetary atomic models Although Bohr's atomic model was superseded by quantum models in the 1920's, the visual image of electrons orbiting a nucleus has remained the popular concept of atoms.",
"concept of atoms. The concept of an atom as a tinyplanetary systemhas been widely used as a symbol for atoms and even for \"atomic\" energy (even though this is more properly considered nuclear energy).:58Examples of its use over the past century include but are not limited to: See also References Footnotes Primary sources Further reading External links"
] |
How many of Mark Calaway's consecutive Wrestlemania wins occurred in matches that were longer than the final match result in the same year's competition, not including years where Calaway was part of the final result? | Five | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Undertaker | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Streak_(professional_wrestling) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_VII#Results | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_VIII#Results | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_IX#Results | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XI#Results | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XII#Results | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_13#Results | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XIV#Results | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XV#Results | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_X-Seven#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_X8#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XIX#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XX#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_21#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_22#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_23#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXIV#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_25#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVI#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVII#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVIII#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_29#Results | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Undertaker', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Streak_(professional_wrestling)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_VII#Results', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_VIII#Results', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_IX#Results', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XI#Results', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XII#Results', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_13#Results', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XIV#Results', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XV#Results', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_X-Seven#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_X8#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XIX#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XX#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_21#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_22#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_23#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXIV#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_25#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVI#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVII#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVIII#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_29#Results'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Undertaker",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Streak_(professional_wrestling",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_VII#Results",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_VIII#Results",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_IX#Results",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XI#Results",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XII#Results",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_13#Results",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XIV#Results",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XV#Results",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_X-Seven#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_X8#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XIX#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XX#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_21#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_22#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_23#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXIV#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_25#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVI#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVII#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_XXVIII#Results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania_29#Results"
] | [
"The Undertaker Mark William Calaway(born March 24, 1965), better known by hisring nameThe Undertaker, is an American retiredprofessional wrestler. Widely regarded as one of the greatest professional wrestlers of all time,Calaway spent the vast majority of his career wrestling forWWEand in 2022 was inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame. Calaway began his career in 1987, working under variousgimmicksforWorld Class Championship Wrestling(WCCW) and other affiliate promotions. He signed withWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) in 1989 for a brief stint, and then joined the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1990. Calaway rebranded himself as \"The Undertaker\" when he joined the WWF. As one of WWE's most high-profile and enduring characters,The Undertaker is famed for hisundead,funereal,macabre\"Deadman\" persona, which gained significant mainstream popularity and won him theWrestling Observer Newsletterawardfor Best Gimmicka record-setting 5 years in a row.He is the longest-tenured wrestler in company history at 30 years. In 2000, the Undertaker adopted a biker identity nicknamed \"American Badass\". Calaway resurrected the Deadman gimmick in 2004, with residual elements of the \"American Badass\" remaining. For the better part of his career, the Undertaker was observed as a focal point of WWE's flagship annual event,WrestleMania, where he became esteemed forThe Streak— a series of 21 straight victories, and headlined the event five times (13,24,26,33and36). He is also known for pairing with hisin-storylinehalf-brotherKane, with whom he alternativelyfeudedandteamed(as theBrothers of Destruction) from 1997 through 2020. During his wrestling career under the Undertaker gimmick, Calaway won theWWF/E Championshipfour times, theWorld Heavyweight Championshipthree times, theHardcore Championshiponce and theWorld Tag Team Championshipsix times. He also won theRoyal Rumble matchin 2007. Early life Mark William Calaway was born inHouston,Texas, on March 24, 1965,the son of Frank Compton Calaway (died July 2003) and Betty Catherine Truby.He has four older brothers named David, Michael, Paul, and Timothy (died March 2020, age 63).He attendedWaltrip High School, where he was a member of thefootballandbasketballteams. He graduated in 1983 and began studying on a basketball scholarship atAngelina CollegeinLufkin, Texas. In 1985, he enrolled inTexas Wesleyan UniversityinFort Worth, Texas, where hemajoredinsport managementand played as acenterfor theRamsin the 1985–1986 season. In 1986, Calaway dropped out of university to focus on a career in sports and briefly considered playing professional basketball in Europe, before deciding to focus on professional wrestling. Professional wrestling career Early career (1987–1989) Calaway began training underBuzz Sawyerin late 1986;he disliked Sawyer, who reportedly lacked commitment and provided a limited education.Calaway learned \"on the job\" thereafter.Performing under a mask as Texas Red,Calaway wrestled his first match on June 26, 1987, forWorld Class Championship Wrestling(WCCW), losing toBruiser Brodyat theDallas Sportatorium.He was accompanied to the ring by Percival \"Percy\" Pringle III, who would later serve as his manager in the WWF asPaul Bearer.Two myths have circulated regarding Calaway's beginnings in the industry, the first being that he made his in-ring debut in 1984,and the second being that he was trained by former WCCW colleague Don Jardine (akaThe Spoiler).While never trained by Jardine, Calaway was an admirer of his work and would emulate Jardine's top rope walk.PWInsider's Mike Johnson stated, \"Undertaker using some of Jardine's style eventually morphed into this story that he was trained by Jardine.\" He wrestled inDurban, South Africa on August 22, 1987, as \"Texas Red Jack\", losing to Tiger Singh.He would also wrestle in prison shows under the name Boris Dragu, a Russian grave digger. In 1988, Calaway developed a military gimmick named The Commando. Under this persona, he mainly wrestled in the Chicago area for Central Illinois Wrestling. He would also have a brief stint in Georgia forSouthern Championship Wrestling. By the end of 1988, Calaway joined theContinental Wrestling Association, wrestling under several gimmicks. On February 2, 1989, managed byDutch Mantel, he was reintroduced as The Master of Pain, a former murderer.On April 1, The Master of Pain won his firstprofessional wrestling championshipby defeatingJerry Lawlerfor the USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion. Just over three weeks had passed when Lawler became the first man to pin him, giving it back to him. While performing as The Punisher upon returning to Dallas, Calaway won the USWA Texas Heavyweight Championship on October 5, 1989, whenEric Embryforfeited the title. World Championship Wrestling (1989–1990) By the end of 1989, Calaway joined World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as avillainand adopted the ring name \"Mean Mark\" Callous, a name devised for him byTerry Funk.He was portrayed as a sinister force, wearing predominantly black ring attire and was described by commentatorJim Rossas having a fondness for pet snakes and the music ofOzzy Osbourne.Callous was promptly drafted intoThe Skyscraperstag teamto replace alegitimatelyinjuredSid Vicious, and made his debut on January 3, 1990, in a match later televised against Agent Steel and Randy Harris.The new team gained some notoriety atClash of the Champions Xwhen they beat downThe Road Warriorsafter their match.However, Callous's partnerDan Spiveyleft WCW days before theirChicago Street Fightagainst the Road Warriors atWrestleWar. Callous anda replacement masked Skyscraperwere defeated in thestreet fightand the team broke up soon afterwards.Now a singles wrestler, Callous took on the guidance ofPaul E. Dangerously(Paul Heyman). Calaway later began to question his future in WCW after being told bycompany booker,Ole Anderson, during contract renewal discussions that nobody would ever pay money to watch him perform.It was in response to this that Calaway made numerous efforts to join the World Wrestling Federation, going to many lengths to land a meeting withVince McMahon. However, accessing and securing an interview with McMahon was described by Calaway as a despairing task. Among routes Calaway took to land a meeting with McMahon was trying to convince individuals acquainted with McMahon or already existing WWF talent to recommend him into the WWF, such asHulk Hogan, Paul Heyman, andBruce Prichard, crediting the latter two for arranging the meeting at McMahon's mansion. Calaway immediately gavenoticeto WCW before the interview took place. McMahon initially declined to hire Calaway; however, several days later the owner pitched the idea an \"Old West Undertaker,\" a concept he had intended to create for several years but had never found an appropriate wrestler to play the part. Calaway's final WCW match was on September 7 at aWorldWidetaping inAmarillo, Texasin which he defeated Dave Johnson.During his time in WCW, Calaway briefly wrestled inNew Japan Pro-Wrestling(NJPW) as \"Punisher\" Dice Morgan.After leaving WCW, he briefly returned to the USWA to participate in a tournament to determine the new USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion; Calaway defeatedBill Dundeein the first round, but lost to Jerry Lawler in the quarterfinals. World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment/WWE Debut of The Undertaker (1990–1991) In October 1990, Calaway signed with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), set to portray the \"brainchild\" of McMahon that he had assigned to him, originally entitledKane the Undertaker(\"Kane\" later added on to \"the Undertaker\" moniker by the time of his arrival at the urgings of Bruce Prichard, who had always desired aCain and Abeleffect for his character).Despite Calaway's perplexed, pessimistic feelings about McMahon's gimmick idea, he was readily accepting of the role, feeling anything better than the laughingstock gimmicks of that time, such asThe Gobbledy Gooker.Kane the Undertaker was characterized as a menacing derivative of theWild Westundertakersdepicted intelevision westerns. Resulting from that, this first edition of the Undertaker's series ofDeadmanincarnationshas been distinguished in external media as \"The Old West Mortician\".He made his overall WWF debut on a November 19, 1990, taping ofWWF Superstarsquickly defeating his first opponent,Mario Mancini, in a singles match(this match was filmed three days prior to the Undertaker's televised debut atSurvivor Serieson November 22, but did not air on television until December 15, 1990). Also prior to his Survivor Series appearance, Kane the Undertaker had a match on November 20 against Rick Sampson, which later aired on the December 9, 1990 episode ofWWF Wrestling Challenge. Calaway's official televised debut was at Survivor Series in which he was presented as theheelmystery partner of Ted DiBiase's \"Million Dollar Team\".Approximately one minute into the match, the Undertaker eliminatedKoko B. Warewith his finisher, theTombstone Piledriver.(In 2018, Koko B. Ware shared that directly following this match that night, he confronted the Undertaker with serious objections to what he felt was a botched Tombstone. Though Ware also shared that he always admired Mark Calaway and perceived him as a great performer).During the match, the Undertaker also eliminatedDusty Rhodesbefore beingcounted out; however, his team won the match with DiBiase being the sole survivor.During the match, Calaway was referred to as simply the Undertaker, omitting the portion \"Kane\", which was dropped shortly after the event (and seven years later at the urgings of Prichard, given to another wrestler once he took on the role of the Undertaker'syounger brother).Throughout the end of 1990, the Undertaker mostly picked upsquashvictories against jobbers on Superstars of Wrestling and Wrestling Challenge tapings.He was a participant in the1991Royal Rumble matchwhich was won by Hulk Hogan. In February 1991,Brother Lovedelegated his short-livedmanagementrole of the Undertaker over to Paul Bearer (real-life funeral director), Love communicating the need for someone who better aligned with the Undertaker's \"deadman\" themes.Histrionic, wailing and ghostly in character, Bearer complemented the Undertaker and was almost always seen bearing anurnwhich he raised in the air to transmit supernatural healing powers to the Undertaker; this typically resulted in the Undertaker recovering from attacks and counterattacking his adversaries.During his early years, the Undertaker took to a post-match ritual of placing his defeated opponents (almost alwaysjobbers) in abody bagand carrying them backstage.He continued picking up victories in squash matches leading up to his firstfeudin the WWF with\"Superfly\" Jimmy Snuka. WWF Champion and beginning of The Streak (1991–1994) The Undertaker made his WrestleMania debut atWrestleMania VIIon March 24, 1991, quickly defeating \"Superfly\" Jimmy Snuka.He began his first major feud shortly thereafter, which was withThe Ultimate Warriorwhen The Undertaker attacked him and locked him in an airtight casket on the set of Paul Bearer'sFuneral Parlorsegment.Resulting from this, the Warrior enlisted the assistance ofJake \"The Snake\" Robertsto get him mentally psyched for The Undertaker's morbid alarmist tactics: Roberts would drill the Warrior with \"know your enemy\" training, setting up the Warrior in a series of creepy, terrorizing circumstances, such as by locking him in caskets and in rooms with snakes.This culminated in a final stage of Roberts's training in which Roberts proved to be stringing Warrior along the entire time by assisting The Undertaker in an ambush.The Undertaker would later suffer his first losses in the WWF to The Ultimate Warrior, including in a first ever body bag challenge, a casket match, and (athouse show) standard pin-fall match.The feud was, however, cut short after the Warrior's suspension and ongoing issues with Vince McMahon.In the1991 King of the Ring, Undertaker defeatedAnimalin a qualifying match before fightingSid Viciousto a doubledisqualificationin the semifinal, which saw both men eliminated from theKing of the Ring tournament.The Undertaker defeated Hulk Hogan to win his firstWWF ChampionshipatSurvivor Serieswith the help ofRic Flairand thus became the youngest WWF Champion in history to that point, 26 years of age—this record was later broken byYokozunain April 1993 atWrestleMania IX.The Undertaker's Tombstone of Hogan to win the WWF Championship at the 1991 Survivor Series created real-life, offscreen discord between the two, which Undertaker attributes his short title reign, lack of title runs during his early career and distrust of Hogan.In storyline, however, WWF PresidentJack Tunneyordered a rematch between the two atThis Tuesday in Texassix days later, where The Undertaker lost the title back to Hogan.However, due to the controversial endings of the two title matches between The Undertaker and Hogan, the title wasvacatedfrom Hogan the next night by Tunney. The company was without a WWF Champion until Ric Flair earned it by winning the1992Royal Rumble match. In February 1992, The Undertaker's ally Jake \"The Snake\" Roberts tried to attack\"Macho Man\" Randy Savage's manager/wifeMiss Elizabethwith a steel chair when Undertaker stopped him, turning him (and Paul Bearer)facefor the first time. Their face turn was solidified on the February 29 episode ofSuperstarswhen Roberts confronted The Undertaker on theFuneral Parlorset over the matter (aired onSaturday Night's Main Event XXX). After demanding to know whose side The Undertaker was on and getting the reply, \"Not yours\", Roberts attacked both Bearer and The Undertaker, only for The Undertaker to stand his ground and run Roberts off. The Undertaker defeated Roberts atWrestleMania VIII.He then feuded extensively with wrestlers managed byHarvey Wipplemanthroughout 1992 and 1993, such asKamalaandGiant González. Also during this time, The Undertaker headlined thedebut episodeofMonday Night Rawon January 11, 1993, with a victory overDamien Demento.According to Calaway, working with González \"...was survival every night trying to figure out what he could do\" and \"took years off my career\".He faced González at WrestleMania IX, which is notable asThe Undertaker's only disqualification win at WrestleManiaafter the use ofchloroform.The Undertaker's next rivalry initiated atSurvivor Serieswith Yokozuna when a clash between the two lost control, causing them to be counted out in an elimination tag match.In the weeks following, The Undertaker and Bearer spooked Yokozuna with multiple segments from their wintery and remoterural areaworkshop. There, Bearer presented The Undertaker hard at workcarpenteringYokozuna what would eventually become a \"double wide, double deep casket\" custom-built for Yokozuna's immensely overweight size.The feud culminated in a WWF Championshipcasket matchat theRoyal Rumblein January 1994. During the match, Yokozuna sealed The Undertaker in the casket with the assistance of a multitude of heel wrestlers (some of themWhippleman-managed) hired by Yokozuna's vindictive managersJim CornetteandMr. Fuji, which was in retaliation for Bearer's casket match stipulation that he snuck into their Royal Rumble match contract. After being trapped inside the casket by the pack, green vapor emitted from the casket and the arena lights went out. Undertaker then appeared from inside the casket on the video screen, representing the spirit of his dead corpse, warning that he would produce a future \"rebirth\" of himself, explaining to his antagonists that he cannot and will not Rest in Peace.The Undertaker did not appear in the WWF for seven months after his loss to Yokozuna. In reality, he was given time off to allow a back injury to heal. Rebirthed Deadman (1994–1996) Following the death angle at the Royal Rumble during The Undertaker's absence, the WWF promoted reported sightings of him through video clips of random people claiming to have seen him. AfterWrestleMania X,Ted DiBiaseintroduced an Undertaker back to the WWF. This Undertaker, however, played byBrian Lee(one of Calaway's real-life best friends)was an impostor Undertaker (dubbed \"The Underfaker\" by fans)rejuvenated by Dibiase's money rather than Bearer's urn. His actions led to the return of the real Undertaker atSummerSlam, defeating the impostor and appearing as a reincarnation of his Deadman gimmick, one of a more shadowy, mysterious and secret presence.Represented now by cool colors, The Undertaker replaced details of his wrestling gear that were previously colored gray with purple, and effected scenes with blue/purple semidarkness.Many details that would become associated with The Undertaker for the remainder of his career were produced during this rebirth incarnation, such as the addition ofsleeve tattoosandGodlikesupernatural elements (thunder, lightning and windy weather-like effects used to indicate The Undertaker's presence and wrath). Seeking retribution, The Undertaker revisited his feud with Yokozuna and eventually faced him in a casket rematch atSurvivor Series.Chuck Norris(portraying hisWalker, Texas Rangerpersona) was involved in the match as special guest enforcer, preventing interference from wrestlers that Yokozuna, Jim Cornette and Mr. Fuji had again enlisted for help.Unable to rely on much as far as interference this time around (onlyIrwin R. Schysterable to get in a brief ambush) due to Norris averting the attempts of several heel wrestlers, Yokozuna was defeated by The Undertaker and sealed in the casket.Throughout most of 1995, Undertaker feuded with members of Ted DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation. The chain of wrestlers DiBiase enlisted to do away with The Undertaker started with Irwin R. Schyster at theRoyal Rumblefor which The Undertaker was victorious, but assaulted by another member of the Million Dollar Team,King Kong Bundy. While being assaulted, Bearer was deprived of his urn by the Corporation.AtWrestleMania XI, The Undertaker made short work of Bundy in a singles match. This edition of WrestleMania included the first mention of The Undertaker's historicWrestleMania-winning Streak, acknowledged on commentary by Vince McMahon as Undertaker made his entrance: \"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania.\"During The Undertaker's WrestleMania encounter, DiBiase issued him with yet another antagonist in \"The Supreme Fighting Machine\"Kama, who had stolen the briefly recaptured urn from Bearer during the match. Kama followed this up with a series of malicious acts, including destroying the stolen urn and recycling it intobling.While sporting the flashy bling around his neck, he repeatedly cost The Undertaker matches and attacked diehard Undertaker fans, dubbed \"Creatures of the Night\".In August, Undertaker settled the score with Kama, defeating him in a casket match atSummerSlam.Several weeks later, Undertaker suffered a seriousorbital boneinjury whenKing Mabelunintentionally struck him in the eye with his fist during ahouse show, forcing The Undertaker into a period of absence for surgery. Due to the incident happening at a house show, Vince McMahon had it presented to the audience as though it had occurred from Mabel and Yokozuna's exchange ofleg dropsandsplasheson The Undertaker on theMonday Night Rawthat had aired 2 days prior.The Undertaker returned a couple months later atSurvivor Series, in which he single-handedly eliminated an entire team of wrestlers led by King Mabel, The Undertaker leading his own team to victory.It was at that Survivor Series return in which he began wearing aPhantom of the Opera-like, gray upper-face mask to safeguard his orbital injury while it healed.The following month in December, The Undertaker defeated Mabel in a casket match atIn Your House, retrieving the urn, which had been traded between several of The Undertaker's antagonists over the course of the year. In the main event of theRoyal Rumblein January 1996, The Undertaker was unmasked of his Phantom of the Opera-like facial covering in a WWF Championship match againstBret Hart. The Undertaker was eventually able to hit theTombstone Piledriveron Hart, butDieselinterfered, costing The Undertaker the championship.A rematch for the title on the February 5 episode ofRawsaw similar interference.At that month'sIn Your House: Rage in the Cage, while Diesel was facing Hart in asteel cage matchfor the WWF Championship, The Undertaker delivered a surprise attack, emerging from a hole he had ripped through the ring canvas and dragging Diesel with him down under amid a cloud of smoke, allowing Hart the victory.After several weeks of more retaliatoryone-upmanshipbetween Diesel and The Undertaker, their feud culminated in asingles matchatWrestleMania XII, where Undertaker was victorious. The Undertaker's next feud commenced the next night onRawwhenMankind, a twisted and tortured soul, made his debut and randomly interfered in Undertaker's match againstJustin \"Hawk\" Bradshaw. For the next few months, Mankind viciously ambushed The Undertaker and cost him multiple matches.Among them, Mankind cost The Undertaker theWWF Intercontinental Championshipby interfering in his casket match againstGoldustatIn Your House 8: Beware of Dog. In interfering in this match, Mankind proved to have mystifying horror tactic capabilities that matched The Undertaker's, mysteriously appearing from inside the casket and sealing The Undertaker inside. The Undertaker, however, had vanished amid a cloud of smoke once the casket lid was opened.As a result of the interference and repeated ambushes from Mankind on The Undertaker throughout the ensuing weeks, The Undertaker and Mankind competed in their first on-screen bout at the1996 King of the Ring, a heated encounter in which The Undertaker presented as uncharacteristically intense.During the match, Bearer inadvertently hit The Undertaker with the urn, allowing Mankind to incapacitate The Undertaker with his finisher, theMandible Claw, and score the win.With Mankind insatiably continuing to cost The Undertaker matches even following their King of the Ring encounter, The Undertaker began firing back with rage and the feud spiraled out of control: the two routinely interrupted other matches already in progress, battling each other at random intervals outside of having arranged matches—their chaos also spilling into audiences, arena backstage communal areas, and arenaboiler rooms, all of this unprecedented at the time.As a result, the first everBoiler Room Brawl(Mankind's specialty match) was booked between the two atSummerSlam.After more than 20 minutes of brawling with Mankind in the ClevelandGund Arena's boiler room, the arena corridors, the SummerSlam entrance area and aisleway to the ring, The Undertaker reached for Paul Bearer's urn in an attempt to win the match, but Bearer struck him with it, betraying The Undertaker. This followed with Bearer allowing Mankind to take hold of the urn, thus winning this match. According to Paul Bearer in shoot interviews the WWF wanted Bearer to betray him during that match because it was a storyline thatKanewas coming and they wanted The Undertaker to get ready for the angle with Kane the following year by having Bearer turn on him.After Bearer's betrayal, The Undertaker grew more aggressive, resolving his feud against Goldust (Mankind's comrade in tormenting The Undertaker) atIn Your House 10: Mind Games. The Undertaker then took his rivalry with Mankind to new lengths in a specialty match of his own, and at that time unprecedentedBuried Alive matchto take place in the main event ofIn Your House 11: Buried Alive. The Undertaker won the match afterchokeslammingMankind into the open grave and subsequently shoveling enough dirt on him so that he was covered. However, after interference from the debutingExecutioner, as well as the help of several other heel wrestlers apparently enlisted by Bearer, Mankind escaped the grave and together the mob all shoveled dirt onto The Undertaker to the point that the grave was completely filled, resulting in The Undertaker fully buried alive. Not without a parting message for the pack, however, The Undertaker's purple glove fit hand emerged from his burying place amid a bolt of lightning that had erupted over the gravesite. The scene sent all of his antagonists fleeing. Lord of Darkness (1996–1998) After being buried alive and a following month-long hiatus, The Undertaker returned at theSurvivor Seriesagain pitting him against Mankind, but with a unique stipulation: Hanging 6.1 m (20 ft) above the ring would be Paul Bearer, enclosed in a steel cage. And if The Undertaker were to win the match, he would be rewarded the opportunity to assault Bearer however he pleased. Even though The Undertaker won this match, interference from The Executioner enabled Bearer to escape Undertaker's clutches.It was also at this event that The Undertaker had developed a comparatively more humanized and more informal yet still superhuman \"Deadman\" incarnation. In this then new form, he took on aGothappearance and persona, with a brash, rebelling, Championship-driven mean streak (perhaps to better fit in with the then-budding, more adult-orientedAttitude Era).This delivering, dubbed \"The Lord of Darkness\", was the 3rd incarnation of his Deadman persona.Following Survivor Series, The Undertaker briefly turned his attention to The Executioner, who had been interfering in his matches since his arrival. AtIn Your House 12: It's Time, The Undertaker defeated The Executioner in anArmageddon Rulesmatch even with Mankind heavily involved throughout the entire encounter.The Undertaker then moved on to feud withVader, whom he faced in January 1997 at theRoyal Rumblein a singles match, which The Undertaker lost after Bearer interfered on behalf of his new protégé.The two then clashed in the Royal Rumble match itself as they made it to the final moments of the match, but both were eliminated byStone Cold Steve Austin, who had crept back into the match after his elimination was unseen. He faced both Vader and Austin in afour-corners elimination matchfor the vacant WWF Championship atIn Your House 13: Final Four, but Bret Hart won.However, the following month, The Undertaker managed to win the WWF Championship for the second time by defeatingSycho SidatWrestleMania 13.Reviving his first Deadman incarnation for that night only, The Undertaker appeared as the \"Old West Mortician\", donning the trademarked gray wrestling gear accessories (boot spats, tie, gloves), along with a pitch-black entrance with only a white spotlight shined over him, contrasted from the purple/blue semidarkness associated with the rest of his Deadman incarnations. Following his WWF Championship win at WrestleMania 13, Paul Bearer attempted to rejoin The Undertaker as his manager. After The Undertaker refused and attacked Bearer, Bearer had Mankind set a fireball to the Undertaker's face, leading up to a match atIn Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Taker, for which The Undertaker was victorious.Evening the score at \"Revenge of the 'Taker\", The Undertaker set a fireball to Bearer's face directly following the match.Following the event, Bearer bandaged up from fire burns, likened The Undertaker's assault to a past incident he described as The Undertaker's \"deepest, darkest secret\". Through giving The Undertaker theultimatumof revealing his deepest, darkest secret to the world, Bearer was able to reunite with him as manager and protégé. After only a few months of abrasive behaviors from Bearer, however, The Undertaker lost his patience and rejected Bearer as his manager. In retaliation, Bearer disclosed that The Undertaker had intentionally killed his family by burning down his parents' family funeral home for which they raised him and his younger brother.(Note that the younger brother, Kane, was not revealed to be The Undertaker's half-brother until the following year, April 1998, when Bearer disclosed to the world that he is Kane's father, The Undertaker's mother having had an affair with him. Bearer later verified this with DNA test results).At this point in his career, The Undertaker denied the charges of committing the arson murder that killed his family; however, Bearer claimed to have proof in the form of The Undertaker's alive and well younger brother, Kane, who had survived though scarred and burned. Bearer raised Kane after the fire, having him institutionalized from the date of the fire into adulthood. Ever since the fire, Kane had been awaiting to exact vengeance on his older half-brother. In defense, Undertaker responded that Kane, a \"pyromaniac\", had been the one to set the fire and, as a result, could not have possibly even survived.(Note that it would not be until a year and a half later from this point, in latter 1998, in which The Undertaker would shamelessly confess to intentional acts of arson to the funeral home that killed his parents and scarred his brother). In spite of Bearer projecting himself as a constant source of mental distress to The Undertaker during his Championship title reign, The Undertaker managed to secure successful title defenses against Stone Cold Steve Austin (A Cold Day In Hell: In Your House),Faarooq(King of the Ring)and Vader (Canadian Stampede: In Your House, revisiting and settling their Royal Rumble feud from earlier on in the year),respectively. Concurrent to the \"deep, dark secret\" storyline directed by Bearer, Undertaker began a then new rivalry atSummerSlamwhenspecial guest refereeShawn Michaelsaccidentally hit him with a steel chair shot intended for his archnemesis Bret Hart, in effect, costing The Undertaker the WWF Championship.The accidental chair shot led to Michaels feeling betrayed by the now booing WWF fans, and quickly becoming heel. Thus, a severely violent storyline with The Undertaker followed, one revolving around repeated intentional chair shots by Michaels on the Undertaker, Michaels taunting The Undertaker throughout.After the duo's first match, which was a chaotic and uncontrolled encounter that resulted in a double count-out draw atGround Zero: In Your House, Undertaker challenged Michaels to the first everHell in a Cell matchto take place atBadd Blood: In Your House. Despite the inclusion of the cell for more order and to prevent Michaels from receiving help from hisD-Generation Xstable, the encounter ended up even more uncontrolled and savage than their first and is considered one of The Undertaker's best matches of his career.Seemingly about to emerge the victor after striking Michaels with a chair shot of his own, The Undertaker was interrupted by his storyline half-brother Kane, finally making his debut. Under the control of Paul Bearer, Kane stormed the arena, ripped off the cell door, and laid out a nonplussed Undertaker with his own trademarked finisher,The Tombstone Piledriver, allowing Michaels to pin him for the victory.As the storyline progressed through Bearer having Kane mow down much of the WWF roster, Kane repeatedly challenged The Undertaker, going to lengths of tormenting and humiliating him. However, The Undertaker consistently refused to fight his half-brother, claiming he had made a vow to his parents never to do harm to his own \"flesh and blood\".The Undertaker's final encounter with Michaels during this chapter of his career was in a casket match for the WWF Championship at theRoyal Rumble. The week before onRaw, Kane had duplicitously presented as allying with his brother against Michaels's D-Generation X stable; however, at the Royal Rumble, Kane trapped The Undertaker in the coffin, padlocked the lid shut, and set the casket ablaze, allowing Michaels another victory.After a two-month hiatus in which Kane wreaked havoc over the WWF, The Undertaker returned on the March 2, 1998 episode ofRawin a most notable resurrection—his druids interrupting Kane and Bearer by presenting them with a coffin on the entrance stage amid a large number of bell tolls. The coffin was struck and dismantled by a lightning bolt, revealing a lied out Undertaker who sat up in a fury state and challenged Kane to do battle with him.AtWrestleMania XIVin their first match, The Undertaker defeated Kane.Kane challenged Undertaker to a rematch—Kane's specialty and first everInferno match—that occurred one month later atUnforgiven: In Your House. The Undertaker won the encounter by setting Kane's right arm on fire. The Undertaker and Mankind's wildly violent, outlandish feud from over a year previous to this point was revitalized over the next month, ultimately taken to a new graphic height and decisively resolved whenthey faced each other in a Hell in a Cell matchatKing of the Ring. The match became one of the most famous matches in professional wrestling history. During the match, the Undertaker threw Mankind off the roof of the 4.9 m (16 ft) cell onto a broadcast table below, in what was a preplanned move. He later performed a chokeslam on Mankind through the roof of the cell into the ring, which was not preplanned and legitimately knocked Mankind unconscious. In jumping from the top of the cell to the ring canvas, The Undertaker suffered a broken ankle. Escalating as things progressed, blood flowed from both wrestlers as they attacked each other with steel steps, chairs, the cell wall, etc. Topping that off, Mankind introduced multitudes of thumbtacks scattered across the ring canvas but wasback body droppedon them, and subsequently chokeslammed onto them before The Undertaker won the match with hisTombstone Piledriver.AtFully Loaded: In Your House, the Undertaker and Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated Kane and Mankind to win theWWF Tag Team Championship.The Undertaker and Austin's reign astag team championslasted only two weeks, as Kane and Mankind regained the titles from them in afatal four-way tag-team matchon the August 10 episode ofRaw.The Undertaker then became the number one contender for the WWF Championship, held by Austin at that point, for a match atSummerSlam. Shortly before SummerSlam and after much speculation, The Undertaker finally disclosed that he and his half-brother were working together. Despite this revelation, The Undertaker told Kane before his SummerSlam bout that he did not want him interfering, even sending Kane away during the match itself when he appeared. Even though The Undertaker lost the match at SummerSlam, he handed Austin his championship belt back after the match with a show of respect and sportsmanship. In September as the storyline matured however, The Undertaker subtly began showing some heel characteristics, becoming atweener. This began when he and Kane revealed the fact that they were in cahoots to rid Austin of his title for villainous company owner Mr. McMahon—Austin and McMahon immersed in a bitter rivalry during this era. AtBreakdown: In Your House, The Undertaker and Kane were booked in atriple threat matchwith Austin for the WWF Championship, in which McMahon stated that the brothers were not allowed to pin each other. The Undertaker and Kane pinned Austin simultaneously after adouble chokeslam, ending the match in ano contest, so the title was vacated by McMahon.This event led to a match atJudgment Day: In Your Housebetween The Undertaker and Kane for the title, with Austin as the special guest referee. Near the end of the match, Paul Bearer seemed about to assist Kane by handing him a steel chair to hit The Undertaker with, but as Kane had his back turned, both Bearer and The Undertaker hit Kane with chair shots. The Undertaker went for the pin, but Austin refused to count the fall, attacked The Undertaker and counted out both of them.Finally the next night onRaw, The Undertaker reconciled with Bearer and claimed that he and Bearer would unleash their \"Ministry of Darkness\" on the WWF, turning heel for the first time since 1992. As part of the then new storyline angle, The Undertaker admitted that he had indeed intentionally set the fire that killed his parents and scarred Kane, for which he had previously blamed on Kane. Ministry of Darkness Deadman (1998–1999) AfterSurvivor Series, The Undertaker returned his attention to his previous feud with Austin for costing him the title at Judgment Day, hitting Austin in the head with a shovel during a title match withThe Rockon the November 16 episode ofRaw, returning the favor for what happened a month earlier. With this twist in the storyline, Mr. McMahon scheduled a Buried Alive match between The Undertaker and Austin atRock Bottom: In Your House. In the weeks leading up to Rock Bottom, The Undertaker attempted toembalmAustin alive, tried to have Kane committed to a mental asylum, and had his druids chain Austin to an immense structure of his Undertaker crucifix-like logo (which took the appearance of a capital T combined X) before having that structure lifted up on high into the air.However, The Undertaker lost the Buried Alive match to Austin at Rock Bottom after Kane interfered. After the buildup to his second heel run in the latter part of 1998, The Undertaker introduced an updated version of his Deadman identity by January 1999—a dark priest-like character who in the initial period of this persona reigned over a stable known as The Ministry of Darkness. In this form, he took on a wicked, demonic presence, much more so than ever before. He often proclaimed to be invoking and taking orders from a \"Higher Power\". Moreover, he often appeared in a hooded black robe and sat on a throne with a towering backrest specially designed into his crucifix-like logo. With the help of his minions, he often performed sacrifices on select WWF wrestlers, using variousincantationsandmagic wordswith intent to extract out the dark side of the wrestlers in question to recruit them into his Ministry. The completed Ministry of Darkness consisted ofThe Brood(Christian,EdgeandGangrel),The Acolytes(Bradshaw and Faarooq),MideonandViscera. Calaway himself did not wrestle for a period, having undergone a hip replacement. As part of theangle, The Undertaker had his Ministry members fight his battles, carry out his evil wishes and do all his dirty deeds. In this manner, he expressed his desires to take over the World Wrestling Federation, displacing its owner, Mr. McMahon. These ambitions culminated into a rivalry between The Ministry andThe Corporation, ultimately resulting in a match between The Undertaker and Corporation enforcer,Big Boss Man. The two faced off in a Hell in a Cell match atWrestleMania XV, which The Undertaker won.AtBacklash: In Your House, The Undertaker defeated Corporation memberKen Shamrockafter interference from Ministry member Bradshaw. Thereafter, The Undertaker kidnappedStephanie McMahon, forcing Mr. McMahon to enter into a reluctant alliance with his longtime nemesis Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Undertaker attempted to marry Stephanie before sacrificing her in aneldritchceremony conducted by Paul Bearer, but Austin was able to rescue her.At theOver the Edgepay-per-view, The Undertaker defeated Austin for his third WWF Championship with help fromShane McMahon, the special guest referee.The Ministry eventually merged with Shane McMahon's Corporation alliance to formThe Corporate Ministry. The Undertaker later revealed that Mr. McMahon had been his \"Higher Power\" all along as a scheme against Austin.After The Undertakerlostthe WWF Championship back to Austin on theRawfollowingKing of the Ringand lost to him in aFirst Blood matchatFully Loaded, his relationship with the McMahons dissolved and The Corporate Ministry disbanded. The Undertaker then began a storyline where he teamed withBig Showin a tag team known as \"The Unholy Alliance\", which held the WWF Tag Team Championship twice. After their victory atSummerSlam, The Undertaker suffered a groin tear and was seen limping in several matches. He avoided competing in wrestling matches in the following weeks, instead overbearingly ordering Big Show to fight his battles and do all his dirty deeds. Developing a comedy horror smart mouth during this time, elements of The Undertaker's trash-talking biker identity (that he would eventually introduce in 2000) began peeping out during this phase of his career. According to an interview with Kevin Nash, this was a move to allow Calaway to return to WCW with a non-trademarked persona; had he entered WCW, it would have been as Mark Calaway. According to Nash, although negotiations were described as close, Calaway ultimately re-signed with the WWF. Conversely, while on Steve Austin'sBroken Skull Sessionspodcast on November 22, 2020, Calaway revealed that there was no way he was ever going to rejoin WCW, that the gimmick's biker transition was just a matter of him mixing things up because he didn't feel the character's Deadman side properly fit with the then ongoing Attitude Era. To compensate for his lack of physical activity, The Undertaker became increasingly overbearing and vocal, often mouthing off with a weirdness and making sinisterlysmart-aleckremarks in promos and on commentary. On the September 23, 1999, episode ofSmackDown!, Mr. McMahon threatened that he would remove The Undertaker from theUnforgivenmain event if he refused to participate in a casket match againstTriple H. The Undertaker retorted that he did not care and maybe he would not be participating in anything WWF any longer, from there walking out on the WWF.In reality, Calaway went on a hiatus from the WWF in order to treat his groin injury. He made his return to action on December 14, teaming with Viscera in a losing effort against Kane and The Godfather at a house show inCoamo, Puerto Rico.The Undertaker was advertised on theArmageddonpromotional poster to return, but meanwhile also tore his pectoral muscle, taking him out of action for almost eight months. American Badass (2000–2001) In May 2000, Calaway expanded on The Undertaker gimmick, returning under a human alter ego of the gimmick—a smack-talking, redneck biker, dubbed \"The American Badass\", known for motorcycle-riding, tobacco chewing/spitting, and donning a sporty appearance and manner.In stark contrast to his horror-themed and fully fictional Deadman persona, Calaway's Badass persona was only semifictional with traits and features adopted from who he is out of character—hence, why he desired to transform The Undertaker.While explained off screen years later for the above reasons, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it. When The Undertaker returned near the end of theiron man matchfor the WWF Championship between Triple H and The Rock atJudgment Dayon May 21, 2000, he took out all the members of the McMahon-Helmsley Faction, which created for afaceturn after having left things off as a heel before his hiatus.He also targeted their leader, then WWF Champion Triple H. At theKing of the Ringpay-per-view on June 25, The Undertaker teamed with The Rock and Kane to defeat the team of Triple H, Shane McMahon and Vince McMahon.Afterward, he was booked to team with Kane to contend for the WWF Tag Team Championship. They defeatedEdge and Christian, earning the right to face them the following week for the championship, which Edge and Christian retained. During an August 14Raw is Warbout againstChris Benoit, Kane became involved and betrayed The Undertaker by hitting him with two chokeslams, the second one causing the ring apron to cave in underneath The Undertaker.This incident led to another match between the two atSummerSlamon August 27, which ended in a no contest as Kane fled from the ring area after The Undertaker removed Kane's mask. The Undertaker then challengedKurt Anglefor the WWF Championship atSurvivor Serieson November 19.Angle, however, defeated The Undertaker after he switched places with his real-life brother,Eric Angle. The Undertaker demanded and was awarded a spot in the six-man Hell in a Cell match for the WWF Championship atArmageddonon December 10. The Undertaker promised to make someone famous and did so when he performed a chokeslam onRikishifrom the roof of the cell into hay-filled cargo bed of a truck. The Undertaker reunited with Kane as the Brothers of Destruction, issuing a challenge for the WWF Tag Team Championship once again. They received a title shot atNo Way Outon February 25, 2001, facing Edge and Christian and then championsThe Dudley Boyzin atables matchbut were unsuccessful.The Undertaker then went on to defeat Triple H atWrestleMania X-Sevenon April 1.He and Kane continued a storyline that focused on Triple H, who formed a \"surprise alliance\" with then WWF Champion Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Brothers of Destruction were granted an opportunity to face Triple H and Austin for their titles (Triple H was the WWF Intercontinental Champion). After The Undertaker and Kane won the WWF Tag Team Championship from Edge and Christian on the April 19 episode ofSmackDown!,Triple H pinned Kane after attacking him with a sledgehammer atBacklashon April 29, where the Brothers of Destruction lost their championships.With Kane injured, The Undertaker feuded briefly with Austin for his WWF Championship, but he failed to win the title atJudgment Dayon May 20. As part of \"The Invasion\" storyline, The Undertaker's next nemesis wasDiamond Dallas Page, who was obsessively stalking The Undertaker's wife, Sara.AtSummerSlamon August 19,WCW Tag Team ChampionsThe Undertaker and Kane defeated Page and his partnerKanyonin a steel cage match to win the WWF Tag Team Championship.AtSurvivor Serieson November 18, The Undertaker teamed with Kane, The Rock,Chris Jerichoand Big Show to take on The Alliance's Stone Cold Steve Austin,Booker T,Rob Van Dam, Shane McMahon and Kurt Angle (this was the last time The Undertaker and Kane teamed until 2006). Angle pinned The Undertaker due to interference by Austin. Despite this, Team WWF won the match. Big Evil (2001–2003) AfterThe Alliancewas defeated, The Undertaker inducted commentatorJim Rossinto theMr. McMahon: Kiss My Ass Clubon the November 26 episode ofRaw, which involved The Undertaker pressing the lips of Ross against McMahon's exposed buttocks, turning heel in the process.In transitioning his \"American Badass\" biker identity into a heel, The Undertaker eventually cut his long hair short and went by the nickname \"Big Evil\". AtVengeanceon December 9, The Undertaker defeated Rob Van Dam to win theWWF Hardcore Championship. The Undertaker's next storyline began at theRoyal Rumbleon January 20, 2002, whenMaveneliminated him from theRoyal Rumble matchby hitting him with adropkickfrom behind. Subsequently, The Undertaker eliminated Maven in return and brutally assaulted him backstage.Thereafter, on an episode ofSmackDown!, The Rock angered The Undertaker by mentioning his elimination at the Royal Rumble. He responded by costing The Rock the number one contendership for theUndisputed WWF Championship.The storyline continued when The Rock cost The Undertaker the WWF Hardcore Championship against Maven on the February 7 episode ofSmackDown!.The two faced off atNo Way Outon February 17, where The Undertaker lost due to interference from Ric Flair.This interference began a storyline with Flair, who declined a challenge to wrestle The Undertaker atWrestleMania X8on March 17.As a result, The Undertaker assaulted his sonDavid Flair.Flair eventually accepted the match after The Undertaker threatened to inflict the same punishment on Flair'sdaughter.A no-disqualification stipulation was added to the match and The Undertaker defeated Flair at WrestleMania. After the storyline with Flair, The Undertaker was drafted to theRaw brandafter the WWF split its roster into twobrandsand defeated Stone Cold Steve Austin atBacklashon April 21 to become the number one contender for the Undisputed WWF Championship. Later that night, he helped Hollywood Hulk Hogan win the title against then champion Triple H.The Undertaker then defeated Hogan for the renamed WWE Undisputed Championship atJudgment Dayon May 19. The next night onRaw, The Undertaker seemingly lost the WWE Undisputed Championship to Rob Van Dam; however, Raw owner Ric Flair restarted the match (Van Dam pinned The Undertaker when his foot was on the rope, thus invalidating the pin attempt) and The Undertaker defeated Van Dam to retain the championship.On the July 1 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker defeatedJeff Hardyin aladder matchto retain the WWE Undisputed Championship and raised Hardy's hand as a show of respect, turning face once again. The Undertaker, however, lost the title atVengeanceon July 21 to The Rock in a triple threat match that also involved Kurt Angle.On the August 29 episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker moved to theSmackDown! brand(where he remained until the first brand extension ended in 2011), and defeated Chris Benoit and Kurt Angle in a triple threat match to become the number-one contender for the renamed WWE Championship and challengedBrock Lesnarfor the title atUnforgivenon September 22 that ended in a double disqualification.Their feud carried over toNo Mercyon October 20 in a Hell in a Cell match, which The Undertaker performed with a legitimately broken hand and ultimately lost to Lesnar. The Undertaker took a break after Big Show threw him off the stage on the October 24 episode ofSmackDown!, sparking a feud.The Undertaker returned at theRoyal Rumbleon January 19, 2003.He immediately continued his feud with Big Show and defeated him bysubmissionatNo Way Outon February 23 with atriangle choke.A-Trainentered the storyline by attempting to attack The Undertaker after the match, butNathan Jonescame to his aid.The storyline resumed as The Undertaker began to train Jones to wrestle and the two were scheduled to fight Big Show and A-Train in atag team matchatWrestleMania XIXon March 30.However, Jones was removed before the match, making it ahandicap match, which The Undertaker won with the help of Jones. Over the remainder of the year, The Undertaker entered a brief feud withJohn Cena(defeating him atVengeanceon July 27) and was booked to have two WWE Championship opportunities. The first, on the September 4SmackDown!, against Kurt Angle, ended in a no contest, due to interference from Brock Lesnar.The second, atNo Mercyon October 19, was aBiker Chain matchbetween The Undertaker and Lesnar, which Lesnar won with the help of Vince McMahon.This match resulted in a feud with McMahon, culminating atSurvivor Serieson November 16 where The Undertaker lost a Buried Alive match against McMahon when Kane interfered.The Undertaker disappeared for some time following this match, with Kane claiming that he was \"dead and buried forever\". Return of the Deadman (2004–2007) In the storyline leading up toWrestleMania XX, Kane was tormented by horror-themed mind games, paranormal activities, and spooking vignettes proclaiming The Undertaker's Deadman return. The first was during theRoyal Rumblewhen The Undertaker's bells tolled, distracting Kane and allowing Booker T to eliminate him.Accompanied by Paul Bearer at WrestleMania XX, The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity, defeating Kane in a singles match.Introduced was a more dramatic, theatrical and supernatural Deadman than in years past, his presence, mannerisms, and entrances significantly elaborated on as well, such as with more intensity, special effects and rising and falling flames.At the same time, The Undertaker maintained elements of his American Badass identity, thus a composite character more humanized than all of his previous Deadman incarnations(The Undertaker would present in this particular hybrid Deadman form untilNo Mercy 2005whenRandy Ortonsealed him in a casket and set it on fire).AtJudgment Day, The Undertaker defeated Booker T. One week later,Paul Heymanordered TheDudley Boyzto kidnap Bearer.Thus, Heyman \"took control\" of Undertaker.AtThe Great American Bash, The Undertaker fought a handicap match against The Dudley Boyz, with the stipulation that if he did not lay down and purposely lose, Heyman would bury Paul Bearer in cement. The Undertaker won and stopped Heyman from burying Bearer, but after claiming Bearer was merely a liability he had no use for, buried him himself. The Undertaker began a feud with then WWE Champion John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) by challenging him to a title match atSummerSlam, which The Undertaker lost by disqualification.AtNo Mercy, The Undertaker and JBL competed in the first-everLast Ride match, although The Undertaker lost afterHeidenreichinterfered.After defeating Heidenreich in a match atSurvivor Series,The Undertaker turned his focus to the WWE Championship once again. Along withEddie Guerreroand Booker T, he challenged JBL to a championship rematch atArmageddonin a fatal four-way match, in which The Undertaker was unsuccessful, again due to Heidenreich's interference.The feud culminated in a casket match between The Undertaker and Heidenreich at theRoyal Rumble, where The Undertaker sealed Heidenreich in a casket for the victory. Soon after, Randy Orton challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 21, uppishly proclaiming that he would end his WrestleMania winning Streak.Even with help fromhis father, Orton lost as The Undertaker improved his WrestleMania record to 13–0.After a two-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned on the June 16 episode ofSmackDown!, but lost to JBL due to interference from Randy Orton, who was drafted toSmackDown!as part of thedraft lottery.Despite his interference, the Randy Orton/Undertaker feud was put on the back burner until late summer of that year, resulting from Orton on the injured list. In the meantime and in one of the most controversial moments in WWE history on an episode ofSmackDown!taped on July 4, 2005 (aired on July 7),SmackDown!General ManagerTheodore LongscheduledMuhammad Hassanin a match against The Undertaker atThe Great American Bash, and placedDaivariin a match that night against Undertaker: Undertaker quickly defeated Daivari. After the match, however, Hassan began to \"pray\" on the ramp, summoning five masked men, dressed in black shirts, ski-masks and camouflage pants. Armed with clubs and a piano wire, the masked men assaulted and choked out The Undertaker before Hassan then placed The Undertaker in acamel clutch. Afterward, the masked men lifted Daivari above their heads and carried him away. Three days later, theLondon bombingstook place. The footage aired unedited onUPNin the United States and onThe Scorein Canada with an advisory warning shown several times during the broadcast. It was removed from the Australian and European (including in the United Kingdom) broadcasts. The angle elicited national attention in theNew York Post,TV Guide,Varietyand other major media outlets. In response to the criticism, UPN decided that it would monitor the storyline closely and that it did not want the Hassan character on its network that week.In apromohosted on WWE's website - UPN had edited it from the July 14, 2005 episode ofSmackDown!- Hassan reiterated that he was anArab Americanand that the American people automatically and unfairly assumed that he was a terrorist. Despite being in character, he referred to the real-world media coverage of the storyline, singling out theNew York Post'sDon Kaplan by name and denouncing his description of the events onSmackDown!, such as Kaplan's comment of the masked men being \"Arabs in ski masks\". On the July 14, 2005 episode ofSmackDown!, Hassan's absence was explained by a statement delivered by his attorney,Thomas Whitney, that Hassan refused to appear on the show untilThe Great American Bashdue to the way he was treated by the American media and WWE fans. It was revealed in late July 2005 that UPN had pressured WWE to keep Hassan off their network, effectively removing him fromSmackDown!.Undertaker defeated Hassan at The Great American Bash to become the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship. After the match, The Undertaker delivered aLast Ridethrough an open stage ramp onto a concrete floor to Hassan. It was reported that Hassan sustained serious injuries and had to be rushed to a nearby medical facility, writing Hassan off television.Several days later, Long (kayfabe) banned Hassan fromSmackDown!. It was revealed years later that Hassan was about to receive a majorpushby winning the World Heavyweight Championship fromBatistaatSummerSlamand thus breaking Randy Orton's record for being the youngest World Heavyweight Champion in WWE history. On the following episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker lost to JBL in a number-one contender's match, once again due to interference from Orton, reviving their feud that was put on hiatus.AtSummerSlam, Orton defeated The Undertaker in a WrestleMania rematch. The storyline intensified as the two tried to get into the head of one another with dark mind game tactics and use of caskets, leading to a handicap casket match atNo Mercy, in which The Undertaker lost to Randy and his father \"Cowboy\" Bob Orton.After the match, the Ortons poured gasoline on the casket and set it on fire (a throwback moment to one of The Undertaker's most infamous attacks received and done by Kane doing the same to him at the 1998 Royal Rumble). When the charred casket was opened, however, The Undertaker was absent, presented as having vanished. The Undertaker resurrected at theSurvivor Serieswhen the druids delivered a casket that was struck by lightning and went up in flames. The Undertaker then burst from the flaming casket in rage, battering and brutalizing an entire ring full of wrestlers as a message to Orton. Here, he reappeared still in hybrid form but with lessened Badass characteristics, eliminating several elements of his biker identity so that his Deadman side projected, most notably, replacing loose-fitting cargo pants with his Deadman spandex, and less use of theLast Ridefinisher.The Undertaker returned onSmackDown!in early December to haunt Orton and set up a Hell in a Cell match atArmageddon.After The Undertaker won their brutal Hell in a Cell encounter, in effect, settling his 9 month long feud with Orton,Calaway took a brief hiatus from professional wrestling. In January 2006 at theRoyal Rumble, The Undertaker returned on a horse-drawn cart during Kurt Angle's celebration of his World Heavyweight Championship defense againstMark Henry. In this appearance, The Undertaker signaled for a title shot by using his supernatural powers to collapse the wrestling ring that Angle stood in as a means to spook him. As part of their storyline angle, The Undertaker lost his match with Angle atNo Way Outafter a 30-minute bout—described as underrated and among Undertaker's top matches, in which he versatilely took to a more ground-based submission style to combat Angle's trademarkedfreestyle wrestling.The Undertaker cornered Angle after the match and told him he was not finished with him.In a rematch with Angle (similarly described as underrated and among The Undertaker's top matches that utilized the wrestling styles of their previous encounter on the March 3 episode ofSmackDown!) Henry attacked The Undertaker from behind, costing him the title.This led to The Undertaker challenging Henry to a casket match atWrestleMania 22and Henry vowing to end The Undertaker's WrestleMania winning Streak. The match resulted in The Undertaker sealing Henry in the casket, winning the match and extending his streak to 14–0 at WrestleMania.During a rematch on the next episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker was assaulted by the debutingGreat Khali. The Undertaker was not heard from until the May 5 episode ofSmackDown!when Theodore Long delivered a challenge from The Undertaker to Khali for a match atJudgment Day. The Undertaker lost to Khali at Judgment Day,and he did not appear again until the July 7 episode ofSmackDown!when he accepted Khali's challenge to aPunjabi Prison matchatThe Great American Bash. However, Khali was removed from the match due to not being medically cleared. He was thus replaced by thenECW World ChampionBig Show, over whom The Undertaker gained the victory.In storyline, Theodore Long replaced Khali with Big Show as punishment for an attack on The Undertaker shortly before the match.Khali was then challenged by The Undertaker to aLast Man Standing MatchforSummerSlamafter interfering in The Undertaker's match with then World Heavyweight Champion King Booker. Khali refused the challenge but Long scheduled the Last Man Standing Match ahead of time, for the August 18 episode ofSmackDown!instead. The Undertaker won the match by striking Khali with steel stairs and finishing him with a chokeslam. It was Khali's first defeat and effectively ended his feud with The Undertaker. The Undertaker's next match was with then United States ChampionMr. KennedyatNo Mercy, but was disqualified in the match after he hit Kennedy with the championship belt.On the November 3 episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker reunited with Kane to reform the Brothers of Destruction for the first time in five years, defeating reluctant opposition in the form of Mr. Kennedy andMontel Vontavious Porter(MVP), with whom Kane was feuding with at the time.As part of the storyline, Kennedy defeated The Undertaker in a First Blood match atSurvivor Seriesafter interference from MVP,but finally defeated Kennedy in a Last Ride match atArmageddon.The two continued to feud into 2007 as Kennedy cost The Undertaker two World Heavyweight Championship opportunities for a championship match at theRoyal Rumble.However, The Undertaker eventually qualified for the 2007 Royal Rumble match, by winning abattle royalon the January 26 episode ofSmackDown!. World Heavyweight Champion (2007–2010) The Undertaker won his firstRoyal Rumblematch on January 28, in doing so becoming the first man to enter the Rumble at number 30 and win the match, after lastly eliminating Shawn Michaels.On the February 5 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker elected to face World Heavyweight Champion Batista atWrestleMania 23on April 1, before attacking him with the chokeslam.AtNo Way Outon February 18, The Undertaker and Batista reluctantly teamed together to face John Cena and Shawn Michaels, but lost after Batista gained revenge on The Undertaker by hitting him with aspinebuster, allowing Cena to pin him.At WrestleMania 23, The Undertaker defeated Batista to win his first World Heavyweight Championship and extend his Streak to 15–0.The Undertaker faced Batista in a rematch atBacklashon April 29, this time in a Last Man Standing match. The match ended in a draw after neither man got to their feet by the referee's count of ten, meaning The Undertaker retained the championship.The Undertaker and Batista then fought once again in a steel cage match on the May 11 episode ofSmackDown!that also ended in a draw when both men's feet touched the floor at the same time. After the match, Mark Henry made his return by assaulting an already battered The Undertaker, after which Edge ran to the ring and cashed in hisMoney in the Bankbriefcase, forcing The Undertaker into a second title defense. Although he kicked out of two quick pin attempts, The Undertaker was pinned by Edge after twospearsand lost the World Heavyweight Championship.After this match, The Undertaker took time off due to a torn right biceps. During his rehabilitation, Henry bragged about his assault on The Undertaker, until vignettes began playing that promoted The Undertaker's return. The Undertaker returned atUnforgivenon September 16, defeating Henry.Batista and The Undertaker reignited their feud atCyber Sundayon October 28 with the fans choosing the special guest referee to be Stone Cold Steve Austin, however, Batista retained the World Heavyweight Championship.They battled again in a Hell in a Cell match atSurvivor Serieson November 18, where Edge returned and interfered to help Batista retain the World Heavyweight Championship.In response to this, The Undertaker delivered aTombstone Piledriverto General ManagerVickie Guerreroon the November 23 episode ofSmackDown!, sending her to the hospital. Returning assistant-General Manager Theodore Long declared a triple threat match for the title between the three men atArmageddonon December 16, which Edge won after interference fromThe Major Brothers. At theRoyal Rumbleon January 27, 2008, The Undertaker competed in the Royal Rumble match itself, entering at number 1, but eliminated by Shawn Michaels after lasting for most of the bout.AtNo Way Outon February 17, The Undertaker defeated Batista,Finlay, The Great Khali, MVP and Big Daddy V in the SmackDownElimination Chamber matchto become the number one contender for Edge's World Heavyweight Championship atWrestleMania XXIVon March 30.At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Edge with theHell's Gatesubmission hold to win his second World Heavyweight Championship in what was his 16th WrestleMania win.In a WrestleMania rematch, The Undertaker defeated Edge once again atBacklashon April 27 to retain the World Heavyweight Championship.Vickie Guerrero then banned The Undertaker'sHell's Gatesubmission hold and stripped him of the World Heavyweight Championship on the May 2 episode ofSmackDown.The Undertaker battled Edge for the vacant title atJudgment Dayon May 18, which he won by countout. Guerrero ordered that the title remain vacant, because titles could not change hands in this way.Edge and The Undertaker faced each other again for the vacant championship atOne Night Standon June 1 in aTables, Ladders, and Chairs match, which The Undertaker lost after interference fromLa Familia. As a result of the stipulation, The Undertaker was forced to leave WWE. On the July 25 episode ofSmackDown, Vickie Guerrero reinstated The Undertaker and scheduled Edge to face him atSummerSlamon August 17 in a Hell in a Cell match,which The Undertaker won. After the match, The Undertaker chokeslammed Edge from the top of a ladder and through the ring canvas.Following this match, Guerrero tried making a peace offering with The Undertaker onSmackDownby apologizing, but The Undertaker told her that he was not the forgiving kind. AtUnforgivenon September 7, as The Undertaker approached the ring to \"take Guerrero's soul\" and seal her in a casket,Big Show, who appeared at first to be aiding The Undertaker ended up assaulting him.Resulting from that, The Undertaker and Big Show faced each other in a match atNo Mercyon October 5, where Big Show won byknockout.AtCyber Sundayon October 26, The Undertaker defeated Big Show in a Last Man Standing match after choking him out withHell's Gate.At the same time, The Undertaker was engaged in a short feud with Jeff Hardy, who interfered during his match withVladimir Kozlovon the November 7 episode ofSmackDown. Hardy defeated The Undertaker in anExtreme Rules matchthe following week onSmackDowndue to interference from Big Show. The Undertaker then went on to defeat Big Show in a casket match atSurvivor Serieson November 23 and again in a steel cage match by submission on the December 5 episode ofSmackDownto end their feud.AtNo Way Outon February 15, 2009, The Undertaker was part of the WWE Championship Elimination Chamber match along with Triple H, Jeff Hardy, Big Show, Vladimir Kozlov and Edge; however, he was unsuccessful at winning the match as he was the runner-up behind Triple H. In early 2009, The Undertaker began a second chapter to his unresolved feud with Shawn Michaels from the late 1990s, over a decade prior to this point (their tensions gradually increasing in the years immediately preceding this from heated run-ins at the 2007 and 2008 Royal Rumble matches). Their renewed feud by this point was two-dimensional, in part focusing on the wonder of The Undertaker's undefeated WrestleMania Streak in relation to, however, the fact that he had never before defeated Michaels in a singles match, only vice versa.Michaels also made the buildup to their WrestleMania encounter personal, repeatedly demonstrating his Christian objections to the demonic dark side nature of The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick, even creating his own heaven-esque bright side spin-off of what he felt The Undertaker's gimmick should be (Michaels having become a real-life born again Christian by this point in his career).The feud culminated in a singles match between the two atWrestleMania 25on April 5 in which Michaels made a heaven-sent entrance descending from up on high portraying his bright side anti-Deadman, while The Undertaker made a grave-risen entrance emerging from the ground.After what was widely described as a suspenseful, competitive match, The Undertaker defeated Michaels, thus extending hisWrestleMania winning streak to 17–0.Their encounter was highly acclaimed by critics and audiences alike and is considered by many to be one of the greatest WrestleMania matches of all time.On the April 24 episode ofSmackDown, after losing a match against Big Show by knockout with Big Show taking advantage of The Undertaker's battered neck state from his previous WrestleMania encounter, The Undertaker attacked Big Show. Following this, The Undertaker took another hiatus from the WWE. After a four-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned atSummerSlamon August 23 by attackingCM Punk, who had just won the World Heavyweight Championship from Jeff Hardy in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match.AtBreaking Pointon September 13, The Undertaker faced Punk in a submission match for the World Heavyweight Championship. The Undertaker had originally won the match with hisHell's Gatesubmission hold, but the match was restarted by SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long, who ruled that the ban placed on the move by Vickie Guerrero was still in effect. Punk went on to win the match with hisanaconda visewhen refereeScott Armstrongcalled for the bell, despite The Undertaker never submitting—a recreation of theMontreal Screwjob, which took place in the same venue in1997.On the September 25 episode ofSmackDown, Theodore Long officially lifted the ban after being released from a casket that The Undertaker had him placed inside of, among a series of other horror-themed mind game tactics.With Long out of the way, the feud between The Undertaker and Punk pressed on and atHell in a Cellon October 4, The Undertaker won the World Heavyweight Championship from him in a Hell in a Cell match.The Undertaker successfully defended the title against CM Punk on the October 23 episode ofSmackDown, in a fatal four-way match atBragging Rightson October 25 against Punk, Batista andRey Mysterioand in a triple threat match against Chris Jericho and Big Show atSurvivor Serieson November 22.He faced Batista atTLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairson December 13 in a chairs match for the championship and won when the match was restarted by Long, after Batista had originally won after utilizing alow blow. The next night onRaw, The Undertaker competed in a tournament to crown the2009 Superstar of the Year, losing to Randy Orton by countout in the first round after a distraction by Orton's protegèsCody RhodesandTed DiBiase. After successfully defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Rey Mysterio at theRoyal Rumbleon January 31, 2010,The Undertaker lost the championship at theElimination Chamberpay-per-view on February 21. It was also at this event that a notoriousshoot incident(non-kayfabe) befell The Undertaker: apyrotechnicsmalfunction momentarily engulfed him in flames up to three times during his ring entrance. He was, however, able to continue with his scheduled match that night despite suffering first and second-degree burns on his chest and neck. According to a WWE spokesman, it \"looked like a bad sunburn\".The Undertaker lost the title to Chris Jericho after interference from Shawn Michaels that night;Jericho has said on multiple occasions that the pyrotechnician responsible for the accident was immediately escorted from the arena and relieved of his employment with WWE, following a threat of violence from Calaway.Calaway himself explained that he had previously expressed concerns to the technician regarding the pyro arrangement, but was ignored. He feels he was saved from severe injury by applying water to his hair, and altering his attire from a sleeveless to a sleeved jacket, just minutes before the accident. The Undertaker then accepted Michaels's rematch offer, after initially declining, atWrestleMania XXVIon March 28 in aStreak vs. Career match, where The Undertaker was victorious and Shawn Michaels was forced to retire. This match also made both The Undertaker and Michaels the first men in WWE history to main event WrestleMania in three different decades (Undertaker main evented WrestleMania 13 and XXIV in 1997 and 2008 and Michaels main evented WrestleMania XII and XIV in 1996 and 1998 and XX and 23 in 2004 and 2007, respectively). After a hiatus (which included wrestling two matches onRaw), he returned toSmackDownon May 28, defeating Rey Mysterio to qualify for a spot at theFatal 4-Waypay-per-view on June 20 to compete for the World Heavyweight title.During the Rey Mysterio match, The Undertaker suffered a concussion, broken orbital bone and broken nose; he was visibly bleeding profusely on camera by the end of this match.To cover for the injury, Kane revealed that The Undertaker had been found in a vegetative state on the June 4 episode ofSmackDown;Mysterio took his place in the match and won the World Heavyweight Championship. While attempting to learn which wrestler had attacked The Undertaker, Kane defeated Mysterio to win the World Heavyweight Championship atMoney in the Bank. Kane and Mysterio continued to clash as they accused one another of being the assailant behind the mysterious ambush of The Undertaker. AtSummerSlamon August 15, The Undertaker returned to confront Kane and Rey Mysterio, only to be attacked with aTombstone Piledriverby Kane. With Kane revealed as his attacker, the two feuded for the next few months over the World Heavyweight Championship. After losing to Kane in a No Holds Barred match atNight of Championson September 19, Paul Bearer returned as The Undertaker's manager on the September 24 episode ofSmackDown.However, Bearer turned on him atHell in a Cellon October 3 to help Kane win once again in a Hell in a Cell match. The feud ended atBragging Rightson October 24 whenThe Nexushelped Kane defeat The Undertaker in a Buried Alive match (the half-brothers' final singles match against one another). The Undertaker needed surgery for a torn rotator cuff, causing him to be written off. Final years of The Streak (2011–2014) After the2011 Royal Rumble, promotional videos began airing, showing The Undertaker entering and standing within a Western-style, dilapidated shack on a rainy desert inDeath Valley, The birthplace. Each promo ended with the date 2–21–11 being \"burned into\" the screen. On the February 21 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker returned, but before he could speak, Triple H also returned and confronted him. The two challenged each other to a match atWrestleMania XXVII, which was later made aNo Holds Barredmatch and which The Undertaker won by submission. However, he had to be carried away from the ring on a stretcher.Following WrestleMania XXVII in 2011, The Undertaker would take on a more part-time role within the company; he would not have another match onRaworSmackDownuntil 2013. On the January 30, 2012 episode ofRaw SuperShow, The Undertaker returned after a nine-month hiatus to confront Triple H.On the February 13 episode ofRaw SuperShow, Triple H refused The Undertaker's challenge for a WrestleMania rematch.After The Undertaker accused Triple H of living in the shadow of Shawn Michaels on the February 20 episode ofRaw SuperShow, Triple H accepted the challenge on the condition that it would be a Hell in a Cell match; Michaels was later inserted as guest referee in the match. AtWrestleMania XXVIII, The Undertaker, while debuting his new look, a mohawk, defeated Triple H to extend his Streak to 20–0. After the match, The Undertaker and Michaels carried Triple H to the entrance stage, where the three embraced.Later in 2012, The Undertaker appeared on the1000th episode ofRawon July 23 to help Kane, who had been confronted byJinder Mahal, Curt Hawkins,Tyler Reks,Hunico,CamachoandDrew McIntyre. The Brothers of Destruction overcame and dominated the six other wrestlers. The Undertaker's next television appearance was onOld School Rawon March 4, 2013, where he opened the show by performing his signature entrance. CM Punk, Randy Orton, Big Show andSheamusfought in a fatal four-way match to determine who would face him atWrestleMania 29, which Punk won.After the real-life death of Paul Bearer on March 5, 2013, a storyline involving Punk regularlyspitingThe Undertaker through displays of flippancy and disrespect towards Bearer's death began.Punk interrupted The Undertaker's ceremony to honor Bearer onRaw, stealing the trademark urn and later using it to attack Kane, humiliate The Brothers of Destruction and mock Bearer.The Undertaker defeated Punk at WrestleMania 29 to extend his Streak to 21–0 and then took back the urn.The following night onRaw, The Undertaker came out to pay his respects to Bearer, but was interrupted byThe Shield, who attempted to attack Undertaker beforeTeam Hell No(Kane andDaniel Bryan) made the save.The Undertaker would wrestle his finalRawmatch (his first since 2010) on the April 22 episode, teaming with Kane and Bryan against The Shield in a losing effort.Four days later, he wrestled his finalSmackDownmatch (also his first since 2010), defeating Shield memberDean Ambroseby submission. Afterward, The Undertaker was attacked by Ambrose and the rest of The Shield, who performed a triple powerbomb through the broadcast table on him. On the February 24, 2014, episode ofRaw, The Undertaker returned to confront Brock Lesnar and accepted his challenge for a match atWrestleMania XXX.After 25 minutes and threeF-5s, Lesnar won the match at WrestleMania bypinfall, ending The Undertaker's Streak in what was described as \"the most shocking result in WWE history\".Following the match, The Undertaker was hospitalized with a severe concussion which he suffered in the first minutes of the match.In a December 2014 interview, Vince McMahon confirmed that it was his final decision to have Lesnar end The Streak and that The Undertaker was initially shocked at the decision. McMahon justified his decision that it would significantly enhance Lesnar's formidability to set up the next WrestleMania event and that there were no other viable candidates to fill Lesnar's role.In 2014, The Undertaker was also offered to be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame, but he declined the offer, feeling it wasn't time yet. Final feuds (2015–2020) In February 2015,Bray Wyattbegan a series of cryptic promos which led toFastlane, where Wyatt challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 31, which The Undertaker accepted.At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Wyatt after twoTombstone Piledrivers. AtBattlegroundin July, The Undertaker made his return by attacking Lesnar as he was on the verge of defeatingSeth Rollinsduring his WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, causing the match to end in a disqualification win for Lesnar.The next night onRaw, The Undertaker explained his actions as revenge, not against Lesnar breaking The Streak, but rather the constant taunting he allowed Paul Heyman to engage in. Later that night, after The Undertaker and Lesnar brawled throughout the arena and had to be separated, a rematch was scheduled forSummerSlamin August, where The Undertaker controversially defeated Lesnar. Lesnar put The Undertaker in akimura lockand the timekeeper rang the bell after seeing The Undertaker supposedly indicating submission, but since the referee had not seen a submission and never stopped the match, the match continued. The confusion allowed The Undertaker to surprise Lesnar with a low blow and applyHell's Gate, in which Lesnar passed out.AtHell in a Cell, The Undertaker was defeated by Lesnar in a Hell in a Cell match after Lesnar hit him with his own low blow, returning the favor, and executing what was his thirdF-5of the match. While the crowd gave The Undertaker an ovation after his loss to Lesnar, he was attacked and captured byThe Wyatt Family(Bray Wyatt,Luke Harper,Erick RowanandBraun Strowman), who carried him away from the ring.After ambushing and capturing Kane the next night onRaw, Wyatt explained that he had claimed their souls and stole their demonic powers.The Brothers of Destruction returned on the November 9 episode ofRawand attacked The Wyatt Family, setting up a tag team match atSurvivor Series, which honored The Undertaker's 25 years in WWE.At Survivor Series on November 22, the Brothers of Destruction defeated Wyatt and Harper. On the February 22, 2016, episode ofRaw, Vince McMahon placed his son Shane McMahon, who returned to WWE for the first time since 2009, in a Hell in a Cell match atWrestleMania 32against The Undertaker with the stipulation that if Shane won, he would gain control ofRaw.Vince later decided that should Undertaker lose the match against Shane, it would be his final match at WrestleMania.After weeks of random physical confrontations and mind games exchanged between the pair, The Undertaker defeated Shane McMahon at WrestleMania 32.The Undertaker would not appear again until the900th episode ofSmackDownon November 15, issuing a threat to Team SmackDown if they failed to defeat Team Raw at the upcomingSurvivor Seriespay-per-view. The Undertaker appeared on the January 23 episode ofRaw, confronting Brock Lesnar andGoldberg.During theRoyal Rumbleon January 29, The Undertaker entered at number 29, eliminating Goldberg,The Miz,Baron CorbinandSami Zayn, before being eliminated by the number 30 entrant,Roman Reigns.The Undertaker returned on the March 6 episode ofRawand performed a chokeslam on Reigns.This led to a No Holds Barred match between The Undertaker and Reigns atWrestleMania 33,in which The Undertaker lost to Reigns after five spears in his fourth WrestleMania main event.After the match, The Undertaker left his gloves, coat and hat in the center of the ring before slowly making his exit. The Undertaker took part in theRaw 25 Yearsbroadcast on January 22, 2018, his first post-WrestleMania 33 appearance.In the months prior toWrestleMania 34, John Cena challenged The Undertaker to a singles match. At WrestleMania, afterEliasconfronted Cena and was beaten down, The Undertaker's hat and coat appeared in the center of the ring and were struck by lightning. The Undertaker then appeared and beat Cena in a three-minute squash match.Three weeks later, The Undertaker defeatedRusevat WWE'sGreatest Royal Rumbleevent in a casket match.AtSuper Show-Downin Australia on October 6, The Undertaker faced Triple H in ano disqualification matchbilled as the \"Last Time Ever\"; they were accompanied by Kane and Shawn Michaels, respectively. The Undertaker lost the match after interference from Michaels. After the match, the four men shook hands as a sign of respect, however, The Undertaker and Kane would follow this by attacking them.As a result, the duos reunited their respective tag teams—the Brothers of Destruction and D-Generation X—and faced each other atCrown Jewelon November 2, where The Undertaker and Kane lost their final match as a tag team. On the April 8, 2019 episode ofRaw, the night afterWrestleMania 35—the first WrestleMania in 19 years without his involvement—The Undertaker appeared to interrupt and attack Elias during a musical performance.The Undertaker made his return to the ring to face Goldberg atSuper ShowDownin Saudi Arabia on June 7, defeating him in the main event of the night in their first match against each other.On the June 24, 2019 episode ofRaw, during a handicap match in which Roman Reigns was dominated by Shane McMahon and Drew McIntyre, The Undertaker suddenly appeared and attacked McMahon and McIntyre. The Undertaker and Reigns were later scheduled to face McMahon and McIntyre in a No Holds Barred tag team match atExtreme Rules. At Extreme Rules, The Undertaker and Reigns won. This turned out to be The Undertaker's final match in front of a live audience in the United States. The Undertaker returned atSuper ShowDownin Saudi Arabia on February 27, 2020, as a surprise replacement in agauntlet match. He entered the match last, replacing Rey Mysterio and defeatingAJ Stylesto win theTuwaiq Mountain Trophy.AtElimination Chamberduring a match between Styles andAleister Black, The Undertaker made another surprise appearance with an attack on Styles.The following night onRaw, Styles challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 36.Over the following weeks that led up to WrestleMania, a resentful Styles made unprecedented efforts to expose The Undertaker, going so far as departing from bashing his Deadman gimmick, instead taking to ametafictionform of bashing Calaway himself. The feud saw Styles solely referring to The Undertaker by his real name, Mark Calaway, referencing his age and his wife,Michelle McCool. In response, The Undertaker cut promos of ominous warning against Styles in which for the first time in years, hebroke from the Deadman gimmickby presenting as himself out of character. In doing so, elements of his American Badass gimmick were reflected with Calaway making appearances in his biker gear. At WrestleMania 36, The Undertaker presented his third and final identity, \"The Unholy Trinity,\" a combination of The Deadman, American Badass, and himself as Mark Calaway, this blend allowing him to trash talk Styles over real life matters during their encounter, while also able to maintain his superhuman horror capabilities.In what was subsequently learned to be The Undertaker's final match, he and Styles fought in a cemetery at a secluded rural locale, competing in what was a cinematic, narrative-heavy brawl similar to \"Buried Alive matches\",named the \"Boneyard match\". Despite the assistance ofGallows and Anderson, The Undertaker buried Styles in the grave to win this match and ride off on motorcycle into the sunset,scoring his 25th WrestleMania victory to complete his professional wrestling career. Retirement and Hall of Fame (2020–2022) On June 21, 2020, in the final episode of theUndertaker: The Last Ridedocumentary, Callaway retired from the professional wrestling industry.Later on that November, he confirmed that he was \"officially retired\" in an interview.Many wrestlers and other public figures paid tribute to him on their social media pages.Madison Square Garden, regarded as the most famous venue in professional wrestling, also paid tribute to him. Undertaker, wearing his trademark mortician trench coat and stetson hat, made an appearance at the conclusion of theSurvivor Seriesevent on November 22, 2020. The event is dedicated to him, commemorating thirty years from that time since his WWE debut. There, he reiterated that his career had been completed, giving an emotional farewell speech which ended in typical Undertaker fashion: \"My time has come to let The UndertakerRest in Peace.\"Aten-bell salutewas also given for The Undertaker character as he did his traditional take-the-knee pose, and a holographic image of Paul Bearer, Undertaker's former manager, was projected in the ring. News that the Undertaker would be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fameclass of 2022were responded to with extensive praise from WWE fans, the professional wrestling community and media outlets alike.On March 3, 2022, onThe Pat McAfee Show, WWE Chairman Vince McMahon stated that he would be Undertaker's WWE Hall of Fame inductor. In praising Undertaker both inside and outside of character in a heartfelt message, McMahon said that the induction would be one of the most difficult endeavors of his life because of his longtime history with Undertaker, and how close they were behind the scenes.Undertaker issued aTwitterresponse later on that same day, which read: After over 30 years of long roads traveled, countless hours of TV, and one hell of a ride together… couldn't think of anyone better to put me in the #WWEHOF than @VinceMcMahon. One final ride together,old-timer!!! On April 1, 2022, The Undertaker was formally inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame at theAmerican Airlines Center.At his induction, Calaway made a 137-minute speech that opened with a 10-minute, emotional standing ovation from the live audience, bringing Calaway to tears. Calaway's acceptance speech, hailed by media outlets as matchless and beyond compare, was motivational and shared his collection of self-reflections and life philosophies for success. In making his speech, he stood before several genres of his Deadman character, through the varying costumes displayed on mannequins.Later that same weekend, Calaway made appearances on the entrance stage on both nights ofWrestleMania. Sporadic appearances (2023–present) On January 23, 2023, The Undertaker made an appearance at the Monday Night Raw 30th Anniversary special,Raw is XXX. He appeared under his American Badass gimmick, confrontingLA Knightand seemingly giving his approval toBray Wyatt.On October 10, 2023, The Undertaker made his first appearance onWWE NXTchokeslammingBron Breakker. On April 5, 2024, The Undertaker inductedMuhammad Aliinto the 2024WWE Hall of Fame.On April 7, 2024, The Undertaker appeared briefly during the Night 2 main event ofWrestleMania XLbetween Roman Reigns and Cody Rhodes where he aided Cody Rhodes and chokeslammed The Rock. Undertaker gimmick, identities and character evolution The Deadman identity Under his undead,funereal, and macabre horror-themed gimmick, in which The Undertaker is subtitled \"The Deadman\", he routinely took to alarmist tactics to disrupt the focus and confidence of his rivals.Often, these alarmist tactics were morbid and applied the use of props that reflected demise as the consequence of a wrestling match against him: caskets (sometimes personalizing casket designs to represent his opponents),body bags,corpse-likeeffigies,cemeteries,hearses.To that end, the gimmick evoked funerals and death down to finer details, such as in the character's birthplace ofDeath Valley, catchphrase of \"Rest in Peace\", signature finishing maneuver of theTombstone Piledriver, awrestling pinthat had the opponent resemble a corpse with their arms crossed over their chest, etc.Adding to his many effects of treating his wrestling matches as funeral services, The Undertaker frequently served a list of specialized matches that were personalized to his Deadman gimmick:Casket Match, Body Bag Match,Buried Alive Match,Last Ride Match,Hell in a Cell, Boneyard Match, etc. Filled withbells and whistles, The Undertaker's godlike superhuman presence and indignation were signaled byfuneral tolls, settings of pitch-black darkness and blue/purple semidarkness, flickering lights, hazy fog, thunder, lightning strikes, and other bone-chilling scenes and sound activity.Portrayed as miraculously resilient to destruction,The Undertaker yielded numerous resurrections,which sometimes gave way to reincarnations of his Deadman gimmick. While maintaining his general character premise as death personified with accompanying alarmist tactics throughout all sagas of the Deadman,each incarnation took on its own distinct appearance and characterization. For example, some Deadman incarnations wereunearthly and zombie-likewhile others wereGoth and comparatively more human. The earliest of The Undertaker's Deadman incarnations (nicknamed in external media as \"The Old West Mortician\" to distinguish from his other Deadman incarnations) depicted him as a menacing derivative of the Wild West undertakers in television westerns.In his own rendition, he was garbed in a black trench coat; gray-striped tie; black-ribboned, blackstetson; grayboot spats; and gray gloves(black gloves for first few appearances before gray).However, most of The Undertaker's Deadman character development (sleeve tattoos, longer/straightened/black hair, purple/blue color representation, elements of thunder and lightning, etc.) would not surface until his first reincarnation into what was hisrebirthed Deadmanvariation, lasting fromSummerSlam 94'(resurrection from adeath angle with Yokozuna) throughBuried Alive: In Your House(The Undertaker buried alive by Mankind and numerous other WWF heel wrestlers).In these initial zombie-like incarnations of his gimmick, he was portrayed as impervious to pain, something accomplished by Calawaynot sellinghis opponents' attacks. Among the many ways this was showcased was The Undertaker's maneuver of raising up from ataken downsupine positioninto ahigh Fowler's position, dubbed \"the sit-up\" (often accompanied by his sharp hissing sound). Beginning early on, The Undertaker's persona was complemented with histrionically spooky, wailing managerPaul Bearer, introduced to represent and guide The Deadman.Playing a key role, Bearer used an urn to transmit mysterious powers to The Undertaker that had supernatural healing effects on him during combat.Also linked to The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick were the druids–a team of mysterious, incognito cult-like members, completely disguised in black hooded clergy robes.A mysterious choir chantingsounded whenever the druids presented.The druids typically appeared for the purposes of removing The Undertaker where he had seemingly been extinguished by his enemies (as opposed toEMTsor medical personnel used for the rest of WWF/E talent). The druids were also seen reproducing The Undertaker in recovered, wrathful states to those same enemies who were thought to have extinguished him. The Undertaker took to many trademarked idiosyncrasies and themes, including a stylized throat-slashing gesture,grimacing facial expressions fit with eyeballs rolled back so that only the whites of his eyes displayed,backwards hair-whips so as to expose his ominous facial expressions,fixed stares on adversaries,protruding tongue displays, jolting of his head with a fury so that it faced the direction of his antagonists,his celebratory take-the-knee pose,sonorous vocalizations,collectively labeling his fanbase as \"Creatures of the Night\",voice of God-like promos in which things were interrupted with dimmed lights and thunder while The Undertaker's communications were heard booming throughout the arena with no physical trace of him;messages filled with death threats of a deeply posthumous insight into impending corpse decomposition, maggot feasting, unsouling and so on.A main attraction of the Deadman gimmick, The Undertaker mesmerized his opponents and viewers alike through elaborately \"bone-chilling\" entrances.The character's godlike powers were routinely put on display in these moments, triggering lights back to the arena either gradually or suddenly dependent on his either slowly or abruptly raised arms.During the vast majority of his wrestling career as the Deadman, The Undertaker used an extended remix ofFrédéric Chopin'sFuneral Marchas histheme music.WWF ComposerJim Johnstonembellished on the Chopin march, using the historic melody as a pre- and post-chorus to a main chorus of bell tolls, along with an original transition section to the song of a slow,lugubriousinstrumental feel.Of his entrances, Calaway has stated, \"When that gong went off, that was go time. The music fit the character. That's the key element of it: the end is at hand for whoever's going to be standing in that ring waiting for me to come down. That was the mindset behind the gong. And the music was just doom and gloom, you knew what was coming.\" Alternate identities of The Undertaker gimmick After a hiatus, Calaway returned in 2000 adopting a human form of the Undertaker gimmick. Under the character's alter ego, he is a semifictional smack-talking,redneckbiker, thoroughly absent of his fully fictional Deadman zombie-like traits and wizardry.In performing this alternate identity, he rode to the ring on motorcycles, chewed tobacco, donned cargo garments and/or denim, printed shirts, and sporty fashion accessories (sunglasses, necklaces, bandanas).His theme music was replaced with popular rock songs of the time, initiallyKid Rock's \"American Bad Ass\" (from which The Undertaker's subtitle used to refer to this second identity derived), and eventuallyLimp Bizkit's \"Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)\".His American Badass catch phrases, such as threats of “I'll make you famous” or references to the wrestling ring as his “yard”, became popular during this era. According toBruce Prichard, Calaway requested this metamorphosis of character since he wanted to be \"the biker–he wanted to be the guy that he is in everyday life\". While explained off-screen for the above reason years later, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it.This transition lasted3+1⁄2years until 2004 when The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity in hybrid form—residual features of his American Badass identity remaining. Among subtle details left over from his biker identity were his in-ringMMAstyle between his stances, strikes, and submissions; penchant to sporadically lower his tank top for a barechested appearance; celebrating victories with an arm-raised fist; etc.This hybrid Deadman (Deadman incarnation most closely based on Calaway himself) would last many years and for the remainder of The Undertaker's professional wrestling career, excluding his final wrestling match. For The Undertaker's final encounter, a Boneyard Match atWrestleMania 36in 2020, he introduced a three-dimensional identity that brought all of his identities into one, dubbed \"The Unholy Trinity:\" a mix of his Deadman identity, American Badass identity, and his natural and genuine identity as Mark Calaway. Gimmick reflective nicknames The Undertaker generated many nicknames from commentators throughout the course of his active wrestling career, some of those names more associated with his Deadman Undertaker identity, including \"The Grim Reaper\" (variants of this used were \"The Reaper\" and \"The Reaper of Wayward Souls\"),\"The Demon of Death Valley\",\"The Man from the Dark Side\",\"The Prince of Darkness\",\"The Lord of Darkness\".He also generated nicknames associated with his American Badass Undertaker identity, including \"Big Evil\" (used in reference to his American Badassheelside),\"Booger Red\".Some of his nicknames were not identity specific but used for the character in general, such as \"The Phenom\". Domestic backstory, parents and brother The Undertaker's gimmick has adark and disturbed family backstorywhich involves him intentionallyburning down his family funeral homeas a teenager, resulting in the deaths of his parents and purportedly a brother of his as well. Undertaker initially denied his then ex-manager Paul Bearer's charges of him committing the arson murder of his family, (though later confessed in late 1998). Instead, Undertaker blamed his younger brother of whom he thought long dead from the incident, describing him as a \"pyromaniac\". This led to Bearer's shocking warnings to proof in the form of the brother, \"Kane\", as alive and well.In late 1997 atIn Your House Badd Blood, Bearer unleashed a vengeful Kane: the fire-personified, juggernaut half-brother of Undertaker, who was fit with a mask to conceal the scarring from Undertaker's arson.In what became a fickle sibling relationship with Bearer (later revealed to be Kane's father) only adding to the pendulum and complexities, Undertaker and Kane went back and forth from one extreme to the other, feuding barbarically at points and yet teami...",
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"WrestleMania VII WrestleMania VIIwas the seventh annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 24, 1991, at theLos Angeles Memorial Sports Arenain Los Angeles. Fourteen matches were shown during thelivebroadcast, with onedark matchheld before the event. The main event sawHulk HogandefeatSgt. Slaughterfor theWWF Championshipas part of astorylinein which Sgt. Slaughter portrayed an Iraqi sympathizer during the United States' involvement in theGulf War. Significant events on the undercard includedThe Undertaker's WrestleMania debut and the beginning ofhis renowned winning streak, a retirement match betweenRandy SavageandThe Ultimate Warriorleading to the former's reunion with estranged loveMiss Elizabeth, as well as the final televised match of the originalHart Foundation, after whichBret Hartbecame primarily a singles wrestler. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\".WrestleMania VII was originally scheduled to be held on March 24, 1991, inLos Angeles, Californiaat theLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum, but the WWF decided to move the event to the adjacentLos Angeles Memorial Sports Arena. The WWF's stated reason for the venue change was that it had security concerns in the wake ofSgt. Slaughter's portrayal of an Iraqi sympathizer during theGulf War.This was dismissed by outlets such as SLAM! Sports of Canada, who chalked up the venue change to poor advanced ticket sales, and the company having difficulty filling the estimated 100,000 seats available.According to former WWF executiveBruce Prichard, both were accurate statements. In hisSomething to Wrestle Withpodcast, Prichard said that even if the WWF had sold out the Coliseum, the scope of the event was too large for police to ensure its security.Prichard explained further in an interview with Kayfabe Commentaries that the WWF would have had to foot the entire bill for the amount of security necessary to keep the wrestlers and fans safe from all potential issues, citing both the possibility of an outside attack and the crime rate of the surrounding neighborhood.Dave Meltzerin theWrestling Observer Newsletterwrote that between 11,900 and 15,000 tickets were sold before the move. He also reported that no tickets had to be refunded, indicating that sales were under 15,500. Comp tickets were believed to help fill the show's crowd. The tagline for the event was\"Superstars and Stripes Forever,\" and is remembered for its theme of American patriotism in the wake of the Gulf War. American flags were hung all over the arena and the ring apron and banners were colored red, white, and blue, which was the basis for the main event betweenHulk HoganandSgt. Slaughterfor theWWF World Heavyweight Championship. This was the first WrestleMania not to featureJesse \"The Body\" Venturaas a color commentator.Gorilla Monsoonhosted the event withBobby Heenan. When Heenan had to manage at ringside in the opening match and again duringMr. Perfect'sIntercontinental Heavyweight Championshipdefense, Monsoon was joined on the commentary byJim Dugganand \"Lord\"Alfred Hayesrespectively. In addition,Regis Philbinhelped with commentary on the main event whileJeopardy!hostAlex Trebekserved as the ring announcer. Willie Nelsonsang a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\" before the show. Other celebrity guests in attendance for WrestleMania VII included Philbin, Trebek, andMarla Maplesas backstage announcers.George Steinbrenner,Paul Maguire,Macaulay Culkin,Donald Trump,Lou Ferrigno,Chuck Norris,Beverly D'AngeloandHenry Winklerappeared as spectators.Bob Costaswas scheduled to make an appearance, but he canceled weeks before the event due to his objection to the main event angle. Theartistfor the promotionalposteris renowned illustrative painterJoe Juskoknown mainly for his work within the comic book industry. Randy Savage required surgery on a broken thumb in late January before the event. The injury required him to miss several matches leading up to WrestleMania. Storylines The two main feuds entering WrestleMania in 1991 were betweenHulk Hoganand WWF ChampionSgt. SlaughterandThe Ultimate Warriorand\"Macho King\" Randy Savage, and in a way, both were intertwined. Warrior had defeated Hogan for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania a year earlier and entered 1991 as the champion. In the meantime, Sgt. Slaughter had returned to the WWF near the end of 1990 after spending five years wrestling in theAmerican Wrestling Association. When he returned, Slaughter announced that he had turned his back on his country and had become anIraqisympathizer and follower ofSaddam Hussein. He had also revealed an alliance with an Iraqi military leader,General Adnan, who became his advisor (Adnan having followed Slaughter from the AWA to participate in the angle). This coincided with the increasing tension in the Middle East that was going on at that time, which eventually would lead toOperation Desert Stormand American involvement in the conflict. Slaughter would eventually set his sights on the Warrior, and the two agreed to a match at theRoyal Rumblein January 1991. Savage, meanwhile, was trying to regain the WWF Championship that he had lost atWrestleMania Vto Hogan and challenged Warrior repeatedly to give him a shot. Warrior defeated Savage to successfully defend the title numerous times and subsequently refused to grant any more title shots, so Savage decided to seek another remedy. During the match between Warrior and Slaughter, Savage and his managerQueen Sherricame to ringside and got involved in the match. Warrior picked up an interfering Sherri and tossed her from the ring onto Savage. Slaughter capitalized by driving Warrior down, leaving him hanging over the second rope. Savage then struck Warrior with his royalscepteras Slaughter kept the referee's attention, knocking the champion unconscious. Slaughter then hit an elbow drop on the Warrior and pinned him to become the new champion. After he came to and realized what Savage had done, Warrior charged to the back looking for Savage. He then issued a challenge for a retirement match for the two at WrestleMania, which Savage accepted. Hogan, having no connection with the ongoing story to this point, entered the Royal Rumble match as its defending champion. He won the match by eliminating his old rivalEarthquakelast, then went backstage to be interviewed byGene Okerlund. During the course of the interview, the word was relayed to the two that Slaughter and Adnan were celebrating their triumph by defacing an American flag. Hogan then promised to stand up for his country and take the title from Slaughter as soon as possible, and was later named the leading contender for the WWF Championship, which he had not contended for since losing the title to the Warrior atWrestleMania VI. Leading up to the show, Hogan continued to cite the ongoing real-life war in their feud. On one episode ofWWF Prime Time Wrestling, Hogan stated that Iraq would surrender in the war at the moment he defeated Slaughter. Event The opening bout was asingles matchpitting theBrooklyn BrawleragainstKoko B. Ware. Ware defeated the Brooklyn Brawler by pinfall. This was adark matchthat did not air on thepay-per-viewbroadcast. The pay-per-view broadcast began with a performance of \"America the Beautiful\" byWillie Nelson. The second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was a tag team match pittingthe BarbarianandHakuagainstthe Rockers. In the end,Shawn Michaelshit Haku with aflying bodypressand pinned him for the three count. After that,Dino Bravoand theTexas Tornadofaced off in the ring. In the end, The Texas Tornado won the bout by pinfall following adiscus punch. Next,the British Bulldogtook on theWarlord. In the end, The British Bulldog performed arunning powerslamon Warlord to win the match. After that, theWWF Tag Team Championswere on the line withthe Hart Foundationdefended their titles againstthe Nasty Boys. In the end,Jerry SagsstruckJim Neidhartwith a motorcycle helmet, enablingBrian Knobbsto pin him, earning The Nasty Boys their first tag team championship in WWF. Next,Jake RobertsandRick Martelcompeted in ablindfold match. In the end, Roberts struck Martel with aDDTand pinned him, winning the match. After that,Jimmy Snukafaced off againstThe Undertaker. Although Snuka attempted to bring Undertaker off his feet, he was unable too. In the end, Snuka attempted aSpringboard crossbodymaneuver on Undertaker but Undertaker caught him and hit Snuka withTombstone Piledriverfor the victory. This marked the beginning of the Undertaker'sstreak. Next, was theretirement matchbetweenRandy Savageandthe Ultimate Warrior. Before both men came out,Bobby Heenanspotted Savage's formervaletMiss Elizabethin the crowd. Savage and Queen Sherri came to the ring carried on a throne and Warrior walked out instead of his trademark running. The match started slow, both men initially insisted on chain wrestling until Savage started usingstrikeson Warrior. Savage went to the top rope and attempted a crossbody on Warrior but he caught him but put Savage on his feet and slapped him. Savage retreated from the ring and grabbed a chair at ringside and threw it at Warrior but it missed. Savage snuck back into the ring after being distracted by the referee picking up the chair and attacked Warrior. Warrior irish whipped Savage into the corner and attempted a splash but Savage got out of the way and Warrior fell to the outside. Sherri picked up Warrior and struck his throat when the referee wasn't looking and Savage performed a diving axe handle from the top turnbuckle to outside the ring. Savage got back into the ring but Sherri picked up Warrior again and began hitting him but Warrior pushed her over. Savage then came out of the ring and attacked Warrior from behind. Eventually, Warrior got back in the ring and Savage hit Warrior with a body slam for a two count. After a brief back and fourth, Savage attempted to wear Warrior down with a sleeper hold but Warrior got out of it and ran on the ropes but both men collided with each other in the center of the ring. Savage got Warrior up but Warrior countered with a small package but Sherri distracted the referee and when the referee turned around he counted but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior began arguing with the referee and Savage took advantage by delivering a running knee lift which propelled Warrior into the referee, taking him out. Savage then held Warrior in place and Sherri took her shoe off so she could hit Warrior with it. She climbed to the top turnbuckle and attempted and axe handle with the shoe but Warrior got out of the way and she struck Savage with it instead. Warrior chased Sherri around ringside until Savage intervened and rolled up Warrior for a two count. Savage performed a stun gun on Warrior and performed a clothesline to the back of the head. After body slamming Warrior, Savage climbed to the top rope and performed five diving elbow drops on Warrior and pinned him but Warrior kicked out. Warrior then got a surge of energy and fought back against Savage and delivered a gorilla press slam and splash to the back and pinned him but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior then began talking to his hands and asking his gods if he should step aside and lose the match and questioning whether his destiny is to lose to Savage. Warrior stepped out of the ring to give Savage a count out win after apparently receiving an answer from above. Before Warrior could do that though, Savage attacked him while he was on the apron. Savage then attempted an axe handle to the outside but Warrior moved out the way and Savage hit the barricade instead. Warrior got Savage in the ring and performed three shoulder tackles on Savage and pinned him for the three count. After winning, Warrior put on his entrance coat and celebrated in the ring before leaving. After he had left, Sherri berated Savage who was still lying on the ring canvas trying to recover from his match. Sherri began attacking Savage in the ring but Elizabeth hopped over the barricade and got into the ring and grabbed Sherri and threw her to the outside. Elizabeth began crying and both Savage and Elizabeth embraced in the ring. The two then left the ring. After that,Demolitiontook onGenichiro TenryuandKōji Kitao. In the end, Tenryu performed apowerbombonSmashand stacked him up for the win. Next, was a singles match betweenWWF Intercontinental ChampionMr. PerfectagainstBig Boss Manwith Perfect's title on the line. In the end, Big Boss Man was attacked by The Barbarian and Haku causing adisqualificationvictory for Big Boss Man. After that,EarthquakeandGreg Valentinefaced off and Earthquake took an advantage early on and performed anEarthquake Splashfor the three count. Next,Legion of Doomtook onPower and Glory. In the end, The Legion of Doom performed a 'doomsday deviceonPaul RomaandAnimalpinned him for the victory. After that, was a match betweenTed DiBiaseandVirgil. In the end,Roddy Pipercame out and distracted DiBiase. When Virgil threw DiBiase to the outside Piper continued distracting him and was unable to enter the ring thus Virgil won bycountout. In the penultimate match,The Mountiefaced off againstTito Santana. In the end,Jimmy Hartdistracted the referee and The Mountie zapped Santana with hiscattle prodand pinned him for a quick victory. In the main event the reigningWWF ChampionSgt. Slaughterdefend his title againstHulk Hogan. Slaughter entered withGeneral Adnanwho was waiving theFlag of Iraq. Hogan entered waiving theFlag of the United Statesto a thunderousovation. Both men started the match circling one another. They began chain wrestling and Slaughter pinned Hogan in the corner and the referee had to separate them. Slaughter once again pinned Hogan in the corner but Hogan shoved Slaughter who was sent to the other side of the ring. Hogan then knocked down Slaughter who retreated to the outside. Hogan went to the outside to get Slaughter but Adnan hit him from behind but Hogan wasn't phased and began chasing Adnan and Slaughter hit Hogan in the back with a steel chair but Hogan still wasn't phased. Hogan grabbed Slaughter and sent him into the ring. Slaughter begged for mercy and then poked Hogan in the eye. Slaughter then began wearing down Hogan. Hogan then knocked Slaughter down and Adnan got on the apron to taunt Hogan but Hogan hit him which sent him down on the floor. Hogan then took control and began beating Slaughter. Hogan then went to the top rope but Adnan grabbed Hogan's foot and Slaughter grabbed Hogan and threw him into the middle of the ring. Slaughter then clotheslined Hogan out of the ring and began hitting him with a steel chair. Slaughter then grabbed some TV cables and began choking Hogan with them. Slaughter took Hogan inside the ring and delivered a backbreaker for a two count. Slaughter began arguing with the referee and continued to beat Hogan and then put him in aBoston Crabsubmission. Hogan grabbed the ropes to break the hold but Slaughter thought he had won but the referee told him he hadn't. Slaughter began giving knees to Hogan's back and went to the top rope and delivered a foot stomp to Hogan's back and pinned him but Adnan accidentally distracted the referee. When the referee turned around and began counting Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter went to the outside and grabbed a steel chair. Hogan, who was leaning on the ropes facing the outside was hit in the hide by Slaughter with the steel chair. Slaughter then pinned Hogan but Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter then began hitting Hogan in the head, causing him to bleed. Hogan attempted a comeback but was not able too. Slaughter then put Hogan in theCamel clutchbut would release the hold to stomp a few times on Hogan's back, only to put the hold on again. Hogan got up while Slaughter still had the hold applied and attempted to ram Slaughter into the turnbuckle but Slaughter released the hold and shoved Hogan into the turnbuckle. Slaughter then asked Adnan for the flag of Iraq and Adnan handed him it. Slaughter then placed the flag of Iraq on Hogan and pinned him but Hogan kicked out at two and Hogan grabbed the flag and tore it in front of Slaughter. Hogan then hulked up and even though Slaughter began hitting him, his punches had no effect. Hogan then irish whipped Slaughter off the ropes and delivered a big boot. Hogan then peformed a leg drop on Slaughter for the three count and thus became a record three-time WWF World Heavyweight Champion. Hogan then waived the Flag of the United States and celebrated in the ring. Reception The official attendance of WrestleMania VII held at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena was 16,158.JournalistDave Meltzerreported that the paid attendance was approximately 10,500. Aftermath The Undertaker's victory debut at the event marked the beginning of hisWrestleMania streak. Backstage as Hogan was being interviewed on his victory over Sgt. Slaughter, Slaughter attacked Hogan by throwing a fireball in his face. Hogan quickly recovered from the attack and defended the belt primarily against Slaughter, largely in \"Desert Storm\" (i.e., no-disqualification) matches. He also had to deal with the returningIron Sheik, who was now competing as Colonel Mustafa. Hogan and the Ultimate Warrior eventually teamed up atSummerSlam 1991, defeating Slaughter, Mustafa, and their manager, General Adnan, in a two-vs.-three handicap match. Savage returned to television in a non-wrestling role as a color commentator for the WWF's flagship syndicated program,Superstars; although a fan favorite to the crowd, much of his commentary was heel-leaning. Meanwhile, the storyline with Miss Elizabeth continued, culminating with Savage proposing to her in the ring leading to an on-air wedding at SummerSlam 1991 dubbedThe Match Made in Heaven. (The wedding was kayfabe, as Savage and Elizabeth were already legally married.) VirgilandTed DiBiasefeuded with each other until November 1991, including facing off at SummerSlam 1991 when DiBiase lost his Million Dollar Belt to Virgil. After DiBiase won his belt back in November with the help ofThe Repo Man(formerly Smash of Demolition), their feud ended at theThis Tuesday in TexasPPV when DiBiase and Repo Man defeated Virgil andTito Santanain a tag team match. Genichiro TenryuandKōji Kitaowere on loan from the Japanese promotionSuper World of Sports. The WWF co-promoted several cards in Japan with the group, including twoTokyo Domeshows on March 30 and December 12, 1991. Although SWS folded in June 1992, Tenryu's follow-up promotion,WAR, co-promoted the WWF's first Japanese tour in 1994. After WrestleMania VII,The Hart Foundationdisbanded.Bret HartandJim Neidhartwent into singles competition. Bret Hart went on to singles success, defeatingMr. Perfectfor the WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam 1991, and later in 1992 would win the WWF Championship when he defeatedRic Flairin hisfather's home town ofSaskatooninSaskatchewan, Canada. Neidhart would later in 1991 form a tag team called \"The New Foundation\" with Hart's younger brotherOwen. This would be the final WrestleMania appearance forAndré the Giant. André would appear at ringside during the Intercontinental Championship match and assist theBig Boss Manin fending off the Heenan Family. He would make sporadic appearances for the rest of the year before his passing in 1993. Results References External links",
"WrestleMania VIII WrestleMania VIIIwas the eighth annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 5, 1992, at theHoosier DomeinIndianapolis, Indianain the United States. Nine matches were shown during thelivebroadcast, with onedark matchoccurring before the event. Matches held at WrestleMania VIII includedWWF Intercontinental ChampionRoddy Piperdefending his title against former championBret Hart,WWF ChampionRic Flairdefending his title againstRandy Savage,Hulk Hoganfacing his rivalSid Justice. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\".WrestleMania VIII was scheduled to be held on April 5, 1992, at theHoosier DomeinIndianapolis, Indiana. Storylines The original plan for the main event was the long-awaited bout between Ric Flair and Hulk Hogan for the WWF Championship, the meeting between the two legends was even promoted on television in a mock press conference where WWF PresidentJack Tunneyhad announced Hogan as the number one contender to Flair's WWF Championship. Both Flair and Hogan had wrestled against each other in several house show matches and a televised tag match, but not in a televised main event singles match. WrestleMania VIII was changed to a double main event with Hogan wrestling Sid Justice, while Flair wrestled Randy Savage. For storyline purposes, Sid Justice lobbied to wrestle Hulk Hogan due to tensions starting between the two at that year's Royal Rumble, where Hogan was eliminated by Sid Justice. This maneuver on Sid's part led Hogan to helping rival Ric Flair eliminate Justice and then win not only the Royal Rumble but the WWF Championship in the process. This would make Ric Flair only the second man to win both the WWF and NWA World Heavyweight Titles, the first being the original \"Nature Boy\",Buddy Rogers. Event A scheduled match betweenthe British BulldogandThe Berzerkerwas cut due to time constraints. The opening bout was atag team matchpittingthe Beverly Brothersagainstthe Bushwhackers. The Bushwhackers won the match by pinfall. This was adark matchthat did not air on the pay-per-view broadcast. The pay-per-view broadcast opened withcountry musicsingerReba McEntireperforming \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". The second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was aSingles matchbetweenShawn MichaelsandTito Santana. Michaels won the match by pinfall after reversing abody slamattempt into abody press. Following the second bout,the Legion of Doomand their managerPaul Elleringwere interviewed byGene Okerlund. The Legion of Doom were originally supposed to challengeMoney Incfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipat WrestleMania VIII but due toHawkbeing under suspension until after WrestleMania they were replaced in the match bythe Natural Disasters. The third bout was a singles match betweenJake Robertsandthe Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall after giving Roberts aTombstone Piledriveroutside of the ring. The fourth bout was a singles match in whichWWF Intercontinental ChampionRoddy Piperdefended his title againstBret Hart. Hart defeated Piper by pinfall after reversing Piper'ssleeper holdinto a pin, thus winning the WWF Intercontinental Championship. Following the fourth bout, a pre-recorded interview withLex Lugeraired in which he promoted theWorld Bodybuilding Federation. The fifth bout was aneight-man tag team matchpittingBig Boss Man,Jim Duggan,Sgt. Slaughter, andVirgilagainstThe Mountie,The Nasty Boys, andRepo Man.Family FeudhostRay Combswas a guestring announcerfor the eight-man tag match. Big Boss Man, Duggan, Slaughter, and Virgil won the match by pinfall whenJerry SagsaccidentallypunchedBrian Knobbs, enabling Virgil to pin Knobbs. The sixth bout was a singles match in whichWWF ChampionRic Flairdefended his title againstRandy Savage. Savage defeated Flair by pinfall using aroll-upto win the title. At the time the company had a \"no blood\" policy. Nonetheless, Ric Flair was caughtbladingdirectly on camera and was fined several thousand dollars.In one of his first appearances in the WWF,Shane McMahonwas one of the backstage officials who attempted to keepMiss Elizabethaway from ringside during the Flair/Savage match. He then restrained Savage in the ensuing brawl after the contest. The seventh bout was a singles match betweenRick MartelandTatanka. Tatanka won the match by pinfall using across body block. The eighth bout was a tag team match in whichWWF Tag Team ChampionsMoney Inc.defended their titles againstthe Natural Disasters. The Natural Disasters won the bout bycountoutafter Money Inc abandoned the match. The ninth bout was a singles match betweenOwen HartandSkinner. Hart won the match by pinfall using aroll-up. The main event bout was a singles match betweenHulk HoganandSid Justice. Hogan won the match bydisqualificationafter Justice's managerHarvey Whipplemaninterfered. The finish to the Justice-Hogan match actually did not occur as planned - the original plan was for Hogan to hit the leg drop on Justice and forPapa Shangoto do a run in and break up the pin causing a disqualification; however, Papa Shango either missed or misjudged his cue and was late in getting down to the ring, causing Justice to have to improvise by kicking out of the leg drop. Following the match, Justice and Shango attacked Hogan untilthe Ultimate Warriormade a surprise return, helping Hogan drive Justice and Shango away. Reception Critics praised the Intercontinental Championship match between Piper and Hart. Thomas Golianopoulos ofComplex Sportsranked it at number 15 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, describing it as \"A stiff match that veers from amateur wrestling to all-out street fight with a great finish.\"Golianopoulos also ranked the Flair vs. Savage match at number 19 on the same list, praising the in-ring psychology despite an abrupt finish.On the other hand, Dave Meltzer of theWrestling Observer Newslettergave the Hogan/Justice main event negative two stars, citing their lackluster performance and the late entry of Papa Shango, which necessitated a hastily rewritten ending. The main event was also ranked by YouTube wrestling channel Cultaholic as the worst WrestleMania main event of all time in their 2019 ranking of every WrestleMania Main Event,while saying that the WWF Championship Match between Flair and Savage should've been the main event in their 2020 list of 10 WrestleMania Matches That Closed The Show. Aftermath Savage's primary opponent during the spring and summer of 1992 was Ric Flair, with the storyline over Flair's alleged past relationship with Elizabeth continuing to play a major factor. It was revealed later inWWF Magazinethat the photos that Flair had shown of himself with Elizabeth were fakes, and that they were actually of Savage and Elizabeth. In real life, Savage and Elizabeth were about toseparate, and did, with Elizabeth making her final WWF appearance on April 19, 1992 at theUK Rampagepay-per-view. WrestleMania VIII marked Elizabeth's last major pay-per-view appearance in the United States for the WWF. Although Savage and Flair continued feuding, the Elizabeth aspect was dropped from the storyline, and the former couple's divorce was finalized in September 1992. Savage briefly addressed the divorce in an issue ofWWF Magazine, but it was otherwise not mentioned in kayfabe. Shawn Michaels began receiving his first major push as a main-event singles competitor, as he would challenge Randy Savage for the WWF Championship in Europe, while challenging Bret Hart for the WWF Intercontinental Championship in the United States, while occasionally teaming with Ric Flair in tag team matches against Hart and Savage. Michaels eventually won the WWF Intercontinental Championship from The British Bulldog (who had won the title from Hart at theSummerSlamevent inLondon,Englandin August) in October. The Hulk Hogan-Sid Justice match was billed as Hogan's \"last match\", when in actuality, Hogan took a hiatus, due to the steroid scandal which was beginning to emerge in the news media.Piper also took a hiatus from the ring following WrestleMania VIII. Roberts left the company and would return four years later, using a \"born-again Christian\" gimmick. Sid Justice was largely unsuccessful in post-WrestleMania matches against the Ultimate Warrior and The Undertaker and eventually left the company, returning in 1995. Results References External links",
"WrestleMania IX WrestleMania IXwas the ninth annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). The event took place on April 4, 1993, atCaesars Palacein theLas Vegassuburb ofParadise,Nevada. It was the first WrestleMania event held outdoors. WrestleMania IX was built around two main storylines. The first was the seemingly unstoppableYokozunachallengingBret Hartfor theWWF Championshipin the main event, a right he earned by winning the1993 Royal Rumble. The other major storyline was the return ofHulk Hogan, who had departed the WWF followingWrestleMania VIIIbut returned to team withBrutus Beefcakeagainst theWWF Tag Team Champions,Money Inc.(Ted DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schyster). Hogan and Beefcake lost the tag team match, but Hogan later faced Yokozuna for the title in an impromptu, unadvertised 22-second match after Yokozuna defeated Hart to win the championship. In addition,Shawn Michaelsretained theIntercontinental Championship, though he lost his match againstTatanka. The event has been panned by critics and fans alike. The most frequent criticism has been related to the match betweenThe UndertakerandGiant Gonzalez, Hulk Hogan's title win, and the Romantogasworn by announcers. Both the pay-per-view buyrate and the attendance for the event dropped from the previous year's WrestleMania. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\".WrestleMania IX was scheduled to be held on April 4, 1993, atCaesars Palacein theLas Vegassuburb ofParadise,Nevada. Early TV promos for WrestleMania IX ticket sales, airing in December 1992, focused on shots of Hulk Hogan and Bret Hart, with quick shots of Doink the Clown, Razor Ramon, Crush, Shawn Michaels, Ric Flair, and Randy Savage also shown. Hogan had notably not appeared on WWF TV since April of that year. Flair would not be on the roster at the time of the event. This was the first WrestleMania held entirely outdoors, a concept the company did not use again untilWrestleMania XXIVin 2008.Because WrestleMania IX was held in Caesars Palace, the WWF promoted the event as the \"World's Largest Toga Party\".The arena was made to look like a Roman coliseum, and the event featured guards, trumpeters, and several live animals.The company built on this theme by having the commentators, including debuting announcerJim Ross, wear togas. Ring announcerHoward Finkelwas also renamed \"Finkus Maximus\" for the day.Randy Savagecame to the broadcast booth accompanied by women throwing flower petals and feeding him grapes while he rode on a couch carried by guards.Bobby Heenanmade his entrance wearing a toga and riding a camel backwards. Hulk Hogan's visibly damaged eye was explained in the storyline as the result of Ted DiBiase hiring a group of men to attack Hogan before the match. In reality, the cause of injury has been open to debate. One theory is that Randy Savage punched Hogan because he believed that his ex-wifeElizabeth Hulettehad an affair with Hogan while Savage and Hulette were married (the couple divorced in September 1992).WWF officials claimed that the injury was the result of ajet skiaccident. A match was scheduled betweenBam Bam BigelowandKamala, but it was canceled due to time constraints before the event began. Storylines One of the feuds heading into the event was betweenTatankaandIntercontinental ChampionShawn Michaels. Tatanka was in the midst of an undefeated streak and had wrestled Michaels twice in the months leading up to WrestleMania IX.TatankapinnedMichaels in a singles match on the February 13, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestlingand later teamed withThe Nasty Boysin asix-manmatch against Michaels and theBeverly Brothers; Tatanka pinned Michaels to win this match as well.Michaels was also feuding withSensational Sherri, who stood in Tatanka's corner during the match. Sherri had been Michaels'valet. WhenMarty Jannettytried to hit Michaels with a mirror, however, Michaels pulled Sherri in front of him to protect himself.Sherri's anger at getting hit over the head with a mirror caused her toturnon him atRoyal Rumble 1993. The match betweenThe Steiner Brothers(Rick SteinerandScott Steiner) andThe Headshrinkers(SamuandFatu) had little background, althoughAfa, who managed The Headshrinkers, claimed that his team would \"tear heads off\".Doink the ClownandCrushhad been feuding since the January 2, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling. After Crush's match on that show, he confronted Doink, who had thrown a ball at a child in the audience. Crush grabbed Doink by the arm and warned him not to play any more pranks on children.Doink, wearing a cast on the arm that Crush had supposedly injured by grabbing, came to ringside during Crush's match on the January 18 episode ofWWF Monday Night Raw. He apologized to Crush and gave him a flower; when Crush walked away, Doink removed aprosthetic armfrom his cast and attacked Crush, who was later taken away in an ambulance due tokayfabe(storyline) injuries.For storyline purposes, Crush was said to be too injured to compete in the 1993 Royal Rumble match.Doink continued his pranks by squirting Crush with a water pistol and recordingvideo messagesto Crush, which showed two Doinks on the screen. The feud betweenThe Mega-Maniacs(Brutus BeefcakeandHulk Hogan) andWWF Tag Team ChampionsMoney Inc.(Ted DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schyster)stemmed from alegitimateparasailing accident in 1990 that forced Beefcake to undergo reconstructive surgery to his face.He was unable to wrestle again until the February 15, 1993, episode ofRaw. He faced DiBiase in his return match, after which DiBiase and Schyster attacked him. DiBiase held Beefcake for Schyster to hit him in the face with a briefcase, butJimmy Hart, whomanagedMoney Inc., repeatedly got in the way before Schyster shoved him out of the ring. Schyster then hit Beefcake in the face with the briefcase.Hart later claimed that he felt the need to \"step up and do the right thing\" and that he \"had a change of heart\", and his intervention led to him becoming ababyface, or crowd favorite.Shortly thereafter,Hulk Hoganmade his return to the WWF and joined with Beefcake, and manager Jimmy Hart, to formThe Mega-Maniacsand challenge Money Inc. for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Mr. Perfect's rivalry withBobby Heenandated back toSurvivor Series (1992). Perfect andRic Flairwere managed by Heenan, but Perfect turned on Flair and Heenan by agreeing to face them as part of a tag team match at Survivor Series.Flair feuded briefly with Perfect but left the company to return toWorld Championship Wrestling.Lex Lugerhad joinedVince McMahon'sWorld Bodybuilding Federation, but he signed with McMahon's WWF when the bodybuilding company failed.He made his debut at Royal Rumble 1993, where he was unveiled as Heenan's latest wrestler, Narcissus (although thering namewas changed to \"The Narcissist\" Lex Luger). The Undertaker's feud withGiant Gonzalezwas an offshoot of The Undertaker's feud with managerHarvey Wippleman. The Undertaker defeatedKamala, who was managed by Wippleman, atSummerSlam 1992.A rematch was held at Survivor Series 1992, and The Undertaker beat Kamala in acoffin match.Wippleman vowed revenge, and he introduced Gonzalez at Royal Rumble 1993 and instructed him to attack The Undertaker. The Undertaker was eliminated from the Royal Rumble match as a result of the interference, and a match was scheduled between The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez for WrestleMania IX. Beginning with his debut with the company in 1992,Yokozunawaspushedby the WWF as an unstoppable monster heel. Weighing over 500 pounds, he used theBanzai Drop, a move in which he jumped from the second rope and sat on his opponent's chest, to defeat several of the WWF's biggest stars.In a notable match on the February 6, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling, Yokozuna attacked \"Hacksaw\"Jim Dugganand performed the Banzai Drop four times. Due to the kayfabe injuries from the attack, Duggan was unable to wrestle for over two months.Yokozuna earned a title shot againstWWF ChampionBret Hartby winning the 1993 Royal Rumble match.During the contract signing, Yokozuna attacked Hart and performed the Banzai Drop on him. Event Before the televised broadcast began,Tito SantanadefeatedPapa Shangoin adark match,which became available for viewing on April 4, 2019 in the Hidden Gems section on WWE Network and is also notable as the WWE debut of Jim Ross on commentary. In the first match of the pay-per-view event, WWF Intercontinental Champion Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring by a new valet,Luna Vachon. Sensational Sherri followed Tatanka to the ring to prevent Vachon from getting involved in the match. During the match, Vachon approached Tatanka twice outside the ring, but Sherri was able to intervene and stop Vachon from interfering. Tatanka spent much of the match trying to injure Michaels with anarmbarhold. Michaels gained the advantage and almost pinned Tatanka with avictory roll, but Tatanka escaped the pin attempt and performed a war dance to channel his energy. Michaels threw Tatanka out of the ring and tried to jump at him to attack, but Tatanka moved. Michaels was unable to return to the ring within ten seconds; he pulled therefereeout of the ring. Tatanka was awarded the victory bycountoutbut did not win the championship because titles can only change hands as a result of pinfall orsubmission.Vachon attacked Sherri after the match by pulling her off the ring apron and delivery a devastatingclothesline, body slam and kicks to the ribs. Tatanka had to help Sherri make it back to the dressing rooms; however, she would be attacked again at the first aid station by Vachon, who choked her, hit her head against a wall, and dropped a machine on top of her and then Vachon was arrested by security. In the next match, The Steiner Brothers (Rick Steiner and Scott Steiner) faced The Headshrinkers (Samu and Fatu). The advantage switched back and forth several times, as the Steiners threw The Headshrinkers with severalsuplexvariations and used their aerial abilities to attack their opponents from the ring ropes. The Headshrinkers relied mainly on using their power to wear down the Steiners. At one point, Fatu picked Rick Steiner upon his shoulders so that Samu could attack Rick from the top rope. Rick caught Samu instead and performed abodyslamon Samu from Fatu's shoulders. The match ended when Scott Steiner performed aFrankensteinerto pin Samu and win the match. Crush attacked Doink the Clown outside the ring prior to the next match. After getting Doink inside the ring, Crush used his strength advantage to overpower Doink. Doink gained the advantage but missed two attacks from the top rope. Crush used more power moves to wear down Doink, and Doink tried to crawl under the ring. Crush forced Doink back into the ring and performed theCranium Crunch, a head vice submission hold, on Doink. Doink pulled himself to the ropes and broke the hold. Doink hit the referee and knocked him unconscious; as a result of this stagedref bump, a second Doink the Clown (portrayed bySteve Keirn) was able to interfere. He hit Crush with a prosthetic arm, which enabled the first Doink to win by pinfall when the referee regained consciousness. Razor RamonfacedBob Backlundnext. Ramon used his power to dominate the majority of the match, but Backlund usedhip tossesto attempt a comeback. Ramon won the match in under four minutes by pinning Backlund with asmall package. In the following match, Money Inc. (Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster) defended their WWF Tag Team Championship againstThe Mega-Maniacs(Hulk Hogan and Brutus Beefcake). Beefcake wore a protective titanium facemask because of his injured face, and Hulk Hogan came to the ring with a black eye, which led the announcers to speculate about the cause. Money Inc. gained the early advantage, but DiBiase soon injured himself by hitting Beefcake's mask. Hogan and Beefcake brawled with their enemies and controlled the match until Money Inc. was counted out. RefereeEarl Hebnerannounced, however, that he would strip them of their title if they did not return to the ring and continue the match. DiBiase returned to the ring and rendered Hogan unconscious with theMillion Dollar Dreamchokehold. Beefcake attacked DiBiase by applying asleeper holdand then turned his attention to Schyster, but DiBiase hit him in the back with Schyster's briefcase. Money Inc. attacked Beefcake and removed his facemask, but Beefcake fought back and applied a sleeper hold to Schyster. The referee was accidentally knocked unconscious, and Hogan recovered and attacked both members of Money Inc. with Beefcake's facemask. He tried to make the cover for a pinfall, but the referee was still unconscious. Manager Jimmy Hart turned his jacket inside-out to reveal a striped referee jacket; he made thethree-countand declared The Mega-Maniacs the winners of the match. RefereeDanny Daviscame to the ring and disqualified Hogan for using the facemask as a weapon. Money Inc. won the match and retained their championship, but The Mega-Maniacs threw them out of the ring and opened Schyster's briefcase to reveal stacks of cash. They celebrated in the ring and threw the money into the crowd. Lex Luger was accompanied to the ring by four women dressed in bikinis as he prepared to face Mr. Perfect. The match began with technical wrestling, and Perfect tried to injure Luger's knee while Luger worked on Perfect's back. Perfect took control of the match with a powerslam and tried to pin Luger after performing adropkick from the top rope. Luger's foot was on the ropes, however, so the referee halted the three-count and continued the match. Luger gained momentum and pinned Perfect; Perfect's feet were on the rope, but the referee did not see them. Luger continued to attack Perfect after the match and hit him with his forearm, which contains a steel plate as the result of a legitimate motorcycle accident. When Perfect got up, he chased Luger but was attacked by Shawn Michaels backstage. In the next match, The Undertaker faced Giant Gonzalez. Both men tried to use their size and power to control the match. Gonzalez used areverse chinlockto wear The Undertaker down and attacked him outside the ring. The Undertaker regained control of the match and knocked Gonzalez onto his knees. Harvey Wippleman threw Gonzalez a rag soaked withchloroform, which Gonzalez used to knock The Undertaker unconscious. The referee disqualified Gonzalez for using a foreign object and awarded the match to The Undertaker.After the match, The Undertaker recovered and attacked Giant Gonzalez. In the main event and final scheduled match on the card, Bret Hart defended the WWF Championship against Yokozuna. Hart tried to use his technical wrestling abilities against Yokozuna, while Yokozuna relied on his size advantage in the match. Hart gained control at the beginning, but Yokozuna came back with aclothesline,leg drop, andnerve hold. Hart regained the advantage when Yokozuna missed arunning splash. Yokozuna applied another nerve hold but missed a running splash again. He recovered and carried Hart to the middle of the ring, but Hart removed the protective padding on theturnbucklein the corner of the ring. He threw Yokozuna's head into the turnbuckle and applied theSharpshooter, his signature submission hold that stretches the opponent's legs and back.Mr. Fuji, Yokozuna's manager, threw salt in Hart's eyes, which enabled Yokozuna to pin Hart and win the WWF Championship. In an impromptu main event and the final match on the card, Hulk Hogan came to ring to check on Hart's condition. Hogan had stated during an interview earlier in the broadcast that he wanted to face the winner of the match, and Fuji challenged Hogan to face Yokozuna immediately in an impromptu bout. Hogan agreed and entered the ring. Fuji tried to throw salt in Hogan's eyes, but he missed and the salt hit Yokozuna. Hogan performed a leg drop and pinned Yokozuna to win the title in 22 seconds. Reception The event was attended by 16,891 fans, who paid a total of $1,100,000 in admission fees.This represents less than one-third of the number of fans atWrestleMania VIII, which had an attendance of 62,167.The pay-per-view drew a 2.3 buyrate, which was lower than the previous year's 2.8 buyrate. It was higher, however, than the buyrates for any of the following four WrestleManias. WrestleMania IX received overwhelmingly negative reviews. The event has received criticism for what some reviewers have perceived as a poorly booked event. Writing forSLAM! Wrestling, John Powell states that, aside from the Intercontinental and Tag Team Championship matches and the scantily-clad women that accompanied Lex Luger to the ring, the rest of the broadcast was poor. He is also critical of some of the outfits worn for the event, notably Jim Ross's toga and Giant Gonzalez's spray-painted suit.Reviewing the event for Online Onslaught, Adam Gutschmidt claims that several of the matches flowed poorly and had ill-conceived conclusions. He also claims that the match between Giant Gonzalez and The Undertaker was a \"dud\" and that Hulk Hogan's ego made the conclusion the \"worst WrestleMania ending ever\".RD Reynolds, owner of the websiteWrestleCrap, has inducted the event into the site's list of \"the very worst in pro wrestling\". He cites Giant Gonzalez, Papa Shango, Luger's \"narcissist\" gimmick, and Jim Ross wearing a toga as his reasons for including the event in the list. WWE places two events from WrestleMania IX in its top 50 WrestleMania moments: Bobby Heenan's entrance on the camel, which the company calls \"one of the most hilarious moments in WWE history\", and Hulk Hogan's title victory.Matt Anoa'i, who wrestled for WWE as Rosey, and was the brother ofRoman Reigns, cousin of Yokozuna, Samu and Fatu, has identified The Headshrinkers performing a double splash on Scott Steiner at this event as his favorite moment at WrestleMania. WrestleMania IX was released onVHSbyColiseum Video. It was then released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Collection (1985–1997) box set in 1997.The video was re-released six years later in March 1999.That month, it was also released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Legacy box set.It was also released on DVD for WWE's History of WrestleMania I-IX box set on September 14, 2004. In theUnited Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 5, 1993.Packaged together withWrestleMania X, it was released on DVD for theWWE Tagged Classicsseries on May 8, 2006. Aftermath A feud began between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect after WrestleMania IX as a result of Michaels attacking Perfect. They faced each other atSummerSlam 1993, and Michaels won by countout after his new bodyguard,Dieselattacked Perfect.Perfect then feuded with Diesel until leaving the WWF. Money Inc. lost the WWF Tag Team Championship to the Steiner Brothers on June 14, 1993.Money Inc. won the belts back in a rematch on June 16,but the Steiners won them again three days later.Money Inc. received several rematches but were unable to regain the title; they soon focused on singles competition, and DiBiase retired at the end of August. The Undertaker continued to feud with Harvey Wippleman. On the June 12, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling, Wippleman, Giant Gonzalez, andMr. Hughesattacked The Undertaker, and his managerPaul Bearer, and stole the urn that was said to be the source of his power.The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez faced each other one final time at SummerSlam 1993 in aRest in Peace match, in which neither wrestler could be disqualified. The Undertaker won the match to end the feud. After the match, a frustrated Gonzalez choke slammed Wippleman to the delight of the fans andturned facein the process. Bret Hart later claimed that during a conversation with Vince McMahon, he was told that Hulk Hogan refused to drop the WWF Championship to him.However, Hulk Hogan stated that, during a conversation with Vince McMahon, a deal was made for Hogan to drop the belt to the top heel at the time, Yokozuna, at the following King of The Ring.All three men eventually wound up in a meeting, where McMahon outlined the plan to have Hogan drop the belt to Yokozuna and denied telling Bret that Hogan refused to drop the championship to him. After regaining the title, Yokozuna challenged any American athlete to bodyslam him on the deck of theUSS Intrepidon July 4, 1993. After many challengers failed, Lex Luger arrived by helicopter and bodyslammed Yokozuna. Luger became a fan favorite and changed hisgimmickto an American patriot. He faced Yokozuna for the WWF Championship at SummerSlam 1993; he won the match by count-out but did not win the title.Lex Luger and Bret Hart each earned a title match against Yokozuna the following year at WrestleMania X. Luger was disqualified in his match, but Hart won the championship later that night. 32 years after WrestleMania IX, the event will once again be held in the city, with the41st editiontaking place at theAllegiant Stadiumon April 19 and 20, 2025. Results References External links",
"WrestleMania XI WrestleMania XIwas the 11th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 2, 1995, at theHartford Civic CenterinHartford, Connecticut. Seven matches were contested at the event. The main event featured formerNFLlinebackerLawrence TayloragainstBam Bam Bigelow, a match which came as the result of an argument that took place between the two at the1995 Royal Rumble. Taylor won the match, which led to Bigelow being kicked out ofTed DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation.Shawn MichaelsfacedWWF ChampionDieselin a title match but was unable to win the championship.Jeff Jarrettretained hisWWF Intercontinental ChampionshipagainstRazor Ramon.Owen Hartand his mystery partner,Yokozuna, challengedThe Smoking Gunnsfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipand won the title belts. The match between Taylor and Bigelow brought the WWF mainstream press coverage. The reactions to the match were mixed; some people thought that Taylor performed surprisingly well for a non-wrestler. Others thought that the WWF pushing a football player to defeat a wrestler made professional wrestling look bad. Reviews of the event as a whole were mixed, with the event called both the worst WrestleMania of all time and the event that saved the WWF. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XI was scheduled to be held on April 2, 1995, at theHartford Civic CenterinHartford, Connecticut. Special OlympianKathy Huey sang a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\" during the event, replacing the previously advertised band,Fishbone.Prior toLawrence Taylor's match againstBam Bam Bigelow,Salt-n-PepasangWhatta Man. Several other celebrities also had roles at WrestleMania.Nicholas Turturro, one of the stars ofNYPD Blue, conducted interviews and served as a guest ring announcer.Jonathan Taylor ThomasofHome Improvementwas a guest timekeeper for the match betweenDieselandShawn Michaels.WrestleMania XI marked the first time that the WWF featured an interview on theInternetas Diesel and Shawn Michaels were interviewed byBob Ryder. On September 30, 1995, a one-hour special including the Diesel vs. Shawn Michaels match and the Lawrence Taylor vs. Bam Bam Bigelow match was broadcast on theFOX Network.At the WrestleMania weekend, the WWF also held its Fan Fest, a promotional event during which wrestlers interacted with fans and signed autographs. Storylines The most heavily promoted feud going into the event was betweenBam Bam BigelowandLawrence Taylor. At the1995 Royal Rumble, Bigelow teamed withTatankain the final round of a tournament for theWWF Tag Team Championship. Bigelow waspinnedat the end of the match, which led to the crowd heckling him. He responded by pushingNFLplayer Lawrence Taylor, who was sitting at ringside. Bigelow refused to apologize and instead challenged Taylor to a wrestling match.Taylor agreed and trained withWWF ChampionDiesel to prepare for the match.The storyline between Bigelow and Taylor brought the WWF much mainstream exposure, as the match was discussed by several news outlets. The other main event at WrestleMania was a match for the WWF Championship between Diesel andShawn Michaels. Diesel had originally entered the WWF as Michaels's bodyguard but later began wrestling and forming atag teamwith Michaels. The pair held the WWF Tag Team Championship together in 1994. AtSurvivor Series 1994, however, Michaels accidentally kicked Diesel in the face. This led to an argument during which Diesel dissolved the tag team and vacated the championship.Three days later, Diesel defeatedBob Backlundto become the new WWF Champion.At the Royal Rumble, Michaels won the titular match, which earned him a match against Diesel for the title belt at WrestleMania. TheWWF Intercontinental Championshipwas also defended at WrestleMania.Jeff Jarrett, the champion, had been feuding withRazor Ramon, the challenger, for several months. At the Royal Rumble, Jarrett was accompanied byThe Roadie, who interfered on Jarrett's behalf and helped Jarrett win the championship.To even the sides in the rematch at WrestleMania, Ramon was accompanied by his friend, the1–2–3 Kid. In a match for the WWF Tag Team Championship,The Smoking Gunnsdefended their title. Their opponents wereOwen Hartand a mystery partner. Hart refused to tell anyone the name of his partner, which left the Gunns uncertain who they would be facing and led to much speculation about the identity of the mystery partner. Bret Hartfaced Bob Backlund in an\"I Quit\" matchat WrestleMania. The feud began the previous summer, when Hart defended the WWF Championship against Backlund. Backlund mistakenly thought he won the match and began celebrating, but Hart pinned him to retain the title. After the match, Backlundturnedheelby attacking Hart.This led to a title match at Survivor Series 1994, in which Backlund won the title from Hart.Although Backlund soon lost the belt,the feud continued and Backlund attacked Hart during Hart's match at the Royal Rumble. Also at the Royal Rumble,The UndertakerfacedIrwin R. Schysteras part of The Undertaker's feud withTed DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation. During the match,King Kong Bundy, another Corporation member, interfered and enabled the Corporation to steal The Undertaker's urn, which was said to be the source of his power. Event In the opening match,The Allied Powers(Davey Boy SmithandLex Luger) faced theBlu Brothers(Eli Blu and Jacob Blu). Smith started out on the offensive, but Jacob gained control with arunning bulldogthrow. The Blus capitalized on the fact that they are identical twins by switching places without tagging while the referee was not looking. Luger came into the match near the end and performed arunning forearm smashon Eli. Jacob tried to throw Luger with apowerbomb, but Luger tagged in Smith, who performed asunset flipto pin Jacob and win the match. The second match pitted Razor Ramon, with the 1–2–3 Kid in his corner, against WWF Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett, who had The Roadie in his corner. Ramon took control at the beginning of the match by using power moves against Jarrett. Jarrett tried to leave the match, but the 1–2–3 Kid forced him back into the ring. Jarrett took advantage of one of Ramon's mistakes to gain the advantage. He applied asleeper holdon Ramon, who used his strength advantage to escape the move. After Ramon threw Jarrett, the Kid attempted to interfere but was kicked by Jarrett. Ramon jumped off the ropes to attack Jarrett, but Jarrett avoided the move and applied afigure four leglockon Ramon. Ramon reversed the move to place the pressure on Jarrett's legs. He then threw Jarrett to the mat with asuplex from the second ropeand prepared to execute theRazor's Edge, his finishing move. The Roadie entered the ring and attacked Ramon, prompting the referee to disqualify Jarrett; because titles cannot change hands on a disqualification, Jarrett retained his championship. In the next match, The Undertaker faced King Kong Bundy. Ted DiBiase was at ringside holding the urn that his wrestlers had stolen from The Undertaker.Larry Young, a legit American League umpire, was the special referee for the match. Young's storyline was as an out-of-work sports official because of therecently ended MLB Players Association strikeand a lockout of the Major League Umpires Association umpires (which led to the eventual dissolution of the MLUA in 2000; prior to the new union, umpires were split by league).The Undertaker took control at the beginning of the match byjumping off the top rope and hitting Bundy. He then performed severalclotheslineattacks on Bundy. Bundy responded with a clothesline that knocked The Undertaker out of the ring. Seeing DiBiase close, The Undertaker took back his urn. After The Undertaker returned to the ring, DiBiase calledKama, another Corporation member, to the ring. Kama stole the urn, and Bundy attacked The Undertaker in order to let Kama escape backstage. Bundy picked The Undertaker up andpowerslammedhim to the mat. He then performed anAvalanche Splashto crush The Undertaker against the corner of the ring. The Undertaker was unharmed, however, and performed a powerslam and a clothesline on Bundy before pinning him to win the match. The Smoking Gunns defended their WWF Tag Team Championship in the next match against Owen Hart and his mystery partner, who was revealed to beYokozuna. The Gunns worked together to control the match at the beginning, but Yokozuna gained control by performing aleg dropon Billy Gunn. Hart attempted to perform adropkick from the top ropebut accidentally hit Yokozuna. The Gunns briefly took control until Yokozuna performed abelly to belly suplexand landed on Billy. He then performed aBanzai Drop, jumping from the second rope and sitting on Billy's chest. Hart tagged in and considered performing theSharpshootersubmission hold; instead, he pinned Billy Gunn to win the title belts for his team. The next match, an \"I Quit\" match, took place between Bret Hart and Bob Backlund, withRoddy Piperas the guest referee. It was explained that, in order to win the match, a wrestler must force his opponent to say \"I quit\" into a microphone held by Piper. Hart attempted to perform the Sharpshooter early in the match; when Backlund blocked it, Hart executed afigure four leglockinstead. Backlund escaped the hold and began trying to injure Hart's arm with anarmbarhold. Hart then tried to attack Backlund in the corner of the ring, but Backlund moved and Hart hit his shoulder against the ring post. Backlund tried to perform thecrossface chickenwing, his signature submission hold. Hart blocked him and performed the same hold on Backlund instead. Backlund made an unintelligible sound into the microphone, and Piper determined that he had submitted. As a result, the win was awarded to Bret Hart. In the next match, which was for the WWF Championship, challenger Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring byJenny McCarthyand Diesel, the champion, was escorted byPamela Anderson. Michaels relied on his quickness in the opening stages, while Diesel used his strength advantage against Michaels. Diesel threw Michaels out of the ring and onto the arena floor, but Michaels later performed a clothesline that knocked Diesel out of the ring. Michaels capitalized on his advantage by performing several aerial moves, including aflying crossbody,flying bulldogthrow, and adiving elbow drop. He was unable to pin Diesel, however, so he performed a sleeper hold to wear Diesel down. They brawled outside the ring, after which Michaels performedSweet Chin Music, his finishing move, butSid, Michaels's bodyguard, had the referee distracted and unable to count the pinfall. Diesel recovered and controlled the remainder of the match with power moves before throwing Michaels to the mat with a botchedJackknifeand getting the pinfall victory. The final bout of the event was the main event match between Bam Bam Bigelow and Lawrence Taylor. Bigelow was accompanied by the members of DiBiase's Million Dollar Corporation: King Kong Bundy, Tatanka, Irwin R. Schyster, Kama, andNikolai Volkoff. To prevent the Corporation members from interfering, Taylor brought several football players:Ken Norton Jr.,Chris Spielman,Rickey Jackson,Carl Banks,Reggie White, andSteve McMichael. Taylor gained the advantage early and performed a clothesline that knocked Bigelow out of the ring. Once he returned to the ring, Bigelow took control of the match by kicking Taylor repeatedly and performing aBoston crabsubmission hold to hurt Taylor's back. Taylor got out of the hold and threw Bigelow with asuplex. Bigelow recovered and performed several headbutts on Taylor before executing amoonsaultflip to knock Taylor down to the mat. Taylor began to take control of the match again, but Bigelow kicked him in the back of the head and then performed aheadbutt from the top rope. Bigelow was unable to pin Taylor, however. Taylor climbed to the second rope, jumped off, and used his forearm to hit Bigelow. He then covered Bigelow to win the match. Reception The event was attended by 15,000 fans, who paid a total of $750,000 in admission fees. This was down from the previous year's attendance of 18,065,but the decline could be attributed to the smaller size of the venue for WrestleMania XI.The attendance figure was also lower than the following year's figure of 18,852 fans atWrestleMania XII. The pay-per-view buyrate for WrestleMania XI was 1.3, which was lower than the 1.68 buyrate for WrestleMania X but higher than the 1.2 buyrate for WrestleMania XII. Writing for411mania, columnist Dustin James rated the event as the seventeenth best of the first twenty-three WrestleManias. He stated that the event did not have any truly amazing matches but that Lawrence Taylor put on a solid performance.John Powell ofSLAM! Wrestlingrated the event as the worst WrestleMania of all time. The specific concerns he mentioned in his review are Diesel's championship reign and WWF allowing a football player to defeat a wrestler in what he describes as a \"sham of a match\".In contrast,Pro Wrestling Illustratedcolumnist Dave Rosenbaum stated that WrestleMania \"saved\" the WWF in its feud with rivalWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW). He argued that Taylor \"looked like a pro\" and contributed to an \"incredible\" match. He also observed that the tag team matches helped rejuvenate an area of wrestling that had been suffering in the WWF and that the match between Michaels and Diesel was a candidate for match of the year.Bret Hart was critical about his match against Bob Backlund, claiming it was \"probably my worst pay-per-view match I ever had\". Aftermath Shortly after WrestleMania, Diesel offered Shawn Michaels a rematch. Michaels blamed Sid for the loss and informed him that he would not be needed during the match. Sid got angry and attacked Michaels until Diesel saved him.Diesel and Michaels became allies once again, and they teamed up to win the WWF Tag Team Championship later that year.Diesel feuded with Sid and defeated him at theIn Your House 1andIn Your House 2pay-per-view events.The animosity lingered between Michaels and Sid, but they did not face each other to settle the feud until the September 11, 1995 episode ofMonday Night Raw. Bam Bam Bigelow was embarrassed after losing to Lawrence Taylor. To redeem himself, he challenged Diesel to a match for the WWF Championship. During the match, Tatanka turned on Bigelow and caused him to get pinned. Bigelow was kicked out of the Million Dollar Corporation and attacked by DiBiase's wrestlers. Diesel saved Bigelow from the attack, which led to a friendship being formed between the two.Bigelow defeated Tatanka in adark matchat In Your House 2.At King of the Ring 1995, Sid, DiBiase's latest addition to the Corporation, teamed with Tatanka in a loss to the team of Diesel and Bigelow. Razor Ramon and the 1–2–3 Kid was scheduled to face Jeff Jarrett and The Roadie at In Your House 1 the month after WrestleMania. The Kid sustained alegitinjury, however, and was unable to compete. As a result, Ramon wrestled a two-on-onehandicap matchagainst Jarrett and The Roadie instead.Ramon won the bout, but the feud continued. At In Your House 2, The Roadie faced the 1–2–3 Kid and defeated him.Ramon and Jarrett wrestled several times, and Ramon regained the Intercontinental Championship on May 19, 1995.He held the belt for three days beforedroppingit back to Jarrett. After WrestleMania, Kama melted down The Undertaker's urn and made it into a necklace.The Undertaker defeated Kama in a dark match at In Your House 1, and again in acasket matchat In Your House 2.He then won another casket match against Kama atSummerSlam 1995to end the feud. The Undertaker was not able to recapture the remnants of the urn until he ended his feud with King Mabel in another Casket match.TheUndertaker's streakof 21 consecutive WrestleMania victories was first acknowledged during his entrance for his encounter withKing Kong Bundyby play-by-play commentatorVince McMahon, who stated, \"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania\". The Smoking Gunns were given a rematch for the WWF Tag Team Championship at In Your House 1. Hart pinned Bart Gunn to retain the championship for his team.Hart and Yokozuna then moved on to face other competition, and the Gunns did not become serious contenders for the title again until late in 1995 when they defeated Hart and Yokozuna to regain the championship. Steve McMichael, who accompanied Lawrence Taylor, joinedWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) later in 1995 as a color commentator then eventually as an in-ring performer, joining the famousFour Horsemanwhen he turned on and betrayed his tag team partner and former NFL starKevin GreeneatThe Great American Bash '96near the end of their tag team match againstRic FlairandArn Anderson. Going by the name \"Mongo\" McMichael, he eventually went on to win theWCW United States Heavyweight Championship. The WWF released the event onVHSin North America in 1995. The VHS version was then re-released on March 2, 1999.The event was also released onDVDin North America as part of the WrestleMania Complete Anthology boxed set on November 1, 2005.In the United Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 10, 1995.Packaged together withWrestleMania XII, it was then released on DVD in the United Kingdom as part of theWWE Tagged Classicsline on August 7, 2006. Results References External links",
"WrestleMania XII WrestleMania XIIwas the 12th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 31, 1996, at theArrowhead Pond of AnaheiminAnaheim, Californiain the United States. Eight matches were held at the event, including two on theFree for Allpre-show. In the main event,Bret Hartlost theWWF ChampionshiptoShawn Michaelsin the first televisedIron Man matchin company history, lasting over 60 minutes. In his return to the company after a four-year hiatus,The Ultimate WarriordefeatedHunter Hearst Helmsley.Roddy Piperhad his first match since 1994. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XII was scheduled to be held on March 31, 1996, at theArrowhead Pond of AnaheiminAnaheim, California. Storylines The main attraction of this WrestleMania was theWWF Championshipcontested in anIron Man match; whereby the winner would be the man to win mostfallsover sixty minutes. Michaels had earned the opportunity to face reigning championBret Hartby winning the1996 Royal Rumble, and had also defeatedOwen HartatIn Your House 6for the right to keep the WrestleMania title shot. Themain eventwas built on Bret Hart wanting to retain the WWF Championship against Shawn Michaels, who had suffered a number of setbacks over the course of the previous year, including failing to winDiesel'sWWF Championship the previous year atWrestleMania XIin April 1995, being accosted at aSyracuse, New Yorknightclub in October 1995 (and subsequently forfeiting theWWF Intercontinental ChampionshiptoDean DouglasatIn Your House 4), and suffering astorylineconcussionat the hands of Owen Hart in November 1995. Hunter Hearst Helmsleymade his debut in the WWF in May 1995, with hiswrestling gimmickbeing in that he was a rich snob born with a silver spoon in his mouth. He went on an undefeated winning streak throughout the year until theRoyal Rumble.The Ultimate Warriormeanwhile had left the WWF in 1992 after failing a drug test. His last match was on the November 14, 1992 edition ofSaturday Night's Main Event XXXI, where he and\"Macho Man\" Randy SavagedefeatedTed DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schysterin a tag team match. WWF officials later signed on a match between Ultimate Warrior, who re-signed to the WWF in an attempt to increase ratings, and Helmsley for WrestleMania XII. Diesel began feuding withThe Undertakerafter interfering in a bout between The Undertaker and Bret Hart at the 1996 Royal Rumble. In an episode ofMonday Night Rawthat aired on March 18, 1996, Diesel was battlingBarry Horowitzwhen he caught a glimpse ofPaul Bearerpushing acasketup the entrance ramp. Believing it to be The Undertaker's casket, Diesel armed himself with a wrench before opening the casket's lid and seeing his own \"corpse\" lying in repose inside (which was actually an illusion made possible by having live footage cut to a pre-recorded close-up footage of Diesel himself in the same casket, lying in a relaxed position with his eyes closed, filmed at some time before the episode, thus avoiding showing the mannequin in the casket up-close); seeing \"himself\" in the casket terrified him, as it foreshadowed The Undertaker's upcoming match against Diesel in WrestleMania XII. Event The opening bout, which aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was atag team matchfor the vacantWWF Tag Team Championshipbetween theBodydonnas(SkipandZip) andthe Godwinns(Henry O. GodwinnandPhineas I. Godwinn). This match was the final bout of a tournament held to determine the new champions after the titles were vacated in February 1996. The match ended when Skip pinned Phineas I. Godwinn using aroll-up, making the Bodydonnas the new WWF Tag Team Champions. The second bout, which also aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was asingles match(billed as a \"geriatric match\") between \"The Huckster\" and \"Nacho Man\", two characters created to parodyHulk Hoganand\"Macho Man\" Randy Savage(former WWF performers who had joined its competitorWorld Championship Wrestling). The referee for the match was \"Billionaire Ted\", a parody ofTed Turner, the owner of World Championship Wrestling's parent companyTurner Broadcasting System. This bout marked the culmination of a series of skits the WWF had aired featuring the three characters. This match did not take place in the Arrowhead Pond, having been pre-recorded elsewhere. The match ended in a no contest when both competitors, along with Billionaire Ted, seemingly expired in the ring. The third bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast proper, was asix-man tag team matchpittingThe British Bulldog,Owen Hart, andVader(Camp Cornette) againstAhmed Johnson,Jake Roberts, andYokozuna, with the stipulation that if Yokozuna's team won he would receive five minutes in the ring withJim Cornette, the manager of Camp Cornette. The match ended when Roberts attempted to give Cornette aDDT, only for Vader to knock Roberts down and pin him following aVader Bomb. The fourth bout was a \"Hollywood Backlot Brawl\" betweenGoldustandRoddy Piper. The match began in a parking lot, with the men brawling and using weapons. After Goldust fled in a goldenCadillac, Piper pursued him in a whiteFord Bronco. The fifth bout was a singles match betweenSavio VegaandStone Cold Steve Austin. Austin won the bout by technical knockout after hitting Vega with theMillion Dollar Championshipthen applying theMillion Dollar Dreamto Vega until he passed out. During and after the fifth bout, footage aired of what was purportedly Piper pursuing Goldust (the actual footage aired was from theLos Angeles Police Department's pursuit ofO.J. Simpsonin 1994). The sixth bout was a singles match betweenHunter Hearst HelmsleyandThe Ultimate Warrior. Early in the match, Helmsley performed his finishing move,The Pedigree, on The Ultimate Warrior. However, The Ultimate Warriorno-soldthe move and went on to pin Helmsley following aflying shoulder tackle,gorilla press slam, andWarrior Splash. Following the sixth bout,Todd Pettengillinterviewed the debutingMarc Merobackstage. The interview was interrupted by Hunter Hearst Helmsley, resulting in a brawl between Helmsley and Mero. The seventh bout was a singles match betweenDieselandThe Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall following achokeslamandTombstone Piledriver, marking his fifth consecutive win at WrestleMania. Following the seventh bout, Goldust and Piper arrived at the Arrowhead Pond, with Piper crashing his car into Goldust's car. Piper then chased Goldust to the ring, where the match continued. The match ended when Piper tore off Goldust's bodysuit - revealing him to be wearing woman's lingerie - and gave him alow blow, after which Goldust fled from the ring, leaving Piper the winner. The main event sawWWF ChampionBret Hartdefend his title againstShawn Michaelsin anIron Man match, with the stipulation that whichever wrestler won the most falls in 60 minutes would win the match. Towards the end of the match, with neither men having won any falls, Hart applied hisSharpshooterhold to Michaels, but time expired without Michaels submitting. As Hart began to leave with his title, WWF PresidentGorilla Monsooninstructed refereeEarl Hebnerto continue the match under \"sudden death\" rules, with ring announcerHoward Finkelannouncing that \"there must be a winner!\" The match ended shortly thereafter when Michaels pinned Hart after giving himSweet Chin Musictwice, thus becoming the new WWF Champion. Reception WrestleMania XII received generally positive reviews from critics, who aimed praise, particularly at the main event. Rob McNew of 411mania called the opening match \"really good,\" and gave it 3 and 1/4 stars (out of 5 stars). However, he called the match between Helmsley and The Ultimate Warrior the worst of the night, going on to call it the \"funniest squash ever, considering that HHH is now arguably a bigger star than Warrior was.\" He gave the main event the highest score of the night, with 4 stars. However, he says the match \"isn't for everyone.\" Continuing, he says, \"It's about a three-star match for the first 40 minutes, the last 20+ are an easy five stars.\" He gave the entire event a score of 7 out of 10.In 2015, Ryan Dilbert of Bleacher Report called it the 16th greatest of the first 30 WrestleMania events. While the Iron Man match got positive reviews, PWInsider's Mike Johnson pointed that in the match both wrestlers \"were working in spite of each other, not together\". Results WWF Tag Team Championship tournament In February 1996,WWF Tag Team ChampionsThe Smoking Gunnswere forced to vacate the titles afterBilly Gunnsustained a neck injury. As a result, a tournament was staged in February and March 1996 to determine the new champions, with the matches airing on tape delaySuperstarsthroughout March. The tournament final was held at WrestleMania XII, withThe BodydonnasdefeatingThe Godwinnsto be crowned the new champions. Other on-screen personnel References External links",
"WrestleMania 13 WrestleMania 13was the 13th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). The event waspresentedbyPlayStationand held on March 23, 1997, at theRosemont Horizonin theChicagosuburb ofRosemont, Illinois. Eight matches were held at the event, including one on theFree for Allpre-show. Themain eventwas ano disqualification matchbetweenThe UndertakerandSycho Sidfor theWWF Championship, which Undertaker won following interference fromBret Hart. The main matches on theundercardwereBret HartversusStone Cold Steve Austinin aNo Disqualification Submission match,Legion of DoomandAhmed JohnsonversusNation of Dominationin aChicago Street Fight, and Rocky Maivia versus The Sultan for theWWF Intercontinental Championship. WrestleMania 13 was the second WrestleMania to take place in theChicago metropolitan area, followingWrestleMania 2. The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees, and drew a 0.77 buy rate. The event as a whole received mixed to negative reviews. However, the submission match between Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin was highly praised, being called one of the greatest matches in wrestling history, and has been cited as the beginning of theAttitude Era. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania 13 was scheduled to be held on March 23, 1997, at theRosemont Horizonin theChicagosuburb ofRosemont, Illinois. The event waspresentedbyPlayStation. Storylines The mainfeudheading into WrestleMania 13 was betweenThe UndertakerandSycho Sid, with the two battling over theWWF Championship. AtIn Your House 13in February,Bret Hartlast eliminated The Undertaker in theFinal Four matchto win the vacant WWF Championship.Hart's reign, however, lasted only one day as he lost the title the next night onMonday Night Rawto Sycho Sid after interference byStone Cold Steve Austin, one of the other participants in the Final Four match (the other wasVader, who had no further involvement in the ongoing storyline).Due to being the runner-up to the title at Final Four, Undertaker was made the number one contender and wasbookedto challenge Sycho Sid for the title at WrestleMania. However, on the March 17 edition ofRaw Is War, Sid defended the title against Hart in asteel cage match, with the winner defending his title at WrestleMania. During the match, both Undertaker and Austin interfered. Undertaker came out to help Sid because he wanted to wrestle Sid for the title while Austin helped Hart because he wanted to make his scheduledsubmission matchwith Hart a title match. Sid won the match and retained his title and as a result, Sid vs. Undertaker remained themain eventof WrestleMania. The second main match on the card wasBret HartversusStone Cold Steve Austinin aSubmission match. Hart and Austin's rivalry began after Austin won the1996 King of the Ring tournamentand began taunting Hart, who was inactive at the time. Austin insulted Hart in his speeches so Hart would accept his challenge to a match. Hart returned in October and accepted Austin's challenge, with the two facing each other atSurvivor Series 1996where Hart defeated Austin.Their rivalry continued as Hart and Austin were the final two participants in the1997 Royal Rumble match. Hart had originally eliminated Austin from the match but Austin's elimination was considered unofficial because theofficialsdid not see it as they were busy attending to a brawl between eliminated wrestlersMankindandTerry Funk.They were participants in aFour Corners Elimination matchfor the vacantWWF ChampionshipatFinal Four, which Hart won.The next night onMonday Night Raw, Austin cost Hart the WWF Championship against Sycho Sid when Hart had applied theSharpshooteron Sid, Austin nailed Hart with asteel chairfollowed by SidpowerbombingHart for the win.Hart and Austin were booked to wrestle in a submission match at WrestleMania, but Hart got a shot at the WWF Championship in asteel cage matchon the March 17 edition ofRaw Is War, with the winner defending the title againstThe Undertakerat WrestleMania 13. Hart almost had the match won, until Undertaker interfered and helped Sid in getting the victory. One of the mainundercardmatches was aChicago Street FightfeaturingAhmed JohnsonandLegion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) againstNation of Domination(Faarooq,CrushandSavio Vega). Johnson was attacked by a newcomerFaarooq Asad, aRomangladiator on the July 22, 1996 edition ofMonday Night Rawduring a match for theWWF Tag Team Championship.Ahmed was scheduled to defend hisIntercontinental Championshipagainst Faarooq atSummerSlam 1996butlegitimatekidney problems forced him to vacate the Intercontinental Championship. In thestoryline, it was explained that Faarooq had caused Ahmed's kidney problem.Ahmed returned from his injury in early 1997 and continued with Faarooq, who had formed TheNation of Dominationduring Ahmed's absence. Ahmed joined forces with the Legion of Doom and the trio were scheduled to wrestle the Nation of Domination in a Chicago Street Fight at WrestleMania 13. Event Before the event aired live onpay-per-view(PPV),Billy GunnfacedFlash FunkatFree for All.Gunn defeated Funk by pinning him following atornado DDT. The first match that aired on television was aFour-Way Tag Team Elimination Match. The match featuredThe Headbangers(MoshandThrasher),The Godwinns(Henry O. GodwinnandPhineas I. Godwinn),The New Blackjacks(Blackjack WindhamandBlackjack Bradshaw) and the team ofDoug Furnas and Phil LaFon. All the teams wrestled each other and sometimes in the match, teammates also fought against each other. Barry Windham and Phil LaFon brawled to the outside the ring. Bradshaw attacked the referee and gotdisqualified, which led to the first elimination of the match while Furnas was counted-out. Headbangers and Godwinns were the remaining teams and they battled for five minutes and 39 seconds before Thrasher hit Phineas with aCannonball Sentonand won the match via pinfall. As a result of winning the match, Headbangers earned a shot at theWWF Tag Team Championship. The second match was betweenRocky MaiviaandThe Sultanfor Maivia'sWWF Intercontinental Championship.The Honky Tonk Manprovided commentary for the match. Sultan had an early advantage in the match due to his size and power but Maivia used his quicker moves to push the big man outside the ring. Sultan overpowered Maivia withslamsandpunchesbut was unable to pin him. Maivia gained advantage on Sultan by nailing him with abelly to belly suplex,Maivia Hurricaneand aflying crossbodybeforepinningSultan with aroll-upto win the match and retain the title. After the match, Sultan and hismanagers,Bob BacklundandThe Iron Sheikattacked Maivia before his father,Rocky Johnson, came out to help his son. The third match was betweenHunter Hearst HelmsleyandGoldust. Goldust dominated the early portion of the match. Helmsley had brief flurries of offense but Goldust had still the advantage. Helmsley began usingsubmission maneuversto keep the advantages for himself. Goldust was going to hit his maneuver until Helmsley'sbodyguardChynamanhandled Goldust's wifeMarlenato distract him. Helmsley took advantage and hit Goldust with aPedigree, enabling him to pin Goldust for the win. The fourth match was atag teammatch for theWWF Tag Team Championship, asOwen Hart and The British Bulldogdefended the titles againstMankindandVader. The big Vader made easy work of Owen in the beginning of the match. Vader tagged in with Mankind while Owen tagged in with Bulldog. Bulldog and Mankind punched each other but Bulldog had more advantage. He applied asleeper holdon Mankind which caused both of them to fall to the outside. They continued to brawl outside. Therefereewas distracted due to the brawl. Vader took advantage and hit Bulldog withPaul Bearer's urn and dragged him into the ring. Vader and Mankind both took turns and continued to attack Bulldog. Owen tried to save his partner, but Vader used his strength while Mankind used his cheating tactics to overwhelm Owen. Mankind trapped Bulldog to the outside and applied the mandible claw on him. Both men werecounted outas the match resulted in a draw. As a result, Hart and Bulldog retained the championship. The fifth match was aNo Disqualification Submission matchbetween Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin.UFCfighterKen Shamrockwas thespecial guest refereefor this match. Austin attacked Hart, who was still in his entrance attire. The two first beat each other in the ring before the action spilled outside the ring. Hart tossed Austin into the steel ring post while Austin drove him onto the steel barrier. The two men began fighting in the crowd, where both men hit each other with severalforeign objects. They moved up the steps high into the crowd. Shamrock followed them and brought them back towards the ring where Austin attempted to use steel steps on Hart, but Hart stopped him with a kick to the midsection. As the action began in the ring, Hart focused on Austin's leg. He busted Austin open with an Irish whip into the steel barricade and Austin's head began to bleed profusely. Hart tried to use a steel chair on Austin's leg, but Austin choked Hart with a television cable. Hart hit Austin in the head with the ring bell. He applied aSharpshooteron Austin who did not submit and tried to resist but passed out from the pain and loss of blood. Shamrock awarded the match to Hart, but Hart continued to attack Austin which led to a double-turn as the fans turned on Hart and began cheering for Austin. Shamrock pulled Hart off of Austin and executed a waistlock takedown and physically challenged him to a fight. Hart declined to fight Shamrock and left the ring to a chorus of boos.Austin, meanwhile, after regaining consciousness, hit aStunneron a referee when he tried to help Austin out, then slowly limped away to backstage, while the crowd chanted his name. The sixth match of the event was aChicago Street Fightbetween theLegion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) andAhmed JohnsonandNation of Domination(Faarooq,CrushandSavio Vega). All the two teams hit each other with many foreign objects. The match continued inside the ring and outside the ring in the same fashion. Finally, Animal hit Crush with a2x4and then pinned him to win the match. Main Event Themain eventwas aNo Disqualification MatchbetweenThe Undertakerand reigning championSycho Sidfor theWWF Championship.Shawn Michaelsprovided commentary for the match. The then-heel superstar,Bret Hart, came out during the match and insulted Undertaker, Michaels and particularly Sid because he claimed that Sid had screwed him out of the title. SidpowerbombedHart while Undertaker took advantage and began attacking the champion from behind. Undertaker went for anOld Schoolbut Sid took him in abearhug. Sid attacked Undertaker with various moves and attacked him with television monitors, and applied acamel clutchon Undertaker. Sid had the advantage in the match until Hart came back and attacked Sid with a steel chair. He recovered and got Undertaker in the powerbomb but Hart returned again and distracted Sid which allowed Undertaker to hit Sid with theTombstoneand pin him to win the match. Reception The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees and drew a 0.77 buy-rate. In 2011, Marc Elusive of 411mania gave the event an overall score of 7.0 out of 10.0 and noted that \"The Attitude Era began here...\" and that the main event was \"a very boring match\".John Canton ofThe John Reportgave the event an overall score of 4 out of 10 and said that the show was \"poor\" and noted that the main event \"sucked for the first 15 minutes, but the ending was okay\". Despite the lackluster reviews towards the event, the submission match between Hart and Austin was highly praised. In 2007, it was placed #1 onIGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History, and described as a match that \"launched an era.\"Thomas Golianopoulos ofComplex Sportsalso ranked it at number 1 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, citing the match's six factors of storyline, innovation, psychology, finish, post-match angle, and fallout.Elusive of 411mania described the match as \"outstanding\" and \"that helped propel Steve Austin into the stratosphere and become the star of the late 90s and the early 00s\", while also noting the double-turn after the match. John Canton called the match a \"wrestling perfection\". It received afive-star ratingfromDave Meltzerand was also voted Match of the Year (1997) by readers of hisWrestling Observer Newsletterpublication.Pro Wrestling Illustratedreaders named it Match of the Year (1997). The submission match would also be the last time a WrestleMania match would receive a five-star rating untilWrestleMania 39in 2023 whenKevin OwensandSami ZaynvsJimmyandJey Usoon Night 1 andGunthervsSheamusvsDrew McIntyreon Night 2 both received the five-star rating. Hart would call it his favourite match, labeling it \"a real masterpiece.\"Ken Shamrockwould call it \"one of the greatest matches in wrestling history\",andJim Rosscalled it the greatest match he'd called at WrestleMania and the most \"well-executed\" match he'd seen. Aftermath Stone Cold Steve AustinandBret Hartcontinued their rivalry after WrestleMania, but Austin was now ababyfaceand his popularity would start to increase considerably while Hart was aheel. Hart recruitedBritish Bulldog,Owen Hart,Brian Pillmanand formertag teampartnerJim Neidhartto reformThe Hart Foundation.AtIn Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Takerin April, Hart and Austin had a match which Austin won bydisqualification.Theirfeudcontinued untilIn Your House 16: Canadian Stampedein July, where theHart Foundation(working as faces in Canada) defeated the American team of Austin,Ken Shamrock,Legion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) andGoldust. The Undertakerreceived apushafter he won his second WWF Championship at WrestleMania 13.He spent a reign of133 dayswhich included battles withMankind,Steve Austin,FaarooqandVader.AtSummerSlam 1997, Undertaker's long reign finally ended when he lost the title toBret Hartwhenspecial guest refereeShawn Michaelsaccidentally struck Undertaker with a steel chair, which was intended for Hart. After losing the WWF Championship to The Undertaker at WrestleMania, Sycho Sid's push began to diminish and afterKing of the Ring, he began to disappear from WWF programming. In actuality, Sid quietly left WWF to focus on recovering from a neck injury. Sid eventually returned to rival promotionWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) in 1999 and continued to wrestle as Sid Vicious until he suffered a near career-ending leg injury atWCW Sinon January 14, 2001. Results Other on-screen personnel References External links",
"WrestleMania XIV WrestleMania XIV(marketed asWrestleMania dX raided) was the 14th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF; WWE as of 2002). It took place on March 29, 1998, at theFleetCenterinBoston, Massachusetts. A total of eight matches were held at the event. This pay-per-view event was notable for the involvement of boxerMike Tyson, who acted as a ring enforcer for the main event. In the main event,Stone Cold Steve AustindefeatedShawn Michaelsto win theWWF Championshipfor the first time; Michaels performed despite a severe injury sustained during a match at theRoyal Rumbleand would not compete again untilSummerSlam in 2002. This was the first WrestleMania ofThe Attitude Eraand also the first WrestleMania event since1985not to featureBret Hart, who jumped to the rivalWorld Championship Wrestlingthe previous year. Production Background WrestleManiais theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XIV was scheduled to be held on March 29, 1998, at theFleetCenterinBoston, Massachusetts. In print advertisements, the event was billed as \"WrestleMania: dX raided\". Storylines After theLegion of Doomlost theirWWF Tag Team ChampionshiptoThe New Age Outlaws, they were then assaulted by the Outlaws andD-Generation X. At theRoyal Rumble, the LOD lost a championship match, thanks in large part toRoad DogghandcuffingHawkoutside of the ring.Following this, they suffered two defeats at the hands ofNWAmembersJeff JarrettandBarry Windham. Finally, on the February 23 episode ofRaw Is War, the LOD once again lost to The New Age Outlaws when, despite having the match all but won following aDoomsday Device, the non-legal Hawk did not leave the ring as Animal was making the cover; while the referee was busy removing Hawk, Animal was struck by the title belts, causing them to lose the match.Following the match, the two men brawled all the way to the back and announced their dissolution, not appearing again until WrestleMania. After theMontreal Screwjob,Owen Hartwas left as the only member of theHart familyto remain with the company; and after a temporary absence, Owen returned during the closing moments ofD-Generation X: In Your Houseto attackShawn Michaels.Following this, he turned his attention to Hunter Hearst Helmsley (who would later be known simply asTriple H) and theEuropean Championshipthat Michaels had given to Helmsley as a Christmas present. After weeks of deterring a championship match by way of a fractured kneecap (which was, in fact, legitimate), Triple H finally acquiesced to a match on the January 26 edition ofRaw Is War, only forThe Artist Formerly Known as Goldust(who was dressing up from week-to-week in a bid for attention) to appear in Helmsley's place. After Hart won the match, WWF CommissionerSgt. Slaughterdeclared the disguise to be so convincing that he upheld the decision and awarded the championship to Hart.On the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Owen defended the title againstMark Henry. During the match,Chynacame to the ring and pushed Hart off the turnbuckle allowing Henry to lock on abearhug, but before Owen could submit, Chyna delivered a blatantlow blowto Henry, resulting in a disqualification in favor of Hart. The following week in a match againstBarry Windham, Hart landed awkwardly on his ankle, suffering asprained anklewith ligament damage as a result. On a special Tuesday edition ofRaw Is Waron March 17, Hart joined the commentary team with a supportive cast on his leg. This would bring Triple H to ringside, where he goaded Owen into an impromptu title defense despite his cast. During the match, Chyna appeared and struck Owen's ankle with a baseball bat, allowing Helmsley to capitalize and win the title back. Due to his jealousy over the attention hiswife and valet,Sable, was garnering from the crowd,Marc Merowould try to intentionally cover up Sable's provocative clothing and eventually send her to the back during his matches, replacing her withThe Artist Formerly Known as Goldust, who at the time was dressing up from week-to-week in his own bid of self-attention. Although the two initially worked well together, Goldust's valetLuna Vachongrew vocally disdainful of Sable, who was also being mocked by Mero and Goldust, causing Sable to eventually grow tired of the disrespect and fight back. As the two women brawled, their partners tried to separate them; but when Goldust grabbed Sable in order to restrain her, Mero's jealousy took over and he attacked him. The two men then had a match on Raw, where both women were handcuffed to the ring posts in an effort to prevent their brawling. But after the referee was knocked down, Goldust stole the key and unchained Luna who attacked Sable withmake up, painting her face before also throwing water on her. Goldust then challenged Mero and Sable to a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania XIV. After successively beating members of theNation of Dominationweek after week,Ken Shamrockinitially defeated theIntercontinental ChampionRocky Maivia(later known as The Rock) at theRoyal Rumbledespite being hit with aforeign object, seemingly winning the title.However, The Rock convinced the referee that it was, in fact, he who suffered an illegal attack and the referee reversed his decision (Maivia had placed the foreign object in Shamrock's trunks after hitting him with it).The following month atNo Way Out of Texas: In Your House, Shamrock capitalized on the in-fighting of the Nation, due to leadership disputes betweenFaarooqand The Rock, by making the champion tap out in a ten-man tag team match. At the end of the inauguralHell in a Cellmatch atBadd Blood: In Your House, just asThe Undertakerlooked to win the match against Shawn Michaels, the lights went out and a huge masked man came to the ring and delivered atombstone piledriverto the shocked Undertaker.The masked man was revealed to beKane, Undertaker's (kayfabe) half-brother and, despite the animosity and the presence ofPaul Bearer, Undertaker vowed never to fight his little brother. Before Undertaker'scasket matchwith Michaels at the Royal Rumble, D-Generation X claimed Kane had joined them, but in fact, he came to the ring to assist Undertaker. The alliance was short-lived, however, as during theRoyal Rumble, Kane came to the ring and turned on his brother, allowing Michaels to win the match before locking Undertaker in the casket and setting it ablaze, presuming his brother dead.On the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Kane's scheduled opponent,Stone Cold Steve Austin, was taken out by D-Generation X before the match could begin. With nothing else to do, Bearer ordered the timekeeper to deliver aten-bell salutefor The Undertaker's passing, before then telling Kane to tombstone him. After he did, more bells were heard ringing, this time signaling Undertaker's arrival. The ringing continued much longer than normal, with Bearer vehemently denying the possibility of it being Undertaker. Eventually, asarcophagusappeared on the top of the ramp. After the sarcophagus was struck by a bolt of lightning, The Undertaker sat up before revealing that he had been to Hell and talked with his parents, telling them that he would have to go back on his vow before finally challenging Kane to a match at WrestleMania. The week before WrestleMania, Kane came to the ring and began to display similar supernatural powers as his brother, striking theTitanTronwith lightning, as well as the announce table, before finally striking a crew worker with lightning, setting him on fire; Undertaker was shown on the same episode speaking to his parents' gravestones, revealing it may have to take thedamnationof his soul to reunite the troubled family. In January, Stone Cold Steve Austin won theRoyal Rumble matchwhile Shawn Michaels retained hisWWF Championship, all whileMike Tysonlooked on from the director's box.The following night onRaw Is War,Vince McMahonwas set to reveal that Tyson would be thespecial guest refereefor WrestleMania's main event; however, Austin appeared and gave thefingerto Tyson, offering him a fight and proclaiming the wrestling ring to be his, not Tyson's. Austin and Tyson then engaged in a massive brawl that garnered headlines all around the world.At the ensuing press conference, McMahon officially announced that due to the explosive situation, Tyson's role was being changed to that ofring enforcer. On the February 2 episode ofRaw Is War, in a scheduled match against Road Dogg, D-Generation X stormed the match and tied Austin in the ropes, allowing Shawn Michaels to hurl insults at Austin and rub the championship belt in his face, taunting him with it untilCactus JackandChainsaw Charliecame to his aid. The following week, Austin stole the championship belt from Michaels in the hope of baiting him into a singles match, but the partnership of D-Generation X and The New Age Outlaws continued, allowing Michaels to retrieve the belt back. This all led to a \"non-sanctioned\" eight-man tag match atNo Way Out of Texas: In Your House, which Michaels was unable to participate in due to a back injury; Austin won the match for his team by pinning Road Dogg.With WrestleMania drawing closer, on the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Mike Tyson appeared once again to be interviewed by Vince McMahon, only for DX to interrupt; Shawn Michaels then challenged Tyson to a fight. After both men's entourages left the ring, the two taunted each other for a bit until Michaels would rip off Tyson's shirt, revealing a DX T-shirt underneath, showing the enforcer's degenerate alliance; Later in the evening, as Austin came out to take place in a match against Kane, Triple H appeared on the ramp and lured Austin to him. Austin fell for the trap, and promptly turned around into aSweet Chin Musicby Michaels which knocked him out, a trap which occurred again the following week. Also that week, during a St. Patrick's Day Tuesday broadcast ofRaw Is Waron March 17, Austin called out Vince McMahon and verbally berated him for describing Mike Tyson as \"the baddest man on the planet\", but McMahon would not be goaded into a fight, as he instead forced Austin to fight Rocky Maivia the following episode, just before WrestleMania. Event Chris Warrenand The DX Band opened the show by performing hard rock versions of \"America the Beautiful\" and \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". The audience did not react well to the performance, booing the band during and after their songs. This segment was edited off all subsequent home video releases, as well as the WWE Network and Peacock. Preliminary matches The night began with the mystery entrants in the tag team battle royal being revealed as the reunitedLegion of Doom, now known as LOD 2000, withSunnyas their new valet.Savio Vegawas first eliminated byChainzmeaning his tag team partner,Miguel Perez, had to leave too.Kurrganillegally entered the ring to enact revenge onSniperandReconby eliminating them on behalf ofThe Jackyl.Barry Windhamalso illegally entered to eliminate Chainz, and so left his partnerBradshaw. The final four teams lasted a while untilSkullwould be eliminated byHenry Godwinn, which meantThe Disciples of Apocalypsewere eliminated.8-Ballthen eliminatedPhineas Godwinn, which meantThe Godwinnswere then eliminated. Afterwards, The Godwinns attacked LOD 2000 with slop buckets before leaving.The Midnight Expresstried to keepAnimalout of the ring while double-teamingHawk, but once Animal re-entered the ring, LOD 2000 simultaneously eliminated bothBobandBart, leaving LOD 2000 the last team standing and the winners of the battle royal. The second match was aLight Heavyweight Championshipmatch, withTaka Michinokudefending his title againstÁguila; this would be the first and only time the championship was defended at WrestleMania, though its successor, theCruiserweight Championshipwould be defended at the event more than once. After throwing Taka out the ring andbaseball slidinginto him, Águila hit anasai moonsaultoutside the ring, but was soon the victim of aspringboard crossbodyafter Taka reversed asuplexfrom the apron. Águila almost won the match with a moonsault crossbody into a pin, but remained on the offensive with afrankensteiner. Taka tried to land theMichinoku Driver, but as Aguila flipped out and attempted a hurricanrana, Taka managed apowerbombreversal. Taka then stopped a high flying dive attempt by Aguila with a dropkick, before successfully executing a Michinoku Driver and picking up the win. After the match, both contestants shook each other's hand and celebrated together.Also, partway into the matchup,Jim Rossmade a fleeting comment about the date of Taka's title win, December 7, the date of the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, calling it \"ironic enough\". This incident went largely unnoticed, only causing a slight stir in the wrestling community. Triple Hmade his way to the ring with his theme being played by the DX Band. BeforeOwen Hartcame to the ring, CommissionerSgt. Slaughterhandcuffed himself toChynaso that she would not interfere, despite her protestations. The match began with Hart pummeling Helmsley with fists before sliding out of the ring. Triple H tried to jump from the apron onto Hart, but made contact with the crowd barrier instead. After executing a powerbomb, Hart attempted to lock in thesharpshooter, but Helmsley reversed it and started some offensive maneuvers of his own, kicking Hart in the turnbuckle and delivering a suplex. Hart then suffered a cut to the bridge of his nose from a boot to the face, after which Triple H began to work on Hart's damaged ankle, dropping his knee onto it and stretching it. After avoiding another kick to the face and crouching Helmsley onto the ring post, Owen managed to take advantage, reversing a Pedigree attempt into the sharpshooter. Chyna, having to pull Slaughter, pulled Triple H to the rope for the break. As Slaughter was distracted, Chyna then threw white powder into Slaughter's face, causing the referee a worried Hart to check on him. While the referee was distracted and as Owen turned around to confront Triple H, Chyna low-blowed him from outside, allowing Triple H to successfully nail the Pedigree and retain the title. After she was freed from the handcuffs, Chyna nailed Slaughter with a forearm and shoved him over the barricade into the crowd. Next up was the mixed tag team match.Marc MeroandGoldustbegan the match, but Goldust soon tagged inLuna Vachon, requiringSableto be tagged in too, as per the rules. However, Vachon simply ran around the outside of the ring with Sable chasing her, before tagging Goldust back in. Wanting to get her hands on Vachon, Sable double-teamed Goldust with a boot to the face after an Irish whip from Mero, but could not get Vachon to enter the ring. A near-pinfall came from a running crossbody from Mero and following this, the two ran into each other, causing both men to crawl and tag in the women. Sable then took Luna down and punched her around the face before kicking her in the midsection and face in the turnbuckle and attacking Goldust, before running back to clothesline Vachon over the ropes. Vachon tagged Goldust in, but before Sable would do the same, she struck him in the face, then let Mero take over who had hisTKOreversed into aDDT. Mero would then reverse the Curtain Call, allowing him the chance to try a moonsault pin to a standing Goldust. After Vachon struck a running Mero with her knee, Mero went to punch her, but ducked out of the way as Goldust ran to her rescue, causing him to inadvertently knock her off the apron. Mero then executed the TKO, but Luna interrupted the pin count, jumping on Mero's back resulting in Sable tagging in as Mero wandered around the ring with Vachon on his back. Sable tried pinning Goldust, but the referee was distracted and as he finally began to count, Sable leapt off Goldust so the interfering Vachon would inadvertently bodysplash Goldust. Sable then performed a powerbomb and Mero's TKO to win the bout. Gennifer Flowers, who was accompanied byJeff JarrettandTennessee Lee, then came to the ring as the special guest ring announcer for the upcomingIntercontinental Championshipmatch betweenKen ShamrockandRocky Maivia. The fight began in the aisleway with a brawl that saw Shamrock get whipped into the steel steps before both men entered the ring. Maivia then delivered his People's Elbow, but could not secure a three-count. Shamrock then rolled out of the ring and grabbed a steel chair; when the referee tried to take it off him, he threw the referee into the corner; Maivia quickly grabbed the chair and hit Shamrock with it as the referee recovered. Shamrock kicked out and quickly re-gained the advantage, delivering abelly-to-belly suplexoff an Irish whip and then securing his ankle lock submission in the center of the ring, making Maivia tap to win the match and the title. The surrounding members of the Nation quickly jumped into the ring, but Shamrock dispatched them all with suplexes, including the four hundred pound Mark Henry, before then reapplying the ankle lock to a bloody Maivia.Faarooqthen ran down from the back and jumped onto the apron, only to look on at Maivia with a smile, before walking away. A number of referees (the ones Shamrock attacked were actually independent wrestlers, or stuntmen put in referee uniforms) and officials would appear, trying to subdue Shamrock. After being surrounded, Shamrock suplexed a referee and then an official before calming down as Maivia was wheeled away on a gurney.Howard Finkelthen announced Shamrock had been disqualified for not breaking his ankle lock submission, meaning The Rock would retain the Intercontinental championship. This would cause Shamrock to become enraged and chase Rocky, and dump him off of the gurney and fighting him on the Chris Warren band stage. TheWWF Tag Team Championshipmatch was a \"Dumpster match\", the objective being the first tag team to put their opponents into a dumpster with the lids being closed shut would be the winners. The match began withBilly GunnfacingChainsaw CharlieandRoad Doggexchanging blows withCactus Jack. Trying acannonballon Road Dogg from the apron, Cactus missed and slammed himself into the dumpster instead. The Outlaws then focused on Charlie, using a back drop to deposit him into the dumpster and, as he attempted to climb out, they simultaneously slammed the lid shut on the hardcore legends' heads. With Cactus and Charlie both in the dumpster, the Outlaws shut the lid down on them, but Cactus managed to get back up while the Outlaws were celebrating and pushed Road Dogg down to the ground with a mandible claw, pulling him into the dumpster. Both teams took time to recover and began to brawl with weapons in the ring, Cactus Jack pulling out a ladder and climbing it opposite Billy Gunn, only for both men to be pushed off straight into the dumpster outside the ring, thanks to a dazed Chainsaw Charlie. Road Dogg pulled his partner out and the two then focused their efforts on Charlie, powerbombing him into the dumpster, but Cactus had managed to escape in the meantime. The fight eventually found its way to the backstage area, with both Outlaws throwing Cactus into boxes and promotional displays, but Jack replied with a chair shot to both of them and planted Billy Gunn onto a wooden pallet with adouble-arm DDT. Charlie then reappeared on aforkliftand elevated the wooden pallet as Jack dragged Road Dogg onto it too. Charlie then drove the forklift above a backstage dumpster and dropped both opponents inside as Cactus Jack closed the lid to win the WWF Tag Team Championship. Main event matches BeforeThe Undertaker's match withKane, baseball record-holderPete Rosecame to the ring as the special ring announcer. However, after insulting the hometown team and introducing Kane, he received atombstone piledriver, starting atri-year tradition.The Undertaker was preceded by a league oftorch-bearingdruids to the tune of \"O Fortuna\". As the match began, The Undertaker cornered Kane and threw a flurry of punches into him, ducking and reversing Kane's attempts until Kane hit him with aclotheslinethat he instantly sat up from. Kane then set Undertaker up in atree of woeto begin his assault of punches and Irish whips, before suplexing Undertaker onto the ropes and delivering a flying club to the neck from the turnbuckle. As The Undertaker began to fight back, Kane threw him into the ropes, but Undertaker retaliated by jumping onto his back, which was met aface-first electric chair.Paul Bearerkept the referee distracted while Kane landed the steel steps onto Undertaker, and repeated the effort a second time while Undertaker was lying on the steps, crushing him in-between them. As the referee tried to keep Kane in check, Bearer slapped Undertaker while walking past him. Kane caught his brother running and delivered achokeslam, but Undetaker lifted his shoulders off the mat before the three-count could be made. Kane put The Undertaker into a sleeper hold that he eventually fought out of with a flurry of punches. Undertaker then dropped Kane on top of the ropes and punched him off the apron; he followed this with anover the top rope suicide divethat Kane managed to sidestep, sending Undertaker crashing through the Spanish announce table. As Undertaker made it back into the ring, Kane hit him with aflying lariat. Undertaker then attempted to give Kane the Tombstone Piledriver, but Kane managed to shift his weight, reversing the positions and allowing Kane to deliver the tombstone to Undertaker instead. Undertaker kicked out and after landing a running clothesline, Undertaker choke slammed Kane and then delivered a tombstone piledriver of his own; but Kane kicked out. This would mark the first time anyone had ever kicked out of Undertaker's tombstone piledriver. It would take three tombstones with a guillotine leg drop and flying clothesline in between to stop Kane. But in the end, Undertaker scored the pin and was victorious. As soon as the match was over, Bearer attacked Undertaker and ordered Kane to attack him, which he did with a chair shot to the head and then a tombstone piledriver onto the chair. After Kane and Bearer left, Undertaker sat up and left the ring. WithMike Tysonenforcing from ringside, theWWF Championshipmatch began with both wrestlers taunting each other, engaging in a few light punches beforeShawn Michaelsescaped the ring and ran back in to take advantage ofStone Cold Steve Austin, but was met with a standing clothesline. Austin followed up by pulling down Michaels' tights, exposing Michaels' backside. Michaels then tried to run at Austin, but was back dropped over the top rope onto Triple H. As Triple H threw Austin into the crowd barrier, the referee ordered he and Chyna to leave ringside. As they were leaving Austin followed and fought with Triple H up to the entrance gate. Michaels caught up and hit Austin with a cymbal from the DX Band's stage, before Irish whipping Austin into the dumpster. As the match resumed in the ring, Austin met Michaels's high-risk maneuver with a clothesline and then ran him into the turnbuckle before picking him up for an inverted atomic drop. Michaels' attempt to pick up some momentum saw him picked up and dropped onto the ropes, but Michaels managed to push Austin away as he attempted a stunner. When Michaels tried to escape the ring though, Austin delivered a right hand, forcing the champion to fall upon the announce table. After Austin slowed the match down with a sleeper hold, Michaels tried to pull his knee into the ring post but was instead pulled into it himself. Austin then tried to rush at Michaels, but was back dropped into the crowd and struck with the ring bell. Michaels used the momentum to take advantage inside the ring, delivering a snapmare and then a low kick to the grounded Austin, while also taking time totaunt the audience. Austin briefly picked up some speed throwing Michaels out of the ring, but just as quickly lost ground as Michaels repeatedly worked on Austin's left knee, throwing it into the ring post before kicking and dropping onto it back inside the ring. When Austin tried to recover outside of the ring, he was met with a baseball slide that launched him over the announce table. Austin was then thrown back into the ring by Miks Tyson, where he soon suffered a figure-four leglock that Michaels illegally elevated using the second and third ring rope. Austin's eventual counter was stopped by a rope break. Austin then tried to reverse a standing sleeper hold by throwing Michaels back into the turnbuckle, but unwittingly trapped refereeMike Chiodawho fell unconscious. With both men on the floor, Michaels recovered with a kip-up and landed a high-flying elbow drop, getting in position forSweet Chin Music. As Austin eventually stood up, he ducked the superkick, attempting a stunner on Michaels. Michaels responded by throwing Austin into the ropes before once again attempting Sweet Chin Music. However, Austin grabbed Michaels' foot, spun him around and nailed him with a Stone Cold Stunner. Mike Tyson jumped into the ring to make a quick three count and the new champion celebrated by tossing the enforcer an \"Austin 3:16\" t-shirt. When Shawn Michaels stood up, he confronted Tyson about his turn, but was met with a punch that instantly floored him, before Tyson then draped Michaels with Austin's t-shirt. Aftermath The result of the main event heralded a changing of the guard in the World Wrestling Federation. Shawn Michaels, who had been a major superstar in the company for many years, having won his first WWF Championship at WrestleManiatwo years previously, took a four-year hiatus from wrestling due to a severe back injury sustained during the casket match against Undertaker at the Royal Rumble. During his retirement, Shawn made several ostensible one-off appearances as a guest commentator during episodes ofRaw Is Warin the summer of 1998, and eventually replacing Sgt. Slaughter as the WWF commissioner at the end of the year, holding onto the position for a year and a half. After what was supposed to be a one-time match four years later atSummerSlam, Michaels and the now renamed World Wrestling Entertainment realized that his injuries had healed, and he made a full-time return to wrestling, eventually retiring permanently in 2010 atWrestleMania XXVI, 12 years after this event. With Stone Cold Steve Austin as the new WWF Champion, the \"Attitude Era\" was fully ushered in. The company's iconic scratch logo had started to replace the \"New Generation\" logo and began to appear on ring aprons and promotional material during and after this event. The next night onRaw Is Warafter WrestleMania, the old WWF \"winged eagle\" world championship belt was retired, and a new belt design with a larger eagle and blue globe debuted (eventually being retired in 2002). The Attitude Era saw Austin's feud with Vince McMahon escalate and two weeks later,Raw Is WardefeatedWorld Championship Wrestling'sMonday Nitroin theratings warfor the first time in eighty-four weeks. Shawn Michaels' loss was criticized by Triple H the following night onRaw Is War, with Triple H blaming Michaels for overlooking Tyson's potential double-cross. Helmsley delivered a promo saying that he would now lead D-Generation X and turn it into an army, saying \"the first thing you do is look to your blood. You look to your buddies. You look to your friends. You look...tothe Kliq\",before introducing a returningSean Waltman, now under the \"X-Pac\" persona, who had re-signed with the company after being fired from World Championship Wrestling (WCW). Later in the evening, it was revealed thatRoad DoggandBilly Gunnwere also part of theDX Army. The ongoing saga between The Undertaker and Kane continued to escalate even further. The following night, Paul Bearer challenged Undertaker on behalf of Kane to a match atUnforgiven: In Your House, where the ring would be surrounded by fire. The first man to be set ablaze would lose, thus giving birth to theInferno Match. By winning the fifteen-team battle royal, LOD 2000 won the right to face the WWF Tag Team Champions at Unforgiven. The champions by rights were Cactus Jack and Chainsaw Charlie, but some legal wrangling from The New Age Outlaws saw the match held up on account of the wrong dumpster being used. The vacant titles were then decided in a steel cage match between the two teams the following night, which the Outlaws won after interference from the newly formed DX Army, concreting their ties, and by handcuffing Charlie to the cage by his neck. Charlie returned to his Terry Funk persona, whilst Cactus Jack became Dude Love again. Meanwhile, the New Age Outlaws became part of the DX Army, achieving further success. In a tag team match against Ken Shamrock and Steve Blackman, Rocky Maivia promised to show Faarooq that the Nation was stronger and more connected than ever before. The promise was a sour one as, during the match, Rocky left Faarooq to suffer the wrath of Shamrock and Blackman. Afterwards, Faarooq demanded that Rocky come back out so the two could fight. When Rocky returned and squared up to Faarooq, the other members of the Nation turned on him, and Maivia proclaimed himself as the new \"ruler\" of the faction. Before Marc Mero's match with Taka Michinoku the next night, Luna Vachon appeared and challenged Sable to a singles match, which Sable promptly accepted. Vachon also announced that it was not to be a traditional wrestling match, because she wanted to humiliate Sable, and so it would be an evening gown match to be held at Unforgiven. Results References External links",
"WrestleMania XV WrestleMania XVwas the 15th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 28, 1999, at theFirst Union CenterinPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania. Tenprofessional wrestling matcheswere scheduled on the event'scard. The ticket sales of 20,276 drew a gross of $1,437,050. The main event saw the challengerStone Cold Steve AustinfaceThe Rockin ano disqualification matchfor theWWF Championship. The penultimate match sawThe UndertakerwrestleBig Boss Manin aHell in a Cellmatch. Lower on the card, six of the promotion's seven activechampionshipswere defended, including the first WrestleMania defense of theHardcore Championship. Also on the undercard was aBrawl for Allmatch, an unscripted type of shootfight between wrestlerBart Gunnand boxer/mixed martial artistButterbean. This event also marked the final WWF appearance forGorilla Monsoon,who died in October that year. Production Background WrestleManiais theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" pay-per-views, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XV was scheduled on March 28, 1999, at theFirst Union CenterinPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania. Storylines WhenRoad Dogg Jesse Jamesand \"Bad Ass\"Billy Gunnlost theWWF Tag Team ChampionshiptoThe Corporation,they tried their hand at singles wrestling for some time. Gunn failed in his attempts to win theWWF Intercontinental Championship, but Road Dogg becomingHardcore Championuntil an injury prevented him from honoring a championship match withAl Snow. Snow ended up fighting himself and thenBob Hollyfor the vacant belt atSt. Valentine's Day Massacre: In Your House, with Holly winning the title at the banks of theMississippi River.When Road Dogg won the Intercontinental Championship onRaw Is WarGunn fought Holly (now Hardcore Holly) and won when Holly crashed into an ad-hoc announcers tableJim Rosshad constructed for his pirate broadcast of the show.Holly felt enraged that circumstances had conspired against him, while Snow still wanted another chance at the belt. In the previous year, due to the suddenly enlarged roster, ashootfighting(unscripted) knockout tournament titledBrawl for Allwas organized on a voluntary basis, with Bart Gunn winning the tournament on August 24after defeating every opponent by knockout aside from his opening-round opponent Bob Holly. When Holly rechristened himself Hardcore Holly on February 15, decrying poor gimmicks and tag-team partners he had been given in the past, Gunn made his first appearance since winning the tournament, to remind Holly that not all his partners were of a poor caliber.After a hardcore match between the two, which Gunn dominated until a masked assailant, revealed to be\"Dr. Death\" Steve Williams, threw him off the stage. Williams did this out of revenge for losing to Gunn in the Brawl for All. The week after on Raw Is War, Williams' managerJim Rossannounced to Gunn he would be facing notedmixed martial artistandboxerEric \"Butterbean\" Esch, who held a 43–1–1 record at the time, who challenged him to a Brawl for All fight. From November'sSurvivor Seriesuntil the night after St. Valentine's Day Massacre,The Rockand Mankind (Mick Foley) traded theWWF Championshipnumerous times as Mr. McMahonscrewedMankind time and time again on his quest to headline WrestleMania. In their final match, aRaw Is Warladder match,Paul Wightdelivered theShowstopperto Mankind as he was about to win the match,removing his chances of appearing the main event. However, as Mr. McMahon's conspiracy of appointing Big Show as special guest referee to secure The Rock as champion began to fall apart, Mankind constantly offered his services as a second official. With The Rock and Big Show causing infighting in the Corporation, Mankind successfully canvassed for a chance to referee; rather than have two conflicting referees, a match was booked to give the winner the right to officiate. When Ryan Shamrock (Alicia Webb) appeared front row onRaw Is Waron January 11, she gained attention not only from her brother but alsoVal Venis, who performed a flirtatious dance for her, and \"Badd Ass\" Billy Gunn, who lived up to his moniker by mooning her. Enraged,Ken Shamrockfought Gunn at theRoyal Rumble,then Venis at St. Valentine's Day Massacre, with Venis winning the Intercontinental Championship thanks to help from Ryan.Venis soon dumped Ryan,and she began a relationship with Goldust (Dustin Rhodes). Venis also unwittingly lost his championship to Road Dogg onRaw Is Warand found himself defending his championship against the important men in Ryan Shamrock's life in a four-corners elimination match. After The Rock won his\"I Quit\" matchagainst Mankind at the Royal Rumble by playing a recording of his voice,Triple Hdemanded an I Quit match of his own, but as he was about to put Rock through the announcers table, The Corporation came to the ring andKaneheld his manager/girlfriendChynahostage, demanding that he quit the match. As soon as the match was over, Chynalow blowedTriple H and revealed her alliances with The Corporation, promising aValentine's Daypresent at the subsequent pay-per-view. Despite almost having the match won, Triple H suffered at the hands of an interferingShane McMahonand illegal man Kane's chokeslam.Triple H took revenge on the February 22Raw Is Warby interfering in X-Pac's (Sean Waltman) match with Chyna, causing her to lose. Chyna called Triple H out on March 8, but before they could fight, Kane came to the ring. Chyna held up Triple H as Kane shot afireballat him, though he would duck out of the way causing (kayfabe) severe retinal damage to Chyna. Despite not receiving any damage, Triple H maintained that the fireball was meant for him, an insult he took personally and an intended injury he wanted to return at WrestleMania. On March 22, Kane prepared to have a match against Goldust, but as he threw off his entrance robes and wig, it turned out he was Triple H holding a flamethrower, shooting flames in Kane's face.Meanwhile, X-Pac, who had altercations with Shane McMahon prior to the February event, was frustrated with Shane's interference in the match and goaded into putting hisEuropean Championshipon the line in a tag-team match with Triple H against Kane and Shane, which Shane won thanks to Triple H being distracted by Chyna.With Shane claiming himself to be a fighting champion, he agreed to a rematch at WrestleMania, but regularly interfered in X-Pac's matches up until that point, culminating in a Greenwich Street Fight on March 22 that ended in a no-contest when theMean Street Posseambushed X-Pac and drove off with Shane in their car. Toriwas sitting front row as aplantas early as September 14'sRaw Is War, but it was not until late December that she began to act with stalker tendencies, sending flowers and notes to Sable, theWomen's Championand even helping her to defend her title againstLuna Vachonat the Royal Rumble.OnRaw Is Warthe night after the previous pay-per-view, Tori invaded the ring again and was publicly shouted at and humiliated by Sable. Vachon then brought Tori to the ring a fortnight after, reprimanding Sable for her ego, but a still-obsessed Tori helped attack Vachon. The following week on March 8'sRaw Is War, Tori fought Vachon with Sable in her corner but after receiving asquashfrom Vachon, Sable also gave Tori aSable Bomb, leading to Tori interrupting Sable'sPlayboyinterview by demanding a championship match at WrestleMania. Having beenburied alivein a Royal Rumble qualification match atRock Bottom: In Your House,The Undertakerdisappeared from television whileThe Acolytes, Faarooq (Ron Simmons) and Bradshaw (John Layfield), began to act strangely, eventually abductingDennis Knightand leaving him tied up in a darkened room. On January 11, The Undertaker returned in slightly new attire, taking a seat in a ceremonial throne on theRaw Is Warstage whilePaul Bearerstood beside him and The Acolytes brought Knight out and tied him to a table. There, Undertaker performed a ritualistic ceremony, rechristening him Mideon.Undertaker began delivering ambiguous apocalyptic messages, but after recruiting Mabel, now Viscera (Nelson Frazier, Jr.) andThe Brood, he began to be more direct, revealing his plan to attack Mr. McMahon and take over the World Wrestling Federation. The security of Mr. McMahon's Corporation,Big Boss Man, challenged the Ministry to a six-man tag team match, which ended in a no-contest when the Ministry abducted Shane McMahon and took him to Undertaker, who threatened him while choking him then gave him a letter to give to his father. McMahon replied the following week on February 22 by booking The Undertaker in anInferno matchwith Kane onRaw Is War, the first network television airing of that type of match. During the match, McMahon provided commentary, nonchalantly revealing he had placed Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match against Big Boss Man for WrestleMania. During the match, Paul Bearer gave an ominous gift to McMahon, a teddy bear. After Undertaker set Kane on fire, he turned to the enraged McMahon, taking the teddy bear (later revealed to belong toStephanie McMahon) and setting it alight, reducing Vince to his knees.Trying to defeat either of his problems, McMahon declared he'd never show such weakness again and put Mankind against Undertaker, which ended with Undertaker almost chokeslamming McMahon through the announcers table until Boss Man saved him.Undertaker continued with his mind games on March 8, ordering his Ministry to look for Boss Man all night and attacking any innocents in his way, eventually capturing Boss Man and crucifying him. Boss Man managed to escape while police were being beaten off by Undertaker's minions until he offered himself to the police while being derided by McMahon. The following week he continued his assault, with videos playing throughout the evening of the Ministry at McMahon's mansion ending in McMahon coming to the ring while Triple H brawled with Kane, begging Kane to help him. Kane ripped off his mask to reveal it was actually The Undertaker who grabbed McMahon by the throat as the lights turned off in the arena and when they came up, he was gone with McMahon alone in the ring. The main event of the evening was another chapter in the ongoing rivalry betweenStone Cold Steve Austinand McMahon, which dated back to when Austin won the Royal Rumble in 1998.After Austin won the WWF Championship atWrestleMania XIV,McMahon set on a six-month-long quest to take the championship from him. With the exception of a one day reign by Kane, who won the championship in a First Blood Match atKing of the Ringwhen his (kayfabe) brother The Undertaker caused Austin to bleed first, Austin thwarted each attempt by McMahon untilBreakdown: In Your Housein September 1998. There, Austin defended the championship against Undertaker and Kane in what was billed as a triple threat match. McMahon added a stipulation, however, that neither brother could pin the other to win the match;this led to both men simultaneously pinning Austin, causing him to lose the match and the championship. This had been part of a deal McMahon had made with the two men to protect him from Austin, with the reward of the championship if they were successful. However, McMahon went back on his word after Austin attacked him on the next night’sRawand announced he was forcing Undertaker and Kane to wrestle for the vacant championship atJudgment Day: In Your House. He also named Austin the special guest referee, hoping to humiliate him by forcing him to declare a new champion. Austin, however, had other ideas and counted both men out, declaring himself the winner of the match and leaving the championship vacant. ADeadly Gamestournament was scheduled forSurvivor Seriesin November, in which it turned out that The Rock, not Mankind, was McMahon's choice for winner and had the tournament manipulated to his advantage, while Austin lost in a match when McMahon's son Shane, acting as referee, refused to count a pinfall to go to the finals.Knowing Rock would be busy feuding with Mankind, McMahon realized Austin was likely to use the 1999 Royal Rumble, rather than a personal attack, to attempt to reclaim the belt and laid down the stipulation that he must win a Buried Alive match against The Undertaker to be in the Rumble. When he did, with some help from Kane,McMahon further tried to prevent Austin winning back the championship by \"randomly\" drawing him as the first entrant in the Rumble and drawing himself as the 30th. Having annoyed commissionerShawn Michaels, McMahon was placed into the match as the second entrant. McMahon would later try to incentivize other wrestlers to eliminate Austin by putting a $100,000 bounty on him during the Royal Rumble match. Despite this, Austin (and, for that matter, McMahon) managed to stay in the match to the very end, although this was mostly due to he and McMahon leaving the ring at various points to brawl around the arena. Late in the match The Rock, who earlier in the evening had regained the WWF Championship, came to the ring and started arguing with Austin. McMahon took advantage of the distraction and threw Austin over the top rope, thus winning the match. Since he was officially now the winner of the Royal Rumble, McMahon was entitled to face whoever the WWF Champion was at WrestleMania. On the following night's episode ofRaw, however, he announced that, since he was only a part-timer and the champion was a fellow Corporation member in The Rock, that he had filed paperwork relinquishing his WrestleMania championship opportunity and that he would be naming a replacement later in the evening. To his chagrin, Austin and Michaels informed him shortly thereafter that, according to the rules, his actions resulted in Austin, as the runner-up in the Royal Rumble, taking his place. With McMahon irate, Austin revealed he was willing to put his place on the line and not headline WrestleMania if McMahon would give him the opportunity to fight him one on one with no interference from The Corporation; if McMahon could beat him, Austin would not go to WrestleMania. Their steel-cage match at St. Valentine's Day Massacre mostly consisted of McMahon running away, but eventually the two fought with Austin winning the match under unusual circumstances whenBig Showmade his debut, coming from under the ring and throwing Austin into the cage with the walls of it coming open, meaning that Austin had inadvertently won. Event (Brawl For All) Pre-show The event was marked with aRage Partythe preceding evening at thePennsylvania Convention Center, playing on the tagline of the event, much likeFan Axessthat would come in later years. It included music fromIsaac Hayes,Big Pun, and theCherry Poppin' Daddies. During theSunday Night Heatpre-show, Jacqueline (Jacqueline Moore) pinned Ivory (Lisa Moretti) after a back suplex.After the match,Terri Runnelsburned her cigar into Ivory's cheek. The secondHeatmatch saw a 21-man battle royal match with the last two competitors becoming a tag team for the evening to face the Tag Team Championship holders. In the event,D'Lo Brownand Test (Andrew Martin) were the last two, still fighting without realizing the match was over when Droz (Darren Drozdov) and The Godfather (Charles Wright) eliminated each other.The show officially began withBoyz II Mensinging \"America the Beautiful\" in the ring before the opening video. Preliminary matches The inaugural WrestleMania Hardcore Championship match began with Al Snow striking Billy Gunn as he tried to make apre-match speech. With Gunn in the corner, Snow fought with Hardcore Holly outside the ring, wrapping his neck in cable but, after some fighting from Gunn, Holly was able tosuplexSnow. After Gunn again interjected himself, Snow was able to go underneath the mat to find some weapons including aPhiladelphia Flyershockey stick much to the delight of the crowd. The match ended when Gunn put Snow through a table in the corner, originally intended for Gunn and then used theFameasseron Snow, driving him into a chair on the mat. As the referee counted, Holly struck Gunn with a weapon, quickly covering Snow to steal his second championship reign. TheWWF Tag Team Championshipmatch began withJeff Jarrettand D'Lo Brown exchanging running maneuvers before both tagging in their respective partners, at which point Test used apumphandle slamonOwen Hart, but tried again after a failed pin attempt only to be met with anenziguiriand then theSharpshooter. Brown came in illegally to break it up but was tagged in straight afterward, dominating both Hart and Jarrett with power slams and dropkicks, almost winning the match after aSky Highthat was broken up by Jarrett. RefereeJimmy Korderaswas distracted when Debra (Debra Marshall) came to the apron to distract Brown only to be pulled down by Ivory (Lisa Moretti), at which pointPMS(Terri RunnelsandJacqueline Moore) arrived and all of them began to fight while Test tried to pull them apart. With everyone distracted, Hartmissile dropkickedBrown allowing Jarrett to roll Brown up and sit on him, securing a pin count. The Brawl For All match began with the two meetings in the middle, Gunn running into some blows from Butterbean. The two traded punches, neither man managing to contact properly until Butterbean shook Gunn with a left-hand jab followed by a right hook which stunned Gunn allowing Bean to corner him, giving him another right hook which knocked him down. Gunn immediately came back upon his knees but took advantage of the eight seconds before standing up fully. As the fight resumed, Butterbean jabbed Gunn to the body and followed with a clean overhand right which sent Gunn back to the canvas, giving Butterbean a victory via knockout.The match lasted a total of 34 seconds.This was followed with an appearance fromthe San Diego Chicken, who mocked special refereeVinny Pazienzaand was punched to the floor for it. On the WWF WrestleMania special onHSNlater during the pay per view, after the Shane McMahon match\"Dr. Death\" Steve Williamscut a promo on Bart Gunn in a backstage interview withJim Rossby his side, saying the Butterbean's punch \"wasn't lucky\" and that \"Bart deserved what he got\", telling the viewer to keep watching WWF because \"the Doctor hasn't finished his job yet\".This was in hopes of setting up an angle between Williams and Gunn, and to continue building Williams as a credible midcarder. However, because of Gunn being released, their feud instead carried over toAll Japan Pro Wrestlingin the early 2000s, where in Japan the Brawl For All was better received. When Mankind entered the ring he was immediatelyheadbuttedout, but as Big Show followed him out, Mankind slammed Show's head into the steel steps. He then tried adouble-armed DDTinto the steps but was shoved over the steps falling backward. Show dominated Mankind in the ring afterward, using his sheer size to punch and throw Mankind, with Mankind eventually being tied up in the ropes, which allowed him to back body drop Show out of the ring. Mankind then took out Mr. Socko, a smelly gym sock, and stuffed the foul-smelling sock into the Big Show’s mouth with themandible clawthree times. The third claw came with alow blow, for which Mankind was not disqualified. When Show stood back up, he had Mankind on his back with the sock in his mouth and jumped backward so that his entire body landed on Mankind, breaking up the hold. As the two recovered, Show kicked his opponent out of the ring, grabbing a steel chair and thrusting it into Mankind's chest then hitting it over his back. Big Show threw that chair and another in the ring, setting them both in seated positions andShow StoppingMankind through the middle of them. At this pointEarl Hebnerfinally decided to disqualify Big Show, with Show taking out his anger by attacking Mankind more with the chair. Mr. McMahon made his way to the ring afterward, berating Big Show for risking the WWF Championship match at which point Show grabbed him by the throat. He then thought better of it and released him, only to be met with another tirade from McMahon and a slap, causing Show to punch McMahon and knock him out. The four corners Intercontinental match began with Ken Shamrock and Road Dogg in the ring, with the latter being thrown from corner to corner until Goldust tagged his way in, with runningshoulder bargesthat floored Shamrock. Shamrock tagged in Venis who came in and instantly attacked Shamrock until Goldustbackdroppedhim. Goldust tried theCurtain Callbut Venis flipped over Goldust's back only to be knocked down again by aclotheslinefrom Goldust who then put Venis on the turnbuckle and attempted asuperplexbut Venis fought back and replied with adiving bulldogfollowing with afisherman suplex pinwhich would only make a two count. The two then collided in the turnbuckle, causing Goldust to fall down and Venis to fall on him, headbutting his crotch. Shamrock took a blind tag from Road Dogg, after he replaced Goldust, immediately putting anankle lockuntil Venis grabbed the bottom rope. As Venis grabbed the ropes to stand up again Shamrock charged him but was tossed over the ropes as Ryan Shamrock insulted him. Venis went after Ken Shamrock and the two fought up the walkway with Shamrock running back to the ring but not fast enough to avoid a double count-out. Shamrock, not accepting the decisionbelly to belly suplex slammedboth competitors before leaving. When they recovered Goldust Irish whipped Road Dogg but had it reversed and as Goldust ran into the ropes he had his leg caught by Ryan Shamrock, seemingly trying to grab Road Dogg's leg. Road Dogg charged Goldust and was picked up for apowerslambut managed to roll Goldust round, crashing him into the floor and covering him for a successful pin count. Before Kane's match with Triple H, Kane entered the ring only to be attacked while he was performing his signature entrance by the San Diego Chicken. Kane fought back and unmasked the chicken, revealing it to bePete Rose, trying to gain revenge for theprevious year's incidentbut receiving aTombstone piledriver.Triple H also tried to ambush Kane by coming through the crowd while all eyes were on the stage entrance, hitting Kane out of the ring and then hitting him into the ring post and whipping him into the steel steps. Kane then picked Triple H up and straddled him on the crowd barrier, pushing him into theMean Street Possewho were at ringside, picking him up again to ram his back into the steel post three times. Back inside the ring, Kane dominated Helmsley with his rough fighting style, using his foot to choke Triple H and knocking him down with clotheslines and punches until Triple H gained momentum from a reversal, smashing Kane's face into his knee. Kane was allowed time to recover when Triple H was distracted by Chyna coming to ringside. Triple H tried toPedigreeKane as he stood up but failed while Chyna pushed the steel steps into the ring. Kane picked them up and ran into Triple H, who used the turnbuckle to swing his feet up and kicked them back into Kane causing Kane to stagger backward and drop them before smashing his face into the steps from adrop toe-hold. Triple H then clotheslined Kane out of the ring, following himself and attempting to Pedigree Kane on the steps but wasbackbody dropped. When they made it back into the ring Kane chokeslammed Triple H while Chyna entered the ring with a steel chair, telling Kane she wanted to attack Triple H, but as Kane turned, Chyna hit him with the chair, causing him to corner her but again was hit with the chair, this time by Triple H, who followed it up with a Pedigree onto the chair. Chyna and Triple H celebrated the reunion of D-Generation X afterwards. The Women's Championship match began with Tori taking her time to enter the ring, Sable grabbing her hair when she finally did and tossing her back out. Tori regrouped outside and pulled Sable out by her legs, ramming her face into the apron and the barricade. She was whipped into the barrier herself and as she recovered, Sable performed acrossbodyfrom the outside apron. Sable continuously assaulted Tori while down on the mat, but Tori delivered two vicious clotheslines to the corner on Sable, then attempted asunset flip pinwhich began a series of pinning reversals ending in a stalemate. Afterward Tori tried a running attack on Sable but took out referee Jimmy Korderas unwittingly. Sable then tried to perform herSable Bombbut Tori jumped out of it. As she tried to perform her own powerbomb, a muscled woman, later identified asNicole Bass, came into the ring togorilla press slamTori. This allowed Sable to Sable Bomb Tori and pin her to retain the championship. Before X-Pac could make his way to the ringPat PattersonandGerald Briscoattacked him from behind but caused the little problem to X-Pac who beat them then ran into the ring, with Shane McMahon fleeing. Shane eventually made his way to the ring and was punched into the corner, escaping aBronco Busterwhen Test pulled him out of the ring. Shane tried to escape once again but X-Pac chased him and threw him back into the ring, only to be struck down by Test and then have his crotch rammed into the ring post. When he returned to the ring Shanescoop slammedhim and attempted aCorporate Elbow, with X-Pac sitting up just before the end but he was brought back down with a low blow as refereeMike Chiodawas distracted by Test. Shane continued to push the disqualification boundaries by whipping X-Pac with his belt several times before being back body dropped out of the ring, recovering only to be met with a flying crossbody. The Mean Street Posse tried to restrain X-Pac but he fought back, only to be floored by Test. After a superplex, the pin-count was broken up by Test but he was soon kicked out of the ring then X-Pac whipped McMahon with the belt before round house kicking him into the corner and performing the Bronco Buster. When Chioda checked on McMahon afterward, Test struck X-Pac with the championship belt but by the time McMahon covered him he managed to kick out. Test tried to interfere but took a Bronco Buster too. Triple H and Chyna came to the ring to pull Test out but when McMahon was floored by anX Factor, Chyna distracted the referee to allow Triple H to Pedigree X-Pac and cover him with Shane, turningheeland allowing him to retain the title. The New Age Outlaws ran to the ring and brawled with Triple H and Test until the lights went out and Kane's music began to play but by the time the lights came up The Corporation were clear of the ring and had fled. Main event matches The Hell in a Cell match began with Big Boss Man punching The Undertaker into the corner until he ducked out and returned the same. Although Boss Man was able to deliver aswinging neckbreaker, Undertaker took control again throwing Boss Man into the cell. Boss Man reversed an Irish whip and threw Undertaker into the cell too, handcuffing one hand to the chain fence. Boss Man taunted Undertaker's lack of control before striking him repeatedly with hisnight stickcausing Undertaker to fall to the floor and rip the handcuffs, though Boss Man carried on using the nightstick andcut Undertaker open. Undertaker fought back by grabbing Boss Man at the throat and throwing him back into the fence again, striking him with a chair and running Boss Man face-first into the chain fence with afireman's carry. As the two returned to the ring Boss Man tried to clothesline Undertaker but he ducked and performed aleaping flying clotheslineof his own before goingOld School, ultimately falling into the ropes. The two began a fistfight in the middle of the ring with Undertaker failing a tombstone piledriver attempt, but successfully performing it seconds later and pinned him afterwards.Undertaker stood up and looked to the heavens with his hands upwards, signalingThe Broodto descend onto the roof of the cell. They cut open the roof of the cell and passed through a noose, securing the other end to the top of the cell. The Brood then ascended back into the rafters as Undertaker put the noose around Boss Man's neck, with Paul Bearer causing the Cell to rise and take a hanging Boss Man with it.After the match a video package of theRage Partywas shown while Boss Man was taken down and carried off on a stretcher. Before the main event,Michael ColeannouncedJim Rossreturning to call the match. Mr. McMahon then came to the ring as the special guest referee but was confronted by CommissionerShawn Michaels, who explained that only the commissioner is entitled to appoint a referee for WrestleMania, ordering McMahon to the back and barring all members of The Corporation from ringside. The main event began with the two wrestlers insulting each other before Austin threw the first punch, The Rock instantly returning. The majority of the early part of the match took place outside the ring, with Austin being choked with a T-shirt then taking Rock through the crowd before returning into the secure area and into the crowd the opposite end. When Rock threw Austin back into the secure area he choked him on some cable and took him up the walkway, but Austin fought out of his grasp and threw him into the steel barriers, trying to piledrive him but being backbody dropped so that his knee landed onto light support girders. Rock picked up Austin and threw him into the WrestleMania XV sign but Austin circled round and threw Rock into them instead, then dragged him back towards the ring having a suplex reversed on the concrete walkway. Rock then tried to throw Austin back through the crowd at ringside, spitting water in his face but Austin took control and put him onto the Spanish announce table, performing two elbow drops to break the table and then spat water into Rock's face. Austin threw his opponent into the ring, celebrating to the crowd but when he entered the ring Rock sprang up and drove Austin into the floor with aRock Bottom, following with an unsuccessful pin cover. The Rock grabbed a chair but Austin took it from him, Rock blocked the oncoming chair shot by pulling referee Mike Chioda in front of him, who took the chair shot. Rock then caught Austin by surprise with a swinging neckbreaker, taking the chair and driving it into Austin's back several times. After another pin attempt, withTim Whitenow officiating, Austin still kicked out and Rock used asitting chin holdto subdue him. After holding him for some time, Austin slowly stood up, elbowing Rock and attempting a running attack but was taken out with aSamoan drop, which Austin again kicked out of. The Rock took his frustration out on White, Rock Bottoming him,which gave Austin the time to recover and attack the champion with aStone Cold Stunner, withEarl Hebnereventually coming in to officiate but only counting to two before Rock kicked out. Mr. McMahon came to the ring, distracting Austin while The Rock low-blowed him; the two men kicking away at Austin in the corner and punching Hebner when he tried to stop them. As the two double-teamed Austin, Mankind came running to the ring in his referee's uniform,throwing McMahon straight out the ring and taking over as referee. Austin tried a roll-up pin, following up with aLou Thesz Pressbut Rock soon took the advantage with another Rock Bottom. With Austin in the middle of the ring, The Rock tried theCorporate Elbowbut Austin moved out of the way at the last second. Rock caught Austin's foot and spun him around, trying to Rock Bottom him again but Austin elbowed him away and delivered a stunner, finally securing a pinfall and winning the WWF Championship. Reception The event was met with mixed critical response.Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event five out of 10 stars. The main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin for the WWF Championship was rated eight out of 10 stars; the Hell in a Cell match between The Undertaker and Big Boss Man was rated five out of 10 stars; the match between Shane McMahon and X-Pac for the WWF European Championship was rated seven out of 10 stars; the match between Sable and Tori for the WWF Women's Championship was rated one out of 10 stars; the match between Triple H and Kane was rated four out of 10 stars; the referee match between Mankind and Big Show was rated four out of 10; the four-corners elimination match for the WWF Intercontinental Championship between Road Dogg Jesse James, Ken Shamrock, Goldust, and Val Venis was rated five out of 10 stars; the tag team match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between D'Lo Brown and Test against Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett was rated three out of 10 stars; and the triple threat match for the WWF Hardcore Championship between Hardcore Holly, Billy Gunn, and Al Snow was rated six out of 10 stars. Writing for 411Mania in 2009, Rob McNew gave the event a rating of 5.5/10, stating, \"Like mostAttitude Erashows this one doesn’t hold up very well ten years later\" though he praised the main event bout between Rock and Austin.Similarly, Scott Keith gave the event an overall negative rating, while calling the Rock vs. Austin match \"solid by default\" and complimenting Shane McMahon's performance given his lack of wrestling experience.In 2012,Bleacher Reportranked the event 25th out of the 27 Wrestlemanias to that point, calling the event \"underwhelming\" and criticizing theHell in a Cellmatch. Aftermath Stone Cold Steve Austin's feud with The Corporation continued after WrestleMania with Austin demanding the return of his customized smoking skull belt that was taken from him after losing the WWF Championship atBreakdown: In Your Housein 1998. WithThe Ministry of Darknesscontinuing to threaten his family, Mr. McMahon was forced to comply with his nemesis' demands and requested his son Shane to deliver the belt to Austin. Shane, however, refused and took matters with Austin into his own hands by giving the smoking skull belt to The Rock. This culminated in a rematch between Austin and The Rock atBacklash 1999while McMahon served as a special guest referee. Austin defeated The Rock to retain the WWF Championship after Mr. McMahon prevented Shane from screwing him and handed the smoking skull belt back to Austin. The Ministry of Darkness continued their ongoing war with The Corporation with The Undertaker going after Mr. McMahon's daughterStephanie. The Undertaker continued to make sacrifices includingRyan Shamrockleading to a feud between Undertaker and Ken Shamrock who wanted revenge for Undertaker's actions to his family with Undertaker defeating Shamrock at Backlash: In Your House. When The Undertaker did successfully find Stephanie, Shamrock, in his quest to get revenge on Undertaker, continued to beat down and interrogate members of The Ministry of Darkness for McMahon's whereabouts. AfterChristiantold Shamrock McMahon's whereabouts, Undertaker punished Christian by whipping him and have him face Crucifixion.EdgeandGangrel, who along with Christian were members of their own stableThe Broodand were loyal to Christian decided to rescue him, betraying The Ministry. The Ministry got revenge by defeating The Brood in a Six-Man Tag Team Match at Backlash. Bart Gunn would leave the WWF after his match against Butterbean. On theDark Side of the Ringepisode on theBrawl for All, Gunn said he felt his match against Butterbean was \"punishment\" for winning the Brawl and knocking out Steve \"Dr. Death\" Williams during the event (Williams suffered other injuries during the match) which was not what the bookers wanted (they wanted Williams to win to give him a push against \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin). Gunn would not return to WWF TV until 2007. Nicole Bass continued to accompany Sable to the ring and destroyed all competition for Sable's WWF Women's Championship. After HHH washed his hands of D-Generation X and joined Chyna in the Corporation, X-Pac teamed up with Kane to form an unlikely tag team, and captured the WWF Tag Team titles from Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett. The City of Philadelphia would later host the event again in2024with this time being held at the nearbyLincoln Financial Fieldin commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the event held in the city and the 40th anniversary of the WrestleMania. Results References External links",
"WrestleMania X-Seven WrestleMania X-Seven(also known asWrestleMania 17) was the 17th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF). It took place on April 1, 2001, at theReliant AstrodomeinHouston, Texas. It was the first WrestleMania held in thestateofTexas. Twelve matches were contested at the event, including one broadcast exclusively on theSunday Night Heatpre-show. Themain eventwas aNo Disqualification matchbetweenThe Rockand\"Stone Cold\" Steve Austinfor theWWF Championship. TheundercardincludedTriple HversusThe Undertaker, the secondTables, Ladders, and Chairs matchfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipand aStreet FightbetweenVince McMahonandShane McMahonwithMick Foleyas special guest referee. A record-breaking attendance for the Reliant Astrodome of 67,925 grossedUS$3.5 million.Many in professional wrestling considered WrestleMania X-Seven to be the pinnacle of the company's famousAttitude Era, similar to howWrestleMania IIIwas the pinnacle of the 80's wrestling boom. The WWF bought out rival competitionWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) the week prior. In addition to its commercial success, the event has received acclaim from critics and fans, and is often regarded as the greatest WrestleMania of all time, and the greatest professional wrestling pay-per-view event ever produced. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) first flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania 17, stylized as WrestleMania X-Seven, was scheduled to be held on April 1, 2001, at theReliant AstrodomeinHouston, Texas, the first WrestleMania held in thestateofTexas. Storylines The main feud leading into WrestleMania X-Seven involved\"Stone Cold\" Steve AustinchallengingThe Rockfor theWWF Championship.The Rock and \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin had fought for the WWF Championship atWrestleMania XVandBacklashin 1999. Stone Cold Steve Austin earned his opportunity to compete for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania X-Seven by winning the2001 Royal Rumblematch when he last eliminatedKane, while The Rock became the first ever six-time WWF Champion when he defeatedKurt AngleatNo Way Out.During their feud, Austin's wifeDebra, who was trying to get back into managing, was ordered by WWF chairman,Vince McMahon, to be The Rock's manager against her wishes as well as both Rock and Austin's. As a result, Austin would hold The Rock and McMahon responsible if any harm came to her. On the March 12 episode ofRaw is War, The Rock was placed in an overlongAnkle Lockhold during his rematch with Kurt Angle. When Debra went to check on The Rock, Angle also placed her into an Ankle Lock hold. Austin soon ran in to save her and knocked Angle out of the ring. Keeping to his word, he immediately gave The Rock aStone Cold Stunneras punishment. The following week on Raw is War, during a handicap tag team match involving The Rock,Chris Jericho,Kurt Angle,Chris Benoit, andWilliam Regal, Austin made his way down to the ring and ended up getting a Rock Bottom from The Rock in response to the stunner from the previous week. On the March 29 episode ofSmackDown!, Debra was relieved from her managerial role by Mr. McMahon after failing to prevent a brawl between Rock and Austin. The secondary feud leading into the event pittedThe Brothers of Destruction(The UndertakerandKane) againstTriple HandThe Big Show. After defeating \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin in aThree Stages of Hellmatch at No Way Out, Triple H felt that he deserved to be in the WrestleMania main event having defeated everyone in the WWF, including The Rock and Austin.The Undertaker took exception to that and told him that Triple H had never defeated him. Before WrestleMania X-Seven, the two had never faced each other in a one-on-one match on a pay-per-view event.During his entrance for aHardcore Championshipmatch against The Big Show, Triple H ambushed Undertaker. Kane ran in and saved the Undertaker from a further attack but was met with his own ambush by The Big Show. On the following episode ofSmackDown!, Undertaker tried to break into the limousine of Triple H and his wife,Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, on arrival but ended up being arrested by the police. As a result, Kane requested a match against Triple H later that night but lost when The Big Show interfered on behalf of Triple H. In retaliation, Kane interfered in The Big Show's Hardcore Championship match againstRavenonRaw is War, helping Raven pin Big Show to become the new Hardcore Champion. Undertaker's arrest led to a restraining order from Stephanie. To circumvent this, the Brothers of Destruction interfered in Triple H's match againstTest, with Kane ordered to run after Stephanie. With Stephanie held at ransom by Kane on a balcony in the arena, WWF commissionerWilliam Regalgave Undertaker and Kane matches at WrestleMania against Triple H and The Big Show respectively and the Undertaker told Kane to put her down. After being attacked during a Hardcore Championship title defense, Regal would later include Raven into Kane and Big Show's match, making it a Triple Threat Hardcore match for the Hardcore Championship. Another major feud that was built up in the lead to WrestleMania was the one involving Vince McMahon and his sonShane McMahon. The feud started with Vince's disapproval ofMick Foley's job as then-WWF commissioner as well as Foley's decision of holding a six-manHell in a Cellmatch atArmageddon 2000, taking into consideration about the well-being of the wrestlers involved in the match. Despite his attempts Foley was given full support byLinda McMahon, Vince's wife and the WWF's CEO. Not pleased with this result, Vince immediately demanded a divorce from Linda. Shortly after Armageddon, secretly to Vince's delight, it was revealed Linda was rushed to hospital suffering with a nervous breakdown. With Linda hospitalized, the Board of Directors appointed Vince as the new CEO of the WWF, allowing him to fire Foley as commissioner. With Linda in acoma-like state, Vince started to have a public affair withTrish Stratus. Vince's daughter, Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, was at first far from pleased about the turn of events. AtNo Way Out, Stephanie and Trish squared off, with Stephanie scoring the victory after arun-inby William Regal. On the February 26 episode ofRaw is War, however, during a match that placed Vince and Trish against Stephanie and William Regal, Stratus was turned on by the other participants in the match and had sewage dumped over her. In the following shows, Vince continued to demean Trish by having her do such actions as bark like a dog around the ring and stripping down to her lingerie. Despite this, Trish remained loyal to Vince and begged for his forgiveness. On the March 12 episode ofRaw is War, Shane McMahon made his return to the WWF. Angry with his father's actions, Shane started to throw punches at Vince only to be stopped by William Regal. Shane explained his actions on the following episode ofSmackDown!as a result of frustrations over the manipulation of his sister, his mother's state and Vince's treatment of Trish. On March 23, World Wrestling Federation Entertainment, Inc. purchased the assets of their longtime rival promotion,World Championship Wrestling(WCW) fromAOL Time Warner.With it, the purchase brought in an extra twist to the storyline. On the March 26 episode ofRaw is War(which was held atGund ArenainCleveland, Ohio), Vince McMahon made a live speech that was alsosimulcaston the final episode ofWCW Monday Nitro(which was held inPanama City Beach, Florida). In the speech, Vince announced that the signing was not final and that he wantedTed Turnerto come to WrestleMania to hand-deliver the contract for signing. He then promised that with the purchase he was going to bury his rival forever. However, Shane, who was at the venue forNitro, interrupted the speech and said: Because, dad, the deal is finalized... with WCW, and the name on the contract does say \"McMahon\". However, the contract reads \"Shane McMahon\". That's right! I now own WCW! And, dad, just likeWCW did in the past, how it kicked your ass in the pastand it will again, that's exactly what's going to happen to you this Sunday at WrestleMania! Oh my god! I don't believe it! I do not believe what we heard.Shane McMahon has bought WCW, and Mr. McMahon is in absolute shock! -Jim Ross,play-by-play commentatorfor theRaw is Warepisode before the event. To make matters worse for Vince, Mick Foley appeared shortly afterward that night and revealed that prior to his firing, Linda had made multiple contracts for him to sign, one of them was for Foley to referee a match of his choice at WrestleMania. Foley then chose the match between Vince and Shane, which was designated astreet fight. At theRoyal Rumble, Chyna (kayfabe) injured her neck during a match with Ivory, causing her to lose the match and fail to capture the Women's Championship. In order for Chyna to again challenge for the title, Ivory required the match contract to include a \"hold harmless\" clause, stating that if Ivory injures Chyna's neck again, there could be no legal recourse against Ivory. In doing so, the contract also included a provision to ban Ivory'sRight To Censor(RTC) stablemates from ringside. Event Before the event airedliveon pay-per-view, aSunday Night Heatmatch was aired withSteve BlackmanandGrand Master Sexaysquaring off againstX-FactormembersX-PacandJustin Credible. Near the end of the match, fellow X-Factor memberAlbertinterfered by pulling Sexay out of the ring, allowing X-Pac and Credible to hit theirX Marks the Spotfinisher on Blackman for the win. The first match of the event was theWWF Intercontinental Championshipmatch betweenChris Jerichoand WWF commissionerWilliam Regal. During the match, Regal exposed one of the top turnbuckles to throw Jericho's shoulder into it before giving him adouble underhooksuperplex. Jericho attempted theWalls of Jerichosubmission hold but had it reversed into aRegal Stretch. After Jericho managed to grab a ring rope to break the hold, he retaliated with numerouschopsbefore throwing Regal into the exposed turnbuckle and finishing him off with aLionsaultto retain the Intercontinental Championship. TazzandThe APA(BradshawandFaarooq) took onRight to Censor(The Goodfather,Val Venis, andBull Buchanan) next in a short match that ended with Bradshaw pinning the Goodfather after aClothesline from Hell. The third match was thetriple threathardcore matchbetweenRaven,KaneandThe Big Showfor theWWF Hardcore Championship. Raven came out with a shopping cart full of weapons. Kane and Raven began fighting before Big Show made his entrance. During the match, the three wrestlers fought their way out of the ring and through the crowd into the backstage area. Big Show tried to lock himself, Raven and the referee in a security cage but Kane broke the padlock and afterward threw Raven through a glass window. Big Show and Kane continued to brawl ending with the two throwing each other through a wall. Raven tried to escape by driving off in agolf cart, but Big Show stopped him and caused him to crash. The golf cart also ran over some cords that allegedly almost knocked the power out of the building. Kane shortly followed with another golf cart, accompanied by the referee, and ran into Raven. The fight headed back into the stadium with Big Show attempting to press slam Raven off the entrance stage but both were kicked off it by Kane. Kane followed this with a divingleg dropoff the stage onto Big Show, pinning him to become the new Hardcore Champion. The fourth match was theWWF European Championshipmatch betweenTestandEddie Guerrero. During the match, Test went over the top rope but got his foot caught between the top two ropes, forcing the referee and Guerrero to have to untangle him. With the help of his fellowRadicalzmembersDean MalenkoandPerry Saturn, Guerrero hit Test in the face with the European Championship belt while the referee was distracted and pinned him to become the new champion. The fifth match pittedKurt AngleagainstChris Benoit. The match started with mat wrestling between the two but Angle soon punched Benoit out of frustration and threw him out of the ring, so he could throw him into the broadcast table and the steel steps. Back in the ring, both men tried to submit their opponent using the other's signature hold with Benoit using theankle lockon Angle, and Angle using theCrippler Crossfaceon Benoit. Benoit eventually succeeded in forcing Angle to tap out to the Crippler Crossface but the referee was knocked down and didn't see it. Near the end of the match, Benoit tried to pin Angle after adiving headbuttbut was met with a two-count. Angle then quicklyrolled-upBenoit, using the tights for leverage to win the match. The following match sawChynachallenge theWWF Women's ChampionIvory. After an early bit of offense from Ivory, Chyna performed aChynabomband looked to have the pinfall, but picked Ivory up after the 2-count. Chyna then performed agorilla press dropand nonchalantly pinned Ivory to win the Women's Championship. The seventh match was thestreet fightbetweenShane McMahonandVince McMahonwithMick Foleyas the special guest referee. Shane dominated his father during the earlier part of the match by attacking him with various weapons such as a kendo stick and monitors from the Spanish broadcast table. Shane laid Vince on said table and performed adiving elbow dropoff the top rope but his sister,Stephanie, pulled Vince out of the way, causing Shane to crash through it.Trish Stratuscame towards the ring, pushingLinda McMahonout in a wheelchair, and then slapped Vince, causing her and Stephanie to get into a fight that led them out of the stadium. As referee Foley tried to wheel Linda out to safety, Vince hit him with a steel chair, and then pulled Linda into the ring to make her watch as he beat down Shane with a garbage can. However, Linda stood up and low-blowed Vince, allowing Foley to recover and attack him. With Vince prone in the corner, Shane placed a garbage can in front of Vince's face and hit aCoast-to-Coastdropkick, pinning his father to win the match. The eighth match, dubbed \"TLC II\",was theTables, Ladders, and Chairs matchfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipbetween theHardy Boyz,Edge and Christianand theDudley Boyz, the defending champions. Respective associates of each tag team,Spike Dudleyfor the Dudley Boyz,Rhynofor Edge and Christian, andLitafor the Hardy Boyz, interfered during the match. With Spike (who had just taken a chair shot to the head from Lita) and Rhyno (who had already been dispatched by Jeff Hardy) both laying on two tables outside the ring,Jeff Hardyset up a huge ladder beside them and performed aSwanton Bombonto them through the tables with most of his body landing on Spike, taking him out of the match. Lita was taken out of the match whenBubba RayandD-Von Dudleyperformed a 3-D on her. Jeff tried to unhook the belts but had the ladder beneath him pulled away by Bubba Ray, leaving him hanging in the air, and allowingEdgeto jump off another ladder andspearJeff to the ground at a height of 12 feet. Bubba Ray andMatt Hardyclimbed the same ladder but Rhyno tipped the ladder over, sending Bubba Ray and Matt through four stacked tables at ringside and taking them out of the match. D-Von then set the ladder up again and attempted to grab the titles, but was held back by Edge. With Edge holding onto D-Von's legs,Christiansat on Rhyno's shoulders as he climbed up the ladder and unhooked the belts, making him and Edge the new Tag Team Champions. A total of 9 tables were destroyed in this match, and every performer involved except D-Von and Lita went through at least one table. The ninth match was agimmick battle royal, involving nineteen WWF alumni famous for their outlandishgimmicks. To further increase the nostalgia, former announcers\"Mean Gene\" OkerlundandBobby \"The Brain\" Heenanhandled commentary for the match.The Iron Sheikwon the match by throwingHillbilly Jimout of the ring. In revenge for being eliminated,Sgt. Slaughterreentered the ring and put him in theCobra Clutch. The penultimate match was betweenThe UndertakerandTriple H. For his entrance, Triple H had Britishheavy metalbandMotörheadperform his theme song,\"The Game\", live. The match started with the two fighting outside of the ring with Triple H quickly being put through the replacement Spanish announcers' table. Later on, refereeMike Chiodaaccidentally had Triple Hcatapultedinto him and was then attacked by Undertaker due to his dissatisfaction over a two-count. With Chioda knocked out, the two brawled outside the ring, through the crowd, and into the technical area. On top of scaffolding, Triple H used a steel chair to attack Undertaker's legs, but Undertaker retaliated with achokeslamoff the scaffolding, followed by a diving elbow drop. Back in the ring, Undertaker hit Triple H with aTombstone piledriverand went for the pin but Chioda was still unconscious. Later in the match, Triple H tried to pin Undertaker after hitting him in the head with asledgehammerwhile in theLast Rideposition but only gained a two-count. Triple H sent Undertaker into the corner and stood on the second rope to hit him with more punches, but Undertaker countered with a Last Ride, allowing him to pin Triple H and increase his WrestleMania winning streak to 9–0. The final contest of the night was theWWF Championshipmatch betweenThe RockandStone Cold Steve Austin, which had a surpriseno disqualificationstipulation added just before the superstars were introduced. During the match, the two brawled inside and outside of the ring, with both men bleeding after hitting each other with the ring bell. The Rock attempted to place Austin in aSharpshooterhold, but Austin reversed it into a Sharpshooter of his own. After Rock reached the ropes to force a break, Austin applied theMillion Dollar Dream, a submission hold best known from his former gimmick, The Ringmaster. Shortly after, Rock used Austin's own finishing maneuver on Austin by executing aStunner. Vince McMahon then came to ringside to observe the match. When Rock tried to pin Austin after thePeople's Elbow, McMahon seized Rock's leg and pulled him off Austin, breaking the pin attempt. After chasing McMahon around the ring, Austin responded by using Rock's signature move, theRock Bottom. Later, Rock executed a Rock Bottom for a near fall. After Rock attacked McMahon, he was given a Stunner by Austin for a near fall. After Rock kicked out of the Stunner, McMahon handed Austin a steel chair to hit Rock with at Austin's request, revealing that Austin had sided with McMahon, a man he once considered hisnemesis. With this, Austin turnedheel.Austin attacked him with the steel chair, hitting him sixteen times, before pinning him and becoming the new WWF Champion. The show ended with Austin and McMahon shaking hands and sharing beers. Reception and legacy The event was met with universal acclaim from fans and critics alike. John Powell ofCanadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section rated the event a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, with the main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin in a No Disqualification Match for the WWF Championship rated 10 out of 10 stars. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boyz, Edge and Christian, and The Dudley Boyz also received a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, the Street Fight between Vince and Shane McMahon rated 7 out of 10 stars, the match between Triple H and The Undertaker rated 6 out of 10 stars and the match between Kurt Angle and Chris Benoit rated 8 out of 10 stars. X-Seven was also awardedBest Major Showfor 2001 byDave Meltzer's Wrestling Observer Newsletter. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boys, Edge and Christian and The Dudley Boyz was also placed #5 onIGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History and noted that the match included \"some of the most memorable bumps wrestling fans have ever witnessed.\"D-Von Dudleyexpressed his belief that the match should be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame, stating: \"In my opinion, I think that we should — you know, then.W.ogot inducted into the Hall of Fame and those guys were already in it. How about a TLC induction? How about recognizing how special that match was? Because think about it, not only was the match special, but they actually nameda pay-per-viewafter it. So, you know, it has some relevance to it to be special, so why not put that match in the Hall of Fame?\"Matt Hardysaid it was his favorite career TLC match. In 2013, WWE released a list of their \"15 best pay-per-views ever\", with WrestleMania X-Seven ranked at number one.In 2019, Troy L. Smith ofcleveland.comreleased a list of the \"50 greatest wrestling pay-per-views of all time\" from every professional wrestling promotion in the world, with WrestleMania X-Seven again ranked at number one. The promotional match preview video package for the main event, set toLimp Bizkit's \"My Way\", is widely considered one of the greatest wrestling video packages of all time. Aftermath The following night onRaw, Austin and The Rock faced each other in a rematch held in asteel cagewhich Triple H entered the cage and teased a fight with Austin before turning on The Rock. For several minutes Austin, Triple H, and Vince McMahon triple-teamed the outnumbered Rock forging an alliance with Triple H and Austin calledThe Two-Man Power Trip.The Rock was written out of the WWF's storylines with McMahon giving him asuspension. This allowed The Rock time off to begin filmingThe Scorpion King.The Rock returned on the edition of July 30 ofRawand chose to fight for Team WWF overTeam WCW/ECW. Three weeks later atSummerSlam, The Rock won his firstWCW Championshipby defeatingBooker T. The Rock and Austin would face each other again atWrestleMania XIXin a rematch with The Rock winning. Following The Rock's suspension, Triple H's feud with the Brothers of Destruction continued with Austin now on his side. On the edition of April 5, 2001, ofSmackDown!, Triple H challengedIntercontinental ChampionChris Jericho for his title and after interference from CommissionerWilliam Regaland his wife Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley defeated Jericho to win his third Intercontinental Championship.The feud with Undertaker and Kane was temporarily put on hold after Triple H and Austin entered a brief rivalry with the Hardy Boyz, which resulted in Jeff Hardy beating Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship the following week and Triple H promptly regaining the title the next Monday onRaw. Meanwhile, the Brothers of Destruction defeated Edge and Christian to become the newWWF Tag Team Championson the edition of April 19, 2001, ofSmackDown!in a no-disqualification match. Austin and Triple H decided to challenge Undertaker and Kane for their newly won titles, but due to some wrangling by Linda McMahon the match between the teams signed forBacklashforced the two to put up their singles titles against the tag team titles in a \"winner-take-all\" match. Triple H scored the pin after attacking Kane with his sledgehammer and the Power Trip became the second team in WWF history to hold both major singles titles and the tag team titles at the same time.The feud came to a climax atJudgment Daywhen Austin defeated Undertaker to retain the WWF Championship while Kane defeated Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship.The next night Austin and Triple H lost the tag team titles to Chris Jericho and Chris Benoit; during the course of the match Triple H tore his quadriceps tendon and would miss the remainder of the year, leaving Austin to feud with the tag team champions alone.The feud culminated in a Triple Threat Match atKing of the Ring, where Austin pinned Benoit to retain the WWF Championship. Ten years later in 2011, Undertaker and Triple H would once again renew their rivalry, went on to face each other in a rematch atWrestleMania XXVIIwith The Undertaker defeating HHH via submission, to set his WrestleMania winning streak to 19–0. A year later, they faced each other a third time atWrestleMania XXVIIIin a Hell in a Cell match withShawn Michaelsas the special guest referee. The Undertaker once again won the match to extend his WrestleMania winning streak to 20–0. Due to the acquisition of WCW, Vince's feud with Shane would later spiral intoThe Invasionstoryline that dominated the WWF in the latter half of the year. It consisted of WCW wrestlers \"invading\" the WWF's televised shows in an attempt to \"take over\" the WWF. TheExtreme Championship Wrestling(ECW) promotion would also be involved with Stephanie as its new owner, merging WCW and ECW intoThe Alliance. Despite giving her own demands for a divorce shortly after WrestleMania, Linda would eventually reconcile with Vince in the wake of the Alliance's threat to the WWF. Shane McMahon's next feud would involveKurt Angleas he would crash Angle's Olympic Gold Medal Ceremony reenactment on the May 21 edition ofRaw. Angle was celebrating the return of his Gold Medal from Chris Benoit which he won back the previous night atJudgment Day. Shane mocked him while declaring the return of WCW, and he got an Angle slam for his efforts. Shane would return the favor on the June 11 edition ofRawwith an assist from The Undertaker. The two would eventually meet in astreetfightat King of the Ring, which was the third of three matches for Kurt Angle on the night. The other two matches were the Semifinals and Final of the King of the Ring tournament which Angle was the defending champion. He would lose to Edge thanks to interference from Shane. Following King of the Ring, Edge let success go to his head and this led to Christian becoming jealous of Edge's success. They would break up on the September 3, 2001, edition ofRawfollowing Christian's loss to The Rock in a WCW title match. After a brief feud for the WWF Intercontinental Championship, both would go on to become successful singles wrestlers in their own right with Edge being best known as the \"Rated R Superstar.\" This would be the only WrestleMania forPaul Heymanas a commentator. However he has served in a variety of roles for the WWE for the better part of the time since, including creative team member and manager of his longtime friend and clientBrock Lesnar. Results References External links"
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"The Undertaker Mark William Calaway(born March 24, 1965), better known by hisring nameThe Undertaker, is an American retiredprofessional wrestler. Widely regarded as one of the greatest professional wrestlers of all time,Calaway spent the vast majority of his career wrestling forWWEand in 2022 was inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame. Calaway began his career in 1987, working under variousgimmicksforWorld Class Championship Wrestling(WCCW) and other affiliate promotions. He signed withWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) in 1989 for a brief stint, and then joined the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1990. Calaway rebranded himself as \"The Undertaker\" when he joined the WWF. As one of WWE's most high-profile and enduring characters,The Undertaker is famed for hisundead,funereal,macabre\"Deadman\" persona, which gained significant mainstream popularity and won him theWrestling Observer Newsletterawardfor Best Gimmicka record-setting 5 years in a row.He is the longest-tenured wrestler in company history at",
"company history at 30 years. In 2000, the Undertaker adopted a biker identity nicknamed \"American Badass\". Calaway resurrected the Deadman gimmick in 2004, with residual elements of the \"American Badass\" remaining. For the better part of his career, the Undertaker was observed as a focal point of WWE's flagship annual event,WrestleMania, where he became esteemed forThe Streak— a series of 21 straight victories, and headlined the event five times (13,24,26,33and36). He is also known for pairing with hisin-storylinehalf-brotherKane, with whom he alternativelyfeudedandteamed(as theBrothers of Destruction) from 1997 through 2020. During his wrestling career under the Undertaker gimmick, Calaway won theWWF/E Championshipfour times, theWorld Heavyweight Championshipthree times, theHardcore Championshiponce and theWorld Tag Team Championshipsix times. He also won theRoyal Rumble matchin 2007. Early life Mark William Calaway was born inHouston,Texas, on March 24, 1965,the son of Frank Compton Calaway (died July",
"Calaway (died July 2003) and Betty Catherine Truby.He has four older brothers named David, Michael, Paul, and Timothy (died March 2020, age 63).He attendedWaltrip High School, where he was a member of thefootballandbasketballteams. He graduated in 1983 and began studying on a basketball scholarship atAngelina CollegeinLufkin, Texas. In 1985, he enrolled inTexas Wesleyan UniversityinFort Worth, Texas, where hemajoredinsport managementand played as acenterfor theRamsin the 1985–1986 season. In 1986, Calaway dropped out of university to focus on a career in sports and briefly considered playing professional basketball in Europe, before deciding to focus on professional wrestling. Professional wrestling career Early career (1987–1989) Calaway began training underBuzz Sawyerin late 1986;he disliked Sawyer, who reportedly lacked commitment and provided a limited education.Calaway learned \"on the job\" thereafter.Performing under a mask as Texas Red,Calaway wrestled his first match on June 26, 1987, forWorld Class",
"forWorld Class Championship Wrestling(WCCW), losing toBruiser Brodyat theDallas Sportatorium.He was accompanied to the ring by Percival \"Percy\" Pringle III, who would later serve as his manager in the WWF asPaul Bearer.Two myths have circulated regarding Calaway's beginnings in the industry, the first being that he made his in-ring debut in 1984,and the second being that he was trained by former WCCW colleague Don Jardine (akaThe Spoiler).While never trained by Jardine, Calaway was an admirer of his work and would emulate Jardine's top rope walk.PWInsider's Mike Johnson stated, \"Undertaker using some of Jardine's style eventually morphed into this story that he was trained by Jardine.\" He wrestled inDurban, South Africa on August 22, 1987, as \"Texas Red Jack\", losing to Tiger Singh.He would also wrestle in prison shows under the name Boris Dragu, a Russian grave digger. In 1988, Calaway developed a military gimmick named The Commando. Under this persona, he mainly wrestled in the Chicago area for Central",
"area for Central Illinois Wrestling. He would also have a brief stint in Georgia forSouthern Championship Wrestling. By the end of 1988, Calaway joined theContinental Wrestling Association, wrestling under several gimmicks. On February 2, 1989, managed byDutch Mantel, he was reintroduced as The Master of Pain, a former murderer.On April 1, The Master of Pain won his firstprofessional wrestling championshipby defeatingJerry Lawlerfor the USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion. Just over three weeks had passed when Lawler became the first man to pin him, giving it back to him. While performing as The Punisher upon returning to Dallas, Calaway won the USWA Texas Heavyweight Championship on October 5, 1989, whenEric Embryforfeited the title. World Championship Wrestling (1989–1990) By the end of 1989, Calaway joined World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as avillainand adopted the ring name \"Mean Mark\" Callous, a name devised for him byTerry Funk.He was portrayed as a sinister force, wearing predominantly black",
"predominantly black ring attire and was described by commentatorJim Rossas having a fondness for pet snakes and the music ofOzzy Osbourne.Callous was promptly drafted intoThe Skyscraperstag teamto replace alegitimatelyinjuredSid Vicious, and made his debut on January 3, 1990, in a match later televised against Agent Steel and Randy Harris.The new team gained some notoriety atClash of the Champions Xwhen they beat downThe Road Warriorsafter their match.However, Callous's partnerDan Spiveyleft WCW days before theirChicago Street Fightagainst the Road Warriors atWrestleWar. Callous anda replacement masked Skyscraperwere defeated in thestreet fightand the team broke up soon afterwards.Now a singles wrestler, Callous took on the guidance ofPaul E. Dangerously(Paul Heyman). Calaway later began to question his future in WCW after being told bycompany booker,Ole Anderson, during contract renewal discussions that nobody would ever pay money to watch him perform.It was in response to this that Calaway made numerous",
"made numerous efforts to join the World Wrestling Federation, going to many lengths to land a meeting withVince McMahon. However, accessing and securing an interview with McMahon was described by Calaway as a despairing task. Among routes Calaway took to land a meeting with McMahon was trying to convince individuals acquainted with McMahon or already existing WWF talent to recommend him into the WWF, such asHulk Hogan, Paul Heyman, andBruce Prichard, crediting the latter two for arranging the meeting at McMahon's mansion. Calaway immediately gavenoticeto WCW before the interview took place. McMahon initially declined to hire Calaway; however, several days later the owner pitched the idea an \"Old West Undertaker,\" a concept he had intended to create for several years but had never found an appropriate wrestler to play the part. Calaway's final WCW match was on September 7 at aWorldWidetaping inAmarillo, Texasin which he defeated Dave Johnson.During his time in WCW, Calaway briefly wrestled inNew Japan",
"inNew Japan Pro-Wrestling(NJPW) as \"Punisher\" Dice Morgan.After leaving WCW, he briefly returned to the USWA to participate in a tournament to determine the new USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion; Calaway defeatedBill Dundeein the first round, but lost to Jerry Lawler in the quarterfinals. World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment/WWE Debut of The Undertaker (1990–1991) In October 1990, Calaway signed with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), set to portray the \"brainchild\" of McMahon that he had assigned to him, originally entitledKane the Undertaker(\"Kane\" later added on to \"the Undertaker\" moniker by the time of his arrival at the urgings of Bruce Prichard, who had always desired aCain and Abeleffect for his character).Despite Calaway's perplexed, pessimistic feelings about McMahon's gimmick idea, he was readily accepting of the role, feeling anything better than the laughingstock gimmicks of that time, such asThe Gobbledy Gooker.Kane the Undertaker was characterized as a menacing derivative of",
"derivative of theWild Westundertakersdepicted intelevision westerns. Resulting from that, this first edition of the Undertaker's series ofDeadmanincarnationshas been distinguished in external media as \"The Old West Mortician\".He made his overall WWF debut on a November 19, 1990, taping ofWWF Superstarsquickly defeating his first opponent,Mario Mancini, in a singles match(this match was filmed three days prior to the Undertaker's televised debut atSurvivor Serieson November 22, but did not air on television until December 15, 1990). Also prior to his Survivor Series appearance, Kane the Undertaker had a match on November 20 against Rick Sampson, which later aired on the December 9, 1990 episode ofWWF Wrestling Challenge. Calaway's official televised debut was at Survivor Series in which he was presented as theheelmystery partner of Ted DiBiase's \"Million Dollar Team\".Approximately one minute into the match, the Undertaker eliminatedKoko B. Warewith his finisher, theTombstone Piledriver.(In 2018, Koko B. Ware",
"2018, Koko B. Ware shared that directly following this match that night, he confronted the Undertaker with serious objections to what he felt was a botched Tombstone. Though Ware also shared that he always admired Mark Calaway and perceived him as a great performer).During the match, the Undertaker also eliminatedDusty Rhodesbefore beingcounted out; however, his team won the match with DiBiase being the sole survivor.During the match, Calaway was referred to as simply the Undertaker, omitting the portion \"Kane\", which was dropped shortly after the event (and seven years later at the urgings of Prichard, given to another wrestler once he took on the role of the Undertaker'syounger brother).Throughout the end of 1990, the Undertaker mostly picked upsquashvictories against jobbers on Superstars of Wrestling and Wrestling Challenge tapings.He was a participant in the1991Royal Rumble matchwhich was won by Hulk Hogan. In February 1991,Brother Lovedelegated his short-livedmanagementrole of the Undertaker over to",
"Undertaker over to Paul Bearer (real-life funeral director), Love communicating the need for someone who better aligned with the Undertaker's \"deadman\" themes.Histrionic, wailing and ghostly in character, Bearer complemented the Undertaker and was almost always seen bearing anurnwhich he raised in the air to transmit supernatural healing powers to the Undertaker; this typically resulted in the Undertaker recovering from attacks and counterattacking his adversaries.During his early years, the Undertaker took to a post-match ritual of placing his defeated opponents (almost alwaysjobbers) in abody bagand carrying them backstage.He continued picking up victories in squash matches leading up to his firstfeudin the WWF with\"Superfly\" Jimmy Snuka. WWF Champion and beginning of The Streak (1991–1994) The Undertaker made his WrestleMania debut atWrestleMania VIIon March 24, 1991, quickly defeating \"Superfly\" Jimmy Snuka.He began his first major feud shortly thereafter, which was withThe Ultimate Warriorwhen The",
"Warriorwhen The Undertaker attacked him and locked him in an airtight casket on the set of Paul Bearer'sFuneral Parlorsegment.Resulting from this, the Warrior enlisted the assistance ofJake \"The Snake\" Robertsto get him mentally psyched for The Undertaker's morbid alarmist tactics: Roberts would drill the Warrior with \"know your enemy\" training, setting up the Warrior in a series of creepy, terrorizing circumstances, such as by locking him in caskets and in rooms with snakes.This culminated in a final stage of Roberts's training in which Roberts proved to be stringing Warrior along the entire time by assisting The Undertaker in an ambush.The Undertaker would later suffer his first losses in the WWF to The Ultimate Warrior, including in a first ever body bag challenge, a casket match, and (athouse show) standard pin-fall match.The feud was, however, cut short after the Warrior's suspension and ongoing issues with Vince McMahon.In the1991 King of the Ring, Undertaker defeatedAnimalin a qualifying match before",
"match before fightingSid Viciousto a doubledisqualificationin the semifinal, which saw both men eliminated from theKing of the Ring tournament.The Undertaker defeated Hulk Hogan to win his firstWWF ChampionshipatSurvivor Serieswith the help ofRic Flairand thus became the youngest WWF Champion in history to that point, 26 years of age—this record was later broken byYokozunain April 1993 atWrestleMania IX.The Undertaker's Tombstone of Hogan to win the WWF Championship at the 1991 Survivor Series created real-life, offscreen discord between the two, which Undertaker attributes his short title reign, lack of title runs during his early career and distrust of Hogan.In storyline, however, WWF PresidentJack Tunneyordered a rematch between the two atThis Tuesday in Texassix days later, where The Undertaker lost the title back to Hogan.However, due to the controversial endings of the two title matches between The Undertaker and Hogan, the title wasvacatedfrom Hogan the next night by Tunney. The company was without a",
"was without a WWF Champion until Ric Flair earned it by winning the1992Royal Rumble match. In February 1992, The Undertaker's ally Jake \"The Snake\" Roberts tried to attack\"Macho Man\" Randy Savage's manager/wifeMiss Elizabethwith a steel chair when Undertaker stopped him, turning him (and Paul Bearer)facefor the first time. Their face turn was solidified on the February 29 episode ofSuperstarswhen Roberts confronted The Undertaker on theFuneral Parlorset over the matter (aired onSaturday Night's Main Event XXX). After demanding to know whose side The Undertaker was on and getting the reply, \"Not yours\", Roberts attacked both Bearer and The Undertaker, only for The Undertaker to stand his ground and run Roberts off. The Undertaker defeated Roberts atWrestleMania VIII.He then feuded extensively with wrestlers managed byHarvey Wipplemanthroughout 1992 and 1993, such asKamalaandGiant González. Also during this time, The Undertaker headlined thedebut episodeofMonday Night Rawon January 11, 1993, with a victory",
"with a victory overDamien Demento.According to Calaway, working with González \"...was survival every night trying to figure out what he could do\" and \"took years off my career\".He faced González at WrestleMania IX, which is notable asThe Undertaker's only disqualification win at WrestleManiaafter the use ofchloroform.The Undertaker's next rivalry initiated atSurvivor Serieswith Yokozuna when a clash between the two lost control, causing them to be counted out in an elimination tag match.In the weeks following, The Undertaker and Bearer spooked Yokozuna with multiple segments from their wintery and remoterural areaworkshop. There, Bearer presented The Undertaker hard at workcarpenteringYokozuna what would eventually become a \"double wide, double deep casket\" custom-built for Yokozuna's immensely overweight size.The feud culminated in a WWF Championshipcasket matchat theRoyal Rumblein January 1994. During the match, Yokozuna sealed The Undertaker in the casket with the assistance of a multitude of heel",
"a multitude of heel wrestlers (some of themWhippleman-managed) hired by Yokozuna's vindictive managersJim CornetteandMr. Fuji, which was in retaliation for Bearer's casket match stipulation that he snuck into their Royal Rumble match contract. After being trapped inside the casket by the pack, green vapor emitted from the casket and the arena lights went out. Undertaker then appeared from inside the casket on the video screen, representing the spirit of his dead corpse, warning that he would produce a future \"rebirth\" of himself, explaining to his antagonists that he cannot and will not Rest in Peace.The Undertaker did not appear in the WWF for seven months after his loss to Yokozuna. In reality, he was given time off to allow a back injury to heal. Rebirthed Deadman (1994–1996) Following the death angle at the Royal Rumble during The Undertaker's absence, the WWF promoted reported sightings of him through video clips of random people claiming to have seen him. AfterWrestleMania X,Ted DiBiaseintroduced an",
"an Undertaker back to the WWF. This Undertaker, however, played byBrian Lee(one of Calaway's real-life best friends)was an impostor Undertaker (dubbed \"The Underfaker\" by fans)rejuvenated by Dibiase's money rather than Bearer's urn. His actions led to the return of the real Undertaker atSummerSlam, defeating the impostor and appearing as a reincarnation of his Deadman gimmick, one of a more shadowy, mysterious and secret presence.Represented now by cool colors, The Undertaker replaced details of his wrestling gear that were previously colored gray with purple, and effected scenes with blue/purple semidarkness.Many details that would become associated with The Undertaker for the remainder of his career were produced during this rebirth incarnation, such as the addition ofsleeve tattoosandGodlikesupernatural elements (thunder, lightning and windy weather-like effects used to indicate The Undertaker's presence and wrath). Seeking retribution, The Undertaker revisited his feud with Yokozuna and eventually faced",
"eventually faced him in a casket rematch atSurvivor Series.Chuck Norris(portraying hisWalker, Texas Rangerpersona) was involved in the match as special guest enforcer, preventing interference from wrestlers that Yokozuna, Jim Cornette and Mr. Fuji had again enlisted for help.Unable to rely on much as far as interference this time around (onlyIrwin R. Schysterable to get in a brief ambush) due to Norris averting the attempts of several heel wrestlers, Yokozuna was defeated by The Undertaker and sealed in the casket.Throughout most of 1995, Undertaker feuded with members of Ted DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation. The chain of wrestlers DiBiase enlisted to do away with The Undertaker started with Irwin R. Schyster at theRoyal Rumblefor which The Undertaker was victorious, but assaulted by another member of the Million Dollar Team,King Kong Bundy. While being assaulted, Bearer was deprived of his urn by the Corporation.AtWrestleMania XI, The Undertaker made short work of Bundy in a singles match. This edition",
"match. This edition of WrestleMania included the first mention of The Undertaker's historicWrestleMania-winning Streak, acknowledged on commentary by Vince McMahon as Undertaker made his entrance: \"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania.\"During The Undertaker's WrestleMania encounter, DiBiase issued him with yet another antagonist in \"The Supreme Fighting Machine\"Kama, who had stolen the briefly recaptured urn from Bearer during the match. Kama followed this up with a series of malicious acts, including destroying the stolen urn and recycling it intobling.While sporting the flashy bling around his neck, he repeatedly cost The Undertaker matches and attacked diehard Undertaker fans, dubbed \"Creatures of the Night\".In August, Undertaker settled the score with Kama, defeating him in a casket match atSummerSlam.Several weeks later, Undertaker suffered a seriousorbital boneinjury whenKing Mabelunintentionally struck him in the eye with his fist during ahouse show, forcing",
"show, forcing The Undertaker into a period of absence for surgery. Due to the incident happening at a house show, Vince McMahon had it presented to the audience as though it had occurred from Mabel and Yokozuna's exchange ofleg dropsandsplasheson The Undertaker on theMonday Night Rawthat had aired 2 days prior.The Undertaker returned a couple months later atSurvivor Series, in which he single-handedly eliminated an entire team of wrestlers led by King Mabel, The Undertaker leading his own team to victory.It was at that Survivor Series return in which he began wearing aPhantom of the Opera-like, gray upper-face mask to safeguard his orbital injury while it healed.The following month in December, The Undertaker defeated Mabel in a casket match atIn Your House, retrieving the urn, which had been traded between several of The Undertaker's antagonists over the course of the year. In the main event of theRoyal Rumblein January 1996, The Undertaker was unmasked of his Phantom of the Opera-like facial covering in a",
"covering in a WWF Championship match againstBret Hart. The Undertaker was eventually able to hit theTombstone Piledriveron Hart, butDieselinterfered, costing The Undertaker the championship.A rematch for the title on the February 5 episode ofRawsaw similar interference.At that month'sIn Your House: Rage in the Cage, while Diesel was facing Hart in asteel cage matchfor the WWF Championship, The Undertaker delivered a surprise attack, emerging from a hole he had ripped through the ring canvas and dragging Diesel with him down under amid a cloud of smoke, allowing Hart the victory.After several weeks of more retaliatoryone-upmanshipbetween Diesel and The Undertaker, their feud culminated in asingles matchatWrestleMania XII, where Undertaker was victorious. The Undertaker's next feud commenced the next night onRawwhenMankind, a twisted and tortured soul, made his debut and randomly interfered in Undertaker's match againstJustin \"Hawk\" Bradshaw. For the next few months, Mankind viciously ambushed The Undertaker",
"The Undertaker and cost him multiple matches.Among them, Mankind cost The Undertaker theWWF Intercontinental Championshipby interfering in his casket match againstGoldustatIn Your House 8: Beware of Dog. In interfering in this match, Mankind proved to have mystifying horror tactic capabilities that matched The Undertaker's, mysteriously appearing from inside the casket and sealing The Undertaker inside. The Undertaker, however, had vanished amid a cloud of smoke once the casket lid was opened.As a result of the interference and repeated ambushes from Mankind on The Undertaker throughout the ensuing weeks, The Undertaker and Mankind competed in their first on-screen bout at the1996 King of the Ring, a heated encounter in which The Undertaker presented as uncharacteristically intense.During the match, Bearer inadvertently hit The Undertaker with the urn, allowing Mankind to incapacitate The Undertaker with his finisher, theMandible Claw, and score the win.With Mankind insatiably continuing to cost The",
"to cost The Undertaker matches even following their King of the Ring encounter, The Undertaker began firing back with rage and the feud spiraled out of control: the two routinely interrupted other matches already in progress, battling each other at random intervals outside of having arranged matches—their chaos also spilling into audiences, arena backstage communal areas, and arenaboiler rooms, all of this unprecedented at the time.As a result, the first everBoiler Room Brawl(Mankind's specialty match) was booked between the two atSummerSlam.After more than 20 minutes of brawling with Mankind in the ClevelandGund Arena's boiler room, the arena corridors, the SummerSlam entrance area and aisleway to the ring, The Undertaker reached for Paul Bearer's urn in an attempt to win the match, but Bearer struck him with it, betraying The Undertaker. This followed with Bearer allowing Mankind to take hold of the urn, thus winning this match. According to Paul Bearer in shoot interviews the WWF wanted Bearer to betray",
"Bearer to betray him during that match because it was a storyline thatKanewas coming and they wanted The Undertaker to get ready for the angle with Kane the following year by having Bearer turn on him.After Bearer's betrayal, The Undertaker grew more aggressive, resolving his feud against Goldust (Mankind's comrade in tormenting The Undertaker) atIn Your House 10: Mind Games. The Undertaker then took his rivalry with Mankind to new lengths in a specialty match of his own, and at that time unprecedentedBuried Alive matchto take place in the main event ofIn Your House 11: Buried Alive. The Undertaker won the match afterchokeslammingMankind into the open grave and subsequently shoveling enough dirt on him so that he was covered. However, after interference from the debutingExecutioner, as well as the help of several other heel wrestlers apparently enlisted by Bearer, Mankind escaped the grave and together the mob all shoveled dirt onto The Undertaker to the point that the grave was completely filled, resulting",
"filled, resulting in The Undertaker fully buried alive. Not without a parting message for the pack, however, The Undertaker's purple glove fit hand emerged from his burying place amid a bolt of lightning that had erupted over the gravesite. The scene sent all of his antagonists fleeing. Lord of Darkness (1996–1998) After being buried alive and a following month-long hiatus, The Undertaker returned at theSurvivor Seriesagain pitting him against Mankind, but with a unique stipulation: Hanging 6.1 m (20 ft) above the ring would be Paul Bearer, enclosed in a steel cage. And if The Undertaker were to win the match, he would be rewarded the opportunity to assault Bearer however he pleased. Even though The Undertaker won this match, interference from The Executioner enabled Bearer to escape Undertaker's clutches.It was also at this event that The Undertaker had developed a comparatively more humanized and more informal yet still superhuman \"Deadman\" incarnation. In this then new form, he took on aGothappearance and",
"aGothappearance and persona, with a brash, rebelling, Championship-driven mean streak (perhaps to better fit in with the then-budding, more adult-orientedAttitude Era).This delivering, dubbed \"The Lord of Darkness\", was the 3rd incarnation of his Deadman persona.Following Survivor Series, The Undertaker briefly turned his attention to The Executioner, who had been interfering in his matches since his arrival. AtIn Your House 12: It's Time, The Undertaker defeated The Executioner in anArmageddon Rulesmatch even with Mankind heavily involved throughout the entire encounter.The Undertaker then moved on to feud withVader, whom he faced in January 1997 at theRoyal Rumblein a singles match, which The Undertaker lost after Bearer interfered on behalf of his new protégé.The two then clashed in the Royal Rumble match itself as they made it to the final moments of the match, but both were eliminated byStone Cold Steve Austin, who had crept back into the match after his elimination was unseen. He faced both Vader and",
"both Vader and Austin in afour-corners elimination matchfor the vacant WWF Championship atIn Your House 13: Final Four, but Bret Hart won.However, the following month, The Undertaker managed to win the WWF Championship for the second time by defeatingSycho SidatWrestleMania 13.Reviving his first Deadman incarnation for that night only, The Undertaker appeared as the \"Old West Mortician\", donning the trademarked gray wrestling gear accessories (boot spats, tie, gloves), along with a pitch-black entrance with only a white spotlight shined over him, contrasted from the purple/blue semidarkness associated with the rest of his Deadman incarnations. Following his WWF Championship win at WrestleMania 13, Paul Bearer attempted to rejoin The Undertaker as his manager. After The Undertaker refused and attacked Bearer, Bearer had Mankind set a fireball to the Undertaker's face, leading up to a match atIn Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Taker, for which The Undertaker was victorious.Evening the score at \"Revenge of the",
"at \"Revenge of the 'Taker\", The Undertaker set a fireball to Bearer's face directly following the match.Following the event, Bearer bandaged up from fire burns, likened The Undertaker's assault to a past incident he described as The Undertaker's \"deepest, darkest secret\". Through giving The Undertaker theultimatumof revealing his deepest, darkest secret to the world, Bearer was able to reunite with him as manager and protégé. After only a few months of abrasive behaviors from Bearer, however, The Undertaker lost his patience and rejected Bearer as his manager. In retaliation, Bearer disclosed that The Undertaker had intentionally killed his family by burning down his parents' family funeral home for which they raised him and his younger brother.(Note that the younger brother, Kane, was not revealed to be The Undertaker's half-brother until the following year, April 1998, when Bearer disclosed to the world that he is Kane's father, The Undertaker's mother having had an affair with him. Bearer later verified",
"later verified this with DNA test results).At this point in his career, The Undertaker denied the charges of committing the arson murder that killed his family; however, Bearer claimed to have proof in the form of The Undertaker's alive and well younger brother, Kane, who had survived though scarred and burned. Bearer raised Kane after the fire, having him institutionalized from the date of the fire into adulthood. Ever since the fire, Kane had been awaiting to exact vengeance on his older half-brother. In defense, Undertaker responded that Kane, a \"pyromaniac\", had been the one to set the fire and, as a result, could not have possibly even survived.(Note that it would not be until a year and a half later from this point, in latter 1998, in which The Undertaker would shamelessly confess to intentional acts of arson to the funeral home that killed his parents and scarred his brother). In spite of Bearer projecting himself as a constant source of mental distress to The Undertaker during his Championship title",
"Championship title reign, The Undertaker managed to secure successful title defenses against Stone Cold Steve Austin (A Cold Day In Hell: In Your House),Faarooq(King of the Ring)and Vader (Canadian Stampede: In Your House, revisiting and settling their Royal Rumble feud from earlier on in the year),respectively. Concurrent to the \"deep, dark secret\" storyline directed by Bearer, Undertaker began a then new rivalry atSummerSlamwhenspecial guest refereeShawn Michaelsaccidentally hit him with a steel chair shot intended for his archnemesis Bret Hart, in effect, costing The Undertaker the WWF Championship.The accidental chair shot led to Michaels feeling betrayed by the now booing WWF fans, and quickly becoming heel. Thus, a severely violent storyline with The Undertaker followed, one revolving around repeated intentional chair shots by Michaels on the Undertaker, Michaels taunting The Undertaker throughout.After the duo's first match, which was a chaotic and uncontrolled encounter that resulted in a double",
"in a double count-out draw atGround Zero: In Your House, Undertaker challenged Michaels to the first everHell in a Cell matchto take place atBadd Blood: In Your House. Despite the inclusion of the cell for more order and to prevent Michaels from receiving help from hisD-Generation Xstable, the encounter ended up even more uncontrolled and savage than their first and is considered one of The Undertaker's best matches of his career.Seemingly about to emerge the victor after striking Michaels with a chair shot of his own, The Undertaker was interrupted by his storyline half-brother Kane, finally making his debut. Under the control of Paul Bearer, Kane stormed the arena, ripped off the cell door, and laid out a nonplussed Undertaker with his own trademarked finisher,The Tombstone Piledriver, allowing Michaels to pin him for the victory.As the storyline progressed through Bearer having Kane mow down much of the WWF roster, Kane repeatedly challenged The Undertaker, going to lengths of tormenting and humiliating",
"and humiliating him. However, The Undertaker consistently refused to fight his half-brother, claiming he had made a vow to his parents never to do harm to his own \"flesh and blood\".The Undertaker's final encounter with Michaels during this chapter of his career was in a casket match for the WWF Championship at theRoyal Rumble. The week before onRaw, Kane had duplicitously presented as allying with his brother against Michaels's D-Generation X stable; however, at the Royal Rumble, Kane trapped The Undertaker in the coffin, padlocked the lid shut, and set the casket ablaze, allowing Michaels another victory.After a two-month hiatus in which Kane wreaked havoc over the WWF, The Undertaker returned on the March 2, 1998 episode ofRawin a most notable resurrection—his druids interrupting Kane and Bearer by presenting them with a coffin on the entrance stage amid a large number of bell tolls. The coffin was struck and dismantled by a lightning bolt, revealing a lied out Undertaker who sat up in a fury state and",
"in a fury state and challenged Kane to do battle with him.AtWrestleMania XIVin their first match, The Undertaker defeated Kane.Kane challenged Undertaker to a rematch—Kane's specialty and first everInferno match—that occurred one month later atUnforgiven: In Your House. The Undertaker won the encounter by setting Kane's right arm on fire. The Undertaker and Mankind's wildly violent, outlandish feud from over a year previous to this point was revitalized over the next month, ultimately taken to a new graphic height and decisively resolved whenthey faced each other in a Hell in a Cell matchatKing of the Ring. The match became one of the most famous matches in professional wrestling history. During the match, the Undertaker threw Mankind off the roof of the 4.9 m (16 ft) cell onto a broadcast table below, in what was a preplanned move. He later performed a chokeslam on Mankind through the roof of the cell into the ring, which was not preplanned and legitimately knocked Mankind unconscious. In jumping from the",
"In jumping from the top of the cell to the ring canvas, The Undertaker suffered a broken ankle. Escalating as things progressed, blood flowed from both wrestlers as they attacked each other with steel steps, chairs, the cell wall, etc. Topping that off, Mankind introduced multitudes of thumbtacks scattered across the ring canvas but wasback body droppedon them, and subsequently chokeslammed onto them before The Undertaker won the match with hisTombstone Piledriver.AtFully Loaded: In Your House, the Undertaker and Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated Kane and Mankind to win theWWF Tag Team Championship.The Undertaker and Austin's reign astag team championslasted only two weeks, as Kane and Mankind regained the titles from them in afatal four-way tag-team matchon the August 10 episode ofRaw.The Undertaker then became the number one contender for the WWF Championship, held by Austin at that point, for a match atSummerSlam. Shortly before SummerSlam and after much speculation, The Undertaker finally disclosed that",
"disclosed that he and his half-brother were working together. Despite this revelation, The Undertaker told Kane before his SummerSlam bout that he did not want him interfering, even sending Kane away during the match itself when he appeared. Even though The Undertaker lost the match at SummerSlam, he handed Austin his championship belt back after the match with a show of respect and sportsmanship. In September as the storyline matured however, The Undertaker subtly began showing some heel characteristics, becoming atweener. This began when he and Kane revealed the fact that they were in cahoots to rid Austin of his title for villainous company owner Mr. McMahon—Austin and McMahon immersed in a bitter rivalry during this era. AtBreakdown: In Your House, The Undertaker and Kane were booked in atriple threat matchwith Austin for the WWF Championship, in which McMahon stated that the brothers were not allowed to pin each other. The Undertaker and Kane pinned Austin simultaneously after adouble chokeslam, ending",
"chokeslam, ending the match in ano contest, so the title was vacated by McMahon.This event led to a match atJudgment Day: In Your Housebetween The Undertaker and Kane for the title, with Austin as the special guest referee. Near the end of the match, Paul Bearer seemed about to assist Kane by handing him a steel chair to hit The Undertaker with, but as Kane had his back turned, both Bearer and The Undertaker hit Kane with chair shots. The Undertaker went for the pin, but Austin refused to count the fall, attacked The Undertaker and counted out both of them.Finally the next night onRaw, The Undertaker reconciled with Bearer and claimed that he and Bearer would unleash their \"Ministry of Darkness\" on the WWF, turning heel for the first time since 1992. As part of the then new storyline angle, The Undertaker admitted that he had indeed intentionally set the fire that killed his parents and scarred Kane, for which he had previously blamed on Kane. Ministry of Darkness Deadman (1998–1999) AfterSurvivor Series,",
"Series, The Undertaker returned his attention to his previous feud with Austin for costing him the title at Judgment Day, hitting Austin in the head with a shovel during a title match withThe Rockon the November 16 episode ofRaw, returning the favor for what happened a month earlier. With this twist in the storyline, Mr. McMahon scheduled a Buried Alive match between The Undertaker and Austin atRock Bottom: In Your House. In the weeks leading up to Rock Bottom, The Undertaker attempted toembalmAustin alive, tried to have Kane committed to a mental asylum, and had his druids chain Austin to an immense structure of his Undertaker crucifix-like logo (which took the appearance of a capital T combined X) before having that structure lifted up on high into the air.However, The Undertaker lost the Buried Alive match to Austin at Rock Bottom after Kane interfered. After the buildup to his second heel run in the latter part of 1998, The Undertaker introduced an updated version of his Deadman identity by January",
"identity by January 1999—a dark priest-like character who in the initial period of this persona reigned over a stable known as The Ministry of Darkness. In this form, he took on a wicked, demonic presence, much more so than ever before. He often proclaimed to be invoking and taking orders from a \"Higher Power\". Moreover, he often appeared in a hooded black robe and sat on a throne with a towering backrest specially designed into his crucifix-like logo. With the help of his minions, he often performed sacrifices on select WWF wrestlers, using variousincantationsandmagic wordswith intent to extract out the dark side of the wrestlers in question to recruit them into his Ministry. The completed Ministry of Darkness consisted ofThe Brood(Christian,EdgeandGangrel),The Acolytes(Bradshaw and Faarooq),MideonandViscera. Calaway himself did not wrestle for a period, having undergone a hip replacement. As part of theangle, The Undertaker had his Ministry members fight his battles, carry out his evil wishes and do all",
"wishes and do all his dirty deeds. In this manner, he expressed his desires to take over the World Wrestling Federation, displacing its owner, Mr. McMahon. These ambitions culminated into a rivalry between The Ministry andThe Corporation, ultimately resulting in a match between The Undertaker and Corporation enforcer,Big Boss Man. The two faced off in a Hell in a Cell match atWrestleMania XV, which The Undertaker won.AtBacklash: In Your House, The Undertaker defeated Corporation memberKen Shamrockafter interference from Ministry member Bradshaw. Thereafter, The Undertaker kidnappedStephanie McMahon, forcing Mr. McMahon to enter into a reluctant alliance with his longtime nemesis Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Undertaker attempted to marry Stephanie before sacrificing her in aneldritchceremony conducted by Paul Bearer, but Austin was able to rescue her.At theOver the Edgepay-per-view, The Undertaker defeated Austin for his third WWF Championship with help fromShane McMahon, the special guest referee.The",
"guest referee.The Ministry eventually merged with Shane McMahon's Corporation alliance to formThe Corporate Ministry. The Undertaker later revealed that Mr. McMahon had been his \"Higher Power\" all along as a scheme against Austin.After The Undertakerlostthe WWF Championship back to Austin on theRawfollowingKing of the Ringand lost to him in aFirst Blood matchatFully Loaded, his relationship with the McMahons dissolved and The Corporate Ministry disbanded. The Undertaker then began a storyline where he teamed withBig Showin a tag team known as \"The Unholy Alliance\", which held the WWF Tag Team Championship twice. After their victory atSummerSlam, The Undertaker suffered a groin tear and was seen limping in several matches. He avoided competing in wrestling matches in the following weeks, instead overbearingly ordering Big Show to fight his battles and do all his dirty deeds. Developing a comedy horror smart mouth during this time, elements of The Undertaker's trash-talking biker identity (that he would",
"(that he would eventually introduce in 2000) began peeping out during this phase of his career. According to an interview with Kevin Nash, this was a move to allow Calaway to return to WCW with a non-trademarked persona; had he entered WCW, it would have been as Mark Calaway. According to Nash, although negotiations were described as close, Calaway ultimately re-signed with the WWF. Conversely, while on Steve Austin'sBroken Skull Sessionspodcast on November 22, 2020, Calaway revealed that there was no way he was ever going to rejoin WCW, that the gimmick's biker transition was just a matter of him mixing things up because he didn't feel the character's Deadman side properly fit with the then ongoing Attitude Era. To compensate for his lack of physical activity, The Undertaker became increasingly overbearing and vocal, often mouthing off with a weirdness and making sinisterlysmart-aleckremarks in promos and on commentary. On the September 23, 1999, episode ofSmackDown!, Mr. McMahon threatened that he would",
"that he would remove The Undertaker from theUnforgivenmain event if he refused to participate in a casket match againstTriple H. The Undertaker retorted that he did not care and maybe he would not be participating in anything WWF any longer, from there walking out on the WWF.In reality, Calaway went on a hiatus from the WWF in order to treat his groin injury. He made his return to action on December 14, teaming with Viscera in a losing effort against Kane and The Godfather at a house show inCoamo, Puerto Rico.The Undertaker was advertised on theArmageddonpromotional poster to return, but meanwhile also tore his pectoral muscle, taking him out of action for almost eight months. American Badass (2000–2001) In May 2000, Calaway expanded on The Undertaker gimmick, returning under a human alter ego of the gimmick—a smack-talking, redneck biker, dubbed \"The American Badass\", known for motorcycle-riding, tobacco chewing/spitting, and donning a sporty appearance and manner.In stark contrast to his horror-themed and",
"horror-themed and fully fictional Deadman persona, Calaway's Badass persona was only semifictional with traits and features adopted from who he is out of character—hence, why he desired to transform The Undertaker.While explained off screen years later for the above reasons, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it. When The Undertaker returned near the end of theiron man matchfor the WWF Championship between Triple H and The Rock atJudgment Dayon May 21, 2000, he took out all the members of the McMahon-Helmsley Faction, which created for afaceturn after having left things off as a heel before his hiatus.He also targeted their leader, then WWF Champion Triple H. At theKing of the Ringpay-per-view on June 25, The Undertaker teamed with The Rock and Kane to defeat the team of Triple H, Shane McMahon and Vince",
"McMahon and Vince McMahon.Afterward, he was booked to team with Kane to contend for the WWF Tag Team Championship. They defeatedEdge and Christian, earning the right to face them the following week for the championship, which Edge and Christian retained. During an August 14Raw is Warbout againstChris Benoit, Kane became involved and betrayed The Undertaker by hitting him with two chokeslams, the second one causing the ring apron to cave in underneath The Undertaker.This incident led to another match between the two atSummerSlamon August 27, which ended in a no contest as Kane fled from the ring area after The Undertaker removed Kane's mask. The Undertaker then challengedKurt Anglefor the WWF Championship atSurvivor Serieson November 19.Angle, however, defeated The Undertaker after he switched places with his real-life brother,Eric Angle. The Undertaker demanded and was awarded a spot in the six-man Hell in a Cell match for the WWF Championship atArmageddonon December 10. The Undertaker promised to make",
"promised to make someone famous and did so when he performed a chokeslam onRikishifrom the roof of the cell into hay-filled cargo bed of a truck. The Undertaker reunited with Kane as the Brothers of Destruction, issuing a challenge for the WWF Tag Team Championship once again. They received a title shot atNo Way Outon February 25, 2001, facing Edge and Christian and then championsThe Dudley Boyzin atables matchbut were unsuccessful.The Undertaker then went on to defeat Triple H atWrestleMania X-Sevenon April 1.He and Kane continued a storyline that focused on Triple H, who formed a \"surprise alliance\" with then WWF Champion Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Brothers of Destruction were granted an opportunity to face Triple H and Austin for their titles (Triple H was the WWF Intercontinental Champion). After The Undertaker and Kane won the WWF Tag Team Championship from Edge and Christian on the April 19 episode ofSmackDown!,Triple H pinned Kane after attacking him with a sledgehammer atBacklashon April 29, where",
"April 29, where the Brothers of Destruction lost their championships.With Kane injured, The Undertaker feuded briefly with Austin for his WWF Championship, but he failed to win the title atJudgment Dayon May 20. As part of \"The Invasion\" storyline, The Undertaker's next nemesis wasDiamond Dallas Page, who was obsessively stalking The Undertaker's wife, Sara.AtSummerSlamon August 19,WCW Tag Team ChampionsThe Undertaker and Kane defeated Page and his partnerKanyonin a steel cage match to win the WWF Tag Team Championship.AtSurvivor Serieson November 18, The Undertaker teamed with Kane, The Rock,Chris Jerichoand Big Show to take on The Alliance's Stone Cold Steve Austin,Booker T,Rob Van Dam, Shane McMahon and Kurt Angle (this was the last time The Undertaker and Kane teamed until 2006). Angle pinned The Undertaker due to interference by Austin. Despite this, Team WWF won the match. Big Evil (2001–2003) AfterThe Alliancewas defeated, The Undertaker inducted commentatorJim Rossinto theMr. McMahon: Kiss My Ass",
"Kiss My Ass Clubon the November 26 episode ofRaw, which involved The Undertaker pressing the lips of Ross against McMahon's exposed buttocks, turning heel in the process.In transitioning his \"American Badass\" biker identity into a heel, The Undertaker eventually cut his long hair short and went by the nickname \"Big Evil\". AtVengeanceon December 9, The Undertaker defeated Rob Van Dam to win theWWF Hardcore Championship. The Undertaker's next storyline began at theRoyal Rumbleon January 20, 2002, whenMaveneliminated him from theRoyal Rumble matchby hitting him with adropkickfrom behind. Subsequently, The Undertaker eliminated Maven in return and brutally assaulted him backstage.Thereafter, on an episode ofSmackDown!, The Rock angered The Undertaker by mentioning his elimination at the Royal Rumble. He responded by costing The Rock the number one contendership for theUndisputed WWF Championship.The storyline continued when The Rock cost The Undertaker the WWF Hardcore Championship against Maven on the February",
"on the February 7 episode ofSmackDown!.The two faced off atNo Way Outon February 17, where The Undertaker lost due to interference from Ric Flair.This interference began a storyline with Flair, who declined a challenge to wrestle The Undertaker atWrestleMania X8on March 17.As a result, The Undertaker assaulted his sonDavid Flair.Flair eventually accepted the match after The Undertaker threatened to inflict the same punishment on Flair'sdaughter.A no-disqualification stipulation was added to the match and The Undertaker defeated Flair at WrestleMania. After the storyline with Flair, The Undertaker was drafted to theRaw brandafter the WWF split its roster into twobrandsand defeated Stone Cold Steve Austin atBacklashon April 21 to become the number one contender for the Undisputed WWF Championship. Later that night, he helped Hollywood Hulk Hogan win the title against then champion Triple H.The Undertaker then defeated Hogan for the renamed WWE Undisputed Championship atJudgment Dayon May 19. The next night",
"19. The next night onRaw, The Undertaker seemingly lost the WWE Undisputed Championship to Rob Van Dam; however, Raw owner Ric Flair restarted the match (Van Dam pinned The Undertaker when his foot was on the rope, thus invalidating the pin attempt) and The Undertaker defeated Van Dam to retain the championship.On the July 1 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker defeatedJeff Hardyin aladder matchto retain the WWE Undisputed Championship and raised Hardy's hand as a show of respect, turning face once again. The Undertaker, however, lost the title atVengeanceon July 21 to The Rock in a triple threat match that also involved Kurt Angle.On the August 29 episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker moved to theSmackDown! brand(where he remained until the first brand extension ended in 2011), and defeated Chris Benoit and Kurt Angle in a triple threat match to become the number-one contender for the renamed WWE Championship and challengedBrock Lesnarfor the title atUnforgivenon September 22 that ended in a double",
"ended in a double disqualification.Their feud carried over toNo Mercyon October 20 in a Hell in a Cell match, which The Undertaker performed with a legitimately broken hand and ultimately lost to Lesnar. The Undertaker took a break after Big Show threw him off the stage on the October 24 episode ofSmackDown!, sparking a feud.The Undertaker returned at theRoyal Rumbleon January 19, 2003.He immediately continued his feud with Big Show and defeated him bysubmissionatNo Way Outon February 23 with atriangle choke.A-Trainentered the storyline by attempting to attack The Undertaker after the match, butNathan Jonescame to his aid.The storyline resumed as The Undertaker began to train Jones to wrestle and the two were scheduled to fight Big Show and A-Train in atag team matchatWrestleMania XIXon March 30.However, Jones was removed before the match, making it ahandicap match, which The Undertaker won with the help of Jones. Over the remainder of the year, The Undertaker entered a brief feud withJohn Cena(defeating him",
"Cena(defeating him atVengeanceon July 27) and was booked to have two WWE Championship opportunities. The first, on the September 4SmackDown!, against Kurt Angle, ended in a no contest, due to interference from Brock Lesnar.The second, atNo Mercyon October 19, was aBiker Chain matchbetween The Undertaker and Lesnar, which Lesnar won with the help of Vince McMahon.This match resulted in a feud with McMahon, culminating atSurvivor Serieson November 16 where The Undertaker lost a Buried Alive match against McMahon when Kane interfered.The Undertaker disappeared for some time following this match, with Kane claiming that he was \"dead and buried forever\". Return of the Deadman (2004–2007) In the storyline leading up toWrestleMania XX, Kane was tormented by horror-themed mind games, paranormal activities, and spooking vignettes proclaiming The Undertaker's Deadman return. The first was during theRoyal Rumblewhen The Undertaker's bells tolled, distracting Kane and allowing Booker T to eliminate him.Accompanied by",
"him.Accompanied by Paul Bearer at WrestleMania XX, The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity, defeating Kane in a singles match.Introduced was a more dramatic, theatrical and supernatural Deadman than in years past, his presence, mannerisms, and entrances significantly elaborated on as well, such as with more intensity, special effects and rising and falling flames.At the same time, The Undertaker maintained elements of his American Badass identity, thus a composite character more humanized than all of his previous Deadman incarnations(The Undertaker would present in this particular hybrid Deadman form untilNo Mercy 2005whenRandy Ortonsealed him in a casket and set it on fire).AtJudgment Day, The Undertaker defeated Booker T. One week later,Paul Heymanordered TheDudley Boyzto kidnap Bearer.Thus, Heyman \"took control\" of Undertaker.AtThe Great American Bash, The Undertaker fought a handicap match against The Dudley Boyz, with the stipulation that if he did not lay down and purposely lose, Heyman would",
"lose, Heyman would bury Paul Bearer in cement. The Undertaker won and stopped Heyman from burying Bearer, but after claiming Bearer was merely a liability he had no use for, buried him himself. The Undertaker began a feud with then WWE Champion John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) by challenging him to a title match atSummerSlam, which The Undertaker lost by disqualification.AtNo Mercy, The Undertaker and JBL competed in the first-everLast Ride match, although The Undertaker lost afterHeidenreichinterfered.After defeating Heidenreich in a match atSurvivor Series,The Undertaker turned his focus to the WWE Championship once again. Along withEddie Guerreroand Booker T, he challenged JBL to a championship rematch atArmageddonin a fatal four-way match, in which The Undertaker was unsuccessful, again due to Heidenreich's interference.The feud culminated in a casket match between The Undertaker and Heidenreich at theRoyal Rumble, where The Undertaker sealed Heidenreich in a casket for the victory. Soon after, Randy Orton",
"after, Randy Orton challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 21, uppishly proclaiming that he would end his WrestleMania winning Streak.Even with help fromhis father, Orton lost as The Undertaker improved his WrestleMania record to 13–0.After a two-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned on the June 16 episode ofSmackDown!, but lost to JBL due to interference from Randy Orton, who was drafted toSmackDown!as part of thedraft lottery.Despite his interference, the Randy Orton/Undertaker feud was put on the back burner until late summer of that year, resulting from Orton on the injured list. In the meantime and in one of the most controversial moments in WWE history on an episode ofSmackDown!taped on July 4, 2005 (aired on July 7),SmackDown!General ManagerTheodore LongscheduledMuhammad Hassanin a match against The Undertaker atThe Great American Bash, and placedDaivariin a match that night against Undertaker: Undertaker quickly defeated Daivari. After the match, however, Hassan began to \"pray\" on the",
"to \"pray\" on the ramp, summoning five masked men, dressed in black shirts, ski-masks and camouflage pants. Armed with clubs and a piano wire, the masked men assaulted and choked out The Undertaker before Hassan then placed The Undertaker in acamel clutch. Afterward, the masked men lifted Daivari above their heads and carried him away. Three days later, theLondon bombingstook place. The footage aired unedited onUPNin the United States and onThe Scorein Canada with an advisory warning shown several times during the broadcast. It was removed from the Australian and European (including in the United Kingdom) broadcasts. The angle elicited national attention in theNew York Post,TV Guide,Varietyand other major media outlets. In response to the criticism, UPN decided that it would monitor the storyline closely and that it did not want the Hassan character on its network that week.In apromohosted on WWE's website - UPN had edited it from the July 14, 2005 episode ofSmackDown!- Hassan reiterated that he was anArab",
"that he was anArab Americanand that the American people automatically and unfairly assumed that he was a terrorist. Despite being in character, he referred to the real-world media coverage of the storyline, singling out theNew York Post'sDon Kaplan by name and denouncing his description of the events onSmackDown!, such as Kaplan's comment of the masked men being \"Arabs in ski masks\". On the July 14, 2005 episode ofSmackDown!, Hassan's absence was explained by a statement delivered by his attorney,Thomas Whitney, that Hassan refused to appear on the show untilThe Great American Bashdue to the way he was treated by the American media and WWE fans. It was revealed in late July 2005 that UPN had pressured WWE to keep Hassan off their network, effectively removing him fromSmackDown!.Undertaker defeated Hassan at The Great American Bash to become the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship. After the match, The Undertaker delivered aLast Ridethrough an open stage ramp onto a concrete floor to",
"a concrete floor to Hassan. It was reported that Hassan sustained serious injuries and had to be rushed to a nearby medical facility, writing Hassan off television.Several days later, Long (kayfabe) banned Hassan fromSmackDown!. It was revealed years later that Hassan was about to receive a majorpushby winning the World Heavyweight Championship fromBatistaatSummerSlamand thus breaking Randy Orton's record for being the youngest World Heavyweight Champion in WWE history. On the following episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker lost to JBL in a number-one contender's match, once again due to interference from Orton, reviving their feud that was put on hiatus.AtSummerSlam, Orton defeated The Undertaker in a WrestleMania rematch. The storyline intensified as the two tried to get into the head of one another with dark mind game tactics and use of caskets, leading to a handicap casket match atNo Mercy, in which The Undertaker lost to Randy and his father \"Cowboy\" Bob Orton.After the match, the Ortons poured gasoline",
"poured gasoline on the casket and set it on fire (a throwback moment to one of The Undertaker's most infamous attacks received and done by Kane doing the same to him at the 1998 Royal Rumble). When the charred casket was opened, however, The Undertaker was absent, presented as having vanished. The Undertaker resurrected at theSurvivor Serieswhen the druids delivered a casket that was struck by lightning and went up in flames. The Undertaker then burst from the flaming casket in rage, battering and brutalizing an entire ring full of wrestlers as a message to Orton. Here, he reappeared still in hybrid form but with lessened Badass characteristics, eliminating several elements of his biker identity so that his Deadman side projected, most notably, replacing loose-fitting cargo pants with his Deadman spandex, and less use of theLast Ridefinisher.The Undertaker returned onSmackDown!in early December to haunt Orton and set up a Hell in a Cell match atArmageddon.After The Undertaker won their brutal Hell in a Cell",
"Hell in a Cell encounter, in effect, settling his 9 month long feud with Orton,Calaway took a brief hiatus from professional wrestling. In January 2006 at theRoyal Rumble, The Undertaker returned on a horse-drawn cart during Kurt Angle's celebration of his World Heavyweight Championship defense againstMark Henry. In this appearance, The Undertaker signaled for a title shot by using his supernatural powers to collapse the wrestling ring that Angle stood in as a means to spook him. As part of their storyline angle, The Undertaker lost his match with Angle atNo Way Outafter a 30-minute bout—described as underrated and among Undertaker's top matches, in which he versatilely took to a more ground-based submission style to combat Angle's trademarkedfreestyle wrestling.The Undertaker cornered Angle after the match and told him he was not finished with him.In a rematch with Angle (similarly described as underrated and among The Undertaker's top matches that utilized the wrestling styles of their previous encounter",
"previous encounter on the March 3 episode ofSmackDown!) Henry attacked The Undertaker from behind, costing him the title.This led to The Undertaker challenging Henry to a casket match atWrestleMania 22and Henry vowing to end The Undertaker's WrestleMania winning Streak. The match resulted in The Undertaker sealing Henry in the casket, winning the match and extending his streak to 14–0 at WrestleMania.During a rematch on the next episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker was assaulted by the debutingGreat Khali. The Undertaker was not heard from until the May 5 episode ofSmackDown!when Theodore Long delivered a challenge from The Undertaker to Khali for a match atJudgment Day. The Undertaker lost to Khali at Judgment Day,and he did not appear again until the July 7 episode ofSmackDown!when he accepted Khali's challenge to aPunjabi Prison matchatThe Great American Bash. However, Khali was removed from the match due to not being medically cleared. He was thus replaced by thenECW World ChampionBig Show, over whom The",
"Show, over whom The Undertaker gained the victory.In storyline, Theodore Long replaced Khali with Big Show as punishment for an attack on The Undertaker shortly before the match.Khali was then challenged by The Undertaker to aLast Man Standing MatchforSummerSlamafter interfering in The Undertaker's match with then World Heavyweight Champion King Booker. Khali refused the challenge but Long scheduled the Last Man Standing Match ahead of time, for the August 18 episode ofSmackDown!instead. The Undertaker won the match by striking Khali with steel stairs and finishing him with a chokeslam. It was Khali's first defeat and effectively ended his feud with The Undertaker. The Undertaker's next match was with then United States ChampionMr. KennedyatNo Mercy, but was disqualified in the match after he hit Kennedy with the championship belt.On the November 3 episode ofSmackDown!, The Undertaker reunited with Kane to reform the Brothers of Destruction for the first time in five years, defeating reluctant opposition in",
"opposition in the form of Mr. Kennedy andMontel Vontavious Porter(MVP), with whom Kane was feuding with at the time.As part of the storyline, Kennedy defeated The Undertaker in a First Blood match atSurvivor Seriesafter interference from MVP,but finally defeated Kennedy in a Last Ride match atArmageddon.The two continued to feud into 2007 as Kennedy cost The Undertaker two World Heavyweight Championship opportunities for a championship match at theRoyal Rumble.However, The Undertaker eventually qualified for the 2007 Royal Rumble match, by winning abattle royalon the January 26 episode ofSmackDown!. World Heavyweight Champion (2007–2010) The Undertaker won his firstRoyal Rumblematch on January 28, in doing so becoming the first man to enter the Rumble at number 30 and win the match, after lastly eliminating Shawn Michaels.On the February 5 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker elected to face World Heavyweight Champion Batista atWrestleMania 23on April 1, before attacking him with the chokeslam.AtNo Way Outon",
"Way Outon February 18, The Undertaker and Batista reluctantly teamed together to face John Cena and Shawn Michaels, but lost after Batista gained revenge on The Undertaker by hitting him with aspinebuster, allowing Cena to pin him.At WrestleMania 23, The Undertaker defeated Batista to win his first World Heavyweight Championship and extend his Streak to 15–0.The Undertaker faced Batista in a rematch atBacklashon April 29, this time in a Last Man Standing match. The match ended in a draw after neither man got to their feet by the referee's count of ten, meaning The Undertaker retained the championship.The Undertaker and Batista then fought once again in a steel cage match on the May 11 episode ofSmackDown!that also ended in a draw when both men's feet touched the floor at the same time. After the match, Mark Henry made his return by assaulting an already battered The Undertaker, after which Edge ran to the ring and cashed in hisMoney in the Bankbriefcase, forcing The Undertaker into a second title defense.",
"title defense. Although he kicked out of two quick pin attempts, The Undertaker was pinned by Edge after twospearsand lost the World Heavyweight Championship.After this match, The Undertaker took time off due to a torn right biceps. During his rehabilitation, Henry bragged about his assault on The Undertaker, until vignettes began playing that promoted The Undertaker's return. The Undertaker returned atUnforgivenon September 16, defeating Henry.Batista and The Undertaker reignited their feud atCyber Sundayon October 28 with the fans choosing the special guest referee to be Stone Cold Steve Austin, however, Batista retained the World Heavyweight Championship.They battled again in a Hell in a Cell match atSurvivor Serieson November 18, where Edge returned and interfered to help Batista retain the World Heavyweight Championship.In response to this, The Undertaker delivered aTombstone Piledriverto General ManagerVickie Guerreroon the November 23 episode ofSmackDown!, sending her to the hospital. Returning",
"hospital. Returning assistant-General Manager Theodore Long declared a triple threat match for the title between the three men atArmageddonon December 16, which Edge won after interference fromThe Major Brothers. At theRoyal Rumbleon January 27, 2008, The Undertaker competed in the Royal Rumble match itself, entering at number 1, but eliminated by Shawn Michaels after lasting for most of the bout.AtNo Way Outon February 17, The Undertaker defeated Batista,Finlay, The Great Khali, MVP and Big Daddy V in the SmackDownElimination Chamber matchto become the number one contender for Edge's World Heavyweight Championship atWrestleMania XXIVon March 30.At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Edge with theHell's Gatesubmission hold to win his second World Heavyweight Championship in what was his 16th WrestleMania win.In a WrestleMania rematch, The Undertaker defeated Edge once again atBacklashon April 27 to retain the World Heavyweight Championship.Vickie Guerrero then banned The Undertaker'sHell's Gatesubmission",
"Gatesubmission hold and stripped him of the World Heavyweight Championship on the May 2 episode ofSmackDown.The Undertaker battled Edge for the vacant title atJudgment Dayon May 18, which he won by countout. Guerrero ordered that the title remain vacant, because titles could not change hands in this way.Edge and The Undertaker faced each other again for the vacant championship atOne Night Standon June 1 in aTables, Ladders, and Chairs match, which The Undertaker lost after interference fromLa Familia. As a result of the stipulation, The Undertaker was forced to leave WWE. On the July 25 episode ofSmackDown, Vickie Guerrero reinstated The Undertaker and scheduled Edge to face him atSummerSlamon August 17 in a Hell in a Cell match,which The Undertaker won. After the match, The Undertaker chokeslammed Edge from the top of a ladder and through the ring canvas.Following this match, Guerrero tried making a peace offering with The Undertaker onSmackDownby apologizing, but The Undertaker told her that he was not the",
"that he was not the forgiving kind. AtUnforgivenon September 7, as The Undertaker approached the ring to \"take Guerrero's soul\" and seal her in a casket,Big Show, who appeared at first to be aiding The Undertaker ended up assaulting him.Resulting from that, The Undertaker and Big Show faced each other in a match atNo Mercyon October 5, where Big Show won byknockout.AtCyber Sundayon October 26, The Undertaker defeated Big Show in a Last Man Standing match after choking him out withHell's Gate.At the same time, The Undertaker was engaged in a short feud with Jeff Hardy, who interfered during his match withVladimir Kozlovon the November 7 episode ofSmackDown. Hardy defeated The Undertaker in anExtreme Rules matchthe following week onSmackDowndue to interference from Big Show. The Undertaker then went on to defeat Big Show in a casket match atSurvivor Serieson November 23 and again in a steel cage match by submission on the December 5 episode ofSmackDownto end their feud.AtNo Way Outon February 15, 2009, The",
"15, 2009, The Undertaker was part of the WWE Championship Elimination Chamber match along with Triple H, Jeff Hardy, Big Show, Vladimir Kozlov and Edge; however, he was unsuccessful at winning the match as he was the runner-up behind Triple H. In early 2009, The Undertaker began a second chapter to his unresolved feud with Shawn Michaels from the late 1990s, over a decade prior to this point (their tensions gradually increasing in the years immediately preceding this from heated run-ins at the 2007 and 2008 Royal Rumble matches). Their renewed feud by this point was two-dimensional, in part focusing on the wonder of The Undertaker's undefeated WrestleMania Streak in relation to, however, the fact that he had never before defeated Michaels in a singles match, only vice versa.Michaels also made the buildup to their WrestleMania encounter personal, repeatedly demonstrating his Christian objections to the demonic dark side nature of The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick, even creating his own heaven-esque bright side",
"bright side spin-off of what he felt The Undertaker's gimmick should be (Michaels having become a real-life born again Christian by this point in his career).The feud culminated in a singles match between the two atWrestleMania 25on April 5 in which Michaels made a heaven-sent entrance descending from up on high portraying his bright side anti-Deadman, while The Undertaker made a grave-risen entrance emerging from the ground.After what was widely described as a suspenseful, competitive match, The Undertaker defeated Michaels, thus extending hisWrestleMania winning streak to 17–0.Their encounter was highly acclaimed by critics and audiences alike and is considered by many to be one of the greatest WrestleMania matches of all time.On the April 24 episode ofSmackDown, after losing a match against Big Show by knockout with Big Show taking advantage of The Undertaker's battered neck state from his previous WrestleMania encounter, The Undertaker attacked Big Show. Following this, The Undertaker took another hiatus",
"took another hiatus from the WWE. After a four-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned atSummerSlamon August 23 by attackingCM Punk, who had just won the World Heavyweight Championship from Jeff Hardy in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match.AtBreaking Pointon September 13, The Undertaker faced Punk in a submission match for the World Heavyweight Championship. The Undertaker had originally won the match with hisHell's Gatesubmission hold, but the match was restarted by SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long, who ruled that the ban placed on the move by Vickie Guerrero was still in effect. Punk went on to win the match with hisanaconda visewhen refereeScott Armstrongcalled for the bell, despite The Undertaker never submitting—a recreation of theMontreal Screwjob, which took place in the same venue in1997.On the September 25 episode ofSmackDown, Theodore Long officially lifted the ban after being released from a casket that The Undertaker had him placed inside of, among a series of other horror-themed mind game",
"mind game tactics.With Long out of the way, the feud between The Undertaker and Punk pressed on and atHell in a Cellon October 4, The Undertaker won the World Heavyweight Championship from him in a Hell in a Cell match.The Undertaker successfully defended the title against CM Punk on the October 23 episode ofSmackDown, in a fatal four-way match atBragging Rightson October 25 against Punk, Batista andRey Mysterioand in a triple threat match against Chris Jericho and Big Show atSurvivor Serieson November 22.He faced Batista atTLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairson December 13 in a chairs match for the championship and won when the match was restarted by Long, after Batista had originally won after utilizing alow blow. The next night onRaw, The Undertaker competed in a tournament to crown the2009 Superstar of the Year, losing to Randy Orton by countout in the first round after a distraction by Orton's protegèsCody RhodesandTed DiBiase. After successfully defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Rey",
"against Rey Mysterio at theRoyal Rumbleon January 31, 2010,The Undertaker lost the championship at theElimination Chamberpay-per-view on February 21. It was also at this event that a notoriousshoot incident(non-kayfabe) befell The Undertaker: apyrotechnicsmalfunction momentarily engulfed him in flames up to three times during his ring entrance. He was, however, able to continue with his scheduled match that night despite suffering first and second-degree burns on his chest and neck. According to a WWE spokesman, it \"looked like a bad sunburn\".The Undertaker lost the title to Chris Jericho after interference from Shawn Michaels that night;Jericho has said on multiple occasions that the pyrotechnician responsible for the accident was immediately escorted from the arena and relieved of his employment with WWE, following a threat of violence from Calaway.Calaway himself explained that he had previously expressed concerns to the technician regarding the pyro arrangement, but was ignored. He feels he was saved",
"feels he was saved from severe injury by applying water to his hair, and altering his attire from a sleeveless to a sleeved jacket, just minutes before the accident. The Undertaker then accepted Michaels's rematch offer, after initially declining, atWrestleMania XXVIon March 28 in aStreak vs. Career match, where The Undertaker was victorious and Shawn Michaels was forced to retire. This match also made both The Undertaker and Michaels the first men in WWE history to main event WrestleMania in three different decades (Undertaker main evented WrestleMania 13 and XXIV in 1997 and 2008 and Michaels main evented WrestleMania XII and XIV in 1996 and 1998 and XX and 23 in 2004 and 2007, respectively). After a hiatus (which included wrestling two matches onRaw), he returned toSmackDownon May 28, defeating Rey Mysterio to qualify for a spot at theFatal 4-Waypay-per-view on June 20 to compete for the World Heavyweight title.During the Rey Mysterio match, The Undertaker suffered a concussion, broken orbital bone and",
"orbital bone and broken nose; he was visibly bleeding profusely on camera by the end of this match.To cover for the injury, Kane revealed that The Undertaker had been found in a vegetative state on the June 4 episode ofSmackDown;Mysterio took his place in the match and won the World Heavyweight Championship. While attempting to learn which wrestler had attacked The Undertaker, Kane defeated Mysterio to win the World Heavyweight Championship atMoney in the Bank. Kane and Mysterio continued to clash as they accused one another of being the assailant behind the mysterious ambush of The Undertaker. AtSummerSlamon August 15, The Undertaker returned to confront Kane and Rey Mysterio, only to be attacked with aTombstone Piledriverby Kane. With Kane revealed as his attacker, the two feuded for the next few months over the World Heavyweight Championship. After losing to Kane in a No Holds Barred match atNight of Championson September 19, Paul Bearer returned as The Undertaker's manager on the September 24 episode",
"24 episode ofSmackDown.However, Bearer turned on him atHell in a Cellon October 3 to help Kane win once again in a Hell in a Cell match. The feud ended atBragging Rightson October 24 whenThe Nexushelped Kane defeat The Undertaker in a Buried Alive match (the half-brothers' final singles match against one another). The Undertaker needed surgery for a torn rotator cuff, causing him to be written off. Final years of The Streak (2011–2014) After the2011 Royal Rumble, promotional videos began airing, showing The Undertaker entering and standing within a Western-style, dilapidated shack on a rainy desert inDeath Valley, The birthplace. Each promo ended with the date 2–21–11 being \"burned into\" the screen. On the February 21 episode ofRaw, The Undertaker returned, but before he could speak, Triple H also returned and confronted him. The two challenged each other to a match atWrestleMania XXVII, which was later made aNo Holds Barredmatch and which The Undertaker won by submission. However, he had to be carried away",
"to be carried away from the ring on a stretcher.Following WrestleMania XXVII in 2011, The Undertaker would take on a more part-time role within the company; he would not have another match onRaworSmackDownuntil 2013. On the January 30, 2012 episode ofRaw SuperShow, The Undertaker returned after a nine-month hiatus to confront Triple H.On the February 13 episode ofRaw SuperShow, Triple H refused The Undertaker's challenge for a WrestleMania rematch.After The Undertaker accused Triple H of living in the shadow of Shawn Michaels on the February 20 episode ofRaw SuperShow, Triple H accepted the challenge on the condition that it would be a Hell in a Cell match; Michaels was later inserted as guest referee in the match. AtWrestleMania XXVIII, The Undertaker, while debuting his new look, a mohawk, defeated Triple H to extend his Streak to 20–0. After the match, The Undertaker and Michaels carried Triple H to the entrance stage, where the three embraced.Later in 2012, The Undertaker appeared on the1000th episode",
"the1000th episode ofRawon July 23 to help Kane, who had been confronted byJinder Mahal, Curt Hawkins,Tyler Reks,Hunico,CamachoandDrew McIntyre. The Brothers of Destruction overcame and dominated the six other wrestlers. The Undertaker's next television appearance was onOld School Rawon March 4, 2013, where he opened the show by performing his signature entrance. CM Punk, Randy Orton, Big Show andSheamusfought in a fatal four-way match to determine who would face him atWrestleMania 29, which Punk won.After the real-life death of Paul Bearer on March 5, 2013, a storyline involving Punk regularlyspitingThe Undertaker through displays of flippancy and disrespect towards Bearer's death began.Punk interrupted The Undertaker's ceremony to honor Bearer onRaw, stealing the trademark urn and later using it to attack Kane, humiliate The Brothers of Destruction and mock Bearer.The Undertaker defeated Punk at WrestleMania 29 to extend his Streak to 21–0 and then took back the urn.The following night onRaw, The Undertaker",
"The Undertaker came out to pay his respects to Bearer, but was interrupted byThe Shield, who attempted to attack Undertaker beforeTeam Hell No(Kane andDaniel Bryan) made the save.The Undertaker would wrestle his finalRawmatch (his first since 2010) on the April 22 episode, teaming with Kane and Bryan against The Shield in a losing effort.Four days later, he wrestled his finalSmackDownmatch (also his first since 2010), defeating Shield memberDean Ambroseby submission. Afterward, The Undertaker was attacked by Ambrose and the rest of The Shield, who performed a triple powerbomb through the broadcast table on him. On the February 24, 2014, episode ofRaw, The Undertaker returned to confront Brock Lesnar and accepted his challenge for a match atWrestleMania XXX.After 25 minutes and threeF-5s, Lesnar won the match at WrestleMania bypinfall, ending The Undertaker's Streak in what was described as \"the most shocking result in WWE history\".Following the match, The Undertaker was hospitalized with a severe concussion",
"a severe concussion which he suffered in the first minutes of the match.In a December 2014 interview, Vince McMahon confirmed that it was his final decision to have Lesnar end The Streak and that The Undertaker was initially shocked at the decision. McMahon justified his decision that it would significantly enhance Lesnar's formidability to set up the next WrestleMania event and that there were no other viable candidates to fill Lesnar's role.In 2014, The Undertaker was also offered to be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame, but he declined the offer, feeling it wasn't time yet. Final feuds (2015–2020) In February 2015,Bray Wyattbegan a series of cryptic promos which led toFastlane, where Wyatt challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 31, which The Undertaker accepted.At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Wyatt after twoTombstone Piledrivers. AtBattlegroundin July, The Undertaker made his return by attacking Lesnar as he was on the verge of defeatingSeth Rollinsduring his WWE World Heavyweight",
"World Heavyweight Championship match, causing the match to end in a disqualification win for Lesnar.The next night onRaw, The Undertaker explained his actions as revenge, not against Lesnar breaking The Streak, but rather the constant taunting he allowed Paul Heyman to engage in. Later that night, after The Undertaker and Lesnar brawled throughout the arena and had to be separated, a rematch was scheduled forSummerSlamin August, where The Undertaker controversially defeated Lesnar. Lesnar put The Undertaker in akimura lockand the timekeeper rang the bell after seeing The Undertaker supposedly indicating submission, but since the referee had not seen a submission and never stopped the match, the match continued. The confusion allowed The Undertaker to surprise Lesnar with a low blow and applyHell's Gate, in which Lesnar passed out.AtHell in a Cell, The Undertaker was defeated by Lesnar in a Hell in a Cell match after Lesnar hit him with his own low blow, returning the favor, and executing what was his",
"what was his thirdF-5of the match. While the crowd gave The Undertaker an ovation after his loss to Lesnar, he was attacked and captured byThe Wyatt Family(Bray Wyatt,Luke Harper,Erick RowanandBraun Strowman), who carried him away from the ring.After ambushing and capturing Kane the next night onRaw, Wyatt explained that he had claimed their souls and stole their demonic powers.The Brothers of Destruction returned on the November 9 episode ofRawand attacked The Wyatt Family, setting up a tag team match atSurvivor Series, which honored The Undertaker's 25 years in WWE.At Survivor Series on November 22, the Brothers of Destruction defeated Wyatt and Harper. On the February 22, 2016, episode ofRaw, Vince McMahon placed his son Shane McMahon, who returned to WWE for the first time since 2009, in a Hell in a Cell match atWrestleMania 32against The Undertaker with the stipulation that if Shane won, he would gain control ofRaw.Vince later decided that should Undertaker lose the match against Shane, it would be his",
"it would be his final match at WrestleMania.After weeks of random physical confrontations and mind games exchanged between the pair, The Undertaker defeated Shane McMahon at WrestleMania 32.The Undertaker would not appear again until the900th episode ofSmackDownon November 15, issuing a threat to Team SmackDown if they failed to defeat Team Raw at the upcomingSurvivor Seriespay-per-view. The Undertaker appeared on the January 23 episode ofRaw, confronting Brock Lesnar andGoldberg.During theRoyal Rumbleon January 29, The Undertaker entered at number 29, eliminating Goldberg,The Miz,Baron CorbinandSami Zayn, before being eliminated by the number 30 entrant,Roman Reigns.The Undertaker returned on the March 6 episode ofRawand performed a chokeslam on Reigns.This led to a No Holds Barred match between The Undertaker and Reigns atWrestleMania 33,in which The Undertaker lost to Reigns after five spears in his fourth WrestleMania main event.After the match, The Undertaker left his gloves, coat and hat in the center",
"hat in the center of the ring before slowly making his exit. The Undertaker took part in theRaw 25 Yearsbroadcast on January 22, 2018, his first post-WrestleMania 33 appearance.In the months prior toWrestleMania 34, John Cena challenged The Undertaker to a singles match. At WrestleMania, afterEliasconfronted Cena and was beaten down, The Undertaker's hat and coat appeared in the center of the ring and were struck by lightning. The Undertaker then appeared and beat Cena in a three-minute squash match.Three weeks later, The Undertaker defeatedRusevat WWE'sGreatest Royal Rumbleevent in a casket match.AtSuper Show-Downin Australia on October 6, The Undertaker faced Triple H in ano disqualification matchbilled as the \"Last Time Ever\"; they were accompanied by Kane and Shawn Michaels, respectively. The Undertaker lost the match after interference from Michaels. After the match, the four men shook hands as a sign of respect, however, The Undertaker and Kane would follow this by attacking them.As a result, the duos",
"a result, the duos reunited their respective tag teams—the Brothers of Destruction and D-Generation X—and faced each other atCrown Jewelon November 2, where The Undertaker and Kane lost their final match as a tag team. On the April 8, 2019 episode ofRaw, the night afterWrestleMania 35—the first WrestleMania in 19 years without his involvement—The Undertaker appeared to interrupt and attack Elias during a musical performance.The Undertaker made his return to the ring to face Goldberg atSuper ShowDownin Saudi Arabia on June 7, defeating him in the main event of the night in their first match against each other.On the June 24, 2019 episode ofRaw, during a handicap match in which Roman Reigns was dominated by Shane McMahon and Drew McIntyre, The Undertaker suddenly appeared and attacked McMahon and McIntyre. The Undertaker and Reigns were later scheduled to face McMahon and McIntyre in a No Holds Barred tag team match atExtreme Rules. At Extreme Rules, The Undertaker and Reigns won. This turned out to be The",
"out to be The Undertaker's final match in front of a live audience in the United States. The Undertaker returned atSuper ShowDownin Saudi Arabia on February 27, 2020, as a surprise replacement in agauntlet match. He entered the match last, replacing Rey Mysterio and defeatingAJ Stylesto win theTuwaiq Mountain Trophy.AtElimination Chamberduring a match between Styles andAleister Black, The Undertaker made another surprise appearance with an attack on Styles.The following night onRaw, Styles challenged The Undertaker to a match atWrestleMania 36.Over the following weeks that led up to WrestleMania, a resentful Styles made unprecedented efforts to expose The Undertaker, going so far as departing from bashing his Deadman gimmick, instead taking to ametafictionform of bashing Calaway himself. The feud saw Styles solely referring to The Undertaker by his real name, Mark Calaway, referencing his age and his wife,Michelle McCool. In response, The Undertaker cut promos of ominous warning against Styles in which for",
"Styles in which for the first time in years, hebroke from the Deadman gimmickby presenting as himself out of character. In doing so, elements of his American Badass gimmick were reflected with Calaway making appearances in his biker gear. At WrestleMania 36, The Undertaker presented his third and final identity, \"The Unholy Trinity,\" a combination of The Deadman, American Badass, and himself as Mark Calaway, this blend allowing him to trash talk Styles over real life matters during their encounter, while also able to maintain his superhuman horror capabilities.In what was subsequently learned to be The Undertaker's final match, he and Styles fought in a cemetery at a secluded rural locale, competing in what was a cinematic, narrative-heavy brawl similar to \"Buried Alive matches\",named the \"Boneyard match\". Despite the assistance ofGallows and Anderson, The Undertaker buried Styles in the grave to win this match and ride off on motorcycle into the sunset,scoring his 25th WrestleMania victory to complete his",
"to complete his professional wrestling career. Retirement and Hall of Fame (2020–2022) On June 21, 2020, in the final episode of theUndertaker: The Last Ridedocumentary, Callaway retired from the professional wrestling industry.Later on that November, he confirmed that he was \"officially retired\" in an interview.Many wrestlers and other public figures paid tribute to him on their social media pages.Madison Square Garden, regarded as the most famous venue in professional wrestling, also paid tribute to him. Undertaker, wearing his trademark mortician trench coat and stetson hat, made an appearance at the conclusion of theSurvivor Seriesevent on November 22, 2020. The event is dedicated to him, commemorating thirty years from that time since his WWE debut. There, he reiterated that his career had been completed, giving an emotional farewell speech which ended in typical Undertaker fashion: \"My time has come to let The UndertakerRest in Peace.\"Aten-bell salutewas also given for The Undertaker character as he",
"character as he did his traditional take-the-knee pose, and a holographic image of Paul Bearer, Undertaker's former manager, was projected in the ring. News that the Undertaker would be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fameclass of 2022were responded to with extensive praise from WWE fans, the professional wrestling community and media outlets alike.On March 3, 2022, onThe Pat McAfee Show, WWE Chairman Vince McMahon stated that he would be Undertaker's WWE Hall of Fame inductor. In praising Undertaker both inside and outside of character in a heartfelt message, McMahon said that the induction would be one of the most difficult endeavors of his life because of his longtime history with Undertaker, and how close they were behind the scenes.Undertaker issued aTwitterresponse later on that same day, which read: After over 30 years of long roads traveled, countless hours of TV, and one hell of a ride together… couldn't think of anyone better to put me in the #WWEHOF than @VinceMcMahon. One final ride",
"One final ride together,old-timer!!! On April 1, 2022, The Undertaker was formally inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame at theAmerican Airlines Center.At his induction, Calaway made a 137-minute speech that opened with a 10-minute, emotional standing ovation from the live audience, bringing Calaway to tears. Calaway's acceptance speech, hailed by media outlets as matchless and beyond compare, was motivational and shared his collection of self-reflections and life philosophies for success. In making his speech, he stood before several genres of his Deadman character, through the varying costumes displayed on mannequins.Later that same weekend, Calaway made appearances on the entrance stage on both nights ofWrestleMania. Sporadic appearances (2023–present) On January 23, 2023, The Undertaker made an appearance at the Monday Night Raw 30th Anniversary special,Raw is XXX. He appeared under his American Badass gimmick, confrontingLA Knightand seemingly giving his approval toBray Wyatt.On October 10, 2023, The",
"10, 2023, The Undertaker made his first appearance onWWE NXTchokeslammingBron Breakker. On April 5, 2024, The Undertaker inductedMuhammad Aliinto the 2024WWE Hall of Fame.On April 7, 2024, The Undertaker appeared briefly during the Night 2 main event ofWrestleMania XLbetween Roman Reigns and Cody Rhodes where he aided Cody Rhodes and chokeslammed The Rock. Undertaker gimmick, identities and character evolution The Deadman identity Under his undead,funereal, and macabre horror-themed gimmick, in which The Undertaker is subtitled \"The Deadman\", he routinely took to alarmist tactics to disrupt the focus and confidence of his rivals.Often, these alarmist tactics were morbid and applied the use of props that reflected demise as the consequence of a wrestling match against him: caskets (sometimes personalizing casket designs to represent his opponents),body bags,corpse-likeeffigies,cemeteries,hearses.To that end, the gimmick evoked funerals and death down to finer details, such as in the character's birthplace",
"birthplace ofDeath Valley, catchphrase of \"Rest in Peace\", signature finishing maneuver of theTombstone Piledriver, awrestling pinthat had the opponent resemble a corpse with their arms crossed over their chest, etc.Adding to his many effects of treating his wrestling matches as funeral services, The Undertaker frequently served a list of specialized matches that were personalized to his Deadman gimmick:Casket Match, Body Bag Match,Buried Alive Match,Last Ride Match,Hell in a Cell, Boneyard Match, etc. Filled withbells and whistles, The Undertaker's godlike superhuman presence and indignation were signaled byfuneral tolls, settings of pitch-black darkness and blue/purple semidarkness, flickering lights, hazy fog, thunder, lightning strikes, and other bone-chilling scenes and sound activity.Portrayed as miraculously resilient to destruction,The Undertaker yielded numerous resurrections,which sometimes gave way to reincarnations of his Deadman gimmick. While maintaining his general character premise as death",
"premise as death personified with accompanying alarmist tactics throughout all sagas of the Deadman,each incarnation took on its own distinct appearance and characterization. For example, some Deadman incarnations wereunearthly and zombie-likewhile others wereGoth and comparatively more human. The earliest of The Undertaker's Deadman incarnations (nicknamed in external media as \"The Old West Mortician\" to distinguish from his other Deadman incarnations) depicted him as a menacing derivative of the Wild West undertakers in television westerns.In his own rendition, he was garbed in a black trench coat; gray-striped tie; black-ribboned, blackstetson; grayboot spats; and gray gloves(black gloves for first few appearances before gray).However, most of The Undertaker's Deadman character development (sleeve tattoos, longer/straightened/black hair, purple/blue color representation, elements of thunder and lightning, etc.) would not surface until his first reincarnation into what was hisrebirthed Deadmanvariation,",
"Deadmanvariation, lasting fromSummerSlam 94'(resurrection from adeath angle with Yokozuna) throughBuried Alive: In Your House(The Undertaker buried alive by Mankind and numerous other WWF heel wrestlers).In these initial zombie-like incarnations of his gimmick, he was portrayed as impervious to pain, something accomplished by Calawaynot sellinghis opponents' attacks. Among the many ways this was showcased was The Undertaker's maneuver of raising up from ataken downsupine positioninto ahigh Fowler's position, dubbed \"the sit-up\" (often accompanied by his sharp hissing sound). Beginning early on, The Undertaker's persona was complemented with histrionically spooky, wailing managerPaul Bearer, introduced to represent and guide The Deadman.Playing a key role, Bearer used an urn to transmit mysterious powers to The Undertaker that had supernatural healing effects on him during combat.Also linked to The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick were the druids–a team of mysterious, incognito cult-like members, completely",
"members, completely disguised in black hooded clergy robes.A mysterious choir chantingsounded whenever the druids presented.The druids typically appeared for the purposes of removing The Undertaker where he had seemingly been extinguished by his enemies (as opposed toEMTsor medical personnel used for the rest of WWF/E talent). The druids were also seen reproducing The Undertaker in recovered, wrathful states to those same enemies who were thought to have extinguished him. The Undertaker took to many trademarked idiosyncrasies and themes, including a stylized throat-slashing gesture,grimacing facial expressions fit with eyeballs rolled back so that only the whites of his eyes displayed,backwards hair-whips so as to expose his ominous facial expressions,fixed stares on adversaries,protruding tongue displays, jolting of his head with a fury so that it faced the direction of his antagonists,his celebratory take-the-knee pose,sonorous vocalizations,collectively labeling his fanbase as \"Creatures of the",
"\"Creatures of the Night\",voice of God-like promos in which things were interrupted with dimmed lights and thunder while The Undertaker's communications were heard booming throughout the arena with no physical trace of him;messages filled with death threats of a deeply posthumous insight into impending corpse decomposition, maggot feasting, unsouling and so on.A main attraction of the Deadman gimmick, The Undertaker mesmerized his opponents and viewers alike through elaborately \"bone-chilling\" entrances.The character's godlike powers were routinely put on display in these moments, triggering lights back to the arena either gradually or suddenly dependent on his either slowly or abruptly raised arms.During the vast majority of his wrestling career as the Deadman, The Undertaker used an extended remix ofFrédéric Chopin'sFuneral Marchas histheme music.WWF ComposerJim Johnstonembellished on the Chopin march, using the historic melody as a pre- and post-chorus to a main chorus of bell tolls, along with an original",
"with an original transition section to the song of a slow,lugubriousinstrumental feel.Of his entrances, Calaway has stated, \"When that gong went off, that was go time. The music fit the character. That's the key element of it: the end is at hand for whoever's going to be standing in that ring waiting for me to come down. That was the mindset behind the gong. And the music was just doom and gloom, you knew what was coming.\" Alternate identities of The Undertaker gimmick After a hiatus, Calaway returned in 2000 adopting a human form of the Undertaker gimmick. Under the character's alter ego, he is a semifictional smack-talking,redneckbiker, thoroughly absent of his fully fictional Deadman zombie-like traits and wizardry.In performing this alternate identity, he rode to the ring on motorcycles, chewed tobacco, donned cargo garments and/or denim, printed shirts, and sporty fashion accessories (sunglasses, necklaces, bandanas).His theme music was replaced with popular rock songs of the time, initiallyKid Rock's",
"initiallyKid Rock's \"American Bad Ass\" (from which The Undertaker's subtitle used to refer to this second identity derived), and eventuallyLimp Bizkit's \"Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)\".His American Badass catch phrases, such as threats of “I'll make you famous” or references to the wrestling ring as his “yard”, became popular during this era. According toBruce Prichard, Calaway requested this metamorphosis of character since he wanted to be \"the biker–he wanted to be the guy that he is in everyday life\". While explained off-screen for the above reason years later, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it.This transition lasted3+1⁄2years until 2004 when The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity in hybrid form—residual features of his American Badass identity remaining. Among subtle details left over from",
"left over from his biker identity were his in-ringMMAstyle between his stances, strikes, and submissions; penchant to sporadically lower his tank top for a barechested appearance; celebrating victories with an arm-raised fist; etc.This hybrid Deadman (Deadman incarnation most closely based on Calaway himself) would last many years and for the remainder of The Undertaker's professional wrestling career, excluding his final wrestling match. For The Undertaker's final encounter, a Boneyard Match atWrestleMania 36in 2020, he introduced a three-dimensional identity that brought all of his identities into one, dubbed \"The Unholy Trinity:\" a mix of his Deadman identity, American Badass identity, and his natural and genuine identity as Mark Calaway. Gimmick reflective nicknames The Undertaker generated many nicknames from commentators throughout the course of his active wrestling career, some of those names more associated with his Deadman Undertaker identity, including \"The Grim Reaper\" (variants of this used were",
"of this used were \"The Reaper\" and \"The Reaper of Wayward Souls\"),\"The Demon of Death Valley\",\"The Man from the Dark Side\",\"The Prince of Darkness\",\"The Lord of Darkness\".He also generated nicknames associated with his American Badass Undertaker identity, including \"Big Evil\" (used in reference to his American Badassheelside),\"Booger Red\".Some of his nicknames were not identity specific but used for the character in general, such as \"The Phenom\". Domestic backstory, parents and brother The Undertaker's gimmick has adark and disturbed family backstorywhich involves him intentionallyburning down his family funeral homeas a teenager, resulting in the deaths of his parents and purportedly a brother of his as well. Undertaker initially denied his then ex-manager Paul Bearer's charges of him committing the arson murder of his family, (though later confessed in late 1998). Instead, Undertaker blamed his younger brother of whom he thought long dead from the incident, describing him as a \"pyromaniac\". This led to",
"This led to Bearer's shocking warnings to proof in the form of the brother, \"Kane\", as alive and well.In late 1997 atIn Your House Badd Blood, Bearer unleashed a vengeful Kane: the fire-personified, juggernaut half-brother of Undertaker, who was fit with a mask to conceal the scarring from Undertaker's arson.In what became a fickle sibling relationship with Bearer (later revealed to be Kane's father) only adding to the pendulum and complexities, Undertaker and Kane went back and forth from one extreme to the other, feuding barbarically at points and yet teami...",
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"WrestleMania VII WrestleMania VIIwas the seventh annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 24, 1991, at theLos Angeles Memorial Sports Arenain Los Angeles. Fourteen matches were shown during thelivebroadcast, with onedark matchheld before the event. The main event sawHulk HogandefeatSgt. Slaughterfor theWWF Championshipas part of astorylinein which Sgt. Slaughter portrayed an Iraqi sympathizer during the United States' involvement in theGulf War. Significant events on the undercard includedThe Undertaker's WrestleMania debut and the beginning ofhis renowned winning streak, a retirement match betweenRandy SavageandThe Ultimate Warriorleading to the former's reunion with estranged loveMiss Elizabeth, as well as the final televised match of the originalHart Foundation, after whichBret Hartbecame primarily a singles wrestler. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now",
"(WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\".WrestleMania VII was originally scheduled to be held on March 24, 1991, inLos Angeles, Californiaat theLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum, but the WWF decided to move the event to the adjacentLos Angeles Memorial Sports Arena. The WWF's stated reason for the venue change was that it had security concerns in the wake ofSgt. Slaughter's portrayal of an Iraqi sympathizer during theGulf War.This was dismissed by outlets such as SLAM! Sports of Canada, who chalked up the venue change to poor advanced ticket sales, and the company having difficulty filling the estimated 100,000 seats available.According to former WWF executiveBruce Prichard, both were accurate statements. In hisSomething to Wrestle Withpodcast, Prichard said that",
"Prichard said that even if the WWF had sold out the Coliseum, the scope of the event was too large for police to ensure its security.Prichard explained further in an interview with Kayfabe Commentaries that the WWF would have had to foot the entire bill for the amount of security necessary to keep the wrestlers and fans safe from all potential issues, citing both the possibility of an outside attack and the crime rate of the surrounding neighborhood.Dave Meltzerin theWrestling Observer Newsletterwrote that between 11,900 and 15,000 tickets were sold before the move. He also reported that no tickets had to be refunded, indicating that sales were under 15,500. Comp tickets were believed to help fill the show's crowd. The tagline for the event was\"Superstars and Stripes Forever,\" and is remembered for its theme of American patriotism in the wake of the Gulf War. American flags were hung all over the arena and the ring apron and banners were colored red, white, and blue, which was the basis for the main event",
"for the main event betweenHulk HoganandSgt. Slaughterfor theWWF World Heavyweight Championship. This was the first WrestleMania not to featureJesse \"The Body\" Venturaas a color commentator.Gorilla Monsoonhosted the event withBobby Heenan. When Heenan had to manage at ringside in the opening match and again duringMr. Perfect'sIntercontinental Heavyweight Championshipdefense, Monsoon was joined on the commentary byJim Dugganand \"Lord\"Alfred Hayesrespectively. In addition,Regis Philbinhelped with commentary on the main event whileJeopardy!hostAlex Trebekserved as the ring announcer. Willie Nelsonsang a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\" before the show. Other celebrity guests in attendance for WrestleMania VII included Philbin, Trebek, andMarla Maplesas backstage announcers.George Steinbrenner,Paul Maguire,Macaulay Culkin,Donald Trump,Lou Ferrigno,Chuck Norris,Beverly D'AngeloandHenry Winklerappeared as spectators.Bob Costaswas scheduled to make an appearance, but he canceled weeks before the event due to his",
"event due to his objection to the main event angle. Theartistfor the promotionalposteris renowned illustrative painterJoe Juskoknown mainly for his work within the comic book industry. Randy Savage required surgery on a broken thumb in late January before the event. The injury required him to miss several matches leading up to WrestleMania. Storylines The two main feuds entering WrestleMania in 1991 were betweenHulk Hoganand WWF ChampionSgt. SlaughterandThe Ultimate Warriorand\"Macho King\" Randy Savage, and in a way, both were intertwined. Warrior had defeated Hogan for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania a year earlier and entered 1991 as the champion. In the meantime, Sgt. Slaughter had returned to the WWF near the end of 1990 after spending five years wrestling in theAmerican Wrestling Association. When he returned, Slaughter announced that he had turned his back on his country and had become anIraqisympathizer and follower ofSaddam Hussein. He had also revealed an alliance with an Iraqi military",
"an Iraqi military leader,General Adnan, who became his advisor (Adnan having followed Slaughter from the AWA to participate in the angle). This coincided with the increasing tension in the Middle East that was going on at that time, which eventually would lead toOperation Desert Stormand American involvement in the conflict. Slaughter would eventually set his sights on the Warrior, and the two agreed to a match at theRoyal Rumblein January 1991. Savage, meanwhile, was trying to regain the WWF Championship that he had lost atWrestleMania Vto Hogan and challenged Warrior repeatedly to give him a shot. Warrior defeated Savage to successfully defend the title numerous times and subsequently refused to grant any more title shots, so Savage decided to seek another remedy. During the match between Warrior and Slaughter, Savage and his managerQueen Sherricame to ringside and got involved in the match. Warrior picked up an interfering Sherri and tossed her from the ring onto Savage. Slaughter capitalized by driving",
"by driving Warrior down, leaving him hanging over the second rope. Savage then struck Warrior with his royalscepteras Slaughter kept the referee's attention, knocking the champion unconscious. Slaughter then hit an elbow drop on the Warrior and pinned him to become the new champion. After he came to and realized what Savage had done, Warrior charged to the back looking for Savage. He then issued a challenge for a retirement match for the two at WrestleMania, which Savage accepted. Hogan, having no connection with the ongoing story to this point, entered the Royal Rumble match as its defending champion. He won the match by eliminating his old rivalEarthquakelast, then went backstage to be interviewed byGene Okerlund. During the course of the interview, the word was relayed to the two that Slaughter and Adnan were celebrating their triumph by defacing an American flag. Hogan then promised to stand up for his country and take the title from Slaughter as soon as possible, and was later named the leading",
"named the leading contender for the WWF Championship, which he had not contended for since losing the title to the Warrior atWrestleMania VI. Leading up to the show, Hogan continued to cite the ongoing real-life war in their feud. On one episode ofWWF Prime Time Wrestling, Hogan stated that Iraq would surrender in the war at the moment he defeated Slaughter. Event The opening bout was asingles matchpitting theBrooklyn BrawleragainstKoko B. Ware. Ware defeated the Brooklyn Brawler by pinfall. This was adark matchthat did not air on thepay-per-viewbroadcast. The pay-per-view broadcast began with a performance of \"America the Beautiful\" byWillie Nelson. The second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was a tag team match pittingthe BarbarianandHakuagainstthe Rockers. In the end,Shawn Michaelshit Haku with aflying bodypressand pinned him for the three count. After that,Dino Bravoand theTexas Tornadofaced off in the ring. In the end, The Texas Tornado won the bout by pinfall following",
"pinfall following adiscus punch. Next,the British Bulldogtook on theWarlord. In the end, The British Bulldog performed arunning powerslamon Warlord to win the match. After that, theWWF Tag Team Championswere on the line withthe Hart Foundationdefended their titles againstthe Nasty Boys. In the end,Jerry SagsstruckJim Neidhartwith a motorcycle helmet, enablingBrian Knobbsto pin him, earning The Nasty Boys their first tag team championship in WWF. Next,Jake RobertsandRick Martelcompeted in ablindfold match. In the end, Roberts struck Martel with aDDTand pinned him, winning the match. After that,Jimmy Snukafaced off againstThe Undertaker. Although Snuka attempted to bring Undertaker off his feet, he was unable too. In the end, Snuka attempted aSpringboard crossbodymaneuver on Undertaker but Undertaker caught him and hit Snuka withTombstone Piledriverfor the victory. This marked the beginning of the Undertaker'sstreak. Next, was theretirement matchbetweenRandy Savageandthe Ultimate Warrior. Before both men came",
"both men came out,Bobby Heenanspotted Savage's formervaletMiss Elizabethin the crowd. Savage and Queen Sherri came to the ring carried on a throne and Warrior walked out instead of his trademark running. The match started slow, both men initially insisted on chain wrestling until Savage started usingstrikeson Warrior. Savage went to the top rope and attempted a crossbody on Warrior but he caught him but put Savage on his feet and slapped him. Savage retreated from the ring and grabbed a chair at ringside and threw it at Warrior but it missed. Savage snuck back into the ring after being distracted by the referee picking up the chair and attacked Warrior. Warrior irish whipped Savage into the corner and attempted a splash but Savage got out of the way and Warrior fell to the outside. Sherri picked up Warrior and struck his throat when the referee wasn't looking and Savage performed a diving axe handle from the top turnbuckle to outside the ring. Savage got back into the ring but Sherri picked up Warrior again",
"up Warrior again and began hitting him but Warrior pushed her over. Savage then came out of the ring and attacked Warrior from behind. Eventually, Warrior got back in the ring and Savage hit Warrior with a body slam for a two count. After a brief back and fourth, Savage attempted to wear Warrior down with a sleeper hold but Warrior got out of it and ran on the ropes but both men collided with each other in the center of the ring. Savage got Warrior up but Warrior countered with a small package but Sherri distracted the referee and when the referee turned around he counted but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior began arguing with the referee and Savage took advantage by delivering a running knee lift which propelled Warrior into the referee, taking him out. Savage then held Warrior in place and Sherri took her shoe off so she could hit Warrior with it. She climbed to the top turnbuckle and attempted and axe handle with the shoe but Warrior got out of the way and she struck Savage with it instead. Warrior",
"it instead. Warrior chased Sherri around ringside until Savage intervened and rolled up Warrior for a two count. Savage performed a stun gun on Warrior and performed a clothesline to the back of the head. After body slamming Warrior, Savage climbed to the top rope and performed five diving elbow drops on Warrior and pinned him but Warrior kicked out. Warrior then got a surge of energy and fought back against Savage and delivered a gorilla press slam and splash to the back and pinned him but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior then began talking to his hands and asking his gods if he should step aside and lose the match and questioning whether his destiny is to lose to Savage. Warrior stepped out of the ring to give Savage a count out win after apparently receiving an answer from above. Before Warrior could do that though, Savage attacked him while he was on the apron. Savage then attempted an axe handle to the outside but Warrior moved out the way and Savage hit the barricade instead. Warrior got Savage in the",
"got Savage in the ring and performed three shoulder tackles on Savage and pinned him for the three count. After winning, Warrior put on his entrance coat and celebrated in the ring before leaving. After he had left, Sherri berated Savage who was still lying on the ring canvas trying to recover from his match. Sherri began attacking Savage in the ring but Elizabeth hopped over the barricade and got into the ring and grabbed Sherri and threw her to the outside. Elizabeth began crying and both Savage and Elizabeth embraced in the ring. The two then left the ring. After that,Demolitiontook onGenichiro TenryuandKōji Kitao. In the end, Tenryu performed apowerbombonSmashand stacked him up for the win. Next, was a singles match betweenWWF Intercontinental ChampionMr. PerfectagainstBig Boss Manwith Perfect's title on the line. In the end, Big Boss Man was attacked by The Barbarian and Haku causing adisqualificationvictory for Big Boss Man. After that,EarthquakeandGreg Valentinefaced off and Earthquake took an",
"Earthquake took an advantage early on and performed anEarthquake Splashfor the three count. Next,Legion of Doomtook onPower and Glory. In the end, The Legion of Doom performed a 'doomsday deviceonPaul RomaandAnimalpinned him for the victory. After that, was a match betweenTed DiBiaseandVirgil. In the end,Roddy Pipercame out and distracted DiBiase. When Virgil threw DiBiase to the outside Piper continued distracting him and was unable to enter the ring thus Virgil won bycountout. In the penultimate match,The Mountiefaced off againstTito Santana. In the end,Jimmy Hartdistracted the referee and The Mountie zapped Santana with hiscattle prodand pinned him for a quick victory. In the main event the reigningWWF ChampionSgt. Slaughterdefend his title againstHulk Hogan. Slaughter entered withGeneral Adnanwho was waiving theFlag of Iraq. Hogan entered waiving theFlag of the United Statesto a thunderousovation. Both men started the match circling one another. They began chain wrestling and Slaughter pinned Hogan in",
"pinned Hogan in the corner and the referee had to separate them. Slaughter once again pinned Hogan in the corner but Hogan shoved Slaughter who was sent to the other side of the ring. Hogan then knocked down Slaughter who retreated to the outside. Hogan went to the outside to get Slaughter but Adnan hit him from behind but Hogan wasn't phased and began chasing Adnan and Slaughter hit Hogan in the back with a steel chair but Hogan still wasn't phased. Hogan grabbed Slaughter and sent him into the ring. Slaughter begged for mercy and then poked Hogan in the eye. Slaughter then began wearing down Hogan. Hogan then knocked Slaughter down and Adnan got on the apron to taunt Hogan but Hogan hit him which sent him down on the floor. Hogan then took control and began beating Slaughter. Hogan then went to the top rope but Adnan grabbed Hogan's foot and Slaughter grabbed Hogan and threw him into the middle of the ring. Slaughter then clotheslined Hogan out of the ring and began hitting him with a steel chair.",
"with a steel chair. Slaughter then grabbed some TV cables and began choking Hogan with them. Slaughter took Hogan inside the ring and delivered a backbreaker for a two count. Slaughter began arguing with the referee and continued to beat Hogan and then put him in aBoston Crabsubmission. Hogan grabbed the ropes to break the hold but Slaughter thought he had won but the referee told him he hadn't. Slaughter began giving knees to Hogan's back and went to the top rope and delivered a foot stomp to Hogan's back and pinned him but Adnan accidentally distracted the referee. When the referee turned around and began counting Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter went to the outside and grabbed a steel chair. Hogan, who was leaning on the ropes facing the outside was hit in the hide by Slaughter with the steel chair. Slaughter then pinned Hogan but Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter then began hitting Hogan in the head, causing him to bleed. Hogan attempted a comeback but was not able too. Slaughter then put Hogan in",
"then put Hogan in theCamel clutchbut would release the hold to stomp a few times on Hogan's back, only to put the hold on again. Hogan got up while Slaughter still had the hold applied and attempted to ram Slaughter into the turnbuckle but Slaughter released the hold and shoved Hogan into the turnbuckle. Slaughter then asked Adnan for the flag of Iraq and Adnan handed him it. Slaughter then placed the flag of Iraq on Hogan and pinned him but Hogan kicked out at two and Hogan grabbed the flag and tore it in front of Slaughter. Hogan then hulked up and even though Slaughter began hitting him, his punches had no effect. Hogan then irish whipped Slaughter off the ropes and delivered a big boot. Hogan then peformed a leg drop on Slaughter for the three count and thus became a record three-time WWF World Heavyweight Champion. Hogan then waived the Flag of the United States and celebrated in the ring. Reception The official attendance of WrestleMania VII held at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena was",
"Sports Arena was 16,158.JournalistDave Meltzerreported that the paid attendance was approximately 10,500. Aftermath The Undertaker's victory debut at the event marked the beginning of hisWrestleMania streak. Backstage as Hogan was being interviewed on his victory over Sgt. Slaughter, Slaughter attacked Hogan by throwing a fireball in his face. Hogan quickly recovered from the attack and defended the belt primarily against Slaughter, largely in \"Desert Storm\" (i.e., no-disqualification) matches. He also had to deal with the returningIron Sheik, who was now competing as Colonel Mustafa. Hogan and the Ultimate Warrior eventually teamed up atSummerSlam 1991, defeating Slaughter, Mustafa, and their manager, General Adnan, in a two-vs.-three handicap match. Savage returned to television in a non-wrestling role as a color commentator for the WWF's flagship syndicated program,Superstars; although a fan favorite to the crowd, much of his commentary was heel-leaning. Meanwhile, the storyline with Miss Elizabeth",
"with Miss Elizabeth continued, culminating with Savage proposing to her in the ring leading to an on-air wedding at SummerSlam 1991 dubbedThe Match Made in Heaven. (The wedding was kayfabe, as Savage and Elizabeth were already legally married.) VirgilandTed DiBiasefeuded with each other until November 1991, including facing off at SummerSlam 1991 when DiBiase lost his Million Dollar Belt to Virgil. After DiBiase won his belt back in November with the help ofThe Repo Man(formerly Smash of Demolition), their feud ended at theThis Tuesday in TexasPPV when DiBiase and Repo Man defeated Virgil andTito Santanain a tag team match. Genichiro TenryuandKōji Kitaowere on loan from the Japanese promotionSuper World of Sports. The WWF co-promoted several cards in Japan with the group, including twoTokyo Domeshows on March 30 and December 12, 1991. Although SWS folded in June 1992, Tenryu's follow-up promotion,WAR, co-promoted the WWF's first Japanese tour in 1994. After WrestleMania VII,The Hart Foundationdisbanded.Bret",
"HartandJim Neidhartwent into singles competition. Bret Hart went on to singles success, defeatingMr. Perfectfor the WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam 1991, and later in 1992 would win the WWF Championship when he defeatedRic Flairin hisfather's home town ofSaskatooninSaskatchewan, Canada. Neidhart would later in 1991 form a tag team called \"The New Foundation\" with Hart's younger brotherOwen. This would be the final WrestleMania appearance forAndré the Giant. André would appear at ringside during the Intercontinental Championship match and assist theBig Boss Manin fending off the Heenan Family. He would make sporadic appearances for the rest of the year before his passing in 1993. Results References External links",
"WrestleMania VIII WrestleMania VIIIwas the eighth annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 5, 1992, at theHoosier DomeinIndianapolis, Indianain the United States. Nine matches were shown during thelivebroadcast, with onedark matchoccurring before the event. Matches held at WrestleMania VIII includedWWF Intercontinental ChampionRoddy Piperdefending his title against former championBret Hart,WWF ChampionRic Flairdefending his title againstRandy Savage,Hulk Hoganfacing his rivalSid Justice. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\".WrestleMania VIII was scheduled to be held on April 5,",
"be held on April 5, 1992, at theHoosier DomeinIndianapolis, Indiana. Storylines The original plan for the main event was the long-awaited bout between Ric Flair and Hulk Hogan for the WWF Championship, the meeting between the two legends was even promoted on television in a mock press conference where WWF PresidentJack Tunneyhad announced Hogan as the number one contender to Flair's WWF Championship. Both Flair and Hogan had wrestled against each other in several house show matches and a televised tag match, but not in a televised main event singles match. WrestleMania VIII was changed to a double main event with Hogan wrestling Sid Justice, while Flair wrestled Randy Savage. For storyline purposes, Sid Justice lobbied to wrestle Hulk Hogan due to tensions starting between the two at that year's Royal Rumble, where Hogan was eliminated by Sid Justice. This maneuver on Sid's part led Hogan to helping rival Ric Flair eliminate Justice and then win not only the Royal Rumble but the WWF Championship in the",
"Championship in the process. This would make Ric Flair only the second man to win both the WWF and NWA World Heavyweight Titles, the first being the original \"Nature Boy\",Buddy Rogers. Event A scheduled match betweenthe British BulldogandThe Berzerkerwas cut due to time constraints. The opening bout was atag team matchpittingthe Beverly Brothersagainstthe Bushwhackers. The Bushwhackers won the match by pinfall. This was adark matchthat did not air on the pay-per-view broadcast. The pay-per-view broadcast opened withcountry musicsingerReba McEntireperforming \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". The second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was aSingles matchbetweenShawn MichaelsandTito Santana. Michaels won the match by pinfall after reversing abody slamattempt into abody press. Following the second bout,the Legion of Doomand their managerPaul Elleringwere interviewed byGene Okerlund. The Legion of Doom were originally supposed to challengeMoney Incfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipat",
"Team Championshipat WrestleMania VIII but due toHawkbeing under suspension until after WrestleMania they were replaced in the match bythe Natural Disasters. The third bout was a singles match betweenJake Robertsandthe Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall after giving Roberts aTombstone Piledriveroutside of the ring. The fourth bout was a singles match in whichWWF Intercontinental ChampionRoddy Piperdefended his title againstBret Hart. Hart defeated Piper by pinfall after reversing Piper'ssleeper holdinto a pin, thus winning the WWF Intercontinental Championship. Following the fourth bout, a pre-recorded interview withLex Lugeraired in which he promoted theWorld Bodybuilding Federation. The fifth bout was aneight-man tag team matchpittingBig Boss Man,Jim Duggan,Sgt. Slaughter, andVirgilagainstThe Mountie,The Nasty Boys, andRepo Man.Family FeudhostRay Combswas a guestring announcerfor the eight-man tag match. Big Boss Man, Duggan, Slaughter, and Virgil won the match by pinfall whenJerry",
"pinfall whenJerry SagsaccidentallypunchedBrian Knobbs, enabling Virgil to pin Knobbs. The sixth bout was a singles match in whichWWF ChampionRic Flairdefended his title againstRandy Savage. Savage defeated Flair by pinfall using aroll-upto win the title. At the time the company had a \"no blood\" policy. Nonetheless, Ric Flair was caughtbladingdirectly on camera and was fined several thousand dollars.In one of his first appearances in the WWF,Shane McMahonwas one of the backstage officials who attempted to keepMiss Elizabethaway from ringside during the Flair/Savage match. He then restrained Savage in the ensuing brawl after the contest. The seventh bout was a singles match betweenRick MartelandTatanka. Tatanka won the match by pinfall using across body block. The eighth bout was a tag team match in whichWWF Tag Team ChampionsMoney Inc.defended their titles againstthe Natural Disasters. The Natural Disasters won the bout bycountoutafter Money Inc abandoned the match. The ninth bout was a singles match",
"was a singles match betweenOwen HartandSkinner. Hart won the match by pinfall using aroll-up. The main event bout was a singles match betweenHulk HoganandSid Justice. Hogan won the match bydisqualificationafter Justice's managerHarvey Whipplemaninterfered. The finish to the Justice-Hogan match actually did not occur as planned - the original plan was for Hogan to hit the leg drop on Justice and forPapa Shangoto do a run in and break up the pin causing a disqualification; however, Papa Shango either missed or misjudged his cue and was late in getting down to the ring, causing Justice to have to improvise by kicking out of the leg drop. Following the match, Justice and Shango attacked Hogan untilthe Ultimate Warriormade a surprise return, helping Hogan drive Justice and Shango away. Reception Critics praised the Intercontinental Championship match between Piper and Hart. Thomas Golianopoulos ofComplex Sportsranked it at number 15 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, describing it as",
"describing it as \"A stiff match that veers from amateur wrestling to all-out street fight with a great finish.\"Golianopoulos also ranked the Flair vs. Savage match at number 19 on the same list, praising the in-ring psychology despite an abrupt finish.On the other hand, Dave Meltzer of theWrestling Observer Newslettergave the Hogan/Justice main event negative two stars, citing their lackluster performance and the late entry of Papa Shango, which necessitated a hastily rewritten ending. The main event was also ranked by YouTube wrestling channel Cultaholic as the worst WrestleMania main event of all time in their 2019 ranking of every WrestleMania Main Event,while saying that the WWF Championship Match between Flair and Savage should've been the main event in their 2020 list of 10 WrestleMania Matches That Closed The Show. Aftermath Savage's primary opponent during the spring and summer of 1992 was Ric Flair, with the storyline over Flair's alleged past relationship with Elizabeth continuing to play a major",
"to play a major factor. It was revealed later inWWF Magazinethat the photos that Flair had shown of himself with Elizabeth were fakes, and that they were actually of Savage and Elizabeth. In real life, Savage and Elizabeth were about toseparate, and did, with Elizabeth making her final WWF appearance on April 19, 1992 at theUK Rampagepay-per-view. WrestleMania VIII marked Elizabeth's last major pay-per-view appearance in the United States for the WWF. Although Savage and Flair continued feuding, the Elizabeth aspect was dropped from the storyline, and the former couple's divorce was finalized in September 1992. Savage briefly addressed the divorce in an issue ofWWF Magazine, but it was otherwise not mentioned in kayfabe. Shawn Michaels began receiving his first major push as a main-event singles competitor, as he would challenge Randy Savage for the WWF Championship in Europe, while challenging Bret Hart for the WWF Intercontinental Championship in the United States, while occasionally teaming with Ric Flair",
"with Ric Flair in tag team matches against Hart and Savage. Michaels eventually won the WWF Intercontinental Championship from The British Bulldog (who had won the title from Hart at theSummerSlamevent inLondon,Englandin August) in October. The Hulk Hogan-Sid Justice match was billed as Hogan's \"last match\", when in actuality, Hogan took a hiatus, due to the steroid scandal which was beginning to emerge in the news media.Piper also took a hiatus from the ring following WrestleMania VIII. Roberts left the company and would return four years later, using a \"born-again Christian\" gimmick. Sid Justice was largely unsuccessful in post-WrestleMania matches against the Ultimate Warrior and The Undertaker and eventually left the company, returning in 1995. Results References External links",
"WrestleMania IX WrestleMania IXwas the ninth annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). The event took place on April 4, 1993, atCaesars Palacein theLas Vegassuburb ofParadise,Nevada. It was the first WrestleMania event held outdoors. WrestleMania IX was built around two main storylines. The first was the seemingly unstoppableYokozunachallengingBret Hartfor theWWF Championshipin the main event, a right he earned by winning the1993 Royal Rumble. The other major storyline was the return ofHulk Hogan, who had departed the WWF followingWrestleMania VIIIbut returned to team withBrutus Beefcakeagainst theWWF Tag Team Champions,Money Inc.(Ted DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schyster). Hogan and Beefcake lost the tag team match, but Hogan later faced Yokozuna for the title in an impromptu, unadvertised 22-second match after Yokozuna defeated Hart to win the championship. In addition,Shawn Michaelsretained theIntercontinental Championship, though he lost",
"though he lost his match againstTatanka. The event has been panned by critics and fans alike. The most frequent criticism has been related to the match betweenThe UndertakerandGiant Gonzalez, Hulk Hogan's title win, and the Romantogasworn by announcers. Both the pay-per-view buyrate and the attendance for the event dropped from the previous year's WrestleMania. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\".WrestleMania IX was scheduled to be held on April 4, 1993, atCaesars Palacein theLas Vegassuburb ofParadise,Nevada. Early TV promos for WrestleMania IX ticket sales, airing in December 1992, focused on shots of Hulk Hogan and Bret Hart, with quick shots of Doink the Clown, Razor Ramon,",
"Clown, Razor Ramon, Crush, Shawn Michaels, Ric Flair, and Randy Savage also shown. Hogan had notably not appeared on WWF TV since April of that year. Flair would not be on the roster at the time of the event. This was the first WrestleMania held entirely outdoors, a concept the company did not use again untilWrestleMania XXIVin 2008.Because WrestleMania IX was held in Caesars Palace, the WWF promoted the event as the \"World's Largest Toga Party\".The arena was made to look like a Roman coliseum, and the event featured guards, trumpeters, and several live animals.The company built on this theme by having the commentators, including debuting announcerJim Ross, wear togas. Ring announcerHoward Finkelwas also renamed \"Finkus Maximus\" for the day.Randy Savagecame to the broadcast booth accompanied by women throwing flower petals and feeding him grapes while he rode on a couch carried by guards.Bobby Heenanmade his entrance wearing a toga and riding a camel backwards. Hulk Hogan's visibly damaged eye was explained",
"eye was explained in the storyline as the result of Ted DiBiase hiring a group of men to attack Hogan before the match. In reality, the cause of injury has been open to debate. One theory is that Randy Savage punched Hogan because he believed that his ex-wifeElizabeth Hulettehad an affair with Hogan while Savage and Hulette were married (the couple divorced in September 1992).WWF officials claimed that the injury was the result of ajet skiaccident. A match was scheduled betweenBam Bam BigelowandKamala, but it was canceled due to time constraints before the event began. Storylines One of the feuds heading into the event was betweenTatankaandIntercontinental ChampionShawn Michaels. Tatanka was in the midst of an undefeated streak and had wrestled Michaels twice in the months leading up to WrestleMania IX.TatankapinnedMichaels in a singles match on the February 13, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestlingand later teamed withThe Nasty Boysin asix-manmatch against Michaels and theBeverly Brothers; Tatanka",
"Brothers; Tatanka pinned Michaels to win this match as well.Michaels was also feuding withSensational Sherri, who stood in Tatanka's corner during the match. Sherri had been Michaels'valet. WhenMarty Jannettytried to hit Michaels with a mirror, however, Michaels pulled Sherri in front of him to protect himself.Sherri's anger at getting hit over the head with a mirror caused her toturnon him atRoyal Rumble 1993. The match betweenThe Steiner Brothers(Rick SteinerandScott Steiner) andThe Headshrinkers(SamuandFatu) had little background, althoughAfa, who managed The Headshrinkers, claimed that his team would \"tear heads off\".Doink the ClownandCrushhad been feuding since the January 2, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling. After Crush's match on that show, he confronted Doink, who had thrown a ball at a child in the audience. Crush grabbed Doink by the arm and warned him not to play any more pranks on children.Doink, wearing a cast on the arm that Crush had supposedly injured by grabbing, came to ringside",
"came to ringside during Crush's match on the January 18 episode ofWWF Monday Night Raw. He apologized to Crush and gave him a flower; when Crush walked away, Doink removed aprosthetic armfrom his cast and attacked Crush, who was later taken away in an ambulance due tokayfabe(storyline) injuries.For storyline purposes, Crush was said to be too injured to compete in the 1993 Royal Rumble match.Doink continued his pranks by squirting Crush with a water pistol and recordingvideo messagesto Crush, which showed two Doinks on the screen. The feud betweenThe Mega-Maniacs(Brutus BeefcakeandHulk Hogan) andWWF Tag Team ChampionsMoney Inc.(Ted DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schyster)stemmed from alegitimateparasailing accident in 1990 that forced Beefcake to undergo reconstructive surgery to his face.He was unable to wrestle again until the February 15, 1993, episode ofRaw. He faced DiBiase in his return match, after which DiBiase and Schyster attacked him. DiBiase held Beefcake for Schyster to hit him in the face with a briefcase,",
"with a briefcase, butJimmy Hart, whomanagedMoney Inc., repeatedly got in the way before Schyster shoved him out of the ring. Schyster then hit Beefcake in the face with the briefcase.Hart later claimed that he felt the need to \"step up and do the right thing\" and that he \"had a change of heart\", and his intervention led to him becoming ababyface, or crowd favorite.Shortly thereafter,Hulk Hoganmade his return to the WWF and joined with Beefcake, and manager Jimmy Hart, to formThe Mega-Maniacsand challenge Money Inc. for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Mr. Perfect's rivalry withBobby Heenandated back toSurvivor Series (1992). Perfect andRic Flairwere managed by Heenan, but Perfect turned on Flair and Heenan by agreeing to face them as part of a tag team match at Survivor Series.Flair feuded briefly with Perfect but left the company to return toWorld Championship Wrestling.Lex Lugerhad joinedVince McMahon'sWorld Bodybuilding Federation, but he signed with McMahon's WWF when the bodybuilding company failed.He",
"company failed.He made his debut at Royal Rumble 1993, where he was unveiled as Heenan's latest wrestler, Narcissus (although thering namewas changed to \"The Narcissist\" Lex Luger). The Undertaker's feud withGiant Gonzalezwas an offshoot of The Undertaker's feud with managerHarvey Wippleman. The Undertaker defeatedKamala, who was managed by Wippleman, atSummerSlam 1992.A rematch was held at Survivor Series 1992, and The Undertaker beat Kamala in acoffin match.Wippleman vowed revenge, and he introduced Gonzalez at Royal Rumble 1993 and instructed him to attack The Undertaker. The Undertaker was eliminated from the Royal Rumble match as a result of the interference, and a match was scheduled between The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez for WrestleMania IX. Beginning with his debut with the company in 1992,Yokozunawaspushedby the WWF as an unstoppable monster heel. Weighing over 500 pounds, he used theBanzai Drop, a move in which he jumped from the second rope and sat on his opponent's chest, to defeat several of",
"defeat several of the WWF's biggest stars.In a notable match on the February 6, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling, Yokozuna attacked \"Hacksaw\"Jim Dugganand performed the Banzai Drop four times. Due to the kayfabe injuries from the attack, Duggan was unable to wrestle for over two months.Yokozuna earned a title shot againstWWF ChampionBret Hartby winning the 1993 Royal Rumble match.During the contract signing, Yokozuna attacked Hart and performed the Banzai Drop on him. Event Before the televised broadcast began,Tito SantanadefeatedPapa Shangoin adark match,which became available for viewing on April 4, 2019 in the Hidden Gems section on WWE Network and is also notable as the WWE debut of Jim Ross on commentary. In the first match of the pay-per-view event, WWF Intercontinental Champion Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring by a new valet,Luna Vachon. Sensational Sherri followed Tatanka to the ring to prevent Vachon from getting involved in the match. During the match, Vachon approached Tatanka",
"approached Tatanka twice outside the ring, but Sherri was able to intervene and stop Vachon from interfering. Tatanka spent much of the match trying to injure Michaels with anarmbarhold. Michaels gained the advantage and almost pinned Tatanka with avictory roll, but Tatanka escaped the pin attempt and performed a war dance to channel his energy. Michaels threw Tatanka out of the ring and tried to jump at him to attack, but Tatanka moved. Michaels was unable to return to the ring within ten seconds; he pulled therefereeout of the ring. Tatanka was awarded the victory bycountoutbut did not win the championship because titles can only change hands as a result of pinfall orsubmission.Vachon attacked Sherri after the match by pulling her off the ring apron and delivery a devastatingclothesline, body slam and kicks to the ribs. Tatanka had to help Sherri make it back to the dressing rooms; however, she would be attacked again at the first aid station by Vachon, who choked her, hit her head against a wall, and",
"against a wall, and dropped a machine on top of her and then Vachon was arrested by security. In the next match, The Steiner Brothers (Rick Steiner and Scott Steiner) faced The Headshrinkers (Samu and Fatu). The advantage switched back and forth several times, as the Steiners threw The Headshrinkers with severalsuplexvariations and used their aerial abilities to attack their opponents from the ring ropes. The Headshrinkers relied mainly on using their power to wear down the Steiners. At one point, Fatu picked Rick Steiner upon his shoulders so that Samu could attack Rick from the top rope. Rick caught Samu instead and performed abodyslamon Samu from Fatu's shoulders. The match ended when Scott Steiner performed aFrankensteinerto pin Samu and win the match. Crush attacked Doink the Clown outside the ring prior to the next match. After getting Doink inside the ring, Crush used his strength advantage to overpower Doink. Doink gained the advantage but missed two attacks from the top rope. Crush used more power",
"used more power moves to wear down Doink, and Doink tried to crawl under the ring. Crush forced Doink back into the ring and performed theCranium Crunch, a head vice submission hold, on Doink. Doink pulled himself to the ropes and broke the hold. Doink hit the referee and knocked him unconscious; as a result of this stagedref bump, a second Doink the Clown (portrayed bySteve Keirn) was able to interfere. He hit Crush with a prosthetic arm, which enabled the first Doink to win by pinfall when the referee regained consciousness. Razor RamonfacedBob Backlundnext. Ramon used his power to dominate the majority of the match, but Backlund usedhip tossesto attempt a comeback. Ramon won the match in under four minutes by pinning Backlund with asmall package. In the following match, Money Inc. (Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster) defended their WWF Tag Team Championship againstThe Mega-Maniacs(Hulk Hogan and Brutus Beefcake). Beefcake wore a protective titanium facemask because of his injured face, and Hulk Hogan came",
"and Hulk Hogan came to the ring with a black eye, which led the announcers to speculate about the cause. Money Inc. gained the early advantage, but DiBiase soon injured himself by hitting Beefcake's mask. Hogan and Beefcake brawled with their enemies and controlled the match until Money Inc. was counted out. RefereeEarl Hebnerannounced, however, that he would strip them of their title if they did not return to the ring and continue the match. DiBiase returned to the ring and rendered Hogan unconscious with theMillion Dollar Dreamchokehold. Beefcake attacked DiBiase by applying asleeper holdand then turned his attention to Schyster, but DiBiase hit him in the back with Schyster's briefcase. Money Inc. attacked Beefcake and removed his facemask, but Beefcake fought back and applied a sleeper hold to Schyster. The referee was accidentally knocked unconscious, and Hogan recovered and attacked both members of Money Inc. with Beefcake's facemask. He tried to make the cover for a pinfall, but the referee was still",
"referee was still unconscious. Manager Jimmy Hart turned his jacket inside-out to reveal a striped referee jacket; he made thethree-countand declared The Mega-Maniacs the winners of the match. RefereeDanny Daviscame to the ring and disqualified Hogan for using the facemask as a weapon. Money Inc. won the match and retained their championship, but The Mega-Maniacs threw them out of the ring and opened Schyster's briefcase to reveal stacks of cash. They celebrated in the ring and threw the money into the crowd. Lex Luger was accompanied to the ring by four women dressed in bikinis as he prepared to face Mr. Perfect. The match began with technical wrestling, and Perfect tried to injure Luger's knee while Luger worked on Perfect's back. Perfect took control of the match with a powerslam and tried to pin Luger after performing adropkick from the top rope. Luger's foot was on the ropes, however, so the referee halted the three-count and continued the match. Luger gained momentum and pinned Perfect; Perfect's feet",
"Perfect's feet were on the rope, but the referee did not see them. Luger continued to attack Perfect after the match and hit him with his forearm, which contains a steel plate as the result of a legitimate motorcycle accident. When Perfect got up, he chased Luger but was attacked by Shawn Michaels backstage. In the next match, The Undertaker faced Giant Gonzalez. Both men tried to use their size and power to control the match. Gonzalez used areverse chinlockto wear The Undertaker down and attacked him outside the ring. The Undertaker regained control of the match and knocked Gonzalez onto his knees. Harvey Wippleman threw Gonzalez a rag soaked withchloroform, which Gonzalez used to knock The Undertaker unconscious. The referee disqualified Gonzalez for using a foreign object and awarded the match to The Undertaker.After the match, The Undertaker recovered and attacked Giant Gonzalez. In the main event and final scheduled match on the card, Bret Hart defended the WWF Championship against Yokozuna. Hart tried",
"Hart tried to use his technical wrestling abilities against Yokozuna, while Yokozuna relied on his size advantage in the match. Hart gained control at the beginning, but Yokozuna came back with aclothesline,leg drop, andnerve hold. Hart regained the advantage when Yokozuna missed arunning splash. Yokozuna applied another nerve hold but missed a running splash again. He recovered and carried Hart to the middle of the ring, but Hart removed the protective padding on theturnbucklein the corner of the ring. He threw Yokozuna's head into the turnbuckle and applied theSharpshooter, his signature submission hold that stretches the opponent's legs and back.Mr. Fuji, Yokozuna's manager, threw salt in Hart's eyes, which enabled Yokozuna to pin Hart and win the WWF Championship. In an impromptu main event and the final match on the card, Hulk Hogan came to ring to check on Hart's condition. Hogan had stated during an interview earlier in the broadcast that he wanted to face the winner of the match, and Fuji challenged",
"and Fuji challenged Hogan to face Yokozuna immediately in an impromptu bout. Hogan agreed and entered the ring. Fuji tried to throw salt in Hogan's eyes, but he missed and the salt hit Yokozuna. Hogan performed a leg drop and pinned Yokozuna to win the title in 22 seconds. Reception The event was attended by 16,891 fans, who paid a total of $1,100,000 in admission fees.This represents less than one-third of the number of fans atWrestleMania VIII, which had an attendance of 62,167.The pay-per-view drew a 2.3 buyrate, which was lower than the previous year's 2.8 buyrate. It was higher, however, than the buyrates for any of the following four WrestleManias. WrestleMania IX received overwhelmingly negative reviews. The event has received criticism for what some reviewers have perceived as a poorly booked event. Writing forSLAM! Wrestling, John Powell states that, aside from the Intercontinental and Tag Team Championship matches and the scantily-clad women that accompanied Lex Luger to the ring, the rest of the",
"the rest of the broadcast was poor. He is also critical of some of the outfits worn for the event, notably Jim Ross's toga and Giant Gonzalez's spray-painted suit.Reviewing the event for Online Onslaught, Adam Gutschmidt claims that several of the matches flowed poorly and had ill-conceived conclusions. He also claims that the match between Giant Gonzalez and The Undertaker was a \"dud\" and that Hulk Hogan's ego made the conclusion the \"worst WrestleMania ending ever\".RD Reynolds, owner of the websiteWrestleCrap, has inducted the event into the site's list of \"the very worst in pro wrestling\". He cites Giant Gonzalez, Papa Shango, Luger's \"narcissist\" gimmick, and Jim Ross wearing a toga as his reasons for including the event in the list. WWE places two events from WrestleMania IX in its top 50 WrestleMania moments: Bobby Heenan's entrance on the camel, which the company calls \"one of the most hilarious moments in WWE history\", and Hulk Hogan's title victory.Matt Anoa'i, who wrestled for WWE as Rosey, and was",
"as Rosey, and was the brother ofRoman Reigns, cousin of Yokozuna, Samu and Fatu, has identified The Headshrinkers performing a double splash on Scott Steiner at this event as his favorite moment at WrestleMania. WrestleMania IX was released onVHSbyColiseum Video. It was then released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Collection (1985–1997) box set in 1997.The video was re-released six years later in March 1999.That month, it was also released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Legacy box set.It was also released on DVD for WWE's History of WrestleMania I-IX box set on September 14, 2004. In theUnited Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 5, 1993.Packaged together withWrestleMania X, it was released on DVD for theWWE Tagged Classicsseries on May 8, 2006. Aftermath A feud began between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect after WrestleMania IX as a result of Michaels attacking Perfect. They faced each other atSummerSlam 1993, and Michaels won by countout after his new bodyguard,Dieselattacked",
"Perfect.Perfect then feuded with Diesel until leaving the WWF. Money Inc. lost the WWF Tag Team Championship to the Steiner Brothers on June 14, 1993.Money Inc. won the belts back in a rematch on June 16,but the Steiners won them again three days later.Money Inc. received several rematches but were unable to regain the title; they soon focused on singles competition, and DiBiase retired at the end of August. The Undertaker continued to feud with Harvey Wippleman. On the June 12, 1993, episode ofWWF Superstars of Wrestling, Wippleman, Giant Gonzalez, andMr. Hughesattacked The Undertaker, and his managerPaul Bearer, and stole the urn that was said to be the source of his power.The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez faced each other one final time at SummerSlam 1993 in aRest in Peace match, in which neither wrestler could be disqualified. The Undertaker won the match to end the feud. After the match, a frustrated Gonzalez choke slammed Wippleman to the delight of the fans andturned facein the process. Bret Hart",
"process. Bret Hart later claimed that during a conversation with Vince McMahon, he was told that Hulk Hogan refused to drop the WWF Championship to him.However, Hulk Hogan stated that, during a conversation with Vince McMahon, a deal was made for Hogan to drop the belt to the top heel at the time, Yokozuna, at the following King of The Ring.All three men eventually wound up in a meeting, where McMahon outlined the plan to have Hogan drop the belt to Yokozuna and denied telling Bret that Hogan refused to drop the championship to him. After regaining the title, Yokozuna challenged any American athlete to bodyslam him on the deck of theUSS Intrepidon July 4, 1993. After many challengers failed, Lex Luger arrived by helicopter and bodyslammed Yokozuna. Luger became a fan favorite and changed hisgimmickto an American patriot. He faced Yokozuna for the WWF Championship at SummerSlam 1993; he won the match by count-out but did not win the title.Lex Luger and Bret Hart each earned a title match against Yokozuna the",
"Yokozuna the following year at WrestleMania X. Luger was disqualified in his match, but Hart won the championship later that night. 32 years after WrestleMania IX, the event will once again be held in the city, with the41st editiontaking place at theAllegiant Stadiumon April 19 and 20, 2025. Results References External links",
"WrestleMania XI WrestleMania XIwas the 11th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 2, 1995, at theHartford Civic CenterinHartford, Connecticut. Seven matches were contested at the event. The main event featured formerNFLlinebackerLawrence TayloragainstBam Bam Bigelow, a match which came as the result of an argument that took place between the two at the1995 Royal Rumble. Taylor won the match, which led to Bigelow being kicked out ofTed DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation.Shawn MichaelsfacedWWF ChampionDieselin a title match but was unable to win the championship.Jeff Jarrettretained hisWWF Intercontinental ChampionshipagainstRazor Ramon.Owen Hartand his mystery partner,Yokozuna, challengedThe Smoking Gunnsfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipand won the title belts. The match between Taylor and Bigelow brought the WWF mainstream press coverage. The reactions to the match were mixed; some people thought that",
"people thought that Taylor performed surprisingly well for a non-wrestler. Others thought that the WWF pushing a football player to defeat a wrestler made professional wrestling look bad. Reviews of the event as a whole were mixed, with the event called both the worst WrestleMania of all time and the event that saved the WWF. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XI was scheduled to be held on April 2, 1995, at theHartford Civic CenterinHartford, Connecticut. Special OlympianKathy Huey sang a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\"",
"the Beautiful\" during the event, replacing the previously advertised band,Fishbone.Prior toLawrence Taylor's match againstBam Bam Bigelow,Salt-n-PepasangWhatta Man. Several other celebrities also had roles at WrestleMania.Nicholas Turturro, one of the stars ofNYPD Blue, conducted interviews and served as a guest ring announcer.Jonathan Taylor ThomasofHome Improvementwas a guest timekeeper for the match betweenDieselandShawn Michaels.WrestleMania XI marked the first time that the WWF featured an interview on theInternetas Diesel and Shawn Michaels were interviewed byBob Ryder. On September 30, 1995, a one-hour special including the Diesel vs. Shawn Michaels match and the Lawrence Taylor vs. Bam Bam Bigelow match was broadcast on theFOX Network.At the WrestleMania weekend, the WWF also held its Fan Fest, a promotional event during which wrestlers interacted with fans and signed autographs. Storylines The most heavily promoted feud going into the event was betweenBam Bam BigelowandLawrence Taylor. At the1995",
"Taylor. At the1995 Royal Rumble, Bigelow teamed withTatankain the final round of a tournament for theWWF Tag Team Championship. Bigelow waspinnedat the end of the match, which led to the crowd heckling him. He responded by pushingNFLplayer Lawrence Taylor, who was sitting at ringside. Bigelow refused to apologize and instead challenged Taylor to a wrestling match.Taylor agreed and trained withWWF ChampionDiesel to prepare for the match.The storyline between Bigelow and Taylor brought the WWF much mainstream exposure, as the match was discussed by several news outlets. The other main event at WrestleMania was a match for the WWF Championship between Diesel andShawn Michaels. Diesel had originally entered the WWF as Michaels's bodyguard but later began wrestling and forming atag teamwith Michaels. The pair held the WWF Tag Team Championship together in 1994. AtSurvivor Series 1994, however, Michaels accidentally kicked Diesel in the face. This led to an argument during which Diesel dissolved the tag team and",
"the tag team and vacated the championship.Three days later, Diesel defeatedBob Backlundto become the new WWF Champion.At the Royal Rumble, Michaels won the titular match, which earned him a match against Diesel for the title belt at WrestleMania. TheWWF Intercontinental Championshipwas also defended at WrestleMania.Jeff Jarrett, the champion, had been feuding withRazor Ramon, the challenger, for several months. At the Royal Rumble, Jarrett was accompanied byThe Roadie, who interfered on Jarrett's behalf and helped Jarrett win the championship.To even the sides in the rematch at WrestleMania, Ramon was accompanied by his friend, the1–2–3 Kid. In a match for the WWF Tag Team Championship,The Smoking Gunnsdefended their title. Their opponents wereOwen Hartand a mystery partner. Hart refused to tell anyone the name of his partner, which left the Gunns uncertain who they would be facing and led to much speculation about the identity of the mystery partner. Bret Hartfaced Bob Backlund in an\"I Quit\" matchat",
"an\"I Quit\" matchat WrestleMania. The feud began the previous summer, when Hart defended the WWF Championship against Backlund. Backlund mistakenly thought he won the match and began celebrating, but Hart pinned him to retain the title. After the match, Backlundturnedheelby attacking Hart.This led to a title match at Survivor Series 1994, in which Backlund won the title from Hart.Although Backlund soon lost the belt,the feud continued and Backlund attacked Hart during Hart's match at the Royal Rumble. Also at the Royal Rumble,The UndertakerfacedIrwin R. Schysteras part of The Undertaker's feud withTed DiBiase'sMillion Dollar Corporation. During the match,King Kong Bundy, another Corporation member, interfered and enabled the Corporation to steal The Undertaker's urn, which was said to be the source of his power. Event In the opening match,The Allied Powers(Davey Boy SmithandLex Luger) faced theBlu Brothers(Eli Blu and Jacob Blu). Smith started out on the offensive, but Jacob gained control with arunning",
"with arunning bulldogthrow. The Blus capitalized on the fact that they are identical twins by switching places without tagging while the referee was not looking. Luger came into the match near the end and performed arunning forearm smashon Eli. Jacob tried to throw Luger with apowerbomb, but Luger tagged in Smith, who performed asunset flipto pin Jacob and win the match. The second match pitted Razor Ramon, with the 1–2–3 Kid in his corner, against WWF Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett, who had The Roadie in his corner. Ramon took control at the beginning of the match by using power moves against Jarrett. Jarrett tried to leave the match, but the 1–2–3 Kid forced him back into the ring. Jarrett took advantage of one of Ramon's mistakes to gain the advantage. He applied asleeper holdon Ramon, who used his strength advantage to escape the move. After Ramon threw Jarrett, the Kid attempted to interfere but was kicked by Jarrett. Ramon jumped off the ropes to attack Jarrett, but Jarrett avoided the move and",
"the move and applied afigure four leglockon Ramon. Ramon reversed the move to place the pressure on Jarrett's legs. He then threw Jarrett to the mat with asuplex from the second ropeand prepared to execute theRazor's Edge, his finishing move. The Roadie entered the ring and attacked Ramon, prompting the referee to disqualify Jarrett; because titles cannot change hands on a disqualification, Jarrett retained his championship. In the next match, The Undertaker faced King Kong Bundy. Ted DiBiase was at ringside holding the urn that his wrestlers had stolen from The Undertaker.Larry Young, a legit American League umpire, was the special referee for the match. Young's storyline was as an out-of-work sports official because of therecently ended MLB Players Association strikeand a lockout of the Major League Umpires Association umpires (which led to the eventual dissolution of the MLUA in 2000; prior to the new union, umpires were split by league).The Undertaker took control at the beginning of the match byjumping",
"the match byjumping off the top rope and hitting Bundy. He then performed severalclotheslineattacks on Bundy. Bundy responded with a clothesline that knocked The Undertaker out of the ring. Seeing DiBiase close, The Undertaker took back his urn. After The Undertaker returned to the ring, DiBiase calledKama, another Corporation member, to the ring. Kama stole the urn, and Bundy attacked The Undertaker in order to let Kama escape backstage. Bundy picked The Undertaker up andpowerslammedhim to the mat. He then performed anAvalanche Splashto crush The Undertaker against the corner of the ring. The Undertaker was unharmed, however, and performed a powerslam and a clothesline on Bundy before pinning him to win the match. The Smoking Gunns defended their WWF Tag Team Championship in the next match against Owen Hart and his mystery partner, who was revealed to beYokozuna. The Gunns worked together to control the match at the beginning, but Yokozuna gained control by performing aleg dropon Billy Gunn. Hart attempted",
"Hart attempted to perform adropkick from the top ropebut accidentally hit Yokozuna. The Gunns briefly took control until Yokozuna performed abelly to belly suplexand landed on Billy. He then performed aBanzai Drop, jumping from the second rope and sitting on Billy's chest. Hart tagged in and considered performing theSharpshootersubmission hold; instead, he pinned Billy Gunn to win the title belts for his team. The next match, an \"I Quit\" match, took place between Bret Hart and Bob Backlund, withRoddy Piperas the guest referee. It was explained that, in order to win the match, a wrestler must force his opponent to say \"I quit\" into a microphone held by Piper. Hart attempted to perform the Sharpshooter early in the match; when Backlund blocked it, Hart executed afigure four leglockinstead. Backlund escaped the hold and began trying to injure Hart's arm with anarmbarhold. Hart then tried to attack Backlund in the corner of the ring, but Backlund moved and Hart hit his shoulder against the ring post. Backlund",
"ring post. Backlund tried to perform thecrossface chickenwing, his signature submission hold. Hart blocked him and performed the same hold on Backlund instead. Backlund made an unintelligible sound into the microphone, and Piper determined that he had submitted. As a result, the win was awarded to Bret Hart. In the next match, which was for the WWF Championship, challenger Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring byJenny McCarthyand Diesel, the champion, was escorted byPamela Anderson. Michaels relied on his quickness in the opening stages, while Diesel used his strength advantage against Michaels. Diesel threw Michaels out of the ring and onto the arena floor, but Michaels later performed a clothesline that knocked Diesel out of the ring. Michaels capitalized on his advantage by performing several aerial moves, including aflying crossbody,flying bulldogthrow, and adiving elbow drop. He was unable to pin Diesel, however, so he performed a sleeper hold to wear Diesel down. They brawled outside the ring,",
"outside the ring, after which Michaels performedSweet Chin Music, his finishing move, butSid, Michaels's bodyguard, had the referee distracted and unable to count the pinfall. Diesel recovered and controlled the remainder of the match with power moves before throwing Michaels to the mat with a botchedJackknifeand getting the pinfall victory. The final bout of the event was the main event match between Bam Bam Bigelow and Lawrence Taylor. Bigelow was accompanied by the members of DiBiase's Million Dollar Corporation: King Kong Bundy, Tatanka, Irwin R. Schyster, Kama, andNikolai Volkoff. To prevent the Corporation members from interfering, Taylor brought several football players:Ken Norton Jr.,Chris Spielman,Rickey Jackson,Carl Banks,Reggie White, andSteve McMichael. Taylor gained the advantage early and performed a clothesline that knocked Bigelow out of the ring. Once he returned to the ring, Bigelow took control of the match by kicking Taylor repeatedly and performing aBoston crabsubmission hold to hurt",
"hold to hurt Taylor's back. Taylor got out of the hold and threw Bigelow with asuplex. Bigelow recovered and performed several headbutts on Taylor before executing amoonsaultflip to knock Taylor down to the mat. Taylor began to take control of the match again, but Bigelow kicked him in the back of the head and then performed aheadbutt from the top rope. Bigelow was unable to pin Taylor, however. Taylor climbed to the second rope, jumped off, and used his forearm to hit Bigelow. He then covered Bigelow to win the match. Reception The event was attended by 15,000 fans, who paid a total of $750,000 in admission fees. This was down from the previous year's attendance of 18,065,but the decline could be attributed to the smaller size of the venue for WrestleMania XI.The attendance figure was also lower than the following year's figure of 18,852 fans atWrestleMania XII. The pay-per-view buyrate for WrestleMania XI was 1.3, which was lower than the 1.68 buyrate for WrestleMania X but higher than the 1.2 buyrate for",
"the 1.2 buyrate for WrestleMania XII. Writing for411mania, columnist Dustin James rated the event as the seventeenth best of the first twenty-three WrestleManias. He stated that the event did not have any truly amazing matches but that Lawrence Taylor put on a solid performance.John Powell ofSLAM! Wrestlingrated the event as the worst WrestleMania of all time. The specific concerns he mentioned in his review are Diesel's championship reign and WWF allowing a football player to defeat a wrestler in what he describes as a \"sham of a match\".In contrast,Pro Wrestling Illustratedcolumnist Dave Rosenbaum stated that WrestleMania \"saved\" the WWF in its feud with rivalWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW). He argued that Taylor \"looked like a pro\" and contributed to an \"incredible\" match. He also observed that the tag team matches helped rejuvenate an area of wrestling that had been suffering in the WWF and that the match between Michaels and Diesel was a candidate for match of the year.Bret Hart was critical about his",
"critical about his match against Bob Backlund, claiming it was \"probably my worst pay-per-view match I ever had\". Aftermath Shortly after WrestleMania, Diesel offered Shawn Michaels a rematch. Michaels blamed Sid for the loss and informed him that he would not be needed during the match. Sid got angry and attacked Michaels until Diesel saved him.Diesel and Michaels became allies once again, and they teamed up to win the WWF Tag Team Championship later that year.Diesel feuded with Sid and defeated him at theIn Your House 1andIn Your House 2pay-per-view events.The animosity lingered between Michaels and Sid, but they did not face each other to settle the feud until the September 11, 1995 episode ofMonday Night Raw. Bam Bam Bigelow was embarrassed after losing to Lawrence Taylor. To redeem himself, he challenged Diesel to a match for the WWF Championship. During the match, Tatanka turned on Bigelow and caused him to get pinned. Bigelow was kicked out of the Million Dollar Corporation and attacked by DiBiase's",
"by DiBiase's wrestlers. Diesel saved Bigelow from the attack, which led to a friendship being formed between the two.Bigelow defeated Tatanka in adark matchat In Your House 2.At King of the Ring 1995, Sid, DiBiase's latest addition to the Corporation, teamed with Tatanka in a loss to the team of Diesel and Bigelow. Razor Ramon and the 1–2–3 Kid was scheduled to face Jeff Jarrett and The Roadie at In Your House 1 the month after WrestleMania. The Kid sustained alegitinjury, however, and was unable to compete. As a result, Ramon wrestled a two-on-onehandicap matchagainst Jarrett and The Roadie instead.Ramon won the bout, but the feud continued. At In Your House 2, The Roadie faced the 1–2–3 Kid and defeated him.Ramon and Jarrett wrestled several times, and Ramon regained the Intercontinental Championship on May 19, 1995.He held the belt for three days beforedroppingit back to Jarrett. After WrestleMania, Kama melted down The Undertaker's urn and made it into a necklace.The Undertaker defeated Kama in a dark",
"Kama in a dark match at In Your House 1, and again in acasket matchat In Your House 2.He then won another casket match against Kama atSummerSlam 1995to end the feud. The Undertaker was not able to recapture the remnants of the urn until he ended his feud with King Mabel in another Casket match.TheUndertaker's streakof 21 consecutive WrestleMania victories was first acknowledged during his entrance for his encounter withKing Kong Bundyby play-by-play commentatorVince McMahon, who stated, \"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania\". The Smoking Gunns were given a rematch for the WWF Tag Team Championship at In Your House 1. Hart pinned Bart Gunn to retain the championship for his team.Hart and Yokozuna then moved on to face other competition, and the Gunns did not become serious contenders for the title again until late in 1995 when they defeated Hart and Yokozuna to regain the championship. Steve McMichael, who accompanied Lawrence Taylor, joinedWorld Championship",
"Championship Wrestling(WCW) later in 1995 as a color commentator then eventually as an in-ring performer, joining the famousFour Horsemanwhen he turned on and betrayed his tag team partner and former NFL starKevin GreeneatThe Great American Bash '96near the end of their tag team match againstRic FlairandArn Anderson. Going by the name \"Mongo\" McMichael, he eventually went on to win theWCW United States Heavyweight Championship. The WWF released the event onVHSin North America in 1995. The VHS version was then re-released on March 2, 1999.The event was also released onDVDin North America as part of the WrestleMania Complete Anthology boxed set on November 1, 2005.In the United Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 10, 1995.Packaged together withWrestleMania XII, it was then released on DVD in the United Kingdom as part of theWWE Tagged Classicsline on August 7, 2006. Results References External links",
"WrestleMania XII WrestleMania XIIwas the 12th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 31, 1996, at theArrowhead Pond of AnaheiminAnaheim, Californiain the United States. Eight matches were held at the event, including two on theFree for Allpre-show. In the main event,Bret Hartlost theWWF ChampionshiptoShawn Michaelsin the first televisedIron Man matchin company history, lasting over 60 minutes. In his return to the company after a four-year hiatus,The Ultimate WarriordefeatedHunter Hearst Helmsley.Roddy Piperhad his first match since 1994. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal",
"which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XII was scheduled to be held on March 31, 1996, at theArrowhead Pond of AnaheiminAnaheim, California. Storylines The main attraction of this WrestleMania was theWWF Championshipcontested in anIron Man match; whereby the winner would be the man to win mostfallsover sixty minutes. Michaels had earned the opportunity to face reigning championBret Hartby winning the1996 Royal Rumble, and had also defeatedOwen HartatIn Your House 6for the right to keep the WrestleMania title shot. Themain eventwas built on Bret Hart wanting to retain the WWF Championship against Shawn Michaels, who had suffered a number of setbacks over the course of the previous year, including failing to winDiesel'sWWF Championship the previous year atWrestleMania XIin April 1995, being accosted at aSyracuse, New Yorknightclub in October 1995 (and subsequently",
"(and subsequently forfeiting theWWF Intercontinental ChampionshiptoDean DouglasatIn Your House 4), and suffering astorylineconcussionat the hands of Owen Hart in November 1995. Hunter Hearst Helmsleymade his debut in the WWF in May 1995, with hiswrestling gimmickbeing in that he was a rich snob born with a silver spoon in his mouth. He went on an undefeated winning streak throughout the year until theRoyal Rumble.The Ultimate Warriormeanwhile had left the WWF in 1992 after failing a drug test. His last match was on the November 14, 1992 edition ofSaturday Night's Main Event XXXI, where he and\"Macho Man\" Randy SavagedefeatedTed DiBiaseandIrwin R. Schysterin a tag team match. WWF officials later signed on a match between Ultimate Warrior, who re-signed to the WWF in an attempt to increase ratings, and Helmsley for WrestleMania XII. Diesel began feuding withThe Undertakerafter interfering in a bout between The Undertaker and Bret Hart at the 1996 Royal Rumble. In an episode ofMonday Night Rawthat aired on March",
"aired on March 18, 1996, Diesel was battlingBarry Horowitzwhen he caught a glimpse ofPaul Bearerpushing acasketup the entrance ramp. Believing it to be The Undertaker's casket, Diesel armed himself with a wrench before opening the casket's lid and seeing his own \"corpse\" lying in repose inside (which was actually an illusion made possible by having live footage cut to a pre-recorded close-up footage of Diesel himself in the same casket, lying in a relaxed position with his eyes closed, filmed at some time before the episode, thus avoiding showing the mannequin in the casket up-close); seeing \"himself\" in the casket terrified him, as it foreshadowed The Undertaker's upcoming match against Diesel in WrestleMania XII. Event The opening bout, which aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was atag team matchfor the vacantWWF Tag Team Championshipbetween theBodydonnas(SkipandZip) andthe Godwinns(Henry O. GodwinnandPhineas I. Godwinn). This match was the final bout of a tournament held to determine the new champions",
"the new champions after the titles were vacated in February 1996. The match ended when Skip pinned Phineas I. Godwinn using aroll-up, making the Bodydonnas the new WWF Tag Team Champions. The second bout, which also aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was asingles match(billed as a \"geriatric match\") between \"The Huckster\" and \"Nacho Man\", two characters created to parodyHulk Hoganand\"Macho Man\" Randy Savage(former WWF performers who had joined its competitorWorld Championship Wrestling). The referee for the match was \"Billionaire Ted\", a parody ofTed Turner, the owner of World Championship Wrestling's parent companyTurner Broadcasting System. This bout marked the culmination of a series of skits the WWF had aired featuring the three characters. This match did not take place in the Arrowhead Pond, having been pre-recorded elsewhere. The match ended in a no contest when both competitors, along with Billionaire Ted, seemingly expired in the ring. The third bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view",
"on the pay-per-view broadcast proper, was asix-man tag team matchpittingThe British Bulldog,Owen Hart, andVader(Camp Cornette) againstAhmed Johnson,Jake Roberts, andYokozuna, with the stipulation that if Yokozuna's team won he would receive five minutes in the ring withJim Cornette, the manager of Camp Cornette. The match ended when Roberts attempted to give Cornette aDDT, only for Vader to knock Roberts down and pin him following aVader Bomb. The fourth bout was a \"Hollywood Backlot Brawl\" betweenGoldustandRoddy Piper. The match began in a parking lot, with the men brawling and using weapons. After Goldust fled in a goldenCadillac, Piper pursued him in a whiteFord Bronco. The fifth bout was a singles match betweenSavio VegaandStone Cold Steve Austin. Austin won the bout by technical knockout after hitting Vega with theMillion Dollar Championshipthen applying theMillion Dollar Dreamto Vega until he passed out. During and after the fifth bout, footage aired of what was purportedly Piper pursuing Goldust (the",
"Goldust (the actual footage aired was from theLos Angeles Police Department's pursuit ofO.J. Simpsonin 1994). The sixth bout was a singles match betweenHunter Hearst HelmsleyandThe Ultimate Warrior. Early in the match, Helmsley performed his finishing move,The Pedigree, on The Ultimate Warrior. However, The Ultimate Warriorno-soldthe move and went on to pin Helmsley following aflying shoulder tackle,gorilla press slam, andWarrior Splash. Following the sixth bout,Todd Pettengillinterviewed the debutingMarc Merobackstage. The interview was interrupted by Hunter Hearst Helmsley, resulting in a brawl between Helmsley and Mero. The seventh bout was a singles match betweenDieselandThe Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall following achokeslamandTombstone Piledriver, marking his fifth consecutive win at WrestleMania. Following the seventh bout, Goldust and Piper arrived at the Arrowhead Pond, with Piper crashing his car into Goldust's car. Piper then chased Goldust to the ring, where the match",
"where the match continued. The match ended when Piper tore off Goldust's bodysuit - revealing him to be wearing woman's lingerie - and gave him alow blow, after which Goldust fled from the ring, leaving Piper the winner. The main event sawWWF ChampionBret Hartdefend his title againstShawn Michaelsin anIron Man match, with the stipulation that whichever wrestler won the most falls in 60 minutes would win the match. Towards the end of the match, with neither men having won any falls, Hart applied hisSharpshooterhold to Michaels, but time expired without Michaels submitting. As Hart began to leave with his title, WWF PresidentGorilla Monsooninstructed refereeEarl Hebnerto continue the match under \"sudden death\" rules, with ring announcerHoward Finkelannouncing that \"there must be a winner!\" The match ended shortly thereafter when Michaels pinned Hart after giving himSweet Chin Musictwice, thus becoming the new WWF Champion. Reception WrestleMania XII received generally positive reviews from critics, who aimed",
"critics, who aimed praise, particularly at the main event. Rob McNew of 411mania called the opening match \"really good,\" and gave it 3 and 1/4 stars (out of 5 stars). However, he called the match between Helmsley and The Ultimate Warrior the worst of the night, going on to call it the \"funniest squash ever, considering that HHH is now arguably a bigger star than Warrior was.\" He gave the main event the highest score of the night, with 4 stars. However, he says the match \"isn't for everyone.\" Continuing, he says, \"It's about a three-star match for the first 40 minutes, the last 20+ are an easy five stars.\" He gave the entire event a score of 7 out of 10.In 2015, Ryan Dilbert of Bleacher Report called it the 16th greatest of the first 30 WrestleMania events. While the Iron Man match got positive reviews, PWInsider's Mike Johnson pointed that in the match both wrestlers \"were working in spite of each other, not together\". Results WWF Tag Team Championship tournament In February 1996,WWF Tag Team ChampionsThe",
"Team ChampionsThe Smoking Gunnswere forced to vacate the titles afterBilly Gunnsustained a neck injury. As a result, a tournament was staged in February and March 1996 to determine the new champions, with the matches airing on tape delaySuperstarsthroughout March. The tournament final was held at WrestleMania XII, withThe BodydonnasdefeatingThe Godwinnsto be crowned the new champions. Other on-screen personnel References External links",
"WrestleMania 13 WrestleMania 13was the 13th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). The event waspresentedbyPlayStationand held on March 23, 1997, at theRosemont Horizonin theChicagosuburb ofRosemont, Illinois. Eight matches were held at the event, including one on theFree for Allpre-show. Themain eventwas ano disqualification matchbetweenThe UndertakerandSycho Sidfor theWWF Championship, which Undertaker won following interference fromBret Hart. The main matches on theundercardwereBret HartversusStone Cold Steve Austinin aNo Disqualification Submission match,Legion of DoomandAhmed JohnsonversusNation of Dominationin aChicago Street Fight, and Rocky Maivia versus The Sultan for theWWF Intercontinental Championship. WrestleMania 13 was the second WrestleMania to take place in theChicago metropolitan area, followingWrestleMania 2. The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees, and drew a 0.77 buy",
"and drew a 0.77 buy rate. The event as a whole received mixed to negative reviews. However, the submission match between Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin was highly praised, being called one of the greatest matches in wrestling history, and has been cited as the beginning of theAttitude Era. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania 13 was scheduled to be held on March 23, 1997, at theRosemont Horizonin theChicagosuburb ofRosemont, Illinois. The event waspresentedbyPlayStation. Storylines The mainfeudheading into WrestleMania 13",
"WrestleMania 13 was betweenThe UndertakerandSycho Sid, with the two battling over theWWF Championship. AtIn Your House 13in February,Bret Hartlast eliminated The Undertaker in theFinal Four matchto win the vacant WWF Championship.Hart's reign, however, lasted only one day as he lost the title the next night onMonday Night Rawto Sycho Sid after interference byStone Cold Steve Austin, one of the other participants in the Final Four match (the other wasVader, who had no further involvement in the ongoing storyline).Due to being the runner-up to the title at Final Four, Undertaker was made the number one contender and wasbookedto challenge Sycho Sid for the title at WrestleMania. However, on the March 17 edition ofRaw Is War, Sid defended the title against Hart in asteel cage match, with the winner defending his title at WrestleMania. During the match, both Undertaker and Austin interfered. Undertaker came out to help Sid because he wanted to wrestle Sid for the title while Austin helped Hart because he wanted",
"because he wanted to make his scheduledsubmission matchwith Hart a title match. Sid won the match and retained his title and as a result, Sid vs. Undertaker remained themain eventof WrestleMania. The second main match on the card wasBret HartversusStone Cold Steve Austinin aSubmission match. Hart and Austin's rivalry began after Austin won the1996 King of the Ring tournamentand began taunting Hart, who was inactive at the time. Austin insulted Hart in his speeches so Hart would accept his challenge to a match. Hart returned in October and accepted Austin's challenge, with the two facing each other atSurvivor Series 1996where Hart defeated Austin.Their rivalry continued as Hart and Austin were the final two participants in the1997 Royal Rumble match. Hart had originally eliminated Austin from the match but Austin's elimination was considered unofficial because theofficialsdid not see it as they were busy attending to a brawl between eliminated wrestlersMankindandTerry Funk.They were participants in aFour",
"in aFour Corners Elimination matchfor the vacantWWF ChampionshipatFinal Four, which Hart won.The next night onMonday Night Raw, Austin cost Hart the WWF Championship against Sycho Sid when Hart had applied theSharpshooteron Sid, Austin nailed Hart with asteel chairfollowed by SidpowerbombingHart for the win.Hart and Austin were booked to wrestle in a submission match at WrestleMania, but Hart got a shot at the WWF Championship in asteel cage matchon the March 17 edition ofRaw Is War, with the winner defending the title againstThe Undertakerat WrestleMania 13. Hart almost had the match won, until Undertaker interfered and helped Sid in getting the victory. One of the mainundercardmatches was aChicago Street FightfeaturingAhmed JohnsonandLegion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) againstNation of Domination(Faarooq,CrushandSavio Vega). Johnson was attacked by a newcomerFaarooq Asad, aRomangladiator on the July 22, 1996 edition ofMonday Night Rawduring a match for theWWF Tag Team Championship.Ahmed was scheduled to defend",
"scheduled to defend hisIntercontinental Championshipagainst Faarooq atSummerSlam 1996butlegitimatekidney problems forced him to vacate the Intercontinental Championship. In thestoryline, it was explained that Faarooq had caused Ahmed's kidney problem.Ahmed returned from his injury in early 1997 and continued with Faarooq, who had formed TheNation of Dominationduring Ahmed's absence. Ahmed joined forces with the Legion of Doom and the trio were scheduled to wrestle the Nation of Domination in a Chicago Street Fight at WrestleMania 13. Event Before the event aired live onpay-per-view(PPV),Billy GunnfacedFlash FunkatFree for All.Gunn defeated Funk by pinning him following atornado DDT. The first match that aired on television was aFour-Way Tag Team Elimination Match. The match featuredThe Headbangers(MoshandThrasher),The Godwinns(Henry O. GodwinnandPhineas I. Godwinn),The New Blackjacks(Blackjack WindhamandBlackjack Bradshaw) and the team ofDoug Furnas and Phil LaFon. All the teams wrestled each other and",
"each other and sometimes in the match, teammates also fought against each other. Barry Windham and Phil LaFon brawled to the outside the ring. Bradshaw attacked the referee and gotdisqualified, which led to the first elimination of the match while Furnas was counted-out. Headbangers and Godwinns were the remaining teams and they battled for five minutes and 39 seconds before Thrasher hit Phineas with aCannonball Sentonand won the match via pinfall. As a result of winning the match, Headbangers earned a shot at theWWF Tag Team Championship. The second match was betweenRocky MaiviaandThe Sultanfor Maivia'sWWF Intercontinental Championship.The Honky Tonk Manprovided commentary for the match. Sultan had an early advantage in the match due to his size and power but Maivia used his quicker moves to push the big man outside the ring. Sultan overpowered Maivia withslamsandpunchesbut was unable to pin him. Maivia gained advantage on Sultan by nailing him with abelly to belly suplex,Maivia Hurricaneand aflying",
"aflying crossbodybeforepinningSultan with aroll-upto win the match and retain the title. After the match, Sultan and hismanagers,Bob BacklundandThe Iron Sheikattacked Maivia before his father,Rocky Johnson, came out to help his son. The third match was betweenHunter Hearst HelmsleyandGoldust. Goldust dominated the early portion of the match. Helmsley had brief flurries of offense but Goldust had still the advantage. Helmsley began usingsubmission maneuversto keep the advantages for himself. Goldust was going to hit his maneuver until Helmsley'sbodyguardChynamanhandled Goldust's wifeMarlenato distract him. Helmsley took advantage and hit Goldust with aPedigree, enabling him to pin Goldust for the win. The fourth match was atag teammatch for theWWF Tag Team Championship, asOwen Hart and The British Bulldogdefended the titles againstMankindandVader. The big Vader made easy work of Owen in the beginning of the match. Vader tagged in with Mankind while Owen tagged in with Bulldog. Bulldog and Mankind punched each",
"punched each other but Bulldog had more advantage. He applied asleeper holdon Mankind which caused both of them to fall to the outside. They continued to brawl outside. Therefereewas distracted due to the brawl. Vader took advantage and hit Bulldog withPaul Bearer's urn and dragged him into the ring. Vader and Mankind both took turns and continued to attack Bulldog. Owen tried to save his partner, but Vader used his strength while Mankind used his cheating tactics to overwhelm Owen. Mankind trapped Bulldog to the outside and applied the mandible claw on him. Both men werecounted outas the match resulted in a draw. As a result, Hart and Bulldog retained the championship. The fifth match was aNo Disqualification Submission matchbetween Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin.UFCfighterKen Shamrockwas thespecial guest refereefor this match. Austin attacked Hart, who was still in his entrance attire. The two first beat each other in the ring before the action spilled outside the ring. Hart tossed Austin into the",
"Austin into the steel ring post while Austin drove him onto the steel barrier. The two men began fighting in the crowd, where both men hit each other with severalforeign objects. They moved up the steps high into the crowd. Shamrock followed them and brought them back towards the ring where Austin attempted to use steel steps on Hart, but Hart stopped him with a kick to the midsection. As the action began in the ring, Hart focused on Austin's leg. He busted Austin open with an Irish whip into the steel barricade and Austin's head began to bleed profusely. Hart tried to use a steel chair on Austin's leg, but Austin choked Hart with a television cable. Hart hit Austin in the head with the ring bell. He applied aSharpshooteron Austin who did not submit and tried to resist but passed out from the pain and loss of blood. Shamrock awarded the match to Hart, but Hart continued to attack Austin which led to a double-turn as the fans turned on Hart and began cheering for Austin. Shamrock pulled Hart off of Austin and",
"off of Austin and executed a waistlock takedown and physically challenged him to a fight. Hart declined to fight Shamrock and left the ring to a chorus of boos.Austin, meanwhile, after regaining consciousness, hit aStunneron a referee when he tried to help Austin out, then slowly limped away to backstage, while the crowd chanted his name. The sixth match of the event was aChicago Street Fightbetween theLegion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) andAhmed JohnsonandNation of Domination(Faarooq,CrushandSavio Vega). All the two teams hit each other with many foreign objects. The match continued inside the ring and outside the ring in the same fashion. Finally, Animal hit Crush with a2x4and then pinned him to win the match. Main Event Themain eventwas aNo Disqualification MatchbetweenThe Undertakerand reigning championSycho Sidfor theWWF Championship.Shawn Michaelsprovided commentary for the match. The then-heel superstar,Bret Hart, came out during the match and insulted Undertaker, Michaels and particularly Sid because he",
"Sid because he claimed that Sid had screwed him out of the title. SidpowerbombedHart while Undertaker took advantage and began attacking the champion from behind. Undertaker went for anOld Schoolbut Sid took him in abearhug. Sid attacked Undertaker with various moves and attacked him with television monitors, and applied acamel clutchon Undertaker. Sid had the advantage in the match until Hart came back and attacked Sid with a steel chair. He recovered and got Undertaker in the powerbomb but Hart returned again and distracted Sid which allowed Undertaker to hit Sid with theTombstoneand pin him to win the match. Reception The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees and drew a 0.77 buy-rate. In 2011, Marc Elusive of 411mania gave the event an overall score of 7.0 out of 10.0 and noted that \"The Attitude Era began here...\" and that the main event was \"a very boring match\".John Canton ofThe John Reportgave the event an overall score of 4 out of 10 and said that the show was",
"that the show was \"poor\" and noted that the main event \"sucked for the first 15 minutes, but the ending was okay\". Despite the lackluster reviews towards the event, the submission match between Hart and Austin was highly praised. In 2007, it was placed #1 onIGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History, and described as a match that \"launched an era.\"Thomas Golianopoulos ofComplex Sportsalso ranked it at number 1 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, citing the match's six factors of storyline, innovation, psychology, finish, post-match angle, and fallout.Elusive of 411mania described the match as \"outstanding\" and \"that helped propel Steve Austin into the stratosphere and become the star of the late 90s and the early 00s\", while also noting the double-turn after the match. John Canton called the match a \"wrestling perfection\". It received afive-star ratingfromDave Meltzerand was also voted Match of the Year (1997) by readers of hisWrestling Observer Newsletterpublication.Pro",
"Wrestling Illustratedreaders named it Match of the Year (1997). The submission match would also be the last time a WrestleMania match would receive a five-star rating untilWrestleMania 39in 2023 whenKevin OwensandSami ZaynvsJimmyandJey Usoon Night 1 andGunthervsSheamusvsDrew McIntyreon Night 2 both received the five-star rating. Hart would call it his favourite match, labeling it \"a real masterpiece.\"Ken Shamrockwould call it \"one of the greatest matches in wrestling history\",andJim Rosscalled it the greatest match he'd called at WrestleMania and the most \"well-executed\" match he'd seen. Aftermath Stone Cold Steve AustinandBret Hartcontinued their rivalry after WrestleMania, but Austin was now ababyfaceand his popularity would start to increase considerably while Hart was aheel. Hart recruitedBritish Bulldog,Owen Hart,Brian Pillmanand formertag teampartnerJim Neidhartto reformThe Hart Foundation.AtIn Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Takerin April, Hart and Austin had a match which Austin won",
"which Austin won bydisqualification.Theirfeudcontinued untilIn Your House 16: Canadian Stampedein July, where theHart Foundation(working as faces in Canada) defeated the American team of Austin,Ken Shamrock,Legion of Doom(HawkandAnimal) andGoldust. The Undertakerreceived apushafter he won his second WWF Championship at WrestleMania 13.He spent a reign of133 dayswhich included battles withMankind,Steve Austin,FaarooqandVader.AtSummerSlam 1997, Undertaker's long reign finally ended when he lost the title toBret Hartwhenspecial guest refereeShawn Michaelsaccidentally struck Undertaker with a steel chair, which was intended for Hart. After losing the WWF Championship to The Undertaker at WrestleMania, Sycho Sid's push began to diminish and afterKing of the Ring, he began to disappear from WWF programming. In actuality, Sid quietly left WWF to focus on recovering from a neck injury. Sid eventually returned to rival promotionWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) in 1999 and continued to wrestle as Sid Vicious until he",
"Vicious until he suffered a near career-ending leg injury atWCW Sinon January 14, 2001. Results Other on-screen personnel References External links",
"WrestleMania XIV WrestleMania XIV(marketed asWrestleMania dX raided) was the 14th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF; WWE as of 2002). It took place on March 29, 1998, at theFleetCenterinBoston, Massachusetts. A total of eight matches were held at the event. This pay-per-view event was notable for the involvement of boxerMike Tyson, who acted as a ring enforcer for the main event. In the main event,Stone Cold Steve AustindefeatedShawn Michaelsto win theWWF Championshipfor the first time; Michaels performed despite a severe injury sustained during a match at theRoyal Rumbleand would not compete again untilSummerSlam in 2002. This was the first WrestleMania ofThe Attitude Eraand also the first WrestleMania event since1985not to featureBret Hart, who jumped to the rivalWorld Championship Wrestlingthe previous year. Production Background WrestleManiais theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having",
"event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XIV was scheduled to be held on March 29, 1998, at theFleetCenterinBoston, Massachusetts. In print advertisements, the event was billed as \"WrestleMania: dX raided\". Storylines After theLegion of Doomlost theirWWF Tag Team ChampionshiptoThe New Age Outlaws, they were then assaulted by the Outlaws andD-Generation X. At theRoyal Rumble, the LOD lost a championship match, thanks in large part toRoad DogghandcuffingHawkoutside of the ring.Following this, they suffered two defeats at the hands ofNWAmembersJeff JarrettandBarry Windham. Finally, on the February 23 episode ofRaw Is War, the LOD once again lost to The New",
"lost to The New Age Outlaws when, despite having the match all but won following aDoomsday Device, the non-legal Hawk did not leave the ring as Animal was making the cover; while the referee was busy removing Hawk, Animal was struck by the title belts, causing them to lose the match.Following the match, the two men brawled all the way to the back and announced their dissolution, not appearing again until WrestleMania. After theMontreal Screwjob,Owen Hartwas left as the only member of theHart familyto remain with the company; and after a temporary absence, Owen returned during the closing moments ofD-Generation X: In Your Houseto attackShawn Michaels.Following this, he turned his attention to Hunter Hearst Helmsley (who would later be known simply asTriple H) and theEuropean Championshipthat Michaels had given to Helmsley as a Christmas present. After weeks of deterring a championship match by way of a fractured kneecap (which was, in fact, legitimate), Triple H finally acquiesced to a match on the January 26",
"on the January 26 edition ofRaw Is War, only forThe Artist Formerly Known as Goldust(who was dressing up from week-to-week in a bid for attention) to appear in Helmsley's place. After Hart won the match, WWF CommissionerSgt. Slaughterdeclared the disguise to be so convincing that he upheld the decision and awarded the championship to Hart.On the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Owen defended the title againstMark Henry. During the match,Chynacame to the ring and pushed Hart off the turnbuckle allowing Henry to lock on abearhug, but before Owen could submit, Chyna delivered a blatantlow blowto Henry, resulting in a disqualification in favor of Hart. The following week in a match againstBarry Windham, Hart landed awkwardly on his ankle, suffering asprained anklewith ligament damage as a result. On a special Tuesday edition ofRaw Is Waron March 17, Hart joined the commentary team with a supportive cast on his leg. This would bring Triple H to ringside, where he goaded Owen into an impromptu title defense despite",
"defense despite his cast. During the match, Chyna appeared and struck Owen's ankle with a baseball bat, allowing Helmsley to capitalize and win the title back. Due to his jealousy over the attention hiswife and valet,Sable, was garnering from the crowd,Marc Merowould try to intentionally cover up Sable's provocative clothing and eventually send her to the back during his matches, replacing her withThe Artist Formerly Known as Goldust, who at the time was dressing up from week-to-week in his own bid of self-attention. Although the two initially worked well together, Goldust's valetLuna Vachongrew vocally disdainful of Sable, who was also being mocked by Mero and Goldust, causing Sable to eventually grow tired of the disrespect and fight back. As the two women brawled, their partners tried to separate them; but when Goldust grabbed Sable in order to restrain her, Mero's jealousy took over and he attacked him. The two men then had a match on Raw, where both women were handcuffed to the ring posts in an effort",
"posts in an effort to prevent their brawling. But after the referee was knocked down, Goldust stole the key and unchained Luna who attacked Sable withmake up, painting her face before also throwing water on her. Goldust then challenged Mero and Sable to a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania XIV. After successively beating members of theNation of Dominationweek after week,Ken Shamrockinitially defeated theIntercontinental ChampionRocky Maivia(later known as The Rock) at theRoyal Rumbledespite being hit with aforeign object, seemingly winning the title.However, The Rock convinced the referee that it was, in fact, he who suffered an illegal attack and the referee reversed his decision (Maivia had placed the foreign object in Shamrock's trunks after hitting him with it).The following month atNo Way Out of Texas: In Your House, Shamrock capitalized on the in-fighting of the Nation, due to leadership disputes betweenFaarooqand The Rock, by making the champion tap out in a ten-man tag team match. At the end of the",
"At the end of the inauguralHell in a Cellmatch atBadd Blood: In Your House, just asThe Undertakerlooked to win the match against Shawn Michaels, the lights went out and a huge masked man came to the ring and delivered atombstone piledriverto the shocked Undertaker.The masked man was revealed to beKane, Undertaker's (kayfabe) half-brother and, despite the animosity and the presence ofPaul Bearer, Undertaker vowed never to fight his little brother. Before Undertaker'scasket matchwith Michaels at the Royal Rumble, D-Generation X claimed Kane had joined them, but in fact, he came to the ring to assist Undertaker. The alliance was short-lived, however, as during theRoyal Rumble, Kane came to the ring and turned on his brother, allowing Michaels to win the match before locking Undertaker in the casket and setting it ablaze, presuming his brother dead.On the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Kane's scheduled opponent,Stone Cold Steve Austin, was taken out by D-Generation X before the match could begin. With nothing",
"begin. With nothing else to do, Bearer ordered the timekeeper to deliver aten-bell salutefor The Undertaker's passing, before then telling Kane to tombstone him. After he did, more bells were heard ringing, this time signaling Undertaker's arrival. The ringing continued much longer than normal, with Bearer vehemently denying the possibility of it being Undertaker. Eventually, asarcophagusappeared on the top of the ramp. After the sarcophagus was struck by a bolt of lightning, The Undertaker sat up before revealing that he had been to Hell and talked with his parents, telling them that he would have to go back on his vow before finally challenging Kane to a match at WrestleMania. The week before WrestleMania, Kane came to the ring and began to display similar supernatural powers as his brother, striking theTitanTronwith lightning, as well as the announce table, before finally striking a crew worker with lightning, setting him on fire; Undertaker was shown on the same episode speaking to his parents'",
"to his parents' gravestones, revealing it may have to take thedamnationof his soul to reunite the troubled family. In January, Stone Cold Steve Austin won theRoyal Rumble matchwhile Shawn Michaels retained hisWWF Championship, all whileMike Tysonlooked on from the director's box.The following night onRaw Is War,Vince McMahonwas set to reveal that Tyson would be thespecial guest refereefor WrestleMania's main event; however, Austin appeared and gave thefingerto Tyson, offering him a fight and proclaiming the wrestling ring to be his, not Tyson's. Austin and Tyson then engaged in a massive brawl that garnered headlines all around the world.At the ensuing press conference, McMahon officially announced that due to the explosive situation, Tyson's role was being changed to that ofring enforcer. On the February 2 episode ofRaw Is War, in a scheduled match against Road Dogg, D-Generation X stormed the match and tied Austin in the ropes, allowing Shawn Michaels to hurl insults at Austin and rub the championship belt",
"championship belt in his face, taunting him with it untilCactus JackandChainsaw Charliecame to his aid. The following week, Austin stole the championship belt from Michaels in the hope of baiting him into a singles match, but the partnership of D-Generation X and The New Age Outlaws continued, allowing Michaels to retrieve the belt back. This all led to a \"non-sanctioned\" eight-man tag match atNo Way Out of Texas: In Your House, which Michaels was unable to participate in due to a back injury; Austin won the match for his team by pinning Road Dogg.With WrestleMania drawing closer, on the March 2 episode ofRaw Is War, Mike Tyson appeared once again to be interviewed by Vince McMahon, only for DX to interrupt; Shawn Michaels then challenged Tyson to a fight. After both men's entourages left the ring, the two taunted each other for a bit until Michaels would rip off Tyson's shirt, revealing a DX T-shirt underneath, showing the enforcer's degenerate alliance; Later in the evening, as Austin came out to take",
"came out to take place in a match against Kane, Triple H appeared on the ramp and lured Austin to him. Austin fell for the trap, and promptly turned around into aSweet Chin Musicby Michaels which knocked him out, a trap which occurred again the following week. Also that week, during a St. Patrick's Day Tuesday broadcast ofRaw Is Waron March 17, Austin called out Vince McMahon and verbally berated him for describing Mike Tyson as \"the baddest man on the planet\", but McMahon would not be goaded into a fight, as he instead forced Austin to fight Rocky Maivia the following episode, just before WrestleMania. Event Chris Warrenand The DX Band opened the show by performing hard rock versions of \"America the Beautiful\" and \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". The audience did not react well to the performance, booing the band during and after their songs. This segment was edited off all subsequent home video releases, as well as the WWE Network and Peacock. Preliminary matches The night began with the mystery entrants in the",
"entrants in the tag team battle royal being revealed as the reunitedLegion of Doom, now known as LOD 2000, withSunnyas their new valet.Savio Vegawas first eliminated byChainzmeaning his tag team partner,Miguel Perez, had to leave too.Kurrganillegally entered the ring to enact revenge onSniperandReconby eliminating them on behalf ofThe Jackyl.Barry Windhamalso illegally entered to eliminate Chainz, and so left his partnerBradshaw. The final four teams lasted a while untilSkullwould be eliminated byHenry Godwinn, which meantThe Disciples of Apocalypsewere eliminated.8-Ballthen eliminatedPhineas Godwinn, which meantThe Godwinnswere then eliminated. Afterwards, The Godwinns attacked LOD 2000 with slop buckets before leaving.The Midnight Expresstried to keepAnimalout of the ring while double-teamingHawk, but once Animal re-entered the ring, LOD 2000 simultaneously eliminated bothBobandBart, leaving LOD 2000 the last team standing and the winners of the battle royal. The second match was aLight Heavyweight",
"aLight Heavyweight Championshipmatch, withTaka Michinokudefending his title againstÁguila; this would be the first and only time the championship was defended at WrestleMania, though its successor, theCruiserweight Championshipwould be defended at the event more than once. After throwing Taka out the ring andbaseball slidinginto him, Águila hit anasai moonsaultoutside the ring, but was soon the victim of aspringboard crossbodyafter Taka reversed asuplexfrom the apron. Águila almost won the match with a moonsault crossbody into a pin, but remained on the offensive with afrankensteiner. Taka tried to land theMichinoku Driver, but as Aguila flipped out and attempted a hurricanrana, Taka managed apowerbombreversal. Taka then stopped a high flying dive attempt by Aguila with a dropkick, before successfully executing a Michinoku Driver and picking up the win. After the match, both contestants shook each other's hand and celebrated together.Also, partway into the matchup,Jim Rossmade a fleeting comment about the",
"comment about the date of Taka's title win, December 7, the date of the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, calling it \"ironic enough\". This incident went largely unnoticed, only causing a slight stir in the wrestling community. Triple Hmade his way to the ring with his theme being played by the DX Band. BeforeOwen Hartcame to the ring, CommissionerSgt. Slaughterhandcuffed himself toChynaso that she would not interfere, despite her protestations. The match began with Hart pummeling Helmsley with fists before sliding out of the ring. Triple H tried to jump from the apron onto Hart, but made contact with the crowd barrier instead. After executing a powerbomb, Hart attempted to lock in thesharpshooter, but Helmsley reversed it and started some offensive maneuvers of his own, kicking Hart in the turnbuckle and delivering a suplex. Hart then suffered a cut to the bridge of his nose from a boot to the face, after which Triple H began to work on Hart's damaged ankle, dropping his knee onto it and stretching it. After",
"it. After avoiding another kick to the face and crouching Helmsley onto the ring post, Owen managed to take advantage, reversing a Pedigree attempt into the sharpshooter. Chyna, having to pull Slaughter, pulled Triple H to the rope for the break. As Slaughter was distracted, Chyna then threw white powder into Slaughter's face, causing the referee a worried Hart to check on him. While the referee was distracted and as Owen turned around to confront Triple H, Chyna low-blowed him from outside, allowing Triple H to successfully nail the Pedigree and retain the title. After she was freed from the handcuffs, Chyna nailed Slaughter with a forearm and shoved him over the barricade into the crowd. Next up was the mixed tag team match.Marc MeroandGoldustbegan the match, but Goldust soon tagged inLuna Vachon, requiringSableto be tagged in too, as per the rules. However, Vachon simply ran around the outside of the ring with Sable chasing her, before tagging Goldust back in. Wanting to get her hands on Vachon, Sable",
"on Vachon, Sable double-teamed Goldust with a boot to the face after an Irish whip from Mero, but could not get Vachon to enter the ring. A near-pinfall came from a running crossbody from Mero and following this, the two ran into each other, causing both men to crawl and tag in the women. Sable then took Luna down and punched her around the face before kicking her in the midsection and face in the turnbuckle and attacking Goldust, before running back to clothesline Vachon over the ropes. Vachon tagged Goldust in, but before Sable would do the same, she struck him in the face, then let Mero take over who had hisTKOreversed into aDDT. Mero would then reverse the Curtain Call, allowing him the chance to try a moonsault pin to a standing Goldust. After Vachon struck a running Mero with her knee, Mero went to punch her, but ducked out of the way as Goldust ran to her rescue, causing him to inadvertently knock her off the apron. Mero then executed the TKO, but Luna interrupted the pin count, jumping on Mero's back",
"on Mero's back resulting in Sable tagging in as Mero wandered around the ring with Vachon on his back. Sable tried pinning Goldust, but the referee was distracted and as he finally began to count, Sable leapt off Goldust so the interfering Vachon would inadvertently bodysplash Goldust. Sable then performed a powerbomb and Mero's TKO to win the bout. Gennifer Flowers, who was accompanied byJeff JarrettandTennessee Lee, then came to the ring as the special guest ring announcer for the upcomingIntercontinental Championshipmatch betweenKen ShamrockandRocky Maivia. The fight began in the aisleway with a brawl that saw Shamrock get whipped into the steel steps before both men entered the ring. Maivia then delivered his People's Elbow, but could not secure a three-count. Shamrock then rolled out of the ring and grabbed a steel chair; when the referee tried to take it off him, he threw the referee into the corner; Maivia quickly grabbed the chair and hit Shamrock with it as the referee recovered. Shamrock kicked out",
"Shamrock kicked out and quickly re-gained the advantage, delivering abelly-to-belly suplexoff an Irish whip and then securing his ankle lock submission in the center of the ring, making Maivia tap to win the match and the title. The surrounding members of the Nation quickly jumped into the ring, but Shamrock dispatched them all with suplexes, including the four hundred pound Mark Henry, before then reapplying the ankle lock to a bloody Maivia.Faarooqthen ran down from the back and jumped onto the apron, only to look on at Maivia with a smile, before walking away. A number of referees (the ones Shamrock attacked were actually independent wrestlers, or stuntmen put in referee uniforms) and officials would appear, trying to subdue Shamrock. After being surrounded, Shamrock suplexed a referee and then an official before calming down as Maivia was wheeled away on a gurney.Howard Finkelthen announced Shamrock had been disqualified for not breaking his ankle lock submission, meaning The Rock would retain the",
"would retain the Intercontinental championship. This would cause Shamrock to become enraged and chase Rocky, and dump him off of the gurney and fighting him on the Chris Warren band stage. TheWWF Tag Team Championshipmatch was a \"Dumpster match\", the objective being the first tag team to put their opponents into a dumpster with the lids being closed shut would be the winners. The match began withBilly GunnfacingChainsaw CharlieandRoad Doggexchanging blows withCactus Jack. Trying acannonballon Road Dogg from the apron, Cactus missed and slammed himself into the dumpster instead. The Outlaws then focused on Charlie, using a back drop to deposit him into the dumpster and, as he attempted to climb out, they simultaneously slammed the lid shut on the hardcore legends' heads. With Cactus and Charlie both in the dumpster, the Outlaws shut the lid down on them, but Cactus managed to get back up while the Outlaws were celebrating and pushed Road Dogg down to the ground with a mandible claw, pulling him into the",
"him into the dumpster. Both teams took time to recover and began to brawl with weapons in the ring, Cactus Jack pulling out a ladder and climbing it opposite Billy Gunn, only for both men to be pushed off straight into the dumpster outside the ring, thanks to a dazed Chainsaw Charlie. Road Dogg pulled his partner out and the two then focused their efforts on Charlie, powerbombing him into the dumpster, but Cactus had managed to escape in the meantime. The fight eventually found its way to the backstage area, with both Outlaws throwing Cactus into boxes and promotional displays, but Jack replied with a chair shot to both of them and planted Billy Gunn onto a wooden pallet with adouble-arm DDT. Charlie then reappeared on aforkliftand elevated the wooden pallet as Jack dragged Road Dogg onto it too. Charlie then drove the forklift above a backstage dumpster and dropped both opponents inside as Cactus Jack closed the lid to win the WWF Tag Team Championship. Main event matches BeforeThe Undertaker's match",
"Undertaker's match withKane, baseball record-holderPete Rosecame to the ring as the special ring announcer. However, after insulting the hometown team and introducing Kane, he received atombstone piledriver, starting atri-year tradition.The Undertaker was preceded by a league oftorch-bearingdruids to the tune of \"O Fortuna\". As the match began, The Undertaker cornered Kane and threw a flurry of punches into him, ducking and reversing Kane's attempts until Kane hit him with aclotheslinethat he instantly sat up from. Kane then set Undertaker up in atree of woeto begin his assault of punches and Irish whips, before suplexing Undertaker onto the ropes and delivering a flying club to the neck from the turnbuckle. As The Undertaker began to fight back, Kane threw him into the ropes, but Undertaker retaliated by jumping onto his back, which was met aface-first electric chair.Paul Bearerkept the referee distracted while Kane landed the steel steps onto Undertaker, and repeated the effort a second time while",
"a second time while Undertaker was lying on the steps, crushing him in-between them. As the referee tried to keep Kane in check, Bearer slapped Undertaker while walking past him. Kane caught his brother running and delivered achokeslam, but Undetaker lifted his shoulders off the mat before the three-count could be made. Kane put The Undertaker into a sleeper hold that he eventually fought out of with a flurry of punches. Undertaker then dropped Kane on top of the ropes and punched him off the apron; he followed this with anover the top rope suicide divethat Kane managed to sidestep, sending Undertaker crashing through the Spanish announce table. As Undertaker made it back into the ring, Kane hit him with aflying lariat. Undertaker then attempted to give Kane the Tombstone Piledriver, but Kane managed to shift his weight, reversing the positions and allowing Kane to deliver the tombstone to Undertaker instead. Undertaker kicked out and after landing a running clothesline, Undertaker choke slammed Kane and",
"slammed Kane and then delivered a tombstone piledriver of his own; but Kane kicked out. This would mark the first time anyone had ever kicked out of Undertaker's tombstone piledriver. It would take three tombstones with a guillotine leg drop and flying clothesline in between to stop Kane. But in the end, Undertaker scored the pin and was victorious. As soon as the match was over, Bearer attacked Undertaker and ordered Kane to attack him, which he did with a chair shot to the head and then a tombstone piledriver onto the chair. After Kane and Bearer left, Undertaker sat up and left the ring. WithMike Tysonenforcing from ringside, theWWF Championshipmatch began with both wrestlers taunting each other, engaging in a few light punches beforeShawn Michaelsescaped the ring and ran back in to take advantage ofStone Cold Steve Austin, but was met with a standing clothesline. Austin followed up by pulling down Michaels' tights, exposing Michaels' backside. Michaels then tried to run at Austin, but was back dropped",
"was back dropped over the top rope onto Triple H. As Triple H threw Austin into the crowd barrier, the referee ordered he and Chyna to leave ringside. As they were leaving Austin followed and fought with Triple H up to the entrance gate. Michaels caught up and hit Austin with a cymbal from the DX Band's stage, before Irish whipping Austin into the dumpster. As the match resumed in the ring, Austin met Michaels's high-risk maneuver with a clothesline and then ran him into the turnbuckle before picking him up for an inverted atomic drop. Michaels' attempt to pick up some momentum saw him picked up and dropped onto the ropes, but Michaels managed to push Austin away as he attempted a stunner. When Michaels tried to escape the ring though, Austin delivered a right hand, forcing the champion to fall upon the announce table. After Austin slowed the match down with a sleeper hold, Michaels tried to pull his knee into the ring post but was instead pulled into it himself. Austin then tried to rush at Michaels, but",
"at Michaels, but was back dropped into the crowd and struck with the ring bell. Michaels used the momentum to take advantage inside the ring, delivering a snapmare and then a low kick to the grounded Austin, while also taking time totaunt the audience. Austin briefly picked up some speed throwing Michaels out of the ring, but just as quickly lost ground as Michaels repeatedly worked on Austin's left knee, throwing it into the ring post before kicking and dropping onto it back inside the ring. When Austin tried to recover outside of the ring, he was met with a baseball slide that launched him over the announce table. Austin was then thrown back into the ring by Miks Tyson, where he soon suffered a figure-four leglock that Michaels illegally elevated using the second and third ring rope. Austin's eventual counter was stopped by a rope break. Austin then tried to reverse a standing sleeper hold by throwing Michaels back into the turnbuckle, but unwittingly trapped refereeMike Chiodawho fell unconscious. With",
"unconscious. With both men on the floor, Michaels recovered with a kip-up and landed a high-flying elbow drop, getting in position forSweet Chin Music. As Austin eventually stood up, he ducked the superkick, attempting a stunner on Michaels. Michaels responded by throwing Austin into the ropes before once again attempting Sweet Chin Music. However, Austin grabbed Michaels' foot, spun him around and nailed him with a Stone Cold Stunner. Mike Tyson jumped into the ring to make a quick three count and the new champion celebrated by tossing the enforcer an \"Austin 3:16\" t-shirt. When Shawn Michaels stood up, he confronted Tyson about his turn, but was met with a punch that instantly floored him, before Tyson then draped Michaels with Austin's t-shirt. Aftermath The result of the main event heralded a changing of the guard in the World Wrestling Federation. Shawn Michaels, who had been a major superstar in the company for many years, having won his first WWF Championship at WrestleManiatwo years previously, took",
"previously, took a four-year hiatus from wrestling due to a severe back injury sustained during the casket match against Undertaker at the Royal Rumble. During his retirement, Shawn made several ostensible one-off appearances as a guest commentator during episodes ofRaw Is Warin the summer of 1998, and eventually replacing Sgt. Slaughter as the WWF commissioner at the end of the year, holding onto the position for a year and a half. After what was supposed to be a one-time match four years later atSummerSlam, Michaels and the now renamed World Wrestling Entertainment realized that his injuries had healed, and he made a full-time return to wrestling, eventually retiring permanently in 2010 atWrestleMania XXVI, 12 years after this event. With Stone Cold Steve Austin as the new WWF Champion, the \"Attitude Era\" was fully ushered in. The company's iconic scratch logo had started to replace the \"New Generation\" logo and began to appear on ring aprons and promotional material during and after this event. The next",
"event. The next night onRaw Is Warafter WrestleMania, the old WWF \"winged eagle\" world championship belt was retired, and a new belt design with a larger eagle and blue globe debuted (eventually being retired in 2002). The Attitude Era saw Austin's feud with Vince McMahon escalate and two weeks later,Raw Is WardefeatedWorld Championship Wrestling'sMonday Nitroin theratings warfor the first time in eighty-four weeks. Shawn Michaels' loss was criticized by Triple H the following night onRaw Is War, with Triple H blaming Michaels for overlooking Tyson's potential double-cross. Helmsley delivered a promo saying that he would now lead D-Generation X and turn it into an army, saying \"the first thing you do is look to your blood. You look to your buddies. You look to your friends. You look...tothe Kliq\",before introducing a returningSean Waltman, now under the \"X-Pac\" persona, who had re-signed with the company after being fired from World Championship Wrestling (WCW). Later in the evening, it was revealed thatRoad",
"revealed thatRoad DoggandBilly Gunnwere also part of theDX Army. The ongoing saga between The Undertaker and Kane continued to escalate even further. The following night, Paul Bearer challenged Undertaker on behalf of Kane to a match atUnforgiven: In Your House, where the ring would be surrounded by fire. The first man to be set ablaze would lose, thus giving birth to theInferno Match. By winning the fifteen-team battle royal, LOD 2000 won the right to face the WWF Tag Team Champions at Unforgiven. The champions by rights were Cactus Jack and Chainsaw Charlie, but some legal wrangling from The New Age Outlaws saw the match held up on account of the wrong dumpster being used. The vacant titles were then decided in a steel cage match between the two teams the following night, which the Outlaws won after interference from the newly formed DX Army, concreting their ties, and by handcuffing Charlie to the cage by his neck. Charlie returned to his Terry Funk persona, whilst Cactus Jack became Dude Love again.",
"Dude Love again. Meanwhile, the New Age Outlaws became part of the DX Army, achieving further success. In a tag team match against Ken Shamrock and Steve Blackman, Rocky Maivia promised to show Faarooq that the Nation was stronger and more connected than ever before. The promise was a sour one as, during the match, Rocky left Faarooq to suffer the wrath of Shamrock and Blackman. Afterwards, Faarooq demanded that Rocky come back out so the two could fight. When Rocky returned and squared up to Faarooq, the other members of the Nation turned on him, and Maivia proclaimed himself as the new \"ruler\" of the faction. Before Marc Mero's match with Taka Michinoku the next night, Luna Vachon appeared and challenged Sable to a singles match, which Sable promptly accepted. Vachon also announced that it was not to be a traditional wrestling match, because she wanted to humiliate Sable, and so it would be an evening gown match to be held at Unforgiven. Results References External links",
"WrestleMania XV WrestleMania XVwas the 15th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 28, 1999, at theFirst Union CenterinPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania. Tenprofessional wrestling matcheswere scheduled on the event'scard. The ticket sales of 20,276 drew a gross of $1,437,050. The main event saw the challengerStone Cold Steve AustinfaceThe Rockin ano disqualification matchfor theWWF Championship. The penultimate match sawThe UndertakerwrestleBig Boss Manin aHell in a Cellmatch. Lower on the card, six of the promotion's seven activechampionshipswere defended, including the first WrestleMania defense of theHardcore Championship. Also on the undercard was aBrawl for Allmatch, an unscripted type of shootfight between wrestlerBart Gunnand boxer/mixed martial artistButterbean. This event also marked the final WWF appearance forGorilla Monsoon,who died in October that year. Production Background WrestleManiais theWorld",
"theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" pay-per-views, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania XV was scheduled on March 28, 1999, at theFirst Union CenterinPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania. Storylines WhenRoad Dogg Jesse Jamesand \"Bad Ass\"Billy Gunnlost theWWF Tag Team ChampionshiptoThe Corporation,they tried their hand at singles wrestling for some time. Gunn failed in his attempts to win theWWF Intercontinental Championship, but Road Dogg becomingHardcore Championuntil an injury prevented him from honoring a championship match withAl Snow. Snow ended up fighting himself and thenBob Hollyfor the vacant belt atSt. Valentine's Day",
"Valentine's Day Massacre: In Your House, with Holly winning the title at the banks of theMississippi River.When Road Dogg won the Intercontinental Championship onRaw Is WarGunn fought Holly (now Hardcore Holly) and won when Holly crashed into an ad-hoc announcers tableJim Rosshad constructed for his pirate broadcast of the show.Holly felt enraged that circumstances had conspired against him, while Snow still wanted another chance at the belt. In the previous year, due to the suddenly enlarged roster, ashootfighting(unscripted) knockout tournament titledBrawl for Allwas organized on a voluntary basis, with Bart Gunn winning the tournament on August 24after defeating every opponent by knockout aside from his opening-round opponent Bob Holly. When Holly rechristened himself Hardcore Holly on February 15, decrying poor gimmicks and tag-team partners he had been given in the past, Gunn made his first appearance since winning the tournament, to remind Holly that not all his partners were of a poor caliber.After a",
"caliber.After a hardcore match between the two, which Gunn dominated until a masked assailant, revealed to be\"Dr. Death\" Steve Williams, threw him off the stage. Williams did this out of revenge for losing to Gunn in the Brawl for All. The week after on Raw Is War, Williams' managerJim Rossannounced to Gunn he would be facing notedmixed martial artistandboxerEric \"Butterbean\" Esch, who held a 43–1–1 record at the time, who challenged him to a Brawl for All fight. From November'sSurvivor Seriesuntil the night after St. Valentine's Day Massacre,The Rockand Mankind (Mick Foley) traded theWWF Championshipnumerous times as Mr. McMahonscrewedMankind time and time again on his quest to headline WrestleMania. In their final match, aRaw Is Warladder match,Paul Wightdelivered theShowstopperto Mankind as he was about to win the match,removing his chances of appearing the main event. However, as Mr. McMahon's conspiracy of appointing Big Show as special guest referee to secure The Rock as champion began to fall apart,",
"to fall apart, Mankind constantly offered his services as a second official. With The Rock and Big Show causing infighting in the Corporation, Mankind successfully canvassed for a chance to referee; rather than have two conflicting referees, a match was booked to give the winner the right to officiate. When Ryan Shamrock (Alicia Webb) appeared front row onRaw Is Waron January 11, she gained attention not only from her brother but alsoVal Venis, who performed a flirtatious dance for her, and \"Badd Ass\" Billy Gunn, who lived up to his moniker by mooning her. Enraged,Ken Shamrockfought Gunn at theRoyal Rumble,then Venis at St. Valentine's Day Massacre, with Venis winning the Intercontinental Championship thanks to help from Ryan.Venis soon dumped Ryan,and she began a relationship with Goldust (Dustin Rhodes). Venis also unwittingly lost his championship to Road Dogg onRaw Is Warand found himself defending his championship against the important men in Ryan Shamrock's life in a four-corners elimination match.",
"elimination match. After The Rock won his\"I Quit\" matchagainst Mankind at the Royal Rumble by playing a recording of his voice,Triple Hdemanded an I Quit match of his own, but as he was about to put Rock through the announcers table, The Corporation came to the ring andKaneheld his manager/girlfriendChynahostage, demanding that he quit the match. As soon as the match was over, Chynalow blowedTriple H and revealed her alliances with The Corporation, promising aValentine's Daypresent at the subsequent pay-per-view. Despite almost having the match won, Triple H suffered at the hands of an interferingShane McMahonand illegal man Kane's chokeslam.Triple H took revenge on the February 22Raw Is Warby interfering in X-Pac's (Sean Waltman) match with Chyna, causing her to lose. Chyna called Triple H out on March 8, but before they could fight, Kane came to the ring. Chyna held up Triple H as Kane shot afireballat him, though he would duck out of the way causing (kayfabe) severe retinal damage to Chyna. Despite not",
"Chyna. Despite not receiving any damage, Triple H maintained that the fireball was meant for him, an insult he took personally and an intended injury he wanted to return at WrestleMania. On March 22, Kane prepared to have a match against Goldust, but as he threw off his entrance robes and wig, it turned out he was Triple H holding a flamethrower, shooting flames in Kane's face.Meanwhile, X-Pac, who had altercations with Shane McMahon prior to the February event, was frustrated with Shane's interference in the match and goaded into putting hisEuropean Championshipon the line in a tag-team match with Triple H against Kane and Shane, which Shane won thanks to Triple H being distracted by Chyna.With Shane claiming himself to be a fighting champion, he agreed to a rematch at WrestleMania, but regularly interfered in X-Pac's matches up until that point, culminating in a Greenwich Street Fight on March 22 that ended in a no-contest when theMean Street Posseambushed X-Pac and drove off with Shane in their car.",
"Shane in their car. Toriwas sitting front row as aplantas early as September 14'sRaw Is War, but it was not until late December that she began to act with stalker tendencies, sending flowers and notes to Sable, theWomen's Championand even helping her to defend her title againstLuna Vachonat the Royal Rumble.OnRaw Is Warthe night after the previous pay-per-view, Tori invaded the ring again and was publicly shouted at and humiliated by Sable. Vachon then brought Tori to the ring a fortnight after, reprimanding Sable for her ego, but a still-obsessed Tori helped attack Vachon. The following week on March 8'sRaw Is War, Tori fought Vachon with Sable in her corner but after receiving asquashfrom Vachon, Sable also gave Tori aSable Bomb, leading to Tori interrupting Sable'sPlayboyinterview by demanding a championship match at WrestleMania. Having beenburied alivein a Royal Rumble qualification match atRock Bottom: In Your House,The Undertakerdisappeared from television whileThe Acolytes, Faarooq (Ron Simmons) and",
"(Ron Simmons) and Bradshaw (John Layfield), began to act strangely, eventually abductingDennis Knightand leaving him tied up in a darkened room. On January 11, The Undertaker returned in slightly new attire, taking a seat in a ceremonial throne on theRaw Is Warstage whilePaul Bearerstood beside him and The Acolytes brought Knight out and tied him to a table. There, Undertaker performed a ritualistic ceremony, rechristening him Mideon.Undertaker began delivering ambiguous apocalyptic messages, but after recruiting Mabel, now Viscera (Nelson Frazier, Jr.) andThe Brood, he began to be more direct, revealing his plan to attack Mr. McMahon and take over the World Wrestling Federation. The security of Mr. McMahon's Corporation,Big Boss Man, challenged the Ministry to a six-man tag team match, which ended in a no-contest when the Ministry abducted Shane McMahon and took him to Undertaker, who threatened him while choking him then gave him a letter to give to his father. McMahon replied the following week on",
"following week on February 22 by booking The Undertaker in anInferno matchwith Kane onRaw Is War, the first network television airing of that type of match. During the match, McMahon provided commentary, nonchalantly revealing he had placed Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match against Big Boss Man for WrestleMania. During the match, Paul Bearer gave an ominous gift to McMahon, a teddy bear. After Undertaker set Kane on fire, he turned to the enraged McMahon, taking the teddy bear (later revealed to belong toStephanie McMahon) and setting it alight, reducing Vince to his knees.Trying to defeat either of his problems, McMahon declared he'd never show such weakness again and put Mankind against Undertaker, which ended with Undertaker almost chokeslamming McMahon through the announcers table until Boss Man saved him.Undertaker continued with his mind games on March 8, ordering his Ministry to look for Boss Man all night and attacking any innocents in his way, eventually capturing Boss Man and crucifying him.",
"and crucifying him. Boss Man managed to escape while police were being beaten off by Undertaker's minions until he offered himself to the police while being derided by McMahon. The following week he continued his assault, with videos playing throughout the evening of the Ministry at McMahon's mansion ending in McMahon coming to the ring while Triple H brawled with Kane, begging Kane to help him. Kane ripped off his mask to reveal it was actually The Undertaker who grabbed McMahon by the throat as the lights turned off in the arena and when they came up, he was gone with McMahon alone in the ring. The main event of the evening was another chapter in the ongoing rivalry betweenStone Cold Steve Austinand McMahon, which dated back to when Austin won the Royal Rumble in 1998.After Austin won the WWF Championship atWrestleMania XIV,McMahon set on a six-month-long quest to take the championship from him. With the exception of a one day reign by Kane, who won the championship in a First Blood Match atKing of the",
"Match atKing of the Ringwhen his (kayfabe) brother The Undertaker caused Austin to bleed first, Austin thwarted each attempt by McMahon untilBreakdown: In Your Housein September 1998. There, Austin defended the championship against Undertaker and Kane in what was billed as a triple threat match. McMahon added a stipulation, however, that neither brother could pin the other to win the match;this led to both men simultaneously pinning Austin, causing him to lose the match and the championship. This had been part of a deal McMahon had made with the two men to protect him from Austin, with the reward of the championship if they were successful. However, McMahon went back on his word after Austin attacked him on the next night’sRawand announced he was forcing Undertaker and Kane to wrestle for the vacant championship atJudgment Day: In Your House. He also named Austin the special guest referee, hoping to humiliate him by forcing him to declare a new champion. Austin, however, had other ideas and counted both men",
"counted both men out, declaring himself the winner of the match and leaving the championship vacant. ADeadly Gamestournament was scheduled forSurvivor Seriesin November, in which it turned out that The Rock, not Mankind, was McMahon's choice for winner and had the tournament manipulated to his advantage, while Austin lost in a match when McMahon's son Shane, acting as referee, refused to count a pinfall to go to the finals.Knowing Rock would be busy feuding with Mankind, McMahon realized Austin was likely to use the 1999 Royal Rumble, rather than a personal attack, to attempt to reclaim the belt and laid down the stipulation that he must win a Buried Alive match against The Undertaker to be in the Rumble. When he did, with some help from Kane,McMahon further tried to prevent Austin winning back the championship by \"randomly\" drawing him as the first entrant in the Rumble and drawing himself as the 30th. Having annoyed commissionerShawn Michaels, McMahon was placed into the match as the second entrant.",
"the second entrant. McMahon would later try to incentivize other wrestlers to eliminate Austin by putting a $100,000 bounty on him during the Royal Rumble match. Despite this, Austin (and, for that matter, McMahon) managed to stay in the match to the very end, although this was mostly due to he and McMahon leaving the ring at various points to brawl around the arena. Late in the match The Rock, who earlier in the evening had regained the WWF Championship, came to the ring and started arguing with Austin. McMahon took advantage of the distraction and threw Austin over the top rope, thus winning the match. Since he was officially now the winner of the Royal Rumble, McMahon was entitled to face whoever the WWF Champion was at WrestleMania. On the following night's episode ofRaw, however, he announced that, since he was only a part-timer and the champion was a fellow Corporation member in The Rock, that he had filed paperwork relinquishing his WrestleMania championship opportunity and that he would be naming a",
"would be naming a replacement later in the evening. To his chagrin, Austin and Michaels informed him shortly thereafter that, according to the rules, his actions resulted in Austin, as the runner-up in the Royal Rumble, taking his place. With McMahon irate, Austin revealed he was willing to put his place on the line and not headline WrestleMania if McMahon would give him the opportunity to fight him one on one with no interference from The Corporation; if McMahon could beat him, Austin would not go to WrestleMania. Their steel-cage match at St. Valentine's Day Massacre mostly consisted of McMahon running away, but eventually the two fought with Austin winning the match under unusual circumstances whenBig Showmade his debut, coming from under the ring and throwing Austin into the cage with the walls of it coming open, meaning that Austin had inadvertently won. Event (Brawl For All) Pre-show The event was marked with aRage Partythe preceding evening at thePennsylvania Convention Center, playing on the tagline",
"on the tagline of the event, much likeFan Axessthat would come in later years. It included music fromIsaac Hayes,Big Pun, and theCherry Poppin' Daddies. During theSunday Night Heatpre-show, Jacqueline (Jacqueline Moore) pinned Ivory (Lisa Moretti) after a back suplex.After the match,Terri Runnelsburned her cigar into Ivory's cheek. The secondHeatmatch saw a 21-man battle royal match with the last two competitors becoming a tag team for the evening to face the Tag Team Championship holders. In the event,D'Lo Brownand Test (Andrew Martin) were the last two, still fighting without realizing the match was over when Droz (Darren Drozdov) and The Godfather (Charles Wright) eliminated each other.The show officially began withBoyz II Mensinging \"America the Beautiful\" in the ring before the opening video. Preliminary matches The inaugural WrestleMania Hardcore Championship match began with Al Snow striking Billy Gunn as he tried to make apre-match speech. With Gunn in the corner, Snow fought with Hardcore Holly",
"with Hardcore Holly outside the ring, wrapping his neck in cable but, after some fighting from Gunn, Holly was able tosuplexSnow. After Gunn again interjected himself, Snow was able to go underneath the mat to find some weapons including aPhiladelphia Flyershockey stick much to the delight of the crowd. The match ended when Gunn put Snow through a table in the corner, originally intended for Gunn and then used theFameasseron Snow, driving him into a chair on the mat. As the referee counted, Holly struck Gunn with a weapon, quickly covering Snow to steal his second championship reign. TheWWF Tag Team Championshipmatch began withJeff Jarrettand D'Lo Brown exchanging running maneuvers before both tagging in their respective partners, at which point Test used apumphandle slamonOwen Hart, but tried again after a failed pin attempt only to be met with anenziguiriand then theSharpshooter. Brown came in illegally to break it up but was tagged in straight afterward, dominating both Hart and Jarrett with power slams",
"with power slams and dropkicks, almost winning the match after aSky Highthat was broken up by Jarrett. RefereeJimmy Korderaswas distracted when Debra (Debra Marshall) came to the apron to distract Brown only to be pulled down by Ivory (Lisa Moretti), at which pointPMS(Terri RunnelsandJacqueline Moore) arrived and all of them began to fight while Test tried to pull them apart. With everyone distracted, Hartmissile dropkickedBrown allowing Jarrett to roll Brown up and sit on him, securing a pin count. The Brawl For All match began with the two meetings in the middle, Gunn running into some blows from Butterbean. The two traded punches, neither man managing to contact properly until Butterbean shook Gunn with a left-hand jab followed by a right hook which stunned Gunn allowing Bean to corner him, giving him another right hook which knocked him down. Gunn immediately came back upon his knees but took advantage of the eight seconds before standing up fully. As the fight resumed, Butterbean jabbed Gunn to the body",
"Gunn to the body and followed with a clean overhand right which sent Gunn back to the canvas, giving Butterbean a victory via knockout.The match lasted a total of 34 seconds.This was followed with an appearance fromthe San Diego Chicken, who mocked special refereeVinny Pazienzaand was punched to the floor for it. On the WWF WrestleMania special onHSNlater during the pay per view, after the Shane McMahon match\"Dr. Death\" Steve Williamscut a promo on Bart Gunn in a backstage interview withJim Rossby his side, saying the Butterbean's punch \"wasn't lucky\" and that \"Bart deserved what he got\", telling the viewer to keep watching WWF because \"the Doctor hasn't finished his job yet\".This was in hopes of setting up an angle between Williams and Gunn, and to continue building Williams as a credible midcarder. However, because of Gunn being released, their feud instead carried over toAll Japan Pro Wrestlingin the early 2000s, where in Japan the Brawl For All was better received. When Mankind entered the ring he was",
"the ring he was immediatelyheadbuttedout, but as Big Show followed him out, Mankind slammed Show's head into the steel steps. He then tried adouble-armed DDTinto the steps but was shoved over the steps falling backward. Show dominated Mankind in the ring afterward, using his sheer size to punch and throw Mankind, with Mankind eventually being tied up in the ropes, which allowed him to back body drop Show out of the ring. Mankind then took out Mr. Socko, a smelly gym sock, and stuffed the foul-smelling sock into the Big Show’s mouth with themandible clawthree times. The third claw came with alow blow, for which Mankind was not disqualified. When Show stood back up, he had Mankind on his back with the sock in his mouth and jumped backward so that his entire body landed on Mankind, breaking up the hold. As the two recovered, Show kicked his opponent out of the ring, grabbing a steel chair and thrusting it into Mankind's chest then hitting it over his back. Big Show threw that chair and another in the ring,",
"in the ring, setting them both in seated positions andShow StoppingMankind through the middle of them. At this pointEarl Hebnerfinally decided to disqualify Big Show, with Show taking out his anger by attacking Mankind more with the chair. Mr. McMahon made his way to the ring afterward, berating Big Show for risking the WWF Championship match at which point Show grabbed him by the throat. He then thought better of it and released him, only to be met with another tirade from McMahon and a slap, causing Show to punch McMahon and knock him out. The four corners Intercontinental match began with Ken Shamrock and Road Dogg in the ring, with the latter being thrown from corner to corner until Goldust tagged his way in, with runningshoulder bargesthat floored Shamrock. Shamrock tagged in Venis who came in and instantly attacked Shamrock until Goldustbackdroppedhim. Goldust tried theCurtain Callbut Venis flipped over Goldust's back only to be knocked down again by aclotheslinefrom Goldust who then put Venis on the",
"put Venis on the turnbuckle and attempted asuperplexbut Venis fought back and replied with adiving bulldogfollowing with afisherman suplex pinwhich would only make a two count. The two then collided in the turnbuckle, causing Goldust to fall down and Venis to fall on him, headbutting his crotch. Shamrock took a blind tag from Road Dogg, after he replaced Goldust, immediately putting anankle lockuntil Venis grabbed the bottom rope. As Venis grabbed the ropes to stand up again Shamrock charged him but was tossed over the ropes as Ryan Shamrock insulted him. Venis went after Ken Shamrock and the two fought up the walkway with Shamrock running back to the ring but not fast enough to avoid a double count-out. Shamrock, not accepting the decisionbelly to belly suplex slammedboth competitors before leaving. When they recovered Goldust Irish whipped Road Dogg but had it reversed and as Goldust ran into the ropes he had his leg caught by Ryan Shamrock, seemingly trying to grab Road Dogg's leg. Road Dogg charged",
"Road Dogg charged Goldust and was picked up for apowerslambut managed to roll Goldust round, crashing him into the floor and covering him for a successful pin count. Before Kane's match with Triple H, Kane entered the ring only to be attacked while he was performing his signature entrance by the San Diego Chicken. Kane fought back and unmasked the chicken, revealing it to bePete Rose, trying to gain revenge for theprevious year's incidentbut receiving aTombstone piledriver.Triple H also tried to ambush Kane by coming through the crowd while all eyes were on the stage entrance, hitting Kane out of the ring and then hitting him into the ring post and whipping him into the steel steps. Kane then picked Triple H up and straddled him on the crowd barrier, pushing him into theMean Street Possewho were at ringside, picking him up again to ram his back into the steel post three times. Back inside the ring, Kane dominated Helmsley with his rough fighting style, using his foot to choke Triple H and knocking him down",
"knocking him down with clotheslines and punches until Triple H gained momentum from a reversal, smashing Kane's face into his knee. Kane was allowed time to recover when Triple H was distracted by Chyna coming to ringside. Triple H tried toPedigreeKane as he stood up but failed while Chyna pushed the steel steps into the ring. Kane picked them up and ran into Triple H, who used the turnbuckle to swing his feet up and kicked them back into Kane causing Kane to stagger backward and drop them before smashing his face into the steps from adrop toe-hold. Triple H then clotheslined Kane out of the ring, following himself and attempting to Pedigree Kane on the steps but wasbackbody dropped. When they made it back into the ring Kane chokeslammed Triple H while Chyna entered the ring with a steel chair, telling Kane she wanted to attack Triple H, but as Kane turned, Chyna hit him with the chair, causing him to corner her but again was hit with the chair, this time by Triple H, who followed it up with a Pedigree onto",
"a Pedigree onto the chair. Chyna and Triple H celebrated the reunion of D-Generation X afterwards. The Women's Championship match began with Tori taking her time to enter the ring, Sable grabbing her hair when she finally did and tossing her back out. Tori regrouped outside and pulled Sable out by her legs, ramming her face into the apron and the barricade. She was whipped into the barrier herself and as she recovered, Sable performed acrossbodyfrom the outside apron. Sable continuously assaulted Tori while down on the mat, but Tori delivered two vicious clotheslines to the corner on Sable, then attempted asunset flip pinwhich began a series of pinning reversals ending in a stalemate. Afterward Tori tried a running attack on Sable but took out referee Jimmy Korderas unwittingly. Sable then tried to perform herSable Bombbut Tori jumped out of it. As she tried to perform her own powerbomb, a muscled woman, later identified asNicole Bass, came into the ring togorilla press slamTori. This allowed Sable to Sable",
"Sable to Sable Bomb Tori and pin her to retain the championship. Before X-Pac could make his way to the ringPat PattersonandGerald Briscoattacked him from behind but caused the little problem to X-Pac who beat them then ran into the ring, with Shane McMahon fleeing. Shane eventually made his way to the ring and was punched into the corner, escaping aBronco Busterwhen Test pulled him out of the ring. Shane tried to escape once again but X-Pac chased him and threw him back into the ring, only to be struck down by Test and then have his crotch rammed into the ring post. When he returned to the ring Shanescoop slammedhim and attempted aCorporate Elbow, with X-Pac sitting up just before the end but he was brought back down with a low blow as refereeMike Chiodawas distracted by Test. Shane continued to push the disqualification boundaries by whipping X-Pac with his belt several times before being back body dropped out of the ring, recovering only to be met with a flying crossbody. The Mean Street Posse tried to",
"Posse tried to restrain X-Pac but he fought back, only to be floored by Test. After a superplex, the pin-count was broken up by Test but he was soon kicked out of the ring then X-Pac whipped McMahon with the belt before round house kicking him into the corner and performing the Bronco Buster. When Chioda checked on McMahon afterward, Test struck X-Pac with the championship belt but by the time McMahon covered him he managed to kick out. Test tried to interfere but took a Bronco Buster too. Triple H and Chyna came to the ring to pull Test out but when McMahon was floored by anX Factor, Chyna distracted the referee to allow Triple H to Pedigree X-Pac and cover him with Shane, turningheeland allowing him to retain the title. The New Age Outlaws ran to the ring and brawled with Triple H and Test until the lights went out and Kane's music began to play but by the time the lights came up The Corporation were clear of the ring and had fled. Main event matches The Hell in a Cell match began with Big Boss Man",
"with Big Boss Man punching The Undertaker into the corner until he ducked out and returned the same. Although Boss Man was able to deliver aswinging neckbreaker, Undertaker took control again throwing Boss Man into the cell. Boss Man reversed an Irish whip and threw Undertaker into the cell too, handcuffing one hand to the chain fence. Boss Man taunted Undertaker's lack of control before striking him repeatedly with hisnight stickcausing Undertaker to fall to the floor and rip the handcuffs, though Boss Man carried on using the nightstick andcut Undertaker open. Undertaker fought back by grabbing Boss Man at the throat and throwing him back into the fence again, striking him with a chair and running Boss Man face-first into the chain fence with afireman's carry. As the two returned to the ring Boss Man tried to clothesline Undertaker but he ducked and performed aleaping flying clotheslineof his own before goingOld School, ultimately falling into the ropes. The two began a fistfight in the middle of the ring",
"middle of the ring with Undertaker failing a tombstone piledriver attempt, but successfully performing it seconds later and pinned him afterwards.Undertaker stood up and looked to the heavens with his hands upwards, signalingThe Broodto descend onto the roof of the cell. They cut open the roof of the cell and passed through a noose, securing the other end to the top of the cell. The Brood then ascended back into the rafters as Undertaker put the noose around Boss Man's neck, with Paul Bearer causing the Cell to rise and take a hanging Boss Man with it.After the match a video package of theRage Partywas shown while Boss Man was taken down and carried off on a stretcher. Before the main event,Michael ColeannouncedJim Rossreturning to call the match. Mr. McMahon then came to the ring as the special guest referee but was confronted by CommissionerShawn Michaels, who explained that only the commissioner is entitled to appoint a referee for WrestleMania, ordering McMahon to the back and barring all members of The",
"all members of The Corporation from ringside. The main event began with the two wrestlers insulting each other before Austin threw the first punch, The Rock instantly returning. The majority of the early part of the match took place outside the ring, with Austin being choked with a T-shirt then taking Rock through the crowd before returning into the secure area and into the crowd the opposite end. When Rock threw Austin back into the secure area he choked him on some cable and took him up the walkway, but Austin fought out of his grasp and threw him into the steel barriers, trying to piledrive him but being backbody dropped so that his knee landed onto light support girders. Rock picked up Austin and threw him into the WrestleMania XV sign but Austin circled round and threw Rock into them instead, then dragged him back towards the ring having a suplex reversed on the concrete walkway. Rock then tried to throw Austin back through the crowd at ringside, spitting water in his face but Austin took control and",
"took control and put him onto the Spanish announce table, performing two elbow drops to break the table and then spat water into Rock's face. Austin threw his opponent into the ring, celebrating to the crowd but when he entered the ring Rock sprang up and drove Austin into the floor with aRock Bottom, following with an unsuccessful pin cover. The Rock grabbed a chair but Austin took it from him, Rock blocked the oncoming chair shot by pulling referee Mike Chioda in front of him, who took the chair shot. Rock then caught Austin by surprise with a swinging neckbreaker, taking the chair and driving it into Austin's back several times. After another pin attempt, withTim Whitenow officiating, Austin still kicked out and Rock used asitting chin holdto subdue him. After holding him for some time, Austin slowly stood up, elbowing Rock and attempting a running attack but was taken out with aSamoan drop, which Austin again kicked out of. The Rock took his frustration out on White, Rock Bottoming him,which gave Austin",
"gave Austin the time to recover and attack the champion with aStone Cold Stunner, withEarl Hebnereventually coming in to officiate but only counting to two before Rock kicked out. Mr. McMahon came to the ring, distracting Austin while The Rock low-blowed him; the two men kicking away at Austin in the corner and punching Hebner when he tried to stop them. As the two double-teamed Austin, Mankind came running to the ring in his referee's uniform,throwing McMahon straight out the ring and taking over as referee. Austin tried a roll-up pin, following up with aLou Thesz Pressbut Rock soon took the advantage with another Rock Bottom. With Austin in the middle of the ring, The Rock tried theCorporate Elbowbut Austin moved out of the way at the last second. Rock caught Austin's foot and spun him around, trying to Rock Bottom him again but Austin elbowed him away and delivered a stunner, finally securing a pinfall and winning the WWF Championship. Reception The event was met with mixed critical response.Canadian",
"response.Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event five out of 10 stars. The main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin for the WWF Championship was rated eight out of 10 stars; the Hell in a Cell match between The Undertaker and Big Boss Man was rated five out of 10 stars; the match between Shane McMahon and X-Pac for the WWF European Championship was rated seven out of 10 stars; the match between Sable and Tori for the WWF Women's Championship was rated one out of 10 stars; the match between Triple H and Kane was rated four out of 10 stars; the referee match between Mankind and Big Show was rated four out of 10; the four-corners elimination match for the WWF Intercontinental Championship between Road Dogg Jesse James, Ken Shamrock, Goldust, and Val Venis was rated five out of 10 stars; the tag team match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between D'Lo Brown and Test against Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett was rated three out of 10 stars; and the triple threat",
"the triple threat match for the WWF Hardcore Championship between Hardcore Holly, Billy Gunn, and Al Snow was rated six out of 10 stars. Writing for 411Mania in 2009, Rob McNew gave the event a rating of 5.5/10, stating, \"Like mostAttitude Erashows this one doesn’t hold up very well ten years later\" though he praised the main event bout between Rock and Austin.Similarly, Scott Keith gave the event an overall negative rating, while calling the Rock vs. Austin match \"solid by default\" and complimenting Shane McMahon's performance given his lack of wrestling experience.In 2012,Bleacher Reportranked the event 25th out of the 27 Wrestlemanias to that point, calling the event \"underwhelming\" and criticizing theHell in a Cellmatch. Aftermath Stone Cold Steve Austin's feud with The Corporation continued after WrestleMania with Austin demanding the return of his customized smoking skull belt that was taken from him after losing the WWF Championship atBreakdown: In Your Housein 1998. WithThe Ministry of",
"WithThe Ministry of Darknesscontinuing to threaten his family, Mr. McMahon was forced to comply with his nemesis' demands and requested his son Shane to deliver the belt to Austin. Shane, however, refused and took matters with Austin into his own hands by giving the smoking skull belt to The Rock. This culminated in a rematch between Austin and The Rock atBacklash 1999while McMahon served as a special guest referee. Austin defeated The Rock to retain the WWF Championship after Mr. McMahon prevented Shane from screwing him and handed the smoking skull belt back to Austin. The Ministry of Darkness continued their ongoing war with The Corporation with The Undertaker going after Mr. McMahon's daughterStephanie. The Undertaker continued to make sacrifices includingRyan Shamrockleading to a feud between Undertaker and Ken Shamrock who wanted revenge for Undertaker's actions to his family with Undertaker defeating Shamrock at Backlash: In Your House. When The Undertaker did successfully find Stephanie, Shamrock, in",
"Shamrock, in his quest to get revenge on Undertaker, continued to beat down and interrogate members of The Ministry of Darkness for McMahon's whereabouts. AfterChristiantold Shamrock McMahon's whereabouts, Undertaker punished Christian by whipping him and have him face Crucifixion.EdgeandGangrel, who along with Christian were members of their own stableThe Broodand were loyal to Christian decided to rescue him, betraying The Ministry. The Ministry got revenge by defeating The Brood in a Six-Man Tag Team Match at Backlash. Bart Gunn would leave the WWF after his match against Butterbean. On theDark Side of the Ringepisode on theBrawl for All, Gunn said he felt his match against Butterbean was \"punishment\" for winning the Brawl and knocking out Steve \"Dr. Death\" Williams during the event (Williams suffered other injuries during the match) which was not what the bookers wanted (they wanted Williams to win to give him a push against \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin). Gunn would not return to WWF TV until 2007. Nicole",
"until 2007. Nicole Bass continued to accompany Sable to the ring and destroyed all competition for Sable's WWF Women's Championship. After HHH washed his hands of D-Generation X and joined Chyna in the Corporation, X-Pac teamed up with Kane to form an unlikely tag team, and captured the WWF Tag Team titles from Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett. The City of Philadelphia would later host the event again in2024with this time being held at the nearbyLincoln Financial Fieldin commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the event held in the city and the 40th anniversary of the WrestleMania. Results References External links",
"WrestleMania X-Seven WrestleMania X-Seven(also known asWrestleMania 17) was the 17th annualWrestleManiaprofessional wrestlingpay-per-view(PPV)eventproduced by theWorld Wrestling Federation(WWF). It took place on April 1, 2001, at theReliant AstrodomeinHouston, Texas. It was the first WrestleMania held in thestateofTexas. Twelve matches were contested at the event, including one broadcast exclusively on theSunday Night Heatpre-show. Themain eventwas aNo Disqualification matchbetweenThe Rockand\"Stone Cold\" Steve Austinfor theWWF Championship. TheundercardincludedTriple HversusThe Undertaker, the secondTables, Ladders, and Chairs matchfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipand aStreet FightbetweenVince McMahonandShane McMahonwithMick Foleyas special guest referee. A record-breaking attendance for the Reliant Astrodome of 67,925 grossedUS$3.5 million.Many in professional wrestling considered WrestleMania X-Seven to be the pinnacle of the company's famousAttitude Era, similar to howWrestleMania IIIwas the pinnacle of the",
"the pinnacle of the 80's wrestling boom. The WWF bought out rival competitionWorld Championship Wrestling(WCW) the week prior. In addition to its commercial success, the event has received acclaim from critics and fans, and is often regarded as the greatest WrestleMania of all time, and the greatest professional wrestling pay-per-view event ever produced. Production Background WrestleManiais considered theWorld Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) first flagshippay-per-view(PPV) event, having first been held in1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April.It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includesRoyal Rumble,SummerSlam, andSurvivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\",and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along withKing of the Ring.WrestleMania 17, stylized as WrestleMania X-Seven, was scheduled to be held on April 1, 2001, at theReliant AstrodomeinHouston, Texas, the first",
"Texas, the first WrestleMania held in thestateofTexas. Storylines The main feud leading into WrestleMania X-Seven involved\"Stone Cold\" Steve AustinchallengingThe Rockfor theWWF Championship.The Rock and \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin had fought for the WWF Championship atWrestleMania XVandBacklashin 1999. Stone Cold Steve Austin earned his opportunity to compete for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania X-Seven by winning the2001 Royal Rumblematch when he last eliminatedKane, while The Rock became the first ever six-time WWF Champion when he defeatedKurt AngleatNo Way Out.During their feud, Austin's wifeDebra, who was trying to get back into managing, was ordered by WWF chairman,Vince McMahon, to be The Rock's manager against her wishes as well as both Rock and Austin's. As a result, Austin would hold The Rock and McMahon responsible if any harm came to her. On the March 12 episode ofRaw is War, The Rock was placed in an overlongAnkle Lockhold during his rematch with Kurt Angle. When Debra went to check on The",
"to check on The Rock, Angle also placed her into an Ankle Lock hold. Austin soon ran in to save her and knocked Angle out of the ring. Keeping to his word, he immediately gave The Rock aStone Cold Stunneras punishment. The following week on Raw is War, during a handicap tag team match involving The Rock,Chris Jericho,Kurt Angle,Chris Benoit, andWilliam Regal, Austin made his way down to the ring and ended up getting a Rock Bottom from The Rock in response to the stunner from the previous week. On the March 29 episode ofSmackDown!, Debra was relieved from her managerial role by Mr. McMahon after failing to prevent a brawl between Rock and Austin. The secondary feud leading into the event pittedThe Brothers of Destruction(The UndertakerandKane) againstTriple HandThe Big Show. After defeating \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin in aThree Stages of Hellmatch at No Way Out, Triple H felt that he deserved to be in the WrestleMania main event having defeated everyone in the WWF, including The Rock and Austin.The Undertaker",
"Undertaker took exception to that and told him that Triple H had never defeated him. Before WrestleMania X-Seven, the two had never faced each other in a one-on-one match on a pay-per-view event.During his entrance for aHardcore Championshipmatch against The Big Show, Triple H ambushed Undertaker. Kane ran in and saved the Undertaker from a further attack but was met with his own ambush by The Big Show. On the following episode ofSmackDown!, Undertaker tried to break into the limousine of Triple H and his wife,Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, on arrival but ended up being arrested by the police. As a result, Kane requested a match against Triple H later that night but lost when The Big Show interfered on behalf of Triple H. In retaliation, Kane interfered in The Big Show's Hardcore Championship match againstRavenonRaw is War, helping Raven pin Big Show to become the new Hardcore Champion. Undertaker's arrest led to a restraining order from Stephanie. To circumvent this, the Brothers of Destruction interfered in",
"interfered in Triple H's match againstTest, with Kane ordered to run after Stephanie. With Stephanie held at ransom by Kane on a balcony in the arena, WWF commissionerWilliam Regalgave Undertaker and Kane matches at WrestleMania against Triple H and The Big Show respectively and the Undertaker told Kane to put her down. After being attacked during a Hardcore Championship title defense, Regal would later include Raven into Kane and Big Show's match, making it a Triple Threat Hardcore match for the Hardcore Championship. Another major feud that was built up in the lead to WrestleMania was the one involving Vince McMahon and his sonShane McMahon. The feud started with Vince's disapproval ofMick Foley's job as then-WWF commissioner as well as Foley's decision of holding a six-manHell in a Cellmatch atArmageddon 2000, taking into consideration about the well-being of the wrestlers involved in the match. Despite his attempts Foley was given full support byLinda McMahon, Vince's wife and the WWF's CEO. Not pleased",
"CEO. Not pleased with this result, Vince immediately demanded a divorce from Linda. Shortly after Armageddon, secretly to Vince's delight, it was revealed Linda was rushed to hospital suffering with a nervous breakdown. With Linda hospitalized, the Board of Directors appointed Vince as the new CEO of the WWF, allowing him to fire Foley as commissioner. With Linda in acoma-like state, Vince started to have a public affair withTrish Stratus. Vince's daughter, Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, was at first far from pleased about the turn of events. AtNo Way Out, Stephanie and Trish squared off, with Stephanie scoring the victory after arun-inby William Regal. On the February 26 episode ofRaw is War, however, during a match that placed Vince and Trish against Stephanie and William Regal, Stratus was turned on by the other participants in the match and had sewage dumped over her. In the following shows, Vince continued to demean Trish by having her do such actions as bark like a dog around the ring and stripping down",
"and stripping down to her lingerie. Despite this, Trish remained loyal to Vince and begged for his forgiveness. On the March 12 episode ofRaw is War, Shane McMahon made his return to the WWF. Angry with his father's actions, Shane started to throw punches at Vince only to be stopped by William Regal. Shane explained his actions on the following episode ofSmackDown!as a result of frustrations over the manipulation of his sister, his mother's state and Vince's treatment of Trish. On March 23, World Wrestling Federation Entertainment, Inc. purchased the assets of their longtime rival promotion,World Championship Wrestling(WCW) fromAOL Time Warner.With it, the purchase brought in an extra twist to the storyline. On the March 26 episode ofRaw is War(which was held atGund ArenainCleveland, Ohio), Vince McMahon made a live speech that was alsosimulcaston the final episode ofWCW Monday Nitro(which was held inPanama City Beach, Florida). In the speech, Vince announced that the signing was not final and that he",
"final and that he wantedTed Turnerto come to WrestleMania to hand-deliver the contract for signing. He then promised that with the purchase he was going to bury his rival forever. However, Shane, who was at the venue forNitro, interrupted the speech and said: Because, dad, the deal is finalized... with WCW, and the name on the contract does say \"McMahon\". However, the contract reads \"Shane McMahon\". That's right! I now own WCW! And, dad, just likeWCW did in the past, how it kicked your ass in the pastand it will again, that's exactly what's going to happen to you this Sunday at WrestleMania! Oh my god! I don't believe it! I do not believe what we heard.Shane McMahon has bought WCW, and Mr. McMahon is in absolute shock! -Jim Ross,play-by-play commentatorfor theRaw is Warepisode before the event. To make matters worse for Vince, Mick Foley appeared shortly afterward that night and revealed that prior to his firing, Linda had made multiple contracts for him to sign, one of them was for Foley to referee a match",
"to referee a match of his choice at WrestleMania. Foley then chose the match between Vince and Shane, which was designated astreet fight. At theRoyal Rumble, Chyna (kayfabe) injured her neck during a match with Ivory, causing her to lose the match and fail to capture the Women's Championship. In order for Chyna to again challenge for the title, Ivory required the match contract to include a \"hold harmless\" clause, stating that if Ivory injures Chyna's neck again, there could be no legal recourse against Ivory. In doing so, the contract also included a provision to ban Ivory'sRight To Censor(RTC) stablemates from ringside. Event Before the event airedliveon pay-per-view, aSunday Night Heatmatch was aired withSteve BlackmanandGrand Master Sexaysquaring off againstX-FactormembersX-PacandJustin Credible. Near the end of the match, fellow X-Factor memberAlbertinterfered by pulling Sexay out of the ring, allowing X-Pac and Credible to hit theirX Marks the Spotfinisher on Blackman for the win. The first match of",
"The first match of the event was theWWF Intercontinental Championshipmatch betweenChris Jerichoand WWF commissionerWilliam Regal. During the match, Regal exposed one of the top turnbuckles to throw Jericho's shoulder into it before giving him adouble underhooksuperplex. Jericho attempted theWalls of Jerichosubmission hold but had it reversed into aRegal Stretch. After Jericho managed to grab a ring rope to break the hold, he retaliated with numerouschopsbefore throwing Regal into the exposed turnbuckle and finishing him off with aLionsaultto retain the Intercontinental Championship. TazzandThe APA(BradshawandFaarooq) took onRight to Censor(The Goodfather,Val Venis, andBull Buchanan) next in a short match that ended with Bradshaw pinning the Goodfather after aClothesline from Hell. The third match was thetriple threathardcore matchbetweenRaven,KaneandThe Big Showfor theWWF Hardcore Championship. Raven came out with a shopping cart full of weapons. Kane and Raven began fighting before Big Show made his",
"Big Show made his entrance. During the match, the three wrestlers fought their way out of the ring and through the crowd into the backstage area. Big Show tried to lock himself, Raven and the referee in a security cage but Kane broke the padlock and afterward threw Raven through a glass window. Big Show and Kane continued to brawl ending with the two throwing each other through a wall. Raven tried to escape by driving off in agolf cart, but Big Show stopped him and caused him to crash. The golf cart also ran over some cords that allegedly almost knocked the power out of the building. Kane shortly followed with another golf cart, accompanied by the referee, and ran into Raven. The fight headed back into the stadium with Big Show attempting to press slam Raven off the entrance stage but both were kicked off it by Kane. Kane followed this with a divingleg dropoff the stage onto Big Show, pinning him to become the new Hardcore Champion. The fourth match was theWWF European Championshipmatch betweenTestandEddie",
"betweenTestandEddie Guerrero. During the match, Test went over the top rope but got his foot caught between the top two ropes, forcing the referee and Guerrero to have to untangle him. With the help of his fellowRadicalzmembersDean MalenkoandPerry Saturn, Guerrero hit Test in the face with the European Championship belt while the referee was distracted and pinned him to become the new champion. The fifth match pittedKurt AngleagainstChris Benoit. The match started with mat wrestling between the two but Angle soon punched Benoit out of frustration and threw him out of the ring, so he could throw him into the broadcast table and the steel steps. Back in the ring, both men tried to submit their opponent using the other's signature hold with Benoit using theankle lockon Angle, and Angle using theCrippler Crossfaceon Benoit. Benoit eventually succeeded in forcing Angle to tap out to the Crippler Crossface but the referee was knocked down and didn't see it. Near the end of the match, Benoit tried to pin Angle",
"tried to pin Angle after adiving headbuttbut was met with a two-count. Angle then quicklyrolled-upBenoit, using the tights for leverage to win the match. The following match sawChynachallenge theWWF Women's ChampionIvory. After an early bit of offense from Ivory, Chyna performed aChynabomband looked to have the pinfall, but picked Ivory up after the 2-count. Chyna then performed agorilla press dropand nonchalantly pinned Ivory to win the Women's Championship. The seventh match was thestreet fightbetweenShane McMahonandVince McMahonwithMick Foleyas the special guest referee. Shane dominated his father during the earlier part of the match by attacking him with various weapons such as a kendo stick and monitors from the Spanish broadcast table. Shane laid Vince on said table and performed adiving elbow dropoff the top rope but his sister,Stephanie, pulled Vince out of the way, causing Shane to crash through it.Trish Stratuscame towards the ring, pushingLinda McMahonout in a wheelchair, and then slapped Vince,",
"then slapped Vince, causing her and Stephanie to get into a fight that led them out of the stadium. As referee Foley tried to wheel Linda out to safety, Vince hit him with a steel chair, and then pulled Linda into the ring to make her watch as he beat down Shane with a garbage can. However, Linda stood up and low-blowed Vince, allowing Foley to recover and attack him. With Vince prone in the corner, Shane placed a garbage can in front of Vince's face and hit aCoast-to-Coastdropkick, pinning his father to win the match. The eighth match, dubbed \"TLC II\",was theTables, Ladders, and Chairs matchfor theWWF Tag Team Championshipbetween theHardy Boyz,Edge and Christianand theDudley Boyz, the defending champions. Respective associates of each tag team,Spike Dudleyfor the Dudley Boyz,Rhynofor Edge and Christian, andLitafor the Hardy Boyz, interfered during the match. With Spike (who had just taken a chair shot to the head from Lita) and Rhyno (who had already been dispatched by Jeff Hardy) both laying on two tables",
"on two tables outside the ring,Jeff Hardyset up a huge ladder beside them and performed aSwanton Bombonto them through the tables with most of his body landing on Spike, taking him out of the match. Lita was taken out of the match whenBubba RayandD-Von Dudleyperformed a 3-D on her. Jeff tried to unhook the belts but had the ladder beneath him pulled away by Bubba Ray, leaving him hanging in the air, and allowingEdgeto jump off another ladder andspearJeff to the ground at a height of 12 feet. Bubba Ray andMatt Hardyclimbed the same ladder but Rhyno tipped the ladder over, sending Bubba Ray and Matt through four stacked tables at ringside and taking them out of the match. D-Von then set the ladder up again and attempted to grab the titles, but was held back by Edge. With Edge holding onto D-Von's legs,Christiansat on Rhyno's shoulders as he climbed up the ladder and unhooked the belts, making him and Edge the new Tag Team Champions. A total of 9 tables were destroyed in this match, and every performer involved",
"performer involved except D-Von and Lita went through at least one table. The ninth match was agimmick battle royal, involving nineteen WWF alumni famous for their outlandishgimmicks. To further increase the nostalgia, former announcers\"Mean Gene\" OkerlundandBobby \"The Brain\" Heenanhandled commentary for the match.The Iron Sheikwon the match by throwingHillbilly Jimout of the ring. In revenge for being eliminated,Sgt. Slaughterreentered the ring and put him in theCobra Clutch. The penultimate match was betweenThe UndertakerandTriple H. For his entrance, Triple H had Britishheavy metalbandMotörheadperform his theme song,\"The Game\", live. The match started with the two fighting outside of the ring with Triple H quickly being put through the replacement Spanish announcers' table. Later on, refereeMike Chiodaaccidentally had Triple Hcatapultedinto him and was then attacked by Undertaker due to his dissatisfaction over a two-count. With Chioda knocked out, the two brawled outside the ring, through the crowd, and",
"the crowd, and into the technical area. On top of scaffolding, Triple H used a steel chair to attack Undertaker's legs, but Undertaker retaliated with achokeslamoff the scaffolding, followed by a diving elbow drop. Back in the ring, Undertaker hit Triple H with aTombstone piledriverand went for the pin but Chioda was still unconscious. Later in the match, Triple H tried to pin Undertaker after hitting him in the head with asledgehammerwhile in theLast Rideposition but only gained a two-count. Triple H sent Undertaker into the corner and stood on the second rope to hit him with more punches, but Undertaker countered with a Last Ride, allowing him to pin Triple H and increase his WrestleMania winning streak to 9–0. The final contest of the night was theWWF Championshipmatch betweenThe RockandStone Cold Steve Austin, which had a surpriseno disqualificationstipulation added just before the superstars were introduced. During the match, the two brawled inside and outside of the ring, with both men bleeding after",
"men bleeding after hitting each other with the ring bell. The Rock attempted to place Austin in aSharpshooterhold, but Austin reversed it into a Sharpshooter of his own. After Rock reached the ropes to force a break, Austin applied theMillion Dollar Dream, a submission hold best known from his former gimmick, The Ringmaster. Shortly after, Rock used Austin's own finishing maneuver on Austin by executing aStunner. Vince McMahon then came to ringside to observe the match. When Rock tried to pin Austin after thePeople's Elbow, McMahon seized Rock's leg and pulled him off Austin, breaking the pin attempt. After chasing McMahon around the ring, Austin responded by using Rock's signature move, theRock Bottom. Later, Rock executed a Rock Bottom for a near fall. After Rock attacked McMahon, he was given a Stunner by Austin for a near fall. After Rock kicked out of the Stunner, McMahon handed Austin a steel chair to hit Rock with at Austin's request, revealing that Austin had sided with McMahon, a man he once",
"a man he once considered hisnemesis. With this, Austin turnedheel.Austin attacked him with the steel chair, hitting him sixteen times, before pinning him and becoming the new WWF Champion. The show ended with Austin and McMahon shaking hands and sharing beers. Reception and legacy The event was met with universal acclaim from fans and critics alike. John Powell ofCanadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section rated the event a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, with the main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin in a No Disqualification Match for the WWF Championship rated 10 out of 10 stars. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boyz, Edge and Christian, and The Dudley Boyz also received a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, the Street Fight between Vince and Shane McMahon rated 7 out of 10 stars, the match between Triple H and The Undertaker rated 6 out of 10 stars and the match between Kurt Angle and Chris Benoit rated 8 out of 10 stars. X-Seven",
"10 stars. X-Seven was also awardedBest Major Showfor 2001 byDave Meltzer's Wrestling Observer Newsletter. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boys, Edge and Christian and The Dudley Boyz was also placed #5 onIGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History and noted that the match included \"some of the most memorable bumps wrestling fans have ever witnessed.\"D-Von Dudleyexpressed his belief that the match should be inducted into theWWE Hall of Fame, stating: \"In my opinion, I think that we should — you know, then.W.ogot inducted into the Hall of Fame and those guys were already in it. How about a TLC induction? How about recognizing how special that match was? Because think about it, not only was the match special, but they actually nameda pay-per-viewafter it. So, you know, it has some relevance to it to be special, so why not put that match in the Hall of Fame?\"Matt Hardysaid it was his favorite career TLC match. In 2013, WWE released a list of",
"released a list of their \"15 best pay-per-views ever\", with WrestleMania X-Seven ranked at number one.In 2019, Troy L. Smith ofcleveland.comreleased a list of the \"50 greatest wrestling pay-per-views of all time\" from every professional wrestling promotion in the world, with WrestleMania X-Seven again ranked at number one. The promotional match preview video package for the main event, set toLimp Bizkit's \"My Way\", is widely considered one of the greatest wrestling video packages of all time. Aftermath The following night onRaw, Austin and The Rock faced each other in a rematch held in asteel cagewhich Triple H entered the cage and teased a fight with Austin before turning on The Rock. For several minutes Austin, Triple H, and Vince McMahon triple-teamed the outnumbered Rock forging an alliance with Triple H and Austin calledThe Two-Man Power Trip.The Rock was written out of the WWF's storylines with McMahon giving him asuspension. This allowed The Rock time off to begin filmingThe Scorpion King.The Rock",
"King.The Rock returned on the edition of July 30 ofRawand chose to fight for Team WWF overTeam WCW/ECW. Three weeks later atSummerSlam, The Rock won his firstWCW Championshipby defeatingBooker T. The Rock and Austin would face each other again atWrestleMania XIXin a rematch with The Rock winning. Following The Rock's suspension, Triple H's feud with the Brothers of Destruction continued with Austin now on his side. On the edition of April 5, 2001, ofSmackDown!, Triple H challengedIntercontinental ChampionChris Jericho for his title and after interference from CommissionerWilliam Regaland his wife Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley defeated Jericho to win his third Intercontinental Championship.The feud with Undertaker and Kane was temporarily put on hold after Triple H and Austin entered a brief rivalry with the Hardy Boyz, which resulted in Jeff Hardy beating Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship the following week and Triple H promptly regaining the title the next Monday onRaw. Meanwhile, the Brothers of",
"the Brothers of Destruction defeated Edge and Christian to become the newWWF Tag Team Championson the edition of April 19, 2001, ofSmackDown!in a no-disqualification match. Austin and Triple H decided to challenge Undertaker and Kane for their newly won titles, but due to some wrangling by Linda McMahon the match between the teams signed forBacklashforced the two to put up their singles titles against the tag team titles in a \"winner-take-all\" match. Triple H scored the pin after attacking Kane with his sledgehammer and the Power Trip became the second team in WWF history to hold both major singles titles and the tag team titles at the same time.The feud came to a climax atJudgment Daywhen Austin defeated Undertaker to retain the WWF Championship while Kane defeated Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship.The next night Austin and Triple H lost the tag team titles to Chris Jericho and Chris Benoit; during the course of the match Triple H tore his quadriceps tendon and would miss the remainder of the",
"remainder of the year, leaving Austin to feud with the tag team champions alone.The feud culminated in a Triple Threat Match atKing of the Ring, where Austin pinned Benoit to retain the WWF Championship. Ten years later in 2011, Undertaker and Triple H would once again renew their rivalry, went on to face each other in a rematch atWrestleMania XXVIIwith The Undertaker defeating HHH via submission, to set his WrestleMania winning streak to 19–0. A year later, they faced each other a third time atWrestleMania XXVIIIin a Hell in a Cell match withShawn Michaelsas the special guest referee. The Undertaker once again won the match to extend his WrestleMania winning streak to 20–0. Due to the acquisition of WCW, Vince's feud with Shane would later spiral intoThe Invasionstoryline that dominated the WWF in the latter half of the year. It consisted of WCW wrestlers \"invading\" the WWF's televised shows in an attempt to \"take over\" the WWF. TheExtreme Championship Wrestling(ECW) promotion would also be involved with",
"be involved with Stephanie as its new owner, merging WCW and ECW intoThe Alliance. Despite giving her own demands for a divorce shortly after WrestleMania, Linda would eventually reconcile with Vince in the wake of the Alliance's threat to the WWF. Shane McMahon's next feud would involveKurt Angleas he would crash Angle's Olympic Gold Medal Ceremony reenactment on the May 21 edition ofRaw. Angle was celebrating the return of his Gold Medal from Chris Benoit which he won back the previous night atJudgment Day. Shane mocked him while declaring the return of WCW, and he got an Angle slam for his efforts. Shane would return the favor on the June 11 edition ofRawwith an assist from The Undertaker. The two would eventually meet in astreetfightat King of the Ring, which was the third of three matches for Kurt Angle on the night. The other two matches were the Semifinals and Final of the King of the Ring tournament which Angle was the defending champion. He would lose to Edge thanks to interference from Shane.",
"from Shane. Following King of the Ring, Edge let success go to his head and this led to Christian becoming jealous of Edge's success. They would break up on the September 3, 2001, edition ofRawfollowing Christian's loss to The Rock in a WCW title match. After a brief feud for the WWF Intercontinental Championship, both would go on to become successful singles wrestlers in their own right with Edge being best known as the \"Rated R Superstar.\" This would be the only WrestleMania forPaul Heymanas a commentator. However he has served in a variety of roles for the WWE for the better part of the time since, including creative team member and manager of his longtime friend and clientBrock Lesnar. Results References External links"
] |
As of August 2, 2024, what is the title of the most viewed episode in the second most viewed season of the TV show that Zooey Deschanel stars in as a character named "Jess Day"? | The most viewed episode of the second season (second most viewed) is its first episode, "Re-Launch". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooey_Deschanel | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Girl#Episodes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Girl_episodes#Season_2_(2012%E2%80%9313) | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooey_Deschanel', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Girl#Episodes', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Girl_episodes#Season_2_(2012%E2%80%9313)'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooey_Deschanel",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Girl#Episodes",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Girl_episodes#Season_2_(2012%E2%80%9313"
] | [
"Zooey Deschanel Zooey Claire Deschanel(/ˈzoʊiˌdeɪʃəˈnɛl/ZO-ee day-shə-NEL; born January 17, 1980) is an American actress and musician. She made her film debut inMumford(1999) and had a supporting role inCameron Crowe's filmAlmost Famous(2000). Deschanel is known for herdeadpanroles in comedy films such asThe Good Girl(2002),The New Guy(2002),Elf(2003),The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy(2005),Failure to Launch(2006),Yes Man(2008),500 Days of Summer(2009), andOur Idiot Brother(2011).She has also ventured into dramatic film territory withManic(2001),All the Real Girls(2003),Winter Passing(2005),Bridge to Terabithia(2007),The Happening(2008), andThe Driftless Area(2015).From 2011 to 2018, she starred asJess Dayon theFoxsitcomNew Girl, for which she received nominations for aPrimetime Emmy Awardand threeGolden Globe Awards. For a few years starting in 2001, Deschanel performed in thejazzcabaretactIf All the Stars Were Pretty Babieswith actressSamantha Shelton.In 2006, Deschanel teamed up withM. Wardto formShe & Him, and subsequently released their debut album,Volume One, in 2008. They have since released six albums:Volume Two(2010),A Very She & Him Christmas(2011),Volume 3(2013),Classics(2014),Christmas Party(2016), andMelt Away: A Tribute to Brian Wilson(2022). She received aGrammy Awardnomination forBest Song Written for Visual Mediafor \"So Long\", which was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 filmWinnie the Pooh. Besides singing, she plays keyboards, percussion, banjo, and ukulele. Deschanel is also a co-founder of the female-focused websiteHelloGiggles, which was acquired byTime Inc.in 2015. Early life Zooey Claire Deschanel was born in Los Angeles, California on January 17, 1980,the younger daughter of cinematographer and directorCaleb Deschaneland actressMary Jo Deschanel(née Weir). Her paternal grandfather was French, fromOullins, Rhône, and her paternal grandmother came from aQuakerfamily; she also has Swiss, Dutch, English, Irish, and other French ancestry.She was named afterZooey Glass, the protagonist ofJ. D. Salinger's 1961 novellaFranny and Zooey.Her older sister is actressEmily Deschanel, who starred in the Fox crime comedy-drama seriesBones. Deschanel lived in Los Angeles, but spent much of her childhood traveling because her father shot films on location. She later said that she: ... hated all the traveling... I'm really happy now that I had the experience, but at the time I was just so miserable to have to leave my friends in Los Angeles and go to places where they didn't have any food I liked or things I was used to. She attendedCrossroads, a private preparatory school in Santa Monica, where she befriended future co-starsJake GyllenhaalandKate Hudson.She sang throughout high school, planning to pursue a career in musical theatre and attendingFrench Woods Festival of the Performing Arts.She attendedNorthwestern Universityfor nine months before dropping out to pursue acting. Acting career 1997–2002: Early acting credits Deschanel had a guest appearance on the television seriesVeronica's Closetin 1998. She made her film debut inLawrence Kasdan's comedyMumford(1999), revolving around the neurotic residents in a small town and co-starringHope Davis,Jason Lee,Alfre WoodardandMary McDonnell. That same year, she appeared in a non-singing role in the music video forThe Offspring's single \"She's Got Issues\", which premiered on September 27, 1999.Deschanel was a judge for the ninth Independent Music Awards.In 2005, she modeled forChanelandClements Ribeiro, and in 2010, she signed to representRimmel. Deschanel co-starred inCameron Crowe's semi-autobiographicalAlmost Famous(2000), where she played Anita Miller, the rebellious older sister of a teenage journalist. Despite a modest box office response, the film received critical praise,winning theGolden Globe Award for Best Film – Musical or Comedy. Deschanel appeared in the independent dramaManic(2001), as the love interest of a troubled teen (Joseph Gordon-Levitt). The film was screened at theSundance Film Festivaland received a limited theatrical release.The New York Timesfound Deschanel to be \"particularly spontaneous, unaffected and emotionally direct\" in her role. Following early notice, Deschanel took on supporting parts in four feature films released throughout 2002:Big Trouble,The New Guy,The Good Girl, andAbandon. In the comedyBig Trouble, withTim AllenandRene Russo, she played the daughter of a devoted and reluctant woman, and in the teen comedyThe New Guy, starred as a guitar player in a band. Deschanel portrayed a cynical, plain-spoken young woman working in abig-box storein the black dramedyThe Good Girl, oppositeJennifer AnistonandJake Gyllenhaal. The psychological thrillerAbandonsaw her play the roommate of a woman involved in her boyfriend's disappearance. Deschanel also made a one-episode appearance inFrasier, as Roz's out-of-control Cousin, Jen.The New York Timesreported that Deschanel was \"one of Hollywood's most sought-after young stars\",in 2002, and theLos Angeles Timeswrote in early 2003 that Deschanel had become a recognizabletype, due to \"her deadpan, sardonic and scene-stealing performances\" as the protagonist's best friend.Deschanel objected to her typecasting, arguing, \"A lot of these roles are just a formula idea of somebody's best friend, and it's like, I don't even have that many friends. In high school, I stayed home all the time, so I don't know how I'm everybody's best friend now.\" 2003–2010: Breakthrough Deschanel obtained her first leading film role debut in the independent dramaAll the Real Girls(2003) as Noel, a sexually curious 18-year-oldvirginwho has a life-changing romance with an aimless 22-year-old. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and was an arthouse success. Her performance received wide critical acclaim,andVarietyremarked: \"Performances are all credible and naturalistic, but standing out from the rest is Deschanel's work, which evinces an impressively direct connection to her character's emotions. The actress does a wonderful job presenting a young woman who is trying, with varying degrees of success, to give voice to all sorts of things she has never felt or expressed before\".She received anIndependent Spirit Awardnomination forBest Actress.Also in 2003, Deschanel starred oppositeWill Ferrellin the Christmas comedyElfas a deadpan department store worker and the love interest of a man raised by Santa's elves.Reviewers found the film to be a \"spirited, good-natured family comedy\" as part of an overall positive critical response;and, budgeted at US$33 million,Elfmade US$220.4 million worldwide. In 2004, Deschanel starred inEulogy, and in 2005 playedTrillianin the film adaptation ofDouglas Adams's science fiction novelThe Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. She acted inWinter Passing(2005), co-starring Will Ferrell. Deschanel next appeared inFailure to Launch(2006), as the neurotic roommate ofSarah Jessica Parker's character. She also had a recurring role in four episodes of theShowtimetelevision seriesWeedsfrom 2006 to 2007 where she played Kat,Andy Botwin's ex-girlfriend. In September 2006, it was announced that Deschanel had signed on to play 1960s singerJanis Joplinin the filmThe Gospel According to Janis, to be co-written and directed byPenelope Spheeris.The film was scheduled to begin shooting in 2006, but was then postponed indefinitely;it was then resurrected again, with a planned release date of 2012, before being cancelled altogether in 2011. Deschanel expressed frustration with the cancellation, saying she had spent three years working on imitating Joplin's scratchy singing voice. In 2007, Deschanel played a music teacher inBridge to Terabithia, and the voice of a penguin in the animated filmSurf's Up. She had a small role as Dorothy Evans in therevisionist WesternThe Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Fordand starred in theBcomedyFlakes, which was released in only one theater.Deschanel starred as DG in theSyfyminiseriesTin Man, a re-imagined science fiction version ofThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz. It aired in December 2007. Deschanel also narrated the children's bookPlayers in Pigtails.She voiced Mary,Cletus's daughter in three episodes ofThe Simpsonssince debuting on the April 27, 2008, episode, \"Apocalypse Cow\". InM. Night Shyamalan's thrillerThe Happening(2008), she starred oppositeMark Wahlbergas a couple trying to escape from an inexplicable natural disaster. Despite largely negative reviews, criticRoger Ebertfelt that Wahlberg and Deschanel's performances \"bring a quiet dignity to their characters\",and globally, the film made US$163 million.She starred in the independent comedyGigantic(2008), which screened at theToronto International Film Festivaland was distributed for a limited release in certain parts of the United States only. In the comedyYes Man(also 2008), she played an unorthodox singer and the girlfriend ofJim Carrey's character.The film grossed US$223.1 million around the world. Deschanel reunited with Joseph Gordon-Levitt in the independent romantic drama about the development and demise of a relationship(500) Days of Summer(2009).The film garnered critical acclaim and became a \"sleeper hit\", earning over $60 million in worldwide returns, far exceeding its $7.5 million budget.Mark Adams of theDaily Mirrorfound the film to be a \"modern romance for grown-ups\" and a \"sweet-natured, funny, deeply-romantic tale\" blessed with \"top-notch performances by Deschanel and Gordon-Levitt, who are both charming and have real chemistry\".In December 2009, Deschanel guest-starred in a Christmas episode of theFoxcrime procedural comedy-dramaBones, which was the first-ever on-screen pairing of the Deschanel sisters. Since 2010:New Girland other projects Deschanel was originally the top choice forJanet van Dyne / The Waspin an early draft ofJoss Whedon'sThe Avengersin which she would have played a prominent role. However, onceScarlett Johanssonwas cast asNatasha Romanoff / Black Widow, Deschanel was no longer in consideration to portray the Wasp with Janet's daughter Hope van Dyne taking up the mantle in theInfinity Saga, played byEvangeline Lilly.Deschanel starred in the comedyOur Idiot Brother(2011) as the independent and bisexual sister of a dimwitted but idealistic man (Paul Rudd). The production was screened at theSundance Film Festival, to a generally positive critical reception.She played Belladonna in the stoner fantasy-comedyYour Highness(2011), withDanny McBrideandJames Franco.The film received negative reviews andbombed at the box office.Describing her role, Roger Ebert noted in its review for the film: \" brought onstage, quickly kidnapped by an evil sorcerer, spends a good deal of time as a captive in his lair, is rescued and lives happily ever after. She might as well be a mannequin, for all she's given to say and do. This intelligent, nuanced actress, standing there baffled. Used as a placeholder\". Deschanel signed on to star as a bubbly and offbeat teacherJessica \"Jess\" Dayon theFoxsitcomNew Girl, created byElizabeth Meriwether. She became a producer on the show and helped build the character,which she has described as a part of her, especially in regards to \"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\" of her youth.The series premiered in September 2011, andUSA Todaydescribed her performance as \"a role tailored to launch her from respected indie actor to certified star, Deschanel soars, combining well-honed skills with a natural charm\".She has received anEmmy Awardnomination and three Golden Globe nominations for her role.The series finale ran on May 15, 2018. Deschanel hostedSaturday Night Liveon February 11, 2012.That same year, she was featured in a commercial for theiPhone 4S(Siri). InRock the Kasbah(2015), she played a Los Angeles singer taken toAfghanistanby her former manager (Bill Murray). Despite a US$15 million budget, the comedy only made US$3 million at the North American box office.She obtained the role of a mysterious woman in the neo-noir dramaThe Driftless Area(2015), screened at theTribeca Film Festivaland released on video on demand and home media.She voiced a kind-hearted Bergen, Bridget, in the animated family comedyTrolls(2016), which grossed US$344 million worldwide. In December 2020, Deschanel appeared in the music video forKaty Perry's song \"Not the End of the World\".In 2021, she co-hosted the ABC television seriesThe Celebrity Dating GamewithMichael Bolton. In January 2022, she began cohostingWelcome to Our Show, aNew Girlrewatch podcast with co-starsHannah SimoneandLamorne Morris, distributed byIHeartRadio.Deschanel appears as Kelly in season 3 ofPhysicalreleased on August 2, 2023and Nancy inDreamin' Wild, released on August 4, 2023. She would also appear as Terry inHarold and the Purple Crayon, which was released on August 2, 2024. Music career Singing and performing In 2001, Deschanel formedIf All the Stars Were Pretty Babies, ajazzcabaretact with fellow actressSamantha Shelton.The pair performed around Los Angeles. In March 2007, Deschanel contributed vocals to two songs \"Slowly\" and \"Ask Her to Dance\" on the albumNighttimingbyJason Schwartzman's bandCoconut Records. It was reported that Deschanel andM. Ward, who had previously performed with Deschanel on-stage, were recording music under the moniker She & Him.Their first album, titledVolume One, was released byMerge Recordson March 18, 2008.It received a strong response from critics, withPastemagazine voting it the No. 1 Album of 2008. Patrick Caldwell of theAustin American Statesmanwrote: \"The album gently rambled through 13 tracks of sun-dappled pop, with a gentle Orbisonian charm and sweet, wistful vocals from Deschanel.\" Deschanel recorded \"The Fabric of My Life\" for a 2009 advertising campaign forCotton Incorporated.On March 23, 2010, the second She & Him album,Volume Two, was released.Deschanel and M. Ward both featured onThe Place We Ran From(2010), the album bySnow PatrolmemberGary Lightbody's side project,Tired Pony. Deschanel contributed vocals to the tracks \"Get on the Road\" and \"Point Me at Lost Islands\", while M. Ward contributed vocals and guitar to the track \"Held in the Arms of Your Words\" and guitar to the track \"That Silver Necklace\". Deschanel performed \"God Bless America\" during theseventh-inning stretchin game three of theNational League Championship Seriesbetween thePhiladelphia PhilliesandSan Francisco Giantson October 19, 2010, atAT&T Parkin San Francisco.On October 23, 2011, Deschanel performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" before game four of theWorld Seriesbetween theTexas Rangersand theSt. Louis CardinalsatRangers BallparkinArlington, Texas.Deschanel contributed a cover ofBuddy Holly's \"It's So Easy\" for the tribute albumListen to Me: Buddy Holly, released on September 6, 2011. She had previously appeared onRave On Buddy Holly, with She & Him performing \"Oh, Boy!\", released in June 2011. A Very She & Him Christmaswas announced on Pitchfork.com in September 2011. The 12-trackChristmas albumwas released October 25, 2011, underMerge Records.On December 28, 2011, she and Joseph Gordon-Levitt recorded an informal version of \"What Are You Doing New Year's Eve?\" for her HelloGiggles YouTube channel. It was immensely popular and within four days had over 6 million views.Deschanel was featured on bandmate M. Ward's sixth solo album,A Wasteland Companion(2012). During a May 2012 performance at theRyman Auditorium, country music singerLoretta Lynnannounced that she was in the development stages of creating a Broadway musical from her autobiography and Deschanel would play the title role., saying, \"There's a little girl back stage that's going to do the play of 'Coal Miner's Daughter' on Broadway\". She then brought Deschanel onstage and the two sang a duet of thetitle song.On September 21, 2012, it was announced that Deschanel was producing the comedyMust Be Nice, written byNew Girlconsulting producerJ. J. Philbin. She and Him's next album,Volume 3was released byMerge Recordsin May 2013. In the 15-track album, Deschanel wrote eleven songs, while three others are cover songs.It debuted at number 15 on theBillboard200.The band's fifth studio album,Classics, received a December 2014 release byColumbia Records, and it features 13 covers of classic songs, recorded live and accompanied by a 20-piece orchestra.Response towards the album was positive, with Robert Hamm forAlternative Presswriting that Deschanel \"is a delight, at times coy and romantic, and in other moments, moody and pensive\".She also appeared as a guest vocalist onBrian Wilson's albumNo Pier Pressure(2015).She & Him's second Christmas album and sixth album overall,Christmas Party, was released in 2016. Film-related music Deschanel made her on-screen singing debut inThe New Guy(2002). InElf(2003), she sings \"Baby, It's Cold Outside\" withWill Ferrellin the bathroom shower scene, \"Auld Lang Syne\" withJames Caanon piano and withLeon Redboneon the soundtrack. Her piano composition \"Bittersuite\" was used thematically in the darkdramedyWinter Passing(2006), in which she co starred with Ferrell andEd Harris, and also sings \"My Bonnie Lies over the Ocean\" in the film. In 2007, other singing credits followed: the television musicalOnce Upon a Mattress(\"An Opening for a Princess\", \"In a Little While\", \"Normandy\", and \"Yesterday I Loved You\");an old cabaret song inThe Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford(\"A Bird in a Gilded Cage\"); and the short filmRaving(\"Hello, Dolly!\"). Deschanel and a cast of school children sing theSteve Earlesong \"Someday\" andWar's \"Why Can't We Be Friends?\" inBridge to Terabithia. InYes Man(2008), Deschanel sings several songs featured in the film and on the film soundtrack, and is shown singing \"Uh-Huh\" and \"Sweet Ballad\" with San Franciscan all-girl electro soul-punk groupVon Ivain a fictional band called \"Munchausen by Proxy\".In500 Days of Summer(2009), Deschanel sings a cover ofThe Smiths's \"Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want\" and it appears on the soundtrack of the film, as performed by She & Him.She also sings a cover of \"Sugar Town\" byNancy Sinatra. Deschanel and Joseph Gordon-Levitt did a music video, calledBank Dance, directed by500 Days of SummerdirectorMarc Webb, to accompany the film. It uses the She & Him song \"Why Do You Let Me Stay Here?\", and some complicated choreography, choreographed by Michael Rooney. Mason Novick, the film's producer said, \"We made the short because Zooey came in and said, 'I have this idea ... because I didn't get to dance in the movie'\" (as Gordon-Levitt did). Deschanel sings \"The Greatest Most Beautiful Love Song in All the Land\" withJames Francoin the comedyYour Highness(2011). She also appears with M. Ward in a number of songs on the soundtrack album for Disney's animated version ofWinnie the Pooh(2011), earning aGrammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Medianomination for \"So Long\".Deschanel wrote and performed the theme song toNew Girl.Also, in season three's episode \"Prince\", the song \"Fallinlove2nite\" is sung by Deschanel andPrince.InRock the Kasbah(2015), she sang a cover ofMeredith Brooks's \"Bitch\", which is featured in the soundtrack for the film.In 2016, Deschanel voiced Bridget, the scullery maid in the animated filmTrolls. Other work In May 2011, after the success of her HelloGiggles YouTube channel, Deschanel, along with producer Sophia Rossi and writer Molly McAleer, founded the websiteHelloGiggles.com, an entertainment website geared towards women.HelloGiggles.com was acquired by Time, Inc. in 2015. In 2023, Deschanel hosted theMaxinformational showWhat Am I Eating?. It was based on a previous series Deschanel did forATTN:,Your Food's Roots. Personal life Deschanel is allergic to eggs, dairy products, and soy.She had a gluten allergy, but stated in a 2022 interview onArmchair Expertthat she no longer suffers from it.She used to be avegan,which she gave up because she found it difficult to eat enough calories on a vegan diet due to her sensitivities to wheat and soy.A year prior to giving up her vegan diet, she was featured on episode eight of season one ofBravo'sTop Chef Masters, in which the chefs participating in the competition were challenged to cater a vegan lunch party for her family and friends using no soy or gluten.Deschanel is currently apescetarian. In December 2008, Deschanel became engaged to musicianBen Gibbard, lead vocalist forDeath Cab for CutieandThe Postal Service.They married on September 19, 2009, nearSeattle, Washington.On November 1, 2011, they announced their separation.Deschanel filed for divorce on December 27, 2011, citing \"irreconcilable differences\".The divorce was finalized on December 12, 2012. Deschanel confirmed her engagement to film producer Jacob Pechenik in January 2015,and they married in June 2015.They have two children: a daughter born in July 2015, and a son born in May 2017.Deschanel reportedly converted to Judaism before marrying Pechenik, who is Jewish. In August 2019, Deschanel metProperty BrothersstarJonathan Scottwhile filming an episode ofCarpool Karaoke: The Series. On September 6, 2019, Deschanel and Pechenik announced their separation.Deschanel and Pechenik divorced on June 1, 2020. On August 13, 2023, Deschanel and Scott announced their engagement atEdinburgh Castlein Scotland. Filmography Discography Awards and nominations References External links",
"New Girl New Girlis an American televisionsitcomcreated byElizabeth Meriwetherand produced by20th Century Fox TelevisionforFoxthat aired from September 20, 2011, to May 15, 2018. The series revolves around quirky teacher,Jessica Day(Zooey Deschanel), after she moves into aLos Angelesloft with three men, Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), Schmidt (Max Greenfield), and Coach (Damon Wayans Jr.). Former roommate Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris) and Jess's best friend Cece Parekh (Hannah Simone) later join the characters. The show combines comedy and drama elements as the characters, who are in their late 20s and early 30s, deal with relationship issues and career choices.New Girlis a joint production betweenElizabeth Meriwether Picturesand20th Century Fox Televisionand is syndicated by20th Television. Produced in Los Angeles as asingle-cameracomedy,New Girlis an ensemble show aimed at a general audience.New Girlreceived acclaim from critics and was named one of the best new comedies of the 2011 fall season. The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating, making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show since 2001. Particular praise has been given to the performances of Deschanel, Greenfield, Simone, Johnson and Morris. The show has garnered increased mainstream viewership following its inclusion onNetflix, becoming one of the most popular shows on the platform.The series concluded its seven season run in May 2018. Plot Jessica \"Jess\" Day(Zooey Deschanel), a bubbly and quirky teacher in her late 20s, comes home from vacation to find her boyfriend, Spencer (Ian Wolterstorff), with another woman and leaves him immediately to look for somewhere else to live. After Jess answers an ad for a new roommate onCraigslist, she moves into a loft in Los Angeles with three men around her own age: Nick, Schmidt, and Coach. After thepilot episode, Winston, a former roommate and Nick's childhood friend, replaces Coach, who leaves the apartment to live with his girlfriend. Jess' childhood best friend, Cece, a fashion model frequently visits Jess and the guys. The series follows the group's interactions with each other as they become closer friends and develop romantic relationships. Midway through season 1, Schmidt and Cece become involved in a mostly sexual relationship but break up at the end of the season. In Season 2, Jess is laid off from her teaching job; she and the others get involved in mostly temporary relationships however, Cece enters an arranged marriage engagement withShivrang(Satya Bhabha) that is broken up at their wedding in the season 2 finale when Cece realizes she loves Schmidt. Schmidt had recently started dating his old college girlfriend Elizabeth had to choose between Elizabeth and Cece. Meanwhile, Nick and Jess develop feelings and start dating at Cece's wedding, making their relationship official at the end of season 2,and it lasts through most of season 3 until they realize that ultimately, they want different things in life. Coach returns to the loft in season 3, revealing that he had broken up with his girlfriend and rejoins the gang, and even has a short fling with Cece after ending the short relationship with Schmidt. He stays through season 4 until he moves out to be with another girl, May (Meaghan Rath) to New York.At the end of season 4, Schmidt proposes to Cece, and they marry at the end of season 5. Meanwhile, after bouncing around several random jobs and several dating choices throughout the series, Winston works to become a police officer withthe LAPD, and falls in love with his partnerAly(Nasim Pedrad). In the beginning of season 5, Jess is called away to jury duty resulting in the group bringing in temporary roommateReagan Lucas(Megan Fox), who becomes Nick's love interest for the rest of the season. Shortly after returning from jury duty, Jess realizes that she loves Nick and wants to be with him. At the end of season 6, Nick and Reagan break up and shortly after, Nick and Jess get together, Cece and Schmidt are pregnant, and Winston is engaged to Aly and is trying to meet his father.Season 7 advances the storyline three years later where Schmidt and Cece have a three-year-old daughter named Ruth, Winston and Aly are expecting their first baby, and Nick proposes to Jess. Cast and characters The principal cast ofNew Girlincludes: Special guest stars Production Conception 20th Century Fox Televisionfirst approached playwrightElizabeth Meriwetherin 2008 to develop a pilot that was eventually shelved. After Meriwether's success with the 2011 romantic comedy filmNo Strings Attached, 20th Century Fox approached her once more, and she pitched an idea for a TV sitcom about an \"offbeat girl moving in with three single guys\",inspired by her experience of \"bouncing fromCraigslistsublet to Craigslist sublet, for four years in L.A.\" when she was in her twenties.This show was initially calledChicks and Dickswith two of the characters similar to the final characters of Jess and Schmidt.The initial idea was aWill & Grace-style comedy inspired by Meriwether's close friendship with a guy after their exes started dating each other.The Fox network liked the script and pursuedZooey Deschanelfor the role of Jess,to whose story Meriwether felt most connected.As the script developed, the plot moved on from being about the sexual endeavors of the roommates and became more socially oriented, so the title was changed toNew Girl. The show attempts to combine \"comedy and drama as the five characters explore the difficulties of the decade between 30 and 40, which is when many people take their biggest steps toward maturity\" with regard to relationships and careers,which, unlikeFriends, is giving the show a \"built-in biological clock\".ProducerJake Kasdansaid that \"Their lives are moving forward, they're still trying to hang on to some kind of crazy youth\" although he does not \"want them ever to seem pathetic.\" Casting Movie actress and singer-songwriter Zooey Deschanel was in the process of developing anHBOshow when she read theNew Girlpilot script and responded to the material.The character of Jess was not specifically written for Deschanel, but the producers found it a great match and adjusted it to better fit the actress.With the support from Fox, Meriwether wanted to make Jess a unique, interesting and funny female characterthat would have been the side character on other shows.Deschanel became a producer on the show and helped build the character,requesting to not play the classic wife character who would be ignored by the guys she tries to keep out of trouble.Meriwether's goal was to write about herself from an honest perspective,with Jess mirroring her at the start and later Deschanel until Jess turned into a \"hybrid of me and Zooey, the writers, and the editor\".Deschanel described Jess as a part of her, especially with regard to \"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\" of her youth. She does not shy away from playing embarrassing scenes or being unattractive.As Kasdan said, \"This show advocates for the attractive dork.\"Although Meriwether had always imagined the show as an ensemble show, Fox would later focus its first marketing push on Zooey Deschaneland gave the show the promotional tagline \"Simply Adorkable.\" Basing Nick Miller on a friend also surnamed Miller,she originally imagined Nick as the smartest one of the group who doesn't need to say thatand thought of him as \"the everyman one, who's stepping away and commenting on what all the crazy people are doing around him.\"She sent theNew Girlpilot script to movie actorJake Johnson, with whom she had enjoyed working onNo Strings Attachedand guided him through the audition process.Johnson auditioned withMax Greenfield, who impressed the producers in his first audition as Schmidt.The actors auditioning for Schmidt were more varied in appearance than those auditioning for Nick,and Johnson and Greenfield were initially worried that they looked too much alike.however, both men were cast the same day. Meriwether originally envisioned Coach as \"a fat Jewish guy, like a manchild\" and later as \"this dumb jock crazy rage problems\".David Neher (who would play Schmidt's so-called \"fremesis,\" Benjamin, in four episodes) was among the 400 actors auditioning for Coach before the producers settled onDamon Wayans Jr.who was expecting his show, theABCsitcomHappy Endings, to be cancelled. When that show was renewed for a second season, Wayans' spot was replaced with Lamorne Morris,who had also read for Coach but had been unavailable for filming the pilot.Meriwether estimated that about 80 percent of the pilot would have needed to be re-shot in order to remove Wayans from the episode, since he was in one of the leading roles of the show.As the producers also liked reflecting the frequent apartment changes in young people's lives,Meriwether, 20th Century Fox and the studio decided to keep the characters and the plot of the pilot episode as they were.Morris joined the show in the second episode of the series when the producers had already broken seven episodes without knowing what the actor was going to be able to do.Wayans returned toNew Girlin season 3 for a season-long arc afterHappy Endingshad been cancelled, and was officially added as a regular for season 4. Writing New Girlhad 11 writers during its first seasonand 15 during the second season—includingElizabeth Meriwether,Brett Baer, andDave Finkel.Stories were developed in a collaborative effortand aimed at viewers of any gender.Writers intended to keep actors and audiences on their toes by planning very few story arcs and focusing on setting up characters in the first couple seasons . The writers challenged themselves to create new stories and change the show's dynamics to keep things fresh,while aiming to be \"as emotionally real as possible.\"As the show's jokes rely on the actors' performance instead of perfectly constructed punch lines, Meriwether looked for the actors' strengths before writing.The A story generally revolved around Jess and had an emotional core.Still, Meriwether saw the show as an ensemble about friendship with \"everybody having their own stories and people being interested in all of the characters.\" EachNew Girlepisode started out as a pitch page, went through stages of an outline and a final draft before being filmed and edited,a process which could take weeks.The writers were broken up to rework drafts until they found the funniest and most emotionally resonant version. All characters were aimed to be tied into the story, and determining their motivation was the major goal so that people would laugh.During the first season, Meriwether usually made a final pass at the draft alone because of her film and theater background.The actors' performance influenced new story ideaswith the actors also handing in story ideas. Filming and editing The main set built for the pilot was to represent a factory-turned-loft in downtown Los Angeles. It was reused once the show was given a full season.The apartment building exterior is the Binford Building, located at 837 Traction Avenue inthe city's Arts District, with interior shots done in a studio set.The exterior shots for the bar where Nick works is of The Griffin (now The High Low), located inAtwater Village. The interior shots of the bar are originally from a restaurant called The Prince inKoreatown, and were recreated in a studio set after the first season. As asingle-cameracomedy,New Girlis neither performed in front of a studio audience nor has alaugh track.Some scenes are cross-covered (i.e. are filmed with a shooting camera on each person at the same time), to allow for better improvisations.Handheld cameras are avoided for a more filmic look. The actors first perform scenes as written, then act out the alternatives or improvise,to later allow the producers and editors to choose the gags that ultimately work best.Morris estimated that 20 percent of each episode is improvised. True American True Americanis a fictional, convoluteddrinking gamethat theNew Girlcharacters first played in the season 1 episode 20, \"Normal\". After \"Normal\" aired, internet sources began to summarize the rules forTrue American, which the characters described as a mix of a drinking game andCandy Landwherethe floor is lava; it also involves shouting the names of American presidents.The idea ofTrue Americancame from aNew Girlwriter who played a similar game in college. As she could not remember the game's exact rules, the writers focused on making the game as funny on the page as possible, but only established chanting \"JFK!FDR!\" and walking on chairs. Throughout the series, the writers created new rules on the spot in order to keep the actors improvising and encouraged them to \"have fun, dig in, jump in\". The game's second appearance in season 2's \"Cooler\" was played with the strip-poker version called \"Clinton Rules\", but the exact rules remain unclear even to the actors.True Americanwith updated rules and the resulting hangover were featured in season 3's \"Mars Landing\". The writers started to do newTrue Americanepisodes once each yearwithout ever giving explicit rules for the game. Liz Meriwether said the game would not be easier to comprehend in later appearances, as the writers' goal is to actually make it harder to understand. Relationships Creator Elizabeth Meriwether sees Nick, Schmidt and Winston \"on the weirder side of things\".The producers started learning more about the characters by seeing the actors' work and that \"We probably rely on them more than we should\" to define the characters.Each of the actors improvisations allowed for the characters to switch traits around in the first season before solidifying their characters. Producers found more variety in Nick's character in season 1 and enjoyed Johnson's improvisations, so they relayed Coach's previous attributed rage issues to Nick.Nick's character connects the most with the other roommates, childhood friends with Winston and college roommates with Schmidt, allowing him to be more involved in their stories. Writers developed the Nick–Winston dynamic in season 1 and sought to figure out Winston's relationship with the other loft mates in season 2.The writers noticed late during the first season that Morris seemed better suited to play a smart character and act as the loft's voice of reason,although Meriwether found that when Winston \"finally does blow up, he's crazier than all of them\"and that he works better \"in these kind of crazy, comedic runners, small pieces of the episode\"that contrast the relationship dramas of the other main characters.The Winston–Schmidt friendship was developed significantly in the second half of season 2 when the story focus moved to Nick and Jess.The Nick–Jess relationship affects the three guys' friendship as Nick starts being more considerate of Jess' feelings regarding shenanigans.Damon Wayans Jr. was planned to reprise his role as Coach in at least four episodes in the third season,according to Meriwether \"at a time when the roommates are at odds with each other\". With Meriwether's openness regarding straight and gay communities,New Girlalso plays with the guys' sexual orientation for humor. One of Winston's recurring alternate persona is Nick's gay lover \"Theodore K. Mullins\", which started out as an improv of Morris.Johnson thought that Nick and Schmidt had \"a pretty funny bromance\" with \"their own little weird will-they-won't-they\".Greenfield improvised kissing Nick a lot in season 1 until the writers started putting Schmidt–Nick kisses into the script,so that they shared more kisses than Nick and Jess did in the first two seasons. Episodes Broadcast and ratings TheNew Girlpilotwas released via on-demand, iTunes, andTiVoon September 6, 2011before its September 20 premiere onFoxin theUnited Statesand onCityin Canada.Other international broadcasters includeChannel 4andE4in the United Kingdom,RTÉ2in the Republic of Ireland,Network TenandElevenin Australia,andFourin New Zealand.The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating,making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show sinceThe Bernie Mac Showin 2001.The second episode madeNew Girlthe top-rated show on television in the marketing-important 18–49 demographic, improved the rating of its lead-in hit seriesGleeand beat the long-running hit seriesNCISandDancing with the Stars.At this time, Fox ordered 11 additional episodes to the initial 13-episode order, bringing the first season to 24 episodes. The ratings dropped when the show took a break for baseball, falling almost 30 percent to a 2.1 rating in the 18–49 audience group.During the 2011–12 television season,New Girlaveraged 8.22 million viewers and a 4.2 adults 18–49 demo rating. In 18–49 demo, it ranked as the fifth highest rated show on Fox and 13th overall.On April 9, 2012,New Girlwas officially renewed for a second season of 24 episodes;Fox ordered one more episode during the second half of the season. Awards and nominations Main article:List of awards and nominations received by New Girl The show has been nominated for several awards, including fiveGolden Globe Awardsand fivePrimetime Emmy Awards. Syndication and streaming New Girlwas added toTBSin 2015 and was removed in 2022. Additionally, the sitcom was added toMTVin 2015 and was removed in 2016.After 10 years on Netflix,the show became exclusively available onHuluandPeacocksince April 17, 2023. Home media Tie-ins Reception Critical reviews On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes, season one holds an approval rating of 84% based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.83/10.Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 66 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". In June 2011,New Girlwas one of eight honorees in the \"most exciting new series\" category at the1st Critics' Choice Television Awards, voted by journalists who had seen thepilots.Robert Bianco ofUSA TodayconsideredNew Girl\"fall's most promising new series\" and praised how Deschanel and Meriwether \"have shaped Jess into something we haven't quite seen before – a woman who is sweet yet crass, innocent yet sexy, beautiful yet clumsy, and brash yet irresistibly adorable.\" However, he noted how \"Some people will be resistant to Deschanel's doe-eyed charm; others have a congenital need to insult anyone who most everyone else is praising, particularly if doing so gets them attention.\"The Hollywood Reporter'sTim Goodman saw the show as a \"mostly romantic comedy\", and although Jess' adorability \"might seem like a thin premise, Meriwether manages to make the situations funny and lets Deschanel channel her charm – a winning combination.\"David Wiegandof theSan Francisco Chroniclewould rather see the show tone down. He felt \"the show's fundamental setup isn't all that inspired, but it could work with smarter writing and better direction, especially with regard to Deschanel\", who, in his opinion, overplayed Jess' weird habits \"to the point of overkill within the first 10 minutes of the show\". Alan SepinwallofHitFixconsideredNew Girl\"the best new comedy of the fall season, and the only new show I genuinely enjoyed from start to finish\" because it was so well developed from the start. He praised Deschanel's \"wonderful comic performance\" and said that while the supporting actors \"all bounce nicely off of Deschanel\", the scenes without Deschanel around them fell flat for him.Writing for theDaily News, David Hinckley lauded how none of the characters \"settle in as the stereotypes they could easily become\", and presumed that all of them would evolve and get smarter as the show progresses.Lori Rack of theChicago Sun-Timespraised the actors' comedic timing and playing off each other. Despite the guys sounding \"like nightmares\" on paper, \"they have endearing, vulnerable cores that make them likable, and occasionally, lovable. New Girldidn't give me as many laugh-out-loud moments as some comedies\", but instead made her \"feel warm and fuzzy\".Rob Owen of thePittsburgh Post-Gazettesaid the show's pilot was \"more charming than hilarious\" and \"cuter than it is funny, but when it does conjure laughs, its style of humor is reminiscent of ABC'sHappy Endings\". Many critics considered Max Greenfield the show's breakout star in season 1;The A.V. Clubeven named Greenfield's Schmidt \"the year's breakout TV character\" as a \"douchebag with a heart of gold\".Salondescribed Schmidt as \"a sort of self-created alpha male and a collection of beta male qualities are performed with such conviction they congeal into a sort of deranged machismo, one slathered in sandalwood-scented lotion. As part of this transition, Schmidt has gone from being a douchebag in the classic model—a guy who, in the pilot, constantly wanted to show off his pecs and scam girls, and seemed capable of doing so—to a douche of a more unique variety.\"The Huffington Post'sMaureen Ryan said how \"Schmidt could have easily been 'the dumb guy', or the show could have exploited his status as an eminently mockable douche. But thanks to Max Greenfield's endearing depiction of the would-be lady-killer, there's a lot more the writers have been able to do with the character.\" On Rotten Tomatoes, season two holds an approval rating of 88% based on 16 reviews, with an average rating of 6.56/10. After the teasing of the Nick–Jess relationship in the first season, critics named Jake Johnson the breakout star of season 2 as the characters' romance unfolded.Saying that \"Not since Ross and Rachel's tango onFriendshas watching a comedy romance been so satisfying\",The Hollywood Reportersaid the producers \"did the impossible by engaging their leads in a love story, which only strengthened the artistry of the single-cam comedy\".The New York Timessaid season 2 \"erupted in fantastic and bizarre fits and starts\" because of the characters' unmatched personalities, and lauded the writers for not playing up the will-they-or-won't-they dynamic. By emphasizinghowthe characters got together, the show \"made for hilarious setups to high-level Abbott and Costello slapstick. The continued Nick–Jess relationship was criticized in season 3 for dropping the characters' personalities, lack of tension,and for neglecting the show's female friendship between Jess and Cece. On Rotten Tomatoes, season three holds an approval rating of 88% based on 14 reviews, with an average rating of 6.46/10. Season four holds an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.67/10. The series' seventh and final season has an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.78, and a critical consensus of, \"After seven years of friendship,New Girlsigns off with a thoughtful, funny final season that bids a proper adieu to its colorful cast of characters.\" References External links",
"List ofNew Girlepisodes New Girlis an American televisionsitcomthat premiered onFoxon September 20, 2011. Developed byElizabeth Meriwetherunder the working titleChicks & Dicks, the show starsZooey Deschanelas Jessica \"Jess\" Day, a well-liked and bubbly woman who is trying to get over her surprise breakup with her boyfriend. With the help of her best friend Cece (Hannah Simone), she finds a new place to stay when she moves in with three single guys: Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), an underachieving bartender; Schmidt (Max Greenfield), who thinks of himself as a modern-dayCasanova; and Coach (Damon Wayans, Jr.), who leaves the series in the next episode and is replaced by Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris), a former professional athlete who achieved modest success abroad and is adjusting to life back in the United States. Coach reappears in the series during seasons three, four, five, six, and seven. On May 14, 2017, the series was renewed for a seventh and final season, which featured eight episodes.On January 4, 2018, it was announced that the seventh and final season would premiere on April 10, 2018, and also it would end with a one-hour series finale, which was aired on May 15, 2018. During the course of the series, 146 episodes ofNew Girlaired over seven seasons. Series overview Episodes Season 1 (2011–12) Season 2 (2012–13) Season 3 (2013–14) Season 4 (2014–15) Season 5 (2016) Season 6 (2016–17) Season 7 (2018) Ratings Notes References External links"
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"Zooey Deschanel Zooey Claire Deschanel(/ˈzoʊiˌdeɪʃəˈnɛl/ZO-ee day-shə-NEL; born January 17, 1980) is an American actress and musician. She made her film debut inMumford(1999) and had a supporting role inCameron Crowe's filmAlmost Famous(2000). Deschanel is known for herdeadpanroles in comedy films such asThe Good Girl(2002),The New Guy(2002),Elf(2003),The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy(2005),Failure to Launch(2006),Yes Man(2008),500 Days of Summer(2009), andOur Idiot Brother(2011).She has also ventured into dramatic film territory withManic(2001),All the Real Girls(2003),Winter Passing(2005),Bridge to Terabithia(2007),The Happening(2008), andThe Driftless Area(2015).From 2011 to 2018, she starred asJess Dayon theFoxsitcomNew Girl, for which she received nominations for aPrimetime Emmy Awardand threeGolden Globe Awards. For a few years starting in 2001, Deschanel performed in thejazzcabaretactIf All the Stars Were Pretty Babieswith actressSamantha Shelton.In 2006, Deschanel teamed up withM. Wardto formShe &",
"Wardto formShe & Him, and subsequently released their debut album,Volume One, in 2008. They have since released six albums:Volume Two(2010),A Very She & Him Christmas(2011),Volume 3(2013),Classics(2014),Christmas Party(2016), andMelt Away: A Tribute to Brian Wilson(2022). She received aGrammy Awardnomination forBest Song Written for Visual Mediafor \"So Long\", which was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 filmWinnie the Pooh. Besides singing, she plays keyboards, percussion, banjo, and ukulele. Deschanel is also a co-founder of the female-focused websiteHelloGiggles, which was acquired byTime Inc.in 2015. Early life Zooey Claire Deschanel was born in Los Angeles, California on January 17, 1980,the younger daughter of cinematographer and directorCaleb Deschaneland actressMary Jo Deschanel(née Weir). Her paternal grandfather was French, fromOullins, Rhône, and her paternal grandmother came from aQuakerfamily; she also has Swiss, Dutch, English, Irish, and other French ancestry.She was named afterZooey Glass,",
"afterZooey Glass, the protagonist ofJ. D. Salinger's 1961 novellaFranny and Zooey.Her older sister is actressEmily Deschanel, who starred in the Fox crime comedy-drama seriesBones. Deschanel lived in Los Angeles, but spent much of her childhood traveling because her father shot films on location. She later said that she: ... hated all the traveling... I'm really happy now that I had the experience, but at the time I was just so miserable to have to leave my friends in Los Angeles and go to places where they didn't have any food I liked or things I was used to. She attendedCrossroads, a private preparatory school in Santa Monica, where she befriended future co-starsJake GyllenhaalandKate Hudson.She sang throughout high school, planning to pursue a career in musical theatre and attendingFrench Woods Festival of the Performing Arts.She attendedNorthwestern Universityfor nine months before dropping out to pursue acting. Acting career 1997–2002: Early acting credits Deschanel had a guest appearance on the",
"appearance on the television seriesVeronica's Closetin 1998. She made her film debut inLawrence Kasdan's comedyMumford(1999), revolving around the neurotic residents in a small town and co-starringHope Davis,Jason Lee,Alfre WoodardandMary McDonnell. That same year, she appeared in a non-singing role in the music video forThe Offspring's single \"She's Got Issues\", which premiered on September 27, 1999.Deschanel was a judge for the ninth Independent Music Awards.In 2005, she modeled forChanelandClements Ribeiro, and in 2010, she signed to representRimmel. Deschanel co-starred inCameron Crowe's semi-autobiographicalAlmost Famous(2000), where she played Anita Miller, the rebellious older sister of a teenage journalist. Despite a modest box office response, the film received critical praise,winning theGolden Globe Award for Best Film – Musical or Comedy. Deschanel appeared in the independent dramaManic(2001), as the love interest of a troubled teen (Joseph Gordon-Levitt). The film was screened at theSundance Film",
"at theSundance Film Festivaland received a limited theatrical release.The New York Timesfound Deschanel to be \"particularly spontaneous, unaffected and emotionally direct\" in her role. Following early notice, Deschanel took on supporting parts in four feature films released throughout 2002:Big Trouble,The New Guy,The Good Girl, andAbandon. In the comedyBig Trouble, withTim AllenandRene Russo, she played the daughter of a devoted and reluctant woman, and in the teen comedyThe New Guy, starred as a guitar player in a band. Deschanel portrayed a cynical, plain-spoken young woman working in abig-box storein the black dramedyThe Good Girl, oppositeJennifer AnistonandJake Gyllenhaal. The psychological thrillerAbandonsaw her play the roommate of a woman involved in her boyfriend's disappearance. Deschanel also made a one-episode appearance inFrasier, as Roz's out-of-control Cousin, Jen.The New York Timesreported that Deschanel was \"one of Hollywood's most sought-after young stars\",in 2002, and theLos Angeles",
"and theLos Angeles Timeswrote in early 2003 that Deschanel had become a recognizabletype, due to \"her deadpan, sardonic and scene-stealing performances\" as the protagonist's best friend.Deschanel objected to her typecasting, arguing, \"A lot of these roles are just a formula idea of somebody's best friend, and it's like, I don't even have that many friends. In high school, I stayed home all the time, so I don't know how I'm everybody's best friend now.\" 2003–2010: Breakthrough Deschanel obtained her first leading film role debut in the independent dramaAll the Real Girls(2003) as Noel, a sexually curious 18-year-oldvirginwho has a life-changing romance with an aimless 22-year-old. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and was an arthouse success. Her performance received wide critical acclaim,andVarietyremarked: \"Performances are all credible and naturalistic, but standing out from the rest is Deschanel's work, which evinces an impressively direct connection to her character's emotions. The",
"emotions. The actress does a wonderful job presenting a young woman who is trying, with varying degrees of success, to give voice to all sorts of things she has never felt or expressed before\".She received anIndependent Spirit Awardnomination forBest Actress.Also in 2003, Deschanel starred oppositeWill Ferrellin the Christmas comedyElfas a deadpan department store worker and the love interest of a man raised by Santa's elves.Reviewers found the film to be a \"spirited, good-natured family comedy\" as part of an overall positive critical response;and, budgeted at US$33 million,Elfmade US$220.4 million worldwide. In 2004, Deschanel starred inEulogy, and in 2005 playedTrillianin the film adaptation ofDouglas Adams's science fiction novelThe Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. She acted inWinter Passing(2005), co-starring Will Ferrell. Deschanel next appeared inFailure to Launch(2006), as the neurotic roommate ofSarah Jessica Parker's character. She also had a recurring role in four episodes of theShowtimetelevision",
"seriesWeedsfrom 2006 to 2007 where she played Kat,Andy Botwin's ex-girlfriend. In September 2006, it was announced that Deschanel had signed on to play 1960s singerJanis Joplinin the filmThe Gospel According to Janis, to be co-written and directed byPenelope Spheeris.The film was scheduled to begin shooting in 2006, but was then postponed indefinitely;it was then resurrected again, with a planned release date of 2012, before being cancelled altogether in 2011. Deschanel expressed frustration with the cancellation, saying she had spent three years working on imitating Joplin's scratchy singing voice. In 2007, Deschanel played a music teacher inBridge to Terabithia, and the voice of a penguin in the animated filmSurf's Up. She had a small role as Dorothy Evans in therevisionist WesternThe Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Fordand starred in theBcomedyFlakes, which was released in only one theater.Deschanel starred as DG in theSyfyminiseriesTin Man, a re-imagined science fiction version ofThe",
"version ofThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz. It aired in December 2007. Deschanel also narrated the children's bookPlayers in Pigtails.She voiced Mary,Cletus's daughter in three episodes ofThe Simpsonssince debuting on the April 27, 2008, episode, \"Apocalypse Cow\". InM. Night Shyamalan's thrillerThe Happening(2008), she starred oppositeMark Wahlbergas a couple trying to escape from an inexplicable natural disaster. Despite largely negative reviews, criticRoger Ebertfelt that Wahlberg and Deschanel's performances \"bring a quiet dignity to their characters\",and globally, the film made US$163 million.She starred in the independent comedyGigantic(2008), which screened at theToronto International Film Festivaland was distributed for a limited release in certain parts of the United States only. In the comedyYes Man(also 2008), she played an unorthodox singer and the girlfriend ofJim Carrey's character.The film grossed US$223.1 million around the world. Deschanel reunited with Joseph Gordon-Levitt in the independent",
"in the independent romantic drama about the development and demise of a relationship(500) Days of Summer(2009).The film garnered critical acclaim and became a \"sleeper hit\", earning over $60 million in worldwide returns, far exceeding its $7.5 million budget.Mark Adams of theDaily Mirrorfound the film to be a \"modern romance for grown-ups\" and a \"sweet-natured, funny, deeply-romantic tale\" blessed with \"top-notch performances by Deschanel and Gordon-Levitt, who are both charming and have real chemistry\".In December 2009, Deschanel guest-starred in a Christmas episode of theFoxcrime procedural comedy-dramaBones, which was the first-ever on-screen pairing of the Deschanel sisters. Since 2010:New Girland other projects Deschanel was originally the top choice forJanet van Dyne / The Waspin an early draft ofJoss Whedon'sThe Avengersin which she would have played a prominent role. However, onceScarlett Johanssonwas cast asNatasha Romanoff / Black Widow, Deschanel was no longer in consideration to portray the Wasp",
"to portray the Wasp with Janet's daughter Hope van Dyne taking up the mantle in theInfinity Saga, played byEvangeline Lilly.Deschanel starred in the comedyOur Idiot Brother(2011) as the independent and bisexual sister of a dimwitted but idealistic man (Paul Rudd). The production was screened at theSundance Film Festival, to a generally positive critical reception.She played Belladonna in the stoner fantasy-comedyYour Highness(2011), withDanny McBrideandJames Franco.The film received negative reviews andbombed at the box office.Describing her role, Roger Ebert noted in its review for the film: \" brought onstage, quickly kidnapped by an evil sorcerer, spends a good deal of time as a captive in his lair, is rescued and lives happily ever after. She might as well be a mannequin, for all she's given to say and do. This intelligent, nuanced actress, standing there baffled. Used as a placeholder\". Deschanel signed on to star as a bubbly and offbeat teacherJessica \"Jess\" Dayon theFoxsitcomNew Girl, created",
"Girl, created byElizabeth Meriwether. She became a producer on the show and helped build the character,which she has described as a part of her, especially in regards to \"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\" of her youth.The series premiered in September 2011, andUSA Todaydescribed her performance as \"a role tailored to launch her from respected indie actor to certified star, Deschanel soars, combining well-honed skills with a natural charm\".She has received anEmmy Awardnomination and three Golden Globe nominations for her role.The series finale ran on May 15, 2018. Deschanel hostedSaturday Night Liveon February 11, 2012.That same year, she was featured in a commercial for theiPhone 4S(Siri). InRock the Kasbah(2015), she played a Los Angeles singer taken toAfghanistanby her former manager (Bill Murray). Despite a US$15 million budget, the comedy only made US$3 million at the North American box office.She obtained the role of a mysterious woman in the neo-noir dramaThe Driftless Area(2015), screened at",
"screened at theTribeca Film Festivaland released on video on demand and home media.She voiced a kind-hearted Bergen, Bridget, in the animated family comedyTrolls(2016), which grossed US$344 million worldwide. In December 2020, Deschanel appeared in the music video forKaty Perry's song \"Not the End of the World\".In 2021, she co-hosted the ABC television seriesThe Celebrity Dating GamewithMichael Bolton. In January 2022, she began cohostingWelcome to Our Show, aNew Girlrewatch podcast with co-starsHannah SimoneandLamorne Morris, distributed byIHeartRadio.Deschanel appears as Kelly in season 3 ofPhysicalreleased on August 2, 2023and Nancy inDreamin' Wild, released on August 4, 2023. She would also appear as Terry inHarold and the Purple Crayon, which was released on August 2, 2024. Music career Singing and performing In 2001, Deschanel formedIf All the Stars Were Pretty Babies, ajazzcabaretact with fellow actressSamantha Shelton.The pair performed around Los Angeles. In March 2007, Deschanel contributed vocals",
"contributed vocals to two songs \"Slowly\" and \"Ask Her to Dance\" on the albumNighttimingbyJason Schwartzman's bandCoconut Records. It was reported that Deschanel andM. Ward, who had previously performed with Deschanel on-stage, were recording music under the moniker She & Him.Their first album, titledVolume One, was released byMerge Recordson March 18, 2008.It received a strong response from critics, withPastemagazine voting it the No. 1 Album of 2008. Patrick Caldwell of theAustin American Statesmanwrote: \"The album gently rambled through 13 tracks of sun-dappled pop, with a gentle Orbisonian charm and sweet, wistful vocals from Deschanel.\" Deschanel recorded \"The Fabric of My Life\" for a 2009 advertising campaign forCotton Incorporated.On March 23, 2010, the second She & Him album,Volume Two, was released.Deschanel and M. Ward both featured onThe Place We Ran From(2010), the album bySnow PatrolmemberGary Lightbody's side project,Tired Pony. Deschanel contributed vocals to the tracks \"Get on the Road\" and",
"on the Road\" and \"Point Me at Lost Islands\", while M. Ward contributed vocals and guitar to the track \"Held in the Arms of Your Words\" and guitar to the track \"That Silver Necklace\". Deschanel performed \"God Bless America\" during theseventh-inning stretchin game three of theNational League Championship Seriesbetween thePhiladelphia PhilliesandSan Francisco Giantson October 19, 2010, atAT&T Parkin San Francisco.On October 23, 2011, Deschanel performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" before game four of theWorld Seriesbetween theTexas Rangersand theSt. Louis CardinalsatRangers BallparkinArlington, Texas.Deschanel contributed a cover ofBuddy Holly's \"It's So Easy\" for the tribute albumListen to Me: Buddy Holly, released on September 6, 2011. She had previously appeared onRave On Buddy Holly, with She & Him performing \"Oh, Boy!\", released in June 2011. A Very She & Him Christmaswas announced on Pitchfork.com in September 2011. The 12-trackChristmas albumwas released October 25, 2011, underMerge Records.On December",
"Records.On December 28, 2011, she and Joseph Gordon-Levitt recorded an informal version of \"What Are You Doing New Year's Eve?\" for her HelloGiggles YouTube channel. It was immensely popular and within four days had over 6 million views.Deschanel was featured on bandmate M. Ward's sixth solo album,A Wasteland Companion(2012). During a May 2012 performance at theRyman Auditorium, country music singerLoretta Lynnannounced that she was in the development stages of creating a Broadway musical from her autobiography and Deschanel would play the title role., saying, \"There's a little girl back stage that's going to do the play of 'Coal Miner's Daughter' on Broadway\". She then brought Deschanel onstage and the two sang a duet of thetitle song.On September 21, 2012, it was announced that Deschanel was producing the comedyMust Be Nice, written byNew Girlconsulting producerJ. J. Philbin. She and Him's next album,Volume 3was released byMerge Recordsin May 2013. In the 15-track album, Deschanel wrote eleven songs, while",
"eleven songs, while three others are cover songs.It debuted at number 15 on theBillboard200.The band's fifth studio album,Classics, received a December 2014 release byColumbia Records, and it features 13 covers of classic songs, recorded live and accompanied by a 20-piece orchestra.Response towards the album was positive, with Robert Hamm forAlternative Presswriting that Deschanel \"is a delight, at times coy and romantic, and in other moments, moody and pensive\".She also appeared as a guest vocalist onBrian Wilson's albumNo Pier Pressure(2015).She & Him's second Christmas album and sixth album overall,Christmas Party, was released in 2016. Film-related music Deschanel made her on-screen singing debut inThe New Guy(2002). InElf(2003), she sings \"Baby, It's Cold Outside\" withWill Ferrellin the bathroom shower scene, \"Auld Lang Syne\" withJames Caanon piano and withLeon Redboneon the soundtrack. Her piano composition \"Bittersuite\" was used thematically in the darkdramedyWinter Passing(2006), in which she co",
"in which she co starred with Ferrell andEd Harris, and also sings \"My Bonnie Lies over the Ocean\" in the film. In 2007, other singing credits followed: the television musicalOnce Upon a Mattress(\"An Opening for a Princess\", \"In a Little While\", \"Normandy\", and \"Yesterday I Loved You\");an old cabaret song inThe Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford(\"A Bird in a Gilded Cage\"); and the short filmRaving(\"Hello, Dolly!\"). Deschanel and a cast of school children sing theSteve Earlesong \"Someday\" andWar's \"Why Can't We Be Friends?\" inBridge to Terabithia. InYes Man(2008), Deschanel sings several songs featured in the film and on the film soundtrack, and is shown singing \"Uh-Huh\" and \"Sweet Ballad\" with San Franciscan all-girl electro soul-punk groupVon Ivain a fictional band called \"Munchausen by Proxy\".In500 Days of Summer(2009), Deschanel sings a cover ofThe Smiths's \"Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want\" and it appears on the soundtrack of the film, as performed by She & Him.She also",
"She & Him.She also sings a cover of \"Sugar Town\" byNancy Sinatra. Deschanel and Joseph Gordon-Levitt did a music video, calledBank Dance, directed by500 Days of SummerdirectorMarc Webb, to accompany the film. It uses the She & Him song \"Why Do You Let Me Stay Here?\", and some complicated choreography, choreographed by Michael Rooney. Mason Novick, the film's producer said, \"We made the short because Zooey came in and said, 'I have this idea ... because I didn't get to dance in the movie'\" (as Gordon-Levitt did). Deschanel sings \"The Greatest Most Beautiful Love Song in All the Land\" withJames Francoin the comedyYour Highness(2011). She also appears with M. Ward in a number of songs on the soundtrack album for Disney's animated version ofWinnie the Pooh(2011), earning aGrammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Medianomination for \"So Long\".Deschanel wrote and performed the theme song toNew Girl.Also, in season three's episode \"Prince\", the song \"Fallinlove2nite\" is sung by Deschanel andPrince.InRock the",
"the Kasbah(2015), she sang a cover ofMeredith Brooks's \"Bitch\", which is featured in the soundtrack for the film.In 2016, Deschanel voiced Bridget, the scullery maid in the animated filmTrolls. Other work In May 2011, after the success of her HelloGiggles YouTube channel, Deschanel, along with producer Sophia Rossi and writer Molly McAleer, founded the websiteHelloGiggles.com, an entertainment website geared towards women.HelloGiggles.com was acquired by Time, Inc. in 2015. In 2023, Deschanel hosted theMaxinformational showWhat Am I Eating?. It was based on a previous series Deschanel did forATTN:,Your Food's Roots. Personal life Deschanel is allergic to eggs, dairy products, and soy.She had a gluten allergy, but stated in a 2022 interview onArmchair Expertthat she no longer suffers from it.She used to be avegan,which she gave up because she found it difficult to eat enough calories on a vegan diet due to her sensitivities to wheat and soy.A year prior to giving up her vegan diet, she was featured on episode",
"featured on episode eight of season one ofBravo'sTop Chef Masters, in which the chefs participating in the competition were challenged to cater a vegan lunch party for her family and friends using no soy or gluten.Deschanel is currently apescetarian. In December 2008, Deschanel became engaged to musicianBen Gibbard, lead vocalist forDeath Cab for CutieandThe Postal Service.They married on September 19, 2009, nearSeattle, Washington.On November 1, 2011, they announced their separation.Deschanel filed for divorce on December 27, 2011, citing \"irreconcilable differences\".The divorce was finalized on December 12, 2012. Deschanel confirmed her engagement to film producer Jacob Pechenik in January 2015,and they married in June 2015.They have two children: a daughter born in July 2015, and a son born in May 2017.Deschanel reportedly converted to Judaism before marrying Pechenik, who is Jewish. In August 2019, Deschanel metProperty BrothersstarJonathan Scottwhile filming an episode ofCarpool Karaoke: The Series. On",
"The Series. On September 6, 2019, Deschanel and Pechenik announced their separation.Deschanel and Pechenik divorced on June 1, 2020. On August 13, 2023, Deschanel and Scott announced their engagement atEdinburgh Castlein Scotland. Filmography Discography Awards and nominations References External links",
"New Girl New Girlis an American televisionsitcomcreated byElizabeth Meriwetherand produced by20th Century Fox TelevisionforFoxthat aired from September 20, 2011, to May 15, 2018. The series revolves around quirky teacher,Jessica Day(Zooey Deschanel), after she moves into aLos Angelesloft with three men, Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), Schmidt (Max Greenfield), and Coach (Damon Wayans Jr.). Former roommate Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris) and Jess's best friend Cece Parekh (Hannah Simone) later join the characters. The show combines comedy and drama elements as the characters, who are in their late 20s and early 30s, deal with relationship issues and career choices.New Girlis a joint production betweenElizabeth Meriwether Picturesand20th Century Fox Televisionand is syndicated by20th Television. Produced in Los Angeles as asingle-cameracomedy,New Girlis an ensemble show aimed at a general audience.New Girlreceived acclaim from critics and was named one of the best new comedies of the 2011 fall season. The pilot",
"season. The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating, making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show since 2001. Particular praise has been given to the performances of Deschanel, Greenfield, Simone, Johnson and Morris. The show has garnered increased mainstream viewership following its inclusion onNetflix, becoming one of the most popular shows on the platform.The series concluded its seven season run in May 2018. Plot Jessica \"Jess\" Day(Zooey Deschanel), a bubbly and quirky teacher in her late 20s, comes home from vacation to find her boyfriend, Spencer (Ian Wolterstorff), with another woman and leaves him immediately to look for somewhere else to live. After Jess answers an ad for a new roommate onCraigslist, she moves into a loft in Los Angeles with three men around her own age: Nick, Schmidt, and Coach. After thepilot episode, Winston, a former roommate and Nick's childhood friend, replaces Coach, who leaves the apartment to live with his",
"to live with his girlfriend. Jess' childhood best friend, Cece, a fashion model frequently visits Jess and the guys. The series follows the group's interactions with each other as they become closer friends and develop romantic relationships. Midway through season 1, Schmidt and Cece become involved in a mostly sexual relationship but break up at the end of the season. In Season 2, Jess is laid off from her teaching job; she and the others get involved in mostly temporary relationships however, Cece enters an arranged marriage engagement withShivrang(Satya Bhabha) that is broken up at their wedding in the season 2 finale when Cece realizes she loves Schmidt. Schmidt had recently started dating his old college girlfriend Elizabeth had to choose between Elizabeth and Cece. Meanwhile, Nick and Jess develop feelings and start dating at Cece's wedding, making their relationship official at the end of season 2,and it lasts through most of season 3 until they realize that ultimately, they want different things in",
"different things in life. Coach returns to the loft in season 3, revealing that he had broken up with his girlfriend and rejoins the gang, and even has a short fling with Cece after ending the short relationship with Schmidt. He stays through season 4 until he moves out to be with another girl, May (Meaghan Rath) to New York.At the end of season 4, Schmidt proposes to Cece, and they marry at the end of season 5. Meanwhile, after bouncing around several random jobs and several dating choices throughout the series, Winston works to become a police officer withthe LAPD, and falls in love with his partnerAly(Nasim Pedrad). In the beginning of season 5, Jess is called away to jury duty resulting in the group bringing in temporary roommateReagan Lucas(Megan Fox), who becomes Nick's love interest for the rest of the season. Shortly after returning from jury duty, Jess realizes that she loves Nick and wants to be with him. At the end of season 6, Nick and Reagan break up and shortly after, Nick and Jess get",
"Nick and Jess get together, Cece and Schmidt are pregnant, and Winston is engaged to Aly and is trying to meet his father.Season 7 advances the storyline three years later where Schmidt and Cece have a three-year-old daughter named Ruth, Winston and Aly are expecting their first baby, and Nick proposes to Jess. Cast and characters The principal cast ofNew Girlincludes: Special guest stars Production Conception 20th Century Fox Televisionfirst approached playwrightElizabeth Meriwetherin 2008 to develop a pilot that was eventually shelved. After Meriwether's success with the 2011 romantic comedy filmNo Strings Attached, 20th Century Fox approached her once more, and she pitched an idea for a TV sitcom about an \"offbeat girl moving in with three single guys\",inspired by her experience of \"bouncing fromCraigslistsublet to Craigslist sublet, for four years in L.A.\" when she was in her twenties.This show was initially calledChicks and Dickswith two of the characters similar to the final characters of Jess and",
"of Jess and Schmidt.The initial idea was aWill & Grace-style comedy inspired by Meriwether's close friendship with a guy after their exes started dating each other.The Fox network liked the script and pursuedZooey Deschanelfor the role of Jess,to whose story Meriwether felt most connected.As the script developed, the plot moved on from being about the sexual endeavors of the roommates and became more socially oriented, so the title was changed toNew Girl. The show attempts to combine \"comedy and drama as the five characters explore the difficulties of the decade between 30 and 40, which is when many people take their biggest steps toward maturity\" with regard to relationships and careers,which, unlikeFriends, is giving the show a \"built-in biological clock\".ProducerJake Kasdansaid that \"Their lives are moving forward, they're still trying to hang on to some kind of crazy youth\" although he does not \"want them ever to seem pathetic.\" Casting Movie actress and singer-songwriter Zooey Deschanel was in the",
"was in the process of developing anHBOshow when she read theNew Girlpilot script and responded to the material.The character of Jess was not specifically written for Deschanel, but the producers found it a great match and adjusted it to better fit the actress.With the support from Fox, Meriwether wanted to make Jess a unique, interesting and funny female characterthat would have been the side character on other shows.Deschanel became a producer on the show and helped build the character,requesting to not play the classic wife character who would be ignored by the guys she tries to keep out of trouble.Meriwether's goal was to write about herself from an honest perspective,with Jess mirroring her at the start and later Deschanel until Jess turned into a \"hybrid of me and Zooey, the writers, and the editor\".Deschanel described Jess as a part of her, especially with regard to \"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\" of her youth. She does not shy away from playing embarrassing scenes or being unattractive.As Kasdan",
"Kasdan said, \"This show advocates for the attractive dork.\"Although Meriwether had always imagined the show as an ensemble show, Fox would later focus its first marketing push on Zooey Deschaneland gave the show the promotional tagline \"Simply Adorkable.\" Basing Nick Miller on a friend also surnamed Miller,she originally imagined Nick as the smartest one of the group who doesn't need to say thatand thought of him as \"the everyman one, who's stepping away and commenting on what all the crazy people are doing around him.\"She sent theNew Girlpilot script to movie actorJake Johnson, with whom she had enjoyed working onNo Strings Attachedand guided him through the audition process.Johnson auditioned withMax Greenfield, who impressed the producers in his first audition as Schmidt.The actors auditioning for Schmidt were more varied in appearance than those auditioning for Nick,and Johnson and Greenfield were initially worried that they looked too much alike.however, both men were cast the same day. Meriwether",
"day. Meriwether originally envisioned Coach as \"a fat Jewish guy, like a manchild\" and later as \"this dumb jock crazy rage problems\".David Neher (who would play Schmidt's so-called \"fremesis,\" Benjamin, in four episodes) was among the 400 actors auditioning for Coach before the producers settled onDamon Wayans Jr.who was expecting his show, theABCsitcomHappy Endings, to be cancelled. When that show was renewed for a second season, Wayans' spot was replaced with Lamorne Morris,who had also read for Coach but had been unavailable for filming the pilot.Meriwether estimated that about 80 percent of the pilot would have needed to be re-shot in order to remove Wayans from the episode, since he was in one of the leading roles of the show.As the producers also liked reflecting the frequent apartment changes in young people's lives,Meriwether, 20th Century Fox and the studio decided to keep the characters and the plot of the pilot episode as they were.Morris joined the show in the second episode of the series when",
"of the series when the producers had already broken seven episodes without knowing what the actor was going to be able to do.Wayans returned toNew Girlin season 3 for a season-long arc afterHappy Endingshad been cancelled, and was officially added as a regular for season 4. Writing New Girlhad 11 writers during its first seasonand 15 during the second season—includingElizabeth Meriwether,Brett Baer, andDave Finkel.Stories were developed in a collaborative effortand aimed at viewers of any gender.Writers intended to keep actors and audiences on their toes by planning very few story arcs and focusing on setting up characters in the first couple seasons . The writers challenged themselves to create new stories and change the show's dynamics to keep things fresh,while aiming to be \"as emotionally real as possible.\"As the show's jokes rely on the actors' performance instead of perfectly constructed punch lines, Meriwether looked for the actors' strengths before writing.The A story generally revolved around Jess",
"around Jess and had an emotional core.Still, Meriwether saw the show as an ensemble about friendship with \"everybody having their own stories and people being interested in all of the characters.\" EachNew Girlepisode started out as a pitch page, went through stages of an outline and a final draft before being filmed and edited,a process which could take weeks.The writers were broken up to rework drafts until they found the funniest and most emotionally resonant version. All characters were aimed to be tied into the story, and determining their motivation was the major goal so that people would laugh.During the first season, Meriwether usually made a final pass at the draft alone because of her film and theater background.The actors' performance influenced new story ideaswith the actors also handing in story ideas. Filming and editing The main set built for the pilot was to represent a factory-turned-loft in downtown Los Angeles. It was reused once the show was given a full season.The apartment building",
"apartment building exterior is the Binford Building, located at 837 Traction Avenue inthe city's Arts District, with interior shots done in a studio set.The exterior shots for the bar where Nick works is of The Griffin (now The High Low), located inAtwater Village. The interior shots of the bar are originally from a restaurant called The Prince inKoreatown, and were recreated in a studio set after the first season. As asingle-cameracomedy,New Girlis neither performed in front of a studio audience nor has alaugh track.Some scenes are cross-covered (i.e. are filmed with a shooting camera on each person at the same time), to allow for better improvisations.Handheld cameras are avoided for a more filmic look. The actors first perform scenes as written, then act out the alternatives or improvise,to later allow the producers and editors to choose the gags that ultimately work best.Morris estimated that 20 percent of each episode is improvised. True American True Americanis a fictional, convoluteddrinking gamethat",
"gamethat theNew Girlcharacters first played in the season 1 episode 20, \"Normal\". After \"Normal\" aired, internet sources began to summarize the rules forTrue American, which the characters described as a mix of a drinking game andCandy Landwherethe floor is lava; it also involves shouting the names of American presidents.The idea ofTrue Americancame from aNew Girlwriter who played a similar game in college. As she could not remember the game's exact rules, the writers focused on making the game as funny on the page as possible, but only established chanting \"JFK!FDR!\" and walking on chairs. Throughout the series, the writers created new rules on the spot in order to keep the actors improvising and encouraged them to \"have fun, dig in, jump in\". The game's second appearance in season 2's \"Cooler\" was played with the strip-poker version called \"Clinton Rules\", but the exact rules remain unclear even to the actors.True Americanwith updated rules and the resulting hangover were featured in season 3's \"Mars",
"in season 3's \"Mars Landing\". The writers started to do newTrue Americanepisodes once each yearwithout ever giving explicit rules for the game. Liz Meriwether said the game would not be easier to comprehend in later appearances, as the writers' goal is to actually make it harder to understand. Relationships Creator Elizabeth Meriwether sees Nick, Schmidt and Winston \"on the weirder side of things\".The producers started learning more about the characters by seeing the actors' work and that \"We probably rely on them more than we should\" to define the characters.Each of the actors improvisations allowed for the characters to switch traits around in the first season before solidifying their characters. Producers found more variety in Nick's character in season 1 and enjoyed Johnson's improvisations, so they relayed Coach's previous attributed rage issues to Nick.Nick's character connects the most with the other roommates, childhood friends with Winston and college roommates with Schmidt, allowing him to be more",
"him to be more involved in their stories. Writers developed the Nick–Winston dynamic in season 1 and sought to figure out Winston's relationship with the other loft mates in season 2.The writers noticed late during the first season that Morris seemed better suited to play a smart character and act as the loft's voice of reason,although Meriwether found that when Winston \"finally does blow up, he's crazier than all of them\"and that he works better \"in these kind of crazy, comedic runners, small pieces of the episode\"that contrast the relationship dramas of the other main characters.The Winston–Schmidt friendship was developed significantly in the second half of season 2 when the story focus moved to Nick and Jess.The Nick–Jess relationship affects the three guys' friendship as Nick starts being more considerate of Jess' feelings regarding shenanigans.Damon Wayans Jr. was planned to reprise his role as Coach in at least four episodes in the third season,according to Meriwether \"at a time when the roommates are",
"the roommates are at odds with each other\". With Meriwether's openness regarding straight and gay communities,New Girlalso plays with the guys' sexual orientation for humor. One of Winston's recurring alternate persona is Nick's gay lover \"Theodore K. Mullins\", which started out as an improv of Morris.Johnson thought that Nick and Schmidt had \"a pretty funny bromance\" with \"their own little weird will-they-won't-they\".Greenfield improvised kissing Nick a lot in season 1 until the writers started putting Schmidt–Nick kisses into the script,so that they shared more kisses than Nick and Jess did in the first two seasons. Episodes Broadcast and ratings TheNew Girlpilotwas released via on-demand, iTunes, andTiVoon September 6, 2011before its September 20 premiere onFoxin theUnited Statesand onCityin Canada.Other international broadcasters includeChannel 4andE4in the United Kingdom,RTÉ2in the Republic of Ireland,Network TenandElevenin Australia,andFourin New Zealand.The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S.",
"10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating,making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show sinceThe Bernie Mac Showin 2001.The second episode madeNew Girlthe top-rated show on television in the marketing-important 18–49 demographic, improved the rating of its lead-in hit seriesGleeand beat the long-running hit seriesNCISandDancing with the Stars.At this time, Fox ordered 11 additional episodes to the initial 13-episode order, bringing the first season to 24 episodes. The ratings dropped when the show took a break for baseball, falling almost 30 percent to a 2.1 rating in the 18–49 audience group.During the 2011–12 television season,New Girlaveraged 8.22 million viewers and a 4.2 adults 18–49 demo rating. In 18–49 demo, it ranked as the fifth highest rated show on Fox and 13th overall.On April 9, 2012,New Girlwas officially renewed for a second season of 24 episodes;Fox ordered one more episode during the second half of the season. Awards and nominations Main article:List of",
"article:List of awards and nominations received by New Girl The show has been nominated for several awards, including fiveGolden Globe Awardsand fivePrimetime Emmy Awards. Syndication and streaming New Girlwas added toTBSin 2015 and was removed in 2022. Additionally, the sitcom was added toMTVin 2015 and was removed in 2016.After 10 years on Netflix,the show became exclusively available onHuluandPeacocksince April 17, 2023. Home media Tie-ins Reception Critical reviews On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes, season one holds an approval rating of 84% based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.83/10.Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 66 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". In June 2011,New Girlwas one of eight honorees in the \"most exciting new series\" category at the1st Critics' Choice Television Awards, voted by journalists who had seen thepilots.Robert Bianco ofUSA TodayconsideredNew Girl\"fall's most promising new",
"most promising new series\" and praised how Deschanel and Meriwether \"have shaped Jess into something we haven't quite seen before – a woman who is sweet yet crass, innocent yet sexy, beautiful yet clumsy, and brash yet irresistibly adorable.\" However, he noted how \"Some people will be resistant to Deschanel's doe-eyed charm; others have a congenital need to insult anyone who most everyone else is praising, particularly if doing so gets them attention.\"The Hollywood Reporter'sTim Goodman saw the show as a \"mostly romantic comedy\", and although Jess' adorability \"might seem like a thin premise, Meriwether manages to make the situations funny and lets Deschanel channel her charm – a winning combination.\"David Wiegandof theSan Francisco Chroniclewould rather see the show tone down. He felt \"the show's fundamental setup isn't all that inspired, but it could work with smarter writing and better direction, especially with regard to Deschanel\", who, in his opinion, overplayed Jess' weird habits \"to the point of",
"\"to the point of overkill within the first 10 minutes of the show\". Alan SepinwallofHitFixconsideredNew Girl\"the best new comedy of the fall season, and the only new show I genuinely enjoyed from start to finish\" because it was so well developed from the start. He praised Deschanel's \"wonderful comic performance\" and said that while the supporting actors \"all bounce nicely off of Deschanel\", the scenes without Deschanel around them fell flat for him.Writing for theDaily News, David Hinckley lauded how none of the characters \"settle in as the stereotypes they could easily become\", and presumed that all of them would evolve and get smarter as the show progresses.Lori Rack of theChicago Sun-Timespraised the actors' comedic timing and playing off each other. Despite the guys sounding \"like nightmares\" on paper, \"they have endearing, vulnerable cores that make them likable, and occasionally, lovable. New Girldidn't give me as many laugh-out-loud moments as some comedies\", but instead made her \"feel warm and",
"her \"feel warm and fuzzy\".Rob Owen of thePittsburgh Post-Gazettesaid the show's pilot was \"more charming than hilarious\" and \"cuter than it is funny, but when it does conjure laughs, its style of humor is reminiscent of ABC'sHappy Endings\". Many critics considered Max Greenfield the show's breakout star in season 1;The A.V. Clubeven named Greenfield's Schmidt \"the year's breakout TV character\" as a \"douchebag with a heart of gold\".Salondescribed Schmidt as \"a sort of self-created alpha male and a collection of beta male qualities are performed with such conviction they congeal into a sort of deranged machismo, one slathered in sandalwood-scented lotion. As part of this transition, Schmidt has gone from being a douchebag in the classic model—a guy who, in the pilot, constantly wanted to show off his pecs and scam girls, and seemed capable of doing so—to a douche of a more unique variety.\"The Huffington Post'sMaureen Ryan said how \"Schmidt could have easily been 'the dumb guy', or the show could have",
"the show could have exploited his status as an eminently mockable douche. But thanks to Max Greenfield's endearing depiction of the would-be lady-killer, there's a lot more the writers have been able to do with the character.\" On Rotten Tomatoes, season two holds an approval rating of 88% based on 16 reviews, with an average rating of 6.56/10. After the teasing of the Nick–Jess relationship in the first season, critics named Jake Johnson the breakout star of season 2 as the characters' romance unfolded.Saying that \"Not since Ross and Rachel's tango onFriendshas watching a comedy romance been so satisfying\",The Hollywood Reportersaid the producers \"did the impossible by engaging their leads in a love story, which only strengthened the artistry of the single-cam comedy\".The New York Timessaid season 2 \"erupted in fantastic and bizarre fits and starts\" because of the characters' unmatched personalities, and lauded the writers for not playing up the will-they-or-won't-they dynamic. By emphasizinghowthe",
"emphasizinghowthe characters got together, the show \"made for hilarious setups to high-level Abbott and Costello slapstick. The continued Nick–Jess relationship was criticized in season 3 for dropping the characters' personalities, lack of tension,and for neglecting the show's female friendship between Jess and Cece. On Rotten Tomatoes, season three holds an approval rating of 88% based on 14 reviews, with an average rating of 6.46/10. Season four holds an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.67/10. The series' seventh and final season has an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.78, and a critical consensus of, \"After seven years of friendship,New Girlsigns off with a thoughtful, funny final season that bids a proper adieu to its colorful cast of characters.\" References External links",
"List ofNew Girlepisodes New Girlis an American televisionsitcomthat premiered onFoxon September 20, 2011. Developed byElizabeth Meriwetherunder the working titleChicks & Dicks, the show starsZooey Deschanelas Jessica \"Jess\" Day, a well-liked and bubbly woman who is trying to get over her surprise breakup with her boyfriend. With the help of her best friend Cece (Hannah Simone), she finds a new place to stay when she moves in with three single guys: Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), an underachieving bartender; Schmidt (Max Greenfield), who thinks of himself as a modern-dayCasanova; and Coach (Damon Wayans, Jr.), who leaves the series in the next episode and is replaced by Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris), a former professional athlete who achieved modest success abroad and is adjusting to life back in the United States. Coach reappears in the series during seasons three, four, five, six, and seven. On May 14, 2017, the series was renewed for a seventh and final season, which featured eight episodes.On January 4,",
"January 4, 2018, it was announced that the seventh and final season would premiere on April 10, 2018, and also it would end with a one-hour series finale, which was aired on May 15, 2018. During the course of the series, 146 episodes ofNew Girlaired over seven seasons. Series overview Episodes Season 1 (2011–12) Season 2 (2012–13) Season 3 (2013–14) Season 4 (2014–15) Season 5 (2016) Season 6 (2016–17) Season 7 (2018) Ratings Notes References External links"
] |
What medal was won in 1979 by the famous physicist who attended the oldest college in London? | Albert Einstein medal | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford#Mathematics_and_sciences | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#1975%E2%80%931990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Medal | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford#Mathematics_and_sciences', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#1975%E2%80%931990', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Medal'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford#Mathematics_and_sciences",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#1975%E2%80%931990",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Medal"
] | [
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"Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Stephen_Hawking (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b953ff490>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))",
"Albert Einstein Medal TheAlbert Einstein Medalis an award presented by theAlbert Einstein SocietyinBern. First given in 1979, the award is presented to people for \"scientific findings, works, or publications related toAlbert Einstein\" each year. Recipients Source:Einstein Society See also References"
] | [
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"Albert Einstein Medal TheAlbert Einstein Medalis an award presented by theAlbert Einstein SocietyinBern. First given in 1979, the award is presented to people for \"scientific findings, works, or publications related toAlbert Einstein\" each year. Recipients Source:Einstein Society See also References"
] |
How much larger was the concert capacity of the venue where Led Zeppelin recorded "The Song Remains the Same" than the venue where AC/DC recorded their first live album? | 16,500 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Song_Remains_the_Same_(album) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC/DC_discography#Live_albums | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_You_Want_Blood_You%27ve_Got_It | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Apollo,_Glasgow | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Song_Remains_the_Same_(album)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC/DC_discography#Live_albums', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_You_Want_Blood_You%27ve_Got_It', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Apollo,_Glasgow'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Song_Remains_the_Same_(album",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC/DC_discography#Live_albums",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_You_Want_Blood_You%27ve_Got_It",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Apollo,_Glasgow"
] | [
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"Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden, colloquially known asthe Gardenor by its initialsMSG, is a multi-purpose indoor arena inNew York City. It is located inMidtown ManhattanbetweenSeventhandEighthAvenues from 31st to 33rd Street abovePennsylvania Station. It is the fourth venue to bear the name \"Madison Square Garden\"; the first two, opened in1879and1890respectively, were located onMadison Square, on East 26th Street and Madison Avenue, with thethird Madison Square Garden(1925) farther uptown at Eighth Avenue and 50th Street. The Garden hosts professional ice hockey, professional basketball, boxing, mixed martial arts, concerts, ice shows, circuses, professional wrestling, and other forms of sports and entertainment. It is close to other midtown Manhattan landmarks, including theEmpire State Building,Koreatown, andMacy'satHerald Square. It is home to theNew York Rangersof theNational Hockey League(NHL), theNew York Knicksof theNational Basketball Association(NBA), and was home to theNew York Libertyof theWomen's National Basketball Association(WNBA) from 1997 to 2017. Originally calledMadison Square Garden Center, the Garden opened on February 11, 1968, and is the oldest major sporting facility in theNew York metropolitan area. It is the oldest arena in the NBA and the second-oldest in the NHL, after Seattle'sClimate Pledge Arena. As of 2016, MSG is also the second-busiest music arena in the world in terms of ticket sales.Including its two major renovations in 1991 and 2013, the Garden's total construction cost was approximately $1.1 billion, and it has been ranked as one of the 10 most expensivearenavenues ever built.It is part of thePennsylvania Plazaoffice and retail complex, named for the railway station. Severalother operating entitiesrelated to the Garden share its name. History Previous Gardens Madison Squareis formed by the intersection of5th AvenueandBroadwayat23rd Streetin Manhattan. It was named afterJames Madison, fourthPresident of the United States. Two venues called Madison Square Garden were located just northeast of the square,the original Gardenfrom 1879 to 1890, andthe second Gardenfrom 1890 to 1925. The first, leased toP. T. Barnum,was demolished in 1890 because of a leaky roof and dangerous balconies that had collapsed, resulting in deaths. The second was designed by noted architectStanford White. The new building was built by a syndicate that includedJ. P. Morgan,Andrew Carnegie,P. T. Barnum,Darius Mills,James StillmanandW. W. Astor. White gave them aBeaux-Artsstructure with aMoorishfeel, including a minaret-like tower modeled afterGiralda, the bell tower of theCathedral of Seville,soaring 32 stories, the city's second-tallest building at the timeand dominatingMadison Square Park. It was 200 feet (61 m) by 485 feet (148 m), and the main hall, which was the largest in the world, measured 200 feet (61 m) by 350 feet (110 m) with permanent seating for 8,000 people and floor space for thousands more. It had a 1,200-seat theater, a concert hall with a capacity of 1,500, the largest restaurant in the city, and a roof garden cabaret.The building cost $3 million.Madison Square Garden II was unsuccessful like the first Garden,and theNew York Life Insurance Company, which held the mortgage on it, decided to tear it down in 1925 to make way for a new headquarters building, which would become the landmarkCass Gilbert-designedNew York Life Building. Athird Madison Square Gardenopened in a new location, on8th Avenuebetween49thand50th Streets, from 1925 to 1968. Groundbreaking on the third Madison Square Garden took place on January 9, 1925.Designed by the noted theater architectThomas W. Lamb, it was built at the cost of $4.75 million in 249 days by boxing promoterTex Rickard;the arena was dubbed \"The House That Tex Built.\"The arena was 200 feet (61 m) by 375 feet (114 m), with seating on three levels, and a maximum capacity of 18,496 spectators for boxing. Demolition commenced in 1968 after the opening of the current Garden,and was completed in early 1969. The site is now the location ofOne Worldwide Plaza. Current Garden In February 1959, former automobile manufacturerGraham-Paigepurchased a 40% interest in the Madison Square Garden for $4 millionand later gained control.In November 1960, Graham-Paige presidentIrving Mitchell Feltpurchased from thePennsylvania Railroadthe rights to build atPenn Station.To build the new facility, the above-ground portions ofthe original Pennsylvania Stationwere torn down. The new structure was one of the first of its kind to be built above the platforms of an active railroad station. It was an engineering feat constructed byRobert E. McKeeofEl Paso, Texas. Public outcry over the demolition of the Pennsylvania Station structure—an outstanding example ofBeaux-Arts architecture—led to the creation of theNew York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. The venue opened on February 11, 1968. Comparing the new and the old Penn Station, Yale architectural historianVincent Scullywrote, \"One entered the city like a god; one scuttles in now like a rat.\" In 1972, Felt proposed moving theKnicksandRangersto a then incomplete venue in theNew Jersey Meadowlands, theMeadowlands Sports Complex. The Garden was also the home arena for theNY Raiders/NY Golden Bladesof theWorld Hockey Association. The Meadowlands would eventually host its own NBA and NHL teams, theNew Jersey Netsand theNew Jersey Devils, respectively. TheNew York GiantsandJetsof theNational Football League(NFL) also relocated there. In 1977, the arena was sold toGulf and Western Industries. Felt's efforts fueled controversy between the Garden and New York City over real estate taxes. The disagreement again flared in 1980 when the Garden again challenged its tax bill. The arena, since the 1980s, has since enjoyed tax-free status, under the condition that all Knicks and Rangers home games must be hosted at MSG, lest it lose this exemption. As such, when the Rangers have played neutral-site games—even those in New York City, such as the2018 NHL Winter Classic, they have always been designated as the visiting team.The tax agreement includes anact of Godclause, which allowed Knicks and Rangers home games to be played elsewhere during the2020 NBA Bubbleand2020 Stanley Cup playoffs, respectively, because of theCOVID-19 pandemic. In 1984, the four streets immediately surrounding the Garden were designated as Joe Louis Plaza, in honor of boxerJoe Louis, who had made eight successful title defenses in theprevious Madison Square Garden. 1991 renovation In April 1986, Gulf and Western announced that they would build a new Madison Square Garden a few blocks away on the site of present-dayHudson Yards. The plan would cost an estimated $150 million and included the demolition of the 1964 building to replace it with a new office tower development.After years of planning, Gulf and Western decided against building a new arena in favor of a renovation after estimated costs doubled throughout the process. Garden owners spent $200 million in 1991 to renovate facilities and add 89 suites in place of hundreds of upper-tier seats. The project was designed byEllerbe Becket. The renovation was criticized for perceived corporatization. Additionally, the renovation made bathrooms larger, expanded menus, added a new ventilation system, replaced all of the seats with new cushioned teal and violet seats, and refurbished both home teams' locker rooms. In 2000, current MSG owner, James Dolan was quoted as saying that a new arena was being considered as the current building was starting to show its age. In 2004–2005,Cablevisionbattled with the City of New York over the proposedWest Side arena, which was canceled. Cablevision then announced plans to raze the Garden, replace it with high-rise commercial buildings, and build a new Garden one block away at the site of theJames Farley Post Office. Meanwhile, a new project to renovate and modernize the Garden completed phase one in time for theRangersandKnicks' 2011–12 seasons,though the vice president of the Garden says he remains committed to the installation of an extension of Penn Station at the Farley Post Office site. While the Knicks and Rangers were not displaced, theNew York Libertyplayed at thePrudential CenterinNewark, New Jerseyduring the renovation. Madison Square Garden is the last of theNBAandNHLarenas not to be named after a corporate sponsor. 2011–2013 renovation Madison Square Garden's $1 billion second renovation took place mainly over three off-seasons. It was set to begin after the 2009–10 hockey/basketball seasons, but was delayed until after the 2010–11 seasons. Renovation was done in phases with the majority of the work done in the summer months to minimize disruptions to the NHL and NBA seasons. While the Rangers and Knicks were not displaced,the Liberty played their home games through the 2013 season atPrudential CenterinNewark, New Jersey, during the renovation. New features include a larger entrance with interactive kiosks, retail, climate-controlled space, and broadcast studio; larger concourses; new lighting and LED video systems with HDTV; new seating; two new pedestrian walkways suspended from the ceiling to allow fans to look directly down onto the games being played below; more dining options; and improved dressing rooms, locker rooms, green rooms, upgraded roof, and production offices. The lower bowl concourse, called the Madison Concourse, remains on the sixth floor. The upper bowl concourse was relocated to the eighth floor and it is known as the Garden Concourse. The seventh floor houses the new Madison Suites and the Madison Club. The upper bowl was built on top of these suites. The rebuilt concourses are wider than their predecessors, and include large windows that offer views of the city streets around the Garden. Construction of the lower bowl (Phase 1) was completed in 2011.An extended off-season for the Garden permitted some advanced work to begin on the new upper bowl, which was completed in 2012. This advance work included the West Balcony on the tenth floor, taking the place of sky-boxes, and new end-ice 300 level seating. The construction of the upper bowl along with the Madison Suites and the Madison Club (Phase 2) were completed for the 2012–13 NHL and NBA seasons.Phase 3, which involved the construction of the new lobby known as Chase Square, the Chase Bridges on the 10th floor, and the new scoreboard, was completed for the 2013–14 NHL and NBA seasons. Penn Station renovation controversy Madison Square Garden is seen as an obstacle in the renovation and future expansion ofPenn Station,which expanded in 2021 with the opening ofMoynihan Train Hallat theJames Farley Post Office,and some have proposed moving MSG to other sites in western Manhattan. On February 15, 2013,Manhattan Community Board 5voted 36–0 against granting a renewal to MSG's operating permit in perpetuity and proposed a 10-year limit instead in order to build a new Penn Station where the arena is currently standing. Manhattan borough presidentScott Stringersaid, \"Moving the arena is an important first step to improving Penn Station.\"The Madison Square Garden Companyresponded by saying that \"t is incongruous to think that M.S.G. would be considering moving.\" In May 2013, four architecture firms –SHoP Architects,SOM,H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture, andDiller Scofidio + Renfro– submittedproposalsfor a new Penn Station. SHoP Architects recommended moving Madison Square Garden to the Morgan Postal Facility a few blocks southwest, as well as removing2 Penn Plazaand redeveloping other towers, and an extension of theHigh Lineto Penn Station.Meanwhile, SOM proposed moving Madison Square Garden to the area just south of theJames Farley Post Office, and redeveloping the area above Penn Station as amixed-use developmentwith commercial, residential, and recreational space.H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture wanted to move the arena to a new pier west ofJacob K. Javits Convention Center, four blocks west of the current station and arena. Then, according to H3's plan, fourskyscraperswould be built, one at each of the four corners of the new Penn Station superblock, with aroof gardenon top of the station; the Farley Post Office would become an education center.Finally, Diller Scofidio + Renfro proposed a mixed-use development on the site, with spas, theaters, a cascading park, a pool, and restaurants; Madison Square Garden would be moved two blocks west, next to the post office. DS+F also proposed high-tech features in the station, such as train arrival and departure boards on the floor, andappsthat would inform waiting passengers of ways to occupy their time until they board their trains.Madison Square Garden rejected the notion that it would be relocated, and called the plans \"pie-in-the-sky\". In June 2013, theNew York City CouncilCommittee on Land Use voted unanimously to give the Garden a ten-year permit, at the end of which period the owners will either have to relocate or go back through the permission process.On July 24, the City Council voted to give the Garden a 10-year operating permit by a vote of 47–1. \"This is the first step in finding a new home for Madison Square Garden and building a new Penn Station that is as great as New York and suitable for the 21st century,\" said City Council speakerChristine Quinn. \"This is an opportunity to reimagine and redevelop Penn Station as a world-class transportation destination.\" In October 2014, the Morgan facility was selected as the ideal area for Madison Square Garden to be moved, following the 2014 MAS Summit in New York City. More plans for the station were discussed.Then, in January 2016, New York GovernorAndrew Cuomoannounced a redevelopment plan for Penn Station that would involve the removal ofThe Theater at Madison Square Garden, but would otherwise leave the arena intact. In June 2023, nearing the end of the Garden's ten-year permit granted by the city, theMetropolitan Transportation Authority, along withAmtrakandNJ Transit, filed a report stating that MSG is no longer compatible with Penn Station, with the report saying, \"MSG's existing configuration and property boundaries impose severe constraints on the station that impede the safe and efficient movement of passengers and restrict efforts to implement improvements, particularly at the street and platform levels.\"On September 14, 2023, the New York City Council voted 48–0 to renew the operating permit for Madison Square Garden for five years, the shortest ever granted by the city to the Garden. Events Regular events Sports Madison Square Garden hosts approximately 320 events a year. It is the home to theNew York Rangersof the National Hockey League, and theNew York Knicksof the National Basketball Association. Before 2020, the New York Rangers, New York Knicks, and the Madison Square Garden arena itself were all owned by the Madison Square Garden Company. The MSG Company split into two entities in 2020, with the Garden arena and other non-sports assets spun off intoMadison Square Garden Entertainmentand the Rangers and Knicks remaining with the original company, renamedMadison Square Garden Sports. Both entities remain under the voting control ofJames Dolanand his family. The arena is also host to theBig East men's basketball tournamentand was home to the finals of theNational Invitation Tournamentfrom the beginning of its existence up until 2022.It also hosts select home games for theSt. John's Red Storm, representingSt. John's Universityin men's (college basketball), and almost any other kind of indoor activity that draws large audiences, such as theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Showand the2004 Republican National Convention. The Garden was home of theNBA draftandNIT Season Tip-Off,as well as the former New York City home of theRingling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey CircusandDisney on Ice; all four events are now held at theBarclays CenterinBrooklyn. It served theNew York Cosmosfor half of their home games during the1983–84 NASL Indoor season. Many ofboxing's biggest fights were held at Madison Square Garden, including theRoberto Durán–Ken Buchananaffair,the firstMuhammad Ali–Joe Frazierbout and the US debut ofAnthony Joshuathat ended in a huge upset when he was beaten byAndy Ruiz. Before promoters such asDon KingandBob Arummoved boxing toLas Vegas,Nevada, Madison Square Garden was a popular location for boxing. The original18+1⁄2ft ×18+1⁄2ft (5.6 m × 5.6 m) ring, which was brought from the second and third generation of the Garden, was officially retired on September 19, 2007, and donated to theInternational Boxing Hall of Fameafter 82 years of service.A 20 ft × 20 ft (6.1 m × 6.1 m) ring replaced it beginning on October 6 of that same year.TheUFChas made Madison Square Garden in recent years and have put on some of the highest grossing PPV events in history. Pro wrestling Madison Square Garden has hosted many notableWWE(formerly WWF and WWWF) events.The Garden has hosted threeWrestleManiaevents, including thefirstedition of the annual marquee event for WWE, as well as the10thand20theditions. Madison Square Garden is also one of two venues (the other beingAllstate Arena) to host WrestleMania three times. It also hosted theRoyal Rumblein2000and2008;SummerSlamin1988,1991and1998; as well asSurvivor Seriesin1996,2002and2011. Multiple episodes of WWE's weekly shows,RawandSmackDownhave been broadcast from the Arena as well. New Japan Pro-Wrestling(NJPW) andRing of Honor(ROH) hosted theirG1 Supercardsupershow at the venue on April 6, 2019. A year later it was announced thatNew Japan Pro-Wrestlingwould return to Madison Square Garden alone on August 22, 2020, for NJPW Wrestle Dynasty.In May 2020, NJPW announced that the Wrestle Dynasty show would be postponed to 2021 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. Concerts Madison Square Garden hosts more high-profile concert events than any other venue in New York City. It has been the venue forMichael Jackson'sBad World Tourin 1988,George Harrison'sThe Concert for Bangladesh,The Concert for New York Cityfollowing theSeptember 11 attacks,John Lennon's final concert appearance during anElton Johnconcert on Thanksgiving Night in 1974 beforehis murderin 1980, andElvis Presley, who gave four sold-out performances in 1972, his first and last ever in New York City.Parliament-Funkadelicheadlined numerous sold-out shows in 1977 and 1978.Kiss, who were formed in the arena's city and three of whose members were city-born, did six shows during their second half of the 1970s main attraction peak or \"heyday\": four sold out winter shows at the arena in 1977 (February 18 and December 14–16), and another two shows only this time in summer for a decade-ender in 1979 (July 24–25). They played their final two shows at the venue on the December 1 and 2, 2023, the 50th anniversary year of their formation.Billy Joel, another city-born and fellow 1970's pop star, played his first Garden show on December 14, 1978, with that month's follow ups on the 15th, 16th and 18th.Led Zeppelin's three-night stand in July 1973 was recorded and released as both afilmandalbumtitledThe Song Remains The Same.The Policeplayed their final show of their reunion tour at the Garden in 2008. In the summer of 2017,Phishheld a 13 night series of concerts called \"The Bakers' Dozen.\" During which the band played 237 unique songs, repeating none during the entire run. The Garden commemorated \"The Bakers' Dozen\" by adding a Phish themed banner to the rafters.With their first MSG show taking place on December 30, 1994, Phish has regularly played annual multi night runs, typically around New Year's Eve.As of January 2024, Phish has performed 83 times at MSG. Elton Johnonce held the all-time record for the greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 64 shows. In a 2009 press release, John was quoted as saying \"Madison Square Garden is my favorite venue in the whole world. I chose to have my 60th birthday concert there, because of all the incredible memories I've had playing the venue.\"A DVD recording was released asElton 60—Live at Madison Square Garden. Billy Joel, who holds the record for the greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 134 shows as of February 2023,stated that the site \"has the best acoustics, the best audiences, the best reputation, and the best history of great artists who have played there. It is the iconic, holy temple of rock and roll for most touring acts.\" TheGrateful Deadperformed in the venue 53 times from 1979 to 1994, with the first show being held on January 7, 1979, and the last being on October 19, 1994. Their longest run being done in September 1991. The Whohave headlined at the venue 32 times, including a four-night stand in 1974, a five-night stand in 1979, a six-night stand in 1996, and four-night stands in 2000 and 2002. They also performed atThe Concert for New York Cityin 2001. On March 10, 2020, a 50th-anniversary celebration ofThe Allman Brothers Bandtitled 'The Brothers' took place, featuring the five surviving members of the final Allman Brothers lineup andChuck Leavell.Dickey Bettswas invited to participate but his health precluded him from traveling.This was the final concert at the venue before theCOVID-19 pandemicforced its closure. Live shows returned to The Garden when theFoo Fightersheadlined a show there on June 20, 2021. The show was for a vaccinated audience only and was the first 100 percent capacity concert in a New York arena since the start of the pandemic. Other events It hosted the1976 Democratic National Convention,1980 Democratic National Convention,1992 Democratic National Convention,and the2004 Republican National Convention,and hosted theNFL draftfor many years (later held at Garden-leasedRadio City Music Hall, now shared between cities of NFL franchises).TheJeopardy!Teen Tournament and several installments ofCelebrity Jeopardy!were filmed at MSG in 1999,as well as several episodes ofWheel of Fortunein 1999 and 2013. TheNew York City Police Academy,Baruch College/CUNYandYeshiva Universityalso hold their annual graduation ceremonies at Madison Square Garden. It hosted theGrammy Awardsin 1972, 1997, 2003, and 2018 (which are normally held inLos Angeles) as well as theLatin Grammy Awards of 2006. The group, and Best in Show competitions of theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Showhave been held at MSG every February from 1877 to 2020, which was MSG's longest continuous tenant although this was broken in 2021 as the Westminster Kennel Club announced that the event would be held outdoors for the first time due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Notable firsts and significant events The Garden hosted theStanley Cup FinalsandNBA Finalssimultaneously on two occasions: in 1972 and 1994. MSG has hosted the following All-Star Games: Mike Krzyzewskirecorded two notable milestones at the arena. In 2011, he surpassedBob Knightas the coach with the most winsNCAA Division Imen's basketball history whenDukedefeatedMichigan State. Four years later, a Duke victory over St. John's gave Coach K his 1,000th career win. Stephen Currybroke the NBA'sall-time three-point scoring recordat Madison Square Garden, on December 14, 2021. TheWarriorsdefeated the Knicks 105–96 with Curry recording his 2,977th career three-pointer by the end of the game, eclipsingRay Allen's 2,973 career total. Recognition given by Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden Gold Ticket Award In 1977, Madison Square Garden announcedGold Ticket Awardswould be given to performers who had brought in more than 100,000 unit ticket sales to the venue. Since the arena's seating capacity is about 20,000, this would require a minimum of five sold-out shows. Performers who were eligible for the award at the time of its inauguration includedChicago,John Denver,Peter Frampton, theRolling Stones, theJackson 5,Elton John,Led Zeppelin,Sly Stone,Jethro Tull,The Who, andYes.Graeme Edge, who received his award in 1981 as a member ofThe Moody Blues, said he found his gold ticket to be an interesting piece of memorabilia because he could use it to attend any event at the Garden.Many other performers received Gold Ticket Awards between 1977 and 1994. Madison Square Garden Platinum Ticket Award Madison Square Garden also gave Platinum Ticket Awards to performers who sold over 250,000 tickets to their shows throughout the years. Winners of the Platinum Ticket Awards include: the Rolling Stones (1981),Elton John (1982),Yes (1984),Billy Joel (1984),the Grateful Dead (1987),and Madonna (2004). Madison Square Garden Hall of Fame The Madison Square Garden Hall of Fame honors those who have demonstrated excellence in their fields at the Garden. Most of the inductees have been sports figures, however, some performers have been inducted as well. Elton John was reported to be the first non-sports figure inducted into the MSG Hall of Fame in 1977 for \"record attendance of 140,000\" in June of that year.For their accomplishment of \"13 sell-out concerts\" at the venue, the Rolling Stones were inducted into the MSG Hall of Fame in 1984, along with nine sports figures icons, bringing the hall's membership to 107. Madison Square Garden Walk of Fame The walkway leading to the arena of Madison Square Garden was designated as the \"Walk of Fame\" in 1992.It was established \"to recognize athletes, artists, announcers and coaches for their extraordinary achievements and memorable performances at the venue.\"Each inductee is commemorated with a plaque that lists the performance category in which his or her contributions have been made.Twenty-five athletes were inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame at its inaugural ceremony in 1992, a black-tie dinner to raise money to fight multiple sclerosis.Elton John was the first entertainer to be inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame in 1992.Billy Joel was inducted at a date after Elton John,and the Rolling Stones were inducted in 1998.In 2015, the Grateful Dead were inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame along with at least three sports-related figures. Capacity The Theater at Madison Square Garden The Theater at Madison Square Garden seats between 2,000 and 5,600 for concerts and can also be used for meetings, stage shows, and graduation ceremonies. It was the home of theNFL draftuntil 2005, when it moved to theJacob K. Javits Convention Centerafter MSG management opposed anew arenafor theNew York Jets. It also hosted theNBA draftfrom 2001 to 2010. The theater also occasionally hosts boxing matches. The fall 1999Jeopardy!Teen Tournamentas well as aCelebrity Jeopardy!competitions were held at the theater.Wheel of Fortunetaped at the theater twice in 1999 and 2013. In 2004, it was the venue of theSurvivor: All-Starsfinale. No seat is more than 177 feet (54 m) from the 30' × 64' stage. The theater has a relatively low 20-foot (6.1 m) ceiling at stage leveland all of its seating except for boxes on the two side walls is on one level slanted back from the stage. There is an 8,000-square-foot (740 m2) lobby at the theater. Accessibility and transportation Madison Square Garden sits directly atop a major transportation hub,New York Penn Station, which is served byLong Island Rail RoadandNJ Transitcommuter rail, as well asAmtrak. The Garden is also accessible via theNew York City Subwayat the34th Street–Penn Station(A, C, and Etrains) and the34th Street–Penn Station(1, 2, and 3trains) stations. See also References Notes Sources External links",
"AC/DC discography AustralianrockbandAC/DChave released 18studio albums, twosoundtrack albums, threelive albums, oneextended play, 57singles, 11video albums, 52music videosand twobox sets. Although many AC/DC singles have been released, the band refused to issue anygreatest hitsalbums.Who Made Who, which served as the soundtrack to Stephen King's filmMaximum Overdrive,Iron Man 2and the band's various live recordings are the closest they have issued to such a compilation. BrothersAngus(lead guitar) andMalcolm Young(rhythm guitar) formed AC/DC in 1973.The band released two albums inAustralasiabefore issuing their first international album,High Voltagein 1976; the Youngs had been joined by vocalistBon Scott, bass guitaristMark Evansand drummerPhil Rudd.In 1980, less than a year after the appearance of the successfulHighway to Hell, Scott died and was replaced by English singerBrian Johnson, with whom AC/DC released their best-selling album,Back in Black.The albumBlack Ice, from 2008, reached number one in 29 countries.In 50 years of their career, AC/DC have sold over 200 million albums worldwide,and 83 million in the United States.Back in Blacksold 50 million copies worldwide, and became thesecond best-selling album in history. Verizonmade AC/DC albums available fordigital downloadin 2007;for five years the band refused to release their albums viaiTunes, as that company allows downloading of individual tracks.Angus Young observed, \"We honestly believe the songs on any of our albums belong together. If we were on iTunes, we know a certain percentage of people would only download two or three songs from the album – and we don't think that represents us musically.\"However, in November 2012, the band relented and released their entire discography via iTunes.On 30 June 2015, their catalogue appeared onSpotifyfor the first time, which made their works available forstreaming.Their most certified singles in the US are \"Thunderstruck\" (1990), \"Back in Black\" (1980), \"Highway to Hell\" (1979), and \"You Shook Me All Night Long\" (1980) – each have received Diamond, 7× Platinum, and 6× Platinum and from theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) in 2024, respectively.In Australia, \"Thunderstruck\" (1990) was accredited 10× Platinum by theAustralian Recording Industry Association(ARIA) in 2022. Albums Studio albums Live albums Soundtrack albums Box set albums Extended plays Singles Videos Video albums Music videos See also Notes References Further reading External links",
"If You Want Blood You've Got It If You Want Blood You've Got It(written as justIf You Want Blood) is the first live album by Australianhard rockbandAC/DC, and their only live album released duringBon Scott's lifetime. It was originally released in the UK and Europe on 13 October 1978, in the US on 21 November 1978, and in Australia on 27 November 1978.The album was re-released in 1994 onAtco Recordsand in 2003 as part of theAC/DC Remastersseries. Background The album was released six months after the band's previous studio albumPowerage. A 'best-of' package called12 of the Besthad been in the works, but the project was scrapped in favour of a live album. It was recorded during the 1978Poweragetour and contains songs fromT.N.T.,Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap,Let There Be Rock, andPowerage. It is the last Bon Scott-era AC/DC album produced byHarry VandaandGeorge Young, who also produced the band's first five studio releases. In his 1994 Bon Scott memoirHighway to Hell, authorClinton Walkerobserves, \"Live albums, which tended to be double or triple sets in which songs short in their studio versions were stretched out into extended tedium, were for some reason popular in the seventies.If You Want Bloodreversed this tradition... it boasted a blunt ten tracks and, allowing nothing extraneous, got straight to the point, that being raging AC/DC rock and roll.\" A concert at theApollo TheatreinGlasgow, Scotland on 30 April 1978 was used for the live tracks. The concert is also remembered for the encore, when AC/DC came back on stage dressed in the Scottish football strip, paying homage to Scott's and the Young brothers' homeland. \"This gig summed up what made AC/DC so special live: the energy, the rapport with the crowd and the way those simple yet classic songs took on another life. You hear all of this onIf You Want Blood. It's a great reminder of how remarkable the band and their fans were that night.\" –Tom Russell, DJ \"Dog Eat Dog\", performed on the night, was removed from the album release, while the encore – \"Fling Thing/Rocker\" – was edited, removing \"Fling Thing\" and cutting out Angus's extended solo, as he did a walk around the audience (with an early version of a wireless guitar lead). This part of the band's concert theatrics later accompanied \"Let There Be Rock\"; \"Rocker\" has been performed only a few times since Bon Scott's passing in 1980. The live \"Dog Eat Dog\" was released as the b-side of the single \"Whole Lotta Rosie\" in November 1978, but only in Australia. It was rereleased worldwide in 2009 on the two (standard) and three (collectors) CD boxed set compilationBacktracks, featuring Australian-only songs not released internationally at the time, and live b-Sides from 7\" and 12\" singles. The encores \"Fling Thing\" and \"Rocker\" (with a complete guitar solo) appeared only on footage of the concert by a Dutch TV station played at the time, but were eventually released on theFamily JewelsDVD. According to the 2006 bookAC/DC: Maximum Rock & Roll, the album title was an extension of Scott's response – at theDay on the Greenfestival in July 1978 – when a journalist asked what they could expect from the band. The singer replied, \"Blood.\"The cover art is from a shoot withAtlantic Records' staff photographer Jim Houghton after the show at Boston'sParadise Theateron 21st August 1978, the idea for which came from Atlantic's art director Bob Defrin.The front cover depicts Angus Young being impaled on stage with a guitar during a performance, while the back depicts a bloodied Young lying facedown on the same stage, though deserted. A song titled \"If You Want Blood (You've Got It)\" appeared on the next album: the band's US chart breakthrough,Highway to Hell. Reception The album was listed at #2 onClassic Rockmagazine's readers' poll of \"50 Greatest Live Albums Ever\".In a 1992 interview withMetal Hammerat the time of the band'ssecond live release, Malcolm Young admitted, \"I personally still prefer the old album. We were young, fresh, vital and kicking ass.\"Greg Prato ofAllMusicnotes, \"While most other rock bands of the era were busy experimenting withdiscoor creating studio-perfected epics, AC/DC was one of the few specializing in raw and bluesy hard rock, as evidenced by 1978's live set, If You Want Blood You've Got It.\"Eduardo Rivadavia ofUltimate Classic Rockenthuses, \"Other concert records may boast more songs, more Top 40 hits or even more crowd-pleasing gimmicks. But very few can challenge the sheer excitement and reckless abandon captured on AC/DC’s terrific concert document.\"Carlo Twist ofBlendermagazine praised the album, saying that \"They were always a mighty live act, and this is the sound of AC/DC in Europe just prior to 1979's U.S. breakthrough. The audience's hysteria regularly cuts through the amps, as they howl along to singer Bon Scott's tale of sexually transmitted disease (\"The Jack\") and punctuate guitarist Angus Young's staccato riffing on \"Whole Lotta Rosie.\" Imagine a punk-rock Chuck Berry played at nosebleed volume.\" Concert footage The entire Glasgow concert was filmed but the complete footage has never been released. Eventually, \"Riff Raff\" and \"Fling Thing/Rocker\" segments were made available on the DVDAC/DC Family Jewels, released in 2005. Video footage was also used from the show onFamily Jewelsusing the \"Rock 'n' Roll Damnation\" studio version audio track promotional clip. Segments from the concert (the songs \"Rock 'n' Roll Damnation\", \"Dog Eat Dog\" and \"Let There Be Rock\") were made available on the DVDPlug Me In, released in 2007 (the latter 2 were also released on YouTube in 2013)). \"Bad Boy Boogie\" was included on the bonus disc on the three-disc edition ofPlug Me In. Track listing All tracks are written byAngus Young,Malcolm YoungandBon Scott Original concert setlist All songs written by Angus Young, Malcolm Young, and Bon Scott except \"Fling Thing\", which is a Scottishtraditional song. Notes Personnel Production Charts Certifications *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification alone. References External links",
"The Apollo, Glasgow The Apollowas amusic venueat 126 Renfield Street inGlasgowcity centre,Scotland. The Apollo operated from 5 September 1973 until closure on 16 June 1985 and was Glasgow's leading music venue during this period. The Apollo was a re-brand of the previousGreen's Playhousein the same building. History The Green family owned Green's Playhouse cinema at 126 Renfield Street. It was thought to be the largest cinema in Europe at the time but was in decline. Unicorn Leisure, owned by Frank Lynch and Max Langdown, leased a discothèque named Clouds in the top floor of the building. Unicorn included management ofBilly Connollyin their portfolio.On hearing the Green family were considering converting the dis-repaired venue into a bingo hall or demolishing the venue for a completely new development, Unicorn applied to lease the building which they felt had potential as a music venue. They bought a job lot of 3,000 cinema seats and re-upholstered the 'Golden Divans' in the balcony. \"Apollo\" was chosen as the name of the re-branded venue so to mitigate the cost of letters for which the sign company charged £250 per letter. The first two concerts at The Apollo were performed by Johnny Cash on 5 & 6 September 1973. The venue was quickly attractive to the public responding to booking of popular performers of the time who spoke favourably of the atmosphere generated by the exuberant crowds.Theballroomoperated above the main concert auditorium, originally known as \"Clouds\", following various name changes that included \"Satellite City\" and \"The Penthouse\". The ballroom became a music venue for up-coming and relatively lesser-known contemporary bands, such asSimple Minds,Elvis Costello,Sham 69andThe Rich Kids. These were unable to attract a large enough paying audience to fill the concert venue. The venue was known for the atmosphere generated by its enthusiastic crowds, a 15 ft 6 in high stage (often exaggerated and misreported)that sloped down towards the audience and \"bouncy balcony\" designed and built so that it would move up and down. This feature was put to the test by concert-goers, who would jump to get it to bounce.Francis Rossirefers to this onStatus Quo'sLive!, recorded at the venue: \"Those people at the top, on the balcony, can only see you when the lights go up there. Get the balcony to move about a bit and they'llall be running about and shitting themselves. Nice bunch of fellas, but very very scared of balconies!\" Jake BurnsofStiff Little Fingerssaid the stage was \"the only one in our career where we said if anyone got onstage from the audience, they could stay. They'd earned it.\"Andy SummersofThe Policein his autobiography \"One Train Later\" wrote \"Back in the dressing room, drenched in sweat and sitting among piles of little tartan-wrapped presents, we remarked about the bouncing balcony, amazed that the whole thing didn't collapse.\"The venue was used for numerous live album recordings (see \"Notable Performances\" section) and was used as either opening or closing venue by many performers visiting the UK from America. The management team for the Ramones have subsequently said the Apollo was the Ramones' favourite venue. Despite the Apollo's success as a music venue, the building was in a poor condition and its structure was gradually deteriorating. Maintenance was undertaken only on a \"make-do\" basis. In mid-1977 the owner of Unicorn Leisure relocated toFlorida. The lease for the venue was acquired by theApollo Leisure Group. The new leaseholders experienced considerable problems with the buildings structural condition and later considered relinquishing the lease in 1978, withMecca Bingoexpressing interest in the acquisition of the building. A successful campaign to preserve the building's status as a music venue included a 100,000 signature petition including support fromPaul McCartneyandEric Clapton. The resumption was to herald a seven-year downward spiral until the venue finally closed for business on 16 June 1985.The Style Councilwere the final performers on the bill. The building was demolished in September 1987 following a fire that rendered the building structurally unsafe. Such is the high regard that Ozzy Osbourne felt for the place that when he agreed to an interview on Scottish Television he asked that the interview be held in the empty disused site of the old building. Notable performances After demolition The Apollo was replaced by aCineworldbuilding constructed in 2000 and opened a year later on exactly the same site. A musical was first produced in 2009 titled,I Was There: The Story of The Glasgow Apollo. The retro website glasgowapollo.com was launched in 2003. As of 2017 the site has received over 12 million hits. See also References External links"
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"Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden, colloquially known asthe Gardenor by its initialsMSG, is a multi-purpose indoor arena inNew York City. It is located inMidtown ManhattanbetweenSeventhandEighthAvenues from 31st to 33rd Street abovePennsylvania Station. It is the fourth venue to bear the name \"Madison Square Garden\"; the first two, opened in1879and1890respectively, were located onMadison Square, on East 26th Street and Madison Avenue, with thethird Madison Square Garden(1925) farther uptown at Eighth Avenue and 50th Street. The Garden hosts professional ice hockey, professional basketball, boxing, mixed martial arts, concerts, ice shows, circuses, professional wrestling, and other forms of sports and entertainment. It is close to other midtown Manhattan landmarks, including theEmpire State Building,Koreatown, andMacy'satHerald Square. It is home to theNew York Rangersof theNational Hockey League(NHL), theNew York Knicksof theNational Basketball Association(NBA), and was home to theNew York Libertyof",
"York Libertyof theWomen's National Basketball Association(WNBA) from 1997 to 2017. Originally calledMadison Square Garden Center, the Garden opened on February 11, 1968, and is the oldest major sporting facility in theNew York metropolitan area. It is the oldest arena in the NBA and the second-oldest in the NHL, after Seattle'sClimate Pledge Arena. As of 2016, MSG is also the second-busiest music arena in the world in terms of ticket sales.Including its two major renovations in 1991 and 2013, the Garden's total construction cost was approximately $1.1 billion, and it has been ranked as one of the 10 most expensivearenavenues ever built.It is part of thePennsylvania Plazaoffice and retail complex, named for the railway station. Severalother operating entitiesrelated to the Garden share its name. History Previous Gardens Madison Squareis formed by the intersection of5th AvenueandBroadwayat23rd Streetin Manhattan. It was named afterJames Madison, fourthPresident of the United States. Two venues called Madison",
"called Madison Square Garden were located just northeast of the square,the original Gardenfrom 1879 to 1890, andthe second Gardenfrom 1890 to 1925. The first, leased toP. T. Barnum,was demolished in 1890 because of a leaky roof and dangerous balconies that had collapsed, resulting in deaths. The second was designed by noted architectStanford White. The new building was built by a syndicate that includedJ. P. Morgan,Andrew Carnegie,P. T. Barnum,Darius Mills,James StillmanandW. W. Astor. White gave them aBeaux-Artsstructure with aMoorishfeel, including a minaret-like tower modeled afterGiralda, the bell tower of theCathedral of Seville,soaring 32 stories, the city's second-tallest building at the timeand dominatingMadison Square Park. It was 200 feet (61 m) by 485 feet (148 m), and the main hall, which was the largest in the world, measured 200 feet (61 m) by 350 feet (110 m) with permanent seating for 8,000 people and floor space for thousands more. It had a 1,200-seat theater, a concert hall with a capacity",
"with a capacity of 1,500, the largest restaurant in the city, and a roof garden cabaret.The building cost $3 million.Madison Square Garden II was unsuccessful like the first Garden,and theNew York Life Insurance Company, which held the mortgage on it, decided to tear it down in 1925 to make way for a new headquarters building, which would become the landmarkCass Gilbert-designedNew York Life Building. Athird Madison Square Gardenopened in a new location, on8th Avenuebetween49thand50th Streets, from 1925 to 1968. Groundbreaking on the third Madison Square Garden took place on January 9, 1925.Designed by the noted theater architectThomas W. Lamb, it was built at the cost of $4.75 million in 249 days by boxing promoterTex Rickard;the arena was dubbed \"The House That Tex Built.\"The arena was 200 feet (61 m) by 375 feet (114 m), with seating on three levels, and a maximum capacity of 18,496 spectators for boxing. Demolition commenced in 1968 after the opening of the current Garden,and was completed in early 1969.",
"in early 1969. The site is now the location ofOne Worldwide Plaza. Current Garden In February 1959, former automobile manufacturerGraham-Paigepurchased a 40% interest in the Madison Square Garden for $4 millionand later gained control.In November 1960, Graham-Paige presidentIrving Mitchell Feltpurchased from thePennsylvania Railroadthe rights to build atPenn Station.To build the new facility, the above-ground portions ofthe original Pennsylvania Stationwere torn down. The new structure was one of the first of its kind to be built above the platforms of an active railroad station. It was an engineering feat constructed byRobert E. McKeeofEl Paso, Texas. Public outcry over the demolition of the Pennsylvania Station structure—an outstanding example ofBeaux-Arts architecture—led to the creation of theNew York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. The venue opened on February 11, 1968. Comparing the new and the old Penn Station, Yale architectural historianVincent Scullywrote, \"One entered the city like a god;",
"city like a god; one scuttles in now like a rat.\" In 1972, Felt proposed moving theKnicksandRangersto a then incomplete venue in theNew Jersey Meadowlands, theMeadowlands Sports Complex. The Garden was also the home arena for theNY Raiders/NY Golden Bladesof theWorld Hockey Association. The Meadowlands would eventually host its own NBA and NHL teams, theNew Jersey Netsand theNew Jersey Devils, respectively. TheNew York GiantsandJetsof theNational Football League(NFL) also relocated there. In 1977, the arena was sold toGulf and Western Industries. Felt's efforts fueled controversy between the Garden and New York City over real estate taxes. The disagreement again flared in 1980 when the Garden again challenged its tax bill. The arena, since the 1980s, has since enjoyed tax-free status, under the condition that all Knicks and Rangers home games must be hosted at MSG, lest it lose this exemption. As such, when the Rangers have played neutral-site games—even those in New York City, such as the2018 NHL Winter",
"the2018 NHL Winter Classic, they have always been designated as the visiting team.The tax agreement includes anact of Godclause, which allowed Knicks and Rangers home games to be played elsewhere during the2020 NBA Bubbleand2020 Stanley Cup playoffs, respectively, because of theCOVID-19 pandemic. In 1984, the four streets immediately surrounding the Garden were designated as Joe Louis Plaza, in honor of boxerJoe Louis, who had made eight successful title defenses in theprevious Madison Square Garden. 1991 renovation In April 1986, Gulf and Western announced that they would build a new Madison Square Garden a few blocks away on the site of present-dayHudson Yards. The plan would cost an estimated $150 million and included the demolition of the 1964 building to replace it with a new office tower development.After years of planning, Gulf and Western decided against building a new arena in favor of a renovation after estimated costs doubled throughout the process. Garden owners spent $200 million in 1991 to",
"million in 1991 to renovate facilities and add 89 suites in place of hundreds of upper-tier seats. The project was designed byEllerbe Becket. The renovation was criticized for perceived corporatization. Additionally, the renovation made bathrooms larger, expanded menus, added a new ventilation system, replaced all of the seats with new cushioned teal and violet seats, and refurbished both home teams' locker rooms. In 2000, current MSG owner, James Dolan was quoted as saying that a new arena was being considered as the current building was starting to show its age. In 2004–2005,Cablevisionbattled with the City of New York over the proposedWest Side arena, which was canceled. Cablevision then announced plans to raze the Garden, replace it with high-rise commercial buildings, and build a new Garden one block away at the site of theJames Farley Post Office. Meanwhile, a new project to renovate and modernize the Garden completed phase one in time for theRangersandKnicks' 2011–12 seasons,though the vice president",
"the vice president of the Garden says he remains committed to the installation of an extension of Penn Station at the Farley Post Office site. While the Knicks and Rangers were not displaced, theNew York Libertyplayed at thePrudential CenterinNewark, New Jerseyduring the renovation. Madison Square Garden is the last of theNBAandNHLarenas not to be named after a corporate sponsor. 2011–2013 renovation Madison Square Garden's $1 billion second renovation took place mainly over three off-seasons. It was set to begin after the 2009–10 hockey/basketball seasons, but was delayed until after the 2010–11 seasons. Renovation was done in phases with the majority of the work done in the summer months to minimize disruptions to the NHL and NBA seasons. While the Rangers and Knicks were not displaced,the Liberty played their home games through the 2013 season atPrudential CenterinNewark, New Jersey, during the renovation. New features include a larger entrance with interactive kiosks, retail, climate-controlled space,",
"space, and broadcast studio; larger concourses; new lighting and LED video systems with HDTV; new seating; two new pedestrian walkways suspended from the ceiling to allow fans to look directly down onto the games being played below; more dining options; and improved dressing rooms, locker rooms, green rooms, upgraded roof, and production offices. The lower bowl concourse, called the Madison Concourse, remains on the sixth floor. The upper bowl concourse was relocated to the eighth floor and it is known as the Garden Concourse. The seventh floor houses the new Madison Suites and the Madison Club. The upper bowl was built on top of these suites. The rebuilt concourses are wider than their predecessors, and include large windows that offer views of the city streets around the Garden. Construction of the lower bowl (Phase 1) was completed in 2011.An extended off-season for the Garden permitted some advanced work to begin on the new upper bowl, which was completed in 2012. This advance work included the West",
"included the West Balcony on the tenth floor, taking the place of sky-boxes, and new end-ice 300 level seating. The construction of the upper bowl along with the Madison Suites and the Madison Club (Phase 2) were completed for the 2012–13 NHL and NBA seasons.Phase 3, which involved the construction of the new lobby known as Chase Square, the Chase Bridges on the 10th floor, and the new scoreboard, was completed for the 2013–14 NHL and NBA seasons. Penn Station renovation controversy Madison Square Garden is seen as an obstacle in the renovation and future expansion ofPenn Station,which expanded in 2021 with the opening ofMoynihan Train Hallat theJames Farley Post Office,and some have proposed moving MSG to other sites in western Manhattan. On February 15, 2013,Manhattan Community Board 5voted 36–0 against granting a renewal to MSG's operating permit in perpetuity and proposed a 10-year limit instead in order to build a new Penn Station where the arena is currently standing. Manhattan borough presidentScott",
"presidentScott Stringersaid, \"Moving the arena is an important first step to improving Penn Station.\"The Madison Square Garden Companyresponded by saying that \"t is incongruous to think that M.S.G. would be considering moving.\" In May 2013, four architecture firms –SHoP Architects,SOM,H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture, andDiller Scofidio + Renfro– submittedproposalsfor a new Penn Station. SHoP Architects recommended moving Madison Square Garden to the Morgan Postal Facility a few blocks southwest, as well as removing2 Penn Plazaand redeveloping other towers, and an extension of theHigh Lineto Penn Station.Meanwhile, SOM proposed moving Madison Square Garden to the area just south of theJames Farley Post Office, and redeveloping the area above Penn Station as amixed-use developmentwith commercial, residential, and recreational space.H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture wanted to move the arena to a new pier west ofJacob K. Javits Convention Center, four blocks west of the current station and arena. Then,",
"and arena. Then, according to H3's plan, fourskyscraperswould be built, one at each of the four corners of the new Penn Station superblock, with aroof gardenon top of the station; the Farley Post Office would become an education center.Finally, Diller Scofidio + Renfro proposed a mixed-use development on the site, with spas, theaters, a cascading park, a pool, and restaurants; Madison Square Garden would be moved two blocks west, next to the post office. DS+F also proposed high-tech features in the station, such as train arrival and departure boards on the floor, andappsthat would inform waiting passengers of ways to occupy their time until they board their trains.Madison Square Garden rejected the notion that it would be relocated, and called the plans \"pie-in-the-sky\". In June 2013, theNew York City CouncilCommittee on Land Use voted unanimously to give the Garden a ten-year permit, at the end of which period the owners will either have to relocate or go back through the permission process.On July 24, the",
"July 24, the City Council voted to give the Garden a 10-year operating permit by a vote of 47–1. \"This is the first step in finding a new home for Madison Square Garden and building a new Penn Station that is as great as New York and suitable for the 21st century,\" said City Council speakerChristine Quinn. \"This is an opportunity to reimagine and redevelop Penn Station as a world-class transportation destination.\" In October 2014, the Morgan facility was selected as the ideal area for Madison Square Garden to be moved, following the 2014 MAS Summit in New York City. More plans for the station were discussed.Then, in January 2016, New York GovernorAndrew Cuomoannounced a redevelopment plan for Penn Station that would involve the removal ofThe Theater at Madison Square Garden, but would otherwise leave the arena intact. In June 2023, nearing the end of the Garden's ten-year permit granted by the city, theMetropolitan Transportation Authority, along withAmtrakandNJ Transit, filed a report stating that MSG is no",
"that MSG is no longer compatible with Penn Station, with the report saying, \"MSG's existing configuration and property boundaries impose severe constraints on the station that impede the safe and efficient movement of passengers and restrict efforts to implement improvements, particularly at the street and platform levels.\"On September 14, 2023, the New York City Council voted 48–0 to renew the operating permit for Madison Square Garden for five years, the shortest ever granted by the city to the Garden. Events Regular events Sports Madison Square Garden hosts approximately 320 events a year. It is the home to theNew York Rangersof the National Hockey League, and theNew York Knicksof the National Basketball Association. Before 2020, the New York Rangers, New York Knicks, and the Madison Square Garden arena itself were all owned by the Madison Square Garden Company. The MSG Company split into two entities in 2020, with the Garden arena and other non-sports assets spun off intoMadison Square Garden",
"Square Garden Entertainmentand the Rangers and Knicks remaining with the original company, renamedMadison Square Garden Sports. Both entities remain under the voting control ofJames Dolanand his family. The arena is also host to theBig East men's basketball tournamentand was home to the finals of theNational Invitation Tournamentfrom the beginning of its existence up until 2022.It also hosts select home games for theSt. John's Red Storm, representingSt. John's Universityin men's (college basketball), and almost any other kind of indoor activity that draws large audiences, such as theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Showand the2004 Republican National Convention. The Garden was home of theNBA draftandNIT Season Tip-Off,as well as the former New York City home of theRingling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey CircusandDisney on Ice; all four events are now held at theBarclays CenterinBrooklyn. It served theNew York Cosmosfor half of their home games during the1983–84 NASL Indoor season. Many ofboxing's biggest fights",
"biggest fights were held at Madison Square Garden, including theRoberto Durán–Ken Buchananaffair,the firstMuhammad Ali–Joe Frazierbout and the US debut ofAnthony Joshuathat ended in a huge upset when he was beaten byAndy Ruiz. Before promoters such asDon KingandBob Arummoved boxing toLas Vegas,Nevada, Madison Square Garden was a popular location for boxing. The original18+1⁄2ft ×18+1⁄2ft (5.6 m × 5.6 m) ring, which was brought from the second and third generation of the Garden, was officially retired on September 19, 2007, and donated to theInternational Boxing Hall of Fameafter 82 years of service.A 20 ft × 20 ft (6.1 m × 6.1 m) ring replaced it beginning on October 6 of that same year.TheUFChas made Madison Square Garden in recent years and have put on some of the highest grossing PPV events in history. Pro wrestling Madison Square Garden has hosted many notableWWE(formerly WWF and WWWF) events.The Garden has hosted threeWrestleManiaevents, including thefirstedition of the annual marquee event for WWE, as",
"event for WWE, as well as the10thand20theditions. Madison Square Garden is also one of two venues (the other beingAllstate Arena) to host WrestleMania three times. It also hosted theRoyal Rumblein2000and2008;SummerSlamin1988,1991and1998; as well asSurvivor Seriesin1996,2002and2011. Multiple episodes of WWE's weekly shows,RawandSmackDownhave been broadcast from the Arena as well. New Japan Pro-Wrestling(NJPW) andRing of Honor(ROH) hosted theirG1 Supercardsupershow at the venue on April 6, 2019. A year later it was announced thatNew Japan Pro-Wrestlingwould return to Madison Square Garden alone on August 22, 2020, for NJPW Wrestle Dynasty.In May 2020, NJPW announced that the Wrestle Dynasty show would be postponed to 2021 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. Concerts Madison Square Garden hosts more high-profile concert events than any other venue in New York City. It has been the venue forMichael Jackson'sBad World Tourin 1988,George Harrison'sThe Concert for Bangladesh,The Concert for New York Cityfollowing",
"York Cityfollowing theSeptember 11 attacks,John Lennon's final concert appearance during anElton Johnconcert on Thanksgiving Night in 1974 beforehis murderin 1980, andElvis Presley, who gave four sold-out performances in 1972, his first and last ever in New York City.Parliament-Funkadelicheadlined numerous sold-out shows in 1977 and 1978.Kiss, who were formed in the arena's city and three of whose members were city-born, did six shows during their second half of the 1970s main attraction peak or \"heyday\": four sold out winter shows at the arena in 1977 (February 18 and December 14–16), and another two shows only this time in summer for a decade-ender in 1979 (July 24–25). They played their final two shows at the venue on the December 1 and 2, 2023, the 50th anniversary year of their formation.Billy Joel, another city-born and fellow 1970's pop star, played his first Garden show on December 14, 1978, with that month's follow ups on the 15th, 16th and 18th.Led Zeppelin's three-night stand in July 1973 was",
"in July 1973 was recorded and released as both afilmandalbumtitledThe Song Remains The Same.The Policeplayed their final show of their reunion tour at the Garden in 2008. In the summer of 2017,Phishheld a 13 night series of concerts called \"The Bakers' Dozen.\" During which the band played 237 unique songs, repeating none during the entire run. The Garden commemorated \"The Bakers' Dozen\" by adding a Phish themed banner to the rafters.With their first MSG show taking place on December 30, 1994, Phish has regularly played annual multi night runs, typically around New Year's Eve.As of January 2024, Phish has performed 83 times at MSG. Elton Johnonce held the all-time record for the greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 64 shows. In a 2009 press release, John was quoted as saying \"Madison Square Garden is my favorite venue in the whole world. I chose to have my 60th birthday concert there, because of all the incredible memories I've had playing the venue.\"A DVD recording was released asElton 60—Live",
"asElton 60—Live at Madison Square Garden. Billy Joel, who holds the record for the greatest number of appearances at the Garden with 134 shows as of February 2023,stated that the site \"has the best acoustics, the best audiences, the best reputation, and the best history of great artists who have played there. It is the iconic, holy temple of rock and roll for most touring acts.\" TheGrateful Deadperformed in the venue 53 times from 1979 to 1994, with the first show being held on January 7, 1979, and the last being on October 19, 1994. Their longest run being done in September 1991. The Whohave headlined at the venue 32 times, including a four-night stand in 1974, a five-night stand in 1979, a six-night stand in 1996, and four-night stands in 2000 and 2002. They also performed atThe Concert for New York Cityin 2001. On March 10, 2020, a 50th-anniversary celebration ofThe Allman Brothers Bandtitled 'The Brothers' took place, featuring the five surviving members of the final Allman Brothers lineup andChuck",
"lineup andChuck Leavell.Dickey Bettswas invited to participate but his health precluded him from traveling.This was the final concert at the venue before theCOVID-19 pandemicforced its closure. Live shows returned to The Garden when theFoo Fightersheadlined a show there on June 20, 2021. The show was for a vaccinated audience only and was the first 100 percent capacity concert in a New York arena since the start of the pandemic. Other events It hosted the1976 Democratic National Convention,1980 Democratic National Convention,1992 Democratic National Convention,and the2004 Republican National Convention,and hosted theNFL draftfor many years (later held at Garden-leasedRadio City Music Hall, now shared between cities of NFL franchises).TheJeopardy!Teen Tournament and several installments ofCelebrity Jeopardy!were filmed at MSG in 1999,as well as several episodes ofWheel of Fortunein 1999 and 2013. TheNew York City Police Academy,Baruch College/CUNYandYeshiva Universityalso hold their annual graduation",
"annual graduation ceremonies at Madison Square Garden. It hosted theGrammy Awardsin 1972, 1997, 2003, and 2018 (which are normally held inLos Angeles) as well as theLatin Grammy Awards of 2006. The group, and Best in Show competitions of theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Showhave been held at MSG every February from 1877 to 2020, which was MSG's longest continuous tenant although this was broken in 2021 as the Westminster Kennel Club announced that the event would be held outdoors for the first time due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Notable firsts and significant events The Garden hosted theStanley Cup FinalsandNBA Finalssimultaneously on two occasions: in 1972 and 1994. MSG has hosted the following All-Star Games: Mike Krzyzewskirecorded two notable milestones at the arena. In 2011, he surpassedBob Knightas the coach with the most winsNCAA Division Imen's basketball history whenDukedefeatedMichigan State. Four years later, a Duke victory over St. John's gave Coach K his 1,000th career win. Stephen Currybroke the",
"Currybroke the NBA'sall-time three-point scoring recordat Madison Square Garden, on December 14, 2021. TheWarriorsdefeated the Knicks 105–96 with Curry recording his 2,977th career three-pointer by the end of the game, eclipsingRay Allen's 2,973 career total. Recognition given by Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden Gold Ticket Award In 1977, Madison Square Garden announcedGold Ticket Awardswould be given to performers who had brought in more than 100,000 unit ticket sales to the venue. Since the arena's seating capacity is about 20,000, this would require a minimum of five sold-out shows. Performers who were eligible for the award at the time of its inauguration includedChicago,John Denver,Peter Frampton, theRolling Stones, theJackson 5,Elton John,Led Zeppelin,Sly Stone,Jethro Tull,The Who, andYes.Graeme Edge, who received his award in 1981 as a member ofThe Moody Blues, said he found his gold ticket to be an interesting piece of memorabilia because he could use it to attend any event at the",
"any event at the Garden.Many other performers received Gold Ticket Awards between 1977 and 1994. Madison Square Garden Platinum Ticket Award Madison Square Garden also gave Platinum Ticket Awards to performers who sold over 250,000 tickets to their shows throughout the years. Winners of the Platinum Ticket Awards include: the Rolling Stones (1981),Elton John (1982),Yes (1984),Billy Joel (1984),the Grateful Dead (1987),and Madonna (2004). Madison Square Garden Hall of Fame The Madison Square Garden Hall of Fame honors those who have demonstrated excellence in their fields at the Garden. Most of the inductees have been sports figures, however, some performers have been inducted as well. Elton John was reported to be the first non-sports figure inducted into the MSG Hall of Fame in 1977 for \"record attendance of 140,000\" in June of that year.For their accomplishment of \"13 sell-out concerts\" at the venue, the Rolling Stones were inducted into the MSG Hall of Fame in 1984, along with nine sports figures icons,",
"figures icons, bringing the hall's membership to 107. Madison Square Garden Walk of Fame The walkway leading to the arena of Madison Square Garden was designated as the \"Walk of Fame\" in 1992.It was established \"to recognize athletes, artists, announcers and coaches for their extraordinary achievements and memorable performances at the venue.\"Each inductee is commemorated with a plaque that lists the performance category in which his or her contributions have been made.Twenty-five athletes were inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame at its inaugural ceremony in 1992, a black-tie dinner to raise money to fight multiple sclerosis.Elton John was the first entertainer to be inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame in 1992.Billy Joel was inducted at a date after Elton John,and the Rolling Stones were inducted in 1998.In 2015, the Grateful Dead were inducted into the MSG Walk of Fame along with at least three sports-related figures. Capacity The Theater at Madison Square Garden The Theater at Madison Square Garden seats",
"Square Garden seats between 2,000 and 5,600 for concerts and can also be used for meetings, stage shows, and graduation ceremonies. It was the home of theNFL draftuntil 2005, when it moved to theJacob K. Javits Convention Centerafter MSG management opposed anew arenafor theNew York Jets. It also hosted theNBA draftfrom 2001 to 2010. The theater also occasionally hosts boxing matches. The fall 1999Jeopardy!Teen Tournamentas well as aCelebrity Jeopardy!competitions were held at the theater.Wheel of Fortunetaped at the theater twice in 1999 and 2013. In 2004, it was the venue of theSurvivor: All-Starsfinale. No seat is more than 177 feet (54 m) from the 30' × 64' stage. The theater has a relatively low 20-foot (6.1 m) ceiling at stage leveland all of its seating except for boxes on the two side walls is on one level slanted back from the stage. There is an 8,000-square-foot (740 m2) lobby at the theater. Accessibility and transportation Madison Square Garden sits directly atop a major transportation hub,New",
"hub,New York Penn Station, which is served byLong Island Rail RoadandNJ Transitcommuter rail, as well asAmtrak. The Garden is also accessible via theNew York City Subwayat the34th Street–Penn Station(A, C, and Etrains) and the34th Street–Penn Station(1, 2, and 3trains) stations. See also References Notes Sources External links",
"AC/DC discography AustralianrockbandAC/DChave released 18studio albums, twosoundtrack albums, threelive albums, oneextended play, 57singles, 11video albums, 52music videosand twobox sets. Although many AC/DC singles have been released, the band refused to issue anygreatest hitsalbums.Who Made Who, which served as the soundtrack to Stephen King's filmMaximum Overdrive,Iron Man 2and the band's various live recordings are the closest they have issued to such a compilation. BrothersAngus(lead guitar) andMalcolm Young(rhythm guitar) formed AC/DC in 1973.The band released two albums inAustralasiabefore issuing their first international album,High Voltagein 1976; the Youngs had been joined by vocalistBon Scott, bass guitaristMark Evansand drummerPhil Rudd.In 1980, less than a year after the appearance of the successfulHighway to Hell, Scott died and was replaced by English singerBrian Johnson, with whom AC/DC released their best-selling album,Back in Black.The albumBlack Ice, from 2008, reached number one in 29",
"number one in 29 countries.In 50 years of their career, AC/DC have sold over 200 million albums worldwide,and 83 million in the United States.Back in Blacksold 50 million copies worldwide, and became thesecond best-selling album in history. Verizonmade AC/DC albums available fordigital downloadin 2007;for five years the band refused to release their albums viaiTunes, as that company allows downloading of individual tracks.Angus Young observed, \"We honestly believe the songs on any of our albums belong together. If we were on iTunes, we know a certain percentage of people would only download two or three songs from the album – and we don't think that represents us musically.\"However, in November 2012, the band relented and released their entire discography via iTunes.On 30 June 2015, their catalogue appeared onSpotifyfor the first time, which made their works available forstreaming.Their most certified singles in the US are \"Thunderstruck\" (1990), \"Back in Black\" (1980), \"Highway to Hell\" (1979), and \"You",
"(1979), and \"You Shook Me All Night Long\" (1980) – each have received Diamond, 7× Platinum, and 6× Platinum and from theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) in 2024, respectively.In Australia, \"Thunderstruck\" (1990) was accredited 10× Platinum by theAustralian Recording Industry Association(ARIA) in 2022. Albums Studio albums Live albums Soundtrack albums Box set albums Extended plays Singles Videos Video albums Music videos See also Notes References Further reading External links",
"If You Want Blood You've Got It If You Want Blood You've Got It(written as justIf You Want Blood) is the first live album by Australianhard rockbandAC/DC, and their only live album released duringBon Scott's lifetime. It was originally released in the UK and Europe on 13 October 1978, in the US on 21 November 1978, and in Australia on 27 November 1978.The album was re-released in 1994 onAtco Recordsand in 2003 as part of theAC/DC Remastersseries. Background The album was released six months after the band's previous studio albumPowerage. A 'best-of' package called12 of the Besthad been in the works, but the project was scrapped in favour of a live album. It was recorded during the 1978Poweragetour and contains songs fromT.N.T.,Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap,Let There Be Rock, andPowerage. It is the last Bon Scott-era AC/DC album produced byHarry VandaandGeorge Young, who also produced the band's first five studio releases. In his 1994 Bon Scott memoirHighway to Hell, authorClinton Walkerobserves, \"Live albums,",
"\"Live albums, which tended to be double or triple sets in which songs short in their studio versions were stretched out into extended tedium, were for some reason popular in the seventies.If You Want Bloodreversed this tradition... it boasted a blunt ten tracks and, allowing nothing extraneous, got straight to the point, that being raging AC/DC rock and roll.\" A concert at theApollo TheatreinGlasgow, Scotland on 30 April 1978 was used for the live tracks. The concert is also remembered for the encore, when AC/DC came back on stage dressed in the Scottish football strip, paying homage to Scott's and the Young brothers' homeland. \"This gig summed up what made AC/DC so special live: the energy, the rapport with the crowd and the way those simple yet classic songs took on another life. You hear all of this onIf You Want Blood. It's a great reminder of how remarkable the band and their fans were that night.\" –Tom Russell, DJ \"Dog Eat Dog\", performed on the night, was removed from the album release, while the",
"release, while the encore – \"Fling Thing/Rocker\" – was edited, removing \"Fling Thing\" and cutting out Angus's extended solo, as he did a walk around the audience (with an early version of a wireless guitar lead). This part of the band's concert theatrics later accompanied \"Let There Be Rock\"; \"Rocker\" has been performed only a few times since Bon Scott's passing in 1980. The live \"Dog Eat Dog\" was released as the b-side of the single \"Whole Lotta Rosie\" in November 1978, but only in Australia. It was rereleased worldwide in 2009 on the two (standard) and three (collectors) CD boxed set compilationBacktracks, featuring Australian-only songs not released internationally at the time, and live b-Sides from 7\" and 12\" singles. The encores \"Fling Thing\" and \"Rocker\" (with a complete guitar solo) appeared only on footage of the concert by a Dutch TV station played at the time, but were eventually released on theFamily JewelsDVD. According to the 2006 bookAC/DC: Maximum Rock & Roll, the album title was an extension",
"was an extension of Scott's response – at theDay on the Greenfestival in July 1978 – when a journalist asked what they could expect from the band. The singer replied, \"Blood.\"The cover art is from a shoot withAtlantic Records' staff photographer Jim Houghton after the show at Boston'sParadise Theateron 21st August 1978, the idea for which came from Atlantic's art director Bob Defrin.The front cover depicts Angus Young being impaled on stage with a guitar during a performance, while the back depicts a bloodied Young lying facedown on the same stage, though deserted. A song titled \"If You Want Blood (You've Got It)\" appeared on the next album: the band's US chart breakthrough,Highway to Hell. Reception The album was listed at #2 onClassic Rockmagazine's readers' poll of \"50 Greatest Live Albums Ever\".In a 1992 interview withMetal Hammerat the time of the band'ssecond live release, Malcolm Young admitted, \"I personally still prefer the old album. We were young, fresh, vital and kicking ass.\"Greg Prato",
"ass.\"Greg Prato ofAllMusicnotes, \"While most other rock bands of the era were busy experimenting withdiscoor creating studio-perfected epics, AC/DC was one of the few specializing in raw and bluesy hard rock, as evidenced by 1978's live set, If You Want Blood You've Got It.\"Eduardo Rivadavia ofUltimate Classic Rockenthuses, \"Other concert records may boast more songs, more Top 40 hits or even more crowd-pleasing gimmicks. But very few can challenge the sheer excitement and reckless abandon captured on AC/DC’s terrific concert document.\"Carlo Twist ofBlendermagazine praised the album, saying that \"They were always a mighty live act, and this is the sound of AC/DC in Europe just prior to 1979's U.S. breakthrough. The audience's hysteria regularly cuts through the amps, as they howl along to singer Bon Scott's tale of sexually transmitted disease (\"The Jack\") and punctuate guitarist Angus Young's staccato riffing on \"Whole Lotta Rosie.\" Imagine a punk-rock Chuck Berry played at nosebleed volume.\" Concert",
"volume.\" Concert footage The entire Glasgow concert was filmed but the complete footage has never been released. Eventually, \"Riff Raff\" and \"Fling Thing/Rocker\" segments were made available on the DVDAC/DC Family Jewels, released in 2005. Video footage was also used from the show onFamily Jewelsusing the \"Rock 'n' Roll Damnation\" studio version audio track promotional clip. Segments from the concert (the songs \"Rock 'n' Roll Damnation\", \"Dog Eat Dog\" and \"Let There Be Rock\") were made available on the DVDPlug Me In, released in 2007 (the latter 2 were also released on YouTube in 2013)). \"Bad Boy Boogie\" was included on the bonus disc on the three-disc edition ofPlug Me In. Track listing All tracks are written byAngus Young,Malcolm YoungandBon Scott Original concert setlist All songs written by Angus Young, Malcolm Young, and Bon Scott except \"Fling Thing\", which is a Scottishtraditional song. Notes Personnel Production Charts Certifications *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures",
"figures based on certification alone. References External links",
"The Apollo, Glasgow The Apollowas amusic venueat 126 Renfield Street inGlasgowcity centre,Scotland. The Apollo operated from 5 September 1973 until closure on 16 June 1985 and was Glasgow's leading music venue during this period. The Apollo was a re-brand of the previousGreen's Playhousein the same building. History The Green family owned Green's Playhouse cinema at 126 Renfield Street. It was thought to be the largest cinema in Europe at the time but was in decline. Unicorn Leisure, owned by Frank Lynch and Max Langdown, leased a discothèque named Clouds in the top floor of the building. Unicorn included management ofBilly Connollyin their portfolio.On hearing the Green family were considering converting the dis-repaired venue into a bingo hall or demolishing the venue for a completely new development, Unicorn applied to lease the building which they felt had potential as a music venue. They bought a job lot of 3,000 cinema seats and re-upholstered the 'Golden Divans' in the balcony. \"Apollo\" was chosen as",
"was chosen as the name of the re-branded venue so to mitigate the cost of letters for which the sign company charged £250 per letter. The first two concerts at The Apollo were performed by Johnny Cash on 5 & 6 September 1973. The venue was quickly attractive to the public responding to booking of popular performers of the time who spoke favourably of the atmosphere generated by the exuberant crowds.Theballroomoperated above the main concert auditorium, originally known as \"Clouds\", following various name changes that included \"Satellite City\" and \"The Penthouse\". The ballroom became a music venue for up-coming and relatively lesser-known contemporary bands, such asSimple Minds,Elvis Costello,Sham 69andThe Rich Kids. These were unable to attract a large enough paying audience to fill the concert venue. The venue was known for the atmosphere generated by its enthusiastic crowds, a 15 ft 6 in high stage (often exaggerated and misreported)that sloped down towards the audience and \"bouncy balcony\" designed and",
"designed and built so that it would move up and down. This feature was put to the test by concert-goers, who would jump to get it to bounce.Francis Rossirefers to this onStatus Quo'sLive!, recorded at the venue: \"Those people at the top, on the balcony, can only see you when the lights go up there. Get the balcony to move about a bit and they'llall be running about and shitting themselves. Nice bunch of fellas, but very very scared of balconies!\" Jake BurnsofStiff Little Fingerssaid the stage was \"the only one in our career where we said if anyone got onstage from the audience, they could stay. They'd earned it.\"Andy SummersofThe Policein his autobiography \"One Train Later\" wrote \"Back in the dressing room, drenched in sweat and sitting among piles of little tartan-wrapped presents, we remarked about the bouncing balcony, amazed that the whole thing didn't collapse.\"The venue was used for numerous live album recordings (see \"Notable Performances\" section) and was used as either opening or closing venue by",
"or closing venue by many performers visiting the UK from America. The management team for the Ramones have subsequently said the Apollo was the Ramones' favourite venue. Despite the Apollo's success as a music venue, the building was in a poor condition and its structure was gradually deteriorating. Maintenance was undertaken only on a \"make-do\" basis. In mid-1977 the owner of Unicorn Leisure relocated toFlorida. The lease for the venue was acquired by theApollo Leisure Group. The new leaseholders experienced considerable problems with the buildings structural condition and later considered relinquishing the lease in 1978, withMecca Bingoexpressing interest in the acquisition of the building. A successful campaign to preserve the building's status as a music venue included a 100,000 signature petition including support fromPaul McCartneyandEric Clapton. The resumption was to herald a seven-year downward spiral until the venue finally closed for business on 16 June 1985.The Style Councilwere the final",
"the final performers on the bill. The building was demolished in September 1987 following a fire that rendered the building structurally unsafe. Such is the high regard that Ozzy Osbourne felt for the place that when he agreed to an interview on Scottish Television he asked that the interview be held in the empty disused site of the old building. Notable performances After demolition The Apollo was replaced by aCineworldbuilding constructed in 2000 and opened a year later on exactly the same site. A musical was first produced in 2009 titled,I Was There: The Story of The Glasgow Apollo. The retro website glasgowapollo.com was launched in 2003. As of 2017 the site has received over 12 million hits. See also References External links"
] |
Using the Pruett rule, out of all of the blue moons that occurred between the beginning of World War I and the end of World War II, how many of them occurred on the 31st of the month? | 9 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_moon#Blue_moon_dates | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I# | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_moon#Blue_moon_dates', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_moon#Blue_moon_dates",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"
] | [
"Blue moon Ablue moonrefers either to the presence of a secondfull moonin a calendarmonth, to the third full moon in aseasoncontaining four, or to a moon that appearsbluedue to atmospheric effects. Thecalendricalmeaning of \"blue moon\" is unconnected to the other meanings. It is often referred to as “traditional”,but since no occurrences are known prior to 1937 it is better described as aninvented traditionor “modern American folklore”.The practice of designating the second full moon in a month as \"blue\" originated with amateur astronomer James Hugh Pruett in 1946.It does not come fromNative American lunar tradition, as is sometimes supposed. The moon - not necessarily full - can sometimes appear blue due to atmospheric emissions from large forest fires or volcanoes, though the phenomenon is rare and unpredictable (hence the saying “once in a blue moon”).A calendrical blue moon (by Pruett's definition) is predictable and relatively common, happening 7 times in every 19 years (i.e. once every 2 or 3 years).Calendrical blue moons occur because thetime between successive full moons(approximately 29.5 days) is shorter than the average calendar month.They are of no astronomical or historical significance, and are not a product of actuallunisolar timekeepingorintercalation. Phrase origin A 1528 satire,Rede Me and Be Nott Wrothe, contained the lines, “Yf they saye the mone is belewe / We must beleve that it is true.”The intended sense was of an absurd belief, like themoon being made of cheese. There is nothing to connect it with the later metaphorical or calendrical meanings of “blue moon”. However, a confusion ofbelewe(Middle English, “blue”)withbelǽwan(Old English “to betray”)) led to afalse etymologyfor the calendrical term that remains widely circulated, despite its originator having acknowledged it as groundless. Percy Bysshe Shelley’spoem \"Alastor\" (1816)mentioned an erupting volcano: 7and a “blue moon / Low in the west.”: 14It was written at a time when the eruption ofMount Tamborawas causing global climate effects, and not long before the first recorded instances of “blue moon” as a metaphor. The OED citesPierce Egan’sReal Life in London(1821) as the earliest known occurrence of “blue moon” in the metaphorical sense of a long time. (“How's Harry and Ben?—haven't seen you this blue moon.”)An 1823 revision of Francis Grose’s ‘’Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue’’, edited by Egan, included the definition: “Blue moon. In allusion to a long time before such a circumstance happens. ‘O yes, in a blue moon.’”An earlier (1811) version of the same dictionary had not included the phrase, so it was likely coined some time in the 1810s.\"Once in a blue moon\" is recorded from 1833. The use of blue moon to mean a specific calendrical event dates from 1937, when theMaine Farmers' Almanacused the term in a slightly different sense from the one now in common use. According to the OED, “Earlier occurrences of the sense given in theMaine Farmers' Almanachave not been traced, either in editions of the Almanac prior to 1937, or elsewhere; the source of this application of the term (if it is not a coinage by the editor, H. P. Trefethen) is unclear.”The conjecture of editorial invention is further supported by the spurious explanation the almanac gave: The Moon usually comes full twelve times in a year, three times in each season... However, occasionally the moon comes full thirteen times in a year. This was considered a very unfortunate circumstance, especially by the monks who had charge of the calendar. It became necessary for them to make a calendar of thirteen months, and it upset the regular arrangement of church festivals. For this reason thirteen came to be considered an unlucky number. Also, this extra moon had a way of coming in each of the seasons so that it could not be given a name appropriate to the time of year like the other moons. It was usually called the Blue Moon... In olden times the almanac makers had much difficulty calculating the occurrence of the Blue Moon and this uncertainty gave rise to the expression \"Once in a Blue Moon\". There is no evidence that an extra moon in a month, season or year was considered unlucky, or that it led to13 being considered unlucky, or that the extra moon was called \"blue\", or that it led to the phrase \"once in a blue moon\". There is good reason to suspect that the 1937 article was a hoax, practical joke, or simply misinformed. It is however true that the date of the Christian festival ofEasterdepended on an accuratecomputationof full moon dates, and important work was done by the monksDionysius ExiguusandBede, explained by the latter inThe Reckoning of Time, written c725 CE. According to Bede, “Whenever it was a common year, gave three lunar months to each season. When an embolismic year occurred (that is, one of 13 lunar months) they assigned the extra month to summer, so that three months together bore the name ‘‘Litha’’; hence they called year ‘‘Thrilithi’’. It had four summer months, with the usual three for the other seasons.” The nameLithais now applied by someNeo-Paganstomidsummer. The 1937Maine Farmers' Almanacarticle was misinterpreted by James Hugh Pruett in a 1946Sky and Telescope article, leading to the calendrical definition of “blue moon” that is now most commonly used, i.e. the second full moon in a calendar month. “A blue moon in the originalMaine Farmers' Almanacsense can only occur in the months of February, May, August, and November. In the later sense, one can occur in any month except February.\"This later sense gained currency from its use in a United States radio programme,StarDateon January 31, 1980 and in a question in theTrivial Pursuitgame in 1986. Several songs have been titled \"Blue Moon\", seen as a \"symbol of sadness and loneliness.\" Visually blue moon The moon (and sun) can appear blue under certain atmospheric conditions – for instance, if volcanic eruptions or large-scale fires release particles into the atmosphere of just the right size to preferentiallyscatterred light.According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, scattering is the cause of “that epitome of rare occurrences, the blue Moon (seen when forest fires produce clouds composed of small droplets of organic compounds).” ARoyal Societyreport on the 1883Krakatoaeruptiongave a detailed account of “blue, green, and other coloured appearances of the sun and moon” seen in many places for months afterwards.: xiii. The report mentioned that in February 1884 an observer in central America saw the crescent moon as “a magnificent emerald-green” while itsashenpart was “pale green”. Venus, bright stars and a comet were also green.: 173The report authors suspected that green moons were a contrast effect, since in those cases the surrounding sky was seen as red.:203 People saw blue moons in 1983 after the eruption of theEl Chichónvolcano in Mexico, and there are reports of blue moons caused byMount St. Helensin 1980 andMount Pinatuboin 1991. The moon looked blue after forest fires in Sweden and Canada in 1950 and 1951,On September 23, 1950, severalmuskegfires that had been smoldering for several years in Alberta, Canada, suddenly blew up into major—and very smoky—fires. Winds carried the smoke eastward and southward with unusual speed, and the conditions of the fire produced large quantities of oily droplets of just the right size (about 1micrometrein diameter) to scatter red and yellow light. Wherever the smoke cleared enough so that the sun was visible, it was lavender or blue. Ontario, Canada, and much of the east coast of the United States were affected by the following day, and two days later, observers in Britain reported an indigo sun in smoke-dimmed skies, followed by an equally blue moon that evening. Ice particles might have a similar effect. The Antarctic diary ofRobert Falcon Scottfor July 11, 1911 mentioned \"the air thick with snow, and the moon a vague blue\". The key to a blue moon is having many particles slightly wider than the wavelength of red light (0.7 micrometer)—and no other sizes present. Ash and dust clouds thrown into the atmosphere by fires and storms usually contain a mixture of particles with a wide range of sizes, with most smaller than 1 micrometer, and they tend to scatter blue light. This kind of cloud makes the moon turn red; thus red moons are far more common than blue moons. Calendrical blue moon Blue moon as a calendrical term originated with the 1937Maine Farmers’ Almanac, a provincial U.S. magazine that is not to be confused with theFarmers' Almanac,Old Farmer's Almanac, or otherAmerican almanacs. There is no evidence of “blue moon” having been used as a specific calendrical term before 1937, and it was possibly invented by the magazine’s editor, Henry Porter Trefethen (1887-1957).As a term for the second full moon in a calendar month it began to be widely known in the U.S. in the mid-1980s and became internationally known in the late 1990s when calendrical matters were of special interest given the approaching millennium. It created a misapprehension that the calendrical meaning of “blue moon” had preceded the metaphorical one, and inspired variousfolk etymologies, e.g. the “betrayer” speculation mentioned earlier, or that it came from a printing convention in calendars or a saying in Czech.A 1997 Taiwanese movie,Blue Moon, had thelog line“There is usually only one full moon every month, but occasionally there are two – and that second full moon is called the Blue Moon. It is said that when a person sees a blue moon and makes a wish, he will be granted a second chance in things.” In 1999 folklorist Philip Hiscock presented a timeline for the calendrical term.First, the August page of the 1937Maine Farmers' Almanacran a sidebar claiming that the term was used “in olden times” for an extra full moon in a season, and gave some examples (21 November 1915, 22 August 1918, 21 May 1921, 20 February 1924, 21 November 1934, 22 August 1937, and 21 May 1940). Six years later, Laurence J. Lafleur (1907-66) quoted the almanac in the U.S. magazineSky & Telescope(July 1943, page 17) in answer to a reader’s question about the meaning of “blue moon”. Then James Hugh Pruett (1886-1955) quoted it again inSky & Telescope(March 1946, p3), saying “seven times in 19 years there were — and still are — 13 full moons in a year. This gives 11 months with one full moon each and one with two. This second in a month, so I interpret it, was called Blue Moon”. In 1980 the term was used (with Pruett’s definition) in a U.S. radio program,Star Date, and in 1985 it appeared in a U.S. children’s book,The Kids' World Almanac of Records and Facts(“What is a blue moon? When there are two full moons in a month, the second one is called a blue moon. It is a rare occurrence.”)In 1986 it was included as a question in Trivial Pursuit (likely taken from the children’s book), and in 1988 a forthcoming blue moon received widespread press coverage. In 1999 U.S. astronomerDonald W. Olsonresearched the original articles and published the results in aSky & Telescopearticle co-authored with Richard T Fienberg and Roger W. Sinnott. From the examples given by Trefethen in the 1937Maine Farmers’ Almanacthey deduced a “rule” he must effectively have used. “Seasonal Moon names are assigned near the springequinoxin accordance with theecclesiastical rulesfor determining the dates ofEasterandLent. The beginnings of summer, fall, and winter are determined by thedynamical mean Sun. When a season contains four full Moons, the third is called a Blue Moon.”They termed this the “Maine rule” for blue moons, as distinct from Pruett’s 1946 definition that was seen to have been a misinterpretation. In popular astronomy the Maine rule is sometimes called the “seasonal”,“true”or “traditional”rule (though of course no tradition of it exists prior to 1937). Blue moons by Pruett’s definition are sometimes called “calendar blue moons”.The \"seasonal\" blue moon rule is itself ambiguous since it depends which definition ofseasonis used. The Maine rule used seasons of equal length with the ecclesiastical equinox (March 21). An alternative is to use the astronomical seasons, which are of unequal length. There is also reference in modern popular astrology to “zodiacal blue moons”. Blue moon dates The table below has blue moon dates and times (UTC) calculated according to Pruett’s “calendar” rule (second full moon in a calendar month) and two versions of the “seasonal” rule (third full moon in a season with four). The Maine rule uses equal-length seasons defined by the dynamical mean sun, and is presumed to have been the original rule of Trefethen.The “astro-seasonal” rule uses the unequal astronomical seasons defined by the apparent sun. All calculations are by David Harper. The fourth column shows blue moon dates that were actually printed in theMaine Farmers’ Almanac, as found by Olson, Fienberg and Sinnott in 1999. They studied issues published between 1819 and 1962, and found that all mentions occurred between 1937, when H.P. Trefethen introduced the term, and 1956, when Trefethen’s editorship ended (consistent with it being Trefethen’s own invention). Occasional discrepancies between the Maine rule and the almanac’s printed dates can be ascribed to clerical errors or miscalculation. In one case (August 1945) Trefethen appears to have used the apparent rather than mean sun. The table shows that in 200 years there are 187 full moons that could be called \"blue\" by some definition - an average of nearly one per year. Two Pruett blue moons can occur in a single year (1915, 1961, 1999, 2018, 2037, 2094). 1915 had four blue moons (two Pruett, one Maine, one astro-seasonal). 1934 and 2048 have three (one of each type). Despite the 187 blue moons appearing across the 200 years in this table, only 146 years have any of these 3 types of blue moons, leaving 54 years (thus averaging just over 1 year in every 4) which have none of the 3 rules represented in that calendar year. While not totally unexpected (given the overlapping frequencies of these 3 rules), it so happens there are not any 2 sequential years (at least within these 200) wherein none of the 3 types of blue moon occur. Conversely, despite the preponderance of years with blue moons (of at least 1 type) occurring in this 200-year range, there are no instances of more than 4 sequential years having a blue moon, of any of these 3 types -- i.e. at least 1 year out of every 5 sequential years has none of the 3 types appearing. Remarks Onelunation(an average lunar cycle) is 29.53days. There are about 365.24 days in atropical year. Therefore, about 12.37 lunations (365.24 days divided by 29.53 days) occur in a tropical year. So the date of the full moon falls back by nearly one day every calendar month on average. Each calendar year contains roughly 11 days more than the number of days in 12 lunar cycles, so every two or three years (seven times in the 19 yearMetonic cycle), there is an extra full moon in the year. The extra full moon necessarily falls in one of the four seasons (however defined), giving that season four full moons instead of the usual three. Given that a year is approximately 365.2425 days and a synodic orbit is 29.5309 days,then there are about 12.368 synodic months in a year. For this to add up to another full month would take 1/0.368 years. Thus it would take about 2.716 years, or 2 years, 8 months, and 18 days for another Pruett blue moon to occur. Or approximately once in 32.5 months on an average. When there are two Pruett blue moons in a single year, the first occurs in January and the second in March or April. The next timeNew Year's Evefalls on a Pruett blue moon (as occurred on December 31, 2009 in time zones west of UTC+05) is after one Metonic cycle, in 2028 in time zones west of UTC+08. At that time there will be atotal lunar eclipse. See also References External links",
"World War I World War Ior theFirst World War(28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as theGreat War, was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAllies(or Entente) and theCentral Powers. Fighting took place mainly inEuropeand theMiddle East, as well as in parts ofAfricaand theAsia-Pacific, and in Europe was characterised bytrench warfareand the use ofartillery, machine guns, andchemical weapons(gas). World War I was one of thedeadliest conflicts in history, resulting in an estimated9 million military dead and 23 million wounded, plus up to 8 million civilian deaths from causes includinggenocide. The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in theSpanish flupandemic, which killed millions. Thecauses of World War Iincluded the rise ofGermanyanddecline of the Ottoman Empire, which disturbed the long-standingbalance of powerin Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered byindustrialisationandimperialism. Growing tensions between thegreat powersand in theBalkansreacheda breaking pointon 28 June 1914, when aBosnian SerbnamedGavrilo Principassassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to theAustro-Hungarianthrone. Austria-Hungary heldSerbiaresponsible, and declared war on 28 July. AfterRussiamobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia; by 4 August,Franceand theUnited Kingdomwere drawn in, with the Ottomans joining in November.Germany's strategy in 1914was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east. However, this failed, and by the end of the year theWestern Frontconsisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. TheEastern Frontwas more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives.Italy,Bulgaria,Romania,Greeceand others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917, theUnited States entered the waron the Allied side following Germany's resumption ofunrestricted submarine warfareagainst Atlantic shipping. Later that year, theBolsheviksseized power in the RussianOctober Revolution;Soviet Russiasignedan armisticewith the Central Powers in December, followed bya separate peacein March 1918. That month, Germany launchedan offensive in the west, which despite initial successes left theGerman Armyexhausted and demoralised.A successful Allied counter-offensivefrom August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facinga revolution at home,Kaiser WilhelmIIabdicated on 9 November, and the war ended with theArmistice of 11 November 1918. TheParis Peace Conferenceof 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably theTreaty of Versailles, by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay largewar reparationsto the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in the creation of new independent states, includingPoland,Finland, theBaltic states,Czechoslovakia, andYugoslavia. TheLeague of Nationswas established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during theinterwar periodcontributed to the outbreak ofWorld War IIin 1939. Names BeforeWorld War II, the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as theGreat Waror simply theWorld War.In August 1914, the magazineThe Independentwrote \"This is the Great War. It names itself\".In October 1914, the Canadian magazineMaclean'ssimilarly wrote, \"Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War.\"Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as \"the war to end war\" and it was also described as \"the war to end all wars\" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life.The first recorded use of the termFirst World Warwas in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopherErnst Haeckelwho stated, \"There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word.\" Background Political and military alliances For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuousbalance of power, known as theConcert of Europe.After 1848, this was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-calledsplendid isolation, thedecline of the Ottoman Empire,New Imperialism, and the rise ofPrussiaunderOtto von Bismarck. Victory in the 1870–1871Franco-Prussian Warallowed Bismarck toconsolidateaGerman Empire. Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was toavengethis defeat,but by the early 1890s, this had switched to the expansion of theFrench colonial empire. In 1873, Bismarck negotiated theLeague of the Three Emperors, which includedAustria-Hungary,Russiaand Germany. After the 1877–1878Russo-Turkish War, the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in theBalkans, an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest.Germanyand Austria-Hungary then formed the 1879Dual Alliance, which became theTriple Alliancewhen Italy joined in 1882.For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up theReinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire byWilhelm II. The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his newChancellor,Leo von Caprivi.This gave France an opening to agree theFranco-Russian Alliancein 1894, which was then followed by the 1904Entente Cordialewith Britain. TheTriple Ententewas completed by the 1907Anglo-Russian Convention. While not formal alliances, by settlinglong-standing colonial disputes in Asiaand Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became a possibility.This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911Agadir Crisis. Arms race German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, AdmiralAlfred von Tirpitzsought to use this growth to build anImperial German Navy, that could compete with the BritishRoyal Navy.This policy was based on the work of US naval authorAlfred Thayer Mahan, who argued that possession of ablue-water navywas vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to a change in policy and anAnglo-German naval arms racebegan.Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch ofHMSDreadnoughtin 1906 gave the British a technological advantage.Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, ChancellorTheobald von Bethmann Hollwegacknowledged defeat, leading to theRüstungswendeor 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in theRusso-Japanese Warand subsequent1905 Russian Revolution. Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions.Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia, the threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by theBalkan powersand Italy, which led to increased expenditure by theOttomansand Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. Conflicts in the Balkans The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. WhilePan-SlavicandOrthodoxRussia considered itself the protector ofSerbiaand otherSlavstates, they preferred the strategically vitalBosporusstraits to be controlled by a weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power likeBulgaria. Russia had ambitions in northeasternAnatoliawhile its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as a direct threat. The 1908–1909Bosnian Crisisbegan when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory ofBosnia and Herzegovina, which ithad occupiedsince 1878. Timed to coincide with theBulgarian Declaration of Independencefrom the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as a significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912Italo-Turkish Wardemonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of theBalkan League, an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria,Montenegro, andGreece.The League quickly overran most of the Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913First Balkan War, much to the surprise of outside observers.The Serbian capture of ports on theAdriaticresulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border inGalicia. TheRussian governmentdecided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through the 1913Treaty of London, which had created an independentAlbaniawhile enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-daySecond Balkan War, when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most ofMacedoniato Serbia and Greece, andSouthern Dobrujato Romania.The result was that even countries which benefited from the Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their \"rightful gains\", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany.This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the \"powder keg of Europe\". Prelude Sarajevo assassination On 28 June 1914,Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to EmperorFranz Joseph I of Austria, visitedSarajevo, the capital of the recently annexedBosnia and Herzegovina.Cvjetko Popović,Gavrilo Princip,Nedeljko Čabrinović,Trifko Grabež,Vaso Čubrilović(Bosnian Serbs) andMuhamed Mehmedbašić(from theBosniakscommunity),from the movement known asYoung Bosnia, took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the SerbianBlack Handintelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw agrenadeat the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street whereGavrilo Principwas standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wifeSophie. According to historianZbyněk Zeman, in Vienna \"the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June, the crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened.\"Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historianChristopher Clarkas a \"9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna\". Expansion of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequentanti-Serb riots in Sarajevo.Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as theSchutzkorpswas established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. July Crisis The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as the best way of achieving this.However, theForeign Ministryhad no solid proof of Serbian involvement.On 23July, Austria delivered anultimatumto Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered generalmobilizationon 25July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress \"subversive elements\" inside Serbia, and take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination.Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shellingBelgrade. Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from theSPDpolitical opposition by presenting Russia as the aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July.That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to \"cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary\" within 12 hours.A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war.TheGerman General Staffhad long assumed they faced a war on two fronts; theSchlieffen Planenvisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon.Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under the 1839Treaty of Londondid not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime MinisterAsquithand his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention.On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply.Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-ChiefJoseph Joffreasked his government for permission to cross the border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion.Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August,Germany occupied Luxembourgand exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which was refused. Early on the morning of 4August, the Germans invaded, andAlbert I of Belgiumcalled for assistance under theTreaty of London.Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Progress of the war Opening hostilities Confusion among the Central Powers Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Serbian campaign Beginning on 12 August, the Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of theCerandKolubara; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia.Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century.In 1915, the campaign saw the first use ofanti-aircraft warfareafter an Austrian plane was shot down withground-to-airfire, as well as the firstmedical evacuationby the Serbian army. German offensive in Belgium and France Upon mobilisation, in accordance with theSchlieffen Plan, 80% of theGerman Armywas located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier, the German right wing would sweep through theNetherlandsandBelgium, then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator,Alfred von Schlieffen, head of theGerman General Stafffrom 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor,Helmuth von Moltke the Younger. Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the \"lost provinces\" ofAlsace-Lorraine, which was the strategy envisaged by theirPlan XVII.However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as the German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30.He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan.HistorianRichard Holmesargues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in the West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included theBritish Expeditionary Force(BEF), was infull retreat, and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000.German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, butvon Kluckused this freedom to disobey orders, opening a gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris.The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911, the RussianStavkaagreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that enteredEast Prussiaon 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war.As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after theFirst Battle of the Marne,Crown Prince Wilhelmtold an American reporter \"We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already.\" Asia and the Pacific On 30 August 1914, New Zealandoccupied German Samoa(nowSamoa). On 11 September, theAustralian Naval and Military Expeditionary Forcelanded on the island ofNew Britain, then part ofGerman New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiserSMSEmdensank theRussian cruiserZhemchugin theBattle of Penang. Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became theSouth Seas Mandate, as well as GermanTreaty portson the ChineseShandongpeninsula atTsingtao. After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiserSMSKaiserin Elisabethfrom Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914.Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. African campaigns Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates ofTogolandandKamerun. On 10 August, German forces inSouth-West Africaattacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces inGerman East Africa, led by ColonelPaul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought aguerrilla warfarecampaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Indian support for the Allies Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 byinstigating uprisings in India, while theNiedermayer–Hentig Expeditionurged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity.Leaders from theIndian National Congressand other groups believed support for the British war effort would hastenIndian Home Rule, a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 byEdwin Montagu, theSecretary of State for India. In 1914, theBritish Indian Armywas larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded.The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting inthe campaign for full independenceled byMahatma Gandhi. Western Front 1914 to 1916 Trench warfare begins Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed the creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such asbarbed wire, machine guns and above all far more powerfulartillery, which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult.Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such asgas warfareand thetank. After theFirst Battle of the Marnein September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the \"Race to the Sea\". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from theChannelto the Swiss border.Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held the high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered \"temporary\", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences.Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at theSecond Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating theHague Convention) usedchlorinegas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. Continuation of trench warfare In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at theBattle of Verdun, lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000to 975,000casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. TheBattle of the Sommewas an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. Theopening dayon 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of theBritish Army, which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As a whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans.The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such astrench foot,lice,typhus,trench fever, and the 'Spanish flu'. Naval war At the start of the war, Germancruiserswere scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Alliedmerchant shipping. These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was theSMSEmden, part of the GermanEast Asia Squadronstationed atQingdao, which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at theBattle of Coronelin November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at theBattle of the Falkland Islandsin December. TheSMSDresdenescaped with a few auxiliaries, but after theBattle of Más a Tierra, these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a navalblockade of Germany. This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law.Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of the ocean, even to neutral ships.Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. TheBattle of Jutlandin May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of the GermanHigh Seas Fleetwas confined to port. GermanU-boatsattempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.The nature ofsubmarine warfaremeant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger shipRMSLusitaniain 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the \"cruiser rules\", which demanded warning and movement of crews to \"a place of safety\" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet).Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy ofunrestricted submarine warfare, realising the Americans would eventually enter the war.Germany sought to strangle Alliedsea lanesbefore the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling inconvoys, escorted bydestroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after thehydrophoneanddepth chargeswere introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at the cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use ofaircraft carriersin combat, withHMSFuriouslaunchingSopwith Camelsin a successful raid against theZeppelinhangars atTondernin July 1918, as well asblimpsfor antisubmarine patrol. Southern theatres War in the Balkans Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital,Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia.The Austro-Hungarian provinces ofSlovenia, Croatia andBosniaprovided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in the attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northernAlbania. The Serbs suffered defeat in theBattle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in theBattle of Mojkovacon 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece.After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed atSalonicain Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-GermanKing Constantine Idismissed the pro-Allied government ofEleftherios Venizelosbefore the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturingBitolaon 19 November 1916 following the costlyMonastir offensive, which brought stabilisation of the front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in theVardar offensive, after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at theBattle of Dobro Pole, and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918.The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were too weak to re-establish a front. The disappearance of the Macedonian front meant that the road toBudapestand Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against theCentral Powersand, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement. Ottoman Empire The Ottomans threatened Russia'sCaucasianterritories and Britain's communications with India via theSuez Canal. The Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers' preoccupation with the war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of theArmenian,Greek, andAssyrianChristian populations—theArmenian genocide,Greek genocide, andSayforespectively. The British and French opened overseas fronts with theGallipoli(1915) andMesopotamian campaigns(1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, andAustralian and New Zealand Army Corps(ANZACs). InMesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in thesiege of Kutby the Ottomans (1915–1916), British Imperial forces reorganised and capturedBaghdadin March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian fighters, while the Ottomans employed localKurdishandTurcomantribes. TheSuez Canalwas defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August 1916, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at theBattle of Romaniby theANZAC Mounted Divisionand the52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, anEgyptian Expeditionary Forceadvanced across theSinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in theBattle of Magdhabain December and theBattle of Rafaon the border between the EgyptianSinaiand Ottoman Palestine in January 1917. Russian armies generally had success in theCaucasus campaign.Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been previously lost to Russia. He was, however, a poor commander.He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86% of his force at theBattle of Sarikamish.GeneralYudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southernCaucasus. The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modernIran) in December 1914 to cut off British and Russian access topetroleum reservoirsaroundBaku.Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided byKurdishandAzeriforces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. ThePersian campaignlasted until 1918 and ended in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However, the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led Armenian and Assyrian forces to be cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia. TheArab Revolt, instigated by the BritishForeign Office, started in June 1916 with theBattle of Mecca, led bySharif Hussein. The Sharif declared the independence of theKingdom of Hejazand, with British assistance, conquered much of Ottoman-held Arabia, resulting finally in the Ottoman surrender of Damascus.Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander ofMedina, resisted for more than2+1⁄2years during thesiege of Medinabefore surrendering in January 1919. TheSenussitribe, along the border ofItalian LibyaandBritish Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-scaleguerrilla waragainst Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in theSenussi campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916. Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted to 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000, with 325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded. Italian Front Though Italy joined the Triple Alliance in 1882, a treaty with its traditional Austrian enemy was so controversial that subsequent governments denied its existence and the terms were only made public in 1915.This arose fromnationalistdesigns on Austro-Hungarian territory inTrentino, theAustrian Littoral,RijekaandDalmatia, considered vital to secure the borders established in1866.In 1902, Rome secretly had agreed with France to remain neutral if the latter was attacked by Germany, effectively nullifying its role in the Triple Alliance. When the war began in 1914, Italy argued the Triple Alliance was defensive and it was not obliged to support an Austrian attack on Serbia. Opposition to joining the Central Powers increased when Turkey became a member in September, since in1911Italy had occupied Ottoman possessions inLibyaand theDodecaneseislands.To secure Italian neutrality, the Central Powers offered themTunisia, while in return for an immediate entry into the war, the Allies agreed to their demands for Austrian territory and sovereignty over the Dodecanese.Although they remained secret, these provisions were incorporated into the April 1915Treaty of London; Italy joined the Triple Entente and, on 23 May, declared war on Austria-Hungary,followed by Germany fifteen months later. The pre-1914 Italian army was short of officers, trained men, adequate transport and modern weapons; by April 1915, some of these deficiencies had been remedied but it was still unprepared for the major offensive required by the Treaty of London.The advantage of superior numbers was offset by the difficult terrain; much of the fighting took place high in theAlpsandDolomites, where trench lines had to be cut through rock and ice and keeping troops supplied was a major challenge. These issues were exacerbated by unimaginative strategies and tactics.Between 1915 and 1917, the Italian commander,Luigi Cadorna, undertooka series of frontal assaults along the Isonzo, which made little progress and cost many lives; by the end of the war, Italian combat deaths totalled around 548,000. In the spring of 1916, the Austro-Hungarians counterattacked inAsiagoin theStrafexpedition, but made little progress and were pushed by the Italians back to Tyrol.Although Italy occupied southernAlbaniain May 1916, their main focus was the Isonzo front which, after thecapture of Goriziain August 1916, remained static until October 1917. After a combined Austro-German force won a major victory atCaporetto, Cadorna was replaced byArmando Diazwho retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) before holding positions along thePiave River.A second Austrianoffensive was repulsedin June 1918. On 24 October, Diaz launched theBattle of Vittorio Venetoand initially met stubborn resistance,but with Austria-Hungary collapsing, Hungarian divisions in Italy demanded they be sent home.When this was granted, many others followed and the Imperial army disintegrated, the Italians taking over 300,000 prisoners.On 3November, theArmistice of Villa Giustiended hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Italy which occupiedTriesteand areas along theAdriatic Seaawarded to it in 1915. Eastern Front Initial actions As previously agreed with French presidentRaymond Poincaré, Russian plans at the start of the war were to simultaneously advance intoAustrian Galiciaand East Prussia as soon as possible. Although theirattack on Galiciawas largely successful, and the invasions achieved their aim of forcing Germany to divert troops from the Western Front, the speed of mobilisation meant they did so without much of their heavy equipment and support functions. These weaknesses contributed to Russian defeats atTannenbergand theMasurian Lakesin August and September 1914, forcing them to withdraw from East Prussia with heavy losses.By spring 1915, they had also retreated from Galicia, and the May 1915Gorlice–Tarnów offensiveallowed the Central Powers to invadeRussian-occupied Poland. Despite the successful June 1916Brusilov offensiveagainst the Austrians in eastern Galicia,shortages of supplies, heavy losses and command failures prevented the Russians from fully exploiting their victory. However, it was one of the most significant offensives of the war, diverting German resources fromVerdun, relieving Austro-Hungarian pressure on the Italians, and convincing Romania to enter the war on the side of the Allies on 27 August. It also fatally weakened both the Austrian and Russian armies, whose offensive capabilities were badly affected by their losses and increased disillusion with the war that ultimately led to the Russian revolutions. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia asthe Tsarremained at the front, with the home front controlled byEmpress Alexandra. Her increasingly incompetent rule and food shortages in urban areas led to widespread protests and the murder of her favourite,Grigori Rasputin, at the end of 1916. Romanian participation Despite secretly agreeing to support the Triple Alliance in 1883, Romania increasingly found itself at odds with the Central Powers over their support for Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and the status of ethnic Romanian communities inHungarian-controlledTransylvania,which comprised an estimated 2.8 million of the 5.0 million population.With the ruling elite split into pro-German and pro-Entente factions,Romania remained neutral for two years while allowing Germany and Austria to transport military supplies and advisors across Romanian territory. In September 1914, Russia acknowledged Romanian rights to Austro-Hungarian territories including Transylvania andBanat, whose acquisition had widespread popular support,and Russian success against Austria led Romania to join the Entente in the August 1916Treaty of Bucharest.Under the strategic plan known asHypothesis Z, the Romanian army planned an offensive into Transylvania, while defending SouthernDobrujaandGiurgiuagainst a possible Bulgarian counterattack.On 27 August 1916, theyattacked Transylvaniaand occupied substantial parts of the province before being driven back by the recently formedGerman 9th Army, led by former Chief of StaffErich von Falkenhayn.A combined German-Bulgarian-Turkish offensive captured Dobruja and Giurgiu, although the bulk of the Romanian army managed to escape encirclement and retreated toBucharest, whichsurrenderedto the Central Powers on 6 December 1916. In the summer of 1917, a Central Powers offensive began in Romania under the command of August von Mackensen to knock Romania out of the war, resulting in the battles ofOituz,MărăștiandMărășeștiwhere up to 1,000,000 Central Powers troops were present. The battles lasted from 22 July to 3 September and eventually, the Romanian army was victorious advancing 500 km2. August von Mackensen could not plan for another offensive as he had to transfer troops to the Italian Front.Following the Russian revolution, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed theTreaty of Bucharestwith the Central Powers, which recognised Romanian sovereignty overBessarabiain return for ceding control of passes in the Carpathian Mountains to Austria-Hungary and leasing its oil wells to Germany. Although approved byParliament,King Ferdinand Irefused to sign it, hoping for an Allied victory in the west.Romania re-entered the war on 10 November 1918 on the side of the Allies and the Treaty of Bucharest was formally annulled by the Armistice of 11 November 1918. Central Powers peace overtures On 12 December 1916, after ten brutal months of theBattle of Verdunand asuccessful offensive against Romania, Germany attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies.However, this attempt was rejected out of hand as a \"duplicitous war ruse\". US presidentWoodrow Wilsonattempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking for both sides to state their demands.Lloyd George'sWar Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions among the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the US was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the \"submarine outrages\". While the Allies debated a response to Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of \"a direct exchange of views\". Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities.The Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars.The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer on the grounds of honour, and noted Germany had not put forward any specific proposals. Final years of the war Russian Revolution and withdrawal By the end of 1916, Russian casualties totalled nearly five million killed, wounded or captured, with major urban areas affected by food shortages and high prices. In March 1917, Tsar Nicholas ordered the military to forcibly suppress strikes inPetrogradbut the troops refused to fire on the crowds.Revolutionaries set up thePetrograd Sovietand fearing a left-wing takeover, theState Dumaforced Nicholas to abdicate and established theRussian Provisional Government, which confirmed Russia's willingness to continue the war. However, the Petrograd Soviet refused to disband, creatingcompeting power centresand causing confusion and chaos, with frontline soldiers becoming increasingly demoralised. Following the Tsar's abdication,Vladimir Lenin—with the help of the German government—was ushered from Switzerland into Russia on 16 April 1917. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, they acceded to theTreaty of Brest-Litovskon 3March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. With theRussian Empireout of the war, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed theTreaty of Bucharestwith the Central Powers in May 1918. Under the terms of the treaty, Romania ceded territory to Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria and leased its oil reserves to Germany. However, the terms also included the Central Powers' recognition of the union ofBessarabiawith Romania. United States enters the war The United States was a major supplier of war material to the Allies but remained neutral in 1914, in large part due to domestic opposition.The most significant factor in creating the support Wilson needed was the German submarine offensive, which not only cost American lives but paralysed trade as ships were reluctant to put to sea. On 6 April 1917, Congressdeclared war on Germanyas an \"Associated Power\" of the Allies.TheUS Navysent abattleship grouptoScapa Flowto join the Grand Fleet, and provided convoy escorts. In April 1917, theUS Armyhad fewer than 300,000 men, includingNational Guardunits, compared to British and French armies of 4.1 and 8.3 million respectively. TheSelective Service Act of 1917drafted 2.8 million men, though training and equipping such numbers was a huge logistical challenge. By June 1918, over 667,000 members of theAmerican Expeditionary Forces(AEF) were transported to France, a figure which reached 2 million by the end of November. Despite his conviction that Germany must be defeated, Wilson went to war to ensure the US played a leading role in shaping the peace, which meant preserving the AEF as a separate military force, rather than being absorbed into British or French units as his Allies wanted.He was strongly supported by AEF commander GeneralJohn J. Pershing, a proponent of pre-1914 \"open warfare\" who considered the French and British emphasis on artillery misguided and incompatible with American \"offensive spirit\".Much to the frustration of his Allies, who had suffered heavy losses in 1917, he insisted on retaining control of American troops, and refused to commit them to the front line until able to operate as independent units. As a result, the first significant US involvement was theMeuse–Argonne offensivein late September 1918. Nivelle Offensive (April–May 1917) In December 1916,Robert Nivellereplaced Pétain as commander of French armies on the Western Front and began planning aspring attackinChampagne, part of a joint Franco-British operation.Poor security meant German intelligence was well informed on tactics and timetables, but despite this, when the attack began on 16 April the French made substantial gains, before being brought to a halt by the newly built and extremely strong defences of the Hindenburg Line. Nivelle persisted with frontal assaults and, by 25 April, the French had suffered nearly 135,000 casualties, including 30,000 dead, most incurred in the first two days. Concurrent British attacks atArraswere more successful, though ultimately of little strategic value.Operating as a separate unit for the first time, theCanadian Corps' capture ofVimy Ridgeis viewed by many Canadians as a defining moment in creating a sense of national identity.Though Nivelle continued the offensive, on 3 May the21st Division, which had been involved in some of the heaviest fighting at Verdun, refused orders to go into battle, initiating theFrench Army mutinies; within days, \"collective indiscipline\" had spread to 54 divisions, while over 20,000 deserted. Sinai and Palestine campaign (1917–1918) In March and April 1917, at theFirstandSecond Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani.At the end of October 1917, theSinai and Palestine campaignresumed, when GeneralEdmund Allenby'sXXth Corps,XXI CorpsandDesert Mounted Corpswon theBattle of Beersheba.Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at theBattle of Mughar Ridgeand, early in December,Jerusalemhad been captured following another Ottoman defeat at theBattle of Jerusalem.About this time,Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressensteinwas relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army's commander, replaced byDjevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of theOttoman Armyin Palestine,Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced byOtto Liman von Sanders. In early 1918, the front line wasextendedand theJordan Valleywas occupied, following theFirst Transjordanand theSecond Transjordanattacks by British Empire forces in March and April 1918. German offensive and Allied counter-offensive (March–November 1918) In December 1917, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the West. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success in a final quick offensive.Ludendorff drew up plans (Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces nearSaint-Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).The initial offensive was a success; after heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks ormotorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell-torn and often impassable to traffic.Germany launchedOperation Georgetteagainst the northernEnglish Channelports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conductedOperations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) on 15 July, in an attempt to encircleReims. The resulting counter-attack, which started theHundred Days Offensiveon 8 August,led to a marked collapse in German morale. Allied advance to the Hindenburg Line By September, the Germans had fallen back to the Hindenburg Line. The Allies hadadvanced to the Hindenburg Linein the north and centre. German forces launched numerous counterattacks, but positions and outposts of the Line continued falling, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September, the Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable. Thefinal assaulton the Hindenburg Line began with theMeuse-Argonne offensive, launched by American and French troops on 26 September. Two days later the Belgians, French and Britishattacked around Ypres, and the day after the British at St Quentin in the centre of the line. The following week, cooperating American and French units broke through inChampagneat theBattle of Blanc Mont Ridge(3–27 October), forcing the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier.On 8October, the Hindenburg Line was pierced by British and Dominion troops of the First and Third British Armies at theSecond Battle of Cambrai. Breakthrough of Macedonian front (September 1918) Allied forces started theVardar offensiveon 15 September at two key points:Dobro Poleand nearDojran Lake. In theBattle of Dobro Pole, the Serbian and French armies had success after a three-day-long battle with relatively small casualties, and subsequently made a breakthrough in the front, something which was rarely seen in World War I. After the front was broken, Allied forces started to liberate Serbia and reachedSkopjeat 29 September, after whichBulgariasigned an armistice with the Allies on 30 September. Armistices and capitulations The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, theArmistice of Salonicaon 29 September 1918.German EmperorWilhelm IIin a telegram toBulgarian Tsar Ferdinand Idescribed the situation thus: \"Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the war!\".On the same day, theGerman Supreme Army Commandinformed Kaiser Wilhelm II and theImperial ChancellorCountGeorg von Hertling, that the military situation facing Germany was hopeless. On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, marking the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3November, Austria-Hungary sent aflag of truceand accepted theArmistice of Villa Giusti, arranged with the Allied Authorities in Paris. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of theHabsburg monarchy. In the following days, the Italian Army occupiedInnsbruckand allTyrol, with over 20,000 soldiers. On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, and signed the Armistice of Mudros. German government surrenders With the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser leading to his abdication and fleeing of the country, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge on October 3 as Chancellor of Germany. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military. TheGerman Revolution of 1918–1919began at the end of October 1918. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war they believed to be as good as lost. Thesailors' revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports ofWilhelmshavenandKiel, spread across the whole country within days and led to theproclamation of a republicon 9November 1918, shortly thereafter to theabdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and German surrender. Aftermath In the aftermath of the war, the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires disappeared.Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties fell as a result of the war: theRomanovs, theHohenzollerns, theHabsburgs, and theOttomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead,not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. Formal end of the war A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of theTreaty of Versailleswith Germany on 28 June 1919. The US Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it,and did not formally end its involvement in the war until theKnox–Porter Resolutionwas signed on 2July 1921 by PresidentWarren G. Harding.For the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of theTermination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918concerning: Somewar memorialsdate the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned home; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Peace treaties and national boundaries TheParis Peace Conferenceimposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919Treaty of Versaillesdealt with Germany and, building onWilson's 14th point, established theLeague of Nationson 28 June 1919. The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for \"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by\" their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement wasArticle 231. This article became known as the \"War Guilt Clause\", as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful.The Germans felt they had been unjustly dealt with by what they called the \"diktatof Versailles\". German historian Hagen Schulze said the Treaty placed Germany \"under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated.\"Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasises the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s: Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic. The legend of the \"stab in the back\" and the wish to revise the \"Versailles diktat\", and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a man of peace such as Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanise the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its policies. Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as a recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbours. Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Apart from Austria and Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia received territories from the Dual Monarchy (the formerly separate and autonomousKingdom of Croatia-Slavoniawas incorporated into Yugoslavia). The details were contained in the treaties ofSaint-Germain-en-LayeandTrianon. As a result, Hungary lost 64% of its total population, decreasing from 20.9 million to 7.6 million, and losing 31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of its ethnicHungarians.According to the 1910 census, speakers of the Hungarian language included approximately 54% of the entire population of theKingdom of Hungary. Within the country, numerous ethnic minorities were present: 16.1%Romanians, 10.5%Slovaks, 10.4%Germans, 2.5%Ruthenians, 2.5%Serbsand 8% others.Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The Russian Empire lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations ofEstonia,Finland,Latvia,Lithuania, andPolandwere carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918. National identities After 123 years, Poland re-emerged as an independent country. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a \"minor Entente nation\" and the country with the most casualties per capita,became the backbone of a new multinational state, theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining theKingdom of Bohemiawith parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Romania woulduniteall Romanian-speaking people under a single state, leading toGreater Romania. In Australia and New Zealand, the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' \"Baptism of Fire\". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of theBritish Crown, and independent national identities for these nations took hold.Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), celebrates this defining moment. In the aftermath of World War I, Greecefoughtagainst Turkish nationalists led byMustafa Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in amassive population exchange between the two countriesunder the Treaty of Lausanne.According to various sources,several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the Greek genocide. Casualties Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilised from 1914 to 1918, an estimated8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria-Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%.France mobilised 7.8 million men, of which 1.4 million died and 3.2 million were injured.Approximately 15,000 deployed men sustained gruesome facial injuries, causing social stigma and marginalisation; they were called thegueules cassées(broken faces). In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that had weakened disease resistance. These excess deaths are estimated as 271,000 in 1918, plus another 71,000 in the first half of 1919 when the blockade was still in effect.Starvation caused by famine killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borneepidemic typhuskilled 200,000 in Serbia.Starting in early 1918, a major influenza epidemic known asSpanish fluspread across the world, accelerated by the movement of large numbers of soldiers, often crammed together in camps and transport ships with poor sanitation. The Spanish flu killed at least 17 to 25 million people,including an estimated 2.64 million Europeans and as many as 675,000 Americans.Between 1915 and 1926, an epidemic ofencephalitis lethargicaaffected nearly five million people worldwide. Eight millionequinesmostlyhorses,donkeysandmulesdied, three-quarters of them from the extreme conditions they worked in. War crimes Chemical weapons in warfare The German army was the first to successfully deploy chemical weapons during the Second Battle of Ypres (April–May 1915), after German scientists under the direction ofFritz Haberat theKaiser Wilhelm Institutedeveloped a method to weaponizechlorine.The use of chemical weapons had been sanctioned by the German High Command to force Allied soldiers out of their entrenched positions, complementing rather than supplanting more lethal conventional weapons.Chemical weapons were deployed by all major belligerents throughout the war, inflicting approximately 1.3 million casualties, of which about 90,000 were fatal.The use of chemical weapons in warfare was a direct violation of the1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gasesand the1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their use. Genocides by the Ottoman Empire Theethnic cleansingof the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is consideredgenocide.The Ottomans carried out organised and systematic massacres of the Armenian population at the beginning of the war and manipulated acts of Armenian resistance by portraying them as rebellions to justify further extermination.In early 1915, several Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue theTehcir Law(Law on Deportation), which authorised the deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionallymarched to deathand a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands.While the exact number of deaths is unknown, theInternational Association of Genocide Scholarsestimates around 1.5 million.The government of Turkey continues todeny the genocideto the present day, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World WarI; these claims are rejected by most historians. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians andGreeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination.At least 250,000 Assyrian Christians, about half of the population, and 350,000–750,000AnatolianandPontic Greekswere killed between 1915 and 1922. Prisoners of war About 8 million soldiers surrendered and were held inPOW campsduring the war. All nations pledged to follow theHague Conventionson fair treatment ofprisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of combatants at the front. Around 25–31% of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria-Hungary 32%; for Italy 26%; for France 12%; for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5–3.5 million soldiers as prisoners). From the Central Powers, about 3.3 million soldiers became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians. Soldiers' experiences Allied personnel was around 42,928,000, while Central personnel was near 25,248,000.British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but were increasinglyconscripted. Surviving veterans returning home often found they could discuss their experiences only among themselves, so formed \"veterans' associations\" or \"Legions\". Conscription Conscription was common in most European countries. However, it was controversial in English-speaking countries,It was especially unpopular among minority ethnicities—especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland,Australia,and the French Catholics in Canada. In the US, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well-received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas.The administration decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower after only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of war. Military attachés and war correspondents Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war.Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern \"embedded\" positions within the opposing land and naval forces. Economic effects Macro- and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, the industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle forvoting rights for women. In all nations, the government's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50% in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the US, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily fromWall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916 but allowed a great increase inUS governmentlending to the Allies. After 1919, the US demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations that, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and some loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4billionof World WarI debt in 1934; the last installment was finally paid in 2015. Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such asAlbert Kitsonwere called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits ofmanganese, used in munitions production, in theGold Coast. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called \"war guilt\" clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for \"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.\"It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However, neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war guilt.In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, \"Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay\" this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being \"deliberately designed to be chimerical\" and its \"primary function was to mislead public opinion ... into believing the 'total sum was being maintained.'\"Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) \"represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay\" and \"therefore ... represented the total German reparations\" figure that had to be paid. This figure could be paid in cash or in-kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). Some of the territory lost—via the Treaty of Versailles—was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain.By 1929, theGreat Depressioncaused political chaos throughout the world.In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point Germany had paid only the equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks.With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled.David Andelmannotes \"Refusing to pay doesn't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the agreement, still exist.\" Thus, following the Second World War, at theLondon Conferencein 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3October 2010, Germany made the final payment on these bonds. The Australian prime minister,Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister,David Lloyd George, \"You have assured us that you cannot get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies.\" Australia received £5,571,720 in war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been £376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were £831,280,947. Support and opposition for the war Support In the Balkans,Yugoslav nationalistssuch as the leader,Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom ofYugoslavsfrom Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. TheYugoslav Committee, led by Trumbić, was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London.In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, includingCzechoslovak, Italian,Polish,Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support nationalself-determinationfor the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary. In the Middle East,Arab nationalismsoared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of apan-Arabstate. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle East to achieve independence. In East Africa,Iyasu VofEthiopiawas supporting theDervish statewho were at war with the British in theSomaliland campaign.Von Syburg, the German envoy inAddis Ababa, said, \"now the time has come for Ethiopia to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians home, to restore the Empire to its ancient size.\" The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge of entering World WarI on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu's overthrow at theBattle of Segaledue to Allied pressure on the Ethiopian aristocracy. Several socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914.But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept ofclass conflictheld by radical socialists such as Marxists andsyndicalistsbeing overborne by their patriotic support for the war.Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries' intervention in the war. Italian nationalismwas stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war wasGabriele D'Annunzio, who promotedItalian irredentismand helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war.TheItalian Liberal Party, under the leadership ofPaolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and used the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism.Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, includingBenito MussoliniandLeonida Bissolati.However, theItalian Socialist Partydecided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in ageneral strikecalledRed Week.The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini.Mussolini formed the pro-interventionistIl Popolo d'Italiaand theFasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista(\"RevolutionaryFascifor International Action\") in October 1914 that later developed into theFasci Italiani di Combattimentoin 1919, the origin of fascism.Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds fromAnsaldo(an armaments firm) and other companies to createIl Popolo d'Italiato convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. Patriotic funds On both sides, there was large-scale fundraising for soldiers' welfare, their dependents and those injured. TheNail Menwere a German example. Around the British Empire, there were many patriotic funds, including theRoyal Patriotic Fund Corporation,Canadian Patriotic Fund,Queensland Patriotic Fundand, by 1919, there were 983 funds in New Zealand.At the start of the next world war the New Zealand funds were reformed, having been criticised as overlapping, wasteful and abused,but 11 were still functioning in 2002. Opposition Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These includedEugene Debsin the US andBertrand Russellin Britain. In the US, theEspionage Act of 1917andSedition Act of 1918made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed \"disloyal\". Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors,and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic. Several nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advancedIrish nationalistshad staunchly opposed taking part.The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912, and by July 1914 there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in theEaster Risingof 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain.The British government placed Ireland undermartial lawin response to the Easter Rising, though once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling.However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland, resulting in theConscription Crisis of 1918. Other opposition came fromconscientious objectors—some socialist, some religious—who had refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status.Some of them, most notably prominent peace activistStephen Hobhouse, refused both military andalternative service.Many suffered years of prison, includingsolitary confinement. Even after the war, in Britain, many job advertisements were marked \"No conscientious objectors need to apply\". On 1–4 May 1917, about 100,000 workers and soldiers ofPetrograd, and after them, the workers and soldiers of other Russian cities, led by the Bolsheviks, demonstrated under banners reading \"Down with the war!\" and \"all power to the Soviets!\". The mass demonstrations resulted in a crisis for theRussian Provisional Government.InMilan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation.The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks andanarchists, who fought violently until May 23 when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people were arrested. Technology World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-centurytactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies had modernised and were making use of telephone,wireless communication,armoured cars,tanks(especially with the advent of the prototype tank,Little Willie), and aircraft. Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917,indirect firewith guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably, aircraft and thefield telephone. Fixed-wing aircraftwere initially used forreconnaissanceandground attack. To shoot down enemy planes,anti-aircraft gunsandfighter aircraftwere developed.Strategic bomberswere created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former usedZeppelinsas well.Towards the end of the conflict,aircraft carrierswere used for the first time, with HMSFuriouslaunchingSopwith Camelsin a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars atTønderin 1918. Diplomacy The non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed to build support for the cause or to undermine support for the enemy. For the most part, wartime diplomacy focused on five issues:propaganda campaigns; defining and redefining the war goals, which became harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements inside the Central Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and Arabs. In addition, multiple peace proposals were coming from neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very far. Legacy and memory Memorials Memorials were built in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as theCommonwealth War Graves Commission, theAmerican Battle Monuments Commission, theGerman War Graves Commission, andLe Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have monuments to the missing orunidentifieddead, such as theMenin Gate Memorial to the Missingand theThiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme. In 1915,John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the poemIn Flanders Fieldsas a salute to those who perished in the war. It is still recited today, especially onRemembrance DayandMemorial Day. National World War I Museum and MemorialinKansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World WarI. TheLiberty Memorialwas dedicated on 1 November 1921. The British government budgeted substantial resources tothe commemoration of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is theImperial War Museum.On 3August 2014, French PresidentFrançois Hollandeand German PresidentJoachim Gaucktogether markedthe centenary of Germany's declaration of war on Franceby laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German asHartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in the war.As part of commemorations for thecentenary of the 1918 Armistice, French PresidentEmmanuel Macronand German ChancellorAngela Merkelvisited the site of the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne and unveiled a plaque to reconciliation. Historiography ... \"Strange, friend,\" I said, \"Here is no cause to mourn.\"\"None,\" said the other, \"Save the undone years\"... The first efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences ofmodern warfarebegan during the initial phases of the war and are still underway more than a century later. Teaching World War I has presented special challenges. When compared withWorld War II, the First World War is often thought to be \"a wrong war fought for the wrong reasons\"; it lacks themetanarrativeofgood versus evilthat characterizes retellings of the Second World War. Lacking recognizable heroes and villains, it is often taught thematically, invoking simplifiedtropesthat obscure the complexity of the conflict. Historian Heather Jones argues that thehistoriographyhas been reinvigorated by a cultural turn in the 21st century. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regardingmilitary occupation,radicalisationof politics,race,medical science,genderandmental health. Among the major subjects that historians have long debated regarding the war include:Why the war began; why theAllieswon; whether generals were responsible forhigh casualty rates; how soldiers endured the poor conditions oftrench warfare; and to what extent the civilianhome frontaccepted and endorsed the war effort. Unexploded ordnance As late as 2007,unexploded ordnanceat battlefield sites likeVerdunandSommecontinued to pose a danger. In France and Belgium, locals who discover caches of unexploded munitions are assisted by weapons disposal units. In some places, plant life has still not recovered from the effects of the war. See also Footnotes References Bibliography External links Library guides",
"World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War IIor theSecond World War(1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAlliesand theAxis powers.Nearly all the world's countries—including all thegreat powers—participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit oftotal war, blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources.Tanksandaircraft played major roles, with the latter enabling thestrategic bombingof population centres and delivery of theonly two nuclear weaponsever used in war. World War II was thedeadliest conflictin history, resulting in70 to 85 million fatalities, more than half of which were civilians. Millions died ingenocides, includingthe Holocaustof European Jews, and by massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory,Germany,Austria,Japan, andKoreawere occupied, andwar crimestribunals were conductedagainst GermanandJapanese leaders. Thecauses of World War IIincluded unresolved tensions in theaftermath of World War Iand the rises offascism in Europeandmilitarism in Japan, and it was preceded by events including theJapanese invasion of Manchuria,Spanish Civil War, outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, and Germanannexations of Austriaandthe Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, whenNazi Germany, underAdolf Hitler,invaded Poland, after which theUnited KingdomandFrancedeclared waron Germany. Poland was partitioned between Germany and theSoviet Unionunder theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, by which they had agreed on respective \"spheres of influence\" in Eastern Europe; in 1940, the Sovietsannexed the Baltic statesandparts of FinlandandRomania. After thefall of Francein June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and theBritish Empire, with fighting in theBalkans,Mediterranean, and Middle East, the aerialBattle of Britainandthe Blitz, and navalBattle of the Atlantic. Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much ofcontinental Europeandformed the Axis alliancewithItaly,Japan, and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis inan invasion of the Soviet Union, opening theEastern Frontand initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed todominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific, and by 1937 was at war with theRepublic of China. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territoriesin Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, includingat Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan; theEuropean Axis declared war on the US.Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia, but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the navalBattle of Midway; Germany and Italy weredefeated in North Africaand atStalingradin the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, theAllied invasions of Sicilyand theItalian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Alliesinvaded German-occupied France at Normandy, while the Soviet Unionregained its territorial lossesand pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled theJapanese Navyandcaptured key islands. The war in Europe concluded with the liberation ofGerman-occupied territories; theinvasion of Germany by the Western Alliesand the Soviet Union, culminating in thefall of Berlinto Soviet troops;Hitler's suicide; and theGerman unconditional surrenderon8 May 1945. Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of thePotsdam Declaration, the USdropped the first atomic bombsonHiroshimaandNagasakion 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminentinvasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Sovietdeclaration of waragainst Japan and itsinvasion of Manchuria, Japan announcedits unconditional surrenderon 15 August and signeda surrender documenton2 September 1945, marking the end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. TheUnited Nationswas established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becomingthe permanent membersofits security council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rivalsuperpowers, setting the stage for theCold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering thedecolonisation of AfricaandAsia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towardseconomic recovery and expansion. Start and end dates World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939with theGerman invasion of Polandand theUnited KingdomandFrance's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of thePacific Warinclude the start of theSecond Sino-Japanese Waron 7 July 1937,or the earlierJapanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931.Others follow the British historianA. J. P. Taylor, who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars became World War II in 1941.Other proposed starting dates for World War II include theItalian invasion of Abyssiniaon 3 October 1935.The British historianAntony Beevorviews the beginning of World WarII as theBattles of Khalkhin Golfought betweenJapanand the forces ofMongoliaand theSoviet Unionfrom May to September 1939.Others view theSpanish Civil Waras the start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than with the formalsurrender of Japanon 2 September 1945, which officiallyended the war in Asia. Apeace treaty between Japan and the Allieswas signed in 1951.A 1990treaty regarding Germany's futureallowed thereunification of East and West Germanyto take place and resolved most post–World WarII issues.No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed,although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by theSoviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. History Background Aftermath of World War I World War Ihad radically altered the political European map with the defeat of theCentral Powers—includingAustria-Hungary,Germany,Bulgaria, and theOttoman Empire—and the 1917Bolshevik seizure of powerinRussia, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victoriousAllies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and newnation-stateswere created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, theLeague of Nationswas established in 1920 by theParis Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, andnaval disarmament, as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentimentafter World WarI,irredentistandrevanchistnationalismhad emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by theTreaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and allits overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited,reparationswere imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country'sarmed forces. Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as theWeimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that thepromises madeby the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, theFascistmovement led byBenito Mussoliniseized power in Italy with a nationalist,totalitarian, andclass collaborationistagenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \"New Roman Empire\". Adolf Hitler, after anunsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German governmentin 1923, eventuallybecame the Chancellor of Germanyin 1933 whenPaul von Hindenburgand the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himselfFührerof Germany and abolished democracy, espousing aradical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massiverearmament campaign.France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy,allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when theTerritory of the Saar Basinwas legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed theStresa Frontin April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towardsmilitary globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made anindependent naval agreementwith Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany'sgoals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, theFranco-Soviet pactwas required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed theNeutrality Actin August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles andLocarno Treatiesbyremilitarising the Rhinelandin March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy ofappeasement.In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed theRome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed theAnti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year. Asia TheKuomintang(KMT) party in China launched aunification campaignagainstregional warlordsand nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled ina civil waragainst its formerChinese Communist Party(CCP) alliesandnew regional warlords. In 1931, anincreasingly militaristicEmpire of Japan, which had long sought influence in Chinaas the first step of what its government saw as the country'sright to rule Asia, staged theMukden incidentas a pretext toinvade Manchuriaand establish thepuppet stateofManchukuo. China appealed to theLeague of Nationsto stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after beingcondemnedfor its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, inShanghai,ReheandHebei, until theTanggu Trucewas signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression inManchuria, andChahar and Suiyuan.After the 1936Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to presenta united frontto oppose Japan. Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) TheSecond Italo-Ethiopian Warwas a briefcolonial warthat began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of theEthiopian Empire(also known asAbyssinia) by the armed forces of theKingdom of Italy(Regno d'Italia), which was launched fromItalian SomalilandandEritrea.The war resulted in themilitary occupationof Ethiopia and itsannexationinto the newly created colony ofItalian East Africa(Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of theLeague of Nationsas a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations,but the League did littlewhen the former clearly violated Article X of the League'sCovenant.The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion.Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbingAustria. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to theNationalist rebels, led by GeneralFrancisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain.The Soviet Union supported the existing government of theSpanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as theInternational Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used thisproxy waras an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World WarII butgenerally favoured the Axis.His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending ofvolunteersto fight on theEastern Front. Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital ofPekingafter instigating theMarco Polo Bridge incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.The Soviets quickly signed anon-aggression pact with Chinato lendmaterielsupport, effectively ending China's priorcooperation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attackedTaiyuan, engaged theKuomintang Armyaround Xinkou,and foughtCommunist forcesin Pingxingguan.GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shekdeployed hisbest armytodefend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back,capturing the capital Nankingin December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants weremurdered by the Japanese. In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won theirfirst major victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city ofXuzhouwas taken by the Japanesein May.In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance byflooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences atWuhan, but thecity was takenby October.Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland toChongqingand continued the war. Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces inManchukuohad sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union andMongolia. The Japanese doctrine ofHokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat atKhalkin Golin 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese Warand ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed aNeutrality Pactin April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine ofNanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germanyannexed Austria, again provokinglittle responsefrom other European powers.Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on theSudetenland, an area ofCzechoslovakiawith a predominantlyethnic Germanpopulation. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlainand conceded this territory to Germany in theMunich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia tocede additional territoryto Hungary, and Poland annexed theTrans-Olzaregion of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \"war-mongers\" and in January 1939secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navyto challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939,Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakiaand subsequently split it into the GermanProtectorate of Bohemia and Moraviaand a pro-Germanclient state, theSlovak Republic.Hitler also delivered anultimatum to Lithuaniaon 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of theKlaipėda Region, formerly the GermanMemelland. Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on theFree City of Danzig, the United Kingdom and Franceguaranteed their support for Polish independence; whenItaly conquered Albaniain April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to theKingdoms of RomaniaandGreece.Shortly after theFranco-Britishpledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with thePact of Steel.Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to \"encircle\" Germany and renounced theAnglo-German Naval Agreementand theGerman–Polish declaration of non-aggression. The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signeda non-aggression pactwith Germany,after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled.This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet \"spheres of influence\" (westernPolandand Lithuania for Germany;eastern Poland, Finland,Estonia,LatviaandBessarabiafor the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence.The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World WarI. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations.On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polishplenipotentiaryimmediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover ofDanzig, and to allow aplebiscitein thePolish Corridorin which the German minority would vote on secession.The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassadorNevile Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germanyinvaded Polandafterhaving stagedseveralfalse flag border incidentsas a pretext to initiate the invasion.The first German attack of the war came against thePolish defenses at Westerplatte.The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany.During thePhoney Warperiod, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of acautious French probe into the Saarland.The Western Allies also began anaval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.Germany responded by orderingU-boat warfareagainst Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into theBattle of the Atlantic. On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs ofWarsaw. The Polishcounter-offensiveto the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by theWehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through tobesieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing acease-fire with Japan, theSoviet Union invaded Polandunder the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist.On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, andthe last large operational unit of the Polish Armysurrendered on 6October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed thePolish government-in-exileand aclandestine state apparatus remainedin occupied Poland.A significant part of Polish military personnelevacuated to Romaniaand Latvia; many of them laterfought against the Axisin other theatres of the war. Germanyannexed westernPoland andoccupied central Poland; the Soviet Unionannexed eastern Poland; small shares of Polish territory were transferred toLithuaniaandSlovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejectedand Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatenedEstonia,Latvia, andLithuaniawith military invasion, forcing the threeBaltic countriesto signpactsallowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there.Finlandrefused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union.The Soviet Union invaded Finlandin November 1939,and was subsequently expelled from theLeague of Nationsfor this crime of aggression.Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during theWinter Warwas modest,and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 withsome Finnish concessions of territory. In June 1940, the Soviet Unionoccupiedthe entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,as well as the Romanian regions ofBessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. In August 1940, Hitler imposed theSecond Vienna Awardon Romania which led to the transfer ofNorthern Transylvaniato Hungary.In September 1940, Bulgaria demandedSouthern Dobrujafrom Romania with German and Italian support, leading to theTreaty of Craiova.The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under MarshalIon Antonescu, with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee.Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operationgradually stalled,and both states began preparations for war. Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940,Germany invaded Denmark and Norwayto protect shipments ofiron ore from Sweden, which the Allies wereattempting to cut off.Denmark capitulated after six hours, anddespite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.British discontent over the Norwegian campaignled to the resignation of Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain, who was replaced byWinston Churchillon 10May 1940. On the same day, Germanylaunched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strongMaginot Linefortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations ofBelgium,the Netherlands, andLuxembourg.The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through theArdennesregion,which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.By successfully implementing newBlitzkriegtactics, theWehrmachtrapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was ableto evacuate a significant number of Allied troopsfrom the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June,Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, andParisfell to them on 14June. Eight days laterFrance signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided intoGermanandItalian occupation zones,and an unoccupiedrump stateunder theVichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, whichthe United Kingdom attackedon 3July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The airBattle of Britainbegan in early July withLuftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours.TheGerman campaign for air superioritystarted in August but its failure to defeatRAF Fighter Commandforced the indefinite postponement of theproposed German invasion of Britain. The Germanstrategic bombingoffensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities inthe Blitz, but largely ended in May 1941after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navyenjoyed successagainst an over-extendedRoyal Navy, usingU-boatsagainst British shippingin the Atlantic.The BritishHome Fleetscored a significant victory on 27May 1941 bysinking the German battleshipBismarck. In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended theNeutrality Actto allow\"cash and carry\"purchases by the Allies.In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of theUnited States Navywassignificantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to atrade of American destroyers for British bases.Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an \"arsenal of democracy\" and promotingLend-Leaseprogrammes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it wasinvadedby Germany.The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, theTripartite Pactformally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as theAxis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.The Axis expanded in November 1940 whenHungary,Slovakia, andRomaniajoined.RomaniaandHungarylater made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recaptureterritory ceded to the Soviet Union. Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the ItalianRegia Aeronauticaattacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italyconquered British Somalilandand made anincursion into British-held Egypt. In October,Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes.To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces begancounter-offensivesagainst Italian forces in Egypt andItalian East Africa.The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. TheItalian Navyalso suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after acarrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at theBattle of Cape Matapan. Italian defeats prompted Germany todeploy an expeditionary forceto North Africa; at the end of March 1941,Rommel'sAfrika Korpslaunched an offensivewhich drove back Commonwealth forces.In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt andbesieged the port of Tobruk. By late March 1941,BulgariaandYugoslaviasigned theTripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government wasoverthrown two days laterby pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of bothYugoslaviaandGreece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month.The airborneinvasion of the Greek island of Creteat the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans.Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against theAxis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forcesquashed an uprising in Iraqwhich had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlledSyria.Between June and July, British-led forcesinvaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon, assisted by theFree French. Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions inSoutheast Asia, the two powers signed theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pactin April 1941.By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later.On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest ofUkraine, theBaltic statesandByelorussia.However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact.In November 1940,negotiations took placeto determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union inOperation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets ofplotting against them; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.The primary targets of this surprise offensivewere theBaltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with theultimate goalof ending the 1941 campaign near theArkhangelsk-Astrakhan line—from theCaspianto theWhite Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminateCommunism, generateLebensraum(\"living space\")bydispossessing the native population,and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. Although theRed Armywas preparing for strategiccounter-offensivesbefore the war,OperationBarbarossaforced theSoviet supreme commandto adoptstrategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By mid-August, however, the GermanArmy High Commanddecided tosuspend the offensiveof a considerably depletedArmy Group Centre, and to divert the2nd Panzer Groupto reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.TheKiev offensivewas overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible furtheradvance into Crimeaand industrially-developed Eastern Ukraine (theFirst Battle of Kharkov). The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to theEastern Frontprompted the United Kingdom to reconsider itsgrand strategy.In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed amilitary alliance against Germanyand in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued theAtlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world.In late August the British and Sovietsinvaded neutral Iranto secure thePersian Corridor, Iran'soil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. By October, Axis powers had achievedoperational objectivesin Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges ofLeningradandSevastopolcontinuing.A majoroffensive against Moscowwas renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troopswere forced to suspend the offensive.Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Sovietcapability to resistwas not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. Theblitzkriegphaseof the war in Europe had ended. By early December, freshly mobilisedreservesallowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.This, as well asintelligence datawhich established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the JapaneseKwantung Army,allowed the Soviets to begin amassive counter-offensivethat started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanesefalse flagMukden incidentin 1931, the Japanese shelling of the AmericangunboatUSS Panayin 1937, and the 1937–1938Nanjing Massacre,Japanese-American relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—theExport Control Acts—which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.During 1939 Japan launched itsfirst attack against Changsha, but was repulsed by late September.Despiteseveral offensivesby both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded andoccupied northern Indochinain September 1940. Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scalecounter-offensivein early 1940. In August,Chinese communistslaunched anoffensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan institutedharsh measuresin occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forcesculminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed duringBattle of Shanggao.In September, Japan attempted totake the city of Changshaagain and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments inSoutheast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from theDutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.At the same time, Japan wasplanning an invasion of the Soviet Far East, intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.Roosevelt reinforcedthe Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946)and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any \"neighboring countries\". Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American–British–Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. EmperorHirohito, after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory,began to favour Japan's entry into the war.As a result, Prime MinisterFumimaro Konoeresigned.Hirohito refused the recommendation to appointPrince Naruhiko Higashikuniin his place, choosing War MinisterHideki Tojoinstead.On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of theattack on Pearl Harborto the Emperor.On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war.On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise theUnited States Pacific Fleetand the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneousoffensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.These included anattack on the American fleets at Pearl Harborandthe Philippines, as well as invasions ofGuam,Wake Island,Malaya,Thailand, andHong Kong. These attacks led theUnited States,United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United Statesin solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, theAllied Big Four—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued theDeclaration by United Nations, thereby affirming theAtlantic Charterand agreeing not to sign aseparate peacewith the Axis powers. During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriategrand strategyto pursue. All agreed thatdefeating Germanywas the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward,large-scale attackon Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies.Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. At theCasablanca Conferencein early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded theunconditional surrenderof their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its allyThailandhad almost conqueredBurma,Malaya,the Dutch East Indies,Singapore, andRabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.Despite stubbornresistance by Filipino and U.S. forces, thePhilippine Commonwealthwas eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during theBattle of Yenangyaungand rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in theSouth China Sea,Java Sea, andIndian Ocean,andbombed the Allied naval baseatDarwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinesevictory at Changsha.These easy victories over the unprepared U.S. and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations tocapture Port Moresbybyamphibious assaultand thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in theBattle of the Coral Sea.Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlierDoolittle Raid, was to seizeMidway Atolland lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces tooccupy the Aleutian Islandsin Alaska.In mid-May, Japan started theZhejiang-Jiangxi campaignin China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had brokenJapanese naval codesin late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisivevictory at Midwayover theImperial Japanese Navy. With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capturePort Moresbyby anoverland campaignin theTerritory of Papua.The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southernSolomon Islands, primarilyGuadalcanal, as a first step towards capturingRabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. Both plans started in July, but by mid-September,the Battle for Guadalcanaltook priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to thenorthern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in theBattle of Buna–Gona.Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island andwithdrew their troops.In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrousoffensive into the Arakan regionin late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943.The second was theinsertion of irregular forcesbehind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive incentralandsouthern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in theKerch Peninsulaand atKharkov,and then in June 1942 launched their mainsummer offensiveagainst southern Russia, to seize theoil fields of the Caucasusand occupy theKubansteppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans splitArmy Group Southinto two groups:Army Group Aadvanced to the lowerDon Riverand struck south-east to the Caucasus, whileArmy Group Bheaded towards theVolga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. By mid-November, the Germans hadnearly taken Stalingradin bitterstreet fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with anencirclement of German forces at Stalingrad,and an assault on theRzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched anotherattack on Kharkov, creating asalientin their front line around the Soviet city ofKursk. Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions,the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa,Operation Crusader, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at theGazala lineby early February,followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.Concerns that the Japanese might use bases inVichy-held Madagascarcaused the British toinvade the islandin early May 1942.An Axisoffensive in Libyaforced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces werestopped at El Alamein.On the Continent, raids of Alliedcommandoson strategic targets, culminating in the failedDieppe Raid,demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling asecond attack against El Alameinand, at a high cost, managed todeliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.A few months later, the Alliescommenced an attack of their ownin Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.This attack was followed up shortly after byAnglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering theoccupation of Vichy France;although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed toscuttle their fleetto prevent its capture by German forces.Axis forces in Africa withdrew intoTunisia, which wasconquered by the Alliesin May 1943. In June 1943, the British and Americans begana strategic bombing campaignagainst Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and \"de-house\" the civilian population.Thefirebombing of Hamburgwas among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent toeliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians.Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations toisolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, andbreach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had alsoneutralised the major Japanese base at Trukin theCaroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation toretake Western New Guinea. In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives incentral Russia. On 5 July 1943, Germanyattacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences,and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies'invasion of Sicilylaunched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in theousting and arrest of Mussolinilater that month. On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their owncounter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortifiedPanther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it atSmolenskand theLower Dnieper Offensive. On 3 September 1943, the Western Alliesinvaded the Italian mainland, followingItaly's armistice with the Alliesand the ensuing German occupation of Italy.Germany, with the help of fascists, responded to the armistice bydisarming Italian forcesthat were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,and creating a series of defensive lines.German special forces thenrescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named theItalian Social Republic,causing anItalian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching themain German defensive linein mid-November. German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. ByMay 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.In November 1943,Franklin D. Rooseveltand Winston Churchill met withChiang Kai-shekin Cairoand then with Joseph Stalinin Tehran.The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territoryand the military planning for theBurma campaign,while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. From November 1943, during the seven-weekBattle of Changde, the Chinese awaited allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition.In January 1944, the Allies launched aseries of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassinoand tried to outflank it withlandings at Anzio. On 27 January 1944,Soviettroops launcheda major offensivethat expelled German forces from theLeningrad region, thereby ending themost lethal siege in history.Thefollowing Soviet offensivewashalted on the pre-war Estonian borderby the GermanArmy Group Northaided byEstonianshoping tore-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in theBaltic Searegion.By late May 1944, the Soviets hadliberated Crimea,largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and madeincursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops.The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions,an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India,and soon besieged Commonwealth positions atImphalandKohima.In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,and Chinese forces that hadinvaded northern Burmain late 1943besieged Japanese troopsinMyitkyina.Thesecond Japanese invasionof China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.By June, the Japanese had conquered the province ofHenanand begun anew attack on Changsha. Allies close in (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known asD-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,the Western Alliesinvaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they alsoattacked southern France.These landings were successful and led to the defeat of theGerman Army units in France.Pariswasliberatedon 25 August by thelocal resistanceassisted by theFree French Forces, both led by GeneralCharles de Gaulle,and the Western Allies continued topush back German forcesin western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded bya major airborne operationin the Netherlands failed.After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, butfailed to cross the Rur river. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to thelast major German defensive line. On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\"Operation Bagration\") that nearly destroyed the GermanArmy Group Centre.Soon after that,another Soviet strategic offensiveforced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed thePolish Committee of National Liberationto control territory in Poland and combat the PolishArmia Krajowa; the Soviet Red Army remained in thePragadistrict on the other side of theVistulaand watched passively as the Germans quelled theWarsaw Uprisinginitiated by the Armia Krajowa.Thenational uprisinginSlovakiawas also quelled by the Germans.The SovietRed Army'sstrategic offensive in eastern Romaniacut off and destroyed theconsiderable German troops thereand triggereda successful coup d'état in Romaniaandin Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced intoYugoslaviaand forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army GroupsEandFinGreece,Albaniaand Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.By this point, the communist-ledPartisansunder MarshalJosip Broz Tito, who had led anincreasingly successful guerrilla campaignagainst the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northernSerbia, the SovietRed Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a jointliberation of the capital city of Belgradeon 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched amassive assaultagainstGerman-occupiedHungary that lasted untilthe fall of Budapestin February 1945.Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans,bitter Finnish resistanceto theSoviet offensivein theKarelian Isthmusdenied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to aSoviet-Finnish armisticeon relatively mild conditions,although Finland was forced tofight their former German allies. By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges inAssam, pushing the Japanese back to theChindwin Riverwhile the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forcescaptured Mount Songand reopened theBurma Road.In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finallycaptured Changshain mid-June and the city ofHengyangby early August.Soon after, they invaded the province ofGuangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces atGuilin and Liuzhouby the end of Novemberand successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. In the Pacific, U.S. forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began theiroffensive against the Mariana and Palau islandsand decisively defeated Japanese forces in theBattle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister,Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forcesinvaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in theBattle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launcha massive counter-offensive in the Ardennesandalong the French-German border, hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port atAntwerp. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland,pushing from the Vistula to the Oderriver in Germany, andoverran East Prussia.On 4 February Soviet, British, and U.S. leaders met for theYalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. In February, the Sovietsentered SilesiaandPomerania, while theWestern Allies entered western Germanyand closed to theRhineriver. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhinenorthandsouthof theRuhr,encircling the German Army Group B.In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launchedits last major offensiveagainst Soviet troops nearLake Balaton. Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced toVienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troopscaptured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finallypushed forward in Italyand swept across western Germany capturingHamburgandNuremberg.American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe riveron 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troopsstormed and captured Berlinin late April.In Italy,German forces surrenderedon 29 April, while theItalian Social Republiccapitulated two days later. On 30 April, theReichstagwas captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president,Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussoliniwas killedbyItalian partisanson 28 April.On 30 April,Hitler committed suicidein hisheadquarters, and was succeeded byGrand AdmiralKarl Dönitz(asPresident of the Reich) andJoseph Goebbels(asChancellor of the Reich); Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced byLutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, in what would later be known as theFlensburg Government.Total and unconditional surrenderin Europe was signedon 7and 8May, to be effective by the end of8 May.German Army Group Centreresisted in Pragueuntil 11 May.On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by the Allied Forces inFlensburg, while on 5 June all German political and military institutions were transferred under the control of the Allies through theBerlin Declaration. In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of thePhilippine Commonwealthadvancedin the Philippines,clearing Leyteby the end of April 1945. Theylanded on Luzonin January 1945 andrecaptured Manilain March. Fighting continued on Luzon,Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until theend of the war.Meanwhile, theUnited States Army Air Forceslauncheda massive firebombing campaignof strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastatingbombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 Marchwas the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. In May 1945, Australian troopslanded in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northernBurmain March, and the British pushed on to reachRangoonby 3 May.Chinese forces started a counterattack in theBattle of West Hunanthat occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, takingIwo Jimaby March, andOkinawaby the end of June.At the same time, a naval blockade bysubmarineswas strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. On 11 July, Allied leadersmet in Potsdam, Germany. Theyconfirmed earlier agreementsabout Germany,and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that \"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\".During this conference, the United Kingdomheld its general election, andClement Attleereplaced Churchill as Prime Minister. The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.In early August, the United Statesdropped atomic bombson the Japanese cities ofHiroshimaandNagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement,declared war on Japan,invaded Japanese-held Manchuriaand quickly defeated theKwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.The Red Army also captured thesouthern part of Sakhalin Islandand theKuril Islands. On the night of 9–10 August 1945, EmperorHirohitoannounced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in thePotsdam Declaration.On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio (Gyokuon-hōsō, literally \"broadcast in the Emperor's voice\").On 15 August 1945,Japan surrendered, with thesurrender documentsfinally signed atTokyo Bayon the deck of the American battleshipUSSMissourion 2 September 1945, ending the war. Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations inAustriaandGermany, both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, thewesternandeastern occupation zonescontrolled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries,West GermanyandEast Germany.In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). Adenazificationprogram in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in theNuremberg trialsand the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories,Silesia,Neumarkand most ofPomeraniawere taken over by Poland,andEast Prussiawas divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by theexpulsion to Germanyof the nine million Germans from these provinces,as well as three million Germans from theSudetenlandin Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of theCurzon Line,from which2 million Poles were expelled;north-east Romania,parts of eastern Finland,and theBaltic stateswereannexed into the Soviet Union.Italylost its monarchy,colonial empireand someEuropean territories. In an effort to maintainworld peace,the Allies formed theUnited Nations,which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,and adopted theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin 1948 as a common standard for allmember nations.Thegreat powersthat were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became thepermanent membersof the UN'sSecurity Council.The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes,betweentheRepublic of Chinaand thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1971, and between the Soviet Union and itssuccessor state, theRussian Federation, following thedissolution of the USSRin 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Sovietspheres of influence.Most eastern and central European countries fell intothe Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result,East Germany,Poland,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia, andAlbaniabecame Sovietsatellite states. CommunistYugoslaviaconducted a fullyindependent policy, causingtension with the Soviet Union.ACommunist uprising in Greecewas put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-ledNATOand the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact.The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—theCold War—would be accompanied by an unprecedentedarms raceand number ofproxy warsthroughout the world. In Asia, the United States led theoccupation of Japanandadministered Japan's former islandsin the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexedSouth Sakhalinand theKuril Islands.Korea, formerlyunder Japanese colonial rule, wasdivided and occupiedby the Soviet Union in theNorthand the United States in theSouthbetween 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to theKorean War. In China, nationalist and communist forces resumedthe civil warin June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated toTaiwanin 1949.In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestineand thecreation of Israelmarked the escalation of theArab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of theircolonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading todecolonisation. The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to ababy boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy ofindustrial disarmament in Western Germanyfrom 1945 to 1948.Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. At theBretton Woods Conferencein July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD), which later became part of theWorld Bank Group. TheBretton Woods systemlasted until 1973.Recovery began with the mid-1948currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the U.S.Marshall Planeconomic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.The post-1948 West German recovery has been called theGerman economic miracle.Italy also experienced aneconomic boomand theFrench economy rebounded.By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,it continued in relative economic decline for decades.The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era,having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exactedwar reparationsfrom its satellite states.Japan recovered much later.China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. Impact Casualties and war crimes Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about20 million military personneland 40 million civilians. The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. An estimated 11to 17 millioncivilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler'sracist policies, includingmass killingofaround 6million Jews, along withRoma,homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnicPolesandmillions of other Slavs(including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), andother ethnic and minority groups.Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnicSerbs, along with Roma and Jews, werepersecuted and murderedby the Axis-aligned CroatianUstašeinYugoslavia.Concurrently,MuslimsandCroatswerepersecuted and killedby Serb nationalistChetniks,with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by theUkrainian Insurgent Armyin theVolhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945.At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the PolishHome Armyand other Polish units, in reprisal attacks. In Asia and the Pacific, the number of people killed by Japanese troops remains contested. According to R.J. Rummel, the Japanese killed between 3million and more than 10 million people, with the most probable case of almost 6,000,000 people.According to the British historianM. R. D. Foot, civilian deaths are between 10 million and 20 million, whereas Chinese military casualties (killed and wounded) are estimated to be over five million.Other estimates say that up to 30 million people, most of them civilians, were killed.The most infamous Japanese atrocity was theNanjing Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during theThree Alls policy. GeneralYasuji Okamuraimplemented the policy inHebeiandShandong. Axis forces employedbiologicalandchemical weapons. TheImperial Japanese Armyused a variety of such weapons during itsinvasion and occupation of China(seeUnit 731)and inearly conflicts against the Soviets.Both the Germans and theJapanese testedsuch weapons against civilians,and sometimes onprisoners of war. The Soviet Union was responsible for theKatyn massacreof 22,000 Polish officers,and the imprisonment or execution ofhundreds of thousands of political prisonersby theNKVDsecret police, along withmass civilian deportations to Siberia, in theBaltic statesandeastern Polandannexed by the Red Army.Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especiallyin Germany.The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million,while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although nopositiveor specificcustomaryinternational humanitarian lawwith respect toaerial warfareexisted before or during World War II.The USAAFbombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians, including theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and destroying 65% of built-up areas. Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany, under thedictatorshipof Adolf Hitler, was responsible for murdering about 6million Jews in what is now known asthe Holocaust. They also murdered an additional 4million others who were deemed \"unworthy of life\" (including thedisabledandmentally ill,Soviet prisoners of war,Romani,homosexuals,Freemasons, andJehovah's Witnesses) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a \"genocidalstate\".Soviet POWswere kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.In addition toconcentration camps,death campswere created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively usedforced labourers; about 12 millionEuropeansfrom German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. The SovietGulagbecame ade factosystem of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,including foreign citizens of Poland andother countriesoccupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as AxisPOWs.By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected toNKVDevaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. Japaneseprisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. TheInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastfound the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after thesurrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56. At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by theEast Asia Development Board, orKōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.InJava, between 4and 10 millionrōmusha(Japanese: \"manual labourers\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and theannexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion U.S. dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include theplunderof industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. In the East, the intended gains ofLebensraumwere never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Sovietscorched earthpolicies denied resources to the German invaders.Unlike in the West, theNazi racial policyencouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the \"inferior people\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed bymass atrocities and war crimes.The Naziskilled an estimated 2.77 million ethnic Polesduring the war in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.Althoughresistance groupsformed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the Eastor the Westuntil late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanesehegemonywhich it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination,Japanese war crimesfrequently turned local public opinion against them.During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. Home fronts and production In the 1930s Britain and the United States of America together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one ofattrition.While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in thelabour force,Alliedstrategic bombing,and Germany's late shift to awar economycontributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions ofslave labourers;Germany enslavedabout 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,whileJapan usedmore than 18 million people in Far East Asia. Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used forreconnaissance, asfighters,bombers, andground-support, and each role developed considerably. Innovations includedairlift(the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);andstrategic bombing(the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).Anti-aircraft weaponryalso advanced, including defences such asradarand surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of theproximity fuze. The use of thejet aircraftwas pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Advances were made in nearly every aspect ofnaval warfare, most notably withaircraft carriersandsubmarines. Althoughaeronauticalwarfare had relatively little success at the start of the war,actions at Taranto,Pearl Harbor, and theCoral Seaestablished the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship).In the Atlantic,escort carriersbecame a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close theMid-Atlantic gap.Carriers were also more economical thanbattleshipsdue to the relatively low cost of aircraftand because they are not required to be as heavily armoured.Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during theFirst World War,were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development onanti-submarineweaponryand tactics, such assonarand convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as theType VII submarineandwolfpacktactics.Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as theLeigh Light,Hedgehog,Squid, andhoming torpedoesproved effective against German submarines. Land warfarechanged from the static frontlines oftrench warfareof World War I, which had relied on improvedartillerythat outmatched the speed of bothinfantryandcavalry, to increased mobility andcombined arms. Thetank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World WarI,andadvances continued throughout the warwith increases in speed, armour and firepower.At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.Many means ofdestroying tanks, includingindirect artillery,anti-tank guns(both towed andself-propelled),mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the GermanMG 34, and varioussubmachine gunswhich were suited toclose combatin urban and jungle settings.Theassault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using largecodebooksforcryptographyby designingcipheringmachines, the most well-known being the GermanEnigma machine.Development ofSIGINT(signalsintelligence) andcryptanalysisenabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption ofJapanese naval codesand BritishUltra, apioneering methodfor decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by thePolish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.Another component ofmilitary intelligencewasdeception, which the Allies used to great effect in operations such asMincemeatandBodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3,Colossus, andENIAC),guided missilesandmodern rockets, theManhattan Project's development ofnuclear weapons,operations research, the development ofartificial harbours, andoil pipelines under the English Channel.Penicillinwas firstdeveloped, mass-produced, and usedduring the war. See also Notes Citations References External links"
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"Blue moon Ablue moonrefers either to the presence of a secondfull moonin a calendarmonth, to the third full moon in aseasoncontaining four, or to a moon that appearsbluedue to atmospheric effects. Thecalendricalmeaning of \"blue moon\" is unconnected to the other meanings. It is often referred to as “traditional”,but since no occurrences are known prior to 1937 it is better described as aninvented traditionor “modern American folklore”.The practice of designating the second full moon in a month as \"blue\" originated with amateur astronomer James Hugh Pruett in 1946.It does not come fromNative American lunar tradition, as is sometimes supposed. The moon - not necessarily full - can sometimes appear blue due to atmospheric emissions from large forest fires or volcanoes, though the phenomenon is rare and unpredictable (hence the saying “once in a blue moon”).A calendrical blue moon (by Pruett's definition) is predictable and relatively common, happening 7 times in every 19 years (i.e. once every 2 or 3",
"once every 2 or 3 years).Calendrical blue moons occur because thetime between successive full moons(approximately 29.5 days) is shorter than the average calendar month.They are of no astronomical or historical significance, and are not a product of actuallunisolar timekeepingorintercalation. Phrase origin A 1528 satire,Rede Me and Be Nott Wrothe, contained the lines, “Yf they saye the mone is belewe / We must beleve that it is true.”The intended sense was of an absurd belief, like themoon being made of cheese. There is nothing to connect it with the later metaphorical or calendrical meanings of “blue moon”. However, a confusion ofbelewe(Middle English, “blue”)withbelǽwan(Old English “to betray”)) led to afalse etymologyfor the calendrical term that remains widely circulated, despite its originator having acknowledged it as groundless. Percy Bysshe Shelley’spoem \"Alastor\" (1816)mentioned an erupting volcano: 7and a “blue moon / Low in the west.”: 14It was written at a time when the eruption ofMount Tamborawas",
"ofMount Tamborawas causing global climate effects, and not long before the first recorded instances of “blue moon” as a metaphor. The OED citesPierce Egan’sReal Life in London(1821) as the earliest known occurrence of “blue moon” in the metaphorical sense of a long time. (“How's Harry and Ben?—haven't seen you this blue moon.”)An 1823 revision of Francis Grose’s ‘’Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue’’, edited by Egan, included the definition: “Blue moon. In allusion to a long time before such a circumstance happens. ‘O yes, in a blue moon.’”An earlier (1811) version of the same dictionary had not included the phrase, so it was likely coined some time in the 1810s.\"Once in a blue moon\" is recorded from 1833. The use of blue moon to mean a specific calendrical event dates from 1937, when theMaine Farmers' Almanacused the term in a slightly different sense from the one now in common use. According to the OED, “Earlier occurrences of the sense given in theMaine Farmers' Almanachave not been traced, either",
"been traced, either in editions of the Almanac prior to 1937, or elsewhere; the source of this application of the term (if it is not a coinage by the editor, H. P. Trefethen) is unclear.”The conjecture of editorial invention is further supported by the spurious explanation the almanac gave: The Moon usually comes full twelve times in a year, three times in each season... However, occasionally the moon comes full thirteen times in a year. This was considered a very unfortunate circumstance, especially by the monks who had charge of the calendar. It became necessary for them to make a calendar of thirteen months, and it upset the regular arrangement of church festivals. For this reason thirteen came to be considered an unlucky number. Also, this extra moon had a way of coming in each of the seasons so that it could not be given a name appropriate to the time of year like the other moons. It was usually called the Blue Moon... In olden times the almanac makers had much difficulty calculating the occurrence of",
"the occurrence of the Blue Moon and this uncertainty gave rise to the expression \"Once in a Blue Moon\". There is no evidence that an extra moon in a month, season or year was considered unlucky, or that it led to13 being considered unlucky, or that the extra moon was called \"blue\", or that it led to the phrase \"once in a blue moon\". There is good reason to suspect that the 1937 article was a hoax, practical joke, or simply misinformed. It is however true that the date of the Christian festival ofEasterdepended on an accuratecomputationof full moon dates, and important work was done by the monksDionysius ExiguusandBede, explained by the latter inThe Reckoning of Time, written c725 CE. According to Bede, “Whenever it was a common year, gave three lunar months to each season. When an embolismic year occurred (that is, one of 13 lunar months) they assigned the extra month to summer, so that three months together bore the name ‘‘Litha’’; hence they called year ‘‘Thrilithi’’. It had four summer months, with the",
"months, with the usual three for the other seasons.” The nameLithais now applied by someNeo-Paganstomidsummer. The 1937Maine Farmers' Almanacarticle was misinterpreted by James Hugh Pruett in a 1946Sky and Telescope article, leading to the calendrical definition of “blue moon” that is now most commonly used, i.e. the second full moon in a calendar month. “A blue moon in the originalMaine Farmers' Almanacsense can only occur in the months of February, May, August, and November. In the later sense, one can occur in any month except February.\"This later sense gained currency from its use in a United States radio programme,StarDateon January 31, 1980 and in a question in theTrivial Pursuitgame in 1986. Several songs have been titled \"Blue Moon\", seen as a \"symbol of sadness and loneliness.\" Visually blue moon The moon (and sun) can appear blue under certain atmospheric conditions – for instance, if volcanic eruptions or large-scale fires release particles into the atmosphere of just the right size to",
"the right size to preferentiallyscatterred light.According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, scattering is the cause of “that epitome of rare occurrences, the blue Moon (seen when forest fires produce clouds composed of small droplets of organic compounds).” ARoyal Societyreport on the 1883Krakatoaeruptiongave a detailed account of “blue, green, and other coloured appearances of the sun and moon” seen in many places for months afterwards.: xiii. The report mentioned that in February 1884 an observer in central America saw the crescent moon as “a magnificent emerald-green” while itsashenpart was “pale green”. Venus, bright stars and a comet were also green.: 173The report authors suspected that green moons were a contrast effect, since in those cases the surrounding sky was seen as red.:203 People saw blue moons in 1983 after the eruption of theEl Chichónvolcano in Mexico, and there are reports of blue moons caused byMount St. Helensin 1980 andMount Pinatuboin 1991. The moon looked blue after forest fires in",
"forest fires in Sweden and Canada in 1950 and 1951,On September 23, 1950, severalmuskegfires that had been smoldering for several years in Alberta, Canada, suddenly blew up into major—and very smoky—fires. Winds carried the smoke eastward and southward with unusual speed, and the conditions of the fire produced large quantities of oily droplets of just the right size (about 1micrometrein diameter) to scatter red and yellow light. Wherever the smoke cleared enough so that the sun was visible, it was lavender or blue. Ontario, Canada, and much of the east coast of the United States were affected by the following day, and two days later, observers in Britain reported an indigo sun in smoke-dimmed skies, followed by an equally blue moon that evening. Ice particles might have a similar effect. The Antarctic diary ofRobert Falcon Scottfor July 11, 1911 mentioned \"the air thick with snow, and the moon a vague blue\". The key to a blue moon is having many particles slightly wider than the wavelength of red light (0.7",
"of red light (0.7 micrometer)—and no other sizes present. Ash and dust clouds thrown into the atmosphere by fires and storms usually contain a mixture of particles with a wide range of sizes, with most smaller than 1 micrometer, and they tend to scatter blue light. This kind of cloud makes the moon turn red; thus red moons are far more common than blue moons. Calendrical blue moon Blue moon as a calendrical term originated with the 1937Maine Farmers’ Almanac, a provincial U.S. magazine that is not to be confused with theFarmers' Almanac,Old Farmer's Almanac, or otherAmerican almanacs. There is no evidence of “blue moon” having been used as a specific calendrical term before 1937, and it was possibly invented by the magazine’s editor, Henry Porter Trefethen (1887-1957).As a term for the second full moon in a calendar month it began to be widely known in the U.S. in the mid-1980s and became internationally known in the late 1990s when calendrical matters were of special interest given the approaching",
"the approaching millennium. It created a misapprehension that the calendrical meaning of “blue moon” had preceded the metaphorical one, and inspired variousfolk etymologies, e.g. the “betrayer” speculation mentioned earlier, or that it came from a printing convention in calendars or a saying in Czech.A 1997 Taiwanese movie,Blue Moon, had thelog line“There is usually only one full moon every month, but occasionally there are two – and that second full moon is called the Blue Moon. It is said that when a person sees a blue moon and makes a wish, he will be granted a second chance in things.” In 1999 folklorist Philip Hiscock presented a timeline for the calendrical term.First, the August page of the 1937Maine Farmers' Almanacran a sidebar claiming that the term was used “in olden times” for an extra full moon in a season, and gave some examples (21 November 1915, 22 August 1918, 21 May 1921, 20 February 1924, 21 November 1934, 22 August 1937, and 21 May 1940). Six years later, Laurence J. Lafleur (1907-66)",
"Lafleur (1907-66) quoted the almanac in the U.S. magazineSky & Telescope(July 1943, page 17) in answer to a reader’s question about the meaning of “blue moon”. Then James Hugh Pruett (1886-1955) quoted it again inSky & Telescope(March 1946, p3), saying “seven times in 19 years there were — and still are — 13 full moons in a year. This gives 11 months with one full moon each and one with two. This second in a month, so I interpret it, was called Blue Moon”. In 1980 the term was used (with Pruett’s definition) in a U.S. radio program,Star Date, and in 1985 it appeared in a U.S. children’s book,The Kids' World Almanac of Records and Facts(“What is a blue moon? When there are two full moons in a month, the second one is called a blue moon. It is a rare occurrence.”)In 1986 it was included as a question in Trivial Pursuit (likely taken from the children’s book), and in 1988 a forthcoming blue moon received widespread press coverage. In 1999 U.S. astronomerDonald W. Olsonresearched the original articles and",
"articles and published the results in aSky & Telescopearticle co-authored with Richard T Fienberg and Roger W. Sinnott. From the examples given by Trefethen in the 1937Maine Farmers’ Almanacthey deduced a “rule” he must effectively have used. “Seasonal Moon names are assigned near the springequinoxin accordance with theecclesiastical rulesfor determining the dates ofEasterandLent. The beginnings of summer, fall, and winter are determined by thedynamical mean Sun. When a season contains four full Moons, the third is called a Blue Moon.”They termed this the “Maine rule” for blue moons, as distinct from Pruett’s 1946 definition that was seen to have been a misinterpretation. In popular astronomy the Maine rule is sometimes called the “seasonal”,“true”or “traditional”rule (though of course no tradition of it exists prior to 1937). Blue moons by Pruett’s definition are sometimes called “calendar blue moons”.The \"seasonal\" blue moon rule is itself ambiguous since it depends which definition ofseasonis used. The",
"used. The Maine rule used seasons of equal length with the ecclesiastical equinox (March 21). An alternative is to use the astronomical seasons, which are of unequal length. There is also reference in modern popular astrology to “zodiacal blue moons”. Blue moon dates The table below has blue moon dates and times (UTC) calculated according to Pruett’s “calendar” rule (second full moon in a calendar month) and two versions of the “seasonal” rule (third full moon in a season with four). The Maine rule uses equal-length seasons defined by the dynamical mean sun, and is presumed to have been the original rule of Trefethen.The “astro-seasonal” rule uses the unequal astronomical seasons defined by the apparent sun. All calculations are by David Harper. The fourth column shows blue moon dates that were actually printed in theMaine Farmers’ Almanac, as found by Olson, Fienberg and Sinnott in 1999. They studied issues published between 1819 and 1962, and found that all mentions occurred between 1937, when H.P.",
"1937, when H.P. Trefethen introduced the term, and 1956, when Trefethen’s editorship ended (consistent with it being Trefethen’s own invention). Occasional discrepancies between the Maine rule and the almanac’s printed dates can be ascribed to clerical errors or miscalculation. In one case (August 1945) Trefethen appears to have used the apparent rather than mean sun. The table shows that in 200 years there are 187 full moons that could be called \"blue\" by some definition - an average of nearly one per year. Two Pruett blue moons can occur in a single year (1915, 1961, 1999, 2018, 2037, 2094). 1915 had four blue moons (two Pruett, one Maine, one astro-seasonal). 1934 and 2048 have three (one of each type). Despite the 187 blue moons appearing across the 200 years in this table, only 146 years have any of these 3 types of blue moons, leaving 54 years (thus averaging just over 1 year in every 4) which have none of the 3 rules represented in that calendar year. While not totally unexpected (given the",
"(given the overlapping frequencies of these 3 rules), it so happens there are not any 2 sequential years (at least within these 200) wherein none of the 3 types of blue moon occur. Conversely, despite the preponderance of years with blue moons (of at least 1 type) occurring in this 200-year range, there are no instances of more than 4 sequential years having a blue moon, of any of these 3 types -- i.e. at least 1 year out of every 5 sequential years has none of the 3 types appearing. Remarks Onelunation(an average lunar cycle) is 29.53days. There are about 365.24 days in atropical year. Therefore, about 12.37 lunations (365.24 days divided by 29.53 days) occur in a tropical year. So the date of the full moon falls back by nearly one day every calendar month on average. Each calendar year contains roughly 11 days more than the number of days in 12 lunar cycles, so every two or three years (seven times in the 19 yearMetonic cycle), there is an extra full moon in the year. The extra full moon necessarily falls",
"necessarily falls in one of the four seasons (however defined), giving that season four full moons instead of the usual three. Given that a year is approximately 365.2425 days and a synodic orbit is 29.5309 days,then there are about 12.368 synodic months in a year. For this to add up to another full month would take 1/0.368 years. Thus it would take about 2.716 years, or 2 years, 8 months, and 18 days for another Pruett blue moon to occur. Or approximately once in 32.5 months on an average. When there are two Pruett blue moons in a single year, the first occurs in January and the second in March or April. The next timeNew Year's Evefalls on a Pruett blue moon (as occurred on December 31, 2009 in time zones west of UTC+05) is after one Metonic cycle, in 2028 in time zones west of UTC+08. At that time there will be atotal lunar eclipse. See also References External links",
"World War I World War Ior theFirst World War(28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as theGreat War, was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAllies(or Entente) and theCentral Powers. Fighting took place mainly inEuropeand theMiddle East, as well as in parts ofAfricaand theAsia-Pacific, and in Europe was characterised bytrench warfareand the use ofartillery, machine guns, andchemical weapons(gas). World War I was one of thedeadliest conflicts in history, resulting in an estimated9 million military dead and 23 million wounded, plus up to 8 million civilian deaths from causes includinggenocide. The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in theSpanish flupandemic, which killed millions. Thecauses of World War Iincluded the rise ofGermanyanddecline of the Ottoman Empire, which disturbed the long-standingbalance of powerin Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered byindustrialisationandimperialism. Growing tensions between thegreat powersand in theBalkansreacheda",
"theBalkansreacheda breaking pointon 28 June 1914, when aBosnian SerbnamedGavrilo Principassassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to theAustro-Hungarianthrone. Austria-Hungary heldSerbiaresponsible, and declared war on 28 July. AfterRussiamobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia; by 4 August,Franceand theUnited Kingdomwere drawn in, with the Ottomans joining in November.Germany's strategy in 1914was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east. However, this failed, and by the end of the year theWestern Frontconsisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. TheEastern Frontwas more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives.Italy,Bulgaria,Romania,Greeceand others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917, theUnited States entered the waron the Allied side following Germany's resumption ofunrestricted submarine warfareagainst Atlantic shipping. Later that year, theBolsheviksseized",
"theBolsheviksseized power in the RussianOctober Revolution;Soviet Russiasignedan armisticewith the Central Powers in December, followed bya separate peacein March 1918. That month, Germany launchedan offensive in the west, which despite initial successes left theGerman Armyexhausted and demoralised.A successful Allied counter-offensivefrom August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facinga revolution at home,Kaiser WilhelmIIabdicated on 9 November, and the war ended with theArmistice of 11 November 1918. TheParis Peace Conferenceof 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably theTreaty of Versailles, by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay largewar reparationsto the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in",
"and resulted in the creation of new independent states, includingPoland,Finland, theBaltic states,Czechoslovakia, andYugoslavia. TheLeague of Nationswas established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during theinterwar periodcontributed to the outbreak ofWorld War IIin 1939. Names BeforeWorld War II, the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as theGreat Waror simply theWorld War.In August 1914, the magazineThe Independentwrote \"This is the Great War. It names itself\".In October 1914, the Canadian magazineMaclean'ssimilarly wrote, \"Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War.\"Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as \"the war to end war\" and it was also described as \"the war to end all wars\" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life.The first recorded use of the termFirst World Warwas in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopherErnst Haeckelwho stated, \"There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared",
"of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word.\" Background Political and military alliances For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuousbalance of power, known as theConcert of Europe.After 1848, this was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-calledsplendid isolation, thedecline of the Ottoman Empire,New Imperialism, and the rise ofPrussiaunderOtto von Bismarck. Victory in the 1870–1871Franco-Prussian Warallowed Bismarck toconsolidateaGerman Empire. Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was toavengethis defeat,but by the early 1890s, this had switched to the expansion of theFrench colonial empire. In 1873, Bismarck negotiated theLeague of the Three Emperors, which includedAustria-Hungary,Russiaand Germany. After the 1877–1878Russo-Turkish War, the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in theBalkans, an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest.Germanyand",
"interest.Germanyand Austria-Hungary then formed the 1879Dual Alliance, which became theTriple Alliancewhen Italy joined in 1882.For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up theReinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire byWilhelm II. The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his newChancellor,Leo von Caprivi.This gave France an opening to agree theFranco-Russian Alliancein 1894, which was then followed by the 1904Entente Cordialewith Britain. TheTriple Ententewas completed by the 1907Anglo-Russian Convention. While not formal alliances, by settlinglong-standing colonial disputes in Asiaand Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became a",
"conflict became a possibility.This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911Agadir Crisis. Arms race German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, AdmiralAlfred von Tirpitzsought to use this growth to build anImperial German Navy, that could compete with the BritishRoyal Navy.This policy was based on the work of US naval authorAlfred Thayer Mahan, who argued that possession of ablue-water navywas vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to a change in policy and anAnglo-German naval arms racebegan.Despite",
"racebegan.Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch ofHMSDreadnoughtin 1906 gave the British a technological advantage.Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, ChancellorTheobald von Bethmann Hollwegacknowledged defeat, leading to theRüstungswendeor 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in theRusso-Japanese Warand subsequent1905 Russian Revolution. Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions.Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia, the threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After",
"Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by theBalkan powersand Italy, which led to increased expenditure by theOttomansand Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. Conflicts in the Balkans The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. WhilePan-SlavicandOrthodoxRussia considered itself the protector ofSerbiaand otherSlavstates, they preferred the strategically vitalBosporusstraits to be controlled by a weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power likeBulgaria.",
"power likeBulgaria. Russia had ambitions in northeasternAnatoliawhile its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as a direct threat. The 1908–1909Bosnian Crisisbegan when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory ofBosnia and Herzegovina, which ithad occupiedsince 1878. Timed to coincide with theBulgarian Declaration of Independencefrom the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as a significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912Italo-Turkish Wardemonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of",
"to the formation of theBalkan League, an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria,Montenegro, andGreece.The League quickly overran most of the Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913First Balkan War, much to the surprise of outside observers.The Serbian capture of ports on theAdriaticresulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border inGalicia. TheRussian governmentdecided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through the 1913Treaty of London, which had created an independentAlbaniawhile enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-daySecond Balkan War, when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most ofMacedoniato Serbia and Greece, andSouthern Dobrujato Romania.The result was that even countries which benefited from the Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece,",
"Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their \"rightful gains\", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany.This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the \"powder keg of Europe\". Prelude Sarajevo assassination On 28 June 1914,Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to EmperorFranz Joseph I of Austria, visitedSarajevo, the capital of the recently annexedBosnia and Herzegovina.Cvjetko Popović,Gavrilo Princip,Nedeljko Čabrinović,Trifko Grabež,Vaso Čubrilović(Bosnian Serbs) andMuhamed Mehmedbašić(from theBosniakscommunity),from the movement known asYoung Bosnia, took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the SerbianBlack Handintelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw agrenadeat the Archduke's car and injured two of his",
"injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street whereGavrilo Principwas standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wifeSophie. According to historianZbyněk Zeman, in Vienna \"the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June, the crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened.\"Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historianChristopher Clarkas a \"9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna\". Expansion of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequentanti-Serb riots in Sarajevo.Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and",
"Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as theSchutzkorpswas established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. July Crisis The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as the best way of achieving this.However, theForeign Ministryhad no solid proof of Serbian involvement.On 23July, Austria delivered anultimatumto Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered generalmobilizationon 25July, but accepted all the terms, except for",
"terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress \"subversive elements\" inside Serbia, and take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination.Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shellingBelgrade. Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from theSPDpolitical opposition by presenting Russia as the aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July.That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to \"cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary\" within 12 hours.A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war.TheGerman General Staffhad long assumed they faced a war on two fronts; theSchlieffen Planenvisaged",
"Planenvisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon.Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under the 1839Treaty of Londondid not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime MinisterAsquithand his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention.On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply.Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-ChiefJoseph Joffreasked his government for permission to cross the border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he",
"neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion.Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August,Germany occupied Luxembourgand exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which was refused. Early on the morning of 4August, the Germans invaded, andAlbert I of Belgiumcalled for assistance under theTreaty of London.Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Progress of the war Opening hostilities Confusion among the Central Powers Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders",
"leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Serbian campaign Beginning on 12 August, the Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of theCerandKolubara; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia.Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century.In 1915, the campaign saw the first use ofanti-aircraft warfareafter an Austrian plane was shot down withground-to-airfire, as well as the firstmedical evacuationby the Serbian army. German offensive in Belgium and France Upon mobilisation, in accordance with theSchlieffen Plan, 80% of theGerman Armywas located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier, the German right wing would sweep through theNetherlandsandBelgium,",
"then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator,Alfred von Schlieffen, head of theGerman General Stafffrom 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor,Helmuth von Moltke the Younger. Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the \"lost provinces\" ofAlsace-Lorraine, which was the strategy envisaged by theirPlan XVII.However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as the German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30.He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the",
"incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan.HistorianRichard Holmesargues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in the West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included theBritish Expeditionary Force(BEF), was infull retreat, and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000.German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, butvon Kluckused this freedom to disobey orders, opening a gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris.The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the",
"trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911, the RussianStavkaagreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that enteredEast Prussiaon 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war.As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after theFirst Battle of the Marne,Crown Prince Wilhelmtold an American reporter \"We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already.\" Asia and",
"already.\" Asia and the Pacific On 30 August 1914, New Zealandoccupied German Samoa(nowSamoa). On 11 September, theAustralian Naval and Military Expeditionary Forcelanded on the island ofNew Britain, then part ofGerman New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiserSMSEmdensank theRussian cruiserZhemchugin theBattle of Penang. Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became theSouth Seas Mandate, as well as GermanTreaty portson the ChineseShandongpeninsula atTsingtao. After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiserSMSKaiserin Elisabethfrom Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914.Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. African campaigns Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates",
"protectorates ofTogolandandKamerun. On 10 August, German forces inSouth-West Africaattacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces inGerman East Africa, led by ColonelPaul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought aguerrilla warfarecampaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Indian support for the Allies Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 byinstigating uprisings in India, while theNiedermayer–Hentig Expeditionurged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity.Leaders from theIndian National Congressand other groups believed support for the British war effort would hastenIndian Home Rule, a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 byEdwin Montagu, theSecretary of State for India. In 1914,",
"for India. In 1914, theBritish Indian Armywas larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded.The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting inthe campaign for full independenceled byMahatma Gandhi. Western Front 1914 to 1916 Trench warfare begins Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed the creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such asbarbed wire, machine guns and above all far more powerfulartillery, which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground",
"open ground extremely difficult.Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such asgas warfareand thetank. After theFirst Battle of the Marnein September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the \"Race to the Sea\". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from theChannelto the Swiss border.Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held the high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered \"temporary\", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences.Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at theSecond Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating",
"Germans (violating theHague Convention) usedchlorinegas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. Continuation of trench warfare In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at theBattle of Verdun, lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000to 975,000casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. TheBattle of the Sommewas an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. Theopening dayon 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of theBritish Army, which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As a whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans.The",
"500,000 Germans.The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such astrench foot,lice,typhus,trench fever, and the 'Spanish flu'. Naval war At the start of the war, Germancruiserswere scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Alliedmerchant shipping. These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was theSMSEmden, part of the GermanEast Asia Squadronstationed atQingdao, which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at theBattle of Coronelin November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at theBattle of the Falkland Islandsin December. TheSMSDresdenescaped with a few auxiliaries, but after theBattle of Más a Tierra, these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of",
"the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a navalblockade of Germany. This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law.Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of the ocean, even to neutral ships.Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. TheBattle of Jutlandin May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of the GermanHigh Seas Fleetwas confined to port. GermanU-boatsattempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.The nature ofsubmarine warfaremeant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the",
"the sinking of the passenger shipRMSLusitaniain 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the \"cruiser rules\", which demanded warning and movement of crews to \"a place of safety\" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet).Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy ofunrestricted submarine warfare, realising the Americans would eventually enter the war.Germany sought to strangle Alliedsea lanesbefore the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling inconvoys, escorted bydestroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after thehydrophoneanddepth chargeswere introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were",
"as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at the cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use ofaircraft carriersin combat, withHMSFuriouslaunchingSopwith Camelsin a successful raid against theZeppelinhangars atTondernin July 1918, as well asblimpsfor antisubmarine patrol. Southern theatres War in the Balkans Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital,Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on",
"join the attack on Serbia.The Austro-Hungarian provinces ofSlovenia, Croatia andBosniaprovided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in the attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northernAlbania. The Serbs suffered defeat in theBattle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in theBattle of Mojkovacon 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece.After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed atSalonicain Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government",
"its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-GermanKing Constantine Idismissed the pro-Allied government ofEleftherios Venizelosbefore the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturingBitolaon 19 November 1916 following the costlyMonastir offensive, which brought stabilisation of the front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in theVardar offensive, after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at theBattle of Dobro Pole, and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918.The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were too weak to re-establish a front. The disappearance of the Macedonian front meant that the",
"meant that the road toBudapestand Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against theCentral Powersand, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement. Ottoman Empire The Ottomans threatened Russia'sCaucasianterritories and Britain's communications with India via theSuez Canal. The Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers' preoccupation with the war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of theArmenian,Greek, andAssyrianChristian populations—theArmenian genocide,Greek genocide, andSayforespectively. The British and French opened overseas fronts with theGallipoli(1915) andMesopotamian campaigns(1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, andAustralian and New Zealand Army Corps(ANZACs). InMesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in thesiege of Kutby the Ottomans (1915–1916), British Imperial",
"British Imperial forces reorganised and capturedBaghdadin March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian fighters, while the Ottomans employed localKurdishandTurcomantribes. TheSuez Canalwas defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August 1916, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at theBattle of Romaniby theANZAC Mounted Divisionand the52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, anEgyptian Expeditionary Forceadvanced across theSinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in theBattle of Magdhabain December and theBattle of Rafaon the border between the EgyptianSinaiand Ottoman Palestine in January 1917. Russian armies generally had success in theCaucasus campaign.Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been previously lost to Russia. He was, however, a poor commander.He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting",
"troops, insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86% of his force at theBattle of Sarikamish.GeneralYudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southernCaucasus. The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modernIran) in December 1914 to cut off British and Russian access topetroleum reservoirsaroundBaku.Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided byKurdishandAzeriforces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. ThePersian campaignlasted until 1918 and ended in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However, the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led Armenian and Assyrian forces to be cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia. TheArab Revolt,",
"TheArab Revolt, instigated by the BritishForeign Office, started in June 1916 with theBattle of Mecca, led bySharif Hussein. The Sharif declared the independence of theKingdom of Hejazand, with British assistance, conquered much of Ottoman-held Arabia, resulting finally in the Ottoman surrender of Damascus.Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander ofMedina, resisted for more than2+1⁄2years during thesiege of Medinabefore surrendering in January 1919. TheSenussitribe, along the border ofItalian LibyaandBritish Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-scaleguerrilla waragainst Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in theSenussi campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916. Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted to 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000, with 325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded. Italian Front Though Italy joined the Triple Alliance in 1882, a treaty with its traditional Austrian enemy was so controversial that",
"controversial that subsequent governments denied its existence and the terms were only made public in 1915.This arose fromnationalistdesigns on Austro-Hungarian territory inTrentino, theAustrian Littoral,RijekaandDalmatia, considered vital to secure the borders established in1866.In 1902, Rome secretly had agreed with France to remain neutral if the latter was attacked by Germany, effectively nullifying its role in the Triple Alliance. When the war began in 1914, Italy argued the Triple Alliance was defensive and it was not obliged to support an Austrian attack on Serbia. Opposition to joining the Central Powers increased when Turkey became a member in September, since in1911Italy had occupied Ottoman possessions inLibyaand theDodecaneseislands.To secure Italian neutrality, the Central Powers offered themTunisia, while in return for an immediate entry into the war, the Allies agreed to their demands for Austrian territory and sovereignty over the Dodecanese.Although they remained secret, these provisions",
"these provisions were incorporated into the April 1915Treaty of London; Italy joined the Triple Entente and, on 23 May, declared war on Austria-Hungary,followed by Germany fifteen months later. The pre-1914 Italian army was short of officers, trained men, adequate transport and modern weapons; by April 1915, some of these deficiencies had been remedied but it was still unprepared for the major offensive required by the Treaty of London.The advantage of superior numbers was offset by the difficult terrain; much of the fighting took place high in theAlpsandDolomites, where trench lines had to be cut through rock and ice and keeping troops supplied was a major challenge. These issues were exacerbated by unimaginative strategies and tactics.Between 1915 and 1917, the Italian commander,Luigi Cadorna, undertooka series of frontal assaults along the Isonzo, which made little progress and cost many lives; by the end of the war, Italian combat deaths totalled around 548,000. In the spring of 1916, the",
"spring of 1916, the Austro-Hungarians counterattacked inAsiagoin theStrafexpedition, but made little progress and were pushed by the Italians back to Tyrol.Although Italy occupied southernAlbaniain May 1916, their main focus was the Isonzo front which, after thecapture of Goriziain August 1916, remained static until October 1917. After a combined Austro-German force won a major victory atCaporetto, Cadorna was replaced byArmando Diazwho retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) before holding positions along thePiave River.A second Austrianoffensive was repulsedin June 1918. On 24 October, Diaz launched theBattle of Vittorio Venetoand initially met stubborn resistance,but with Austria-Hungary collapsing, Hungarian divisions in Italy demanded they be sent home.When this was granted, many others followed and the Imperial army disintegrated, the Italians taking over 300,000 prisoners.On 3November, theArmistice of Villa Giustiended hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Italy which occupiedTriesteand areas",
"areas along theAdriatic Seaawarded to it in 1915. Eastern Front Initial actions As previously agreed with French presidentRaymond Poincaré, Russian plans at the start of the war were to simultaneously advance intoAustrian Galiciaand East Prussia as soon as possible. Although theirattack on Galiciawas largely successful, and the invasions achieved their aim of forcing Germany to divert troops from the Western Front, the speed of mobilisation meant they did so without much of their heavy equipment and support functions. These weaknesses contributed to Russian defeats atTannenbergand theMasurian Lakesin August and September 1914, forcing them to withdraw from East Prussia with heavy losses.By spring 1915, they had also retreated from Galicia, and the May 1915Gorlice–Tarnów offensiveallowed the Central Powers to invadeRussian-occupied Poland. Despite the successful June 1916Brusilov offensiveagainst the Austrians in eastern Galicia,shortages of supplies, heavy losses and command failures prevented the Russians",
"the Russians from fully exploiting their victory. However, it was one of the most significant offensives of the war, diverting German resources fromVerdun, relieving Austro-Hungarian pressure on the Italians, and convincing Romania to enter the war on the side of the Allies on 27 August. It also fatally weakened both the Austrian and Russian armies, whose offensive capabilities were badly affected by their losses and increased disillusion with the war that ultimately led to the Russian revolutions. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia asthe Tsarremained at the front, with the home front controlled byEmpress Alexandra. Her increasingly incompetent rule and food shortages in urban areas led to widespread protests and the murder of her favourite,Grigori Rasputin, at the end of 1916. Romanian participation Despite secretly agreeing to support the Triple Alliance in 1883, Romania increasingly found itself at odds with the Central Powers over their support for Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and the status of ethnic",
"status of ethnic Romanian communities inHungarian-controlledTransylvania,which comprised an estimated 2.8 million of the 5.0 million population.With the ruling elite split into pro-German and pro-Entente factions,Romania remained neutral for two years while allowing Germany and Austria to transport military supplies and advisors across Romanian territory. In September 1914, Russia acknowledged Romanian rights to Austro-Hungarian territories including Transylvania andBanat, whose acquisition had widespread popular support,and Russian success against Austria led Romania to join the Entente in the August 1916Treaty of Bucharest.Under the strategic plan known asHypothesis Z, the Romanian army planned an offensive into Transylvania, while defending SouthernDobrujaandGiurgiuagainst a possible Bulgarian counterattack.On 27 August 1916, theyattacked Transylvaniaand occupied substantial parts of the province before being driven back by the recently formedGerman 9th Army, led by former Chief of StaffErich von",
"of StaffErich von Falkenhayn.A combined German-Bulgarian-Turkish offensive captured Dobruja and Giurgiu, although the bulk of the Romanian army managed to escape encirclement and retreated toBucharest, whichsurrenderedto the Central Powers on 6 December 1916. In the summer of 1917, a Central Powers offensive began in Romania under the command of August von Mackensen to knock Romania out of the war, resulting in the battles ofOituz,MărăștiandMărășeștiwhere up to 1,000,000 Central Powers troops were present. The battles lasted from 22 July to 3 September and eventually, the Romanian army was victorious advancing 500 km2. August von Mackensen could not plan for another offensive as he had to transfer troops to the Italian Front.Following the Russian revolution, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed theTreaty of Bucharestwith the Central Powers, which recognised Romanian sovereignty overBessarabiain return for ceding control of passes in the Carpathian Mountains to Austria-Hungary and",
"Austria-Hungary and leasing its oil wells to Germany. Although approved byParliament,King Ferdinand Irefused to sign it, hoping for an Allied victory in the west.Romania re-entered the war on 10 November 1918 on the side of the Allies and the Treaty of Bucharest was formally annulled by the Armistice of 11 November 1918. Central Powers peace overtures On 12 December 1916, after ten brutal months of theBattle of Verdunand asuccessful offensive against Romania, Germany attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies.However, this attempt was rejected out of hand as a \"duplicitous war ruse\". US presidentWoodrow Wilsonattempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking for both sides to state their demands.Lloyd George'sWar Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions among the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the US was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the \"submarine outrages\". While the",
"While the Allies debated a response to Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of \"a direct exchange of views\". Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities.The Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars.The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer on the grounds of honour, and noted Germany had not put forward any specific proposals. Final years of the war Russian Revolution and withdrawal By the end of 1916, Russian casualties totalled nearly five million killed, wounded or captured, with major urban areas affected by food shortages and high prices. In March 1917, Tsar Nicholas ordered the military to forcibly suppress strikes inPetrogradbut the troops refused to fire on the crowds.Revolutionaries",
"set up thePetrograd Sovietand fearing a left-wing takeover, theState Dumaforced Nicholas to abdicate and established theRussian Provisional Government, which confirmed Russia's willingness to continue the war. However, the Petrograd Soviet refused to disband, creatingcompeting power centresand causing confusion and chaos, with frontline soldiers becoming increasingly demoralised. Following the Tsar's abdication,Vladimir Lenin—with the help of the German government—was ushered from Switzerland into Russia on 16 April 1917. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, they acceded to theTreaty of Brest-Litovskon 3March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including",
"including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. With theRussian Empireout of the war, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed theTreaty of Bucharestwith the Central Powers in May 1918. Under the terms of the treaty, Romania ceded territory to Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria and leased its oil reserves to Germany. However, the terms also included the Central Powers' recognition of the union ofBessarabiawith Romania. United States enters the war The United States was a major supplier of war material to the Allies but remained neutral in 1914, in large part due to domestic opposition.The most significant factor in creating the support Wilson needed was the German submarine offensive, which not only cost American lives but paralysed trade as ships were reluctant to put to sea. On 6 April 1917, Congressdeclared war on Germanyas an \"Associated Power\" of the Allies.TheUS Navysent abattleship grouptoScapa Flowto join the Grand Fleet, and provided",
"Fleet, and provided convoy escorts. In April 1917, theUS Armyhad fewer than 300,000 men, includingNational Guardunits, compared to British and French armies of 4.1 and 8.3 million respectively. TheSelective Service Act of 1917drafted 2.8 million men, though training and equipping such numbers was a huge logistical challenge. By June 1918, over 667,000 members of theAmerican Expeditionary Forces(AEF) were transported to France, a figure which reached 2 million by the end of November. Despite his conviction that Germany must be defeated, Wilson went to war to ensure the US played a leading role in shaping the peace, which meant preserving the AEF as a separate military force, rather than being absorbed into British or French units as his Allies wanted.He was strongly supported by AEF commander GeneralJohn J. Pershing, a proponent of pre-1914 \"open warfare\" who considered the French and British emphasis on artillery misguided and incompatible with American \"offensive spirit\".Much to the frustration of his",
"frustration of his Allies, who had suffered heavy losses in 1917, he insisted on retaining control of American troops, and refused to commit them to the front line until able to operate as independent units. As a result, the first significant US involvement was theMeuse–Argonne offensivein late September 1918. Nivelle Offensive (April–May 1917) In December 1916,Robert Nivellereplaced Pétain as commander of French armies on the Western Front and began planning aspring attackinChampagne, part of a joint Franco-British operation.Poor security meant German intelligence was well informed on tactics and timetables, but despite this, when the attack began on 16 April the French made substantial gains, before being brought to a halt by the newly built and extremely strong defences of the Hindenburg Line. Nivelle persisted with frontal assaults and, by 25 April, the French had suffered nearly 135,000 casualties, including 30,000 dead, most incurred in the first two days. Concurrent British attacks atArraswere more",
"atArraswere more successful, though ultimately of little strategic value.Operating as a separate unit for the first time, theCanadian Corps' capture ofVimy Ridgeis viewed by many Canadians as a defining moment in creating a sense of national identity.Though Nivelle continued the offensive, on 3 May the21st Division, which had been involved in some of the heaviest fighting at Verdun, refused orders to go into battle, initiating theFrench Army mutinies; within days, \"collective indiscipline\" had spread to 54 divisions, while over 20,000 deserted. Sinai and Palestine campaign (1917–1918) In March and April 1917, at theFirstandSecond Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani.At the end of October 1917, theSinai and Palestine campaignresumed, when GeneralEdmund Allenby'sXXth Corps,XXI CorpsandDesert Mounted Corpswon theBattle of Beersheba.Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at theBattle",
"later at theBattle of Mughar Ridgeand, early in December,Jerusalemhad been captured following another Ottoman defeat at theBattle of Jerusalem.About this time,Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressensteinwas relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army's commander, replaced byDjevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of theOttoman Armyin Palestine,Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced byOtto Liman von Sanders. In early 1918, the front line wasextendedand theJordan Valleywas occupied, following theFirst Transjordanand theSecond Transjordanattacks by British Empire forces in March and April 1918. German offensive and Allied counter-offensive (March–November 1918) In December 1917, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the West. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success",
"hopes for success in a final quick offensive.Ludendorff drew up plans (Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces nearSaint-Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).The initial offensive was a success; after heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks ormotorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell-torn and often impassable to traffic.Germany launchedOperation Georgetteagainst the northernEnglish Channelports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conductedOperations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) on 15 July, in an attempt to encircleReims. The resulting",
"The resulting counter-attack, which started theHundred Days Offensiveon 8 August,led to a marked collapse in German morale. Allied advance to the Hindenburg Line By September, the Germans had fallen back to the Hindenburg Line. The Allies hadadvanced to the Hindenburg Linein the north and centre. German forces launched numerous counterattacks, but positions and outposts of the Line continued falling, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September, the Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable. Thefinal assaulton the Hindenburg Line began with theMeuse-Argonne offensive, launched by American and French troops on 26 September. Two days later the Belgians, French and Britishattacked around Ypres, and the day after the British at St Quentin in the centre of the line. The following week, cooperating American and French units broke through inChampagneat theBattle of Blanc Mont Ridge(3–27 October), forcing the Germans off the",
"the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier.On 8October, the Hindenburg Line was pierced by British and Dominion troops of the First and Third British Armies at theSecond Battle of Cambrai. Breakthrough of Macedonian front (September 1918) Allied forces started theVardar offensiveon 15 September at two key points:Dobro Poleand nearDojran Lake. In theBattle of Dobro Pole, the Serbian and French armies had success after a three-day-long battle with relatively small casualties, and subsequently made a breakthrough in the front, something which was rarely seen in World War I. After the front was broken, Allied forces started to liberate Serbia and reachedSkopjeat 29 September, after whichBulgariasigned an armistice with the Allies on 30 September. Armistices and capitulations The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, theArmistice of Salonicaon 29 September 1918.German EmperorWilhelm IIin a telegram toBulgarian Tsar Ferdinand",
"Tsar Ferdinand Idescribed the situation thus: \"Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the war!\".On the same day, theGerman Supreme Army Commandinformed Kaiser Wilhelm II and theImperial ChancellorCountGeorg von Hertling, that the military situation facing Germany was hopeless. On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, marking the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3November, Austria-Hungary sent aflag of truceand accepted theArmistice of Villa Giusti, arranged with the Allied Authorities in Paris. Austria and Hungary signed separate",
"signed separate armistices following the overthrow of theHabsburg monarchy. In the following days, the Italian Army occupiedInnsbruckand allTyrol, with over 20,000 soldiers. On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, and signed the Armistice of Mudros. German government surrenders With the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser leading to his abdication and fleeing of the country, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge on October 3 as Chancellor of Germany. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military. TheGerman Revolution of 1918–1919began at the end of October 1918. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war they believed to be as good as lost. Thesailors' revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports",
"in the naval ports ofWilhelmshavenandKiel, spread across the whole country within days and led to theproclamation of a republicon 9November 1918, shortly thereafter to theabdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and German surrender. Aftermath In the aftermath of the war, the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires disappeared.Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties fell as a result of the war: theRomanovs, theHohenzollerns, theHabsburgs, and theOttomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead,not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. Formal end of the war A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of theTreaty of Versailleswith Germany on 28 June 1919. The US Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it,and did not formally end its involvement in the war until theKnox–Porter Resolutionwas signed",
"signed on 2July 1921 by PresidentWarren G. Harding.For the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of theTermination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918concerning: Somewar memorialsdate the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned home; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Peace treaties and national boundaries TheParis Peace Conferenceimposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919Treaty of Versaillesdealt with Germany and, building onWilson's 14th point, established theLeague of Nationson 28 June 1919. The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for \"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by\" their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement",
"this statement wasArticle 231. This article became known as the \"War Guilt Clause\", as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful.The Germans felt they had been unjustly dealt with by what they called the \"diktatof Versailles\". German historian Hagen Schulze said the Treaty placed Germany \"under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated.\"Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasises the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s: Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic. The legend of the \"stab in the back\" and the wish to revise the \"Versailles diktat\", and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a man of peace such as",
"of peace such as Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanise the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its policies. Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as a recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbours. Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Apart from Austria and Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia received territories from the Dual Monarchy (the formerly separate and autonomousKingdom of Croatia-Slavoniawas incorporated into Yugoslavia). The details were contained in the treaties ofSaint-Germain-en-LayeandTrianon. As a result, Hungary lost 64% of its total population, decreasing from 20.9 million to 7.6 million, and losing",
"million, and losing 31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of its ethnicHungarians.According to the 1910 census, speakers of the Hungarian language included approximately 54% of the entire population of theKingdom of Hungary. Within the country, numerous ethnic minorities were present: 16.1%Romanians, 10.5%Slovaks, 10.4%Germans, 2.5%Ruthenians, 2.5%Serbsand 8% others.Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The Russian Empire lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations ofEstonia,Finland,Latvia,Lithuania, andPolandwere carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918. National identities After 123 years, Poland re-emerged as an independent country. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a \"minor Entente nation\" and the country with the most casualties per capita,became the backbone of a new multinational state, theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia.",
"renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining theKingdom of Bohemiawith parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Romania woulduniteall Romanian-speaking people under a single state, leading toGreater Romania. In Australia and New Zealand, the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' \"Baptism of Fire\". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of theBritish Crown, and independent national identities for these nations took hold.Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), celebrates this defining moment. In the aftermath of World War I, Greecefoughtagainst Turkish nationalists led byMustafa Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in amassive population exchange between the two countriesunder the Treaty of Lausanne.According to various sources,several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the",
"tied in with the Greek genocide. Casualties Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilised from 1914 to 1918, an estimated8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria-Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%.France mobilised 7.8 million men, of which 1.4 million died and 3.2 million were injured.Approximately 15,000 deployed men sustained gruesome facial injuries, causing social stigma and marginalisation; they were called thegueules cassées(broken faces). In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that had weakened disease resistance. These excess deaths are estimated as 271,000 in 1918, plus another 71,000 in the first half of 1919 when the blockade was still in effect.Starvation caused by famine killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In",
"conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borneepidemic typhuskilled 200,000 in Serbia.Starting in early 1918, a major influenza epidemic known asSpanish fluspread across the world, accelerated by the movement of large numbers of soldiers, often crammed together in camps and transport ships with poor sanitation. The Spanish flu killed at least 17 to 25 million people,including an estimated 2.64 million Europeans and as many as 675,000 Americans.Between 1915 and 1926, an epidemic ofencephalitis lethargicaaffected nearly five million people worldwide. Eight millionequinesmostlyhorses,donkeysandmulesdied, three-quarters of them from the extreme conditions they worked in. War crimes Chemical weapons in warfare The German army was the first to successfully deploy chemical weapons during the Second Battle of Ypres (April–May 1915), after German scientists under the direction ofFritz Haberat theKaiser Wilhelm Institutedeveloped a method to weaponizechlorine.The use of chemical weapons had been sanctioned by the German High",
"by the German High Command to force Allied soldiers out of their entrenched positions, complementing rather than supplanting more lethal conventional weapons.Chemical weapons were deployed by all major belligerents throughout the war, inflicting approximately 1.3 million casualties, of which about 90,000 were fatal.The use of chemical weapons in warfare was a direct violation of the1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gasesand the1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their use. Genocides by the Ottoman Empire Theethnic cleansingof the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is consideredgenocide.The Ottomans carried out organised and systematic massacres of the Armenian population at the beginning of the war and manipulated acts of Armenian resistance by portraying them as rebellions to justify further extermination.In early 1915, several Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the",
"forces and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue theTehcir Law(Law on Deportation), which authorised the deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionallymarched to deathand a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands.While the exact number of deaths is unknown, theInternational Association of Genocide Scholarsestimates around 1.5 million.The government of Turkey continues todeny the genocideto the present day, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World WarI; these claims are rejected by most historians. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians andGreeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination.At least 250,000 Assyrian Christians, about half of the population, and 350,000–750,000AnatolianandPontic Greekswere killed between 1915 and 1922. Prisoners of",
"1922. Prisoners of war About 8 million soldiers surrendered and were held inPOW campsduring the war. All nations pledged to follow theHague Conventionson fair treatment ofprisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of combatants at the front. Around 25–31% of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria-Hungary 32%; for Italy 26%; for France 12%; for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5–3.5 million soldiers as prisoners). From the Central Powers, about 3.3 million soldiers became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians. Soldiers' experiences Allied personnel was around 42,928,000, while Central personnel was near 25,248,000.British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but were increasinglyconscripted. Surviving veterans returning home often found they could discuss their experiences only among",
"only among themselves, so formed \"veterans' associations\" or \"Legions\". Conscription Conscription was common in most European countries. However, it was controversial in English-speaking countries,It was especially unpopular among minority ethnicities—especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland,Australia,and the French Catholics in Canada. In the US, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well-received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas.The administration decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower after only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of war. Military attachés and war correspondents Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war.Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern \"embedded\" positions within the opposing land and naval forces. Economic effects Macro- and micro-economic",
"and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, the industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle forvoting rights for women. In all nations, the government's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50% in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the US, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily fromWall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916 but allowed a great increase inUS governmentlending to the Allies. After 1919, the US demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations that, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and some loans were never",
"loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4billionof World WarI debt in 1934; the last installment was finally paid in 2015. Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such asAlbert Kitsonwere called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits ofmanganese, used in munitions production, in theGold Coast. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called \"war guilt\" clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for \"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.\"It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However, neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war",
"an admission of war guilt.In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, \"Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay\" this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being \"deliberately designed to be chimerical\" and its \"primary function was to mislead public opinion ... into believing the 'total sum was being maintained.'\"Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) \"represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay\" and \"therefore ... represented the total German reparations\" figure that had to be paid. This figure could be paid in cash or in-kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). Some of the territory lost—via the Treaty of Versailles—was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain.By 1929, theGreat Depressioncaused political chaos throughout the world.In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point",
"by which point Germany had paid only the equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks.With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled.David Andelmannotes \"Refusing to pay doesn't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the agreement, still exist.\" Thus, following the Second World War, at theLondon Conferencein 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3October 2010, Germany made the final payment on these bonds. The Australian prime minister,Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister,David Lloyd George, \"You have assured us that you cannot get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies.\" Australia received £5,571,720 in war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been £376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s,",
"by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were £831,280,947. Support and opposition for the war Support In the Balkans,Yugoslav nationalistssuch as the leader,Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom ofYugoslavsfrom Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. TheYugoslav Committee, led by Trumbić, was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London.In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, includingCzechoslovak, Italian,Polish,Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support nationalself-determinationfor the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary. In the Middle East,Arab nationalismsoared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of apan-Arabstate. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle",
"of the Middle East to achieve independence. In East Africa,Iyasu VofEthiopiawas supporting theDervish statewho were at war with the British in theSomaliland campaign.Von Syburg, the German envoy inAddis Ababa, said, \"now the time has come for Ethiopia to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians home, to restore the Empire to its ancient size.\" The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge of entering World WarI on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu's overthrow at theBattle of Segaledue to Allied pressure on the Ethiopian aristocracy. Several socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914.But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept ofclass conflictheld by radical socialists such as Marxists andsyndicalistsbeing overborne by their patriotic support for the war.Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries' intervention in the war. Italian",
"in the war. Italian nationalismwas stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war wasGabriele D'Annunzio, who promotedItalian irredentismand helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war.TheItalian Liberal Party, under the leadership ofPaolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and used the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism.Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, includingBenito MussoliniandLeonida Bissolati.However, theItalian Socialist Partydecided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in ageneral strikecalledRed Week.The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini.Mussolini formed the pro-interventionistIl Popolo d'Italiaand theFasci",
"theFasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista(\"RevolutionaryFascifor International Action\") in October 1914 that later developed into theFasci Italiani di Combattimentoin 1919, the origin of fascism.Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds fromAnsaldo(an armaments firm) and other companies to createIl Popolo d'Italiato convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. Patriotic funds On both sides, there was large-scale fundraising for soldiers' welfare, their dependents and those injured. TheNail Menwere a German example. Around the British Empire, there were many patriotic funds, including theRoyal Patriotic Fund Corporation,Canadian Patriotic Fund,Queensland Patriotic Fundand, by 1919, there were 983 funds in New Zealand.At the start of the next world war the New Zealand funds were reformed, having been criticised as overlapping, wasteful and abused,but 11 were still functioning in 2002. Opposition Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These",
"the conflict. These includedEugene Debsin the US andBertrand Russellin Britain. In the US, theEspionage Act of 1917andSedition Act of 1918made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed \"disloyal\". Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors,and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic. Several nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advancedIrish nationalistshad staunchly opposed taking part.The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912, and by July 1914 there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in theEaster Risingof 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to",
"to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain.The British government placed Ireland undermartial lawin response to the Easter Rising, though once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling.However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland, resulting in theConscription Crisis of 1918. Other opposition came fromconscientious objectors—some socialist, some religious—who had refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status.Some of them, most notably prominent peace activistStephen Hobhouse, refused both military andalternative service.Many suffered years of prison, includingsolitary confinement. Even after the war, in Britain, many job advertisements were marked \"No conscientious objectors need to apply\". On 1–4 May 1917, about 100,000 workers and soldiers ofPetrograd, and after them, the workers and soldiers of other Russian cities, led by the Bolsheviks, demonstrated under banners reading \"Down",
"reading \"Down with the war!\" and \"all power to the Soviets!\". The mass demonstrations resulted in a crisis for theRussian Provisional Government.InMilan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation.The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks andanarchists, who fought violently until May 23 when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people were arrested. Technology World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-centurytactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies had modernised and were making use of telephone,wireless communication,armoured cars,tanks(especially with the advent of the prototype tank,Little Willie), and aircraft. Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were",
"1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917,indirect firewith guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably, aircraft and thefield telephone. Fixed-wing aircraftwere initially used forreconnaissanceandground attack. To shoot down enemy planes,anti-aircraft gunsandfighter aircraftwere developed.Strategic bomberswere created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former usedZeppelinsas well.Towards the end of the conflict,aircraft carrierswere used for the first time, with HMSFuriouslaunchingSopwith Camelsin a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars atTønderin 1918. Diplomacy The non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed to build support for the cause or to undermine support for the enemy. For the most part, wartime diplomacy focused on five issues:propaganda campaigns; defining and redefining the war goals, which became harsher as the",
"harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements inside the Central Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and Arabs. In addition, multiple peace proposals were coming from neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very far. Legacy and memory Memorials Memorials were built in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as theCommonwealth War Graves Commission, theAmerican Battle Monuments Commission, theGerman War Graves Commission, andLe Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have monuments to the missing orunidentifieddead, such as theMenin Gate Memorial to the Missingand theThiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme. In 1915,John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the",
"doctor, wrote the poemIn Flanders Fieldsas a salute to those who perished in the war. It is still recited today, especially onRemembrance DayandMemorial Day. National World War I Museum and MemorialinKansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World WarI. TheLiberty Memorialwas dedicated on 1 November 1921. The British government budgeted substantial resources tothe commemoration of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is theImperial War Museum.On 3August 2014, French PresidentFrançois Hollandeand German PresidentJoachim Gaucktogether markedthe centenary of Germany's declaration of war on Franceby laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German asHartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in the war.As part of commemorations for thecentenary of the 1918 Armistice, French PresidentEmmanuel Macronand German ChancellorAngela Merkelvisited the site of the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne and unveiled a plaque to",
"a plaque to reconciliation. Historiography ... \"Strange, friend,\" I said, \"Here is no cause to mourn.\"\"None,\" said the other, \"Save the undone years\"... The first efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences ofmodern warfarebegan during the initial phases of the war and are still underway more than a century later. Teaching World War I has presented special challenges. When compared withWorld War II, the First World War is often thought to be \"a wrong war fought for the wrong reasons\"; it lacks themetanarrativeofgood versus evilthat characterizes retellings of the Second World War. Lacking recognizable heroes and villains, it is often taught thematically, invoking simplifiedtropesthat obscure the complexity of the conflict. Historian Heather Jones argues that thehistoriographyhas been reinvigorated by a cultural turn in the 21st century. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regardingmilitary occupation,radicalisationof politics,race,medical science,genderandmental health. Among the major",
"Among the major subjects that historians have long debated regarding the war include:Why the war began; why theAllieswon; whether generals were responsible forhigh casualty rates; how soldiers endured the poor conditions oftrench warfare; and to what extent the civilianhome frontaccepted and endorsed the war effort. Unexploded ordnance As late as 2007,unexploded ordnanceat battlefield sites likeVerdunandSommecontinued to pose a danger. In France and Belgium, locals who discover caches of unexploded munitions are assisted by weapons disposal units. In some places, plant life has still not recovered from the effects of the war. See also Footnotes References Bibliography External links Library guides",
"World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War IIor theSecond World War(1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAlliesand theAxis powers.Nearly all the world's countries—including all thegreat powers—participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit oftotal war, blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources.Tanksandaircraft played major roles, with the latter enabling thestrategic bombingof population centres and delivery of theonly two nuclear weaponsever used in war. World War II was thedeadliest conflictin history, resulting in70 to 85 million fatalities, more than half of which were civilians. Millions died ingenocides, includingthe Holocaustof European Jews, and by massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory,Germany,Austria,Japan, andKoreawere occupied, andwar crimestribunals were conductedagainst GermanandJapanese",
"GermanandJapanese leaders. Thecauses of World War IIincluded unresolved tensions in theaftermath of World War Iand the rises offascism in Europeandmilitarism in Japan, and it was preceded by events including theJapanese invasion of Manchuria,Spanish Civil War, outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, and Germanannexations of Austriaandthe Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, whenNazi Germany, underAdolf Hitler,invaded Poland, after which theUnited KingdomandFrancedeclared waron Germany. Poland was partitioned between Germany and theSoviet Unionunder theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, by which they had agreed on respective \"spheres of influence\" in Eastern Europe; in 1940, the Sovietsannexed the Baltic statesandparts of FinlandandRomania. After thefall of Francein June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and theBritish Empire, with fighting in theBalkans,Mediterranean, and Middle East, the aerialBattle of Britainandthe Blitz, and navalBattle of the Atlantic.",
"of the Atlantic. Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much ofcontinental Europeandformed the Axis alliancewithItaly,Japan, and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis inan invasion of the Soviet Union, opening theEastern Frontand initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed todominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific, and by 1937 was at war with theRepublic of China. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territoriesin Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, includingat Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan; theEuropean Axis declared war on the US.Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia, but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the navalBattle of Midway; Germany and Italy weredefeated in North Africaand atStalingradin the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, theAllied invasions of Sicilyand",
"of Sicilyand theItalian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Alliesinvaded German-occupied France at Normandy, while the Soviet Unionregained its territorial lossesand pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled theJapanese Navyandcaptured key islands. The war in Europe concluded with the liberation ofGerman-occupied territories; theinvasion of Germany by the Western Alliesand the Soviet Union, culminating in thefall of Berlinto Soviet troops;Hitler's suicide; and theGerman unconditional surrenderon8 May 1945. Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of thePotsdam Declaration, the USdropped the first atomic bombsonHiroshimaandNagasakion 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminentinvasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Sovietdeclaration of",
"of waragainst Japan and itsinvasion of Manchuria, Japan announcedits unconditional surrenderon 15 August and signeda surrender documenton2 September 1945, marking the end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. TheUnited Nationswas established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becomingthe permanent membersofits security council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rivalsuperpowers, setting the stage for theCold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering thedecolonisation of AfricaandAsia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towardseconomic recovery and expansion. Start and end dates World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939with theGerman invasion of",
"invasion of Polandand theUnited KingdomandFrance's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of thePacific Warinclude the start of theSecond Sino-Japanese Waron 7 July 1937,or the earlierJapanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931.Others follow the British historianA. J. P. Taylor, who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars became World War II in 1941.Other proposed starting dates for World War II include theItalian invasion of Abyssiniaon 3 October 1935.The British historianAntony Beevorviews the beginning of World WarII as theBattles of Khalkhin Golfought betweenJapanand the forces ofMongoliaand theSoviet Unionfrom May to September 1939.Others view theSpanish Civil Waras the start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 (V-J Day),",
"1945 (V-J Day), rather than with the formalsurrender of Japanon 2 September 1945, which officiallyended the war in Asia. Apeace treaty between Japan and the Allieswas signed in 1951.A 1990treaty regarding Germany's futureallowed thereunification of East and West Germanyto take place and resolved most post–World WarII issues.No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed,although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by theSoviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. History Background Aftermath of World War I World War Ihad radically altered the political European map with the defeat of theCentral Powers—includingAustria-Hungary,Germany,Bulgaria, and theOttoman Empire—and the 1917Bolshevik seizure of powerinRussia, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victoriousAllies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and newnation-stateswere",
"created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, theLeague of Nationswas established in 1920 by theParis Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, andnaval disarmament, as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentimentafter World WarI,irredentistandrevanchistnationalismhad emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by theTreaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and allits overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited,reparationswere imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country'sarmed forces. Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in theGerman",
"in theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as theWeimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that thepromises madeby the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, theFascistmovement led byBenito Mussoliniseized power in Italy with a nationalist,totalitarian, andclass collaborationistagenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \"New Roman Empire\". Adolf Hitler, after anunsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German governmentin 1923, eventuallybecame the Chancellor of Germanyin 1933 whenPaul von",
"1933 whenPaul von Hindenburgand the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himselfFührerof Germany and abolished democracy, espousing aradical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massiverearmament campaign.France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy,allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when theTerritory of the Saar Basinwas legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed theStresa Frontin April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towardsmilitary globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made anindependent naval agreementwith Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany'sgoals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty",
"drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, theFranco-Soviet pactwas required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed theNeutrality Actin August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles andLocarno Treatiesbyremilitarising the Rhinelandin March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy ofappeasement.In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed theRome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed theAnti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year. Asia TheKuomintang(KMT) party in China launched aunification campaignagainstregional warlordsand nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled ina civil waragainst its formerChinese Communist Party(CCP) alliesandnew regional warlords. In 1931, anincreasingly militaristicEmpire of Japan, which had long sought influence in Chinaas the first step of what its",
"step of what its government saw as the country'sright to rule Asia, staged theMukden incidentas a pretext toinvade Manchuriaand establish thepuppet stateofManchukuo. China appealed to theLeague of Nationsto stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after beingcondemnedfor its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, inShanghai,ReheandHebei, until theTanggu Trucewas signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression inManchuria, andChahar and Suiyuan.After the 1936Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to presenta united frontto oppose Japan. Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) TheSecond Italo-Ethiopian Warwas a briefcolonial warthat began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of theEthiopian Empire(also known asAbyssinia) by the armed forces of theKingdom of Italy(Regno d'Italia), which was launched fromItalian",
"fromItalian SomalilandandEritrea.The war resulted in themilitary occupationof Ethiopia and itsannexationinto the newly created colony ofItalian East Africa(Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of theLeague of Nationsas a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations,but the League did littlewhen the former clearly violated Article X of the League'sCovenant.The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion.Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbingAustria. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to theNationalist rebels, led by GeneralFrancisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain.The Soviet Union",
"Soviet Union supported the existing government of theSpanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as theInternational Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used thisproxy waras an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World WarII butgenerally favoured the Axis.His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending ofvolunteersto fight on theEastern Front. Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital ofPekingafter instigating theMarco Polo Bridge incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.The Soviets quickly signed anon-aggression pact with Chinato lendmaterielsupport, effectively ending China's priorcooperation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attackedTaiyuan, engaged theKuomintang Armyaround Xinkou,and",
"Xinkou,and foughtCommunist forcesin Pingxingguan.GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shekdeployed hisbest armytodefend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back,capturing the capital Nankingin December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants weremurdered by the Japanese. In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won theirfirst major victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city ofXuzhouwas taken by the Japanesein May.In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance byflooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences atWuhan, but thecity was takenby October.Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland toChongqingand continued the war. Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces",
"Japanese forces inManchukuohad sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union andMongolia. The Japanese doctrine ofHokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat atKhalkin Golin 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese Warand ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed aNeutrality Pactin April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine ofNanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germanyannexed Austria, again provokinglittle responsefrom other European powers.Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on theSudetenland, an area ofCzechoslovakiawith a predominantlyethnic Germanpopulation. Soon the United Kingdom",
"the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlainand conceded this territory to Germany in theMunich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia tocede additional territoryto Hungary, and Poland annexed theTrans-Olzaregion of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \"war-mongers\" and in January 1939secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navyto challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939,Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakiaand subsequently split it into the GermanProtectorate of Bohemia and Moraviaand a pro-Germanclient state, theSlovak",
"state, theSlovak Republic.Hitler also delivered anultimatum to Lithuaniaon 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of theKlaipėda Region, formerly the GermanMemelland. Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on theFree City of Danzig, the United Kingdom and Franceguaranteed their support for Polish independence; whenItaly conquered Albaniain April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to theKingdoms of RomaniaandGreece.Shortly after theFranco-Britishpledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with thePact of Steel.Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to \"encircle\" Germany and renounced theAnglo-German Naval Agreementand theGerman–Polish declaration of non-aggression. The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signeda non-aggression pactwith Germany,after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had",
"Soviet Union had stalled.This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet \"spheres of influence\" (westernPolandand Lithuania for Germany;eastern Poland, Finland,Estonia,LatviaandBessarabiafor the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence.The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World WarI. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations.On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polishplenipotentiaryimmediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover ofDanzig, and to allow aplebiscitein thePolish",
"thePolish Corridorin which the German minority would vote on secession.The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassadorNevile Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germanyinvaded Polandafterhaving stagedseveralfalse flag border incidentsas a pretext to initiate the invasion.The first German attack of the war came against thePolish defenses at Westerplatte.The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany.During thePhoney Warperiod, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of acautious French probe into the Saarland.The Western Allies also began anaval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.Germany",
"war effort.Germany responded by orderingU-boat warfareagainst Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into theBattle of the Atlantic. On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs ofWarsaw. The Polishcounter-offensiveto the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by theWehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through tobesieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing acease-fire with Japan, theSoviet Union invaded Polandunder the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist.On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, andthe last large operational unit of the Polish Armysurrendered on 6October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed thePolish government-in-exileand aclandestine state apparatus remainedin occupied Poland.A significant part of Polish military personnelevacuated to Romaniaand Latvia; many of them laterfought against the Axisin other theatres of",
"other theatres of the war. Germanyannexed westernPoland andoccupied central Poland; the Soviet Unionannexed eastern Poland; small shares of Polish territory were transferred toLithuaniaandSlovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejectedand Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatenedEstonia,Latvia, andLithuaniawith military invasion, forcing the threeBaltic countriesto signpactsallowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there.Finlandrefused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union.The Soviet Union invaded Finlandin November 1939,and was subsequently expelled from theLeague of",
"from theLeague of Nationsfor this crime of aggression.Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during theWinter Warwas modest,and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 withsome Finnish concessions of territory. In June 1940, the Soviet Unionoccupiedthe entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,as well as the Romanian regions ofBessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. In August 1940, Hitler imposed theSecond Vienna Awardon Romania which led to the transfer ofNorthern Transylvaniato Hungary.In September 1940, Bulgaria demandedSouthern Dobrujafrom Romania with German and Italian support, leading to theTreaty of Craiova.The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under MarshalIon Antonescu, with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee.Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operationgradually stalled,and both states began",
"both states began preparations for war. Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940,Germany invaded Denmark and Norwayto protect shipments ofiron ore from Sweden, which the Allies wereattempting to cut off.Denmark capitulated after six hours, anddespite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.British discontent over the Norwegian campaignled to the resignation of Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain, who was replaced byWinston Churchillon 10May 1940. On the same day, Germanylaunched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strongMaginot Linefortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations ofBelgium,the Netherlands, andLuxembourg.The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through theArdennesregion,which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.By successfully implementing newBlitzkriegtactics, theWehrmachtrapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping",
"Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was ableto evacuate a significant number of Allied troopsfrom the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June,Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, andParisfell to them on 14June. Eight days laterFrance signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided intoGermanandItalian occupation zones,and an unoccupiedrump stateunder theVichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, whichthe United Kingdom attackedon 3July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The airBattle of Britainbegan in early July withLuftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours.TheGerman campaign for air superioritystarted in August but its failure to defeatRAF Fighter Commandforced the indefinite postponement of",
"postponement of theproposed German invasion of Britain. The Germanstrategic bombingoffensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities inthe Blitz, but largely ended in May 1941after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navyenjoyed successagainst an over-extendedRoyal Navy, usingU-boatsagainst British shippingin the Atlantic.The BritishHome Fleetscored a significant victory on 27May 1941 bysinking the German battleshipBismarck. In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended theNeutrality Actto allow\"cash and carry\"purchases by the Allies.In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of theUnited States Navywassignificantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to atrade of American destroyers for British bases.Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.In December",
"1941.In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an \"arsenal of democracy\" and promotingLend-Leaseprogrammes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it wasinvadedby Germany.The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, theTripartite Pactformally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as theAxis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.The Axis expanded in November 1940 whenHungary,Slovakia, andRomaniajoined.RomaniaandHungarylater made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recaptureterritory ceded to the Soviet Union. Mediterranean",
"Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the ItalianRegia Aeronauticaattacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italyconquered British Somalilandand made anincursion into British-held Egypt. In October,Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes.To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces begancounter-offensivesagainst Italian forces in Egypt andItalian East Africa.The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. TheItalian Navyalso suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after acarrier attack at",
"acarrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at theBattle of Cape Matapan. Italian defeats prompted Germany todeploy an expeditionary forceto North Africa; at the end of March 1941,Rommel'sAfrika Korpslaunched an offensivewhich drove back Commonwealth forces.In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt andbesieged the port of Tobruk. By late March 1941,BulgariaandYugoslaviasigned theTripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government wasoverthrown two days laterby pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of bothYugoslaviaandGreece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month.The airborneinvasion of the Greek island of Creteat the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans.Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against theAxis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forcesquashed an uprising in Iraqwhich had been",
"Iraqwhich had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlledSyria.Between June and July, British-led forcesinvaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon, assisted by theFree French. Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions inSoutheast Asia, the two powers signed theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pactin April 1941.By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later.On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be",
"Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest ofUkraine, theBaltic statesandByelorussia.However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact.In November 1940,negotiations took placeto determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union inOperation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets ofplotting against them; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.The primary targets of this surprise offensivewere theBaltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with theultimate goalof ending the 1941 campaign near theArkhangelsk-Astrakhan line—from theCaspianto theWhite",
"theWhite Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminateCommunism, generateLebensraum(\"living space\")bydispossessing the native population,and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. Although theRed Armywas preparing for strategiccounter-offensivesbefore the war,OperationBarbarossaforced theSoviet supreme commandto adoptstrategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By mid-August, however, the GermanArmy High Commanddecided tosuspend the offensiveof a considerably depletedArmy Group Centre, and to divert the2nd Panzer Groupto reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.TheKiev offensivewas overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible furtheradvance into Crimeaand industrially-developed Eastern Ukraine (theFirst Battle of",
"(theFirst Battle of Kharkov). The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to theEastern Frontprompted the United Kingdom to reconsider itsgrand strategy.In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed amilitary alliance against Germanyand in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued theAtlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world.In late August the British and Sovietsinvaded neutral Iranto secure thePersian Corridor, Iran'soil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. By October, Axis powers had achievedoperational objectivesin Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges ofLeningradandSevastopolcontinuing.A majoroffensive against Moscowwas renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troopswere forced to",
"forced to suspend the offensive.Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Sovietcapability to resistwas not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. Theblitzkriegphaseof the war in Europe had ended. By early December, freshly mobilisedreservesallowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.This, as well asintelligence datawhich established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the JapaneseKwantung Army,allowed the Soviets to begin amassive counter-offensivethat started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanesefalse flagMukden incidentin 1931, the Japanese shelling of the AmericangunboatUSS Panayin 1937, and the 1937–1938Nanjing Massacre,Japanese-American relations",
"relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—theExport Control Acts—which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.During 1939 Japan launched itsfirst attack against Changsha, but was repulsed by late September.Despiteseveral offensivesby both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded andoccupied northern Indochinain September 1940. Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scalecounter-offensivein early 1940. In August,Chinese communistslaunched anoffensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan institutedharsh measuresin occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for",
"resources for the communists.Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forcesculminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed duringBattle of Shanggao.In September, Japan attempted totake the city of Changshaagain and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments inSoutheast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from theDutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.At the same time, Japan wasplanning an invasion of the Soviet",
"of the Soviet Far East, intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.Roosevelt reinforcedthe Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946)and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any \"neighboring countries\". Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American–British–Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. EmperorHirohito, after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory,began to",
"of victory,began to favour Japan's entry into the war.As a result, Prime MinisterFumimaro Konoeresigned.Hirohito refused the recommendation to appointPrince Naruhiko Higashikuniin his place, choosing War MinisterHideki Tojoinstead.On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of theattack on Pearl Harborto the Emperor.On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war.On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the",
"or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise theUnited States Pacific Fleetand the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneousoffensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.These included anattack on the American fleets at Pearl Harborandthe Philippines, as well as invasions ofGuam,Wake Island,Malaya,Thailand, andHong Kong. These",
"andHong Kong. These attacks led theUnited States,United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United Statesin solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, theAllied Big Four—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued theDeclaration by United Nations, thereby affirming theAtlantic Charterand agreeing not to sign aseparate peacewith the Axis powers. During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriategrand strategyto pursue. All agreed thatdefeating Germanywas the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward,large-scale attackon",
"attackon Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies.Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. At theCasablanca Conferencein early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded theunconditional surrenderof their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the",
"in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its allyThailandhad almost conqueredBurma,Malaya,the Dutch East Indies,Singapore, andRabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.Despite stubbornresistance by Filipino and U.S. forces, thePhilippine Commonwealthwas eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during theBattle of Yenangyaungand rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in theSouth China Sea,Java Sea, andIndian Ocean,andbombed the Allied naval baseatDarwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinesevictory at Changsha.These easy victories over the unprepared U.S. and European",
"U.S. and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations tocapture Port Moresbybyamphibious assaultand thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in theBattle of the Coral Sea.Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlierDoolittle Raid, was to seizeMidway Atolland lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces tooccupy the Aleutian Islandsin Alaska.In mid-May, Japan started theZhejiang-Jiangxi campaignin China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had brokenJapanese naval codesin late",
"naval codesin late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisivevictory at Midwayover theImperial Japanese Navy. With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capturePort Moresbyby anoverland campaignin theTerritory of Papua.The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southernSolomon Islands, primarilyGuadalcanal, as a first step towards capturingRabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. Both plans started in July, but by mid-September,the Battle for Guadalcanaltook priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to thenorthern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in theBattle of Buna–Gona.Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were",
"the Japanese were defeated on the island andwithdrew their troops.In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrousoffensive into the Arakan regionin late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943.The second was theinsertion of irregular forcesbehind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive incentralandsouthern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in theKerch Peninsulaand atKharkov,and then in June 1942 launched their mainsummer offensiveagainst southern Russia, to seize theoil fields of the Caucasusand occupy theKubansteppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans splitArmy Group Southinto two groups:Army Group Aadvanced to the lowerDon Riverand struck",
"Riverand struck south-east to the Caucasus, whileArmy Group Bheaded towards theVolga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. By mid-November, the Germans hadnearly taken Stalingradin bitterstreet fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with anencirclement of German forces at Stalingrad,and an assault on theRzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched anotherattack on Kharkov, creating asalientin their front line around the Soviet city ofKursk. Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions,the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.By November 1941,",
"November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa,Operation Crusader, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at theGazala lineby early February,followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.Concerns that the Japanese might use bases inVichy-held Madagascarcaused the British toinvade the islandin early May 1942.An Axisoffensive in Libyaforced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces werestopped at El Alamein.On the Continent, raids of Alliedcommandoson strategic targets, culminating in the failedDieppe Raid,demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling asecond attack against El Alameinand, at a high cost, managed todeliver",
"managed todeliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.A few months later, the Alliescommenced an attack of their ownin Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.This attack was followed up shortly after byAnglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering theoccupation of Vichy France;although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed toscuttle their fleetto prevent its capture by German forces.Axis forces in Africa withdrew intoTunisia, which wasconquered by the Alliesin May 1943. In June 1943, the British and Americans begana strategic bombing campaignagainst Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and \"de-house\" the civilian population.Thefirebombing of Hamburgwas among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important",
"of this important industrial centre. Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent toeliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians.Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations toisolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, andbreach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had alsoneutralised the major Japanese base at Trukin theCaroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation toretake Western New Guinea. In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives incentral Russia. On 5 July 1943, Germanyattacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had",
"German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences,and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies'invasion of Sicilylaunched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in theousting and arrest of Mussolinilater that month. On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their owncounter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortifiedPanther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it atSmolenskand theLower Dnieper Offensive. On 3 September 1943, the Western Alliesinvaded the Italian mainland, followingItaly's armistice with the Alliesand the ensuing German occupation of Italy.Germany,",
"of Italy.Germany, with the help of fascists, responded to the armistice bydisarming Italian forcesthat were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,and creating a series of defensive lines.German special forces thenrescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named theItalian Social Republic,causing anItalian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching themain German defensive linein mid-November. German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. ByMay 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.In November 1943,Franklin D. Rooseveltand Winston Churchill met withChiang Kai-shekin Cairoand then with Joseph Stalinin Tehran.The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territoryand the military planning for theBurma campaign,while the latter included",
"the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. From November 1943, during the seven-weekBattle of Changde, the Chinese awaited allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition.In January 1944, the Allies launched aseries of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassinoand tried to outflank it withlandings at Anzio. On 27 January 1944,Soviettroops launcheda major offensivethat expelled German forces from theLeningrad region, thereby ending themost lethal siege in history.Thefollowing Soviet offensivewashalted on the pre-war Estonian borderby the GermanArmy Group Northaided byEstonianshoping tore-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in theBaltic Searegion.By late May 1944, the Soviets hadliberated Crimea,largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and madeincursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis",
"by the Axis troops.The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions,an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India,and soon besieged Commonwealth positions atImphalandKohima.In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,and Chinese forces that hadinvaded northern Burmain late 1943besieged Japanese troopsinMyitkyina.Thesecond Japanese invasionof China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.By June, the Japanese had conquered the province ofHenanand begun anew attack on Changsha. Allies close in (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known asD-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,the Western Alliesinvaded northern France. After reassigning several",
"reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they alsoattacked southern France.These landings were successful and led to the defeat of theGerman Army units in France.Pariswasliberatedon 25 August by thelocal resistanceassisted by theFree French Forces, both led by GeneralCharles de Gaulle,and the Western Allies continued topush back German forcesin western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded bya major airborne operationin the Netherlands failed.After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, butfailed to cross the Rur river. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to thelast major German defensive line. On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\"Operation Bagration\") that nearly destroyed the GermanArmy Group Centre.Soon after that,another Soviet strategic offensiveforced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed thePolish Committee of National Liberationto control territory",
"control territory in Poland and combat the PolishArmia Krajowa; the Soviet Red Army remained in thePragadistrict on the other side of theVistulaand watched passively as the Germans quelled theWarsaw Uprisinginitiated by the Armia Krajowa.Thenational uprisinginSlovakiawas also quelled by the Germans.The SovietRed Army'sstrategic offensive in eastern Romaniacut off and destroyed theconsiderable German troops thereand triggereda successful coup d'état in Romaniaandin Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced intoYugoslaviaand forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army GroupsEandFinGreece,Albaniaand Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.By this point, the communist-ledPartisansunder MarshalJosip Broz Tito, who had led anincreasingly successful guerrilla campaignagainst the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northernSerbia, the SovietRed",
"the SovietRed Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a jointliberation of the capital city of Belgradeon 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched amassive assaultagainstGerman-occupiedHungary that lasted untilthe fall of Budapestin February 1945.Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans,bitter Finnish resistanceto theSoviet offensivein theKarelian Isthmusdenied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to aSoviet-Finnish armisticeon relatively mild conditions,although Finland was forced tofight their former German allies. By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges inAssam, pushing the Japanese back to theChindwin Riverwhile the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forcescaptured Mount Songand reopened theBurma Road.In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finallycaptured Changshain mid-June and the city ofHengyangby early August.Soon after, they invaded the province",
"the province ofGuangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces atGuilin and Liuzhouby the end of Novemberand successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. In the Pacific, U.S. forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began theiroffensive against the Mariana and Palau islandsand decisively defeated Japanese forces in theBattle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister,Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forcesinvaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in theBattle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launcha massive",
"to launcha massive counter-offensive in the Ardennesandalong the French-German border, hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port atAntwerp. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland,pushing from the Vistula to the Oderriver in Germany, andoverran East Prussia.On 4 February Soviet, British, and U.S. leaders met for theYalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. In February, the Sovietsentered SilesiaandPomerania, while theWestern Allies entered western Germanyand closed to theRhineriver. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhinenorthandsouthof theRuhr,encircling the German Army Group B.In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves",
"last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launchedits last major offensiveagainst Soviet troops nearLake Balaton. Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced toVienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troopscaptured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finallypushed forward in Italyand swept across western Germany capturingHamburgandNuremberg.American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe riveron 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troopsstormed and captured Berlinin late April.In Italy,German forces surrenderedon 29 April, while theItalian Social Republiccapitulated two days later. On 30 April, theReichstagwas captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president,Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussoliniwas killedbyItalian partisanson 28 April.On 30 April,Hitler",
"30 April,Hitler committed suicidein hisheadquarters, and was succeeded byGrand AdmiralKarl Dönitz(asPresident of the Reich) andJoseph Goebbels(asChancellor of the Reich); Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced byLutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, in what would later be known as theFlensburg Government.Total and unconditional surrenderin Europe was signedon 7and 8May, to be effective by the end of8 May.German Army Group Centreresisted in Pragueuntil 11 May.On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by the Allied Forces inFlensburg, while on 5 June all German political and military institutions were transferred under the control of the Allies through theBerlin Declaration. In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of thePhilippine Commonwealthadvancedin the Philippines,clearing Leyteby the end of April 1945. Theylanded on Luzonin January 1945 andrecaptured Manilain March. Fighting continued on Luzon,Mindanao, and other islands of",
"other islands of the Philippines until theend of the war.Meanwhile, theUnited States Army Air Forceslauncheda massive firebombing campaignof strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastatingbombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 Marchwas the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. In May 1945, Australian troopslanded in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northernBurmain March, and the British pushed on to reachRangoonby 3 May.Chinese forces started a counterattack in theBattle of West Hunanthat occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, takingIwo Jimaby March, andOkinawaby the end of June.At the same time, a naval blockade bysubmarineswas strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. On 11 July, Allied leadersmet in Potsdam, Germany. Theyconfirmed earlier agreementsabout",
"agreementsabout Germany,and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that \"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\".During this conference, the United Kingdomheld its general election, andClement Attleereplaced Churchill as Prime Minister. The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.In early August, the United Statesdropped atomic bombson the Japanese cities ofHiroshimaandNagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement,declared war on Japan,invaded Japanese-held Manchuriaand quickly defeated theKwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.The Red Army also captured thesouthern part of Sakhalin Islandand theKuril Islands. On the night of 9–10 August",
"of 9–10 August 1945, EmperorHirohitoannounced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in thePotsdam Declaration.On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio (Gyokuon-hōsō, literally \"broadcast in the Emperor's voice\").On 15 August 1945,Japan surrendered, with thesurrender documentsfinally signed atTokyo Bayon the deck of the American battleshipUSSMissourion 2 September 1945, ending the war. Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations inAustriaandGermany, both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, thewesternandeastern occupation zonescontrolled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries,West GermanyandEast Germany.In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement",
"a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). Adenazificationprogram in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in theNuremberg trialsand the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories,Silesia,Neumarkand most ofPomeraniawere taken over by Poland,andEast Prussiawas divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by theexpulsion to Germanyof the nine million Germans from these provinces,as well as three million Germans from theSudetenlandin Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of theCurzon Line,from which2 million",
"which2 million Poles were expelled;north-east Romania,parts of eastern Finland,and theBaltic stateswereannexed into the Soviet Union.Italylost its monarchy,colonial empireand someEuropean territories. In an effort to maintainworld peace,the Allies formed theUnited Nations,which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,and adopted theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin 1948 as a common standard for allmember nations.Thegreat powersthat were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became thepermanent membersof the UN'sSecurity Council.The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes,betweentheRepublic of Chinaand thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1971, and between the Soviet Union and itssuccessor state, theRussian Federation, following thedissolution of the USSRin 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. Besides",
"was over. Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Sovietspheres of influence.Most eastern and central European countries fell intothe Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result,East Germany,Poland,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia, andAlbaniabecame Sovietsatellite states. CommunistYugoslaviaconducted a fullyindependent policy, causingtension with the Soviet Union.ACommunist uprising in Greecewas put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-ledNATOand the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact.The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—theCold War—would be accompanied by an unprecedentedarms raceand number ofproxy warsthroughout the world. In Asia, the United States led theoccupation of Japanandadministered",
"Japan's former islandsin the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexedSouth Sakhalinand theKuril Islands.Korea, formerlyunder Japanese colonial rule, wasdivided and occupiedby the Soviet Union in theNorthand the United States in theSouthbetween 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to theKorean War. In China, nationalist and communist forces resumedthe civil warin June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated toTaiwanin 1949.In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestineand thecreation of Israelmarked the escalation of theArab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of theircolonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading todecolonisation. The global",
"The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to ababy boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy ofindustrial disarmament in Western Germanyfrom 1945 to 1948.Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. At theBretton Woods Conferencein July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD), which later became part of theWorld Bank Group. TheBretton Woods systemlasted until 1973.Recovery began with the mid-1948currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by",
"and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the U.S.Marshall Planeconomic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.The post-1948 West German recovery has been called theGerman economic miracle.Italy also experienced aneconomic boomand theFrench economy rebounded.By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,it continued in relative economic decline for decades.The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era,having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exactedwar reparationsfrom its satellite states.Japan recovered much later.China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. Impact Casualties and war crimes Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.Most suggest that",
"suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about20 million military personneland 40 million civilians. The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. An estimated 11to 17 millioncivilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler'sracist policies, includingmass killingofaround 6million Jews, along withRoma,homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnicPolesandmillions of other Slavs(including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), andother ethnic and minority groups.Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnicSerbs, along with Roma and Jews, werepersecuted and murderedby the Axis-aligned CroatianUstašeinYugoslavia.Concurrently,MuslimsandCroatswerepersecuted and killedby Serb nationalistChetniks,with an estimated",
"an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by theUkrainian Insurgent Armyin theVolhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945.At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the PolishHome Armyand other Polish units, in reprisal attacks. In Asia and the Pacific, the number of people killed by Japanese troops remains contested. According to R.J. Rummel, the Japanese killed between 3million and more than 10 million people, with the most probable case of almost 6,000,000 people.According to the British historianM. R. D. Foot, civilian deaths are between 10 million and 20 million, whereas Chinese military casualties (killed and wounded) are estimated to be over five million.Other estimates say that up to 30 million people, most of them civilians, were killed.The most infamous Japanese atrocity was theNanjing Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that",
"reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during theThree Alls policy. GeneralYasuji Okamuraimplemented the policy inHebeiandShandong. Axis forces employedbiologicalandchemical weapons. TheImperial Japanese Armyused a variety of such weapons during itsinvasion and occupation of China(seeUnit 731)and inearly conflicts against the Soviets.Both the Germans and theJapanese testedsuch weapons against civilians,and sometimes onprisoners of war. The Soviet Union was responsible for theKatyn massacreof 22,000 Polish officers,and the imprisonment or execution ofhundreds of thousands of political prisonersby theNKVDsecret police, along withmass civilian deportations to Siberia, in theBaltic statesandeastern Polandannexed by the Red Army.Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especiallyin Germany.The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and",
"of thousands, and possibly as many as two million,while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although nopositiveor specificcustomaryinternational humanitarian lawwith respect toaerial warfareexisted before or during World War II.The USAAFbombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians, including theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and destroying 65% of built-up areas. Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany, under thedictatorshipof Adolf Hitler, was responsible for murdering about 6million Jews in what is now known asthe Holocaust. They also murdered an additional 4million others who were deemed \"unworthy of life\" (including thedisabledandmentally ill,Soviet prisoners of war,Romani,homosexuals,Freemasons, andJehovah's Witnesses) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a \"genocidalstate\".Soviet POWswere",
"POWswere kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.In addition toconcentration camps,death campswere created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively usedforced labourers; about 12 millionEuropeansfrom German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. The SovietGulagbecame ade factosystem of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,including foreign citizens of Poland andother countriesoccupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as AxisPOWs.By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected toNKVDevaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. Japaneseprisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as",
"which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. TheInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastfound the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after thesurrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56. At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by theEast Asia Development Board, orKōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.InJava, between 4and 10 millionrōmusha(Japanese: \"manual labourers\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central",
"and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and theannexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion U.S. dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include theplunderof industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. In the East, the intended gains ofLebensraumwere never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Sovietscorched earthpolicies denied resources to the German invaders.Unlike in the West, theNazi racial policyencouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the \"inferior people\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed bymass atrocities and war crimes.The Naziskilled an estimated 2.77 million ethnic Polesduring the war in",
"the war in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.Althoughresistance groupsformed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the Eastor the Westuntil late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanesehegemonywhich it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination,Japanese war crimesfrequently turned local public opinion against them.During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. Home fronts and production In the 1930s Britain and the United States of America together controlled almost 75% of world",
"almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial",
"during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one ofattrition.While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in thelabour force,Alliedstrategic bombing,and Germany's late shift to awar economycontributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions ofslave labourers;Germany enslavedabout 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,whileJapan usedmore than 18 million people in Far East Asia. Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used forreconnaissance, asfighters,bombers, andground-support, and each role developed considerably. Innovations includedairlift(the capability to",
"capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);andstrategic bombing(the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).Anti-aircraft weaponryalso advanced, including defences such asradarand surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of theproximity fuze. The use of thejet aircraftwas pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Advances were made in nearly every aspect ofnaval warfare, most notably withaircraft carriersandsubmarines. Althoughaeronauticalwarfare had relatively little success at the start of the war,actions at Taranto,Pearl Harbor, and theCoral Seaestablished the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship).In the Atlantic,escort carriersbecame a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close theMid-Atlantic gap.Carriers were also more economical thanbattleshipsdue to the relatively low cost of",
"low cost of aircraftand because they are not required to be as heavily armoured.Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during theFirst World War,were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development onanti-submarineweaponryand tactics, such assonarand convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as theType VII submarineandwolfpacktactics.Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as theLeigh Light,Hedgehog,Squid, andhoming torpedoesproved effective against German submarines. Land warfarechanged from the static frontlines oftrench warfareof World War I, which had relied on improvedartillerythat outmatched the speed of bothinfantryandcavalry, to increased mobility andcombined arms. Thetank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World",
"been during World WarI,andadvances continued throughout the warwith increases in speed, armour and firepower.At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.Many means ofdestroying tanks, includingindirect artillery,anti-tank guns(both towed andself-propelled),mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the GermanMG 34, and varioussubmachine gunswhich were suited toclose combatin urban and jungle",
"urban and jungle settings.Theassault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using largecodebooksforcryptographyby designingcipheringmachines, the most well-known being the GermanEnigma machine.Development ofSIGINT(signalsintelligence) andcryptanalysisenabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption ofJapanese naval codesand BritishUltra, apioneering methodfor decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by thePolish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.Another component ofmilitary intelligencewasdeception, which the Allies used to great effect in operations such asMincemeatandBodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the",
"the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3,Colossus, andENIAC),guided missilesandmodern rockets, theManhattan Project's development ofnuclear weapons,operations research, the development ofartificial harbours, andoil pipelines under the English Channel.Penicillinwas firstdeveloped, mass-produced, and usedduring the war. See also Notes Citations References External links"
] |
What was the running time of the first cartoon in the series that inspired the name of the Looney Tunes franchise? | 5 minutes and 31 seconds | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looney_Tunes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silly_Symphony | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | ['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looney_Tunes', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silly_Symphony'] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looney_Tunes",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silly_Symphony"
] | [
"Looney Tunes Looney Tunesis an Americanmedia franchiseproduced and distributed byWarner Bros.The franchise began as a series ofanimatedshort filmsthat originally ran from 1930 to 1969, alongside the related seriesMerrie Melodies, during thegolden age of American animation.Following a revival in the late 1970s, new shorts were released as recently as 2014. The two series introduced a largecast of characters, includingBugs Bunny,Daffy Duck, andPorky Pig. The termLooney Tuneshas since been expanded to also refer to the characters themselves. Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere initially produced byLeon Schlesingerand animatorsHugh HarmanandRudolf Isingfrom 1930 to 1933.Schlesinger assumed full production from 1933 until he sold his studio to Warner Bros. in 1944, after which it was renamedWarner Bros. Cartoons.TheLooney Tunestitle was inspired by that ofWalt Disney'sSilly Symphonies.The shorts initially showcased musical compositions owned by Warner's music publishing interests through the adventures of such characters asBoskoandBuddy.However, the shorts gained a higher profile upon the debuts of directorsTex Avery,Friz Freleng,Chuck Jones,Bob Clampett, andRobert McKimson, andvoice actorMel Blanclater in the decade.Porky Pig and Daffy Duck became the featuredLooney Tunescharacters, whileMerrie Melodiesfeatured one-shot cartoons and minor recurring characters. After Bugs Bunny became popular in theMerrie Melodiesshorts of the early 1940s,Looney Tunesmoved fromblack and whiteto color production,Merrie Melodieshaving already been in color since 1934.The two series gradually lost their distinctions, and shorts were assigned to each series arbitrarily.From 1942 to 1964,Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere the most popular animated shorts in movie theaters. Looney Tuneshas become one of thehighest-grossing media franchisesof all time, spawning several television series, feature films, comic books, music albums, video games, and amusement park rides. Many of the characters have made and continue to make cameo appearances in television shows, films, and other media. Bugs Bunny, in particular, is regarded as acultural iconand has a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame.ManyLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesfilms are ranked among the greatest animated cartoons of all time, and five of them have wonAcademy Awards.In 2013,TV GuidecountedLooney Tunesas the third greatest television cartoon series of all time, behindThe SimpsonsandThe Flintstones, the latter of which also featured the voice talents of Mel Blanc andBea Benaderet. History Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere so named as a reference to Disney'sSilly Symphoniesand were initially developed to showcase tracks from Warner Bros.' extensive music library; the title of the firstLooney Tunesshort,Sinkin' in the Bathtub(1930), is a pun onSingin' in the Bathtub.Between 1934 and 1943,Merrie Melodieswere produced in color andLooney Tunesin black and white.After 1943, both series were produced in color and became virtually indistinguishable, varying only in their opening theme music and titles.Both series made use of the various Warner Bros. characters. By 1937, the theme music forLooney Tuneswas \"The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down\" byCliff FriendandDave Franklin, and the theme music forMerrie Melodieswas an adaptation of \"Merrily We Roll Along\" byCharles Tobias, Murray Mencher andEddie Cantor. 1930–1933: Harman and Ising era In 1929, to compete againstWalt Disney'sMickey Mouse short cartoons, Warner Bros. became interested in developing a series of animated shorts to promote their music. They had recently acquiredBrunswick Recordsalong with four music publishers for US$28 million (equivalent to $511 million in 2024) and were eager to promote this material for the sales of sheet music and phonograph records. Warner made a deal withLeon Schlesingerto produce cartoons for them. Schlesinger hiredRudolf IsingandHugh Harmanto produce the first series of cartoons. Schlesinger was impressed by Harman's and Ising's 1929 pilot cartoon,Bosko, The Talk-Ink Kid. The firstLooney Tunesshort wasSinkin' in the BathtubstarringBosko, which was released in 1930. 1933–1936: Leon Schlesinger Productions When Harman and Ising left Warner Bros. in 1933 over a budget dispute with Schlesinger, they took with them all the rights of the characters they had created. A new character calledBuddybecame the only star of theLooney Tunesseries for a couple of years. New directors includingTex Avery,Friz FrelengandBob Clampettwere brought in or promoted to work with animators in the Schlesinger studio, with Avery's unit housed in a bungalow which the animators dubbed \"Termite Terrace.\" In 1935, the first majorLooney Tunesstar debuted,Porky Pig. He first appeared along withBeans the Catin theMerrie MelodiescartoonI Haven't Got a Hat, directed by Friz Freleng. Beans was the star of the next Porky/Beans cartoon,Gold Diggers of '49, but it was Porky who emerged as the star instead of Beans. The ensemble characters ofI Haven't Got a Hat, such as Oliver Owl and the twin dogs Ham and Ex, were also given a sampling of shorts. Beans and Porky proved much more popular in comparison. Beans was later phased out when his popularity declined, leaving Porky as the only star of the Schlesinger studio. 1936–1944: More star characters and switch to color The debuts of other memorableLooney Tunesstars followed:Daffy DuckinPorky's Duck Hunt(1937),Elmer Fuddin theMerrie MelodiesshortElmer's Candid Camera(1940),Bugs Bunnyin theMerrie MelodiesshortA Wild Hare(1940),andTweetyin theMerrie MelodiesshortA Tale of Two Kitties(1942). Bugs initially starred in the colorMerrie Melodiesshorts following the success of 1940'sA Wild Hare, and formally joined theLooney Tunesseries with the release ofBuckaroo Bugsin 1944. Schlesinger began to phase in the production of colorLooney Tuneswith the 1942 cartoonThe Hep Cat. The final black-and-whiteLooney Tunesshort wasPuss n' Bootyin 1943, directed byFrank Tashlin. The inspiration for the changeover was Warner's decision to re-release only the color cartoons in theBlue Ribbon Classicsseries ofMerrie Melodies. Bugs made a cameo appearance in 1942 in the Avery/Clampett cartoonCrazy Cruiseand also at the end of the Frank Tashlin 1943 cartoonPorky Pig's Feat, which marked Bugs' only official appearance in a black-and-whiteLooney Tunesshort. Schlesinger sold his interest in the cartoon studio in 1944 to Warner Bros. and went into retirement; he died five years later. 1944–1964: The Golden era More popularLooney Tunescharacters were created (most of which first appeared inMerrie Melodiescartoons), such asPepé Le Pew(debuted in 1945'sOdor-able Kitty),Sylvester(debuted in 1945'sLife with Feathers),Yosemite Sam(debuted in 1945'sHare Trigger),Foghorn Leghorn(debuted in 1946'sWalky Talky Hawky),Marvin the Martian(debuted in 1948'sHaredevil Hare),Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner(debuted in 1949'sFast and Furry-ous),Granny(debuted in 1950'sCanary Row),Speedy Gonzales(debuted in 1953'sCat Tails for Two),the Tasmanian Devil(debuted in 1954'sDevil May Hare), andRalph Wolf and Sam Sheepdog(debuted in 1953'sDon't Give Up the Sheep). It was during this era that the series won fiveAcademy Awards: 1964–1969: DePatie–Freleng and Seven Arts era During the mid-late 1960s, the shorts were produced byDePatie–Freleng Enterprises(andFormat Productions) (1964–1967) andWarner Bros.-Seven Arts(1967–1969) after Warner Bros. shut down their animation studio. The shorts from this era can be identified by their different title sequence, featuring stylizedlimited animationand graphics on a black background and a new arrangement, byWilliam Lava, of \"The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down\" which had first been used in the 1963 experimental short \"Now Hear This\" directed by Chuck Jones. In 1967, Warner Bros.-Seven Arts commissioned an animation studio inSouth Koreato redraw 79 black-and-white Looney Tunes produced from 1935 to 1943 in color which were syndicated to TV stations from the late 1960s to the early 1990s. The originalLooney Tunestheatrical series ran from 1930'sSinkin' in the Bathtubto 1969'sInjun TroublebyRobert McKimson. ACool Catcartoon called \"Stage Cat\" was planned, about Cool Cat being in a stage production, but it was cancelled when Warner Bros.-Seven Arts shut down. 1970–1999: Syndication and return to television and film TheLooney Tunesseries' popularity was further strengthened when it began airing on network andsyndicated televisionin the 1950s under various titles and formats. TheLooney Tunesshorts were broadcast with edits to remove scenes of violence (particularly suicidal gags and scenes of characters performing dangerous stunts that impressionable viewers could easily imitate), stereotypes, and alcohol consumption. Production of theatrical animated shorts was dormant from 1969 until 1979, when new shorts were made to introduce theLooney Tunesto a new generation of audiences.New shortshave been produced and released sporadically for theaters since then, though usually as promotional tie-ins with various family movies produced by Warner Bros. While many have been released in limited releases theatrically for Academy Award consideration, only a few have gained theatrical releases with movies. In the 1970s through the early 1990s, several feature-film compilations andtelevision specialswere produced, mostly centering on Bugs Bunny and/or Daffy Duck, with a mixture of new and old footage. These releases includeThe Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie(1979),The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie(1981),Bugs Bunny's 3rd Movie: 1001 Rabbit Tales(1982),Daffy Duck's Fantastic Island(1983), andDaffy Duck's Quackbusters(1988). In 1976, theLooney Tunescharacters made their way into the amusement park business when they became the mascots for Marriott's two Great America theme parks in Gurnee, Illinois, and Santa Clara, California. After theGurnee parkwas sold toSix Flagsin 1984, they also claimed the rights to use the characters at the other Six Flags parks, which continues to the present. (Warner Bros. parent company Time Warner would own the Six Flags chain in whole or part form most of the 1990s.) In 1988, severalLooney Tunescharacters appeared in cameo roles in theDisneyfilmWho Framed Roger Rabbit. The more significant cameos featured Bugs, Daffy, Porky, Tweety, and Yosemite Sam. It is the only time in whichLooney Tunescharacters have shared screen time with their rivals at Disney (producers of the film)—particularly in the scenes where Bugs andMickey Mouseareskydiving, and when Daffy andDonald Duckare performing their \"Dueling Pianos\" sequence. On July 10, 1989, after a battle with heart problems,Mel Blancdied at theCedars-Sinai Medical Centerofcardiovascular disease. A picture depicting theLooney Tunescharacters entitled \"Speechless\" was released shortly after his death. Viacom-ownedNickelodeonairedLooney Tunescartoons in a show calledLooney Tunes on Nickelodeonbetween 1988 and 1999. Initially, the Nickelodeon package included cartoons that were typically omitted from the higher-profile Saturday morning network and syndicated weekday packages, including black-and-white Bosko cartoons that had not aired in many years and cartoons from the late DePattie–Freling and Seven Arts eras. In January 1999, it was reported that the cartoons shown on Nickelodeon would move toCartoon Networkin the fall of that year.To date,Looney Tunes on Nickelodeonis the longest-airinganimated serieson the network that was not aNicktoon. In 1996,Space Jam, alive-action animated film, was released to theaters starring Bugs Bunny and basketball playerMichael Jordan. Despite a mixed critical reception,the film was a major box-office success, grossing nearly $100 million in the U.S. alone, almost becoming the first non-Disney animated film to achieve that feat.For a two-year period, it was the highest grossing non-Disney animated film ever.The film also introduced the characterLola Bunny, who subsequently became another recurring member of theLooney Tunescast, usually as a love interest for Bugs. In 1997, Bugs Bunny was featured on a U.S. 32 cent postage stamp, the first of fiveLooney Tunesthemed stamps to be issued. TheLooney Tunesalso achieved success in the area of television during this era, with appearances in several originally produced series, includingTaz-Mania(1991, starring Taz) andThe Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries(1995, starring Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny). The gang also made frequent cameos in the 1990 spinoff seriesTiny Toon Adventures, from executive producerSteven Spielberg, where they played teachers and mentors to a younger generation of cartoon characters (Plucky Duck,Hamton J. Pig,Babs and Buster Bunny, etc.), plus occasional cameos in the later Warner Bros. shows such asAnimaniacs(also from Spielberg) andHisteria!.Traditional cel animationwas used to animate the characters forLooney Tunes'cartoons until 1999 when it was replaced withdigital ink and paint animation. In 1979,Bugs Bunny's Christmas Carolpremiered. AfterThe Chocolate Chase, there would not be another short released for seven years. In 1990, it was made so there would be about one short per year until 1998. In 2003, there would be seven shorts produced to promoteLooney Tunes: Back in Action. The first of these to be released wasThe Whizzard of Ow, which appeared on a DVD release ofBack in Actionthat was sold exclusively atWal-Martstores. Only about half of the shorts were shown in theaters; the rest would not be made available until 2004, when all seven shorts were included on the general home video release of the film. In 2010, five computer-animated shorts would be released and directed byMatthew O'Callaghan, who would also direct another short,Flash in the Pain, in 2014. 2000–2014: Network exploration In March 2000, it was revealed that the entireLooney TunesandMerrie Melodieslibrary would be exclusive to Cartoon Network, starting with the fall of that year.Looney Tunesshorts were still airing on Disney'sABCas part ofThe Bugs Bunny and Tweety Showat the time and the decision led to the show's cancellation. This decision would remain in effect for over 20 years untilMeTVbegan airing the classic Warner Bros. cartoons (along with MGM and Paramount's library) in January 2021. In 2003, another feature film was released, this time in an attempt to recapture the spirit of the original shorts: the live-action/animatedLooney Tunes: Back in Action. Although the film was not financially successful,it was met with mixed-to-positive reviews from film critics and has been argued by animation historians and fans as the finest original feature-length appearance of the cartoon characters.In 2006,Warner Home Videoreleased a new and Christmas-themedLooney Tunesdirect-to-video film calledBah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas, a parody ofCharles Dickens'A Christmas Carol. OtherLooney TunesTV series made during this time wereBaby Looney Tunes(2001–2006),Duck Dodgers(2003–2005) andLoonatics Unleashed(2005–2007). On October 22, 2007,Looney TunesandMerrie Melodiescartoons became available for the first time inHigh-definitionviaMicrosoft'sXbox Liveservice, including some in Spanish.From February 29 – May 18, 2008, manyLooney Tunesartifacts, including original animation cels and concept drawings, were on display at theButler Institute of American ArtinYoungstown, Ohio, just off the campus ofYoungstown State University, near where the Warners lived early in life. At the 2009 Cartoon Networkupfront,The Looney Tunes Showwas announced.After several delays, the series premiered on May 3, 2011. Produced byWarner Bros. Animation, the series centers on Bugs and Daffy as they leave the woods and move to the suburbs with \"colorful neighbors\" including Sylvester, Tweety, Granny, Yosemite Sam, etc. The series introduced the characterTina Russo, a duck who becomes Daffy's girlfriend. The show also features 2-minute music videos titled respectfully \"Merrie Melodies\" (as a tribute to theLooney Tunessister shorts) which features the characters singing original songs, as well as CGI animated shorts starring Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner (which were removed after the first season). The series was cancelled after its second season. Also, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner returned to the big screen in a series of 3-D shorts that preceded select Warner Bros. films. There were six in the works that began with the first short,Coyote Falls, that preceded the filmCats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore, which was released on July 30, 2010. On September 24, 2010,Fur of Flyingpreceded the film,Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole, and on December 17, 2010,Rabid Riderpreceded the film,Yogi Bear. On June 8, 2011, Warner Bros. Animation announced that there will be moreLooney Tunes3-D theatrical shorts; the first titledDaffy's Rhapsodywith Daffy Duck and Elmer Fudd, the next beingI Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tatwith Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny.Daffy's Rhapsodywas to precede the filmHappy Feet Two,until the studio decided to premiereI Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tatinstead.Daffy's Rhapsodyinstead premiered in 2012, precedingJourney 2: The Mysterious Island.All five shorts were directed byMatthew O'Callaghan. In 2012, several announcements were made about aLooney Tunesreboot film titledAcme, in development.FormerSaturday Night Livecast memberJenny Slatewas said to be on board as writer for the new film. Jeffrey Clifford,Harry PotterproducerDavid Heyman, andDark Shadowswriters David Katzenberg andSeth Grahame-Smithwere slated to produce the film.On August 27, 2014, writersAshley MillerandZack Stentzwere hired to script the film, directorsGlenn Ficarraand John Requa were in talks to direct the film, while actorSteve Carellwas rumored to be starring in a lead role.Despite this, the film never entered production. 2015–2021: Revival At the 2014 Cartoon Networkupfront, another series titledWabbit: A Looney Tunes Production(laterNew Looney Tunes) was announced.Starring Bugs Bunny, the series premiered on both Cartoon Network and its sister channelBoomerangin late 2015.The series had an unusually slow rollout, with the series being moved to the Boomerang streaming service in 2017, and was eventually cancelled on January 30, 2020. On June 11, 2018, another series, titledLooney Tunes Cartoons, was announced by Warner Bros. Animation. It premiered on May 27, 2020, on the streaming serviceHBO Max. The series features \"1,000 minutes of new one-to-six minute cartoons featuring the brand's marquee characters\", voiced by their current voice actors in \"simple, gag-driven and visually vibrant stories\" that are rendered by multiple artists employing \"a visual style that will resonate with fans\", most noticeably having a style reminiscent of the styles ofTex Avery,Bob Clampett,Chuck Jones,Friz FrelengandRobert McKimson.According to co-executive producerPeter Browngardt, \"We're not doing guns, but we can do cartoony violence — TNT, the Acme stuff. All that was kind of grandfathered in.\"Sam Register, president of Warner Bros. Animation also served as a co-executive producer for the series.The series ended on July 27, 2023. On February 11, 2021, it was announced two new series were in the works:Bugs Bunny BuildersandTweety Mysteries.Bugs Bunny Buildersbegan airing on Cartoon Network as part ofCartoonitoandHBO Maxon July 25, 2022;Tweety Mysterieswould also air onCartoon Network.Bugs Bunny Buildersis aimed towards preschoolers; whileTweety Mysteriesis a live-action/animated hybrid.However, the latter was scrapped for unknown reasons. A sequel toSpace JamtitledSpace Jam: A New Legacy, starring basketball playerLeBron James, was released in theaters and HBO Max on July 16, 2021, after aLos Angelesspecial screening on July 12, 2021. It is a film with a story of LeBron James' second son, Dom, who gets kidnapped by an evilAInamed Al. G Rhythm (Don Cheadle), into the Warner Bros. server-verse. LeBron then assembles the Tune Squad to play against the algorithm and get his son back. It received generally negative reviews and underperformed at the box office. 2022–present; Warner Bros. Discovery ownership and tax write-offs A reboot ofTiny Toon AdventurestitledTiny Toons Looniversitypremiered on September 8, 2023, onMaxand then aired the following day on Cartoon Network. The Looney Tunes characters reprise their roles as the professors at Acme Looniversity in this series. In September 2021, it was reported that a film based on theLooney Tunes Cartoons, titledThe Day the Earth Blew Up: A Looney Tunes Movieand starringDaffy DuckandPorky Pig, was announced for release onHBO Maxand Cartoon Network.However, it was reported in August 2022 that the film would instead be shopped around to other streaming services.In October 2023, it was announced the film would instead be released in theaters, becoming the first animated non-compilation feature film in the franchise to do so.In early August 2024, it was announced thatKetchup Entertainmentacquired the North American theatrical distribution rights to the film. On December 31, 2022, 256 shorts were removed from HBO Max, includingWhat's Opera, Doc?andDuck Amuck,though many were later re-added in March 2024 when the shorts on the service were rotated. In August 2024, it was announced that Warner Bros. was planning to relaunch theLooney Tunestheatrical film series in 2028. Home media In the 1980s, the shorts receivedVHSreleases, with the pre-August 1948 shorts released byMGM/UA Home Videoand the post-July 1948 shorts released byWarner Home Video. In 2003, Warner Home Video began releasing select shorts onDVD, aimed at collectors, in four-disc sets known as theLooney Tunes Golden Collectionstarting withVolume 1. This continued until 2008, whenthe final volume of the Golden Collectionwas released. Then, from 2010 until 2013, the company released theLooney Tunes Super StarsDVDs. There have been numerous complaints regarding theSuper Starsreleases, however (particularly the first two), having the post-1953 shorts in a 16:9 widescreen format. The last DVD in theSuper Starsseries wasSylvester and Hippety Hopper: Marsupial Mayhem, released on April 23, 2013. 2010 and 2011 saw the releases ofThe Essential Bugs BunnyandThe Essential Daffy DuckDVDs. In 2011, the shorts were released onBlu-ray Discfor the first time with theLooney Tunes Platinum Collectionseries. On September 19, 2017,Warner Home Video'sWarner Archive Collectionreleased the five-discPorky Pig 101DVD-set. Licensing and ownership In 1933,Harman and Isingleft, taking the rights to theBosko characterswith them. However, Warner Bros. retained the rights to the cartoons and theLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesbrand names, leaving their former producer Leon Schlesinger to start his own animation studio to continue theLooney Tunesseries. With their retained Bosko rights, Harman and Ising began making cartoons atMetro-Goldwyn-Mayerin 1934 until they were fired in 1937 due to a lack of success. MGM proceeded to formtheir own studioto create its own cartoons. Time Warner eventually acquired the Bosko characters from Harman and Ising's estates. Meanwhile, the Schlesinger studio continued to make popular cartoons until 1944 when Schlesinger sold his studio to Warner Bros. Since then, Warner Bros. has owned all rights to all post-1933 characters created by Leon Schlesinger Productions and Warner Bros. Cartoons, even after the rights to individual cartoons were placed in other hands. In 1955, Warner Bros. sold the television distribution rights to 191 of its cartoons (which included the black-and-whiteLooney Tunesand the black-and-whiteMerrie Melodiesmade after Harman and Ising left) to Guild Films.The copyrights to those cartoons were assigned toSunset Productions, an entity owned by Warner Bros.The cartoons were distributed by Guild Films until it went bankrupt and was bought by Seven Arts. Seven Arts bought WB in 1967, and WB regained the TV distribution rights to the black and white cartoons. In 1956,Associated Artists Productions(a.a.p.) acquired television distribution rights to most of Warner Bros.' pre-1950library, including allMerrie Melodies(except for those sold to Guild andLady, Play Your Mandolin!) and colorLooney Tunesshorts that were released prior to August 1948, while Warner still owned the copyright to all of the cartoons. Unlike the previous TV package, this package had the Warner titles kept intact and an \"Associated Artists Productions presents\" title inserted at the head of each reel (as a result, eachMerrie Melodiescartoon had the song \"Merrily We Roll Along\" playing twice).Two years later,United Artistsbought a.a.p. (which had also bought Paramount'sPopeyefilms) who merged the company into its television division,United Artists Television. In 1981, UA was sold to MGM, and five years later,Ted Turneracquired the pre-May 1986 MGM library, as well the rights to the a.a.p. library. In 1996, Turner's company,Turner Broadcasting System(whoseTurner Entertainmentdivision oversaw the film library), was purchased by Time Warner (nowWarner Bros. Discovery), which was also Warner Bros.' corporate parent.Then when MGM/UA terminated its distribution deal with Time Warner in 1999, it surrendered its home video rights to the a.a.p. library to WB.Since then, Warner Home Video (nowWarner Bros. Home Entertainment) has held the video rights to the entireLooney Tunes/Merrie Melodiesanimated output by virtue of Warner Bros.' ownership of Turner Entertainment. Starting in 1960, the cartoons were repackaged into several different TV programs that remained popular for several decades before being purchased by Turner Broadcasting System.Turner'sCartoon Networkreran the cartoons from its launch in 1992 until 2004, again from 2009 until 2017, and making a temporary return in April 2023 to celebrate WB's 100th anniversary.The Looney Tunes Show(not to be confused with the 2010s animated series ofthe same name), an early 2000s anthology produced by Warner Bros. Animation for the network, was broadcast from 2001to 2004. The show featured shorts from the originalLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiestheatrical series. As of 2021, classic cartoons continue to air on CN's sister channel,BoomerangandMeTV. Differing curated collections ofLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesare available for streaming on both theBoomerang streaming serviceandHBO Max. Five dozenLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesshorts from before December 1943 have lapsed into thepublic domainand are thus freely distributed through various unofficial releases. Filmography Characters The major characters of the originalLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesseries areBugs Bunny, a clever and insouciant rabbit or hare who is portrayed as atrickster;Daffy Duck, a black duck who was originally portrayed as ascrewball, but later became greedy and egocentric;Porky Pig, a stuttering pig who often appears as thestraight manto Daffy, and is the oldest of the franchise's recurring characters;Sylvester the Cat, his preyTweety(a small canary), and their elderly ownerGranny;Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, who routinely engage in high-speed chases in their home in theSouthwest Americandesert;Elmer Fudd, an unintelligent hunter who is Bugs' oldest nemesis;Yosemite Sam, a hot-tempered cowboy who is another of Bugs' archenemies;Foghorn Leghorn, a rooster who is known for his often excessive ranting;Marvin the Martian, an alien commander from the planetMars, who aims to conquer the Earth; theTasmanian Devil(often nicknamed \"Taz\" in later media), a vicious, brutal marsupial with an insatiable appetite;Pepé Le Pew, a French skunk who is always looking for love and romance; andSpeedy Gonzales, the self-proclaimed \"fastest mouse in all of Mexico\". One additional major character was introduced in post-Golden AgeLooney Tunesmedia (starting withSpace Jam):Lola Bunny, a female rabbit who is usually portrayed as Bugs' girlfriend. Racial stereotypes and censorship controversies Due to content considered offensive,stereotypedor insensitive, in 1968 Warner Bros. removed the \"Censored Eleven\" episodes ofLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiescartoons from broadcast or distribution. Depictions included those ofAfrican Americans(as inCoal Black and de Sebben DwarfsandJungle Jitters),Native Americans,Japanese people(especially during WWII, as inTokio JokioandBugs Bunny Nips the Nips),Germans,Italians,White Southerners, andMexicans. In 1999,Cartoon Networkceased broadcast of all of Speedy Gonzales' cartoons, due to concerns about stereotyping of Mexicans.ManyLatinosprotested that they were not offended, and expressed fondness for Speedy; the character's shorts were made available for broadcast on CN again in 2002. Many Warner Bros. cartoons contain fleeting or sometimes extended gags that make reference to racial or ethnic stereotypes, or useethnic humor. The release of theLooney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 3includes a disclaimer at the beginning of each DVD in the volume given byWhoopi Goldberg. She explains that the cartoons are products of their time and contain racial and ethnic stereotypes that \"were wrong then and they are wrong today\", but the cartoons are presented on the DVD uncut and uncensored because \"editing them would be the same as denying that the stereotypes existed.\"A similarly phrased written disclaimer is shown at the beginning of each DVD in theLooney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 4,Volume 5, andVolume 6sets, as well as the Daffy Duck andFoghorn LeghornLooney Tunes Super Starssets and theWarner Bros. Home Entertainment Academy Awards Animation Collection. Accolades Inducted into the National Film Registry Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film(Cartoon) Academy Award nominations Related media Television series Series marked with * are compilations of earlier shorts. Television specials Films Compilation films Feature films Direct-to-video Comic books Looney Tunescomic books were published beginning in 1941 byDell Comicsunder license. These comics were, like many published by Dell, were produced in partnership withWestern Publishing. After Dell and Western ended their partnership in 1962, Western continued the series under theirGold Key Comicsand Whitman imprints through 1984. Beginning in 1990,DC Comics, which is owned by Warner Bros., has publishedLooney Tunescomics. Dell Comics (1941–1962) Western Publishing (1962–1984) DC Comics (1990–present) Video games Video games based onLooney Tunescharacters began in 1979 with theRoad Runnerpinball machine. More titles would continue to be released as video game hardware evolved throughout the 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s. Prominent characters who have received multiple video games include Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, the Tasmanian Devil, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, Speedy Gonzales, and Sylvester and Tweety. See also References External links",
"Silly Symphony Silly Symphony(also known asSilly Symphonies) is an Americananimatedseries of 75 musicalshort filmsproduced byWalt Disney Productionsfrom 1929 to 1939. As the series name implies, theSilly Symphonieswere originally intended as whimsical accompaniments to pieces of music.As such, the films usually did not feature continuing characters, unlike theMickey Mouseshorts produced by Disney at the same time (exceptions to this includeThree Little Pigs,The Tortoise and the Hare, andThree Orphan Kittens, which all had sequels). The series is notable for its innovation withTechnicolorand themultiplane motion picture camera, as well as its introduction of the characterDonald Duck, who made his first appearance in theSilly SymphonycartoonThe Wise Little Henin 1934. Seven shorts won theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Film. The series also spawned aSilly Symphonynewspaper comic stripdistributed byKing Features Syndicate, as well as aDellcomic book series and several children's books. TheSilly Symphoniesreturned to theaters with its re-issues and re-releases, and eventually tied withJoseph BarberaandWilliam Hanna'sTom and Jerry's record for most Oscar wins for a cartoon series in theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmcategory. Production While Walt Disney andCarl Stalling, a theatre organist from Kansas City, were in New York to add sound to the Mickey Mouse shortsThe Gallopin' Gaucho,The Barn DanceandPlane Crazy, Stalling suggested the idea of making a series of musical animated shorts that combined the latest sound technology with storytelling. At first Walt did not seem interested, but when they returned to New York in February to record the sound for a fifth Mickey Mouse cartoon,The Opry House, they also recorded the soundtrack forThe Skeleton Dance, the type of short that Stalling had suggested and the first Silly Symphony cartoon. Within the animation industry, the series is known for its use byWalt Disneyas a platform for experimenting with processes, techniques, characters, and stories in order to further the art of animation. It also provided a venue to try out techniques and technologies, such as Technicolor,special effects animation, and dramatic storytelling in animation, that would be crucial to Disney's plans to eventually begin making feature-length animated films. Shortly after the switch to United Artists, the series became even more popular. Walt Disney had seen some of Dr. Herbert Kalmus' tests for a newthree-strip, full-colorTechnicolorprocess, which would replace the previoustwo-tone Technicolorprocess. Disney signed a contract with Technicolor which gave the Disney studio exclusive rights to the new three-strip process through the end of 1935, and had a 60% completeSymphony,Flowers and Trees, scrapped and redone in full color.Flowers and Treeswas the first animated film to use the three-strip Technicolor process,and was a phenomenal success. Within a year, the now-in-TechnicolorSilly Symphoniesseries had popularity and success that matched (and later surpassed) that of theMickey Mousecartoons. The contract Disney had with Technicolor would also later be extended another five years as well. The success ofSilly Symphonieswould be tremendously boosted afterThree Little Pigswas released in 1933 and became a box office sensation; the film was featured in movie theaters for several months and also featured the hit song that became the anthem of the Great Depression, \"Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf\".SeveralSilly Symphoniesentries, includingThree Little Pigs(1933),The Grasshopper and the Ants(1934),The Tortoise and the Hare(1935),The Country Cousin(1936),The Old Mill(1937),Wynken, Blynken, and Nod(1938), andThe Ugly Duckling(1939, with an earlierblack-and-white versionfrom 1931), are among the most notable films produced by Walt Disney. Due to problems related to Disney's scheduled productions of cartoons, a deal was made withHarman and Isingto produce three Silly Symphonies:Merbabies,Pipe Dreams, andThe Little Bantamweight. Only one of these cartoons,Merbabies, ended up being bought by Disney, the remaining two Harman-Ising Silly Symphonies were then sold to MGM who released them as Happy Harmonies cartoons.Disney ceased production ofSilly Symphoniesin 1939. Distribution The series was first distributed byPat Powersfrom 1929 to 1930 and released by Celebrity Productions (1929–1930) indirectly throughColumbia Pictures. The original basis of the cartoons was musical novelty, and the musical scores of the first cartoons were composed byCarl Stalling. Columbia Pictures After viewing \"The Skeleton Dance\", the manager at Columbia Pictures quickly became interested in distributing the series, and gained the perfect opportunity to acquire Silly Symphonies after Disney broke with Celebrity Productions head Pat Powers after Powers signed Disney's colleagueUb Iwerksto a studio contract.Columbia Pictures(1930–1932) agreed to pick up the direct distribution of theMickey Mouseseries on the condition that they would have exclusive rights to distribute theSilly Symphoniesseries; at first,Silly Symphoniescould not even come close to the popularity Mickey Mouse had. The original title cards to the shorts released by Celebrity Productions and Columbia Pictures were all redrawn after Walt Disney stopped distributing his cartoons through them. Meanwhile, more competition spread for Disney afterMax Fleischer's flapper cartoon characterBetty Boopbegan to gain more and more popularity after starring in the cartoonMinnie the Moocher. By August 1932, Betty Boop became so popular that theTalkartoonseries was renamed as Betty Boop cartoons. United Artists In 1932, after falling out with Columbia Pictures, Disney began distributing his products throughUnited Artists. UA refused to distribute theSilly Symphoniesunless Disney associated Mickey Mouse with them somehow, resulting in the \"Mickey Mouse presents aSilly Symphony\" title cards and posters that introduced and promoted the series during its five-year run for UA. United Artists also agreed to double the budget for each cartoon from $7,500 to $15,000. RKO Radio Pictures In 1937, Disney signed a distribution deal withRKO Radio Picturesto distribute the Silly Symphony cartoons, along with the Mickey Mouse series. RKO would continue to distribute until the end of the series in 1939. Home media SeveralSymphonieshave been released in home media, most of the time as bonus shorts that relate to something within various Disney films. For instance, the originalDumboVHS includedFather Noah's Ark,The Practical PigandThree Orphan Kittensas bonus shorts to make up for the film's short length. In the UK, severalSilly Symphonieswere released in compilations under Disney Videos' \"Storybook Favourites\" brand. The three \"Storybook Favourites Shorts\" volumes released included among others,The Three Little Pigs,The Tortoise and the Hareand the remake ofThe Ugly Duckling. On December 4, 2001, Disney released \"Silly Symphonies\" as part of its DVD series \"Walt Disney Treasures\". On December 19, 2006, \"More Silly Symphonies\" was released, completing the collection and allowing the cartoons to be completely available to the public. Some DisneyBlu-raydiscs includeSilly Symphoniesas high definition special features.Snow White and the Seven Dwarfsincludes six,Beauty and the BeastandDumboboth contain two andPixar'sA Bug's Lifecontains one. TheSilly Symphonyshorts originally aired onTurner Classic Movies' period program block \"Treasures from the Disney Vault\". SomeSilly Symphonyshorts are viewable onDisney+. List of films TheSilly Symphoniesare listed here in production order. Reception Disney's experiments were widely praised within the film industry, and theSilly Symphonieswon theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmseven times, maintaining a six-year-hold on the category after it was first introduced. This record was matched only byMGM'sTom and Jerryseries during the 1940s and 1950s. Legacy TheSymphonieschanged the course of Disney Studio history when Walt's plans to direct his first feature cartoon became problematic after his warm-up to the taskThe Golden Touchwas widely seen (even by Disney himself) as stiff and slowly paced. This motivated him to embrace his role as being the producer and providing creative oversight (especially of the story) forSnow Whitewhile taskingDavid Handto handle the actual directing. Silly Symphoniesbrought along many imitators, including Warner Bros. cartoon seriesLooney TunesandMerrie Melodies, MGM'sHappy Harmonies, and later, Universal'sSwing Symphony. Years later after theSilly Symphoniesended, Disney occasionally produced a handful of one-shot cartoons, playing the same style as theSilly Symphonyseries. Unlike theSilly Symphoniescanon, most of these \"Specials\" have a narration, usually by Disney legendSterling Holloway. In the 1934 MGM filmHollywood Party, Mickey Mouse appears withJimmy Durante, where they introduceThe Hot Choc-late Soldiers. The 1999–2000 television seriesMickey Mouse Worksused theSilly Symphoniestitle for some of its new cartoons, but unlike the original cartoons, these did feature continuing characters. As of 2021, three of theSilly Symphonyshorts (Three Little Pigs,The Old Mill, andFlowers and Trees), have been selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registryby the Library of Congress, for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Comic adaptations A SundaySilly Symphonycomic stripran in newspapers from January 10, 1932, to July 12, 1942.The strip featured adaptations of some of theSilly Symphonycartoons, includingBirds of a Feather,The Robber Kitten,Elmer Elephant,Farmyard SymphonyandLittle Hiawatha.This strip began with a two-year sequence aboutBucky Bug, a character based on the bugs inBugs in Love. There was also an occasionalSilly Symphoniescomic book, with nine issues published byDell Comicsfrom September 1952 to February 1959.The first issue of this anthology comic featured adaptations of someSilly Symphonycartoons, includingThe Grasshopper and the Ants,Three Little Pigs,The Goddess of SpringandMother Pluto, but it also included non-Symphonycartoons like Mickey Mouse'sBrave Little Tailor.By the third issue, there was almost noSymphony-related material in the book; the stories and activities were mostly based on other Disney shorts and feature films. See also References Further reading External links Category"
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"Looney Tunes Looney Tunesis an Americanmedia franchiseproduced and distributed byWarner Bros.The franchise began as a series ofanimatedshort filmsthat originally ran from 1930 to 1969, alongside the related seriesMerrie Melodies, during thegolden age of American animation.Following a revival in the late 1970s, new shorts were released as recently as 2014. The two series introduced a largecast of characters, includingBugs Bunny,Daffy Duck, andPorky Pig. The termLooney Tuneshas since been expanded to also refer to the characters themselves. Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere initially produced byLeon Schlesingerand animatorsHugh HarmanandRudolf Isingfrom 1930 to 1933.Schlesinger assumed full production from 1933 until he sold his studio to Warner Bros. in 1944, after which it was renamedWarner Bros. Cartoons.TheLooney Tunestitle was inspired by that ofWalt Disney'sSilly Symphonies.The shorts initially showcased musical compositions owned by Warner's music publishing interests through the adventures of such",
"adventures of such characters asBoskoandBuddy.However, the shorts gained a higher profile upon the debuts of directorsTex Avery,Friz Freleng,Chuck Jones,Bob Clampett, andRobert McKimson, andvoice actorMel Blanclater in the decade.Porky Pig and Daffy Duck became the featuredLooney Tunescharacters, whileMerrie Melodiesfeatured one-shot cartoons and minor recurring characters. After Bugs Bunny became popular in theMerrie Melodiesshorts of the early 1940s,Looney Tunesmoved fromblack and whiteto color production,Merrie Melodieshaving already been in color since 1934.The two series gradually lost their distinctions, and shorts were assigned to each series arbitrarily.From 1942 to 1964,Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere the most popular animated shorts in movie theaters. Looney Tuneshas become one of thehighest-grossing media franchisesof all time, spawning several television series, feature films, comic books, music albums, video games, and amusement park rides. Many of the characters have made and continue to",
"and continue to make cameo appearances in television shows, films, and other media. Bugs Bunny, in particular, is regarded as acultural iconand has a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame.ManyLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesfilms are ranked among the greatest animated cartoons of all time, and five of them have wonAcademy Awards.In 2013,TV GuidecountedLooney Tunesas the third greatest television cartoon series of all time, behindThe SimpsonsandThe Flintstones, the latter of which also featured the voice talents of Mel Blanc andBea Benaderet. History Looney TunesandMerrie Melodieswere so named as a reference to Disney'sSilly Symphoniesand were initially developed to showcase tracks from Warner Bros.' extensive music library; the title of the firstLooney Tunesshort,Sinkin' in the Bathtub(1930), is a pun onSingin' in the Bathtub.Between 1934 and 1943,Merrie Melodieswere produced in color andLooney Tunesin black and white.After 1943, both series were produced in color and became virtually indistinguishable, varying",
"varying only in their opening theme music and titles.Both series made use of the various Warner Bros. characters. By 1937, the theme music forLooney Tuneswas \"The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down\" byCliff FriendandDave Franklin, and the theme music forMerrie Melodieswas an adaptation of \"Merrily We Roll Along\" byCharles Tobias, Murray Mencher andEddie Cantor. 1930–1933: Harman and Ising era In 1929, to compete againstWalt Disney'sMickey Mouse short cartoons, Warner Bros. became interested in developing a series of animated shorts to promote their music. They had recently acquiredBrunswick Recordsalong with four music publishers for US$28 million (equivalent to $511 million in 2024) and were eager to promote this material for the sales of sheet music and phonograph records. Warner made a deal withLeon Schlesingerto produce cartoons for them. Schlesinger hiredRudolf IsingandHugh Harmanto produce the first series of cartoons. Schlesinger was impressed by Harman's and Ising's 1929 pilot cartoon,Bosko, The Talk-Ink Kid.",
"The Talk-Ink Kid. The firstLooney Tunesshort wasSinkin' in the BathtubstarringBosko, which was released in 1930. 1933–1936: Leon Schlesinger Productions When Harman and Ising left Warner Bros. in 1933 over a budget dispute with Schlesinger, they took with them all the rights of the characters they had created. A new character calledBuddybecame the only star of theLooney Tunesseries for a couple of years. New directors includingTex Avery,Friz FrelengandBob Clampettwere brought in or promoted to work with animators in the Schlesinger studio, with Avery's unit housed in a bungalow which the animators dubbed \"Termite Terrace.\" In 1935, the first majorLooney Tunesstar debuted,Porky Pig. He first appeared along withBeans the Catin theMerrie MelodiescartoonI Haven't Got a Hat, directed by Friz Freleng. Beans was the star of the next Porky/Beans cartoon,Gold Diggers of '49, but it was Porky who emerged as the star instead of Beans. The ensemble characters ofI Haven't Got a Hat, such as Oliver Owl and the twin dogs",
"and the twin dogs Ham and Ex, were also given a sampling of shorts. Beans and Porky proved much more popular in comparison. Beans was later phased out when his popularity declined, leaving Porky as the only star of the Schlesinger studio. 1936–1944: More star characters and switch to color The debuts of other memorableLooney Tunesstars followed:Daffy DuckinPorky's Duck Hunt(1937),Elmer Fuddin theMerrie MelodiesshortElmer's Candid Camera(1940),Bugs Bunnyin theMerrie MelodiesshortA Wild Hare(1940),andTweetyin theMerrie MelodiesshortA Tale of Two Kitties(1942). Bugs initially starred in the colorMerrie Melodiesshorts following the success of 1940'sA Wild Hare, and formally joined theLooney Tunesseries with the release ofBuckaroo Bugsin 1944. Schlesinger began to phase in the production of colorLooney Tuneswith the 1942 cartoonThe Hep Cat. The final black-and-whiteLooney Tunesshort wasPuss n' Bootyin 1943, directed byFrank Tashlin. The inspiration for the changeover was Warner's decision to re-release only the",
"re-release only the color cartoons in theBlue Ribbon Classicsseries ofMerrie Melodies. Bugs made a cameo appearance in 1942 in the Avery/Clampett cartoonCrazy Cruiseand also at the end of the Frank Tashlin 1943 cartoonPorky Pig's Feat, which marked Bugs' only official appearance in a black-and-whiteLooney Tunesshort. Schlesinger sold his interest in the cartoon studio in 1944 to Warner Bros. and went into retirement; he died five years later. 1944–1964: The Golden era More popularLooney Tunescharacters were created (most of which first appeared inMerrie Melodiescartoons), such asPepé Le Pew(debuted in 1945'sOdor-able Kitty),Sylvester(debuted in 1945'sLife with Feathers),Yosemite Sam(debuted in 1945'sHare Trigger),Foghorn Leghorn(debuted in 1946'sWalky Talky Hawky),Marvin the Martian(debuted in 1948'sHaredevil Hare),Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner(debuted in 1949'sFast and Furry-ous),Granny(debuted in 1950'sCanary Row),Speedy Gonzales(debuted in 1953'sCat Tails for Two),the Tasmanian Devil(debuted in",
"Devil(debuted in 1954'sDevil May Hare), andRalph Wolf and Sam Sheepdog(debuted in 1953'sDon't Give Up the Sheep). It was during this era that the series won fiveAcademy Awards: 1964–1969: DePatie–Freleng and Seven Arts era During the mid-late 1960s, the shorts were produced byDePatie–Freleng Enterprises(andFormat Productions) (1964–1967) andWarner Bros.-Seven Arts(1967–1969) after Warner Bros. shut down their animation studio. The shorts from this era can be identified by their different title sequence, featuring stylizedlimited animationand graphics on a black background and a new arrangement, byWilliam Lava, of \"The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down\" which had first been used in the 1963 experimental short \"Now Hear This\" directed by Chuck Jones. In 1967, Warner Bros.-Seven Arts commissioned an animation studio inSouth Koreato redraw 79 black-and-white Looney Tunes produced from 1935 to 1943 in color which were syndicated to TV stations from the late 1960s to the early 1990s. The originalLooney Tunestheatrical",
"Tunestheatrical series ran from 1930'sSinkin' in the Bathtubto 1969'sInjun TroublebyRobert McKimson. ACool Catcartoon called \"Stage Cat\" was planned, about Cool Cat being in a stage production, but it was cancelled when Warner Bros.-Seven Arts shut down. 1970–1999: Syndication and return to television and film TheLooney Tunesseries' popularity was further strengthened when it began airing on network andsyndicated televisionin the 1950s under various titles and formats. TheLooney Tunesshorts were broadcast with edits to remove scenes of violence (particularly suicidal gags and scenes of characters performing dangerous stunts that impressionable viewers could easily imitate), stereotypes, and alcohol consumption. Production of theatrical animated shorts was dormant from 1969 until 1979, when new shorts were made to introduce theLooney Tunesto a new generation of audiences.New shortshave been produced and released sporadically for theaters since then, though usually as promotional tie-ins with various family",
"with various family movies produced by Warner Bros. While many have been released in limited releases theatrically for Academy Award consideration, only a few have gained theatrical releases with movies. In the 1970s through the early 1990s, several feature-film compilations andtelevision specialswere produced, mostly centering on Bugs Bunny and/or Daffy Duck, with a mixture of new and old footage. These releases includeThe Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie(1979),The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie(1981),Bugs Bunny's 3rd Movie: 1001 Rabbit Tales(1982),Daffy Duck's Fantastic Island(1983), andDaffy Duck's Quackbusters(1988). In 1976, theLooney Tunescharacters made their way into the amusement park business when they became the mascots for Marriott's two Great America theme parks in Gurnee, Illinois, and Santa Clara, California. After theGurnee parkwas sold toSix Flagsin 1984, they also claimed the rights to use the characters at the other Six Flags parks, which continues to the present. (Warner Bros. parent",
"Bros. parent company Time Warner would own the Six Flags chain in whole or part form most of the 1990s.) In 1988, severalLooney Tunescharacters appeared in cameo roles in theDisneyfilmWho Framed Roger Rabbit. The more significant cameos featured Bugs, Daffy, Porky, Tweety, and Yosemite Sam. It is the only time in whichLooney Tunescharacters have shared screen time with their rivals at Disney (producers of the film)—particularly in the scenes where Bugs andMickey Mouseareskydiving, and when Daffy andDonald Duckare performing their \"Dueling Pianos\" sequence. On July 10, 1989, after a battle with heart problems,Mel Blancdied at theCedars-Sinai Medical Centerofcardiovascular disease. A picture depicting theLooney Tunescharacters entitled \"Speechless\" was released shortly after his death. Viacom-ownedNickelodeonairedLooney Tunescartoons in a show calledLooney Tunes on Nickelodeonbetween 1988 and 1999. Initially, the Nickelodeon package included cartoons that were typically omitted from the higher-profile Saturday",
"Saturday morning network and syndicated weekday packages, including black-and-white Bosko cartoons that had not aired in many years and cartoons from the late DePattie–Freling and Seven Arts eras. In January 1999, it was reported that the cartoons shown on Nickelodeon would move toCartoon Networkin the fall of that year.To date,Looney Tunes on Nickelodeonis the longest-airinganimated serieson the network that was not aNicktoon. In 1996,Space Jam, alive-action animated film, was released to theaters starring Bugs Bunny and basketball playerMichael Jordan. Despite a mixed critical reception,the film was a major box-office success, grossing nearly $100 million in the U.S. alone, almost becoming the first non-Disney animated film to achieve that feat.For a two-year period, it was the highest grossing non-Disney animated film ever.The film also introduced the characterLola Bunny, who subsequently became another recurring member of theLooney Tunescast, usually as a love interest for Bugs. In 1997, Bugs Bunny was",
"Bugs Bunny was featured on a U.S. 32 cent postage stamp, the first of fiveLooney Tunesthemed stamps to be issued. TheLooney Tunesalso achieved success in the area of television during this era, with appearances in several originally produced series, includingTaz-Mania(1991, starring Taz) andThe Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries(1995, starring Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny). The gang also made frequent cameos in the 1990 spinoff seriesTiny Toon Adventures, from executive producerSteven Spielberg, where they played teachers and mentors to a younger generation of cartoon characters (Plucky Duck,Hamton J. Pig,Babs and Buster Bunny, etc.), plus occasional cameos in the later Warner Bros. shows such asAnimaniacs(also from Spielberg) andHisteria!.Traditional cel animationwas used to animate the characters forLooney Tunes'cartoons until 1999 when it was replaced withdigital ink and paint animation. In 1979,Bugs Bunny's Christmas Carolpremiered. AfterThe Chocolate Chase, there would not be another short released for seven",
"released for seven years. In 1990, it was made so there would be about one short per year until 1998. In 2003, there would be seven shorts produced to promoteLooney Tunes: Back in Action. The first of these to be released wasThe Whizzard of Ow, which appeared on a DVD release ofBack in Actionthat was sold exclusively atWal-Martstores. Only about half of the shorts were shown in theaters; the rest would not be made available until 2004, when all seven shorts were included on the general home video release of the film. In 2010, five computer-animated shorts would be released and directed byMatthew O'Callaghan, who would also direct another short,Flash in the Pain, in 2014. 2000–2014: Network exploration In March 2000, it was revealed that the entireLooney TunesandMerrie Melodieslibrary would be exclusive to Cartoon Network, starting with the fall of that year.Looney Tunesshorts were still airing on Disney'sABCas part ofThe Bugs Bunny and Tweety Showat the time and the decision led to the show's cancellation.",
"cancellation. This decision would remain in effect for over 20 years untilMeTVbegan airing the classic Warner Bros. cartoons (along with MGM and Paramount's library) in January 2021. In 2003, another feature film was released, this time in an attempt to recapture the spirit of the original shorts: the live-action/animatedLooney Tunes: Back in Action. Although the film was not financially successful,it was met with mixed-to-positive reviews from film critics and has been argued by animation historians and fans as the finest original feature-length appearance of the cartoon characters.In 2006,Warner Home Videoreleased a new and Christmas-themedLooney Tunesdirect-to-video film calledBah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas, a parody ofCharles Dickens'A Christmas Carol. OtherLooney TunesTV series made during this time wereBaby Looney Tunes(2001–2006),Duck Dodgers(2003–2005) andLoonatics Unleashed(2005–2007). On October 22, 2007,Looney TunesandMerrie Melodiescartoons became available for the first time",
"for the first time inHigh-definitionviaMicrosoft'sXbox Liveservice, including some in Spanish.From February 29 – May 18, 2008, manyLooney Tunesartifacts, including original animation cels and concept drawings, were on display at theButler Institute of American ArtinYoungstown, Ohio, just off the campus ofYoungstown State University, near where the Warners lived early in life. At the 2009 Cartoon Networkupfront,The Looney Tunes Showwas announced.After several delays, the series premiered on May 3, 2011. Produced byWarner Bros. Animation, the series centers on Bugs and Daffy as they leave the woods and move to the suburbs with \"colorful neighbors\" including Sylvester, Tweety, Granny, Yosemite Sam, etc. The series introduced the characterTina Russo, a duck who becomes Daffy's girlfriend. The show also features 2-minute music videos titled respectfully \"Merrie Melodies\" (as a tribute to theLooney Tunessister shorts) which features the characters singing original songs, as well as CGI animated shorts starring",
"shorts starring Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner (which were removed after the first season). The series was cancelled after its second season. Also, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner returned to the big screen in a series of 3-D shorts that preceded select Warner Bros. films. There were six in the works that began with the first short,Coyote Falls, that preceded the filmCats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore, which was released on July 30, 2010. On September 24, 2010,Fur of Flyingpreceded the film,Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole, and on December 17, 2010,Rabid Riderpreceded the film,Yogi Bear. On June 8, 2011, Warner Bros. Animation announced that there will be moreLooney Tunes3-D theatrical shorts; the first titledDaffy's Rhapsodywith Daffy Duck and Elmer Fudd, the next beingI Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tatwith Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny.Daffy's Rhapsodywas to precede the filmHappy Feet Two,until the studio decided to premiereI Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tatinstead.Daffy's Rhapsodyinstead premiered",
"premiered in 2012, precedingJourney 2: The Mysterious Island.All five shorts were directed byMatthew O'Callaghan. In 2012, several announcements were made about aLooney Tunesreboot film titledAcme, in development.FormerSaturday Night Livecast memberJenny Slatewas said to be on board as writer for the new film. Jeffrey Clifford,Harry PotterproducerDavid Heyman, andDark Shadowswriters David Katzenberg andSeth Grahame-Smithwere slated to produce the film.On August 27, 2014, writersAshley MillerandZack Stentzwere hired to script the film, directorsGlenn Ficarraand John Requa were in talks to direct the film, while actorSteve Carellwas rumored to be starring in a lead role.Despite this, the film never entered production. 2015–2021: Revival At the 2014 Cartoon Networkupfront, another series titledWabbit: A Looney Tunes Production(laterNew Looney Tunes) was announced.Starring Bugs Bunny, the series premiered on both Cartoon Network and its sister channelBoomerangin late 2015.The series had an unusually slow",
"an unusually slow rollout, with the series being moved to the Boomerang streaming service in 2017, and was eventually cancelled on January 30, 2020. On June 11, 2018, another series, titledLooney Tunes Cartoons, was announced by Warner Bros. Animation. It premiered on May 27, 2020, on the streaming serviceHBO Max. The series features \"1,000 minutes of new one-to-six minute cartoons featuring the brand's marquee characters\", voiced by their current voice actors in \"simple, gag-driven and visually vibrant stories\" that are rendered by multiple artists employing \"a visual style that will resonate with fans\", most noticeably having a style reminiscent of the styles ofTex Avery,Bob Clampett,Chuck Jones,Friz FrelengandRobert McKimson.According to co-executive producerPeter Browngardt, \"We're not doing guns, but we can do cartoony violence — TNT, the Acme stuff. All that was kind of grandfathered in.\"Sam Register, president of Warner Bros. Animation also served as a co-executive producer for the series.The series",
"series.The series ended on July 27, 2023. On February 11, 2021, it was announced two new series were in the works:Bugs Bunny BuildersandTweety Mysteries.Bugs Bunny Buildersbegan airing on Cartoon Network as part ofCartoonitoandHBO Maxon July 25, 2022;Tweety Mysterieswould also air onCartoon Network.Bugs Bunny Buildersis aimed towards preschoolers; whileTweety Mysteriesis a live-action/animated hybrid.However, the latter was scrapped for unknown reasons. A sequel toSpace JamtitledSpace Jam: A New Legacy, starring basketball playerLeBron James, was released in theaters and HBO Max on July 16, 2021, after aLos Angelesspecial screening on July 12, 2021. It is a film with a story of LeBron James' second son, Dom, who gets kidnapped by an evilAInamed Al. G Rhythm (Don Cheadle), into the Warner Bros. server-verse. LeBron then assembles the Tune Squad to play against the algorithm and get his son back. It received generally negative reviews and underperformed at the box office. 2022–present; Warner Bros. Discovery",
"Bros. Discovery ownership and tax write-offs A reboot ofTiny Toon AdventurestitledTiny Toons Looniversitypremiered on September 8, 2023, onMaxand then aired the following day on Cartoon Network. The Looney Tunes characters reprise their roles as the professors at Acme Looniversity in this series. In September 2021, it was reported that a film based on theLooney Tunes Cartoons, titledThe Day the Earth Blew Up: A Looney Tunes Movieand starringDaffy DuckandPorky Pig, was announced for release onHBO Maxand Cartoon Network.However, it was reported in August 2022 that the film would instead be shopped around to other streaming services.In October 2023, it was announced the film would instead be released in theaters, becoming the first animated non-compilation feature film in the franchise to do so.In early August 2024, it was announced thatKetchup Entertainmentacquired the North American theatrical distribution rights to the film. On December 31, 2022, 256 shorts were removed from HBO Max, includingWhat's Opera,",
"Opera, Doc?andDuck Amuck,though many were later re-added in March 2024 when the shorts on the service were rotated. In August 2024, it was announced that Warner Bros. was planning to relaunch theLooney Tunestheatrical film series in 2028. Home media In the 1980s, the shorts receivedVHSreleases, with the pre-August 1948 shorts released byMGM/UA Home Videoand the post-July 1948 shorts released byWarner Home Video. In 2003, Warner Home Video began releasing select shorts onDVD, aimed at collectors, in four-disc sets known as theLooney Tunes Golden Collectionstarting withVolume 1. This continued until 2008, whenthe final volume of the Golden Collectionwas released. Then, from 2010 until 2013, the company released theLooney Tunes Super StarsDVDs. There have been numerous complaints regarding theSuper Starsreleases, however (particularly the first two), having the post-1953 shorts in a 16:9 widescreen format. The last DVD in theSuper Starsseries wasSylvester and Hippety Hopper: Marsupial Mayhem, released on April",
"released on April 23, 2013. 2010 and 2011 saw the releases ofThe Essential Bugs BunnyandThe Essential Daffy DuckDVDs. In 2011, the shorts were released onBlu-ray Discfor the first time with theLooney Tunes Platinum Collectionseries. On September 19, 2017,Warner Home Video'sWarner Archive Collectionreleased the five-discPorky Pig 101DVD-set. Licensing and ownership In 1933,Harman and Isingleft, taking the rights to theBosko characterswith them. However, Warner Bros. retained the rights to the cartoons and theLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesbrand names, leaving their former producer Leon Schlesinger to start his own animation studio to continue theLooney Tunesseries. With their retained Bosko rights, Harman and Ising began making cartoons atMetro-Goldwyn-Mayerin 1934 until they were fired in 1937 due to a lack of success. MGM proceeded to formtheir own studioto create its own cartoons. Time Warner eventually acquired the Bosko characters from Harman and Ising's estates. Meanwhile, the Schlesinger studio",
"Schlesinger studio continued to make popular cartoons until 1944 when Schlesinger sold his studio to Warner Bros. Since then, Warner Bros. has owned all rights to all post-1933 characters created by Leon Schlesinger Productions and Warner Bros. Cartoons, even after the rights to individual cartoons were placed in other hands. In 1955, Warner Bros. sold the television distribution rights to 191 of its cartoons (which included the black-and-whiteLooney Tunesand the black-and-whiteMerrie Melodiesmade after Harman and Ising left) to Guild Films.The copyrights to those cartoons were assigned toSunset Productions, an entity owned by Warner Bros.The cartoons were distributed by Guild Films until it went bankrupt and was bought by Seven Arts. Seven Arts bought WB in 1967, and WB regained the TV distribution rights to the black and white cartoons. In 1956,Associated Artists Productions(a.a.p.) acquired television distribution rights to most of Warner Bros.' pre-1950library, including allMerrie Melodies(except for",
"Melodies(except for those sold to Guild andLady, Play Your Mandolin!) and colorLooney Tunesshorts that were released prior to August 1948, while Warner still owned the copyright to all of the cartoons. Unlike the previous TV package, this package had the Warner titles kept intact and an \"Associated Artists Productions presents\" title inserted at the head of each reel (as a result, eachMerrie Melodiescartoon had the song \"Merrily We Roll Along\" playing twice).Two years later,United Artistsbought a.a.p. (which had also bought Paramount'sPopeyefilms) who merged the company into its television division,United Artists Television. In 1981, UA was sold to MGM, and five years later,Ted Turneracquired the pre-May 1986 MGM library, as well the rights to the a.a.p. library. In 1996, Turner's company,Turner Broadcasting System(whoseTurner Entertainmentdivision oversaw the film library), was purchased by Time Warner (nowWarner Bros. Discovery), which was also Warner Bros.' corporate parent.Then when MGM/UA terminated its",
"terminated its distribution deal with Time Warner in 1999, it surrendered its home video rights to the a.a.p. library to WB.Since then, Warner Home Video (nowWarner Bros. Home Entertainment) has held the video rights to the entireLooney Tunes/Merrie Melodiesanimated output by virtue of Warner Bros.' ownership of Turner Entertainment. Starting in 1960, the cartoons were repackaged into several different TV programs that remained popular for several decades before being purchased by Turner Broadcasting System.Turner'sCartoon Networkreran the cartoons from its launch in 1992 until 2004, again from 2009 until 2017, and making a temporary return in April 2023 to celebrate WB's 100th anniversary.The Looney Tunes Show(not to be confused with the 2010s animated series ofthe same name), an early 2000s anthology produced by Warner Bros. Animation for the network, was broadcast from 2001to 2004. The show featured shorts from the originalLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiestheatrical series. As of 2021, classic cartoons",
"classic cartoons continue to air on CN's sister channel,BoomerangandMeTV. Differing curated collections ofLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesare available for streaming on both theBoomerang streaming serviceandHBO Max. Five dozenLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesshorts from before December 1943 have lapsed into thepublic domainand are thus freely distributed through various unofficial releases. Filmography Characters The major characters of the originalLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiesseries areBugs Bunny, a clever and insouciant rabbit or hare who is portrayed as atrickster;Daffy Duck, a black duck who was originally portrayed as ascrewball, but later became greedy and egocentric;Porky Pig, a stuttering pig who often appears as thestraight manto Daffy, and is the oldest of the franchise's recurring characters;Sylvester the Cat, his preyTweety(a small canary), and their elderly ownerGranny;Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, who routinely engage in high-speed chases in their home in theSouthwest Americandesert;Elmer",
"Fudd, an unintelligent hunter who is Bugs' oldest nemesis;Yosemite Sam, a hot-tempered cowboy who is another of Bugs' archenemies;Foghorn Leghorn, a rooster who is known for his often excessive ranting;Marvin the Martian, an alien commander from the planetMars, who aims to conquer the Earth; theTasmanian Devil(often nicknamed \"Taz\" in later media), a vicious, brutal marsupial with an insatiable appetite;Pepé Le Pew, a French skunk who is always looking for love and romance; andSpeedy Gonzales, the self-proclaimed \"fastest mouse in all of Mexico\". One additional major character was introduced in post-Golden AgeLooney Tunesmedia (starting withSpace Jam):Lola Bunny, a female rabbit who is usually portrayed as Bugs' girlfriend. Racial stereotypes and censorship controversies Due to content considered offensive,stereotypedor insensitive, in 1968 Warner Bros. removed the \"Censored Eleven\" episodes ofLooney TunesandMerrie Melodiescartoons from broadcast or distribution. Depictions included those ofAfrican",
"those ofAfrican Americans(as inCoal Black and de Sebben DwarfsandJungle Jitters),Native Americans,Japanese people(especially during WWII, as inTokio JokioandBugs Bunny Nips the Nips),Germans,Italians,White Southerners, andMexicans. In 1999,Cartoon Networkceased broadcast of all of Speedy Gonzales' cartoons, due to concerns about stereotyping of Mexicans.ManyLatinosprotested that they were not offended, and expressed fondness for Speedy; the character's shorts were made available for broadcast on CN again in 2002. Many Warner Bros. cartoons contain fleeting or sometimes extended gags that make reference to racial or ethnic stereotypes, or useethnic humor. The release of theLooney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 3includes a disclaimer at the beginning of each DVD in the volume given byWhoopi Goldberg. She explains that the cartoons are products of their time and contain racial and ethnic stereotypes that \"were wrong then and they are wrong today\", but the cartoons are presented on the DVD uncut and uncensored",
"and uncensored because \"editing them would be the same as denying that the stereotypes existed.\"A similarly phrased written disclaimer is shown at the beginning of each DVD in theLooney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 4,Volume 5, andVolume 6sets, as well as the Daffy Duck andFoghorn LeghornLooney Tunes Super Starssets and theWarner Bros. Home Entertainment Academy Awards Animation Collection. Accolades Inducted into the National Film Registry Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film(Cartoon) Academy Award nominations Related media Television series Series marked with * are compilations of earlier shorts. Television specials Films Compilation films Feature films Direct-to-video Comic books Looney Tunescomic books were published beginning in 1941 byDell Comicsunder license. These comics were, like many published by Dell, were produced in partnership withWestern Publishing. After Dell and Western ended their partnership in 1962, Western continued the series under theirGold Key Comicsand Whitman imprints",
"Whitman imprints through 1984. Beginning in 1990,DC Comics, which is owned by Warner Bros., has publishedLooney Tunescomics. Dell Comics (1941–1962) Western Publishing (1962–1984) DC Comics (1990–present) Video games Video games based onLooney Tunescharacters began in 1979 with theRoad Runnerpinball machine. More titles would continue to be released as video game hardware evolved throughout the 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s. Prominent characters who have received multiple video games include Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, the Tasmanian Devil, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, Speedy Gonzales, and Sylvester and Tweety. See also References External links",
"Silly Symphony Silly Symphony(also known asSilly Symphonies) is an Americananimatedseries of 75 musicalshort filmsproduced byWalt Disney Productionsfrom 1929 to 1939. As the series name implies, theSilly Symphonieswere originally intended as whimsical accompaniments to pieces of music.As such, the films usually did not feature continuing characters, unlike theMickey Mouseshorts produced by Disney at the same time (exceptions to this includeThree Little Pigs,The Tortoise and the Hare, andThree Orphan Kittens, which all had sequels). The series is notable for its innovation withTechnicolorand themultiplane motion picture camera, as well as its introduction of the characterDonald Duck, who made his first appearance in theSilly SymphonycartoonThe Wise Little Henin 1934. Seven shorts won theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Film. The series also spawned aSilly Symphonynewspaper comic stripdistributed byKing Features Syndicate, as well as aDellcomic book series and several children's books. TheSilly",
"books. TheSilly Symphoniesreturned to theaters with its re-issues and re-releases, and eventually tied withJoseph BarberaandWilliam Hanna'sTom and Jerry's record for most Oscar wins for a cartoon series in theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmcategory. Production While Walt Disney andCarl Stalling, a theatre organist from Kansas City, were in New York to add sound to the Mickey Mouse shortsThe Gallopin' Gaucho,The Barn DanceandPlane Crazy, Stalling suggested the idea of making a series of musical animated shorts that combined the latest sound technology with storytelling. At first Walt did not seem interested, but when they returned to New York in February to record the sound for a fifth Mickey Mouse cartoon,The Opry House, they also recorded the soundtrack forThe Skeleton Dance, the type of short that Stalling had suggested and the first Silly Symphony cartoon. Within the animation industry, the series is known for its use byWalt Disneyas a platform for experimenting with processes, techniques,",
"techniques, characters, and stories in order to further the art of animation. It also provided a venue to try out techniques and technologies, such as Technicolor,special effects animation, and dramatic storytelling in animation, that would be crucial to Disney's plans to eventually begin making feature-length animated films. Shortly after the switch to United Artists, the series became even more popular. Walt Disney had seen some of Dr. Herbert Kalmus' tests for a newthree-strip, full-colorTechnicolorprocess, which would replace the previoustwo-tone Technicolorprocess. Disney signed a contract with Technicolor which gave the Disney studio exclusive rights to the new three-strip process through the end of 1935, and had a 60% completeSymphony,Flowers and Trees, scrapped and redone in full color.Flowers and Treeswas the first animated film to use the three-strip Technicolor process,and was a phenomenal success. Within a year, the now-in-TechnicolorSilly Symphoniesseries had popularity and success that matched",
"that matched (and later surpassed) that of theMickey Mousecartoons. The contract Disney had with Technicolor would also later be extended another five years as well. The success ofSilly Symphonieswould be tremendously boosted afterThree Little Pigswas released in 1933 and became a box office sensation; the film was featured in movie theaters for several months and also featured the hit song that became the anthem of the Great Depression, \"Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf\".SeveralSilly Symphoniesentries, includingThree Little Pigs(1933),The Grasshopper and the Ants(1934),The Tortoise and the Hare(1935),The Country Cousin(1936),The Old Mill(1937),Wynken, Blynken, and Nod(1938), andThe Ugly Duckling(1939, with an earlierblack-and-white versionfrom 1931), are among the most notable films produced by Walt Disney. Due to problems related to Disney's scheduled productions of cartoons, a deal was made withHarman and Isingto produce three Silly Symphonies:Merbabies,Pipe Dreams, andThe Little Bantamweight. Only one of",
"Only one of these cartoons,Merbabies, ended up being bought by Disney, the remaining two Harman-Ising Silly Symphonies were then sold to MGM who released them as Happy Harmonies cartoons.Disney ceased production ofSilly Symphoniesin 1939. Distribution The series was first distributed byPat Powersfrom 1929 to 1930 and released by Celebrity Productions (1929–1930) indirectly throughColumbia Pictures. The original basis of the cartoons was musical novelty, and the musical scores of the first cartoons were composed byCarl Stalling. Columbia Pictures After viewing \"The Skeleton Dance\", the manager at Columbia Pictures quickly became interested in distributing the series, and gained the perfect opportunity to acquire Silly Symphonies after Disney broke with Celebrity Productions head Pat Powers after Powers signed Disney's colleagueUb Iwerksto a studio contract.Columbia Pictures(1930–1932) agreed to pick up the direct distribution of theMickey Mouseseries on the condition that they would have exclusive rights to",
"exclusive rights to distribute theSilly Symphoniesseries; at first,Silly Symphoniescould not even come close to the popularity Mickey Mouse had. The original title cards to the shorts released by Celebrity Productions and Columbia Pictures were all redrawn after Walt Disney stopped distributing his cartoons through them. Meanwhile, more competition spread for Disney afterMax Fleischer's flapper cartoon characterBetty Boopbegan to gain more and more popularity after starring in the cartoonMinnie the Moocher. By August 1932, Betty Boop became so popular that theTalkartoonseries was renamed as Betty Boop cartoons. United Artists In 1932, after falling out with Columbia Pictures, Disney began distributing his products throughUnited Artists. UA refused to distribute theSilly Symphoniesunless Disney associated Mickey Mouse with them somehow, resulting in the \"Mickey Mouse presents aSilly Symphony\" title cards and posters that introduced and promoted the series during its five-year run for UA. United Artists also",
"United Artists also agreed to double the budget for each cartoon from $7,500 to $15,000. RKO Radio Pictures In 1937, Disney signed a distribution deal withRKO Radio Picturesto distribute the Silly Symphony cartoons, along with the Mickey Mouse series. RKO would continue to distribute until the end of the series in 1939. Home media SeveralSymphonieshave been released in home media, most of the time as bonus shorts that relate to something within various Disney films. For instance, the originalDumboVHS includedFather Noah's Ark,The Practical PigandThree Orphan Kittensas bonus shorts to make up for the film's short length. In the UK, severalSilly Symphonieswere released in compilations under Disney Videos' \"Storybook Favourites\" brand. The three \"Storybook Favourites Shorts\" volumes released included among others,The Three Little Pigs,The Tortoise and the Hareand the remake ofThe Ugly Duckling. On December 4, 2001, Disney released \"Silly Symphonies\" as part of its DVD series \"Walt Disney Treasures\". On December",
"On December 19, 2006, \"More Silly Symphonies\" was released, completing the collection and allowing the cartoons to be completely available to the public. Some DisneyBlu-raydiscs includeSilly Symphoniesas high definition special features.Snow White and the Seven Dwarfsincludes six,Beauty and the BeastandDumboboth contain two andPixar'sA Bug's Lifecontains one. TheSilly Symphonyshorts originally aired onTurner Classic Movies' period program block \"Treasures from the Disney Vault\". SomeSilly Symphonyshorts are viewable onDisney+. List of films TheSilly Symphoniesare listed here in production order. Reception Disney's experiments were widely praised within the film industry, and theSilly Symphonieswon theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Filmseven times, maintaining a six-year-hold on the category after it was first introduced. This record was matched only byMGM'sTom and Jerryseries during the 1940s and 1950s. Legacy TheSymphonieschanged the course of Disney Studio history when Walt's plans to direct his",
"plans to direct his first feature cartoon became problematic after his warm-up to the taskThe Golden Touchwas widely seen (even by Disney himself) as stiff and slowly paced. This motivated him to embrace his role as being the producer and providing creative oversight (especially of the story) forSnow Whitewhile taskingDavid Handto handle the actual directing. Silly Symphoniesbrought along many imitators, including Warner Bros. cartoon seriesLooney TunesandMerrie Melodies, MGM'sHappy Harmonies, and later, Universal'sSwing Symphony. Years later after theSilly Symphoniesended, Disney occasionally produced a handful of one-shot cartoons, playing the same style as theSilly Symphonyseries. Unlike theSilly Symphoniescanon, most of these \"Specials\" have a narration, usually by Disney legendSterling Holloway. In the 1934 MGM filmHollywood Party, Mickey Mouse appears withJimmy Durante, where they introduceThe Hot Choc-late Soldiers. The 1999–2000 television seriesMickey Mouse Worksused theSilly Symphoniestitle for",
"Symphoniestitle for some of its new cartoons, but unlike the original cartoons, these did feature continuing characters. As of 2021, three of theSilly Symphonyshorts (Three Little Pigs,The Old Mill, andFlowers and Trees), have been selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registryby the Library of Congress, for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". Comic adaptations A SundaySilly Symphonycomic stripran in newspapers from January 10, 1932, to July 12, 1942.The strip featured adaptations of some of theSilly Symphonycartoons, includingBirds of a Feather,The Robber Kitten,Elmer Elephant,Farmyard SymphonyandLittle Hiawatha.This strip began with a two-year sequence aboutBucky Bug, a character based on the bugs inBugs in Love. There was also an occasionalSilly Symphoniescomic book, with nine issues published byDell Comicsfrom September 1952 to February 1959.The first issue of this anthology comic featured adaptations of someSilly Symphonycartoons, includingThe",
"includingThe Grasshopper and the Ants,Three Little Pigs,The Goddess of SpringandMother Pluto, but it also included non-Symphonycartoons like Mickey Mouse'sBrave Little Tailor.By the third issue, there was almost noSymphony-related material in the book; the stories and activities were mostly based on other Disney shorts and feature films. See also References Further reading External links Category"
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